HAYDN'S

DICTIONARY OF DATES

COMPREHENDING

REMARKABLE  OCCURRENCES,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN,

THE FOUNDATION, LAWS,  AND  GOVERNMENTS  OF COUNTRIES — THEIR  PROGRESS  IN ARTS,

SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR  ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS— AND

THEIR  CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND  PHILANTHROPIC

INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY  OF

THE BRITISH EMPIRE.


*


-


HAYDN'S

Dictionary  of Dates

AND

UNIVERSAL INFORMATION

RELATING  TO ALL  AGES AND NATIONS.

TWENTIETH EDITION,

CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO
THE AUTUMN OF 1892.

V1  PREFACE.

topics liable  to  arise in general conversation. This edition contains
eighty-two  pages  more  than  the  last  published  in  1889.

The  Editor  has  endeavoured  to  make  the  book  a  dated  Cyclopedia,  a
digested  summary  of  every  department  of  human  history,  brought  down  to
the  eve  of  publication.  The  kindness  of  those  friends  who  have  pointed
out  errors  and  omissions,  which  are  almost  unavoidable  in  a  work  of  such
scope  and  magnitude,  is  gratefully  acknowledged.  Much  of  the  information
in  the  book  necessarily  depends  on  varying  statements  often  exceedingly
difficult  to  verify.

The  more  important  events  that  have  occurred  during  the  printing  of  this
edition,  are  noticed  in  the  Addexda,  at  the  end  of  the  volume.


BENJAMIN  VINCENT.


Royal  Institution,

Albemarle  Street,  London,  W.
October,  1892.


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.


The  design  of  the  Author  has  been  to  attempt  the  compression  of  the
greatest  body  of  general  information  that  has  ever  appeared  in  a  single
Tolume,  and  to  produce  a  Book  of  Eeference  whose  extensive  usefulness  may
render  its  possession  material  to  every  individual — in  the  same  manner
that  a  London  Directory  is  indispensable,  on  business  affairs,  to  a  London
merchant

The  Compiler  persuades  himself  that  the  Dictionary  of  Dates  will  be
received  as  a  useful  companion  to  all  Biographical  works,  relating,  as  it  does,
to  things  as  those  do  to  persons,  and  affording  information  not  included  in  the
range  or  design  of  such  publications.

Joseph  Haydx.

London,  May,  IS  11.  [Died /an.  17, 1S56.]


TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY


Great  Britain.

France.

Peninsula.

Germany.

Hungary.

England.

Scotland.

Castile  and
Leon.

1066.  SanchoII.

Arragon'.

Portugal.

1066  Will  I

1057.  Male.  3.

1060.  Philip  I.

1065.  Sancho.

1065.  Sancho  of

1056.  Hen.  4,  1064.  Solom.

1093.  Donald

Castile.

emperor.

1087.  Will.  II.

1094.  Dune.
1094.  Donald

1072.  Alfonso VI.

1072.  AlfonsoVI.

1075.  Geisa.

1076.  Lad.  1.

again.
1098.  Edgar.

1094.  Peter.

1093.  Henry,
count.

1 106.  Hen.  5.

1098.  Colo-
man.

1  too.  Hen.  I.

1 107.  Alex.  I.

1 108.  Louis  VI.

1 109.  Urracaand

1 104.  Alfonso  I.

1 1 12.  Alfonso,  as

1 1 14.  Step.  2.

Alfonso  VI I I

count.

1 1 24.  Dav.  I.

1 1 26.  Alfon.VII.!

t

ii25.Loth.2.  1131.  Bela  2.

1133.  Steph.

1 1 37.  Louis  VII.

1134.  Ramiro.

1137.  Petronella

1 1 39.  Alfonso  I.,

1138.  Conr.3.

1 141. Geisa  3.

1154.  Hen.  2.

1 1 53.  Mai.  IV.

1157.  SanclioIII. andRaymond.
1158.Alfon.YIIi.

as  king.

1 1 52.  Fred.  1.

1161.  SteP3.

1 165.  Will.

1163.  Alfonso  II

1 172.  (Ireld.

annexed.)

1 180.  Philip  II.

1 188.  Alfon.  IX.

1 1 73.  Bela  3.

1189.  Rich. I.

(Leon.)

1 1 85.  Sancho  I.

ngo.  Hen. 6.

1199.  John.

1 196.  Peter  II.

1 198.  Philip.

1196.  Emeric

1 214.  Alex.  2.

1214.  Henry  I.

1213.  James  I.

1212.  Alfonso  II.

1208.  Otho  4.

1204.  Ladis-

1216.  Hen.  3.

1249.  Alex.  3

1223.  Louis  VIII.
1226.  Louis  IX.

1217.  Ferdin.III.

(Castile.)
t23o.  (Leon.)

r252.  Alfonso  X.

1223.  SanchoII.
1248.  Alfon.  III.

1215.  Fred.2.

1250.  Con.  4.
1254.  Will.
1257.  Rich.

las  II.
1205.  An-
drew II.

1235.  Bela  4.

1272.  Ed.  I.

1270.  Philip  III.

1276.  Peter  III.

1279.  Dionysius

1273.  Ro-

1270.  Ste.  4.
1272.  Lad.  3.

1282.  (Wales

Interregnum

or  Denis.

dolph.

annexed.)

1292.  John
Baliol.

1285.  Philip  IV.

^84.  Sancho  IV.  12S5.  Alfons.  HI
1295.  Ferdin.IV.  129T.  James  IT.

1292.  Adolp.
1298.  Alb.  1.

1290.  And.  3.

1307.  Ed.  II.

1306.  Robert

1308.  Hen.  7

1301.  Charo-

(Bruce)  I.

1 314.  Louis  X.

1312.  AlfonsoXI.

1314.  Lou.  5.

bert.

1316.  John  I.

1327.  Alfonso IV.

1325.  AlfonsoIV.

1327.  Ed.HI.

1329.Dav.II.
1332.Ed.Bal.
1342.Dav.II.

Phil.  V.
1321.  Chas.  IV.
1328.  Phil.  VI.

1336.  Peter  IV.

1342.  Louis.

again.

1350.  John  IT.
1364.  Chas.  V.

1350.  Peter.
1369.  Henry.

1357.  Peter.
1367.  Ferdinand.

1347.  Chas.4.

1377.  Rich.  2.

1371.R0b.II.

1379.  John  I.

1378.  Wen-

(Stuart).

1380.  Chas.  VI.

1383.  John  I.

ceslas. I1332.  Mary.

1390.  Rob.  3.

1390.  Henry  II. 1387.  John  I.

I1387.  Mary  &

1399.  Hen.  4.

1395.  Martin.

t4co.  Rupert Sigismund.

1406.  Jas.  I.

1406.  John  II. 1410.  Jntevregnm.

1410.  Sigismund.

14T3  Hen.  5.

1422.  Chas.  VII.

1412.  Ferdinand

1422.  Hen.  6.

1437.  Jas.  II.
1460.Jas.III.

of  Sicily.
1416.  Alfonso  V.
1454.  Henry  IV.

1458.  John  II.

1433.  Edward.
1438.  Alfonso  V.

1438.  Albert.
1440.  Fred. 3.  1440.  Lad.  4.

hGi.  Ed. IV.

1461.  Louis  XI.

1474.  Isabella. 1479.  Ferdin.  II.

1481.  John  II.

1445.  Lad.  5.
1458.  Mat-
thias.

Spain.

1483.  Ed.V.
Rich.  3.

1483.  Chas.  VIII.

1479.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.

1495.  Emanuel.

1493.  Max.  1.

1400.  Lad.  6.

11485.  Hen.  7.

148S.  Jas.IV.

1499.  Switz.  1

|

1498.  Louis  XII.

iiidepend.  \

EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS.


Scandinavia.


Sweden".


Norway'.


Poland.


Denmark.


:oo6.  Halstan.


ioyo.  Ingo.


1112.  Philip.
1118.  Ingo  II.
1129.  Swerker.


1155.  Eric  I.

1 161.  Char.  VII.
1 167.  Canute.


1 199.  Swork.  II.

51210.  Eric  II.
l'itai6.  John  I.
1222.  Eric  III.


1250.  Birger  J.ir
1266.  Waldemar.
U275.  Magnus  I.

1290.  Birger  II.


1 319.  Magn.  II.


1069.  Olaf.  !047-  Sweyn  II. 1058.  Boles-

1076.  Harold. I las.
1080.  Canute IV.  1082.  Ladis-
1086.  Olaus  IV. I las.

1093.  Magnus. 1095.  Eric  I.


1 103.  Sigurd  I.,

and  others.

122.  Sigurd  I.

1 1 30.  MagnusIV

and  others.


Civil  war  and
anarcht/.


ti86.  Swcrro.


1 105.  Eric  II.


"37>
1 147,

"57


Eric  III.


1 102.  Boles,  a


1 1 38.  Lad.  2.


Sweyii  III. '  1145.  Boles. ^
Canute  V.
Waldemar

173.  Miecis
las  III.

178.  Ca-
simir  II.


1202.  Ilako  III.

and  others.
1207.  HakoIV.


1263.  MaguusVI.


1280.  Eric.


1299.  Hako  V.


:3i9. United  to
Sweden.


1350.  Eric  IV.
j  359.  Magnus  II.
1363.  Albert.


1389.  Margaret.


1389. United  to
Denmark.


1412.  Eric  XIII.

1440.  Christopher  III.
1448.  Chas.VIII.

1457.  Christian  I.


1241,
1250.
1252,
1259,


.  Canute  VI.
,  Walde.  II.

,  Eric  IV.
Abel.

Christoph.
EricV.


Eastern
Empire.


n94.Lesk.5-

1200.  Miec.3.
1202.  Lad.  3
■227.Boles.5.


1320.  Christo-
pher II.

1334.  Interregnm.

1340.  Wald.  III.

1375.  Interregnm.

1376.  Olaus  V.

1387.  Margaret.


1448.  Christian  I


14S3.  John  of  Denmark.  1481.  John.


279.  Lesk.6.


i2%g. Anarch.
i2go.Premis
las.

i296.Ladis.4

1300.  Win-
ceslas.


1333.  Cas.  3.


1370.  Louis.

1382.  Mary.
1384.  Hedw.
1396.  Lad.  5.


1068.  Rom.  4

1071. Mich. 7.
io78.Nicep.3
1 08 1.  Alexius


1143.  Manuel
Comnenus.


180.  Alex. 2.
183.  Andro-
nicus  C.
185.  Isaac  2.
19S.  Alex. 3.


Italy.


Popes.


1061.  Alex.  II.

1073.  Greg.  VII.
1086.  Victor  III.
1088.  Urban  II.
1099.  Tascal  II.


1118.
1119.
1 124.
1 1 30.

JI43-
1144.

"45-
"S3-
1154.

1159.
1181.


1187.


Naples  and  Sicily.


1 131.  Roger


Gelas.  II.

Calixt.  II.

Honor.  II.

Innoc.  II.

Celest.  II.

Lucius  II. I

Eugen.III.

Anasta.IV.1154.  William  I

Adrian  IV.

Alex.  III.

Lucius  III.

Urban  III.

Greg.VIII.

Clem.  III. [1189.  Tancred.
.  Celest.  III. '  1 194.  William  III.
.  Innoc.  III.  l1197.Fred.Il.  of  Germany


1 166.  William  II.


1332.  And.  3.
1341.  Johns.


1 39 1.  Man-
uel VI.


1434.  Lad.  6.  'i


1445.  Casi.4


1492.  Albert


25.  John  6.
48.  Con-
stant. 13.


Turkey.


1250.  Conrad.

1254.  Conradin.

1258.  Manfred.

1266.  Charles  of  An  jou


Sicily.

1282.  Peter

of  Arragon

1285.  Chas.2.  1285.  James


1295.  Fred.  2


1303.  Bened.  XI.
1305.  Clement  V.
(Avignon).
1314-15.  Vacant.
i3i6.JohnXXII.
1334.  Bene.  XII.
1342.  Clem.  VI.
1352.  Innoc.  VI.
1362.  Urban  V.
(Rome).
1370.  Greg.  XI.
1378.  Urban  VI.


Robt,


i337.Petei-2

1343- Joan  2, 1342. Louis.

&  Andrew  1355.  Fred.  3

of  Hung.

i349.Louis 7376.  Maria

&  Martin,

1381. Chas.  3,


1389.  Bonif.  IX. i385.Ladislas


1433.  Ma-
homet II.
i48i.Bajaz.2


1404.  Innoc.  VII.

1406.  Greg.  XII.

1409.  Alex.  V.

i4io.JohnXXIIl

1417.  Martin  V.

1431.  Eugen.  IV.

1447.  NicholasV.

1455.  Calix.  III.

1458.  Pius  II.

1464.  Paul  II.

1471.  SixtusIV.

1484.  Inno.VIII.r4g5.'  Ferd

1492.  Alex.  VI. '1496.  Fred.  2.


1402.  Mart.  1

140Q.  Mart.  2

1414.  Joan  2. (United  to

Arragon.)

1410.  Ferd.  r,

1416.  Alfo.  1.

1435.  Alfonso  I.

i458.Ferd.i.  i458.  John.

1494.  Alfo.2.J479-  Ferd. .


TABLE  OF  CONTEMPORARY


Great  Britain.

Peninsula.

France.

Germany.

Hungary.

England.

Scotland.

Castile  and
Leon.

Are  agon.

rORTUGAL.

1309.  Hen.  8.

1513.  Jas.  V.

1515.  Francis  I.

1504.  Joanna  &
Philip  I.

Ferdinand  II.

1521.  John  III.

|iSi6.Lou.II.

i5i9.Chas.V.  1526.  Jn.  Za-

(I.  of  Sp.) 1 polski  and

1542.  Mary.

Spain.

st.)II.  (Arragon).

Ferdin.ll.
(Emperors — Kings  of

1512.  Ferd.V.(Ca

iS47.  Ed.  vr.

1547.  Henry  II.

1516.  Charles  I.  (V.  of  Germ.  1519).

Hungary.)

1553-  MalT-
1558.  Eliz.

1559.  Francis  TI.

1556.  Philip  II.

Holland.

1557.  Sebastian.

1558.  Ferdinand.

1 567.  Jas.  VI.

1560.  Charles  IX.

1564.  Maximilian  II.

1574.  Henry  III.

1579.  William  of
Orange,  stadt-
holder.

1578.  Henry.
1580.  Annexed  to
Spain.

1576.  llodolphll.

1539.  Henry  IV.

159S.  Philip  III.

T587.  Maurice.

1603.  Jas.  I.  (VI.  of  Scot.)

1610.  Loui.sXIII.

1612.  Mathias.

1625.  Charles  I.

1621.  Philip  IV.

1625.  Fred.  Hen.

Kingdom  restored

1619.  Ferdinand  II.
1637.  Ferdinand  III.

1643.  Louis  XIV.

r647.  William  II.

1640.  John  of

1649.  Commonwealth.

1650-72.  No

Braganza.

1660.  Charles  II.

1665.  Charles  II.

stadt/wlder.

1656.  Alfonso  VI.
1667.  Peter,

1658.  Leopold  I.

1685.  James  II.

1672.  Will.  Hen.

regent.

1689.  William  and  Mary.

(Will.  III.  oj

1683.  Peter  II.

1694.  William  III.

1700.  Philip  V.

England.)

1702.  Anne.

1702-47.  No

1706.  John  V.

1705.  Joseph

Prussia.

1714.  George  I.

T715.  Louis  XV.

1724.  (abdicated).
„ Louis.

stadtholder.

1711.  Chas.6.

1727.  George  II.

Philip  V.
again.

1701.  Fred.  1.

171 3.  Fred.-

William  1.

1746.  Ferd.  VI.

r747.  Will.  Hen.

1750.  Joseph.

1742.  Chas. 7.

1740.  Fred.2.

1759.  Chas.  III.

1757.  Will.  IV.

1 745.  Francis

1760.  George  III.

1774.  Louis  XVI.

1777.  Maria  and
Peter  III.

1765.  Jos.  2.

i

17S3.  [United  States  in-

1786. Maria,

1786.  Fred.- 1

dependent,  j

r/So Clias. IV.

alone.

William  2.

1793.  Lou.  XVII.

(abdicated).

1795.  Annexed,  to

1791.  John,regeni

1790.Leop.2-

1797.  Fred. 1

Republic  I.

France.

1 792. Fran. 2.

William  ?.

1802.  Consulate.

1808.  Ferd.  VII.

1806.  Louis,  Icing.

\

1811.  (George,  Frince  of

1804.  Napoleon  I.

(dethroned).

Austria.

Wales,  regent  )

1814.L0u.XVHI.

Jos.  Bonap

Netherlands.

1816.  John  VI.

1826.  Peter  IV.

Maria  II.

(restored).

1814.  Will.  Fred.

1806.  Fran.I.

,|

1820.  George  IV.

1824.  Charles  X.

king.*

1828.  Miguel.

1830.  William  IV.

1S30.  Lou. Philip. ;  1833.  Isabella  II.

1833.  Maria  II.

1840.  Fred.-  |

1837.  Victoria.

1848.  Republic  11. ! „,„  ,  ,  ... „
1 1 \  1868.  (dethroned).

1840.  William  II.

1S35.Ferd.2-

William.  4.  |

1852.  NapoL  III.

1870.  Amadeus.
[abdicated)  1873.

1849.  Will.  III.

1853.  Peter  V.
1861.  Luis  I.

1848.  Francis
Joseph.

1S60.  Will.  1.  1

1

1870.  Republic

1873.  Rfpv.blic.

1871. Ger-I

III.

1871.L.  A.Thiers

died 25 Nov.

1889.  Carlos  I.

ror.

president.

1885.

1888. Fred.

III.
1888.  William

1873.  Marshal
MacMahon.

1886. Alfons.
XIII.

1890.  Wilhcl-

i879.JulesGrevv.

II.

i887.SadiCaniot.

Belgium. — 1831.  Leopold  I.
,,  1865.  Leopold  II.


EUROPEAN  SOVEREIGNS,  continued.


Scandinavia.


Swedem.


Norway.


1520.  Christian  II.


1523.  Gustavus
Yasa.


1560.  Eric  XIV.
1568.  John  III.

1592.  Sigismund


Denmark.


Russia.'


1604.  Chas.  IX.

161 1.  Gustavus

Adolphus.

1633.  Christina.


1533.  Ivan  IV.


1584.  Foodor  I.


1598.  Boris.


1606.  Basil.
161 3.  Michael
(Romanoff).


1645.  Alexis.


1719.  Ulrica  and  1725.  Gather.  I.
Frederick  I. 1727.  Peter  II.
1730.  Anne.

1740.  Ivan  VI.
1741.  Fred.  I. 11741-  Elizabeth.
1751.  Adolphus
Frederick.

|i762.  Peter  III.
Cather.  II.
1771.Gustav.III.


1792.  Gustav.  IV.  1796.  Paul  I


1809.  Chas.  XIII
1814.  Norway  an

vexed.
1818.  Chas.  XIV.


1844.  Oscar  I.


1859.  CLas.  XV.


1872.  Oscar  II.


1 801.  Alexand.  I.
1828.  Nicholas.


1855.  Alex.  II.


1881.  -Uex.  III.


1513.  Christn.II.


1523.  Fredrick  I.
and  Norway.

1534.  Christ.  III.


1359.  Fred.  II.


1588.Christn.IV


Poland.


1654.  Chas.  X.

1660.  Chas.  XL '1676.  Feodor.

|i682.  Ivan  V.  &
Peter  I.
1S97.  Chas.  XII.  1689.  Peter  I.


1648.  Fred.  III.
1670.  Christn.  V.

1699.  Fred-  1V-


1730.Christn.VI.
1746.  Fred.  V.
1766.  Christ. VII.

i784.PrinceFred,

regent.


1501.  Alex.
1506.  Sig.  I.


1S48.Sig.II.


1573.  Henry.
1575.  Steph.
7587.  Sig.  3.


1632.  Lad.  7.

1648.  John  C.
1669.  Mich.
1674.  John

Sobieski.
1697.  Fredk

August.  1.


1704.  Stan.  1.

1709.  Fredk.
Augustus,
restored.

1733.  Fredk.
August.  2.

1764.  Stan.  2.


1793.  Parti-
tion.


Turkish
Empire.


1512.  Selim.

1520.  Soly-
man  II.


1566.  Sel.  2.

1574.  Ainu-
rath  III.


1595.  Mali.  3,


Italy.


Popes.


1603.  Ach.  1.
r6i7.  Mus.  1.
1618.  Osm  2.

1622.  Musta-
pha,  again.

1623.  Am.  4.
1640.  I  brali.
1648.  Mah.  4.
1687.  Sol.  3.
1691.  Ach.  2
1695.  Mus.  2.


1808.  Fred.  VI.
1814.  Norway
taken  away.


1839.  Chris. VIII.
1848.  Fred.  VII.


1703.  Ach.  3.
1 730.  Mah.  5.


1754.  Osm.  3.
1757.  Mus.  3,


1774.  Abdul-
Hamid  I.
or  Ach.  4.
78g.Selm.  -3


1503.  Pius  III.
Julius  II.
1513.  Leo  X.

1522.  Adrian  VI.

1523.  Clem.  VII.
1534.  Paul  III.
1550.  Julius  III.
1555.  Marcel.  II.

Paul  IV.
1559.  Pius  IV.
1566.  Pius  V.
1572.  Greg.XIII.
1585.  SixtusV.

1590.  Urban  VII.
Greg.  XIV.

1591.  Innoc.IX.

1592.  Cleni.VIII.


1605.  Leo.  XL
Paul  V.
1 62 1.  Greg.  XV.
i623.UrbanVIII.
1644.  InnocentX.
1655.  Alex.  VII.
1667.  Clem.  IX.
1670.  Clem.  X.
1676.  Innoc.  XL
1689.  Alex.  VIII.
1691.  Innoc.  XII.


Naples  and  Si<jij_y.


1501. United  to  Spain.


1700.  Clem.  XL

„ Naples  and
1721.  Inno.XIll. Qi^-itr
1724.  Bene.XIII  '


1807.  Mus.  4.

Greece. c8o8.  Mah-

mud  6.


1832.  Othol,


1863.  Chrisn.  IX.


1S63.  Geo.  I.


1839.  Abdul
Medjid.


1 86 1.  Abdul

Aziz.
1876.  Amu-
rath  V.  May
1876.  Abdul-
Hamid  II.
Aua.


1730.  Clem.  XII.  I7I3.Chas.3
1740.  Bene.  XIV.  Naples.
Victor-
o  m  vtii  Am-  of  Sa-
1758.  C  em.XIIL  XOj,Sicily.
1769.  Clem  XIV.  J720 Annexed
1775.  Puis  VI.  to  Germany.
1738.  Chas.4.

Naples.

1759.  Fred.4

tixily.


1800.  Pius  VII.


823.  Leo  XII.


t829.  Pius  VI 11.
1831.  Greg.  XVI.


1846.  Pius  IX.


Leo  XIII.


Sardinia.t


1720.  Victor-
Amadeus

1730  Charles
Eniman.  1

1773.  Victor-
Amadeus2

1 796.  Charles
Emman.2


Naples.


1806.  Joseph
Bonaparte

1808.  Joach.
Murat.


Naples  and
Sicily.

1815.  Ferd.i.
1825  Fran.  1.
1830.  Ford.  2.
1859.  Fran.  2.
i860  Annexed
to  Italy.


1802.  Victor
Eniman.  1

i8o$Annexed
to  kingdom
of  Italy.

1814.  Victor-
Emman.i.

1821. Charles-
Felix.

1831. Charles
Albert.

1849.  Victor-
Emman.o


Italy.


1861.  Victor-Emmanuel.
1878.  Humbert.


*  See
\  See


Article  Russia  for  preceding  Rulers
Article  Savoy.


POPULATION  AND GOVERNMENTS OF  THE  WORLD.

(According  to  the  Almanack  de  Gotha  ;  see  articles  Population,  and  the  countries  throughout

the  book.


COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS


Anhalt,  E.  Population  in  Dec.
Argentine  Confederation,  R.C.

Austrian  Emp.  R.C.  (after  ces-
sion 1866) Dec.

Baden,  R.C Dec.

Bavaria,  R.C.  (after  cessions
1866) ■ ■

Belgium,  R-C Dec.

Bolivia,  R.C

Brazil,  R.C.  ■

Brunswick,  L

Bulgaria

Chili,  R.C. ..  • • : • -..■  „•

Chinese  Empire  (estimated),  H.

Colombia,  state,  R.C.  . ■ . .

Costa  Rica,  R.C.  •.•••■ \

Denmark  &  colonies,  L.  (estm.)

Egypt,  &C..M-. ■■■ ■ ■

Equator  (Ecuador),  R.C.  .  ■
'  France  alone,  R.C  • . • • •

Germany,  R.C..L.  and  E.  Dec.

Gt.Britain&colonies,P.(estm.)

Greece  &  Ion.  Is.  G.C.  (estim.)  .

:  Guatemala, -R.C

!  Hayti  (estimated)  .....
!  Hesse-Darmstadt,  L.  •  ■  ■
I  Holland,  not  colonies,  C. . .

Honduras,  R.C

Italy,  R.C.

Japan  (estimated)

Liberia,  P. . . -

Liechtenstein,  R.C. . . . .

Lippe,  C.  . ..... -Dec.

Luxemburg,  R.C. ■..■■•

Mecklenburg-Schwenn,i.Dec.


1890
1890


1890
1890
1890


1 89 1


1891


i8qo


1890


POPULA-
TION.


Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  L.
Mexico,  R.  C.  (estimated) • .  <°yo
Monaco,  P.  C  . . ... ■ • •  '888
Montenegro,  G.C.  (estim.) . .1891

Morocco,  M about

Nicaragua,  R-  C. ...... •  1888

Oldenburg,  P.  (estimated)  . .  1890
Papal  States  annexed  to  Italy.  1870
Paraguay,  R.  C. . .. . . .  1887

Persia,  M.  (estimated) . . . . .

Peru,  P.O.  (estimated) . . .1876

Portugal,  PC 1881

Prussia.  E l89o

Reuss,  L '899

Rouinania . •  I°88

Russia.  G.C,  Poland,  &c.  (est.  1885
Sandwich  Islands  (Hawa'i, &c.)  1890

San  Marino,  R.C. 1886

San  Salvador  R.C.  ... ■ .  1885

Saxe-Altenburg,  P 1890

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  L. . . .  1890

Saxe-Meiningen,  L 1890

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,  L. .  1885

Saxony,  P 1890

Schaumburg-Lippe,  L.  .  ■  .  1890
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt,  L.  .  1890
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus.  L.  1890

Servia,  G-.C 1890

Spain,  R-C 1887

St.  Domingo,  R.  C.  (estimated)  1887
Sweden,  Norway,  L.(estmtd.)  1890-1
Switzerland,  R.C.  and  P.  Dec.  1888
Transvaal,  or  South African

Republic,  C 1890

Turkish  Empire,  M.  (estimtd.)  1387

Uruguay,  R.C 1889

Venezuela,  R.  C. 1891

"Wiirtemberg,  L 1890

United  States  of  N.  America.P.  1890


271,759
3,793,800

4i,34S,329
1,656,817

5,589,382
6,147,041
1,189,800
14,002,33s

403,788

3,154,375

2,766,747

360,250,000

4,000,000

243,000
2,298,367
6,798,230
1,004,651

38,343,'92

49,421,803

340,220,000

2,187,208

1,452,003

550,000

993,659

4,5",4i5

43i,9!7

30,158,408

40,072,020

1,068,000

9,124

12,814

211,088

578,565

97,978
",395,712
13,304
200,000
8,000,000
282,845
354,968

330,000

7,500,000

2,609,745

4,708,178

29,959,388

182,565

5,376,000

108,843,192

89,990

7,840

634,120

170,864

206,513

223,832

313,946

3,500,513

39,163

85,863

75,5io

2,162,759

17,564,588

350,000

6,773,672

2,9'7,7S4

119,128
32,978,100
683,943
2,323,527
2,035,443
62,981,000


Frederick,  duke ....
Dr.  Luis  Saenz  Pefia,  pres.


Francis-Joseph,  emperor .  .
Frederick,  grand-duke . . .

Otho,  king

Leopold  II.,  king

Aniceto  Arce,  president  . .
Gen.  Floriano  Peixoto - -
Prince  Albert  of  Prussia,re;/i.
Ferdinand,  prince ....

Adm.  George  Montt . . .
Kwang-su,  emperor  ....

R.  Nunez,  president. . ■ .
J.  J.  Rodriguez,  president .
Christian  IX.,  king  ......

Abbas  Hilmi,  khedive  . . .
Louis  Cordero,  president  ■ ■
Sadi  Carnot,  president .
William  II.,  emperor . . .

Victoria,  queen

George  I.,  king

Gen.  Barrios,  president  .  -
L.  M.  F.  Hyppolite  ....
Ernest  Louis,  grand-duke  .
Wilhelmina,  <iueen  ....
Gen.  Pariani  Leista.preskJnt
Humbert  I.,  k ing  ....
Moutz  Hito,  mikado  ■  ■  ■
H.  R.  W.  Johnson,  presidnt.

John  II.,  prince

Waldemar,  prince  ....
Adolphus,  grand-duke.  .  ■
Frederic  Francis  III.  grand-

Frederic  William,  grud-duke
Porfirio  Diaz,  president  .  .
AibertHonoreCharles,p)-nce
Nicholas  I.,  prince  .  .  .  .
Muley  Hassan,  sultan  .  ■  ■
Dr.  Sacasa,  president  .  .  ■
Peter,  grand-duke  ....
Leo  XIII.,  pope  .  ■  ■  ■  ■
■Juan.  G.  Gonzalez,  presidnt
Nassir-ed-Deen,  shall  .  .  .
Col.RemigioM.Bermudez,i>s

Carlos,  king

William  II.,  king

Henry  XXII.,  prince  .  .  .
Chs.  of  Hohenzollern, king  .
Alexander  IIP,  c::ar. . ■ ■

Lilinokalani

Capitanireggenti

A.  Azeta,  president  ....

Ernest,  duke

Ernest  II.,  duke

George  II.,  duke .

Chas.  Alexander,  grnd.-duke

Albert,  king

Adolphus,  prince

Gonthier,  prince

Charles,  prince

Alexander,  ki ng

Alfonso  XIII.,  king
Ulises  Heureaux,  president.
Oscar  II.,  king . . • • • •
Emil  Welti,  president  ■ . ■


29  April,  183 1


18  Aug.  1830
9  Sept.  1826  .


27  April,  1848
9  April,  1835


8  May,  1837  .
26  Feb.  1S61


1871


8  April,  1818
14  July,  1874


11  Aug.,  1837
27  June,  1859
24  May,  1819
24  Dec.  1845


25  Nov.  1868
31  Aug.  1880


14  March,  1844-
1852


ACCESSION.


5  Oct,  1840 .

18  April,  1824
21  July,  1817

19  Mar.  1851
17  Oct.  1819  .


13  Nov.  184
7  Oct.  184 1


8  July,  1827 .
2  March,  1810


1830.


28  Sept.  1863 .

27  June,  1859  .

28  March,  1846 .
20  April,  1839  .
10  March,  1845
2  Sept.  1838  . .


S.  J.  P.  Kriiger,  president  .
Abdul-HamidII.,sK«CMi  .
Dr.  J.  Herrera  y  Obes,  pres.

William  II.,  king

Gen.  Ben.  Harrison,  presidt.


16  Sept.  1826
21  June,  1818
2  April,  1826
24  June,  1818
23  April,  1828
1  Aug.  1817  .
21  Aug.  1852
7  Aug.  1830 .
14  Aug.  1876

17  May,  1886


21  Jan.  1829.


21  Sept.  1842


25  Feb.  1848
20  Aug.  1833


22  May,  1871.

12  June,  1892.

2  Dec.  1848.
5  Sep.  1856.

13  June,  1886.
10  Dec.  1865.

1  June,  1888.

23  Nov.  1891.
21  Oct.  1885.

7  July,  1887.

4  Nov.  1891.
Jan.  1875.

1  April,  18S4.

8  May,  1890.
15  Nov.  1863
7  Jan.  1892.
18  June,  1892.

3  Dec.  1887.

15  June,  1888.
20  June,  1837.

5  June,  1863.

16  March,  1892.
15  May,  1890.

13  March,  1892.
23  Nov.  1890.
10  Nov.  1891.

9  Jan.  1878.
1867.

7  May,  i88q.

12  Nov.  1858.

8  Dec.  1875.
23  Nov.  ifcgo.

15  April,  1883.

6  Sent.  i860.
1  Dec.  1884.

10  Sept.  1889.

14  Aug.  i860.
25  Sept.  1873.
1880.

27  Feb.  1853.

20  Feb.  1878.

1891.

10  Sept.  1848.

Aug.  1890.

19  Oct.  1889.

15  June,  1^88.
8  Nov.  1859.

20  April,  1866.

13  March,  1881
20  Jan.  1891.

1  March,  1891.

3  Aug.  1853.
29  Jan.  1844.

20  Sept.  1866.

8  July,  1853.
29  Oct.  1873.

21  Nov.  186c
19  Jan.  1890.
17  July,  188c.
6  March,  1^89.

17  May,  1886.
1  Sept.  1886.

18  Sept.  1872.
Dec.  1891.

9  May,  1883.
3iAug.  1876.

1  March,  1890.

6  Oct.  1891.

4  Mar.  1889.


Predominant  Religions.— R.C.  Roman  Catholic;  G.C.  Greek  Church:  P.,  Protestant;  L.,  Lutheran;  E.,
Evangelical  Church— a  combination  of  Calvinists  and  Lutherans ;  C,  Calvinist  or  Reformed ;  M.,  Mahometan
B.,  Buddhist.


DICTIONARY OF DATES.


AARGAU.


ABDICATIONS.


AARGAU  (Switzerland),  formerly  included  in
Berne,  was  made  an  independent  canton  in  1803,
and  settled  as  such  in  1815.  It  was  much  disturbed
by  religious  dissensions  in  1841  ;  and  the  expulsion
of  the  Jesuits  was  demanded  in  1844.

ABACUS,  the  tile  on  the  capital  of  a  column.
That  on  the  Corinthian  column  is  ascribed  to  Calli-
niaehus,  about  540  B.C. — This  name  is  also  given  to
a  frame  traversed  bjr  stiff  wires,  on  which  beads  were
strung,  used  for  calculating  by  the  Greeks,  Romans,
and  Chinese.  M.  Lalanne  published  an  abacus
at  Paris  in  1845. — The  multiplication  table  has  been
called  the  Pythagorean  abacus.

ABANCAY,  a  river  in  Peru,  on  the  banks
of  which  the  Spanish  marshal  Almagro  defeated
and  took  prisoner  Alvarado,  a  partisan  of  Pizarro,
12  July,  1537.

ABATTOIES,  slaughter-houses  for  cattle.  In
1810  Napoleon  decreed  that  five  should  be  erected
near  Paris,  which  were  opened  in  1818.  One  was
erected  at  Edinburgh  in  183 1,  and  they  form  part
of  the  new  London  metropolitan  cattle-market,
opened  on  13  June,  1855.

ABBASSIDES,  descendants  of  Mahomet's
uncle,  Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb.  Merwan  II.,
the  last  of  the  Ommiades,  was  defeated  and  slain  by
Abul  Abbas  in  750,  and  became  caliph.  Thirty-
seven  Abbasside  caliphs  (including  Haroun  al  Ras-
chid,  786-809)  reigned  from  750  to  1258.  They
settled  at  Bagdad,  built  by  Al-Mansour  about  762.
Their  colour  was  black  ;  that  of  the  Fatimites  being
green,  and  that  of  the  Ommiades  white.

ABBAYE,  a  military  prison  near  St.  Germain
des  Pres,  Paris,  where  164  prisoners  were  murdered
by  infuriated  republicans  led  by  Maillard,  2  and
3  Sept.  1792.

ABBEVILLE,  N.  France.  Here  Henry  III.
met  Louis  IX.  of  France  and  made  peace,  renoun-
cing his  right  to  Normandy  and  other  provinces,
20  May,  1259.

ABBEYS,  monasteries  for  men  or  women  ;  see
Monachism  and  Convents.  The  first  abbey  founded
in  England  was  at  Bangor  in  560 ;  in  France,  at
Poitiers,  about  360 ;  in  Ireland  in  the  fifth  century  ;
in  Scotland  in  the  sixth  century.  no  alien
priories  were  suppressed  in  England,  2  Henry  V.
1414.  Salmon.  The  gross  disorders  in  these  esta-
blishments occasioned  their  destruction  in  Britain.
After  visitations  of  inquiry,  king  Henry  VIII.  com-
menced the  suppression  of  small  monasteries  to  raise


revenues  for  Wolsey's  colleges  at  Oxford  and  Ips-
wich, 7  June,  1525  ;  many  small  monasteries  were
suppressed  in  1536;  and  all  religious  houses  were
suppressed  throughout  the  realm  by  parliament,
1539-40: — 186  large  monasteries  (revenue  104,919^.
13s.  %d.),  374  less  monasteries  (revenue  33,479^
13s.  fid.),  and  48  houses  of  the  knights  hosj  itallers
(revenue  2385/.  12s.  8d.  ;  total,  houses,  608 ;  esti-
mated revenue,  140,784^.  19*.  6fd.)  Tanner.  Abbeys
were  suppressed  in  Austria  (by  Joseph  II.)  in  1780,
in  France  in  1790,  in  Portugal  in  1834,  in  Sardinia
in  1855,  in  Mexico  in  1861,  in  Spain  in  1837  and
1868,  and  in  Italy  in  July,  1866,  and  April,  1873.

ABBOT  (from  Ab,  father),  the  head  of  an  abbey.
In  England,  mitred  abbots  were  lords  of  parliament ;
twenty-seven  abbots  and  two  priors  thus  distin-
guished, 1329 ;  the  number  reduced  to  twenty-five,
1396.  Coke.  The  abbots  of  Reading,  Glastonbury,
and  St.  John's,  Colchester,  were  executed  as  traitors
for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  probably  for  not
surrendering  their  abbeys,  1539  ;  see  Glastonbury.

ABBOT'S  RIPTON,  see  Eaihvaij  Accidents,
1876.

ABC  CLUB,  a  name  adopted  by  certain
republican  enthusiasts  in  Paris,  professing  to  re-
lieve the  abaisses,  or  depressed.  Their  insurrection
5  June,  1832,  was  suppressed  with  bloodshed,  6  June.
These  events  are  described  by  Victor  Hugo  in  "  Les
Mis e rabies"  (1862).

ABDICATIONS  of  sovereigns,  voluntary  or
compulsory,  have  been  numerous  : —

Sylla,  Roman  dictator b.  c. 79

Diocletian,  Roman  emperor  .... a.d. 305

Stephen  II.,  of  Hungary II3I

Albert,  the  Bear  of  Brandenburg 1I42

Lescov  V.  of  Poland I2oc

Ulauislaus  III.  of  Poland I2o6

John  Balliol,  of  Scotland I2g6

Otho  (of  Bavaria),  of  Hungary I30g

Eric  IX.,  of  Denmark,  &e. 1439

Pope  Felix  V M4g

Charles  V.,  as  emperor .... 25  Oct. 1555
,,  as  king  of  Spain  . .  16  Jan. i556

Christina,  of  Sweden 16  June,  1654

John  Casimir,  of  Poland x669

James  II.,  of  England  .  .  .  fled  11  Dec.  1688
Frederick  Augustus  II.,  of  Poland . . . .  1704

Philip  V.  of  Spain  (resumed) I724

Victor  Amadeus,  of  Sardinia i-j-ko

Charles,  of  Naples ....... 1759

Stanislaus,  of  Poland I7g5

Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  of  Sardinia  .  .  4  June,  1802
Francis  II.,  of  Germany,  who  became  emperor  of

Austria n  Aug.  1804


ABECEDARIANS.


ABERGELE.


Charles  IV. ,  of  Spain,  in  favour  of  his  son,  19  March  ;

in,  favour  of  Bonaparte  ;  see  Spain  .  .  1  May,  1808
Joseph  Bonaparte,  of  Naples  (for  Spain)  . 1  June.  1808

Gustavus  IV.,  of  Sweden ."  1809

Louis,  of  Holland 1  July,  1810

Jerome,  of  Westphalia 20  Oct.  1813

Napoleon  I.,  of  France  ....  5  April,  18 14
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  .  .  13  March,  1821
Pedro  IV. ,  of  Portugal .... 2  May,  1826

Charles  X.,  of  France 2  Aug.  1830

Pedro  I. ,  of  Brazil 7  April,  1831

Dom  Miguel,  of  Portugal  (by  leaving  it) 26  May,  1834

"William  I.,  of  Holland ' 8  Oct.  1840

Louis-Philippe,  of  France  ... 24  Feb. 1S48

Louis  Charles,  of  Bavaria  ...  21  March,  1848
Ferdinand,  of  Austria  ....  2  Dec.  1848
Charles  Albert,  of  Sardinia  ...  23  March,  1849
Leopold  II.,  of  Tuscany  ....  July,  1859
Bernhard,  of  Saxe-Meiningen  .  .  20  Sept.  1866
Isabella  II.,  of  Spain  .... 25  June,  1870

Amadeus,  of  Spain 11  Feb.  1873

Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  (compulsory)  .  7  Sept.  1886

Milan,  King  of  Servia 6  March,  1889

ABECEDARIANS,  followers  of  Storcb,  an
Anabaptist  in  the  sixteenth  century,  derive  their
name  from  their  rejection  of  all  worldly  knowledge,
even  of  the  alphabet.

ABECEDARIUM,  a  logical  machine,  con-
structed by  Mr.  William  Stanley  Jevons,  and
described  in  his  "  Principles  of  Science,"  1874.
He  states  that,  by  means  of  symbolic  terms,  it
can  perform  all  the  processes  of  analytic  reason-
ing with  infallible  accuracy.

ABELARD,  a  celebrated  teacher  of  theology
and  logic,  in  11 18  fell  in  love  with  Heloise,  the
niece  of  Fulbert,  a  canon  of  Paris,  became  her  tutor,
and  seduced  her.  After  a  compulsory  marriage,  he
placed  her  temporarily  in  a  convent.  Having  been
cruelly  mutilated  at  the  instigation  of  her  relatives,
he  entered  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  from  which  he
was  compelled  to  depart,  accused  of  heresy,  on  ac-
count of  his  censuring  the  dissoluteness  of  the  monks.
He  then  built  and  lectured  at  the  oratory  of  the
Paraclete  (or  comforter)  which  eventually  he  made
a  convent,  with  Heloi'se  for  the  abbess.  He  died
under  the  charge  of  heresy,  21  April,  1 142,  and  was
buried  in  the  Paraclete,  where  also  Heloi'se  was
laid,  17  May,  1164.  Their  ashes  were  removed  to
the  garden  of  the  Museum  Francjais  in  1800,  and  to
the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise  in  1817.  Their
epistles,  &c,  were  published  in  1616.

ABENCERRAGES,  a  powerful  Moorish  tribe
of  Granada,  opposed  to  the  Zegris.  From  1480  to
1492  their  quarrels  deluged  Granada  with  blood  and
hastened  the  fall  of  the  kingdom.  They  were  ex-
terminated by  Boabdil  (Abu  A'bdallah),  the  last
king,  who  was  dethroned  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella
in  1492 ;  his  dominions  were  annexed  to  Castile.

ABENSBERG,  Bavaria.  The  Austrians  were
here  defeated  by  Napoleon  I.  20  April,  1809.
ABEOKUTA,  see  Dahomey.
ABERDEEN  (N.  Scotland),  said  to  have  been
founded  in  the  third  century  after  Christ,  and  erected
into  a  city  about  893. Old  Aberdeen  was  made  a
royal  burgh  in  1 154 ;  it  was  burnt  by  the  English  in
1336  ;  and  soon  after  New  Aberdeen  was  built. A
statue  of  the  prince  consort  was  inaugurated  by  the
queen  13  Oct.  1863  ;  and  one  of  queen  Victoria  by
the  prince  of  Wales,  20  Sept.  1866. See  Population.
King's  college  was  founded by  bishop  William Elphin-
stone,  who  had  a  bull  from  pope  Alexander  VI.  in  1494.
The  University  was  erected  in  1500-6. Marischal  eolleqe
was  founded  by  George  Keith,  earl  marischal  of  Scot-
land, in  1593  ;  rebuilt  in  1837. In  1858  the  university
and  colleges  were  united. By  the  reform  act  of  1868,
the  universities  of  Aberdeen  and  Glasgow  send  one
member  to  .parliament. Sir  Erasmus  Wilson  gives
10,000?.  to  endow  a  chair  of  pathological  anatomy,  1882.


Above  30  persons  drowned  by  overcrowding  a  boat,

April,  1876.
Aberdeen  farmers  agitate  for  change  in  land  laws  ;  abate-
ment of  rent,  &c,  Sept.  1881.
Aberdeen  market  buildings  destroyed  by  fire,  29  April,

1882.
Duthie-park, presented  by  Miss Dnthie, opened by

princess  Beatrice,  27  Sept.  1883.
The British  Association  meet  here,  14  Sept.  1859  \  anc^

9  Sept.  1885.
The  marquis of  Lome  uncovers a colossal statue  of

Wallace,  29  June,  1888.
Mr. John Gray Chambers, of Banchory, bequeaths

io,ooo£.  to  found  a  professorship  of  English  literature

in  the  university  with  other  bequests ; announced,

Nov.  1890.
Malcolm  III.  having  gained  a  great  victory  over
the  Danes  in  the  year  1010,  resolved  to  found  anew
Bishopric,  in  token  of  his  gratitude  for  his  success,
and  pitched  upon  Mortlach  in  Banffshire,  where
St.  Beanus  was  first  bishop,  1015.  The  see,  re-
moved to  Aberdeen  early  in  the  twelfth  century,
was  discontinued  at  the  revolution,  1689,  and  is
now  a  post-revolution  bishopric,  instituted  in  1721  ~r
see  Bishops  in  Scotland.

ABERDEEN  ACT,  introduced  by  the  earl  of
Aberdeen,  and  passed,  1845,  to  enforce  the  obser-
vance of  a  convention  made  with  Brazil  in  1826  to
put  down  the  slave  trade. Bepealed  in  April,  1869.

ABERDEEN  ADMINISTRATION,  called
the  Coalition  Ministry,  as  including  Whigs,  Radi-
cals, and  followers  of  sir  R.  Peel. Formed  in  con-
sequence of  the  resignation  of  the  first  Derby  ad-
ministration; sworn  in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned
30  Jan. 1855  ;  succeeded  by  the  Palmerston  ad-
ministration, which  see.
Earl  of  Aberdeen,*  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Lord  Cranworth,  lord  chancellor.
Earl  Granville,  president  of  the  council.
Duke  of  Argyll,  lord  privy  seal.
Lord  John  Russell,  t  foreign  secretary.
Viscount  Palmerston,  home  secretary.
•Duke  of  Newcastle,:]:  colonial  and  war  secretary.
William  Ewart  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  exchequer.
Sir  James  Graham,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.
Sir  Charles  Wood,  president  of  the  India  hoard.
Edward  Cardwell,  president  of  board  of  trade.
Hon.  Sidney  Herbert,  secretary-at-war.
Sir  William  Molesworth,  chief  commissioner  of  ivories.
Marquess  of  Lansdowne  (without  office).
Viscount  Canning,  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley,  right  hon,

Edward  Strutt,  &c.

ABERDEEN  PEERAGE  CASE.  George,
earl  of  Aberdeen,  grandson  of  the  premier,  suc-
ceeded his  father,  22  Mai'ch,  1864.  After  travelling
in  a  yacht,  he  became  a  merchant  seaman,  and  chief
mate  of  the  Sera  ;  he  was  drowned  27  Jan.  1870.
His  brother  John's  claim  to  the  succession  was
allowed  by  the  house  of  lords,  3  May,  1872.

ABER  EDW,  S.  Radnorshire.  Near  here
Llewelyn,  the  last  independent  prince  of  Wales,
was  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  lords  marchers,
n  Dec.  1282.  He  escaped,  but  was  betrayed  and
slain  at  Builtli.

ABERGELE  (N.  Wales),  see  Railway  Acci-
dents. 20  Aug.  1868.


*  Born  in  1784  ;  engaged  in  foreign  diplomacy,  1813  ;
became  foreign  secretary,  Jan.  1828  ;  joined  the  party  of
sir  R.  Peel,  1846  ;  died  14  Dec.  i860.

f  Lord  John  Russell  was  succeeded  as  foreign  secre-
tary by  the  earl  of  Clarendon  (Feb.  1853),  but  continued
a  member  of  the  cabinet,  without  office  ;  he  afterwards
became  president  of  the  council,  in  the  room  of  earl
Granville,  appointed  to  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  (June,
1854)-

%  In  June,  1854,  the  offices  were  separated  ;  the  duke
of  Newcastle  remained  secretary  of  war,  and  sir  George
Grey  was  made  colonial  secretary.


ABERRATION.


ABSTINENCE.


ABERRATION  of  Light  ; discovered  by

James  Bradley,  through  his  observation  of  an  ap-
parent motion  of  the  fixed  stars,  1727.

ABHORRERS,  a  name  given  in  1679  (reign
of  Charles  II.),  to  the  court-party  in  England,  the
opponents  of  the  Addressers  (afterwards  Whigs),
so  called  from  their  address  to  the  king  praying
for  the  immediate  assembly  of  the  parliament,  Avhich
was  delayed  on  account  of  its  being  adverse  to  the
court.  The  former  (afterwards  Tories)  expressed
their  abhorrence  of  those  who  endeavoured  to  en-
croach on  the  royal  prerogative,  1680.  Hume.  The
commons  expelled  several  members  for  being  Ab-
horrers,  among  them  sir  Francis  "Withens  (whom
they  sent  to  the  Tower),  and  prayed  his  majesty
to  remove  others  from  places  of  trust.  They  also
resolved,  "  that  it  is  the  undoubted  right  of  the
subject  to  petition  for  the  calling  of  a  parliament,
and  that  to  traduce  such  petitions  as  tumultuous
and  seditious,  is  to  contribute  to  the  design  of
altering  the  constitution." Oct.  1680.

ABINGDON,  BERKS-  The  ancient  monas-
tery, rebuilt  about  955,  was  surrendered  at  the
Reformation,  1  538.  The  grammar  school  was  founded
in  1563.  Population  in  1881,  6,755  ;  in  1891,  6,557.
In  1645,  loi-d  Essex  and  Waller  held  Abingdon
against  Charles  I.  The  town  was  unsuccessfully
attacked  by  sir  Stephen  Hawkins  in  1644,  and  by
prince  Rupert  in  1645.  On  these  occasions  the  de-
fenders put  every  Irish  prisoner  to  death  without
trial ;  hence  the  term  "  Abingdon  law."

ABIOGENESIS  (a,  not,  bios,  life),  a  term
given  to  spontaneous  generation  by  professor  Hux-
ley in  his  British  Association  address,  1870.

ABJURATION  of  the  pope  was  enjoined  by
statute  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Elizabeth,  and
James  I.,  and  of  certain  doctrines  of  the  church
of  Rome  by  stat.  25  Charles  II.  1673.  The  oath
of  abjuration  of  the  house  of  Stuart  was  enjoined  by
stat.  13  &  14  Will.  III.  1702  ;  the  form  was  changed
in  after  reigns.  By  21  &  22  Vict.  c.  48  (1858)  one
oath  for  the  three  oaths  of  abjuration,  allegiance,
and  supremacy  was  substituted. See  Oaths.

ABKASIA,  a  province  of  the  Caucasus,  annexed
by  Russia,  the  last  prince  Michael  Shervashiji  being
deposed :  an  insurrection  against  the  Russian  au-
thorities, 8  Aug.  1866,  was  quelled  with  much
bloodshed.

ABNEY  PARK,  see  Cemeteries.

ABO,  a  port  of  Russia,  founded  prior  to  1 157,
was  till  1809  capital  of  Swedish  Finland.  It  has
suffered  much  by  fire,  especially  in  1775  and  1827  ;
was  seized  by  the  Russians  in  Feb.  1808  ;  ceded  to
them,  17  Sept.  1809;  and  rebuilt  by  them  after  the
great  fire  in  1827.  The  university  erected  by  Gus-
tavus  Adolphus  and  Christina,  1640  et  seq.,  was
removed  to  Helsingfors,  1827.  The  peace  of  Abo,
by  which  Sweden  ceded  part  of  Finland  to  Russia,
was  signed,  18  Aug.  1743.

ABOLITIONISTS,  the  party  in  the  northern
part  of  the  United  States,  opposed  to  slavery.  They
formed  a  small  society  at  Boston  about  1832  ;  which
became  the  nucleus  of  a  great  political  party,  and
ultimately  attained  its  object  by  the  war  of  1861-4.
See  Slavery  in  United  States.

ABORIGINES  (without  origin),  a  name  given
to  the  earliest  known  inhabitants  of  Italy  (whence
came  the  Latini) ;  now  applied  to  the  original  in-
habitants of  any  country. — The  Aborigines  Protec-
tion Society  was  established  in  1838.  Reports  on
the  condition  of  the  aborigines  in  the  British  colo-
nies were  presented  to  parliament  in  1834  and  1837.


It  supported  the  case  of  the  Queen  of  Amatonga
{which  sec)  13  Dec.  1887.

ABOUKIR  (Egypt),  the  ancient  Canopus.  In
the  bay  Nelson  defeated  the  French  fleet,  1  Aug.
1798;  see  Kile.  A  Turkish  army  of  15,000  was
defeated  here  by  5000  French  under  Bonaparte,  25
Juiy>  1/99-  A  British  expedition  to  Egypt  under
geneial  sir  Ralph  Abercromby  landed  here,  and
Aboukir  surrendered  to  them  after  an  obstinate  and
sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French,  8  March,  1801 ;
see  Alexandria.

ABRAHAM,  Era  OF,  used  by  Eusebius;  so
called  from  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who  died  1822
B.C.  The  era  began  1  Oct.  2016  B.C.  To  reduce
this  era  to  the  Christian,  subtract  20W  years  and
three  months.  Nicolas.  Abraham's  \  arrival  in
Canaan  is  dated  2866  by  Bunsen,  1730- 1 700  by
Lepsius,  2153  by  Hales.

ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec,
Lower  Canada. The French were defeated  and.^
Montcalm,  their  commander,  killed  here  by  general
Wolfe,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory,  13  Sept.
1759 ;  see  Quebec.

ABRAHAMITES,  a  sect  holding  the  errors  of
Paulus,  was  suppressed  by  Cyriacus,  the  patriarch
of  Antioch,  early  in  the  ninth  century.  A  deistical
sect  of  this  name  was  banished  from  Bohemia  by
Joseph  II.  in  1783.

ABRANTES  (Portugal) .  By  a  treaty  between
France  and  Portugal,  signed  here  29  Sept.  1801,
the  war  was  closed,  and  the  French  army  withdrew;
a  money  compensation  having  been  agreed  to,  and
territories  in  Guiana  ceded  to  France.

ABSALOM'S  REBELLION  and  death
(1024 — 23  b.  c.)  is  described  2  Saw.  xv. — xix.

ABSCONDING  DEBTORS  ACT,  passed
9  Aug.  1870.

ABSENTEE  TAX  (45.  in  the  pound),  levied!
in  Ireland  in 17 15  on  the incomes  and  pensions
of  absentees  (long  complained  of),  ceased  in  1753.
A  tax  of  2S.  in  the  pound  was  proposed  in vain
by  Mr.  Flood  in  1773  and  by  Mr.  Molyneux  in  1783.
ABSOLUTION. Till  the  3rd  eentuiy,  the-
consent  of  the  congregation  was  necessary  to  abso-
lution ;  but  soon  after  the  power  was  reserved  to-
the  bishop  ;  and  in  the  12th  century  the  form  "  1
absolve  thee"  had  become  general. See Holy
Cross.

ABSTINENCE.  It  is  mythically  said  that
St.  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105  on  twelve  ounces
of  bread  and  water  daily,  and  James  the  hermit  to-
the  age  of  104;  that  St.  Epiphanius  lived  to  115  ;.
Simeon  the  Stylite  to  112.

Cicely  de  Ridgway,  said  to  have  fasted  40  days  rather-
than  plead  when  charged  with  the  murder  of  her  hus-
band John  ;  discharged  as  miraculously  saved,  1-47.
Ann  Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staffordshire,
was  said  to  have  lived  twenty  months  without  food  ';
but  her  imposture  was  detected  by  Dr.  A.  Henderscn'
Nov.  1808.
A man named  Cavanagh  at  Newry, in Ireland, was
reported to  have  lived two  years without  meat  or
drink,  Aug. 1840. His  imposture  was  discovered in
England,  where  lie  was  imprisoned  as  a  cheat,  Nov.  1841.
Sarah  Jacobs,  the  Welsh  fasting  girl,  aged  13,  said  by  her
father  to  have  lived  for  more  than  a  year  without  food,
after  being  closely  watched  for  a  week,  died  from  ex-
haustion 17  Dec.  1869. Her  parents  were  sentenced  at
Carmarthen  to  imprisonment  for  fraudulent  deception
15  July,  1870.
Dr.  Tanner,  at  New  York,  was  stated  to  have  fasted  40
days  and  nights,  drinking  a  little  water  occasionally  ;
losing  36  lb. from 157^  lb.  ;  noon  2S  June  to  noon
7  Aug.  1S80. Fraud  suspected. Still  living,  t8S6.
Mr.  Griscom,  of  Chicago,  said  to  have  fasted  36  days,
5  July,  1881.

s  2


ABU  KLEA.


ABYSSINIA.


Louise  Lateau,  Belgian  fanatic,  at  Bois  d'Haine;  said  to
have  lived  twelve  years  without  food,  died  aged  33.
Aug.  1883.

[She  had  remarkable  wounds  resembling  the  stigmata  on
the  crucifix.]

Signor  Succi,  of  Rome,  said  to  have  fasted  30  days,  1886;
fast  of  30  days,  at  Barcelona,  22  Sept.-23  Oct.  1888.
Fasted  40  days  at  Westminster  Aquarium,  17  March-
26  April,  1890.  Fast  of  42  days  by  M.  Alexandre
Jacques  at  the  same  place,  21  June-2  Aug.  1890;
again  31  July-19  Sept.  (50  days),  1891.  Succi  fasted
45  days,  at  New  York,  concluded  20  Dec.  1890  ;  at  the
Westminster  Aquarium  he  engaged  to  fast  52  days,
but  stopped  on  the  44th  day,  29  Jan.  1892.

Signor  Merlatti,  of  Paris,  alleged  to  have  fasted  50  days
drinking  water ;  in  good  health  but  greatly  emaciated,
15  Dec.  1886.

Many  other  cases  of  long  abstinence  have  been  recorded.
See  Fasts,  Teetotallers.

Abstinents,  an  ascetic  sect  in  Gaul  and  Spain  :  about
288.

ABU  KLEA,  about  120  miles  from  Khartoum.
Here  General  Sir  Herbert  Stewart  defeated  the
Mahdi's  troops,  17  Jan.  1885. See  under  Soudan.

ABYDOS,  see  Hellespont.  At  Abydos  in
Upper  Egypt  a  tablet  was  discovered  dedicated  to
the  memory  of  his  ancestors  by  Rameses  II.  (about
1322  B.C.).  It  was  bought  for  the  British  Museum,
1837.  Another  tablet  was  discovered  by  Mariette
in  1865.

ABYSSINIA,  the  country  of  the  Habese,
N.  E.  Africa.  Its  ancient  history  is  very  uncer-
tain. The  kingdom  of  the  Auxumitae  (its  chief
town  Auxume)  flourished  in  the  1st  and  2nd
centuries  after  Christ.  The  religion  of  the  Abys-
sinians  is  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Christianity  intro-
duced about  329  by  Frumentius.  About  960,
Judith,  a  Jewish  princess,  murdered  a  great  part
of  the  royal  family,  and  reigned  forty  years.  The
young  king  escaped :  and  the  royal  house  was
restored  in  1268  in  the  person  of  his  descendant
Icon  Amlac.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  said  to
be  ruled  by  Prester  John  or  Prete  Janni.  The
Portuguese  missions,  commenced  in  the  15th  cen-
•tury,  after  much  struggling  against  opposition,
were  expelled  about  1633.  The  encroachments  of
the  Gallas  and  intestine  disorders  soon  after  broke
up  the  empire  into  petty  governments.  From  the
visits  of  James  Bruce,  1768-73;  Henry  Salt,  1809-
10;  Edward  Riippell,  1834-7  ;  major  Harris,  1841 ;
Mansfield  Parkyns,  1844-7,  much  information
respecting  Abyssinia  has  been  gained.  Several
expeditions  into  Abyssinia  have  been  oi-ganised  by
the  French  government.  The  brothers  Antoine
and  Arnauld  Abbadie  visited  the  country  1837-45.
Abyssinia  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  in
1847  Ras  Ali  was  ruler  of  Amhara ;  Ras  Ubie  of
Tigre  and  Samien ;  and  Sahela  Selassie  of  Shoa.
Population  between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000.  The
ruler  of  Abyssinia  is  termed  Negus,  a  title  dating
from  the  13th  century.  The  country  is  now  some-
times styled  Ethiopia.

Treaty  of  commerce  with  the  king  of  Shoa  con-
cluded by  captain  Harris ... 16  Nov. 1841
Mr.  Plnwden  (made  British  consul  at  Massowah^
1848), concludes  treaty  with  Ras  Ali,  ruler  of

Amhara 2  Nov. 1840

Ras  Ali  deposed  by  his  son-in-law  Theodore,  who
is  crowned,  and  takes  the  title  of  negus,  or  kino-

of  kings „  Feb?

Protestant  missionaries  received,  replacing  Roman

catholics

Mr.  Plowden  (who  had  joined  the  party  of  Theo-
dore) killed  by  rebels,  Feb.  ;  his  friend  Bell
killed  soon  after,  when  avenging  him  ;  Theodore
overcomes  the  rebels  and  massacres  about  150
prisoners  as  a  sacrifice  to  their  manes
Captain  C.  D.  Cameron  appointed  to  succeed  con-
sul Plowden Nov.


1855


He  arrived  at  Massowah  9  Feb.  1862,  goes  to  Abys-
sinia, May ;  received  by  Theodore,  7  Oct.  ;  is
sent  away  with  a  letter  for  the  queen,  desiring
alliance against the Turks ; which arrived

12  Feb.
It  is  decided  that  this  letter  is  not  to  be  answered  ;
Cameron,  ordered  by  earl  Russell  to  remain  at
Massowah,  returns  to  Abyssinia . . June,
Rev.  H.  Stern,  missionary,  beaten  and  imprisoned
for  alleged  intrusion  upon  Theodore . Oct.
Cameron,  and  all  British  subjects  and  missionaries,
imprisoned  for  pretended  insults,  3  Jan. ;  report
of  imprisonment  reached  London  7  May ;  pri-
soners sent  to  Magdala,  and  chained  like  crimi-
nals Nov.

Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  a  Chaldee  Christian,  first
assistant  British  political  resident  at  Aden,  sent
on  mission  to  Abyssinia  ;  arrives  at  Massowah,  24
July;  lieut.  Prideaux  and  Dr.  Blanc  appointed

to  accompany  him

Mr.  Rassam  having  negotiated  without  effect  for  a
year,  Mr.  Gifford  Palgrave  is  appointed  by  earl
Russell  to  go  to  Abyssinia,  July  ;  but  is  stopped
on  the  intelligence'  that  Theodore  has  invited
Rassam  to  come  to  him . . .12  Aug.
Mr.  Rassam,  lieut.  Prideaux,  and  Dr.  Blanc  arrive
at  Matemma  from  Massowah,  21  Nov.  1865  ;  and
are  well  received  by  Theodore  . . 28  Jan.
Prisoners  released,  12  March;  all  seized  and  im-
prisoned .... about  13  April,
Mr.  Flad  sent  to  England  by  Theodore  to  obtain
British workmen,  April ; arrives,  July  ;  intro-
duced to  queen  Victoria,  and  receives  from  her
an  autograph  letter,  dated ... 4  Oct.
Mr.  Flad  returned  with  workmen  to  Massowah,
29  Oct.  ; Theodore  received  the  queen's  letter
about  19  Dec.
Lord  Stanley's  ultimatum  to  Theodore,  demand-
ing release  of  the  captives  in  three  months  (not

received),  sent 16  April,

Mr.  Flad  received  by  the  king  ;  and  made  to  join

his  family  in  prison .... May,

Preparations  for  war  ;  sir  Robert  Napier  appointed

commander  of  an  expedition  ;  pioneer  force  sails

from  Bombay 14  Sept.

A  formal  letter  from  the  British  government  sent

to  Theodore  (never  arrived) . .  9  Sept.

Advanced  brigade (3500) sail from  Bombay, 7,

8  Oct.  ;  land  at  Zoulla .... 21  Oct.

Napier's  proclamation  issued  in  Abyssinia, 26  Oct.

Captives  at  Magdala  reported  well . 11  Nov.

Report that  the  Gallas have  joined the revolt

against  Theodore ....  25  Nov.

The  British  parliament  meets  ;  the  queen's  speech'

announces  the  war,  19  Nov.  ;  2,000,000?.  voted,

26,  27  Nov.
Third  ultimatum  sent  by sir R. Napier ; inter-
cepted by  a  rebel  chief  and  given  to  Mr.  Rassam,
who  suppressed  it  as  likely  to  endanger  the  lives

of  the  captives

Arrival  of  sir  R.  Napier  at  Annesley  bay  4  Jan.
The  captives  relieved  of  their  chains  .  29  March,
Sir  R.  Napier  arrives  below  Magdala  .  2  April,
Theodore massacres about 300  native  prisoners

9  April,

Battle  of  Arogee  ; Theodore's  troops  attack the

British first brigade  ; defeated with much

slaughter  (Good  Friday)  . . 10  April,

Theodore  requests  Mr.  Rassam  to  mediate  ;  lieut.

Prideaux,  sent  to  sir  R. Napier,  returns  with  a

letter ; Theodore  receives it  indignantly, and

sends  an  insulting  reply . . . n  April,

Theodore  sends  a  letter  of  apology  offering  a  present

of  cattle  ;  Mr.  Rassam  understanding  this  present

to  have  been  accepted,  tells  the  king's  agents  ;

the  European  artisans  and  families  sent  to  the

British  camp 12  April,

Part  of  the  Abyssinian  troops  mutiny  :  Magdala
bombarded  and  stormed  ;  Theodore  kills  him-
self 13  April,

["  I  fail  to  discover  a  single  point  of  view  from
which  it  is  possible  to  regard  his  removal  with  re-
gret."— Sir  R.  Napier ....  18  June,]
Magdala  burnt  to  the  ground . . . 17  April,
Death  of  Theodore's  queen  . . .10  May,

Henry  Dufton  of  the  "  Intelligence  department"
shot  by  Shosho  robbers . . . .28  May,


1863


ABYSSINIAN  EEA.


ACADEMIES.


Immediate  return  of  the  troops  ; — all  had  embarked,

2  June, 1868

Troops  arrive  at  Plymouth,  21  June  ;  sir  R.  Napier
at  Dover 2  July, ,,

[Cattle  said  to  have  been  employed  in  the  expedi-
tion :  45  elephants,  7417  camels,  12,920  mules
and  ponies,  7033  bullocks,  827  donkeys.  Natives
largely  employed  in  the  transport  service.]

Theodore's  son  Alamayou,  aged  7,  arrives  at  Ply-
mouth,  14  July; presented  to  queen  Victoria,

16  July, ,,

Pension  of  350?.  to  col.  Cameron  [he  died  30  May,
1870]  ;  5000?.  given  to  Mr.  Rassam  ;  2000?.  to  Dr.
Blanc  ; 2000Z. to lieut. Prideaux  ;  announced

23  Dec. ,,

Prince  Alamayou  sailed  to  India  for  education  (re-
turned to  England  end  of  1871) . . 26  Jan. 1869

Expenses  of  the  war :  5,000,000?.  voted  18  Dec.
1868  ;  3,300,000?.  more  voted  . . 4  Mar. „

[Total:  8,977,500?.  Feb.  1880.]

Report  of  a  commission  on  the  expenses  of  the  ex-
pedition disclosed  much  waste,  attributed  to
urgency  and  divided  authority .  .  Aug. 1870

War  between  Gobazye,  king  of  Amhara  and  Kassa,
kingofTigre;  Kassa  victor . . .  21  June, 1871

Gobazye  beaten  and  taken  prisoner . 11  July, ,,

Kassa  proposes  to  be  crowned  emperor  and  negus
of  all  Abyssinia,  21  Nov.  ;  punishes  the  Catholic
missionaries  for  partisanship ;  and  forms  alliance
with  Egypt July, ,,

Kassa  crowned  at  Axum  as  Johanni  II. 12  Jan. 1872

Said  to  be  ruling  tyrannically  .... 1873-4

War  with  Egypt  ;  the  khedive's  troops  enter  Abys-
sinia ;  the  natives  retire,  but  surprise  and  defeat
the  Egyptians  at  Kherad  Iska(a  massacre),  and  at
Gonda  Gouddi  (a  desperate  fight) . 16  Oct. 1875

Abyssinians  defeated  in  three  days'  conflict,

17-19  Feb, 1876

Col.  Gordon  said  to  be  negotiating  peace  for  Egypt,

June,  1877

King  Johanni  totally  defeats  Menelek,  king  of  Shoa,

middle  of  June, ,,

Menelek  submits,  permitted  to  rule ; — reported  great
battle  ;  Menelek  said  to  be  killed  . 17  Sept. „

Col.  Gordon  concludes  peace  ;  Abyssinia  to  have  a
port Oct. 1879

Prince  Alamayou  dies  at  Leeds,  14  Nov.,  buried  at
Windsor „

King  Johanni  receives  adm.  Hewett  from  Souakim,
and  signs  a  treaty  respecting  Massowah,  &c.  about

26  May  1884

Two  Abyssinian  envoys  arrive  at  Plymouth  19  Aug. ,,

Received  by  the  queen .... 20  Aug. „

Start  on  return n  Sept. ,,

Captain  Harrison  Smith,  British  agent,  wellreceived
by  king  Johanni 19  May,  1886

For  disputes  with  Italy  see  Massowah.

Mr.  Portal,  and  a  Mission  from  queen  Victoria  to
mediate  between  Italy  and  Abyssinia  (see  Mas-
sowah) received  by  the  king,  after  much  delay  ;
without  effect 10-16  Dec.  1887

The  Italians  march  to  Saati  to  form  a  camp,
announced 1  Feb.  1888

Abyssinians  defeated  in  a  skirmish . . 6  Feb. „

Slight  beginning  of  actual  hostilities,  4  March ;
slight  firing  near  Saati,  28  March ;  the  Negus
through  deficiency  in  commissariat,  &c,  sues  for
peace ;  two  chiefs  sent  to  general  San  Marzano

29  March, „

The  negus  refuses  the  terms  and  retires  . 2  April ,,

The  Italian  troops  return  to  Italy  13  April  et  seq. ,,

Rebellion  of  Menelek,  king  of  Shoa,  against  king
John Dec. „

The  Negus  is  stated  to  have  been  defeated  in  his
attack  on  the  dervishes,  10  March  ;  and  to  have
been  attacked  and  killed  by  them  12  March  1889

Mission  from  Menelek,  king  of  Shoa,  with  presents,
received  by  king  Humbert,  28  Aug.  ;  the  treaty
between  Italy  and Abyssinia  (2  May>  ratified,

2  Oct. „

Menelek  crowned  negus  of  Abyssinia . 3  Nov. ,,

Protectorate  of  Italy  over  Abyssinia  accepted  and
announced i4  Oct. „

The  Italian  National  Bank  agree  to  lend  Menelek
4,000,000  francs 26  Oct. „

Ras  Mangaseia  and  other  opponents  of  Menelek
defeated Nov.- Dec. ,,


Gen. Orero, on  behalf  of Menelek, marches on

Adua,  and  is  warmly  received . . 27  Jan.  1890
Submission of Degiac Mangaseia  announced at
Adowa,  17  March  ;  lie  meets  count  Antonelli  at

Adowa 16  May ,,

Friendly  communications  from  the negus Mene-
lek to  king  Humbert . . . about  1  Jan.  1891
Count  Antonelli  visits  the  negus  in  relation  to  the
treaty  ;  count  leaves,  n  Feb. ;  the  negus  writes

to  king  Humbert March ,,

The  chief  Debeb  defeated  and  killed  by  the  chiefs

Mangaseia  and  Ras  Alula . . -29  Sept. ,,
King  Menelek's  present  of  two  tame  lions  and  a
decoration  received  by  president  Carnot  at  Paris

Dec.  „
ABYSSINIAN  EEA  is  reckoned  from  the
creation,  which  the  Abyssinians  place  in  the  5493rd
year  B.C.,  on  29  Aug.  old  style;  their  dates
consequently  exceed  ours  by  5492  years,  125  days.
To  reduce  Abyssinian  time  to  the  Julian  year,  sub-
tract 5492  years,  125  days.

ACACIANS-  I-  Followers  of  Acacius,  bishop
of  Csesarea,  in  the  fourth  century,  who  held  pe-
culiar doctrines  respecting  the  nature  of  Christ.
2.  Partisans  of  Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constanti-
nople, promoter  of  the  Henoticon  (which  see),
482-4.

ACADEMICAL  STUDY,  see  Education  >
1872.

ACADEMIES-  Academia,  a  shady  grove
without  the  walls  of  Athens,  said  to  have  belonged
to  the  hero  Academus,  was  adorned  with  statues  by
Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  and  adapted  for  gym-
nastic exercises.  Here  Plato,  428-389  B.C.,  first
taught  philosophy,  and  his  followers  took  the  title
of  Academics.  —Rome  had  no  academies^* — Ptolemy
Soter  is  said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alex-
andria, about  314  B.C.  Abderahinan  I.,  caliph  of
Spain,  founded  academies  about  a.d.  773-  Theo-
dosius  the  Younger,  Charlemagne,  and  Alfred  are
also  named  as  founders  of  academies.  Italy  is
celebrated  for  its  academies ;  and  Jarckius  men-
tions 550,  of  which  25  were  in  Milan.  In  1874
Girolamo  Ponti,  of  Milan,  bequeathed  about  35,000/.
to  the  academies  of  science  of  London,  Paris,  and
Vienna. Many  of  the  following  dates  are  doubtful.

PRINCIPAL  ACADEMIES.

American  Academy  of  Sciences,  Boston,  1780.

Ancona,  of  the  Caliginosi,  1642.

Basil,  1460.

Berlin,  Royal, 1700 ; of  Princes, 1703 ; Architecture,

1799.
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687  ; Mathematics, 1690  ;

Sciences  and  Arts,  1712.
Brescia,  of  the  Erranti,  1626.
Brest  and  Toulon,  Military,  1682.
Brussels,  Belles  Lettres,  1773.
Caen,  Belles  Lettres,  1705.
Copenhagen,  of  Sciences,  1743.
Cortona,  Antiquities,  1726.

Dublin,  Arts,  1742  ;  Painting,  Sculpture,  &c,  1823.
Erfurt,  Saxony,  Sciences,  1754.
Faenza,  the  Philoponi,  1612.
Florence,  Belles  Lettres,  1272  ;  Delia  Crusca  (now  united

with  the  Florentine,  and  merged  under  that name),

1582 ; Del  Cimento, 1657  (by cardinal de'  Medici)

Antiquities,  1807.
Geneva,  Medical,  1715.
Genoa,  Painting,  <fco. ,  1751  ;  Sciences,  1783.
Germany,  Natu/rce  Curiosi,  now  Leopoldine,  1662.
Gottingen,  1734-7.
Haarlem,  the  Sciences,  1760.
Irish  Academy,  Royal,  Dublin,  1782.
Lisbon,  History,  1720;  Sciences,  1779.
London  ; see  London  and  Societies. Royal  Academy  of

Fine Arts,  1768;  of  Music,  1734-43  and  1822.
Lyons,  Sciences,  17 10  ;  Physic  and  Mathematics  added,

I75S-

*  Cicero  termed  his  villa  "  Academia,"  and  here  com-
posed his  "Academic  Questions."


ACADIA.


ACEPHALI.


mother  (as  a  Protestant)  iu  the  event  of  queen  Anne
dying  without  issue.

ACCESSORIES  TO  CRIMES.  The  law  re-
specting them  consolidated  and  amended  in  1861.

ACCIDENTS,  see  under  Coal,  Fires,  Railways,
&e.  For  compensation  for  accidents,  see  Camp-
bell's  Acts  and  Passengers.  In  1869,  it  was  com-
puted that,  in  one  year,  about  192  persons  are
killed,  and  1200  injured,  in  the  streets  of  London  ;
231  were  killed  in  1875;  237  killed,  3185  injured,
1  Jan.  1878 — 31  Jan.  1879.  163  killed  in  18795252
in  1881.

Accident  Relief  Society,  London,  established  1836.
Society  for  Preventing  Street  Accidents  and  Dangerous
Driving,  formed  in  1879  ; met  at  the  Mansion  House,
London,  30  Jan.  1880;  wound  up,  1  July,  1881.

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.


Madrid,  the  Royal  Spanish,  1713  ;  History,  1730  ;  Paint-
ing and  the  Arts,  1753.

Manheim,  Sciences,  1755  ;  Sculpture,  1775.

Mantua,  the  Vigilanti,  Sciences,  1704.

Marseilles,  Belles  Lettres,  1726.

Massachusetts,  Arts*  and  Sciences,  1780.

Milan,  Architecture,  1380  ;  Sciences,  1719.

Munich,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1759  ;  Sciences,  1779.

Naples,  Rossana,  1540 ;  Mathematics,  1560 ;  Sciences,
1695  ;  Hermtlaneum,  1755.

New  York,  Literature  and  Philosophy,  1814.

Nismes,  Royal  Academy,  1682.

Padua,  for  Poetry,  1613  ;  Sciences,  1792.

Palermo,  Medical,  1645.

Paris,  Sorbonne,  1253  ;  Painting,  1391  ;  Music,  1543  and
1671  ;  French  (by  Richelieu),  1635  ;  Fine  Arts,  1648  ;
Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres  (by  Colbert),  1663;  Sciences
(by  Colbert),  1666  ;  Architecture,  1671  ;  Surgery,  1731;
Military,  1751  ;  Natural  Philosophy,  1796,  see  Institute.

Parma,  the  Innominati,  1550.

Perousa,  Insensati,  1561  ;  Filigirti,  1574.

Philadelphia,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1749.

Portsmouth,  Naval,  1722  ;  enlarged,  1806.

Rome,  Umoristi,  161 1  ;  Fantasticl,  1625  ;  Infecondi,  1653
Painting,  1665  ;  Arcadi,  1690  ;  English,  1752  ;  Lincei,
about  1600  ;  Nuovi  Lincei,  1847.

Sandhurst,  Military,  1822.

St.  Petersburg,  Sciences,  1725  ;  Military,  1732 ;  the  School
of  Arts,  1764.

Stockholm,  of  Science,  1741  ;  Belles  Lettres,  1753  ;  Agri-
culture, 1 78 1 ;  Royal  Swedish,  1786.

Toulon,  Military,  1682.

Turin,  Sciences,  about  1759  ;  Fine  Arts,  1778.

Turkey,  Military  School,  1775.

Upsal,  Royal  Society,  Sciences,  1720.

Venice,  Medical,  <fec,  1701.

Verona,  Music,  1543  ;  Sciences,  1780.

Vienna,  Sculpture  and  the  Arts,  1705  ;  Surgery,  1783  ;
Oriental,  1810.

Warsaw,  Languages,  and  History,  1753.

Washington,  United  States,  America,  1863.

Woolwich,  Military,  1741.

ACADIA,  see  Nova  Scotia.

ACANTHUS,  the  foliage  forming  the  volutes
of  the  Corinthian  capital,  ascribed  to  Callimachus,
about  540  B.C.

ACAPULCO,  Mexico.  A  Spanish  galleon,
jfrom  Acapulco,  laden  with  gold  and  precious  wares
(estimated  at  above  1,000,0001?.  sterling),  taken  by
commodore  Anson,  who  had  previously  acquired
booty  in  his  voyage  amounting  to  600,000/.,  June,
1743.  He  arrived  at  Spithead  in  the  Centurion,
having  circumnavigated  the  globe,  15  June,  1744.

ACARNANIA,  N.  Greece.  The  people  be-
came prominent  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  having
invited  the  help  of  the  Athenians  against  the  Am-
bracians,  432  h.c.  The  Acarnanians  were  subdued
l)y  the  Lacedaemonians  in  390 ;  they  took  part
-with  Macedon  against  the  Romans  in  200,  by  whom
they  were  defeated  in  197,  and  subjugated  in  145-

ACCADIANS,  a  name  now  given  to  the  primi-
tive inhabitants  of  baby  Ion.  The  rev.  A.  H.
Sayco  (1877)  considers  them  to  have  been  the  earliest
•civilisers  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  the  source  of  the  phi-
losophy and  arts  of  the  Assyrians  and  Phoenicians,
And  hence  of  Greece.  Their  libraries  are  said  to
iiave  existed  seventeen  centuries  B.C.

ACCENTS  were  first  introduced  in  the  Greek
language  by  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  a  gram-
marian and  critic  who  taught  at  Alexandria  about
264  B.C.  Accents  were  first  used  by  the  French  in
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  (about  1610).

ACCESSION,  THE,  i.e.,  that  of  the  House  of
Hanover  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  in  the
person  of  George  I.,  elector  of  Hanover,  son  of
Sophia,  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.
He  succeeded,  I  Aug.  1714,  by  virtue  of  the  act  of
settlement  passed  in  the  reign  of  William  III.,
12  June,  1701,  which limited  the  succession  to  his


1856,  9716

1857,  8930

1858,  8947

1859,  924i
i860,  9225
1861,  9213
T862,  9005
T863,  9952

864,  10,997


1865,  11,397

1866,  11,262

1867,  11,172

1868,  11,033

1869,  10,725

1870,  10,906

1871,  11,316

1872,  n,435

1873,  11,284


1874,

".783

187s.

12,254

1876,

11,681

1877,

11,194

1878,

12,108

1879,

10,787

1880,

10,807

1881,

I I , 404

1882,

11,269

",539

n>549
11,149
11,003
11,98--
n>556
10,513
11,322


ACCLIMATISATION  of  Animals.  This
has  been  prosecuted  with  great  vigour  since  the
establishment  of  the  Zoological  society  of  London
in  1829,  and  of  the  Societe  d'Aeclimatation  in  Paris.
Numbers  of  European  animals  have  been  naturalised
in  Australia;  the  camel  has  been  conveyed  to  Brazil
(1859) ;  alpacas  are  bred  at  Paris  ;  and  ostriches  in
Italy  (1859).  On  6  Oct.  i860,  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,
near  Paris,  was  opened  as  a  zoological  garden,  con-
taining only  acclimatised  animals.  An  English  ac-
climatisation society  was  founded  10  June,  i860,  by
hon.  Grantley  Berkeley,  Mr.  J.  Crockford,  Mr.  F.
Buckland,  &c,  and  the  prince  of  Wales  became  pre-
sident in  April,  1865.  It  was  not  successful.  An
acclimatising  garden  was  established  at  Melbourne,
Australia,  in  Feb.  1861,  and  efforts  made  to  natu-
ralise English  birds,  fishes,  &c. See  Fish.

ACCOLTELLATORI  (gladiators),  secret
assassins,  at  Eavenna  and  other  places  in  Italy,  1874.

ACCORDION,  a  small  free-reed  wind-instru-
ment with  keys,  invented  at  Vienna  by  Damian
about  1829,  and  soon  after  introduced  into  England.

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL  in  Chan-
cery, &c,  an  office  instituted  in  1726,  and  abolished
by  an  act  passed  6  Aug.  1872.  In  1841,  the  office
of  accountant-general  of  the  court  of  exchequer  was
abolished,  and  the  duties  transferred  to  the  account-
ant in  chancery.

ACCOUNTANTS'  Institute, established

at  a  meeting,  30  July,  1870 ;  the  Accountants'
Society  in  1872.  Five  societies  were  incorporated
as  "The  Chartered  Institute  of  Accountants  of
England  and  Wales,"  in  1880.

ACCUSERS-  By  occult  writers,  such  as
Agrippa,  accusers  are  the  eighth  order  of  devils,
whose  chief  is  called  Asteroth,  or  Spy.  In  Revela-
tion, ch.  xii.  10,  the  devil  is  called  "the  accuser  of
the  brethren." — False  accusers  were  to  be  hanged,
by  24  Henry  VI.  1446 ;  and  burnt  in  the  face  with
an  F,  by  37  Henry  VIII.  1545. Stow.

ACEPHALI  (Greek  a ,  no ;  cephale,  head),  a
term  applied  to  certain  sects  who  resisted  their
bishops  and  met  privately,  about  450;  and  also  in
canon  law  applied  to  such  bishops,  clerks,  monks,
&c,  as  claim  or  enjoy  independence  of  the  jurisdic-
tion of  the  ordinary  or  metropolitan.


ACETYLENE.


ACOUSTICS.


ACETYLENE,  a  luminous  hydrocarbon  gas
resembling  coal  gas,  discovered  by  Berthelot,  and
made  known  in  1862.

ACHAIA  (N.  Peloponnesus),  Greece,  settled
by  the  Achaei,  reputed  descendants  of  Achaeus,  the
son  of  Xuthus.  The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon
or  subject  to  the  ^Etolians  until  about  284  u.c.
The  Acnaji  originally  inhabited  the  neighbourhood
of  Argos ;  but  when  the  HeraclidEe  drove  them
thence,  they  retired  among  the  lonians,  expelled
the  natives,  and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.
Pellene,  JSgira,  iEgium,  Bura,  Tritsea,  Leontium,
Jthypes,  Cerynea,  Oleuos,  Helice,  Patne,  Lyme,  and
Pharse,  forming  the  Achaean  League.

Achaia  invaded  by  Epaminondas  .  .  .B.C.  366
The  Ach^an  league  revived  by  four  cities  about

280,  and  by  others 275,  274

Aratus  male  praetor 245

The  league  joined  by  Corinth  (captured  243),  Megara,
<&c. ........ 242 — 228

Supported  by  Athens  and  Antigonus  Doson . . 229
The  Achajans  defeated  at  Laddcea,  by  the  Spartans,
under  Cleomenes  III.,  226  ;  totally  defeat  them  at

Sellasia 221

The  Social  war  begun ;  battle  of  Caphyse  in  Arcadia  ;
Aratus  defeated  ........ 220

The  Peloponnesus  ravaged  by  the  iEtolians . .219

Peace  of  Naupactus 217

Aratus  poisoned  at  iEgium 213

Philopcemen,  leader  of  the  league,  defeats  the  Spartan

tyrant  Maehanidas ." 208

Alliance  of  the  league  with  the  Romans  .  .  .  198
Philopoemen  defeated  by  Nabis  in  a  naval  battle  .  194
All  the  Peloponnesus  joins  the  league  .  .  .  191
War  with  Messene  :  Philopoemen  made  prison  ir  and

slain ■ 183

The  Achseans  overran  Messeuia  with  fire  and  sword  182
The  Romans  enter  Achaia,  and  carry  off  numbers,

including  Polybius  the  historian .... 165
War  with  Rome,  150  ;  Metelius  enters  Greece . . 147
The  Aehwans  defeated  by  Mummius  at  Leucopetra,
■ 147  ;  the  league  dissolved  ;  Corinth  taken  ;  Greece
subjected  to  Rome,  and  named  the  province  of

Achaia 146

Achaia  made  a  Latin  principality  by  William  of

. Champlitte a.d. 1205

Obtained  by  Geoffrey  Villehar  louin,  1210  ;  -by  Geof-
frey II 1218

By  his  brother  William,  1246  ;  who conquers  the
Moors,  1248;  makes  war  with  the  emperor  Michael,
1259  ;  and  gains  three  fortresses ....  1262
Succeeded  by  Isabella,  1277 ;  who  marries  Florenz  of

Hainault 1291

Their  daughter  Maud,  princess,  13 1 1 ;  thrice  married  ;
forcibly  married  to  John  de  Gravina,  and  dies  in

prison 1324

Achaia,  a  fief  of  Naples  ....  1246 — 1430
Conquered  by  the  Turks .... about  1540

ACHEEN", capital of  a kingdom N.W. of

Sumatra, was  visited  by the Portuguese about

1509. Factories  were  set  up  here  by  the  Dutch,

1590;  by  the  English,  1602;  by  the  French,  1621.

For  the  war  with  the  Dutch,  see  Sumatra.

The  Nlsero  of  Sunderland,  with  sugar  from  Sourabaya,
stranded  on  territory  of  the  chief  of  Pangah,  a  Malay
dependent  of  Tuku  Imam  Muda,  the  rajah  of  Tenom,
subject  to  the  sultan  of  Acheen,  16  Nov.  1383.

t8  British  and  6  foreign  sailors  made  prisoners  ;  the
captain  released  to  negotiate  ;  efforts  to  obtain  their
release,  by warlike attacks  and  proffered ransom,

.  ineffectual;  the  Dutch  storm  Tenom,  but  prisoners
carried  off,  7  Jan.  1884.

H.M.S.  Pegasus  sent  there.  The  rajah  demands  free
trade,  and  desires  subjection  to  Great  Britain.  Earl
Granville  recommends  conciliation  to  the  Dutch
government,  ami  juueed  May,  1884.  See  under  Mansion
House.

Eighteen  prisoners  released  11  Sept.,  arrived  in  the
Thames,  26  Oct.  1884.

'The  natives  attacking  the  Dutch  garrison  defeated  ;  160
killed,  reported  15  May  ;  another  engagement  in  which
the  Dutch  lose,  19  killed  ;  reported  2  Aug.  1889.

The  Dutch  repulsed  at  Benting,  near  Edi,  14  May,  1890;


successful  in  conflicts  about  11-13  June. War  con-
tinues ;  reported  1891-2.

ACHONRY,  SLIGO  (N.  Ireland),  a  bishopric
founded  by  St.  Finian,  who  erected  the  church  of
Achad,  or  Achonry,  about  520,  and  conferred  it  on
his  disciple  Nathy  (Lathy,  or  David),  the  first
bishop.  The  see,  held  with  Killala,  since  1612,  was
united  with  Tuam  in  1834.

ACHROMATIC  TELESCOPES,  in  which
colour  is  got  rid  of,  were  invented  by  John  Dollond,
and  described  in  Phil.  Trans,  of  the  Royal  Society,
London,  1753-8.

ACIDS  (now  denned  as  salts  of  hydrogen)  are
generally  soluble  in  water,  redden  organic  blues,
decompose  carbonates,  and  destroy  the  properties  of
alkalies,  forming  alkaline  salts.  The  number  of
acids  was  increased  by  the  Arabs ;  Geber  (8th  cen-
tury) knew  nitric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  Theories
of  the  constitution  of  acids  were  put  forth  by  Becher
(1669),  Lemery  (1675),  and  Stahl  (1723).  Afterthe
discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley,  1  Aug.  1774,
Lavoisier  (1778),  concluded  that  oxygen  was  a  con-
stituent of  all  acids;  but  about  1810  Davy,  Gay-
Lussac,  and  others,  proved  the  existence  of  acids
free  from  oxygen.  In  1816  Dulong  proposed  the
binary  or  hydrogen  theory  of  acids,  and  in  1837
Liebig  applied  the  theories  of  Davy  and  Dulong  to
explain  the  constitution  of  several  organic  acids.
Oxygen  acids  were  termed  anhydrides  by  Gerhardt
(died  1856).  Many  acids  have  been  discovered
through  tue  advance  of  organic  chemistry. Watts.

ACOLYTES,  an  inferior  order  of  clergy  in  the
Latin  church,  unknown  to  the  Greek  church  for
four  hundred  years  after  Christ.

ACOUSTICS  (from  akouo,  Greek,  I  hear),  the
science  of  sound,  so  named  by  Sauveur  in  the  17th
century.  The  formation  of  sound  in  the  air  by  the
vibrations  of  the  atmosphere,  strings,  &c,  was  ex-
plained by  Pythagoras  about  500  B.C.,  and  by  Aris-
totle, 330  B.C.  See  Telephone,  Microphone,  Mega-
phone.

The  speaking  trumpet  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alex-
ander the  Great,  335  B.C.

Galileo's  discoveries,  about  a.d.  1600.

His  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  demonstrated  by  Dr.
Brook  Taylor,  in  1714  ;  further  perfected  by  D'Alembert,
Euler,  Bernouilli,  and  La  Grange,  at  various  periods  of
the  eighteenth  century.

Hooke  calculated  the  vibration  of  sounds  by  the  striking
of  the  teeth  of  brass  wheels,  1681.

Sauveur  determined  the  number  of  vibrations  belonging
to  a  given  note,  about  1700.

Velocity  of  sound  said  to  be  1473  feet  in  a  second,  by
Gassendi ;  1172  feet  by  Cassini,  Reiner,  and  others  ;
968  feet  by  Newton  ;  1090  feet,  at  the  temperature  of
32°  Fahrenheit,  by  Tyndall ;  the  velocity  increases  with
the  rise  of  temperature.

Chladni  (who  raised  acoustics  to  an  independent  science)
published  his  important  discoveries  on  the  figures  pro-
duced in  layers  of  sand  by  harmonic  chords,  <fcc,  in
1787,  and  since.

Cagniard-Latour  invented  the  Sirene  (which  see),  1S19.

Savart  determined  the  range  of  the  perception  of  the
human  ear  to  be  from  7  to  24,000  vibrations  a  second,
1830.

Biot,  Savart,  Wheatstone,  Lissajous,  Helmholtz,  Tyndall,
lord  Rayleigh,  and  others  in  the  present  century  have
greatly  increased  our  knowledge  of  acoustics.

Over-tones,  harmonics,  well  investigated  by  Helmholtz  ;
under-toues  by  Auerbaeh,  1878.

Tyndall's  experiments  off  the  South  Foreland  on  fog-
signals  and  gun-cotton,  detn  mstrated  that  the  trans-
mission of  sound  is  checked  by  the  non-homogeneity
of  the  air,  independently  of  fog  and  rain,  July,  1873.

The  results  of  Tyndall's  experiments  showed,  that  the
parabolic-muzzle  gun  with  gun-cotton,  and  tint  of
sir  Richard  Collinson's  Run-cotton  roeket,  are  very-
effective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with


ACEE.


ACTS  OF  PAELIAMENT.


howitzers  is  the  best  sound-producer ;  pebble  powder
the  worst,  1874-7.
Sound  produced  by  electricity,  light,  and  from  radiant

heat,  see  Telephone  and  Photophone,  1881.
Mr. A. Stroh exhibits the  attraction and repulsion
(resembliug  magnetic) produced  by  sonorous  vibra-
tions in  tubes  to  the  Telegraph  Engineers,  27  April,
1882.

ACEE,  a  land  measure,  formerly  of  uncertain
quantity,  and  differing  in  various  parts  of  the
country,  was  reduced  to  a  standard  by  Edward  I.,
about  1305.  In  1824  the  standard  acre  was  ordered
by  statute  to  contain  4840  square  yards.

ACEE,  Acca,  anciently  Ptolemais,  in  Syria,  was
taken  by  the  Saracens  in  638 ;  by  the  crusaders
under  Baldwin  I.  in  1104  ;  by  Saladin  in  1187  ;  and
again  by  Richard  I.  and  other  crusaders,  12  July,
1 191,  after  a  siege  of  2  years,  with  a  loss  of  6  arch-
bishops, 12  bishops,  40  earls,  500  barons,  and  300,000
soldiers.  It  was  then  named  St.  Jean  d' Acre.  It
was  retaken  by  the  Saracens  in  1291,  when  60,000
Christians  perished,  and  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled
their  faces,  were  put  to  death.  Acre  was  gal-
lantly defended  by  Djezzar  Pacha  against  Bona-
parte, till  relieved  by  sir  Sidney  Smith,  who
resisted  twelve  attempts  by  the  French,  between
16  March  and  20  May,  1799,  when  Bonaparte
retreated.  Acre,  as  a  Turkish  pachalic,  was  seized
27  May,  1832,  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  had  revolted.
On  3  Nov.  1840,  it  was  stormed  by  the  allied  fleet
under  sir  Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after  a  bom-
bardment of  a  few  hours,  the  Egyptians  losing  up-
wards of  2000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000
prisoners,  while  the  British  had  but  12  killed  and
42  wounded  ;  see  Syria  and  Turkey.

ACEOPOLIS,  the  ancient  citadel  of  Athens,
built  on  a  rock.  Near  it  stood  the  temple  of
Minerva,  the  Parthenon,  which  see.  Other  cities
had  similar  fortresses.

ACEOSTIC,  a  poem  in  which  the  first  or  last
letters  of  each  line,  i~ead  downwards,  form  a  word
or  sentence,  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by
Porphyrius  Optalianus  in  the  4th  century.  Double
acrostics  became  very  popular  in  1867.

ACS  OR  ACZ  (Hungary).  The  Hungarians
under  Gorgey  were  defeated  here  by  the  Austrians
and  Russians,  on  2  and  10  July,  1849.

ACT  OF SETTLEMENT,  &c.  ; see Accession,
Succession,  Supremacy,  and  Uniformity  Acts.
The  Act  of  Settlement  passed  in  1662,  which  secured  to
various  persons  the  possession  of  forfeited  estates  of
Irish  rebels,  was  repealed  by  acclamation  by  the  Parlia-
ment summoned  by  James  II.  in  May,  1689,  and  much
confiscation  of  the  property  of  Protestants  ensued.
The  act  was  restored  by  William  III.  1690.
ACTA  DIUENA ;  see  Newspapers.
ACTA  SANCTOEUM  ("acts of  the  saints"),
a  work  begun  by  the  Jesuits. The  first  volume  ap-
peared in  1643 :  the  publication  was  interrupted  in
1794,  when  54  volumes,  bringing  the  work  down  to
15  October,  had  been  published. The  work  was  re-
sumed by  the  Jesuits  in  1837,  and  6  more  volumes
had  been  published in 1867. The writers have
been  named  Bollandists,  from  John  Bolland,  who
published  the  first  two  volumes.

ACTINOMETEE,  an  instrument  to  measure
the  heating  power  of  the  solar  rays,  invented  by
sir  John  F.  Herschel,  and  described  by  him  in  1825.
Others  have  since  been  invented. See  Sun.

ACTIUM,  a  promontory  of  Acarnania,  W.
Greece,  near  which  was  fought,  2  or  3  Sept.  31  B.C.,
the  battle  between  the  fleet  of  Octavius  Coesar,  and
that  of  Marc  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  which  decided
the  fate  of  Antony ;  300  of  his  galleys  going  over  to


Ceesar.  This  victory  made  Octavius  master  of  the
world,  and  the  Roman  empire  is  commonly  dated
I  Jan.  30  B.C.  (the  Actian  Era).  The  conqueror
built  Nicopolis  (the  city  of  victory),  and  instituted
the  Actian  games.

ACTON  BITENEL,  or  Shrewsbury.  At  the
parliament  held  here  by  Edward  I.,  Oct.  1283,  the
"statute  of  merchants"  against  debtors  was  enacted.

ACTONIAN  PEIZE,  see  under  Royal
Institution.

ACTON  MITEDEE,  see  Trials,  1880.

ACTEESSES  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to
the  ancients,  men  or  eunuchs  performing  the  female
parts.  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  first  encouraged
the  public  appearance  of  women  on  the  stage  in
England,  in  1662;  but  Anne,  queen  of  James  1.,  had
previously  performed  in  a  theatre  at  court.  Theat.
Biog.  Mrs.  Colman  was  the  first  English  public
actress  ;  she  performed  the  part  of  Ianthe  in  Dave-
nant's  "Siege  of  Rhodes,"  in  1656. Victor.

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  supposed  to
have  been  written  by  Luke  in  continuation  of  his
Gospel. It  terminates  a.d.  63.

ACTS  OF  PAELIAMENT,  or  Statutes,

see  .Parliament  and  Statutes. The  following  are

among  the  most  celebrated  early  statutes : —

Provisions  of  Merton,  1235-6.

Statute  of  Marlborough,  1267.
„ of  Bigamy,  1275-6.

,, of  Gloucester,  the  earliest  statute  of  which  any  re-
cord exists,  6  Edw.  I.  1278.
„ of  Mortmain,  1279.

Quo  Warranto,  Oct.  1280.

Statute  of  Merchants  or  Acton-Burnel,  1283.

Statutes  of  Wales,  1284.
,, of  Winchester,  Oct.  1284.
,, of  Westminster,  1275,  1285,  1290.

Statute  forbidding  the  levying  of  taxes  without  the  con-
sent of  parliament,  1297.
,, of  Praemunire,  1306.

Statutes  first  printed  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III.,  1483.

Statutes  of  the  Realm,  from  Magna  Charta  to  George  I. .
printed  from  the  original  records  and  MSS.  in  12  vols,
folio,  under  the  direction  of  commissioners  appointed
in  1801,  1811-28.

The  statutes  passed  during  each  session  were  formerly
printed  annually  in  4to  and  8vo,  now  in  8vo  only.
Abstracts  are  given  in  the  Cabinet  Lawyer.

Between  1823  and  1829,  1126  acts  were  wholly  repealed,
and  443  repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising  out  of  the  con-
solidation of  the  laws  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)
Peel ;  of  these  acts,  1344  related  to  the  kingdom  at
large,  and  225  to  Ireland  solely  ;  and  in  1856  many
obsolete  statutes  (enacted  between  1285  and  1777)  were
repealed.

By  the  Statute  Law  Revision  Act  of  1861,  770  acts  were
wholly  repealed,  and  a  great  many  partially.  By
similar  acts  since  passed,  a  great  number  of  enactments
have  been  repealed,  commencing  with  the  Provisions
of  Merton,  20  Henry  III.  (1235-6),  and  ending  1844.

"Acts  of  parliament  abbreviation  bill"  introduced  by
lord  Brougham  12  Feb.,  passed  10  June,  1850.

The  Interpretation  Act  passed,  30  Aug.  1889.

1410  acts  (passed  between  16S9  and  1770)  partially  or
wholly  repealed,  1867.

"  Chronological  Table  and  Index  to  the  Statutes  to  the
end  of  1869,''  published  1870.  Ninth  Edition  (1235-
1883),  published  1884.

Publication  of  the  revised  edition  of  the  statutes  (1325-
1878);  18  volumes  jmblished,  1870-85.

Report  of  select  committee  on  acts  of  parliament,  pub-
lished July,  1875.

New  edition  of  the  revised  statutes  proposed  1888,  see
Statutes.

Short  Titles  Act  passed,  20  May,  1892.

The  greatest  number  of  acts  passed  in  any  one  year
since  1800  was  570,  in  1846  (the  railway  year);  402
were  local  and  personal,  51  private,  and  117  public  acts.
In  1841,  only  13  were  passed  (the  lowest  number),
of  which  two  were  private.  The  average  number
of  the  first  ten  years  of  the  present  century  was  132


ACTS.


ADMINISTRATIONS.


public  acts.  In  the  ten  years  ending  1850,  the  average
number  of  acts,  of  public  interest,  was  112.
The  number  of  public  general  acts  passed  in  1S51  was  106  ;
in  1852,  88  ;  in  1853,  137  ;  in  1854,  125  ;  in  1855,  134  ;  in
1856,  120 ;  in  1857,  86  ;  in  1858,  109  ;  in  1859,  101  ;  in
i860,  154  ;  in  1861,  134  ;  in  1862,  114  ;  in  1863,  125  ;  in
1864,  121  ;  in  1865,  127  ;  in  1866,  122  ;  in  1867,  146  ;  in
1868,  130;  in  1869,  117  ;  in  1870,  112  ;  in  1871,  117  ;  in
1872,  98  ;  in  1873,  91  ;  in  1874,  96  ;  in  1875,  96  ;  in
1876,  81 ;  in  1877,  69  ;  in  1878,  79 ;  in  1870,  78  ;  in  1880,
19  and  48  (new  parliament);  1881,  72  ;  1882,  82  ;  18S3,
62  :  1S84,  78  ;  1885,  80  ;  1886  (1st  sess.),  59  ;  1887,,  73  ;
1888,  66  ;  1889,  76  ;  1890,  72  ;  1891,  76.
ACTS,  in  dramatic  poetry,  first  employed  by
the  Romans.  Five  acts  are  mentioned  by  Horace
(Art  of  Poetry)  as  the  rule  (about  8  B.C.).

ACTUARY,  ACTTJARIUS,  the  Roman  ac-
countant. The  Institute  of  Actuaries  founded  in
1848,  publishes  its  proceedings  in  the  "Assurance
Magazine."

ADAM  AND  EVE,  ERA  OF,  in  the  English
Bible,  4004  B.C.  ;  see  Creation.

ADAMITES,  a  sect  said  to  have  existed  about
130,  and  to  have  been  quite  naked  in  their  re-
ligious assemblies,  asserting  that  if  Adam  had  not
sinned  there  would  have  been  no  marriages.
Their  chief  was  named  Prodicus ;  they  defied  the
elements,  rejected  prayer,  and  said  it  was  not  ne-
cessary to  confess  Christ.  Fusebius.  A  sect  with
this  name  arose  at  Antwerp  in  the  12th  century,
under  Tandemus  or  Tanchelin,  whose  followers,
3000  soldiers  and  others,  committed  many  crimes.
"It  became  extinct  soon  after  the  death  of  its  chief ;
but  another  of  the  same  kind,  named  Turlupins,
appeared  shortly  after  in  Savoy  and  Dauphiny.
Picard,  a  Fleming,  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,
about  1415 ;  it  was  suppressed  by  Ziska,  1420.

ADDA,  a  river  N.  Italy,  passed  by  Suwarrow
after  defeating  the  French,  27  April,  1799.

ADDINGTON  ADMINISTRATION.  Mr.

Pitt,  having  engaged  to  procure  Roman  Catholic

emancipation  to  promote  the  union  with  Ireland,

and  being  unable  to  do  so  as  a  minister,  resigned

3  Feb.  1801. A  new  ministry  was  formed  by  Mr.

Addington,  March-July,  1801 ;  after  various  changes

it  terminated  about  10  May,  1804.

Henry  Addington,*  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chan-
cellor of  the  excliequer.

Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.

Duke  of  Portland,  lord  president.

Earl  of  Westmoreland,  lord  privy  seal.

Lord  Pelham,  home  secretary.

Mr.  R.  B.  Jenkinson  (lord  Hawkesbury,  1803  ;  and  earl
of  Liverpool,  1808),  foreign  secretary.

Lord  Hobart,  colonial  secretary.

Earl  St.  Vincent,  first  lord  of  admiralty.

Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance.

Charles  Yorke,  secretary-at-war.

Viscount  Lewisham,  lord  Auckland,  <&e.

ADDISCOMBE  COLLEGE,  near  Croydon,
Surrey,  purchased  by  the  East  India  company  in
1809,  for  education  of  candidates  for  scientific
branches  of  the  Indian  army,  was  closed  in  1861.

ADDISON'S  DISEASE,  a  dangerous  affec-
tion of  the  renal  capsules,  described  by  its  dis-
coverer, Dr.  Thomas  Addison,  in  1855.

ADDITIONAL  CURATES,  the  society  for
their  employment  in  populous  places  was  fouitded
1837  (High  Church).

*  Born  1757;  became  viscount  Sidmouth, . Jan.  1805  ;  held
various  offices  afterwards,  and  died  in  1844.  His  eirriilur
to  the  lords  lieutenants,  dated  27  March,  1817,  directing
them  to  adopt  severe  measures  against  the  authors  of
blasphemous  and  seditious  pamphlets,  was  greatly  cen-
sured, and  not  carried  into  eftect.


ADDLED  PARLIAMENT,  see  Parliament,.
1614.

ADDRESSERS,  see  Abhorrers.

ADELAIDE,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,
was  founded  in  1836.  It  contained  14,000  inha-
bitants in  1850;  about  30,000  in  1875;  l%9l>
133.220.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1847.  Univer-
sity founded,  1876.  It  was  visited  by  the  duke  of
Edinburgh,  1  March,  i86g.

The  Queen's  Jubilee  International  Exhibition  opened,
21  June  1887  ;  reported  successful  17  Jan.  1888.

ADELPHI  (Greek  for  brothers)  several  streets
on  the  south  side  of  the  Strand,  London,  erected
about  1768  by  the  brothers,  John,  Robert,  James,
and  William  Adam,  after  whom  the  streets  are
named.  Adelphi  Theatre,  built  1806,  rebuilt;
1858;  see  under  Theatres.

ADEN,  a  free  port  on  the  S.  W.  corner  of
Arabia,  where  in  Dec.  1836  a  British  ship  was
wrecked  and  plundered.  The  sultan  promised
compensation,  and  agreed  to  cede  the  place  to  the
English.  The  sultan's  son  refusing  to  fulfil  this
agreement  to  captain  Haynes,  a  naval  and  military
force,  under  captain  H.  Smith,  of  the  Volage,  was
dispatched  to  Aden,  which  captured  it,  19  Jan.
1839.  It  is  now  a  garrison  and  coal  depot  for
Indian  steamers,  &c.

ADIAPHORISTS(from«tf«ff^om,indifferent
things),  a  term  applied  to  M elanchthon  and  others,
who  were  willing  to  give  up  certain  things  to  the
Romanists  as  indifferent,  about  1548.

ADIGE,  a  river  in  N.  Italy,  near  which  the
Austrians  defeated  the  French  on  26,  30  March,
and  5  April,  1799.

AD  JUTATORS,  see  Agitators.

ADMINISTRATIONS  of  England  and

OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Until  the  Restoration,  1660,
there  was  not  any  cabinet  approaching  to  the  modern
sense.  The  sovereign  was  aided  by  privy  councillors,,
varying  in  number,  the  men  and  offices  being  fre-
quently changed.  The  separation  of  the  cabinet  from
the  privy  council  became  greater  during  the  reign  of
William  III.  His  ministers  included  both  Whigs
and  Tories,  and  their  dissensions  led  to  much  mal-
administration, civil,  military,  and  naval,  and  con-
sequent popular  discontent ;  the  king  was  therefore
compelled  to  have  a  united  ministry,  at  first  wholly
composed  of  Whigs.  The  change  was  gradually
effected,  1694-6.  The  control  of  the  chief,  now
termed  the  '■'■premier,"  began  in  the  reign  oj?
Anne.  "  The  era  of  ministries  may  most  properly  be
reckoned  from  the  day  of  the  meeting  of  the  parlia-
ment after  the  general  election  of  1698."  Macau-
lay.* For  a  fuller  account  of  each  administration,

*  Till  1850  the  cabinet  council  usually  consisted  of  the
following  twelve  members  :  First  lord  of  the  treasury  ;
lord  chancellor  ;  lord  president  of  the  council  ;  chan-
cellor of  the  exchequer  ;  lord  privy  seal ;  home,  foreign,
and  colonial  secretaries  ;  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  ;  pre-
sident of  the  board  of  trade  ;  president  of  the  board  of
control ;  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  Iu  1850
the  number  was  fifteen,  and  included  the  secretary-afc-
war,  the  postmaster-general,  and  the  chief  secretary  for
Ireland.  In  the  Palmerston-Russell  cabinet  (which  see),
the  president  of  the  poor-law-board  replaced  the  secre-
tary for  Ireland.  In  1868  the  Gladstone  cabinet  con-
sisted of  15  ;  that  of  Mr.  Disraeli  in  Feb.,  1874,  of  12.
The  average  duration  of  a  ministry  lias  been  set  down  at
four,  five,  and  six  years  ;  but  instances  have  occurred  of
the  duration  of  a  ministry  for  much  longer  periods  :  sir
Robert  Walpole  was  minister  from  i72ito  1742(21  years);
Mr.  Pitt,  1783  to  1801(18  years)  :  and  lord  Liverpool  1S12
to  1827  (15  years).  Several  ministries  have  not  lasted
beyond  a  few  months,  as  the  Coalition  Ministry  in  1783^
and  the  "  Talents  "  Ministry  in  1806.  The  "Short-lived  "
Administration  lasted  10  to  12  Feb.  1746.


ADMINISTRATIONS.


10


ADMINISTRATIONS.


since  1 700,  see  separate  articles  headed  with  the

name  of  the  Premier,  given  below  in  italics.

Henry  VIII. — Abp.  Warham  ;  bps.  Fisher  and
Fox  ;  earl  of  Surrey,  <fec.  . . . .  a.d.  1509

Cardinal  Thomas  Wolsey,  &c 15 14

Earl  of  Surrey  ;  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  &e. . 1523

Sir  Thos.  More  ;  bps.  Tunstall  and  Gardiner,  and
Cranmer  (afterwards  abp.  of  Canterbury) . -1529

Abp.  Cranmer  ;  lord  Cromwell,  aft.  earl  of  Essex  ;
Thos.  Boleyn,  earl  of  Wiltshire,  &c 1532

Thomas,  duke  of  Norfolk  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Surrey  ;
Thomas,  lord  Audley ;  bishop  Gardiner ;  sir
Ralph  Sadler,  &c.  1540

ILord  Wriothesfey  ;  Thomas,  duke  of  Norfolk  ;  lord
Lisle  ;  sir  William  Petre  ;  sir  William  Paget,  &c. 1544

Edward  VI.  —  Lord  Wriothesiey,  now  earl  of
Southampton,  lord  chancellor  (expelled) ;  Edward,
earl  of  Hertford,  lord  protector,  created  duke  of
.Somerset ;  John,  lord  Russell  ;  Henry,  earl  of
Arundel ;  Thomas,  lord  Seymour ;  sir  Wm.  Paget ;
sir  Wm.  Petre,  <fcc 1547

John  Dudley,  late  lord  Lisle  and  earl  of  Warwick,
created  duke  of  Northumberland  ;  John,  earl
of  Bedford  ;  bishop  Goodrich,  sir  William  Cecil,
&c 1551

Mar  v.— Stephen  Gardiner,  bp.  of  Winchester  ;  Ed-
mund Bonner,  bp.  of  London  ;  William,  marq.  of
Winchester  ;  sir  Edwd.  Hastings,  &c. . . . 1554

Elizabeth. — Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  ;  Edward  lord
Clinton  ;  sir  Robert  Dudley,  aftds.  earl  of  Lei-
cester ;  sir  William  Cecil,  aftds.  lord  Burleigh . 1558

William,  lord  Burleigh  (minister  during  nearly  all
the  reign)  ;  sir  N.  Bacon,  <fec.  .... 1572

Lord  Burleigh ;  sir  Thomas  Bromley ;  Robert
Devereux,  earl  of  Essex  (a  favourite)  ;  earl  of
Leicester  ;  earl  of  Lincoln  ;  sir  Walter  Mildmay  ;
sir  Francis  Walsingham,  &c 1579

Eiord  Burleigh  ;  Robert,  earl  of  Essex  ;  sir  Chris-
topher Hatton,  &c. 1587

Thomas  Sackville,  lord  Buekhurst,  afterwards  earl
of  Dorset ;  sir  Thomas  Egerton,  afterwards  lord
Ellesmere  and  viscount  Brackley  ;  sir  Robert
Cecil,  <fec 1599

James  I. — Thomas,  earl  of  Dorset :  Thomas,  lord
Ellesmere  ;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham  ;  Thomas,
earl  of  Suffolk ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester ;
Robert  Cecil,  afterwards  earl  of  Salisbury,  &c.  1603

Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury  ;  Thomas,  lord
Ellesmere  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Northampton  ;  Charles,
earl  of  Nottingham  ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Suffolk,  &e. 1609

Henry,  earl  of  Northampton  ;  Thomas,  lord  Elles-
mere ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester  ;  sir  Ralph  Win-
wood  ;  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham  ;  Robert,
viscount  Rochester,  aftds.  earl  of  Somerset,  &c. 1612

Thomas,  lord  Ellesmere  ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Suffolk  ;
Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham  ;  sir  George  Villiers
(a  favourite),  afterwards  viscount  Villiers,  and
successively  earl,  marquis,  and  duke  of  Buck-
ingham 1615

Sir  Henry  Montagu,  afterwards  viscount  Mande-
ville  and  earl  of  Manchester 1620

Lionel,  lord  Crantield,  afterwards  earl  of  Middle-
sex ;  Edward,  earl  of  Worcester  ;  John,  earl  of
Bristol  ;  John  Williams,  dean  of  Westminster  ;
George  Villiers,  now  marquis  of  Buckingham ;
sir  Edward  Conway,  &c 1621

Charles  I. — Richard,  lord  Weston,  afterwards  earl
of  Portland ;  sir  Thomas  Coventry,  afterwards
lord  Coventry  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Manchester  (suc-
ceeded by  James,  earl  of  Marlborough,  who,  in
turn,  gave  place  to  Edward,  lord,  afterwards
viscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of

London  ;  sir  Albert  Morton,  <fec 1628

William  Laud,  now  archbishop  of  Canterbury ;
Francis,  lord  Cottington ;  James,  marquis  of
Hamilton :  Edward,  earl  of  Dorset ;  sir  John
Coke;  sir  Francis  Windebank,  &c.  .  .  .  .  1635
William  Juxon,  bishop  of  London  ;  sir  John  Finch,
afterwards  lord  Finch  ;  Francis,  lord  Cottington  ;
Wentworth,  earl  of  Strafford  ;  Algernon,  earl  of
Northumberland  ;  James,  marquis  of  Hamilton  ;
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury  ; sir  Francis

Windebank  ;  sir  Henry  Vane,  <&c 1640

[The  king  beheaded,  30  Jan.  1649.]
Commonwealth.  —  Oliver Cromwell, protector,
• named  a  council,  the  number  not  to  exceed  21
members,  or  be  less  than  13 1653


Richard  Cromwell,  son  of  Oliver,  succeeded  on  the
death  of  his  father.  A  council  of  officers  ruled  at
Wallingford  house 1658

Charles  II.— Sir  Edward  Hyde,  afterwards  earl  of
Clarendon  ;  George  Monk,  created  duke  of  Albe-
marle ;  Edward  Montagu,  created  earl  of  Sand-
wich ;  lord  Saye  and  Sele  ;  earl  of  Manchester  ;
lord  Seymour  ;  sir  Robert  Long,  <fec. . . .  1660

George  Monk,  duke  of  Albemarle,  made  first  com-
missioner of  the  treasury,  &c 1667

"  Cabal "  Ministry  ;  Clifford,  Ashley,  Buckingham,
Arlington,  Lauderdale  (see  Cabal) . . . .  1670

Thomas,  lord  Clifford ;  Anthony,  earl  of  Shaftesbury ;
Henry,  earl  of  Arlington  ;  Arthur,  earl  of  Angle-
sey ;  sir  Thomas  Osborne,  created  viscount
Latimer  ;  Henry  Coventry  ;  sir  George  Carteret ;
Edward  Seymour,  <fec 1672

Thomas,  viscount  Latimer,  afterwards  earl  of  Danby,
made  lord  high  treasurer ... 26  June 1673

Arthur,  earl  of  Essex,  (succeeded  by  Lawrence
Hyde,  aft.  earl  of  Rochester)  ;  Robert,  earl  of
Sunderland,  <fcc 1679

[The  king  nominated  a  new  council  on  21  April,  con-
sisting of  30  members  only,  of  whom  the  princi-
pal were  the  great  officers  of  state  and  great
officers  of  the  household.  ] „

Sidney,  lord  Godolphin ;  Lawrence,  earl  of  Ro-
chester ;  Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham ;  Robert,
earl  of  Sunderland ;  sir  Thomas  Chicheley ;
George,  lord  Dartmouth  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Claren-
don ;  earls  of  Bath  and  Radnor .... 1684

James  II. — Lawrence,  earl  of  Rochester ;  George,
marquis  of  Halifax  ;  sir  George  Jeffreys,  after-
wards lord  Jeffreys  ;  Henry,  earl  of  Clarendon  ;
sir  John  Ernley  ;  viscount  Preston,  &c.  . . . 1685

The  earl  of  Rochester  was  displaced,  and  John,  lord
Belasyse,  made  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury
in  his  room,  4  Jan.  ;  the  earl  of  Sunderland  made
president  of  the  council ;  viscount  Preston,  sec-
retary of  state,  <fec 1687-8

[The  king  left  Whitehall  in  the  night  of  11  Dec,  and
quitting  the  kingdom,  landed  at  Ambleteuse,  in
France,  Dec.  1688.]

William  III.  and  Mary. — Charles,  viscount  Mor-
daunt  ;  Thomas  Osborne,  earl  of  Danby,  created
marquis  of  Carmarthen,  afterwards  duke  of
Leeds  ;  George,  marquis  of  Halifax ;  Arthur
Herbert,  afterwards  lord  Torrington  ;  earls  of
Shrewsbury,  Nottingham,  and  Sunderland ;  earl
of  Dorset  and  Middlesex  ;  William,  earl  (after-
wards duke)  of  Devonshire  ;  lord  Godolphin  ;  lord
Montagu  ;  lord  De  la  Mere,  <fec.  . . . . 1689

Sidney,  lord  Godolphin  ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Danby  ;
Richard  Hampden  ;  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke  ;
Henry,  viscount  Sydney  ;  Daniel,  earl  of  Notting-
ham, &c. 1690

Sir  John  Somers  became  lord  Somers  in  1697,  and
lord  chancellor ;  Charles  Montagu,  afterwards
lord  Halifax,  was  made  first  commissioner  of  the
treasury,  1  May,  1698,  succeeded  by  Ford,  earl  of
Tankerville 1699

Anne.— Sidney,  lord  (afterwards  earl  of)  Godolphin;
Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  &c. . . May,  1702

Robert  Harley,  earl  of  Oxford  ;  sir  Simon  Harcourt,
&c 1  June,  1711

Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  made  lord  treasurer
three  days  before  the  queen's  death,  &e. 30  July,  1714

George  I. — Charles,  earl  of  Halifax  (succeeded  on
his  death  by  the  earl  of  Carlisle),  &c. . . . ,,

Robert  Walpole,  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  chan- .
cellor  of  the  exchequer,  &c 1715

James (afterwards earl) Stanhope ;  William lord
Cowper,  &c. ........  1717

Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c.  . . . .  1718

Robert  Walpole,  afterwards  sir  Robert  Walpole,  and

earl  of  Orford,  &c 1721

George  II.— Robert  Walpole  continued . . .  1727

[Sir  Robert  remained  prime  minister  twenty-one

years  ;  numerous  changes  occurring  in  the  time;

see  Walpole.]

Earl  of  Wilmington;-  lord  Hardwicta,  <fec. . .  1742

Henry  Pelham,  in  the  room  of  earl  of  Wilmington,

deceased Aug.  1743

"Broad-bottom" administration— Henry Pelham;

lord  Hardwicke,  &c Nov.  1744

"Short-lived"  administration—  earl  of  Bath;  lords
Winchilsea  and.Granyille . . .  10-12  Feb.  1746


ADMINISTRATIONS.


11


ADMINISTRATIONS.


Henry  Pelham,  &c,  again  . . . . 12  Feb.  1746
Thos.  H.  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle  ;  earl  of  Hol-

derness,  &c April,  1754

Duke  of  Devonshire;  William  Pitt,  &c. . .  Nov.  1756
Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  Sir.  Pitt,  afterwards  earl  of

Chatham,  &c Juue,  1757

George  III.— Duke  of  Newcastle,  Mr.  Pitt's  minis-
try, continued 1760

Earl  of  Bute;  lord  Henley,  &c. . . . May,  1762
George  GrenviUe  ;  earls  of  Halifax  and  Sandwich,

&c April,  1763

Marquis  of  Rockingham  ;  earl  of  Winchilsea,  &c.  J  uly,  1765
Earl  of  Chatham;  duke  of  Grafton,  <fcc.  .  Aug.  1766
Duke  of  Grafton  ;  lord  North,  &c.  .  .  .Dec.  1767
Frederick,  lord  North ;  earl  Gower,  &c.  .  Jan.  1770
[Lord  North  was  minister  during  the  whole  of
the  American  war.  ]
Marquis  of  Rockingham;  lord  Camden;  C.  J.  Fox;

Edmund  Burke,  &c.  ...  March,  1782

Earl  of  Shelburne  (afterwards  marquis  of Lans-

downe) :  William  Pitt,  <fcc.  ...  July, „

"  Coalition  Ministry,"  duke  of  Portland ;  lordNorth;

C.  J.  Fox  ;  Edmund  Burke,  &c.  . .  April,  1783

William  Pitt;  Henry  Dundas,  <fec. . .  Dec. „

[During  Mr. Pitt's  long administration, nu-
merous changes  in  the  ministry  took  place.]
Henry  Addington  ;  duke  of  Portland  ;  lord  Eldon,

&c March,  et  seq.  1801

William  Pitt ; lord  Eldon ;  George  Canning,  &c.

May,  et  seq.  1804
[Mr.  Pitt  died  23  Jan.  1806.]
"All  the Talents"— lord GrenviUe; lord Henry
Petty  ;  lord Erskine  ;  C. J. Fox  ; sir Charles
Grey  (afterwards  earl  Grey). . . . Feb. 1806

[Mr. Fox's  death, 13  Sept. 1806,  led  to  nu-
merous changes.]
Duke  of  P01  Hand  ;  lord  Eldon,  &c* . March,  1807
Spencer  Perceval ;  earl  of  Liverpool ;  viscount  Pal-

merston,  &c Nov.  and  Dec.  1809

Regency. — Mr.  Spencer  Perceval  (shot  by  Belling-

ham,  11  May,  1812),  <fcc. ... 5  Feb. 1811
Earl  of  Liverpool ;  lord  Eldon  ;  Mr.  Vansittart  ;  lord
Melville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston,

&c May,  June,  1812

George  IV. — Earl  of  Liverpool,  &c.  . 29  Jan.  1820

[During  lord Liverpool's  long  administration
numerous  changes  occurred.]
George  Canning;  lord  Lyndhurst;  viscount  Gode-
rich ;  William  Huskisson  ;  viscount  Palmerston  ;

"  duke  of  Clarence,  &c April,  1827

[Mr.  Canning  died  8  August,  1827.]
Viscount  Goderich  ;  viscount  Palmerston  ;  marquis

of  Lansdowne  ;  W.  Huskisson,  <fcc. . -Aug. „
Duke  of  Wellington  ;  Robert  Peel ;  Mr.  Huskisson  ;

&e Jan.  1828

[The  ministry  reconstructed  on  the  retirement
of  the  earl  of  Dudley,  lord  Palmerston,  Mr.  Grant,
Mr.  Huskisson.]  .  .  .  May  and  June,  „
William  IV. — Duke  of  Wellington,  &c.  26  June,  1830
Earl  Grey;  marquis  of  Lansdowne  ;  lord  Brougham;
viscount  Althorp  ;  earl  of  Durham  ;  viscounts
Melbourne,  Palmerston,  and  Goderich  ;  sir  James
Graham  ;  lord  John  Russell,  &c.  . . .  Nov. „

Earl  Grey  resigns,  owing  to  a  majority  against
him  in  the  lords,  on  the  Reform  Bill,  10  May  ;  but

resumes  his  post 18  May,  1832

Viscount  Melbourne  ;  &c. ....  July,  1834
[Melbourne  administration  dissolved,  Nov.  1834.
The  duke  of  Wellington  held  the  seals  of  office  till
the  return  of  sir  Robert Peel from  Italy,  Dec.
1834.]
Sir  Robert  Peel  ;  lord  Lyndhurst ;  duke  of  Welling-
ton ;  earl  of  Aberdeen  ;  &c. . Nov.  and  Dec. ,,
Viscount  Melbourne,  &c. .... April,  1835
Victoria. — Viscount  Melbourne,  &c. . 20  June,  1837
Subsequent  accessions,  F.  T.  Baring  ; earl  of
Clarendon  ;  T. B.  Macaulay,  <fcc. Viscount  Mel-
bourne resigned,  and sir  Robert Peel  received
the  queen's  commands  to  form  a  new  administra-
tion, 8  May. This  command  was  withdrawn,  and
lord  Melbourne  returned  to  power . . 10  May, 1839
Sir  Robert  Peel ;  duke  of  Wellington;  lord Lynd-
hurst ;  sir  James  Graham  ;  earl  of  Aberdeen  ;  lord
Stanley,  &c. ..... Aug.  and  Sept.  1841

*The  duel  between  lord  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  Canning,
22  Sept.,  1809,  led  to  the  breaking  up  of  this  adminis-
tration.


[Accessions,  Sidney  Herbert  ;  W.  E.  Gladstone,
&c]

Lord  John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl

Grey,  <fec "■ . -  July,  1846

[Accessions  :  earl  Granville  ;  Mr.  Fox  Maule  ;
earl  of  Carlisle  ;  sir  Thomas  Wilde,  created  lord
Truro,  <fcc]

Lord  John  Russell  and  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne
on  the  24  Feb.  announced  the  resignation  of
ministers,  owing  to  their  defeat  on  Mr.  Locke
King's  motion  respecting  the  franchise  ;  they  in-
formed parliament,  that  it  having  been  found  im-
possible to  construct  a  coalition  ministry,  the
queen,  by  the  advice  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,
had  called  upon  her  late  ministers  to  resume  office.
Lord  Stanley  (since  earl  of  Derby),  in  the  interval,
had  been  unable  to  form  a  cabinet  . . 3  March,  1851

Earl  of  Derby  (late  lord  Stanley)  ;  lord  St.  Leo-
nards ;  Benjamin  Disraeli  ;  Spencer  H.  Walpole  ;
earl  of  Malmesbury  ;  sir  John  Pakington  ;  duke
of  Northumberland,  &c.  . .  27  Feb.  1852

Earl  of  Aberdeen ;  lord  John  Russell ;  viscount  Pal-
merston, <fec 28  Dec. ,,

Various  changes  of  offices  took  place  ;  a  fourth
secretary  of  state  was  appointed,  by  the  separa-
tion of  the  war  from  the  colonial  department ;  see  •
Secretaries  of  State.  The  retirement  of  lord  J.  Rus-
sell, 24  Jan.  1855,  and  a  majority  in  the  commons
against  ministers  of  157  (305  to  148),  on  Mr.  Roe-
buck's motion  respecting  the  conduct  of  the  war,
led  to  the  resignation  of  lord  Aberdeen  and  his
colleagues,  30  Jan.  ;  the  cabinet  was  reconstructed

fey

Viscount  Palmerston  ;  lord  Cranworth  ;  &c. 7  Feb.  1855
[Secession  of  sir  J.  Graham,  Mr.  Gladstone,  and
Mr.  S.  Herbert. Accession  of  lord  John  Russell  ;
earl  of  Clarendon  ;  sir  G.  Grey  ;  sir  G.  C.  Lewis  ;
sir  W.  Molesworth,  &c]  . . . 24  Feb. ,,

On  the  second  reading  of  the  Foreign  Con-
spiracy bill,  the  government  (defeated  by  a  vote
of  censure  being  passed  by  a  majority  of  19,  on
the  motion  of  Mr.  Milner  Gibson)  resigned  imme-
diately 19  Feb.  1858

Earl  of  Derby  ;  B.  Disraeli  ;  Spencer  Walpole  ;  lord
Stanley  ;  sir  F. Thesiger  (lord  Chelmsford),  <fec.

26  Feb.  ,,
[The  Derby  administration,  in  consequence  of  a
vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  it  being  carried  by  a
majority  of  13,  10  June,  1859,  resigned  the  next
day.  Earl  Granville  failed  to  form  an  adminis-
tration. ]
Viscount  Palmerston  ;  lord  John  (since  earl)  Russell,

&c 18  Juue,  1859

[Lord  Palmerston  died  18  Oct.  1865.]
Earl  Russell ;  W.  E.  Gladstone  ;  earl  of  Clarendon  ;

&c Oct.  1865

[Resigned,  in  consequence  of  a  minority  on  the
Reform  Bill,  19  June] . . . .26  Juue,  1866
Earl  of  Derby,  B. Disraeli,  lord  Stanley,  &c.  ;  for
changes  see  Derby  Administrations. . 6  July, „
[Earl  of  Derby resigned through ill health]

Feb.  25,  1868
B.  Disraeli  reconstituted  the  administration  29  Feb. ,,
Mr.  Disraeli resigned  in consequence  of the
elections  in  November  giving  a  majority  of  about

ii4'to  the  Liberals 2  Dec. ,,

W.  E.  Gladstone;  earl  of  Clarendon  ;  Robert  Lowe  ;
John  Bright,  and  others,  received  seals 9  Dee. „
Lost  their  majority  by the  general  election,

Feb.  ;  resigned 17  Feb.  1874

B.  Disraeli  (earl  of  Beaconsfield,  16  Aug.  1876),  the
earl  of Derby,  the marquis  of  Salisbury, and
others,  received  seals . . . . 21  Feb. ,,
[For  changes,  see  Disraeli  Administrations.]
Lost  their  majority  by  elections  in  April  ;  re-
signed 22  April,  1S80

W.  ti.  Gladstone;  earl  Granville,  marquis  of  Hal  ting-
ton,  duke  of  Argyll,  sir  Win.  Harcourt,  John
Bright,  and  others,  received  seals . 28  April, ,,

[Resigned  in  consequence  of  a  minority  on  the

Budget  Bill  (264-252),  9  June,  1885.]

Marquis  of  Sal isbury ;  sir  Stafford  NorthcoteQord

Iddesleigh), sir Michael Hicks-Beach, lord

Randolph Churchill  and others  received seals

24  June,  18S5
[Resigned  in  consequence  of  a  minority  on  tin
amendment  to  the  address  (329-250),  27  Jan.  1886.]


ADMINISTRATIVE .


12


ADMIEALTY OFFICE.


W.  E.  Gladstone ;  earl  Granville,  earl  Spencer,  earl
of  Rosebery,  earl  of  Kimberley,  marquis  of  Ripon,
Sir  Parrer  Herschel,  H.  C.  E.  Cliilders,  John
Morley,  and  others,  received  seals  . . 2-6  Feb.  1886

[Resigned  in  consequence  of  a  majority  against
his  Irish  Home  Rule  Bill  (343-313)  20  July,  1886.]

Marquis  of  Salisbury;  and  former  colleagues  re-
ceived seals  26  July,  1886  ;  resigns . 12  Aug.  1892

W.  E.  Gladstone;  with  former  colleagues,  18  Aug. ,,
For  details  and  changes,  see  separate  articles  under
the  Premier's  name.

ADMINISTRATIVE  REFORM  ASS.O-

CIATION  derived  its  origin  from  an  opinion
that  the  disasters  which  occurred  to  the  army  in  the
Crimea  in  1854-5  were  attributable  to  the  inefficient
and  irresponsible  management  of  the  various  de-
partments of  the  state.  The  association  was
organised  in  London,  5  May,  1855.  A  meeting
was  held  in  Drury-lane  theatre,  on  13  June,  and
Mr.  Layard's  motion  on  the  subject  in  parliament
was  negatived  18  June  following.  The  association
was  reorganised  in  1856,  Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  be-
coming chairman,  but  soon  became  unimportant ;
see  Civil  Service.

ADMIRAL.  The  title,  derived  from  the  Arabic,
emir-al-bahr,  "  Lord  of  the  sea,"  which  occurs  in  the
Chanson  cle  Roland,  nth  century,  does  not  appear
to  have  been  adopted  in  England  until  about  1300.
Alfred,  Athelstan,  Edgar,  Harold,  and  other  kings,
were  commanders  of  their  own  fleets.  The  first
French  admiral  is  said  to  have  been  appointed  1284.
The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  was  first
given  to  William  de  Ley  bourne  by  Edward  I.  in
1297.  Spelman;  Jtymer.  The  first  Lord  High
Admiral  in  England  was  created  by  Richard  II.  in
1385  :  there  had  been  previously  high  admirals  of
districts — the  north,  west,  and  south.  The  duties
have  generally  been  executed  by  lords  commis-
sioners; see  Admiralty.  A  similar  dignity  existed
in  Scotland  from  the  reign  of  Robert  III.  In  1673,
Charles  II.,bestowed  it  upon  his  natural  son  Charles
Lennox,  afterwards  duke  of  Richmond,  then  an
infant,  who  resigned  the  office  to  the  crown  in
1703:  after  the  union  it  was  discontinued. — Ihe
dignity  of  lord  high  admiral  of  Ireland  (of  brief
existence)  was  conferred  upon  James  Butler  by
Henry  VIII. ,  in  May,  1534.  The  Admiral  of  the
Fleet  is  the  highest  rank  in  the  Royal  Navy,  corre-
sponding to  that  of  field-marshal  in  the  army.  We
have  now  7  admiralsof  the  fleet,  12  admirals,  20  vice-
admirals,  35  rear  admirals,  and  168  captains  (April
1892).  Senior  admiral  of  the  fleet,  Sir  l'rovo  Wallis,
born  12  April,  1791,  died  13  Feb.  1892.  The  first
admiral  of  the  United  States  of  America,  David  G.
Earragut,  was  nominated  in  1866.

ADMIRALTY,  Court  of,  a  court  for  the

trial  of  causes  relating-  to  maritime  afi'airs,  said  to
have  been  erected  by  Edward  III.,  in  1357.  It  was
enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  that  criminal
causes  should  be  tried  by  witnesses  and  a  jury,  some
of  the  judges  at  Westminster  (or,  as  now,  at  the  Old
Bailey)  assisting.  The  judgeship  of  the  admiralty
was  constituted  in  1514,  and  was  filled  by  two  or
more  functionaries  until  the  Revolution,  when  it
was  restricted  to  one.  Beatson.  The  judge  has
usually  been  an  eminent  doctor  of  the  civil  law.  In
1844  the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was  re-
moved, and  by  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  77  (1857),  the  judge
of  the  Probate  court  was  to  be  also  judge  of  the
Admiralty  court.  The  judge  of  the  Admiralty
court,  Dr.  Stephen  Lushington  (appointed
in  1838),  resigned  1  July,  1867,  and  was  suc-
ceeded by  sir  Robert  Phillimore,  who  retired  March,
1883.  The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was  extended
in  1861. The  very  ancient  gilt  anchor  set  up  in  the


Admiialty  Court  of  the  Royal  Courts  of  Justice.  The
ancient  silver  oar  is  laid  on  (he  Registrar's  Table,
Oct.  1885. See  Suprime  Court  and  Probate  Court.

ADMIRALTY  OFFICE  dates  from  1512,
when  Henry  VIII.  appointed  commissioners  to  in-
spect his  ships  of  war.  During  the  Commonwealth
the  admiralty  affairs  were  managed  by  a  committee
of  the  parliament ;  and  at  the  restoration  in  1660,
James,  duke  of  York,  became  lord  high  admiral.  In
1662  the  admiralty  was  first  put  into  commission,
the  great  officers  of  state  being  the  commissioners  ;
see  succeeding  changes  below.  In  1688-9  the
admiralty  was  put  into  commission,  and  the  board
appears  to  have  assembled  at  admiral  Herbert's
lodgings,  in  Channel-row,  Westminster,  he  being
at  that  time  first  lord.  In  1830,  1832,  and  1836
various  changes  were  made  in  the  civil  depart-
ments, several  offices  being  abolished  or  conso-
lidated with  others.  In  March,  1861,  a  royal  com-
mission recommended  the  abolition  of  the  board  of
admiralty  and  the  appointment  of  a  minister  of  the
navy  department.  The  board  was  reconstituted  14
Jan.  1869,  and  4  May,  1872.  The  collective  action
of  the  board  was  taken  away,  and  concentrated  in
the  person  of  the  first  lord.
The  office  removed  from  Somerset  House  to  Whitehall,

1874-5.
New  buildings  erected  by  virtue  of  the  Public  Offices

Site Act passed 24  July, 1882. The designs of

Messrs.  Leeming  &  Deeming,  of  Halifax,  selected  for

approval  by  parliament,  July,  1884.

FIRST  LORDS  OF  THE  ADMIRALTY.

1660.  James,  duke  of  York,  lord  high  admiral,  6  June.
1673.  King  Charles  II.,  14  June.
,, Prince  Rupert,  9  July.

1679.  Sir  Henry  Capel,  14  Feb.

1680.  Daniel  Finch,  esq.,  19  Feb.

1681.  Daniel,  lord  Finch,  20  Jan.

1683.  Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham,  17  April.

1684.  King  Charles  II.

1685.  King  James  II.,  17  May. Office  in  commission.

1689.  Arthur  Herbert,  esq.,  8  March.

1690.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery,  20  Jan.

1692.  Charles,  lord  Cornwallis,  10  March.

1693.  Anthony,  viscount  Falkland,  15  April.

1694.  Edward  Russel,  esq.,  (aft.  earl  of  Orford),  2  May.
1699.  John,  earl  of  Bridgewater,  2  June.

1701.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  4  April.

1702.  George,  prince  of  Denmark,  lord  high  admiral,

20  May.

1708.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke,  ditto,  29  Nov.

Office  in  commission.

1709.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford,  8  Oct.

1710.  Sir  John  Leake,  4  Oct.

1712.  Thomas,  earl  of  Strafford,  30  Sept.
1714.  Edward,  earl  of  Orford,  14  Oct.
1717.  James,  earl  of  Berkeley,  19  March.
1727.  George,  viscount  Torrington,  2  Aug.
1733.  Sir  Charles  Wager,  knt.,  25  June.
1742.  Daniel,  earl  of  Winchilsea,  19  March.
1744.  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  27  Dec.
1748.  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  10  Feb.
1751.  George,  lord  Anson,  22  June.

1756.  Richard,  earl  Temple,  19  Nov.

1757.  Daniel,  earl  of  Winchilsea,  6  April.
,, George,  lord  Anson,  2  July.

1762.  George  M.  Dunk,  earl  of  Halifax,  19  June.

1763.  George  Grenville,  esq.,  1  Jan.

,, John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  23  April.

,, John,  earl  of  Egmont,  10  Sept.
1766.  Sir  Charles  Saunders,  10  Sept.

,, Sir  Edward  Hav/ke,  10  Dec.
1771.  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  12  Jan.

1782.  Hon.  Augustus  Keppel,  1  April.

„ Augustus,  viscount  Keppel,  18  July.

1783.  Richard,  viscount  Howe,  28  Jan.
1788.  John,  earl  of  Chatham,  16  July.
1794.  George  John,  earl  Spencer,  20  Dec.
1801.  John,  earl  St.  Vincent,  19  Feb.

1804.  Henry,  viscount  Melville,  15  May.

1805.  Charles,  lord  Barham,  2  May.

1806.  Hon.  Charles  Grey,  10  Feb.


ADMIRALTY.


13


ADULTERY.


1806.  Thomas  Grenville,  esq.,  23  Oct.
807.  Henry,  lord  Mulgrave,  6  April.
809.  Charles  Yorke,  esq. ,  10  May.
812.  Robert,  viscount  Melville,  25  March.

827.  William  Henry,  duke  of  Clarence,  lord  high

admiral,  2  May,  resigned  12  Aug.  1828.

828.  Robert,  viscount  Melville,  19  Sept.
830.  Sir  James  R.  G.  Graham,  bart.,  25  Nov.

834.  George,  lord  Auckland,  11  June.

,, Thomas  Philip,  earl  de  Grey,  23  Dec.

835.  George,  lord  Auckland,  25  April.
„ Gilbert,  earl  of  Minto,  19  Sept.

841.  Thomas,  earl  of  Haddington,  8  Sept.
846.  Edward,  earl  of  Bllenborough,  13  Jan.
„ George,  earl  of  Auckland,  24  July.
849.  Sir  Francis  Thornhill  Baring,  18  Jan.

852.  Algernon,  duke  of  Northumberland,  28  Feb.

853.  Sir  James  Robert  George  Graham,  5  Jan.
855.  Sir  Charles  Wood,  bart. ,  24  Feb.

858.  Sir  John  Pakington,  bart. ,  26  Feb.

859.  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset,  June.-

866.  Sir  John  Pakington,  bart. ,  6  July.

867.  Henry  Lowry  Corry,  8  March.

868.  Hugh  Culling  Eardley  Chiklers,  9  Dec.
871.  George  Joachim  Goschen,  9  March.

874.  George  Ward  Hunt,  21  Feb. ;  died  29  July,  1877.

877.  Wm.  Henry  Smith,  about  7  Aug.

880.  Thos.  Geo.  Baring,  earl  of  Northbrook,  28  April.

885.  Lord  George  Francis  Hamilton,  24  June.

886.  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinson,  Marquis of

Ripon,  about  6  Feb.
,, Lord  George  Francis  Hamilton,  26  July.
1892.  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer,  18  Aug.

ADMIRALTY,  Whitehall.  "At  the  south
end  of  Duke-street,  Westminster,  was  seated  a  large
house  made  use  of  for  the  admiralty  office,  until  the
business  was  removed  to  Greenwich,  and  thence  to
Wallingford  -house,  against  Whitehall."  It  was  re-
built by  Ripley  about  1726;  the  screen  was  erected,
to  conceal  the  ugliness  of  the  building,  by  the
brothers  Adam,  in  1776. — Lord  Nelson  lay  in  state
in  one  of  the  apartments  on  8  Jan.  1806 ;  and  on  the
next  day  was  buried  at  St.  Paul's.
Explosion  iu  clerks'  room  (ascribed  to  gunpowder  in  an

iron  pot) ;  Mr.  Swainson  much  hurt;  about  11  a.m.

23  April,  1885.

ADMIRALTY  and  WAR  OFFICE  ACT,

to  facilitate  improvements  in  the  organisation  of
these  offices,  by  the  retirement  of  clerks  from  certain
of  the  civil  departments  by  granting  gratuities,  Avas
passed  10  Aug.  1878.

"ADMONITION  to  the  Parliament,"

condemning  all  religious  ceremonies  but  those  com-
manded by  the  New  Testament,  was  published  by
certain  Puritans  in  1571.  Its  presumed  authors,
Field  and  Wilcox,  were  imprisoned.  A  second  Ad-
monition by  Thomas  Cartwright  was  answered  by
archbishop  Whitgift.

ADORNO  and  FREGOSO,  two  families,  of
which  the  doges  were  frequently  members,  dis-
turbed Genoa  from  the  14th  to  the  16th  centuries,
the  former  favouring  the  emperor,  the  latter  the
French  king.  Their  power  was  annihilated  by
Andrea  Doria  about  1528.

ADRIAN'S  or  HADRIAN'S  WALL  (to

prevent  the  irruptions  of  the  Scots  and  Piets
into  the  northern  counties  of  England,  then  under
the  Roman  government)  extended  from  the  Tyne
to  Solway  frith,  and  was  eighty  miles  long,  twelve
feet  high,  and  eight  feet  in  thickness,  with  watch-
towers  ;  built  121.  It  was  repaired  and  strengthened
by  Severus,  207 — 210.

ADRIANOPLE,  in  Turkey,  so  named  after
its  restorer  the  emperor  Adrian  (who  died  10  July,
138).  Near  here  Constantine  defeated  Licinius  and
gained  the  empire,  3  July,  323  ;  also,  near  here  the
emperor  Valcns  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Goths,
9  Aug.  378. Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Turks


under  Amurath  in  1361,  and  was  their  capital  till
the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  It  was  taken
by  the  Russians  on  20  Aug.  1829;  and  restored
14  Sept.  same  year ;  occupied  by  the  Russians,  with-
out resistance,  20  Jan.  1878.  Population  188?,
70,886. See  Turkey.

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of
Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  sea  (instituted  about
1 1 73),  took  place  annually  on  Ascension-day.  The
doge  dropped  a  ring  into  the  sea  from  his  bucentaur,
or  state  barge,  being  attended  by  his  nobility  and
foreign  ambassadors.  The  ceremony  was  first
omitted  in  1797.

ADULLAM,  a  cave  to  which  David  fled  from
the  persecution  of  Saul  about  1062  B.C.  (1  Sam.
xxii.  1,  2.)

Mr.  Horsman,  Mr.  R.  Lowe,  earl  Grosvenor,  lord  Elcho,
and  other  liberals  who  opposed  the  Franchise  Bill  in
1866  were  termed  "  Adullamites."  During  a  debate
on  this  bill  on  13  March,  1866,  Mr.  Bright  said  of  Mr.
Horsman,  that  he  "  had  retired  into  what  may  be  called
his  political  cave  of  Adullam,  to  which  he  invited
every  one  who  was  in  debt,  and  every  one  who  was
discontented,"  &c.  On  19  April,  lord  Elcho  said,  "  No
improper  motive  has  driven  us  into  this  cave,  where
we  are  a  most  happy  family,  daily — I  may  say,  hourly
— increasing  in  number  and  strength,  where  we  shall
remain  until  we  go  forth  to  deliver  Israel  from  oppres-
sion." Although  their  opposition  led  to  the  resig-
nation of  the  Russell  ministry,  they  declined  to
take  office  under  lord  Derby  in  July,  1866.  They  d:'d
not  vote  together  uniformly  in  1867,  and  (lord  Elcho
and  Mr.  Wyld  excepted)  voted  with  Mr.  Gladstone,
for  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  church,  1  May,
1868.

ADULTERATION.  That  of  food  was  pro-
hibited in  England  in  1267,  and  punishments  for
it  enacted,  1581,  1604,  1836,  1851,  &c.  Much
attention  was  drawn  to  it  in  1822,  through  Mr.  Ac-
cum's  book,  culled  "  Death  in  the  Pot,"  and  in  1855
through  Dr.  HassalFs  book,  "  Food  and  its  Adulte-
rations." By  an  act  for  preventing  the  adulteration
of  food,  passed  in  i860,  parochial  chemical  analysts
may  be  appointed.  An  act  to  prevent  adulteration
of  seeds  passed  16  Aug.  1869,  amended  1878.  An-
other to  prevent  adulteration  of  food  and  drugs
passed  10  Aug.  1872.  Penalties  for  adulterating
liquors  were  imposed  by  the  new  licensing  act  passed
same  time.  The  report  of  a  commission,  issued  in
July,  1874,  declared  that  the  public  "  were  cheated
rather  than  poisoned."  All  the  anti-adulteration
acts  were  repealed  by  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs
Act,  passed  11  Aug.  1875;  which  was  amended  in
1879  ;  reported  very  effectual  Dec.  1884.

ADULTERY  was  punished  with  death  by  the
law  of  Moses  (1490  B.C. ;  Lev.  xx.  10)— and  by  Ly-
curgus  (884  B.C.).  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the
adulteress,  and  erected  a  gibbet  over  her  ashes,
whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer.  The  ears  and
nose  were  cut  off  under  Canute,  1 03 1.  Adultery
was  ordained  to  be  punished  capitally  by  the  parlia-
ment, May  14,  1650  :  but  there  is  no  record  of  this
law  taking  effect ;  and  it  was  repealed  at  the  re-
storation. In  New  England  the  punishment  for
adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  and
several  suffered  for  it,  1662.  Hardie.  Till  1857  the
legal  redress  against  the  male  offender  was  by  civil
action  for  a  money  compensation;  the  female  being
liable  to  divorce.  By  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  85  (i8S7)
the  "action  for  criminal  conversation"  was  abolished,
and  the  Court  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes
established  with  power  to  grant  divorces  for  adultery
and  ill  usage  ;  see  Divorce.  An  act  was  passed  in
1869  permitting  parties  to  suits  for  adultery  to  give
evidence.


ADVENT.  14

ADVENT  {adventus,  arrival).  The  season
includes  four  Sundays,  previous  to  Christmas,  the
first  the  nearest  Sunday  to  St.  Andrew's  day
(Nov.  30),  before  or  after.  Homilies  respecting
Advent  are  mentioned  prior  to  378.  Advent  Sun-
day, 1893,  3  Dec;  1894,  2  Dec;  1895,  1  Dec.  ;
1896,  29  Nov.

ADVENTISTS  (Seventh-day),  an  American
sect  in  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.  A  large  conference
of  delegates  from  30  States  of  the  Union,  and  from
Europe,  met  at  Michigan,  7  March  1891.  The  presi-
dent Elson  reported  the  building  of  a  college  at
Lincoln,  Nebraska,  and  that  the  Pitcairn  Islanders
had  become  Adventists.

ADVENTURE  BAY,  S.E.  end  of  Van  Die-
men's  Land,  discovered  in  1773  by  capt.  Furneaux
in  his  first  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  and  named  from
his  ship  Adventure.  It  was  visited  by  capt.  Cook
1777;  by  capt.  Bligh  in  1788  and  1792.

ADVENTURESS,  see  Merchant.
ADVERTISEMENTS  m  Newspapers,

as  now  published,  were  not  general  in  England  till
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. A  penalty
of  50A  was  inflicted  on  persons  advertising  a  reward
with  "  No  questions  to  be  asked"  for  the  return  of
things  stolen,  and  on  the  printer,  1754. The  ad-
vertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) formerly
charged  according  to  the  number  of  lines,  was  after-
wards fixed,  in  England,  at  3s.  6d.,  and  in  Ireland
at  2s.  6d.  each  advertisement. The  duty  (further
reduced,  in  England  to  is.  6d.  and  in  Ireland  to  is.
each,  in  1833),  was  abolished  in  1853.
Early  advertisements  are  found  in  "Perfect  Occur-
rences of  every  Dale,"  26  March  to  2  April,  1647,
and  "  Mercurius  Elencticus  4  Oct.  1648
H. Sampson's "  History  of  Advertising," pub-
lished Nov.  1874

The  whole  libretto  of  Maefarren's  Opera,  Robin
Hood  inserted  as  an  advertisement  in  the  Times

(4J  columns) 16  Oct. i860

A  debate  in  the  Portuguese  parliament,  translated,
inserted  as  advertisement  in  the  Daily  Neios  (8

columns) 3  MaJr, l877

Advertising  Vans,  a  great  nuisance,  prohibited  .  1853
The  name  of  Mr.  H.  F.  Partridge,  surgeon-dentist,
Dublin,  was  struck  off  the  registry  of  the  General
Medical  Council  for  advertising  as  contrary  to  pro-
fessional rules,  June  1886  ;  confirmed  by  the  Court  of
Appeal,  22  March,  1892.

ADVOCATE,  The  King's,  (always  a  doctor
of  the  civil  law,)  was  empowered  to  prosecute  at  his
cwn  instance  certain  crimes  about  1597.  The  Lord
Advocate  in  Scotland  is  the  same  as  the  attorney-
general  in  England  with  judicial  powers. — It  was
decided  in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  in  1685,  that
the  king's  advocate  of  France  might  at  the  same
time  be  a  judge;  and  in  Scotland  sir  William  Oli-
phant  (1612)  and  sir  John  Nesbit  (1666)  were  lord
advocates  and  lords  of  session  at  the  same  time,
Beatson. — The  powers  were  diminished  in  188 1,
when  John  Blair  Balfour  was  made  Lord  Advo-
cate ;  the  right  lion.  J.  II.  A.  Macdonald,  1885-8 ;
Mr.  J.  P.  B.  Robertson,  1888-Sept.  1891,  succeeded
by  sir  Charles  John  Pearson,  1891,  by  Mr.  J.  B.
Balfour,  1892.  Mr.  Geo.  "VV.  T.  Omohd  published
his  work,  "  The  Lord  Advocates  of  Scotland,"  earhy
in  1884.  The  Advocates'  library  in  Edinburgh  was
established  by  sir  G.  Mackenzie  about  1682 ;  see
Judge  Advocate.

ADVOWSONS,  right  of  a  presentation  to  a
church  living. See  Benefice.

.ZEDILES-  Roman  city  officers  of  three  degrees,
said  to  owe  their  name  to  having  had  charge  of  the
cedes  or  temple  of  Ceres. 1.  Two  plebeian  aediles


JEOLOPILE.

were  appointed  with  the  tribunes,  to  assist  them  iii
looking  after  buildings,  weights  and  measures,  the
supply  of  provisions  and  water,  &c,  494  B.C.  2.
The  cediles  curules,  at  first  patricians,  were  ap-
pointed 365  B.C.  3.  Julius  Caesar  appointed  cediles
cereales  for  watching  over  the  supply  of  corn.  The
aediles  became  a  kind  of  police  under  the  emperors.
^RDUI  OK  HEDUI,  a  Celtic  people,  N.E.
France,  who  were  delivered  from  subjection  to  the
Sequani,  by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  58  ;  but  afterwards,
opposing  him,  were  subjugated  by  him,  52.  Their
insurrection  headed  by  Julius  Sacrovir,  a.d.  21,  was
quelled  by  C.  Silius.

AGATES  ISLES,  W.  of  Sicily :  near  these,
during  the  first  Punic  war,  the  Roman  consul,  C.
Lutatins  Catulus,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the
Carthaginian  fleet  under  Hanno,  10  March,  241  B.C.
Peace  ensued,  the  Romans  obtaining  Sicily  and  a
tribute  of  3200  talents.

.ZEGINA,  a  Greek  island,  a  rival  of  Athens,  was
humbled  by  Themistocles,  485  B.C.  ;  and  taken  and
its  works  destroyed  455.  Its  inhabitants,  expelled,
431,  were  restored  by  the  Spartans,  404;  they  re-
newed war  with  Athens,  388,  and  made  peace,  387.

^GOSPOTAMI,  (the  Goat-rivers)  in  the
Chersonesus,  where  Lysander,  the  Lacedaemonian,
defeated  the  Athenian  fieet,  405  B.C.,  and  ended  the
Peloponnesian  war.

A.  E.  I.  O.  U.,  (for  "Austria?  est  imperare
orbi  universi,"  (German,  alle  Erde  ist  Oesterreichs
unterthaii)  "Austria  is  to  rule  all  the  world,")
was  the  motto  of  the  weak  and  unfortunate  emperor,
Frederick  III.  1440 — 1493.

^ELFRIC  SOCIETY;  founded  1842;  closed
1856;  published  "  Homilies  of  ^Elfric,  archbishop
of  Canterbury"  and  other  Anglo-Saxon  works.

MIAA.  CAPITOLINA,  built  on  the  ruins  of
Jerusalem  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  130.

-ZEMILIA,  the  name  given  to  the  provinces  of
Parma,  Modena,  and  the  Romagna,  united  to  Sar-
dinia in  i860,  and  now  part  of  the  kingdom  of
Italy.

2ENEID,  the  great  Latin  epic  poem,  relating
the  adventures  of  jEneas,  written  about  24  B.C.  by
Virgil,  who  died  22  Sept.  19  B.C.,  before  he  had
finally  corrected  the  poem.  It  was  first  printed  in
1469,  at  Rome.

.ZENIGMA.  Samson's  riddle  (about  1 141  B.C. ;
Judges  xiv.  12)  is  the  earliest  on  record.  Gale  at-
tributes aenigmatical  speeches  to  the  Egyptians.
The  ancient  oracles  frequently  gave  responses  ad-
mitting of  perfectly  contrary  interpretations.  In
Nero's  time,  the  Romans  had  recourse  to  this
method  of  concealing  truth.  The  following  epitaph
on  Fair  Rosamond  (mistress  of  our  Henry  II.  about
1 173)  is  a  mediaeval  specimen: — "Hie  jacet  in
tomba  Rosa  mundi,  non  Rosa  munda  ;  Non  redolet,
sed  olet,  quae  redolere  solet."

.ZEOLIA,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  colonised  by  a
principal  branch  of  the  Hellenic  race  about  1 124  B.C.
The  jEolians  built  several  large  cities  both  on  the
mainland  and  the  neighbouring  islands ;  Mitylene,
in  Lesbos,  was  considered  the  capital.

iEOLIAN  HARP.  Its  invention  is  ascribed
to  Kircher,  1 650,  who  wrote  on  it,  but  it  was  known
before.

JEOLINA,  a  free-reed  wind-instrument,  in-
vented by  Wheatstone  in  1829.

iEOLOPILE,  a  hollow  ball  with  an  orifice  in
which  a  tube  might  be  screwed,  was  used  in  the


AEQUI.


15


AFGHANISTAN.


17th  century  as  a  boiler  for  experimental  steam-
engines;  a  similar  apparatus  is  described  by  Vi-
truvius,  first  century,  a.d.

-53QUI,  an  ancient  Italian  race,  were  subdued
by  the  Romans,  and  their  lauds  annexed,  after  a
severe  struggle,  471-302  B.C.

■  AERAS,  see  Eras.

AERATED  WATERS.  Apparatus  for  com-
bining gases  with  water  were  patented  by  Thomson
in  1807;  F.  C.  Bakewell  in  1832  and  1847;  Tylor
in  1840,  and  by  others.  Aerated  bread  is  made
by  processes  patented  bj'  Dr.  Dauglish,  1856-7.

AERIANS,  followers  of  Aerius,  a  presbyter,  in
the  4th  century,  who  held  that  there  was  no  dis-
tinction between  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter;  that
there  was  no  Paseh  to  be  observed  by  Christians ;
that  the  Lent  and  other  fasts  should  not  be  observed  ;
and  that  prayers  should  not  be  offered  for  the  dead.
Epiphanius.

AEROLITES,  see  Meteors.

AERONAUTICS  and  AEROSTATICS,
see  -Balloons  and  Flying.  The  Aeronautical  Society
of  Great  Britain  was  established  by  the  duke  of
Argyll  and  others,  12  Jan.  1866.

AEROPHORE,  an  apparatus  invented  by  M.
Denayrouze,  to  enable  persons  to  enter  a  noxious
inflammable  atmosphere.  It  comprises  an  air-pump,
lamp,  and  flexible  tubing.  It  was  tried  at  Chat-
ham, 12-14  Jan-5  1875,  and  reported  successful.
A  gold  medal  was  awarded  to  the  inventor  at  the
Vienna  Exhibition,  1873.

The  name  Aerophor  was  given  to  an  apparatus,  invented
by  a  German  engineer,  to  introduce  a  very  fine  water-
cloud  into  textile  factories  to  nullify  the  injurious
effects  of  the  frictional  electricity  generated  by  the
machinery.  In  1890  the  apparatus  was  reported  suc-
cessful in  Germany  and  England.

AERO-STEAM  ENGINE,  see  under  Air.
AESCULAPIUS,  god  of  medicine :  his  wor-
ship introduced  at  Rome,  about  291  B.C.

AESOP'S  FABLES,  see  Fables.

AESTHETICS  (from  the  Greek  aisthesis,  per-
ception), the  science  of  the  beautiful  (especially  in
art) ;  a  term  invented  by  Baumgarten,  a  German
philosopher,  whose  work  "  JEsthetica "  was  pub-
lished in  1750.

^ETHIOPIA,  see  Ethiopia.

"  AETHIOPICA,"  see  Romances.

AETIANS,  followers  of  Aetius,  an  Arian  heretic
about  351.

AETNA,  see  Etna.

AETOLTA,  in  Greece,  a  country  named  after
JEtolus  of  Elis,  who  is  said  to  have  accidentally
killed  a  son  of  Pboroneus,  king  of  Argos,  left  the
Peloponnesus,  and  settled  here.  After  the  ruin  of
Athens  and  Sparta,  the  iEtolians  became  the  rivals
of  the  Aehoeans,  and  were  alternately  allies  and
enemies  of  Rome.

The  iEtolians  .join  Sparta  against  Athens  B.C.  455

The  iEtolian  league  of  tribes  opposes  Macedon  .  .  323
Invaded  by  Antipater  during  the  Lamian  war  .  .  322
Aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Gauls  ....  279
Invade  the  Peloponnesus,  and  ravage  Messenia  (Social

War),  and  defeat  the  Aehajans  at  Caphyae  .  .  220
Philip  V.,  of  Macedon,  invades yEtolia,  and  takes

Thermum—  Peace  of  Naupactus  concluded . .217

Alliance  wi tli  Rome 211

Deserted  by  the  Romans,  the  iEtolians  make  peace

with  Philip 205

War  with  Philip,  200  :  lie  is  defeated  at  Cynoscephalse  197
The  iEtolians  invite  the  kings  of  Macedon,  Syria,  and

Sparta,  to  coalesce  against  the  Romans  .  .  193-2
Defeat  of  the  allies  near  Thermopylae .  . .  191


Conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Fulvius  .  b.c. 189.

Leading  patriots  massacred  by  the  Roman  party . 167
iEtolia  made  a  province  of  Rome ....  146

AFFINITY.  Marriage  within  certain  degrees
of  kindred  was  prohibited  in  almost  every  age  and
country,  but  has  yet  taken  place  to  a  considerable-
extent.  The  Jewish  law  is  given  in  Leviticus  xviiL
(1490  B.C.)  In  the  English  prayer-book  the  table-
restricting  marriage  within  certain  degrees  was  set
forth  by  authority,  1563.  Prohibited  marriages
were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful  by  the-
99th  canon,  in  1603.  All  marriages  within  the  for-
bidden degrees  are  declared  to  be  absolutely  void  by
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  e.  54,  1835  ;  see  Marriage  (of
Wife's  Sister).  The  prohibited  degrees  were  set
forth  in  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  22,  1 533-4.  See  Incest.

AFFIRMATION ;  see  Quakers.  The  affirma-
tion was  altered  in  1702,  1721,  1837,  and  in  April,.
1859. — The  indulgence  was  granted  to  persons  who-
were  formerly  Quakers,  but  who  had  seceded  from
that  sect,  2  Vict.  1838  ;  and  extended  to  other  dis-
senters by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  32  (1828),  and  18  &  19  Vict-
c.  2  (1855).  For  Mr.  Bradlaugh's  case,  see  Far-
liament,  1880- 1,  1883,  and  Oaths.
Affirmation  Bill  for  M.P.'s  introduced,  1883  ;  rejected  in  -

the  commons  (292-289)  3—4  May,  1883. Affirmations.

were  substituted  for  oaths  by  an  act  passed  24  Dec.  1888.

AFGHANISTAN  (the  Greek  Ariana),  a  large

country in  central  Asia, successively  part  of  the-

Persian  and  Greek  empires. Chief  cities, CabulT.

Herat,  Candahar,  Ghuznee. The  tribes  are  ruled!

by  sirdars. Population  1891,  about  4,000,000.

Early  Afghan  conquests  in  India . . 1200-1290.

Conquests  of  Genghis  Khan  about  1221,  and  by
Tamerlane

Baber  conquered  Cabul

On  his  death  Afghanistan  divided  between  Persia
and  Hindostan.

The  Afghans  revolt  in  1720  ;  invade  Persia  and  take
Ispahan  ;  repulsed  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1728,  who
subdues  the  whole  of  the  country

On  his  assassination,  one  of  his  officers,  Ahmed
Shah,  an  Afghan,  made  Afghanistan  indepen-
dent, and  reigned  prosperously . . . 1747-73

Timur  Shah  (son),  succeeds,  1773  ;  rules  cruelly  ;
dies  leaving  23  sons

Zeman  becomes  ameer,  1793  ;  cripples  the  power  of
the  sirdars  ;  blinded  and  dethroned

Mahmud  Shah,  son,  ameer  1800 ;  deposed  for  his
brother,  Suja  Shah,  1803  ;  Mahmud  restored,
Futtih  Khan  the  vizier  predominant,  1809 ;
Futtih  blinded ;  Mahmud  flees  from  Cabul  and
becomes  ruler  at  Herat

Impotent  rulers  at  Cabul ;  Dost  Mohammed  Khan
becomes  ameer  . .  •

He  is  dethroned  by  the  British,  and  sent  to  Cal-
cutta ;  Suja  Shall  restored jS-,

British  occupation  of  Cabul  causes  great  discou- J
tent ;  insurrection  ;  sir  Alexander  Burnes  and  23
others  killed ?  l\ov.

Akbar  Khan,  son  of  Dost  Mohammed,  head  of  the
rebels  ;  invites  sir  Win.  Maenaghten  to  meet,  and
assassinates  him  and  others . . 23  Dec.

The  British  army  retires  from  Cabul,  and  is  de-
stroyed by  the  Ghilzais  in  the  Kliyber  pass  ;  of
3849  soldiers,  and  about  12,000  camp  followers,
only  Dr.  Brydone  and  four  or  five  natives  escaped
massacre ......  6-13  Jan.

Sir  George  Pollock  forces  the  Kliyber  pass  ;  defeats
Akbar  Khan  at  Tezeen;  captures  Cabul  and  re-
leases lady  Sale  and  others,  16  Sept.  ;  destroys
the  great  bazaar  ;  retires . . . 12  (Jet.

Dost  Mohammed  becomes  ameer

His  treaty  of  friendship  with  lord  Dalhousie  (faith-
fully kept) 3o  March  t8SS

He  dies  leaving  16  sons;  appointing  as  his  suc-
cessor Shere  AH,  the  third  son,  9  June  :  who  is
much  opposed  by  his  brothers,  especially  by
Ufzul,  the  eldest  son  (and  his  son  Abdul-Rah-
man, or  Abdiir-Rahman),  Azim,  Ameen,  and  Shu-
reef;  yet  is  recognized  by  them . . Sept.  1863


1393.
152s


173S


179?
1S00


1816
1826


1843


1S42


AFGHANISTAN.


16


AFGHANISTAN.


Unsuccessful  insurrection  of  Ufzul  and  Azim  ;  Azira
flees  to  British  territories,  16  May  ;  Ufzul  recon-
ciled to  Shere  Ali 2  June 1864

Insurrection  of  Abdul-Rahman  ;  Ufzul  imprisoned

Aug. „

Shere  Ali  enters  Cabul  . . .  . 14  Nov. ,,

Azim  and  his  confederates  defeated  at  Kujhboz,
near  Khelat-i-Ghilzye,  by  Shere  Ali  (whose  gal-
Jant  son  is  killed),  6  June  ;  he  enters  Candahar,

14  June, 1865

Azim  joins  his  nephew  Abdul-Rahman  ;  defection
of  Mahomed  Rufeek  from  Ibrahim  (Shere  Ali's
son)  weakly  ruling  Cabul  ;  it  surrenders  to
Azim 2  March,  1866

Shere  Ali  rouses  himself  from  his  grief ;  raises  an
army ;  some  of  his  treacherous  friends  return  to
5iim  ;  he  is  defeated  at  Sheikhabad,  and  flees  to
Candahar .10  May,

Ufzul  (sensual  and  easy), and Azim  (cruel  and

• tyrannical)  rule  at  Cabul  . . .  May,  et  seq.

Azim  and  Abdul-Rahman  defeat  Shere  Ali  at
Kujhbaz,  17  Jan.  ;  he  flees  to  Candahar  :  shut  out,
flees  to  Herat  held  by  his  son,  Yakoob . Jan.

His  army  again  defeated  and  his  general  and
brother,  Fyz  Mahommed,  killed . . 17  Sept.

Ufzul  dies  ;  Azim  sole  ruler  at  Cabul . Oct.

He  quarrels  with  Abdul-Rahman  ;  who  leaves  him,
and  refuses  to  help  him  . . . March,

Yakoob  defeats  Azim's  troops,  and  enters  Canda-
har April,

Azim  leaves  Cabul,  July  ;  his  army  dissolves  by
desertion  ;  Shere  Ali  enters  Cabul . 8  Sept.

Sir  John  Lawrence  helps  Shere  Ali  with  arms  and
money  ;  the  attempts  of  Abdul-Rahman  repulsed,

Nov.,  Dec.

Shere  Ali  totally  defeats  him  and  Azim  (who  dies
soon  after) Jan.

Shere  Ali  honourably  received  at  Umballah  by  the

viceroy,  the  earl  of  Mayo,  and  receives  a  subsidy,

27  March,  et  seq.

The  limits  of  his  territories  defined,  about  June 1870

His  son,  Yakoob,  rebels  ;  captures  Herat 6  May,

Feramoz  Khan,  his  father's  general,  assassinated,

June,

Yakoob  reconciled  to  his  father  through  lord  Mayo,
July  ;  made  governor  of  Herat ;  soon  rebels,  Sept.

Uslum, murderer of Feramoz,  killed  in  prison,

Oct.

Shere  Ali  agrees  to  new  boundaries,  and  receives
another  British  subsidy,  Oct.  ;  nominates  his
youngest  son,  Abdoola  Jan,  his  successor,  to  the
great  dissatisfaction  of  his  older  son  Yakoob,

Dec. 1873

Yakoob  Khan,  imprisoned  by  his  father

about  Dec.  1874

Shere  Ali  refusing  to  allow  a  British  Resident,  the
subsidy  withheld  ;  he  raises  an  army,  and  is  said
to  promote  disaffection  to  the  British . . 1877-8

Death  of  the  heir  Abdoola  Jan  . . . 17  Aug.  1878

Stolietoff,  a  Russian  envoy,  favourably  received  at
Cabul,  June ;  a  treaty  signed  ;  Russia  to  be  the
guardian  of  the  Ameer  . . . Aug. ,,

The  nawab  Gholam  Hussein  Khan  sent  as  envoy  to
the  ameer  with  letters  from  the  viceroy  (16  and
24  Aug.),  30  Aug.  ;  dismissed  with  presents  ;
intercourse  with  the  British  declined . Sept. ,,

A  mission  with  military  escort  under  sir  Neville  B.
Chamberlain,  commander  of  the  Madras  army,
starts  from  Peshawur ... 21  Sept. „

At  Ali  Musjid,  a  fort  in  the  Khyber  pass,  major
Cavagnari  and  an  advance  party  are  threatened
with  attack  if  they  proceed,  22  Sept.  ;  they  retire
to  Peshawur,  23,  24  Sept.  ;  Gholam  Hussein  sent
■with  an  ultimatum  (answer  required  before  20
Nov.)  28  Oct.

British  army  formed  in  three  divisions  :  at  Quettah,
Peshawur,  and  Kuram  (34,730  natives,  12,740
Europeans) .... about  16  Nov.

Dispatch  from  lord  Cranbrook  supporting  the
viceroy 18  Nov.

No  answer  received  from  the  ameer  ;  the  army  ad-
vances 21  Nov.

Ali  Musjid  shelled  and  occupied  by  the  British  ;  21
guns  taken ;  major  Birch  and  lieut.  Fitzgerald
and  about  35  men  killed . . .22  Nov.

The  viceroy's  proclamation  to  the  Afghans,  issued

23  Nov.


Occupation  of  Dakka  and  Pisheen,  23  Nov.  ;  of

Kuram  fort 25  Nov.

Kudduni  burnt  to  punisli  marauding  hillmen,

1  Dec.
Gen.  Roberts  victorious  at  Peiwar  pass  (which  see)

2  Dec.
Evasive  reply  of  the  ameer  dated  19  Nov.,  received

3  Dec.
The  British  occupy  Jellalabad  .  .  20  Dec.
Shere  Ali  flees  from Cabul  to  Balkh, 13 Dec.  ;

Yakoob  Khan  assumes  command  ;  the  Russian
mission  withdraws Dee.

Gen.  Roberts  proclaims  annexation  of  Kuram
district,  &c. 26  Dec.

He  enters  the  Khoost  territory  3  Jan.  ;  defeats  the
Mangals  near  Matoon .... 7  Jan.

Candahar  abandoned,  6  Jan. ;  entered  by  general
Stewart  unopposed 7  Jan.

Wali  Mahomed,  a  relative  of  Shere  Ali,  joins  the
British Jan.

The  Alizais  defeated  in  an  attack . .16  Feb.

Death  of  Shere  Ali,  the  ameer  (announced)  20  Feb.

About  46  of  the  10th  hussars  drowned  by  current
while  crossing  the  Cabul  river,  10  p.m.  31  March,

Gen.  Gough,  with  the  10th  hussars  and  others,
defeats  about  5000  Khugianis  near  Futtehabad ;
gallant  major  Wigram  Batty  killed . 2  April,

Yakoob  Khan,  son  of  the  late  ameer,  arrives  at
Gandamak  to  negotiate,  8  May  ;  recognised  as
ameer 9  May

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Gandamak  ;  (the  British
to  occupy  Khyber  pass,  and  the  Kuram  and
Pisheen  valleys  ;  to  have  a  Resident  at  Cabul ;  and
to  pay  an  annual  subsidy  of  6o,oooi.  to  the  ameer),
26  May  ;  ratified  30  May  ;  the  British  troops  retire

8  June,

Sir  Louis  Cavagnari  and  escort  honourably  re-
ceived in  Cabul  .... 24  July,

Thanks  of  the  house  of  lords  voted  to  the  viceroy,
officers,  and  men 4  Aug.

Several  regiments  of  Afghan  soldiers  arrive  in
Cabul  from  Herat ;  about  13  Aug.  aided  by  the
populace  they  besiege  the  British  residents,  who
after  a  brave  resistance  are  massacred  (including
sirL.  Cavagnari,  Mr.  Jenkyns,  his  secretary,  lieut.
Hamilton,  and  Dr.  Ambrose  Kelly),  witli  about
26  native  cavalry  and  50  infantry ;  a  few  natives
escape 3,  4  Sept.

Gen.  Roberts  marches  towards  Cabul  6  Sept.  et  seq.

Mutiny  at  Herat ;  military  and  civil  governors  killed

5  Sept.

Repulse  of  an  attack  on  Baker's  entrenchments  at
Shutargardan 19  Sept.

A  British  convoy  attacked  by  Mongols,  near
Shutargardan  ;  8  sepoys  and  15  muleteers  killed  ;
mules  taken 22  Sept.

Gen.  Baker  reaches  Kushi  24  Sept.  ;  receives  the
ameer  Yakoob  and  his  son,  his  general  Daoud,
and  suite 27  Sept.

Gen.  Roberts  arrives  at  Cabul,  28  Sept. ;  occu-
pies Dakka 29  Sept.

Attack  on  British  camp  at  Shutargardan  repulsed

2  Oct.

Battle  of  Char-asiab  ;  severe  conflict  with  Afghans
before  Cabul ;  captain  Young,  Dr.  Duncan,  lieut.
Fergusson,  and  about  70  killed  and  wounded  .

6  Oct.

The  enemy  decamps  ;  about  98  guns  abandoned  ;
pursued  by  cavalry ;  small  parties  only  overtaken

8-9  Oct.

Gen.  Roberts  visits  the  abandoned  Bala  Hissar,  11
Oct  ;  enters  Cabul,  12  Oct.  ;  Jellalabad  occupied
by  Gough 14  Oct.

Gen.  Roberts'  proclamation ;  heavy  fine ;  martial
law  ;  gen.  Hills  to  be  military  governor,  with
Gholab  Hussein  Khan  ... 14  Oct.

Great  explosions  (supposed  treacherous)  in  the  Bala
Hissar  ;  destruction  of  much  arms  and  ammuni-
tion :  capt.  Shafto  and  about  20  others  missing

16  Oct.

Abdication  of  Yakoob  Khan  announced 19  Oct.

5  prisoners  (mollahs  and  others)  hanged  as  mur-
derers of  major  Cavagnari  and  others 20-24  Oct.

Sahib  Jan,  a '  freebooter,  with  a  strong  force  of
Taraki  Ghilzais,  defeated  and  killed  by  general
Hughes  at  Shahjui,  near  Candahar . 24  Oct.


187S


1879


AFGHANISTAN.


17


AFGHANISTAN.


Proclamation  of  gen.  Roberts  announcing  British
occupation  of  Cabul,  &c. ... 30  Oct.

Junction  of  columns  of  generals  Macpherson  and.
Bright  at  Katasang  .... 6  Nov.

163  Afghan  mutineers,  &c,  tried  ;  87  executed  as
murderers  ;  76  released . . . Oct.  Nov.

Combination  of  tribes  under  Mohammed  Jan
Wardak Dec.

Continued  severe  fighting,  with  heavy  loss  on  both
sides 11-14  Dec.

Gen.  Roberts  concentrates  his  forces  in  the
Sherpur  cantonments . . . -14  Dec.

Musa  Khan,  son  of  Yakoob,  said  to  be  proclaimed
ameer about  17  Dec.

Gen.  Gough  at  Jugdulluk  attacked  ;  retreats  into
the  fort,  16  Dec.  ;  indecisive  conflicts  18,  19  Dec.

The  Afghans  (25,000)  defeated  with  great  loss  near
Sherpur  cantonments,  by  gens.  Roberts  and
Gough 23  Dec.

Cabul  left  by  the  enemy,  24  Dec. ;  the  city  and
Bala  Hissar  reoccupied  by  the  British 26  Dec.

The  enemy  dispersed .... 28  Dec.

Attack  of  Afghan  chiefs  on  col.  Norman  repulsed
at  Jagdalak 29  Dec.

Ghuznee  seized  and  held  for  Musa  Khan  as  the  new
ameer,  by  Mohammed  Jan . about  10  Jan.

Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty  with few

exceptions  ;  the  hill  tribes  generally  subdued,

about  6  Jan.

Mohmands  and  other  tribes  defeated  in  an  attack
near  Daka 15  Jan.

Correspondence  with  Russia ;  papers  found  in
Cabul  (to  be  kept  secret) ... 6  Feb.

Musa  Khan  and  chiefs  at  Ghuznee  submit  21  March,

Mohammed  Jan  defeated  and  killed,  righting  with
Hazaris . .  . about  3  April,

A  camp  at  Duwai  attacked  by  Pathans  ;  garrison
killed 16  April,

Shere  Ali,  cousin  of  the  late  ameer,  made  wali  or
governor  of  Candahar  by  the  British  (see
Candahar) April,

Gen.  sir  Donald  Stewart  defeats  a  furious  attack  of
Ghilzais  at  Ahmad  Khel,  19  April ;  again  near
Ghuznee 23  April,

Col.  Jenkins,  at  Char-asiab,  attacked  by  4000
Logaris ;  resists  till  reinforced  by  gen.  Mac-
pherson ;  totally  defeats  them . 25  April,

Sir  D.  Stewart  takes  chief  command  at  Cabul

2  May,

Alleged  defeats  of  Safls  and  Ghazis  near  Jellalabad

19,  22  May,

Gen.  Burrows  (with  about  2400  men)  sent  from
Bombay  towards  Candahar  . . 1  July,

The  troops  of  the  inefficient  wali  of  Candahar,
Shere  Ali,  revolt  and  join  Ayoob  Khan,  about

14  July,

Gen.  Burrows  at  Maiwand,  near  Kusck-i-Nakhud
(which  see) 17  July,

Abdul-Rahman,  or  Abdur-Rahmau,  born  1845  (see
above,  1863  et  seq.),  recognised  as  ameer  at  Cabul
by  the  British,  and  proclaimed . . 22  July

Ayoob  Khan  (son  of  the  late  ameer,  Shere  Ali),
governor  of  Herat,  marches  upon  Candahar  with
about  12,000  men  and  20  guns  ;  defeats  the  attack
of  gen.  Burrows  after  severe  conflicts  ;  heavy  loss
on  both  sides ;  many  officers  of  66th  regiment
killed 27  July,

Candahar  citadel  held  by  British  with  about  4000
men 28  July,

Ayoob  encamped  at  Kokaran . . .9  Aug.

Gen.  sir  F.  Roberts  with  about  10,000  men,  &c,
marches  from  Cabul  to  relieve  Candahar 9  Aug.

Sir  D.  Stewart,  with  all  the  troops,  after  an  inter-
view with  the  ameer  Abdur-Rahman,  withdraws
from  Cabul 11  Aug.

Attack  of  Pathans  (hill  tribes)  on  the  post  at  Kaeh
Amadan  firmly  beaten  off  by  sepoys  ;  80  Pathans
killed 16  Aug

Ineffectual  sortie  from  Candahar,  under  gen.
Primrose,  against  Deh  Kwajee  village,  with  heavy
loss  on  both  sides  ;  gen.  Brooke,  col.  Newport,
majors  Vandaleur  and  French,  capt.  Cruickshank,
lieut.  Marsh,  and  rev.  Mr.  Gordon,  and  180  men
killed 16  Aug.

Ayoob  Khan's  army  (strengthened  by  Ghilzais)
about  20,000 ;  about  25  Aug.  ;  he  retires  from
Candahar about  30  Aug.


1879


Gen.  Roberts  arrives  at  Candahar,  31  Aug.  ;  de-
clines Ayoob's  terms  ;  defeats  and  disperses  his
army  at  Mazra  near  the  Argandab ;  and  captures
his  camp  at  Baba  Wali  Kotal  (see  Mazra)  1  Sept.  1880

Ayoob  Khan  arrives  in  Herat ;  reported 10  Oct. ,,

Tranquillity  at  Cabul,  announced . . Nov. ,,

Shere  Ali,  wali  of  Candahar,  resigns  and  retires  to
India Dec. „

Alleged  expenses  of  the  war,  1878-80,  23,494,480?.,  of
which  5,000,000?.  paid  by  British  exchequer,  Aug.  1881

Russian  correspondence  with  the  ameer  Shere  Ali
in  1878,  published ;  explained  by  Russia  as  re-
lating to  probable  war  in  the  east . 9,  10  Feb. „

Thanks  of  parliament  voted  to  gen.  Roberts  and
the  army  in  both  houses ... 5  May, „

Prospect  of  war  between  Ayoob  Khan  of  Herat  and
Abdur-Rahman  of  Cabul . . May,  June, „

Conflicts  between  partisans  of  the  ameer  and  Ayoob
Khan  ;  the  latter  defeated . . 3  &  11  June ,,

Ayoob  Khan  defeats  the  ameer's  army  under
Gholam-Hyder  at  Karez-i-atta,  26  July ;  enters
Candahar 30  July, ,,

Gholam  Hyder  holding  Kelat-i-Ghilzai,  6  Aug.  ;
receives  reinforcements  from  Cabul . 21  Aug. ,,

Ayoob  prepares  to  march ;  the  ameer's  troops  at
Kelat-i-Ghilzai  ;  rejects  Ayoob's  proposals,  1-4
Sept. ;  marches  to  Candahar  ;  about  8  Sept. „

Ayoob  defeated  at  Old  Candahar  chiefly  through
desertion  of  his  troops,  flees  to  Herat . 22  Sept. ,,

The  ameer  enters  Candahar . . .30  Sept. ,,

His  army  under  Abdul-Kudus  Khan  twice  defeats
Ayoob's  adherents,  Oct.;  again  . . .  2  Oct. ,,

Enters  Herat 4  Oct. ,,

Ayoob  flees  to  Persia 4  Oct. ,,

Abdur-Rahman  now  virtual  ruler  of  all  Afghanistan

Oct. „

Afzul  Khan  chosen  by  the  ameer  as  British  resi-
dent in  Cabul Feb.  1882

The  ameer  defeats  the  Shinwarris about  27  April,  1883

Peace  made about  21  June, ,,

Indian  government  grants  subsidy  to  the  ameer  ;
accepted 21  July, ,,

Slight  insurrection  of  the  Ghilzais  under  Mollah
Mushki  Alum,  announced . . .24  Aug. „

The  proposal  of  an  Afghan  frontier  commission
accepted  by  the  ameer ....  Aug.  1884

Gen.  Sir  Peter  Lumsden  with  staff  proceeds,  and
successful  progress  reported  . . Oct.,  Dec. ,,

Penjdeh  assured  to  Afghanistan  by  Lord  Auckland,
1840  ;  Russian  advances  resisted  up  to  Nov.  1884.
The  ameer  visits  Lord  Dufferin,  the  viceroy,  at
Rawul  Pindi  2-12  April,  who  declares  at  a  grand
durbar,  England  and  Afghanistan  will  stand  side
by  side 8  April  1885

Sir  Peter  Lumsden  arrives  in  London  .  6  June, ,,

Difference  between  England  and  Russia  respecting
the  Zulfikar  Pass July, ,,

Strong  Russian  garrison  at  Askabad . . July, „

The  Russians  relinquish  Zulfikar  Pass,  announced

22  Aug. „

Anglo-Russian  Protocol,  closing  the  dispute,  signed
in  London 10  Sept. ,,

Construction  of  Quetta  Railway  begun  Sept.  1879  ;
stopped  Oct.  1880  ;  resumed  April  1884.  Lower
Bolan  Railway  joining  India  opened . 28  Oct. ,,

Penjdeh  given  up  to  Russia,  July, 1885,  entered

13  Feb.  1886

Joint  Commission  appointed  ;  First  boundary  pillar
formally  erected  12  Nov.  1885  ;  the  last,  many
perils  and  privations  endured . . . July, ,,

Joint  Commission  dissolved . . . . 6  Sept. ,,

Sir  Joseph  West  Ridgeway,  chief,  and  the  Commis-
sion warmly  received  at  Cabul  . .  15  Oct. ,,

Rising  against  taxation  (treasure  seized  in  transit)
about  30  Oct.  ;  rebellion  said  to  be  repressed

Nov. ,,

The  ameer's  troops  defeated  by  the  Ghilzais,
announced  19  April ;  again  at  Khelat-i-Ghilzai,
announced . • 25  April,  1887

Meetings  of  Afghan  Frontier  Commission  at  St.
Petersburg;  temporarily  closed  12  May ;  resumed
6  July  ;  question  settled . .  .20  July, „

Mutiny  of  Ghilzais  at  Herat,  suppressed  with  much
bloodshed 9  June, ,

General Gholam  reported that  he  defeated the

Ghilzais 13  &  16  June,

C


AFEICA.


18


AFEICA.


The  ameer  proclaims  peace,  amnesty  and  remission

of  taxes  for  two  years,  announced  .  .  8  July,  1887
Great  defeat  of  the  rebels  at  Mashakai,  announced

15  July> ..

Keported  conflicting  accounts  of  victory  of  Gholam
Hyder  Khan  at  Kotaldab . . .26  July, „

Taimar  Shah,  chief  of  the  Herat  mutineers,  ex-
ecuted at  Cabul 13  July, „

Eebellion  said  to  have  collapsed  21  Aug.  ;  several
tribes  return  home 29  Aug. „

Escape  of  Ayoob  Khan  from  Teheran,  14  Aug.  ;
enters  Afghanistan  with  a  few  followers  and  is
driven  out early  Sept. „

Severe  fighting  at  Mashakai  between  the  ameer's
troops  and  the  insurgents . . .31  Aug. „

Fighting  near  Mukur  ;  rebel  leader,  Jalander  Khan
captured 7  Sept. „

Reported  fighting  with  varying  success Sept. -Oct. ,,

Ayoob  Khan  surrenders  at  Meshed  to  the  Indian
government,  announced  .... 9  Nov. ,,

Southern  Afghanistan  quiet,  announced .  13  Nov. ,,

Reported  conflict  between  ameer's  troops  and  the
insurgents,  60  killed 15  Nov. ,,

Amnesty proclamation issued by the ameer

10  Dec. ,,

Conflict  between  Afghans  and  Turcomans,  Afghans
victorious 9  May,  1888

Revolt  of  Ishak  Khan,  governor  of  Afghan  Turkestan,
Aug.  ;  defeated  at  Tash  Kurgan  29  Sept.  1888;
at  Mazari  Sherif  30  Sept.  ;  Ishak  Khan  a  fugitive
in  Russian  territory , ,

The  ameer  narrowly  escapes  assassination.  26  Dec. ,,

The  ameer's  troops  under  Gholam  Hyder  defeat
the  Shinwarris 3  Feb.  1889

Gholam Hyder Khan, made Governor-General

20  Feb. , ,

Abdur-Rahman  (two  years  absent)  returns  to  Cabul
with  strengthened  power .  . . Aug.  1890

Disputes  with  the  Russians  respecting  the  Pamir
frontier Sept.,  Oct.  1891

Mr.  T.  S.  Pyne,  engineer-in-chief  to  the  ameer  (55
years),  reports  great  prog]  ess  in  arts  and  manu-
factures Feb.  1892

AFEICA,  called  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of
the  three  parts  of  the  ancient  world,  and  the  great"
■est  peninsula  of  the  globe.  For  its  history,  see
Egypt,  Ethiopia,  Carthage,  Cyrene,  Abyssinia,
Cape,  Algiers,  Morocco,  Ashantee,  South  Africa,  §-c.

•Carthage  subdued  by  the  Romans,  146  b.c.  ;  other  pro-
vinces gained  by  Pompey,  82.

Revolts  subdued  by  Diocletiau,  a.d.  296  ;  by  Theodosius,
373-

N.  Africa  conquered  by  the  Vandals  under  Genseric,
429-35  ;  re-conquered  by  Belisarius,  533-55.

The  Saracens  subdue  the  north  of  Africa,  637 — 709.

Portuguese  settlements  begun,  1450.

Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered  by  Diaz,  1487.

Vasco  de  Gama  doubles  the  Cape  and  explores  the  coast,
19  Nov.  1497.

English  merchants  visit  Guinea  in  1550  ;  and  Elizabeth
granted  a  patent  to  an  African  company  in  1588.

Dutch  colony  at  the  Cape  founded,  1650.

Capt.  Stubbs  sailed  up  the  Gambia,  1723.

Bruce  commenced  his  travels  in  1768.

Sierra  Leone  settled  by  the  English,  1787.

Mungo  Park  made  his  first  voyage  to  Africa,  22  May,
1795  ;  his  second,  30  January,  1804,  and  never  returned
(see  Park).

Africa  visited  by  Salt,  1805  and  1809  ;  Burckhardt,  1812  ;
Campbell,  1813  ;  Hornemann,  1816  ;  Denham  and  Clap-
perton,  1822 ;  Laing,  1826 ;  the  brothers  Lander,
1830.

Expedition  to  the  Niger  originated  by  Mr.  Macgregor,
Laird  of  Liverpool ;  he  went  out  with  Mr.  Lauder  and
lieut.  Win.  Allen,  and  they  made  a  reliable  survey  of
the  river;  July,  et  seq.  1832.

The  great  Niger  expedition  to  start  a  colony  in  Central
Africa  (for  which  parliament  voted  6o,oooZ.),  consisting
of  the  Albert,  Wilberforce,  and  Soudan  steamships,
commenced  the  ascent  of  the  Niger,  20  Aug.  1841  ;
when  they  reached  Iddah,  fever  broke  out  among  the
crews,  and  they  were  successively  obliged  to  return,
the  Albert  having  ascended  the  river  to  Egga,  320  miles
from  the  sea,  28  Sept.  The  expedition  was  relinquished
owing  to  disease,  heat,  and  hardships,  and  all  the


vessels  had  cast  anchor  at  Clarence  Cove,  Fernando
Po,  17  Oct.  1841.
James  Richardson  explored  the  great  Sahara  in  1845-6,
and  in  1849  (by  direction  of  the  Foreign  Office)  he  left
England  to  explore  central  Africa,  accompanied  by
Drs.  Barth  and  Overweg.  Richardson  died  4  March,
1851  ;  and  Overweg  died  27  Sept.  1852.

Dr.  Vogel  sent  out  with  reinforcements  to  Dr.  Barth,
20  Feb.  1853  ;  in  April,  1857,  said  to  have  been  assas-
sinated.

Dr.  Barth  returned  to  England,  and  received  the  Royal
Geographical  Society's  medal,  16  May,  1856.  His
travels  were  published  in  5  vols,  in  1858.

Dr.  David  Livingstone,  a  missionary  traveller,  returned
to  England  in  Dec.  1856,  after  an  absence  of  16  years,
during  which  he  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  heart  of
S.  Africa,  and  walked  about  11,000  miles,  principally
over  country  hitherto  unexplored.  His  book  was  pub-
lished in  Nov.  1857.  I11  Feb.  1858,  he  was  appointed
British  consul  for  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Africa,
and  left  England  shortly  after.

Du  Chaillu's  travels  in  central  Africa,  1856-59,  created
much  controversy,  1861.

Second  expedition  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  March,  1858.

Captains  Speke  and  Grant  announce  the  discovery  of
a  source  of  the  Nile  in  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  23  Feb.
1863.

[Capt.  Speke  was  accidentally  shot  by  his  own  gun  while
alone  near  Bath,  15  Sept.  1864.]

Some  Dutch  ladies  unsuccessfully  explore  the  White
Nile,  and  undergo  many  privations,  July,  1863 — 1864.
(One  Miss  Tinne  said  to  have  been  killed  ;  reported  5
Sept.  1869.)

The  "  Universities  Mission  to  east  central  Africa,"  con-
sisting of  Charles  F.  Mackenzie,  bishop  of  central
Africa,  and  six  clergymen  and  others,  started  Dec.
i860,  and  arrived  at  the  Zambesi,  in  Feb.  1861.  All
died  from  privations  and  disease  except  two,  who
returned  in  1864.  The  bishop  died  31  Jan.  1862  ;  suc-
ceeded by  Dr.  Tozer.

Du  C'haillu  starts  on  a  fresh  expedition,  6  Aug.  1863  ;
after  being  robbed,  and  undergoing  many  privations,
returned  to  London  near  the  end  of  1865.  He  gave  an
account  of  his  journey  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal
Geographical  Society,  8  Jan.  1866.

Dr.  Livingstone  returns,  23  July,  1864.

Death  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Baikie,  at  Sierra  Leone,  30  Nov.  1864.
[He  was  sent  as  special  envoy  to  the  Negro  tribes
near  the  Niger  by  the  Foreign  Office  about  1854.  He
opened  commercial  relations  with  central  Africa.]

National  African  company,  1864.

Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Samuel  Baker  discovered  a  lake,
supposed  to  be  another  source  of  the  Nile,  which  he
named  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  14  March,  1864.

Dr.  Livingstone  appointed  British  consul  for  inner  Africa,
24  March,  1865.

Narrative  of  Livingstone's  Zambesi  expedition  1858-64,
published  1866.

Livingstone  left  Zanzibar  to  continue  his  search  for  the
sources  of  the  Nile,  March,  1866.
[See  his  narrative  beloiv.]

Reports  of  the  murder  of  Livingstone  near  Lake  Nyassa,
in  Sept.  1866 — March,  1867  ;  doubted,  July,  1867.

Expedition  of  E.  D.  Young  in  search  of  Livingstone,
sailed  9  July,  1867,  returned  and  reported  to  the  Royal
Geographical  Society  his  conviction  that  Livingstone
was  alive,  27  Jan.  1868.

Letter  from  Dr.  Livingstone  dated  Bembo,  2  Mar.  1867  ;
heard  of  down  to  Dec.  1867.

His  despatch  to  lord  Clarendon,  dated  7  July,  1868  ;  read
to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  8  Nov.  1869.

Letter  dated  30  May,  1869,  published  Dec.  1869.

Uncredited  reports  of  his  murder  by  negroes,  Jan.  ;  his
probable  safety  reported  by  Dr.  Kirk,  22  June  ;  said
to  be  at  Mozambique,  Nov.  1870.

Expedition  of  sir  Samuel  Baker  to  put  down  slave  trade
on  the  Upper  Nile  (see  Egypt),  Jan.  1870.

Expedition  in  search  of  Livingstone  under  lieut.  Dawson,
organised  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society ;  started
9  Feb.  1872.

[It  returned  on  hearing  that  Stanley  had  found  Living-
stone.]

Dutch  Guinea  settlements  purchased  and  transferred  (see
Elmina),  6  April,  1872.

Reports  current  that  Livingstone  is  alive,  May,  June,
1872.

Expedition  sent  in  search  of  Livingstone  by  Mr.  James


AFKICA.

Gordon  Bennett,  proprietor  of  the  New  York  Herald,
at  a  cost  of  about  8,000?.  : —

Mr.  Henry  M.  Stanley,  chief  of  the  expedition,  left
^Zanzibar,  and,  after  much  opposition  from  the  native

•  'Chiefs,  accidentally  fell  in  with  Livingstone  at  Ujiji,
near  Unyanyembe,  10  Nov.  1871,  and  remained  with
liim  till  14  March,  1872,  when  he  brought  away  his
diary  and  other  documents.  Mr.  Stanley  reported  that
Livingstone  had  arrived  at  Ujiji  in  bad  condition,
having  been  robbed  and  deserted  by  his  attendants.

Much  controversy  ensued  between  Mr.  Stanley,  the
members  of  lieut.  Dawson's  expedition,  Dr.  Living-
stone, Dr.  Kirk,  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and
others,  Aug.—  Oct.  1872.

Letter  from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov.

1871,  to  Mr.  Bennett  (printed  in  New  York  Herald,  26
July,  and  reprinted  in  the  Times  27  July,  1872).  He
■describes  his  explorations  and  his  painful  journey  to
Ujiji;  his  meeting  with  Mr.  Stanley  ;  and  he  speaks  of
the  Nile  springs  being  about  600  miles  south  of  the
most  southerly  part  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  ;  and  also
of  about  700  miles  of  watershed  in  central  Africa,  of
which  he  had  explored  about  600  ;  and  of  the  conver-
gence of  the  watershed  first  into  four,  and  then  into
two,  mighty  rivers  in  the  great  Nile  valley  (?)  between
10°  and  120  south  latitude.  Second  letter  (dated  FeV.
1872)  describes  the  horrors  of  the  slave  trade  in  eastern
Africa,  printed  in  the  Times  29  July,  1872.

Livingstone's  despatches,  dated  Nov.  1  and  15,  1871,
received  by  the  Foreign  Office,  1  Aug.  ;  letter  dated
1  July,  received  2  Oct.  1872.

Mr.  Stanley  described  his  discovery  of  Livingstone  to  the
British  Association  at  Brighton  in  presence  of  the
ex-emperor  and  empress  of  the  French,  16  Aug.,  and  re-
ceived a  gold  snuff-box  from  the  queen  about  30  Aug.  1872.

Livingstone  died  of  dysentery  in  Ilala,  Central  Africa  ;
his  pupil,  Jacob  Wainwright,  a  young  negro  mission-
ary, present,  1  May,  1873  ;  his  remains  interred  in
Westminster  Abbey,  18  April;  his  last  journals  pub-
lished, Dec.  1874.

New  Expedition,  under  sir  Bartle  Frere,  to  Zanzibar,  to
suppress  the  east  African  slave  trade  ;  lieut.  Verney
Lovett  Cameron's  offer  to  aid  in  the  furtherance  of
Livingstone's  expedition  was  accepted  ;  sailed  20  Nov.

1872,  see  Zanzibar.
Expedition  to explore  the  upper part  of the Congo

(Mr.  Young,  of  Kelly,  to  subscribe  2000?.  Royal  Geo-
graphical Society  to  supplement  it),  proposed  Nov.  1872.

Lieut.  Verney  Cameron,  after  the  finding  of  Livingstone,
continued  his  explorations,  1872-3.

Leaving  Ujiji,  14  May,  1874,  he  followed  Livingstone's
route  ;  explored  1200  miles  of  fertile  country  ;  arriving
at  Portuguese  settlements,  4  Nov.  1875.

He  was  received  by  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and
gave  account  of  his  journey,  n  April,  1876.

Expedition  of  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley  (supported  by  Daily
Telegraph  and  New  York  Herald) ;  he  surveyed  Lake
Victoria  Nyanza  (230  miles  by  180),  1875  ;  well  andsuc-
cessful,  last  letter  dated  24  April,  1876.

Stanley  reports  survey  of  lake  Tanganyika ;  and  states
that  he  left  Ujiji  and  crossed  Africa  from  east  to  west,
and  identified  the  Lualaba  with  the  Congo  river,  which
has  an  uninterrupted  course  of  over  1400  miles,  24  Aug.
1876 — 6  Aug.  1877.

Arrives  at  Cape  Town,  21  Oct.  1877  ;  in  London,  22
Jan. ;  published  "Through  the  Dark  Continent,"  May,
1878.

Italian  expedition  under  marchese  Antinori,  well  re-
ceived by  king  of  Seida ;  announced  2  Dec.  1876 ;
his  death  reported,  Nov.  1877.

Portuguese  government  grant  20,000?.  for  expedition
into  the  interior,  announced  Dec.  1876.

Dr.  Gussfeld,  a  German,  after  his  exploration  into  S.W.
Central  Africa,  1873,  declared  the  difficulties  insuper-
able, 1875.

Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley,  with  an  international  Belgian  expedi-
tion, explored  the  Congo,  1879-80.

R.  Geographical  Society's  successful  expedition  into
Eastern  Africa  under  Mr.  A.  Keith  Johnston  leaves
England  14  Nov.  1878,  starts  from  Zanzibar  about  14
May,  1879  ;  Mr.  Johnston  dies  28  June,  succeeded
T)y  Joseph  Thomson,  who  returns  to  England  Aug.
1880.

The  Royal  Geographical  Society  grants  2,600/.
for  an  expedition  to  Africa  under  Joseph  Thom-
son, which  starts  13  Dec.  1882 ;  after  successful
exploration  arrives  at  Zanzibar  in  June  ; describes


19  AFRICA.

to  the  R.  Geo. '  Soc.  his  exceedingly  perilous  adven-
tures, in  beautifully  varied  country,  with  vicious
escort,  among  savage  tribes  of  different  manners,
3  Nov.  1884. See  Morocco.

Death  of  Dr.  Moffat,  missionary,  aged  87,  9  Aug.  1883.
See  under  Congo.

Count  Teleki's  expedition  into  the  Masai  country,  &c,
23  Jan.  1887—25  Oct.  1888.  For  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley's
expedition  to  relieve  Emin  pasha,  see  Soudan,  Jan.
1887-9.

Trade  route  with  4  stations  on  the  Congo  reported  to  be
established  by  Mr.  Stanley  (a.  great  work)  announced,
14  Aug.  1882.

Expedition  of  Mr.  J.  T.  Last,  supported  by  the  Royal
Geographical  Society,  to  S.W.  Zanzibar,  Sept.  1885.

Italian  scientific  expedition  under  count  Porro  massacred,
reported  26  April,  1886.

Dr.  Junker  reports  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society
his  eventful  travels  in  Central  Africa  in  1885-6,  9  May,
1887.

Assassination  of  M.  Camille  Douls,  the  explorer,  while
crossing  the  Sahara,  reported  Sept.  1889.

Austro-Hungarian  expedition  under  count  Samuel
Teleki  to  relieve  Emin  pasha  arrives  near  him,  but  is
superseded  by  Mr.  St.mley,  1886—9.  See  KUiriui-
Njaro.

Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley  in  his  expedition  to  relieve  Emin
pasha  (see  Soudan,  1887)  at  Wadelai,  and  during  his
return  march,  makes  many  discoveries,  and  re-names
lake,  South  Nyanza  (which  he  discovered  in  1887),
Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  1889.

Major  Casati  publishes  his  book  "  Ten  years  in  Equatoria
—the  Heturn  with  Emin  Pasha,"  translated  by  the
Hon.  Mrs.  J.  Randolph  Clay,  March,  1891.

[Gaetf'ni  Casati,  scholar,  born  1838  ;  soldier  1859  !  ie^
Italy  for  Africa  24  Dec.  1879  '>  at  Khartoum  about
May,  1880  ;  received  by  Emin  pasha  April,  1883  ;  after
many  perilous  adventures  with  Emin  pasha,  1889 ;
received  by  the  khedive  at  Cairo,  4  May,  at  Rome
14  July,  by  the  king  17  July,  1890.]

For  a  German  exploring  expedition,  west,  see  Cameroons,
1891.

The  German  government  sends  an  exploring  expedition
into  S.W.  African  coast,  Damaraland  ;  Mr.  Luderitz
acquires  some  lands  at  Angra  Pequeiia  from  the  chiefs  ;
Dr.  Nachtigal's  official  visit  to  this  place  in  a  German
man-of-war  failed  ;  after  this  Dr.  Goering  by  some
means  obtained  a  treaty  ceding  land  from  the  chief
Kamaherero,  afterwards  denied,  having  previously  in
1885  transferred  all  his  rights  to  Mr.  Robert  Lewis,
a  British  subject,  long  known  to  the  Damaras.  Mr.
Lewis'  rights  were  set  aside  by  the  German  Colonial
Company  of  S.W.  Africa,  and  he  and  other  English
were  expelled  ;  the  claims  of  Messrs.  Lewis,  Ford,  and
Bam,  set  forth  at  Berlin  by  the  British  Government,
1885—91.

The  Germans  disallow  Mr.  Lewis'  claims,  reported  3
April,  1891.

French  expedition  into  the  interior  between  the  Central
Soudan  and  the  French  Congo  under  M.  Fourneau-,
starts  from  Ouassou,  7  March  ;  arrived  at  the  con-
fluence of  the  Massa  Sangha  and  the  Kalle,  15  April ;  at
the  Sodi,  1  May ;  attacked  by  natives  he  burns  the
village ;  encamped  at  a  village,  10  May ;  suddenly
attacked,  fighting  began ;  M.  Fourneau  wounded,
many  of  his  men  killed,  the  rest  demoralized  and  some
fled,  retreat  began  under  fire  from  the  savages,  nMay ;
and  the  party  reached  Ouassou,  18  May,  1S91.

Mr.  Joseph  Thomson returns from an expedition  in
British  South  Africa,  having  visited  the  neighbour-
hood of  lakes  Nyassa  and  Bangweolo  and  made  treaties
with  numerous  chiefs,  18  Oct.  1891.
See  Anglo-French  Agreement  and  others.

GERMAN  EAST  AFRICA.  Dr.  Carl  Peters  goes  to
Africa  as  chief  agent  for  the  committee  for  German
colonization,  concludes  treaties  with  10  sultans  ;  the
German  flag  hoisted,  Nov.-Dee.  1884.

The  German  East  African  Company,  mainly  founded  by
Dr.  Peters,  at  Berlin,  chartered,  12  Feb.  1S86.

Settlements  founded  in  the  valley  of  the  Kingani,  March,
April,  1886.

Treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  comes  into  force  19
Aug.  1886.

Dr.  Peters,  with  a  party  of  23  engineers,  medic  ll  men.
&c,  leaves  Germany  as  the  agent  of  the  Gerii.au
Emin  Pasha  Relief  Society,  April,  1887.

c  2


AFEICA.  20

The  Germans  attack  Bagamoyo  and  kill  natives,  23  Sept.

1888.
Collapse  of  the  German  settlement,  attributed  to  the

Arab  slave-dealers  ;  reported  Oct.  1888.
The  East  African  Bill  passed  by  the  Parliament,  granting
money  for  the  defence  of  German  interests,  and  the
suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  30  Jan.  1889.
The  Germans  defeat  the  Arabs  at  Bagamoyo,  6  March,

1889.
Capt.,  after  major,  Wissmann,  appointed  imperial  com-
missioner in  East  Africa,  21  Feb.  (dissension  with  Dr.
Peters),  31  March,  1889.
The  German  flag  hoisted  at  the  consulate  ;  capt.  Wiss-
mann assumes  the  command,  5  April,  1889.
Dr.  Peters  organizing  his  Emin  Relief  Expedition  ;  men

and  camels  engaged,  March,  April,  1889.
Capt.  Wissmann,  aided  by  200  German  sailors,  defeats
Bushiri,  an  Arab  slave-d'ealer,  with  little  loss  ;  Bushiri
loses  80  killed  and  20  prisoners,  his  camp  destroyed,  8
May,  1889.
Capt.  Wissmann  captures  Pangani,  8  July,  1889.
Adm.  Freemantle  seizes  the  steamship  Neera,  belonging
to  the  Emin  Relief  Expedition  at  Lamu,  and  takes  it
to  Zanzibar,  June  ;  Dr.  Peters  remonstrates,  29  June  ;
after  a  trial  the  ship  is  released,  the  owners  paying
costs,  6  Aug.  ;  Dr.  Peters  directed  by  his  committee
to  proceed  no  farther,  31  Oct.  1889.
Differences between  the  sultan of Zanzibar  and the

Germans  respecting  territory,  about  8  Nov.  1889.
Major  Wissmann  receives  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley,  Emin  pasha

and  party  at  Bagamoyo,  5  Dec.  1889.
After  tights,  Bushiri  captured  and  hanged,  16  Dec.  1889.
Major  Wissmann,  after  severe  fighting  captures  Bwana

Heri's  fortified  position  near  Saadani,  5  Jan.  1890.
Arab  tribes  come  to  Bagamoyo  and  submit,  about  Jan.

18,  1890.
Bwana  Heri  holds  a  considerable  force  against  major

Wissmann,  reported  16  Feb.  1890.
Emin  pasha,  after  a  long  illness,  occasioned  by  a  fall
from  a  window  at  Bagamoyo,  5  Dec.  1889,  arrives  at
Zanzibar,  2  March ;  accepts  the  offers  of  major  Wiss-
mann, enters  the  German  service,  and  proceeds  with  a
military  expedition  to  Victoria  Nyanza,  31  March  et
seq.  1890.
Major  Wissmann  occupies  Kilwa  without  resistance,  4
May ;  also  Mikindani,  14  May  ;  letter  from  Dr.  Peters
dated  Kapte  in  Kamassia,  16  Jan.,  stating  that  he  was
340  English  miles  from  Wadelai  in  good  health,  received
May,  1890.
Many  losses  by  death  and  desertion  ;  reported  13  May,

1890.
Major  Wissmann  leaves  for  Germany,  lieut. Schmidt

left  in  command,  26  May,  1890.
German  forces  :  207  officers,  military  and  naval ;  1,200
Soudanese,  380  Zulus,  120  Askaris,  a  number  of  Sou-
malis  as  police,  a  medical  staff  and  sanitary  officers  ;  a
fleet  of  4  steamers,  besides  whale-boats  ;  reported  May,
1890.
A  letter  from  Dr. Peters  dated  Rubaga  in  Uganda, 2
March,  received  28  May ; another dated  Ukumi  in
Ussukuma,  13  April,  received  30  May,  1890.
The  German  Parliament  votes  4,850,000  marks  for  East

African  service,  24  June,  1890.
Mahomed  Bin  Cassim  and  three  companions  were  hanged
at  Bagamoyo,  after  trial  for  murder  of  a  German  mer-
chant about  8  years  previously,  27  June,  1890.
Anglo-German  convention, which  see,  signed  at  Berlin

by  the  Emperor,  1  July,  1890.
Major  von  Wissmann,  ennobled  and  warmly  received  in
Berlin  and  other  places,  June  ;  unwell,  enjoined  abso-
lute rest,  14  July,  1890.
Dr.  Peters  and  party  arrive  at  Zanzibar  about  10  July,
telegraphs  to  his  company  18  July,  1890.

[His  treaty  with  the  king  of  Uganda  invalid  ;  he  is
accused  of  living  by  raids  on  the  natives.]
Advance  of  Emin  pasha,  severe  fighting  with  the  Masai

in  Ugogo,  reported  31  July,  1890.
Dr.  Carl  Peters  arrives  in  Berlin,  25  Aug.  1890.
The  German  East  Africa  Company  cedes  all  its  territorial
rights  to  the  Imperial  Government,  reported  28  Oct.
1890.
The  emperor  contributes  3,000  marks  towards  the  build-
ing of  the  steamer  Wissmann,  to  be  placed  on  Lake
Victoria  Nyanza,  about  5  Dec.  1890.
The  Emin  Pasha  Relief  Committee  dissolves  itself,  15
Dec.  1890.


AFEICA.

Emin  Pasha  (refractory)  recalled  to  the  coast  by  major
von  Wissmann,  imperial  commissary,  reported  19  Dec.
1890.

The  German  Imperial  flag  hoisted  at  Bagamoyo,  1  Jan.
Major  von  Wissmann  established  there,  26  Jan.  1891.

Baron  von  Soden  appointed  governor  of  German  East
Africa,  Dr.  Carl  Peters  his  commissary,  Feb.,  with  a
peaceful  progressive  programme,  March,  1891.

Major  von  Wissmann  severely  punishes  the  Kishobco
tribe  for  robbery,  reported  6  March,  1891.

Returns  to  Bagamoyo  15  March,  recalled  for  rest,  reported
14  April,  1891.

Dr.  Peters'  "New  Light  on  Dark  Africa,"  published,
spring,  1891.

The  German  expeditionary  colonial  troops  under  lieut.
von  Zelewski  attacked  by  the  natives  (about  3,000^
S.  of  the  Ruaha  river,  the  lieut.  and  other  officers,
killed,  10  Europeans,  and  about  300  native  members
of  the  expedition  massacred  near  the  station  Mp  wapwa,
Kondora  ;  large  capture  of  arms  and  ammunition,  17
Aug.  1891.

Captain  Ruediger,  appointed  acting-governor  of  Germam
East  Africa,  about  1  Oct.  1891.

Movements  of  Emin  pasha  about  Albert  Nyanza,  repu-
diated by  the  German  government,  July ;  resignation
of  major  von  Wissmann,  Oct.  1891.

Revolt  of  the  Wadigoes  against  taxation ;  the  Germans
under  captain  Krenzler  defeated  12  Dec,  defeated
again  19  Dee.  1891.

Baron  von  Soden  pursues  a  peaceful  policy  in  opposition

to  major  von  Wissmann,  Jan.  1892.
He  meets  lieut.  C.  S.  Smith  and  Dr.  Peters,  joint  com-
missioners for  the  delimitation  of  the  territories  at
Wanga,  Feb.  1S92.
The  German  parliament  votes  2, 500,000  marks  for  German*
interests  in  E.  Africa  and  the  suppression  of  the  slave
trade,  5  March,  1892.
Dr.  Kayser  sent  to  E.  Africa  to  examine  the  state  of  the
colony,  May,  1892.

BRITISH  E.  AFRICA. -The  Imperial  British  East  Africai
Company,  supported  by  Mr.  Wm.  Mackenzie,  lord
Brassey,  gen.  Donald  Stewart,  Mr.  Burdett-Coutts,
and  others,  sir  Wm.  Mackinnon,  chairman  ;  charter
3  Sept.  1888  ;  large  territories  having  been  conceded
to  Mr.  W.  Mackenzie  by  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  ;  con-
cession signed,  9  Oct.  1888  ;  confirmed,  1  Sept.  1889.

The  sultan  of  Zanzibar  surrenders  all  control  over  the
British  East  Africa  Company's  territory  for  an  annual
payment  of  26,000  dollars  ;  reported  26  Dec.  1889.

Successful  tour  of  Mr.  Mackenzie  through  the  Company's
territory,  April,  1890.

Sir  Francis  de  Winton  appointed  administrator  of  the
company's  territories,  May  ;  arrives  at  Zanzibar  and
proceeds  to  Mombasa,  &c,  1890.

All  slaves  in  the  territory  declared  free  by  Mr.  Mac-
kenzie about  4  May  ;  his  final  departure  for  Europe,
much  regretted,  26  May,  1890.

Mr.  George  S.  Mackenzie,  administrator  of  the  territory,
returns  to  England,  July,  1890.

Anglo-German  Convention  (which  see),  1  July,  1890.

Successful  progress  ;  army  recruited  from  India ;  con-
tinued peace  with  the  natives,  July,  1890.

First  general  meeting  of  the  company,  London  ;  report
and  statement  of  accounts  read,  25  July,  1890.

Inauguration  of  the  railway  between  Mombasa  and
Victoria  Nyanza,  26  Aug.  1890.

Resignation  of  sir  Francis  de  Winton,  Feb.  1891.

Mr.  George  Mackenzie,  director  of  the  company,  wel-
comed by  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar ;  the  government  of
Witu  assumed  by  the  company  ;  the  country  quite
pacified,  March,  1891.

Protocol  for  the  delimitation  of  the  British  and  Italian
spheres  of  influence  in  East  Africa,  signed  at  Rome
24  March,  1891.

General  Mathews,  H.M.'s  commissioner,  arrives  at
Zanzibar,  Sept.  1891.

Proposed  withdrawal  of  representative  from  Uganda  ;
serious  consequences  apprehended  ;  great  need  of
a  railway  from  coastline  to  Victoria  Nyanza,  Sept.
1891.

Mr.  Gerald  H.  Portal  appointed  commissioner  and  consul-
general  in  British  East  Africa,  Feb.  He  suppresses  a
revolt  in  Witu,  April,  1892.


AFRIKANDER  BUND.


21


AGINCOURT.


BRITISH  CENTRAL  AFRICA  (Nyassaland).— Mr.  H.
H.  Johnston  (see  Kilima  -  Njaro)  appointed  commis-
sioner of  British  Central  Africa,  the  districts  N.  of
the  South  Africa  Company's  territories,  March,  1891.

He  and  capt.  Cecil  Maguire  attack  the  Arab  slave-dealers,
and  release  a  large  number  of  slaves,  Oct.,  Nov.  i8qi.

Capt.  Maguire  with  30  sepoys,  releases  a  number  of
.slaves  in  a  caravan  and  burns  dhows  in  presence  of  a
large  party  of  enemies,  but  is  killed  while  swimming
to  his  ship  ;  Dr.  Boyce  and  Mr.  M'Ewan  are  treacher-
ously killed  when  about  to  treat  for  a  truce,  15-17
Dec.  1891.

The  Arabs  surprise  Port  Johnstone  and  capture  a  gun  ;
Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  has  only  70  Sepoys  and  two  gun-
boats on  the  Shire;  reported,  April,  1892.

Mi.  H.  H.  Johnston  reports  the  pacification  of  the
district,  about  4  April,  1892.

Makanjila,  and  two  other  chiefs,  slave-dealers,  pre-
dominant, Jan.  1892.

The  British  South  Africa  Company  chartered  (see
under  Zambesi),  15  Oct.  1889.

For  French  Africa,  see  Africa,  1891,  and  Senegal.

African  Association,  for  promoting  the  exploration  of
central  Africa,  was  formed  in  June,  1788,  principally
by  sir  Joseph  Banks  ;  and  under  its  auspices  many  addi-
tions were  made  to  African  geography  by  Ledyard,
Park,  Burckhardt,  Hornemann,  &c.  It  merged  into  the
Royal  Geographical  Society,  July,  1831.

African  Church.  In  1866  Robert  Gray,  bishop  of  Cape-
town (in  consequence  of  a  decision  of  the  privy  council :
see  Church  of  England),  established  synods  of  the
'•  Church  of  South  Africa."

African  Company  (merchants  trading  to  Africa),  arose
out  of  an  association  in  London,  formed  in  1588.  A
eharter  was  granted  to  a  joint-stock  company  in  1618  ;
a  second  company  was  created  in  1631 ;  a  third  corpora-
tion in  1662  ;  another  was  formed  in  1672  ;  remodelled
in  1695. In  1821  the  company  was  abolished.

African  Exploration  Fund,  founded  by  Royal  Geo-
graphical Society,  May,  1877.

African  Institution,  founded  in  London  in  1807,  for  the
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  civilization  of
Africa.  Many  schools  have  been  established  with  suc-
cess, particularly  at  Sierra  Leone.

National  African  Company  incorporated  in  1882;  char-
tered, 10  July,  1886,  as  the  Royal  Niger  Company.  See
Niger.

AFRIKANDER  BUND.  A  confederation
of  the  descendants  of  the  Dutch  settlers  in  South
Africa,  formed  to  extend  their  influence,  became
prominent  after  the  Transvaal  war  in  1881.  See
Boers  and  Transvaal,  1891.  A  congress  of  the
Bund  opened  at  Burghersdorp,  4  Nov.  1891,  ur-
gently requested  the  high  commissioner  at  Cape
Town  to  get  the  land  question  settled.

AGAP^E  {agape,  Greek  for  love,  charity),
"  feasts  of  charity,"  referred  to  Jude  12,  and  de-
scribed by  Tertuflian,  of  which  the  first  Christians
of  all  ranks  as  one  family  partook,  as  Christ  did  with
his  disciples.  Disorders  creeping  in,  these  feasts
were  forbidden  to  be  celebrated  in  churches  by  the
councils  of  Laodicea  (366)  and  Carthage  (390) .  They
are  still  recognised  by  the  Greek  church,  and  are
held  in  their  original  form  weekly  by  the  Glasites
or  Sandcmanians,  and  in  some  degree  by  the  Mora-
vians, Wesleyans,  and  others.

AGAPEMONE  (Greek,  "  the  abode  of  love  "),
an  establishment  at  Charlinch,  near  Bridgwater,
Somersetshire,  founded  in  i8<K,  where  Henry  James
Prince,*  and  his  deluded  followers,  formerly  per-

*  Prince  was  born  in  181 1  ;  educated  for  the  medical
profession  and  licensed  to  practise,  1832  ;  gave  it  up  for
the  church  and  entered  St.  David's  college,  Lampeter,
and  there  commenced  ultra-revivalist  movements  in  18^6 ;
and  finally  claimed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  Deity,
with  corresponding  authority  over  his  followers.  On  22
May,  1850,  Thomas  Robinson  sought  to  recover  the  pos-
session of  his  child  from  the  care  of  its  mother  (from
whom  he  had  separated);  the  application  was  refused  by


sons  of  property,  lived  in  common,  professing  to
devote  themselves  to  innocent  recreation  and  to
maintain  spiritual  marriage.  The  Agapemone  is
described  by  Mr.  Hepworth  Dixon  in  his"  Spiritual
Wives,"  published  in  Jan.  1868.  Meetings  of  the
sect  were  held  at  Hamp,  near  Bridgwater,  Dec,
1872.

AGAR-TOWN,  the  name  given  to  a  district
in  St.  Pancras  parish,  N.  London.  It  consisted  of
hovels,  erected  on  the  site  of  the  grounds  of  coun-
cillor Agar,  after  1841,  which,  from  their  filthy  and
uncivilised  condition,  were  termed  by  Charles
Dickens,  in  185 1,  the  English  Connemara.  The
entire  district  was  cleared  by  the  Midland  Railway
Company.

AGE.  Chronologers  have  divided  the  time
between  the  creation  and  the  birth  of  Christ  into
ages.  Hesiod  (735  B.C.)  described  the  Golden,
Silver,  Brazen,  and  iron  Ages ;  see  Dark  Ages.

First  Age  (from  the  Creation  to  the  De-  b.c.

luge) . .....  4004 — 2349

Second  Age  (to  the  coming  c  f  Abraham  into

Canaan) 2348 — 1922

Third  Age  (to  the  Exodus  from  Egypt)  .  1921 — 1491
Fourth  Age  (to  the  founding  of  Solomon's

Temple) 1490 — 1014

Fifth  Age  (to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem) .  1014 —  588

Sixth  Age  (to  the  birth  of  Christ)  .  .  .  588 —  4
Seventh  Age  (to  the  present  time)

AGE.  In  Greece  and  Rome  twenty-five  was
full  age  for  both  sexes,  but  a  greater  age  was
requisite  for  the  holding  certain  offices  :  e.g.  thirty
for  tribunes  ;  forty-three  for  consuls.  In  England
the  minority  of  a  male  terminates  at  twenty-one,
and  of  a  female  in  some  cases,  as  that  of  a  queen,
at  eighteen.  In  1547,  the  majority  of  Edward  VI.
was,  by  the  will  of  his  father,  fixed  at  eighteen
years ;  previously  to  completing  which  age,  his
father,  Henry  VIII.,  had  assumed  the  reins  of
government,  in  1509. —A  male  of  twelve  may  take
the  oath  of  allegiance  ;  at  fourteen  he  may  consent
to  a  marriage,  or -choose  a  guardian  ;  at  seventeen
he  may  be  an  executor,  and  at  twenty-one  he  is  of
age ;  but  according  to  the  Statute  of  Wills,  7  Will.
IV.  &  1  Vict.  c.  26,  1837,  no  will  made  by  any
person  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  shall  be
valid.  A  female  at  twelve  may  consent  to  a  mar-
riage, at  fourteen  she  may  choose  a  guardian,  and  at
twenty-one  she  is  of  age.

AGED  PILGRIMS'  FRIEND  SOCIETY,

founded  1807  ;  asylums,  1826  and  1871.

AGINCOURT,  OR  AziNCOTTR  (N.  France),
a  village  where  Henry  V.  of  England,  with  about
9000  men,  defeated  about  60,000  French  on  St.
Crispin's  day,  25  Oct.  1415.  Of  the  French,  there
were,  accoi'ding  to  some  accounts,  10,000  killed,  in-
cluding the  dukes  of  Alen^'on,  Brabant,  and  Bar,
the  archbishop  of  Sens,  one  marshal,  thirteen  earls,
ninety-two  barons,  and  it,00  knights;  and  14,000
prisoners,  among  whom  were  the  dukes  of  Orleans
and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights,  and  gentle-
men. The  English  lost  the  duke  of  York,  the  earl

the  vice-chancellor,  to  "  save  the  child  from  the  pollution
of  the  parent's  teaching." — On  21  Aug.  1858,  Miss  Louisa
Jane  Nottidge  died,  having  transferred  her  property  to
Mr.  H.  J.  Prince.  Her  brother,  Mr.  Nottidge,  by  an
action,  recovered  from  Prince  5728^,  as  having  been
fraudulently  obtained.  Extraordinary  disclosures  were
made  during  the  trial,  25  July,  i860.  In  the  autumn  of
i860,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Price,  after  several  vain  attempts,
succeeded  in  rescuing  his  wife  from  the  Agapemone.
They  had  both  been  early  supporters  of  it.


AGINCOURT.


22


AGRICULTURE.


of  Suffolk,  and  about  20  others.  St.  Remy  asserts
with  more  probability  that  the  English  lost  1600
men.  Henry  V.  soon  after  obtained  the  kingdom
of  France.

AGINCOURT,  iron-clad. See  Navy,  1871.

AGITATORS  (or  Adjutators),  officers  appointed
by  the  Parliamentary  army  in  1647,  to  take  care  of
its  interests  :  each  troop  or  company  had  two.  The
general  Cromwell  was  eventually  obliged  to  re-
press their  seditious  power.  At  a  review  he  seized
the  ringleaders  of  a  mutiny,  shot  one  instantly,  in
the  presence  of  his  companions  and  the  forces  on  the
ground,  and  thus  restored  discipline.  Hume. —
Daniel  O'Connell,  the  agitator  of  Ireland,  was  born
in  1775.  He  began  to  agitate  at  the  elections  in
1820;  was  elected  for  Clare,  5  July,  1828;  the
election  being  declared  void,  he  was  re-elected  30
July,  1829.  Aft^r  the  passing  of  the  Catholic
emancipation  bill,  he  agitated  in  vain  for  the  repeal
of  the  union,  1834  to  1843.  He  died  15  May,  1847.
■ — Richard  Cobden  and  John  Bright  were  the  chief
-Anti-corn-law  agitators,  1841-45. — Mr.  Bright  be-
came a  Reform  agitator  in  1866.

AGNADELLO  (N.E.Italy).  Here  Louis  XII.
of  France  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Venetians,
some  of  whose  troops  were  accused  of  cowardice  and
treachery;  14  May,  1509.  The  conflict  is  also
termed  the  battle  of  the  Rivolta.

AGNOIT^E  (from  agnoia,  Greek,  ignorance).
I.  A  sect  founded  by  Theophronius  of  Cappadocia
about  370  :  said  to  have  doubted  the  omniscience  of
God.  II.  The  followers  of  Themistius  of  Alexandria,
about  530,  who  held  peculiar  views  as  to  the  body
of  Christ,  and  doubted  his  divinity.

AGNOSTICS)  name  given  to  philosophers  who
assert  that  we  have  no  knowledge  but  what  we
acquire  by  means  of  our  senses,  about  1876.  Mr.
Herbert  Spencer,  Professor  Huxley,  and  Mr.  John
Fiske  are  said  to  be  agnostics.

AGONISTICI  (from  agon,  Greek,  a  conflict),
also  termed  circutores,  a  branch  of  the  Donatists
{which  see)  in  the  4th  century.  They  preached
with  great  boldness,  and  incurred  severe  persecu-
tion.

AGRA  (N.  W.  India),  founded  by  Akbar  in
1566,  was  the  capital  of  the  Great  Mogul;  see
Mausoleums.  In  1658  Aurungzebe  removed  to
Delhi. — The  fortress  of  Agra,  "  the  key  of  Hindo-
stan,"  in  the  war  with  the  Mahrattas  surrendered
to  the  British  forces,  under  general  Lake,  17  Oct.
1803,  after  one  day's  siege :  162  pieces  of  ordnance
and  240,000/.  were  captured.— In  June,  1857,  the
city  was  abandoned  to  the  mutineers  by  the  Euro-
peans, who  took  refuge  in  the  fort,  from  which  they
were  rescued  by  major  Montgomery  and  colonel
Greathed.  Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  25  Jan.,
1876. — Allahabad  was  made  capital  of  the  N.W.
jrovinces  of  India,  instead  of  Agra,  in  1861.

AGRAM  (formerly  Zagrab),  a  city  of  Croatia,
Hungary,  residence  of  the  bau;  suffered  much  by
earthquakes,  9—12  Nov.  1880. See  Croatia.

AGRARIAN  LAW  (Agraria  lex),  decreed
an  equal  division  among  the  Roman  people  of  all
the  lands  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the  acres
which  each  person  should  enjoy.  It  was  first  pro-
posed by  the  consul  Spurius  Cassius,  486  B.C.,  and
occasioned  his  judicial  murder  when  he  went  out  of
office  in  48^. — An  agrarian  law  was  passed  by  the
tribune  Licinius  Stolo,  376;  and  for  proposing  fur-
ther amendments  Tiberius  Gracchus  in  133,  and


his  brother  Cornelius  in  121,  were  murdered.  Livius
Drusus,  a  tribune,  was  murdered  for  the  same  cause,
91.  Julius  Caesar  propitiated  the  plebeians  by  pass-
ing an  agrarian  law  in  59. — In  modern  times
the  term  has  been  misinterpreted  to  signify  a  divi-
sion of  the  lands  of  the  rich  among  the  poor,  fre-
quently proposed  by  demagogues,  such  as  Gracchus
Babeuf,  editor  of  the  Tribun  du  Peuple,  in  1794.
In  1 796 he  conspired  against  the  directory  with  the
view  of  obtaining  a  division  of  property,  was  con-
demned, and  killed  himself,  27  May,  1797.

AGRICOLA'S  WALL,  see  Roman  Walls.

AGRICULTURAL CHILDREN ACT,

prohibits  employment  of  children  under  eight  years-
of  age,  and  provides  for  the  education  of  older
children,  5  Aug.  1873.

AGRICULTURAL  HALL,  Islington,  N.
London,  chiefly  for  the  meetings  of  the  Smithfield
Club.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid  by  the  presi-
dent, lord  Berners,  5  Nov.  1861.  The  hall  has-
been  much  used  for  industrial  exhibitions,  public-
meetings,  equestrian  and  pedestrian  performances,,
concerts,  &c.  The  hall  was  visited  by  the  queen,
5  March,  1891. See  Horses.

It  was  opened  for  an  exhibition  of  dogs,  24  June,  1862  j
horses  and  donkeys  exhibited,  July,  1864,  and  annually
since.

First  Smithfield  annual  cattle  show  here,  6  Dec.  1862.

A  great  reform  demonstration  was  made  here,  30  July,
1866.

Grand  ball  to  the  Belgian  visitors,  volunteers  and  garde
civique  ;  prince  of  Wales  present,  18  July,  1867.

Excellent  horse-shows  held  here,  May,  1868,  et  seq.

Theatrical  bull-fights  here  stopped,  on  account  of  cruelty,
28  Mar.  1870.

Workmen's  International  exhibition  opened  by  the-
prince  of  Wales,  16  July,  1870.

National  Exhibition  of  machinery,  appliances,  manufac-
tures, and  produce,  opened  20  Sept.  1879.

Exhibition  by  the  building  trades,  opened  12  April,  1880.

Tournaments  (which  see)  held  here  21  June,  1880,  et  seq.

International  food  exhibition,  opened  13  Oct.  1880.

Milling  exhibition  (under  direction  of  National  Associa-
tion of  British  and  Irish  Millers),  10-18  May,  1881.

"  Arcadia,"  rural  entertainment,  July  to  Sept.  1887.

National  Agricultural  Hall,  W.  Kensington  ;  foun-
dation laid  by  the  carl  of  Zetland  21  July,  1885  ;  main
hall  440  feet  long,  250  feet  wide  and  100  feet  high  ;
with  a  minor  hall  for  offices,  &c.  ;  the  roof  consists  of
iron  and  glass  ;  designed  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  E.
Coe  ;  present  architect  Mr.  James  Edmeston  ;  con-
tractors Messrs.  Lucas  and  others  ;  cost  of  erection
about  131,000/.  ;  named  Olympia.  Opened  with  horse-
racing  and  other  diversions  27  Dec.  1886  ;  horse  show
opened  14  May,  1887  ;  (another  16  May,  1889) ;  opened
by  the  Paris  Hippodrome  Company  22  Oct.  1887.  See
Irish  Exhibition.

AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT,

passed  13  Aug.  1875,  relates  to  compensations  of
landlords  and  tenants,  for  improvements,  &c.  Two
other  important  acts  :  for  England  46  &  47  Vict.  c.
61,  for  Scotland,  c.  62,  were  passed  25  Aug.  1883,
to  begin  1  Jan.  1884.  Another  act,  introduced  by
Mr.  H.  Chaplin,  22  Feb.,  passed  27  June,  1892.

AGRICULTURE.  "  Abel  was  a  keeper  of
sheep,  but  Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground,"  Genesis
iv.  2.

Cato  the  Censor  (died  149  B.C.)  and  Varro  (died  28  B.C.)
were  eminent  Roman  writers  on  agriculture.

Virgil's  Georgics,  30  B.C.  Agriculture  in  England  im-
proved by  the  Romans  after  a.d.  44.

Fitzherbert's  "  Book  of  Husbaudry,"  printed  1524.

Tusser's  "  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Husbandry,"  1562.

Blythe's  "Improver,"  1649.

Haitlib's  "  Legacy,"  1650.

Jethro  Tull's  "  Horse-hoeing  Husbandly,"  1701.


AGRICULTURE.


23


AGRICULTURE.


About  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  fallowing  was  gradu-
ally superseded  by  turnips  and  green  crops.

Board  of  Agriculture,  proposed  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,
afterwards  president,  established  1793.  Arthur  Young
many  years  secretary.  Communications  published  in
7  vols.,  1797 — 1811.

In  Aug.  1855,  a  committee  presented  a  report  on  the  best
mode  of  obtaining  accurate  Agricultural  Statistics.
There  were,  in  1831,  1,055,982  agricultural  labourers
in  Great  Britain,  and  in  Ireland,  1,131,715.

Acreage  of  crops,  and  number  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  beginning  with  1866,
published  in  the  annual  "  Statistical  Abstract,"  since
1869. See  p.  22.

It  was  reckoned  by  the  Agricultural  Committee,  that  the
cultivation  of  waste  lands  would  yield  above  20,000,000?.
a  year.  It  was  calculated  in  1854  that  there  were  in
England  32,160,000  acres  in  cultivation,  of  the  annual
value  of  37,412,000?.  Since  that  time,  much  land  has
been  brought  into  cultivation  ;  see  Wheat.

"  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in  England  (1259-
1702),"  by  Professor  James  T.  Bogers,  published,  June,
1866-1887.

Sir  James  Caird,  eminent  agriculturist  and  writer,  die

9  Feb. ,  1892.

Agricultural  Societies. — The  earliest  mentioned  in
the  British  Isles  was  the  Society  of  Improvers  of
Agriculture  in  Scotland,  instituted  in  1723.  A  Dublin
Agricultural  Society  (1749)  gave  a  stimulus  to  agricul-
ture in  Ireland  ;  its  origin  is  attributed  to  Mr.  Prior  of
Rathdowney,  Queen's  County,  in  1731.  The  Bath  and
"West  of  England  Society  established,  1777  ;  and  the
Highland  Society  of  Scotland,  1784.  County  Agricul-
tural Societies  are  now  numerous.

London  Board  of  Agriculture  established  by  act  of  par-
liament, 1793.

Francis,  duke  of  Bedford,  a  great  promoter  of  agricul-
ture, died  2  March,  1802.

Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  established  in
1838,  by  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  the  chief  landed
proprietors  in  the  kingdom,  and  incorporated  by  royal
charter,  26  March,  1840.  It  holds  two  meetings
annually,  one  in  London  the  other  in  the  country.  It
awards  prizes,  and  publishes  a  valuable  journal.

1839.  Oxford.  1857.  Salisbury.  1874.  Bedford.

1840.  Cambridge.  1858.  Chester.  1875.  Taunton.

1 84 1.  Liverpool.  1859.  Warwick.  1876.  Birmingham

1842.  Bristol.  i860.  Canterbury.  1877.  Liverpool.

1843.  Derby.  186 c.  Leeds.  1878.  Bristol.

1844.  Southamp-  1862.  Battersea.  1879.  London.

ton.  1863.  Worcester.  1880.  Carlisle.

1845.  Shrewsbury.  1864.  Newcastle-  1881.  Derby.

1846.  Newcastle.  on-Tyne.  1882.  Reading.

1847.  Northamp-  1865.  Plymouth.  1883.  York.

ton.  1866.  Bury  St.  Ed-  1884.  Shrewsbury.

1848.  York.  munds.  1885.  Preston.

1849.  Norwich.  1867.  No  meeting.  1886.  Norwich.

1850.  Exeter.  1868.  Leicester.  1887.  Newcastle-

1851.  Windsor.  1869.  Manchester.  on-Tyne.

1852.  Lewes.  1870.  Oxford.  1888.  Nottingham

1853.  Gloucester.  1871.  Wolver-  1889.  Windsor.

1854.  Lincoln.  hampton.  1890.  Plymouth.

1855.  Carlisle.  1872.  Cardiff.  1891.  Doncaster.

1856.  Chelmsford.  1873.  Hull.  1892.  Warwick.
Jubilee  state  banquet  at  St.  James's  Palace,  prince  of

Wales  in  the  chair,  26  March,  1889.

Institute  of  Agriculture ;  South  Kensington;  courses
of  lectures  given,  Oct.  1883.

International  Agricultural  Exhibition,  promoted  by  the
Society,  and  held  at  Kilburn,  London,  N.W.  Occupied
106  acres.  It  was  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales  30
June,  visited  by  the  Queen  in  July,  and  closed  finally,

10  July,  1879.

Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland,  instituted  1841.

Farmers'  Club,  1843.

"  Chambers  of  Agriculture  "  were  established  in  France  in
1851.  In  Great  Britain,  1868,  they  had  increased  from
36  to  70. A  journal  commenced  early  in  1868.

Royal  Agricultural  College  at  Cirencester  organised,  1842;
chartered,  1845.

Agricultural  College  in  Wiltshire  ;  its  establishment  pro-
posed by  the  Mercers'  Company,  London,  by  the  gift
of  6o,oooJ.  Oct.  1888.

Suffolk  Agricultural  College  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds
opened  1874. Other  colleges  opened.

British  Dairy  Fanners'  Association. — Inaugurated  ;  first


show  opened  at  Agricultural  Hall,  London,  24-28  Oct.
1876.

Royal  Agricultural  Benevolent  Institution. — It  relieves
farmers  and  their  widows  and  orphans  ;  founded  chiefly
by  Mr.  Mechi,  i860.

The  Associated  Agriculturists  of  Great  Britain,  a  limited
company,  proposed  April,  1881.

Agricultural  Chemistry. — Sir  Humphry  Davy  de-
livered lectures  on  this  subject  (afterwards  published),
at  the  instance  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  1812  ;
but  it  excited  little  attention  till  the  publication  of
Liebig's  work  in  1840,  which  made  a  powerful  impres-
sion. Liebig's  "  Letters  on  Agriculture  "  appeared  in
1859.  Boussingault's  "  Economie  Rurale  "  appeared  in
1844  ;  his  "  Agronomie  "  in  1860-8.  He  died  May,
1887.  Great  progress  made  by  the  experiments  of
Lawes,  Gilbert,  Pasteur,  and  others.

Agricultural  Gangs. — In  the  spring  of  1867,  most
painful  exposures  were  made  of  the  prevalence  of  much
cruelty  and  immorality  in  the  gang  system  (in  which
boys  and  girls  are  employed)  in  several  of  the  eastern
and  midland  counties  ;  and  in  consequence  an  act  was
passed  20  Aug.  for  regulating  these  gangs,  licensing
gang-masters,  &c.

A  Union  of  Agricultural  Labourers,  managed  -chiefly  by
Joseph  Arch,  formerly  a  labourer,  afterwards  a  Metho-
dist preacher  (M.P.  1885),  was  inaugurated  at  Leaming-
ton, Warwickshire,  29  March,  1872.  The  movement
spread,  being  countenanced  by  Auberon  Herbert,  M.P. ,
and  others.  The  Union  met  in  London,  Arch  re-elected
president,  16,  17  May  1877  ;  at  Bedford,  16  Sept.  1881.

Lock-out  of  agricultural  labourers  belonging  to  the
Union  (lasted  18  weeks,  costing  the  Union  much
money),  began  at  Alderton,  Suffolk,  March,  1872.

Dispute  between  Lincolnshire  farmers  and  labourers
settled,  18-20  May ;  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  farmers
refuse  compromise,  about  25  May  ;  the  Union  ceased
to  support  the  loeked-out  labourers,  leaving  them  to
emigration,  or  to  seek  employment,  27  July,  1872.

The  agitation  subsided  ;  the  labourers  were  employed,
autumn,  1875  ;  agricultural  return  for  Great  Britain,
1873  ;  reported  steady  increase  in  prosperity,  1875.

A  partial  strike  and  lock-out  of  labourers  in  Kent  and
Sussex,  Oct. — Dec.  1878.

The  delegates  of  the  National  Agricultural  Labourers'
Union  met,  26  Oct.  1875.

Very  great  agricultural  depression  through  bad  seasons,
and  foreign  importations  ;  many  landlords  remit  large
part  of  rents,  1877—9.

Royal  Commission  of  Inquiry  appointed  4  July,  1879.

Committee  of  Council  on  Agriculture  appointed,  Earl  of
Rosebery  president,  about  27  April,  1883.

The  Agricultural  Returns  of  Great  Britain  were  issued
for  the  first  time  by  the  newly  constituted  Agricul-
tural Department,  1883.  Second  return  presented,
27  Oct.  1884,  and  continued  annually.

The  Departmental  Committee  recommend  State  aid  for
agricultural  education,  dairy  schools,  &c,  March,
1888.

A  new  Board  of  Agriculture  was  established  by  Act
passed  12  Aug. ;  Henry  Chaplin  appointed  president
and  cabinet  minister,  5  Sept.  The  board  assumed  the
duties  previously  fulfilled  by  a  department  of  the  privy
council,  1889.  Herbert  Gardner,  president,  Aug.  1892.

At  Paris,  1889;  at  Vienna,  2  Sept.,  1890;  The  Hague,
7  Sept.,  1891.

Turnips,  swedes  and  cabbages  much  injured  in  N.E.
England  and  S.E.  Scotland  by  the  diamond-back
moth,  summer,  1891,  1892.

The  following  table,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  William  Couling,
C.E.,  in  1827,  is  extracted  from  the  Third  Report  of
the  Emigration  Committee  : —


Countries.


England  .
Wales  .
Scotland .
Ireland  .
Brit.  Isles


Culti-
vated.


ACRES.

25,632,000

3,117,000

5,265,000

12,125,280

383,690


Wastes
capable  of
improve-
ment.


ACRES.
3,454,000
530,000
5,950,000
4,000,000
l66,OO0


Unpro-
fitable.


Total.


ACRES.  ACRES.

3,256,400  32,342,400
1,105,000  I  4,752,000
8,523,930  !I9,738,930
2,416,664  19,441,944
569,469 1,119,159


46,522,970 15,000,000 15,871,463  '77,394,433


AGEIGENTUM.


24


AIE.


At  that  period  it  was  comjmted  that  the  soil  of  the
United  Kingdom  was  annually  cropped  in  the  following
proportions :

ACRES.

Wheat 7,000,000

Barley  and  rye 1,950,000

Potatoes,  oats  and  beans 6,500,000

Turnips,  cabbages,  and  other  vegetables . .  1,150,000

Clover,  rye-grass,  &c. 1,7s0.000

Fallow  .  2,800,000

Hop-grounds 60,000

Nursery  grounds 20,000

Inclosed  fruit,  flower,  kitchen  and  other  gardens 1 10,000

Pleasure  grounds  100,000

Land  depastured  by  cattle . . .  21,000,000

Hedge-rows,  copses,  and  woods . . . .  2,000,000
Ways,  water,  &c 2,100,000

Cultivated  land
Crops  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  :-


1866.  Great  Britain  .

Ireland  .  .
1870.  Great  Britain .

Ireland  .  .
1876.  Great  Britain .

Ireland  .  .
1883.  Great  Britain .

Ireland  .  .
1887.  Great  Britain .

Ireland . .

1889.  Great  Britain  .

Ireland . .

1890.  Great  Britain  .
Ireland . .


Corn

Green

Crops.

Crops.

Acres.

Acres.

9,252,784

3,562,434

2,174,033

1,481,525

9,548,041

3,586,730

2,173,109

1,498,719

9,194,669

3,571,874

1,848,487

1,363,224

8,618,675

3,454,579

1,678,125

1,230,253

8,145,894

3,463.706

1,562,463

1,229,092

8,075,172

3,299,647

1,535,102

1,219,549

8,033,133

3,297,528

1,514,607

1,214,396

46.540,000

Grasses,

Acres.

15,964,553
12,006,191
16,577,740

18,056,217

19,461,295

20,452,422

20,743,161

20,826,311


AGEIGENTUM  (now  Girgenti),  a  city  of
Sicily,  built  about  582  B.C.  It  was  governed  by
tyrants  from  566  to  470;  among:  these  were —
Phalaris  (see  Brazen  Bull) ;  Alcamanes ;  Theron
who,  with  his  step-father  Gelon,  defeated  the
Carthaginians  at  Himera,  480  :  and  Thrasydseus,  his
son,  expelled  in  470;  when  a  republic  was  estab-
lished. It  was  taken  by  the  Carthaginians  in  405
B.C.,  and  held,  except  during  short  intervals,  till
gained  by  the  ltomans  in  262  B.C.  From  a.d.  825
till  1086  it  was  held  by  the  Saracens.

AHMEDNUGGUE  (W.  India),  once  capital
of  a  state  founded  by  Ahmed  Shah,  about  1493.
After  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Moguls
and  the  Mahrattas,  it  was  taken  from  the  latter  by
Arthur  Wellesley,  12  Aug.  1803,  and  restored  to  the
British  dominions,  June,  18 1 7.

AID,  see  Ayde.

AID  TO  THE  SICK  AND  WOUNDED,

National  Society  for. On  4  Aug.  1870,  soon

after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Franco-German  war,
a  meeting  was  held  in  London,  which  established
this  society  under  the  rules  of  the  Geneva  Conven-
tion, which  see.

The  Queen,  patron  ;  the  Prince  of  Wales,  president ;
col.  Loyd- Lindsay,  chairman  of  committees ;  ac-
tive supporters,  duke  of  Manchester,  earl  of  Shaf-
tesbury, lords  Overstone  and  Bury,  sir  Harry  Ver-
ney,  general  sir  John  Burgoyne,  surgeon-general
Longinore,  and  captain  (aft.  sir)  Douglas  Galton.
The  operations  were  chiefly  directed  by  capt.
Henry  Brackenbury,  at  the  seat  of  war,  and  by
Mr.  John  Furley  and  general  sir  Vincent  Eyre.

A  fruitless  meeting  to  promote  the  incorporation  of
the  society.  It  was  then  reported  that  296,298?.
had.  been  received  ;  together  with  stores  valued  at
45,000?. 1  Aug. 1871

Col.  Loyd  Lindsay  conveyed  to  Versailles  and  Paris
from  the  society  40,000?. ,  equally  divided  between
the  Germans  and  French  (gratefully  acknow-
ledged) ...  . about  11  Oct.  1870


The  crown-prince  of  Prussia  wrote  to  colonel  Loyd
Lindsay: — "In  this,  as  on  other  occasions  of
distress,  the  help  of  the  English  public  has  been
poured  out  with  a  liberal  and  an  impartial  hand.
The  gifts  which  have  been  offered  in  a  truly
Christian  spirit  have  excited  a  feeling  of  heartfelt
gratitude  among  those  on  whose  behalf  I  speak."

2  Nov.


1870


Subscription  Lists  published  :

3rd,  17  Aug. . 2,377?- 50th,  11  Oct. . 243,444?.
10th,  25  Aug. . 33,339 60th,  26  Oct. . 260,849
20th,  6  Sept. . 68,677 70th,  3° Nov- • 280,598
30th,  17  Sept. . 153,214 78th,  7  Jan.  (re-
40th,  29  Sept. . 208,147  ceii>«?  to  31  Dec.  289,674

The  society  afforded  much  help  during  the  Servian  war,
July— September,  1876,  and  the  Russo-Turkish  war,
1877-8.

The  Princess  of  Wales'  branch  of  the  society  closed  with
a  surplus  of  6  417?.  June,  1886.

AILANTINE,  see  Silk.

AIE  or  ATMOSPHERE.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus
(530  B.C.)  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent  deity,
and  the  first  cause  of  everything  created.  Posidonius
(about  79  B.C.)  calculated  the  height  of  the  atmo-
sphere to  be  800  stadia.  The  pressure  of  air,  about
15  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  was  discovered  by  Galileo,
1 564,  and  demonstrated  by  Torricelli,  (who  invented
the  barometer)  about  A.  d.  1643,  and  was  found  by
Pascal,  in  1647,  to  vary  with  the  height.  Halley,
Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time  have
illustrated  the  agency  and  influences  of  this  great
power  by  various  experiments,  and  numerous  inven-
tions have  followed;  among  others,  the  Air-Gun
of  Guter  of  Nuremberg  about  1656;  the  Air-pump,
invented  by  Otto  von  Guericke  of  Magdeburg  about
1650;  improved  by  Robert  Boyle  in  1657,  by  Robert
Hooke  about  1659 ;  *  and  the  Air-pipe,  invented  by
Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of  London,  about  1756.  The
density  and  elasticity  of  air  were  determined  by
Boyle ;  and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by  Hooke,
Newton,  and  Derham.  The  extension  of  our  atmo-
sphere above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  has  been  long
considered  as  about  45  miles. — Its  composition^
about  77  parts  of  nitrogen,  21  of  oxygen,  and  2  of
other  matters  (such  as  carbonic  acid ,  watery  vapour,
a  trace  of  ammonia,  &c.)  was  ascertained  by  Priestley
(who  discovered  oxygen  gas  in  1774),  Scheele
(1775),  Lavoisier,  and  Cavendish;  and  its  laws  of
refraction  were  investigated  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1737.
The  researches  of  Dr.  Schonbein,  a  German  chemist
of  Basel,  between  1840  and  1859,  led  to  his  descrip-
tion of  two  states  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  which  he
calls  ozone  and  antozone.  Dr.  Stenhouse's  Air-Jilters
(in  which  powdered  charcoal  is  used)  were  first  set
up  at  the  Mansion-house, London, in  1854.  In  1858,
Dr.  R.  Angus  Smith  made  known  a  chemical
method  of  ascertaining  the  amount  of  organic  matter
in  the  air,  and  published  his  "Air  and  Rain"  in
1872.  See  Oxygen,  Nitrogen,  Ozone,  Atmospheric
Railway,  Balloons,  and  Pneumatic  Despatch.
The  Aero-steam  Engine,  the  invention  of  George  Warsop,
a  mechanic  of  Nottingham,  who,  by  employing  com-
pressed air  united  with  steam,  is  said  to  have  effected
the  saving  of  47  per  cent,  of  fuel.  The  plan  was  re-
ported to  the  British  Association,  at  Exeter,  in  Aug.
1869,  and  was  said  to  act  successfully  in  a  tug  steamer
(for  China)  in  the  Thames,  26  March,  1870. Mr.  Edward

*  Sprengel's  excellent  air-pump,  in  which  water  or
mercury  is  employed,  was  invented  in  1863.

t  Air,  as  well  as  its  gaseous  components,  has  been
compressed  into  the  liquid  state  by  means  of  great
pressure  and  intense  cold,  1877-8,  by  Raoul  Pictet  of
Geneva,  and  Cailletet  of  Paris,  Dec.  1877,  Jan.  1878.  At
the  Royal  Institution,  5  June,  1885,  professor  James
Dewar  exhibited  Liquid  Air  obtained  at  the  temperature
of  — 192°  cent.


AIE-GAS.


2-5


ALABAMA.


Field,  in  his  new  motive  power,  introduced  a  small
volume  of  steam  into  a  large  volume  of  heated  air,  and
effected  an  economy  of  12^  to  20  per  cent,  of  steam.
The  system  was  exhibited  in  London,  July,  1891.
Col.  Beaumont's  air-engine  for  propelling  railway  car-
riages, tried  at  Woolwich,  reported  successful  (a  little
steam  is  used),  6  Oct.  1880.  His  system  largely  em-
ployed in  various  ways  by  the  Paris  Compressed  Air
company,  described  to  the  British  Association  at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Sept.  1889.
Victor  Popp  applies  compressed  air  as  a  motive  power  to

clocks,  1881.
An  air-telegraph,  in  which  the  waves  of  air  in  a  tube  are
employed  instead  of  electricity,  invented  by  sig.  Guat-
tari,  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1870. It  obtained  a
gold  medal  in  Naples.
Isaac  Wilkinson  patented  a  method  of  compressing  air
by  a  column  of  water  in  1757,  and  William  Mann  pa-
tented stage  pumping  by  compressed  air  in  1829. The
force  of  compressed  air  was  employed  in  boring  the
Cenis  tunnel  (see  under  Alps).
Tram-cars  driven  by  compressed  air  on  the  Mekarski
system  in  N.  London,  for  a  time,  June,  1883 ;  resumed,
after  improvements  made,  for  a  time,  1885  ;  again  for
a  time,  Feb.  1888.

AIE-GAS-LlGHT-COMPANY:  proposed  to  use
hydro-carburetted  air  as  a  source  of  light ;  estab-
lished 1872.

.  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Aachen),  a  Roman
city,  now  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Several  ecclesiastical
councils  held  here  (799-1165).  Here  Charlemagne
was  born,  742,  and  died,  814 ;  having  built  the  mins-
ter (796-804),  and  conferred  many  privileges  on  the
city,  in  which  fifty-five  emperors  have  since  been
crowned.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  French  in
Dec.  1792 ;  retaken  by  the  Austrians,  March,  1793  ;
by  the  French,  Sept.  1794:  ceded  to  Prussia,  1814.
Population,  1890,  103,491.

First  Treaty  of  Peace  signed  here  was  between  France  and
Spain,  when  France  yielded  Franche  Comte,  but  re-
tained her  conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  2  May,  1668.

The  second  celebrated  treaty  between  Great  Britain,
France,  Holland,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Genoa.  (By  it
the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  of  Nimeguen  in  1678
and  1679,  of  Byswiek  in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  of
Baden  in  1714,  of  the  Triple  Alliance  in  1717,  of  the
Quadruple  Alliance  in  1718,  and  of  Vienna  in  1738,
were  renewed  and  confirmed.)  Signed  on  the  part  of
England  by  John,  earl  of  Sandwich,  and  sir  Thomas
Robinson,  7  Oct.  1748.

Congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia  and  Prussia,
assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and  France,  met
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  convention  signed,  9  Oct.
1818,  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  army  of  occu-
pation from  France.

AIX  EOADS,  see  Rochefort.

AIZNADIN  or  AJNADIN  (Syria).  Here
the  Mahometans  defeated  the  army  of  the  emperor
Heraclius,  13  July,  633.  They  took  Damascus  in  634.

AJACCIO,  see  Corsica.

,  AKEEMAN  (Bessarabia).  After  being  several
times  taken,  it  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1812.  Here
the  celebrated  treaty  between  Russia  and  Turkey
was  concluded,  4  Sept.  1826,  which  secured  for  the
former  the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  recognised
the  Danubian  principalities,  &c.

AKHALZIKH  (Armenia).  Near  here  prince
Paskiewitch  and  the  Russians  defeated  the  Turks,
24  Aug.,  and  gained  the  city,  28  Aug.  1828.

ALABAMA,  a  Southern  state,  originally  part
of  Georgia,  N.  America.  The  country  was  first
settled  by  the  French,  1702,  who  built  Mobile,  17 12  ;
part  of  it  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  1763.  It
was  gradually  acquired  by  the  United  States,  and
was  made  a  state  in  1819;  commercial  metropolis,
Mobile. It  seceded  from  the  union  by  an  ordinance


passed  11  Jan.  1861,  was  reunited  in  1865 ;  and  re-
admitted to  congress,  1868.

Murder  of  about  26  negro  miners  at  the  Carbon  Hill
coal mines, Walker county, by white strikers,
30,  31  Jan.— rioting  quelled  by  troops,  i,  2  Feb.  1891.
Population,  1890,  1,513,017.

ALABAMA,  a  steam  vessel  of  900  tons,  with
engines  of  300  horse-power,  constructed  by  Messrs.
Laird  at  Birkenhead,  for  the  confederate  service ;
launched  15  May,  1862.  During  the  judicial  en-
quiries after  her  character,  she  sailed  from  the
Mersey,  28  July,  the  day  before  the  British  govern-
ment telegraphed  to  detain  her.  Under  the  command
of  capt.  Semmes,  she  did  great  damage  to  the
American  mercantile  shipping,  until  her  destruc-
tion by  the  federal  ironclad  Kearsage,  capt.  "Wiuslow,
off  Cherbourg,  19  June,  1864.  Several  of  his  crew
were  saved  by  Mr.  John  Lancaster,  in  his  yacht.  Ad-
miral Semmes  died  Sept.  1877.
Discussion  between  the  two  governments,  respecting

claims  for  damage  by  the  Alabama . .  1865

A  fruitless convention for  their  settlement,  by  a

commission  signed  at  London  .  .  10  Nov.  1868
Another  convention,  signed  by  the  earl  of  Clarendon
and  Mr.  Reverdy  Johnson,  signed  14  Jan.  ;  re-
jected by  the  United  States  senate  .  13  April,  1869
Joint  commission  (British,  earl  de  Grey,  sir  Stafford
Northcote  and  others  ;  American,  secretary  Fisk,
general  Schenk,  and  others)  to  settle  fishery  dis-
putes, Alabama  claims,  &c.  Announced,  9  Feb.,
met  at  Washington,  27  Feb.,  signed  a  treaty  at

Washington 8  May,  1871

Commission  for  Anglo-American claims,  met at

Washington 25  Sept. ,,

Formal  meeting  of  the  arbitration  commission  at

Geneva  ;  (adjourns  to  15  June)  .  18  Dec.  ,,
The  British  and  American  cases,  presented  20  Dec.
Great  excitement  in  England  at  the  introduction
of  enormous  claims  for  indirect  losses  into  the
American  case,  loss  by  transfer  of  trade  from
American  to  British  ships,  increased  rates  of
marine  insurance,  and  losses  incident  to  the  pro-
longation of  the  war Jan.  1872

Correspondence  between  the  governments  :  British
despatch,  3  Feb. ;  reply,  1  March ;  continued  ;
counter  cases  presented  at  Geneva  .  15  April,  ,,
Continued  correspondence,  draft  for  a  supplemen-
tary treaty  ;  by  which  both  nations  agree  in  future
to  abstain  from  claims  for  indirect  losses  pre-
sented to  American  senate  ;  approved  25  May,  ,,
The  British  government  object  to  certain  modifica-
tions ;  further  correspondence  ;  great  excitement
in  parliament ;  proposed  adjournment  of  the
meeting  of  the  arbitration  commission  ;  differences
about  the  mode  of  procedure  ;  congress  adjourns,
leaving  the  affair  unsettled  .  .  10  June,  „
The  Arbitration  tribunal;  consisting  of  count  Fred-
eric Sclopis  for  Italy,  president,  baron  Staempil
for  Switzerland  ;  vicomte  d'ltajuba  for  Brazil ;  Mr.
G.  F.  Adams  for  United  States,  and  sir  Alexander
E.  Cockburn  for  Great  Britain,  meet  at  Geneva  ;
The  British  government  presents  a  note  of  the  ex-
isting differences;  the  conference  adjourns,  15  June,
Further  adjournment,  17  June ;  the  arbitrators
voluntarily  declare  that  the  indirect  claims  are
invalid,  and  contrary  to  international  law,  19
June  ;  president  Grant  consents  to  their  with-
drawal 25  June,

The  British  government  withdraw  their  application

for  adjournment  of  the  conference  .  27  June,  ,
The  Arbitration  commission  records  its  decision
against  the  indirect  claims,  and  the  proposed  leng
adjournment,  and  adjourns  to  15  July  28  June,  ,
Final  meeting  ;  all  the  arbitrators  agree  to  award
damages  for  the  injuries  done  by  the  Alabama:
four,  for  those  done  by  the  Florida :  and  three  for
those  done  by  the  Shenandoah.  The  judgment
not  signed  by  sir  A.  Cockburn,  whose  reasons
were  published  ;  the  damages  awarded  (including
interest),  about  3,229,166?.  13s.  41/.  ;  those  claimed
9,476,166?.  13s.  4<1  (Decision  based  on  the  ad-
mission of  a  new  ex-post  facto  international  law,
by  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Washington.)

14  Sept. 11


ALADJA  DAGH.


26


ALBANY.


1873


1876
1881


The  judgment  of  sir  A.  Coekbum  (a  powerful  and
indignant  reply  to  unjust,  aspersions,  admitting
the  award  for  the  Alabama;  opposing  the  other
awards  ;  yet  counselling  submission  to  the  judg-
ment), signed  14  Sept.  aud  published  in  London
Gazette  with  other  documents . . 20  Sept.

It  is  stated,  that  about  1,250,000?.  too  much  were
awarded Feb.

3,200,000?.  were  voted;  the  receipt  of  3,196,874?.
acknowledged  by  Mr.  Secretary  Fish  9  Sept.

All  awards  made  ;  about  8,000,000  dollars  surplus,

21  Dee.

The  surplus  increasing  by  interest ....

About  9,500,000  dollars  . . . -31  March,

Grand  historical  picture  of  the  International
Alabama  Commissioner  s,  painted  by  Mr.  F.  B.
Carpenter,  of  New  York,  presented  to  the  queen
by  Mrs.  W.Carson,  of  Newburgh,  on  the  Hudson,
arrived  at  Windsor .... 20  Feb.


ALADJA  DAGH,  near  Kars,  Armenia.  Here
the  Turks,  under  Ahmed  Mukhtar,  after  severe  con-
flicts, were  totally  defeated  by  the  Russians  under
the  grandduke  Michael,  and  generals  Loris  Meli-
koff,  Lazareff,  and  Heimann,  14,  15  Oct.  1877.

The  Turkish  army  was  divided  and  broken  up,  the  strong
camp  taken,  with  many  prisoners,  including  7  pashas
and  38  guns.  The  Russian  strategy  was  highly  com-
mended. This  overwhelming  disaster,  which  led  to
the  investment  of  Kars,  was  attributed  to  Mukhtar's
maintaining  too  extended  lines  which  were  turned  (20
miles  with  only  40,000  men  ;  when  200,000  were  re-
quired).

ALAND  ISLES  (Gulf  of  Bothnia),  taken  from
Sweden  by  Russia,  1809;  see  Bomarsund.

ALANI,  a  Tartar  race,  invaded  Parthia,  75.
They  joined  the  Huns  in  invading  the  Roman
empire,  and  were  defeated  by  Theodosius,  379-382.
They  were  subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  452,  and
eventually  incorporated  with  them.

ALARCOS  (Central  Spain).  Here  the  Spaniards
under  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile,  were  totally
defeated  by  the  Moors,  19  July,  1195

ALASKA,  the  name  given  to  the  Russian  pos-
sessions in  North  America,  purchased  by  the  United
States  by  treaty,  13  March,  1867,  for  7,200,000
dollars,  received  1  Aug.  1868,  when  it  was  made  a
territory.  Sitka  is  the  principal  station.  Popu-
lation, 1880,  33,426;  1890,  30,329.

ALBA  LONGA,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  said
to  have  been  founded  by  Ascanius,  son  of  jEneas,
1052  B.C. Its  history  is  mythical.

Amulius,  the  brother  of  Numitor,  seizes  the  throne,
794  ;  killed  by  Romulus,  who  restores  his  grand-
father Numitor 754

Romulus  builds  and  fortif  es  Rome  (see  Rome)  753

Alba  conquered  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  incor-
porated with  Rome  (see  Horatii)  . . . 665

ALBANIA,  a  province  in  European  Turkey,
formerly  part  of  the  ancient  Epirus. The  Albanians
became  independent  during  the  decline  of  the  Greek
empire. They  were  successfully  attacked by  the
Turks  in  1388. About  1443,  under  George  Castriot
(Scanderbeg),  they  baffled  the  efforts  of  Mahomet
II.  to  subdue  them  till  the  siege  of  Scutari  in  1478,
when they  submitted. Ali  Pacha,  of  Janina,  in
1812,  defeated  the  Turkish  pachas,  and  governed
Albania  ably,  but  cruelly  and  despotically,  till  Feb.
1822,  when  he  and  his  two  sons  were  slain,  after
surrendering  under  a  solemn  promise  of  safety. A
revolt  in  Albania  was  suppressed  in  1843.
An  Albanian  league  (favoured  by  the  Turks)  formed
to  resist  the  cession  of  any  part  of  the  country  to
Austria  and  Montenegro  in  April, said  to  have
caused  the  death  of  Mehemet  Ali  . . 7  Sept.  1878


The  country  semi-independent . . . April,  1879

Army  formed  rebels  against  Turkey  . . April,  1880

The  league  forces  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Dervish  Pasha
in  Uskub  between  Pristina  and  Prisrend  19  April ;  he
reported  the  country  settled,  but  asked  for  reinforce-
ments ;  more  fighting  ;  Albanians  said  to  be  defeated,
and  struggle  almost  over,  12  May,  1881.

Revolt  of  chiefs,  severe  rights,  2,  3,  June,  1883.  Turks
defeated  with  loss  ;  reported  dispersion  of  ,the  chiefs
about  8  June.  Continued  fighting  12  June  et  seq.
The  Turks  successful  in  fight ;  the  Albanians  submit,
announced  21  June.  Unsettled  25  June.  Insurrection
subsiding  about  19  July.  Albanians  appeal  to  the
Powers  for  annexation  to  Greece,  about  3  Nov.
General  disorder  and  much  brigandage  reported,  Aug.
1884. See  Dulcigno.

The  Albanian  society  established  at  Bucharest  for  the
political,  moral,  and  intellectural  development  of  the
Albanians  has  been  reorganized,  and  the  sultan  has
been  asked  to  accept  the  protectorate,  May,  1889.

Albanian  attacks  on  Montenegro,  &c,  checked  by  the
Turks,  July,  Aug.,  1890.

North  Albania  reported  to  be  in  a  state  of  sanguinary
anarchy,  middle  Dec,  1890.

Outrages  committed  by  a  band  of  250.  Arnauts,  Jan.,
1891.

League  of  Albanian  chiefs  formed  to  resist  the  Turks,
Nov.,  1891.

Martial  law  established  on  the  confines  of  Montenegro,
Dec,  1891.

ALBANS,  ST.  (Hertfordshire),  near  the  Roman
Verulam,  derived  its  name  from  Alban  the  British
protomartyr,  said  to  have  been  beheaded  during  the
persecution  by  Diocletian,  23  June,  286.  A  stately
monastery  to  his  memory  was  erected  about  795,
by  Off'a,  king  of  Mercia,  who  granted  it  many
privileges.  Its  superior  sat  as  premier  abbot  in
parliament  till  the  dissolution  in  1539.  A  meeting
was  held  22  June,  1871,  to  raise  a  fund  for  the
restoration  of  the  abbey,  the  earl  of  Verulam,  chair-
man. The  results  were  favourable,  and  the  work
was  confided  to  Mr.  G.  Gilbert  Scott,  who  issued  a
report  in  June,  1872.  The  work  was  carried  on
under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  Edmund  Beckett
(afterwards  Lord  Grimthorpe),  who  contributed
50,000/.  towards  it.  Mr.  H.  Hucks  Gibbs  also  con-
tributed largely  to  the  restoration  (1889) .  The  nave
was  opened  21  Oct.  1885.  Verulam  was  built  on  the
site  of  the  capital  of  Cassivclaunus,  taken  by  Julius
Cassar,  54  B.  c.  It  was  retaken  after  much  slaughter
byBoadiceaorBunduica,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  A.n.  61.
First  Battle  of  St.  Albans,  when  the  Lancastrians  were

defeated, their leader, Edmund duke  of Somerset

slain, and king Henry  VI. taken  prisoner, by  the

duke  of  York  and  his  partisans,  22  or  23  May,  1455.
Second  battle,  queen  Margaret  totally  defeated  the  Yorkists

under  the  earl  of  Warwick, and  rescued  the  king,

Shrove  Tuesday,  17  Feb.  1461.
St.  Albans  incorporated  by  Edward  VI.  1553.
Disfranchised  for  bribery,  17  June,  1852.
St.  A/bans  Raid,  see  United  States,  Oct.  1864.
St.  Albans  Murder,  see  Trials,  18S0.
Act  passed  to  make  arrangements  for  erecting  a  bishopric

of  St.  Albans,  2q  June  1875.  See  constituted,  30  April ;

made  a  city,  28  Aug.  1877. Population,  1881,  10,031  ;

1891,  12,895.

BISHOPS.

1877.  Thomas  Legh  Claughton  (trans,  from  Rochester) ;

resigned  21  March,  1890;  died  25  July,  1892.
1890.  John  Wogan  Festing,  May.

ALBAN' S,  ST.,  CHURCH,  Holborn,  see
under  Church  of  England,  1867.

ALBANY  OR  ALBAINN,  the  ancient  name
of  the  Scottish  Highlands.  Robert  Stewart,  the
brother  of  King  Robert  IIL,  was  created  the  first
duke  of  Albany  in  1398,  aud  the  title  has  ever  since
been  connected  with  the  crown  of  Scotland.  The
young  pretender,  prince  Charles  Edward,  and  his
wife  took  the  title  of  count  and  countess  of  Albany.
See  York.


ALBANY.


ALBERT  UNIVERSITY.


DQKES OF  ALBANY.

1398. Robert ;  regent ;  1406  ;  died  3  Sei/t.  1420.

1420. Murdoch,  son  ;  regent ;  executed'  for  treason  by

king  James  I.,  1424.
1452. [Alexander, brother of  king  James 11/; acted'

treasonably ; exiled ; killed'  ~a*«4entaHy.  at;

Paris,  1485.  ' — -^~

1514. Johu,  son;  regent;  went  abroad ;  died  at  Pan§7

1526.

See  York  and  Albany,  dukes.
1881. Prince  Leopold,  fourth  son  of  queen  Victoria,  was

created  duke  of  Albany  24 May, 1881  ;  died

8  March,  1884.
1884. Leopold  Charles,  son,  born  19  July.
See  under  England.

ALBANY,  capital  of  the  state  of  New  York.
The  Dutch  erected  a  block-house  near  here  in
1614,  and  villages  soon  arose.  The  town  took  its
name  from  James,  duke  of  York  and  Albany,  to
whom  it  had  been  given  by  his  brother,  King
Charles  II.,  after  its  cession  to  Great  Britain  in
1664.  Albany  received  a  charter  in  1686;  the  first
general  congress  met  here  in  1764,  and  in  1807  the
city  became  the  capital  of  the  state.  Population,
1800,5349;  1860,62,367; 1890,94,923.

ALBERT  MEMORIALS.  (See  England,
Queen.)  The  Prince  Consort  died  on  14  Dec.  1861,
deeply  lamented  by  the  whole  civilised  world.  His
remains  were  transferred  to  the  mausoleum  of
Frogmore,  18  Dec.  1862.  The  sarcophagus  is  com-
posed of  the  largest  known  block  of  granite  without
flaw.  A  meeting  to  organise  a  method  of  receiving
contributions  for  a  great  national  memorial  was
held  at  the  Mansion-house,  14  Jan.  1862  ;  and  a
large  sum  was  quickly  subscribed.  36,000/.  had
been  received  on  1  March;  50,220/.  on  11  June,
1862  ;  and  parliament  voted  50,000/.,  in  addition
to  the  60,000/.  received  by  voluntary  contributions,
23  April,  1863.

The  nature  of  the  memorial  was  referred  to  the  queen
herself.  In  a  letter  to  the  lord  mayor,  dated  19  P'eb.
1862,  sir  Charles  Greysays,  on  behalf  ofhermajesty,  "It
would  be  more  in  accordance  with  her  own  feelings,
and  she  believes  with  those  of  the  country  in  general,
that  the  monument  should  be  directly  personal  to  its
object.  After  giving  the  subject  her  maturest  considera-
tion, her  majesty  has  come  to  the  conclusion,  that
nothing  would  be  more  appropriate,  x>rovided  it  is  on  a
scale  of  sufficient  grandeur,  than  an  obelisk  to  be  erected
in  Hyde-park  on  the  site  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of
1851,  or  on  some  spot  immediately  contiguous  to  it.
Nor  would  any  proposal  that  could  be  made  be  more
gratifying  to  the  queen  herself  personally,  for  she  can
never  forget  that  the  prince  himself  had  highly  ap-
proved of  the  idea  of  a  memorial  of  this  character  being
raised  on  the  same  spot  in  remembrance  of  the  Great
Exhibition."  In  a  second  letter  the  queen  expressed
her  intention  of  personally  contributing  towards  erect-
ing the  memorial,  that  "  it  might  be  recorded  in  future
ages  as  raised  by  the  queen  and  people  of  a  grateful
country  to  the  memory  of  its  benefactor."  Shortly
after  a  committee  was  appointed  to  fulfil  her  majesty's
desire.  As  a  suitable  block  of  granite  could  not  be
obtained,  the  proposal  for  an  obelisk  was  given  up.

The  queen  approved  of  the  design  of  Mr.  Gilbert  G.  Scott
for  an  Eleanor  Cross,  with  a  spire  150  feet  high,  ac-
companied by  statues,  &c,  22  April,  1863  ;  work  begun.
13  May,  1864.

The  sculptors  employed  were  M'Dowell,  Foley,  Theed,
John  Bell,  and  Armistead  :  material,  Sicilian  marble.
(Jan.  1865.)

The  memorial,  complete,  except  the  statue,  by  Foley
(delayed  through  illness),  was  given  up  to  her  majesty
privately,  1  July,  1872.  The  gilt  statue  by  Foley  un-
covered 9  March,  1876.

Doyne  C.  Bell's  Descriptive  and  Illustrated  Account  of
this  Monument,  published  by  Mr.  John  Murray,  1873.

Inscription  on  the  "  Memorial  Cairn"  on  a  high  mountain
overlooking  Balmoral  Palace:— "To  the  beloved
memory  of  Albert  the  great  and  good  Prince  Consort,
erected  by  his  broken-hearted widow,  Victoria R.


1  Aug.  1862."  Upc->u  another  dressed  slab,  a  few  inches,
below  the^ab'pye.  is  trfis  quotation  v — "  He  being  made
perfect  in  a  short  time,  fulfilled  a  long  time  :  for  his
suul  pleased  the  Lord,  therefore  hasted  he  to  take  him
away  from  among  the  wicked."— Wisdom  of  Solomon „

j cnap.  iv.  13,  14.

\  A^tifjei  of  the  prince-consort  (by  Theed)  inaugurated  at
Ros«ng«,  his  birta-place,  in  the  presence  of  the  queen
<m*LtJie rbyal  family,  19  Aug.  1865.

"  EarlyySa*s-Qf_tl)i  Prince  Consort ;"  edited  by  the  Hon.
Chas.  Grey  ;  published  6  July,  1867.

Statue  by  Theed  at  Balmoral,  inaugurated  15  Oct.  1867.

The  Statue  at  the  Holborn  Circus,  uncovered  by  the
Prince  of  Wales,  9  Jan.  1874.

The  Albert  Memorial  Chapel  at  Windsor,  opened  to  the
public,  1  Dec.  1875.

Life,  by  Theodore  Martin  ;  5  vols,  published,  1875-80.

The  Scottish  National  Memorial  to  the  Prince,  Edin-
burgh, inaugurated  by  the  Queen,  17  Aug.  1876.

Statue  at  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge,  uncovered
by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  22  Jan.  1878.

A  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  prince  set  up  near
Virginia  Water  in  the  Great  Park,  Windsor,  by  means
of  the  women's  offering,  see  Jubilee,  1887-9;  uncovered,
by  the  queen,  12  May,  1890.

Many  other  memorials  of  the  prince  have  been  set  up
throughout  the  empire.

Royal  Albert  Hall  op  Arts  and  Sciences  ;  The
erection  of  a  great  building  for  congresses,  concerts,,
&c. ,  was  proposed  by  the  prince-consort  at  the  close
of  the  exhibition  of  1851,  and  an  estate  at  Kensington
was  purchased  ;  a  committee,  with  the  prince  of  Wales

'  at  the  head,  to  erect  the  building,  was  appointed  6
July,  1865 ;  circulars  soliciting  subscriptions  were
issued  April,  1866  ;  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the
queen,  20  May,  1867.

The  building  was  erected  by  col.  Scott,  chiefly  after  de-
signs by  capt.  Fowke,  and  cost  about  200,000^.  The
organ,  by  Willis,  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world.
An  experimental  concert  was  given  to  the  workmen  25
Feb.,  and  the  hall  was  opened  by  the  queen  29  March,
1871,  when  a  grand  concert  was  given,  and  many  since.

The  hall  is  said  to  contain  seats  for  10,000  persons,
(orchestra  2,000,  oval  arena  1,000,  balcony  2,300,  and.
gallery  2,000).

An  International  Ice  Carnival  for  the  West  End  Hospital
for  Paralysis,  &c,  inaugurated  by  the  Duchess  of
Teck,  14  March,  1889.

State  concert  for  the  German  emperor  and  empress,
9  July,  1891.

Albert  Bridge,  Chelsea,  opened  23  Aug.  1873 ;  freed
from  toll  24  May  1879.

Albert  Embankment,  &e.,  see  Thames,  1869  ;  Docks.

Albert  Institute,  Windsor,  opened  by  the  prince  of
Wales,  10  Jan.  1880.

Albert  Medals,  to  be  awarded  to  persons  who  endanger
their  lives  by  saving  others  from  shipwreck,  appointed
by  royal  warrant,  3  March,  1866.  The  first  was  given
to  Samuel  Popplestone  on  14  May,  1866,  for  saving  life
on  23  March  previous .;  medals  awarded  to  Pontypridd
miners  and  others  for  saving  men  imprisoned  in  a  mine
through  inundation  (see  Coal:  Accidents,)  April,  1S77.

Albert  Medal  (Gold),  founded  in  1862,  awarded  by  the
Society  of  Arts  to  sir  Rowland  Hill,  1864  ;  Napoleon
III.  1865;  Michael  Faraday,  1866  ;  Charles  Wheatstone
and  William  Fothergili  Cooke,  1867  ;  Joseph  Whit-
worth,  186S ;  Justus  Liebig,  1869 ;  Ferdinand  de
Lesseps,  1870  ;  Henry  Cole,  C.B.,  1871  ;  Henry  Besse-
mer, 1872;  Michel  Eugene  Chevreul,  1873;  C.  William
Siemens,  1874;  Michel  Chevallier,  1875;  sir  G.  B.  Airy,
1876;  Jean  Baptiste  Dumas,  1877  ;  sir  Win.  G.  Arm-
strong, 1878  ;  sir  William  Thomson,  1879 ;  James.
Prescott  Joule,  1S80;  Aug.  Wm.  Hofmann,  1881;  Louis.
Pasteur,  1882 ;  sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker,  1883 ;  capt.
James  Buchanan  Eads,  1884  ;  Henry  Doulton,  1885  ;
Samuel  Cunliffe  Lister,  1886;  the  Queen,  1887  (6  June,
presented  8  March,  1888);  professor  Hermann  Louis.
Helmholtz,  1888  ;  John  Percy,  1889  ;  William  Henry
Perkin,  1890;  sir  Frederick  Abel,  1891.

Albert  Exhibition  Falace,  Batteksea,  opened  6
June,  1885,  closed  1888.

Royal  Albert  Orphan  Asylum,  Bagshot;  founded  1S64.

ALBERT  NYANZA,  sec  Victoria  Xyanza.

ALBERT UNIVERSITY, the  name pro-
posed for  a  new  teaching  university,  in  and  for


ALBIGENSES.


28


ALDERMAN.


London,  advocated  by  University  college  and  King's
college  in  1891.  A  draft  charter  was  submitted  to
the  privy  council  and  approved  in  July,  1891.  In
Jan.  1892  the  lord  mayor  proposed  that  the  new
university  should  be  combined  with  Gresham  col-
lege and  called  Gresham  university.  Much  discus-
sion ensued,  and  the  subject  was  eventually  referred
to  a  royal  commission  in  March  following.  See
London  University.

ALBIGENSES,  a  name  given  to  various  per-
sons who  opposed  the  doctrines  and  corruptions  of
the  church  of  Rome,  living  at  Albi,  in  Languedoc,
and  at  Toulouse  in  the  12th  century.  They  were
persecuted  as  alleged  Manichseans,  1 1 63,  and  a  crusade
(proclaimed  by  pope  Innocent  III.)  against  them
commenced  in  1207.  Simon  de  Montfort  commanded
500,000  men,  and  at  Beziers,  1209,  he  and  the  pope's
legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the  sword,  saying,
■"  God  will  find  his  own !  "  *  At  Minerba  he  burnt
150  of  the  Albigenses  alive ;  and  at  La  Vaur  he
hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded  the  chief  people,
drowning  the  governor's  wife,  and  murdering  other
women.  He  defeated  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse,
but  was  himself  killed  in  1218.  Louis  VIII.  and
IX.,  kings  of  France,  patronised  the  crusade;
count  Raymond  was  subdued,  and  abdicated  in  1229;
and  the  heretics  were  given  up  to  the  Inquisition.
They  had  little  in  common  with  the  Waldenses,
which  see.

ALBION.  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  so  called
bj  Aristotle  (died  322  B.C.).  Julius  Cassar  and
others,  are  said  to  have  given  it  the  name  (from
■albus,  white)  on  account  of  its  chalky  cliffs.

ALBUEBA  OR  AlBTJHERA,  Estremadura,
Spain.  Here  a  battle  was  fought  between  the
French,  commanded  by  marshal  Soult,  and  the
British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  under  marshal,
afterwards  lord  Beresford,  16  May,  1811.  The
allies  obtained  a  brilliant  victory.  The  French  loss
exceeded  8000  men  previously  to  their  retreat ;  but
the  allies  lost  a  large  number.  The  chief  brunt
of  the  action  fell  on  tlie  British ;  colonel  Inglis,
2.2  officers,  and  more  than  400  men,  out  of  570  who
had  mounted  a  hill,  fell, — out  of  the  57th  regiment
alone  ;  the  other  regiments  were  scarcely  better  off,
not  one-third  being  left  standing ;  "  1500  mi-
wounded  men,  the  remnant  of  6000  unconquerable
British  soldiers,  stood  triumphant  on  this  fatal
hill." Napier.

ALBUFEEA  (Spain,  East  Central),  a  lagoon,
ffiear  which  the  French  marshal  Suchet  (afterwards
duke  of  Albufera)  defeated  the  Spaniards  under
Blake,  4  Jan.  1812  :  this  led  to  his  capture  of
Valencia  on  9  Jan.

ALCALA  DE  HEN  ABES,  Spain,  near  the
Roman  Complutum.  At  the  university  here  was
printed  the  Complutensian  Polyglott  bible,  at  the
•expense  of  cardinal  Ximenes,  1502-15.

ALCANTABA,  a  town  on  the  Tagus,  W.  Spain.
A  fine  l.ridge  was  built  here  by  Trajan  about  104.
The  duke  of  Alva  acquired  Portugal  for  Spain  by
defeating  the  Portuguese  army  here,  24  June,  1580.
The  Spanish  military  order  of  knighthood  of  Alcan-
tara was  established  in  1 156.  The  sovereign  of
Spain  has  been  grand  master  since  1495.

ALCAZAB-QTJIVEB,  near  Fez,  N.  W.
Africa,  where  the  Moors  totally  defeated  the  Portu-
guese, whose  gallant  king  Sebastian  was  slain,  4
Aug.  1578. The  Portuguese  disbelieved  his  death,

*  Now  contradicted.


and  long  expected  his  return  ;  this  led  to  the  ap-
pearance of  five  impostors.

ALCHEMY,  the  forerunner  of  chemistry  ;  its
chief  objects  being  the  discovery  of  the  philosopher's
stone  (which  was  to  effect  the  transmutation  of
metals  into  gold),  an  alkahest  or  universal  men-
struum, and  the  elixir  of  life.*  The  alchemists
assert  that  their  founder  was  Hermes  Trismegistus
(thrice  greatest),  an  ancient  Egyptian  king. — Pliny
says,  the  emperor  Caligula  was  the  first  who  pre-
pared natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold  of  it,
but  left  it  off,  because  the  charge  exceeded  the
profit.

Zosimus  wrote  on  the  subject  about  410.
The  Arabians  cultivated  alchemy  and  were  followed  (in
the  13th  century)  by  Roger  Bacon,  Albertus  Magnus,
Aquinas,  Raymond  Lullius,  Basil  Valentine  (born  1394),
Paracelsus  (died  1541),  and  others.
In  1404  the  craft  of  multiplying  gold  and  silver  was  made
felony  by  5  Hen.  IV.  c.  4,  which  act  was  repealed  in  1689.
A  licence  for  practising  alchemy  with  all  kinds  of  metals
and  minerals  was  granted  to  one  Richard  Carter,  1476.
Rymer's  Foedera.
Dr.  Price,  of  Guildford,  in  1782  published  an  account  of
his experiments  and  brought  specimens of  gold  to
the  king,  affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a
red  and  white  powder. Being  a  fellow  of  the  Royal
Society,  he  was  required,  under  pain  of  exxmlsion,  to
repeat  his  experiments  before  Messrs. Kirwan  and
Wolfe  (some  say  Higgins)  ; but  after  much  equivoca-
tion and  delay  he  took  poison  and  died,  Aug.  1783.

ALCOHOL.  Pure  spirit  of  wine  or  hydrated
alcohol  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  by  the  dis-
tillation of  fermented  liquors  by  Abucasis  in  the
12th  century;  and  the  dehydration  of  this  liquor
to  have  been  partially  effected  by  Raymond  Lul-
lius in  the  13th  century  by  carbonate  of  potassium.
In  1820,  Faraday  and  Hennell  obtained  traces  of
alcohol  by  passing  olefiant  gas  (bi-carburetted  hydro-
gen) through  sulphuric  acid ;  and  in  1862  this
process  was  examined  and  confirmed  by  Bertbelot.
Alcohol  has  been  artificially  formed  from  its  elements
by  chemists ;  it  was  solidified  by  Prof.  Dewar  at
the  Royal  Institution,  1886;  see  Distillation,
/Spirits,  Brandt/,  Gin,  Hum.  About  250  medical
men,  including  the  president  of  the  Royal  College
of  Physicians,  and  many  hospital  officials,  issued  a
cautionary  declaration  concerning  the  use  of  alcohol
in  medicine,  Dec.  1871. See  Temperance.

ALCOLEA  (Andalusia,  S.  Spain).  Near  the
bridge  a  sharp  engagement  took  place  between  the
royalists  under  general  Pavia  y  Lacy,  marquis  de
Novaliches,  and  the  insurgents  under  marshal  Ser-
rano, 27  Sept.  1868.  The  former  was  defeated,  and,
being  severely  wounded,  surrendered  28  Sept.  About
600  were  killed  on  both  sides.

AL-COBAN  OR  AL-KORAN,  see  Koran,  Ma-
hometanism,  &c.

ALDEBMAN.  The  Saxon  ealdorman  was
next  to  the  king  and  frequently  a  viceroy;  but
after  the  settlement  of  the  Danes  the  title  was
gradually  displaced  by  that  of  earl.  Aldermen  in
corporations  are  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor.
A  curious  list  of  aldermen  and  their  wards  is
assigned  to  the  year  1290.  Loftie.  Aldermen  chosen
for  life,  instead  of  annually,  17  Rich.  II.  1394.
Present  mode  of  election  established,  11  Geo.  I.  1725.
Aldermen  made  justices  of  the  peace,  15  Geo.  II.
1 741.

*  M.  Martin  Ziegler  patented  a  method  of  producing  a
•'vital  fluid"  by  combining  nitrogen  and  carbon  in  a
porous  cell  containing  ammonia,  immersed  in  a  vessel
filled  with  molasses.  The  current  was  to  flow  through
silk  threads  attached  to  the  vessel ;  about  1S68.


ALDERNEY.


29


ALEXANDRA  PARK.


The  26  London  aldermen  are  elected  by  the  wards.  In
1877  the  court  of  aldermen  exercised  their  ancient  right
of  veto  against  Sir  John  Bennett  (thrice  chosen  alder-
man for  the  ward  of  Cheap),  and  chose  Mr.  Edgar
Breffitt,  23  Oct.  1877.

Aldermen  form  part  of  the  County  Councils  established
by  the  Local  Government  Act,  1888.

ALDERNEY  (English  Channel),  with  Jersey,
&c,  was  acquired  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1066.
The  "  Eace "  is  celebrated  for  two  fatal  occur-
rences; William  of  Normandy,  son  of  Henry  I.  of
England,  and  many  young  nobles  (140  youths  of
the  principal  families  of  France  and  Britain),  were
overtaken  by  a  storm,  and  all  lost,  25  Nov.  1120.
The  British  man-of-war  Victory,  of  100  guns  and
1 160  men,  was  wrecked  here,  5  Oct.  1744;  the
admiral,  sir  John  Balchen,  and  all  his  crew  perished.
Through  this  strait  the  French  escaped  after  their
defeat  at  La  Hogue  by  admirals  Russell  and  Rooke,
19  May,  1692.  The  construction  of  a  breakwater,
in  order  to  make  Aldemey  a  naval  station,  was
begun  in  1852,  and  after  having  cost  1,337,100^.,
was  suspended  by  parliament  in  1871.  In  1874  the
harbour  and  lands  were  transferred  from  the  control
of  the  board  of  trade  to  that  of  the  admiralty  and
the  war  department.

ALDERSHOT  CAMP,  on  a  moor  near  Farn-
ham,  about  35  miles  from  London.  In  April,  1854,
the  War  office,  having  obtained  a  grant  of  100,000/.,
purchased  4000  acres  of  land  for  a  permanent  camp
for  20,000  men.

Additional  land  purchased  in  1856.

Barracks  since  erected  for  4000  infantry,  1500  cavalry,

and  several  batteries  of  artillery. Great  improvements

in  military  cookery  introduced  (see  Cookery)  under  the

superintendence  of  captain  John  Grant,  1857.

Visited  by  the  queen,  18,  19  April,  1856.

The  troops  returned  from  the  Crimea,  reviewed  by  her,

7,  16  July,  1856.
About  15,000  men  were  stationed  here,  1859.
Cost  of  the  camp,  said  to  be  1,291,  ^31^.  up  to  Feb.  i860.
An  industrial  and  fine-art  exhibition,  furnished  by  officers
and  men  and  their  wives,  opened,  29  June ;  closed  14
July,  1864.
Camp  set  up  for  40,000  men  to  execute  military  manoeu-
vres, Aug. Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away
through  a  fright,  30  Aug.  1871.
Review  of  14,000,  &c.  by  the  queen,  5  July,  1872.
Summer  Manoeuvres  here,  1874,  1875,  1876,  1877.
Review  by  the  queen,  13  May,  1878  ;  again  (all  branches

of  the  service  represented),  2  July,  1886.
March  of  a  force  equipped  for  war,  17  Aug.  1886.
Review  and  sham  right,  23  June,  1887.
The  Queen  reviews  about  60,000  men,  about  half  volun-
teers ;  grand  march  past,  9  July,  1887.
Theatre  Royal  burned  down,  8  Feb.  1889.
The  Queen  reviews  11,945  of  all  ranks,  31  May,  1889.
A  sham  fight  and  review,  in  which  about  25,530  troops,
regulars  and volunteers, were  engaged, took place
here  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  William  II.,  the
Princess  of  Wales,  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  and  others
of  the  royal  family,  7  Aug.  1889.
The  Queen  reviews  the  troops,  16  July,  1891,  27  June,
1892.

ALDINE  PRESS,  that  of  Aldo  Manuzio
(Aldus  Manutius),  at  Venice,  where  were  printed
many  of  the  first  editions  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and
Italian  classics,  commencing  in  1494  with  Musaeus.

ALE,  BEER,  and  Wine.  Ale  is  said  to  have  been
known  as  a  beverage  at  least  in  404  B.C.  Herodotus
ascribes  the  first  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing
barley- wine  to  Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris,  and  a  beverage
of  this  kind  is  mentioned  by  Xenophon,  401  B.C.
The  Romans  and  Germans  very  early  learned  from
the  Egyptians  the  process  of  preparing  a  liquor  from
corn  by  means  of  fermentation.  Tacitus.  Ale-
houses are  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of
Wessex.  Booths  were  setup  in  England,  728,  when
laws  were  passed  for  their  regulation. None  but


freemen  were  allowed  to  keep  ale-houses  in  London,
13  Edw.  I.  1285.  They  were  further  subjected  to
regulation  by  5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  25  (1551).  By
I  James  I.  c.  9  (1603),  one  full  quart  of  the  best,,
and  two  quarts  of  small  ale  were  to  be  sold  for  one
penny.  Excise  duty  on  ale  and  beer  was  imposed  by
the  parliament  in  1643,  and  continued  by  Charles  II.
(1660) ;  repealed,  1  Will.  IV.  c.  51  (1830) ;  see
Beer,  Porter,  Wine,  Victuallers.  Michael  Thomas
Bass,  the  eminent  brewer  of  Burton,  died  28  April,
1884,  aged  84.

Mr.  John  Bickerdyke's  book  on  "  The  Curiosities  of  Ale
and  Beer  "  was  published  in  1886.

ALEMANNI,  or  All  Men  (i.e.  men  of  all
nations),  hence  Allemand,  German.  A  body  of
Suevi,  who  took  this  name,  were  attacked  by  Cara-
calla,  214.  After  several  repulses,  they  invaded  the
empire  uuder  Aurelian,  who  subdued  them  in  three
battles,  271.  They  were  again  vanquished  by  Julian,
356,  357;  by  Jovinus,  368.  They  were  defeated  and
subjugated  by  Clovis  at  Tolbiac  (or  Zulpich),  496.
The  Suabians  are  their  descendants.

ALENCON  (N.  France)  gave  title  to  a  count
and  duke.  '

1268-82.  Peter,  made  Count  by  his  father  king  Louis  IX.
1293. Charles  I.  of  Valois,  made  Count  by  his  brother

king  Philip  the  Fair.
1325. Charles  II.  his  son,  killed  at  Crecy.
1346. Charles  III.  (his  son),  became  a  priest.
1361. Peter,  his  brother.
1404. John  (his  son),  made  Duke  in  1414,  killed  at

Agincourt,  1415.
1415. John  II.  (his  son),  prisoner  in  England,  1424-9  ;

intrigued  against  the French king ; died in

prison,  1470.
1476. Charles  IV.  fled  after  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525,

and  died  shortly  after  of  chagrin. The  duchy

was  annexed  by  the  crown.

ALEPPO,  North  Syria,  a  large  town  named
Beroea  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  about  299  B.C.  The
pachalic  of  Aleppo  is  one  of  the  five  governments  of
Syria.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  638,  who
restored  its  ancient  name  Haleb  or  Chaleb ;  by  Sala-
din,  1 193;  and  sacked  by  Timour,  Nov.  1400.  Its  de-
population by  the  plague  has  been  frequent ;  60,000
persons  were  computed  to  have  perished  by  it  in
1797;  many  in  1827.  The  cholera  raged  here  in
1832.  Aleppo  suffered  severely  from  the  terrible
earthquakes  in  1822  and  1830;  and  has  often  been
the  scene  of  fanatical  massacres.  On  16  Oct.  1850,
the  Mahometans  attacked  the  Christians,  burning
everything.  Three  churches  were  destroyed,  five
others  plundered,  and  thousands  of  persons  slain.
The  total  loss  of  property  amounted  to  about  a  mil-
lion sterling ;  no  interference  was  attempted  by  the
pacha. Population  in  1885,  110,000.

ALESSANDRIA,  a  city  of  Piedmont,  built  in
1 168  under  the  name  of  Caesar  by  the  Milanese  and
Cremonese,  to  defend  the  Tanaro  against  the  em-
peror, and  afterwards  named  after  pope  Alexander
III.  It  has  been  frequently  besieged  and  taken.
The  French  took  it  in  1796,  but  were  driven  out  by
Suwarrow,  21  July,  1799.  They  recovered  it  after
the  battle  of  Marengo,  14  June,  1800,  and  held  it.
till  1814,  when  the  strong  fortifications  erected  by
Napoleon  were  destroyed.  These  have  been  restored
since  June,  1856.

ALEUTIAN  ISLES,  in  the  North  Pacific
Ocean,  discovered  by  Behring,  1 741,  visited  by
Cook,  1778,  and  settled  by  Russians,  1785.

"ALEXANDRA  CASE,"  see  Trials,
1862-64.

ALEXANDRA  PARK,  Muswell  Hill,  Lon-
don, N.  purchased  by  a  company,  and  named  after


ALEXANDRA  PARK.


30


ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOLS.


the  princess  of  Wales,  was  opened  with  a  flower
show,  23  July,  1863. A  portion  of  the  Exhibition
building of  1862 was erected  here. The work
proceeded  rapidly  in  1864,  was  suspended  in  1865,
a-ecommenced  in  1866,  and  completed  in  1873.
Horse-races  first  held  here . . 30  June,  1  July,  1868
The  prospectus  of  a  scheme  to  organise  an  institu-
tion resembling  the  South  Kensington  Museum
and  the  Crystal  Palace,  by  means  of  a  tontine  (to
cease  30  June,  1886),  was  issued . 22  July 1871
The  affairs  were  to  he  managed  by  "  The  Alexandra
Palace  and  Muswell-hill  Estate  Management  Com-
pany (limited). " Public  lectures  on  the  subject,
Aug.  1871 ;  the  company's  affairs  were  wound  up

Feb. 1872
The  purchase  of  the  land  and  buildings  for  the

public  proposed  by  the  lord  mayor  and  others  July , ,
The  palace  was  opened  with  a  grand  concert,  &c.

24  May  ;  destroyed  by  fire . . .9  June,  1873
Two  women,  incautiously  viewing  the  ruins,  buried,

25  June ;  bodies  found . . . 21  Aug. „
The  new  building  (^86  by  184  feet) ;  opened  1  May, 1875
94,125  persons  said  to  have  entered  the  park,  Whit-
Monday 17  May, „

Balfe  memorial  festival . . . .29  July,  1876
Petition  for  winding-up . . . . 24  Oct. „
The  estate  taken  over by  the  London  Financial

Association,  creditors  of  the  company . . 1876-7
'The  palace  re-opened  (annual  subscription,  10s.  6d.),

10  May, ,,
Arrival  of  Nubian  hunters,  with  elephants,  rhino-
ceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras,
ostriches, &o. (imported by Carl  Hagenbeck),

7  Sept. — 13  Oct. ,,
Opened  by  new  proprietors  (Mr.  Willing  and  others)

with  new  attractions  . . . 17  May,  1880

1107,852  visitors  (bank  holiday)  . . 2  Aug. ,,

Taken  by  Jones  and  Barber  . .  Nov. ,,

Put  up  for  sale  :  unsold .  ... 11  Feb.  188 1

Varied  entertainments 1881-2

Act  for  relieving  the  London  Financial  Association
from  charge  of  the  Palace  (withdrawn  March  et

seq.) 1883,  again  1884

Proposals  for  purchasing  the  land  for  recreation

June,  1883

Put  up  for  sale  ;  no  bidders . . . 20  July, ,,

London Financial  Association  v.  Sir  John Kelk,

Lucas  &Co.  (contractors),  and  others  (directors,

&c.,)4oo,oooZ.  claimed  as  misappropriated;  about

25  days'  trial ;  Vice-Chancellor  Bacon  dismisses

case  with  costs 8  Mar.  1884

The  Palace  let  to  Mr.  George  Collins Levy, for

International  Exhibition  announced . 25  July, ,,

Temporary  Industrial  Exhibition  opened  31  March,  1885

Palace  closed  in  1886;  re-opened  for  the  season,

11  April,  1887,  Mr.  H.  W.  Hayward,  lessee  ;  54,720

[ visitors  on  Whit  Monday,  30  May,  1887  ;  reported

unsuccessful,  Feb.  1888  ;  re-opened  with  a  grand

concert  (1,000  performers),  12  May ;  second  grand

concert 9  June, „

Celebration  of  the  23rd  anniversary  of  the  organi-
zation of  the  Salvation  Army . .  9  July,  1888
For  Professor  Baldwin's  ascents  and  descents  see

under  Balloons ,,

The  park  re-opened  for  the  season  ;  exhibition  of
nearly  1,000  monkeys,  balloons  and  parachutes,
&a,  professor  Baldwin,  Mr.  Young,  and  others

1  June,  1889
Comic  opera  by  Mr.  C.  Wibrow . 17  June,  et  seq. ,,
French national fete, Gen. Boulanger present

13  July ,,
Professor  Baldwin,  after  98  ascents  and  descents,

retires  with  intention  of  returning  to  America,
about  ....... 17  July, „

The  London  Financial  Association  apply  for  the
appointment  of  a  provisional  liquidator  pending
the  winding-up  of  the  Alexandra  Palace  and  park
company,  Mr.  C.  L.  Nichols  appointed 27  July, ,,

The  palace  closed Sept. ,,

Licenses  renewed  to  Mr. Charles James  Hayter

14  Nov. ,,
Hill  for  repealing  the  protective  clauses  of  the  Acts

of  1866  and  1877,  promoted  by  the  association,
withdrawn  from  the  Commons . . April,  1891
Purchase  of  the  palace  and  grounds  proposed  to  the
Middlesex  county  council  by  E.  D.  M.  Littler,
.chairman,  Dec.  1891 ;  proposal  deferred May,  1892


ALEXANDRIA  .(Egypt),  the  walls  whereof
were  six  miles  in  circuit,  was  founded  by  Alexander
the  Great,  332  B.C.  who  was  buried  here,  322.  It
became  the  residence  of  the  Greek  sovereigns  of
Egypt,  the  Ptolemies,  323 ;  seventeen  councils  were
held  here,  a.d.  231-633.  Population,  with  its
suburbs,  in  1883,  208,775.

Ptolemy  Soter  erects  the  Museum,  the  Serapeum,
the  Pharos,  and  other  edifices,  and  begins  the

library  about b.  c. 298

These  works  completed  by  his  son  P.  Philadelphus

and  his  grandson  P.  Euergetes  . . . 283-222

Alexandria  taken  by  Julius  Csesar ;  when  a  library

is  burnt 47

Which  Antony  replaces  by  one  brought  from  Per-

gamus 36

The  city  restored  by  Adrian  ....  a.d.  122
Massacre  of  the  youth  by  Caracalla,  in  revenge  for

an  insult 215

Alexandria  supporting the usurper  Achilleus is

taken  by  Diocletian  after  a  long  siege  .  .  .  297
Alexandria  disturbed  by  the  feuds  between  the

Athanasians  and  Arians 321

George  of  Cappadocia  was  killed,  362,  and  Athan-

asius  finally  restored 363

50,000  persons  perish  by  an  earthquake  .  .  .  365
Paganism  suppressed  by  Theodosius,  when  a  second

library  is  burnt 390

Alexandria  captured  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia . 616
And  by  Amrou,  the  general  of  the  caliph  Omar,*  who
ordered  the  library  to  be  burnt,  whereby  the  baths
were  supplied  with  fuel  for  six  months 22  Dec. 640
Becovered  by  the  Greeks  ;  retaken  by  Amrou.  . 644

Cairo  founded  by  the  Saracens ;  which  tends  to  the

decay  of  Alexandria 969

Alexandria  plundered  by  the  Crusaders  .  .  .  1365
The  French  capture  Alexandria  . . July,  1798

Battle  of  Alexandria  or  Canopus :  the  British  under
gen. sir  Ralph  Abercromby  defeat  the  French

under  Menou 21  March,  1801

Abercromby  dies  of  his  wounds,  28  March ;  Menou
and  io,coo  French  surrender  it  to  Hutchinson

2  Sept. ,,
Alexandria taken by  the British  under  Fraser,

20  March ;  evacuated  by  them . . 23  Sept.  1807
By  the  convention  of  Alexandria,  Egypt  was  guaran-
teed to  Mehemet  Ali  and  his  successors  (and

greatly  favoured  by  them) 1841

Railway  to  Cairo  formed 1851

New  port,  first  stone  laid  by  the  khedive 15  May,  1871
Fierce  riots  against  Europeans  (see  Egypt)  11  June,  1882
Panic  and  great  emigration  of  Eurorjeans . June, ,,
Bombardment  of  the  forts,  conflagration  and  aban-
donment of  the  city  (see  Egypt) . 11-13  July, ,,

ALEXANDRIAN  CODEX,  a  MS.  of  the

Septuagint  translation  of  the  Bible  in  Greek,  said
to  have  been  transcribed  by  a  lady  named  Thecla,
in  the  6th  century,  and  to  have  belonged  to  the
patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  1098.  It  was  presented
to  Charles  I.  of  England  in  1628  by  Cyrillus  Leucaris,
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  was  placed  in  the
British  Museum  in  1753.  It  was  printed  in  fac-
simile, 1786-1821.

ALEXANDRIAN  ERA,  see  Mundane.

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOLS  of  Philo-
sophy. The  first  school  arose  soon  after  the
foundation  of  Alexandria,  332  B.C.  It  flourished
under  the  patronage  of  the  Ptolemies  till  about  100
B.C.  It  included  Euclid  (300),  Archimedes  (287-
212),  Apollonius  (250),  Hipparchus  (150),  and  Hero
(150).  The  second  school  arose  about  a.d.  140,  and
lasted  till  about  400.  Its  most  eminent  members
were  Ptolemy,  the  author  of  the  Ptolemaic  system
(150),  Diophantus  the  arithmetician  (200),  and
Pappus  the  geometer  (350) .

*  The  saying  of  Omar — "  That  if  the  books  agreed  with
the  book  of  God,  they  were  useless;  if  they  disagreed,
they  were  pernicious" — is  denied  by  Mahometans.  It  is
also  attributed  to  Theophilus,  archbishop  of  Alexandria
(390),  and  to  cardinal  Ximenes  (1500).


ALEXANDRINES.


31


ALGIERS.


ALEXANDRINES,  verses  of  twelve  sylla-
bles, first  written  by  Alexander  of  Paris,  about  1164,
and  since  called  after  him.  The  last  line  of  the
Spenserian  stanza  is  an  Alexandrine.  In  Pope's
Essay  on  Criticism,  this  verse  is  thus  happily
exemplified : —

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song,
That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length
along. "

The  longest  English  poem  wholly  in  Alexandrine
verse  is  Drayton's  Polyolbion,  published  1612-22.

ALEXINATZ,  a  town  in  Servia.  Severe  fight-
ing took  place  here  between  the  Turks  and  Servians,
Aug. -Sept.  1876.  The  town,  head-quarters  of  the
Servians,  was  captured  31  Oct.  This  led  to  an
armistice  and  peace. See  Turkey.

ALFORD  (N.  Scotland),  BATTLE  OF.  General
Baillie,  with  a  large  body  of  covenanters,  was  de-
feated by  the  marquis  of  Montrose,  2  July,  1645.

ALGEBRA :  Diophantus,  said  to  be  the  in-
ventor, Avrote  upon  it  probably  between  the  3rd  and
5th  centuries.  It  was  cultivated  in  the  9th  century
by  the  Arabs,  who  brought  it  into  Spain ;  and  in
Italy  by  Leonardo  Bonaccio  of  Pisa,  in  1220.  In
1494  Luca  Paciolo  published  the  first  printed  book
on  Algebra  in  Europe.  Serret.  Some  of  the  alge-
braic signs  were  introduced  either  by  Christophe
Rudolph  (1522-26)  or  Michael  Stifelius  of  Nurem-
berg, 1544,  and  others  by  Erancis  Vieta,  in  1590,
when  algebra  came  into  general  use.  Moreri.  Jerome
Cardan  published  his  "  Ars  Magna,"  containing  his
rule,  1545.  Thos.  Harriot's  important  discoveries
appeared  in  his  "  Artis  Analytical  Praxis,"  1631.
Descartes  applied  algebra  to  geometry  about  1637.
The  binomial  theorem  of  Newton,  the  basis  of  the
doctrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668.
Dean  Peacock's  "Algebra"  is  a  first-class  work.

ALGERIA,  see  Algiers.

ALGESIRAS,orOLDGlBRALTAE  (S.  Spain).
Here  the  Moors  entered  Spain  in  711,  and  held  it
till  taken  by  Alfonso  XI.  March,  1344. — Two  en-
gagements took  place  here  between  the  English  fleet
under  sir  James  Saumarez  and  the  United  French
and  Spanish  fleets,  6  and  12  July,  1801.  In  the  first
the  enemy  was  victorious ;  but  the  British  honour
was  redeemed  in  the  latter  conflict,  the  San  Antonio,
74  guns,  being  captured.  Two  Spanish  ships  fired
on  each  other  by  mistake,  and  took  fire ;  of  2000
men  on  board,  250  were  saved  by  the  English.
Alison.

ALGIERS,  now  Algeria,  N."W.  Africa ;  part
of  the  ancient  Mauritania,  which  was  conquered  by
the  Eomans,  46  B.C.;  by  the  Vandals,  a.d  439;
recovered  for  the  empire  by  Belisarius,  534;  and
subdued  by  the  Arabs  about  690.  Population  of
Algeria  in' 1866,  2,921,146;  1872,2,146,225;  1875,
2,448,691;  1886,3,910,399;  1891,4,124,732.
The  town  Algiers  founded  by  the  Arabs  near  the

site  of  Icosium about 935

Becoming  the  seat  of  the  Barbary  pirates  captured
by  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  1509  ;  retaken  by  Horuc
Barbarossa,  and  made  the  capital  of  a  state  ;
governed  by  a  dey,  nominally  subject  to  Turkey,
1516. Barbarossa  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the

Spaniards . . 1513

The  emperor  Charles  V.  loses  a  fine  fleet  and  army

in  an  expedition  against  Algiers  .  .  .  .  1541
Algiers terrified  into  pacific  measures  by  Blake,

1655  ;  by  Du  Quesne 1683-4

For  continued  piracy,  the  city  successfully  bom-
barded by  the  British  fleet,  under  lord  Exmouth

27  Aug.  1816
A  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery  was
abolished „


Algiers  surrendered  to  a  French  armament  under
Bourmont  and  Duperre,  after  severe  conflicts ;
the  dey  deposed,  and  the  barbarian  government
wholly  overthrown . . ... 5  July,  1830

The  Arab  chief  Abd-el-Kader  preaches  a  holy  war,
becomes  powerful,  and  attacks  the  French,  at  first
successfully  j833

He  is  recognised  as  emir  of  Mascara,  by  treaty  with
the  French ^34

The  French  ministry  announce  their  intention  to
retain  Algiers  permanently . . .20  May, „

War  renewed 1835-6

The  French  take  Mascara  ... 5  Dec.  1835

Marshal  Clausel  defeats  the  Arabs  in  two  battles,
and  enters  Mascara 8  Dec.  1836

Gen.  Damremont  killed  in  taking  Constantina

13  Oct.  1837

Abd-el-Kader,  thoroughly  defeated,  recognises  the
French  supremacy 30  May,

War  renewed  ;  French  defeated . . . Dec.  1839

Algeria  annexed  to  France,  and  the  emir  declared  a
rebel  . .  Feb.  1842

He  is  defeated  by  Bugeaud  at  Isly  . . 14  Aug.  1844

500  Arabs  in  a  cave  at  Khartani  refuse  to  surren-
der ;  suffocated  by  smoke  ;  said  to  have  been
ordered  by  general  Pelissier . . .18  June,  1845

After  a  long  struggle  Abd-el-Kader  surrenders  to'
Lamoriciere 23  Dec.  1847*

Fresh  revolts,  1849  !  subdued  .... 1850

An  insurrection  of  the  Kabyles  subdued  by  the
French,  after  several  sharp  engagements . . 1851

Another  insurrection  suppressed .... ^57

The  government  entrusted  (for  a  short  time)  to
prince  Napoleon ^-s

The  Arab  tribes  attack  the  French  ;  defeated,

31  Oct.  and  6  Nov.  1859

Algiers  visited  by  Napoleon  III.  . . .  Sept.  1S60

Marshal  Pelissier,  duke  of  Malakhoff,  appointed
governor-general  of  Algeria  . . Nov.

The  emperor  promises  a  constitution  securing  the
rights  of  the  Arabs,  saying :  "  I  am  as  much
emperor  of  the  Arabs  as  of  the  French." . Feb.  1863

Insurrection  of  the  Arabs,  May  ;  submission,  June,  1864

Death  of  marshal  Pelissier,  22  May ;  M'Mahon,  duke'
of  Magenta,  succeeds  him  . . .  g  Sept.

Fresh  revolts ;  insurgents  defeated  by  Jolivet  2  Oct!

The emperor  well  received during  his  visit,

3  May— June,  1865

More  rights  and  privileges  promised  to  the  natives.

July,

The  emperor  publishes  his  letter  on  the  policy  of
France  in  Algeria  (20  July)  . . . Nov.

4000  Arabs  defeated  by  col.  Sounis . 2  Feb.  i860

Algeria  proclaimed  in  a  state  of  siege . 15  Aug!  1870

State  of  siege  raised  .... 24  June,'  187 1

Gen.  Chanzy  accused  of  governing  despotically ;  his
resignation  not  accepted  by  Marshal  M'Mahon
July  ;  replaced  by  Albert  Grevy .  jg_jj

An  insurrection  soon  quelled . . . June' 1870

Dispute  with  Tunis  ;  outrages  of  the  savage  tribes'
Kroumirs,  <&c.  (see  Tunis) . . . April'  1881

Arab  insurrection,  headed  by  Bou  Ameema,  June ';
he  is  said  to  be  defeated,  and  a  fugitive 13  July'

Insurrection  dreaded ; troops sent  from France

about  26  Aug.

Bou  Ameema  defeated  by  the  French,  13th  July  ;

said  to  be  preparing  for  a  fresh  revolt ; three'

French columns  advancing  against  him,'  Aug.  ;

indecisive  skirmishes  .... Au"\

Resignation  of  the  governor,  A.  Grevy,  announced "

6  Nov. ,,

*  He,  with  his  suite,  embarked  at  Oran,  and  landed  at
Toulon  on  28  Dec.  following.  He  was  removed  to  the
castle  of  Amboise,  near  Tours,  2  Nov.  1848,  and  released
from  his  confinement  by  Louis  Napoleon,  16  Oct.  1852,
after  swearing  on  the  Koran  never  to  disturb  Africa
again  ;  he  was  to  reside  henceforward  at  Broussa,  in  Asia
Minor;  but  in  consequence  of  the  earthquake  'at  that
place,  28  Feb.  1855,  he  removed  to  Constantinople.  In
July,  i860,  Abd-el-Kader  held  the  citadel  of  Damascus,
and  there  protected  many  of  the  Christians  whom  he
had  rescued  from  the  massacres  then  in  perpetration  by
the  Turks.  He  received  honours  from  the  English",
French,  and  Sardinian  sovereigns.  He  visited  Paris  and
London  in  Aug.  1865.  He  offered  to  serve  in  the  French
army  in  July,  1870. He  died  May,  1S83,  aged  76.


ALHAMA.


32


ALKMAER.


M.  Tirman  appointed Dec.  1881

Topographical  expedition  attacked,  40  said  to  be

killed April, 1882

The  province  Mzab  annexed  to  Algeria,  announced

Dec. ,,
Submission  of  insurgents  announced . 13  June,  1883
Plague  of  locusts ...  . July,  1888-91

The  chamber  of  deputies,  Paris,  direct  the  appoint-
k  ment to inquire respecting Algerian political

affairs 5  March,  1891

Resignation  of  M.  Louis  Tirman,  ten  years  governor,

March  ;  succeeded  by  M.  Jules  Cambon,  arrived

11  May, ,,
Rebellion  of  the  Ameurs  tribe  at  Ain  Sefra,  reported

23  Dec. ,,

ALHAMA,  a  town  of  Granada,  S.  Spain,  de-
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  25  Dec.  1884  ;  5  churches,
5  convents,  and  other  buildings  thrown  down ;  re-
ported deaths  above  300.

ALHAMBEA,  a  Moorish  palace  and  fortress
near  Granada,  S.  Spain,  founded  by  Mohammed  I.
of  Granada  about  1253.  It  was  surrendered  to  the
Christians  aboutNov.  1491.  The  remains  have  been
described  in  a  magnificent  work  by  Owen  Jones  and
Jules  Goury,  published  1842-5.  A  fac-simile  of  a
part  of  this  palace  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Syden-
ham, was  destroyed  by  the  fire,  30  Dec.  1866.  By
a  fire  at  the  Alhambra,  near  Granada,  the  roof  of
the  Sala  de  la  Barca  was  destroyed  ;  except  the  court
of  the  Albevca,  other  courts  were  uninjured
15,  16  Sept.  1890.— The  Panopticon  (which  see)  was
opened  as  a  circus,  &c,  under  the  name  of  Alhambra,
in  March,  1858.  The  Alhambra  Palace  Company,
incorporated  in  July  1863,  applied  for  dissolution
in  Jan.  1865.  The  Royal  Alhambra  Theatre  was
detroyed  by  fire,  7  Dec.  1882  :  2  firemen  lost  their
lives  ;  reopened,  3  Dec.  1883.

ALI,  SECT  OF  (Shiites,  orFatimites).  Ali,  born
about  598,married  Mahomet' s  daughter  Fatima,  about
619;  became  vizier,  614;  and  caliph,  656.  Ali  was
called  by  the  prophet,  "  the  lion  of  God,  always
victorious  ;  "  and  the  Pei-sians  follow  the  interpre-
tation of  the  Koran  according  to  Ali,  while  other
Mahometans  adhere  to  that  of  Abubeker  and  Omar.
Ali  was  assassinated  23  Jan.  661.*

ALIENS  or  FOREIGNERS,  were  banished  in

1 155,  being  thought  too  numerous. In  1343  they

were  excluded  from  enjoying  ecclesiastical  benefices.

By  2  Rich.  II.  st.  1,  1378,  they  were  much  relieved.

When  they  were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries

were  to  be  half  foreigners,  if  they  so  desired, 1430.

They  were  restrained  from  exercising  any  trade  of

handicraft  by  retail,  1483,  a  prohibition  which  was

relaxed  in  1663.

Alien  priories  (cells  and  estates  belonging  to  foreign  per-
sons) suppressed  in  England,  1414.

The  Alien  Act  passed,  Jan.  1793.

Act  to  register  aliens,  1795.

Baron  Geramb,  a  fashionable  foreigner,  known  at  court,
ordered  out  of  England,  6  April,  1812.

Bill  to  abolish  naturalisation  by  the  holding  of  stock  in
the  banks  of  Scotland,  June,  1820.

New  registration  act,  7  George  IV.  1826.  This  last  act
was  repealed  and  another  statute  passed,  6  Will.  IV.

The  rigour  of  the  alien  laws  was  mitigated  by  acts  passed
in  1844  and  1847.  .

"  Foreigners  have  reclaimed  our  marshes,  drained  our
fens,  fished  our  seas,  and  built  our  bridges  and  har-
bours." Smiles,  1861.


*  The  first  four  successors  of  Mahomet— Abubeker,
Omar,  Othman,  and  Ali,  his  chief  agents  in  establishing
his  religion  and  extirpating  unbelievers,  and  whom  on
that  account  he  styled  the  "cutting  swords  of  God  "—all
died  violent  deaths  ;  and  his  family  was  wholly  extir-
pated within  thirty  years  after  his  own  decease.


Their  status  defined  by  the  Naturalisation  Act,  passed
12  May,  1870. See  under  Law.

The  votes  of  some  Hanoverians  at  the  Stepney  Parlia-
mentary Election  disallowed  by  the  judges  5  April,
1886.

The  prohibition  of  aliens  holding  land  in  the  United
States  of  North  America  adopted  by  several  western
states  ;  and  also  stringent  restrictions  on  the  employ-
ment of  aliens  in  manufactures,  1885,  et  seq.

A  decree  respecting  aliens  ana  immigrants  with  restric-
tions was  issued  in  France  by  President  Carnot  2  Oct.
1888.

ALIWAL,  a  village  N.  W.  India,  the  site  of  a
battle,  28  Jan.  1846,  between  the  Sikh  army  under
sirdar  Runjoor  Singh  Majeethea,  19,000  strong,
supported  by  68  pieces  of  cannon,  and  the  Britii-h
under  sir  Harry  Smith,  12,000  men  with  32  guns.
The  contest  was  obstinate,  but  ended  in  the  defeat
of  the  Sikhs,  who  lost  nearly  6000  killed  or
drowned.

ALIZARINE,  a  crystalline  body,  the  colour-
ing principle  of  madder,  discovered  in  it  by  Robi-
quet  and  Colin  in  1831.  Schunck  showed  that  all
the  finest  madder  colours  contained  only  alizarine
combined  with  alkalies  and  fatty  acids.  Graebe
and  Liebermann  obtained  anthracene  from  alizarine
in  1868,  and  alizarine  from  anthracene  in  1869.
The  crystalline  body  anthracene  was  discovered  in
coal  oils  by  Dumas  and  Laurent  in  1832.  See
Madder.

ALJUBARROTA,  Portugal.  Here  John  I.  of

Portugal  defeated  John  I.  of  Castile,  and  secured
his  country's  independence,  14  Aug.  1385 ;  see
Batalka.

ALKAHEST,  see  Alchemy.

ALKALIES  (from  kali,  the  Arabic  name  for
the  plant  from  which  an  alkaline  substance  was
first  procured)  are  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  and
lithia.  Black  discovered  the  nature  of  the  differ-
ence between  caustic  and  mild  alkalies  in  1736.

The  fixed  alkalies,  potash  and  soda,  decomposed,  and  the
metals  potassium  and  sodium  formed,  by  Humphry
Davy  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  1807.

Dr.  Ure  invented  an  alkalimeter,  1816.

The  manufacture  of  alkalies,  very  extensive  in  Lanca-
shire and  Cheshire,  is  based  on  the  decomposition  of
common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  by  a  process  in-
vented by  a  Frenchman  named  Nicolas  Le  Blanc,
about  1792  ;  his  statue  set  up  in  Paris,  summer,  1885.

Mr.  Losh  obtained  crystals  of  soda  from  brine  about  18 14.
Various  modifications  of  these  processes  are  now  in
use.

"Alkali  works,"  are  defined  as  works  for  the  manufacture
of  alkali,  sulphates  of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash,  and  in
which  muriatic  gas  is  evolved.

Mr.  Wm.  Gossage's  process  for  condensing  muriatic  acid
gas  patented  in  1836.

The  "  ammonia  process  "  of  making  soda,  invented  by
Dyer  and  Hemming,  in  1838  ;  patents  respecting  it
taken  out  by  Solvay,  1863,  1867,  1872  ;  Gossage,  1854  ;
Schloesing,  1854,  1858  ;  Young,  1871,  1872  ;  Weldon,
1872,  1873  ;  and  by  others.

Mr.  Walter  Weldon  received  the  French  Lavoisier  medal
for  his  most  important  improvements  in  the  alkali
manufacture,  July,  1877.  He  died  of  overwork,  20
Sept.  1885,  aged  53.

In  consequence  of  the  injury  to  vegetation  produced  by
the  alkali  works  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  the
Alkali  Works  act  "  for  the  more  effectual  condensation
[of  95  per  cent.]  of  muriatic  acid  gas  "  (or  hydrochloric
acid)  was  passed,  28  July,  1863.  It  came  into  opera-
tion 1  Jan.  1864,  proved  successful;  was  re-enacted,
1868  ;  and  amended,  1874  and  1881.  Mr.  James  Green-
wood's electrolytic  process  for  the  direct  production
of  caustic  soda  and  chlorine  from  common  salt  re-
ported successful,  Jan.  1892.  See  Chemical  Works  and
Union.

ALKMAER,  see  Bergen.


ALLAHABAD.


S3


ALMANACS.


ALLAHABAD  (N.  W.  Hindostan),  the  "holy
city"  of  the  Indian  Mahometans,  situated  at  the
junction  of  the  rivers  Jumna  and  Ganges.  The
province  of  Allahabad  was  successively  subject  to
the  sovereigns  of  Delhi  and  Oude,  but  in  1801  was
partially  and  in  1803  wholly  incorporated  with  the
British  possessions.  By  treaty  here,  Bengal,  &c,
was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1765. — During  the
Indian  mutiny  several  sepoy  regiments  rose  and
massacred  their  officers,  4  June,  1857  ;  colonel  Neil
marched  promptly  from  Benares  and  suppressed  the
insurrection.  In  Nov.  1861,  lord  Canning  made
this  city  the  capital  of  the  N.  "W".  provinces.  Visit
of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  7  March,  1874.  Population,
1891,  176,770.

ALLEGIANCE,  see  Oaths.

ALLEGORY  abounds  in  the  Bible  and  in
Homer  :  see  Jacob's  blessing  upon  his  sons,  Genesis
xlix.  (1689  B.C.),  Psalm  lxxx.,  and  all  the  prophets.
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  (1590)  and  Bunyan's  Pil-
grim's Progress  (1678)  are  allegories  throughout.
The  Spectator  {i"]  11),  by  Addison,  Steele,  and  others,
abounds  in  allegories.  The  allegorical  interpretation
of  the  scriptures  is  said  to  have  begun  with  Origen
in  the  3rd  century  ;  but  see  Gal.  iv.  24.

ALLEYN,  see  Almshouses  and  Dulwich.

ALLIA  (more  correctly  Alia),  Italy,  a  small
river  flowing  into  the  Tiber,  where  Brennus  and
the  Gauls  defeated  the  Romans,  16  July,  390  B.C.
The  Gauls  sacked  Koine  and  committed  so  much
injury  that  the  day  was  thereafter  held  to  be  un-
lucky (piefastus),  and  no  public  business  was  per-
mitted to  be  done  thereon.

ALLIANCE,  Treaties  of,  between  the  high

European  powers. The  following  are  the  principal :
see  Coalitions,  Conventions,  Treaties.

ALLIANCE.

Of  Leipsic ....  9  April,  1631

Of  Vienna . 27  May, 1657

The  Triple 28  Jan.  1668

Of  Warsaw 31  March,  1683

The  Grand 12  May,  1689

The  Hague 4  Jan.  1717

The  Quadruple 2  Aug.  1718

Of  Vienna 16  March,  173 1

Of  Versailles 1  May,  1756

Germanic 23  July,  1785

Of  Paris 16  May,  1795

Of  St.  Petersburg 8  April,  1805

Austrian 14  March,  1812

Of  Sweden 24  March, ,,

Of  Toplitz 9  Sept.  1813

Holy  Alliance 26  Sept.  1815

Of  England,  France,  and  Turkey  (at  Constantinople)

12  Mar.  1854
Of  England  and  France  ratified . . 3  April, ,,
Of  Sardinia  with  the  Western  Powers  (at  Turin)

26  Jan.  1855
Of  Sweden  with  the  Western  Powers . 19  Dec. ,,
Of  Prussia  and  Italy  . . . .  June,  1866

Triple  (of  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy,  which  see)

13  March,  1887

-  ALLISON ISLAND, in  the Pacific, dis-
covered e  <rly  in  1887.

ALL  NIGHT  SITTINGS,  see  Parliament,
1877  and  1881.

ALL  SAINTS'  DAY  (Nov.  1),  or  All-Hal-
lows, a  festival  said  to  have  been  begun  by  pope
Boniface  IV.  about  607,  celebrated  in  the  Pan-
theon at  Rome,  and  established  by  pope  Gregory  IV.
(about  830)  for  the  commemoration  of  all  those
saints  and  martyrs  in  whose  honour  no  particular
day  is assigned. The reformers  of  the  English


church,  1549,  struck  out  of  their  calendar  a  great
number  of  anniversaries,  leaving  only  those  which
at  their  time  were  connected  with  popular  feeling  or
tradition.

ALL  SOULS'  COLLEGE,  Oxford;  see
Oxford.

ALL  SOULS'  DAY  (2  Nov.),  a  festival  of
the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  commemorate  the
souls  of  the  faithful,  instituted,  it  is  said,  at  Cluny
about  993  or  iooo.

"ALL  THE  TALENTS"  ADMINIS-
TRATION, see  Grenvtlle  Administrations.

ALLOBROGES,  Gauls,  defeated  by  Q.  Fabius
Maximus,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Rhone  and
Saone,  121  b.c.

ALLOTMENTS,  see  Land.

ALMA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  near  which  was
fought  a  great  battle  on  20  Sept.  1854.  (See
Russo- Turkish  War  and  Crimea.)  The  English,
French,  and  Turkish  army  (about  57,000  men)
moved  out  of  their  first  encampment  in  the  Crimea
on  19  Sept.,  and  bivouacked  for  the  night  on  the
left  bank  of  the  Bulganac.  The  Russians  (com-
manded by  prince  Menschikoff),  mustering  40,000
infantry,  had  180  field-pieces  on  the  heights,  and  on
the  morning  of  20  Sept.  were  joined  by  6000  cavalry
from  Theodosia  (or  Kaffa).  The  English  forces
under  lord  Raglan,  consisted  of  26,000  men;  the
French  of  24,000,  under  marshal  St.  Arnaud.  At
12  o'clock  the  signal  to  advance  was  made;  the
river  Alma  was  crossed,  while  prince  Napoleon  took
possession  of  the  village  under  the  fire  of  the
Russian  batteries ;  and  at  4,  after  a  sanguinary  fight,
the  allies  were  completely  victorious.  The  enemy,
utterly  routed,  threw  away  their  arms  and  knap-
sacks in  their  flight,  having  lost  about  5000  men,  of
whom  900  were  made  prisoners,  mostly  wounded.
The  loss  of  the  British  was  26  officers  and  327  men
killed,  and  73  officers  and  1539  men  wounded
(chiefly  from  the  23rd,  7th,  and  33rd  regiments)  ;
that  of  the  French,  3  officers  and  233  men  killed,
and  54  officers  and  1033  men  wounded.  Total  loss
of  the  allies  about,  3400. »

ALMACK'S  ASSEMBLY-ROOMS,  King-
street,  St.  James's,  London,  at  first  very  exclusive,
were  erected  by  a  Scotchman  named  Almack  or
M'Call,  and  opened  12  Feb.  1765.  They  have
long  been  termed  Willis's  rooms  from  the  name
of  later  proprietors ;  they  were  offered  for  sale  in
April  and  July,  1890.

ALMANACS  (from  the  Arabic  al  manah,  to
count ;  or  better,  the  Coptic  al,  computation,  and
men,  memory) .  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  in-
struments ;  the  Alexandrians  had  almanacs,  and  log
calendars  are  ancient.  In  the  British  Museum  and
universities  are  specimens  of  early  almanacs.  Mi-
chael Nostradamus,  the  astrologer,  wrote  an  almanac
in  the  style  of  Merlin,  1556.  Dufresnoy.  Profes-
sor Augustus  De  Morgan's  valuable  "  Book  of
Almanacs,  with  an  index  of  reference,  by  which  the
almanac  may  be  found  for  every  year,"  was  pub-
lished in  March,  185 1.*  Among  the  earlier  and
more  remarkable  almanacs  were


John  Somer's  Calendar,  written  in  Oxford
One  in  Lambeth  Palace,  written  in


1380
1460


*  Murphy's  Almanack  for  1838  predicted  correctly  a
frost  on  7  Jan.  ;  thaw  and  frost  14th  ;  severe  frost  2lst,
and  then  thaw.  A  great  sale  of  the  almanac  ensued.
Afterwards  the  predictions  failed.

I>


ALMANZA.


34


ALPHABET.


First  printed  one,  published  at  Buda . . .  1472
1  Shepheard's  Kalendar,"  (first  printed  in  England)

by  Richard  Pynson 1407

Tybalt's  Prognostications 1533

Almanac  Liegeois 1636

Lilly's  Ephemeris 1644

Poor  Robin's  Almanac 1652

British  Merlin 1658

Connaissance  des  Temps  (by  Picard)  . . .  1679

Edinburgh  Almanac 1683

Moore's  Almanac 1698  or  1713

Lady's  Diary . . . . . . . . 1705

Season  on  the  Seasons 1735

Gentleman's  Diary 1741

Nautical  Almanac,  begun  by  Dr.  Neville  Maskelyne

(materially  improved,  1834) 1767

British  Imperial  Kalendar 1809

Hone's  Every  Pay  Book 1826

British  Almanac  and  Companion  ....  1828
Anniversary  Calendar,  published  by  W.  Kidd . . 1832

Chambers'  Book  of  Days 1862-63

Whitaker's  Almanack  1869

Mr.  F.  Mayer's  International  Almanac  for- 1890,  in
five  languages,  published  .  .  .  Dec.  1889
The  Stationers'  company  claimed  the  exclusive  right
of  publishing  almanacs  in  virtue  of  letters  patent  from
James  I.,  granting  the  privilege  to  them  and  the  two
Universities  ;  but  the  monopoly  was  broken  up  by  a
decision  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  1775.  A  bill
to  renew  the  privilege  was  lost  in  1779.

The  Stamp  Duty  on  English  almanacs  first  imposed  in
1 710,  was  abolished  in  August,  1834;  since  when  alma-
nacs have  become  innumerable,  being  issued  by  trades-
men with  their  goods.

Of  Moore's  (under  the  management  of  Henry  Andrews,
the  able  computer  of  the  Nautical  Ephemeris)  at  one
time  upwards  of  430,000  copies  were  annually  sold.  He
died  in  1820.

Of  Foreign  Almanacs,  the  principal  are  the  "  Alrnanaeh
de  Prance,"  first  published  in  1699,  and  the  "  Almanach
de  Gotha,"  1764.

ALMANZA  (S.  E.  Spain). Here  on  25  April

(o.  s.  14),  1707,  the  English,  Hutch,  and  Portuguese
forces  under  the  earl  of  Galwa}',  were  totally  de-
feated by  the  French  and  Spanish  commanded  by
James  Fitzjames,  duke  of  Berwick  (illegitimate  son
of  James  II.).  Most  of  the  English  were  killed
or  made  prisoners,  having  been  abandoned  by  the
Portuguese  at  the  first  charge.

ALMEIDA  (Portugal),  a  frontier  town,  cap-
tured by  Massena,  27  Aug.  1810.  The  French
entered  Spain,  leaving  a  garrison  at  Almeida,
blockaded  by  the  English,  6  April,  181 1.  Almeida
was  retaken  by  Wellington  (11  May),  and  Massena
retired  from  Portugal.

ALMENARA,  a  village  N.  E.  Spain,  whereon
28  July,  1 7 10,  an  English  and  German  army  de-
feated the  Spanish  army  supporting  Philip  V.,  the
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Stanhope,  the
English  general,  killed  the  Spanish  general,  Ame-
zaga,  in  single  conflict ;  an  act  almost  unexampled
in  modern  warfare.

ALMOHADES,  Mahometan  partisans,  fol-
lowers of  Mohammed  ben  Abdalla,  surnamed  El-
Mehedi,  in  Africa,  about  1120.  They  subdued
Morocco,  1 145;  entered  Spain  and  took  Seville,
Cordova,  and  Granada,  1146-56;  and  founded  a
dynasty  and  ruled  Spain  till  1232,  and  Africa  till


ALMONER,  an  office  anciently  allotted  to  a
dignified  clergyman  who  gave  the  first  dish  from  the
royal  table  to  the  poor,  or  an  alms  in  money.  By  an
ancient  canon  all  bishops  were  required  to  keep
almoners.  The  grand  almoner  of  France  was  the
highest  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  that  kingdom  before
the  revolution,  1789.  Queen  Victoria's  almoner
(Very  Bev .  lord  Alwyne  Compton,  dean  of  Worcester,


appointed  in  1882)  or  fhe  sub-almoner  distributes  the
queen's  gifts  on  Maundy  Thursday  (which  see).

ALMQRAVIDES,  Mahometan  partisans  in
Africa,  rose  about  1050 ;  entered  Spain  by  invita-
tion, 1086;  were  overcome  by  the  Almohades  in
1 147.

ALMSHOUSES  for  aged  and  infirm  persons
have  been  erected  by  many  public  companies  and
benevolent  individuals,  particularly  since  the-
abolition  of  religious  houses  at  the  Reformation  in
the  16th  century.  A  list  of  them,  with  useful  infor-
mation, will  be  found  in  "  Low's  Charities  of  Lon-
don," 1862  ;  frequently  re-published.

Armourers'  almshouses,  Bishopsgate . . .  1553

Cornelius  Van  Dun  founded  the  Red  Lion  alms-
houses, Westminster 1577

Emmanuel  College,  Westminster,  founded  by  Lady
Dacre 159*

Alleyn's  almshouses,  near  City  road,  founded  by
E.  Alleyn  1620

Whittington's  almshouses  founded  in  1621,  were
rebuilt  near  Highgate-hill  by  the  Mercers'  com-
pany  1826

The  Fishmongers'  company  founded  almshouses
in  1618,  and  rebuilt  them  on  Wandsworth  com-
mon 1850

Haberdashers'  almshouses,  Hoxton,  founded  by
Robert  Aske 1692

Dame  Owen's  almshouses,  Islington,  built  in  1613,
(in  gratitude  for  her  escape  from  an  arrow-shot),
were  rebuilt  by  the  Brewers'  company  . . .  1839

Bancroft's  almshouses,  Mile  End,  were  erected  . .  1735

The  London  almshouses,  in  commemoration  of  the
passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  built  at  Brixton .  1833

Numerous  almshouses  since  erected  for  printers,
bookbinders,  &c.

ALNEY,  an  island  in  the  Severn,  near  Glouces-
ter. Here  a  combat  is  asserted  to  have  taken  place
between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute  the  Great,
in  sight  of  their  armies,  1016.  The  latter  was
wounded,  and  proposed  a  division  of  the  kingdom,
the  south  part  falling  to  Edmund.  Edmund  was
murdered  at  Oxford  shortly  after,  it  is  said  by
iEdric  Streon ;  and  Canute  obtained  possession  oi
the  whole  kingdom.

ALNWICK  (Saxon  Ealnwic),  on  the  river
Alne  in  Northumberland,  was  given  at  the  conquest
to  Ivo  de  Vesci.  It  has  long  belonged  to  the  Percies.
Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  besieged  Alnwick,  and
he  and  his  sons  were  killed  13  Nov.  1093.  It  was
taken  by  David  I.  in  1136,  and  attempted  in  July,
1 1 74,  by  William  the  Lion,  who  was  defeated  and
taken  prisoner.  It  was  burnt  by  king  John  in  1215,
and  by  the  Scots  in  1448.  Since  1854  the  castle  has
been  repaired  and  enlarged  with  great  taste  and  at
unsparing  expense.

ALPACA  (or  Paco),  a  species  of  the  S.Ameri-
can quadruped,  the  Llama,  the  soft  hairy  wool  of
which  is  now  largely  employed  in  the  fabrication  of
cloths.  It  was  introduced  into  this  country  about
1836,  by  the  earl  of  Derby.  An  alpaca  factory
(covering  II  acres),  with  a  town,  park,  almshouses,
&c,  for  the  workpeople,  was  erected  at  Saltaire,
near  Shipley,  Yorkshire,  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)
Titus  Salt  in  1852.  A  statue  of  him  at  Bradford
was  unveiled  1  Aug.  1874.  He  died  29  Dec.  1876.
Saltaire  visited  by  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales
22  June,  1882.

The  Royal  Yorkshire  Jubilee  Exhibition  at  Saltaire
opened  by  the  Princess  Beatrice . . 6  May,  1887

ALPHABET,  so  called  from  the  first  two
Greek  letters  alpha,  beta  (Hebrew  aleph,  belli).
The  statements- that  Cadmus  broughtthe  Phoonecian
letters  from  Egypt  into  Greece,  and  that  Moses


ALPHONSINE  TABLES.


35


ALUM.


brought  them  into  Palestine  are  legendary.  Dr.
Isaac  Taylor's  learned  work,  "  The  Alphabet,"  was
published  May,  1883.

Nearly  200  alphabets  are  known,  of  which  about  50  are
in  use,  mostly  developed  from  the  Phcenecian  alphabet
itself,  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Egyptian
hieroglyphic  picture  writing ;  the  Roman  alphabet
was  based  upon  the  Greek.  The  alphabets  of  the
different  nations  contain  the  following  number  of
letters  : —


English.

. 26

Arabic  ....

28

French .

• ■ 25

Persian . . . .

32

Italian  .

22

Turkish

28

Spanish .

• • 27

Sanscrit . . . .

44

German.

. 26

Chinese  radical  charac-

Slavonic  .

. . 42

ters ....

214

Russian

• 35

Chinese  alphabet  said

Latin

22

to be invented by

Greek .

. 24

bishop Eligius Cosi

Hebrew .

22

of  Canton  (1 88c)

33

ALPHONSLSTE  TABLES,  astronomical
tables,  composed  by  Spanish  and  Arab  astronomers,
and  collected  in  1253  under  the  direction  of  Alphui.-
so  X.  of  Castile,  surnamed  the  Wise,  who  is  said
to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000.  crowns  in
completing  the  work ;  he  himself  wrote  the  preface.
The  Spanish  government  ordered  the  work  of  Al-
phonso  to  be  reprinted  from  the  best  MSS. ;  the
publication  began  in  1863.

ALPS,  European  mountains.  Those  between
France  and  Italy  were  passed  b}r  Hannibal,  218
B.C.,  by  the  Romans,  154  B.C.,  and  by  Napoleon  I.
May,  1800.  Roads  over  Mont  Cenis  and  the
Simplon,  connecting  France  and  Italy,  were  con-
structed by  order  of  Napoleon,  between  1801-6  ;  see
Simplon.  The  "Alpine  Club,"  which  consists
of  British  travellers  in  the  Alps,  was  founded
in  1858,  and  published  its  first  work,  "Peaks,
Passes,  and  Glaciers,"  1859;  and  a  journal  since.
Mr.  John  Bali,  F.R.S.,long  the  able  first  president,
and  author  of  excellenf'Guides,"  died  21  Oct.,  1889.
See  Jungfrau,  J\[atterhom.  An  International  Alpine
Congress  opened  at  Salzburg  14  Aug.  1882.

Mont  Cenis  or  Col  de  Frejus  Tunnel. — A  tunnel,  7J  miles
long  through  mont  Cenis,  connecting  Savoy  and
Piedmont,  was  proposed  by  M.  Medail,  and,  after  long
lying  dormant,  was  discussed  and  plans  drawn  up  in
1848.  The  execution  was  prevented  by  the  war  of
1849.

The  work  of  excavation  was  begun  by  king  Victor
Emmanuel,  31  Aug.  1857.

The  boring  was  at  first  effected  by  ordinary  piercing
machinery ;  steam  power  was  employed  in  i860 ;  and
latterly  compressed  air.

Engineers — Grattoni,  Grandis,  and  Somineiller  ;  the
boring  was  completed,  25  Doc.  1870.

The  total  cost  was  about  2,6oo,oooL  As  the  Italians  had
executed  the  work  within  the  given  time,  the  French
government  bore  the  chief  expense.

The  first  experimental  trip  was  made  in  40  minutes,  13
Sept. ,  and  the  tunnel  was  solemnly  inaugurated  by  the
passage  of  22  carriages  in  20  minutes,  17  Sept.  1871  ;
regular  trains  pass  through,  16  Oct.  1871.

A  railway  for  locomotives  over  mont  Cenis  was  con-
structed upon  Mr.  Fell's  plan  in  1867  (see  Railways),
and  opened  for  traffic,  15  June,  1868.

The  overland  mail  first  travels  tlrrough  the  tunnel  to
Briudisi,  saving  24  hours,  5  Jan.  1872.

St.  Gotlmrd  Tunnel  (part  of  a  railway  system  to  connect
the  North  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean),  about  g\  miles  ;
compressed  air  employed  in  boring  ;  begun  June,
1872  ;  completed  29  Feb.  1880  ;  through  failure  in
vaulting,  May,  1880,  opening  deferred.

The  first  complete  train, carrying  one  hundred  passengers,
passed  through  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  in  50  minutes,
1  Nov.  1881  ;  partially  opened  1  Jan.  1882  ;  completely
opened  June,  1882.

ALRESFORD,  battle  of,  or  Cheriton,  which
see.


ALSACE,  ELSASS,  formerly  part  of  the  king-
dom of  Austrasia,  afterwards  the  French  depart-
ments of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  It  was
incorporated  with  the  German  empire  in  the  10th
century.  A  portion  was  restored  to  Franco,  1648,
and  the  whole,  including Strasburg,  in  1697.  Alsace
was  re-conquered  by  the  Germans,  Aug. -Sept.  1870;
and  annexed  to  their  empire,  Ma}',  1871;  bylaw,
9  June,  1871.  The  Alsatians  were  permitted  to
choose  their  nationality,  before  30  Sept.  1872.  Many
emigrated  into  France,  with  much  regret. — Alsace-
Lobuaine  was  constituted  a  province  of  the  Ger-
man empire,  having  been  ceded  bv  France  by  the
treaty  of  peace  concluded  10  May,  1871,  see  Belfort.
The  province  sends  15  members  to  the  German
parliament.  Administrators,  prince  Bismarck,  1871 ;
field-marshal  Manteuffel,  I  Oct.  1879 ;  prince
Hohenlohe,  July,  1885.  Population  of  Alsace-
Lorraine,  1885,  1,564,355;  1890,  i,eo;,i07.  See
Germany,  1887,  and  Straslurg.  The  emperor
William  II.  visited  the  province  20  Aug.  et  seq.f
1889.  The  stringent  passport  regulations  greatly
relaxed  1  Oct.  1891.

ALSATIA,  a  name  given  to  the  precinct  of
Whitefriars,  London,  is  described  in  Scott's  "  For-
tunes of  Nigel."  its  privilege  of  sanctuary  was
abolished  in  1697.

ALSEN  (Denmark),  besieged  by  the  Prussians,
and  heroically  defended,  26  June;  taken,  29  June,
1864.

ALTAR.  One  was  built  by  Noah,  2348  B.C.  ;
3154  Hales;  2481  Clinton  {Gen.  viii.  20)  ;  others
by  Abraham,  1921  {Gen.  xii.  8).  Directions  for
making  an  altar  are  given,  Exod.  xx.  14,  1491  B.C.
The  erection  of  altars  in  Greece  is  n  ythically
assigned  to  Cecrops.  The  term  "  altar"  was  early
applied  to  the  table  used  in  the  celebration  of  the
Lord's  Supper  in  Chiistian  churches  {Hcb.  xiii.  10).
Since  the  time  of  Elizabeth  there  has  been  much
controversy  on  the  subject,  and  the  Puritans  in  the
civil  war  destroyed  many  of  the  ancient  stone  altars,
substituting  wooden  tables.  In  Jan.  1845  it  was
decided  in  the  Arches  Court  that  stone  altars  were
not  to  be  erected  in  English  churches.

ALTENKIRCHEN  (Prussia).  The  French,
who  had  defeated  the  Austrians  here,  4  June,  1796,
were  themselves  defeated,  and  their  general,  Mai-
ceau,  killed,  19  Sept.  following.

ALTER  EGO  {another  or  second  J),  a  term
applied  to  Spanish  viceroys  when  exercising  regal
power;  used  at  Naples  when  the  crown  prince  was
appointed  vicar-general  during  an  insurrection  in
July,  1820.

ALTONA  (Holstein,  N.  Germany),  acquired  by
the  Danes,  1660,  and  made  a  city,  1664.  It  was
occupied  first  by  the  German  federal  troops,  24  Dec.
1863,  and  then  by  the  Prussians  (the  federal  diet
protesting)  12  Feb.  1864.

ALT-RANSTADT  (Prussia),  where  the  treaty
of  peace  dictated  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  to  Frede-
rick Augustus  of  Poland,  was  signed,  24  Sept.  1706,
o.s.  Frederick,  deposed  in  1704,  regained  the  throne
of  Poland  after  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.,  in  1 709.

ALUM,  a  salt,  is  said  to  have  been  first  dis-
covered at  Roccha,  in  Syria,  about  1300;  it  was
found  in  Tuscany  about  1470;  its  manufacture  was
brought  to  perfection  in  England  by  sir  T.  Chal-
loner,  who  established  large  alum  works  near  Whitby
in  1608  ;  it  was  discovered  in  Ireland  in  1757  ;  and
in  Anglesey  in  1790. Alum  is  used  as  a  mordant  in

D  2


ALUMBAGH.


36


AMBASSADOES.


dyeing,  to  harden  tallow,  to  whiten  bread,  and  in
the  paper  manufacture.

Messrs.  Peter  Spenee  &  Sons  produced  a  colossal
crystal  of  alum  weighing  over  eight  tons  .  April,  1886

ALUMBAGH,  a  palace  with  other  buildings
near  Lucknow,  Oude,  India,  taken  during  the  mu-
tiny from  the  rebels,  23  Sept.  1857,  and  heroically
defended  by  the  British  under  sir  James  Outram.
He  defeated  an  attack  of  30,000  sepoys  on  12  Jan.
1858,  and  of  20,000  on  21  Feb.,  and  was  relieved  by
sir  Colin  Campbell  in  March.

ALUMINIUM,  a  metal,  the  base  of  the  earth
alumina,  which  is  combined  with  silica  in  clay,  and
which  was  shown  to  be  a  distinct  earth  by  JVIarg-
graff  in  1754,  having  been  previously  confounded
with  lime.  Oerstedt  in  1826  obtained  the  chloride
of  aluminium  ;  and  in  1827  the  metal  itself  was  got
from  it  by  F.  Wohler,  but  was  long  a  scientific
curiosity,  the  process  being  expensive.  The  mode
of  production  was  afterwards  simplified  by  Bunsen
and  others,  more  especially  by  H.  Ste.  -  Claire
Deville,  who  in  1856  succeeded  in  procuring
considerable  quantities  of  this  metal  by  the
aid  of  the  metal  sodium.*  It  is  very  light
(sp.  g.  2'25),  malleable,  and  sonorous;  when  pure
does  not  rust,  and  is  not  acted  on  by  sulphur  or
any  acid  except  hydrochloric.  In  March,  1856,  it
was  31?.  the  ounce;  in  June,  1857,  us.  or  12*.,  and
it  gradually  became  much  cheaper.  The  eagles  of
the  French  colours  have  been  made  of  it,  and  many
otherornamental  and  useful  articles.  Deville'swork,
"De  1' Aluminium,"  was  published  in  1859.  An
aluminium  manufactory  was  established  at  New-
castle in  i860,  by  Messrs.  Bell.  They  obtain  the
metal  from  a  French  mineral,  bauxite.  Their  alu-
minium bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  aluminium,
invented  by  Dr.  John  Percy,  F.R.S.,  was  made  into
watch  cases,  &c,  by  Messrs.  Keid  of  Newcastle,  in
1862.  The  production  of  aluminium  has  been  very
greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  Mr.  Eugene  Cowles'
electric  furnace  and  the  use  of  powerful  dynamo-
machines:  aluminium  bronze  is  thus  largely  pro-
duced, 1886-9.  -A-  company  for  the  purpose  was
formed  in  the  United  States.

Mr.  H.  Y.  Castner's  aluminium  works  at  Oldbury  near
Birmingham  in  successful  operation,  May  1889.  Price
of  aluminium  20s.  a  pound  (1889). See  Sodium.

AMADIS  OF  GAUL,  a  Spanish  or  Portuguese
romance,  stated  to  have  been  written  about  1342  by
Vasco  de  Lobeira.  It  was  enlarged  by  De  Mont-
alvo,  about  1485 ;  and  first  printed  (in  Spanish)
1519;  in  French,  1540-56.

AMALE KITES  (descendants  of  Amalek,
grandson  of  Esau,  brother  of  Jacob)  attacked  the
Israelites,  1491  B.C.,  when  perpetual  war  was  de-
nounced against  them.  They  were  subdued  by  Saul
about  1079,  by  David,  1058  and  1056;  and  by  the
Simeonites  about  715  B.C.

AMALFI,  a  city  on  the  gulf  of  Salerno,  Naples,
in  the  8th  century  became  the  seat  of  a  republic,
and  flourished  by  its  commerce  till  1075,  when  it
was  taken  by  Roger  Guiscard,  and  eventually  incor-
porated with  Naples.  The  Pisans,  in  their  sack  of
the  town  in  1135,  are  said  to  have  found  a  copy  ot
the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  and  thus  to  have  induced
the  revival  of  the  study  of  Roman  law  in  Western
Europe ;  the  story  is  now  doubted.  Flavio  Gioia,
a  native  of  Amalfi,  is  the  reputed  discoverer  of  the
mariner's  compass,  about  1302.


*  A  cheaper  method  of  procuring  this  metal  was  pa-
tented by  Mr.  Webster,  of  Hollywood,  near  Birmingham,
in  1882.


AMATEUR  MECHANICAL  SOCIETY

(89,  Stamford  Street),  issued  its  first  prospectus,
I  Jan.  1869.

AMATONGALAND,  between  Zululand  and
the  Portuguese  possessions,  South  Africa.  A
deputation  from  Queen  Zambila  solicits  protection
of  England  from  the  Boers,  and  the  prohibition  of
the  liquor  traffic,  Nov. -Dec.  1887.

AMAZON,  West  India  mail  steam  ship,  left
Southampton  on  her  first  voyage,  Friday,  2  Jan.
1852,  and  on  Sunday  morning,  Jan.  4,  was  destroyed
by  fire  at  sea,  about  no  miles  W.S.W.  of  Scilly
(ascribed  to  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  combustible
matter  placed  near  the  engine-room).  Out  of  161
persons  on  board,  102  persons  must  have  perished
by  fire  or  drowning.  21  persons  were  saved  by  the
life-boat  of  the  ship ;  25  more  were  carried  into
Brest  harbour  by  a  Dutch  vessel  passing  by;  and
13  others  were  picked  up  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  also
by  a  Dutch  galliot.  Eliot  Warburton,  a  distin-
guished writer  in  general  literature,  was  among
those  lost.

AMAZON,  a  river  (S.  America),  was  discovered
by  Pinzon,  in  1500,  and  explored  by  Francisco  Orel-
lana,  in  1540.  Comingfrom  Peru,  he  sailed  down  the
Amazon  te  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  companies
of  women  in  arms  on  its  bank,  he  called  the  country
Amazonia,  and  gave  the  name  of  Amazon  to  the
river,  previously  called  Marafion.

AMAZONS-  Three  nations  of  Amazons  have
been  mentioned — the  Asiatic,  Scythian,  and  African.
They  are  mythically  said  to  have  been  the  descend-
ants of  Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia,  where
their  husbands,  having  made  incursions,  were  all
slain,  being  surprised  in  ambuscades  by  their  enemies.
Their  widows  formed  a  female  state,  and  decreed
that  matrimony  was  a  shameful  servitude.  Quintus
Curtius.  They  were  said  to  have  been  conquered  by
Theseus.  The  Amazons  were  constantly  employed
in  wars;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin
with  more  force,  their  right  breasts  were  burned  off,
whence  their  name  from  the  Greek,  a,  no,  mazos,
breast.  Others  derive  the  name  from  maza,  the
moon,  which  they  are  supposed  to  have  worshipped.
About  330  B.C.  their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alex-
ander the  Great,  whilst  he  was  pursuing  his  con-
quests in  Asia,  with  three  hundred  females  in  her
train.  Herodotus.  For  modern  amazons,  see  Daho-
mey.

AMBASSADORS.  Accredited  agents,  and
representatives  from  one  court  to  another,  are  re-
ferred to  in  early  ages.  In  most  countries  they  have
great  privileges;  and  in  England,  they  and  their
servants  are  secured  against  ai-rest.  England  has
seven  ambassadors  (at  Berlin,  Constantinople,
Madrid,  Paris,  Rome,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna),
twenty-six  ministers,  and  about  thirty  chief
consuls,  resident  at  foreign  courts,  exclusive  of
inferior  agents ;  the  ambassadors  and  other  chief
agents  from  abroad  at  the  court  of  London  in  1865,
were  47 ;  in  1868,  43 ;  in  1872,  42 ;  in  1878,  39 ;  in
1889,  43.

The  Russian  ambassador  being  imprisoned  for  debt  by
a  lace-merchant,  27  Jul}',  1708,  led  to  the  passing  the
statute  of  7  Anne,  for  the  protection  of  ambassadors,
1708.
Two  men,  convicted  of  arresting  the  servant  of  an  am-
bassador, were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to  the  house
of  the  ambassador,  with  a  label  on  their  breasts,  to  ask
his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them  to  be  imprisoned
three  months,  and  the  other  fined,  12  May,  1780.
The  first  ambassador  from  the  United  States  of  America
to  England,  John  Adams,  presented  to  the  king,  1  June,
1785  ;  the  first  from  Great  Britain  to  America  was
Mr.  Hammond,  in  1791.


AMBER.


37


AMERICA.


A  Japanese  minister  received  by  the  queen,  3  March,

1875.
The  first  accredited  ambassador  from  China,  Kus-ta-Jen,

landed  at  Southampton,  21  Jan.  1877.
In  the  case  of  Sir  H.  Macartney,  secretary  to  the  Chinese

legation  v.  the  Vestry of  Marylebone, the Queen's

Bench  decided  that  the  plaintiff  was  free  from  parish

rates  and  taxes,  24  Feb.  1890.

AMBER,  a  carbonaceous  mineral,*  principally
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  of  great
repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time ;  esteemed
as  a  medicine  before  the  Christian  era :  Theophrastus
wrote  upon  it;  300  B.C.  Upwards  of  150  tons  of
amber  have  been  found  in  one  year  on  the  sands  of
the  shore  near  Pillau. Phillips.

AMBLE F,  near  Cologne,  Germany.  Here
Charles  Martel  defeated  Chilperic  II.,  and  Ragen-
froi,  mayor  of  the  Neustrians,  716.

AMBOISE  (Central  France).  A  conspiracy
of  the  Huguenots  against  Francis  II.,  Catherine  de
Medicis,  and  the  Guises,  w as  suppressed  at  this
place  in  Jan.  1560.  On  19  March,  1563,  the  Paci-
fication of  Amboise  was  published,  granting  tole-
ration to  the  Huguenots.  The  civil  war  was
however  soon  renewed.

AMBOYNA,  chief  of  the  Molucca  isles,  dis-
covered about  1512  by  the  Portuguese,  but  not
wholly  occupied  by  them  till  1580.  It  was  taken
by  the  Dutch  in  1605.  '1  he  English  factors  at  this
settlement  were  cruelly  tortured  and  put  to  death,
17  Feb.  1623-4,  bv  the  Dutch,  on  an  accusation  of  a
conspiracy  to  expel  them  from  the  island,  where  the
two  nations  jointly  shared  in  the  pepper  trade  of
Java.  Cromwell  compelled  the  Dutch  to  give  a  sum
of  money  to  the  descendants  of  the  sufferers.  Am-
boyna  was  seized  by  the  English,  16  Feb.  1796,  but
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802.  It
was  again  seized  by  the  British,  17-19  Feb.  1810  ;
and  again  restored  at  the  peace  of  May,  1814.

AMBROSIAL  CHANT,  see  Chant,  Liturgy,
&c.

AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, see
under  John's,  St.
First  "ambulance  ship  "(for  small-pox  convalescents),

Bed  Cross,  constructed  for  Metropolitan  Asylums  Board,

launched  at  Millwall,  8  Aug.  1883.

AMEN,  an  ancient  Hebrew  word  meaning  true,
faithful,  certain,  is  used  in  the  Jewish  and  Chris-
tian assemblies,  at  the  conclusioa  of  prayer :  see
1  Cor.  xiv.,  16  (a.d.  59).  It  is  translated  "verily"
in  the  Gospels.

AMENDE  HONORABLE,  in  France,  in  the
9th  century,  was  a  punishment  inflicted  on  traitors
and  sacrilegious  persons  :  the  offender  was  delivered
to  the  hangman  :  his  shirt  was  stripped  off,  a  rope
put  round  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand ;  he
was  then  led  into  court,  and  was  obliged  to  beg
pardon  of  God  and  the  country.  Death  or  banish-
ment sometimes  followed.  These  words  also  denote
a  recantation  in  open  court,  or  in  presence  of  the
injured  person.

AMERCEMENT,  in  Law,  a  fine  assessed  for
an  offence  done,  or  pecuniary  punishment  at  the
mercy  of  the  court :  thus  differing  from  a  fine  di-
rected and  fixed  by  a  statute.  By  Magna  Charta,
1215,  a  freeman  cannot  be  amerced  for  a  small  fault,

*  Much  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails  among
naturalists  and  chemists  respecting  the  origin  of  amber.
It  is  considered  by  Berzelius  to  have  been  a  resin  dis-
solved in  volatile  oil.  It  often  contains  delicately-formed
insects.  Sir  D.  Brewster  concludes  it  to  be  indurated
vegetable  juice.  When  rubbed  it  becomes  electrical,  and
from  its  Greek  name,  elektron,  the  term  Electricity  is
derived.


but  in  proportion  to  the  offence  he  has  committed;
the  mode  was  determined  by  9  Hen.  III.,  1225.

AMERICA,  *  the  great  Western  Continent,  is
about  9000  miles long, with  an area of about
16,500,000  square  miles. It  is  now  believed  to  have
been  visited  by  the  Norsemen  or  Vikings  in  the  10th
and  nth  centuries;  but  the  modern  discovery  is  due
to  the  sagacity  and  courage  of  the  Genoese  navigator,
Christopher  Columbus. -f See  Chicago.
Columbus  sailed  on  his  first  expedition  from  Palos
in  Andalusia  on  Friday,  with  vessels  supplied  by
the  sovereigns  of  Spain  .... 3  Aug.  1492
He  lands  on  the  island  of  Guanahani,  one  of  the
Bahamas  ;  takes  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  names  it
San  Salvador .... Friday,  12  Oct. „
He  discovers  Cuba,  28  Oct.  :  and  Hispaniola  (now
Hayti),  whe  e  hi  builds  a  fort,  Li  Navidad,  6  Dec. „

He  returns  to  Spain 15  March, 1493

He  sails  from  Cadiz  on  his  second  expedition,
25  Sept.  ;  discovers  the  Caribbee  Isles, — Dominica,
3  Nov.  ;  Guadaloupe,  4'  Nov.  ;  Antigua,  10  Nov.  ;
founds  Isabella  in  Hispaniola,  the  first  Christian
city  in  the  New  World  ....  Dec.  „
He  discovers  Jamaica,  3  May ;  and  Evangelista  (now
Isle  of  Pines),  13  June  ;  war  with  the  natives  of

Hispaniola 1494

He  visits  the  various  isles,  and  explores  their  coasts

1495-6
Returns  to  Spain  to  meet  the  charges  of  his  enemies

11  June,  1496

Cabot  (sent  out  by  Henry  VII.  of  England)  discovers

Labrador  on  the  coast  of  North  America  [he  is

erroneously  said  to  have  discovered  Florida,  and

also  Newfoundland,  and  to  have  named  it  Prima

Vista] 24  June,  1497

Columbus  sails  on  his  third  voyage,  30  May  ;  dis-
covers Trinidad,  31  July  ;  lands  on  Terra  Firma,
without  knowing  it  to  be  the  new  continent,

naming  it  Isla  Santa 1  Aug.  1498

Ojeda  discovers Surinam,  June  ;  and  the  gulf  of

Venezuela 1499

Vicente  Yaiiez  Pinzon  discovers  Brazil,  South  Ame-
rica, 26  Jan.  ;  and  the  river  Marafion(the  Amazon);
Cabral  the  Portuguese  lands  in  Brazil  (see  Brazil)

3  May,  1500

Gaspar  Cortereal  discovers  Labrador ,

Columbus  is  imprisoned  in  chains  at  San  Domingo
by  Bobadilla,  sent  out  to  investigate  into  his  con-
duct, May  ;  conveyed  to  Spain,  where  he  is  honour-
ably received 17  Dec. ,,

*  The  name  is  derived  from  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  Floren-
tine merchant,  who  died  in  1512.  He  accompanied  Ojeda
in  his  voyage  on  the  eastern  coast  in  1498  ;  and  described
the  country  in  letters  sent  to  his  friend's  in  Italy.  He  is
charged  with  presumptuously  inserting  "  Tierra  de  Ame-
rigo" in  his  maps.  Irving  discusses  the  question  in  the
Appendix  to  the  Life  of. Columbus,  but  comes  to  no  con-
clusion. Humboldt  asserts  that  the  name  was  given  to
the  continent  in  the  popular  works  of  Waldseemuller,'  a
German  geographer,  without  the  knowledge  of  Vespucci.
To  America  we  are  indebted,  among  other  things,  for
maize,  the  turkey,  the  potato,  Peruvian  bark,  and
tobacco.

t  Christophoro  Columbo  was  born  about  1445  :  first
went  to  sea  about  1460  ;  settled  at  Lisbon  in  1470,  where
he  married  Felipa,  the  daughter  of  Perestrello,  an  Italian
navigator  ;  whereby  he  obtained  much  geographical  know-
ledge. He  is  said  to  have  laid  the  plans  of  his  voyage  of
discovery  before  the  republic  of  Genoa,  in  1485,  and
other  powers,  and  finally  before  the  court  of  Spain,  where
at  length  the  queen  Isabella  became  his  patron.  After
undergoing  much  ingratitude  and  cruel  persecution  from
his  own  followers  and  the  Spanish  court,  he  died  on
20  May,  1506  ;  and  was  buried  with  much  pomp  at  Valla-
dolid.  His  remains  were  transferred,  in  1513,  to  Seville  ;
in  1536  to  San  Domingo  ;  and  in  Jan.  1796  to  the  Havanna,
Cuba.  The  original  inscription  on  his  tomb  is  said  to
have  been  :  "  A  Castilla  y  a  Leon  Nuevo  Mundo  dio
Colon."  "To  Castile  and  Leon  Colon  gave  a  New  World."
Humboldt  says  beautifully,  that  the  success  of  Columbus
was  "a  conquest  of  reflection!"  It  was  stated  in  Nov.
1890,  that  Columbus'  log-book  had  been  fished  up  from
the  sea.


AMEEICA.


38


AMERICANISMS.


Columbus  sails  on  his  fourth  voyage,  g  May  ;  dis-
covers various  isles  on  the  coast  of  Honduras,
and  explores  the  coast  of  the  isthmus,  July,
<fcc. ;  discovers  and  names  Porto  Bello  .  2  Nov.  1502
Negro  slaves  imported  into  Hispaniola  .  .  1501-3
Worried  by  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  he  re-
turns to  Spain,  7  Nov.  ;  his  friend,  queen  Isabella,

dies 20  Nov.  1504

He  dies  while  treated  with  base  ingratitude  by  the

Spanish  government  . . .20  May,  1506

Solis  and  Pinzon  discover  Yucatan . . . . „
Ojeda  founds  San  Sebastian,  the  first  colony  on  the

mainland 15 10

Subjugation  of  Cuba  by  Velasquez  .  .  .  .1511
The  coast  of  Florida  discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon  .  1512
Vasco  de  Balboa  crosses  the  isthmus  of  Darien,  and

discovers  the  South  Pacific  Ocean .  .  .  .  1513
Mexico  discovered  by  Fernando  de  Cordova  .  .  1517
Grijalva  penetrates  into  Yucatan,  and  names  it  New

Spain 1518

Passage  of  Magellan's  Straits  by  him  .  .  .  .  1520
Conquest  of  Mexico  by  Fernando  Cortes  .  .  15 19-21
Pizarro  discovers  the  coast  of  Quito  .  .  .  .  1526
He  invades  and  conquers  Peru  ....  1532-5
Carrier,  a  Frenchman,  enters  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law-
rence, and  sails  up  to  Montreal  .  .  .  1534-5
Grijalva's  expedition,  equipped  by  Cortes,  discovers

California 1535

Mendoza  founds  Buenos  Ayres,  and  conquers  the

adjacent  country

Orellana  sails  down  the  Amazon  to  the  sea . 1540-1

Louisiana  conquered  by  De  Soto ,,

Chili  conquered  by  Valdivia 1541

Rebellion  in  Peru— tranquillity  established  by  Gasca  1548
Davis's  Straits  discover  jd  by  him  ....  1585
Raleigh  establishes  the  first  English  settlement — at

Roanoke,  Virginia ,

Falkland  isles  discovered  by  Davis  ....  1592
De  Monts,  a  Frenchman, settles in  Acadia,  now

Nova  Scotia 1604

Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  the  first  English  settlement
on  the  mainland,  founded  by  lord  de  la  Warr . 1607

Quebec  founded  by  the  French 1608

Hudson's  bay  discovered  by  him  ....  1610
The  Dutch  build  Manhattan,  or  New  Amsterdam

(now  New  York)  on  the  Hudson . . . .  1614
Settlement  in  New  England  begun  by  capt.  Smith  . ,,
New  Plymouth  built  by  the  English  nonconformist

exiles 1620

Nova  Scoria  settled  by  the  Scotch  under  sir  ffm.

Alexander 1622

Delaware  settled  by  the  Swedes  and  Dutch  .  .  1627
Massachusetts,  by  sir  H.  Boswell . . . .  1628

Maryland,  by  lord  Baltimore 1633

Connecticut  granted  to  lords  Say  and  Brooke  in

1630 ;  but  no  English  settlement  was  made  here  till  1635
Rhode  Island  settled  by  Roger  Williams  and  his

brethren,  driven  from  Massachusetts . . . „
New  Jersey  settled  by  the  Dutch,  1614,  and  Swedes,
1627  ;  gi  anted  to  the  duke  of  York,  who  sells  it  to

lord  Beikeley . ^64

New  York  captured  by  the  English  ....,,
South  Carolina  settled  by  the  English  . . . . 1669
Pennsylvania  settled  by  William  Penn, the  cele-
brated Quaker I6S2

Louisiana  settled  by  the  French

The  Mississippi  explored x(,'gg

The  Scotch  settlement  at  Darien  (1698-9)  abandoned  1700

New  Orleans  built I7I7

Georgia  settled  by  general  Oglethorpe . . .  1732

Kentucky,  by  colonel  Boon I?54

Canada  conquered  by  the  English,  1759-60  ;  ceded  to

Great  Britain -,.-63

American  war— declaration  of  independence  by  the

United  States,  1776  ;  recognised  by  Great  Britain  1783
Louisiana  ceded to Spain, 1763  ; transferred to

France,  1800  ;  sold  to  the  United  States . . . 1S03
Florida  ceded  to Great  Britain, 1763  ;  taken  by
Spain,  1781  ;  to  whom  it  is  ceded,  1783  ;  ceded  to

the  United  States j320

Revolution  in  Mexico -declaration  of  independence  1821
Revolutions  in  Spanish  America  ;  independence  es-
tablished by  Chili,  1810;  Paraguay,  1811;  Buenos
Ayres,  and  other  provinces,  1S16  ;  Peru,  1826.
[See  United  States,  Mexico,  and  other  states,  through-
out the  volume. For  the  American  Interna-
tional Congress,  see  United  States,  Oct.  1889.]


AMERICA,  BRITISH,  see  British  America.

AMERICA,  Central,  Republics  of,  in-
cludes Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicara-
gua, and  Costa  Rioa  (which  see) .  They  declared  their
independence,  Sept.  21,  1821,  and  separated  from  the
Mexican  confederation,  21  July,  1823.  The  states
made  atreaty  of  union  between  themselves,  21  March,
1847.  There  has  been  amongthem  since  much  anarchy
and  bloodshed,  aggravated  greatly  by  the  irruption  of
American  filibusters  under  Kenny  and  Walker,
1854-5.  J-n  Jan-  J863,  a  war  began  between  Guate-
mala (afterwards  joined  by  Nicaragua)  and  San
Salvador  (afterwards  supported  by  Honduras') .  The
latter  were  defeated  at  Santa  Rosa,  16  June,  and  San
Salvador  was  taken,  26  Oct. ;  the  president  of  San
Salvador,  Barrios,  tied;  and  Carrera,  the  dictator
of  Guatemala,  became  predominant  over  the  con-
federacy. Gen.  Barrios,  president  of  Guatemala,
attempts  the  union  of  the  live  states,  himself  to  be
dictator ;  opposed  by  all  except  Honduras,  Feb.
He  is  defeated  and  killed  in  a  prolonged  battle  at
Chalchuapa,  2  April ;  peace  with  the  states  signed
16  April,  1885.  The  union  of  the  states,  under  one
principal  president,  was  proposed  at  the  Pan-Ameri-
can Congress,  1889-90. See  Darien,  and  Panama.-

AMERICA,  Russian,  sold  to  the  United

States  for  about  400,000/.,  March,  1867.  See  Alaska.

AMERICA,  SOUTH,  see  Brazil,  Argentine,
Tern,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  §c.

"AMERICA,"  see  Yacht.

"AMERICAN"  steamer;  see  Wrecks,  1880.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION  for  the

Advancement  of  Science,  resembling  the

British  Association,  held  its  first  meeting  at  Phila-
delphia 20  Sept.  1848,  28th  Saratoga,  27  Aug.  1879  ;
29th  at  Boston,  23-28  Aug.  1880;  met  at  Cin-
cinnati, 17  Aug.  1881 ;  at  Montreal,  26  Aug.  1882  ;
at  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  15  Aug.  1883;  Phila-
delphia, 4  Sept.  1884  ;  Ann  Arbor,  1885  ;  Buffalo,
1886;  New  York,  1887:  Cleveland,  1888  ;  Toronto,
Aug.  1889;  Indianapolis,  19  Aug.  1890;  Washing-
ton, 11  Aug.  1891 ;  Rochester,  N.Y.,  18  Aug.  1892.

AMERICAN  BASEBALL,  a  game  resem-
bling cricket  and  rounders,  introduced  into  this
country  by  teams  from  Philadelphia  aud  Boston,  in
1875  without  success.  The  American  teams  (Chi-
cago and  All  America)  after  a  tour  round  the  world
played  a  game  at  Kennington  Oval  in  the  presence
of  the  Prinee .  of  Wales  and  many  distinguished
spectators  12  March,  1889,  and  since.

AMERICAN  CLUB,  London,  for  Anglo-
Saxons  interested  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  es-
tablished autumn  1887.

AMERICAN  EXHIBITION  of  the  Arts,
Inventions,  Manufactures,  Products,  and  Resources
of  the  United  States— Earls'  Court,  West  Bromp-
ton,  and  West  Kensington.  (A  private  speculation.)
It  included  works  of  art,  specimens  of  manufacture,  a

"  Wild  West "  section,  feats  of  horsemanship  by  Buffalo

Bill(col.  thehon.  Win.  F.  Cody),  Red  Shirt,  a  Sioux  chief,

and  other  Indians  ;  butt'alo  hunts,  horse  catching,  &c.
Visited  by  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  5  May  1887.
Opened  by  colonel  Russell,  the  president,  lord  Ronald

Gower,  archdeacon  Farrar,  aud  others,  9  May.
Visited  by  the  Queen  11  May.
Closed  by  a  meeting  advocating  the  establishment  of  an

International  Court  of  Arbitration, the  marquis  of

Lome  in  the  chair,  31  Oct.  1887.

AMERICANISMS  i  a  dictionary  of  these  ex-
pressions was  compiled  by  John  R.  Bartlott,  and
first  published  in  1848  ;  4th  edition,  1877,  Another
by  John  S.  Farmer  appeared  in  1889.


AMERICANISTS.


3<J


AMPUTATION.


AMERICANISTS,  a  name  assumed  by  some
persons  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  archaeology,
■ethnology,  &c,  of  North  and  South  America,  who
held  their  first  international  congress  at  Nancy  in
July  1875;  one  at  Luxemburg,  Sept.  1877;  at
ISrussels,  Sept.  1879;  at  Madrid,  27  Sept.'  1881 ;
Copenhagen,  21  Aug.  1883;  Turin,  1886;  Berlin,
2  Oct.  1888;  Paris,  14  Oct.  1890.

AMERICAN  ORGAN,  a  free-reed  keyed  wind
instrument,  resembling  the  harmonium,  with  im-
portant differences;  the  principle  was  discovered
about  1835  by  a  workman  employed  by  Alexandre
of  Paris.  The  invention  was  taken  to  America,
where  instruments  were  made  bjr  Mason  and  Ham-
lin, of  Boston,  about  i860.

AMETHYST,  the  ninth  stone  upon  the  breast-
plate of  the  Jewish  high  priest,  1491  B.C.  It  is  of  a
rich  violet  colour.  One  worth  200  rix-dollars,  having
been  rendered  colourless,  equalled  a  diamond  in
Zustre,  valued  at  18,000  gold  crowns.  De  Boot. —
Amethysts  discovered  at  Kerry,  in  Ireland,  in  1775.

AMIENS,  a  city  in  Picardy  (N.  France)  ;  the
cathedral  was  built  in  1220.  It  was  taken  by  the
Spanish,  1 1  March,  and  retaken  by  the  French,
25  Sept.  1597.  The  preliminary  articles  of  the
peace  between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  and
Spain,  were  signed  in  Loudon  by  lord  Hawkesbury
and  M.  Otto,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France,
I  Oct.  1801 ;  and  the  definitive  treaty  was  subscribed
at  Amiens,  on  27  March,  1802,  by  the  marquis  of
Cornwallis  for  England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for
France,  Azara  for  Spain,  and  Schimmelpenninck
for  Holland.  War  was  declared  again  in  1803. —
After  a  conflict,  in  which  the  French  were  defeated,
27  Nov.  1870,  the  German  general  Von  Gceben
entered  Amiens,  28  Nov.

AMMERGAU  PASSIOXPlAY,  see  Drama.

AMMONIA,  the  volatile  alkali,  mainly  pro-
duced by  the  decomposition  of  organic  substances.
Its  name  is  ascribed  to  its  having  been  procured
from  heated  camels'  dung  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter
Amnion  in  Libya.  The  discovery  of  its  being  a
compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  is  ascribed  to
Joseph  Priestley  in  1774.  By  the  recent  labours  of
chemists  both  the  oxide  of  the  hypothetical  metal
ammonium,  and  ammonium  amalgam,  have  been
formed  ;  and  specimens  of  each  were  shown  at  the
Royal  Institution  in  1856  by  Dr.  A.  W.  Hofmann,
who  has  done  very  much  for  the  chemical  histoiy  of
ammonia.

Ammoniaphone.  An  apparatus  for  the  improvement  of
the  voice  and  lungs,  by  inhaling  combinations  of
ammonia,  hydrogen,  &c,  invented  by  Dr.  Carter
Moffat,  of  Edinburgh,  1883.  He  asserted  that  this
mixture  resembles  Italian  air.  The  successful  effects
of  inhaling  the  gas  were  shown  at  St.  James's  Hall,  6
Nov.  1884.

Ammonite.  A  new  explosive  for  use  in  coal  mines,  said
to  be  safer  than  those  in  use,  composed  of  pure  ammo-
nium nitrate  and  nitro-naphthaline.  Experiments  with
this  explosive  exhibited  by  sir  George  Elliot  at  the
works  of  the  Miners'  Safety  Explosive  Company,
Stanford-le-Hope,  Essex,  were  considered  very  satis-
factory, 9  July,  1891.

AMMONITES,  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,
the  son  of  Lot  (1897  B.C.),  invaded  Canaan  and
made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  were  defeated  by
Jephthah,  1 143  B.C.  They  again  invaded  Canaan,
intending  to  put  out  the  right  eye  of  all  they  sub-
dued ;  but  Saul  overthrew  them,  1095  n.c  Thev
were  afterwards  many  times  vanquished ;  and
Antiochus  the  Great  took  Kabbah  their  capital,
and  destroyed  the  walls,  198  B.C. JosepJms.


AMNESTY  (a  general  pardon  after  political
disturbances,  &c.)  was  granted  by  Thrasybulus,  the
Athenian  patriot,  after  expelling  the  thirty  tyrants,
403  B.C.  Acts  of  amnesty  were  passed  after  the
civil  war  in  1651,  and  after  the  two  rebellions  in
England  in  1715  and  1745. — After  his  victorious
campaign  in  Italy,  Napoleon  III.  of  France  granted
an  amnesty  to  all  political  offenders,  17  Aug.  1859.
An  amnesty,  with  certain  exemptions,  was  granted
to  the  vanquished  southern  states  of  North  America
by  president  Johnson,  29  May,  1865.  An  amnesty
for  political  offences  was  granted  by  the  emperor  of
Austria  at  his  coronation  as  king  of  Hungary,
8  June,  1867;  a  rather  sweeping  amnesty  bill  was
passed  in  the  United  States  regarding  the  rebellion,
10  April,  1871.  An  amnesty  association  on  behalf
of  the  Fenians  was  active  in  Britain,  Oct.  1873.
2245  French  communists  pardoned  by  decree,  pub-
lished 17  Jan.  1879  ;  many  oihers  during  the  year :
a  general  amnesty  for  political  offences  passed  by  the
chamber  (333-140)  21  June,  1880.  An  amnesty  was
granted  to  the  Cretans  after  the  disturbances,  by  the
Sultan  of  Turkey,  Dec.  1889.

AMOAFUL,  near  Coomassie,  "West  Africa.
After  a  severe  conflict,  31  Jan.  1874,  the  Ashantees
were  defeated  at  this  place  by  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley.
Captain  Buckle  was  killed,  and  about  20  officers
and  200  men  were  wounded.  The  42nd  Highland
Regiment  was  very  energetic.

AMOZBA,  see  Protoplasm.

AMOY,  see  China,  1853-5.

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL,  asserted
traditionally  to  have  been  established  at  Ther-
mopylae by  Amphictyon,  for  the  management  of  all
affairs  relative  to  Greece.  This  celebrated  council,
composed  of  twelve  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous
men  of  various  cities  of  Greece,  began  1498  [1 1 13,
Clinton']  B.C.,  and  existed  31  B.C.  Its  immediate
office  was  to  attend  to  the  temples  and  oracles  of
Delphi.  Its  calling  on  the  Greek  States  to  punish
the  Phocians  for  plundering  Delphi  caused  the
Sacred  wars,  595-586,  and  356-346.

AMPHION,  a  British  frigate,  of  38  guns,  blown
up  while  riding  at  anchor  in  Plymouth  Sound,  and
the  whole  of  her  crew  then  on  board,  consisting  of
more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  officers
and  men,  perished,  22  Sept.  1796.

AMPIIIPOLIS,  Macedon  (N.  Greece).  A  city
founded  here  by  the  Athenians,  437  B.C. ;  was  seized
by  Brasidas  the  Spartan,  424;  both  he  and  the
Athenian  general,  Cl'eon,  were  killed  in  a  fruitless
attempt  at  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Athenians,
422.

AMPHITHEATRES,  round  or  oval  buildings,
said  to  have  been  first  constructed  by  Curio,  76  B.C.,
and  by  Julius  Caesar  46  B.C.  In  the  Roman  amphi-
theatres, the  people  witnessed  the  combats  of  gladia-
tors with  wild  beasts,  &c.  They  were  generally
built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one  of
stone,  under  Augustus  Caesar;  see  Coliseum.  The
amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  (capable  of  holding
87,000  persons)  was  built  between  a.d.  70  and  80;
and  is  said  to  have  been  a  fortress  in  1312.  The
amphitheatre  at  Verona  was  next  in  size,  and  then
that  of  Nismes.

AMPHITRITE,  The  Sinr,  see  Wrecks
30  Aug.  1833.

AMPUTATION,  in  surgery  was  greatly  aided
by  the  invention  of  the  tourniquet  by  Morel,  a  French

surgeon  in  1674,  and  of  the  n.ip-niethod  by  Ijowd-
ham  of  Exeter  in  1679.


AMSTERDAM.


40


ANATOMY.


AMSTERDAM  (Holland) .  The  castle  of  Am-
stel  was  commenced  in  noo;  the  building  of  the
city  in  1203.  Its  commerce  was  greatly  increased
by  the  decay  of  that  of  Antwerp  after  1 609.  The
exchange  was  built  in  1634 ;  and  the  noble  stadt-
house  in  1648 ;  the  latter  cost  three  millions  of
guilders,  then  a  large  sum.  It  was  built  upon
13,659  piles.  Amsterdam  surrendered  to  the  king
of  Prussia,  when  that  prince  invaded  Holland,  in
favour  of  the  stadtholder,  in  1787.  The  French
were  admitted  without  resistance,  18  Jan.  1795.
The  Dutch  government  was  restored  in  Dec.  1813.
A  crystal  palace  for  an  industrial  exhibition  was
opened  by  prince  Frederick  of  the  .Netherlands,  16
Aug.  1864.  The  canal,  from  Amsterdam  to  the
North  Sea,  was  inaugurated  by  the  king,  1  Nov.
1876.  A  new  university  was  opened,  Dec.  1877.
International  exhibition  opened  by  the  king,  1  May,
1883.  International  Agricultural  exhibition  opened
26  Aug.  1884.  The  Grand  theatre  destroyed  by  fire
20  Feb.  1890.  Population,  1890,417,539.
Violent  rioting  through  prohibition  of  eel-baiting  on  the

canal ;  35  killed,  90  wounded  ;  suppressed  25-26  July,

18S6.

AMYL,  a  chemical  alcohol  radical  (first  isolated
by  professor  Edward  Frankland  in  1849).

AMYLENE,  a  colourless,  very  mobile  liquid,
first  procured  by  M.  Balard  of  Paris  in  1844,  DV
distilling  fusel  oil  (potato-spirit)  with  chloride  of
zinc.  The  vapour  was  employed  instead  of  chloro-
form first  by  Dr.  Snow  in  1856.  It  has  since  been
tried  in  many  hospitals  here  and  in  France.  The
odour  is  more  unpleasant  than  chloroform,  and  more
vapour  must  be  used.

ANABAPTISTS,  those  who  baptize  at  full
age,  and  reject  infant  baptism  ;  see  Baptists.  The
name  was  first  given  to  Thomas  Miinzer,  Storck,
and  other  fanatics  who  preached  in  Saxony  in  1521,
and  excited  a  rebellion  of  the  lower  orders  in  Ger-
many, which  was  quelled  with  bloodshed  in  1525.
A  similar  insurrection  took  place  in  Westphalia,
headed  by  Matthias,  1533,  and,  after  his  assassina-
tion, by  John  Boccold  of  Leyden,  who  was  crowned
"king  of  Sion"  in  Minister,  24  June,  1534.  Mini-
ster was  taken  in  June,  1535;  and  John  was  executed
13  Feb.  1536.  Several  anahaptists  were  executed  in
England  in  1535,  1538,  and  1540.  On  6  Jan.  1661,
about  80  anabaptists  in  London  appeared  in  arms,
headed  by  their  preacher,  Thomas  Venner,  a  wine-
cooper.  They  fought  desperately,  and  killed  many
of  the  soldiers  brought  against  them.  Their  leader
and  sixteen  others  were  executed,  19  and  21  Jan.
Annals  of  England.

ANACHORETS,  see  Monachism.

ANACREONTIC  VERSE,  of  the  baccha-
nalian strain,  named  after  Anacreon  of  Teos,  the
Greek  lyric  poet,  whose  odes  are  much  prized.  He
died  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  about  478  b.c.  His
odes  (many  said  to  be  spurious)  have  been  frequently
translated  ;  Thomas  Moore's  version  was  published
in  1800.

ANADOLIA  (Asia  Minor),  comprises  the  an-
cient Lycia,  Caria,  Lydia,  Mysia,  Bithynia,  Paph-
lagonia  and  Phrygia  {which  see).

ANAESTHETICS,  see  Opium,  Chloroform
Ether,  Amylcne,  Kerosolene,  Nitrons  oxide  under
nitric  acid.  Intense  cold  has  been  also  employed  in
deadening  pain.

ANAGRAMS,  formed  by  the  transposition  of
the  letters  of  a  word  or  sentence  (as  army  from
Mary),  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  ancient
Jews,  Greeks,  &c.  On  the  question  put  by  Pilate
o Our  Saviour, "Quid  eU  Veritas?" (what' is


truth  ?)  we  have  the  anagram,  "  Est  vir  qui  adest. "
(the  man  who  is  here);  from  "Horatio  Nelson"
is  "Honor  est  a  Nilo"  (Honour  from  the  Nile).

ANALYSTS,  Society  of  Public,  founded  by
Professor  Redwood,  Dr.  Dupre,  and  others,  7  Aug.
1874.  Dr.  Charles  Meymott  Tidy,  an  eminent
analyst  and  toxicologist,  died  15  March,  1892.  See
Adulteration.

AN  AM,  see  Annam.

ANARCHY  (Greek  an,  no,  archos,  chief),  de-
scribed Judges  xvii.  6,  "  In  those  days  there  was  no
king  in  Israel,  but  every  man  did  that  which  was-
right  in  his  own  eyes"  about  B.C.  1406.  Anarchy
frequently  prevailed  in  ancient  times.  Similar
principles,  now  termed  socialism,  have  been  emi-
nently advanced  by  P.  J.  Proudhon  1809 — 65,  to
whom  is  ascribed  the  maxim,  "la  propriete  c'est  le-
vol."  See  France,  Oct.  1882.  Many  Anarchists
tried  and  punished  in  Austria  and  other  countries,
1883  ct  seq.  Anarchists  expelled  from  Switzerland,
1885,  but  return,  and  cause  much  trouble  ;  they  held
a  congress  at  Ticino  Jan.  1891.  The  modern  anar-
chies declare  war  against  society  and  all  its  institu-
tions, and  frequently  employ  dynamite  as  a  destruc-
tive agent.  See  Dynamite,  France,  Spain,  and
Trials,  1892.

ANASTATIC  PRINTING,  see  Printing,
1 841.

ANATHEMA,  the  sentence  of  excommunica-
tion (1  Cor.  xvi.  22),  used  by  the  early  churches,
365 ;  see  Excommunication.  Pope  Pius  IX.  pro-
pounded a  series  of  anathemas,  Feb.  1870.

ANATOMY  (Greek,  cutting  up) .  The  human
body  was  studied  by  Aristotle  about  350  B.C.,  and
became  a  branch  of  medical  education  under  Hippo-
crates, about  420  B.C.  Erasistratus  and  Herophilus
first  dissected  the  human  form,  having  been  previ-
ously confined  to  animals:  it  is  said  that  they
practised  upon  the  bodies  of  living  criminals,  about
300  and  293  B.C.  Galen,  who  died  a.d.  193,  was  a.
great  anatomist.  In  England,  the  schools  were  long
supplied  with  bodies  unlawfully  exhumed  from
graves ;  and  until  1832,  the  bodies  of  executed
murderers  were  ordered  for  dissection.*  Pope  Boni-
face VI II.  forbade  the  dissection  of  dead  bodies,
1297. — The  first  anatomical  plates,  designed  by
Titian,  were  employed  by  Vesalius,  about  1538.
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Michael  Angek,
studied  anatomy.  The  great  discoveries  of  Harvey
were  made  in  1616.  William  and  John  Hunter
were  great  anatomists:  William  died  1783,  and
John,  1793.  Quain's  and  Wilson's  large  anatomicaJ
plates  were  published  1842,  and  Bourgery's  greaS
work  by  Jacob,  1830-55.  Comparative  anatomy  has,
been  treated  systematically  in  the  present  century
by  Cuvier,  Owen,  Muller,  Huxley,  and  others. —
The  anatomy  of  plants  has  been  studied  since  1680 ;
see  Botany.
Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  founded  1887-


*  By  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  42  (1540),  surgeons  were  granted
four  bodies  of  executed  malefactors  for  "  anathomyes,"
which  privilege  was  extended  in  following  reigns  :  but  in
consequence  of  the  crimes  committed  by  resurrection-
men  in  order  to  supply  the  surgical  schools  (robbing
churchyards  and  even  committing  murder,  see  Burking),
a  new  statute  was  passed  in  1832,  which  abated  the
ignominy  of  dissection  by  prohibiting  that  of  executed
murderers,  and  made  provision  for  the  wants  of  surgeons
by  pei  mitting,  under  certain  regulations,  the  dissection
of  persons  dying  in  workhouses,  &c.  The  act  also  ap-
pointed inspectors  of  anatomy,  regulated  the  schools,
and  required  persons  practising  anatomy  to  obtain  a
licence.  It  repealed  the  clauses  of  the  act  of  1828,
which  directed  the  dissection  of  the  body  of  an  executed
murderer.


ANCHORITES.


41


ANDREW'S, ST.


ANCHORITES,  see  Monachism.

ANCHORS  were  invented  by  the  Tuscans.
Fliny.  The  second  tooth,  or  fluke,  was  added  by
Anacharsis  the  Scythian  (592  B.C.).  Strabo.
Anchors  said  to  have  been  forged  in  England
A.D.  578.  The  Admiralty  anchor  was  introduced
about  1841.  Improved  anchors  were  made  by  Pering
and  Kodgers  about  1828;  by  Porter,  1838;  by  Costell,
1848 ;  by  Trotman,  1853  ;  and  by  several  other  per-
sons. Trotman's  is  attached  to  the  Queen's  yacht
the  Fairy.  The  anchors  of  the  Great  Eastern  were
of  enormous  size.  Acts  for  the  proving  and  sale  of
chain  cables  and  anchors  were  passed  in  1864  and
1871.

ANCIENT  BUILDINGS  :  a  society  for  their
protection  from  injudicious  restoration,  &c,  was
established  in  1877 ;  Lord  Houghton,  Professor  S.
Colvin,  Thomas  Carlyle,  and  many  eminent  artists,
members. It  issued  a  report  in  Feb.  1888.

ANCIENT  CONCERTS,  or  "King's  Con-
certs," London.  "The  Concert  of  Anlient  Music"
was  established  in  1776  by  the  earls  of  Sandwich
and  Exeter,  and  others.  Sir  Henry  Bishop  was
sole  conductor  from  1843  to  1848,  when  the  con-
certs ceased.

ANCIENT  HISTORY  commences  in  the
Holy  Scriptures  4004  B.C.  and  in  the  history  of
Herodotus  about  1687  B.C.,  and  is  considered  to  end
with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,
A.D.  476.  Modern  history  begins  with  Mahomet
(a.d.  622),  or  with  Charlemagne  (768).

ANCIENT  MONUMENTS  in  Britain.  Bills
for  their  preservation  (especially  of  prehistoric)  have
been  brought  into  parliament  in  vain.  One  by  sir
John  Lubbock,  read  2nd  time,  7  March,  1877,  was
withdrawn;  again  read  2nd  time,  19  Feb.  1878;
read  2nd  time  in  the  lords,  11  Mar.  1880.  Acts
for  their  better  preservation  were  passed  in  1882
and  1892.

ANCIENTS,  see  Councils,  French.

ANCONA,  an  ancient  lioman  port  on  the
Adriatic.  The  mole  was  built  by  Trajan,  107.
After  many  changes  of  rulers  (Lombards,  Saracens,
Greeks,  and  Germans)  Ancona  was  annexed  to  the
papal  states  in  1532.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,
1797 ;  retaken  by  the  Austrians,  1799;  reoccupied
by  the  French,  1801 ;  restored  to  the  pope,  1802.  It
was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1832  ;  evacuated  in
1838,  and  after  an  insurrection  was  bombarded  and
captured  by  the  Austrians,  18  June,  1849.  The
Marches  (comprising  this  city)  rebelled  against  the
Papal  government  in  Sept.  i860.  Lamoriciere,  the
papal  general,  fled  to  Ancona  after  his  defeat  at
Castelfidardo,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  him-
self, the  city,  and  the  garrison,  on  29  Sept.  The
king  of  Sardinia  entered  soon  after.  Population  of
the  city  in  1881,  31,277.

ANCYRA,  now  Angora  or  Engour,  a  town  in
ancient  Galatia,  Asia  Minor.  Councils  were  held
here,  314,  358,  375.  It  was  taken  by  the  Persians,
616;  by  the  Saracens,  1085  ;  by  the  crusaders,  1102.
Near  this  city,  on  28  July,  1402,  Timour  or  Tamer-
lane defeated  and  took  prisoner  the  sultan  Bajazet,
and  is  said  to  have  conveyed  him  to  Samarcand  in
a  cage.

ANDALUSIA  (S.  Spain),  a  province  once
part  of  the  ancient  Lusitania  and  Bsetica.  The
name  is  a  corruption  of  Vandalitia,  it  having  been
held  by  the  Vandals  from  419  to  429,  when  it  was
acquired  by  the  Visigoths.  The  latter  were  expelled
by  the  Mqors  in  711,  who  established  the  kingdom


of  Cordova,  and  retained  it  till  1236. Andalusia
suffered  much  by  the  earthquakes  of  Dec.  1884.

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.
The  inhabitants  are  dwarfs,  and  in  the  lowest  state
of  barbarism.  At  Port  Blair,  on  South  Island,  made
a  penal  settlement  for  the  Sepoy  rebels  in  1858,
the  earl  of  Mayo,  viceroy  of  India,  was  assassinated
by  Shere  Alee,  a  convict,  8  Feb.  1872,  when  going
on  board  the  Glasgow.  Above  200  persons  perished
on  land  through  a  cyclone ;  see  Wrecks,  2  Nov.  189 1.

ANDERNACH,  Rhenish  Prussia,  once  an  im-
perial city.  Near  here,  the  emperor  Charles  I.,
while  attempting  to  deprive  his  nephews  of  theiy
inheritance,  was  totally  defeated  by  one  of  them,
Louis  of  Saxony,  8  Oct.  876.

ANDES,  Cordillera  de  Los,  the  greaS

mountain  system  of  South  America.

Chimborazo,  perpetually  snowclad,  was  ascended  by
Alexander  Von  Humboldt  to  the  height  of  19,280
feet,  23  June  1802  ;  by  Boussingault  and  Hall,
19,695  feet,  16  Dec.  1831  ;  by  Edward  Whymper,
20,545  feet,  3  Jan.  ;  and  20,489  feet  3  July,  1880

Cotopaxi,  volcanic ;  ascended  by  Edward  Whymper,
19,600  feet 18  Feb. ,,

He  -also first  ascended  Antisana, 19,260  feet, 10
March  ;  and  Cayambe,  19,200  feet . 4  April, ,,
[All  these  mountains  are  in  Ecuador.]

Mr.  Whymper's  work  on  the  "  Great  Andes  "  was  pub-
lished in  March,  1892.

ANDORRA,  a  small  republic  in  the  Pyrenees,
bearing  the  title  of  "  the  valleys  and  sovereignties
of  Andorra,"  was  made  independent  by  Charlemagne
about  778,  certain  rights  being  reserved  to  the
bishop  of  Urgel.  The  feudal  sovereignty,  which
long  appertained  to  the  counts  of  Foix,  reverted  to
the  French  king,  Henry  IV.,  in  1589;  but  was-
given  up  in  1 790.  On  27  March,  1806,  an  imperial
decree  restored  the  old  relations  between  Andorra
and  France.  The  republic  is  now  governed  by  a
council  elected  for  four  years  ;  but  the  magistrates
are  appointed  alternately  by  the  French  govern-
ment and  the  Spanish  bishop  of  Urgel,  to  both  of
whom  tribute  is  paid.  The  population  1875  about
5,800.  Andorra,  though  neutral,  was  attacked  by
the  Carlists  in  Sept.  1874.  Oisputes  between  the
French  government  and  the  bishop,  respecting
arrests,  &c.  made  by  him,  March ;  amicably  settled.
April,  1884.

ANDRE'S  EXECUTION',  see  United  States,
1780.

ANDREW,  ST.,  said  to  have  been  martyred
by  crucifixion,  30  Nov.  69,  at  Patrae,  in  Achaia.
His  festival  was  instituted  about  359.  The  Royal
Society's  anniversary  is  kept  on  St.  Andrew's  day.
The  Russian  order  of  St.  Andrew  was  instituted  in
1698  by  Peter  I.  For  the  British  order,  see  Thistle.
ANDREW'S,  ST.  (E.  Scotland),  made  a  royal
burgh  after  1140.  Here  Robert  Bruce  held  his  first
parliament  in  1309 ;  and  here  Wishart  was  burnt
by  archbishop  Beaton,  1545,  who  himself  was  mur-
dered here  in  1546.  The  university  was  founded  in,
1411  by  bishop  Wardlaw.  The  cathedral  (built
1 159-1318),  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  excited  by  a
sermon  of  John  Knox,  June,  1559.  Sir  R.  Sibbald's
list  of  the  bishops  commences  with  Killach,  872.
The  see  became  archiepiscopal  in  1470,  ceased  soon
after  1689;  was  re-instituted  in  1844;  see  Bishops.
Sir  William  Taylour  Thomson  bequeathed  30,000/.
to  the  university,  announced  Oct.  1883.  Population,
1891,  6,853.

Mr.  David  Berry,  an  Australian  colonist,  a  native  of
Cupar  in  Fife,  who  died  Sept.  1889,  bequeathe  -d
£100,000  to  the  University,  in  accordance  with  the
unsigned  will  of  his  brother,  Dr.  Alexander  Berry,
who  died  in  187^.


ANDRUSSOV.


42


ANGUILLA.


The  Marquis  of  Dufferin  was  elected  lord  rector,  1889  ;
address  6  April,  /Bgi.

ANDRUSSOV,  Peace  of  (30  Jan.  1667),

between  ltussia  and  Poland,  for  13  years,  with  mutual
concessions,  although  the  latter  had  been  generally
victorious.

ANEMOMETER  (Greek,  anemos,  the  wind),
a  measurer  of  the  strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind,
was  invented  by  Wolrius,  in  1709.  The  extreme
velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Lind  to  be  93  miles  per
hour.  Osier's  and  Whewell's  anemometers  were
irigbly  approved  of  in  1844.  "Kobinson's  anemo-
meter is  the  simplest  and  best,''  Buchan,  1867.

ANEROID,  see  Barometer.

ANGEL,  a  gold  coin,  impressed  with  an  angel,
weighing  four  pennyweights,  valued  at  6s.  8d.  in
the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  10s.  in  the  reign  of
Elizabeth,  1562.  The  Angelot,  a  gold  coin,  value
half  an  angel,  was  struck  at  Paris  when  held  by  the
English,  143 1. Wood.

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  of  St.  George.

This  order  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Constan-
tine,  wrho  died  337.  The  Angelici  were  instituted  by
the  emperor  Angelus  Comnenus,  1191. — The  Ange--
iicm,  an  order  of  nuns,  founded  at  Milan  by  Louisa
Torelli,  1534.

ANGERS  (W.  Central  France),  the  Roman
Juliomagus,  possessing  an  amphitheatre  ;  afterwards
Andegavum,  the  capital  of  Anjou  {tvhichsee).  It
was  frequently  besieged,  and  many  councils  were
•held  in  it  between  453  and  1448,  relating  to  ecclesi-
astical discipline.

ANGERSTEIN  GALLERY,  see  National
Gallery.

ANGLESEY,  called  by  the  Romans  Mona
(N.  Wales),  the  seat  of  the  Druids,  who  were
massacred  in  great  numbers,  when  Suetonius
Paulinus  ravaged  the  isle,  61.  It  was  conquered
by  Agricola  in  78 ;  occupied  by  the  Normans,  1090  ;
and  with  the  rest  of  Wales  annexed  by  Edward  1.
in  1284.  He  built  the  fortress  of  Beaumaris  in
X295.  The  Menai  suspension  bridge  was  erected
2818-25,  and  the  Britannia. tubular  bridge  1849-50.

ANGLICAN  CHURCH,  see  Church  of  Eng-
land.

ANGLING. Allusion  is  made  to  it  in  the
Bible  ;  Amos  i-v.  2  (787  B.C.).
Oppian  wrote  his  "  Halieutics,"  a  Greek  epic  poem  on

Fishes  and  Fishing,  about  a.d.  198.
Jn  the  book  on  "  Hawkyuge  and  Iluntynge,"  by  Juliana

Berners or  Barnes, prioress of  .Sopwell, near St.

Albans, "  emprinted  at  Westmestre  by  Wynkyn  de

Worde,"  in  1496,  is  "The  treatise  of  fysshyng  with  an

Angle."
Izaac  Walton's  "  Compleat  Angler"  was  first  published  in

1653-

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION,

to  cultivate  more  cordial  relations  between  Great
Britain  and  the  United  States,  established  25  Jan.
I871.

ANGLO  -  CONTINENTAL  SOCIETY
founded  in  1S53  to  diffuse  the  principles  of  the
Church  of  England  abroad:  20th  anniversary  kept
at  St.  Paul's,  27  Oct.  1874.

ANGLO-DANISH  EXHIBITION,  South
Kensington,  opened  by  the  Princess  (and  Prince)  of
"Wales,  14  May  1888,  comprising  theatrical  and
musical  entertainments.  The  profits  of  the  exhibi-
tion were  to  be  devoted  to  the  rebuilding  of  the
British  Home  for  Incurables.

ANGLO-FRENCH,  ETC  Agreements  re-
specting Africa.


Anglo-French  Agreement  respecting  Africa  signed  by
the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  and  M.  Waddington,  French
ambassador  in  London,  5  Aug.  1890.  By  this  agree-
ment the  British  protectorate  over  Zanzibar  and  the
French  protectorate  over  Madagascar  are  recognized,
and  the  delimitation  of  territories  in  Africa,  subject  to
the  influence  of  France,  was  to  be  settled  by  two
commissioners  at  Paris.

Anglo-German  Agreement  of  1890  determined  the
boundaries  of  the  British  and  German  proposed  terri-
tories in  East  Africa ;  the  protectorate  of  Zanzibar,
Witu,  Somaliland  or  Vitu,  was  given  up  to  Great
Britain  ;  Heligoland  was  ceded  to  Germany  ;  signed
at  Berlin  by  sir  Edward  ilalet  and  sir  Henry  Percy
Anderson  for  England  ;  by  gen.  von  Caprivi  and  Dr.
Krauel  for  Germany,  1  July  ;  ratified  by  an  act  of  par-
liament which  received  the  royal  assent,  4  Aug.  1890.

Anglo-Italian  Agreement  respecting  Africa.  Sir
Evelyn  Baring  and  gen.  sir  Francis  Grenfell  received
at  Borne  by  sig.  Crispi,  24  Sept.  1890.  Meeting  of  the
conference  at  Naples,  lord  Dufferin  and  sig.  Crispi
present ;  no  result,  4 — 10  Oct.  1890.  Treaty  for  the
delimitation  of  the  British  and  Italian  spheres  of
influence  in  East  Africa  ;  signed  at  Borne,  15  April,
1891.

Anglo-Portuguese  Agreement  delimiting  the  terri-
tories subject  to  the  influence  of  Great  Britain  and
Portugal  in  East  Africa;  the  text  of  the  agreement  was
settled  in  London  20  Aug.  and  published  in  the  Times.
The  free  navigation  of  the  Zambezi,  and  uninterrupted
communication  between  British  territories  ensured,
26  Aug.  1890.  Portugal  gives  up  all  claim  to  Zambezi
and  Nyassaland.  The  agreement  was  annulled,  and
a  modus  Vivendi  agreed  to,  14  Nov.  1890.  A  new
modified  treaty,  signed  at  Lisbon,  n  June,  1891,
and  afterwards  ratified.

ANGLO-SAXONS  or  ANGLES,  derive  their
name  from  a  village  near  Sleswiek,  called  Anglen,
whose  population  (called  Angli  by  Tacitus)  joined
the  first  Saxon  freebooters.  East  Anglia  was  a
kingdom  of  the  heptarchy,  founded  by  the  Angles,
one  of  whose  chiefs,  Uffa,  assumed  the  title  of  king,
571 ;  the  kingdom  ceased  in  792.  See  Britain.
Caedmon  paraphrased  part  of  the  Bible  in  Anglo-
Saxon  about  680 ;  a  translation  of  the  gospels  was
made  by  abbot  Egbert,  of  Iona,  721  ;  of  Boethius,
Orosius,  &c,  by  Alfred,  888.  The  Anglo-Saxon
laws  were  printed  by  order  of  government,  in  1840.
A  professorship  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Oxford  was  founded  by

Dr.  Richard  Rawlinson  in  1795  ;  one  at  Cambridge  by

Dr.  Joseph  Bos  worth  in  1867.

ANGLO-TURKISH  CONVENTION,  see

Turkey,  4  June,  1878.

ANGOLA  (S.  W.  Africa),  settled  by  the  Portu-
guese soon  after  the  discovery,  by  Diego  Cam,
about  1484. Loando,  their  capital,  was  built  1578.

ANGORA,  see  Ancyra.

ANGOULEME,  (the  Roman  Iculisma,)  capi-
tal of  the  province  of  Angoumois,  Central  France,
W.,  was  a  bishopric  in  260.  Angouleme  became
an  independent  country  about  856  ;  was  united  to
the  French  crown  in  1308  ;  was  held  by  the  Eng-
lish, 1360  to  1372,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.
The  count  of  Angouleme  became  king  of  France  as
Francis  I.  in  1 5 15.

ANGRA  PEQUENA ;  the  German  settle-
ment here,  north  of  the  Orange  river,  South  Africa,
declared  by  priuce  Bismarck  to  be  under  the  pro-
tection of  the  empire,  24  April,  1884;  after  alleged
vacillating  British  diplomacy,  1882-3.

ANGRIA'S  FORT,  see  India,  1756.

ANGUILLA,  Snake  Island,  West  Indies-,  set-  -
tied by the  British, 1666. Valuable  deposits of
phosphate  of  lime  were  found  here  in  1859. The
island  suffered  by  a  famine  due  to  long  drought  and
failure  of  crops  early  iu  1891.


ANHALT.


43  ANNAM.


ANHALT,  HOUSE  OF,  in  Germany,  deduces
its  origin  from  Berenthobaldus,  who  made  war  upon
the  Thuringians  in  the  sixth  century.  In  1606,
the  principality  was  divided  among  the  four  sons  of
Joachim  Ernest,  by  the  eldest,  John-George.  Thus
began  the  four  branches  —  Anhalt-Dessau  (de-
scended from  John -George) ;  Zerbst,  extinct,  1793  ;
Plotsgau  or  Coethen,  extinct,  1847;  and  Bernburg,
extinct,  1863  ;  (the  last  duke  died  without  issue,
22  Aug.  1863.)  The  princes  of  Anhalt  became
dukes  in  1809.  Anhalt  is  an  hereditary  constitu-
tional monarchy  (by  law  19  Feb.  1872)  ;  population
in  1871,  203,437  ;  in  1875,  213,565;  in  1885,  248,166;
1890,  271,759.

Anhalt  joined  the  North  German  Confederation,  18  Aug.
1866.

Leopold  (born  Oct.  1,  1794),  became  duke  of  Anhalt-
Dessau,  g  Aug.  1817,  and  of  Anhalt-Bernburg,  30  Aug.
1863  ;  died  22  May,  1871.

Frederic,  duke  of  Anhalt ;  born  29  April,  1831.
Heir:  Leopold;  born  18  July '185s.

Marriage  of  prince  Aribertto  princess  Louise,  a  daughter
of  prince  and  princess  Christian,  6  July,  1891.

ANHOLT,  ISLAND  OF,  Denmark,  was  taken
possession  of  by  England,  18  May,  1S09,  in  the
French  war,  on  account  of  Danish  cruisers  injuring
British  commerce.  The  Danes  made  a  fruitless
attempt  to  regain  it,  27  March,  181 1.

ANILINE,  an  oily  alkaline  body,  discovered
in  1826  by  Unverdorben  among  the  products  of
distillation  of  indigo.  From  benzole  {which  see)
Bechamp,  in  1856,  obtained  it  by  successive  treat-
ment with  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  reducing
agents.  The  scientific  relations  of  aniline  have
been  carefully  examined  by  several  chemists,
especially  by  Dr.  A.  W.  Hofmann.  It  was  long
known  to  yield  a  series  of  coloured  compounds,  but
it  was  not  till  1856  that  Mr.  W.  II.  Perkin  showed
how  a  violet  oxidation -product  (mauve)  could  be
applied  in  dyeing.  Aniline  is  now  manufactured  on
a  large  scale  lor  the  commercial  production  of
"Mauve"  and  "Magenta"  (rosaniline)  (which
see),  and  several  other  colouring  matters,  aniline
blue,  1861 ;  violet,  1863;  "night"  green,  &e.
The  patent  of  Simpson,  Maule,  and  Nicholson,  for
aniline  colours,  was  annulled  by  the  house  of  lords,
27  July,  1866. See  Alizarine.

ANIMALCULES,  Leeuwcnhoek' s  remarkable
microscopical  discoveries  were  published  in  the
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Itoyal  Society,
for  1677,  in  his  "  Arcana  Naturas,"  at  Leyden,  1696.
The  great  works  of  Ehrenberg  of  Berlin  on  the
Infusorial  Animalculae,  &c,  were  issued  1838-57.
Pritehard's  Infusoria,  ed.  1861,  and  Mr.  W.  Savile
Kent's  Manual  of  Infusoria,  3  volumes,  1880-2,
are  valuable.  The  Rev.  W.  II.  Dallinger  and  Dr.
Drysdale,  by  their  unwearied  continuous  micro-
scopic il  observations  of  bacteria  and  other  low
forms  of  life,  have  greatly  increased  our  knowledge  :
1873-89.

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  (to  cure  diseases
by  sympathetic  affection)  was  introduced  by  father
llehl,  a  Jesuit,  at  Vienna,  about  1774,  and  had  its
believers  in  France  and  England  about  1788-89.
Hehl  for  a  short  time  associated  with  Mesriier,  but
they  soon  quarrelled.— Mr.  Perkins  (who  died  in
1799)  invented  "  Metallic  Tractors  for  collecting,
condensing,  and  applying  animal  magnetism;"
but  Drs.  Falconer  and  II  ay  garth  put  an  end  to  his
pretentions  by  performing  many  wonders  with  a
pair  of  wooden  tractors.  Brande.  See  Mesmerism.
Animal  magnetism  disproved  by  commissions  of  the
French  Academy  of  Sciences,  1837-8  ;  investigation


closed  as  of  a  "  dead  letter,"  1840.  Remarkable  feats
were  performed  by  Miss  Abbott  "the  magnetic
lady,"  at  the  Alhambra  theatre,  14  Nov.  et  seq.  1891 .

ANIMALS, Cruelty  to. Mr.  Martin,

M.P.,  as  a  senator,  zealously  laboured  to  repress
it;  and  in  1824,  the  Royal  Society  for  the  Preven-
tion of  Cruelty  to  Animals  was  instituted.  Its
new  house  in  Jermyn-street,  London,  was  founded
4  May,  1869.  It  opposed  vivisection  in  i860,  in
unison  with  a  French  society,  and  in  Oct.  1873,
offered  premiums  for  improved  trucks  for  conveying
cattle.  A  jubilee  congress  of  this  and  similar
societies  met  in  London  17  June,  1874.  Convic-
tions obtained  by  the  society  1835  to  June,  1876,
28,209.  The  society  prosecuted  4,618  grosser  cases
in  1887;  6,404  in  1892.  See  Vivisection.  Mr.
Martin's  act  was  passed  1822,  and  similar  acts  were
passed  in  1827,  1835,  1837,  1849,  and  1854.  Dogs
were  forbidden  to  be  used  for  draught  in  1839.

"Fellowship  of  Animals'  Friends,"  organised  about
10  July,  1879  ;  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  president.  With
similar  object  Mr.  Buskin  founded  St.  George's  Guild.
The  Dicky  Birds  Society  in  the  northern  counties
numbered  8,000  members  in  1883.

The  Animals'  Institute,  Knightsbridge,  distributed
prizes  for  inventions  for  the  relief  of  horses  and  other
animals,  28  July,  1890.

ANIMISM,  the  doctrine  that  the  soul  is  the
only  cause  of  life,  and  that  the  functions  of  animals
and  plants  depend  upon  vitality,  and  not  on  mere
chemical  and  mechanical  action,  was  opposed  by
Descartes  (died  1650)  and  others  ;  see  Materialism.

ANJOU,  a  province,  W.  France,  was  taken  by
Henry  II.  of  England  from  his  brother  Geoffrey,
in  1 156;  their  father  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  count  of
Anjou,  having  married  the  empress  Matilda  in  1127.
It  was  taken  from  king  John  by  Philip  of  France
in  1205  ;  was  reconquered  by  lid  ward  III.  ;  relin-
quished by  him  at  the  peace  of  Bretigny  in  1360,
and  given  by  Charles  V.  to  his  brother  Louis  with
the  title  of  duke.  The  university  was  formed  in
L349-

1360. Louis  I.  duke,  invested  by  the pope  with  the
dominions  of  Joanna  of  Naples, 1381  ; his  invading
army  destroyed  by  the  plague,  1383  ;  he  dies,  1384.
1384. Louis  II. ,  his  son,  receives  the  same  grant,  but  is

also  unsuccessful.
Louis  III.,  adopted  by  Joanna  ;  dies  1434.
1434. Begnier  or  Bene  le  bon  (a  prisoner)  declared  king
of  Naples, 1435  ; his daughter, Margaret, married
Henry  VI. of  England,  1445  ;  he  was  expelled  from
Anjou  by  Louis  XL,  1474,  and  his  estates  confiscated.
Francis, duke of  Alencon, brother  to Henry III. of
France, became duke  ■  of Anjou  ; at one time  he
favoured  the  Protestants,  and  vainly  offered  marriage  to
Elizabeth  of  England,  1581-82  ;  died  1584.

ANJOU  or  Beauge,  Battle  of,  between

the  English  and  French  ;  the  latter  commanded  by
the  dauphin  of  France,  22  March,  1421.  The  Eng-
lish wore  defeated  :  the  duke  of  Clarence  was  slain
by  sir  Allan  Swinton,  a  Scotch  knight,  and  1500
men  perished  on  the  held  ;  the  earls  of  Somerset,
Dorset,  and  Huntingdon  were  taken  prisoners.
Beauge  was  the  first  battle  that  turned  the  tide  of
success  against  the  English.

ANNAM  or  An,VM,  an  empire  of  Asia,  to  the
east  of  India,  nominally  subject  to  China,  com-
prising Toiiquin,  Cochin  China,  part  of  Cambodia,
and  various  islands  in  the  Chinese  Sea  ;  said  to
have  been  conquered  by  the  Chinese,  234  B.C.,
and  held  by  them  till  A.n.  263.  In  1406  they
reconquered  it,  but  abandoned  it  in  1428.  After
much  anarchy,  bishop  Adran,  a  French  missionary,
obtained  the  friendship  of  Louis  XVI.  for  his
pupil Gia-long,  the sou of  the  nominally  reign-


ANNAPOLIS.


44


ANTAGONISM.


ing  monarch,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  few  of  his
countrymen  established  Gia-long  on  the  throne,
who  reigned  till  his  death  in  182 1,  when  his  son
became  king.  In  consequence  of  the  persecution  of
the  Christians,  war  broke  out  with  the  French,
who  defeated  the  army  of  Annam,  10,000  strong,
about  22  April,  1859,  when  500  were  killed.  On  3
June,  1862,  peace  was  made ;  three  provinces  were
ceded  to  the  French,  and  toleration  of  the  Christians
granted.  An  insurrection  in  these  provinces  against
the  French,  begun  about  17  Dec.  1862,  was  sup-
pressed in  Feb.  1863.  Ambassadors  sent  from  An-
nam with  the  view  of  regaining  the  ceded  provinces
arrived  at  Paris  in  Sept.  1863,  had  no  success.  Cochin
China  and  other  provinces  were  annexed  to  the
French  empire  by  proclamation,  25  June,  1867.
Several  native  Christians  were  massacred  by  order
of  a  bonze,  July,  1868. ,

By  a  treaty  concluded  15  March,  1874,  at  Saigon,  the
independence  of  the  king  of  Annam  was  recognised  by
France,  the  ports  were  opened  to  commerce,  and  toler-
ation of  the  Christian  religion  was  secured.
Tu  Due,  emperor,  34  years,  resists  the  French  in  Tonquin,
(which  see),  1883 ;  dies  aged  54,  17  July,  1883 ;
Heiphma  succeeds.
The  French  protectorate  recognized  by  treaty  signed

at  Hue 25  Aug.  1883

The  King  assassinated  by  enemies  of  the  French,

Dec,  succeeded  by  Yoe-Duc . about  14  Dec ,,
The  prince  who  promoted  massacres  of  Christians

in  December  and  January  executed  about  26  Mar.  1884
The  king  dies,  succeeded  by  his  brother  Kienphuoc

(a  boy) ..... announced  2  Aug. ,,
Treacherous  attack  of  the  Regent  Thu-Hong,  with
30,000  men,  on  General  de  Courcy  with  1,000  men
at  the  French  camp  at  Hue  ;  repulsed  with  heavy
loss,  and  the  Regent  captured . .  5-6  July,  1885
Sudden  attack  on the French in  Hue citadel,

announced 8  Sept. ,,

Chaul  Mong,  adopted  son  of  Tu  Due,  proclaimed
king,  14  Sept.  ;  crowned  19  Sept.  ;  named  Douck

Hanh 19  Sept. ,,

Reported  great  massacre  of  Christians . Oct. „
The  king  dies  ;  Buntmn,  his  son,  10  years  old  (called

Than  Khai),  proclaimed  ...  31  Jan.  1889
The  king  a  prisoner  with  the  French  in  Algeria

June,  1892
ANNAPOI  IS,  see  Fort  Royal.

ANNATES,  see  First  Fruits.

ANNO  DOMINI,  A.D.,  the  year  of  Our
Lord,  of  Grace,  of  the  Incarnation,  of  the  Circum-
cision, and  of  the  Crucifixion  (Trabeationis) .  The
Christian  era  commenced  1  Jan.  in  the  middle  of
the  4th  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad,  the  753rd  year
of  the  building  of  Home,  and  in  4714  of  the
Julian  period.  This  era  was  invented  by  a
monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  about  532.  It  was
introduced  into  Italy  in  the  6th  century,  and
ordered  to  be  used  by  bishops  by  the  council  of
Chelsea,  in  816,  but  was  not  generally  employed
for  several  centuries.  Charles  III.  of  Germany  was
the  first  who  added  "  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  "  to
his  reign,  in  879.  It  was  formerly  held  that  Christ
was  born  Friday,  5  April,  4  B.C.  Mr.  W.  T.  Lynn
considers  that  probably  Christ  was  born  towards  the
end  of  the  year  5.

ANNO  MUNDI,  see  Creation.

"  ANNOYANCE  JURIES,"  of  Westmin-
ster, chosen  from  the  householders  in  conformity
with  27  Eliz.  c.  17  (1585),  were  abolished  in  1861.

.ANNUAL  REGISTER,  a  summary  of  the
history  of  each  year  (beginning  with  1758,  and
continued  to  the  present  time),  was  commenced  by
K.  &  J.  Dodsley.  (Edmund  Burke  at  first  wrote
the  whole  work,  but  afterwards  became  only  an
occasional  contributor.  Prior.)  A  similar  work,
"  Annuaire  des  Deux  Mondes,"  began  in  1'aris  1850.


ANNUALS,  a  name  given  to  richly  bound
volumes,  containing  poetry,  tales,  and  essays,  by
eminent  authors,  illustrated  by  engravings,  pub-
lished annually,  at  first  in  Germany,  and  also  in
London  in  1823.  The  duration  of  the  chief  of  these
publications  is  here  given  :

Forget-me-not  (Ackerman's) ....  1823-48

Friendship's  Offering 1824-44

Literary  Souvenir  (first  as  "  the  Graces  ")  . .  1824-34

Amulet ...  1827-34

Keepsake 1828-56

Hood's  Comic  Annual 1830-42.

ANNUITIES  or  Pensions. In  1512,  20/.  a

year  were  given  to  a  lady  of  the  court  for  services
done ;  and  bl.  13s.  4^.  for  the  maintenance  of  a
gentleman,  1536.  13/.  6s.  8d.  deemed  competent
to  support  a  gentleman  in  the  study  of  the  law,
1554.  An  act  was  passed  empowering  the  govern-
ment to  borrow  one  million  sterling  upon  an  an-
nuity of  fourteen  per  cent.,  4-6  Will.  &  Mary,i69i-3-
This  mode  of  borrowing  soon  afterwards  became
general  among  governments.  An  annuity  of
ll.  2s.  lid.  per  annum,  accumulatingat  \o per  cent.,
compound  interest,  amounts  in  100  years  to  20,000/.
The  Government  Annuities  and  Life  Assurances
Act  was  passed  in  1864,  for  the  benefit  of  the
working  classes ;  since  it  enables  the  government
to  grant  deferred  annuities  for  sums  payable  in
small  instalments.  New  system  of  government
annuities  came  into  operation  3  June,  1884.  Works
on  annuities  were  published  by  De  AVitt,  1671 ;  De
Moivre,  1724;  Simpson,  1742;  Tables  by  Price,
1792;  Milne,  1815;  Jones,  1843;  Farre,  1864;  In-
stitute of  Actuaries,  1872  and  1882-7.

ANNUITY  TAX :  a  tax  levied  to  provide
stipends  for  ministers  in  Edinburgh  and  Montrose,
and  which  caused  much  disaffection,  was  abolished
in  i860,  and  other  provisions  made  for  the  pur-
pose. These,  however,  proved  equally  unpalatable,
and  their  abolition  was  provided  for  by  an  act  passed
9  Aug.  1870.

ANNUNCIATION  of  the  Yirgin  Mary,

25th  of  March,  Lady-day  (which  see),  a  festival
commemorating  the  tidings  brought  to  Mary  by  the
angel  Gabriel  (Luke  i.  26) :  its  origin  is  referred
to  the  4th  or  5th  century.  The  religious  order  of
the  Annunciation  was  instituted  in  1232,  and  the
military  order,  in  Savoy,  by  Amadeus,  count  of
Savoy  about  1362,  in  memory  of  Amadeus  I.,  who
had  bravely  defended  Rhodes  against  the  Turks,
1355. New  statutes,  1869.

ANOINTING,  an  ancient  ceremony  observed
at  the  inauguration  of  priests,  kings,  and  bishops.
Aaron  was  anointed  as  high  priest,  1491  B.C. ;  and
Saul,  as  king,  1095  B-c-  Alfred  the  Great  is  said
to  have  been  the  first  English  king  anointed,  a.d.
871 ;  and  Edgar  of  Scotland,  1098. — The  religious-
rite  is  derived  from  the  epistle  of  James  v.  14,  about
A.D.  60.  Some  authors  assert  that  in  550,  dying
persons,  and  persons  in  extreme  danger  of  death,
were  anointed  with  consecrated  oil,  and  that  this
was  the  origin  of  Extreme  Unction  (one  of  the
sacraments  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church).

ANONYMOUS  LETTERS,  see  Threatening

Letters.

ANORTHOSCOPE,  a  new  optical  apparatus,
described  by  Dr.  Carpenter  in  1868.  In  it  distorted
figures  lose  their  distortion  when  put  into  rapid
motion.

"  ANTAGONISM,"  was  demonstrated  to  be  a
universal  principle  throughout  Nature  with  bene-


ANTALCIDAS.


45


ANTILLES.


ficial  results  by  Sir  W.  R.  Grove  in  a  discourse
at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  20  April  1888.

ANTALCIDAS,  Peace  of. In  387  b.c.

Antalcidas  the  Lacedaemonian  made  peace  with
Artaxerxes  of  Persia,  on  behalf  of  Greece,  but  prin-
cipally in  favour  of  Sparta,  giving  up  the  cities  of
Ionia  to  the  king.

ANTAECTIC  POLE,  &c,  the  opposite  to  the
north  or  arctic  pole;  see  Southern  Continent.
Antarctic  Expedition  proposed  by  the  Australian  Colo-
nies  ;  the  support  of  the  British  Government  invited
by  Sir  Graham  Berry.  A  committee  of  the  Royal
Society  formed,  including  Professor  Stokes,  president,
Lord  Rayleigh,  Mr.  Christie,  the  Astronomer  Royal,
Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  Professor  Huxley,  and  others.
Nov.  1887.
Baron  Oscar  Dickson,  of  Gothenburg,  in  Sweden,  under-
took to  subscribe  £5,000  and  procure  the  remainder  of
the  expense  from  the  Swedish  government,  if  the
Australasian  colonies  should  subscribe  £5,000.  Baron
Dickson  was  in  London  Feb.  1891,  but  the  project
appeared  to  be  in  abeyance,  Dec.  1891.

ANTEDILUVIAN  HISTOEY,  Genesis  vr.,

v.,  vi.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,
the  number  of  people  in  the  ancient  world,  previous
to  the  Flood,  reached  to  549, 755  millions  in  the  year
of  the  world  1482.

ANTHEMS  were  originally  antiphons— short
pieces  of  plain-song  sung  before  the  psalms.  Gene-
rally responsive  antiphonic  music  was  used  in  Jewish
and  early  christian  worship.  Hilary,  bishop  of
Poictiers,  and  St.  Ambrose  composed  such  about  the
middle  of  the  4th  century.  Lena  let.  The  modern
anthem,  a  passage  of  scripture  set  to  music,  was
introduced  into  the  Reformed  churches  in  queen
Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1560.
English Anthem "Writers  : 1520-1625,  Tye, Tallis,

Byrd,  Gibbons  ;  1650-1720,  Humphrey,  Blow,  Purcell,

Croft,  Clarke  ;  1720-1845,  Greene,  Boyce,  Hayes,  Kent,

Battishill,  Attwood,  Walmisley.

ANTHOLOGY,  GEEEK,  a  collection  of
popular  epigrams  and  small  poems  writteD  by
Archilochus,  Sappho,  Simonides,  Aleleager,  Plato,
and  others,  between  680  and  95  B.C.  They  were
collected  by  Meleager,  Philippus,  Agathias,  and
others,  especially  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk
in  the  14th  century  A.D.,  and  a  MS.  collection  by
Constantine  Cephalas  was  found  at  Heidelberg  by
Salmasius  in  1606;  and  published  by  Brunek
1772-6.  Translations  have  been  made  by  Bland,
Merivale,  and  others.

ANTHEACENE,  see  Alizarine.

ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SOCIETY  {m-

thmpos,  Greek  for  man),  for  promoting  the  science
of  man  and  mankind,  held  its  first  meeting  on  24
Feb.  1863 ;  Dr.  James  Hunt,  president,  in  the
chair.  The  "  Anthropological  Review  "  first  came
out  in  May,  1863.  The  Anthropological  and  Ethno-
logical Societies  were  amalgamated  17  Jan.  187 1,
and  styled  "  The  Anthropological  Institute,"  Sir
John  Lubbock,  president.  The  London  Anthro-
pological Society  established  1873,  ceased  1875.  An
Anthropological  congress  at  Paris  was  opened  16
Aug.  1878;  others  since;  at  Moscow,  13  Aug.  1892.
The  Anthropometrical  Committee  reported  to  the
British  Association  the  results  of  measuring  about
53,000  persons  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Sept.  1883.

ANTHEOPOMOEPHITES,  a  name  given
to  the  Audiani,  which  see.

ANTHEOPOPHAGI  (eaters  of  human  flesh) ,
see  Cannibals.

.  ANTI-AGGEESSION  LEAGUE  (oppo-
sing interference  in  foreign  affairs)  formed  by  Mr.
John  Morley  and  others,  Feb.  1882.


ANTIBUEGHEES,  see  Burghers.

ANTICHRIST  (opposed  to  Christ),  1  John  ii.
18,  termed  the  "Man  of  sin,"  2  Thess.  ii.  3;  of
these  passages  many  interpretations  have  been  given,
and  many  myths  were  current  in  the  middle  ages,
respecting  the  incarnation  of  the  devil,  &c.  The
term  is  applied  to  each  other  by  Roman  Catholics
and  Protestants.

ANTI-COEN-LAW  LEAGUE  (for  pro-
curing the  repeal  of  the  laws  charging  duty  on  the
importation  of  corn),  sprung  from  various  metro-
politan and  provincial  associations,  was  founded  at
Manchester,  18  Sept.  1838,  and  supported  by  Messrs.
Charles  Villiers,  Richard  Cobden,  John  Bright,  &c;
John  Benjamin  Smith,  1st  chairman,  d.  15  Sept.
1879.  See  Corn  Laws,  and  Protectionists.
Meetings  held  in  various  places  .  March  <&  April,  1841
Excited  meeting  at  Manchester  .  .18  May,  „
A  bazaar  held  at  Manchester,  at  which  the  League

realised  io,oooZ. 2  Feb.  1842

About  600  deputies  connected  with  provincial  asso-
ciations assemble  in  London.  . Feb. -Aug. ,,
The League at Manchester proposed to raise
5o,oooZ., to depute lecturers throughout the
country,  and  to  print  pamphlets .  20  Oct. ,,
First  meeting  at  Drury-lane  Theatre  . 15  March,  1843
Monthly  meetings  at  Covent-Garden, commenced
28  Sept. ;  great  free-trade  meetings  at  Manchester

14  Nov.  1843,  ar,d  22  Jan.  1845
Bazaar  at  Covent-Garden  opened . . 5  May, ,,
Great  Manchester  meeting,  at  which  the  League

proposed  to  raise  250,000?. . . .23  Dec. ,,
The  Corn  Importation  Bill  having  passed,  26  June,
the  League  is  formally  dissolved ;  Mr.  Cobden  was
rewarded by a national subscription, nearly

8o,oooZ 2  July,  1846

On  the  accession  of  the  Derby  ministry,  a  revival  of
the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  proposed  at  Man-
chester, and  a  subscription  was  opened,  which
produced  within  half  an  hour  27,520k  (soon  proved

unnecessary) 2  Mar.  1852

Death  of  Richard  Cobden,  2  April,  1865;  John
Bright 27  Mar.  1889

ANTIETAM  CEEEK,  near  Sharpsburg,
Maryland,  U.  S.  Here  was  fought  a  terrible  battle
on  17  Sept.  1862,  between  the  Federals  under  gene-
ral M'Clellan  and  the  Confederates  under  Lee.
After  his  victory  at  Bull  Run  or  Manassas,  30  Aug.,
Lee  invaded  Maryland,  and  was  immediately  fol-
lowed by  M'Clellan.  On  16  Sept.  Lee  was  joined
by  Jackson,  and  at  five  o'clock  next  morning  the
conflict  began.  About  100,000  men  were  engaged,
and  the  battle  raged  till  night.  The  Federals  were
repeatedly  repulsed;  but  eventually  the  Con-
federates retreated  and  repassed  the  Potomac  on
18  and  19  Sept.  The  loss  of  the  Federals  was
estimated  at  12,469 ;  of  the  Confederates,  14,000.
A  national  cemetery  here,  was  dedicated  17  Sept.
1867.

ANTIGUA,  a  "West  Indian  Island,  discovered
by  Columbus  in  Nov.  1493 ;  settled  by  the  English  in
1632;  made  a  bishopric,  1842.  Population  in  1861,
36,412  ;  1881,  34,964.  Governor,  sir  B.  C.  C.  Pine,
1869 ;  hon.  H.  T.  Irving,  1873  '»  h°n.  Geo.  Berkeley,
1874-80;  sir  J.  H.  Glover,  1881.  Antigua  is  the  seat
of  government  of  the  Leeward  Isles,  which  see.

"  ANTI-JACOBIN  or  Weekly  Examiner,"  a

satirical  paper,  opposed  to  revolutionary  principles,

published  by  George  Canning  and  his  friends  1797-

98;  its  poetry  included  the  "Needy  Knife  Grinder."

The  A  nti- Jacobin,  a  miscellaneous  weekly  paper,  price

21/.,  edited  by  Mr. Frederick  Greenwood, formerly

editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and  the  St.  James's

Gazette,  which  sec,  first  appeared,  31  Jan.  1891.

ANTILLES,  or  Caribbee  Islands,  an  early
name  of  the  West  Indies  {which  see).


ANTIIVIONY.


46


ANTWEEP.


ANTIMONY,  a  white  brittle  metal,  com-
pounds of  which  were  early  known,  it  was,  and
is  still,  used  to  blacken  both  men's  and  women's
eyes  in  the  east  (2  Kings  ix.30,  and  Jeremiahiv.
30) .  Mixed  with  lead  it  forms  printing  type  metal.
Basil  Valentine  wrote  on  antimony  about  1410.
Priestley. See  Bravo  Case.

ANTINOMIANS  (from  the  Greek  anti,
against,  and  nomas,  law),  a  name  given  by  Luther
(in  11538)  to  John  Agricola,  who  is  said  to  have
held  '"that  it  mattered  not  how  wicked  a  man  was
if  he  had  but  faith."  (Opposed  to  Rom.  iii.  28,  &
v.  I,  2.)  He  retracted  these  doctrines  in  1540.  The
Antinomians  were  condemned  by  the  British  par-
liament, 1648.

ANTIOCH,  now  ANTAKIEH,  Syria,  built  by
Seleucus,  300  B.C.  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301,
acquired  the  name  "  Queen  of  the  East."  Here  the
disciples  were  first  called  Christians,  a.d.  42  {Acts
xi.  26).  Antioch  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  540  ;
by  the  Saracens  about  638 ;  recovered  for  the  Eastei  n
emperor,  966 ;  lost  again  in  1086 ;  retaken  by  the
Crusaders  in  June,  1098,  and  made  capital  of  a
principalitv,  1099  ;  and  held  by  them  till  June,
1268,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt.
It  was  taken  from  the  Turks  in  the  Syrian  war,  1
Aug.  1832,  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  but  restored  at  the
peace.  Antioch  suffered  much  by  an  earthquake,
and  about  1600  persons  were  killed,  3  April,  1872.

The  Cesarean  Era  of  Antioch,  48  B.C.,  is  much

used  by  the  early  Christian  writers  of  Antioch  and
Alexandria  ;  it  placed  the  Creation  5492  years  B.C.
31  councils  were  held  at  Antioch,  252-1 161.

ANTI-PAENELLITES,  see  under  Tarnell-
itcs,  1890.

ANTIPHONS,  see  Anthems.

ANTIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first
who  thought  it  possible  that  antipodes  existed
(about  388  B.C.).  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mentz,
legate  of  pope  Zachary,  is  said  to  have  denounced
a  °bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintaining  this  doc-
trine a.d.  741.  The  antipodes  of  England  lie  to  the
south-east  of  New  Zealand,  near  Antipodes  Island.

ANTI-POPES,  rival  popes  elected  at  various
times,  especially  by  the  French  and  Italian  factions,
from  1305  to  1439.  In  the  article  Popes,  the  Anti-
popes  are  printed  in  italics.

ANTIPYELNE,  an  artificial  alkaloid  obtained
from  coal-tar,  discovered  in  1883  by  Knorr,  of
Erlangen,  is  said  to  be  a  remedy  for  sea  sickness  ;
a  substitute  for  quinine  and  a  source  of  aniline
colours.

ANTI-PYKOG-ENE,  or  Fire  Preven-
tive- A.  chemical  preparation  tried  at  Berlin  30
Dec.  1881.  A  company  for  its  use  has  been  formed.
ANTIQITAEIES.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is
said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland,  700  B.C.  The  annual
International  Congress  of  Prehistoric  Archaeology,
originated  at  La  Spezzia  in  1865  ;  meetings  have
been  held  since  at  Paris,  Norwich,  &c.
A  society  was  founded  by  archbishop  Parker,  Camden,

Stow,  and  others  in  1572. Spehnan.
Application  was  made  to  Elizabeth  for  a  charter,  her
death  ensued,  and  her  successor,  James  I.,  was  far
from  favouring  the  design.  ,

The "Antiquaries'  feast," mentioned  by  Ashmole, 2

July,  1659.
The  Society  of  Antiquaries  revived,  1707  ;  received  its
charter  of  incorporation  from  George  II.,  2  Nov.  1751  ;
met  in  Chancery  Lane,  1753  ;  apartments  in  Somerset-
house  (granted  1776 ;)  occupied,  15 Feb.,  1781 ;  removed
to  Burlington  House,  1874  ;  first  meeting  14  Jan.,
1875 Memoirs,  entitled "  Archaeologia,"  first  pub-


lished in  1770  ;  president,  earl  Stanhope,  elected,  1846;
died  24  Dec,  1875  :  succeeded  by  Frederic  Ouvry  ;  by
the  earl  of  Carnarvon,  1878  ;  Mr.  John  Evans,  1885.

British  Archaeological  Association  founded  Dec.  1843.

Archaeological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  formed  by  a
seceding  part  of  the  Association,  1845.  Annual  Meet-
ings held  in  the  Provinces  by  both  bodies.

Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Edinburgh  founded  in  1780.

Since  1845  many  county  archaeological  societies  have
been  formed  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  fourth
congress  of  these  archaeological  societies,  20  July,
1892.

The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  France  (1814)  began  in  1805
as  the  Celtic  Academy.

"  The  Antiquary,"  a  magazine,  began  1880.

British  School  of  Archaeology  (first  director,  F.  C.  Pen-
rose) opened  at  Athens  Nov.  1886.

ANTISANA,  see  Andes.
ANTI-SLAVEEY SOCIETY. See  under
Slave  Trade.
ANTI  -  TEINITAEIANS. Theodotus of

Byzantium,  at  the  close  of  the  2nd  century,  is  sup-
posed to  have  been  the  first  who  advocated  the  sim-
ple humanity  of  Jesus.  See  Avians,  Socinians,
Unitarians.

ANTIITM,  maritime  city  of  Latium,  now  Porto
d'Anzio,  near  Bome,  after  a  long  struggle  for  inde-
pendence, became  a  Boman  colony,  at  the  end  of  the
great  Latin  war,  340-338  b.c.  It  is  mentioned  by
Horace,  and  was  a  favourite  retreat  of  the  emperors
and  wealthy  llomans,  who  erected  many  villas  in
its  vicinity.  The  treasures  deposited  in  the  temple
of  Fortune  here  were  taken  by  Octavius  Caesar  during
his  war  with  Antony,  41  B.C.

ANTIVAEI,  a  seaport  on  the  Adriatic,  ceded
to  Montenegro  by  the  Berlin  treaty^,  13  July,  1878.

ANTONELLI  CASE,  see  Italy,  1877-9.
ANTONINUS'  WALL,  see  Roman  Walls.
ANTWEEP  (French,  Anvers),  the  principal
port  of  Belgium,  is  mentioned  in  history  in  517.  It
was  a  small  republic  in  the  nth  century,  and  was
the  first  commercial  city  in  Europe  till  the  wars  of
the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  Population,  1890,
227,225.

Its  fine  exchange  built 1531

Taken  after  14  months'  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma

17  Aug.  1585
Truce  of  Antwerp  (between  Spain  and  United  Pro-
vinces) for  12  years,  concluded . . 29  Mar.  1609
After  Marlborough's  victory  at  Ramillies,  Antwerp

surrenders  at  once  .... 6  June,  1706

The  Barrier  treaty  concluded  here .  16  Nov.  1715

Taken  by  marshal  Saxe  ....  9  May,  1746
Occupied  by  the  French  .  .  .  1792-3,  1794-1814.
Civil  war  between  the  Belgians  and  the  House  of

Orange: (See  Belgium.) .... 1830-31
The  Belgian  troops,  having  entered  Antwerp,  were
opposed  by  the  Dutch  garrison, who, after a
dreadful  conflict,  being  driven  into  the  citadel,
cannonaded  the  town  with  red-hot  balls 27  Oct.  1830
The  citadel  bombarded  by  the  French,  4  Dec. ; sur-
rendered by  gen.  Chasse  . . .23  Dec.  1832
Exchange  burnt ;  archives,  &c,  destroyed 2  Aug.  1858
A  fine-art  fete  held  . .  17-20  Aug.  1861
Great  Napoleon  wharf  destroyed  by  fire ;  loss  25

lives  and  about  400,000^ 2  Dec. „

Great  fete  at  the  opening  of  the  port  by  the  aboli-
tion of  the  Scheldt  dues . . . 3  Aug. 1863
Fortifications  constructed .... 1860-70
Statue  of  Leopold  I.  uncovered . . 2  Aug.  1868
Tercentenary  of  Rubens'  birth,  celebrated  .  18  Aug.  1877
Plantin-Moretus  Museum,  containing  collections  of
about  300  years,  viz.:  12,000  old  letters,  printing
types, portraits, &c, made by the Plantins
(descendants  of  Charles  de  Tiercelin,  seigneur  de
la  Roche  du  Maine),  who  were  printers  to  the
kings  of  Spain  ;  opened . . about  20  Aug.  1877
International  Exhibition,  opened by  the king  2

May,  1885;  closed 15  Oct.  1885

New  quays  opened  by  the  King . . 26  July, „


ANVAR-I-SUHAILI.


47


APOTHECARY.


Great  explosion  at  M.  Corvilain's  cartridge  factory,
behind  the  docks  in  the  port ;  large  Russian
petroleum  warehouses  take  fire,  causing  great
destruction  of  propeity,  6  Sept.,  the  shipping
only  escaped  by  the  direction  of  the  wind  ;  the
fire  subdued ;  visit  of  the  king,  13  Sept. ;  reported
deaths,  120  ;  injured,  130 . . . 18  Sept.  1889

Trial  of  M.  Corvilaiu  and  his  engineer,  M.  Delauney,
for  homijide,  &c.  ;  M.  Corvilaiu  sentenced  to  si
years'  penal  servitude,  and  his  engineer,  M.
Delauney,  to  ij  years,  at  Brussels,  14 — 27  Nov.
1889,  and .  .... 17  Feb.  1890

ANVAR-I-SUHAILI,  or  the  Lights  of  Cano-
pus,  the  ancient  Persian  version  of  the  ancient
fables  of  Pilpay,  Bidpai,  or  Vishnu  Sarma,  made
by  liusain  Vaiz,  at  the  order  of  Nushirvan,  king  of
Persia.  The  English  translation  by  E.  B.  Eastwick,
published  1854. See  Fables.

ANZIN  COAL  MINES,  near  Valenciennes,
N.France:  first  tapped  24  June,  1734.  The  com-
pany formed  has  become  immensely  rich  :  cabinet
ministers  generally  directors.  Output,  in  1790,
300,000  tons  :  in  1872,  2,200,000  tons.

APATITE,  mineral  phosphate  of  lime.  About
1856  it  hegan  to  be  largely  employed  as  manure.  It
is  abundant  in  Norway,  and  in  Sombrero,  a  small
West  India  Island.

APOCALYPSE  or  Revelation,  written  by

St.  John  in  the  isle  of  Patmos  about  a.d.  95.*

APOCRYPHA.  In  the  preface  to  the  Apo-
crypha it  is  said,  "  These  books  are  neyther  found  in
the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chalde."  Bible,  1539.  The
history  of  the  Apocrypha  ends  135  B.C.  The  books
were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  were  rejected  at  the
council  of  Laodicea  about  a.d.  366,  but  were  re-
ceived as  canonical  by  the  Boman  Catholic  church
at  the  council  of  Trent  on  8  April,  1546.  Parts  of
the  Apocrypha  were  admitted  to  be  read  as  lessons
by  the  church  of  England,  by  the  6th  article,  1563.
Many  of  these  were  excluded  by  the  act  passed  1S71.

1  Esdras .... from  about  b.c.  623-445

2  Esdras ,,  * *

Tobit  „  734-678

Judith „  656

Esther ,,  510

Wisdom  of  Solomon * *

Ecclesiasticus B.C.  300  or  180

Barucli * *

Song  of  the  Three  Children * *

History  of  Susannah * *

Bel  and  the  Dragon . .  . * *

Prayer  of  Manasses b.c. 676

1  Maccabees about  323-135

2  Maccabees from  about  187-161

There  are  also  Apocryphal  writings  in  connection  with

the  New  Testament.

APOLLINARISTS,  followers  of  Apollinaris,
a  reader  in  the  church  of  Laodicea,  who  taught
(366)  that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a
soul  to  him  ;  that  his  flesh  was  pre-existent  to  his
appearance  upon  earth,  and  was  sent  down  from
heaven,  and  conveyed  through  the  Virgin ;  that
there  were  two  sons,  one  born  of  God,  the  other  of
the  Virgin,  &c.  These  opinions  were  condemned
by  the  council  of  Constantinople,  381.

_  *  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Cerinthus,  the  here-
tic, and  others  to  John,  the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In
the  first  centuries  many  churches  disowned  it,  and  in  the
4th  century  it  was  excluded  from  the  sacred  canon  by
the  council  of  Laodicea,  but  was  again  received  by  other
councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  held  in  1545,
et  seq.  Although  the  book  had  been  rejected  by  Luther,
Michaelis,  and  others,  and  its  authority  questioned  in
all  ages,  from  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (who  wrote  his
first  Apology  for  Christians  in  a.d.  139),  yet  its  canonical
authority  is  still  almost  universally  acknowledged.


APOLLO,  the  god  of  the  fine  arts,  medicine,
music,  poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  many  temples
and  statues,  particularly  in  Greece  and  Italy.  See-
Delphi.  The  statue  of  Apollo  Belvedere,  discovered
at  Antium,  in  Italy,  in  1503,  was  purchased  by  pope-
Julius  II.,  who  placed  it  in  the  Vatican.

APOLLONICON,  an  elaborate  musical  in-
strument, constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  organ
(keys  and  barrel),  was  invented  by  Messrs.  Flight
and  Bobson,  of  St.  Martin's  lane,  Westminster,  and
exhibited  by  them  first  in  181 7. Timbs.

APOLOGIES  for  Christianity  were  ad-
dressed by  Justin  Martyr  to  the  emperor  Antoninus-
Pius  about  139,  and  to  the  Boman  senate  about  164.
Other  apologies  were  written  by  Quadratus,  Aris-
tides,  and  other  early  fathers  of  the  Church.

APOSTLES  (Greek,  apostolos,  one  sent  forth).
Twelve  were  appointed  by  Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz.
Simon Peter and  Andrew  (brothers),  James  and)
John  (sons  of  Zebedee),  Philip,  Nathanael  (or  Bar-
tholomew), Matthew  (or  Levi),  Thomas,  James  the
Less  (son  of  Alphams),  Simon  the  Canaanite  and
Jude  or  Thaddeus  (brothers),  and  Judas  Iscariot.
Matthias  was  elected  in  the  room  of  Judas  Iscariot,.
a.d. 33  (Acts  i.)  ;  and Paul  and  Barnabas  were
appointed  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  a.d.  45  (Acts  xiii.  2).
"  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  a  small  velluia
volume  in  Greek,  dated  about  1056,  discovered  by
Philotheos  Bryennios,  metropolitan  of  Nicomedea,  in
the  library  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  monastery  at  Con-
stantinople in  1873  ;  and published  by  him  in  187^.
The  composition  is  ascribed  to  the  first  century. The
text,  with  English  translation  and  introduction,  was
published  by  R.  D.  Hitchcock  and  Francis  Brown  in
1884 ;  improved  edition,  spring,  1885.

APOSTLES'  CREED,  erroneously  attributed
to  the  apostles,  is  mentioned  as  the  Boman  creed  by
Bufinus,  died  about  410.  Irenseus,  bishop  of  Lyons,,
died  202,  gives  a  creed  resembling  it.  Its  repetition
in  public  worship  was  ordained  in  the  Greek  church
at  Antioch,  and  in  the  Boman  church  in  the  nth
century,  whence  it  passed  to  the  church  of  England,.

APOSTOLICAL,  see  Canons  and  Fathers.

APOSTOLICI,  a  sect,  at  the  end  of  the  2nd
century,  which  renounced  marriage,  wine,  flesh,  Ac.
A  second  sect,  founded  by  Sagarelli  about  1261L
wandered  about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beard
dishevelled  hair,  and  bare  heads,  accompanied  by
women  called  spiritual  sisters,  preaching  against
the  growing  corruption  of  the  church  of  Borne,  and
predicting  its  downfall.  They  renounced  baptism,
the  mass,  purgatory,  &c.,  and  by  their  enemies"
were  accused  of  gross  licentiousness.  Sagarelli  was
burnt  alive  at  Parma  in  1300,  and  his  followers-
were  dispersed  in  1307,  and  extirpated  about  1404.

APOTHECARY  (literally,  a  keeper  of  a  store-
house). On  10  Oct.  1345,  Edward  III.  settled  six-
pence per  diem  for  life  on  Coursus  de  Gangelandr
Apothecarius  London',  for  taking  care  of  hini
during  his  severe  illness  in  Scotland.  lit/mer's
Foidera;  see  Pharmacy  and  Medical  Council.
Apothecaries  exempted  from  serving  on  juries  or

other  civil  offices 1713:

London  Apothecaries'  Company  separated  from  the

Grocers'  and  incorporated 1617  ;  hall  built . . 1670
Their  practice  regulated  and  their  authority ex-
tended  over  all  England,  by  the  Apothecaries  act
55  Geo.  III.  c.  19  (1815),  amended  by  6  Geo.  iv!
c.  133,  1825 ;  and  by  37  &  3S  Vict.  c.  34 . .  1874
Botanical  Garden  at  Chelsea  left  by  sir  Hans  Sloane
to  the company,  Jan. 1753, on condition of
their introducing  every  year  fifty  new plants,
until  their  number  should  amount  to  2000 Jan.'  175^
The  Dublin  guild  incorporated .  jiyZ


APOTHEOSIS.


48


AQUACULTUBE.


APOTHEOSIS,  a  ceremony  of  the  ancient
nutions  of  the  world,  by  which  they  raised  their
kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  The  deify-
ing a  deceased  emperor  wa3  begun  at  Rome  by
Augustus,  in  favour  of  Julius  Caesar,  13  B.C.  Tille-
mofit.

APPEAL  or  Assize  of  Battle. By  the

old  law  of  England,  a  man  charged  with  murder
might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make
f>roof  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In  181 7,  a  young
maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have  been
violated  and  murdered  by  Abraham  Thornton,  who,
on  trial,  was  acquitted.  In  an  appeal,  he  claimed
his  right  by  wager  of  battle,  which  the  court
allowed ;  but  the  appellant  (the  brother  of  the
maid)  refused  the  challenge,  and  the  accused  was
discharged,  16  April,  1818.  This  law  was  struck
off  the  statute-book,  by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  46  (1819).
Jn  1631  lord  Rea  impeached  Mr.  David  Ramsey  of
treason  and  offered  battle  in  proof;  a  commission
was  appointed,  but  the  duel  was  prohibited  by  king
James  I.

APPEALS.  In  the  time  of  Alfred  (869-901),
appeals  lay  from  courts  of  justice  to  the  king  in
•council.  Courts  of  appeal  at  the  Exchequer  Chamber,
in  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  superior  and
criminal  courts,  were  regulated  by  statutes  in  1357,
1559,  1830  and  1848.  Appeals  from  English  tribu-
nals to  the  pope  were  first  introduced  about  1151,
were  long  vainly  opposed,  and  were  abolished  by
Henry  VIII.  1534;  restored  by  Mary,  1554;  again
abolished  by  Elizabeth,  1559.  A  proposition  for
establishing  an  imperial  court  of  appeal  submitted
to  the  house  of  lords  by  the  lord  chancellor  Hather-
lej,  15  April ;  was  referred  to  a  select  committee,
30  April,  1872.  A  similar  proposition  by  lord  chan-
cellor Selborne,  13  Feb.  1873.  See  Privy  Council
and  Justices,  Lords.

The  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords  as  a  court  of
appeal  was  abolished  by  the  Judicature  Act,  1873.
The  abolition  was  suspended  in  1875  ;  and  a  provi-
sional court  established,  which  first  sat  8  Nov.  1875  :
present,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  Lord  Coleridge,  Baron
Bramwell,  and  Justice  Brett.
The  House  of  Lords  was  reconstructed  as  a  court  of
final  appeal  by  the  Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act  intro-
duced by  Lord  Cairns,  11  Feb.,  and  passed  11  Aug.
1876  ;  amended,  1887.  Two  Lords  of  Appeal  were  to
be  appointed  ;  to  be  peers  for  life.  Appeals  may  be
lieard  during  prorogation  or  dissolution  of  Parliament.
Present  lords:  lord  Watson,  1880,  lord  Macnaughten,
1887,  lord  Morris,  1883,  sir  James  Hannen,  lord
Hannen,  Jan.  1891.
The  new  Supreme  Court  of Appeal  first  sat  21  Nov.

1876.
A  criminal  appeal  bill  introduced ;  withdrawn  21  Aug.

1883.

APPELLATE  JUBISDICTION,  see  under

Appeals.

APPENZELL,  a  Swiss  canton,  threw  off  the
supremacy  of  the  abbots  of  St.  Gall  early  in  the  15th
century,  and  became  the  thirteenth  member  of  the
Swiss  confederation,  1513.

APPIAN  WAY,  a  Roman  road  to  Capua,
made  by  Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  while  censor,  312-
308  B.C.

APPLES.  Several  kinds  are  indigenous  to
England ;  but  those  in  general  use  have  been
brought  at  various  times  from  the  continent.
Richard  Harris,  fruiterer  to  Henry  VIII,,  is  said  to
have  planted  a  great  number  of  the  orchards  in
Kent,  and  lord  Soudamore,  ambassador  to  Fi-ance  in
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  planted  many  of  those  in
Herefordshire.  Ray  reckons  78  varieties  of  apples
in  his  day  (1688) . In  1866  there  were  1500  varieties


in  the  collection  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,
many  not  worth  cultivation.  Grand  Apple  congress
at  Chiswick,  5-25  Oct.  1883.

APPOBTIONMENT  ACT  (for  rents)  passed
I  Aug.  1870.

APPBAISEBS.  The  valuation  of  goods  for
another  was  an  early  business  in  England ;  and  so
early  as  1283,  by  the  statute  of  merchants,  or  of
Acton  Burnel,  ' '  it  was  enacted  that  if  they  valued
the  goods  of  parties  too  high,  the  appraisers  should
take  them  at  such  price  as  they  have  limited."  In
1845  their  annual  licence  was  raised  from  10s.  to  40s.

APPBENTICES.  Those  of  London  were
obliged  to  wear  blue  cloaks  in  summer,  and  blue
gowns  in  winter,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,
1558.  Ten  pounds  was  then  a  great  apprentice  fee.
From  twenty  to  one  hundred  pounds  were  given  in
the  reign  of  James  I.  Stow' s  Survey.  The  appren-
tice tax  enacted  43  Geo.  III.  1802.  The  term  of
seven  years,  not  to  expire  till  the  apprentice  was
24  years  old,  required  by  the  statute  of  Elizabeth
(1563),  was  abolished  in  1814.  An  act  for  the  pro-
tection of  apprentices,  &c,  was  passed  in  1851.  The
apprentices  of  London  have  been  at  times  very  riot-
ous ;  they  rose  into  insurrection  against  foreigners
on  Evil  May-day  (ivhich  see)  1  May,  1517.

Exhibition  of  apprentices'  work  at  the  People's  Palace
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales  10  Dec.  1887.

APPBOPBIATION  CLAUSE,  of  the  Irish
Tithe  Bill  of  1835,  brought  forward  by  lord  John
Russell,  whereby  any  surplus  revenue  that  might
accrue  by  the  working  of  the  act  was  to  be  appro-
priated for  the  education  of  all  classes  of  the  people.
The  principle  was  adopted  by  the  commons,  but
rejected  by  the  lords  in  1835  and  1836,  and  was
abandoned.

APPBOPBIATIONS  (property  taken  from
the  church),  began  in  the  time  of  William  I.  The
parochial  clergy,  then  commonly  Saxons,  were  im-
poverished by  the  bishops  and  higher  clergy  (gene  -
rally  Normans)  to  enrich  the  monasteries  possessed
by  the  conqueror's  friends.  Where  the  tithes  were
so  appropriated,  the  vicar  had  only  such  a  compe-
tency as  the  bishop  or  superior  thought  fit  to  allow.
Pope  Alexander  IV.  complained  of  this  as  the  bane
of  religion,  the  destruction  of  the  church,  and  a
poison  that  had  infected  the  whole  nation.  Lay
appropriations  began  after  the  dissolution  of  the
monasteries,  1536.

APBICOT  (prceco.v,  early  ripe),  Primus  Arme-
niaca,  from  Asia  Minor,  said  to  have  been  first
planted  in  England  about  1540,  by  the  gardener  of
Henry  VIII.

APBIL,  the  fourth  month  of  our  year,  the
second  of  the  ancient  Romans.

APTEBYX  (wingless),  a  bird,  a  native  of  New
Zealand,  first  brought  to  this  country  in  1813,  and
deposited  in  the  collection  of  the  earl  of  Derby.
Fossil  specimens  of  a  gigantic  species  of  this  bird
(named  Dinornis)  were  discovered  in  New  Zealand
by  Mr.  Walter  Mantell  in  1843  and  since,  and
much  studied  and  many  papers  written  on  it  by
Professor  Owen.

APULIA,  a  province  in  S.E.  Italy.  The  people
favoured  Hannibal,  and  were  severely  punished  by
the  Romans  at  his  retreat,  207  B.C.  Apulia  was  con-
quered by  the  Normans,  whose  leader  Guiscard  re-
ceived the  title  of  duke  of  Apulia  from  pope  Nicho-
las II.  in  1059.  After  many  changes  of  masters,  it
was  absorbed  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1265.

AQUACULTUBE,  see  undar  Fisheries.


AQUARII.


49


AEABICI.


AQUARII,  a  sect  said  to  have  been  founded  by
Tatian  in  the  2nd  century,  who  forebore  the  use  of
wine  even  in  the  sacrament;  during  persecution
they  met  secretly  at  night.  For  this  they  were
censured  by  C3rprian  (martyred,  258) .

AQUARIUM  or  Aqua  vivarium,  a  vessel

containing  water  (marine  or  fresh)  in  which  animals
and  plants  may  co-exist,  mutually  supporting  each
other ;  snails  being  introduced  as  scavengers.  In
1849,  Mr.  N.  B.  Ward  succeeded  in  growing  sea-
weeds in '  artificial  sea- water;  in  1850,  Mr.  R.
Warington  demonstrated  the  conditions  necessary
for  the  growth  of  animals  and  plants  in  jars  of
water;  and  in  1853  the  glass  tanks  in  the  Zoological
Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  were  set  up  by  Mr.  D.
Mitchell.  In  1854,  Mr.  Gosse  published  "The
Aquarium."  Mr.  W.  Alford  Lloyd,  late  of  Portland-
road,  London,  who  by  his  enterprise  in  collecting
specimens  did  much  to  increase  the  value  and  inter-
est of  aquaria,  has  been  much  employed  in  erecting
aquaria.  The  great  aquarium  (50  yards  long  and
12  wide)  at  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  at  Paris,
was  constructed  under  his  direction  in  i860.  He
also  constructed  the  aquarium  at  Hamburg  and
others.  That  at  Brighton  was  inaugurated  by  prince
Arthur,  30  March,  and  publicly  opened  by  the
mayor,  10  Aug.  1872.  That  at  the  Crystal  Palace
was  opened,  Jan.  1872.

The  Royal  A^uaricm  and  Summer  and  Winter  Garden
Society  w  is  established  1874;  the  building  at  Westmin-
ster, planned  by  Mr.  Wybrow  Robertson  and  Mr.  A.
Bedborough,  was  opened  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,
22  Jan.  1876.
A  woman  surnamed  "Zaze.l"  permitted  herself  to  be
safely  shot  from  a  cannon  (by  a  spring  or  other  me-
chanical contrivance) ;  summer  of  1877,  et  seq.
Living  whales  shown  here  soon  died  ;  see  Whale  ;  Sept.,

1877  ;  June,  1878.
The  Imperial  theatre  added,  1879.

The  site  of  the  Aquarium  to  be  sold  for  building  pur-
poses, July,  1888.

AQUATINT,  see  Engraving.

AQUEDUCT,  an  artificial  watercourse.  Appius
Claudius  Csecus,  while  censor,  advised  and  con-
structed the  first  Roman  aqueduct,  as  well  as  the
Appian  way,  about  312-308  B.C.*  There  are  now
some  remarkable  aqueducts  in  Europe :  thatat  Lisbon
is  of  great  extent  and  beauty ;  that  at  Segovia  has
129  arches;  and  that  at  Versailles  is  three  miles
long,  and  of  immense  height,  with  242  arches  in
three  stories.  The  stupendous  aqueuuct  on  the
Ellesmere  canal,  in  England  (1007  feet  in  length,
and  126  feet  high)  was  completed  by  T.  Telford,
and  opened  26  Dec.  1805.  The  Lisbon  aqueduct
was  completed  in  1738,  and  the  Croton  aqueduct,
near  New  York,  was  constructed  between  1837  and
1842.  The  aqueduct  to  supply  Marseilles  with
water  was  commenced  in  1830.  An  aqueduct  to
supply  London  with  water  from  the  Welsh  lakes
was  proposed  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Bateman  in  1865.

AQUIDABAN,  Paraguay.  Here  the  war
with  Brazil  was  ended  with  the  defeat  and  death  of
president  Lopez,  1  March,  1870.

AQUILA,  S.  Italy.  Near  here  the  Arragonese
under  the  condottiere  Braccio  Forte-Braccio  were
defeated  by  the  allied  Papal,  Neapolitan,  and
Milanese  army  under  Jacob  Caldora,  2  June,  1424.
Braccio,  a  wounded  prisoner,  refused  to  take  food,
and  died,  5  June.

AQUILEIA  (Istria),  made  a  Roman  colony
about  180  b.  c.  and  fortified  a.  d.  168. Constantine

*  Remains  of  these  and  other  noble  acuieducts,  con-
structed by  emperors,  still  remain,  and  some  supply
water  to  the  city.


II.  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  Constans,  fought  at
Aquileia  towards  the  close  of  March,  340.  Maximus
defeated  and  slain  by  Theodosius,  near  Aquileia,  28
July,  388.  Theodosiu-s  defeated  Eugenius  and
Arbogastes,  the  Gaul,  near  Aquileia,  and  remained
sole  emperor,  6  Sept.  394.  Eugenius  was  put  to
death,  and  Arbogastes  died  by  his  own  hand,  mor-
tified by  his  overthrow.  St.  Ambrose  held  a  synod
here  in  381.  In  452  Aquileia  was  almost  totally
destroyed  by  Attila  the  Hun,  and  near  it  in  489
Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths  totally  defeated
Odoacer,  the  king  of  Italy.  Aquileia  was  an  early
patriarchal  see.

AQU1TAINE,  the  Roman  province  Aquitania
(S.  W.  Fiance),  conquered  by  the  Romans  28  B.C.;
by  the  Visigoths,  a.d.  418 ;  taken  from  them  by
Clovis  in  507.  Henry  II.  of  England  obtained  it
with  his  wife  Eleanor,  1 152.  It  was  erected  into  a
principality  for  Edward  the  Black  Prince  in  1362;
but  was  annexed  to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of
duke  of  Aquitaine  was  taken  by  the  crown  of
England  on  the  conquest  of  this  duchy  by  Henry  V.
in  1418.  The  province  was  lost  in  the  reign  of
Henry  VI.

ARABIA  (W.Asia).  The  terms  Petrcea  (stony),
Felix  (happy),  and  Desert  a  are  said  to  have  been
applied  to  its  divisions  by  Ptolemy,  about  A.  D.  140.
The  Arabs  claim  descent  from  Ishmael,  the  eldest
son  of  Abraham,  born  1910  B.C.  Gen.  xvi.  Arabia
was  unsuccessfully  invaded  by  Gallus,  the  Roman
governor  of  Egypt,  24  B.C.  The  Abyssians  con-
quered part  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  retained  it  76
years.  In  a.d.  622,  the  Arabians  under  the  name
of  Saracens,  followers  of  Mahomet  (born  at  Mecca,
570),  their  general  and  prophet,  commenced  their
course  of  conquest ;  see  Mahometanism.  Arabia
was  conquered  by  the  Ottomans  1518-39.  The
Arabs  greatly  favoured  literature  and  the  sciences,
especially  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  chemistry.
The  Koran  was  written  in  Arabic  (622-632).  The
Bible  was  printed  in  Arabic  in  167 1.  SeelFahabees.

The  aggression  of  the  Turks  on  the  South  Arabs
excited  jealousy  in  England,  and  was  checked  by
the  sultan Nov.  1873

Insurrection  in  Yemen  or  Arabia  Felix  ;  5  Jan. —

7  Feb.  1882

Egyptian  commission  for  preservation  of  Arab
monuments  appointed .... Jan. ,.

Revolts  in  Yemen,  announced . . 17  Mar.  1833

Conflicts  reported Sept.  1884

Several  revolts  against  the  Turkish  government
suppressed June— Oct.  i3qi

Rebellion  headed  by  Iman  Ahmed  Eddin,  reported,
11  Jan.;  reinforcements  sent,  successful,

May — July,  1892

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAIN-
MENTS (or  IOOI  Tales)  were  translated  into
French  by  Galland,  and  published  in  1704;  but
their  authenticity  was  not  acknowledged  till  many-
years  after.  The  best  English  translation  from  the
Arabic  is  that  of  Mr.  E.  W.  Lane,  published  in
1839,  with  valuable  notes  and  beautiful  illustra-
tions. Sir  Richard  F.  Burton's  elaborate  transla-
tion in  10  vols,  was  printed  at  Benares  for  sub-
scribers 1885-7.  Lady  Buiton's  expurgated  edition
was  published  in  1887  et  seq.  He  died,  aged  69,  20
Oct.  1890.

ARABIC  FIGURES  (i,  2,  3,  &c),  see  Arith-
metic. Arabic  Newspaper,  "  Mar-Atu-l-
Ahw&P'  ("  Mirror  of  Passing  Events"),  published
in  London  end  of  1876.

ARABICI,  a  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Arabia,
about  207,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the
soul  dies  with  the  body,  and  will  rise  again  with  it ,


ARAGON.


50


AECH.


ARAGON,  part  of  the  Roman  Tarraconensis,  a
kingdom,  N.E.  Spain,  was  conquered  by  the  Car-
thaginians, who  were  expelled  by  the  Romans  about
200  B.C.  It  became  an  independent  monarchy  in
A.D.  1035  ;  see  Spain.

ARAM.  Aramsea,  from  the  Hebrew  Aram
(signifying  "high  land"  as  distinguished  from
Canaan,  "low  land"),  a  name  given  to  all  the
country  N.  E.  of  Palestine  ;  which  included  Syria,
Babylonia  and  Mesopotamia.  The  people  used  two
dialects,  in  the  west  Syriac,  in  the  east  Aramaic
(improperly  termed  Chaldee),  called  Hebrew  at  the
time  of  Christ.

ARANJUEZ  (Central  Spain),  contains  a  fine
royal  palace,  at  which  several  important  treaties
were  concluded.  On  17  March,  1808,  an  insurrec-
tion broke  out  here  against  Charles  IV.  and  his
favourite,  Godo}r,  the  prince  of  the  peace,  who  re-
ceived that  title  for  concluding  the  treaty  of  Basle.
The  former  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favour  of
his  son,  Ferdinand  VII.,  19  March.

ARARAT,  a  mountain  in  Armenia  (about
17,112  feet  above  the  sea-level),  on  which  Noah's
ark  is  supposed  to  have  rested,  B.C.  2348,  now
termed  by  the  Persians,  Koh-i-Nuh  (Noah's  moun-
tain) ;  by  the  Armenians,  Masis ;  by  the  Turks,
Agri-Dagh.

It  was  ascended  by  Dr.  Parrot,  27  Sept.,  1829  ;  by  Major
Stuart,  1856,  and  by  others  since.  Mr.  James  Bryce,
who  ascended  11,  12  Sept.,  1876,  described  the  summit
as  a  little  plain  of  snow,  silent  and  desolate,  with  a
bright,  green  sky  above ;  the  view  stern,  green,  and
monotonous.  Ascended  by  professor  Mackoff  and  M.
Popoff,  Russians,  Aug.  1888.

ARAUCANIA,  a  province  in  S.  America.  Its
inhabitants  maintained  almost  unceasing  war  with
the  Spaniards  from  1537  to  1773,  when  their  inde-
pendence was  recognised.  They  are  now  nominally
subject  to  Chili.

ABAUSIO  (now  Orange),  S.  E.  France.
Through  the  jealousy  of  the  Roman  proconsul
Q.  Servilius  Caspio,  who  would  not  wait  for  the
arrival  of  the  army  of  the  consul  C.  Manlius,  both
were  defeated  here  by  the  Cimbri  with  much
■slaughter,  105  B.  c.

ARBELA.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  be-
tween Alexander  the  Great  and  Darius  Codomanus
decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  1  Oct.  331  B.C.,  on  a
plain  in  Assyria,  between  Arbela  and  Gaugamela.
The  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1,000,000  foot  and
40,000  horse ;  the  Macedonian  army  amounted  to
only  40,000  foot  and  7000  horse.  Arrian.  The  gold
and  silver  found  in  the  cities  of  Susa,  Persepolis,
and  Babylon,  which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this
victory,  amounted  to  thirty  millions  sterling  ;  and
the  jewels  and  other  precious  spoil,  belonging  to
Darius,  sufficed  to  load  20,000  mules  and  5000
camels. Plutarch.

ARBITRATION.  Submission  to  arbitration
was  authorised  and  made  equivalent  in  force  to  the
decision  of  a  jury,  by  9  &  10  "Will.  III.  (1698).
Further  enforced  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  42  (1833) ;
see  Ouzel  Galley.  The  Common  Law  Procedure  Act
(1854)  authorises  the  judges  of  superior  courts  to
order  compulsory  arbitration ;  and,  by  an  act  passed
in  1859,  railway  companies  may  settle  disputes  with
each  other  by  arbitration.  The  Arbitration  (Masters
and  Workmen)  Act  was  passed  6  Aug.  1872.  See
Pncd' homines.

For  Arbitration  between  Nations,  see  under
Peace.


Codification  of  the  Arbitration  Acts  was  effected  by  the

Arbitration  Act  passed  26  Aug.  1889.
Address  in  favour  of  arbitration  presented  by  eminent

British  M.P.s  and  politicians  at  Washington,  U.S.,

1887.

ARBUTUS.  The  Arbutus  Andrachne,  oriental
strawberry-tree,  was  brought  to  England  from  the
Levant  about  1724.

ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE,  Paris,  begun  in
1806  in  honour  of  the  Grande  Armee,  continued  in
1823,  and  completed  in  1836".  The  list  of  battles,
&c.  (158),  begins  with  Volmy,  20  Sept.  1792,  and
the  last  Ligny,  16  June,  18 15.  The  Arc  de  Tri-
omphe  is  165  feet  high,  150  feet  broad  and  75  feet
thick.

ARCADES,  or  walks  arched  over.  The  princi-
pal in  London  are  the  Burlington-arcade,  opened
20  March,  1819 ;  the  Lowther-arcade,  Strand,
opened  1831;  between  Old  Bond- street  and  Albe-
marle-street,  opened  May,  1880;  see  Strand,  and
Exeter  Change.  The  Royal-arcade,  Dublin,  opened
June,  1820,  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  25  April,  1837.
The  Great  Western-arcade,  Birmingham,  opened
28  Sept.  1876.

ARCADIA,  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus,
Greece,  named  after  Areas,  a  king. The  Arcadians
regarded  their  nation  as  the  most  ancient  of  Greece.
The  early  history  of  Arcadia  is  fabulous.
Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Arcadia,  a  i>astoral  romance,  was

published  in  1590,  the  8th  edition  in  1633.
Magna Greecia, in S. Italy, said to have  been

colonised  by  Arcadians under  (Enotrus, about

1710  B.C.  ;  and  under  Evander  .  .  .  B.C.  1240
Areas  taught  his  subjects  agriculture  and  to  spin

wool 1514

Lycaean  games  instituted,  in  honour  of  Pan . . 1320
Agapenor  appears  at  the  head  of  the  Arcadians  at

the  siege  of  Troy  (H omer) 11 94

The  Lacedaemonians  invade  Arcadia,  and  are  beaten

by  the  women  of  the  country  in  the  absence  of

their  husbands  (?) 1102

Aristocrates  I.  (of  Orchomenus)  put  to  death  for

offering  violence  to  the  priestess  of  Diana  .  .  715
Aristocrates  II.  stoned  ;  a  republic  founded  .  .  681
Supremacy  of  Sparta  (acknowledged  560)  abolished

by  the  Thebans  ;  Megalopolis  founded  by  Epami-

nondas 371

The  Arcadians  make  alliance  with  Athens,  and  are

defeated  by  Archidamus 367

Arcadia,  having  joined  the  Achaean  league,  on  its

suppression  is  annexed  by  Rome . . . .146

ARCADIANS,  an  ultra-conservative  French
political  club,  composed  of  a  section  of  the  majority
in  the  chambers,  and  opposed  to  liberal  measures,
even  when  emanating  from  the  emperor  (such  as
the  new  press  law).  It  derived  its  name  from  Rue
de  1' Arcade,  where  its  meetings  were  held:  Feb.
1868.

ARCH.  It  appears  in  early  Egyptian  and  As-
syrian architecture.  The  oldest  arch  in  Europe  is
probably  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  at  Rome,  con-
structed under  the  early  kings,  about  588  B.C.
The  Chinese  bridges,  which  are  very  ancient,  are  of
great  magnitude,  and  are  built  with  stone  arches
similar  to  those  that  have  been  considered  a  Roman
invention.* — The  Triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans
formed  a  leading  feature  in  their  architecture.  The
arch  of  Titus  (a.d.  80),  that  of  Trajan  (114),  and
that  of  Constan tine  (312),  were  magnificent. The

*  The  bridge  of  Chester,  whose  span  is  200  feet,  was
commenced  in  1829.  The  central  arch  of  London  Bridge
is  152  feet ;  and  the  three  cast  iron  arches  of  Southwark
Bridge,  which  rest  on  massive  stone  piers  and  abutments
are,  the  two  side  ones  210  feet  each,  and  the  centre  240
feet :  thus  the  centre  arch  exceeds  the  admired
bridge  of  Sunderland  by  four  feet  in  the  span,  and  the
long-famed  Rialto  at  Venice,  by  167  feet ;  see  Bridges.


ARCHEOLOGY.


51


ARCHITECTURE.


arches  in  our  parks  in  London  were  erected  about
1828.  The  Marble  Arch,  which  formerly  stood  be-
fore Buckingham  Palace  (whence  it  was  removed
to  Cumberland-gate,  Hyde  Park,  in  1851)  was
modelled  from  the  arch  of  Constantine ;  see  Hyde
Park.

ARCHAEOLOGY,  the  science  of  antiquities  ;
see  Antiquaries.

ARCHEOPTERYX  (ancient  bird) ;  the
name  given  to  the  earliest  known  remains  of  a  bird,
found  in  the  lithographic  slate  of  Solenhofen,  by
Herman  von  Meyer  and  Dr.  Habeiiein  in  1861.  Its
structure  approximated  more  to  that  of  a  reptile
than  that  of  modern  birds  does.  It  was  described
by  Owen  in  1863.

ARCHANGEL  (N.  Russia),  a  city,  is  thus
named  from  a  monastery  founded  here,  and  dedi-
cated to  St.  Michael  in  1584.  The  passage  to  Arch-
angel was  discovered  by  the  English  navigator
llichard  Chancellor  in  1553,  and  it  was  the  only
seaport  of  Russia  till  the  formation  of  the  docks  at
Cronstadt,  and  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1703.
The  dreadful  fire  here,  by  which  the  cathedral  and
upwards  of  3000  houses  were  destroyed,  occurred
in  June,  1793.  Population  of  the  province,  1886,
328,819.

ARCHBISHOP  (Greek  archiepiscopos),  a  title
given  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  to  the  bishops
of  chief  cities,  such  as  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,
and  Constantinople,  who  presided  over  the  other
metropolitans  and  bishops  in  the  districts  attached
to  those  places.  The  word  is  first  found  in  the
Apology  against  the  Arians  by  Athanasius,  who
died  373.  Four  archbishops  of  the  Eastern  church
•are  styled  patriarchs. Riddle.

Before  the  Saxons  came  to  England,  there  were  three

archbishops  :  London,  York,  and  Caerleon-upon-Usk  ;

but  soon  after  St.  Augustin  settled  the  metropolitan

see  at  Canterbury,  602  ;  see  Canterbury.

York  continued  archiepiscopal ;  but  London  and  Caerleon

lost  the  dignity  ;  see  St.  David's.
The  bishopries  in  Scotland  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of
the  archbishop  of  York  until  the  erection  of  the  archi-
episcopal sees  of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow  in  1470  and
1491  ;  these  last  were  discontinued  at  the  Revolution  ;
see  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrew's.
The  bishop  of Brechin  was  chosen  Primus, 1886,  the
title being conferred on one of the bishops by
election.
The  rank  of  archbishop  was  early  in  Ireland  ;  see  Ferns.
Four  archbishops were  constituted, Armagh, Cashel,
Dublin, and Tuani ;  (until  then  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury  had  jurisdiction  over  the  Irish  as  well  as
English  bishops,  in  like  manner  as  the  archbishop  of
York  had  jurisdiction  over  those  of  Scotland),  1151.
Of  these  four archbishoprics two were reduced  to
bishoprics  (Cashel and  Tuam)  conformably  with  the
stat.  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  by  which  also  the  number  of  sees  in
Ireland  was  to  be  reduced  from  twenty-two  to  twelve
(see  Bishops,  Cashel,  Tuam;  Pallium,  he),  1833.

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN.  The  elector  of
Brandenburg  was  appointed  the  hereditary  arch-
chamberlain  of  the  German  empire  by  the  golden
bull  of  Charles  IV.  in  1356,  and  in  that  quality  he
bore  the  sceptre  before  the  emperor.

ARCH-CHANCELLORS  were  appointed
under  the  two  first  races  of  the  kings  of  France
(418-986),  and  when  then-  territories  were  divided,
the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  Treves  be-
came arch- chancellors  of  Germany,  Italy,  and
Aries.

ARCHDEACON,  a  name  early  given  to  the
first  or  eldest  deacon,  who  attended  on  the  bishop
without  any  power  ;  but  since  the  council  of  Nice,
his  function  has  become  a  dignity  above  a  priest.


The  appointment  in  these  countries  is  referred  to
the  eighth  century.  There  are  seventy-five  arch-
deacons in  England  (1878).  The  archdeacon's
court  is  the  lowest  in  ecclesiastical  polity ;  an
appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  consistorial  court,  by
24.  Henry  VIII.  (1532).

ARCHERY  is  ascribed  to  Apollo,  who  com-
municated it  to  the  Cretans.

Ishmael  "became  an  archer"  (Gen.  xxi.  20),  B.C.  1892
The  Philistine  archers  overcame  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  3).  1056
David  commanded  the  use  of  the  bow  to  be  taught

(2  Sam.  i.  18) 1055

Archery  introduced  into  England previous  to  a.d.  440
Harold  and  his  two  brothers  were  killed  by  arrows
shot  from  the  cross-bows  of  the  Norman  soldiers

at  the  battle  of  Hastings 1066

Richard  I.  revived  archery  in  England  in  1190,  and

was  himself  killed  by  an  arrow  . . .  1199

The  victories  of  Crecy  (1346),  Poictiers  (1356),  and

Agincourt  (1415),  were  won  chiefly  by  archers
Four  thousand  archers  of  the  king  surrounded  the
houses  of  Parliament  ready  to  shoot ;  pacified  by
the  king,  21  Richard  II. (Stow.) .... 1397
The  citizens  of  London  formed  into  companies  of
archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  ;  and  into  a
corporate  body  by  the  style  of  "  The  Fraternity  of
St.  George."  29  Henry  VIII. .  ...  1538

Roger  Ascham's  "  Toxophilus,  the  School  of  Shooting,"

published 1571

Scorton  Annual  Arrow  Meetings — a  silver  arrow

shot  for ;  articles  agreed  to . . -14  May,  1673
Royal  company  of  archers,  instituted  by  the  mar-
quis of  Athol,  as  the  king's  body  guard  for  Scot-
land 1676

The  long  bow  was  six  feet  long,  and  the  arrow  three
feet ;  the  usual  range  from  300  to  500  yards.
Robin  Hood  is  said  to  have  shot  from  600  to  800
yards.  The  cross-bow  was  fixed  to  a  stock,  and
discharged  with  a  trigger.
See  Artillery  Company,  Toxophilites,  &c.

ARCHES,  COURT  OF,  the  most  ancient  con-
sistory court,  chiefly  a  court  of  appeal  from  inferior
jurisdictions  within  the  province  of  Canterbury  ;  it
derives  its  name  from  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le-
Bow  (Sancta  Maria  de  Arcabus),  London,  where  it
was  formerly  held,  and  whose  top  is  raised  on  stone
pillars-  built  archwise.  Cowell.  Appeals  from  this
court  lie  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy
council,  by  statute,  1832.  The  Dean  and  Official
Principal,  Dr.  Stephen  Lushington,  (appointed  in
1828)  resigned  1  July,  1867 ;  succeeded  by  sir
Robert  J.  Phillimore,  who  resigned,  1875.  Lord
Penzance  succeeded  him.

ARCHIEPISCOPAL  COURT,  see  under
Canterbury .

ARCHITECTURE  (from  the  Greek  archi-
tehtdn,  chief  artificer).  The  five  great  orders  are,
— the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  (Greek) ; — the
Tuscan  and  Composite  (Roman).  Gothic  began  to
prevail  in  the  9th  century.  See  the  Orders  and
Gothic.

The  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  begun . . about  B.C.  1500
Solomon's  Temple,  begun  ....  .  1004

Birs  Nimroud,  in  Assyria ... - about  900

The  Doric  order  begins about  650

Doric  Temple  at  jEgina 550

Temple  of  Jupiter  and  Cloaca  Maxima,  at  Rome

founded 616

Babylon  built 600

The  Ionic  order  begins .... about  500-420

The  Corinthian  order  begins 335

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  .  .  .  .  335
Architecture  flourishes  at  Athens . . . 480-320

Erechtheum  at  Athens 450-420

The  Parthenon  finished 438

The  Pantheon,  &e. ,  built  at  Rome . . a.d. 13

The  Colosseum  (or  Coliseum) 70

Hadrian  builds  temples  at  Rome,  &c 117

Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalatro 284

Basilicas  at  Rome 33°"9°°

E  2


ARCHONS-


52 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.


St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  "begun . . a.d. 532
Bock-cut  temples  in  India— Caves  of  Ellora .  500-800

Canterbury  cathedral,  founded 602

Mosque  of  Omar  at  Jerusalem 637

York  Minster  (present  building)  begun . about  11 71

St.  Peter's,  Rome 1450-1626

St.  Paul's,  London 1675-1710

EMINENT  ARCHITECTS.

Bom.  Died,
Vitruvius,  about .  . • . b.c.  27

A.D.

William  of  Wickham .  ...  1324— 1405

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti . . . •  1474 — !564

A.  Palladio 1518— 1580

Inigo  Jones 1572— 1652

Bernini 1598 — l68°

Christopher  Wren 1632— 1723

J.  Vanbrugh . 1670— 1726

James  Gibbs 1674 — I7S4

B.  and  J.  Adam 1728— 1794

Sir  William  Chambers 1726— 1796

Augustus  W.  Pugin 1811 — 1852

Sir  Charles  Barry 1795— 1860

C.  R.  Cockerell 1788— 1863

James  Fergusson 1808 — 1886

Sir  Geo.  Gilbert  Scott  ....  1811— 1878

George  Edmund  Street 1824 — 1881

E.  Barry 1830 — 1881

An  Architectural  Club  was  formed  in  1791.  An  Archi-
tectural Society  existed  in  London  in  1806.  The  Royal
Institute  of  British  Architects  was  founded  in  1834 —
Earl  de  Grey,  president,  1835-61.  The  Architectural
Society,  established  in  1831,  was  united  to  the  Institute
in  1842.  The  Architectural  Association  began  about
1846.  The  Architectural  Museum,  Westminster,  opened,
21  July,  1869.

Mr.  James  Fergusson's  "  History  of  Architecture,"
(the  best)  2nd  ed.,  1874-6.

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at
Athens,  in  memory  of  king  Codrus,  killed  in  battle,
1044  or  1068  B.C.,  the  executive  government  was
vested  in  elective  magistrates  called  archons,  whose
office  continued  for  life.  Medon,  eldest  son  of
Codrus,  was  tbe  first  archon.  The  office  was  limited
to  ten  years,  752  B.C.,  and  to  one  year  683  B.C.

ARCOLA  (Lombardy),  the  site  of  battles  be-
tween the  French  under  Bonaparte,  and  the  Aus-
trians  under  field-marshal  Alvinzi,  fought  14-17
Nov.  1796.  The  Austrians  lost  18,000  men  in
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  four  flags  and
eighteen  guns.  The  French  lost  about  15,000,  and
became  masters  of  Italy.  In  one  contest  Bonaparte,
in  most  imminent  danger,  was  rescued  by  the
impetuosity  of  his  troops.

ARCOT  (East  Indies).  This  city  (founded  1716)
was  taken  by  colonel' Clive,  31  Aug.  1751;  was
retaken,  1758,  but  again  surrendered  to  colone)
Coote,  10  Feb.  1760;  besieged  and  taken  by  Hyder
Ali,  when  the  British  under  colonel  Baillie  suffered
severe  defeat,  31  Oct.  1780.  Arcot  has  been  subject
to  Great  Britain  since  1801  ;  see  India.

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS,  see  North  West
Tassaye,  and  Franklin's  Expedition.  On  the  Ger-
man Arctic  society  applying  to  the  German  govern-
ment, a  committee  of  13  professors  was  appointed,
who  in  their  report  recommended  that  no  more
expeditions  should  be  sent  out ;  but  that  stations
should  be  established  for  scientific  observations:
1876.
London  Central  Arctic Comviittee;  formed  to  promote

another  expedition,  7  July,  1879.

ARDAGH,  an  ancient  bishopric  in  Ireland,
founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who  is  said  to  have  made  his
nephew,  Mell,  the  first  bishop,  454.  This  see,  held
with  Kilmore  since  1742,  was  held  in  commendam
with  Tuam  {which  see).  It  was  united  with  Kilmore
in  1839,  and  with  Elphin  in  1841.


ARDAHAN,  a  town  in  Turkish  Armenia,
ceded  to  Russia  by  the  Berlin  treaty,  13  July,  1878.

ARDFERT  and  AGHADOE,  bishoprics  in
Ireland  long  united ;  the  former  was  called  the
bishopric  of  Kerry ;  Ert  presided  in  the  5th  century;
William  Fuller,  appointed  in  1663,  became  bishop
of  Limerick  in  1667,  since  when  Ardfert  and  Agha-
doe  have  been  united  to  that  prelacy.  Near  the
cathedral  an  anchorite  tower,  120  feet  high,  the
loftiest  and  finest  in  the  kingdom,  suddenly  fell,
1770.

ARDOCH,  see  Grampian.

ARDRES,  see  Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold.

AREIOPAGUS  or  Areopagus,  a  Greek

tribunal,  said  to  have  heard  causes  in  the  dark,
because  the  judges  should  be  blind  to  all  but  facts,
instituted  at  Athens  about  1507  B.C. ;  also  ascribed1
to  Cecrops,  1556.  The  name  is  derived  from  the
Greek  Areios  pagos,  the  hill  of  Mars,  through  the
tradition  that  Mars  was  the  first  who  was  tried
there  for  the  murder  of  Halirrhotius,  who  had
violated  his  daughter  Alcippe.  The  powers  of  this
court  were  enlarged  by  Solon,  about  594  B.C.,  and
diminished  by  Pericles,  461  B.C.  Paul  preached  on
Mars'  hill  a.d.  52.  (Acts  xvii.) See  Press.

AREOMETER  or  ARAEOMETER  (from
Greek  araios,  thin),  an  instrument  for  measuring
the  density  and  specific  gravity  of  fluids.  Baume
described  his  areometer  in  1768.  Others  have  been
made  by  Nicholson  and  Mohr.

AREQUIPA,  Peru,  founded  by  Pizarro,  1539;
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  13  Aug.  1868;
surrendered  to  the  Chilians  26  Oct.  1883.

ARETHUSA,  see  Naval  Battles,  1778,  and
Chichester.

AREZZO,  near  the  ancient  Arretium  or  Areti-
num,  an  Etrurian  city,  which  made  peace  with
Rome  for  30  years,  308  B.C.,  was  besieged  by
theGalli  Senones,  about  283  B.C.,  who  defeated  the
Roman  army  Metellus  sent  to  its  relief — a  disgrace
avenged  signally  by  Dolabella.  Arezzo  was  an
ancient  bishopric  :  the  cathedral  founded  in  1277.
It  is  renowned  as  the  birthplace  of  Maecenas,
Petrarch,  Vasari,  and  other  eminent  men.  Michael
Angelo  was  born  in  the  vicinity.

ARGANDAB,  a  river  in  Afghanistan.  See
Afghanistan,  1880.

ARGAUM,  in  the  Deccan,  India,  where  sir
Arthur  Wellesley,  on  29th  Nov.  1803,  thoroughly
defeated  and  subjugated  the  rajah  of  Berar  and  the
Mahratta  chief  Scindiah.

ARGENTARIA,  Alsace  (now  Colmak,  N.  E.
France),  where  the  Roman  emperor  Gratian  totally
defeated  the  Alemanni,  and  secured  the  peace  of
Gaul,  May,  378.

ARGENTINE  (or  La  Plata)  CONFE-
DERATION, S.  America,  14  provinces  (Buenos
Ayres,  one).  The  city  Buenos  Ayres  is  the
capital.  This  country  was  discovered  by  the
Spaniards  in  1515,  settled  by  them  in  1553,  and
formed  part  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Peru  till  1778,
when  it  became  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  It  joined
the  insurrection  in  181 1,  and  became  independent
in  1816.  It  was  at  war  with  Brazil  from  1826  to
1828,  for  the  possession  of  Uruguay,  which  became
independent  as  Monte- Video  ;  and  at  war  with
France  from  1838-40.  —  Population,  in  1869,
1,877,490;  1887,3,805,000.  See  Buenos  Ayres.
Buenos  Ayres  seceded  in  1853  ;  reunited  .  .  .  1859
An  insurrection  in  San  Juan  in  Nov.  i860 ;  sup-
pressed in  .  Jan.  1862


ARGINUS^!.


53


ARGOS-


J.  Urquiza,  elected  president,  20  Nov.  1853,  was
succeeded  by  Dr.  S.  Derqui . . .8  Feb.

Gen.  Bartholomew  Mitre,  elected  for  six  years,  as-
sumed the  president's  office . . . 12  Oct.

Lopez,  president  of  Paraguay,  declared  war  against
Mitre,  and  invaded  the  Argentine,  territories,
May.  Mitre  declared  war  against  Paraguay,  16
April ;  and  made  alliance  with  Brazil  and  Uru-
guay 4  May,

See  Buenos  Ayres  for  the  disputes  with  that  state,
and  Brazil  for  the  war  with  Paraguay.

€ol.  Dominique  P.  Sarmiento  elected  president  for
six  years 12  Oct.

He  suppresses  the  insurrection  of  Corrientes,  Nov.

Urquiza  murdered 12  April,

Treaty  with  Brazil Jan.,

Defeat  of  Lopez  Jourdan,  rebel,-  announced Dec.

Dr.  N.  A  velianeda  inaugurated  president  (for  6  years)

12  Oct.

Insurrection  of  Mitre  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Sept. -Nov.
suppressed  ;  he  submits ... 2  Dec.

National  bank  stops  ;  suspension  of  specie  pay-
ments by  government . .  .16  May,

End  of  rebellion ;  capture  of  Jourdan  ;  announced

12  Dec.

Disputes  with  Buenos  Ayres  ;  settled June-July,

General  Boca  (opposed  to  supremacy  of  Buenos
Ayres)  nominated  to  become  president  in  October,
opposed  by  Dr.  Tejedor  . . June-July,

General  Roca  becomes  president . . .  Oct.

Tranquillity  restored :  Buenos  Ayres  to  be  definitive
capital  of  the  Republic  .... 7  Dec.

The  Buenos  Ayres  Exhibition,  under  the  patronage
of  the  Government,  opened . . 15  Feb.

Dr.  M.  Juarez  Celman,  President  . . 12  Oct.

Negotiations  for  a  loan  fail ;  a  panic  on  the
Buenos  Ayres  bourse,  7  July  ;  the  president  and
chambers  authorize  the  issue  of  notes  to  the
amount  of  100,000,000  dollars . 8 — 12  July,

Dissensions  in  the  army  ;  arrest  of  officers  ;  trials

about  22  July

Insurrection  in  Buenos  Ayres,  instigated  by  the
Union  Civiea,  headed  by  sen.  Aleru,  Romero,  and
Del  Valle,  against  president  Celman  and  his
ministry,  charged  with  corruption  ;  a  provisional
government  proclaimed ;  the  insurgents  supported
~by  troops  and  artillery  and  many  civilians  ;  the
government  supported  by  infantry,  armed  police
and  part  of  t.ie  navy  ;  the  city  bombarded  ;  severe
fighting  in  the  streets ... 26  July,

The  president  retires,  leaving  Dr.  Pellegrini,  vice-
president,  in  command  ;  brief  armistice  ;  fighting
resumed  ;  the  government  troops  under  gen.  Roca
victorious  ;  surrender  of  the  insurgents,  general
amnesty  (about  1,000  persons  killed  and  much
property  destroyed) .... 28  July,

Resignation  of  Dr.  Celman  demanded,  he  refuses,
30  July  ;  financial  chaos,  bourse  closed 31  July,

Boastful  manifesto  of  president  Celman,  31  July  ;
he  is  compelled  to  resign,  5  Aug.  ;  succeeded  by
Carlos  Pellegrini,  6  Aug.  ;  new  ministry,  sen.
Lopez,  gen.  Roca,  and  others  ;  business  resumed,
great  rejoicings .... 7 — 11  Aug.

Great  preparations  against  a  dreaded  attempt  at  a
revolution about  6  Oct.

Commission  to  inquire  into  reported  corruptions  in
government  financial  affairs  appointed . Nov.

Financial  crisis  at  Buenos  Ayres,  several  credit
houses  stop  payment ;  successful  intervention  of
the  government 24  Nov.

Re-organization  of  the  finances,  by  a  plan  proposed
by  a  committee  in  London  (lord  Rothschild  and
others) about  4  Dec.

Cordova  city  flooded  by  the  canal  bursting  its  em-
bankments, about  150  persons  drowned,  and
many  houses  destroyed ... 21  Dec.

Excitement  on  account  of  proposed  tax  on  deposits
in  private  banks 15  Jan.

The  officers  implicated  in  the  late  rebellion  exiled

about  19  Feb.

A  state  of  siege  proclaimed  in  Buenos  Ayres  to
check  conspiracies .... 20  Feb.

Riots  at  Cordova  ;  state  of  siege  proclaimed,  about

22  Feb.

Financial  panic,  4  March  ;  business  suspended  by
decree,  6 -11  March;  panic  ended;  a  national
loan  for  100,000,000  dollars  at  6  per  cent.,  well
taken  up  by  the  public  . . 8  March,  et  seq.


i860


:S65


1870
1873


1874


Banks  re-opened 13  March,  1891

Arrival  of  gen.  Mitre,  warmly  received,  18  March  ;
he  joins  gen.  Roca . . . .24  March, ,,

The  National  and  Provincial  Banks  suspend  pay-
ment till  1  June  by  decree . .  7  April, ,,

State  of  siege  at  Buenos  Ayres  raised,  17  April ;
the  congress  opened  by  president  Pellegrini,  with
a  hopeful  message .... 9  May, ,,

Run  on  the  banks  at  Buenos  Ayres,  2  June  ;  panic
abating  through  the  firm  conduct  of  the  British
residents 4  June ,,

The  "Bank  of  the  Argentine  Nation"  created  by
vote  of  the  Senate 12  Aug. ,,

Forced  paper  currency,  premium  on  gold  to  be  150
per  cent,  and  payment  in  gold  suspended  for  two
years,  authorized  by  the  government  to  support
the  national  bank,  30  Sept.  ;  the  scheme  rejected
by  the  senate,  reported ... 14  Oct. ,,

Ministerial  crisis .... 16—23  Oct. ,,

Confidence  in  the  ministry  voted  by  the  senate  and
deputies 20  Oct. ,,

Election  riots  with  loss  of  life  and  state  of  siege  at
Cordova  and  Tucuman,  reported . 27  Oct. ,,

Destructive  tornado  in  Santa  Fe,  10  persons  killed

middle  Nov. ,,

The  Bank  of  the  Argentine  Nation  opened 1  Dec. ,,

Baron  Hirsch  reports  that  the  Jewish  settlements
in  the  republic  are  prospering . . . Jan.  1892

Disturbances  at  Mendoza  ;  assassinations  ;  govern-
ment intervention . . . .22 — 24  Jan. ,,

Elections  for  senate  and  deputies  favour  the  party
of  Mitre  and  Roca . . . about  8  Feb. ,,

Attempt  at  revolution  discovered  ;  a  state  of  siege
proclaimed  ;  the  radical  leaders  arrested ;  military
precautions  adopted . . . 2,  3  April, ,,

Dr.  Luiz Saenz Peila elected president, about

12  June, ,,

State  of  siege  raised 7  July, ,,

The war-vessel, Rosales, founders off Uruguay,

9  July. ..

ARGINUS^E,  isles  between  Lesbos  and
Asia  Minor;  near  these  Conon  and  the  Athenian
fleet  defeated  the  Spartan  admiral  Callicratidas,
406  B.C.

ARGON AUTIC  EXPEDITION,  dated  by
Hales  1225,  by  Clinton  1169,  said  to  have  been
undertaken  by  Jason,  to  avenge  the  death  of  his
kinsman  Phryxus,  and  to  recover  the  treasures  seized
by  his  murderer,  j?£etes,  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship
in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been
adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram,  led  to  the  fiction
that  the  journey  was  to  recover  the  golden  fleece.
This  is  the  first  naval  expedition  on  record.  Many
kings  and  heroes  accompanied  Jason,  whose  ship
was  called  Argo,  from  its  builder.

ARGONAUTS  OF  ST.  NICHOLAS,  mili-
tary knights;  an  order  founded  by  Charles  III.  of
Naples,  1382.

ARGOS,  the  most  ancient  city  of  Greece,  mythi-
cally said  to  have  been  founded  either  by  Inachus
or  his  son,  Phoroneus,  received  its  name  from  Argus,
the  fourth  of  the  Inachidae.  The  early  history  is
fabulous.

Reign  of  Triopas  ;  Polycaon  seizes  part  of  the  king- B.C.
dom  and  calls  it  after  his  wife,  Messenia . .  1552

Gelanor,  last  of  the  Inachidse,  deposed  by  Danaus,
an  Egyptian 1475

Feast  of  the  Flambeaux,  instituted  in  honour  of
Hypermnestra,  who  saved  her  husband,  Lynceus,
son  of  jEgyptus,  on  his  nuptial  night,  while  her
forty-nine  sisters  sacrificed  theirs,  at  the  com-
mand of  their  father,  1  )anaus ....  1425

Lynceus  dethrones  Danaus 1425

The  kingdom  divided  by  the  brothers  Acrisius  and
Projtus 1344  (1313  Clinton.)

Perseus,  grandson  of  Acrisius,  leaves  Argos  and
founds  Mycen*  (which  see) 1313

The  Heraclid*  retake  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Teme-
nus  seizes  Argos ...  ... 1102

Pheidon's  prosperous  rule 770-730

War  with  Sparta  :  combat  of  300  on  each  side  . . 547


ARGITIN.


54


ARKADI.


The  Argives  fine  Sicyon  and  iEgina  for  helping  their  B.C.

enemy,  Cleomenes  of  Sparta 514

Sparta  becomes  superior  to  Argos . . .  495-490

Themistocles  an  exile  at  Argos 471

The  Argives destroy Mycenae and regain their

superiority 468

Peloponnesian war  —  Argos long neutral, joins

Athens 420

The  aristocratical  party  makes  peace  with  Sparta,

and  overthrows  the  democracy  .  .  .  -417
A  reaction — alliance  with  Athens  resumed  .  .  .  395
Pyrrhus  of  Macedon  besieging  Argos,  slain  .  .  272
Argos  governed  by  tyrants  supported  by  Macedon  ;

freed  ;  joins  the  Achfean  league .... 229

Subjugated  by  the  Romans 146

Argos  taken  from  the  Venetians  .  .  .  a.d.  1686
Taken  by  the  Turks  1716,  who  held  it  until  . . 1826

United  to Greece under king  Otho  (see  Greece)

25  Jan.  1833

ARGITIN,  battle  of,  see  Soudan,  2  July,  1889.

ARGYLE  (W.  Scotland),  bishopric  of,  founded
about  1200,  Evaldus  being  the  first  bishop ;  the
diocese,  previously  united  with  Dunkeld,  ended
1688.  Argyle  and  the  Isles  is  a  post-revolution
bishopric,  1847  ;  see  Bishoprics.

ARGYLL  ROOMS,  near  Oxford-street,  Lon-
don, opened  for  musical  and  other  entertainments
early  in  the  19th  century  ;  re-erected  by  Nash,  1818 ;
held  by  the  Philharmonic  Society,  1813-30.  Here
appeared  Spohr,  1820;  "Weber,  3  April,  1826;  and
Mendelssohn,  25  May,  1829.  While  held  by  M.
Chabert,  the  fire-king,  the  building  was  burnt
down,  5, 6  Feb.  1830.  The  new  building  was  even-
tually converted  into  shops.

ARIAN  or  ARYAN  (in  Sanskrit  signifying
noble,  warlike),  a  term  now  frequently  applied  to
the  hypothetical  Indo-Germanic  family  of  nations,
including  the  Greek,  Iloman,  and  Teutonic  races.

ARIANS,  followers  of  Arius  *  of  Alexandria,
■who  preached  against  the  doctrine  of  the
Trinity,  about  315,  and  died  in  336.  The  con-
troversy was  taken  up  by  Constantine,  who  pre-
sided at  the  council  of  Nice,  June  to  Aug.  325,
when  the  Arians  were  condemned  ;  but  their
doctrine  long  prevailed.  It  was  favoured  by
Corjstantiiis  II.  341 ;  and  carried  into  Africa  by
the  Vandals  in  the  5th  century,  and  into  Asia  by
the  Goths.  Servetus  published  his  treatise  against
the  Trinity,  1531,  and  was  burnt,  1553.  Leggatt,  an
Arian,  was  burnt  at  Smithfield  in  1614;  see  Atha-
nasian  Creed,  Socinians,  and  Unitarians.

ARICA,  Peru,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and
inundated  by  waves  of  the  sea,  13  Aug.  1868.

ARIKERA,  near  Seringapatam.  Here  lord
Cornwallis  defeated  Tippoo  Sahib,  15  May,  1791.

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the

most  comprehensive  ever  devised  by  man.  Aristotle
was  born  at  Stageira  (hence  termed  the  Stageirite),
384  B.C. ;  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  from  364  to  347 ;
became  preceptor  of  Alexander,  son  of  Philip  of
Macedon,  in  342  ;  and  died  in  322.  He  divided  the
circle  of  knowledge  into  metaphysics  and  logic,
physics  (including  part  of  the  science  of  mind),  and
ethics.  His  philosophy  was  too  much  exalted  by
the  schoolmen  during  the  middle  ages,  and  too
much  depreciated  after  the  Eeformation.  His  works
on  natural  science  contain  a  vast  collection  of  facts
and  an  extraordinary  mixture  of  sound  and  chi-
merical opinions. To  him  is  attributed  the  asser-

*  Arius  maintained  that  the  Son  of  God  was  a
secondary  God  created  by  the  Father,  who  raised  Him
far  above  all  men,  and  consequently  not  equal  with  the
Father.


tion  that  nature  abhors  a  vacuum,  an  opinion  now

maintained  by  eminent  modern  philosophers.

An  Aristotelian  Society,  for  the  systematic  study  of  phi-
losophy, was  founded  in  the  spring  of  1880 ;  Dr.  Shad-
worth  H.  Hodgson,  president.

M.  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire's  complete  translation  of
Aristotle,  35  vols.,  published  early  in  1891.

A  papyrus  containing  the  lost  treatise  of  Aristotle  011
the  "Constitution  of  Athens,"  discovered  in  Egypt
and  conveyed  to  the  British  Museum,  was  published
by  the  trustees,  with  a  preface  and  notes  by  Mr.  F.  G.
Kenyon,  Jan.  ;  and  photographs  of  the  MS.  were  pub-
lished March,  1891.  The  work  was  hitherto  only  known
by  extracts  in  ancient  writers.  The  MS.  was  considered
genuine  by  M.  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire,  March,  1891.

A  family  tomb,  discovered  at  Eretria,  in  the  island  of
Eubcea,  by  Dr.  Charles  Waldstein,  early  in  1891,  was
considered  by  him  to  be  really  that  of  Aristotle  and
his  family.

ARITHMETIC  is  said  to  have  been  intro-
duced from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales,  about
600  B.C.  The  Chinese  used  the  abacus,  or  swan-
pan,  at  an  early  period.  It  is  asserted  that  the
ancient  Hindus  adopted  a  system  having  ten  as  a
basis.

The  oldest  treatise  upon  arithmetic  is  by  Euclid
(7th,  8th,  and  9th  books  of  his  Elements),  about

B.C. 300
The  sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was  used

a.d. 130
Diophantus,  of  Alexandria,  was  the  author  of  thir-
teen books  of  arithmetical  questions  (of  which  six
are  now  extant) ..... about 156
Notation  by  nine  digits  and  zero  (Arabic  figures),
known  at  least  as  early  as  the  6th  century  in  Hin-
dostan — introduced from thence into Arabia,
about  900 — into  Spain,  about  980 — into  Fiance,
by  Gerbert,  soon  after— into  England,  probably  in
14th  or  15th  century.
The  date  in  Caxton's  Mirrour  of  the  World,  Arabic

characters,  is 1480

Arithmetic  of  decimals  invented .... 1482
John  Sherwood,  bishop  of  Durham's  Lttdus  Arithmo-

MacliincB,  printed  at  Rome „

First  work  printed  in  England  on  arithmetic  (de
Arte Supputdndi) was by  Tonstall, bishop of

Durham 1522

The  theory  of  decimal  fractions  perfected  by  Napier

in  his  Hhabdologia 161 7

Cocker's  Arithmetic  appeared  in ... .  1677
Nystrom's  Tonal  system  with  16  as  a  basis,  pub-
lished 1862

Sawyer's  "Automatic  System,"  piublished  . .  1878

ARITHMOMETER,  see  Calculating  Ma-
chines.

ARIZONA,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,
originally  part  of  New  Mexico,  was  organised  24
Feb.  1863 ; admitted  as  a  state  by  the  house  of
representatives,  6  June,  1892;  capital,  Tucson. It
was  colonised  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  century.
Population,  1880,40,440;  1890,59,620.
By  the  bursting  of  the  great  dams  at  Prescott,  Seymore
and  other  mining  villages  are  destroyed  by  the  great
rush  of  water  and  about  70  persons  are  said  to  have
perished,  22  Feb.  1890.
Yuma  nearly  destroyed  by  floods  ;  about  100  lives  lost,
1,400  homeless,  reported  2  March,  1891.
ARK. Mount  Ararat  {which  see)  is  venerated
from a  belief  of its  being  the place  on which
Noah's  Ark  rested,  after  the  universal  deluge,  234S
B.C. ; see  Gen.  vi.  vii. Some  assert  Apamea,  in
Phrygia,  to  be  the  spot; and  medals  have  been
struck  there  with  a  chest  on  the  waters,  and  the
letters  NOE,  and  two  doves  ;  this  place  is  300  miles
west  of  Ararat. The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  made  by
Moses  to  contain  the  two  tables  of  the  'law,  1491
B.C.  (Exod.  xxv.),  was  placed  in  Solomon's  temple,
1004  B.C.  (1  Kings,  viii.).

ARKADI,  a  Greek  blockade-runner  during  the
Cretan  insurrection,  was  destroyed  by  the  Turldsh


ARKANSAS.


5.5


ARMENIA.


vessel  Izeddin,  off  Crete,  19  Aug.  1867,  after  at  least
22  successful  voyages.

ARKANSAS,  originally  part  of  Louisiana,
ceded  by  Spain  to  France,  1763  ;  and  purchased  by
the  United  States  in  1803,  was  made  a  territory,
1819;  and  a  state,  1836;  seceded  from  the  union
6  May,  1861 ;  re-admitted,  1868.  Several  battles
were  fought  in  this  state  in  1862.  Capital,  Little
Eock. Population,  1890,  1,128,179.

ARKLOW  (in  Wick  low),  where  a  battle  was
fought  between  the  insurgent  Irish,  amounting  to
31,000,  and  a  small  regular  force  of  British,  which
signally  defeated  them,  10  June,  1798.  The  town
was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  insurgents  in  May
previous. — Native  gold  was  discovered  in  Arklow,
in  Sept.  1795. Phil.  Trans,  vol.  86.

ARLBERG,  see  under  Tunnels.

ARLES  (Arelatum,  from  the  Celtic  Ar-lait,
near  the  waters),  S.  France  (said  to  have  been
founded  2000  B.C.),  a  powerful  Roman  city,  was
made  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Provence  by  Boson
in  879  a.d.  ;  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  or  Trans-
jurane  Burgundy  by  Rodolph  II.  in  933.  He  was
succeeded  by  Conrad  I.  937 ;  and  by  Ridolph  III.
993  ;  who  in  1032,  transmitted  his  king-
dom to  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  After  various
changes  it  was  annexed  to  France  in  i486.  Many
councils  (314-1275)  were  held  at  Aries ;  the  most
celebrated  in  314,  when  British  bishops  were
present.

ARMADA,  THE  INVINCIBLE,  collected  and
equipped  by  Philip  II.  king  of  Spain,  for  the  subju-
gation of  England. Morant's historical  account
(accompanying  Pine's  engravings  of  the  tapestries
formerly  in  the  house  of  lords)  was  printed  1739.
It  consisted  of  130  ships  (besides  caravels),  3165
cannon, S050  sailors, 20S8  galley-slaves, 18,973
soldiers, 1382  volunteers  (noblemen,  gentlemen,
and  their  attendants),  and  150  monks,  with  Martin
Alarco,  vicar  of  the  Inquisition, — the  whole  under
the  command  of  the  duke  of  Medina-Sidonia . 1587
The English fleet 80  vessels  under lord Charles
Howard,  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  sir  John  Haw-
kins, ready  for  sea,  and  three  armies  on  land.  Dec. ,,
The  Armada  sailed  from  Lisbon ;  soon  after  dis-
persed by  a  storm  .... 19  May,  158S
Re-collected, entered  the Channel  off  Cornwall,

19  July, ,,
Suffered  in  a  series  of  engagements  (the  sharpest

on  25  July) 21-27  July, „

Dispersed  by  fire-ships  sent  into  the  midst,  28  July,  ,,
Many vessels sunk or taken by the English,

29  July, „
The  remainder  retreat  northward  to  Spain,  suf-
fering much  loss  by  severe  storms,  Aug.  and  Sept. ,,
Computed  Spanish loss — 35 ships  ; 13,000 men.
The queen  attended  a  most  solemn  thanksgiving

at  St.  Paul's 24  Nov. „

An  annual  thanksgiving  sermon  was  endowed  by
Mr.  Chapman,  who  died  1616  ;  it  was  preached  at

St.  Mary-le-Bow 12  Aug.  1877

Tercentenary  at  Plymouth  celebrated  with  exhibi-
tions, &c, 18  July,  1888  ; National  memorial

founded 19  July,  1888

Fund  established  at  the  Mansion  House  .  3  May,  ,,
Relics  exhibited  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  24  Oct.  ,,
"  The  Spanish  Armada,"  a play  at  Drury Lane

Theatre  ;  first  performance  .  .  22  Sept.  „
A  bronze  statue  of  Britannia,  setup  at  Plymouth
Hoe,  as  a  National  Memorial  of  the  defeat  of  the
Armada,  was  unveiled  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh
on  behalf  of  the  queen  .  .  .  21  Oct.  1890
"  The  Spanish  story  of  the  Armada,"  by  Mr.  J.  A.
Froude,  published  ...  ...  1892

ARMAGH,  N.  Ireland,  of  which  it  was  the
metropolis  from  the  5th  to  the  9th  century,  the  seat
of  the  first  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  founded
by  St.  Patrick,  its  first  bishop,  about  444,  and  said
to  have  built  the  first  cathedral,  450. Six  saints  of


the  Roman  calendar  have  been  bishops  of  this  see.
In  the  king's  book,  by  an  extent  taken  15  James  I.,
it  is  valued  at  400/.  sterling  a  year ;  and  until  lately
was  estimated  at  15,000^.  per  annum.  The  see  was
re-constituted  (see  Pallium)  in  1151.  Beatson.
Armagh  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  on  Easter-day,
852,  and  by  O'Neil  in  1564.  See  Railway  accidents,
12  June,  1889.  Population,  1871,  8,946;  1881,
10,070.

ARMAGNACS,  a  political  party  in  France,
followers  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  murdered  by  the
Burgundians,  23  Nov.  1407,  derived  their  name
from  his  father-in-law,  the  count  of  Armagnac.
About  3500  of  this  party  were  massacred  at  Paris
in  June,  1418,  by  their  opponents,  the  followers  of
the  duke  of  Burgundy.

ARMED  NEUTRALITY,  the  confederacy
against  England,  formed  by  Russia,  Sweden,  and
Denmark,  1 780;  ended,  1781 ;  renewed,  and  a  treaty
ratified  in  order  to  cause  their  flags  to  be  respected
by  the  belligerent  powers,  16  Dec.  1800.  The  prin-
ciple that  neutral  flags  protect  neutral-  bottoms  being
contrary  to  the  maritime  system  of  England,  the
British  cabinet  remonstrated,  war  ensued,  and  Nel-
son and  Parker  destroyed  the  fleet  of  Denmark  before
Copenhagen,  2  April,  1801.  This  event  and  the
murder  of  the  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  led  to  the
dissolution  of  the  Armed  Neutrality.

ARMENIA,  Asia  Minor,  after  forming  part
of  the  Assyrian,  Median,  and  Persian  empires,
became  subject  to  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  after
the  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  190  B.C.  The
Romans  established  the  kingdoms  of  Armenia
Major  and  Minor,  but  their  influence  over  them
was  frequently  interrupted  by  the  aggressions  of
the  Parthians.  In  all  their  political  troubles  the
Armenians  have  maintained  the  profession  of  Chris-
tianity, and  their  church  is  governed  by  patriarchs,
not  subjectto  Rome.  Since  1715  an  Armenian  con-
vent has  existed  at  Venice,  where  books  on  all
subjects  are  printed  in  the  Armenian  language.

City  of  Artaxarta  built B.C. 186

Antiochus  Epiphanes  invades  Armenia  .  .  .  165
Tigranes  the  Great  reigns  in  Armenia  Major  .  .  95
Becomes  King  of  Syria,  and  assumes  the  title  of

"  King  of  Kings  " 83

Defeated  by  Lucullus,  69  ;  he  lays  his  crown  at  the

feet  of  Pompey 66

His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns,  54  ;  he  assists  Pompey

against Julius Cajsar,  48 ; and the  Parthians

against  Marc  Antony 36

Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded  with  silver

chains  to  Egypt . 34

Artaxias,  his  son,  made  king  by  the  Parthians  .  33
Deposed  by  the  Romans,  who  enthrone  Tigranes  II.  20
Armenia  subjected  to  Parthia  .  .  .  .  a.d.  15
Reconquered  by  Germanicus,  grandson  of  Augustus  18
After  many  changes  Tiridates  is  made  king  by  the

Romans 58

The  Parthian  conquerors  of  Armenia  are  expelled

by  Trajan .115

Severus  makes  Volagarses  king  of  part  of  Armenia .  199
Christianity  introduced,  between  .  .  .  a.d.  100-300
Armenia  added  to  the  Persian  empire  .  .  .  232
Tiridates obtains  the  throne  through  Diocletian,

286 ; is  expelled  by  Narses,  294 ; restored by

Galerius 298

On  his  death,  Armenia  becomes  subject  to  Persia,

342  ;  is  made  neutral  by  Rome  and  Persia,  384  ;

who  divide  it  by  treaty  .... 443

Armenia  conquered  and  reconquered  by  the  Greek

and  Persian  sovereigns 577-68

And  by  the  Greek  emperors  and  Mahommeclans

693-1065
The  Armenian  church  reconciled  to  Rome,  about  .  1330
Leon  VI. ,  last  king  of  Armenia,  taken  prisoner  by

the  Saracens,  1375  ;  released  :  he  dies  at  Paris  .  139
Overrun  by  the  Mongols,  1215  ;  by  Timour,  1383  ;

by  the  Turks,  1516;  by  the  Persians,  1534;  by  the

Turks ...  . •


ARMENIAN  ERA.


56


ARMY.


Shah  Abbas,  of  Persia,  surrenders  Armenia  to  the
Turks,  but  transports  22,000  Armenian  families

' into  his  own  states a.d.  1604

Armenia  overrun  by  the  Russians .... 1828

Surrender  of  Erzeroum  . . . .9  July,  1829

(See  Syria  and  Russo-Turkish  Wars  I.  and  II.)

By  the  Berlin  treaty,  Kars,  Ardahan,  and  Batoum
were  ceded  to  Russia,  with  other  changes July,  1878

The  Turkish  government  charged  with  oppression
and  cruelty,  Aug.  ;  doubted  by  some . Sept.  1889

Moussa  Bey,  a  Kurdish  chief,  tried  at  Constanti-
nople for  alleged  cruelties,  23  Nov.  ;  acquitted  (a
new  trial  refused),  2  Dec.  et  seq.  1889  ;  eventually
exiled  to  Medina .... Sept.  Oct.  1890

Riotous  conflicts  between  Armenians  and  Mussul-
mans at  Erzeroum,  9  persons  killed, reported

27  June, „

The  Armenians  in  Constantinople  attack  their
patriarch,  Aschikian,  in  a  church  during  service,
riot  suppressed  by  the  military  with  loss  of  life,
27  July  ;  many  arrested  Aug.,  and  punished,
Oct.  ;  the  patriarch  resigns,  31  July  ;  the  chief
rioter  sentenced  to  death,  others  to  imprisonment

16  Aug. ,,

The  sultan  agrees  to  many  reforms  in  Armenia,
reported 20  Aug. „

Armed  band  of  Armenians  on  the  Turco-Russian
frontier  dispersed  by  the  Turks  and  Russians,
reported 2  Nov. ,,

Friendly  negotiations  with  the  Porte  ;  loyal  address
to  the  sultan,  and  gracious  reply  ;  the  patriarch
withdraws  his  resignation  ... 28  Dec. ,,

He  is  received  by  the  sultan,  who  announces  a
general  -amnesty,  with  great  release  of  prisoners

17  Jan.  et  seq.  1891

The  central  committee  for  reforms,  issue  a  procla-
mation against  the  Turkish  government,  about

25  Jan. ,,

ARMENIAN  ERA,  commenced  on  9  July,
552  ;  the  ecclesiastical  year  on  1 1  Aug.  To  reduce
this  last  to  our  time,  add  551  years  and  221  days;
and  in  leap  years  subtract  one  day  from  1  March  to
10  Aug.  The  Armenians  used  the  old  Julian  style
and  months  in  their  correspondence  with  Euro-
peans.

ARMILLARY  SPHERE,  an  astronomical
instrument  composed  of  brass  circles  disposed  in
such  a  manner  that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of
the  sphere  may  be  seen  in  their  natural  position  and
motion.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Era-
tosthenes, about  255  b  c. ;  and  was  employed  by
Tj'cho  Brahe  and  others.

ARMINIANS,  or  Remonstrants,  derive

their  former  name  from  James  Arminius  (or  Har-
mensen),  a  Protestant  divine  of  Leyden,  Holland
(died  19  Oct.  1609) ;  the  latter  name  from  his  fol-
lowers having  presented  a  Remonstrance  to  the
states-general  in  1610.  They  separated  from  the
Calvinists,  objecting  to  their  views  respecting  pre-
destination, &c.  Their  doctrines  were  condemned
in  1619,  at  the  synod  of  Dort  {which  see);  they  were
exiled  till  1625.  The  Calvinists  were  sometimes
styled  Gomansts,  from  Gomar,  the  chief  oppo-
nent to  Arminius.  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  favoured
the  Arminian  doctrine.

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS  became  here-
ditary in  families  at  the  close  of  the  12th  century.
They  were  employed  by  the  crusaders,  1100.  The
lines  to  denote  colours  in  arms,  by  their  direction  or
intersection,  were  invented  by  Columbiere  in  1639.
The  armorial  bearings  of  the  English  sovereigns  are
given  under  the  article  England.  Armorial  bearings
were  taxed  in  1798,  and  again  in  1808.  The  tax
produced  64,515/.  in  the  year  ending  31  March,
1868 ;  1872,  64,228/. ;  1876, 83,527/. ;  1878, 83,104/. ;
1879,  81,854/. ;  l88l>  79>oi4/. ;  1882,  79,196/. ;  1884,
78,766/.  The  tax  is  now  2/.  2s. ;  if  not  on  carriages,
it  is  ll.  is.  annually  (1889). Sir  Bernard  Burke's


"  General  Armory," 1883, contains  the arms of
above  66,000  British  families,  &c.

ARMORICA,  now  Britanny,  N.  France,  was
conquered  by  Julius  Caesar,  56  B.C.  Many  Gauls
are  said  to  have  retired  there  and  preserved  the
Celtic  tongue,  a.d.  584.  A  colony  of  West  Britons
settled  in  Armorica  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th
century,  hence  the  modern  name  Britanny,  which
see.

ARMOUR.  That  of  Goliath  is  described  (about
1063  B.C.)  i  Sam.  xvii.  5.  Skins  and  padded  hides
were  early  used,  and  brass  and  iron  armour,  in
plates  or  scales,  followed.  The  body  armour  of  the
Uiitons  was  skins  of  wild  beasts,  exchanged,  after
the  Roman  conquest,  for  the  well-tanned  leathern
cuirass.  Tacitus.  Hengist  is  said  to  have  had
scale  armour,  a.d.  449.

The  Norman  armour  formed  breeches  and  jacket 1066
The  hauberk  had  its  hood  of  the  same  piece . . 1100
John  wore  a  surtout  over  a  hauberk  of  rings  set
edgeways . . . . . . . .  1199

Ihe  heavy  cavalry  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail.

Some  horsemen  had  vizors  and  skull-caps,  about .  1216
Armour  exceedingly  splendid,  about . . . .  1350

Black  armour,  used  not  only  for  battle,  but  for

mourning,  Henry  V 1413

Armour  of  Henry  VII. consisted  of  a  cuirass  of

steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about . .  1500
Armour  ceased  to  reach  below  the  knees,  Charles  I.  1625
In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  officers  wore  no  other
armour  than  a  large  gorget,  which  is  commemo-
rated in  the  diminutive  ornament  known  at  the
present  day. Meyrick.

ARMOUR  PLATES,  see  Iron,  and  IHavy  of
England.

ARMS. The  club  was  the  first  offensive  wea-
pon ; then followed  the  mace,  battle-axe, pike,
spear,  javelin,  sword  and  dagger,  bows  and  arrows.
Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the
Phoenicians; see Cannon, Firearms, Swords,
Bayonets, and other articles on the various
weapons  throughout  the  volume.
Committee  to  enquire  into  the  arms  (swords  and
bayonets)  supplied by  the  War  Office  to the
Admiralty  since 1871 appointed (Sir  Hussey
Vivian  chairman)  . . . .14  Peb.  et  seq.  1887
Report  these  weapons  to  be  badly  designed  and
manufactured  and  untrustworthy . 29  March, ,,

ARMS,  see  Armorial  bearings,  and  Heraldry.

ARMS  BILLS,  for  the  repression  of  crime  and
insurrection  in  Ireland,  were  passed  1807,  18 10,
1823,  1829,  and  15  Oct.  1831.  The  guns  registered
under  the  last  act  at  the  close  of  the  first  year
scarcely  amounted  to  3000,  and  the  number  was
equally  small  of  all  other  kinds  of  arms.  The  new
Arms  bill,  passed  22  Aug.  1843,  has  been  since  re-
newed, but  was  not  rigidly  enforced  till  1867.  An-
other Arms  bill  brought  into  the  Commons,  "  An
act  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  the  carrying  and
possession  of  arms,  and  for  the  preservation  of  public
peace  in  Ireland,"  to  last  till  1  June,  1886;  Royal
Assent,  21  March,  1881.  Act  renewed  till  31  Dec.
1887,  4  June,  1886. See  Ireland.

ARMSTRONG  GUN,  see  under  Cannon.

ARMY.  Minus  and  Semiramis  had  armies
amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of  fighting  men.
Diodorus.  The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a
standing  army  were  formed  by  Saul,  1093  B.C.
I  Sam.  13,  2.  The  army  of  Xerxes  invading  Greece
is  said  to  have  been  1,700,000  foot  and  80,000  horse  :
480  B.C.  One  of  the  first  standing  armies  of  which
we  have  any  account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon.
The  army  which  Darius  opposed  to  Alexander  the
Great  (332  B.C.)  is  set  down  as  between  750,000  and


ARMY.


57


ARMY.


a  million.  The  first  standing  army  which  existed
as  such,  in  modern  times,  was  maintained  in  France
by  Charles  VII.  in  1445.  The  chief  European
nations  have  had  in  their  service  the  following
armies:  Spain,  150,000 men;  Great  Britain, 3 10, 000;
Prussia,  350,000 ;  Turkey,  450,000;  Austria,  500,000 ;
Russia,  560,000 ;  and  France,  1,000,000.  Estimated
number  in  Europe  in  1863,  6,000,000  soldiers,
1,000,000  horses,  11,000  guns.  The  European
powers  are  still  increasing  their  armies.  Estimated
to  consist  of  12,000,000  men  in  Nov.  1888.

-January,  1888 — Germany ....  2,650,000

,, ,, France . . . . .  3,750,000

,, ,, Russia .....  5,210,000

,, ,, Great  Britain . . . .  680,374

ARMY,  BRITISH,  mainly  arose  in  the  reign  of
Charles  II.  in  1661,  in  consequence  of  the  extinction
of  feudal  tenures.  The  first  five  regiments  of
British  infantry  were  established  between  1633  and
1680.  James  II.  established  several  regiments  of
dragoon  guards  (1685-8).  In  1685  the  army  con-
sisted of  7000  foot  and  1700  cavalry.  The  Militia
then  consisted  of  about  130,000  men,  horse  and
foot.  Standing  armies  were  introduced  by  Charles  I.
in  1638;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England,
31  Car.  II.  1679 ;  but  one  was  then  gradually
forming,  which  was  maintained  by  William  III.
1689,  when  the  Mutiny  Act  was  passed.  Grose's
"History  of  the  British  Army"  was  published  in
1801.  See  Regiments,  Recruiting,  Militia,  and
Volunteers.

BRITISH  ARMY.

Men.  Sum  voted.
1780,  Time  of  war  :  troops  of  the

line  .....  110,000  £7,847,000

1800,  War  .  .  .  .  .  168,082  17,973,000
1810,  War:  army  including  foreign

troops ....  300,000  26,748,000
1815,  Last  year  of  the  war . .  300,000  39,150,000
1820,  Time  of  peace  ;  war  incum-
brances .... 88,100  18,253,000

1830,  Peace 89,300  6,991,000

1840,  Peace 93,471  6,890,267

1850,  Peace 99,118  6,763,488

1852,  Peace  (except  Kaffir  war) .  101,937  7,018,104

1854,  War  with  Russia . . .  112,977  7,387,000

Sum  voted

Total  In  India* (including

men.  men.  ordnance,

&c.)

1855-6, t  War  with  Russia.  223,224  29,629 £32,006,603

1856-57,  War  with  Persia.  265,466  26,363  20,811,242

857-58,  Indian  Mutiny . 175,858  30,197  14, 40s, 850

858-59 222,874  92>739  13,294,814

859-60,  Chinese  War .  229,551  91,897  14,915,243

860-61 . . ...  228,854  71,528  18,013,896

861-62 212,773  60,041  16,854,299

862-63 228,973  83,523  16,264,790

863-64  .....  220,918  72,676  14,723,976

864-65  219,450  72,684  14,382,672

865-66  ... . .  213,521  71,044  14,569,279

866-67 203,404  65,827  14,675,540

867-68,  Abyssinian  War  .  204,455  65,292  15,418,582

868-69  ... ■ •  203,157  64,466  15,000,000

869-70 i^WS  63,9°7  13,565,400

870-71,  Franco  -  German

War  . . .  178,000  62,963  13,430,400

871-72 197,911  62,864  15,521,580

872-73 .... . 196,606  62,957  14,729,700

873-74 187,928  62,924  14,426,990

874-75 224,835  62,840  14,591,434

875-76  225,931  62,850

876-77 132,884  62,849  15,281,600

877-78 133,720  62,652  15,919,492

879-80 135,^25  —  13,019,900

"~  '-81 131,859  62,588  12,797,900

Total  home  and  colonial  establishments,  632,649  ; cost,
16,641,300^.

*  Supported  by  the  Indian  government.
f  Ending  March  31.


Expended  by  army  purchase  commission  :—

1871-2 ....... £340,000

1872-3 ....... 683,500

1873-4 7!3>974

1874-5 579,n5

Regular  troops  for  home  service  :—

1853  1875  1888

Cavalry  ....  7,606  12,945  12,633
Artillery  .  ...  8,710  18,853  18,089
Engineers . . . 1,039  4>°74  5, 018

Infantry . . . . 53,651 63,371 71,656

71,006 99,243 i°7)39°"
Average  strength  of  the  army. '  Cost.

1879  . . . 191,290  *£i6,945,i53

1880  . . . iSS,9o6  15,025,145

1881  . . . 188,798  14,680,762

1882  . . . 189,229  15,738,002

1883  . . . 181,971  15,133,451

1884  . . . 183,004  16,095,326

1885  . . . 198,064  18,600,338

1886  . . . 203,805  17,027,084

1887  . . . 209,574  18,429,272

1888  .  .  .  211,105  18,167,196
1888-9  •  ■  149,667  16,700,300
1889-90  .  .  .  1^2,282  17,384,732
1890-1  .  .  1,3.483  17,897,900
1891-2  .  .  .  153, 6j6  17,545,300
1892-3  . .  154,073  17,631,200

Volunteers  in  Great  Britain,  in  1862,  367,921;  in  1872,
172,891  ;  in  1875,  181,080;  in  1878,  193,026,  (with  staff)
245,648  ;  1S79,  206,265  ;  1880,  206,537  ;  1881,  208,308  ;
1882,  207,336;  1883,  206,365;  1884,  215,015;  1885,
224,012;  1886,226,752;  1887,  228,038;  1890,221,048.

Militia,  1872,  139,018 ;  1879,  127,749 ;  1880,  130,331  ;
i88i,t  99,002  ;  1882, t  92,094  ;  1883,  116,642  ;  1884,
113,787;  1885,  119,356;  1886,122,428;  1887,121,411;
1890,  113,163.

Ye  .manry,  1872,  15,455;  1879,  12,010;  1880,  11,598;
1881,  10,617;  1882,  11,173;  1883,  11,204;  l884,  11,488;
1885,  11,590;  1886,  11,499;  I887,  11,267:  1890,  10,697.

Recruits  of  all  classes  in  1871,  23,198. See  Recruiting.

Army  Reserves,  1  Jan.  1869,  17,948;  1874,31,046;  1879,
37,512  ;  1881,  41,796;  18824  34,636;  1883,1  26,203  ;  1885,
47,024  ;  1887,  52,553  ;  1888,  55,200  ;  1892,  68,421.

The  Mutiny  Act  passed  annually  since  1689  ;  al-
terations made  in  this  act  and  in  the  Articles  of
War. (See  below,  1879.)  • -  • • •  1855

Army  Service  Acts  :  12  &,  13  Vict.  c.  37  (21  June,
1847),  and  18  Vict.  c.  4 . . . .27  Feb. 1855

Officers  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company
to  have  the  same  rank  and  precedence  as  those  in
the  regular  army 25  April ,,

The  office  of  Master-General  of  the  Ordnance  abol-
ished, and  the  civil  administration  of  the  Army
and  Ordnance  vested  in  the  hands  of  lord
Panmure,  the  Minister  of  War . .  25  May, ,,

Examination  of  staff  officers  previous  to  their  ap-
pointment ordered .... 9  April,  1857

The  army  largely  recruited  for  Indian  war . .  1857-8

The  East  India  Company's  army  was  transferred  to
the  Queen 1859

Much  dissatisfaction  arose  is  that  army  in  conse-
quence of  no  bounty  being  g .  anted  ;  and  threaten-
ings  of  mutiny  appeared,  which  subsided  after  an
arrangement  was  made  granting  discharge  to  those
who  desired  it ,,

Examination  of  candidates  for  the  Military  Aca-
demy, previously  confined  to  pupils  from  Sand-
hurst, was  thrown  open,  1855  ;  the  principle  of
this  measure  was  affirmed  by  the  house  of  com-
mons by  vote 26  April,  1858

By  22  &  23  Vict.  c.  42,  provision  made  for  a  reserve
force,  not  to  exceed  20,000  men,  who  had  been  in
her  majesty's  service 1859

Flogging  virtually  abolished  in  the  army :  First
class  soldiers  to  be  degraded  to  second  class  be-
fore being  liable  to  it . . . -9  Nov. ,,

A  report  of  a  commission  in  1858  causes  great  sani-
tary improvements  in  the  army,  barracks,  &c,
under  direction  of  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert . . 1859-60

*  Extra  on  acconit  of  Russo-Turkish  war.

+  Exclusive  of  Irish.

t  Exclusive  of  aimy  pensioners.


AEMY.


A  commission  recommend  the  establishment  of  a
recruiting  department,  increase  of  pensions,  &c.

31  Oct.  1866
Flogging  restricted  to  insubordination  (with  vio-
lence) and  indecency . . . March  (?)  1867
New  Army Enlistment  Act (limiting period  of

enlistment  to  12  years,  &c.)  passed  .  20  June,  „
Increased  pay  to  all  soldiers  (except  to  life-guards)

from  1  April,  1867  ;  by  warrant,  dated  .  29  June,  „
Act  to  form  a  reserve  of  men  in  the  militia  to  join

the  army  in  the  event  of  war,  passed  .  20  Aug.  „
"  War  Department  Stores  "  Act  passed  .  20  Aug.  „
Sir  Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief

1  Jan.  1868
Hogging  abolished  in  time  of  peace,  by  an  amend-
ment in  the  Mutiny  Act ....  Mar. ,,
Edward  Cardwell,  secretary  for  war . . 9  Dec. „
Royal  commission  on  military  education  appointed,
23 June, 1868 ; report  with  recommendations

issued  about . Oct. 1869

Army  Service  Corps,  to  be  composed  of  volunteers
commanded  by  regular  officers, established  by

royal  warrant 12  Nov. „

Royal commission  on  the  purchase  system, &c,
appointed  5  April ;  report  recognises  the  "  over
regulation  payments  "  hitherto  ignored . Aug. 1870
Regulations  under  the  new "  Army Enlistment

Act  "issued 12  Aug. ,,

2,ooo,ooo£. voted  to  increase  the  army  by  20,000

men 1  Aug. „

Deaths  in  the  army  reduced  from  17  per  1000  to  9^,
in  consequence  of  sanitary  improvements,  &c,
(out  of  175,460  men,  33,797  under  20, 18,614  under

19)  ;  Lord  Norflibrook June,  1871

Army  Regulation  bill  (the  abolition  of  the  purchase
system,  <fcc\)  passed  in  the  commons,  289-231,
early  4  July ;  introduced  in  the  lords,  13  July  ;
able  speech  of  the  duke  of  Cambridge  in  its
favour,  14  July ;  rejected  (155-130),  2  a.m.,  18  July,  ,,
Purchase  system  abolished  by  royal  warrant  (in
pursuance  of  acts  5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  16,  and  49
Geo. III. c. 126) on  and  after 1 Nov. 1871.

20  July, ,,
Regulation  of  the  Forces  Act  passed . . 17  Aug. „
Autumn Campaign in  Hampshire; about  40,000
men  engaged ;  the  duke  of  Cambridge  and  others
umpires  ;  the  prince  of  Wales  and  prince  Arthur
engaged  ;  foreign  officers  present.
Manoeuvres  according to the Prussian system ;

field  days,  &c 8-12  Sept. ,,

Invading  force  of  24,000,  under  Staveley  and  Carey;
marching  towards  London,  opposed  by  sir  Hope

Grant 13  Sept. ,,

Series  of  battles  near  the  Hog's  Back,  Aldershot ;

Grant  declared  victor  . . . . 16-19  Sept. »
Battle  of  Fox's-hill ;  Carey  defeats  Staveley,  21  Sept. „
[Reported results : artillery  magnificent ; cavalry
superb  ;  infantry  very  good ; transport  insuffi-
cient ; greater distribution of responsibility
among  officers  needed.]
Sham  fight ;  Chatham  stormed . . .24  Oct. „
Warrant  published,  30  Oct. ,  inaugurating  the  new
system  of  promotion  of  officers  (partly  by  senior-
ity and  partly  by  select  ioi.)  on  . . . 1  Nov. ,,
New  organisation  of  the  army  proposed  by  Mr.
Cardwell :  brigade  districts,  England,  49  ; Scot-
land, 8  ;  Ireland  8  =  65 . . . . Feb.  1S72
The  duke  of  Cambridge's favourable report  was

laid  before  parliament  early  in  .  .  March,  „
Army  estimates  passed  in  commons  (234-63)  12  Mar.  ,,
Review  of  14,000  men  by  the  queen  at  Aldershot,

5  July. 11
Autumn  Mancaivresm  Wiltshire  :  50,000  men  com-
manded by  sir  John  Mitchell  supposed  to  land  at
Weymouth,  and  march  towards  London,  opposed
by  sir  R.  Walpole  ;  campaign  begins  ;  skirmishes

near  Blandford 2t  Aug. .,

Sir  A.  Horsford  repulses  gen.  Brownrigg  at  Winch-

ampton 27  Aug. ,,

Prince  of  Wales  arrives  at  Salisbury . .  3  Sept. „
Battle  of  Wishford,  7  Sept.  ;  battle  of  the  Avon,  10

Sept.  ;  grand  march  past  near  Beacon  Hill  12  Sept. „
The  new  drill  and  tactics  for  the  army  were  pub-
lished 23  Nov. „

Mr.  Cardwell's  estimates  ;  proposes  increasing  pay
of  soldiers  ;  and  establishment  of  a  chief  of  the
staff 24  Feb.  1873


58  AEMY.

The  Military  Intelligence  Department  established

1  April,  1873
Review  of  troops  at  Windsor,  before  the  Shah,

24  June, „
Autumn  Manoeuvres  at  Dartmoor,  Cannock  Chase,

and  at  the  Curragh,  Dublin . . July,  Aug. „
Royal  Commission  on  compensation  to  officers  for

changes ;  appointed . . . .11  Oct. ,,
Report  issued  (admits  cause  for  compensation  ;  and
considers  that  officers  will  be  satisfied  with  what-
ever the  nation  chooses  to  decide  for  them)  June,  1874
Change  of  ministry  ; Mr.  Gathorne  Hardy  (after-
wards Lord  Cranbrook),  secretary  for  war  21  Feb. „
The  victorious  troops  from  Ashantee  reviewed  by

the  queen 30  March, ,,

Summer  Manoeuvres  at  Aldershot . . June, ,,
New  regulations  respecting  first  applications  for

commissions  ;  issued Sept. „

Royal  commission  on  more  rapid  promotion ;  ga-
zetted 10  Nov. „

Manoeuvres  at  Aldershot .... July,  1875
Royal  warrant  respecting  regimental  exchanges,

dated  6  Aug.  ;  issued .... 9  Aug. ,,
Scheme  completed  for  -  mobilisation  of  the  army,

announced . .  -  . . . Dee. „

"Control"  Department  divided  into  "commissariat
and transport departments," and "  ordnance
store  departments  " .... 11  Dec. ,,
Mobilisation  of  the  army  and  the  reserve ; experi-
ment in  Surrey  reported  successful  . . July,  1876
New  cavalry  regulations  issued . .  Aug. „

Report  of  commission  on  promotion  issued ;  recom-
mends compulsory  retirement  in  some  cases,  and

other  changes Aug. „

New  organisation  of  the  artillery  proposed  about

26  Feb.  1877
Manoeuvres  on  a  small  scale .  - . . .  July, ,,
Review  by  the  queen  at  Windsor . .  10  July, ,,
Army  promotion  and  retiring  scheme  :  royal  war-
rant published 28  July, „

New  army  medical  warrant  issued . . 1  Sept. ,,
About  29,000  recruits  in  1877  ;  announced Mar.  187S
Col.  F.  A.  Stanley,  war  secretary . . 2  April, ,,
Reserves  (about  35,000)  called  out,  2  April;  com-
mended ;  disbanded 31  July „

The  report  of  the  commission  on  the  mutiny  acts
recommends  consolidation  of  the  mutiny  acts  and
the  articles  of  war,  and  simplification  of  martial

law,  &c July, ,,

Warrant  establishing  new  warrant  officers  ("con-
ductors ")  a  grade  between  commissioned  and  non-
commissioned. 24  Jan.  1879

Army  Discipline  and  Regulation  Acts,  introduced

27  Feb.  ;  passed 24  July, ,,

[They  relate  to discipline, enlistment, billeting,

court-martials,  military  law,  &c]
Army  Medical  Department ; changes made  by  a

new  warrant  issued  2  Dec.  1S79  ;  amended Jan.  1880
Mr.  Hugh  E.  Childers,  war  secretary,  28  April, ,,

New  system  of  Military  Examination  for  officers  ;

introduced Oct. „

Alterations  in  officers'  dress,  by  orders . Nov. ,,
System  of  compulsory  retirement  of  officers  came
into  operation ...... 1  Jan.  1881

Great  army  reform  measures  laid  before  the  Com-
mons by  Mr.  Childers ... 3  March, ,,
Alterations  made  in  the  uniform  and  organisation
of  the  infantry  .... April  et  seq. ,,

New  organization  comes  into  effect . . 1  July, „
Regulation  of  the  Forces  and  the  Army  Discipline
Act  (amending  the  Acts  of  1879)  passed 27  Aug. „
See  Flogging.
Army  Act  amended .... 28  April,  1882

Reserves  called  out  (for  Egypt)  .  .  25  July,  „
Success  of  the  changes  in  the  army  system  demon-
strated by  the  Egyptian  campaign  ;  within  7
weeks  a  large  well  appointed  army  was  conveyed
3000  miles  under  most  unfavourable  conditions
and achieved the object of the expedition

July — Sept. „
Review  of  the  return  troops  and  Indian  contingent

by  the  queen  in  St.  James's  Park . . 18  Nov. ,,
Queen's  thanks  published  21  Nov.  ;  she  distributes

medals,  &c,  at  Windsor . . .21  Nov. ,,
Formation  of"  an  Army  Telegraph Corps  ordered

Feb.  1883


AEMY.


59


AEREST.


Army  Medical  Service:  system,  &c,  censured  by
report  of  lord  Morley's  committee . . May,  1883

Great  increase  of  recruits  ;  above  33,000 . . in  1883

Report  of  committee  on  colour  of  uniform  recom-
mending change  of  red  to  grey,  July,  1882  :  issued
29  March ,,

Effective  strength  of  the  army  reported  1  Dec.  1884,
188,216;  about  35,000  added . . . April,  1885

Order  prohibiting  officers  and  soldiers  from  publish-
ing military  information  in  the  press,  &c.  1  April,  1886

Military  training  of  boys  between  14  and  17;  cir-
cular issued  sanctioning  formation  of  battalions,
&c June, „

Committee  to  inquire  into  the  organization  and
administration  of  the  manufacturing  departments
of  the  army  appointed  ;  announced . 23  June, ,,

Suspension  of compulsory  retirement  of  officers

Aug. ,,

A  force  of  all  arms  fully  equipped  as  for  war  marches
at  Aldershot 17  Aug. ,,

Royal  ordnance  commission  on  military  stores  ap-
pointed (sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  sir  A.  Alison,  Dr.
Percy  and  others)  about  16  Sept.  ;  first  sat,  16
Nov.  1886  ;  they  report  the  system  to  be  bad  and
inefficient ;  results  bad,  guns  and  weapons  faulty  ;
charge  of  corruption  not  proved  ;  the  commis-
sioners recommend  revival  of  the  office  of  Master
of  Ordnance  with  council,  &c.  May,  1887.
Changes  in  discipline  made  ;  courts-martial  to  be
much  discontinued  ;  summary  powers  given  to
officers  1  Jan.  1887.

Including  the  yeomanry,  the  general  total  of  the
army,  first  class  army  reserve,  and  auxiliary
forces,  577,740  in  1886;  595,159 . . .in  1887

Reorganization  of  the  War  Office,  civil  and  military,
announced  in  the  Commons  8  Sept.  1887  ;  new
arrangement  announced  .... Feb.  1888

Royal  commission  on  Naval  and  Military  Adminis-
tration (which  see)  appointed . . 7  June, ,,

Diminution  of  severity  leads  to  less  crime  and
irregularities;  reported .... Oct. ,,

New  warrant  for  the  removal  of  undesirable  officers

3  Jan.  1889
[Alterations  made  after  complaints,  Jan.  1890]

New  arrangements  of  the  military  district  proposed
to  be  effected  in  April Jan. ,,

Increased  vote  5,004,500?.  for  152,282  men  12  March, ,,

Total  estimate  for  1889-90  17,335, 900L . March, ,,

First  report,  containing  various  recommendations
with  evidence,  issued ... 20  March,  1890

Military  exhibition  (which  see)  opened . 7  May; ,,

The  Jubilee  ottering  of  the  army  presented  to  the
queen  at  Buckingham  palace  by  the  duke  of
Cambridge  (see  Jubilee) ...  10  May, ,,

Insubordination  of  some  of  the  2nd  Battalion
Grenadier  Guards  at  Wellington  barracks,  S.W.,
7  July  ;  court  martial  on  6  of  the  oldest  privates  ;
sentenced  to  imprisonment  with  hard  labour  (1
man  to  2  years  and  dismissal  with  ignominy ;  3
men,  2  years;  2  men,  18  months),  18-21  July
[released,  24  Nov.].  Colonel  Maitland  superseded.
The  battalion,  under  col.  Eaton,  sent  to  Bermuda

23  July >,
[Highly  commended  there,  return  to  England  28
July,  1891.]

Viscount  Wolseley,  adjutant  general  (1882,  et  seq.),
succeeded  by  sir  Redvers  Buller  . . 1  Oct. ,,

The  duke  of  Connaught  appointed  commander  of
the  southern  military  district . . Aug. ,,

Army  manoeuvres  near  Petersfiekl,  Hants 10  Sept.  1891

Report  of  lord  Wantage's  committee  on  service  in
the  army  (appointed  April, 1891),  issued  Feb.,
evidence  April,  much  discussed . . May,  1892
See  Barracks.

ARMY  (ANNUAL)  ACT,  see  Mutiny  Act.

ARMY  of  Occupation. By  treaty,  signed

20  Nov.  1815,  the  allied  powers  established  the
boundaries  of  France,  and  stipulated  for  the  occu-
pation of  certain  fortresses  by  foreign  troops  for
three  years. — The  departure  of  the  German  army  of
occupation  began  about  20  Sept.  187 1 ;  completed
16  Sept.  1873.


ARNOLDISTS,  followers  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,
who  protested  against  the  corruptions  of  the  Papacy,
and  who  was  burnt  alive  by  pope  Adrian  IV.  1 155.

AROGEE,  Abyssinia.  Here  sir  Robert  (after-
wards lord)  Napier  defeated  the  Abyssinians,  who
lost  about  700  killed  and  wounded,  10  April,  1868.
The  British  had  20  wounded.

AROMATICS.  Acron  of  Agrigentum  is  said
to  have  been  the  first  who  caused  great  fires  to  be
made,  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them,  to
purify  the  air,  by  which  means  he  put  a  stop  to  the
plague  at  Athens,  429  B.C.

ARPAD  DYNASTY,  see  Hungary.

ARPINUM  (now  Arpino,  S.  Italy),  the  birth-
place of  Cicero,  3  Jan.  106  B.C. ;  many  remains  still
bear  his  name.

ARQUEBUS,  see  Fire  Arms.

ARQUES  (N.  France).  Near  here  the  league
army,  commanded  by  the  due  de  Mayenne,  was  de-
feated by  Henry  IV.  21  Sept.  1589.

ARRACAN,  a  province  of  N.E.  India.  Arracan,
the  capital,  captured  by  the  Burmese,  1783,  was
taken  from  them  by  general  Morrison,  1  April,  1825,
The  subjugation  of  the  province  followed,  1826.

ARRAIGNMENT  consists  in  reading  the
indictment  by  the  officer  of  the  court,  and  calling
upon  the  prisoner  to  say  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not
guilty.  Formerly,  persons  who  refused  to  plead  in
cases  of  felony  were  pressed  to  death  by  weights
placed  upon  the  breast.  A  person  standing  mute
was  declared  convicted  by  an  act  passed  1772  ;  but
in  1827,  the  court  was  directed  to  enter  a  plea  of
"  not  guilty"  in  such  cases ;  see  Mute.

ARRAN  MURDER,  see  Trials,  Nov.  1889.

ARRAS  (N.  E.  France),  the  country  of  the
ancient  Atrebates,  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  390.
Here  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  king  of
France  and  duke  of  Burgundy,  when  the  latter
abandoned  his  alliance  with  England,  21  Sept.  1435-
Another  treaty  was  concluded  by  Maximilian  of
Austria  with  Louis  XI.  of  France,  whereby  Bur-
gundy and  Artois  were  given  to  the  dauphin  as  a
marriage  portion,  23  Dec.  1482.  Velly.  Arras  was
held  by  the  Austrians  from  1493  till  1640,  when  it
was  taken  by  Louis  XIII.

ARRAY.  On  23  Dec.  1324,  Edward  II.  directed
the  bishop  of  Durham  to  make  "  arraier  "  his  men
of  arms,  horse  and  foot,  and  cause  them  to  proceed
to  Portsmouth ;  thence  to  proceed  to  the  war  in
Gascony.  Rymer's  Feeder  a.  Hallam  says  that
this  was  the  earliest  commission  of  array  that  he
could  find,  and  that  the  latest  was  dated  1557.  The
attempt  of  Charles  I.  to  revive  commissions  of  array
in  1642,  founded  on  a  statute  of  Henry  IV.,  was
strenuously  opposed  as  illegal.

ARREARS  OF  RENT  ACT,  Ireland,  May,
1882  ;  45  &  46  Vict.  c.  47,  passed  18  Aug.  1882.

ARREST  FOR  DEBT.  The  persons  of  peers,
members  of  parliament,  &c,  are  protected  from
arrest ;  see  Ambassadors.  Debt,  Ferrars'  Arrest.

Clergyman  performing  divine  service  privileged,  50
Edw.  III. 1375

Seamen  privileged  from  debts  under  20L,  by  30
Geo.  Ill 1756

Barristers  are  privileged  from  arrest  while  going  to,
attending  upon,  and  returning  from  court,  on  the
business  of  their  clients.

By  stat.  29  Car.  II.  no  arrest  can  be  made,  nor
process  served;  upon  a  Sunday  ;  this  law  was  ex-
tended by  Will.  III.


ARRETIUM.


60


AETICLES.


Vexatious  arrests  prevented  by  act,  May,  1733.
Prohibited  for  less  than  10Z.  on  process,  1779 ;  and
for  less  than  20I. July,  1827

Arrests  for  less  than  zol.  were  prohibited  on  mesne
process  in  Ireland,  in  June 1829

Statute  abolishing  arrest  for  debt  on  mesne  process,
except  in  cases  wherein  there  is  ground  to  show
that  the  defendant  designs  to  leave  the  country,
2  Vict Aug.  1838

By  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  96,  the  power  of  imprisonment
even  ujion  final  process,  that  is  judgment  debts,
is  abolished  if  the  sum  does  not  exceed  ■zol.  ex-
clusive of  costs,  1844  ;  and  by  9  &  10  Vict.  c.  95,
the  judge  has  no  power  to  punish,  except  in  case
of  fraud  or  contempt  of  court  ....  1846
'  By  the  Absconding  Debtors'  Arrest  Act,  absconding
debtors  owing  20I.  and  upwards  are  liable  to
arrest 1851

Arrest  for  debt  practically  abolished,  with  certain
exceptions,  by  32  &  33  Vict.  c.  62  . . . . 1869
(See  DM.)

ARRETIUM,  see  Arezzo.

ARSACIDJE,  a  Parthian  dynasty,  began  with
Arsaces  about  250  B.C.,  and  ended  with  Artabanus,
killed  in  battle  with  Artaxerxes,  the  founder  of  the
Sassanidse,  a.d.  226.

ARSENAL,  a  great  military  or  naval  reposi-
tory ;  see  Woolwich.

ARSENIANS,  partisans  of  Arsenius,  patriarch
of  Constantinople,  who  excommunicated  the  emperor
Michael  Palaiologus  for  blinding  his  colleague  the
young  John  Lascaris,  1261,  and  was  deposed  1264.

ARSENIC,  a  steel-gray  coloured  brittle  mine-
ral, extremely  poisonous,  known  in  early  times.
Brandt,  in  1733,  made  the  first  accurate  experiments
on  its  chemical  nature.  The  heinous  crimes  com-
niitted  by  its  means  induced  the  legislature  to  enact
regulations  for  its  sale,  1851.  In  1858  Dr.  A.  S.
Taylor  asserted  that  green  paper-hangings  and
dresses  prepared  from  arsenic  are  injurious  to  health.

ARSON,  punished  with  death  by  the  Saxons,
still  remained  a  capital  crime  on  the  consolidation
of  the  laws  in  1827  and  1837.  By  the  act  of  1861  it
is  punishable  by  penal  servitude  for  life  and  minor
degrees  of  imprisonment.  William  Anthony  was
convicted  of  arson,  having  set  manj'  houses  on  fire,
for  the  sake  of  obtaining  the  reward  for  giving
alarm,  13  Dee.  1871.  There  were  many  incendiary
fires  in  Kent,  Suffolk,  and  other  counties  in  1830.
Convicted  of  arson  in  England  and  Wales  in  1887-8,

315;  1888-9,  4°2-
Win.  Nash  was  convicted  of  murder  for  setting  fire
to  his  house  at Notting-hill, and causing  six
deaths,  30  May ;  sentenced  to  death  (but  reprieved)

3,  4  Aug.  1881
Leon  Seme  sentenced  to  twenty  years'  penal  servi-
tude for  arson,  274  Strand  (property  over-insured  ;
his  two  boys  burnt)  ....  21  Jan.  1888
Conspiracy  to  defraud  insurance  companies  by
arson  :  George  Cullmer  sentenced  to  12  years,
—  Trew  and Mrs. Wheeler  to 5 years' penal

servitude 16  Feb.  1891

William  Parsons  sentenced  to  20  years'  penal  servi-
tude for  arson  near  Dorchester  . . 18  Feb. „
(See  Fires,  1887.)

ARSOUF  (Syria).  At  a  battle  here  Richard  I.
of  England,  commanding  the  Christian  forces,  re-
duced to  30,000,  defeated  Saladin's  army  of  300,000
Saracens  and  other  infidels,  on  6  Sept.  1191.  Ascalon
surrendered,  and  Bichard  marched  towards  Jeru-
salem, 1 192.

ART  ACT,  facilitating  the  public  exhibition  of
works  of  art  (lent  to  the  president  of  the  privy
council),  passed  April,  1866.  See  Arts,  Exhibitions,
and  National  Portrait  Gallery.

ARTEMIS,  a  Greek  goddess;  called  by  the
Romans,  Diana,  which  see.


ARTEMISIUM,  a  promontory  in  Eubcea,
near  which  indecisive  conflicts  took  place  between
the  Greek  and  Persian  fleets  for  three  days ;  480
B.C.  The  former  retired  on  hearing  of  the  battle  of
Thermopylae.

ARTESIAN  WELLS  (from  Artesia,  now
Artois,  in  France,  where  they  frequently  occur)  are
formed  by  boring  through  the  upper  soil  to  strata
containing  water  which  has  percolated  from  a
higher  level,  and  which  rises  to  that  level  through
the  boring  tube.  The  fountains  in  Trafalgar-square
and  government  offices  near  have  been  supplied
since  1844  by  two  of  these  wells  (393  feet  deep).
At  Paris  the  Grenelle  well  (1798  feet  deep),  was
completed  in  1841,  after  eight  years  of  exertion,  by
M.  Mulot  at  an  expense  of  about  12,000^.,  and  the
well  at  Passy,  which  it  is  said  will  supply  sufficient
water  for  nearly  500,000  persons,  was  begun  in  1855,
and  completed  in  i860  by  M.  Kind.  Messrs.  Amos
and  Easton  completed  an  Artesian  well  for  the
Horticultural  Society's  garden  in  1862,  which
yielded  880,000  gallons  of  water,  at  the  temperature
of  81°  Fahr.,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  well  at
Kissingen  was  completed  in  1850.  Artesian  wells
are  now  common.

ARTHUR,  king  of  Britain,  said,  mythically,  to
have  lived  a.d.  500 — 532.

The  events  of  his  life  and  the  conflicts  of  the
knights  of  his  round  table,  as  sung  by  the  Welsh
poets  Taliesin,  Llywarch  Hen,  and  Aneurin,
were  incorporated  into  his  Latin  history  by
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  about  1115,  who  died
1154  ;  put  into  French  verse  by  Geoffrey  Gaisnar,
and  by  Wace  soon  after ;  and  set  forth  in  an
English  poem  called  Brut  by  Layamon,  about . 1205

Walter  Map  by  incorporating  in  his  version  the
legend  of  the  Holy  Graal,  introduced  the  re-
ligious element  about 1171

Sir  Thomas  Malory's  "  Morte  d' Arthur,"  printed  by
Win.  Caxton 1485

Lord  Lytton's  "  King  Arthur,"  published . . 1848

Tennyson's  "  Idylls  of  the  King  " . . . 1859-69

ARTICHOKES  are  said  to  have  been  intro-
duced from  the  East  into  Western  Europe  in  the
15th  century,  and  to  have  reached  England  in  the
1 6th.

ARTICLES  of  Religion. On  8  June,  1536,

after  much  disputing,  the  English  clergy  in  convo-
cation published  "Articles  decreed  by  the  king's
highness"  Henry  VIII.,  who  published  in  1539  the
"  Statute  of  Six  Articles,"  decreeing  the  acknow-
ledgment of  transubstantiation,  communion  in  one
kind,  vows  of  chastity,  private  masses,  celibacy  of
the  clergy,  and  auricular  confession.  Offenders
were  punishable  as  heretics.  In  1551  forty- two
were  prepared,  and  published  in  1553.  These  were
modified  by  the  convocation,  and  reduced  to  Thirty-
nine  in  Jan.  1563;  and  they  received  the  royal
authority  and  the  authority  of  parliament  in  1571.
The  Lambeth  Articles,  of  a  more  Calvmistic  charac-
ter, proposed  by  archbishop  Whitgift,  were  with-
drawn in  consequence  of  the  displeasure  of  queen
Elizabeth,  1595.  One  hundred  and  four  Articles
were  drawn  up  for  Ireland  by  archbishop  Usher  in
1614 ;  but  in  1635  the  Irish  church  adopted  the
English  articles.  See  Perth  Articles.  The  39
Articles  were  ordered  to  be  removed  from  the
studies  at  Oxford  in  Nov.  1871.

ARTICLES  OF  "WAR  were  decreed  in  the  time
of  Bichard  I.  and  John.  Those  made  by  Bichard
II.  in  1385  appear  in  "  Grose's  Military  Antiquities."
The  articles  of  war  now  in  force  are  based  upon  an
act,  passed  by- William  III.  in  1689,  to  regulate  the
army  about  to  engage  in  his  continental  warfare.


AETIFICEES.


61


AETOIS.


AETIFICEES and Manufacturers.

Their  affairs  were  severely  regulated  by  the  statutes
of  labourers,  1349,  1350,  1360,  1549,  and  espe-
cially of  1562.  They  were  prohibited  from  leaving
England,  and  those  abroad  were  outlawed,  if  they
did  not  return  within  six  months  after  the  notice
given  them.  A  fine  of  100^.,  and  imprisonment  for
three  months,  were  the  penalties  for  seducing  them
from  these  realms,  by  9  Geo.  II.  (1736)  and  other
statutes.  The  law  was  modified  in  1824;  see  Arti-
sans, Workmen,  kc.

AETILLEEY,  a  term  including  properly  all
missiles,  now  restricted  to  camion.  A  small  piece
was  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  German  cordelier,
soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  1330.
Artillery  was  used,  it  is  said,  by  the  Moors  of
Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  1343  ;  and  according  to  some
historians,  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346,  when
Edward  III.  had  four  pieces  of  cannon.  We  had
artillery  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  The  Venetians
employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea,  1377.
Voltaire.  Said  to  have  been  cast,  with  mortars  for
bomb-shells,  by  Flemish  artists,  in  Sussex,  1543.
Rymer's  Feedera.  Made  of  brass  1635;  improve-
ments by  Browne,  1728;  see  Gannon,  Bombs,  Car-
ronades  (under  Carron),  Mortars,  Howitzers,
Petard,  Rockets,  Fire-arms.  The  Royal  Artillery-
regiment  was  established  in  the  reign  of  Anne.  See
Archery.

Honourable  Artillery  Company  of  London.  —The
company  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  for  mili-
tary exercise  and  better  defence  of  the  realm,
with  special  privileges,  25  Aug.  1537.  Obtained
lease  of  the  Tessell  ground,  Bishopsgate,  from
the  last  prior  of  the  convent  of  St.  Mary,  Spittle,
for  thrice  99  5'ears — afterwards  known  as  the  old
artillery  ground,  3  Jan.  1540.  Obtained  lease  of
the  "new"  artillery  ground,  Finsbury,  their
present  head-quarters,  1641.  In  the  civil  war,
1642-8,  the  company,  as  a  body,  took  no  part,
but  most  of  the  officers  of  the  Trained  Bands
were  also  members  of  the  company.  James,  duke
of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  appointed  captain-
general,  1660.  The  company  ordered  to  take
precedence  next  alter  the  regular  forces,  1  June,
1S83.  The  company  numbered  1200  in  1803
and  800  in  1861.  Since  1842  the  officers  have
been  appointed  by  the  queen.  On  the  decease
of  the  duke  of  Sussex  in  1843,  the  prince  consort
became  captain-general  and  colonel.  He  died  14
Dec.  1861,  and  the  prince  of  Wales  was  appointed
his  successor,  24  Aug.  1863.  350th  anniversary
celebrated  by  a  grand  review,  n  July,  1887.
On  the  annual  general  court,  officers  and  others
declining  to  vote  500?.  for  the  payment  of  Col.
Borton  the  adjutant,  and  other  expenses,  the
prince  of  Wales,  the  captain-general,  resigns,  and
the company  is  disarmed by  the  War Office

18  Dec.  1888
The  drill  of  the  company  resumed . . 17  Jan.  1889
Reorganisation  as  an independent  force  of  2,000
men  by  Royal  warrant  12  March  ;  promulgated

16  March, ,,
New  regulations  issued  by  the  War  Office  .  28  Jan.  1890
The  ancient  and Hon. Artillery Company  of
Massachusetts, U.S.A., which  was  founded  in
1638  by  Robert  Keayne,  who,  with  some  other
numbers  of  the  London  company,  had  emigrated
to  New  England,  still  maintains  friendly  relations
with  the  elder  company.
National Volunteer Artillery Association
held  its  first  annual  meeting  for  shooting  for  prizes
given  by  the  queen  and  others  :  at  Shoeburyness,
July,  1865. Meetings  wore  held  and  prizes  dis-
tributed in  July,  1866,  and  since,  generally  in
August.
Royal  Artillery  Institution,  established  at  Wool-
wich, proposed  by  lieuts.  F.  Earilley-Wilmot,  and
J. H.  Lefroy,  Feb. 1838  ;  approved  June, 1838  ;
building  completed  Sept.  1840. Proceedings,  vol.
I.,  published 1858


The  alleged  great  deficiency  of  artillery  in  the  British
army,  much  discussed  Sept.  1870 ;  Artillery
brought  to  the  camp  at  Aldershot,  reported  to
be  very  fine Sept.  1870

New  organisation  of  the  artillery  proposed  about

26  Feb.  1877

AETISANS'  AND  LABOITEEES*
DWELLINGS,  Act  "to  provide  better  dwel-
lings," passed  31  Jul}',  1868;  another  Act  was
passed  29  June,  1875,  "  to  facilitate  the  improve-
ment of  the  dwellings  of  the  working  classes  in
large  towns  ;  "  one  for  Scotland,  2  Aug.  1875  >  other
acts  passed  in  1879 ;  amended  1882.

Artisans',  Labourers',  and  General  Dwellings
Company,  registered  31  Dec.  1866 ;  purchased
estates  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  The
Shaftesbury  estate  (which  see)  was  formally  opened

18  July, 1874

The  director  (Dr.  John  Baxter  Langley),  secretary
(Mr.  Wm.  Swindlehurst),  were  sentenced  to  be
imprisoned  18  months  ;  and  Mr.  Edwd.  Saffery,
estate  agent,  12  months,  for  conspiring  to  defraud
the  company  of  about  24,312?. ;  trial 23-26  Oct.  1877

Royal  commission  to  enquire  into  the  condition  of
the  housing  of  the  working  classes,  appointed,
consisting  of  sir  Charles  Dilke,  chairman,  the
prince  of  Wales,  the  marquis  of  Salisbury,  arch-
bishop Manning,  sir  R.  A.  Cross,  Mr.  Goschen,
Mr.  Samuel  Morley,  and  ten  others,  gazetted  4
March.  First  met  6  March,  1884.  1st  and  2nd
Reports  attribute  the  evils  chiefly  to  defective
administration  of  laws,  and  recommend  appoint-
ment of  competent  inquirers,  and  due  action  of
local  authorities  : — issued  May,  1885.

Sir  C.  Dilke  lays  foundation  stone  of  a  large  block
of  buildings  on  charity  land  in  Hoxton  1  July,
1885 ; and  the  prince of  Wales opened  them

1  Julv.  1886

Housing  of  the  Poor  Act  (introduced  by  the
marquis  of  Salisbury)  passed  . . ..  14  Aug.  1885

Two  of  seven  blocks  of  buildings  opened  in  Seward
St.,  Goswell  Rd.  by  the  lord  mayor  about  10  June,  1S86

Artisans'  Institute,  for  promoting  general  and
technical  knowledge  ;  near  St.  Martin's  Lane  :
established  by  aid  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  lord
Lyttelton,  Mr.  S.  Morley,  and  others ;  opened

14  Oct. 1S74

Sir  Edward  Cecil  Guinness,  afterwards  Baron
Iveagh,  presents  250,000?.  to  trustees  for  the
erection  of  dwellings  for  the  labouring  poor,
200,000?.  for  London  and  50,000?.  for  Dublin
announced 20  Nov!  1889

50,000?.  to  be  lent  to  Dublin  in  addition  by  govern-
ment. Earl  Cadogan  presents  to  the  trust  an
acre  of  land  in  Chelsea,  valued  at  about  40,000? ,
announced 2I  March'  1800

The  important  Housing  of  the  Working  Classes  act
passed  ...... 18  Aug. „

AETISTS'  FUND,  was  established  in  1810  to
provide  allowances  for  sick,  and  annuities  for  in-
capacitated, members.  Artists'  General  Benevolent
Institution,  established  1814.  Artists'  Orphan
Fund,  1 87 1.

AETOIS  (N.  France),  a  province  once  held  by
the  Atrebates,  conquered  by  the  Franks  in  the  fifth
century,  given  by  Charles  the  Bold,  with  Flanders,
as  a  dowry  to  his  daughter  Judith,  on  her  murriao-e
with  Baldwin  Bras-de-fer  in  863.  Louis  XV.  created
his  grandson,  Charles  Philippe,  count  of  Artois,  who
became  king  as  Charles  X.,  16  Sept.  1824.
Re-united  to  the  crown  by  Philip  Augustus  .  .  n80
Formed  into  a  county  for  his  brother  Robert,  by

Louis  IX I2.,

Acquired,  with  Flanders,  through  marriage,  by  the

duke  of  Burgundy 1184.

Passed,  by  marriage  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  to  Maxi-
milian, to  the  house  of  Austria ....  i477

Restored  to  France ' jY%z

Reverted  to  Austria " I4g,

Conquered  for  France 1640

Finally  confirmed  to  it  by  the  treaty  of  Ninieguen,

10  Aug.  167S


ARTS.


G2


ASCENSION DAY.


1760


1824
1850


ARTS.  In  the  8th  century,  the  circle  of  sciences
was  composed  of  seven  liberal  arts — the  trivium
(grammar,  rhetoric,  logic),  the  quadrivium  (arith-
metic, music,  geometry,  and  astronomy).  Harris.
The  Royal  Society  of  England  {which  see)  obtained
its  charter,  2  April,  1663.

The  Society  of  Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts,  com-
merce, manufactures,  and  mechanics,  originated
in  the  patriotic  zeal  of  Mr.  Wm.  Shipley,  and  its
first  president,  lord  Folkestone . . March,  1754

FINE  ARTS.

First  public  exhibition  by  the  artists  of  the  British
metropolis  took  place  at  the  rooms  of  the  Society
of  Arts . . .  -

Repeated  there  for  several  years,  till  the  Royal
Academy  was  founded

■Society  of  British  Artists  was  instituted  21  May,
1823  ;  styled  Royal  by  order . . 16  Aug.

Their  first  exhibition  opened  19  April

Pre-Raphaelites  (which  see)  became  prominent  about

Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  the  Fine  Arts
founded  in  Dec

Art  Unions  began  in  France  and  Germany  early  in
the  present  century.

The  first  in  Britain  was  established  at  Edinburgh.

The  Art  Union  of  London,  112,  Strand,  was
founded  (chiefly  by  the  exertions  of  George  God-
win, the  architect,  long  hon.  sec.)  14  Feb.  1837  ;
and  chartered  1  Dec.  1846.  The  Art  Union  in-
demnity act  was  passed  3  Aug.  1844.  Subscrip-
tion for  1876,  20,932?.  ;  1877,  15,586?.  (depression
of  trade);  1884,  9,634?.

Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club,  for  exhibition  of  works
of  art,  &c,  founded

A  memorial  of  a  convention  for  promoting  univer-
sally reproductions  of  works  of  art  for  the  bene-
fit of  museums  of  all  countries,  signed  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  and  the  crown  princes  of  Prussia,
Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Italy,  Saxony,  and
others,  was  sent  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,

12  March,

€l  The  Grosvenor  Gallery,"  Bond  Street,  W.  opened

1  May,

Mr.  Hubert  Herkomer's  new  School  of  Art,  Bushey,
Herts,  opened  26  Nov.  1883  ;  incorporated  1887.

Anew  Art  Union  established  by  the  Royal  Institute
of  Painters  in  Water  Colours  announced  . Sept.  1887

The  Home  Arts  Association  established  early  1885
has  73  "centres."

"'  The  New  Gallery,"  Regent  St.,  W.,  opened  9  May,  1888

"'National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of
Art,"  president  sir  Frederick  Leighton,  estab-
lished 8 June ; first meeting (at Liverpool)

3-7  Dec. ,,

Second  congress  at  Edinburgh,  president,  the  Mar-
quis of  Lome  . . . 28  Oct.— 2  Nov.  1889

Third  Birmingham,  president  Mr.  J.  E.  Hodson,  R.  A.

4—8  Nov.  1890

Arts  anal  Crafts  Society  (Mr.  Burne-  Jones,  Mr.  Walter
Crane,  and  others),  begun 1888

Arts  and  Letters,  established  by  sir  Edwin  Arnold,
Mr.  D'Oyly  Carte,  and  others . .  7  Nov.  1889

The  Home  Arts  and  Industries  Association,  begun . 1885

Society  of  Portrait  Painters,  founded  . . July,  1891

See  British  Institution ;  National  Gallery ;  Boyal
Academy;  Albert  Hall.

ARUNDEL  CASTLE  (Sussex),  built  by  the
Saxons  about  800.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  enjoys  the
earldom  of  Arundel,  as  a  feudal  honour,  by  inherit-
ance and  possession  of  the  castle,  without  any  other
creation.  Philip  Howard,  son  of  the  attainted
duke  of  Norfolk,  was  made  earl  of  Arundel,  by
summons,  as  possessor  of  this  castle,  1580.  It  was
thoroughly  repaired  by  a  late  duke  at  a  vast  ex-
pense.

ARUNDEL  SOCIETY,  for  the  promotion
o  the  knowledge  of  art,  was  established  in  1848.  It
publishes  fac-similes  and  photographs.

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES,  called  also
Oxford  Marbles  ;  one  containing-  the  chronology  of
ancient  history  from  1582  to  355  B.C.,  and  said  to


1877


have  been  sculptured  264  B.C.  They  consist  of  37
statues,  128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were
found  in  the  isle  of  Paros,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,
about  1610.  They  were  collected  by  Mr.  W.  Petty,
purchased  by  lord  Arundel,  and  given  by  his  grand-
son Henry  Howard,  afterwards  duke  of  Norfolk,  to
the  university  of  Oxford  in  1667  ;  and  are  therefore
called  also  Oxford  Marbles.  The  characters  of
the  inscriptions  are  Greek.  A  variorum  edition  of
the  inscriptions,  by  Maittaire,  appeared  in  1732,
and  a  fine  one  by  Chandler  in  1 763  ;  and  transla-
tions by  Selden,  1628 ;  by  Prideaux,  1676 ;  see
Kicld's  Tracts;  and  Porsoris  Treatise,  1789.

ARUSPICES,  see  Haruspices.

ARYAN,  see  Avian,  and  Language.

AS,  a  Roman  weight  and  coin  :  as  a  weight,  it
was  a  pound;  as  a  coin,  it  had  different  weights,
but  the  same  value.  In  the  reign  of  Servius,  the
as  weighed  a  pound  of  brass  ;  in  the  first  Punic  war,
it  weighed  two  ounces,  264  B.C.;  in  the  second  Punic
war,  one  ounce,  218  B.C. ;  and  afterwards  half  an
ounce  ;  its  value  about  three  farthings  sterling.

ASAPH,  St.  (N.  Wales),  a  bishopric  said  to
have  been  founded  by  Kentigern,  bishop  of  Glasgow.
On  returning  into  Scotland  about  560,  he  left  St.
Asaph  his  successor,  from  whom  the  see  is  named.
It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  187?".  us.  bd.
The  present  cathedral  was  erected  by  bishop  Red-
man, 1472-95.  By  an  order  in  council,  1838,  the
sees  of  St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  were  to  have  been
united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  the
bishopric  of  Manchester  created.  This  order  was
annulled  in  1846.  Present  income  4,200?". ;  see
Manchester.  The  cathedral,  restored  by  sir  Gilbert
Scott,  re-opened  2  Sept.,  1875.

BISHOPS  OF  ST. ASAPH.

1802.  Samuel  Horsley,  died  4  Oct.  1806.

1806.  William  Cleaver,  died  15  May,  1815.

1815.  John  Luxmoore,  died  21  Jan.  1830.

1830.  William  Carey,  died  13  Sept.  1846.

1846.  Thomas  Vowler  Short,  resigned  Feb. 1870  ;  died

13  April,  1872.

1870.  Joshua  Hughes,  died  21  Jan.  1880.

1889.  Alfred  George  Edwards,  elected  2  March.

ASBESTOS,  a  native  fossil  stone,  which  may
be  split  into  threads  and  filaments,  and  which  is
endued  with  the  property  of  remaining  unconsumed
by  fire.  Cloth  was  made  of  it  by  the  Egyptians
{Herodotus),  and  napkins  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  74  ;
and  also  paper.  The  spinning  of  asbestos  known  at
Venice,  about  1500.  Porta.  Asbestos  non-inflam-
mable paints  tried  in,  and  proposed  for  use  in  theatres,
&c,  23  Dec.  1881.  Asbestos  proposed  as  an  insu-
lator for  electric  wires  by  M.  H.  Geoffrey,  Paris,
Sept.  1882.

ASCALON  (Syria),  a  city  of  the  Philistines,
shared  the  fate  of  Phoenicia  and  Judea.  The
Egyptian  army  was  defeated  here  by  the  crusaders
under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  12  Aug.  1099.  Ascalon
was  besieged  by  the  latter  in  1148,  taken  in  1153  ;
and  again  in  1191.  Its  fortifications  were  de-
stroyed for  fear  of  the  crusaders  by  the  sultan,  1270.

ASCENSION,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,
800  miles  N.  "W.  01  St.  Helena,  discovered  by  the
Portuguese  on  Ascension  day,  20  May,  150 1  ;  and
taken  possession  of  by  the  English,  Oct.  1815.

ASCENSION  DAY,  also  called  Holy  Thurs-
day, when  the  church  celebrates  the  ascension  of
our  Saviour,  the  fortieth  day  after  his  resurrection
from  the  dead,  14  May,  33  ;  first  commemorated,  it
is  said,  68.  Ascension  day,  1893,  11  May;  1894,
3  May ;  1895,  23  May ;  1896,  14  May.
Society  for  the  better  observance  of  Ascension  Day,

formed  June,  1869.


ASCHAFFENBURGr.


63


ASHTAROTH.


ASCHAFFENBURG,  on  the  Maine,  Bavaria,
S. "W.  Germany.  liere,  on  14  July,  1866,  the  Prus-
sians defeated  the  German  Federal  army,  captured
the  town,  and  took  2000  prisoners.

ASCHAM  SOCIETY,  formed  to  promote
social  intercourse  among  gentlemen  engaged  in
education,  and  improve  educational  methods,  &c.
1880.  First  president,  J.  A.  Froude ;  honorary
members,  professors  Huxley,  Tyndall,  Morley,  &c,
sirs  F.  Pollock,  J.  Lubbock,  F.  Leighton,  and  other
eminent  men.

ASCOT  RACES,  see  Races.

ASCULUM,  now  ASCOLI,  Apulia,  S.  Italy.
Near  it,  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  defeated  the  Romans,
279  B.C.  Asculum,  a  city  of  the  Piceni,  with  all
their  country,  was  conquered  by  the  consul  Seni-
pronius,  268  B.C.  Here  Andrea,  general  of  the  em-
peror Henry  VI.,  endeavouring  to  wrest  Naples
from  Tailored,  was  defeated  and  slain,  a.d.  iiqo.

ASHANTEES,  warlike  negroes  of  West  Africa.
In  1807  they  conquered  Fantee,  in  which  the
British  settlement  Cape  Coast  Castle  is  situated.

On  the  death  of  their  king,  who  had  been  friendly
to  the  English,  hostilities  began ;  the  Ashantees
defeated  about  1,000  British  under  sir  Charles
M'Carthy  at  Acera,  and  brought  away  his  skull
with  others  as  trophies  . . . .21  Jan. 1824

They  were  totally  defeated  by  col.  Purdon, 7  Aug. 1826

Treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  concluded  by  Mr.
Maclean  ;  the  independence  of  the  Fantees  re-
cognised . . . .  . 29  April, 1831

The  governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle  began  war  with
Ashantees  early  in  1863 ;  suspended  through
sickness  of  our  troops .... May, 1864

Offended  at  the  British  occupation  of  Elmina,  the
Ashantees  attacked  the  Fantees,  our  allies,  with
varying  success April, 1873

They  were  severely  repulsed,  13  June ;  Elmina
partially  bombarded  by  the  British  for  favouring
them 14  June ,,

Commodore  Commerell  and  his  party,  sailing  up
the  Prah,  attacked  and  wounded  ;  4  men  killed
by people of Chamah, which is  bombarded

14  Aug. ,,
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  (see  Hudson  Bay)  appointed

governor  of  the  colonies  on  West  Coast  of  Africa,
sails  with  troops,  &e. ... 12  Sept. ,,

He  arrives  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  2  Oct.  ;  addresses
an  assembly  of  friendly  chiefs,  urging  them  to
faithful  action  and  promising  rewards  (the  war
to  be  defensive,  if  possible) . . 4  Oct. ,,

Ashantees  defeated  in  a  conflict  in  the  bush,  at
Essaman,  near  Elmina  ;  villages  burnt,  14  Oct.  ;
again  at  Escabeo,  near  Dunquah,  by  col.  Festing

27  Oct. ,,

Despatch  from  sir  Garnet  "Wolseley,  declaring
native  allies  worthless,  and  more  British  troops
needed 31  Oct. „

Indecisive  conflict  at  Dunquah ;  lieut.  Eardley
Wilmot  killed,  3  Nov.  ;  Ashantees'  attack  on
Abrakampra  totally  defeated  ;  their  camp  taken ;
disorderly  retreat . . . . 5,  6  Nov. ,,

Col.  Wood's  indecisive  attack  at  Faisorah 27  Nov. „

The  Ashantees  said  to  be  retreating  in  disorder,

15  Dec. „
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  marches  towards  the  Prah,

27  Dec. ,,
The  King  Koffee  Kalcalli  pretends  to  accept  the

terms  offered ;  releases  captives  ; prepares  for

battle Jan. 1874

Skirmish  at  Borborassie  ;  captain  Nicol  killed,

29  Jan. ,,
Ashantees defeated by  sir Garnet Wolseley  at

Amoaful 31  Jan. „

Bocquah  captured  by  sir  A.  Alison  .  .  1  Feb.  ,,
Ashantee  attack  at  Fommanah  repulsed  2  Feb.  ,,
The  king  takes  command ; defeated  at  Ordahsa,

4  Feb.  „
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  enters  Coomassie  .  4  Feb.  ,,
The  king  not  acceding  to  proposals,  his  palace  and

city  burnt 6  Feb. „


Daring  ride  through  Coomassie  by  capt.  Sartorius,

11  Feb. 1874

The  British  retreat ;  a  treaty  of  peace  (terms :
perpetual  peace  ;  indemnity  of  50,000  oz.  of  gold  ;
supremacy  over  Adansi  and  other  tribes  re-
nounced ;  free  trade  guaranteed ;  human  sacri-
fices to  be  prohibited ;)  signed . . 13  Feb. ,,

The  king  fearing  attack  from  capt.  Glover,  sends
first  instalment  of  gold  (1000  oz.)  . 13  Feb. ,,

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  enters  Cape  Coast  Castle,
19  Feb.  ;  sails  ;  arrives  at  Portsmouth 21  March „

The  courage,  skill,  and  discipline  of  the  troops  and
sadors  highly  commended ;  expedition  cost  about
goo,oooL

The  troops  reviewed  by  the  Queen  at  Windsor ;
sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  commodores  Commerell  and
Hewett,  col.  Festing,  capt.  Fremantle,  sir  A.
Alison,  and  commander  Glover  thanked  by  par-
liament . . . . . .30  March ,,

The  deposed  King  Koffee  Kalcalli,  said  to  be
defeated  in  his  attack  on  his  brother,  king
Wemsah Sept.  1876

The  king  demands  surrender  of  a  fugitive  prince  by
the  governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  18  Jan.  ;  no
result ;  professes  desire  of  peace . . April,  1881

The  king  sends  the  golden  axe  to  the  queen,  who
receives  it  at  Windsor  Castle . . 30  June, ,,

Deposition  of  king  Mensah,  and  desire  of  British
protection  announced . . . .28  June,  1883

Fighting  at  Coomassie  between  partizans  of  king
Mensah  and  the  ex-king  Kofl'ee  Kalcalli 3  and  5

Aug. „

King  Bugay  requests  British  intervention Aug. ,,

Koffee  Kalcalli's  partizans  totally  defeated,  an-
nounced 31  Aug. ,,

He  and  Mensah  prisoners . . .  Aug. — Nov. ,,

Massacre  of  Koffee's  adherents . . .  Dec. „

Death  of  the  king,  and  Koflee  Kalcalli :  civil  war
reported Aug. — Dec.  1884

ASHBOURNE'S  (Lord)  ACT,  see  Ireland,
14  Aug.  1885,  and  Nov.  1888 ;  new  act  passed  24
Dec.  1888. Reported  very  successful,  Dec.  1890-1.

ASHBURTON  TREATY,  concluded  at
Washington,  9  Aug.  1842,  by  Alexander  lord  Ash-
burton,  and  John  Tyler,  president  of  the  United
States :  it  defined  the  boundaries  of  the  respective
countries  between  Canada  and  the  state  of  Maine,
settled  the  extradition  of  criminals,  &c.

ASHDOD,  or  AZOTUS,  seat  of  the  worship  of
the  Phoenician  god,  Dagon,  which  fell  down  before
the  ark  of  the  Lord,  captured  by  the  Philistines
from  the  Israelites,  about  1141  B.C.  (1  Sam.  v.)
Ashdod  was  taken  by  the  Egyptians  after  29  years'
siege,  the  longest  recorded,  B.C.  630. Herodotus.

ASHDOWN,  or  ASSENDDNE,  now  thought
to  be  Aston,  Berks,  where  Ethelred  and  his  brother
Alfred  defeated  the  Danes  in  871.  At  Ashdown,
near  Saffron- Walden,  Essex,  Canute  defeated  Ed-
mund Ironside  with  great  slaughter,  1016.

Tradition  says  that  the  day  after  the.  battle  in  871
Alfred  caused  his  army  to  carve  the  figure  of  a  white
horse,  the  standard  of  Hengist,  in  the  vale.  Mr.
Thomas  Hughes  ("Tom  Brown"),  in  his  book  "The
Scouring  of  the  White  Horse "  (1859),  describes  the
work  and  festival  on  17  and  18  Sept.  1857,  a  ceremony
performed  at  intervals  from  time  immemorial.  Records
are  found  of  the  "scouring"  in  1755,  27  May,  1776,  15
May,  1780,  1785,  1803,  1812  or  1813,  1825,  19,  20  Sept.,
Sept.  1843.

ASHMOLEAN  MUSEUM  (books,  manu-
scripts, coins,  &c),  was  presented  to  the  university
of  Oxford  by  Elias  Ashmole,  the  herald  and  anti-
quary, and  opened  1682.  It  included  the  collections
of  the  Tradescants,  to  whom  he  was  executor.  He
died  at  Lambeth  in  1692.  The  Ashmolean  Society,
Oxford  (scientific),  was  established  in  1828.

ASHTAROTH,  a  Phoenician  goddess,  occa-
sionally worshipped  by  the  Israelites  (see  Judges
ii.  13)  about  1406  B.C.,  and  even  by  Solomon,  about
984  B.C. (1  Ki>igs  xi.  5.)


ASH-WEDNESDAY.


64


ASSASSINS.


ASH- WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of  Lent,
which  in  early  times  began  on  the  Sunday  now
called  the  first  in  Lent.  It  is  said  that  pope
Felix  III.,  in  487,  first  added  the  four  days  pre-
ceding the  old  Lent  Sunday,  to  raise  the  number  of
fasting  days  to  forty ;  that  Gregory  the  Great  (pope,
590)  introduced  the  sprinkling  of  ashes  on  the  first
of  the  four  additional  days,  and  hence  the  names  of
Dies  Cinerum,  or  Ash- Wednesday.  At  the  Refor-
mation this  practice  was  abolished,  "as  being  a
mere  shadow,  or  vain  show."  Ash- Wednesday,
1893,  15  Feb. ;  1894,  7  Feb. ;  1895,  27  Feb. ;  1896,
19  Feb. ;  1897,  3  Mar.

ASIA,  the  largest  division  of  the  globe  ;  part  of
it  was  so  called  by  the  Greeks.  The  area  of  Asia
and  its  islands  is  estimated  at  17,255,890  square-
miles.  Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the  world
peopled :  here  the  law  of  God  was  first  promulgated  ;
here  many  of  the  greatest  monarchies  of  the  earth
had  their  rise ;  and  hence  most  of  the  arts  and
sciences  have  been  derived.  Its  early  history  is
derived  from  the  Bible  and  fiom  Herodotus,  who
relates  the  wars  of  Croesus,  Cyrus,  and  others.  The
Central  Asian  Eailway  from  the  Caspian  to  Samar-
cand  constructed  by  general  Annenkoff  for  Russia,
which  now  possesses  very  great  influence  over  the
country,  opened  1888.  See  Population,  Jews,  China,
India,  Persia,  Turkey,  and  the  other  countries.

ASIA  MINOE,  now  Anatolia,  comprised

the  Ionian  colonies  on  the  coast,  the  early  seats  of
Greek  civilisation,  and  the  countries  Mysia,  Phrygia,
Lycia,  Bithynia,  Caria,  Lydia,  Cappadocia,  Galatia,
&c,  with  the  cities  Troy,  Ephesus,  Smyrna  (all
which  see) .  From  the  time  of  the  rise  of  the  As-
syrian monarchy,  about  2000  B.C.,  to  that  of  the
Turks  under  Osman,  Asia  Minor  was  the  battle-
field of  the  conquerors  of  the  world.

First  settlement  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  about  B.C.  1043
AsiaMmorsubduedbytheMed.es . . about 711

Conquered  by  Cyrus about 546

Contest  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians begins 544
Asia  Minor  conquered  by  Alexander . . . . 332

Contended  for  by  his  successors  ;  separate  king-
doms established  .  .... 321-278

Gradually  acquired  by  the  Romans B.C.  188  to  a.d.  15
Possessed  by  the  Persians . . . . . . 609

Partially  recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil. . . 874
Invaded  by  Timour ....... 1402

Taken  from  the  Greek  emperor,  and  established  as
- an  empire  by  the  Turks  under  Mahomet  I. . . 1413

See  Turkey.
The  Asia  Minor  Exploration  Fund  established,  1882,  by
sir  Charles Wilson  and  others,  enabled  Mr.  W. M.
Ramsay  to  continue  his  researches. Valuable  results
I were  reported  in  1884  from  Lydia  and  the  early  home
of  the  Greeks. In  Jan.  3  890,  the  committee  appeal  for
pecuniary  help. See  Hittites.
Railway from Mersina on the  coast to  Tarsas and
Adana,  42  miles,  constructing  under  sir  T.  Tanered,
Aug. 1884  ;  first  section  opened  4  May,  1886,  wholly
opened  Aug.  1886.

ASIATIC  SOCIETIES.  The  "  Asiatic  So-
ciety of  Bengal,"  at  Calcutta,  was  established  by
sir  William  Jones  in  1784,  "the  bounds  of  its  in-
vestigation to  be  the  geographical  limits  of  Asia."
The  "Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  which  has  several
branches  in  India,  was  founded  in  1823.  It  esta-
blished the  "Oriental  Translation  Fund,"  in  1828,
which  had  published  83  volumes  of  Eastern  litera-
ture in  1865.  The  "  Literary  Society  of  Madras,"
1845.  The  "Asiatic  Quarterly  Review,"  London,
begun  1886.

ASKESIAN  SOCIETY  (from  the  Greek aske-
sis,  exercise),  instituted  in  March,  1796,  by  some
young  men  for  discussing  philosophical  subjects.  Its
founders  were  Wm.  Allen,  Wm.  Phillips,  Alex.  Til-


loch,  Luke  Howard,  W.  II.  Pepys  and  others.  In
1806  it  merged  into  the  Geological  Society.

ASMONJEANS,  the  proper  name  of  the
family  termed  Maccabees  (which  see) .

ASPERN,  GREAT,  a  town,  and  Essling,  a
village  near  the  Danube  and  Vienna,  where  a  series
of  desperate  conflicts  took  place  between  the  Austrian
army  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  the  French
under  Napoleon,  Massena,  &c,  on  21-22  May,  1809,
ending  in  the  retreat  of  .Napoleon.  The  Austrian
loss  exceeded  20,000  men,  and  the  French  30,000.
Marshal  Lannes,  mortally  wounded  22  May,  died
31  May.  The  bridge  of  the  Danube  was  destroyed,
and  Napoleon's  retreat  endangered;  but  the  success
of  the  Austrians  was  fruitless  to  them,

ASPHALT,  a  solid  bituminous  substance,  pro-
bably derived  from  decayed  vegetable  matter.  It
was  used  as  a  building  material  in  ancient  Babylon.
Its  application  for  this  purpose  was  revived  by
Eirinus,  a  Greek  physician,  who  discovered  beds  of
it  near  Neufchatel  in  1712.  Asphalt  stone  was
found  at  Seyssel  near  Geneva  in  1802;  and  after
several  failures,  count  Sassenay  brought  it  into  use
for  pavement  about  1832.  The  artificial  asphalt
obtained  from  gas-works  began  to  be  used  as  pave-
ment about  1838.  Claridge's  patent  asphalt  was
laid  down  in  Trafalgar-square,  Jan.  1864.  Various
kinds  of  asphalt  pavement  have  been  since  laid  on
in  London.

ASPINWALL,  or  Colon,  see  Panama.

^  ASPROMONTE,  Naples.  Here  Garibaldi  was
defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner  29  Aug.  1862,
having  injudiciously  risen  against  the  French  occu-
pation of  Rome.

ASSAM  (N.  E.  India)  acquired  by  the  British
in  1825,  and  surrendered  by  tlie  king  of  Ava  in
1826.  The  tea-plant  was  discovered  here  by  Mr.
Bruce  in  1823.  A  superintendent  of  the  tea-forests
was  appointed  in  1836,  the  cultivation  of  the  plant
having  been  recommended  by  lord  William  Ben-
tinck  in  1834.  The  Assam  Tea  Company,  by  whom
Chinese  labourers  and  coolies  were  introduced,
was  established  in  1839.  After  several  years,  the
plantations  suffered  severely,  it  is  said  through  over
speculation  and  neglect  of  the  labourers ;  as  a
remedy  a  labour  act  was  passed  at  Calcutta,  about
July,  1867.
Mr.  James  Wallace  Quinton,  chief  commissioner,  a

valuable officer, esteemed by  three viceroys,

killed  at  Manipur  {which  see) . .  24  March,  1891
Chief  commissioner,  William  Ersldne  Ward . . ,,
Petroleum  discovered ;  large  quantities  obtained,

reported  . . . n  Feb.  1S92

ASSASSINATION  PLOT  to  kill  William
III.,  formed  by  some  of  the  Jacobites,  simultane-
ously with  one  for  an  insurrection  to  be  aided  by
French  invaders,  in  1696.  James  II.  and  several
noblemen  and  others  were  said  to  be  privy  to  it ;
including  the  earl  of  Ailesbuiy.  About  forty
ruffians  undertook  to  kill  William  near  Tumham
Green,  Middlesex,  when  returning  from  hunting,
14  Feb.  1696.  Information  was  given  to  William
by  Mr.  Prendergast,  a  Roman  Catholic,  through
horror  of  the  crime.  The  following  were  executed :
— Charnock,  King.,  and  Keyes,  18  March  ;  sir  John
Friend  and  sir  Wm.  Parkyns,  3  April;  Rookwood,
Lowick,  and  Cranbourne,  29  April,  1696 ;  sir
John  Fen  wick  (by  attainder),  28  January,  1697.
Sir  George  Barclay,  a  chief  organiser  of  the  plot,
escaped  to  France.

ASSASSINS,  or  ASSASSINIANS,  fanatical
Mahometans,  collected  by  Hassan-ben-Sabah,  and


ASSAY.


65


ASSEMBLY.


settled  in  Persia  about  1090.  In  Syria  they  pos-
sessed a  large  tract  of  land  among  the  mountains  of
Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Mont-
ferrat  in  1192,  Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213,  and  the
khan  of  Tartary  in  1254.  They  were  extirpated  in
Persia  about  1258  and  in  Syria  about  1272.  The
chief  of  the  corps  was  named  "  Ancient  of  the
Mountain"  and  "  Old  Man  of  the  Momitain."
They  trained  up  young  people  to  assassinate  such
persons  as  their  chief  had  devoted  to  destruction.
Henault. From  them  came  the  word  assassin.


REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND  ATTEMPTS.

See  Rome,  Emperors,  for  many  assassinations.

Abdul  Aziz,  sultan  (see  Turkey,  1881) . 4  June,  1876
Abdurrahman, Ameer of Afghanistan  ; attempt

26  Dec.  1888
Albert  I.,  emperor  of Germany, by  his  nephew

John i  May,  1308

Alexander  II.  of  Russia ;  attempts:  by  Karakozow  at
St.  Petersburg,  16  April,  1866 ;  by  Berezowski
at  Paris,  6  June,  1867  ;  by  Alexander  SoloviefT,  14
April,  1879 ;  by  undermining  a  railway  train,  1
Dec.  1879  i  °y  explosion  of  Winter  palace,  St.
Petersburg,  17  Feb.  1880  ;  killed  by  explosion  of
a  bomb  thrown  by  a  man  who  is  himself  killed,
St.  Petersburg . .  .2  p.m.  13  March,  1881

Alexander  III. ;  attempts:  13  March,  1887  ; May,  1888
Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain,  attempts :  by  J.  O.  Moneasi,

25  Oct.  1878 ;  by  Francisco  Otero  Gonzalez,  30  Dec.  1879
Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta,  when  king  of  Spain  ;

attempt 19  July,  1872

Artaxerxes  III.  of  Persia ;  by  Bagoas . about  B.C. 338
Aurnale,  due  d' ;  attempt . . . -13  Sept.  1841
Beaton,  David,  cardinal ;  by  reformers .  29  May,  1546
Becket,  Thomas  a,  abp.  of  Canterbury . 29  Dec.  1170
Berri,  Charles  due  de  (father  of  the  comte  de  Cham-
bord)' ....  . . 13  Feb.  1820

Bismarck,  prince ;  attempt,  by  Blind,  7  May,  1866 ;

by  Kullniann 13  July,  1874

Bra'tiano, premier of  Roumania ;  attempt, by  if.

Pietraro 14  Dec.  1880

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  duke  of; by  John

Felton 23  Aug.  1628

Burgundy,  John  the  Fearless,  duke  of ;  by  Orleanists,

10  Sept.  1419
Csesar,  Julius  ;  by  Brutus  and  others  15  March,  B.C. 44
Capo  d'Istria,  count ;  Greek  statesman . 9  Oct.  1831
Cavendish,  lord  Frederick,  chief  Secretary  for  Ire-
laud,  and  T.  H.  Burke,  under  Secretary,  in  Phoenix

Park,  Dublin,  by  4  men 1882

Daniel,  prince  of  Montenegro . . 13  Aug.  i860
Darboy,  Georges,  abp.  of  Paris  ; by  communists,

24  May,  1871
Darius  III.  of  Persia  ;  by  Bessus  .  .  Jul}-,  b.c.  330
Edmund  the  Elder,  of  England .  26  March, 946

Edward  the  Martyr ,,,,.. 18  March, 979
Edward  II.  „ ,, . .  27  Sept.  1327

Edward  V.  ,,,,... July,  1483

Estrup,  M.  ;  attempt 21  Oct.  1885

Ferry,  Jules, ex-French premier ; by Aubertin

10  Dec.  1887
Francis  Joseph  of  Austria  ; attempt,  by  Libenyi,

18  Feb.  1853  ;  by  Overdank 18&2

Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia  :  attempt,  by  Sofe-

lage 22  May,  1850

Garfield  (Gen.)  president  of  the  United  States
(by  Charles  Jules  Guiteau)  :  Washington,  2  July,

died 19  Sept.  1881

George  III.  of  England,  mad  attempts,  by  Margaret

Nicholson,  2  Aug.  1786;  by  James  Hatfield,  15  May,  1800
George  IV.  (when  regent),  attempt .  .  28  Jan.  1817
Guise,  Henry  duke  of ;  by  order  of  Henry  III.  of

France 23  Dec.  1588

Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden;  by  Ankarstrom,  16  March,

died 29  March,  1792

Henry  III.  of  France  ;  by  Jacques  Clement,  1  Aug.

died 2  Aug.  1589

Henry  IV.  of  France;  attempt,  by  Jean  Chatel,  27

Dec.  1594  ;  killed  by  Ravaillac  .  .  14  May,  1610
Humbert I., king of Italy ;  attempt, by John

Passananti,  at  Naples ... 17  Nov.  1878
Hussein  Avni  and other  Turkish  ministers  ; by
Hassan,  a  Circassian  officer . . 15  June,  1876


Isabella  II.  of  Spain  ;  attempts,  by  La  Riva,  4  May,

1847 ;  by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852  ;  by Raymond

Fuentes 28  May,  1856

James  I.  of  Scotland  ;  by  nobles  . .  21  Feb. 1437

James  III.  of  Scotland  ;  by  nobles  . n  June,  1488

Kotzebue,  August,  German  dramatist,  for  political

motives  ;  by  Karl  Sand  ...  23  March,  1819
Lincoln,  Abraham,  president  of  United  States,  N.  A. ;

by  Wilkes  Booth,  14  April ;  died  .  15  April,  1865
Lorraine,  Louis  of  Guise,  cardinal  of ;  by  order  of

Henry  III.  of  France  ...  24  Dec.  1588
Louis  XV.  of  France  ;  attempt,  by  Damiens,  5  Jan.  1757
Louis  Philippe  of  France ;  many  a'ttempts;\>y  Fieschi,

28  July,  1835;  by  Alibaud,  25  June,  1836;  by

Meunier,  27  Dec.  1836  ;  by  Darmes,  15  Oct.  1840  ;

by  Lecomte,  14  April,  1846  ;  by  Henry.  29  July,  1846
Lytton,  lord,  viceroy  of  India  ;  attempt,  by  Busa

12  Dec.  1878
Marat ;  by  Charlotte  Corday . .  13  July,  1793

Mayo,  Richard,  earl  of,  gov. -gen.  of  India ;  by  Shere

Ali,  a  convict,  in  Andaman  isles  .  .  8  Feb.  1872
Mehemet  Ali  Pacha,  by  Albanians .  7  Sept. 1878

Melikoff,  gen.  Loris  ;  attempt  (see  Russia)  4  March,  1880
Michael,  prince  of  Servia  ...  10  June,  1868
Milan  IV.  of  Servia,  attempt  .  .  .  23  Oct.  1882
Murray,  James,  earl  of,  regent  of  Scotland,  23  Jan.  1570
Napoleon  I.  ;  attempit,  by  infernal  machine,  24  Dec.  1800
Napoleon  III.  ;  attempts,  by  Pianori,  28  April,  1855  ;

by Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855  ;  by Orsini and

others 14  Jan.  1858

Orange,  William,  prince  cf ;  by  Balthasar  Gerard

10  July,  1584
Orleans, Louis  Valois,  duke  of ;  by  Burgundians

23  Nov.  1407
Parma,  Ferdinand  Charles  III.,  duke  of;  26  March,

died 27  March,  1854

Paul,  czar  of  Russia  ;  by  nobles  .  24  March,  1801
Pedro  II.  of  Brazil ;  attempt,  by  Volti  .  15  July,  1889
Percival,  Spencer,  premier  ;  by  Bellingham,  n  May,  1812
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  ;  by  Pausanias  .  .  B.C.  336
Prim,  marshal ;  28  Dec.  died  .  .  .30  Dec.  1870
Rossi,  conte  Pellegrino,  Roman  statesman,  15  Nov.  1848
Sibour,  M.  W.  A.,  abp.  of  Paris,  by  Jean  Verger,  a

priest 3  Jan.  1857

Victoria, queen, attempts  (?). Edwd. Oxford, 10

June,  1840  ;  John  Francis,  30  May, 1842;  Bean,

3  July, 1842  ;  Wm.  Hamilton,  19  May,  1849 :  R.

Maclean,  at  Windsor  ...  2  March,  1882
William  I.  of  Prussia  and  Germany  ;  attempts,  by

Oscar  Becker,  14  July,  1861  ;  by  Hodel,  11  May,

1878  ;  by  Dr.  Nobiling  .  .  .  .2  June,  1878
William  III.  of  England  see  Assassination-plot  .  1695-6
William,  prince  of  Wiirtemberg  ; attempt, by  M.

Muller 20  Oct.  1889

ASSAY  of  Gold  and  Silver,  originated

with  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  royal  treasurer  in
the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Du  Cange.  But  certainly
some  species  of  assay  was  practised  as  early  as  the
Roman  conquest.  Assay  early  established  in  Eng-
land was  regulated  by  statutes,  1238,  1700,  and
1705.  Assay  masters  appointed  at  Newcastle,  1 701 ;
Sheffield  and  Birmingham,  1773.  The  laws  re-
specting assay  were  amended  in  1854  and  1855.
The  alloy  of  gold  is  silver  and  copper,  that  of  silver
is  copper.  Standard  gold  is  2  carats  of  alloy  to  22  of
fine  gold.  Standard  silver  is  18  dwts.  of  copper
to  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver;  see  Goldsmiths'
Company  and  Pyx.

ASSAYE  (E.  Indies) .  The  British  army,  under
general  Arthur  Wellesley  (afterwards  duke  of  Wel-
lington), entered  the  Mahratta  states  on  the  south  ;
took  the  fort  of  Ahmednuggur,  12  Aug. ;  and  de-
feated Scindiah  and  the  rajah  of  Berar  at  Assaye,
23  Sept.  1803.  This  was  Wellesley's  first  great
battle,  in  which  he  opposed  40,000  with  only  9,600
men. The  enemy  fled,  leaving  their  artillery,  &c.

ASSEMBLY  of  (130) Divines, held  at

Westminster,  1  July,  1643,  convoked  by  order  of
parliament  to  consider  the  liturgy,  government,  and
doctrines  of  the  church.  Two  members  were  elected
for  each  county. The  presbyterian  majority  adopted


ASSENT.


66


ASSYRIA.


the  Scottish  covenant,  and  drew  up  the  directory
for  public  worship,  a  confession,  and  the  catechisms
now  used  by  the  church  of  Scotland.  The  last
(1163rd)  meeting  was  on  22  Feb.  1649;  see  Church
of  Scotland.

ASSENT,  see  Royal  Assent.

ASSESSED  TAXES.  By  some  the  date  is  re-
ferred to  Ethelbert,  in  991  ;  to  Henry  VIII.  1522;
and  to  William  III.  1689,  when  a  land-tax  was4m-
posed  ;  see  Land  Tax.  The  assessed  taxes  yielded
in  1815  (the  last  year  of  the  war),  exclusively  of  the
land-tax,  6,524,766?.,  their  highest  amount.  These
imposts  have  varied  in  their  nature  and  amount,
according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  state.  They  were
considerably  advauced  in  1797  and  1801,  et  seq.,  but
reduced  in  1816,  and  in  subsequent  years.  An  act
for  the  repeal  of  certain  assessed  taxes  was  passed
16  &  17  Vict.  c.  90,  20  Aug.  1853,  explained  and
amended  by  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  1,  17  Feb.  1854. — Acts
for  the  better  securing  and  accounting  for  the  As-
sessed and  Income  Taxes,  10  Aug.  1854;  see  Taxes,
and  Income  Tax.  Changes  were  made  in  the  as-
sessed taxes,  their  time  of  collection,  &c,  by  the
Revenue  act,  passed  24  June,  1869.  Licences  for
servants,  dogs,  and  armorial  bearings  were  also  in-
troduced. An  act  to  provide  for  uniformity  in  the
assessment  of  rateable  property  in  the  metropolis
was  passed  9  Aug.  1869.  The  "Court  of  General
Assessment  first  met  19  May,  1870.  See  House
Duty  and  Land  Tax.  Amount  received,  year
1871-2,  about  2,330,000?.;  1874-5,  2,440,000?.;
1875-6,  2,496,000/.  ;  1876-7,  2,532,000?. ;  1877-8,
2,670,000?.;  1878-9,  2,720,000?.;  1879-80,
2,670,000?.;  1882-3,2,800,000?.;  1883-4,2,875,000?.;
1886-7,  2,980,000?.  ;  1887-8,  2,970,000?. ;  1890-91,
2,600,000?.

ASSIENTO,  a  contract  between  the  king  of
Spain  and  other  powers,  for  furnishing  the  Spanish
dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves,  began  with
the  Flemings.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  13  July,
1713,  the  British  government  engaged  to  furnish
4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish  America  for  thirty
years.  The  contract  was  renew  ed  in  1 748,  but  given
up  in  1750 ;  see  Guinea.

ASSIGN  ATS,  a  forced  paper  currency,  ordered
by  the  National  Assembly  of  France  to  support
public  credit  during  the  revolution,  April,  1790.
At  one  period,  eight  milliards,  or  nearly  350  millions
of  pounds  sterling,  of  this  paper  were  in  circulation
in  France  and  its  dependencies.  Alison.  Assignats
were  superseded  by  mandats  in  1796.

ASSIZE  of  Battle,  see  Appeal.

ASSIZE  of  Bread,  &c,  see  Bread,  and  Wool.

ASSIZE  of  Jerusalem,  a  valuable  code  of
laws  compiled  under  the  direction  of  Godfrey  of
Bouillon,  king  of  Jerusalem,  in  1100.

ASSIZE  COURTS  (from  assideo,  I  sit)  are
very  ancient  in  England,  and  in  old  law  books  are
defined  to  be  an  assembly  of  knights  and  other  sub-
stantial men,  with  the  justice,  to  meet  at  a  certain
time  and  place:  regulated  by  Magna  Charta,  1215.
The  present  justices  of  assize  and  Nisi  Prius  are
derived  from  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.
1284.  Coke;  Blaclcstone.  "The  king  doth  will
that  no  lord,  or  other  of  the  country,  shall  sit  upon
the  bench  with  the  justices  to  take  assize  in  their
sessions  in  the  counties  of  England,  upon  great  for-
feiture to  the  king."  20  Rich.  II.  1396.  Statutes,
Brough  Act.  Assizes  are  general  or  special ;  general
when  the  judges  go  their  circuits,  and  special  when
a  commission  is  issued  to  take  cognisance  of  one  or
more  causes  ;  see  Bloody  Assize.


ASSOCIATIONS,  see  British,  National  Asso-
ciations, Christian,  §c.

ASSUMPTION,  Feast  of  the,  15  Aug.

It  is  observed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in  honour  of
the  Virgin  Mary,  said  to  have  been  taken  up  to
heaven  in  her  corporeal  form,  body  and  spirit,  on
this  day,  a.d.  45,  in  her  75th  year.  The  festival
was  instituted  in  the  7th  century,  and  enjoined  by
the  council  of  Mentz,  813.
ASSURANCE,  see  Insurance.
ASSYRIA,  originally  Assur,  an  Asiatic  country
between  Mesopotamia  and  Media,  was  the  seat  of
the  earliest  recorded  monarchy.  Till  recently  its
history  was  mainly  derived  from  Greek  historians,
Ctesias,  Herodotus,  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  Berosus,
a  Grseco-Chaldean  priest,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.
The  discovery  by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  Austin  Layard  of
the  Ninevite  antiquities,nowin  the  British  Museum,
and  the  deciphering  of  many  ancient  cuneiform  in-
scriptions, by  Grotefend,  sir  H.  Rawlinson,  and
other  scholars,  have  thrown  much  light  upon  Assy-
rian history.  The  chronologers,  Blair,  Usher,  Hales,
and  Clinton,  differ  much  in  the  dates.  The  results
of  recent  investigations  are  given  in  the  rev.  G.
Rawlinson's  "Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient
World,"  and  in  prof.  A.  Sace's  "Assyria,  its  Princes,
Priests,  and  People,"  1885.  Mr.  W.  Boscawen's
article  "  Assyria "  in  "Chambers'  Encyclopaedia,"
1888,  has  been  used  for  much  of  the  following  sum-
mary.

Nimrod  or  Belus  reigns  .  .  b.c.  [2554  H.  2235  C]  2245
"  Asshur  buikled  Nineveh"  (Gen.  x.  11)  about  .  2218
Ninus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria,  and  names

his  capital  Nineveh [2182  C]  2069

Babylon  taken  by  Ninus,  who,  having  subdued  the
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and  all  Asia
Minor,  establishes  what  is  properly  the  Assyrian
monarchy,  of  which  Nineveh  was  the  seat  of  em-
pire. Blair  ...  .  [2233  C.]  2059
Ninyas,  an  infant,  succeeds  Ninus . ...  2017
Semiramis,  mother  of  Ninyas,  usurps  the  govern-
ment, enlarges  and  embellishes  Babylon  [2130  C]  2007
She  invades  Libya,  Ethiopia,  and  India  . Lenglet  1975
She  is  put  to  death  by  her  son  Ninyas . . .  1965
Ninyas  put  to  death,  and  Arius  reigns . . .  1927

Reign  of  Aralius 1897

Belochus,  the  last  king  of  the  race  of  Ninus  .  .  1446
He  makes  his  daughter  Atossa,  surnamed  Semiramis

II. ,  his  associate  on  the  throne .... 1433
Atossa  procures  the  death  of  her  father,  and  marries
Belatores  (or  Belaperes)  who  reigns . . .1421
*******

Sardanapalus,  luxurious  and  effeminate  when  at-
tacked by  Arbaces  Satrap  of  Media,  suddenly
becomes  energetic  and  warlike,  defends  himself
in  Nineveh  for  two  years,  and  when  overcome
burns  himself  in  his  palace,  with  his  wives  and
treasures,  thus  ending  the  first  Assyrian  Empire.

(Ctesias) 876

[This  story  and  most  of  what  is  given  above,  is
now  considered  mythical.]  The  following  is
based  upon  the  records  in  the  ancient  Assyrian
tablets  and  the  Bible.

Assyria,  a  province  of  Babylonia,  becomes  indepen-
dent ;  first  king,  Bel-kapkapi,  under  his  suc-
cessors the  kingdom  is  greatly  enlarged ;  Rim-
mon-nirari  I.  becomes  powerful  about . b.c.  1320

His  son,  Shalmaneser  I,  founds  Calah,  and  his
grandson,  Tiglath  Adar  I.  captures  Babylon .  1280

His  descendant,  Tiglath-pileser  I.  a  great  con-
queror and  the  real  founder  of  the  Assyrian
empire 1140

His  son,  Assur-bel-Kala,  a  weak  prince . . .  1110

The  empire  falls  into  decay  for  nearly  two  centuries.

The  empire  revives  under  Assur-dan  II.,  and  is  fully
restored  by  his  successors,  Rimmonnirari  II. 911-889

and  Assur-natsir-pal 883-858

His  son,  Shalmaneser  II.  makes  large  conquests  in
W.  Asia 858,  et  seq.

At  Karkar  he  defeats  Benhadad,  king  of  Damascus,
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  and  Irkhuleni,  king  of
Hamath 854


ASTEROIDS.


67


ASTRONOMY.


The  empire  enlarged  by  his  son,  Samas-Rimmon  II.

b.o.  823-810

The  Assyrian  eponym  canon  records  a  solar  eclipse,
and  is  thereby  the  basis  of  Assyrian  chronology  . 763

Assur-nirari  king ;  many  revolts  . . . 753,  et  seq.

Pulu,  or  Pul,  usurps  the  throne  and  styles  himself
Tiglath  Pileser.  He  consolidated  the  empire,
reformed  the  government,  quelled  revolts  and
enlarged  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Baby-
lon, &c 74S-727

His  weak  son,  Shalmaneser  IV.  king,  727  ;  died,  or
was  murdered  by  Sargon  the  Tartan,  who  con-
tinues the  war  in  Assyria,  captures  Samaria  and
replaces  the  inhabitants  by  colonists.  2  Kings
xvii. 720

At  the  battle  of  Raphia,  he  checks  the  advances  of
Egypt,  and  captures  the  rich  Hittite  capital,
Carchemish "... 717

Merodach-baladan  III.  raises  a  revolt  against  Sar-
gon, who,  after  a  severe  campaign,  captures
Babylon,  and  is  proclaimed  king  .... 710

.'Sargon  is  killed  in  his  new  palace . . July, 705

His  son,  Sennacherib,  succeeds  him.

Babylonia  revolts  ;  Merodach-baladan  returns,  but
is  defeated  at  Kisu  ;  Sennacherib  conquers
Phoenicia,  and  having  been  offended  by  Hezi-
kiah,  he  ravages  Judaea,  and  besieges  Jerusalem,
which  is  saved  by  the  sudden  destruction  of  his
army,  Isaiah  xxxvii.  36-38 ;  he  is  killed  by  his
sons  . .  Dec. 681

His  son,  Esar-haddon  defeats  his  brothers,  and  be-
comes king  at  Nineveh,  and  reorganizes  the
empire 680,  etseq.

He  invades  Judsea,  makes  Manasseh  prisoner.

He  invades  Egypt  and  captures  Memphis,  and
after  a  long  campaign,  subdues  the  country  and
becomes  ruler  of  nearly  all  the  ancient  world

675,  et  seq.

Disturbed  by  a  rising  in  Egypt  and  conspiracies  at
home,  he  makes  his  son,  Assur-bani-pal,  king  at
Nineveh,  April,  669,  and  dies  during  a  campaign,
Oct.  667.  Assur-bani-pal,  weak  but  ambitious,
continues  the  war  in  Egypt,  and  captures  Thebes,
invades  Phoenicia  and  captures  Tyre.

He  appoints  his  brother,  Samas-sum-yukin,  viceroy
of  Babylon,  who  heads  a  groat  revolt,  which  lasts
five  years  ;  Babylon  is  taken  and  the  rebel  prince
burns  himself  in  his  palace  with  many  of  his
followers 647

•Gradual  fall  of  the  empire;  new  revolts;  Egypt
becomes  independent ;  Kandanalu,  viceroy  of
Babylon,  and  his  successor,  father  of  Nebuchad-
nezzar, become  independent ;  Assur-bani-pal  suc-
ceeded, by  his  son,  Assur-etil-iliyukinni . '. 640

JEssar-haddon  II.  (the  Sarakos  of  Ctesias),  the  last
king  ;  the  N.  E.  provinces  invaded  by  a  vast  eon-
federation  under  the  command  of  Kazaril  (Cyax-
ares  the  Mede).

Disruption  and  anarchy  closed  by  the  siege  and
destruction  of  Nineveh .... about 606

Assyria  becomes  a  Median  province.

Assyria  subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great . . . 332

It  subsequently  formed  part  of  the  kingdoms  of
Syria,  Parthia,  and  Persia.

It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  . . .  a.d.  1637

Explored  by  col.  Chesney  and  the  Euphrates  ex-
ploring expedition 1835-37

Layard's  Discoveries  published  (see  Nineveh) .  1848-53

Mr.  George  Smith,  of  British  Museum,  began  to
study  inscriptions,  1866  ;  (received  aid  from  pro-
prietors of  Daily  Telegraph),  and  started  to  explore
Assyrian  remains,  20  June,  1873  ;  worked  in  1873-
74;  published  "  Assyrian  Discoveries  " March,  1875

Started  to  renew  his  explorations,  Oct.  1875  ;  died
at  Aleppo 19  Aug.  1876

The  explorations  resumed  by  Mr.  Hormusd  Rassam,
see  Nineveh.

Classes  for  the  study  of  Assyrian  language  formed  ;
rev.  A.  H.  Sayce  publishes  an  Assyrian  gram-
mar 1875

(See  Nineveh.)

ASTEROIDS,  a  name  improperly  given  to  the
rainor  planets,  see  under  Planets.

ASTLEY'S  AMPHITHEATRE,  see  under
Theatres.

ASTON  RIOTS,  see  Birmingham,  1884.


ASTORGA  (N.W.  Spain),  the  ancient  Asturiea
Augusta,  was  taken  by  the  French,  22  April,  1810,
and  treated  with  great  severity.

ASTRACAN  (S.  E.  Eussia),  a  province  ac-
quired from  the  Mogul's  empire  in  1554;  visited
and  settled  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1722.  Population,
1886,  328,819.

ASTROLABE,  an  instrument  for  observing
the  stars,  said  to  have  been  employed  by  Hipparchus
about  130  B.C. ;  and  by  Ptolemy  about  140  a.d.
The  modern  astrolabe  was  described  by  Fabricius  in
I5I3-

ASTROLOGY. Judicial  astrology  was  culti-
vated by  the  Chaldeans, and  transmitted  to  the
Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. It  was  much  in
vogue  in  Italy  and  France  in  the 1 6th  century.
It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted
to  it; and  Roger  Bacon,  1214-1292. Lord  Bur-
leigh is  said  to  have calculated  the  nativity  of
Elizabeth,  and  she,  and  other  princes,  were  dupes  of
Dee,  the  astrologer. It  is  stated  that  Lilly  was
consulted  by  Charles  I.  respecting  his  projected
escape  from  Carisbrook  castle  in  1647. Ferguson.
Astrological  almanacs  are  still  published  in  London.
Michael  Nostradamus,  a  French  physician  (1503-1566),
cultivated  astrology,  published  almanacs,  and  in  1555,
"  Centuries  "  and  "  Presages." His  oracles,  edited  by
Mr.  Chas.  A.  Ward,  appeared  in  1892. He  was  con-
sulted by Catherine de Medici, Henry II. and
Charles  IX.  of  France.
The  Astrological  Society  of  Great  Britain  founded 19

Feb.  1879.
"  Neptune," an astrologer, fined for practising

29  May,  1886

ASTRONOMER-ROYAL,  see  Greenwich.
ASTRONOMY.  The  earliest  astronomical
observations  were  made  at  Babylon  it  is  said  about
2234  B.  c.  The  study  was  much  advanced  in  Chaldsea
under  Nabonassar ;  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about
1 100  B.C. ;  some  say  many  centuries  before,  see
Eclipses,  Stars,  Planets,  Comets,  Sun,  Moon,  Jupiter,
Venus,  Saturn,  Neptune,  Mars,  Observatories,  §c:
Lunar  eclipses  observed  at  Babylon,  and  recorded  b.  c.

by  Ptolemy about 720

Spherical  form  of  the  earth,  and  the  true  cause  of

lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales . . about 600

Further  discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught  the

doctrine  of  celestial  motions,  and  believed  in  the

plurality  of habitable  worlds ; died . about

Meton  introduces  the  lunar-solar  cycle .

Treatises  of  Aristotle  "  concerning  the heavens,"

and  of  Autolycus  "  on  the  motion  of  the  sphere  "

(earliest  extant  works  on  astronomy) . about

Aratus  writes  a  poem  on  astronomy . . . .

Archimedes  observes  solstices,  <&e 212

Hipparchus,  greatest  of  Greek  astronomers,  deter-
mines mean  motion  of  sun  and  moon  ;  discovers

precession  of  equinoxes,  <fec 160-125

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  confirmed,  and  the
places  and  distances  of  the  planets  discovered,  by

Ptolemy a.d.  139-161

Astronomy  and  geography  cultivated  by  the  Arabs

about  760  ;  brought  into  Europe . . about  1200
Alphonsine  tables  {which  see)  composed . about  1253
Clocks  first  used  in  astronomy . . . about  1500
True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  planetary  bodies
revived  by  Copernicus,  founder  of  modern  astro-
nomy ;  his  "  Revolution  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies"

published 1543

Astronomy  advanced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  yet  ad-
heres to  the  Ptolemaic  system  . . . aboxit  1582
Galileo  constructs  a  telescope,  1609  ;  and  discovers

Jupiter's  satellites,  &c 8  Jan. 1610

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions  announced  by

Kepler  ;  1st  and  2nd,  1609  ;  3rd  ....  1618
Various  forms  of  telescopes  and  other  instruments

used  in  astronomy  invented  .... 1608-40
Cartesian  system  published  by  Dos  Cartes  . . . 1637
The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disc  first  ob-
served by  Horrocks . . . .24  Nov.  1639

f  2


470
433


35o
281


ASTUEIAS.


ATHEISM.


Huyghens  completes  the  discovery  of  Saturn's  ring  1654
Cassini  draws  his  meridian  line,  after  Dante  ;  see

Bologna 165s

The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars  dis-
covered by  Horrebow 1659

Gregory  invents  a  reflecting  telescope  . . . . 1663

Discoveries  of  Picard 1669

Charts  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Scheiner,  Lan-

grenus,  Hevelius,  Riccioli,  &c.  . . about  1670

Discoveries  of  Romer  on  the  velocity  of  light,  and
his  observation  of  Jupiter's  satellites . . .  1675

Greenwich  Observatory  founded „

Motion  of  the  sun  round  its  own  axis  proved  by

Halley 1676

Newton's  Principia  published ;  and  the  system,  as

now  taught,  demonstrated 1687

Catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Flamsteed  .  .  1688
Cassini's  chart  of  the  full  moon  executed  .  .  .  1692
Satellites  of  Saturn,  <fcc,  discovered  by  Cassini  .  1701
Halley  predicts  the  return  of  the  comet  (of  1758)  .  1705
Flamsteed's  Historia  Cmlestis  published  .  .  .  1723
Aberration  of  the  light  of  the  stars  discovered  and

explained  by  Dr.  Bradley 1727

John  Harrison  produces  chronometers  for  deter-
mining the  longitude,  1735  et  seq.,  and  obtains  the

reward 1764

"  Nautical  Almanac  "  first  published  .  .  .  .  1767
Celestial  inequalities  found  by  La  Grange  .  .  1780
Uranus  and  satellites  discovered  by  Herschcl ;  see

Georgium  Sidus 13  March  1781

Mecanique  Celeste,  by  La  Place,  published  .  .  1796
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London  founded,

1820  ;  chartered 1831

Beer  and  Madler's  map  of  the  moon  published .  .  1834
Lord  Rosse's  telescope  constructed  .  .  .  1828-45
The  planet  Neptune  (which  see)  discovered,  23  Sept.  1846
Bond photographs the moon (see Photography,

celestial) 1851

Hansen's  table  of  the  moon  published  at  expense  of

the  British  government 1857

Trustees  of  the  rev.  Richard  Sheepshanks  present
io.oool  stock  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  for
promotion  of  the  study  of  astronomy,  meteorology,

and  magnetism 2  Dec.  1858

Spectrum  analysis  applied  in  astronomy  (see  Spec-
trum) . . . .  1861

Large  photograph  of  the  moon  by  W.  de  la  Rue .  1863
Royal  Astronomical  Society  removed  from  Somer-
set-house to  Burlington-house 1874

Two  satellites  of  Mars  discovered  by  prof.  Asaph

Hall,  at  Washington,  U.S. . . 11,  18  Aug. 1877
Astronomical  Congress  opened  at  Paris  ;  arrange-
ments made  for photographing charts  of  the
heavens  at  different  observatories 16-26  April,  1887
Met  again,  Sept.  1889 ;  April,  1891 ;  vol.  ii.  of  the

charts  begun 1892

Mr.  G.  F.  Chambers'  "  Handbook  of  Astronomy,"

new  edition 1889-90

Mr.  C.  H.  F.  Peters,  of  Hamilton  college  observa-
tory, New  York,  discovered  48  minor  planets  and
several  comets  ;  born  in  Schleswig,  19  Sept.  1813 ;

died 19  July,  1890

British  Astronomical  society  :  first  meeting  24  Oct. „
Dr.  Wm.  Huggins,  president,  at  the  meeting  of  the
British  Association  at  Cardiff,describes  the  results
of  the  application  of  spectrum  analysis  and  photo-
graphy to  astronomy . . . .19  Aug.  1891
Astronomical  Society of France  inaugurated

12  Oct. ,,
Mr.  Norman  Lockyer  announces  his  theory  respect-
ing the  constitution  of  the  heavenly  bodies  (see

under  Meteors) 17  Nov. ,,

New  star  discovered  in  Auriga  (see  Milky  way)

1  Feb.  1892

ASTUEIAS  (Oviedo,  since  18.13),  N.  W.  Spain,
an  ancient  principality.  Here  Pelayo  collected  the
Gothic  fugitives,  about  713,  founded  a  new  kingdom,
and  by  his  victories  checked  Moorish  conquest.  For
his  successors,  see  Spain.  The  heir-apparent  of  the
monarchy  has  borne  the  title  "  prince  of  Asturias"
since  1388,  when  it  was  assumed  by  Henry,  son  of
John  I.  king  of  Leon,  on  his  marriage  with  a  de-
scendant of  Peter  of  Castile.  In  1808,  the  junta  of
Asturias  began  the  organised  resistance  to  the  French
usurpation.


ASYLUMS,  or  Privileged  Places,  at

first  were  places  of  refuge  for  those  who  by  acci-
dent or  necessity  had  done  things  that  rendered:
them  obnoxious  to  the  law.  God  commanded  the
Jews  to  build  cities  of  refuge,  1451  B.C.,  Numbers
xxv. — Cadmus  is  mythically  said  to  have  built  one
at  Thebes,  and  Romulus  one  at  Mount  Palatine,
751  B.C.  ;  see  Sanctuaries;  Metropolitan  District.

ATALANTA  (formerly  Juno),  training-ship,,
left  Bermuda  on  a  trial  voyage,  under  capt.  Stirling,
31  Jan.  1880.  On  board,  15  officers,  and  265  petty
officers,  seamen,  marines,  and  boys;  never  heard
of  again.  Many  merchant  vessels  were  wrecked
during  a  terrific  gale,  12-16  Feb.  1880.  See  Man-
sion House  Funds.

ATCHINOFF  INCIDENT,  see  under
Russia,  1889.

ATELIEES  NATION AUX  (National Work-
shops), were  established  by  the  French  provisional
government  in  Feb.  1848.  They  interfered  greatly
with  private  trade,  as  about  100,000  workmen  threw
themselves  upon  the  government  for  labour  and
payment.  The  breaking-up  of  the  system  led  to
the  fearful  conflicts  in  June  following ;  and  the-
system  was  abolished  in  July.

ATHANASIAN  CEEED.  Athanasius,  of
Alexandria,  was  elected  bishop,  326.  He  firmly  op-
posed the  doctrines  of  Arius  (who  denied  Christ's
divinity),  was  several  times  exiled,  and  died  in

373-  -'

Lumby,  in  "  History  of  the  Creeds  "  (1874),  asserts  that;
this  creed,  beginning  "  Quicunque  wit,"  was  not  com-
posed by  Athanasius  ;  that  it  is  made  up  of  two  dis-
tinct parts,  and  was  originally  written  in  Latin  and
put  into  its  present  shape  between  813  and  850  ;  not
connected  with  Athanasius's  name  by  any  trustworthy-
authority  before  809 ;  set  forth  first  in  Gaul,  about
870  ;  gradually  extended  into  Italy,  Britain,  &c.  ;  ac-
cepted by  the  Greek  church  about  1200.

This  creed  asserts  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost
from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  see  Filioque.

Dr.  Waterland's  Critical  History  of  this  creed  published


arisen  in  the  Church  of  England  among  both  clergy
and  laity,  1870-73.

Modifications  approved  by  several  bishops  were  negatived
by  the  lower  house  in  convocation  (62-7)  early  in  May,
1872.  The  vote  was  rejected  by  the  bishops,  and  the
agitation  continued.

In  a  letter  to  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  22  July,  1872,  the
archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  expressed  their
hope  of  devising  a  way  for  rendering  the  reading  of  the
creed  during  public  worship  not  compulsory.

Great  meeting  of  laity  at  St.  James's  Hall  in  defence  of
the  creed,  31  Jan.  1873.

ATHEISM  (from  the  Greek  a,  without,
Theos,  God,  see  Psalm  xiv.  1).  It  was  professed  by
Epicurus,  Lucretius,  and  other  philosophers.
Spinoza  was  the  defender  of  a  similar  doctrine
(1632-1677).  Lucilio  Vanini  publicly  taught  athe-
ism in  France,  and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  at
Toulouse  in  1619.  Mathias  Knutzen,  of  Holstein,
openly  professed,  atheism,  and  had  upwards  of  a
thousand  disciples  in  Germany  about  1674 ;  he  tra-
velled to  make  proselytes,  and  his  followers  were
called  Oonscienciaries,  because  they  held  that  there
is  no  other  deity  than  conscience.  "  Though  a  small
draught  of  philosophy  may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,
a  deep  draught  will  certainly  bring  him  back  again
to  the  belief  of  a  God."  Lord  Bacon.  Atheism  pre-
vailed during  the  French  republic,  1794  till  1801  ;
see  Materialism.  Bill  to  prevent  Atheists  sitting-
in  Parliament  introduced  by  lord  Bedesdale,  read
first  time,  7  March,  1882 ;  dropped.


ATHENJEA.


69


ATHENS.


ATHEN2EA  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at
Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva.  One  was  called
Panathenaea,  the  other  Chalcea ;  they  are  mythi-
cally said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Erechtheus  or
Orpheus,  1397  or  1495  B.C. ;  and  revived  by  Theseus,
who  caused  them  to  be  observed  by  all  the  Athenians,
the  first  every  fifth  year,  1234  B.C. Plutarch.

ATHENAEUM,  a  place  at  Athens,  sacred  to
Minerva,  where  the  poets  and  philosophers  recited
their  compositions.  That  of  Rome,  of  great  beauty,
was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  133. — The
Athen^um  Club  of  Loudon  was  formed  i6Feb.  1824,
for  the  association  of  persons  of  scientific  and  literary
attainments,  and  artists,  and  noblemen  and  gentle-
men, patrons  of  learning,  &c,  by  the  earls  of  Liver-
pool and  Aberdeen,  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne,  Dr.
T.  Young,  Moore,  Davy,  Scott,  Mackintosh,  Fara-
day, Croker,  Chantrey,  Lawrence,  and  seven  future
premiers.  The  clubhouse  was  erected  in  1829-30  on
the  site  of  the  late  Carlton  palace ;  it  is  of  Grecian
.architecture,  and  the  frieze  is  an  exact  copy  of
the  Panathenaic  procession  which  formed  the  frieze
of  the  Parthenon. — The  Liverpool  Athenaeum  was
opened  1  Jan.  1799. — At  Manchester,  Bristol,  and
many  other  places,  buildings  under  this  name,  and
for  a  like  purpose,  have  been  founded.  —  The
Athenaeum,  a  weekly  literary  and  scientific  journal
in  relation  to  literature,  science,  and  the  fine  arts,
originated  by  James  Silk  Buckingham, first  appeared
in  1828.  John  Francis,  publisher,  1831-82,  died  6
April,  1882.  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing, first  editor,  died
22  Sept.  1883,  aged  84.  The  Athenmum  became  the
property  of  Mr.  C.  W.  Dilke  in  1830,  and  speedily
became  an  influential  critical  journal.  See  Trials,
*87S.

ATHENE,  Y  (Galway).  Near  here  the  Irish
were  totally  defeated,  and  a  gallant  young  chief,
Feidlim  O'Connor,  slain  10  Aug.  1316.

ATHENS,  the  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  and  of
modern  Greece.  The  first  sovereign  mentioned  is
Ogyges,  who  reigned  in  Boeotia,  and  was  master  of
Attica,  then  called  Ionia.  Tradition  states  that  in
his  reign  (about  1764  B.C.)  a  deluge  laid  waste  the
country,  which  so  remained  till  the  arrival  of  the
Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by  whom  the  land
was  re-peopled,  and  twelve  cities  founded,  1556  B.C.
The  city,  said  to  have  been  first  called  Cecropia,
was  afterwards  named  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva
(Athene),  her  worship  having  been  introduced  by
Erechtheus,  1383  B.C.  Athens  was  ruled  by  seven-
teen successive  kings  (487  years),  by  thirteen
perpetual  archons  (316  years),  seven  decennial  ar-
chons  (70  years) ,  and  lastly  by  annual  archons  (760
years).  It  attained  great  power,  and  no  other  city
has  had,  in  a  short  space  of  time,  so  great  a  number
of  illustrious  citizens.  The  ancients  called  Athens
Astu,  the  city,  by  eminence,  and  one  of  the  eyes  of
Greece ;  see  Greece.  The  early  history  is  mythical
and  the  dates  conjectural.

Population  of  modern  Athens,  1871,  48,107;  1879,
63,374  ;  1889,  107,746.

The  MS.  text  of  the  recovered  work  of  Aristotle  on
the  Constitution  of  Athens,  was  published  by  the

British  Museum Jan. 1891

[See  Aristotelian  Philosophy.]

Arrival of Cecrops [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton]  b.c.
Usher ......... 1556

The  Areopagus  established 1507

Deucalion  arrives  in  Attica 1502

Reign  of  Amphictyon .... [1499  7/.]  '497
The  Panathentean  Games  . . .  [1481  H.]  1495

Erichthonius  reigns 1487

Erechtheus  teaches  husbandry I383

Eleusiiiian  mysteries  introduced  by  Eumolpus . . 1356


Erechtheus  killed  in  battle  with  the  Eleusinians  b.  c.  1347
iEgeus  invades  Attica,  and  ascends  the  throne  .  .  1283
He  throws  himself  into  the  sea,  and  is  drowned ;

hence  the  name  of  the  iEgeau  Sea. Eusebius. .  1235
Theseus,  his  son,  succeeds,  and  reigns  30  years . ,,
He  collects  his  subjects  into  one  cily,  and  names  it

Athens 1234

Eeign  of  Mnestheus,  1205;  of  Demophoon  . . .  1182

Court  of  Ephetes  established 11 79

The  Prianepsse  instituted 1178

Melanthus  conquers  Xuthus  in  single  combat  and  is

chosen  king 1128

Reign  of  Codrus,  his  son,  the  last  king . . .  1092
In  a  battle  with  the  Heraclidse,  Codrus  is  killed  :  he
had  resolved  to  perish  ;  the  oracle  having  declared
that  the  victory  should  be  with  the  side  whose

leader  was  killed 1070

Royalty  abolished  ; — Athens  governed  by  archons,

Medon  the  first (1070  H.)  1044

Alcmeon,  last  perpetual  archon,  dies  .  .  .  .  753
Cherops,  first  decennial  archon  .... 752

Hippomenes  deposed  for  his  cruelty  .  .  .  .  713
Erixias,  7th  and  last  decennial  archon,  dies . . 684

Creon,  first  annual  archon 683

Draco,  the  12th  annual  archon,  publishes  his  laws,

said  "  to  have  been  written  in  blood  "  . . . 621
Solon  supersedes  them  by  his  excellent  code . . 594
Pisistratus, the "  tyrant," seizes the supreme
power,  560; flight  of Solon,  559. Pisistratus
establishes  his  government,  537  ;  collects  a  public

library,  531 ;  dies 527

First  tragedy  acted  at  Athens,  on  a  waggon,  by

Thespis 535

Hipparchus  assassinated  by  Harmodius  and  Aristo-

geiton 514

The  law  of  ostracism  established  ; Hippias  and  the

Pisistratidte  banished 510

Lemuos  taken  by  Miltiades 504

The  Persian  invaders  defeated  at  Marathon . . 490

Death  of  Miltiades 489

Aristides,  surnamed  the  Just,  banished  .  .  .  483
Athens  taken  by  the  Persian  Xerxes  .  .  .  480
Burnt  to  the  ground  by  Mardonius  .  .  .  .  479
Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus

built 478

Themistocles  banished 471

Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  overruns  all  Thrace  .  .  469
Pericles  takes  part  in  public  affairs,  469  ; he  and

Cimon  adorn  Athens,  464  ;  the  latter  banished . 461
Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  Greece . . . 459

The  long  wall  built 457

Literature,  philosophy,  and  art  flourish . . . 448
The  first  sacred  (or  social)  war  ;  (which  see) . . ,,
Tolmidas  conducts  an  expedition  into  Bceotia,  and

is  defeated  and  killed  near  Coronea  . . . . 447
The  thirty  years'  truce  between  the  Athenians  and

Lacedaemonians 445

Herodotus  said  to  have  read  his  history  in  the

council  at  Athens ,,

Pericles  obtains  the  government .... 444

Pericles  subdues  Samos 440

Satirical  comedies  prohibited  at  Athens  . .  ,,

Alliance  between  Athens  and  Corcyra,  then  at  war
with  Corinth,  433  ;  leads  to  the  Peloponnesian  war

(lasted  27  years) ;  it  began 431

A  dreadful  plague,  which  had  ravaged  Ethiopia,
Libya,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  extends  to  Athens,  and

continues  for  five  years 430

Death  of  Pericles  of  the  plague . . ... 429
Disastrous  expedition  against  Sicily  ;  death  of  the
commanders,  Demosthenes  and  Nicias  ;  Athenian
fleet  destroyed  by  Gylippus .... 415-413

Government  of  the  "  four  hundred  " 411

Alcibiades  defeats  the  Lacedaemonians  at  Cyzicus  ;

(ivhich  see) 410

Alcibiades,  accused  of  aspiring  to  sovereign  power,

banished 407

Athens  victorious  in  a  sea  fight  at  Arginusae  .  .  406
Athenian  fleet  destroyed  by  Lysander  at  iEgospo-

tami 405

He  besieges  Athens  by  land  and  sea  ;  its  walls  are
destroyed,  and  it  capitulates,  and  the  Pelopon-
nesian war  terminates 404

Rule  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  who  are  overthrown  by

Thrasybulus  403

Socrates  (aged  70)  put  to  death 399

The  Corinthian  war  begins ...  . . 395


ATHLONE.


70


ATTAINDER.


Conon  rebuilds  the  long  walls,  and  fortifies  the

Piraeus b.c. 393

Plato  founds  the  academy 3g8

"War  against  Sparta 378

The Lacedaemonian fleet  defeated at Naxus  by

Chabrias 376

General  peace 371

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  opposes  the  Athenians  ;

see  Macedon 359

Second  sacred  (or  social)  war .... 357"3S5

First  Philippic  of  Demosthenes 352

Peace  with  Macedon 346

Battle  of  Cheronsea  (which  see) ;  the  Athenians  and

Thebans  defeated  by  Philip  .  .  .7  Aug.  338
Philip  assassinated  by  Pausanias  ....  336
Athens  submits  to  Alexander,  who  spares  the  orators 335

Death  of  Alexander • 323

The  Lamiau  war  ;  the  Athenians  and  others  rise
against Macedon, 323  : defeated at Cranon  ;

Demosthenes  poisons  himself 322

Athens  surrenders  to  Cassander,  who  governs  well,

318;  execution  of  Phocion 317

Demetrius  Poliorcetes  expels  Demetrius  Phalereus,
and  restores  the  Athenian  democracy,  307 ;  the
latter  takes  the  chair  of  philosophy  . . . , 296
A  league  between  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Egypt  . . 277
Athens  taken  by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Mace-
don, 268  ;  restored  by  Aratus . . . . . 256
The  Athenians  join  the  Achaean  league . . . 229
They  join  the  jEtolians  against  Macedon,  and  send

for  assistance  to  Rome 215

A  Roman  fleet  arrives  at  Athens  .  .  .  .211
The  Romans  proclaim  liberty  at  Athens . . . 196

Subjugation  of  Greece 144

The  Athenians  implore  assistance  against  the
Romans  from  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  whose
general,  Archelaus, makes himself master of

Athens 88

Athens  besieged  by  Sylla,  the  Roman  general  ;  it  is

reduced  to  surrender  by  famine- .... 86
Cicero  studies  at  Athens,  79  ;  and  Horace  . . . 42
The  Athenians  desert  Pompey,  to  follow  the  inte-
rests of  Caesar 47

Athens  visited  by  the  apostle  Paul  .  .  a.d.  52
Many  temples,  &c. ,  erected  by  Hadrian  .  .  122-135
Athens  taken  by  Alaric,  and  spared  from  slaughter  396
Acquired by Otho  de  la  Roche,  and afterwards

made  a  duchy 1205

Subjected  by  the  Turks . . '  . . . .  1444

By  Mahomet  II 1456

By  the  Venetians 1466

Restored  to  the  Turks 1479

Athens  suffered  much  during  the  War  of  Indepen-
dence, 1821-7. Taken  by  the  Turks  (see  Greece)

17  May,  1827
Becomes  the  capital  of  the kingdom  of  modern

Greece 1833

British School  of  Archaeology  (first  director,
F.  C.  Penrose),  opened .... Nov.  1886
See  Greece.

ATHLONE,  Koscommon,  Ireland,  -was  burnt
during  the  civil  war  in  1641.  After  the  battle  of
the  Boyne,  colonel  E.  Grace  held  Athlone  for
James  II.  against  a  besieging  army,  but  was  killed
when  it  was  taken  by  assault  by  Ginckel,  30  June,
1691 ;  see  Aughrim.

ATHOS.  A  mountain  in  Roumelia,  termed
Monte  Santo  from  its  numerous  monasteries  whose
libraries  contain  many  MSS.  especially  of  the  old
and  new  testaments,  of  great  antiquity.  Professor
Lambros  is  preparing  a  catalogue,  1889.
By  a  great  fire  in  the  forests,  many  monasteries  and

hermitages  were  destroyed,  and  about  12  monks

or  hermits  perished,  reported  about  .  2  Aug.  1890
A  monastery  was  burnt  about . . 14  June  1891

ATLANTA,  Georgia,  population,  1890,
65,533,  see  United  States,  1864.

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH,  see  Electric
Telegraph,  under  Electricity.

ATLAS,  see  Mm.

ATMOLYSIS, a method  of separating  the


constituent  gases  of  a  compound  gas  (such  as  at-
mospheric air)  by  causing  it  to  pass  through  a  vessel
of  porous  material  (such  as  graphite) ;  first  made
known  in  Aug.  1863,  by  the  discoverer,  the  late
professor  T.  Graham,  F.E.S.,  master  of  the  mint.

ATMOSPHERE,  see^V.

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAYS.  The  idea
of  producing  motion  by  atmospheric  pressure  was-
conceived  by  Papin,  the  French  engineer,  about
1680.  Experiments  were  made  on  a  line  of  rail,,
laid  down  across  Wormwood  Scrubs,  London,  be-
tween Shepherd's  Bush  and  the  Great  Western,
railroad,  to  test  the  efficacy  of  atmospheric  tubes,
the  working  of  the  air-pump,  and  speed  of  carriages
upon  this  new  principle  on  railroads  in  June,  1840^
and  then  tried  for  a  short  time  on  a  line  between,
Croydon  and  London,  1845.  Atmospheric  pressure
was  also  tried  and  abandoned,  in  1848,  on  the  South
Devon  line.  An  atmospheric  railway  was  com-
menced between  Dalkey  and  Killiney,  in  the  vicinity
of  Dublin,  in  Sept.  1843;  opened  29  March,  1844;
discontinued  in  1855.  A  similar  railway  was  pro-
posed to  be  laid  down  in  the  streets  of  London  by  Mr.
T.  \V.  llammell,  in  1857.  Mr.  Rammell's  Pneumatic
Railway  was  put  in  action  successfully  at  the  Crystal
Palace  on  27  Aug.  1864,  and  following  days.  Art
act  for  a  pneumatic  railway  between  the  Waterloo
railway  station  and  Whitehall  was  passed  in  Julyr
1865.  Atmospheric  pressure  was  proposed  for  a
submarine  railway  fromDover  to  Calais,  in  1869 ;  see
Pneumatic  Despatch.

ATOMIC  THEORY,  in  chemistry,  deals  with
the  indivisible  particles  of  all  substances.  The-
somewhat  incoherent  labours  of  his  predecessors-
(such  as  "Wenzel,  in  1777)  were  reduced  by  John
Dalton  to  four  laws  of  combining  proportion,  which
have  received  the  name  of  "Atomic  Theory."  His-
"  Chemical  Philosophy,"  containing  the  expositions
of  his  views,  appeared  in  1808.  Dr.  C.  Daubeny's
work  on  the  Atomic  Theory  was  published  in  1850.
In  his  standard  of  Atomic  ivcights  Dalton  takes-
hydrogen  as  1 .  Berzelius,  who  commenced  his  elabo-
rate researches  on  the  subject  in  1848,  adopts  oxygen
as  IOO.  The  former  standard  is  used  in  this  country,,
the  latter  on  the  continent.  The  theory  is  ac-
cepted by  some,  and  rejected  by  other  chemists.  In
1855  Hinrichs  propounded  a  new  hypothetical
science,  Atomechanics,  in  which pantogen,  composed
of  panatoms,  is  regarded  as  the  primary  chemical
principle.

ATOMS.  Democritus  (about  400  B.C.)  held"
that  the  only  existing  things  are  innumerable  in-
destructible atoms,  varying  in  form,  and  combined
in  obedience  to  mechanical  laws,  and  that  the  soul
consists  of  free,  smooth,  round  atoms  like  those  of
fire ;  and  that  nothing  happens  by  chance.  His
philosophy  was  adopted  by  Epicurus  (about  306
B.C.),  whose  doctrines  are  luminously  expounded!
by  Lucretius  in  his  great  poem,  "De  JRerum  JSTa-
turu"  (On  the  Nature  of  Things),  57  B.C.  The
atomic  philosophy,  in  a  modified  form,  was  recog-
nised by  Gassendi,  who  died  1655  A.n.  Sir  Wm.
Thomson's  discourse  "On  the  Size  of  Atoms,''  at
the  Royal  Institution,  2  Feb.  1883,  is  printed  in
the  "Proceedings,"  vol.  x.

ATREBATES,  a  Belgic  people,  subdued  by
Cajsar,  57  B.C. ;  see  Artois.

ATTAINDER,  Acts  OF,  whereby  a  person
not  only  forfeited  his  land,  but  his  blood  was  at-
tainted, have  been  numerous.  Two  witnesses  in
pases  of  high  treason  are  necessary  where  corruption
of  blood  is  incurred,  unless  the  party  accused  shall


ATTICA.


71


ATWOOD'S MACHINE.


confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  &  8  Will.  III.  1 694-5 .  Black-
stone.  The  attainder  of  lord  Wm.  Russell,  who  was
beheaded  in  Lincoln' s-inn-  fields,  21  July,  1683,  was
reversed  under  William,  in  1689.  The  rolls  and  re-
cords of  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  in  the  reign  of
James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt,  2  Oct.
1695.  Sir  John  Fenwiek  was  the  last  person
executed  by  act  of  attainder,  28  Jan.  1697.
Amongst  the  last  acts  reversed  was  the  attaint
of  the  children  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (who  was
implicated  in  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),
I  July,  1819.  In  1814  and  1833  the  severity  of  at-
tainders was  mitigated.  Several  attainders  reversed
about  1827,  and  one  in  1853  (the  earl  of  Perth).

ATTICA,  see  Athens.

ATTILA,  surnamed  the  "Scourge  of  God,"  and
thus  distinguished  for  his  conquests  and  his  crimes,
having  ravaged  the  eastern  empire  from  445  to  450,
when  he  made  peace  with  Theodosius.  He  invaded
the  western  empire,  450,  and  was  defeated  by  Aetius
at  Chalons,  451;  he  then  retired  into  Pannonia,
where  he  died  through  the  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel
on  his  nuptials  with  Ildico,  a  beautiful  virgin,  453.

ATTORNEY  (from  tour,  turn),  a  person  quali-
fied to  act  for  another  at  law.  The  number  in
Edward  III.'s  reign  was  under  400  for  the  whole
kingdom.  In  the  32nd  of  Henry  VI.,  1454,  a  law
reduced  the  practitioners  in  Norfolk,  Norwich,  and
Suffolk,  from  eighty  to  fourteen,  and  restricted  their
increase.  The  number  of  attorneys  practising  in
the  United  Kingdom  was  said  to  be  13,824  (1872).
The  qualifications  and  practice  of  attorneys  and
solicitors  are  now  regulated  by  acts  passed  in  1843,
i860,  1870,  and  1874.  By  the  Supreme  Judicature
Act  all  attorneys  styled  solicitors  since  Nov.  1875.
See  Solicitors.

ATTORNEY- GENERAL,  a  law  officer  of
the  crown,  appointed  by  letters  patent.  He  has  to
exhibit  informations  and  prosecute  for  the  king  in
matters  criminal,  and  to  file  bills  in  exchequer,  for
any  claims  concerning  the  crown  in  inheritance  or
profit.  Others  may  bring  bills  against  the  king's
attorney.  The  first  attorney-general  was  William
Bonneville,  1277.

1660.  Sir  Jeffrey  Palmer.

1670.  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  earl  of  Nottingham.
1673.  Sir  Francis  North,  knt.,  afterwards  lord  Guildford.
1675.  Sir  William  Jones.
1679.  Sir  Cresvel  Levinz,  or  Levinge,  knt.
1681.  Sir  Robert  Sawyer,  knt.
1687.  Sir  Thomas  Powis,  knt.
1689.  Henry  Pollexfen,  esq.
. „ Sir  George  Treby,  knt.

1692.  Sir  John  Summers,  knt.,  afterwards  lord  Somers.

1693.  Edward  Ward,  esq.

1695.  Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  knt. ,  afterwards  lord  Trevor.

1701.  Edward  Northey,  esq.

1707.  Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  knt.

1708.  Sir  James  Montagu,  knt.

1710.  Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  again  ;  aft.  lord  Harcourt.

,, Sir  Edward  Northey,  knt.
1718.  Nicholas  Lechmere,  esq.,  aft.  lord  Lechmere.
1720.  Sir  Robert  Raymond,  aft.  lord  Raymond.
1724.  Sir  Philip  Yorke,  aft.  carl  of  Hardwieke.
1734.  Sir  John  Willes,  knt.
1737.  Sir  Dudley  Ryder,  knt.
1754.  Hon.  William  Murray,  aft.  earl  of  Mansfield.

1756.  Sir  Robert  Henley,  knt.,  aft.  earl  of  Northiiigton.

1757.  Sir  Charles  Pratt,  knt.,  afterwards  lord  Camden.

1762.  Hon.  Charles  Yorke.

1763.  Sir  Fletcher  Norton,  knt.,  aft.  lord  Grantley.

1765.  Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  again  ;  afterwards  lord  Morden,

and  lord  chancellor;  see  Cha,ncellors.

1766.  William  de  Grey,  afterwards  lord  Walsingliam.
1771.  Edward  Thurlow,  esq.,  afterwards  lord  Thurlow.
1778.  Alex.  Wedderburn,  aft.  lord  Loughborough.
1780.  James  Wallace,  esq.


1782.  Lloyd  Kenyon,  esq.

1783.  James  Wallace,  esq.
,, John  Lee,  esq.

„ Lloyd  Kenyon,  again ;  afterwards  lord  Kenyon.

1784.  Sir  Richard  P.  Arden,  aft.  lord  Alvanley.
1788.  Sir  Archibald  Macdonald.

1793.  Sir  John  Scott,  afterwards  lord  Eldon.
1799-  Sir  J.  Mitford,  afterwards  lord  Redesdale.

1801.  Sir  Edward  Law,  aft.  lord  Ellenborough,  14  Feb.

1802.  Hon.  Spencer  Percival  (murdered  by  Bellingham,

11  May,  1812),  15  April.

1806.  Sir  Arthur  Pigott,  12  Feb.

1807.  Sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  afterwards  chief  justice  of  the

common  pleas,  7  April.

1812.  Sir  Thomas  Plumer,  afterwards  first  vice-chancellor

of  England,  26  June.

1813.  Sir  William  Garrow,  4  May.
181 7.  Sir  Samuel  Shepherd,  7  May.

1819.  Sir  Robert  Gifford,  aft.  lord  Gifford,  24  July.
1824.  Sir  John  Singleton  Copley,  afterwards  lord  Lynd-
hurst,  9  Jan.

1826.  Sir  Charles  Wetherell,  20  Sept.

1827.  Sir  James  Scarlett,  27  April.

1828.  Sir  Charles  Wetherell,  again,  19  Feb.

1829.  Sir  Jas.  Scarlett,  again  ;  aft.  lord  Abinger,  29  June.

1830.  SirThos.  Denman,  aft.  lord  Denman,  26  Nov.
1832.  Sir  William  Home,  26  Nov.

1834.  Sir  John  Campbell,  1  March.
,, Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  17  Dec.

1835.  Sir  John  Campbell,  again,  afterwards  lord  Camp-

bell (and,  1859,  lord  chancellor),  30  April.
1841.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  3  July.

,, Sir  F.  Pollock,  again  ;  aft.  chief  baron,  6  Sept.

1844.  Sir  William  W.  Follett,  15  April.

1845.  Sir  Frederick  Thesiger,  4  July.

1846.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  again  ;  afterwards  lord  Truro,

and  lord  chancellor,  6  July.
„ Sir  John  Jervis,  afterwards  chief  justice of  the
common  pleas,  13  July.

1850.  Sir  John  Romilly,  aft.  master  of  the  rolls,  11  July.

1851.  Sir  Alex.  James  Edmund  Cockburn,  28  March.

1852.  Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards  lord

Chelmsford,  and  lord  chancellor,  2  March.
,, Sir  Alexander  Cockburn,  again  ;  aft. chief  justice
of  common  pleas  and  queen's  bench,  28  Dec.
1856.  Sir  Richard  Bethell,  15  Nov.

1858.  Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly,  27  Feb.,  aft.  chief  baron,  1866  ;

d.  1880.

1859.  Sir  R.  Bethell  (since  lord  Westbury,  and  lord  chan-

cellor), 18  June.
1S61.  Sir  William  Atherton,  27  July.
1863.  Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  aft.  lord  Selborne,  and  lord

chancellor,  2  Oct.

1866.  Sir  Hugh  M.  Cairns,  aft.  lord  Cairns,  and  lord  chan-

cellor, 13  July.
,, Sir  John  Rolt  (made  justice  of  appeal),  28  Oct.

1867.  Sir  John  Karslake,  1  July.

868.  Sir  Robert  Porrett  Collier,  12  Dec.
871.  Sir  John  Duke  Coleridge,  aft.  lord  Coleridge,  and
lord  chief  justice,  10  Nov.

873.  Sir  Henry  James,  Nov.

874.  Sir  John  Karslake,  Feb.

,, Sir  Richard  Baggallay,  22  April.

875.  Sir  John  Holker,  25  Nov.
880.  Sir  Henry  James,  13  May.

885.  Sir  Richard  E.  Webster,  June.

886.  Sir  Charles  Russell,  about  6  Feb.
„ Sir  Richard  E.  Webster,  26  July.

1892.  Sir  Charles  Russell,  18  Aug.

ATTORNEYS'  AND  SOLICITORS'
ACT,  passed  14  July,  1870.

ATTRACTION,  described  by  Copernicus,
about  1520,  as  an  appetence  or  appetite  which  the
Creator  impressed  upon  all  parts  of  matter;  by
Kepleras  a  corporeal  affection  tendingto  union,  1605.
In  1687,  sir  I.  Newton  published  his  "  Principia,"
containing  his  important  researches  on  this  subject.
See  Gravitation,  Magnetism,  and  Electricity.  Dr.
C.  William  Siemens  exhibited  his  attraction-meter
at  the  lloyal  Society,  1876.

ATWOOD'S  MACHINE,  for  proving  the
laws  of  accelerated  motion  by  the  falling  of  weights,
invented  by  George  Atwood  ;  described  1784:  he
died  11  July,  1807.


AUBAINE.


72


AUGUSTIN.


AUBAINE,  a  right  of  the  French  kings,  which
existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  monarchy,  where-
by they  claimed  the  property  of  every  stranger  who
died  in  their  country,  without  having  been  na-
turalised, was  abolished  by  the  national  assembly
in  1790-91;  re-established  by  Napoleon  in  1804,
and  finally  annulled  14  July,  1819.

AUBEROCHE,  Guienne,  S.  France.  The
earl  of  Derby  defeated  the  French,  besieging  this
place,  19  Aug.  1344.

AUCKLAND,  capital  of  North  Island  (New
Zealand),  was  founded  Sept.  1840.  The  population
of  the  district,  in  1857,  was  estimated  at  15,000
Europeans,  and 35,000 natives;  in  1891,  total 28,773.
The  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Wellington
on  Cook's  Strait,  Dec.  1864;  population  in  1887,
59,600.

AUCTION,  a  kind  of  sale  known  to  the  Romans,
mentioned  by  Cicero,  Livy,  and  Petronius  Arbiter
(about  a.d.  66).  The  first  in  Britain  was  about  1700,
by  Elisha  Yale,  a  governor  of  Fort  George,  now
Madras,  in  the  East  Indies,  who  thus  sold  the  goods
he  had  brought  home.  Auction  and  sales'  tax
began,  1779.  Various  acts  of  parliament  have
regulated  auctions  and  imposed  duties,  in  some
cases  as  high  as  five  per  cent.  By  8  Vict.  c.  15
(1845),  the  duties  were  repealed,  and  a  charge  im-
posed "on  the  licence  to  be  taken  out  by  all  auc-
tioneers in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  10/."  In  1858
there  were  4358  licences  granted,  producing  43,580^.
The  abuses  at  auctions,  termed  "knock-outs,"
caused  by  combinations  of  brokers  and  others,  ex-
cited much  attention  in  Sept.  1866.  An  act  regu-
lating sales  of  land  by  auction  was  passed  15  July,
1867.  Certain  sales  are  now  exempt  from  being  con-
ducted by  a  licensed  auctioneer,  such  as  goods  and
chattels  under  a  distress  for  rent,  and  sales  under
the  provisions  of  the  Small  Debts'  acts  for  Scotland
and  Ireland.

AUDIANI,  followers  of  Audssus  of  Mesopo-
tamia, who,  having  been  expelled  from  the  Syrian
church  on  account  of  his  severely  reproving  the
vices  of  the  clergy,  about  338,  formed  a  sect  and
became  its  bishop.  He  was  banished  to  Scythia,
where  he  is  said  to  have  made  many  converts.  His
followers  celebrated  Easter  at  the  time  of  the  Jewish
passover,  attributed  the  human  figure  to  the  Deity,
and  had  other  peculiar  tenets.

AUDIOMETER  (from  audio,  I  hear),  an  in-
strument for  the  measurement  of  the  faculty  of
hearing;  invented  by  professor  Hughes.  It  con-
sists of  a  battery  of  two  Leclanche's  cells  connected
with  a  simple  microphone  and  telephone  ;  described
to  the  Royal  Society,  15  May,  1879.

AUDIPHONE,  an  instrument  to  assist  the
partially  deaf,  invented  by  Mr.  R.  G.  Rhodes  of
Chicago,  and  modified  by  M.  Colladon  of  Geneva,
in  1880.  It  consists  of  a  thin  sheet  of  hard  ebonite
rubber  or  card-board.  This  should  be  placed
against  the  teeth,  through  which  and  other  bones
the  vibrations  are  conveyed  to  the  auditory  nerve.

AUDIT-OFFICE,  Somerset  House.  Com-
missioners for  auditing  the  public  accounts  were
appointed  in  1785,  and  many  statutes  regulating
their  duties  have  since  been  enacted.

AUDLEY'S  REBELLION,  see  Rebellions,
J497-

AUERSTADT  (Prussia) .  Here  on  14  Oct.  1806,
the  French,  under  Davoust,  signally  defeated  the
Prussians,  under  Blucher ;  see  Jena.

AUGHRIM,  near  Athlone,  in  Ireland,  where


on  12  July,  1691,  a  battle  was  fought  between  the
Irish,  headed  by  the  French  general  St.  Ruth,  and
the  English  under  general  Ginckel.  The  former
were  defeated  and  lost  7000  men;  the  latter  lost
only  600  killed  and  960  wounded.  St.  Ruth  was
slain.  This  engagement  proved  decisively  fatal  to
the  interest  of  James  II.,  and  Ginckel  was  created
earl  of  Athlone.

AUGMENTATION of  Poor  Livings'

OFFICE,  established  in  1704.  5597  clerical  livings,
not  exceeding  50^.  per  annum,  were  found  by  the
commissioners  under  the  act  of  Anne  capable  of
augmentation,  by  means  of  the  bounty  then
established.

AUGMENTATIONS  COURT,  established
in  1535  by  27  Hen.  VI 11.  c.  27,  in  relation  to  cap.  28
same  session,  which  gave  the  king  the  property  of
all  monasteries  having  200/.  a  year.  The  court  was
abolished  by  Mary,  1553,  and  restored  by  Elizabeth,
I5S8.

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally  a  colony
settled  by  Augustus,  about  12  B.C. ;  became  a  free
city,  and  flourished  during  the  middle  ages. Here
many  important  diets  of  the  empire  have  been  held.
In  a.d.  952,  a  council  confirmed  the  order  for  the
celibacy  of  the  priesthood. Augsburg  has  suffered
much  by  war,  having  been  frequently taken  by
siege, — in  788,  1703,  1704,  and,  last,  by  the  French,
10  Oct.  1805,  who  restored  it  to  Bavaria  in  March,
1806. Population,  1890,  75,523.
Augsburg  Diet,  summoned  by  the  emperor  Charles
V.,  to  settle  the  religious  disputes  of  Germany,
met  20  June,  and  separated  . . .  Nov. 1530
Confession  of  Augsburg,  compiled  by  Melanchthon,
Luther and others, signed  by  the Protestant
princes,  presented  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and
read  to  the  diet ....  25  June,  1530
Interim of  Augsburg, a document issued by
Charles  V.  :  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  Catholics
and  Protestants  :  (it  was  fruitless  and  was  with-
drawn) read  15  May,  1548

"Peace  of  Religion"  signed  at  Augsburg,  25  Sept.  1555
League  of  Augsburg,  for  maintenance  of  the  treaties
of  Minister,  Nimeguen  :  a  treaty  between  Holland
and  other  powers  against  France,  signed  9  July,  1686

AUGURY.  Husbandry  was  in  part  regulated
by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds,  long  before  the
time  of  Hesiod.  Three  augurs,  at  Rome,  with  ves-
tals and  several  orders  of  the  priesthood,  were
formally  constituted  by  Numa,  about  710  B.C.  The
number  increased,  and  was  fifteen  at  the  time  of
Sylla,  81.  The  college  of  augurs  was  abolished  by
Theodosius  about  a.d.  390.

AUGUST,  the  sixth  month  of  the  Roman
year  (originally  called  Sextilis,  or  the  sixth  from
March),  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  received  its  pre-
sent name  in  honour  of  Augustus  Caesar,  in  the
year  8  B.C.,  because  in  this  month  he  was  created
consul,  had  thrice  triumphed  in  Rome,  added  Egypt
to  the  Roman  empire,  and  made  an  end  of  the
civil  wars.  He  added  one  day  to  the  month,  making
it  31  days.  The  appearance  of  shooting  stars  on
the  10th  of  Aug.  was  observed  in  the  middle  ages,
when  they  were  termed  "  St.  Lawrence's  tears."
Their  periodicity  was  noticed  by  Mr.  Forster  early
in  the  present  centuiy.  See  under  France,  10
August,  1792.

AUGUSTAN  ERA  began  14  Feb.  27  B.C.,
or  727  years  after  the  foundation  of  Rome.

AUGUSTIN  or  Austin  Friars,  a  religious
order,  which  ascribes  its  origin  to  St.  Augustin,.
bishop  of  Hippo,  who  died  430.  They  first  appeared
about  the  nth  century,  and  the  order  was  consti-
tuted by  pope  Alexander  IV.,  1256. The  rule  re-


AULIC COUNCIL.


73


AUSTEALASIA.


quires  poverty,  humility,  and  chastity.  Martin
Luther  was  an  Augustin  monk.  The  Augustins
held  the  doctrine  of  free  grace,  and  were  rivals  of
the  Dominicans.  The  order  appeared  in  England
soon  after  the  conquest,  and  had  32  houses  at  the
suppression,  1536.  One  of  their  churches,  at  Austin
Friars,  London,  erected  1354,  and  since  the  Be-
formation  used  by  Dutch  pi-otestants,  was  partially
destroyed  by  fire,  22  Nov.  1862.  It  was  restored,
and  reopened,  1  Oct.  1865.  A  religious  house  of
the  order,  dedicated  to  St.  Monica,  mother  of
Augustin,  was  founded  in  Hoxton-square,  London,
1864.

AULIC  COUNCIL,  a  sovereign  court  in
Germany,  established  by  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.,
being  one  of  the  two  courts,  the  first  called  the
Imperial  Chamber  civil  and  criminal,  instituted  at
"Worms,  1495,  and  afterwards  held  at  Spires  and
Wetzler,  and  the  other  the  Aulic  council  at  Vienna,
1506.  These  courts  having  concurrent  jurisdiction,
were  instituted  for  appeals  in  particular  cases  from
the  courts  of  the  Germanic  states.

AUEAT  (N.  W.  France).  Here,  on  29  Sept.
1364,  the  English,  under  John  Chandos,  defeated
the  French  and  captured  then-  leader  Du  Guesclin.
Charles  of  Blois,  made  duke  of  Brittany  by  the
king  of  France,  was  slain,  and  a  peace  was  made  in
April,  1365.

AUEICULAE  CONFESSION. The  con-
fession of  sin  at  the  ear  (Latin,  auris)  of  the  priest
was  an  early  practice. It  is  incorrectly  stated  to  have
been  forbidden  in  the  4th  century  by  Nectarius,  arch-
bishop of  Constantinople. It  was  enjoined  by  the
council  of  Lateran  in  1215,  and  by  the  council  of
Trent  in 1551. It  was  one  of  the  six  articles  of
faith  enacted  by  our  Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  but  was
abolished  in  England  at  the  Beformation. Its  re-
vival here  has  been  attempted  by  the  church  party
called  Puse)ites,  Tractarians,  or  Bitualists.
The  rev.  Alfred  Poole,  a  curate  of  St.  Barnabas,  Knights-
bridge,  was  suspended  by  his  bishop  from  his  office  for
practising  auricular  confession  in  June,  1858,  and  the
suspension  was  confirmed  in  Jan.  1859. Much  excite-
ment was  created  by a  similar  attempt  by  the  rev.
Temple  West  at  Boyne  Hill,  in  Sept.  1858.
In  May,  1873,  483 clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England
presented  a  petition  to  convocation  for  the  education,
selection,  and  licensing  of  duly  qualified  confessors,  in
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  canon  law. Strongly
disapproved  of  by  the  bishops.
Letter  from  the  bishop  of  London  asserting  that  confes-
sion should  be  to  God  ;  that  to  the  minister  optional,
21  July,  1873.
Archdeacon  Denison  (in  a  letter)  declares  war  against  all

opposing  auricular  confession,  22  Aug.  1873.
96  peers  send  an  address  against  auricular  confession  to
the  archbishop of Canterbury about  9  Aug. 1877.
For refusal of  confessors  to  give  evidence,  see

Ireland March  1887

See  Holy  Cross.

AUEIFLAMMA orOBIFLAMME,  thenational
banner  mentioned  in  French  history,  belong-
ing to  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  suspended  over
the  tomb  of  that  saint.  Louis  le  Gros  was  the  first
king  who  took  this  standard  from  the  abbey  to
battle,  1 124.  Henault.  It  appeared  for  the  last
time  at  Agincourt,  25  Oct.  1415.  Tillet.  Others
6ay  at  Montlhery,  16  July,  1465.

AUEOEA,  FRIGATE,  sailed  from  Britain  in
1771,  to  the  East  Indies,  and  was  never  again
heard  of. — Aurora,  daily  papal  newspaper,  ap-
peared at  Borne  1  June,  1880.

AUEOE.E BOEEALES and AUS-

TEALES  (Northern  and  Southern  Polar  Lights),
though  rarely  seen  in  central  Europe,  are  frequent


in  the  ai-ctic  and  antarctic  regions.  In  March,  1716,
an  aurora  borealis  extended  from  the  west  of  Ire-
land to  the  confines  of  Bussia.  The  whole  horizon
lat.  57°  N.  was  overspread  with  continuous  haze  of
a  dismal  red  during  a  whole  night,  Nov.  1765. —
Mr.  Foster,  the  companion  of  captain  Cook,  saw
the  aurora  in  lat.  580  S.  The  aurora  is  now  attri-
buted to  the  passage  of  electric  light  through  the
rarefied  air  of  the  polar  regions.  In  August  and
September,  1859  (and  about  24  Oct.  1870),  when
brilliant  aurorse  were  very  frequent,  the  electric
telegraph  wires  were  seriously  affected,  and  com-
munications interrupted.  Aurora?  were  seen  at  Borne
and  Basel,  and  also  in  Australia.  A  magnificent
aurora  appeared  in  New  York  and  other  states,
evening  of  13  Feb.  1892.

AUSCULTATION,  see  Stethoscope.
AUSTEELITZ,  a  town  in  Moravia,  where  a
battle  was  fought  between  the  French  and  the
allied  Austrian  and  Bussian  armies,  2  Dec.  1805.
Three  emperors  commanded  :  Alexander  of  Bussia,
Francis  of  Austria,  and  Napoleon  of  France.  The
killed  and  wounded  exceeded  30,000  on  the  side  of
the  allies,  who  lost  forty  standards,  150  pieces  of
cannon,  and  thousands  of  prisoners.  The  decisive
victory  of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty  of  Presburg,
signed  26  Dec.  1805  ;  see  Presburg.
AUSTIN  FEIAES,  see  Augustin  Friars.
AUSTEALASIA,  the  fifth  great  division  of
the  world.  This  name,  originitlly  given  it  by  De
Brosses,  includes  Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land
(or  Tasmania),  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand,  New
Britain,  New  Caledonia,  &c,  mostly  discovered
within  two  centuries.  Accidental  discoveries  were
made  by  the  Spaniards  as  early  as  1526 ;  but  the
first  accurate  knowledge  of  these  southern  lands  is
due  to  the  Dutch,  who  in  1606  explored  a  part  of
the  coast  of  Papua  or  New  Guinea.  Torres,  a
Spaniard,  passed  through  the  straits  which  now  bear
his  name,  between  that  island  and  Australia,  and
gave  the  first  correct  report  of  the  latter,  1606.
The  Dutch  continued  their  discoveries.  Grant  in
1800,  and  Hinders  again  (1801-5)  completed  the
survey.  M'Culloch.  Estimated  population  of  the
Australasian  colonies  in  1891,  3,932,000.  See
Australia,  &c.

Gen.  Edwardes  having  recommended  the  federal
action  of  all  the  Australian  troops  for  colonial
defence,  Mr.  D.  Gillies,  premier  of  Victoria,  com-
municates his  approval  to  sir  H.  Parkes,  premier
of  New  South  Wales,  who  in  his  reply  considers
that  the  federal  council  act  does  not  authorize
this  combined  action,  and  strongly  recommends
the  establishment  of  an  Australian  Federation
with  a  governor-general,  with  a  constitution  like
that  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  desires  a
meeting  of  delegates  from  each  colony  to  consider

the  matter 30  Oct. 1889

Conference  of  delegates  from  all  the  Australian
colonies  at  Melbourne  to  consider  a  scheme  of
Australasian  federation  and  federal  defence  ;  Mr.
Duncan  Gillies  elected  chief  representative  6  Feb.  1890
Sir  H.  Parkes'  motion  for  the  union  of  the  colonies
under  one  government  unanimously  adopted

13  Feb. ,,
Loyal  address  to  the  queen  voted,  and  the  meeting

of  a  national  convention  in  1891  agreed  to  14  Feb.  „
Mr.  Goschen's  plan  for  uniform  colonial  postage
(zhd.)  accepted  by  all  the  colonies,  reported  May-
June,  1890;  to  begin  ....  1  Jan.  1891
The  federal  council  meets  at  Hobart ;  Victoria,
Queensland,  and  Tasmania  represented;  an  ad-
dress to  the  Queen  respecting  trade  voted

20-24  Jan. ,,

National  Australasian  Federation  Convention,  chief

delegates  :  New  South  Wales,  sir  Henry  Parkes ;

Victoria, hon.  James Munro; Queensland, sir

Samuel  Griffith  ;  South  Australia,  hon.  Thomas


AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 74


AUSTRALIA.


Playford ;  Tasmania,  hon.  P.  O.  Fysh ;  New
Zealand,  sir  George  Grey ;  Western  Australia,
hon.  John  Forrest ;  sir  Henry  Parkes  elected  pre-
president ;  sir  Samuel  Griffith,  vice-president ;
meeting  in  the  legislative  chamber,  Sydney,  n
a.m.  At  the  evening  banquet,  principal  toast,
"  One  people,  one  destiny  " . . .2  March,  1891

The  title,  the  "  Commonwealth  of  Australia,"
adopted  by  the  convention  (26  to  13)  1  April, „

The  federal  constitution  adopted,  9  April,  to  be
accepted  by  the  several  colonies  and  confirmed  by
the  British  parliament.  The  Victoria  parliament
requires  the  title  to  be  changed  from  "  Common-
wealth" to  "  Federation" . . . 2t  July, „

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, .  for

the  advancement  of  science,  was  founded  mainly
by  the  exertions  of  prof.  Liversidge,  1886,  held  its
first  meeting  in  Sydney,  Aug.  1888 ;  the  2nd  at
Melbourne,  7  Jan.  1890,  president  baron  von
Mueller,  hon.  sec.  prof.  W.  B.  Edwin  Spencer;
3rd  Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  15  Jan.  1891  ;
4th  Hobart,  Tasmania,  7  Jan.  1892.

AUSTRALIA  (formerly  New  Holland),  the
largest  island  and  smallest  continent ;  estimated
area  about  2,954,417  square  miles,  including
five  provinces — New  South  Wales,  Victoria  (formerly
Port  Phillip) ,  South  Australia,  West  Australia  (or
Swan  River),  and  Queensland  (all  which  see).
Population,  with  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  in
1871,  about  1,958,650;  1874,  2,334,210;  1878,
2,705,700;  1882,2,936,409;  1888,3,546,725.

Mr.  R.  H.  Major,  in  1872,  alleged  that  Australia  was

known  to  the  French  prior  to  ...  .  1531
Alleged  discovery  by  Manoel  Godiuho  de  Eredia,  a

Portuguese 1601

The  Dutch  also  discover  Australia . .  March,  1606
The  coast  surveyed  by  Dutch  navigators  ;  north,  by
Zeachen,  1618  ;  west,  by  Edels,  1619 ;  south,  by
Nuyts,  1627  ;  north,  by  Tasmnn .... 1627
Tasman coasts S. Australia,  and Van  Diemen's

Land 1642-4

Terra  Australia  (Western  Australia)  named  New

Holland  by  order  of  the  States-General  .  .  1665
Wm. Dampier  explores  the  W.  and  N.  W.  coasts,

1684-90
William  Dampier  lands  in  Australia  . . Jan.  1686
Explorations  of  Willis  and  Carteret . . . 1763-6
Capt.  Cook,  sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  others,  land  at
Botany  Bay,  and  name  the  country  "  New  South

Wales" 28  April,  1770

Exploration  of  Furneaux 1773

Governor  Arthur  Phillip  founds  Sydney  near  Port

Jackson,  with  1030  persons  .  .  .  26  Jan.  1788
[The  82nd  anniversary  of  this  event  was  kept  with

much  festivity,  26  Jan.  1870.]
Great  distress  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the

store-ship  "  Guardian,"  captain  Biou  .  .  .  1790
Voyages  of  Bligh . . . ■ . . . .  1789-92

First  church  erected Aug.  1793

Government  gazette  first  printed  . . . . 1795

Bass's  straits  discovered  by  Bass  and  Flinders .  1798

First  brick  church  built 1802

Colony  of  Van  Diemen's  land  (now  Tasmania)  estab-
lished 1S03

Grant,  1800,  and  Flinders  survey  the  coasts  of  Aus-
tralia 1801-5

Insurrection  of  Irish  convicts  quelled  .  .  .  1804
Governor  Bligh  for  his  tyranny  deposed  and  sent

home . 1808

Superseded  by  governor  Macquarie . . . . 1809
Expeditions  into  the  interior  by  Wentworth,  Law-
son,  Bloxland,  181 3  ;  Oxley,  <fec. . . . 1817-1823
Population,  29,783  (three-fourths  convicts) . .  1821
West  Australia  formed  into  a  province . . . 1829

Legislative  council  established ,,

Sturt's  expeditions  into  South  Australia  .  .  182S-31
South  Australia  erected  into  a  province  .  Aug.  1834
Sir  T.  Mitchell's  expeditions  into  E.  Australia  .  1831-6
First  Roman  Catholic bishop (Polding)  arrives,

Sept. 1835
Port  Phillip  (now  Victoria)  colonised . . Nov. ,,
First Church of England bishop of Australia
(Broughton)  arrives June,  1836


Colony  of  South  Australia  founded  .  -.  .  Dec.  1836
Eyre's  expedition  overland  from  Adelaide  to  King

George's  Sound 1836-7

Melbourne  founded Nov.  1837

Capt.  Grey  explores  N.  W.  Australia . . . 1837-9
Count  Strzelecki  explored  New  South  Wales  and
Tasmania,  1838-43;  discovered  gold-fields  inBath-
urst,  Wellington,  &c.  (kept  secret  by  sir  George

Gipps) 1839

Suspension  of  transportation ,,

Strzelecki  explores  the  Australian  Alps  ;  discovers

Gipps'  land ;  Eyre  explores  west  Australia  .  .  1840
Great  exertions  of  Mrs.  Chisholm  ;  establishment

of  "  Home  for  Female  Emigrants "  .  .  .  1841-6
Census — 87,200  males  ;  43,700  females  .  .  .  1841
Very  numerous  insolvencies  .... 1841-2

Incorporation  of  city  of  Sydney  ....  1842
Landor  and  Lefroy  explore  Western  Australia  .  .  1843
Sturt  proceeds  from  South  Australia  to  the  middle

of  the  continent 1845

Census (including  Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ;
74,800  females .... ...  1846

Kennedy's 1st expedition 13  Aug. 1847  ; killed

13  Nov.  184S
Dr.  Leichhardt's  expedition  leaves Moreton  bay,
Aug. 1844  ; arrives  at  Port  Essington,  17  Dec.
1845  ;  starts  again,  not  heard  of  after . 3  April, ,,
Great  agitation  against  transportation,  which  had

been  revived  by  earl  Grey- 1849

Port  Phillip  erected  into  a  separate  province  as

Victoria 1850

Gold  discovered  by  Mr.  Hargreaves,  &c*  .  _  .  1851
Census — males,  106,000;  females,  81,000  (exclusive

of  Victoria,  80,000) ,,

Mints  established March,  1853

Transportation  ceased . . . . . . ,,

Gregory's  explorations  of  interior  .  .  1848,1855-8
Deatli  of  archdeacon  Cowper  (aged  80),  after  about

fifty  years'  residence July,  185S

Queensland  made  a  province  .  .  .  4  Dec.  1859
J.  M'Douall  Stuart's  expeditions  .  .  .  1858-62
Expedition  into  the  interior  under  Mr. Landells

organised Aug.  i860

Robert  O'Hara  Burke,  Wm.  John  Wills,  and  others,

start  from  Melbourne . . . .20  Aug. ,,
Burke,  Wills,  and  two  others,  cross  the  Australian
continent  to  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria ;  all  perish
on  their  return,  except  John  King,  who  arrives

at  Melbourne Nov.  1861

Stuart,  M'Kinlay, and  Landsborough  cross  Aus-
tralia from  sea  to  sea  . ... . . . 1861-2


*  Gold  Discovery. — Mr.  Edward  Hargreaves  went  to
California  in  search  of  gold,  and  was  struck  with  the
similarity  between  the  rocks  and  strata  of  California  and
those  of  his  own  district  of  Conobolas,  some  thirty  miles
west  of  Bathurst.  On  his  return  home,  he  examined  the
soil,  and  after  one  or  two  months'  digging,  found  a
quantity  of  gold,  12  Feb.  1851.  He  applied  to  the  colonial
government  for  a  reward,  which  he  readily  obtained,
with  an  appointment  as  commissioner  of  crown  lands.
The  excitement  became  intense  throughout  the  colony  of
New  South  Wales,  rapidly  spread  to  that  of  Victoria  and
other  places;  and  in  the  first  week  of  July,  1851,  an
aboriginal  inhabitant,  formerly  attached  to  the  Welling-
ton mission,  and  then  in  the  service  of  Dr.  Kerr,  of  Wal-
lawa,  discovered,  while  tending  his  sheep,  a  mass  of  gold
among  a  heap  of  quartz.  Three  blocks  of  quartz  (from
two  to  three  hundred  weight),  found  in  the  Murroo
Creek,  fifty  miles  to  the  north  of  Batliurst,  contained
112  lb.  of  pure  gold,  valued  at  4000?.  The  "Victoria
nugget,"  a  magnificent  mass  of  virgin  gold,  weighing  340
ounces,  was  brought  to  England  from  the  Bendigo  dig-
gings ;  and  a  piece  of  pure  gold  of  106  lb.  weight  was  also
found.  From  the  gold  fields  of  Mount  Alexander  and
Ballarat,  in  the  district  of  Victoria,  up  to  Oct.  1852,  there
were  found  2,532,422  ounces,  or  105  tons  10  cwt.  of  gold  ;
and  the  gold  exported  up  to  the  same  date  represented
8,863,477?.  sterling.  In  Nov.  1856,  the  "James  Baines  "
and  "  Lightning  "  brought  gold  from  Melbourne  valued
at  1,200,000?.  The  "Welcome  nugget"  weighed  2019I
ounces  ;  value,  8376?.  10s.  iod  ;  found  at  Baker's  Hill,
Ballarat,  11  June,  1858.  Between  May,  1851,  and  May,
i86r,  gold  to  the  value  of  96,000,000?.  had  been  brought
to  England  from  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria.  Mr.
Hargreaves  died  about  2  Nov.  189L


AUSTRALIA.


75


AUSTRIA.


Remains  of  Burke  and  Wills  recovered ;  public
funeral 21  Jan.

Strong  and  general  resistance  throughout  Australia
to  the  reception  of  British  convicts  in  West  Aus-
tralia about  June,

Cessation  of  transportation  to  Australia  in  three
years  announced  amid  much  rejoicing . 26  Jan.

Morgan,  a  desperate  bushranger  and  murderer,  sur-
rounded and  shot April,

Boundaiy  disputes  between  New  South  Wales  and
Victoria,  summer  1864  ;  settled  amicably  19  April,

Total  population  of  Australia,  exclusive  of  natives,
1,298,667 Jan.

Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales  (originally  the
Philosophical  Society  of  Australia,  founded  1821),
established May,

Meeting  of  ministers  from  the  Australian  colonies
at  Melbourne  to  arrange  postal  communication
with  Europe March,

Exploration  of  South  Australia ;  capt.  Cadell  dis-
covers mouth  of  the  river  Roper,  and  fine  pas-
toral country,  lat.  14°  S Nov.

Despatch  from  lord  Kimberley  objecting  to  the
complex  tariffs  between  the  Australian  colonies,

13  July,

Meeting  of  delegates  from  New  South  Wales,  Vic-
toria, South  Australia,  and  Tasmania  ;  they  object
to  imperial  interference  with  their  mutual  fiscal
arrangements , 27  Sept.

Synod  of  the  church  of  Australia  and  Tasmania
held  at  Sydney '25  Gel.

Mr.  Ernest  Morrison  walks  across  the  continent
from  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  Melbourne  in  120
days,  starting .... about  18  Dec.

Completion  of  the  direct  railway  between  Mel-
bourne and  Sydne5" June,

Gradual  formation  of  a  defensive  Australian  fleet
and  army

The  Intercolonial  conference  of  delegates  on  pro-
posed annexation  of  New  Guinea,  at  Sydney,  re-
commended, 6  Dec.  ;  and  the  formation  of  an
Australasian  federal  council  7  Dec;  closes  8  Dec.

Canon  Barry  consecrated  bishop  of  Sydney  and
metropolitan  of  Australia . . . 1  Jan.

Mr.  Charles  Winnicke's  exploring  party  mapped
40,000  miles  of  unknown  country,  announced  Jan.

Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  Queensland  accept  the
scheme  of  federation,  Aug.  ;  opposed  by  New
South  Wales .... about  1  Nov.

Lord  Derby's  dispatch  deferring  consideration  of
the  federal  scheme 11  Dec.

Several  states  protest  against  the  German  annexa-
tions in  New  Guinea,  &c Dec.

British  flag  hoisted  on  Woodlark  and  other  islands

Jan.

The  Australian  colonies  proffer  military  contingents
for  the  Soudan  ;  thanked  by  the  queen . Feb.

Federal  council  of  Australasia  act  passed 14  Aug.

Federation  of  the  Australasian  Colonies,  except
New  South  Wales  and  New  Zealand,  completed
9  Dec.  1885.  The  formal  opening  of  the  council
took  place  at  Hobavt,  25  Jan.  1886.  The  Council
met  at  Hobarton  16-19  Jan-  J888  ;  again  29  Jan.-
4  Feb

Australasian  Conference  requeststhe  British  Govern-
ment to  treat  with  China  for  restriction  of
Chinese  immigration,  but  recommends  immediate

local  action 14-16  June,

See  Imperial  Defence.

Mr.  Ernest  Favenc's  "  History  of  Australian  Ex-
ploration from  1788  to  1888,"  published

Irish  home  rule  delegates  (Mr.  Dillon,  sir  Thomas
Esmond,  and  Mr.  Deasy,  M.P.'s,  coolly  received
or  opposed  in  Australia,  Tasmania  and'  New  Zea-
land April  et  acq.

The  Australian  colonies  contribute  about  31,000/.
to  the  dock  labourers  of  London,  see  Strikes

Sept.-Dec.

Australian  warships  launched  at  Newcastle-on-
Tyne  ;  Pelorus,  25  Nov.  1889,  Persia . 5  Feb.

Memorial  of  Mr.  William  Bede  Dalley,  Australian
statesman  (1831—88),  erected  in  the  crypt  of  St.
Paul's,  London,  unveiled . . -17  July

Formation  of  the  National  Association  (of  Austra-
lia), proposed  in  Melbourne . . 3  July

The  earl  of  Kintore,  governor  of  South  Australia'
and  party,  travel  overland  from  Adelaide  (26  Feb!


1863


1865


1867


1871


et  seq.)  to  Brisbane,  and  thence  by  boat  to  Port
Darwin  in  the  extreme  north,  arriving  31  March,
after  inspecting  the  town,  &c,  he  commenced
his  journey  south  (about  2,125  miles),  9  April,
reaching  Adelaide  . . . -23  May, i8gr

The  auxiliary  squadron  visits  all  the  colonies,  begin-
ning with  Queensland . . .  Aug.  et  seq. ,,

Mr.  David  Lindsay,  commander  of  the  exploring
expedition  in  N.  and  Central  Australia,  fitted  out
by  sir  Thomas  Elder,  arrives  at  Esperance  bay,
14  Oct.  1891  ;  members  resign;  reported  13  Jan.,
and  the  expedition  is  suspended,  reported

14  March,  1892
For  the  proposed  Federation  see  Australasia,  1889^.
et  seq.

GOVERNORS.

Captain  Arthur  Phillip . . . . . .  178S

Captain  Hunter 1795

Captain  Philip  G.  King ......  1800

Captain  William  Bligh 1806

Colonel  Lachlan  Macquarie  (able  and  successful

administration) 1809.

General  sir  Thomas  Brisbane 182Z

Sir  Richard  Bourke 18311

Sir  George  Gipps 183S

Sir  Charles  Fitzroy,  governor-general  of  all  the  Aus-
tralian colonies,  with  a  certain  jurisdiction  over
the  lieutenant-governors  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,
Victoria,  and  South  and  Western  Australia  . . 1846

Sir  William  T.  Denison 1854

Sir  John  Young,  of  New  South  Wales  only . .  i860

See  New  South  Wales.
Acts  for  the  government  of  Australia,  10  Geo.  IV.
c.  22,  14  May  (1829),  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  68,  13  Aug.
(1836),  13  <fe  14  Viet.  c.  59,  5  Aug.  (1850).  Act  for
regulating  the  sale  of  waste  lands  in  the  Austra-
lian colonies,  5  &  6  Vict.  c.  36,  22  June  (1842).

AUSTRASIA,  (Esterreich  (Eastern  Kingdom),,
also  called  Metz,  a  French  kingdom  which  lasted
from  the  6th  to  the  8th  century.  It  began  with  the
division  of  the  territories  of  Clovis  by  his  sons,  511,
and  ended  by  Carloman  becoming  a  monk  and  sur-
rendering his  power  to  his  brother  Pepin,  who  thus
became  sole  king  of  France,  747.

AUSTRIA,  a  Hamburg  company's  steamship,
sailed  from  Southampton  to  New  York  4  Sept.  1858,
with  528  persons  on  board.  On  13  Sept.  in  lat.
45°  N.,  long.  410  30'  \V.,  it  caught  fire  through  the
carelessness  of  some  one  in  burning  some  tar  to>
fumigate  the  steerage.  Only  67  persons  were  saved:
— upwards  of  60  by  the  Maurice,  a  French  barque ;
the  rest  by  a  Norwegian  barque.  A  heartrending
account  was  given  in  the  Times,  11  Oct.  1858,  by
Mr.  Charles  Crews,  an  English  survivor.

AUSTRIA,  (Esterreich  (Eastern  Kingdom),
anciently  Noricum  and  part  of  Pannoiiia,  was  an-
nexed to  the  Roman  empire  about  33 ;  was  overrun
by  the  Huns,  Avars,  &c,  during  the  5th  and  6th
centuries,  and  taken  from  them  by  Charlemagne,
791-796.  He  divided  the  government  of  the  country,
establishing  margraves  of  Eastern  Bavaria  and
Austria.  Louis  the  German,  son  of  Louis  le  Debon-
naire,  about  817,  subjugated  Radbod,  margrave  of
Austria ;  but  in  883  the  descendants  of  the  latter
raised  a  civil  war  in  Bavaria  against  the  emperor
Charles  the  Fat,  and  eventually  the  margraves  of
Austria  were  declared  immediate  princes  of  the
empire.  In  1156  the  margraviate  was  made  ar»
hereditary  duchy  by  the  emperor  Frederic  I.  ;  and!
in  1453  it  was  raised  to  an  archduchy  by  the  emperor
Frederic  III.  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  elected
emperor  of  Germany  in  1273,  acquired  Austria  in
1278;  and  from  149310  1804  his  descendants  were
emperors.  On  1 1  Aug.  1804,  the  emperor  Francis  II.
renounced  the  title  of  emperor  of  Rome  and  king  of
Germany  (popularly  termed  emperor  of  Ger-
many), and  became  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria.
The  condition  of  Austria  is  now  greatl}r  improving


AUSTEIA.


76


AUSTRIA.


under  the  enlightened  rule  of  the  present  emperor.
The  political  constitution  of  the  empire  is  based
upon — i.  The  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  VI.,
1734,  which  declares  the  indivisibility  of  the  empire
and  rules  ihe  order  of  succession.  2.  The  pragmatic
sanction  of  Francis  II.,  I  Aug.  1804,  when  he  became
emperor  of  Austria  only.  3.  The  diploma  of  Francis
Joseph,  20  Oct.  i860,  whereby  he  imparted  legisla-
tive power  to  the  provincial  states  and  the  council
of  the  empire  (Reichsrath).  4.  The  law  of  26  Feb.
1861,  on  the  national  representation.  Self-govern-
ment was  granted  to  Hungary,  17  Feb.  1867.  Each
country  has  its  parliament,  and  a  controlling  hody
termed  the  Delegations,  consisting  of  120  members,
half  elected  by  Austria  and  half  by  Hungary,  was
also  established  in  1867.  The  empire  was  ordered
to  be  named  henceforth  the  Austro-Hungarian
monarchy,  or  Austria-Hungary,  by  decree,  14  Nov.
1868.  On  19  Oct.  1889,  the  army  was  ordered  to
he  styled  ''Imperial  and  Royal.''  Population  of
the  empire*  in  Oct.  1857,  35,018,988;  reduced
to  32,530,000  by  the  loss  of  Venetia,  &c,  in
1866  (about  16,000,000  Slavs  of  different  dialects).
Population,  Austria  and  other  Cis-T.eithan  pro-
vinces, 20,396,580  (31  Dec.  1869) ;  Hungary  and
Trans-Leithan  provinces,  15,509,455;  the  empire,
in  1880,  37,882,712;  in  1890.41,345,329:  revenue,
1890,1,025,927,00011.;  expenditure,  1,003,870,0003.

Frederic  II. ,  the  last  male  of  the  house  of  Bamberg,
killed  in  battle  with  the  Hungarians . 15  June,  1246

Disputed  succession  :  the  emperor  Frederic  II.  se-
questered the  provinces,  appointing  Otto,  count
of  Eberstein,  governor  in  the  name  of  the  em-
peror ;  they  are  seized  by  Ladislaus,  margrave  of
Moravia,  in  right  of  his  wife,  Frederic's  niece,
Gertrude  :  he  died  childless 1247

Herman,  margrave  of  Baden,  marries  Gertrude,  and
holds  the  provinces  till  his  death . . . . 1250

Premislas  Ottocar,  of  Bohemia,  acquires  the  pro-
vinces 1254

Compelled  to  cede  Styria  to  Hungary,  he  makes  war
and  recovers  it,  in  consequence  of  a  great  victory  1260

He  inherits  Carinthia,  1263  ;  refuses  to  become  em-
peror of  Germany,  1272  ;  and  to  render  homage  to
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  elected  emperor . . .  1273

War  against  Ottocar  as  a  rebel :  he  is  compelled  to
cede  Austria,  Carinthia,  and  Styria  to  Rodolph . 1274

The  war  renewed  :  Ottocar  perishes  in  the  battle  of
Marchfeld 26  Aug.  1278

The  emperor  Rodolph  establishes  the  duchy  of
Austria,  &c 27  Dec.  1282

Albert  I.  assassinated  by  his  nephew  while  attempt-
ing to  enslave  the  Swiss . . . .1  May,  1308

Successful  revolt  of  the  Swiss .... 1307-9

They  totally  defeat  the  Austrians  under  duke  Leo-
pold, at  Morgarten .... 16  Nov.  1315

The  Tyrol  acquired 1363

The  duke  Leopold  imposes  a  toll  on  the  Swiss  ;
which  they  resist  with  violence  :  lie  makes  war
on  them,  and  is  defeated  and  slain  at  Sempach

July,  1386

Duke  Albert  V.  obtains  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and
is  elected  emperor  of  Germany  . . ., . . 1437

The  emperor  Frederic  III.,  as  head  of  the  house  of
Hapsburg,  creates  the  archduchy  of  Austria  with
sovereign  power 6  Jan.  1453

Austria  divided  between  him  and  his  relatives,
1457  ;  war  ensues  between  them  till . . . .  1463

The  Low  countries  accrue  to  Austria  by  the  mar-
riage of  Maximilian  with  Mary,  the  heiress  of
Burgundy 1477

Also  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  I.  of  Austria,
with  the  heiress  of  Arragon  and  Castile . . 1496

*  The  empire  is  now  divided  into  two  parts,  separated
by  the  river  Leithe.  The  Cis-Lcithan  section  comprises
14  provincial  diets  :  Galicia,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  Moravia,
lower  and  upper  Austria,  Styria,  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarl-
berg,  Salzburg,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Trieste,  and  Istria,
Dalmatia,  and  the  Bukovina.  The  Trans-Leithan  section
comprises  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and
the  tity  of  Fiunie.


Bohemia  and  Hungary  united  to  Austria  under

Ferdinand  I 1526

Austria  harassed  by  Turkish  invasions . . 1529-45
Charles  V.,  reigning  over  Germany,  Austria,  Bo-
hemia,  Hungary, Spain,  the Netherlands,  and
their  dependencies,  abdicates  (see  Spain) . .  1556
The  destructive  30  years'  war .... 1618-48

War  of  Spanish  succession 1701-14

Mantua  ceded  to  the  emperor  ...  3  Jan.  1708
By  treaty  of  Utrecht  he  obtains  part  of  the  duchy

of  Milan n  April,  1713

By  treaty  of  Rastadt  he  acquires  the  Netherlands  .  1714
Naples,  &c. ,  added  to  his  dominions  .  15  Nov.  1715
Further  additions  on  the  east  (Temeswar,  <fec.)  by

the  peace  of  Passarowitz 1718

Naples  and  Sicily  given  up  to  Spain . . .  1735
Death  of  Charles  VI. ,  the  last  sovereign  of  the  male
line  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  ; his  daughter,
Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary

20  Oct.  1740

Silesian  wars 1740-2  ;  1744-5

Maria  Theresa  is  attacked  by  Prussia,  France,  Ba-
varia, and  Saxony ;  but  supported  by  Great  Britain  1741
Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  had  married  Maria

Theresa  in  1736,  elected  emperor . . . . 1745
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  :  Parma,  Milan,  &e.  ceded

to  Spain 1748

Seven  years'  war  ;  Silesia  ceded  to  Prussia  . .  1745-63
Galicia,  &c. ,  acquired  from  Poland  ....  1772
War  with  France  (see  Battles) .... 1792-7
By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  emperor  gives
up  Lombardy  (which see) and obtains  Venice

15  Oct.  1797
Treaty  of  Luneville  (more  losses) ....  1801
Francis  II. ,  emperor  of  Germany,  becomes  Francis  I.  ■
of  Austria:  declared  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria

11  Aug. 1804
His  declaration  against  France . . .5  Aug. 1805
Capitulation  of  his  army  at  Ulm . . 20  Oct. ,,
War :  Napoleon  enters  Vienna . .  14  Nov. ,,

Austrians and Russians defeated  at  Austerlitz,

2  Dec. ,,
By  treaty  of  Presburg,  Austria  loses  Venice  and  the

Tyrol 1  Jan.  1806

Vienna  evacuated  by  the  French  .  .  .12  Jan.  „
Dissolution of the Germanic  confederation, and

formal  abdication  of  the  emperor . . 6  Aug. ,,
The  French  again  take  Vienna . . .13  May,  1809
But  restore  it  at  the  peace ... 24  Oct. „
Napoleon  marries  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,
the  daughter  of  the  emperor . . .1  April,  1810

Congress  at  Vienna 2  Oct.  1814

Treaty  of  Vienna 25  Feb.  1815

[Italian  provinces  restored  with  additions — Lom-

bardo-Venetian  kingdom  established,  7  April.]
Francis  I.  dies  ;  Ferdinand  I.  succeeds  . 2  March,  1835
New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England . 3  July,  1838
Insurrection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich,

13  March,  1848
Insurrection  in  Italy,  see  Milan,  Venice,  and  Sar-
dinia . . . . . . .18  March, „

Another  insurrection  at  Vienna  ;  the  emperor  flees

to  Inspruck 15-17  May, „

Archduke John appointed vioar-general of  the

empire 29  May, „

A  constituent  assembly  meet  at  Vienna  .  22  July,  ,,
Revolution  in  Hungary,  see  Hungary  .  11  Sept.  „
Insurrection  of  Vienna  ;  murder  of  count  Latour,

6  Oct. „
The  emperor  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  nephew,

Francis-Joseph 2  Dec. ,,

Convention  of  Olmiitz  .  .  .  .29  Nov.  1850
The  emperor  revokes  the  constitution  of  4  March,

1849 31  Dec.  1851

Trial  by  jury  abolished  in  the  empire  .  15  Jan.  1852
Death  of  prince  Schwartzenburg,  prime  minister,

4  April, ,,
Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor  by  Libenyi,

18  Feb. ;  who  was  executed . . . 28  Feb.  1853
Commercial  treaty  with  Prussia . . 19  Feb. „
Austrians  enter  Danubian  principalities . Aug.  1854
Alliance with England and  France relative to

eastern  question 2  Dec. „

Great  reduction  of  the  army . . -24  June,  1855
By  a  concordat  the  pope  acquires  great  power  in  the
empire ...  ...  18  Aug. „

Amnesty  for  political  offenders  of  1848-9, 12  July,  1856


AUSTRIA.


77


AUSTRIA.


Austria  remonstrates  against  the  attacks  of  the  free
Sardinian  press 10  Feb.  1857

Firm  reply  of  count  Cavour . . .20  Feb. ,,

Austrians  quit  the  Danube  principalities  . March, ,,

Diplomatic  relations  between  Austria  and  Sardinia
broken  off  in  consequence . . 23-30  March, „

Emperor  and  empress  visit  Hungary . May, ,,

Death  of  marshal  Radetzky  (aged  92) . .  5  Jan. 1858

Excitement  throughout  Europe,  caused  by  the
address  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  HI.  to  the
Austrian  ambassador : — "I  regret  that  our  rela-
tions with  your  government  are  not  as  good  as
formerly,  but  I  beg  of  you  to  tell  the  emperor
that  my  personal  sentiments  for  him  have  not
changed" 1  Jan. 1859

The  emperor  of  Austria  replied  in  almost  the  same
words ... ^ ... 4  Jan. „

Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  marries  princess
Clotilde  of  Sardinia .... 30  Jan. „

Austria  prepares  for  war  ;  enlarges  her  armies  in
Italy  ;  and  strongly  fortifies  the  banks  of  the
Ticino,  the  boundary  of  her  Italian  provinces,  and
Sardinia Feb.  &  March, ,,

Lord  Cowley  at  Vienna  on  a  "  mission  of  peace,"

27  Feb. „

Intervention  of  Russia — proposal  for  a  congress  ;
disputes  respecting  the  admission  of  Sardinia
— Sardinia and France prepare for war,

March  <fc  April, „

Austria  demands  the  disarmament  of  Sardinia  and
the  dismissal  of  the  volunteers  from  other  states
within  three  days .... 23  April, ,,

This  demand  rejected . . . .26  April, „

The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino . . 26  April, ,,

The  French  troops  enter  Piedmont  . .  27  April, ,,

The  French  emperor  declares  war  (to  expel  the
Austrians  from  Italy) . . . .3  May, ,,

Resignation  of  count  Buol,  foreign  minister  ;  ap-
pointment of  count  Rechberg . 13-18  May, „

The  Austrians  defeated  at  Montebello,  20  May  ;  at
Palestro,  30-31  May  :  at  Magenta,  4  June  ;  at
Malegnano  (Marignano) . . . .8  June, ,,

Prince  Metternich  dies,  aged  86  (he  had  been
actively  engaged  in  the  wars  and  negotiations  of
Napoleon  I.) n  June, ,,

Austrians  defeated  at  Solferino  (near  the  Mincio)  ;
the  emperors  of  Austria  and  France  and  king  of
Sardinia  present ....  24  June, „

Armistice  agreed  upon,  6  July  ;  the  emperors  meet,

11  July  ;  the  preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Villa
Franca  (Lombardy  given  up  to  Sardinia,  and
an  Italian  confederation  proposed  to  be  formed),

12  July, ,,
Manifesto  justifying  the  peace  issued  to  the  army,

12  July  ;  to  the  people . . . .15  July, ,,
Patent  issued,  granting  greatly  increased  privileges

to  the  Protestants, — announced  . . Sept. ,,

Conference  between  the  envoys  of  Austria  and
France  at  Zurich ... 8  Aug.  to  Sept. ,,

Many  national  reforms  proposed . . . Sept. ,,

Treaty  of  Zurich,  confirming  the  preliminaries  cf
Villa  Franca,  signed . . . .10  Nov. ,,

Decrees  removing  Jewish  disabilities,

6,  10  Jan.,  18  Feb.  1S60

Patent  issued  for  the  summoning  the  great  imperial
council  (Reichsrath),  composed  of  representatives
elected  by  the  provincial  diets . .  5  March, „

Discovery  of  great  corruptions  in  the  army  financial
arrangements,  a  deficiency  of  about  1,700,000?.  dis-
covered ;  general  Eynatten  commits  suicide  ;  82
persons  arrested March, ,,

Austria  protests  against  the  annexation  of  Tuscany,
&c,  by  Sardinia March, ,,

Baron  Briick,  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  army
frauds, dismissed 20 April ; commits suicide,

23  April, ,,

The  Reichsrath  assembles,  30  May  ;  addressed  by
the  emperor 1  June, ,,

Liberty  of  the  press  further  restrained. . July, ,,

Unsettled  state  of  Hungary  (which  see) .  July-Oct. ,,

Friendly  meeting  of  the  emperor  and  the  regent  of
Prussia  at  Tciplitz .... 26  July, ,,

Free  debates  in  the  Reichsrath  ;  strictures  on  the
concordat,  the  finances,  &c.  ;  proposals  for  sepa-
rate constitutions  for  the  provinces,  Aug.  &■  Sept. ,,

The  Reichsrath  adjourned ... 29  Sept. ,,


Diploma  conferring  on  the  Reichsrath  legislative
powers,  the  control  of  the  finances,  <fec,  a  mani-
festo issued  to  the  populations  of  the  empire  (not
well  received) 20  Oct. i860

Meeting  of  the  emperor  with  the  emperor  of  Russia
and  prince  regent  of  Prussia  at  Warsaw  :  no  im-
portant result 20-26  Oct. „

The  government  professes  non-intervention  in
Italy, but increases the army in Venetia,

Oct.  &  Nov. „

The  empress  goes  to  Madeira  for  health . Nov.

Sale  of  Venetia,  publicly  spoken  of,  is  repudiated  in

Dec. ,y

Ministerial  crisis  :  M.  Schmerling  becomes  minister
— more  political  concessions . . .13  Dec. ,r

The  proscribed  Hungarian,  count  Teleki,  at  Dres-
den, is  given  up  to  Austria,  which  causes  general
indignation,  about  20  Dec. ;  he  is  released  on  parole

31  Dec. „

Amnesty  for  political  offences  in  Hungary,  Croatia,
Republished 7jan. 1861

Reactionary  policy  of  the  court  leads  to  increased
general  disaffection . . . Jan.  &:  Feb. ,r

The  statutes  of  the  new  constitution  for  the
Austrian  monarchy  published  . . .26  Feb.

Civil  and  political  rights  granted  to  Protestants,'
throughout  the  empire  except  in  Hungary  and
Venice 8  April, ,,

Meeting  of  Reichsrath— no  deputies  present  from
Hungary,  Croatia,  Transylvania,  Venetia,  or  Istria

29  April, ,,

Ministry  of  marine  created .... Jan.  1862

Inundation  of  the  Danube,  causing  great  distress,

4  Feb. „

Increased  taxation  proposed . . . March,

At  an  imperial  council,  the  emperor  present,  the
principle  of  ministerial  responsibility  is  resolved
on 26  April, ,,

Deficiency  of  1,400,000?.  in  financial  statement —
indignation  of  the  Reichsrath . . . June,

Amnesty  to  condemned  political  offenders  in  Hun-
gary proclaimed zg  Nov. „

Reduction  in  the  army  assented  to  ;  and  a  personal
liberty  law  (resembling  our  habeas  corpus  act)
passed Dec.

Insurrection  in  Russian  Poland,  Jan.  ;  Austria  joins
in  the  intercession  of  England  and  France April  1863

Meeting  of  the  German  sovereigns  (except  kings  of
Prussia,  Holland,  and  Denmark)  with  the  emperor
of  Austria  at  Frankfort,  by  his  invitation  ;  the
draft  of  a  reform  of  the  federal  constitution
agreed  to X6_3I  Aug

Transylvanian  deputies  accept  the  constitution,
and  take  seats  in  the  Reichsrath . . 20  Oct!

Austria  joins  Prussia  in  war  with  Denmark  (see
Denmark) Jan.  l86

Galicia  and  Cracow  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege

29  Feb. ,,.

The  Archduke  Maximilian  becomes  emperor  of
Mexico  (see  Mexico) .... April

The  emperor  and  theking  of  Prussia  meet  at  Carlsbad

22  June, ,„

Resignation  of  count  Rechberg,  foreign  minister,
succeeded  by  count  Mensdorfl'-Pouilly 27  Oct!

Peace  with  Denmark,  signed  at  Vienna . 30  Oct! "

Emperor  opens  Reichsrath,  14  Nov.  ;  great  freedom "
of  debate  ;  the  state  of  siege  in  Galicia  censured

Dec. ,.

Austria  supports  the  confederation  in  the  dispute
respecting  the  duchies Dec.

Apparent reunion  between  Austria and  Prussia

Great  financial  difficulty  ;  proposed  reduction  in  the
army  by  the  chambers .... Jan.

Contest  between  the  government  and  the  chambers "

April, „

Reported  failure  of  Mr.  Hutt's  mission  to  Vienna
to  promote  free  trade .... June'

New  ministry  formed  ;  count  Mensdorffas  nominal "
premier;  counts  Belcredi  and  Esterhazyas  minis-
ters: conciliatory  measures  towards  Hungary
proposed 2?  July

Convention  of  Gastein  (see  Gasteiri)  signed i.(  Aug.

Emperor's  rescript  suppressing  the  constitution,
with  the  view  of  giving  autonomy  to  Hungary
(which  see) 20  ye,,i

Rejoicings  in  Hungary,  but  dissatisfaction  in  Aus-
tria, Croatia,  &c Nov.,  Dec.


AUSTRIA.


78


AUSTRIA.


Treaty  of commerce  with  Great Britain, signed

16  Dec.  18
Amnesty  for  Italy  issued  i  Jan.  18

Warm  disputes  with  Prussia  (aggressive),  respecting

the  settlement  of  Holstein . . Jan.,  Mar. ,,
Preparations  for  war  begin . . . March, ,,
'The  archduke  Albrecht  made  commander  of  the
southern  army,  6  May  ;  Benedek  of  the  Northern

12  May, „
War  declared  by  Prussia,  18  June  ;  by  Italy  (which

see) 20  June, ,,

The  Austrians  enter  Silesia,  18  June  ;  and  the  Prus-
sians Bohemia 23  June „

'The  Italians  defeated  by  the  archduke  Albrecht,  at

Custozza 24  June, „

Prussian  victories  at  Nachod,  &c. . 27-29  June, „
Benedek  totally  defeated  at  Koniggratz  or  Sadowa

3JulY. ..
(For  details  of  the  war  see  Prussia  and  Italy.)

The  emperor  cedes  Venetia  to  the  emperor  Napoleon,
and  requests  intervention ... 4  July, „

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Nikolsburg,  26  July, „

Treaty  of  peace  with  Prussia  signed  at  Prague,

23  Aug.

Treaty  of  peace  with  Italy  signed  at  Vienna  ceding
Venetia,  3  Oct. The  iron  crown  given  up  n  Oct. „

The  Quadrilateral  and  Venice  surrendered  to  the
Italians n-19  Oct. ,,

Baron  Ferdinand  von  Beust,  late  Saxon  minister-
of  foreign  affairs,  made  Austrian  foreign  minister

30  Oct. ,,

Meeting  of  the  Reichsrath . . . 19  Nov. „

Commercial  treaty  with  France  (to  commence  1  Jan.
1867),  signed 11  Dec. „

Great  dissension  among  the  nationalities  of  the  em-
pire Dec. ,,

Extraordinary  diet  convoked  (for  25  Feb.). 3  Jan.  181

Establishment  of  autonomyfor  Hungary  announced,
mainly  the  work  of  Von  Beust ;  resignation  of
Belcredi,  4  Feb.  ;  Von  Beust  made  president  of
the  council 7  Feb. ,,

Rescript  restoring  a  separate  ministry  for  Hungary,
count  Andrassy  president . . . 17  Feb. ,.

Death  of  archduke  Stephen  (palatine  of  Hungary  in
1848) ...  .... Feb. „

Commercial  treaty  with  Italy,  signed . 23  April, ,,

Reichsrath  opened  at  Vienna . . .20  May, ,,

The  Czechs  (of  Bohemia  and  Moravia),  Croats,  Sla-
vonians, Serbs,  Roumans  (of  Transylvania),  and
Russinians  (of  Galicia),  protest  against  absorp-
tion,  and  demand national legislative powers

May  &  July, ,,

Painful  death  of  the  archduchess  Matilda  through
burns 6  June, ,.

The  emperor  and  empress  crowned  king  and  queen
of  Hungary  at  Buda . . . .8  June, ,,

Von  Beust  made  chancellor  of  the  empire,  23  June, ,,

The  sultan  visits  Vienna. . .  27  July — iAug. „

The  emperors  of  Austria  and  France  meet  at  Salzburg

18-23  Aug. ,,

Arrangements  for  the  dividing  the  financial  affairs
of  Austria  and  Hungary,  signed . .  13  Sept. „

Changes  (respecting  marriage  and  education)  in  the
concordat,  proposed Sept. ,,

28  bishops  demand  the  maintenance  of  the  concordat

28  Sept. „

Letter  from  the  emperor  to  cardinal  Rausch,  de-
claring for  complete  liberty  of  conscience  in  oppo-
sition to  the  concordat ;  the  concordat  almost
annulled  by  the  lower  house  ....  Oct. ,,

Emperor  of  Austria  and  king  of  Prussia  meet  at
Oos,  near  Baden-Baden . . . .22  Oct. „

Emperor  arrives  at  Paris,  23  Oct.  ;  leaves 5  Nov. „

Dualism  accepted by  the Reichsrath  at  Vienna

Nov. „

New  Austrian  ministry  under  prince  Auersperg
constituted 30  Dec. ,,

Civil  marriages  bill  (annulling  clerical  jurisdiction
over  them)  passed  by  the  upper  house,  after  sharp
resistance,  21-23  March  ;  received  the  emperor's
assent * 25  May,  i8(

German sharp-shooting match, held at  Vienna,

26  Jxily, ,,

Von  Beust  justifies  the  maintenance  of  an  army  of
800,000,  n  Oct.  ;  is  made  a  count . .  Dec. „

Continued  opposition  of  the  clergy  to  the  government

Jan.  i8£


The  frigate  Radetsky  blown  up,  about  340  lives  lost

20  Feb.  1869
The  crown  prince  of  Prussia  visits  Vienna 7  Oct. „
The emperor  visits  the Bast ; — at  Jerusalem,  10
Nov.  ;  present  at  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal

17  Nov. „
Successful  insurrection  against  the  conscription  in

Dalmatia,  Oct;  ;  ceased .... Nov. „
The  Reichsrath  opened  by  the  emperor  at  Vienna

13  Dec. ,,
Ministerial  crisis,  Jan.  :  the  Cis-Leithan  ministry
resigns  ;  count  Potocki,  prime  minister

4  April,  1870
Neutrality  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  announced

18  July, „
The concordat  with Rome declared to  be  sus-
pended in  consequence  of  the  promulgation  of
the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility . .  30  July, ,,

The  Reichsrath  opened  by  the  emperor ;  no  deputies
from  Bohemia 17  Sept. „

Dissension  between  the  federal  and  national  parties

29  Sept.,  Oct. ,,

The  Reichsrath  adjourned . . . .  22  Nov. ,,

The  ministry  support  Great  Britain  in  opposing  the
Russian  repudiation  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  (see
Russia) Nov. , ,

Austrian  army,  864,869  regulars  ;  187,527  landwehr
(militia) Dec. ,,

The  new  German  empire  recognised  by  the  emperor

Jan.  1871

Dismissal  of  Potocki ;  count  Hohenwart,  minister

Feb. ,,

Meeting  of  the  Reichsrath . . . . 20  Feb. „

Death  of  adm.  Tegethoff,  much  lamented 7  April, ,,

First meeting of "  Old Catholics " at Vienna,

26  July, „

An  international  exhibition  at  Vienna  in  1873,  pro-
posed  Sept. ,,

Meeting  of  emperor  with  emperor  William  6-8  Sept. ,,

Meeting  of  17  provincial  diets  ;  struggle  between
the  (Slavonian)  conservatives  and  the  (German)
constitutionalists  renewed .  •  -14  Sept. „

Political  crisis  :  dissension  between  German  and
Slavonian  parties,  Oct. ;  resignation  of  the  Hohen-
wart ministry 25  Oct. „

A  ministry  formed  under  baron  Kellersperg  4  Nov. ,,

Resignation  of  count  Beust,  the  arch-chancellor  ;
much  excitement 6  Nov. ,,

Count  Andrassy  (see  Hungary,  1849  et  seq.),  having
opposed  von  Beust's  policy  of  alliance  with
France,  succeeds  him  as  minister  of  the  imperial
household  and  of  foreign  affairs  ;  Von  Beust  to  be
ambassador  at  London ;  Bonyay,  premier  of  Hun-
garian ministry 13-14  Nov. „

New  Austrian  ministry  formed  by  prince  Auer- ,,
sperg about  25  Nov. „

The  Reichsrath  opened  by  the  emperor  with  speech
announcing  political  and  educational  reforms

28  Dec. „

New  constitutional  law  promulgated,  giving  the
emperor  power  to  order  new  elections  of  the
chambers 13  March,  1872

Meeting  of  the  emperor  with  the  emperor  of  Ger-
many and  other  sovereigns  at  Berlin 6-12  Sept. ,,

Reform  bill  passed  changing  the  Reichsrath  into  a
national  representative  assembly . 10  March,  1873

Great  international  exhibition  at  Vienna  ;  opening,

1  May, ,,

Financial  crisis  through  overtrading  in  1872 ;
panic  in May, ,,

Visits  to  Vienna ;  the  prince  of  Wales,  28  April ;
the  czar  of  Russia,  1  June  ;  the  shah  of  Persia,
30  July  ;  the  king  of  Italy,  17  Sept.  ;  the  emperor
of  Germany 17  Oct. „

Elections  for  the  Reichsrath  ;  228  constitutional-
ists ;  125  federals,  30  Oct. ;  the  Reichsrath  opened
by  the  emperor,  5  Nov.  ;  25th  anniversary  of  the
emperor's  accession  celebrated  throughout  the
empire  ;  amnesty  for  political  offenders  . 2  Dec. ,,

The  emperor  at  St.  Petersburg . .  13  Feb. 1874

Encyclical  letter  from  the  pope  condemning  the
new  ecclesiastical  laws,  dated .  7  March, „

Protest  of  the  Austrian  bishops  ;  adoption  by  both
parties  of  Cavour's  cry,  "  A  free  church  in  a  free
state " April, ,,

The  empress  at  the  Isle  of  Wight . July- Aug. ,,


AUSTEIA.


AUSTKIA.


Ofenheim,  railway  financier  connected  with  Messrs.
Brassey,  after  long  trial  for  fraud,  acquitted  at
Vienna  27  Feb. 1875

The  emperor  warmly  received  at  Venice  by  the
king  of  Italy 5  April, „

inauguration  of  the  new  bed  of  the  Danube  by  the
emperor ......  30  May, ,,

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  at  Bger . 28  June, ,,

Death  of  the  ex-emperor  Ferdinand . 29  June, ,,

Koloman  de  Tisza,  president  of  Hungarian  ministry,

20  Oct. ,,

Deficiency  in  the  budget  for  1876  ;  revenue  about
37,800,000?.  ;  expenditure,  40,300,000?. .  Nov. ,,

Death  of  cardinal  Rausoher,  prince  bishop  of
Vienna 24  Nov. ,,

The  czar  and  the  emperor  meet  at  Reichstadt ;
agree  to  neutrality  in  the  Servio-Turkish  war,

8  July, 1876

New  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  signed

5  Dec. ,,

Declaration  of  neutrality  in  Russo-  Turkish  war  by
Austrian  and  Hungarian  ministers ;  foreign
policy  to  be  for  "the  interest  of  the  monarchy,
to  the  exclusion  of  all  antipathies  and  sym-
pathies," M.  de  Tisza  (Hungarian) . 26  June,  1877

Resignation  of  Austrian  ministry,  26  Jan. ;  with-
drawn 5  Feb.  1878

Prince  Auersperg  announces  disagreement  with
the  proposed  Russian  conditions  of  peace,  19  Feb. ,,

Death  of  archduke  Francis  Charles,  the  emperor's
father 8  March, ,,

The  Sphinx  burnt  at  sea,  near  Cape  St.  Elie,  500
perish. 8  March, ,,

Resignation  of  ministry  ;  withdrawn . 6,  7  July, „

Count Andrassy at the Berlin conference

13  June — 13  July ,,

Austria  to  occupy  and  administer  Bosnia  and
Herzegovina,  by  treaty  of  Berlin . . 13  July, ,,

The  Austrians  enter,  and  war  ensues  (see  Bosnia)

20  July, ,,

Resignation  of  Auersperg  ministry  announced  to
the  Reichsrath 22  Oct. ,,

Bosnia  occupied  (except  Novi  Bazar) . . Oct. ,,

Baron  de  Pretis  fails  to  form  a  ministry  . 30  Oct. ,,

New  ministry  under  Dr.  Stremayr . 15  Feb. 1879

Silver  wedding  of  the  emperor  and  empress  kept,

24  April, „

Liberal  majority  at  elections . . '. nJuly, „

Resignation  of  count  Andrassy,  the  premier ;
ministry  formed  by  count  Edw.  Taaff'e,  12  Aug.  ;
baron  von  Haymerle,  foreign  minister 22  Aug. „

Bismarck's  visit  to  Vienna  ;  warmly  received

21-24  Sept. ,,

Reichsrath  opened  ;  the  Czech  deputies  attend

8  Oct. „

Andrassy  formally  resigns :  succeeded  by  baron
Haymerle  as  foreign  minister  and  president  of
the  council 8  Oct. „

Opening  of  all  the  diets  of  the  empire  . 8  June,  1880

Sudden  death  of  baron  Haymerle . . 10  Oct. 1881

The  king  and  queen  of  Italy  warmly  received  at
Vienna 28-31  Oct. ,,

Count  Gustav  Kalnoky  becomes  foreign  minister,

20  Nov. , ,

Temporary  rupture  with  Roumania  respecting  the
Danube  about 27  Dec. „

Insurrection  in  Herzegovina,  &c. ;  several  small
engagements  with  Austrians,  16-31  Jan.  ;  insur-
gents defeated 1882

Provisional  government  said  to  have  been  formed
by  insurgents . •. . . . about  9  Feb. ,,

Alleged  defeat  of  insurgents  at  Glavalicevo  and  in
other  small  engagements . . 16  Feb.  et  seq. ,,

Severe  conflict  at  Cettinje  ;  alleged  great  loss  by
Austrians  ;  small  loss  by  insurgents . 25  Feb. ,,

Mahometans  sympathise  with  Christian  insurgents

Feb. „

Successful  advance  of  the  Austrians  ;  capture  of
Dragali  announced .... 14  March, „

Insurgents  adopting  guerilla  warfare  about  12  May, ,,

"  New  German  People's  party  "  formed,  manifesto
published about  29  May, „

Fall  of  a  railway  bridge  over  the  Drave  ;  about  27
soldiers  in  a  train  drowned . . .23  Sept. ,

Insurrection  suppressed,  announced .  26  Oct. ,,

Execution  of  Overdank,  a  soldier,  for  attempted
assassination  of  emperor . . . 20  Dec.


600th  anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  the
House  of  Hapsburg  celebrated  throughout  the
empire 27  Dec.

Slavonic  agitation  against  Germans  and  the  Mag-
yars and  taxation,  see  Croatia.,  Aug. — Sept.  ;  con-
ciliatory policy  adopted  by  the  government,  Sept.

Marriage  of  the  archduke  Rodolph  and  the  princess
Stephanie  of  Belgium,  10  May,  1881  ;  birth  of
Princess 2  Sept.

Much  social  disaffection  at  Vienna  ;  two  detective
policemen  assassinated,  Hlubek,  Bloch . Jan.

(Corporal  Hermann  Stellmacher,  assassin  of  Bloch,
captured),  25  Jan.  ;  a  great  conspiracy  sus-
pected ;  law  decreed  by  count  Taaffe  repressing
public  meetings,  the  press,  trials  by  jury,  <fec,
30  Jan. ;  many  arrested  or  expelled . .  Jan.

Another  policeman  murdered . . .9  Feb.

Government  measures  adopted  by  the  chambers

IS  Feb.

700  expelled  at  Vienna . . about  15  March,

The  crown  prince  and  princess  visit  Constantinople
17  April,  et  seq.

Hugo  Schenk  and  Schlossarek  executed  for  murder
of  several  servant  girls . . . 22  April,

Stellmacher  executed .... 8  Aug.

Hans  Makart,  historical  painter,  died . 3  Oct.

Grand  funeral  at  Vienna .... 6  Oct.

For  1885;  estimated  revenue  504,800,0008.;  ex-
penditure 519,800,0008 Dec.

Heavy  bank  frauds  ;  suicide  of  culprits  . .  Dec.

Prince  Adolph  Auersperg,  statesman,  died  .  5  Jan.

Dissolution  of  the  Reichsrath,  22  April ;  meeting  of
the  new  Reichsrath .... 22  Sept.

Imperial  assent  given  to  the  reform  act  of  the  upper
house 30  April,

Cordial  meeting  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Czar  at
Kremsier  in  Moravia  . .  . 25-26  Aug.

Political  crisis  relating  to  duties  on  Russian  petro-
leum, end  of  May,  settled . .  about  2  June,

Death  of  Count  F.  von  Beust,  great  liberal  states-
man, ex-chancellor ....  24  Oct.

Increased  army  estimates  voted . . 26  Feb.

Treaty  of  alliance  with  Germany  and  Italy  signed

13  March,

Anarchists  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  dynamite
plot 28  March,

Successful  military manoeuvres in Transylvania

Sept.

Panic  at  the  Bourse  at  Vienna,  through  article  in
the  Involute  Russe  (see  Russia) . 16-17  Dec.

Money  granted  for  war  preparations . 19  Dec.

Defensive  Treaty  with  Germany  against  Russian  or
otheraggression,  7  Oct.  1879;  first  published  3  Feb.

Visit  of  the  German  Emperor  William  II.,  at  Vienna

3  Oct.

Changes  in  the  Taaffe  ministry . . . Oct.

Fortieth  anniversary  of  the  Emperor's  accession
celebrated  by  charities  .... 2  Dec.

Suicide  of  the  Archduke  Rodolph,  heir  to  the
throne,  30  Jan.  ;  solemn  funeral . . 5  Feb.

Changes  in  the  cabinet,  announced  . . .March,

New  army  bill  as  amended  by  the  Hungarian  diet
adopted  by  the  upper  house . .  8  April,

Catholic  congress  of  nobles  and  clergy  met  at
Vienna 29  April,

Death  of  count  Alfred  Potocki,  statesman,  aged  72,
about 20  May,

The  emperor  and his  nephew  visit  Berlin

12-15  Aug.

Temporary  reconciliation  of  the  Czechs  and  Ger-
mans in  Bohemia  in  a  conference,  by  the  inter-
vention of  the  emperor . . . 17-19  Jan.

Formation  of  the  Anglo- Austrian  printing  and  pub-
lishing company  in  Vienna  (Lord  Mayor  Isaacs
and  others,  directors),  middle . . Feb.
[Reported  unsuccessful,  March,  1891.]

Count  Julius  Andrassy  dies  in  Istria . iS  Feb.

Thirty-two  persons  out  of  62  charged,  convicted  of
criminal  practices  in  Galicia  connected  with  emi-
gration ;  four  months  trial ;  sentence,  4A  years
and  other  terms  of  imprisonment  12  March,

Riot  of  about  1,000  workmen  at  Biala  on  the  Gali-
cian  frontier,  suppressed  by  military ;  3  men
killed  and  about  14  died  of  wounds  23  April,

Labour  agitation,  strikes  with  rioting  in  different
provinces  (see  Vienna),  April,  1890,  gradually  sub-
sides .  .... May,


iS36
1887


AUSTRIA.


80


AUXERRE DECLARATION.


The  May  day  demonstration  in  favour  of  an  eight
hours  labour  day  passes  off  tranquilly  at  Vienna,
&c i  May,  1890

Marriage  of  the  emperor's  youngest  daughter,  arch-
duchess Marie  Valerie,  to  her  cousin,  the  arch-
duke Francis  Salvator ... 31  July, ,,

Edward  von  Bauernfeld,  poet  and  dramatist,  dies,
aged  88 10  Aug. „

Austrian  fleet  under  archduke  Stephen,  reviewed
by  queen  Victoria  off  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight

11  Aug. ,,

Great  loss  of  life  and  property  through  storms  and
floods 12-14  Aug. »

Cordial  meeting  of  the  Austrian  and  German  em-
perors at  Rhonstock  in  Silesia,  17-20  Sept.,  at
Vienna I_8  Oct. ,,

The  archduke  John  of  the  Tuscan  branch,  who
resigned  his  dignities  and  took  the  name  of
Johann  Orth,  Oct.  1889,  became  captain  of  a  mer-
chant ship,  the  St.  Margaret,  supposed  to  have
been  lost  off  the  coast  of  S.  America  Aug.,  re-
ported • • Oct. ,,

The  compromise  between  the  Germans  and  the
Czechs  in  Bohemia  not  effected,  through  the  oppo-
sition of  the  young  Czechs ;  see  Bohemia 30  Nov. „

Coal  mine  explosion  at  Polish  Ostrau ;  about  50
men  perish 3  Jan.  1891

Dissolution  of  the  reichsrath ;  liberal  manifesto
issued  by  the  government . . -24  Jan. „

The  archduke  Franz  Ferdinand  d'Bste,  heir  to  the
emperor,  warmly  received  at  St.  Petersburg,  Feb. ;
at  Moscow 14  Feb. ,,

Result  of  elections  :  German  Liberals,  no;  Poles,
57 ;  young  Czechs,  36  ;  Old  Czechs,  10  ;  Clericals,
31;  Bohemian  Conservatives,  18;  Miscellaneous,
93  ;  total,  353  ;  reported . . 15  March, „

The  German  Liberals  and  Poles  support  count
Taaffe's  ministry,  about . . .26  March, ,,

The  reichsrath  opened ....  n  April, ,,

New  treaty  of  commerce  between  Austria-Hungary
and  Germany,  signed  at  Vienna . .  3  May, ,,

The  triple  alliance  renewed  ... 28  June, „

Military  manoeuvres  at  Horn,  the  emperor  and  the
German  erajjeror  present . .  3  Sept.  et  seq. ,,

New  commercial  treaty  with  Germany,  Italy,  Bel-
gium, and  Switzerland,  adopted  ■  by  the  lower
house,  19  Jan.,  by  the  senate . . .25  Jan.  1892

Conference  of  Austrian  bishops  at  Vienna  .  March, ,,

Currency  reform  bill  passed . . . 27  May, „
(See  Germany,  Hungary,  Vienna,  &c.)

Margraves  or  Austria.
Leopold  I.,  982;  Albert  I., 1018  ;  Ernest, 1056;  Leo-
pold II.,  1075  ;  Leopold  III.,  1096;  Albert  II.  ,1136;  Leo-
pold IV.,  1136  ;  Henry  II.,  1142  (made  a  duke,  1156).

Dukes.

1 1 56.  Henry  II.

1 1 77.  Leopold  V.  He  made  prisoner  Richard  I.  of  Eng-
land when  returning  incognito  from  the  crusade,
and  was  compelled  to  surrender  him  to  the  em-
peror Henry  VI.

1 194.  Frederic  I.,  the  catholic.

1 198.  Leopold  VI.,  the  glorious. Killed  in  battle.

1230.  Frederic  II.,  the  warlike. Killed  in  a  battle  with
the  Hungarians,  15  June,  1246.
Interregnum.

1276.  Rodolph  I.

1282.  Albert  I.  and  his  brother  Rodolph  II.  Albert
becomes  emperor  of  Germany,  1298.

1308.  Frederic  I.  and  Leopold  I.

1326.  Frederic  I.

1330.  Albert  II.  and  Otho,  his  brother.

1339.  Albert  II.

1358.  Rodolph  IV.

1365.  Albert  III.  and  Leopold  II.  or  III.  (killed  at
Sempach).

1395.  William  I.  and  brothers,  and  their  cousin  Albert  IV.

141 1.  The  same.  The  provinces  divided  into  the  duchies
of  Austria  and  Carinthia,  and  the  county  of
Tyrol.

141 1.  Albert  V.,  duke  of  Austria;  obtains  Bohemia  and
Moravia  ;  elected  king  of  Hungary  and  emperor,
1437  ;  dies,  1439  ;  succeeded  by  his  posthumous
son,

1439.  Ladislaus,  who  dies  childless,  1457.

1457.  The  emperor  Frederic  III.  and  Albert  VI.


1493.  Maximilian  I.,  son  of  Frederick  III.  (archduke),
emperor  ;  see  Germany.

Emperors.

1804.  Francis  I.  (late  Francis  II.  of  Germany),  styled
emperor  of  Austria  only,  n  Aug.  1804  ;  resigned
empire  of  Germany,  6  Aug.  1806  ;  died  2  Mar.  1835.

1835.  Ferdinand,  his  son,  2  March  ;  abdicated  in  favour
of  his  nephew  (his  brother  Francis-Charles  having
renounced  his  rights),  2  Dec.  1848  ;  died  29  June,
1875.

1848.  Francis-Joseph  (son  of  Francis-Charles),  born  18
Aug.  1830  ;  succeeded,  2  Dec.  1848  ;  married
24  April,  1854,  to  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria  ;  crowned
king  of  Hungary,  8  June,  1867  ;  their  son,  the
archduke  Rodolph,  born  21  Aug.  1858  ;  married
to  princess  Stephanie  Clotilde  of  Belgium,  10
May,  1881  ;  suicide,  30  Jan.  1889.

Heir  presumptive,  brother,  archduke  Charles  Louis,
born  30  July,  1833  ;  his  son,  archduke  Francis
Ferdinand,  born  18  Dec.  1863.

AUTHORS.  See  Copyrights.  The  Society  of
Authors  established  for  self-defence,  to  maintain
copyrights,  &c,  by  sir  W".  Frederick  Pollock,  cardi-
nal Manning,  and  others,  lord  Tennyson,  president,
met  18  Feb.,  incorporated  May,  1884.  Conferences
held  in  March,  1887.
It  sent  a  deputation  to  the  celebration  of the 50th

anniversary of  the  Societe  des  Gens de  Lettres at

Paris,  10  Dec.  1887.

AUTO  DA  FE  (Act  of  faith),  the  term  given
to  the  punishment  of  a  heretic,  generally  burning
alive,  inflicted  by  the  Inquisition  {which  see).

AUTOMATON  FIGURES  (or  An-
DROIDES),  made  to  imitate  living  actions,  are  of
early  invention.  Archytas'  flying  dove  was  formed
about  400  B.C.  Friar  Bacon  is  said  to  have  made  a
brazen  head  which  spoke,  a.d.  1264.  Albertus
Magnus  spent  thirty  years  in  making  another.  A
coach  and  two  horses,  with  a  footman,  a  page,  a
lady  inside,  were  made  by  Camus  for  Louis  XIV.
when  a  child  ;  the  horses  and  figures  moved  na-
turally, variously,  and  perfectly,  1649.  Vaueanson,
in  1738,  made  an  artificial  duck,  which  performed
many  functions  of  a  real  one — eating,  drinking,
and  quacking ;  and  he  also  made  a  flute-player.
The  writing  automaton,  exhibited  in  1769,  was  a
pentagraph  worked  by  a  confederate  out  of  sight.
The  automaton  chess-player,  exhibited  the  same
year,  was  also  worked  by  a  hidden  person ;  so
was  the  "invisible  girl,"  1800.  Maelzel  made  a
trumpeter  about  1809.  Early  in  this  century,  an  au-
tomaton was  exhibited  in  London  which  pronounced
several  sentences  with  tolerable  distinctness.  The
"  anthropoglossus,"  an  alleged  talking-machine,
exhibited  at  St.  James's  hall,  London,  July  1864,
was  proved  to  be  a  gross  imposition.  The  exhi-
bition of  the  talking-machine  of  professor  Faber
of  Vienna,  in  London,  began  27  Aug.  1870,  at  the
Palais  Uoyal,  Argyll-street,  W.  The  automatic
chess-player  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  1873.  Psycho,
an  automaton  card-player,  invented  by  J.  N.  Mas-
kelyne  and  John  Algernon  Clarke,  exhibited  in
London,  Jan.  1875.  An  automaton  hare  was  hunted
at  Hendon,  near  London,  9  Sept.  1876.
Automatic machine  for  producing photographic

portraits  on  metal  for  id.,  exhibited  by  Messrs.

Salter  &  Co. ,  West  Bromwich . . March,  1890

AUTONOMISTS,  a  name  assumed  by  a
socialist  party  in  Paris  (see  Possibilists) ,  1887.

AUTOTYPOGrRAPHY,  a  process  of  pro-
ducing a  metal  plate  from  drawings,  made  known
by  Mr.  Wallis,  in  April,  1863 ;  it  resembled  Nature-
printing  {which  see).

AUXERRE  DECLARATION,  see  France,
May,  1 866. ■


AVA.


81


AZTECS.


AVA,  the  capital  of  the  Burmese  empire  from
1364  to  1740,  and  from  1822  to  1838.  Destroyed  by
•an  earthquake  in  1839. See  Burmah.

AVARS,  barbarians  who  ravaged  Fannonia,
and  annoyed  the  eastern  empire  in  the  6th  and  7th
centuries,  subdued  by  Charlemagne  about  799,  after
an  eight  years'  war.

AVEBURY,  or  ABTTRY  (Wiltshire).  Here
are  the  remains  of  the  largest  so-called  Druidical
work  in  this  country.  They  have  been  surveyed
by  Aubrey,  1648;  Dr.  Stukeley,  1720;  and  sirR.  C.
Hoare,  in  1812,  and  by  others.  Much  information
may  be  obtained  from  Stukeley's  "  Abury  "  (1743),
and  Hoare's  "Ancient  Wiltshire"  (1812-21).
Many  theories  have  been  put  forth,  but  the  object
of  these  remains  is  still  unknown.  They  are  con-
sidered to  have  been  set  up  during  the  "  stone  age,"
i.e.,  when  weapons  and  implements  were  mainly
formed  of  that  material.

AVEIN,  or  AvAIKTE  (Luxemburg,  Belgium).
Here  the  French  and  Dutch  defeated  the  Spaniards,
•20  May,  1635.

"  AVE  MARIA !  "  the  salutation  of  the
angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  {Luke  i.  28),  was  made
a  formula  of  devotion  by  pope  John  XXI.  about
1326.  In  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  Vin-
cetitius  Ferrerius  used  it  before  his  discourses.
Bingham.

AVENIN-  The  stimulating  qualities  of  this
nitrogenous  alkaloid  in  oats  were  discovered  by  Mr.
'Sanson  in  1882.

AVENUE  THEATRE,  Thames  Embank-
ment, opened  11  March,  1882.

AVIGNON,  a  city,  S.  E.  France,  ceded  by
Philip  III.  to  the  pope  in  1273.  The  papal  seat
was  removed  by  Clement  V.  to  Avignon,  in  1309.
In  1348  Clement  VI.  purchased  the  sovereignty  from
Jane,  countess  of  Provence  and  queen  of  Naples.
In  1408,  the  French,  wearied  of  the  schism,  ex-
pelled Benedict  XIII. ,  and  Avignon  ceased  to  be
the  seat  of  the  papacy.  Here  were  held  nine
councils  (1080- 1 45 7).  Avignon  was  seized  and  re-
stored several  times  by  the  French  kings ;  the  last
time  restored,  1773.  It  was  claimed  by  the  national
assembly,  1 791,  and  was  confirmed  to  France  by
the  congress  of  sovereigns  in  1815.  In  Oct.  1791,
horrible  massacres  took  place  here.  See  Popes,
1309-94.

AXE,  WEDGE,  LEVER,  and  various  tools
in  common  use,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by
Daedalus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is
ascribed  the  invention  of  masts  and  sails  for  ships,
1240  B.C.  Many  tools  are  represented  on  the
Egyptian  monuments.

AXUM,  or  AUXUME,  a  town  in  Abyssinia
said  to  have  been  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  whose
people  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  Frumen-
tius  about  330,  and  were  allies  of  Justinian,  533.

AYACTJCHO  (Peru).  Here  the  Peruvians
finally  achieved  their  independence  by  defeating
the  Spaniards,  9  Dec.  1824.

AYDE,  or  AIDE,  the  tax  paid  by  the  vassal  to
the  chief  lord  upon  urgent  occasions.  In  France
and  England  an  aide  was  due  for  knighting  the
king's  eldest  son.  One  was  demanded  by  Philip
the  Fair,  13 13.  The  aide  due  upon  the  birth  of  a
prince,  ordained  by  the  statute  of  Westminster
(Edward  I.)  1285,  was  not  to  be  levied  until  he
was  fifteen  years  of  age,  for  the  ease  of  the  subject.
The  aide  for  the  marriage  of  the  king's  eldest
daughter  could  not  be  demanded  in  this  country
until  her  seventh  year.  In  feudal  tenures  there
was  an  aide  for  ransoming  the  chief  lord ;  so  when


our  Richard  I.  was  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  emperor
of  German)',  an  aide  of  20s.,  to  redeem  him,  was
enforced  upon  every  knight's  fee ;  see  Benevolence.

AYLESBURY,  Buckinghamshire,  was  reduced
by  the  West  Saxons  in  571.  Incorporated  by  charter
in  1554;  absorbed  into  the  county  1889.  The
ancient  parish  church  was  restored  by  sir  G.  G.
Scott, 1849-67. Visited  by  the  queen 14  May,

1890.  Population  1881,  7,795;  1891,8,674.
AYLESFORD  (Kent). Here,  it  is  said,  the

Britons  were  victorious  over  the  Saxon  invaders,
455,  and  Horsa  was  killed.

AYR,  capital  of  Ayrshire,  S.  W.  Scotland  :  char-
tered and  endowed  by  William  the  Lion,  12th
century ;  fortified  by  Oliver  Cromwell. — By  a  sud-
den fire  at  Templeton's  carpet  works,  29  persons
perished,  16  June,  1876.  Population,  1881,  20,821  ;

1891,  24,800.
AZINCOUR,  see  Agincourt.

AZOFF,  SEA  OE,  the  Palus  Mseotis  of  the
ancients,  communicates  by  the  strait  of  Yeni-
kale  (the  Bosporus  Cimmerius)  with  the  Black
Sea,  and  is  entirely  surrounded  by  Russian  terri-
tory; Taganrog  and  Kertch  being  the  principal
places.  An  expedition,  composed  of  British,  French,
and  Turkish  troops,  commanded  by  sir  G.  Brown,
arrived  at  Kertch,  24  May,  1855,  when  the  Russians
retired,  after  blowing  up  the  fortifications.  On  the
25th  the  allies  marched  upon  Yenikale,  which  also
offered  no  resistance.  On  the  same  evening  the
allied  fleet  entered  the  Sea  of  Azoff',  and  in  a  few
days  completed  their  occupation  of  it,  after  captur-
ing a  large  number  of  merchant  vessels,  &c.  An
immense  amount  of  stores  was  destroyed  by  the
Russians  to  prevent  them  falling  into  the  hands  of
the  allies.

AZOIMIDE,  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and
nitrogen  (azote),  a  very  explosive  gas,  obtained
from  organic  sources,  such  as  benzoyl-glycollic  acid
and  hippuric  acid,  by  prof.  Curtius  in  1890.  It
forms  salts  by  combination  with  metals ;  it  is
described  in  Nature,  10  Dec.  1891.

AZORES,  or  Western  Isles  (N.  Atlantic),

belonging  to  Portugal,  the  supposed  site  of  the
ancient  Atlantis,  are  said  to  have  been  discovered
in  the  15th  century  by  Vanderberg  of  Bruges,  who
was  driven  on  their  coasts  by  the  weather.  Cabral,
sent  by  the  Portuguese  court,  fell  in  with  St.  Mary's
in  1432,  and  in  1457  they  were  all  discovered  and
named  Azores  from  the  number  of  goshawks  found
on  them.  They  were  given  by  Alfonso  V.  to  the
duchess  of  Burgundy  in  1466,  and  colonised  by
Flemings.  They  were  subject  to  Spain  1580-1640.
The  isle  Terceira,  during  the  usurpation  of  dom
Miguel,  declared  for  Donna  Maria,  1829,  and  a
government  was  established  at  the  capital  Angra,
1830-33.  A  volcano  at  St.  George's  destroyed  the
town  of  Ursulina,  May,  1808;  and  in  181 1  a  volcano
appeared  near  St.  Michael's,  in  the  sea,  where  the
water  was  eighty  fathoms  deep ;  an  island  then
formed  gradually  disappeared.  A  destructive  earth-
quake lasting  12  days,  happened  in  St.  Michael's,
1591-

AZOTE,  the  name  given  by  French  chemists
to  nitrogen  {which  see).

AZOTUS,  see  Ashdod.

AZTECS,  the  ruling  tribe  in  Mexico  at  the  time
of  the  Spanish  invasion  (1519).  In  June,  1853,  two
pretended  Aztec  children  were  exhibited  in  London.
They  were  considered  by  professor  Owen  to  be
merely  South  American  dwarfs.  They  were  married
in  London,  1  April,  1867,  and  exhibited  for  some
time  after.


B.


BAAL.


82


BABI-ISM.


BAAL  (Lord),  the  male  deity  of  the  Phoenician
nations,  frequently  worshipped  by  the  Israelites,
especially  by  Ahab,  918  B.C.  His  priests  and
votaries  were  massacred  by  Jehu,  and  his  temple
defiled,  884  B.C.

BAALBEO,  HELIOPOLIS  (both  meaning
"City  of  the  Sun"),  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  of
which  magnificent  ruins  remain,  visited  by  "Wood
(in  1751),  and  others.  Its  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity.
Here  Septimius  Severus  built  a  temple  to  the  sun,
200.  The  city  was  sacked  by  the  Moslems,  748,  and
by  Timour  Beg,  1400. See  Heliopolis.

BABA WALL See  Afghanistan,  1 Sept.
1880 ;  and  Mazra.
BABBAGE,  see  Calculating  Machines.

BABBICOMBE MURDER, see Trials,

Feb.  1885.

BABEL,  TOWER  of,  built  by  Noah's  posterity,
2247  B.C.  {Genesis,  ch.  xi.)  The  magnificent
temple  of  Belus,  asserted  to  have  been  originally
this  tower,  is  said  to  have  had  lofty  spires,  and
many  statues  of  gold,  one  of  them  forty  feet  high.
In  the  upper  part  of  this  temple  was  the  tomb  of
the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  scrip-
tures), who  was  deified  after  death.  Blair.  The
Birs  Nimroud,  examined  by  Rich,  Layard,  and
others,  is  considered  by  some  persons  to  be  the
remains  of  the  tower  of  Babel.

BABEUPS  CONSPIRACY,  see  Agrarian
Law.

BABY-FARMING,  see  Infanticide.

BABYLONIA*  (Babilu  Assyrian,  Babirush
Persian,  the  Shinar,  Babel,  and  land  of  the
Chaldees  of  the  Old  Testament),  a  vast  plain
watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  the  seat  of  a
great  Asiatic  empire,  traditionally  stated  to  have
been  founded  by  Belus,  supposed  to  have  been  the
Nimrod  of  Gen.  x.  1,8. See  Assyria. According

*  The  city  of  Babylon  was  at  one  time  the  most  magni-
ficent in  the  world.  The  Hanging  Gardens  are  described
as  having  been  of  a  square  form,  and  in  terraces  one
above  another  until  they  rose  as  high  as  the  walls  of  the
city,  the  ascent  being  from  terrace  to  terrace  by  steps.
The  whole  pile  was  sustained  by  vast  arches  raised  on
other  arches  ;  and  on  the  top  were  flat  stones  closely
cemented  together  with  plaster  of  bitumen,  and  that
covered  with  sheets  of  lead,  upon  which  lay  the  mould
of  the  garden,  where  there  were  large  trees,  shrubs,  and
flowers,  with  various  sorts  of  vegetables.  There  were
five  of  these  gardens,  each  containing  about  four  English
acres,  and  disposed  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre.
Strabo ;  Diodorus.  Pliny  said  that  in  his  time  it  was
but  a  desolate  wilderness.  Mr.  Rich  visited  the  ruins  in
1811,  and  sir  R.  Ker  Porter  in  1818.  The  laborious  re-
searches of  Mr.  Layard,  sir  PI.  Rawlinson,  M.  Botta,  and
others,  and  the  interesting  relics  excavated  and  brought
to  this  country  between  the  years  1849  and  1855,  have
caused  very  much  attention  to  be  given  to  the  history  of
Babylon.  Many  of  the  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  or
wedge-like  character  have  been  translated,  principally  by
col.  (after,  sir  Henry)  Rawlinson,  and  published  in  the
Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  In  the  spring  of
1855,  he  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  many
valuable  relics,  drawings,  &c,  which  are  now  in  the
British  Museum.  He  gave  discourses  on  the  subject  at
the  Royal  Institution,  London,  in  1851,  1855,  and  1865.
The  Rev.  A.  Sayce  lectured  on  Babylonian  literature  at
the  same  place  in  1877.,


to  the  earliest  existing  history  the  country  was.
divided  between  two  races,  the  Sumir  (Turanian),
the  probable  inventors  of  cuneiform  writing;  and
the  Accad  or  Akkod  (Semitic),  which  became  pre-
dominant. See  Accaclians.  "The  fragmentary
Canon  of  Kings,"  given  by  Berosus  the  Gra;co-
Chaldean  priest  268  B.C.,  had  been  superseded  by
the  newly-discovered  Babylonian  canon  inscrip-
tions on  tablets  carefully  dated  from  2200  to-
647  B.C.,  an  unequalled  chronological  series.  Sum-
maries are  given  by  Mr.  Boscawen  in  the  articles
"  Assyria  "  and  "  Babylonia  "  in  "  Chambers'  Ency-
clopaedia," 1888.
Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon,

B.C.  2234,  [2230,  H. ;  2233,  CT.}
Nabonassar  governor,  747  ; His  son  Nadinu,  734 ;

a  revolt,  Ukinziru,  king,  about .... 732
Babylonia  conquered  by  Pul  (Tiglath-Pileser)  king
of  Assyria,  729 ;  becomes  independent ;  Merodach-

baladan  II.  king  about 722

Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  captures  Babylon  ;  Mero-
dach-baladan  returns,  but  is soon  expelled  by

Sennacherib 705.

Babylonia  ruled  by  viceroys,  see  Assyria.
Nabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), general, seizes

the  power  about  640  ;  proclaimed  king . . . 625,
Succeeded  by  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar,  very  great
and  powerful,  604  ;  he  restores  the  empire,  and
rebuilds  Babylon.

[His  acts  are  recorded  on  innumerable  tablets
and  in  the  Bible  ;  2  Kings,  xxiv.,  xxv.  ;  2  Chron.
xxxvi.  ; Jer., xxxvii. — xxxix. ; lii.  ; Daniel, „
i.-iv.]
He  captures  Jerusalem,  599  ;  and  destroys  the  city
and  carries  most  of  the  inhabitants  captives  to

Babylon,  588  ;  dies 561:

Evil  Merodach,  561  ;  Neriglissar,  king . . . 559,
Labynetus,  556  ;  Nabonadius,  a  great  monarch,  551;

Belshazzar  king 535.

Babylon  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Persians,  under

Cyrus,  and  Belshazzar  slain. Daniel  v. . . 538
Babylon  revolts,  and  is  taken  by  Darius . . . 518
Taken  by  Alexander,  331  ;  he  dies  here . . . 323
Seleucus  Nicator,  who  died  280  b.c,  transfers  the
seat  of  government  to  Seleucia,  and  Babylon  is
deserted. Babylonia  was  conquered  by  the  Par-
tisans about 140  b.c,  and  became  part  of  the
Persian  empire. On  the  overthrow  of  the  Sassa-
nides by  the  Mahometans  650  a.d.,  Babylonia
became  the  seat  of  the  califs  till  1258. Since  1638
it  has  been  subject  to  Turkey.

BABYNGTON'S  CONSPIRACY,  to  as-
sassinate queen  Elizabeth,  and  make  Mary  of
Scotland  queen,  was  devised  by  John  Savage,  a
soldier  of  Philip  of  Spain,  and  approved  by  Win,
Gilford  and  John  Ballard,  catholic  priests.  Anthony
Babyngton  and  others  joined  in  the  scheme.  They
were  betrayed  by  Pooley,  a  spy,  and  fourteen  were
executed,  20,  21  Sept.  1586.

BABI-ISM,  a  new  sect  in  Persia,  founded  in
1843  by  Mirza  Ali  Mahomed,  an  enthusiast,  at
Shiraz.  He  termed  himself  the  "Bab,"  or  "gate,"
of  knowledge,  and,  giving  a  new  exposition  of  the
Koran,  claimed  to  be  the  incarnate  Holy  Spirit.
The  destruction  of  himself  and  the  greater  number
of  his  followers  was  due  to  Hossein,  one  of  his
disciples,  who  combined  political  and  warlike  prin-
ciples with  spiritual  dogmas.  The  sect  was  tolerated
by  the  shah  Mohammed,  but  nearly  exterminated
by  his  successor  in  1848-9.  The  Bab  himself
was  executed  15  July,  1849.  The  head  of  the
sect,  Beheyah  Allah,  propounded  a  doctrine,  termed


BACCAEAT CASE.


83


BAFFIN'S BAY.


"Bab  el  Huk,"  gate  of  truth.  The  persecuted  sect
has  been  favoured  by  Turkey,  and  been  settled
latterly  at  Bagdad.  Mr.  Edwd.  G.  Brown's
"  Narrative  "  respecting  Babi-ism,  was  published
in  1892.

BACCAEAT  CASE,  see  Trials,  June,  1891.

BACCHANALIA  (games  in  honour  of
Bacchus)  arose  in  Egypt,  and  were  brought  into
Greece  by  Melampos,  and  called  Dionysia,  about
1415  B.C.  Diodorus.  In  Rome  the  Bacchanalia
were  suppressed,  186  B.C.  The  priests  of  Bacchus
were  called  Bacchanals.

BACCON  or  BACON,  see  Orleans.

BACH  SOCIETY,  instituted  in  London  in
1849,  for  the  collection  of  the  works  of  J.  S.  Bach,
and  the  promotion  of  their  public  performance.
The  original  committee  included  W.  Sterndale
Bennett,  Sir  G.  Smart,  J.  Hullah,  C.  Potter,  and
other  eminent  musicians.  The  society  was  dis-
solved, 21  March,  1870,  and  the  music  given  up  to
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.

BACHELOES.  The  Roman  censors  frequently
imposed  tines  on  unmarried  men ;  and  men  of  full
age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women
at  certain  games  laid  hold  of  old  bachelors,  dragged
them  round  their  altars,  and  inflicted  on  them
various  marks  of  infamy  and  disgrace.  Vossius.
A  tax  laid  upon  bachelors  in  England,  twenty-five
years  of  age  (varying  from  12I.  10s.  for  a  duke,  to  is.
for  a  common  person),  lasted  from  1695  to  1706.
Bachelors  (Romanist  piiests  excepted)  were  sub-
jected to  an  extra  tax  on  their  male  and  female
servants  in  1785.  A  grand  ball  given  by  84  bache-
lors at  Kensington  House  ;  the  prince  and  princess
of  Wales  present,  22  July  1880.  The  Bachelors'
Club  in  London  in  1891  consisted  of  800  members.

BACILLI,  see  Animalcules  and  Germ  Theory.

BACKGAMMON.  Falamedes  of  Greece  is  the
reputed  inventor  of  this  game,  about  1224  B.C.

BACONIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  propounded
by  Francis  Bacon,  specially  in  his  "  Novum  Orga-
non,"  published  in  1620.  Its  principles  are  Utility
and  Progress  ;  and  its  objects  the  alleviation  of  the
sufferings  and  promotion  of  the  comforts  of  man-
kind. Macaulay,  1837.

Bacon  Society,  established  in  December,  1885,  for  the
study  of  the  works,  character,  genius  and  life  of
Francis  Bacon,  and  his  influence  on  his  own  and
succeeding  times,  and  to  investigate  claims  for  his
supposed  authorship  of  certain  works,  including  the
Shakespearian  dramas  and  poems.  A  journal  is
published. See  under  Shakespeare  1887.

BACTEEIA  (little  rods),  see  Animalcules  and
Germ  Theory.
Mr.  Edgar  M.  Crookshank,  author  of  "Bacteriology,"

was  appointed Professor  of  Bacteriology  at King's

College,  London,  in  May,  1887.

BACTEIANA,  a  province  in  Asia,  was  subju-
gated by  Cyrus  and  formed  part  of  the  Persian
empire,  when  conquered  by  Alexander,  330  B.C.
About  254  B.C.,  Theodotus  or  Diodotus,  a  Greek,
threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  Seleucida?,  and  became
king.  Eucratides  I.  reigned  prosperously  about
181  B.C.,  and  Menander  about  126  B.C.  The  Greek
kingdom  appears  to  have  been  broken  up  by  the
irruption  of  the  Scythians  shortly  after.

BADAJOZ  (S.  VV.  Spain).  An  important  barrier
fortress,  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  Soult,
n  March,  1811;  invested  by  the  British,  under
lord  Wellington,  on  16  March,  1812,  and  stormed
and  taken  on  6  April  following. The  French  re-


treated in  haste. A  short  military  insurrection,  5
and  6  Aug.  1883. Population,  1887,  27,279.

BADDESDOWN  HILL,  or  Mount  Badon,
near  Bath,  where  Bede  says  the  Britons  defeated
the  Saxons  in  493  ;  others  say  in  511  or  520.

BADEN  (S.  W.  Germany).  The  house  of
Baden  is  descended  from  Hermann,  regarded  as  the
first  margrave  (1052),  son  of  Berthold  I.,  duke  of
Zahringen;  but  Hermann  II.  assumed  the  title,
Feb.  1 130.  From  Christopher,  who  died  1527,  pro-
ceeded the  branches  Baden-Baden  and  Baden-Dour -
lach,  united  in  1 771.  Baden  is  a  hereditary  con-
stitutional monarchy  by  charter,  26  May,  1818 ;  it
joined  the  German  empire  by  treaty,  15  Nov.  1870.
Population,  1  Dec.  1871,  1,461,562;  Dec.  1875,
1,507,179; 1885,  1,601,255; 1890,  1,656,817.

Louis  William,  margrave  of  Baden-Baden,  a  great
general,  born  1665  ;  sallied  out  from  Vienna  and
defeated  the  Turks,  1683  ;  died  1707.

Charles  William,  margrave  of  Baden-Dourlach,  born
1679,  died  1746  ;  succeeded  by  his  son,

Charles  Frederic,  born  1728  ;  margrave  of  Baden-
Dourlach,  1738 ;  acquired  Baden-Baden,  1771,
made  grand-duke  by  Napoleon,  1806.

Treaty  of  Baden  .-—Landau  ceded  to  France,  7  Sept. 1714

Baden  made  a  grand-duchy,  with,  enlarged  terri-
tories 1806

A  representative  constitution  granted  by  charter,

18  Aug. 1818

Republican  agitation .....  during  1848

Insurrection  ;  .joined  by  the  free  city  Rastatt ;  the
grand-duke  flees May,  1849

The  Prussians  enter  Baden,  15  June  ;  defeat  the  in-
surgents commanded  by  Mierolawski ;  Rastatt
surrenders,  23  July  ;  the  grand-duke  re-enters
Carlsruhe 18  Aug. ,,

Arrests  for  political  offences ... 9  July,  1857

Concordat  with  the  pope  signed  . . .28  June,  1859

Greatly  opposed  by  the  chambers  ;  annulled  by  the
grand-duke  by  a  manifesto,  securing  autonomy  to
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  ;  signed

7  April,  i860

Interview  at  Baden-Baden  of  the  emperor  Napo-
leon III.,  the  prince  regent  of  Prussia,  and  the
German  kings  and  princes . . .16  June, ,,

The  new  ecclesiastical  law  (adopted  by  the  cham-
bers) promulgated 16  Oct. ,,

Opposition  of  the  archbishop  of  Friburg  and  the
clerical  party 1860-65

Disputes  in  the  German  diet ;  the  grand-duke
vainly  endeavours  to  obtain  a  reconciliation  ;  and
remains  neutral June,  1866

Baden  joins  the  Zollverein  (which  see) . .  July,  1867

Meeting  of  the  chambers  ;  liberal  measures  pro-
mised, 24  Sept.  ;  universal  suffrage  adopted  by
the  second  chamber 29  Oct.  1869

Civil  marriage  made  obligatory . . 17  Nov. ,,

Baden  joins  Prussia  in  the  war  with  France,  about

20  July,  1870

Gambling  houses  suppressed  ;  finally  closed  31  Oct.  1872

GRAND-DDKES.

1806. Charles  Frederic; dies  1811  ; succeeded  by  his
grandson,

Charles  Louis  Frederic,  who  died  without  issue  in
1818  ;  succeeded  by  his  uncle,
Louis  William,  died  without  issue  in  1830 ;  suc-
ceeded by  his  brother,

Leopold,  died  in  1852  ;  succeeded  by  his  second
son  (the  first  being  imbecile),
Frederic  (born  9  Sept.  1826),  regent  24  April,  1852  ;
declared  grand-duke,  5  Sept.  1856  ;  becomes  ill,
his  son  appointed  regent,  11  Nov.  1881.
his  son  Frederic  William,  born  9  July,  1857.


1S11.
1818.
1830.
1852.

Heir

BAFFIN'S  BAY  (N.  America),  discovered  by
William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  1616.  The  extent
of  this  discovery  was  much  doubted,  until  the
expeditions  of  Ross  and  Parry  proved  that  Baffin
was  substantially  accurate  in  his  statement.  Parry
entered  Lancaster  Sound,  and  discovei-ed  the  islands
known  by  his  name,  in  1818 ;  see  North-  IFest
Passage.

a  2


BAGDAD.


81


BALEARIC ISLANDS.


BAGrDAD,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  built  by  Al
Mansour,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire,
about  762.  Taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  a  period
put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258.  Often  taken  by  the
Persians,  and  retaken  by  the  Turks,  with  great
slaughter :  the  latter  have  held  it  since  1638.  Popu-
lation, 1885,  100,000.

BAGPIPE,  an  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  in-
strument. On  a  piece  of  ancient  Grecian  sculp-
ture, now  in  Rome,  a  bagpiper  is  represented
dressed  like  a  modern  highlander.  Nero  is  said
to  have  played  upon  a  bagpipe,  51.  Our  highland
regiments  retain  their  pipers.  Patrick  Bohan,  the
celebrated  Irish  piper,  died  9  April,  1884.

BAHAMA  ISLES  (N.  America)  were  the
first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus.  San  Sal-
vador was  seen  by  him  on  the  night  of  1  r  Oct.  1492  ;
he  landed  next  clay.  New  Providence  was  settled
by  the  English  in  1629.  They  were  expelled  by
the  Spaniards,  1641 ;  returned,  1666  ;  again  expelled
in  1703.  The  isles  were  formally  ceded  to  the
English  in  1783.  Population  in  1861,  35,287  (see
Cyclones,  Oct.  1866);  in  1871,  39,162;  in  1881,
43,521 ;  in  1888,  about  48,000.  The  Bahamas  profited
by  blockade-running  during  the  American  civil  war,
1862-5.  Governors,  William  Rawson,  1864;  sir  James
Walker,  1868 ;  John  Pope  Hennessy,  1871  ;  Wm.
Robinson,  1874;  Thos.  F.  Callaghan,  1879;  Charles
Cameron  Lees,  5  Oct.  1881  ;  H.  A.  Blake,  Jan.  1884  ;
Sir  Ambrose  Shea,  Oct.  1887.

BAHAR  (N.  India),  a  province  (conquered  by
Baber  in  1530),  with  Bengal  and  Orissa,  a  princely
dominion,  became  subject  to  the  English  East  India
company  in  1765  by  the  treaty  of  Allahabad  for  a
quit-rent  of  about  300,000/.

BAIL.  By  ancient  common  law,  before  and
since  the  conquest,  all  felonies  were  bailable,  till
murder  was  excepted  by  statute ;  and  by  the
3  Edward  I.  (1275)  the  power  of  bailing  in  trea-
son, and  in  divers  instances  of  felony,  was  taken
away.  Bail  was  further  regulated  in  later  reigns.
It  is  now  accepted  in  all  cases,  except  felony  ;  and
where  a  magistrate  refuses  bail,  it  may  be  granted
by  a  judge.  Acts  respecting  bail  passed  1826  and
1852.

BAILIFF,  or  Sheriff,  said  to  be  of  Saxon
origin.  London  had  its  shire-reve  prior  to  the  con-
quest, and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for
counties  in  England  in  1079.  Hen.  Cornehill  and
Rich.  Reynere  were  appointed  bailiffs  or  sheriffs  in
London  in  1 189.  Stoiv.  Sheriffs  were  appointed  in
Dublin  under  the  name  of  bailiffs,  in  1308  ;  and  the
name  was  changed  to  sheriff  in  1548.  There  are
still  places  where  the  chief  magistrate  is  called
bailiff,  as  the  high  bailiff  of  Westminster.  Bum-
bailiff  is  a  corruption  of  bound-bailiff,  every  bailiff
being  obliged  to  enter  into  bonds  of  security  for  his
good  behaviour. Blackstone.

B  AIR  AM,  or  BEIRAM,  Mahometan  festivals.
The  Little  Bairam,  follows  the  fast  of  Ramadan
{which  see)  ;  the  Great  Bairam  in  1885,  began  on
14  July.

BAIZE,  a  species  of  coarse  woollen  manufac-
ture, was  brought  into  England  by  some  Flemish
or  Dutch  emigrants  who  settled  at  Colchester,  in
Essex,  about  1568.

BAKER  AND  BAKEnOTJSES ;  see  Bread.

BAKERIAN  LECTURES,  Royal  society,
originated  in  a  bequest  of  100/.  by  Henry  Baker,
F.K.S.,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  given  to
one  of  the  fellows,  for  a  scientific  discourse  to  be
delivered  annually. Peter  Woulfe  gave  the  first


lecture  in  1765.  Latterly  it  has  been  the  custom
to  nominate  as  the  lecture  a  paper  written  by  one
of  the  fellows.  Davy,  Faraday,  Tyndall,  and  other
eminent  men  have  given  the  lecture.

BAKU- See  under  Petroleum.

BALAKLAVA,  a  small  town  in  the  Crimea,

with  a  fine  harbour,  10  miles  S.  E.  from  Sebastopol.

After  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  the  allies  advanced

upon  this  place,  26  Sept.  1854.

Battle  of  Balaklava : — About  12,000  Russians,  com-
manded by  general  Liprandi,  attacked  and  took
some  redoubts  in  the  vicinity,  which  had  been
entrusted  to  about  250  Turks.  They  next  as-
saulted the  English,  by  whom  they  were  compel-
led to  retire,  mainly  through  the  charge  of  the
heavy  cavalry,  led  by  brigadier  Scarlett,  under
the  orders  of  lord  Lucan.  After  this,  from  an
unfortunate  misconception  of  lord  Raglan's  order,
lord  Lucan  ordered  lord  Cardigan,  with  the  light
cavalry,  to  charge  the  Russian  army,  which  had
reformed  on  its  own  ground  with  its  artillery  in
front.  The  order  was  most  gallantly  obeyed,  and
great  havoc  was  made  on  the  enemy  ;  but  of  670
British  horsemen,  only  198  returned.  (Termed
by  Tennyson  "  The  Charge  of  the  Six  Hundred.")
The  infantry  engaged  were  termed  a  "thin  red
line " 25  Oct.  1854

[A  banquet  was  given  to  the  survivors  at  the  Alex-
andra Palace,  25  Oct.  187s]

[A  subscription  for  the  relief  of  about  20  destitute
out  of  100  survivors  of  the  Light  Brigade  was
opened  in  April,  1890,  by  the  agency  of  Mr.  Her-
bert and  lieut.  Wightman,  two  of  their  comrades,
and  supported  by  the  St.  James's  Gazette,  rt.  hon.
E.  Stanhope,  and  sir  W.  Marriott,  lords  Tenny-
son, Wolseley,  Hartington,  and  others,  May,  1890 ;
above  4,000?.  received,  28  July,  1890.]

[Total  received,  including  sums  from  India  and  the
colonies,  6,753?. is.  4c?.,  6  April,  1891.]

A  sortie  from  the  garrison  of  Sebastopol  led  to  a
desperate  engagement  here,  in  which  the  Russians
were  vigorously  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  2000
men  killed  and  wounded  ;  the  allies  losing  about
600 ' 22  March,  1855

The  electric  telegraph  between  London  and  Bala-
klava completed April,

A  railway  between  Balaklava  and  the  trenches
completed June,

BALAMBANGAN,  an  uninhabited  island,
N.  coast  of  Borneo,  about  50  miles  in  circum-
ference, conceded  to  Mr.  Francis,  a.c,  in  1889.

BALANCE  OF  POWER,  to  assure  the  inde-
pendency and  integrity  of  states,  and  control  the
ambition  of  sovereigns;  a  principle  said  to  have
been  first  laid  down  by  the  Italian  politicians  of
the  15th  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.
of  France,  1494.  Robertson.  It  was  recognised  by
the  treaty  of  Minister,  24  Oct.  1648.  The  arrange-
ments for  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  made  in
1815,  without  the  consent  of  the  people  of  the
countries  concerned,  have  been  nearly  all  set  aside
since  1830.

BALAWAT,  see  Nineveh.

BALDACHIN,  or  BALDACHINO,  more  pro-
perly ciborium  {which  see),  a  canopy  placed  over  the
altar  in  some  ancient  churches ;  the  practice,  be-
ginning about  1 130,  was  introduced  into  England,
1279.  The  proposal  to  erect  one  in  St.  Barnabas'
church,  Pimlico,  was  opposed  in  the  consistory
court,  Aug.  1873.  The  trial  took  place  23,  24  Oct.
Dr.  Tristram  decided  against  the  erection  of  the
baldachin,  15  Dec.  1873.

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  in  the  Mediter-
ranean, called  by  the  Greeks  Balearides,  and  by
the  Romans  Baleares,  from  the  dexterity  of  the
inhabitants  at  slinging :  they  include  Majorca,
Minorca,  IviQa,  Formentera,  Cabrera,  Conejera,
and  other  islets. They  were  conquered by  the


BALFOUE'S ACTS.


85


BALLOONS.


Romans,  123  B.C. :  by  the  Vandals,  about  a.d.  426,
and  formed  part  of  Charlemagne's  empire  in
799.  Conquered  by  the  Moors  about  1005,  and
held  by  them  till  about  1286,  when  they  were
annexed  by  Arragon  ;  see  Majorca  and  Minorca.

BALFOUE'S  ACTS,  see  Ireland,  1890-1.

BALHAM  MYSTEEY,  see  Bravo.

BALIZE,  see  Honduras.

BALEANS,  the  ancient  Hsemus,  a  range  of
mountains  extending  from  the  Adriatic  to  the
Euxine.  The  passage,  deemed  impracticable,  was
completed  by  the  Russians  under  Diebitsch,  during
the  Russian  and  Turkish  war,  26  July,  1829.  An
armistice  was  the  consequence;  and  a  treaty  of
peace  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  14  Sept.  following.
The  Balkans  were  crossed  by  the  Russians  under
Gourko,  13  July,  1877,  see  Busso- Turkish  War
II.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July,  1878,  the
Balkans  became  the  frontiers  of  the  Sultan's  Euro-
pean dominions.

The  Balkan  States  are  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Roumelia
(which  see).  In  Sept.  1889,  the  Panslavist  Committee
at  Moscow  circulated  leaflets  termed  "  The  Ten  Com-
mandments of  Russia,"  proposing  the  enlargement
of  the  Balkan  States  by  the  annexations  from  neigh-
bouring territories.

BALLADS  maybe  traced  in  the  British  history
to  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Turner.  Adhelme,  who  died
709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  introduced  ballads
into  England.  "The  harp  was  sent  round,  and
those  might  sing  who  could."  Bede.  Alfred  sung
ballads.  Malmesbury.  Canute  composed  one.
Turner.  Minstrels  were  protected  by  a  charter  of
Edward  IV.;  but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they
were  made  punishable  among  rogues  and  vaga-
bonds, and  sturdy  beggars.  Viner.  Fletcher,  of
Saltoun  (died  17 16)  in  a  letter  to  Montrose  ex-
pressed his  opinion  that  making  ballads  was  more
important  than  law-making.  The  sea-ballads  of
Dibdin  were  very  popular  in  the  French  war ;  he  died
20  Jan.  1833.  Mr.  John  Boosey's  "  Ballad  Con-
certs," St.  James's  Hall,  began  1866.

Collections.—  Bishop  Percy's  "Reliques  of  Ancient
English  Poetry,"  1765  et  seq.  Publications  of  the  Percy
Society,  1840-52  ;  of  the  Ballad  Society,  1868  etseq.

Professor  Child's  collection,  8  vols.,  Boston,  U.S.A.,
1857-59  ;  his  greater  work  is  in  course  of  publication,
1888  et  seq.

Johnson's  Scots  Musical  Museum,  6  vols.  1787-1803.

Many  smaller  collections.

BALLABAT,  an  Australian  town  in  Victoria,
which  arose  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1 85 1,  see
Australia.  It  possesses  many  handsome  buildings
and  churches,  and  has  Protestant  and  R.  C.  bishops.
Population  1881,  37,260;  1891,  46,033.

BALLETS  began  through  the  meretricious  taste
of  the  Italian  courts.  One  performed  at  the  inter-
view between  our  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  of
France  in  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  at  Ardres,
1520.  Guicciardini.  Ballets  became  popular  in
France,  and  Louis  XIV.  bore  a  part  in  one,  1664.
They  were  introduced  here  with  operas  early  in  the
18th  century.

BALLINAMUCE,  Longford.  Here,  on  8  Sept.
1798,  the  Irish  rebels  and  their  French  auxiliaries
were  defeated  and  captured.

BALLOONS.*  A  just  idea  of  the  principle  of
the  construction  of  balloons  was  formed  by  Albert


"  Astra  Castra  ;  Experiments  and  Adventures  in  the
Atmosphere  ;  by  Hatton  Tumor,"  a  copious  work,  ap-
peared in  1S65.


of  Saxony,  an  Augustine  monk  in  the  14th  century,
and  adopted  by  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  Francesco
Mendoza,  who  died  at  Lyons  in  1626.  The  idea  is
also  attributed  to  Bartolomeo  de  Guzmao,  who  died
in  1724.  The  principles  of  aeronautics  include  :—
I,  the  power  of  a  balloon  to  rise  in  the  air;  2,  the
velocity  of  its  ascent ;  and  3,  the  stability  of  its
Suspension  at  any  given  height.  In  1872  Helmholtz
thought  balloons  might  be  steered,  if  moving  slowly.
Fatal  accidents  to  the  voyagers  have  been  estimated
at  2  or  3  per  cent.  The  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great
Britain,  founded  with  the  object  of  fostering  and
developing  aeronautics  and  aerology,  by  the  duke
of  Argyll,  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  sir  Charles  Bright,
and  others,  12  Jan.  1866.

Francis  Lana,  a  Jesuit,  proposed  to  navigate  the
air  by  means  .of  a  boat  raised  by  four  hollow  balls
made  of  thin  copper,  from  which  the  air  had
been  exhausted 1670

Joseph  Galien  suggested  the  filling  a  bag  with  the
fine  diffuse  air  of  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmo-
sphere 1755

Henry  Cavendish  discovered  that  hydrogen  gas  is
io'S  times  lighter  than  common  air . . . 1766

And  soon  after  Black  of  Edinburgh  filled  a  bag
with  hydrogen,  which  rose  to  the  ceiling  of  the
room 1767

Cavallo  filled  soap  bubbles  with  hydrogen . .  1782

Joseph  Montgolfier  made  a  silken  bag  ascend  with
heated  air  (first  fire  balloon) . . . Nov. ,,

Joseph  and  Stephen  Montgolfier  ascend  and  descend
safely  by  means  of  a  fire  balloon  at  Annonay,  for
which  they  received  many  honours . 5  June,  1783

First  ascent  in  a  balloon  filled  with  hydrogen,  at
Paris,  by  MM.  Robert  and  Charles  .  27  Aug. ,,

Joseph  Montgolfier  ascends  in  a  balloon  inflated
with  smoke  of  burnt  straw  and  wool  19  Sept. ,,

First  aerial  voyage  in  a  fire  balloon — Pilatre  de
Rozier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandes . 21  Nov. ,,

Second  ascent  of  Charles  in  a  hydrogen  balloon  to
the  height  of  9770  feet .... 1  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Tytler  ascended  in  a  Montgolfier  balloon  at
Edinburgh 27  Aug. 1784

Ascents  become  numerous  :  Andreani,  25  Feb.  ;
Blanchard,  2  March  ;  Guyton  de  Morveau,  the
chemist,  25  April  and  12  June ;  Fleurant  and
Madame  Thible  (the  first  female  aeronaut),
28  June;  the  duke  of  Chartres  (Philip  Egalite)

19  Sept. ,,

The  first  ascent  in  England,  made  by  Vincent  Lu-
nardi,  at  Moorfields,  London . . 15  Sept. ,,
[Centenary :  three  balloons  ascend  at  same  place,

one  of  them  "The  Colonel  "  containing  col.  Brine

and  M.  L'Hoste,  from  Finsbury,  15  Sept.  1884.]

Blanchard  and  Jeffries  ascend  at  Dover ;  cross  the
Channel;  alight  near  Calais  .  . . 7  Jan. 1785

[Centenary  celebrated  at  Guines,  25  May,  1885.]

The  first  ascent  in  Ireland,  from  Ranelagh  gardens,
Dublin 19  Jan ,,

Rozier  and  Romain  killed  in  their  descent  near
Boulogne  ;  the  balloon  took  fire . . 15  June, ,,

Parachutes  constructed and used  by  Blanchard,

Aug. „

Garnerin's  narrow  escape  when  descending  in  one
in  London 2  Sept. 1802

Sadler,  who  made  many  previous  expeditions  in
England,  fell  into  the  sea,  near  Holyhead,  but
was  taken  up 9  Oct. 1812

Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at  night ;
the  balloon,  being  surrounded  by  fireworks,  took
lire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the  ground  and
killed 6  July,  1819

Mr.  Charles  Green's  first  ascent ;  (lie  introduced  coal
gas  in  ballooning) 19  July,  1821

Lieut.  Harris  killed  in  a  balloon  descent 25  May,  1824

Sadler,  ,jun.,  killed,  falling  from  a  balloon . . 1825

The  great  Nassau  balloon,  which  had  for  some  time
previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inhabitants  of
London  in  repeated  ascents  from  Vauxhall  gar-
dens, started  from  that  place  on  an  experimental
voyage,  Mr.  C.  Green,  Mr.  R.  Hollond,  and  Mr.
Mnuck-Mason  in  the  car,  and  alter  having  been
eighteen  hours  in  the  air  descended  at  Weuburg,
in  the  duchy  of  Nassau .  7  Nov. 1836


BALLOONS.


BALLOONS.


Mr.  Cocking  ascended  from  Vauxhall  to  try  his
parachute ;  in  its  descent  from  the  balloon  it
collapsed, and  he  was  thrown  out  and  killed,

24  July,  1837
An  Italian  aeronaut  ascended  from  Copenhagen,

in  Denmark ;  his  corpse  was  subsequently  found
on  the  sea-shore  in  a  contiguous  island,  dashed  to

pieces 14  Sept.  1851

J.  B.  Lassie's  model  of  an  "  aerial  ship,"  in  which
the  screw  was  used,  was  submitted  to  the  academy
of  sciences  at  Paris,  1859 ;  and  exhibited  at  Wash-
ington, U.S 1859

Mr.  Wise  and  three  others  ascended  from  St.  Louis
(after  travelling  1150  miles  they  descended  in
Jefferson  county,  New  York,  nearly  dead)

23  June,  ,,
Nadar's  great  balloon  (largest  ever  made)  when  fully
inflated  contained  215,363  cubic  feet  of  gas  ;  the
car,  a  cottage  in  wicker  work,  raised  35  soldiers
at  Paris ;  Nadar  hoped  by  means  of  a  screw  to
steer  a  balloon  in  the  heavens ;  his  first  ascent,
with  14  persons,  successful  . . 4  Oct. 1863

His  second  ascent ;  voyagers  injured ;  saved  by
presence  of  mind  of  M.  Jules  Godard ;  descend
at  Nieuburg,  Hanover . . .  12  Oct. ,,

Nadar  and his balloon at  the Crystal Palace,

?■  Sydenham Nov. ,,

Society  for  promoting  aerial  navigation  formed
at  M. Nadar's,  at  Paris ; president,  M.  Barral,

15  Jan. 1864
Godard 's  great  Montgolfier  or  fire  balloon  ascends,

28  July  and  3  Aug. ;,
Ascent  of  Nadar  and  others  in  his  great  balloon  at

Brussels 26  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Coxwell  ascends  from  Belfast  in  a  new  balloon;
several  persons  are  injured  by  the  balloon  be-
coming uncontrollable;  it  escapes . .  3  July,  1865
Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris,

June  23, 1866
Mr. Coxwell said to have  made  550  successful

ascents up  to  April,  1867

An  aerial  screw  machine  (helicopteric)  suggested,
in  Paris,  1863 ;  described  by  Dr.  J.  Bell  Petti-
grew, in London, at the Royal Institution,

22  March, „
Mr.  Hodsman crossed  the  Channel  from  Dublin,
and descended at Appleby, Westmoreland

22  April, ,,
A  great  balloon  exhibited  at  Ashburnham-park,
London,  escaped,  and  was  captured  at  Bouldon,

Bucks. 25  May,  1869

Charles  Green,  aeronaut,  said  to  have  made  about

600  ascents,  died  aged  84  .  .  -27  Mar.  1870
Dupuy  de  Lome  at  Vincennes  ascended  with  his
"navigable"  balloon,  with  13  persons;  experi-
ment reported  to  be  successful  .  .  2  Feb.  1871
Professor  Wise  proposed  to  cross  the  Atlantic  from
New  York  to  Liverpool  in  a  balloon,  100  feet  in
diameter,  no  feet  perpendicular,  with  a  supple-
mentary balloon  36  feet  in  diameter;  the  two
giving  a  lifting  power  of  i5,9oolbs.,  a  carrying
power  of  9,500 lbs.,  and  disposable  ballast
7,500 lbs.,  July;  the  balloon  was  reported  in-
adequate, Sept.  ;  a  smaller  balloon  started  (with
a  life-boat)  9.19  a.m.,  6  Oct.,  and  descended  dur-
ing a  storm  over  Connecticut ;  the  men  narrowly

escaped 7  Oct. 1873

Vincent  de  Groof,  a  Belgian  (named  the  "flying
man"),  constructed  a  parachute  to  imitate  the
flight  of  a  bird ;  he  brought  it  to  London  ;  as-
cended from  Cremorne-gardens,  and  descended
from  a  height  between  300  and  400  feet  in  Essex,
29  June  ;  at  his  next  attempt,  the  parachute,
either  detached  by  himself  or  by  accident,  was
disarranged,  and  he  was  killed  by  falling,  9  July,  1874
Under  the  Government  Balloon  Committee,  Mr.
Coxwell  ascended  at  Woolwich  to  try  C.  A.
Bowdler's  apparatus  (based  on  the  screw-propel-
ler) for  steering  balloons  ;  failure  reported,

25  July, ,,
[It  has  been  proved  that  a  screw  with  a  vertical

axis  can  raise  or  depress  a  balloon,  and  thereby

save  gas  and  ballast.  ]

M.  and  Mad.  Duruof  (see  below,  1870),  ascend  from

Calais  to  cross  the  channel,  31  Aug.  ;  carried  out

to  sea ; the  balloon fell into  the  water and


drifted  towards  Norway  ;  rescued  by  a  smack
(the  Grand  Charge) ;  the  aeronauts  were  landed
at  Grimsby 4  Sept. 1874

Duruof  and  others  ascend  from  the  Crystal-palace,

14  Sept. ,,

Menier's  new  hot-air  balloon  fails  on  trial,  5  Sept.

and  16  Oct. ,,

Ascent  of  capt.  Burnaby  at  the  Crystal-palace  to
try  his  machine  for  ascertaining  the  course  of
the  wind  above  the  clouds ;  reported  successful,

10  Nov. „

MM.  Tissandier,  Croce-Spinelli,  and  Sivel  ascend
in  the  "  Zenith  "•  from  La  Villette,  near  Paris  ;  at
26,160  feet  Croce  throws  out  ballast ;  they  ascend
rapidly  ;  he  and  Sivel  die  through  suffocation ;
Tissandier  recovered . . . .15  April, 1875

Washington  J.  Donaldson,  eminent  aeronaut,
perishes  in  Lake Michigan during a storm,

18  July, „

Reported  failure  of  Carrol's  directing  apparatus  at
Paris July,  1878

Frequent  ascents  in  a  "  captive  balloon  " . Aug. ,,

Mr.  Giffard's  great  captive  balloon,  Paris, burst.

16  or  17  August,  1879

Five  balloons  start  from  various  places  near  Lon-
don, competing  for  a  silver  medal  given  by  the
Balloon  Society ;  the  "  Owl,"  Mr.  Wright  and
Commander  Cheyne,  travelled  48  miles  in  one
hour  (no  medal  awarded.) . . .4  Sept.  1880

International  balloon  contest  at  the  Crystal  Palace ;
England  (Eclipse),  Mr.  Wright ;  France,  M.  de
Fonvielle ;  both  alighted  near  Portsmouth,  21  Oct. ,,

Giffard  and  De  Lome's  aerial  ship  said  to  be  success-
ful for  direction,  speed,  <&c Jan.  1881

Mr.  Eugene  (who  had  ascended  about  2,000  times)
narrowly  escapes  destruction  by  a  storm  at
Vienna 21  Aug. „

Mr.  Walter  Powell,  M.P.,  crossed  the  Bristol
Channel  in  a  balloon  and  descended  at  Dinges-
ton,  and  afterwards  went  on  to  Hereford,  3  Nov. ;
Mr.  Walter  Powell,  M.P.,  capt.  Templer,  and  Mr.
Agg  Gardner  ascend  at  Bath  in  war-office  balloon
Saladin ;  the  balloon  descends  near  Bridport  ;
two  fell  out ;  the  balloon  ascends  with  Mr.  Powell
and  drifts  to  sea  ;  not  found . . 10  Dec. ,,

Col.  (aft.  Gen.)  Brine  and  Mr.  Simmons'  attempt  to
cross  the  Channel  from  Canterbury ;  they  and  the
balloon  picked  up  half-way. . . 4  Mar.  1882

Col.  Burnaby  crosses  the  Channel  from  Dover
and  lands  near  Dieppe . . . .23  Mar. ,,

Mr.  Simmons  goes  from  Maldon,  Essex,  to  Arras  (140
miles)  2  h 10  June ,,

Mr.  Simmons  and  sir  Claude  C.  de  Crespigny  crossed
the  Channel  from  Maldon,  Essex,  to  Oudekerk,
near  Flushing  (140  miles  in  6  hours) . 1  Aug.  1883

By  Mr.  Simmons  and  Mr.  Small  from  Hastings  to
Cape  La  Hague  (8  hours) . . . 13  Sept. ,,

Electrical  balloon  constructed  by  Gaston  and  Albert
Tissandier,  successful  trial  reported . 8  Oct. „

By  M.  Lhoste  from  Boulogne  to  Ashford,  15  Sept.
1883  ;  again  from  Boulogne  to  New  Romney,
2  hours 7  Aug.  1884

Gen.  Brine  crosses  from  Hythe  to  Hervelinghen

15  Aug. ,,

Balloon  navigation  said  to  be  effected  by  M.  Renard
at  Meudon,  by  an  electrical  machine  9  Aug. „

Another  trial,  result  uncertain . .12  Sept. „

Reported  success  by  M.  Tissandier . 26  Sept. ,,

By  Capt.  Renard 8  Nov. „

M.  Lhoste  crosses  from  Cherbourg  to  Tottenham
near  London  ;  attained  height  3,600  feet,  lowest
temperature  70  C.  . . . .  29-30  July  1886

Mr.  Lorraine's  attempt  to  propel  and  steer  a
balloon  by  boat  apparatus  at  Oxbridge,  Middlesex,
containing  three  persons,  fails . . 24  Aug. „

MM.  Jovis  and  Mallet  report  that  they  reached  the
altitude  of  7,000  metres,  in  an  ascent  at  Paris

13  Aug.  1887

Successful  voyage  of  Mr.  Morton  from  Dover  to
Loon,  near  Dunkirk .... 13  Oct. ,,

M.  Lhoste  and  M.  Mangot  ascend  at  Mondidier
near  Amiens,  6  Nov. ;  Mr.  Macdonald,  master  of
the  steamer  Prince  Leopold,  witnessed  the  falling
of  the  balloon  and  the  drowning  of  the  aeronauts
39  miles  S.W-  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  13  Nov.  ;
reported Dec. ,,

Aeronautical  Exhibition  at  Vienna,  opened 1  April  1888


BALLOONS.


87


BALLOT.


Professor  Baldwin,  at  Rockaway,  New  York,  said
to  have  descended  safely  from  a  balloon  a  mile  high
by  means  of  a  parachute  in  84  seconds,  9  Aug.  1887.
He  did  the  same  at  Alexandra  Park,  London,  N.
28  July,  1888,  and  since.  After  the  10th  time  the
balloon  society  gave  him  a  gold  medal,  1  Sept.
1888  ;  prevented  in  his  attempt  to  descend  from
an  altitude  of  two  miles  ;  descends  from  between
•6,000 and  7,000  feet,  13  Sept.,  16th  ascent,  22  Sept. ;
at  Manchester,  24  Sept.  ;  (9,100  feet)  18  Oct.  ;  at
Sheffield  (42nd  descent)  22  Oct.  ;  final  descent  at
Alexandra  Palace,  5000  feet,  the  Prince  of  Wales
present 30  Oct.

The  aeronaut,  Mr.  Joseph  Simmons,  descends  from
Olympia,  London,  W.,  and  is  killed  on  his  descent

27  Aug.

George  Higgins,  an  Englishman,  descends  from  a
balloon in  a parachute at  Lea Bridge Road

27  Oct.

Ascent  of  Mr.  Percival  Spencer,  without  his
parachute,  at  Calcutta  19  March  ;  afterwards  with
his  parachute

Prof.  Dale  and  five  others  ascend  from  Gibralter
(2nd  ascent  there) 7  Dec.

Mr.  Percival  Spencer  at  Secunderabad,  Central
India,  ascends  in  his  patent  asbestos  (Montgolfier)
balloon,  the  air  being  heated  by  burning  methy-
lated spirit  inside  the  balloon  ;  he  descended  by
his  parachute 13  Jan.

Death  of  Eugene  Godard,  aged  64,  at  Brussels,  said
to  have  made  2,000  ascents . . .11  Nov.

Mr.  Higgins,  aeronaut,  killed  at  Kirkstall,  near
Leeds,  through  a  parachute  descent . .  8  Aug.

Mr.  Logan  ascends  with  a  parachute  at  Detroit ;
falls  and  is  killed .... 29  Aug.

Prince  and  princess  Henry  of  Prussia,  the  grand
duke  of  Hesse  and  other  personages  ascend  in  a
balloon  at  Frankfort 23  Sept.

Mr.  Percival  Spencer  ascends  in  a  very  large  bal-
loon at  Dover,  and  lands  near  Hastings 24  Nov.

Lieut.  Mansfield,  at  Bombay,  is  killed  by  falling
from  his  balloon,  which  burst  . .  10  Dec.

Miss  Van  Tassel,  at  Dacca,  descending  with  her
parachute,  falls  16  March,  and  dies  .  18  March,
See  Addenda.


MILITARY AND POSTAL  APPLICATIONS.

Guyton  de  Morveau  ascended  twice  during  the  battle
of  Fleurus,  and  gave  important  information  to
Jourdain 21  June,  1794

The  use  of  balloons  for  postal  purposes  invented  by
Mr.  G.  Shepherd,  C.E 1851

Balloons  were  used  during  the  battle  of  Solferino,
24  June,  1859 ;  and  by  the  Federal  army  near
Washington July,  1861

M.  Duruof  conveyed  the  mail  bags  from  Paris  to
Tours  during  the  siege . . . .23  Sept.  1870

Postal  balloons  from  Metz  and  Paris  .  Sept. — Dec. ,,

Postal  balloon  sent  up  from  Crystal  Palace,  Syden-
ham (successfully) ....  6  Oct. „

M.  Gambetta,  with  his  secretary  and  aeronaut,  es-
caped from  Paris  in  a  balloon,  and  fell  in  the
Foret  d'Epineuse  (Somme)  7  Oct.  ;  he  arrived  at
Rouen 8  Oct. „

Sixty-six  balloons  with  168  persons  despatched  from
Paris  and  other  places  (Gen.  Brine),  23  Sept.  1870-

28  Jan.  1871.

Military  experiments  ;  ascent  of  Univers ;  very
cold  weather ;  valve  burst ;  several  hurt ;  near
Vincennes  ;  no  deaths .... 8  Dec.  1875

Military  ascents  and  balloon  equipment  for  military
purposes  adopted  at  Woolwich,  announced  April,  1879

Captive  balloon  at  the  volunteer  review,  Brighton,

29  March,  1880

Royal  Engineers'  Balloon  Corps  arrives  at  Souakim,

7  March,  1885

Mr.  F.  A.  Gower's  experiments  at  Hythe,  June,
1885  ;  ascended  and  not  heard  of  since .July, ,,

Mr.  Eric  S.  Bruce's  mode,  of  electric  signalling  from
balloons  reported successful  at  Albert Palace

20  July, ,,

EQUESTRIAN  ASCENTS.

Mr.  Green  affirmed  that  he  ascended  from  London,
on  a  horse  attached  to  a  balloon . . May,  1828

He  did  so  from  Vauxhall  gardens  with  a  very
diminutive  pony July,  1850


1852


Lieut.  Gale,  an  Englishman,  made  an  ascent  with
a  horse  from  the  Hippodrome  of  Vincennes,  near
Bordeaux.  On  descending  and  detaching  the
animal  from  the  balloon,  the  people  who  held  its
ropes,  from  some  misconception,  prematurely  let
them  go,  and  the  unfortunate  aeronaut  was  rapidly
borne  in  the  air  before  he  was  quite  ready  to
resume  his  voyage.  (He  was  discovered  next
morning  dashed  to  pieces  in  a  field  a  mile  from
where  the  balloon  was  found)  . . 8  Sept. i8so>

The  ascent  of  Madame  Poitevin  from  Cremorne
gardens,  near  London,  as  "  Europa  on  a  bull "
(a  feat  she  had  often  performed  in  France),  and
several  ascents  on  horses,  brought  the  parties
concerned  before  the  police-courts  on  a  charge  of
cruelty  to  animals,  and  put  an  end  to  experiments
that  outraged  public  feeling  ....  Aug

M.  Poitevin  ascended  on  a  horse  in  the  vicinity  of
Paris,  about  the  time  just  mentioned  ;  was  nearly
drowned  in  the  sea,  near  Malaga,  while  descending
from  his  balloon  (and  died  soon  after)  .

SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS.

Gay-Lussac  and  Biot  at  Paris,  23  Aug. ;  Gay-Lussac
(to  the  height  of  22,977  feet) . . 15  Sept.

Bixio  and  Barral  at  Paris  (to  the  height  of  19,000
feet.  They  passed  through  a  cloud  9000  feet
thick)

Mr.  Welsh  ascends,  17,  26  Aug. 21  Oct.,  10  Nov.

Scientific  balloon  ascents  having  been  recom-
mended by  the  British  Association  and  funds
provided,  Mr.  James  Glaisher  commenced  his
series  of  ascents,  provided  with  suitable  appa-
ratus, in  Mr.  Coxwell's  great  balloon,  at  Wolver-
hampton:  he reached  the  height  of 5 miles,

17  July,

He  ascended  to  the  height  of  about  7  miles  at
Wolverhampton ;  at  5  J  miles  high  he  became
insensible  ;  Mr.  Coxwell  lost  the  use  of  his  hands,
but  was  able  to  open  the  valve  with  his  teeth ;
the}'  thus  descended  in  safety . . 5  Sept.

He  ascended  at  the  Crystal  Palace  18  April,  11,  21
July ;  at  Wolverton,  26  June ;  at  Newcastle,  during
the  meeting  of  the  British  Association 31  Aug.

His  1 6th  ascent ;  surveys  London . . 9  Oct.

His  17th  ascent  at  Woolwich;  descends  at  Mr.
Brandon's,  Suffolk  (1st  winter  ascent  this  cen-
tury) 12  Jan.

He  ascends  from  Woolwich  (24th  time) .  30  Dec.

His  25th  ascent 27  Feb.

Other  ascents  2  Oct.,  2  Dee.  1865  ;  and  in  May,

Glaisher's  "  Travels  in  the  Air"  published Jan.

Mr.  Coxwell's  scientific  ascent  in  the  Nassau  at
Hornsey 22  Sept.


1850


1863


1865
1 866
1871

1873


BALLOON SOCIETIES.

The  French  Academie  d' Aerostation  de  Meteorolo-
gique,  authorised 20  Sept.  1872

Balloon  Society  of  Great  Britain,  was  formed
2i  July,  1880,  by  some  members  of  the  Aeronau-
tical, Geographical,  Astronomical,  Chemical,  and
Meteorological  societies,  and  other  scientific  bo-
dies, to  promote  aeronautics  and  record  and  uti-
lise observations  made  during  ascents.  Silver
medals  were  awarded  for  ascents  made 4  Sept.  1880

German  Aeronautical  Society  founded  at  Berlin

Sept.  1 88 1

BALLOT (French ballotfe, a little hall).

Secret  voting  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Greeks

and Komans, and  the  modern  Venetians,  and  is

now  employed  in  France,  in  the  United  States  of

North  America,  and,  since  1872,  in  Great  Britain,

and  Colonies. See  Scrutin.

A  ballot-box  used  in  the  election  of  aldermen  of
London 1526

Its  use  by  the  company  of  merchant  adventurers,
in  electing  an  agent,  prohibited  by  Charles  I.

17  Dec.  1637

The  ballot-box  used  by  the  "  Rota,"  a  political  club
at  Miles's  coffee-house,  Westminster . . . 1659

A  tract  entitled  "  The  Benefit  of  the  Ballot,"  said
to  have  been  written  by  Andrew  Marvell,  was  pub-
lished in  the  "  State  Tracts  " 1693

Proposed,  in  a  pamphlet,  to  be  used  in  the  election
of  members  of  parliament 1705

A  bill  authorising  vote  by  ballot  passed  the  com-
mons, but  rejected  by  the  lords . . . . 1710


BALL'S BLUFF.


BAMBOROUGH.


George  Grote  introduced  into  the  commons  a  ballot
bill  six  times 1833-39

The  ballot  an  open  question  in  whig  governments

1835-72

The  house  of  commons  rejected  the  ballot — 257
being  against,  and  189  for  it  . . 30  June,  1851

Secret  voting  existed  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  in
France  from  1840  to  1845.  It  has  been  employed
since  the  coup  d'etat  in  . . . Dec. „

The  ballot  authorised  in  the  Metropolitan  Manage-
ment act  1855

The  ballot  adopted  in  Victoria,  Australia .  1856

A  test-ballot  at  Manchester  ;  Ernest  Jones  chosen
as  candidate  for  the  city. He  died  the  next  day

22,  23  Jan. 1869

For  many  years  it  was  annually  proposed  by  Mr.
Henry  Berkeley  ;  it  was  rejected  (by  161  to  112,
12  July,  1867). He  died . . .10  March,  1870

Mr.  E.  Leatham  introduced  a  ballot  bill  into  par-
liament, March  ;  and  Mr.  Gladstone  spoke  in
favour  of  the  ballot ;  bill  withdrawn 27  July, „

The  ballot  was  employed  in  electing  the  London
school  board  in  9  districts . . .  29  Nov." ,,

The  ballot  recommended  in  the  queen's  speech,  9
Feb. ;  a  bill  for  it  introduced,  passed  by  the  com-
mons ;  rejected  by  the  lords  (97  to  48)  . 10  Aug.  1871

Bill  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  procedure  at
parliamentary  and  municipal  elections,  including
the  ballot,  read  in  the  commons,  2nd  time,  109-51,
15  Feb. ;  passed  the  commons,  271-216,  30  May  ;
read  second  time  in  the  lords  (86-56),  important
amendments  carried  in  committee,  making  secret
voting  optional  (162-91) ;  read  a  third  time,  and
passed,  25  June  ;  lords'  amendments  mostly  re-
jected by  the  commons  ;  the  optional  clause  given
up  by  the  lords,  8  July  ;  royal  assent ;  (to  continue
in  force  till  31  Dec.  1880) . . .18  July,  1872

The  first  election  by  ballot  was  at  Pontefract,  when
Mr.  H.  E.  Childers  was  re-elected  . .15  Aug. „

Mr.  John  Leighton  makes  known  his  system  (in-
vented in  1886),  bf  secret  postal  ballot — every
post-box  being  used  as  a  ballot  box  ;  Mr.  James
Withers  and  Mr.  John  Imray  describe  voting
apparatus;  Society  of  Arts . . . 18  Jan.  1888

BALL'S  BLUFF,  Virginia,  on  the  banks  of
the  Potomac,  North  America.  On  21  Oct.  1 861,  by
direction  of  the  Federal  general  C.  P.  Stone  the
heroic  col.  Baker  crossed  the  river  to  reconnoitre.
He  attacked  the  Confederate  camp  at  Leesburg,  and
was  defeated  with  great  loss.  The  disaster  was
attributed  to  mismanagement,  and  in  Feb.  1862,
general  Stone  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  treason.

BALLYNAHINCH  (Ireland),  where  a  san-
guinary engagement  took  place  between  a  large
body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the  British  troops,
under  gen.  Nugent,  13  June,  1798.  A  large  part
of  the  town  was  destroyed,  and  the  royal  army  suf-
fered very  severely.

BALMORAL  CASTLE,  Deeside,  Aberdeen-
shire; visited  by  her  majesty  in  1848,  1849,  1850.
The  estate  was  purchased  for  32,000^.  by  prince
Albert  in  1852.  In  1853  the  present  building,  in  the
Scotch  baronial  style,  was  commenced,  from  designs
by  Mr.  W.  Smith  of  Aberdeen.

BALTIC  SEA,*  OsTSEE,  or  EASTERN  SEA,
separates  Sweden  and  the  Danish  isles  from  Russia,
Prussia,  and  Germany.  Declared  neutral  for  com-
merce by  treaty  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  1759,
and  Denmark,  1760.  It  is  often  partially  frozen,
Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  with  an  army,  crossed  the
Belts  in  1658,  and  the  Russians  passed  from  Finland
to  Sweden  on  the  ice  in  1809.
A  ship canal  between  the Baltic  and  the North  Seas

proposed  Jan.  1884  ;  adopted  by  the  Reichstag,  25  Feb.

18S6. First  stone  of  opening  lock  laid  by  the  Emperor

*  Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia,  a  kind  of  provincial
federation  since  1800,  were  incorporated  with  the  empire
on  the  death  of  the  governor-general  Bagration,  29  Jan.
1876.


William  I.  at  Kiel,  3  June,  1887  ;  the  dam  pierced  and!
the  water  let  in  by  the  Emperor  William  II.,  who  sails
on  the  canal  to  Rendsburg ... 6  April,  1891.

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS.

Against  Denmark.  See  Armed  Neutrality. — 1.  Under
lord  Nelson  and  admiral  Parker,  Copenhagen  was
bombarded,  and  twenty-eight  sail  of  the  Danish
fleet  taken  or  destroyed ... 2  April,  1801;

2.  Under  admiral  Gambier  and  lord  Cathcart,
eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  and  thirty-
one  brigs  and  gunboats  surrendered  to  the  British,

26  July,  1807

Against  Russia. — 1.  The  British  fleet,  commanded
by  sir  Charles  Napier,  sailed  from  Spithead  in
presence  of  the  queen,  who  led  it  out  to  sea  in  her
yacht,  the  Fairy 11  March,  1854;

It  arrived  in  Wingo  Sound,  15  March  ;  and  in  the
Baltic 20  March, ,,

The  gulf  of  Finland  blockaded . . 12  April, „

10,000  French  troops  embarked  at  Calais  for  the
Baltic  in  English  ships,  of  war,  in  presence  of  the
emperor 15  July, ,r

Capture  of  Bomarsund,  one  of  the  Aland  islands,
and  surrender  of  the  garrison  ;  see  Bomarsund,

16  Aug. ,,

English  and  French  fleets  begin  to  return  homeward
to  winter 15  Oct. ,,

2.  Expedition  sailed . . 20  March — 4  April,  1855

It  consisted  of  85  English  ships  (2098  guns),  com-
manded by  admiral  R.  S.  Dundas  ;  16  French
ships  (408  guns),  under  admiral  Pernand,  joined  it,

- June, ,,

Three  vessels  silenced  the  Russian  batteries  at
Hogland  island 21  July, ,,

The  fleet  proceeded  towards  Cronstadt.  Many  in-
fernal machines*  were  discovered.  Sveaborgwas
attacked  (see  Sveaborg) ...  9  Aug. „

Shortly  after  the  fleet  returned  to  England.

BALTIMORE,  a  maritime  city  in  Maryland,
United  States,  founded  in  1729.  On  12  Sept.  1814,
the  British  army  under  col.  Ross  advanced  against
this  place.  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  ;  and  the
command  was  assumed  by  col.  Brooke,  who  attacked
and  routed  the  American  army,  which  lost  600
killed  and  wounded  and  300  prisoners.  The  pi-o-
jected  attack  on  the  town  was,  however,  abandoned,
Alison.  See  United  States,  1861.  About  70  persons
drowned  while  on  an  excursion  on  the  Patapsco
river,  about  23  July,  1883.  See  Roman  Catholics
and  Chili,  1891. Population,  1890,  434,439.

BALTIMORE,  fishing  village,  Cork,  raised
from  penury  to  prosperity  by  the  judicious  benefi-
cence of  the  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  aided  by
Father  Davis,  since  i877-  She  opened  an  Indus-
trial Fishing  School,  17  Aug.  1887.  Prosperity-
reported  Oct.  1888.

BAMBERG  (Bavaria),  said  to  have  been
founded  by  Saxons,  in  804,  and  endowed  with  a
church  by  Charlemagne.  It  was  made  a  bishopric
in  1007,  and  the  bishop  was  a  prince  of  the  empire
till  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  1801,  when  Bamberg
was  secularised.  It  was  incorporated  with  Bavaria
in  1803.  The  noble  cathedral,  rebuilt  in  11 10,  ha3
been  recently  repaired.  Bamberg  was  taken  and
pillaged  by  the  Prussians  in  1 759.

BAMBOROUGH,  or  Bamburg,  Northumber-
land, according  to  the  "  Saxon  Chronicle,"  was
built  by  king  Ida  about  547,  and  named  Bebban  -
burgh.  The  castle  and  estate,  the  property  of  the
Forsters,  and  forfeited  to  the  crown,  through  their
taking  part  in  the  rebellion  in  17 15,  were  purchased
by  Nathaniel  lord  Crewe,  bishop  of  Durham,  and
bequeathed  by  him  for  various  charitable  purposes.

*  These  were  cones  of  galvanised  iron,  16  inches  in
diameter,  and  20  inches  long.  Each  contained  9  or  10  llx
of  powder,  with  apparatus  for  firing  by  sulphuric  acid.
Little  damage  was  done  by  them.  They  were  said  to  be
the  invention  of  the  philosopher  Jacobi.


BAMPTON LECTUEES.


89


BANK.


The  valuable  library  was  founded  by  the  trustees
in  1778.  The  books  are  lent  to  persons  residing
within  20  miles  of  the  castle.

BAMPTON  LECTUEES  (Theological),  de-
livered at  Oxford  annually,  began  in  1780,  with  a
lecture  by  James  Bandinel,  D.D.  The  lecturer  is
paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  an  estate  bequeathed  for
the  purpose  by  the  rev.  John  Bampton  (died  1 751)
and  the  lectures  are  published.  Among  the  more
remarkable  lectures  were  those  by  White  (1784),
Heber  (1815),  Whately  (1822),  Milman  (1827),
Hampden  (1832),  Mansel  (1858),  Liddon  (1866),
Hatch  (1880),  Bigg  (1886).

BANBUBY,  Oxfordshire,  a  Saxon  town.  The
castle,  erected  by  Alexander  de  Blois,  bishop  of
Lincoln,  1 125,  has  been  frequently  besieged.  In
1646  it  was  taken  by  the  parliamentarians  and  de-
molished. At  Edgecot  or  Danesmore,  near  Ban-
bury, during  an  insurrection,  the  army  of  Edward
IV.,  under  the  earl  of  Pembroke  was  defeated  by
queen  Margaret  and  her  adherents  26  July,  1469  ;
the  earl  and  his  brother  were  soon  after  taken
prisoners  and  executed.  Banbury  cakes  were  re-
nowned in  the  time  of  Ben  Jonson,  and  Banbury
Cross  was  destroyed  by  the  Puritans.  Cakes  were
presented  to  the  queen  at  Banbury  30  Nov.  1866.

BAND  OF  GENTLEMEN  PENSION-
EES,  see  Gentlemen-at- Arms.

BAND  OF  HOPE,  see  under  Temperance,
1855-

B  AND  A  ISLES  (ten),  Eastern  Archipelago,
visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511,  who  settled  on
them,  1521,  but  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  about
1600.  Kohun  island  was  ceded  to  the  English  in
1616.  The  Bandaswere  taken  by  the  latter  in  1796  ;
restored  in  1801 ;  retaken  in  1811  ;  and  restored  in
Aug.  1816.

BAND  A  OEIENTAL  (South  America),  a
portion  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  one  part
of  which,  in  1828,  was  incorporated  with  Brazil,
while  another  part  became  independent,  as  the
republic  of  Uruguay.

BANGALOBE  (S.  India)  was  besieged  by  the
British  under  lord  Cornwallis,  6  March,  and  taken
by  storm,  21  March,  1791.  Bangalore  was  restored
toTippoo  in  1792,  when  he  destroyed  the  strong  fort,
deemed  the  bulwark  of  Mysore.

BANGKOK,  capital  of  Siam.  Estimated  popu-
lation in  1891,  100,000.

BANGOE  (Banchor  Iskoed,  or  Monachorum),
Flintshire,  the  site  of  an  ancient  monastery,  very
populous,  if  it  be  true  that  1200  monks  were  slain
by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  the  Angles,  for  praying  for
the  Welsh  in  their  conflict  with  him  in  607.
Tanner.

BANGOE  (N.  Caernarvonshire).  The  church
is  dedicated  to  St.  Daniel,  who  was  a  bishop,  516.
Owen  Glendower  greatly  defaced  the  cathedral ;
and  the  bishop  Bulkeley  alienated  many  of  the
lands,  and  even  sold  the  bells  of  the  church,  1553.
The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  131^.  16s.  \d.
An  order  in  council  directing  that  the  sees  of  Ban-
gor and  St.  Asaph  be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in
either,  was  issued  in  1838;  but  rescinded  in  1847.
Present  income,  4200^.  Bangor  was  incorporated
in  1883.  North  Wales  University  College  opened,
18  Oct.  1884.  Population,  1881,  9,005 ;  1891,
9,892.

BISHOPS  OF BANGOR

1800.  Win,  Cleaver,  translated  to  St.  Asaph,  1806.
1806.  John  Randolph,  translated  to  London,  1809.
1809.  Henry  William  Majendie,  died  9  July,  1830.


1830.  Christopher  Bethell,  died  19  April,  1859.

1859.  James  Colquhoun  Campbell.  Resigned  April,  1890.

1890.  Daniel  Lewis  Lloyd,  elected  27  May.

The  cathedral  was  re-opened  after  restoration,  11  Mayr
1880.

BANGOEIAN  CONTEOVEESY  was  oc-
casioned by  Dr.  Benjamin  Hoadley,  bishop  of  Ban-
gor, preaching  a  sermon  before  George  I.,  31  March*
1717,  upon  the  text,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this-
world"  {John,  xviii.36),  in  which  he  demonstrated
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  church  and  kingdom^  of
Christ.  He  thereby  drew  upon  himself  the  indig-
nation of  almost  all  the  clergy,  who  published  hun-
dreds of  pamphlets.

BANISHMENT,  an  ancient  punishment.  By
39  Eliz.  c.  4  (1597)  dangerous  rogues  were  to  be
banished  out  of  the  realm,  and  to  be  liable  to  death
if  they  returned  ;  see  Transportation.

BANK.  The  name  is  derived  from  banco,  a
bench,  erected  in  the  market-place  for  the  exchange
of  money,  The  first  was  established  in  Italy,  808,
by  the  Lombard  Jews,  of  whom  some  settled  m
Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still
reside.  The  Mint  in  the  Tower  of  London  was
anciently  the  depository  for  merchants'  cash,  until
Charles  I.  seized  the  money  as  a  loan,  and  in  1640  the
traders  lodged  their  money  with  the  goldsmiths  ii*
Lombard-street.  See  Bank  of  England  ;  Bankers'
Books  ;  Drafts  ;  Savings  Banks.

Egibe's  bank  at  Babylon,  mentioned  about  B.C.  700

The  Bank  of  England  (1890)  possesses  a  Chinese
Bank  note,  supposed  to  be  of  the  14th  century,  a.d.
Barcelona bank  (earliest  existing  bank)  founded

about 1401

Samuel  Lamb,  a  London  banker,  recommended  the
Protector  Cromwell  to  establish  a  public  bank,

1656  and  165S
Francis Child, a  goldsmith, established  a bank

about  1663  ;  he  died .... 4  Oct.  1713
Run  on  the  London  bankers  (said  to  be  the  first) .  1667
Charles II. arbitrarily  suspends  all  payments  to
bankers  out  of  the  exchequer  of  monies  deposited
there  by  them ;  they  lost  intimately  3,321, 313?.

2  Jan.  1672

Hoare's  bank  began  about 1680

Bank  of  England  established  (see  next  article) .  .  1694
Wood's  bank  at  Gloucester,  the  oldest  county  bank,

established 1716

A  list  of  bankers  given  in  the  "  Royal  Kalendar  "  .  1765
Forgeries  of  Henry  Fauntleroy,  banker  ;  executed,

30  Nov.  1824
Act  passed  permitting  establishment  of  joint-stock

banks  (which  see) 1826

Rowland  Stephenson,  M. P.,  banker  and  treasurer
of  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital,  absconds ;  defaulter
to  the  amount  of  200,000/.  ;  70,000/.  in  exchequer
bills  ;  (caused  a  great  depression  among  bankers)

27  Dec.  1828
Establishment  of  joint-stock  banks  (see  p.  S5)  .  1834
Rogers's  bank  robbed  of  nearly  50,000/.  (bank  notes

afterwards  returned) . . . .24  Nov.  1844
Failure  of Strahan, Paul, and Bates  (securities
unlawfully  used)  ;  private  banking  much  injured,

11  June,  1855
Cheque Bank  (which  see), opened  iu  Pall  Mall,

23  July,  1873

Prescott's,  Dimsdale's  (London)  united  with Tugwell's

(Bath)  and  Miles's  (Bristol)  as  a  company,  1  Jan.  1891-

A  youth  named  Mackenzie,  in  the  National  Provincial

Bank  of  England,  robbed  of  a  bag  containing  11,000/.

in  bank  notes 16  Feb.  1891

Banks  in  1855.  Notes  allowed  to  be  issued.

Bank  of  England 1  14,000,000

English  private  banks  ....  196  4,999,444
English  joint-stock  banks  (see  Banks,

Joint  Stock) 67  3,418,277

Banks  in  Scotland 18  3,087,200

Banks  in  Ireland 8  6,354,494


290 31,859,42-4


BANK.


90


BANK.


Batik  of

Venice  formed 1157

■Geneva 1345

Barcelona 1401

Genoa 1407

-Amsterdam 1607

^Hamburg 1619

Rotterdam 1635

Stockholm 1688

England 1694

Scotland 1695

Copenhagen 1736

Berlin 1765

Caisse  d'Escompte,  France 1776

Ireland 1783

St.  Petersburg 1786

Sn  the  East  Indies 1787

In  North  America 1791

France* 1803

Italy 1865

Imperial  Bank  of  Germany  (formerly  of  Prussia)

1  Jan.  1876

BANK  OF  ENGLAND  was  projected  by  William
Paterson,  a  Scotch  merchant  (see  Darien),  to  meet
the  difficulty  experienced  by  William  III.  in  raising
the  supplies  for  the  war  against  France.  By  the
influence  of  Paterson  and  Michael  Godfrey,  40  mer-
chants (aided  by  Charles  Montague)  subscribed
500,000/.  towards  the  sum  of  1,200,000/.  to  be  lent
to  the  government  at  8  per  cent.,  in  consideration
of  the  subscribers  being  incorporated  as  a  bank.
The  scheme  was  violently  opposed  in  parliament,
but  the  bill  (a  tonnage  act),  obtained  the  royal
assent  25  April,  1694,  and  the  charter  was  granted
27  July  following,  appointing  sir  John  Houblon
the  first  governor,  and  Michael  Godfrey  the  first
■deputy-governor.  The  bank  commenced  active
operations  on  I  Jan.  1695,  at  Grocers'  Hall,  Poultry,  t
issuing  notes  for  20/.  and  upwards,  and  dis-
counting bills  for  44  to  6  per  cent.  The  charter
was  renewed  in  1697,  1708,  1713,  1716,  1721,  1724,
1746,  1749,  1764,  1781,  1800, 1808,  1816,  1833,  1844.
Lawson.

Run  on  the  bank :  its  notes  at  20  per  cent,  discount ;

capital  raised  to  2,201,171?.  ios. . . Nov.  1696
The  bank  monopoly  established  by  the  prohibition
of  any  company  exceeding  six  persons  acting  as
bankers  (Scotland  not  included  in  the  act) . . 1708

Capital  raised  to  5,559,99s?.  10s 1710

Bank  post  bills  issued  (1st  record) . 14  Dec.  1738
Hun  for  gold  through  rebellion  in  the  North  ;  bank

bills  paid  in  silver ;  the  city  support  the  bank,  Sept.  1 745
Rd.  Vaughan  hanged  for  forging  notes . t  May,  1758

10?.  notes  issued i759

Gordon  riots  ;  since  then  the  bank  has  been  pro-
tected by  the  military 1780

5?.  notes  issued 1793

Cash  payments  suspended,  in  conformity  with  an

order  in  council 26  Feb.  1797

1  J.  and  2?.  notes  issued ....  March, ,,
Bank  restriction  act  passed ... 3  May, ,,
Voluntary  contribution  of  200,000?.  to  the  govern-
ment I7o8

Loss  by  Aslett's  frauds  (see  Exchequer)  342,697?. .  1803
Resignation  of  Abraham  Newland,  50  years  cashier,

18  Sept.  1807
Bramah's  machine  for  numbering  notes  adopted . 1809

*  Instituted  by  laws  passed  14  April,  1803,  and  22
April,  1806.  The  statutes  were  approved  16  Jan.  1808.
In  1 8 10  Napoleon  said  that  its  duty  was  to  provide  money
at  all  times  at  4  per  cent,  interest.

f  The  foundation  of  the  building  in  Threadneedle-street
was  laid  1  Aug.  1732,  by  sir  Edward  Bellamy,  governor,
and  the  bank  removed  there  5  June,  1734  ;  it  was  erected
t>y  G.  Sampson,  architect.  Great  additions  have  been
made  from  time  to  time  by  successive  architects  :  sir
Robert  Taylor,  sir  John  Soane,  and  Mr.  C.  R.  Cockerell.
It  now  occupies  the  site  of  the  church,  and  nearly  all  the
parish  of  St.  Christophef-le-Stocks.  The  churchyard  is
now  termed  "the  garden."  Another  entrance  opened
in  Prinees  Street,  1882.


The  bank  issues  silver  tokens  for 3s.  and  is.  6c?.

9  July,  ?8ii

Peel's  act  for  the  gradual  resumption  of  cash  pay-
ments  July,  1819

Cash  payments  for  notes  to  be  in  bullion  at  the  mint
price,  1  May,  1 82 1 ;  in  the  current  coin  of  the  realm,

1  May,  1823

Great  commercial  panic — many  1?.  notes  (acciden-
tally found  in  a  box)  issued  with  most  beneficial
effects Dec.  1823

The  act  for  the  establishment  of  joint-stock  banks
breaks  up  the  monopoly 1826

By  the  advice  of  the  government,  branch  banks
opened  at  Gloucester,  19  July  ;  Manchester,  21
Sept.;  Swansea,  23  Oct.  . . . . . ,,

And  at  Birmingham,  1  Jan.  ;  Liverpool,  2  July ;  ■
Bristol,  12  July  ;  Leeds,  23  Aug.  ;  Exeter,  17  Dec. 1827

The  bank  loses  360,000?.  by  Fauntleroy's  forgeries  :
estimated  in 1830

Statements  of  the  bank  affairs  published  quar-
terly 1833

Peel's  bank  charter  act,  (7  &  8  Vict.  c.  32) ;  renews
charter  till  1  Aug.  1855,  and  longer,  if  the  debt
due  from  the  public  to  the  bank  (11,015,100?.),
with  interest,  &c,  be  not  paid  after  due  notice  ;
established  the  issue  department ;  requires
weekly  returns  to  be  published  ;  limited  the  issue
of  notes  to  14,000,000?.,  &c. . . . 19  July,  1844

Commercial  panic  :  lord  John  Russell  authorises
relaxation  of  restriction  of  issuing  notes  (not  acted
on) ;  bank  discount  8  per  cent.  Sunday,  24-25  Oct.  1847

Gold  bullion  in  the  bank  (consequent  on  discovery
of  gold  in  Australia),  21,845,390?. . . 10  July,  1852

Branch  bank,  Burlington-gardens,  London,  W.
opened 1  Oct.  1856

Committee  on  the  bank  acts  appointed . 12  May,  .1857

Bank  discount  9  per  cent.  ;  lord  Palmers  ton  autho-
rises addition  to  issue  of  notes  [to  the  amount  of
2,000,000?.  were  issued]  . . . .12  Nov. „

Much  alarm  through  the  announcement  of  the  bank
solicitor  that  a  quantity  of  bank  paper  had  been
stolen  from  the  makers  (forged  notes  soon  ap-
peared) 16  Aug.  1862

The  culprits,  soon  detected,  were  tried  and  con-
victed (see  Trials) .... 7-12  Jan.  1863
See  Bills  oj  Exchange,  1873.
For  the  Vagliano  case,  see  Tri  ds,  2  Nov.  1888.

Branch  bank,  in  Fleet  Street,  opened . 17  Dec.  i838

The  Bank  authorised  (in  accordance  with  the  Act  of
1844)  to  increase  their  issue  of  notes  by  250,000?.
about 11  Feb.  1890

The  Bank,  aided  by  the  Bank  of  France  and  others,
assists  Messrs.  Baring,  and  thereby  averts  a
panic 15  Nov. „

Important  changes  in  the  management  of  the  bank,
proposed by  the  chancellor  of  the exchequer,

4  April,  approved  by  the  directors  and  adopted

by  the  proprietors  . . . .16  June,  1892

Bank  Discount.

1858,  3  per  cent.  Feb.  1.

i860  (demand  for  gold  in  France),  6,  Nov.  15.

1861,  7,  Jan.  7  ;  8  (demand  for  money  in  France,  India,
United  States,  &c),  Feb.  14  ;  3,  Nov.  7.

1862,  -2.\,  Jan.  ;  3,  April ;  2I,  July  ;  2,  July  24  ;  3,  Oct. —
Dec.

1863,  raised  to  4  per  cent.,  Jan.  16  ;  to  5,  Jan.  28;  re-
duced, to  4,  Feb.  ;  to  3I  and  3,  April ;  raised  to  4,  May  ;
raised  to  5,  6,  in  Nov.  ;  to  7  and  8,  and  reduced  to  7  in
Dec.

1864,  raised  to  8,  Jan.  20  ;  reduced  to  7,  Feb.  12  ;  to  6,
Feb.  25  ;  raised  to  7,  April  16  ;  to  8,  May  2  ;  to  9,  May

5  ;  reduced  to  8,  May  19  ;  to  7,  May  26  ;  to  6,  June  16  ;
raised  to  7,  July  25  ;  to  8,  Aug.  4  ;  to  9,  Sept.  5  ;  re-
duced to  8,  Nov.  10  ;  to  7,  Nov.  24.

1865,  reduced  to  5^,  Jan.  12  ;  to  5,  Jan.  20 ;  raised  to  5J,
March  2  ;  reduced  to  4,  March  30  ;  raised  to  4J,  May
4  ;  reduced  to  3J,  June  1  ;  to  3,  June  15  ;  raised  to  3J-,
July  27  ;  to  4,  Aug.  3  ;  to  4^,  Sept.  28  ;  to  5,  Oct.  2" ;
to  6,  Oct.  5 ;  to  7,  Oct.  7  ;  (three  times  in  one  week)  ;  re-
duced to  6,  Nov.  23  ;  raised  to  7,  Dec.  28.

1866,  raised  to  8,  Jan.  4 ;  reduced  to  7,  Feb.  22  ;  to  6,
March  15  ;  raised  to  7,  May  3  ;  to  8,  May  8  ;  to  9,  May
11  (panic — suspension  of  Bank  Act  authorised  by  Go-
vernment) ;  to  10,  May  12  ;  reduced  to  8,  Aug.  16  ;  to
7,  Aug.  23  ;  to  6,  Aug.  30  ;  to  5,  Sept.  6  ;  to  4J,  Sept.
27  ;  to  4,  Nov.  8  ;  to  3J,  Dec.  20.


BANK.


91  BANK.


1867,  reduced  to  3,  Feb.  7  ;  to  2J,  May  30  ;  to  2,  July  25.

1868,  raised  to  2J  per  cent.  Nov.  19  ;  to  3,  Dec.  3.

1869,  raised-  to  4,  April  1  ;  to  4J,  May  6  ;  reduced  to  4,
June  10  ;  to  3^,  June  24  ;  to  3,  July  15  ;  to  2J,  Aug.  19  ;
raised  to  3,  Nov.  4.

1870,  raised  to  3J,  July  21  ;  to  4,  July  23  ;  to  5  (Franco-
Prussian  War),  July  28  ;  to  6,  Aug.  4  :  reduced  to  5J,
Aug.  11  ;  to  4 J,  Aug.  18  ;  to  4,  Aug.  25  ;  to  3^,  Sept.  1 ;
to  3,  Sept.  15 ;  to  2^,  Sept.  29.

1871,  raised  to  3,  March  2  ;  reduced  to  2J,  April  13  ;  to
i\,  June  15  ;  to  2,  July  13  ;  raised  to  3,  Sept.  21  ;  to  4,
Sept.  28  ;  to  s,  Oct.  7  ;  reduced  to  4,  Nov.  16  ;  to  3^,
Nov.  30  ;  to  3,  Dec.  14.

1872,  raised  to  3^,  April  4  ;  to  4,  April  11  ;  to  5,  May  9 ;
reduced  to  4,  May  30  ;  to  3 J,  June  13  ;  to  3,  June  20  ;
raised  to  3^,  July  18  ;  to  4,  Sept.  18  ;  to  4J,  Sept.  26  ;
to  5,  Oct.  2";  to  6,  Oct.  10 ;  to  7,  Nov.  9  ;  reduced  to  6,
Nov.  28  ;  to  5,  Dec.  12.

1873,  reduced  to  4J,  Jan.  9  ;  to  4,  Jan.  23  ;  to  3J,  Jan.  30  ;
raised  to  4,  March  26  ;  to  4J,  May  7  ;  to  5,  May  10  ;  to
6,  May  17 ;  to  7,  June  4  ;  reduced  to  6,  June  12 ;  to  5,
July  10 ;  to  4^-,  July  17  ;  to  4,  July  24 ;  to  3J,  July  31 ;
to  3,  Aug.  21 ;  raised  to  4,  Sept.  25  ;  to  5  (panic  in  New
York),  Sept.  29 ;  to  6,  Oct.  14 ;  to  7,  Oct.  18  ;  to  8,  Nov.
1 ;  to  9,  Nov.  7  ;  reduced  to  8,  Nov.  20  ;  to  6,  Nov.  27  ;
to  s,  Dec.  4  ;  to  4^,  Dec.  11.

E874,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  8  ;  to  3J,  Jan.  15  ;  raised  to  4,
April  30  ;  reduced  to  3^,  May  28  ;  to  3,  June  4  ;  to  2j,
June  18;  raised  to  3,  July  30;  to  4,  Aug.  6;  reduced
to  3^,  Aug.  20 ;  to  3,  Aug.  27  ;  raised  to  4,  Oct.  15 ;  to
5,  Nov.  16  ;  to  6,  Nov.  30.  .

1875,  reduced  to  5,  Jan.  7;  to  4,  Jan.  14 ;  to  3,  Jan.  27 ;
raised  to  3J,  Feb.  18  ;  to  3,  July  8  ;  reduced  to  z\,  July
29  ;  to  2,  Aug.  12 ;  raised  to  2J,  Oct.  7  ;  to  3A,  Oct.  14  ;
to  4,  Oct.  21  ;  reduced  to  3,  Nov.  18  ;  raised  to  4,  Dec.  30.

1876,  raised  to  5,  Jan.  6 ;  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  27  ;  to  3J,
March  23  ;  to  3,  April  6 ;  to  2,  April  20.

1877,  raised  to  3,  May  3  ;  reduced  to  2^,  July  5  ;  to  2,
July  12  ;  raised  to  3,  Aug.  28  ;  to  4,  Oct.  4  ;  to  5,  Oct.
11 ;  reduced  to  4,  Nov.  29.

1878,  reduced  to  3,  Jan.  10  ;  to  2,  Jan.  31  ;  raised  to  3,
March  28  ;  reduced  to  2^,  May  30  ;  [minimum  omitted
in  Bank  notices,  June]  ;  raised  to  3,  June  27  ;  to  3J,
July  4  ;  to  4,  Aug.  1 ;  to  3,  Aug.  12 ;  to  6,  Oct.  14 ;
reduced  to  5,  Nov.  21.

1879,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  16  ;  to  3,  Jan.  30;  to  2 J,  March
13  ;  to  2,  April  10  ;  raised  to  3.  Nov.  6.

1880,  reduced  to  2^,  June  17  ;  raised  to  3,  Dec.  9.

1881,  raised  to  3^,  Jan. ;  reduced  to  3,  Feb.  17;  to  i\,
April  27  ;  raised  to  3,  Aug.  3  :  to  4,  Aug.  25  ;  5,  Oct.  6.

1882  raised  to  6,  Jan.  30  ;  reduced  to  5,  Feb.  23;  to  4,
Mar.  9 ;  to  3,  Mar.  23  ;  raised  to  4,  Aug.  17 ;  to  5,
Sept.  14

1883,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  25  ;  to  3J,  Feb.  15  ;  to  3,  March  1  ;
raised  to  4,  May  10;  reduced  to  3 J,  Sept.  13;  to  3,  Sept.  27.


1884,  raised  to  3!,  Feb.  7  ;  reduced  to  3,  Mar.  13  ;  to  2^
April  3  ;  to  2,  June  19  ;  raised  to  3,  Oct.  9  ;  to  4,  Oct.
30;  to  s,  Nov.  6.

1885,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  29  ;  to  3J,  March  19  ;  to  3,  May
7  ;  to  2£,  May  14  ;  to  2,  May  28  ;  raised  to  3,  Nov.  12  ;
to  4,  Dec.  17.

1886,  reduced  to  3,  Jan.  21  ;  to  2,  Feb.  18  ;  raised  to  3,
May  6  ;  reduced  to  2J,  June  10 ;  raised  to  3J,  Aug.  26 ;
to  4,  Oct.  21  ;  to  s,  Dec.  16.

1887,  reduced  to  4,  Feb.  3 ;  to  3 J,  March  10  ;  to  3,  March
24  ;  to  2j,  April  14 ;  to  2,  April  28  ;  raised  to  3,  Aug.
4  ;  to  4,  Sept.  1.  -

1888,  reduced  to  3A,  Jan.  12 ;  to  3,  Jan.  19 ;  to  25,  Feb.
16  ;  to  2,  March  15  ;  raised  to  3,  May  10 ;  reduced  to
2j,  June  7  ;  ?-atsed  to  3,  Aug.  9  ;  to  4,  Sept.  13  ;  to  5,
Oct.  4.

1889,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  10 ;  3A,  Jan.  24  ;  to  3,  Jan.  31 ;  to
2^,  April  18 ;  raised;  to  3,  Aug.  8  ;  to  4,  Aug.  29 ;  to  s.
Sept.  26  ;  to  6,  Dec.  30.

1890,  reduced  to  5,  Feb.  20 ;  to  4J;  March  6  ;  to  4,  March
13 ;  to  3^,  April  10  ;  to  3,  April  17 ;  raised  to  4,  June
26  ;  to  5,  July  31 ;  reduced  to  4,  Aug.  21 ;  raised  to  5,
Sept.  25  ;  to  6,  Nov.  7 ;  reduced  to  5,  Dec.  4.

1891,  reduced  to  4,  Jan.  8  ;  to  3^,  Jan.  22 ;  to  3,  Jan.  29  ;
raised  to  3J-,  April  16;  to  4,  May  7;  to  5,  May  14;
reduced  to  4,  June  4  ;  to  3,  June  18  ;  to  2^,  July  2  ;
raised  to  3,  Sept.  24 ;  to  4,  Oct.  29 ;  reduced  to  33-,
Dec.  10.  .,

1892,  reduced  to  3,  Jan.  21 ;  to  2J,  April  7  ;  to  2,  April


AVERAGE  AMOUNT  OF  BANK  OF  ENG.  NOTES  IN  CIRCULATION.


1718  .
1778
1790  .
1800
l8lO  .
1815
1820  .
1830


£1,829,930
7,030,680

10,217,000
"  15,450,000

23,Q04,000

26,803,520
27,174,000
20,620,000


1835

1840

1845

i8=;o
1855
1857


£18,215,220
17,231,000
19,262,327
19,776,814
19,616,627
21,036,430
22,705,780


Assets — Securities

Bullion
Liabilities


Nov,
Assets — Securities

Bullion
Liabilities


Dec.  27,  1856.

. £29,484,000) £39s890OO
. . 10,105,000 ) "'•*

36,329,000


Balance  £3,250,000

11,  1857  (Time  of  Panic).

■ ■ £35>48o,28i  I  £ g 8

. 7,170,508  i *  >  ?  >/.  y
39.286.433


Balance  or  rest £3,364,356


Sept.  14,  1859
Aug.  30,  1862
Aug. 9,  1865
Mar.  14,  1866 .
Sept.  26, ,,
June  19,  1867
March  5,  1868
Dee. 29,  1869 .
June 2,  1870
Jan. 5,  1871 .
June  29, ,,
Jan.  3,  1872

July  3, „

Jan.  8,  1873
July  9, ,,
Dec.  17,  ,,
July  1,  1874 .
Jan.  6,  1875
June  30,  ,,
Jan.  5,  1876
July  5, ,,
Jan.  3,  1877
July, ,,
Jan.  2,  1878
June  26, ,,
Jan.  2,  1879
July  2, ,, .
Jan.  1,  1880
July  1, ,, .
Jan.  5,  1 88 1


Assets.


-Securities.

£30,090,179
30,106,295
31,823,066

29.4i5>oS9
34,418,382
31,849,662
31,226,793
34,040,941
32,402,200
32,274,967
34,100,342
36.393.7o8
37,090,281
32,138,990

33.395,344
30,922,266
36,596,872
33,985,823
39,660,166
38.398,98s
32,247,018
35,998,482
35.865,522
34.335.978
37.366,472
44,286,663
34.95i.837
41,330,212
39,398,901
39,955.274


Coin  and  Bullion
.  £17,120,822
17,678,698
14,223,390
14,327,618
16,929,262
21,882,770
21,136,192
19,196,622
20,494,392
22,382,934
26,609,540
25,291,761
24,065,094
24,051,412
22,374.582
22,477,563
23,929,601
22,085,311
26,690,116
21,215,761
30,190,692
28,214,165
26,948,340
24,386,794
23,438,504
28,088,361
35,21-6,269
27,601,562
29,319,390
24,269,276


Liabilities.
£43.503.214
44.453,778
42,528,577
39',934,iSo
47,039,390
50,612,342
48,752,291
50,134,262
49.799.528
51,512,339

57>594,I33
58,497,293
57,894,811
52,772,403
52,338,203
50,248,577
57,315,010
52,786,516
63,252,111
56,362,426
60,186,939
61,091,620
59,682,894
55,560,422
57,726,813
69,062,479
67,067,079
65,866,659
65.634,195
61,006,233


Balance.
£3,716,787

3,517,879
3,808,527
4,108,254
3,120,090
3,610,694
3,103,301
3,097,069
3,145,562

3.  H5.749
3,188,176
3,250,564
3.4!7,999
3-43I.723
3,151,252
3,211,463
3,302,618

3,252,320

i.^o,??1
3,121,027
3,130,968
3,162,350
3,078,163
3.3I2>545
3,171,027
3,065,115
3,084,096
3.2i3,3'7


BANK OF  IRELAND.


92


BANKS.


„„.  -Securities.  Coin  and  Bullion.  Liabilities.

June  8,  1881 £35,890,517 . . .  £25,902,159 . . .  £58,721,068 .

Jan. 5,  1882 40,438,605 . . . 20,249,034 . . . 57>5°5,54° •

June  28,  „  .  .  .  .  .  37,486,806  .  .  .  24,380,941  .  .  .  58,772,276  .
Jan. 3,  1883 .... 41,688,522 . . . 20,353,791 . . . 58,856,634 .

Juty 4. , 391827,144 . . . 22,266,535 . . . 58,939.347 •

Jan. 2,1884 41.217,256 . . . 21,437,365 . . . 59,531,153 •

July  2,  ,,  .  .  .  .  .  38,323,187  .  .  .  25,075,683  .  .  .  60,236,310  .
Jan.  1,  1885  ....  41,663,958  .  .  .  20,695,496  .  .  .  59,243,143  .
Jan.  6,  1886  ...  .  .  41,446,936  .  .  .  19,964,811  .  .  .  58,109,621  .
Jan.  29,  1887 .... 37,545.742 • • ■ 23,190,671 . . . 57,685,104 .

Jan.  4,  1888 38,133,062 . . . 20,164,214 . . . 55,175,337 .

July  4,  1888. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,184,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion.

Notes  issued,  36,516,920?. Balance  or  rest,  3,140,748?.
Jan.  2,  1889. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,184,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  34,639,030?. Balance  or  rest,  3,217,808?.
July  3,  1889. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,184,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  38,919,385?. Balance  or  rest,  3,148,924?.
Jan.  1,  1890. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,184,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  33,316,690?. Balance  or  rest,  3,177,007?.
July  2,  1890. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,434,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  36,534,600?. Balance  or  rest,  3,184,670?.
Jan.  7,  1891. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,434,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  39,802,635?. Balance  or  rest,  3,462,192?.
July  1,  1891. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,434,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,

Notes  issued,  43,735,550?. Balance  or  rest,  3,226,321?.
Jan.  6,  1892. — Government  debt,  11,015,100?. Other  securities,  5,434,900?. Gold  coin  and  bullion,
Notes  issued,  38,140,030?. Balance  or  rest,  3,408,148?.

PUBLIC  DEBT  TO  THE  BANK  OF  ENGLAND.
1694  .  .  . £l,200,000  I  1716 .  .  £4,175,027  I 1742 .  .  .  £10,700,000  I  1816 .

I708 .  . . 2,175,027  I 1721 .  . . 9,100,000  I 1746 .  . . 11,686,000  I  1844-1889


Balance.

.  £3,071,608

3,182,099

•  3.095,47i

•  3,185,679

•  3,I54,332
. 3,123,468

3,162,560

. 3,116,311

3,302,126

•  3,051,309
■ 3, 121. 939

20,316,920?.

18,439,030?.
22,719,385?.
17,116,690?.
20,084,600?.
23.352.635L
27.285,550?-
21,690,030?.


.  £14,686,000
. 11,015,100


BANK  of  Ireland. On  9  Dec.  1721,  the

Irish  house  of  commons  rejected  a  bill  for  establish-
ing a  national  bank.  Important  failures  in  Irish
hanks  occurred  in  1727,  1733,  and  1758:  this  led
gradually  to  the  establishment  of  the  Bank  of  Ire-
land at  St.  Mary's  abbey,  Dublin,  1  June,  1783.
The  business  was  removed  to  the  late  parliament
house,  in  College-green,  in  May,  1808.  Branch
banks  of  this  establishment  have  been  formed  in
most  of  the  provincial  towns  in  Ireland,  all  since
1828. Irish  Banking  Act  passed,  21  July,  1845.

BANK  OF  SAYINGS,  see  Savings'  Banks.

BANKEES'  BOOKS  EVIDENCE  ACT,

39  &  40  Vict.  c.  48,  passed  11  Aug.  1876;  repealed
by  a  fresh  act  23  May,  1879.

BANKERS'  INSTITUTE,  meeting  to  esta-
blish it,  29  May,  1878;  Sir  John  Lubbock;  elected
president  11  March,  1879,  1st  general  meeting  23
May,  1879. (1952  members,  May,  1887.)

BANKS  OF  SCOTLAND.  The  old  bank  of  Scot-
land was  set  up  in  1695,  at  Edinburgh,  and  began
1  Nov.,  the  second  institution  of  the  kind  in  the
empire  :  lending  money  to  the  crown  was  pro-
hibited.

Royal  bank  of  Scotland  chartered . .  8  July,  1727

British  Linen  company  bank '  ^46

First  stone  of  present  bank  of  Scotland  laid  3  June",  1801

Commercial  bank I8IO

National  bank -  _ ' [ jg25

Union  bank \  jg,,-,

City  of  Glasgow  bank  *  .  .  .  .'..''.  1839
Scotch  banking  act  passed . . .  21  Julyj  1845

Western  bank  of  Scotland  and  the  Glasgow  bank
stopped,  causing  much  distress . . .  Nov.  1857

*  City  of  Glasgow  Bank  (with  unlimited  liability)  •
founded  1839 ,  identified  with  Glasgow ;  held  Free  Church
Sustentation  Fund ;  stopped  for  a  few  days  during  crisis,
Nov.  1857.  In  1878  paid  dividend  12  per  cent.  (100?.  stock,
236?.) ;  1272  shareholders,  very  many  in  humble  circum-
stances. The  bank  stopped  2  Oct.  Investigation  showed
great  fraud  and  false  accounts.  Estimated  loss,  6,783,000?.
causing  much  calamity  and  ruin  to  many.  The  directors,
J.  Stewart,  Lewis  Potter,  R.  Salmond,  Win.  Taylor,  H.'
Inglis,  and  J.  I.  Wright,  and  the  manager,  R.  S.  Stronach,
were  committed  for  trial,  30  Oct.  Stronach  and  Potter
were convicted  of falsifying  ^and fabricating  balance


BANKS, Joint  Stock. Since  the  act  of

1826,  a  number  of  these  banks  have  been  estab-
lished.! In  Ireland  similar  banks  have  been  in-
stituted, the  first  being  the  Hibernian  bank.  By
the  new  Companies  Act,  passed  15  Aug.  1879,  un-
limited companies  may  register  as  limited. The

sheets  (18  months'  imprisonment;  the  others  of  uttering
the  same  (8  months'  imprisonment),  1  Feb.  1S79.

The  liquidators  reported  that  about  1819  contributors
had  paid  about  4,500,000?.  (13s.  4$.  in  the  pound)  1  Dec.
1879  ;  20s.  in  the  pound  paid  to  depositors,  2  March,  1880.

Mr.  James  N.  Fleming  was  arrested  25  Jan.  for  em-
bezzlement, and  sentenced  to  8  months'  imprisonment,
3  July,  1882.

Close  of  the  liquidation  ;  13,644,856?.  paid,  announced
Nov.  1882.

The  receipts  by  subscription,  &c,  for  the  relief  of  the
sufferers  amounted  to  380,000?. ;  interest  47,000?.,  making
a  total  of  427,000?.

+  The  Royal  British  Bank  was  established  in  1849,
by  Mr.  John  McGregor,  M.P.,  and  others,  under  sir  R.
Peel's  joint-stock  banking  act,  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  113  (1844) ;
as  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  Scotch  banking  system  of
cash  credits  into  England.  On  3  Sept.  1856,  it  stopped
payment,  occasioning  much  distress  and  ruin  to  many
small  tradesmen  and  others.  In  consequence  of  strong
evidence  of  the  existence  of  fraud  in  the  management  of
the  bank,  elicited  during  the  examination  before  the
court  of  bankruptcy,  the  government  instructed  the  at-
torney-general to  file  ex-officio  informations  against  the
manager,  Mr.  H.  Innes  Cameron,  and  several  of  the
directors.  They  were  convicted  27  Feb.  1858,  after  13
days'  trial,  and  sentenced  to  various  degrees  of  imprison-
ment. Attempts  to  mitigate  the  punishment  failed
(May,  1858) ;  but  all  were  released  except  Cameron  and
Esdaile,  in  July,  1858.  In  April,  i860,  dividends  had
been  paid  to  the  amount  of  15s.  in  the  pound.  The  at-
torney-general brought  in  a  bill  called  the  Fraudulent
Trustees'  Act,  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  54,  to  prevent  the  recur-
rence of  such  transactions.

On  19  April,  i860,  adeficiency  of  263,000?.  was  discovered
in  the  Union  Bank  of  London.  Mr.  George  Pullinger,  a
cashier,  confessed  himself  guilty  of  forgery  and  fraud,  and
was  sentenced  to  20  years'  imprisonment.

On  18  Feb.  1861,  it  was  discovered  that  John  Durden,
a  clerk  of  the  Commercial  Bank  of  London,  had  robbed
his  employers  of  67,000?.,  of  which  46,000?.  might  be
recovered.

In  Dec.  1864,  J.  W.  Terry  and  Thomas  Burch,  manager
and  secretary  of  the  Unity  Bank,  were  committed  on
a  charge  of  conspiracy  for  fabricating  accounts  ;  but
acquitted  on  their  trial.


BANK  HOLIDAYS  ACT.


93


BANNOCKBURN.


joint-stock  banks  agreed  to  support  the  Bank  of
England,  and  to  issue  monthly  balance  sheets,  May,
June,  1891.

Chief  London  Joint-Stock  Banks.  Founded.

London  and  Westminster  (becomes  limited,  1879) . 1834

London  Joint-Stock 1836

London  and  County  (becomes  limited,  1879) .
Union  Bank  of  London ....
City  Bank . . (ditto,  1880)


•  1839

•  1855

A  full  list  of  joint-stock  banks,  with  their  date,  capital,
<fec,  is  given  in  Whitaker's  Almanack.

BANK  HOLIDAYS  ACT  passed  25  May,
187 1,  chiefly  by  the  instrumentality  of  sir  John
Lubbock.

Bank  Holidays. — England  and  Ireland:  Easter  Mon-
day ;  Monday  in  Whitsun-week ;  first  Monday  in
August;  26  December  (if  a  week  day). — Scotland:
New  Year's  day  ;  Christmas  day  (if  either  falls  on  Sun-
day, the  following  Monday  to  be  a  bank  holiday) ;  Good
Friday  ;  first  Monday  in  May  and  August.

BANKS, UPT  (signifying  either  bank  or  bench

broken),  a  trader  declared  to  be  unable  to  pay  his

just  debts. The  laws  on  the  subject  (1543,  1571  et

seq.)  were  consolidated  and  amended  in  1825,  1849,

1852,  1854,'  1861,  1868,  1869,  1883. See  Debtors.

Lord  Chancellor  Thurlow  refused  a  bankrupt  his
certificate,  because  he  had  lost  five  pounds  at  one
time  in  gaming 17  July,  1788

Enacted  that  members  of  the  house  of  commons"
becoming  bankrupt,  and  not  paying  their  debts
in  full,  should  vacate  their  seats .... 1812

Lord  Eldon's  Act  appointing  commissioners . . 1825

New  Bankruptcy  Court,  (including  a  court  "  of
review,"  3  judges)  erected  by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  56
(Lord  Brougham's  Act) ;  official  assignees  ap-
pointed, &c 1831

Bills  for  reforming  bankruptcy  law  were  in  vain
brought  before  parliament. . . . 1859,  i860

Bill  by  the  lord  chancellor  Westbury  (formerly  sir
K.  Bethell),  24  &  25  Vict.  c.  134,  passed  (1861)  ;
great  changes  made  ;  the  court  for  relief  of  insol-
vent debtors  abolished,  and  increased  powers
given  to  the  commissioners  in  bankruptcy,  &c.  ;
the  new  orders  issued . . . .12  Oct.  1861

By  Lord  Hatherley's  Bankruptcy  Act  passed  9  Aug.
1869,  a  new  bankruptcy  court  was  established  in
place  of  the  commissioners',  which  sat  last  time,
when  above  300  petitions  of  bankruptcy  were
received,  31  Dec.  1869.  "Paid  trustee  system,"
clauses  125,  126,  termed  "a  gentlemanly  way  of
getting  rid  of  debts."  The  new  Judge,  the  hon.
James  Bacon,  sat 1  Jan.  1870

Justice  Giffard,  the  judge  of  the  Bankruptcy  Appeal
Court,  decided  (in  the  case  of  the  duke  of  New-
castle) that  a  peer  can  be  made  a  bankrupt,  Nov.
1869,  which  decision  was  affirmed  on  appeal  to
the  house  of  lords  in  the  following  year ;  other
petitions  against  peers  have  been  filed.  It  was
decided  that  bankrupts  cannot  sit  in  the  house
of  peers 10  Feb.  1871

Bankruptcy  Disqualification  Act  disqualifies  a
peer  from  sitting  or  voting  in  parliament,  passed

13  July, ,,

Irish  bankruptcy  laws  consolidated  in  1836,  and
further  amended  in 1857

Scotch  bankruptcy  laws  consolidated  in  1856,  and
further  amended  in ,,

New  Bankruptcy  Act  for  Ireland,  passed .  6  Aug. 1872

Four  Bankruptcy  Bills  introduced  by  Lord  Chan-
cellor Cairns,  and  withdrawn . .  . 1876 — 80

Bankruptcies  have  diminished  through  great  num-
ber of  liquidations  by  arranged  compositions  ;
many  said  to  be  fraudulent ;  3651  of  these  in
1870  ;  11,976  in  1879  ;  about  20,000,000^.  wasted.

New  bankruptcy  bill  brought  in  by  Mr.  Chamber-
lain 8  April,  1881  (dropped)

New  Bankruptcy  Act  passed  25  Aug.,  1883,  46  &  47
Vict.  c.  52,  places  bankrupts  assets  in  charge  of
Board  of  Trade,  and  makes  other  important
changes. Reported  to  work  well ....  1885

The  court  in  Portugal  Street  closed  ;  business  trans-
ferred to  High  Court  of  Justice,  Jan.;  new  judge
first  sat 18  Feb.  1884


Bankruptcy  (Discharge  and  Closure)  Act  passed .  1887
Sir  Albert  Rollit's  Bankruptcy  Act,  1883-90,  passed

18  Aug.  1890


NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.


1700
1725
I75°
1775
1800
1810
1820
1825*


1845 England
1850 ditto .


1857


ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto


416
432

520


.  2683
•  1467


.  8470
.  7224


1873
1876
1877


1887


England
dittof  .
ditto
ditto .
ditto
ditto .
ditto
ditto  .
ditto
ditto  .
ditto
ditto  .
ditto
ditto  .
ditto
ditto  .
ditto


10,396

•  915

•  976

•  967

.  1084

•  1156

•  995

•  1005

•  995
.  1046
.  2998

•  3963

•  4566
.  4681

•  4695

•  4415

•  3924


1867

Bankrupts  in  Scotland :  i860,  445  ;  1876,  482  ;  1880,  5S2  ;
1885,  362  ;  1890,  339.  In  Ireland  :  1880,  312  ;  1885,  2I6 ;
1887,  204.

BANNATYNE  CLUB,  named  after  George
Bannatyne  (the  publisher),  was  established  in  1823
by  sir  Walter  Scott  and  others,  for  printing  works
illustrative  of  the  history,  antiquities,  and  litera-
ture of  Scotland,  of  which  about  113  volumes  were
issued:  dissolved,  i860.

BANNER  CROSS  MURDER. See  Trials,

1879.

BANNERET,  KNIGHT,  a  dignity  between
baron  and  knight,  anciently  conferred  by  the  king
under  the  royal  standard  on  the  field  of  battle.  Its
origin  is  of  uncertain  time  :  Edmondson  dates  it
736;  but  it  was  probably  created  by  Edward  I.
John  Chandos  is  said  to  have  been  made  a  banneret
by  the  Black  Prince  and  the  king  of  Castile  at  Na-
jara,  3  April,  1367.  The  dignity  "was  conferred  on
John  Smith,  who  rescued  the  royal  standard  at
Edgehill  fight,  23  Oct.  1642.  It  fell  into  disuse,
but  was  revived  by  George  III.  for  sir  "William
Erskine,  in  1764,  and  for  admiral  Pye  and  captains
Knight,  Bickerton,  and  Vernon,  in  1773.

BANNERS  were  common  to  all  nations.  The
Jewish  tribes  had  standards  or  banners — Num.  ii.
(1490 B.C.).  See  Cross,  Auriflamma,  Standards,  &c.
The  magical  banner  of  the  Danes  (said  to  have  been
a  black  raven  on  a  red  ground)  was  taken  by  Alfred
when  he  defeated  Hubba,  878.

BANNOCKBURN  (Stirlingshire),  the  site  of
two  battles:  (1)  between  Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland
and  Edward  II.  of  England,  24  June,  1314.  The
army  of  Bruce  consisted  of  30,000  ;  that  of  Edward
of  100,000  men,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The
English  crossed  a  rivulet  to  the  attack,  and  Bruce
having  dug  and  covered  pits,  they  fell  into  them,
and  were  thrown  into  confusion.  The  rout  was
complete  :  the  English  king  narrowly  escaped,  and
50,000  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  (2)  At
Sauchieburn,  near  here,  James  III.  was  defeated
and  slain  on  11  June,  1488,  by  his  rebellious
nobles.

*  According  to  a  return  to  parliament  made  at  the
close  of  Feb.  1826,  there  had  become  bankrupt  in  the
four  months}) receding,  59  banking-houses,  comprising  144
partners  ;  and  2oother  banking  establishments  had  been
declared  insolvent.  Every  succeeding  week  continued
to  adil  from  seventy  to  a  hundred  merchants,  traders,
and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list.  This  was  the
period  of  bubble  speculation,  and  of  unprecedented  com-
mercial embarrassment  and  ruin.

f  Liquidations  now  preferred  to  bankruptcy.


BANNS.


94


BAEBUDA.


BANNS,  in  the  feudal  law,  were  a  solemn
proclamation  of  any  kind :  hence  arose  the  present
custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before
marriage;  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the
English  church  about  1200.  The  proper  time  of
publishing  banns  in  the  church  was  the  subject  of
much  discussion  in  1867.

BANQUETING-HOTTSE,  Whitehall,  Lon-
don, built  by  Inigo  Jones,  about  1619.

BANTAM  (Java).  Here  a  British  factory  was
established  by  captain  Lancaster,  in  1603.  The
English  and  Danes  were  driven  from  their  factories
by  the  Dutch  in  1683.  Bantam  surrendered  to  the
British  in  181 1,  but  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  at
the  peace  in  1814.

BANTINGISM,  see  Corpulence.
BANTBY  BAY  (S.  Ireland),  where  a  French
fleet,  bringing  succour  to  the  adherents  of  James
II.,  attacked  the  English  under  admiral  Herbert,
1  May,  1689  :  the  latter  retired  to  form  in  line  and
were  not  pursued.  A  French  squadron  of  seven
sail  of  the  line  and  two  frigates,  armed  en  flute,
and  seventeen  transports,  anchored  here  for  a  few
days,  without  effect,  Dec.  1796.  Mutiny  of  the
Bantry  Bay  squadron  under  admiral  Mitchell  was
in  Dec.  1801.  In  Jan.  1802,  twenty-two  of  the
mutineers  were  tried  on  board  the  Gladiator,  at
Portsmouth,  when  seventeen  were  condemned  to
death,  of  whom  eleven  were  executed ;  the  others
were  sentenced  to  receive  each  200  lashes.  The
executions  took  place  on  board  the  Majestic,  Cen-
taur, Formidable,  Temeraire,  and  L'  Achille,  8  to
18  Jan.  1802. Mock  battle  here,  30  June,  1885.

BAPATJME,  N.  FRANCE,  the  site  of  severe
indecisive  engagements  between  the  French  army
of  the  north  under  Faidherbe,  and  the  Germans
under  Manteuft'el ;  the  French  retreated,  2,  3  Jan.
187 1.

BAPTISM,  the  ordinance  of  admission  into
the  church,  practised  by  all  Christian  sects  except
Quakers.  John  the  Baptist  baptized  Christ,  30.
(Matt,  iii.)  Infant  baptism  is  mentioned  by  Ire-
nceus  about  97.  In  the  reign  of  Constantine,  319
baptisteries  were  built  and  baptism  was  performed
by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  In  the  west  sprink-
ling was  adopted.  Much  controversy  has  arisen
since  1831  (particularly  in  1849  and  1850),  in  the
church  of  England,  respecting  baptismal  regenera-
tion, which  the  Arches'  Court  of  Canterbury
decided  to  be  a  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England.
See  Trials,  1849,  and  note.  Demanding  fees  for
baptisms  was  made  unlawful  by  an  act  passed  18
July,  1872.

BAPTISTS  (see  Anabatrtists).  A  sect  dis-
tinguished by  their  opinions  respecting  (i)_  the
proper  subjects,  and  (2)  the  proper  mode  of  baptism  :
the  former  they  affirm  to  be  those  who  are  able  to
make  a  profession  of  faith;  the  latter  to  be_  total
immersion.  There  are  seven  sections  of  Baptists—
Arminian,  Calvinistic  (or  Particular),  &c.  The
first  Baptist  church  formed  in  London  was  about
1608.  They  published  their  confession  of  faith  in
1643;  revised  in  1689.  In  1851  they  had  130
chapels  in  London  and  2789  (with  sittings  for
752,353  persons)  in  England  and  Wales.  Rhode
Island,  America,  was  settled  by  Baptists  in  1635.
Particular  Baptist  Fund  established . . . .  1717

Baptist  Missionary  Society 1792

Baptist  College,  Regent's  Park,  founded . . .  1S10
Mr.  C.  H.  Spurgeon's  great  Baptist  tabernacle,  New-

ington  Butts,  opened . . . .  31  March,  1S61
A  Baptist  Pastors'  College  near  it,  founded  by  Mr.
Spurgeon 14  Oct.  1873


[Mr.  Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon  was  born  19  June,
1834,  and  when  quite  a  youth  became  a  powerful
preacher,  attracting  large  congregations.  He
died  at  Mentone,  31  Jan.  1892.  There  was  a  very
great  concourse  at  his  funeral  in  Norwood  Ceme-
tery, 11  Feb.,  on  which  day  S.  London  appeared
to  be  in  mourning.]

A  great  tabernacle  at  Shoreditch  (rev.  Wm.  Cuff),
opened  ' 11  Nov.  1879

In  United  Kingdom  3,738  chapels  ;  304,802  baptised
-members  in 1883

In  British  Empire  4,368  churches ;  413,140  members

1886

BAE  SUR  Aube,  N.  E.  France.  Here  the
French,  under  Oudinot  and  Macdonald,  were  de-
feated by  the  allies,  27  Feb.  1814.

BAEBADOES,  a  West  India  Island,  one  of  the
Windward  isles  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about
1600,  taken  possession  of  by  the  English  1605,  and
settled  by  sir  Wm.  Courteen,  who  founded  James-
town, 1625.  As  many  royalists  settled  here,  the
island  was  taken  by  the  parliamentarians  in  1652.
Population,  1876,  162,042:  white,  16,560;  co-
loured, 145,482;  1881,  173,522;  1891,  182,322.
A  dreadful  hurricane,  more  than  4000  inhabitants

perished 10  Oct.  1780

A  large  plantation  with  all  its  buildings  destroyed,
by  the  land  removing  from  its  original  site  to
another,  and  covering  everything  in  its  pieregrina-

tion 17  Oct.  1784

An  inundation,  Nov. 1795  ;  and  two  great  fires,

May  and  Dec.  1796

Bishopric  established 1824

Awful  devastation,  with  the  loss  of  thousands  of
lives,  and  of  immense  property,  by  a  hurricane

Aug.  i83r
Nearly  17,000  persons  died  of  cholera  .  .  .  1854
Property  to  the  amount  of  about  300,000;.  destroyed

by  a  fire  at  Bridgetown  .  .  .  .14  Feb.  i860
Great  increase  in  growth  of  cotton,  1864-5.

Governor,  James  Walker i86r

,, Rawson  W.  Rawson  ....  186S

,, John  Pope  Hennessy 1875

Proposed  confederation  of  the  Windward  Isles  ;  sup-
ported by  the  governor  in  a  speech,  3  March  ;  op-
posed by  the  planters  ....  March,  1876
The  coloured  population  ignorantly  expecting  ad-
vantage from  the  confederation,  rise,  plundering
and  destroying  much  property  and  cattle ;  negroes
killed  and  wounded  by  police  .  21,  22  April,  ,,
Great  panic  among  the  planters  ;  the  governor  and
clergy  said  to  have  acted  judiciously  ;  peace  re-
stored 24  April, ,,

The  governor  exonerated  from  serious  blame July, ,,
Trial  of  450  rioters  ;  82  punished  (17  penal  servi-
tude ;  others  light  sentences) . 12 — 21  Oct. „
Capt.  Geo.  C.  Strahan  appointed  governor Nov. ,,

Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  governor 1880

Sir  William  Robinson,  governor . .' . .  i88r
Sir  C.  C.  Lees,  governor .... Aug.  1885

Sir  Walter  J.  Sendall Sept. 1889

Sir  James  Hay Feb.  1892

BAEBAEY,  in  N.  Africa,  considered  to  com-
prise Algeria,  Morocco,  Fez,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli,
with  their  dependencies.  Piratical  states  (nomi-
nally subject  to  Turkey),  were  founded  on  the  coast
by  Barbarossa,  about  1518.

BAEBEES  lived  in  Greece  in  the  5th  century T
and  at  Rome  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  In  England,
formerly,  the  business  of  a  surgeon  was  united  to
the  barber's,  and  he  was  denominated  a  Barber-
Surgeon.  A  London  company  was  formed  in
1308,'  and  incorporated,  1462.  This  union  was-
partially  dissolved  in  1540,  and  wholly  so  in  1745.
"  No  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  Lon-
don shall  occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or
other  matter,  except  only  drawing  of  teeth."  32
Hen.  VIII.  1540.

BAEBUDA,  a  small  West  India  Isle,  a  de-
pendant of  Antigua,  which  see.


BAKCA.


95


BARNABITES.


BARCA  (N.  Africa),  the  Greek  Barce,  a  colony
of  Cyrene.  It  was  successively  subjugated  by  the
Persians,  Egyptians,  and  Saracens.  In  1550  the
sultan  Solyman  combined  Barca  with  the  newly
conquered  pashalik  of  Tripoli.

BARCELONA  (N.  E.  Spain),  an  ancient
maritime  city,  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  Hamil-
car  Barca,  father  of  the  great  Hannibal,  about  233
B.C.  It  was  held  by  the  Romans,  Goths,  Moors,
and  Franks,  and,  with  the  province  of  which  it  is
the  capital,  was  made  an  independent  country
about  a.d.  864,  and  incorporated  with  Aragon,
1 164,  the  last  count  becoming  king.  The  city  has
suffered  much  by  war.  The  siege  by  the  French
in  1694,  was  relieved  by  the  approach  of  the  Eng-
lish fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  Russell ;  but  the
city  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1706.
It  was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  duke  of  Ber-
wick and  the  French  in  17 14,  and  was  taken  by
Napoleon  in  1808,  and  retained  till  1814.  It  re-
volted against  the  queen  in  1841,  and  was  bom-
barded and  taken  in  Dec.  1842,  by  Espartero.  Fre-
quent insurrections  here ;  one  suppressed  Jan.
1874.  An  exhibition  opened  by  the  king  Alfonso
XII.  4  March  1877.  Barcelona  very  prosperous,
1879.  Violent  riots  on  account  of  French  treaty
Mar.  ;  Catalonia  in  a  state  of  siege,  30  March,
1882.  Barcelona  tranquil,  1  April,  1882.  Popula-
tion, 1887,  272,481.

An  international  exhibition  opened  8  April,  by  the  Queen
of  Spain,  in  the  name  of  the  infant  king  who  was  pre-
sent, with  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Edinburgh  and
other  royal  personages  20  May  ;  there  was  also  an  un-
exampled naval  exhibition  representing  the  fleets  of
ten  powers  ;  closed  9  Dec.  1888.  For  the  disturbances
here  and  in  Catalonia,  see  Spain,  March  et  seg.  1890,
and  Feb.  1892.

BARDESANISTS,  followers  of  Bardesanes,
of  Mesopotamia,  who  embraced  the  errors  of  Valen-
tinus,  after  refuting  them,  and  added  denial  of  the
incarnation,  resurrection,  &c,  about  175.

BARDS.  Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard
by  Homer  ;  and  we  find  bards,  according  to  Strabo,
among  the  Romans  before  the  age  of  Augustus.
The  Welsh  bards  formed  an  hereditary  order,  regu-
lated, it  is  said,  by  laws,  enacted  about  940  and
1078.  They  lost  their  privileges  at  the  conquest
by  Edward  I.  in  1284.  The  institution  was  revived
by  the  Tudor  sovereigns  ;  and  their  Eisteddfods
(properly  Eisteddfodau),  meetings  of  4  days,  have
been  and  are  still  frequently  held ;  at  Swansea,
Aug.  1863 ;  at  Llandudno,  Aug.  1864 ;  in  the
vale  of  Conway,  7  Aug.  1865  ,  at  Chester,  4  Sept.
1866;  at  Carmarthen,  3  Sept.  1867;  at  Ruthin,
5-7  Aug.  1868;  at  Rhyl,  8-12  Aug.  1870;  at  Port-
madoc,  Aug.  1872;  at  Mold,  Aug.  1873;  at  various
places  in  1874-1876;  at  Carnarvon,  21  Aug.  1877  ;
at  Llanrwst,  1-3  Aug. ;  at  Menai  Bridge,  Aug.  1878;
at  Conway,  6  Aug.  and  at  other  places,  1879.  The
Cymmrodorion  Society  held  an  Eisteddfod  at
Carnarvon,  2^  Aug.  1880.  Royal  National  Eis-
teddfod at  Merthyr-Tydvil,  30  Aug.  1881;  at
Denbigh,  22  Aug.  1882;  at  Cardiff,  6  Aug.  1883;
Liverpool,  16  Sept.  1884;  Aberdare,  Aug.  1885;
Carnarvon,  14  Sept.  1886;  Albert  Hall,  Londonj  9
Aug.  1887  ;  Wrexham,  4  Sept.  1888  ;  at  Brecon,  27
Aug.  1889;  Bangor  (the  queen  of  Roumania  pre-
sent), 2  Sept.  1890;  Swansea,  18  Aug.  1891.  The
Gwyneddigion  Society  of  Bards  was  founded  in  1770.
Turlogh  O'Carolan,  the  last  of  the  Irish  bards,  died
in  1738.  Chambers.  Evan  Davies,  termed  the
Arch-Druid  of  Wales,  an  eminent  Welsh  scholar,
aged  89,  died  at  Pontypridd  23  February,  1888.  In
1880  the  bards  determined  that  the  Annual  National


Eisteddfod  should  be  held  alternately  in  North  and
South  Wales.  Above  100  Eisteddfodau  are  held,
every  year.

BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT.  Crom-
well, supreme  in  the  three  kingdoms,  summoned
122  persons,  such  as  he  thought  he  could  manage,,
who,  with  six  from  Scotland  and  five  from  Ireland,
met,  as  a  parliament,  4  July,  1653.  It  obtained  its-
appellation  from  a  nickname  given  to  one  of  its
members,  a  leather-seller,  named  "  Praise-God
Barbon."  The  majority  evinced  much  sense  and:
spirit,  proposing  to  reform  abuses,  improve  the  ad-
ministration of  the  law,  &c.  The  parliament  was.
suddenly  dissolved,  13  Dec.  1653,  and  Cromwell
made  lord  protector.

BAREILLY,  province  of  Delhi  (N.  W.  India)r

ceded  to  the  East  India  company  by  the  ruler  of
0udeini8oi.  A  mutiny  at  Bareilly,  the  capital,
was  suppressed  in  April,  1816.  On  7  May,  1858,,
it  was  taken  from  the  cruel  sepoy  rebels.

BARFLEUR  (N.  France),  where  William,
duke  of  Normandy,  equipped  the  fleet  by  which  he-
conquered  England,  1066.  Near  it,  William,  duke-
of  Normandy,  son  of  Henry  I.,  in  his  passage  from
Normandy,  was  shipwrecked,  25  Nov.  1120,  when;
the  prince,  his  bride,  and  many  others  perished.  Bar-
fleur  was  destroyed  by  the  English  in  the  campaign!
in  which  they  won  the  battle  of  Crecy,  1346.  The-
French  navy  was  destroyed  near  the  cape  by
admiral  Russell,  after  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  ig,
May,  1692.

BARI  (S.  Italy),  the  Barium  of  Horace,  was^
in  the  9th  century,  a  stronghold  of  the  Saracens,
and  was  captured  by  the  emperor  Louis  II.,  a.
descendant  of  Charlemagne,  in  871.  In  the  10th
century  it  became  subject  to  the  eastern  empire,,
and  remained  so  till  it  was  taken  by  Robert  Guis-
card,  the  Norman,  about  1060.  A  great  ecclesiastical
council  was  held  here  on  1  Oct.  1098,  when  the-
filioque  article  of  the  creed  and  the  procession  of  the-
Holy  Spirit  were  the  subjects  of  discussion.

BARING  ISLAND,  Arctic  Sea,  discovered
by  captain  Penny  in  1850-1,  and  so  named  by  hinn
after  sir  Francis  Baring,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty
in  1849.

BARIUM  (Greek,  barys,  heavy),  a  metal  found
abundantly  as  carbonate  and  sulphate.  The  oxide
barj'ta  was  first  recognised  as  an  earth  distinct  froms
lime  by  Scheele,  in  1774;  and  the  metal  was  fii-st
obtained  by  Humphry  Davy,  in  1808. Watts.

BARK,  see  Jesuits'  Bark.

BARLAAMITES,  followers  of  Barlaam,  a
learned  Calabrian  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil,,
who  maintained  various  peculiar  tenets,  attacked
the  Greek  monks,  supported  the  Latin  against  the-
Greek  church  in  a  controversy  at  Constantinople,,
1337,  and  acted  as  the  emperor's  envoy  in  an  attempt
to  reconcile  the  churches  in  1339.  He  died  about
1348.

BARMECIDES,  a  powerful  Persian  family,
celebrated  for  virtue  and  courage,  were  massacred
through  the  jealousy  of  the  caliph  Haroun-al-
Raschid,  about  802.  His  visir  Giafar  was  a  Bar-
mecide. The  phrase  Barmecide  (or  imaginary)
feast  originated  in  the  story  of  the  barber's  sixth
brother,  in  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments.

B  ARNABITES,  an  order  of  monks,  established
in  Milan  about  1530,  were  much  engaged  in  in-
structing youth,  relieving  the  sick  and  aged,  and
converting  heretics.


BARNARD'S ACT.


96


BARRACKS.


BARNARD'S,  Sir  John,  Act  (7  Geo.  II.,

e.  8),  entitled,  "an  act  to  prevent  the  infamous
practice  of  stock-jobbing,"  was  passed  in  1734,  and
repealed  in  i860.  Sir  John  Barnard  (born  1685,
■died  1764)  was  an  eminent  lord  mayor  of  London.
Barnard  Peerage  case,  see  Trials,  30  May,  1892.

BARNARDO  HOMES.  Dr.  T.  J.  Barnardo,
■of  German  extraction, born  in  Ireland,  came  to
London,  and  in  1866  began  energetically  to  pro-
mote the  welfare  of  homeless  children.
His  home  for  boys  at  Stepney,  founded  1870,  was  fol-
lowed by  one  for  girls,  at  Barkingside,  Essex,  with
infirmary,  schools,  &c.  ;  all  were  reported  successful
in  1874.
A  Babies' Castle  at  Hawkhurst,  Kent,  for  100  infants,

opened  9  Aug.  1S86.
His  disinterestedness  and  management  having  been  im-
pugned he  gave  up  the  management  to  trustees,  and
Invited 'investigation. The  arbiters  (Canon  Miller  and
Messrs.  J.  B.  Maule  and  Wm.  Graham)  in  their  report,
after  commenting  on  the  imperfect  evidence, com-
mended the  charities,  and  generally  exonerated  Dr.
Barnardo,  15  Oct.  1877.
See  Coffee  Palaces  and  East  End  Juvenile  Mission.
Several  legal  decisions,  requiring  Br.  Barnardo  to  pro-
duce children  who  had  been  committed  to  his  charge,
were  pronounced,  1889-91.
Dr.  Barnardo's  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords  was  dis-
missed, 30  July,  1891  ;  again,  25  July,  1892.
•Occupants  of  the  homes  at  Stepney,  3,785  boys  and  girls,
Jan.  1891.

BARNET,  Hertfordshire.  Here,  at  Gladsmore
heath,  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over
the  Lancastrians,  on  Easter-day,  14  April,  1471,
when  the  earl  of  Warwick  and  his  brother  the  mar-
quis of  Montacute,  or  Montague,  were  killed.  A
column  commemorative  of  this  battle  has  been
erected  at  tbe  meeting  of  the  St.  Alban's  and
Hatfield  roads.

BARNUM'S SHOW. The great  show  of
Messrs.  P.  T.  Barnum  and  Mr.  J.  A.  Bailey,  con-
veyed from  Brooklyn,  New  York,  arrived  at  Olympia
1  Nov.,  opened  II  Nov.  1889,  closed  Feb.  1890.
The  show  included  a  Roman  hippodrome  and  a  triple
American  circus,  a  museum  of  living  human  curiosities
termed  "freaks  of  nature,  "a  double  menagerie,  Jumbo's
skeleton  and  stuffed  skin,  performing  men  and  animals
of  many  kinds  (17  elephants) ;  Imre  Kiralfy's  grand
spectacle,  "  Nero ;  or,  the  destruction  of  Rome  "  (1,200
Roman  characters,  wild  beasts,  &c). A  great  many
simultaneous  performances.
The  establishment  included  about  1,200  people  and  380

horses.
Visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales  and  family, 20  Nov.

1889.
George  Stevens,  an  attendant,  accidentally  killed  by  an

elephant,  3  Dec.  1889.
The  show  closed  15  Feb.  ;  Mr.  Barnum  reported  his
success,  and  thanked  the  British  public,  17  Feb.  1890.
[Phineas  T.  Barnum,  born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut,
U.S.A.,  5  July,  1810,  died  at  Bridgeport,  7  April,  1891.
Besides  very  different  occupations,  he  specially  de-
voted himself  to  catering  for  the  amusement  of  the
people,  by  setting  up  museums,  shows  and  other
entertainments  ;  in  1842,  he  brought  out  Charles  S.
Stratton,  generally  termed  Tom  Thumb  (see  Dwarfs),
and  in  1856  he  engaged  the  celebrated  vocalist,  Jenny
Lind,  afterwards  Mde.  Goldschmidt.  In  1887,  his
great  menagerie  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  was  speedily
renovated.  His  life,  by  himself,  published  1888,  and
■other  works  since.]

BARODA.  See  India,  1874—5,  1892.
BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a  Florentine,
knowing  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump  through
what  was  supposed  to  be  nature's  abhorrence  of  a
vacuum,  imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mer-
cury, and  made  the  first  barometer,  about  1643.
Pascal's  experiments  (1646)  enhanced  the  value  of
the  discovery  by  applying  it  to  the  measurement  of
heights. Wheel  barometers  were  contrived  in  1668 ;


pendent  barometers  in  1695;  marine  in  1700  ;  "and

many  improvements  have  been  made  since. In  the

aneroid  barometer  (from  a,  no,  and  neros,  watery)

no  liquid  is  employed; the  atmospheric  pressure

being  exerted  on  a  metallic  spring. Its  invention

(attributed  to  Conte,  in  1 798,  but  due  to  Vidi,  who  died

in  April,  1866),  excited  much  attention  in  1848-9.

Barometers  were  placed  at  N.E.  coast  stations  m

i860,  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland  and  others.

Mr.  James  B.  Jordan's  very  delicate  glycerine  barometer,

in  which  one  inch  is  expanded  to  nearly  eleven  inches,

was  described  to  the  Royal  Society  22  Jan.,  1880,  and.

was  set  up  during  the  year  at  Kew  and  other  places.

The  publication of  two-hourly  variations  of  one  at

the  office  begun  in  the  Times  25  Oct.  1880.

BARON,  formerly  the  only  title  in  our  peerage,
now  the  lowest.  Its  original  name  in  England,
Vavasour,  was  changed  by  the  Saxons  into  Thane,
and  by  the  Normans  into  Baron.  The  council  of
the  realm  was  composed  of  the  greater  barons,  the
lesser  barons  were  merely  tenants  of  the  crown.
Many  barons  had  undoubtedly  assisted  in,  or  been
summoned  to  parliament  (in  1205) ;  but  the  first  pre-
cept found  is  of  no  higher  date  than  the  49  Hen.
III.  1265.  The  first  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent
was  John  de  Beauchamp,  created  baron  of  Kidder-
minster, by  Bichard  II.,  1387.  The  barons  took
arms  against  king  John,  and  compelled  him  to  grant
the  great  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of
our  forests,  at  Bunnymede,  near  Windsor,  June,
12 15.  Charles  II.  granted  a  coronet  to  barons  on
his  restoration,  1660.

BARONETS,  the  first  in  rank  among  the  gen-
try, and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  hereditary,
were  instituted  by  James  I.,  161 1.  The  rebellion
in  Ulster  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  this  order,  it
having  been  required  of  a  baronet,  on  his  creation,
to  pay  into  the  exchequer  as  much  as  would  main-
tain "thirty  soldiers  three  years  at  eightpence  a
day  in  the  province  of  Ulster  in  Ireland."  It  was
further  required  that  a  baronet  should  be  a  gentle-
man bom,  and  have  a  clear  estate  of  100O1?.  per
annum.  The  first  baronet  was  sir  Nicholas  Bacon
(whose  successor  is  therefore  styled  Primus  Baronet-
torum  Angliai),  22  May,  1611.  The  baronets  of
Ireland  were  created  in  1619;  the  first  being  sir
Francis  Blundell. — Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  were
created,  1625  ;  sir  Bobert  Gordon  the  first  baronet.
— All  baronets  created  since  the  Irish  union  in  1801
are  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Betham's  "  Baronet-
age of  England,"  5  vols.  4to.  1801-5.

BARONS'  WAR,  arose  in  consequence  of  the
faithlessness  of  Henry  III.  and  the  oppression  of  his
favourites  in  1258.  The  barons,  headed  by  Simon  de
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  and  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl
of  Gloucester,  met  at  Oxford  in  1262,  and  enacted
statutes  to  which  the  king  objected.  In  1263  their
disputes  were  in  vain  referred  to  the  decision  of
Louis  IX.  of  France.  War  broke  out,  and  on  14  May,
1264,  the  king's  party  was  total!  y  defeated  at  Lewes ;
and  De  Montfort  became  the  virtual  ruler  of  the
kingdom.  The  war  was  renewed  ;  and  at  the  battle
of  Evesham,  4  Aug.  1265,  De  Montfort  was  slain,
and  the  barons  were  defeated ;  but  they  did  not
render  their  final  submission  till  1268.  A  history
of  this  war  was  published  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Blaauw,
in  1844;  2nd  ed.,  1871.

BAROSSA,  see  Barrosa.

BARRACKS  (from  "  Ba  raque — Suite  que  font
les  soldats  en  campagne  pour  se  mettre  a  couvert  ")
were  not  numerous  in  this  country  until  about
1789.  A  superintendent-general  was  appointed  in
1793,  since  when  commodious  barracks  have  been
built  in  the  various garrison towns  and  central


BAEEATBY.


97


BARTHOLOMEW.


Sjpoints  of  the  empire. — A  report,  censuring  the  con-
dition of  many  barracks,  was  presented  to  parlia-
ment in  1858 ;  and  great  improvements  -were
effected  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Sidney  (after-
wards lord)  Herbert;  see  Aldcrshot.  Mr.  E.  Stan -
flaope's  scheme  for  increase  and  improvement  of
barracks,  camps,  &e.  (to  cost  about  4,100,000^.)
submitted  to  the  Commons,  27  Feb. ;  the  Barracks
Act  passed,  25  July,  1890.

BAEEATEY,isageneral  term  for  the  stirringup
.suits  and  quarrels  among  the  people.  Maintenance
is  an  officious  intermeddling  in  a  quarrel  or  suit;  by
assisting  either  party  with  money  or  otherwise.  It
is  punishable  by  old  statutes  (of  Richard  II.,  and
others),  with  fine  and  imprisonment.  Champerty  is
an  illegal  bargain  with  either  plaintiff  or  defendant
to  share  in  the  profits  of  the  matter  in  dispute.

Mr.  Bradlaugh's  action  against  Mr.  Newdegate  for  main-
tenance in  the  case  of  Clarke  v.  Bradlaugh  (see  Parlia-
ment, 1881)  was  dismissed,  20  Sept.  1881.

BABBEL-OBGANS,  see  Organs.

BAEEICADES,  mounds  formed  of  trees  and
earth,  for  military  defence.  During  the  wars  of
the  League  in  France,  in  1588,  the  people  made
barricades  by  means  of  chains,  casks,  &c,  and  com-
pelled the  royal  troops  to  retire.  During  the  war
of  the  Fronde,  a  barricade  was  erected  in  Paris  on
27  Aug.  1648.  Barricades  composed  of  overturned
vehicles,  &c,  were  erected  in  Paris  in  the  insur-
rections of  27-30  July,  1830,  and  23-26  June,  1848,
when  sanguinary  conflicts  took  place ;  and  also  2
Dec.  1851.

BAEEIEE  TEEATIES.  The  first,  between
England  and  the  Netherlands,  was  signed  at  the
Hague,  29  Oct.  1709,  for  mutual  support ;  annulled
1712;  another  treaty  was  concluded  at  Utrecht,  29
Jan.  1713.  The  third,  by  which  the  Low  Countries
were  ceded  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  was  signed
by  the  British,  Imperial,  and  Dutch  ministers,
15  Nov.  1715.

BAEEISTEES  are  said  to  have  been  first
appointed  by  Edward  I.,  about  1291,  but  there  is
earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates.  They  are  of
various  ranks,  as  king's  or  queen's  counsel,  Serjeants,
&c,  which  see.  Students  for  the  bar  must  keep  a
certain  number  of  terms  at  the  inns  of  court,  pre-
viously to  being  called  ;  and  by  the  regulations  of
1853  must  pass  a  public  examination.

BABBOSA,  or  BAROSSA  (S.  Spain).  The
British  army,  commanded  by  major-general  sir
Thomas  Graham,  afterwards  lord  Lynedoch,  totally
defeated  the  French  under  marshal  Victor,  5  March,
181 1,  the  French  leaving  nearly  3000  dead,  six
pieces  of  cannon,  and  an  eagle,  the  first  that  the
British  had  taken  ;  the  loss  of  the  British  was  1 169
men  killed  and  wounded.

BAEEOW  ISLAND  (Arctic  Sea),  discovered
by  Captain  Penny  in  1850-51,  and  named  by  him
in  honour  of  John  Barrow,  Esq.,  son  of  sir  John.

BABEOW-IN-FUENESS  (Lancashire),  in
1847,  was  a  village  with  a  population  of  about  330,
which,  in  1867,  had  increased  to  above  17,000,  and  in
1874  to  3c; ,000,  in  consequence  of  the  large  manu-
facture ot  iron  from  the  ore  (haematite)  found  there.
On  19  Sept.  1867,  new  docks  were  opened  in  the
presence  of  the  dukes  of  Devonshire  and  Bucclcuch
(proprietors  of  the  land),  Mr.  Gladstone,  and
others.  Barrow  was  made  a  municipal  borough  in
1867. Population  in  1881,  47,259; 1891,51,712.

BABBOW'S  STEAITS  (N.  Arctic  Sea),  ex-
plored by  Edwd.  Parry,  as  far  as  Melville  island,


lat.  740  26' N.,  and  long.  113°  47'  W.  The  strait,
named  after  sir  John  Barrow,  was  entered  on
2  Aug.,  1819.  The  thermometer  was  550  below
zero  of  Fahrenheit.

BAEEOWISTS,  a  name  given  to  the
Brownists,  which  see.

BAEEOWS,  circular  or  oblong  mounds,  found
in  Britain  and  other  countries,  were  ancient  sepul-
chres. Sir  Richard  Hoare  caused  several  barrows
near  Stonehenge  to  be  opened ;  in  them  were  found
Celtic  ornaments,  such  as  beads,  buckles,  and
brooches,  in  amber,  wood,  and  gold :  Nov.  1808.
230  barrows  were  opened  and  discoveries  made,
chiefly  in  Yorkshire,  1866  et  seq.,  under  the  super-
intendence of  the  Rev.  Canon  Wm.  Greenwell,  who
published  his  elaborate  work,  "British  Barrows,"
in  December,  1877.

Barrows  at  Aldbonrne,  North  Wilts,  were  opened  by
canon  Greenwell  and  Rev.  Walter  Money,  Sept.-Oct.
1878.

Canon  Greenwell  gave  urns  and  other  results  of  his  ex-
plorations to  the  British  Museum  in  1879.  He  was
still  engaged  in  his  researches  Oct.  1889.

BABS  in  music  appear  in  Agricola's  "  Musica
Instrumentalis,"  1529;  and  in  Morley's  "  Practical
Music,"  1597,  for  score  music.  Henry  Lawes  used
them  in  his  "  Ayres  and  Dialogues,"  1653.

BAETHOLOMEW,  ST.,  the  Apostle,

martyred  71. The  festival  (24  Aug.  o.  s.,  3  Sept.

n.  s.)  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  1130.

Monastery  of  St.  Bartholomew  (of  Austin  Friars)
founded  by  Rahere,  a  minstrel  of  Henry  I.  . 1 102

The  hospital  founded  by  him  ....  about  1123

Refounded  after  the  dissolution  of  monasteries  (it
then  contained  100  beds,  with  1  physician  and  3
surgeons),  1544  ;  incorporated .... 1546

William  Harvey,  physiologist,  physician  here 1609-43

Earliest  record  of  medical  school  . . . . 1662

Hospital  rebuilt  by  subscription ....  1729

Medical  college  founded 1843

5803  in-patients ;  160,520  out-patients  treated,  653
beds 1878

New  buildings  for  Medical  School,  museum,  &c,
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales . . 3  Nov. 1879

The  Convalescent  Home  at  Swanley,  Kent,  for
which  C.  T.  Kettlewell  gave  io,oooZ. ,  was  opened
by  the  Prince  of  Wales ... 13  July,  1885

Bartholomew  the  Great,  St.,  near  Smithtield. The
building  of  the  church,  said  to  have  begun  1102,
restored  by  subscription  and  reopened 29  March,  1868
and  14  March,  1891

Bartholomew  Fair.  The  charter  was  granted  by
Henry  I.,  1133,  and  was  long  held  in  Smithtield,
which  see.  The  shows  were  discontinued  in  1850,
and  the  fair  was  proclaimed  for  the  last  time  in
1855.  In  1858  Mr.  H.  Morley  published  his  "  His-
tory of  Bartholomew  Fair,"  with  many  illustra-
tions.

The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  commenced
at  Paris  on  the  night  of  the  festival . 24  Aug.  1572

According  to  Sully,  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French
Protestants,  including  women  and  children,  were
murdered  throughout  the  kingdom  by  secret  orders
from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of  his  mother,
the  queen  dowager,  Catherine  de  Medicis.

La  Popelionere  calculates  the  victims  at  20,000  ;
Adriani,  De  Serres,  and  De  Thou  say  30,000  ;
Davila  states  them  at  40,000  ;  and  Perelixe  makes
the  number  1 00,000.  Above  500  persons  of  rank,
and  10,000  of  inferior  condition,  perished  in  Paris
alone,  besides  those  slaughtered  in  the  provinces.
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  ordered  a  Te  Deum  to  be  per-
formed, with  other  rejoicings.

BAETHOLOMEW,  ST.,  a  West  Indian
island,  held  by  Sweden.  It  was  colonised  by  the
French  in  1648;  and  has  been  several  times  taken
and  restored  by  the  British.  It  was  ceded  to  Sweden
by  France  in  1785  ;  captured  by  the  English  and
restored,  1801 ;  ceded  to  France,  1877.


BAETHOLOMITES.


98


BASUTO LAND.


BAETHOLOMITES,  a  religious  order  ex-
pelled from  Armenia,  settled  at  Genoa  1307,  where
is  preserved  in  the  Bartholomite  church  the  image
which  Christ  is  said  to  have  sent  to  king  Abgarus.
The  order  suppressed  by  pope  Innocent  X.  1650.

BABTON  AQUEDUCT  (near  Manchester)
was  constructed  by  James  Brindley,  to  carry  the
Bridgwater  canal  over  the  Irvvell,  at  a  height  of
39  feet  above  the  river  ;  completed  in  1761.

BASEBALL,  see  American  Baseball.

BASEL  (Basle,  French  Bale),  a  rich  city  in
Switzerland.  The  18th  general  council  sat  here
from  Dec.  1431  to  May,  1443.  Many  important
reforms  in  the  church  were  proposed,  but  not
carried  into  effect :  among  others  the  union  of  the
Greek  and  Roman  churches.  The  university  was
founded  in  1460.  Treaties  of  peace  between  France,
Spain,  and  Prussia  were  concluded  here  in  1795.  It
was  made  a  free  imperial  city  1392,  but  joined  the
Swiss  confederation  1 50 1.  Population,  1888,69,809.

B  ASHI-B  AZOUKS,  irregular  Turkish  troops,
employed  partially  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-6.

BASIENTELLO  (S.  Naples).  Here  the  army
of  Otho  II.,  in  an  ambuscade,  was  nearly  cut  to
pieces  by  the  Greeks  and  Saracens  13  July,  982  ;
the  emperor  barely  escaped.

BASILIANS,  an  order  of  monks,  which  ob-
tained its  name  from  St.  Basil  (who  died  380)  ;  was
reformed  by  pope  Gregory,  in  1569. — A  sect,  founded
by  Basil,  a  physician  of  Bulgaria,  which  rejected
the  books  of  Moses,  the  eucharist,  and  baptism,  and
are  said  to  have  had  everything  in  common,  11 10.
Basil  was  burnt  alive  in  11 18.

BASILICA,  a  body  of  law,  in  Greek,  in-
cluding the  Institutes  of  Justinian,  the  Pandects,
&c,  arranged  by  order  of  the  emperor  Basil  the
Macedonian,  and  his  son  Leo  the  Philosopher,
875—911.  The  term  basilica  (palace)  was  applied  to
places  of  worship  by  the  early  Christian  emperors.

BASILIKON  DOEON  (Royal  Gift),  pre-
cepts on  the  art  of  government,  composed  by
James  I.  of  England  for  his  son  Henry,  and  first
published  at  Edinburgh  in  1599.  The  collected
works  of  this  monarch  were  published  at  London,
1616-20,  in  one  vol.  fol.

BASQUE  PBOVINCES,  N.  TV.  Spain  (Bis-
cay, Guipuscoa,  and  Alava).  The  Basques,  con-
sidered to  be  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberi,  were
termed  Vascones  by  the  Romans,  whom  they  suc-
cessfully resisted.  They  were  subdued  with  great
difficulty  by  the  Goths  about  580,  and  were  united
to  Castile  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  Their
language  is  conjectured  to  be  of  Tartar  origin.

BASQUE  EOADS  (TV.  France).  Fourteen
French  ships  of  the  line,  riding  at  anchor  here,
were  attacked  by  lords  Gambler  and  Cochrane  (the
latter  commanding  the  fireships),  and  all  were
destroyed,  11 — 29  April,  1809.  Cochrane  accused
Gambler  of  neglecting  to  support  him.  At  a  court-
martial,  26  July — 4  Aug.,  lord  Gambier  was  ac-
quitted.

BASSANO  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  Austrians,
under  Wurmser,  were  defeated  by  the  French  under
Massena,  8  Sept.  1796.

BASSEIN,  Bombay ;  a  Mahratta  town,  taken
by  the  British,  1774,  1780;  finally  annexed  by
them,  1818.  By  treaty  here,  31  Dec.  1802,  they
engaged  to  support  the  peishwa's  rights.

BASSETEEEE-EOADS,  St.  Christopher's,
"West  Indies. Here  the  French  admiral,  the  comte


de  Grasse,  was  repulsed  with  loss  in  three  desperate
attacks  on  the  British  fleet,  commanded  by  sir
Thomas  Graves,  25,  26  Jan.  1782.

BASSETT,  or  BASSETTE,  or  Pour  et  Contre,
a  game  at  cards,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a
noble  Venetian,  in  the  15th  century ;  introduced
into  France,  1674.

BASSOON",  a  wooden  double-reed  wind  instru-
ment, said  to  have  been  invented  by  Afranio,  a
canon  of  Ferrara,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.

BASSOEAH,  Bussorah,  or  Basrah  (Asia
Minor),  a  Turkish  city,  founded  by  the  caliph
Omar,  about  635.  It  has  been  several  times  taken
and  retaken  by  the  Persians  and  Turks.

BASS  EOCK,  an  isle  in  the  Frith  of  Forth
(S.  Scotland),  was  granted  to  the  Lauders,  1316;
purchased  for  a  state  prison,  1671  ;  taken  by  the
Jacobites,  1690  ;  surrendered,  1694  ;  granted  to  the
Dalrymples,  1706.

BASS'S  STEAIT,  Australia. Mr.  Bass,

surgeon  of  the  Reliance,  in  an  open  boat  from  Port
Jackson,  in  1796,  penetrated  as  far  as  Western
Port,  and  affirmed  that  a  strait  existed  between
New  South  "Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Lieu-
tenant Flinders  circumnavigated  Van  Diemen's
Land,  and  named  the  strait  after  Mr.  Bass,  1799.

BASTAED,  a  child  not  born  in  lawful  wedlock.
An  attempt  in  England,  in  1236,  to  legitimate  bas-
tard children  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the
parents,  failed.  The  barons  assembled  in  the  par-
liament of  Merton  answered  :  Nolumus  leges  Anglice
mutari  ("We  will  not  have  the  laws  of  England
changed").  Women  concealing  their  children's
birth  deemed  guilty  of  murder,  21  James  I.,  1624.
In  Scotland  bastard  children  could  not  dispose  of
their  movable  estates  by  will  until  1836.  A  new
act,  facilitating  the  claims  of  mothers,  and  making
several  provisions  for  proceeding  in  bastardy  cases,
was  passed  1845.  The  Bastardy  Laws  Amendment
Act  was  passed  10  Aug.  1872. See  Russia,  1891.

BASTABNiE,  a  warlike  tribe  in  Podolia  and
Moldavia,  hired  by  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon,  in
his  wars  with  Rome,  168  B.C. ;  driven  across  the
Danube  by  M.  Crassus  for  their  encroachments,  30.

BASTILLE,  Paris,  a  castle  built  by  Charles
V.,  king  of  France,  in  1369,  for  the  defence  of  Paris
against  the  English  ;  completed  in  1383,  and  after-
wards used  as  a  state  prison.  Henry  IV.  and  his
veteran  army  assailed  it  in  vain  in  the  siege  of
Paris,  during  the  war  (1587 — 1594).  "The  man
with  the  iron  mask,"  the  most  mysterious  prisoner
known,  died  here,  19  Nov.  1703  ;  see  IronMask.  On
14-15  July,  1789,  the  Bastille  was  pulled  down
by  the  populace ;  the  governor  and  other  officers
were  conducted  to  the  Place-  de  Greve  ;  their  hands
and  heads  were  cut  off,  and  the  heads  carried  on
pikes  through  the  streets.  A  centenary  was  cele-
brated 14  July,  1889.

BASUTO  LAND,  near  Orange  River,  South
Africa,  including  the  Transkei  territory,  was  an-
nexed to  Cape  Colony  in  1871. Population  in  1875,
whites,  469; natives,  127,707: in  1891,  218,324
natives,  and  578  Europeans.
Moiroso,  a  warlike  chief,  entrenches  himself  on  a
mountain  and  makes  predatory  sallies,  Feb.  et
seq. ;  his  stronghold  captured  and  himself  killed
during  the  fight .... 20  Nov. 1879
The  Basutos  ordered  to  give  up  their  arms  ;  many
resist ;  Letsi, Molappo, and others who sur-
render,  attacked  by  Masupha, Lerothodi,  and
others,  June,  July ;  who  make  war  on  the  colonist
forces 13  Sept.  1880


BATALHA.

Lerothodi  defeated  in  attack  on  Mafeteng  by  col.

Carrington  . . . .  21  Sept.  1880

Mafeteng,  besieged,  relieved  by  col. Clarke,  after

a  severe  conflict 19  Oct. ,,

Lerothodi's  village  stormed  and  his  forces  dispersed

22  Oct. ,,
Moletsane's  stronghold  stormed  by  colonel  Clarke

31  Oct. „
Mr. Hope, magistrate,  and  others treacherously
murdered  by  Umhlouhlo,  Oct.  ;  who  is  defeated
by  Mr.  Hawthorn  ;  announced  . . 12  Nov. „
Umhlonhlo  totally  defeated  by  Baker  21  Dec. ,,

Victories  of  col.  Carringtun  about  10,  14  Jan.  1881

Armistice  granted .... 18-24  Feb. „
Hostilities resumed  ;  indecisive  ;  col. Carrington

wounded 26  March, ,,

Basutos  severely  defeated . . about  16  April, ,,

Peace  concluded May, ,,

The  chief  Masupha  submits  . . . Sept. ,,

Again  troublesome Oct.  1882

Gen.  Gordon  appointed  to  settle  difficulties,  resigns
through  disagreement  with  the  Cape  government,

announced  autumn „

Peace  restored Dec. ,,

Self-government  granted Feb. 1883

Much  lighting  among  chiefs  ;  subsides . May, ,,
The  British  agree  to  resume  the  government  as  a

crown  colony  under  conditions . . June, ,,
The  Cape  parliament  assents . . .27  July, ,,
The  Basuto  chiefs  accept  conditions  at  a  great  meet-
ing ;  Masupha  stands  aloof . announced  8  Dec. „
Jonathan defeats Joel with great slaughter

15-16  March,  1884
Battles  between  Khetisa,  Masupha,  and  Lerothodi,

23  March, ,,
Basuto  land  reported  quiet  and  prosperous . 1887-90

BATALHA,  Portugal.  The  monastery  here
was  built  by  John  I.,  of  Portugal,  as  a  token  of  gra-
titude for  his  victory  over  John  I.  of  Castile,  at
Aljubarrota,  14  Aug.  1385,  securing  the  inde-
pendence of  his  kingdom.  The  restoration  of  the
monastery  began  in  1839.

BATAVIA  and  Batavian  Beptjblic,  see

Holland.

BATAVIA,  the  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the
Dutch  settlements  in  the  East  Indies,  built  by  that
people  about  1619.  Taken  from  the  French  (who  had
seized  it)  by  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  26  Aug.  1811  ;
restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1814. See  Java.

BATH  (Somerset),  named  "Aguce  solis"  by
the  .Romans,  being  remarkable  for  its  hot  springs.
Coel,  a  British  king,  is  said  to  have  given  this  city
a  charter,  and  the  Saxon  king  Edgar  was  crowned
here,  973.  See  Population.
Bath  plundered  and  burnt  in  the  reign  of  William

Rufus,  and  again  in 1137

The  abbey  church  commenced  in  1405  ;  finished . 1609
Beau  (Richard)  Nash,- ."  king  of  Bath,"  who  pro-
moted fame  of  the  waters,  and  amusements,  died

Feb.  1 76 1
Present  assembly-rooms  built  .  .  .  .  1771
Pump-room  erected  1704  ;  rebuilt  ....  1797
Theatre,  Beaufort-square,  opened  .  .  .  .  1805
Bath  philosophical  society  formed  ....  1817
Bath  royal  literary  and  scientific  institution  estab-
lished 1825

Victoria  park  opened  by  Princess  Victoria  . .  1830

Theatre  burnt 18  April,  1862

Restoration  of  the  abbey  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  1863  et  seq.
British  association  met  here  14  Sept.  1864;  andsSept.  1888
Museum  destroyed  by  fire  ... 20  Jan. 1867

Bath  and  West  of  England  Society  centenary  cele-
brated,  4 June ; Fall of Widcombe bridge, 2
persons  killed  and  many  injured . . 6  June,  1877
Remains  of  Roman  baths  discovered . 1877,  et  seq.

BATH  and  WELLS,  Bishopric  of.  .  The

see  of  Wells,  whose  cathedral  church  was  built  by
Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  in  704,  was  estab-
lished in  905,  Adeline  first  bishop.  John  de
Villula,  bishop,  transferred  his  seat  from  Wells  to
Bath in 1091. Tanner. Disputes between the


<J'J


BATHS.


monks  of  Bath  and  the  canons  of  Wells  about  the
election  of  a  bishop,  were  compromised  in  1135
Henceforward  the  bishop  was  to  be  styled  from  both
places  ;  the  precedency  to  be  given  to  Bath.  The
see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  53 1£.  is.  3^.  per
annum. Present  income,  5000^.

Recent  Bishops.
1802.  Richard  Beadon,  died . . .21  April,  1824
1824.  George  Henry  Law,  died . . 22  Sept. 1845
1845.  Richard  Bagot,  died . .  • •  5  May,  1854

1854.  Robert  John,  baron  Auckland,  resigned  6  Sept.  1869
1869.  Lord  Arthur  Charles  Hervey,  elected  10  Nov.  1869

BATH  ADMINISTRATION. Mr.  Pelhani

and  his  friends  having  tendered  their  resignation  to
king  George  II.,  10  Feb.  1746,  the  formation  of  a
new  ministry  was  undertaken  by  William  Pulteney,
earl  of  Bath.  This  expired  on  12  Feb.,  while  yet
incomplete,  and  received  the  name  of  the  "Short-
lived" administration.  The  members  of  it  were  :
the  earl  of  Bath,  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  lord
Carlisle,  lord  privy  seal;  lord  Winchilsea,  first  \ord
of  the  admiralty ;  and  lord  Granville,  one  of  the
secretaries  of  state,  with  the  seals  of  the  other  in  his
pocket,  "  to  be  given  to  whom  he  might  choose."
Mr.  Pelham  and  his  colleagues  returned  to  power.

BATH,  ORDER  OF  THE,  said  to  be  of  early
origin,  but  formally  constituted  11  Oct.,  1399,  by
Henry  IV.,  two  days  previous  to  his  coronation  in
the  Tower ;  when  he  conferred  the  order  upon
forty-six  esquires,  who  had  watched  the  night
before,  and  bathed.  After  the  coronation  of  Charles
II.  the  order  was  neglected  until  18  May,  1725,
when  it  was  revived  by  George  I.,  who  fixed  the
number  of  knights  at  37.

The  prince  regent  (afterwards  George  IV.)  created
classes  of  knights  grand  crosses  (72),  knights  com-
manders (180),  with  an  unlimited  number  of  com-
panions 2  Jan. 1815

By  an  order,  the  existing  statutes  of  this  order
were  annulled  ;  and  by  new  statutes,  the  order,
hitherto exclusively military, was opened to

civilians 25  May,  1847

Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  and  other  promoters  of  the  Great
Exhibition  received  this  honour  . . .  185  x

Constitution.  Military. Civil.

1st  Class. Knights  grand  cross, 50  25

2nd  Class. Knights  commanders,  100  50

yd  Class. Companions,  525  200

The  Order  was  further  enlarged,  June,  1861.

BATHOMETER  (Greek,  bathus,  deep),  an
apparatus  invented  by  Dr.  C.  William  Siemens  to
measure  the  depth  of  water  without  submerging  a
sounding-line,  1861-76.

Its  action  depends  on  the  diminution  of  the  effect  of
gravitation  on  the  surface  of  the  water  as  compared
with  its  effect  on  the  earth,  owing  to  the  mass  of  water
(of  less  density)  which  replaces  earth  (of  greater  den-
sity) :  which  is  duly  registered.

BATHS  were  early  used  in  Asia  and  Greece,
and  introduced  by  Agrippa  into  Rome,  where  many
were  constructed  by  Augustus  and  his  successors.
The  thermae  of  the  Romans  and  gymnasia  of  the
Greeks  (of  which  baths  formed  merely  an  appendage)
were  sumptuous.  The  marble  group  of  Laocoon
was  found  in  1506  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  erected
about  80,  and  the  Farnese  Hercules  in  those  of
Caracalla,  erected,  211.
In  London,  St.  Agnes  Le  Clere,  in  Old-street-road,

was  a  spring  of  great  antiquity ;  baths  said  to

have  been  formed  in  1502.
St. Chad's-well, Gray's-inn-road, derives  its  name

from  St.  Chad,  the  firth  bishop  of  Lichfield  667.
A  bath  opened  in  Bagnio-court,  now  Bath-street,

Newgate-street,  London,  is  said  to  have  been  the

first  bath  in  England  for  hot  bathing  . . 1679

Old  Bath-house,  Coldbath-square,  in  use . . . 1697

H 2


BATHYBIUS  H^CKELII.


100


BATTLES.


Peerless  (Perilous)  Pool,  Baldwin-street,  City-road,
mentioned  by  Stow  (died  1605) ; enclosed  as  a

bathing  place 1743

Turkish  sweating  baths  became  popular . . . i860
The  Oriental  baths  in  Victoria-street,  Westminster,
completed 1862

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES.

The  first  established  by  Mr.  Bowie  in  the  neighbour-
hood of  the  London  docks 1844

The  public  baths  and  wash-houses  in  Liverpool
founded  (through  the  instrumentality  of  Catherine
Wilkinson,  who  in  1832  began  to  lend  her  room
and  appliances  to  poor  people  for  washing) . . 1844

Acts  passed  to  encourage  the  establishment  of  public
baths  and  wash-houses,  "for  the  health,  comfort,
and  welfare  of  the  inhabitants  of  populous  towns
and  districts,"  in  England  and  Ireland . . . 1846

537,345  bathers  availed  themselves  of  the  baths  in
London,  and  in  this  period  there  were  85,260
washers  in  the  quarter  ending  . . . Sept.  1854

Public  baths  and  wash-houses  have  since  been  estab-
lished throughout  the  empire.

Baths  and  Washhouses  Act  authorises  establish-
ment of  cheap  swimming  baths,  &c,  27  May,  1878,

amended,  1882
Sec  Laundry.

BATHYBIUS  H^ECKELII  (Greek,  bathus,
deep  ;  bios,  life),  the  name  given  byHuxley  to  a  sup-
posed low  form  of  animal  life,  a  gelatinous  sub-
stance found  on  stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  in
Deep  Sea  Soundings  {which  see).  Its  existence
doubted  by  many  naturalists,  1879.

BATON,  a  truncheon  borne  by  generals  in  the
French  army,  and  afterwards  by  the  marshals  of
other  nations.  Henry  III.  of  France,  before  he
ascended  the  throne,  was  made  generalissimo  of  the
army  of  his  brother  Charles  IX.,  and  received  the
baton  as  the  mark  of  the  high  command,  1569.
Henault.  The  baton  used  by  conductors  of  con-
certs is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  England
by  Spohr,  in  1820.

BATON  ROUGE,  Louisiana,  United  States,
was  captured  by  the  Federals,  5  Aug.  1862,  after  a
fierce  conflict;  see  United  States,  1862.

BATOUM,  or  BATUM,  a  seaport  in  Lazistan,
on  the  Black  Sea.  After  having  repulsed  the  Rus-
sians in  the  war,  4  May,  1877,  tbe  place  was  ceded
to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July,  1878,
to  become  a  free  commercial  port.  The  port  was
closed  by  Russia  on  and  after  17  July  1886.

The  inhabitants  at  first  resisted,  but  were  persuaded
to  submit ;  many  emigrating,  July-Sept.  The  Russians
entered,  6  Sept.  1878

Foundation  of  a  new  cathedral  laid  by  the  Czar,  7  Oct.
1888.

BATTERIES  along  the  coasts  were  constructed
by  Henry  VIII.  (who  reigned  1509-47).  The  ten
floating  batteries  with  which  Gibraltar  was  attacked,
in  the  siege  of  that  fortress,  were  invented  by
D'Arcon,  a  French  engineer.  They  resisted  the
heavy  shells  and  32-pound  shot,  but  ultimately
yielded  to  red-hot  shot,  13  Sept.  1782;  see
Gibraltar.  Formidable  floating  batteries  are  now
erected. See  Navy,  Electricity.

BATTERING-RAM,  Testudo  Arietaria,  with
other  military  implements,  are  said  to  have  been
invented  by  Artemon,  a  Lacedaemonian,  and  em-
ployed by  Pericles,  about  441  b.  c.  Sir  Christopher
Wren  employed  a  battering-ram  in  demolishing  the
walls  of  old  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  1675.

BATTERSEA  PARK;  an  act  of  parliament
passed  in  1846,  empowered  her  majesty's  com-
missioners of  woods  to  form  a  royal  park  in  Battersea-
fields.  Acts  to  enlarge  their  powers  were  passed
in  1848,  1851,  and  1853.  The  park  and  the  new
bridge  connecting  it  with  Chelsea  were  opened  in


April,  1858 ;  the  bridge  freed  from  toll,  24  May,
1879.  Albert  Exhibition  Palace  opened  here,  6
June,  1885  ;  closed  1888.  Battersea  returns  two
M.P.'s  by  Act  passed  25  June  1885.  New  Batter-
sea  Bridge  opened  by  the  earl  of  Rosebery,  21  July,
T890.  See  Parks.
Battersea  Training  College,  founded  1840.

BATTLE,  Trial  by,  or  "Wager  of,  a  trial

by  combat  formerly  allowed  by  our  laws,  where  the
defendant  in  an  appeal  of  murder  might  fight  with
the  appellant,  and  make  proof  thereby  of  his  guilt
or  innocence;  see  Appeal.

BATTLE-ABBEY,  Sussex,  founded  by
William  I.,  1067,  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  of
Hastings  was  fought,  14  Oct.  1066.  It  was  dedica-
ted to  St.  Martin,  and  given  to  Benedictine  monks,
who  were  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  slain.  The
original  name  of  the  plain,  was  Hetheland;  see
Hastings.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  a  list  was
taken  of  William's  chiefs,  amounting  to  629,  and
called  the  "  Battel-roll  ; ' '  and  among  these  chiefs
the  lands  and  titles  of  the  followers  of  the  defeated
Harold  were  distributed.  "  The  Roll  of  Battle
Abbey,"  edited  by  the  duchess  of  Cleveland,  was
published,  with  notes,  &c,  in  1889.

BATTLE-AXE,  a  weapon  of  the  Celts.  The
Irish  were  constantly  armed  with  an  axe.  Burns.
At  the  battle  of  Bannockbum  king  Robert  Bruce
clove  an  English  champion  down  to  the  chine  at
one  blow  with  a  battle-axe,  1314.  The  battle-axe
guards,  or  beaufetiers,  vulgarly  called  beef-eaters,
and  whose  arms  are  a  sword  and  lance,  were  first
raised  by  Henry  VII.  in  1485.  They  were  originally
attendants  upon  the  king's  buffet;  see  Yeoman  of
the  Guard.

BATTLEFIELD,  BATTLE  OF,  see  Shrews-
bury.

BATTLES.  Palamedes  of  Argos  is  mythically
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  ranged  an  army  in  a
regular  line  of  battle,  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,
and  excited  the  soldier's  vigilance  by  giving  him  a
watchword,  and  to  have  been  treacherously  slain  by
the  Greeks  before  Troy.  See  Naval  Battles,  British.
The  following  are  the  most  memorable  battles,
arranged  in  chronological  order ;  further  details  of-
the  greater  part  are  given  in  separate  articles ;
n.  signifies  naval.

The  following  are  the  battles  described  by  Professor
Creasy  in  his  "  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World": —


B.C.

490
413
33*
207
A.D.
9
45i
732


A.D.

Hastings . 14  Oct.  1066

Orleans  . 29  April,  1429

Spanish  Armada  July,  1588

Blenheim  . 13  Aug.  1704


Pultowa
Saratoga
Valmy
Waterloo


8  July,  1709

17  Oct.  1777

20  Sept.  1792

18  June,  1815


Marathon .
Syracuse . . .
Arbela . 1  Oct.
Metaurus . . .

Teutoburg  .
Chalons  . . . .
Tours  . to  Oct.

B.C.

Abraham  defeats  kings  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xiv.) . .  1913
Joshua  subdues  five  kings  of  Canaan  (Josh,  x.) .1451

Gideon  defeats  the  Midianites  (Judges  vii.) . .  1245

Trojan  war  commenced 1103

Troy  taken  and  destroyed 1184

Jephthah  defeats  Ammonites 1143

Ethiopians  defeated  by  Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv.)  . . .  941

Horatii  vanquish  Curiatii 669

Halys  (Medes  and.  Lydians  stop])ed  by  eclipse)  584  or  585

Thymbra  (Cyrus  defeats  Crcesus) 548

Lake  Regillus  (Romans  defeat  Latins) . . .  499

Marathon  (Greeks  defeat  Persians) . 28  or  29  Sept.  490

Thermopylae  (heroism  of  Leonidas) . 7-9  Aug.  480

Salamis  n.  (Greeks  defeat  Persians) . . 20  Oct.  „

Himera  (Gelon  defeats  Carthaginians)  . . . .  ,,

Mycale  (Greeks  defeat  Persians) . . . 22  Sept.  479

Plattea  (ditto:  Fausanias) . . . 22  Sept.  „


BATTLES.


101


BATTLES.


Eurymedon  n.  (Greeks  defeat  Persians:  Cimori)

Tanagra  (Spartans  defeat  Athenians) .

CBnophyta  (Athenians  defeat  Boeotians).

Coronea  (Boeotians  defeat  Athenians).

Romans  totally  defeat  Veientes . .  >

Tanagra  (Athenians  defeat  Spartans)'.

Deliuni  (Boeotians  defeat  Athenians)

Amphipolis  (Spartans  repulse  Athenians :  Clean,  and

Brasidas  killed)

Mantinea  (Spartans  defeat  Athenians)  .
Athenians  defeated  before  Syracuse .
Cyzicus  a.  (Alcibiades  defeats  Spartans)
Arginuste  ».  (Co?ioft  defeats  Spartan  fleet)  .
JEgospotamos  n.  (Athenian  fleet  destroyed)  .
Cunaxa  (Cyrus  defeated  and  killed  by  Artaxerxes)

Corinthian  War 395

Haliartus  (Lysander  killed)

Cnidus  n.  (Conon  defeats  Spartans)

Coronea  (^4  rges  ilaus  defea  ts  At  hen  ia  n  s  and  a  11  ies)

Allia  (Brennus  and  the  Gauls  defeat  Romans)  16  July

Volsci  defeated  by  Camillus

Volsci  defeat  the  Romans

Naxus  (Chabrias  defeats  Laeedcemonia-ns) . 376  or

Tegyra  (Thebans  defeat  Spartans)

Leuetra  (Thebans  defeat  Spartans)

"  Tearless  Victory  "  of  Arehidamus  over  Argives

<fec

Camillus  defeats  the  Gauls

Cynoscephahe  (Thebans  defeat  Thessalians)
Mantinea  ('Thebans  victors :  Epaminondas  slain)  .

Tamynse  (sEschines  there)

Crimisus  (Tirnoleon  defeats  Carthaginians)  .
Cha?ronea  (Philip  defeats  Athenians,  dc).  .  Aug
Thebes  destroyed  by  Alexander  .  .  .  b.c
Grauicus  (Alexander  defeats  Darius) . 22  May.

Issus  (ditto) Oct.

Arbela  (ditto) iOc'

Pandosia  (Alexander  of  Epirus  defeated  and  killed)

Cranon  (Antipater  defeats  Greeks)

Caudine  Porks  (Roman  army  captured).

Gaza  (Ptolemy  defeats  Demetrius)

Ecnomusor  Himera  (Carthaginians  defeat  Agathocles)

Fabius  defeats  the  Tuscans ....

Vadimonian  Lake  (Etruscans  defeated) .

Ipsus  (Seleucus  defeats  Antigonus,  who  is  slain)

Sentinum  (Romans  defeat  Samnites)

Gauls  defeat  Romans  at  Arretium,  284  ;  defeated  by

Dolabella

Vadimonian  Lake  (Etruscans  defeated) .
Corus  (Lysimachu-s  defeated  and  killed).
Pandosia  (Pyrrhus  defeats  Romans)

Asculum  (ditto)

Beneventum  (Romans  defeat  Pyrrhus)  .

First  Punic  War  begins ....

Mylie  n.  (Romans  defeat  Carthaginians)

Xantippus  defeats  Regulus

Panormus  (Asdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus) .

Drepanum  ft.  (Carthaginians  defeat  Romans)

Lilybseum  taken  by  Romans

jEgates  n.  (Romans  defeat  Cartha.ginians)  .

Ladocea  (Achatans  defeated)  .

Clusium  or  Pisae  (Gauls  defeated)

Sellasia  (Macedonians  defeat  Spartans) .

Caphya}  (Achceans  defeat  /Etolians) .

Saguntum  (taken  by  Hannibal)

Second Punic War.  —  Ticinus (Hannibal defeats

Romans)

Ticinus  and  Trebia  (ditto)

Trasimene  (ditto)

Raphia  (Antiochus  defeated  by  Ptol.  Philopater)
Cannae  (Victory  of  Hannibal)  . . .  2  All;

Munda  (Seypio  defeats  Hasdrubal)
Marcellus  and  Hannibal  (former  killed)
Metaurus  (Nero  defeats  Hasdrubal,  who  is  killed)
Zama  (Scipio  defeats  Hannibal) ....

Abydos  (siege  of)

Paaeas  (Antiochus  defeats  Egyptians,  Ac.) .
Cynoscephahe  (Romans  defeat  Macedonians)
Boii  defeated  at  the  Vadimonian  lake .
Thermopylae  (Greeks  defeated) ....
Magnesia  (Scipio  defeats  Antiochus)
Pydna  (Romans  defeat  Perseus)  . . .22  June
Eleasa  (Judas  Maccaboeus  killed)  .

Third  Punic  War

Leucopetra  (Mummius  defeats  Achcvoins)
Carthage  taken  by  Publius  Scipio
Muminius  takes  Corinth ....
Allobroges  defeated  by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus.


379
377
375
37i

367

364
362
358
339
338
335
334
333
33i
326
322
321
312
310

3°9
301

295
283


279
275
264
260
255
250

249
241

226
225
221
220
219


-  '7
216

209
207
202

200
198

197
191


Metellus  defeats  Jugurtha b.c.  109

Arausio  (Cimbri  defeat  Romans) ....  105

Aquas  Sextiie  (Aix  ;  Marius  defeats  the  Teutones) . .  102

Cimbri  and  Romans  (defeated  by  Marius)  . . .  101

Chaeronea  (Sylla  defeats  Mithridates'  army)  . . .  86

Sacriportus  (Marius  defeated  by  Sylla) ...  82

Cabeira  (I/ucullus  defeats  Mithridates)  . . . .  71

Petelia  (Spartacus  defeated  by  Crassus)  „

Tigranocerta  (Lucullus  defeats  Tigranes) . . .  69

Pistoria  (Catiline  defeated) 62

Cajsar  defeats  Cassivelaunus  in  Britain . . .  54

Carrhse  (Cras&us  defeated  by  Parthians) . 9  June,  53

Pharsalia  (Ccesar  defeats  Pompey) . . .9  Aug.  48
Zela  (Ccesar  defeats  Pharnaces ;  writes, "Veni,  vidi,

vici") 47

Thapsus  (Coesar  defeats  Pompey's  friends) . . .  46

Munda  (ditto) 17  March,  45

Mutina  (Hirtius  defeats  Antony) . . 27  April,  43

Philippi  (Brutus  and  Cassius defeated) ...  42

Myhe,  n.  (Agrippa  defeats  Pompey  the  Younger) . .  36

Actium  ft.  (Octavius  defeats  Antony)  . . 2  Sept.  31

Teutoburg  (Varus  defeated  by  Herman) . a.d.  9

Shropshire  (Caractacus  taken) 50

Sunbury  (?)  (Romans  defeat  Boadicea) . . . .  61

Jerusalem  taken  by  Titus 70

Agricola  conquers  Mona  or  Anglesea . . . .  78

Ardooh  (he  defeats  Godgacus  and  Caledonians)  . .  84

Dacians  defeated  and  Decebalus  slain  . . . .  106

Issus  (Niger  slain) 194

Lyons  (Severus  defeats  Albinus) 197

Verona  (emperor  Philip  elefeated  and  killed) . .  249

Decius  defeated  and  slain  by  Goths . . . .  251

Valerian  defeated  and  captured  by  Sapor . . .  260

Nai'ssus  (Claudius  defeats  Goths,  many  slain) . .  269

Chalons  (Aurelvan  victor  over  rivals) . . . .  274

Allectus  defeated  in  Britain 296

Constantine  def.  Maxentius  (see  Cross) . 27  Oct.  312

Adrianople  (Constantine  defeats  Licinius) .  3  July,  323

Aquileia  (Constantine  If.  slain) . . March,  340

Julian  defeats  Alemanni 356,  357

Thyatira  and  Nacolea  (Procopius  defeated) . .  366

Argentaria  (Gratian  defeats  Alemanni) . May,  378

Adrianople  (Gauls  defeat  Vodens) . 9  Aug.  ,,

Aquileia  (Maximus  slain) . . . .28  July,  388

Aquileia  (Eugenius  slain) .... 6  Sept.  394

Pollentia  (Stilicho  defeats  Alaric) . . .  29  Mar.  403

Rome  taken  by  Alaric .... 24  Aug.  410

Ravenna  taken  by  Aspar 425

Franks  defeated  by  Aetius 428

Genseric  takes  Carthage 439

Chalons-sur-Marne  (Attila  defeated  by  Aetius)  . .  451

Aylesford  (Britons  defeat  Saxons ;  Horsa  killed)  . .  455

Crayford,  Kent  (Hengist  defeats  Britons) . . .  457

Soissons  (Clovis  defeats  Syagrius  and  Romans) . .  486

Verona  (Theodoric  defeats  Odoacer) . 27  Sept.  489

Tolbiach  or  Zulpich  (Clovis  defeats  Alemanni) . .  496

Vougle  (Clovis  defeats  Visigoths) 507

Baddesdown  hill  (Britons  defeat  Saxons) . ?493,  sir

Veseronce  (Gondemar  defeats  Clodomir)  .  .  .  524.
Victories  of  Belisarius  in  Africa,  &c.  .  .  .  533-4
Narses  defeats  Totila,  552  ;  and  Teias . . -553

Heraclius  defeats  the  Persians  (Chosroes) . . .  622

Beder  (first  victory  of  Mahomet) 623

Muta  (Mahometans  defeat  Christians) . . . .  629.

Hatfield  (Heathtield  ;  Penda  defeats  Edwin) . .  633

A jnadin  (Saracens  defeat  Heraclius) . 13  July,  „

Yermuk  (Saracens  victors) . . . 23  Aug.  634.

Yermuk  (Saracens  defeat  Heraclius) . . Nov.  636

Saracens  subdue  Syria 636-8

Kadseah  (Arabs  defeat  Persians) 638

Saracens  take  Alexandria 640

Near  Oswestry  (Penda  defeats  Oswald  of  Northum-
berland) 5  AuS-  642

Leeds  (Oswy  defeats  Penda,  who  is  slain)  . . .  655

Day  of  the  Camel  (Ali  victor) . . .  4  Nov.  656

Saracens  defeated  by  Wamba,  in  Spain . . .  675

Testri  (Pepin  defeats  Thierry) 687

Xeres  (Saracens  defeat  Roderic)  .  19-26  July,  711
Ambler  and  Viney  (Chas.  Martel  def  Neustrians) 716-17

Tours  (Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Saracens) 10  Oct.  732

Victories  of  Charlemagne 775-S00


Roncesvalles  (death  of  Roland)  .
Hengestdown  (Danes  defeated  J>y  Egbert)  .
Charmouth  (Ethelwolf  defeated  by  the  Danes) . .
Fontenaille or Fontaneta (Lothaire  defeated by
Charles  and  Louis) .... 25  June,

Clavyo  (Moors  defeated)

Albaida  (Mum  and  Moors  defeated) .


778
83s
840


844
852


BATTLES.


102


BATTLES.


870


Danes  defeat  King  Edmund  of  East  Anglia

Assendon  or  Ashdown  (Danes  defeated)

Basing  and  Merton  (Danes  victorious)

Hafsfwrd  (Harold  Hdrfager's  final  victory)

Wilton  (Danes  victorious  over  Alfred)

Andernach  (Charles  the  Bald  defeated)  .

Ethandun  (Alfred  defeats  Danes) .... S7S

Farnham  (Danes  defeated) 894

Zamora  (Alfonso  defeats  Moors) 901

Bury  (Edward  defeats  Ethelwald  and  Danes) . . 905
Tettenhall  (Danes  defeated) . . . 6  Aug. 910


. . 872
8  Oct. 876


Soissons  (king  Robert,  victor,  killed)  .  .  .  ■  923
Merseburg  (Germans  defeat  Hungarians)  .  .  -934
Brunanburg  (Northmen  defeated)  ....  937
Simancas  (Spaniards  defeat  Moors)  .  .  6  Aug.  939
Nicephorus  Phocas  defeats  Saracens  .  .  .  .  962
Basientello  (Otho  II.  defeated  by  Greeks) . 13  July, 982


Clontarf  (Danes  defeated  in  Ireland) . 23  April,  1014
Zetunium  (Bulgarians  defeated) . . 29  July, ,,
Brentford  (Edmund  defeats  Danes) . . .  May,  1016
Assingdon,'  Ashdon  (Canute  defeats  Edmund) . . ,,
Sticklestadt  (Olaf  defeated  by  Swedes) . 29  July,  1030
Civitella  (Normans  defeat  Leo  IX.) . . . .  1053

Dunsinane  (Macbeth  defeated) 1054

Fulford  (Norwegians  defeat  English) . 20  Sept.  1066
Stamford  Bridge  (Harold  defeats  Tostig) . 25  Sept. ,,
Hastings  (William  I.  defeats  Harold) . .  14  Oct. ,,
Fladenheim  (emperor  Henry  defeated) . . .  1080
Crusades  commence .......  iogo

Alnwick  (Scots  defeated,  Malcolm  slain)  13  Nov.  1093

Dorylieum  (Crusaders  defeat  Turks)  .  .  1  July,  1097
Ascalon  (Crusaders  victorious) . .  12  Aug.  1099

TinChebray  (Robert  of  Normandy  defeated)  .  .  .  1106
Brenneville  (Henry  I.  defeated  French)  .  .Aug.  1119
Fraga  (Moors  defeat  Spaniards)  .  .  17  July,  1134
Northallerton,  or  Battle  of  the  Standard  (David  I.

and  Scots  defeated) 22  Aug. 1138

Ourique  (Portuguese  defeat  Moors)  .  .  25  July,  1139
Lincoln  (Stephen  defeated)  ...  2  Feb.  1141
J aen  (Moors  defeated,  by  Spaniards)  ....  1157
Carcano  (Frederic  I.  defeated  by  Italians)  g  Aug.  1160
Alnwick  (William  the  Lion  defeated)  .  .  12  July,  1174
Legnano  (Italians  defeat  emperor)  .  .  29  May,  1176
Tiberias  (Saladin  defeats  Crusaders)  .  3,  4  July,  1187
Ascoli(r<MicraZ  defeats  emperor  Henry  Vl.'sarmy)  .  1190
Acre  taken  by  Crusaders  .  .  .  .  12  July,  1191
Arsouf  (Richard  I.  defeats  Saracens)  .  .  6  Sept.  ,,
Freteville  (Richard  I.  defeats  Philip  II.).  15  July,  1194
Arcadiopolis  (Bulgarians  defeat  emperor  Isaac)  .  ,,
Alarcos  (Moors  defeat  Spaniards) .  .  .  19  July,  1195
Gisors  (Richard  I.  defeats  French) . . 20  Sept.  1198

Tolosa  (Moors  defeated) 16  July,  1212

Muret  (Albigenses  defeated)  ...  12  Sept.  1213
Bouvines  (French  defeat  Germans)  .  .27  July,  1214
Lincoln  (French  defeated)  .  .  .  .  20  May,  12 17
Corte  Nuova  (Frederick  II.  defeats  Milanese)  2 7  Nov.  1237
Taillebourg  (French  defeat  Henry  III.) . 20  July,  1242

Carizmians  defeated  twice 1247

Fossalta  (Ghibelines  defeated)  ...  26  May,  1249
Mansourah  (Louis  IX.  and  Crusaders  defeated) .  .  1250
Largs  (Scots  defeat  Northmen)  ...  3  Oct.  1263
Lewes  (English  barons  victorious)  .  .  14  May,  1264
Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed)

4  Aug.  1265
Benevento  (Chas.  of  A  njou  defeats  Manfred)  26  Feb.  1266
Tagliacozzo  (Charles  defeats  Conradin)  .  23  Aug.  1268
Marchfelil  (Austrians  defeat  Bohemians)  .  26  Aug.  1278
Aber  Edw  (Llewellyn  0]  Wales  defeated)  .  n  Dec.  1282
Zagrab  (defeat  of  Charles  Martel)  ....  1292
Dunbar  (Scots  defeated)  .  .  .  .  27  April,  1296
Cambuskenneth  (Wallace  defeats  English)  10  Sept.  1297
Goelheim  (Adblphus  of  Nassau  defeated)  .  2  July,  1298
Falkirk  (Wallace  defeated)  .  .  .  22  July,  „
Courtray  (Flemings  defeat  count  of  Artois)  n  July'  1302
Roslin,  Scotland  (Comyn  defeats  English) 24  Feb. 1303


(Jephisus  (Brienne,  duke  of  Athens  defeated) March,  1311
Baimocklmrn  (Bruce  defeats  English) .  24  June,  1314

Morgarten  (Su'iss  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  15  Nov.'  1315
Athenry  (Irish  defeated)  .  .  .  .  IO  Aug!  1316
Foughard  or  Dundalk  (Ed.  Bruce  defeated)  5  Oct.
Boroughbridge  (Edward  II.  defts.  Barons)  16  Mar.
Miihldort  (Bavarians  defeat  Austrians)  .  28  Sept.
Duplin  (Edward  Baliol  defeats  M- ar)  .  n  Aug.
Halidon  Hill  (Edward  III.  defts.  Scots)  .  19  July,
Tarifa  (Mobrs  defeated) . .  .  28  or  30  Oct!

Auberoche  (earl  of  Derby  defeats  French) . 19  Aug.


1314
315
1316
1318
1322

1332
1333
1340

"344


Crecy  (English  defeat  French)  .  .  .26  Aug.  1346
Durham,  Nevil's  Cross  (Scots  defeated)  .  17  Oct.  ,,
La  Roche  Darien  (Cliarles  of  Blois  defeated)  .  .  1347
Poitiers  (English  defeat  French)  .  .  19  Sept.  1356
Cocherel  (Du  Guesclin  defeats  Navarre)  .  16  May,  1364
Auray  (Du  Guesclin.  defeated).  .  .  29  Sept.  ,,
Najara  (Navarrete,  Logrono)  (Black  Prince  defeats

Henry  of  Trastamare)  ....  3  April,  1367
Montiel  (Peter  of  Castile  defeated)  .  14  March,  1369
Bosbecque  (French  defeat  Flemings)  .  27  Nov.  1382
Aljubarrota  (Portuguese  defeat  Spaniards)  .  14  Aug.  1385
Sempach  (Swiss  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  9  July,  1386
Otterburn  (Chevy  Chase;  Scots  victors).  .  10  Aug.  1388
Niifels  (Swiss  defeat  Austrians) ...  „

Cossova  (Turks  defeat  Albanians,  and  Amurath  I.

killed) Sept.  1389

Nicopolis  (Turks  defeat  Christians)  . . 28  Sept.  1396

Nesbit  (Scots  defeated) 7  May,  1402

Ancyra  (Timour  defeats  Bajazet)  . . . 28  July, ,,
Homeldon  Hill  (English  defeat  Scots) .  14  Sept. „

Shrewsbury  (Percies,  &c.  defeated) . . 23  July,  1403
Bramham  moor  (Henry  IV.  defeats  rebels) .  19  Feb.  1408
Tannenberg  (Poles  defeat  Teuton  kn ights). 15  July,  1410
Harlaw  (Lord  of  the  Isles  defeated) . .  24  July,  141 1
Agincourt  (English  defeat  French) . . 25  Oct.  1415
Prague  (Hussites  under  Ziska  victors)  . .  14  July,  1420
An.jou,  Beauge  (English  deft,  by  Scots) .  22  March,  1421
Crevant  (English  deft.  French  and  Scots) .  n  June,  1423
Aquila  (Arragonese  defeated  by  Italians)  . 2  June,  1424
Verneuil  (English  defeat  French  and  Scots)  .  17  Aug. ,,
Herrings  (English  defeat  French). . . 12  Feb.  1429
Orleans  (siege  relieved) . . . -29  April, ,,
Patay  (English  defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc)  a.d.  18  June,  1429
Lippau,  or  Bohmischbrod  (Hussites  deftd.) 28  May,  1434
Kunobitza  (Hunniades  defeats  the  Turks) 24  Dec.  1443
St.  Jacob  (French  defeat  Swiss) . . 26  Aug.  1444
Varna  (Turks  defeat  Hiingarians) . . 10  Nov. ,,
Cossova  (Turks  defeat  Hunniades)  . . 17  Oct.  1448
Formigni  (English  defeated  by  French) .  15  April,  1450
Sevenoaks  (Jack  Cade  defeats  Stafford) . 27  June, „
Aibar  (Agramonts  defeat  Beaumonts)  . . 23  Oct.  1452
Brechin,  Scotland  (Huntley  defts.  Crawford)  18  May, ,-,
Castillon,  Chatillon  (French  defeat  Talbot)

17  or  23  July,  1453

WAR  OF THE ROSES — YORKISTS .WD LANCASTRIANS.

St.  Albans  (Yorkists  victorious)  . .  22  or  23  May,  1455
Bloreheath  (York :ists  victors) . . .  23  Sept. 1459
Northampton  (ditto,  Henry  VI.  taken) . 10  July,  1460
Wakefield  (Lancastrians  victors)  . . .31  Dec. ,,
Mortimer's  Cross  (Yorkists  victorious) . .  2  Feb.  1461,
St.  Albans  (Lancastrians  victors) . . 17  Feb. „
Towton  (Yorkists  victorious) . . .29  March, ,,
Hexham  (Yorkists  victors) . . . .15  May,  1464
Edgecote  or  Banbivry  (Yorkists  defeated) 26  July,  1469
Stamford  (Lancastrians  defeated) . . 13  March,  1470

Barnet  (ditto) 14  April,  1471

Tewkesbury  (ditto) 4  May, „


Belgrade  (Mahomet  II.  repulsed)  .  .  4  Sept.  1456
Montlhery  (Louis  XI.  and  nobles ;  indec.)  16  July,  1465
Granson  (Swiss  defeat  Charles  the  Bold) 3  March,  1476

Morat  (ditto) « 22  June, „

Nancy  (Charles  the  Bold  killed)  .  .  .  5  Jan.  1477
Bosworth  (Richard  III.  defeated)  .  .  22  Aug.  1485
Stoke  (Lambert  Simnel  taken)'  .  .  16  June,  1487
St.  Aubin  (Orleans  defeated)  .  .  .28  July,  1488
Sauchieburn,  near  Bannockburn  (James  III.  deftd.

by  rebels) ,,

Fornovo  (French  defeat  Italians) . . 6  July,  1495
Seminara  (French  defeat  Spaniards) . . .  \ ,,
Blackheath  (Cornish  rebels  defeated) . . 22  June,  1497
Seminara  (Gonsalvo  defeats  French) . 21  April,  1503
Cerignola  (Gonsalvo  defeats  French)  . . 28  April, ,.
Garigliano  (Gonsalvo  defeats  French) . .27  Dec. ,,
Agnadello  (French  defeat  Venetians) . . 14  May,  1509
Ravenna  (Gasto7i  de  Foix,  victor,  killed) 11  April,  1512
Novara  (Papal  Swiss  defeat  French) . .  6  June,  1513
Guinegate  (Spurs)  (French  defeated)  . . 16  Aug. „
Flodden  (English  defeat  Scots) . . .  9  Sept. ,,
Marignano  (French  defeat  Swiss) . 13-15  Sept.
Bieocca,  near  Milan  (Lautrec  defeated)  . 29  April,
Pavia  (Francis  I.  defeated). ... 24  Feb.
Frankenhausen  (Anabaptists  defeated)  .  15  May,

Mohacz  (Turks  defeat  Hungarians)  .  .  29  Aug.
Cappel  (Zwinglius  slain)  .  .  .  .  11  Oct.
Lairffen  (Hessians  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  13  May,
Assens  (Christian  III.  defeats  Danish  rebels) .


1515
1522
1525

1526
1531
1534
1535


BATTLES.


103


BATTLES.


Abancay  (Almagro  defeated  Alvarado)  .  12  July,  1537
Solway  Moss  (English  defeat  Scots)  .  .  25  Nov.  1542
Ceresuola  (French  defeat  Imperialists)  .  14  April,  1544
Miihlberg  (Chas.  V.  defeats  Protestants)  .  24  April,  1547
Pinkey  (English  defeat  Scots)  ...  10  Sept.  ,,
Ket's  rebellion  suppressed  by  Warwick .  Aug. 1549

Marciano  (Florentines  defeat  French) . .  3  Aug. 1554
St.  Quentin  (Spcui.  &  Eng.  deft.  French) . 10  Aug. 1557

Calais  (taken) 7  Jan. 1558

Gravelines  n.  (Span.  &  Eng.  deft.  French). 13  July, ,,
Dreux,  in  France  (Huguenots  defeated)  .  19  Dec.  1562

Carberry  Hill  (Mary  of  Scotland  defeated)  15  June,  1567
St.  Denis  (Huguenots  defeated)  .  .  .10  Nov.  „
Langside  (Mary  of  Scotland  defeated)  .  13  May,  1568
Jarnac  (Huguenots  defeated)  .  .  13  March,  1569
Moncontour  (Coligny  defeated)  .  .  .  3  Oct.  1569
Lepanto,  n.  (Don  John  defeats  Turks)  .  7  Oct.  1571
Dormans  (Guise  defeats  H  uguenots)  .  .  10  Oct.  1575
Alcazar-quiver  (Moors  defeat  Portuguese)  .  4  Aug.  1578
Alcantara  (Spaniards  defeat  Portuguese)  .  24  June,  1580
Zutphen  (Butch  &  English  def.  Spaniards),  22  Sept. 1586

1587


20  Oct.

July,  Aug.

. 21  Sept. 1589

14  March,  1590

26  July,  1592


Ooutras  (Henry  IV.  defeats  League)

Spanish  Armada  defeated,  n.

Arques  (Henry  IV.  defeats  League) .

Ivry  or  Yvres  (ditto) ....

Epernay  taken  by  Henry  IV.  of  France

Fontaine Frangaise (Henry  IV. beats  Spaniards)

5  June,  1595
Blackwater  (Tyrone  and  rebels  def.  Bangal),  14  Aug.  1598
Nieuport  (Maurice  defeats  Austrians)
Kinsale  (Tyrone  reduced  by  Mountjoy)
Kirchholm  (Poles  defeat  Swedes)  .
Gibraltar  (Dutch  defeat  Spaniards)  .
Prague  (king  of  Bohemia  defeated).
Dessau  (Wallenstein  defeats  Mansfeld)
Rochelle  (taken)  ....
Stuhm  (Gustavus  defeats  Poles)  .
Leipsic  or  Breitenfeld  (irustavus  def.  Tilly),  7  Sept.  1631
Lech  (Imperialists  defeated  ;  Tilly  killed)  5  April.  1632
Lippstadt,  Lutzingen,  or  Lutzen  (Swedes  victorious ;

Gustavus  slain)  ....  (n.s.)  16  Nov.  ,,
Nordlingen  (Swedes  defeated)  .  .  .27  Aug.  1634
Arras  (taken  by  the  French)  ...  10  Aug.  1640
Leipsic  (Swedes  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  23  Oct.  1642
Roeroy  (French  defeat  Spaniards)  .  .  .  May,  1643
Friedburg  (Condi  victor)  ....  Aug.  1644
STordlingen  (Turenne  defeats  Austrians)  . . . 1645


.  8  Nov.
25  April,
.  28  Oct.


1600
1601
1605
1607
1620
1626
162S


CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND.


Worcester  (prince  Rupert  victor)  .  .  23  Sept.
Edgehill  fight  (issue  doubtful)  .  .  23  Oct.
Bradock-down  (Parliamentarians  defeated) . Jan.


1642
!643


Bramham  Moor  (Fairfax  defeated)  .  29  March,
Stratton  (Royalists  victorious)  .  .  16  May,
Chalgrove  (Hampden  killed)  .  .  .18  June,
Atherton  Moor  (Royalists  victorious)  .  30  June,
Landsdown  (Royalists  victorious)  .  .  5  July,
Devizes  or  Roundway-down  (ditto)  . 13  July,

Gainsborough  (Cromwell  victor).  .  .  27  July,
Newbury  (fav.  to  Royalists)  ...  20  Sept.
Cheriton  or  Alresford (ditto)  .  .  29  March,
Cropredy  Bridge  (Charles  I.  victor)  .  29  June,
Marston  Moor  (prince  Rupert  defeated)  .  2  July,
Tippermuir  (Montrose  defeats  Covenanters)  . 1  Sept.

Newbury  (indecisive) 27  Oct.

Nnstihy  (Charles  I.  totally  defeated)  .  14  June,
Alford  (Montrose  defeats  Covenanters)  . . 2  July,

Kilsyth  (ditto) 15  Aug.

PMliphaugh  (Covenanters  defeat  Montrose)  13  Sept.
Benburb  (O'Neill  defeats  English)  .  .  5  June,
Dungan-hill  (Irish  defeated)  ...  8  Aug.
Preston  (Cromwell  victor)  ...  17  Aug.
Eathmines  (Irish  Royalists  defeated)  .  .  2  Aug.
Drogheda  (taken  by  storm)  .  .  .  12  Sept.
Cor bies'dale  (Montrose  defeat ed)  .  .  .  27  April,
Dunbar  (Cromwell  defeats  Scots)  .  .  3  Sept.
Worcester  (Cromwell  defeats  Charles  II.) . 3  Sept.

Galway  (surrendered)

Daventry  (Lambert  defeated  by  Monk) . 21  April,

Arras,  France  (Turenne  defeats  Condi)  .  . . .  1654

Dunkirk  (ditto) 14  June,  1658

Estremoz  (Don  John  def.  by  Sehomberq)  .  8  June,  1663

St.  Qotth&rd  (Montccncnli'dcfeats  Tit rks)  .  1  Aug.  1664

Villa  Vicious.  (J'ortufiHrw  defeat  Spaniards)  . .  1665

Pentlatid  hills  (Covenanters  defeated) .  28  Nov.  1666

Candia  (taken  by  Turks) ....  6  Sept.  1669

Choczim  (Sobieski  defeats  Turks) . .  n  Nov.  1673


1644


1645


1646
1647
1648
1649

1650

1651
1652
1660


Seneffe  (French  and  Dutch,  indecisi ve)  .  11  Aug.
Ensisheim  (Turenne  defeats  Imperialists) .  4  Oct.

Mulhausen  (ditto) 31  Dec.

Turckheim  (ditto) 5  Jan.

Salzbach  (Turenne  killed)  .  .  .  -27  July,
Drumclog  (Covenanters  defeat  Claverhouse)  1  June.
Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covena.nters)

22  June,
Vienna  (Turks  defeated  by  Sobieski)
Sedgemoor  (Monmouth  defeated).
Mohaez  (Turks  defeated)
Killiecrankie  (Highlanders  def.  Mackay)
Newtown-butler  (Jacobites  defeated)
Boyue  (William  III.  defeats  James  II.)
Fleurus  (Charleroi,  Luxembourg  victor)
Athlone  taken  by  Ginckel .
Aughriin  (James  II.' s  cause  ruined)
Salenckemen  (Louis  of  Baden  def.  Turks)
Enghein or Steenkirk (William III.


Landen  (William  III.  defeated)
Marsaglia  (Pignerol)  (French  victors)
Zenta  (prince  Eugene  defeats  Turks)
Narva  (Charles  XII.  defeats  Russians)
Carpi,  Modena  (Allies  defeat  French)
Chiari  (Austrians  defeat  French)  .
Clissau  (Charles  XII.  defeats  Poles)  .
Santa  Vittoria  (French  xrictors)
Friedlingen  (French  defeat  Germans)
Pultusk  (Swedes  defeat  Poles)
Hochstadt  (French  defeat  Austrians)
Donauwerth  (Marlborough  victor)
Gibraltar  (taken  by  Rooke)

Blenheim  or  Hochstadt  (Marlborough  victor),  (o.  s.)

2  Aug.
Tirlemont  (Marlborough  successful)  .  .  18  July,
Cassano  (prince  Eugene  ;  indecisive)  .  .  16  Aug.
Mittau  (taken  by  Russians)  ...  14  Sept.
Ramillies  (Marlborough  defeats  French)  .  23  May,
Turin  (French  defeated  by  Eugene)  .  .  7  Sept.
Kalitsch  (Russians  defeat  Swedes)  . .  19  Nov.


12  Sept.

6  July,
12  Aug.
27  July,
30  July,

1  July,
.  1  July
30  June,
12  July,
19  Aug.
defeated)
24  July,

19  July,
.  4  Oct.
11  Sept.

.30  Nov.

9  July,

. 1  Sept.

20  July,
26  July,

14  Oct.

. 1  May,

20  Sept.

. 2  July,

24  July,


1674

1673
1679


1683
1685


1690


1692
1693

1697
1700
1 701


1704
1704


i705
1 70S


Almanza  (French  defeat  Allies)  14  (o.  s. )  or  25  April,  1707

1708


.  11  July,

autumn,

Dec.

8  July,

.  11  Sept.

20  Sept.

.  28  July,

20  Aug.

. 10  Dec.

5  Aug.

.  13  Sept.

24  July,

7  Nov.

12,  13  Nov.

. 13  Nov.

•  5  Aug.

. 16  Aug.

27  May,


Oudenarde  (Marlborough  victor)  .
Liesna,  Lenzo  (Russians  defeat  Swedes) .
Lisle  (taken  by  the  Allies)
Pultowa  (Peter  defeats  Charles  XII.)
Malplaquet  (Marlborough  victor)
Dobro  (Russians  defeat  Swed.es)
Almenara  (Austrians  defeat  French) .

Saragossa  (ditto)

Villa  Viciosa  (Austrians  defeated)
Arleux  (Marlborough  forces  French  lines)
Bouchain  (taken  by  Marlborough)
Denain  (Villars  defeats  Allies)
Friburg  (taken  by  French) .
Preston  (rebels  defeated)  .
Dumblans  or  Sherift'-Muir  (indecisive)
Peterwardein  (Eugene  defeats  Turks)

Belgrade  (ditto)

Bitonto  (Spaniards  defeat  Germans)
Parma  (Austrians  and  French,  indecisive)  .  29  June,
Guastalla  (Austrians  defeated)  .  .  19  Sept.
Erivan  (Nadir  Shah  defeats  Turks)  .  .  June,
Kro tzka  (Turks  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  22  July,
Molwitz  (Prussians  defeat  Austrians)  .  10  April,
Dettingen  (George  II.  defeats  French)  .  16  June,
Fontenoy  (Saxe  defeats  Cumberland)  .  .  30  April,
Hohenfreiburg  (Prussians  defeat  Austrians)  4  June,

scots'  rebellion.
Preston  Pans  (rebels  defeat,  Cope)
Clifton  Moor  (rebels  defeated)
Falkirk  (rebels  defeat  Hawley) .
Culloden  (Cumberland  defeats  rebels)

St.  Lazaro  (Sardinians  defeat  French)
Placentia  (Austrians  defeat  French)
Raucoux  (Saxe  defeats  Allies) .
Lafl'eldt  (Saxe  defeats  Cumberland)
Exilles  (Sardinians  defeat  French)
Bergen-op-Zoom  (taJcen)
Fort  du  Quesne  (Braddock  killed)
Calcutta  (taken  by  Surajah  Dowlah)

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, I756-63.

Prague  (Frederick  defeats  Allies)  . . 6  May,

Kollin  (Frederick  defeated) . . . 18  June,
NorMtten  (Russians  defeated) . . .  13  Aug.


1712
1713
1715

1716
1717
1734


1735
1739
1741
1743
1745


21  Sept.  1745

18  Dec.  ,,

17  Jan.  1746

16  April,  ,,


4  June,

16  June,

11  Oct.

2  July,

.  19  July,

15  Sept.

.  9  July.

20  June,


1746
1747


1755
1756


BATTLES.


104


BATTLES.


Rosbach  (Frederick  defeats  French) . . 5  Nov. 1757
Breslau  (Austrians  victors)  ...  22  Nov. ,,

Lissa  (Frederick  defeats  Aiistrians) . . 5  Dec. „
Creveldt  (Ferdinand  defeats  French) . 23  June,  1758
Zorndorff  (Frederick  defeats  Russians) 25,  26  Aug. ,,
Hochkirchen  (Aiistrians  defeat  Prussians) 14  Oct. ,,
Bergen  (French  defeat  Allies) . . .13  April,  1759
Zullichau  (Russians  defeat  Prussians) .  53  July, ,,
Minden  (Ferdinand  defeats  French) . 1  Aug. „
Cunnersdorf  (Russians  defeat  Prussians) 12  Aug. ,,
Wandewash  (Coote  defeats  Lally) . . 22  Jan. 1760
Liandshut,  Silesia  (Prussians  defeated) .  23  June, ,,
Warburg  (Ferdinand  defeats  French) . 31  July, ,,
Pfaffendorf  (Frederick  defeats  Aiistrians) . 15  Aug. „
Kloster  Campen  (English and  Germans  with  French,

indecisive) i5>  *6  Oct. i>

Torgau  (Frederick  defeats  Austria/is) . . 3  Nov. ,,
Kirchdenkern  (Allies  defeat  French) . 15  July,  1 761
Schweidnitz  (Frederick  II.  def.  Aiistrians) 16  May,  1762
Johannisberg  (French  defeat  Prussians) 30  Aug. ,,
Freiberg  (Prussians  defeat  Austrians) . 29  Oct. ,,

Plassey  (dive's  victory)  .  .  .  23  June,  1757
Niagara  (English  take  Fort)  .  .  .  24  July,  1759
Quebec  (Wolfe,  victor,  killed)  .  .  .  13  Sept.  ,,
Buxar  (Munro  defeats  army  of  Oude)  .  .  23  Oct.  1764
Choczim  (Russians  defeat  Turks)  30  April  <fe  13  July,  1769
Galatz  (Russians  defeat  Turks)  .  .  .  Nov.  „
Bender  taken  by  Russians  .  .  .  28  Sept.  1770
Brailow  (Russians  defeat  Turks)  .  .  19  June,  1773
Silistria  (taken) 1774


19  April,

17  June,

27  Aug.

.  28  Oct.

8  Dec.

. 3  Jan.

11  Sept.

3,  4  Oct.

7  Oct.

3  March,

16  Aug.

15  March,

25  April,


AMERICAN WAR.

Lexington  (Gage  victor,  with  great  loss)
Bunker's  Hill  (Americans  repulsed)
Long  Island  (Americans  defeated) .
White  Plains  (Howe  defeats  Americans)
Rhode  Island  (taken  by  Royalists) .
Princeton  (Washington  defeats  British)
Brandywine  (Howe  defeats  Washington)
Germanstown  (Burgoyne's  victory)
Saratoga  (he  is  compelled  to  surrender)
Briar's  Creek  (Americans  defeated)
Camden  (Cornwallis  defeats  Gates) .
Guildford  (Cornwallis  defeats  Gates)
Camden  (Americans  defeated)

Eutaw  Springs  (Arnold  defeats  Americans) .  8  Sept.
York  Town  (Cornwallis  surrenders)  .  19  Oct.
[Many  inferior  actions  with  various  success.]
Arcot  (Hyder  defeats  British)  .  .  .  31  Oct.
Porto  Novo  (Coote  defeats  Hyder)  .  .  1  July,
Rodney's  victory  over  De  Grasse,  n.  .  12  April,
Arnee  (Coote  defeats  Hyder)  ...  2  June,
Attack  on  Gibraltar  fails ...  13  Sept.

Bednore  (taken  by  Tip-poo  Sah  lb)  .  .  30  April,
Martinesti  (Austrian^  defeat  Turks)  .  .  22  Sept.
Ismail  (taken  by  storm  by  Suwarrow)  .  22  Dec.
Bangalore  (taken  by  storm)  .  .  .  21  March,
Arikera  (1'ippoo  defeated) .  .  .  .  15  May,
Seringapatam  (ditto) 6  Feb.

FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR  BEGINS.

Quievrain  (French  repulsed)  .  .  .28  April,
Valmy  (French  defeat  Prussians)  .  .  20  Sept.
Jemappes  (French  victorious)  ...  6  Nov.
Neerwinden  (French  beaten  by  Austrians)  18  March,
St.  Amand  (French  defeated  by  English).  .  8  May,
Valenciennes  (ditto)  .  .  .23  May,  26  July,
Lincelles  (Lake  defeats  French)  .  .  .18  Aug.
Dunkirk  (duke  of  York  defeated)  .  .  7,  8  Sept.
Quesnoy  (reduced  by  Austrians)  .  .  n  Sept.
Pirmasens  (Prussians  defeat  French)  .  14  Sept.
Wattignies  (French  defeat  Coburg)  .  14,  15,  16  Oct.
Toulon  (retaken  by  British) .  19  Dec.

Cambray  (French  defeated)  .  .  .24  April,
Troisville,  Landrecy  (taken  by  Allies)  .  30  April,
Tourcoing  (Moreau  defeats  Allies)  .  18-22  May,
Espierres  (taken  by  Allies)  ...  22  May,
Howe's  naval  victory  .  .  .  .  1  June,
Charleroi  or  Fleurus  (French  defeat.  Allies)  26  June,
Misdon  (Vendeans  defeated)  .  .  .  .  28  July,
Bois-le-Duc  (duke  of  York  defeated) . 14  Sept.

Boxtel  (ditto) 17  Sept.

Maciejowice  (Poles  defeated)  .  .  .  .10  Oct.
Nimeguen  (French  victorious)  28  Oct.,  (def.)  4  May,
Praga  (Warsaw  taken  by  Suwarrow)  .  .  4  Nov.
Bridport's  victory  off  l'Orient,  n.  .  .  22  June,
Quiberon  (Emigrants  defeated) . . 21  July,


1775

776


1792
J793


Mannheim  (taken  by  Pichegru)  . . 20  Sept.  :

Loano  (French  defeat  Austrians)  ..  .  23,  24  Nov.
Montenotte  (Bonaparte  victorious)  . . 12  April,  i

Mondovi  (ditto) 22  April,

Lodi  (ditto) 10  May,

Altenkirchen  (Austrians  defeated)  .  .  4  June,
Radstadt  (Moreau  defeats  Austrians) .  5  July,

Altenkirchen  (Austrians  victors)  .  .16  Sept.
Roveredo  (French  defeat  Austrians) .  4  Sept.

Bassano  (ditto) 8  Sept.

Biberach  (ditto) 2  Oct.

Lonato  and  Castiglione  (ditto)  .  .  .3-5  Aug.
Neresheim  (Moreau  def.  archduke  Charles)  10  Aug.
Areola  (Bonaparte  victorious) . . 14-17  Nov.

Castelnuovo  (ditto) 21  Nov.

R  voli  (ditto) 14,  15  Jan.

Cape  St.  Vincent,  n.  (Spaniards  defeated)  14  Feb.
Tagliamento  (Bonaparte  def.  Austrians)  16  March,
Camperdown,  n.  (Duncan  defeats  Dutch) 11  Oct.

IRISH REBELLION  BEGINS  .  .  . May,

Kilcullen  (rebels  successful)  .  .  .  23  May,
Naas  (rebels  defeated) .... 24  May,

Tara  (rebels  defeated) 26  May,

Oulart  (rebels  successful)  ... 27  May,

Gorey  or  New  Ross  (rebels  defeated)  .  .  4  June,
Antrim  (rebels  defeated)  ....  7  June,

Arklow  (rebels  beaJen)  .  .  .  .10  June,
Ballynahineh  (Nugent  defeats  rebels)  .  13  June,
Vinegar  Hill  (Lake  defeats  rebels)  .  .  21  June,
Castlebar  (French  auxiliaries  defeated)  .  27  Aug.

Ballinamuok  (French  and  rebels  defeated)  .  8  Sept.
Pyramids  (Bonaparte  def.  Mamelu_kes)  13,  21  July,
Nile,  n.  (Nelson  defeats  French  fleet)  .  .  1  Aug.
El  Arisch  (French  defeat  Turks)  .  .18  Feb.
Jaffa  (stormed  by  Bonaparte)  .  .  .  7-10  March,
Stokach  (Austrians  defeat  French) .  25  March,

Verona  (Austrians  defeat  French) .  28-30  March,

Magnano  (Kray  defeats  French).  .  .  5  April,
Mount  Thabor  (Bonaparte  defeats  Turks)  16  April,
Cassano  (Suwarrow  defeats  Moreau)  .  .  27  April,
Adda  (Suwarrow  defeats  French)  . .  ,,

Seringapatam  (Tippoo  killed)  ...  4  May,
Acre  (relieved  by  sir  Sydney  Smith)  .  .  20  May,
Zurich  (French  defeated)  ....  5  June,
Trebia  (Suwarrow  defeats  French)  .  17-19  June,
Alessandria  (taken  from  French)  .  .  21  July,
Aboukir  (Turks  defeated  by  Bonaparte)  25  July,

Novi  (Suwarrow  defeats  French)  .  .  .  15  Aug.
Zuyper  Sluys  (French  defeated)  .  .  9  Sept.
Bergen  and  Alkmaer  (Allies  defeated)  .  19  Sept.

26  Oct.
Zurich  (Massena  defeats  Russians)  .  25  Sept.
Heliopolis  (Kleber  defeats  Turks)  .  .  20  Mar.
Engen  (Moreau  defeats  Austrians)  .  .  3  May,
Moeskirch  (ditto) 5  May,


Biberach  (ditto) 9  May, ,,

Montebello  (Austrians  defeated)  .  .  9  June,  ,,
Marengo  (Bonaparte  defeats  Austrians)  .  14  June,  ,,
Hochstadt  (Moreau  defeats  Austrians) . 19  June, ,,

Hohenlinden  (ditto) 3  Dec. ,,

Mincio  (French  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  25-27  Dec.  ,,
Aboukir  (French  defeated) .  . .8  March,  1803

Alexandria  (Abercrombie's  victory) . .  21  March, ,,
Copenhagen  (bombarded  by  Nelson) . . 2  April, „
Ahmednuggur  (Wellesley  victorious) . 12  Aug. 1803;
Assaye  (ditto,  his  first  great  victory)  . . 23  Sept. ,,
Argaum  (Wellesley  victor) . .  29  Nov. „

Furruckabad  (Lake  defeats  Holkar) . -17  Nov.  18041
Bhurtpore  (taken  by  Lake) ... 2  April,  1805
Elchingen  (Ney  defeats  Austrians) . . 14  Oct. ,,
Ulm  surrenders  (Ney  defeats  Austrians) 17-20  Oct. ,,
Trafalgar  (Nelson  destroys  Fren.  fleet ;  killed)  21  Oct. ,,
Austerlitz  (Napoleon  defeats  Austrians  &  Russ. )  2  Dec. , ,
Euenas  Ayres  (taken  by  Popham) . . 27  June,  1806
Maida  (Stuart  defeats  French) . . .4  July, ,,,
Saalfeld  (French  defeat  Prussians) . . 10  Oct. ,,

JenaStadt  } (Frenclt  defeat  Prussians)  .  14  Oct.  „

Halle  stormed  by  French ...  17  Oct.  ,,

Pultusk  (French  and  Allies,  indecUive)  .  26  Dec.  ,,

Mohrungen  (French  def.  Russ.  &  Pruss.).  25  Jan.  1807

Montevideo  (taken) 3  Feb.  ,,.

Eylau  (indecisive) 7,  8  Feb;  ,,

Ostrolenka  (French  defeat  Prussians)  .  . 16  Feb.  ,,

Friedland  (French  defeat  Russians) .  14  June,  ,,

Buenos  Ayres  (lVhitelock  defeated) .  . 5  July,  ,,

Copenhagen  (bombarded  by  Cathcarf) .  2-5  Sept.  „,


BATTLES.


105


BATTLES.


Medina de Rio Seco  {French defeat Spaniards)

15  July,
Baylen  (Spaniards  defeat  French) . .  20  July,

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS.

Vimiera  (Wellesley  defeats  Junot)  .  .  21  Aug.
Tudela  or  Ebro  (French  defeat  Spaniards)  23  Nov.
Corunna  (Moore  defeats  French)  .  .  16  Jan.
Abenberg  (Austrians  defeated) . . .20  April,

Landshut  (ditto) 21  April,

Eckmiihl  (Davoust  defeats  Austrians)  .  22  April,
Ebersberg  (French  defeat  Austrians)  .  .  4  May,
Oporto  (taken). ... 29  March,  12  May,


21,  22  May,

5,  6  July,
27,  28  July,

26  Sept.
19  Nov.

27  Sept.
. 5  March,

11  March,


EssUng }  (NaPoleon  defeated)  .
Wagram  (Austrians  defeated)
Talavera  (Wellesley  defeats  Victor) .
Silistria  (Turks  defeat  Russians)
Ocana  (Mortier  defeats  Spaniards) .
Busaco  (Wellington  repulses  Massena)
Barrosa  (Graham  defeats  Victor)
Badajoz  (taken  by  the  French)

Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena)

3.  5  May,
Albuera  (Bercsford  defeats  Soult) .
Ximena  (Spaniards  defeat  French)
Merida  (Hill  defeats  French)  .
Albufera  (Suchet  defeats  Spaniards)  .
Ciudad  Rodrigo  (stormed  by  English)
Badajoz  (taken  by  Wellington) .
Llerena  (Cotton  defeats  Soult)
Salamanca  (Wellington,  defts.  Marmont)
Mohilow  (French  defeat  Russians)
Polotzk  (French  and  Russians)  .


16  May,
10  Sept.
.  28  Oct.
4  Jan.
19  Jan.
6  April,
11  April,

22  July,

23  July,
30,  31  July,


Krasnoy,  Smolensko  (French  defeat  Russians)

15,  19  Aug.

Moskwa ) , , ...  .  0 ,

Borodino [ <-dltto) 7  Sept.

Moscow  (burnt  by  Russians)  .  .  .  15  Sept.
Queenstown  (Americans  defeated)  . .  13  Oct.

Polotzk  (retaken  by  Russians)  .  .  19,  20  Oct.
Malo-Jaroslawatz  (French  victors)  . .  24  Oct.

Witepsk  (French  defeated)  ...  14  Nov.

Krasnoi  (ditto) 16-18  Nov.

Beresina  (ditto)  .....  25-29  Nov.
French  Town  (taken  by  Americans)  .  22  Jan.
Kalitsch  (Saxons  defeated)  ....  13  Feb.
Mockern  (Eugene  defeats  Russians)  .  5  April,
Castalla  (sir  J.  Murray  defeats  Suchet)  .  13  April,
Lutzen  (Napoleon  checks  Allies)  .  .  .2  May,
Bautzen  (Nap.  a  nd  Allies ;  indecisive) . 20  May,

Wurschen  (ditto) 21,  22  May,

Hochkirchen  (French  deft.  Aust.  and  Russ.),  22  May,
Vittoria  (Wellington  defts.  king  Joseph)  .  21  June,
Pyrenees  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)  28  July,  2  Aug.
Katzbach  (Blucher  defeats  Ney)  .  .  .26  Aug.
Dresden  (Napoleon  checks  Allies)  .  .  26,  27  Aug.
St.  Sebastian  (stormed  by  Graham)  .  .31  Aug.
Dennewitz  (Ncy  defeated) ...  6  Sept.

Mockern  (French  defeated)  ....  16  Oct.
Leipzic  (Napoleon  defeated)  .  .  .  16-18  Oct.
Hanau  (Napoleon  defeats  Bavarians)  .  .  30  Oct.
St.  Jean  de  Luz  (Wellington  defts.  Soult)  10  Nov.
Passage  of  the  Nive,  9  Dec.  ;  several  engagements

between  the  Allies  and  French  .  10  to  13  Dec.
St.  Dizier,  France  (French  victors)  .  .  26  Jan.
Brienne  (Allies  defeated) ....  29  Jan.
La  Rothiere  (Napoleon  defeats  Allies).  .  1  Feb.
Bar-sur-Aube  (Allies  victors)  . . .7  Feb.

Mincio  (pr.  Eugene  defeats  Austrians)  .  8  Feb
Champ  Aubert  (French  defeat  Allies) . 10-12  Feb.

Montmirail  (ditto) n  Feb.

Vauchamp  (ditto) 14  Feb.

Fontainebleau  (ditto) 17  Feb.

Montereau  (ditto) 18  Feb.

Orthez  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)  .  .  27  Feb.
Craonne  (French  victors)  ...  7  March,
Bergen-op-Zoom  (Graham  defeated)  .  .  8  March,
Laon  (French  defeated)  ....  9-10  March,
Rheims  (Napoleon  defeats  St.  Priest)  .  13  March,

Tarbes  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)  .  .  20  March,
Fere  Champenoise  (French  defeated)  .  25  March,
St.  Dizier  (French  victors)  .  .  .28  March,
Paris,  Montmartre,  Romainville  (ditto)  30  March,
Battle  of  the  Barriers,  30  March  ;  (Marmont  evacuates

Paris,  and  the  Allies  enter  it)  .  .  31  March,
Toulouse  (Wellington  defeats  Soult)  .  10  April,
Tolentino  (Murai  defeated) . . . . 3  May,


Ligny  (Blucher  repulsed).
Quatre  Bras  (Ney  repulsed) .

Waterloo  (Napoleon  finally  beaten).

AMERICAN WAR.

Fort  George  (taken  by  Americans)
Burlington  Heights  (Americans  routed) .
Chrystler's  Point,  Canada  .
Black-rock,  America ....
Longwood  (English  defeated)

Chippawa  j  \B/itlsh  defeat f) . .

^  {(Americans  defeated)

Fort  Erie  (British  repulsed) .
Bladensburg  (Americans  defeated)
Bellair  (British  repulsed)
Baltimore  (British  victors)  .
New  Orleans  (British  repxtlsed) . 8,  1:


27»


Algiers  (bombarded  by  Exmouth) .
Ohacalmco  (Chilians  defeat  Spaniards)  .
Kirkee  (Hastings  defeats  Pindarrees)  .
Mehadpore  (Hislop  defeats  Holkar) .
Valtezza  (Turks  defeated) .
Dragaschan  (Ipsilanti  defeated)
Tripolitza  (stormed  by  Greeks)
Thermopyhe  (Greeks  defeat  Turks)  .

Corinth  (taken)

Accra  (Ashantees  defeat  sir  C.  Macarthy)
Ayacucho  (Peruvians  defeat  Spaniards)
Bhurtpore  (taken  by  Combermere)
Accra  (Ashantees  defeated)

Athens  (taken)

Navarino  (Allies  destroy  Turkish  fleet)  .
Brahilow  (Russians  a  nd  Turks)  .

Akhalzikh  (ditto)

Varna  (surrenders  to  Russians) .

Silistria  (ditto)

Kainly  (Russians  defeat  Turks) .
Balkan  (passed  by  Russians)  .
Adrianople  (Russians  enter)
Algiers  (captured  by  French) .
Paris  (Days  of  July) .
Grochow  (Poles  defeat  Russians)
Praga  (Poles  defeat  Russians)
Wawz  (Skrzynecki  defeats  Russians)
Seidliee  (Poles  defeat  Russians)  .

Ostrolenka  (ditto)

Wilna  (Poles  and  Russians)

Warsaw  (taken  by  Russians) .

Horns  (Egyptians  defeat  Turks)  .

Beylan  (Ibrahim  defeats  Turks)

Konieh  (Egyptians  defeat  Turks)

Antwerp  citadel  taken  by  Allies .

Hernani  (Carlists  defeated)  .

St.  Sebastian  (ditto) . . . .

Bilboa  (siege  raised  ;  British  Legion) .

Hernani  (Carlists  repulsed)

Iran  (British  Legion  defeats  Carlists)  .

Valentia  (Carlists  attacked)

Herera  (Don  Carlos  defeats  Buereno)  .

Oonstantina  (Algiers ;  taken  by  French)

St.  Eustace  (Canadian  rebels  defeated)  .

Pennecerrada  (Carlists  defeated)

Prescott  (Canadian  rebels  defeated)

Aden  (taken)

Ghiznee  (taken  by  Keane)
Sidon  (taken  by  Napier)
Bey  rout  (Allies  defeat Egyptians)  .
Afghan  War. (See  India.)
Acre  (stormed  by  Allies)
Kotriah  (Scinde ;  English  victors) .
Chuen-pe  (English  victors)
Canton  (English  take  Bogue  forts) .

Amoy  (taken)

Chin-hae,  <fec.  (taken) ....
Candahar  (Afghans  defeated)
Ningpo  (Chinese  defeated)
Jellalabad  (Khyber  Pass  forced)  .
Chiu-keang  (taken)  ....

Ghiznee  (Afghans  defeated,  by  Nott) .
Mceanee  (Napier  defeats  Ameers)  .

Hyderabad

Maharajpoor  (Gough  defeats  Mahrattas)
Isly  (French  defeat  Abd-c!-Kader)  .
Moodkee  (G<aigh  defeats  Sikhs) .

Ferozeshah  (ditto)

Aliwal  (Smith  defeats  Sikhs)
Sobraon  (Gough  defeats  Sikhs)


16  June,

18115

. 16  June,

18  June,

"

. 27  May,

1813

6  June,

,,

. 11  Nov.

28  Dec.

• 4  May.

1814

5  July,

,,

. 25  July,

,r

15  Aug.

,,

• 24  Aug.

,r

30  Aug.

,,

. 12  Sept.

,,

&  13  Jan.

181s

• 27  Aug.

1816

12  Feb.

1817

. 5  Nov.

,,

21  Dec.

,r

. 27  May,

182s

19  June,

. 5  Oct.

13  July,

1822

. 16  Sept.

,,

21  Jan.

1824

.  9  Dec.

,,

. 18  Jan.

1826

7  Aug.

,,

. 17  May,

1827*

.  20  Oct.

,,

. 18  June,

1828;

24  Aug.

,,

. 11  Oct.

,,

30  June,

1829,

. 1  July,

,,

26  July,

,,

. 20  Aug.

,,

5  July,

1830

8,  29  July,

,,

19,  20  Feb.

183B

. 25  Feb.

,,

31  March,

.  10  April,

,,

26  May,

,^

. 18  June,

7  Sept.

,,

. 8  July,

1832

29  July,

,,.

. 21  Dec.

9y

23  Dec.

,,

• 5  May,

1836

1  Oct.

24  Dec.

16  March,

1837

. 17  May,

15  July,

,,

. 24  Aug.

,r

13  Oct.

,r

.  14  Dec.

. 22  June,

183S

17  Nov.

19  Jan.

1839.

23  July,

,,

. 27  Sept.

1840

.  10  Oct.

.r

3  Nov.

. 1  Dec.

,,

7  Jan.

1843

.  26  Feb.

27  Aug.

,,

10,  13  Oct.

,,

.  10  March,

1842

10  March,

5.  6  April,

,,

21  July,

,,.

6  Sept.

. 17  Frli.

1843

24  March,

„

29  Dec.

,,

.  14  Aug.

(84+

1S  Dec.

1845

21,  22  Dec.

,,

28  Jan.

1846

. 10  Feb.

,,

BATTLES.


106


BATTLES.


Palo  Alto  (Taylor  defeats  Mexicans)  . . 8,  9  May,  1846

Montery  (Mexicans  def.  by  Americans) 21-23  Sept.  ,,

Bueno  Vista  (Americans  defeat  Mexicans) .  22  Feb.  1847

St.  Ubes  (Portugal) 9  May,  „

Ozontero  (Americans  defeat  Mexicans) . 19,  20  Aug.  ,,

Flensborg  (Danes  defeat  rebels) . . 9  April,  1848

Dannawerke  (Prussians  defeat  Danes) . 23  April,  „

Curtatone  (Austrians  defeat  Italians) . 29  May,  ,,

Custozza  (ditto) 23  July,  „

Velencze  (Croats  and  Hungarians) . . 29  Sept.  ,,

Mooltan  (Sikhs  repulsed) . . . . 7  Nov.  ,,

"Chilian-wallah  (Gougli  defeats  Sikhs) . . 13  Jan.  1849

Goojerat  (ditto) 21  Feb.  ,,

Gran  (Hungarians  victors) ... 27  Feb.  ,,

Novara  (Radetzky  defeats  Sardinians)  . 23  March,  ,,
Velletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans)

19  May,  „
Pered  (Russians  defeat  Hungarians)
Acs  (Hungarians  repidsed) .
Waitzen  (taken  by  Russians) .
Schiissberg  (Russians  defeat.  Bern)
Temeswar  (Haynau  defeats  Hungarians)
Idstedt  (Danes  defeat  Holsteiners)
Nankin  taken  by  Imperialists  .

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.

Olteuitza  (Turks  repulse  Russians)
Sinope,  n.  (Turkish  fleet  destroyed)  .
Citate  (Turks  defeat  Russians)

Silistria  (ditto) 13-15  June,  ,,

Gyirgevo  (ditto) 7  July,  ,,

Bayazid  (Russians  defeat  Turks) . 29,  30  July,  ,,

Kuruk-Derek  (ditto) 5  Aug.  ,,

Alma  (English  and  French  defeat  Russians)  20  Sept.  ,,

Balaklava  (ditto) 25  Oct.  ,,

Inkermann  (ditto) 5  Nov.  ,,

Eupatoria  (Turks  defeat  Russians)  . . 17  Feb.  1855
Malakhoff  tower  (Allies  and  Russians;  indec.  night

combats) . . ... . 22,  23,  24  May,  ,,

Capture  of  the  Mamelon,  &c. . . . 7  June,  ,,

Unsuccessful attempt on  Malakhoff  tower, and

Redan  (Allies  and  Russians) . . 18  June,  ,,
Tchernaya  or  Bridge  of  Traktir  (Allies  def.  Russians)

16  Aug.  ,,

Malakhoff  taken  by  the  French . . 8  Sept.  ,,

Kngour  (Turks  defeat  Russians) . . 6  Nov.  -  ,,

Baidar  (French  defeat  Russians) . . .8  Dec.  ,,

PERSIAN  WAR.

Bushire  (English  defeat  Persians) . . 10  Dec.  1856

Kooshab  (ditto) 8  Feb.  1857

Mohammerah  (ditto) .... 26  March,  ,,


21  June,

10  July,
17  July,
31  July,
10  Aug.

„

25  July,
19  July,

185c
1853

.  4  Nov.

30  Nov.

.  6  Jan.

1853
1854

(See  India.)
31 May ; 8 June  ;


INDIAN  MUTINY.

Conflicts before Delhi. 30

4,  9,  18,  23  July,  1857
Victories  of  General  Havelock,  near  Futtehpore,

11  July,  Cawnpore,  &c.  12  July  to  16  Aug.
Pandoo  Nucldee  (victory  ofNc'dl)  .  .  15  Aug.-
Nujuffghur  (death  of  Nicholson,  victor)  .  25  Aug.
Assault  and  capture  of  Delhi  .  .  14-20  Sept.
Conflicts  before  Lucknow,  25,  26  Sept. ;  18,  25  Nov.
Victories  of  Col.  Greathed  .  27  Sept  ;  10  Oct.
Cawnpore  (victory  of  Campbell) . . . 6  Dec.

Futteghur  (ditto) 2  Jan.

Calpi(i) ictory  of  Inglis)  ....  4  Feb.
Alumbagh  (victories  ofOutram)  12  Jan.  and  21  Feb.
Conflicts  at  Lucknow  (taken)  .  .  14-19  March,
Jhansi  (iilo.se  victorioiis) . . . .4  April,

Kooneh  (ditto) 11  May,

Gwalior  (ditto) 17  June,

Bajghur  (Mitchell  defeats  Tantia  Topee)  .  15  Sept.
Dlioodea  Khera  (Clyde  defeats  lieni  Mahdo)  24  Nov.
Gen. Horsford  defeats  the  Begum of  Oucle  and

Nana  Sahib 10  Feb.  1859

Italian  war. (See  Italy.)

Austrians  cross  the  Ticino . . . 27  April,  1859

French  troops  enter  Piedmont . . . May,  ,,

Montebello  (Allies  victorious)  ... 20  May,  „

Palestro  (ditto) 30,  31  May,  ,,

Magenta  (ditto) . ..... 4  June,  ,,

Malegnano  (ditto) 8  June,  ,,

Solferino  (ditto) 24  June,  ,,

(Armistice  agreed  to,  6  July,  1850.)


Taku,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  or  Tien-Tsin-ho
(English attack  on  the Chinese Forts defeated)

25  June,

Taku  forts  taken  (see  China) . . .  21  Aug.

Chang-kia-wan,  18  Sept.  ;  and  Pa-li-chiau  (Chinese
defeated) 21  Sept.


Castillejo  (Spaniards  defeat  Moors)

Tetuan  (ditto)

Guad-el-Ras  (ditto)


. 1  Jan.

4  Feb.

23  March,


Calatifimi  (Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans)  15  May,
Melazzo  (Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans)  20,  21  July,
Castel  Fidardo (Sardinians defeat  Papal  troops),

18  Sept.
Volturno  (Garibaldi,  defeats  Neapolitans)  .  1  Oct.
Isernia  (Sardinians  defeat  Neapolitans)  .  17  Oct.
Garigliano  (Sardinians  defeat  Neapolitans)  3  Nov.
Sardinians  defeat  Neapolitan  re-actionists  22  Jan.
Gaeta  taken  by  the  Sardinians  ... 13  Feb.


Insurrection  in  New  Zealand  ;  English  repulsed,

14,  28  March  ;  27  June  ;  10,  19  Sept.  ;  9, 12  Oct.  i860

Maohetia  (Maories  defeated) . . . 6  Nov.  ,,

CIVIL  WAR IN UNITED STATES* — WAR IN MEXICO.

Big  Bethel  (Federals  repulsed) . . 10  June,  1861

Booneville  (Lyon  defeats  Confederates) . 18  June,  ,,

Carthage  (Federal  victory) . . . .5  July,  ,,

Rich  Mountain  (ditto) . . . .11  July,  ,,
Bull  Run  or  Manassas  (Federal  defeat  and  panic)

21  July,  ,,

Springfield  or  Wilson's  Creek  (Feds,  victors)  10  Aug.  „
Caruifex  ferry  (Rosencrans  defeats  Floyd,  Confederate)

10  Sept.  ,,

Lexington  (taken  by  Confederates) . .  20  Sept.  „

Pavon,  South  America  (Mitra  def.  Urquisa)  17  Sept.  ,>

Turks  defeat  Montenegrins . 19  Oct.,  21  Nov.  ,,

Ball's  Bluff  (Federals  defeated) . .  21  Oct.  „

Mill  Springs,  Kentucky  (Confederates  defeated  and

their  general  Zollicoffer  killed)  . . 19  Jan.  1862

Roanoke  Island,  N.C.  (Federals  victors) 7,  8  Feb.  ,,
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated)

8  Feb.  ,,

Fort  Donnelson  (taken  by  Federals) . 16  Feb.  ,,

Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas  (Federals  victors) 6-8  March,  ,-,
Hampton  roads  n.  (Merrimac  repulsed  by  Monitor)

9  March,  ,,
Pittsburg  Landing, or  Shiloh  (favourable  to  Con-
federates) 6,  7  April,  ,,

Williamsburg  (Federals  repulsed) . . 5  May.  ,,

Puebla  (Mexicans  defeat  French) . . 5  May,  ,,

Richmond  (successful  sorties  of  Confederates)  14  May,  ,,

Orizaba  (Mexicans  defeat  French) . .  18  May,  „

Winchester  (Federals  repulsed) . . 18  May,  ,,

Near  Orizaba  (French  defeat  Mexicans)  13  June,  ,,

Fairoaks  (before  Richmond,  indecisive) . 31  May  „

1  June,  ,,
Chickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmond;

Confederates  retreat.) . . 25  June  to  1  July,  ,,

Baton  Rouge  (taken  by  Federals) . . 5  Aug.  ,,

Cedar  Mountain  (favourable  to  Confederates)  9  Aug.  ,,

Severe  conflicts  on  the  Rappahannock 23-29  Aug.  ,,

Bull  Run  (defeat  of  Federals) . . 29,  30  Aug.  „
Aspromonte  (Garibaldi  and  Ms  volunteers  captured

by  Royal  Italian  Troops) . . . 29  Aug.  ,,
Antietam  (severe ;  Confederates  retreat) 17  Sept.  ,,
Perryville  (Confederates  worsted) . . 8,  9  Oct.  ,,
Fredericksburg  (Federcds  defeated  by  Lee) 13  Dec.  1863
Murfreesburgh  (indecisive) 29  Dec.  1862 — 3  Jan.  ,,
Nashville  (Confederates  defeated) . . 2  Jan.  ,,
Chancellorsville  (Confederates  victors)  . 2-4  May,  ,,
Winchester  (Ewell  defeats  Federals)  . . 14  June,  ,,
Gettysburg  (severe  but  indecisive) . 1-3  July,  ,,
Chicamauga  (Confederates  victorious) 19-20  Sept.  ,,
Chattanooga  (Confederates  defeated) . 23-26  Nov.  ,,
Spottsylvania,  <fec,  in  the  Wilderness,  near  Chan-
cellorsville (indecisive)  . . . 10-12  May,  1864
Petersburg,  near  Richmond  (indecisive,  but  Grant

advances) 15-18  June,  „

Winchester  (Confederates  defeated) . . 19  Sept.  ,,

Cedar  Creek  (ditto) 19  Oct.  ,,

Franklin  (ditto) 3°  Nov.  „

*  There  were  many  smaller  conflicts,  of  which  the
accounts  were,  very  uncertain.


BATTLES.


107


Nashville  (Thomas,  Federal,  defeats  Hood)  14-16  Dec.  1864
Five  Forks  (Lee  totally  defeated)  .  .  1  April,  1865
Fa.imvi]le  (Lee  finally  defeated) . .  6  April, ,,


Oeversee  (Danes  and  Allies) ...  6  Feb.

Diippel  (taken  by  the  Prussians) . .  18  April,

Alsen  (ditto) 29  June,

Rendsburg  (ditto) 21  July,

south  American  war. (See  Brazil.)
Santayuna  (Allies  defeat  Paraguayans;  Uruguyana

taken)

Paso  de  la  Patria  (indecisive)

Parana  (Allies  victors)

Estero  Velhaco  (ditto)

luyaty  (Allies  defeated) .

Curupai'ti  (ditto)  .... 17,

Tuyuty  (Allies  victors)

Corumba  (taken  by  Brazilians) .


18  Sept.

. 25  Feb.

. 16  April,

. 2  May,

16,  18  July,

19,  22  Sept.

30  Oct.

.  13  June,

seven  weeks'  war  (Austria  and  Prussia).
Custozza  (Austrians  defeat  Italians) . 24  June,
Lissa  (ditto,  naval  battle) ...  20  July,

Prussian  victories  (as  inscribed  on  shield  exhi-
bited at  Berlin,  20  Sept.  1866,  see  Prussia).
Liebenau,  Turnau,  Podoll . . .26  June,
Nachod,  Langensaiza  (which  see),  Oswiecin,  Htihner-

wasser 27  June,

Miinchengratz,  Soor,  Trautenau,  Skalitz, 28  June,
Gitschin, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel,

29  June,
Koniggratz  or  Sadowa
Dermbach,  4  July  ;  Hunfeld
Waldasehach, Hausen, Hammelburg

hall,  Kissingen ....
Laufach,  13  July  ;  Asehaffenburg
Tobitsehau, 15  July  ; Blumenau, 22  July ; Hof,

23  July,
Tauber  -  Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen,

24  July,
Neubrunn,  Helmstadt,  Gerchsheim  .  25  July,
Roszbrunn,  Wurzburg,  Baireuth . .  28  July,


1865


3  July,

.  5  July,

Friederics-

. 10  July,

14  July,


Monte  Rotondo  (Garibaldians  victors)  .  27  Oct.
Mentana  (Garibaldi  defeated)  .  .  .  3  Nov.
Arogee  or  Fahla  (Abyssinians  defeated)  .  10  April,
Magdala  stormed ....  13  April,

Russians  defeat  Bokharians  and  occupy  Samarcand,

25  May,
Alcolea  (Spanish  royalists  defeated)  .  27,  28  Sept.
Villeta  (Lopez  defeated  by  Brazilians),  &c.  11  Dec.
Lopez  defeated  ...  12,  16,  18,  21  Aug.
Aquidaban  (Lopez  defeated  and  killed) . 1  March,

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (which  See).

Saarbruek,  taken  by  the  French,  and  Prussians  re-
pulsed 2  Aug.


1869
1870


Wissembourg  (French  defeated) . . 4  Aug

AVorth  (ditto) 6  Aug.

Saarbriick  or  Forbach  (ditto)  ...  6  Aug.
Courcelles  or  Pange  (ditto)  . . . .14  Aug.

Strasburg  (ditto) 16  Aug.

Vionville  or  Mars-la-Tour  (ditto).  .  .  16  Aug.
Gravelotte  or  Rezonville  (ditto) . . 18  Aug.

Beaumont  (ditto) 30  Aug.

Carignan  (ditto) 31  Aug.

Metz  (ditto) 31  Aug.

Sedan  (ditto)  ....  31  Aug. ,  1  Sept.
Before  Paris  (French  defeated)  .  .  .30  Sept.
Thorny  (Germans  surprised  and  repulsed)  5  Oct.
St.  Remy  (French  defeated)  ... 6  Oct.

Before  Metz  (ditto) 7  Oct.

Artenay  (ditto) 10  Oct.

Cherizy  (Germans  repulsed)  .  .  .  10  Oct.
Orleans  (French  defeated) .... n  Oct.

Ecouis  (indecisive) 14  Oct.

Chateaudun  (French  defeated)  .  .  .18  Oct.
Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated),

9,  10  Nov.
Near  Amiens  (French  defeated)  .
Villiers,  before  Paris  (French  retreat)


1870


27  Nov.
30  Nov.

2  Dec.

4  Dec.


Before  Orleans  (French  defeated)

Beaugency  (ditto) 7,  8  Dec.

Nuits  (ditto) 18  Dee.

Pont  a  Noyelles  (French  claim  a  victory)  23  Dec.

Bapaume  (indecisive) . . . .  2,  3  Jan. 1871


BATTLES.

Le  Mans  (indecisive^ 6  Jan.  1871

Le  Mans  (Chanzy  dcf.  by  pr.  Fred.  Chas.),  10-12  Jan.  ,,

Belfort  (Bourbaki  defeated) . . . 15-17  Jan.  ,,

St.  Quentin  (Faidherbe  defeated) . . 19  Jan.  ,,

Paris  (Trochu's  grand  sortie  repulsed) . 19  Jan.  ,,


1872
1873


1874


Oroquieta  (Carlists  defeated)  ...  4  May,
Elmina  (Ashantees  defeated  by  British)  .  13  June,
Elgueta  (Carlists  said  to  be  victorious)  .  .  5,  6  Aug.
Maiieru  (Carlists  and  Republicans :  indecisive)  6  Oct.
Abrakampra  (Ashantees  defeated) .  5,  6  Nov.

Borborassie  (ditto) 29  Jan.

Amoaful  (ditto) .  3'  Jan.

Bocquah  (ditto) 1  Feb.

Fommanah  (ditto) 2  Feb. ,,

Ordahsa  (ditto) 4  Feb. ,,

Before  Bilbao  (several  days;  Carlists  retreat ;  Concha

enters  Bilbao) 2  May, ,,

Estella  (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha

killed) 25,  27  June, ,,

Iran  (Laserna  defeats  Carlists)  .  .  .10  Nov.  „
Sorota,  Peru  (Pierota  and  insurgents  defeated)  3  Dec.  ,,
Near  Tolosa  (Carlists  repulse  Lorna)  .  7,  8  Dec.  ,,
Khokand  (Russians  under  Kaufman  defeat  the  Khan's

troops,  &c.) 4.  21  Sept.  1875

Abyssinians  defeat  Egyptians .  .  .  .  Oct.  ,,
Assake  (Khokand  chiefs  defeated) . . 30  Jan. 1876

Servian  war  begins 1  July, ,,

Saitschar  (severe  conflicts ;  Servians  retreat)  2,  3  July, „
Urbitza  (Montenegrins  defeat  Turks) . .  28  July, ,,
Turkish  Wars  with  Servia,  and  Montenegro, de-
clared 2  July, „

Zaicar  or  Saitschar  (Turks  and  Servians,  indecisive)

3  July,  ,,
Novi  Bazar  (Turks  said  to  be  victors)  .  6  July,  „
Urbitza  (Montenegrins  victors) . .  28  July, ,,

Gurgusovatz  (Turks  victors)  .  .  .  5-7  Aug.  ,,
Medun  (Montenegrins  victors)  .  .  7  or  14  Aug.  „
Morava  valley  near  Alexinatz  (severe  conflicts,  fa-

vottrable  to  Turks) . . .  19-27  Aug. ,,

Podgoritza  (Montenegrins  victors)  .  .  26  Aug.  „
Alexinatz  (Turks  victors),  1,  2,  28,  29  Sept.,  captured

31  Oct.  ,,
Peace  between  Turkey  and  Servia . 1  March,  1877

Russo-Turkish  "War  (which  see),  began  .  24  April,  ,,

Tahir  (Turks  defeated)  . . . .16  June,  „

Nicopolis  (stormed  by  Russians,  severe  fights)

15,  16  July,  ,,

Plevna  (Russians  defeated) 19,  20,  &  30,  31  July,  „

Kurukdara  or  Kizil  Tepe  (ditto) .  24,  25  Aug.  ,,

Valley  of  Lorn  (ditto)  ....  22-24  Aug.  ,,
Schipka  Pass  (dreadful  conflicts,  Turks  under  Sirtei-

man  repulsed) ....  20-27  Aug.  ,,

Karahassankoi,  <fec,  on  the  Lorn  (severe;  Russians

retreat) 30  Aug.  ,,

Lovatz  or  Luftcha  (takeyi  by  Russians)  .  3  Sept.  ,,
Plevna (held by Osman  Pasha, severe conflicts,

Russians  defeated)  . . . 11,  12  Sept.  ,,

Schipka  Pass  (Suleiman  defeated). .  17  Sept.  ,,

Near  Kars  (Russians  defeated)  .  .  .  2-4  Oct.  ,,
Aladja  Dagh,  near  Kars(Titrfcs under  Mukhtar  totally

defeated) 14.  IS  0ct-  »

Deve-Boyun,  Armenia  (Turks  under  Mukhtar  de-
feated after  $  hours' fighting)  .  .  4  Nov.  „
Azizi,  near  Erzeroum  (Russians  defeated)  .  9  Nov.  ,,
Kars  taken  by  storm  by  Russians  .  17,  18  Nov.  ,,
Elena  (taken  by  Turks  after  sharp  conflict)  4  Dec.  ,,
Plevna  (Osman  Pasha  endeaimirs  to  break  out ;
totally  defeated;  surrenders  -unconditionally)

9,  10  Dec.  ,,

Senova  in  the  Balkans  (Turks  defeated) 9-10  Jan.  1878

Near  Philippopolis  (ditto) . . .14,  15  J;1»-  >>

Afohan  War  (see  Afghanistan).
Ali  Musjid  captured  by  British . . 22  Nov.  1878
Pei  war  Pass  ^victory  of  gen.  Roberts) . 2  Dec ,,
Futtehabad  (victory  of  gen.  Gough) . . 2  April,  1879
Char-aseab  (Afghans  defeated)  . . . 6  Oct. „
Severe  lighting  near  Cabul . Dec.  1879-Apnl,  1880
Ahmed  Khel  (Stewart  defeats  Afglums) 19-23  Ai.nl, ,,
Kuschki-Nakhud  or  Maiwand  (Ayodb  Khan  defeats

Burrows) 27  July ,,

Mazraor  Baba  Wali  (Hoberts  totally  defeats

Khun) 1  Sept. .,

Zulu  War  fsee  Zululand).
Isandula  (British  surprised  and  defeated) 22  Jan.  1879


BATUM.


108


BAVARIA.


Rorke's  Drift  (successfully  defended  by  British)  22  Jan.  1879
Ulundi  (Cetewayo  totally  defeated  by  lord  Chelms-
ford) 4  July, „

Chilian  and  Peruvian  War  (see  Chili).
Iquique  (Chilians  defeat  Peruvians) . . Nov. „
Choukos  and  Mirafiores  (ditto) . . 17  Jan.  1881

RUSSIAN WAR.

Geok  or  Denghli  Tepe  (Russians  and  Turkomans,  in-
decisive) 9  Sept.  1879

Geok  Tepe  (besieged  by  Russians,  severe  conflicts),  24
Dec.  1880,  4,  9,  10,  Jan.,  taken . . 24  Jan.  1881

Transvaal  war.

Laing's  Nek  {British  defeated)  ...  28  Jan.  1881

Ingogo  River (ditto) 8  Feb. „

Majuba  Hill (ditto) ....  26  Feb. ,,

War  in  Egypt  (see  Egypt).

Bombardment  of  forts  at  Alexandria . 11  July  1882
Tel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (rebels defeated by

British) 24,  25  Aug.  „

Kassasin  (ditto) . . .  28  Aug.  and  9  Sept.  „

Tel-el-Kebir  (ditto— decisive) ... 13  Sept.  „

See  Soudan.

Rebels  in  the  Soudan  defeated  by  Hicks 29  April,  1883
El  Obeid  or  Kashgal  (Hick-sand  his  army  destroyed)

3-5  Nov.  ,,

Tokar  (Egyptians  defeated)  .... 6  Nov.  ,,
Near  Teb,  Baker  with  Egyptians  was  defeated  by

rebels 4  Feb.  1884

Teb  (Graham  totally  defeats  rebels) . . 29  Feb.  ,,
For  Chinese  and  French  war  see  under  China
and  Tonquin.

Abu  Klea  (Stewart  defeats  rebels)  . . .17  Jan.  1885

Gubat  (rebels  defeated) .... 19  Jan.  ,,

Kerkeban  (ditto,  gen.  Earle  killed) . .  10  Feb.  ,,

Hasheen  (rebels  defeated) . . .20  March  ,,

Rebel  attack  near  Souakim  repulsed 22  March  ,,

Ak  Tapa  (Russians  defeat  Afghans) . 30  March,  „
Chalchuapa(itar/-iosde/<;a£ed  and  killed)  see  America,

centred 2  April,  ,,

Fish  Creek  (Canadians  defeat  rebels) . 24  April,  ,,

Battleford (ditto) .... 3  May,  ,,

Batoche (ditto) 9  May,  ,,

[See  Bulgaria,  Burmah,  and  Soudan.]
Dagoli  near  Massowah  (Italians  destroyed  in  heroic

attack  on  Abyssinians)  . . . 25-26  Jan.  1887
(See  Abyssinia.)

Jelapla  Pass  (Tibetans  defeated) . . 24  Sept.  1888
Taskkurgan  and  Mazari  Sherif  (Ishak  Khan,  rebel,

defeated) 29-30  Sept.  ,,

Suakim  (defeat  of  the  Arab  Dervishes  by  gen.  Grenfell)

20  Dec.  ,,
Dervishes  repulsed,  19,  29,  30  April ;  2  June  ; 4

July 1890

Arguin  (Col.  Wodehouse  defeats  Dervishes) . 2  July,  ,,

Anabi  (Dervishes  defeated) ... 31  July,  ,,

Toski  (ditto  by  gen.  Grenfell) . . . 3  Aug.  „

Witu  stormed,  see  Zanzibar  ... 27  Oct.  „

Wounded  Knee  Creek,  see  Indians  . . 29  Dec.  ,,

Tokar,  Soudan  (Osman  Digna  defeated)  . 19  Feb.  1891
Placilla,  Chili  (Balmaceda  defeated  by  congressists)

28  Aug.  ,,
(For  numerous  small  conflicts  and  skirmishes,  see  Franco-
Prussian  War,  Herzegovina,  Rvsso-Turkish  Wars,  Spain,
Sumatra,  Turkey,  United  States,  Kaffirs,  Egypt,  Zulu-
land,  Basutoland,  Chili,  Soudan,  Tonquin,  Salvador,
India,  Manipur,  Lagos,  Senegal,  &c,  and  for  details  of
important  engagements  see  separate  articles.)

BATUM,  see  Batoum.

BAUGE,  see  Anjou.

BAUTZEN,  a  town  in  Saxony,  near  which
desperate  battles  were  fought  20,21,  and  22  May,
1813,  between  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon,
and  the  allies  under  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  the
king  of  Prussia.  The  struggle  commenced  on  the
19th,  with  a  contest  on  the  outposts,  which  cost
each  army  a  loss  of  above  2000  men.  On  the  20th
(at  Bautzen)  the  French  were  more  successful ;  and
on  the  2 1st  (at  Wurschen)  the  allies  were  com-
pelled to  retire ;  but  Napoleon  obtained  no  perma-
nent advantage.  Duroc  was  killed  at  Reichenbach
by  a  cannon-ball,  on  22  May.


BAVARIA  (part  of  ancient  Noricum  and  Vin-
delicia),  a  kingdom  in  South  Germany,  conquered
from  the  Celtic  Gauls  (Boii)  by  the  Franks  between
630  and  660.  The  country  was  afterwards  governed
by  dukes  subject  to  the  French  monarebs.  Tasil-
lon  II.  was  deposed  by  Charlemagne,  who  established
margraves  in  788.  The  margrave  Leopold,  895,
father  of  Arnulph  the  Bad,  is  styled  the  first  duke.
Bavaria  made  a  kingdom  from  1  Jan.  1806,  was
made  a  constitutional  monarchy,  26  May,  18 18.
It  joined  the  German  empire,  22  Nov.  1870.
Population,  1  Dec.  1871,  4,863,450 ;  Dec.  1875,
5,022,390 ;  1885,  5,420,199  ;  1890,  5,589,382.  See
Munich.

Bavaria  supports  Austria  in  the  contest  with
Prussia June,  1866

Took  part  in  the  war,  and  made  peace  with  Prussia,

22  Aug. „

Population  (after  cessions,  1866),  4,824,421 . Dec.  1867

An  international  exhibition  in  a  crystal  palace
opened 20  July,  1869

The  chambersdissolved,  as, through  a  party  struggle,
no  president  was  elected . . . .6  Oct. ,,

Resignation  of  the  ministry,  25  Nov.  ;  only  partially
accepted  by  the  king .... 9  Dec. ,,

Vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  prince  Hohenlohe
the  president,  12  Feb.  ;  he  resigns . 14  Feb. 1870

The  king  announces  his  intention  of  joining  Prussia
in  the  war  with  France . . about  20  July, „

The  Bavarian  contingent  highly  distinguishes  itself
in  the  war ;  Otho,  duke  of  Bavaria,  killed  near
Beglie 27  Jan. 1873

President  of  council,  and  foreign  minister,  A.  de

Pfretzschner 22  Aug. ,.,

[See  Franco-Prussian  War.]

The  king,  in  a  letter  to  the  king  of  Saxony,  proposes
that  the  king  of  Prussia  should  be  made  emperor
of  Germany about  5  Dec. „

Dr.  Dollinger  excommunicated  for  opposing  papal
infallibility,  18  April  ;  elected  rector  of  the  uni-
versity of  Munich  .... 29  July, „

Government  protests  against  papal  infallibility  (see
Germany) 27  Sept 1871

"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich,

end  of  Sept. ,,

The  king  charges  Von  Gasser  to  form  an  Ultramon-
tane ministry,  opposed  to  German  unity,  3  Sept-
he  fails Sept. 1S72

Queen  dowager,  Mary  of  Prussia,  received  into  the
Catholic  Church 12  Oct. 1874

New  Ultramontane  party  ("popular  Catholic")
formed 6  March,  1877

International  exhibition  at  Munich  opened  19  July,  1879

Seventh  centenary  of  foundation  of  the  dynasty
(Otto  of  Wittelsbach  made  duke  by  Frederick
Barbarossa) 25  Aug.  1880

Prince  Luitpold  proclaimed  Regent  on  account  of
the  king's  mental  illness  ... 10  June,  1886

The  king  drowns  himself  in  Starnberg  Lake  ;  Dr.
Gudden  drowned in  attempting  to  save him,

13  June, ,,

The  emperor  William  II.  present  at  the  Bavarian
military  manoeuvres  near  Munich 7  Sept.  et  seq.  1891


1071.  Guelf  I. ,  an  illustrious  warrior.

1101.  Guelf II.  ; son  ;  married  the  countess  Matilda,


Henry  the  Black  ;  brother.

Henry  the  Proud  ;  son.  (He  competed  with  Conract
of  Hohenstaufen  for  the  empire,  failed,  and  was
deprived  of  Bavaria.)

Leopold,  margrave  of  Austria  ;  d.  1142.

Henry  of  Austria  ;  brother  ;  d.  11 77.

Henry  the  Lion  (son  of  Henry  the  Proud),  an-
cestor of  the  Brunswick  family,  restored  by  the
emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  but  expelled  by
him  1 180  ;  (see  Brunswick);  d.  1195.

Otho, count  of  Wittelsbach, made duke  ; d.


1 142.
"54-


1231.

1253-


Louis  ;  son.

Otho  II.,  the  Illustrious  ;  son  ;  gained  the  palati-
nate;  assassinated  1231.
Louis  II.,  the  Severe  ;  son;  d.  1294.


BAVENO.


109


BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES.


1294.  Louis  III.  ;  son  (without  tlie  palatinate)  emperor  ;
d.  1347.

1347.  Stephen  I.  ;  son  ;  d.  1375.

*375-  John  ;  brother  ;  d.  1397.

1397.  Ernest ;  brother  ;  d.  1438.

1438.  Albert  I.  ;  son  ;  d.  1460.

1460.  John  II.  and  Sigismund  ;  sons  ;  resigned  to

1465.  Albert  II.  ;  brother  ;  d.  1508.

1508.  William  I.  ;  son;  opposed  the  reformation,  1522;
d.  1550.

1550.  Albert  III.  ;  sou  ;  d.  1573.

1579.  William  II.  ;  son  ;  abdicated,  1596  ;  d.  1626.

1596.  Maximilian  the  Great ;  son;  the  first  Elector  of
Bavaria,  25  Feb.  1623  ;  the  palatinate  restored,
1648  ;  d.  27  Sept.  1651.

1651.  Ferdinand-Mary  ;  d.  26  May,  1679.

E679.  Maximilian  Emanuel ;  son  ;  allies  with  France,
1702  ;  defeated  at  Blenheim,  1704  ;  restored  to
his  dominions,  1714  ;  d.  26  Feb.  1726.

1726.  Charles  Albert ;  son  ;  elected  emperor,  1742  ;  de-
feated, 1744  ;  d.  20  Jan.  1745.

1745.  Maximilian-Joseph  I.  ;  son  ;  as  elector  ;  d.  30  Dec.
1777  ;  end  of  younger  line  of  Wittelsbach.

1778.  Charles  Theodore  (the  elector  palatine  of  the  Rhine
since  1743).  The  French  take  Munich  ;  he  treats
with  them,  1796  ;  d.  1799.

E799.  Maximilian-Joseph II.  ;  elector;  territories  changed
by  treaty  of  Luneville,  1801  ;  enlarged  when
made  king,  by  treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.  1805.

KINGS OF BAVARIA.

c8o6.  Maximilian-Joseph  I.  He  deserted  Napoleon,  and
had  his  enlarged  territories  confirmed  to  him,
Oct.  18 13  ;  grants  a  constitutional  charter,  22
Aug.  1818  ;  d.  13  Oct.  1825.

1825.  Louis  I.,  13  Oct.  ;  abdicated  21  March,  1848  ;*died
29  Feb,  1868.

E848.  Maximilian-Joseph  II.  ;  son;  born  28  Nov.  1811  ;

died  10  March,  1864.
1864.  Louis II. (son)  amiable  and  eccentric  :  born  25

Aug.  1845 ;  deposed  10  June  ;  suicide  13  June,

1886.
1886.  Otho  William  (brother  of  Louis  II.) ;  13  June  ;

born  27  April,  1848  (insane).
Eegent  (heir)  Prince  Luitpold,  uncle  ;  10  June,  1886.

BAVENO,  a  village  of  Piedmont,  on  the  Lago
Maggiore.  At  a  villa  here  queen  Victoria  resided
from  28  March  to  23  April,  1879.

BAY  ISLANDS  (the  chief,_  Ruatan),  in  the
bay  of  Honduras,  central  America,  belonged  to
Spain  till  1821  ;  then  to  Great  Britain,  which
formed  them  into  a  colony  in  1852,  but  ceded
them  to  Honduras,  28  Nov.  1859  :  see  Honduras.

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY,  mythically  said  to
have  been  wrought  by  Matilda,  queen  of  William  I.,
or  to  have  been  made  under  the  direction  of  his
brother  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux.  It  is  19  inches  wide,
214  feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  compartments
showing  the  events  from  the  visit  of  Harold  to  the
Norman  court  to  his  death  at  Hastings ;  it  is  now
preserved  in  the  public  library  of  Bayeux  near  Caen.
A  copy,  drawn  by  C.  Stothard,  and  coloured  after
the  original,  was  published  by  the  Society  of
Antiquaries  in  1821-3.  It  was  reproduced  by  auto-
type process  by  F.  K.  Fowke,  with  notes,  1875.

BAYL.EN  (S.  Spain),  where  on  20  July,  1808,
the  French,  commanded  by  generals  Dupont  and
Wedel,  were  defeated  by  the  Spaniards  under  Red'
ing,  Coupigny,  and  other  generals.

BAYONET,  the  short  dagger  fixed  at  the  end
of  fire-arms,  said  to  have  been  invented  at  Bayonne,

*  The  abdication  of  Charles-Louis  was  mainly  caused
by  his  attachment  to  an  intriguing  woman,  known
throughout  Europe  by  the  assumed  name  of  Lola  Montcs,
who,  in  the  end,  was  expelled  the  kingdom  for  her  inter-
ference in  state  affairs,  and  afterwards  led  a  wandering
life.  She  delivered  lectures  in  London,  in  1859  :  thence
proceeded  to  the  United  States  ;  and  died  at  New  York,
17  Jan.  1861.


in  France,  about  1647,  1670,  or  1690.  It  was  used
at  Killiecrankie  in  1689,  aud  at  Marsaglia  by  the
French,  in  1693,  "  with  great  success,  against  the
enemy  unprepared  for  the  encounter  with  so  for-
midable a  novelty."  The  ring-bayonet  was  adopted
by  the  British,  24  Sept.  1693.
New  pattern  of  bayonets  adopted  in  1876  ;  asserted  to  be

defective  in  the  Soudan  campaign  1884-5.
Strict  examination  ordered  1885. See  under  Arms.

BAYONNE  (S.  France),  an  ancient  city.  It
was  held  by  the  English  from  1295  till  it  was  taken
by  Charles  VII.  The  queens  of  Spain  and  France
met  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva  here,  June,  1556,  it
is  supposed  to  arrange  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar-
tholomew. Charles  IV.  of  Spain  abdicated  here  in
favour  of  "  his  friend  and  ally  "  the  emperor  Napo-
leon, 4  May,  and  his  sons,  Ferdinand  prince  of
Asturias,  don  Carlos,  and  don  Antonio  renounced
their  rights  to  the  Spanish  throne,  6  May,  1808.
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bayonne  was  much  des-
perate fighting  between  the  French  and  British
armies,  9-13  Dec.  1813.  Bayonne  was  invested  by
the  British,  14  Jan.  1814;  on  14  April,  the  French
made  a  sally,  and  attacked  the  English  with  suc-
cess, but  were  at  length  driven  back.  The  loss  of
the  British  was  considerable,  and  lieut.-gen.  sir
John  Hope  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. — A
Franco-Spanish  industrial  and  fine  arts  exhibition
was  opened  at  Bayonne  in  July,  1864.

BAYBEUTH  (N.  Germany),  a  margraviate,
held  formerly  by  a  branch  of  the  Brandenburg
family,  was  with  that  of  Anspach  abdicated  by  the
reigning  prince  iu  favour  of  the  king  of  Prussia,
1790.  The  archives  were  brought  (in  1783)  from
Plassenburg  to  the  city  of  Bayreuth,  which  was
incorporated  with  Bavaria  by  Napoleon  in  1806.

BAZAAR,  or  covered  market,  a  word  of  Arabic
origin.  The  magnificent  bazaar  of  Ispahan  was  ex-
celled by  that  of  Tauris,  which  has  held  30,000
men  in  order  of  battle.  In  London  the  Soho-square
bazaar  was  opened  by  Mr.  Trotter  in  1816  to  relieve
the  relatives  of  persons  killed  in  the  war.  The
Queen's  Bazaar,  Oxford-street,  a  very  extensive
one,  was  (with  the  Diorama)  burnt  down,  and  the
loss  estimated  at  50,000^.,  27  May,  1829.  It  was
rebuilt,  and  converted  into  the  Princess's  Theatre,
opened  30  Sept.  1841.  The  St.  James's  bazaar  (built
by  Mr.  Crockford)  in  1832.  The  Pantheon,  made  a
bazaar  in  1834  ;  see  Pantheon.  The  London  Crystal-
palace  bazaar,  1858.  The  most  imposing  sale  termed
a  bazaar  was  opened  for  the  benefit  of  the  Anti-
Corn-Law  League,  in  Covent-garden  theatre,  5  May,
1845 ;  in  six  weeks  25,000^.  were  obtained,  mostly
by  admission  money.  The  Corinthian  bazaar,
Argyll-street,  Oxford-street  (to  replace  the  bazaar
at  the  Pantheon)  opened  30  July,  1867 ;  closed  in
1868.

BAZAINE,  Marshal,  trial,  &c,  Dec.  1873,

and  Aug.  1874. See  A£etz  and  France.

BAZEILLES,  a  village  in  the  Ardennes,  N.E.
France.  During  the  dreadful  battle  of  Sedan,
I  Sept.  1870,  Bazeilles  was  burnt  by  the  Bavarians,
and  atrocious  outrages  were  said  to  have  been  com-
mitted. Of  nearly  2000  inhabitants  it  was  asserted
scarcely  fifty  remained  alive,  and  these  indignantly
denied  having  given  provocation.  Much  controversy
ensued,  and  in  July,  1871,  gen.  Von  der  Tann  as-
serted correctly  that  the  number  of  deaths  had  been
grossly  exaggerated,  that  there  had  been  much
provocation,  and  denied  the  alleged  cruelties.

BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES,  near  Orleans,
central  France.  Here  a  part  of  the  army  of  the
Loire, under gen. D'Aurelle de Paladines, was


BE  ACHY  HEAD.


no


BE  AUNE-LA-ROLL  ANDE .


defeated  after  a  severe  action,  by  the  Germans
under  the  grand-duke  of  Mecklenburg,  2  Dec.  1870.
See  Orleans.

BEACHY  HEAD,  a  promontory,  S.  E.  Sussex,
near  which  the  British  and  Dutch  fleet,  commanded
by  the  earl  of  Torrington,  was  defeated  by  a  supe-
rior French  force  under  admiral  Tburville,  30  June,
1690 ;  the  allies  suffered  very  severely.  The  Dutch
lost  two  admirals,  500  men,  and  several  ships-
sunk  to  prevent  them  from  falling  into  the  hands
of  the  enemy ;  the  English  lost  two  ships  and  400
men.  The  admirals  on  both  sides  were  blamed;
ours,  for  not  fighting ;  the  French  for  not  pursuing
the  victory,

BEACONS,  see  Lighthouses,  Jubilee,  188".

BEACONSFIELD  Administration,  see

Disraeli  and  People's  Tribute.

BEADS  were  early  used  in  the  east  for  reckon-
ing prayers.  St.  Augustin  mentions  them  366.
About  1690,  Peter  the  Hermit  is  said  to  have  made
a  series  of  55  beads.  To  Dominic  de  Guzman  is
ascribed  the  invention  of  the  Rosary  (a  series  of
15  large  and  150  small  beads),  in  honour  of  the
Blessed  Virgin,  about  1 202.  Beads  soon  after  were
in  general  use.  The  Bead-roll  was  a  list  of  de-
ceased persons,  for  the  repose  of  whose  souls  a
certain  number  of  prayers  was  recited.  Beads  have
been  found  in  British  barrows.

BEAM  AND  SCALES.  The  apparatus  for
weighing  goods  was  so  called,  "as  it  weighs  so
much  at  the  king's  beam."  A  public  beam  was  set
up  in  London,  and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be
weighed  by  the  city  officer,  called  the  weigh-
master,  who  was  to  do  justice  between  buyer  and
seller,  stat.  3  Edw.  II.  1309.  Stow.  Beams  and
scales,  with  weights  and  measures,  were  ordered  to
be  examined  by  the  justices  at  quarter  sessions,
35  Geo.  III.  1794  ;  see  Weights  and  Measures.

BEANS,  Black  and  White,  were  used  by

the  ancients  in  gathering  the  votes  of  the  people  for
the  election  of  magistrates.  A  white  bean  signified
absolution,  and  a  black  one  condemnation.  The
precept  of  Pythagoras  to  abstain  from  beans,  abstine
a  fabis,  has  been  variously  interpreted.  "  Beans
do  not  favour  mental  tranquillity."  Cicero.  The
finer  kinds  of  beans  were  brought  here  with  other
vegetables,  in  Henry  VIII.' s  reign.

BEAR-BAITING,  an  ancient  popular  English
sport,  prohibited  by  parliament  in  1835.

BEARDS.*  The  Egyptians  did  not  wear
beards ;  the  Assyrians  did.  They  have  been  worn
for  centuries  by  the  Jews,  who  were  forbidden  to
mar  their  beards,  1490  B.C.  Lev.  xix.  27.  The
Tartars  waged  a  long  war  with  the  Persians,  de-
claring them  infidels,  because  they  would  not  cut
their  beards,  after  the  custom  of  Tartary.  The
Greeks  wore  their  beards  till  the  time  of  Alexander,
who  ordered  the  Macedonians  to  be  shaved,  lest
the  beard  should  give  a  handle  to  their  enemies,

*  A  bearded  woman  was  taken  by  the  Russians  at  the
battle  of  Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  Czar,  Peter  I.,
1724  :  her  beard  measured  ii  yard.  A  woman  is  said  to
have  been  seen  at  Paris  with  a  bushy  beard,  and  her
whole  body  covered  with  hair.  Diet.  de.  Trivoux.  The
great  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  had  a  very
lon<*  stiff  beard.  In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfms,  a
Virgin  had  a  long  black  beard.  Mdlle.  Bois  de  Chene,
born  at  Geneva  (it  was  said)  in  1834,  was  exhibited  in
London,  in  1852-3,  when,  consequently,  eighteen  years
of  age  ;  she  had  a  profuse  head  of  hair,  a  strong  black
beard  large  whiskers,  and  thick  hair  on  her  arms  and
down 'from  her  neck  on  her  back,  and  masculine  features.


330  B.C.  Beards  were  worn  by  the  "Romans,  390  B.C.
The  emperor  Julian  wrote  a  diatribe  (entitled
"  Misopogon  ")  against  wearing  beards,  a.d.  362. —
In  England,  they  were  not  fashionable  after  the
conquest,  1066,  until  the  13th  century,  and  were
discontinued  at  the  Restoration.  Peter  the  Great
enjoined  the  Russians,  even  of  rank,  to  shave,  but
was  obliged  to  keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  off  the
beard  by  force.  Since  1851  the  custom  of  wearing
the  beard  gradually  increased  in  Great  Britain.

BEARN,  S.  France,  the  ancient  Benecharnum,
was  held  successively  by  the  Romans,  Franks,  Goths,
and  Gascons,  and  became  a  hereditary  viscounty  in
819,  under  Centule  I.,  son  of  Loup,  duke  of  Gas-
cony.  From  his  family  it  passed  to  the  houses — of
Gabaret,  1134;  of  Moncade,  1170;  of  Foix,  1290;
and  of  Bourbon,  1550.  Its  annexation  to  France
was  decreed  by  Henry  IV.,  1594  ;  affirmed  by  Louis
XIII.,  1620.

BEARS  and  BULLS,  see  Stocks.
BEATJGE,  seeAnjou.

BEAULIETJ,  ABBEY  OF,  (reformed  Bene-
dictines) founded  by  Icing  John,  in  the  New  Forest,
Hampshire,  in  1204,  and  dedicated  to  the  Blessed
Virgin,  had  the  privilege  of  sanctuary.  It  afforded
an  asylum  to  Margaret,  queen  of  Henry  VI.,  after
the  defeat  of  the  earl  of  "Warwick  at  Barnet,
14  April,  147 1  ;  and  to  Perkin  Warbeck,  Sept.
1497-

BEAUMONT,  a  village  near  Sedan,  depart-
ment of  Ardennes,  N.E.  France.  Near  here  a  part
of  the  army  of  marshal  MacMahon  under  De  Failly,
which,  after  vainly  endeavouring  to  reach  Metz,
was  retreating  before  the  Germans  under  the  crown
prince  of  Prussia,  was  surprised,  defeated,  and
driven  across  the  Meuse  at  Mouzon,  30  Aug.  1870.
The  French  loss  included  about  7000  prisoners,
many  guns,  and  much  camp  equipage.  The  victory
was  chiefly  gained  by  the  Bavarians.

BEAUMONT TRUST. Mr.  John  Thomas
Barber  Beaumont,  artist,  financier,  founder  of  the
London  and  County  Fire  Office  (born 1774,  died
1840),  bequeathed  12,500^.  to  establish  an  institu-
tion for  the  moral  and  intellectual  improvement  of
the working  classes  of  east  London,  which  was
opened  in  Beaumont  Square,  Mile  End.
By  the  munificence  of  the  Drapers'  Company,  the  Royal
Family,  the  duke  of  Westminster,  and  many  others,
the  fund  in  June, 1S86  amounted  to 75,0002. The
trustees  proposed  the  erection  of  a  "People's  Palace,"
to  include  a  public  library  and  reading  rooms,  technical
schools,  summer  and  winter  gardens,  a  concert  hall,
swimming  baths  and  gymnasia.  The  Queen  is  patron  of
the  undertaking,  which  is  partly  supported  by  sub-
scription.
The  foundation  stone  of  the  "Queen's  Hall"  was  laid
by  the  prince  of'Wales  28  June,  1886;  opened  by  the
Queen  (who  also  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Technical
schools) 14  May,  1887  ; Mr.  John  Rogers  Jennings,
Master  of  the  Drapers'  Company,  knighted.
The undertaking greatly supported by  Sir  Edmund

Currie,  and  Mr.  Walter  Besant  (novelist).
Exhibition  of  East  London  Industries  opened  in  the

Queen's  Hall  by  Lady  Rosebery  24  May,  1887.
Queen's  Jubilee  ; 10,000  girls  and 10,000  boys  enter-
tained by  the  Drapers'  Company  23,  24  June,  1887.
Educational  classes,  &c,  open  3  Oct.  1887. In  Oct.  1888,

the  Institution  was  reported  to  be  highly  successful.
New  Technical  School  opened  5  Oct.  1888.
The  palace  opened  on  Sundays  for  reading  and  sacred
music,  1889. About  3,000  persons  attended  2  Oct.  1889.

BEAUNE-LA-ROLLANDE,  a  village  in
the  Loiret,  France.  Here  the  French  army  of  the
Loire,  under  general  D'Aurelle  de  Paladines,  was
defeated  by  the  Germans,  under  prince  Frederick
Charles,  in  an  attempt  to  march  in  the  direction  of


BEAUTY SHOW.


Ill


BEEF STEAKS.


Fontainebleau  to  relieve  Paris,  28  Nov.  1870.  The
French  loss  was  reported  by  the  Germans  to  be
IOOO  dead,  4000  wounded;  above  1 700  prisoners.
Their  own  loss  was  heavy.

BEAUTY  SHOW  opened  at  Spa,  Belgium,
19  Sept.  1888.  Of  350  candidates  for  the  prize  of
10,000  francs  who  sent  in  their  photographs,  many
were  excluded  from  competition,  only  20  ladies  were
present  on  the  opening  day,  representing  many
countries.  M.  Emile  d'Hainault,  the  director,  pro-
posed annual  competitions.  The  first  prize  to
Mdlle.  Berthe  Soucaret,  a  Creole  of  Guadeloupe,
aged  18,  29  Sept.  1888.  Another  show  at  Turin,  2b
Jan.  1889  ;  and  other  places  since.

BEAUVAIS  (N.  France),  the  ancient  Bello-
vacum,  or  Caesaroniagus,  formerly  capital  of  Picardy.
When  besieged  by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur-
gundy, with  80,000  men,  the  women  under  Jeanne
Fourquet  or  Laine,  also  de  la  Hachette,  from  her
using  that  weapon,  particularly  distinguished  them-
selves, and  the  duke  raised  the  siege,  10  July,  1472.
In  memory  of  this  the  women  of  Beauvais  walk  first
in  the  procession  on  the  anniversary  of  their
deliverance.

BECHUANA LAND,  South  Africa,  a  large
British  colony  (1885),  see  Transvaal.
The  Bechuanas  invade  Griqualand  West,  and  are
repulsed,  and  part  of  their  territory  subdued  by

British  volunteers 1878

Mr. Mackenzie appointed British resident, 13

March  ;  compelled  to  resign  by  the  Dutch  party,

replaced  by  Mr.  Rhodes  . . . Aug.  1884

Sir  Charles  Warren  made  special  commissioner  Oct. ,,

The  Boer  filibusters  seize  and  annex  the  territory

of  Montsioa,  under  British  protection  ;  compelled

to  retire Sept.,  Oct. ,,

Military  expedition  against  Dutch  freebooters  Nov. „
(Stellaland  and  Goshen  republics)  who  accept  allot-
ments of  land,  announced,  27  Nov.  ;  this  policy  of
the  Cape  Government  strongly  disapproved  by

colony Dec. ,,

Sir  Charles  Warren  meets  president  Kriiger,  24  Jan.

and  comes  to  an  agreement  .  .  -29  Jan.  1885
Military  government  established  by  sir  C.  Warren,

announced 24  Feb. ,,

Arrest  of  Mr.  Van  Niekirk,  president  of  Stellaland
republic,  and  others,  on  charge  of  murder  of  Mr.
Honey,  an  Englishman,  in  1S83.  Announced  24"
March,  1885 ;  released  about  27  May.  Sir  C.
Warren  thanks  the  volunteers .  .  .  8  July,  ,,
Judge  Sheppard  nominated  administrator  ;  sir  C.

Warren  after  great  success  recalled . .  Aug. , ,
Bechuanaland  proclaimed  British  territory 8  Oct. ,,
A  proposal  to  annex  it  to  Cape  Colony  was  opposed
and  negatived Autumn  1888

BECKET'S  MURDER.*  Thomas  Becket,
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  murdered  at  the
altar,  29  Dec.  11 70.  The  king  was  absolved  of
guilty  knowledge  of  the  crime  in  1 172,  and  did
penance  at  the  tomb  in  1 174.  The  bones  of  Becket
were  enshrined  in  gold  and  jewels  in  1220.  They
were  ordered  to  be  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry
VIII.  24  April,  1538.  A  stone  coffin,  supposed  by
some  persons  to  contain  Becket' s  bones (?),  dis-


*  Thomas  Becket  was  bom  in  11 19.  His  father  Gilbert
was  a  London  trader,  and  his  mother  is  stated  to  have
been  a  convert  from  Mahomedanism.  He  was  educated
at  Oxford,  and  made  archdeacon  by  Theobald,  archbishop
of  Canterbury,  who  introduced  him  to  the  king,  Henry  II.
He  became  chancellor  in  1155,  but  on  being  elected  arch-
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1162,  he  resigned  the  chancellor-
ship, to  the  great  offence  of  the  king.  He  opposed
strenuously  the  constitutions  of  Clarendon  in  1164,  and
fied  the  country  ;  and  in  1166,  excommunicated  all  the
clergy  who  agreed  to  abide  by  them.  He  and  the  king
met  at  Fretville,  in  Touraine,  on  22  July,  1170,  and  were
formally  reconciled.  On  his  return  he  re-commenced
his  struggle  with  the  king,  which  led  to  his  tragical
death,  after  which  he  was  canonized.


covered  in  a  crypt  at  Canterbury  Cathedral,  Jan.
1888.  The  Merchant  Adventurers  were  at  one  time
termed  "  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Thomas  a
Becket."  A  Roman  catholic  church  at  Canter-
bury, dedicated  to  him,  was  opened  by  cardinal
Manning,  13  April,  1875.

BECKETT-DENISON  ART  COLLEC-
TION, (including  much  of  the  Hamilton  Collec-
tion) sold  for  92,231/.,  6  June— 15  July,  1S85.  Mr-
William  Beckett-Denison,  brother  of  sir  Edmund
Beckett,  died  suddenly  in  Ireland  1884.

BECKFOKD,  see  under  Libraries.

BED.  The  ancients  slept  on  skins.  Beds  were
afterwards  made  of  loose  rushes,  heather,  or  straw.
The  Romans  are  said  to  have  first  used  feathers.
An  air-cushion  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Helio-
gabalus,  218-222;  air-beds  were  in  use  in  the  16th
century.  Feather-beds  were  in  use  in  England  ira
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  bedsteads  of  the
Egyptians  and  later  Greeks,  like  modern  couches,
became  common  among  the  Roman  upper  classes.
The  ancient  great  bed  at  Ware,  Herts,  capable  of  hold-
ing twelve  persons,  was  sold,  it  is  said,  to  Charles
Dickens,  6  Sept.  1864.
A  bedstead  of  gold  was  presented  to  the  queen  on  2  Nov.

1859,  by  the  Maharajah  of  Cashmere.
Air-beds  and  water-beds  have  been  made  since  the  manu-
facture of  india-rubber  cloth  by  Clark  in  1813  ;  and  by
Macintosh  in  1823.
Dr.  Arnott's  hydrostatic  bed  invented  in  1830.

BED  OF  JUSTICE,  a  French  court  presided
over  by  the  king,  whose  seat  was  termed  a  "bed."'
It  controlled  the  ordinances  of  the  parliament.
The  last  was  held  by  Louis  XVI.  at  Versailles,
19  Nov.  1787,  to  raise  a  loan.

BEDER  (Arabia) .  Here  Mahomet  gained  his
first  victory  (over  the  Koreish  of  Mecca),  623.  It
was  considered  to  be  miraculous.

BEDFORD,  a  town,  N.N.W.  of  London,  re-
nowned for its  many  free  educational  establish-
ments, endowed in  1561 by  sir ¥m.  Harpur, a
London  alderman. Here  John  Bunyan  preached,
was  imprisoned,  and  wrote "The  Pilgrim's  Pro-
gress." Population  1881,  19,533  ;  1891,28,023.
A  statue  of  Bunyan, the  gift  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,
was  uncovered  here,  10  June,  1874. Bronze  gates  for
the  Bunyan  church,  given  by  the  duke,  were  inaugu-
rated by  him  5  July,  1876. New  extensive  building  of
the  grammar  school  opened  by  the  duke  of  Bedford.
29  Oct.  1891.

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  a  portion  of  the  great
fen  districts  in  the  eastern  counties,  drained  in  the
early  part  of  the  17th  century  by  the  earl  of  Bed-
ford, aided  by  the  celebrated  Dutch  engineer,  sir
Cornelius  Vermuydcn,  amid  great  opposition  ;  see
Levels.

BEDLAM,  see  Bethlehem.

BEDOUINS,  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs,  living
on  the  plunder  of  travellers,  &c.  They  profess  a
form  of  Mahomedanism,  and  are  governed  by
sheikhs.  They  are  said  to  be  descendants  of  Ish-
mael,  and  appear  to  fulfil  the  prophecy  respecting
him,  Gen.  xvi.  12,  1911  B.C.

BEEF-EATERS,  see  Battle-axe.

"BEEF  STEAKS,  the  Sublime  Society  of,"
was  established  in  1735  by  Rich,  an  actor  at  Covent
Garden  Theatre,  in  the  painting-room  of  which  the
members  dined  upon  beef-steaks.  The  society
became  fashionable,  and  long  included  among  its.
members  the  prince  of  Wales,  royal  dukes,  and
other  eminent  persons,  who  submitted  to  its  some-
what ludicrous  regulations. It  became  extinct  in


BEER.


112


BEHRINGS STRAIT.


E867,  its  last  place  of  meeting  being  a  room  in  the
Lyceum  theatre.  Its  history  was  published  by
Brother  Arnold  in  1871.

BEER,  see  Ale,  Brewers,  Porter,  Victuallers.
Condensed  beer  patented  by  P.  E.  Lockwood,  1875.
Condensed  wort  patented  by  Hermann  Mertens,  of
Margate,  in  1853.  .Beer  and  ale  exported  from  the
United  Kingdom:  1876,  484,919  "barrels;  1880,
412,192;  1884,  437,241;  1888,  447,940;  1890,
503,221.

BEER-HOUSES.  Law  respecting  (11  Geo.
IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.,  c.  64,  1830),  &c,  amended  in
1869.

BEES.  Mount  Hybla,  on  account  of  its  odori-
ferous flowers,  thyme,  and  abundance  of  honey,  has
been  poetically  called  the  "empire  of  bees."  Hy-
anettus,  in  Attica,  was  also  famous  for  its  bees  and
honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was  admired  in  the
■earliest  ages  ;  and  Eumelus,  of  Corinth,  wrote  a
poem  on  bees,  741  B.C.  Bees  were  introduced
into  Boston,  New  England,  in  1670,  and  have
since  spread  over  the  continent.  Mandeville's
satirical  "  Fable  of  the  Bees  "  appeared  in  1723.
Huber  published  his  observations  on  bees  in  1792.
The  Apiarian  Society  had  an  establishment  at  Mus-
well  Hill,  near  London  (1860-2).  The  Ligurian
variety  of  the  honey-bee  was  successfully  introduced
into  England  in  i860.
A  British  Beekeepers'  Association  founded  16  May  (sir

John  Lubbock  became  first  president) ;  first  exhibition,

in  Crystal  Palace,  8  Sept.  1874  '•  a*  other  places  since.
Spelling  bees,  of  American  origin,  introduced  into  London

in  autumn  of  1875  ;  first  at  Holloway. Geographical,

musical,  and  other  bees  began  early  in  1876.
Mr.  F.  R.  Cheshire's  "  Bees  and  Beekeeping  "  published

in  1886-8.

BEES',  ST.,  Cumberland.  A  monastery  was
founded  here  by  St.  Bega,  650 ;  a  grammar  school
by  abp.  Grindal,  1583  ;  a  clerical  training  college
by  bp.  Law,  1817.

BEET-ROOT  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  Eng-
land. Beta  vulgaris,  red  beet,  is  used  for  the  table
as  a  salad.  Margraff  first  produced  sugar  from  the
white  beet-root  in  1747.  M.  Achard  produced  ex-
cellent sugar  from  it  in  1799  ;  and  the  chemists  of
France,  at  the  instance  of  Bonaparte,  largely  ex-
tracted sugar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800.  60,000
tons  of  sugar,  about  half  the  consumption,  are  now
manufactured  in  France  from  beet.  It  is  also
largely  manufactured  in  other  countries.  A  refinery
of  sugar  from  beet-root  has  been  erected  at  the
Thames  bank,  Chelsea.  The  cultivation  of  beet-
root in  England  and  Ireland  much  advocated,  1871,
and  again,  in  1884,  when  great  improvements  were
proposed,  especially  at  Lavenham,  Suffolk,  by
Messrs.  Bolton,  of  Westminster.

BEGGARS  were  tolerated  in  ancient  times,
being  often  musicians  and  ballad-singers.  In  1388,
iS30'  1535,  1547-50  severe  laws  were  passed
.against  them.  By  14  Eliz.,  c.  5,  1:72,  sturdy
beggars  were  ordered  to  be  "  grievously  whipped
and  burnt  through  the  right  ear;"  pnnished  capi-
tally for  the  third  offence,  acts  consolidated  1731.
By  the  Vagrant  Act  (1824),  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83,  all
public  beggars  are  liable  to  a  month's  imprisonment.
About  30,000  tramps  in  England  and  Wales.  Judi-
cial Statistics,  1865.  See  Poor  Laws,  Mendicity
■Society,  and  Vagrants.  The  "  Beggar's  Opera,"
by  John  Gay,  a  satire  against  the  government  of
sir  Robert  Walpole,  was  produced  at  the  Lincoln' s-
inn -fields  theatre,  29  Jan.  1727-8,  and  had  a  run  of
63  nights  ;  see  Gueux.

BEGUTNES,  a  congregation  of  nuns  first
established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle,  in


1207,  some  say  1226.  The  "Grand  Beguinage "
of  Bruges  was  the  most  extensive.  Some  of  these
nuns  imagined  that  they  could  become  sinless.  The
council  of  Vienne  condemned  this  error,  and
abolished  a  branch  of  the  order  in  13 1 1.  They  still
exist  in  Germany  and  Belgium,  acting  as  nurses  to
the  sick  and  wounded,  &c.

BEHEADING,  the  Decollatio  of  the  Romans,
introduced  into  England  from  Normandy  (as  a  less
ignominious  mode  of  putting  high  criminals  to
death),  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1076,  when
Waltheof,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  Northampton,  and
Northumberland,  was  first  so  executed.  Since  then
this  mode  of  execution  became  frequent,  particu-
larly in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Mary,  and
Elizabeth,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest  blood
thus  perished ;  the  aged  countess  of  Salisbury,  27
May,  1541 ;  lady  Jane  Grey,  12  Feb.  1554.

BEHISTUN,  in  Persia.  At  this  place  is  a
rock  containing  important  inscriptions  in  three
languages,  in  cuneiform  (or  wedge-shaped)  cha-
racters, which  were  deciphered  and  translated  by  sir
H.  Rawlinson  in  1844-6,  and  published  in  the  Jour-
nal of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Each  paragraph
commences  with  "I  am  Darius  the  Great  King."

BEHRINGS  STRAIT,  discovered  by  captain
Vitus  Behring,  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of
Russia.  He  thus  proved  that  the  continents  of
Asia  and  America  are  distant  from  each  other  about
thirty-nine  miles,  1728.  He  died  at  Behring's
island  in  1 74 1.  In  1778  captain  James  Cook  sur-
veyed the  coasts  of  both  continents.  See  United
States,  1889-91.

The  czar  Alexander  I.,  in  1821,  declared  the  Behring
seas  closed  to  foreign  fishing  ;  this  was  at  once  repu-
diated by  Mr.  J.  Quincy  Adams,  secretary  of  the
United  States.  Alaska  was  purchased  in  1867  from
Russia,  by  the  States,  who  afterwards  assumed  the
Russian  claim  upon  the  seas,  and  seized  the  British
Columbia's  sealing  vessels.  The  seizure  of  the  Black
Diamond  sealer  by  the  U.S.  revenue  cutter  Rush,  3
July,  was  declared  legal  by  Mr.  Secretary  Blaine,
U.S.,  1  Aug.  1889;  while  the  British  government
claimed,  as  heretofore,  the  right  of  fishing  in  waters
beyond  the  territorial  limits.  The  governments  agreed
to  refer  the  question  to  arbitration,  Feb.  1890.  Presi-
dent Harrison  proclaimed  the  Behring  sea  closed  to
unlicensed  seal  fishing,  25  March.  A  Blue  Book  was
published,  15  Aug.,  containing  the  correspondence
between  the  two  governments  from  1  Sept.  1886,  to
2  Aug.  1890.  The  marquis  of  Salisbury  demanded
that,  pending  arbitration,  British  sealing  vessels
should  not  be  molested,  adding  that  if  so,  they
should  be  protected,  2  Aug.  1890.

Negotiations  resumed,  arbitration  refused  by  Mr.
Blaine end  of  Oct.  1890

Correspondence referred  to  the  U.S.  congress,

5  Jan. 1 89 1

The  owner  of  the  British"  sealing  schooner,  W.  P.
Sayward  (which  was  seized  and  condemned  in
1887),  supported  by  the  Canadian  government,
brings  the  Behring  sea  difficulty  before  the  U.S.
Supreme  Court  at  Washington,  12  Jan.,  case
opens,  27  Jan.  ;  the  court  decides  to  hear  the
appeal  on  ....  13  Api'il ,  2  Feb.  ,,
[The  case  decided  in  favour  of  the  United  States,
29  Feb.  1892.]

Further  correspondence  ;  Lord  Salisbury  consents
to  the  proposal  to  refer  the  matter  to  arbitration,

21  Feb. ,,

Letter  from  Mr.  Blaine  to  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,
specifying  six  points  for  arbitration. 14  April ,,

A  modus  vivendi  respecting  the  seal  fishery  agreed
on  by  Great Britain  and the United States

15  June ,,

Catching  of  seals  by  British  ships  prohibited  from
24  June,  1891,  to  1  May,  1892,  London  Gazette,

24  June „


BELFAST.


113


BELGIUM.


Sir  George  Baden-Powell  and  Dr.  G.  M.  Dawson,
commissioners  respecting  the  seal-fishery,  arrive
at  British  Columbia.  15  July  ;  interviews  with
sealers,  16  July  ;  arrive  at  Ounalaska  Island

25  July  1891

The  Behring  Sea  blocked  by  3  American  and  3
British  warships,  announced . . 27  July ,,

Behring  Sea  commission  meets  at  Washington,  8
Feb. ;  sign  their  report ... 4  March  1892

The  Governments  agree  to  refer  the  question  to
arbitration  ;  arbiters  to  be  appointed  by  Italy,
Prance,  and  Sweden Feb. „

The  arbitration  treaty  signed  at  Washington,  29
Feb.  ;  ratified  by  the  senate . . 29  March ,,

Mr.  Blaine,  after  requiring  the  renewal  of  the
modus  vivendi,  accepts  the  arrangements  pro-
posed by  Lord  Salisbury .  . 28  March ,,

New  modus  vivendi  (to  last  till  31  Oct.  1893)  ratified

19  April  and  4  May, ,,

BELFAST,  capital  of  Ulster,  N.  Ireland.  Its
castle,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  John  de
Courey,  was  destroyed  by  the  Scots  under  Edward
Bruce,  1315  ;  see  Orange.  Belfast  returns  four
M.P.'s  by  Act  passed  25  June,  1885.  Population,
1821,37,117;  185 1,  about  100,000;  1881,  208,122;
1891,  255,896.

Belfast  granted  by  James  I.  to  sir  Arthur  Chichester,
lord  deputy,  1612  ;  and  erected  into  a  corpo-
ration 1613

The  long  bridge  (21  arches,  2562  feet  long)  built . 1682-6
The  first  edition  of  the  Bible  in  Ireland,  printed  here  1704

The  castle  burnt 4  April,  1708

The  bank  built 1787

The  mechanics'  institute  established . . . 1825
The  Queen's  bridge  (5  arches)  built  on  site  of  the

long  bridge 1841

Of  three  colleges  established  in  Ireland  in  1845,  one
inaugurated  in  Belfast  (see  Colleges) . .  Oct.  1849

Victoria  Channel  opened ,,

British  Association  met  here .....  1852
Much  rioting  at  Belfast  through  Mr.  Hanna's  open-
air  preaching July — Sept. 1857

"Victoria  chambers"  burnt  down;  the  loss  esti-
mated at  ioo.oooZ 1  July,  1859

Exciting  religious  revivals . . .  Sept. ,,

Fierce  conflicts  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Pro-
testants on  account  of  the  foundation  of  the
O'Connell  monument  at  Dublin — 9  lives  lost  and
150  persons  injured .... 10-27  Aug. 1864

Rioting  again 30  April,  1865

Visit  of  the  lord  lieutenant  the  marquis  of  Abercorn

2-4  Oct.  1867
Severe  rioting  ;  much  destruction  of  property  and
many  persons  injured. Civil  war  raging  between
Catholics  and  Protestants,  15-21  Aug. Peace  re-
stored 22  Aug.  1872

British  Association  here  (2nd  time) . 19  Aug.  1874
End  of  strike  of  linen  manufacturers . 26  Aug. ,,
Riots  at  W.  Belfast  between  Catholic  and  Protestant
workmen,  with  loss  of  life  ;  suppressed  by  the
military  and  police  3-13  June  ;  more  rioting ;  the
town  proclaimed  21  July  ;  violent  conflicts  be-
tween the  mobs  and  the  military  and  police,  11
killed  many  wounded  ;  order  restored  by  addi-
tional military  . . .9  Aug.  et  seq.  1886
Renewed  rioting  suppressed . . 14,  15  Aug. ,,
Quietness reported 18 Aug.  ; occasional rioting

1  Sept.  el  seq.  ,,
Part  of  Albert  Bridge  falls  with  loss  of  life  15  Sept.  ,,
Rioting  (2  deaths)  19-20  Sept.  26  Sept.  and  29  Sept.  „
A  commission  to  inquire  into  the  riots  began  to  sit

4  Oct. „
Report  published  ;  Protestant  attacks  on  the  police  ■„

weak  magisterial  action  referred  to  about  25  Jan.  1887
Renewed rioting  ; the police  compelled to  fire ;

about  50  arrests 29-30  Jan. „

Prince Albert  Victor of Wales opens the new
Alexandra  docks  20  May,  and  lays  the  founda-
tion of  Albert  bridge .... 22  May  1889
Victoria  channel  extension  opened  for  traffic

7  July  1891
The  mayor  ordered  to  be  styled  "  lord  " . May,  1892
Meeting  of  Ulster  Convention  (which  see)  against
Home  Rule [ 17  June ,,


BELFOKT,  or  BEFOBT,  a  fortified  town  in
Alsace,  E.  France,  was  invested  by  the  Germans  3
Nov.  1870;  capitulated  16  Feb.  1871 ;  reserved  to
France  when  Aisace  was  ceded  26  Feb. ;  quitted  by
the  Germans  Aug.  1873.

BELGIUM,  the  southern  portion  of  the  Nether-
lands, and  anciently  the  territory  of  the  Belgse,  who
were  finally  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar,  51  B.C.  Its
size  is  about  one-eighth  of  Great  Britain.  Its
government  is  a  libenil  constitutional  monarchy,
founded  in  1831.  For  previous  history, see  Flanders,
Netherlands,  and  Holland.  The  population  (31  Dec.)
1862,  4,836,566;  1865,  4,984,451  ;  1866,  4,829,320  ;
1870,5,087,105;  1879,5,536,146;  1887,  5,974,743!
1890,  6,147,041.

The  revolution  commences  at  Brussels  25  Aug.  1830

The  provisional  government  declares  Belgium  inde-
pendent (M.  Van  de  Weyer,  active) . 4  Oct. ,,
Antwerp  taken  (except  the  citadel) . . 23  Dec. „
Belgian  independence  acknowledged  by  the  allied

powers 26  Dec. ,,

Due  de  Nemours elected king (his father, the

French  king,  refused  his  consent) . 3  Feb. 1831
Surlet  de  Chokier  is  elected  regent . .  24  Feb. „
Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted the

crown,  12  July  ;  enters  Brussels  .  19  July,  ,,
War  with  the  Netherlands  commences  .  3  Aug.  „
France  sends  50,000  troops  to  assist  Belgium,  and

an  armistice  ensues  .....  Aug.  ,,
Conference  of  ministers  of  the  five  great  powers  held

in  London :  acceptance  of  24articles  of  pacification

15  Nov. ,,
Convention  between  England  and  France  against

Holland 22  Oct.  1832

Antwerp  besieged,  30  Nov.  ;  the  citadel  taken  by  the

French 23  Dec. ,,

The  French  army  returns  to  France . .  27  Dec. ,,
Preliminary  convention  with  Holland  signed  21  May  1833
Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Brussels)  ... 6  April,  1834
Treaty*  between  Holland  and  Belgium  signed  in

London 19  April,  1839

Clerical  education  bill  passed 1842

Queen  of  England  visits  Belgium . . .  Aug.  1852
The  king  and  his  son  visit  England . . Oct. ,,
Increase  of  army  to  100,000  men  voted . 10  May,  1853
Opposition  to  religious  charities'  bill  + . June,  1857
A  new  ministry  under  M.  Charles  Rogier 9  Nov.
The  chambers  dissolved  ;  re-assembled . 10  Dec. ,,
The  king  proclaims  Belgium  neutral  in  the  Italian

war May,  1859

Birth  of  prince  Leopold  Ferdinand . 12  June, ,,

Death  of  M.  Potter 22  July, „

The  king  visits  England June,  i860

Vague  rumours  of  annexation  to  France  produce

warm  loyal  addresses  to  the  king  .  .13  June,  ,,
The  octrois  abolished .  21  July, ,,

Successful  military  volunteer  movement  . Aug ,,
Commercial  treaty  with  France  signed  . .  1  May,  1861
Continued illness of the king, with occasional

amendment  .  .  .  .  .  May,  June,  1862
Commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  adopted  by

the  chamber. .  22  Aug. ,,

Great  distress  through  decay  of  trade . Aug. ,,
Fierce  dissensions  through  Roman  Catholics,  Jan.  ;

the  ministry  resigns,  but  resumes  office,  4  Feb.  ;

dissolution  of  the  chambers,  17  July;  the  Pro-
testants superior  in  the  election  . . . Aug. 1864

Death  of  Leopold  1 10  Dec. 1865

The  new  king  and  queen  visit  England,  5  July  ;  and

Ghent  and  other  Belgian  cities  .  .  .  July,  1866
National  rifle  meeting  (tir) . . 12-16  Oct. ,,

*  This  treaty  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London
on  the  Belgian  question  ;  by  the  decision  of  which,  the
treaty  of  15  Nov.  1831,  was  maintained,  and  the  pecu-
niary compensation  of  sixty  millions  of  francs  offered  bj
Belgium  for  the  territories  adjudged  to  Holland  was
declared  inadmissible.

1-  At  the  revolution  in  1830,  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy
lost  the  administration  of  the  public1  charities,  which
they  have  struggled  to  recover  ever  since.  In  April,
1857,  M.  Decker,  the  head  of  tin'  ministry,  brought  in  a
bill  for  this  purpose,  but  was  compelled  to  withdraw  it,
and  eventually  to  resign.


BELGIUM.


114


BELGIUM.


Mr.  Phillips,  lord  mayor  of  London,  and  noo  English
volunteers  visit  Belgium  under  col.  Loyd  Lind-
say ;  other  foreigners  attend ;  grand  banquet  given
by  the  king  at  Brussels . . . .20  Oct. 1866

Opening  of  the  chambers,  with  a  re-assuring  speech
from  the  king 13  Nov. „

Violent  rioting  in  mining  districts  (Marchienne-au-
Pont)  on  account  of  reduction  in  wages  ;  sup-
pressed by  the  military . . . 1-2  Feb.  1867

About  2400  Belgians  (of  the  garde  civique  and  volun-
teers) visit  England  ;  arrive,  10  July  ;  received  by
lord  mayor,  12  July  ;  by  prince  of  Wales  at  Wim-
bledon, 13  July  ;  dine  at  Windsor,  16  July  ;  at  a
ball  at  Agricultural  Hall,  18  July;  received  by
Miss  Burdett-Coutts,  19  July  ;  attend  the  review
at  Wimbledon,  20  July  ;  leave  London 22  July, „

New ministry (under  M. Frere-Orban) ;  liberal ;

3  Jan.  1868

Serious  riots  in  the  mining  districts  ;  put  down  by
the  military  ;  10  lives  lost . . 25-29  March, „

Monument  to  Charlemagne  at  Liege,  inaugurated

26  July, „

International congress of workmen  at  Brussels

6-13  Nov. „

The  crown  prince  Leopold  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Bra-
bant, died . ... . . 22  Jan.  1869

Concession  of  a  Luxembourg  railway  to  a  French
railway  company,  without  the  assent  of  the  state,
prohibited  by  the  assembly,  13  Feb. ;  dispute  with
the  French  government  arranged . . May, „

International  rifle  meeting  held  at  Liege 19  Sept. ,,

Resignation  of  Frere-Orban  ministry,  about  19  June,  1870

M.  dAnethan's  ministry  announced . 3  July, „

Warm  gratitude  to  Great  Britain  expressed  by  the
king  and  people . .  -  . . 8  Aug. ,,

Treaty  for  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  between  Great
Britain  and  Prussia,  signed  9  Aug.  ;  and  France,
signed 11  Aug. ,,

After  surrender  of  Sedan  many  French  soldiers  enter
Belgium ;  disarmed  and  interned . 1-2  Sept. ,,

Strong  opposition  to  the  ministry  by  M.  Barra  and
others  ;  riots  at  Brussels . . . 22-25  Nov. ,,

Resignation  of  DAnethan  ;  M.  Malou  (a  moderate)
forms  a  ministry 7  Dec.  1871

The  comte  de  Chambord  arrives  at  Antwerp,
17  Feb.  ;  compelled  to  quit  Belgium  through  popu-
lar demonstrations 27  Feb. 1872

The  French  government  denounce  the  treaty  of
commerce  with  Belgium . . .29  March, „

Treaty  of  commerce  with  France  signed . 5  Feb.  1873

The  czar  at  Brussels . . . . 22  May, ,,

M.  Van  de  Weyer,  statesman ;  active  during  the
revolution  of  1830  ;  ambassador  to  England  1831-
67  ;  died 23  May,

International  conference  at  Brussels  respecting
rights  of  neutrals  during  war — no  results,

27  July-28  Aug.

Notes  from  the  German  government,  complaining
of  publications  favouring  the  censured  German
ecclesiastics,  Feb.  ;  respecting  the  Duchesne's
proposal  to  the  archbishop  of  Paris  to  assassi-
nate Bismarck ... . .15  April,

Dignified  Belgian  replies . . March  and  May,

The  court  at  Liege  cannot  interfere,  May ;  modi-
fication of  the  criminal  law  proposed . June,

Much  popular  opposition  to  religious  processions  :
riots May,  June,

The  king  visits  England . . . .29  May,

Catholic  successes  in  the  elections  ;  riots  against
them  at  Brussels  and  Antwerp  about  16,  17  June,

Statue  of  Van  de  Weyer,  at  Louvain,  inaugurated
by  the  king x  Oct. „

International congress  respecting hygiene, &c,

held  at  Brussels . . . 27  Sept.— 2  Oct! ,,
Catholic  minority  in  elections  ;  the  Malou  ministry
resign, 13, 14 June, M. Frere-Orban  forms a

liberal  ministry 20  June,  1878

Gigantic  weir  for  water-distribution  at  La  Gileppe,
near  Venders,  inaugurated  by  the  king, 28  July'

The  king's  silver  wedding  enthusiastically  cele-
brated .  ..... 22-25  Aug. ,,

Eugene  T'Kindt  de  Rooden  Veke,  a  clerk,  convicted
of  embezzlement  of  20,000,000  francs  of  the  Bank
of  Belgium  (149  thefts)  ;  the  governor  Fortamps,
of  fraudulently  repurchasing  shares,  &c. 3  Dec. ,,

The  king  sanctions  the  new  law  of  public  instruc-
tion i  July,  1879


1874


187S


1876


Pastoral  of  the  R.  C.  hierarchy  against  the  govern-
ment plan  of  mixed  education  (sacraments  to  be
refused  to  teachers  and  parents,  &c.)  published
in  Germany Sept.

Archduke  Rodolph  of  Austria  betrothed  to  the
princess  Stephanie .... March,

Permanent  international  exhibition  opened  at
Brussels 1  June,

Elections  for  parliament ;  severe  struggle  between
liberals  and  clerical  party  respecting  education  ;
liberals  retain  moderate  majority . . June,

National  exhibition  at  Brussels  opened  by  the  king
and  queen "\ ■ 16  June,

Representative  at  the  Vatican  recalled  through
ecclesiastical  disputes  ;  suspension  of  diplomatic
arrangements 28  June,

Jubilee  to  celebrate  national  independence  18  July,

Statue  of  Leopold  I.  unveiled  at  Laeken 21  July,

Patriotic  fete  in  the  Brussels  exhibition 16  Aug.

Trial  of  Armand  and  Leon  Peltzer,  for  the  murder
of  Wilhelm  Bernays  :  (an  injured  husband,  a
faithless  wife  and  her  accomplices) . 27  Nov.

Sentenced  to  death  (commuted) . . 22  Dec.

Dynamite  explosion  at  Ganshorten,  near  Brussels  ;
1  death  (arrests  made) ... 23  Feb.

Par liamentary  reform  bill  passed  by  representatives

17  Aug.

Henri  Conscience,  eminent  national  Flemish  poet
and  novelist,  died,  aged  73 . . .9  Sept.

Death  of  cardinal  Deschamps,  abp.  of  Mechlin,  the
primate 29  Sept.

The  king  and  queen  warmly  received  at  Amsterdam
18  Oct.,  et  seq.

King  and  queen  of  Holland  warmly  received  at
Brussels 20-22  May,

Elections  ;  majority  of  clericals  through  dissension
of  moderate  liberals  and  reformers,  about
10  June;  resignation  of  M.  Frere-Orban  n  June,

M.  Jules  Malou  forms  a  conservative  catholic
ministry . . .  . . 12,  13  June,

Senate  dissolved,  June  ;  new  senate  clerical Jul}'',

Great  meeting  of  burgomasters  at  Brussels  to  op-
pose M.  Jacobs'  new  reactionary  education  bill,
9  Aug.,  which  is  accepted  by  the  deputies  (80-49),
30  Aug.  ;  by  the  senate  (40-25) . . 10  Sept.

Liberal  riots  at  Brussels  and  Antwerp  . 7  Sept.

Royal  assent  to  the  bill . . . . 13  Sept.

Communal  elections  ;  great  liberal  majority  19  Oct.

MM.  Malou,  Jacobs,  and  Woeste  (catholics)  resign,
M.  Beernaert  becomes  premier . . 24  Oct.

Parliament  meets 11  Nov.

King  Leopold  proclaimed  sovereign  of  the  new
Congo  state 2  May,

Universal  exhibition  opened  at  Antwerp  by  the  king

2  May,

Death  of  Charles  Rogier  (aged  85),  member  of  the
provisional  government  in  1830,  six  times  minister

27  May,

Riotous  strikes  in  the  coal  districts  between  Namur

and  Liege  and  collision  with  the  military,  many

killed  and  wounded  ;  convents,  country  houses,

factories, &c, pillaged, works stopped about

22-29  March,

Liege  quieted  by  vigorous  action  ;  great  disorder  in
Charleroi,  Mons,  &c 27-29  March,

Outrages  greatly  attributed  to  the  criminal  classes  ;
order  restored,  reported  7  April

M.  Vandersmissen,  a  clerical  member  for  Brussels,
convicted  of  killing  his  wife,  a  scandalous  case  ;
15  years'  penal  servitude . . . 2  June,

Increased  army  expenditure  proposed . 8  Feb.

Revival  of  strikes  ;  arrival  of  French  dynamitards  ;
universal  suffrage  demanded  ;  the  strikes  subside
about 31  May,

New  Army  Bill  rejected  by  the  Chamber  (69-62)

14  July,

State  trials  of  27  socialists  at  Mous,  nearly  all
acquitted,  25  May  ;  the  minister  of  justice  was
censured  for  the  prosecution . . . May

Great  colliery  strike  at  Charleroi,  &c,  about  20,000
men  out . . . . . 21  Dec.  et  seq.

Settled  by  compromise  .... 13  Jan.

The  castle  of  Laeken,  built  17S2,  4  miles  from
Brussels,  a  royal  palace,  destroyed  by  fire,  the
governess  of  princess  Clementine,  Madame  de
Grandcour,  perished.  Valuable  works  of  art,
furniture,  historical  documents  &c,  lost.  1  Jan.


BELGRADE.  115

The  king  visits  England . . . 10-26  May  189c

Loan  to  Congo  State,  see  Congo . . . July, ,,

National  fete,  25th  anniversary  of  the  king's  acces-
sion ;  grotesque  procession  of  giants,  &c,  at
Brussels 19  July  et  seq. ,,

Strike  of  about  10,000  miners  at  Mons,  22  Aug.  ;
strike  over 1  Sept. ,,

Death  of  prince  Baldwin,  aged  21,  greatly  lamented,
23  Jan.  ;  grand  funeral  . . . . 29  Jan. 1891

■Great  political  strike  of  colliers  at  Mons,  Charle-
roi,  and  other  places,  with  rioting,  about  2  May ;
state  of  siege  in  the  Liege  district,  about  100,000
men  out 7  May ,,

Strike  of  the  metallurgists  in  Charleroi  district,  the
progressist  party  demand  the  revision  of  the  con-
stitution . .  . . about  10  May ,,

Strike  abating  near  Liege,  &c.  . . . 13  May ,,

End  of  the  coal-miners'  strike  of  70  days . 9  July ,,

Coal-mine  explosion  at  Forchies  in  Hainault;  27
deaths. . -. . . . . 19  Sept. „

Meeting  of  the  chambers  . . . . 10  Nov. ,,

The  hon.  sir  Edmund  Monson  succeeds  lord  Vivian
as  British  minister Jan.  1892

Death  of  M.  Emile  de  Laveleye,  eminent  publicist
and  writer,  aged  69 ...  3  Jan. ,,

The  commercial  treaties  with  Austria-Hungary  and
Germany  adopted  by  the  chamber,  28  Jan. ;  by
the  senate 1  Feb. ,,

Discussion  in  the  chamber  on  the  revision  of  the
constitution  of  1831 2  Feb. „

Elections  :  clerical  majority,  June  ;  the  new  senate
and  chamber  unite  to  form  a  constituent  assem-
bly to  consider  the  revision  of  the  constitution

12  July  etseq. ,,

1:889. Revenue, 346,667,000  francs ; expenditure,

355»593»°°°  francs.
£890. Imports, 3,189,160,016 francs  ; exports,

2,948,151,841  francs.

KINGS.

1831.  Leopold,*  first  king  of  the  Belgians  ;  born  16  Dee.

1790  ;  inaugurated 21 July,  1831,  at  Brussels  ;

married,  9  Aug.  1832,  Louise,  eldest  daughter  of

Louis  Philippe,  king  of the  French  (she  died

11  Oct.  1850). He  died  10  Dec.  1865.
5:865.  Leopold II., son  ; born  9  April, 1835  ; married
- archduchess  Maria  Henrietta  of  Austria,  22  Aug.

1853-
Daughter.  Princess  Louise,  born  18  Feb. 1858  ;  married

duke  Philip  of  Saxony,  4  Feb.  1875.
Heir,  brother.  Philip,  count  of  Flanders  ;  born  24  March,

1837;  married  Mary,  princess  of  Hohenzollern-

Sigmaringen,  25  April,  1867  ;  son,  Baldwin,  born

3  June,  1869  ;  died  23  Jan.  1891  ;  Albert,  born  8

April,  1875.

BELGRADE,  an  ancient  city  in  Servia,  on
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  It  was  taken  from
the  Greek  emperor  by  Solomon,  king  of  Hungary,
in  1072 ;  gallantly  defended  by  John  Huniades
against  the  Turks,  under  Mahomet  II.,  July  to
Sept.  1456,  when  the  latter  was  defeated,  with  the
loss  of  40,000  men.  Belgrade  was  taken  by  sultan
Solyman,  Aug.  1521,  and  retaken  by  the  Im-
perialists in  1688,  from  whom  it  was  again  taken  by
the  Turks,  1690.  It  was  besieged  in  May,  1716,  by
prince  Eugene.  In  that  year  the  Turkish  army,
200,000  strong,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and  on  5
Aug.  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at  Poterwara-
dein,  in  which  the  Turks  lost  20,000  men.  Eugene
defeated  the  Turks  here,  16  Aug.  1717,  and  Bel-
grade surrendered  18  Aug.  In  1739  it  was  ceded  to
the  Turks,  after  its  fine  fortifications  had  been  de-
molished. It  was  retaken  in  1789,  and  restored  at
the  peace  of  Reichenbach,  in  1790.  The  Servian
insurgents  had  possession  of  it,  1806-13.  In  1815
it  was  placed  under  prince  Milosch,  subject  to
Turkey. The  fortifications  were  restored  in  1820.

*  Leopold  married,  in  May,  18 16,  the  princess  Char-
lotte of  Wales,  daughter  of  the  prince  regent,  afterwards
George  IV.  of  England  ;  she  died  in  childbed,  6  Nov.  1817.


BELLS.

On  19  June,  1862,  the  Turkish  pasha  was  dismissed
for  firing  on  the  town  during  a  riot.  The  university
was  established  by  private  munificence,  1863.  The
fortress  was  surrendered  by  the  Turks  to  the  Ser-
vians, 18  April,  1867.  The  "independence  of  Servia
proclaimed  here,  22  Aug.  1878.  The  mayor  of
Belgrade  received  by  the  lord  mayor  of  London,
19  Dec.  1884.  Population  in  1890, 54,458.  Sea  Servia.

BELGRAVIA,  a  south-western  district  of  the
metropolis,  built  between  1826  and  1852  upon  land
belonging  to  the  marquis  of  Westminster,  who  is
also  viscount  Belgrave.

BELIZE,  see  Honduras.

BELL,  Book,  and  Candle  :  in  the  Bomish

ceremony  of  excommunication  {which  see),  the
bell  is  rung,  the  book  is  closed,  and  candle  extin-
guished; the  effect  being  to  exclude  the  excom-
municated from  the  society  of  the  faithful,  divine
service,  and  the  sacraments.  Its  origin  is  ascribed
to  the  8th  century.

BELL  ROCK  LIGHTHOUSE,  nearly  in

front  of  the  Frith  of  Tay,  one  of  the  finest  in  Great
Britain;  it  is  115  feet  high,  is  built  upon  a  rock
that  measures  427  feet  in  length,  and  200  feet  in
breadth,  and  is  about  12  feet  under  water.*  It  was
erected  in  1806-10.  It  has  two  bells  for  hazy  weather.

BELLAIR,  North  America.  The  town  was
attacked  by  the  British  forces  under  sir  Peter
Parker,  who,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  was
killed,  30  Aug.  1814.

BELLEISLE,  an  isle  on  the  south  coast  of
Brittany,  France,  erected  into  a  duchy  for  marshal
Belleisle,  in  1742,  in  reward  of  his  military  and
diplomatic  services,  by  Louis  XV.  Belleisle  was
taken  by  the  British  forces  under  commodore
Keppel  and  general  Hodgson,  after  a  desperate
resistance,  7  June,  1761,  but  was  restored  to  France
in  1763.

BELLES-LETTRES,  or  Polite  Learn-
ing, see  Academies,  and  Literature.

BELLEVILLE,  the  red  republican  stronghold
of  Paris,  defended  by  seven  barricades,  was  cap-
tured by.  L'Admirault  and  Vinoy,  27,  28  May,
1871,  when  the  insurrection  was  suppressed.

BELLITE,  a  new  Swedish  explosive  invented
by  Mr.  Carl  Lamm  in  1885.

BELLMEN,  appointed  in  London  to  proclaim
the  hour  of  the  night  before  public  clocks  became
general,  were  numerous  about  1556.  They  were  to
ring  a  bell  at  night,  and  cry,  "Take  care  of  your
fire  and  candle,  be  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  pray
for  the  dead."

BELLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  them,  about  569
B.C.  ;  and  to  him  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  tinder,
the  potter's  wheel,  anchors  for  ships,  &c.  Bellows
were  not  used  in  the  furnaces  of  the  Romans.  The
great  bellows  of  our  foundries  must  have  been  early
used ;  see  Blowing  Machines.

BELLS  were  used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and
Romans.  The  responses  of  the  Dodomrau  oracle
were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells.  Strabo.  The
monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated  with  pin-
nacles, each  surmounted  by  bells.  Pliny.  Said  to
have  been  introduced  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Kola,

*  Upon  this  rock,  it  is  said,  the  abbots  of  Aberbro
thock  fixed  the  Inchcape  bell,  so  that  it  was  rung  by  the
impulse  of  the  sea,  thus  warning  mariners.  It  is  also
said  that  a  Dutchman,  who  took  the  apparatus  away,
was  here  lost  with  his  ship  and  crew.


BELLS.


116


BENCOOLEN.


in  Campagna,  about  400;  and  first  known  in  France
in  550.  The  army  of  Clothaire  II.,  king  of  France,
was  frightened  from  the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing
of  the  bells  of  St.  Stephen's  church.  The  second
excerption  of  our  king  Egbert  commands  every
priest,  at  the  proper  hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his
church.  Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of
pope  John  IX.,  about  900,  as  a  defence,  by  ringing
them,  against  thunder  and  lightning.  Bells  are
mythically  said  to  have  been  cast  by  Turketul,
abbot  of  England,  about  941.  The  celebrated
"Song  of  the  Bell,"  by  Schiller  (died  1805),  has
been  frequently  translated.  The  following  list  is
that  given  by  Mr.  E.  Beckett  Denison  (afterwards
Lord  Grimthorpe)  in  his  discourse  on  bells  at  the
Eoyal  Institution,  6  March,  1857.  The  lecture  of
the  Eev.  H.  R.  Haweis,  at  the  same  place,  7  Feb. ,
1879,  was  well  illustrated.


Weight.
Tons  Cwt.
Moscow, 1736;*

broken,  1737  .  250  ?
Another,  1817.  .  no  ?
Three  others. 16  to  31


Novgorod
Olmtitz

Vienna,  1711 . .
Westminster,  1856,  t

"  Big  Ben  "
Erfurt,  1497 . .
Westminster,  18584

"St.  Stephen"
Sens

Paris,  1680 .
Montreal,  1847
Cologne,  1448
Breslau,  1507  . .
Gorlitz .


31  o

17  18
17  14

15  8^
13  15

13  iof
13  ?
12  16
12  15
11  3


10  17

London,  1882  (St.  Paul's).
Cologne,  1887 1]


Weight.
Tons  Cwt.
10  15

5


York,  1845 . .
Bruges,  1680
St.  Peter's,  Rome
Oxford,  1680 .  7  12
Lucerne,  1636. .  7  n
Halberstadt,  1457  7  IO
Antwerp . .  73
Brussels . .  7  ij
Dantzic,  1453 .  6  1
Lincoln,  1834 •  5  8
St.  Paul's,  i7i6§  .  5  4
Ghent  . . .  4  18
Boulogne,  new .  4  18
Exeter,  1675 .  4  10
Old  Lincoln,  1610  4  8
Fourth quarter-
bell, Westmin-
ster, 1857 .  4  o

Great  Paul  || about  17  J  o

about  26  13


Baptism  or  Bells. — They  were,  anointed  and  baptized
in  churches,  it  is  said,  from  the  10th  century.  Dv.
Fresnoy.  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Dunmow,  in
Essex,  were  baptized  by  the  names  of  St.  Michael,  St.
John,  Virgin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity,  <fcc,  in  1501.  Weever.
The  great  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  of  Paris,  was  baptized  by
the  name  of  duke  of  Angouleme,  1816.  On  the  continent,
in  Roman  Catholic  states,  they  baptize  bells  as  we  do
ships,  but  with  religious  solemnity. Ashe.

*  The  metal  has  been  valued  at  the  lowest  estimate,  at
66,565^  Gold  and  silver  are  said  to  have  been  thrown  in
as  votive  offerings.

t  The  largest  bell  in  England  (named  Big  Ben,  after
sir  Benjamin  Hall,  the  then  chief  commissioner  of  works),
cast  at  Houghton-le-Spring,  Durham,  by  Messrs.  Warner,
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  E.  Beckett  Denison,  and
the  Rev.  W.  Taylor,  at  an  expense  of  3343*.  14s.  gd.  The
composition  was  22  parts  copper  and  7  tin.  The  diameter
was  9  ft.  sh  in.  ;  the  height,  7  ft.  io£  in.  The  clapper
weighed  12  cwt. Rev.  W.  Taylor.

X  The  bell  ' '  Big  Ben  "  having  been  found  to  be  cracked
on  24  Oct.  1857,  it  was  broken  up  and  another  bell  cast
with  the  same  metal,  in  May,  1858,  by  Messrs.  Mears,
Wlutechapel.  It  is  rather  different  in  shape  from  its
predecessor,  "  Big  Ben,"  and  about  2  tons  lighter.  Its
diameter  is  9  ft.  6  in.  ;  the  height  7  ft.  10  in.  It  was
struck  for  the  first  time,  18  Nov.  1858.  The  clapper
weighs  6  cwt.— half  that  of  the  former  bell.  The  note  of
the  bell  is  E  natural ;  the  quarter-bells  being  G,  B,  E,  P.
On  1  Oct.  1859,  this  bell  was  also  found  to  be  cracked.

§  The  clapper  of  St.  Paul's,  bell  weighs  180  lbs.  •  the
diameter  of  the  bell  is  10  feet  (Mr.  Walesby  says  6  ft.
9^ in.),  and  its  thickness  10  in.  The  hour  strikes  upon
this  bell,  the  quarters  upon  two  smaller  ones ;  see  Clocks.

||  Height,  8  feet  10  in.  ;  diameter,  9  feet  6|  in.  ;  note
El7  ;  materials  tin  and  copper ;  cost  about  3000!.  ;  cast
by  Mr.  Taylor,  at  Loughborough  ;  raised  to  its  place  31
May,  dedicated  3  June,  1882.

If  Height  14J  feet;  diameter  at  the  mouth  11J  feet;
note  Of  or  D  ;  materials  chiefly  French  cannon  ;  cast  by
Andreas  Hamm  of  Frankenthal ;  dedicated  July  1887.


Ringing  of  Bells,  in  changes  of  regular  peals, is

almost  peculiar  to  the  English. Stoiv.

"  Companie  of  the  Schollers  of  Chepeside,"  1603  ;  "  So-
ciety of  College  Youths,"  1637  ;  "  Society  of  Cumber-
lands,"  1683  ;  the  "Society  of  Union  Scholars,"  1713  ;
the  "Society  of  Eastern  Scholars,"  1733;  "London.
Youths,"  1753;  "  Westminster  Youths,"  1776.

Fabian  Stedman,  about  1650,  invented  a  system  known
as  "  Stedman's  principle."  Benjamin  Anable  soon
after  invented  "Grandsire  Triples."

720  changes  can  be  rung  in  an  hour  upon  12  bells  ;.
479,001,600  changes  rung  upon  them,  require  75  years,
10  months,  and  10  days.

Nell  Gwynne  left  the.  ringers  of  the  bells  of  St.  Martin's-in-
the-fields  money  for  a  weekly  entertainment,  1687,  and
many  others  have  done  the  same.

A  central  council  of  Church  Bell  Ringers,  representing;
many  societies,  was  established  at  the  Inns  of  Court
hotel,  London,  10  April,  1890.

Carillons,  a  collection  of  bells,  arranged  in  two  or  three
chromatic  scales,  played  by  pedals  or  keyboards,  oir
by  machinery.  The  first  set  is  said  to  have  been  made?
at  Alost  in  Flanders,  in  1487,  and  that  country  and
Holland  are  renowned  for  carillons.  Matthias  van  dera
Gheyn  was  an  eminent  maker  (1721-85).  Excellent
carillon  machines  are  now  made  by  Messrs.  Gillet,
Bland  &  Co.,  Croydon.  One  at  Manchester  was  started
1  Jan.  1879. It  plays  35  tunes  on  20  bells.

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia
(S.  Asia). Khelat,  the  capital,  was  taken  by  the
British  in  the  Afghan  war,  1839;  abandoned,  July,
1840 ;  taken  and  held  a  short  time,  Not.  1840.
The  khan  was  subsidised  in 1854,  under  certain  con-
ditions, which  were  not  observed  ;  the  arrangement
was  broken  up  in 1873 ;  the  negotiations of  major
(after  sir  Robert)  Sandeman  in  1875  were  successful,
and  Quettah  was  occupied  by  the  British  in  1877,  and'
has  since  become  a  prosperous station. The  khan
proffered  assistance  after  the  defeat  of  gen.  Burrows
in  July,  1880.
Quettah, with  districts  of Pishin,  Thai  Chotiali,  and.
Sibi,  annexed  to  British  territories,  and  placed  under
a  chief  commissioner  ;  announced,  Nov.  1887.
Col.  sir  Robert  G. Sandeman,  the  chief  commissioner,
brave,  amiable,  and  conciliatory,  dies, 29  Jan. ; he1
was  succeeded  by  gen.  Browne,  Feb.  1892.

BELT  CASE,  see  Trials,  1882-4.

BELVEDERE  EXPLOSION, see Gun-
powder  (note).

BEN  ABES,  in  India,  a  holy  city  of  the  Hin-
doos, abounding  in  temples. It  was  ceded  by  the
nabob  of  Oude,  Asoph-ud-Dowlah,  to  the  English
in  1775. An  insurrection  took  place  here,  which
had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  the  British  interests  in
Hindostan,  1781. The  rajah:  Cheyt  Sing,  was  de-
posed in  consequence  of  it,  in  1783. Mr.  Cherry,
capt. Conway,  and others, were assassinated  at
Benares,  by  vizier  Aly,  14  Jan.  1799. In  June,
1857,  col.  Neil  succeeded  in  suppres^ng  attempts
of  the  native  infantry to  join  the  mutiny ; see
India. Visit  of  prince  of  Wales,  5  Jan.  1876.
New  water-works  : foundation  laid  by  prince  Albert
Victor,  Jan.  1890  ;  opposed  by  the  Brahmins  as  inter-
fering with  the  sacred  waters  and  temples  ;  serious
riots,  with  destruction of  property, suppressed  by
the  military,  16,  17  April,  1891 ;  peace  restored  by  a
compromise.

BENBURB,  near  Armagh  (N.  Ireland).  Here
O'Neill  totally  defeated  the  English  under  Monroe,
5  June,  1646.  Moore  says  that  it  was  "  the  only
great  victory  since  the  days  of  Brian  Boru,  achieved
by  an  Irish  chieftain  in  the  cause  of  Ireland."

BENCOOLEN  (Sumatra) .  The  English  East
India  company  made  a  settlement  here  which  pre-
served to  them  the  pepper  trade  after  the  Dutch  had
dispossessed  them  of  Bantam,  1682.  Anderson.  York
fort  was  erected  by  the  East  India  company,  1690.
In  1693  a  dreadful  mortality  raged  here,  occasioned
by  the  town  being  built  on  a  pestilent  morass;


BENDEE.


117


BENWELL TOWEE.


among  others  the  governor  and  council  perished.
The  French,  under  count  D'Estaign,  destroyed  the
English  settlement,  1760.  Bencoolen  was  reduced
to  a  residency  under  the  government  of  Bengal,  in
1801,  and  was  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  in  1824,  in  ex-
change for  their  possessions  in  Malacca ;  see  India.

BENDEE,  Bessarabia,  European  Russia.  Near
it  was  the  asylum  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  after
his  defeat  at  Puitowa  by  the  czar  Peter  the  Great,
■S  July,  1709.  The  peace  of  Bender  was  concluded
in  1711.  Bender  was  taken  by  storm,  by  the  Russians,
28  Sept.  1770;  was  taken  by  Potemkin  in  1789,  and
again  in  1809.  It  was  restored  at  the  peace  of
Jassy,  but  retained  at  the  peace  of  1812.

BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of  monks  founded
by  St.  Benedict  (lived  480-543),  who  iutroduced  the
monastic  life  into  Western  Europe,  in  529,  when  he
founded  the  monastery  on  Monte  Casino  in  Cam-
pania, and  eleven  others  afterwards.  His  Regula
Monaehorum  (rule  of  the  monks)  soon  became  the
•common  rule  of  western  monachism.  No  religious
order  has  been  so  remarkable  for  extent,  wealth,
and  men  of  note  and  learning,  as  the  Benedictine.
Among  its  branches  the  chief  were  the  Cluniacs,
founded  in  912 ;  the  Cistercians,  founded  in  1098,
and  reformed  by  St.  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  in
1 1 16;  and  the  Carthusians,  from  the  Chartreux
.(hence  Charter-house),  founded  by  Bruno  about
1080.  The  Benedictine  order  was  introduced  into
England  by  Augustin,  in  596;  and  William  I.  built
an  abbey  for  it  on  the  plain  where  the  battle  of
(Hastings  was  fought,  1066;  see  Battle- Abbey.
William  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Warrenne,  built  a
-convent  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  1077.  Of  this
•order  it  is  reckoned  that  there  have  been  40  popes,
200  cardinals,  50  patriarchs,  116  archbishops,  4600
■bishops,  4  emperors,  12  empresses,  46  kings,  41
■queens,  and  3600  saints.  Their  founder  was  canon-
ised. Baronius.  The  Benedictines  have  taken
little  part  in  politics,  but  have  produced  many
valuable  literary  works.  The  congregation  of  St.
Maur  published  the  celebrated  "l'Ait  de  Verifier  les
Dates,"  in  1750,  and  edited  many  ancient  authors.

'The  Benedictines  with  other  orders  were  expelled
from  France  by  decree ... 29  March,  1880

The  14th  centenary  of  the  birth  of  St.  Benedict  was
kept  at  Monte  Casino  and  other  places April, ,,

BENEFICE  (literally  a  good  deed  or  favour),
or  Fief.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in  the  12th
century,  when  the  priesthood  began  to  imitate  the
feudal  lay  system  of  holding  lands  for  performing
certain  duties :  till  then  the  priests  were  supported
hj  alms  and  oblations  at  mass.  Vicarages,  rectories,
perpetual  curacies,  and  chaplaincies,  are  termed
benefices,  in  contradistinction  to  dignities,  such  as
'bishoprics,  &c.  A  rector  is  entitled  to  all  the  tithes ;
a  vicar,  to  a  small  part  or  to  none. — All  benefices  that
should  become  vacant  in  the  space  of  six  months,
were  given  by  pope  Clement  VII.  to  his  nephew,  in
1534.  Notitia  Monastica.  An  act  for  the  aug-
mentation of  poor  benefices  by  the  sale  of  some  01
those  in  the  presentation  of  the  lord  chancellor,  was
passed  in  1863,  and  an  act  respecting  the  seques-
tration of  benefices  and  their  union  passed,  187 1.
The  Commission  on  Ecclesiastical  Benefices  reported,
recommending  amendments  in  sales  of  advow-
sons,  discontinuance  of  sale  by  auction,  &c.

about  3  Nov.  1879

BENEFIT  OF  CLEEGY,  see  Clergy.

BENEFIT  SOCIETIES,  see  Friendly
Societies.

BENEVENTUM  (now  Benevento),  an  ancient
city  in  South  Italy,  said  to  have  been  founded  by


Diomedes  the  Greek,  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  Pyr-
rhus  of  Macedon,  during  his  invasion  of  Italy,  was
totally  defeated  near  Beneventum,  275  u.c.  Near
it  was  erected  the  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  a.d.
114.  Benevento  was  formed  into  a  duchy  by  the
Lombards,  571.  At  a  battle  fought  here,  26  Feb.
1266,  Manfred,  king  of  Sicily,  was  defeated  andslain
by  Charles  of  Anj  ou,  who  thus  became  virtually  master
of  Italy.  The  castle  was  built  1323  ;  the  town  was
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  1688,  when  the
archbishop,  afterwards  pope  Benedict  XIII.,  was
dug  out  of  the  ruins  alive,  and  contributed  to  its  sub-
sequent rebuilding,  1703.  It  was  seized  by  the
king  of  Naples,  but  restored  to  the  pope  on  the
suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Talleyrand  de
Perigord,  Bonaparte's  arch-chancellor,  was  made
prince  of  Benevento,  1806.  Benevento  was  taken
by  the  French,  1798,  and  restored  to  the  pope  in
1815.

BENEVOLENCES  (Aids,  Free  Gifts,  actually
Forced  Loans)  appear  to  have  been  claimed  by  our
Anglo-Saxon  sovereigns.  Special  ones  were  levied
by  Edward  IV.,  1473,  by  Richard  III.,  1485  (al-
though a  statute  forbidding  them  was  enacted
in  1484),  by  Henry  VII.,  1492;  and  by  James
I.,  in  1013,  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the
princess  Elizabeth  with  Frederick,  the  elector
palatine,  afterwards  king  of  Bohemia.  In  1615
Oliver  St.  John,  M.P.,  was  fined  5000/.,  and  chief
justice  Coke  disgraced,  for  severely  censuring  such
modes  of  raising  money.  Benevolences  were  de-
clared illegal  by  the  bill  of  rights,  Feb.  1689.

BENEVOLENT,  or  Strangers'  Friend  So-
ciety, established  1785;  Loan  Society,  1817;  So-
ciety of  Blues,  1824;  Society  of  St.  Patrick,  1784.

BENGAL,  chief  presidency  of  British  India,
containing  Calcutta,  the  capital.  Its  governors
were  appointed  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi,  till
J3J.0,  when  it  became  independent.  It  was  added
to  the  Mogul  empire  by  liaber,  about  1529;  see
India  and  Calcutta.  Population  1881,66,589,553;
1 89 1,  70,909,260.

The  English  first  permitted  to  trade  to  Bengal.  .  1534
They  establish  a  settlement  at  Hooghly  .  about  1652
Factories  of  the  French  and  Danes  set  up . . 1664

Bengal  made  a  distinct  agency 1680

Mr.  William  Hedges  appointed  agent  and  governor  1681
The  English  settlement  removed  to  Fort  William .  1698
Imperial  grant  vesting  the  revenues  of  Bengal  in  the
company,  by  which  it  gained  the  sovereignty  of

the  country 12  Aug.  1765

Mr.  Warren  Hastings  governor 1772

India  Bill  ;  Bengal  made  chief  presidency  ;  supreme

court  of  judicature  established  .  .  16  June,  1773
Bishop  of  Calcutta  appointed . . 21  July,  1813

Railway  opened 15  Aug.  1854

Awful  famine  in  Orissa  (which  sec)  .  .  .  1865-66
Lieut. -governor,  lion.  Win.  Grey .... 1867

,,  ,, Geo.  Campbell 1871

Deficiency in rainfall; consequent famine (see

India) Oct. 1873

Cyclone  :  Mednapore  destroyed  ;  about  2,000  perish

Oct.  1874
Lieut. -governor,  sir  RichardTomple . . . ,,
,, ' „  hon.  sir  Ashley  Eden . . . 1877

„  Mr.  (aft.  Sir)  Rivers  Thompson .

March,  1882

Sir  C.  S.  Bayley . . April,  1887

„  ,,  Sir  Chas.  A.  Elliott .  . 1890

Bengal  Tenancy  Bill  passed . . . 11  March,  1885

Cyclone  on  the  Orissa  coast ;  about  5,000  perish

22  Sept. „

BEN  NEVIS,  a  mountain  in  Inverness-shire,
the  loftiest  in  Britain,  4,406  feet  above  the  sea;
see  Meteorology,  1883-4.

BENWELL  TOWEE,  about  two  miles  "W.
of  Newcastle  [value  above  12,000/.],  was  presented


BENZOLE.


118


BERLIN.


by  Mr.  John  AVm.  Pease  to  be  the  palace  of  the
new  bishopric  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Nov.  1881.

BENZOLE, or  Benzine,  a  compound  of

hydrogen  and  carbon,  discovered  by  Faraday  in  the

oils  of  portable  gas  (1825),  obtained  by  Mitscherlich

from  benzoic  acid  (1834)  and  by  C.  B.  Mansfield  in

coal  tar  (1848),  the  latter  of  whom  unfortunately

died  in  consequence  of  being  severely  burnt  while

experimenting  on  it  (26  Feb.  1855). Benzole  has

become  useful  in  the  arts. Chemical  research  has

produced  from  it  aniline  {which  see),  the  source  of

the  celebrated  modern  dyes,  mauve,  magenta,  and

many  others ;  see  Alizarine  and  Indigo.

Aromatic  essences  and perfumes  have  been  obtained

from  benzole by  Perkin, Tiemann, Harrmann,  and

others. Febrifuge  medicines,  by  O.  Fischer,  Dewar,

McKendrick  and  others,  in  1881. And  saccharine,  a

principle  220  times  sweeter  than  cane  sugar,  by  Fahl-

berg  and  Reinsert,  patented  in  Britain  in  1SS6  ;  not

nutritious  and  said  to  cause  indigestion.

BEOWULF,  an  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  epic
poem,  describing  events  which  probably  occurred
in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century,  supposed  to  have
been  written  subsequent  to  597.  An  edition  by
Kemble  was  published  in  1833.  It  has  been  trans-
lated by  Kemble,  Thorpe,  and  Wackerbarth.

BEBBICE  (S.  America),  settled  by  the  Dutch,
1626,  who  surrendered  it  to  the  British,  23  April,

1796,  and  22  Sept.  1803;  and  finally  in  1814.  It
was  united  to  Demerara  and  named  British  Guiana,
1831.

BERDITSCHEFF,  Kiev,  S.  Russia.  At  the
burning  of  a  circus  here  about  300  persons  perish,
13  Jan.  1883.

BERENGARIANS,  followers  of  Berengarius,
archdeacon  of  Angers,  who,  about  1049,  opposed  the
Romish  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  or  the  real
presence  in  the  Lord's  supper.  Several  councils
of  the  church  condemned  his  doctrine,  1050-79.
After  much  controversy  he  recanted  about  1079,  and
died  grieved  and  wearied  in  6  Jan.  1088.

BERESINA,  a  river  in  Russia,  crossed  by  the
French  main  army  after  its  defeat  by  the  Russians,
25-29  Nov.  1812.  The  French  lost  upwards  of
20,000  men,  and  their  retreat  .was  attended  by
great  calamity  and  suffering.

_  BERG  (W.  Germany),  on  the  extinction  of  its
line  of  counts,  in  1348,  was  incorporated  with
Juliers.  Napoleon  I.  made  Murat  grand-duke  in
1806. The  principal  part  is  now  held  by  Prussia.

BERGAMO  (N.  Italy),  a  Lombard  duchy,  was
annexed  to  Venice,  1428 ;  which  chiefly  held  it  till
it  revolted,  and  was  joined  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,

1797.  It  was  awarded  to  Austria  in  1814,  and
ceded  to  Sardinia,  1859.

BERGEN  (Norway),  founded  1070;  was  the
royal  residence  during  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.
Population  1891,  53,686.

BERGEN  (in  Germany),  BATTLE  OF,  be-
tween the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated,
13  April,  175^2.— (In  Holland)  i.  The  allies  under
the  duke  ot  York  were  defeated  by  the  French,
under  gen.  Brune,  with  great  loss,  19  Sept.  1799.
2.  In  another  battle,  fought  2  Oct.  same  year,  the
duke  gained  a  victory  over  Brune;  but  on  the
6th,  the  duke  was  defeated  before  Alkmaer,  and  on
the  20th  entered  into  a  convention,  by  which  his
army  was  exchanged  for  6000  French  and  Dutch
prisoners  in  England.

BERGEN  -  OP  -  ZOOM,  in  Holland.  This
place,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable,  was
taken  by  the  French,  16  Sept.  1747,  and  again  in


1795-  An  attempt,  made  by  the  British  under
general  sirT.  Graham  (afterwards  lord  Lynedoch),
to  carry  the  fortress  by  storm,  was  defeated  ;  after
forcing  an  entrance,  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and
a  dreadful  slaughter  ensued  ;  nearly  all  were  cut  to
pieces  or  made  prisoners,  8  March,  1814.

BERGERAC,  France.  Here  John  of  Gaunt,
then  earl  of  Derby,  defeated  the  French,  in  1344,
and  here  a  temporary  treaty  of  peace  between  the
Catholics  and  Protestants,  establishing  liberty  of
conscience,  was  signed  17  Sept.  1577.

BERKELEY  CASTLE,  Gloucestershire,  was
begun  by  Henry  I.  in  1 108,  and  finished  in  the  next
reign.  Here  Edward  II.  was  cruelly  murdered  by
the  contrivance  of  his  queen  Isabella  (a  princess  of
France),  and  her  paramour,  Mortimer,  earl  of
March,  21  Sept.  1327.  Mortimer  was  hanged  at  the
Elms,  near  London,  29  Nov.  1330;  and  Edward  III.
confined  his  mother  in  her  own  house  at  Castle-
Rising,  near  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  till  her  death,  1357.
The  Berkeley  peerage  suit  in  the  court  of  Chancery,  due

to  a  disputed  marriage,  lasted  from  1416  to  1609.
In  another  suit  owing  to  a  disputed  marriage  in  iSir,
Thomas  Moreton  Fitz  Hardinge  Berkeley  became  6th
earl.  Earl  Fitz  Hardinge  died  unmarried  in  1857.  His
next  brother  Maurice's  claim  for  the  barony  of  Berke-
ley was  not  granted,  23  July,  1858.  The  committee
of  privileges  of  the  house  of  lords  met  to  consider  the
claims  of  earl  Fitzhardinge  and  Mr.  Randal  Mowbray
Thomas  Berkeley  for  the  Berkeley  Peerage,  23  April ;
committee  decided  in  favour  of  Mr.  R.  M.  T.  Berkeley,.
31  July,  1891,  thus  confirming  lord  Eldon's  decision  id
'1811.

BERLIN  (capital  of  Prussia,  in  the  province
of  Brandenburg),  and  since  187 1,  of  the  German
empire,  alleged  to  have  been  founded  by  the
margrave  Albert  the  Bear,  about  1163.  Its  five
districts  were  united  under  one  magistracy,  in  1714  ;
and  it  was  subsequently  made  the  capital  of  Prussia
and  greatly  improved  by  the  sovereigns.  It  was-
taken  and  held  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  9-13,
Oct.  1760.  Establishment  of  the  Academy  of
Sciences,  1702;  of  the  university,  1810.  On  27
Oct.  1806,  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (14  Oct.),  the
French  entered  Berlin  ;  and  from  this  place  Napo-
leon issued  the  famous  Berlin  decree,  an  interdict
against  the  commerce  of  England,  20  Nov.  It  de-
clared the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  block-
ade, and  ordered  all  Englishmen  found  in  countries
occupied  by  French  troops  to  be  treated  as  prisoners
of  war.  On  5  Nov.  1808,  Napoleon  entered  into  a
convention  with  Prussia,  by  which  he  remitted  to
Prussia  the  sum  due  on  the  war-debt,  and  withdrew
many  of  his  troops  to  reinforce  his  armies  in  Spain.
See Prussia, 1866, 187 1. Population in 1890,

1,579.244-

The  railway  to  Magdeburg  opened . . 10  Sept. 1843
The  first  constituent  assembly  held  here 21  June,  1842
An  insurrection  commenced  here . . March,  184.S
Berlin  was  declared  in  a  state  of  siege .  12  Nov. „
The  continuation  of  this  state  was  declared  to  be
illegal  without  its concurrence by the lower

chamber 25  April,  1849.

A  treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and  Saxony  was

signed 21  Oct. 1866

The  victorious  army  entered  Berlin,  20  Sept.  1866  ;

and  16  June.  1873
The  monument  of  Victory,  in  memory  of  the  wars
with  Denmark  (1864),  Austria  (1866),  and  France
(1870-1),  solemnly  uncovered  .  .  2  Sept.  1873
Meeting  of  chancellors  of  Germany;  Austria,  and
Russia,  11,  12  May  ;  they  agree  to  an  urgent  note
to  Turkey  on  the  eastern  policy  ;  expressed  in  a
note  dated  13  May  ;  accepted  by  Italy  and  France  ;
received  iu  London,  15  May;  its  acceptance  by
the  earl  of  Derby  declined,  as  her  majesty's
government  had  not  been  consulted,  19  May  ;
this  note  not  presented  through  the  revolution
in  Turkey  30  May,  1876


BERLIN WORK.


119


BERNE.


The  "Berlin  note"  printed  in  the  Times  . 4  July,  1876

International  fish  and  fishing  exhibition  opened  by
the  crown  prince .... 20  April,  1880

International  Hygienic  exhibition  burnt ;  great  loss
12  May,  18S2  ;  opened  12  May,  closed 15  Oct.  1883

National  theatre  burnt  .... 4  April,  ,,

Statues  of  Wilhelm  and  Alexander  von  Humboldt
uncovered  in  presence  of  the  emperor  . 28  May, ,,

Foundation  of  New  German  parliament-house  laid
by  the  emperor  in  the  presence  of  a  grand  as-
sembly 9  June,  1884

International  Art  Exhibition  opened  by  the  emperor

22  May,  1886

Monument  to  Frederick  William  IV.  unveiled  by
the  emperor 10  June, ,,

Queen  Victoria  warmly  received  here  24  April ;
meets  prince  Bismarck  25  April ;  left . 26  April,  1888

New  museum  of  natural  history  opened  by  the
emperor 2  Dec.  1889

Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  and  prince  George

21-28  March  1890

Address  from  30,000  Berlin  citizens  presented  to
prince  Bismarck 22  June ,,

International  arts  exhibition  opened  by  the  empress
Frederick 1  May  1891

Britain,  Italy,  Spain,  well  represented;  a  few
French  works  sent.  British  artists  and  others
receive  gold  medals . . . . 20  July ,,

Bevolting  murder  of  a  woman,  and  other  murders

24  and  25  Oct. ,,

Suspension  of  Messrs.  Hirschfeld  &  Wolff,  bankers ;
great  losses,  about  4  Nov.,  suspension  of  Fried-
lander,  Felix,  &  Siegmund  Sommerfeld  (Felix
commits  suicide) 7  Nov. ,,

Socialist  riots  of  the  unemployed  suppressed  by  the
armed  police,  25-27  Feb.  ;  rioters  sentenced  to
various  terms  of  imprisonment . 19  March  1892

BERLIN CONGRESS ON  THE EASTERN QUESTION.

Representatives  (with  resident  ambassadors).:  Ger-
many, prince  Bismarck,  president ;  Russia,
prince  Gortschakoff ;  Turkey,  Alexander  Cara-
theodori ;  Great  Britain,  lord  Beaconsfield  and
marquis  of  Salisbury  (lord  Odo  Russell  ambas-
sador) ;  Austria,  count  Andrassy ;  France,
M.  Waddington  ;  Italy,  count  Corti.
First  meeting, 13  June  ; 20th  and  last  meeting  ;

treaty  signed 13  July,  1878

Articles  1 — 12.  Bulgaria  constituted  an  autonomous
principality,  tributary  to  the  sultan ;  the
Balkans  southern  limit ;  the  prince,  to  be
elected  by  the  population,  approved  by  the
sultan  and  other  powers  ;  public  laws,  and
other  details.
,,  13—22.  New  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia
constituted  ;  partially  autonomous ;  boun-
daries defined  ;  Christian  governor-general  to
be  appointed  by  the  sultan  ;  to  be  organised
by  an  Austrian  commission  ;  a  Russian  army
of  occupation,  to  remain  nine  months.
,, 23.  Bosnia  and Herzegovina  to be occupied

and  administered  by  Austria-Hungary.
,, 24—30.  Montenegro  to  be  independent ; new

frontiers  ;  Antivari  annexed.
,, 31 — 39.  Servia  to  be  independent,  with  new

frontiers.
,, 40—49.  Roumania  to be  independent,  losing
part  of  Bessarabia  to  Russia,  with  compensation.
,  ,, 50 — 54. Regulation of navigation of the
Danube,  &c.
>> 55 — 57-  Legal  reforms  in  Crete,  &c.
,, 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan,
" Kars,  and  Batoum,  and  settles  boundaries.
,, 59.  Batoum  to  be  a  free  commercial  port.
,, 60.  Alasgird  and  Bayazid  restored  to  Turkey.
,, 61 — 62. The Porte engages to realise legal

reforms,  and  to  grant  religious  liberty,  &c.
,, 63.  The.  treaty  of  Paris  (30  March,  1856),  and
of  London  (13  March,  1871),  maintained  when
not  modified  by  this  treaty.
,, 64.  Treaty  to  be  ratified  in  three  weeks'  time.

Ratified  .  3  Aug. ,,

Circular  respecting  delay  in  fulfilling  the  treaty
from  earl  Granville,  the  British  foreign  secretary,
to  the  foreign  powers .... May,  1880


Berlin  conference  (16  June— i  July,  1880).

The  ambassadors  :  for  Great  Britain,  lord  Odo
Russell  (after,  lord  Ampthill)  ;  France,  comte
de  St.  Vallier,  etc.  president,  prince  Hohenlohe,
German  foreign  minister.

They  agree  to  a  collective  note  presented  to  the
sultan  of  Turkey-  (urging  the  surrender  of  Dul-
cigno  and  cession  of  provinces  to  Greece),  which
is  presented 15  July,  1880

Berlin  conference  respecting  the  condition  of
the  working  classes  proposed  by  the  German
emperor,  4  Feb.  The  delegates  (with  the  ambas-
sadors and  ministers)  meet . . .  15  March  1890

[Delegates  :  Great  Britain,  sir  John  Gorst  ;  France,
M.  Jules  Simon  ;  Italy,  senator  Boceardo,  and
others.  The  conference  opened  by  baron  von
Berlepsch,  Prussian  minister  of  commerce,
elected  president,  15  March,  closed  29  March,
1890.  Subjects  discussad  :  regulation  of  labour
in  mines,  of  Sunday  labour,  and  of  the  labour  of
children  and  youths.  Recommendations  adopted
referred  to  the  respective  legislatures.]

For  other  Berlin  conferences,  see  Samoa.n  Isles,
1889,  West  African  Settlements,  Dulcigno,  Turkey
and  Greece,  1 880-1.

BERLIN  WORK,  see  Embroidery.

BERMUDAS  or  Summers'  Isles,  a  group

in  the  North  Atlantic  ocean,  discovered  by  Juan
Bermudas,  a  Spaniard,  in  1522,  but  not  inhabited
until  1609,  when  sir  George  Summers  was  cast
away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  stat.  9
James  I.,  1612.  Among  the  exiles  from  England
during  the  civil  war  was  Waller,  the  poet,  who
wrote,  while  resident  here,  a  poetical  description  of
the  islands.  There  was  an  awful  hurricane  here,
31  Oct.  1780,  and  by  another,  a  third  of  the  houses  was
destroyed,  and  the  shipping  driven  ashore,  20  July,
1813.  A  large  iron  dry  dock  here,  which  cost
250,000^.,  was  towed  from  the  Medway  to  the  Ber-
mudas, in  June  and  July,  1869.  Governors,  sir  Fred.
E.  Chapman,  1867;  gen.  J.  H.  Lefroy,  March,
1871  ;  Sir  Robert  Michael  Laffan,  Feb.  1877 ;  died
22  March,  1882;  lieut.-gen.  T.  L.  J.  Gallwey,  1882;
lieut.-gen.  N.  Newdigate,  July,  1888;  lieut.-gen.
T.  C.  Lyons,  June,  1892.  Visited  by  the  princess
Louise,  Jan.  1883. Population,  1890,  15,013.

BERNAL  COLLECTION  of  articles  of
taste  and  virtu,  formed  by  lialph  Bernal,  Esq.,  many
years  chairman  of  committees  of  ways  and  means
in  the  house  of  commons.  He  died  26  Aug.  1854.
The  sale  in  Maix-h,  1856,  lasted  31  days,  and  enor-
mous prices  were  given.  The  total  sum  realised  was
62,680;.  6s.  U.

BERNARD,  MOUNT  ST.,  so  called  from  a
monastery  founded  on  it  by  Bernardine  Menthon  in
962.  Velan,  its  highest  peak,  is  about  8000  feet
high,  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Hannibal,  it  is
said,  conducted  the  Carthaginians  by  this  pass  into
Italy  (218  B.C.) ;  and  by  the  same  route,  in  May,
1800,  Bonaparte  led  his  troops  to  Italy  before  the
battle  of  Marengo,  14  June.  On  the  summit  of
Great  St.  Bernard  is  the  ancient  monastery  still
held  by  a  community  of  monks,  who  entertain
travellers.

BERNARDINES,  or  White  Monks, a

strict  order  of  Cistercian  monks,  established  by  St.
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  about  11 15.  He  founded
many  monasteries.

BERNE,  the  sovereign  canton  of  Switzerland,
joined  the  Swiss  League,  1352;  the  town  Berne  was
made  a  free  city  by  the  emperor  Frederick,  May,
1218  ;  it  successfully  resisted  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,
1288.  It  surrendered  to  the  French  under  general
Brune,  12  April,  1798.  The  town  has  bears  for  its
arms,  and  some  of  these  animals  are  still  maintained
on  funds  specially  provided  for  the  purpose. It  was


BEEEY.


120


BHOPAL.


made  capital  of  Switzerland, 1848. Population,
1888:  canton,  536,679 ;  town,  46,009.
The  700th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  Berne
by  duke  Berchtold  V.  of  Zahnugen,  celebrated

14-17  Aug.  1891
Meeting  of  the  International  Geographical  congress

10-14  Aug. ,,

BEEEY  (the  ancient  Biturigum  regis),  central
France,  held  by  the  Romans  since  the  conquest  by
Csesar  (58-50  B.C.)  till  it  was  subdued  by  the  Visi-
goths ;  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Clovis  in  a.d.
507.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  John  II.  in
1360,  and  was  not  incorporated  into  the  royal  do-
mains till  1601.  The  due  de  Berry,  son  of  Charles,
and  father  of  comte  de  Chambord,  was  assassinated
13  Feb.  1820.

BEESAGLIEEI,  the  sharpshooters  of  the
Sardinian  army,  first  employed  about  1848.

BEEWICK-ON-TWEED,  a  fortified  town
on  the  north-east  extremity  of  England,  the  theatre
of  many  bloody  contests  while  England  and  Scot-
land were  two  kingdoms ;  it  was  claimed  by  the
Scots  because  it  stood  on  their  side  of  the  river.  Here
John  Baliol  did  homage  for  Scotland,  30  Nov.  1292.
It  was  annexed  to  England  in  1333  ;  and  after  hav-
ing been  taken  and  retaken  many  times,  was  finally
ceded  to  England  in  1482.  In  1551  it  was  made
independent  of  both  kingdoms.  The  town  sur-
rendered to  Cromwell  in  1648,  and  to  general  Monk
in  1659.  Since  the  union  of  the  crowns  (James  I.
1603),  the  strong  fortifications  have  been  neglected.
The  borough  was  absorbed  into  Northumberland  in
1885  in  respect  to  parliamentary  elections.  Popula-
tion 1881,  13,998;  1891,  13,378.

BESSABABIA,  afrontier  province  of  European
Russia,  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia.  After  being
possessed  by  the  Goths,  Huns,  &c,  it  was  conquered
by  the  Turks,  1474,  seized  by  the  Russians,  1770,
and  ceded  to  them  in  1812.  The  part  annexed  to
Roumania  in  1856,  was  restored  to  Russia  at  the
close  of  the  war  in  1878,  in  exchange  for  the
Dobrudscha,  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July,  and
given  up,  21  Oct.  1878. Population  1886,  1,612,175.

BESSEMEE,  see  Steel  and  Steam  Navigation.

BETHELL'S  ACT,  see  Fraudulent.

BETHLEHEM  now  contains  a  large  convent,
enclosing,  as  is  said,  the  very  birthplace  of  Christ;
a  church  erected  by  the  empress  Helena  in  the  form
of  a  cross,  about  325;  a  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of
the  Nativity,  where  they  pretend  to  show  the  manger
in  which  Christ  was  laid  ;  another,  called  the  Chapel
of  Joseph ;  and  a  third,  of  the  Holy  Innocents.
Bethlehem  is  much  visited  by  pilgrims. — The  Beth-
lehemite  monks  existed  in  England  in  1257.

BETHLEHEM  HOSPITAL  (so  called  from
having  been  originally  the  hospital  of  St.  Mary  of
Bethlehem),  a  royal  foundation  for  the  reception  of
lunatics,  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1547.  The
old  Bethlehem  Hospital,  Moorfields,  erected  in  1676,
pulled  down  in  1814,  was  built  in  imitation  of  the
Tuileries  at  Paris.  The  present  hospital  in  St.
George' s-fields  was  begun  April,  1812,  and  opened
in  1815.  In  1856  extensive  improvements  were
completed  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Sydney  Smirke.
Income  1876,  25,184/.

BETHNAL  GEEEN, E. London,  a  poor,

populous  parish  ;  said  to  have  been  the  seat  of  Henry
de  Montfort,  hero  of  the  "  Blind  Beggar  of  Bethnal
Green"  {Percy  Ballads).  Many  churches  have  been
recently  erected  by  the  instrumentality  of  bishop
Blomfield  and  others,  and  the  district  has  been  much


favoured  by  the  baroness  Burdett-Coutts.  The  East
London  Museum  here,  a  branch  of  that  at  South
Kensington,  was  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  24
June,  1872.  Sir  Richard  Wallace  lent  to  it  for  a
time  a  collection  of  fine  pictures  and  valuable  curio-
sit  ies  collected  by  his  father,  the  marquis  of  Hert-
ford. He  died  20  July,  1890.  The  gardens  opened
19  May,  1875.  See  Parks.  Returns  two  M.P.'s
by  Act  of  1885.  Population  1881,  126,961  ;  1891,
129,134.

BETHUNE,  France,  an  independent  lordship
since  the  nth  century,  was  annexed  to  the  monarchy
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  17 13,  after  several  changes.

BETTEEMENT,  is  a  term  in  American  law,
applied  to  the  improvement  of  property  in  any
locality,  by  the  expenditure  of  public  money  or
otherwise,  and  it  is  therefore  held,  that  such  pro-
perty ought  to  be  called  upon  to  contribute  more  to
taxation.  The  question  was  much  discussed  in
1889-90  in  relation  to  the  Strand  Improvement
bill.

BETTING-HOUSES,  affordingmuch  tempta-
tion to  gaming,  and  consequent  dishonesty,  in  the
lower  classes,  were  suppressed  by  an  act  passed  in
1853  (16  &  17  Vict.  c.  119).  A  Pari-mutuel,  or
mutual  betting  machine,  in  Aug.,  and  the  "  Knights-
bridge  Exchange,"  a  betting  company,  2  Nov.  1870,
were  declared  illegal,  see  Races.  New  Betting  Act
passed  8  June,  1874.

In  1874  this  Act  was  applied  to  betting  stations  at  races  ;
legal  proceedings  against  Mr.  H.  Chaplin,  as  steward
of  the  Jockey  Club,  were  quashed  by  the  magistrates
at  Newmarket.

Betting  reported  to  have  greatly  increased,  1889,  1892.

BEVEELEY,  E.  Yorkshire,  the  Saxon  Bever-
lac,  or  Beverlega.  St.  John  of  Beverley,  arch-
bishop of  York,  founded  a  stately  monastery  here,
and  died  721  ;  and  on  his  account  the  town  received
honours  from  Athelstane,  William  I.,  and  other
sovereigns.  It  was  disfranchised  for  corruption  in
1870,  after  a  long  investigation.  Population  1881,
11,425;  1 891,  12,539.

BEYEOUT  (the  ancient  Berytus),  a  seaport  of
Syria,  colonised  from  Sidon.  It  was  destroyed  by
an  earthquake,  566;  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alter-
nately possessed  by  the  Christians  and  Saracens ;
and  after  many  changes,  fell  into  the  power  of  Amu-
rath  IV.  It  was  taken  during  the  Egyptian  revolt
by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  1832.  The  total  defeat  of  the
Egyptian  army  by  the  allied  British,  Turkish,  and
Austrian  forces,  and  evacuation  of  Bey  rout  (the
Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  pri-
soners, and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon),  took  place  10
Oct.  1840.  Sir  C.  Napier  was  the  English  admiral
engaged.  Beyrout  suffered  greatly  in  consequence
of  the  massacres  in  Syria  in  May,  i860.  In  Nov.
i860  above  27,000  persons  were  said  to  be  in  danger
of  starving.  Population  in  1885,  85,000.  See  Syria.

BHOOTAN,  a  country  north  of  Lower  Bengal,
with  whom  a  treaty  was  made  25  April,  1774.  After
fruitless  negotiations,  Bhootan  was  invaded  by  tho
British  in  Dec.  1864,  in  consequence  of  injurious
treatment  of  an  envoy.  See  India,  1864-5.
By  an  insurrection  the  Deb  Rajah  was  deposed,  Aug.  1885.

BHOPAL,  capital  of  a  native  state  in  Central
India,  founded  in  1723  by  Dost  Mohammed  Khan,
and  made  dependent  on  the  British  government  in
1818.  The  able  female  sovereign,  the  begum
Shah  Jahiin,  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Star
of  India  in  1872.  Bhopal  was  visited  by  the  viceroy
of  India,  Nov.  1891 ;  when  the  begum  welcomed
him  with  a  very  loyal  address.


BHURTPORE.


121


BIBLE.


BHURTPOBE  (India),  capital  of  Bhurtpore,
was  besieged  by  the  British,  3  Jan.  1805,  and  at-
tacked live  times  up  to  21  March,  without  success.
After  a  desperate  engagement  with  Holkar,  the
Mahratta  chief,  2  April,  1805,  the  fortress  was  sur-
rendered to  general  Lake.  By  a  treaty,  the  rajah
of  Bhurtpore  agreed  to  pay  twenty  lacs  of  rupees,
ceded  territories  that  had  been  granted  to  him,  and
delivered  his  son  as  hostage,  17  April,  1805.  On
the  rajah's  death,  during  a  revolt  against  his  son,
Bhurtpore  was  taken  by  storm,  by  lord  Combermere,
18  Jan.  1826  ;  see  India.

BIANCHI  (Whites),  a  political  party  at  Flo-
rence, in  1300,  in  favour  of  the  Ghibelines  or  impe-
rial party,  headed  by  Vieri  de'  Cerchi,  opposed  the
Neri  (or  Blacks),  headed  by  Corsode'  Donati.  The
latter  banished  their  opponents,  among  whom  was
the  poet  Dante,  in  1302.  "Bianchi"  were  also
male  and  female  penitents,  clothed  in  white,  who
travelled  through  Italy  in  Aug.  1399 ;  and  were
suppressed  by  pope  Boniface  IX. ,  1400.

BIARCH  Y-  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,
died,  he  left  two  sons,  twins,  Eurysthenes  and
Procles  ;  and  the  people,  not  knowing  to  whom  pre-
cedence should  be  given,  placed  both  upon  the
throne,  and  thus  established  the  first  biarchy,  1102
B.C.  The  descendants  of  each  reigned  for  about
800  years. Herodotus.

BIARRITZ,  a  bathing-place  near  Bayonne.
Here  resided  the  comtesse  de  Montijo  and  her
daughter  Eugenie,  empress  of  the  French,  till  her
marriage,  29  Jan.  1853.  It  was  frequently  visited
by  the  emperor  and  empress.
Visited  by  Queen  A'ictoria. . 7  March — 2  April,  1889

BIBERACH  (Wuitemberg).  Here  Moreau
twice  defeated  the  Austriar.s, — under  Latour,  2  Oct.
1796,  and  under  Kray,  9  May,  1800.

BIBLE  (from  the  Greek  biblos,  a  book),  the
name  especially  given  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The
Old  Testament  is  said  to  have  been  collected  and
arranged  by  Ezra  between  458  and  450  B.C.  The
Apocrypha  are  considered  as  inspired  writings  by
the  Roman  Catholics,  but  iiot  by  the  Jews  and  Pro-
testants; *  see  Apocrypha.

OLD  TESTAMENT,  f

Genesis  contains  the  history  of  the  world

from  B.C.  4004 — 1635

Exodus 1635— 1490

Leviticus  ........  1490

Numbers 1490— 1451

Deuteronomy! 1451

*  In  April,  1865,  was  published  a  proposal  for  raising
a  fund  for  exploring  Palestine  in  order  to  illustrate  the
Bible  by  antiquarian  and  scientific  investigation.  The
first  meeting  was  held  22  June,  1865,  the  archbishop  of
York  in  the  chair  ;  see  Palestine.

t  The  division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters  has  been
ascribed  to  archbishop  Lanfranc  in  the  nth,  and  to  arch-
bishop Langton  in  the  13th  century  ;  but  T.  Hartwell
Home  considers  the  real  author  to  ha\e  been  cardinal
Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen-
tury. The  division  into  sections  was  commenced  by
Rabbi  Nathan  (author  of  a  Concordance),  about  1445,  and
completed  by  Athras,  a  Jew,  in  1661.  The  present  divi-
sion into  verses  was  introduced  by  the  celebrated  printer,
Kobert  Stephens,  in  his  Greek  Testament  (1551)  and  in
his  Latin  Bible  (1556-7).

X  Fragments  of  portions  of  this  book,  on  leather,  as-
serted to  have  been  written  about  the  8th  century  B.C.,
obtained  from  Arabs  in  Jerusalem  by  M.  Shapira,  were
exhibited  in  the  British  Museum,  Aug.  1883,  and  after  a
critical  examination  by  Dr.  Ginsburg  and  others,  de-
clared to  be  forged.  M.  Shapira,  probably  insane,  com-
mitted suicide  at  Rotterdam,  9  March,  1884.  Dr.
Harkavy,  of  St.  Petersburg,  published  a  report,  about


about  B.C.
from


Job . . .'
Joshua ....

Judges

Ruth ....

1st  and  2nd  Samuel

1st  and  2nd  Kings .

1st  and  2nd  Chronicles

Book  of  Psalms  (principally  by  David) .


Proverbs  written

Song  of  Solomon

Ecclesiastes.

Jonah

Joel

Hosea

Amos .

Isaiah


about
about
about
about
about
about
about
about

Mii-ali about

Nahum • .  about

Zephauiah about

Jeremiah about

Lamentations about

Habakkuk about

Daniel from

Ezekiel from

Obadiah about

Ezra about

Esther about

Haggai about

Zechariah about

Nehemiah about

Malachi ...... about


1520

1451— 1420
14.25 — 1 120
1322 — 1312
1171 — 1017
1015 —  562
1004—  536
1063 — 1015
1000 —  700
1014

977

862

800

785—  725

787

760 —  698

750 —  710

713

630

629—  588

588

626

607—  534

595—  574

587

536—  456

521—  49s

520

520 —  518

446—  434

397


NSW TESTAMENT.

Gospels  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,

B.C.  5— a.d.  33

Acts  of  the  Apostles a.d.  33 — 65

Epistles— 1st  and  2nd  of  Paul  to  Thessalonians  abt. 54

To  Galatians 58

1st  Corinthians. . . . -  . . • • 59

2nd  Corinthians 60

Romans 60

Of  James 60

1st  of  Peter 60

To  Ephesians,  Philipiiians, Colossians, Hebrews,

Philemon 64

Titus,  and  1st  to  Timothy 65

2nd  to  Timothy 66

2nd  of  Peter 66

Of  Jude 66

1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  of  John  after . . . .90

Revelation 96

The  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  existed
at  Toledo,  called  the  Codex  of  Hillel ;  it  was  of  very-
early  date,  probably  of  the  4th  century  after  Christ  ;
some  say  about  60  years  before  Christ.  The  copy  of
Ben  Asher,  of  Jerusalem,  was  made  about  1100.
The  reputed  oldest  copy  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament
in  Greek,  is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  written  in
the  4th  or  5th  century.  Mai's  edition  appeared  in  1857.
The  next  in  age  is  the  Alexandrian  Codex  (referred  to
the  5th  century)  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by
the  Greek  patriarch  to  Charles  I.  in  1628.  It  has  been
printed  in  England,  edited  by  Woide  and  Baber,  1786 —
1821. — Codex  Ephraemi,  or  Codex  Regius,  ascribed  to
the  5th  century,  in  the  Royal  Library,  Paris :  published
by  Tischendorf  in  1843.
The  Codex  Sinaiticus,  probably  written  in  the  4th  cen-
tury, was  discovered  by  M.  Constautine  Tischendorf,
at  St.  Katherine's  monastery  in  1844  and  1859,  and  pre-
sented to  the  czar  of  Russia,  at  whose  cost  a  splendid
edition  was  published  in  1862.
The  Hebrew  Psalter  was  printed  at  Bologna  in  1477.  The
complete  Hebrew  Bible  was  first  printed  by  Soncinoin
Italy  in  1488,  and  the  Greek  Testament  (edited  by
Erasmus)  at  Rotterdam,  in  1516.  Aldus's  edition  was
printed  in  1518  ;  Stephens'  in  1546  ;  and  the  text  us  rc-
ceptus  (or  received  text)  by  the  Elzevirs  in  1624.

TRANSLATIONS.

The  Old  Testament,  in  Greek,  termed  the  Septuaghrt
(which  see),  generally  considered  to  have  been  made  by
order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  aboul
286  or  285  B.C.;  of  this  many  fabulous  accounts  are
given.

Aug.  1884,  describing  some  apparently  ancient  Hebrew
MS.  rolls  of  Lamentations  and  other  books,  said  to
have  been  found  by  Jews  in  Rhodes  about  1850.


BIBLE.


122


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY.


Origen,  after  spending  twenty-eight  years  in  collating
MSS.,  commenced  his  polyglot  Bible  at  Ctesarea  in  a.d.
231  ;  it  contained  the  Greek  versions  of  Aquila,  Sym-
maehus,  and  Tlieodotion,  all  made  in  or  about  the  2nd
century  after  Christ.

The  following  are  ancient  versions : — Syriac,  1st  or  2nd
century ;  the  old  Latin  version,  early  in  the  2nd  cen-
tury, revised  by  Jerome,  in  384  ;  who,  however,  com-
pleted a  new  version  in  405,  now  called  the  Vulgate
(which  see) ;  the  first  edition  was  printed  (without  date)
about  1456  ;  the  first  dated  1462  ; — Coptic,  2nd  or  3rd
century  ;  Ethiopic ;  Armenian,  4th  or  5th  century;
Slavonic,  9th  century ;  and  the  Mmso-Gothic,  by  Ulttlas,
the  apostle  of  the  Goths,  about  360,  a  manuscript  copy
of  which,  called  the  Codex  Argenteus,  is  at  Upsal.
The  Psalms  were  translated  into  Saxon  by  bishop
Aldhelm,  about  706  ;  Casdmon's  metrical  paraphrase
of  a  portion  of  the  Bible,  about  680  ;  and  the  Gospels
by  bishop  Egbert,  about  721  :  parts  of  the  Bible  by
Bede,  in  the  8th  century.

Bible  Translation  Society,  founded  1840.

ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.

MS.  paraphrase  of  the  whole  Bible  at  the  Bodleian
Library,  Oxford,  dated  by  Usher  .... 1290

Versions  (from  the  Vulgate)  by  Wickliffe  and  his
followers  (above  170  MS.  copies  extant) . .  1356-84

[Part  published  by  Lewis,  1731  ;  by  Baber,  1810 ;
the  whole  by  Madden  and  Forshall.  atOxford  1850.] "

William  Tyndale's  version  of  Matthew  and  Mark-
from  the  Greek  printed,  1524  ;  of  the  whole  New
Testament,  1525  ;  6  editions ....  1525-30

Miles  Coverdale's  version  of  the  whole  Bible  ;  print-
ing finished 4  Oct. 1535

[Ordered  by  Henry  VIII.  to  be  laid  in  the  choir  of
every  church,  "for  every  man  that  will  to  look
and  read  therein. "]

T.  Matthews'  (said  to  be  fictitious  name  for  John
Rogers)  version  (partly  by  Tyndale*  and  Coverdale)  1537

Cranmer's  Great  Bible  (Matthews'  revised),  the  first
printed  by  authority 1539

[Bible  reading  prohibited]  .... 1502-57

Geneva  version,  "Breeches  Bible,"  (the  first  with
figured  verses),  1540-1557  ;  published . . .  1560

Archbishop  Parker's  called  "The  Bishops' Bible "
(eight  of  the  fourteen  persons  employed  being
bishops) I568

King  James's  Bible,  the  present  authorised  version
—revision  began  1604  ;  published . . . .1611

[Dr.  Benjamin  Blayney's  revised  edition,  1769.]

Roman  Catholic  authorised  version  :  New  Testa-
ment, at  Rheims,  1582  ;  Old  Testament,  at  Douay,

1609-10

Authorised  Jewish  English  version . . . 1851-61

The  revision  of  the  English  version  now  in  use  was  re-
commended by  the  bishops  in  convocation,  10  Feb.
1870.  The  committee,  including  eminent  scholars  of
various  denominations,  appointed  in  May,  held  their
first  meeting  at  Westminster  Abbey  22  June,  1870.

Revision  of  the  New  Testament  completed  (103  sessions,
or  407  days),  n  Nov.  1880  ;  various  editions  published
17  May,  3881.  Revision  of  the  Old  Testament  com-
pleted, July,  1884. Published  19  May,  1885.

Paragraph  Bibles  published  in  England  by  John  Reeve.,
1808  ;  by  the  Tract  Society,  1848  ;  at  Cambridge,  Mas-
sachusetts, by  Dr.  Coit,  1834.

Smallest  Bible  known  (4^X2Xj  inches:  weight  under
3i  oz.), issued  from  Oxford University  press,  Oct.

MODERN  TRANSLATIONS,  t
_  N. TEST. BIBLE.

Flemish I4__

Spanish  (Valencian)  . . . . I47g

German I522  I530

English  . . ....  I526 1535

French 4lf

Swedish I526  I5

Danish .  1524  1550

*  He  was  strangled  at  Antwerp,  6  Oct.  1536,  at  the
instigation  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  council.  His  last
words  were,  "  Lord,  open  the  king  of  England's  eyes  !"
14  editions  of  his  Testament  had  then  been  published.
His  statue  on  the  Thames  embankment  was  uncovered
7  May,  1884.

t  "  The  BiMe  of  Every  Land,"  ed.  i860,  published  by
Messrs.  Bagsters,  London,  is  full  of  information  respect-
ing ancient  and  modern  versions  of  the  Bible.


N.TEST. BIBLE.

Dutch ........  1475

Italian 1471

Spanish 1543  1569

Russian  (parts) 1519  1822

Welsh 1567  1588

Hungarian 1574  1589

Bohemian . . > 1488

Polish 1551  1561

Virginian  Indians . . ....  1661  1663

Irish \  1602  1686

Georgian 1743

Portuguese . . . . . .  1712  1748

Manks 1748  1767

Turkish 1666  1814

Sanscrit 1808  1822

Modern  Greek 1638  1821

Chinese 1814  1823

Japanese '.  1888

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  continue  to
make  and  print  translations  of  the  Bible  in  all  the
dialects  of  the  world ;  see  Polyglot.

BIBLE  CHRISTIANS,  a  branch  of  the
Methodists  began  in  1815  by  "Win.  O'Bryan,  a
Cornish  lay  preacher  ;  principally  exist  in  the  West
of  England.

BIBLE  DICTIONARIES.  The  most  re-
markable are  Calmet's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"
1722-8  ;  Kitto's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  Literature,"
1843  and  1851 ;  and  Smith's  elaborate  "  Dictionary
of  the  Bible,"  1860-3  ;  see  Concordances*

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal
and  oldest  societies  which  have  made  the  dissemina-
tion of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive
object,  are  the  following  : —

Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  .  .  1698
Society  for Propagating the Gospel  in  Foreign

Parts " . . . .  1701

Society  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting  Christian  Know-
ledge 1709

Society  for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among

the  poor 1750

Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society ....  1780

Sunday  School  Society 1785

French  Bible  Society. . ... . . . 1792

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  t  begun  1803  ;  or-
ganised 1804

Hibernian  Bible  Society 1806

City  of  London  Auxiliary  Bible  Society . . . 1812
A  bull  from  the pope,  Pius  VII., against  Bible
Societies  appeared  in 1817

BIBLIA  PAUPERUM (the  Bible  for  the

poor),  consisting  of  engravings  illustrating  scripture
history,  with  texts,  carved  in  wood,  a  "block  book,"
printed  early  in  the  15th  century,  was  compiled  by
Bonaventura,  general  of  the  Franciscans,  about  1260.
A  fac-simile  was  published  by  J.  R Smith,  in  1859.

BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY, Society

fok,  established  by  Dr.  Samuel  Birch,  and  others,
1871.  Besides  a  journal,  it  has  published,  "  Re-
cords of  the  Past,"  translations  from  the  Assyrian,
Egyptian,  and  other  languages,  1873-80.

*  An  "  Index  to  the  Persons,  Places,  and  Subjects  oc-
curring in  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  compiled  by  B.  Vincent,
editor  of  the  present  work,  was  published  by  the  queen's
printers  in  1848  ;  others  published  since.

t  This  society  had  issued  24,247,667  copies  of  the
Bible  or  parts  of  it  up  to  Jan.  1851  ;  in  May,  1863,  the
number  had  risen  to  43,044,334 ;  in  1S67  to  52,669,089  ;  in
1875  to  76,432,723  ;  in  March,  1881,  to  91,014,448  ;  in
1884  to  100,035,933;  in  1887  to  112,253,547;  m  1890,
to  123,929.046.  The  income  of  the  year  1S76  was  ^206,978 ;
in  the  year  1,880-1,  ,£209,519;  in  1886-7,  ^116,761;  in
1889-90,  212,077.  In  1857  the  society  published  a  cata-
logue of  their  library,  which  contains  a  large  number  of
remarkable  editions  of  the  Bible.  The  foundation-stone
of  their  new  Central  hall,  Queen  Victoria-street,  London,
was  laid  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  11  June,  1866.  The
society  has  promoted  translations  of  the  Bible  into  225
languages  or  dialects.


BIBLICAL BROTHERHOOD.


123


BILLS OF MORTALITY.


.  BIBLICAL  BROTHERHOOD.  A  Rus-
sian sect  founded  in  1880  by  four  Jews  to  reconcile
Hebraism  with  Christianity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  the  Science  of  Books.

Gesner's  "  Bibliotheca  Universale  "  appeared  . .  1345
De  Bure's  "  Bibliographie  Instructive  " . . . 1763

Peignot,  Manuel 1

Home,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography  .  1814
Brunei's  Manuel  du  Libraire,  1st  edit.  1810  ;  5th  ed. ,

with  supplements 1860-80

Scriptural,  Orme,  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  1824  ;  Dar-
ling, Bibliographica 1854-8

Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and

Dibdin.
English,  Watt's  Bibliotheca  Britannica . . . 1824
Lowndes,  Bibliographer's  Manual,  1834  ;  new  ed.  by

Bohn 1857-62

Allibone's  Dictionary  of  English  Literature,  1859-71 ;

supplement  by  John  F.  Kirk  ....  1891
British  Catalogues,  by  Sampson  Low  .  .  1835-88
French,  Querard 1828-64

BIBLIOMANIA  (or  book  madness)  very  much
prevailed  in  181 1,  when  Dr.  Dibdin's  work  with  this
title  was  published  ;  see  Boccaccio,  and  Printing,
1450-5-

BICOCCA,  N.  Italy.  Lautrec  and  the  French
were  here  defeated  by  Colonna  and  the  Imperialists,
29  April,  1522,  and  Francis  thereby  lost  his  con-
quests in  Milan.

BICYCLE,  see  Velocipede.

BIDASSOA.  The  allied  army  under  lord  Wel-
lington, having  driven  the  French  from  Spain,
effected  the  passage  of  this  river  8  Oct.  1813,  and
entered  France.

BIDDENDEN  MAIDS-  A  distribution  of
bread  and  cheese  to  the  poor  takes  place  at  Bidden-
den,  Kent,  on  Easter  Mondays,  the  expense  being
defrayed  from  the  rental  of  twenty  acres  of  land,
in  1875  yielding  about  20I.  a  year,  the  reputed
bequest  of  the  Biddenden  maids,  two  sisters  named
Chulkhurst,  said  to  have  been  joined  together  like
the  Siamese  twins,  and  to  have  died  in  the  12th
century.  In  1656,  Wm.  Horner,  the  rector,  was
non-suited  in  an  attempt  to  add  the  "Bread  and
Cheese  lands  "  to  his  glebe.

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty
party  with  an  infamous  mark  ;  and  in  England  the
punishment,  formerly,  was  death.  An  act  respect-
ing it  was  passed  5  Edw.  T.  1276.  Yinef  s  Statutes.
Declared  to  be  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1
James  I.  1603.  Punishable,  by  imprisonment  or
transportation,  35  Geo.  III.  1794;  by  imprisonment,
24  &  25  Tict.  c.  100  (1861).

BIG  BETHEL  (Virginia,  U.S.).  On  10  June,
1861,  the  Federals  were  defeated  in  an  attack  on
some  Confederate  batteries  at  this  place.

BILBAO  (N.E.  Spain),  founded  about  1300 ;
was  taken  by  the  French  and  held  a  few  days,  July,
1795.  It  was  delivered  from  the  Carlists  by  Espar-
tero,  assisted  by  the  British,  24  Dec.  1836."  It  was
besieged  by  Carlists  from  Feb.  to  May,  1874,  when
the  siege  was  raised  by  marshal  Concha,  who  entered
Bilbao  2  May. Population,  1887,  50,772.

Strike  of  ironworkers,  riotous  proceedings,  conflict
with  the  police,  state  of  siege,  and  military  occu-
pation 14— 16  May,  1890

Great  fire  in  the  dockyard,  estimated  damage,
2,500,000  pesetas 1  May,  1891

Great  strike  of  miners,  middle  Jan.,  disturbances;
intervention  of  the  military  ;  state  of  siege,  27
Jan.  ;  work  resumed,  8  Feb.  ;  quiet  restored

16  Feb.  1892


BILL  OF  EXCEPTIONS.  The  right  of
tendering  such  a  bill  to  a  judge,  either  to  his  charge,
to  his  definition  of  the  law,  or  to  other  errors  of  the
court,  at  a  trial  between  parties,  provided  by  the
2nd  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.  1284,  was
abolished  by  the  Judicature  Act,  1875.

823  i BILL  OF  PAIN'S,  &c. ;  see  Queen  Caroline.

BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  &c. ;  see  Rights.

BILLIARDS.  The  French  ascribe  their  inven-
tion to  Henrique  Devigne,  an  artist,  about  1571.
Slate  billiar.d  tables  were  introduced  in  England  in
1827.

BILLINGSGATE,  the  fish-marketin  London,
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Belinus  Mag-
nus, a  British  prince,  the  father  of  king  Lud,400B.C,
but  Stow  thinks  from  a  former  owner.  It  was  the
old  port  of  London,  and  the  customs  were  paid  here
under  Ethelred  II.,  a.d.  979.  Stow.  Billingsgate
was  made  a  free  market,  1699.  Chamberlain.  Fish
by  land-carriage,  as  well  as  sea-borne,  now  arrives
daily  here.  In  1849,  the  market  was  extended  and
improved,  and  a  new  one  was  erected  in  1852,  Mr.
Bunning,  architect.  Another  new  one,  erected  by
Horace  Jones,  founded  27  Oct.  1874 !  completed
Sept.  1876;  lit  by  electric  iight,  25  Nov.  1878.  Bil-
lingsgate market  was  declared  to  be  insufficient  for
the  fish  supply  of  the  metropolis  in  the  report  of
the  commission  appointed  by  the  city  corporation,
presented  to  the  common  council,  II  Aug.  1881.

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE  were  invented  by
the  Jews  as  a  means  of  removing  their  property  from
nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  1 160.  Anderson.
Bills  are  said  to  have  been  used  in  England,  1307.
Theonlylegal  modeof  sending  money  from  England,
4  Richard  II.  1381.  Regulated,  1698  ;  first  stamped,
1782;  duty  advanced,  1797;  again,  June  1801  ;  and
since.  It  was  made  capital  to  counterfeit  bills  of
exchange  in  1734.  In  1825,  the  year  of  disastrous
speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  computed  that  there
were  400  millions  of  pounds  sterling  represented  by
bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes.  The  present
amount  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions.  The
many  statutes  regarding  bills  of  exchange  were  con-
solidated by  act  9  Geo.  IV.  1828.  An  act  regulating
bills  of  exchange  passed  3  Vict.  July,  1839.  Great
alterations  were  made  in  the  law  on  the  subject  by
17  &  18  Vict.  c.  83  (1854),  and  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  67
(1855).  Days  of  grace  were  abolished  in  the  case  of
bills  of  exchange  payable  on  sight  in  Aug.  1871.
Forgery  of  bills  to  obtain  discount  was  detected  by
the  bank  of  England,  28  Feb.,  after  102,217/.  had
been  paid.  The  culprits  (Americans)  were  tried
and  condemned  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  26  Aug.
1873. See  Trials,  Aug.  1873.

A  Bills  of  Exchange  Act,  declaring  the  law  relating  to
acceptance,  passed  16  April,  1878  ;  new  Act  passed  18
Aug.  1882.


BILLS  OF  MORTALITY  for  Loxdox-

These  bills  were  first  compiled  by  order  of  Cromwell,
about  1538,  30  Hen.  VIII.,  but  in  a  more  formal  and
recognised  manner  in  1603,  after  the  great  plague
of  that  year.  No  complete  series  of  them  has  been
preserved.  They  have  besn  superseded  by  the
weekly  returns  of  the  registrar-general,  since  1S37.
See  Public  Health.  The  following  show  the
numbers  for  London  at  decennial  periods  : —

Chrisleninga.  Burials.  I  Christenings.  Burials.

1780 16,634  20,507 1820 26,158  19.348

1790 18,980  18,038 !  1830 27,028  23,524

1800 19,176  23,068 I  1840 30.387  26.774

1810 19,930  19,892 I  1850 39,973  36>947


BILLS OF SALE.


124


BIRDS.


1845


^853
1856


Births.
502.303
543.521
578,159
612,391

657.453
655,481


IN ENGLAND  AND WALES.

Births.


1-859 689,881

ENGLAND AND

Births.
748,069
753.870
768,349


Deaths.
356,634
349.366
440,839
421,097
390,506
449,656
441,790


1863
1864
1865


684,048
696,406
712,684
727.4i7
740.275
748,069


Deaths.
422,721
436,114
436,573
473.837
495.531
490,909


-S870.
1871
1872
1873
1874

5875:

11876
3877


773.381
792,787
797,428
825,907
829,778

854.956

850,607

887,968
888,200

891,906

880,389
881,643
883,642
889,018

890,722
906,750
894,270
903,866
886,331
879,868

885,944
869,937
9*3,836


WALES.

Deaths.
490,909
500,689
471.073
480,622
494,828
515.329
514.879
492,265
492,520
526,632
546,453
510.315
500,496
539.872
526,255
528,624
491.935
516,654
522,997
530,828
522,750
537.276
530.758
5IO>97i
5i8,353
562,248
587,666


SCOTLAND.

Births.  Deaths.
113,126 70,821


IRELAND."

Births.  Deaths.
144,970 93,154


113,639

7I>273

146,237

93,598

"4>"5

69,024

144,318

93, 911

115,673

69,386

146,108

86,803

H3.395

75,789

145,659

89,573

"5.423

74,067

150,151

90,695

116,127

74,644

151,665

88,720

118,873

75,741

149,292

97,577

119,738

76,857

144,377

97,537

123.795

80,676

141,28s

91,961

123,693

81,785

138,320

98,114

126,749

74,122

140,469

92,324

126,824

73.946

139,659

93.543

126,707

76,775

i34."7

99,629

125,736

73,329

i35,328

105,089

124,652

75,795

128,086

102,906

126,214

72,301

125,847

90,035

126,182

72.966

122,648

88,500

124,462

76,867

118,163

96,228

129,041

75,128

118,875

87>T54

126,110

74,603

H5,95i

90,712

127,927

73,622

113,927

87,292

124,418

74,546

112,400

88,585

123,269

7i,i74

109,557

85,868

122,783

73,238

107,841

82,908

121,530

78,978

105,254

85,850

125,965

83,548

107,883

86,053

IN LONDON AND SUBURBS, (52 OR 53 WEEKS).

Births.  Deaths.

*854 84,684  ....  73,697

T856 ....  86,833 . • .  .  57,786
^858  (Females,  43,400)  .  88,620  (Females,  31,319)  63,882

1862 ....  97,114  . . .  .  66,950

3864 102,187 ....  77.723

2867  (Females,  54,862)  .  112,264  • • •  •  70.588

a868  (53  weeks) . .  115,744. • ■ ■  74.908

1869 m,93o . . .  •  77,933

1870 ....  113,449  ....  77,278

1871 112,535 ■ ...  80,332

1872  .... 117,200. . . .  70,893

1873  (53  weeks) . .  121,100 . . . . 76,334
7874 ....  121,394  •••• 76,606

1875  . . ...  122,871 . . . . 81,513

1876  (Females,  62,095) 127,015  ....  77,411
.1878 ....  129,184  ....  83,695

1879 i34,o96 • ...  85,540

1880  (Females,  64,659)  .  132,173 (Females,  39,426)  81,128

1882 . . .  133,200  . . .  82,905

3883 . .  .  133,656.  . . .  80,578

1885 . .  .  132,952.  . . .  80,946

1887  . .  .  133,359 .... 82,449

1888  (52  weeks) . .  131,080 . .  .  78,848
"1889  ....  132,223  ....  76,026

1890 128,161 87,689

-1891  .... 134,003 . .  g  ,216

BILLS  OF  SALE,  an  act  to  consolidate  and
amend  the  law  for  preventing  frauds  upon  creditors
by  secret  bills  of  sale  of  personal  chattels  (41  &  42
Tict.  c.  31)  passed  22  July,  1878,  amended,  1882.

BI-METALLISM,  the  system  of  having  two
■standard  metallic  currencies  in  a  country,  gold  and
■silver,  much  advocated  by  MM.  H.  Cernuschi  and
E.  Lavellye,  and  others  since  1867.  By  56  Geo.
III.  c.  68  "(1816),  it  was  enacted  that  "  gold  coins
only  should  be  legal  tender  in  all  payments  of
more  than  40,5."  in  this  country;  the  tender  of
silver  being  previously  unlimited.  A  bi-metallic
currency  was  established  in  France  in  1803.  It
was  recommended  for  Germany  in 1879,  and  was

*  Approximative  :  registration  defective.


discussed at  the Monetary  Conference  at  Paris,

April,  1881. The  unrestricted  coinage  of  silver  was

suspended  in  the  countries  termed  the  Latin  Union

in  1873.

The  Bimetallic  League  hold  a  conference  at  Man-
chester 4  April,  1888

The  marquis  of  Salisbury  and  Mr.  Goschen  declare
their  neutrality  to  a  deputation,  30  May,  1889 ;

11  May,  1892

Mr.  Samuel  Smith's  resolution  proposing  an  inter-
national conference  on  bi-metallism  negatived  by
the  commons,  183—87  . . . .18  April,  1890

The  Bimetallic  League  declare  that  their  chief
object  is  to  secure  the  opening  of  the  mints  of  the
leading  nations,  to  the  unrestricted  coinage  of
silver  and  gold  at  a  fixed  ratio,  Nov.  1890 ;  an-
nual meeting 2  March,  1892

BINARY  ARITHMETIC,  that  which  counts
by  twos,  for  expeditiously  ascertaining  the  property
of  numbers,  and  constructing  tables,  was  invented
by  Leibnitz  of  Leipsic,  about  1703.  For  the  Binary
theory  in  chemistry,  see  Compound  Radical.

BINOMIAL  ROOT,  in  Algebra,  composed  of
only  two  parts  connected  with  the  signs  plus  or
minus;  a  term  first  used  by  Recorda,  about  1550,
when  he  published  his  Algebra.  The  celebrated
binomial  theorem  of  Newton  is  said  to  have  been
discovered  in  1663.

BIOGRAPHY  (from  the  Greek  bios,  life,  and
grapho,  I  write),  defined  as  "history  teaching  by
example." The  book  of  Genesis  contains  the  bio-
graphy of  the  patriarchs ;  and  the  Gospels  that  of
Christ. Plutarch  wrote the Lives of  Illustrious
Men ; Cornelius  Nepos, Lives  of  Military Com-
manders ; and Suetonius, Lives  of the Twelve
Caesars  (all  three  in  the  first  century  after  Christ)  ;
Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  of  the  Philosophers  (about
205). — Boswell's Life of Johnson (published  in
1790)  is  the  most  remarkable  English  biography.
Mr.  John  Wilson  Croker's  edition  appeared  in  1831.
A  magnificent  edition,  edited  by  Rev.  Alex.  Napier,
published  by  Messrs.  Bell,  Feb. 1884. An  excel-
lent edition  by  Dr.  George  Birkbeck  Hill  (Claren-
don Press),  published  June,  1887.
Important  Dictionaries. — Biographie  Universelle,  85  vols. ,
1811-62  ; Nouvelle Biographie Generate, 46 vols.,
1S52-66  ; General Biographical  Dictionary,  by  Alex.
Chalmers,  32  vols.,  1812-17  ;  New  General  Biographi-
cal Dictionary,  by  H.  J. Rose, 12  vols.,  1848  ;  Bio-
graphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747  ; Dictionary of
National  Biography,  by  Leslie  Stephen and Sidney
Lee,  vol.  i.  published  by  Smith,  Elder  &  Co.,  1  Jan.
1885  ;  vol.  xxxi.  June,  1892.

BIOLOGY,  termed  the  science  of  life  and  living
things,  by  Treviranus,  of  Bremen,  in  his  work  on
Physiology,  published  1802-22.  Biology  includes
zoology,  anthropology,  and  ethnology  [which  see).
Herbert  Spencer's  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  pub-
lished 1865-67.  T.  H.  Huxley,  "Piactical  in-
struction in  Biology,"  1875.  In  1831  about  70,000
animals  were  known  and  described  ;  in  1881,  about
320,000. Sir  John  Lubbock.

A  society  for  the  Biological  Investigation  of  the  Coasts
of  the  United  Kingdom,  established  by  the  Royal
Society  and  others  31  March,  1884 ;  president,  professor
Huxley  ;  incorporated  as  the  Marine  Biological  Asso-
ciation ;  patron  the  prince  of  Wales  ;  fine  laboratory
set  up  at  Plymouth,  cost  13,000^.  ;  opened  30  June,
1888. See  Naples,  1872. Annual  reports  issued.

BIRCH  TREE.  The  black  {Betula  nigra),
brought  from  North  America,  1736.  The  birch  tree
known  as  the  Betula  pumila,  introduced  into  Kew
gardens,  England,  by  Mr.  James  Gordon,  from
North  America,  1762. Hardy's  Annals.

BIRDS  were  divided  by  Linnaeus  into  six  orders
(1735) !  bv  Blumenbach  into  eight  (1805) ;  and  by
Cuvier,  into  six  (1817). The  most  remarkable  works


BIEKBECK.


125


BIRMINGHAM.


are  those  published  by  John  Gould,  F.R.S. ;  they
consist of 44 folio volumes of  coloured plates,
&e. They  now  include  the  birds  of  Europe,  Asia,
Australia,  Great  Britain,  and  New  Guinea,  besides
monographs  of  the  humming-birds,  &c,  1889-92.
John  Gould  died  3  Feb.  1881.  Dr.  John  Latham's
"Synopsis of Birds," 1781-90. John James
Audubon's "  Birds of America," 1826-40. See
Wild  Birds.
British Ornithologists' Union" founded 1858;
published  the  "  Ibis"  1859,  et  seq.
A  morphological  classification  of  birds  (based  on
Huxley's),  put  forth  by  professors Parker  and
Newton;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  9th  ed. .  1875
The  Wild  Birds  Protection  Act,  43  &  44  Vict.  c.  35,

passed 7  Sept.  1880

International  Congress  of  Ornithologists,  1st  meet-
ing, at  Vienna,  April  7-11, 1884  ;  second  congress
met  at  Budapest . , . . .  May  17,  1891

A  "Plumage  League  "  formed  by  lady  Mount-
Temple,  Rev.  F.  O.  Morris  and  others  to  check
the  destruction  of  wild  birds,  whose  plumage  is

used  for  ornament Dec.  1885.

Twenty-ninth  annual bird  show  at the Crystal

Palace 27  Feb. — 2  March,  1892

See  Selborne  Society.

BIEKBECK  Literary  and  Scientific

INSTITUTION,  Bream's  buildings,  W.C.,  the  pre-
sent name  of  the  mechanics'  institution  founded  by
Dr.  Birkbeck  in  1823.  Foundation  stone  of  new
building  laid  by  the  Duke  of  Albany,  23  April,
1883.  New  building  opened  with  an  address  by
Dr.  Tyndall,  22  Oct.  1884;  formally  by  Prince  of
"Wales,  4  July,  1885. Room  for  6,060  students.

BIBKENHEAD  (Cheshire),  a  modern  town
on  the  Mersey,  opposite  to  Liverpool.  The  great
dock  here  was  projected  by  Mr.  John  Laird,  con-
structed by  Mr.  Rendell,  and  opened  in  Aug.  1847
by  lord  Morpeth.  In  1861  Birkenhead  was  made  a
parliamentary  borough,  and  Mr.  Laird  was  elected
first  representative.  He  died  29  Oct.  1874.  Bir-
kenhead received  a  charter  of  incorporation  in  1878.
Population  in  1831,  200;  in  1861,  51,649;  in  1871,
65,971 ;  ini88i,  84,006;  1891,99,184.  See  Wrecks,
1852.

BIEMAN  EMPIEE  or  Empire  of  Ava,

see  Burmah  and  India.

BIRMINGHAM  (Warwickshire)  existed  in
the  reign  of  Alfred.  There  were  "many  smythes"
here  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (Leland),  but  its
great  importance  commenced  in  the  reign  of
William  III. See  Population.

Grammar  school  founded  by  Edward  VI.  . .  1552

Besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  . . . . 1643
Button  manufactures  established . ... . 1689
Soho  works  established  by  Matthew  Boulton  about
1764  ;  and  steam  engine  works  about . . .  1774

Birmingham  Canal  originated 1767

Dr.  Ash's  hospital  founded,  1766  ;  first  Birmingham

musical  festival  for  it 1768

Riots  against  Dr.  Priestley  and  others  commemo-
rating the  French Revolution, much  property
destroyed ...... 14  July,  1791

Theatre  destroyed  by  fire ...  7  Aug.  1792

Theatre  burnt 7  Jan. 1820

Political  Union,  formed  by  T.  Attwood .  Feb. 183 1

Birmingham  made  a  borough  by  Reform  Act  (2

members) 1832

Town-hall  built 1833

Political  Union  dissolved  itself . .  10  May,  1834

Birmingham  and  Liverpool  railway  opened  as  the

Grand  Junction 4  July,  1837

London  and  Birmingham  railway  opened  its  entire

length 17  Sept. 1838

Great  Chartist  riot ;  houses  burnt . . 15  July,  1839
Town  incorporated,  and  Police  Act  passed . . „
Meeting  of  British  Association  . . 29  Aug. ,,

Queen's  College  incorporated 1843

Corn  Exchange  opened  ....  27  Oct.  1847
British  Association  (meet  again)  .  .  12  Sept.  1849
Queen's  College  organised Jan. 1853


Birmingham  and  Midland  Institute  incorporated  .  1854.
Public  park opened  (ground  virtually  given by

Mr.  Adderley) 3  Aug. 1856

New  music-hall  opened .... 3  Sept. ,,
Another  park  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge,
100,000  persons  present  (ground given  by  lord

Calthorpe) 1  June,  1857

Death  of  G.  F.  Muntz,  M.P. . . . 30  July, „
John  Bright  elected  M.  P. 10  Aug.  1857,  and  April,  1859,
The  queen  and  prince  consort  visit  Birmingham,
Warwick,  &c. ,  for  the  first  time,  and  open  Aston

park 14-16  June,  185S

The  Free  Library  opened  .  .  .  .4  April,  1861
Factory  explosion :  9  killed  ...  23  June,  1862.
People's  park  purchased  by  corporation . Sept. 1864

New  Exchange  opened 2  Jan. 1865

The  bank  of  Attwoods  and  Spooner  stops  payment

and  causes  much  distress . .  10  March, „

Meeting  of  British  Association  (3rd) . 6  Sept. ,,
Stoppage  of  the  "  Banking  Company  "  13  July,  1866

First  annual  horse  show , ,

Great  Reform  meeting „

Violent  riots  through  the  lectures  of.  Murphy,  an

anti-popery  orator,  at  a  tabernacle 17,  18  June,  1867
An additional M.P. given to Birmingham by

Reform  Act 15  Aug. ,,

Meeting  of  Nat.  Social  Science  Association, 7  Oct. 1868
First  club  house  here  opened . . .3  May,  1869,
Erdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah
Mason,  a  manufacturer  of  steel-pens ;  begun  1858  ;

finished July, ,,

National  Education  League  meet  . . 12,  13  Oct. ,,
Explosion  at  Kynoch's  cartridge-factory,  Witton,

many  deaths  and  injuries  . . .  17  Nov.  1870

Explosions  at  Messrs.  Ludlow's  cartridge-factory  at
Witton,  17  killed  and  53  injured,  several  dying
soon  after:  noon,  9  Dec.  ;  33  dead  up  to  13  Dec.  ;

51  up  to  26  Dec ,f

Prince  Arthur  opens  Royal  Horticultural  Exhibi-
tion  25  June,  1872;

Sir  Josiah  Mason  (knighted  1872)  endows  a  college

for  practical  science J873,

Cannon-hill  park  (presented  to  the  town  by  Miss

Rylands)  opened 1  Sept. ,r

Speech  of  Mr.  Bright  (after  re-election  on  resuming
office  as  chancellor  of duchy of Lancaster)  to
about  16,000  persons  in  Bingley  hall . 22  Oct. ,r
Statue  of  Priestley  (in  commemoration  of  his  dis-
covery of  oxygen)  unveiled  by  prof.  Huxley  1  Aug.  18741
Visit  of  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  3  Nov. ,,
Foundation  of  sir  Josiah  Mason's  college  laid  by

himself  and  Mr.  Bright ... 23  Feb. 1875
Birmingham  Philosophical  Society  founded  28  Feb.  1876
Wm,  Dudley  bequeaths  ioo,oooZ.  for  charitable  pur-
poses in  Birmingham ....  March, ,,
Annual  meeting  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society

17-24  July,  ,r
Great  Western  arcade  opened  .  .  .28  Sept.  ,,
Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone  addresses  about  30,000  persons

in  Bingley  hall 31  May,  1877

Birmingham  liberal  federation  formed  .  May,  June,  ,
Fire  at  Mr.  Denison's,  confectioner ;  Mrs.  Denison
and  3  others  perish,  26  Aug.  ;  verdict  at  inquest,
arson,  criminal  unknown  ...  30  Sept.  187S'
Central  library,  comprising  the  chief  free  reference
library  and  the  Shakspeare  library,  Cervantes
collection,  &c,  with  priceless  treasures,  destroyed

by  fire 11  Jan.  i87o>

Death  of  sir  Josiah  Mason . . . 16  June,  1881

Discovery  of  nitre-glycerine  manufacture  carried

on  by  Alfred  Whitehead  (arrested) ;  box  conveyed

to  London  seized  4  April ;  a  large  quantity  made

into  dynamite, at  great  risk  burnt  in a field

8  April,  1885
[See  Dynamite  April,  1884.]
Festival  in  honour  of  John  Bright,  25  years  M.P.
for  Birmingham  ;  silver  dessert-service  presented

n-i5June, ,,
Statue  of  the  queen,  by  T.  Woollier  (to  accompany
that  of  the Prince  Consort, by  Foley),  in  tin'
Free  Library,  uncovered . . . . 9  May,  1S84,
Great  reform  demonstration,  Mr.  Bright  and  Mr.

Chamberlain  present  ....  4  Aug.  ,,
Great  Conservative  demonstration  at  Aston  (sir
Stafford  Northcote,  lord  Randolph  Churchill,
and  others),  prevented  by  brutal  rioters;  a  free
fight ;  many  wounded  ami  much  damage  of  pro-
perty 13  Oct. ,,


BIETHS.  126


BISHOPS.


Statue  of  sir  Josiah  Mason  unveiled  by  sir  John

Lubbock i  Oct.  1885

The  prince  of  Wales  opens  a  suburban  hospital  and

new  art  gallery . .. . . 27-28  Nov. „
An  industrial  exhibition  opened . . 26  Aug.  1886
Meeting  of  the  British  Association  here  (4th)  1  Sept. „
Returns  seven  M.P.s  by  act  passed  . . 25  June,  1885
The  Queen  lays  foundation  stone  of  the  "Victoria
(Law)  Courts  ;  "  about  500,000 persons  out ;  no
disturbance or casualties,  23  March  ; Mr. T.
Martineau,  the  mayor,  knighted . 25  March,  1887
Miss  Rylands  presents  2,000?.  to  enlarge  Victoria

Park Oct, „

Birmingham Liberal  Unionist Association ; Mr.

Chamberlain  elected  president . . 28  May,  1888
Mr.  Ph.  Muntz,  an  eminent  townsman,  died  25  Dec. ,,
Birmingham  created  a  city . . -14  Jan.  1889
Death  of  Miss  Louisa  Ann  Rylands,  great  benefac-
tress to  the  town,  aged  75 . . : 28  Jan. ,,
Death  of  Mr.  John  Bright,  M.P. . 27  March, ,,
His  son,  Mr.  J.  Albert  Bright,  elected  his  successor

as  M.P 15  April, ,,

The  Victoria  law  courts  opened  by  the  prince  of
Wales . .  .... 21  July,  1891

Birmingham  Water  bill  (supply  to  be  brought  from
the  rivers  Elan  and  Claerwan  in  Mid  Wales) ;  read
second  time 8  March,  1892

BIETHS.  The  births  of  children  were  taxed
in  England,  viz.  :  birth  of  a  duke,  30/. ;  of  a  common
person,  2s.,  7  Will.  III.  1695.  Taxed  again,  1783.
The  instances  of  four  children  at  a  birth  are
numerous;  but  it  is  recorded  that  a  woman  of
Konigsberg  (3  Sept.  1784),  and  the  wife  of  Nelson,  a
tailor,  of  Oxford-market,  London  (Oct.  1800),  had
five  children  at  a  birth.  The  queen  usually  pre-
sents a  small  sum  of  money  to  a  poor  woman  giving
birth  to  three  or  more  living  children  at  one  tune.
See  Bills  of  Mortality  and  Registers.

BISHOP  (Greek  episcopos,  overseer),  a  name
given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had  the  in-
spection of  the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had
also  like  officers.  'St.  Peter,  styled  the  first  bishop
of  Rome,  was  martyred  65.  The  presbyter  was  the
same  as  a  bishop.  ' Jerome.  The  episcopate  became
an  object  of  contention  about  144.  The  title  of
pope  was  anciently  assumed  by  all  bishops,  and
was  exclusively  claimed  by  Gregory  VII.  (1073-85).

BISHOP OF LONDON'S FUND, see

under  Church  of  England, 1864,  et  seq. ;  amount

received  up  to  31  Dec.  1878,  603,718/.

A  special  appeal  was  made  by  the  bishop,  27  May,  1886  ;

23,074?.  19s.  4<1  received  in  1S88  ; 27.785?.  10s.  1889  ;

17,000?.  in  1890.

BISHOPS  IN  ENGLAND*  were  coeval  with
the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  see  of  London
is  mythically  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Lucius,
king  of  Britain,  179.  Restitutus,  bishop  of  London,
is  said  to  have  been  present  at  the  council  of  Aries,
314. The  early  dates  given  below  are  doubtful.

Bishops  made  barons 1072

Intervention  of  the  pope  in  regard  to  bishops,  13th

century
The  Congi  d'Elire  of  the  king  to  choose  a  bishop

originated  in  an  arrangement  by  king  John.
Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  Congi  d'Elire,

25  Henry  VIII 1534

Bishops  to  rank  as  barons  by  stat.  31  Hen.  VIII.  .  1540
Seven  were  deprived  for  being  married  .  .  .  1554
J3everal  suffered  martyrdom  under  queen  Mary,  see

Protestants i555"6

Bishops  excluded  from  voting  in  the  house  of  peers

on  temporal  concerns,  16  Charles  I:  1641

Several  protest  against  the  legality  of  acts  of  parlia-
ment passed  while  they  are  deprived  of  votes,

28  Dec.  ;  committed  to  the  tower .  30  Dec. „


The  order  of  archbishops  and  bishops  abolished  by
the  parliament 9  Oct.  1646

Bishops  regain  their  seats .... Nov.  1661

Seven  bishops  (Canterbury,  Bath,  Chichester,  St.
Asaph,  Bristol,  Ely,  and  Peterborough)  sent  to
the  tower  for  not  reading  the  king's  declaration
for  liberty  of  conscience  (intended  to  bring  the
Roman  Catholics  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil
power),  8  June ;  tried  and  acquitted, 29-30  June,  1688

The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Sancroft)  and
five  bishops  (Bath  and  Wells,  Ely,  Gloucester,
Norwich,  and  Peterborough)  suspended  for  refus-
ing to  take  the  oaths  to  William  and  Mary,  1689 ;
deprived 1690

Retirement  of  bishops  :  The  bishops  of  London  and
Durham  retired  on  annuities 1856

The  bishop  of  Norwich  resigned .... 1857

The  Bishops'  Resignation  (for  Infirmity)  Act,  (author-
ising the  appointment  of  bishop  coadjutors),
passed,  11  Aug;.  1869;  made  perpetual  by  Act
passed 14  June,  1875

Bishopric  of  St.  Albans  created,  and  dioceses  of
London,  Winchester,  and  Rochester  re-arranged
38  &  39  Vict.  c.  34  ;  passed . . .29  June, ,,

Bishopric  of  Truro  founded,  39  &  40  Vict.  c.  54 ;
passed 11  Aug.  1876

The  Bishoprics  Act,  41  &  42  Vict.  c.  68,  authorises
the  endowment  of  four  new  bishoprics,  Liver-
pool, Newcastle,  and  Wakefield  (York),  and
Southwell  (Canterbury).  The  number  of  bishops
in  parliament  is  not  to  be  increased . 16  Aug. 1878


ENGLISH  BISHOPRICS.


Sees.

London  (abpe.)

York  (abpe.)

Sodor  and  Man

Llandaff

St.  David's

Bangor* '

St.  Asaph

Canterbury  (abpe.)

Rochester .

London  (see  London) .

EastAnglia(afterwards
Norwich,  1091) . .

Lindisfarne,  or  Holy
Island  (afterwards
Durham,  995)  .

West  Saxons,  (after-
wards Winchester,
705) ....

Mercia  (afterwards
Lichfield,  669)  .

Hereford

Worcester  . .

Lindisse  (afterwards
Lincoln,  1067).


Founded.

(?)  i79
4th  cent.
4th  cent.
5th  cent.
5th  cent,
about 5 16
about 560
598


630


634


Sees.  Founded.

Sherborne  (afterwards

Salisbury,  1042) . . 705
Cornwall  and  Devon-
shire (afterwards
Exeter,  1050) . . 909
Wells  . . . . „
Selsey  about  681  ;  re-
moved to  Chichester

about  1082
Bath  .  ...  1088
Ely  ....  1108
Carlisle  .  .  .  .  1132
Peterborough  .  .  1541
Gloucester  t . . . ,,


Bristol  t

Chester  .

Oxford

Ripon

Manchester

St.  Alban's

Truro

Liverpool

Newcastle  .

Southwell

Wakefield


1542


1847
1876
1877


*  Bishops  have  the  titles  of  Lord  and  Right  Rev.  Father
in  God.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  have
the  title  of  tlrace.  The  bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and
Winchester  have  precedence  of  all  bishops ;  the  others
rank  according  to  seniority  of  consecration.


.  18S8

BISHOPS  IN  IRELAND  are  said  to  have  been
consecrated  in  the  2nd  century ;  see  Church  of  Ireland.
Prelacies  were  constituted, and  divisions  of  the
bishopries  in  Ireland  made,  by  cardinal  Paparo,
legate  from  pope  Eugene  III.  ....  1151

Several  prelates  deprived  by  queen  Mary  .  .  .  1554
Bp.  Atherton  suffered  death  ignominiously  .  .  1640
Two  bishops  deprived  for  not  taking  the  oaths  to

William  and  Mary 1691

Church  Temporalities  Act,  for  reducing  the  number
of  bishops  in  Ireland,  3  <&  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  37,  passed

14  Aug.  1833
[By  this  statute,  of  the  four  archbishoprics  of  Armagh,
Dublin,  Tuam,  and  Cashel,  the  last  two  were  to  be
abolished  on  the  decease  of  the  then  archprelates,
which  has  since  occurred ;  and  it  was  enacted  that
eight  of  the  then  eighteen  bishoprics  should,  as  they
became  void,  be  henceforth  unitedto  other  sees,  which
was  accomplished  in  1850 ;  so  that  the  Irish  church
at  present  consists  of  two  archbishops  and  ten
bishops.]

*  An  order  in  council,  Oct.  1838,  directed  the  sees  of
Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  to  be  united  on  the  next  vacancy
in  either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  to  be  created
thereupon  :  this  order,  as  regarded  the  union  of  the  sees,
was  rescinded  1846.

t  The  sees  of  Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  united,
1836,  separated,.  1884.


BISHOPS.


127


BISHOPS.


Ossory

founded

402

Ferns  .

about 598

Trim .

432

Cloyue .

before 604

Killala .

.  about

434

Cork .

about 606

Armagh,  445

;  abpc. .

1152

Glandalough

before 612

Emly

.  about

448

Derry

before 618

Elphin

45o

Kilmacduaeh

about 620

Ardagh .

454

Lismore

about 631

Clogher

before

493

Leiglilin

• 632

Down

. about

499

Mayo

about 665

Ardfert  and

Aghadoe

Raphoe

before 885

before

500

Cashel, befoi

e 901 ;

Connor

about

abj>c.

• 1152

Tuam, about 501 ;

Killaloe,  abpc.

. . 1019

abpc. .

IIS2

Waterford  .

. 1096

Droniore

about

Sio

Limerick.

before  1106

Kildare .

. before

5*9

Kilmore

•  1136

Meath .

520

Dublin,  abpc. .

• • 1152

Aehonry

5  30

Kilfenora

before  1254

Louth .

534

(For  the new  combina-

Clonmacnois

548

tions, see  the  sepa-

Clonfert

5S3

rate  articles.)

Ross

. about

570

BISHOPS FN" SCOTLAND were probably
nominated  in  the  fourth  century.

The  Reformers,  styling  themselves  "the  Congrega-
tion of  the  Lord,"  having  taken  up  arms  and
defeated  the  queen-mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  called  a
parliament,  which  set  up  a  new  form  of  church
polity  on  the  Genevese  model,  in  which  bishops
were  replaced  by  "  superintendents  "  .  .  .  1561
Episcopacy  restored  by  the  regent  Morton  (see  Tul-

chan  Bishops) 1572-3

Three  prelates  for  Scottish  sees  consecrated  at
Lambeth  (John  Spottiswood,  Gawin  Hamilton,
and  Andrew  Lamb)  for  Glasgow,  Galloway,  and

Brechin 21  Oct. 1610

Episcopacy  abolished,  the  bishops  in  a  body  de-
posed, and  four  excommunicated,  by  a  parliament,
elected  by  the  people  (covenanters),  which  met

at  Glasgow Dec.  1638

Episcopacy  restored ;  an  archbishop  (James  Sharp)
and  three  bishops  consecrated  by  Sheldon,  bishop

of  London 15  Dec.  1661

The  Scottish  convention  expelled  the  bishops ;
abolished  episcopacy ;  declared  the  throne  vacant ;
drew  up  a  claim  of  right ;  and  proclaimed  William

and  Mary 11  April,  1689

Episcopacy  formally  abolished, and  the  bishops'

revenues  sequestrated  ....  19  Sept.  „
The  Episcopal  church  was  thus  reduced  to  the
condition  of  a  Nonconformist  body,  at  first  barely
tolerated.  It  opened  its  first  congress,  19  May,  1874
Bishop  Rose  connected  the  established  episcopal
church  of  Scotland  with  that  form  of  it  which  is
now  merely  tolerated,  he  having  been  bishop  of
Edinburgh  from  1687  till  1720,  when,  on  his  death,
Dr.  Fullarton  became  the  first  post-revolution
bishop  of  that  see.  Fife  (now  St.  Andrews,  so
called  in  1844)  now  unites  the  bishopric  of
Dunkeld  (re-instituted  in  1727)  and  that  of  Dun-
blane (re-instituted  in  1731).  Ross  (of  uncer-
tain date)  was  united  to  Moray  (re-instituted  in
1727)  in  1838.  Argyll  and  the  Isles  never  existed
independently  until  1847,  having  been  conjoined
to  Moray  and  Ross,  or  to  Ross  alone,  previously
to  that  year.  Galloway  has  been  added  to  the  see
of  Glasgow.


Orkney,  founded.

Uncertain.
Isles  .  .  .  .  360
Galloway  .  before  50c
St. Andrews, 800 ;

abpc. . . . . 1470
Glasgow, about  560 ;

abpc.


Edinburgh


1633


POST-REVOLUTION
BISHOPS.

Edinburgh . . .  1720
Aberdeen and the

Isles . . . . 1721
Moray (and Ross),  1727
Brechin  {primus  1886). 1731
Glasgow (and Gallo-
way)
St. Andrews (Dun-
keld, Dunblane,  <fec.)  1733
Argyll  and  the.  Isles . 1847


Romanist  Bishojirics  revived by  Pope  Leo  XIII.

4  March,  1878
Scotch  Protestant  bishops  protest . 13  April, ,,


Caithness

. about  1066

Brechin

before  1155

Moray .

. .  1115

Ross .

.  1124

Aberdeen

. .  1125

Dunkeld

•  1130

Dunblane

. before  1153

Argyll .

.  1200

BISHOPS,  AMERICAN.  The  first  was  Samuel

Seabury,  consecrated  bishop  of  Connecticut  by  four

1  nonjuring  prelates,  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  14

J  Nov.,  1 784. The  bishops  of  New  York  and  Penn-

!  sylvania  were  consecrated  in  London,  by  the  arch-

•  bishop  of  Canterbury,  4  Feb.  1787,  and  the  bishop

!  of  Virginia  in 1790. Several American bishops

;  formed  part  of  the  Pan-Anglican  synod,  at  Lambeth,

24-27  Sept.  1867. The  first  'Roman  Catholic  bishop

j  of  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Carroll,  of  Maryland,

in  1780.  :

BISHOPS,  Colonial, &c* By  15  &  16

Vict.  c.  52  (1852),  and  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  49  (1853),
the  colonial  bishops  may  perform  all  episcopal
functions  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  have  no  juris-
diction.


Nova  Scotia . .1787
Quebec . . . . 1793
Calcutta . . .1813
Barbados . . . 1824
Jamaica . . . ,,
Madras . . . . 1835
Australia  (see  Sydney)  1836
Montreal . . . ,,
Bombay . . . 1837
Newfoundland . . 1839
Toronto . . . ,,
Gibraltar. . . . 1841
New Zealand (see

Christchurch)  .  ,,

Antigua  . . . . 1842
Guiana,  S.  America . ,,
Huron,  Canada . . ,,
Tasmania . . . ,,
Colombo,  Ceylon . . 1845
Fredericton,  N.  Brans. ,,
Adelaide,  S.  Australia  1847
Cape  Town . . . ,,
Melbourne . . . „
Newcastle,  N.  S.  W.  . „
Sydney  (Metropolis  of

Australia) . . ,,
Rupert's  Land . . 1849
Victoria,  Hong  Kong . ,,
Sierra  Leone . . 1852
Graham's-town . . 1853
Natal,  S.  Africa  . . ,,
Mauritius . . . 1S54
Labuan(joinedwithSing-

apore,  and  so-called)  1855
Christchurch,  N.  Z. .  1856
Perth,  W.  Australia . ,,
Wellington,  N.  Z. . 1858
Nelson,  N.  Zealand . ,,
Brisbane,  Queensland.  1859
British  Columbia  . . ,,
Goulbourn,  N.  S.  W.  . „
St.  Helena  . . . ,,
Waiapu,  N.  Z. . . ,,
Ontario,  Canada . . 1861
Nassau,  Bahamas . ,,

BISHOPS,  SUFFRAGAN,  to  assist  metropoli-
tans, existed  in  the  eaiiy  church.  Twenty-six,
appointed  by  Henry  VIII.  1534,  were  abolished  by
Mary,  1553,  and  restored  by  Elizabeth,  155S.  The
last  appointed  is  said  to  have  been  Sterne,  bishop  of
Colchester,  1606.  The  appointment  of  suffragan
bishops  was  revived  in  1869,  and  archdeacon  Henry
Mackenzie,  suffragan  bishop  of  Nottingham  (diocese
of  Lincoln)  was  consecrated  2  Peb.  1870,  and  arch-

*  Between  1847-59,  Miss  (now  baroness)  Burdett  Coutts
gave.  6o,oooZ.  to  endow  colonial  bishoprics.  In  1866  she
petitioned  parliament,  on  account  of  some  of  the  bishops
professing  independence  of  the  church  of  England.
Since  then,  colonial  bishops  have  been  appointed  with-
out intervention  of  the  civil  power.  Much  discussion
took  place  in  1867,  through  the  deposition  of  Dr.  Colcnso,
bishop  of  Natal,  by  his  metropolitan,  Dr.  Cray,  bishop  Of
Capetown,  and  the  attempts  of  the  latter  to  consecrate  a
new  bishop,  in  opposition  to  the  law;  sec  under  .ifricc,
and  Church  of  England.


Grafton,  Australia. .  1863

Dunedin,  New  Zealand  1866

Maritzburg,  S.  Africa. 1869

Auckland,  NewZeald. ,,

Bathurst

Huron .

Trinidad

Ballarat .

Moosonee .

Algoma  .

St.  John's,  Kaffraria

Athabasca  .

Saskatchewan

Niagara

Rangoon

Transvaal  .

Lahore .

Pretoria .

North  Queensland

Travancore  and  Cochin  1879

New  Caledonia(British

Columbia)
New  Westminster
Mid  China . . .  :
Riverina . . .  :
Mackenzie  River . . :
QuAppelle.
Chota  Nagpur
Selkirk

MISSIONARY  BISHOPS.

Jerusalem . . .  ii

Melanesia

Honolulu

Zanzibar  and  Central

Africa
Niger  Territory
Falkland  Isles .
Madagascar .
Bloemfontein
Zululand
North  China
Japan

E.  Equatorial  Africa
Corea


1871
1872


1873
1874

•  187s

•  J&77


J878


1890


i860


1863


1870
1871


. 1889
Travancore  and  Cochin  1S90


BISLEY COMMON.


128


BLACK-MAIL.


deacon  Edward  Parry,  suffragan  bishop  of  Dover
(diocese  of  Canterbury),  23  March,  1870.  Others
have  been  appointed  since ;  there  were  9  in  1889 ;
16  in  1892.

BISLEY  COMMON,  Surrey,  see  Volunteers,
1889.

BISMUTH  was  recognised  as  a  distinct  metal
by  Agricola,  in  1529.  It  is  very  fusible  and  brittle,
and  of  a  yellowish  white  colour.

BISSEXTILE,  see  Calendar  and  Leap  Year.

BITHYNIA,  an  ancient  province  in  Asia
Minor,  is  said  to  have  been  invaded  by  Thracian
tribes,  some  named  Bithyni,  who  gave  it  the  name
of  Bithynia.  It  was  subject  successively  to  the
Assyrians,  Lydians,  Persians,  and  Macedonians.
Most  of  the  cities  were  rebuilt  by  Grecian  colonists.
Dydalsus  revolted  and  reigned,  about . b.  c.  430-440

Botyras,  his  son,  succeeds 378

Bas, or  Bias,  son  of  Botyras,  376 ; repulses the

Greeks 328

Zipaetes,  son  of  Bias,  resists  Lysimachus . . . 326
He  dies, leaving  four  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest,
Nicomedes  I.,  succeeds  (he  invites  the  Gauls  into

Asia) 278

He  rebuilds  Astacus,  and  names  it  Nicomedia . . 264
Zielas,  son  of  Nicomedes,  reigns  . . . about 250
Intending  to  massacre  the  chiefs  of  the  Gauls  at  a
feast,  Zielas  is  detected  in  his  design,  and  is  him-
self put  to  death,  and  his  son  Prusias  I.  made

king,  about 228

Prusias  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  takes  cities  .  .  223
Prusias  allies  with  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  marries

Apamea,  his  daughter 208

He  receives  and  employs  Hannibal,  then  a  fugitive,
187 ;  who  poisons  himself  to  escape  betrayal  to

the  Romans 183

Prusias  II.  succeeds 180

Nicomedes  II.  kills  his  father  Prusias  and  reigns  .  149
Nicomedes  III.,  surnamed  Philopator  ...  91
Deposed  by  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus . . . 88

Restored  by  the  Romans 84

Bequeaths  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans . . . 74
Pliny,  the  younger,  pro-consul . . -. .  a.d. 103
The  Oghusian  Tartars  settle  in  Bithynia . .  1231
The  Othman  Turks  take  Prusa,  the  capital  (and
make  it  the  seat  of  their  empire  till  they  possess
Constantinople) 1327

BITONTO  (Naples).  Here  Montemar  and  the
Spaniards  defeated  the  Germans,  27  May,  1734,  and
thereby  acquired  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies
for  Don  Carlos.

BLACK  ACT,  9  Geo.  I.  c.  22  (1722),  was
passed  to  punish  armed  persons  termed  blacks,  going
about  in  disguise  with  their  faces  blacked,  robbing
warrens  and  fish-ponds,  cutting  down  plantations,
killing  deer,  &c.  By  this  act,  sending  anonymous
letters  demanding  money,  &c,  was  made  felony.

BLACK  AND  WHITE,  a  weekly  illustrated
paper,  first  published  6  Feb.  1891,  price  6d.  Mr.
AVilliamson,  the  managing  director,  has  employed
German  methods  of  production.

BLACK  ART,  see  Alchemy,  Witchcraft.

BLACK  ASSIZE,  see  under  Oxford.

BLACK  BOOK  {Liber  Niger),  a  book  kept  in
the  exchequer,  which  received  the  orders  of  that
court. It  was  published  by  Hearne  in  1728.

A  book  doubtfully  said  to  have  been  kept  in  monas-
teries, wherein  details  of  the  enormities  practised  in  reli-
gious houses  were  entered  for  the  inspection  of  visitors,
under  Hen.  VIII.  1535.  The  name  was  given  to  the  list
of  pensioners,  printed  1831  ;  and  to  other  books.  See
Italy,  1876.  The  title  Black  Book  was  given  to  a  list  of
Habitual  Criminals,  1869-76;  published  by  lieut.-col.
DuCane  of  Brixton,  March,  1877.

BLACKBURN,  Lancashire,  so  called  in
Domesday-book. The  manufacture  of  a  cloth  called


Blackburn  cheque,  carried  on  in  1650,  was  super-
seded by  Blackburn  greys.  In  1767,  James  Har-
greaves,  of  this  town,  invented  the  spinning-jenny,
for  which  he  was  eventually  expelled  from  the
county.  About  1810  or  1812,  the  townspeople
availed  themselves  of  his  discoveries,  and  engaged
largely  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  now  their  staple
trade.  Blackburn  murder,  see  Trials,  July,  1876.
See  Riots,  1878.  Population,  1881,104,014;  1891,
120,064.

The  prince  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation  of  a  technical

school,  9  May,  i388.
Disastrous  gas  explosion  in the  market-place ;  5

persons  killed 30  Nov.  1891

BLACK  CABINET,  see  under  Cabinet  (note).

BLACK  DEATH,  see  Plagues,  1340  and  1866.

BLACK  FLAG,  that  adopted  by  pirates,  see
Buccaneers,  Piracy,  and  Tonquin,  1883.

BLACK  FRIARS,  see  Dominicans.

BLACKFRIARS  BRIDGE,  London.  The
first  stone  of  the  late  bridge  was  laid  31  Oct.  I76o>
and  it  was  completed  by  Mylne,  in  1770.  It  was
frequently  repaired,  1834-50,  and  began  to  sink.  In
1864  it  was  pulled  down,  and  a  temporary  bridge
erected.  The  foundation  of  a  new  five-arched
bridge,  designed  by  Mr.  Joseph  Cubitt,  was  laid  by
lord  mayor  Hale,  20  July,  1865,  and  tbe  bridge  was
opened  by  the  queen  6  Nov.  1869.  The  first  railway
train  (London,  Chatham,  and  Dover)  entered  the
city  of  London  over  the  new  railway  bridge,  Black -
friars,  6  Oct.  1864.  Another  railway  bridge  founded
7  Jan.  1884.

BLACK  FRIDAY,  n  May,  1866,  the  height
of  the  commercial  panic  in  London,  through  the
stoppage  of  Overend,  Gurney,  &  Co.  (limited),  on  10
May.  Messrs.  John  Henry  and  Edmund  Gurney,
and  their  partners,  committed  for  trial  for  conspiracy
to  defraud,  21  Jan.  1869,  were  tried  and  acquitted,
13-23  Dec.  1869.  On  Friday,  21  Nov.  1890,  a  tem-
porary panic  was  produced  by  the  embarrassments
of  Messrs.  Baring  Brothers.

BLACK  HAND,  see  Spain,  1883.

BLACKHEATH,  Kent,  near  London.  Here
Wat  Tyler  and  his  followers  assembled  12  June,
1381 ;  and  here  also  Jack  Cade  and  his  20,000
Kentish  men  encamped,  1  June,  1450 ;  see  Tyler
and  Cade.  Here  the  Cornish  rebels  were  defeated
and  Flammock's  insurrection  quelled,  22  June,
1497.  The  ancient  cavern,  on  the  ascent  to  Black-
heath,  popularly  termed  "the  retreat  of  Cade,"  and
of  banditti  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  re-dis-
covered in  1780.  Several  daring  highway  robberies
were  committed  near  the  heath,  and  the  youthful
culprits  punished,  in  1877. See  Trials.

BLACK-HOLE,  see  Calcutta,  1756.

BLACK  LEAD,  see  Graphite.

BLACKLEGS.  A  name  commonly  given  to
cheating  gambler-,  was  unjustly  jjiven  to  non-
unionist  workmen  by  the  unionists  and  others,
during  the  labour  agitation  in  1889  and  1890.

BLACK  LETTER,  employed  in  the  first
printed  books  in  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.
The  first  printing  types  were  Gothic ;  but  they  were
modified  into  the  present  Roman  type  about  1469  :
Pliny's  Natural  History  was  then  printed  in  the-
new  characters.

BLACK-MAIL,  a  compulsory  payment  for
protection  of  cattle,  &c,  made  in  the  border  counties,
was  prohibited  by  Elizabeth  in  1601.  It  was  exacted
in  Scotland  from  the  lowlanders  by  the  highlanders,


BLACK MONDAY.


129


BLEACHING.


till  1745.  It  checked  agricultural  improvement.  The
term  black-mail  has  been  applied  to  the  payments  of
new  commercial  companies  for  notices  respecting
them  in  certain  newspapers,  1889-90.

BLACK  MONDAY,  Easter  Monday,  14  April,
1360,  "  so  full  dark  of  mist  and  hail,  and  so  bitter
cold  that  many  men  died  on  their  horsebacks  with
the  cold."  Stow.  In  Ireland,  Black  Monday  was
the  day  on  which  a  number  of  the  English  were
slaughtered  at  a  village  near  Dublin,  in  1209.

BLACK  MONEY,  base  foreign  coin  so  termed,
*335-
3LACK  MONKS,  see  Dominicans.

BLACK  MOUNTAIN  EXPEDITIONS,

see  India,  1888  and  1891.

BLACK  MUSEUM,  at  Scotland  Yard,  is  a
collection  of  relics  connected  with  crime,  begun  in
1874.

BLACKPOOL,  Lancashire,  a  watering  place.
The  foundation-stone  of  an  Eiffel  Tower  was  laid
here  25  Sep.  1891.  Population  in  1851,  1664;
1881,  14,229;  1891,23,846.

BLACK  PEINCE,  Edward,  eldest  son  of

king  Edward  III.,  born  15  June,  1330 ;  victor  at
Poitiers,  19  Sept.,  1356 ;  at  Najara,  3  April,  1367  ;
died  8  June,  1376.

BLACK  EEPUBLIC,  see  BZayti.

BLACK  POD  has  a  gold  lion  at  the  top,  and  is
carried  by  the  usher  of  the  order  of  the  knights  of  the
garter  (instituted  1349),  instead  of  the  mace.  He
also  keeps  the  door  when  a  chapter  of  the  order  is
sitting,  and  during  the  sessions  of  parliament
attends  the  house  of  lords  and  acts  as  their  messen-
ger to  the  commons.

BLACK  SEA,  THE  Etjxfne  (Pontics  Euxinus
of  the  ancients),  a  large  internal  sea  between  the
S.  W.  provinces  of  Eussia  and  Asia  Minor,  con-
nected with  the  seaof  Azoff  by  the  straits  of  Yenikale,
and  with  the  sea  of  Marmora  by  the  channel  of
Constantinople.

This  sea  was  much  frequented  "by  the  Greeks  and
Italians,  till  closed  to  all  nations  by  the  Turks
after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453.

The  Russians  obtained  admission  by  the  treaty  of
Kainardji.  . . .  . 10  July,  1774

It  was  partially  opened  to  British  and  other  traders,
(since  which  time  the  Russians  gradually  obtained
the  preponderance). 1779

Entered  by  the  British  and  French  fleets,  at  the
requisition  of  the  Porte,  after  the  destruction  of
the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  by  the  Russians,
30  Nov.  1853 3  Jan.  1854

A  dreadful  storm  in  this  sea  raged,  and  caused
great  loss  of  life  and  shipping,  and  valuable  stores
for  the  allied  armies. See  Russo-Tarkish  War.

13  to  16  Nov. ,,

The  Black  Sea  was  opened  to  the  commerce  of  all
nations  by  the  treaty  of  1856.

The  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  30  March,  1856,
by  which  the  sea  was  opened  to  the  commerce  of
all  nations,  and  interdicted  to  any  ships  of  war  ;
and  the  erection  of  military  maritime  arsenals  for-
bidden, was  repudiated  by  a  Russian  circular,
dated  31  (19)  Oct.  1870

After  some  correspondence,  the  meeting  of  a  con-
ference on  the  subject,  in  London,  was  agreed  to
by  all  the  powers  concerned  in  the  treaty.  „

The  conference  met  in  London  17, Jan.  1871,  and  a
treaty  was  signed  by  which  the  neutralization  of
the  sea  was  abrogated  ;  but  it  was  agreed  by  a
special  protocol,  that  no  nation  shall  liberate  itself
from  the  obligations  of  a  treaty  without  the  con-
sent of  the  others  who  signed  it . 13  March,  1871

Blockade  of  the  Black  Sea  declared  by  Turkey
during  the  war .... about  3  May,  1877


Revival  of  the  Black  Sea  Fleet :  Tcliesma,  ironclad
launched  by  the  Czar  at  Sebastopol  (others  to
follow) 18  May,  1886

BLACKS  or  Neri ;  see  Bianchi.

BLACKWALL  (London),  the  site  of  fine
commercial  docks  and  warehouses.  See  Docks.
The  Blackwall  railway  was  opened  to  the  public,  4
July,  1840 ;  the  eastern  terminus  being  at  Black-
wall  wharf,  and  the  western  in  Fenchurch  street.

BLACK  WATCH,  armed  companies  of  the
loyal  clans  (Campbells,  Monros,  &c.)  employed  to
watch  the  Highlands  from  about  1725  to  1739,
when  they  were  formed  into  the  celebrated  42nd
regiment,  enrolled  as  "The  Koyal  Highland  Black
Watch."  Their  removal  for  foreign  service  probably
facilitated  the  outbreak  in  1745.  They  wore  dark
tartans,  and  hence  were  called  Black  Watch.  They
distinguished  themselves  in  the  Ashantee  war,  Jan.
Feb.  1874,  and  in  Egypt,  1882-5.

BLACKWATER,  BATTLE  OF,  in  Ireland,

14  Aug.  1598,  when  the  Irish  chief  O'Neil  defeated
the  English  under  sir  Henry  Bagnall.  Pope
Clement  VIII.  sent  O'Neil  a  consecrated  plume,
and  granted  to  his  followers  the  same  indulgence  as
to  crusaders.

BLACKWOOD'S  Edinburgh  Magazine
established,  1817.

BLADENSBUEG,  see  Washington,  1814.

BLANC,  see  Mont  Blanc.

BLAND  ACT,  see  United  States,  Feb.  1878.

BLANDFOPD'S  ACT,  19&20  Vict.  c.  104,
for  augmentation  of  benefices,  &c.  passed,  1856.

BLANK  VEPSE,  see  Verse.

BLANKETEEPS.  A  number  of  operatives
who,  on  10  March,  1817,  met  in  St.  Peter's  field,
near  Manchester,  many  of  them  having  blankets,
rugs,  or  great  coats  rolled  up  and  fastened  to  their
backs.  This  was  termed  the  Blanket  meeting.
They  proceeded  to  march  towards  London,  but  were
dispersed  by  the  magistracy.  It  is  stated  that  their
object  was  to  commence  a  general  insurrection.
See  Derby.  Eventually  the  ringleaders  had  an
interview  with  the  cabinet  ministers,  and  a  better
understanding  between  the  working  classes  and  the
government  ensued.

BLANKETS  are  said  to  have  been  first  made
at  Bristol  by  Thos.  Blanket,  in  the  14th  century.
This  is  doubtful.

BLASPHEMY  was  punished  with  death  by
the  law  of  Moses  {Lev.  xxiv.)  1491  B.C. ;  and  by  the
code  of  Justinian,  A.  d.  529.  It  is  punishable  by
the  civil  and  canon  law  of  England,  regulated  by  60
Geo.  III.  c.  8  (1819).  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton  was
tried  and  convicted  in  London  of  blasphemy,  6
March,  1812.  Robert  Taylor,  a  protestant  clergyman,
was  tried  twice  for  the  same  crime.  He  was  sen-
tenced to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  largely
fined,  July,  1831.  In  Dec.  1840,  two  publishers  of
blasphemous  writings  were  convicted.

BLASTING  GELATINE,  (a  mixture  of
nitro-glycerine  and  gun-cotton,)  a  violent  explosive
prepared  by  Alfred  Nobel,  and  modified  by  professor
Abel,  1879.

BLAZONPY-  Bearing  coats-of-arms  was  in-
troduced and  became  hereditary  in  France  and
England  about  1 192,  owing  to  the  knights  painting
their  banners  with  different  figures,  thereby  to  dis-
tinguish them  in  the  crusades. Dug  dale.

BLEACHING  was  known  in  Egypt,  Syria,
India,  and  Gaul. Pliny. An  improved  chemical


BLENHEIM.


130


BLOOD.


system  was  adopted  by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced
it  into  England  and  Scotland  in  1768.  There  were
large  bleach-fields  in  Lancashire,  Fife,  Forfar,  and
Eenfrew,  and  in  the  Tale  of  the  Leven,  in  Dumbar-
ton. The  application  of  the  gas  chlorine  to  bleaching
is  due  to  Berthollet's  discovery,  about  1785-  Its
combination  with  lime  (as  chloride  of  lime)  was
devised  by  Mr.  Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  who  took  out
a  patent  for  the  process  in  1798,  and  by  his  firm  it
is  still  extensively  manufactured.  In  1822  Dr.  Ure
published  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  on  this
substance.  A  new  more  rapid  process  invented  by
Mr.  Jacob  Baynes  Thompson,  tried  at  Bolton,  and
reported  successful,  April,  1884.  Improvements
made  by  Mr.  William  Mather,  I885.  In  i860
bleaching  and  dyeing  works  were  placed  under  the
regulations  of  the  Factories  Act.

BLENHEIM  (or  Plintheim)  a  village  in
Bavaria  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  near  the
town  of  Hochstett,  the  site  of  a  battle  fought  2  Aug.
(new  style,  13),  1704,  between  the  English  and
confederates,  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Marl-
borough, and  the  French  and  Bavarians,  under
marshal  Tallard  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  The
latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  about  12,000
killed,  and  13,000  prisoners  (including  Tallard).
Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors.  The
British  parliament  gave  Marlborough  the  honour  of
Woodstock  and  hundred  of  Wotton,  and  erected  for
him  the  house  of  Blenheim.*

BLIND.  The  first  public  scbool  for  the  blind
was  established  by  Valentine  Haiiy,  at  Paris  in
1784.  The  first  in  England  was  at  Liverpool,  in
1 791 ;  in  Scotland,  at  Edinburgh,  in  1792  ;  and  the
first  in  London  in  1799.  Printing  in  raised  or
embossed  characters  for  the  use  of  the  blind  was
begun  at  Paris  by  Haiiy  in  1786.  The  Avhole  Bible
was  printed  at  Glasgow  in  raised  Boman  characters
about  1848.  A  sixpenny  magazine  for  the  blind,
edited  by  the  late  rev.  W.  Taylor,  F.R.S.,  so
eminent  for  his  forty  years'  exertions  on  behalf  of
these  sufferers,  was  published  in  1855-6.  He  aided
the  establishment  of  a  college  for  the  blind  of  the
upper  classes  at  Worcester,  in  1866.  There  is
hardly  any  department  of  human  knowledge  in
which  blind  persons  have  not  obtained  distinction. f
Laura  Bridgman,  born  in  1829,  became  dumb  and
blind  two  years  after.  She  was  so  well  taught  by
Dr.  Howe,  of  Boston,  U.S.,  as  to  become  an  able
instructor  of  blind  and  dumb  persons  ;  she  died  24
May,  1889.  By  the  census  of  1851,  there  were  in
Great  Britain,  21,487  blind  persons;  11,273  males,
10,214  females ;  about  one  in  975  blind.  The
number  of  the  blind  in  Great  Britain  has  propor-
tionally decreased  since  185 1,  according  to  the  cen-
sus, 22,800  in  1881.  In  1 881  about  one  in  1138
blind. Boyal Normal College and  Academy of

*  On  5  Feb.  1861,  a  fire  broke  out  at  this  place,  which
destroyed  the  "Titian  Gallery"  and  the  pictures;  the
latter,  a  present  from  Victor  Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia,
to  John,  the  great  duke  of  Marlborough.  Pictures,
library,  and  other  valuables  sold  18S5-6.

t  James  Holman,  the  "blind  traveller"  (born  1786,
died  1857),  visited  almost  every  place  of  note  in  the
world.  His  travels  were  published  in  1825.  In  April,
1858,  a  blind  clergyman,  rev.  J.  Sparrow,  was  elected
chaplain  to  the  Mercers'  Company,  London,  and  read  the
service,  &c. ,  from  embossed  books.

Viscount  Cranborne  (blind)  was  the  author  of  many
interesting  historical  essays.  He  died  in  June,  1865.
On  13  July,  1865,  Henry  Pawcett,  the  blind  professor  of
political  economy  at  Cambridge,  was  elected  M.P.  for
Brighton;  for  Hackney,  1874  and  1880;  and  was  ap-
pointed postmaster-general,  April,  1880,  died  6  Nov.  1884.
Mr.  P.  J.  Campbell  (blind)  ascended  Mont  Blanc  in  1880.


Music  for  the  Blind,  established  1873. There  are

29  Societies  for  the  blind  in  London  (1889).

Royal  Commission  on  the  condition  of  the  blind ;  ex-
tended to  the  deaf  and  dumb,  Jan.  1886.

According  to  the  census  of  1881,  the  number  of  blind
in  the  United  Kingdom  was  about  32,101,  England  and
Wales  22,832,  Scotland  3,158,  Ireland  6,111.  Theroyal
commission,  to  enquire  into  their  condition  was
appointed  28  July,  1885,  and  on  the  20th  Jan.  1886,
additional  members  were  appointed,  and  its  inquiries
were  extended  to  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  imbeciles  in  the
United  Kingdom,  Paris,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and
Italy.  The  commission,  after  116  sittings,  and  many
visitations  and  examinations  of  witnesses,  issued  their
first  report  July,  1889.  The  number  of  the  deaf  under
instruction  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  in  1851  1,300,
in  1888  3,138.  The  commission  met  with  great  uncer-
tainty in  regard  to  idiots  and  imbeciles.

BLINDING  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with
lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  was  a  punishment  inflicted
anciently  on  adulterers,  perjurers,  and  thieves.  In
the  middle  ages  the  penalty  was  frequently  changed
from  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of  sight.  A
whole  army  of  Bulgarians  was  deprived  of  sight  by
the  emperor  Basil,  104.  Several  of  the  eastern
emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from  their  heads.

BLISTEBS,  used  by  Hippocrates  (460-357
B.C.),  made,  it  is  said;  of  cantharides  (which  see).

BLIZZABD,  an  old  term  applied  in  the  Mid-
land counties  to  the  snow-blast,  also  signifying
anything  blazing,  blinding,  or  stifling.  Of  late
years  violent  snow-storms  have  been  termed  blizzard
in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  as  well  as  in
Britain.  See  Storms,  11-13  Jan. ;  and  11- 13  March,
1888,  and  since.

BLOCKADE  is  the  closing  an  enemy's  ports
to  all  commerce;  a  practice  introduced  by  the  Dutch
about  1584.  The  principle  recognized  by  the
European  powers  is  that  every  blockade,  in  order  to
be  binding,  must  be  effective.  Cadiz  blockaded
1797-9  >  the  Elbe  was  blockaded  by  Great  Britain,
1803;  the  Baltic,  by  Denmark,  1848-49  and  1864;
the  gulf  of  Finland  by  the  Allies,  1854 ;  and  the
ports  of  the  Southern  States  of  North  America  by
president  Lincoln,  April  19,  1861.  See  Orders  in
Council,  and  Berlin.  Part  of  the  east  coast  of  Africa
was  blockaded  by  England  and  Germany  on  account
of  the  slave  trade,  2  Dec.  1888 — 1  Oct.  1889  :  see
Zanzibar.

BLOCK  BOOKS,  see  Printing.

BLOCKS  employed  in  the  rigging  of  ships  were
much  improved  in  their  construction  by  Walter-
Taylor,  about  1781.  In  1801,  Mark  I.  Brunei  in-
vented a  mode  of  making  blocks  by  machinery,
which  was  put  into  operation  in  1808,  and  in  1815
was  said  to  have  saved  the  country  20,000/.  a  year.

BLOIS,  France,  the  Boman  Blesum.  The
count  Guy  II.  sold  it  with  his  domains  to  Louis
duke  of  Orleans  in  1391,  and  eventually  it  accrued
to  the  crown.  The  states-general  were  held  here
1576  and  1588,  on  account  of  the  religious  wars;
and  here  Henry  duke  of  Guise  was  assassinated  by
order  of  the  king,  Henry  III.,  23  Dec.  1588.  The
empress  Maria  Louisa  retired  here  in  1814.

BLOOD-  The  circulation  of  the  blood  through
the  lungs  was  known  to  Michael  Servetus,  a  Spanish
physician,  in  1553.  Csesalpinus  published  an  ac-
count of  the  general  circulation,  of  which  he  had
some  confused  ideas,  improved  afterwards  by
experiments,  1569.  Paul  of  Venice,  or  Father
Paolo  (real  name  Peter  Sarpi),  discovered  the  valves
which  serve  for  the  circulation  ;  but  the  honour  of
the  positive  discovery  of  the  circulation  belongs  to
William  Harvejr,  between  1619  and  1628. Freind.


BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.


131


BOATS.


A  memorial  window  in  the  church,  at  Folkestone,
his  birthplace,  was  uncovered  9  April,  1874,  and  a
statue  at  the  same  place,  6  Aug.  1881.

Eating  Blood  was  prohibited  to  Noah,  Gen.  ix. ,  to  the
Jews,  Lev.  xvii.,  <fec,  and  to  the  Gentile  converts  by
the  apostles  at  an  assembly  at  Jerusalem,  a.d.  52,
Acts  xv.

Blood-Drinkcng  was  anciently  tried  to  give  vigour  to
the  system.  Louis  XI.  in  his  last  illness,  drank  the
warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  restoring  his
decayed  strength,  1483. Henault.

Jn  the  15th  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that  the  de-
-clining  vigour  of  the  aged  might  be  repaired  by  trans-
ifusing  into  their  veins  the  blood  of  young  persons.
It  was  countenanced  in  France  by  the  physicians
about  1668,  and  prevailed  for  many  years,  till  the  most
fatal  effects  having  ensued,  it  was  suppressed  by  an
edict.  "An  English  physician  (Louver,  or  Lower)
practised  in  this  way;  he  died  in  1691."  Freind.  It
was  attempted  again  in  Prance  in  1797,  and  more
recently  there,  in  a  few  cases,  with  success  ;  and  in
England  (but  the  instances  are  rare)  since  1823.  Tried
at  Philadelphia,  U.  S.,  April,  1877  ;  in  London,  un-
successful, 10  May,  1877.

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  dis-
carded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell's  household,  with
his  confederates,  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond  in  his
■coach,  intending  to  hang  him,  and  had  got  him  to
Tyburn,  when  he  was  rescued  by  his  Mends,  6  Dec.
1670.  Blood  afterwards,  in  the  disguise  of  a  clergy-
man, attempted  to  steal  the  regal  crown,  from  the
Jewel-office  in  the  Tower,  9  May,  1671;  yet,  not-
withstanding these  and  other  offences,  he  was  not
only  pardoned,  but  had  a  pension  of  500/.  per  annum
settled  on  him  by  Charles  II.  1671.  He  died  24
Aug.  1680.

"BLOODY  ASSIZES,"  held  by  Jeffreys  in
the  west  of  England,  in  Aug.  1685,  after  the  defeat
of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  in  the  battle  of  Sedgmoor.
Upwards  of  300  persons  were  executed  after  short
trials;  very  many  were  whipped,  imprisoned,  and
fined;  and  nearly  1000  were  sent  as  slaves  to  the
American  plantations.

BLOOMER  COSTUME,  see  a  note  to  article
Dress.

BLOOMSBURY  GANG,  a  cant  term  applied
to  an  influential  political  party  in  the  reign  of
George  III.,  who  met  at  Bloomsbury  House,  the
residence  of  the  duke  of  Bedford.  The  marqHis  of
Stafford,  the  last  survivor,  died  26  Oct.  1803.

BLOREHEATH  (Staffordshire),  where,  23
Sept.  1459,  the  earl  of  Salisbury  and  the  Yorkists
defeated  the  Lancastrians,  whose  leader,  lord
Audley,  was  slain  with  many  Cheshire  gentlemen.
A  cross  commemorates  this  conflict.

BLOWING-MACHINES,  the  large  cylin-
ders, used  in  blowing  machines,  were  erected  by
Mr.  Smeaton  at  the  Carron  iron  works,  1760.  One
equal  to  the  supply  of  air  for  forty  forge  fires  was
erected  at  the  king's  dockyard,  Woolwich.  The
hot-air  blast,  a  most  important  improvement,  causing
great  economy  of  fuel,  was  invented  by  Mr.  James
B.  Neilson,  of  Glasgow,  and  patented  in.  1828.  He
died  18  Jan.  1865.

BLOW-PIPE.  An  Egyptian  using  one  is
among  the  paintings  on  the  tombs  at  Thebes.  It
was  employed  in  mineralogy,  by  Antony  Von  Swab,
a  Swede,  about  1733,  and  improved  by  AVollaston
and  others.  In  1802,  professor  Eobert  Hare,  of
Philadelphia,  increased  the  action  of  the  blow-pipe
by  the  application  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  By  the
agency  of  Newman's  improved  blow-pipes,  in  1816,
Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  fused  the  earths,  alkalies,  metals,
&c.  Works  on  the  blow  -pipe  by  Plattner  and  Mus-
pratt,  1854;  G.  Plympton,  1874,  and  W.A.Ross,
1880-8.


BLUE  was  the  favourite  colour  of  the  Scotch
covenanters  in  the  17th  century.  Blue-  and  orange
or  yellow,  became  the  whig  colours  after  the  revolu-
tion in  1688 ;  and  were  adopted  on  the  cover  of  the
whig  periodical,  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  first
published  in  1802.  The  Prussian  blue  dye  was  dis-
covered by  Diesbach,  at  Berlin,  in  1710.  Fine
blues  are  now  obtained  from  coal-tar ;  see  Aniline.
Blue-coat  Schools,  so  called  in  reference  to  the
costume  of  the  children.  The  Blue-coat  school  in
Newgate-street,  London,  was  instituted  by  Edward
VI.  in  1552;  see  Christ' s  Hospital.  Blue-stocking,
a  term  applied  to  literary  ladies,  was  originally
conferred  on  a  society  comprising  both  sexes  (1760,
et  seq.).  Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  the  naturalist,  an
active  member,  wore  blue  worsted  stockings ;  hence
the  name.  The  beautiful  Mrs.  Jerningham  is  said
to  have  worn  blue  stockings  at  the  conversaziones  of
Mrs.  Montague.  Blue  Ribbon  Army,  see  Tempe-
rance, 1882.

BLUE-BOOKS,  reports  and  other  papers
printed  by  order  of  parliament,  are  so  named  on  ac-
count of  their  wrappers ;  70  vols,  were  printed  for
the  lords,  and  76  vols,  for  the  commons  in  1871.
The  official  colour  of  France  is  yellow,  Spain  red,
Germany  tvhite,  Italy  green,  Portugal  white,  United
States,  N.A.,  green.

BLUMENAU,  Lower  Austria ;  on  22  July,  1866,
the  Austrians  in  possession  of  this  place  were
attacked  by  the  Prussians  on  their  march  towards
Vienna,  a  severe  conflict  was  interrupted  by  the
news  of  the  armistice  agreed  to  at  Nikolsburg ;  and
the  same  evening  Austrians  and  Prussians  bivouacked
together.

BOARD  OF  ADMIRALTY,  Agricul-
ture, Control,  Green-Cloth,  Health,

TRADE,  &c,  see  under  Admiralty,  &c.

BOATS. Flat-bottomed  boats  brought  into  use
by  Barker,  a  Dutchman,  about  1690 ;  see  Life-Boat.
A  mode  of  building  boats  by  the  help  of  the  steam-
engine  was  invented  by  Mr.  Nathan  Thompson  of
New  York  in  i860,  and  premises  were  erected  for  its
application  at  Bow,  near  London,  in  1861. Charles
Clifford's  valuable  Boat-lowering  apparatus  was  in-
vented 1856. See  Canal-Boats  and  Life-Boats.
Boat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young  man,
started  from  America  in  the  Centennial,  a  boat
20  feet  long,  on  15  June,  and  landed  at  Aber-
castle,  Pembrokeshire . . . . n  Aug. 1876
Two  young  sailors  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  City
of  Bath,  a  boat  14  feet  long  :  arriving  at  Pal-
mouth  •  24  Aug.  1881

Mr.  Terry  formed  a  boat  on  the  framework  of  a
tricycle,  and  on  it  went  from  London  to  Dover,
crossed  the  Channel  to  Calais  and  proceeded  to

Paris July,  1883

Submarine  boats,  one  is  said  to  have  been  invented
about  1578  ;  and  one  tried  in  the  Thames  early  in
the  seventeenth  century,  and  one  at  Plymouth
in  1774.  Robert  Fulton's  experiments  in  this
direction  were  not  accepted  (early  nineteenth
century).  Unsuccessful  attempts  made  by  several
European  powers  in  1851,  and  since.  Nordenfelt's
submarine  boat  first  constructed  at  Stockholm  in
1883,  to  be  employed  in  naval  warfare,  exhibited
at  Landskrona  in  presence  of  officers  sent  by  all
the  great  powers  23  Sept.  1885  ;  the  boat,  made
of  steel,  64  feet  long;  motive  power,  steam;
crew  of  3  or  4  men,  breathe  for  six  hours  by
means  of  sealed  up  compressed  air  ;  the  boat  may
be  raised  or  sunk  at  the  will  of  the  crew  ;  and  by
means  of  torpedoes  may  cause  the  destruction  of
any  vessel.  The  boat  was  publicly  tried  in
Southampton water, and reported successful,

19-20  Dec.  1S37
Lieut.  Isaac  Peral's  submarine  boat,  travelled  for
one  hour  under  water  near  Cadiz  7  June  ;  lie  was
ennobled  by  the  government , . 16  June  189a

k2


BOAT-BACES.


132


BOHEMIA.


BOAT-BACES;  see  Dogget,  and  University.
The  London  rowing  club  beat  the  Atalanta  rowing
club  in  a  four-oared  race  on  the  Thames,  10  June,
1872.  Race  on  the  Tyne  ;  championship  of  the
world  won  by  Edward  Hanlan  of  Toronto,  3  April,
1882.

BOCCACCIO'S  DECAMERONE,  a  col-
lection of  a  hundred  stories  or  novels  (many  very
immoral),  severely  satirising  the  clergy,  feigned  to
have  been  related  in  ten  days,  during  the  plague  of
Florence  in  1348.  Boccaccio  lived  1313-75.  A  copy
of  the  first  edition  (that  of  Valdarfer,  in  1471)  was
knocked  down  at  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  sale,
to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  for  2260^.,  17  June,
1812.  This  copy  was  afterwards  sold  by  public
auction,  for  875  guineas,  5  June,  1819.

.  BODLEIAN  LIBRABY,  Oxford,  founded
in  1598,  and  opened  in  1602,  by  sir  Thos.  Bodley
(died,  28  Jan.  161 2).  It  is  open  to  the  public,  and
claims  a  copy  of  all  works  published  in  this  country.
In  1868,  it  contained  about  250,000  volumes ;  in
1885,  432,417  volumes  (MSS.  26,598.)  For  rare
works  and  MSS.  it  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  the
Vatican.  Mr.  Macray's  "Annals  of  the  Bodleian
library,"  published  1868.

BCEOTIA,  a  division  of  Greece,  north  of  Attica,
known  previously  as  Aonia,  Messapia,  Hyantis,
Ogygia,  and  Cadmeis.  Thebes,  the  capital,  was
celebrated  for  the  exploits  and  misfortunes  of  its
kings  and  heroes.  The  term  Boeotian  was  used  by
the  Athenians  as  a  synonym  for  dulness ;  but  un-
justly,— since  Pindar,  Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Democritus,
Epaminondas,  and  Corinna,  were  Boeotians.  The
early  history  and  dates  are  mythical ;  see  Thebes.
Arrival  of  Cadmus,  founder  of  Cadmea(.H"aZes,  1494  ;

Clinton,  1313)  ......  b.c.  1493

Reign  of  Polydore 1450

Labdachus  ascends  the  throne 1430

Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebes,  and  dethrone

Laius 1388

Myth  of  CEdipus  ;  he  kills  in  an  affray  his  father

Lams  :  confirming  the  oracle  foretelling  his  death

by the hands  of his son, 1276 ; resolves  the

Sphinx's  enigmas 1266

War  of  the  Seven  Captains 1225

Thebes  besieged  and  taken 12 13

Thersander  reigns  1198  ;  slain 1193

The  Thebans  abolish royalty  (ages  of obscurity

follow) about  1 1 20

The  Thebans  fight  with  the  Persians  against  the

Greeks  at  Platsea 479

The  Spartans  aiding  the  Thebans  defeat  the  Athe-
nians near  Tanagra 457

Battle  of  Coronea,  in  which  the  Thebans  defeat  the

Athenians 447

The  Thebans,  under  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas,

enrol  their  Sacred  Band,  and  join  Athens  against

Sparta 377

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at

Leuctra,  and  restores  Thebes  to  independence  .  371
Pelopidas  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cynosoephalse  .  364
Epaminondas  gains  the  victory  of  Mantinea,  but  is

slain 362

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  defeats  the  Thebans  and

Athenians  near  Chseronea 338

Alexander  destroys  Thebes,  but  spares  the  house  of

Pindar 335

The  Boeotian  confederacy  dissolved  by  the  Romans  170
Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of

Greece;  and  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  under  a.d.

Mahomet  II . 1456

BOEBS  (peasants),  a  name  given  to  the  Dutch
settlers,  in  South  Africa,  since  the».i6th  century,
who  still  retain  their  national  character.  Discon-
tented with  the  British  rule  iu  the  Cape  since  1814,
large  bands  of  them  in.  1835-7  trekked  or  emigrated
northwards,  and  founded  the  Orange  Free  State
(1836),  and  the  Transvaal  Republic  (1848) ,  after  much
lighting  with  the  natives. See  Transvaal,  189 1.


BOGOTA,  SANTA  Fe  DE,  capital  of  New-
Grenada  {which  see),  founded  1538.

BOGS,  probably  the  remains  of  forests,  covered
with  peat  and  loose  soil.  An  act  for  the  drainage
of  Irish  bogs,  passed  March,  1830.  The  bog-land  of
Ireland  has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  acres ;  that
of  Scotland  at  upwards  of  2,000,000 ;  and  that  of
England  at  near  1,000,000  of  acres.  In  Jan.  1849,
Mr.  Rees  Reece  took  out  a  patent  for  certain
valuable  products  from  Irish  peat.  Candles  and
various  other  articles  produced  from  peat  have  been
since  sold  in  London.  Fuel  for  railway  engines  and
other  purposes  was  made  from  peat  (April,  1873) ;
and  a  peat,  coal,  and  charcoal  company  established.

Much  destruction  has  been  caused  by  the  motion  of
bogs.  Leland  (about  1546)  speaks  of  Chat  Moss  doing
so.

Mischief  was  done  at  Enaghmore,  Ireland,  3  Jan.  1853  ;
and  farm  houses  and  fields  near  Dunmore  were  covered,
Oct.  1873.

BOGrUE  FOBTS,  see  China,  1841.

BOHEMIA,  formerly  the  Hercynian  fores-t
(Boiemum,  Tacitus),  derives  its  name  from  the  Boii,
a  Celtic  tribe.  It  was  governed  by  dukes  (Borzivoi
the  first,  891),  till  Ottocar  assumed  the  title  of  king,
1 198.  The  kings  at  first  held  their  territory  from
the  empire  :  and  the  crown  was  elective  till  it  came
to  the  house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  is  now  here-
ditary. Prague,  the  capital,  is  famous  for  sieges
and  battles.  Population  in  1857,  4,705,525;  in
1870,  5,140,544;  in  1890,  5,843,250;  see  Prague,
For  Bohemians,  see  Gypsies.

The Czechs  (Slavonians)  conquer  Bohemia  about  5th
century.

City  of  Prague  founded 795

Introduction  of  Christianity ....  . 894

Bohemia  conquered  by  the  emperor  Henry  III.  who

spreads  devastation  through  the  country  .  .  1041
Ottocar  (Premislas)  I.,  first  king  of  Bohemia  .  1198

Ottocar  II.  rules  over  Austria,  and  obtains  Styria,

&c,  1253  ;  refuses  the  imperial  crown  . . 1272

Ottocar  vanquished  by  the  emperor  Rudolph  and
deprived  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Camiola, 1277  ;
killed  at  Marchfeld .... 26  Aug.  1278
King  John  (blind),  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  . 1346

John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two  of  the  first
reformers,  burnt  for  heresy  ;  which  occasions  an
insurrection . . . . ."  1415,  1416

Ziska,  leader  of  the  Hussites,  takes  Prague,  1419  ;

dies  of  the  plague 1424

Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the  daughter  of  the
late  emperor  and  king,  and  receives  the  crowns  of
Bohemia  and  Hungary ...... 1437

The  succession  infringed  by  Ladislas,  son  of  the
king  of  Poland,  and  George  Podiebrad,  a  protes-

tant  chief 1440-1458

Ladislas,  king  of  Poland,  elected  king  of  Bohemia,

on  the  death  of  Podiebrad 1471

The  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  marries  Anne,  sister  of

Louis  the  late  king,  and  obtains  the  crown  . 152.7

The  emperor  Ferdinand  II. ,  oppressing  the  protes-
tants,  is  deposed,  and  Frederic  the  elector-pala-
tine, elected  king  .... 5  Sept. 1619
Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to

Holland 9  Nov.  1620

Bohemia  secured  to  Austria  by  treaty  .  .  .  164S
Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia  .  ...  1742
Prague  taken  by  the  Prussians  ....  1744

Prussians  defeat  Austrians  at  Prague . 6  May,  1757

Revolt  of  the  peasantry 1775

Edict  of  Toleration  promulgated . . . .1781

The  French  occupy  Prague 1806

Insurrection  at  Prague,  12  June  ;  submission,  state

of  siege  raised 20  July,  1848

The  Prussians  enter  Bohemia,  which  becomes  the

seat  of  war  (see  Germany,  1866)  . . 24  June,  1866
Agitation  of  the  Czechs,  who  require  the  emperor
to  be  crowned  king  of  Bohemia  with  the  crown  of
St.  Wenceslas  at  Prague . . . autumn,  1867
Riots at  Prague ; habeas  corpus  act  suspended,

10  Oct.  186S


BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.


133


BOLIVIA.


Bohemian  agitation  for  self-government ;  addresses
to  the  emperor . .  14  Sept.  and  5  Oct.  1870

Manifesto  of  the  emperor . . . 14  Sept.  1871

Bohemian  deputies absent from  the reichsrath,

Dee. „

The  "  Young  Czech  "  party  defeated  in  the  elections

July,  1874

Czech  deputies  enter  reichsrath  . . . 8  Oct.  1879

The  motion  of  the  Young  Czechs  in  the  assembly
for  the  coronation  of  the  emperor  as  king  of
Bohemia  negatived,  after  several  days'  warm
debate 9  Nov.  1889

Peaceful  settlement  of  the  disputes  between  Czechs
and  Germans,  in  a  conference,  by  the  intervention
of  the  emperor 17 — 19  Jan.  1890

Peace  confirmed  at  a  meeting  of  the  diet 19  May, ,,

Strike  of  about  6,000  miners  at  Niirschau  ;  fight
with  military  ;  five  men  killed . 19—29  May, ,,

The  diet  re-opened  14  Oct.,  the  Young  Czechs
obstruct  legislation Oct. ,,

Meeting  of  the  diet ;  the  Young  Czech  party  ob-
structive ;  the  reconciliation  of  Germans  and
Czechs  delayed Nov. ,,

The  Brux  mine  inundated  through  heavy  rains,  87
colliers  perish,  announced  . . 30  Nov. ,,

The  emperor  intervenes  to  promote  the  passing  of
the  compromised  bill  by  the  diet ;  the  Young
Czechs  require  autonomy  like  Hungary

middle  Dec. ,,

Gradual  dissolution  of  the  Old  Czech  party  (mode-
rates) Dec. ,,

TJie  Austrian  government  determine  to  make  no
more  concessions  to  the  Czechs  ;  announced  to
the  diet ....... 5  Jan.  1891

Useful  legislation  in  the  diet  obstructed  by  the
Young  Czechs,  about . . . .16  Jan. ,,

The  Young  Czechs  victorious  in  the  elections  ;  Dr.
Rieger,  the  venerable  leader  of  the  Old  Czechs,
and  his  party,  totally  defeated,  2— 4  March;  he
retires  from  public  life  . . . March, ,,

The  emperor  visits  Prague  to  promote  peace  be-
tween the  Germans  anil  Czechs  26  Sept. — 1  Oct. ,,

Explosion  of  a  bridge  at  Rosenthal,  over  which
the  emperor  was  expected  to  pass . 30  Sept. , ,

The  government  compromise  discussed  in  the  diet
and  strongly  opposed ... 24  March,  1892

KINGS.

1 198.  Premislas  Ottocar  I.

1230.  Wenceslas  III.

1253.  Premislas  Ottocar  II.

1278.  Wenceslas  IV.,  king  of  Poland.

1305.  Wenceslas  V.

1306.  Rudolph  of  Austria.

1307.  Henry  of  Carinthia.

1310.  John  of  Luxemburg  (killed  at  Crecy).
1346.  Charles  I.,  emperor  (1347).
1378.  Wenceslas  VI.,  emperor.
1419.  Sigismund  I.,  emperor.
1438.  Albert  of  Austria,  emperor.
1440.  Ladislas  V.
145S.  George  von  Podiebrad.
1471.  Ladislas  VI.,  king  of  Hungary  (in  1490).
1516.  Louis,  king  of  Hungary  (killed  at  Mohatz).
1526.  Bohemia  united to Austria  under  Ferdinand  I.
elected  king. See  Germany,  emperors.

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  body  of
Christians  in  Bohemia,  appear  to  have  separated
from  the  Calixtines  {which  see),  a  branch  of  the
Hussites  in  1467.  Dupin  says  "  They  rejected  the
sacraments  of  the  church,  were  governed  by  simple
laics,  and  held  the  scriptures  for  their  only  rule  of
faith.  They  presented  a  confession  of  faith  to  king
L-adislas  in  1504  to  justify  themselves  from  errors
laid  to  their  charge."  They  appear  to  have  had
communication  with  the  Waldenses,  but  were  dis-
tinct from  them.  Luther,  in  1533,  testifies  to  their
purity  of  doctrine,  and  Melanchthon  commends
their  discipline.  They  were  dispersed  during  the
religious  wars  of  Germany  in  the  17th  century.

BOHN'S LIBRARIES. Mr.  H.  G.  Bolm

began  the  publication  of  his  "  Standard  Library  "
in  1846.  This  was  followed  by  the  classical,  anti-
quarian, scientific  and  illustrated  libraries,  above


600  volumes.  These  were  bought  by  Messrs.  Bell
and  Daldy  in  1864,  who  have  added  many  otner
volumes.  Mr.  Bohn  died  22  Aug.  188.J,  aged  go.
His  pictures  and  works  of  art  by  sale,  realised
19,220/'.  March,  1885.

BOH,  a  Celtic  people  of  N.  Italy,  who  emigrate-
into  Italy,  and  were  defeated  at  the  Vadimonian
lake,  283  B.C.  They  were  finally  subdued  by  Scipio
Nasica,  191  B.C.

BOILERS,  STEAM.  Many  lives  have  been
lost  by  their  explosions.  23  persons  were  killed  at
Glasgow  iron- works,  5  March,  1879  ;  and  21  killed
at  the  Birchill  ironworks,  near  Walsall,  15  May,
1880.  Boilers  Explosion  Act,  passed  1882,  amended
in  1890.
By  the  explosion  of  a  defective  neglected  boiler  at  Mr.

Mattison's bedding  manufactory,  Rhodeswell  Road,

Stepney,  4  men  were  killed  and  17  persons  injured,

31  May,  1886.
The  animal  average  of  explosions  in  six  years  ending

June,  1888,  was  47  ;  deaths  30.
1871-1890,  1,005  persons  killed.

BOILING  OF  LIQUIDS.  Dr.  Hooke,  about
1683,  ascertained  that  liquids  were  not  increased  in
heat  after  they  had  once  begun  to  boil,  and  that  a
fierce  fire  only  made  them  boil  more  rapidly.  The
following  boiling  points  have  been  stated  : —


930  Fahr.
173 ,,


Phosphorus .  554°Fahr.
Oil  of  turpentine  312 ,,
Sulphur . .  822 ,,
Mercury . .  662 ,,


Ether

Alcohol

Water

Nitric  acid . .187

Sulphuric  acid  .  600

BOILING  TO  DEATH,  made  a  capital
punishment  in  England,  by  stat.  22  Hen.  VlLL,
1 53 1  (repealed  in  1547).  This  act  was  occasioned
by  seventeen  persons  having  been  poisoned  by
Kichard  Rosse,  otherwise  Coke,  the  bishop  of
Rochester's  cook,  two  of  whom  died.  Margaret
Davy,  a  young  woman,  suffered  in  the  same  manner
for  a  similar  crime,  28  March,  1542. Stow.

BOIS-LE-DUC,  Dutch  Brabant,  the  site  of  a
battle  between  the  British  and  the  French  repub-
lican army,  in  which  the  British  were  defeated,  and
forced  to  abandon  their  position  and  retreat  to
Schyndel,  14  Sept.  1794.  This  place  was  captured
by  the  French,  10  Oct.  following ;  it  surrendered
to  the  Prussian  army,  under  Bulow,  in  Jan.  1814.

BOKHARA,  the  ancient  Sogdiana,  after  suc-
cessively forming  part  of  the  empires  of  Persia,  of
Alexander,  and  Bactriana,  was  conquered  by  the
Turks  in  the  6th  century,  by  the  Chinese  in  the  7th,
and  by  the  Arabs  about  705.  After  various  changes
of  masters  it  was  subdued  by  the  Uzbek  Tartars,  its
present  possessors,  in  1505.  The  British  envoys,
colonel  Stoddart  and  captain  Conolly,  were  mur-
dered at  Bokhara,  the  capital,  by  the  khan,  about
17  June,  1842.  Bokhara  was  visited  by  Dr.  Joseph
AVoltlin  1844.  In  the  war  with  Russia,  begun  in
1866,  the  emir's  army  was  defeated  several  times  in
May,  ct  seq.  Peace  was  made  II  July,  1867.  The
Russians  were  again  victors,  25  May,  1868,  and
occupied  Samarcand  the  next  day.  Further  con-
quests were  made  by  the  Russians,  and  Samarcand
was  secured  by  treaty,  Nov.  1868.  A  new  political
and  commercial  treaty  with  Russia  was  published
Dec.  1873.  The  right  of  the  present  Khan,  Said-
Abd-oul-Ahad,  since  1885,  to  the  government  being
disputed,  he  appealed  to  Russia  for  protection  Dec
1890. Population  1 891,  estimated  1,250,000.

BOLIVIA,  a  republic  in  South  America,  for-
merly part  of  Peru,  population  in  1875,  about
2,ooo",ooo;  in  1880,  2,325,000 ;  1890,  1,189,800.

The  insurrection  of  the  ill-used  Indians,  headed  by
Tupac  Amaru  Andres,  took  place-  here  .  1780-2


BOLLANDISTS.


134


BOMBAY.


The  country  declared  its  independence . .  6  Aug.  1824
Secured  by  the  victory  of  Ayaeucho . .  9  Dec. ,,
Took  the  name  of  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  general

Bolivar n  Aug.  1825

First  congress  met 25  May,  1826

General  Sucre  governed  ably .... 1826-8

Slavery  abolished 1836

Santa  Cruz  ruled 1828-39

Gen.  Velasco,  president 9  Feb.  1839

Jose  Ballivian,  president in  1841

Gen.  Belzu until  1855

Free-trade  proclaimed 1853

General  Cordova,  president 1855-7

Succeeded by the  dictator Jose Maria Linares

31  March,  1859
George  Cordova,  constitutional  president.  .  .  i860
Succeeded  by  Jose  M.  de  Acha  .  .  .  May,  1861
General  Melgarejo  defeats  the  troops  of  president

DeAcha 28  Dec.  1864

Becomes  dictator  of  the  republic  . . Feb. 1865

Puts  down  an  insurrection  under  Belzu,  March, ,,
Totally  defeats  Arguedas  at  Viacha  and  publishes

an  amnesty -24  Jan.  1866

Suppresses  a  revolt 17  Oct. ,,

Proclaims  an  amnesty . . . .21  Dec.  1867

Civil  war 1867-70

The  president,  A.  Morales,  1871  ;  said  to  have  been

murdered Jan.  1873

President,  Dr.  Tomas  Frias . . . 14  Feb.  1874
Corral's  insurrection  suppressed . . .  Sept. ,,
General  Hilarion  Daza,  president . . 4  May,  1876
Bolivia  joins  Peru  in  war  against  Chili,  (see  Chili)

April,  1879
Revolution  ;  Daza  deposed  ;  flees  ;  Campero  presi-
dent 1  June,  1880

Peace  with  Chili  ;  conditions  finally  settled  .  Dec.  1883
Aniceto  Arce  (president  since  1  Aug.)  suppresses  a
revolution Oct.  18S8

BOLLANDISTS,  see  Acta  Sanctorum.

BOLOGNA  (central  Italy),  the  ancient  Fel-
sina,  afterwards  Bononia,  a  city  distinguished  for
its  architecture,  made  a  Eoman  colony, 189  B.C.
Population  1890,  143,607.
A  university  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Theo-

dosius,  about  433  ;  really  in 1116

Bologna  joins  the  Lombard  League . . . . 1167
Pope  Julius  II.  takes  Bologna  ;  enters  in  triumph

11  Nov.  1506
It  becomes  part  of  the  states  of  the  Church . . 1513
In  the  church  of  St.  Petronius,  remarkable  for  its
pavement,  Cassini  drew  his  meridian  line  (over
one  drawn  by  Father  Ignatius  Dante  in  1575) .  1653
Bologna  was  taken  by  the  French, 1796  ;  by  the
Austrians,  1799  ;  again  by  the  French,  after  the
battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800  ;  and  restored  to  the

pope  in ^15

A  revolt  suppressed  by  Austrian  interference  . .  183 1
Rebellion,  1848  ;  taken  by  Austrians . 16  May,  1849
The  Austrians  evacuate  Bologna :  and  cardinal  Fer-
retti  departs  :  the  citizens  rise  and  form  a  pro-
visional government 12  June,  1859

"Which  decrees  that  all  public  acts  shall  be  headed
"  Under  the  reign  of  king  Victor  Emmanuel,"  &c.

1  Oct. ,,
He  enters  Bologna  as  sovereign . . .  2  May,  i860
Exhibition  opened  by  the  king  and  queen  .  6  May,  1888
The king unveils statue of Victor Emmanuel,
11  June;  establishment  of  the  University  cele-
brated n-i6June, ,,

Serious  affray  between  the  army  and  the  populace
through  caricatures  in  a  Bologna  paper,  1,  2  Aug.  1891

BOLOMETER  (Greek  bolos,  a  throw  or  cast),
an  electrical  instrument,  invented  by  prof.  S.  P-
Langley,  of  U.S.,  who  also  terms  it  an  "actinic
balance. "  It  is  much  more  sensitive  to  radiant
heat  than  the  thermopile  (Nature,  3  Nov.  1881).
By  its  means  he  made  discoveries  in  the  ultra  red
rays  of  the  spectrum.

BOLTON,  Lancashire,  was  stormed  by  prince
Eupert,  1644.  It  was  an  early  seat  of  the  cotton
manufacture.  Cotton  velvets  were  made  here  in
1756,  and  muslins  in  1782.  Temple  Opera-house
burned 16  April, 1882. Bayley's cotton  works


burned,  several  persons  killed,  and  many  injured  -
about  60,000/.  worth  damaged,  16  Aug.  1882.  See-
Strikes  1887,  1890.  Population  1881,  105,414 ;.
1891,  115,002.

Theatre  Royal  burnt,  4  Jan.  ;  100L  reward  for  discovery
of  suspected  incendiary,  about  5  Jan.  1888.  Robert
Preston  sentenced  to  twelve  years'  penal  servitude-
for  arson,  7  Feb.  1888.

BOMABSUND,  a  strong  fortress  on  one  of  the
Aland  isles  in  the  Baltic  sea,  taken  by  sir  Charles
Napier,  commander  of  the  Baltic  expedition,  aided1
by  the  French  military  contingent  under  general.
Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  15  Aug.  1854.  The  governor
Bodisco,  and  the  garrison,  about  2000  men,  became
prisoners. The  fortifications  were  destroyed.

BOMBAY,  the  most  westerly  and  smallest  of
our  Indian  presidencies,  was  visited  by  the  Portu-
guese in  1509,  and  acquired  by  them  in  1530.  It
was  given  (with  Tangier  in  Africa,  and  300,000?.  in
money)  to  Charles  II.  as  the  marriage  portion  of  the-
infanta  Catherine  of  Portugal,  1662.  In  1668,  it
was  granted  to  the  East  India  company,  who  had
long  desired  it,  "in  free  and  common  socage,"  a&
of  the  manor  of  East  Greenwich,  at  an  annual  rent
of  10/.  Confirmed  by  William  III.  1689.  The
two  principal  castes  at  Bombay  are  the  Parsees-
(descendants  of  the  ancient  Persian  fire-worship-
pers) and  the  Borahs  (sprung  from  early  converts-
to  Islamism) .  They  are  both  remarkable  for  com-
mercial activity.  Population:  presidency,  1881,.
16,469,199; 1891,  18,825,080;  city,  1891,  804,470.

First  British  factory  established  at  Ahmednuggur  .  1612;
Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100  soldiers, and

other English, perish through the climate,

Oct.  1675 — Feb.  1676
Captain  Keigwin  usurps  the  government  .  .  1681-84.
Bombay  made  chief  over  the  company's  settlements  1687
The  whole  island,  except  the  fort,  seized  and  held

for  a  time  by  the  mogul's  admiral .  .  .  .  1690
Bombay  becomes  a  distinct  presidency  .  .  .  170s.
Additions  to  the  Bombay  territory  : — Bancot  river,

1756  ;  island  of  Salsette 1775.

Bishopric  established 1837

Lord  Elphinstone  governor  .  .  .  .  .  1853,
The  benevolent  sir  Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy,  a  Parsee

(who  erected  several  hospitals,  &c.),  diesis  April,  1859.
His  son  sir  Cursetjee,  visits  England . . .  i860.

Sir  G.  R.  Clerk,  governor ,,

Rioting  against  the  income-tax  suppressed  Nov.  Dec. ,,
Sir  Henry  Bartle  Frere,  governor . . March,  1862
Greatly  increased  prosperity  through  the  cotton

trade,  leads  to  immense  speculation.  .  .  Nov.  1864.
Reported  failure  of  Mr.  Byramjee  Cama,  a  Parsee,

for  3,300,000!.  ;  other  failures,  and  great  depres-
sion ;  the  projected  international  exhibition  in

1867  abandoned May,  1865,

Recovering  from  commercial  crisis . . Aug. ,,
Mr.  (after  sir)  W.  R.  Seymour  Fitzgerald,  appointed

governor,  Nov.  1866  ;  arrived  .  .  28  Feb.  1867-
Held  a  durbar  of  native  princes,  at  Poona  .  6  Oct.  1868.
Grand  recejition  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  11  March,  1870.
Sir  Philip  Wodehouse,  governor  .  .  April,  1872
Riots  :  Mahometans  attack  Parsees  for  publishing

part  of  Washington  Irvmg's  "  Life  of  Mahomet ";

lives  lost  and  property  destroyed . 13-15  Feb. 1874.

Culprits  punished  by  the  British „

The  Prince  of  Wales  warmly  received,  8  Nov.  1875  ;

sailed  from  here  for  home  .  .  .  13  March,  1876
Meeting  of  loyal  Mahometans  to  petition  the  queen

in  favour  of  the  Sultan . . . 24  Sept. ,,
Dreadful  famine, relieved by government and

by  British  subscriptions 1877

Statue  of  the  prince  of  Wales  (given  by  sir  Albert

Sassoon),  uncovered  .  .  26  or  27  June,  1879
Sir  James  Fergusson  nominated  governor  .  Feb.  1880
A  patriotic  fund  to  relieve  sufferers  by  Afghan  war,

liberally  subscribed  to  by  natives  and  others,  Aug. ,,
62  persons  drowned  in  the  great  tank . 17  April,  1883
Lord  Reay  appointed  governor . . . Dec.  1884
Native  troops  sail  for  the  Soudan  . . 23  Feb.  1885
For  the  Crawford  Case,  see  India ....  1889


BOMBS.


135


BONNY RIVER.


George  R.  Canning,  Lord  Harris,  appointed  governor
(Lord  Reay  having  resigned),  18  Nov.,  1889 ;
arrives 11  April,  1890

An  epidemic  prevails  resembling  influenza

Feb.-March, ,,

The  duke  of  Connaught  commander-in-chief  of
Bombay,  with  the  duchess,  much  esteemed,  leaves
for  home 13  March, „

Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  lands  at  Bombay,  9
Nov.  1889,  after  a  tour  in  India ;  departs  for
England 28  March, ,,

Lady  Dulferin's  hospital  for  women  opened  by  the
viceroy . ■ 24  Oct. ,,

The  collapse  of  a  large  ill-built  house  in  the  city  ;
about  30  persons  killed  . . . -17  Dec. ,,

Great  fire  at  Poonah,  over  200  houses  destroyed

12  Jan.  1891

Destructive  floods  through  heavy  rains  about

29  July, ,,

The  viceroy  opens  the  new  Bombay  waterworks,
great  undertaking,  designed  by  major  Tulloch

31  March,  1892

BOMBS  (iron  shells  filled  with  gunpowder),
said  to  have  been  invented  at  Venlo,  in  1495,  and
used  by  the  Turks  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes  in  1522.
They  came  into  general  use  in  1634,  having  been
previously  used  only  by  the  Dutch  and  Spaniards.
Bomb- vessels  were  invented  in  France  in  168 1.
Voltaire.  The  shrapnel  shell  (invented  by  colonel
Henry  Shrapnel,  who  died  in  1842)  is  a  bomb  filled
with  balls,  and  a  lighted  fuse  to  make  it  explode
before  it  reaches  the  enemy.

BONA,  Algeria  ;  an  early  station  of  the  French
African  company,  till  1789.  It  was  taken  by  the
French  from  the  Arabs,  6  May,  1832.

BONAPARTE,  or  BUONAPARTE,
FAMILY.  The  name  appears  at  Florence  and
Genoa  in  the  13th  century ,  in  the  15th  a  branch
settled  in  Corsica.  See  Table  in  Vincent's  "  Dic-
tionary of  Biography."

Charles  Bonaparte,  born  29  March,  1746,  died  24  Feb.,
1785.  He  married  in  1767,  Letitia  Kamolina  (born
24  Aug.,  1750,  died  Feb.  1836)  ;  issue,

1.  Joseph,  born  7  Jan.  1768,  made  king  of  Two  Sicilies,
1805  ;  of  Naples  alone,  1806  ;  of  Spain,  1808  ;  resides
in  United  States,  1815  ;  comes  to  England,  1832  ;
settles  in  Italy,  1841  ;  dies  at  Florence,  28  July,  1844.

2.  Napoleon  I. ,  emperor,  born  15  Aug.  1769  (see  France.)

3.  Lucien,  prince  of  Canino,  bom  1775;  at  first  aided
his  brother  Napoleon,  but  opposed  his  progress  towards
universal  monarchy.  He  was  taken  by  the  English  on
his  way  to  America,  and  resided  in  England  till  1814.
He  died  at  Viterbo,  30  June,  1840.  His  sou  Charles
(born  1803,  died  1857)  was  an  eminent  naturalist.
Louis  Lucien,  an  eminent  philologist,  born  in  1813 ;
received  a  pension  of  250?.  from  the  British  govern-
ment ;  died  3  Nov.  1891.

4.  Louis,  born  2  Sept.  1778  ;  made  king  of  Holland,  1806;
died  15  July,  1846.  By  his  marriage  with  Hortense
Beauharnais  (daughter  of  the  empress  Josephine),  in
1802,  he  had  three  sons  :  1.  Napoleon  Louis  (born  1803,
died  1807)  ;  2.  Louis  Napoleon  (born  1804,  died  1831) ;
and

3.  Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 ;

educated  under  the  care  of  his  mother  at  Aremberg,

Switzerland,  and  at  Thun,  under  general  Dufour  ;

took  part  in  the  Carbonari  insurrection  in  the  Papal

States  in  March,  1831
Attempted  a  revolt  at  Strasbourg,  30  Oct.  1836.
Sent  to  America,  13  Nov.  1836.
Repairs  to  London,  14  Oct.  1838.
Lands  at  Boulogne  with  fifty  followers,  6  Aug.  1840.
Condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life,  6  Oct.  1840.
Escapes  from  Ham,  25  May,  1846.
Arrives  at  Boulogne,  2  March,  1848.
Elected  deputy,  8  June  ;  and  takes  his  seat,  27  Aug.  ;
see  France  1 84S- 7 1 :  died  at  Chislehurst,  9  Jan.  1873.

Son:  Napoleon Eugene  Louis  Jean  Joseph;  born

16  March, 1856  ;  educated at military  academy,

Woolwich  ; killed in Zululand, June 1, 1879.

Both  buried  at  Chislehurst ;  removed  to  a  mausoleum

at  Farnborough,  9  Jan.  1888.


5.  Jerome,  born  15  Nov.  1784  ;  king  of  Westphalia,
1  Dec.  1807-1814 ;  [married  :  I.  Elizabeth  Paterson,  in
America,  24  Dec.  1803  ;  son  Jerome,  born  at  Camber-
well,  London,  7  July,  1805  (she  died,  aged  94,  4  April,
1879).  II.  Princess  Catherine,  of  Wiirtemberg,  12  Aug.
1807.]  Made  governor  of  the  Invalides,  1848  ;  and
marshal,  1850  ;  died  24  June,  i860  ;  his  children —
Mathilde, born  27  May, 1820  ; married  to  prince

A.  Demidoff  in  1841.
Napoleon,  born  9  Sept.  1822  ;  married  princess  Clo-
tilde  of  Savoy,  30  Jan.  1859,  died  17  March,  1891  :
issue,  Victor,  born  18  July,  1862  ;  Louis,  born  16
July,  1864  ;  Marie,  born  20  Dec.  1866 ;  prince  Victor
separates  from  his  father ;  accepted  as  chief  by  the
Bonapartists  ;  the  father  publishes  painful  corre-
spondence. June,  18S4.  Expelled  from  France
(see  France)  May-June,  i836  ;  disinherited  March,
1 89 1 ;  accepted  as  head  of  the  family  31  March,
1891.

BOND,  Dutch  for  league,  a  name  adopted  by
the  Dutch-speaking  population  of  Southern  Africa,
see  Afrikander  and  Boers. Bonds,  see  Foreign.

BONDAGE,  see  Villanage.

BONES.  The  art  of  softening  bones  was  dis-
covered about  1688,  and  they  were  used  in  the
cutlery  manufacture,  &c,  immediately  afterwards.
The  declared  value  of  the  bones  of  cattle  and  of
other  animals,  and  of  fish  (exclusive  of  whale-fins)
imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  Russia,
Prussia,  Holland,  Denmark,  &c,  amounted  to
363,6131?.  in  1851,  to  659,416?.  in  1871,  to  741,899?.
m  1877,  to  617,748?.  in  1883,  to  313,765?.  in  1887,
to  449,526/.  in  1890.  Bone-dust  has  been  extensively
employed  in  manure  since  the  publication  of  Liebig's
researches  in  1840.

BONE-SETTINGr  cannot  he  said  to  have
been  practised  scientifically  until  1620. Bell.

The  ignorant  "bone-setters"  often  did  good  and
often  harm  ;  the  principle  upon  which  they  acted
is  now  adopted  by  surgeons  :  and  is  set  forth  in
Dr.  Wharton  Hood's  work  on  "The  Setting  and
Treatment  of  Joints,"  1871.
Mr.  John  Hutton,  an  eminent  (unprofessional)
"  bone-setter,"  died  July,  1887.

BON  MARCHE  (cheap).  Name  given  by
some  shopkeepers  in  London  to  their  mode  of
selling  goods  to  the  poor  at  very  small  profits.
The  system  was  originated  at  Paris  by  Mad.
Boucicault,  originally  a  shop-girl  ;  about  1842,
she,  with  her  husband,  opened  a  shop  in  the
time  of  deep  distress  for  meeting  the  wants
of  the  poorest  people.  In  time  her  business
greatly  increased  with  enlarged  premises,  and  she
adopted  the  system  of  the  division  of  profits  with
her  employed.  She  realised  a  large  fortune,  and
became  a  munificent  benefactress  of  the  city.  She
died  in  Dec.  1887,  worth  it  is  said  four 'million
pounds  sterling.  M.  Crespin  de  Vidouville,  a  simi-
lar eccentric  character,  died  at  Paris  20  Feb.  1888.

BONN,  atownon  the  Rhine  (the  Roman Bonna),
was  in  the  electorate  of  Cologue.  It  has  been
frequently  besieged,  and  was  assigned  to  Prussia
in  1814.  The  academy  founded  by  the  elector  in
1777,  made  a  university  1784  ;  abolished  by  Napo-
leon; re-established  and  enlarged,  1818.  Here
Albert,  our  late  prince  consort,  was  entered  as  a
student,  May,  1837. Population  1890,  39,801.

BONNY  RIVER,  Guinea,  West  Africa;  a
scat  of  the  palm  oil  trade  ;  king  George  visited
England  in  1878.  A  sanguinary  battle  was  fought
between  the  king  Oko  Jumbo  and  the  people  of
New  Calabar,  who  were  defeated,  9  April,  1882.  Peace
made  by  British  intervention  011  Aug.  14,  1S82.

King  Oko  Jumbo  visited London,  summer  18S5  ;  left

15  July,  18S5  ;  his  death  reported  Aug.  1891.


BONS HOMMES.


136


BOOTHIA FELIX.


BONS  HOMMES,  hermits  of  simple  and
gentle  lives,  appeared  in  France  about  1257  ;  in
England  about  1283.  The  prior  of  the  order  was
called  le  bon  homme  by  Louis  VI.

BOOK  (Anglo-Saxon,  hoc;  German,  buck).
Books  were  originally  made  of  boards,  or  the  inner
bark  of  trees ;  afterwards  of  skins  and  parchment.
Papyrus,  an  indigenous  plant,  was  adopted  in
Egypt.  Books  with  leaves  of  vellum  were  invented
by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  about  198  b.c,  at
which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The
MSS.  in  Herculaneum  consist  of  pap}rrus,  rolled
and  charred  and  matted  together  by  the  fire,  and
are  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three
inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a  separate  treatise.
The  most  ancient  books  are  the  Pentateuch  of  Moses
and  the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  first
Printed  Books  (see  Printing)  were  printed  on  one
side  only,  the  leaves  being  pasted  back  to  back.  See
Libraries.

Title  pages  to  printed  books  in  England  were  not
introduced  till  shortly  before  1490,  they  were
used  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  but  not  by  Caxton,
in  the  15th  century.  Mr.  A.  W.  Pollard's  "  Last
words  on  Title  pages,"  appeared  in  1891.  See
Printing.
Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were  ordered  to
be  destroyed  in  England  as  being  infected  with

magic,  6  Edw.  VI.  (Stow) 1552

Anne's act, 1709,  relating  to  the  price  of  books,

repealed 1739

12032  volumes  of  new  works,  and  773  of  new  editions,

were  published  in  London  in  .... 1839

3359  new  works,  and  1159  new  editions,  and  908


1882
1883


:Sgo


1852


New New
"Works.  Editions.
■ 3978 "46


4732
4832

43°7
3984
4410
4960
4694
4414
4429


1413
1541
1333
1226
1276
1631

1373
1321
1277


pamphlets,  were  published  in
3553  volumes  were  published  in
Published  in  Great  Britain  :  -
New New
Works.  Editions.

1870  . 4775

1871  . 3547 1288

1872  . 3419 1 100

1874  . 3351  961

1875  . 3573  1331

1876  . 2931  1957
3877 . 304.9 2046

1878  . 3730 1584

1879  . 4294 1540

1880  . 4293 1415

1881  . 4110 1296
The  production  of  a  Universal  Catalogue  of  books

printed  in  the  United  Kingdom,  proposed  by  the
Society  of  Arts,  in  the  Journal . n  April,  1879
In  Paris,  6445  volumes  were  published  in  1842  ;  and
7350  in  1851. See  Bibliography.

Prices  of  Books.— Jerome  (who  died  420)  states  that
Tie  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy  of  the  works  of
Origen.  A  large  estate  was  given  by  Alfred  for  a  book
•on  cosmography,  about  872.  The  Roman  de  la  Rose  was
sold  for  about  30I.  ;  and  a  homily  was  exchanged  for
200  sheep  and  five  quarters  of  wheat.  Books  frequently
fetched  double  or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold
at  prices  varying  from  10I.  to  40I.  each  in  1400.  A  copy
of  Maclclin's  Bible,  ornamented  by  Mr.  Tomkins,  was
declared  worth  500  guineas.  Butler.  A  yet  more  superb
copy  was  insured  in  a  London  office  for  3000Z.  See
Boccaccio's  Decamerone.

Petrareaby  Bernardino  di  Novara,  1488,  at  the  Sun-
derland sale  bought  by  B.  Quaritch  for  1950?.,  11
Nov.  1882;  he  gave  for  sir  John  Thorold's  Mazarin
bible,  3900Z.  13  Dec.;  and  his  "Psabnorum  Codex,"

4950? 19  Dec. 1S84

Book-Binding. — The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  a  very
early  ornamental  book,  is  supposed  to  have  been

bound  about 650

A  Latin  Psalter  was  bound  in  oak  boards,  9th

century.
A  MS.  copy  of  the  four  Evangelists,  the  book  on
which  our  kings  from  Henry  I. to  Edward  VI.
took  their  coronation  oath,  was  bound  in  oaken

boards,  nearly  an  inch  thick

Velvet  was  the  covering  in  the  14th  century  ;  and
silk  soon  after. Vellum  was  introduced  early  in


the  15th  century ;  it  was  stamped  and  orna-
mented about 1 100

Leather  came  into  use  about  the  same  time.

The  rolling  machine,  invented  by  Mr.  Win.  Burr,
was  substituted  for  the  beating-hammer,  and  gas
stoves  began  to  take  the  place  of  the  charcoal
fires  used  to  heat  the  gilder's  finishing tools,

about  1830

Cloth  binding  superseded  the  common  boards
generally  about 1831

Caoutchouc  or  India-rubber  backs  to  account-books
and  large  volumes  were  introduced  in  . . . 1841

The  use  of  thin  metal  plates  instead  of  paste-
board introduced  by  . . . . . .  1886

Cheap  Books. — Mrs.  Brassey's  "Voyage  of  the
Sunbeam,"  Nov.  1881,  published  for  sixpence  ;
and  Martin's  "  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,"  for
2s.  6d Autumn  1881

Book-Hawking  Societies  (already  in  Scotland)
begun  in  England  in  1851  by  archdeacon  Wigram
(afterwards  bishop  of  Rochester).  The  hawkers
vend  moral  and  religious  books  in  a  similar  mari-
ner to  the  French  colporteurs.

BOOK-KEEPING-.  The  system  by_  double-
entry,  called  originally  Italian  book-keeping,  was
taken  from  the  course  of  algebra  published  by
Burgo,  in  the  15th  century,  at  Venice.  John
Gowghe,  a  printer,  published  a  treatise  "  on  the
kepyng  of  the  famouse  reconynge  .  .  .  Debitor
and  Creditor,"  London,  1543.  This  is  our  earliest
work  on  book-keeping.  James  Peele  published  his
Book-keeping  in  1569.  John  Mellis  published  "A
Briefe  Instruction  and  Manner  how  to  Keepe  Bookes
of  Accompts,"  in  1588.  Improved  systems  were
published  by  Benjamin  Booth  in  1789  and  by  Edw.
Thos.  Jones  in  1821  and  1831.

BOOK OF COMMON PBAYEB, see

Common  Prayer.  "  Book  of  the  Dead,"  see  Bead.
Book  of  Sports,  see  Sports. Book  Post,  see  Post.

BOOK  SOCIETY,  28,  Paternoster-row,  es-
tablished for  the  gratuitous  distribution  of  bibles
and  good  books,  1750.

BOOKS,  National,  Coloured.  See  under  Blue-
Books.

BOOKSELLERS,  at  first  migratory  like
hawkers,  became  known  as  stationarii,  from  their
practice  of  having  booths  or  stalls  at  the  corners  of
streets  and  in  markets.  They  were  long  subject  to
vexatious  restrictions,  from  which  they  were  freed
in  1758.

The  earliest  bookseller's  catalogue  is  said  to  be  that
published  by  Andrew  Maunsell,  of  Lothbury,  dedicated
to  Queen  Elizabeth,  1595.

"Booksellers'  Provident  Institution"  founded  1837;
"  Retreat,"  Abbot's  Langley,  Herts,  1843.

The  Bookseller,  a  monthly  newspaper  of  British  and
foreign  literature,  published  in  1858  ;  with  it  was  incor-
porated Bent's  Literary  Advertiser,  established  in  1802.

BOOKSELLERS'  ASSOCIATION. The

chief  publishers  in  London  formed  themselves  into
an  association  and  fixed  the  amount  of  discount  to
be  allowed,  29  Dec.  1829,  and  for  some  years  re-
stricted the  retail  booksellers  from  selling  copies  of
works  under  the  full  publishing  price.  A  dispute
arose  as  to  the  right  of  the  latter  to  dispose  of  books
which  had  become  theirs  by  purchase,  at  such  less
profit  as  they  might  deem  sufficiently  remunerative.
The  dispute  was  referred  to  lord  chief  justice  Camp-
bell, at  Stratheden  House,  14  April,  1852.  His
lordship  gave  judgment  against  the  association,
which  led  to  its  dissolution,  19  May  following.  The
London  Booksellers'  society  was  formed  in  1890  ;
the  inaugural  dinner  took  place  2  Oct.  1890.

BOOTHIA  FELIX,  a  large  peninsula,  N.W.
point  of  America,  discovered  by  sir  John  Boss  in
1830,  and  named  after  sir  Felix  Booth, who  had


BOOTHISM.


137


BOSCOBEL.


presented  him with  20,000^.  to  fit  out  his  polar
expedition. Sir  Felix  died  at  Brighton  in  Feb.  1850.

BOOTHISM,  see  Salvation  Army.

BOOTS,  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the
Carians,  were  mentioned  by  Homer,  907  B.C.,  and
frequently  by  the  Roman  historians.  A  variety  of
forms  may  be  seen  in  Fairholt's  "Costume  in  Eng-
land." An  instrument  of  torture  termed  "  the
boot"  was  used  in  Scotland  upon  the  covenanters
about  1666.

A  new  system  of  boot-making  introduced  by  Mr.  M.
L.  Lion  and  Mr.  P.  Cutlan,  reversing  the  ordinary
method,  July,  1887.

BOB, AX  (Boron),  known  to  the  ancients,  used
in  soldering,  brazing,  and  casting  gold  and  other
metals,  was  called  chrysocolla.  Borax  is  produced
naturally  in  the  mountains  of  Thibet,  and  was
brought  to  Europe  from  India  about  1713.  Hom-
berg  in  1702  discovered  in  borax  boracic  acid,  which
latter  in  1808  was  decomposed  by  Gay-Lussac,
Thenard,  and  H.  Davy,  into  oxygen  and  the  pre-
viously unknown  element,  boron.  Borax  has  lately
been  found  in  Saxony.  It  is  now  largely  manu-
factured from  the  boracic  acid  found  by  Hcefer  to
exist  in  the  gas  arising  from  certain  lagoons  in
Tuscany  ;  and  an  immense  fortune  has  been  made
by  their  owner,  M.  Lardarel,  since  1818.

.BORDEAUX  (W.  France),  the  Roman  Bur-
digalla,  in  Aquitania,  was  taken  by  the  Goths,  412  ;
by  Clovis,  508.  It  was  gained  by  Henry  IE.  on  his
marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  1151.  Edward
the  Black  Prince  brought  John,  king  of  France,
captive  to  this  city  after  the  battle  of  Poictiers,
19  Sept.  1356,  and  here  held  his  court  eleven
years:  his  son,  our  Richard  II.,  was  bom  at  Bor-
deaux, 1366.  After  several  changes  Bordeaux  finally
surrendered  to  Charles  VII.  of  France,  14  Oct.  1453.
The  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  erected
in  1743.  Bordeaux  was  entered  by  the  victorious
British  army  after  the  battle  of  Orthez,  fought
27  Feb.  1814. — 13  vessels  were  burnt  and  others
iujured  in  the  port,  through  the  ignition  and
explosion  of  petroleum  spirit,  28  Sept.  1869.  The
French  delegate  government  and  the  represen-
tatives of  foreign  powers  removed  here  from  Tours,
II  Dec.  1870.  M.  Gambetta  remained  for  a  time
with  the  army  of  the  Loire.  By  the  "  pacte  de
Bordeaux,"  between  the  different  parties  of  the
national  assembly,  M.  Thiers  became  chief  of  the
■  executive  power,  17  Feb.  1871.  The  French  Asso-
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  held  its
first  meeting  here,  5  Sept.  1872  ;  M.  Quatrefages,
president.  Great  fire  in  the  pine  forests,  10  persons
perish,  about  28  Aug.  1891.  Population,  1891,
238,899.

BORNEO,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the
largest  in  the  world except Australia and  New
Guinea,  was  early  known  to  the  Chinese.
The  Dutch  trade  here  in  1604  ;  establish  factories,

1609  :  abandon  them,  1623  ;  re-establish  them  .  1776
Sarawak  settled  by  sir  James  Brooke  ;  ai>pointed

rajah 1841

The  pirates  of  Borneo  chastised  by  the  British  iu

1813,  and  by  captain  Keppel  in  .  .  March,  1843
By  a  treaty  with  the  sultan,  through  the  instru-
mentality of  sir  J.  Brooke,  the  island  of  Labooan,
or  Labuan  (N.  W.  of  Borneo),  and  its  dependen-
cies, incorporated  with  the  British  empire,  and
formally  taken  possession  of  iu  presence  of  the

Bornean  chiefs 2  Dec. 1846

James  Brooke,  rajah  of  Sarawak  (1846),  governor  of
Labuan  and  consul-general  of  Borneo,  visits
England  and  receives  many  honours  .  .  Oct.  1847
He  destroys  many  of  the  Bornean  pirates  .  .  .  1849
Labuan  made  a  bishopric  ;  the  bishop  (F.  J.  Mac-
Dougall)  consecrated  at  Calcutta,  the  first  English
bishop  consecrated  out  of  England . 18  Oct. 1S55


The  Chinese  in  Sarawak  rise  iu  insurrection  and
massacre  a  number  of  Europeans  ;  sir  J.  Brooke
escapes  by  swimming  across  a  creek  ;  he  speedily
returns  with  a  force  of  Malays,  &c.,  and  chas-
tises the  insurgents, of  whom  2000  are  killed,

17,  18  Feb.  1857

He  comes  to  England  to  seek  help  from  the  govern-
ment, without  success 1858

His  health  being  broken  up,  an  appeal  for  a  sub-
scription for  him  made

Deputation  of  merchants  waits  on  the  earl  of  Derby
recommending  the  purchase  of  Sarawak,  which
is  declined . .  ... 30  Nov.

Sir  J.  Brooke  returns  to  Borneo . . 20  Nov.  i860

Returned  to  England  ;  died,  succeeded  by  his
nephew,  sir  Charles  Johnson  Brooke  (born  3
June,  1829) n  June,  1868

The  rajah  of  Sarawak,  with  an  expedition  of  Malays
and  Dyaks,  defeats  and  punishes  a  marauding
decapitating  tribe  of  Dyaks . . . June,  1870

British  North  Borneo  Company  gazetted,  8  Nov.  ;
threatened  protest  of  Spanish  government Nov.  1881

Meeting  of  Committee  in  London . . 3  Oct.  1882

Freedom  of  trade  in  the  Archipelago  settled  by
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Si>ain.  1877  ;  further
with  Spain  . . . .  . . .  ^84

North  Borneo  reported  prosperous . . May,  1885

Rebels  defeated . . 10  Feb.,  war  over  April,  1889

Rajah  Brooke,  of  Sarawak,  annexes  the  Limbang
region  of  Brunei  on .... 17  March,  1890

He  proclaims  his  son,  aged  17,  his  heir,  as  Rajah
Muda :  announced  .... 7  Aug.  1891

North  Borneo,  with  Sarawak  and  Brunei  consti-
tuted a  British  protectorate,  1885 ;  governor,
Charles  V.  Creagh 1892

BORNOU,  an  extensive  kingdom  in  central
Africa,  explored  by  Denham  and  Clapperton  (sent
out  by  the  British  government),  in  1822.  The
population  is  estimated  by  Denham  at  5,000,000,
by  Barth  at  9,000,000.

BORODINO,  a  Russian  village  on  the  river
Moskwa,  near  which  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought,
7  Sept.  1812,  between  the  French  uuder  Napoleon,
and  the  Russians  under  Kutusoff;  210,000  men
being  engaged.  Each  party  claimed  tlie  victor}' ;
but  the  Russians  retreated,  leaving  Moscow,  which
the  French  entered,  14  Sept. ;  see  Moscow.

BORON,  see  Borax.

BOROUGH  or  BURGH,  anciently  a  company
of  ten  families  living  together,  now  such  towns  as
send  members  to  parliament,  since  the  election  of
burgesses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1265.  Charters
were  granted  to  towns  by  Henry  I.  1 132;  which
were  remodelled  by  Charles  II.  in  1682-4,  °ut  re"
stored  in  1688.  22  new  English  boroughs  were
created  in  1553.  Burgesses  were  first  admitted  into
the  Scottish  parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326;  and
into  the  Irish,  1365.  Acts  to  amend  the  Represen-
tation of  the  People  in  England  and  "Wales  passed
7  June,  1832,  and  15  Aug.  1867;  and  the  Act  for
the  Regulation  of  Municipal  Corporations,  9  Sept.
1835  ;  see  Constituency.

BOROUGH-BRIDGE  (AV.R.of  York).  Here
Edward  II.  defeated  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  Lan-
caster, 16  March,  1322.  Lancaster  was  mounted  on
a  lean  horse,  led  to  an  eminence  near  Pontefract,
and  beheaded.

BOROUGH-ENGLISH,  an  ancient  tenure
by  which  the  younger  son  inherits,  is  mentioned  as
occurring  834.  It  was  abolished  in  Scotland  by
Malcolm  III.  in  1062.

BOSCOBEL,  near  Donington,  Shropshire
Charles  II.  (after  his  defeat  at  Worcester,  3  Sept.
1651),  disguised  in  the  clothes  of  the  Pendrills,
remained  from  4  to  6  Sept.  at  White  Ladies;  on
7  and  8  Sept.  he  lay  at  Boseobel  house,  near  which
exists  an  0,1k,  said  to  be  the  scion  of  the  Royal  Oak
in  which  the  king  was  part  of  the  time  hidden  with


BOSNIA.


138


BOTANY.


col.  Careless.  ISharpe.  The  "Boscobel  Tracts"
were  first  published  in  1660.  In  1861  Mr.  F.  Man-
ning published  "  Views,"  illustrating  these  tracts.
W.  H.  Ainsworth's  "  Boscobel,"  a  story  with
authentic  details,  published  1872.

BOSNIA,  in  European  Turkey,  formerly  part  of
Pannonia,  was  governed  by  chiefs  till  a  brother-in-
law  of  Louis  king  of  Hungary  was  made  king,  1376.
He  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1389,  and  became
their  vassal.  Bosnia  was  incorporated  with  Turkey
in  1463.  Many  efforts  have  been  made  by  the
Bosnians  to  recover  their  independence.  A  re-
bellion, begun  in  1849,  was  quelled  by  Omar  Pasha
in  1851.  The  Bosnians  joined  the  insurgents  in
Herzegovina,  Sept.  1875  !  revolt  was  subdued,  Aug.
1877.  See  Turkey.
About 100,000 Bosnian  fugitives said  to  be in

Austrian  territories  .... July,  1878

Proclamation  of  the  emperor  before  his  troops  enter
Bosnia  (in  conformity  with  the  treaty  of  Berlin,

13  July) 27  July, ,,

Advance  of  the  Austrians,  29  July,  vigorously  re-
sisted by  the  Bosnian  begs,  aided  by  Turks

4-6  Aug. ,,
The  Bosnians  defeated  between  Zepce  and  Maglai,

7,  8  Aug. „
The  Austrians  occupy  Travnik,  the  old  capital,  11

Aug.  ;  slightly  repulsed ... 16  Aug. „
Victories  of  Philippovich  at  Han  Belalovijh, 16

Aug. ;  of  Tegethotf .... 18  Aug. „
Serajevo,  the  capital,  bombarded  and  taken  by  storm

19  Aug.  ;  other  successes  . . 30  Aug.,  5  Sept. „
The  fortress  Trebinje  voluntarily  surrenders

7  Sept. ,,
Behacs  firmly  resists,  10  Sept.  ;  taken  19  Sejit. „
Senkovics,  a  strong  fortress,  with  arms  and  ammu-
nition, taken 21  Sept. ,,

Zwornik,  a  stronghold,  surrenders, about  25  Sept. „
Livno  bombarded  and  taken  . . 28  Sept. „

Other  places  surrender . . . about  12  Oct. ,,
Besistance  ended  ;  general  amnesty  issued

about  9  Nov. „
Austrian loss estimated 5000 killed,  wounded,

missing Nov. ,,

The  country  settled,  gradual  political  reforms  Jan.  1880
Population,  1,504,091  ;  announced . . Feb.  1889

BOSPHOBE  EGYPTIEN,  see  Egypt,  1885.

BOSPHOBUS,  TheaciaN  (now  Channel  of
Constantinople).  Darius  Hystaspes  threw  a  bridge
of  boats  over  this  strait  when  about  to  invade
Greece,  493  B.C. See  Constantinople.

BOSPOBUS  (improperly  BOSPHOBUS),  now
called  Circassia,  near  the  Bosphorus  Cimmerius,
the  straits  of  Kertch  or  Yenikale.  The  history  of
the  kingdom  is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  was
named  Cimmerian,  from  the  Cimmeri.  who  dwelt
on  its  borders,  about  750  B.C.

The  Archienactidse  from  Mitylene  rule  .  .  B.C.  502-480
They  are  dispossessed  by  Spartacus  I.  438

Seleucus,  431  ;  Satyrus  1 407

Leucon,  393  ;  Spartacus  II.,  353  ;  Parysades . . 348
Eumelus, aiming  to dethrone his  brother  Saty-
rus II.,  is  defeated  ;  but  Satyrus  is  killed . . 310
Prytanis,  his  next  brother,  ascends  the  throne,  but

is  murdered  by  Eumelus 309

Eumelus  puts  to  death  all  his  relations,  309  ;  and  is

killed 304

The  Scythians  conquer  Bosporus  ....  285
Mithridates  VI.,  of  Pontus,  conquers  Bosporus  .  .  80
He  poisons  himself ;  and  the  Boiuans  make  his  son,

Pharnac.es,  king 63

Battle  of  Zela,  gained  by  Julius  Cresar  over  Phar-
naces  II.  (Ccesar  writes  home,  Veni,  vidi,  vicl,  "  I

came,  I  saw,  I  conquered  ") 47

Asander  usurps  the  crown

Csesar  makes  Mithridates  of  Pergamus  king  .  .  ,,
Polemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by

Agrippa,  reigns 14

Polemon  killed  by  barbarians  of  the  Palus  Mreotis  a.d.  33
Polemon  II.  reigns . .  ....


Mithridates  II.  reigns a.d. 41

Mithridates  conducted a prisoner  to  Borne, by

order  of  Claudius  ;  Cotys  I.  king  .  .  .  .  49
A  list  of  kings  given  by  some  writers  ends  with

Sauromates  VII 344

BOSTON,  Lincolnshire  ;  a  trading  town,  made
a  staple  for  wool,  1357 ;  St.  Botolph's  church  with  a
lofty  tower,  was  erected  about  1309.  Population
1 88 1,  14,941  ;  1891,  14,953.

BOSTON,  Massachusetts,  United  States,  built
about  1627.  Here  originated,  that  resistance  to  the
British  authorities  which  led  to  American  inde-
pendence. The  act  of  parliament  laying  duties  on
tea,  papers,  colours,  &c.  (passed  June,  1767)  so
excited  the  indignation  of  the  citizens  of  Boston,
that  they  destroyed  several  hundreds  of  chests  of
tea,  Dec.  1773.  Population  1890,  448,477.
"  Boston  News  Letter,"  first  American  newspaper,

appeared 24  April,  1704

Boston  seaport  shut  by  the  English  parliament,
until  restitution should  be  made  to  the  East
India  Company  for  the  tea  lost . .  25  March,  1774
The  town  besieged  by  the  Americans, and 400

houses  destroyed 1775

Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  between  the  royalists  and
independent troops ; the latter defeated,

17  June, ,,
The  city  evacuated  by  the  king's  troops . April,  1776
Industrial  exhibition  opened  . . . Oct.  1856

Great  peace  jubilee  ;  concert  of  about  10,371  voices
and 1094  instruments, with  anvils, bells, <fec,

begun 15  June,  1869

International  peace  jubilee  ;  chorus  about  20,000  ;
orchestra,  1000  ;  with  military  bands  and  other
performers  of  different  natrons,  including  the
British  grenadier  guards'  band  ;  a  day  allotted  to
each  nation  .  .  .  -17  June — 4  July,  1872
Tremendous  fire  ;  great  loss  of  life  and  property ;
about  80  acres  of  buildings  burnt ;  959  nouses
(125  dwellings);  35  persons  killed  .  9, 10,  11  Nov.  „
Great  fire  ;  many  buildings  destroyed ;  estimated
loss  5,000,000  dollars. Two  firemen  killed

28  Nov.  1883

BOSWOBTH  FIELD,  Leicestershire,  the
site  of  the  thirteenth  and  last  battle  between  the
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  22  Aug.  1485,  when
Richard  III.  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Richmond.,
afterwards  Henry  VII.,  and  slain,  through  the
desertion  of  sir  Wm.  Stanley.  It  is  said  that
Henry  was  crowned  on  the  spot  with  the  crown  of
Richard  found  in  a  hawthorn  bush  near  the  field.

BOTANY.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder
of  the  science  (about  347  B.C.) .  Historia  Plantarum
of  Theophrastus  was  written  about  320  B.C.  Authors
on  botany  became  numerous  at  the  close  of  the  15th
century.  Fuchsius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Cajsalpinus,  and
others,  wrote  between  1535  and  1600.  The  system
and  arrangement  of  the  great  Linnaeus  was  made
known  about  1735  ;  and  Jussieu's  system,  founded
on  Tournefort's,  and  called  "the  natural  system,"
in  1758.  At  Linnseus's  death,  1778,  the  species  of
plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number  to-
il,800.  The  number  of  species  now  recorded  cannot
fall  short  of  100,000.  J.  C.  Loudon's  "  Encyclo-
paedia of  Plants,"  a  most  comprehensive  work,  first
appeared  in  1829.  De  Candolle's  "Prodromus
Systematis  Naturalis  Regni  Vegetabilis"  (of  which
Vol.  I.  appeared  in  1818),  was  completed  in  1876.
An  International  Botanical  congress  was  opened  in
London,  23  May,  1866,  professor  A.  De  Candolle
president;  another  at  Amsterdam,  13  April,  1877.
Robert  Brown,  who  accompanied  Flinders  in  his
survey  of  New  Holland  in  1803,  died  10  June,
1858,  aged  85,  was  long  acknowledged  to  be  the
chief  of  the  botanists  of  hisday  (Jacile  princeps).
Royal  botanic  society's  jubilee  fete,  15  July,  1889. »  I
International botanical congress at Genoa, 5 Sept.


BOTANY  BAY.


139


BOURBON.


Padua
Montpellier
Leyden  .
Leipsic
Paris (Jardin

Plantes)
Jena .
Oxford .
Upsal .
Chelsea  .
Edinburgh  .
Vienna .
Madrid


BOTANIC  GARDENS

Establislied  about
■  1545

•  1558

•  1577
. 1580


des


.  1624
.  1629

•  1632
■  1657

1673-86
.  1680

•  1753

•  !755


Established  about
Kew,  1760 ;  greatly  im-


proved .  .  1841-65
Cambridge .  .  .  1763
Coimbra.  .  .  .1773
St.  Petersburg  .  -1785
Calcutta.  .  .  .  1793
Dublin  .  .  .  1800
Horticultural  Society's,

Chiswick  .  .  .  1821
Royal  Botanic  Society's,

Regent's  Park. . 1839
Royal Horticultural
Society's  ;  see  Hor-
ticulture . . .  i860


BOTANY  BAY,  Australia,  discovered  by
captain  Cook,  28  April,  1770,  received  its  name
from  the  great  variety  of  plants  growing  on  the
shore.  It  was  fixed  on  for  a  colony  of  convicts
from  Great  Britain,  which  was  however  established
at  Sydney,  near  Port  Jackson.  The  first  governor,
captain  Arthur  Phillip,  who  sailed  from  England  in
May,  1787,  arrived  at  the  settlement  in  Jan.  1788.
The  colony  was  eventually  established  at  Port
Jackson,  about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of  the
bay  ;  see  New  South  IFales,  and  Transportation.

BOTHWELL  BRIDGE,  Lanarkshire.  The
Scotch  covenanters,  who  took  up  arms  against  the
intolerant  government  of  Charles  II.,  and  defeated
the  celebrated  Claverhouse  at  Drumclog,  1  June,
1679,  were  totally  routed  by  the  earl  of  Monmouth
at  Bothwell  Bridge,  22  June,  1679,  and  many  pri-
soners were  tortured  and  executed.

BOTTLE-CONJURER.  In  accordance  with
a  wager,  a  person  having  advertised  that  he  would
jump  into  a  quart  bottle  at  the  Haymarket  theatre,
on  16  Jan.  1749,  the  house  was  densely  crowded
and  besieged  by  thousands  anxious  to  gain  ad-
mittance. The  pickpockets  had  a  rich  harvest,  and
the  duped  crowd  nearly  pulled  down  the  edifice.

BOTTLES  in  ancient  times  were  made  of
leather.  The  art  of  making  glass  bottles  and
drinking-glasses  was  known  to  the  Romans  at  least
before  79;  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have
been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii.  Bottles  were
made  in  England  about  1558.  A  bottle  which  con-
tained two  hogsheads  was  blown,  we  are  told,  at
Leith,  in  Scotland,  in  Jan.  1747-8;  see  Glass.
Ashley's  patent  for  making  glass  bottles  by  auto-
matic machinery 13  Nov.  1886

Bottles  largely  made  of  paper  in  America . . 1387

BOUILLON,  Belgium,  formerly  a  duchy,  was
sold  by  Godfrey  its  ruler,  to  Albert,  bishop  of  Liege,
to  obtain  funds  for  the  crusade,  1095.  It  was
seized  by  the  French  in  1672,  and  held  by  them  till
1815,  when  it  was  given  to  the  king  of  the  Nether-
lands, as  duke  of  Luxemburg.  It  was  awarded  to
Belgium  after  the  Bevolution  of  1830.

BOULANGISTS,  see  France,  1886-91.

BOULEVARDS  (Bulwarks),  sites  of  old
fortifications  in  Paris  and  other  French  towns,  now
planted  with  rows  of  trees.  The  practice  has  been
adopted  in  some  London  suburban  roads,  1875,
et  seq. See  Playground.

BOULOGNE,  a  seaport  in  Picnrdy,  N.  France,
added  to  Burgundy,  1435;  to  France,"  1447.  Here
Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  concluded  a  treaty  to
oppose  the  Turks,  28  Oct.  1532.  Boulogne  was
besieged  by  Henry  VII.  2  Oct.  1492,  for  a  few  clays;
taken  by  Henry  VIII.  on  14  Sept.  1544,  but  restored
for  a  sum  of  money,  1 550.
Lord  Nelson  attacked  a  flotilla  here,  disabling  ten

vessels  and  sinking  five ...  3  Aug. 1801


In  another  attempt  he  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,
and  captain  Parker  of  the  Medusa  and  two-thirds
of  his  crew  were  killed . . .  18  Aug.  1801

Bonaparte  assembled  160,000  men  and  10,000  horses,
and  a  flotilla  of  1300  vessels  and  17,000  sailors  to
invade  England  in  1804  ;  the  coasts  of  Kent  and
Sussex  were  covered  with  martello  towers  and
lines  of  defence  ;  and  nearly  half  the  adult  popu-
lation of  Britain  was  formed  into  volunteer  corps  ;
sir'  Sidney  Smith  unsuccessfully  attempted  to
burn  the  flotilla  with  fire  machines  called"  cata-
marans 2  Oct.  1804

The  army  removed  on  the  breaking  out  of  war  with
Austria 180s

Congreve-rockets  used  in  another  attack,  and  set
the  town  on  fire 8  Oct.  1806

Louis  Napoleon  (afterwards  emperor)  made  a  fruit-
less descent  here  with  about  50  followers, 6  Aug.  1840.

As  emperor,  he  reviewed  the  French  troops  destined
for  the  Baltic,  10  July,  1854  >"  and  entertained
prince  Albert  and  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  5  Sept.  1854,

Statue  of  Edw.  Jenuer  here  inaugurated n  Sept.  1865,

Pilgrimages  here  to  adore  an  image  of  the  Virgin
and  Child,  said  to  have  been  miraculously  brought
in  a  boat  in  633 I857-7S

Law  authorising  construction  of  a  new  deep-sea
harbour,  by  M.  Stcecklin  (in  15  years),  cost  about
68o,oooi.  ;  passed  19  June ;  first  stone  laid,  by
M.  Freyeinet 9  Sept.  1878;

BOUNDARY  ACTS.  Commissioners  were  ap-
pointed by  the  Reform  Bill,  passed  15  Aug.  1867,.
Viscount  Eversley,  Russell  Gurney,  sir  John  T.  B.
Duckworth,  sir  Francis  Crossley,  and  John  Walter,,
first  sat  16  Aug.  England  and  Wales  were  divided
into  18  districts,  and  other  arrangements  made.
Another  boundary  act  was  passed  13  July,  1868.

Boundary  commissioners  appointed  to  carry  out
the  redistribution  of  seats  bill  Nov.  1884. Work

completed 10  Feb.  1885.

|Sir  John  Lambert  (chairman),  lion.  T.  H.  W.  Pelham,

sir  F.  R.  Sandford, Mr.  J.  T,  Henley,  lieut.-col.  R.  O.

Jones,  and  Major  H.  Tulloch.  ]

Boundaries  commission  appointed  by  the Local
Government  (Boundaries)  Act  passed  16  Sept. .  1887-
[EarlBrownlow  (chairman),  Lord  Edniond  Fitzmaurice,

Lord  Basing,  sir  Henry  Selwyn  IbbetsonandMr.Hibbcrt.J.

BOUNTIES,  premiums  granted  to  the  producer,
exporter,  or  importer  of  certain  articles ;  a  principle-
introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament.
The  first  granted  on  corn,  in  1688,  were  repealed  in
1815.  They  were  first  legally  granted  in  England
for  raising  naval  stores  in  America,  1 703,  and  have
been  granted  to  the  herring  fishery,  on  sail-cloth.,
linen,  and  otber  goods. See  under  Sugar.

BOUNTY  MUTINY,  took  place  on  board  the-
Bounty,  an  armed  ship  which  quitted  Otaheite,  with
bread-fruit  trees,  7  April,  1789.  The  mutineers
put  then-  captain,  Bligh,  and  nineteen  men  into  an
open  boat,  with  a  small  stock  of  provisions,  near
Annamooka,  one  of  the  Friendly  isles,  28  April,.
1 789 ;  these  reached  the  island  of  Timor,  south  of
the  Moluccas,  in  June,  after  a  voyage  of  nearly
4000  miles.  Some  of  the  mutineers  were  tried
15  Sept.  1792  ;  six  were  condemned  and  three  ex-
ecuted. For  the  fate  of  others,  see  Titcaim's  Island.

BOURBON,  House  OF  (from  which  came-
the  royal  houses  of  France,  Spain,  and  Naples),
derives"  its  origin  from  the  Ai'chambauds,  lords  of"
Bourbon  in  Berry.

Robert,  count  of  Clermont,  son  of  Louis  IX.  of
France,  married  the  heiress  Beatrice  in  1272  ;  died
1317  ;  and  their  sun  Louis  I.  created  duke  of
Bourbon  and  peer  of  France  by  Charles  IV. .  .  1327
The  last  of  the  descendants  of  their  elder  son  Peter
I.,  Susanna,  married  Charles,  duke  of  Montpen-
sier,  constable  of  Bourbon,  who,  offended  by  his
sovereign  Francis  1..  entered  into  the  service  of
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  v. us  killed  at  the
siege  of  Pome 6  May,  1527


BOURBON.


140


BOYLE  LECTURES.


From  James,  the  younger  son  of  Louis  I.,  descended
Antony,  duke  of  Vendome,  who  married  (1548)
Jeanne  d'Albret,  daughter  of  Henry,  king  of  Na-
varre. Their  son,  Henry  IV.,  horn  at  Pau,  14
Dec.  1553,  became  king  of  P'rance . 31  July,  1589

The  crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a  younger
branch  of  this"  family,  1700,  and  guaranteed  by
the  peace  of  Utrecht  (Aapin) 1713

Bourbon  Family  Compact  (a  defensive  alliance
between  France,  Spain,  and  the  Two  Sicilies
concluded  by  M.  de  Choiseul) . . 15  Aug.  1761

The  Bourbons  expelled  France,  1791  ;  restored
1814  ;  again  expelled  on  the  return  of  Bonaparte
from  Elba,  and  again  restored  after  the  battle  of
Waterloo,  1815.  The  elder  branch  was  expelled
once  more,  in  the  person  of  Charles  X.  and  his
family,  in  1830,  in  consequence  of  the  revolu-
tion of  the  memorable  days  of  July  in  that  year.

Orleans  branch  ascended  the  throne  in  the  person
of  the  late  Louis  Philippe,  as  "king  of  the
French,"  9  Aug.  1830  ;  deposed,  24  Feb.  1848  ;  and
his  family  also  was  expelled.

The  Bourbon  family  fled  from  Naples  (6  Sept.  i860),
and  Francis  II.  lost  his  kingdom  ;  expelled  from
Spain,  Sept.  1868  ;  restored  by  Alfonso  XII.  31
Dec.  1874  ;  see  France,  Spain,  Naples,  Orleans,
Parma,,  Condi,  and  Legitimists.

The  fusion  of  the  parties  supporting  the  comte  de
Chambord  with  the  Orleanists,  said  to  be  accom-
plished, 5  Aug.  1873. The  comte  de  Chambord,  last
of  the  elder  branch,  died  aged  nearly  63,  24  Aug.  1883.
See  France.

BOURBON,  ISLE  OF  (in  the  Indian  ocean),
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1542.  The
French  are  said  to  have  first  settled  here  in  1642.
It  surrendered  to  the  British,  under  admiral  Rowley,
21  Sept.  1809,  and  was  restored  to  France  in  1815.
Alison.  An  awful  hurricane  in  Feb.  1829,  did
much  mischief.  Bourbon  was  named  "  File  de  la
Reunion  "  in  1848  ;  see  Mauritius.

BOURIGNONISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  An-
toinette Bourignon,  who,  in  1658,  took  the  Augus-
tine habit  and  travelled  in  France,  Holland,  Eng-
land, and  Scotland ;  in  the  last  she  made  many
converts  about  1670.  She  maintained  that  Chris-
tianity does  not  consist  in  faith  and  practice,  but  in
inward  feelingand  supernatural  impulse.  A  disciple
named  Court  left  her  a  good  estate.  She  died  in
1680,  and  her  works,  21  volumes  8vo,  were  pub-
lished 1686.

BOURNOUS,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  hooded
garment  worn  in  Algeria,  which  has  been  introduced
in  a  modified  form  into  England  and  France  since
1847.

BOUVINES  (N.  France),  the  site  of  a' despe-
rate battle,  27  July,  1214,  in  which  Philip  Augustus
of  France  was  victorious  over  the  emperor  Othoand
his  allies,  consisting  of  more  than  150,000  men.  The
counts  of  Flanders  and  Boulogne  were  taken  pri-
soners, and  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  brother  of  king
John.

BOVILL'S  ACT,  23  &  24  Vict.  c.  34,  i860,
relates  to  petitions  of  right.

BOWLS  or  BOWLING,  an  English  game  as
•early  as  the  13th  century.  Henry  VIII.,  Charles  I.
played  at  it,  and  also  Charles  II.  at  Tunbridge.
•Grammont.

BOW-STREET,  see  Magistrates.

Boiv  Street  Runners,  a  name  popularly  given  to  the
special  officers  attached  to  each  police  office  of
the  metropolis,  commonly  called  "  Kobin  Red-
breasts "  from  their  red  waistcoats.  They  were
famous  for  the  detection  of  hidden  crimes,
especially  Townsend,  who  was  a  favourite  of
King  George  III.  and  his  family,  Limberham,
Macmanus,  Jealous,  Forester  and  others.  They
were  superseded  by  the  new  police  established  in  1829


BOWS  AND  ARROWS,  see  Archery.

BOXING,  or  Prize-Fighting,  the
latus  of  the  Romans,  once  a  favourite  sport  with  the
British,  who  possess  strong  arms,  giving  them
superiority  in  battles  decided  by  the  bayonet.

Broughton's  amphitheatre,  behind  Oxford-road,
built 1742

Schools  opened  in  England  to  teach  boxing.  .  179c

Mendoza  opened  the  Lyceum  in  the  Strand  in . 1791

Boxing  was  much  patronised  from  about  1820  to  1830

Tom  Winter  (nicknamed  Spring),  beside  other  vic-
tories, beat  Langan  (for  ioooi.) . .  8  June,  1824

John  Gully,  originally  a  butcher,  afterwards  a
prize-tighter,  acquired  wealth,  and  became  M.P.
for  Pontefract  in  1835,  died  . . .9  March,  1863

Desperate  conflict  at  Farnborough  between  Thomas
Sayers,  the  Champion  of  England,  a  light  Sussex
man,  about  5  feet  8  inches  high,  and  John  Heenan,
the  "Benicia  Boy,"  a  huge  American,  in  height
6  feet  1  inch.  Strength,  however,  was  matched
by  skill  ;  and  eventually  the  fight  was  interrupted,
17  April. Both  men  received  a  silver  belt

31  May,  i860

Tom  King  beat  Mace,  and  obtained  the  champion's
belt,  &c. 26  Nov.  1862

He  beat  Goss,  1  Sept.,  and  Heenan  (nearly  to  death)

10  Dec.  1863

A  trial,  in  consequence  of  the  last  fight,  ensued  :
the  culprits  were  discharged,  on  promising  not
to  offend  again 5  April,  1864

Wormald  obtained  the  championship  after  a  con-
test with  Marsden 4  Jan.  1865

Contest  for  championship  between  Mace  and  O'Bald-
win,  a  giant  ;  prevented  by  the  arrest  of  Mace,

15  Oct. 1867

Railways  prohibited  carrying  persons  going  to  a
prize-fight,  31  &  32  Vict.  c.  119  . . . 1868

Prize-fight  in  St.  Andrew's  hall  (formerly  Tavistock
chapel),  London,  W.C.,  stopped . 27  March,  1S82

Attempted  revival  of  pugilism  in  London,  1889 — 90  ;
a  fight  between  Slavin  and  M'Auliffe,  pugilists
from  Australia,  at  the  Ormonde  club,  Walworth,
stopped,  the  gloves  to  be  used  being  considered
insufficient,  23  Sept.  ;  fight  took  place  27  Sept.  ;
the  men  committed  for  trial,  10  Oct.  ;  the  jury
disagree 17  Nov.  1890

BOXTEL  (in  Dutch  Brabant),  where  the
British  and  allied  army,  commanded  by  the  duke
of  York,  was  defeated  bj'  the  French  republicans,
who  took  2000  prisoners  and  eight  pieces  of  cannon,
17  Sept.  1794.

BOX-TREE,  indigenous  to  this  country,  and
exceedingly  valuable  to  wood-engravers.  In  1815
a  large  box-tree  at  Box-hill,  Surrey,  was  cut  down,
and  realised  a  large  sum.  Macculloch  says,  that
"the  trees  were  cut  down  in  1815,  and  produced
upwards  of  10,000^."  About  1820  the  cutting  of
trees  on  the  hill  produced  about  boool.

BOY-BISHOP.  During  the  middle  ages  a
choir-boy  was  frequently  elected  on  St.  Nicholas'
day,  6  Dec,  and  held  office  till  the  28th.  The  cus-
tom was  suppressed  in  England  in  July,  1542  ;  but
lingered  for  some  time  after.

BOYCOTTING,  see  Ireland,  1880,  et  scq.
Condemned  by  the  Pope,  20  April,  1888.  A  Boy-
cott fund  to  assist  capt.  Boycott  in  his  trouble  was
subscribed  1880-1.  Boycotting  very  prevalent  in
Tipperary,  1889-90.

BOYDELL'S  LOTTERY  for  his  Shak-
speare  gallery  of  paintings  got  up  (1786),  by
alderman  Boydell,  lord  mayor  of  London.  Every
ticket  was  sold  at  the  time  the  alderman  died,  12
Dec.  1804,  before  the  decision  of  the  wheel.

BOYLE  LECTURES,  instituted  by  his  will
(18  July,  1691),  by  Robert  Boyle  (son  of  the  great
earl  of  Cork),  a  philosopher,  distinguished  by  his
genius,  virtues,  and  benevolence,  who  died  30*Dec.


BOYNE.

1691.  Eight  lectures  (in  vindication  of  the  Chris-
tian religion)  are  to  be  delivered.  The  office  of
lecturer  is  tenable  for  three  years.

BOYNE,  a  river  in  Ireland,  near  which  "Wil-
liam III.  defeated  his  father-in-law,  James  II.,
I  July,  1690.  The  latter  lost  1500  (out  of  30,000)
men ;  the  Protestant  army  lost  about  a  third  of  that
number  (out  of  36,000).  James  fled  to  Dublin,
thence  to  Waterford,  and  escaped  to  France.  The
duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed  by  mistake  by  his
own  soldiers  as  he  was  crossing  the  river,  and  here
also  was  killed  the  rev.  George  Walker,  who  de-
fended Londonderry,  in  1689.  Near  Drogheda  is  a
splendid  obelisk,  150  feet  in  height,  erected  in  1736
by  the  Protestants  of  the  empire  in  commemoration
of  this  victory.

BOYNE,  man-of-war  of  98  guns,  destroyed  by
fire  at  Portsmouth,  4  May,  1795,  by  the  explosion
of  the  magazine  ;  numbers  perished.  Portions  were
recovered  June,  1840.

BOYTON'S  Swimming  Apparatus. See

under  Life  Boat,  &c.

BRABANT,  part  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  an
ancient  duchy,  part  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  fell
to  his  son  Charles,  806.  It  became  a  separate
duchy  (called  at  first  Lower  Lorraine)  in  959.  It
descended  to  Philip  II.  of  Burgundy,  1429,  and  in
regular  succession  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  In
the  17th  century  it  was  held  by  Holland  and
Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant  and  the  Walloon  pro-
vinces, and  underwent  many  changes  through  the
wars  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  division  was  taken
by  the  French  in  1746  and  1794.  It  was  united  to
the  Netherlands  in  1814,  but  South  Brabant  was
given  to  Belgium,  1830.  The  heir  of  the  throne  of
Belgium  is  styled  duke  of  Brabant ;  see  Belgium.

BRACELETS  were  worn  by  the  ancients,  and
ctrmillce  were  Boman  military  rewards.  Those  of
pearls  and  gold  were  worn  by  the  Boman  ladies.

BRACHYGRAPHY,  see  Stenography.

BRADFIELD  RESERVOIR,  see  Sheffield,
1864.

BRADFORD,  Wrest  Biding  of  Yorkshire,  an
ancient  seat  of  the  woollen  manufacture ;  made  a
parliamentary  borough  in  1832  ;  has  thriven  since
1851.  Bradford  returns  three  M.P.'s  by  Act  passed
25  June,  1885.  See  Poisoning.  Population,  1881,
194,495  ; 1891,  216,361.

New  town-hall  was  opened . . . .9  Sept.  1873
British  Association  met  here . . . 17  Sept. ,,
Statue of  sir  Titus Salt  unveiled . . 1  Aug.  1874
Statue  of  R.  Cobden  unveiled  . . -25  July,  1877
New  technical  school  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales

23  June,  1882
Fall  of  chimney  of  New  Land's  mills  ;  54  killed,

250  injured, 28  Dec.  1882 ;  verdict,  accidental

deaths 31  Jan.  1883

Statue  of  Mr.  W.  B.  Forster,  long  M. P.  for  Bradford,

unveiled  by  the  marquis  of  Ripon  .  17  May  1890
Strike  of  about  15,000  operatives  at  the  Manningham

Mills,  Dec.  1890  ;  ended  ...  27  April  1891
Rioting  suppressed  by  military . 13,  14  April ,,

BRADLAUGH  CASE,  see  Parliament,
1880-5.  Ml-  Charles  Bradlaugh,  M.P.  for  North-
ampton, died  30  Jan.  1891,  aged  57.

BRADSHAW  S  RAILWAY  GUIDE  was

first  published  by  Mr.  G.  Bradshaw,  assisted  by  Mr.

W.  J.  Adams,  in Dec. 1841. The Continental

Bradshaw  was  established  in  1848.

The  beginning  of  railway  guides  is  involved  in
obscurity.  Mr.  Bradshaw  issued  his  first  railway
time  tables  in  two  forms,  one  for  the  Liverpool
and  Manchester  district,  and one  for  London


141  BRASS.

and  the  Birmingham  district,  19  and  25  Oct.  1839.
His  Railway  Companion  appeared  in  1840  ;  (P.
Madan,  Athenwum) .... Dec.  24,  1887

BRAGANZA,  a  city  in  Portugal,  gave  title  to
Alfonso,  natural  son  of  John  I.  of  Portugal  (in
1422),  founder  of  the  house  of  Braganza.  When
the  nation,  in  a  bloodless  revolution  in  1640,  threw
off  the  Spanish  yoke,  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  was
called  to  the  throne  as  John  IV.,  and  his  descen-
dants have  reigned  over  Portugal  till  the  present
time,  and  over  Brazil  till  Nov.  1889.

BRAHMINS,  Hindoo  priests,  the  highest  of
the  four  castes.  Pythagoras  is  thought  to  have
learned  from  them  his  doctrine  of  the  Metempsycho-
sis ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  some  of  the  Greek  philo-
sophers went  to  India  on  purpose  to  converse  with
them.  The  Brahmins  derive  their  name  from
Brahmah,  one  of  the  three  beings  whom  God,  ac-
cording to  their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose
assistance  he  formed  the  world. See  Vedas,

BRAHMO  SOMAJ,  see  Deism.

BRAIN,  see  under  Craniology  and  Nerves.

BRAINTREE  CASE  (in  Essex)  was  decided
in  1842  by  Dr.  Lushington,  who  determined  that  a
minority  in  a  parish  vestry  cannot  levy  a  church
rate.

BRAKES,  see  under  Railways.

BRAMHAM  (W.  B.  York) :  near  here  the  earl
of  Northumberland  and  lord  Bardolf  were  defeated
and  slain  by  sir  Thomas  Bokeby,  the  general  of
Henry  IV.,  19  Feb.  1408  ;  and  Fairfax  was  defeated
by  the  royalists  under  the  earl  of  Newcastle,  29
March,  164.3.

BRANDENBURG,  a  city  in  Prussia,  founded
by  the  Slavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Banber,
which  signified  Guard  of  the  Forest,  according  to
some ;  others  explain  the  name  as  Burg,  or  city,
of  the  Brenns.  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,
after  defeating  the  Slavonians,  fortified  "Bran-
nibor,"  926,  as  a  rampart  against  the  Huns,  and
bestowed  the  government  on  Sigefroi,  count  of
Bingelheim,  with  the  tide  of  margrave,  or  protector
of  the  marches  or  frontiers.  The  emperor  Sigis-
mund  gave  perpetual  investiture  to  Frederick  IV.
of  Nuremburg,  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern,
ancestor  of  the  royal  family  of  Prussia,  made
elector  in  141 7.  For  a  list  of  the  margraves  since
1 134,  see  Prussia. Population,  1890,37,823.

BRANDY  (German  Branntwein,  burnt  wine),
the  spirit  distilled  from  wine.  Alcohol  appears  to.
have  been  known  to  Baymond  Lully  in  the  13th
century,  and  to  have  been  manufactured  in  France
early  in  the  14th.  It  was  at  first  used  medicin-
ally, and  miraculous  cures  were  ascribed  to  its  in-
fluence. In  1852,  3,959,452;  in  1866,  5,621,930;
in  1870,  7,942,965;  in  1874,  3,378,057;  hi  1876,
7,913,092  ;  in  1877,  2,962,697  ;  in  1879,  5,024,668  ;
in  1883,  2,202,344;  in  1887,  2,826,108;  in  1888,
2,655,004;  in  1889,2,858,774;  in  1890,3,100,450
gallons  were  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom.
It  is  now  largely  manufactured  in  Britain.  Manu-
facture of  genuine  French  brandy  almost  ceased,
announced  1885.

BRANDYWINE,  a  river  in  N.  America,  near
which  a  battle  took  place  between  the  British,  under
Howe,  and  the  Americans  under  Washington,  in
which  the  latter  (after  a  day's  fight)  were  defeated
with  great  loss,  11  Sept.  1777.  Philadelphia  fell
into  the  possession  of  the  victors.

BRASS.  That  mentioned  in  the  Bible  was
most  probably  bronze. When  Lucius  Mummius


BEAVO CASE.


142


BEAZIL.


burnt  Corinth  to  the  ground,  146  B.C.,  he  found
immense  riches,  and  during  the  conflagration,  it  is
said,  all  the  metals  in  the  city  melted,  and  running
together,  formed  the  valuable  composition  described
as  Corinthian  Brass.  This  is  well  doubted,  for  the
Corinthian  artists  had  long  before  obtained  great
credit  for  their  method  of  combining  gold  and
silver  with  copper.  Du  Fresnoy.  Some_  of  the
English  sepulchral  engraved  brasses  are  said  to  be
as  old  as  1277 ;  a  white  brass  produced  by  Mr.  P.
M.  Parsons,  about  1875.

BRAVO  CASE.  Mr.  Charles  Delauney  Turner
Bravo,  barrister,  died  suddenly  and  mysteriously
(at  Balham,  Surrey),  suicide  suspected,  18  April,
1876 ;  open  verdict  at  inquest ;  new  inquest  or-
dered, 26  June,  1876 ;  began  10  July.  Verdict  :
*'  Wilful  murder  by  administration  of  tartar  emetic  ;
'but  not  sufficient  evidence  to  fix  the  guilt  upon
any  person,"  11  Aug.  1876.

BBAY,  Berks.  Fuller  says  that  its  vicar,
Symon  Symonds,  was  twice  a  papist  and  twice  a
Protestant— in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Ed-
ward VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  (1533— 1558).  Upon
being  called  a  turn-coat,  he  said  he  kept  to  his
principle,  that  of  "living  and  dying  the  vicar  of
Bray."  The  story  is  doubted.  The  modern  song
refers  to  the  political  changes  of  the  17th  and  18th
centuries.

BRAY'S  ASSOCIATES  for  founding  clerical
libraries  and  supporting  negro  schools.  This  so-
ciety began  in  1723,  by  Dr.  Thomas  Bray,  rector  of
Sheldon,  appointing  trustees  to  expend  900?.  be-
queathed by  Mr.  D'Allone  for  the  instruction  of
snegroes.  In  1733  these  trustees  received  their  pre-
sent name,  and  their  fund  was  increased  by  legacies
in  1767  and  1768.

Dr.  Bray,  who  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society
for  Propagating  the  Gospel,  and  who  had  acted  ener-
getically as  commissary  in  Maryland  for  the  bishop  of
London,  about  1696,  died  15  Feb.  1730,  bequeathing
part  of  his  books  to  Sion  College  and  part  to  found  a
parochial  library,  under  certain  conditions,  complied
■with  at  Maidstone  ;  and  also  money  for  other  religious
purposes.  The  associates  assist  schools  and  libraries  in
the  colonies,  and  parochial  libraries  at  home.

BRAZEN  BULL,  said  to  have  been  contrived
by  Perillus,  at  Athens,  for  Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agri-
centum,  570  B.C.  It  had  an  opening  in  the  side  to
admit  the  victims,  and  a  fire  was  kindled  under-
neath to  roast  them  to  death.  Phalaris  ordered  the
artist  to  make  the  first  experiment.  Pindar  (522-
422  B.C.)  speaks  of  the  cruelties  of  Phalaris,  but
later  writers  give  him  a  different  character.

BRAZIL,  an  empire  in  South  America,  was  dis-
covered by  Vincent  Pinzon,  26  Jan.  1500.  Pedro
-  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  driven  upon  its
•coasts  by  a  tempest,  April  following,  called  it  the
land  of  the  Holy  Cross ;  but  it  was  subsequently
named  Brazil,  on  account  of  its  red  wood.  The
Erench  having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807,  the
royal  family  and  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil,  and
landed  7  March,  1808.  The  dominant  religion  is
Roman  Catholic ;  but  others  are  tolerated.  Consti-
tution of  25  March,  1824;  modified  12  Aug.  1834  and
12  May,  1840.  Population  in  1888,  14,002,335,
estimated. See  Portugal.

The  emperor  was  deposed  and  a  Federal  republic,  styled
The  United  States  of  Brazil,  proclaimed  15,  .16
Nov.  1889  (see  bcloiv) ;  a  new  constitution  was  promul-
gated, 22  June,  1890  and  24  Feb.  1891.  It  consists  of
.a  president,  elected  for  4  years,  secretaries  of  state,  a
■senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.

Brazil  explored  by  Amerigo  Vespucci  .  .  about  1504
Divided  into  captaincies  by  the  king  of  Portugal .  1530


Martin  de  Souza  discovers  Rio,  and  founds  the  first

European  colony  at  San  Vineente  .  .  .  .  1531
Jews  banished  from  Portugal  to  Brazil  .  .  .  1548
San  Salvador  (Bahia)  founded  by  Thome  de  Souza  .  1549
French  protestants  occupy  bay  of  Rio  Janeiro .  1555-60

Sebastian  founded 1567

Brazil,  with  Portugal,  becomes  subject  to  Spain  .  1580
James  Lancaster  captures  Pernambuco  .  .  .  1593
The  French  establish  a  colony  at  Maranham . .  1594

Belem  founded  by  Calderia 1615

The  French  expelled ,,

The  Dutch  seize  the  coast  of  Brazil,  1630  ;  and  hold

Pernambuco 1630

Defeated  at  Guararapes,  1646  ;  give  up  Brazil . . 1661

Gold  mining  commences 1693

Destruction  of  Palmares 1697

The  French  assault  and  capture  Rio  Janeiro  .  1710-11
Diamond  mines  discovered  in  Sezzo  Frio . . . 1729

Jesuits  expelled 1758-60

Capital  transferred  from  Bahia  to  Rio  Janeiro  .  1763
Royal  family  of  Portugal  arrive  at  Brazil,  7  March,  1808
First  printing-press  established . . . . ,,

Brazil  becomes  a  kingdom 1815

King  John  VI.  returns  to  Portugal,  and  dom  Pedro

becomes  regent 1821

Brazil  declares  its  independence  . . .7  Sept.  1822
Pedro  I.  crowned  emperor . . . 1  Dec. ,,
New  constitution  ratified ... 25  March,  1824
Independence  recognised  by  Portugal . 29  Aug.  1825
Revolution at Rio  Janeiro  ; abdication  of dom

Pedro  1 7  April,  1831

Abolition  of  slave  trade  decreed  (not  effected  till

1852) „

Reform  of  the  constitution,  12  Aug.  1834  and  12  May,  1840
Pedro  II.  declared  of  age  . . . .23  July, ,,
Steam-ship  line  to  Europe  commenced . . .  1850
Suppression of the slave-trade  ; railways com-
menced 1852

Rio  Janeiro  lit  with  gas 1854

The  British  ship  "Prince  of  "Wales"  wrecked  at
Albardas,  on  coast  of  Brazil,  is  plundered  by
some  of  the  natives,  and  some  of  the  crew  killed,

about  7  June,  1861
Reparation long refused  ; reprisals made ; five
Brazilian merchant  ships  being  seized  by  the

British 31  Dee.  1862

The  Brazilian  minister  at  London  pays  3,200^.  as  an

indemnity,  under  protest  r.  .  .26  Feb.  1863
The  Brazilian  government  request  the  British  to
express  their  regret  for  reprisals  ;  declined  ;  diplo-
matic intercourse  suspended  .  ,  5-28  May,  „
Dispute  between  the  governments  respecting  the
arrest  of  some  British  officers  at  Rio  Janeiro  (17
June,  1862)  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  king
of  the  Belgians,  who  decides  in  favour  of  Brazil,

18  June, ,,
New  ministry  formed ;  F.  J.  Furtado,  president —

prospect  of  reconciliation  with  Gt.  Biitain,3oAug.  1864
U.  S.  war-steamer  "Waehusett"  seizes  the  con-
federate steamer  "  Florida,"  in  the  port  of  Bahia,
while  under  protection  of  Brazil,  7  Oct.  ;  after
remonstrance,  Mr.  Seward,  U.  S.  foreign  minister,
apologises.  [The  "  Florida"  (inadvertently)  sunk?]

26  Dec. „
War  with  Uruguay — the  Brazilians  take  Paysandii,

and  inarch  upon  Monte  Video  .  .  .2  Feb.  1865
The  comte  d'Eu  and  princess  Isabella  (on  marriage

tour)  land  at  Southampton ... 7  Feb. „
Lopez,  president  of  Paraguay,  declares  war  against

the  Argentine  Republic  . . . April, „

Treaty  between  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the  Argentine
Republic  against  Paraguay,  governed  by  Lopez,

signed 1  May, ,

Scientific  expedition  under  Agassiz  favoured  bsT  the

emperor July, ,,

Amicable  relations  with  England  restored  .  Aug.  „
The  emperor  joins  the  army  against  Lopez  Aug.  „
The  allies  under  Flores  defeat  the  Paraguayans  at

Santayuna  on  the  Uruguay . . 18  Sept. „
Uruguayana  surrenders  to  the  allies . 18  Sept. ,,
Indecisive  battle  between  the  allies  and  the  Para-
guayans, at  Paso  de  la  Patria . about  25  Feb. 1866
Paraguayans  defeated  on  the  Parana 16,  17  April, ,,
Victory  of  the  allies  at  Estero  Velhaco,  2  May ;  in-
decisive battle  there . . . .24  May, ,,
Bombardment  of  the  allied  camp  on  the  Parana

14  June, „


BEAZIL.


143


BEAZIL.


Two  days'  fight  at  Tuyuty  ;  allies  defeated,

16,  i3  July,  1866

Fruitless  meeting  of  president  Lopez  with  the  chiefs
on  proposals  of  peace  .... 12  Sept. ,,

The  allies  attack  the  fortress  of  Curupaiti ;  defeated
with  severe  loss ....  17-19,  22  Sept. ,,

The  allies'  camp  bombarded,  18  Oct. ;  the  Para-
guayans repulsed  at  Tuyuty . . .30  Oct. ,,

The  Brazilians  take  Corumba . . .13  June,  1867

The  duke  of  Edinburgh  visits  Rio  de  Janeiro

15-22  July, ,,

The  Paraguayans  victors,  24  Sept.  ;  severely  defeated

3  and  21  Oct. ,,

Proposals  for  peace  by  Lopez  declined . . Oct. ,,

Severe  defeat  of  Paraguayans  before  Tuyuty 3  Nov. ,,

Freedom  decreed  to  slaves  belonging  to  the  nation
who  shall  become  soldiers ... 6  Nov. ,,

Three  monitors  pass  Curupaiti,  on  the  Paraguay,
17  Feb.  ;  6  ironclads  force  the  passage  of  Humaita ;
they  find  Asuncion  abandoned . .21  Feb. 1868

Fierce  resistance  of  the  Paraguayans  ;  Lopez  said  to
have  armed  4000  women . . .  June, ,,

After  several  conflicts  Lopez  is  totally  defeated  at
Villeta,  and  flies n  Dec. ,,

The  comte  d'Eu  appointed  general  of  the  allied  army

24  March,  1869

The  allies  surprise  and  capture  Rosorio  and  garrison

8  May, „

Lopez  defeated  in  severe  conflicts,  12, 16, 18,  21  Aug. „

Lopez  defeated  and  killed  near  the  Aquidaban,

1  March,  1870

Treaty  of  peace  with  Paraguay,  quite  subdued

20*  June, „

The  count  and  countess  d'Eu  arrive  in  England,

13  Sept. ,,

New  ministry  under  viscount  St.  Vincent,  29  Sept. ,,

The  emperor  and  empress  come  to  Europe,  and  visit
public  and  scientific  institutions,  manufactories
in  Great  Britain  and  other  countries,  June — Aug.  1871

Gradual  slave  emancipation  bill  passed  by  the
senate  ;  great  rejoicings . . 27,  28  Sept. ,,

The  emperor  and  empress,  after  visiting  the  conti-
nent, return  to  Brazil . . .31  March,  1872

'Treaty  with  the  Argentine  republic  . . .  Jan.  1873

Prosecution  of  the  archbishop  of  Pernambuco  and
other  prelates,  for  infraction  of  the  constitution

Sept. -Dec. ,,

£n  a  settlement  of  German  emigrants  at  Porto
Alegre,  a  number  of  fanatics,  popularly  termed
Mucker  (hypocrites),  headed  by  Jacobina  Maurer,
a  prophetess  who  claimed  to  be  a  female  Christ,
and  her  priest  Hans  Georg  Maurer,  attempt  to
convert  their  neighbours  by  force,  and  desolate
the  property  of  those  who  refuse.  She  and  nearly
all  her  band  are  killed  after  several  conflicts  with
their  neighbours,  aided  by  the  military

21-26  July,  1874

Great  bank  failures  at  Rio  Janeiro . . May,  1875

Duke  de  Caixias  president  of  ministry .  25  June, ,,

Emperor  and  empress  at  opening  of  Philadelphia
Exhibition,  10  May,  1876  ;  travelled  in  Europe,
&c.,  returned  to  Rio  Janeiro  . . Sept. 1877

A  ministerial  crisis  respecting  emancipation  of
slaves  (see  under  Slavery)  .... Sept.  1884

The  emperor  supports  his  minister  Dantas;  1,200,000
slaves  in  Brazil

Resignation  of  Dantas,  anti-slavery  minister,  on
account  of  minority  in  the  chamber . . 5  May,  1885

The  new  minister  Seraiva  introduces  a  gradual
emancipation  bill 12  May, ,,

Ministry  resigns,  succeeded  by  Baron  de  Cotegipe,

about  20  Aug. „

Bill  for  gradual  abolition  of  slavery  passed  by
Senate  and  Deputies .... Sept. ,,

New  ministry  under  Sen',  de  Oliviera . March,  1888

Bill  for  total  abolition  of  slavery  passed  by  the
chambers,  10-14  May;  decree  issued  (about  700,000
persons  freed) May, „

The  emperor  visits  Europe  ;  arrives  at  Paris,  20
July,  1887  ;  returns  to  Rio  Janeiro . 22  Aug. ,,

The  emperor  fired  at  by  Adriano  Valte,  a  Portuguese
republican ;  not  injured .  . 15  July  1889

Revolution  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  begun  by  the  army  ;
baron  de  Ladario,  minister  of  marine,  wounded  ;
a  republic  proclaimed  ;  marshal  Deodoro  da  Fon-
seca, chief  of  a  provisional  government ;  people
quiet ;  the  emperor  imprisoned,  refuses  to  submit,


15,  16  Nov.  ;  the  emperor  and  family  forcibly  con-
veyed to  the  Alagoas;  sail  for  Europe  . i3  Nov.

The  emperor,  at  St.  Vincent,  refuses  the  offer  of  the
provisional  government  to  give  him  500,000/.  a
year Nov.

Official  announcement  that  the  republic  will  respect
all  state  engagements . ' . 18  Nov.

All  the  provinces  support  the  republic,  separate
governments  organizing  ;  suffrage  conferred  on
all  who  can  read  and  write  ;  the  republic  blessed
by  the  Abp.  of  Brazil,  reported . . 23  Nov.

The  republic  recognized  informally  by  France  ;  the
United  States  of  N.A.  and  Switzerland, about

29  Nov.

The  emperor  and  family  arrive  at  Lisbon,  received
by  the  king 7  Dec.

Decree  fixing  the  general  elections  for  15  Sept.  and
a  meeting  of  the  constituent  assembly  for  15
Nov.  1890 20  Dec.

Decree  banishing  the  emperor  and  his  family  and
viscount  de  Ouro  Preto,  the  late  premier,  and
recalling  the  grant  to  the  emperor  and  suspending
his  annual  allowance  .... 20  Dec.

Mutiny  of  two  artillery  regiments  at  Rio  suppressed
with  much  bloodshed ;  about  20  ringleaders  shot ;
several  citizens  arrested . . 18 — 20  Dec.

Sudden  death  of  the  empress  at  Oporto . 28  Dec.

Decree  for  the  separation of church and state

7  Jan.

The  emperor  arrives  at  Cannes . . 16  Jan.

The  republic  formally  recognized  by  the  United
States  N.A. 29  Jan.

Issue  Bank  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil,  estab-
lished 5  Feb.

Serious  disturbances  in  Rio  Grande  in  opposition
to  government  financial  measures,  1  May,  et  seq.  ;
rioting  checked  by  the  police ;  military  govern-
ment appointed ... 13  May,  et  seq.

New  constitution  promulgated  . . 22  June

The  republic  formally  recognised  by  Great  Britain,

about  20  Oct.

The  first  congress  of  the  republic  meets  ;  the  pre-
sident transfers  to  it  the  powers  of  the  provisional
government "15  Nov.

Decree  rescinding  the  banishment  of  the  late  im-
perial ministers 20  Nov.

Secret  decree  to  encourage  immigration,  29  June,
published  in  Warsaw,  26  Dec.  1890,  about  25,000
Polish  emigrants  said  to  be  received . Jan.

The  first  republican  ministry  (sen.  J.  C.  de  Faria
Alvim  and  others),  resigns  ... 20  Jan.

New  cabinet  formed  by  sen.  Uchoa  . . 22  Jan.

Reciprocal  treaty  of  commerce  with  the  United
States  N.  A 5  Feb.

A  new  constitution  passed  by  the  Constituent
Assembly,  23  Feb. — promulgated  . . 24  Feb.

Marshal  Deodoro  da  Fonseca  elected  president  for
four  years,  gen.  Floriano  Peixoto  vice-president,
25  Feb. ,  installed .... 26  Feb.

The  legislative  session  opens ;  cheerful  speech  of
the  president 15  June,

The  British  Foreign  office  warns  emigrants  against
invitations  to  Brazil  ' Aug.

The  congress,  having  passed  a  law  opposing  the
veto  of  president  Fonseca,  is  dissolved  by  him,
and  martial  law  proclaimed,  3  Nov. ;  he  assumes
the  dictatorship 4  Nov.

The  provinces  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  Grao  Para
declare  their  independence ... 10  Nov.

Insurrection  in  Rio  Grande  spreading  ;  the  gover-
nor, sen.  J.  Castilho,  deposed,  13  Nov. ;  pro-
visional government  established  under  sen.  Assis
Brazil,  about  15  Nov.  The  junta  holds  all  the  pro-
vince, and  prepares  to  resist  the  dictator  Fonseca,
reported  17  Nov.,  about  30,000  men  in  arms  ;
Fonseca's  proposals  rejected  by  the  junta,  19  Nov.

President  Fonseca  proclaims  the  election  of  a  new
congress  for  29  Feb.  to  meet  on  3  May,  1892,

21  Nov.

Insurrection  of  the  navy  and  others  against  pre-
sident Fonseca;  he  resigns  and  is  succeeded  by
gen.  Floriano  Peixoto  ;  no  bloodshed,  23  Nov.  ;
he  issues  a  manifesto  declaring  the  re-establish-
ment of  legality 25  Nov.

Death  of  the  ex-empemr  Pedro  II.  at  Paris 5  Dec.

Gen.  Rocha  Osorio  appointed  governor  of  BiO
Grande 6  Doc.


1889


BEEACH  OF  PEOMISE.


144


BRECHIN.


Disturbances  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  province  suppressed
with  bloodshed 8  Dec.  1891

Revolution  in  Sao  Paulo,  "begun  13  Dec. ,  the  gover-
nor resigns 15  Dec. ,,

Meeting  of  congress  ;  the  president's  message  satis-
factory ;n8  Dec. „

Revolution  in  Espiritu  Santo  ;  vice-governor  de-
posed i9  Dec. „

Sen.  Silveira  Martinez  appointed  governor  of  Rio
Grande about  26  Dec. ,,

Commercial  treaty  with  Portugal  signed  . 15  Jan.  1892

Mutiny  at  the  fortress  of  Santa  Cruz  ;  2  forts  cap-
tured by  the  rebels,  who  demand  the  restoration
of  Deodoro  da  Fonseca  ;  the  mutiny  suppressed
by  government  troops . . . 19  Jan.  et  seq. ,,

The  chambers  prorogued  till  May . . Jan. „

Revolt  of  the  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  12  April;
suppressed June, ,,

The  Solimoes,  armour-clad  war-vessel,  founders  off
Cape  Polonio,  Uruguay,  about  100  men  drowned,

21  May, „

Death  of  gen.  Deodoro  da  Fonseca . 23  Aug. ,,

EMPERORS OF BRAZIL.

1822.  Dom  Pedro  (of  Portugal) ;  abdicated  in  favour  of  his
infant  son,  7  April,  1831  ;  died  24  Sept.  1834.

1831.  Dom  Pedro  II.  (born  2  Dec.  1825);  assumed  the
government,  23  July,  1840;  crowned,  18  July.
1841 ;  married,  4  Sept.  1843,  princess  Theresa  of
Naples  (born  14  March,  1822  ;  died  28  Dec.  1889).
Pedro  II.  deposed  15  Nov.  1889,  died  at  Paris  5
Dec.  ;  buried  in  the  cathedral  at  St.  Vincent,
Lisbon,  12  Dec.  1891.

Heiress.  Isabella,  born  29  July,  1846  ;  married  (15  Oct.
1864)  Louis  comte  d'Eu,  son  of  the  due  de
Nemours  (born  29  April,  1842).

Heir.  Pedro,  born  15  Oct.  1875.

BEEACH  OF  PEOMISE  of  Marriage ;  a
resolution  in  favour  of  abolishing  the  action,  was
adopted  in  the  Commons  (106-65),  6  May,  1879.

BEE  AD.  ChLng-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,
is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught  men
(the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method
of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,
1998  B.C.  Univ.  Hist.  Baking  of  bread  was  known
in  the  patriarchal  ages:  see  Exodus  xii.  15.  It
became  a  profession  at  Borne,  170  B.C.  After  the
conquest  of  Macedon,  148  B.C.,  numbers  of  Greek
bakers  came  to  Borne,  obtained  special  privileges,
and  soon  obtained  a  monopoly.  During  the  siege  of
Paris  by  Henry  IV.,  owing  to  famine,  bread,  which
had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for  a  crown  a
pound,  was  at  last  made  from  the  bones  of  the
charnel-house  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  a.d.  1594.
Henault.  In  the  time  of  James  I.,  barley  bread  was
used  by  the  poor;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,
beaten  to  powder,  is  made  into  bread ;  potato-bread
is  used  in  Ireland.  The  London  Bakers'  Company
was  incorporated  in  1307.  Bread-street  was  once
the  London  market  for  bread.  Until  1302,  the
London  bakers  were  not  allowed  to  sell  any  in  their
own  shops.  Stoiv.  Bread  was  made  with  yeast  by
the  English  bakers  in  1634.  In  1856  and  1857  Dr.
Dauglish  patented  a  mode  of  making  "aerated
bread,"  in  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  combined  with
water  and  mixed  with  the  flour,  and  which  is  said
to  possess  the  advantages  of  cleanliness,  rapidity,
and  uniformity.  In  1862  a  company  was  formed  to
encourage  Stevens'  bread-making  machinery.  An
act  for  regulating  bakehouses  was  passed  in  July,
1863.  A  strike  of  the  journeymen  bakers  of  the
metropolis,  23  Sept.,  was  settled  by  concessions,
9  Oct.  1872.  A  Bread  Reform  League  formed ;  meet-
ing at  the  Mansion  House,  London,  17  Dec.  1880.
The  Bread  Union,  limited,  established  in  London,
Sept.  1889  ;  failure,  Oct.  1890.  Delegated  meeting
of  working  bakers  in  London,  demanding  increased
pay  and  shorter  time  of  labour,  5  Sept.  ;  strike
averted  by  concessions,  Nov.  1889.


Quartern  Loaf  (4/6.  sloz.)

1735  . . Price shd.

I74S  ■ • • • 44

1755  .... 5

176s  • • • • 7

i77S  . 6J-

1785  • • . . 6\

1795  • • ■ •  i2i

Four-pound  Loaf  (best)


1800 .. . Price  172C?.
1800 .  [For  4  weeks,  22 JcJ.]

12^


1022
1825


1835


1855
1856
1857
1858
1859


IS66
1867


iod.
. . 11

■  ioij
■  •  7

■  9
June.  Dec.

l\d. -j\d.


9\


iof
ioj-

8£

7

n

9

9


di


1810  .

1812  Aug
1814  .
1820


1871
1872
1873
1874
187S
1876
1877


•  *5£

• •  2l£

.  12^

. .  II

June.  Dec.

•  8  7J

•  7a 8|
■ 9  9

. 9J  10


(medium').


Assize  of  Bread.  The  first  statute  for  the  regulation
of  the  sale  of  bread  was  3  John,  1203.  The  chief  justi-
ciary, and  a  baker  commissioned  by  the  king,  had  the
inspection  of  the  assize.  Matthew  Paris.  The  assize
was  further  regulated  by  statute  in  51  Hen.  III.  1266,
and  8  Anne,  1710.  Bread  Act,  Ireland,  placing  its  sale
on  the  same  footing  as  in  England,  1  Vict.  1838.  Bread
was  directed  to  be  sold  by  weight  in  London  in  1822  ;  the
statute  "  Assessa  Panis  "  was  repealed  in  1824  ;  and  the
sale  of  bread  throughout  the  country  was  regulated  hi
1836.

In  France  the  old  laws  were  superseded,  and  a  law
enabling  the  municipalities  to  fix  the  price  of  bread
(still  unrepealed)  was  passed,  July  1791.

BEEAD-FEUIT  TEEE,  a  native  of  the
South  Sea  islands.  A  vessel  under  captain  Bligh
was  fitted  out  to  convey  some  of  these  trees  to>
various  British  colonies  in  1789  (see  Bounty),  and
again  in  1 791.  The  number  taken  on  board  at
Otaheite  was  1151.  Some  were  left  at  St.  Helena,
352  at  Jamaica,  and  five  were  reserved  for  Kew
Gardens,  1793-  The  tree  was  successfully  culti-
vated in  French  Guiana,  1802.

BEEAKWATEBS.  The  first  stone  of  the
Plymouth  breakwater  was  lowered  12  August,  1812.
It  stretches  5280  feet  across  the  sound,  is  360  feet
in  breadth  at  the  bottom  and  more  than  30  at  the
top,  and  consumed  3,660,000  tons  of  granite  blocks,
from  one  to  five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841,  and
cost  a  million  and  a  half  sterling.  The  architects
were  Mr.  John  Bennie  and  his  son  sir  John.  The
first  stone  of  the  lighthouse  on  its  western  extremity
was  laid  1  Feb.  1841.  Breakwaters  have  been  con-
structed at  Holyhead,  Portland,  Dover,  Middles-
borough,  &c.  A  great  barrier,  about  two-thirds  of
a  mile  long,  erected  to  defend  the  hfematite  iron
mines  near  the  Daddon  estuary,  was  completed  by
Messrs.  Lucas  &  Aird,  sir  John  Coode  being  the
engineer,  Oct.  1890.

BEE  AST-PL  ATE.  One  was  worn  by  the
Jewish  high  priest,  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xxxix.)
Goliath  "was  armed  with  a  coat  of  mail,"  1063
B.C.  (1  Sam.  xvii.)  Breast-plates  dwindled  to  the
diminutive  gorgets.  Ancient  breast-plates  are  men-
tioned as  made  of  gold  and  silver.

BBECHEN",  Scotland ;  sustained  a  siege  against
the  army  of Edward  III., 1333. The  battle of


BREDA.


145


BREVIARY.


Brechin  or  Huntly-hill  was  fought  between  the
earls  of  Huntly  and  Crawford,  the  latter  defeated,
18  May,  1452.  The  see  of  Brechin  was  founded  by
David  I.  in  1150.  One  of  its  bishops,  Alexander
Campbell,  was  made  prelate  when  but  a  boy,  1556.
The  bishopric,  discontinued  soon  after  the  revolu-
tion iu  1688,  was  revived  in  1 731.

BREDA,  Holland,  was  taken  from  the
Spaniards  bj'  prince  Maurice,  of  Nassau,  in  1590 ;
retaken  by  the  Spaniards,  under  Spinola,  June,
1625 ;  and  by  the  Dutch,  Oct.  1637.  The  "  Com-
promise of  Breda"  was  a  proposal  to  Philip  II.,  de-
precating his  harsh  measures  in  the  Netherlands,
presented  and  refused  in  1566.  Our  Charles  II.
resided  here  at  the  time  of  the  restoration,  and  here
he  issued  his  declaration  of  a  free  general  pardon,
4  April,  1660;  see  Restoration.  Breda  was  taken
Soy  the  French  in  1793.  The  French  garrison  was
expelled  by  the  burgesses  in  1813.  Population,
1890,  22,536.

BREECHES.  Among  the  Greeks,  this  gar-
ment indicated  slavery.  It  was  worn  by  the
Dacians,  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations ;
and  in  Ital)r,  it  is  said,  was  worn  in  the  time  of
Augustus  Caesar.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius,  about
394,  the  braccarii,  or  breeches-makers,  were  ex-
pelled from  Rome.  The  "  Geneva  Bible,"  termed
4he  "Breeches  Bible"  (from  the  rendering  in
Gen.  iii.  7),  published  1560.

BREECH-LOADERS, see  under Cannon

and  Firearms.

BREED'S  HILL,  see  Bunker's  Hill.

BREHON  LAWS,  the  ancient  jurisprudence
of  Ireland,  said  to  have  been  administered  by  here-
ditary judges  called  Brehons.  It  was  enacted  by
the  statute  of  Kilkenny,  that  no  English  subject
should  submit  to  the  Brehon  laws,  40  Edw.  III.,
1366.  These  laws,  however,  were  recognised  by  the
native  Irish  till  1650.  A  translation  of  them  was
proposed  in  1852,  and  a  commission  appointed.  The
publication  of  the  "  Ancient  Laws  of  Ireland"  by
the  government,  began  1865.

BREITENFELD,  see  Leipsic.

BREMEN  (N.  Germany),  said  to  have  been
founded  in  788,  and  long  an  archbishopric,  and  one
of  the  leading  towns  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  was
allowed  a  seat  and  a  vote  in  the  college  of  imperial
cities  in  1640.  In  1648  it  was  secularised  and
erected  into  a  duchy  and  held  by  Sweden  till  1712,
when  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Denmark,  by
whom  it  was  sold  to  Hanover  in  1 731.  It  was
taken  by  the  French  in  1757,  who  were  expelled
fey  the  Hanoverians  in  1758.  Bremen  was  annexed
by  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  in  1810  ;  but  its
independence  was  restored  in  1813,  and  all  its  old
franchises  in  1815.  It  became  a  member  of  the
North  German  Confederation  in  1866.  International
agricultural  exhibition  opened  13  June,  1874.
Population  of  the  province,  187 1,  122,402  ;  1885,
165,628;  1890,  180,443:  of  the  city,  125,684;  see
Hanse  Towns.  For  the  explosion  at  Bremerhafen,
11  Dec.  1875,  see  Dynamite.

BRENNEVILLE,  N.W.  France.  Here
Henry  I.  of  England  defeated  Louis  VI.  of  France,
who  supported  William  Cliton,  son  of  Robert,  duke
of  Normandy,  20  Aug.  1 1 19.

BRENTFORD,  county  town  of  Middlesex.
Here  Edmund  Ironside  defeated  the  Danes,  May,
1016.  It  was  taken  by  Charles  I.,  after  a  sharp
fight,  12  Nov.  1642.  Population,  1881,  11,805;
1891,  r3,736-


BRESCIA,  N.  Italy  (the  ancient  Brixia),  be-
came important  under  the  Lombards,  and  suffered
by  the  wars  of  the  Italian  Republics,  being  attached
to  Venice.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under
Gaston  de  Foix,  Feb.  1512,  when  it  is  said  40,000
of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred.  It  was  retaken
26  May,  15 16.  It  surrendei-ed  to  the  Austrian
general  Haynau,  30  March,  1849,  jq  severe  terms,
it  was  annexed  to  Sardinia  in  1859.

BRESLAU,  in  Silesia,  was  burnt  by  the  Mon-
gols in  1 241,  and  conquered  by  Frederick  II.  of
Prussia,  Jan.  1741-  A  tierce  battle  took  place  here
between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  the  latter
under  prince  Bevern,  who  was  defeated  22  Nov.
1757.  Breslau  was  taken ;  but  was  regained  21  Dec.
same  year.  It  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and
surrendered  to  them,  Jan.  1807,  and  again  in  1813.
Population  of  the  city,  1890,  125,684.

BRESSA  PRIZE.  Dr.  Cesare  Antonio
Bressa,  by  will  of  4  Sept.  1835,  bequeathed  property
to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  Turin,  to  give  a
prize  every  two  years  for  some  important  discovery
or  valuable  work  published  relating  to  physics,
natural  history,  geography,  history,  statistics,  &c.
The  first  prize  (about  1200V.)  was  to  be  awarded  in
1879  to  a  foreigner;  the  second  to  an  Italian,  and
so  on  alternately.  The  prize  awarded  to  M.  L'asteur
in  1888.

BREST,  a  seaport,  N.  W.  France,  possessed  by
the  English  a.d.  1378.  Lord  Berkeley  and  a  British
fleet  and  army  were  repulsed  here  with  dreadful  loss
in  1694.  The  magazine  burnt,  to  the  value  of  some
millions  of  pounds  sterling,  1744.  The  marine  hos-
pitals, with  fifty  galley  slaves,  burnt,  1766.  The
magazine  again  destroyed  by  fire,  10  July,  1784.
From  this  great  depot  of  the  French  navy,  numerous
squadrons  were  equipped  against  England,  among
them  the  fleet  which  lord  Howe  defeated  on  I
June,  1794.  England  maintained  a  large  block-
ading squadron  off  the  harbour  from  1793  to  1815  ;
but  with  little  injury  to  France.  It  is  now  a  chief
naval  station,  and  is  considered  impregnable.  The
British  fleet  visited  Brest,  Aug.  1865.

BRETAGNE,  see  Brittany.

BRETHREN, see  Bohemian and  Plymouth

Brethren.

BRETIGNY, Peace OF, concluded  with

France,  8  May,  1360,  by  which  England  retained
Gascony  and  Guienne,  and  acquired  other  provinces ;
renounced  her  pretensions  to  Maine,  Anjou,  Tou-
raine,  and  Normandy;  was  to  receive  3,000,000
crowns,  and  to  release  king  John,  long  a  prisoner.
The  treaty  not  being  carried  out,  the  king  remained
and  died  in  England.

BRETON,  see  Gape  Breton,  and  Brittany.

-  BRETWALDA  (wide-ruling  chief),  one  of
the  kings  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  chosen  by  the
others  as  a  leader  in  war  against  then-  common
enemies.  The  title  was  bestowed  upon  Egbert,
828  ;  see  Britain.  Palgrave,  Kemble,  and  Freeman
differ  in  regard  to  this  title.

BREVIARY  (so  called  as  being  an  abridgment
of  the  offices  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service), con-
tains the  seven  canonical  hours,  viz.,  matins  about
midnight;  lauds  (when  not  joined  to  matins,  about
3  a.m.),  primes  (about  6),  tierce  (about  9),  sexts
(about  12),  nones  (about  3  p.m.),  vespers  (4  or  6)
complines  (about  9).  Lord  Bate  published  a  trans-
lation of  the  Breviary,  1879.  The  breviary  is
ascribed  to  pope  Gelasius I. about  492. It  was


BEEWEES.


143


BEIDGES.


first  called  the  custos,  and  afterwards  the  breviary  ;
came  into  use  among  the  ecclesiastical  orders  about
1080 ;  and  was  reformed  by  the  councils  of  Trent
and  Cologne,  and  by  Pius  V.,  Urban  VIII.,  and
other  popes.  The  quality  of  type  in  which  _  the
breviary  was  first  printed  is  said  to  have  given
the  name  to  the  printing  type  called  brevier.  .

BEEWEES  are  traced  to  Egypt.  Brewing  was
known  to  our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors.  Tindal.
' '  One  "William  Murle,  a  rich  maltman  or  bruer,  of
Dunstable,  had  two  horses  all  trapped  with  gold,
1414."  Stow.  In  Oct.  1851,  there  were  2305
licensed  brewers  in  England,  146  in  Scotland,  and
97  in  Ireland ;  total,  2548  :  these  are  exclusive  of
retail  and  intermediate  brewers.  There  were
40,418  licensed  brewers  in  the  United  Kingdom  in
1858  ;  the  revenue  from  Avhom  to  the  state  was  in
that  year  81,030^.  In  1858  in  England  there  were
205  great  brewers ;  see  Ale,  Porter,  and  Vacuum.

In  1880  the  brewers'  licence  (for  sale)  was  made  iZ.,
not  for  sale,  6s.,  a  duty  was  laid  upon  beer  calculated
upon  the  specific  gravity  of  the  wort  (43  &  44  Viet.  c.  20).

Brewers'  exhibition  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  London,
began  1879.

BEIAE'S  CEEEK  (N.  America),  near  which
the  Americans,  2000  strong,  under  general  Ashe,
were  totally  defeated  by  the  English  under  general
Prevost,  3  March,  1779.

BEIBEE Y  forbidden  (Detit.  xvi.  19) .  Samuel' s
sons  were  guilty  of  it,  1112  B.C.  (1  Sam. viii.3.)  Thos.
de  "Weyland,  a  judge,  was  banished  for  bribery  in
1288;  he  was  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas.
"William  de  Thorpe,  chief  justice  of  the  king's
bench,  was  convicted  of  bribery  in  1351.  Another
judge  was  fined  20,OOC7.  for  the  like  offence,  1616.
Mr.  "Walpole,  secretary-at-war,  was  sent  to  the
Tower  for  bribery  in  1712.  Lord  Strangford  was
suspended  from  voting  in  the  Iiish  house  of  lords,
for  soliciting  a  bribe,  Jan.  1784.

BEIBEEY  at  Elections. In  1854  an  im-
portant act  was  passed  consolidating  and  amending
previous acts  relating to this offence, from 7
Will.  III.  (1695)  to  5  &  6  Vict.  c.  184.
Messrs.  Sykes  and  Rumbold  fined  and  imprisoned

for  bribery . . . . '". - 14  March,  1776
Messrs. Davidson,  Parsons, and  Hopping,  impri-
soned for  bribery  at  Ilchester  . . 28  April,  1804
Mr.  Swan,  M.P.  for  Penryn,  fined  and  imprisoned,
and  sir  Manasseh  Lopez  sentenced  to  a  fine  of
io,oooZ.  and  two  years'  imprisonment  for  bribery

at  Grampound Oct.  1819

The  members  for  Liverpool  and  Dublin  unseated  1831
The  friends  of  Mr.  Knight,  candidate  for  Cambridge,

convicted  of  bribery 20  Feb. 1835

Elections  for  Ludlow  and  Cambridge  made  void  .  1840
Sudbury  disfranchised,  1848  ;  St.  Albans  also  .  .  1852
Elections  at  Derby  and  other  places  declared  void

for  bribery 1853

Corrupt  Practices  Act  passed 1854

In  the  case  of  Cooper  v.  Slade,  it  was  ruled  that
the  payment  of  travelling  expenses  was  bribery,

17  April,  1858
Gross  bribery  practised  at  Gloucester,  Wakefield,

and  Berwick 1859

Mr.  fin.  H.  Leatham  convicted  of  bribery  at  Wake-
field 19  July,  i860

Government  commissions  of  inquiry  respecting
bribers,  sat  at  Great  Yarmouth,  Totnes,  Lancas-
ter,  and Reigate ; and  disgraceful disclosures

were  made Aug.-Nov. 1866

The  boroughs  were  disfranchised  by  the  Reform  bill,

passed 15  Aug. 1867

The  Parliamentary  Elections  Act  enacted  that  elec-
tion petitions  should  be  tried  by  a  court  ap-
pointed for  the  purpose,  passed  .  31  July,  1868
Eirst  trials  under  this  act ;  Mr.  Roger  Eykyn  (at
Windsor)  was  declared  duly  elected,  15  Jan.,  and
sir H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated,

18  Jan.  1869


Dr.  Kinglake,  Mr.  Fenelly,  and  others,  were  sen-
tenced to  be  fined  for  bribery  in  parliamentary
elections 10  May,  1870

Beverley,  Bridgewater,  Sligo,  and  Cashel  disfran-
chised for  bribery  and  corruption . .  . ,„

Much  corruption  during  the  elections  of  April ;
members  for  Oxford,  Chester,  Boston,  and  other
places,  unseated ....  .  1880-

Stringent  Act  against  it  brought  in  by  sir  H.  James,
attorney-general,  was  passed  in . . . .  i88r
See  Corrupt  Practices.

BBIC-A-BBACS  (French),  old  curiosities:
such  as  cabinets,  pieces  of  ironwork,  &c.  The
collecting  began  about  the  time  of  queen  Anne,
1702-14.  The  publication  of  Brie-d-Brac,  ffi
monthly  price  list,  began  in  1869.

BBICKS  were  used  in  Babylon,  Egypt,  Greece,,
and  Rome;  in  England  by  the  liomans.  The  size  was
regulated  by  order  of  Charles  I.,  1625.  Taxed,  1784.
The  number  of  bricks  which  paid  duty  in  England  in
1820  was  949,000,000  ;  in  1830,  above  1,100,000,000  ;,
in  1840,  1,400,000,000;  and  in  1850,  1.700,000,000^
The  duties  and  drawbacks  of  excise  on  bricks  were
repealed  in  1850.  In  1839  Messrs.  Cooke  and  Cun-
ningham brought  out  their  machinery  by  which,
it  is  said,  18,000  bricks  may  be  made  in  ten  hours,
Messrs.  Dixon  and  Corbett,  near  Newcastle,  in  1861,
were  making  bricks  by  steam  at  the  rate  of  1500
per  hour.  The  machinery  is  the  invention  of  Clay-
ton &  Co.,  London.

BEIDEWELL,  once  a  palace  of  king  John,,
near  Fleet-ditch,  London,  1210,  was  given  to  the
city  for  a  workhouse  by  Edward  VI.,  1553.*  The
New  Bridewell  prison,  erected  in  1829,  was  pulled
down  in  1864  ;  that  of  Tothill-fields  was  rebuilt  in>
1831.

BEIDGES  were  first  of  wood.  There  are
ancient  stone  bridges  in  China.  Ab3^do3  is  famous-
for  the  bridge  of  boats  which  Xerxes  built  across-
the  Hellespont,  480  B.C.  Trajan's  magnificent
stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  4770  feet  in  length,,
was  built  in  a.d.  105.  Brotherhoods  for  building-
bridges  existed  in  S.  France  about  1 180.  The  Devil's-
bridge  in  the  Canton  of  Uri  was  built  on  two  high
rocks ;  and  many  stories  have  been  invented  to  ac-
count for  it.  At  Schaffhausen  an  extraordinary
bridge  was  built  over  the  Rhine,  400  feet  wide  :  there
was  a  pier  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  doubt-
ful whether  the  bridge  rested  upon  it ;  a  man  of
the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  him,
yet  waggons  heavily  laden  passed  over  without
danger.  The  bridge  was  destroyed  by  the  French
in  1799.  See  Hammersmith,  London,  Waterloo,
Blaclifriars,  Southwark,  Forth,  Tag,  Tower,  and
other  bridges,  in  separate  articles.  The  chief
Thames  bridges  were  freed  from  toll  24  May,  1879,
and  26  June,  1880.

Triangular  bridge  at  Croyland  abbey  referred  to  in
a  charter  dated 945

A  stone  bridge  erected  at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  by
queen  Matilda about  1 100-18

Bishop's  bridge,  Norwich 1295

London  bridge  :  one  existed  about  978  ;  one  built
of  wood,  1014  ;  one  by  Peter  of  Colechurch,  1176-
1209  ;  new  bridge  finished 1831

The  first  large  iron  bridge  erected  over  the  Severn,
Shropshire 1777

Sunderland  bridge  by  Wilson,  100  feet  high,  an
arch  with  a  span  of  236  feet 1796

The  chain  suspension  bridge  at  Menai  Strait  . . 1825

*  Of  the  old  buildings  little  remains  :  merely  offices
and  a  few  cells  for  refractory  city  apprentices.  By  the
Charity  Commissioners'  scheme  (i860)  the  annual  income
(14,682/..  in  1876)  is  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  two
industrial  schools  :  for  boys,  at  Witley,  Surrey;  for  girls,
at  St.  George's  fields.


BRIDGEWATER.


147


BRISTOL.


Old  Westminster,  opened,  1750  ;  old  Blaekfriars,
1769  ;  Waterloo,  1817  ;  Southwark,  iSig  ;  Hunger-
ford,  1845  ;  Chelsea,  1858  ;  Vauxhall,  1816.

A  railway  bridge  2j  miles  long  projected  over  the
Firth  of  Forth  (not  executed) . . . Dec.  1864

The  very  wide  Victoria  bridge,  over  the  Thames  (by
which  the  London,  Chatham  and  Dover  railway
enters  the  Victoria  station,  Pimlico) ;  founded  by
lord  Harris 22  Feb.  1865

For  details  see  separate  articles,  and  also  Tubular
bridge,  Newcastle,  Niagara,  Victoria  bridge,  £c.

New  York  and  Brooklyn  bridge,  5862  feet  long;
1600  central  span  ;  130  feet  high  ;  July,  1872,  etscq.

Tay  bridge  (which  see)  1871-7 ;  Forth  bridge  (see
under  Forth) 1 8 79-8 9

The  great  railway  bridge  over  the  Severn  (above  J
mile  long),  connecting  the  Forest  of  Dean  writh
Sharpness  Point,  the  port  of  Gloucester  (cost
1,000,000?.),  was  formally  opened . 17  Oct.  1879

Great  railway  bridge  over  the  Volga,  near  Syzlan,
Saratoy  government,  built . . . . 1877-80

Suspension  bridge  from  New  York  to  Brooklyn
(5989  feet  long)  opened . . . 24  May,  1883

BRIDGEWATER,  Somersetshire,  was  incor-
porated by  king  John,  in  1200.  In  the  civil  war  it
was  taken  by  the  parliamentary  forces,  23  July,
1645.  Here  stood  an  ancient  castle  in  which  the
ill-advised  duke  of  Monmouth  lodged  when  pro-
claimed king  in  1685.  The  town  was  disfranchised
for  bribery,  1870.  Population,  1881,  12,007  !  1891,
12,429.

BRLDGEWATER  CANAL,  the  first  great
work  of  the  kind  in  England,  was  begun  by  the
duke  of  Bridgewater,  the  father  of  canal  navigation
in  this  country,  in  1759,  and  opened  17  July,  1761.
James  Brindley  was  the  engineer.  It  commences
at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from  Manchester;  and  at
Barton  Bridge  is  an  aqueduct  which,  for  upwards
of  200  yardjs,  conveys  the  canal  across  the  river
Irwell.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  about  twenty-
nine  miles.

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.  The  rev.
Francis,  earl  of  Bridgewater,  died  in  April,  1829,
leaving  by  will  8,000'.  to  be  given  to  the  author  or
authors,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Royal
Society,  who  should  write  an  essay  "  on  the  power,
wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the
creation."  The  essays  (by  sir  Charles  Bell,  Drs.  T.
Chalmers,  John  Kidd,  William  Buckland,  William
Prout,  Peter  M.  Roget,  and  the  revs.  William
Whewell  and  William  Kirbv)  were  published  1833-
35-

BRIEFS  are  the  letters  of  the  pope  despatched
to  princes  and  others  on  public  affairs,  and  usually
written  short,  without  preface  or  preamble,  and  on
paper;  in  which  particulars  they  are  distinguished
from  bulls.  The  latter  are  ample,  and  written  on
parchment.  Briefs  are  sealed  with  red  wax  and
the  seal  of  the  fisherman,  or  St.  Peter  in  a  boat,
and  always  in  the  presence  of  the  pope.  The  queen's
letters,  called  "briefs,"  authorising  collections  in
churches  for  charitable  purposes,  are  now  discon-
tinued. A  lawyer's  brief  is  an  abridgment  of  his
client's  case.

BRIENNE  (N.  E.  France).  Here  the  allied
armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  under  Bliicher,  were
defeated  by  the  French,  29  Jan.  1814.

BRIGANDAGE.  See  Italy,  1861  et  seq.;
Greece,  1870;  Spabi,  1870,  and  Turkey.

_  BRIGHT'S  DISEASE-  a  degeneration  of  the
ti-sues  of  the  kidneys  into  fat,  investigated  about
1830  by  Richard  Bright.

BRIGHTON",  formerly  Brighthelmstone,  a
fishing  town,  Sussex,  was  made  a  place  of  fashion-
able resort  by  the  prince of  Wales, afterwards


George  IV. Brighton  returns  two  M.P.'s  by  Act  of
1885. See  Population.

At  Shoreham,  near  Brighton,  Charles  II.  embarked
for  France  after  the  battle  of  Worcester . .  1651

Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales I782

He  founded  the  Pavilion  1784  ;  it  was  greatly  en-
larged and  made  to  resemble  the  Kremlin  at  Mos-
cow, 1784-1823  ;  sold  to  the  town  for  53,000/.  1849.
The  Block-house  swept  away  . . .26  March,  1786
Part  of  the  cliff  fell ;  great  damage . .  16  Nov.  1807
Chain-pier,  1134  feet  long,  13  wide,  completed . 1823
Brighton  made  a  parliamentary  borough  . . 1832

The  railway  to  London  opened  . . .  21  Sept. 1841
Collision  of  trains  in  Clayton  tunnel,  23  persons

killed  and  many  injured ... 25  Aug. 1861
Volunteer  reviews  here  on  Easter  Mondays,  1862  ;

and  often  since,  see  under  Volunteers.
New  pier  erected . . . ... . . 1865-6

Great  aquarium  inaugurated  by  prince  Arthur,  30

Mar.  ;  and  formally  opened  by  the  mayor,  10  Aug. 1872
British  Association  meet  here . .  14  Aug. ,,

Free  library,  museum,  and  picture  gallery,  opened

12  Sept.  1873
Inauguration  of  status  of  sir  John  Cordy  Burrows,

great  benefactor  to  the  town  . . . 14  Feb. 1878
About  2000  French  and  Belgian  singers  and  musi-
cians meet ...... 5  Sept.  1881

Grand  concert  room,  &c,  burned . . 8  Oct.  1882
New  town  hall,  Hove,  opened . . .13  Dec. ,,
Electric  railway  tried . . .  4  April,  1S84

Preston  park  (purchased  for  6o,cool.  aided  by  legacy

from  W.  E.  Davis)  opened  by  the  mayor  '  8  Nov. ,,
Railway  to  Devil's  Dyke  opened . . 1  Sept.  1887
International  exhibition  of  arts  and  manufactures

at  Hove  opened 21  Oct. 1889

New  terraces,  sheltered  walk,  halls,  &c,  opened  by

the  mayor 25  May,  1890

Museum  of  British  birds,  bequeathed  to  the  town
by  Mr.  E.  T.  Booth,  opened  by  the  mayor,  3  Nov. „

BRILL  or  BRIEL,  Holland.  A  seaport,  seized
by  the  expelled  Dutch  confederates,  became  the
seat  of  their  independence,  1572.  Brill,  given  up
to  the  English  in  1585  as  security  for  advances
made  by  queen  Elizabeth  to  Holland,  was  restored
in  1616.

BRISBANE,  capital  of  Queensland,  on  the
river  Brisbane,  Australia,  was  founded  by  Oxley,
in  1823,  settled  as  a  penal  station  in  1825  by  sir  J.
Brisbane,  and  made  a  bishopric  in  1859,  when  the
colony  was  constituted.  Spacious  dry  dock  opened
at  S.  Brisbane  in  188I.  Population 'in  1887  (with
suburbs),  73,649; 1891,  93,657.

BRISSOTINS,  see  Girondists.

BRISTOL  (W.  England)  is  mentioned  in  430
as  a  fortihed  city.  It  was  called  Caer  Oder,  a  city  m
the  valley  of  Bath  ;  and,  sometimes  Caer  Brito,'the
British  city,  and  by  the  Saxons  Brightstowe,  plea-
sant place.  Gildas  and  Ncnnius  speak  of  Bristol  in
the  5th  and  7th  centuries.  From  the  12th  to  the
1 8th  century  it  was,  next  to  London,  the  most
flourishing  port  in  England  ;  it  has  since  been  sur-
passed by  Liverpool.  See  under  Orphan-houses.
An  industrial  and  fine  art  exhibition  for  Somerset
and  Gloucester  opened  2  Sept.  1884.  See  Population.
Bristol  returns  four  M.P.'s  by  Act  of  1885.
Taken  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  in  his  defence
of his sister  Maud, the  empress,  against  king

Stephen 1118

Eleanor  of  Brittany  (daughter  of  Geoffrey,  son  of
Henry  II.)  dies  in  the  castle  after  39  years' im-
prisonment 12.x

St.  Mary's  church  built '  I202

Bristol  made  a  distinct  county  by  Edward  III.  1 -

Bishopric  founded  by  Henry  VIII ,54'2

Taken  by  prince  Rupert,  26  July,  1643  i  by  Cromwell,

10  Sept. 1645
Edwd.  Colston's  hospital,  a  free  school,  and  other
charities  established  [Ins  birthday,  13  Nov.  kept

annually] z  oS

[Annual  dinners  :  the  Dolphin  Soeietv  (conserva.

L  2


BEISTOL.


143


BRITAIN.


tive)  since  1749  ;  the  Anchor  Society  (liberal)
since  1768  ;  Grateful  Society  (neutral)  since  1757.]

New  charter 1710

Act  passed  for  new  exchange,  1723  ;  erected . . 1741

Bread  riots 1753

Bridge  built May,  1760

Attempt  to  set  the  shipping  on  fire . .  22  Jan. 1777
Riot  on  account  of  a  toll  ;  the  troops  Are  on  the
populace,  and  many  are  wounded . 25  Oct. 1793

Docks  built 1804-9

Biot  on  the  entrance  of  sir  Charles  Wetherell,  the
recorder,  into  the  city,  he  being  opposed  to  the
reform  bill  ;  the  mansion  house,  the  bishop's
palace,  several  merchants'  stores,  some  of  the
prisons  (the  inmates  liberated),  nearly  100  houses
burned,  and  above  500  persons  killed  by  the  mili-
tary or  perished  ....  29-3100^-1831
Trial  of  rioters  (four  executed  ;  22 transported),

2  Jan. ;  suicide  of  col.  Brereton,  during  trial  by
court-martial 9  Jan. 1832

Meeting  of  British  Association  .  .  .  Aug.  1836
Railway  to  London  completed  .  .  30  June,  1841
Clifton  suspension-bridge  opened  .  .  8  Dec.  1864
Industrial  Exhibition  opened  .  .  19  Sept.  1865
British  Association,  2nd  meeting  ...  .  .  1875
Proposed  foundation  of  a  college  for  science  and
literature  here  for  the  south  and  west  of  England  ;
meeting,  13  June,  1874  ;  opened  as University

College 10  Sept.  1876

Great  fire  ;  Clutterbuck's.  drysalters,  &c,  loss  be-
tween 8o,ooo£.  and  ioo,oooZ. . . 24-25  May, ,,
Avonmouth  dock  opened ... 24  Feb. 1877
Statue of Mr. Samuel Morley, long M.P. for

Bristol,  unveiled 22  Oct.  1887

Destructive explosion of 300  barrels  of  volatile
naphtha  on  board  the  Jersey  ketch  The  United;

3  deaths 21  Nov.  1888

Great  flood  ;  damage  about  ioo,oooL . 8-9  March,  1889
Trade  paralyzed  by  strikes,  dock  labourers,  work-
men, and  workwomen,  Oct.  ;  strike settled  by
compromise Oct. -Dec. ,,

About  10,000  of  the  boot  trade  locked  out,  23  Dec,

1889;  settled  by  compromise  .  about  20  Jan.  1890
Another  great  lock-out,  Jan.,  closed  by  arbitration

3  Feb. 1892

BRISTOL,  SEE  OF,  one  of  the  six  bishoprics
erected  by  Henry  VIII.  out  of  the  spoils  of  the  dis-
solved monasteries,  1542.  The  cathedral  was  the
church,  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Austin,  founded  here  by
Robert  Fitz-Harding,  son  to  a  king  of  Denmark,  and
a  citizen  of  Bristol,  1148.  The  see  is  valued  in  the
king's  books  at  338^.  8s.  \d.  Paul  Bushe,  provincial
of  the  Bons-hommes,  was  the  first  bishop,  in  1542 —
deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  The  see  of  Bris-
tol was  united  by  an  order  in  council  with  that  of
Gloucester,  in  1836,  but  in  1884  an  act  was  passed
to  provide  for  their  again  becoming  separate
bishoprics.  The  cathedral  (under  repair  since  1844)
was  reopened  in  1861 ;  a  new  nave  opened  23  Oct.
1877.

BISHOPS OF BRISTOL.

-1803.  Hon.  G.  Pelham,  translated  to  Exeter,  1807.

1807.  John  Luxmoore,  translated  to  Hereford,  1808.

1808.  Win.  Lort  Mansell,  died,  27  June,  1820.
1820.  John  Kaye,  translated  to  Lincoln,  1827.
1827.  Robert  Gray,  died  28  Sept.  1834.

1834.  Joseph  Allen,  the  last  bishop,  translated  to  Ely
in  June,  1836.  (In  October  the  diocese  was
united  with  Gloucester.)

BRITAIN  (called  by  the  Romans  Britannia,*
from  its  Celtic  name  Prydain,  Camden).  The
earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the
manuscripts  and  poetry  of  the  Cambrians.  The
Celts,  the  ancestors  of  the  Britons  and  modern
Welsh,  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  It  is
referred  to as  the Cassiterides  or  tin-islands  by


*  The  Banians  eventually  divided  Britain  into  Britan-
nia Prima  (country  south  of  the  Thames  and  Severn)  ;
Britannia  Secunda  (Wales)  ;  Flavia  Ccesariensis  (between
the  Thames,  Severn,  and  Humber) ;  Maxima  Cmsariensis
(between  the  Humber  and  Tyne) ;  and  Valcntia  (between
the  Tyne  and  Firth  of  Forth).


Herodotus,  450  B.C.  ;  as  Albion  and  Ierne  (England
and  Ireland)  by  Aristotle,  350  B.C.,  and  Polybius,
260  B.C.  Britain,  including  England,  Scotland,
and  "Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion,  the  name
of  Britain  being  applied  to  all  the  islands  collec-
tively— Albion  to  only  one.  Flint/ ;  see  Albion,
England,  Scotland,  and.  Wales.  Early  history  and
dates  doubtful.

Divitiacus,  king  of  the  Suessones,  in  Gaul,  said  to b.c.
have  supremacy  over  part  of  Britain-  . . . 57
First  invasion  of Britain  by  the  Romans,  under

Julius  Caesar 26  Aug. 55

Second  invasion  ;  he  defeats  Cassivelaunus,  British

general 54

Cymbeline  (Cunobelin),  king  of  Britain  .  .  .  4
Aulus  Plautius  defeats  the  Britons  .  .  .  a.d.  43
He  and  Vespasian  reduce  S.  Britain  .  .  .  .  47
Caractacus  defeated  by  Ostorius, 50  ;  carried  in

chains  to  Rome 51

Romans  defeated  by  Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceni  ;
70,000  slain,  and  London  burnt :  she  is  defeated
by  Suetonius  ;  80,000  slain,  place  uncertain . 61
Agricola,  governor,  conquers  Anglesey,  and  over-
runs Britain  in  seven  campaigns,  and  reforms  the

government 78-84

He  defeats  the  Caledonians  under  Galgacus  ;  sur-
renders the  islands  . . . . . .84

The  emperor  Adrian  visits  Britain,  120  ;  and  builds

a  wall  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway . . .121
Lucius,  king  of  the  Britons,  said  to  have  sent  an
embassy  on  religious  affairs  to  pope  Eleutherius,

about  181
The  Britons  (allies  of  Albinus)  defeated  at  Lyons  by

Severus 197

Southern Britain subdued and  divided by  the

Romans  into  two  provinces .... 204
Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then  called  Ebora-
cum,  208  ;  finishes  his  wall,  and  dies  at  York,

4  Feb.  211
Carausius  usurps  the  throne  of  Britain  .  .  .  286
He  is  killed  by  Allectus,  another  usurper  .  .  294
Constantius  recovers  Britain  and  kills  Allectus  .  296
St.  Alban  and  17,000  Christians  martyred  (Bede)  .  304
Constantius, emperor  of Rome, dies at York,

25  July,  306
British  bishops  at  the  council  of  Aries  .  .  .  314
Scots  and  Piets  invade Britain, 360 ; routed  by

Theodosius 368

Romans  gradually  withdraw  from  Britain . 402-436

Reign  of  Vortigern 425

The  Saxons  and  Angles  aid  in  expelling  the  Picts

and  Scots 429

The  Romans  quit  Britain 436

The  Anglo-Saxon  invaders  drive  the  Britons  into

Wales  and  Cornwall  -  .  .  .  .  449-455
Many  Britons  settle  in  Armorica  (Brittany)  .  388-457
The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ;  Britain  divided  into  seven

or  more  kingdoms 457

Ella  invades  South  Britain,  477  ;  founds  kingdom

of  Sussex 491

Supposed  reigns  of  Vortimer,  464  ;  Vortigern  again,
471  ;  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  481  ;  and  Arthur  Pen-
dragon 500

Great  Saxon  invasion  under  Cerdie . . . . 495

The  renowned  king  Arthur  said  to  reign  . . 500-532
Arrival  of  St.  Augustin  (or  Austin),  and  re-establish-
ment of  Christianity  ....... 597

Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons,  reigns  .  .  678
Lindisfarne  church  destroyed  by  the  Northmen .  .  794
Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  virtually  king  of  England 827

kings  of  the  heptarchv,*  see  Bretwalda.

Kent. [The  shire  of  Kent.]
454.  Hengist. [473,  Saxon  Chronicle.]
488.  iEsc,  Esca,  or  Escus,  son  of  Hengist ;  in  honour  of

whom  the  kings  of  Kent  were  for  some  time  called

jEscings.
512.  Octa,  son  of  jEsc.
542.  Hermenric,  or  Ermenric,  son  of  Octa.
560.  St. Ethelbert ; first  Christian Icing  (styled Rex

Angloruin).

*  The  term  "Octarchy"  is  sometimes  used;  North-
umbria  being  divided  into  Bernicia  and  Deira,  separate
kingdoms.


BRITAIN.


149


BRITAIN.


616.  Eadbald,  son  of  Ethelbert.

640.  Ercenbert,  or  Ercombert,  son  of  Eadbald.

664.  Ecbert,  or  Egbert,  sou  of  Ercenbert.

673.  Lothar,  or  Lothair,  brother  of  Ecbert.

685.  Edric  ;  slain  in  687. [The  kingdom  now  subject  to

various  leaders.]
694.  Wihtred,  or  Wihgtred.

72i  S^n'^f  tt  I  sons of Wihtred, succeeding

748.  Ethelbert  II., V  eacn th

760.  Alric,  ;

794.  Edbert,  or  Ethelbert  Pryn  ;  deposed.

796.  Cuthred,  or  Guthred.

805.  Baldred  ;  who  lost  his  life  and  kingdom  to

823.  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex.

South  Saxons. [Sussex  and  Surrey.']

491.  Ella,  a  warlike  prince,  succeeded  by

514.  Cissa,  his  son,  whose  reign  was  long  and  peaceful,
exceeding  70  years.
[The 'South  Saxons  then  fell  into  an  almost  total  de-
pendence on  the  kingdom  of  Wessex.]

648.  Edilwald,  Edilwach,  Adelwach,  or  Ethelwach.

686.  Authun  and  Berthun, brothers ; reigned  jointly  ;

vanquished  by  Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  689  ;  kingdom
conquered  in  725.

West Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset,

Dorset,  Devon,  and  part  of  Cornwall.]
519.  Cerdic.

534.  Cynrie,  or  Kenric,  son  of  Cerdic.
560.  Ceawlin,  son  of  Cynrie  ;  banished  ;  dies  in  593.
591.  Ceolric,  nephew  to  Ceawlin.
597.  Ceolwulf.
611. |_Cynegils,  and  in
614. )  Cwichelm,  his  son,  reigned  jointly.
643.  Cenwal,  Cenwalh,  or  Cenwald.

672.  Sexburga,  his  queen,  sister  to  Penda,  king  of  Mer-
cia  ;  of  great  qualities  ;  probably  deposed.

674.  Escwine,  with  Centwine  ;  on  his  death,
676.  Centwine  rules  alone.

685.  Csedwallo  :  went  to  Rome,  to  expiate  his  deeds  of

blood,  and  died  there.
688.  Ina  or  Inas,  a  brave  and  wise  ruler  ;  journeyed  to

Rome  ;  left  an  excellent  code  of  laws.
728.  Ethelheard,  or  Ethelard,  related  to  Ina.
740.  Cuthred,  brother  to  Ethelheard.

754.  Sigebright,  or  Sigebert,  having  murdered  his  friend

Cumbran,  governor  of  Hampshire,  was  slain  by
one  of  his  victim's  retainers.

755.  Cynewulf,  or  Kenwulf,  or  Cenulpe,  a  noble  youth

of  the  line  of  Cerdic  ;  murdered.
784.  Bertric,  or  Beorhtric ;  poisoned  by  drinking  of  a

cup  his  queen  had  prepared  for  another.
800.  Egbert,  afterwards  sole  monarch  of  England,  and

Bretwalda.

East  Saxons. [Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of  Herts.]
526,  527,  or  530,  Erchenwin,  or  Erchwine.
587.  Sledda  ;  his  son.

597.  St.  Sebert,  or  Sabert ;  son  ;  first  Christian  king.
614.  Saxred  or  Sexted,  or  Serred,  jointly  with  Sigebert

and  Seward  ;  all  slain.
623.  Sigebert  II.  surnamed  the  little  ;  son  of  Seward.
655.  Sigebert  III.  surnamed  the  good  ;  brother  of  Sebert :

put  to  death.
661.  Swithelm  (or  Suidhelm),  son  of  Sexbald.
663.  Sigher,  or  Sigeric,  jointly  with  Sebbi,  or  Sebba,  who
became  a  monk.
Sigenard,  or  Sigehard,  and  Suenfrid.
Offa  ;  became  a  monk  at  Rome.
Suebricht,  or  Selred.
Switlired,  or  Swithed  ;  a  long  reign.
Sigeric  ;  died  in  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.
Sigered,


693.
700
709.
738.
792
799


823.  Kingdom  seized  by  Egbert  of  Wessex.

Northumbria.  [Lancaster,  York,  Cumberland,  Westmore-
land, Durham,  and  Northumberland.]
\*  Northumbria  was  at  first  divided  into  two  govern-
ments, Bernicia  and  Deira;  the  former  stretching
from  the  Tweed  to  the  Tyne,  and  the  latter  from  the
Tyne  to  the  Humber.
547.  Ida,  a  valiant  Saxon.
560.  Adda,  his  eldest  son  ;  king  of  Bemicia.
„ Ella, king  of  Deira  ;  afterwards the  sole  king  of
Northumbria  (to  587).


567-
572-
573-
580.
588.
593-
617.

634-

635-
642.
670.
685.
7°5-
716.
718.
729.
737-
757-
759-
765-
774-
778.
789.
790.

794'
806.


841.


Glappa,  Clappa,  or  Elapea  :  Bernicia.

Heodwulf ;  Bernicia.

Freodwulf ;  Bernicia.

Theodoric  ;  Bernicia.

Ethelric ;  Bernicia.

Ethelfrith,  surnamed  the  Fierce.

Edwin,  son  of  Ella,  king  of  Deira  in  590  ;  a  great

prince. Slain  in  battle  with  Penda,  of  Mercia.
Eanfrid  rules  in  Bemicia,  and  Osric  in  Deira  ;  both

put  to  death.
Oswald  slain  in  battle.
Osweo,  or  Oswy  ;  a  reign  of  great  renown.
Ecfrid,  or  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumbria.
Alcfrid,  or  Ealdferth.
Osred,  or  Ealdferth.
Cenric  ;  sprung  from  Ida.
Osric,  son  of  Alcfrid.
Ceolwulf  ;  died  a  monk.
Eadbert,  or  Egbert ;  retired  to  a  monastery.
Oswnlf,  or  Osulf  ;  slain  in  a  sedition.
Edilwald,  or  Mollo  ;  slain  by  Aired
Aired,  Ailred,  or  Alured  ;  deposed
Ethelred,  son  of  Mollo  ;  expelled.
Elwald,  or  Celwold  ;  deposed  and  slain.
Osred,  son  of  Aired  ;  fled.
Ethelred  restored  ;  afterwards  slain.
Erdulf,  or  Ardulf ;  deposed.
Alfwold.
Erdulf  restored.
Eanred.
Kingdom  annexed  by  Egbert.

East  Angles. [Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Ely.]

526. Uffa  lands.

571  or  575.  Uffa  ;  a  German,  said  to  be  first  king.

578.  Titilus,  or  Titulus  ;  son  of  Uffa.

599.  Redwald,  son  of  Titilus  ;  the  greatest  prince  of  the

East  Angles.
624.  Erpwald,  Eorpwald,  or  Eordwald.
627.  Richbert.

629.  Sigebert,  half-brother  to  Erpwald.
632.  Egfrid,  or  Egric  ;  cousin  to  Sigebert.
635.  Anna,  or  Annas  ;  a  just  ruler  ;  killed.

654.  Ethelric,  or  Ethelhere  ;  slain  in  battle.

655.  Ethelwald  ;  his  brother.
664.  Aldulf,  or  Aldwulf.
713.  Selred,  or  Ethelred.
746.  Alphwuld.

749.  Beorna  and  Ethelred,  jointly.

758.  Beorna  alone.

761.  Ethelred.

790.  Ethelbert,  or  Ethelbryght  ;  treacherously  put  to
death  in  Mercia  in  792,  when  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,
overran  the  country,  which  was  finally  subdued  by
Egbert.

870.  St.  Edmund  (vassal  king)  slain  by  the  Danes.

Mercia.  [Gloucester,  Hereford,  Chester,  Stafford,  Worces-
ter, Oxford,  Salop,  Warwick,  Derby,  Leicester,
Bucks,  Northampton,  Notts,  Lincoln,  Bedford,  Rut-
land, Huntingdon,  and  part  of  Herts.]

586.  Crida,  or  Cridda,  a  noble  chieftain.

593.  [Interregnum— Ceolric]

597.  Wibba,  a  valiant  prince,  his  son.

615.  Ceorl,  or  Cheorl ;  nephew  of  Wibba.

626.  Penda  ;  fierce  and  cruel ;  killed  in  battle.

655.  Pcada,  son  of  Penda  ;  killed  to  make  way  for

656.  Wulfhere  (brother) ;  slew  his  two  sons.
675.  Ethelred  ;  became  a  monk.

704.  Cenred,  or  Cendred  ;  became  a  monk  at  Rome.
709.  Ceolred,  Celred,  or  Chelred  ;  son  of  Ethelred.
716.  Ethelbald  ;  slain  in  a  mutiny  by  his  successor.
755.  Beornred,  or  Bernred  ;  himself  slain.
,, Offa  ;  formed  the  great  dyke  near  Wales.
794.  Egfrid,  or  Egferth,  son  of  Ofl'a  ;  died  suddenly.
,, Cenulph  Cenwulf,  or  Kenulph  ;  slain.
819.  Kenelm,  or  Cenelm,  a  minor  :  reigned  five  months  ;
killed  by  his  sister  Quendreda.
Ceolwulf,  uncle  to  Kenelm  ;  expelled.
Beornwulf  ;  killed  by  his  own  subjects,
Ludecan  ;  a  valiant  ruler  ;  slain. ^
Withlafe,  orWiglaf.
Berthulf,  or  Bertulf.
852.  Burhred,  or  Burdred.
874.  Ceolwulph  ;  deposed  by  the  Danes,  877.

[The  kingdom  merged  into  that  of  England.


823.
825.


BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE. 150


BRITISH  COLUMBIA.


BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE,  see

Tubular  Bridge.

BRITANNY,  or  Bretagne  (N.  W.  France),
the  ancient  Armorica  (which  see),  formed  part  of
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  The  Bretons  still
retain  much  of  their  ancient  Celtic  language  and
customs  (1891).

Nomenoe  revolts  and  becomes  the  first  count . . 841
Britanny  ravaged  by  Northmen,  907  ;  ceded  to  them 92  r

Geoffroy  I.,  the  first  duke  . ■ 992

Alan  V.,  100S  ;  Conan  II 1040

HoelV.,  1066;  Alan  VI 1084

Conan  III 11 12

Hoel  VI.  expelled  ;  Geoffroy  of  An jou  duke . -1155
Conan  IV.  duke,  1156  ;  on  the  death  of  Geoffroy,
cedes Britanny  to Henry  II. of  England,  and
betrothes  his  daughter,  Constance,  to  Henry's  son,

Geoffroy  (both  infants) 11 59

Geoffroy  succeeds,  1171  ;  killed  at  a  tournament  .  1186
His  son,  Arthur,  dies  mysteriously  at  Rouen,  his
uncle  John  suspected  ;  his  daughter,  Eleanor,
imprisoned  at  Bristol  (for  39  years)  .  April,  1203
Alice, .  daughter  of  Constance  by  her  second  hus-
band, Guy  de  Thours,  proclaimed  duchess,  1203  ;
marries  Peter  of  Dreux,  made  duke  . . . .1213

John  I.,  duke,  1237  ;  John  II 1286

John  III.,  1312  ;  dies  without  issue  .  .  .  .  1341
The  succession  disputed  between  John  of  Montfort
(John  IV.)  supported  by  Edward  of  England,  and
Charles  of  Blois,  made  duke  by  Philip  VI.  of
Prance.  John  is  made  prisoner  ;  his  wife,  Jane,
besieged  at  Hennebonne,  holds  out,  and  is  re-
lieved by  the  English,  1343  ;  John  dies  .  .  1345
Charles  of  Blois  defeated  and  slain  at  Auray,  29  Sept. ;
John  V,  son  of  Montfort,  duke . . . .  1364

John  VI.,  duke,  1399  :  Francis  1 1442

Peter  II. ,  1450  ;  Arthur  III 1457

Francis  II.,  1458  ;  takes  part  with  the  Orleanists  in

France ;  defeated  at  St.  Aubin,  28  July,  1488  ;  dies  1488
Anne, his daughter, and heiress, marries 1st,
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  1491  ;  2nd,  Louis  XII.,
T499  ■  ner  eldest  daughter, Claude  (born 1499),
marries  Francis,  count  of  Angouleme,  1514  ;  king

of  France 1  Jan.  1515

Britanny  formally  united  to  the  monarchy  . . . 1532
Britanny  held  by  the  Spaniards,  1591 ;  recovered  by

Henry  IV 1594

The  Bretons  take  part  in  the  Vendean  insurrection
(see  La  Vendee)  in 1791

BRITISH,  see  Architects;  Antiquaries ; Banks,
Joint  Stock ;  Guiana,  Honduras,  National,  Medi-
cal, Orphans,  Societies.

BRITISH  AMERICA  (see  America)  com-
prises the  dominion  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New
Brunswick,  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward's
Island,  Labrador,  British  Columbia  and  Vancouver's
Island.

Delegates  from  the  first  six  provinces  met  at  Quebec  on
10  Oct.,  and  agreed  to  the  basis  of  a  Federal  union,
with  the  queen  as  the  executive  (represented  by  the
governor-general),  a  legislative  council  of  96  members
for  life,  and  a  house  of  commons  of  194  members,  20
Oct.  1864.
The  secretary  for  the  colonies,  Mr.  Cardwell,  expressed

his  approval  of  the  plan,  3  Dec.  1864.
The  plan  opposed  by  New  Brunswick,  7  March,  1865.
Messrs.  Cartier  and  Gait  came  to  England  to  advocate  it,

April,  1865.
Act  for  the  union  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and New
Brunswick, under  the name of  "  the dominion of
Canada,"  brought  into  parliament  by  the  earl  of  Car-
narvon, 19  Feb.,  passed  29  March,  1867.
(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of

3,000,000/.  to  complete  the  intercolonial  railway.)
By  the British  North  America  act,  the  parliament  of

Canada  may  establish  new  provinces,  29  June,  1871.
British  American,  see  George,  St.,  Sons  of.

BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN— Bible  Society,
established  1804  (see  under  Bible) ;— Scliool  Society,
180S  ;— Sailors'  Society,  1818.


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  for  the  Advance-
ment of  Science,  was  established  by  sir  David
Brewster,  sir  R.  I.  Murchison,  &c,  in  1831.  Pro-
fessor John  Phillips  was  secretary  till  1863.  It  holds
annual  meetings;  the  -first  of  which  was  held  at
York  on  27  Sept.  1831.  One  of  its  main  objects  is
"  to  promote  the  intercourse  of  those  wrho  cultivate
science  with  eacli  other."  It  appoints  commissions
and  makes  pecuniary  grants  for  scientific  research ;
and  publishes  annually  a  volume  containing  Beports
of  the  proceedings.  Kew  observatory  presented  to
the  association  by  the  queen  in  1842.  Superinten-
dents, Francis  fionalds,  the  first;  John  "Walsh,
1852;  Balfour  Stewart,  1859.  It  was  purchased  for
the  fioyal  Society  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Gassiot,  in  1871.


I.

York  Meeting  . .

1831

34-

Bath .

1864

2.

Oxford  .

1832

35-

Birmingham  (3rd)

1865

3-

Cambridge . .

1833

36.

Nottingham .

1866

4-

Edinburgh .

1834

37-

Dundee . . .

1867

5-

Dublin . . .

1835

38.

Norwich

1868

6.

Bristol .

1836

39-

Exeter . . .

1869

7-

Liverpool. . .

1837

40.

Liverpool  (3rd) .

1870

8.

Newcastle .

1S38

41.

Edinburgh  (3rd)  .

1871

9-

Birmingham . .

1839

42.

Brighton

1872

10.

Glasgow

1840

43-

Bradford . . .

1873

11.

Plymouth . .

1841

44-

Belfast  (2nd)

1874

12.

Manchester  .

1842

45-

Bristol  (2nd) . .

187s

13.

Cork . . .

1843

46.

Glasgow  (3rd)

1876

14.

York  (2nd  time)  .

1844

47-

Plymouth  (2nd) .

1877

IS-

Cambridge  (2nd)  .

1845

48.

Dublin  (3rd) . .

1878

16.

Southampton

1846

49-

Sheffield

1879

17-

Oxford  (2nd) . .

1847

S°-

Swansea  (2nd)

1880

18.

Swansea

1848

Si-

York  (3rd)  Jubilee

1881

19.

Birmingham  (2nd]

1849

S2-

Southampton

20.

Edinburgh  (2nd)  .

•1850

(2nd) 23  Aug.

1882

21.

Ipswich . . .

1851

53-

Southport  19  Sept.

1883

22.

Belfast .

1852

54-

Montreal

1884

23-

Hull . . .

1853

55-

Aberdeen (2nd)

?

24.

Liverpool  (2nd) .

1854

Sept.

1885

25-

Glasgow  (2nd) . .

1855

5°-

Birmingham  (4th).

1886

26.

Cheltenham  .

1856

57-

Manchester (3rd)

27.

Dublin  (2nd) . .

1857

(most  successful) .

1887

28.

Leeds .

1858

58-

Bath  (2nd)  5  Sept.

1888

29.

Aberdeen . . .

1859

59-

Newcastle  (3rd) .

1839

3°-

Oxford  (3rd) .

i860

60.

Leeds  (2nd)  2  Sept.

1890

31-

Manchester  (2nd).

1861

61.

Cardiff.

1891

32-

Cambridge  (3rd) .

1862

62.

Edinburgh  (4th)  .

1892

33-

Newcastle  (2nd)  .

1863

°3-

Nottingham  (2nd)

1893

Presidents. — 1.  Viscount  Milton  ;  2.  Dr.  Buckland  ;
3.  Prof.  Sedgwick  ;  4.  Sir  Thos.  Brisbane  ;  5.  Provost
Bartholomew  Lloyd  ;  6.  Marquis  of  Lansdowne  ;  7.  Earl
of  Burlington  ;  S.  Duke  of  Northumberland  ;  9.  Rev.  W.
Vernon  Harcourt;  10.  Marquis  of  Breadalbane  ;  11.  Pro-
fessor Whewell ;  12.  Lord  Francis  Egerton ;  13.  Earl  of
Rosse;  14.  Dean  Peacock;  15.  Sir  J.  F.  W.  Hersehel ;
16.  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  ;  17.  Sir  R.  H.  Inglis  ;  18.  Mar-
quis of  Northampton  ;  19.  Rev.  Dr.  T.  R.  Robinson  ;  20.
Sir  D.  Brewster ;  21.  Prof.  G.  B.  Airy ;  22.  Col.  E.
Sabine  ;  23.  Mr.  W.  Hopkins  ;  24.  Earl  of  Harrowby  ;
25.  Duke  of  Argyll  ;  26.  Dr.  C.  G.  B.  Daubeny;  27.  Rev.
Dr.  Humphry  Lloyd  ;  28.  Prof.  R.  Owen  ;  29.  Prince
Albert;  30.  Lord  Wrottesley;  31.  Wm.  Fairbairn  ;  32.
Prof.  R.  Willis  ;  33.  Sir  Wm.  Armstrong ;  34.  Sir  Charles
Lyell ;  35.  Prof.  John  Phillips  ;  36.  W.  R.  Grove ;  37.
Duke  of  Buccleueh  ;  38.  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker  ;  39.  Prof.
G.  G.  Stokes;  40.  Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley;  41.  Sir /Wm.
Thomson;  42.  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter;  43.  Prof.  A.  W.
Williamson;  44.  Prof.  J.  Tyndall;  45.  Sir  John  Hawk-
shaw  ;  46.  Prof.  Thos.  Andrews  ;  47.  Prof.  Allen  Thom-
son ;  48.  Dr.  Wm.  Spottiswoode  ;  49  Dr.  G.  Allman ;
50.  Prof.  A.  C.  Ramsay;  51.  Sir  J.  Lubbock;  52.  Dr.
0.  Wm.  Siemens  ;  53.  A.  Cayley  ;  54.  Lord  Rayleigh  ;  55.
Sir  Lyon  Playfair ;  56.  Sir  John  William  Dawson ;  57.
Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  M.P.  ;  58.  Sir  Frederick  Bram well ;
59.  Professor  W.  H.  Flower  ;  60.  Sir  F.  A.  Abel ;  61.
Dr.W.  Huggins  ;  62.  Sir  A.  Geikie ;  63.  Dr.  B.  Sanderson.

BRITISH  CHURCH,  see  Church  of  Eng-
land.

BRITISH  COLUMBIA  (N.  America).  In
June,  1858,  news  came  to  California  that  in  April
gold  had  been  found  in  abundance  on  the  mainland
of  North  America,  a  little  to  the  north  and  east  of


BRITISH EAST AFRICA.


151


BRITISH MUSEUM.


Vancouver's  Island.  A  great  influx  of  gold-diggers
(in  a  few  weeks  above  50,000)  from  all  parts  was
the  consequence  ;  and  Mr.  Douglas,  governor  of
Vancouver's  Island,  evinced  much  ability  in  pre-
serving order.  The  territory  with  adjacent  islands
was  made  a  British  colony  with  the  above  title,  and
placed  under  Mr.  Douglas.  The  colony  was  nomi-
nated and  the  government  settled  by  21  &  22  Vict,
•e.  99  (Aug.  1858),  and  a  bishop  nominated  in  1859.
Visited  by  the  marquis  of  Lome  and  princess
Louise,  20  Sept.  1882. — For  a  dispute  in  July,  1859,
see  United  States.  Vancouver's  Island  was  incor-
porated with  the  colony  in  1866,  and  Victoria  was
made  the  capital,  24  May,  1868.  Recent  lieut.-
governors :  Frederick  Seymour,  1864 ;  Anthony
Musgrave,  1869;  J.  W.  Trutch,  1871  ;  C.  F.  Corn-
wall; Hugh  Nelson,  Feb.  1892.  The  colony  was
•annexed  to  Canada,  1871.  Population,  1891,92,767.
Disputes  with  Canada  respecting  the  non-construc-
tion of  railways,  middle  of  ...  .  1876
Visit  of  lord  Dutferin,  gov. -gen.  of  Canada  ;  well

received  at  Victoria .... 15  Aug. ,,
Anti-Chinese  legislation  and  oppression  stopped  by

the  Privy  Council  in  England  .  .  .  1884-8
Visit of the governor-general, lord Stanley of

Preston 26  Oct.  et  seq.  1889

Visit  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught

21  May,  1890

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA,  see  under
-Africa.

BRITISH  ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION,

see  Economy.

BRITISH  GUIANA  AND  HONDU-
RAS, see  Guiana  and  Honduras.

BRITISH  INSTITUTION  (for  the  encour-
agement of  British  artists,  .Pall-mall,  founded  in
1805)  opened  18  Jan.  1S06,  on  a  plan  formed  by  sir
Thomas  Bernard.  In  the  gallery  (erected  by  alder-
man Boydell,  to  exhibit  the  paintings  executed  for
his  edition  of  Shakspeare),  were  from  time  to  time
exhibited  pictures  by  the  old  masters,  deceased
British  artists  and  others,  till  1867,  when  the  lease
of  the  premises  expired.  The  fund  of  16,200/.  in  the
Ihands  of  earl  Powis  and  other  trustees,  to  be  devoted
to  the  promotion  of  the  --fine  arts,  had  accumulated
to  '24,610/.  in  1884.  Still  unappropriated,  Nov.
1886.  Various  proposals  for  using  the  money  have
been  negatived  by  the  trustees.

BRITISH  LEGION,  raised  bylord  John  Hay,
•col.  De  Lacy  Evans,  and  others  to  assist  queen  Isa-
bella of  Spain  agaiust  the  Carlists  in  1835,  defeated
them  at  Hernani,  5  May,  1836,  andat  St.  Sebastian's,
1  Oct.

BRITISH MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION,

eee  Medical.

BRITISH  MUSEUM,  originated  with  the
grant  by  parliament  (5  April,  1753)  of  20,000/.  to  the
daughters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  payment  for  his
fine  library,  and  vast  colleetionof  the  productions  of
nature  and  art,  which  bad  cost  him  50,000/.  The
library  contained  50,000  volumes  and  valuable  MSS.,
and  69,352  articles  of  virtu  enumerated  in  the  cata<%
logue.  Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government
as  a  place  for  their  reception.  The  museum  (includ-
ing the  Cottonian,  Haiieian,  and  other  collections)
was  opened  15  Jan.  1759,  and  has  since  been  enor-
mously increased  by  gifts,. bequests,  and  purchases.*

*  The  total  expenditure  by  the  government  on  the
British  Museum  for  the  year  ending  31  March,  1S60,  was
78,445?.  ;  1861,  92,776/.  ;  1864,  95,500/.  :  1867,  110,756/.  ;
1877,  108,947/.;  1884,  152,133/.  The  number  of  visitors  to
the  general  collection  in  1051  (exhibition  year),  2,524,754;
in  1859,  5I7>895  '•  m  l8^2  (exhibition  year),  895,007  :  in
TS63, 440,801;  in  1866,  510,550;  1 371,  418,094;  1875,  663,891  ;


The  old  royal  library  was  given  by  George  II.
1757.  A  list  of  the  mo  re' important  additions  is  given
below.

New  buildings  erected  by  sir  R.  Smirke . . 1823-47

Iron  railing  completed 1852

The  great  reading-room  erected  by  Sydney  Smirke,
according  to  a  plan  by  Mr.  Antonio  Panizzi,  the
librarian  (cost  about  150,000/.  ;  height  of  dome,
106  feet ;  diameter,  140  feet ;  contains  about
80,000  volumes,  and  accommodates  300  readers),
opened  to  public ....  18  May,  1857

Incorporation  of  the  four  library  catalogues  into  one

alphabet  begun  ;  three  copies  made . . .  1861
The  proposed  separation  of  the  antiquarian,  literary,
and  scientific  collections,  was  disapproved  by  a
commission  in  i860 ;  and  a  bill  to  remove  the
natural  history  collections  to  South  Kensington
rejected  by  the  commons . . -19  May,  1862
A  refreshment  room  for  readers  opened . 21  Nov.  1864
Number  of  books  (estimated)  1,600,000 . Jan.  1870
,,  ,,  ,,  1,350,000(50,000  MSS.)  1884

6000/.  voted  for  a  Natural  History  Museum  at  South

Kensington 2  Aug.  1870

Photographs of above 5000  objects of  antiquity
(supplying  evidence  of  man's  progress  in  civilisa-
tion), published  for  about  116/. . . .Aug.  1872
Castellani collection of gold ornaments, gems,

bronzes,  &c.,  purchased,  for  52,000/  . . . . 1872-3
Act  of  Parliament  authorising  removal  of  natural
history  collections  to  South  Kensington  ;  passed

13  Aug.  187S
The  Museum  partly  opened  daily  after  11  Feb.  1879

Electric  light  adopted  in  the  reading-room  for
evenings  in  the  winter  months . . 20  Oct. ,,

The  White  bequest  (60,000/.) 1880

The  new  British  Museum  for  Natural  History,  South

Kensington; building  completed, Nov. 1880;

part  of the collection opened 18 April 1881  :

directors,  sir  Richard  Owen, 1856,  professor  W.

- H.  Flower,  1884  (K.C.B.,  1892).

John  Gould's  humming-birds,  &c,  bought April, ,,

New  buildings  in Montague-street, founded (by

meaus of  Mr. Wm.  White's  legacy  of  63,941/.)

23  Sept.  1882
New  Assyrian  room  (including  Mr.  Rassam's  col-
lection) opened Jan.  1884

New  catalogue  printing,  74  volumes  ready  Dec.  1884
The Marquis  of  Tweeddalo's  ornithological  library

presented  by  capt.  Wardlaw  Ramsay . Oct.  1887
New  galleries opened ;  "glass  and  pottery, 188S ;

Greek  sculpture 1889

Electric  light  set  up  in  the  public  galleries,  opened
in  the  evenings,  8  to  10 . . . .1  Feb.  1890


Important  Additions  (bought  or  given). (Edwards.)

Those  marked  *  were  gifts  or  bequests.
"Solomon  Da  Costa,  Hebrew  Library . . . 1759
*G.  Thomason,  collection  (political)  from  Geo.  III.  1762

*Solander,  fossils 1766

*Birch,  library  and  MSS ,

Hamilton  vases,  &c r772

'Musgrave  library 1790-95

*Cracherode  library 1799

Hatchett  minerals

"Alexandrian  collection  (from  Geo.  III.) . . . 1802

Towuley  marbles 1S05-17

Lansdowne  MSS 1804

Greville  minerals 1810

Roberts,  English  coins ■ . ,,

Hargrave  binary 1813

Phigaleian  marbles 1815

Elgin  marbles 1816

Burney  library 1818

"Banks'  archaeological  collections


in  7878,  448,516:  in  1879,  606,394;  in  1880,  665,688;
in  1882,  767,402  ;  in  1S83,  £60,557.  The  number  of  visi-
tors to  the  collection  in  the  Natural  History  Museum
in  1S84,  375,231;  at  Bloomsbury  in  1884,468,873;  in
1887,  501,256  ;  in  1889,  504,537  ;  in  1890,  463,833.  Addi-
tions to  library  in  1880,  27,543  volumes  and  pamphlets
(including  books  of  music  and  volumes  of  newspapers.)
Expenditure  on  purchases,  1753  —  1875,  1,070,934/.
Readers  in  1S83,  152,983.


BEITISH  OECHESTEAL  SOCIETY. 152


BEOWNIAN MOTION.


•  King  George  III. 'a  library,  given  by  George  IV. 1823-5

*Payne  Knight's  collections 1824

*Sir  J.  Banks'  library  and  collections  . . . . 1827

*Egerton  MSS 1829

*Arundelian  MSS 1831

Mantell,  fossils 1839

Syriac  MSS 1841-7

*±jyoian  marbles  (by  sir  C.  Fellows)  . . . 1845

*Grenville  library,  collected  by  right  hon.  Thos.

Grenville  (20,240  vols.) 1847

Morrison's  Chinese  library . . . . . ,,
Assyrian  collections  (by  A.  Bayard) . . . 1851-60
Halicarnassian  and  Cnidian  marbles  (by  C.  T.  Newton)

1855-60
Carthaginian  antiquities  (by  N.  Davis)  .  .  .  1859
Cyrene  marbles  (by  Smith  and  Porcher) . . . i860

Cureton,  Oriental  MSS 1864

Duke  of  Blacas'  museum  (bought  for  48,000^.) . . 1S66

*  Abyssinian  antiquities  . . . . . 1868

*Slade  collection  (glass,  &c.) '

*Mr.  George-Smith's  (of  Daily  Telegraph)  Assyrian

collections . i%j-i

*Elamite  antiquities,  by  col.  Ross . . . .  1876
*Urns, implements, ornaments, &c, from 234
British  barrows  (see  Barrows), by  rev. canon

Greenwell !87q

About  300  Babylonian  tablets  purchased . June  1882
*Osbert Salvin and  P.  du  Cane  Godman's  collec-
tion of  American  birds,  &c 1885

*Indian  birds  and  eggs  from  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume . ,,
*The marquis  of  Tweeddale's  collection  of  birds

given  by  capt.  Wardlaw  Ramsay  . . . Oct.  1887

*Mr. Octavius Morgan's collection of watches,

clocks,  keys,  rings  &c,  reported . . Oct.  1888

Principal  Librarians.

Dr.  Gowin  Knight . . .  I7r,

Dr.  Matthew  Maty . . . .'.'.'.  i17%

Dr.  Charles  Morton ' !  1776

Joseph  Planta ...  '  T7r,n

Henry  Ellis ' . ' '.  1827

Antonio  Panizzi j8s6

J.  Winter  Jones  .' ' ^66

Edward Augustus Bond Aug. 1878  ; Resigned

Edward  Maunde  Thompson '  ^SS

BEITISH OECHESTEAL SOCIETY,

established  1872.

BEITTANY,  see  Britanny.

BBITTON,  an  ancient  treatise  on  English  law
written  in  French  by  or  in  the  name  of  king  Edward
I.  about  1291.  Coke  attributed  the  work  to  John  le
Breton,  bishop  of  Hereford,  who  died  in  1275.  An
edition  of  "  Britton,"  with  a  translation  in  English
by  Mr.  F.  Nicholls,  was  published  in  1865.

BEOAD  AEEOW.  All  attempts  to  ascertain
the  origin  of  this  mark  have  been  fruitless.  It  is
stated  that  timber  trees  fit  for  shipping  in  the
forest  of  Dean  in  1639  were  marked  with  the  crown
and  broad  arrow.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  device
of  viscount  Sydney,  earl  of  Eomney,  master  general
of  the  ordnance,  1693-1702. Brewer.

*'BEOAD  BOTTOM"  ADMINISTEA-
11UJN.  I  lie  Pelham  administration  (ivhich  see)
was  socalled  becauseformed  by  a  coalition  of  parties,
Nov.  1744.  e  '

BEOAD CHITECH SCHOOL in the

Church  of  England,  whose  members  reject  tradi-
tional beliefs  and  substitute  what  has  been  termed
negative  theology."  It  became  prominent  about
1836,  through  the  lectures  of  Dr.  Hampden,  and
still  more  through  the  "Theological  Essays"  of
Mr.  F.  D.  Maurice  in  1853;  the  "Essays  and
Reviews  {which  see)  in  i860;  and  the  works  of
bishop  Colenso  on  the  Pentateuch,  &c,  186'  et  sea  ■
and  of  abp.  Whately  (1787-1863),  Aug.  Wm.  and
Julius  C.  Hare,  Dr.  Arnold,  dean  Stanley,  canon
Kingsley,  and  others.

BEOCADE,  a  silken  stuff,  variegated  with  gold
or  silver, and  enriched  with  flowers  and  figures-,


originally  made  by  the  Chinese ;  the  manufacture
was  established  at  Lyons  in  1757.

BEOCCOLI,  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Eng-
land from  Italy  in  the  16th  century.

BEOKEES,  both  of  money  and  merchandise,
were  known  early  in  England"  See  Appraisers.
They  are  licensed,  and  their  dealings  regulated  by
law  in  1695-6,  1816,  and  1826.  The  dealings  of
stockbrokers  were  regulated  in  1719,  1733,  and  1736,
and  subsequently ;  see  Pawnbroker,  and  Barnard's
Act.  Brokers  in  the  city  of  London  placed  under
the  supervision  of  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen,,
in  1707,  were  relieved  from  it  by  an  act  passed  9
Aug.  1870.

BBOMINE  (from  the  Greek  bromos-,  a  stink),
a  poisonous  volatile  liquid  element  discovered  in
salt  water  by  M.  Balard  in  1826.  It  is  found  in
combination  with  metals  and  mineral  waters.

BEOMLEY  COLLEGE,  Kent,  founded  in,
1666,  for  widows  of  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  ;
residence  and  pension.

BEONTOMETEE,  thunderstorm  measurer,,
an  apparatus  invtnted  by  M.  M.  Richard,  of  Paris,
and  commended  by  Mr.  J.  Symons,  in  Nature,
July,  1890.

BBONZE  was  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of
whose  bronze  statues,  vessels,  &c,  are  in  the  British
Museum.  The  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Louis
XIV.,  1699,  in  the  Place  Vendome  at  Paris  (demol-
ished 10  Aug.  1792),  the  most  colossal  ever  made  ;
it  contained  60,000  lbs.  Bronze  is  composed  of
copper  and  tin,  with  sometimes  a  little  zinc  and
lead.  The  present  bronze  coinage,  penny,  half-
penny, and  farthing  (composed  of  95  parts  of  copper,
4  tin,  1  zinc),  came  into  circulation  Dec.  i860.

BBOOKLYN,  a  city  on  Long  Island,  in  the
state  of  New  York,  first  settled  in  1636,  organised!
by  the  Dutch  governor  of  New  Amsterdam,  and
named  Breukelen,  after  a  place  in  Holland.  It
was  incorporated  in  1834.  Population  in  1810,
4402;  in  1830,  15,396;  in  1850,  96,838;  in  1890,
806,343.

Brooklyn  theatre  burnt,  about  300  perish 5  Dec.  1876
The  bridge  lrom  New  York  to  Brooklyn  (see  Next)

Yorl),  begun  3  Jan.  1870  ;  opened  .  24  May,  1883
St.  James's  cathedral,  destroyed  by  lightning

11  or  12  June,  18S9

BEOOKS'S  CLUB,  first  a  gaming  club  in
Pall  Mall  kept  by  Almack  and  afterwards  by-
Brooks  in  1764,  gradually^  became  the  Whig  club,
and  was  removed  to  St.  James's  Street  in  1778.

BEOTHEEHOODS,  see  Eermandad,  Santa»
and  Lay  Brotherhood.

BEOUGHAM,  a  popular  vehicle  said  to  have
been  invented  in  1839,  and  so  named  in  consequence
of  its  adoption  by  lord  Brougham.  Broughani  sAct^
13  &  14  Vict.  c.  21  ;  see  Acts,  and  Bankrupt.

BEOWN  INSTITUTION,  Battersea,  with  an
hospital  for  quadrupeds  and  birds  useful  to  man,  esta-
blished b}r  means  of  a  bequest  of  Thomas  Brown  of
Dublin;  opened  2  Dec.  1871.  First  professor,  Dr.
Burdon-Sanderson  ;  Dr.  Greenfield,  professor,  Dec.
1878;  Dr.  C.  S.  Boy,  professor,  1885;  Professor
Victor  Horsley  (1889) ;  office  vacant,  1892.

BEOWN'S  INSUEEECTION,  see  United
States,  1859.

BEOWNIAN  MOTION.  So  called  from
Robert  Brown,  the  celebrated  botanist,  who  in  1827,
by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  observed  in  drops  of


BEOWNING SOCIETY.


153


BEUNSWICK.


dew  a  motion  of  minute  particles  which  at  fii  st  was
attributed  to  rudimentary  life,  but  was  afterwards
decided  to  be  due  to  currents  occasioned  by  inequali-
ties of  temperature  and  evaporation.

BEOWNING  SOCIETY,  for  the  study  and
discussion  of  the  works  of  Robert  Browning,  inau-
gurated at  University  college,  London,  28  Oct.
1881.  Mr.  Browning  died  12  Dec.  1889,  aged  77.
"  The  Browning  Cyclopaedia,"  by  Edward  Berdoe,
published  19  Dec.  1891.

BEOWNISTS  or  BARROWISTS,  the  first  In-
dependents {which  see),  named  after  Robert  Brown,
a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  about  1580.  Henry
Penry,  Henry  Barrow,  and  other  Brownists,  were
cruelly  executed  for  alleged  sedition,  29  May,  1593.

BBUCE'S  TEAVELS.  James  Bruce,  the
"  Abyssinian  traveller,"  set  out  in  June,  1768,  to
discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.  Proceeding  first  to
Cairo,  he  navigated  the  Mleto  Syene,  thence  crossed
the  desert  to  the  Red  Sea,  and,  arriving  at  Jedda,
passed  some  months  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  after
various  detentions  reached  Gondar,  the  capital  of
Abyssinia,  in  Feb.  1770.  On  14  Nov.  1 770,  he  ob-
tained a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Blue  Nile.  He
returned  to  Englandin  1773, and  died  27  April,  1794.

BBUGES,  Belgium,  in  the  7th  century  was
capital  of  Flanders,  and  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen-
turies almost  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  world.
It  suffered  much  through  an  insurrection  in  1488,
and  the  consequent  repression.  It  was  subjected  to
France  in  1794,  to  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  to
Belgium  in  1830. Population,  1890,  47,331.

BEUMAIEE  EEVOLUTION,  see  Direc-
tory, 1799.

BEUNANBUBG  (supposed  by  some  to  be  near
Ford,  Northumberland).  Anlaf,  with  an  army  of
Northmen  from  Ireland,  and  Constantine  III.  king
of  Scots,  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  and
were  defeated  with  very  great  slaughter  at  Brunan-
burg  by  Athelstan,  937.

BEUNDISIUM  (now  Brindisi),  S.  Italy,  a
Greek  city,  taken  by  the  Romans,  is.c.  267 ;  and
made a  colony, 244. Here  Virgil died  22  Sept.

19  B.C.

BEUNN,  capital  of  Moravia,  since  1641 ;  was
entered  by  the  French  under  Murat,  18  Nov.  1805,
and  by  the  Prussians,  13  July,  1866.  Population,
1890,  95>342-

BEUNSWICK  CLUBS,  established  to  main-
tain the  house  of  Hanover  and  the  Protestant  as-
cendancy in  church  and  state,  began  in  England  at
Maidstone,  18  Sept.  1828;  in  Ireland  at  the  Rotunda
in  Dublin,  4  Nov.  same  year.  Other  cities  formed
similar  clubs.

BEUNSWICK,  House  of. The  duchy  of

Brunswick,  in  Lower  Saxony,  was  conquered  by
Charlemagne,  and  governed  afterwards  by  counts
and  dukes.  Albert-Az/.o  II.  marquis  of  Italy  and
lord  of  Este,  died  in  1097,  and  left  by  his  wife  Cune-
gonde  (the  heiress  of  Guelph  duke  of  Carinthia  in
Bavaria),  a  son,  Guelph,  who  was  invited  into  Ger-
many by  Imitza,  his  mother-in-law,  and  invested
with  all  the  possessions  of  his  wife's  step-father,
Guelph  of  Bavaria;  see  Bavaria.  His  descendant,
Henry  the  Lion,  married  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry
II.  of  England,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  Bruns-
wick family.  His  dominions  were  very  extensive  ;
but  having  refused  to  assist  the  emperor  Frederick
Barbarossa  in  a  war  against  pope  Alexander  III.,
through  the  emperor's  resentment  he  was  proscribed
at  the  diet  at  Wurtzburg,  in  1180. The  duchy  of


Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho  of  Wittelsbaeh,  ancestor
of  the  family  of  Bavaria ;  the  duchy  of  Saxony  to
Bernard  Ascanius,  founder  of  the  house  of  Anhalt;
and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On
this,  he  retired  to  England  ;  but  at  the  intercession
of  our  Henry  II.  Brunswick  and  Luneburg  were
restored  to  him.  The  house  of  Brunswick  in  1409.
divided  into  several  branches.  Brunswick  was  in-
cluded by  Napoleon  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia
in  1806,  but  was  restored  to  the  duke  in  1815. —
Population  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  187L,
312,170;  1875,  327,493;  1880,  349,367;  1885,
372,452;  1890,  403,788;  of  the  city,  101,047-
Brunswick  joined  the  North  German  Confederation,
18  Aug.  1866.

DUKES OF  BRUNSWICK.

1 136.  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria.

1139.  Henry  the  Lion  (son).

1195.  Henry  the  hong  and  William  (sons).

1213.  Otho  I.  (son  of  William).

1252.  Albert  I.  (son  of  preceding).

1278.  Albert  II.  (son).

!ji8.  Otho,  Magnus  I.,  and  Ernest  (sons).

1368.  Magnus  II.  (Torquatus)  (son  of  Magnus  I.)

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL.

First  Branch.

1409.  Henry  I.  (son  of  Magnus  II.)

1416.  William  I.  and  Henry  II.  (sons).

1482.  Frederic  and  William  II. j  sous  of  Wimam  r,

1495.  Henry  III.  and  Eric  )

1514.  Henry  IV.  (son  of  Henry  II.)

1568.  Julius  (son  of  preceding).

1589.  Henry  Julius  (son).

1613.  Frederic-Ulric  (son),  died  without  issue.
Second  Branch.

1634.  Augustus  (son  of  Henry  of  Luneburg).

1666.  Rodolph- Augustus ;  who  associated  his  next  brother,
Anthony-Ulric,  hi  the  government,  from  1685  ;
died,  1704.

1704.  Anthoirr-Ulric  now  ruled  alone;  became  a  Roman
Catholic  in  1710  ;  died  in  1714.

1 714.  Augustus-William  (son).

1731.  Lewis-Rodolph  (brother).

1735.  Ferdinand-Albert,  duke  of  Brunswick-Bevern,
married  Antoinette-Amelia,  daughter  of  Lewis-
Rodolph,  anil  succeeded  him.

1735.  Charles  (son).

1780.  Charles-William-Ferdinand  (son) ;  a  great  general'
(served  under  his  uncle  Ferdinand  in  the  Seven
Years'  War,  1756-1763);  married  princess  Augusta
of  England  ;  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle
of  Auerstadt,  14 Oct.,  and  died  10  Nov.  1806;  suc-
ceeded by  his  fourth  son  (his  elder  sons  being
blind,  abdicated).

1806.  William-Frederick,  whose  reign  may  be  dated  from
the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  Oct.  1813  ;  fell  at  Quatre-
Bras,  commanding  the  avantgarde  under  the  dukt?
of  Wellington,  16  June,  1815  ;  succeeded  by  his
eldest  son.

1815.  Charles-I'rederick-William  ;  (very  eccentric),  as-
sumed government  30  Oct.  1823.  [Revolution  at
Brunswick  ;  the  duke  (declared  incapable  of
reigning  by  the  German  diet)  retired  to  England,
7  Sept.  1830  ;  died  at  Geneva,  bequeathing  his
immense  property  to  that  city,  18  Aug.  1873.J

1830.  William,  brother;  born  25  April,  1806;  succeeded
provisionally,  7  Sept.  1830  ;  and,  on  the  demand
of  the  Germanic  diet,  definitively,  20  April,  1831  ;
unmarried;  died,  deeply  lamented,  18  Oct.  1884.
(His  magnificent  palace  was  destroyed  by  live.
24  Feb.  1865.)  His  jubilee  celebrated  25  April,
1881.  Succession  claimed  by  the  duke  of  Cum-
berland (set  aside  by  the  diet,  30  June,  &  2a
Oct.  1885);  regency  assumed,  iS  Oct.  1S84.
Prince  Albert,  of  Prussia,  born  8  May,  1837.
nephew  of the  emperor "I' Germany,  elected

regent  21 Oct.;  accepts  about  24  Oct.; warmly

received  in  Brunswick,  2  Nov.  1885.
See  under  ( 'urriberlcmd,  1892.

DUKES  OF  BRUNSWICK- [.UNEBUBO.
1409.  Bernard  (sou  of  Magnus  II.,  duke  of  Brunswick.

see  above).
1434.  Otho  and  Frederic  (his  sons).


BRUNSWICK THEATRE.


154


BUCKLES.


1478.
2532.
2546.


1592.
11611.
3633-
^636.
A  648.
K665.


eigneu,  viz.  :—
rnest  II. "\
iristian. J
igustus. j1
•ederic  II. )


Henry  (son  of  Otho).

Ernest  I.  (son  of  Otho). His  sons  were

Henry  (founder  of  second  branch  of  Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel)  and  William,  whose  seven  sons  cast
lots  to  deteimine  who  should  marry.  The  lot  fell
on  George,  sixth  son.  Four  of  the  brothers
reigned,  viz.  :-

Ernest  II.

Christii

Au{_

Freder:

Christian-Lewis  (son  of  the  George  above-mentioned.)

George-William  (brother  of  Christian-Lewis),  dies
in  1705 ;  leaving  as  heiress  Sophia-Dorothea,  his
daughter,  who  married  in  1682  her  cousin,  prince
George-Lewis  of  Hanover,  afterwards  George  I.
of  England  (son  of  Ernest  of  Hanover,  youngest
son  of  the  above-mentioned.  George).
(See  Hanover  and  England.)

BRUNSWICK  THEATRE,  Well-street,
East  London ,  built  to  replace  the  Royalty  (burnt  do  wn
II  April,  1826),  was  opened  25  Feb.  1828.  On  the
-29th  the  building  was  destroyed  by  the  falling  in  of
the  walls,  too  much  weight  being  attached  to  the
heavy  iron  roof.  Fortunately  the  catastrophe  hap-
pened in  the  day-time  (during  a  rehearsal  of  "  Guy
Mannering"),  and  only  twelve  persons  perished.

BRUSSELS,  once  capital  of  Austrian  Brabant,
mow  of  Belgium  (since  1831),  was  founded  by  St.
Gery,  of  Cambray,  in  the  7th  century.  It  is  cele-
brated for  its  fine  lace,  carpets,  and  tapestry.  The
Hotel  de  Ville  was  erected  early  in  the  15th  cen-
tury; has  a  turret  364  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its
stop  is  a  copper  figure  of  St.  Michael,  17  feet  high,
which  turns  with  the  wind ;  see  Belgium.  Popula-
tion, 1890,  182,305.

Cathedral  of  St.  Gudule  (begun  1010  ?)  completed . 1273
Made  capital  of  the  Low  Countries  ....  1507

Ruled  tyrannically  by  Alva 1567

""  Union  of  Brussels  "  to  expel  the  Spaniards . 1577-78
^Bombarded  by  marshal  Villeroi ;  14  churches  and

10,000  houses  destroyed Aug. 1695

'Taken  by  the  French,  1701  ;  by  Marlborough,  1706  ;

by  Saxe,  16  Feb.  1746;  and  by  Dumouriez, Nov. 1792
'The  revolution  commences . . .25  Aug.  1830
The  costly  furniture  of  16  houses  demolished  in  con-
sequence of  a  display  of  attachment  to  the  house

of  Orange 5  April,  1834

Maritime  conference  to  obtain  uniform  meteoro-
logical observations  held  here .... 1853
international  philanthropic  congress . . Sept.  1850
International  association  for  social  science  meet

22-25  Sept.  1862
Brussels  Conference.  The  Society  for  the  Ameliora-
tion of  the  condition  of  prisoners  of  war  sent
circulars  (dated  28  March)  to  the  great  powers.
On  17  April  Russia  issued  a  programme  for  con-
sideration at  the  conference,  consisting  of  71
ia,rticles,  embracing  all  the  "usages  of  war."
Lord  Derby  (for  Great  Britain),  in  a  despatch,  de-
clined the  discussion  of  international  law,  4  Julv.
•General  sir  Alfred  Horsford  was  sent  delegate  for
■Great  Britain  without  active  powers  :  reserving
liberty  of  action.  The  congress  was  opened
:27  July  ;  baron  Jomini  (from  Russia)  president.
'The  United  States  not  represented.  The  sittings
were  secret.  The  conference  closed  without  im-
portant results,  28  Aug.  1874.  British  Report
published  in  London  Gazette  .  .  .24  Oct,  1874
Belgian  Industrial  exhibition  opened  .  5  Sept.  ,,
International  exhibition  of  objects  relating  to  pub-
lic health  and  safety,  opened  by  the  king,  26  June ;
a  congress  met  .  .  .  27  Sept.— 2  Oct.  1876
International  congress  of  commerce  and  industry,

6— 10  Sept.  1880
Commercial  Museum  opened  .  .  about  17  Dee.  1882
'The  magnificent  new  Palace  of  Justice  opened  by

the  king IS  Oct.  1883

'The  parliament  houses burnt  ; valuable library

destroyed,  loss  about  480,000^  . .  6  Dec.

Industrial  exhibition  opened ... 29  Dec,

International  Exhibition  opened  19  May,  by  the

king  7  June  ;  closed ...  * n  Nov.


Theatre  de  la  Bourse  burnt  . . .7  Jan.  1889

Anti-slavery  conference  meets . 18  Nov.  et  seq. ,,
Arrival  of  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley  from  Africa,  enter-
tainment by  the  king,  &c. . . 19-25  April,  1890
Great  tire  at  the  palace  of  the  Due  dArenberg,
formerly  the  residence  of  the  Egmont  family,
many  of  whose  relics  are  destroyed . 24  Jan.  1892

BRUTTIUM  (now  Calabria  Olta),  S.  Italy.
The  Bruttians  and  Lucanians  defeated  and  slew
Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Pandosia,  326  B.C.  They
were  conquered  bv  Borne,  277.

BUBBLE  COMPANIES,  see  Companies,
Law' s  Babble,  and  South-sea  Bubble.

BUCCANEERS,  cruel  piratical  adventurers,
French,  English,  and  Dutch,  who  commenced  their
depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America  soon  after
the  latter  had  taken  possession  of  that  continent  and
the  West  Indies.  Their  numbers  were  much  in-
creased by  a  twelve  years'  truce  between  the  Span-
iards and  Dutch  in  1609,  when  man  y  of  the  discharged
sailors  joined  the  buccaneers.  The  first  levy  of
ship-money  in  England  in  1635  was  to  defray  the
expense  of  chastising  these  pirates.  The  principal
commanders  of  the  first  buccaneers  were  Montbar,
Lolonois,  Basco,  and  Morgan.  Van  Horn,  of  Ostend,
captured  Vera  Cruz,  1603;  Morgan  took  Panama,
1670;  Gramont  seized  Campeachy,  1685;  andPointis
took  Carthagena,  1697  ;  all  gained  enormous  booty.
The  buccaneer  confederacy  was  broken  up  through
the  peace  of  Byswick,  10  Sept.  1697.

BUCENTAUR,  the  vessel  in  which  the  doge  of
Venice  used  to  proceed  to  wed  the  Adriatic,  from  the
12th  to  the  1 8th  century.

BUCHANITES  (in  Scotland)  :  followers  of
Mrs.  Buchan,  who  about  1779  pretended  to  be  the
woman  of  Rev*  xii.,  and  promised  to  conduct  them
to  the  new  Jerusalem,  &c.  She  died  in  1791,  and
her  followers  dispersed.

BUCHAREST  (in  Wallachia) .  Preliminaries
of  peace  were  ratified  at  this  place  between  Bussia
and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  the  Pruth
should  be  the  frontier  of  the  two  empires ;  signed
28  Maj",  1812.  The  subsequent  war  between  these
powers  altered  many  of  the  provisions  of  this  treaty.
Bucharest  was  occupied  by  the  Russians,  Turks,  and
Austrians  successively  in  the  Crimean  war.  The
last  quitted  it  in  1856.  It  is  now  capital  of  the
kingdom  of  Rouroania,  established  26  March,  1881.
Population,  1885,  221,000.

BUCKHURST  PEERAGE,  see  Trials,  1876.

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  the  London
residence  of  the  sovereign.  Old  Buckingbam-house
was  built  on  the  "Mulberry-gardens,"  by  John
Sheffield,  duke  of  Buckingham,  in  1703.  In  1761  it
was  bought  by  George  111.,  who  in  1775  settled  it
on  his  queen,  Charlotte.  She  made  it  her  town
residence ;  and  here  all  her  children,  except  the
eldest,  were  born.  Here  were  married  the  duke  of
York  and  princess  Frederica  of  Prussia,  in  1791  ;
tne  duke  of  Gloucester  and  princess  Mary,  1816  ;
the  prince  of  Hesse-Homburg  and  princess  Eliza-
beth, 1818  ;  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge  and  princess
of  Hesse  the  same  year.  The  house  was  pulled  down
in  1825,  and  the  present  palace  commenced  on  its
site.  After  an  expenditure  of  nearly  a  million
sterling,  it  was  completed,  and  occupied  by  queen
Victoria,  13  July,  1837.  Further  improvements
were  made  in  1853.  The  marble  arch,  taken  down
from  the  exterior  of  this  palace,  was  re-erected  at
Cumberland-gate,  Hyde-park,  29  March,  1851.

BUCKLES  were  worn  instead  of  shoe-strings
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ,  and  soon  became  fashion-


BUDA.


loo


BUENOS AYRES.


able  and  expensive  ;  about  1791  the}'  fell  out  of  use.
Ornamental  buckles  became  fashionable,  1873.

BUDA  (or  OFEN),  the  ancient  Aquincum,  on
the  \V.  bank  of  the  Danube  opposite  Pesth,  and  with
It  (termed  Buda-Pesth)  the  capital  of  Hungary.  It
was  taken  by  Charlemagne  in  799 ;  and  sacked  by
Solyman  II.  after  the  battle  of  Mohatz,  when  the
Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed,  and  200,000  of
his  subjects  carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was
sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants  were  put
to  the  sword,  and  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the
Ottoman  empire,  1541.  Retaken  by  the  Imperialists,
under  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  the  Mahometans
delivered  up  to  the  fury  of  the- soldiers,  1686.  It
suffered  much  in  1848 ;  was  entered  without  resist-
ance by  the  Austrians,  5  Jan.  1849 ;  stormed,  20  May ;
given  up  by  Russians  to  Austrians,  July,  1849.
Here  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  was  crowned  king
of  Hungary,  8  June,  1867  ;  see  Hungary.  Buda-
Pesth  constituted  the  capital  of  Hungary,  Nov.
1873;  equal  to  Vienna,  June,  1892.  Great  loss  of
life  (about  120)  and  property  by  a  storm,  26  June,
1875;  another  storm,  11  Jul}' following.  Popula-
tion of  Buda-Pesth,  1890,  506,384.
The  anniversary  of  the  re-capture  of  the  citadel  of  Buda

from  the  Turks  after  ten  weeks'  siege  on  2  Sept.  1686,

was  enthusiastically  celebrated  on  2  Sept.  1886.
Many  drowned  in  the  Danube,  through  the  breaking  of

the  ice,  4  Jan.;  destructive  inundations  through  rising

■of  the  Danube,  13  March  etteq.,  1891.

BUDDHISM,  the  chief  religion  in  Asia  beyond
the  Ganges,  and  in  China,  Japan,  and  Ceylon,  origi-
nated with  Gautama  Siddartha,  the  Sakya  Muni,
generally  termed  Buddha,  or  "the  enlightened,"  a
prince  of  Kapalivastu  in  Central  India,  said  to  have
been  born  623,  and  to  have  died  543  B.C.
In  July,  594  b.c,  disgusted  with  the  behaviour  of  the  Brah-
mins, he  retired  from  the  world  for  a  time,  and  on  com-
ing forth,  preached  a  new  religion  so  successfully  that
it  predominated  in  India  till  the  10th  century,  a.d.*
Buddhism  inculcates  strict  morality  ;  it  forbids  killing,
stealing,  adultery,  lying,  and  drunkenness,  and  every
shade  of  these  vices,  and  declares  charity  or  love  to  be
the  source  of  all  virtues. Some  writers  assert  that
Buddhism  includes  belief  in  the  transmigration  of
souls,  and  the  absorption  of  good  souls  into  God  him-
self, from  whom  they  have  emanated  ;  others  reckon
annihilation  or  eternal  sleep  (the Nirvana)  amongst
Buddhist  tenets.
A  form  of  Buddhism,  termed  the  religion  of  Fo,  exists  in
China,  besides  the  system  of  Confucius  and  Laot-se.
Itis  said  to  have  been  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Ming-ti,
a.d.  68-81.
""  Le  Bouddha  et  ses  Religions,"  by  M.  J.  B.  St.  Hilaire,
was  published  in  i860. Mr.  T.  Rhys  Davids'  "  Bud-
dhism," in  1878.
The  Buddhists  in  the  world  are  estimated  at  455,000,000.
Buddhism  in  Japan reported to be  declining, 3,737
temples  in  Kioto,  the  old  capital,  and  3,555  in  1889.

BUDE  LIGHT  (so  named  from  Bude  in  Corn-
wall, the  residence  of  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  Goldsworthy  Gur-
ney,  its  inventor),  consists  of  two  or  more  concentric
argand  gas-burners,  one  rising  above  another,  which
produce  a  most  brilliant  flame,  like  the  petals  of  a
rose.  The  illuminating  powers  were  increased  by
subjecting  manganese,  &c.,  to  the  action  of  the
flame,  in  order  to  produce  oxygen  and  hydrogen
gas. This  light  was  patented  1839  and  1841.

BUDGET  (from  the  French  bougetle,  Latin
bulga,  a  small  bag),  a  term  applied  to  the  English
chaneellorof  the  exchequer's  annual  statement  of  the
finances  of  the  country,  from  the  documents  having
been  formerly  presented  in  a  leather  bag.  The
budgets  of  sir  R.  Peel  in  1842  (including  the  income-
tax)  and  1846  (free  trade),  and  of  Mr.  Gladstone  in

*  Mi\  Edwin  Arnold's  "Light  of  Asia,"  a  poem,  in
1879-


i860  (in  connection  with  the  treaty  with  France),
were  very  important.  A  surplus  of  about
6,000,000^.  was  announced  by  sir  Stafford
Northcote,  16  April,  1874;  since  then  there  has  been
a  deficiency.  See  Revenue.  Mr.  Childers  in  his
budget  proposed  the  reduction  of  consols  from  3  to
2\  per  cent,  for  capital  raised  to  108/.,  and  the
coinage  of  10*.  pieces  worth  9s.  to  meet  the  loss  by
wear  of  gold  coinage.  Coinage  bill  withdrawn  10
July,  1884.

Budget  of  Mr.  Childers,  30  April,  1885,  to  provide  for
estimated  expenditure  of  88,872,600?.,  and  a  vote of
credit for 11,000,000?. on account of war  in the
Soudan,  and  probable  war  with  Russia.
Income  tax  raised  to  id. Increase  of  duty  on  beer  and
spirits,  succession  duties,  duty  on  property  of  corpo-
rate bodies.
Bill  rejected on second  reading  (264-252), 8-9  June  ;
modified  by  Sir  M.  Hicks-Beach,  new  duties  given  up,
and  4,000,000/.  exchequer  bills,  16  July,  1885.
Mr.  Goschen's  Budget  introduced  21  April,  1887,  included
abstraction  of 2,000,000?. from the sinking fund,
reduction  of income tax  from Sd. to 7c?., and  of
tobacco  duty  from  3s.  6c7.  to  3*.  2c?.  ;  a  grant  in  aid  of
local  rates,  &c.
Mr. Goschen's Budget  introduced 26 March ; aiming
at  a  permanent  equitable  adjustment  of  imperial  and
local  taxation  ;  income  tax  reduced  to  6d.  ;  resolutions
adopted  9  April  ;  Mr.  Gladstone's  amendment  on  the
succession  duties  rejected (310-217)  23 April ; act
passed  16  May,  1888.
Mr.  Goschen's  Budget  introduced  15  April, 1889,  pro-
vided for  the  increased  expenditure  for  the  army  and
navy, by  dealing  with the consolidated fund and
slightly  increasing  the  succession  and  beer  duties.
Mr.  Goschen's  budget  introduced  17  April,  1890 :  surplus,

3, 549,000?.
Grants,  barracks,  300,000?.;  volunteer  equipment,  100,000?.;
for  colonial  postage,  80,000?.  ;  house  duty  reduced  to
■2d.,  4c?.,  and  6c?.,  540,000?. ;  additional  duty  on  spirits
6c7.  per  gallon — resolutions  carried  17-22  April,  1890.
Mr.  Goschen's  Budget  introduced  23  April,  1891 :  surplus,
1,756,000?.;  proposed  grant  for  free  (or  assisted)  educa-
tion from  1  Sept. ,  about  2,000,000?.  a  year ;  500,000?.
for  new  barracks,  &c. — resolutions  agreed  to,  27  April,
i8qi.
Mr.  Goschen's  Budget  introduced  n  April,  1892 :  surplus,
1,067,000!.  ;  greater  part  appropriated,  leaving  actual
surplus, 224,000?.  ; the  duties  on sparkling  wines
equalised  to  2s.  a  gallon,  16  May,  1892.

BUENOS  AYRES,  a  province  of  S.  America,
now  part  of  the  Argentine  republic.  The  country
was  explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  and  the
capital,  Buenos  Ayres,  founded  by  don  Pedro  de
Mendoza  in  1535.  In  1585  the  city  was  rebuilt  and
recolonised ;  and  made  a  bishopric,  1620 ;  and  a
viceroyalty,  1775.  La  Plata,  the  new  capital,
founded  by  Dr.  Rocha,  the  governor,  24  Nov.  1882  ;
made  seat  of  government  April,  1884.  Population
in  1888:  province,  3,793,800;  city,  500,000.  See
Argentine  Confederation.

A  British  fleet  and  army,  under  sir  Home  Popham

and  general  Beresford,  take  the  city  with  slight

resistance,  27  June  ;  it  is  retaken  by  the  Spaniards,

12  Aug.  ;  by  the  British  ... 29  Oct. 1806

Monte  Video  taken  by  storm  by  sir  Samuel  Auch-

muty,  3  Feb.  ;  evacuated  .  .  .  .7  July,  1S07
General  Whitelock  and  8000  British  enter  Buenos

Ayres;  severely  repulsed . . . 5  July, ,,
Independence  of  the  province  declared  19  July,  1816
Recognised  as  forming  part  of  the  Argentine  con-
federation Feb.  1S22

I  A  prey  to  civil  war  through  the  violent  intrigues  of
Rosas,  Oribe, Urquiza,  and others, for,  many
years.]
Urquiza  overthrows  Rosas,  and  is  made  provisional

dictator 185 1

Oribe  defeated  by  general  Urquiza,  to  whom  Buenos

Ayres  capitulates 3  Feb. 1852

Rosas  flees,  arrives  at  Plymouth  . . 25  April, ,,
Urquiza  deposed,  to  Sept.;  invests  the  city;  after

some  successes  he  retires ....  Dec. ,,
Constitution  voted 23  May,  1S53


BUFFALO.


156


BULGARIA.


Buenos  Ayres  secedes  from  the  Argentine  confede-
ration, and  is  recognised  as  an  independent  state ;
the  first  governor,  Dr.  D.  Pastor  Obligado,  elected

12  Oct.  1853
Dr.  Valentin  Alsina  elected  governor . . May,  1857
War  breaks  out ;  Urquiza,  general  of  the  forces  of  the
Argentine  confederation,  has  an  indecisive  conflict
with  the  Buenos  Ayres  general  Mitre  23  Oct.  1859

A  treaty  signed,  by  which  Buenos  Ayres  is  re-united

with  the  Argentine  confederation  . . n  Nov. „
Fresh  contests  :  Mitre  defeats  Urquiza  in  an  almost
bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires

17  Sept.  1861
National  congress  at  Buenos  Ayres . 25  May,  1862
Mitre  installed  president  . . . .12  Oct. „
Jesuits'  college  and  archbishop's  palace  burnt  down,
and  several  priests  killed,  by  a  great  mob  ;  mar-
tial law  proclaimed  . . . .28  Feb.  1875
General  amnesty  bill  passed . . .  • Aug.  1883
International  exhibition ... 6  May  et  seq.  1890
See  Argentine  Republic.

BUFFALO,  a  city  in  New  York  state,  founded
in  1 801 ;  incorporated  1832  ;  burned  by  the  British
during  the  war,  1813.  Population,  1832,  15,000;
1890,  255,664.

BUFFOONS  were  originally  mountebanks  in
the  .Roman  theatres.  Their  shows  were  discouraged
by  Domitian,  and  abolished  by  Trajan,  98 ;  see
Jesters.

BUILDING. In  early  times  men dwelt  in
caves ;  wood  and  clay  were  the  first  building  mate-
rials. Building  with  stone  was  early  among  the
Tyrians. In  Ireland  a  castle  was  built  of  stone  at
Tuam  by  the  king  of  Connaught,  in  1161  ;  and  it
was  "so  new  and  uncommon  as  to  be  called  the
Wonderful  Castle." Building  with  brick  was  intro-
duced by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces. Alfred
encouraged  it  in  England  in  886. It  was  adopted
by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  about  1598,  London  being
then  almost  wholly  built  of  wood;  see  Architecture.
Building  acts  were  passed  by  Elizabeth  in  1562, 1580,
and  1592 ;  and  by  Charles  II. in  1667. Recent
acts  are  very  numerous. The  Building  Act  for
the  Metropolis, 7 &  8  Vict. c. 84  (1844), was
amended  in  1855,  i860,  1869,  1871,  1878,  and  1882.
Building  societies,  formed  *to  enable  a  person  to  pur-
chase a  house  by  paying  money  periodically  to  a
society  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  instead  of
paying  rent  to  a  landlord,  began  about  1S36,  when
an  act  was  passed  for  their  regulation. Their
nature  and objects having  been considerably
changed, a  new  act  was  passed  30  July,  1874.
Building  Societies  in  1884,  2,290,  with  an  asserted
capital  of  48,000,0002.
At  the  end  of  1887  the  number  of  building  societies
incorporated  was 2,052
meeting  of  the  Buildiu
3  Feb.  1892.

BULGARIA,  theancient  Moesia  Inferior,  aprin-
cipality  tributary  to  Turkey.  The  Bulgarians  were  a
Slavonian  tribe,  who  harassed  the  Eastern  empire
and  Italy  from  499  to  678,  when  they  established  a
kingdom.  They  defeated  Justinian  II.,  687;  but
were  subdued,  after  several  conflicts,  by  the  emperor
Basil,  in  1018.  After  defeating  them  in  1014,  and
taking  15,000  Bulgarian  prisoners,  he  caused  their
eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  one  eye  only  to  every
hundredth  man,  to  enable  him  to  conduct  his
countrymen  home.  The  kingdom  was  re-established
in  1 186;  but  after  several  changes  was  conquered
by  Bajazet  and  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,
1396.  Bulgaria  was  a  chief  site  of  the  Russo-
Turkish  war  (which  see),  1877-8.  Population  of
Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia,  3,154,375  in  1888.
Capital,  Sofia  (which  sec).

The  Bulgarians  said  to  support  the  revolt  in  Her-
zegovina (which  see) 1875-6

Insurrection  in  Bulgaria,  quickly  suppressed  with
great  cruelty  ("Bulgarian  Horrors,"  see  England,
1876;  Daily  News)  ;  see  Turkey . May-Sept.  1876


1890, 2,333. Annual
Societies Association,


Zancoff  and  Balabanow,  Bulgarian  delegates,  re-
ceived in  London 9  Oct.  1876

Bulgaria  constituted  an  autonomous  principality,
tributary  to  the  sultan,  by  the  Berlin  treaty  (which
see) 13  July,  1878

First  parliament  (or  Sobranje)  opened  at  Tirnova  by
prince  Dondoukott  Korsakoff;  the  new  constitu-
tion brought  forward . . . .22  Feb.  1879

Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  elected  prince  as  Alex-
ander I. 29  April, ,,

Visits  the  European  courts ;  received  by  queen
Victoria 5  June, ,„

Takes  the  oaths  to  the  constitution  at  Tirnova

9  July> >*

Bulgaria  said  to  be  quitted  by  the  Russians  17  July ,,

Ministerial  difficulties;  parliamentdissolvedi8Dec. ,,

The  prince  announces  the  summoning  a  national
assembly,  and  threatens  to  resign . 9  May  1881

Zancoff  and  other  liberal  ministers  arrested  for  in-
sulting the  prince  in  their  election  addresses
(soon  released) 21  June, ,„

Elections  for  national  assembly  ;  voters  said  to  be
coerced ,  ...  27  June  et  seq. ,,

Meeting  of  the  assembly ;  the  prince's  proposals
unanimously  accepted  ;  he  promises  reforms  and
adherence  to  the  constitution . . 13  July, ,„

The  late  liberal  ministers,  Zancoff  and  Slaviekotf,
temporarily  arrested . . about  23  July, ,,

Amnesty  for  political  offences  proclaimed 12  Sept. ,,

New  council  of  state  established .  about  28  Sept.'  ,,

New  ministry  under  gen.  Soboleff  and  M.  Kypriak

15  Mar.  1883

The  prince  virtually  dictator ;  opposes  Russia,
under  whose  influence  a  liberal  reaction  against
the  prince  takes  place,  and  a  new  constitution  is
proposed  ;  the  national  assembly  meets  16  Sept. ,„

Manifesto  of  the  prince  restoring  the  Tirnova  con-
stitution ;  Zancoff  minister  . . .20  Sept. ,,

Col.  Redigher,  war  minister,  and  other  Russian
officers summarily dismissed by the prince

26  Oct. ,,

Peaceful  relations  with  Russia  re-established  about

15  Nov. ,.,

Changes  in  the  constitution  proposed  by  govern-
ment adopted . . . . . 17  Dec. ,,

Disputes  with  Servia  respecting  refugees  and
boundaries May,  June  1884

M.  Zaneoff's  ministry  resigns  ;  succeeded  by  Kara-
velotf - . . July ,,

Raids  of  Servians  repelled,  the  Bulgarian  govern-
ment protests .... Sept.,  Oct. „

Disputes  with  Servia  unsettled . . . Dee. ,,

Re-union  with  Roumelia  (termed  South  Bulgaria
April  1886) declared;  about  18  Sept.  ;  all  Bulgaria
arming ;  action  suspended  on  advice  of  the
powers  of  Europe  .... about  15  Oct.  1885

Declaration  of  war  by  Servia  13  Nov.  ;  circular  to
the  powers  alleging  Bulgarian  aggression;  denied
by  prince  Alexander,  14  Nov. ;  Bulgaria  invaded
at  four  points  ;  skirmishes,  several  killed  and
wounded,  and  small  places  occupied  by  Servians  ;
prince  Alexander  appeals  to  Turkey  for  help,

14  Nov.

Desperate  fighting :  Servians  take  positions  at
Raptcha,  Bulgarians  retreat  to  Shvnitza ;  400
Bulgarians  captured  ;  50  Servians  killed  15  Nov.

Battle  of  Trn  :  Servian  attack  repulsed,  16  Nov.  ;
renewed  with  artillery  with  success,  many
Bulgarian  prisoners .... 17  Nov.

Bulgarians  defeated  between  Kula  (Adlie)  and
Widdin 17  Nov.

The  Bulgarians  bravely  defend  the  Dragoman  pass,
attacked  by  40,000  Servians,  but  retire  at
night 15  Nov.

Prince  Alexander  submits  to  the  Porte  and  orders
evacuation  of  East  Roumelia . . .19  Nov.

Prince  Alexander  and  the  Bulgarians  attack  the
Servians  at  Slivnitza ;  severe  fighting ;  king
Milan  and  the  Servians  retire  leaving  400  prisoners

17-19  Nov.

Bulgarians  totally  defeat  the  Servians  near  the
Dragoman  pass  21-22  Nov.  1885  ;  near  Zaribrod
which  is  occupied  by  prince  Alexander  .  23  Nov.

Estimated  Servian  loss  6,000  killed  and  wounded,

17-21  Nov.

Servians  retreat  to  Pirot  24  Nov.  ;  prince  Alexander
enters Servia,, defeats Servians and occupies


BTTLGABIA.


157


BULGABIA.


Pirot  after  severe  conflict,  26-27  Nov.  ;  siege  of
Widclin,  Bulgarian  sally  repulsed . 27  Nov.  iS
Cessation of hostilities  through Austrian inter-
vention . . ... . . .28  Nov. ,

Servian  proposals  rejected . . about  2  Dec. ,
Sir  W. M. White  at  Constantinople  supports  the
Bulgarian  union .... Nov.-Dec. ,

Protocol signed by International Commission  ;
Pirot  in Servia  and  Widclin  in  Bulgaria  to  be
evacuated  ;  armistice  to  last  till  1  March,  21  Dec. ,
The Powers  in  a  collective note  call upon  the
Balkan  rulers  to  disarm  ;  refused  by  Greece  and
Servia ...... about  16  Jan.  18

Virtual  (not  nominal)  union  of  Eastern  Boumelia
with  Bulgaria  ; prince Alexander  representing
the  Sultan,  his suzerain,  for  five  years  ;  Jan.  ;
Decree  promulgated . . . . .2  Feb. ,

Peace  between  Bulgaria  and  Servia  signed  at
Bucharest  3  March  ;  ratified  17  March  ;  by  the
Sultan 13  March, ,

Prince  Alexander  demands  governorship  for  life,
about  15  March,  1886  ;  not  agreed  to . March, ,,

The  conference  of  powers  at  Constantinople;
Turco-Bulgarian  convention  protocol  nominating
prince  Alexander  governor  of  Eastern  Boumelia
for  five  years  signed  5  April,  accepted  with
reservation  by  prince  Alexander . 8  April, ,.

Bulgarian  assembly  opened  ;  Eastern  Roumelian
deputies  present 14  June ,,

Conspiracy  at  Sofia,  prince  Alexander  carried  off
a  prisoner 21-23  Aug. ,.

Provisional  government  formed  by  M.  Zankoff
and  others 21  Aug. ,.

Their  proclamation  disavowed  by  the  army  and
people  at  Sofia,  Philippopolis  and  other  places . ,.

A  loyalist  provisional  government  formed  at
Tirnova  by  StamboulofT  and  others,  which  issues
manifesto  in  the  prince's  name . . 23  Dec. ,,

The  prince  landed  at  Keni  Russi  in  Russian
Bessarabia ,,

Conflicts  between  the  people  and  the  rebel  soldiers
protecting  M.  Zankoff „

The rebel government prisoners or fugitives

25  Aug. ,,

Return  of  prince  Alexander ;  triumphant  reception
at  Rustchuk  :  he  issues  a  proclamation,  29  Aug.
1886;  arrives  at  Philippopolis,  1  Sept.,  at  Sofia
3  Sept.  M.  Zankoff  and  others  released ;  prince
Alexander  submits  to  Russia,  announces  his
intention  to  abdicate,  4  Sept.  ;  regency  appointed
Stambouloff,  Mutkurott,  and  Karaveloff. 6  Sept. ,,

Prince  Alexander  leaves  Sofia  with  simple  dignity,
8  Sept.  ;  Sofia  in  a  state  of  siege . . . . ,,

The  revolting  soldiers  degraded  and  officers  arrested,

about  8  Sept. „

Arrival  of  gen.  Kaulbars  as  Russian  agent,  intimi-
dating policy 25  Sept. ,,

M.  Tisza,  Hungarian  Prime  Minister,  declares  for
maintenance  of  the  treaty  of  Berlin  and  Bulgarian
independence 30  Sept. ,,

M.  Radoslavoft,  premier,  and  ministry,  firmly  resist
.general  Kaulbars,  4  Oct. ;  his  mission  in  the  pro-
vinces unsuccessful Oct. „

Elections  for  the  Sobran.je  (Parliament) ;  majority
for  the  Regency  (about  400  to  20),  78  Zankoffists

10  Oct. „

Russian policy semi-officially  abandoned,  about

18  Oct. ,,

Gadban  Effendi,  Turkish  Envoy,  impugns  the
elections  and  requires  delay  of  the  meeting  of  the
Sobranje ;  resisted  by  the  Regency . 20  Oct. ,,

Russian  war  ships  at  Varna ;  state  of  siege  renewed
at  Sofia 28  Oct. „

The  Sobranje  opened  ;  the  rebel  officers  released

1  Nov. ,,

Gen.  Kaulbars  threatens  to  retire  if  Russians  are
ill-treated  ; 100  Russian  sailors  land  at  Varna

1,  2  Nov. „

Captain  Nabokoffs  attempt  to  create  an  insurrection
in  favour  of  the  Czar  at  Bourgas  quickly  sup-
pressed 4  Nov. ,,

Prince  Waldemar  of  Denmark  elected  prince  by  the
Sobranje  10  Nov.  (declined  13  Nov.)  ;  resignation
of  the  regent  M.  Karavelofi"  10  Nov.  ;  succeeded
by  M.  Zivkotf 13  Nov. ,,

Important  speeches  of  the  marquis  of  Salisbury
(9  Nov.)  and  of  count  Kalnoky  against  Russian
■■aggression  13  Nov. ,.


Gen.  Kaulbars'  ultimatum  unanswered  ;  he  and
Russian  consuls  quit  Bulgaria . 20  Nov.  et  saj.

Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg  invited  for
election  as  prince  by  Bulgarian  delegates  15  Dec. ;
prince  Nicholas  of  Mingrelia  recommended  by
Russia

The  delegates  (MM.  StoilofT,  Grekoff,  and  Caltcheff)
visit  various  courts ;  not  received  at  St.  Peters-
burg ;  received  unofficially  at  Vienna  and
Berlin  Dec.  ;  London  (favorably)  29  Dec.  1886  ;
Paris 9  Jan.  ; Rome 18  Jan.  ; Constantinople

29  Jan.

Military  revolt  at  Silistria,  col.  Kristeff  shot;
quickly  suppressed . . . I)2  March,

Military  insurrection  at  Rustchuk  ;  fighting,  many
killed  and  wounded  3  March  ;  suppressed  by  the
militia  and  people  4  March  ;  several  ringleaders
executed  6  March  ;  many  imprisoned 8-9  March.

Sofia  in  a  state  of  siege  ;  MM.  Karaveloff,  Nikoforoff
and  22  others  arrested  4  March  ;  released  6  April

Reported execution  of 14 rebels at Rustchuk

11  March,

M.  Mantoff,  prefect  of  Rustchuk,  shot  at  at
Bucharest ,t  March

Prince  Alexander  definitively  declines  re-election
about  12  June,

Meeting  of  the  Sobranje  at  Tirnova,  4  July;  unani-
mous election  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg
and  Gotha  as  Prince  7  July ;  he  accepts  cemdt
tionally  8  July ;  the  ministers.and  regency  resign
announced  9  July.  M.  Stoilotf  forms  a  ministry
12  July ;  the  regency  on  request  withdraw  resigna-

„ tion about  14  Julv,

Prince  Ferdinand  arrives  at  Tirnova,  and  signs  the
constitution,  &c,  and  issues  a  proclamation;
14  Aug.  ;  the  Russian  government  protests'
against  this . . . . - . .15  Au<*.

The  prince  well  received  at  Philippopolis  21  Aug.*
and  at  Sofia 22  Au<'!

The  Sultan  declares  prince  Ferdinand's  position
illegal 22  Au„

Stambouloff  forms  a  strong  ministry .  1  Sept.

Proposed  mission  of  general  Ernroth  (Russian)
opposed  by  the  powers  early . . . Sept.

State  of  siege  closed ;  the  opposition  to  the  govern!
ment  active Sept.

The  Bulgaria  publishes  a  libellous  statement  re-
specting the  German  Consul,  Herr  Lijper,  Au°-.  ;
contradiction  published  by  intervention  of  the
Bulgarian  government,  and  the  paper  suppressed
Sept.  ;  matter  referred  to  the  German  govern-
ment about  14  Sept.  ;  pacific  settlementannounced

Elections  for  the  Sobranje ;  majority  for  the
ministry  (260—32) ;  riots  at  Plevna,  suppressed
with  bloodshed,  10  killed . . .  q  Oct.

Sobranje  opened  by  the  prince . . . '27  Oct'

Insurrection  at  Eski-Zagra  suppressed,  17  soldiers
killed announced  16  Nov.

Russian  note  to  the  Sultan  and  the  powers  declaring
the  illegality  of  prince  Ferdinand's  position!
Russia  supported  by  France  and-  Germany ;
Austria,  England  and  Italy  maintain  reserve  :
middle  Feb. -March  1888  ;  the  Porte  telegraphs
to  M.  Stainbouloffthat  prince  Ferdinand's  position
is  illegal,  6  March  ;  no  answer  returned  .  March 1

Temporary  resignation  of  the  ministry,  13-24  June'

Prince  Ferdinand's  first  anniversary . 14  Aii»!

M.  Stambouloff  reconstitutes  his  'ministry,  about

22  DcC

About  60  eminent  men  arrested  by  M.  Stambouloff
for  petitioning  the  Exarch  at  Constantinople  as
favouring  M.  Zankoff  . . . „_g  p,^ }

Death  of  Zaeharia  Stoianoff,  president  of  the  So!
branje,  eminent  patriot,  at  Paris . 15  Sept

Prince  Ferdinand  visits  Germany  [M.  Stambouloff
appointed  regent] 3  Qct

The  Russian  prince  Dolgoroukoff  visits  Sofia,  in!
trigues  with  the  Zankoffists,  and  is  expelled

8-12  Oct.

Loan  of  25,000,000  francs  at  6  per  cent,  obtained  on
the  railways  announced . . .  2Q  Oct.

Prince  Ferdinand,  after  a  successful  tour,  during
which  he  visited  Paris,  16  Oct,,  Vienna,  27  Oct. '
returns  to  Sofia  ;  the  parliament  ope 1 3  Nov!  '

Russian  circular  note  to  the  powers  stating  that  the
terms  of  the  loan  are  contrary  to  the  treaty  of
Berlin  ;  this  is  denied  by  the  Bulgarian  govern-


BULL.


158


BULLION.


ment ;  the  loan  fully  subscribed  for  five  or  six
times  at  Vienna,  Berlin,  &c Jan.  1890

Major  Panitza,  a  high  army  official,  and  six  others
arrested  on  a  charge  of  plotting  against  the  prince
and  government  (in  1887  et  seq.) . . 1  Feb. „

More  arrests ;  M.  Stambouloff  acts  as  prefect  of
police • • -7  Feb. „

Trial  of  major  Panitza  and  14  others,  charged  with
conspiring  to  overthrow  the  government  and
assassinate  prince  Ferdinand  and  his  ministers  ;
9  officers,  4  civilians,  and  capt.  Kalobkoff,  a
Russian,  also  arraigned.  Court  martial  opened
15  May;  sentences,  major  Panitza  to  be  shot;
capt.  Kalobkoff nine  years'  imprisonment;  lieut.
Rifoff  and  M.  Arnodoff  six  years,  4  officers  three
years,  one  man  five  months,  the  rest  acquitted
30  May  ;  sentences  confirmed  on  appeal 19  June ,,

Major  Panitza*  shot  at  Sofia  ... 28  June „

The  government  sends  a  courteous  but  firm  note  to
the  Porte  requesting  the  recognition  of  prince
Ferdinand  and  religious  autonomy  to  the  Mace-
donian Bulgarians 26  June ,,

[Answer  deferred,  July,  1890.]

3  Bulgarian  bishops  in  Macedonia,  appointed  by  the
Porte  about 3*  JlllY >,

Disapproved  by  the  Greek  patriarch,  who  resigns
about 5  Aug. ,.

Kalobkoff,  the  Russian  intriguer,  released  and  ex-
pelled from  Bulgaria  about . .  25  Aug. „

Elections  :  great  majority  for  the  government,  Sept. ,,

The  prince  opens  the  Sobranje  with  a  firm'speech

27  Oct. ,.

He  is  partially  recognized  by  the  Porte . 5  Feb.  1-891

Detection  of  a  plot  by  major  Bendereff  against  the
government,  reported ... 17  March „

M.  Beltcheff,  minister  of  Finance,  assassinated  in
the  street  in  the  presence  of  M.  Stambouloft  (for
whom  it  was  thought  he  was  taken)  about  8  p.m.
27  March  ;  many  arrests  ... 28  March „

Connection  with  major  Bendereffs  conspiracy  sus-
pected, 28  March  ;  above  150  arrests  up  to  April „

Archiepiscopal  palace  at  Sofia  searched  by  order  of
M  Stambouloft';  documents  and  letters  carried  off

30  Aug. „

The  Sobranje  votes  by  acclamation  a  pension  of
50,000  francs  to  prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg
(count  Hartenau),  reported . . 13  Dec. „

Rupture  with  France,  on  account  of  the  expulsion
of  M.  Chadourne,  a  journalist,  accused  of  pub-
lishing injurious  intelligence . . is  Dec. „

Rupture  with  France  settled  by  explanation  and
apology,  about .....  21  Jan.  1895

Dr.  Vulkovitch,  Bulgarian  agent  at  Constantinople,
stabbed  24  Feb.  ;  died . . . .26  Feb." „

Government  note  to  the  Porte  complaining  of  plots,
etc.,  delivered 13  April, „

Plot  at  Rustchuk;  bombs  discovered,  22  April;
many  arrests .... April,  May, ,,

The  prince,  during  a  tour,  visits  Britain,  30  May  ;
received  by  the  queen  at  Balmoral,  6-8  June;
leaves . . •  ' • • • • "  June> »

PRINCE.

Alexander  (Joseph)  I.  (son  of  prince  Alexander,
uncle  of  Louis  IV.,  grandduke  of  Hesse),  born
5  April,  1857  ;  elected  29  April  1879  ;  deposed
(see  above)  4th  Sept. 1886  ; declines  re-election

12  June,  1887

Ferdinand,  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  born  26
Feb.  1861.;  elected .... 7  July, ,,

BULL,  or  Edict  of  the  Pope. The  bulla

is  properly  the  seal,  either  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  or
-wax.  On  one  side  are  the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ;
and  on  the  other  the  name  of  the  pope,  and  year  of
his  pontificate.  A  bull  against  heresy  was  issued
by  Gregory  IX.  in  1231.  Pius  V.  published  a  bull
against  Elizabeth,  25  April,  1570;  in  1571  bulls
were  forbidden  to  be  promulgated  in  England.  The
bull  TJnigenitus  (beginning  with  this  word)  against
ihe  Jans'enists  was  issued  by  Clement  XL,  1713 ;
confirmed  by  Benedict  XIII.,  1725. The  Golden

■*  He  was  born  at  Tirnova,  1852,  became  an  advocate  ;
he  distinguished  himself  as  leader  of  a  volunteer  band  in
the  Servo-Bulgarian  war,  was  favoured  by  prince  Alex-
ander and  unwillingly  submitted  to  prince  Ferdinand.


Bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  so  called  from  its
golden  seal,  was  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the
German  empire,  at  the  diet  of  Nuremburg,  1356 ;
see  Brazen  Bull.  Pius  IX.  published  an  encyclical
letter  censuring  modern  errors,  8  Dec.  1864;  see
under  Borne  ;  see  Stocks.

BULL-BAITING  or  Bull-Fighting,  was

an  amusement  at  Stamford  in  the  reign  of  John,
1209;  and  at  Tutbury,  1374.  In  the  Sports  of
England,  we  read  of  the  "Easter  fierce  hunts,  when
foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls
and  huge-bears  were  baited  with  dogs;"  and  near
the  Clink,  London,  was  the  Paris,  or  Bear  Garden,
so  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  for  the  exhi-
bition of  bear-baiting,  then  a  fashionable  amuse-
ment. A  bill  to  abolish  bull-baiting  was  thrown
out  in  the  commons,  chiefly  through  the  influence
of  Mr.  William  Windham,  who  made  a  speech  in
favour  of  the  custom,  24  May,  1802.  It  was  made
illegal  in  1835 ;  see  Cruelty  to  Animals.  Bull-
fights were  introduced  into  Spain  about  1260 :
abolished  there,  "  except  for  pious  and  patriotic
purposes,"  in  1784.  Bull-fights  are  very  common  in
Spain.  A  bull- fight  at  Lisbon,  attended  by  10,000
spectators,  on  Sunday,  14  June,  1840;  one  took
place  at  Havre,  5  July,  1868.  Somewhat  theatrical
fights  with  Spanish  bulls,  at  the  Agricultural  Hall?
London,  were  stopped  28  March,  1870,  for  cruelty.
At  a  bull-fight  at  Marseilles  about  17  persons  were
killed,  and  230  injured,  by  the  fall  of  wooden  stands,
Sunday,  14  Aug.  1881.  A  bull-fight  at  Mmes  (since
prohibited),  12  June,  1884.

A  bull-fight  at  the  Hippodrome,  Pails,  for  sufferers
by  inundations  in  S.  France,  very  successful ;  no
casualties,  Spanish  ambassador  present  .  16  Jan.  1887

Bull-fights  formed  part  of  the  entertainments  at
Paris  during  the  universal  exhibition  in  1889 ;
renewed  with  restrictions . . May  et  seq.  1890

BULLETS  of  stone  were  in  use,  1514.  Iron
ones  are  mentioned  in  the  Fcedera,  1550.  Leaden
bullets  were  made  before  the  close  of  the  16th
century.  The  conoidal  cup  rifle-ball  was  invented  by
capt.  Minie,  about  1833 ;  a  modification  of  this
(conoidal  but  without  cup),  by  Mr.  Pritchett  (1853),,
is  used  with  the  Enfield  rifle.  Other  bullets  have
been  since  devised.

BULLION,  uncoined  gold  and  silver.  The
''  Bullion  Beport"  of  a  parliamentary  committee  in
1810,  principally  guided  by  Mr.  Horner  and  Mr.
(afterwards  sir  R.)  Peel,  established  the  conclusion,,
that  paper  money  is  always  liable  to  be  over-issued,
and  consequently  depreciated,  unless  it  be  at  all
times  immediately  convertible  into  gold.  This  prin-
ciple has  been  adopted  in  British  mono  tar  j  arrange-
ments, see  Bank  of  England.


VALUE OF BULLION IMPORTED

Gold.

1858,  £22,793,126

1868,  17,136,177

1870,  18,806,728

1874,  18,081,019

1876,  23,475,975

1877,  15,441,985

1878,  20,871,410

1879,  13,368,675

1880  9,454,861

1881  9,963,006

1882  14,376,559

1883  7,755,890

1884  10,744,408

1885  13,376,561

1886  13,392,256

1887  9>955>326

1888  15,787.588

1889  17,914,039

1890  23,568,049


INTO GREAT BRITAIN.

Silver.

£6,700,064

7,716,41s

10,648,940

12,298,169

13,578,269

21,710,814

11,551,545
10,786,863

6,799,022
6,901,402
9,242,925
9,468,002
9,633,495
9,433,605

7,471,639
7,819,438
6,213,940
9,185,400
10,385,659


BULL-EUN  BATTLES.


159


BUKIALS.


BULL-BUN  BATTLES,  see  Manassas.

BULWEB  -  CLAYTON  TEEATY,  con-
cluded 19  April,  ratified  4  July,  1850,  by  which  sir
Henry  Lytton  Bui  wer  for  the  British,  and  Mr.  Clay-
ton for  the  American  government,  declared  that
neither  should  obtain  exclusive  control  over  the
proposed  ship  canal  through  Central  America,  or
erect  any  fortification  on  any  part  of  the  country.
Disputes  afterwards  arose  with  respect  to  this
treaty,  and  the  connection  of  Great  Britain  with
the  Mosquito  territory  {which  see),  which  were
settled  in  1857.

Its  abrogation  was  proposed  by  the  Americans  in  1880,
. on  account  of  De  Lesseps'  plan  for  a  canal  in  Central

America.

BUNDSCHUH,  see  Jacquerie.

BUNHILL  -  FIELDS  (originally  Bonhill-
Field),  a  burial-ground  near  Finsbury-square,
E.  London,  termed  by  Southey  the  "  Campo  Santo
of  the  Dissenters ;  "  first  used  in  1665.  Here  were
interred  Thomas  Goodwin  (1679),  John  Owen  (1683),
Isaac  Watts  (1748),  John  Bunyan  (1688),  George
Fox,  the  Quaker  (1690),  general  Fleetwood,  son-in-
.  law  of  Cromwell  (1692),  and  Daniel  De  Foe  (1731).
Cunningham.  An  act  for  the  preservation  of  the
ground  as  an  open  space  was  passed,  15  July,  1867,
and  it  was  re-opened  by  the  lord  mayor,  14  Oct.,
1869 ;  and  a  monument  to  De  Foe,  subscribed  for
hy  boys  and  gills,  was  inaugurated,  16  Sept.  1870.

BUNKER'S  HILL,  more  properly  Breed's
hill  (near  Boston,  U.S.).  Here  the  British  (nearly
3000),  after  severe  loss,  compelled  the  revolted
Americans  (about  5000)  to  retreat,  after  a  desperate
conflict,  17  June,  1775.  Kalph  Faniham,  who  was
present  at  the  battle,  died  on  28  Dec.  i860,  aged
104J  years.  He  was  introduced  to  the  prince  of
/Wales  when  in  America.  Centenary  of  the  battle
celebrated  June,  1875.

BUONAPABTE,  see  Bonaparte.

BUEFOED  CLUB,  the  appellation  given
(according  to  Mr.  Layer,  the  barrister,  a  conspira-
tor, see  Layer')  by  the  Pretender  and  his  agents  to  a
pretended  Jacobite  club,  of  which  lord  Orrery  was
chairman,  and  lord  Strafford,  sir  Henry  Goring,
earl  Cowper,  Mr.  Hutcheson,  the  bishop  of  Rochester,
sir  Constantiue  Phipps,  general  "Webb,  lord  Bingley,
lord  Craven,  Mr.  Dawkins,  lord  Scarsdale,  lord
Bathurst,  Mr.  Shippen,  and  lord  Gower,  were  mem-
bers. This  story  was  set  aside  by  the  solemn  decla-
rations of  lord  Cowper  and  lord  Strafford.  The  list
of  this  club  was  published  in  the  Weekly  Journal,
printed  in  "Whitefriars ;  but  when  Eead,  the  printer,
was  ordered  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  house,  he
absconded. March,  1722. Salmon.

.BUEGESSES,  from  the  French  Bourgeois,  a
distinction  coeval  in  England  with  corporations.
They  were  called  to  parliament  in  England,  1265  ;
in  Scotland  in  1326  ;  and  in  Ireland  about  1365.
Burgesses  to  be  resident  in  the  places  they  repre-
sented in  parliament,  1  Hen.  V.  (1413)  ;  see
Borough.

BUBGH,  see  Borough.  Burgh  Convention,
see  under  Home  Rule.

BUEGHEES  asd  Anti-Buhghers. In

1732  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  others  seceded  from  the
church  of  Scotland.  Differing  in  regard  to  the  in-
terpretation of  the  burgess  oath,  they  divided  into
two  sections  with  the  foregoing  names  in  1747.  In
1820  they  were  reunited  as  the  United  Associate
Synod  of  the  Secession  church,  which,  on  13  May,
1847,  joined  the  Relief  church,  together  forming  the
United  Presbyterian  church.


BUEGLAEY  was  a  capital  offence  till  1829.
Formerly  he  who  convicted  a  burglar  was  exempted
from  parish  offices,  1699;  Statute  of  Rewards,  5  Anne,
1706 ;  and  6  Geo.  I.  1720.  Receivers  of  stolen  plate
and  other  goods  to  be  transported,  10  Geo.  III.  1770.
Persons  having  upon  them  picklock-keys,  &c.,'to  be-
deemed  rogues  and  vagabonds,  13  Geo.  III.  1772-3..
The  laws  with  respect  to  burglary  were  amended  by
Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel's  acts  between  1823;
and  1829,  and  by  the  criminal  laws  of  1861.
Burglaries  and  housebreaking  in  England  and Wales,.

1885-6,  3.545; 1886-7,  31852; 1888-9,  3,620; 1889-90'.!

3.4°i-
Capture  of  a  gang  of  burglars  with  a  large  amount  of

stolen  property  at  the  Queen's  Head  tavern,  Wharf  road,.

City  road,  London,  8  Nov.  1891.
Frederick  Clark  and  7  others  were  convicted  and  sen-
tenced to  various  terms  of  penal  servitude,  18, 19  Jan..

1892. It  was  stated  that  they  had  been  concerned  in.

86  burglaries.

BUEGOS  (Spain),  the  burial  place  of  the  Cid,.
1099.  Lord  Wellington  entered  Burgos  on  19  Sept-
after  the  battle  of  Salamanca  (fought  22  July,  1812)  _
The  castle  was  besieged  by  the  British  and  allied
army,  but  the  siege  was  abandoned  21  Oct.  same-
year.  The  fortifications  were  blown  up  by  the-
French,  12  June,  1813. Population  1887,  31,301.  ,

BUBGUNDY,  a  large  province  in  France,,
derives  its  name  from  the  Burgundians,  a  Gothic-
tribe  who  overran  Gaul  in  275,  and  were  driven  out
by  the  emperor  Probus  :  they  returned  in  287,  and
were  defeated  by  Maximin.  In  413  they  established
a  Kingdom,  comprising  the  present  Burgundy,,
large  parts  of  Switzerland,  with  Alsace,  Savoy,
Provence,  &e.  Gondicar,  their  leader,  the  first
king.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  534.— The-
seconcl  kingdom,  consisting  of  a  part  ot  the  first,,
began  with  Gontran,  son  of  Clotaire  I.  of  France,  in,
561.  The  kingdom  of  Aries,  Provence,  and  Trans-
jurane  Burgundy,  were  formed  out  of  the  old  king-
dom.—Duchy.  In  877  Charles  the  Bald  made  his.
brother-in-law  Richard  the  first  duke  of  Burgundy.
In  938,  Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  founder  of
the  house  of  Capet,  obtained  the  duchy.  His  de-
scendant, Henry,  on  becoming  king  of  France,  con-
ferred it  on  his  brother  Robert,  in  whose  family  it
remained  till  the  death  of  Philippe  de  Rouvre,
without  issue,  in  1361.  In  1363,  king  John  of
France  made  his  fourth  son,  Philip,  duke  ;  see-
Austria  and  Germany.

DUKES.

1363.  Philip  the  Bold  ;  marries  Margaret,  heiress  of
Flanders,  1369.

1404.  John  the  Fearless  (son) ;  joined  the  English  inva-
ders of  France  ;  privy  to  the  assassination  of  the-
duke  of  Orleans  in  1407  ;  see  Armagnac;  himself
assassinated  at  Montereau,  in  presence  of  the
dauphin,  Sept.  1419.

1419.  Philip  the  Good  (son),  the  most  powerful  duke.

1467.  Charles  the  Bold  ;  married  to  Margaret  of  York
sister  to  Edward  IV.,  9  July,  1468  ;  invaded
France,  1472  ;  Switzerland,  1476  ;  killed  in  an
engagement  with  the  Swiss,  before  Nancy,  j.
Jan.  1477.

1477.  Mary  (daughter)  ;  married,  19  Aug.  1477,  to  Maxi-
milian of  Austria  ;  died,  27  March,  1482.

1479.  Louis  XI.  annexed  Burgundy  to  France.  The  other-
dominions  fell  to  Austria.

BUEIALS.  Abraham  buried  Sarah  at  Mach-
pelah,  i860  B.C.,  Gen.  xxiii.  Places  of  burial  wen
consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  a.d.  210.
Euscbius.  The  Greeks  had  their  burial-places  at  a
distance  from  their  towns;  the  Romans  near  the
highways;  hence  the  necessity  for  inscriptions.
The  first  Christian  burial-place",  it  is  said,  was  in-
stituted in  596 ;  burial  in  cities,  742  ;  in  conse-
crated places,  750;  in  churchyards,  758. Many  of


BURKING.


160


BURMAH.


the  early  Christians  are  buried  in  the  catacombs  at
Rome  ;  see  Catacombs,  Cemeteries,  and  Dissenters.
Vaults  erected  in  chancels  first  at  Canterbury . . 1075
Woollen  shrouds  only  permitted  to  be  used  in  Eng-
land 1666

lainen  scarfs  introduced at funerals  in  Ireland,
1729  ;  and  woollen  shrouds  used . . . . 1733

Burials  taxed 1635

A  tax  enacted  on  burials  in  England — for  the  burial
•of  a  duke  $ol.,  and  for  that  of  a  common  person
4s. — under  Will.  III.  1695,  and  Geo.  III.  . . . 1783
Acts  relating  to  Metropolitan  burials  passed  . 1850-67
Parochial  registers  of  burials,  births,  and  marriages,
instituted  in  England  by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,
•about  1538. Stow.
"  Earth  to  earth"  system  of  burial  advocated  by  Mr.
Seymour  Haden ;  wicker-coffins  exhibited  at  Staf-
ford-house . . .» . . -17  June,  1875
Consecrated  burial  grounds  in  England, 13,673  ;

closed,  1411 1877

'Burials  Act  (permitting  any  Christian  service  in  a
jparish  churchyard)  passed . . .7  Sept.  1880
See  Dissenters.

BURKING,  a  new  species  of  murder,  com-
mitted in  Britain,  thus  named  from  Burke,  the  first
known  criminal  by  whom  it  was  perpetrated.  His
victims  were  killed  by  pressure  or  other  modes  of
suffocation,  and  the  bodies,  which  exhibited  no
marks  of  violence,  were  sold  to  the  surgeons  for
•dissection.  He  was  executed  at  Edinburgh,  28
Jan.  1829.  A  monster  named  Bishop  was  appre-
hended in  Nov.  1 83 1,  and  executed  in  London
5  Dec.  with  Williams,  one  of  his  accomplices,  for
the  murder  of  a  poor  friendless  Italian  boy,  named
Carlo  Ferrari.  They  confessed  to  this  and  other
■similar  murders.

BURLINGHAME  TREATY,  promoted  by
Mr.  Anson  Burlinghame  and  a  Chinese  embassy,
and  signed  at  Washington  4  July,  1868.  It  autho-
rised mutual  immigration.  California  prospered
through  Chinese  labour ;  but  depression  in  1879-80
led  to  a  demand  for  its  expulsion  and  abrogation  of
the  treaty.

BURLINGTON  ARCADE,  Piccadilly,
opened  20  March,  1819.

BURLINGTON  FINE  ARTS  CLUB,  for

exhibiting  works  of  art,  and  promoting  intercourse
between  artists,  amateurs,  &c,  founded  1867.

BURLINGTON  HEIGHTS.  After  a  fierce
contest  here  between  the  British  and  the  United
States  American  forces,  6  June,  1813,  the  British
carried  the  heights.

BURLINGTON  HOUSE,  Piccadilly,  Lon-
don, was  built  by  Denham  for  lord  Burlington,
about  1664 ;  and  rebuilt  by  lord  Burlington,  the
.architect,  about  1731.  It  was  bought  for  140,000^.
by  the  government,  authorised  by  vote  of  the  house
of  commons,  on  27  July,  1854.  It  became  the  home
of  the  Royal,  Linnean,  and  Chemical  societies  in
1857  (who  occupied  new  rooms  in  1873),  and  of  the
Antiquaries,  Geological,  and  Royal  Astronomical
societies  in  1873.  In  1866,  sites  for  buildings  for
the  University  of  London  and  the  Royal  Academy
were  granted  in  the  grounds  of  Burlington  House.
The  entrance,  colonnade,  &c,  were  removed  in
1868,  and  the  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Academy  was
first  opened  here  3  May,  1869.  Burlington  charity
school  near  here,  founded  1699.

BURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE,

founded  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  by
Alompra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  last  dynasty.
Our  first  dispute  with  this  formidable  power  in  1795
was  amicably  adjusted  by  general  Erskine.  Hos-
tilities were  commenced  by  the  British  in  1824,  and
they  took  Rangoon on  May n. The fort and


pagoda  of  Syriam  were  taken  in  1825.  After  a  short
armistice,  hostilities  were  renewed,  1  Dec.  same
year,  and  pursued  until  the  successive  victories
of  the  British  led  to  the  cession  of  Arracan,
and  to  the  signature  of  peace,  24  Feb.  1826.  For
the  events  of  this  war,  and  of  the  war  in  1851,  see
India.  Pegu  was  annexed  to  our  Indian  empire,
20  Dec.  1852.  The  war  ended  20  June,  1853.  Popu-
lation of  Upper  Burmah,  reported  in  1892,  over
3,000,000  ;  Lower  Burmah,  nearly  4,750,000.

Rebellion  against  the  king  (of  Upper  Burmah)
suppressed  by  British  aid  . .  about  Sept.  1866

Treaties  with  Great  Britain  . . 1862  and  25  Oct.  1867

Burmese  embassy  in  England,  6  June ;  introduced
to  the  queen 21  June,  1872

The  king  Mindone  suspected  of  inciting  Chinese
to  attack  British  expedition  to  West  China  (see
India) Feb. 1875

Sir  Douglas  Forsyth's  mission  to  the  king  ;  arrives
at  Mandalay,  14  June  ;  submission  of  the  king
announced  about  18  June  ;  he  refuses  permission
for  British  troops  to  march  as  a  convoy  through
his  territories  to  China;  sir  D.  Forsyth  retires,

June, ,,

Col.  Duncan  sent  to  Mandalay . .  about  Aug.

The king  eventually  acceded  to  the  British  de- ,,
mands  :  announced Oct. ,,

The  king  dies,  about  5  Sept.  ;  announced 2  Oct.  1878

His  successor,  Thebau  (Wongyee  prince  of
Thebau)  kills  many  of  the  royal  family  and
their  friends Feb.  1879

The  British  resident  and  others  quit  Mandalay  8  Oct. , ,

The  king,  attacked  by  small-pox,  commits  fresh
atrocities 12  April,  1880

Prince  Nyoung's  rebellion,  May,  June,  suppressed  ;
he  enters  British  territory . . 27  June, ,,

Political  massacres  at  Mandalay  recommence,  an-
nounced 21  April,  1882

Destructive  fire  at  Mandalay,  announced n  April,  1883

Another  great  fire 9  April,  1884

Misgovernment ;  massacres  at  Mandalay,  21  Sept.  ;
prospect  of  British  intervention . . Oct. „

Town  of  Bhamo  violently  captured  by  the  Chinese

8-10  Dec. ,,

Captain  Terndrup  of  the  steamer  Kahbyor  rescues
missionaries  and  others  . . . 12-13  Dec. u

Treaty  between  France  and  Burmah  signed  at  Paris

15  Jan.  1885

Bhamo  recaptured  by  the  Burmese  about  16  March, ,,

French  negotiations  with  the  king . . Oct. „

Dispute  between  the  half  mad  king  and  the  Bom-
bay and  Burmah  Trading  Association  ;  communi-
cation from  British  commissioner  dated  28  Aug.
insolently  rejected ;  envoy  not  received ;  the
king  refuses  the  arbitration  of  the  viceroy  of
India  ;  the  commissioner  of  British  Burmah  asks
for  8,000  men .... about  13  Oct. „

Ultimatum  sent  by  lord  Dufferin  requiring  equitable
settlement  of  the  dispute  ;  reception  of  a  British
resident  with  a  guard  ;  protection  of  British
subjects,  &c.  ;  rejection  ;  proclamation  of  war
about  8  Nov.  ;  advance  of  the  army  under  gen.
Harry  N.  D.  Prendergast . . .9  Nov. „

Burmese  war  steamer  captured  16  Nov.  ;  Minhla
and  Gurgyong  forts  taken,  3  hours  attack,
lieut.  Robt.  A.  Dury  killed  and  3  others  17  Nov. ,,

The  army  advances  ;  Magwe  captured  20  Nov.  ;
Pagan  and  Myingyan  ... 28  Nov. „

The  king  sends  flag  of  truce. ;  agrees  to  surrender
himself,  his  army,  and  Mandalay ;  Ava  forts
occupied  27  Nov.  ;  gen.  Prendergast  enter
Mandalay  without  resistance . . 28  Nov. ,,

Native  rioting  with  bloodshed  quelled  . Dec. ,,

Sharp  engagement  at  Nyadan, stockades taken

2  Dec. ,,

Great  quietness  in  Mandalay . . . 9  Dec. ,,

Dacoit  pillaging  outside  Mandalay,  Dec. ;  sharp
conflicts  with  several  bands,  and  some  officers
killed Dec.  1885  ;  Jan.  1886

Thebau  and  court  sent  to  Madras  ;  arrive 14  Dec.  1885

Reported  massacre  of  three  servants  of  the  Bombay
and  Burmah  Co.  at  Kendat  on  the  Chindwin
river ...  .... Nov. ,,

Thebau's  brother  issues  a  proclamation  against
British  rule  ;  arrival  of  Mr.  Bernard  establishing
provisional  government  . . .18  Dec. ,,


BUEMAH.


161


BUEMAH.  *


General  Prendergast  warmly  received  at  Bhamo
■-"A  28  Dec.
Eebels  defeated  at  Moutshobo  by  major  William-
son 29  Dec.

Tynedah  Mengyle,  Thebau's  minister,  accused  of
murder,  sent  to  Rangoon  ;  two  pretenders  to  the
throne  appear  with  the  Dacoits  . . . Jan.

Surgeon  Heath  killed  9  Jan.  ;  Alompra,  a  pretender,

captured,  Jan.  ;  tried  and  shot . . Feb.

Burmese  defeated  at  Kadol,  16  Jan. ;  and  at  Kunnah  ;

36  rebels  killed  ;  the  rebel  princes  flee . 19  Jan.

Insurgents  defeated  by  major  Williamson  on  the

Mas  river 27  Jan.

.Lord  Dufferin,  the  viceroy,  arrives  at  Mandalay  12

Feb.  ;  well  received  13  Feb.  ;  leaves  about  23  Feb.

400  rebels  surprised  and  defeated  at  Yindawango  ;

68  killed 18  March,'

40  rebels  killed  near  Zemethen. about  26  March,

•General  Prendergast  leaves  Mandalay .  31  March,

Rebels  defeated  5  April  ;  British  repulsed  17  April,

The  Alompra  pretender  Myinzaing  prince  attempts
to  burn Mandalay  ; the  palace  greatly  injured

15  April,

•Successful  expedition  of  col.  Fitzgerald  ;  insurgent
chiefs  surrender May,

Defeat  of  insurgents  at  Ngape  by  Mr.  Phayre  6-7
June  ;  Mr.  Phayre  killed . . .8  June,

•Captain  Dunsford  killed  in  a  conflict  with  500
Dacoits  at  Salen . . . . 12  June,

Major  Hailes  repulsed  with  loss  by  the  Burmese
near  Tummoo 19  June,

British  Burmah,  including  Aracan,  Pegu,  and
Tenasserim,  constituted  1862.  Sir  Arthur  Phayre,
"the  able  first  commissioner,  died  15  Dec.  1885.
Upper  Burmah  annexed  by  proclamation  of  the
viceroy,  lord  Dufferin,  1  Jan.  1886  (the  Shan  states
partially  independent).  Upper  and  Lower
Burmah  united  in  one  province  under  Mr.  C.
Bernard  as  chief  commissioner  Feb.  1886  ;  he
issues  a  pacific  proclamation  6  March  ;  he  assumes
office  at  Mandalay  12  March  ;  all  Burmah  included
in  British  India  by  decree . . .15  May, ,,

Increase  of  dacoity  in  Upper  and  Lower  Burmah  ;
two  additional  regiments  and  four  commissioners
ordered  to  be  sent  to  Burmah . .  July, ,,

The  Myentzeen  prince  offers  200I.  for  sir  C.  Bernard's
head 13  July, ,,

Gonvention  with  China  ;  many  concessions  ;  signed
at  Pekin 24  July, „

Lieut.  Huggins  defeats  insurgents  who  lose  150
killed  and  wounded 26  July, ,,

Several  sharp  engagements ;  major  Aitkinson
killed 1  Aug. „

Reinforcements  ordered  from  India . . Aug. ,,

Sharp  engagement  at  Lazay  near  Isagain 9  Aug. ,,

Inundation  of  Mandalay  by  the  Irrawaddy ;  great
loss  of  life  and property 16  Aug. Subsiding

25  Aug. „

Serious  fighting 16  Sept. „

General  Macpherson,  commander-in-chief,  arrives
at  Mandalay  17  Sept.  ;  dies  of  fever  on  the  Irra-
waddy near  Prome  20  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by  general
sir  Frederick  Roberts ...  21  Oct. „

Minhla  burnt  by  the  rebels ... 2  Nov. ,,

Several  skirmishes  ;  British  successful  with  some
loss  of  officers .... .9-14,  21  Nov. „

General  sir  Frederick  Roberts  arrives  at  Mandalay

18  Nov. ,,

Colonel  Holt  captures  position  at  Puzan  Myang  ;
leader  of  the  rebels,  Thamban,  and  his  son  killed

23  Nov. ,,
Conflict  near  Pakoka  ;  col.  Gatacre  and  Bombay

lancers  disperse  the  rebels . . .12  Dec. „
Expeditions  against  Boshway  and  Hla-Oo,  dacoit
chiefs  ; their  strongholds  captured  and bands
dispersed by gen. Low and major Symonds

Nov. -Dec. ,,
Dacoits  defeated  in  skirmishes . . 10-12  Dee. „
In a proclamation the  Bhuddist  archbishop re-
commends submission  to  Great  Britain about

31  Dec. ,,
Attack  on  Boshway's  camp  ;  he  escapes  ;  announced

24  Jan.  1887
General  Roberts  after  great  success  leaves  Burmah  ;

succeeded  by  general  Arbutlmot . .  Feb. „

Band  of  dacoits repulsed by  Hyderabad  cavalry

after  hard  fighting  .  .  announced  8  Feb.  ,,
TheQueen'sjubileecelebratedatManclalayi5-i6Feb. „


Woontho  Tsawbwa,  an  important  chief,  submits
about  5  March,
Death  of  Hla-Oo  reported.  .  .  .  April,
Numerous  petty  fights  ;  dacoits  defeated  .  March,
Boshway's  party  defeated,  he  escapes  9  March,

Col.  Dance  defeats  dacoits  .  .  .22  March,
Successful  skirmishes  with  the  dacoits  .  April,
Octama  defeated  with  loss  of  23  men  .  20  April,
Dacoits  defeated  by  Madras  lancers  in  Toundwingee

district 23  April,

Skirmishes  at  Sidotia  ;  captain  A.  W.  Rendle  killed

30  April ;  renewed  skirmishes . .  2-4  May,

The  Limbin  prince,  the  last  legitimate  Alaungpaa

prince,  surrenders .... 23  May,

Desultory  war  with  dacoits.  . . . June,

New  roads  and  a  railway  constructing  . Sept.

Camp near  Chindwin  captured  ; major  Kennedy

and  captain  Beville  killed,  and  about  50  dacoits

16  Oct.
Discontent  in  Mandalay  through  taxation,  &c.  Nov.

1887  ;  quietness  restored .... Jan.  :

About  20,000  effective  military  police  established  in

Burmah  ;  renewed  fighting . . . Jan.

Mr.  Chan-Toon,  a  Burmese,  as  a  law  student  in  the

Middle  Temple  gains  all  the  principal  prizes,  June

Boh  Sway  and  many  followers  killed,  announced

27  July,
Dacoits defeated  and  two of  their  chiefs  killed

25  Oct.
Victorious conflicts of gen. Collett  with  native

chiefs  ;  many  of  the  enemy  killed . 1  Jan.  1
The  dacoits  defeated  in  several  conflicts . Jan.
Sawlon  captured  by  gen.  Collett  . . 9  Jan.

Rebel  position  near  Popa  stormed  by  the  Rifle
Brigade  under  major  Francis  Howard  g  Feb.

Railway  to  Rangoon  formally  opened  at  Mandalay

27  Feb.
Khama,  the  capital  of  the  Lepu  Kachyens,  and  17
villages  _  destroyed by  the British troops, an-
nounced" 9  March,

Gen.  Wolseley's  expedition  against  the  Phunkan
Tsawbwa  starts  13  April ;  he  captures  a  village,
18  April ;  returns  to  Bhamo,  May ;  Dacoits
very  active,  successful  in  some  severe  conflicts

April-May,

A  great  fire  at  Mandalay,  450  houses  burnt 11  May

Mr. Dyson, assistant commissioner, and others,

killed  in  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the  Dacoits

reported 2  June

Savage  tribes  beyond  the  frontier  of  Burmah
Proper ;  incited  by  rebel  Burmese  chiefs  ;  re-
duced to  submission  by  the  police  and  military

Jan.-June,
Frequent engagements with bands of Dacoits

June-July,

Rebel  chief  Boh  Kyee  Tha  defeated  and  killed  and

arms  captured  by  Rifle  Brigade  Mounted  Infantry

under  lieuts.  K.  J.  Mackenzie  and  H.  G.  Magendie

23  July
Mr. C. A. MacDonnell appointed chief  commis-
sioner in  the  absence  of  sir  C.  Crosthwaite,  an-
nounced 3  Aug.

Gen.  Gordon  at  Mandalay  organizing  an  expedition
against  the  Chins  and  other  border  tribes  about

22  Sept.
Improved  condition  of  the  country  under  sir  C.
Crosthwaite's  administration  reported  .  Sept.
Successful  attacks  on  the  Chins  by  capt.  Gookhas
16,  17,  19  Oct.
The  Mingoon  prince  on  the  frontiers  .  .  3  Nov.
Interned  by  the  French  at  Saigon  .  Nov.

Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  at  Rangoon,  20  Dec.  ;

at  Mandalay 24  Dec.

Three  Chin  villages  destroyed  by  British .  Dec.
Mr.  Mu'Donnell  retires  after  successful  government

Dec.
Repulse  of  the  attack  of  the  Chins  on  the  British
advanced camp, a  stockade  captured  and  de-
stroyed reported 30  Dec.

Lowsaing  captured 15  Jan.  1

Dacoits  very  troublesome;  destructive  attack  of
rebels  on  Sandoway,  Arracan  coast,  repulsed  by

police  reported 22  Fell.

The  Dacoits  burn  Kangyi,  chastised  by  police,  re-
ported 2  March,

Conspiracy  to  bnni  Mandalay  and  set  Moungba,  an
Alompra  pre<i>nder,  on  the  throne,  discovered,

and  arrests made 9  March,

M


BURMAH.


162


BURNING  THE DEAD.


Major  Blundell's  expedition  from  Bhamo,  to  punish
Kan  Hlaing,  chief  of  the  Swesaing  Tonhon  Kach-
yens,  for  raids  on  British  territories,  and  for
harbouring  the  Alhompra  pretender  Sawyauni.
Starts  15  Dec,  severe  fighting  23  Dee.,  after
further  successes  the  expedition  returned  to
Bhamo April,  18

Gen.  Gordon  (successful)  relinquishes  his  command ;
succeeded  by  "brigadier  Wolseley  . . June, ,.

Many  Dacoit  gangs  surrender,  two  eminent  chiefs
captured,  reported .... 21  June, ,

Boh  Yanyun,  a  Dacoit  leader,  surrenders  to  Mr.
M'Donald,  his  life  being  assured . .  July ,

Many  intercessions  for  him,  9  Aug.  ;  transported
for  life  about 23  Aug. ,

Great  floods,  Mandalay  in  danger,  about . 9  Aug. ,

Gen.  "Wolseley  concludes  peace  with  the  Sinyin
Chins ;  tribute  paid,  and  prisoners  exchanged,
reported 2  Sept. ,

Mr.  (aft.  sir)  Alex.  Mackenzie  appointed  to  succeed
sir  C.  Crosthwaite  as  chief  Commissioner,  re-
ported 31  Oct.  ;  arrives  at  Rangoon  . .  3  Dec. ,

In  Upper  Burinah  Kanlaing,  a  rebel  chief  with  a
large  following,  appears  at  Manwaing  about  3  Dec. ,

Mr.  Wetherell,  political  officer,  killed  by  the  Chins
in  an  ambush,  at  Yokwa ... 21  Dec. ,

Dacoit  raids  and  murders  reported  about 24  Dec. ,.

A  strong  punitive  force  sent  against  the  Chins  and
others,  reaches  Thetta  ;  after  a  repulsed  attack,
Thetta  surrenders  ;  lieut.  James  and  two  men
killedabout 2  Jan.  18

Expedition  against  the  Shan  state,  Momeik,  to
punish  outrages,  about  17  Jan.  fighting ;  a  village
burnt,  many  natives  killed  and  wounded  about

28  Jan. ,,

Major  Nixon,  lieut.  Jameson,  adjutant  and  two
Sepoys  killed  by  a  mad  Pathan  at  Fort  Stedman
in  the  Shan  States . . . '. . n  Feb. ,,

The  Kanhow  chiefs  chastised  for  raids ; submit ;
restore  captives  and  pay  fines  to  capt.  Rundall ;
five  villages  attacked  and destroyed,  reported

15  Feb. „
Insurrection  in  "Wuntho,  a  frontier  state ;  pretended
objections  to  the  railway ;  capt.  Smith  present
with  400  Europeans  ; reinforcements ordered  ;
arrive ......  19  Feb. ,,

Proclamation  issued,  deposing  the.  Tsawbwa  of
Wuntho  for  his  attacks,  and  annexing  his  territory

22  Feb. ,,
Gen.  Wolseley  takes  the  command  in  Wuntho,  26

Feb.  ;  the  rebels  at  Okpho  attacked,  above  50
killed,  arms  and  ammunition  captured  . ,,

British  force  at  Kawlin,  600  men  (200  Europeans)  ;
capt.  Hastings  punishes  the  Panchaung  Chins  for
their  raids, destroying  villages, &c, reported

23  Feb.  ,,
Wuntho  occupied  by  Major  Smyth,  without  oppo-
sition, 25  Feb.  ;  the  villagers  lay  down  their  arms  ;
the  Tsawbwa  flies  ;  his  palace  burnt ;  capt.  Alex.
Hutchinson  defeats  rebels  near  Okhau,  after  five
hours' fighting  [he  died  of  his  wounds]  ;  Kanhoco
chiefs,  raiders,  submit  about . . 25  Feb. ,,

The  Tsawbwa  solicits  pardon,  which  is  promised  on
speedy  surrender,  but  not  re-instatement,  about

27  Feb. ,,

More  villages  surrender  about . . .  27  Feb. ,,

Gen.  Stedman  leaves  for  England ;  in  four  years  he
created  an  effective  army  of  military  police  (about
20,500)  .  28  Feb. ,,

The  Kanhow  Chins  subdued  by  capt.  Rundall,
surrender  captives  and  pay  fine's . .  24  Feb. ,,

Gen.  Wolseley  holds  a  durbar  at  Wuntho,  well
attended,  British  flag  hoisted . . 3  March, „

Advance  of  gen.  Wolseley  and  col.  Macgregor  into
the  Wuntho  territory  ;  the  two  Tsawbwas  retreat,
reported 11  March „

Several  fights  with  the  Chins,  with  casualties  re-
ported 6  April „

Disturbances  on  the  trade  route  between  Bahmo
reported 9  April „

Gen.  Wolseley  returns  to  Mandalay,  the  campaign

ended '.  4  May „

Alarming  deficiency  of  rain  in  Upper  Burmah,  Arig.';
fall  of  rain  in  some  places,  Sept. ;  investigation
by  sir  A.  Mackenzie  ;  his  minute  published  15
Sept.;  relief  works  begun,  parly  Sept  ;  prospects
improved  Oct. ,,


Gen.  Wolseley  transferred  to  Belgaum . . Nov.  1891
Boh  Le,  a  Dacoit  leader,  killed,  and  his  band  cap-
tured or  dispersed  by  lieut.  Magrath,  assistant-
commandant  at  Katha,  reported  . . 31  Dec. ,,.
Major  Yule  captures  Sadon  after  two  days'  lighting

6  Jan. 189K
Successful  operations  of  lieut.  Macnabb  in  the  Chin

country Jan. ,,,

Severe  fighting  in  Upper  Burmah  ;  the  Kachms
repulsed  in  their  attack  on  Sadon  by  lieut.
Harrison ; successful  advance of  major Yule

19  Feb.  et  seq. ,r
[Sadon  re-named  Fort  Harrison.]
Joined  by  capt.  Davies  at  Sadon,  about 25  Feb; ,..
Continued  fighting  at  Sadon . . 28  Feb.  etseq. lr.

[Kachins,  a  warlike  but  not  intractable  tribe,  in-
habiting the  hilly  tracts  east  of  head  waters  of  the-
Irrawaddy  in  Upper  Burmah,  adjoining  Chinese-
provinces.]

Boh  Minlaung,  famous  Arracan  Dacoit,  captured  at
Kudoung  about  26  Feb. ;  sentenced  to  death  with

others  about 14  March, ,.

Mr.  Chan  Toon,  a  Burmese  barrister,  made  a  judge

about 28  Feb. ,P

Falam,  headquarters  of  the  Tashons,  occupied  by

the  British  about . .  17  March, ,,.

Great  fire  at  Mandalay,  destroying  the  telegraph
office  and  a  large  part  of  the  city  ;  estimated  loss
i,ooo,oooL ..... 30-31  March ,,.
Sentence  of  death  upon  the  Minlaung  prince  and

others  confirmed .... 30  March r
Sir  A.  Mackenzie  ill,  leaves  for  England  ;  Mr.  F.  W.

Fryer  appointed  deputy . . [  about  May, ,,.
Famine  greatly  relieved .... May, ,,

BURNETT  PRIZES,  to  be  awarded  every
40  years  to  the  authors  of  the  two  best  essays  on
"  The  evidence  that  there  is  a  Being  all  powerful,,
wise,  and  good,  by  whom  everything  exists,  &c,"
were  founded  by  Mr.  Burnett,  a  "Scottish  gentleman,,
who  died  1784,  bequeathing  moneys  for  the  pur-
pose. Various  amounts  have  been  paid  to  Dr>
W.  L.  Brown,  to  rev.  J.  B.  Sumner,  afterwards-
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1815;  to  rev.  R.  A.-
Thompson, and  to  Dr.  J.  Tulloch,  1855;  Prof_
G.  G.  Stokes,  1885.  The  establishment  of  a  Bur-
nett lectureship  in  Aberdeen  by  the  trustees  (the-
lecturer  to  be  chosen  in  1883)  was  sanctioned  Aug.
1880.  Prof.  "VV.  Robertson  Smith's  lectures  on  the
"  Eeligion  of  the  Semites,"  were  published  in  1889-..

BURNHAM  BEECHES,  Bucks,  the  pictu-
resque remains  of  an  ancient  forest,  were  purchased
for  public  use  by  the  corporation  of  London  in?
1879. Dedicated  3  Oct.  1883.

BURNING  ALIVE  was  inflicted  among  the-
Romans,  Jews,  and  other  nations,  and  was  counte-
nanced by  bulls  of  the  pope;  see  Witches.  Many-
persons  have  been  burned  alive  as  heretics.  Sir
William  Sawtre,  priest  of  St.  Osyth,  London,,
suffered  12  Feb.  1401 .  In  the  reign  of  Mary  num-
bers were  burned ;  see  Protestants.  Elizabeth
Gaunt,  an  Anabaptist,  was  burnt  at  Tyburn  for
treason  (concealing  rebels  under  Monmouth),  23
Oct.  1685.

BURNING  THE  DEAD  was  practised
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  Homer  gives-
descriptions.  It  was  very  general  about  1225  B.C.,.
and  was  revived  by  Sylla  about  78  B.C.  It  is  still
practised  in  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and  has  been
advocated  in  this  country  by  the  eminent  surgeon,
sir  Henry  Thompson,  and  others,  1873 ;  see  SittteesT
Barrows.
Professor  L.  Brunetti  exhibited  his  plan  and  results

at  the  Vienna  exhibition

Cremation  societies  founded  in  London,  Vienna,  and

Berlin,  &c 13  Jan.

The  corpse  of  the  wife  of  sir  Charles  Dilke,  with

coffin,  burnt  at  Dresden  :  ashes  about  61b.  10  Oct.
A  crematorium  erected  at  Milan,  Jan. 1883 ;  in

Paris  . .


i873
1874


BURNING-GLASS.


163


BUTE ADMINISTRATION.


Cremation  increasing  at  Rome  ....  1834

Mr.  Justice  Stephen  decides  that  it  is  legal,  March, ,,

The  erection  of  a  crematorium  at  Woking  stopped
by  authorities,  summer  1879;  afte.rvvf.rds  per-
mitted and  first  used,  26  March,  1885  ;  again  21
Oct.  1885  ;  and  25  Jan.  1886  ;  and  others  occa-
sionally.

Dr.  Cameron's  bill  for  the  regulation  of  cremation
rejected  by  the  commons  (149-79),  3°  April,
1884.

The  Cremation  society  of  England  in  Feb.  1892,  reported
that  at  Woking  there  had  been  3  cremations  in  1885  ;
10  in  1886  ;  13  in  1887  ;  28  in  1888  ;  46  in  1889  ;  54  in
1890 ;  in  1S91,  99.  Among  these  were  that  of  the
marquis  of  Ely,  13  April,  1889;  sir  Tinlal  Robertson,
M.P.,  10  Oct.  1889  ;  baron  Huddlestone,  11  Dec.  1S90  ;
Mr.  A.  W.  Kinglake,  8  Jan.  1891  ;  the  duke  of  Bedford,
16  Jan.  1891  ;  lord  Bramwell,  13  May,  1892.

Cremation  said  to  be  greatly  increasing  in  France  and
Italy,  1890.

International  Cremation  Conference  at  Berlin,  4  Aug.
1890.
Similar  societies  formed  in  Great  Britain.

BURNING-GLASS  and  Concaye  Mir-
rors. Their  power  was  known  to  Archimedes,
and  it  is  mythically  stated  that  by  their  aid  he  burnt
a  fleet  in  the  harbour  of  Syracuse,  214  B.C.  Their
powers  were  increased  by  Settalla ;  Tschimhausen,
1680  ;  Buffon,  1747  ;  and  Parker  and  others  more  re-
cently. The  following  experiments  were  made  about
1800,  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens  or  burning  mirror,
which  cost  700^.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the
largest  ever  made.  It  was  sold  to  capt.  Mackenzie,
who  took  it  to  China,  and  left  it  at  Pekin.
Substances  fused.  Weight. Time.

Pure  gold 20  grains  4  seconds.

Silver 20 ,, 3 ,,

Copper . 33 „ 20 ,,

Platina 10 „ 3 ,,

Cast  iron  (a  cube) - . . . 10 „ 3 „

Steel 10 ,, 12 ,,

A  topaz 3 „ 45 „

An  emerald 2 „ 25 ,,

A  crystal  pebble 7 „ 6 ,,

Flint 10 ,, 30 ,,

Cornelian 10 „ 75 ,,

Pumice  stone 10 ,, 24

Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously ;  water  boils  im-
mediately ;  bones  are  calcined ;  and  things  not  ca-
pable of  melting  at  once  become  red-hot,  like  iron.

BURSE,  see  Exchange.

BURTON  CRESCENT,  London.  Here  Mrs.
Kachael  Samuel,  a  widow  living  alone,  was  mur-
dered in  the  night  II  Dec.  1878.  No  robbery.
Mary  Donovan,  a  charwoman,  was  arrested  and
discharged,  10  Jan.  1879.  In  a  house  here  also,
Mary  Ann  Yates  was  found  murdered,  9  March,
1884.

BURWELL  FIRE.  A  number  of  persons
assembled  to  see  a  puppet-show  in  a  barn  at  Bur-
well,  near  Newmarket,  8  Sept.  1727.  A  candle
having  set  fire  to  a  heap  of  straw,  seventy-six  indi-
viduals perished,  and  others  died  of  their  wounds.

BURY  ST.  EDMUND'S,  Suffolk,  named
from  St.  Edmund,  king  of  East  Anglia,  who  was
murdered  by  the  Danes  on  20  Nov.  870,  and  buried
here,  and  to  whose  memory  its  maguiticent  abbey
was  founded.  Magna  Charta  was  prepared  here  by
the  barons  on  20  Nov.  12 14.  Henry  VI.  summoned
a  parliament  in  Feb.  1447,  when  Humphry,  duke
of  Gloucester,  was  imprisoned,  and-  died  here,  it  is
supposed  by  poison.  It  was  almost  consumed  by
fire  in  1608,  and  was  desolated  by  plague  in  1630.
Population  1881,  1 6, 1 1 1 ;  1891,  16,630.

BURYING  ALIVE.  In  Bccotia,  Creon
ordered  Antigone,  the  sister  of  Polyniccs,  to  be
buried  alive,  1225  B.C.  The  Roman  vestals  were
subjected  to  it  for  any  levity  that  excited  suspicion


of  their  chastity.  The  vestals  buried  alive  on  a
charge  of  incontinence,  were  Minutia,  337  B.C. ;
Sextilla,  274  B.C. ;  Cornelia,  a.d.  92.  Lord  Bacon
gives  instances  of  the  resurrection  of  persons  who
had  been  buried  alive  ;  Duns  Scotus  being  of  the
number.  The  two  assassins  of  Capo  d'Istria,  presi-
dent of  Greece,  were  sentenced  to  be  immured  in
brick  wralls  built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,
and  to  be  supplied  with  food  in  this  species  of  tor-
ture until  they  died,  Oct.  1831.

BUSACO,  or  BlTZACO  (Portugal).  Here  the
British,  under  lord  Wellington,  repulsed  the  French
under  Massena,  27  Sept.  1810.  The  latter  lost  one
general  and  1000  men  killed,  two  generals  and  about
3000  men  wounded,  and  several  hundred  prisoners;
the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not  exceed  1300;  the
British  retreated  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  too
strong  for  Massena  to  force,  and  the  armies  re-
mained in  sight  of  each  other  to  the  end  of  the
year.

BUSHEL.  This  measure  was  ordered  to  con-
tain eight  gallons  of  wheat,  12  Henry  VIII.,  1520  ;
the  legal  Winchester  bushel  was  regulated  9  Will.
III.  1697;  the  impeiial  corn  bushel  of  22i8-ig2
cubic  inches  is  to  the  Winchester  of  2150-42  as  32
to  31.  Regulated  by  act  5  Geo.  IV.,  June,  1824,
which  act  came  into  operation  r  Jan.  1826.

BUSHIRE  (on  the  Persian  Gulf) ,  attacked  by  sea
by  sir  H.  Leeke,  and  by  land  by  general  Stalker,  was
taken  10  Dec.  1856.  The  place  proved  stronger  than
was  expected,  and  was  braveby  defended.  Brigadier
Stopford  and  col.  Malet  were  killed  in  a  previous
attack  on  the  fort  at  lleshire,  9  Dec.  The  loss  of
the  British  was  four  officers  killed,  and  one
wounded  ;  five  men  killed,  and  thirty-five  wounded.

BUSHRANGERS,  Australian  highwaymen,
formerly  escaped  convicts.  Morgan,  a  desperate
robber  and  murderer,  was  surrounded  and  shot
April,  1865.  The  "Kelly  gang"  seized  and  pillaged
the  town  of  Jerilderie,  New  South  Wales,  8-10
Feb.  1879.  Ned  Kelly  and  some  of  his  gang  were
captured  and  taken  to  Melbourne,  27,  28  June.
1880.

BUSSORAH,  see  Bassorah.

BUSTS.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the
inventor  of  moulds,  from  which  he  cast  wax
figures,  about  328  B.C.  Pliny.  Busts fiom  the  face  in
plaster  of  paris,  were  first  taken  by  Andrea  Verrochi,
about  a.d.  1466.  Smaller  busts  and  statuettes  are
now  accurately  produced  from  larger  ones  by
niachinery.

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were
three  classes  :  the  Suarii  provided  hogs,  the  Boarii
or  Pccuarii  oxen  and  sheep,  which  the  Lanii  or  Carni-
fices  killed.  The  butchers'  company  in  London  is
ancient,  though  not  incorporated  till  1606.

BUTE  ADMINISTRATION.  John  earl
of  Bute,*  tutor  of  prince  George  (afterwards  George
III.),  formed  an  administration  in  May,  1762,
which,  after  various  changes,  resigned  8  April,  1763.
It.  was  severely  attacked  by  Junius  and  John
AVilkes.

John  carl  of  Bute,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Earl  Grenville,  president  of  the  council.
Duke  of  Bedford,  prwy  seal.
Earl  of  Halifax,  admiralty.
Earl  of  Egremont  and  George  Granville,  secretaries  of

state.

*  John  Stuart,  carl  of  Bute,  born  171^;  secretary  "f
state,  March,  1761  ;  prime  minister,  May,  1762;  died
io  March,  1792.

M 2


BITTTEK.


164


BYZANTIUM.


Lord  Ligonier,  ordnance.

Henry  Fox, afterwards  lord  Holland,  paymaster  of  the

forces.
Viscount  Barrington,  treasurer  of  the  navy.
Lord  Sandys,  first  lord  of  trade.
Duke  of  Marlborough, earl  Talbot, lord  Huntingdon,

lord  Anson,  lord  North,  &c.

BUTTER  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the
Arabs  in  early  times,  but  not  by  the  Greeks  and
Komans,  who  had  excellent  oil.  It  is  not  men-
tioned as  food  by  Galen  a.d.  130-200.  It  has  long
been  used  by  northern  nations.  Various  statutes
have  passed  respecting  its  package,  weight,  and  sale;
the  principal  of  which  are  the  36th  &  38th  Geo.  III.
and  10  Geo.  IV.  1829.  In  Africa,  vegetable  butter
is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of
richer  taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  butter  made  from
cow's  milk.  Mungo  Park.  The  import  duties  of
5*.  per  cwt.  on  foreign  butter  (producing  in  1859,
104,587/.  on  421,354  cwts.)  was  repealed  in  i860.
Butter  imported,  1846,  257,385  cwt. ;  1856,  513,392
cwt.;  1866,  1,165,081  cwt.;  1870,  1,159,210  cwt.;
1874,  1,619,808  cwt.  ;  1876,  1,659,492  cwt.  ;
1877,  1,637,403  cwt. ;  1885.  2,401,373  cwt. ;  1887,
(butter)  1,513,134  cwt.;  (margarine)  1,276,  I40cwt.;
1888  (butter),  1,671,433  cwt. ;  (margarine)  1,139,743
cwt.  ;  1889  (butter),  1,927,842  cwt.  ;  (margarine)
1,241,690  cwt.;  1890  (butter),  2,027,717  cwt.;
(margarine)  1,079,856  cwt.

Butterine,  a  composition  of  fats  as  a  substitute  for
butter,  sold  in  London  1885,  and  declared  to  be
wholesome  by  eminent  chemists.  Bills  to  change
the  name  to  oleomargarine,  and  check  its  sale,
brought  in  and  withdrawn  1885-6.  The  Butterine
Defence  Association  formed  1886.

By  the  Margarine  Act,  1887,  butterine  and  other  sub-
stances like  butter  must  be  termed  margarine  on  and
after  1  Jan.  1888.  The  term  "butter"  is  restricted  to
the  product  of  milk  or  cream  or  both  by  this  Act.

Butter  manufactured  from  cocoa-nuts  in  Mannheim,  &c,
coming  into  use,  1888  ;  much  imported  into  India,
from  whence  the  nuts  are  largely  brought,  1889  et  seq.

The  manufacture  of  Le  Dansk,  a  new  substitute  for
butter,  begun  at  Southampton  31  Oct.,  1891.

BUTTONS,  an  early  manufacture  in  England ;
those  covered  with  cloth  were  prohibited,  to  en-
courage the  manufacture  of  metal  buttons,  8  Geo.  I.
1 721.  Buttons  largely  employed  to  ornament
ladies'  dresses,  1873  et  seq.

BUXAR,  a  town  in  Bengal,  near  which,  on
23  Oct.  1764,  major,  afterwards  sir  Hector  Monro
(with  857  Europeans  and  6215  Sepoys)  gained  a
great  victory  over  the  troops  of  the  nabob  of  Oude,
&c,  50,000  in  number;  6000  of  these  were  killed,
and  130  pieces  of  cannon  were  taken.  The  loss  of
the  English  was  trifling.

BY-LAWS,  or  Bye-Laws,  private  ordi-
nances, made  by  subordinate  communities,  such  as
corporations.  These  laws  must  not  militate  against
the  law  of  the  land.  By  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  1834,
those  made  by  corporate  bodies  become  valid,  if  net


disallowed  by  the  king's  council  within  forty  days
after  their  enactment.

BYE  PLOT  (also  termed  Surprise  or  Sur-
prising Plot),  planned  by  George  Brooke,  brother
of  lord  Cobham,  sir  Griffin  Markham,  lord  Grey  of
Wilton  and  two  Bomanist  priests,  to  seize  James  I.
to  compel  him  to  change  his  ministers  and  to  grant
toleration  of  their  religion,  &c.  The  conspirators,
were  apprehended  July,  1603.  This  plot  was  con-
nected with  the  "  Main  plot, which  see.

BYNG,  Hon.  Admiral  John,  was  charged

with  neglect  of  duty  in  an  engagement  with  the
enemy  off  Minorca,  20  May,  1756,  condemned  for
an  error  of  judgment,  and  shot  on  board  the
Monarch  at  Spithead,  14  March,  1757.

BYRON'S  VOYAGE.  Commodore  Byron
left  England  on  his  voyage  round  the  globe,  21
June,  1764,  and  returned  9  May,  1 766.  He  dis-
covered the  populous  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean
which  bears  his  name,  16  Aug.  1765.  Though
brave  and  intrepid,  such  was  his  general  ill-foi  tune
at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the  sailors  of  the  fleet
"  Foulweather  Jack."

BYRON  NATIONAL  MEMORIAL.  Its

erection  determined  on,  at  a  meeting  in  London,
16  July,  1875;  M1'-  Disraeli  in  the  chair.  Abcuv'
3,000/.  were  subscribed.  'J 'he  statue  by  Richard
Claude  Belt,  placed  on  a  pedestal  near  Hamilton-
place,  Hyde-park,  was  uncovered  privately  by  lord
Houghton,  24  May,  1880.  A  marble  pedestal  was
promised  by  the  Greeks.

BYTOWN,  Canada,  was  named  after  col.  By,
the  British  surveyor,  1823-6.  In  1854  its  name
was  changed  to  Ottawa,  after  the  river  on  which  it
is  situated,  and  in  1858  it  was  made  the  capital  of
the  Dominion. See  Ottawa.

BYZANTIUM,  now  Constantinople,  and
Stamboid,  in  the  ancient  Thrace,  founded  by  a
colony  of  Megarians,  under  Byzas,  667  B.C.  ;  but
various  dates  and  persons  are  given.  It  was  taken
successively  by  the  Medes,  Athenians,  and  Spar-
tans. In  340  B.C.,  in  alliance  with  the  Athenians,
the  Byzantines  defeated  the  fleet  of  Philip  of
Macedon.  During  the  wars  with  Macedon,  Syria,
&c,  it  became  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  by  whom  it
was  taken,  a.d.  73.  Rebelling,  it  was  taken  after
two  years'  siege,  and  laid  in  ruins  b}r  Severus  in
196.  It  was  refounded  by  Constantine  in  324,  and
dedicated  on  22  May,  330,  all  the  heathen  temples
being  destroyed ;  and  from  him  it  received  its  name  ;
see  Constantinople.  Byzantine  Art  flourished
from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  about  1204.  The
Byzantine  or  Eastern  empire  really  commenced
in  395,  when  Theodosius  divided  the  Roman  em-
pire; see  East.  The  "Byzantine  Historians,"
from  325  to  1453,  were  published  at  Paris,  1645-
1711  ;  and  at  Venice,  1722-33.


c.


__ CAABA.

CAABA,  the  shrine  of  the  sacred  black  stoue,
kept  in  a  temple  at  Mecca,  and  venerated  by  the
Arabs,  long  before  the  Christian  era.  Its  guardians,
the  tribe  of  Koreish,  were  defeated  by  Mahomet,
by  whose  followers  it  is  still  venerated.

CABAL.  In  English  history  the  term  has
been  applied  to  the  cabinet  of  Charles  II.  1667-73 ;
the  word  Cabal  being  formed  from  the  initials  of
then-  names  :  sir  Thomas,  afterwards  lord  Clifford
(C)  ;  the  lord  Ashley  (A),  (afterwards  earl  of
Shaftesbury)  ;  George  Villiers,  duke  of  Bucking-
ham (B)  ;  Henry,  lord  Arlington  (A)  ;  and  John,
duke  of  Lauderdale  (L).  The  term  had  been  pre-
viously applied  to  a  secret  faction  or  cabinet.

CABBAGES.  Some  new  kinds  were  brought
to  England  from  Holland  about  1510,  it  is  said  by
sir  Arthur  Ashley  of  Dorset,  and  introduced  into
Scotland  by  Cromwell's  soldiers.

CABBALA,  a  Jewish  system  of  philosophy  or
theosophy,  deriving  its  name  from  a  Hebrew  word,
signifying  reception  or  tradition,  said  to  have  been
given  by  God  to  Adam,  and  transmitted  from  father,
to  son  by  his  descendants.  It  is  said  to  have  been
lost  at  the  Babylonian  captivity  (587  B.C.),  but  to
have  been  revealed  again  to  Ezra.  Its  supporters
assert  that  the  cabbalistic  book  "  Sohar,"  or
"  Splendour,"  a  mystic  commentary  on  the  Penta-
teuch, was  first  committed  to  writing  by  Simon
Ben  Jochai,  a.d.  72-110.  The  true  date  of  the  books
containing  the  cabbala  is  now  considered  to  range
from  9th  to  the  14th  centuries,  and  their  origin  to
be  the  mingling  of  talmudism  with  the  Greek
philosophy  termed  Neo-Platonism.  Some  of  their
dogmas  are  akin  to  Christian  tenets,  such  as  the
trinity,  the  incarnation,  &c.  The  cabbala  exercised
much  influence  upon  the  mental  development  of
the  Jews,  and  even  captivated  the  greatest  thinkers
of  the  1 6th  and  17th  centuries.

CABEIRA  (Asia  Minor).  Here  Mithridates,
king  of  Pontus,  was  defeated  by  Lucullus,  71  B.C.

CABINET  COUNCIL.  There  were  councils
in  England  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ina,  king  of
the  West  Saxons,  690;  Ori'a,  king  of  the  Mercians,
758  ;  and  in  other  reigns  of  the  Heptarchy.  State
councils  are  referred  to  Alfred  the  Great.  Spel-
man  ;  see  Administrations.*

CABLES.  A  machine  was  invented  in  1792
for  making  them,  by  which  human  labour  was  re-
duced nine-tenths.  .  Chain  cables  were  introduced
into  the  British  navy  about  1812;  directions  for
testing  them  enacted,  1S64,  and  1874.

C  ABOCHIENS,  an  armed  Burgundian  faction,
including  500  butchers,  named  from  their  leader
Simonet  Caboche,  a  skinner,  1412.  They  ruled
Paris  with  violence,  and  constrained  the  doctors  of
the  Sorbonne  to  become  their  allies  and  the  dau-
phin to  recognise  them  as  the  "White  Hoods,"  and
reformers.  They  were  exterminated  by  the  citizens,
in  1418.

*  Cabinet  Noir,  or  "  Dark  Closet,"  the  chamber  in
which  letters  entrusted  to  the  French  post  were  opened
for  state  purposes.  The  system,  which  began  with
Louis  XL,  was  organised  under  Louis  XV.  ;  :iml  is  said
to  have  been  discontinued  in  1868.  The  Spanish  govern-
ment have  a  similar  system — "  Gabinete  negro."


CADDEE.

CABEIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed
vehicles,  were  introduced  into  the  streets  of  London
in  1823,  when  the  number  plying  was  twelve. In
1831 they  had increased to 165, and then  the
licences  were  thrown  open. The  number  in  1862
running  in  the  metropolis  exceeded  6000  (of  which
about 1800  only  plied  on  Sunday). Previous to
throwing  open  the  trade,  the  number  of  hackney
carriages  was  limited  to  1200,  when  there  were  few
omnibuses. Number in  1871  was  7818;  in  1881,
9652; 1891,11,129. See  Hackney  Coaches.
Mr.  Joseph  Aloysius  Hansom,  architect,  invented
his  patent  safety  cab  about  1S33. He  died  29
June,  1882.
Cab  Strike. — On  28  June, 1853,  an  act  (called  Mr.
FitzRoy's  act)  was  passed  for  "  the  better  regula-
tion of  metropolitan  stage  and  hackney  carriages,
and for prohibiting the use of advertising
vehicles,"  by  which  the  cab  fares  were  reduced
to  6d.  a  mile. It  came  into  operation  11  July,
and  on  the  27th  a  general  strike  of  the  London
cabmen  took  place. Much  inconvenience  was
felt,  and  every  kind  of  vehicle  was  employed  to
supply  the  deficiency. Some  alterations  having
been  made  in  the  act,  the  cabs  re-appeared  on  the
stands  on  the  30th.
Cabmen's  clubs  began  at  Paddington  in  . .  Feb.  1S59
A  London  General Cab Company published its

prospectus,  professing  a  reformed  system,  July,  1862
Cabs  running  in  London  :  in  1855,  3296  ;  in  1867,

6149  :  in  1874,  7864 ;  in  1S77,  about  8000.
Cab  Tragedy.— H.  H.  Hunt,  a  servant  of  Butler  and
McCulloeh's,  seedsmen,  Co  vent-garden,  London,
poisoned  his  wife  and  children  in  a  cab,  on  7  Nov.
1863  ;  and  himself  on  9  Nov.  at  his  own  house,
just  before  his  apprehension.
The  cabmen  in  Paris  strike  against  a  company  ;
above  3000  vehicles  stopped.  16  June  ;  tierce  attack
on  men  who  gi\»e  in  ;  strike  subsides 23  June,  1863
Second  Cab  Strike. — Metropolitan  Streets  Act,  30  <fc
31  Vict.  c.  17  (passed  20  Aug.)  required  hackney
carriages  to  cany  lamps  ;  and  changed  lowest
fare,  from  6d. to  is. The  cab-proprietors  and
drivers  struck  at  4  p.m.,  3  Dec.  ;  but  by  the
intervention  of  lord  Elcho,  an  arrangement  was
made  with  Mr.  Gathorne  Hardy,  the  home  secre-
tary, and  the  strike  ceased . . .4  Dec. 1S67
Third  Cab  Strike  to  compel  railway  companies  to  dis-
continue privileged  cabs  :  unsuccessful,  5-9  Sept.  1S68
Licences  on  cabs  reduced  from  igl.  and  17/.  to  42s.

by  act  of  1869 1  Jan.  1S70

Cab-drivers'  Benevolent  Association  founded . . ,,
First  Cabmen's  Shelter  opened  by  hon.  A.  Kinnaird
at  St. John's  Wood,  6 Feb.  "1875  :  others soon
after. Cabmen's  Mission  Hall,  King's  Cross,  Lou-
don,  N., opened 12 Nov. 187  =  . Thirty-nine

Shelters  in 1S88

Disputes  about  wages : lock-out of 100  drivers
(Hansom),  27  June,  1882,  closed  ;  proposed  estab-
lishment of  Cab-drivers'  Co-operative  Cab  Com-
pany, about  29  July,  1882.
Strike  of  the  Shrewsbury  Talbot  cab  company's

men . . . . ' . . . . April, 1891
Strike  of  about  300  other  cabmen  14  April ;  demon-
stration in  Hyde  Park  19  April ;  strike  gradually

subsided ,,

The  cab  distance-recorder  and  fare-indicator  of
Messrs.  W.  C.  Owen  &  W.  Grimes  described,
Times 29  Sept. ,,

CABUL, or Cabool, on  the river  Cabul,

about  1774,  by  Timsur  Shah,  was  made  capital  of
Afghanistan  {which  sec).
CACHET,  see  Lettres  de  Cachet.

CADDEE,  or  League  of  God's  House,
the  league  of  independence  in  Switzerland,  formed


CADE'S INSURRECTION.


166


CALABEIA.


by  the  Grisons  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  1396  to
1419.  A  second  league  of  the  Grisons  was  called
the  Grise  or  Gray  League,  1424.  A  third  league,
the  League  of  Ten  Jurisdictions,  was  formed  in
1436;  see  Grisons. They  united  in  1471.

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.  In  May,  1450,
Jack  (Jade,  an  Irishman,  assumed  the  name  of
Mortimer,  laid  before  the  royal  council  the  com-
plaint of  the  commons  of  Kent.  He  headed  about
20,000  Kentish  men,  who  armed  "  to  punish  evil
ministers,  and  procure  a  redress  of  grievances."
He  defeated  and  slew  sir  Humphry  Stafford,  at
Sevenoaks,  27  June,  entered  London  in  triumph,
and  beheaded  the  lord  treasurer,  lord  Saye,  and
several  other  persons  of  consequence,  3  July.  When
the  insurgents  lost  ground,  a  general  pardon  was
proclaimed,  and  Cade,  deserted  by  his  followers,  fled.
A  reward  having  been  offered  for  his  apprehension,
he  was  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender,  was
slain  by  Alexander  Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  n  July.

CADET'S  COLLEGE,  see  Sandhurst.

CADIZ  (W.  Spain),  anciently  Gadiz,  the  Ro-
man Gades  ;  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Phoeni-
cians, about  1 100  B.C.  Population  in  1887,  62,531.
One  hundred  vessels  of  the  Spanish  armada  de-
stroyed in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake  .  .  1587
Cadiz  was  taken  by  the  English  under  the  earl  of

Essex,  and  plundered  .  .  .  .15  Sept.  1596
Vainly  attacked  by  sir  George  Rooke  .  .  .  .  1 702
Bombarded  by  the  British  .  .  .  .July,  1797
Blockaded  by  lord  St.  Vincent  for  two  years  .  1797-9
Again  bombarded  by  the  British  .  .  .  Oct.  1800
A  French  squadron  of  five  ships  of  the  line  and  a

frigate  surrender to  the  Spanish and  British,

14  June,  1808
Besieged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  was  raised

after  the  battle  of  Salamanca  .  .  .  July,  1812
Insurrection,  18 19  ;  massacre  of  many  inhabitants

by  the  soldiery 9,  10  March,  1820

Taken  by  the  French  in  Oct.  1823,  and  held  till .  1828

Declared  a  free  port 1829

Insurrection  against  the  queen  began  with  the  fleet

here  (see  Spain) 77  Sept. 1868

Republican  insurrection  suppressed  with  bloodshed,

5-13  Dec. ,,
Naval  Exhibition  opened ... 15  Aug.  1887

CADMIUM,  a  metal,  discovered  by  Stromeyer
and  Hermann  in  181 8

CADOUDAL,  see  Georges."

C^ECILIAN  SOCIETY,  instituted  in  Lon-
don, in  1785,  for  the  performance  of  sacred  music,
especially  Handel's.  At  first  it  met  at  private
houses,  afterwards  at  various  city  company  halls,
and  finally  at  Albion  hall,  Moorfields,  till  its  dis-
solution in  1861.  Mr.  Z.  W.  Vincent,  the  first
conductor,  held  the  office  for  upwards  of  thirty
years.  Out  of  this  society,  which  was  the  prede-
cessor of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  came  many
eminent  professional  musicians.

CAEN  (N.  France),  a  place  of  importance  before
912,  when  it  became  the  capital  of  the  possessions
of  the  Normans,  under  whom  it  flourished.  It  was
taken  by  the  English  in  1346  and  1417  ;  but  was
finally  recovered  by  the  French  1  July,  1450.  Here
were  buried  William  the  conqueror  (1087),  and  his
queen  (1083).

CAERLEON,  Monmouthshire,  a  Roman  station,
and  made  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric  by  Dubritius.
His  disciple  and  successor,  St.  David  (522),  is  said  to
have  removed  it  to  Menevia,  now  St.  David's,  577.

CAERNARVON  (N.  Wales).  In  the  castle
(founded  in  1282)  Edward  II.  was  born,  25  April,
1284  ;  and  the  town  was  then  chartered  by  Edward  I.
The  town  suffered  by  the  civil  w  ar  of  Charles,  but


was  finally  retained  for  the  parliament.  The  North
Wales  Training  College  destroyed  by  fire,  20  Dec.
1891. Population,  1881,  10,258  ; 1891,9,804.

CiESAREA,  the  Roman  capital  of  Judea,  built
by  Herod  the  Great,  10  B.C.  Eusebius  the  historian
was  bishop  about  315.

OZESARS,  see  Rome;  Emperors.  The. Era  of
the  Caesars  or  Spanish  Era,  is  reckoned  from  1  Jan.
38  B.C.,  being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of
Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was  much  used  in  Africa,
Spain,  and  the  south  of  France ;  but  by  a  synod
held  in  1 180  its  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches
dependent  on  Barcelona.  Pedro  IV.  of  Arragon
abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.
John  of  Castile  did  the  same  in  1383.  It  was  used
in  Portugal  till  1415,  if  not  till  1422.  The  months
and  days  of  this  era  are  identical  with  the  Julian
calendar  ;  and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,
subtract  thirty-eight  from  the  year ;  but  if  before
the  Christian  era,  subtract  thirty-nine.

CiESIUM  (Latin,  bluish),  a  rare  alkaline
metal,  found  in  some  mineral  waters  by  Bunsen
in  1861,  by  means  of  the  "  Spectrum  analysis,"

which  see.

CAFEINE  (English  Caffeine),  an  alkaline
body,  discovered  in  coffee  by  Runge  in  1820,  and
in  tea  (and  named  theine)  by  Oudryin  1827.  The
identity  of  the  two  was  proved  by  Jobst  and  Mulder
in  1828.

CAFFRARIA,  and  Caffre  War,  see
Kaffir  aria.

CAGLIARI,  see  Naples,  note.

CAGOTS,  an  outcast  race  in  the  Pyrenees,  sup-
posed to  be  descendants  of  the  ancient  Groths.  They
have  been  subjected  to  superstitious  persecution  so
lately  as  1755.

CAI-FONG,  the  old  capital  of  China,  was  be-
sieged by  100,000  rebels,  in  1642.  The  commander
of  the  relieving  forces,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy,
broke  down  its  embankments.  All  the  besiegers
and  300,000  of  the  citizens  perished.

CA  IRA  !  the  burden  of  a  popular  song,  during
the  French  revolution,  first  heard  at  Paris, 5  Oct.
1789  :
"Ah!  ga  ira,  ga  ira,  ga  ira  ! Malgre  les  mutins,  tout

reussira." An  after  addition  was  "  Les  Aristocrates

a  la  lanterne  !  "
("  It  will  proceed  !  &c. In  spite  of  mutineers,  all  will

succeed." "  Hang  the  aristocrats  !  ")

CAIRO,  or  GRAND  CAIRO,  the  modem  capital
of  Egypt,  remarkable  for  its  mosques,  and  the  sepul-
chres of  its  Fatimite  caliphs  ;  see  Egypt.
Partially  built  by  the  Saracens  .... 969

Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans  .  .  1517
Ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  a  great  tire,  when

40,000  persons  perished  ....  June,  1754
Taken  by  the  French  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;

they  enter  the  city  ....  23  July,  179S
Taken  by  the  British  and  Turks,  when  6000  French

capitulated 27  June,  1801

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes  .  .  .  1  March,  1811
Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  .  .  .  March,  1862
Riots  against  Nubar  Pasha  and  the  British  ministers

18  Feb.  1879
After  their victory  at Tel-el-Kebir,  13  Sep.  1882,

the  British  entered  Cairo  the  next  day.
Population 31  Dec. 1878,  327,462; 1883, 368,108.
See  Cholera,  1883.

CALABAR,  Old  and  New,  rivers  in  West
Africa,  see  Bonny.

CALABRIA  (the  ancient  Messapia  of  S.  E.
Italy),  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  266  B.C.  It
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  under


CALAIS.


167


CALEDONIAN CANAL.


Theodoric,  a.  d.  493  ;  was  re-conquered  (for  the
Eastern  empire)  by  Belisarius,  536  ;  subdued  by  the
Lombards  and  joined  to  the  duchy  of  Benevento,
572.  After  various  changes,  it  was  conquered  by
[Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman,  1058,  who  obtained
the  title  of  duke  of  Calabria,  and  eventually  that  of
king  of  Naples.  Population,  1890,  1,309,554;  see
Naples.

CALAIS  (N.  W.  France),  fortified  by  Baldwin
IV.,  count  of  Flanders,  997  ;  taken  by  Edward  III.
after  a  year's  siege,  4  Aug.  1347.  It  was  retaken  by
.the  duke  of  Guise,  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  7  Jan.
1558,  and  its.  loss  so  deeply  touched  the  queen's
3ieart,  as  to  cause  some  to  say  it  occasioned  her  death,
which  occurred  soon  afterwards,  17  Nov.  same  year.
""  When  I  am  dead,"  said  the  queen,  "  Calais  will
foe  found  written  on  my  heart."  It  was  taken  by
the  Spaniards,  April  1596,  restored,  1598.  About
12  persons  drowned  in  a  house  by  bursting  of  a
reservoir,  30  Jan.  1882.  The  new  harbour  and
-docks  were  opened  by  president  Carnot,  3  June  1889 ;
see  Tunnels.
<Great  strike  of  lace-workers,  Sept.  1890  ;  ended  by

concession  of  the  masters . . . 30  Oct. 1890

CALATBAVA,  see  Knighthood.

CALCIUM,  the  metallic  base  of  lime,  was  dis-
covered at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  by  Hum-
phry Davy  in  1808.

CALCULATING  MACHINES- .  To  avoid
.errors  in  computing  and  printing  logarithms  and
tables  of  figures,  machines  to  calculate  and  print
have  been  devised.  Pascal,  when  nineteen  years  of
age,  invented  one  about  1650.  The  construction  of
Mr.  C.  Babbage's  differential  machine  was  com-
menced at  the  expense  of  government  in  1823,  and
•continued  till  1833,  when  the  work  was  suspended
after  an  expenditure  of  17,000/.  The  portion
-completed  was  placed  in  the  library  of  King's  Col-
lege, London ;  it  is  now  at  South  Kensington.  Pro-
fessor Clifford,  in  his  lecture  at  the  Royal  Institu-
tion, 24  May  1872,  stated  that  -Babbage  expended
.20,000/.  upon  his  machines,  and  that  the  analytical
machine  was  nearly  finished,  and  would  eventually
be  much  used.  "  Babbage's.CalculatingEngines  :  a
Collection  of  Papers  relating  to  them,"  was  published
by  his  son,  Gen.  Babbage,  in  1889.  C.  Babbage  died
H871,  aged  78.  In  1857,  Messrs.  F.  and  G.  Scheutz,
two  Swedish  engineers,  published  in  London  speci-
men tables,  calculated  and  printed  by  machinery
-constructed  between  1837  and  1843,  after  a  study  of
the  account  of  Mr.  Babbage's  machine.  Messrs.
Scheutz  brought  their  machine  to  England  in  1854.
St  was  bought  for  1000I.  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Rathbone,  an
American  merchant,  to  be  presented  to  Dudley  ob-
servatory in  his  own  town,  Albany.  In  1857,  Messrs.
Scheutz  were  engaged  to  make  one  for  the  British
government,  which  was  completed.  Mr.  Wiberg's
machine,  exhibited  at  Paris,  Feb.  1863,  was  much
•commended.  Tables  constructed  by  means  of
Scheutz's  machine,  and  edited  by  Dr.  W.  Farr,  were
published  by  the  government  in  1864.  The  arith-
mometer, patented  by  M.  Thomas  (de  Colmar)  in
5822  (?),  exhibited  at  the  International  exhibitions,
185 1  and  1862,  is  said  to  be  in  use  in  assurance
offices.  Geo.  B.  Grant  described  a  simpler  machine
in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science,"  Oct.  1874.
Other  machines  have  been  constructed  since.

CALCUTTA,  capital  of  Bengal  and  British
India;  the  first  settlement  of  the  English  here  was
made  in  1689.  Population,  1881,  766,298;  1891,
840,130.

Purchased  as  a  zemindary,  and  Fort  William  built  1698
Made  the  head  of  a  separate  presidency . . .  1707


The  fort  attacked  and  taken  by  an  army  of  70,000
horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants  (146  of  the
British  crammed  into  the  "  Black-hole  prison,"  a
dungeon,  about  18  feet  square,  from  whence
23  only  came  forth the next morning alive)

20  June.  1756
Calcutta  retaken  by  Clive  ...  2  Jan.  1757
Supreme  court  of  judicature  established . . .  1773

Asiatic  Society  founded 1784

College  founded 1801

Bishopric  of  Calcutta  instituted  by  act,  July,  1813  ;
first  bishop,  Thomas  F.  Middleton . . .  1814

Bishop's  College  founded 1820

Cathedral  founded 1840

An  industrial  exhibition  opened  . . .25  Jan. 1855
Great  cyclone,  followed  by  a  "  bore  "  or  spring  tide
in  the  Hooghly ;  water  rises  30  feet  high  ;  immense
damage  done  to shipping  and houses  ; about
60,000  persons  said  to  have  perished . 5  Oct. 1864
Another  cyclone ;  about  30,000  small  houses  un-
roofed,  much small  shipping  injured  ;  and  the
crops  in  Lower  Bengal  destroyed  (about  90,000
persons  drowned  ;  75,000  die  of  cholera), 1  Nov. 1867
Visited  by  the  king  of  Siam . . . Jan. 1872
Visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  25  Dec.  1875 — 3  Jan.  1876
Statue  of  lord  Mayo  unveiled  by  him . 1  Jan. „
Statue  of  the  queen  given by  the  maharajah  of

Burdwan,  unveiled . . . . 1  Jan. 1878
International exhibition  opened  by  the  viceroy,
the  marquis  of Ripon,  the  duke  and  duchess  of
Connaught  present,  4  Dec.  1883  ;  closed  10  March,  1884
Destructive cyclone  ; the  sir  John  Lawrence  and
the tug Retriever lost, about 700 lives lost,

23  May  et  seq.  1887
About  sixty  persons  killed  by  the  collision of  a

ferry  steamer  with  a  tug-boat  near  Calcutta  6  Nov.  1888
Trade  paralyzed  by  strike  of  about  30,000  native

bullock-carters  for  a  few  days . 30  June  et  seq.  1889
Visit  of  prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales,  great  fes-
tivities 3-13  Jan. 1890

Fatal  religious  riot,  May, 1891 ; trial  of  rioters,

5  Aug.  1891
Statue  of  the  marquis  of  Dufferin  unveiled,  8  Dec.  ,,
See  Bengal  and  India.
CALEDONIA,  the  Roman  name  for  part  of
Scotland,  north  of  the  wall  of  Antoninus,  so  termed
by  Tacitus,  who  died  99.  Venerable  Bede  says
that  it  retained  this  name  until  258,  when  it
was  invaded  by  a  tribe  from  Ireland,  and  called
Scotia.  The  ancient  inhabitants  appear  to  have  been
the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  tribes  of  the  Celts,  who
passed  over  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Gaul.  About
the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  of  the  Christian
era  they  were  invaded  (as  stated  by  some  authorities)
by  the  Scuyths  or  Scy thins  (since  called  Scots),  who,
having  driven  the  Picts  into  the  north,  settled  in  the
Lowlands,  and  gave  their  name  to  the  whole  country ;
see  Scotland.

Caledonian  monarchy,  mythically  said  to  have  been

founded  by  Fergus  I.  .  .  .  about  B.C.  330
The  Picts  from  England  settle  in  the  south  .  .  140
Agrieola,  the  Roman,  invades  Caledonia  .  a.d.  79
He  defeats  Galgacus,  and  builds  a  wall  between  the

Forth  and  Clyde 84

Wall  of  Antoninus  built 140

Ulpius  Marcellus  repels  their  incursions  . . . 184
Christianity  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Donald  I. . 201
The  Caledonians  invade  South  Britain,  207  ;  repelled
by  the  emperor  Severus,  who  advances  to  the

Moray  Frith 209

Caledonia  invaded  by  the  Scuths,  or  Seotti,  from

Ireland,  about 3°6

Caledonian  monarchy  revived  by  Fergus  II. . . 404
Kenneth  II.,  king  of  the  Seotti,  subdues  the  Cale-
donians and  Picts, and  founds  one  monarchy,
named  Scotland 838  to  843

CALEDONIAN  ASYLUM,  Eoyal,  for
children  of  indigent  respectable  Scotch  parents,
Islington,  London,  established  in  1813.  In  1892,
166  children  were  maintained  and  educated.

CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  from  the  North
Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. The  act  for  its  construe-


CALENDAE.


1C8


CALIPH.


tion  received  the  royal  assent  27  July,  1803 ;  and
the  works  were  commenced  same  year.  The  nautical
intercourse  between  the  western  ports  of  Oreat
Britain  and  those  also  of  Ireland  to  the  North  Sea
and  Baltic,  is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and
in  others  1000  miles.  A  sum  exceeding  a  million
sterling  was  granted  by  parliament  from  time  to
time ;  and  safe  navigation  for  ships  was  opened  1
Nov.  1822.  It  has  not  been  successful  commercially.
Annual  income  from  tonnage,  1  May,  1859,  5080/. ;
expenditure,  6951^.;  annual  income,  April,  1866-7,
6541Z. ;  expenditure,  bbg8l. ;  receipts,  April,  1890-91,
7,530*'. ;  expenditure,  10,001/.

CALENDAE,  see  Jewish  Era  and  Calendar.
The  .Roman  calendar  was  introduced  by  liomulus,
who  divided  the  year  into  ten  months,  comprising
304  days,  738  B.C.  This  year  was  of  fifty  days'  less
duration  than  the  lunar  year,  and  of  sixty-one  less
than  the  solar  year,  and  its  commencement  did  not
correspond  with  any  fixed  season.  Numa  Pompilius,
713  B.C.,  added  two  months  ;  and  Julius  Cresar,  45
B.C.,  to  make  it  more  correct,  fixed  the  solar  year  at
365  days  6  hours,  every  fourth  year  being  bissextile
or  leap-year ;  see  Leap-year.  This  calendar  was
defective,  as  the  solar  year  consists  of  365  days,  5
hours,  49  minutes,  and  not  of  365  days  6  hours.
This  being  still  erroneous  Augustus  Cresar  reformed
the  calendar  still  further,  but  not  perfectly,  B.C.  8,
and  the  difference,  in  the  16th  century  amounted  to
10  entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  nth
instead  of  21st  March.  To  obviate  this  error,  pope
Gregory  XIII.  ordained,  in  1582,  that  that  year
should  consist  of  355  days  only  (5  Oct.  became  15
Oct.)  ;  and  to  prevent  further  irregularity,  it  was
determined  that  a  year  ending  a  century  should
not  be  bissextile,  with  the  exception  of  that  end-
ing each  fourth  century  ;  thus  1700  and  1800  have
not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so  :  but  the
year  2000  will  be  a  leap-year.  In  this  manner  three
days  are  retrenched  in  400  years,  because  the  lapse'
of  eleven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  about  that
period.  The  year  of  the  calendar  is  thus  made  as
nearly  as  possible  to  correspond  with  the  true  solar
year,  and  future  errors  of  chronology  are  avoided.
See  New  Style  and  French  Revolutionary  Calendar.

CORRESPONDENCE OF  CALENDARS  WITH A.D. 1889.

Julian  period 6602

"Sear  of  the  world  (Jewish  year)  6  Sept.  1888—

25  Sept.  1889 5649

Hegira  (8  Sept.  1888,  to  27  Aug.  1889)  . . . 1306

Foundation  of  Rome  (Varro) 2642

Olympiads \ 266s

Era  of  Nabonassar 2636

United  States'  Independence .... 113-14

Year  of  Queen  Victoria 52-53

Comte,  in  his  "  Systeuie  de  Politique  Positive,"  (insti-
tuting the  "Religion  of  Humanity"),  published  a  ca-
lendar of  13  months,  dedicated  successively  to  Moses,
Homer,  Aristotle,  Archimedes,  Caesar,  Paul,  Charle-
magne, Dante,  Guttenberg,  Shakespeare,  Descartes,
Frederic,  and  Bichat ;  an  eminent  person  was  com-
memorated every  day.

CALENDEE,  a  machine  used  in  glazing  vari-
ous kinds  of  cloth,  was  introduced  into  England  by
the  Huguenots,  who  were  driven  by  persecution
from  France,  Holland,  and  the  Netherlands  to  these
countries,  about  1685. Anderson.

CALENDS  were  the  first  days  of  the  Roman
months.  The  Nones  of  March,  May,  July,  and  Oct.
fell  on  the  7th;  and  their  Ides  on  the  15th.  The
other  months  had  the  Nones'  on  the  5th  and  the  Ides
on  the  13th.  As  the  Greeks  had  no  Calends,  "on
the  Greek  Calends,"  ad  Grcccas  Calendas,  meant
never.


CALICO,  cotton  cloth,  named  from  Calicut,  a
city  of  India,  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1498,
Calico  was  first  brought  to  England  by  the  East
India  Company  in  1631.  Calico-printing  and  the
Dutch  loom  engine  were  first  used  in  1676,  when  a
Frenchman  established  a  factory  at  Richmond,  near
London.  Anderson.  Calicoes  were  prohibited  to
be  printed  or  worn  in  1700;  and  again  in  1 721,  a
penalty  of  5/.  was  laid  on  the  wearer,  and  20/.  on  the
seller  of  calico.  In  1831,  by  the  exertions  of  Mr,
Poulett  Thompson,  afterwards  lord  Sydenham,  and
others,  the  consolidated  duty  of  T,hd.  on  the  square
yard  of  printed  calico  was  taken  off.  Since  1834,
the  manufacture  has  been  greatly  increased  by  the-
applications  of  science.  Cylinders  for  printing  are
now  engraved  by  galvanism,  and  many  new  dyes-
have  been  introduced  by  the  discoveries  of  Licbig,.
Hofmann,  Perkin,  &c. ;  see  Cotton  and  Dyeing.

John  Mercer,  a  great  improver  of  calico-printing,  dieiS
30  Nov.  1866.

CALICUT  (nowKolikod),  S.W.India,  the  first
Indian  port  visited  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  20  May,  1498.
It  was  seized  by  Hyder  Ali,  1766;  taken  bjr  the
English,  1782;  destroyed  by  Tippoo  Saib,  1789;.
ceded  to  the  English,  1792.

CALIFOENIA  (from  the  Spanish,  Calienle
Fornalla,  hot  furnace,  in  allusion  to  the  climate),
was  discovered  by  Cortez  in  1537;  others  say  by
Cabrillo  in  1542  ;  and  visited  by  sir  Francis  Drake,
who  named  it  New  Albion,  in  1579.  California  was
admitted  into  the  United  States  in  1850.  The
population  in  1856  was  506,067  ;  in  1880,  864,694  ;
in  1890,  1,208,130.  State  capital,  Sacramento.
San  Francisco  is  the  largest  city.
The Spanish establish missionary and military

stations 1698

California  becomes  subject  to  Mexico . . .  1823
After  a  bloodless  revolution,  it  becomes  virtually

independent 1836

Occupied  by  the  army  of  the  United  States . . 1846
Gold  discovered  in  great  abundance  by  capt.  Sutter

and  Mr.  Marshall Sept. 1847

Ceded  to  the  United  States 1848

Made  a  sovereign  state 1850

Numerous  murders  in  San  Francisco — Lynch  law

prevailing 1853-60

Adhered  to  the  union  during  the  war  . . . 1 861-4
Suffered  much  damage  by  an  earthquake, 21  Sept. 1868
Bank  of  California,  long  very  prosperous, stops
through unsuccessful speculations, suspected
suicide  of  "the  prince," Wm.  C.  Ralston,  ma-
nager about  25  Aug. 1S75

Great  opposition  to  increasing  Chinese  immigration,

March,  1876
Political agitation caused by Dennis Kearney

against  cash  payments  ....  Aug.  1878
New  constitution  (excluding  Chinese  from  citizen-
ship ;  altering  taxation  to  favour  the  working-
classes  ;  restricting  companies,  &c.)  promoted  by
Dennis  Kearney,  the  agitator  ;  passed  8  May,  1879
Political  disorders ;  Mr.  de  Young,  an  editor,  dan-
gerously wounds  rev.  Mr. Kallock,  the  elected

mayor Aug. ,,

Violent  reaction  against  Kearney,  who  flees  for  his

life July,  1880

Anti-Chinese  bill passed  ; resident  Chinese  may

remain,  immigrants  prohibited . 13  March,  1893
Towns  and  villages  in  the  Sacramento  valley  suffer
by  an  earthquake  . . . . 19  April,  1892.

CALIPEE  COMPASS,  whereby  the  bore  of
cannon,  small  arms,  &c.  is  measured,  is  said  to  have
been  invented  by  an  artificer  of  Nuremberg  in  1540.

CALIPH  (Arabic),  Vicar,  or  Lieutenant,  the
title  assumed  by  the  sophi  of  Persia,  as  successor  of
Ali,  and,  since  151 7,  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  as
successor  of  Mahomet,  and  sovereign  of  Mecca" and
Medina. The  caliphat  began  with  Abubeker,  the


CALIPPIC PERIOD.


169


CAMBIUM REGIS.


father  of the prophet's second  wife. Sir  Wm.
Muir's  "  Caliphate  "  published  1891.

CALIPHS OF ARABIA.

632. Abubeker.

634. Omar  I.

644. Othman.

655. Ali.

661. Hassan.

The  Ommiades  ruled  661-750.

The  Abbasides  ruled  750-1258.

In  775  they  were  styled  caliphs  of  Bagdad.

Haroun-al-Raschid  ruled  786-809.

See  Ommiades  and  Abbasides.

CALIPPIC  PERIOD,  invented  by  Calippus,
about  330  B.C.,  to  correct  the  Metallic  cycle,  consists
of  four  cycles,  or  of  seventy-six  years,  at  the  expira-
tion of  which  he  incorrectly  imagined  the  new  and
full  moons  return  to  the  same  day  of  the  solar  year.
This  period  began  about  the  end  of  June,  third  year
of  1 1 2th  Olympiad,  year  of  Rome  424,  and  330  B.C.

_  CALIXTINS,  1.  A  sect  derived  from  the  Hus-
sites, about  I420demandedthecup  (Greek,  Kalix)  in
the  Lord's  supper.  They  were  also  called  Utraquists
as  partaking  of  both  elements.  They  were  recon-
ciled to  the  Roman  church  at  the  council  of  JJasle,
1433.  2.  The  followers  of  George  Calixtus,  a  Lu-
theran,who  died  in  1656.  He  wrote  against  the  celi-
bacy of  the  priesthood,  andproposed  a  re-union  of  Ca-
tholics and  Protestants  based  on  the  Apostles'  creed.

CALI  YUGA,  the  Hindoo  era  of  the  Deluge,
dates  from  3101  B.C.  (according  to  some,  3102),  and
begins  with  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  Hindoo
sign  Aswin,  now  on  11  April,  N.S.  In  1600  the
year  began  on  7  April,  N.S.,  from  which  it  has  now
advanced  four  days,  and  from  the  precession  of  the
equinoxes,  is  still  advancing  at  the  rate  of  a  day  in
sixty  years.  The  number  produced  by  subtracting
3102  from  any  given  year  of  the  Cali  Yuga  era  will
be  the  Christian  year  in  which  the  given  year
begins.

CALLAO  (Peru).  After  an  earthquake,  the
sea  retired  from  the  shore,  and  returned  in  moun-
tainous waves,  which  destroyed  the  city  in  1687,  and
on  28  Oct.  1746.  The  attempt  of  the  Spanish  ad-
miral Nunez  to  bombard  Callao,  2  May,  1866,  was
defeated,  by  the  Peruvians ;  blockaded  by  Chilians,
April  1880,  see  Chili. Population,  1876,  33,502.

CALLIGRAPHY  (beautiful  writing).  Calli-
crates  is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant  distich  on
a  sesamum  seed,  472  B.C.  In  the  16th  century
Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Creed,  and
Decalogue,  two  short  Latin  prayers,  his  own  name,
motto,  day  of  the  month,  year  of  our  Lord,  aud  of
the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  (to  whom  he  presented
them  at  Hampton  Court),  all  within  the  circle  of  a
silver  penny,  enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of  gold,
and  covered  with  crystal,  so  accurately  done,  as  to
be  plainly  legible, "Holinshed.

CALMAR,  UlsriO^  OF.  The  treaty  whereby
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  were  united  under
one  sovereign,  Margaret,  queen  of  Sweden  and  Nor-
way, "  the  Semiramisof  the  north;"  June,  1397, see
Sweden.  The  union  was  dissolved  by  Gustavus
Vasa  in  1523.

CALMUCKS,  see  Tartar;/.

CALOMEL  ("beautiful  black")  a  compound
of  mercury,  sulphuric  acid,  and  chloride  of  sodium,
first  mentioned  by  Crollius  early  in  the  17th  century.
The  first  directions  given  for  its  preparation  were  by
Beguin  in  1608.

CALORESCENCE.  In  Jan.  1865  Professor
Tyndall  rendered  the  ultra-red  rays  of  the  spectrum
of  the  electric  light  visible  by  causing  a  focus  of


them  to  impinse  on  a  plate  of  platinum,  which  they
raised  to  a  white  heat.  He  termed  the  phenomenon
Calorescence ;  see  Fluorescence.

CALORIC,  see  Heat.

CALOTYPE  PROCESS  (from  the  Greek
kalos  beautiful),  by  which  negative  photographs1
are  produced  on  paper,  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Henry
Fox  Talbot  about  1840.  Also  called  Taleotyi-e,
See  Photography.

CALOYERS  (meaning  good  old  men).  The
monks  of  the  Greek  church,  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil..
Their  most  celebrated  monastery  in  Asia  is  at  Mount
Sinai,  endowed  by  Justinian  (died  565) ;  the  Eu-
ropean one  is  at  Mount  Athos.

CALPEE,  India.  Sir  Hugh  Rose  defeated  the
mutineers  here,  and  took  the  town,  22,  23  May,  185S-

CALVARY,  MOUNT,  the  place  where  the  Re-
deemer suffered  death,  5  April,  a.d.  30 ;  (Hales,  31 ;,
Clinton,  29;  others  38)  ;  see  ZM/texxiii.33.  Adrian,
at  the  time  of  his  persecution  of  the  Christians,
erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter  on  Mount  Calvary,  and
a  temple  of  Adonis  on  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,
142.  The  empress  Helena  built  a  church  heie  about
326  ;  see  Holy  Places.

CALVES'  HEAD  CLUB,  noblemen  and
gentlemen,  Avho  are  said  to  have  exposed  raw  calves*
heads  at  the  windows  of  a  tavern,  30  Jan.  1735,  *ne
anniversary  of  the  execution  of  Charles  1.  An  angry-
mob  was  dispersed,  and  the  club  suppressed.

CALVI  (Corsica).  The  British  forces  besieged
the  fortress  of  Calvi,  12  June,  1794.  After  fifty-nine?
days  it  surrendered  on  10  Aug.  It  surrendered  to
the  French  in  1796.

CALVINISTS,  named  after  John  Calvin  (or
Chauvin),  who  was  born  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  10
July,  1509.  Adopting  the  reformed  doctrines  he  tied
to  Angouleme,  where  he  composed  his  Instituiio
Christiana  Religionis  in  1533;  published  in  1536.
He  retired  to  Basle,  and  settled  in  Geneva,  where
he  died,  27  May,  1564.  He  was  instrumental  in
burning  Servetus  for  denying  the  Trinity  in  1553-
A  formal  separation  between  the  Calvinists  and
Lutherans  took  place  after  the  conference  of  Poissy
in  1 561,  where  the  former  expressly  rejected  the
tenth  and  other  articles  of  the  confession  of  Augs-
burg, and  took  the  name  of  Calvinists.  In  France
(see  Huguenots)  they  took  up  arms  against  their
persecutors.  Henry  IV.,  originally  a  Calvinist,  on
becoming  king,  secured  their  liberty  by  the  Edict  of
Nantes  in  1590  (which. see).  Calvinistic  doctrines
appear  in  the  articles  of  the  Church  of  England  aud
in  the  confession  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  are.
held  by  many  protestant  sects.  They  include  pre-
destination, particular  redemption,  total  depravity,
irresistible  grace,  and  the  certain  perseverance  of
the  saints.

CAMALDULES  or  CaMALDOLITES,  a  reli-
gious order  founded  at  Camaldoli  near  Florence,  by
Romuald  about  1022.

CAMBAY,  see  India,  1890.

CAMBERWELL,  Surrey,  a  southern  suburb
of  London.  The  grammar  school  was  established
by  the  Kev.  E.  Wilson.  29  Sept.  1715.  The  am  ienl
church  was  burnt  7  Feb.  [841.  Caniberwell  r<  turns
3  members  to  Parliament  by  the  Acts  of  [884-85.
The  Public  Library  presented  by  Mr.  Ue<
Livesey  (cost  nearly  8,000/.)  opened  by  fir  E.
Clarke,  18  Oct.  1890".  Population,  1881,  186,593;
1891,  235>312-

CAMBIUM  REGIS  ;  see  Royal  Exchange.


CAMBODIA.


170


CAMBRIDGE.


CAMBODIA,  Central  Asia;  (capital,  Penom-
jpein),  a  kingdom,  divided  between  the  emperor  of
Ann'am  and  the  king  of  Siam,  1820.  The  king,
jSTorodom,  recognizes  French  protectorate  by  treaty,
Oct.  1883.  Insurrection  ;  French  posts  at  Sambaur,
.12  Jan. ;  governor  of  Cochin  China  marches  there  ;
irebels  attacked  and  dispersed  21  Jan. ;  again  April
1885.

'.The  French  capture  Fort  Angko  by  assault,  announced

22  July  1885.
Jtebel  Prince  Si-Votha  treats  for  peace  April,  1889.

CAMBRAY  (N.  France),  the  ancient  Camara-
•ciim,  was  in  the  middle  ages  the  capital  of  a  prince
hishop  subject  to  the  emperor.  It  gives  its  name  to
•cambric  Councils  held  here,  1064,  1303,  1383,
J565-
TIeld  by  Louis  XI.  of  France .... 1477-8

Taken  by  Charles  V 1544

-By  the  Spaniards 1595

J3y  the  French  and  annexed ."'•'. . . . 1667

Fenelon  made  archbishop 169s

The  French  were  defeated  at  Csesar's  camp,  in  the
neighbourhood,  by  the  allied  army  under  the  duke

of  York 24  April,  1794

St  was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  8  Aug. ,  when  the
republican  general,  Declay,  replied  to  the  sum-
mons to  surrender,  that  "he  knew  not  how  to  do
that,  but  his  soldiers  knew  how  to  fight."  It
was  taken  by  Clairfait,  the  Austrian general,

10  Sept.  1798
Cambray  seized  by  the  British,  under  sir  Charles

Colville 24  June,  1815

JLeague  of  Cambray  against  the  republic  of  Venice,
comprising  pope  Julius  II.,  the  emperor  Maxi-
milian, and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  and  Ferdinand
of  Spain,  entered  into . . .  10  Dec.  1508

Treaty  between  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  Charles  V.
of  Germany,  (called  Palx  ties  Dames,  because  nego-
tiated by  Louisa  of  Savoy,  mother  of  the  French
king, and  Margaret of Austria, aunt of the

emperor) I5og

'Treaty  between  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  and
Philip  V.  of  Spain 1724-5

CAMBRIA,  ancient  name  of  "Wales  (which  see).

CAMBRIC  first  made  at  Cambray;  worn  in
England,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury,  1580.  Stow.
Its  importation  restricted  in  1745;  prohibited  in
H758;  re-admitted,  1786;  prohibited  1795.

CAMBRIDGE,  supposed  to  be  the  Roman
■Camboricum  and  ttie  Saxon  Granta  hricsir,  fre-
quently mentioned  by  the  earliest  British  historians,
was  burnt  by  the  Danes  in  870  and  ioio.  See
lable  in  Population.

fortified  by  William  I. I07o

Plundered  by  the  barons ' . IOS8

in  Wat  Tyler's and  Jack  Straw's  rebellion, the

rebels  enter  the  town,  seize  the  university  records

and  burn  them  in  the  market-place . . . 1381

'Garrisoned  by  Cromwell ^42

-Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  established  in  1819,

and  chartered xg32

Bailway  to  London  opened . . . Junej  1845
Mtzwilliam  museum,  endowed  1816  ;  founded  1837  ';

completed j34_

British  Association  met  here . . 1833,1845,1862
Visit  of  prince  and  princess  of  Wales . 2-4  June.'  1864

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

'The  early  history  is  traditional  till  the  12th  century
Sigebert,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  is  mythically
said  to  have  set  up  a  school  about  630.  Scholar's
are  said  to  have  collected  here  and 'to  have  been
favoured  by  Henry  I.,  mo.  Henry  III.  granted
ithe  first  charter  in  1231,  about  which  time  the
students  began  to  live  together  in  hostels  which
afterwards  became  colleges  named  after  saints.
It  is  said  that  there  were  27  hostels  in  1280.  The
•university  was  incorporated  in  1571,  and  sent
two  members  to  parliament  in  1603.  University
■tests  act  passed,  16  June,  1870.  University  coni-
anission  respecting  property  was  appointed  6
Jim.,  1872.  Universities  act,  making  many
changes,  was  passed .... 10  Aug.  1877


St  Paul's  Hostelry  for  Indian  students,  chartered

18  July,  1883

New  Museum  of  Classical  Art  and  Archaeology
opened 6  May,  1884

Henry  Fawcett,  M.P. ,  Postmaster-general,  buried
at  Trumpington 10  Nov. ,,

Miss  A.  F.  Ramsay,  of  Girton,  senior  and  alone  in
the  first  division  of  the  classical  tripos.  Miss  B.
M.  Hervey,  of  Newnham,  alone  in  the  first  division
of  the  mediaeval  and  modern  languages  tripos

18  June  1887

Miss  G.  P.  Fawcett,  Newnham  (daughter  of  the  late
professor),  above  the  senior  wrangler  in  mathe-
matics 7  June,  1890

Professor  G.  G.  Stokes,  P.R.S.,  elected  M.P.  forthe
University 17  Nov.  1887

The  senate  supports  the  compulsory  study  of
Greek  (525-185) 29  Oct.  1891

Establishment  of  an  engineering  school,  proposed

Dec. „

COLLEGES.

Peterhouse  College,  by  Hugo  de  Balsham,  bishop  of

Ely,  founded 1257

Pembroke College, founded by  the countess  of

Pembroke 1347

Gonville  and  Caius,  by  Edmund  Gonville . . . 1348

Enlarged  by  Dr.  John  Caius 1558

Corpus  Christi,  or  Benet . . . . . . 1352

King's  College,  by  Henry  VI. . .  . .  1441

Queen's  College,  by  Margaret  of  Anjou,  1448  ;  and

Elizabeth  Woodville 1449

Jesus  College,  by  John  Alcock,  bishop  of  Ely . . 1496
Christ's  College,  founded  1442  ;  endowed  by  Mar-
garet, countess  of  Richmond,  mother  of  Henry

VII. 1505

St.  John's  College,  endowed  by  Margaret,  countess

of  Richmond 1511

Magdalene  College,  by  Thomas,  baron  Audley  .  .  1519
Trinity  College,  by  Henry  VIII. . .  .  1546

Emmanuel  College,  by  sir  Walter  Mildmay  . .  1584

Sidney  Sussex  College,  founded  by  Frances  Sidney,

countess  of  Sussex 1598

Downing  College,  by  sir  George  Downing,  by  will,

in  1717  ;  its  charter 1800

Cavendish  College . .  ... 1873-6

Ridley  Hall  (theological), foundation  stone  laid,

17  Oct.  1879
Selwyn  College,  founded . . . . 1  June,  1881

THREE HALLS.

Clare  Hall,  or  College,  first  founded  by  Dr.  Richard
Baden  in  1326 ;  destroyed  by  fire  and  re-estab-
lished by  Elizabeth  de  Bourg,  sister  to  Gilbert,

earl  of  Clare about  1342

Trinity  Hall,  by  Win,  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich,  1350

St.  Catherine's  College  or  Hall,  founded  . . .  1473

[Cambridge  University  Calendar.]

CHANCELLORS.

Charles,  duke  of  Somerset,  elected . . . . 1688

Thomas,  duke  of  Newcastle 1748

Augustus  Henry,  duke  of  Grafton  .  .  .  .  1768
H.  R.  H.  William  Frederick,  duke  of  Gloucester . 18 11

John,  marquis  Camden 1834

Hugh,  duke  of  Northumberland  ....  1840
The  Prince  Consort  [died  Dec.  14,  1861.]  28  Feb.  1847
William,  duke  of  Devonshire  [died  21 Dec. 1891]

31  Dec.  1861
Spencer  C,  duke  of  Devonshire . . 4  Jan.  1892

PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS.  FOUNDED

Divinity  (Lady  Margaret,  mother  of  Henry  VIII.)

1502  ;  Regius 1540

Laws,  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Physic . . . . ,,

Arabic 1632

Mathematics  (Lucasian) 1663

Music  .  1684

Chemistry  .  1702

Astronomy 1704,  1749

Anatomy ..... s .. .  1707

Modern  History,  Botany 1724

Natural  and  experimental  Philosophy  . . . .  1783

Mineralogy 1808

Political  Economy 1863

Slade  (fine  art) 1869

Cambridge  Union  Society  begun  as  a  debating
club  at  the  "  Red  Lion"  in  181 1 ;  settled  in  its
new  building  in  1S86.  Dr.  Whewell  was  president


CAMBEIDGE.


171


CAMOEEA.


in  1817. Lord  Houghton, sir  Alex.  Cockburn,
lords  Macaulay  and  Lytton,  were  early  members.

DUKES OF CAMBRIDGE.

George  Augustus,  electoral  prince  of  Hanover,
created  duke  9  Nov.,  1706  ;  king  as  George  II.,
11  June,  1727,  see  England.

Adolphus  Frederick,  fifth  son  of  George  III.,  born
24  Feb.,  1774,  created  duke  27  Nov.,  1801 ;  viceroy
of  Hanover,  1816-37  ;  died  8  July,  1850.

George  William  Frederick  Charles,  son,  born  26
March,  1819  ;  duke,  8  July,  1850  ;  colonel,  3
Nov.,  1837  ;  commanded  the  first  division  in  the
Crimean  war  ;  general  commanding  in  chief,  5
July,  1856;  commander-in-chief  by  patent,  1887..

CAMBEIDGE,  a  city  in  Massachusetts ;  first
settled  in  1630.  The  "Bay  Psalm-book,"  said  to
be  the  first  book  printed  in  British  America,  was
published  here  in  1640.  See  Harvard  College.
Population  in  1870,  39,364  ; 1890,  70,028.

CAMBUSKENNETH,  near Stirling  (Cen-
tral Scotland). Here  Wallace  defeated  the  English
under  Warrenne  and  Cressingham,  10  Sept.  1297.
The  abbey,  one  of  the  richest  in  Scotland,  was  founded

by  King  David  I.  in  1147,  was  spoiled  and  the  fabric

nearly  destroyed  by  the  reformers  in  1559.

CAMDEN  (S.  Carolina).  Here  16  Aug.  1780,
iord  Cornwallis  defeated  the  revolted  Americans,
under  Gates.  At  a  second  battle  (also  called  Hob-
kirk's  hill),  between  general  Greene  and  lord  Raw-
don,  the  Americans  were  again  defeated,  25  April,
1 78 1.  Camden  was  evacuated  and  burnt  by  the
British,  13  May,  1781.

.  CAMDEN  SOCIETY,  established  1838,  pub-
lishes British  historical  documents.  155  volumes
had  been  issued,  April,  1892.

CAMDEN  TOWN,  N.W.  London,  begun  by
land  let  for  building  1400  houses  by  earl  Camden
in  1791 ;  received  his  name  a  few  years  after.

CAMEL,  DAY  OF  THE,  4  Nov.  656  (according
to  some  658  or  659)  when  Talha  and  Zobeif,  rebel
Arab  chiefs,  were  defeated  and  slain  by  the  caliph
Ali,  Ayesha,  Mahomet's  widow,  friend  of  the
chiefs,  was  present  in  a  litter,  on  a  camel,  hence  the
name.

A  camel  corps  was  raised  during  the  Soudan  campaigns
of  1884-5.  It  consisted  of  about  1,000  camels,  con-
trolled by  British  cavalry  and  marines.

CAMEEA  LUCID  A,  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke
about  1674;  another  by  Dr.  Wollaston  in  1807.
Camera  Ubscura,  or  dark  chamber,  constructed,
it  is  said,  by  Roger  Bacon  in  1297 ;  improved  by
Baptista  Porta,  about  1500;  and  remodelled  by  sir
Isaac  Newton.  By  the  invention  of  M.  Daguerre,
in  1839,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  are  fixed;  see
Photography.  The  Camera  Club  (photographers),
founded  1885,  holds  annual  meetings.

CAMEEON'S  ACT,  Dr.,  see  Debt,  1880.

CAMEEONIANS,  a  name  frequently  given
to  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  church  of  Scotland,
the  descendants  of  the  covenanters  of  the  17th  cen-
tury, the  established  church,  1638-50.*  Charles  II.
signed  the  League  and  Covenant  in  1650,  in  hopes
of  recovering  his  kingdoms,  but  renounced  it  in  1661.


*  They  were  frequently  called  Kill-men  or mountain  men,
and  society  people(fTom  the  places  and  modes  of  worship
to  which  they  were  frequently  reduced),  and  McMillanites,
from  John  McMillan,  their  first  minister,  after  their
secession  from  the  Church  of  Scotland  on  account  of  its
subserviency  to  the  English  government,  and  its  declining
from  its  original  rigid  principles.  They  assumed  the
name  of  the  "Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,"  on  May
5,  1876,  and  soon  after  united  with  the  Free  Church  of
.Scotland.


and  revived  episcopacy.  A  revolt  ensued  in  1666,
when  many  covenanters  were  slain  in  battle  (in  the
Pentland  hills,  &c),  and  many  refusing  to  take  the
oaths  required,  and  declining  to  accept  the  king's
indulgence,  died  on  the  scaffold,  after  undergoing
cruel'  tortures.  The  name  Cameronian  is  derived
from  Richard  Cameron,  one  of  their  ministers,  who
was  killed  in  a  skirmish,  in  1680.  On  22  June  in
that  year  he  and  others  issued  at  Sanquhar  a  de-
claration for  religious  liberty.  The  bicentenary
was  kept  in  1880.  In  1689  they  raised  a  body  of
soldiers  to  support  William  III.,  who  enrolled
them  under  the  command  of  lord  Angus,  as  the
26th  regiment,  since  so  famous.  In  17 12  they  re-
newed then-  public  covenants,  and  are  described
in  one  of  their  tracts  as  "  the  suffering  anti-popish,
and  anti-prelatical,  anti-erastian,  true  presbyterian
church  of  Scotland."  They  have  now  between
thirty  and  forty  congregations  in  Scotland. — The
79th  regiment  {Cameron  Highlanders),  raised  in
1793  by  Allan  Cameron,  has  no  connection  with  the
Cameronians.

CAMEEOONS.  Mountains  and  river,  West
Africa.  Dr.  Nachtigall  founded  a  German  colony
here,  Aug.,  which  was  recognised  Oct.  1884.  He
died  24  April,  1885.  To  it  was  annexed  the
British  colony  Victoria,  28  March,  1887.

A  German  expedition  in  1889  left  the  Cameroons
under  the  command  of  lieut.  Morgan  with  250
men,  to  investigate  the  inland  district  of  the
Niger  tributaries  ;  after  sutfering  many  priva-
tions and  troubles  with  the  men,  and  losing
over  100  men,  lieut.  Morgan  and  his  party  were
brought  from  the  Benue  river  to  Akassa  by  an
agent of the royal Niger company, reported

20  March,  1891

Occasional  fighting  with  the  natives,  capt.  von.
Gravenreutli  killed,  reported  . . Nov. ,,

CAMISAEDS  (from  chemise,  Latin  camisa,  a
shirt,  which  they  frequently  wore  over  their  dress  in
night  attacks),  a  name  given  to  the  French  Pro-
testants in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Cevennes
(mountain  chains  in  S.  France),  who  after  enduring
much  severe  persecution  in  consequence  of  the
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  22  Oct.  1685,  took
up  arms  in  July,  1702,  to  rescue  some  imprisoned
brethren.  They  revenged  the  cruelties  of  their
enemies,  and  maintained  an  obstinate  resistance
against  the  royalist  armies  commanded  by  marshal
Montrevel,  and  other  distinguished  generals,  till
1705,  when  the  insurrection  was  suppressed  by
marshal  Villars.  After  futile  conciliatory  efforts,
several  of  the  heroic  leaders  suffered  death  rather
than  surrender.  Cavalier,  an  able  general,  unable
to  carry  out  a  treaty  made  with  Villars,  seceded  in
1 704,  entered  the  British  service,  and  died  governor
of  Jersey,  1740.

CAMLET,  formerly  made  of  silk  and  camel's
hair,  but  now  of  wool,  hair,  and  silk.  Oriental
camlet  first  came  here  from  Portuguese  India,  in
1660. Anderson.

CAMOEEA,  a  secret  society  of  plunderers  and
ratteners,  exacting  money  from  shopkeepers  and
traders,  in  Naples  (said  to  have  originated  from
the  extreme  destitution  of  the  lower  classes);_  tole-
rated under  the  Bourbons ;  cheeked  by  the  king  of
Italy;  about  80  Camorristi  seized  and  transported,
Scpt.-Oct.  1874.  Many  Camorristi  seized  in  the
markets  at  Naples,  30  Aug.  and  1  Sept.,ei  seq.,  1877.
179  of  these  tried  at  Bari,  mid  April,  May,  1891.
The  Camorristi  are  said  to  be  the  highest  grade  of
the  society  named  "Mala  Vita."
159  members  of  the  Mala  \'it;i  society  arrested  at

Taranto March, 1392


CAMP.


172


CANADA.


CAMP-  The  Hebrew  encampment  was  first  j
laid  out  by  divine  direction,  1490  B.C.  {Numbers  ii.)  I
The  Eomans  and  Gauls  had  intrenched  camps  in
open  plains  ;  and  vestiges  of  such  exist  to  this  day
in  England  and  Scotland.  A  camp  was  formed  in
Hyde  Park  in  1745  and  1814 ;  see  Chobham,  Alder-
shot,  and  Kildare.

CAMPAGNA,  near  Rome.  Its  drainage  and
planting  were  authorised  by  the  Italian  senate,  31
May  1878.

CAMPANIA  (S.  Italy),  was  occupied  by  Han-
nibal and  various  cities  declared  in  his  favour  216
B.C.  ;  conquered  by  the  Romans,  213.  Its  capital
was  Capua  {which  see) .

CAMPBELL'S  ACTS,  introduced  by  John
Campbell,  lord  chancellor.  1.  Against  libels  and
slanders,  6  &  7  Vict.  c.  96  (1843),  and  8  &  9  Vict.  c.
75  (1845).  2.  To  compel  railway  companies  to  make
compensation  for  injuries  by  culpable  accidents,  9  &
10  Vict.  c.  93  (1846).  3.  Against  obscene  publica-
tions, prints,  &c,  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  83  (1857).  In
accordance  with  the  second  act,  the  family  of  a
gentleman  killed  through  the  breaking  of  a  rail,
obtained  a  verdict  for  13,0007.  from  the  Great
Northern  Railway  Compau}'.  On  appeal  the  sum
was  reduced.

CAMPBELLITES,  or  Rowites,  a  name  given
to  the  followers  of  the  rev.  John  McLeod  Campbell,
minister  of  Row,  Dumbartonshire,  who,  on  24  May,
1831,  was  deposed  by  the  general  assembly  of  the
church  of  Scotland  for  teaching  the  universality  of
the  atonement,  and  other  doctrines  contrary  to  the
church's  standard.  Dr.  Campbell  established  a
congregation  in  Glasgow  in  1833.  The  "  Disciples
of  Christ,"  which  see,  are  also  sometimes  termed
Campbellites.

CAMPEACHY-BAY  (Yucatan,  Central
America),  discovered  about  151 7,  and  settled  by
Spaniards  in  1540;  taken  by  the  English  in  1659;
by  the  buccaneers,  in  1678;  and  by  the  freebooters
of  St.  Domingo,  in  1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town
and  blew  up  the  citadel.  The  English  logwood-
cutters  made  their  settlement  here  about  1662.

CAMPEBDOWN ;  south  of  the  Texel,  Hol-
land, nearwhich  admiral  Duncan  defeated  the  Dutch
fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  De  Winter  ;  the  latter
losing  fifteen  ships,  either  taken  or  destroyed,  11
Oct.  1797.  The  British  admiral  was  made  lord  Dun-
can of  Camper-down.  He  died  suddenly  on  his  way
to  Edinburgh,  4  Aug.  1804.

CAMPO  FOEMIO  (N.  Italy).  Here  a  treaty
was  concluded  between  France  and  Austria ;  the
latter  yielding  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian
Islands  to  France,  and  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Modena
to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  17  Oct.  1797.  By  a  secret
article  the  emperor  gained  the  Venetian  dominions.

CAMPO  SANTO  (Holy  Field),  a  burial-place.
That  at  Pisa,  surrounded  by  an  arcade  erected  by
archbishop  Ubaldo,  about  1300,  is  celebrated  for
the  frescoes  painted  on  the  walls  by  Giotto,  Memmi,
and  others.

CAMPUS  EAUDITJS,  near  Verona,  N.  Italy.
Here  the  Cimbri  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter
by  Marius  and  Catulus,  101  B.C.

CANAAN  (Palestine),  is  considered  to  have
been  settled  by  the  Canaanites,  1965  B.C.  {Clinton,
2088).  Abram,  by  divine  command,  went  into  the
land  of  Canaan,  B.C.  1921,  Gen.  xii.  The  land  was
divided  among  the  Israelites  by  Joshua,  1445  {Hales,
1602).


CANADA  (N.  America),  was  discovered  by  John
and  Sebastian  Cabot,  24  June, 1497. In  1524,  a
French  expedition  under  Verazani  formed  a  settle-
ment named  New France,  and  in 1535 Jacques
Cartier  (a  Breton  mariner),  ascended  the  St.  Law-
rence as  far  as  the  site  of  Montreal;  see  Montreal
and  Quebec. Canada  has  been  termed  "the  Do-
minion,"  since its  incorporation with  the other
American  colonies,  I  July,  1867.
Besides  the  governor-general  there  are  the  lieut.-
governors  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape
Breton  Island,  New  Brunswick,  Manitoba,  Prince
Edward  Island,  British  Columbia,  and  Western

Territories 1892

Population  :  1857,  Lower  Canada,  1,220,514  ;  Upper
Canada,  1,350,923  ;  of  the  Dominion,  1871,
3,788,614  ;  1881,  4,359,933  !  1891,  nearly  5,000,000.
1886-7,  revenue,  7,364,916?.;  expenditure,  7,326,920?. ;
1890,  revenue,  39,879,925  dollars  ;  expenditure,
35,994,031  dollars.
1886-7,  imports,  23,197.0352. ;  exports,  18,393,660?.  ;
1890,  imports,  121,858,241  dollars  ;  exports,
96,749,149  dollars.

First  permanent  settlement :  Quebec  founded . .  1608
Canada  taken  by  the  English,  1629  ;  restored  . . 1632
War  begins  in  1756  ;  Canada  conquered  by  the  Eng-
lish, 1759  (see  Quebec),  confirmed  to  them  by  the
treaty  of  Paris,  signed ...  10  Feb. 1763

Legislative  council  established  ;  "the French  laws
confirmed,  and  religious  liberty  given  to  Roman

Catholics 1774

The 'Americans  under  Montgomery  invade  Canada,
and  surprise  Montreal,  Nov.  1775  ; expelled  by

Carleton March,  1776

Canada  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower . . . 1793
The  "clergy  reserves"  established  by  parliament —
one  seventh  of  the  waste  lands  of  the  colony  ap-
propriated for  the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant
clergy  (during  the  debates  on  this  bill  the  quarrel
between  Mr.  Burke  and  Mr.  Fox  arose) . . . 1793
Canada  made  a  bishopric  ......  1793.

United States army,  under  general  Hull, invade
Canada  ;  defeated  at  Brownstown,  near  Toronto,
8  Aug.  ;  surrender ....  16  Aug. 18 12

Americans  take  York, 27  April ;  Fort  George,  27
May ; defeated at Chippewa, 25 July ; peace

signed  at  Ghent 24  Dec.  1814

Opposition  to  Canada  clergy  reserves  .  .  1817  et  seq.
Treaty  with  United  States  respecting  fisheries  .  t8i8
First  railway  in  Canada  opened . .  July,  183.6

The  Papineau  rebellion  commences  at  Montreal  by

.  a  body  called  Fils  de  la  Liberte 1837

The  rebels  defeated  at  St.  Eustace  . . 14  Dec. ,, .
Repulsed  at  Toronto  by  sir  F.  Head . . 5  Jan.  1838
Earl  of  Durham  appointed  govr-gen. . 16  Jan. ,,
Lount  and  Mathews  (rebels)  hanged . 12  April, ,,.
Lord  Durham  resigns  his  government . 9  Oct. ,,
Rebellion  appears  in  Beauharnais,  3  Nov.  ;  the  in-
surgents at  Napierville,  under Nelson,  routed,
6  Nov.  ;  rebellion  suppressed  . . .17  Nov. ,,
Sir  John  Colborne,  governor .... Dec. ,,
Acts  relating  to  government of Lower Canada,

passed  in  Feb.  1838,  and  . . . Aug.  1839

Chas.  Poiolett  Thompson  (afterwards lord  Sydenham),

governor Sept „

Upper  and  Lower  Canada  re-united  . 10  Feb.  1840

Sir  Chas.  Bagot,  governor  ....  Oct.  1841
Sir  Chas.  T.  (aft.  lord)  Metcalfe,  governor  Feb. 1843

Earl  Cathcart,  governor  . . .  March,  1846

Earl  ofElgi n,  gov.  -general .... Oct. ,,
Riots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt

26  April,  1850
Canada  clergy  reserves abolished  by  the  British

parliament 9  May,  1853

Concluded  a  reciprocity  treaty  with  United  States,

7  June,  1854
The grand  trunk  railroad  of  Canada  (S50  miles),

from  Quebec  to  Toronto,  opened . 12  Nov. 1856
On  reference  made  to  the  queen,  Ottawa,  formerly
Bytown, appointed  the capital ; this decision

unpopular Aug. 185S

Canada  raises  a  regiment  of  soldiers  (made  one  of

the  line,  and  called  the  100th) . . .  ,,

The  prince  of  Wales  presents  the  colours  at  Shorn-
cliffe 10  Jan. 1859


CANADA.


173


CANADA.


The  prince  of  Wales,  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  <fcc,
arrived  at  St.  John's.  Newfoundland,  24  July  ;
visit  Halifax,  30  July ;  Quebec,  18  Aug. ;  Montreal,
and  opens  the  Victoria  railway  bridge,  25  Aug.  ;
Ottawa,  1  Sept.  ;  leave  Canada,  20  Sept. ;  after
"visiting  the  United  States  embark  at  Portland,
20  Oct.  ;  and  arrive  at  Plymouth .  15  Nov. i860

Lord  Monck  assumes  office  as  gov. -gen. . 28  Nov. 1861

In  consequence  of  the  "  Trent "  affair  (see  United
States,  1861),  3000  British  troops  sent  to  Canada  ;
warlike  preparations  made  . . . Dec. ,,

British  N.  American  Association  founded  in  London

Jan.  1862

Cartier's  ministry  defeated  on  Militia  bill ;  Mr.  J.
Sandfield  Macdonald,  premier . 20-23  Ma5r> >>

The  assembly  vote  only  5000  militia  and  5000  re-
serve towards  the  defence  of  the  country  ;  this
causes  discontent  in  England . . . July, ,,

Mr.  J.  Macdonald  again  premier . . 20  May,  1863

New  militia  bill  passed ; . . . . Sept. ,,

Military  measures  in  progress . .' - Sept. 1864

Meeting  of  about  20,000  volunteers  ;  delegates  from
N.  American  colonies  at  Quebec,  to  deliberate  on
the  formation  of  a  confederation,  10  Oct.  ;  agree
on  the  bases 20  Oct. ,,

Between  20  and  30  armed  confederates  quit  Canada
and  enter  the  little  town  of  St.  Alban's,  Vermont ;
rob  the  banks,  steal  horses  and  stores,  fire,  and
kill  one  man,  and  wound  others,  and  return  to
Canada,  19  Oct,;  13  are  arrested,  21  Oct.  ;  but  are
discharged,  on  account  of  some  legal  difficulty,
"by  Judge  Coursol .... 14  Dec. ,,

Great  excitement  in  United  States,  general  Dix
proclaims  reprisals  ;  volunteers  called  out  in
Canada  to  defend  the  frontiers  ;  president  Lin-
coln rescinds  Dix's  proclamation . . Dec. ,,

The  confederation  scheme  rejected  by  New  Bruns-
wick 7  March,  1865

The  British  parliament  grant  50,000?.  for  defence  of
Canada 23  March, ,,

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  discharged,  30  March ;
Mr.  Seward  gives  up  claim  for  their  extradition.

April, ,,

Messrs.  Gait  and  Cartier  visit  England  to  advocate
confederation April, ,,

The  threatened  invasion  of  the  Fenians,  9  March  ;
10,000  volunteers  called  out . . 15  March,  1866

The  renewal  of  reciprocity  treaty  declined  by
United  States 17  March, ,,

The  Canadian  parliament  opened,  for  the  first  time,
at  Ottawa  ;  the  Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  ;
many  Fenians  flee  ;  35,000-  men  under  arms  (see
Fenians) 8  June, ,,

Discovery  of  gold  in  Hastings  county,  Canada  west,

Nov. ,,

Act  for  the  union  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New
Brunswick  under  the  name  of  the  Dominion  of
Canada,  with  parliament,  to  consist  of  the  Queen,
a  senate  of  72  members,  and  a  house  of  commons
of  181  members,  passed . . .29  March,  1867

Canada  Railway  loan  act  passed .  12  April, ,,

Lord  Monck  sworn  in  as  viceroy  of  Canada,  by
virtue  of  the  act  for  the  union  of  the  British
provinces  in  North  America . . 2  July, „

New  parliament  meets  at  Ottawa  (John  Alex.  Mac-
donald premier) 6  Nov. ,,

Reported  agitation  against  the  new  confederation  in
Nova  Scotia Jan.  1868

Murder  of  Mr.  Darcy  McGhee . . . 7  April, „

A  Fenian  raid  into  Canada  vigorously  repelled  by
the  militia .... about  24  May, ,,

Visit  of  prince  Alfred . . . Sept.  et  seq. ,,

Sir  John  Young  (aft.  lord  Lisgwr)  appointed  gover-
nor-general in  room  of  lord  Monck  (resigned),
arrives 27  Nov.  1868

Hudson's  Bay  territories  purchased,  subject  to
conditions, for  300,000?.  (aee  Hudson's  Bay)  Nov.  1869

In  consequence  of  the  resistance  of  some  of  the
settlers  (see  Rupert's  land),  an  expedition,  under
colonel  Wolseley,  arrived  at  Fort  Garry,  and
a  conciliatory  proclamation  was  issued 23  July,  1870

Rupert's  land  formed  into  a  province,  named  Mani-
toba ;  Mr.  Adams  G.  A.  Archibald  named  the  first
governor .  ....  Aug. ,,

Canada  defences  loan  act  passed . . 9  Aug. ,,

Disputes  with  United  States  respecting  fishing,  Nov. ,,

Opposition  to  the  fishery  clauses  in  the  treaty  of
Washington ...  . . June,  1871


By  the  British  North  America  act,  the  parliament
of  Canada  may  establish  new  provinces,  29  June,  1871

British  Columbia  united  to  the  "  Dominion  " . . ,,

Departure  of  last  battalion  of  royal  troops .  Nov. ,,

A  liberal  ministry  constituted  under  Mr.  Edward
Blake .  23  Dec. ,,

Lord  (aft.  earl  of)  Dufferin  appointed  governor-
general  ;  inaugurated . . . .25  June,  1872

Sir  George  Cartier,  statesman,  died  . . 20  May,  1873

Mr.  Arch,  on  behalf  of  British  labourers,  visits
Canada autumn, ,,

The  ministry  of  sir  John  Alexander  Macdonald
charged  with  corruption  connected  with  the  Pa-
cific railway  ;  the  parliament  suddenly  prorogued
by  lord  Dufferin 13  Aug. ,,

Commission  of  inquiry Sept. ,,

Parliament  meets,  23  Oct.  ;  the  ministry  resigns,
5  Nov.  ;  Mr.  Alex.  Mackenzie  forms  a  ministry,

7  Nov. ,,

New  reciprocity  treaty  rejected  by  the  U.S.  senate,

4  Feb.  1875

The  Canadian  and  United  States  fishery  commission
(sir  Alexander  Gait  for  Canada,  Mr.  E.  T.  Kellogg
for  United  States,  and  M.  Delfoss,  Belgian  U.S.
minister)  meet  at  Halifax,  15  June ;  award
5,500,000  dollars  to  Canada,  Mr.  Kellogg  dissent-
ing 23,  24  Nov. 1877

American  fishermen  in  Fortune  Bay  .attacked  for
breaking  laws  respecting  fishing  . . 6  Jan.  1878

Elections  :  great  majority  against  the  government,
about 19  Sept. ,,

The  marquis  of  Lome  appointed  governor-general,

14  Oct. ,,

Resignation  of  ministry  ;  sir  John  Macdonald  forms
a  new  one  about 19  Oct. ,,

Halifax  award  paid . .  .21  Nov. ,,

The  marquis  of  Lome  and  princess  Louise  land  at
Halifax 25  Nov. ,,

The  Queen's  telegram,  "Deb'ghted  at  reception,  say
so" 1  Dec. ,,

A  protectionist  budget  passed . . . 15  Mar.  1879

Dominion  industrial  exhibition  at  Ottawa  opened
by  the  marquis  of  Lome. . . . 24  Sept. ,,

Fortune-bay  affair  (Jan.  1878),  compensation  refused
by  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  granted  by  lord  Gran-
ville, but  rules  affirmed  ... 26  Oct. 1880

Return  of  Canadian  prosperity  affirmed  by  the  mar-
quis of  Lome  9  Dec. ,,

Contract  for  new  Pacific  railway  ratified  by  the
assembly  1  Feb.  ;  work  commenced  . . May,  1881

Victoria  steamer  sunk  on  the  Thames,  great  loss  of
life  (see  Wrecks) 24  May, ,,

Fortune-bay  affair  ;  15,000?.  awarded . 28  May, ,,

Successful  progress  of  the  governor-general  through
the  dominion  .... July — Oct. ,,

The  marquis  of  Lome  arrives  at  Birkenhead
14  Nov.  1 88 1 ;  returns  to  Canada . .21  Jan.  1882

Pacific  railway  bill  passed . . . 20  April, ,,

Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Literature  and
Science  fouuded  in  Ottawa  by  the  marquis  of
Lome 25  May ,,

Elections :  a  protectionist  majority . . June, ,,

Western  territory  beyond  Manitoba  divided  into
four  new  districts  :  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan,
Alberta,  and  Athabasca :  by  order  in  council  July, ,,

Marquis  of  Lome  returns  to  Ottawa  from  a  visit  to
British  Columbia,  Washington,  <fec. . 31  Jan.  1883

New  parliament  meets .... 8  Feb. ,,

The  marquis  of  Lansdowne  arrives  at  Quebec  as
governor-general 22  Oct.  1884

Canada  offers  military  assistance  in  the  Soudan  Feb.  1885

Insurrection  in  X.  W.  Territories  (see  Manitoba),

March, ,,

Insurrection  in  N. W.  territories,  headed  by  Louis
Riel,  of  Batoche  (sec  Hudson's  Bait,  1870),  sup-
ported by  French  half-breeds  and  Indians,  claim-
ing political  and  social  rights  alleged  to  have  been
promised  in  1870;  government  stores  seized,  &c,
about  24  March.  Capt.  Crozier  attacks  and  kills
many  rebels,  but  retreats.  Col.  Irvine  evacuates
and  burns  Fort  Carleton . . 25-27  March.

Troops  despatched  from  various  parts  of  the
dominion March,  April, ,,

Battleford  besieged  by  Indians . . 1  April, ,,

Col.  Irvine  at  Prince  Albert  waiting  help 1  April, „

Col.  Otter,  after  conflict  with  Indians,  relieves
Hat tl. •ford 24  April, „


CANADA.


174


CANADA.


Gen.  Middleton  defeats  rebels  at  Fish  Creek  after
severe  conflict,  and  suffering  much  by  an  ambush

of  sharpshooters 24  April,  1885

Col.  Otter  defeats  the  rebels  after  desperate  resist-
ance near  Battleford  ....  3  May,  „
Gen.  Middleton  attacks  Batoche  on  the  Saskatche-
wan river,  well  defended  by  Riel,  with  rifle-pits,
&c.  British  success  greatly  due  to  the  skill  and
courage  of  capt.  Howard,  U.S.,  in  using  the
Gatling gun, which mowed  down the enemy

(Batoche  captured) 9  May, »

The  Indian  chief  Poundmaker  captures  a  supply
train,  31  waggons  ; defeated  in  an  engagement
but  supplies  not  recovered  ... 14  May, ,,
Riel  surrenders  to  gen.  Middleton's  scouts  ;  many

of  his  followers  surrender . . -  15  May, ,,
1,500 Indians under  Big-Bear  and Poundmaker

hold  out,  reported 15  May, „

Surrender  of  the  Indian  chiefs ;  Poundmaker  sur-
renders 26  May, „

General  Strange  attacks  Big-Bear's  entrenched
camp,  about  20  miles  from  Fort  Pitt,  but  retreats
in  good  order  .  .  .  .  28,  29  May,  „
Big-Bear's  army  divided,  pursued  by  generals  Mid-
dleton and  Strange  ;  his  escape  reported  7  June ;
captured  3  July  ;  sentenced  with  others  to  im-
prisonment 27  Sept. ,,

Canadian  Pacific  Railway  completed  about  2,900
miles  ;  first  through  train  from  Montreal  to  Van-
couver 8  Nov. ,,

[First  public  daily  train  28  June,  1886.]
Message  of  congratulation  from  the  Queen  to  the

people  of  Canada 6  Nov. ,,

Trial  of  Louis  Riel  at  Regina  20  July  ;  convicted
1  Aug.  ;  28  prisoners  plead  guilty  to  treason
felony  5  Aug.  ;  appeal  for  Riel  on  ground  of
insanity  disallowed  10  Sept.  ;  appeal  dismissed  by
privy  council,  London,  22  Oct. ;  Riel  executed  near

Regina 16  Nov. „

French  demonstrations  against  the  government  at

Montreal  and  Quebec  without  rioting 17  Nov. „
Eight Indian murderers hanged at Battleford

27  Nov. ,,
Seizure  of  American  vessel  for  illegal  fishing  in  the
Bay  of  Fundy  announced  about  24  April ;  released

about  27  April,  1S86
David  J.  Adams,  U.S.  fishing  vessel,  seized  atDigby,
Nova Scotia, for  alleged  illegal  practices,  an-
nounced 8 May  (captain  fined 19 July); the
Americans  seize  the  Sisters,  a  Canadian  smack,
in  retaliation  (released  30  May) ; Mr.  Bayard,
U.S.  minister,  appeals  to  the  British  government
for  release  of  David  J.  Adams ;  Canadian  armed
fleet  sent  out ;  new  legislation  at  Ottawa May, ,,
Seizure  and  counter-seizure  of  35  vessels . . 1886-7
General  amnesty  to  all  persons  implicated  in  the

rebellion,  except  murderers . . 9  Jvdy,  1886
Dissolution  of  Parliament ... 17  Jan.  1887
Sir Alexander Campbell appointed high com-
missioner for  Canada  in  London  in  succession  to

sir  Charles  Tupper Feb. ,,

Elections, majority  for  government  49,  23  Feb. ;

House  opened 13  April, „

Fisheries  Retaliation  Bill  passed  by  the  United

States  congress ....  3  March, ,,

Mr.  Win.  O'Brien,  editorof  United  Ireland,  arrives
at  Montreal  on  a  mission  n  May  ;  visits  Ottawa,
Toronto,  &c.  ;  generally  unsuccessful,  and  fre-
quently stoned ;  left  ....  28  May,  „
Joint  commission  on  fisheries  dispute  (3  British,
including  Mr.  J.  Chamberlain,  and  3  United
States)  appointed  .  .  .  about  30  Aug.  „
British  vessels  seized  by  United  States  authorities

in  N.  Pacific  waters . . 2,  9,  12,  17  Aug. ,,
Great  railway  bridge  over  the St. Lawrence  at

Lachine  completed .... 30  July, ,,
Arrangements  made  for  a  fortnightly  mail  service,
&c,  from  London  to  the  East  by  the Pacific
Railway  by  government  subsidies . . Sept. ,,
Treaty  respecting  fisheries  signed  at  Washington,

U.S.  (see  Fisheries) 15  Feb.  1888

The  senate  refuses  to  ratify . . .21  Aug. ,,
The  David  J.  Adams  and  Ella  Doughty,  the  American

fishing  vessels,  released  ... 28  Feb. „

The  bill  for  trade  reciprocity  with  United  States

negatived  after  15  days'  debate . . 7  April, ,
The  marquis  of  Lansdowne  leaves  Canada  23  May  ;


succeeded  by  Lord  Stanley  of  Preston  (see  Salisbury
Admin.) ;  who  took  the  oath . . 11  June,  1

Commissioners  report  the  capability  of  the  great
Mackenzie  basin,  &c.  (about  1,260,000  square
miles)  for  colonization  ;  announced  . . Sept.

Proposed  extension  by  Manitoba  of  the  Red  River
railway  across  the  Pacific  railway  ;  opposed  by
the  Canadian  Pacific  Company  as  interfering
with  their  monopoly,  and  disallowed  by  the
Dominion  parliament ;  a  compromise  agreed  to  ;
the  Manitoba  government  determine  to  proceed ;
the  Canadian  company  resists,  Oct.  ;  conflict
between  the  men,  the  company  successful,  26
Oct.  ;  decision  of  the  supreme  court  in  favour  of
Manitoba  announced  23  Dec.  ;  leave  given  to  cross
the  line . 28  Jan.  1

Proposal  of  a  petition  to  the  Queen  to  give  the
governor-general  independent  action  in  foreign
affairs  negatived  by  Parliament  (94-66) 18  Feb.

Jesuits'  estate  act,  restoring  property  to  them,
much  opposed  by  Protestants  in  Quebec  ;  their
petition  against  the  act  disallowed  by  govern-
ment Aug.

Destructive  storm  from  Ontario  to  Quebec,  14  Jan. 1

Parliament  opened,  general  prosperity  announced

16  Jan.

The  Commons  of  the  Dominion  unanimously  vote
a  resolution  of  adhesion  to  the  mother  country  ;
a  copy  to  be  sent  to  the  queen . . 29  Jan.

The  Manitoba  railway  named  the  Great  Northern
railway  of  Canada Jan.

Crowfoot,  the  lawyer  chief  of  the  Blackfeet  Indians
dies,  sending  a  message  of  thanks  for  kindness
received  from  the  government . . 26  April

Resignation  of  gen.  Middleton,  commander  of
militia  (under  censure)  . .  about  24  June,

David  Crockett,  U.S.  schooner,  seized  for  illegal
fishing,  near  Prince  Edward  Island,  released  on
bond,  reported 28  Sept.

John  Reginald  Birchall,  an  educated  Englishman,
tried  at  Woodstock,  Ontario,  for  the  murder  in
Niagara  swamp,  of  Mr.  F.  J.  Benwell  (whom  he
had  decoyed  from  England  into  a  farming  part-
nership), 17  Feb.  Birchall  wrote  a  forged  letter
to  Col.  Benwell,  requesting  him  to  send  500Z.  to
his  son  :  evidence  circumstantial  ;  eight  days'
trial;  Birchall  convicted  11.45  p.m.',  29  Sept.  ;
executed ...... 14  Nov.

The  Indians  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  at  a  meeting
on  21  Nov.,  agree  to  petition  the  government  to
release  them  from  the  political  franchise,  and  to
permit  them  to  elect  their  own  chiefs  as  formerly,
still  remaining  subject  to  the  queen ;  petition
presented,  and  reserved  for  consideration,  Dec.
1890  ;  parliament  dissolved . . .4  Feb.  1

Sir  John  Macdonald,  the  premier,  and  the  con-
servatives, propose  reciprocity  with  the  United
States,  restricted  to  natural  products  ;  Mr.
Laurier  and  the  liberals  propose  unrestricted
reciprocity

Elections  ;  estimated  result,  for  the  government,
124  ;  for  the  opposition,  91 . . 5  March,

The  Canadian  Pacific  railway  completed  by  giving
an  entrance  to  New  York  over  the  New  York
central  lines,  by  agreement  between  the  com-
panies . . . . . . .28  March

The new parliament opened by lord Stanley,

30  April,

Death  of sir  John  Macdonald, aged  76, greatly

lamented,  6  June  ;  public  funeral  at  Kingston,

10,  11  June,

The  lion.  John  Joseph  C.  Abbott  becomes  premier,

14  June,
[K.C.M.G.  24  May.]

Motion  in  favour  of  unrestricted  reciprocity  with
the  United  States,  after  15  days'  debate,  rejected
in  the  commons,  by  a  government  majority  of  26,

29  July,

Great  strike  in  the  lumber  mills  at  Ottawa  begins

14  Sept.

Sir  Hector  Louis  Langevin,  minister  of  public
works,  and  his  friend,  the  hon.  Thomas
McGreevy,  an  active  ministerialist  M.P.,  and
other  officials,  charged  by  Mr.  Tarte,  M.P.,  a  jour-
nalist, with  corruption  in  relation  to  contracts
for  government  works  in  1S90  ;  the  matter  re-
ferred to  the  standing  committee  on  privileges.
and elections, which met 21 July ; sir H.


CANAL BOATS.


175


CANARY  ISLANDS.


Langevin  makes  his  defence,  u  Aug. ;  his  re-
signation as  minister  accepted,  7  Sept.  ;  Mr.
T.  McGreevy  makes  damaging  admissions,  and
retires  to  the  United  States  ;  the  committee  in
their  report  exonerate  sir  H.  Langevin  from  all
charges,  except  that  of  negligence  ;  they  censure
Mr.  T.  McGreevy,  and  certain  officials,  14  Sept.  1891

Report  adopted  by  the  house . . 25  Sept. „

The  St.  Clair  tunnel  connecting  the  Canadian  and
the  United  States  railways  running  to  Chicago
opened  by  sir  Henry  Tyler,  chairman  of  the
Grand  Trunk  railway . . . .19  Sept. ,,

Lady  Macdonald  created  a  peeress  as  baroness
Macdonald  of  Earnscliffe .... Oct. ,,

Very  large  crop  of  wheat  in  the  N.W.  territories,

end  of  Nov. ,,

In  consequence  of  the  restriction  of  Newfoundland
in  its  supply  of  herring  bait  to  Canadian  fisher-
men, the  Dominion  government  imposes  a  duty
on  imported  Newfoundland  fish . . 8  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Nicholas  Conolly  and  Mr.  Thomas  McGreevy
committed  for  trial .... 24  Dec. ,,

Lachute,  on the Canadian Pacific line, burnt,

7  Jan.  1892

Meeting  at  Washington  of  the  representatives  of
Canada  and  the  United  States  to  consider  reci-
procity, no  result .... 10-15  Ferj- >>

Negotiations  broken  off . . . .20  June, „

The  dominion  parliament  opened  by  lord  Stanley
of  Preston  ...  . .  24  Feb. ,,

Difficulty  with  Newfoundland  ended ;  return  to  the
statiis  of  1889 21  May, ,,

The  hon.  Alexander  Mackenzie,  originally  a  Scotch
mason,  came  to  Canada  and  gradually  rose  till  he
became  liberal  premier,  1873-8  ;  he  passed  several
important  acts  and  promoted  great  public  works  ;
visited  Great  Britain  and  was  received  at  Windsor,
1875  ;  died  aged  70 . . . . 17  April, ,,

Motion  for  a  new  reciprocity  tariff  with  Great
Britain,  adopted  by  the  commons  at  Ottawa
(98 — 64)  , 25  April, ,,

CANAL  BOATS,  used  as  dwellings;  an  act
passed  for  their  registration  and  regulation,  14  Aug.
1877  (40  &  41  Vict.  c.  60) ;  amended,  1884.  M.
ltigoni's  application  of  mechanical  traction  to  canal
boats  by  means  of  an  endless  cable  of  Bessemer
steel,  set  in  motion  by  fixed  engines ;  tried  between
Antwerp  and  Liege,  Sep.  1882.

CANALS  (artificial  watercourses).  The  im-
perial canal  in  China,  commenced  in  the  13th
century,  is  said  to  pass  over  2000  miles,  and  to  41
cities  ;  see  Ganges,  Suez,  and  Panama.

The  canal  of  Languedoc  (Canal  du  Midi)  which  joins
the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  was

completed 1681

That  of  Orleans  from  the  Loire  to  the  Seine  com-
menced 1675

Burgundy  canal 1775

That  between  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea,  at  Kiel,

opened 1785

That  of  Bourbon,  between  the  Seine and  Oise,

commenced 1790

Seine  and  Loire,  opened 1791

That  from  the  Cattegat  to  the  Baltic . . 1794-1800
The  great  American  Erie  canal,  363  miles  in  length,

was  commenced 1817

That  of  Amsterdam  to  the  sea  .... 1819-25

Ganges  canal  completed 1854

Canal between  Amsterdam  and the North  Sea

opened 1  Nov.  1876

Grand  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Medi-
terranean  (between  Bordeaux and Narbonne)

proposed May,  1884

Baltic  and  North  Sea  canal  (61  miles  long)  proposed

Jan.  1884  ;  completed  (see  Baltic)  .  .  6  April,  1891
Inland  navigation congress at Brussels opened

25  May,  1885
Manchester  ship  canal  projected  (see  under  Man-
chester) „

Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act  passed  10  Aug.  1888

Fourth  international  congress  on  inland  navigation,
Manchester,  28-31  July,  1890 ;  fifth,  Paris,  21  July,  1892
(See  Ganges,  Suez  canal  and  1  unja'ib.)


BfilTlSU CANALS.

The  first  was  by  Henry  I.,  when  the  Trent  was  joined)
to  the  Witham,  1134.

Francis  Mathew  in  1656,  and  Andrew  Yarranton  in  1677,.
in  vain  strongly  urged  improvement  in  internal  navi-
gation.

In  England  there  are  said  to  be  2800  miles  of  canals,  and.
2500  miles  of  rivers,  taking  the  length  of  those  only-
that  are  navigable— total,  5300  miles.  (Mr.  Porter,  iii_
1851,  says  4000  miles.)

In  Ireland  there  are  300  miles  of  canals  ;  150  of  navigable
rivers  ;  and  60  miles  of  the  Shannon,  navigable  below
Limerick  ;  in  all,  510  miles. Williams.

The  prosperity  of  canals,  for  a  time  largely  checked  by
the  formation  of  railways,  is  now  greatly  revived  ;  ancfc
railways  are  connected  with  them  (1878-1889).

INLAND NAVIGATION.

New  river  commenced

Brought  to  London

Thames  made  navigable  to  Oxford

Kennett  navigable  to  Reading

Caermarthenshire  canal

Droitwich  to  the  Severn

Duke  of  Bridgewater's  navigation  (first  great  canal)

commenced  (see  Bridge  water)

Northampton  navigation

Dublin  to  the  Shannon  (the  Grand) . . 1765.

Stafford  and  Worcester,  commenced

Grand  Trunk  (Trent  and  Mersey)  commenced  by

Brindley

Forth  to  Clyde,  commenced

Birmingham  to  Bilston

Oxford  to  Coventry,  commenced ....
Lea  made  navigable  from  Hertford  to  Ware,  1739  ;

to  London

Leeds  to  Liverpool

Moukland  (Scotland),  commenced . . . .

Ellesmere  and  Chester

Basingstoke  canal  begun

Liverpool  to  Wigan

Stroud  to  the  Severn

Staffordshire  canal,  begun

Stourbridge  canal,  completed

Runcorn  to  Manchester

Mersey,  opened

Chesterfield  to  the  Trent

Belfast  to  Lough  Neagh

Severn  to  the  Thames,  completed ....

Forth  and  Clyde,  completed

Bradford,  completed  . •

Grand  Junction,  begun

Birmingham  and  Coventry

Monastereven  to  Athy

Worcester  and  Birmingham .  » .

Manchester,  Bolton,  and  Bury

Warwick  and  Birmingham

Crinan,  Argyllshire,  cut


1609-
1613.
1624-
1715-
i75^


!759-
1761:
178S


i76£
176E.

1769.

177c


1774-
I77S
177*;.


1789.
1790


793—


1793-
i8oe
179*


179&

i79&
1 799,.
1800

i8or


Barnsley,  cut
Rochdale,  act  passed
Huddersfield,  act  passed
Derby,  completed ....
Hereford  and  Gloucester  '
Paddington  Canal  begmi .
Ken  net  and  Avon,  opened .
Peak-forest  canal,  completed .
Thames  to  Fenny  Stratford  .
Buckingham  canal ....
Grand  Surrey,  act  passed
Brecknock  canal ....
Caledonian  canal  begun
Ellesmere  aqueduct ....
Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  opened  .
i  Royal  Military  canal,  Hythe  to  Rye  .
Aberdeen,  completed .
Glasgow  and  Ardrossan,  opened
Leeds  and  Liverpool,  opened

Wye  and  Avon

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Union .

Sheffield,  completed  ....

Regent's  canal,  opened

Caledonian  canal,  completed

Birmingham  ami  Liverpool,  begun

Gloucester  and  Berkeley,  ship-canal,  completed

Norwich  and  Lowestoft  navigation  opened  .

CANARY  ISLANDS  (N.  W.  Africa),  known
to  the  ancients  as  the  Fortunate  Isles. Thev  were-


1803.
1805


xSoy-


30  Oct.


i8ir
1816

i8i8'
1819
1820
1822
1826.
1827


CANCER  HOSPITAL.


176


CANDIA.


re-discovered  by  a  Norman  named  Bethencourt,
about  1400 ;  his  descendants  sold  them  to  the
Spaniards,  who  became  masters,  1483.  The  canary-
bird,  a  native  of  these  isles,  brought  to  England
■about  1500.  Teneriflf'e  is  the  largest  island.  Ferro,
the  most  south-western,  was  appointed  the  French
•meridian  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1632.

CANCER  HOSPITAL  (Free),  Brompton,
S.~W.  London,  was  founded  in  1851  by  the  late
■Dr.  William  Marsden  (born  Aug.  1796),  who  actively
superintended  it  till  his  death,  16  Jan.  1867.  The
foundation  stone  of  the  building  was  laid  by  Miss
,(afcerwards  Baroness)  Burdett  Coutts,  an  early
liberal  benefactor,  30  May,  1859.  See  Free  Hospital,
founded  by  Dr.  Marsden  in  1828.

CANDAHAR,  a  province  of  Afghanistan  held
'by  Duranis  and  Ghilzais.  Candahar,  the  capital,
is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander  the
•Great  (334-323  B.C.)  After  being  subject  to  suc-
cessive rulers  of  India,  it  was  made  capital  of
Afghanistan  by  Ahmed  Shah,  1747,  but  the  seat  of
-•government  was  transferred  to  Cabul  in  1774.
'Taken  and  held  bythe  British  7  Aug.  1839  to  22  May,  1842
<Jen.  Nott  (with  major  Rawlinson  and  major  Lane)

defeated  the  Afghans  near  here. Jan.  and  June, „
The  government  of  Candahar  conferred  on  Shere
Ali  (a  cousin  of  the  late  ameer  Shere  Ali),  with  the
title  of  Wali,  by  the  viceroy  of  India . April,  1880
Shere  Ali  resigned,  and  went  to  Calcutta  in Dec. ,,
After  the  disaster  of  Maiwand,  27  July,  1880,  Can-
dahar was  held  by  British  during  the  winter 1880-1
In  the  house  of  lords  on  the  earl  of  Lytton's  mo-
tion to  retain  Candahar,  165  voted  for  its  reten-
tion, 76  against 5  March,  1881

'The  house  of  commons,  on  Mr.  Stanhope's  motion
for  retention, 336  voted  against  it ;  216  for  it,

24-26  March,  ,,
•Candahar  evacuated  by  the  British,  16-21  April,  ,,
Sirdar  Kashira  Khan  (on  behalf  of  Abdur-rahman,

ameer  of  Cabul)  enters  Candahar . 16  April, ,,
Invasion  of  Ayoob  Khan  ;  he  defeats  the  ameer's
army  at  Karez-i-Atta,  26  July  ;  enters  Candahar.

30  July, ,,
After  a  severe  conflict,  22  Sept.,  the  ameer  enters

Candahar 30  Sept. ,,

See  Afghanistan.

CANDIA,  the  mediaeval  name  (now  disused)  of
Crete,  of  which  Candia  is  the  capital,  an  island  in
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  mythically  celebrated  for
its  100 cities,  its  centre  Mount  Ida,  the  laws  of  its
Mng  Minos,  and  its  labyrinth  to  secure  the  Mino-
taur. It  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  68  B.C.
Population  -estimated  1889,  210,000.

Seized  by  the  Saracens a.d.

Re-taken  by  the  Greeks

Sold  to  the  Venetians ....  Aug.

Rebelled  ;  reduced

Gained  by  the  Turks, after  a  twenty-four  years'
siege, during which more than  200,000 men

perished 1669

Ceded  to  the  Egyptian  pacha 1830

"Restored  to  Turkey 1840

Insurrections  suppressed,  1841  ;  by  conciliation. . 1858
■persecution- of  the  Christians . . . 31  July,  1859
The  Christians  demand  redress  of  grievances,  June,  1866
'They  establish  a  "  sacred  battalion  " . 12  Aug. ,,
Publish  an  address  to  the  powers  protecting  Greece,

21  Aug. „
The  Cretan  general  assembly  proclaim  the  abolition
of  the  Turkish  authority  in  Candia,  and  union

with  Greece 2  Sept. ,,

Commencement  of  hostilities  : the  Turkish  army

commanded  by  Mustapha  Pacha  .  .11  Sept.  ,,
•Greeks  victorious  in  several  conflicts,  Sept.  and  Oct.  „
The  Greek  steamer  Panhellenion  begins  to  convey

volunteers,  cfec. ,  to  Candia  .  .  .  Oct.  ,,
Monastery  of  Arkadi  besieged  ;  blown  up  by  the

defenders  ;  great  loss  on  both  sides . 26N0V. ,,
Proposition  of  Austria,  Prussia,  Italy,  and  Switzer-
land to  the  sultan  to  give  up  Candia,  28  March  ;
.declined .  .... 31  March,  1S67


23


1204
1364


Many  defenceless  villages  said  to  be  burnt June,

Collective  note  from  Russia  and  other  powers  urging
the  Porte  to  suspend  hostilities .  15  June,

Indecisive  conflicts  . . . . . .  July,

The  Arkadi  Greek  steamer,  after  running  the  block-
ade 22  times,  landing  Greek  volunteers,  and
bringing  away  women  and  children,  destroyed  by
the  Turkish  vessel  Izcddin . . .  io  Aug.

Assembly  of  delegates  meet  the  vizier . 22  Sept.

Insurrection  subsides  ;  the  grand  vizier  arrives,  28
Sept.  ;  proclaims  an  amnesty,  and  promises  re-
forms 5  Nov.

Successful  blockade  running  by  the  Greeks  ;  Omar
Pasha,  the  Turkish  general,  resigns  his  command
in  the  island Nov.

The  delegates'  demands  granted . .11  Dec.

The  war  renewed  (indecisive) . . . Feb.

The  Petropaulakes  landed  about  2500  men  on  oppo-
site sides  of  the  isle,  10  Dec. ,  but  failed  in  their
attempt  to  unite  ;  after  several  skirmishes,  in
which  they  lost  about  650  men,  all  surrendered,
(and  were  sent  to  Greece) . . .26  Dec.

The  provisional  government  surrendered 30  Dec.

The  new  Turkish  governor,  Omer  Fenizi,  arrived,
and  the  blockade  ended . . .8  March,

Insurrection  announced,  with  provisional  govern-
ment about  20  Dec.

Union  with  Greece  proclaimed,  31  Jan.  ;  decreed
by  a  general  assembly . . . n  Feb.

Insurrection  unsubdued  ;  anarchy  ;  Berlin  treaty
declares  for  enforcing  legal  and  political  reforms,

13  July,

Pacification  by  Mukhtar  Pasha' through  concession
of  self-government,  &c. .  . . . . Oct.

Insurrection on  account  of religious difficulties

8  Feb.

The  christian  notables  appeal  to  the  sultan  for  a
christian  governor,  and  to  Greece  and  other
powers  for  mediation . . about  1  March,

Photiad'es,  reappointed  governor  for  five  years  an-
nounced 6  March,

Temporary  disturbances,  order  restored 1-6  May,

Anarchy  through  party  strife  of  Christians  and
Mahometans,  May-June  ;  Turkish  troops  sent  to
Crete,  13  June;  provisional  government  formed
to  restore  order 13  June,

Mahmoud  Djellalledin  pasha,  Turkish  com-
missioner, well  received  ;  agitation  calmed  by  his
inquiries,  June  14  etseq.  An  insurgent  assembly
demands  a  constituent  assembly,  judicial  reforms,
and  dismissal  of  the  governor,  the  people  neutral
about  1  July ;  the  sultan  sends  20,000?.  T. ,  6
July ;  Mahmoud  Djellalledin  pasha  informs  a
deputation  that  their  demands  must  be  referred
to  the  sultan,  8  July  ;  he  is  suddenly  recalled,

8  July,

Asserted  influence  of  Greek  agitators,  22  July ;
insurrection  increasing ;  call  for  annexation  to
Greece,  or  British  protection,  about  25  July  ;
Djavad  pasha  arrives  to  take  command  of  the
troops . 1  Aug.

Riza  pasha  appointed  temporary  governor,  with
extra  powers  for  repressing  disorder . 4  Aug.

Fighting  going  on,  villages  burnt,  reported  5  Aug.

Note  from  the  Greek  government  to  the  powers,
urging  intervention  in  Crete,  6  Aug.  ;  they
decline,  leaving  the  settlement  to  the  Sultan,  9-12
Aug.  ;  about  17,000  Turkish  troops  in  Crete,
reported 7  Aug.

Riza  Pasha,  the  governor,  recalled  ;  replaced  by
Shakir  pasha,  who  arrives  with  plenary  powers,
13  Aug.  ;  proclaims  martial  law . . 14  Aug.

Partial  submission  of  the  insurgents ;  amnesty
promised 17  Aug.

Tranquillity  gradually  restored  by  Turkish  moderate
firmness  ....... Sept.

The  Notables  address  the  sultan,  thanking  him  for
his  good  government  .... 28  Jan.

Turkish  circular  to  the  great  powers,  reporting
the  pacification  of  Crete,  6  March ;  amnesty,
except  to  18  persons  convicted  of  crimes,  an-
nounced 11  March,

Great  return  of  refugees  from  Greece  about  10  May,

Djevad  pasha  appointed  governor  about  7  July,  in
room  of  Shakir  pasha

Mahmoud  Djellalledin  pasha  appointed  governor
(Djevad  pasha  having  been  made  grand  vizier)
about 8  Sept.


1S77


CANDLEMAS DAY.


177


CANNON.


CANDLEMAS  DAY,  2  Feb.  is  kept  in  the
church  in  memory  of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin,
who  presented  the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple.
From  the  number  of  candles  lit  (it  is  said  in
memory  of  Simeon's  song,  Luke  ii. ,  32,  "  a  Light  to
lighten  the  Gentiles,"  &c),  this  festival  was  called
Candlemas,  as  well  as  the  Purification.  Its  origin
is  ascribed  by  Bede  to  pope  Gelasius  in  the  5th
century.  The  practice  of  lighting  the  churches  was
forbidden  by  order  of  council,  2  £dw.  VI.  1548;  but
is  still  continued  in  the  church  of  Rome.  Candle-
mas is  a  Scotch  quarter-day.

CANDLES.  The  Roman  candles  were  com-
posed of  string  surrounded  by  wax,  or  dipped  in
pitch.  Splinters  of  wood  fatted  were  used  for  light
among  the  lower  classes  in  England,  about  1300.
Wax  candles  were  little  used,  and  dipped  candles
were  usually  burnt.  The  Wax  Chandlers'  com-
pany was  incorporated  1483.  Mould  candles  are
said  to  be  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Brez,  of
Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are  of  modern  manu-
facture. The  Chinese  make  candles  from  wax  ob-
tained from  the  candleberry-tree  (myrica  cerifera) .
The  duty  upon  candles  made  in  England,  imposed
in  1709,  amounted  to  about  500,000/.  annually
Avhen  it  was  repealed  in  1 831.  Very  great  improve-
ments in  the  manufacture  of  candles  are  due  to  the
researches  on  oils  and  fats,  carried  on  by  "the
father  of  the  fatty  acids,"  Chevreul,  since  1811,
and  published  in  1823.  He  died  9  April,
1889,  aged  102.  At  Price's  manufactory  at
Lambeth,  the  principles  involved  in  many  patents
are  carried  into  execution ;  including  those  of
Gwynne  (1840),  Jones  and  Price  (1842),  and  Wil-
son in  1844,  for  candles  which  require  no  snuffing
(termed  composite).  Palm  and  cocoa-nut  oils  are
now  extensively  used.  In  i860,  at  the  Belmont
works  900  persons  were  employed,  and  in  winter
100  tons  (7000/.  worth)  of  candles  were  manufactured
weekly.  Candles  are  manufactured  at  Belmont
from  the  mineral  oil  of  tar  brought  from  Rangoon
in  the  Burmese  empire,  and  from  Trinidad.  In
1870  the  manufacture  of  candles  from  a  mineral
substance  named  ozokerit  began.  Electric  candles
of  Jablochkoff  and  Jamin  ;  see  under  Electricity.

CANDLESTICKS  (or  lamp-stands)  with
seven  branches  were  regarded  as  emblematical  of
the  priest's  office,  and  were  engraven  on  their  seals,
cups,  and  tombs.  Bezaleel  made  "  a  candlestick  of
pure  gold"  for  the  tabernacle,  B.C.  1491  {Exod.
xxxvii.  17).  Candlesticks  were  used  in  Britain  in
the  days  of  king  Edgar,  959  ("silver  candelabra
and  gilt  candelabra  well  and  honourably  made  ").

CANDY  (Ceylon),  was  taken  by  a  British  de-
tachment, 20  Feb.  1803,  who  capitulated  23  June
following,  on  account  of  its  unhealthiness,  and
many  were  treacherously  massacred  at  Colombo,
26  June.  The  war  was  renewed  in  Oct.  1814;  the
king  was  made  prisoner  by  general  Brownrigg,
19  Feb.  181 5;  and  the  sovereignty  was  vested  in
Great  Britain,  2  March,  1815.

CANICULAR  PERIOD,  see  Boy-star.

CANNZE  (Apulia).  Here,  on  2  Aug.  216  B.C.,
Hannibal  with  50,000  Africans,  Gauls,  and  Spaniards,
defeated  iEmilius  Paulus  and  Terentius  VaiTO,  with
88,000  Romans,  and  their  allies.  This  great  army
was  nearly  annihilated,  the  far  greater  part  being
slain  on  the  field,  including  the  consul  vEmilius
Paulus,  his  chief  officers,  above  80  senators,  with
many  other  persons  of  high  rank.  Hannibal  is
said  to  have  lost  about  6,000  men.  The  other  con-
sul, Vano,  who  had  escaped  with  some  cavalry,  con-
ducted himself  with  so  much  discretion  and  firmness


after  the  battle,  that  the  senate,  instead  oi  blaming
him  for  the  defeat,  thanked  him  for  not  despairing
of  the  Roman  Commonwealth.

CANNIBAL,  an  Indian  term,  thought  to  be
a  form  of  Carribal ;  as  Columbus,  in  1493,  found
the  Caribs  of  the  West  Indies  gross  cannibals.
Anthropophagi  (man- eaters)  are  mentioned  by
Homer  and  Herodotus  ;  and  the  practice  still  exists
in  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  other  savage
countries.  For  Mignonette  case,  see  Wrecks,  1884.
Superstitious  cannibalism  practised  in  Hayti,  1884.
A  number  of  Melanesian  labourers  said  to  have
killed  and  eaten  the  entire  crew  of  a  ship  convey-
ing them  to  Apia,  Navigators  Island . .  Dec.  1886

CANNING  ADMINISTRATION.* The
illness  of  lord  Liverpool,  Feb.,  led  to  the  formation
of  this administration, 24-30  April, 1827. Mr.
Canning  died  8  Aug.  following  :  see  Goderich.
George  Canning,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor

of  the  exchequer.
Earl  of  Harrowby,  president  of  the  council.
Duke  of  Portland,  lord  privy  seal.
Viscount  Dudley,  viscount  Goderich,  and  Mr.  Sturges

Bourne,  foreign,  colonial,  and  home  secretaries.
W.  W.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board.
Win.  Huskisson,  board  of  trade.
Lord  Palmerston,  secretary  at  ivar.
Lord  Bexley,  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.
Duke  of  Clarence,  lord  high  admiral.
Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor,  &c.
Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  without  office;  afterwards  home

secretary.
Earl  of  Carlisle,  woods  and  forests.

CANNON.  Gibbon  describes  a  cannon  em-
ployed by  Mahomet  IT.  at  the  siege  of  Adrianople,
1453 ;  see  Artillery.

The  first  cannon  cast  in  England  was  by  Hugget,  at
Uckfleld,  Sussex,  1543.

Mons  Meg,  a  large  cannon  (above  13  ft.  long,  20
inches  calibre)  in  Edinburgh  castle,  said  to  have
been  cast  at  Mons  in  Hainault,  in  i486,  but  more
probably  forged  at  Castle  Douglas,  Galloway,  by
three  brothers  named  M'Kim,  and  presented  by
them  to  James  II.  at  the  siege  of  Thrieve  castle,
1455.  It  was  removed  to  London,  1754  ;  but,  at
the  request  of  sir  Walter  Scott,  restored  to  Edin-
burgh, 1829.

A  cannon  of  Mahomet  II. ,  dated  1464,  presented  to
the  British  government  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey,
and  placed  in  the  Artillery  Museum,  Woolwich,
1868.

Moolk-e-Maedan,  an  Indian  bronze  gun  of  Beejapoor,
calibre  23  inches  ;  17th  century.

At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  ox>posite  Coblentz  on  the
Rhine,  is  a  cannon,  eighteen  feet  and  a  half  long,
a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  in  the  bore,  and
three  feet  four  inches  in  the  breech  ;  the  ball  for
it  weighs  i8olb.,  and  its  charge  of  powder  941b.
It  was  made  by  one  Simon 1529

In  Dover  castle  is  a  brass  gun  (called  queen  Eliza-
beth's pocket  pistol),  24  feet  long,  a  present  from
Charles  V.  to  Henry  VIII.

Pine  specimens  in  the.  Tower  of  London.

A  leathern  cannon  fired  three  times  in  the  King's
park,  Edinburgh. Phillips . . 23  Oct. 1788

The  Turkish  piece,  now  in  St.  James's  park,  was
taken  by  the  French  at  Alexandria  ;  but  was  re-
taken, and  placed  in  the  park . . March,  1803

Messrs.  Horsfall's  monster  wrought-iron  gun  was
completed  in  May,  1856,  at  Liverpool.  Its  length
is  15  feet  to  inches,  and  its  weight  21  tons  17  cwt.
1  qr.  14ft.  Its  cost  was  3500?.  With  a  charge  of
25th.  it  struck  a  target  2000  yards'  distance.  It
has  been  since  presented  to  government.


*  George  Canning  was  born  11  April,  1770
foreign  secretary  in  the  Portland  administration,  1807;
fought  a  duel  with  Id.  Castlereagh  and  resigned,  1800  :
president  of  the  India  board  in  1820  ;  disapproved  of  the
queen's  trial  and  resigned  in  1821  ;  appointed  governor-
general  of  India  in  1822,  but  became  soon  after  1'i'irign
secretary,  and  remained  such  till  1827,  when  he  became
premier. He  died  8  Aug.  same  year.

N


CANNON.


178


CANNON.


Rifled  ordnance  committee  appointed . 20  Aug.

Recently  great  improvements  have  been  made  in
the  construction  of  cannon,  by  Messrs.  Whit-
worth,  Mallet,  Armstrong,  and  others.  Mr.  Wm.
G.  Armstrong  knighted ... 18  Feb.

He  had  been  working  for  four  years  on  gun-making,
and  had  succeeded  in  producing  "a  breech-load-
ing rifled  wrought-iron  gun  of  great  durability
and  of  extreme  lightness,  combining  a  great  ex-
tent of  range  and  extraordinary  accuracy."  The
range  of  a  32-lb.  gun,  charged  with  51b.  of  powder,
was  a  little  more  than  5  miles.  The  accuracy  of
the  Armstrong  gun  is  said  at  equal  distances  to
be  fifty-seven  times  more  than  that  of  our  com-
mon artillery,  which  it  greatly  exceeded  also  in
•destructive  effects.  The  government  engaged  the
services  of  sir  W.  Armstrong  for  ten  years  (com-
mencing with  1855)  for  2o,oooZ.,  as  consulting
engineer  of  rifled  ordnance  ... 22  Feb.

A  parliamentary  committee  on  ordnance  was  ap-
pointed 20  Feb. ,  and  reported . . 23  July,

Sir  W.  Armstrong  resigned  his  appointment 5  Feb.

His  gun  said  to  be  very  effective,  in  the  attack  on
the  Chinese  forts  at  Taku . . .21  Aug.

Mr.  Whitworth's  guns  and  rifles  greatly  commended

18'

An  American  cannon,  weighing  35  tons,  stated  to
be  the  largest  in  the  world,  cast . . . .

Creat  endeavours  made  to  improve  the  construction
of  cannon,  to  counterbalance  the  strength  given
to  ships  of  war  by  iron  plates  ;  trials  at  Shoe-
buryness,  Essex

Targets  of  the  thickness  of  the  iron  sides  of  the
Warrior,  three  5-inch  relates  0f  wrought  iron
'bolted  together,  pierced  three  times  by  156ft.
■shot  from  an  Armstrong  gun  smooth  bore,  300ft.,
muzzle-loaded  with  charges  of  40ft.  of  powder,
twice,  and  once  of  50ft. ... 8  April,

The  Horsfallgun,  mentioned  above,  with  a  charge
of  75ft.  of  powder  and  a  shot  of  270ft.,  smashed  a
Warrior  target 16  Sept.

Mr.  Whitworth's  shells  sent  through  si-inch  iron
plates  and  wood-work  behind . . 12  Nov.

Clark's  target  destroyed . . . .7  July,

Armstrong's  gun  "  Big  Will"  tried  and  pronounced
to  be  perfect ;  weight,  22  tons  ;  length,  15  feet ;
range  with  shot  weighing  510ft. ,  748  to  4x87  yards

19  Nov.

Reed's  target  tried  successfully . .'.■«■  8  Dec.

The  competitive  trial  between  the  Armstrong  and
Whitworth  guns  began . . .  1  April,

Iron-plate  commission  experiments  close 4  Aug.

Capt.  Palliser,  afterwards  sir  W.,  by  experiment,
has  shown  that  iron  shot  cast  in  cold  iron  moulds
instead  of  hot  sand,  is  much  harder,  and  equals
steel ;  he  also  suggested  the  lining  cast-iron  guns
with  wrought-iron  exits,  which  is  stated  to  be
successful

He  received  24,000?.  from  the  government,  besides
other  remuneration

'The  competitive  trials  of  Armstrong's  and  Whit-
worth's cannon  upon  the  Alfred  target-ship  at
Portsmouth  closed . . . .15  Nov.

•"  Hercules  target,"  4  ft.  2  in.  thick,  n£  inches  of
iron,  resists  300  pounders . . . June,

National  Artillery  Association  (see  Artillery) . .

Duel  between  the  Bellerophon,  with  a  125-ton  g-inch
rifled  naval  service  gun  with  steel  bolts  (250  ft.),
and  powder  charge  of  48ft.,  and  the  single  gun
turret  of  the  Royal  Sovereign  by  capt.  Cowper
Coles  :  the  equilibrium  of  the  turret  base  undis-
turbed by  any  amount  of  pounding . 15  June,

At  Shoeburyness  Palliser's  chilled  metal  shot
(250ft.)  by  43  ft.  of  powder  in  a  q-ineh  muzzle-
loading  wrought-iron  Woolwich  rifle  gun,  is  sent
through  a  target  of  8  inches  rolled  iron,  18  inches
teak,  and  \  inch  iron,  and  about  20  feet  beyond,

13  Sept.

JHis  patent  is  dated  27  May,  1863.  Mr.  James
Nasmyth  had  previously  suggested  the  use  of
chilled  iron.  ]

Many  experiments  made  with  cannon  and  targets  at
Shoeburyness

The  American  15-inch  naval  gun,  with  a  cast-iron
spherical  shot  453ft. ,  greatly  damages  an  8-inch
target ; other experiments at Shoeburyness,

23  J"1}".


1859


DO-70
i860


Continued  experiments  at  Shoeburyness ;  Ply-
mouth model  fort,  with  15-inch  solid  shield-
plates,  tried  with  23-ton  gun  of  12-inch  bore,
bearing  600ft.  Palliser  shot ;  exterior  of  fort  de-
stroyed ;  interior  intact  ; — the  10-inch  English
gun  shown  to  be  superior  to  American  and  Prus-
sian great  guns .... 16-24  June,

Capt.  Moncrieffs  protected  barbette  gun-carriage  (in
which  the  recoil  is  utilized  for  reloading),  tried  at
Shoeburyness  and  proved  successful . 2  Oct.

Contest  at  Shoeburyness  :  the  iron  targets  of  Brown
of  Sheffield  resist  the  Whitworth  guns,  2  March,

Palliser  shot  said  to  have  failed  in  the  Hercules,

20  Jan.

"  Woolwich  Infant,"  35  tons  ;  largest  gun  then  ever
made  ;  length  16  feet  3  inches  ;  formed  of  a  steel
tube  with  coiled  breech  piece  ;  designed  to  fire  a
700ft.  projectile,  with  120ft.  charge  ;  made  at
Woolwich  in  1870  ;  when  tried  in  Dec.  1871,  the
inner  tube  cracked  ;  others  made  ....

Duel  between  the  Hotspur  (with  25-ton  12-inch  rifle
gun,  heaviest  afloat,  with  Palliser's  600ft.  shot,
and  85ft:  of  powder),  and  the  Glatton  iron-clad,
whose  turret  plates  successfully  resisted  the
attack  (animals  in  the  turret  uninjured), 5  July,

Col.  Moncrieft's  hydro-pneumatic  carriage  for  artil-
lery invented  about  April ;  the  principle  claimed  by
sir  Wm.  Armstrong  for  hydraulic  machine  1 1  Nov.

Woolwich  Infant. — Experimental  gun  constructing
at  Woolwich;  80  tons  ;  27  feet  long;  for  1650  ft.
shot ;  300  ft.  of  powder .... May,

81-ton  gun  tried  at  Woolwich  ;  shot  1250  ft. ;  190  ft.
of  powder ;  12  men  rammed  in  the  charge  ;  shot
penetrated  50  feet  of  sand ;  tried  successfully
18  Sept.  1S75,  24-26  July,  with  370  ft.  of  powder

4  Aug.

Gen.  von  Uehatius's  steel  bronze  cannon  making  at
Vienna,  .  Sept. 1875  ;  reported  successful, Sept.

Sir  Wm.  Armstrong's  100-ton  gun  for  Italy  tried
successfully  at  Spezzia,  2000  lb.  shot  and  330  ft.
powder  . . ... . . 21  Oct.

81-ton  (or  80-ton)  gun  tried  at  Shoeburyness  for
sea-range,  with  1760  ft.  Palliser  shell

27  Sept.  et  seq.  1876,  and  1  Feb.

Four  100-ton  guns  by  Armstrong  ordered  by  go-
vernment March,

A  100-ton  gun  tried  at  Woolwich,  13  June  ;  finally
proved 16  July,

Great  guns  by  Krnpp  successfully  tried  at  Meppen,
Hanover 5-8  Aug.

[He  has  supplied  thousands  of  cannon  to  different
governments  ;  he  died,  aged  77, 14  July,  1887.]

Breech-loading  cannon  ordered  to  be  made Dec.

Experiments  with  the  38-ton  Thunderer  gun  (see
Navy,  1879),  9  Dec.  1879  ;  exploded  when  double-
charged 3  Feb.

One  of  Armstrong's  100-ton  guns  in  the  Duilio  near
Naples  exploded  .... 6  March,

A  Krupp  gun,  of  130  tons,  cast  for  Italy . Oct.

Mr.  Hiram  Stevens  Maxim's  machine-gun,  in  which
the  recoil  is  utilised  for  reloading  and  retiring
until  the  store  of  ammunition  is  exhausted  (de-
scribed in  "  Nature,"  5  March,  1885) . . .

Sir  Wm.  Armstrong's  1 1  i-ton  gun  tried  at  Woolwich,
length  43  ft.  8  in.,  charge  960  lbs.  of  gunpowder,
weight  of  projectile  1800  lbs.,  range  of  about  8
miles ;  said  to  be  the  largest  gun  in  the  world

June

Manufacture  of  guns  largely  removed  from  Wool-
wich ;  about  56  per  cent,  transferred  to  private
firms  announced Nov.

Zalinski  gun  for  the  projection  of  dynamite  adopted
by  the  United  States  for  coast  defence,  Feb.  1889  ;
by  the  British  Government . .  Feb.

The  Graydon  torpedo  projector  announced March

Messrs.  Krupp,  of  Essen,  make  a  gun  weighing
270,000  lbs.,  for  Cronstadt ;  reported  10  March,

The  Giffard  gun,  in  which  the  propelling  agent  is
liquified  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  invention  of  M.
Paul  Giffard,  a  French  engineer  ;  the  gas  is  said
to  be  cheaply  manufactured,  liquified,  and  stored  ;
many  experiments  on  the  continent  reported
successful,  1889-90 ;  M.  Giffard  exhibited  and
discharged  rifles,  illustrating  his  inventions  in
London  before  a  number  of  distinguished
persons 18  July

Lieut.  James  W.  Graydon,  late  of  U.  S.  Navy,
invents  the  Graydon  dynamite  gun,  in  which


1870


187+
1876

1877
1878
1879


CANOE.


179


CANTEEBUEY.


dynamite  shells  are  discharged  by  means  of  con-
densed air,  the  force  of  the  dynamite  being
moderated  by  means  of  non-conductors  of  heat ;
one  of  these  guns  manufactured  by  Messrs.
Taunton  &  Co.,  of  Birmingham  . . . Jan.  1891

The  Hotchkiss  Ordnance  Company,  registered  1887 ;
their  weapons  were  used  with  effect  in  sup-
pressing the  Indian  revolt  in  the  United  States

Dec.  1890

Explosion  of  6-in.  gun,  No.  3,131,687,  on  H.M.S.
Cordelia  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  killing  6  men
(report  from  Sydney) . „ . .29  June,  1891

CANOE. In  the  "Rob  Roy"  a  very  lightly
•constructed  canoe,  "  giving  the  pleasure  of  a  yacht
without  the  expense,"  Mr.  J.  Macgregor,  in  1865,
travelled  about  a  thousand  miles  on  the  rivers  and
Jakes  of  Europe. His  second  cruise  was  on  the
Baltic. He  explored  the  Suez  canal,  Nov.,  and  the
•rivers  of  Syria,  Dec.  1868,  and  the  canals  and  lakes
of  Holland  in  the  summer  of  187 1. The  "Octoroon"
(16  feet  long,  23  inches  broad)  crossed  the  channel
from  Boulogne to Dover, in n  hours, 19  Aug.
1867. The  Royal  canoe  club  founded,  1866. The
prince  of  Wales  president,  1876.
jtfr. Fowler  crossed  from Boulogne to-Sandgate
standing  in  an  india-rubber  twin  canoe  (the  Podo-
scaplie),  in  12  hours .... 19  Aug. 1878

CANON  OF  SCBIPTITBE,  see  Bible.

CANON,  a  piece  of  music  in  two  or  more  parts,
imitating  each  other.  "  Non  nobis,  Domine,"  by
Birde  (died  1523)  is  an  early  specimen.

CANONBUET  TOWEE,  Islington,  N.
London,  relie  of  ancient  priory,  built  by  Prior
Bolton,  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  said
io  have  been  visited  by  queen  Elizabeth.

CANONICAL  HOUES,  see  Breviary.

CANONISATION  of  pious  men  and  martyrs
as  saints,  was  instituted  by  pope  Leo  III.,  800.
Tallent.  Every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a
saint's  day.  The  first  canonisation  by  papal  autho-
rity was  of  St.  Udalricus,  Ulric,  in  993.  Previously
canonisation  was  the  act  of  the  bishops  and  people.
Henault.  On  8  June,  1862,  the  pope  canonised  27
Japanese,  who  had  been  put  to  death  on  5  Feb.
J  £97,  near  Nagasaki,  and  25  others,  on  29  June,
1867.  Among  persons  canonised  by  pope  Pius  IX.
in  Oct.  1872,  was  the  late  queen  of  Naples.  Sir
Thomas  More,  Bishop  John  Fisher,  and  others  were
■canonised,  Jan.  1887. See  Bopes,  1881.

CANONS,  APOSTOLICAL,  ascribed  to  the
Apostles  by  Bellarmin  and  Baronius,  by  others  to
St.  Clement,  are  certainly  of  much  later  date  (since
325).  The  Greek  church  allows  85,  the  Latin  50  of
them.  The  first  Ecclesiastical  Canon  was  promul-
gated 380.  Usher.  Canon  law  of  the  church.
Gratian  compiled  a  text-book  of  the  canon  law  as
Ix  existed  in  his  time,  about  1130-50;  it  was  intro-
duced into  England  about  1 154;  see  Decretals.  The
present  Canons  and  Constitutions  of  the  Church  of
England,  collected  from  former  ordinances,  were
established  in  1603  by  the  clergy  in  convocation,
and  ratified  by  king  James  I.,  1604.  A  new  body
of  canons  formed  by  the  convocation  in  1640,  were
■declared  unlawful  by  the  commons,  16  Dee.  1641. —
An  intermediate  class  of  religious,  between  priests
and  monks,  in  the  8th  century,  were  termed  canons,
as  living  by  a  rule.  Canons  in  some  of  our  cathedrals
and  collegiate  churches  resemble  the  prebendaries
in  others.  The  endowment  of  canonrics  was  facili-
tated by  the  Cathedrals  Act,  1873.

CANOPUS,  see  Alexandria.

CANOSSA,  a  castle  in  Modena.  Here  the
emperor  Henry  IV. of Germany, submitted to


penance  imposed  by  his  enemy,  pope  Gregory  VII.
(Hildebrand),  then  living  at  the  castle,  the  resi-
dence of  the  great  countess  Matilda.  Henry  was
exposed  for  several  days  to  the  inclemency  of
winter,  Jan.  1077,  till  the  pope  admitted  him,  and
granted  absolution.  Matilda  greatly  inci  e  ised  the
temporal  power  of  the  papacy  by  bequeathing  to  it
her  lai-ge  estates,  to  the  injury  of  her  second  hus-
band, Guelph,  duke  of  Bavaria.  A  Canossa  monu-
ment, near  Harzburg,  against  the  papacy,  was  in-
augurated 26  Aug.  1877.

CANTEEBUEY  (Kent),  the  Durovernum  of
the  Romans,  and  capital  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,
who  reigned  560-616.  He  was  converted  to  Chris-
tianity by  Augustin,  596,  upon  whom  he  bestowed
many  favours,  giving  him  land  for  an  abbey  and
cathedral,  dedicated  to  Christ,  602.  St.  Martin's
church  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  Saxon  church  in
Britain.  The  riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,
produced  by  a  fanatic  called  Tom  or  Thorn,  who
assumed  the  name  of  sir  "William  Courtenav,  oc-
curred 28-31  May,  1838;  see  Thomites.  The  rail-
way to  London  was  completed  in  1846. — The  Arch-
bishop is  primate  and  metropolitan  of  all  England,
and  the  first  peer  in  the  realm,  having  precedency
of  all  officers  of  state,  and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the
blood  royal.  Canterbury  had  formerly  jurisdiction
over  Ireland,  and  the  archbishop  was  styled  a
patriarch.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  Church  of
Rome  18  saints  and  9  cardinals;  and  to  the  civil
state  of  England,  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord  trea-
surers. This  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  1073  >
see  York.  The  revenue  is  valued  in  the  king's
books  at  2816/.  ~s.  gd.  Beatson.  Present  income,
15,000/.  The  Cathedral  was  sacked  by  the  Danes,
ion,  and  burnt  down  1067 ;  rebuilt  by  Lanfranc
and  Anselm,  and  the  choir  completed  by  the  prior
Conrad  in  1 130,  and  in  which  Becket  was  mur-
dered, 1 1 70,  was  burnt  11 74.  It  was  rebuilt  by
William  of  Sens  (1174-78),  and  by  "English
William,"  1178-84.  A  new  nave  was  built  and
other  parts,  1378-1410.  The  great  central  tower
was  erected  by  prior  Goldstone  about  1495.  The
gorgeous  shrine  of  Becket  was  stripped  at  the
reformation,  and  his  bones  burnt.  Here  were  in-
terred Edward  the  Black  Prince,  Henry  IV.,  car-
dinal Pole,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  Part
of  the  roof  wras  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,
and  the  edifice  narrowly  escaped,  3  Sept.  1872.  The
clock-tower  was  nearly  on  fire,  2  June,  1876.  See
Huguenots.  Dr.  Beaney,  of  Melbourne,  bequeaths
10,000/.  to  the  city,  announced  July,  1891.  Popu-
lation, 1881,  21,848;  1891,  23,026.  Great  fire  at
the  banacks  ;  estimated  damage  about  13,000/.,  16
Nov.,  1891.

By  the  Archbishop's  court  which  existed  before  the
Reformation,  Thos.  Watson,  bishop  of  St.  David's,
was  deprived  for  simony,  3  Aug.  1699.  Dr.  E.  King,
bishop  of  Lincoln,  was  cited  before  this  court  by
Read  and  others,  and  appeared  before  the  archbishop
and  the  bishops  of  London,  Winchester,  Rochester,
Oxford,  and  Salisbury  (he  was  prosecuted  for  ritualistic
practices  connected  with  the  holy  communion  4  Dec.
1887  at  scij.)  12  Feb.  He  protested  against  the  juris-
diction of  the  court,  and  the  case  was  adjourned  13
Feb.;  court  adjourns  27  March  ;  met  and  decided  to
uphold  its  jurisdiction,  13  May,  1889.

The  trial  of  the  bishop  of  Lincoln  before  the  arch-
bishop ami  other  bishops  at  Lambeth  began  (sir
Horace  Davey  and  others  for  the  promoters  of
the  suit,  Dr.  Phillihiore  and  others  for  the  bishop)

4-7,  20-25  Feb. 1890

All  the  charges  against  the  bishop  were  dismissed
except  two  ;  his  practices  of  breaking  the  bread
and  taking  the  cup  "not  before  1 1 1 « -  people)"  and
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  while  pronouncing
absolution  and  benediction,  were  declared  to  be

N 2


CANTERBURY.


180


CAOUTCHOUC.


unjustifiable  additions  to  the  ceremonies  of  the
church,  and  were  ordered  to  he  discontinued  (no
costs  allowed  on  either  side)  .  .  21  Nov.
An  appeal  to  the  .judicial  committee  of  the  Privy
Council,  July,  1891 ;  was  dismissed . 2  Aug.


602-605.

605-619.

619-624.

624-630.

631-653-

655-664.

668-690.

693-731-

731-734-

735-741-

741-758.

759-762.

763-790.

790-803.

803-829.

829.

830-870.

870-889.

891-923.

923  (?)

928-941.

941-958.

959-988.

988-989.

990-995.

995-1006.
1006-1011.
1013-1020.
1020-1038.
1038-1050.
1050-1052.
1052-1070.
1070-1089.
1093-1109.

1114-1122.
1123-1136.
1139-1161.
1162-1170.

1174-1184.
1184-1190.
1191;


1206-1228.
1229-1231.
1233-1240.
1240-1270.
1272-1278.
1279-1292.
1293-1313.
1313-1327.
1327-1333-
I333-I348-
1348-1349.

1349-

1349-1366.

1366-1368.

1368-1374-

1375-1381.

1381-1396.

1397-1398.

1398.

1399-1414.

1414-1443.

1443-1452.

1452-1454.

1454-1486.

1486-1500.

1501-1503.

1503-1532-

1533-1556.

I556-I558-

I559-I575-

1576-1583-

1583-1604.

1604-1610.


Archbisho2JS  of  Canterbury.

St.  Augustine,  or  Austin,  died  26  May.

St.  Lawrence.

St.  Mellitus.

Justus.

St.  Honorius.

Deusdedit  (Adeodatus).

Theodore  of  Tarsus.

Berhtuakl.

Taetwine.

Nothelm.

Cuthbert.

Breogwine.

Jaenbehrt,  or  Lambert.

iEthelheard.

Wulfred.

Fleogild.

Ceolnoth

jEthelred.

Plegemund.

^Ethelm.

Wulfelm.

Odo.

St.  Dunstan,  d.  19  May.

jEthelgar.

Sigeric.

jElfric.

St.  iElphage,  murdered  by  the  Danes,  19  April.

Lyfing,  or  iElfstun.

iEthelnoth.

St.  Eadsige.

Robert  of  Jumieges.

Stigand :  deprived.

St.  Lanfranc,  d.  24  May.

Anselm.
[See  vacant  5  years.]

Radulphus  de  Turbine.

William  de  Curbellio.

Theobald.

Thomas  a  Becket :  murdered  29  Dee.
[See  vacant.]

Richard.

Baldwin.

Reginald  Fitz-Joceline,  died  26  Dec.
[See  vacant.]

Hubert  Walter.  [Reginald  the  sub-prior,  and
John  Grey,  bishop  of  Norwich,  were  suc-
cessively chosen,  but  set  aside.]

Stephen  Langton,  died  6  July.

Richard  Weathershed.

Edmund  de  Abingdon.

Boniface  of  Savoy.

Robert  Kilwarby  (resigned).

John  Peckham.

Robert  Winchelsey.

Walter  Reynolds.

Simon  de  Mepham.

John  Stratford.

John  de  Ufford.

Thomas  Bradwardin.

Simon  Islip.

Simon  Langham  (resigned).

Wm.  Whittelsey.

Simon  Sudbury,  beheaded  by  the  rebels,  14
June.

William  Courtenay.

Thos.  Fitzalan  or  Arundel  (attainted).

Roger  Walden  (expelled).

Tho.  Arundel  (restored).

Henry  Chieheley.

John  Stafford.

John  Kemp.

Thomas  Bouchier.

John  Morton.

Henry  Deane  or  Denny.

Wm.  Warham.

Thos.  Cranmer  (burnt  21  March).

Reginald  Pole,  d.  17  Nov.

Matt.  Parker,  d.  17  May.

Edm.  Grindal,  d.  6  July.

John  Whitgift,  d.  29  Feb.

Rd.  Bancroft,  d.  2  Nov.


1611-1633.  Geo.  Abbot,  d.  4  Aug.
1633-1645.  Wm.  Laud  (beheaded,  10  Jan.).

[See  vacant  16  years.]
1660-1663.  Wm.  Juxon,  d.  4  June.
1663-1677.  Gilb.  Sheldon,  d.  9  Nov.
1678-T691.  Wm.  Sancroft  (deprived  1  Feb.),  d.  24  Not.

1693.
1691-1694.  John  Tillotson,  d.  22  Nov.
1695-1715.  Thos.  Tenison,  d.  14  Dec.
17I5_I737-  Wm.  Wake,  d.  24  Jan.
1737-1747.  John  Potter,  d.  10  Oct.
1747-1757.  Thos.  Herring,  d.  13  Mar.
1757-1758.  Matt.  Hutton,  d.  19  Mar.
1758-1768.  Thos.  Seeker,  d.  3  Aug.
1768-1783.  Fred.  Cornwallis,  d.  19  Mar.
1783-1805.  John  Moore,  d.  18  Jan.
1805-1828.  Chas.  Manners  Sutton,  d.  21  July.
1828-1848.  Wm.  Howley,  d.  11  Feb.
1848-1862.  John  Bird  Sumner,  d.  6  Sept.
1862-1868.  Chas.  Thos.  Longley,  d.  27  Oct.
1868-1882.  Archibald  Campbell  Tait,  elected  4  Dec.  ;  <L

3  Dec.  1882
1882.  Edward  White  Benson (trans,  from  Truro)..

Dec,  elected  29  Jan.  1883.

CANTERBURY  (New  Zealand),  a  Church  of
England  settlement  founded  in  1850.  Population
in  1854,  6000,  in  1868,  54,000.  During  1854-68,
1,800,000^.  expended  on  public  works,  principally
from  the  current  revenue  ;  in  1879,  89,268^.

CANTERBURY  TALES,  by  Geoffrey
Chaucer,  were  written  about  1364;  and  first  printed?
about  1475  or  1476  (by  Caxton).  Chaucer  Society
established  1867.

CANTHARIDES,  venomous  green  beetles
(called  Spanish  flies),  employed  to  raise  blisters..
This  use  is  ascribed  to  Aretseus  of  Cappadocia,
about  50  B.C.

CANTICLES,  these  are  the  Benedictus,  Mag-
nificat,  Nunc  dimittis,  &c,  in  the  Book  of  Common
Prayer,  and  especially  the  "  Song  of  Solomon."

CANTILEVER,  a  large  bracket  used  in  archi-
tecture and  bridge  building,  primitively  in  Japan,,
India,  and  China.  It  is  defined  as  "  a  structure
overhung  from  a  fixed  base."  The  principle  was
adopted  in  the  Forth  bridge  and  the  Mississippi
bridge,  which  see

CANTON,  founded  about  200  B.C.,  the  only
city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  were  allowed
to  trade,  till  the  treaty  of  29  Aug.  1842.  Merchants
arrived  here  in  1517.  English  factory  established,
1680.  A  fire  destroying  15,000  houses,  1822.  An
inundation  swept  away  10,000  houses  and  rooo
persons,  Oct.  1833.  Canton  was  taken  by  the  British
in  1857 ;  restored,  1861.  See  China  1835,  1839,
1856,  1861.  Population  estimated  at  1,600,000  in-
1890.

CANTOR  LECTURES,  courses  given  an-
nually at  the  rooms  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  The
expenses  are  defrayed  by  a  legacy  from  Dr.  Theo-
dore Edward  Cantor,  of  the  Indian  civil  service ;  who
died  about  1859. The  lectures  began  7  Dec.  1863.

CANULEIAN  LAW,  permitting  the  patri-
cians and  plebeians  to  intermarry,  was  passed  at
Rome  445  B.C.

CAOUTCHOUC or  India  Rubber, an

elastic  resinous  substance  that  exudes  by  incisions
from  several  trees  that  grow  in South  America,
Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castillsa
Hevea  or  Siphonia  elastica,  and  Ficus  clastica.
Observed  at  Hayti  by  Columbus  (Herrera)  . . . 1493

Described  by  Torquemada 161 5

Discovered  by  La  Condamine  in  Quito  (termed  by

natives  cahout-chou)  ;  brought  to  Europe about  1735
Dr.  Priestley  said  that  he  had  seen  "a  substance
excellently  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  wiping  from
paper  the  marks  of  a  black  lead  pencil. " It  was
sold  at  the  rate  of  3s.  the  cubic  half-inch . . 1 770


CAPE  BRETON.


181


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.


India-rubber  cloth  was  made  by  Samuel  Peal  ami
patented . . - . .  . . . . 1791

Caoutchouc  discovered  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,
1798;  in  Assam 1810

Vulcanised  rubber  formed  by  combining  India  rub-
ber with  sulphur,  which  process  removes  the  sus-
ceptibility of  the  rubber  to  change  under  atmo-
spheric temperatures,  was  patented  in  America,
by  Mr.  C.  Goodyear 1839

Inrented  also  by  Mr.  T.  Hancock  (of  the  firm  of
Macintosh  &  Co.),  and  patented . . . . 1843

Mr.  Goodyear  invented  the  hard  rubber  (termed
Ebonite)  as  a  substitute  for  horn  and  tortoise-
shell 1849

A  mode  of  retaining  India  rubber  in  its  natural
fluid  state  (by  applying  to  it  liquid  ammonia)
patented  in  England  for  the  inventor,  Mr.  Henry
Lee  Norris,  of  New  York 1853

See  under  Printing.

African  caoutchouc  imported  into  England . . 1856

Caoutchouc  imported  in  1850,  7617  cwts.  ;  in  1856,
28,765  cwts.  ;  in  1864,  71,027  cwts.  ;  in  1866,
72,176  cwts.  ;  in  1870,  152,118  cwts.  ;  in  1874,
129,163  cwts.;  in  1876,  158,692  cwts.;  in  1877,
759.723  cwts.  ;  in  1879,  150,601  cwts.  ;  in  1883,
229,101  cwts. ;  in  1887,  237,511  cwts.  ;  in  1888,
220,350  cwts. ;  in  1889,  236,310  cwts.  ;  in  1890,
264,008  cwts.

CAPE  BRETON,  a  large  island,  E.  coast  of
N.  America,  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Cabot,
J497  ;  by  the  English  in  1584  ;  taken  by  the  French
£11  1632,  but  was  afterwards  restored ;  and  again
taken  in  1745,  an(i  re-taken  in  1748.  The  fortress,
Louisburg,  was  captured  by  the  English  26  July,
1758,  when  the  garrison  were  made  prisoners,  and
eleven  French  ships  were  captured  or  destroyed.
The  island  was  ceded  to  England,  10  Feb.  1763  ;  in-
corporated with  Nova  Scotia  181Q.  Population  in
1881,  84,262  ;  1891,  86,914.  Lieut. -governor,  lion.
M.  B.  Daly  (1891). Chief  town,  Sidney.

CAPE -COAST  CASTLE  (S.  W.  Africa).
Settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1610 ;  taken  by  the
Dutch  1643  ;  demolished  by  admiral  Holmes  in
1661.  All  the  British  factories  and  shipping  along
the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the  Dutch  admiral,
De  Buyter,  in  1665.  It  was  confirmed  to  the
English  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667.  See
A-sltantees.

CAPE  DE  VERDE  ISLANDS  (N.  At-
lantic Ocean),  belonging  to  Portugal,  were  known  to
the  ancients  as  Gorgades,  but  not  to  the  modems  till
discovered  by  Antonio  de  Noli,  a  Genoese  navigator
in  the  service  of  Portugal,  1446,  1450,  or  1460.

CAPE  FINISTERRE  (N.  W.  Spain).  Off
this  cape  admirals  lord  Anson  and  Warren  de-
feated and  captured  a  French  fleet  under  De  la
Jonquiere,  3  May,  1747.

CAPE  HORN,  or  HOORN,  on  the  last  island  of
the  Fuegian  archipelago,  the  southernmost  point  of
America,  was  discovered  and  named  by  Schouten,
1616,  after  his  birth-place  in  the  Netherlands.

CAPE  LA  HOGUE,  see  LaHogue  (correctly,

Hague) .

CAPEL COURT,  see  under  Stocks.

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE,  a  promontory  on
the  S.  W.  point  of  Africa,  called  "  Cabo  Tormen-
toso  "  (the  stormy  cape),  the  "  Lion  of  the  Sea,"
and  the  ''  Head  of  Africa,"  discovered  by  Bar-
tholomew de  Diaz  in  1487.  Its  present  name  was
given  by  John  II.  of  Portugal,  who  augured  favour-
ably of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having  reached
the  extremity  of  Africa.  Population  of  "  Cape
Colony"  in  1856,  267,096;  in  1881,  720,984;  in
1 891,  1,525,739.  For  governors,  see  below.
The  cape  was  doubled,  and  the  passage  to  India

discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama . . 19  Nov. 1497


Cape  Town,  the  capital,  founded  by  the  Dutch .  1650
Colony  taken  by  the  English  under  admiral  Elphin-

stone  and  general  Clarke  .  .  .16  Sept.  1795
Restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  .  .  25  March,  1802
Taken  by  sir  D.  Eaird  and  sir  H.  Popham  9  Jan.  1806
Finally  ceded  to  England  ...  13  Aug.  1814
British  emigrants  arrive  ....  March,  1820
The  Kaffirs  make  irruptions  on  the  British  settle-
ments, and  ravage  Grahamstown  ;  see  Kaffra/ria,

Oct.  1834
Bishopric  of  Cape  Town  founded  ;  Dr.  Robert  Gray,

tirst  bishop 1847

The  inhabitants  successfully  resist  the  attempt  to

make  the  cape  a  penal  colony . . 19  May,  1849
Territories  north  of  Great  Orange  river  placed  under
■ British  authority,  3  Feb. 1848  ;  annexed  as  the

Orange  river  territory  ....  March,  1851
The  constitution  granted  to  the  colony  promulgated

and  joyfully  received  ....  1  July,  1853

General  Praatorius,  chief  of  the  Transvaal  republic,

died Aug. ,,

The British  jurisdiction over the Orange river
territory  abandoned,  30  Jan.  ;  a  fr.ee  state  was
formed  ;  see  Orange  river . . . March,  1854
The  first  parliament  meets  at  Cape  Town 1  July, ,,
The Kaffirs much excited  by  a  prophet named
Umhla-kaza  ;  by  the  exertions  of  sir  George  Grey,
the  governor,  tranquillity  maintained . Aug. 1856
The  cape  visited  by  prince  Alfred  in .  July,  i860

The  first  railway  from  Cape  Tow  n,  about  58  miles

long,  opened . . .  .  about  Dec. ,,

Governor,  sir  Philip  E.  Wodehouse  .... 1861
Disputes  between  bishops  of  Cape  Town  and  Natal ;

see  Church  of  England 1863-5

Cape Town  visited by  the  duke of  Edinburgh,

17  Aug. 1867
Discovery  of  diamonds  ;  leads  to  disputes  between

the  free  states  and  the  tribes  ;  see  Diamonds  1867-70
Large  tracts  of  territory  devastated  by  fire  Feb.  1869
Death  of  Moshesh,  an  eminent  chief  of  the  Basutos,

friendly  to  the  British . . .11  March,  1870
New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape
Town  inaugurated  by  the  duke of  Edinburgh,

12  July, ,,
Sir  Henry  Barkly  appointed  governor  . Aug. ,,

Energy  of  sir  Henry  Barkly,  in  repressing
aggressions  of  the  president  of  the  Orange  river

territory March,  187 1

Colony  of  Griqualand  constituted  . 27  Oct. „

The  British  flag  erected  amidst  the  diamond  fields

with  great  acclamation . .  . 17  Nov. ,,

Great  success  in  the  diamond  fields  ;  robbery  of
diamonds  valued  between  35,000^.  and  40,000;.  ;
oppression  of  the  natives  stopped  by  sir  H.  Barkly,

Aug.  1872
Death  of  bishop  Gray,  deeply  lamented . 1  Sept. ,,
Macomo,  an  eminent  Kaffir  chief,  died . 11  Sept.  1873
Insurrection  of  Langalibalele,  a  chief,  suppressed

(See  Natal) Nov.  Dec. ,,

South  African  Confederation  (ivhich  see),  proposed
by  earl  of  Carnarvon  ;  opposed  by  Mr.  Molteno
and  his  cabinet,  May  ;  long  debate  commenced
on  it  in  the  Cape  parliament .  .  .  11  Nov.  187s
Earl  of  Carnarvon,  in  a  despatch,  proposes  that  the
conference  on  the  confederation  shall  be  trans-
ferred to  England,  22  Oct.  ;  much  resented  Nov.  ,,
Earl  of  Carnarvon's  despatch  expressing  earnest
desire  for  the  confederation,  and  proposing  a
meeting  of  delegates  in  London,  their  decision
not  to  be  conclusive,  15  Nov.  ;  parliament  pro-
rogued 26  Nov. „

Conference  of  delegates  in  London  began  ;  earl  of

Carnarvon,  not  Mr.  Molteno,  present  .  5  Aug.  1876
Sir  H.  Bartle  E.  Frere  appointed  governor  and  lord

high  commissioner  for  South  Africa  . . Nov. ,,
He  opens  a  successful  exhibition  at  Cape  town

5  April,  1877
Transvaal  republic  (which  see)  annexed 12  April, ,,
Troublesome  disputes  between  tribes  (Fingoes  and

Galokas) ;  lead  to  war  (see  Kaffraria) . Sent. ,,
The minister Molteno opposes employing im-
perial troops  in  the  Kaffir  war  . Jan.,  Feb. 1878
Mr.  Molteno's  ministry  dismissed  ;  one  formed  by
Mr.  J.  Gordon  Sprigg,  about 12  Feb.;  reported

sue SSful April, ,,

Kaffir  war  ended;  amnesty  to  surrendering  rebels

announced 2  July, ,,

Thanksgiving  day  for  restoration  of  peace 1  Aug. ,,


CAPE ST. VINCENT.


182


CAPPADOCIA.


.Zulu  war  begins  (see  Zululand) . . 12  Jan.  1879

Insurrection  in  the  Transvaal  {which  see)  Dec. ,,

Telegraphic  communication  with  Great  Britain
completed  ;  telegram  from  the  queen  to  sir
Bartle  Frere  and  others . . . .25  Dec. „

Government  proposition  for  conference  of  delegates
to  promote  federation,  rejected  by  the  assembly

about  24  June,  1880

War  with  Basutos June, ,,

Recall  of  sir  Bartle  Frere,  1  Aug. ;  announced  in
parliament 2  Aug. „

Sir  Hercules  G.  R.  Robinson  appointed  governor
and  Lord  High  Commissioner  for  South  Africa

21  Aug. ,,

Resignation  of  Mr.  Sprigg's  ministry,  through
narrow  escape  of  vote  of  censure  ;  succeeded  by
Mr.  Scanlen  and  Mr.  Molteno  . 6,  7  May,  1881

Settled  difficulty  with  Transvaal  (which  see)  .  1883-4

Ministry  defeated,  resigns ;  Mr.  Upington,  new
minister 7  May,  1884

They  agree  to  support  the  imperial  government  in
repressing  the  Boer-filibusters . . Oct. ,,

Railway  to  Kimberley  opened  by  sir  H.  Robinson

28  Nov.  1885

The  Pondos  invade  Xesibeland  20  Oct.  ;  peace
announced 9  Dec.  1886

New  ministry  ;  sir  J.  Gordon  Sprigg  prime  minister

about  25  Nov. ,,

New  registration  act  disfranchising  many  natives
passed  ;  much  opposed  Aug.-Sept.  ;  supported  by
the  home  government Oct.  1887

The  South  African  Jubilee  Exhibition  opened  at
Grahamstown  by  sir  Hercules  Robinson 15  Dec. ,,

Conference  of  delegates  from  Cape  Colony,  Natal,
and  the  Orange  Free  State  held  at  Cape  Town  ;
a  customs  union  and  railway  extension  proposed  ;
a  movement  towards  S.  African  federation  ;  con-
ference closed 18  Feb.  1888

Sir  H.  Brougham  Loch  appointed  governor  and  high
commissioner  for  South  Africa  about  22  June,
1889  ;  arrives  13  Dec.  He  unveils  a  statue  of
the  Queen  in  front  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament,
Cape  Town . . ... . 21  Jan. 1890

Defeat  of  the  ministry  on  the  great  railway  schemes
about  5  July ;  resignation  of  Sir  J.  Gordon
Sprigg, under whom the colony prospered

10  July, „

New  ministry  formed  by  Mr.  Cecil  J.  Rhodes,  the
"  Diamond  King,"  founder  of  the  British  South
Africa  company . . . . . 17  July ,,

Failure  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Bank  after  long
run  on  it ;  much  alarm  throughout  the  colony,
24  Sept ;  reported  deficiency,  464,000/.,  16  Oct. ,,

South  African  Language  Association,  1st  Congress
opened  at  Cape  Town .... 31' Oct. ,,

Sir  Henry  Loch  and  Mr.  Rhodes  visit  London  to
discuss  South  African  affairs  with  the  govern-
ment, 2-27 Feb. Satisfactory  results reported

6  March,  1891

Great  fire  at  Cape  Town  ;  the  exhibition  buildings
and  other  places  destroyed . . .21  Feb. 1892

Sir  H.  B.  Loch  opens  the  junction  railway  between
Cape Colony and  the Free State, 10  March, ,,

Revenue,  3,160,658/.,  expenditure,  3,332,907/.,
1886-7  !  imports,  5,036,135/.,  exports,  7,719,385/.,
1887  ;  1889-90,  actual  revenue,  4,430,050/.  ;  ex-
penditure, vote,  3,878,925.

For  recent  wars,  see  Basutoland,  Zuhdand,  and
Transvaal.

.CAPE  ST.  VINCENT  (S.  W.  Portugal).
Sir  George  Rooke,  with  twenty-three  ships  of  war,
and  the  Turkish  fleet,  was  attacked  by  Tourville,
with  160  ships,  oft'  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  twelve
English  and  Butch  men  of  war,  and  eighty  mer-
chantmen, were  captured  or  destroyed  by  the
French,  16  Jun<;,  1693. — Sir  John  Jervis,  with  the
Mediterranean  fleet  of  fifteen  sail,  defeated  the
Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  off
this  cape,  taking  four  ships  and  sinking  others,
14  Feb.  1797.  For  this  victory  sir  John  was  raised
to  the  peerage,  as  earl  St.  Vincent.  Nelson  was
engaged  in  this  battle.  Near  this  cape  the  fleet  of
dom  Pedro,  under  admiral  Charles  Napier,  captured
dom  Miguel's  fleet,  5  July,  1833.


CAPETIANS,  the  third  race  of  the  kings  of
France,  named  from  Hugo  Capet,  count  of  Paris
and  Orleans,  who  seized  the  throne  011  the  death  of
Louis  V.,  called  the  Indolent,  987.  Henault.  The
first  line  of  the  house  of  Capet  ended  with  Charles-
IV.,  in  1328,  when  Philip  VI.  of  Valois  ascended
the  throne ;  see  France.

CAPILLARITY  (the  rising  of  liquids  in,
small  tubes,  and  the  ascent  of  the  sap  in  plants)
is  said  to  have  been  first  observed  by  Niccolo-
Aggiunti  of  Pisa,  1600-35.  The  theory  has  been
examined  by  Newton,  La  Place,  and  others.  Dr.
?T.  Young's  theory  was  put  forth  in  1805,  and
Mr.  Wertheim's  researches  in  1857.

CAPITAL,  estimated  amount  (E.  Giffen)  :—
Great  Britain :  beginning  of  century,  115,000,000/.;  1843,.

251,000,000/.;  1853,  262,000,000/.
United  Kingdom :  1855,  308,000,000/.  ;  1S65,  396,000,000/.;
I875,  571,000,000/. See  Labour  Commission  and In-
come Tax.

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT,  see  Death.

CAPITATION  TAX,  see  Poll-tax.

CAPITOL,  said  to  have  been  so  called  from
a  human  head  (caput)  found  when  digging  the
foundations  of  the  fortress  of  Rome,  on  Mons  Tar-
peius.  Here  a  temple  was  built  to  Jupiter  Capito-
iinus.  The  foundation  was  iaid  by  Tarquinius
Priscus,  616  B.C.;  the  building  was  continued  by
Servius  Tullius  ;  completed  by  Tarquinius  Super-
bus,  but  not  dedicated  till  507  B.C.  by  the  consul
Horatius.  It  was  destroyed  by  lightning  6  July,.
183  ;  burnt  during  the  civil  wars,  83 ;  rebuilt  by
Sylla,  and  dedicated  again  by  Lutatlus  Catulus,  69  -r
again  burnt  a.d.  69,  80  ;  rebuilt  70,  82  ;  sacked  by
Genseric,  June,  455.  The  Roman  consuls  made-
large  donations  to  this  temple,  and  the  emperor
Augustus  bestowed  on  it  2000  pounds  weight  of
gold,  of  which,  metal  the  roof  was  composed  :  its-
thresholds  were  of  brass,  and  its  interior  was  de-
corated with  shields  of  solid  silver.  The  Capitolino
games,  instituted  387  B.C.  to  commemorate  the  de-
liverance from  the  Gauls,  were  revived  by  Domitian,.
a.d.  86.  The  Campidoglio  contains  palaces  of  the-
senators,  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Capitol  by
Michael  Angelo  soon  after  1546.  The  comer-stone-
of  the  capitol  at  Washington,  U.S.A.,  was  laid
18  Sept.  1793.

CAPITULARIES,  laws  of  the  Frankish  kings,,
commencing  with  Charlemagne  (801).  Collections-
have  been  published  by  Baiuze  (1677)  and  others.

CAPITULATIONS:  a  name  given  to  the-
judicial  rights  granted  by  treaties  to  foreign  consuls
in  Turkey.  After  many  years'  opposition,  the
sultan  addressed  a  memorial  to  the  'sovereigns  of"
Europe,  in  June,  1869;  and  modifications  were
agreed  to,  April,  1870.  The  sultan  decided  on  the-
abolition  of  the  capitulations  in  Fgypt  about  July,.
1872.

CAPPADOCIA,  Asia  Minor.  Its  early  history,
is  involved  in  obscurity.

Pharnaces  said  to  have  founded  the  kingdom B.C.  744.
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of
Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82,

crucified , . . 322

Recovers  its  independence 315

Conquered  by  Mithridates  of  Pontus . . . 291
Held  by  Seleucus,  288  ;  independent .  '  . . 288

Ariarathes  V.,  Philopator,  reigns,  162  ;  dethroned
by  Holophernes,  158,  but  restored  soon  after  by
the  Romans  ;  killed  with  Crassus  in  the  war
against  Aristonicus . .  ... 13&

His  queen,  Laodice,  poisons  five  of  her  sons  :  the
sixth  (Ariarathes  VI.)  is  saved ;  she  is  put  to  death ,,


CAPPEL.


183


CARDIFF.


Ariaratlies  VI.  murdered  by  Mithridates  Eupator  ;
who  sets  up  various  pretenders  ;  the  Roman
senate  declares  the  country  free,  and  appoints

Ariobarzanes  I.  king B.C.  93

He  is  several  times  expelled  by  Mithridates,  &c,

but  restored  by  the  Romans  ;  dies  ...  64
Ariobarzanes  II.  supports  Pompey,  and  is  slain  by

Crassus. 42

Ariarathes  VII.  deposed  by  Antony  .... 36
Archelaus  is  favoured  by  Augustus,  20  b.c.  ;  but
accused  by  Tiberius,  he  comes  to  Rome  and  dies
there  oppressed  with  age . . . .  a.d.  15

Cappadocia  becomes  a  Roman  province  ... 17

Invaded  by  the  Huns 515

And  by  the  Saracens 717

Recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil  1 876

Conquered  by  Soliman  and  the  Turks . . . 1074
Annexed  to  Turkish  Empire 1360

CAPPEL  (Switzerland).  Here  the  reformer
Ulric  Zwinglius  was  slain  in  a  conflict  between
the  catholics  and  the  men  of  Zurich,  11  Oct.  1531.

CAPRI  (Capreae),  an  island  near  Naples,  the
sumptuous  residence  of  Augustus,  and  particularly
of  Tiberius,  memorable  for  the  debaucheries  he
committed  during  his  last  years,  27-37.  Capri  was
taken  by  sir  Sydney  Smith,  12  May,  1806.

CAPS,  see  Hats.

CAPS  AND  HATS.  About  1738,  Sweden  was
much  distracted  by  two  factions  thus  named,  the
former  in  the  interest  of  the  Russians,  and  the  latter
in  that  of  the  French.  They  were  broken  up  and
the  names  prohibited  by  GustavuslII.  in  177 1,  who
desired  to  exclude  foreign  influence.  His  assassina-
tion by  Ankarstrom,  16  March,  1792,  set  aside  all
his  plans  for  the  improvement  of  Sweden.

CAPSTAN,  used  to  work  ships'  anchors,  is
said  to  have  been  invented,  but  more  probably  was
only  improved,  by  sir  Samuel  Morland,  who  died
30  Dec.  1695.

CAPTAIN,  H.M.'s  iron-clad  turret  ship,
capsized  during  a  squall,  12.15  A-M-i  7  Sept.,  1870.
Capt.  Hugh  Burgoyne,  capt.  Cowper  Coles,  who
designed  the  vessel,  and  469  persons  perished.  See
under  Navy  of  England.  Subscriptions  for  relief
of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  lost  up  to  17  Nov.,
34,894/. ;  3  Dec,  38,004/. ;  31  Dec,  about46,ooo/. ;
May,  1871,  about  55,000/.;  25  June,  1871,  about
55,700/.  Total,  57,824/.  The  fund  was  transferred
to  the  Royal  Commission  of  the  Patriotic  Fund.

CAPUA,  capital  of  Campania,  took  the  part
of  Hannibal  when  his  army  wintered  here  after
the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  B.C.,  and  it  is  said  be-
came enervated.  In  21 1,  when  the  Romans  re-
took the  city,  they  scourged  and  beheaded  all  the
surviving  senators  ;  the  others  had  poisoned  them-
selves after  a  banquet  previous  to  the  surrender  of
the  city.  Only  two  persons  escaped ;  one  woman
who  had  prayed  for  the  success  of  the  Romans,  and
another  who  succoured  some  prisoners.  During  the
middle  ages  Capua  was  successively  subjugated  by
the  Greeks,  Saracens,  Normans,  and  Germans.  It
was  restored  to  Naples  in  1424,  and  captured  by
Caesar  Borgia,  24  July,  1501;  was  taken  by  Garibaldi
2  Nov.  i860.

CAPUCHIN.  FRIARS,  Franciscans,  so
named  from  wearing  a  CapucJton,  or  cowl  hanging
down  upon  their  backs.  The  order  was  founded  by
Matthew  Baschi,  about  1525;  and  established  by
the  pope  Clement  VII.  1529.  The  capuchin  con-
fessors of  the  queen  Henrietta  introduced  here  1630,
were  imprisoned  by  the  parliament,  1642.

CAR.  The  invention  is  mythically  ascribed  to
Erichthonius  of  Athens.  Covered  cars  (currus
arcuati)  were  used  by  the  Romans. The  kctica  (a


soft  cushioned  car),  next  invented,  gave  place  to  the
carpentum,  a  two-wheeled  car,  with  an  arched
covering,  hung  with  costly  cloth.  Still  later  were
the  carrucce,  in  which  the  officers  of  state  rode.
Triumphal  cars,  introduced  by  Tarquin  the  Elder ?
were  formed  like  a  throne.

_  CARACAS  (S.  America),  part  of  Venezuela,
discovered  by  Columbus  1498.  It  was  reduced  by
arms,  and  assigned  as  property  to  the  Welsers,
German  merchants,  by  Charles  V. ;  but  for  their
tyranny,  they  were  dispossessed  in  1550,  and  a
crown  governor  appointed.  The  province  declared
its  independence,  9  May,  1810.  In  the  city  Leon
de  Caracas,  on  26  March,  1812,  nearly  12,000  per-
sons perished  by  an  earthquake.  Population,  1883,
70,509. See  Venezuela.

CARAITES,  see  Karaites.

CARASMIA,  see  Khiva.

CARBERRY  HILL  (S.  Scotland).  Here
lord  Hume  and  the  confederate  barons  dispersed  the
royal  army  under  Bothwell,  and  took  Mary  queen
of  Scots  prisoner,  15  June,  1567. Bothwell  fled.

CARBO-DYN AMITE,  a  powerful  explosive
of  the  nitro-glycerine  class,  invented  by  Messrs.
Reid  and  Borland,  was  tried  in  1888,  and  in  July,,
1889  was  said  to  be  practically  perfect.

CARBOLIC  ACID  (or  phenic  acid),  obtained
by  the  distillation  of  pit-coal,  by  Laurent,  1846-7,
is  a  powerful  antiseptic.  It  is  largely  manufac-
tured for  medical  purposes,  and  has  been  advan-
tageously used  at  Carlisle  and  Exeter  in  the  deodo-
risation  of  sewage  (1860-1);  and  as  a  disinfectant
during  the  prevalence  of  cholera  in  London  in  1866.
It  was  successfully  used  for  embalming  by  profes-
sor Seely  in  1868.  Professor  F.  Grace  Calvert,  a
great  manufacturer  of  this  acid,  died  1873.

CARBON  was  shown  to  be  a  distinct  element
by  Lavoisier  in  1788.  He  proved  the  diamond  to
be  its  purest  form,  and  converted  it  into  carbonic
acid  gas  by  combustion.

CARBONARI  (charcoal-burners),  a  powerful
secret  society  in  Italy,  which  derived  its  origin,
according  to  some,  from  the  Waldenses,  and  which
became  prominent  early  in  the  present  century.  It
aimed  at  the  expulsion  of  foreigners  from  Italy,  and
the  establishment  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  In
March,  1820,  it  is  said  that  650,000  joined  the  so-
ciety, and  an  insurrection  soon  after  broke  out  in
Naples,  general  Pepe  taking  the  command.  The
king  Ferdinand  made  political  concessions,  but  the
influence  of  the  allied  sovereigns  at  Laybach  led
Ferdinand  to  annul  them  and  suppress  the  liberal
party,  Jan.  1821,  when  the  Carbonari  were  denounced
as  traitors.

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS,  a  gaseous  com-
pound of  carbon  and  oxygen,  found  in  the  air,  and  a
product  of  combustion,  respiration,  and  fermentation.
The  Grotto  del  Cane  yields  200,000  lbs.  per  annum.
No  animal  can  breathe  this  gas.  The  briskness  of
champagne,  beer,  &c,  is  due  to  its  presence.  It
was  liquefied  by  atmospheric  pressure;  by  Faraday  m
1823.  On  expofiug  the  liquid  to  the  air  it  becomes
solid,  resembling  snow,  through  vaporisation.  See
under  Cannon,  1889-90.

CARCHEMISH,  see  Hittites.

CARDIFF,  S.  Wales,  here  was  an  ancient
Welsh  and  Norman  castle  founded  in  1080,  where
Bobert,  duke  of  Normandy,  eldest  son  of  William  I.,
is  said  to  have  been  imprisoned  from  1106  till  his
death  10  Feb.  1 135.  The  prosperity  of  the  town
has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  construction  of^a


CARDIGAN BAY.


184


CARLISLE.


canal  (1794)  and  railroad,  and  by  docks,  &c,  pro-
moted by  the  Marquis  of  Bute.  Population,  1881,
82,761 ;  1891,  128,849.

Stoppage  of  a  savings  bank  (established  in  1819)  through
the  embezzlements  of  the  actuary,  the  late  Mr.  R.  E.
Williams,  effected  through  the  neglect  of  the  trustees  ;
defalcations  about  37,000?.  April  1886.  Report  of  the
hon.  E.  Lyulph  Stanley  issued,  Times,  22  Dec.  1887.
Mr. Peter  Davies,  a  trustee, was  declared  to  be

liable  for  a  part  of  the  bank  losses  .  27  March,  1890
Church  Congress  meets  here . . . 1  Oct.  1889

Seamen's  Congress 8  Oct. ,,

Cardiff  building  society,  established  1865,  defalca-
tion of  37,000?., partly  through  the  long-con-
tinued embezzlement  of  the  funds  by  Arthur  J.
Robbins,  a  clerk,  the  loss  re-imbursed  partly  by
the  defaulter  and  his  family,  the  remainder  by
•the secretary  and  directors— reported  January.
Robbins  sentenced  to.fi ve  years'  penal  servitude.

25  March,  1890
Strike  of  railway  servants,  see  Strikes . 8  Aug. ,,
New  bridge  over  the  Tali  opened  by  the  Duke  of
Clarence . .  .... 17  Sept. ,,

See  Shipping,  Feb.  1891 ;  and  Strikes  .  .  .  ,,
Meeting  of  British  Association  .  .  19  Aug.  ,,
Strike  of  about  4,000  men  of  the  building  trades .

30  April — 3  June,  1892
CARDIGAN  BAY,  see  Fishguard.
CARDINALS,  princes  in  the  church  of  Eorae,
the  council  of  the  pope,  and  the  conclave  or  ''sacred
college,"  at  first  were  the  principal  priests  or  in-
cumbents of  the  parishes  in  Rome,  and  said  to  have
been  called  cardinales  in  853.  They  began  to  as-
sume the  exclusive  power  of  electing  the  popes
about  1 179.  They  first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind
them  that  they  ought  to  shed  their  blood  for  re-
ligion, if  required,  and  were  declared  princes  of  the
church  by  Innocent  IV.,  1243  or  1245.  Paul  II.
gave  the  scarlet  habit,  1464  ;  and  Urban  VIII.  the
title  of  Eminence  in  1623  or  1630.  In  1586  Sixtus  V.
fixed  their  number  at  70;  but  there  are  generally
vacancies. In  i860  there  were  69  cardinals. In

1873,  5  of  the  order  of  bishops  ;  34  priests;  6  dea-
cons ;  45  in  all.  Nine  cardinals  (one  a  Bonaparte)
were  made,  13  March,  1868.*  Eleven  new  car-
dinals appointed,  12  March,  1877.  In  1885  6  car-
dinal bishops,  35  priests,  11  deacons  ;  in  all  52.  In
Jan.  1892,  there  were  57  cardinals,  6  bishops,  45
priests  and  6  deacons.

CARDROSS  CASE,  see  Trials,  1861.

CARDS,  PLAYING.  The  origin  of  the  game
is  uncertain.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to
Viterbo  in  1379.  Cards  were  illuminated  for  Charles
VI.  of  France,  1392,  then  depressed  in  mind.  W.
A.  Chatto's  work  on  the  "History  of  Playing
Cards,"  published,  1848.  Piquet  and  all  the  early
names  are  French. — Cards  first  taxed  in  England
1 7 10.  428,000  packs  were  stamped  in  1775,  and
986,000  in  1800.  In  1825,  the  duty  being  then
2s.  6d.  per  pack,  less  than  150,000  packs  were
stamped  ;  but  in  1827  the  stamp  duty  was  reduced
to  is.,  and  310,854  packs  paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty
was  paid  on  239,200  packs  in  the  year  ending  5  Jan.
1840 ;  and  on  near  300,000,  year  ending  5  Jan.
1850.  By  an  act  passed  in  1862  the  duty  on  cards
was  reduced  to  3d.  per  pack,  and  the  seilers  were
required  to  take  out  a  licence. Duty  received  in

1874,  13,131^. ;  in  1875,  13,810/. See  Christmas.

CARIA  (Asia  Minor),  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,
546  B.C. ;  by  Dercyllidas,  a  Lacedremonian, 397 ;

*  British  Cardinals:  Henry  Stuart,  created  1747;
Charles  Erskine,  1801  ;  Thomas  Weld,  1830 ;  Charles
Acton,  1839 ;  Nicholas  Wiseman.  30  Sept.  1850—65 ;
Henry  Edward  Manning,  1875—14  Jan.  1892  ;  Edward
Howard,  12  March,  1S77  ;  John  Henry  Newman,  12  May,
1879  — 11  Aug.  1890;  Ewd.  McCabe,  27  March,  1S83  (d*
ti  Feb.  1S85).


his  successor  Hecatomnus  became  king,  385  B.C. ;
for  his  son  Mausolus  the  Mausoleum  was  erected
{which  see).  Caria  was  annexed  by  the  Romans,
129  B.C. It  is  now  part  of  the  Turkish  empire.

CARIBBEE  ISLANDS,  see  West  Indies.

CARICATURES  were  drawn  by  the  ancient
Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Bufalmaco,  an
Italian  painter,  about  1330,  drew  caricatures  and  put
labels  to  the  mouths  of  his  figures  with  sentences.
The  modern  caricatures  of  Gillray, Rowlandson,

II.  B.  (John  Doyle  ™  =  B3),  Richard  Doyle,  John

Leech,  and  John  Tenniel  are  justly  celebrated.
The  well-known  "Punch"  was  first  published  in
1841.  See  Charivari  and  Punch.  Mr.  T.  Wright
published  a  "  History  of  Caricature,"  1865 ;  and
"  the  Life  and  Works  of  James  Gillray,"  1873.  Mr.
J.  Grego  published  T.  Rowlandson's  Works  and
Life,  1880.

CARIGNAN,  a  small  town  about  twelve  miles
from  Sedan,  department  of  Ardennes,  N.E.  France.
At  the  plain  of  Douzy  near  this  place  and  the  en-
campment of  Vaux,  a  part  of  MacMahon's  army,
retreating  before  the  Germans,  turned  round  and
made  a  stand,  31  Aug.  1870.  After  a  long,  severe
engagement,  in  which  the  same  positions  were
taken  and  retaken  several  times,  the  Germans
turned  the  flank  of  their  enemies,  who  were  com-
pelled to  fall  back  upon  Sedan,  where  they  were
finally  overcome,  1  Sept.  »

CARILLONS,  see  Sells.

CARINTHIA,  a  Bavarian  duchy,  annexed  to
the  territories  of  the  duke  of  Austria,  1336.  Popu-
lation, 1890,  361,008.

CARISBROOKE  CASTLE  (Isle  of  Wight),
s  iid  to  have  been  a  British  and  Roman  fortress.
Its  Norman  character  has  been  ascribed  to  William
Eitz-Osbome,  earl  of  Hereford  in  William  I.'s  time.
Here  Charles  I.  was  imprisoned  Nov.  1647  to  Nov.
1648  ;  and  here  his  daughter  Elizabeth,  aged  fifteen,
died,  too  probably  of  a  broken  heart,  8  Sept.  1650.

CARIZMIANS  (fierce  shepherds  living  near
the  Caspian),  having  been  expelled  by  the  Tartars,
invaded  Syria  in  1243.  The  union  of  the  sultans
of  Aleppo,  Hems,  and  Damascus  was  insufficient  to
stem  the  torrent,  and  the  Christian  military  orders
were  nearly  exterminated  in  a  single  battle  in  1244.
In  Oct.  they  took  Jerusalem.  They  were  totally
defeated  in  two  battles  in  1247.

CARLAVEROCK  CASTLE  (S.  Scotland),
taken  by  Edward  I.,  July,  1300,  the  subject  of  a
contemporary  poem  published,  with  illustrations,
by  sir  Harris  Nicolas  in  1828.

CARLISLE  (Cumberland),  a  frontier  town  of
England,  wherein  for  many  ages  a  strong  garrison
was  kept.  Just  below  this  town  the  famous  Picts'
wall  began,  which  crossed  the  whole  island  to  New-
castle-upon-Tyne, and  here  also  ended  the  great
Roman  highway.  Of  the  great  church,  called  St.
Maiy's,  a  large  part  was  built  by  David,  king  of
Scotland,  who  held  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,
and  Northumberland,  from  the  crown  of  England.
The  castle,  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  875,  restored  in
1092  by  William  II.,  was  the  prison  of  Mary  queen
of  Scots  in  1568. — Taken  by  the  parliamentary  forces
in  1645,  and  by  the  young  Pretender,  15  Nov.  1745;
retaken  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  30  Dec.  same
year;  partly  destroyed  by  tire,  18  Jan.  1890. — The
see  was  erected  by  Hei.ry  I.  in  1132,  and  made
suffragan  to  York.  The  cathedral  had  been  founded
a  short  time  previously, by  Walter, deputy  for


CARLISLE  ADMINISTRATION.


185


CAROLINAS.


William  Rufus.  It  was  almost  ruined  by  Crom-
well, 1648,  and  partially  repaired  alter  the  Restora-
tion. It  was  reopened  in  1856  after  renovation,
costing  15,000^.  The  see  lias  been  held  by  one  lord
chancellor  and  two  lord  treasurers ;  it  is  valued  in
the  king's  books  at  530/.  45.  lid.  per  annum.
Present  income  4500/.  Population  of  the  city  1881,
36,585;  1891,39,176.

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE.

1791.  Edward  Venables  Vernon,  trans,  to  York,  1807.

1808.  Samuel  Goodenough,  died  12  Aug.  1827.

1827.  Hugh  Percy,  died  Feb.  1856.

1856.  Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham,

May,  i860.
i860.  Hon.  Samuel  Waldegrave,  died  1  Oct.  1869.
1869.  Harvey  Goodwin;  consecrated  Jan.  1870,  died  25

Nov.  1 89 1.
1891.  John  W. Bardsley,  translated  from  Sodor  and

Man,  Dec.

CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, see

Halifax.

CARLISTS,  see  Spain,  1830-40  and  1872-6.
The  legitimists  of  Europe  subscribed  to  their  cause
1873-6.  A  committee  in  London  supplied  arms
and  money.

CARLOVINGIANS, or CAROLIN-

GIANS,  'he  second  dynasty  of  the  French  kings,
752-987.  Charles  Martel  (715-741)  and  Pepin  his
son  (741-752)  were  mayors  of  the  palace.  The
latter  became  king  752 ;  see  France.

CARLO W  (S.  E.  Ireland).  The  castle,  erected
by  John,  1 180,  surrendered  after  a  desperate  siege  to
Rory  Oge  O'Moore,  in  1577 ;  again  to  the  parlia-
mentary forces,  in  1650.  Here  the  royal  troops
routed  the  insurgents  24  May,  1798.

CARLOWITZ,  Austria.  Here  was  concluded
a  treaty  of  peace  between  Turkey  and  the  allies,
Germany,  Russia,  Poland,  and  Venice,  26  Jan.  1699,
in  consequence  of  the  great  defeat  of  the  Turks  by
prince  Eugene  at  Zenta,  11  Sept.  1697,  by  which
Hungary  was  finally  secured  to  Austria.

CARLSBAD  (or  Charles's  Bath),  in  Bohemia,
the  celebrated  springs,  said  to  have  been  discovered
by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1370. — On  1  Aug.
Z819,  a  congress  was  held  here,  when  the  great
powers  decreed  measures  to  repress  the  liberal
press,  &c.  Destructive  gale  and  inundations,  esti-
mated damage,  2,500,000  florins,  23-25  Nov.  1890.

CARLSRUHE,  capital  of  Baden,  built  by
margrave  Charles  William,  17 15.  A  revolution
here  was  suppressed  by  Prussian  aid,  June,  1849,
and  the  grand-duke  returned  18  Aug.  Population,
S890,  73,496.

CARLTON  CLUB,  Pall  Mall  (Conservative),
established  by  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  others,
£831-2  ;  present  house  opened  1855.

CARLYLE  CLUB.  Formed  in  1881  for  the
purpose  of  affording  to  disciples  and  students  of
Thomas  Carlyle  a  means  of  meeting  together  and
of  discussing  the  religious,  political,  and  social  pro-
blems treated  of  in  his  writings.  His  statue  011  the
Thames  Embankment,  Chelsea,  was  unveiled  by
Prof.  Tyndall  26  Oct.  1882.

CARLYLE  SOCIETY,  founded  in  1879,  con-
sists of  students  and  admirers  of  Carlyle's  works,
desirous  of  extending  his  influence  ;  they  meet
monthly  to  read  papers,  &c.  They  have  a  branch
at  Montreal.

CARMAGNOLE,  a  Piedmontcse  song  and
dance,  written  about  Aug.  1792  ;  popular  in  France
during  the  reign  of  terror,  1793-4.  '^'le  chorus  was
"  Dansons  la  Carmagnole:  vive  le  son  du  canon  !  "


CARMATHIANS,  a  Mahometan  ssct.  Car-
math,  a  Shiite,  about  890,  assumed  the  title  of  "the
guide,  the  director,"  &c,  including  that  of  the
representative  of  Mahomet,  St.  John  the  Baptist,
and  the  angel  Gabriel.  His  followers  subdued
Bahrein  in  900,  and  devastated  the  east.  Dissen-
sions arose  amongst  themselves,  and  their  power
soon  passed  away.

CARMELITES, or White  Friars, of

Mount  Carmel,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  mendi-
cants with  austere  rules,  founded  by  Berthold  about
1 156,  and  settled  in  France  in  1252.  Hmault.
Their  rules  were  modified  about  1 540.  They  claimed
succession  from  Elijah.  They  had  numerous  mon-
asteries in  England,  and  a  precinct  in  London
without  the  Temple,  west  of  Blaekfriars,  is  called
Whitefriars  to  this  day,  after  a  community  of  their
order,  founded  there  in  1245.  A  Carmelite  church
at  Kensington  was  founded  by  archbishop  Manning,
July,  1865.  The  Carmelites,  as  well  as  other  orders,
were  expelled  from  their  houses  in  France  in  Oct.
1880.

CARNATIC,  a  dislrictof  Southern  Hindostan,
extending  along  the  whole  coast  of  Coromandel.
Hyder  Ali  entered  the  Carnatic  with  80,000  troops,
in  1780,  and  was  defeated  by  the  British  under
sir  Eyre  Coote,  1  July,  and  27  Aug.  1781  ;  and  de-
cisively overthrown  2  June,  1782.  The  Carnatic
was  oveiTun  by  Tippoo  in  1790.  The  British  ac-
quired entire  authority  over  the  Carnatic  by  treaty,
31  July,  1801 ;  see  India.

CARNARVON,  see  Caernarvon.

CARNATION,  so  called  from  the  original
species  being  of  a  flesh  colour  (carnis,  of  flesh).
Several  varieties  were  first  planted  in  England  by
the  Flemings,  about  1567. Stoiv.

CARNEIAN  GAMES,  observed  in  many
Grecian  cities,  particularly  at  Sparta  (said  to  have
been  instituted  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  in  honour
of  Apollo,  sumamed  Carneus),  lasted  nine  days.

CARNIVAL,  (Carni  vale,  Italian,  i.e.  Flesh
farewell .'),  a  festival  time  in  Italy  and  other
catholic  countries  before  beginning  Lent.

CAROLINAS  (N.  America) .  Said  to  have  been
discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1498,  or  by  De  Leon
in  1512.  Raleigh  formed  a  settlement  at  Roanoke
in  June,  1585,  which  was  broken  up  in  1586.  About
850  English  settled  here  about  1660  ;  and  Carolina
was  granted  to  lord  Clarendon  and  others  in  1663.
The  cultivation  of  rice  was  introduced  by  governor
Smith  in  1695,  an^  subsequently  cotton.  A  con-
stitution drawn  up  by  John  Locke  was  abandoned.
The  province  was  divided  into  North  and  South  in
1729;  see  America.  The  Carolinas  being  slave
states,  great  excitement  prevailed  in  them  in  Nov.
i860,  on  account  of  Abraham  Lincoln's  election  to
the  presidency  of  the  United  States,  he  being
strongly  opposed  to  slavery.  South  Carolina  began
the  secession  from  the  United  States,  20  Dec.  i860  :
North  Carolina  followed,  21  May,  1861  ;  see  United
States,  1861-5.  Both  readmitted  to  the  Union
25  June,  1868.  Embezzlements  of  South  Carolina
u  official  ring  "  (state  government)  disclosed;  pro-
secutions, Sept.,  Oct.  1877.  Increasing  disaffection
between  the  whites  and  negroes,  riots  and  fighting
at  Charlotte,  N.  Carolina,  15  April,  1891.  Popula-
tion 1880,  N.  Carolina,  1,399,750;  S.  Carolina
995,577;  1890,  N.  Carolina,  1,617,947;  S.  Caro-
lina, 1,151,149.  Capital*,  North,  Kaleigh  ;  South;
Columbia;  chief  city,  Charleston,  founded  lb8o.


CAEOLINE ISLANDS.


186


CARTHAGE.


CAEOLINE  ISLANDS  (S.  Pacific),  said
to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  1525  ;
also  by  the  Spaniard,  Lopez  de  Villalobos,  1545,  and
named  after  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  1686.  The  Jesuits
laboured  in  them  in  vain,  1710-33.  The  claims  of
Spain,  uncontested  till  the  protest  of  England  in
1875,  were  virtually  given  up  by  Spain  in  1876.  The
Germans  occupied  some  of  the  Islands,  against
which  Spain  protested  in  Aug.  1885.  Spanish
vessel  arrived  at  the  Island  of  Yap,  21  Aug.  ;  the
Germans  land  and  set  up  their  flag  without  resist-
ance, 24  Aug.  See  Spain.  The  dispute  referred
to  the  Pope  ;  the  sovereignty  awarded  to  Spain,
with  commercial  concessions  to  Germany  and  Great
Britain ;  agreement  signed,  25  Nov.  ;  confirmed  at
Eome,  17  Dec.  1885.  Anglo-Spanish  protocol
signed,  8  Jan.  1886.  Missionaries  imprisoned ;
natives  kill  the  governor,  announced  28  Sept.  1887.

Massacre  of  28  Spanish  soldiers  at  Yap,  and  defeat
of  others  sent  to  punish . . . 10  Aug. 1890

The  natives  were  punished  by  a  Spanish  expedition  ;
150  were  killed,  and  a  village  burnt.  The  Spanish
lost  7  men  killed  ;  reported . . 13  Oct. ,,

Dissensions  between  the  Spaniards,  the  natives,
and  the  American  missionaries,  reported  Dec.
1890 ;  about  300  persons  killed  during  the  war
up  to  . . . . . . .  Jan. 1891

After  several  reverses, 500  Spaniards subdue  the
natives,  reported Feb. ,,

CAEPENTAEIA,  gulf  of  N.  Australia,  dis-
covered about  1627,  and  said  to  have  been  named  in
honour  of  Pieter  Carpentier,  a  retired  governor  of
the  Dutch  Indies.

CAEP,  a  fresh-water  or  pond  fish,  was,  it  is
said,  first  brought  to  these  countries  about  1525.
Walton.  It  is  mentioned  by  lady  Juliana  Berners
in  her  book  printed  1496.

CAEPETS  are  of  ancient  use  in  the  East.  The
manufacture  of  woollen  carpets  was  introduced  into
France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,
between  1589  and  1610.  Some  artisans  who  had
quitted  France  in  disgust  established  the  English
carpet  manufacture,  about  1750.  A  cork-carpet
company  was  formed  in  1862.

CAEPET-BAGGEES,  a  name  given  to  ad-
venturers in  the  southern  states  of  North  America,
who,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  in  1865,  en-
deavoured, from  interested  motives,  to  promote  the
political  predominance  of  the  negroes.  Their  in-
fluence counteracted  by  the  conciliatory  measures
of  president  Hayes,  1877-8.

CAEPI  (N.  Italy).  Here  prince  Eugene  and
the  Imperialists  defeated  the  French  9  July,  1701.

CAEPOCEATIANS,  followers  of  Carpocrates,
a  Gnostic,  in  the  2nd  century.

CAEEACK  or  KARRACK  (Italian,  Caracca),
a  large  ship  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Santa  Anna,
the  property  of  the  knights  of  St.  John,  of  about
1700  tons,  oheathed  with  lead,  was  built  at  Nice
about  1530.  It  was  literally  a  floating  fortress,  and
aided  Charles  V.  in  taking  Tunis  in  1535.  It  con-
tained a  crew  of  300  men  and  50  pieces  of  artillery.

CAEEIAGES,  see  Chariots.  Kude  carriages
were  known  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,
a.d.  1547  ;  in  England  in  1555,  Henry  IV.  of
France  had  one  without  straps  or  springs.  They
were  made  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,
and  then  called  whirlicotes.  The  duke  of  Buck-
ingham, in  1619,  drove  six  horses ;  and  the
earl  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove  eight.
Carriages  were  let  for  hire  in  Paris,  in  1650,
at  the  Hotel  Fiacre:  hence  the  name,  fiacre ;  see
Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. —


Annual  licence  duty  for  carriages  :  4  wheels,
2l.  2s.;  under  4  cwt.  or  less  than  4  wheels,  15s.
Carlo  Bianconi  successfully  introduced  cars
into  Ireland  about  1815 :  he  died,  nearly  90,
16  Sept.  1875.  &■  A-  Thrupp's  "History  of
Coaches"  published,  1877.  The  duties  on  carriages-
altered  by  Customs  Act,  1888.

CAEEICKFEEGUS  (Antrim,  Ireland).  Its
castle  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Hugh  de
Lacy  in  1178.  The  town  surrendered  to  the  duke
of  Schomberg  28  Aug.  1689.  The  castle  surrendered
to  the  French  admiral  Thurot,  Feb.  1760;  see
Thurot.

CAEEIEES'  ACT,  n  Geo.  IV.  &  1  Will.  IV.
c.  68,  1830.

CAEEOCIUM,  a  vehicle  containing  a  crucifix
and  a  banner,  usually  accompanied  Italian  armies  in
the  middle  ages.  The  Milanese  lost  theirs  at  Cor-
tenuova,  27  Nov.  1237.

CAEEON  IEONWOEKS,  on  the  banks  of
the  Carron,  in  Stirlingshire,  established  in  1760.
The  works  in  1852  employed  about  1600  men.
Here  since  1776  have  been  made  the  pieces  of  ord-
nance called  carronades  or  smashers.

CAEEOTS  and  other  edible  roots  were  im-
ported from  Holland  and  Flanders,  about  1510.

CAES,  see  Carriages.

CAETEL  (challenge),  a  name  given  to  the
powerful  coalition  of  the  conservatives  and  national
liberals,  which  for  five  years  formed  the  govern-
ment majority,  23,  in  the  German  Imperial  Parlia-
ment. The  majority  was  lost  by  the  elections,
Feb.,  March,  1890.

CAETES  DE  VISITE.  The  small  photo-
graphic portraits  thus  termed  are  said  to  have  been
first  taken  at  Nice,  by  M.  Ferrier,  in  1857.  The
duke  of  Parma  had  his  portrait  placed  upon  his.
visiting  cards,  and  his  example  was  soon  followed  in
Paris  and  London.

CAETESIAN  DOCTEINES,  promulgated
by  Bene  Descartes,  the  b'rench  philosopher,  in
1637.  His  metaphysical  principle  is,  "1  think,
therefore  I  am  ;"  his  physical  principle,  "Nothing;
exists  but  substance. "\  He  accounts  for  all  physi-
cal phenomena  on  his  theory  of  vortices,  motions
excited  by  God,  the  source  of  all  motion.  He  was
born  1596,  and  died  at  Stockholm,  the  guest  of
queen  Christina,  in  1650.

CAETHAGE  (N.  coast  of  Africa  near  Tunis),
founded  by  Dido  or  Elissa,  according  to  the  legend
adopted  by  Virgil  in  the  JEneid,  some  time  in  the
9th  century  B.C. ;  878,  853,  826  are  mentioned.
She  fled  from  her  brother  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre,
who  had  killed  her  husband,  and  took  refuge  in
Africa.  Towns  subject  to  Carthage  were  gradually
founded  along  the  coast,  and  colonies  in  Spain  and;
Sicily.  Carthage  disputed  the  empire  of  the  world
with  Rome,  which  occasioned  the  Punic  wars.
The  Carthaginians  bore  the  character  of  a  faithless
people,  hence  the  term  Punic  faith.  Cato  the  cen-
sor ended  his  speeches  in  the  senate  with  Delendm
est  Carthago  I  "Carthage  must  be  destroyed!"
Many  councils  were  held  here,  A.r>.  200-535.

Fir^t  alliance  of  Carthaginians  and  Romans  .  B.C.  509
The  Carthaginians  in Sicily  defeated  at  Himera  by

Gelon  ;  the  elder  Hamilear  perishes  .  .  .  480.
They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily  . . . .  407

Take  Agrigentum 406

Defeated  at  the  Siege  of  Syracuse,  see  Sicily  .  .  396
The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  ....  379

Thejirst  Punic  war  begins  (lasts  23  years)  .  .  .  264
The  Carthaginians  defeated  by  the  Roman  consul

Duilius  in  a  naval  engagement  near  Mylse , .  260


CARTHAGENA.


187


CASHMERE.


War  in  Sicily  ;  Roman  victories . . . 264  et  seq.
Regulus  with  an  army  crosses  to  Africa,  and  defeats
the  Carthagenians  ;  his  hard  terms  of  peace  re-
jected -  256

Xanthippus  defeats  Regulus 255

Hasdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus  at  Panormus . .  250
Regulus, prisoner, accompanies an embassy to
Rome  to  propose  peace,  which  he  opposes  ;  he  re-
turns to  Carthage,  and  dies  there  ....,,
Long  siege  of  Lilyba:um .... 250  et  seq.
Hamilcar  Barca,  successful  commander  in  Sicily .

247  et  seq.
Roman  naval  victory  near  the  iEgates ;  treaty  of
peace  ;  Sicily  lost  by  Carthage ....  241

The  great  Hannibal  born 247

Hasdrubal  founds  New  Carthage  (Carthagena) .  242
War  between  the  Carthaginians  and  African  merce-
naries 241

Hamilcar  Barcas  sent  into  Spain  :  takes  his  son,
Hannibal,  at  the  age  of  nine  years,  having  first
made  him  swear  an  eternal  enmity  to  the  Romans  238

Hamilcar  killed 229

Hasdrubal  assassinated 221

Hannibal  conquers  Spain,  as  far  as  the  Iberus . .219
The  second  Punic  war  begins  (lasts  17  years) . .  218
Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps,  and  enters  Italy . . ,,
He  defeats  the  Roman  consuls  at  the  Ticinus  and
Trebia,  218  ;  at  the  lake  Trasimenus,  217  ;  and  at
Cannse  {which  see) . ... 2  Aug.  216
The  two  Scipios  in  Spain,  at  first  successful,  de-
feated and  slain  by  the  young  Hasdrubal,  Hanni-
bal's brother 212

The  Romans  take  Syracuse, 212 ;  and  expel  the

Carthagenians  from  Sicily 210

Hannibal  unable  to  relieve  Capua,  closely  besieged,
marches  to  Koine,  but  does  not  attack  it ;  Capua
surrenders,  and  is  severely  punished . . .  211
Philip, King  of  Macedon,  prevented  from  joining

Hannibal  ...'... about  211
Publius  Scipio  carries  war  into  Spain  and  takes  New

Carthage 210

Hasdrubal  arrives  with  an  army ;  defeated  and  slain

at  the  Metaurus 207

Carthaginians  expelled  from  Spain  by  Scipio  .  .  200
Scipio  arrives  in  Africa,  and  gains  victories . .  204

Hannibal  recalled  to  Cartilage 203

Totally  defeated  at  Zama  {iijltich  see)  ....  202

End  of  the  second  Punic  war 201

Hannibal  reforms  the  state,  and  prepares  for  a  fresh
contest  with  Rome,  but  is  exiled,  and  takes  refuge
with  Antiochus  III.,  King  of  Syria,  whom  he  in-
cites against  Rome,  after  whose  defeat,  190,  he  re-
sided at  the  court  of  Prusias,  King  of  Bithynia,  till
he  took  poison,  when  about  to  be  surrendered  to

the  Romans about  183

The  third  Punic  war  ;  Scipio  invades  Africa  .  .  149
Carthage  taken  and  burned,  by  order  of  the  Senate

July,  146

Colony  settled  at  Carthage  by  C.  Gracchus about  116

Its  rebuilding  planned  by  Julius  Cassar . . .46

And  executed  by  his  successors . .  19  et  seq.

The  new  city  becomes  a  Christian  bishopric . a.d.  200

Cyprian  holds  a  council  here 252

Taken  by  Genseric  the  Vandal  .  .  .9  Oct.  439
Retaken  by  Belisarius  .....  -  533

Ravaged  by  the  Arabs 647

Taken  and  destroyed by Hassan,  the Saracenic

governor  of  Egypt 698

Carthaginian  antiquities  (excavated  by  Mr.  Nathan

Davis)  brought  to  the  British  Museum . . . 1861
His  excavations  about  to  be  renewed .  Aug. 1876

Mr.  Bosworth  Smith's  "  Carthage,"  published .  1878

CARTHAGENA,  or  New  Carthage  (S.E.

Spain),  built  by  Hasdrubal,  the  Carthaginian
general,  242  n.c. :  taken  by  surpiise  by  Publius
Scipio  Africanus,  210  or  209.  1  he  modern  Car-
thagena was  taken  by  a  British  force  under  sir
John  Leake,  June,  1706;  retaken  by  the  duke
of  Berwick,  Nov.  It  was  the  last  place  held  by
the  Intransigcntes  and  Internationalists  of  Spain  ;
was  besieged  by  general  Martin  Campos,  about
22  Aug.  1873.  Bombardment  begun  26  Nov.,  taken
by  general  Lopez  Dominguez,  12  Jan.  1874.  See
Spain. — Cakthagena,  in  Columbia,  South  Ame-
rica,  was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ;


pillaged  by  the  French  buccaneers  in  1697 ;
bombarded  by  admiral  Vernon  in  March,  1741  -r
and  unsuccessfully  besieged,  April,  1741.  Popula-
tion, 1884,  75,980.

CARTHUSIANS,  a  religious  order  (springing-
from  the  Benedictines)  founded  by  Bruno  of
Cologne,  who  retired  with  six  companions  about
1084,  to  Chartreuse  {which  see),  in  the  mountains-
of  Dauphine.  Their  austere  rules  were  formed  by
Basil  VII.,  their  general.  They  appeared  in  Eng-
land about  1 180,  and  a  monaster}-  was  founded  by
sir  William  Manny,  1371,  on  the  site  of  the  present;
Charter-house,  London ;  see  Charter-house.  The
Carthusian  powder,  of  father  Simon,  at  Chartreuse^
was  first  compounded  about  1715.

CARTOONS,  large  chalk  drawings  preparatory"
to  oil  painting.  Those  of  Raphael  (twenty-five-
in  number)  were  designed  (for  tapestries)  in  the-
chambers  of  the  Vatican  under  Julius  II.  and,
Leo  X.  about  1510  to  1516.  The  seven  preserved
were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.,
of  England,  for  Hampton-court  palace  in  1629..
They  were  removed  to  South  Kensington  28  April,.
1865. — The  tapestries  executed  at  Arras  from  these-
designs  are  at  Home.  They  were  twice  carried
away  by  invaders,  in  1526  and  1798,  and  were  re-
stored in  1815. — The  Cartoons  for  the  British
Houses  of  Parliament  were  exhibited  in  July,  1843,

Raphael's  cartoons.

1.  The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes.

2.  The  Charge  to  Peter.

3.  Peter  and  John  Healing  the  Lame  at  the  Gate  of  the-

Temple.

4.  The  Death  of  Ananias.

5.  Elymas  the  Sorcerer  Struck  with  Blindness.

6.  The  Sacrifice  to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  at  Lystra.

7.  Paul  Preaching  at  Athens.

CARVING,  see  Sculpttires.

CASAMICCIOLA,  Ischia.  See  Lar:,-
quahes,  4  March,  1881,  and  28  July,  1883.

CASH-PAYMENTS,  see  Batik  ofEnglana.

CASHEL  (Tipperary,  Ireland).  Cormack  Cuil-
linan,  king  and  bishop  of  Cashel,  was  the  reputed
founder  or  restorer  of  the  cathedral,  901.  In  1152:
bishop  P/onat  O'Danergan  was  invested  with  the
pall ;  see  Pallium.  Cashel  was  valued  in  the
king's  books,  29  Henry  VIII.  at  661.  13s.  4^.  Irish
money.  By  the  Church  Temporalities  Act,  1833,  it
ceased  to  be  archiepiscopal,  and  was  joined  to
Waterford  and  Lismore.

CASHMERE,  in  the  valley  of  the  Himalayas  -r
was  subdued  by  the  Mahometans  under  Akbar,  in.
1586;  by  the  Afghans  in  1752  ;  by  the  Sikhs,  1819  y.
and  by  the  treaty  of  Lahore,  9  March,  1846,  ceded
to  the  British,  who  gave  it  to  the  Maharajah
Gholab  Singh,  as  tributary  sovereign.  The  true
Cashmere  shawls,  first  brought  to  England  in  1666,
are  well  imitated  at  Bradford  and  HuddersfiehL
Shawls  of  Thibetan  wool,  for  the  omrahs,  cost
150  rupees  each,  about  1650. Population, 1881,.

I.534.972-

Gholab  dies,  succeeded  by  his  son  Runbeer,  a
favourer  of  education,  1857  ;  who  assists  in  sup-
pressing the  Indian  mutiny  and  receives  further
guarantees' March,  186c.

The  prince  of  Wales  warmly  received  by  the  maha-
rajah  at  Jummoo 20  Jan.  1876-

Dreadful  famine  (partly  due  to  continued  de-
structive snowstorms,  Oct.  1877— May,  1878)

summer,  i875'

The  Maharajah  dies  12  Sept.  1885  ;  succeeded  by  his
son  Pertab  Singh;  the  power  of  the  British
resident  gn-atly  increased;  the  country  virtually
subject  to  the  viceroy  of  India,  through  incom-
petence and  folly  of  the  Maharajah . . i83S-s>


CASSANO.


18S


CATANIA.


The  Viceroy  of  India,  informs  the  Maharajah  that  if

iie  reform  he  may  be  restored  to  power . Aug.  1889
Increased  prosperity  of  the  country  reported Nov.  1890
Visit  of  the  Viceroy  of  India,  honourably  received

at  Srinagar,  the  capital  .  .  .  .23  Oct.  1891
Increased  powers  given  to  the  Maharajah . Oct. ,,

See  India,  Dec.  1891.

See  Earthquakes,  1885.

CASSANO  (N.  Italy).  Site  of  an  indecisive
conflict  between  prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  and  the
French,  16  Aug.  1705.

CASSATION,  Court  of,  the  highest  court
of  appeal  in  France,  was  established  10  Nov.  1790,
fey  the  national  assembly.

CASSEL,  formerly  the  capital  of  Hesse-Cassel,
Central  Germany,  acquired  importance  through  be-
coming the  refuge  of  French  protestants  after  the
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  1685.  It  was  the
capital  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  king  of  "Westphalia,
1807-13,  and  Wilhelmshohe,  a  neighbouring  castle,
became  the  residence  of  Napoleon  III.  after  his
surrender  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  2  Sept.  1870,  ar-
riving at  9.35  p.m.  5  Sept.  He  went  to  England
in  1871. Population,  1890,  72,461.

CASSITEEIDES,  see  Stilly  Isles.

CAST  ALIA,  see  under  Steam.

CASTEL-ELDAEDO,  near  Ancona,  Central
Italy.  Near  here  general  Lamoriciere  and  the
papal  army  of  1 1, ooo  men  were  totally  defeated  by
the  Sardinian  general,  Cialdini,  18  Sept.  i860.
Lamoriciere  with  a  few  horsemen  fled  to  Ancona,
then  besieged.  On  29  Sept.  he  and  the  garrison
surrendered,  but  were  shortly  after  set  at  liberty.

CASTES,  distinct  sections  of  society  in  India.
In  the  laws  of  Menu  (see  Menu),  the  Hindus  are
divided  into  the  Brahmans,  or  sacerdotal  class;
the  Kshatrya  or  Chuttree,  military  class;  the
Vaisya,  or  commercial  class ;  and  the  JSudras,  or
sooders,  servile  class.

CASTIGLIONE  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  French
under  A ugereau  defeated  the  Austrians,  commanded
by  Wurmser,  with  great  loss,  5  Aug.  1796.

CASTILE  (Central  Spain).  A  Gothic  govern-
ment was  established  here  about  800. — Koderiek,
count  of  Castile,  860  ;  Ferdinand,  a  count,  became
king,  1035.  Ferdinand,  king  of  Arragon,  married
Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  in  1474,  and  formed  one
monarchy,  1479  ;  see  p.  viii.,  and  Spain.

CASTILLEJOS  (N.  Africa).  Here  on  1  Jan.
i860,  was  fought  the  first  decisive  action  in  the
war  between  Spain  and  Morocco.  General  Prim,
after  a  vigorous  resistance,  repulsed  the  Moors
under  Muley  Abbas,  and  advanced  towards  Tetuan.

CASTILLON,  Guienne  (S.  France).  Here
the  army  of  Henry  VI.  of  England  was  defeated
by  that  of  Charles  VII.  of  France,  and  an  end  put
to  the  English  dominion  in  France,  Calais  alone
remaining,  17  or  23  July,  1453.  Talbot,  earl  of
■Shrewsbury,  was  killed.

CASTLEBAE  (Ireland).  About  1 100  French
troops,  under  Humbert,  landed  at  Killala,  and  as-
sisted by  Irish  insurgents  here,  compelled  the  king's
■troops  under  Lake  to  retreat,  27  Aug.  1798;  but
■were  compelled  to  surrender  at  Ballinamuck,
8  'Sept.

CASTLEPOLLAED  (Ireland).  At  an  affray
at  a  fair  here  between  some  peasantry  and  a  body
of  police,  thirteen  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  many
were  wounded,  23  May,  183 1.

CASTLES.  The  _  castle  of  the  Anglo-Saxon
was a tower keep, either  round  or  square, and


ascended  by  a  flight  of  steps  in  front.  "William  I.
erected  48  strong  castles.  Several  hundreds,  built
by  permission  of  Stephen,  between  1135  and  1154,
were  demolished  by  Henry  II.,  1154.  Many  were
dismantled  in  the  civil  wars,  Richborough,  Stud-
fall,  and  Burgh  are  existing  specimens  of  Boman
castles.

CASUAL  POOE  ACT,  45  &  46  Vict.  c.  36,
passed  18  Aug.  1882 ;  another  bill  withdrawn  23
June,  1892.

CAT.  The  generally  received  opinion  that  our
domestic  cat  is  derived  from  the  European  wild  cat
is  doubted  by  Mr.  T.  Bell  (1827).  Kiippell  (died
1794)  found  a  wild  cat  in  Nubia,  whose  conforma-
tion agreed  with  that  of  the  Egyptian  cat  mummies.
See  Mummies.  Cats  fetched  high  prices  in  the
middle  ages,  and  were  protected  by  law  in  Wales,
about  948.  Great  cat  shows  were  held  at  the
Crystal  Palace,  13  July  and  2  Dec.  1871 ;  2ist
annual  cat  show  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  22  Oct.
1889.  A  cat  interrupted  the  debates  in  the  com-
mons, 9  July,  1874.  A  CRt  asylum  formed  at  Batter-
sea,  Dec.  1882.
A  discussion  respecting  the  use  of  the  "cat  of  nine

tails  "  took  place  in  the  commons,  and  navy  cats

and  others  were  inspected  (see  Flogging), 5  July,  1879

CATACLYSMISTS,  see  Continuity.
CATACOMBS.  The  early  depositories  of  the
dead.  The  first  Christians  at  Borne  met  for  wor-
ship in  the  catacombs ;  and  here  are  said  to  have
been  the  tombs  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul.
Belzoni  in  1815-18  explored  many  Egyptian  cata-
combs, built  3000  years  ago.  He  brought  to  Eng-
land the  sarcophagus  of  Psammeticlius,  formed  of
oriental  alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured.  In  the
Parisian  catacombs  (formerly  stone  quarries),  human
remains  from  the  cemetery  of  the  Innocents  were
deposited  in  1785  ;  and  many  of  the  victims  of  the
revolution  in  1 792-4,  are  interred  in  them. — On
31  May,  1578,  some  labourers  digging  on  the  Via
Salaria,  two  miles  from  Rome,  discovered  the  cele-
brated catacombs  of  which  an  account  with  engrav-
ings was  published  by  Antonio  Bosio,  in  his  "  Ronia
Sotteranea"  (1632),  and  by.Aringhi  (1659),  and
others.  John  Evelyn  saw  them  in  1645.  Elaborate
accounts  have  been  published  recently  by  I)e  Rossi;
an  abstract  of  whose  researches  will  be  found  in  the
"  Roma  Sotteranea "  of  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Northcote
and  W.  R.  Brownlow,  1869  and  1879.

CATALOGUES,  see  Libraries,  Books.
■  CATALONIA  (N.E.  Spain),  was  settled  by  the
Goths  and  Alani,  about  409;  conquered  by  the
Saracens,  712;  recovered  by  Pepin,  and  by  Charle-
magne (788).  It  formed  part  of  the  Spanish  marches
and  the  territory  of  the  count  of  Barcelona  (ivhich
see).  The  natives  were  able  seamen:  being  fre-
quently unruly,  their  peculiar  privileges  were
abolished  in  1714. See  Barcelona.

CATALYTIC  FOECE.  The  discovery  in
1819  by  Thenard  of  the  decomposition  of  peroxide
of  hydrogen  by  platinum,  and  by  Dobereiner  in
1825  of  its  property  to  ignite  a  mixture  of  hydro-
gen and  oxygen,  formed  the  groundwork  of  the
doctrine  of  catalytic  force,  also  termed  "  action  of
contact  or  presence,"  put  forth  by  Berzelius  and
Mitscherlich.  Their  view  has  not  been  adopted  by
Liebig  and  other  chemists.

CATAMAEANS  (or  carcases),  fire-machines
for  destroying  ships ;  tried  in  vain  by  sir  Sydney
Smith,  2  Oct.  1804,011  the  Boulogne  flotilla  destined
by  Bonaparte  to  invade  England.

CATANIA  (the  ancient  Catana),  a  town  near
Etna,  Sicily,  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis,


CATAPHRYGIANS.


189


CATTLE.


about  730  B.C.  Ceres  had  a  temple  here,  open  to
none  but  women.  Catania  was  almost  totally  over-
thrown by  an  eruption  of  Etna  in  1669,  and  in  1693
was  nearly  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake  :  in  a
moment  more  than  18,000  of  its  inhabitants  were
buried  in  the  ruins.  An  earthquake  did  great
damage,  22  Feb.  1817.  In  Aug.  1862,  the  town
was  held  by  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,  in  op-
position to  the  Italian  government.  He  was  cap-
tured on  29  Aug. Population  in  1890,  109,687.

CATAPHRYGIANS,  heretics  in  the  second
century,  who  followed  the  errors  of  Montanus.
They  are  said  to  have  baptized  their  dead,  forbidden
marriage,  and  mingled  the  bread  and  wine  in  the
Lord's  supper  with  the  blood  of  young  children.

CATAPULTiE,  military  engines  of  the  cross-
bow kind,  for  throwing  huge  stones  as  well  as
darts  and  arrows  ;  said  to  have  been  invented  by
Dion3Tsius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  399  B.C.

CATCH  CLUB,  Noblemen  and  Gen-
tlemen's, formed  in  1761,  included  eminent
musicians  of  the  time.  Prizes  were  given  occa-
sionally; sometimes,  since  1821,  for  a  composition,
a  gold  or  silver  cup.

CATEAUCAMBRESIS  (N.France),  where,
on  2,  3  April,  1559,  peace  was  concluded  between
Henry  II.  of  France,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and
Elizabeth  of  England.  France  ceded  Savoy,  Corsica,
and  nearly  200  forts  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Countries
to  Philip.

CATECHISMS  are  said  to  have  been  com-
piled in  the  8th  or  9th  century.  Luther's  were
published  1520  and  1529.  The  catechism  of  the
church  of  England  in  the  first  book  of  Edward  VI.,
7  March,  1549,  contained  merely  the  baptismal
vow,  the  creed,  the  ten  commandments,  and  the
Lord's  prayer,  with  explanations;  but  James  I.
ordered  the  bishops  to  add  an  explication  of  the
sacraments,  1612.  The  catechism  of  the  council  of
Trent  was  published  in  1566  ;  those  of  the  Assem-
bly of  Divines  at  Westminster  (one  termed  the
shorter  catechism),  1647  and  1648.

CATHARI  (from  the  Greek  katharos,  pure),
a  name  given  to  the  Novatians  (about  251),  Mon-
tanists,  and  other  early  Christian  sects.  See  Puri-
tans.

CATHAY,  an  old  name  for  China.

CATHEDRAL,  the  chief  church  of  a  diocese,

as  containing  the  cathedra,  or  seat  of  the  bishop,

obtained  the  name  in  the  10th  century.

A  conference  of  the  higher  clergy  to  consider
cathedral  institutions  held  at  Lambeth,  1  March,  1872

The  act  3  &  4  Vict.  c.  113,  for  the  regulation  of
cathedrals  passed  in  1840,  amended  and  the  en-
dowment of  canonries  facilitated  in  . .  1873

A  royal  commission  to  inquire  respecting  cathedral
churches  appointed  (atop,  of  Canterbury,  lord
Cranbrook,  Mr.  Beresford  Hope,  and  others),
July  ;  met  in . . . . . . Aug.  1879

Report  issued  recommending  more  flexibility  in
services,  with  use  of  nave,  &c. . . Feb.  1882

Final  report  issued April,  1885

CATHERINE.  The  order  of  knights  of  St.
Catherine  was  instituted  in  Palestine,  1063.  An
order  of  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  in  Russia  was
founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  17 14,  in  honour  of  the
bravery  of  his  empress  Catherine.  They  were  to
be  distinguished,  as  the  name  implied  (from
katharos,  pure),  for  purity  of  life  and  manners;
see  Docks  and  Katharine.

CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION,  see  under
Roman  Catholics.


CATHOLIC  LEAGUE  formed  by  English
churchmen  more  Romanistie  than  the  English
Church  Union,  June,  1882.

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.  This  title  was
given  by  pope  Gregory  III.  to  Alphonso  I.  of  Spain,
739,  and  to  Ferdinand  V.  and  his  queen  in  1474  by
Innocent  VIII.  on  account  of  their  zeal  for  religion,
and  their  establishment  of  the  Inquisition.

CATHOLICS,  see  Roman  Catholics.

CATHOLIC  UNION,  see  Roman  Catholics.

.CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY.  Lucius  Ser-

gius  Catiline,  a  dissolute  Roman  noble,  having  been
refused  the  consulship  (65  B.C.),  conspired  to  kill
the  senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  set  Rome  on
fire.  This  conspiracy  was  timely  discovered  and
frustrated.  A  second  plot  (in  63),  was  detected  bv
the  consul  Cicero,  whom  lie  had  resolved  to  murder.
Catiline's  daring  appearance  in  the  senate-house,
after  his  guilt  was  known,  drew  forth  Cicero's  cele-
brated^ invective,  "  Quousque  tandem,  Catilina!"
on  8  Nov.  On  seeing  five  of  his  accomplices  ar-
rested, Catiline  fled  to  Gaul,  where  his  partisans
were  assembling  an  army.  Cicero  punished  the
conspirators  at  home,  and  Petreius  routed  their
forces;  Catiline  being  killed  in  the  engagement,.
Jan.  62  B.C.

CAT  ISLE,  see  Salvador.

CATO,  SUICIDE  OF.  Considering  freedom  as
that  which  alone  "sustains  the  dignity  of  man,"
and  unable  to  survive  the  independence  of  his-
country,  Cato  stabbed  himself  at  Utica,  46  B.C.

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY :  a  gang
of  desperate  men,  headed  by  Arthur  Thistlewood,
assembled  in  Cato-street.  Edgware-road,  and  pro-
posed the  assassination  of  the  ministers  of  the
crown,  at  a  cabinet  dinner.  They  were  betrayed
and  arrested,  23  Feb.  1820,  and  Thistlewood,  Brunt,
Davidson,  Ings,  and  Tidd,  were  executed  as  traitors,
on  1  May.

CATTI,  a  German  tribe,  attacked  but  not  sub-
dued by  the  Romans  a.d.  15,  and  84;  absorbed  by
the  Franks,  3rd  century.

CATTLE.  The  importation  of  horned  cattle
from  Ireland  and  Scotland  into  England  was  pro-
hibited by  a  law,  1663;  but  the  export  of  cattle
from  Ireland  became  very  extensive.  In  1842  the
importation  of  cattle  into  England  from  foreign
countries  was  subjected  to  a  moderate  duty,  and  in
1846  they  were  made  duty  free  ;  and  since  then  the
numbers  imported  have  enormously  increased.*
Horned  cattle  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom
1849,53,480;  1853,  125,523;  1855  (war),  97,527;
i860,  104,569;  1865,  283,271  ;  1866,  237,739;  1867,
177,948;  1868,  136,688;  1869,  220,190;  1870,
202,172;  1874,  193,862;  1876,  271,576;  1877,
201,193;  ^79.  247,768  ;  1881,  319,374;  1883,
474,750;  1887,  295,961;  1888,  377,088;  l88q,
555,222;  1890,642,596.  See  under  Sheep,  Smith-
field,  Metropolitan  Cattle-market,  ami  Foreign
Cattle-market.
A  cattle  plague  began  in  Hungary  ;  extended  over

Western  Europe,  destroying  iA-  million  cattle  1711-14
A  severe  cattle  plague  raged  in  England  and  wesJ

Europe  (about  3  million  cattle  perish) . .  1745-56
The privy council  ordered  diseased  beasts  to  he
shot,  and  their  skins  destroyed  ;  granting  mode-
rate compensation . . . .12  March,  1746
Great  disease  among  foreign  cattle  ;  excluded  from
this  country  by  prohibitions . . . April,  1857

*  Sale  of  30  of  duke  of  Devonshire's  shorthorn  bulls
for  19,923?.,  about  Sept.  1878.


CATTLE.


190


CAUDINE FOEKS.


The  cattle  plague  appears  at  Laycoek's  dairy,
Barnsbury,  London,  N.  ;  rapidly  spreads,  about

24  June,  1865

.27,432  beasts  had  been  attacked  ;  12,680  died ;
8,998  slaughtered,  up  to . . . .21  Oct. „

A  royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of
cattle  plague  and  suggest  remedies  met  first,  10
Oct.  ;  report  of  majority  considered  the  disease
to  have  been  imported,  and  recommend  slaughter
of  animals,  and  stringent  prohibition  of  passage
of  cattle  across  public  roads,  &c,  31  Oct.  1865  ;
second  report,  6  Feb.  ; 3rd  report . 1  May,  i366

Orders  in  council  for  regulating  the  cattle  plague
(in  conformity  with  the  act  of  1850),  23  Nov.  and
16  Dec.  1865  ;  and 20  Jan. „

(Disease  raging ;  official  report ;  cattle  attacked,
120,740  ;  killed,  16,742  ;  died,  73,750  ;  recovered,
14,162  ;  unaccounted  for,  16,086 . . 1  Feb. ,,

•Cattle  Disease  Acts  passed  20  Feb.  and  10  Aug. ,,

Orders  in  council  making  uniform  repressive  mea-
sures throughout  the  country . .  27  March, „

'The  disease  materially  abates . . . April, „

JPrivy  council  return  :  cattle  attacked,  248,965  ;
killed,  80,597  :  died,  124,187  ;  recovered,  32,989  ;
unaccounted  for,  11,192  . . . .22  June, ,,

The  disease  nearly  "  stamped  out " . 27  Oct. „

Order  in  council  directing  that  foreign  cattle  be
landed  only  at  certain  parts  (after  13  Nov.),  there
to  be  subjected  to  quarantine  . . .10  Nov. ,,

Oattle  plague  re-appears  in  Cheshire  and  Lanca-
shire and  Yorkshire Dec. ,,

JBe-appears  at  Barnsbury  (see  24  June,  1865),  46
animals  slaughtered .... 2  Feb.  1867

ale-appearance  in  various  places . . June,  July, „

■Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act  amended Aug. ,,

3STo  case  reported  to  the  privy  council . 3  Aug. „

Order  of  council  permitting  cattle  to  be  removed
from  the  metropolis . . .  .25  July,  1868

New  general  orders  issued .... Aug. 1869

^Prevalence  of  "  foot  and  mouth  disease "  in
England . Aug.  1869 — Dec.  1870;  June,  July,  1871

^Disease  appears  at  Kaiserslautern,  rear  of  the  Ger-
man army ;  cautionary  regulations  promulgated
by  the  privy  council .... 9  Sept. 1870

New  foreign  cattle  market  determined  on,  Nov.
1870 ;  opened  Dec.  1871 ;  suffers  by  great  fire,
about  io,ooo£.  lost  . . . .18  Sept.  1883

Foot  and  mouth  disease  in  England, . July,  Aug.  1872

Appearance  of  the  plague  in  German  cattle  ;  further
importation  suspended  . . about  3  Aug. ,,

-Cattle  plague  appears  at  Pocklington,  Yorkshire ;
vigorously  treated,  3  Sept.  ;  stringent  order  from
the  privy  council 7  Sept. „

JLive  cattle  imported  to  Glasgow  from  America  by
Mr.  Bell July,  1873

IFoot  and  mouth  disease  in  some  English  counties,

Aug.  Sept. 1875

Ste-appearance  of  cattle-plague  in  England ;  restric-
tions in  London  and  other  places ;  much  cattle
killed . . .:••.■. . . Jan.— May,  1877

Oattle-plague  commission  enlarged,  3  May  ;  plague
said  to  be  stamped  out ;  restrictions  removed,  26
June  ;  fresh  cases  in  London  ;  restrictions  re-
sumed 1 3  July ;  removed . . . 31  July, ,,

New  Cattle  Contagious  Diseases  Act  passed  16  Aug.  1878

Order  in  council  prohibiting  importation  of  living
cattle  from  eastern  half  of  Europe  after  1  Jan.
1879  ;  imports  permitted  from  some  countries,
cattle  to  be  slaughtered  ;  (no  restriction  respect-
ing some  countries) .... 6  Dec. ,,

jFoot  and  mouth  disease  in  E.  Lancashire,  Aug.
1881 ;  in  Staffordshire,  Aug.  1882 ;  Norfolk Oct,  1882

International  cattle  show  at  Hamburg . July,  1883

iFoot  and  mouth  disease  prevailing  in  English  mid-
land counties,  July ;  in  Kent . July,  el  seq. ,,

Severe  at  Odessa . . . Oct.  1883—  May,  1884

Abating  in  England  through  suspension  of  fairs,
&c,  announced April, „

iCattle-men  of  United  States ;  above  12,000  delegates
hold  a  convention  at  St.  Louis,  organize  a
national  live  stock  association,  and  recommend
the  formation  of  a  National  trail  ten  miles  wide
for  the  passage  of  cattle  from  the  Red  River  to
the  Northern  boundary  of  the  States  18-22  Nov. ,,

New  Contagious  Diseases  Act  passed . . . ,,

Foot-and-mouth  disease  stamped  out,  Earl  Spencer,
28  May  ;  favourable  reports . . . Dec.  1886

•Cattle  disease  in  Leicestershire .  June  1880


Foot  and  mouth  disease  in  Germany;  importation
into  England  checked Oct.  18:

Pleurc-pneumonia  and  anthrax  in  the  United
Kingdom reported  6  Feb.  18

Foot  and  mouth  disease  at  the  Metropolitan  cattle
market  detected  in  some  Danish  cattle ;  all
slaughtered,  4-6  Feb.  The  sale  of  live  cattle
temporarily  suspended,  8  Feb.  The  disease  soon
after  appeared  in  Kent,  Surrey,  W.  R.  Yorkshire,
Chester,  Westmoreland  also  at  Edinburgh,  Glas-
gow, Paisley,  and  was  vigorously  stamped  out
bv  the  action  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,

Feb. -July,  18

CATTLE AND SHEEP IN  THE UNITED KINGDOM AND
ISLANDS.


1879


Sheep.
26,380,000

33,8i7>95i
35,607,812
34,250,272
32,786,783
31,403,500
32,246,642
33,982,404
34,837,597
33,49I,948
32,252,579
32,220,067
32,571,018

SHOW,  see  Smithfield.
,  see  Cabul.


Cattle.  Sheep.

9,961,536 32,237,958
9,871,153 30,239,620


1801  9,905,013

1882  9,832,417

1883  10,097,943

1884  10,422,762

1885  10,868,760

1886  10,872,811

1887  10,639,960  29,401,750

1888  10,268,600  28,938,716

1889  10,272,765  29,484,774

1890  10,789,858  31,667,195


27,090,273
27,448,220
28,347,560
29,376,787
30,086,200
28,955,240


Cattle.

1866  8,570,000

1867  8,731,473

1868  9,083,416

1869  9,078,282

1870  9,235,052

1871  9,346,216

1872  9,718,505

1873  10,153,670

1874  10,281,036

1875  10.162,787

1876  9,997,189

1877  9,731,537

1878  9,761,288

CATTLE
CAUBUL

CAUCASUS,  a  lofty  mountain,  a  continuation
of  the  ridge  of  Mount  Taurus,  between  the  Euxine
and  Caspian  seas.  The  passes  near  the  mountain
were  called  Caucasia  Fortcc,  and  it  is  supposed  that
through  them  the  Sarmatians  or  Huns  invaded  the
provinces  of  Rome,  a.d.  447.  Population  of  the
province,  1885,  7,824,567;  see  Circassia.
Two  explorers,  Mr.  W.  F.  Donkin  and  Mr.  H.  Fox,

and  their  guides  lost  .  .  .  about  1  Sept.  1888
Alpine  Club  search  party  find  only  some  of  their

property 29  July,  1889

First  agricultural  exhibition  opened  at  Tiflis  .

27  Sept. ,,

CAUCUS. An  American  term  applied  to  a
private  meeting  of  the  leading  politicians  of  a  party
to  agree  upon  the  plans  to  be  pursued  during  an
election  or  session  of  congress. This  institution  is
now  a  very  powerful  antagonist  to  public  opinion.
The  word  is  said  to  be  derived  from ' '  ship ' '  -caulkers'
meetings. A  "caucus  club"  is  mentioned  by  John
Adams,  in  1763. Bartlett. Similar  meetings  are
occasionally  held  in  London  by  conservatives  and
liberals ;  one  was  held  by  Mr.  Gladstone  respecting
the  ballot  bill,  6  July, 1871. Jealousy  respecting
the  system  was  aroused  in  1878.
The  Birmingham  Liberal  Association  began  in  1868
a  powerful  caucus,  systematized  by  Mr.  Schnad-
horst,  very  efficient  1873  et  seq.  ;  a  similar  conser-
vative association  since  formed ; a  network  of
similar  societies  exist  throughout  the  kingdom

Autumn  1885
The  London  Liberal  and  Radical  Council,  actually

a  caucus,  active  in  November, ,,

io,5ooL  presented to Mr. Schnadhorst by the
Liberals ....  .9  March,  1887

CAUDINE  FOEKS,  according  to  Livy,  the
Furcults  Caudince  (in  Samnium,  S.  Italy),  were  two
narrow  defiles  or  gorges,  united  by  a  range  of  moun-
tains on  each  side.  The  Romans  went  through  the
first  pass,  but  found  the  second  blocked  up ;  on  re-
turning they  found  the  first  similarly  obstructed.
Being  thus  hemmed  in  by  the  Samnites,  under  the
command  of  C.  Pontius,  they  surrendered  at  discre-
tion, 321  B.C.  (after  a  fruitless  contest,  according  to
Cicero).  The  Roman  senate  broke  the  favourable
treaty.  C.  Pontius,  taken  prisoner  in  the  third
Samnite  war,  was  executed  at  Rome,  290.


CAULIFLOWEE.


191


CELL THEOEY.


CAULIFLOWEE,  said  to  have  been  brought
from  Cyprus  to  England  about  1603.

CAUSTIC,  IN  PAINTING,  a  method  of  burn-
ing colours  into  wood  or  ivory,  invented  by  Gausias
of  Sicyon.  He  painted  his  mistress  Glycere  sitting
on  the  ground  making  garlands  with  dowers ;  the
picture  was  hence  named  Stephanoplocon.  It  was
bought  by  Lucullus  for  two  talents,  335  B.C.  Pliny.

CAUTIONABY  TOWNS  (Holland),  (the
Briel,  Flushing,  Rammekins,  and  Walcheren),
■were  given  to  queen  Elizabeth  in  1585  as  security
for  their  repaying  her  for  assistance  in  their  struggle
with  Spain.  They  were  restored  to  the  Dutch
republic  by  James  I.  in  16 16.

CAVALIEB.  The  appellation  given  to  the
supporters  of  the  king  during  the  civil  war,  from  a
number  of  gentlemen  formiug  themselves  into  a
body-guard  for  the  king  in  164 1.  They  were
opposed  to  the  Roundheads,  or  parliamentarians.

CAVALBY.  Used  by  the  Canaanites  in  war,
1450  B.C.  {Josh.  xi.  4).  Attached  to  each  Roman
legion  was  a  body  of  300  horse,  in  ten  turmaj ;  the
commander  always  a  veteran. — The  Persians  had
10,000  horse  at  Marathon,  490  B.C. ;  and  10,000
Persian  horse  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333
B.C.  Plutarch.  In  the  wars  with  Napoleon  I.  the
British  cavalry  reached  to  31,000  men.  Our  cavalry
force,  in  1840,  was  10,733.  In  1867,  cavalry  of  the
line,  10,023;  in  depots,  838  ;  in  India,  5421 ;  total,
1 7,599 ;  m  1880,  total  17,245  ;  in  i884,  total  16,998  ;
in  Jan.  1889,  556  officers,  1406  non-commissioned,
1 1,458  rank  and  file ;  in  India,  total  5682.  Cavalry
Manoeuvres  on  the  Berkshire  Downs,  eight  regi-
ments, director,  sir  Evelyn  Wood ;  general  in
•command,  sir  Baker  Russell,  Sept.  1890.  The
manoeuvres  repeated  near  Aldershot,  Aug.  1891,
and  Aug.  1892  ;  see  Horse  Guards,  §c.

CAVENDISH  EXPEEIMENT.  In  1798
the  Hon.  Henry  Cavendish  described  his  experi-
ment for  determining  the  mean  density  of  the
earth,  by  comparing  the  force  of  terrestrial  attrac-
tion with  that  of  the  attraction  of  leaden  spheres  of
known  magnitude  and  density,  by  means  of  the
torsion  balance.  Branch.  The  Cavendish.  Society,
for  the  publication  of  chemical  works,  which  ceased
with  Gmelin's  Chemistry  (1848-72),  was  established
1846.

CAVENDISH  COLLEGE,  Cambridge
(founded  to  give  cheap  university  education  to
youths  younger  than  those  admitted  at  other  col-
leges, and  leaving  earlier  for  business),  was  in-
augurated by  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  26  Oct.  1876.
New  buildings  opened  by  the  marquis  of  Harting-
ton,  16  Nov.  1889.

CAVES  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible
as  dwellings,  refuges,  and  burying-places.  Mr.  W.
B.  Dawkins'  "Cave-hunting;  Researches  on  the
evidence  of  caves  respecting  the  early  inhabitants
of  Europe,"  was  published  1874.  Oreston  cave,
Devon,  discovered  1816;  Kirkdale,  Yorkshire,  1821  ;
Kent's  Hole,  Torquay,  which  see,  1825;  Brixham
■cave,  1858  ;  Wookey  Hole,  Somerset,  1859 ;  and
many  others,  have  been  well  explored.

CAWNPOEE,  a  town  in  India,  on  the  Doab,
a  peninsula  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  During
the  mutiny  in  June,  1857,  it  was  garrisoned  by  na-
tive troops  under  sir  Hugh  Wheeler.  These  broke
out  into  revolt.  An  adopted  son  of  the  old  Peishwa
Bajee  Rao,  Nana  Sahib,  who  had  long  lived  on
friendly  terms  with  the  British,  came  apparently  to
their  assistance,  but  joined  the  rebels. He  took  the


place  after  three  weeks'  siege,  26  June;  and  in
spite  of  a  treaty  massacred  great  numbers  of  the
British,  without  respect  to  age  or  sex,  in  the  most
cruel  manner.  General  Havelock  defeated  Nana
Sahib,  16  July,  at  Futtehpore,  and  retook  Cawn-
pore,  17  July.  Sir  Colin  Campbell  defeated  the
rebels  here  on  6  Dec.  following.  A  column  was
erected  here,  in  memory  of  the  sufferers,  by  their
relatives  of  the  32nd  regiment.  In  Dec.  i860,
Nana  was  said  to  be  living  at  Thibet ;  and  in  Dec.
1861  was  incorrectly  said  to  have  been  captured  at
Kurrachee  ;  see  India,  1857.

CAXTON  SOCIETY,  established  for  the
publication  of  chronicles  and  literature  of  the
M  iddle  Ages,  published  sixteen  volumes,  1844-54.
Caxton  Celebration,  see  under  Printing,  1877.

CAYENNE,  French  Guiana  (S.  America),
settled  by  the  French,  1604-35.  ^  afterwards  came
successively  into  the  hands  of  the  English  (1654),
French,  and  Dutch.  The  last  were  expelled  by  the
French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by  the  British,
12  Jan.  1809,  but  was  restored  to  the  French  in
1814.  Here  is  produced  the  Capsicum  baccatum,  or
cayrenne  pepper.  Many  French  political  prisoners
were  sent  here  in  1848.

CECIL  CLUB,  founded  about  1889  to  oppose
rash,  democratical  and  radical  changes ;  supported
by  conservatives.

CECILIAN  SOCIETY,  see  Ccecilian.

CEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN,

Virginia,  U.S.  On  19  Oct.  1864,  gen.  Sheridan
converted  the  defeat  of  the  Federals  by  the  Con-
federates under  Longstreet  into  a  complete  victory.
At  Cedar  Mountain  gen.  Stonewall  Jackson
defeated  Banks,  9  Aug.  1862.

CEDAE  TEEE.  The  red  cedar  (Junipcrus
virginiana)  came  from  North  America  before
1664;  the  Bermudas  cedar  from  Bermudas  before
1683  ;  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Pinus  Cedrus)  from
the  Levant  before  1683.  In  1850  a  grove  of  vener-
able cedars,  about  40  feet  high,  remained  on
Lebanon.  The  cedar  of  Goa  (Cupressus  lusitanica)
was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Portuguese  about
1683 ;  see  Cypress.

CELEEY  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into
England  by  the  French  marshal,  Tallard,  during
his  captivityr  in  England,  after  his  defeat  at  Blen-
heim by  Marlborough,  2  Aug.  1704.

CELESTIAL  GLOBE,  see  Globes.

CELIBACY  (from  ccelcbs,  unmarried),  was
preached  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt  about  305.  His
early  converts  lived  in  caves,  &c,  till  monasteries
were  founded.  The  doctrine  was  rejected  in  the
council  of  Nice,  325.  Celibacy  was  enjoined  on
bishops  only  in  692.  The  decree  was  opposed  in
England,  958-978.  The  Romish  clergy  generally
were  enjoined  a  vow  of  celibacy  by  pope  Gregory
VII.  in  1073-85,  and  its  observance  was  established
by  the  council  of  Placentia,  held  in  1095.  Mar-
riage was  restored  to  the  English  clergy  in  1547.
The  marriage  of  the  clergy  was  proposed,  but  nega-
tived at  the  council  of  Trent  (1563);  also  at  a  con-
ference of  the  old  catholics  at  Bonn,  June,  1876.
Sir  Bartle  Frere  termed  the  Zulu  army  "  a  celibate
man-slaying  machine,"  1878.

CELL  THEOEY  (propounded  by  Schwann
in  1839)  supposes  that  the  ultimate  particles  of  all
animal  and  vegetable  tissues  are  small  cells.  Some
of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life
are  said  to  be  composed  of  merely  a  single  cell,  as  the
germinal  vesicle  in  the  egg  and  the  red-snow  plant.


CELLULOID.


192


CBRIGNOLA.


CELLULOID,  see  Ivory.
CELTIBERI,  see  Numantine  War.
CELTS,  or  KELTS,  a  group  of  the  Aryan
family;  see  Gauls.  Above  8000/.  subscribed  to
found  a  Celtic  professorship  at  the  university  of
Edinburgh,  Oct.  1876;  11,937^.  subscribed  April,
1879.  One  was  established  at  Oxford  in  1876  ;  see
Gaelic.

CEMETERIES.  The  bur)  ing-places  of  the
Jews,  Greeks,  Romans,  were  outside  their  towns
{Matt,  xxvii.  60).  Many  public  cemeteries  re-
sembling "  Pere  La  Chaise"  *  at  Paris,  have  been
opened  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  since  1856;  see
Catacombs,  Bun  hill- fields.

Kensal-green  cemetery,  53  acres ;  consecrated,  2  Nov.  1832
South  Metropolitan  and Norwood cemetery, 40

acres  ;  consecrated 6  Dec. 1837

Highgate  and  Kentish-town  cemetery, 22 acres;

opened  and  consecrated  ...  20  May,  1839
Abney  Park  cemetery,  Stoke  Newington,  30  acres ;

opened  by  the  lord  mayor  ... 20  May,  1840
Westminster,  or  West  London  cemetery,  Kensing-
ton-road ;  consecrated ...  15  June, „
Nunhead  cemetery, about  50  acres; consecrated

29  July, ,,
City  of  London and  Tower  Hamlets cemetery,

30  acres  ;  consecrated 1841

London  Necropolis  and  National  Mausoleum, at
Woking,  Surrey,  2000  acres  ;  the  company  incor-
porated in  July,  1852 ;  opened . . Jan.  1855
City  of  London  cemetery,  Ilford ;  opened,  24  June,  1856
Acts  respecting  burials  passed ....  1850-57

CENIS,  MOUNT,  see  under  Alps.

CENSORS,  Roman  magistrates,  to  survey
and  rate  the  property,  and  correct  the  manners  of
the  people.  The  two  first  censors  were  appointed,
443  B.C.  Plebeian  censors  were  first  appointed,  131
B.C.  Cato,  the  censor,  elected  184  B.C.,  strenuously
endeavoured  1  o  restrain  the  luxury  and  vice  of  the
patricians.  The  office,  abolished  by  the  emperors,
was  revived  by  Decius,  a.d.  251 ;  see  Press.

CENSUS.  The  Israelites  were  numbered  by
Moses,  1490  B.C.;  and  by  David,  1017B.C;  Deme-
trius Phalereus  is  said  to  have  taken  a  census  of
Attica,  317  B.C.  Servius  Tullius  is  traditionally
said  to  have  enacted  that  a  general  estimate  of
every  Roman's  estate  and  personal  effects,  should
be  delivered  to  the  government  upon  oath  every
five  years,  566  B.C.  A  census  of  the  people  is
stated  to  have  been  taken  at  Florence  in  1527 ;
at  Venice,  1584;  in  France,  1700;  in  Sweden,
1749;  and  in  the  United  States,  N.A.  1790.  In
England  the  proposal  for  a  census  in  1753  was
opposed  as  profane  and  subversive  of  liberty^  In
the  United  Kingdom  the  census  is  now  taken  at
decennial  periods  since  1801 ;  1811,  1821,  1831,
1841,  1851,  1861  (7  April),  1871  (3  April),  1881
(3  April),  1891  (5  April) ;  act  passed  18  Aug.  1890.
S'ee  Population.  For  the  latest  census  of  other
countries,  see  Table,  facing  page  1.

CENTAL,  a  new  name  given  to  the  ioolbs.
Weight,  London  Gazette,  7  Feb.  1879.

CENTENARIANS,  see  Longevity.

CENTRAL  AFRICA,  see  under  Africa.

CENTRAL  AMERICA,  &eeAmerica,Central.
A  laro-c  American  steamer  of  this  name  was  wrecked
during  a  gale  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  12  Sept.  1857.

*  Pere  La  Chaise  was  the  favourite  and  confessor  of
Louis  XIV. ,  who  made  him  superior  of  a  great  establish-
ment of  tiie  Jesuits  on  this  spot,  then  named  Mont
Louis.  The  house  and  grounds  were  bought  for  a  national
cemetery,  which  was  laid  out  by  M.  Brongniart,  and  first
used  on  21  May,  1804.


Of  about  550  persons  only  152  were  saved;  several
of  these  after  drifting  on  rafts  above  600  miles.
The  loss  of  about  2\  million  dollars  in  specie  aggra-
vated the  commercial  panic  in  New  York  shortly
after. The  captain  and  crew  behaved  heroically.

CENTRAL  CRIMINAL  COURT,  estab-
lished in  1834.  Commissions  are  issued  to  the
fifteen  judges  of  England  (of  whom  three  attend  in
rotation  at  the  Old  Bailey)  for  the  periodical  de-
livery of  the  gaol  of  Newgate,  and  the  trial  of
offences  of  greater  degree,  committed  in  Middlesex
and  parts  of  Essex,  Kent,  and  Surrey;  the  new
district  is  considered  as  one  county.

CENTRAL  HALL  OF  SCIENCES,  see
under  Albert.

CENTRAL PROVINCES  OF INDIA,

constituted  out  of  territories  from  the  North- West
provinces  and  Madras  in  1861  and  placed  under  a  .
chief  commissioner.  Population  in  1881,9.838,791;
1891,  10,761,630. Chief  commissioner,  Alex.  Mac-
kenzie (1889)  ;  A.  Patrick  MacDonnell  (1891). "

CENTURION,  the  captain,  head,  or  com-
mander of  a  subdivision  of  a  Roman  legion,  which
consisted  of  100  men,  and  was  called  a  centuria.
By  the  Roman  census  each  hundred  of  the  people
was  called  a  centuria,  556  b  c

CENTURY.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by
the  Olympiads,  beginning  776  B.C.,  and  the  Roman
church  by  Indictions,  the  first  of  which  began  24
Sept.,  a.d.  312.  The  method  of  computing  time
by  centuries  commenced  from  the  incarnation  0?
Christ,  and  was  adopted  in  chronological  history
first  in  France. Dupin. See  Dictionaries,  1889.

CEPHALONIA,  the  ancient  Cephallenia,  one
of  the  Ionian  islands,  was  taken  from  the  JEtolians
by  the  Romans,  189  B.C.,  and  given  to  the  Athenians
by  Hadrian,  a.d.  135;  see  Ionian  Isles.
It  was  held  successively  by  the  eastern  emperors,  by
the  Franks  in  the  12th  century,  by  the  Princes
of  Aehaia, 1224 ;  by  the  Turks, 1479 ;  by  the
Venetians 1500-1797

CEPHISUS,  a  river  in  Attica,  near  which
Walter  de  Brienne,  duke  of  Athens,  was  defeated
and  slain  by  the  Catalans,  1311.

CERBERE,  a  French  gun-brig,  with  a  crew
of  87  men,  and  seven  guns,  in  the  harbour  of
L' Orient,  within  pistol-shot  of  three  batteries,  was-
captured  in  a  most  daring  manner  by  lieut.  Jeremiah
Coghlan,  in  a  cutter  with  19  companions  aided  by
two  boats,  one  of  which  was  commanded  by  mid-
shipman Paddon.  The  prize  was  towed  out  under
a  heavy  but  ineffectual  fire  from  the  batteries,
26  July",  1800. Nicolas.

CEREMONIES,  Master  of  the,  an  office
instituted  for  the  more  honourable  reception  of
ambassadors  and  persons  of  quality  at  court,
1  James  I.  1603.  The  order  maintained  by  the
master  of  the  ceremonies  at  Bath,  "Beau  Nash,"'
the  "King  of  Bath,"  led  to  the  adoption  of  the
office  in  ordinary  assemblies ;  he  died  in  his  88th
year,  1761! Ashe.

CERES,  a  planet,  160  miles  in  diameter,  was
discovered  by  M.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  1  Jan.  1801 ;
he  named  it  after  the  goddess  highly  esteemed  by
the  ancient  Sicilians.

CERESUOLA  (N.  Italy).  Here  Francis  de
Bourbon,  count  d'Eughien,  defeated  the  imperialists
under  the  marquis  de  Guasto,  14  April,  1544.

CERIGNOLA  (S.  Italy).  Here  the  great
captain  Gonsalvo de Cordova  and the  Spaniards


^CERINTHIANS.


193


CHAMBERS' JOURNAL.


defeated  the due  de  Nemours and the French,
28  April,  1503.

CERINTHIANS,  followers  of  Cerinthus,  a
Jew,  who  lived  about  a.d.  80,  are  said  to  have  com-
bined Judaism  with  pagan  philosophy.

CERIUM,  a  very  rare  metal,  discovered  by
Klaproth  and  others  in  1 803.

CEUTA  (the  ancient  Septa),  a  town  on  N.  coast
of  Africa,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Abyla,
the  southern  pillar  of  Hercules.  It  was  taken
from  the  Vandals  by  Belisarius  for  Justinian,  534  ;
by  the  Goths,  618 ;  by  the  Moors  about  709,  from
whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  1415.  "With
Portugal,  it  was  annexed  in  1580  to  Spain,  which
power  still  retains  it.

CEYLON  (the  ancient  Taprobane),  an  island
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  called  by  the  natives  the  seat
of  paradise.  It  became  a  seat  of  Buddhism,  307
B.C.,  and  was  known  to  the  Romans  about  41  a.d.
Population  1873,  2,323,760;  1881,2,758,165;  1891,
3,008,239.

The  Mahavansa,  a  metrical  chronicle  in  Pali,  gives
the  history  of  Ceylon  from  543  B.C.  down  to  432
a.d.  which  has  been  continued  to  1756.  Bud-
dhism was  established  as  the  national  religion

B.C.  307

The  usurpation  of  the  Malabars  ....  237
Wyjayo  Balm  re-establishes  a  native  dynasty  a.d.  1071
Prakrama  Bahu,  a  great  prince,  reigns  .  1153  etseq.
Wars  with  the  Malabars,  12th  and  13th  centuries.
Invaded  by  the  Portuguese  Almeyda  .  .  .  1505
The  Dutch  landed  in  Ceylon,  1602 ;  and  captured

the  capital,  Colombo 1603

Frequent  conflicts  ;  peaceful  commercial  relations

established  (the  Portuguese  having  been  expelled)  1664
Intercourse  with  the  British  begun  .  .  .  .  1713
A  large  portion  of  the  country  taken  by  them  in

1782 ;  was  restored .  1783

The  Dutch  settlements  seized  by  the  British :  Trin-

comalee,  26  Aug.  ;  Jaffhapatam  .  .  Sept.  1795
Ceylon  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of

Amiens 1802

British  troops  treacherously  massacred  or  im-
prisoned by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Colombo ;

see  Candy 26  June,  1803

Complete  sovereignty  of  the  island  assumed  by

England 1815

Bishopric  of  Colombo  founded 1845

The  governor,  lord  Torrington,  absolved  from  a
charge,  of  undue  severity  in  suppressing  a  rebel-
lion May,  1851

Prosperity  of  Ceylon  greatly  increased  under  the

administration  of  sir  H.  Ward  . . .  1855-60

Sir  J.  E.  Tennent's  work,  "Ceylon,"  appeared  .  1859
Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed governor,

7  March,  1865
The  duke  of  Edinburgh  visited  Ceylon  .  April,  1870
Wm.  H.  Gregory,  M.P.,  appointed  governor,  9  Jan.  1872
Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  .  .  .1  Dec.  1875
Sir  J.  R.  Longden  appointed  governor  .  Nov.  1876
Sir  Arthur  Hamilton  Gordon  ....  Feb.  1883
Sir  Arthur  E.  Havelock  ...  12,  March,  1890
Native  industry  reported  very  satisfactory . .  1884

CH^ERONEA  (Bccotia).  Here  Greece  was
ruined  by  Philip ;  32,000  Macedonians  defeating
30,000  Thebans,  Athenians,  &c,  6  or  7  Aug.  338  B.C.
Here  Archelaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  was
defeated  by  Sylla,  and  1 10,000  Cappadocians  were
slain,  86  b.c.  ;  see  Coronea.

CHAIN  BRIDGES,  see  Suspension  Bridges.

CHAIN-CABLES,  Pumps, and SnoT.

Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the  Veneti,  a  people
intimately  connected  with  the  Belga?  of  Britain  in
the  time  of  Caesar,  57  b.  c.  These  cables  came  into
use,  generally  in  the  navy  of  England,  in  1812.
Acts  for  tbe  proving  and  sale  of  chain-cables  and
anchors  were  passed  in  1864,  i87l,and  1874. — Chain
Shot,  to  destroy  the  rigging  of  an  enemy's  ship,


were  invented  by  the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Witt,  in
1666. — Chain-Pumps  were  first  used  on  board  the
Flora,  British  frigate,  in  1787.

_  CHALCEDON,  Asia  Minor,  opposite  Byzan-
tium, colouised  by  Megarians,  about  684  B.C.  It
was  taken  by  Darius,  505  B.C. ;  by  the  Romans,
74  b.c;  plundered  by  the  Goths,  a.d.  259;  taken  by
Chosroes,  the  Persian,  609 ;  by  Orchan,  the  Turk,
1338.  Here  was  held  the  "Synod  of  the  Oak,"
403 ;  and  the  fourth  general  council,  which  annulled
the  act  of  the  "Robber  Synod,"  8  Oct.  451.

CHALCIS,  see  Eubcea.

CHALD^EA,  the  ancient  name  of  Babylonia,
but  afterwards  restricted  to  the  S.  W.  portion.  The
Chaldaeans  were  devoted  to  astronomy  and  astrology ;
see  Ban.  ii.  &c. — The  Chaldjean  Registers  of
celestial  observations,  said  to  have  commenced
2234  B.C.,  were  brought  down  to  the  taking  of
Babylon  by  Alexander,  331  b.c.  (1903  years).

CHALGROVE  (Oxfordshire).  At  a  skirmish
here  with  prince  Rupert,  18  June,  1643,  John
Hampden,  of  the  parliament  party,  was  wounded,
and  died  24  June.  A  column  was  erected  to  his
memory,  18  June,  1843.

CHALLENGER,  see  Beep  Sea  Soundings.

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE  (N.E.  France).
Here  the  emperor  Aurelian  defeated  Tetricus,  the
last  of  the  pretenders  to  the  throne,  termed  the
Thirty  Tyrants,  274;  and  here  in  451  Aetius
defeated  Attila  the  Hun,  compelling  him  to  retire
into  Pannonia.

CHAM,  see  Charivari.

CHAMBERLAIN,  early  a  high  court  officer
in  France,  Germany,  and  England.  The  office  of
chamberlain  of  the  exchequer  ceased  in  1834.

Hereditary  Lord  Great  Chamberlain  of  England.
—The  sixth  great  officer  of  state,  whose  duties,  among
others,  relate  to  coronations  and  public  solemnities.
The  office  was  long  held  by  the  De  Veres,  earls  of  Oxford,
granted  by  Henry  I.  in  1101.  On  the  death  of  John  De
Vere,  the  sixteenth  earl,  Mary,  his  sole  daughter,
marrying  lord  Willoughby  De  Eresby,  the  right  was
established  in  that  nobleman's  family  by  a  judgment  of
the  house  of  peers,  2  Charles  I.  1625.  On  the  death  of
his  descendant,  unmarried,  in  July  1779,  the  house  of
lords  and  twelve  judges  concurred  that  the  office  de-
volved to  lady  Willoughby  De  Eresby,  and  her  sister  the
lady  Georgina  Charlotta  Bertie,  as  heirs  to  their  brother
Robert,  duke  of  Ancaster,  deceased  ;  and  that  they  had
powers  to  appoint  a  deputy  to  act  for  them,  not  under
the  degree  of  a  knight,  who,  if  his  majesty  approved  of
him,  might  officiate  accordingly.  Beatson.  This  dignity
was  for  some  time  held  jointly  by  the  lord  Willoughby
De  Eresby  and  the  marquis  of  Cholmondeley,  descendants
of  John  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford.  Lord  Willoughby
De  Eresby  died  without  issue  27  Aug.  1870,  and  lord
Aveland,  his  sister's  son,  was  appointed  to  act.  The
marquis  of  Cholmondeley  died  16  Dec.  1884,  and  was
succeeded  by  his  grandson.  Lady  Willoughby  De
Eresby  died  13  Nov.  1888,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son,
created  earl  of  Ancaster,  Sept.  1892.

Lord  Chamberlain  of  the  Household.— An  ancient
office.  The  title  is  from  the  French  ChamheUan,  in
Latin  Cumerurius.  Sir  William  Stanley,  knt.,  afterwards
beheaded,  was  lord  chamberlain,  1  Henry  VII.  1485.
A  vice-chamberlain  acts  in  the  absence  of  the  chief;  the
offices  are  co-existent. Beatson.

The  Chamberlain  of  London  is  an  ancient  office.

CHAMBERS,  see  Commerce,  Agriculture,
Shi }rping.

CHAMBERS'  JOURNAL  was  first  published
at  Edinburgh  in  Feb.  1832.  Jubilee  kept  4  Feb.
1882.  Robt.  Chambers  died  17  Mar.  1871.  William
died  20  May,  1883.

o


CHAMBEE  AEDENTE.


194 CHANCELLOE  OF  ENGLAND.


CHAMBEE  AEDENTE  (fiery  chamber),  an
extraordinary  French  tribunal  so  named  from  the
punishment  frequently  awarded  by  it.  Francis  I.
in  1535,  and  Henry  II.  in  1549,  employed  it  for  the
extirpation  of  heresy,  which  led  to  the  civil  war
with  the  Huguenots  in  1560;  and  in  1679  Louis
XIV.  appointed  one  to  investigate  the  poisoning
eases  which  arose  after  the  execution  of  the  mar-
chioness Brinvilliers.

CHAMBEE  INTEOUVABLE,  a  name
given  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  elected  in  France
in  1815,  on  account  of  its  ignorance,  incapacity,  and
Jbigoted  reactionary  spirit.

CHAMPAGNE,  an  ancient  province,  N.  E.
France,  once  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  was
governed  by  counts  from  the  10th  century  till  it
•was  united  to  Navarre,  count  Thibaut  becoming
king,  in  1234.  The  countess  Joanna  married
Philip  IV.  of  France  in  1284;  and  in  1361  Cham-
pagne was  annexed  by  their  descendant  king  John.
The  effervescing  wine  termed  Champagne,  became
popular  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.

CHAMP  DE  MAES,  an  open  square  in  front
of  the  Military  school  at  Paris,  with  artificial
embankments  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to  the
•river  Seine.  The  ancient  assemblies  of  the  Frankish
people,  the  germ  of  parliaments,  held  annually  in
March,  received  this  name.  In  747,  Pepin  changed
the  month  to  May.  Here  was  held,  14  July,  1790
(the  anniversary  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastile),  the
^'federation,"  or  solemnity  of  swearing  fidelity  to
the  "patriot  king"  and  new  constitution:  great
rejoicings  followed.  On  14  July,  1791,  a  second
great  meeting  was  held  here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin
clubs,  to  sign  petitions  on  the  "  altar  of  the  country,"
praying  for  the  abdication  of  Louis  XVI.  A  com-
memoration meeting  took  place,  14  July,  1792.
Another  constitution  was  sworn  to  here,  under  the
eye  of  Napoleon  I.,  1  May,  1815,  at  a  ceremony
called  the  Champ  de  Mai.  The  prince  president
(afterwards  Napoleon  III.)  had  a  grand  review  in
the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  distributed  eagles  to  the
army,  10  May,  1852.  Here  also  was  held  the  Inter-
national Exhibitions  opened  1  April,  1867,  and  I
May,  1878,  see  Paris.

CHAMPEETY,  see  Barretry.

CHAMPION  of  the  King  of  England,

(most  honourable),  an  ancient  office,  since  1377  has
been  attached  to  the  manor  of  Scrivelsby,  held  by
-the  Marmion  family.  Their  descendant,  sir  Henry
Dymoke,  the  seventeenth  of  his  family  who  held
the  office,  died  28  April,  1865  ;  succeeded  by  his
brother  John ;  he  died,  and  his  son  Henry  Lionel
succeeded,  who  died  Dec.  1875.  At  the  coro-
nation of  the  English  kings,  the  champion  used  to
challenge  any  one  that  should  deny  their  title.

CHAMPLAIN,  see  Lake  Champlain.

CHANCELLOE  OF  ENGLAND,  Lord

HlGH,  the  first  lay  subject  after  the  princes  of  the
hlood  royal.  Anciently  the  office  was  conferred
upon  some  dignified  ecclesiastic  termed  Cancel-
larius,  or  doorkeeper,  who  admitted  suitors  to  the
sovereign's  presence.  Arfastus  or  Herefast,  chaplain
to  the  king  (William  the  Conqueror)  and  bishop  of
Elmham,  was  lord  chancellor  in  1067.  Hardy.
'Thomas  a  Becket  was  made  chancellor  in  1154.
The  first  person  qualified  by  education,  to  decide
causes  upon  his  own  judgment,  was  sir  Thomas
More,  appointed  in  1529,  before  which  time  the
officer  was  rather  a  state  functionary  than  a  judge.
Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  appointed  lord  chancellor
in  1587,  was  very  ignorant,  on  wrhich  account  the


first  reference  was  made  to  a  master  in  1588.  The
great  seal  has  been  frequently  put  in  commission ;
in  1813  the  office  of  Vice- Chancellor  was  estab-
lished; see  Keeper,  and  Vice- Chancellor. — Salary,
6ooo£.  ;  as  speaker  of  house  of  lords,  4000^.

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS.

14S7.  John  Moreton,  archbishop  of  Canterburv.

1504.  William  Warham,  aft.  archbshp.  of  Canterbury.

1515.  Thomas  Wolsey,  cardinal  and  abp.  of  York.

1529.  Sir  Thomas  More.

1532.  Sir  Thomas  Audley,  keeper.

1533.  Sir  Thomas  Audley,  chancellor,  aft.  lord  Audley.
1544.  Thomas,  lord  Wriothesley.

1547.  William,  lord  St.  John,  keeper.
,, Richard,  lord  Rich,  lord  chancellor.

1551.  Thomas  Goodrich,  bishop  of  Ely,  keeper.

1552.  The  same  ;  now  lord  chancellor.

1553.  Stephen  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester.
1556.  Nicholas  Heath,  archbishop  of  York.
1558.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper.

1579.  Sir  Thomas  Bromley,  lord  chancellor.
1587.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton.

1591.  The  great  seal  in  commission.

1592.  Sir  John  Puckering,  lord  keeper.
1596.  Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  lord  keeper.

1603.  Sir  T.  Egerton,  lord  Ellesmere,  chancellor.

161 7.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  lord  keeper

1618.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  cr.  Id.  Verulam,  Id.  chancellor.
1621.  The  great  seal  in  commission.

1625.  John,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  lord  keeper.
„ Sir  Thomas  Coventry,  afterwards  lord  Coventry,
lord  keeper.

1640.  Sir  John  Finch,  afterwards  lord  Finch.

1641.  Sir  Edward  Lyttelton,  afterwards  lord  Lytteltorj,

lord  keeper.
1643.  The  great  seal  in  the  hands  of  commissioners.

1645.  Sir  Richard  Lane,  royal  keeper.

1646.  In  the  hands  of  commissioners.

1649.  In  commission  for  the  commonwealth.

1653.  Sir  Edward  Herbert,  king's  lord  keeper.

1654.  In  commission  during  the  commonwealth.

1660.  Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards

created  lord  Hyde,  and  earl  of  Clarendon.
1667.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  lord  keeper.

1672.  Anthony  Ashley,  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  lord  chan-

cellor.

1673.  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  lord  keeper.

1675.  Heneage,  now  lord  Finch,  lord  chancellor,  after-
wards earl  of  Nottingham.
1682.  Sir  Francis  North,  cr.  lord  Guilford,  lord  keeper.
1685.  Francis,  lord  Guilford  ;  succeeded  by
,, George,  lord  Jeffreys,  lord  chancellor.

1689.  In  commission.

1690.  Sir  John  Trevor,  knt.,  sir  William  Rawlinson,  knt.,

and  sir  George  Hutchins,  knt.,  commissioners
or  keepers.

1693.  Sir  John  Somers,  lord  keeper.

1697.  Sir  John  Somers,  cr.  lord  Somers,  chancellor.

1700.  Lord  chief  justice  Holt,  sir  George  Treby,  chief
justice  C.  P. ,  and  chief  baron  sir  Edward  Ward,
lord  keepers.
,, Sir  Nathan  Wright,  lord  keeper.

1705.  Right  hon. William  Cowper,  lord  keeper, after-
wards lord  Cowper.

1707.  William,  lord  Cowper,  lord  chancellor.

1710.  In  commission.
„ Sir  Simon  Harcourt,  cr.  lord  Harcourt,  keeper.

1713.  Simon,  lord  Harcourt,  lord  chancellor.

1 7 14.  William,  lord  Cowper,  lord  chancellor.
1718.  In  commission.

,,  Thomas,  lord  Parker,  lord  chancellor;  afterwards
earl  of  Macclesfield.

1725.  In  commission.

,,  Sir  Peter  King,  cr.  lord  King,  chancellor.

1733.  Charles  Talbot,  created  lord  Talbot,  chancellor.

1737.  Philip  Yorke,  lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor.

1756.  In  commission.

1757.  Sir  Robert  Henley,  afterwards  lord  Henley,  last  lord

keeper.
1761.  Lord  Henley,  lord  chancellor,  afterwards  earl  of

Northington.
1766.  Charles,  lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor.
1770.  Hon.  Charles  Yorke,  lord  chancellor.

[Created  lord  Morden  ;  died  by  suicide  within

three  clays,  and  before  the  seals  were  put  to  his

patent  of  peerage.]


CHANCELLOE OF IRELAND.


193


CHANCEEY.


1770.  In  commission.

1771.  Henry  Batkurst,  lord  Apsley  ;  succeeded  as  earl

Bathurst.

C77&.  Edward  Thurlow,  created  lord  Thurlow.

1783.  Alexander,  lord  Loughborough,  and  others,  com-
missioners.
,, Edward,  lord  Thurlow,  again.

1792.  In  commission.

3793.  Alexander  Wedderburne,  lord  Loughborough,  lord
chancellor.

1801.  John  Scott,  lord  Eldon.

1806.  Hon.  Thomas  Erskine,  created  lord  Erskine.

1807.  John,  lord  Eldon,  again.

1827.  John  Singleton  Copley,  created  lord  Lyndhurst.

2830.  Henry  Brougham,  created  lord  Brougham.

'1834.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  again.

•1835.  Sir  Charles  Christopher  Pepys,  master  of  the  rolls,
vice-chancellor  Shadwell,  and  Mr.  justice  Bosan-
quet,  C.  P.,  commissioners.

£836.  Sir  Charles  Christopher  Pepys,  created  lord  Cot-
tenham,  lord  chancellor. 16  Jan.

2841.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  a  third  time. 3  Sept.

284.6.  Lord  Cottenham,  again  lord  chancellor,  6  July.

1850.  Lord  Langdale,  master  of  the  rolls,  sir  Launcelot
Shadwell,  vice-chancellor  of  England, and sir
Robert  Monsey  Rolfe,  B.E.,  commissioners  of
the  great  seal. 19  June.
,, Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  lord  Truro. 15  July.

1852.  Sir  Edward  Sugden,  lord  St.  Leonards. 27  Feb.
„ Robt.  Monsey  Rolfe,  lord  Cramvorth. 28  Dec.

1858.  Sir  Frederic  Thesiger,  lord  Chelmsford. 26  Feb.

-1859.  John,  lord  Campbell,  18  June  ;  died  23  June,  1861.

u86i.  Richard  Bethel!,  lord  Westbury.  26  June.  Re-
signed 4  July,  1865.

1865.  Robert  Monsey  Rolfe,  lord  Cranworth,  again.
6  July.  Resigned  June,  1866.

j866.  F.  Thesiger,  lord  Chelmsford,  again.  6  July.  Re-
signed Feb.  1868.

11868.  Hugh  Cairns,  lord  Cairns.  29  Feb.
,, William  Page  Wood,  lord  Hatherley  ;  died  10  July,
1881.

J1872.  Roundell  Palmer,  lord  Selborne. 15  Oct.

1874.  Hugh  Cairns,  lord  Cairns.  21  Feb.  ;  died  2  April,
1885.

a88o.  Roundell  Palmer,  lord  (afterwards  earl)  Selborne.
28  April.

1885.  Sir  Hardingc  Giffard  (lord  Halsbury). 24  June.

.1886.  Sir  Farrer  Herschell  (lord  Herschell). 6  Feb.
,, Hardinge  Giffard,  lord  Halsbury. 26  July.

1892.  Lord  Herschell,  18  Aug.

CHANCELLOE  OF  IEELAND,  Lord

HlGH-  The  earliest  nomination  was  by  Richard
I.,  1 189,  when  Stephen  Ridel  was  elevated  to  this
rank.  The  office  of'  vice-chancellor  was  known  in
Ireland  in  1232,  Geoffrey  Turvillo,  archdeacon  of
Dublin,  being  so  named.  The  Chancery  and  Com-
mon Law  Offices  (Ireland)  act  was  passed  20  Aug.


LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS  OF IRELAND.

Patent.

1690.  Sir  Charles  Porter. 29  Dec.

1697.  Sir  John  Jeffreyson,  Thomas  Coote,  and  Nehemiah

Donellan,  lords  keepers. 12  Jan.
.,, J.  Methuen. n  March.
,, Edward,  earl  of  Mcath,  Francis,  earl  of  Longford,

and Murrough, viscount Blessington, lords

keepers. 21  Dec.
1702.  Lord  Methuen,  lord  chancellor. 26  Aug.
1705.  Sir  Richard  Cox,  bart.,  6  Aug.  ;  resigned  in  1707.
1707.  Richard  Freeman. June.

1710.  Robert,  earl  of  Kildare, archbishop  (Hoadley)  of

Dublin,  and  Thomas  Keightley,  commissioners.
28  Nov.

1711.  Sir  Constantine  Phipps. 22  Jan. Resigned  Sept.

1714.
1714-  Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton.
11  Oct. Resigned  May,  1725.

1725.  Richard  West. June.

1726.  Thomas  Wyndham,  afterwards  lord  Wyndham  of

Finglas. 21  Dec.
3739.  Robert  Jocelyn,  afterwards  lord  Newport  and  visct.

Jocelyn. 7  Sept.  ;  died  25  Oct. 1756.
1757.  John  Bowes,  afterwards  lord  Bowes  of  Clonlyon.

22  March  ;  died  1767.


1768.  James  Hewitt,  afterwards  viscount  Lifford.  9  Jan.

died  28  April,  1789.
1789  John,  baron  Fitzgibbon,  afterwards  earl  of  Clare.

20  June  ;  died  28  Jan.  1802.
1802.  John,  baron  Redesdale. 15  March. Resigned  Feb.

1806.

1806.  George  Ponsonby.  25  March  ;  resigned  April,  1807.

1807.  Thomas  Manners  Sutton,  lord  Manners,  previously

an  English  baron  of  the  exchequer. May. Re-
signed Nov.  1827.
1827.  Sir  Anthony  Hart,  previously  vice-chancellor  of

England. 5  Nov. Resigned  Nov.  1830.
1830.  William,  baron  Plunket. 23  Dec. Resigned  Nov.

1834.
1835.  Sir  Edward  Burtenshaw  Sugden. 13  Jan.  Resigned

April  1835.
,, Wilbam,  baron  Plunket,  a  second  time. 30  April.

Resigned  June,  1841.
1841.  John  Campbell. June. Resigned  Sept.  1841.
,, Sir  Edward  Sugden,  afterwards  lord  St.  Leonards,

a  second  time. Oct. Resigned  July,  1846.
1846.  Maziere  Brady. 16  July. Resigned  Feb.  1852.

1852.  Francis  Blackburne. March. Resigned  Dec.

1853.  Maziere  Brady,  again. Jan.

1858.  Joseph  Napier. Feb.

1859.  Maziere  Brady,  again. June.

1866.  Francis  Blackburne. July. Resigned  March,  1867.

1867.  Abraham  Brewster. 24  March.

1868.  Thomas,  lord  O'Hagan. Resigned,  Feb.  1874.
1874.  In  commission.

„ John  T.  Ball. 16  Dec.

1880.  Thomas,  lord  O'Hagan. April. Resigned  9  Nov.

1881.

1881.  Hugh  Law,  died  10  Sept.,  3883.

18S3.  (in  commission)  22  Sept.,  sir  Edwd.  Sullivan. 5
Dec,  1883  ;  died  13  April,  1885.

1885.  John  Naish,  about  25  April.

,, Edward  Gibson,  lord  Ashbourne. 24  June.

1886.  John  Naish,  about  2  Feb.

,, Edward  Gibson,  lord  Ashbourne,  26  July.
1892.  Samuel  Walker,  Aug.

CHANCELLOE  of  the  EXCHEQTJEE,

see  Exchequer.

CHANCELLOE  OF  SCOTLAND,  Lord,

The  laws  of  Malcolm  II.  (1004)  say: — "The
chancellar  sail  at  al  tymes  assist  the  king  in  giving
him  counsall  mair  secretly  nor  the  rest  of  the
nobility.  .  .  The  chancellar  sail  be. ludgit  neir
unto  the  kingis  grace,  for  keiping  of  his  bodie,  and
the  seill,  and  that  he  may  be  readie,  baith  day  and
nicht,  at  the  kingis  command."  Sir  James  Balfour.
Evan  was  lord  chancellor  to  Malcolm  III.,  Canmore,
1057 ;  and  James,  earl  of  Seafield,  afterwards
Findlater,  was  the  last  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland,
the  office  having  been  abolished  in  1708;  see
Keeper.

CHANCELLOE' S  AUGMENTATION
ACT,  passed  1863,  enabled  the  lord  chancellor  to
sell  the  advowson  of  certain  livings  in  his  gift  for
augmenting  poor  benefices.

CHANCELLOESVILLE,  Virginia,  U.S.,  a
large  brick  hotel,  once  kept  by  a  Mr.  Chancellor,
was  the  site  of  severe  sanguinary  conflicts  between
the  American  federal  army  of  the  Potomac  under
general  Hooker,  and  the  confederates  under  general
Lee.  On  28  April,  1863,  the  federal  army  crossed  the
Rappahannock;  on  2  May,  general  "Stonewall"
Jackson  furiously  attacked  and  routed  the  right
wing,  but  was  mortally  wounded  by  his  own  party
firing  on  him  by  mistake.  Gen.  Stuart  took  his
command,  and  after  a  severe  conflict  on  3  and  4
May,  with. great  loss  to  both  parties,  the  federals
were  compelled  to  recross  the  Rappahannock.  The
struggle  was  compared  to  that  at  Hougomont
during  the  battle  of  AVaterloo.  Jackson  died  10  May.

CHANCEEY,  Court  of,  is  mythically  said

to  have  originated  with  Alfred  (S71-901)  or  Wil-
liam I., (1066-1087). Its power  was probably

o  2


CHANDOS CLAUSE.


196


CHARING  GROSS.


derived  from  the  council  of  state,  under  which  it
acted,  and  of  which  it  became  gradually  indepen-
dent. Its  acts  were  frequently  complained  of  by
the  commons  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  Its
professed  object  was  to  render  justice  complete,
and  to  moderate  the  rigour  of  other  courts
that  are  bound  to  the  strict  letter  of  the
law.  It  gives  relief  to  or  against  infants,  not-
withstanding their  minority;  and  to  or  against
married  women,  notwithstanding  their  coverture ;
and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches  of  trust  and  confi-
dence, for  which  there  is  no  redress  at  common
law,  are  relievable  here.  Blackstone ;  see  Chan-
cellors of  England.  The  delays  in  chancery  pro-
ceedings having  long  given  dissatisfaction,  the
subject  was  brought  before  parliament  in  1825,  and
frequently  since  ;  which  led  to  the  passing  of  im-
portant acts  in  1852,  1853,  1855,  1858,  and  1867,  to
amend  the  practice  in  the  court  of  chancery.  See
Accountant,  County  Courts,  and  Supreme  Court,
Berkeley.

The Chancery  division  of  the high court of
justice  now  consists  of  the  lord  chancellor  and  five
judges.
Chancery  forgery  case  (see  under  Trials)  4  Feb.  1888.

CHANDOS  CLAUSE,  see  Counties.

CHANNEL  ISLANDS,  a  group  about  80
miles  South  of  England,  see  Jersey,  §c.

CHANNEL  STEAMERS,  see  under  Steam.

CHANNEL  TUNNEL  COMPANY,  regis-
tered, 15  Jan.  1872  ;  see  Tunnels.
The  construction  of  a  channel  bridge  from  Dover  to
Calais,  was  proposed  in Paris, 1889, by  MM.
Schneider  and  Hersent,  and  sir  John  Fowler  and
Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Benjamin)  Baker,  and  dis-
cussed in  1890.
M.  Bunau  Varilla,  of  Paris,  engineer,  publishes  his
plans  for  a  mode  of  communication between
Dover  and  Calais,  consisting  of  a  pier  or  viaduct
half  a  mile  long,  on  each  side  connected  by  a
tunnel,  and  estimated  cost  io,ooo,oooZ.  May,  1890

Sir  E.  J. Reed  proposed  the  construction  of  a

tubular  railway,  above  the  bed  of  the  sea .  1890-1

In  relation  to  a  proposed  Channel  bridge,  a  new
survey  of  the  Straits  of  Dover  was  undertaken  ;
a  report  on  the  scheme  was  published  26  Dec. .  1890

CHANTING  is  attributed  to  Ambrose,  about
386.  About  602,  Gregory  the  Great  added  tones  to
the  Ambrosian  chant,  and  established  singing
schools.  M.  Gevaet,  of  Brussels,  in  Oct.  1889,
asserted  that  this  statement  is  legendary  and  that
it  was  Gregory  III.  (731-741)  who  made  the
change.  Chanting  was  adopted  by  some  dissenters
about  1859.
John  Marbeck's  "  Book  of  Common  Praier  noted"  (1559)

is  the  first  adaptation  of  the  ancient  Latin  music  to

the  .Reformed  Church;  Clifford's  "Common  Tunes"

for  chanting,  1664.
The  Plainsong  and  Mediaeval  Music  Society  was  founded

in  1888.

CHANTREY  LEGACY,  see  Royal  Aca-
demy.

CHANTRY,  a  chapel  endowed  with  revenue
for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the  souls  of  the  donors ;
see  Chanting.  Chantries  were  abolished  in  England
in  1545-

CHAPEL.  There  are  free  chapels,  chapels  of
ease,  the  chapel  royal,  &c.  Cowell.  The  gentlemen
pensioners  (formerly  poor  knights  of  Windsor,  who
were  instituted  by  the  direction  of  Henry  VIII.  in
his  testament,  1546-7)  were  called  knights  of  the
chapel;  see  Poor  Knights  of  Windsor. — The  Private
Chapels  act  passed  14  Aug.  1871.  The  place  of  con-
ference among  printers,  and  the  conference  itself,
are  by  them  called  a  chapel,  it  is  said,  because  the


first  work  printed  in  England  by  Caxton  was  exe-
cuted in  a  ruined  chapel  in  Westminster-abbey..

CHAPLAIN,  a  clergyman  who  performs  divine
service  in  a  chapel,  for  a  prince  or  nobleman.  About
seventy  chaplains  are  attached  to  the  chapel  royal.
The  chief  personages  invested  with  the  privilege  of
retaining  chaplains  are  the  following,  with  the*
number  that  was  originally  allotted  to  each  rank,
by  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1529)  : —
Archbishop  .  .  .  .  8  Knight  of  the  Garter  .  3
Duke  .  .  .  .6  Duchess  .  .  .  .2
Bishop  .  .  .  .  6  Marchioness  .  .  .  2
Marquis . . . .5 Countess . . . .2

Earl 5 Baroness . . . .  2;

Viscount  ...  4 Master  of  the  Rolls  .  2

Baron 3 Royal  Almoner . .  2

Chancellor . . .3 Chief  Justice . . .  1

CHAPLETS,  the  string  of  beads  used  by  the
Roman  Catholics  in  reciting  the  Lord's  prayer,  Ave
Maria,  &c. ;  see  Beads.

CHAPTER.  Anciently  the  bishop  and  clergy
lived  in  the  cathedral,  the  latter  to  assist  the  former
in  performing  holy  offices  and  governing  the  churchy
until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  chapter  is  now
an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  a  collegiate  church  or
cathedral.  Cowell.  The  chapter-house  of  West-
minster-abbey was  built  in  1250.  By  consent  of
the  abbot,  the  commoners  of  England  held  their
parliaments  there  from  1377  until  1547,  when
Edward  VI.  granted  them  the  chapel  of  St.  Stephen-

CHAR-ASIAB,  the  heights  before  Cabul:
held  by  Afghan  mutineers,  were  gallantly  carried
by  general  Baker,  with  the  72nd  Highlanders  and
5th  Ghoorkas,  6  Oct.  1879.  The  enemy  was  totally
defeated  with  severe  loss.  Capt.  Young,  Dr.
Duncan,  and  lieut.  Fergusson  were  killed,  and
about  70  of  the  British  force  killed  and  wounded.
The  British  were  falsely  accused  of  cruelty  after  the
victory.

CHARCOAL  AIR-FILTERS  were  devised
by  Dr.  John  Stenhouse,  F.R.S.,  in  1853.  About
the  end  of  the  last  century  Lowitz,  a  German
chemist,  discovered  that  charcoal  (carbon)  possessed
the  property  of  deodorising  putrid  substances,  by
absorbing  and  decomposing  offensive  gases.  Air-
filters,  based  on  this  property,  have  been  success-
fully applied  to  public  buildings,  sewers,  &c.  Dr.
Stenhouse  also  invented  charcoal  respirators.  See-
Fireman'  s  Respirators.

CHARING  CROSS-  At  the  village  of  Charing
stood  the  last  of  the  memorial  crosses  erected  in
memory  of  Eleanor,  queen  of  Edward  I.,  in  con-
formity with  her  will.  She  died,  28  Nov.  1290.
The  cross  remained  till  1647,  when  it  was  destroyed
as  a  monument  of  popish  superstition.  The  present
cross  was  erected  for  the  South  Eastern  Railway
Company  in  1865  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Barry.  The  houses
at  Charing-cross  were  built  about  1678  ;  alterations
began  in  1829.  The  first  stone  of  Charing-cross
hospital  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex,  15  Sept.
1831.  Hungerford-bridge  (or  Charing-cross  bridge)
was  opened  1  May,  1845 ;  taken  down  July,  1862,
and  the  materials  employed  in  erecting  Clifton  sus-
pension bridge,  beginning  March,  1863;  see  Clifton.
Charing-cross  Railway.  The  first  train  passed
over  it,  2  Dec.  1863,  and  it  was  opened  to  the  public
on  II  Jan.  1864.  The  new  railway  bridge,  built
of  iron  with  brick  piers,  was  constructed  by  Mr.
(aft.  sir  John)  Hawkshaw.  The  foot-bridge  was
opened  toll  free  5  Oct.  1878.  Pleistocene  fossils
found  in  excavations  for  Drummond's  banking
house  :  cave  lion,  mammoth,  Irislrdeer,  rhinoceros.
&c. Autumn,  1882.


CHAEIOTS.


197


CHARLESTON.


'■Charing  Cross  Road,  from  Tottenham  Court  Road  to
Charing  Cross,  was  opened  by  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,
26  Feb.  1887.

CHARIOTS  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the
Bible,  those  of  Joseph  are  mentioned  Gen.  1.  9,  B.C.
1689.  Chariot-racing  was  a  Greek  exercise.  War-
•chariots  were  effectively  used  by  the  Gauls  in  Italy.
•Caesar  relates  that  Cassivelaunus,  after  dismissing
his  other  forces,  retained  no  fewer  than  4000  war-
■chariots  abou  t  his  person  ;  see  Carriages,  &c.

CHARITABLE  BEQUESTS,  &c.  Boards
for  their  recovery  were  constituted  in  1764  and
1800,  and  a  board  for  Ireland  (chiefly  prelates
of  the  established  church),  in  1825.  The  Roman
Catholic  Charitable  Bequests  act  passed  in  1844,
and  an  act  for  the  better  administration  of  Chari-
table Trusts  in  1853,  when  commissioners  were  ap-
pointed, who  have  from  time  to  time  published
voluminous  reports.  Amendment  acts  were  passed
1855  and  1 87 1.

CHARITABLE  BRETHREN,  an  order
founded  by  St.  John  of  God,  and  approved  by  pope
Pius  V.  1572;  introduced  into  France,  1601;  settled
at  Paris,  1602. Henault.

CHARITABLE  FUNDS  INVESTMENT

ACT  passed,  1  Aug.  1870.

CHARITABLE  RELIEF,  society  for  or-
ganizing, established  1869.  There  are  40  offices,
where  applications  are  received  and  inquiries  made
(1889).  Reported  successful,  1881,  in  which  year
about  14,000  persons  were  assisted,  and  about  11,000
refused.  20th  annual  meeting,  23  Jan.  1889.  A
conference  of  representatives  of  this  and  similar
societies  was  held  at  Oxford  on  1,  2  Oct.  1890.

CHARITABLE  TRUSTEES'  INCOR-
PORATION ACT  passed,  27  June,  1872.

CHARITABLE  TRUSTS  ACTS,  1853-69,
amended  in  1887.

CHARITABLE  USES,  statute  of,  43  Eliz.
c.  4  (1601),  passed  "  to  redresse  the  misemployment
of  landes,  goodes,  and  stockes  of  money,  heretofore
given  to  charitable  uses."  The  law  respecting  the
conveyance  of  land  for  charitable  uses  was  amended
in  1861.

CHARITIES, and  CHARITY  SCHOOLS,

6ee  Education.  The  Charity  Commission  reported
to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of
Great  Britain  amounted  to  1,500,0001?.  annually,  in
1840.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in  London  to
prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman
Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.,  1687-8.  Mr.  Low's
"  Charities  of  London"  was  published  1862.  Newest
edition,  1892.  The  house  of  lords,  on  appeal  in  a
special  case  (the  Moravian  Brethren),  decide  that
religious  and  charitable  societies  are  exempt  from
income-tax,  20  July,  1891.

First  charity  commission  (originated  by  Mr.  after-
wards lord  Brougham  in  1816)  appointed  in
a8i8  ;  issued  reports  in  38  vols,  (income  of  chari-
ties, 1,209,395?.) 1819-40

New commissioners  appointed  1853  ; office,  Gwy-

dyr  House,  Whitehall ;  powers  increased . .  i860
A  meeting  was  held  at  the  Mansion  House,  London,
to  consider  objections  to  charity  electioneering,
without  immediate  result . . . .30  Oct.  1873
Additional  commissioners  appointed  through  abo-
lition of  the  Endowed  Schools  Commission  .  1874
The Charity Voting Association held its first

annual  meeting 18  Feb.  1875

The  Metropolitan  charities  received  about  3, 195,181/.
in  1874;  4,114,489/.  in  1875;  4,447,436/.  ill  1884;
4,918,652/.  in  year  1889-90.
The  Charily  Commissioners'  scheme  for  the  Camp-
• den  estates, Kensington  ; much  opposed  ; con-
firmed by  Chancery ...  27  May,  1881


The  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  who  died  1  Oct.  1885,  and
lord  Kinnaird,  who  died  26  April,  1887,  were
eminent  supporters  of  philantliropic  institutions.

The  City  of  London  Parochial  Charities  Act,  passed
20  Aug.  1883,  places  the  parochial  charities  at  the
disposal  of  the  Charity  Commissioners  ;  they  re-
commended the  application  of  the  funds  of  the  City
Parochial  Charities  (about  50,000/.  a  year)  to  the
general  benefit  of  the  poor  of  London,  announced

Sept.  1887

Their  scheme  issued  Sept.,  which  was  opposed  by
the  London  County  Council  ....  Dec.  1889

Charity  Dispensing  Society,  proposed  establish-
ment 7  Jan.  1888

Mr.  Henry  Quinn  bequeaths  50,000/.  to  London
charities

Gross  income  of  parochial  charities  in  1879-80,
London,  116,960/.;  Westminster,  33,173/.

CHARITY  CHILDREN  of  London  ;  meet-
ings  began  at  St.  Andrew's,  Holbom,  1704  ;  held  at
other  churches  in  following  years ;  in  1801  and
since  at  St.  Paul's,  with  intermissions  ;  no  meeting
in  1878,  and  since,  the  erections  interfering  with  the
ordinary  services.

CHARITY  ORGANISATION  SOCIETY,

see  Charitable  Relief.

CHARIVARI  (French  for  "  clattering  of  pots
and  pans,"  &c,  noise  made  to  annoy  obnoxious
persons),  the  name  assumed  by  the  French  illus-
trated satirical  journal,  first  published  1  Dec.
1832,  edited  by  Louis  Desnoyers,  Altaroche,  and
Albert  Clerc.  Among  the  artists  were  "  Cham,"  a
name  taken  by  the  comte  de  Noe,  who  contributed
from  1842  till  his  death,  6  Sept.  1879.  See  Punch,
"  the  London  Charivari."

CHARLEROI,  in  Belgium;  fortified  and
named  by  the  Spanish  governor  Rodrigo,  1666.
Several  great  battles  have  been  fought  near  this
town,  especially  in  1690  and  1794;  see  Fleurus.
Charleroi  was  besieged  by  the  prince  of  Orange,
1672  and  1677;  but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  retire.
Near  here,  at  Ligny,  Napoleon  attacked  the  Prus-
sian line,  making  it  fall  back  upon  Wavres,  16  June,
1815.

CHARLES-ET-GEORGES,  a  French  ves-
sel, professedly  conveying  free  African  emigrants
(but  really  slaves),  seized  by  the  Portuguese,  in
Conducia  bay,  29  Nov.  1857,  sent  to  Lisbon,  and
condemned  as  a  slaver.  The  French  government
sent  two  ships  of  war  to  the  Tagus,  and  the  vessel
was  surrendered  under  protest ;  but  the  emperor  of
France  gave  up  the  free  emigration  scheme.

CHARLESTON  (South  Carolina),  founded  by
people  from  old  Charlestown,  1680.  The  English
fleet  here  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,  28  June,
1776.  It  was  besieged  by  the  British  troops  at  the
latter  end  of  March,  1780,  and  surrendered  13  May,
following,  with  6000  prisoners;  it  was  evacuated,
14  Dec.  1782.  Great  commotion  arose  here  in  Nov.
i860,  through  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  for  the
presidency,  he  being  opposed  to  slavery.  On
12,  13  April,  1861,  the  war  began  by  the  confede-
rates bombarding  Fort  Sumter;  see  United  States.
In  Dec.  1861,  the  federals  sank  a  number  of  vessels
laden  with  stone  in  order  to  choke  up  the  entrance
to  Charleston  harbour.  Unsuccessful  attacks  were
made  on  Charleston  by  the  federals  between  April,
1863,  and  17  Feb.  1865,  when  the  confederates  were
compelled  to  retire  ;  and  the  federals  replaced  their
standard  on  fort  Sumter,  14  April,  the  day  on  which
president  Lincoln  was  assassinated.
About  three-fourths  of  the  city  destroyed  by  an  earth-
quake, 10  p.m.  31  Aug.  18S6  ;  96  persons  killed.
Population,  1890,  54,955.


CHARLESTOWN.


198


CHATEAUDUN.


CHARLESTOWN  (Massachusetts)  was  burnt
by  the  British  forces  under  general  Gage,  17  June,
1775- Chaiiestown  taken  by  the  British,  7  May,  1779.

"CHARTE  CONSTITUTIONNELLE,"

the  French  political  constitution  acknowledged  by
Louis  XVIII.,  4-10  June,  1814.  The  infraction  of
this  constitution  led  to  the  revolution  of  1830.  The
amended  "  Charte "  was  promulgated  by  Louis
Philippe,  14  Aug.  1830;  and  set  aside  by  the  revo-
lution of  1848,

CHARTER-HOUSE  (a  corruption  of  Chart-
reuse, which  see),  London,  formerly  a  Carthusian
monastery,  founded  in  1371  by  sir  Walter  de  Manny,
one  of  the  knights  of  Edward  III.,  now  an  extensive
charitable  establishment.  The  last  prior,  John
Houghton,  was  executed  as  a  traitor,  for  denying
the  king's  supremacy,  in  May,  1535.  After  the
dissolution  of  monasteries  in  1539,  the  charter-
house passed  through  various  hands  till  1  Nov.
161 1,  when  it  was  sold  by  the  earl  of  Suffolk  to
Thomas  Sutton  for  13,000/.,  who  obtained  letters
patent  directing  that  it  should  be  called  "  the  hos-
pital of  king  James,  founded  in  the  Charter-house,"
and  that  "  there  should  be  for  ever  16  governors,"
&c.  On  the  foundation  are  80  poor  brothers  and
44  poor  scholars.  Sutton  died,  12  Dec.  1611.  The
expenditure  for  1853-4  was  22,396/.  ;  the  receipts,
28,908/.  ;  receipts  in  1885,  30,364/.  This  school
was  affected  by  the  Public  Schools'  Act,  1868.  In
Sept.  1872,  the  school  was  opened  in  new  buildings,
at  Godalming,  Surrey.  The  old  buildings,  adapted
for  the  Merchant  Taylors'  (day)  School,  were
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  6  April,  1875.
The  buildings  for  the  poor  "brethren"  were
also  modified,  and  in  Nov.  entirely  new  arrange-
ments for  them  were  proposed.  Bill  proposing
removal  of  the  "brethren"  (55),  who  are  to
become  annuitants  with  additions ;  and  erection
of  buildings  on  the  site  of  the  old  buildings
and  land  (four  acres),  a  total  reversal  of
Sutton's  will; — introduced;  opposed;  withdrawn
7  May,  1886.  The  "  Charter-House  past  and  pre-
sent," by  Dr.  Wm.  Haig  Brown,  head  master,  pub-
lished 1879.

CHARTER-PARTY,  a  covenant  between
merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating  to  the  ship
and  cargo,  said  to  have  been  first  used  in  England
about  1243.

CHARTERS,  granted  to  corporate  towns  to
protect  their  manufactures  by  Henry  I.  in  1132;
modified  by  Charles  II.  in  1683 ;  the  ancient  charters
restored  in  1698.  Alterations  were  made  by  the
Municipal  Reform  Act  in  1835.  See  Magna  Charta
and  Boroughs.  Ancient  Anglo-Saxon  charters  are
printed  in  Kemble's  "Codex  Diplomatics, "  1829.

CHARTISTS,  the  name  assumed  by  large
bodies  of  the  lower  classes,  shortly  after  the  passing
of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832,  from  their  demanding
the  people's  Charter*  the  six  points  of  which  were
Universal  Suffrage,  Vote  by  Ballot,  Annual  Parlia-
ments, Payment  of  the  Members,  the  abolition  of  the
Property  Qualification  (which  was  enacted,  June,
1858),  and  Equal  Electoral  Districts.  In  1838  the
chartists  assembled  in  various  parts  of  the  country,
armed  with  guns,  pikes,  and  other  weapons,  and
carrying  torches  and  flags.  A  proclamation  was
issued  against  them,  12  Dec.  Their  petition  (agreed
to  at  Birmingham,  6  Aug.  1838)  was  presented  to
parliament  by  Mr.  T.  Attwood,  14  June,  1839.
They  committed  great  outrages  at  Birmingham
15  July,  1839,  and  at  Newport  {which  see),  4  Nov!

*  Wm.  Lovett,  its  alleged  author,  died  Aug.  1S77.


1839.  They  held  for  some  time  &  sort  of  parliament
called  the  "National  Convention,"  the  leading
men  being  Feargus  O'Connor,  Henry  Vincent,  Mr.
Stephens,  &c.  On  10  April,  1848,  they  proposed  to-
hold  a  meeting  of  200,000  men  on  Kenningtonj
common,  London,  to  march  thence  in  procession  to
Westminster,  and  present  a  petition  to  parliament  ^
but  only  about  20,000  came.  The  bank  and  other
establishments  were  fortified  by  military,  preventive
measures  adopted,  and  not  less  than  150,000  persons-
of  all  ranks  (including  Louis  Napoleon,  afterwards-
emperor)  were  voluntarily  sworn  to  act  as  special
constables.  The  chartists  dispersed  after  slight  en-
counters with  the  police,  and  the  monster  petition,,
in  detached  rolls,  was  sent  in  cabs  to  the  house  off
commons.  From  this  time  the  proceedings  of  the-
chartists  became  insignificant.

CHARTREUSE,  La  Gratoe,  chief  of  the
monasteries  of  the  Carthusian  order,  situated  among
the  rugged  mountains  near  Grenoble,  in  France,,
was  founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  about  1084.  At
the  revolution  in  1792,  the  monks  were  expelled  andi
their  valuable  library  destroyed.  They  returned  to
the  monastery  after  the  restoration  of  1815.  lis
Nov.  1880  they  declined  to  accept  indulgence  from
the  decrees  for  expelling  the  religious  orders  from
France.

CHARTS  AM)  MAPS.  Anaximander  off
Miletus  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  geo-
graphical and  celestial  charts,  about  570  B.C.
Modern  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by
Bartholomew  Columbus  to  illustrate  his  brother's--
theory  respecting  a  western  continent,  1489.  The
first  tolerably  accurate  map  of  England  was  drawn
by  George  Lilly,  who  died  in  1559.  Gerard  Mer-
cator  published  an  atlas  of  maps  in  1595 ;  see
Mercator.  The  daily  papers  published  in  their
columns  maps  illustrating  the  wars  of  1870-1,
1876-7,  &c.

Atlases.  Ab.Ortelius,  Epitome  Theatri  Pnecipuarum  Orbis--
Regionum  Delineationes,  &c,  1595.  J.  Speed,  "Pro-
spect, &c,  of  the  world  and  of  Great  Britain's  Em-
pire," 1646.  J.  B.  D'Anville,  Atlas,  1761-1807.  AY.
Faeden,  "  General  Atlas,"  1790.  A.  Arrowsmith,
"  Comparative  Atlas,"  1828.  Maps  of  the  Society  for
the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  1844-56.  A.  K.
Johnston,  "  Physical  Atlas,"  1849;  "Royal  Atlas,"  i86d.
and  1878.  "  Black's  General  Atlas,"  1S59,  and  many-
others.

CHASSEPOT  RIFLE,  a  modified  needle,
gun,  and  a  breech-loader  (named  after  its  inventor,,
Alphonse  Chassepot),  adopted  by  the  French,
governmentin  1866.  In  April,  1867, 10,000 had  been
issued  to  the  troops.  In  his  report  on  the  battle  of
Mentana  (which  see),  3  Nov.  1867,  gen.  De  Failly
said,  "the  chassepot  has  done  wonders."  It  was-
generally  considered  successful  in  the  war,  1870-1.
"  The  range  of  the  chassepot  being  1800  paces,  and
that  of  the  needle-gun  only  between  600  and  700,
the  Germans  in  all  their  charges  had  to  traverse
1200  paces  before  their  arms  could  be  used  to  pur-
pose." Many  Germans  were  armed  with  the  chasse-
pot after  the  surrender  of  the  French  army  at  Sedan,
2  Sept.  1870.

CHATEAUDUN",  an  old  city,  N.  C.  France,
the  residence  of  the  heroic  Dunois,  who  died  1468.
Here  were  massacred,  20  July,  1183,  about  7ooo>
Brabanqons,  fanatic  mercenaries  who  had  been  hired
to  exterminate  the  Albigenses  by  the  cardinal
Henry,  abbot  of  Clairvanx,  in  1181.  They  had
become  the  scourge  of  the  country,  and  the  "  Capu-
chons"  were  organised  for  their  destruction.  Cha-
teaudun  was  captured  by  the  Germans  after  a
severe  conflict  of  about  nine  hours,  18  Oct.  1870.
Barricades  had  been  erected  in  the  town,  and  the


CHATHAM.


199


CHELTENHAM.


Garde  Mobile  fought  bravely. The  town  was  re-
occupied  by  the  French,  6  Nov.

CHATHAM  (Kent),  a  principal  station  of  the
royal  navy ;  the  dockyard,  commenced  by  queen
Elizabeth,  has  been  greatly  extended.  The
Chatham  Chest,  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  and
decayed  seamen,  originally  established  here  by
the  queen  and  admirals  Drake  and  Hawkins,  in
1588,  was  removed  to  Greenwich  in  1803.  On
10  June,  1667,  the  Dutch  fleet,  under  admiral  De
Ruyter,  sailed  up  to  this  town,  and  burnt  several
men-of-war;  but  the  entrance  into  the  Medway  is
now  defended  by  Sheerness  and  other  forts,  and
additional  fortifications  were  made  at  Chatham.
On  8-1 1  Feb.  1861,  a  violent  outbreak  of  the  convicts
was  suppressed  by  the  military,  and  many  rioters
flogged.  About  1000/.  worth  of  property  was  de-
stroyed, and  many  persons  were  seriously  hurt.  New
docks  and  a  basin,  said  to  be  the  largest  and  finest
in  the  world,  opened  by  Mr.  Goschen,  21  June,  1871.
Additional  docks  completed,  1883.  Population  in
1881,  26,424;  in  1891,  31,711.

CHATHAM  ADMINISTRATION,*  suc-
ceeded the  first  Rockingham  administration  in  Aug.
1766:  after  several  changes  it  terminated  Dec.
1767. See  Grafton.

Earl  of  Chatham,  first  minister  and  lord  privy  seal.
Duke  of  Grafton,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor.
Charles  Townshend,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Earl  of  Northington,  lord  president.

Earl  of  Shelburne  and  general  Conway,  secretaries  of  state.
Sir  Charles  Saunders  (succeeded  by  Sir  Edward  Hawke),

admiralty.
Marquis  of  Granby,  ordnaMce.
Lord  Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade.
Viscount  Barrington,  secretary  at  war.
Lord  North  and  sir  George  Cooke,  joint  paymasters.
Viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy.
Duke  of  Ancaster,  lord  le  Despencer,  &c.

CHATILLON  (on  the  Seine,  France).  Here
a  congress  was  held  by  the  four  great  powers  allied
against  France,  at  which  Caulaincourt  attended  for
Napoleon,  4  Feb.  1814:  the  negotiations  for  peace
were  broken  off  on  19  March  following.

CHAT  MOSS  (Lancashire),  a  peat  bog,  twelve
miles  square,  in  most  places  so  soft  as  to  be  in-
capable of  supporting  a  man  or  horse,  over  which
George  Stephenson,  the  railway  engineer,  carried
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  after  over-
coming difficulties  considered  invincible.  The  road
(literally  a  floating  one)  was  completed  by  1  Jan.
1830,  when  the  first  experimental  train,  drawn  by
the  Rocket  locomotive,  passed  over  it. See  Bogs.

CHATTANOOGA  (Tennessee).  Near  here
the  federal  generals,  Sherman  and  Thomas,  de-
feated the  confederate  general  Bragg,  after  storming
the  entrenchments,  24-25  Nov.  1863.  Bragg  re-
treated into  Georgia,  and  Longstreet  into  Virginia.

CHAUMONT  (on  the  Marne,  France),  Treaty
of,  entered  into  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,
Russia,  and  Prussia,  1  March,  1814.  This  treaty
was  succeeded  by  that  of  Paris,  n  April,  by  which
Napoleon  renounced  his  sovereignty ;  see  Paris.


*  William  Pitt,  earl  of  Chatham  (the  ' '  great  commoner"  )
born  15  Nov.  1708,  entered  parliament  in  1735  ;  became
secretary  of  state  (virtually  the  premier)  in  the  Devon-
shire administration,  Nov.  1756,  secretary  in  the  New-
castle administration,  Jan.  1757.  In  1766  he  became
premier,  lord  privy  seal,  and  afterwards  earl  of  Chatham,
which  lord  Chesterfield  called  a  fall  upstairs.  He  opposed
the  taxation  of  the  American  colonies,  but  protested
against  the  recognition  of  their  independence,  7  April,
177S,  and  died  n  May  following.


CHAUVINISM,  a  term  said  to  be  derived
from  Chauvin,  the  principal  character  in  Scribe's
"Soldat  Laboureur,"  a  veteran  soldier  of  the  first
empire,  filled  with  intense  admiration  for  Napoleon
and  for  all  that  belonged  to  him.  Scribe  was  born
24  Dec.  1794,  died  20  Feb.  1861.

CHEAP  TRAINS  ACT,  7  &  8  Vict.  c.  85,
1844.  Another  act  passed,  Aug.  1883.  See  Bail-
ways.

CHEATS  were  punishable  by  pillory,  impri-
sonment, and  fine,  and  a  rigorous  statute  was
enacted  against  them  in  1542.  Persons  cheating  at
play,  or  winning  at  any  time  more  than  10/.  or  any
valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous,  and  were
to  suffer  punishment  as  in  cases  of  perjury,  9  Anne,,.
1 71 1. Blackstone.

CHEE-FOO  CONVENTION,  see  China,
1876.

CHEESE  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  about
350  B.C.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that
the  English  learned  cheese-making  from  the  Romans.
Wilts,  Gloucester,  and  Cheshire  make  vast  quantities.
In  1840  we  imported  from  abroad  about  10,000  tons :.
in  1855,  384, 192  cwt. ;  in  1866,  872,342  cwt. ;  in  1870,.
1,041,281  csvt. ;  in  1876,  1,531,204  cwt.;  in  1881,.
1,840,090  cwt. ;  in  1884,  1,927,139  cwt. ;  in  1887^.
1,836,789  cwt. ;  in  1890,  2,144,047  cwt.  Exported  r
1876,  17,411  cwt.;  1880,  11,903  cwt.;  1885,  12,708
cwt.  ;  1890,  12,211  cwt.  The  duty  on  foreign
cheese,  producing  annually  about  50,000/.,  was
taken  off  in  i860.  Large  quantities  are  imported,
from  the  United  States.

The  Cheddar  system  of  cheese-making,  named  after  a~
village  in  Somersetshire,  with  recent  improvements  has
been  largely  adopted  in  the  British  dominions  and  the
United  States  during  the  present  century.

CHELSEA  (Middlesex).  A  council  held  here
27  July,  816.  Nicolas.  A  theological  college  here  -
founded  bj'  James  I.  in  1609,  was  converted  by
Charles  II.  in  1682  to  an  asylum  for  wounded  and'
superannuated  soldiers.  The  erection  was  carried
on  by  James  II.,  and  completed  by  William  III.
in  1690.  The  projector  was  sir  Stephen  Fox,
grandfather  of  the  orator  C.  J.  Fox  ;  the  architect
was  sir  Christopher  Wren  ;  and  the  cost  150,000/.
In  1850  there  were  70,000  out-  and  539  in-pen-
sioners. — The  body  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  lay
here  in  state,  10-17  Nov.  1852. — The  physic  garden
of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  at  Chelsea,  was  given  to  the
Apothecaries'  company,  1721. — The  Chelsea  water-
works were  incorporated,  1722. — The  first  stone  ot
the  Military  Asylum,  Chelsea,  was  laid  by  Frederick,,
duke  of  York,  19  June,  1801. — The  bridge,  con-
structed by  Mr.  T.  Page  to  connect  Chelsea  with
Battersea-park,  was  opened  March,  1858.  The-
Chelsea  embankment  was  opened  by  the  duke  audi
duchess  of  Edinburgh,  9  May,  1874.  See  Trialsr
July,  1870  and  1872.  Cremorne  public  gardens
closed,  1877.  The  Albert-bridge  was  opened  31
Dec.  1872 ;  both  freed  from  toll,  24  May,  1879.
The  parliamentary  borough  of  Chelsea,  created  by
the  Reform  act,  15  Aug.  1867,  consisted  of  Chelsea,
Kensington,  Fulham,  and  Hammersmith.  By  the-
act  of  1885,  Chelsea  alone  returns  1  member.  The
Chelsea  Savings  Bank  suspended  payment ;  lia-
bilities to  be  sustained  by  trustees,  18  Jan.  1890.
Free  library  opened  by  earl  Cadogan,  21  Jan.  1891.
Population,  1881,  88,1*28;  1891,  96,272.

CHELTENHAM  (Gloucestershire).  Its  cele-
brated mineral  spring  was  discovered  in  1718-
The  king's-well  was  sunk  in  1778  ;  and  other  wells
by  Mr.  P.  Thompson  in  1806.  Magnesian  salt  was
first  found  in  the  waters  in  181 1. The  theatre  was


CHEMICAL SOCIETIES.


200


CHESHUNT COLLEGE.


erected  in  1804.  Grammar  school  and  almshouses,
endowed  by  Eichard  Pates,  1574.  Cheltenham  was
incorporated,  1876.  Population,  1881,  43,972;
1891,  42,914.

Cheltenham  College,  was  founded  in  1841,  mainly  by
Mr.  George  Simon  Harcourt,  and  Capt.  James  Slirubb
Tredell,  for  a  classical,  mathematical,  and  general
education  in  strict  conformity  with  the  principles  of
the  church  of  England  ;  among  the  pupils  have  been,
Lord  Plunket,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  sir  Henry  James,
Q.C.,  M.P.,  prince  Alamayu,  son  of  Theodore  negus  of
Abyssinia,  and  prince  Francis  of  Teck.

CHEMICAL  SOCIETIES.  One  formed  in
London  in  1780,  did  not  long  continue.  The
present  Chemical  society  of  London  wos  established
in  1841  (jubilee  celebrated  at  Burlington  House,  24
Feb.  1891) ;  that  of  Paris  in  1857 ;  that  of  Germany
at  Berlin,  1867.  The  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great
Britain  formed  ;  professor  Edward  Frankland  first
president,  1877 ;  firstmeeting,  1  Feb.  1878;  chartered,
Oct.  1885.  Chemical  Industry  Society  founded  4
April,  1881.

CHEMICAL  UNION  of  manufacturers  of
bleaching  powders,  alkalies,  &c,  was  projected
July  1890.  The  union,  named  the  United  Alkali
Company,  advertised  shares  for  sale  to  the  amount
of  1,250,000/.,  Feb.  1891.

CHEMICAL  WORKS.  Royal  commission
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  management  of
chemical  works,  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  gases  and
vapours  given  off,  and  the  means  of  prevention :
the  commissioners  were  lord  Aberdare,  earl  Percy,
professors  Abel,  A.  Williamson,  Koscoe,  and  others,
18  July,  1876.  In  their  report,  issued  Aug.  1878,
they  recommended  increased  inspection,  and  more
stringent  regulations. See  Alkalies.

CHEMISTRY  was  introduced  into  Spain  by
the  Moors,  about  1 150.  The  Egyptians  and  Chinese
claim  an  early  acquaintance  with  chemistry.  The
first  chemists  were  the  Alchemists  (see  Alchemy)  ;
but  chemistry  was  not  a  science  till  the  17th
century  ;  during  which  its  study  was  promoted  by
Bacon,  Hooke,  Mayow,  and  Boyle.  In  the  early
part  of  the  18th  century.  Dr.  Stephen  Hales  laid  the
foundation  of  Pneumatic  Chemistry,  and  his  con-
temporary Boerhaave  combined  the  study  of
chemistry  with  medicine.  These  were  succeeded
by  Bergman,  Stahl,  Black,  &c.  In  1772,  Priestley
published  his  researches  on  air,  having  discovered
the  gases  oxygen,  ammonia,  &c. ;  and  thus  com-
menced anew  chemical  era.  He  was  ably  seconded
by  Cavendish,  Scheele,  Lavoisier,  Chaptal,  and
others.  The  19th  century  opened  with  the  brilliant
discoveries  of  Davy,  continued  by  Dalton,  Faraday,
Thomson,  &c.  Organic  Chemistry  has  been  very
greatly  advanced  by  Berzelius,  Liebig,  Dumas,
Laurent,Hofmann,Oahours,  Frankland, *and others,
since  1830 ;  see  Pharmacy,  Electricity,  Galvanism.
For  the  analytical  processes  termed  "  Spectrum
analysis,  invented  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen
(1861),  and  'Dialysis"  (1861),  and  "  Atmoli/sis"
(1863),  invented  by  Mr.  T.  Graham,  see  those
articles.— The  Royal  College  of  Chemistry,  Oxford-
street,  London,  was  established  in  1845  (now  at
South  Kensington)— Henry  Watts'  great  "  Dic-
tionary of  Chemistry," begun 1863,  has supple-

*  In  1828  Wohler  produced  artificially  urea,  a  bodv
hitherto  known  only  as  a  product  of  the  animal  organ-
ism. Since  then,  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  grape  su^ar
various  essential  oils,  similar  to  those  of  the  pine-apple'
pear,  garlic,  &c,  have  been  formed  by  combinations  of
the  gases,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  acid  The
barrier  formed  by  chemists  between  organic  and  inorganic
bodies  is  thus  broken  down.  Imligo  artilic.iallv  formed
by  Bayer,  1878.


ments ;  new  edition,  1888  et  seq.  ;  he  died  30  June,
1884.  M.  Ad.  Wurtz's  equally  great  "  Dictionnaire
de  Chimie,"  1868-85.  Trof.  T.  E.  Thorpe's  Dic-
tionary of  Applied  Chemistry,  1890.

CHEQUE  BANK,  opened  in  Pall  Mall  East,
23  July,  1873.  It  issued  cheques  for  fixed  sums
(down  to  il.)  available  for  paying  and  transmitting
small  sums,  and  is  suited  for  persons  not  having  a
banker.  The  plan,  due  to  Mr.  James  Hertz,  a
director,  has  been  modified. He  died  23  Feb.  1880.

CHEQUES,  see  Drafts.

CHERBOURG,  the  great  naval  fortress  and
arsenal  of  France  on  the  coast  of  Brittany,  about
60  or  70  miles  equi-distant  from  Portsmouth  and
Plymouth.  It  was  captured  by  our  Henry  V.  in
1418,  and  lost  in  1450.  Under  the  direction  of
Louis  XIV.,  some  works  were  erected  here  by  the
great  Vauban,  which  with  some  shipping,  &c,  were
destroyed  by  the  British,  6,  7  Aug.  1758.  The
works  resumed  by  Louis  XVI.,  were  interrupted  by
the  revolution.  The  breakwater,  commenced  in
1783,  resumed  by  Napoleon  I.  about  1803,  and  com-
pleted in  1813,  forms  a  secure  harbour,  affording
anchorage  for  nearly  the  whole  navy  of  France,  and
protected  by  strong  fortifications.  On  4,  5  Aug.
1858,  the  railway  and  the  Grand  Napoleon  docks
were  opened,  the  latter  in  the  presence  of  the
queen  of  England  and  court.  The  British  fleet
visited  Cherbourg,  15-17  Aug.  1865,  receiving  much
hospitality.  Presidents  Grevy,  Leon  Say,  and
Gambetta  visit  Cherbourg ;  launch  of  a  man-of-
war,  &c,  8- ti  Aug.  1880.

CHERITONDOWN  (Hants).  Here  sir  Wm.
Waller  defeated  the  royalists  under  lord  Hopton,
29  March,  1644.

CHERRY,  the  Prunus  Cerasus  (from  Cerasus,
a  city  of  Pontus,  whence  the  tree  was  brought  by
Lucullus  to  Rome,  about  70  B.C.),  first  planted  in
Britain,  it  is  said,  about  ioo.  Fine  kinds  were
brought  from  Flanders,  in  1540,  and  planted  in
Kent.

CHERSON,  see  Kherson.

CHERSONESUS,  see  Crimea.

CHESAPEAKE.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river
a  contest  took  place  between  the  British  admiral
Graves  and  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse  aiding
the  revolted  states  of  America ;  the  former  was
obliged  to  retire,  5  Sept.  1781.  The  Chesapeake  and
Delaware  were  blockaded  by  the  British  fleet  in  the
American  war  of  1812,  and  the  bay  was,  at  that
period,  the  scene  of  great  hostilities  of  various
results.

Chesapeake,  an  American  frigate,  in  Boston  bay,  com-
manded by  capt.  Lawrence  (50  guns,  376  men),  struck
to  the  Shannon,  British  frigate  (38  guns,  330  men)  com-
manded by  capt.  Philip  Vere  Broke,  after  a  severe
action  of  eleven  minutes,  1  June,  1813.  Eleven  minutes
elapsed  between  the  firing  of  the  first  gun  and  the
boarding,  and  in  foiu'  minutes  more  the  Chesapeake  was
the  Shannon's  prize.  Capt.  Lawrencedied  of  his  wounds.
Adm.  sir  Provo  W.  P.  Wallis,  who  succeeded  in  the  com-
mand of  the  Shannon,  when  capt.  Broke  was  disabled,
born  1791,  died  13  Feb.  1892.

CHESHUNT  COLLEGE,  Herts,  founded
by  Seliua,  countess  of  Huntingdon,  for  the  educa-
tion of  ministers  of  her  "connexion,"  Calvinistic
methodists.  The  college  was  first  opened  at  Tre-
vecca-house,  Talgarth,  near  Brecon,  by  the  countess
and  'George  Whitefield,  1768.  It  was  removed  to
Cheshunt  in  1792.  She  died  17  June,  1791.  Tre-
vecca  college  is  still  used  by  the  Calvinistic
methodists,  1890.


CHESS.


201


CHICHESTER.


CHESS.  An  ancient  game  of  eastern  origin,
probably  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Arabs ;  the
invention  is  doubtfully  ascribed  to  India,  China,
Persia  and  Egypt.

Caxton  printed  "  the  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse"  1474
A  chess-club  formed  at  Slaughter's  coffee-house,  St.

Martin's-lane J747

The  automaton  chess-player  (a  piece  of  machinery)

exhibited  in  England 1769

M.  F.  A.  Danican,  known  as  Philidor,  played  three

matches  blindfolded  at  the  Salopian  ;  he  died  .  1795
The  London  Chess-club  founded  in  1807,  and  St.

George's 1833

Herr  Paulsen  played  ten  games  at  once,  of  which

he  won  five,  and  lost  one  ;  three  were  drawn,  and

one  not  played  out  .  .  Dec. 1861

International  chess  congresses :  1,  2,  London  (winner,

M.  Anderssen,  of  Breslau),  1851,  1862  ;  3,  Paris,

(M.  Kolisch),  1867  ;  4,  Paris  (M.  Anderssen),  1870  ;

5,  Vienna  (M.  Steinmetz),  Aug.  1873.
Automaton  chess-player  at  the Crystal-palace  (a

youth  concealed  in  box  perforated  with  holes)

exhibited 1873

Howard  Staunton,  a  great  player,  died . . June,  1874
J.  J.  Lowenthal,  eminent  Hungarian  player,  died

20  July,  1876
J.  H.  Zukertort  of  Riga, gains  first  iH'ize  at  the

International  Chess  Congress,  Paris,  June,  July,  1878
*'  Mephisto,"  a  mechanical  chess-player,  exhibited

at  the  Westminster  Aquarium  . . 2  Oct. ,,

Chess  Congress  at  New  York  . . . Jan. 1880

Chess  tournament  at  Wiesbaden,  9  July,  1880;  at

Berlin,  30  Aug.  1881  (1st  prize,  Mr.  Blackburne)  ;

at  Vienna,  first  prize,  M.  Steinmetz  .  24  June,  1882
In  London  (M.  Zukertort, 1st  prize), 26  April —

23  June 1883

M.  J.  H.  Zukertort  died  aged  46 . .  20  June,  1888
International  chess  tournament,  New  York,  closed  ;

ecpual  prizes  awarded  to  Herr  Weiss  (Vienna)  and

M.  Tischigorin  (Russia)  . . . .27  May,  1889

One  at  Amsterdam,  28  Aug.  1889  ;  at  Manchester,

(1st  prize,  Dr.  Tarrasch,  of  Nuremberg),  25  Aug.-

8  Sept.  1890;  at  Dresden,  Dr.  Tarrasch

18-29  Juiy>  1892

Games,  in  which  the  pieces  were  replaced  by  living
men,  were  played  at  St.  Leonards,  Sussex  14  Jan.  i8qi

CHESTER  (England,  N.  W.),  the  British
Caerleon  and  the  Roman  Leva,  the  station  of  the
twentieth  legion,  Valeria  Viclrix,  quitted  by  them
about  406.  The  city  wall  was  first  built  by  Edel-
fieda,  about  908 ;  and  Hugh  de  Abrinces,  called
Lupus,  the  earl,  nephew  of  William  I.,  rebuilt
the  Saxon  castle  in  1084,  and  the  abbey  of  St.
Werburgh.  Chester  was  incorporated  by  Henry
III.  and  made  a  distinct  county.  The  palatine
jurisdiction  was  abolished  by  parliament,  23  July,
1830.  The  see,  anciently  part  of  Lichtield,  one  of
whose  bishops,  Peter,  removing  the  seat  hither  in
1075,  occasioned  his  successors  to  be  styled  bishops
of  Chester ;  but  it  was  not  made  a  distinct  bishopric
until  Henry  VIII.  in  1541  raised  it  to  this  dignity,
and  allotted  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Wer-
burgh for  the  cathedral.  After  extensive  repairs,
the  cathedral  was  re-opened,  25  Jan.  1872.  This
see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  420/.  is.  8d.
per  annum.  Present  income  4500^.  Population,
1881,36,794:  1891,37,105.

Taken,  after  three  months'  siege,  for  the  parliament  1645

Fatal  gunpowder  explosion 1772

Exchange  and  town  hall  burnt  . . 30  Dec. 1862

A  projected  attack  of  Fenians  on  Chester  castle  was
defeated  by  the  vigilance  of  the  authorities  aud
the  arrival  of  the  military . . n,  12  Feb. 1867
New  town  hall opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales

15  Oct.  1869
Cathedral  re-opened  after  restoration  by  sir  Gilbert

G.  Scott 7  Aug. 1876

Ancient  tower  of  St.  John's  Church  fell 15  April,  1881
Foundation stone of Grosvenor Museum and
School  of  Art  laid  by  the  duke  of  Westminster
3  Feb.  1885 opened  6  Aug. 18S6


RECENT  BISHOPS OF CHESTER.

1800.  Henry  Wm.  Majendie,  trans,  to  Bangor,  1809.

1810.  Bowyer  Edward  Sparkie,  trans,  to  Ely,  1812.

1812.  George  Henry  Law,  trans,  to  Bath,  1824.

1824.  Chas.  J.  Blomfield,  trans,  to  London,  Aug.  1828.

1828.  John  Bird  Sumner,  trans,  to  Canterbury,  1848.

1848.  John  Graham,  died  15  June,  1865.

1865.  William  Jacobson. Resigned  Jan.  ;  died  13  July,

1884.
1884. Wm.  Stubbs,  Feb. ;  translated  to  Oxford,  July,

1888.
1888.  Francis  John  Jayne,  elected  26  Jan.

CHESTER  LE  STREET.  It  is  stated  that
a  bishopric  founded  in  Holy  Island  was  removed
to  this  place  in  875,  and  to  Durham,  995;  see
Durham.

CHEVY CHASE,  see  Otterhurne.

CHICAGO,  Illinois,  United  States,  a  flourish-
ing city  settled  in  1831  ;  incorporated  1837;  popu-
lation, 1867,  above  200,000;  in  1880,  503,185  ;  1890,
1,099,859.
Chicago  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  occasioned  by

the  upsetting  of  a  paraffin  lamp  .  .  7-11  Oct.  1871
About  250  persons  perished,  and  98, 500  were  rendered
destitute.  The  loss  was  reckoned  at  290,000,000
dollars.  Large  sums  were  collected  for  relief  of
the  sufferers  in  London  (10,000/.  in  a  few  hours)and
other  British  cities,  as  well  as  in  North  America.
The  area  of  the  fire  was  computed  at  from  three
to  five  square  miles,  and  about  25,000  buildings
were  destroyed.  The  heart  of  the  city  was  com-
posed of  old  wooden  buildings.  The  city  was  re-
built most  energetically  .  ...  1872-3
Another  great  fire ;  many  rendered  homeless,

14  July,  1874
A  convention  of  Irish National Delegates met

19-22  Aug.  1886
Socialist  riots  with  bloodshed  on  4  May,  1886. See

United  States uNov.  1887

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  1893  ;  Chicago

chosen  as  the  site 25  Feb.  1890

Mr.  Thomas  W.  Palmer,  of  Michigan,  chosen  as  the

president  of  the  fair  ....  27  June  ,,
Site selected, S.  W. shore of lake Michigan ;

2,000,000  dollars  voted  for  expenses  .  .  July  ,,
Mr.  George  R.  Davis  elected  director-general,  19  Sept.  ,,
President  Harrison  announces  tne  day  of  opening

to  be  1  May,  to  close  31  Oct.  1893.
To  be  dedicated 12  Oct. 1892. Congress  votes
2,500,000  dollars  for  expenses . . 5  Aug.  1892
See  America,  1492.

CHICAMA  UGA  ("  thestream  of  death"),  near

Chattanooga,  Tennessee,  North  America.  Near
here  the  confederates  under  general  Bragg,  aided
by  Longstreet,  totally  defeated  the  federals  under
Rosencrans,  19,  20  Sept.  1863.  The  loss  was  severe
on  both  sides.  The  credit  of  the  victory  was  attri-
buted to  Longstreet ;  its  fruitlessness  to  Bragg.

CHICHESTER  (Sussex),  built  by  Cissa,
about  540.  The  cathedral  was  completed  about
1 108,  burnt  with  the  city  in  11 14,  and  rebuilt  by
bi-hop  Settrid  about  1 187.  The  present  cathedral
was  erected  during  the  13th  century.  The  spire
fell  20  Feb.  1861 ;  the  foundation  of  a  new  one  was
laid  2  May,  1865,  completed  June,  1866.  The  cathe-
dral re-opened  after  repairs,  14  Nov.  1867.  The
bishopric  originated  thus  :  Wilfrid,  archbishop  of
York,  compelled  to  flee  by  Egfrid,  king  of  Northum-
berland, preached  the  gospel  in  this  country,  and
built  a  church  in  the  Isle  of  Selsey,  about  673.  In
681  Selsey  became  a  bishopric,  and  so  continued
until  it  was  removed  to  Chichester,  then  called
Cissan-Cacster,  from  its  builder,  Cissa,  by  Stigand,
about  1082.  This  see  has  yielded  to  the  church
two  saints,  and  to  the  nation  three  lord  chancellors.
It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  677^  is.  3^.  per
annum.  Present  income,  4500/.  The  borough  was
absorbed  into  Sussex,  1885.  Population,  1SS1,
8,114; 1891,  7,812.


CHICHESTEE.


202


CHILI.


RECENT  BISHOPS OF CHICHESTEE.

1798.  John  Buckner,  died  2  May,  1824.

1824.  Robert  J.  Can,  trans,  to  Worcester,  Sept.  1831.

1831.  Edward  Maltby,  translated  to  Durham,  1836.

1836.  Charles  Otter,  died  20  Aug.  1840.

1840.  Philip  Nicholas  Shuttleworth,  died  7  Jan.  1842.

1842.  Ashurst  Turner  Gilbert,  died  21  Feb.  1870.

1870.  Richard  Durnford.

"  CHICHESTEE"  training-ship  for  homeless
London  boys,  established  chiefly  by  the  earl  of
Shaftesbury  and  Mr.  Williams,  in  connection  with
the  refuges  lor  destitute  children,  Great  Queen-
street.  50  boys  placed  in  it,  18  Dec.  1866 ;  reported
highly  successful.  The  baroness  Purdett-Coutts
gave  5000^.  in  1874.  H.M.S.  Arethusa  was  de-
voted to  a  similar  object,  through  the  instrumen-
tality of  the  same  persons,  3  Aug.  1874.  The
Goliath  training-ship  was  burnt,  22  Dec.  1875  '>
several  lives  were  lost. See  Wrecks,  1875.

CHICKAHOMINY  BATTLES,  see  Fair-
oaks,  and  United  States,  June,  1862.

CHICORY,  the  wild  endive,  or  Cichorium
Intybus  of  Linmeus,  grows  wild  in  calcareous  soils.
It  was  for  many  years  so  largely  mixed  with  coffee
in  England,  that  it  became  a  matter  of  serious  com-
plaint, the  loss  of  revenue  being  estimated  at
100,000^.  a  year.  An  excise  order  was  issued,
interdicting  the  mixture  of  chicory  with  coffee,  3
Aug.  1852.  The  admixture,  however,  has  since  been
permitted,  provided  the  word  "chicory"  be  plainly
printed  on  each  parcel  sold.  In  i860  a  duty  of  3s.
per  cwt.  was  put  upon  English-grown  chicory  until
April,  1861 ;  it  is  now  13s.  yt.  per  cwt.  (1889).

CHIGNON",  French  for  the  "back-hair"  of
ladies.  In  directions  for  full  dress  in  1783,  it
is  said:  "The  hair  large  and  the  chignon  low  be-
hind." Lady's  Magazine.  Large  chignons  began
to  be  worn  in  England  in  1866;  discontinued  1875.

CHILDERMAS  DAY,  28  Dec,  of  ancient
observance  by  the  Koman  Church,  in  memory  of
the  slaughter  of  the  Holy  Innocents. {Matt,  ii.)

CHILDREN".  Many  ancient  nations  exposed
their  infants, — the  Egyptians  on  the  banks  of
rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on  highways, — when  they
could  not  support  or  educate  them  ;  in  such  cases,
they  were  protected  by  the  state.  The  old  custom
of  English  parents  selling  their  children  to  the
Irish  for  slaves,  was  prohibited  by  Canute,  about
1017.  See  Emigration,  Foundling,  Factory  Acts,
and  Infanticide.
Children's  Dangerous  Performances  Act  (earl  de  la

"Warr's  act)  passed  ;  much  needed  24  July,  1879

London  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to
Children,  founded  8  July,  1884,  to  protect  them
from  neglect,  ill-usage,  and  immorality.  (A  similar
society  established  in  Liverpool  19  April,  1883,
has  been  very  efficient.)  A  shelter  near  Theobalds
Rd.,  London,  opened  by  the  baroness  Burdett-
Coutts  and  the  lord  mayor . . . 27  Oct.  1884
The  London  society  reported  successful . Dec.  1887
Prevention  of  cruelty  to,  and  protection  of  children
act  passed,  26  Aug.  1889. It  restricts  the  employ-
ment in  certain  cases  of  boys  under  14,  and  girls
under  16,  but  permits  their  employment  above  7
in  certain  cases  by  special  licence.
By  the  new  factory  act  the  age  of  child-labour  was
raised  from  10  to  ii .... 5  Aug. 1891

CHILI,  OR  CHILE,  a  republic  of  S.  America,
discovered  by  Magellan,  who  lauded  at  Chiloe,  1520.
It  was  explored  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the
conquerors  of  Peru,  1536.  Capital,  Santiago,
founded  154 1.  Chili  was  subdued,  but  not  wholly,
in  1546.  Population  in  1865,  1,068,447;  1885,
2,527,320;  1889,2,766,747.
Chili  declares  its  independence  of  Spain,  18  Sept.  1810


War  with  varying  success  :  decisive  victory  gained
by  San  Martin  over  the  royal  forces  at  Chacabuce,
12  Feb.  1817  ;  the  province  declared  independent,

12  Feb.

Peace  with  Spain

Present  constitution  established . . 22  May,

Manuel  Montt  elected  president  . . . 18  Oct.

Insurrection  headed  by  Pedro  Gallo,  Dec.  1858,  sup-
pressed April,

Jose  J.  Perez,  president .... 18  Sept.

Conflagration  of  the  Jesuits'  church  at  Santiago
(see  Santiago),  more  than  2000  persons  perished

8  Dec.

Rupture  between  Chili  and  Bolivia  respecting  the
*'  Guano  "  isles 1  March,

Disputes  with  Spain  respecting  Peru  settled  by  the
Spanish  minister,  20  May,  disavowed  by  his
government 25  July,

Religious  toleration  enacted . . . July,

J.  J.  Perez  again  proclaimed  president ;  vigorous
prosecution  of  the  war .... Oct.

The  Spanisli  admiral  Pareja  appears  before  Val-
paraiso claiming  satisfaction  for  Chilian  inter-
vention in  the  war  with  Peru,  17  Sept. ;  refused  21
Sept.  ;  he  declares  a  blockade,  24  Sept.  ;  Chili
declares  war  against  Spain,  29  Sept.  ;  joins  Peru,

5  Dec.

The  Spaniards  bombard  Valparaiso .  31  March,

End  of  the  blockade 14  April,

J.  J.  Perez  re-elected  president . . 18  Sept.

F Errazuriz  elected  president . . .18  Sept.

Gold  mines  discovered  near  Iquique . . Oct.

The  Tacna  (capt.  Hyde),  overloaded,  left  Valpa-
raiso, 7  March ;  soon  after  sank ;  19  (some  chil-
dren) drowned ;  captain  and  officers  saved  ;  he
was  reprimanded  at  Valparaiso,  and  set  free ;
afterwards  seized  by  orders  of  the  Chilian  govern-
ment at  Lota;  eventually  released,  and  compen-
sated

International  exhibition  provisionally  opened  at
Santiago,  26  Sept.  ;  to  the  public . . 31  Oct.

Anibal  Pinto,  president  (till  1881)  . . 18  Sept.

Bolivian  forts  seized  by  the  Chilians . .  Dec.

Chili  refuses  to  recognise  a  treaty  between  Peru  and
Bolivia  (6  Feb.  1873)  respecting  boundaries  ;  they
declare  war  against  Chili . . . April,

The  Chilian  wooden  vessels  Esmeralda  and  Cova-
donga blockade  Iquique  ;  the  Peruvian  ironclad
turret  ships  (with  rams)  Huascar  and  Jndepen-
dencia  attempt  relief ;  Esmeralda,  sunk  by  Huascar
(about  no  perish)  ;  Indepcndencia  runs  ashore
while  chasing  Covadonga  ;  capt.  Pratt  and  6  men
climb  up  Huascar  and  are  killed  fighting  on  the
deck  .  .  ...  21, 23  May,
Huascar  enters  port  of  Iquique,  and  captures  2
vessels 29  July,

Blockade  of  Iquique  raised  ;  announced 4  Aug.

Huascar  captured  by  Chilian  fleet  otf  Mejillones,
after  6  hours'  gallant  fight ;  the  admiral  and
many  officers  killed ....  8  Oct.

Pisagua  bombarded  and  captured  by  Chilians

2  Nov.

Combined  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  army  defeated
near  Iquique  (which  surrenders)  Nov. ;  again
near  Tarapaca,  which  is  taken about  27  Nov.

Naval  engagement ;  dashing  conduct  of  Peruvian
vessels 27  Feb.

Callao  blockaded  by  Chilians  ;  alarm  at  Lima

about  18  April,
Battle  of  Tacna  ;  it  is  captured  by  Chilians

26  May,

Arica  taken  by  the  Chilians  . . 8  June,

Pierola  dictator  of  Peru  ;  declares  for  perseverance
in  the  war  ;  excitement  at  Lima  ;  levy  en  masse

28  June,
Chilian  transport  Loa  sunk  by  torpedo,  by  a  Peru-
vian launch  apparently  laden  with  fruit ;  Callao

greatly  shaken 3  July,

Chilian  vessel  Covadonga  bombarding  town,  sunk
by  Peruvian  torpedoes  off  Chancay:  about  115
perish  ;  (severe  reprisals)  ...  14  Sept.
Chilians  storm  Lurin,  4  Jan.  ;  defeat  the  Peruvians
at  Chorillos,  13  Jan.  ;  at  Miraflores,  15  Jan.  ;
occupy  Lima  without  resistance,  Pierola  flees,
about  17  Jan.  ;  Callao  taken  soon  after  .  Jan.
Conditions  of  peace  reported  ;  cession  of  territory ;
750  million dollars indemnity ;  occupation of


1833
1851

1859
1861


1863


1S65


1874.

187S
1876


CHILI.


203


CHILI.


Callao  ;  working  of  mines  till  indemnity  paid ;
announced 30  Jan.

England  and  France  requested  to  mediate  by  Peru

Feb.

Treaty  of  peace  between  Spain  confirmed Sept.

Calderon  elected  president,  announced . 1  Sept.

President ;  Domingo  Santa-Maria . . 18  Sept.

Treaty  of  peace  witli  Bolivia . . .25  Jan.

Peace  protocol  between  Chili  and  Peru,  agreed  to

March,

War  resumed  ;  skirmishes ;  Chilians  generally  suc-
cessful July,

Peruvians  defeated  by  Chilians  in  several  engage-
ments, 13,  15,  and  16  July,  also  8  Aug.

Coneepcion  burned,  announced . . 19  July,

Reported  peace ; cession  of  Tarapaca  and  Tacna

28  Sept.

Negotiations  fail,  announced ... 8  Oct.

Peace  said  to  be  signed  ;  Peru  cedes  Tacna  and
Arica  to  Chili  for  10  years,  reported  25  May,

Severe  battle,  Peruvians  defeated  with  great  Io.ns  at
Huamachuca 10  July,

Peruvian  leaders  defeated  at  Huanchuco  by  col.
Grostiago 19  July,

Peace  with  Peru  signed  at  Ancon . . 20  Oct.

Lima  evacuated 23  Oct.

Seiior Don  Jose Manuel Balmaceda, president

18  Sept.

After  much  agitation,  great  electoral  reforms  carried

Oct.

The  congress  issues  a  declaration  deposing  the  pre-
sident for  treason  against  the  constitution,
tyranny,  and  misuse  of  the  public  money,  and
designates  sen.  Jorge  Montt  as  its  assistant  in
restoring  the  due  observance  of  the  constitution.

1  Jan.

The  navy  (under  capt.  J. Montt)  revolts  against

the  president ;  the  army  remains  faithful  to  him

about  7  Jan.

Valparaiso,  held  for  the  president,  blockaded  by
the  navy  ;  frequent  skirmishes  ;  contradictory
reports 16  Jan.

Small  British  squadron  sent  to  Chilian  waters

. about  17  Jan.

The  navy  blockades  the  coast  ... 20  Jan.

Coronel  bombarded  by  the  navy,  reported 25  Jan.

The  congressists  take  Pisagua  . . .26  Jan.

A  French  squadron  ordered  to  the  Chilian  coast .

about  2S  Jan.

The  government  troops  re-take  Pisagua  ;  the  con-
gressists occupy  Talta . . . about  1  Feb.

Fighting  at  Castro  ;  congressists  defeated  ;  130
killed reported  4  Feb.

Insurrection  confined  to  the  chief  harbours 5  Feb.

Pisagua  and  Iquique  burned  by  bombardment

reported  13  Feb.

The  president's  troops  defeated  at  Dolores,  15  Feb.,
and  Iquique,  19  Feb

The  congressists  defeated  at  Pisagua . 22  Feb.

Iquique  bombarded  by  the  congressists  ;  the  British
admiral  Hotham  intervenes  to  save  women  and
children  ;  capt.  Lambton,  of  the  IVarspite,  passes
through  a  heavy  fire  to  obtain  an  armistice  ;  the
town  and  troops  surrender  to  the  congressists

20  Feb.

Tarapaca  taken  by  the  congressists  reported  27  Feb.

Conflicting  news . . . Jan.,  Feb.,  March

The  troops  at  Pisagua  declare  for  the  congressists.
reported  3  March

The  president's  troops  defeated  at  Pozo  Almonte,
4  March  ;  the  province  of  Tarapaca  held  by  the
congress  party . . .  about  8  March

Part  of  the  army  joins  the  congress  party,  which
holds  all  southern  Chili . reported  12  March

Col.  Bobles,  with  the  president's  troops,  totally  de-
feated ;  he  is  killed  after  the  engagement  at  Pozo
Almonte,  4  March.  The  province  of  Tarapaca
held  by  the  congress  party . . .8  March

The  port  Antofagasta  taken  by  the  congressist
fleet 18-23  March

Tacna  and  Arica  occupied  by  the  congressists
without  resistance  .... 7  April

A  provisional  government  or  junta  established  by
the  congress  party,  at  Iquique . . 10  April

Part  of  the  regular  army  (2,450)  crosses  the  Argen-
tine territory  to  reach  Santiago,  reported  14  April

Newly  elected  congress  (his  nominees)  opened  by


the  president ;  his  conduct  reported  very  tyran-
nical 21  April,

The  congressist  ironclad  Blanco  Encalada,  in  Cal-
dera  Bay,  Atacama,  sunk  by  Balmaceda's  torpedo
boats  early ...  .23  April,

Revolt  of  troops  at  Coquimbo,  to  the  congressists .

25  April

The  congressist  cruiser  Magellanes,  in  Valparaiso
harbour,  beats  off  a  fierce  attack  of  three  govern-
ment torpedo  boats . . . .28  April,

Capiapo,  the  capital  of  Atacama,  occupied  by  the
congressists . .  .  reported  29  April

President  Balmaceda  invites  foreign  mediation

reported  6  May

Negotiations  between  the  government  and  the  con-
gressists fail about  8  May

The  1  tata,  and  Robert  and  Minnie,  private  trans-
ports, supply  the  congress  party  with  contra-
band articles  from  New  York,  15  April  et  seq.  ;
they  are  chased  by  the  U.S.  cruiser  Charleston .

early  May

Amicable  arrangement  between the  congressists

and the United States respecting the Rata

reported  20  May,

Balmaceda's  ships,  Condell  and  Imperial,  bombard
Iquique 22  May

The  officers  and  crew  of  Balmaceda's  torpedo
launch Giralda,~  shot for  suspected desertion

30  May,

The  statements  respecting  the  various  conflicts
and  movements  of  the  two  parties  very  uncertain
and  frequently  contradictoiy . .  May,  June,

The  congressional  provisional  junta  at  Iquique
issues decrees respecting the state finances

22  May,

The  Itata  surrenders  to  the  American  cruisers  at
Iquique 4  June,

The  provisional  junta  at  Iquique  issues  a  circular
note  to  the  powers  denouncing  president  Balma-
ceda as  a  dictator,  and  asking  to  be  recognised
as  a  belligerent,  7  May . published  n  June,

Balmaceda's  squadron  bombards  Pisagua,  8  June  ;
Iquique 9  June,

Reported  reign  of  terror  in  Santiago  through  the
tyranny  of  president  Balmaceda  . . 25  June,

The  congressists  occupy  Huasco  . .  2  July,

Sen.  Pedro  Montt  and  sen.  Varas  on  behalf  of  the
congressists,  declare  that  the  financial  dealings
of  president  Balmaceda  will  not  be  recognised  by
them 10  July,

The  ten  conspirators  who  attempted  to  blow  up
Balmaceda's  ships  at  Valparaiso  shot 14  July,

The  judges  and  legal  officers  of  the  republic  dis-
charged by Balmaceda and replaced by his
ignorant  partisans  ;  no  security  for  foreigners
reported  21  July,

The  congress  party  occupy  the  Atacama  province

25  July,

The  congressist  army,  about  10,000,  with  batteries,
&c,  commanded  by  col.  Canto,  land  at  Quinteros
Bay,  20  Aug.,  and  after  a  night's  march,  they
completely  defeat  Balmaceda's  army-  at  Colmo  ;.
the  congressists  have  about  300  killed;  Bal-
maceda has  about  1,000  killed,  21  Aug. ;  tuey
advance  and  take  Salto,  24  Aug. ;  ai  d  Quilpue,
25  Aug.  ;  inarch  toward  Valrjaraiso,  receiving
large  numbers  of  deserters  from  the  enemy,  and
encamp  in  a  farm-house ... 27  Aug.

Battle  of  Placilla  :  Balmaceda's  army  totally  de-
feated ;  about  1,000  killed  and  3,000  prisoners  ;
congressists,  400  killed  ;  the  battle  lasted  from
7.30  to  10.30,  and  the  congressists  took  posses-
sion of  Valparaiso  .at  1  p.m. . . . 28  Aug.

Santiago  occupied  by  the  congressists,  who  restore
constitutional  government  . . 30  Aug.

Temporal  resistance  at  Coquimbo  ;  several  of  Bal-
maceda's officers  shot . . reported  1  Sept.

The  great  powers  recognise  the  congressist  pro-
visional government . . about  16  Sept.

Balmaceda  concealed  at  the  Argentine  Legation  in
Santiago,  commits  suicide,  leaving  a  justificatory
letter,  and  is  secretly  buried  . . 19  Sept.

National  holiday  with  great  rejoicings,  16-20  Sept.

Balmaceda's  funds  being  exhausted  he  issues  state
notes  to  the  amount  of  12,000,000  pesos,  lie  also
seizes  bars  of  silver  valued  at  4,500,000  pesos,
the  metallic  reserve  of  the  paper  currency  and
illegally  offers  it  lor  sale,  without  effect  Feb.  et


CHILLED SHOT.


204


CHINA.


seq. ;  he  then  forms  a  new  congress  to  support
him,  April ;  and  negotiates  for  the  purchase  of
a  steamer  at  Montevideo  without  effect  ;  Mr.
Kennedy,  British  minister  at  Santiago,  places
■at  Balmaceda's  disposal  H.M.S.  Espiegle  to
convey  the  silver  bars  to  Montevideo,  June  et
se9v  338  silver  bars  transferred  to  H.M.S.  Moselle,
which  conveys  them  to  Southampton 16  Sept.  1891

Two  iron-clad  cruisers,  the  Presidente  Pinto  and
Presidente  Errazv.riz,  constructed  for  Balmaceda
at  Bordeaux  ;  col.  Villagran  with  114  soldiers
claims  them  for  him,  6  April ;  an  embargo  on
these  vessels  raised  by  order  of  a  French  law
■court,  8  July  ;  the  vessels  leave  Bordeaux,  and
after  endeavouring  to  enlist  men  at  several  ports
in  Europe,  July,  Aug.,  are  siven  up  at  the  end  of
the  war, to the new  provisional government

Sept.  et  seq. ,,

Election  of  senate  and  deputies . about  21  Oct. ,,

Mr.  Patrick  Egan,  the  U.S.  minister,  charged  with
breach  of  neutrality  by  favouring  Balmaceda's
party  during  the  war Oct. ,,

At  Valparaiso  some  of  the  populace  assault  the
boats'  crews  of  the  U.S.  ship  Baltimore;  2  of
the  crew  killed,  16  Oct. ;  the  U.S.  government
■demands  reparation ;  the  Chilian  government
promises  investigation . . . .29  Oct. ,,

The  case  against  the  Itata  dismissed  by  the  U.S.
■court 3  Nov. ,,

Senhor  Jorge  Montt  elected  president . 4  Nov. ,,

Amnesty  granted  to  the  followers  of  Balmaceda

24  Dec. ,,

A  liberal-conservative  ministry  constituted  ;  sen.
Barros  Luco  premier . . .  31  Dec. ,,

The  Chilian  rioters  sentenced  (some  to  imprison-
ment and  some  to  penal  servitude),  for  assault-
ing the  sailors  of  the  Baltimore,  3  Jan.  ;  the
president  apologises  to  the  U.S.A.  government
lor  the  incident Jan.  1892

After  further  correspondence  the  Chilian  govern-
ment accepts  the  stringent  U.S.A.  ultimatum,
and  the  affair  ends . . .  25-30  Jan. „

The  first  congress  closes  after  satisfactory  progress

30  Jan. ,,

A  new  ministry  constituted  under  sen.  Edouardo
Matte about  13  March, ,,

New  ministry  formed  by  sen.  Barros  Luco,  11  June, ,,

Mr.  P.  Egan  concludes  a  convention  between  Chili
and  the  United  States .... Aug. ,,

CHILLED  SHOT,  see  Cannon,  1864-6.

CHILLIANWALLAH,  Battle  of,  India,
between  the  Sikh  forces  in  considerable  strength,
and  the  British  commanded  by  lord  (afterwards
viscount)  Gough,  fought  13  Jan.  1849.  The  Sikhs
were  completely  routed,  but  the  loss  of  the  British
was  very  severe  :  26  officers  were  killed  and  66
wounded,  and  731  rank  and  file  killed,  and  1446
wounded.  The  Sikh  loss  was  3000  killed  and
4000  wounded.*  On  21  Feb.  lord  Gough  attacked
the  Sikh  army,  under  Shere  Singh,  in  its  position
atGoojerat,  with  complete  success  ;  and  the  whole  of
the  enemy's  camp  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS  (viz.  Burnham,
Desborough,  and  Stoke),  an  estate  of  the  crown  on
the  chain  of  chalk  hills  that  pass  from  east  to  west
through  the  middle  of  Buckinghamshire.  The
stewardship  is  a  nominal  office,  with  a  salary  of  25s.,
•conferred  on  members  of  parliament  when  they  wish
to  vacate  their  seats.  The  strict  legality  of  the
practice  is  questioned. The  practice  began  in  1750.

CHIMBOEAZO,  highest  point  in  the  Andes,
South  America;  (altitude  21,068  feet)  was  as-
cended by  Humboldt,  23  June,  1802,  by  Boussin-
gault  and  Hall,  16  Dec.  1831  ;  by  Edward  Whym-
per,  3  July,  1880. See  Andes.


*  The  duke  of  Wellington  (commander-in-chief)  did
not  think  the  victory  complete.  Gough  was  superseded,
and  sir  Charles  Napier  sent  out  (March,  1849),  who  did
not  arrive  in  India  till  Gough  had  redeemed  his  reputa-
tion.


CHIMNEY-TAX,  see  Hearth.

CHIMNEYS.  Chafing-dishes  were  in  use
previous  to  the  invention  of  chimneys  which  were
first  introduced  into  these  countries  about  1200.
Chimneys  were  general  in  domestic  architecture
in  the  14th  century.  At  the  chemical  works,
Glasgow,  is  a  chimney  (there  termed  a  stalk)
420  feet  in  height ;  the  height  of  the  monument
in  London  being  202  feet;  of  St.  Paul's,  404  feet.
Act  to  regulate  chimney-sweeping,  28  Geo.  III.  .  .  1789
The  chimney-siveeping  machine was invented by

Smart 1805

A  statute  regulating  the  trade,  the  apprenticeship
of  children,  the  construction  of  flues,  preventing
calling  "  sweep  "  in  the  streets,  &c,  passed . .  1834
By  3  &  4  Vict.  c.  85  (1840),  it  is  not  lawful  for  master
sweeps  to  take  apprentices  under  sixteen  years
of  age  ;  and  no  individual  under  twenty-one  to
ascend  a  chimney  after . . . .1  July,  1842
Enforcement  of  this  law  made  more  stringent . .  1864
New  chimney-sweepers' act  passed . .  11  Aug. 1875
Joseph  Glass,  inventor  of  the  sweeping  machine

now  in  general  use,  not  patented,  died 29  Jan.  1868
By  the  iall  of  a  chimney  at  Marsh  Mills,  Cleck-
heaton, Yorkshire, 15 persons were killed

24  Feb.  1892

CHINA  (TsiNG),the  "Celestial  Empire,"  in
Eastern  Asia,  for  which  the  Chinese  annals  claim
an  antiquity  of  from  80,000  to  100,000  years  B.C.
The  three  religions  are  Confucianism;  Taoism,  and
Buddhism, which  see.  Mr,  B.  C.  Boulger's  "  History
of  China,"  3  vols.,  1881-84.  Professor  Legge  has
published  "Chinese  Classics"  and  a  translation  of
the  Chinese  "  sacred  books."  Population  (as  stated
at  Pekin)  in  1888,  303,241,969; 1890,  360,250,000.

The  early  condition  of  China  was  tribal,  which
gradually  merged  into  a  vast  feudal  system,
nominally  ruled  by  many  contemporaneous
dynasties,  dated  from  2205  b.  c.  The  king  of
Ts'in  put  down  all  other  rulers  and  assumed
the  title  of  Hwang  Ti,  or  emperor,  declaring
that  "as  there  is  but  one  sun  in  the  sky,  there
should  be  but  one  ruler  in  the  nation  " 221

Principal  dynasties  :  Han,  206  B.c-220  a.d.  ;  T'ang,
618-906 ;  Sung,  960-1279 ;  Yuan,  the  Mongol,  1280-
1367  ;  the  Ming,  1368-1643  ;  the  Ch'ing,  or  Ts'ing,
Manchu  Tartar,  1643  to  the  present  date. Legge.

Supposed  age  of  Confucius  (Kungfutze),  the  philo-
sopher . .  .... b.c.  551-479

Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed  . . . . 211

Literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encouraged  . 202

Battle  between  Phraates  and  the  Scythians :  the
Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  ravaged  the  coasts
of  the  Caspian  :  their  first  appearance  in  history

(Lenglet.) 129

The  religion  of  Laot-se  begun 15

A  form  of  Buddhism,  or  the  religion  of  F6,  intro-
duced about  a.d.  68-81

Nankin  becomes  the  capital 420

The  atheistical  philosopher,  San-Shin,  flourishes  .  449
The  Nestorian  Christians  permitted  to  preach  .  .  635
They  are  proscribed  and  extirpated  ....  845
China  ravaged  by  Tartars,  9th  to  nth  centuries.
Seat  of  government  transferred  to  Pekin  .  .  .  1 260
Marco  Polo  introduces  missionaries  ....  1275
Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen or  Mongol

dynasty about ,,

Ming  dynasty 1368

Canal,  called  the  Yu  Ho,  completed  .  .  about  1400
Europeans  first  arrive  at  Canton  ....  1517
Macao  is  granted  to  the  Portuguese  .  .  .  .  1536
Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  from  Rome  .  .  .  1575
The  country  is  conquered  by  the  eastern  or  Mant-
chou  Tartars,  who  establish  the  present  reigning

Tsing  dynasty 1616-43

Tea  brought  to  England 1660

An  earthquake  throughout  China,  buries  300,000

persons  at  Pekin  alone . . .  1662

Galdan,  a  prince  of  Jangaria,  conquers  Kashgaria
and  becomes  supreme  in Central  Asia, 1678:
checked  by  Kang-hi,  1689  ;  totally  defeated .  1695
Commerce  with  East  India  Company  begins . .  1680


CHINA.


205


CHINA.


Jesuit  missionaries  preach 1692

Commercial  relations  with  Russia . . . 1719-27

The  Jesuits  expelled 1724-32

Another  general  earthquake  destroys  100,000  per-
sons at  Pekin,  and  80,000  in  a  suburb  . . -1731
Successful  war  in  Central  Asia ;  Davatsi  and  his
opponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lung,
1755,  et  seq. ;  Kashgar,  Khokand,  the  Khirgez,  <fec.

annexed 1760

In  a  salute  by  one  of  our  ships  in  China,  a  gun  was
inadvertently  fired,  which  killed  a  native  ;  the
government  demanded  the  gunner  ;  he  was  soon

strangled 1785

Earl  Macartney's  embassy  arrives  at  Pekin  ;  his  re-
ception by  the  emperor ... 14  Sept. 1793
[This  embassy  threw  light  on  the  empire  ; it  ap-
peared to  be  divided  into  15  provinces,  containing
4402  walled  cities  ;  the  population  of  the  whole
was  given  at  333,000,000  :  its  annual  revenues  at
66,ooo,ooo(.  ;  and  the  army,  including  the  Tartars,
1,000,000  of  infantry  and  800,000  cavalry  ; the
religion Pagan, and  the  government absolute.
Learning,  and  the  arts  and  sciences,  were  encou-
raged, and  ethics  studied.]
He  is  ordered  to  depart . . . . 7  Oct. ,,
And  arrives  in  England .... 6  Sept.  1794
The  affair  of  the  Company's  ship  Neptune,  when  a
Chinaman  was  killed . . . . ' . . .  1807

Edict  against  Christianity 1812

Chinese  rule  in  Central  Asia  weakened . . . ,,
Lord  Amherst's  embassy  ;  lie  leaves  England,  8  Eeb.  1816
[His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of  his  mission,
having  refused  to  make  the  prostration  of  the
kotou,  lest  he should  thereby  compromise  the
majesty  of  England.]
Temporary  insurrections  in  Kashgar  . . 1826,  et  seq.
Exclusive  rights  of  the  E.  I.  Co.  cease . 22  April,  1834
Free-trade  ships  sail  for  England . . 25  April, ,,
Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend

British  commerce 15  July, ,,

Affair  between  the  natives  and  two  British  ships  of

war ;  several  Chinese  killed . .  5  Sept. ,,

Lord  Napier  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Mr. (after-
wards sir  John)  Davis .... 11  Oct. „
Opium  dispute  begins  ;  the  trade  prohibited  by  the

emperor Nov. „

Chinese  seize  the  Argyle  and  crew . . 31  Jan. 1835
Opium  burnt  at  Canton  by  Chinese . .  23  Feb. ,,
Captain  Elliot,  chief  British  commissioner  14  Dec.  1836
A  British  commissioner  settled  at  Canton,  March,  1837
Admiral  Maitland  arrives  at  Macao . . 12  July.  1838
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of  opium, 18
March  ;  British  and  other  residents  forbidden  to
leave  Canton,  19  March  ;  the  factories  surrounded,
and  outrages  committed . . .24  March,  1839
Captain  Elliot  requires  British  subjects  to  surrender
to  him  all  opium,  promising  them  full  value  of  it,
27  March  ;  half  of  it  is  given  up as  contraband
to  the  Chinese,  20  April ;  the  remainder  (20,283
chests)  surrendered,  21  May  ;  captain  Elliot  and
the  British  merchants  leave  Canton,  24  May  ;  the
opium  destroyed  by  the  Chinese .  .  3  June, „

Affair  between  the  British  and  American  seamen
and  the  Chinese  ;  a  native  killed . .  7  July, ,.

Hong-Kong  taken 23  Aug. „

The  British  boat  Black  Joke  attacked,  and  the  crew
murdered,  24  Aug.  ;  the  British  merchants  re-
tire from  Macao 26  Aug. ,,

Affair  at Kow-lung between British boats and

Chinese  junks 4  Sept. „

Attack  by  28  armed  junks  on  the  British  frigates

Volage  and  Hyacinth :  severaljunks  blown  up  3  Nov. ,,
The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by  an  edict  of
the  emperor,  and  the  last  servant  of  the  company

leaves  this  day 6  Dec. „

Edict  of  the  emperor  interdicting  all  trade  and

intercourse  with  England  for  ever  .  .  5  Jan.  1840
The  Hellas  ship  attacked  by  armed  junks,  22  May  :
blockade  of  Canton  by  a  British  fleet,  by  orders
from  sir  Gordon  Bremer,  28  June  ;  the  Blonde
with  a  flag  of  truce  fired  on  at  Amoy,  2  July  ;
Ting-hai,  in  Cliusan,  surrenders,  5  July  ;  blockade
established  along  the  Chinese  coast,  10  July  ;  Mr.
Staunton  carried  off  to  Canton  .  .  6  Aug.  „
Captain Elliot,  on board  a  British steam-ship,

enters  the  Peiho  river,  near  Pekin . 1 1  Aug. ,
The  ship  Kite  lost  on  a  sand-bank,  and  the  captain's


-  wife  and  a  part  of  the  crew  are  captured  by  the
natives,  and  confined  in  cages  . .  15  Sept.

Lin  finally  degraded  ;  Keshiii  appointed  imperial
commissioner,  16  Sept. ;  capt.  Elliot's  truce  with


him


6  Nov.

.  20  Nov.  ,7
29  Nov.  ,r
12  Dec. ,r

faith on
6  Jan.  1841


British  plenipotentiaries  off  Macao

Admiral  Elliot's  resignation  announced  .

Mr.  Staunton  released  ....

Negotiations  cease,  owing  to  breach  of
the  part  of  the  Chinese  emperor .

Chuen-pe  and  Tae-coc-tow,  and  173  guns  (some  sent
to  England)  captured . . . . 7  Jan. ,

Hong-Kong  ceded  by  Keshin  to  Great  Britain,  and
6,000,000  dollars  agreed  to  be  paid  within  ten  days-
to  the  British  authorities . . . 20  Jan. ,,

Hong-Kong  taken  possession  of  . . .26  Jan. ,,

The  emperor  rejects  Keshin's  treaty,  n  Feb.  ;  hos-
tilities resumed,  23  Feb.  ;  Chusan  evacuated,
24  Feb.  ;  rewards  proclaimed  at  Canton  for  the
bodies  of  Englishmen,  dead  or  alive  ;  50,000  dollars
to  be  given  for  chiefs .... 25  Feb. ,„

Bogue  forts  taken  by  sir  G.  Bremer  ;  admiral  Kwan
killed  ;  459  guns  captured . . .26  Feb. ,,

The  British  squadron  proceeds  to  Canton,  1  March ;
sir  H.  Gough  takes  command  of  the  army,
2  March  ;  hostilities  again  suspended,  3  March  ;
and  again  resumed,  6  March  ;  Keshin  degraded
by  the  emperor 12  March, ,,

Flotilla  of  boats  destroyed,  Canton  threatened,  the
foreign  factories  seized,  and  461  guns  taken  by
the  British  forces .... 18  March, ,,,

New  commissioners  from  Pekin  arrived  at  Canton

14  April, ,,

Hong  Kong  Gazette  first  published . . 1  May, „

Capt.  Elliot  prepares  to  attack  Canton . 17  May, ,r

Heights  behind  Canton  taken . .  25  May, ,,

The  city  ransomed  for  6,000,000  dollars ;  5,000,000
paid  down  ;  hostilities  cease . . 31  May, ,.

British  forces  withdrawn,  1  June ;  and  British  trade
re-opened 16  July, „

Arrival  at  Macao  of  sir  Henry  Pottinger,  who,  as
plenipotentiary,  proclaims  the  objects  of  his
mission  ;  capt.  Elliot  superseded . 10  Aug. ,,.

Amoy  taken,  and  296  guns  destroyed  . 27  Aug. ,,

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed ... 14  Sept. ,-

Ting-hae  taken,  136  guns  captured,  and  Chusan  re-
occupied  by  the  British,  1  Oct.  ;  they  take  Chin-
hae,  10  Oct.  ;  Ning-po,  13  Oct.  ;  Yu-yaou,  Tsze-
kee,  and  Foong-hua  . . . .28  Dec. ,,

Chinese  attack  Ning-po  and  Chin-hae,  and  are  re-
pulsed with  great  loss,  10  March  ;  8000  Chinese
are  routed  near  Tze-kee . . .15  March,  184a

Cha-pou  attacked  ;  defences  destroyed . 18  May, ,,

The  British  squadron  enters  the  river  Kiang,
13  June  ;  capture  of  Woosuug  and  of  230  guns
and  stores,  16  June;  Shang-hae  taken, 19  June, ,-

The  British  armament  anchors  near  the  "  Golden
Isle,"  20  July  ;  Chiu-Keang  taken ;  the  Tartar
general  and  many  of  the  garrison  commit  suicide,
21  July ;  the  advanced  ships  reach  Nankin,
4  Aug.  ;  the  whole  fleet  arrives,  and  the  disem-
barkation commences,  9  Aug.  ;  Keying  arrives-
at  Nankin,  with  full  powers  to  treat  for  peace

12  Aug. ,.

Treaty  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin,  on  board  the
Cormvallis  by  sir  Henry  Pottinger  for  England,
and  Keying  Elepoo*  and  Neu-Kien  on  the  part  of
the  Chinese  emperor— [Conditions  :  lasting  peace
and  friendship  between  the  two  empires  ;  China
to  pay  21,000,000  of  dollars  ;  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-
choofoo,  Ningpo,  and  Shang-hae  to  be  thrown
open  to  the  British,  and  consuls  to  reside  at  these
cities;  Hong-Kong  to  be  ceded  in  perpetuity  to
England,  &c.  ;  Chusan  and  Ku-lang-su  to  be  held
by  the  British  until  the  provisions  are  fulfilled  t]

29  Aug. ,,

The  ratification  signed  by  queen  Victoria  and  the
emperor  formally  exchanged  . . .22  July,  1843.

Canton  opened  to  the.  British . . 27  July, „

Appointment  of  Mr.  Davis  in  the  room  of  sir  Henry
Pottinger 16  Feb.  1844.

Bogue  forts  captured  by  the  British .  5  April,  1S47

*  He  took  part  (it  was  said  without  authority)  in
arranging  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in  June,  185S.  lie  was
in  consequence  condemned  to  death — by  suicide.

t  The  non-fulfilment  of  this  treaty  led  gradually  to  the
war  of  1856-7.


CHINA.


206


CHINA.


JHong-Kong;  and  the  neighbourhood  visited  by  a -
violent  typhoon  ;  immense  damage  done  to  the
shipping ;  upwards  of  1000  boat-dwellers  on  the

Canton  river  drowned Oct. 1848

H.M.  steam-ship  Medea  destroys  13  pirate  junks  in

the  Chinese  seas 4  March,  1850

{Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Quang-si . . .  Aug. „
Appearance  of  the  pretender,  Tien-teh  * March,  1851
Defeat  of  Leu,  the  imperial  commissioner,  and  de-
struction of  half  the  army  ... 19  June,  1852
'Successful  progress  of  the  rebels  ;  the  emperor  ap-
plies to  the  Europeans  for  help,  without  success

March  and  April,  1853
The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20  March ;  Amoy,

19  May  ;  Shang-hae 7  Sept. „

And  besiege  Canton  without  success Aug. -Nov.  1854
The  scanty  accounts  are  unfavourable  to  the  rebels,
the  imperialists  having  retaken  Shang-hae,  Amoy,

and  many  important  places 1855

Outrage  on  the  British lorcha  Arrow,  in  Canton

river  t 8  Oct.  1856

After  vain  negotiations  with commissioner  Yeh,

Canton  forts  attacked  and  taken .  23  Oct. ,,

A  Chinese  fleet  destroyed  and  Canton  bombarded,

by  sir-  M.  Seymour  . . . .  3,  4  Nov. ,,

Imperialists  defeated,  quit  Shang-hae  .  .  6  Nov.  „
The  Americans  revenge  an  attack  by  capturing  three

forts 21-23  Nov. „

-Rebels  take  Kuriking ....  25  Nov. „

Other  forts  taken  by  the  British  .  .  .  Dec.  „
The  Chinese  burn  European  factories  .  .  14  Dec.  ,,
And  murder  the  crew  of  the  Thistle  .  30  Dec.  „
The  Mahometans  of  Panthay,  in  Yunan,  become

independent  during  Tae-ping  rebellion  . . „

A-lum, a  Chinese  baker, acquitted  of  charge  of

poisoning  the  bread 2  Feb.  1857

Troops  arrive  from  Madras  and  England  ;  and  lord

Elgin  appointed  envoy  ....  March,  ,,
"No  change  on  either  side :  Yeh  said  to  be  straitened
for  money  ;  the  imperialists  seem  to  be  gaining
ground  upon  the  rebels  ....  May,  „
Total  destruction  of  the  Chinese  fleet  by  commodore
Elliot,  25,  27  May  ;  and  sir  M.  Seymour  and  com-
modore Keppel 1  June, ,,

Blockade  of  Canton Aug. „

.'Stagnation  in  the  war— lord  Elgin  departs  to  Cal-
cutta, with  assistance  to  the  English  against  the
Sepoys,  16  July  ;  returns  to  Hong-Kong  25  Sept. ,,

x  The  emperor  Taou-Kwang,  who  died  25  Feb.  1850,
•during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  became  liberal  in  his
views,  and  favoured  the  introduction  of  European  arts  ;
liut  his  son,  the  late  emperor,  a  rash  and  narrow-minded
prince,  quickly  departed  from  his  father's  wise  policy,
.and  adopted  reactionary  measures,  particularly  against
English  influence.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  conse-
quence, Aug.  1850,  and  quickly  became  of  alarming  im-
portance. The  insurgents  at  first  proposed  only  to  expel
the  Tartars  ;  but  in  March,  1851,  a  pretender  was  an-
nounced among  them,  first  by  the  name  of  Tien-teh
'.(Celestial  Virtue),  but  afterwards  assuming  other  names.
He  is  stated  to  have  been  a  native  of  Quang-si,  of
obscure  origin,  but  to  have  obtained  some  literary  know-
ledge at  Canton  about  1 83  5 ,  and  to  have  become  acquainted
at  that  time  with  the  principles  of  Christianity  from  a
Chinese  Christian,  named  Leang-afa,  and  also  from  the
missionary  Roberts  in  1844.  He  announced  himself  as
the  restorer  of  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  Shang-ti,
and  derived  many  of  his  dogmas  from  the  Bible.  He  de-
clared himself  to  be  the  monarch  of  all  beneath  the  sky,
the  true  lord  of  China  (and  thus  of  all  the  world),  the
■brother  of  Jesus,  and  the  second  son  of  God,  and  de-
manded universal  submission.  He  made  overtures  for
alliance  to  lord  Elgin  in  Nov.  i860.  His  followers  were
termed  Taepings,  "princes  of  peace,"  a  title  utterly
"belied  by  their  atrocious  deeds.  The  rebellion  was  virtu-
ally terminated,  18  July,  1864,  by  the  capture  of  Nankin,
the  suicide  of  the  Tien-Wang,  and  the  execution  of  the
military  leaders.

t  It  was  boarded  by  the  Chinese  officers,  12  men  out  of
the  crew  of  14  being  carried  off  and  the  national  ensign
taken  down.  Sir  J.  Bowring,  governor  of  Hong-Kong,
being  compelled  to  resort  to  hostilities,  applied  to  India
and  Ceylon  for  troops.  On  3  March,  1857,  the  house  of
commons,  by  a  majority  of  19,  censured  sir  John  for  the
"  violent  measures  "  he  had  pursued.  The  ministry  (who
took  his  part)  dissolved  the  parliament ;  but  obtained  a
arge  majority  in  the  new  one.


Gen.  Ashburnham  departs  for  India,  and  gen.  Strau-
benzee  assumes  the  command . . 19  Oct.

Canton  bombarded  and  taken  by  English  and
French,  28,  29  Dec.  1857  ;  who  enter  it . 5  Jan.

Yeh*  sent  a  prisoner  to  Calcutta . . .  Jan.

The  allies  proceed  towards  Pekin,  and  take  the  Pei-
ho  forts .20  May,

The  expedition  arrives  at  Tien-tsin  . 20  May,

Negotiations  commence,  5  June  ;  treaty  of  peace
signed  at  Tien-tsin  by  lord  Elgin,  baron  Gros,  and
Keying  (who  signed  the  treaty  of  1842) — [Ambas-
sadors to  be  at  both  courts  ;  freedom  of  trade  ;
toleration  of  Christianity  ;  expenses  of  war  to  be
paid  by  China ;  a  revised  tariff ;  term  I  (bar-
barian) to  be  no  longer  applied  to  Europeans]

26,  28,  29  June,

Lord  Elgin  visits  Japan,  and  concludes  an  im-
portant treaty  with  the  emperor . 28  Aug.

The  British  destroy  about  130  piratical  junks  in  the
Chinese  seas .... Aug.  and  Sept.

Lord  Elgin  proceeds  up  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  to
Nankin,  Jan.  ;  returns  to  England . May,

Mr.  Bruce,  the  British  envoy,  on  his  way  to  Pekin,
is  stopped  in  the  river  Pei-ho  (or  Tien-tsin)  ;  ad-
miral Hope  attempting  to  force  a  passage,  is  re-
pulsed with  the  loss  of  81  killed,  and  about  390
wounded 25  June,

The  American  envoy  Ward  arrives  at  Pekin,  and
refusing  to  submit  to  degrading  ceremonies,  does
not  see  the  emperor . . . .29  July,

Commercial  treaty  with  America  . .  24  Nov.

The  English  and  French  prepare  an  expedition
against  China . Oct.

Lord  Elgin  and  baron  Gros  sail  for  China,  April  26  ;
wrecked  near  Point  de  Galle,  Ceylon,  23  May ;
arrive  at  Shang-hae .... 29  June,

The  war  begins :  the  British  commanded  by  sir  Hope
Grant,  the  French  by  general  Montauban.  The
Chinese  defeated  in  a  skirmish  near  the  Pei-ho

12  Aug.

The  allies  repulse  the  Taeping  rebels  attacking
Shang-hae,  18-20  Aug.  ;  and  take  the  Taku  forts,
losing  500  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Tartar  general
San-ko-lin-sin  retreats  . . . .21  Aug.

After  vain  negotiations,  the  allies  advance  towards
Pekin  ;  they  defeat  the  Chinese  at  Chang-kia-wan
and  Pa-li-chiau . . . .  18  &  21  Sept.

Consul  Parkes,  captains  Anderson  and  Brabazon,
Mr.  de  Norman,  Mr.  Bowlby  (the  Times'  cor-
respondent), and  14  others  (Europeans  and
Sikhs),  advance  to  Tung-chow,  to  arrange  con-
ditions for  a  meeting  of  the  ministers,  and
are  captured  by  San-ko-lin-sin  ;  capt.  Brabazon
and  abbe  de  Luc  beheaded,  and  said  to  be
thrown  into  the  canal ;  others  carried  into  Pekin

21  Sept.

The  allies  march  towards  Pekin ;  the  French  ravage
the  emperor's  summer  palace,  6  Oct.  ;  Mr.  Parkes,
Mr.  Loch,  and  others,  restored  alive,  8  Oct.  ;  capt.
Anderson,  Mr.  De  Norman,  and  others  die  of  ill-
usage  8-11  Oct.

Pekin  invested  ;  surrenders,  12  Oct.  ;  severe  pro-
clamation of  sir  Hope  Grant ... 15  Oct.

The  bodies  of  Mr.  De  Norman  and  Mr.  Bowlby
solemnly  buried  in  the  Russian  cemetery,  Pekin,
17  Oct.  ;  the  summer  palace  (Yuen-ming-yuen)
burnt  by  the  British,  in  memory  of  the  outraged
prisoners 18  Oct.

Convention  signed  in  Pekin  by  lord  Elgin  and  the
prince  Kung,  by  which  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin
is  ratified  ;  apology  made  for  the  attack  at  Pei-ho
(25  June,  1859) ;  a  large  indemnity  to  be  paid  im-
mediately, and  compensation  in  money  given  to
the  families  of  the  murdered  prisoners,  &c.  ;  Kow-
loon  ceded  in  exchange  for  Chusan,  and  the  treaty
and  convention  to  be  proclaimed  throughout  the

empire 24  Oct.

Allies  quit  Pekin 5  Nov.

Treaty  between  Russia  and  China — the  former  ob-
taining free  trade,  territories,  &e. . 14  Nov.

First  instalment  of  indemnity  paid . .  30  Nov.
Part  of  the  allied  troops  settled  at  Tien-tsin  ;  con-
sulate established 5  Jan.

Adm.  Hope  examines  Yang-tse-Kiang,  &c. .  Feb.


1S57


*  He  died  peacefully  at  Calcutta,  9  April,  1859.  He  is
said  to  have  ordered  the  beheading  of  about  100,000
rebels.


CHINA.


207


CHINA.


English  and  French  embassies  established  at  Pekin

March,  1861
The  emperor  Hienfung  dies  . . . .  21  Aug. „
Canton  restored  to  the  Chinese . . 21  Oct. „
Ministerial  crisis  ;  several  ministers  put  to  death,

Nov.  ;  Kung  appointed  regent . . .13  Dec. ,,
Advance  of  the  rebels ;  they  seize  and  desolate  Ning-

po  and  Hang-chow Dec. „

They  advance  on  Shang-hae,  which  is  placed  under
protection  of  the  English  and  French,  and  fortified

Jan.  1862
Rebels  defeated  in  two  engagements . . April, ,,
English  and  French  assist  the  government  against

the  rebels — Ning-po  re-taken . . 10  May, „
French  admiral  Protet  killed  in  an  attack  on  rebels

17  May, „
Captain  Sherard  Osborne  permitted  by  the  British
government  to  organise  a  small  fleet  of  gunboats
to  aid  the  imperialists  to  establish  order July, ,,
imperialists  gain  ground,  take  Kah-sing,  <fec. Oct. ,,
Tungani  (Mahometan)  revolt  in  Central  Asia  ;  mas-
sacre of  Buddhists ,,

Commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  ratified 14  Jan. 1863
The  imperialists  under  col.  Charles  Gordon  defeat

the  Taepings  under  Burgevine,  <&c.  . . Oct. ,,
Cordon  captures  Sow-chow  (after  a  severe  attack,
27, 28 Nov.); the rebel chiefs treacherously
butchered  by  the  Chinese . . . 4,  5  Dec. „
Capt.  Osborne  came  to  China  ;  but  retired  in  conse-
quence of  the  Chinese  government  departing  from

its  engagements 31  Dec. ,,

Cordon's  successes  continue . . Jan.  to  April,  1864

Repulsed  ;  he  takes  Chang-chow-foo . 23  March, ,,

He  takes  Nankin  (a  heap  of  ruins) ;  Hun-seu-tseun,

the  Tien-wang,  the  rebel  emperor,  commits  suicide

by  eating  gold  leaf,  30  June  ; Chang- wang  and

Kan-wang,  the  rebel  generals,  are  "  cut  into  a

thousand  pieces  " 18  July, ,,

Great  mortality  among  British  troops  at  Kowloon

Jan. 1865
The  Taepings  hold  Ming-chow ; the Mahometan
rebellion  (Dounganes)  progressing  in  Honan

Jan. -March,  ,,
Taepings  evacuate  Ming-chow  .  .  23  May,  „
Rebellion  in  the  north  advancing  .  .  June,  ,,
A  rebellion  of  the  Nien-fei  in  the  north  ;  Pekin  in

danger July, ,,

The  Chinese  general  San-ko-lin-sin  defeated  and

slain  ;  his  son  more  successful . .  July, ,,

Prince  Kung  chief  of  the  regency  again  . 7  Nov. „
Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin,

26  Nov. ,,
Chinese newspaper, "  Messenger of the Flying

Dragon,"  appears  in  London  . 14  Jan.  1866

Great  victory  over  the  Nien-fei  announced  at  Canton

13  March,  ,,
Chinese  commissioners  visit  London  .  June,  ,,
Rivalry  of  two  great  political  chiefs  in  China,  Li-

hung-ching  and  Tsen-kwo-fan . . . July, „
Reported  victory  of  the  Nien-fei  over  the  impe-
rialists Dec.  1867

Mahomed  Yakoob  Beg  defeats  the  Tungaui,  becomes
supreme  in  Kashgar, 1866 ; is recognised by

Europe ,,

The  rebels  seize  Ningpo  ....  Oct.  186S
The  people  at  Yang-chow,  incited  by  the  "literati"
(learned  classes)  destroy  the  Protestant  mission-
houses,  22  Aug.  ;  redress  not  obtained  ;  a  British
squadron  proceeds  to  Nankin,  8  Nov.  ;  the  vice-
roy is  superseded,  and  the  British  demands  ac-
ceded to 14  Nov. ,,

Chinese  embassy  (Mr.  Anson  Burlinghame,  Chin
Kang,  and  Sun  Chia  Su)  received  by  president
Johnson  at  Washington,  5  June  ;  they  sign  a
treaty  (see  Burlinghame),  4  July  ;  arrive  in  Lon-
don, Sept.  ;  received  by  the  queen  .  20  Nov.  ,,
Chinese  embassy  received  by  the  emperor  at  Paris,

24  Jan. 1869
Fekin  visited  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  incognito,

Oct. „
Supplementary  convention  to  the  treaty  of  Tieu-tsin
(June,  1858)  for  additional  commercial  freedom,

signed 24  Oct. ,,

Burlinghame  dies  at  St.  Petersburg . 22  Feb. 1870
Successful  rebellion  of  Mahometans  in  north-west

provinces  reported May, ,,

Cruel  massacre  of  the  French  consul  at  Tien-tsin,
Roman  Catholic  priests,  sisters  of  mercy  (22  per-


sons), besides  many  native  converts,  and  above
30  children  in  the  orphanage,  by  a  mob,  with,  it
is  said,  the  complicity  of  the  authorities  ;  the
missionaries  were  accused  of  kidnapping  children,

21  June,  1870
Increased  hatred  of  the  people  to  foreigners  at  Tien-
tsin ;  lukewarm  proceedings  of  the  government
against  the  murderers .... July,
Ma,  a  viceroy  of  Nankin,  favourable  to  Europeans',

assassinated about  22  Aug!

Chapels  destroyed  at  Fatshan . . 21  Sept.
The  French  ultimatum  refused  ;  the  murderers of
the  nuns  unpunished  ;  Chinese  warlike  prepara-
tions reported 26  Sept.

Judicious  mandate  from  the  mandarin  Tseng-kwo-
fan,  exculpating  the  missionaries,  and  condemn-
ing their  massacre Oct.

16  coolies  beheaded,  15  Sept.,  and  23  exiled  ;  inl
demnity  to  the  sufferers  by  the  outrage  ordered  ;

reported 26  Oct.' „

End  of  the  difficulty  announced . . 3  Nov.

Chung-How,  an  envoy,  arrives  in  London Aug'.  1871

Memorial  addressed  to  the  Chinese  government  by

Mr.  Hart,  inspector  of  customs,  recommending

changes  in  civil and military administration^

autumn, ,,
The  young  emperor  married . . .16  Oct.
Received  at  Paris  ; apologizes  for  Tien-tsin  massal
ores,  and  reports  redress  . . . .23  Nov.

Russia  annexes  Kuldja

Wm. Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican

bishop  of  North  China . . . . Dec.  z.Znz
The  emperor's  majority;  he  assumes  the  govern-
ment 23  Feb. 1873

Talifoo  capital  of  the  insurgent  Panthay  Mahome-
tans, captured  ;  thousauds  massacred . Feb.
Foreign  ministers  for  the  first  time  received  by  the '

emperor 2g  juuej

Dispute with Japan, see Fmmosa, July-Aug  ■
settled  by  treaty ....  3I  Oct.'  1874

The  Spark  sails  from  Canton  to  Macao  ;  capt.  Brady
and  Mr.  Mundy,  and  a  foreign  crew  and  passen-
gers ;  pirates,  who  came  on  board  secretly,  kill
captain  and  others, and  carry  off  booty,  while
on  voyage  ;  the  wounded  crew  manage  to  reach
Macao  ...... 22  Au°-.

Death  of  the  emperor ....  I2  Jan.  187?

Proclamation  of  his  successor,  Tsai-tien,  son  of
Chun,  7th  son  of  Taou-Twang  (nephew  of  Kung),

4  Feb!  „
Exploring  expedition  under  col.  Horace  Browne
to  open  a  passage  from  Burmah  into  S.  W.  China
Dec.  1874;  Mr.  Margary  and  5  Chinese  going
before,  killed  at  Manwyne,  21  Feb.  ;  col.  Browne
and  his  troops  repulse  an  attack  by  Chinese,  but
retreat  to  Rangoon,  22  Feb.  ;  some  of  the  party

missing 12  March, q

Through  negotiation  of  Mr.  Wade,  the  Chinese  go-
vernment promise  due  reparation;  announced  Sep.
Edict  permitting  intercourse  between  chiefs  of  de- "
partments  and  foreign  ministers,  about  4  Oct.  ■
enjoining  proper  treatment  of  foreigners,  n  Oct.'
Telegram  from  Mr.  Wade  :  he  has  obtained  necessary '
guarantees,  satisfaction  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Mar-
gary, and  concessions  for  foreign  trade, 18  Oct.
Gen.  Lee-see- ta-hee  ordered  for  trial,  ti  Feb.  ;  Mar- "

gary's  murderers  said  to  be  executed,  5  May 1876

First  railway  in  China,  from  Shang-hae  to  Oussooii
(Woosung)  (11  miles) ;  trial  trip,  16  March  (at  first
opposed) ;  publicly  opened  . . so  June

Mr.  Grosvenor  and  others  sent  to  inquire  respecting "
the  murder  of  Mr.  Margary  arrive  at  the  place
and report the proposed punishment of the

murderers June

Chee-foo  convention  ;  difficulties  in  the  negotiations  '
removed  (the  government  agree  to  compensation
to  Mr.  Margary's  family;  removal  of  commercial
grievances  ;  opening  of  four  ports  ;  proper  official
intercourse) ;  said  to  be  signed,  13  Sept.  ;  rati-
fied.  17' Sept. .,

War  against  the  Tungani;  Manas  captured;  great
massacre  of  rebels .... 6  Nov.
Accredited  Chinese  envoy  (Quo-ta-Zhan)  lands  at "

Southampton  . .  .21  Jan.  1877

Decree  of  equal  rights  to  Chinese  Christians,  1  Feb.
Dreadful  famine  in  northern  provinces
Four  more  Chinese  ports  opened . , 1  April


CHINA.


208


CHINA.


Opium  smoking  interdicted  after  3  years  ;  an-
nounced . .  .... Aug.

The  railway  from  Shang-liae  bought  to  be  stopped,
31  Oct.  ;  resumed Dec.

Quo-ta-Zhan  (or  Kuo-ta-Jen)  first  accredited  minis-
ter at  London  ;  Liu-ta-Jen  at  Berlin about  Nov.

Yakoob  Beg  of  Kashgaria  totally  defeated  by  the
Chinese  general,  Tso-tsung-tang  ;  is  assassinated,
May  ;  Kashgar  and  other  towns  captured ;  end
of  war Bee.

The  Chinese  minister's  first  grand  evening  reception

19  June,

Destruction  of  mission  property  at  Wu-shih-shan
by  a  fanatical  mob,  unrestrained  by  the  mandarins

30  Aug.

Famine  abating;  48,30s?.  for  relief  collected  in
England  . . . "  . . . . Sept.

The  Shang-hae  railway  plant  removed  to  For-
mosa

Chinese  immigrants  virtually  excluded  from  Aus-
tralia by  a  poll-tax

Rebellion  in  Kwang-si,  announced . . Oct.

Chung-How,  ambassador  at  St.Petersburg,  demands
the  surrender  of  Kuli  Beg,  a  fugitive  from  Kash-
gar, and  restitution  of  the  territory . Dec.

Rebellion  in  Hainan,  in  Canton  province  ;  Li-
Yang-tsai,  who  invades  Annam,  claims  the
throne  by  descent ;  reported  . . . Jan.

Marquis  Tsgng,  the  new  Chinese  ambassador,
arrives  in  London,  28  Feb.  ;  presents  his  cre-
dentials to  the  queen ... 20  March,

Treaty  with  Russia,  who  agrees  to  evacuate  the
Kuldja  territory,  China  to  pay  an  indemnity

about  June,

Li-Yang-tsai,  rebel  chief,  captured  ;  announced

2  Dec.

Chung-How,  the  late  Chinese  ambassador  at  St.
Petersburg,  imprisoned  and  the  treaty  disavowed

spring,

Chinese  from  Kashgar  said  to  invade  Russian
territory May,

Prospect  of  war ;  col.  Gordon  goes  to  China  from
Bombay June,

Li-Hung-Chang,  governor  of  metropolitan  pro-
vinces, fortifies  approaches  to  the  capital,  June  ;
visited  by  col.  Gordon .... July,

Chung-How  released  ;  proposed  war  with  Russia
given  up ;  announced . . . 15  July,

Thomas  duke  of  Genoa  sails  up  the  Yang-tse-Kiang
in  an  Italian  vessel ".  April,

Peace  with  Russia,  who  makes  concessions  nego-
tiated by  marquis  Tseng ;  treaty  signed 19  Aug.

Complication  with  France  respecting  Tonquin  (see
Tonquin) Sept.

Mr.  Logan  sentenced  to  seven  years'  penal  servi-
tude for  killing  a  coolie  at  Canton . . Sept.

Canton  greatly  excited  against  foreigners .  Oct.

Correspondence  of  France  and  China  respecting  Ton-
quin published  in  the  Times,  both  firm 29  Oct.

"Warm  reception  of  sir  Henry  Parkes  as  British
ambassador ....... Sept.

China  issues  a  circular  claiming  Annam  as  a  de-
pendency Nov.

Coup  d'etat  at  Pekin  effected  by  prince  Chun,
father  of  the  reigning  emperor,  who  becomes
dictator  ;  prince  Kung,  and  the  viceroy  Li-Hung-
Chang,  deposed  . . . .11  April,  et  seq.

The  marquis  Tseng  recalled  from  Paris,  announced

2  May,

Replaced  by  Li-Fong-Pao . . about  8  May,

Treaty  with  France,  signed  by  capt.  Fournier  and
Li-Hung-Chang,  atTientsin  ;  French  protectorate
of  Annam  and  Tonquin  recognized ;  three  southern
provinces  opened  to  commerce . .  11  May,

The  Chinese  break  the  treaty  by  attacking  the
French  marching  to  occupy  Langson  (see  Tonquin)

The  French  demand  evacuation  of  the  Tonquin
frontier  forts,  and  10,000,000?.  indemnity  . July,

The  war  party  at  Pekin  oppose  the  empress  and
Li-Hung-Chang  the  viceroy . . . July,

The  frontier  towns  to  be  surrendered,  the  indemnity
refused,  announced . . . -3° Julv!

China  offers  reduced  indemnity . . . Aug.

Kelung  in  Formosa  bombarded  and  forts  destroyed
by  alleged  treachery  by  adm.  Lespes 5,  6  Aug.

Adm.  Courbet  at  Foochow . . .10  Aug.

Negotiations  at  Shanghai  .... Aug.


1877


1879


France  declines  mediation  of  the  powers  ;  France
issues  a  circular  to  the  powers  .  17  Aug.

Indemnity  claimed  by  France,  reduced  to  3,200,000?.
19  Aug.  ;  refused  by  China

The  French  ambassador,  Semalle,  leaves  Pekin  ;
war  ensues 21  Aug.

Adm.  Courbet  with  his  fleet  sails  up  the  Min  river
unattacked ;  destroys  the  Chinese  fleet  with
much  slaughter,  23  Aug.  ;  bombards  the  arsenal
at  Foochow,  and  dismantles  the  forts ;  destroys  the
forts  and  batteries,  &c,  at  Mingan  and  Kinpai ;
French  killed,  about  7 ;  Chinese  said  to  be  about
1000 26-28  Aug.

Li-Hung-Chang  deprived  of  his  highest  offices  about

28  Aug.

Chinese  declaration  of  war,  in  a  manifesto  to  the
people,  announced  .... 6  Sept.

H.M.  gun-boat  Zephyr  fired  on  by  mistake,  6  Sept.;
Chinese  apologise .... 18  Sept.

Chinese  said  to  be  defeated  at  Kinpai  Pass,  about

16  Sept.

Europeans,  at  Shanghai  and  other  places,  protest
against  the  war . ". . . . Sept.

Li-Hung-Chang  reappointed  viceroy  about  24  Sept.

Adm.  Courbet  captures  Kelung  1  Oct.  ;  adm.  Lespes
bombards  Tamsui,  2  et  seq.  Oct.  ;  lands  ;  retires

8  Oct.

N.  and  W.  Formosa  blockaded . . 23  Oct.

Kelung  occupied  by  French ;  little  resistance  8  Oct.

1000  Chinese  defeated  near  Tamsui,  2  Nov.  ;  re-
pulsed in  attack  on  Kelung.  announced 12  Nov.

Fruitless  mediation  of  earl  Granville  with  marquis
Tseng,  announced  .... 10  Dec.

Reported  Chinese  defeat  near  Kelung  . .13  Dec.

The  native  press,  originally  official  (Pekin  Gazette,
ancient),  becomes  political  and  popular

Foreign  Enlistment  Act  proclaimed  at  Hong  Kong

23  Jan.  :

French  attack  near  Kelung,  Chinese  works  carried

25  Jan.

Chinese  defeated  with  much  loss . . 31  Jan.

Two  Chinese  junks  sunk  by  French  torpedoes,  15  Feb.

Bombardment  of  Chin-hae,  at  the  mouth  of  the
Yung-Kiang  river .... 2  March,

Siege  of  Tuyen  Quan,  much  slaughter 2-3  March,

Several  forts  at  Kelung  captured

Sanguinary  conflicts . . . 4-12  March,

Sir  Henry  Parkes,  ambassador,  dies . 22  March,

Pescadores  Islands  captured . . 30-31  March,

Preliminaries  of  peace,  through  intervention  of  sir  <■
Robt.  Hart,  signed  at  Pekin  about  6  April  ;  treaty
signed  9  June  ;  ratified  ... 28  Nov.

Sir  Robert  Hart,  British  ambassador,  23  June ;
resigns  about 31  Aug.

Formosa  evacuated  about .  - . -23  June,

Introduction  of  railways  authorized — new  policy

about  Aug.

Disputes  with  Japan  settled  ;  reported . Aug.

The  emperor  agrees  to  receive  a  papal  agent  to
protect  R.  C.  missionaries  . . . July,

Death  of  Tso  Tsung-Tang,  a  great  statesman  and
guardian  of  the  king .... 4  Sept.

Sir  John  Walsham  British  minister . 7  April,  j

Liu-shin-fun,  ambassador  for  Great  Britain,  arrives

28  April,

M.  Agliardi  appointed  Internuncio . 14  July,

The  scheme  suspended  by  the  Pope  through  French
opposition .... about  15  Sept.

Convention  with  many  concessions  by  the  British
government  respecting  the  Burmese  frontiers
and  trade  signed  at  Pekin  ... 24  July,

The  French  consent  to  the  transfer  of  the  Pehtang
Cathedral  from  its contiguity  with  the  palace

Nov.

The  Chinese  annul  the  French  protectorate  over
all  christians Nov.

Decanville  railway  successfully  opened 21  Noy.

General  proclamations  for  protection  of  christian
missionaries  and  converts,  excluding  foreign
protection Jan.  j

Remarkable  presents  from  the  emperor  to  sir  Halli-
day  Macartney,  secretary  of  the  British  and  other
legations  (for  good  services  to  China)  received  in
London Feb.

The  emperor,  aged 16, assumes  the  government

7  Feb.

Convention between Great Britain and China,


CHINA.


209


CHINA GRASS.


■respecting  Burma!*  and  Thibet,  signed  24  July,
and  ratiiied . .  . . .25  Aug.

Chinese  fleet  of  five  ironclads  (three  constructed  in
Britain)  at  Spithead  ;  sail  for  China  under
.Admiral  Lang  with  others  lent  by  the  Admiralty

Sept.

Commercial  treaty  with  France  1886  ;  signed  and
ratified  ....... Aug.

Eeported  convention  of  Li  Hung-Chang,  the  viceroy,
with  count  Mitkiewicz  and  an  American  syndi-
cate for  introduction  of  railways,  telegraphs,
telephones,  &c,  and  a  loan,  Aug.  ;  repudiated  by
the  Chinese  government ....  Oct.

Overflow  of  the  Hoang  Ho,  or  Yellow  River,  causing
immense  destruction ;  about  1500  populous
villages  destroyed,  and  the  important  city
Chuhsien  Chen  narrowly  escaped  with  loss  of
suburbs;  millionsof  personssaid  to  have  perished  ;
famine  imminent ;  the  government  active  in  pro-
viding relief Sept. -Oct.

Treaty  with  United  States  to  allow  Chinese  immigra-
tion for  20  years  with  some  exceptions  (lawful
marriage  and  children,  property  worth  1000
•dollars,  &e.)  signed  14  March,  1888  ;  China
refuses  the  ratification .... Sept.

The  empress-mother  announces  her  resignation
of  the  administration  of  government,  which  is  to
be  assumed  by  the  emperor . . 27  July,

The  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  vigorously  carried  out
at  San  Francisco,  and  at  other  places  middle  Oct.

Railway  from  Tientsin  to  Taku  opened . Nov.

Conventions  with  Italy  and  Germany  for  them  to
protect  their  missionaries . announced  Dec.

New  R.C.  cathedral  at  Pekin  consecrated .  8  Dec.

Great  famine,  in  consequence  of  inundations  of
the  Yangtsze  and  Yellow  River  valleys  announced
Jan.  1889  >'  relief  money  sent  from  London,  above
30,000^.  (gratefully  acknowledged)  (see  Mansion
House  Fund) ........

Riots  at  Chin-Kiang,  the  British  consulate  and
foreigners'  houses  burnt . . . 4,  5  Feb.

Marriage  of  the  Emperor . . . .25  Feb.

Hsieh  Ta  Jgn  appointed  minister  for  London,  Paris,
Brussels,  and  Rome,  announced  . 4  June,

Luchow,  in  the  province  of  Szechuen,  destroyed  by
fire,  about  1,200  persons  perish . . 27  June,

The  Yellow  river  bursts  its  banks  at  Shantung,  and
inundates  the  country,  and  countless  lives  are
lost,  reported 26  July,

Great  inundations  in  North  China  through  ty-
phoons ; about  5,000 persons  perish, reported

30  Aug.

The  Yellow  river  again  burst  its  banks,  causing
much  destruction  about  . . . .22  July,

Insurrection  in  the  province  of  Fuhkien ;  sup-
pressed ;  100  insurgents  killed  ;  announced  9  Sept.

The  construction  of  a  trunk  railway  from  Pekin  to
Hankow,  700  miles,  proposed . . . Aug.

The  project  postponed  through  opposition, Dec.

Insurrection  in  the  Amour  district  of  Manchuria  ;
reported  success  of  the  rebels ;  they  seize  the
town  Lan-pei-tuan ;  imperialists  defeated  in
battles ;  announced .... Dec.

Collapse  of  a  temple  theatre  at  Hangting,  near
Shantung  ;  about  250  persons  killed . 13  Oct.

Imperial  decree  for  reforms  in  the  army  and  civil
services; promoted by  the  emperor,  Jan. -Feb.

Convention  for  the  opening  of  the  Chung-King  to
commerce  signed  at  Pekin . . .31  March

Death  of  the  marquis  Tseng,  eminent  statesman

12  April,

The  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  honourably
received  in  Canton  and  Shanghai . . May,

Great  floods  at  Pekin,  Tungchow  and  Tientsin  ;
business  stopped,  3  Aug.  ;  renewal  of  the  Yellow
river  inundations  early  Sept.  ;  also  in  the  pro-
vinces Shantung  and  Chihli ;  great  loss  of  life  and
prospect  of  famine  reported  ... 16  Oct.

Explosion  of  the  government  powder  magazine  at
Canton,  killing  many  persons  and  destroying  200
houses,  15  Aug.  ;  a  similar  explosion  at  Taiping-
Pu,  300  persons  killed,  reported . .  7  Nov.

Massacre  of  many  native  Christians  at  Jong-
tuytsin  and  other  places  by  a  fanatical  society
reported Dec.

An  imperial  decree,  granting  audience  of  the
emperor  to  representatives  of  foreign  powers
issued  r  12  Dec.


1887


The  first  audience 5  March  1891

Death  of  prince  Chun,  father  of  the  emperor,
reported 2  Jan. ,,

Disastrous  floods  in  Shue-Chang,  Wen-Chuan,  and
other  districts,  about  1,000  lives  lost,  early  Feb. ,,

Anti-European  riots  at  Wuhu  ;  much  destruction ;
British  consulate  wrecked  ;  the  consul  and  his
wife  escape  ;  quiet  restored  by  force,  12,  13  May, ,,

Increased  popular  anti-foreign  agitation  throughout
China,  June  ;  the  diplomatic  body  appeal  to  the
government ;  the  emperor  issues  a  decree  for  the
protection  of  foreigners  and  punishment  of
aggressors  about 15  June „

French  church  and  orphanage  at  Woosieh  destroyed
by  fire 9  June, ,,

Loss  of  life  and  much  destruction  by  the  rising  of
the  Yang-tse-Kiang  about . . .21  July, „

Continued  persecution  of  foreigners ;  the  imperial
decree  ineffectual ;  the  diplomatic  body  press  the
government  about 18  Aug. ,,

The  Kolao  Hui,  a  secret  society,  strongly  opposed
to  foreigners  and  Christianity,  active,  summer, ,,

The  American  mission  at  Ishang  destroyed,  11  Sept. ,,

The  outrages  against  foreigners  increase  ;  the  diplo-
matic body  report  to  their  respective  govern-
ments about 15  Sept. ,,

Great  Britain,  France,  Germany  and  the  United
States,  N.A.,  unite  for  the  common  support  of
their  people  against  Chinese  violence,  reported

21  Sept. ,,

Compensation  paid  to  the  sufferers  in  Wuhu  by  the
viceroy  about 23  Oct. ,,

British  squadron  and  other  vessels  at  Nagasaki
and  other  ports  about. ... 23  Oct. „

A  modus  vivensli  with  the  Chinese  authorities
arranged  by the European  ministers, reported

11  Nov. ,,

Insurrection  in  Mongolia  and  N.  China  against
foreigners  and  native  Christians  ;  reported  mas-
sacres, Nov.  ;  suppressed  by  government  troops
after  battles,  with  much  slaughter. 28,  29  Nov. „

Agreement  of  the  Hunan  societies  against  Euro-
peans, &c. ,  published  at  Shanghai  about  7  Deo. ,,

Memorials  of  the  viceroys  of  Nanking  and  Hukuang
(attributing  the  anti-foreign  outrages  to  baseless
rumours  circulated  by  conspirators)  issued  Dec. ,,

The  government  pays  indemnities  amounting  to
ioo,oooZ.  to  Christian  missions  and  others,  and
punishes  the  Chinese  officials  and  offenders,
reported 27  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Christopher  Gardner,  British  consul,  and  Dr.
Griffith  John,  missionary,  assert  that  the  anti-
foreign  outbreaks  originated  with  the  local  man-
darins, aided  by  Chanhan,  an  eminent  Hunan
scholar  and  writer  of  offensive  placards,  &c,
reported Dec. ,,

The  rebels  in  the  north,  headed  by  Li  Hung,
defeated  by  Yulu,  reported . . .3  Jan.  1892

Mr.  Nicholas  R.  O'Conor  appointed  British  minister
at  Pekin  about ....  4  March, ,,

Chanhan,  the  agitator,  ordered  to  be  arrested,  25
March  ;  not  arrested  ;  the'  right  of  audience  by
the  emperor  requested  by  the  foreign  ministers,
rejected,  early April, ,,

CHINESE EMPERORS.

1627.  Chwang-lei.

1643.  Shun-che  (first  of  the  Tsing  dynasty).

1662.  Kang-hi,  an  able  sovereign  ;  consolidated,  the
pire,  compiled  a  great  Chinese  dictionary.

1723.  Yung-ching.

1736.  Keen-lung,  warlike  ;  fond  of  art ;  greatly  embel-
lished Pekin.

1795.  Kea-king.

1820.  Taou-Kwang.

1850.  Hieng-fung,  25  Feb.

1861.  Ki-tsiang  (altered  to  Toung-chi)  21  Aug.  ;  born  27
April,  1856  ;  married  16  Oct.  1872  ;  died  12  Jan.

1875-
1875.  Tsai  T'ien  (altered  to  Kwang  Su),  a^od  4. 12  Jan.
[China  was  ruled  by  two  empresses  (Tsze  An  and  Tsze
Chi),  1861-18S1  ;  and' by  one  (Tsze  Chi),  an  able  woman,
1881-9.]
1887.  The  emperor  assumed  the  government,  7  Feb.

CHINA  GRASS,  or  Rhea;  a  prize  of  5000/.
was  offered  by  the  Indian  government  for  machinery
to prepare and cleanse the  fibre, 11 Jan. 1870.


CHINA POECELAIN.


210


CHOLEEA  MOEBUS,


Mr.  John  Greig's  machine  was  exhibited  in  Edin-
burgh, Dec.  1871-

CHINA  POECELAIN,  introduced  into  Eng-
land about  153 1  ;  see  Pottery.

CHINA  EOSE,  fee;  The  Rosa  indica  was
brought  from  China,  and  successfully  planted  in
England,  1786;  the  Chinese  apple-tree,  or  Pyrus
spectabilis,  about  1780.

CHINCHA  ISLES,  see  Pent,  1864-5.
CHINCHONA,  see  Jesuits.
CHINESE  WALL,  said  to  have  been  com-
pleted about  211  B.C. .Reported  in  1879  to  be  1728
miles  long,  18  feet  wide,  15  feet  thick  at  the  top.

CHINS  and  Lushais,  savage  tribes  living  in  the
mountainous  region  between Lower  Bengal  and
Upper  Burmah,  of  very  primitive  habits.
For  their  raids  and  chastisements, see  Burmah,

1889-92,  and  India,  1890-2.
A  conference  of  the  authorities  concerned  at  Cal-
cutta, to  consider  the  best  means  of  keeping  in
order  the  Chins  near  Upper  Burmah  and  the
Lushais  near  Assam  and  Bengal ;  the  transference
of  the  southern  Lushais  from  Bengal  to  Assam,
recommended Jan.  1892

CHIOS  (now  Scio),  an  isle  in  the  Greek  Archi-
pelago, revolted  against  Athens,  412  and  .357  B.C.
It  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Greece,  being  conquered
by  the  Venetians,  a.d.  1124  ;  by  the  crusaders,  1204;
by  the  Greek  emperor,  1329 ;  by  the  Genoese,  1346 ;
and  finally  by  the  Turks  in  1594.  A  dreadful  mas-
sacre of  about  40,000  inhabitants  by  the  Turks  took
place  n  April,  1822,  during  the  Greek  insurrection.
About  4000  perished  by  an  earthquake  ;  the  town

Ohio  and  many  villages  were  destroyed,  3  April ;

many  shocks  since  up  to  . 12  April,  1881

CHIPPAWA  (N.  America).  Here  the  British
under  Biall  were  defeated  by  the  Americans  under
Brown,  5  July,  1814.  The  Americans  were  defeated
by  the  British  under  Drummond  and  Biall,  2^  July
following ;  Biall  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.

CHIEOPLAST,  an  apparatus  for  giving  a
correct  position  of  the  hands  of  pianoforte  players ;
invented  by  J.  B.  Logier;  patented,  1814.

CHIVALEY  arose  out  of  the  feudal  system  in
the  latter  part  of  the  8th  century  (chevalier,  or
knight,  being  derived  from  the  caballarius,  the
equipped  feudal  tenant  on  horseback).  From  the
12th  to  the  15th  century  it  tended  to  refine  manners.
The  knight  swore  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his
profession,  as  the  champion  of  God  and  the  ladies,
to  speak  the  truth,  to  maintain  the  right,  to  protect
the  distressed,  to  practise  courtesy,  to  fulfil  obliga-
tions, and  to  vindicate  in  every  perilous  adventure
his  honour  and  character.  Chivalry  expired  with
the  feudal  system.  See  Knighthood  and.  Tourna-
ments. By  letters  patent  of  James  I.  the  earl-mar-
shal of  England  had  "the  like  jurisdiction  in  the
courts  of  chivalry,  when  the  office  of  lord  high  con-
stable was  vacant,  as  this  latter  and  the  marshal  did
jointly  exercise,"  1623.

CHLOEAL  HYDEATE,  a  combination  of
chlorine  and  alcohol,  discovered  by  Liebig,  which,
when  inhaled,  produces  deep  sleep,  but  not  insen-
sibility to  pain.  This  property  was  discovered  by
Oscar  Liebreich,  and  reported  to  the  French  Aca-
demy of  Sciences,  16  Aug.  1869.  In  Oct.  1874  it
was  said  to  be  sometimes  deleterious.

CHLOEALUM,  or  chloride  of  alumina,  a  com-
pound of  chlorine  and  alumina,  a  new  antiseptic
disinfectant,  invented  by  Dr.  Gamgee  about  1870.
It  is  said  to  be  safe  and  efficacious,  and  useful  in
.medicine  for  gargles,  washing  wounds,  &c.


CHLOEINE  (Greek  chloros,  pale  green),  a  gas
first  obtained  by  Scheelc  in  1774,  by  treating  man-
ganese with  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid.  Sir  H.
Davy,  in  1810,  stated  this  gas  to  be  an  element,  and
named  it  chlorine.  Combined  with  sodium  it  forms-
common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  and  combined*
with  lime  it  forms  the  bleaching  powder  and  disin-
fectant, chloride  of  lime  ;  see  Pleaching.  In  1823,
Faraday  condensed  chlorine  into  a  liquid.
The  supposed  dissociation  of  oxygen  from  chlorine  by

heat  by  V.  and  H.  Meyer  of  Zari'eh,  -was  announced!

Aug.  1879. Afterwards  chlorine  was  proved  to  exist

in  two  similar  states  at  high  temperatures.

CHLOEOFOEM  (the  ter-chloride  of  the  hypo-
thetical radical  formyl)  is  a  compound  of  carbon,
hydrogen,  and  chlorine,  and  was  made  from  alcohol,.
Avater,  and  bleaching  powder. It  was  discovered  by
Soubeiran  in  1831,  and  independently  by  Liebig;
in  1832  ;  and  its  composition was  determined  by
Dumas  in 1834. The  term  "  chloric  ether"  was-
applied  in 1820  to a mixture of ehlorine and;
olefiant gas. Chloroform  was  first applied  as  an,
anaesthetic experimentally  by  Mr. Jacob Bell  in
London,  in  Feb.,  and  Dr.  Simpson  of  Edinburgh  in.
Nov.  1847;  and  was  administered  in  England  on  14.
Dec.  1848,  by  Mr.  James  Robinson,  surgeon-dentist..
A  committee  of  the  Boyal  Medical  and  ChirurgicaL
Society  in  July, 1864,  after  examining  statistics,.
reported  that  the  use  of  anaesthetics  had  hi  no  degree-
increased  the  rate  of  mortality.
By  the  invitation  of  the  Nizam  through  the  Lancet,,
Dr.  Lauder  Brnnton  arrived  at  Hyderabad,  21.
Oct.,  1889  ;  and  there  with  other  medical  men
investigated experimentally on the peculiar-
action  -of  chloroform. They  came  to  the  con-
clusion that the  danger  of its  use, was not
specially  due  10  its  effect  upon  the  heart,  hut
upon  respiration,  which  could  be  easily  obviated
by  proper  caution. The  Nizam  remitted  1,000?.
for the expenses of the commission. Lancet

Jan.  March,  189c*
Full  report  issued  (estimated  cost  io,oooZ.) Dec.  189E

CHLOEOZONE,  a  new  disinfectant,  intro-
duced 1873.

CHOBHAM  COMMON,  in  Surrey.  A  mili-
tary camp  was  formed  here  on  14  June,  1853,' by
a  force  between  8000  and  10,000  strong.  Only  one
serious  case  of  misconduct  was  reported  during  all
the  time.

CHOCOLATE,  made  of  the  cocoa  berry,  intro-
duced into  Europe  (from  Mexico  and  the  Brazils)
about  1520,  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses
soon  after  their  establishment,  1650.

CHOCZIM,  Bessarabia,  S.  Bussia.  Here  th&
Turks  were  totally  defeated  by  John  Sobieski,  king
of  Poland,  11  Nov.  1673;  and  by  the  Bussians,  30
April  and  13  July,  1769.

CHOIE.  This  was  separated  from  the  nave  of
the  church  in  the  time  of  Constantine.  The  choral
service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canterbury,,
677 ;  see  Chanting.

CHOLEEA  MOEBUS  (Asiatic  cholera)  was
described  by  Garcia  del  Huerto,  a  physician  of  Goa,
about  1560.  It  appeared  in  India  in  1774,  an<^  a^
other  times,  and  became  endemic  in  Lower  Bengal
in  181 7,  whence  it  gradually  spread,  till  it  reached
Bussia  hi  1830,  and  Germany  in  1831,  carrying  off"
more  than  900,000  persons  in  1829-30.  In  England
and  Wales  in  1848-9,  53,293  persons  died  of  cholera,
and  in  1854,  20,097;  see  Germ  Theory  of  Disease.*
Cholera  appears  at  Sunderland . . 26  Oct.  1831

*  Dr.  Ferran  inoculates  by  microbes  many  persons;
reported  successful ;  stopped  June ;  permitted  23  June  ;
a  commission  reports  it  unsatisfactory,  Oct.  1885.


CHOLEEA MOEBUS.


211


CHEIST'S HOSPITAL.


And  at  Edinburgh . .  . . 6  Feb.

First  observed  at  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse,
London,  13  Feb.  ;  and  in  Dublin . 3  March,

Deaths  reported  in  England  in  1S31-2,  52,547

Mortality  very  great,  but  more  so  on  the  Continent ;
18,000  deaths  at  Paris, between  March  and  Aug.

Cholera  rages  in  Rome,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Genoa,
Berlin,  &c,  in ....  July  and  Aug.

24,014  deaths  in  Palermo  in  17  weeks

Another  visitation  of  cholera  in  England  :  the  num-
ber of  deaths  in  London,  for  the  week  ending  15
Sept.  i849,was3,i83  ;  the  ordinary  average,  1,008  ;
and  the  number  of  deaths  by  cholera  from  17
June  to  2  Oct.  in  London  aloneT  13,161.  The
mortality  lessened  and  the  distemper  disappeared
about  13  Oct.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Hexham,  Tynemouth,  and
other  northern  towns,  suffer  much  from  cholera,

Sept.

It  rages  in  Italy  and  Sicily  ;  above  10,000  are  said
to  have  died  at  Naples  ;  it  was  also  very  fatal  to
the  allied  troopjs  at  Varna  .  autumn,

Cholera  very  severe  for  a  short  time  in  the  southern
parts  of  London,  and  in  Soho  and  St.  James's,
Westminster .... Aug.  and  Sept.

Raging  in  Alexandria,  June  ;  abated .  July,

Prevailing  in  Ancona  (843  deaths)  Aug.,  subsiding,

Sept.

Very  severe  in  Constantinople,  nearly  50,000  deaths,
Aug.  ;  subsides  after  the  great  fire . 6  Sept.

Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton,

end  of  Sept.

Cholera  prevalent  at  Marseilles,  Paris,  Madrid,  and
Naples July-Oct.

An  international  meeting  at  Constantinople,  to  con-
sider preventive  measures,  proposed,  Oct.  1865,
met  18  Feb.  1866.  At  the  last  sitting  the  conclu-
sions adopted  were  that  cholera  may  be  propa-
gated, and  from  great  distances  ;  and  a  num-
ber of  preventive  measures  were  recommended,

26  Sept.

Cholera  appears  at  Bristol,  24  April  ;  at  Liverpool,
13  May ;  at  Southampton . . . July,

Cholera  severe  in  east  of  London  :  346  deaths  in
week  ending 21  July,

House  to  house  visitation  ;  Metropolitan  Relief
Association  formed  ;  large  subscriptions  received
(Queen's  500?. )  . .  July  and  Aug.

Cholera  subsides ....  . Sept.

Very  severe  at  Naples ....  Sept.

Cholera  Relief  Committee  closes . .  31  Oct.

Cholera  declared  to  be  extinct  in  London 1  Dec.

Cholera  in  Rome,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  Aug. -Sept.  ;
in  Switzerland Oct.

Alarm  of  approaching  cholera,  July ;  said  to  be
severe  in  Konigsberg  in  Prussia . . Aug.

Cholera  severe  in  Vienna,  Aug.  ;  Paris  . . Sept.

Egypt,  at  Damietta,  June  ;  at  Cairo  about  16  July  ;
Alexandria  about  1  Aug.  ;  the  disease  abating,
Aug.  ;  deaths  up  to  31  Aug. — 27,318,  including
140  among  British  troops  ;  cholera  lingering  at
Alexandria,  Sept.  et  seq.  ;  no  cases . 31  Dec.

France,  June  ;  registered  deaths :  Toulon,  880,
18  June — 26  Oct.  ;  Marseilles,  1700,  27  June — 26
Oct.  ;  estimated  total  deaths  in  Paris,  nearly  900,
Sept. — Nov.  ;  the  disease  appeared  at  Aries,
Nantes,  Yport,  and  other  places  ;  total  deaths  in
France  estimated  5000  up  to  . 15  Sept.

Italy.  Cholera  severe  at  Turin,  7  Aug.  ;  spread-
ing 19  Aug.,  increasing  at  Spezzia,  <fec,  23,
24  Aug.,  and  at  Naples  and  Turin  2  Sept. ;  very
many  deaths  at  Genoa  24  Sept. — 8  Oct. ;  very
severe  at  Naples  (visited  by  the  king)  2  Sept. —
2  Nov.

Spain,  1884.  Cholera  appears  in  Alicante  1  Sept.
et  seq.  ;  much  panic  :  at  Toledo,  Madrid,  and  other
places  Sept.,  Oct

Spain  (Grenada,  Malaga,  Valencia,  Murcia,  &c),
91,000  deaths  (99S  in  Madrid) . May  to  11  Sept.

Official  returns  for  all  Spain,  12,337  deaths,  March
to  7  July

Total  since  outbreak  61,521  . . .  22  Aug.

Gibraltar,  191  deaths  in  .... Sept.

Palermo,  Sicily,  2,540  deaths . 7  Sept.  to  31  Oct.

Marseilles,  1,250 deaths,  1  Aug.  to  1  Sept.  ;  gradually

diminished  up  to .... 16  Sept.

Toulon,  slight  outbreak,  6  deaths  20  Aug.  ;  32,  26

Aug.  ;  gradually  diminished  till . . 18  Sept.


1S37


1849
1853
1854

1865


Italy,  1886,  Brindisi  province,  4 — 31  July  :  Venice,
a  few  deaths,  May-Aug.  ;  Ravenna,  about  178
deaths,  Aug.,  Hume,  about  55  deaths,  July  ;
Bologna,  about  95  deaths,  Aug.  ; liarletta,  total

about  611  deaths Aug. 1886

Japan. 37,000  deaths . . . Jan. -Sept. ,,
Hungary, principally  Pesth  and Szegedin. 966

eases;  409  deaths  ....  Oct.-Dec.  ,,
Trieste.  882  cases,  544  deaths  .  .  7  June-Oct.  ,,
Istria.  671  cases,  374  deaths  .  .  13  July-Oct.  ,,
Naples,  Brindisi,  £c.  Temporary  outbreak  .  Sept.  „
Great  epidemic  of  cholera  in India 1887  ; N.W.

Provinces,  30,780  deaths  in  Aug.  1887

Sicily, provinces,  July-Oct. 1887 ; deaths daily

varied  from  1  to  27.
Messina.  Deaths  daily  rose  from  1  to  63 ;  Sept. — Oct. ,,
Palermo,  Sept. Deaths  daily  varied  from  2  to  11  ;

Sept ,

Malta.  Deaths  daily  varied  from  4  to  10,  Aug.-Sept. ,,
Cholera  in  Mesopotamia, 5,983  cases  in  autumn,
1889  ;  3,000  fatal  cases  in  Bussorah,  reported  21
Jan.  ;  it  passed  off  in  the  spring,  but  returned  iu

July,  Aug.  1890
Cholera  severe  at  Mecca,  &c.  (about  30,000  deaths),

Arabia,  July- Aug. ;  at  Jeddah  and  in  Syria,  Aug. ,,
Cholera  appears  at  Riebla  de  Rugal,  a  village  in
Valentia,  Spain,  13  May  ;  continues  in  the  pro-
vince and  neighbourhood  ;  2,840  deaths  reported

up  to Sept. ,,

Cholera  severe  at  Guatemala,  S.A.,  1,200  deaths  in

seven  weeks . . .  reported  14  Dec. ,,

The  progress  of  cholera  greatly  checked  by  the
exertions  of  the  International  Quarantine  board

at  Tor  in  Egypt autumn,  1891

Cholera  severe  at  Damascus,  Aleppo,  &c.,in  Syria  ;
at  Mecca  (about  11,000  deaths),  Oct.  et  seq.,  1891  ;
at  Benares,  130  deaths  up  to . . 23  April,  1892

CHOEAL HAEMONISTS' SOCIETY,

Loudon,  existed  1833-51.

CHOEUS,  a  band  of  singers  which  formed  an
important  part  of  the  Greek  dramas,  beginning  in
the  6th  century  B.C.,  and  has  been  continued  in
modern  oratorios  and  operas.

CHOT7ANS,  a  name  given  to  the  Bretons
during  the  war  of  La  Vendee  in  1792,  from  their
chief  Jean  Cottereau,  using  the  cry  of  the  Chat-
huant,  or  screech-owl,  as  a  signal.  He  was  killed
in  1794.  Georges  Cadoudal,  their  last  chief,  was
said  to  be  connected  with  Pichegru  in  a  conspiracy
against  Napoleon  when  first  consul,  and  was  executed
in  1804.

CHEISM,  consecrated  oil,  was  used  early  iu  the
ceremonies  of  the  Greek  and  Soman  churches.
Musk,  saffron,  cinnamon,  roses,  and  frankincense,
are  mentioned  as  used  with  the  oil,  in  1541.  It  was
ordained  that  chrism  should  consist  of  oil  and
balsam  only ;  the  one  representing  the  human
nature  of  Christ,  and  the  other  his  divine  nature,
1596.

CHEIST,  see  Jesus  Christ.

CHEIST  CHTJECH,  see  Lincoln  Tower  and
New  Zealand.

CHEIST'S  HOSPITAL  (the  Blue-Coat
school)  was  established  in  conformity  with  a  grant
made  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1547,  by  Edward  VI.  1553,
on  the  site  of  the  Grey  Friars'  monastery.  A  mathe-
matical ward  was  founded  by  Charles  II.  1672.  The
Times  ward  was  founded  in  1841 .  Large  portions  of
the  edifice  having  fallen  intodecay,  it  was  rebuilt :  in
1822  a  new  infirmary  was  completed,  and  in  1825
(25  April)  the  duke  of  York  laid  the  first  stone  of
the  magnificent  new  hall.  On  24  Sept.  1854,  the
mastei-,  Dr.  Jacob,  in  a  sermon  in  the  church  of  the
hospital,  censured  the  system  of  education  and  the
general  administration  of  the  establishment,  and
man  y  improvements  have  since  been  made.  Rev.  G.
C.  Bell,  successor  of  Dr.  Jacob,  12  Aug.  186S-1876.
The  subordinate  school  at  Hertford,  for  416  younger

P  2  '


CHEISTIAN  BEOTHEES.


212


CHEISTMAS ISLAND.


boys  and  80  girls,  was  founded  in  1683. — The  annual
income  varies :  (1885)  about  62,000*!.  800  boys  in  Lon-
don ;  200  boys  and  20  girls  at  Hertford.  The  removal
of  the  school  to  the  country  negatived  by  the
governors,  26  April,  1870.  The  proposal  that  the
buildings  and  ground  should  be  purchased  by  the
Mid- London  Railway  Company  for  600,000/.  was
not  carried  out.  The  Charity  Commissioners'
scheme  for  the  reformed  administration  of  the  hos-
pital published  in  the  Times,  9  March,  1885.
The  appeal  of  the  governors  against  the  charity

commissioners' scheme, was submitted  to  the

judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  iS  Juue;

the  appeal  was  disallowed  ...  14  Dec.  1889
Royal  assent  to  the  new  scheme  given  15  Aug.  1890

The  new  governing  body,  the  duke  of  Cambridge

president, first met, 1 Jan., 1891, when the

scheme  came  into  operation.

CHEISTIAN  BEOTHEES,  an  organised
secret  society  which  existed  in  London,  1525,  for
the  distribution  of  English  New  Testaments  and
tracts.  It  mainly  consisted  of  the  middle  and  lower
classes,  and  produced  martyrs.

CHEISTIAN  COMMUNITY,  founded
about  1685,  re-organized  by  John  "Wesle}'  and
others  in  1772,  for  visiting  and  preaching  the  gospel
in  workhouses,  asylums,  rooms,  &c,  and  in  the  open
air ;  and  for  distribution  of  tracts.

CHEISTIAN  Era,  see  Anno  Domini.  Most
Christian  King  ;  Christianissimus  Hex,  a  title
conferred  by  pope  Paul  II.  in  1469  on  the  crafty
Louis  XL  of  France.

CHEISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY

established  by  eail  Russell,  the  bishop  of  London,
and  others  to  counteract  "  the  current  forms  of  un-
belief among  the  educated  classes,"  1870.  Lectures
for  this  purpose  were  given  in  St.  George's  Hall  in
187 1,  beginning  with  the  archbishop  of  York,  25
April.  A  public  meeting  was  held  6  June  following.
Six  volumes  of  lectures  and  tracts  for  circulation
have  been  published. Annual  meetings  are  held.

CHEISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE,  Society
for  Promoting,  founded 1698, to  promote

charity  schools,  and  to  disperse  Bibles  and  religious
tracts.  1877  :  income,  for  charitable  purposes  (in-
cluding legacies  of  16,000/.),  52,581/.;  1892:
41,000!  Bibles,  &c,  given  away;  churches  and
schools  helped  ;  bishoprics  maintained,  etc.
Offices  removed  fiom  Lincoln's  Inn-Fields  to  Northum-
berland Avenue,  opened  3  Nov.  1879.

CHEISTIAN  MISSION,  see  Salvation
Army.

CHEISTIAN  SCIENTISTS,  see  Mind-
cure.

CHEISTIAN  UNITY,  Association  for

THE  PROMOTION  OF,  on  the  basis  of  the  three
creeds,  formed  by  thirty  members  of  the  Greek,
Roman,  and  English  Churches,  8  Sept.  1857  ;  20th
anniversary  kept  in  London,  8  Sept.  1877.  A  meet-
ing to  promote  the  reunion  of  Christendom  was  held
in  London,  19  July,  1878,  the  bishop  of  Fredericton
in  the  chair.

CHEISTIANIA,  the  capital  of  Norway,  built
in  1624,  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  to  "replace
Opslo  (the  ancient  capital  founded  by  Harold  Haard-
rade,  1058),  which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  On
13  April,  1858,  Christiania  suffered  by  fire,  the  loss
being  about  250,000/.  The  university  was  established
in  181 1.  New  Storthing  (parliament  house)  built
1861-2.  Statue  of  Charles  John  XIV.  unveiled,  7
Sept.  1875.  Population,  1891,  150,444.
Visit  of  the  German  emperor . 1  July  et  seq.  1890


CHEISTIANITY.  The  name  Christian  was
first  given  to  the  disciples  of  Christ  at  Antioch,  in
Syria,  43  (Acts  xi.  26 ;  1  Peter  iv.  6) .  The  first
Christians  were  divided  into  episcopoi  (bishops  or
overseers)  or  presbyteroi  (elders),  diaconoi  (ministers
or  deacons),  and  pistoi  (believers)  ;  afterwards  were
added  catechumens,  or  learners,  and  energumens,  who
were  to  be  exorcised ;  see  Persecutions.

Christianity  preached  in  Jerusalem,  a.d.  33  ; Sa-
maria, 34 ;  Damascus,  35  ;  Asia  Minor,  41 ;  Cyprus,
45  ; Macedonia,  53 ;  Athens, Corinth,  &c, 54 ;
Ephesus,  56  ;  Troas,  &c,  60  ;  Rome ... 63
Christianity  said  to  be  taught  in  Britain,  about

64:  and  propagated  with  some  success  (Bede)  .  .  156
Christianity  said  to  be  introduced  into  Scotland  in

the  reign  of  Donald  I.  about 212

Constantine the Great professes the Christian

religion . . . . 312

Frumentius  preaches  in  Abyssinia  .  .  about  346
Introduced  among  the  Goths  by  Ulfilas  .  .  .  376
Into  Ireland  in  the  second  century,  but  with  more

success  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick  .  .  .  432
Christianity  established  in  France  by  Clovis  .  .  496
Conversion  of  the  Saxons*  by  Augustin  .  .  .  597
Introduced  into  Helvetia,  by  Irish  missionaries  .  643
Into  Flanders  in  the  7th  century.
Into  Saxony,  by  Charlemagne  ..... 785

Into  Denmark,  under  Harold 827

Into  Bohemia,  under  Borsivoi 894

Into  Russia,  by  Swiatoslaf .... about 940

Into  Poland,  under  Meicislaiis  1 992

Into  Hungary,  under  Geisa 994

Into  Norway  and  Iceland,  under  Olaf  I.  . . . 998
Into  Sweden,  between  10th  and  nth  centuries.
Into  Prussia,  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  when  they

were  returning  from  the  holy  wars  .  .  .  1227
Into  Lithuania ;  paganism  was  abolished  about .  .  1386
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th

century.
Into  China,  where  it  made  some  progress  (but  was
afterwards  extirpated,  and  thousands  of  Chinese
Christians  were  put  to  death) ....  1575
Into  India  and  America,  in  the  16th  century.
Into  Japan,  by  Xavier  and  the  Jesuits,  1549;  but

the  Christians  were  exterminated  .  .  .  .  1638
Christianity  re-established  in  Greece . . . 1628

CHEISTINOS,  supporters  of  the  queen-regent
Christina  against  the  Carlists  in  Spain  during  the
war,  1833-40.

CHEISTMAS,  a  festival  in  commemoration  of
the  nativity  of  Christ,  the  exact  time  of  which  is
quite  unknown.  Its  observation  appears  to  have
begun  in  the  second  century  in  different  months,
January,  April  or  May;  for  two  or  three  centuries
the  Eastern  church  kept  the  feast  Jan.  6  (see  Epi-
phany), whilst  the  Latin  church  observed  it  25  Dec.
The  Armenians  celebrate  both  feasts  on  18  Jan.
The  holly  and  mistletoe  used  at  Christmas  are  said
to  be  the  remains  of  the  religious  observances  of  the
Druids ;  see  Anno  Domini.

Christmas  Cards. — About  1862  pictures  of  robins,  holly,
&c,  on  cards,  designed  by  Mr.  John  Leighton,  were
issued  by  Messrs.  Goodall  of  London,  playing-card
makers.  Artistic  designs  were  introduced  in  1865.
Great  improvements  were  made  in  Germany,  France,
and  in  London  by  Messrs.  de  la  Rue,  Marcus  Ward,  and
others,  1879-88.

CHEISTMAS  ISLAND,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,
so  named  by  captain  Cook,  who  landed  here  011
Christmas-day,  1777.  He  had  passed  Christmas-
day  at  Christmas-sound,  1774.  On  the  shore  of
Christmas  Harbour,  visited  by  him  in  1776,  a  man
found  a  piece  of  parchment  inscribed:  " Ludovico
X  V.  Galliarum  rege,  et  d.  Boynes  regi  a  secretis  ad
res  maritimas,  annis  1772  et  1773."  On  the  other
side  captain  Cook  wrote  :  "  Naves  Resolution  et
Discovery  de  rege  Magna  Britannia,  Dec.  1777,"
and  placed  it  in  a  bottle.
Annexed  to  the  Straits  Settlements . . Jan.  1880


CHRISTOPHER'S,  ST.


213


CHURCH OF ENGLAND.


CHRISTOPHER'S,  St.  (or  St.  Kitt's),  a  West
India  Island,  discovered  in  1493,  by  Columbus,  who
gave  it  his  own  name.  Settled  by  the  English  and
French,  1623  or  1626.  Ceded  to  England  by  the
peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  Taken  by  the  French
in  1782,  but  restored  the  next  year.  The  town  of
Basseterre  suffered  from  fires,  3  Sept.  1776;  also
3  and  4  July,  1867,  when  the  cathedral  and  nearly
all  the  town  were  destroyed.  About  200  lives  lost
by  inundations,  11, 12  Jan.  1880  ;  hurricane,  violent
rains,  &c. Population  in  1891,  47,662.

CHROMIUM  (Greek,  chroma,  colour),  a  rare
metal,  discovered  by  Vauquelin  in  1797.  It  is  found
combined  with  iron  and  lead,  and  forms  the  colour-
ing matter  of  the  emerald.

.  CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY,  see  Printing
in  Colours.

CHRONICLES.  The  earliest  are  those  of  the
Jews,  Chinese,  and  Hindoos.  In  Scripture  there
are  two  "Books  of  Chronicles"  ;  see  Bible.  Col-
lections of  the  British  chronicles  have  been  pub-
lished by  Camden,  Gale,  &c,  since  1602  ;  in  the
present  century  by  the  English  Historical  Society,
&c.  In  1858,  the  publication  of  "Chronicles  and
Memorials  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  during  the
Middle  Ages,"  commenced  under  the  direction  of
the  Master  of  the  Rolls  (still  going  on,  1S89).
In  184?  Macray's  "  Manual  of  British  Historians"
was  published.

CHRONOGRAM,  an  inscription  on  tombs,
buildings,  medals,  &c.  in  which  a  date  or  epoch  is
expressed  by  letters.  A  large  collection  of  "  Chro-
nograms," with  translations  and  explanations,  was
published  by  Mr.  James  Hilton  in  1882-5.

CHRONOLOGY,  the  science  of  time ;  see  Eras
and  Epochs.  Valuable  works  on  the  subject  are  V  Art
de  Verifier  les  Dates,  compiled  by  the  Benedictines
(1783-1820).  Playfair's  Chronology,  1784;  Blair's
Chronology,  1753  (new  editions  by  sir  H.  Ellis  in  1844,
and  by  Mr.  Rosse,  in  1856).  The  Oxford  Chrono-
logical Tables,  1838.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas'  Chronology
of  History,  1833  ;  new  edition,  1852.  Hales'  Chron-
ology, 2nd  edition,  1830 ;  Woodward  and  Cates'  Ency-
clopaedia of  Chronology,  1872;  Mr.  H.  Fynes-Clin-
ton's  Fasti  Hellenici  and  Fasti  Romani  (1824-50).

CHRONOMETER,  see  Clocks,  and  Harrison.

CHRONOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  invented  by
professor  Wheatstone  in  1840,  to  measure  small
intervals  of  time.  It  has  been  applied  to  the  velocity
of  projectiles  and  of  the  electric  current.  A  chrono-
scope  was  invented  by  Pouillet,  in  1844,  and  by
others  since.  Capt.  Andrew  Noble  (engaged  by  sir
William  Armstrong)  invented  an  apparatus  for
determining  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  in  a  gun ;
a  second  of  time  is  divided  into  millionths,  and  the
electric  spark  is  employed  in  recording  the  rate  of  the
passage.  The  apparatus  was  exhibited  at  Newcastle-
on-Tyne  in  Aug.  1869,  and  in  London  in  April,  1870.

CHRYSANTHEMUMS  were  introduced
into  England  from  China,  about  1790;  and  many
varieties  since.  Centenary  celebrated  in  London,
II  Nov.  1890.

CHRYSOPOLIS,  or  Scutari  {which  see).

CHUNAR,  or  Chtjnarghuk,  N.W.  India,
taken  by  the  British,  1763,  and  ceded  to  them,  1768.
Here  was  concluded  a  treaty  between  the  nabob  of
Oude  and  governor  Hastings,  by  which  the  nabob
was  relieved  of  his  debts  to  the  East  India  Company,
on  condition  of  bis  seizing  the  properly  of  the  be-
gums, his  mother  and  grandmother,  and  delivering
it  up  to  the  English,  19  Sept.  1781.  This  treaty
enabled  the  nabob  to  take  the  lands  of  Fyzoola  Khan,


a  Rohilla  chief,  who  had  settled  at  Ilampoor,  under
guarantee  of  the  English.  The  nabob  presented  to
Mr.  Hastings  100,000^.  ;  see  Hastings.

CHURCH  (probably  derived  from  the  Greek
kyriakos,  pertaining  to  the  Lord,  Kyrios),  signifies
both  a  collected  body  of  Christians,  and  the  place
where  they  meet.  In  the  New  Testament,  it  sig-
nifies "  congregation,"  in  the  original  ekklesia.
Christian  architecture  commenced  with  Constantine,
who  erected  at  Pome  churches  called  basilicas  (from
the  Greek  basileus,  a  king)  ;  St.  Peter's  about  330.
His  successors  erected  others,  and  adopted  the
heathen  temples  as  places  of  worship.  Several  very
ancient  churches  exist  in  Britain  and  Ireland.  See
Architecture  ;  Choir  and  Chanting  ;  Rome,  Modern ;
Popes.

CHURCH AND STAGE GUILD, was

formed  in  1880  to  promote  morality  and  temperance
by  the  agency  of  theatrical  performances.

CHURCH  ARMY,  constituted  in  1882.
Founder,  Bev.  W  Carlyle.  It  is  a  working-man's
mission  to  working-men,  and  includes  evangelists'
and  nurses  training  homes,  and  labour  homes  for
tramps  and  inebriates.  Above  13,000^.  expended
in  1891.  Head-quarters,  Edgware  Road,  Lon-
don, W.

CHURCH  ASSOCIATION,  founded  to
maintain  Reformation  principles,  1865.  Frequent
meetings  are  held  in  London  and  the  provinces.

CHURCH  BUILDING.  The  society  for
promoting  the  enlargement,  building,  and  repairing
of  churches  and  chapels,  was  established  1818,  and
incorporated  1828.  A  commission  for  building
churches  in  populous  places,  appointed  in  1820,  was
incorporated  with  the  ecclesiastical  commission
about  1856.

.  CHURCH  CONGRESSES,  meet  annually,
since  1861. See  under  Church  of  England.

CHURCH  DEFENCE  INSTITUTION;

founded  in  1859 — the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  pre-
sident. It  does  not  meddle  with  doctrines.
The Oxford Laymen's  League  for  defence  of  the
national  church  founded  Aug. 18S6. Lord  Sel-
borne's "Defence of the Church of  England
against  Disestablishment "  published .  1  Dec.  1886

CHURCH DISCIPLINE  ACT (3 &  4

Vict.  c.  86),  passed  7  Aug.  1840,  enables  bishops  to
issue  commissions  of  inquiry,  and  on  conviction  to
inhibit  clergymen  from  performing  service,  &c.
A  new  bill  brought  in  by  the  archbishop  of  Can-
terbury, read  second  time . . 15  March,  1888

CHURCH of England.* The earliest

history  is  legendary.  See  Bishops.  The  following
are  leading  facts  in  her  history  :  for  details,  refer
to  separate  articles ;  see  Clergy  and  Free  Church.
In  Sept.  1880  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  said
that  he  was  in  communion  with  162  bishops.
Christianity  probably  introduced into  Britain  by

Gaulish  missionaries, and bishroprics founded

in  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries.


*  The  church  consists  of  three  orders  of  clergy — bishops,
priests  and  deacons  ;  1892;  two  archbishops,  thirty-two
bishops,  with  thirteen  suffragans,  and  about  eighty-one
colonial  and  missionary  bishops.  The  other  dignitaries
are  chancellors,  deans  (of  cathedrals  and  collegiate
churches),  archdeacons,  prebendaries,  canons,  minor
canons,  and  priest-vicars.  In  tSSG.  tin'  number  <»i  eei  ],
sia.stical  parishes  or  districts  with  churches  or  chapels
was  about  1400.  Total  revenue  of  the  church,  ancieul
endowments,  5,469,171/.  ;  through  private  bountj  (sine*
1703),  284,336/.  Estimated  total  revenue  01  the  church
7,250,000/.,  1891. Benefices  about  14,250'.,  reported  1891


CHUECH OF ENGLAND.


214


CHUECH  OF  ENGLAND.


1 539
1549


I5S2


Eestitutus,  bishop  of  London,  and  Adelfius  of
Caerleon,  said  to  have  been  present  at  the
council  of  Aries 314

Rise  and  spread  of  the  Pelagian  heresy,  400  et  seq.

The  persecutions  of  the  Saxon  invaders,  drive
the Christians into Wales and Cornwall

5th  and  6th  centuries

The  Saxons  converted  by  Augustin  and  his  com-
panions  597  et  seq.

Duustan  establishes  the  supremacy  of  the  monastic
orders,  about 960

The  aggrandising  policy  of  the  Church,  fostered  by
Edward  the  Confessor,  checked  by  William  I.  and
his  successors 1066  et  seq.

Contest  between  Henry  II.  and  Becket  respecting
"  Constitutions  of  Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170

Contest  between  national  or  English  party  and
Roman  party  (chiefly  Norman) nth  and.  12th  centuries

John  surrenders  his  crown  to  the  papal  legate . 1213

Rise  of  the  Lollards — Wickliffe  publishes  tracts
against  the  errors  of  the  church  of  Rome,  1356  ;
and  a  version  of  the  Bible,  about . . . . 1383

The  clergy  regulated  by  parliament,  1529  ;  they  lose
the  first  fruits 1534

The  royal  supremacy  imposed  on  the  clergy  by
Henry  VIII.,  1531  ;  many  suffer  death  for  refusing
to  acknowledge  it 1535

Coverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible  commanded  to
be  read  in  churches ,

""  Six  Articles  of  Religion  "  promulgated . . .

First  Book  of  Common  Prayer  issued

The  clergy  permitted  to  marry

"  Forty-two  Articles  of  Religion  "  issued

Restoration  of  the  Roman  forms,  and  fierce  perse-
cution of  the  Protestants  by  Mary . . . 1553-8

The  Protestant  forms  restored  by  Elizabeth  ;  the
Puritan  dissensions  begin .... 1558-1603

"  Thirty-nine  "  Articles  published . . . . 1563

Hampton  Court  conference  with  the  Puritans . . 1604

New  translation  of  the  Bible  published . . .  161 1

Book  of  Common  Prayer  suppressed  and  Directory
established  by  parliament 1644

Presbyterians  established  by  the  Commonwealth .  164Q

Act  of  Uniformity  (14  Chas.  II.  c.  4)  passed — 2000
nonconforming  ministers  resign  their  livings

Attempts  of  James  II.  to  revive  Romanism;  "De-
claration of  Indulgence  "  published  . . . .

Acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops  on  a  charge  of
"  seditious  libel "

Comprehension  bill  for  dissenters  introduced

The  Non-juring  bishops  and  others  deprived  ;  (they
formed  a  separate  communion)  . . 1  Feb.

"Queen  Anne's  Bounty,"  for  the  augmentation  of
poor  livings

Act  for  building  50  new  churches  passed  . .

Fierce  disputes  between  the  low  church  and  the
high  church ;  trial  of  Henry  Sacheverell,  for
seditious  sermons  ;  riots

The  Bangorian  controversy  begins . . . .

John  Wesley  and  George  Whitefield  commence
preaching ........

Rise  of  the  Evangelical  party  in  the  church,  under
Newton, Romaine, and others, latter part of

1 8th  century

Church  of  England  united  with  that  of  Ireland  at
the  Union 1800

Clergy  Incapacitation  Act  passed .... 1801

Incorporated  Church  Building  Society  established,

6  Feb.  1818

Church  Inquiry  Commission,  appointed 23  June,  1832

Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  incorporated  by  act,

13  Aug.  1836

Acts  for  building and  enlarging  cnurches, 1828,  1838

200  new  churches  erected  in  the  diocese  of  London
under  bishop  C.  J.  Blomlield  . . . 1828-56

"  Tracts  for  the  Times  "  (No.  1-90)  published  (much
controversy  ensued) 1833-41


1662


1704
1710


1717
1738


Church  Pastoral  Aid  Society,  founded

Additional  curates'  society,  founded . . . .

New  Church  Discipline  Act  (3  &  4  Vict.  c.  86) . .

For  the  Gorham  and  Denison  cases,  see  Trials,  1849,

Anglo-Continental  Society  (which  see),  founded

English  Church  Union,  established ....

"Essays  and  Reviews  "  published,  i860;  numerous

Replies  issued  (see  Essays  and  Reviews) . il

[The  Church  of  England  is  now  said  to  be  divided

into  High,  Moderate, Low  (or  Evangelical),  and

Broad  Church  :  the  last  including  persons  who


hold  the  opinions  of  the  late  Dr.  Arnold,  the  Rev.
F.  D.  Maurice,  dean  Stanley,  canon  Kingsley,  and
others.]

Church  Congresses  began  at  Cambridge,  1861 ;  and
at  Oxford July,  1862

Dr.  Colenso,  bishop  of  Natal,  publishes  his  work
on  "  The  Pentateuch,"  about  Oct.  1862 ;  the
bishops,  in  convocation,  declare  that  it  contains
' '  errors  of  the  gravest  and  most  dangerous  cha-
racter " 20  May,  1863

A  Church  Congress  at  Manchester 13,  14,  15  Oct. ,,

Bishop  Colenso  deposed  by  his  metropolitan,  Dr.
Gray,  bishop  of  Capetown. . . 16  April,  1864

"  Oxford  Declaration  "  (authorship  ascribed  to  arch-
deacon Denison  and  Dr.  Pusey),  respecting  belief
in  eternal  punishment,  drawn  up  and  signed  on
25  Feb. ,  and  sent  by  post  to  the  clergy  at  large
for  signature  :  about  3000  are  said  to  have  signed ;
it  was  presented  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury

12  May, ,,

Bishop  of  London's  Fund,  for  remedying  spiritual
destitution  in  London,  established  1863 ;  the  queen
engages  to  give  (in  three  years)  3000L,  and  prince
of  Wales  ioooZ 7  March, ,,

100,4562.  received  ;  72,0032.  promised . 31  Dec. ,,

The  queen engages  to  give  15,0002.  in 10  years,

April,  1865

Church  Congress  at  Bristol ....  Oct.  1864

Church  of  England  Education  Society,  founded . „

Church  Association  (against  popery  and  ritualism)
established. . 1865

District  Churches  Tithes  act  passed  (rectories  con-
stituted) .  „

Bishop  Colenso's  appeal  came  before  the  privy
council,  which  declared  bishop  Gray's  proceed-
ings null  and  void  (since  a  colonial  bishop  can
have  no  authority  except  what  is  granted  by  par-
liament or  by  the  colonial  legislature), 21  March, „

London  Free  and  open  Church  Association,  founded ,,

New  form  of  clerical  subscription  proposed  by  a
commission  in  1S64 ;  adopted  by  parliament,  July, „

Church  Congress  at  Norwich . . .3-7  Oct. ,,

Meeting  in  London  of  three  English  bishops,  Dr.
Pusey,  and  nearly  80  of  the  clergy  and  laity  with
counts  Orloff  and  Tolstse,  and  the  Russian  chap-
lain, to  consider  on  the  practicability  of  uniting
the  English  and  Russian  churches . 15  Nov. ,,

Bishop  Colenso  publicly  excommunicated  at  Maritz-
burg  cathedral,  by  bishop  Gray . . 5  Jan.  1866

Bishop  Gray  declares  himself  independent,  estab-
lishes synods,  and  calls  his  see  "  The  Church  of
South  Africa  " early  in ,,

The  Church  Missionary  Society  refuses  to  support
colonial  bishops,  unless  they  keep  within  the  for-
mularies of  the  Church  of  England . early  in ,,

Church  Congress  at  York . . . .6  Oct. ,,

Much  excitement  caused  by  the  progress  of  ritual-
ism {which  see) .... Sept. -Nov. ,,

Bishop  Colenso  v.  Gladstone  and  others  (trustees  of
the  Colonial  Bishopric  Fund)  for  withholding  his
salary.  Verdict  of  master  of  the  rolls,  for  plaintiff,
with  costs 6  Nov.

Unqualified  condemnation  of  ritualism  by  the
bishops  in  convocation,  13  Feb.  ;  the  lower  house
concurred 15  Feb.  1867

The  bishop  of  Salisbury  (Dr.  Hamilton)  in  a  church
asserts  the  doctrine  of  the  supernatural  gifts  of
priests,  the  Divine  presence  in  the  sacrament ;
public  protest  against  it  . .16  May, ,,

Trial  in  Court  of  Arches,  Martin  v.  Mackonochie,
respecting  extreme  ritualistic  practices  at  St.
Alban's,  Holboru  ;  case  deferred . 21  May, ,,

Royal  Ritualistic  Commission  appointed  to  inquire
respecting  rubrics  in  the  Prayer-Book,  table  of
lessons,  <fcc. ,  3  June  ;  first  report,  censuring  in-
novation, signed 19  Aug. „

Pan-Anglican  Synod  {which  see)  meets  at  Lambeth,

24-27  Sept. ,,

Church  Congress  at  Wolverhampton . .  1  Oct. ,,

Meeting  of  ritualists  in  St.  James's  Hall,  claiming
liberty 19  Nov. ,,

Case  of  Martin  v.  Machonochie,  begun  4  Dec,
lasted  14  days  ;  resumed . .  16-1S  Jan. 1868

Proposal  of  bishop  Gray  of  Capetown  to  consecrate
Mr.  Macrorie  bishop  of  Natal  in  opposition  to
bishop  Colenso,  disapproved  of  by  the  English,
and  Scotch  bishops Jan. ,,

Bishop  of  London's  Fund,  received,  312,3094.  31  Jan. „


CHURCH OF ENGLAND.


215


CHTJBCH OF ENGLAND.


Martin  v.  Mackonooliie  decided  ;  verdict  for  plain-
tiff ;  use  of  incense,  mixing  water  with  the  wine,
and  elevation  of  the  elements,  in  the  sacrament,
forbidden 28  March,

■Great  meeting  at  St.  James's  hall,  in  defence  of  the
Irish  Church  establishment ;  23  bishops  present,

6  May,

District  Churches  Act,  constituting  vicarages
(Bishop  of  Oxford's  Act),  passed  ....

■Church  Congress  at  Dublin ... 29  Sept.

Sharp  party  contests  at  a  special  meeting  of  the
Christian  Knowledge  Society . . 8  Dec.

Martin  v.  Mackonochie  :  appeal  case  ;  verdict  for
plaintiff,  declaring  certain  ritualistic  practices
illegal 23  Dec.

Warm  meeting  of  ritualists  at  St.  James's  hall,

12  Jan.

iFirst  meeting  of  a  Church  Reform  Society  (since
named  "  Liturgical  Revision  Society  ") ;  Lord
Ebury,  chairman ....  13  May,

•Church  conference  at  Sheffield  . . 24  May,

Church  Congress  at  Liverpool . . .5  Oct.

Martin  v.  Mackonochie :  defendant  censured  by
privy  council  for  evading  sentence . 4  Dec.

SSishop of  London's Fund:  —  411,839?. received,


July,
Aug.
t  Oct.


""  Clerical  Disabilities  Act "  passed

Church  Congress  at  Southampton

Christian  Knowledge  Society  votes  10,000?.  to  sup-
port Church  schools . . . .20  Oct.

Sev.  Mr.  Mackonochie  suspended  from  duty  for
three  months  by  decree  of  privy  council  for
evading  former  sentence ... 25  Nov.

Stev.  C.  Voysey  sentenced  to  be  deprived  for  heresy  ;
appeal  to  judicial  committee  of  privy  council
disallowed  (see  Voysey)  . . . .10  Feb.

-Hebbert  v.  Purchas,  of  Brighton  ;  verdict  against
defendant  for  offences  against  ecclesiastical  law  ;
considered  a  great  defeat  of  the  ritualists,  and
caused  much  excitement ...  23  Feb.

.Mr.  MiaU's  resolution  for  disestablishing  the  church
of England  defeated  in  the commons — 374-89,

9  May,

Jncumbents'  Resignation  Act  passed . 13  July,

Agitation  for  revival  of  diocesan  synods,  Sept. -Oct.

■Church  Congress  at  Nottingham  ;  closed 10  Oct.

■Sheppard  v.  Bennett  (for  teaching  the  divine  pre-
sence in  the  sacrament) ;  appeal  to  privy  council,
28  Nov.  ;  judgment  adjourned . . 2  Dec.

Bishop  of  London's  Fund — received  441,199?.  31  Dec.

The  convocation  authorised  to  consider  alterations
in  the  Prayer  Book Feb.

•Church  reform  meeting  at  St.  James's  hall ;  paro-
chial councils  recommended . . 15  Feb.

JRev.  John  Purchas,  of  Brighton,  to  be  suspended
from  duties  for  one  year,  from  .  .  18  Feb.
[He  died  18  Oct.]

Conference  of  bishops,  deans,  and  canons  at  Lam-
beth, to  consider  cathedral  reform . 1  March,

.Sheppard  v.  Bennett ;  judgment  for  defendant,  who
is  censured 8  June,

Mr.  MiaU's  motion  for  royal  commission  to  in-
quire into  the  property  of  "the  church  lost  (295-94)

2  July,

■■Church  Congress  at  Leeds . . . 8-1 1  Oct.

Memorial  (signed  by  60,200  persons)  against  Ro-
manist te'aching,  Arc.  in  the  church,  presented  at
Lambeth  to  the  archbishop  by  the  church  asso-
ciation 5  May.

The  archbishops  in  reply  admit  the  danger,  and
recognize  their  duty,  as  well  as  the  difficulties  of
action,  saying,  "We  live  in  an  age  when  all
opinions  and  beliefs  are  keenly  criticised,  ami
when  there  is  less  inclination  than  ever  was
before  to  respect  authority  in  matters  of  opinion.
In  every  state,  in  every  religious  community,
almost  in  every  family,  the  effect  of  this  unsettled
condition  may  be  traced."  . . . 1  June,

Mr.  MiaU's  motion  for  disestablishing  the  church,
lost  (356-61) 16  May,

.483  clergymen  petition  convocation  for  the  licens-
ing of  duly  qualified  sacramental  confessors,  May,

•Church  Congress,  at  Bath .... 9  Oct.

Archdeacon  Denison,  Dr.  Pusey,  canons  Liddon
and  Liddell,  and  others,  publish  a  declaration  in
/'avour  of  confession  and  absolution in Times,

6  Dec.


1870


1872


1873


Archdeacon  Denison  attacks  the  bishops  in  a  Latin
pamphlet,  "  Episcopatus  Bilinguis" .  Dec. 1873

Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  (which  see)  brought
in  by  the  archbishops,  20  April ;  royal  assent,

7  Aug. 1874

Meeting  of  lay  and  clerical  delegates  at  Lambeth
palace  on  church  affairs • . . 10  June, ,,

Addresses  to  the  archbishops  largely  signed  for  and
against  the  sanction  of  a  distinctive  dress  for  the
minister  during  the  celebration  of  the  holy  com-
munion . . . . - . . . Sept. ,,

Church  Congress  at  Brighton  met . . 6  Oct. „

New  society  formed  by  bishops  of  Manchester,  Car-
lisle, and  Edinburgh,  and  others,  to  x>romote  union
with  orthodox  dissenters Oct. ,,

Bishop  of  London's  Fund: — 500,187?.  received  or
promised . Nov. ,,

Martin  v.  Mackonochie  :  new  suit  in  court  of  arches
(see  1870),  26  Nov.  ;  Mackonochie  to  be  suspended
for  6  weeks  and  pay  costs . . .7  Dec. „

Pastoral  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops  (bishops  of
Salisbury  and  Durham  excepted)  to  the  clergy
and  laity  (counselling  moderation  and  forbearance,)

dated  1  March,  1875

Mackonochie  declines  to  appeal ;  excitement  at  his
church  ;  rev.  A.  Stanton  and  congregation  cele-
brate holy  communion  at  St.  Vedast's,  Foster-
lane  27  June,  et  seq. ,,

Church  Congress  at  Stoke-upon-Trent . 5-9  Oct. ,,

Several  clergymen  secede  to  Rome . . Oct. ,,

Public  Worship  Regulation  Act :  new  court,  under
lord  Penzance,  meet  at  Lambeth-palace  ;  first  case
the  Parish  of  Folkestone  v.  rev.  Charles  Joseph
Ridsdale,  4  Jan.  ;  verdict  for  plaintiffs  . 3  Feb. 1876

Reported  negotiation  of  ritualistic  ministers  with
Rome  disclaimed  by  Mr.  Mackonochie  and  about
100  others  in  Times 4  Feb. „

Church  of  England  Working  Men's  Society  estab-
lished at  St.  Alban's,  Holborn . . 5  Aug. ,,

Church  Congress  at  Plymouth . . .3-9  Oct. ,,

"English  Church  Union"  deny  the  authority  of  any
secular  court  in  matters  spiritual,  at  a  meeting,

16  Jan.  1877

Address  to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  (signed  by
Dr.  Church,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  other  deans
and  canons)  against  the  Public  Worship  Regula-
tion act,  &c,  requiring  legislation  respecting
ecclesiastical  affairs  to  be  made  by  church  synods
and  adopted  by  parliament  . . .3  April, ,,

Both  archbishops  vote  for  permitting  dissenters'
funeral  service  in  churchyards. .  17  May, ,,

Bishop  of  London's  Fund  received  571,597?. .June, ,,

Declaration  of  above  41,000  (clergy  and  laity)  and
proposed  petition  to  the  queen  against  judgment
in  the  Ridsdale  case ....  July, „

96  peers  (Duke  of  Westminster  and  others)  address
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  against  auricular
confession,  "Priest  in  Absolution,"  &c,  about

9  Aug. „

17th  Church  Congress  at  Croydon,  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury  president ;  very  successful, 9-12  Oct. ,,

Pan-Anglican  Congress  (which  see)  meet  at  Lam-
beth, &c. 2-27  July.  187S

Bishoprics  Act  authorising  establishment  of  four
new  sees,  passed  . . 16  Aug. ,,

i8tli  Church  Congress,  at  Sheffield,  archbishop  of
York  president 1-4  Oct. ,,

New  rubrics  in  Prayer-book  agreed  to  by  the  con-
vocation, 4  July  ;  act  for  them  passed  by  convo-
cation Aug.  1879

19th  Church  Congress  at  Swansea . . 7  Oct. ,,

Dr.  Julius  v.  the  bishop  of  Oxford  (for  not  prose-
cuting rev.  Mr.  Carter,  of  Clewer),  queen's  bench  ;
verdict  against  the  bishop  in  1079;  reversed  on
appeal  by  house  of  lords  ;  (the  bishop  may  but
is  not  compelled  to  prosecute) . 22  March,  1880

20th  Church  Congress,  at  Leicester;  friendly  ad-
dress from  nonconformists . 28  Sept. — 1  Oct. ,,

Rev.  John  Baghot  de  la  Bere.jun.,  vicar  of  Prest-
bury,  Gloucestershire,  deprived  for  disobedience
respecting  ritualism,  &c,  by  court  of  arches

21  Dec.  1880,  and  8  Jan. 1881

Memorial  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  from

five deans  (Dr. Church,  dean of  St.  raid's,  and

other  clergymen)  in  favour  of  toleration  of  diver-
gence in  ritualistic  practice . • 10  Jan. ,

Counter  memorial  from bishops Parry  and  Kyan,


CHUKCH OF FRANCE.


216


CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.


dean  Close, and other deans  and clergymen,
opposing  toleration  of  unscriptural  practices

31  Jan.  1881

Mr.  Mackonochie's  appeal  to  the  house  of  lords
dismissed  ;  sentence  of  3  years'  suspension
affirmed 7  April, ,,

21st  Church  Congress  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  4-10  Oct. ,,

Catholic  league  formed .... June,  1882

Death  of  Dr.  E.  B.  Pusey  ... 16  Sept. „

22nd  Church  Co  tigress  at  Derby . . 3-6  Oct. ,,

Rev.  A.  Mackonochie  resigns  living  of  St.  Alban's,
Hofborn,  at  the  request  of  abp.  of  Canterbury  1  Dec. ,,

23rd  Church  Congress  at  Reading  . . 2  Oct.  1883

"Official  Year-book  of  the  Church  of  England"
first  published ,,

Church  School  Company  formed,  1883  ;  first  annual
meeting 21  Feb.  1884

24th  Church  Congress  at  Carlisle . . . 30  Sept. ,,

Church  of  England  Purity  Society,  see  White  Cross
Army . . . ,,

25th  Church  Congress  at  Portsmouth . .  6  Oct.  1885

Agitation  for  disestablishment  and  disendowment
preparatory  to  elections ,,

Address  to  'the  archbishops  and  bishops  from
important  members  of  the  university  of  Cam  bridge
advocating  church  reform  ... 30  Nov. , ,

See  Laymen,  House  of,  which  first  met . 16  Feb.  1886

Proposed  disestablishment  of  the  Church  in  Wales
negatived  in  the  Commons  (241-229) . 9  March, ,,

26th  Church  Congress  at  Wakefield  (Church  Reform
discussed) 5  Oct. ,,

Proposed  erection  of  a  Church  House  for  general
business,  meetings,  &c.  ;  committee  appointed
at  Lambeth  Palace 18  Oct. ,,

Rev.  H.  R.  Haweis  of  St.  James's,  Marylebone,
prohibited  from  preaching  in  the  City  Temple  on
28  Oct.  by  his  bishop  . . . . 25  Oct. ,,

Church  Patronage  Bill  introduced  by  the  arch-
bishop of  Canterbury  13  May,  1886,  again  ;  (to
check  sales,  and  give  rights  to  parishioners,  &e.)
passed  by  the  lords . . . .  ■  1  April,  1887

27th  Church  Congress  at  Wolverhampton  began  3  Oct. ,,

Church  House  Corporation,  first  annual  meeting

21  July,  1888

28th  Church  Congress  at  Manchester ;  disputed
questions  boldly  discussed . . . 1  Oct. ,,

Declaration  and  remonstrance  of  clergy  and  laity
adopted  at  a  large  meeting . . .  13  Nov. ,,

Bishop  of  London's  Fund  received  15,500?.  in  1887  ;
23,000?.  in  1888.

29th  Church  Congress  at  Cardiff ;  position  of  Welsh
church  discussed 1  Oct.  1889

"Churchmen  in  council,"  initiated  in  Zion  college,
May,  1889.  Large  meeting  in  Westminster  town-
hall  to  promote  the  relief  of  the  church  by  ob-
taining for  it,  from  the  state,  the  power  of  settling
its  differences  in  doctrine  and  ritual  in  a  liberal
spirit,  by  the  agency  of  convocation . 6  Feb.  1890

"  Protestant  churchmen's  alliance,"  lord  Grimthorpe
president ;  object,  to  promote  the  substitution
of  deprivation  for  imprisonment ;  support  of  the
bishops  reported  ;  first  general  meeting 25  Feb. „

30th  Church  Congress  at  Hull . 30  Sept.~3  Oct. ,,

31st  Church  Congress  at  Rhyl  ;  the  bishop  of  St.
Asaph  president ;  the  abps.  of  Canterbury  and
York  present 6  Oct.  1891

A  declaration  of  faith  in  the  divine  inspiration  and
truth  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  on  the  testimony  of
the  universal  church,  independently  of  human
criticism,  signed  by  dean  E.  M.  Goulburn  and  37
other  eminent  clergymen,  published  in  the  Times

18  Dec. ,,
See  Canterbury ;  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act;  Trials.

CHURCH  of  France.  St.  Pothinus  is  said  to

have  preached  Christianity  to  the  Gauls  about  160;
became  bishop  of  Lyons,  and  suffered  martyrdom
with  others,  177.  P°r  the  reformed  church  see
Huguenots  and  Protestants.

A  mission  of  seven  bishops  arrived  in  245  ;  followed

by  severe  persecution 286-288

Christianity  tolerated  by  Constantius  Chlorus  .  292
Council  of  Aries  convoked  by  Constantine,  about

600  bishops  present ;  the  Donatists  condemned  .  314
Christianity  established  by  Clovis  .  .  .  .  496
Pragmatic  sanction of  St. Louis  restraining  the


impositions  of  the  pope ;  and  restoring  the  right

of  electing  bishops,  &c 1269.

Pragmatic  sanction  of  Bourges,  declaring  a  general
council  superior  to  the  pope,  and  prohibiting
appeals  to  him I438'

Concordat  of  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  annulling  the
pragmatic  sanction .... 18  Aug.  1516

Disputes  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists  . 1640.

Declaration  of  the  clergy  (drawn  up  by  Bossuet)  in
accordauce  with  the  pragmatic  sanctions,  con-
firmed by  the  king .... 23  March,  1682

The  Jansenists  excommunicated  by  the  Bull  Uai-
genitus .  17/13

Concordat  with  Pius  VII.  and  Napoleon 1801  and  1813

The  principles  of  the  concordat  of  Leo  X.  restored
by  Pius  VII.  and  Louis  XVIII 1&17

The  archbishop  of  Paris  and  other  prelates  resist
dogma  of  papal  infallibility  at  the  council  at  Rome  1  £70

The  clergy  at  first  supported  Napoleon  III. ;  but  op-
posed his  Italian  policy,  1852-70 ;  energetically
support  MacMahon's  ministry,  in  elections,  Sept.,

Oet.  1877;

18  archbishops,  77  bishops ,,

The  abbe  Bougaud  asserts  that  there  are  2658
parishes  without  priests,  and  3000  parishes
without  churches 187S

CHURCH  of  Ireland,  founded  by  St.

Patrick  in  the  5th  century  ;  accepted  the  Beforma-
tion  about  1550;  united  with  that  of  England  as
the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  in  1800 ;.
see  Bishops  and  Ireland,  1868.
"  An  act  to  put  an  end  to  the  establishment  of  the-
church  of  Ireland,"  introduced  into  the  house  of
commons by  Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mar.  ;  vote  for
second  reading, 368; against, 250; 2  a.m.,  24
March  ;  for  third  reading,  361  ;  against,  247,  31  May,  1869
Introduced  into  the  house  of  lords  by  earl  Gran-
ville, 1  June; read  third  time, 12  July; some
amendments  by  the  lords  accepted,  others  re-
jected ;  received  royal  assent  [to  come  into  effect,

1  Jan.  1871J 26  July, ,»

Address  of  bishops  to  the  clergy  and  laity,  dated,

18  Aug. ,.,
Meeting  of  the  general  synod  of  the  Irish  church  in
St.  Patrick's  cathedral,  Dublin,  for  re-organisa-
tion of  the  general  council ... 14  Sept. „
Conference  of  the  laity ; duke  of  Abercorn  chair-
man 13  Oct. ,.

Church  of  Ireland  disestablished . . 1  Jan.  187B
A  sustentaiinn  fund  established  (well supported) „
First  elected  bishop  (Dr.  Maurice  Day,  bishop  of
Cashel) consecrated at St.  Patrick's, Dublin,

14  April,  187s
The  new  ecclesiastical  court  meets  :  tries  a  case  of

ritual  practices 26  June, ,,

The  Irish  Church  Act  amended . . June, ,.,
Received  for  the  sustentation  fund,  33,573?.  up  to

31  Dec. ,,
The  first  bishop  elected  by  clergy  and  laity  of  Kil-
more, <fec,  archdeacon  Darley  (12 candidates),

23  Sept.  1874
Alleged  migration  of  clergy  to  England . autumn, ,,
Warm  discussion  upon  the  revision  of  the  liturgy,

May,  1875

CHURCH  of  North  America,  was  estab-
lished in  Nov.  1784,  when  bishop  Seabury,  chosen
by  the  churches  in  Connecticut,  was  consecrated  in
Scotland.  The  first  convention  was  held  at  Phila-
delphia in  1785.  On  4  Feb.  1787,  bishops  Provost  and
White  were  consecrated  at  Lambeth.  The  centenary
was  celebrated  at  Lambeth,  4  Feb.  1887.  Two
American  bishops,  Lyman  and  Potter,  were  present.
In  185 1  there  were  37  bishops;  in  1883  there  were,
in  the  United  States,  48  dioceses,  68  bishops,  and
3)559  priests  and  deacons,  see  Tan- Anglican  Synod,

After  much  discussion,  for  several  years,  the  chureto
convention  passed  a  stringent  canon  against  ritualism,
27  Oct.  1847.

CHURCH  of  Scotland,  see  Bishops  in

Scotland.  On  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy,  in  1638,
Presbyterianism  became  the  established  religion.
Its  formulary  of  faith,  said  to  have  been  compiled


CHURCH HOUSE.


217


CINCINNATI.


by  John  Knox,  in  1560,  was  approved  by  the  par-
liament and  ratified  in  1567,  finally  settled  by  an
act  of  the  Scottish  senate  in  1696,  and  secured  by
the  treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1 707 ;  see
Discipline,  Patronage,  and  Bishops.  The  church
is  regulated  by  four  courts — the  general  assem-
bly, the  synod,  the  presbytery,  and  kirk  ses-
sions; see  Presbyterians.  For  important  secessions,
see  Burghers  (1732),  and  Free  Church  (1843).

The  first  general  assembly  of  the  church  was  held,
20  Dec.  1560.

The  general  assembly  constitutes  the  highest  ecclesi-
astical court  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  meets  annually  in  Edin-
burgh in  May,  and  sits  about  ten  days.  It  consists  of  a
grand  commissioner,  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  and
delegates  from  presbyteries,  royal  boroughs,  and  univer-
sities, some  being  laymen.  To  this  court  all  appeals
from  the  inferior  ecclesiastical  courts  lie,  and  its  decision
is  final.

Patronage  was  abolished  after  1  Jan.  1875,  by  act
passed  7  Aug.  1874.

In  1873,  1250  churches.

Prosecution  of  Rev.  Wm.  L.  M'Farlan  of  Lenzie  for
heresy  in  "Scotch  Sermons"  (published  1880)  by  the
Presbytery  of  Glasgow,  Oct.  18S0.  Mr.  Hastie,  principal
of  the  Church  (Calcutta)  Institution,  1878 ;  dismissed  for
bad  temper,  &c,  Nov.  1883;  his  appeal  to  the  General
Assembly,  dismissed  (193—90),  29  May,  1884.

Agitation  for  disestablishment  preparatory  to  elec-
tions, autumn,  1885.

Mr.  Finlay's  Bill  for  promoting  re-union  of  Presby-
terian churches  negatived  by  the  Commons  (202 — 177)
17  March,  1886.

Dr.  Cameron's  resolution  for  disestablishment  nega-
tived in  the  Commons,  30  March,  1886  ;  (260 — 208)  22  June,
1888  ;  (256 — 218)  2  May,  1890  ;  (265-209)  24  May,  1892.

CHURCH  HOUSE. A  corporation  was  esta-
blished to commemorate  the queen's  jubilee of
1887,  by  the  erection  of  a  building  in  London  for
the  general  use  of  the  clergy  of  England.
On  7  July,  1888,  65,853^  had  been  subscribed,  by
means  of  which  a  site,  with  useful  buildings,  in
Dean's Yard, Westminster,  was  purchased. A
meeting  was  held  on  21  July,  1888  ;  and  what
was  really  the  1st  general  meeting  of  the  cor-
poration on  their  own  premises  was  held  on  26
June,  1890,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  being  in
the  chair. At  a  meeting  at  Norwich, 1 Feb.,
1890, it  was  reported that jo,oool.  had been
subscribed.
The  foundation  stone  of  the  great  hall  laid  by  the
duke  of  Connaught .... 24  June,  1891

CHURCH  LEAGUE,  for  separation  of
Church  and  State,  began  at  St.  Alban's  schools,
Holborn,  London,  Rev.  A.  H.  Mackonochie,  presi-
dent; 1876-7.

CHURCH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY,
founded  1799.  Income,  1876,  195,1161?.;  1887,
237,639/. ;  1890,  260,282/.

CHURCH  PASTORAL  AID  SOCIETY

(Evangelical),  instituted  in  1836  to  maintain  curates
and  lay-agents  in  densely  populated  diotricts.

CHURCH  :  RATES.  The  maintaining  the
church  in  repair  belongs  to  the  parishioners,  who
have  the  sole  power  of  taxing  themselves  lor  the
expense  when  assembled  in  vestry.  The  enforce-
ment of  payment,  which  is  continually  disputed  by
dissenters  and  others,  belonged  to  the  ecclesiastical
courts.  Many  attempts  were  made  to  abolish
church-rates  before  Mr.  Gladstone's  ''Compulsory
Church-rate  Abolition"  Bill,  passed  31  July,  1868.
Church  Rate  Abolition  for  Scotland  repealed  in  the

Commons  (204-143) .... 11  July,  1877

CHURCH  SERVICES  were  ordered  by  pope
Vitelianus  to  be  read  in  Latin,  663 ;  by  queen
Elizabeth  in  1558  to  be  read  in  English.

CHURCH-WARDENS,  officers  of  the
church,  appointed  by  the  first  canon  of  the  synod  of


London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  every  parish  were
also  appointed  by  the  same  body,  and  they  continue
now  nearly^  as  then  constituted.  Johnson's  Canons-.
Church-wardens,  by  the  canons  of  1603,  are  to  be-
chosen  annually.

CHURCHINO  of  Women  is  the  act  of
returning  thanks  in  the  church  by  women  after
child-birth.  It  began  about  214.  Wheatleg ;  see
Purification.

CHURCHYARDS,  said  to  belong  to  the
parson,  who  has  power  to  prohibit  the  erection  of
monuments,  &c. See  Consecration-  and  Burials.

CHUSAN,  a  Chinese  isle;  see  China,  1840-1,
i860.

CIBORIUM,  in  early  Christian  times,  was  a
protection  to  the  altar-table,  first  a  tabernacle,  and
afterwards  a  baldachin  over  the  altar,  and  also  a
canopy  used  at  solemn  processions.  Ciborium  also
means  the  vessel  in  which  the  eucharist is  received.

CIDER  {Zider,  German),  when  first  made  in
England,  was  called  wine,  about  1284.  The  earl
of  Manchester,  when  ambassador  in  France,  is  said
to  have  passed  oft'  cider  for  wine.  It  was  subjected
to  the  excise  in  1763  et  seq.  The  duty  was  taken
off'  in  1830.  Many  orchards  were  planted  in  Here-
fordshire by  lord  Scudamore,  ambassador  from
Charles  I.  to  France.  John  Philips  published  his
poem  "Cider"  in  1706.

CIGAR  SHIP,  see  under  Steam,  1866.

CIGARS,  see  Tobacco.

CILTCIA,  in  Asia  Minor,  partook  of  the  fortunes
of  that  country.  It  became  a  Roman  province  about
64  B.C.,  aud  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  a.d.  1387.

CIMBRI,  a  Teutonic  race  from  Jutland,  in-
vaded the  Roman  empire  about  120  B.C.  They
defeated  the  Romans,  under  Cneius  Papirius  Carboy
113  B.C.;  the  consul  Junius  Silanus,  109;  the
consul  Cassius  Longinus  (who  was  killed)  near  the
lake  of  Geneva,  107 ;  and  the  united  armies  of  the
consul  Cn.  Mallius  and  the  proconsul  Serviliirs
Caspio  near  the  Rhone,  105.  Their  allies,  the
Teutones,  were  defeated  by  Marius  in  two  battles
at  Aquae  Sexthe  (Aix)  in  Gaul ;  200,000  were
killed,  and  70,000  made  prisoners,  102  B.C.  The
Cimbri  were  defeated  byr  Marius  and  Catulus,  at
Campus  Raudius,  when  about  to  enter  Italy;
120,000  were  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners,
IOI  B.C.  They  were  afterwards  absorbed  into  the
Teutones  or  Saxons.

CIMENTO  (Italian,  experiment) .  The  "  Acca-
demia  del  Cimento,"  at  Florence,  held  its  first
meeting  for  making  scientific  experiments,  18  June,
1657.  It  was  patronised  by  Ferdinand,  grand  duke
of  Tuscany.  The  Royal  Society  of  London  was
founded  in  1660,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at
Paris  in  1666.  The  Nuovo  Cimento,  a  scientific
periodical,  published  at  Pisa,  began  in  1855.

CINCHONA,  or  ClllNCHONA,  see  Jesuits''
Baric.

CINCINNATI.  A  society  established  by
officers  of  the  American  army  soon  after  the  peace
of  1783,  "  to  perpetuate  friendship,  and  to  raise  a
fund  for  relieving  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those
who  had  fallen  during  the  war."  On  the  badge
was  a  figure  of  Cincinnalus.  The  people  dreaded
military  influence,  and  the  society  dissolved  itself.

CINCINNATI,  the  chief  city  of  the  state  of
Ohio,  North  America,  founded  178").  This  flourishing
city  desolated  by  an  inundation  caused  by  the  rising
of  the  river  Ohio,  13  Feb.  1883.  Several  lives  were
lost,  and  about  50,000  rendered  homeless. Ample


CINNAMON.


218


CIRCULATING LIBRARY.


3-elief  afforded.  About  50  persons  killed  and  150
wounded  in  an  attack  on  the  gaol  to  execute
zaurderers  (especially  Wm.  Berner) ;  new  court-
-house burnt,  28-30  March,  1884;  one  regiment
refused  to  march.  Ten  persons  killed  by  a  tram-
way accident,  15  Oct.  1889.  Population  in  1880,
'•255,139;  in  1890,  296,908.

CINNAMON,  a  species  of  laurel,  is  mentioned
among  the  perfumes  of  the  sanctuary  {Exodus  xxx.
..23)  1491  B.C.  It  was  found  in  the  American  forests
Joy  don  Ulloa,  1736,  was  cultivated  in  Jamaica  and
Dominica  1788,  and  is  now  grown  in  Ceylon.

CINQUE-CENTO  (five  hundred) ;  ter  cento,
.&c. ;  see  note  to  article  Italy.

CINQUE  PORTS,  on  the  south  coast  of
England,  were  originally  five  (hence  the  name) —
.Dover,  Hastings,  Hythe,  Ronmey,  and  Sandwich ;
Winchelsea  and  Rye  were  afterwards  added.  Jeake.
Their  jurisdiction  was  vested  in  barons,  called  war-
•dens.  These  ports,  instituted  by  Saxon  nionarchs,
were  constituted  by  William.  I.  and  succeeding  king-*,
who  required  them  to  supply  ships  to  defend  the
'■coast.  Nearly  all  the  harbours,  except  Dover,  have
been  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  sea.  The  latest
lord-wardens:  the  duke  of  Wellington,  1828-52;
the  marquis  of  Dalhousie,  1852-60;  lord  Palmerston,
3861-65;  earl  Granville,  appointed  Dec.  1865,  died
.31  March,  1891  ;  W.  H.  Smith,  May,  died  6  Oct.  ;
the  Marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava,  about  4  Nov.  1891.
Their  peculiar  jurisdiction  was  abolished  in  1855.

CINTRA  (Portugal).  Here  was  signed  an
agreement  on  22  Aug.  1808,  between  the  French
;and  English  the  day  after  the  battle  of  Vimeira.
.As  it  contained  the  bases  of  the  convention  signed
on  30  Aug.  following,  it  has  been  termed  the  con-
vention of  Cintra.  By  it  Junot  and  his  army  were
.permitted  to  evacuate  Portugal  free,  in  British
•ships.  The  convention  was  publicly  condemned,
and  a  court  of  inquiry  was  held  at  Chelsea,  which
•  exonerated  the  British  commanders.  Both  Wel-
lington and  Napoleon  justified  sir  Hew  Dalrymple.

CIPHER,  a  secret  manner  of  writing.  Julius
'Cajsar  and  Augustus  when  writing  secret  despatches
are  said  to  have  employed  the  second  or  third  letter
instead  of  the  first,  and  the  same  sequence  with
.regard  to  the  others.  This  cipher  was  in  use  till
vthe  reign  of  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84),  when  the  secret
was  divulged  by  Leon  Battista  Albert!,  and  a  new
-sort  of  cipher  sprang  up.  The  father  of  Venetian
•cipher  was  Zuan  Soro,  who  flourished  about  1516.
Jtawdon  Brown. — See  Cryptograph.

CIRC  ASSIA  (Asia,  on  N.  side  of  the  Caucasus) .
The  Circassians,  said  to  be  descended  from  the  Al- .
'banians,  were  unsubdued,  even  by  Timour. In  the
16th  century  they  acknowledged  the  authority  of
;the  czar  Ivan  II.  of  Russia,  and  about  1745,' the
princes  of  Kabarda  took oaths  of fealty. Many
-Circassians  became  Mahometans  in  the  18th  century.
"Circassia  surrendered  to  Russia  by  Turkey  by  the
treaty  of  Adrianople  (but  the  Circassians,  under
Schamyl,  long  resist) ... 14  Sept. 1829
'Victories  of  Orbelliani  over  them,  June,  Nov.,  Dec.  1857
He  subdues  much  country,  and  expels  the  inhabi-
tants  April,  185S

Schamyl,  the  great  Circassian  leader,  captured,  and

treated  with  much  respect . . .7  Sept.  1859
.About  20,000  Circassians  emigrate  to Constanti-
nople,  suffer  much  distress, and are  relieved.

28  April,  i860

"Vaidar, the last  of the Circassian strongholds,

captured,  and  the  grand  duke  Michael  declares

the  war  at  an  end .... 8  June,  1864

Many  thousand  Circassians  emigrate  into  Turkey  ;

partially  relieved by  the sultan's  government,

June,  et  seq. „


Schamyl  and  his  son  at  the  marriage  of  the  czaro-
witch,  9  Nov.  1866;  he  dies . . . March,  1871

Revolt  against  Russia  ;  suppressed.  Many  Circas-
sians flee  to  Turkey  and  join  the  army,  July,  Aug.  1877

CIRCENSIAN  GAMES  were  combats  in
the  Roman  circus  (at  first  in  honour  of  Consus,  the
god  of  councils,  but  afterwards  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,
Juno,  and  Minerva),  said  to  have  been  instituted  by
Evander,  and  established  at  Borne,  732  B.C.  by
Bomulus.  Tarquin  named  them  Circensian ;  their
celebration  continued  from  4  to  12  Sept.

CIRCLE.  The  quadrature,  or  ratio  of  the
diameter  of  the  circle  to  its  circumference,  has
exercised  the  ingenuity  of  mathematicians  of  all
ages.  Archimedes,  about  221  B.C.,  gave  it  as  7  to
22  ;  Abraham  Sharp  (171 7)  as  1  to  3  and  72  deci-
mals ;  and  Lagny  (1719)  as  1  to  3  and  122  decimals.

CIRCLES  OF  GERMANY  (formed  by  Maxi-
milian I.  about  1500,  to  distinguish  the  members  of
the  diet  of  the  empire)  were,  iu  1512,  Franconia,
Bavaria,  Upper  Rhine,  Suabia,  \\  estphalia,  and
Lower  Saxony;  in  15 12,  Austria,  Burgundy,  Lower
Rhine,  the  Palatinate,  Upper  Saxony  and  Bran-
denburg were  added.  In  1804  these  divisions  were
annulled  by  the  establishment  of  the  Confedera-
tion of  the  Rhine,  in  1806  {ivhich  see).

CIRCUITS  IN  ENGLAND  were  divided  into
three,  and  three  justices  were  appointed  to  each,
T176.  They  were  afterwards  divided  into  four,
with  five  justices  to  each  division,  1180.  Rapin.
They  have  been  frequently  altered.  England  and
Wales  were  formerly  divided  into  eight — each
travelled  in  spring  and  summer  for  the  trial  of  civil
and  criminal  cases,  the  larger  towns  are  visited  in
winter  for  trials  of  criminals  only ;  this  is  called
"  going  the  circuit."  The  circuits  were  settled  by
order  in  council,  5  Feb.  1876.  There  are  monthly
sessions  for  the  city  of  London  and  county  of  Mid-
dlesex.

The  circuit  system  was  much  modified  by  the  council
of  judges,  with  the  object  of  retaining  more,  judges  in
London,  and  economising  their  labour,  10  June,  1884.

The  system  was  again  changed,  three  circuits  being
adopted  in  place  of  four  with  a  few  exceptions  ;  (civil
and  criminal  Feb.,  July  ;  criminal  Oct.)  Dec.  1887.

CIRCULAR  IRONCLADS.  The  design  is
attributed  to  the  Russian  admiral  ropoff;  one  of
these,  named  after  himself,  was  launched  at  the
port  of  Nicolaieff,  7  Oct.  1875.  The  admiral  stated
that  he  derived  the  idea  from  the  works  and  views
of  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed,  late  constructor  of  the  British
navy,  who  has  expressed  his  approbation  of  the
admiral's  works.

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  Stationers
lent  books  on  hire  in  the  middle  ages.  The  public
circulating  library  in  England,  opened  by  Samuel
Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister  of  Salisbury,  about
1740,  failed;  but  similar  institutions  at  Bath  and
in  London  succeeded,  and  others  were  established
throughout  the  kingdom.  There  was  a  circulating
library  at  Crane-court,  London,  in  1748,  of  which
a  catalogue  in  two  vols,  was  published.— No  books
can  be  taken  from  the  British  Museum  except  for
judicial  purposes,  but  the  libraries  of  the  Royal
Society  and  the  principal  scientific  societies,  except
that  of  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  are  circulat-
ing.— The  London  Library  (circulating)  which  was
founded  24  June,  1840,  is  of  great  value  to  literary
men. — Of  the  subscription  libraries  belonging  to
individuals,  that  founded  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Mudie,  in
New  Oxford-street,  is  the  most  remarkable  for  the
large  quantity  and  good  quality  of  the  books :
several  hundreds,  sometimes  thousands,  of  copies
of  a  new  work  beinjr  in  circulation. It  began  in


CIRCULATION.


219 CITY  OF  LONDON"  COLLEGE.


1842,  and  grew  into  celebrity  in  Dec.  1848,  when
the  first  two  volumes  of  Macaulay's  History  of  Eng-
land were  published,  for  which  there  was  an  un-
precedented demand,  supplied  by  this  library.  The
hall,  having  the  walls  covered  with  shelves  filled
with  new  books,  was  opened  in  Dec.  i860.  Mr.
C.  E.  Mudie  died  28  Oct.  1890,  aged  72.  The
"Circulating  Library  Company"  was  founded  in
Jan.  1862,  and  other  companies  since.  The  Liver-
pool library  was  established  in  1757.

CIRCULATION  of  the  Blood,  see  Blood.

CIRCUMCISION  (instituted  1897  b.c.)  was
the  seal  of  the  covenant  made  by  God  with  Abra-
ham. It  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,
■and  is  still  by  the  Copts  and  some  oriental  nations.
The  Festival  of  the  Circumcision  (of  Christ),  origi-
nally the  octave  of  Christmas,  is  mentioned  about
487.  It  was  introduced  from  the  Koman  missal
into  the  first  English  prayer-book  in  1549.

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  most
daring  human  enterprises  at  the  period  when  it  was
first  attempted,  was  the  circumnavigation  of  the
earth  in  1519-22.

Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  a  native  of  Portugal,  in  the
service  of  Spain,  sailed  from  San  Lucar,  20  Sept.
1519 ;  with  three  ships  passed  the  Straits  named
after  him,  28  Nov.  1520;  he  was  killed  in  a  con-
flict on  the  Philippine  Isles,  17  April,  1521  :  Juan
Sebastian  del  Cano  ill  the  Vittoria,  the  only  re-
maining ship  of  five,  reached  San  Lucar 6  Sept.  1522

<Srijalva,  Spaniard 1537

Alvaradi,  Spaniard . ,,

JVIendana,  Spaniard 1567

.Sir  Francis  Drake,  first  English .... 1577-80

Cavendish,  first  voyage 1586-88

Le  Maire,  Dutch 1615-17

Cuiros,  Spaniard 1625

Tasman,  Dutch 1642

Cowley,  British 1683

Dampier,  English 1689

Cooke,  English . 1708

Clipperton,  British 17 19

Boggewein,  Dutch 1721-23

Anson  (afterwards  lord) 1740-44

Byron,  English 1764-66

Wallis,  British 1766-68

Carteret,  English 1766-69

Bougainville,  French 1766-9

James  Cook ^1768-71

On  his  death  the  voyage  was  continued  by  King . 1779

Portlocke,  British 1788

King  and  Fitzroy,  British  ....  1826-36
Belcher,  British ...  ... 1836-42

"Wilkes,  American 1838-42

The steamer Tonic  sailed  from New  Zealand  to

Plymouth  in  86  days  .  .  .  .  24  Aug.  1883
Arawa  sailed  from  Plymouth  to  New  Zealand  and

back  in  73  days,  5I1.  4111.  .  28  March-12  July,  1885
Lady  Brassey  published  "Voyage  in  the  Sunbeam  "

(yacht)  in  1876,  1878  ;  she  died  at  sea  .  Sept.  1887
'The  Sunbeam,  after  voyage  of  36,000  miles,  arrived  at

Portsmouth 14  Dec. ,,

See  North  East  and  West  Passage  and  Deep  Sea  Soundings.

CIRCUS  (Greek,  Hippodrome).  There  were
eight  (some  say  ten)  buildings  of  this  kind  at
Rome  ;  the  largest  the  Circus  Maximus,  was  built
by  the  elder  Tarquin,  605  Jt.c.  It  was  an  oval
figure:  length  three  stadia  and  a  half,  or  more  than
three  English  furlongs ;  breadth  960  Koman  feet.
It  was  enlarged  by  Julius  Caesar  so  as  to  seat  150,000
persons,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus.  Julius
Cresar  introduced  into  it  large  canals  of  water,
which  could  be  quickly  covered  with  vessels,  and
represent  a  sea  fight.  Pliny;  see  Amphitheatres,
and  Factions.

CIRRHA,  a  town  of  Phocis  (N.  Greece),  for
sacrilege,  razed  to  the  ground  in  the  Sacred  War,
586  B.C.


CISALPINE  REPUBLIC,  including  the
territories  of  Milan,  Mantua,  Modena,  Bergamo,
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Bavenna,  &c.  (N.  Italy),
formed  by  the  French  in  May,  1797,  from  the
Cispadane  and  Transpadane  republics,  acknow-
ledged by  the  emperor  of  Germany  by  the  treat3r
of  Campo  Formio  (which  see),  17  Oct.  following.
It  received  a  new  constitution  in  Sept.  1798  ;  was
remodelled,  and  named  the  Italian  republic,  with
Napoleon  Bonaparte  president,  1802 ;  and  merged
into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805 ;  see
Italy.

CISPADANE  REPUBLIC,  with  the
Transpadane  republic,  merged  into  the  Cisal-
pine republic,  Oct.  1797.

CISTERCIANS  (the  order  of  Citeaux),  a
powerful  order  of  monks  founded  about  1098  by
Robert,  a  Benedictine,  abbot  of  Molesme,  named
from  Citeaux,  in  France,  the  site  of  the  first  convent,
near  the  end  of  the  nth  century.  The  monks
observed  silence,  abstained  from  flesh,  lay  on  straw,
and  wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts.  They  were  re-
formed by  St.  Bernard  ;  see  Bernardines.

CITATE.  The  Russian  general  Gortschakoff,
intending  to  storm  Kalafat,  threw  up  redoubts  at
Citate,  close  to  the  Danube,  which  were  stormed  by
the  Turks  under  Omer  Pacha,  6  Jan.  1854.  The
fighting  continued  on  the  7th,  8th  and  9th,  when
the  Russians  were  compelled  to  retire  to  their
former  position  at  Krajowa,  having  lost  1500
killed  and  2000  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Turks
was  estimated  at  338  killed  and  700  wounded.

CITIZEN.  It  was  not  lawful  to  scourge  a
citizen  of  Rome.  Livy.  In  England  a  citizen  is  a
person  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carry  on
a  trade  therein.  Camden.  Various  privileges  have
been  conferred  on  citizens  as  freemen  in  several
reigns. — The  wives  of  citizens  of  London  (not  being
aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent)
were  obliged  to  wear  minever  caps,  being  white
woollen  knit  three-cornered,  with  the  peaks  pro-
jecting three  or  four  inches  beyond  their  foreheads;
aldermen's  wives  made  them  of  velvet,  1  Eliz.  1558.
Stow. — On  10  Oct.  1792,  the  convention  decreed
that  "citoyen"  and  "citoyenne"  should  be  the
only  titles  in  France.

CITY.  (Latin  civitas,  French  cite,  Italian
cittd.)  Originally  signified  a  state.  Cities  were
incorporated  in  Spain,  France,  and  England  in  the
nth  and  12th  centuries.  A  city  has  been  usually,
but  not  always,  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Truro  and
St.  Albans  were  made  cities  in  1877,  Newcastle  in
1882,  and  Liverpool  in  1883,  having  become
bishoprics.  Birmingham  was  made  a  city,  Jan.
1889.

CITY  AND  GUILDS  OF  LONDON  IN-
STITUTE (see  Education,  1878-81).  Foundation
stone  of  Central  Institution,  South  Kensington,  laid
by  the  prince  of  Wales,  the  president,  18  July,  1881.

CITY  CHURCH  PROTECTION  SO-
CIETY, founded  to  preserve  old  churches,  1879.

CITY  GUILDS  REFORM  ASSOCIA-
TION held  fifth  annual  meeting,  2  Sept.  1880.  It
had  recommended  the  appointment  of  the  royal
commission  of  inquiry  of  1880.

CITY  LIBRARY  and  MUSEUM,  see
Guildhall.

CITY  OF  GLASGOW  BANK,  see  under
Hanks.

CITY  OF  LONDON  COLLEGE  (for  ycung
111011)  established  1861  ;  began  in  [848  as  Metro-
politan Evening  Classe3.


CITY OF LONDON COURT.


220


CLANS.


CITY  OF  LONDON  COURT,  the  name
given  to  the  Sheriffs'  Court  (established  151 7)  by
the  County  Courts  act  of  Aug.  186".

CITY  OF  LONDON  SCHOOL,  established
by  parliament  in  1834,  (based  on  an  endowment  by
John  Carpenter  in  1442)  was  opened  first  in  Honey-
lane.  The  foundation  of  the  new  buildings  on  the
Victoria  Embankment  laid  14  Oct.  1880;  opened,
1883.

CITY  OF  PARIS,  Atlantic  steamer,  see
Wrecks,  March  1890.

CITY  HO  AD,  from  London  to  Islington,  was
projected  by  Mr.  Dingier,  and  cut  out  about  1760.

CIUDAD  RODRIGO,  a  strong  fortified  town
in  Spain  invested  by  the  French,  11  June,  1810,
and  surrendered  to  them  10  July.  It  remained  in
their  possession  until  it  was  stormed  by  the  British,
under  Wellington,  19  Jan.  1812.

CIVIL  CLUB  (at  the  New  Corn  Exchange
Tavern,  Mark-lane),  was  established  19  Nov.
1669,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  fellowship,
mutual  assistance,  and  the  revival  of  trade  after
the  interruption  to  business  in  consequence  of  the
tire,  Sept.  1666.

Only  one  person  of  the  same  trade  or  profession  can  be
a  member  of  this  club,  and  the  members  pledge  them-
selves to  give  "preference  to  each  other  in  their  re-
spective callings."  The  club  meets  monthly,  and  the
members  dine  together  four  times  a  year.  Its  officials
are  a  treasurer,  stewards,  auditors,  a  secretary  (all
merchants  of  London),  and  a  chaplain.

CIVIL  ENGINEERS,  see  Engineers.

CIVIL  LAW.  See  Codes.  Civil  law  was
restored  in  Italy,  Germany,  &c,  1127.  Blair.  It
was  introduced  into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Nor-
man abbot,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in
1138.  Itisnow  used  in  the  spiritual  courts  only,  and
in  maritime  affairs ;  see  Doctors'  Commons,  and  Laws.

CIVIL  LIST.  This  now  comprehends  the
revenue  awarded  to  the  kings  of  England  in  lieu  of
their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The  entire  revenue
of  Elizabeth  was  not  more  than  600,000/.,  and  that
of  Charles  I.  was  about  800,000/.  After  the  revolu-
tion a  civil  list  revenue  was  settled  on  the  new  king
and  queen  of  700,000/.  (in  1660),  the  parliament
taking  into  its  own  hands  the  support  of  the  forces
both  maritime  and  military.  The  civil  list  of
George  II.  was  increased  to  800,000/.  ;  and  that  of
George  III.,  in  the  55th  year  of  his  reign,  was
1,030,000/.

In  1831,  the  civil  list  of  the  sovereign  was  fixed  at
510,000?.,  and  in  December,  1837,  the  civil  list  of
the  queen  was  fixed  at  385,000?.
Prince  Albert  obtained  an  exclusive  sum  from  par-
liament of  30,000?.  per  an.  ...  7  Feb.  1840
Sir  H.  ParnelTs  motion  for  inquiry  into  the  civil  list
led  to  the  resignation  of  the  Wellington  adminis-
tration 15  Nov. 1830

A  select  committee  was  appointed  by  the  house  of
commons  for  the  purpose ... 2  Feb.  i860
See  Crown  Lands.

CIVIL  PROCEDURE  ACTS,  42  &  43  Vict,
c.  59,  passed  15  Aug.  1879  (it  abolishes  outlawry
in  civil  proceedings);  and  44  &  45  Vict.  c.  59,  passed
27  Aug.  1881.

CIVIL  SERVICE.  Nearly  17,000  persons
were  employed  in  this  service  under  the  direction  of
the  treasury,  and  the  home,  foreign,  colonial,  post,
and  revenue  offices,  &c.  In  1855,  a  commission  re-
ported most  unfavourably  on  the  existing  system
of  appointments,  and  on  21  May  commissioners
were  appointed  to  examine  into  the  qualifications
of  the  candidates, who  report  annually. By  an


order  of  council,  4  June,  1870,  the  system  of  compe-
titive examination  was  made  general  after  1  Oct.
1870.  The  civil  service  superannuation  act  passed
in  April,  1859.  Civil  service  for  the  year  (ending
31  March)  1855,  00317,735,515/. ;  1865,  10,205,413/.


1867,  10,523,019/. ;  it
mate) 15,779,779*-


I5>432>442*.  ;

1 7,243,254*- ;

18,008,691/. ;
r5,739.092*- ;

17,535,547;


'I, 13,176,659/.;  1877 (esti-

"81,

-5»


ll


15,155,522/,

I803-4, x  7,253,004/.

1885-6,  17,678,149/.  ;
1888-9,  !8,037,73o/. ;  1889  -  96,
1890-91,  15,660,959;  1891-2,
1892-3,  17,310,920  (estimate).  A
select  committee  to  inquire  into  this  expenditure,
voted  18  Feb.  1873;  issued  its  report,  June,  1874.
Important  changes  made,  by  order  in  council,
12  Feb.  1875.  See  Public  Departments,  Commission.
Further  changes  in  the  lower,  now  named  second
division ;  salaries  limited,  to  be  from  70/.  to  250/.
a  year,  4  Feb.  1890.  'Ihe  fourth  and  last  report  of
the  Boyal  Commission  on  Civil  Establishments,
dated  30  July,  issued  28  Aug.  1890.

CIVIL  WARS,  see  England,  France,  United
States,  Chili,  &c.

CIVILISATION.  The  opinion  thatthecivili-
sation  of  mankind  was  gradually  developed  from  a
low  savage  state  is  advocated  by  sir  John  Lubbock
in  his  "Origin  of  Civilisation,"  1870,  and  by  Mr.
Edward  B.  Tylor.in  his  "  Primitive  Culture,"  1871.

CLAIM  OF  RIGHT.  A  document  agreed
to  by  the  Scottish  Convention  parliament  at  Edin-
burgh asserting  the  constitutional  liberties  of  the
kingdom,  accepted  bv  King  William  III.  and  Queen
Mary  II.  at  Whitehall,  11  May,  1689.

CLAIMANT,  The.  See  Trials,  1871-4;  see
France,  1874.

CLAMEURS,  see  Haro.

CLANS  are  said  to  have  arisen  in  Scotland,  in
the  reign  of  king  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008.  The
legal  power  of  the  chiefs  and  other  remains  of
heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scotland,
and  liberty  was  granted  to  clansmen  in  1747,  in
consequence  of  the  rebellion  of  1745.  The  following
is  a  list  of  all  the  known  clans  of  Scotland,  with
the  badge  of  distinction  anciently  worn  by  each.
The  chief  of  each  clan  wears  two  eagle's  feathers
in  his  bonnet,  in  addition  to  the  badge.  Chambers.
A  history  of  the  clans  by  Wm.  Buchanan  was  pub-
lished in  1775.


Name.

Badge.

Name.

Badge.

Buchanan .

Birch.

M'Farlane .

Cloud-berry

Cameron

Oak.

bush.

Campbell .

Myrtle.

M'Gregor .

Pine.

Chisholm .

Alder.

M'Intosli .

Box-wood.

Colquhoun  .

Hazel.

M'Kay . .

Bull-rush.

Gumming .

Common

M'Kenzie .

Deer-grass.

sallow.

M'Kinnon .

St.  John's

Drummond .

Holly.

wort.

M'Lachlan  .

Mountain-

Farquharson

Purple fox-

ash.

glove.

M'Lean  . .

Blackberry

Ferguson .

Poplar.

heath.

Forbes . .

Broom.

M'Leod  .

Red  whortle-

Frazer . .

Yew.

berries.

Gordon . .

Ivy.

M'Nab . .

Rose  black-

Graham . .

Laurel.

berries.

Grant . .

Cranberry

M'Neil . .

Sea-ware.

heath.

M'Pherson  .

Variegated

Gun .

Rosewort.

box-wood.

Lamont

Crab-apple

M  'Quarrie .

Blackthorn.

tree.

M'Rae .

Fir-club

M'Alister .

Five-leaved

moss.

heath.

Menzies  . .

Ash.

M 'Donald .

Bell-heath.

Munro . .

Eagle's

M'Donnell  .

Mountain-

feathers.

heath.

Murray . .

Juniper.

M'Dougall  .

.  Cypress.

Ogilvie.

Hawthorn.

CLAN-NA-GAEL.


221


CLAVECIN.


Name.
Oliphant
Robertson

Badge.
Great  maple.
Fern,  or  bre-
chans.

Name.
Sinclair . .
Stewart
Sutherland  .

Badge.
Clover.
Thistle.
Cat's-tail

Rose .
Ross .

Briar-rose.
Bear-berries.

grass.

CLAN-NA-GAEL  (brotherhood  of  Gaels),  an
Irish  secret  oath-bound  society,  originating  out  of
the  Fenian  brotherhood  in  1870,  it  became  the
heart  of  the  Irish  National  League  in  the  United
States,  of  which  it  was  the  extreme  violent  part.
Its  action  much  restrained  by  the  influence  of
Messrs.  Pamell,  Sexton,  and  other  members  of  the
Irish  Parliamentary  party  who  originated  a  "  new
departure."  It  obtained  the  support  of  the  Irish
peasantry  by  promising  to  obtain  them  their  farms
without  rent.  The  ultimate  object  of  the  Clan-na-
Gael  is  said  to  be  the  establishment  of  Ireland  as  a
perfectly  independent  state ;  it  is  termed  a  dynamite
party  ("  Parnellism  and  Crime  "  series  III.,  June,
1887).

For  murder  of  Dr.  Cronin,  &c,  see  United  States,  1889.
The  Clan-na-Gael  at  Chicago,  declare  against  any

form  of  violence . . . reported  Feb.  1890

CLAPHAM  SECT,  a  name  given  to  the
evangelical  party  in  the  Church  of  England,  first
by  the  rev.  Sydney  Smith,  in  the  latter  part  of  the
18th  century.  The  rev.  Henry  Venn  was  vicar  of
Clapham,  and  several  of  its  eminent  members  lived
there.  The  sect  included  Win.  "Wilberforce,
Zachary  Macaulay  (father  of  the  historian),  and
the  Rev.  "W.  Romaine.

Memoirs  of  some  appear  in  sir  James  Stephen's  "  Ec-
clesiastical Biography,"  1849.

CLARE  AND  CLARENCE  (Suffolk).  Richard
de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester,  is  said  to  have  seated
here  a  monastery  of  the  order  of  Friars  Eremites,
the  first  of  this  kind  of  mendicants  who  came  to
England,  1248.  Tanner.  Lionel,  third  son  of  Ed-
ward III.,  becoming  possessed  of  the  honour  of
Clare,  by  marriage,  was  created  duke  of  Clarence.
The  title  has  ever  since  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the
royal  family.

DUKES OF CLARENCE.

1362.  Lionel,  born  1338,  died,  1369  ;  see  York.

ia.ii.  Thomas  (second  son of  Henry  IV.),  born 1389;

killed  at  Bauge,  1421.
1461.  George  (brother  of  Edward  IV.),  murdered,  1478.
1789.  William  (third  son  of  George  III.),  afterwards  king

William  IV.
1890.  Albert  Victor  Christian  Edward,  eldest  son  of  the
prince  of  Wales,  see  under Wales,  created  duke
of  Clarence  and  Avondale  and  earl  of  Athlone,
about 23 May ; died 14 Jan., 1892. See
England,  1892.
CLARE was the  first  place  in  Ireland  since
1689  that  elected  a  Roman  Catholic  M.P. ;  see  Roman
■Catholics. At  the election, held at Ennis, the
county  town,  Mr.  Daniel  O'Connell  was  returned,
5  July,  1828. He  did  not  sit  till  after  the  passing
of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  in  1829,  being
re-elected  30  July,  1829.

CLARE,  NUNS  OF  St.,  a  sisterhood,  called
Minoresses,  founded  in  Italy  by  St.  Clare  and  St.
Francis  d'Assisi,  about  1212.  They  were  also  called
Urbanists ;  their  rule  having  been  modified  by  pope
Urban  IV.,  who  died  1264.  This  order  settled  in
France  about  1260,  and  in  England,  in  the  Minories
without  Aldgate,  London,  about  1293,  by  Blanche,
■queen  of  Navarre,  wife  of  Edmund,  earl  of  Lan-
oaster,  brother  of  Edward  I.  At  the  suppression,
the  site  was  granted  to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and
"Wells,  1539. Tanner.

CLAREMONT  (Surrey),  the  residence  of  the
princess  Charlotte  (daughter  of  the  prince-regent,
afterwards  George  IV.,  married  to  prince  Leopold


of  Saxe-Coburg,  2  May,  1816)  :  here  she  died  in
childbirth,  6  Nov.  1817.  The  house  was  built  by
sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and  was  the  seat  successively
of  the  earl  of  Clare,  of  lord  Clive,  lord  Galloway,
and  the  earl  of  Tyroonnel.  It  was  purchased  of
Mr.  Ellis  by  government  for  65,000/.  for  the  prince
and  princess  of  Saxe-Coburg  ;  and  the  former,  the
late  king  of  Belgium,  assigned  it  to  prince  Albert
in  1840.  The  exiled  royal  family  of  France  took
up  their  residence  at  Claremont,  4  March,  1848  ;
and  the  king,  Louis  Philippe,  died  there,  29  Aug.
1850. Bought  by  Queen  Victoria  March  1882.

CLARENCIEUX,  the  second  king-at-arms,
said  to  have  been  nominated  by  Thomas,  son  of
Henry  IV.,  created  duke  of  Clarence,  1411.  His
duty  was  to  arrange  the  funerals  of  all  the  lower
nobility,  as  baronets,  knights,  esquires,  and  gentle-
men, on  the  south  side  of  the  Trent,  from  whence
he  is  also  called  sur-roy  or  south-roy.

CLARENDON,  Constitutions  of,  were

enacted  at  a  council  held  25  Jan.  1164,  at  Claren-
don, in  Wiltshire,  to  retrench  the  power  of  the
clergy.  They  led  to  Becket's  quarrel  with  Henry  II.,
were  annulled  by  the  pope,  and  abandoned  by  the
king,  April,  1174.

I.  All  suits  coneeming  advowsons  to  be  determined  in
civil  courts.

II.  The  clergy  accused  of  any  crime  to  be  tried  by  civil
judges.

III.  No  person  of  any  rank  whatever  to  be  permitted  to
leave  the  realm  without  the  royal  licence.

IV.  Laics  not  to  be  accused  in  spiritual  courts,  except
by  legal  and  reputable  promoters  and  witnesses.

V.  No  chief  tenant  of  the  crown  to  be  excommunicated,
nor  his  lauds  put  under  interdict.

VI.  Revenues  of  vacant  sees  to  belong  to  the  king.

VII.  Goods  forfeited  to  the  crown  not  to  be  protected
in  churches.

VIII.  Sons  of  villeins  not  to  be  ordained  clerks  with-
out the  consent  of  their  lord.

IX.  Bishops  to  be  regarded  as  barons,  and  be  sub-
jected to  the  burthens  belonging  to  that  rank.

X.  Churches  belonging  to  the  king's  see  not  to  be
granted  in  perpetuity  against  his  will.

XI.  Excommunicated  persons  not  to  be  bound  to  <*ive
security  for  continuing  in  their  abode.

XII.  No  inhabitant  in  demesne  to  be  excommunicated
for  non-appearance  in  a  spiritual  court.

XIII.  If  any  tenant  in  capite  should  refuse  submission
to  spiritual  courts,  the  case  to  be  referred  to  the  king.

XIV.  The  clergy  no  longer  to  pretend  to  the  right  of
enforcing  debts  contracted  by  oath  or  promise.

XV.  Causes  between  laymen  and  ecclesiastics  to  be
determined  by  a  jury.

XVI.  Appeals  to  be  ultimately  carried  to  the  king,  and
no  further  without  his  consent.

CLARENDON  PRESS,  Oxford.  The
building  was  erected  by  sir  John  Vanbru°-h  in
1711-13,  the  expense  being  defrayed  out  of'thc
profits  of  lord  Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion
the  copyright  of  which  was  given  to  the  universitv
by  his  son.  The  original  building  was  converted
into  a  museum,  lecture-rooms,  &c,  and  a  new
printing-office  erected  by  Blore  and  Robertson
1825-30.

CLARIONET,  or  CLARINET,  a  wind  instru-
ment of  the  reed  kind,  said  to  have  been  invented
by Johann Christopher Denner, in Nuremberg
about  1690.

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  used  by  Tullius
Servius  (the  sixth  king  of  ancient  Rome),  in
making  divisions  of  the  Roman  people,  573  b.c.
The  first  of  the  six  classes  were  called  classici  by
way  of  eminence,  and  hence  authors  of  the  first
rank  (especially  Greek  and  Latin)  came  to  be
called  classics.

CLAVECIN,  French  for  harjyslchord.  See
Pianoforte.


CLAVICHOED.


222


CLEEKENWELL.


CLAVICHOED,  a  keyed-stringed  musical  in-
strument of  various  forms  in  use  in  France,  Spain,
and  Germany,  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  See
Virginals,  Spinet,  Harp  and  Piano.

CLAVICYTHEEIUM,  an  upright  musical
instrument,  probably  resembling  the  harpsichord
used  in  the  16th  century.

CLAVIEE,  German  for  pianoforte  {which  see).

CLAY'S  ACT,  Sir  William,  14  &  15  Vict.

c.  14  (1851),  relates  to  the  compound  householders.

CLAYTON  -BULWEB  TEEATY,  see
Buhner.

CLEABING-HOUSE.  In  I77S,  a  building
in  Lombard-street  was  set  apart  for  the  use  of
bankers,  in  which  they  might,  exchange  drafts,
bills,  and  securities,  and  thereby  save  labour  and
curtail  the  amount  of  floating  cash  requisite  to
meet  the  settlement  of  the  different  houses,  if
effected  singly.  By  means  of  transfer  tickets,  trans-
actions to  the  amount  of  millions  daily  are  settled
without  the  intervention  of  a  bank  note.  In  1861,
the  clearing-house  was  used  by  117  companies,  and
in  May,  1864,  it  was  joined  by  the  Bank  of  England.
In  the  year  ending  30  April,  1868,  3,257,411,000/.
passed  through  the  clearing-house  ;  30  April,  1873,
6.003,335,000/.  ;  1877-8,  5,066,533,000/.  ;  1880-1,
5^909,989,000/.;  31  Dec.  1887,  6,077,097,000*.;
1890,  7,801,000,000/.  Amount  in  the  week  ending
27  Sept.,  1875,  about  105,867,000/. ;  27  Sept.  1876,
about  73,135,000/.  The  Railway  clearing-house  in
Seymour-street,  near  Euston-square,  established
2  Jan.  1842,  is  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in  1850.
In  1868,  it  regulated  13,000  miles  of  railways.  The
jubilee  was  celebrated  Jan.  1892.

CLEMENTINES,  apocryphal  pieces,  attri-
buted to  Clemens  Romanus,  a  contemporary  of
St.  Paul,  and  said  to  have  succeeded  St.  Peter  as
bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  102.  Niceron.  Also  the
decretals  of  pope  Clement  V.  who  died  1314,  pub-
lished by  his  successor.  Bowyer.  Also  Augustine
monks,  each  of  whom  having  been  a  superior  nine
years,  then  merged  into  a  common  monk. —
Clementines  were  the  adherents  of  Robert,  son  of
the  count  of  Geneva,  who  took  the  title  of  Cle-
ment VII.  on  the  death  of  Gregory  XL,  1378,  and
Ukbanists,  those  of  pope  Urban  VI.  Christendom
was  divided  by  their  claims  :  France,  Castile,  Scot-
land, &c,  adhering  to  Clement;  Rome,  Italy,  and
England,  to  Urban.  The  schism  ended  in  1409,
when  Alexander  V.  was  elected  pope,  and  his  rivals
resigned ;  see  Anti-Popes.

CLEOPATEA'S  NEEDLE,  see  Obelisks.

CLEPSYDEA,  a  water-clock ;  see  Clocks.

CLEBGY  (from  the  Greek  kleros,  a  lot  or  in-
heritance) in  the  first  century  were  termed  pres-
byters, elders,  or  bishops,  and  deacons.  The  bishops
(episcopoi  or  overseers),  elected  from  the  presbyters,
in  the  second  century  assumed  higher  functions
(about  330),  and,  under  Constantine,  obtained  the
recognition  and  protection  of  the  secular  power.
Under  the  Lombard  and  Norman-French  kings  in
the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  the  clergy  began  to  pos-
sess temporal  power,  as  owners  of  lands  ;  and  after
the  establishment  of  monachism,  a  distinction  was
made  between  the  regular  clergy,  who  lived  apart
from  the  world,  in  accordance  with  a  regula  or  rule,
and  the  secular  (worldly)  or  beneficed  clergy.  The
English  clergy  write  clerk  after  their  names  in
legal  documents.  See  Church  oj England  (note)  and
Bishops.
The  clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges

being  chosen  after  the  Norman  custom  from  the  sacred


order,  and  the  officers  "being  clergy :  this  gave  then*
that  denomination,  which  they  keep  to  this  day.  Black-
stone.

As  the  Druids  kept  the  keys  of  their  religion  and  of
letters,  so  did  the  priests  keep  both  these  to  themselves  ;
they  alone  make  profession  of  letters,  and  a  man  of
letters  was  called  a  clerk,  and  hence  learning  went  by
the  name  of  clerkship. Pasquier.

Benefit  of  Clergy,  Privilegium  Clericale,  arose  in  the-
regard  paid  by  Christian  princes  to  the  church,  and
consisted  of :  1st,  an  exemption  of  places  consecrated
to  religious  duties  from  criminal  arrests,  which  was
the  foundation  of  sanctuaries  ;  2nd,  exemption  of  the
persons  of  clergymen  from  criminal  process  before  the
secular  judge,  in  particular  cases,  which  was  the
original  meaning  of  the  privilegium  clericale.  The
benefit  of  clergy  was  afterwards  extended  to  everyone
who  could  read  ;  and  it  was  enacted,  that  there  should
be  a  prerogative  allowed  to  the  clergy,  that  if  any  man
who  could  read  were  to  be  condemned  to  death,  the
bishop  of  the  diocese  might,  if  he  would,  claim  him  as
a  clerk,  and  dispose  of  him  in  some  places  of  the  clergy
as  he  might  deem  meet.  The  ordinary  gave  the  pri-
soner at  the  bar  a  Latin  book,  in  a  black  Gothic
character,  from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two  ;  and  if
the  ordinary  said,  "Legit  ut  Clericus"  ("He  reads-
like  a  clerk"),  the  offender  was  only  burnt  in  the
hand  ;  otherwise,  he  suffered  death,  3  Edw.  I.  (1274).

The  privilege  was  restricted  by  Henry  VII.  in  1489,  and
abolished,  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other  great
criminals,  by  Henry  VIII.,  1512. Stow.

The  reading  was  discontinued  by  5  Anne,  c.  6  (1706).

Benefit  of  Clergy  was  wholly  repealed  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.
c.  25  (1827).

CLERGY CHARITIES.

William  Assheton,  an  eminent  theological  writer,  was  the
first  proposer  of  a  plan  to  provide  for  the  families  of
deceased  clergy.  He  died  Sept.  171 1.  Watts' s  Life  of
Assheton.-

Festival  of  the  "  Sons  of  the  Clergy,"  held  annually  at  St.
Paul's  cathedral,  instituted  about  1655  ;  from  it  sprang
the  charity  called  the  "Sons  of  the  Clergy"  (clergy-
orphan  and  widow  corporation),  incorporated  1  July,.
1678.

Clergy  Orphan  corporation,  1749.

Friend  of  the  Clergy  corporation,  1849.

St.  John's  foundation  school  for  sons  of  poor  clergy.
1852.

Poor  Clergy  Relief  corporation,  established  1856;  incor-
porated 1867.

There  are  several  other  charities  for  relatives  of  the
clergy. See  Bromley  College.

The  clergy  prevented  from  being  members  of  parliament
by  41  Geo.  III.  e.  63,  1801.

A  bill  to  repeal  this  act  was  lost  in  the  commons  (no  to-
101),  ti  May,  i88r.

Clergy  discipline  (immorality)  bill  introduced  by  the
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  23  Feb.  ;  passed

27  June,  1892;

CLEEICAL  DISABILITIES,  an  act  passed
9  Aug.  1870,  relieves  persons  who  have  been  ad-
mitted priests  or  deacons  of  certain  clerical  dis-
abilities upon  their  resigning  their  ecclesiastical
offices  and  preferments,  and  declares  them  incapable
of  officiating  henceforward.  Up  to  31  Dec.  J873,  50
had  resigned.

CLEEICAL SUBSCBIPTION. ACT,

28  &  29  Vict.  c.  122,  passed  5  July,  1865,  simplified
and  modified  the  oaths  to  be  taken  by  the  clergy
when  ordained.
CLEEK,  see  Clergy.

CLEEKENWELL,  a  parish,  N.  E.  London,
so  called  from  a  well  (fons  clericorum)  in  Ray-
street,  where  the  parish  clerks  occasionally  acted
mystery-plays  :  once  before  Richard  II.  in  1390.
Hunt's  political  meetings  in  1817  were  held  in
Spa-fields  in  this  parish.  In  St.  John's  parish  are
the  remains  of  the  priory  of  the  knights  of  St.
John  of  Jerusalem.  Clerkenwell  prison  was  built
in  1615,  in  lieu  of  the  noted  prison  called  the  Cage,
which  was  taken  down  in  1614;  the  then  Bride-
well having  been  found  insufficient. The  prison


CLERMONT.


223


CLOGHER.


called  the  House  of  Detention,  erected  in  1775,  was
rebuilt  in  1818; again  1844. For  the  explosion
here, see  Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clei-kenwell-
close  formerly  stood  the  house  of  Oliver  Cromwell,
where  some  suppose  the  death-warrant  of  Charles  I.
was  signed,  Jan.  1649.

Free  library  in.  Skinner  street  (on  site  given  by  the
Skinners'  company)  opened  by  the  lord  mayor
Isaacs . . . . . . .10  Oct.  1890

Rosebery  avenue  opened  by  the  earl  of  Rosebery

21  July „

CLERMONT  (France).  Here  was  held  the
council  under  pope  Urban  II.  in  1095,  ^  which  the
first  crusade  against  the  infidels  was  determined
upon,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  appointed  to  com-
mand it.  Iu  this  council  the  name  of  pope  is  said
to  have  been  first  given  to  the  head  of  the  Roman
Catholic  church,  exclusively  of  the  bishops  who  used
previously  to  assume  the  title.  Philip  I.  of  France
was  (a  second  time)  excommunicated  by  this
assembly. Henault.

CLEVEDON  COURT,  Somersetshire,  the
mediaeval  seat  of  sir  Arthur  Hallam  Elton ;  de-
stroyed by  fire  27  Nov.  1882 — damage  about  20,000/.

CLEVELAND,  see  Steel,  a  town  in  Ohio,  U.S.,
population  in  1880,  160,146; 1890,  261,353.

CLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see

Middlesborough .

CLEVES  (N.E.  Germany).  Rutger,  count  of
Cleves,  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century.
Adolphus,  count  of  Mark,  was  made  duke  of  Cleves
by  the  emperor  Sigismund,  141 7.  John  "William,
duke  of  Cleves,  Berg,  Juliers,  &c,  died  without
issue,  25  March,  1609,  which  led  to  a  war  of  suc-
cession. Eventually  Cleves  was  assigned  to  the
elector  of  Brandenburg  in  1666 ;  seized  by  the
French  in  1757  ;  restored  at  the  peace  in  1763,  and
now  forms  part  of  the  Prussian  dominions.

CLIFTON  SUSPENSION  -  BRIDGE,
over  the  Avon,  connecting  Gloucestershire  and
Somersetshire,  constructed  of  the  removed  Hunger-
ford -bridge,  was  completed  in  Oct.  and  opened
8  Dec.  1864.  It  is  said  to  have  the  largest  span
(702  feet)  of  any  chain  bridge  in  the  world.  In
1753  Alderman  Vick,  of  Bristol,  bequeathed  \oool.
to  accumulate  for  the  erection  of  a  bridge  over  the
Avon.  In  1831  Brunei  began  one,  which  was  aban-
doned after  the  expenditure  of  45,000/.

CLIMACTERIC,  the  term  applied  to>  certain
periods  of  time  in  a  man's  life  (multiples  of  7  or  9),
in  which  it  was  affirmed  notable  alterations  in  the
health  and  constitution  of  a  person  happen.  The
grand  climacteric  is  63.

CLIMATE. The  condition  of  a  place  in  regard
to natural  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere  as  tem-
perature, moisture,  &c,  see  Meteorology.
International Congresses  on  Climatology  met  at  Paris

Oct.  1889,  and  to  be  at  Rome  in  1892.

CLINICAL  SOCIETY  of  London,  for

the  cultivation  and  promotion  of  practical  medi-
cine and  surgery,  established  in  Dec.  1867  ;  first
president,  sir  Thomas  Watson.  See  Lectures
(clinical).

CLIO.  The  initials  C.  L.  I.  0.,  forming  the
name  of  the  muse  of  history,  were  rendered  famous
from  the  most  admired  papers  of  Addison,  in  the
Spectator,  having  been  marked  by  one  or  other  of
them,  signed  consecutively,  in  1713. Cibber.

CLISSOLD  PARK,  Stoke  Newington,  Lon-
don, N.,  purchased  by  the  Charity  Commissioners
and  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  &c. ,  for  public
use,  1887.


CLITHEROE  CASE,  see  Wives,  1891.

CLOACA  MAXIMA,  the  chief  of  the  cele-
brated sewers  at  Rome,  the  construction  of  which  is-
attributed  to  king  Tarquinius  Priscus  (600  B.C.)  and
his  successors.

CLOCK.  The  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was
introduced  at  Rome  from  the  east  about  158  B.C.  by
Scipio  Nasica.  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them.-
by  Ctesibius,  about  140  B.C.  Clocks  said  to  have-
been  found  by  Ca?sar  on  invading  Britain,  55  B.C.
The  only  clock  supposed  to  be  then  in  the  world  was
sent  by  pope  Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  France,  a.d.
760.  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Genoa,  invented  one
in  the  9th  century.  Originally  the  wheels  were-
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  earliest  complete  clock
of  which  there  is  any  certain  record  was  made  by
a  Saracen  mechanic  in  the  13th  century.  Alfred
is  said  to  have  measured  time  by  wax  tapers,  and
to  have  used  lanterns  to  defend  them  from  the
wind,  about  887.

The  scapement  ascribed  to  Gerbert  ....  100c
A  great  clock  put  up  at  Canterbury  cathedral,  cost

30?. .......... 1292:

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot  of St.

Alban's about  1326

John  Visconti  sets  up  a  clock  at  Genoa  .  .  .  1353
A  striking  clock  in  Westminster  ....  1368.
A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris,  by  Vick  . . . .  1370-

The  first  portable  one  made 153c-

In  England  no  clock  went  accurately  before  that

set  up  at  Hampton-court  (maker's  initials  N.  O.)  154c
■  •  •  •  "Like  a  German  clock,
Still  a-repairing  ;  ever  out  of  frame  ;
And  never  going  aright."

Shakspeawe,  " Love's  Labour's  Lost,"  159S
The  pendulum  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to  clocks

by  the  younger  Galileo, 1639  •  an£l  by  Richard

Harris  (who  erected  a  clock  at  St.  Paul's,  Covent-

garden) 1641

Christian  Huyghens said  he  made  his  pendulum

clock  previously  to 165S

Froinantil,  a  Dutchman,  improved  the  pendulum

about  1659
Repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented  by  Barlow,

about  1675
Spiral  pendulum  spring  invented  by  Robert  Hooke,

about  1658  ;  cylinder  and  escapement,  by  Thos.

Tompion 1695-

The dead beat, and  horizontal  escapements,  by

Graham,  about  1700  ;  compensating  pendulum  .  1715.
The  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and  the  duplex

scapement,  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke  ;  pivot  holes

jewelled by Facio ; the detached-scapement,

invented  by  Mudge,  and  improved  by  Berthould,

Arnold,  Earnshaw,  and  others  in  the  18th  century.
Harrison's  time-piece  (which  sec)  constructed . 1735?
Clocks  and  watches  taxed,  1797  ;  tax  repealed  .  179S'

Church  clocks  illuminated  :  the  first,  St. Bride's,

London 2  Dec 1826

The  Horological  Institute  established  .  .  .  1S5S
The  great  Westminster  clock  set  up  .  .  30  May,  1859.
266,750  clocks  and  88,621  watches  imported  into

the  United Kingdom in 1857  ;  258,628 clocks  ;

372,420  watches  iu  1870;  687,271  clocks  in . .  1877

The  duty  came  off , . i86e

Messrs. Barraud  and  Lund's electric system of

synchronising  docks  :  city  of  London  circuit  of

108  clocks  in  action  ....  Nov.  1878
Victor  Popp  of  Vienna  applies  compressed  air  as  a

motive  power  to  clocks  ;  announced . March,  1881
See  Electric  Clock,  uuder  Electricity.

CLOGHER  (Ireland).  St.  Macartin,  a  disciple-
of  St.  Patrick,  fixed  a  bishopric  at  Clogher,  where
he  also  built  an  abbey  "in  the  street  before  the
royal  scat  of  the  kings  of  Ergal."  He  died  in  506.
Clogher  takes  its  name  from  a  golden  stone,  from
which,  in  times  of  paganism,  the  devil  used  to>
pronounce  juggling  answers,  like  the  oracles  of
Apollo  Pythias.  Sir  James  Ware.  In  1041  the
cathedral  was  built anew,  and  dedicated to its


CLONFEET.


221


CLUBS.


founder.  Clogher  merged,  on  the  death  of  its  last
prelate  (Dr.  Tottenham),  into  the  archiepiscopal  see
of  Armagh,  by  the  act  of  1833.

CLONFEET  (Ireland).  St.  Brendan  founded
an  abbey  at  Clonfert  in  558  :  his  life  is  extant  in
jangling  monkish  metre  in  the  Cottonian  library  at
Westminster.  In  his  time  the  cathedral,  famous
in  ancient  days  for  its  seven  altars,  was  erected ;
,and  Colgan  makes  St.  Brendan  its  founder  and  the
first  bishop ;  but  it  is  said,  in  the  Ulster  Annals,
under  the  year  571,  "Mcena,  bishop  of  Clonfert-
Brenain,  went  to  rest."  Clonfert,  in  Irisn,  signifies
a  wonderful  den  or  retirement.  In  1839  the  see
merged  into  that  of  Killaloe ;  see  Bishops.

CLONTABF  (near  Dublin),  the  site  of  a  battle
fought  on  Good  Friday,  23  April,  1014,  between
the  Irish  and  Danes,  the  former  headed  by  Bryan
Boroimhe,  monarch  of  Ireland,  who  defeated  the
invaders,  after  a  long  and  bloody  engagement,  was
wounded,  and  soon  afterwards  died.  His  son  Mur-
ehard  also  fell  with  many  of  the  nobility  ;  13,000
Danes  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  battle.

CLOSTEBSEVEN  (Hanover)  CONVENTION
OF,  was  entered  into  8  Sept.  1757,  between  the
duke  of  Cumberland,  third  son  of  George  II.,
hardly  pressed,  and  the  duke  of  Eichelieu,  com-
mander of  the  French.  By  it  38,000  Hanoverians
laid  down  their  arms,  and  were  dispersed.  The
treaty  was  disavowed  by  the  king,  and  soon  broken ;
the  duke  resigned  all  his  commands.

CLOSUEE,  see  Cloture.

'CLOTH,  see  Woollen  Cloth  and  Calico.

CLOTURE,  the  power  of  closing  a  debate  in
the  French  chamber  of  deputies,  exercised  by  the
president.  A  similar  power,  termed  Closure,  was
given  to  the  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  11
Nov.  1882  ;  first  enforced  24  Feb.  1884  ;  the  closure
made  part  of  a  standing  order,  18,  19  March,  1887.
By  a  new  rule  the  power  of  closure  was  given  to  a
house  of  100,  28  Feb.  1888;  and  was  frequently
exercised  in  1888,  and  since. See  Parliament.

CLOUD,  St.,  a  palace  near  Paris,  named  from
prince  Clodoald  or  Cloud,  who  became  a  monk
there  in  533,  after  the  murder  of  his  brothers,  and
died  in  560.  The  palace  was  built  in  the  16th
century,  and  in  it  Henry  III.  was  stabbed  by  Cle-
ment, 1  Aug.  (died  2  Aug.)  1589.  This  palace,  long
the  property  of  the  dukes  of  Orleans,  was  bought
by  Marie  Antoinette  in  1785.  It  was  a  favourite
residence  of  the  empress  Josephine,  of  Charles  X.
.and  his  family,  and  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.
It  was  burnt  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  having
been  fired  upon  by  the  French  themselves,  13  Oct.
1870.  The  ruins  were  cleared  away,  and  the  site
sold,  July,  1892.

CLOUDS  consist  of  minute  particles  of  water,
often  in  a  frozen  state,  floating  in  the  air.  In  1803
Mr.  Luke  Howard  published  his  classification  of
clouds,  now  generally  adopted,  consisting  of  three
primary  forms — cirrus,  cumulus,  and  stratus ;  three
compounds  of  these  forms ;  and  the  nimbus  or
black  rain  clouds  (cumulo-cirro-stratus.)  A  new
edition  of  Howard's  Essay  on  the  Clouds  appeared
in  1865.

CLOVESHOO  (now  Cliff),  Kent.  Here  was
held  an  important  council  of  nobility  and  clergy
concerning  the  government  and  discipline  of  the
church,  Sept.  747 ;  and  others  were  held  here,  800,
803,  822,  S24.

CLOYNE  (S.  Ireland),  a  bishopric,  founded  in
£he  6th.  century  by  St.  Coleman,  was  in  1431  united


to  that  of  Cork,  and  so  continued  for  200  years. It
was  united  with  that  of  Cork  and  Ross,  1834  ;  see


CLUBMEN,  associations  founded  in  the
southern  and  western  counties  of  England,  to  re-
strain the  excesses  of  the  armies  during  the  civil
wars,  1642-9.  They  professed  neutrality,  but  in-
clined towards  the  king,  and  were  considered  ene-
mies by  his  opponents.

CLUBS,  originally  consisted  of  a  small  number
of  persons  of  kindred  tastes  and  pursuits,  who  met
together  at  stated  times  for  social  intercourse.  The
club  at  the  Mermaid  tavern,  established  about  the
end  of  the  16th  century,  consisted  of  Raleigh,
Shakspeare,  and  others.  Ben  Jonson  set  up  a  club
at  the  Devil  tavern.  Addison,  Steele,  and  others,
frequently  met  at  Button's  coffee-house,  as  de-
scribed in  the  Spectator.  The  present  London
clubs,  some  comprising  500,  others  about  6000
members,  possess  handsome  luxuriously  furnished
edifices  in  or  near  Pall  Mall.  The  members  obtain
choice  viands  and  wines  at  moderate  charges,  and
many  clubs  possess  excellent  libraries,  particularly
the  Athenseuni  {which  see).  The  annual  payment
varies  from  3/.  3*.  to  ill.  lis.;  the  entrance  fee  from
5^.  5s.  to  421?.  The  following  are  the  principal
clubs  ;  several  are  described  in  separate  articles :  —

Rota  (political) 1659

Civil  Club  (professional  and  commercial) 19  Nov.  1669
White's  (Tory),  at  White's  Coffee-house . . .  169S

Kit-Cat  (literary) 1700

Dilettanti  (fine  arts) 1734

Beefsteak 1735

Royal  Society  (scientific) .... before  1743

Cocoa  Tree 1746

Boodle's 1762

Literary  Club  (which  see),  termed  also  "  The  Club,"

and  Johnson's  Club 1764

Brooks's,  originally  Almack's  (Whig)  . . . ,,

Royal  Naval 1765

Arthur's ,

Alfred  (literary) 1808-51

Roxburghe,  London .  1812

Guards . , . 1813

United  Service .  .... 1815

Travellers' ...  ...  1819

Union  ...  1821

United  University  .  1822

Bannatyne,  Edinburgh  . ... . . 1823

Athenaeum  (which  see)  1824

Oriental .  ,,

United  Service  (Junior) 1827

Wyndham . 1828

Maitland,  Glasgow ,

Oxford  and  Cambridge 1829

Carlton  (Conservative),  founded  by  the  duke  of  Wel-
lington and  others  183 1

Garrick ...

City  of  London  Club . .  . . .  1832

Abbotsford,  Edinburgh  .  . .  1835

Reform  (Liberal)  .  1836

Parthenon 1836

Army  and  Navy  ....... 1837

Etching,  London 1838

Spalding,  Aberdeen .  1839

Conservative . . . , 1840

Gresham 1843

National 1845

Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and

others) 1846

East  India  United  Service 1847

Savage 1857

St.  James's . ■ ,,

Naval  and  Military 1862

Grafton  .....  ...... 1863

Arts • ",

Junior  Carlton 1864

Thatched  House 1S65

CobdenClub  1866

Savile •  1868

Marlborough 1869

Lyric  .  ........  1870


CLUBS.


225


COAL.


St.  Stephen's 1870

Universities 1871

Scientific 1874

Wanderers  ...........

Devonshire  (Liberal) ,,

•City  Liberal  Club ,,

Verulam  (Literary  and  Scientific) . . ." . ,,

Byron 1875

Hanover  Square 1876

New  Athenaeum  Club 1878

Eighty  Club 1880

National  Liberal  Club 1882

Constitutional 1883

Grosvenor,  Bond  Street ,,

Imperial  and  American ......  1885

National  Conservative 1886

National  Union 1887

Arts  and  Letters 1889

Amphitryon,  Albemarle  Street,  W 1890

See  Working  Men's  Club.

CLUBS,  FRENCH.  The  first  arose  about  1782.
They  were  essentially  political,  and  greatly  con-
cerned in  the  revolution.  The  Club  Breton  became
the  celebrated  Club  des  Jacobins,  and  the  Club  des
Cordeliers  comprised  among  its  members  Danton
and  Camille  Desmoulins.  From  these  two  came
the  Mountain  party  which  overthrew  the  Girondists
fin  1793,  and  fell  in  its  turn  in  1794.  The  clubs
•disappeared  with  the  Directory  in  1799.  They  were
revived  in  1848  in  considerable  numbers,  but  did
r.ot  attain  to  their  former  eminence,  and  were  sup-
pressed by  decrees,  22  June,  1849,  and  6  June,
1850. Bouillet.

CLUB-FOOT,  a  deformity  due  to  the  shorten-
ing of  one  or  more  of  the  muscles,  although  at-
tempted to  be  relieved  by  Lorenz  in  1784,  by
•cutting  the  tendo  Achillis,  was  not  effectually  cured
Sill  1831,  when  Stromeyer  of  Erlangen  cured  Dr.
Little  by  dividing  the  tendons  of  the  contracted
muscles  with  a  very  thin  knife.

CLUGJN'Y  or  CLUNY,  ABBEY  OF,  in  France,
formerly  most  magnificent,  founded  by  Benedictines,
under  the  abbot  Bern,  about  910,  and  sustained
afterwards  by  William,  duke  of  Berry  and  Aqui-
taine.  English  foundations  for  Cluniac  monks  were
instituted  soon  after.

CLYDE  and  FORTH  WALL  was  built
hy  Agricola,  84.  The  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  was
•commenced  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  10  July,  1768,  and
was  opened  28  July,  1790.  It  forms  a  communi-
cation between  the  seas  on  the  eastern  and  western
coasts  of  Scotland.

CNLDUS,  in  Caria,  Asia  Minor:  near  here
Conon  the  Athenian  defeated  the  Lacedaemonian
fleet,  under  Peisander,  394  B.C.

COACH  (from  coche,  Spanish).  Beckmann
states  that  Charles  of  Anjou's  queen  entered  Naples
in  a  caretta  (about  1282).  Under  Francis  I.  there
were  but  two  in  Paris,  one  belonging  to  the
queen,  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of
Henry  II.  There  were  but  three  in  Paris  in  1550;
and  Henry  IV.  had  one  without  straps  or  springs.
John  de  Laval  de  Bois-Dauphin  set  up  a  coach  on
account  of  his  enormous  bulk.  The  first  coach  seen
in  England  was  about  1553.  Coaches  were  intro-
duced by  Fitz-  Alan,  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1580.  Slow.
A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament  to  prevent  the
effeminacy  of  men  riding  in  coaches,  43  Eliz.  1601.
Carte.  Repealed  1625.  The  coach  of  the  duke  of
Buckingham  had  six  horses,  that  of  the  earl  of
Northumberland  eight,  1619.  The  coach-tax  com-
menced in  1747.  Horace  Walpole  says  that  the
present  royal  state  coach  (first  used  16  Nov.  1762),
cost  7,528/.  The  lord  mayor's  old  state  coach  was
Kot  used  9  Nov.  1867  ;  see  Car,  Carriages,  Chariots,
■Kae/oicu  Coaches,  Mail  Coaches,  &c.  G.  Thrupp's
"*  History  of  Coaches"  published  1877.


A  coachmakers'  exhibition  London,  opened  2  June,  1879
A  private  university  teacher  is  termed  a  "  Coach." Dr.
Edward  John  Routh,  of  Cambridge,  out  of  631  pupils
. produced  27  senior  wranglers,  1858-88. On  his  retire-
ment his old  pupils  presented his  portrait  to  his
wife,  3  Nov.  1888.

COAL.* It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming
truth,  that  coal,  although not  mentioned  by  the
Romans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  was  yet  in  use
by the  ancient  Britons. .Brandt.  Henry III. is
said  to  have  granted  a  licence  to  dig  coals  near
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1234 ; some  say  earlier,
and  others  in  1239. Sea-coal  was  prohibited  from
being  used  in  and  near  London,  as  being  "preju-
dicial to  human  health;"  and even  smiths  were
obliged  to  burn  wood,  1273. Stow. In  1306  the
gentry  petitioned  against  its  use. Coal  was  first
made  an  article  of  trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,
4  Rich  H.  1 381.  Rymer's  Fcedera.  Notwithstanding
the  many  previous  complaints  against  coal as a
public  nuisance,  it  was  at  length  generally  burned
in  London  in  1400 ;  but  it  was  not  in  common  use
in  England  until  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  1625. Coal
was  brought  to  Dublin  from  Newry  in  1742.
1700  consumed  in  London . . . 317,000  chald.
17s0 ........ 510,000 ,,

1800  ....... 814,000 ,,

1810 980,372 ,,

1820  1,171,178 ,,

1830 1,588,360 ,.

1835  .>....  2,299,816 tons.

1840 2,638,256 ,,

1850  3,638,883 „

i86o_. — Coal  brought  to  London, 3,573,377  tons  coast-
wise ;  1,499,899  tons  by  railways  and  canals.
1861. — Coal  brought  to  London,  5,232,082  tons  ;  in  1862,

4,973,823  tons.
Coal  and  fuel  exported  :  value  :  1856,  2,826,582?.  ;  1869,
5,165,668?.  ;  1873,  13,188,511?.  ;  1878.  7,330,474/.  ;  1883,
10,645,919?.;  1887,  10,169,991?.;  1888,  11,345,299?.;  1889,
14,781,990?.;  1890,  19,020,269?.
The  coal-fields  of  Great  Britain  are  estimated  at  5400
square  miles  ; of  Durham  and  Northumberland,
723  square  miles. Bakewell. In  1857  about  65^
millions of tons were  extracted (value  about
16,348,676?.)  from  2095  collieries  ;  about  25  millions
are  consumed  annually  in  Great  Britain. 1882,
collieries,  3,759.
Coal  obtained  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  : —
1854. 64,661,401  tous. 1 1865. 98,150,587  tons.


1862


83,635,214
81,638,338
86,292,215
92.787.873


1866.  101,630,544

1867.  104,500,480

1868.  103,141,157
~>  107,427,557


1870.  110,431,192  tons value.  27,607,798?.


117.352,028

1872.  123  497,316

1873.  127,016,747

1874.  125,067,016

1875.  131,867,105

1876.  133,344,826

1877.  134,610,763

1878.  132,654,887

1879.  134,008,228

1880.  146,818,622

1881.  154,184,300
1882. t  156,499,977

1883.  163,737,327

1884.  160,757,779

1885.  159,351,418

1886.  157,^18,482

1887.  162,119,812

1888.  169,935,219

1889.  176,916,724

1890.  181,614,288


35,205,608?.
46,311,143?.
47,631,280?.
45,849,194?.
46,163,486?.
46,670,668?.
47.  "S^'-
46,429,210?.
46,902,879?.
62,395,414/.
65,528,327/.
44,118,409/.
46,054,143?.
43,446,183/.
41,139,408/.
38,145,930/.
39,092,830?.
42,971,276.
56,175,426.
74.953.997-


*  There  are  five  kinds  of  fossil  fuel:  anthracite,  coal,
lignite,  bituminous  shale,  and  bitumen.  No  satisfactory
definition  of  coal  has  yet  been  given.  The  composition  of
H'ood  is  491  carbon,  63  hydrogen,  44 '6  oxygen  ;  of  coal
82  "6  carbon,  56  hydrogen,  118  oxygen.

t  The  plan  adopted  for  obtaining  the  value  of  the
coal  produced  was  changed  in  1882.


COAL.


226


COAL.


United  States,  41,752,609  tons,  obtained  in  . . 1872

Mr.  Sopwith,  in  1855,  computed  the  annual  product
of  the  coal-mines  of  Durham  and  Northumberland
at  14  million  tons  : — 6  millions  for  London,  23-
millions  exported,  25  millions  for  coke,  1  million
for  colliery  engines,"  <fee. ,  and  two  millions  for
local  consumption.

By  a  stipulation  in  the  commercial  treaty  of  i860,  in
consequence  of  the  French  government  greatly
reducing  the  duty  on  imported  coal,  the  British
government  (it  is  thought  by  many  imprudently)
engaged  to  lay  no  duty  on  exported  coal  for  ten
years.  In  1859  about  7,000,000  tons  of  British
coals  were  exported,  of  which  1,391,009  tons  went
to  France.

A  commission  (consisting  of  the  duke  of  Argyll,  sir
R.  I.  Murchison,  Dr.  John  Percy,  professor
Ramsay,  and  others)  appointed  to  investigate  into
the  probable  quantity  of  coal  in  the  coal-fields  of
the  United  Kingdom,  &c.  28  June,  1866,  reported
27  July,  1871 : —

Attainable  quantity  of  coal  in  known  tons

coal-fields 90,207,000,000

Probable available coal in other
places 56,273,000,000

146,480,000,000


Sale  of  Coal  Regulation  Act

The  duties  on  the  exportation  of  British  coal,  which
had  existed  since  the  16th  century,  were  prac-
tically repealed

Sir  R.  Peel  imposed  a  duty  of  4s.  a  ton  in  1842  ;
caused  much  dissatisfaction  ;  repealed . . .

Women  were  prohibited  from  working  in  English
collieries  in

The  consumption  of  coal  in  France  in  1780,  only
400,000  tons,  rises  to  6,000,000  tons  in . . .

The  United  States  produced  between  8  and  9  millions
of  tons :  Belgium,  5,000,000 ;  and  France,  4,500,000,

An  Act  for  the  regulation  and  inspection  of  mines
passed

Duplicate  shafts  act  passed . . . ...

Coal-pitmen's  strikes  frequently  occur ;  a  long  and
severe  one  arose  in  Staffordshire  in  1864  ;  near  St.
Helen's,  March,  1868  ;  in  S.  Wales .  Jan. -March,

Coal-mines  regulation  act,  tending  to  check  the  sup-
ply, passed  10  Aug.  1872  ;  Act  amended

By  another  act  preceding  acts  were  consolidated,
the  employment  of  women  and  boys  under  12
underground  was  prohibited,  the  qualifications
of  managers  is  to  be  tested  by  examiners,  and
other  regulations  made ... 6  Sept.

A  coal-cutting  machine  at  work,  producing  about
70  tons  in  8  hours  (work  of  40  men) ;  requires
attendance  of  3  or  4  men  .  .  Times,  6  Feb.
reported  successful  in  Northumberland .  Nov.

Great  dearth  of  coal  in  London  (see  Strikes),  best
coal  52s.  a  ton  15  Feb.

Duty  on  Coal  brought  to  London,  gd.  a  ton,  and  $d.
a  ton  for  London  improvements ;  produced
381,2492.

Parliamentary  committee  respecting  coal  first  met

24  March,

Exhibition  of  coal-raising  machinery  at  Salford,
Manchester,  opened .... 30  Jan.

Royal  Commission  on  spontaneous  combustion  of
coal  (Mr.  H.  C.  Childers,  professor  Abel,  &c.)  met
11  Nov.  1875  ;  report  issued  ;  alludes  to  danger
of  absorption  of  oxygen,  need  of  ventilation,  &c.

Aug.

A  commission  to  inquire  into  the  causes  and
remedies  for  explosions  was  appointed  (including
Messrs.  Warington W. Smyth, Tyndall,  F. A..

Abel,  and  others) Feb.

[Preliminary  report  issued  Nov.  1881  ;  final  report

15  March,  1886.]

A  great  reduction  of  accidents  through  improved

management  announced .... Nov.

A  new  method  of  blasting  by  quick -lime-cartridges

invented  by  Smith  and  Moor  much  recommended

Increase  of  wages  obtained  in  consequence  of  the

miners'  conference  at  Manchester . Jan. -Feb.

Yorkshire  Miners'  Association  (Benjamin  Pickard
and  others)  demand  diminution  of  time  of  labour,
and  decrease  of  output  in  order  to  raise  the  price
of  coal Feb.


1842
1S45
185s


1873


1873


1874

1876
1879

1881

1882


Government  circular  issued,  recommending  the
use  of  Fleus's  apparatus  for  rendering  foul  air
respirable  after  explosions  (see  Diving) March  18S3

Important  meeting  of  delegates  from  about  17,000
miners  requiring  15  per  cent,  increase  of  wages
at  A rd wick 6  Nov. ,,

Pit-brow  women  employed  outside  of  coal  mines  in
Lancashire  and  South  Wales  ;  an  attempt  to
prohibit  this  negatived  by  the  commons  23  June,  1887-

Messrs.  Ash  worth  and  Kneen  patent  a  furnace  which
saves  about  35  per  cent,  of  coal  and  consumes
smoke,  autumn  1887.

Proposed  formation  of  "  The  Coal  Owners  and
Consumers  Co-operative  Association  " March,  1889.

Coal-field  discovered  near  Dover . . 15  Feb.  189c.

Federation  of  colliery  owners  proposed  (except
S.  Wales,  Northumberland,  and  Durham)  in
opposition  to  strikes,  &c. . 31  Jan.,  11  Feb. ,,

The  colliers'  demand  for  advance  of  10  per  cent,
pay,  resisted 1 1  Feb. , ..

The  miners'  delegates  (40)  at  Westminster  (repre-
senting 350,000)  threaten  a  general  strike  if  the
advance  of  10  per  cent,  is  not  conceded  before  15
March 15  Feb. ,,.

The  strike  begins 15  March ,,.

Meeting  of  delegates  from  both  parties  ;  and  imme-
diate advance  of  5  per  cent,  on  Aug.  1  agreed  to  ;
strike  closes 20  March ,,.

Royal  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the
effect  of  coal  dust  in  relation  to  explosions  in
mines  (Mr.  J.  Chamberlain,  lord  Rayleigh,  prof.
Dixon,  and  others) ;  first  meeting . 6  March,  iSgir

The  Northumberland  coal-miners  agree  to  a  reduc-
tion of  5  per  cent,  on  their  wages . 2  Jan.  1892-

The  new  "  sliding  scale"  agreed  to,  1  Jan.,  adopted
at  Cardiff  and  Aberdare . . . 4  Jan. ,,.

The  representatives  of  the  National  Miners'  Federa-
tion at  Manchester,  recommend  a  temporary  sus-
pension of  work  (12-26  March),  to  raise  the  prices
and  maintain  the  rate  of  pay  to  miners ;  gene-
rally accepted,  except  in  South  Wales,  Northum-
berland, Durham,  Worcestershire,  Staffordshire,
and  Scotland . . . .  . Feb. JS,

Prices  raised  in  London,  &c,  temporary  panic

29  Feb.ei  seq. ,„

Strike  of  the  Durham  coal-miners  against  the  pro-
posed 10  per  cent,  reduction  of  wages,  11  March  ;
92,588  said  to  be  out,  16  March  ;  the  men  agree
to  accept  j%  or  10  per  cent,  reduction  ;  the  coal-
owners  require  13^  per  cent.  ;  compromise^
effected  by  the  intervention  of  bishop  Westcott
at  a  meeting  at  Auckland  Castle,  10  per  cent,
accepted  by  both  parties,  1  June ;  manufactures
on  the  Tyne  and  Wear  much  suspended

March — June ,,
Accidents. — About  1000  lives  are  lost  annually by

explosion  and  accidents  in  mines. (1856-76). 1877,1208

lost:  1878,  1413  ;  1879,  973  lost;  1880,  1318  lost;  1881,-

954  lost ;  1882,  1126  lost ;  1883,  1054  lost ;  1884,  942  lost ;.

1885,  1150  lost;  1886,  953; 18S7,  995; 1888,  888;  1889..

1,110;  1890,1,206;  1891,  1,030. (1874-84,  11,165  deaths  ;.

2562  due  to  explosions;  8603  due  to  other  causes. Sir

F.  A.  Abel,  18  Nov.  1885.)

More  men  employed  than  formerly,  consequently  more-
deaths  at  explosions  (1886). Pits  deeper  than  formerly...
Dust  as  well  as  after-damp  causes  explosions.
In  1858,  by  explosions  in  coal-mines,  52  persons  rjerisheOi

at  Bardsley ; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at

Tydesley,  near  Leeds  ;  and  about  36  in  different  parts  of

the  country.

1859 — 5  April,  26  lives  were  lost  at  the  chain  colliery,.

near  Neath,  through  the  irruption  of  water.

i860 — 76  lives  were  lost  on  2  March.,  at  Burradon,  near

Killingworth ; 145  at  the Risca  mine,  near  Newport,.

Mon.,  1  Dec.  ;  and  22  at  the  Hettou  mine,  Northumber-
land, 20  Dec.

1861— 11  June,  21  lives  were  lost  through  an  inundation;

in  the  Claycross  mines,  Derbyshire.

85  lives  were  lost  at  Lalle  coal-mine,  in  France,  in  Oct.

1861.
1862 — 47  lives were lost at  Gethin mine, Merthyr

Tydvil,  S.  Wales,  19  Feb.  ;  at  Walker,  near  Neweastle-

on-Tyne,  15  lives  lost,  22  Nov.  ;  Edmund's  Main,  near

Barnsley,  60  lives  lost,  8  Dec.
1863 — 13  lives lost at Coxbridge,  near Newcastle,

6  March  ;  39  lives  lost  at  Margam,  S.  Wales,  17  Oct.j  14

lives  lost  at  Maesteg,  S.  Wales,  26  Dec.
1865—6  lives  lost  at  Claycross,  3  May;  24  at  New


COAL.


227


COAL.


Bedwellty  pit,  near  Tredegar,  16  June  ;  explosion  at
Gethin  mine,  Merthyr  Tydvil,  30  lives  lost,  20  Deo.

1866 — Explosion  at  Highbrook  colliery,  near  Wigan,
Lancashire,  about  30  lives  lost,  23  Jan.  ;  at  Dukiulield,
near  Ashton,  37  lives  lost,  14  June  ;  at  Pelton  Fell
colliery,  near  Durham,  about  24  lives  lost,  31  Oct.  ;  at
Oaks  colliery,  Hoyle-mill,  near  Barnsley,  about  360
persons  killed,  12  Dec.  ;  28  searchers  killed  (including
Mr.  Parkin  Jett'cock,  mining  engineer)  by  fresh  explosion,

13  Dec.  ;  at  Talke-of-the-hill,  Staffordshire,  about  80
persons  perish,  13  Dec.

1867 — Explosion  at  Garswood  colliery,  near  St.  Helen's,

14  lives  lost,  29  Aug.  ;  Shankhouse  colliery,  Cramlington,
Northumberland,  flooded,  1  man  drowned,  1  Nov.  ;  ex-
plosionat  Femdale  colliery,  Rhondda  valley,  Glamorgan-
shire, about  178  lives  lost :  attributed  tonaked  lights,
8  Nov.

(For  still  more  fatal  accidents,  see  Lundhill  and
Hartley.)

47  lives  lost  in  a  mine  near  Jemmapes,  Belgium,  6
Aug.  1868.

1868.  Explosions  :  at  Green  pit,  near  Kuabon,  11
persons  killed,  30  Sept.  ;  at  Arley  mine,  Hindley-green,
near  Wigan,  62  killed,  26  Nov.  ;  at  Norley  mine,  near
Wigan,  about  7  killed,  21  Dec.  ;  at  Haydock  collieries,
near  St.  Helen's,  26  deaths,  30  Dec.

1869.  Brierly  pit,  near  Stourbridge,  inundated  17
March,  many  lost  ; — some  rescued,  20,  21  March.
Explosions  at  Highbrook  colliery,  near  Wigan,  about
33  persons  perished,  1  April ;  at  Ferndale  colliery,
Glamorganshire,  about  60  lost,  10  June ;  Haydock  pit,
St.  Helen's,  about  58  lost,  21  July ;  Moss  Coal  Company's
pit,  near  Hindley,  about  30  lost,  22  Nov.

1870.  Explosions — at  Silverdale  colliery,  Staffordshire,
19  killed,  7  July  ;  Llansamlet,  near  Swansea,  19  killed,
23  July ;  Brynn-hall,  near  Wigan,  about  19  killed,  16
Aug.

1871.  Explosions,  Renishaw  park  colliery,  Eckington,
near  Sheffield,  27  killed,  10  Jan.  ;  Pentre  colliery,
Rhondda  valley,  38  killed,  24  Feb.  ;  Victoria,  near  Ebbw
Vale,  Monmouthshire,  about  19  killed,  2  March  ;  Moss
Pits,  near  Wigan,  70  killed,  6  Sept.  ;  Grisons,  Belgium,
30  killed,  27  Sept.  ;  Gelly  pit,  Aberdare,  4  killed,  4  Oct.  ;
Seaham,  30  killed,  25  Oct.

1872.  Explosions — Llynvi  valley  near  Bridgend,  11
killed,  11  Jan.  ;  Black  lake  colliery,  S.  Staffordshire,  8
killed,  (through  carelessness),  25  Jan.  ;  Morley  main,  near
Dewsbury  and  Leeds,  7  Oct.  about  34  deaths  :  great
carelessness  and  bad  discipline  ;  Rains  mine,  Pendlebury,
6  killed,  6  Nov.  ;  Monceaux,  department  of Saone  et  Loire,
about  38  killed,  8  Nov.  ;  Pelsall-hall,  Walsall,  about  22
drowned  by  influx  of  water  from  an  old  working,  14  Nov.

1873.  Explosion  at  Talke  colliery,  N.  Staffordshire  Coal
and  Iron  Company's  works,  about  20  killed,  18  Feb.  ;
Drummond  colliery,  Nova  Scotia,  explosion  and  fire,
about  75  perished,  13  May  ;  Shamokin,  Pennsylvania,
U.S.,  15  killed,  18  June  ;  Meshes  colliery,  near  Wigan,

6  killed,  21  Nov.

1874.  Explosions— Astley  pit,  Dukinfield,  near  Man-
chester, 54  killed,  (attributed  to  gross  ignorance  or  cul-
pable carelessness),  14  April ;  Saw-mills  pit,  near  Wigan,

15  killed,  18  July  ;  Rawmarsh  colliery  near  Rotherham,
explosion  through  naked  lights,  about  23  killed,  20  Nov. ;
Bignall  hall  colliery,  near  Dudley,  Staffordshire,  17
killed,  24  Dec.

1875.  Explosions — Aldwarke  Main,  near  Rotherham,

7  killed,  5  Jan. ;  Ruffery  colliery,  Dudley,  4 killed,  6  Jan.;
Bunker's  Hill,  North  Staffordshire,  (through  a  gun-
powder fuze),  43  deaths,  30  April ;  Donnington  Wood,
Shropshire,  11  killed,  n  Sept.  ;  Ashton  Vale,  near  Bed-
minster,  4  killed,  7  Oct.  ;  Haigh,  near  Wigan,  Alexandra
pit  (accident  with  descending  cages),  7  killed,  3  Dec.  ;
Powell  Duffryn,  New  Tredegar,  22  killed,  4  Dec.  ;  Llan-
colly,  Pentyrch,  (naked  light),  12  killed,  5  Dec.  ;  Swaithe
main,  near  Barnsley,  about  140  killed,  6  Dec.  ;  Methley
junction,  near  Leeds,  6  killed,  9  Dec.  Explosion  at  a
colliery  near  Mons,  Belgium,  about  no  killed,  14  Dec.

1876.  Explosions— Talke,  North  Staffordshire,  5  killed,
S  Jan.  ;  St.  Etienne,  France,  about  30  killed,  4  Feb.
Birley,  near  Sheffield,  6  killed,  26  June  ;  Abertillery,
Monmouthshire,  17  killed,  18  Dec.

1877.  Explosions,  &c. — Stonehill,  near  Bolton,  about
18  killed,  23  Jan.  ;  Darcy  Lever,  near  Bolton,  about  10
killed,  7  Feb.  ;  Tyldesley,  near  Bolton,  7  killed,  6  March ;
New  Worcester  pit,  Swansea,  18  or  19  killed,  8  March.  In-
undation— Tynewydd  mine,  near  Pontypridd,  S.  Wales,
several  drowned,  1 1  April,  several  rescued  by  excavation,
after  ten  days'  imprisonment ;  great  heroism  shown,  see


Albert  Medals,  20  April ;  Mr.  Thomas,  manager,  accused  of
culpable  negligence,  after  inquest  on  5  deaths,  17  May. —
King  Pit,  Pemberton,  near  Wigan,  about  33  perished
(including  Mr.  Walker,  the  manager,  and  two  overlookers
attempting  rescue)  n  Oct. ;  High  Blantyre,  near  Glasgow,
Messrs.  Dixon's  pits,  above  200  perished,  22  Oct. ;  South
Kirby,  near  Barnsley,  rope  broke,  4  killed,  29  Oct.

1878.  Explosions,  &c. — High  Blantyre,  6  perished,  9
March;  Kilsyth,  Stirlingshire,  Barnard  Pit,  16  immured,
8  March  ;  Kearsley,  near  Bolton,  about  43  perished,  12
March  ;  Apedale,  near  Chesterton,  N.  Staffordshire,  about
30  perished,  27  March  ;  Wood  Pits,  Florida  mine,  Hay-
dock, near  Wigan,  about  189  perished,  7  June  ;  Ebbw
Vale  colliery,  Abercarne,  12  miles  from  Newport,  Mon-
mouthshire, about  268  out  of  3S7  perished,  n  Sept.

1879.  Explosions,  &c— Dinas  pit,  Rhondda  valley,
Glamorganshire,  about  63  perish,  13  Jan.  ;  "  Deep
Drop  "  pit,  near  Wakefield,  19  perish,  4  March  ;  Victoria
colliery,  Snydale,  near  Wakefield  ;  rope  of  descending
cage  broke,  8  killed,  7  March  ;  Cwmavon,  Glamorgan-
shire ;  chain  broke,  6  killed,  24  June ;  High  Blantyre
collieries,  Dixon  &  Co.,  28  killed,  2  July;  Lady  pit,
Silverdale,  N.  Staffordshire,  8  deaths,  12  Sept.  ;  Wann
Llwyd,  Ebbw  Vale,  Monmouth,  3  killed,  22  Sept.  :
Shortheath,  near  Wolverhampton,  6  killed,  12  Nov. ;
Scowcrofts,  Kearsley,  near  Bolton,  7  deaths,  25  Dec.

1880.  Explosions,  &c.  — Leycett,  near  Newcastle-
under-Lyme,  about  73  deaths,  21  Jan.  ;  Anderlavs
(France),  about  20  deaths,  1  April ;  Risea,  6  miles  from
Newport,  Mon.,  about  120  deaths  15  July  ;  Seaham,
near  Sunderland,  Durham,  164  deaths,  8  Sept.  ;  Pen-y-
graig,  S.  Wales,  101  perished,  10  Dec.

1881.  Explosions.— Whitfield  colliery,  Chell,  N.  Staf-
ford, 20  killed,  7  Feb.  ;  Hanley,  Staffordshire,  about  5
killed,  21  Nov.  ;  Cockerill  colliery,  Belgium,  66  perished,
about  9  Dec.  ;  Abram  colliery,  near  Wigan,  about  48
perished,  19  Dec.  (13  explosions,  with  loss  of  99  lives).

1882.  Explosions — Coedlae,  Glamorganshire,  6  lives,
n  Feb. ;  Trimdon  Grange  colliery,  74  perished,  16  Feb. ;
Blaina,  Monmouthshire,  5  deaths,  27  Feb. ;  Lumley,  near
Fencehouses,  Durham,  fall  of  shaft,  about  100  imprisoned,
14  March  ;  Tudhoe  colliery,  Weardale,  Durham,  37  lives
lost,  18  April;  West  Stanley,  Durham,  13  lives
lost,  19  April ;  lord  Lonsdale's  colliery,  near  White-
haven, 4  killed,  25  April ;  Baxterley  mine,  near  Ather-
stone,  Warwickshire,  about  32  lives  lost,  2  May  ;  Vic-
toria colliery,  Brantcliff,  Morley,  near  Leeds,  7  killed,  r
May ;  Claycross,  above  45  deaths,  7  Nov.

1883.  Explosions.— Wharnclifte  colliery,  near  Barns-
ley, 17  deaths,  19  Oct. ;  Fair  Lady  pit,  near  Leycett,
Newcastle-under-Lyme,  22  Oct. ;  Moor-fields  colliery,
near  Accrington,  Lancashire,  about  68  deaths,  7  Nov.

1884.  Explosions,  &c— Gamant,  Cwmamman,  South
Wales;  rope  broke;  cage  fell;  11  killed,  16  Jan.;
Rhondda  valley,  Glamorganshire,  explosion,  about  n
perished,  Jan.  ;  Pochin  colliery,  near  Tredegar,  14
deaths,  8  Nov.

1885.  Explosions,  &c. — Usworth,  near  Newcastle-on-
Tyne  ;  about  42  deaths,  2  March  ;  Camphausen,  near
Saarbrtick.  about  140  .perish,  17  March ;  Dombrau,
Ostrau,  Moravia,  about  41  deaths,  27  March;  Fenton
colliery,  near  Stoke-on-Trent,  8  deaths,  7  April ;  Hough -
ton-le-Spring,  about  12  perish,  3  June  ;  Clifton  Hall,  near
Pendlebury,  Lancashire,  about  177  perish,  9.30  a.m.  18
June  ;  Burley,  Apedale,  N.  Stafford,  9  killed,  20  June  :
Manly  colliery,  Pontypridd,  S.  Wales,  200  entombed,  Si
deaths,  23  Dec.  (Explosions  in  Britain  16,  deaths  322.)

1886.  Explosions,  &c. — Easton  colliery,  Bristol,  4
killed,  19  Feb.  ;  Werfa  old  pit,  Abernant,  near  Aberdare,
3  killed,  27  March  ;  Woodend  or  Bedford  colliery,  mar
West  Leigh, S.W. Lancashire, explosion, 38 deaths,

13  Aug.;  Bedminster  colliery,  near  Bristol,  10  killed,
10  Sept.  ;  Braysdown  colliery,  near  Radstock,  3  killed,

14  Sept.  ;  Schalkc,  in  Westphalia,  45  perish,  24  Sept.  :
Pope  and  Pearson's  colliery,  Altofts,  near  Wakefield,
22  deaths,  2  Oct.  ;  Taunton  colliery  near  Ashby-de-la-
Zoueh,  Mr.  Lakin,  the  owner,  and  three  others*  killed
by  choke-damp,  6  Oct.  ;  Albion  colliery,  near  Ponty-
pridd, four  killed,  Nov.  ;  Elemore  colliery,  Durham,
28  deaths,  2  Dec.  ;  Houghton  Main  colliery,  near
Barnsley,  10  men  killed  by  fall  of  a  cage,  30  Dec.

1887.  Explosions,  &c. — Ynyshir  colliery.  Rhondda
valley,  Wales,  about  39  lives  lost,  18  Feb.  :  Mons
colliery,  Belgium,  about  87  perish.  5  March  ;  I  'ill  1  i
(Sydney),  85  perish,  23  March  ;  Victoria  colliery,
Nanaimo,  Vancouver  Island,  over  170  perish,  4  May  :
Udston colliery,  near Glasgow, 73 perish, 28 May  ;

Q  2


COAL  DUES.


228


COCK-FIGHTING.


Gelsenkirchener, Prussia, above 60 perish, 8 June  ;
Walker,  near  Newcastle,  8  killed,  24  Oct.

1888.  St.  Helen's  colliery,  Workington,  about  30  lives
lost,  19  April ;  Aber  colliery,  Glamorgan,  5  lives  lost,
20  May  ;  Aveyron,  France,  40  lives  lost,  3  Nov.  ;  Dour,
Belgium,  21  lives  lost,  13  Nov.

1889.  Hyde  colliery,  Cheshire,  23  lives  lost,  18  Jan.  ;
Brynnally  colliery,  near  Wrexham,  20  lives  lost,  13
March.  Explosion  of  fire-damp  in  Verpilleux  mine,  near
St.  Etienne,  about  184  deaths,  3  July  ;  Shell  colliery,
N.  Staffordshire,  explosion,  3  deaths,  17  Aug.  ;  Peni-
cuik colliery  (Mauricewood  pit),  Midlothian,  fire  dis-
covered, 2  men  escaped,  63  reported  to  have  perished,
5  Sept.  ;  Mossfield  colliery,  Adderley  Green,  Longton,
N.  Staffordshire,  59  deaths,  16  Oct.  ;  Hebburn  colliery,
near  Nevvcastle-on-Tyne,  6  deaths,  4  Nov.

1890.  Explosions,  &c— Glynn  Pit,  near  Pontypool,
5  deaths,  23  Jan.  ;  Llanerch  colliery,  near  Abersychan,
Monmouthshire,  176  deaths  (relief  subscribed  nearly
26,000^.),  30  April  ;  colliery  near  Decize,  Nievre,
France,  about  44  deaths,  18  Feb.  ;  Morfa  colliery,  Tar-
bach,  Glamorganshire,  87  deaths,  10  March  ;  Hill  Farm
mine,  Pennsylvania,  34  perish,  16  June  ;  Pelissier  mine,
St.  Etienne,  S.  France,  about  109  lives  lost,  29  July  ;
Mayback  pit,  near  Wendel,  24  deaths,  15  Sept.

1891.  Explosions,  &c. — Sladderhill  pits,  Apedale,  near
Newcastle-under-Lyme,  about  10  lives  lost,  2  April ;
Malago  Vale,  Bedminster,  10  deaths,  31  Aug.  ;  Aber-
gwynfi,  Avon  Valley,  S.  Wales,  7  men  killed  by  accident
to  machinery,  30  Sept. ;  St.  Etienne,  France,  explosion
through  fire-damp,  about  73  deaths,  6  Dec.

1892.  Explosions,  &c. — Anderlues  colliery,  Mons,  Bel-
gium, about  153  killed,  n  March.

See  Mansion-house  Funds.

Coal  Exchange,  London,  established  by  47  Geo.
III.  c.  68  (1807).  The  present  building  (a  most
interesting  structure)  was  erected  by  Mr.  J.  B.
Bunning,  and  opened  by  prince  Albert 30  Oct.  1849

Coal-wuippers'  Board,  to  protect  the  men  em-
ployed in  unloading  coal-vessels  from  publicans,
formed  by  an  act  of  parliament  in  1843,  lasted
till  1856,  when  the  coakowners  themselves  esta-
blished a  whipping  office.

COAL  DUES,  on  coal  entering  the  port  of
London  for  metage  are  mentioned  in 1444. The
right  of  the  Corporation  to  \d.  per  chaldron  was  es-
tablished in  1591. The  amount  of  the  tax  and  the
term  of  levying  it  have  been  frequently  changed
since  1694. In  1831,  the  tax  was  directed  to  be
levied  on  all  coals  entering  London  by  water  or
railways,  to  be  regulated  by  weight  and not  by
measure. The  tax  of  13^.  per  ton  by  the  act  of
1868  extended  to  5  July, 1889. The  receipts  in
1885  amounted  to  449,343^. Latterly  the  money
has  been  expended  on  extensive  City  improvements.
Much  discussion  on  the  subject,  1887-9.
An  act  for  the  abolition  of  these  dues  received  the
royal  assent  9  July,  1889. Provision  was  made  for  the
continuance  of  these  dues  another  year  to  enable  the
corporation  to  pay  debts  due  for  the  Holborn  Viaduct
and  various  city  improvements. They  ceased  5  July,


COAL  TAR,  see  Tar  and  Benzole.

COALITIONS  AGAINST  FRANCE  generally
arose  through  England  subsidising  the  great  powers
of  the  continent. See  Treaties.

Austria,  Prussia  and  Great  Britain ....  1793
Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia,  Naples,  Portugal,

and  Turkey,  signed  ....  22  June,  1799
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Naples,  5  Aug.  1805
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Saxony,  6  Oct.  1806
England  and  Austria  ....  6  April,  1809
Russia  and  Prussia  ;  the  treaty  ratified  at  Kalisch

17  March,  1813

COALITION  MINISTRIES,  see  Aberdeen,
Grenville  II.,  Pelham,  and  Portland.

COAST  GUARD.  In  1856,  the  raising  and
governing  this  body was  transferred to  the ad-


miralty. A  coast  brigade  of  artillery  was  established
in  Nov.  1859. — Coast  Volunteers,  see  under
Navy  of  England.  The  importance  of  electric  coast
communication  in  time  of  storms,  &c,  was  much
discussed  in  1892.  The  government  agreed  to
appoint  a  royal  commission  on  the  subject,  26
April,  1892,  which  met  18  June,  see  Lighthouses.

COASTING  TRADE  of  Great  Britain  thrown
open  to  all  nations  by  17  Vict.  c.  5,  1854.

COBALT,  a  rare  mineral  found  among  the  veins
of  ores,  or  in  the  fissures  of  stone,  at  an  early  date,
in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  where  the  workmen  call
it  mundic.  Hill.  It  was  distinguished  as  a  metal
by  Brandt,  in  1733.

COBDEN  CLUB,  instituted  to  spread  and
develop Cobden's principles; held first  dinner,
"W.  E.  Gladstone  in  the  chair,  21  July,  1866. The
statue  of  Richard  Cobden,  at  Camden  Town, was
inaugurated,  27  June,  1868. 12  out  of  14  cabinet
ministers  were  members  July,  1880.
At  a  meeting  of  the  club,  12  May,  1890,  earl  Granville  in
the  chair,  an  address  was  presented  to  Mr. T. B.
Potter,  chairman  for  24  years,  and  Mr.  W.  E.  Glad-
stone gave  a  discourse  on  free  trade.

COBURG,  see  Saxe  Coburg.

COCA,  a  powerful  narcotic  existing  in  the  Ery-
thoxy  Ion  Coca, aSouth  American  plantknown  in  1580 ;
men  taking  a  little  of  this  are  enabled  to  endure
hard  labour  without  any  food  for  six  or  seven  days
and  nights.  Dr.  Mantegazza's  prize  essay  in
German  was  published  at  Vienna  in  1849.  Cocaine,
an  anaesthetic  obtained  from  this  plant,  said  to  be
very  efficacious  in  ophthalmic  and  other  delicate
surgical  operations  in  1884.

COCCEIANS,  a  small  sect  founded  by  John
Cocceius,  of  Bremen,  in  the  seventeenth  century.
He  held,  amongst  other  opinions,  that  of  a  visible
reign  of  Christ  in  this  world,  after  a  general  con-
version of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the
Christian  faith. He  died  in  1665.

COCHEREL  (near  Evreux,  N.  W.  France) .
Here  Bertrand  uu  Guesclin  defeated  the  king  of
Navarre,  and  took  prisoner  the  captal  de  Buch,  16
May,  1364.

COCHIN  (India),  held  by  the  Portuguese,  1503;
by  the  Dutch,  1663  ;  by  Hyder  Ali,  1776  ;  taken  by
the  British,  1796;  ceded  to  them,  1814. — Cochix
China,  see  Annam.

COCHINEAL  INSECT  (Coccus  cacti),  de-
riving its  colour  from  feeding  on  the  cactus,  became
known  to  the  Spaniards  soon  after  their  conquest  of
Mexico  in  1518.  Cochineal  was  brought  to  Europe
about  1523,  but  was  not  known  in  Italy  in  1548,
although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there.
In  1858  it  was  cultivated  successfully  in  Tenerifl'e,
the  vines  having  failed  through  disease.  260,000  lbs.
of  cochineal  were  imported  into  England  in  1830 ;
1,081,776  lbs.  in  1845;  2,360,000  lbs.  in  1850;
3,034,976  lbs.  in  1859;  47,790  cwt.  in  1870;  and
32,094  cwt.  in  1877;  27,952  cwt.  in  1879;  3°,OI7
cwt.  in  1881  ;  21,440  cwt.  in  1883;  10,089  cwt-  in
1887  ;  7,808  cwt.  in  1890.  The  use  of  cochineal  has
been  much  replaced  by  the  coal  tar  colours.  Duty
repealed  1845.

COCKER' S  ARITHMETIC  ■  Edward  Cocker,
an  eminent  penman,  born  1631,  died  1675,  compiled
a  book  which  first  appeared  in  1677,  edited  by  John
Hawkins.

COCK-FIGHTING,  practised  by  the  Greeks,
was  brought  by  the  Romans  into  England.  William
Fitz-Stephen,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  describes


COCK-LANE  GHOST.


229


COIF.


cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  school-boys  on  Shrove-
Tue?day.  It  was  prohibited  by  Edward  III.  1365  ;
by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  by  Cromwell,  1653,  and
latterly  in  1849.  Part  of  the  site  of  Drury-lane
theatre  was  a  cock-pit  in  the  reign  of  James  I. ;  and
the  Cock-pit  at  Whitehall  was  erected  by  Charles  II.
Formerly  there  was  a  Cock-pit- Royal  in  St.  James's
Park;  but  the  governors  of  Christ's  Hospital  would
not  renew  the  lease  for  the  building.*  Cock-fighting
is  now  forbidden  by  law.  On  22  April,  1865,  34
persons  were  fined  at  Marlborough-street  police-
office,  for  being  present  at  a  cock-fight.  It  was
popular  in  New  York,  1873.

COCK-LANE  GHOST,  an  imposition  prac-
tised by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter,
by  means  of  a  female  ventriloquist,  during  1760  and
1761,  at  No.  33,  Cock-lane,  London,  was  at  length
detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned  to  the
pillory  and  impriso anient,  10  July,  1762.

COCOA  or  CACAO,  the  kernel  or  seed  of  Theo-
broma  cacao  (Linn.),  was  introduced  into  this
country  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  Mexico,  where
it  is  an  article  of  diet.  From  cocoa  is  produced
chocolate.  The  cocoa  imported  into  the  United
Kingdom,  chiefly  from  the  British  West  Indies  and
Guiana,  was  in  1849,  1,989,477  lbs.;  in  1855,
7,343,458  lbs. ;  in  1861,  9,080,288  lbs. ;  in  1866,
10,308,298  lbs.;  in  1870,  14, 793', 950  lbs.;  in  1876,
20,443,591  lbs.;  in  1877,  17,056,364  lbs.;  in  1879,
26,155,788  lbs. ;  in  1883,  22,698,161  lbs. ;  in  1887,
27,352,568  lbs. ;  in  1890,  28,112,210  lbs.

COCOA-NUT  TREE  {Cocos  nucifera,  Linn.),
supplies  the  Indians  with  almost  all  they  need,  as
bread,  water,  wine,  vinegar,  brandy,  milk,  oil,
honey,  sugar,  needles,  clothes,  thread,  cups,  spoons,
basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts  for  ships,  sails,  cord-
age, nails,  covering  for  their  houses,  &c.  Ray.
In  Sept.  1829,  Mr.  Soames  patented  his  mode  of
procuring  stearine  and  elaine  from  cocoa-nut  oil.
It  is  said  that  32  tons  of  candles  have  been  made
in  a  month  from  these  materials  at  the  Belmont
works,  Lambeth.

CODES,  see  Laivs.  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  civilian,
first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about  66  B.C. ;  and
Servius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian,  embodied  them
about  53  B.C.  The  Gregorian  and  Hermoginian
codes  were  published  a.d.  290 ;  the  Theodosian
code commenced by order  of Theodosius II. in

J  29 ;  and  published  for  the  eastern  empire  in  438.
n  447  he  transmitted  to  Valentinian  his  new  con-
stitutions promulgated  as  the  law  of  the  west  in
448.  The  celebrated  code  of  the  emperor  Justinian
in  529 — a  digest  from  this  last  made  in  533 ;  see
Basilica.  Alfred's  code,  a  selection  from  existing
laws,  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of
England,  887. — The  Code  Napoleon,  the  civil  code
of  France,  was  promulgated  from  1803  to  1810.
The  emperor  considered  it  his  most  enduring  monu-
ment. It  was  prepared  under  Ms  supervision  by
the  most  eminent  jurists,  from  the  400  systems
previously  existing,  and  has  been  adopted  by  other
countries.

A  conference  of  jurists  and  publicists  to  consider
an  international  code  held  at  Brussels,  July,  Aug.  1874

CODEX,  see  under  Bible,  Alexandrian,  &c.

*  Mr.  Ardesoif,  a  gentleman  of  large  fortune  and  great
hospitality,  who  was  almost  unrivalled  in  the  splendour
of  his  equipages,  had  a  favourite  cock,  upon  which  he
had  won  many  profitable  matches.  The  last  wager
he  laid  upon  this  cock  he  lost,  which  so  enraged  him,
that  in  a  tit  of  passion  he  thrust  the  bird  into  the  fire.
A  delirious  fever,  the  result  of  his  rage  and  inebriety,  in
three  days  put  an  end  to  his  life.  He  died  at  Tottenham,
near  London,  4  April,  1788.


CODFISH,  see  Holland,  1347.

COD-LIVER  OIL  was  recommended  as  a
remedy  for  chronic  rheumatism  by  Dr.  Percival  in
1782,  and  for  diseases  of  the  lungs  about  1833.  De
Jongh's  treatise  on  cod-liver  oil  was  published  in
Latin,  1844;  in  English,  1849.

COERCION  BILLS,  see  Ireland,  1881  and
1887.

C03UR  DE  LION  or  the  Lion-Hearted,
a  surname  given  to  Richard  I.  of  England,  on  ac-
count of  his  courage,  about  1192  ;  and  also  to  Louis
VIII.  of  France,  who  signalised  himself  in  the  cm-.
sades,  and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1223.

COFFEE.  The  tree  was  conveyed  from  Mocha
in  Arabia  to  Holland  about  1616;  and  carried  to
the  West  Indies  in  1726.  First  cultivated  at  Suri-
nam by  the  Dutch,  1718.  The  culture  was  encour-
aged in  the  plantations  about  1 732,  and  the  British
and  French  colonies  now  grow  coffee  abundantly.
Its  use  as  a  beverage  is  traced  to  the  Persians.  It
came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia  Felix,  about  1454;
and  passed  thence  into  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  thence
(in  151 1)  to  Constantinople,  where  a  coffee-house
was  opened  in  1551.  M.  Thevenot,  the  traveller,
first  brought  it  to  France,  1662.  Chambers.  See
Cafeine.

Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel
Canopus, a  Cretan, who  made  it  his  common
beverage  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford. Anderson .  1641
The  first  coffee-house  in  England  was  kept  by  a

Jew,  named  Jacobs,  in  Oxford ....  1650
Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant,  brought
home  with  him  Pasquet,  a  Greek  servant,  who
opened  the  first  coffee-house  in  London,  in  George-
yard,  Lombard-street 1652

Pasquet  afterwards  went  to  Holland,  and  opened

the  first  house  in  that  country. Anderson.
Rainbow  coffee-house,  Temple-bar,  represented  as  a

nuisance 1657

Coffee-houses  suppressed by  proclamation, 1675 ;

the  order  revoked  on  petition  of  the  traders  .  .  1676
Licences  to  sell  coffee  abolished  ....  1869
Duty  on  coffee  reduced  to i^d. the  pound  from

2  May,  137Z
The  quantity  of  coffee  imported  into  these  realms
in  1852,  54,935.510  lbs.  ;  in  i860,  82,767,746  lbs.  ;
in  1866,  127,044,816  lbs.  ;  in  1873,  183, 35?, 576  lbs. ;
in  1876,  1,361,6+2  cwts.  ;  in  1877, 1,608,282  cwts.  ;
in  1879,  1,609,386  cwts.  ;  in  1883,  1,407,134  cwts. ;
in  1887,  1,045,698  cwts. ;  in  1890,  864,454  cwts.
Coffee  Palaces,  founded  by  Dr.  Barnardo  to  replace
public-houses  for  working-men.  The  "  Edinburgh
Castle,"  Limehouse,  the  first  opened,  1873  ;  the

"Dublin  Castle,"  Mile  End 1876

Coffee  Taverns,  many  opened  in  London  .  1877-1889
Coffee  Public-house  National  Society,  formed  April,

1879  ;  opened  a  house  at  Shadwell . 28  June,  1879
Coffee  disease  prevalent  in  Ceylon,  &c. autumn,  1882
M. Raoul  reports the destructive, nearly uni-
versal ravages  of  Hemilia  Vastatrix  . . June,  1888

COFFERER  of  the  Household,  formerly

an  officer  of  state,  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council,
who  had  special  charge  of  the  other  officers  of  the
household.  Sir  Henry  Cocks  was  cofferer  to  queen
Elizabeth. In  1782  the  office  was  suppressed.

COFFINS.  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in
coffins  of  cedar;  owing  to  its  aromatic  and  incor-
ruptible qualities.  Thucydidcs.  Coffins  of  marble
and  stone  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  is
said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of  gold ;  and  glass
coffins  have  been  found  in  England.  Gouyh.  Patent
coffins  were  invented  in  I7<K>;  air-tight  metalli  ■
coffins  advertised  at  Birmingham  in  1861.

COIF.  The  Serjeant's  coif  was  introduced
before  1259,  to  hide  the  tonsure  of  such  clergy-
men as  chose  to  remain  advocates  in  the  secular
courts,  notwithstanding  their  prohibition  by  canon.


COIMBEA.


230


COIN.


Black-stone.  The  coif  was  at  first  a  thin  linen
cover  gathered  together  in  the  form  of  a  skull
or  helmet,  the  material  being  afterwards  changed
into  white  silk,  and  the  form  eventually  into  the
black  patch  at  the  top  of  the  forensic  wig,  which
is  now  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  degree  of
serjeant-at-law. Foss's  Lives  of  the  Judges.

COIMBEA  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal
by  Alfonso,  the  first  king,  1139.  The  only  Portu-
guese university  was  transferred  from  Lisbon  to
Coimbra  in  1308;  finally  settled  in  1527.  In  a
convent  here,  Alfonso  IV.  caused  iCez  de  Castro,  at
first  mistress  and  afterwards  wife  of  his  son  Pedro,
to  be  cruelly  murdered  in  1355.  Population,  1878,
I3.369-

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money,  1 184
B.C.  The  invention  of  coin  is  ascribed  to  the
Lydians,  whose  money  was  of  gold  and  silver.
Both  were  coined  by  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  about
862  B.C.  Money  was  corned  at  Home  under  Servius
Tullius,  about  573  B.C.  The  most  ancient  known
coins  are  Macedonian  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Brass
money  only  was  in  use  at  Rome  previously  to  269
B.C.  (when  Fabius  Pictor  coined  silver).  Gold  was
coined  206  B.C.  Iron  money  was  used  in  Sparta,
and  iron  and  tin  in  Britain.  Dufresnoy.  In  the
earlier  days  of  Rome  the  heads  were  those  of  deities,
or  of  those  who  had  received  divine  honours.
Julius  Caesar  first  obtained  permission  of  the  senate
to  place  his  portrait  on  the  coins,  and  the  example
was  soon  followed.  The  Britons  and  Saxons  coined
silver. — Rev.  Roger  Ruding's  "Annals  of  the  Coin-
age of  Great  Britain,"  published  1817-40. — The
gold  and  silver  coinage  in  the  world  is  about
250,000,000/.  silver,  and  150,000,000/.  gold.  Times,
25  June,  1852.  See  Gold,  Silver,  Copper  and  Guineas,
and  other  coins  under  names.  An  international
conference  relative  to  a  universal  system  of  coinage
met  at  Paris  in  1867  ;  and  a  royal  commission  was
appointed  in  London,  .Feb.  1868.  £  for  librce,
Roman  pound  of  12  ounces;  s.  for  solidi  (Auglo-
Saxon  scill  or  scilling)  ;  d.  for  denarii,  the  Roman
penny.

The  first  coinage  was  at  Camalodunum,  or  Col-
chester.

Coin  was  made  sterling  in  1216,  before  which  time
rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and  money  was
found  only  in  the  coffers  of  the  barons. Stow.

Coinage  reformed  by  Edward  VI.  . . .  1547-53

Queen  Elizabeth  caused  the  base  coin  to  be  recalled
and  genuine  issued 1560

During  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts  the  coinage  was
greatly  debased  by  clipping,  &c.  A  commission
(Charles  Montague,  lord  Somers,  sir  Isaac  Newton,
and  John  Locke)  was  appointed  by  William  III.
to  reform  the  coinage ;  an  act  was  passed,  with-
drawing the  debased  coin  from  circulation,  and
1,200,00.0?.  was  raised  by  a  window-tax  duty  to
defray  the  expense 1695-96

Broad-pieces  called  in,  and  re-coined  into  guineas  . 1732

The  gold-coin  brought  into  the  Mint  by  proclama-
tion, amounted  to  about  15, 563, 593L  ;  the  expense
of collecting, melting, and recoining  it, was

754.019* 1773-6

Act  for  weighing  gold  coin  passed . . 13  June,  1774
The  coin  of  the  realm  valued  at  about  12,000,000?.
in  1711. Davenant. At  16,000,000?.  in  1762.  An-
derson. It  was  20,000,000?. in  1786. Chalmers.
37,000,000?.  in  1800. Phillips.

New  silver  coinage 1816

English  and  Irish  money  assimilated  . . 1  Jan. 1S26
The  gold  is  28,000,000?.,  and  the  rest  of  the  metallic

currency  is  13,000,000?. Duke  of  Wellington .  1830
Metallic,  currency  calculated  to  reach  45,000,000?. .  1840
Estimated  as  approaching, in gold and silver,
60,000,000?. ........ 1853

Silver  coined  in  London,  value  11,108,265?.  15s. 1816-40
Ditto,  value  2,440,614? 1837-47


Light  gold  called  in 1842

Napier's  coin-weighing machine  at the  bank  of

England  constructed 1844

The  law  respecting  coinage  offences  consolidated .  1861
New  Coinage  act,  4  April,  1870  ;  amended 5  Aug.  1891

The  first  gold  coins  on  certain  record,  struck  42
Hen.  III. 1257

Gold  florin  first  struck,  Edw.  III.  (Camden) . .  1337
He  introduced  gold  6s.  pieces,  and  nobles  of  6s.  Sd.
(hence  the  lawyer's fee), afterwards  half and

quarter  nobles 1344

Edw.  IV.  coined  angels  with  a  figure  of  Michael  and
the  dragon,  the  original  of  George  and  the  dragon  1465

Sovereigns  first  minted 1489

Shillings  first  coined  (Dr.  Kelly)  .  .  1503  or  1504
Crowns  and  half-crowns  coined . . ...  1553

Irish  shillings  struck 1560

Milled  shilling  of  Elizabeth 1562

First  large  copper  coinage,  putting  an  end  to  the
circulation  of  private  leaden  pieces,  &c. . .  1620

Modern  milling  introduced 1631

Halfpence  and  farthings 1665

Copper  coined  by  government 1672

Guineas  (value  20s.),  2-guinea  and  5 -guinea pieces,  1663-64
Quarter-guinea  coined,  3  Geo.  I.  1716

Two-penny  copper  pieces 1797

Gold  7s. -pieces  authorised . . .29  Nov. ,,
Sovereigns,  new  coinage,  St.  George  and  dragon .  1817
Four-penny  pieces  (see  Groat)  coined . . 1836-56
Three-penny  pieces  :  3,290,208  coined  .  . .  1861

Half-farthings  coined 1843

Silver  florin  (2s.) 1849

No  crowns  (184S-78)  or  half-crowns  coined . 1848-73

Bronze  coinage  issued 1  Dec,  i860

St.  George  and  dragon  sovereigns  re-issued  14  Jan.  1871
Half-crowns  again  coined;  recommended  by  bankers  1874
New  die  for  gold  coin  finished  .  .  March,  1882
The  bankers  complain  of  great  loss,  by  receiving

light  goldcoins 1882-3

See  Budget,  1884.
Sale  of  Mr.  Whittall's  great  collection  of  Greek  and

other  coins,  1,668  lots  realized  3,951?.  .  July,  1884
Proclamation  against  importation  of  foreign  bronze
coins  [to  be  received  with  slight  reduction  at
post  offices  up  to  May  31]  .  .  .  25  March,  1887
Proclamation  respecting  changes  in  coinage,  viz.,
in  pieces  value  of  5?.,  2?.,  1?.,  10s.,  5s.,  2s.  6d.,  2s.,
is., and  6d. ;  also  Maundy  monies  value  of  $d.,  3c?.,
2d.,  &  it?.  New  coin  ordered,  double  florin  4s.  ;
new  effigy  and  designs  13  May  ;  new  coinage  issued

20  June, ,,
The  importation  of  imitation  coins  was  prohibited

by  act  passed 26  Aug. 1889

Mr.  Goschen  introduces  a  bill  for  the  withdrawal  of
light  gold  coin  issued  before  June,  1837,  and  the
substitution  of  coin  of  full  weight  provisionally,
at  the  expense  of  the  mint,  July  ;  passed  30  Aug.  ,,
[The  offer  expired  13  Jan.,  extended  to  31  March,  1890.]
The  coinage  committee  (sir  John  Lubbock,  sir  Frede-
rick Leigh  ton,  the  deputy-master  of  the  mint,  and
others)  recommends  that  new  designs  by  various
artists  be  adopted  for  the  sovereign  and  other
coins,  gold  and  silver  ;  report  presented,  March,  1892

AMOUNT OF  MONEY COINED.

Elizabeth ....... £5,832,00

James  I. ....... . 2,500,000

Charles  I. ....  >.  10,500,000

Cromwell 1,000,000

Charles  II 7,524,100

James  II 3,740,000

William  III. . 10,511,900

Anne 2,691,626

George  I. 8,725,920

George  II. 11,966,576

George  III. ...  .  gold 74,501,586

George  IV 41,782,815

William  IV 10,827,603

[The  .quantity  of  gold  that  passed  through  the  Mint,
since  the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth  in  155S,  to  the
beginning  of  1840,  is  3,353,561  pounds  weight,  troy.
Of  this,  nearly  one-half  was  coined  in  the  reign  of
George  III.,  namely,  1,593,078  pounds  weight,  troy.]
Victoria,  from  1837  to  1848,  gold,  29,886,457?.  ;  weight,

746,452  lbs.  ;  silver,  2,440,614?.  ;  copper?  43,743?.

1848-1852,  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  19,838,377?.


COINING.


231


COLLEGES.


Gold  coined  in  1853  (when  Australian  gold  came  in),
12,664,125/.  ;  in  1854,  4,354, 201I.  ;  in  1855,  9,245,264/.  ;
in  1856,  6,476,060/.

Coined  in  1859,  1,547,603  sovereigns  ;  2,203,813  half-sov.

■Coined  from  1  July,  1854,  to  31  Dec.  i860 :  'gold,
27,632,039/.  ;  silver,  2,432,116/.

Coined  in  1861 :  gold,  8,190,170/.;  silver,  209,484/.;
copper  (bronze),  273,578/.  13s.  4<Z.

Coined  in  1862:  gold,  7,836,413/.;  silver,  148,518/.;
copper,  352,800/.

Coined,  in  1866 :  gold,  5,076,676/.  ;  silver,  493,416/.  ;
copper,  50,624/.

Coined  in  1869 :  gold,  7,372,204/. ;  silver,  76,428/.  ;
copper,  20,832/.

Coined  in  1873  (less  than  1872) :  gold,  sovereigns,
2,382,835;  half-sovereigns,  1,001,733/.  ;  silver,  (number
of  pieces)  florins,  5,965,740;  is.,  6,486,480;  6</.,  4,395,600;
4ti.,  4158;  3d.,  4, 059,528 ;  id.,  7920.  Copper:  id.,
8,494,080  ;  ^d.,  3,584,000  ;  \d.,  3,215,600.

Coined  in  1876  (work  stopped  five  months  through  break-
down of  machinery),  gold,  sovereigns,  3,318,705/.;  half-
sovereigns,  1,401,943/.  10s. ;  silver,  half-crowns,
79,200/. ;  florins,  60,786/.

'3u  1877,  30,131, 130 pieces  ;  value  1,567,936/.  15s.  6ld.

Value  of  coinage  in  ten  years  (1867-76).  Gold,  46,802,517/.;
silver,  5,642,406/. ;  bronze,  401,309/.

2:879:  Gold,  sovereigns,  17,525;  half-sovereigns,  35,050;
total  value,  35,050/.  3s.  o(Z.  Silver,  half-crowns,  901,296  ;
florins,  1,354,320  ;  shillings,  3,611,520  ;  sixpences,
3,326,400  ;  fourpences,  4,158  ;  threepences,  2,966,568  ;
twopences,  4,752  ;  pence,  7,920  ;  total  value,  549,054?.
Bronze  :  Fence,  7,848,964  ;  halfpence,  3,584.000  ;  far-
things, 4,300,800  ;  total  value,  44,650/.  13s.  4c/.

JXet  loss  to  the  Mint  in  1878,  51,543/.  ;  in  1879,  27,955/.

1880  :  Gold,  4,150,052/.  Silver,  761,508/.  Copper,
19,264/.  :  total,  4,930,824/.

3883  :  Gold,  1,403,713/.  Silver,  1,274,328/.  Copper,
33,450/.  ;  total,  2,711,491?.

1886:  Gold,  1,711,659/. Silver,  669,636/.

2887  :  Gold,  1,908,686/. Silver,  861,498/. Copper,  45,173/.

1888  :  Gold,  2,032,900/. Silver,  756,578/. Bronze,  39,499/.

11889:  Gold;  7,500,700/.  Silver,  2,178,888/.  Bronze,  66,950/.

.1890  :  Gold,  7,680, 156/. Silver,  1,694,688/. Bronze,  90,285/.

1891  :  Gold,  6,723,648/. Silver,  1,000,548/. Bronze,  89,536/.

COINING.  Originally  the  metal  was  placed
'between  two  steel  dies,  and  struck  by  a  hammer.
In  1553,  a  mill,  invented  by  Antoine  Bnicher,  in-
troduced into  England,  1562.  An  engine  invented
by  Bahmcier,  1617.  Great  improvements  effected
"by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho,  1788.  The  erection
of  the  Mint  machinery,  London,  began  1811.  The
machinery  was  re-organised  in  1869.

COLCHESTER,  (Essex),  Camulodunum,  a
Soman  station,  obtained  its  first  charter  from
Richard  I.,  1 189.  Its  sixteen  churches  and  all  its
'buildings  sustained  great  damage  at  the  ten  weeks'
-siege,  June-Aug.  1648.  Two  of  its  defenders,  sir
George  Lisle  and  sir  Charles  Lucas,  were  tried  and
■shot  after  surrendering.  The  baize  manufacture  was
established  here,  1660.  Anderson.  The  railway  to
London  was  opened  in  1843.  A  great  fire  ;  several
business  establishments  destroyed,  about  25,000/.
^damage,  18  Aug.  1882.  Population  in  1881,  28,374;
1891,  34<559- See  Earthquakes,  22  April,  1S84.

COLCHIS,  N.W.  Asia,  now  Mingrelia.  See
-drgonautie  Expedition.

COLD.  On  3  Jan.  1854,  the  thermometer  in
London  marked  8°  below  zero,  Fahrenheit ;  on  25
Dec.  i860,  it  fell  (on  the  grass)  at  Nottingham,  to
13-8°  Eahr.  Mr.  Lowe.  From  23  to  30  Dec.  the
cold  was  excessive.  On  4  Jan.  1867,  the  thermometer
•stood  at  30  below  zero  at  Hammersmith  and  Hornsey,
near  London  ;  on  7  Jan.,  at  550  above.
"Very  cold  Nor.  1878— May  1879,  and  Nov.  1879— Feb.

1880.
The  December  of  1879  said  to  be  the  coldest  since  1796.
:Severe  frost,  13  Jan.— 26  Jan. 1881  (many  deaths  of  ex-
posed persons).
'Temperature  said  to  have  been  on  19  Jan.  13°  Fahrt.  at


Stepney,  London,  1S81  ; Cambridge, 40  F.  ; Oxford,
9°  F.  ;  London,  160  F.  21  Dec.  1890.

Very  cold  throughout  the  continent ;  the  Danube,  Elbe,
Rhine,  Seine  and  other  rivers  frozen  ;  heavy  falls  of
snow,  Jan.  1891.

Temperature  in  London,  night,  17-18  Feb.  1892,  i7'5°
Fahr.  •

The  summer  of  1888  exceptionally  cold  in  Europe ;
London,  n  July,  temperature  from  42°.8  to  55°.7  (Jan.
1,  1877,  from  49^.3  to  54°.o) — G.  J.  Symons.

Whilst  liquefying  gases,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  pro-
fessor Dewar  obtained  the  temperature  of — 2i3°cent.,
June,  1884.  The  liquefaction  of  carbonic  acid  obtained
at  a  temperature  of  — 1800  cent.  ;  oxygen  — 1840  cent. ;
air  — 1920  cent.  ;  nitrogen  — 198°  cent.  He  stated  the
zero  of  absolute  temperature  to  be  about  — 2730  cent.
June,  1885.
See  Frosts,  Ice,  Congelation,  Regelation  and  Provisions.

COLDINGHAM,  near  Berwick,  is  celebrated
for  the  heroism  of  its  nuns,  who,  on  the  attack  of
the  Danes,  to  disfigure  themselves,  cut  off  their
noses  and  lips.  The  Danes  burnt  them  all,  with  the
abbess  Ebba,  in  then-  monastery,  870.

COLDSTREAM  GUARDS..  General  Monk,
before  marching  from  Scotland  into  England  to
restore  Charles  II.,  raised  this  regiment  at  Cold-
stream, at  the  confluence  of  the  Leet  and  Tweed,
1660.  For  its  services  in  suppressing  Venner's
insurrection  in  1661,  it  was  not  disbanded,  but
constituted  the  2nd  regiment  of  foot  guards.

COLENSO  CONTROVERSY,  see Church

of  England,  1862-8.

COLIN,  see  Kolin.

COLISEUM  or  Colosseum,  at  Rome,  an

elliptical  amphitheatre,  of  which  the  external  dia-
meter is  1641  Italian  feet,  supposed  to  have  been
able  to  contain  80,000  spectators  of  the  fights  with
wild  beasts,  and  other  sports  in  the  arena.  It  was
erected  between  75  (some  say  77)  and  80,  by  the
emperors  Vespasian  and  Titus,  at  an  expense  suffi-
cient to  have  built  a  metropolis.  Its  remains  are  very
imposing. Excavations  have  been  made  since  1874.

COLLAR,  a  very  ancient  ornament.  The
Roman  hero  Titus  Manlius  slew  a  gigantic  Gaul  in
single  combat,  and  put  his  torques  (twisted  chain  or
collar)  on  his  own  neck,  and  was  hence  surnamed
Torquatus,  361  B.C.  A  collar  is  part  of  the  ensigns
of  the  order  of  knighthood.  That  of  the  order  of  the
garter  is  described,  and  its  wearing  enjoined,  in  the
statutes  of  Henry  VIII.,  24  April,  1522  ;  but  a  collar
had  been  previously  worn,  jlshmole.  The  collar
of  SS.  was  adopted  by  Henry  IV.,  and  became  a
Lancastrian  badge ;  some  consider  the  letters  stand
for  "  souveraigne,"  in  reference  to  his  claim  to  the
crown.  Some  writers  consider  SS.  to  be  in  honour
of  St.  Simplicius,  a  martyr.  The  order  of  the  Collar
or  Necklace  (or  Annonciada)  was  instituted  by
Amadeus  VI.  of  Savoy,  about  1360.

COLLECTIVISTS,  a  name  adopted  by  some
socialists,  who  opened  their  fourth  congress  at
Calais,  13  Oct.,  1890.

COLLECTS,  short  prayers,  very  ancient,  intro-
duced into  the  Roman  service  by  pope  Gelasius,
about  493,  and  into  the  English  liturgy  in  1548.
The  king  of  England  coming  into  Normandy,  ap-
pointed a  collect  for  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land,
1 166. Rap  in.

COLLEGES,  from  the  Latin  collegium,  as-
semblages of  persons  for  sacred,  civil,  literary  or
scientific  purposes.  University  education  preceded
the  erection  of  colleges,  which  were  founda-
tions to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of
living  at  lodging-houses  and  at  inns.  Collegiate
or academic degrees  are said to have been first


COLLIERY  ACCIDENTS.


2S2


COLONIES.


conferred  at  the  university  of  Paris,  1 140 ;  but  some
authorities  say  not  before  1215.  In  England,  it  is
contended  (.hat  the  date  is  much  higher,  and  some
hold  that  Bede  obtained  a  degree  formally  at  Cam-
bridge, and  John  de  Beverley  at  Oxford,  and  that  they
were  the  first  doctors  of  these  universities;  see  Cam-
bridge, Oxford,  Aberdeen,  Queen's  Colleges,  Herald*.
Working  Men's  Colleges,  Preceptors,  &o. '

.Founded  a.d.
Birmingham,  Queen's  College .... 1853

Cheshunt  College 1792

Doctors'  Commons,  civil  law  . . . . 1670

Dulwich  College ....  . .  1619

Eton  College 1441

Glasgow  College,  now  University . . . .  1451

Gresham  College 1581

Haileybury,  or  East  India  College  . 1806  ;  closed  1858

Highbury  College 1826

Highgate I564

King's  College,  London 1829

Maynooth  College 1795

Military  College,  Sandhurst 1799

Music,  Royal  College  of ;  see  Music 1883

Naval  College,  Portsmouth 1722

New  College,  St.  John's  Wood . .  " . . . 1850

Owens  College,  Manchester 1870

Physicians,  London 1523

Physicians,  Lublin . .  .... 1667

Physicians,  Edinburgh .  , . . . .  1681

St.  Andrews,  Scotland .  ... 1410

Sion  College,  incorporated 1630

Surgeons,  London 1745

Surgeons,  re-incorporated 1800

Surgeons,  Dublin 1786

Surgeons.  Edinburgh  (new) 1803

Trinity  College,  Dublin 1591

University,  London 1826

Winchester  College 1387

COLLIEEY  ACCIDENTS,  see  under  Coal.

COLLISIONS,  see  Seas.

COLLODION,  a  film  obtained  from  the  solu-
tion of  gun-cotton  in  ether.  The  iodised  collodion
extensively  employed  in  photography,  was  invented
by  Mr.  F.  Scott  Archer,  and  announced  in  the
"  Chemist,"  in  March,  1851.  On  the  premature
death  of  himself  and  wife,  a  pension  of  50/.  per
annum  was  granted  by  government  to  ids  three
orphan  children.

COLLYEIDIANS,  Arab  heretics  who  offered
collyrides,  little  cakes,  to  the  Virgin  Mary  as  a  goddess
in  the  4th  century.

COLMAR,  W.  Germany;  an  imperial  city
13th  century ;  taken  by  the  Swedes,  1632 ;  by
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who  destroyed  the  fortifica-
tions, 1673 ;  ceded  to  France,  1697 ;  with  Alsace,
restored  to  Germany,  187 r.

COLNEY  HATCH,  Middlesex.  County
lunatic  asylum  here  erected,  1851.

COLOGNE  (Colonia  Agrippina),  on  the  Rhine,
the  site  of  a  colony  founded  by  the  empress  Agrip-
pina,  about  50;  an  imperial  town,  957;  a  member
of  the  Hanseatic  league,  1260.  Many  ecclesiastical
councils  held  here,  782-1:536.  The  Jews  were  ex-
pelled from  it  in  1485,  and  the  Protestants  in  1618,
and  it  then  fell  into  decay.  Cologne  was  taken  by
the  French  under  Jourdan,  Oct.  1794.  The  arch-
bishopric secularised,  1801 ;  assigned  to  Prussia,
1814.  Population  in  1885,  161,401 ;  in  1890
281,273.

The  cathedral,  termed  dom  (containing  many  sup-
posed relics,  such  as  the  heads  of  the  magi  or  three
kings,  bones  of  the  11,000  virgins,  <&c.)  founded
by  abp.  Conrad  von  Hochstade  or  Hoch-
stettin  ;  architect  Gerhard  von  Riehl  or  Rile

15  Aug.  1248
Building  intermittent ;  suspended ....  ^09


Great  collections  made  for  resuming  it  by  Prussia

1814  et  seq.

Repairs  completed  ;  new  buildings  founded

4  Sept.  1842;

The  body  of  the  cathedral  opened  in  the  presence  of
the  king,  600th  anniversary  of  the  foundation

15  Aug.  1848"

International  industrial  exhibition  opened  by  the
crown  prince 2  June,  1865

Dispute  between  the  king  and  the  chapter  respect-
ing the  electing  an  archbishop,  settled  ;  the  pope
appoints  Melchers Jan.  186S

Congress  of  Old  Catholics  meet  (which  see)  20,  22  Sept. 1872

Archbishop Melchers arrested by government,

30  March,  1874

A  colossal  statue  of  Frederick-William  III.,  22  feet
high,  with  pedestrian  figures  at  the  base  (Blucher,
Humboldt,  and  others),  the  work  of  Blaser  and
Calendrelli,  subscribed  for  by  Rhinelanders  ;  un-
veiled by  the  emperor  William  I. . 26  Sept.  187S

The  building  reported  finished,  14  Aug.  ;  solemnly
opened  by  the  emperor  and  other  German  sove-
reigns 15  Oct.  i88'o

For  the  new  bell  see  Bells,  1887.

COLOMBIA,  a  republic  of  S.  Ameriea,  formed
of  states  which  declared  their  independence  of
Spain,  5  July,  181 1.  A  long  war  ensued.  Esti-
mated population  of  tire  present  state,  in  i888y
4,000,000.

Union  of  New  Grenada  and  Venezuela  .  17  Dec.  1 819.
The  royalists  defeated  at  Carabobo  .  24  June,  i82-u
Bolivar  named  dictator  ....  10  Feb.  1824
Alliance  between  Colombia  and  Mexico  30  June  ,,
Independence  of  Colombia  recognised  .  .  .  .  1825
Alliance  with  Guatemala  ....  March,  „
Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  president,  Aug.  ;

dictator 23  Nov. 182S

Padilla's  insurrection  ....  9  April,  1828
Conspiracy  of  Santander  against  the  life  of  Bolivar,

25  Sept. ,,
Venezuela  separates  from  Grenada . . Nov. 1829
Bolivar  resigns,  4  April ;  dies ... 17  Dec.  1830
Santander  dies . . . . . 26  May,  1840
The  republic  now  named  Colombia  instead  of  New

Grenada  ;  president,  general  E.  Salgar  .  .  .  187a
Manuel  Murillo  Toro,  president  .  .  1  April,  1872
Santiago  Perez,  president  .  .  .  .1  April,  1874
Aquileo  Parra,  president  1  April,  1876

General  Tru.jillo,  president,  proclaimed,  1  April,  1878
General  R.  Nunez,  president,  proclaimed,  1  April,  1883
President  Zyaldua  died  ....  Dec.  1882
T.  E.  Otalora,  president .  .  .  .  1  April,  1883
Rafael  Nunez  elected  president  Sept.  1883  ;  again

7  Aug.  1886
Insurrection ;  government  troops  defeated  at  Tun, ja

announced  9  Jan.  1885  ;  peace  restored  10  Jan.  1885
Fresh  insurrection ; government  troops  defeated

at  Barranquilla,  announced . . 2  March, „

Rebels  defeated about  13  July, ,r

Rebellion  over .... reported  31  July, ,r
(See  New  Grenada,  and  Venezuela.)

COLOMBO  (Ceylon),  fortified  in  1638  by  the
Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  in
1666;  the  latter  surrendered  it  to  the  British,  [5
Feb.  1796;  see  Ceylon,  1803,  1845.

COLON  (:)•  The  colon  and  period  were  adopted
by  Thrasymachus  about  373  b.  c.  (Suidas),  and
known  to  Aristotle.  The  colon  and  semicolon  (;)
first  used  in  British  literature  in  the  16th  century.
For  Colon,  a  S.  American  seaport,  see  Panama.

COLONEL  (from  Italian  colonna,  a  column),
the  highest  regimental  military  officer.  The  term
had  become  common  in  England"  in  the  16th  century.

COLONIAL,  see  under  Colonies.

COLONIES.  The  Phoenician  and  Greek  colo-
nies, frequently  founded  by  political  exiles,  soon
became  independent  of  the  mother  country.  The
Roman  colonies,  on  the  contrary,  continued  in  close
connection  with  Rome  itself ;  being  governed  almost


COLONIES.


233


COLONIES.


entirely  by  military  law. — The  Colonies  of  Great
Britain  partake  of  both  these  characters.  The  N.
American  colonies  revolted  in  consequence  of  the
attempt  at  taxation  without  their  consent  in  1764.
The  loyal  condition  of  the  present  colonies  now  is
due  to  the  gradual  relaxation  of  the  pressure  of  the
home  government.  The  population  of  the  British
colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world  was  estimated,  in
1861,  at  142,952,243;  in  1888,  275,520,216.  The
revenue  of  the  colonies  was  estimated  in  1865  to  be
51,492,000/.,  the  expenditure,  59,353,000/.  Ihe  act
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies,
and  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves
(20,000,000/.  sterling),  was  passed  in  1833.  All
the  slaves  throughout  the  British  colonies  were
emancipated  on  1  Aug.  1834.  Germany  and  other
powers  showed  great  desire  for  colonization  in
1884-5. See  Holland.

E.  J.  Payne's  "History  of  European  Colonies"
(1877)  is  good.

Resolution  of  House  of  Commons  recognises  the
claims  of  colonies  to  protection  from  conse-
quences of  imperial  policy,  but "  is  of  opinion  that
colonies  exercising  rights  of  self-government
ought  to  undertake  the  main  responsibility  of  pro-
viding for  their  own  internal  order  and  security,
and  ought  to  assist  in  their  own  external  defence"  1862

Chief  Colony,  or  Possession. Date  of  Settlement,  &c.

Aden 1838

African  Forts about  1618

Anguilla Settlement  about  1666

Antigua  ....  Settlement  .  .  .  1632
Ascension  .  .  .  .  Occupied .  .  .  .  1815
Australia,  South  .  .  Settlement  .  .  .  1834
Australia,  W.  (Swan  river) .  Settlement  .  .  .  1829
Bahama  Island  .  .  .  Settlement  1629,  et  seq.
Barbadoes . . . .  Settlement . . . 1605

Basutoland 1871

Bechuanaland .  1885

Bengal  ....  Settlement . about  1652

Berbera 1884

Berbice Capitulation, . Sept.  1803

Bermudas ....  Settlements  1609,  et  seq.

Bombay See  India . . .  1662

British  Burmah  (Upper .

Burmali,  1885) . . .  See.  Pegu . . .  1862
British  Columbia  . . .  Settlement . . . 1858

Brunei 1888

Canada  ....  Capitulation,  Sept.  1759-60
Cape  Breton  .  .  .  .  Ceded  ....  1763
Cape  Coast  Castle  .  .  By  cession  .  .  .  1667
Cape  of  Good  Hope  .  .  Capitulation  .  Jan.  1806
Ceylon  ....  All  acquired  .  .  .  1815
Cyprus  . . . Ceded  (underconditions)  1878

Demerara  and  Essequibo .  Capitulation  Sept.  1803

Dominica  ....  Ceded  by  France  .  .  1763
Elmina  and  Dutch  Guinea  .  By  cession  .  Feb.  1872
Falkland  Islands . .  See  Falkland  Islands .  1833

Fiji Ceded . . . .  1874

Gambia ....  Settlement  . .  1631

Gibraltar  .  .  .  .  Capitulation  .  Aug.  1704
Gold  Coast  ....  Settlement . about  1618

Gozo Capitulation, . Sept.  1800

Grenada  ....  Ceded  by  France  .  .  1763
Griqualand,  S.  Africa  .  Settlement  .  27  Oct.  1871
Guiana,  British  .  .  .  Capitulation  .  .  1803
Heligoland  ....  Capitulation  .  .  .  1807
Honduras . . . .  By  treaty  . .  1670

Hong-Kong  (Victoria) .  Ceded . . . . 1841

Jamaica Capitulation . . 1655

Keeling  Islands  ...  1857

Kermadec  Islands 1886

Labuan ....  See  Borneo . . .  1846

Lagos Ceded ....  1861

Leeward  Isles ...  ... 1626-1763

Madras See  India . . .  1639

Malacca  (under  Bengal)

Malta Capitulation  Sept.  1800

Mauritius  ....  Capitulation  .  Dec.  1810
Montserrat . . . .  Settlement  . . 1632

Natal .....  Settlement  .  1823

Nevis Settlement . . . 1628

New  Brunswick  . . .  Settlement  . 1622-1713

Newfoundland . . .  Settlement . about  1500


New  Guinea ...  ....  1884.

New  South  Wales  .  .  .  Settlement  .  .  .  1787
New  Zealand . . .  Settlement . . . 1840

Niger  districts 1885

Norfolk  Islands 1787

North  Borneo 1840.

Nova  Scotia . . . .  Settlement  . . . 1622

Pegu Conquered . . . 1852

Port  Phillip . . . .  See  Victoria.

Prince  Edward  Island . Capitulated . . . 1745

Prince of Wales Island

(Penang) . . . .  Settlement  . . .  1786
Queensland,  N.  S.  Wales .  Settlement . . . i860

Sarawak 188S

Sierra  Leone  .  .  .  Settlement  .  .  .  1787
[United  with  other  settlements  as  West  Africa,  Feb.  1866.]
Singapore . . . .  Purchased . . .  1819

Socotra 1886

St.  Christopher's . .  Settlement  . . 1623

St.  Helena . . . .  Capitulated . . . 1600
St.  Lucia ....  Capitulation . June,  1803
St.  Vincent . . . .  Ceded  by  France . .  1763
Swan  River ....  See  West  Australia.
Tasmania . . . See  Van  Diemen's  Land.
Tobago ....  Ceded  by  France  . .  1763

Tortola Settlement . . . 1666

Transvaal  ....  Annexed  .  .  .  187/
Trinidad  . . . .  Capitulation .  Feb. 1797

Van  Diemen's  Land  .  .  Settlement  .  .  .  1803
Vancouver  Island  . . Settlement  . . 1781

Victoria  (Port  Phillip) .  Settlement . . .  1850
Victoria ....  See  Hong-Kong.
Virgin  Isles . . . .  Settlement . . .  1666

Windward  Isles 1605-1803,

Zululand 1886

Colonial  bishoprics  fund,  established . . .  1841
Colonial  Branch  Army  Act  passed . . . .  1866
Colonial  Clergy  Act,  37  &  38  Vict.  c.  77,  passed  7
Aug.  1874,  removes  certain  disabilities  of  persons
not  ordained  by  bishops  of  the  united  church
of  England  and  Ireland.
Colonial  and  Continental  Church  Society  (formerly
"Colonial  Church  Society"),  took  its  name  1  May,
1861. It  deals  with  colonial  dioceses  and  British
residents  on  the  continent.
Colonial  Defences  Commission  (including  the  earl
of  Carnarvon,  Mr.  Childers,  and  others),  appointed

about 12  Sept.  1879

Works  recommended  by  government ;  expenditure

imperial  and  local 1884

Colonial  Naval  Defence  Act,  to  enable  the  Colonies
to  take  effectual  measures  for  their  defence  against
attacks  by  sea,  was  passed  in  ....  1865
Colonial  Society,  established  to  promote  the  in-
terests of  the  colonies,  lord  Bury,  president,  held
its  first  meeting  26  June,  1868,  and  first  annual
meeting  28  June,  1869,  when  it  assumed  the  title
"  Royal."  On  7  March,  1870,  it  became  "  The
Royal  Colonial  Institute ;"  founded  1868,  incorpo-
rated 1882.  The  "Proceedings"  are  pub-
lished. A  colonial  congress  met  at  Amsterdam
19  Sept.  1883.
The  formation  of  a  National  and  Colonial  League
was  resolved  on  at  a  meeting  held  at  Cannon-
street.  London 5  Jan.  1870

Colonial  Exhibition.  An  Exhibition  of  the  pro-
ducts, manufactures,  and  arts  of  India  and  the
colonies  in  London  in  1886  ;  Royal  Commission
8  Nov.  1884  ;  great  exertion  of  the  prince  of  Wales
and  sir  P.  C.  Owen  ;  opened  with  great  splendour
by  the  Queen  ;  ode  by  lord  Tennyson,  set  to  music
by  sir  A.  Sullivan,  sung  4  May,  1886  ;  visited  by
5,550,745  persons  ;  closed  10  Nov.  A  surplus
of  35,235/.,  of  which  5964/.  supplied  the  deficit  on
the  Inventions  exhibition,  and  25,000?,.  supplied  to
the  funds  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  leaving  a
reserve  of  4279!.  ;  meeting  of  confmission,  3oApril
1887.  Testimonial  for  his  exertions  was  presented
to  sir  Philip  Cunlitl'e  Owen,  18  Dee. . .  1886

Mr.  E.  Stanhope,  colonial  secretary,  proposes  .1
conference  of  agents-general  on  colonial  defence
and  communication  with  Great  Britain  .  Dec.  ,,,
Colonial  conference;  first  meeting  of  representatives
of  all  the  colonies  ;  president,  sir  H.  T.  Holland,
colonial  secretary,  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  and
other  ministers  present;  questions  discussed,
defence  of  colonies,  coaling  stations,  &c,  cable
communication,  new  harbours,  employment  of


COLOEADO.


234


COMBAT.


Imperial  naval  and  military  officers,  relations
with  foreign  powers,  postal  regulations,  legal
affairs,  census  returns,  &c,  4  April,  1887.  Results
of  the  conference  successful ;  closed  g  May.  The
delegates  received by the' Queen  at  Windsor,

4  May,  1887

Xord  George  Hamilton's  plan  for  colonial  defence
accepted  by  Australia,  &c. . about  22  April, „.

INaval  Defence  Act  passed  at  Melbourne  with
royal  assent,  24,  25  Nov.  ;  accepted  by  Tasmania,
New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  and  New
Zealand  1  Dec.  ;  deferred  by  Queensland . Dec. ,,

^Canadian  co-operative  colonization  company
founded 1889

"The  committee  of  the  commons  on  coloniza-
tion appointed  in  1889  ;  sir  James  Fergusson,
chairman,  issued  a  report,  with  sensible  recom-
mendations, about . . . .18  March,  1891

^Burke's  "  Colonial  Gentry,"  vol.  I.  first  published

Sept. ,,

;See  Bishops  (Colonial),  Imperial  Defence,  Imperial
Institute,  Secretaries  and  separate  articles.

COLOEADO  (so  called  from  its  coloured
{ranges),  a  territory  of  the  United  States  of  N.orth
America,  was  organised  2  March,  1861 ;  proclaimed
;a  state,  Aug.  1876;  capital,  Denver  City.  Popula-
tion in  1880,  194,327  ;  1890,  412,198.

(Gold  found  here,  1858,  yield  up  to  1878,  nearly  80  tons
pure  gold ;  770  tons  silver;  and  much  copper  and  lead.

Colorado  Beetle,  so  called  from  its  striped  colouring,
was  first  found  in  Wisconsin,  was  described  by  Thomas
Say,  and  named  Doryphora  decemlhieata,  in  1824,  when
he  found  it  near  the  Upper  Missouri.  It  soon  took  to
.feeding  on  potatoes,  as  they  were  planted,  and  gradually
^proceeded  eastward  through  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Illinois,
'■Ohio,  &c,  to  the  New  England  states,  destroying  the
•crops,  1859  et  seq.  In  1873  it  reached  New  York,  and
Tthe  Atlantic  seaboard  in  1874,  swarming  there  in  1876,
.and  attacking  Canada.  The  fear  of  its  invading  Britain
Jed  to  an  order  in  council  respecting  its  destruction,
-&c,  14  Aug.  1877. Very  few  specimens  arrived.

COLOSSEUM,  see  Coliseum.  The  building  in
Hegent's  Park,  London,  was  planned  by  Mr.  Hornor,
sa  land  surveyor,  and  commenced  in  1824,  by  Peto
and  Grissell,  from  designs  by  Decimus  Burton.  The
-chief  portion  was  a  polygon  of  16  faces,  126  feet  in
diameter  externally :  the  walls  were  three  feet  thick
.-at  the  ground:  the  height  to  the  glazed  dome  112
ifeet.  On  the  canvas  walls  of  the  dome  was  painted
the  panoramic  view  of  London,  completed  in  1829
from  sketches  by  Mr.  Homor  taken  from  the  summit
of  St. Paul's  cathedral  in  1821-2.  The  picture  covered
.above  46,000  square  feet,  more  than  an  acre  of  can-
Tas.  The  different  parts  were  combined  by  Mr.  E.
T.  Parris,  who  in  1845  repainted  the  whole.  In
1848  a  panorama  of  Paris  was  exhibited  ;  succeeded,
-in  1850,  by  the  lake  of  Thun  m  Switzerland;  in
1851  the  panorama  of  London  was  reproduced.  In
5848  the  theatre,  with  the  panorama  of  Lisbon,  was
added.  In  183 1,  when  Mr.  Hornor  failed,  the  esta-
blishment was  sold  for  40,000^.  to  Messrs.  Braham
-and  Yates.  In  1843  it  was  bought  by  Mr.  D.  Mon-
tague for  23,000  guineas.  Timbs.  After  having
ieen  long  closed,  the  building  was  opened  to  the
jpublic  at  Christmas,  1856,  at  one  shilling.  Under
tthe  charge  of  Dr.  Bachhofther,  it  continued  open  till
the  spring  of  1864,  when  it  was  again  closed.  The
.-sale  of  the  site  was  announced  1870.  It  was  announced
in  Dec.  1871,  that  a  company  was  about  to  transform
the  building  and  grounds  into  club-chambers,  baths,
.a  winter  garden,  &c.  In  1874,  it  was  sold ;  large
smansions  have  been  erected  on  the  site.

COLOSSUS  OF  EHODES,  a  brass  statue  of
Apollo,  seventy  eubits  high,  esteemed  one  of  the
wonders  of  the  world,  was  erected  at  the  port  of
Rhodes  in  honour  of  the  sun,  by  Chares  of  Lindus,
disciple  of  Lysippus,  290  or  288  B.C.  It  was  thrown
down  by  an  earthquake  about  224  B.C. The  figure


is  said  mythically  to  have  stood  upon  two  moles,
a  leg  being  extended  on  each  side  of  the  harbour,  so
that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could  enter  between.  The
statue  was  in  ruins-for  nearly  nine  centuries,  and
had  never  been  repaired  ;  when  the  Saracens,  taking
Rhodes,  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  sold  the  metal,
weighing  720,900  lbs.,  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have
loaded  900  camels  in  transporting  it  to  Alexandria
about  653. Dufresnoy.

COLOUE  is  to  light  what  pitch  is  to  sound,
according  to  the  undulatory  theory  of  Huyghens
(about  1678),  established  by  Dr.  T.  Young,  and
others.  The  shade  varies  according  to  the  number
of  vibrations.  458  millions  of  millions  of  vibra-
tions in  a  second  attributed  to  the  red  end  of  the
spectrum  ;  to  the  violet,  727 ;  see  Spectrum.*  See
Bhte-Books  for  National  official  colours.

COLSTON  DAY,  Nov.  13,  see  Bristol.

COLUMBIA,  a  federal  district  round  the  city
of  Washington  in  Maryland;  established  1800.
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1862  Population  in  1880,
177,624; 1890,  230,392;  see  British  Columbia.

COLUMBIA  MAEKET,  Bethnal  Green,  E.
London;  erected  by  Mr.  Darbishire,  architect,  in
the  pointed  Gothic  style,  and  inaugurated  by  Miss
(now  lady)  Burdett-Coutts,  the  proprietor,  28  April,
1869.  It  cost  her  200,000^.  It  was  opened  as  a
wholesale  fish-market,  21  Feb.  1870,  but  was  not
successful.  On  3  Nov.  187 1,  lady  Burdett-Coutts
presented  the  market  to  the  corporation  of  London,
and  on  18  July,  1872,  she  received  publicly  the
freedom  of  that  city.
The  market  did  not  succeed,  and  the  buildings  were

restored  to  the  donor . . . . 4  Dec.  1874
Again  opened  on  liberal  terms  under  superintend-
ence of  Great  Eastern,  Great  Northern,  and  Mid-
land railway  companies .. . . .  15  Dee.  1875
Reported  failure  ;  proposed  use  as  a  co-operative

store April,  1878

Re-opened  as  a  fish-market  ...  17  July,  1883
Connected  with  N.  London  Railway . . April,  1885

COLUMBIUM,  a  metal  discovered  by  C.
Hatchett,  in  a  mineral  named  columbite,  in  1801.
It  is  identical  with  niobium,  and  not  with  tantalum,
as  supposed  by  some  chemists. Watts.

COLUMBUS,  capital  of  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  founded
in  1812,  is  the  seat  of  important  manufactures.
Population,  1870,31,274;  1890,88,150.

COMBAT,  SINGLE.  Trial  by  this  commenced
by  the  Lombards,  659.  Baronius.  It  was  intro-
duced into  England  for  accusations  of  treason,  if
neither  the  accuser  nor  the  accused  could  produce
good  evidence  ;  see  Appeal  of  Battle.

A  battle  by  single  combat  was  fought  before  the  king,
William  II.,  and  the  peers,  between  Geoffrey  Bay-
nard  and  William,  earl  of  Eu,  who  was  accused  by
Baynard  of  high  treason  ;  and  Baynard  having  con-
quered, Eu  was  deemed  convicted,  and  blinded  and
mutilated,  1096.

A  combat  proposed  between  Henry  of  Bolingbroke,  duke
of  Hereford  (afterwards  Henry  IV.),  and  Thomas,  duke
of  Norfolk,  was  forbidden  by  Richard  II.  Sept.  1398.

A  trial  was  appointed  between  the  prior  of  Kilmainham
and  the  earl  of  Ormond,  the  former  having  impeached
the  latter  of  high  treason,  quarrel  taken  up  by  the
king,  decided  without  fighting,  1446.

*  Some  persons  (about  65  outof  n54)cannotdistinguish
between  colours,  and  are  termed  Colour  blind.  The
defect  said  to  have  been  first  described  by  Priestley,
Phil.  Trans.  1777.  In  1859,  professor  J.  Clerk  Maxwell
invented  spectacles  to  remedy  this  defect,  which  is  also
called  "  Daltonism,"  after  John  Dalton,  the  chemist,  to
whom  scarlet  appeared  drab-colour.  Dr.  George  Wilson,
"Researches  on  Colour-Blindness,"  1847;  Dr.  Joy
Jeffries,  "  Colour  Blindness,"  1879,


COMBINATION.


235


COMETS.


A  combat  was  proposed  between  lord  Reay  and  Mr.
David  Ramsey,  in  1631,  but  the  king  prevented  it.

In  a  combat  in  Dublin  castle,  before  the  lords  justices
and  council,  between  Connor  MacCormack  O'Connor
and  Teig  Mac-Gilpatrick  O'Connor,  the  former  had  his
head  cut  off,  and  presented  to  the  lords,  1553.

COMBINATION.  Laws  were  enacted  from
the  time  of  Edward  I.  downwards,  regulating  the
price  of  labour  and  the  relations  between  masters
and  workmen,  and  prohibiting  the  latter  from  com-
bining for  their  own  protection.  All  these  laws  were
repealed,  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  129,  in  1825,  due  protection
being  given  to  both  partie-s.  The  act  was  amended
in  1859  by  22  Vict.  c.  34,  when  the  subject  was  much
discussed,  in  consequence  of  the  strike  in  the  build-
ing trades,  see  Sheffield  and  Strikes.

COMBS,  found  in  Pompeii;  Combmakers'  com-
pany incorporated,  1636  or  1650.

COMBUSTION,  see  Spontaneous.

COMEDIE  FBANCAISE,  Paris,  established

s68o.  >

At  the  death  of  Moliere  in  1673,  his  company  of  actors,
at  the  Palais  Royal,  separated  into  two  bodies.  The
fusion  of  these  formed  the  French  National  Theatre,
founded  by  Louis  XIV.  by  a  decree  18  Aug.,  first
performance  25  Aug.  1680  ;  the  actors,  15  men,  and  12
women,  being  the  best  of  the  time.  The  theatre  was
much  depressed  in  the  king's  last  years  ;  revived  under
Louis  XV. ;  ceased  in  1799  ;  restored  in  1803.

The  company  visited  London  in  1879  ;  first  appearance
at  the  Gaiety,  2  June,  1879  ;  eminent  actors,  Madame
Sarah  Bernhardt,  MM.  Got.  Delaunay,  and  Coquelin,
and  Miles.  Brohan  and  Favart.

The  200th  anniversary  of  the  establishment  celebrated
21  Oct.,  et  scq.  1880.

COMEDY.  Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and
lyric  poetry.  Susarion  and  Dolon,  the  inventors  of
theatrical  exhibitions,  578  B.C.,  performed  the  first
comedy  at  Athens,  on  a  waggon  or  movable  stage,
on  four  wheels,  for  which  they  were  rewarded  with
a  basket  of  figs  and  a  cask  of  wine ;  see  Arundelian
Marbles,  and  Dra?na.

Comedy,  for  libel,  prohibited  at  Athens,  440  b.  c.
Aristophanes  called  the  prince  of  ancient  comedy,  434

b.c,  and  Menander  that  of  the  new,  320  B.C.
Of  Plautus,  20  comedies  are  extant ;  he  nourished  220  B.C.
Statius  Cfecilius  wrote  upwards  of  30  comedies  ;  flourished

at  Rome  180  B.C.
Comedies  of  Lrelius  and  Terence  first  acted  154  b.c.
First  regular  comedy  performed  in  England  about  a.d.

1551-
St  was  said  of  Sheridan  that  he  wrote  the  best  comedy
(the  School  for  Scandal),  the  best  opera  (the  Duenna),
and  the  best  afterpiece  (the  Critic),  in  the  English  lan-
guage (i775-i779)-

COMETS  (Greek  come,  a  hair).  It  is  recorded
that  more  than  600  have  been  seen.  Mr.  Hind,  in
his  little  work  on  comets,  gave  a  chronological  list
(1852).  The  identity  and  periodicity  of  comets  are
considered  in  Mr.  G.  F.  Chambers'  Handbook  of
Astronomy,  1889-90,  and  in  Mr.  W.  T.  Lynn's
Celestial  Motions,  1891.  The  number  of  comets
within  the  solar  s}rstem,  visible  and  invisible,  is
•believed  to  be  enormous.  Aristotle  described  the
probable  course  of  a  comet  which  appeared  B.C.  370.
Apian  described  Halley's  comet,  1 5 3 1 .  Amedee
•Guillemin's  "World  of  Comets,"  by  J.  Glaisher,
published  1877.

At  the  birth  of  the  great  Mithridates  two  [probably  only
one]  large  comets  appeared,  which  were  seen  forseventy-
t wo  days  together,  whose  splendour  eclipsed  that  of
the  mid-day  sun,  and  occupied  the  fourth  part  of  the
heavens,  about  135  b.c.  Justin.
A  grand  comet  seen,  1264.  Its  tail  is  said  to  have  ex-
tended ioo°.  It  is  considered  to  have  reappeared  in
1556,  with  diminished  splendour  ;  and  was  expected  to
appear  again  about  Aug.  1858  or  Aug.  i860.  Hi  ml.
A  remarkable  one  seen  in  England,  June,  1337. Stow.


Tycho  Brahe  demonstrated  that  comets  are  extraneous
to  our  atmosphere,  about  1577.

A  comet  which  terrified  the  people  from  its  near  approach
to  the  earth  was  visible  from  3  Nov.  1679  to  9  March,
1680.  It  enabled  Newton  to  demonstrate  that  comets,
as  well  as  planets,  are  subject  to  the  law  of  gravitation,
and  most  probably  move  in  elliptic  orbits,  1704.

A  most  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1769,  which  passed
within  two  millions  of  miles  of  the  earth.  This  beauti-
ful comet,  moving  with  immense  swiftness,  was  seen
in  London  ;  its  tail  stretched  across  the  heavens  like
a  prodigious  luminous  arch,  36,000,000  miles  in  length.

The  computed  length  of  that  which  appeared  in  181 1,  and
which  was  so  remarkably  conspicuous,  was,  on  15
Oct.  according  to  the  late  Dr.  Herschel,  upwards  of
100,000,000  miles,  and  its  apparent  greatest  breadth,  at
the  same  time,  15,000,000  miles.  It  was  visible  all  the
autumn  to  the  naked  eye.  Philos.  'Trans.  Royal  Soc.
for  1812. Another  comet,  Dec.  1823.

Halley's  Comet,  1682.  Named  after  one  of  the  greatest
astronomers  of  England.  He  first  proved  that  many
of  the  appearances  of  comets  were  but  the  periodical
returns  of  the  same  bodies,  and  he  demonstrated  that
the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same  with  the  comet  of  1456,
1531,  and  1607,  deducing  this  fact  from  a  minute  obser-
vation of  the  first-mentioned  comet,  and  being  struck
by  its  wonderful  resemblance  to  the  comets  described
as  having  appeared  in  those  years  :  Halley,  therefore,
first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets,  and  predicted  their
periodical  returns.  Vince's  Astronomy.  The  revolution
of  Halley's  comet  is  performed  in  about  75  years  ;  it
appeared  (as  he  had  predicted)  in  1759,  and  came  to  its
perihelion  on  March  13  ;  its  last  appearance  was  1835  ;
its  next  will  be  1910

Encke's  Comet.  First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  26  Nov.
1818,  but  justly  named  by  astronomers  after  professor
Encke,  for  his  success  in  detecting  its  orbit,  motions,
and  perturbations  ;  it  is,  like  the  preceding,  one  of  the
three  comets  which  have  appeared  according  to  predic-
tion, and  its  revolutions  are  made  in  3  years  and  15
weeks.  Thirteenth  return  observed  at  Copenhagen  by
M.  d'Arrest,  20  July,  1863  ;  observed  in  England,  14
Oct.  1871  ;  seen  13  April,  1875  ;  in  New  South  Wales,
3  Aug.  1878  ;  visible  at  Washington,  &c,  18-21  Sept.
1881.

Biela's  Comet  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many  on
account  of  the  nearness  with  which  it  has  approached,
not  the  earth,  but  a  point  of  the  earth's  path  ;  it  was
first  discovered  by  M.  Biela,  an  Austrian  officer,  28  Feb.
1826.  It  is  one  of  the  three  comets  whose  re-appear-
ance was  predicted,  its  revolution  being  performed  in
6  years  and  38  weeks.  Its  second  appearance  was  in
1832,  when  the  time  of  its  perihelion  passage  was  27
Nov.  ;  its  third  was  in  1839  ;  its  fourth  in  1845  ;  and
its  fifth  in  1852  ;  it  has  since  vanished.

Donati's  Comet,  so  called  from  its  having  been  first  ob-
served by  Dr.  Donati,  of  P'lorence,  2  June,  1858,  being
then  calculated  to  be  228,000,000  miles  from  our  earth.
It  was  very  brilliant  in  England  in  the  end  of  September
and  October  following,  when  the  tail  was  said  to  be
40,000,000  miles  long.  On  the  10th  of  October  it  was
nearest  to  the  earth:  on  the  18th  it  was  near  coming
into  collision  with  Venus.  Opinions  varied  as  to  this
comet's  brilliancy  compared  with  that  of  181 1.

The  Great  Comet  of  1861  was  first  seen  by  Mr.  Tebbutt
at  Sydney,  in  Australia,  13  May  ;  by  M.  Goldschmidt
and  others  in  France  and  England  on  29,  30  June.  The
nucleus  was  about  400  miles  in  diameter,  with  a  long
bush-like  tail,  travelling  at  the  rate  of  10,000,000  miles
in  24  hours.  On  30  June,  it  was  suggested  that  we
were  in  the  tail — there  being  "  a  phosphorescent  auroral
glare. "

A  tailless  comet  was  discovered  in  the  constellation  Cas-
siopceia,  by  M.  Seeling,  at  Athens,  on  2  July,  and  by
M.  Tempel,  at  Marseilles,  2  and  3  July,  1862.

A  comet  detected  at  Harvard  by  Mr.  Tuttle,  18  July,  and
by  Rosa,  at  Rome,  on  25  July,  1S62.  It  was  visible  by
the  naked  eye  in  August  and  September.

Six  telescopic  comets  were  observed  in  1863,  and  several
in  1864.-

A  fine  comet  appeared  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  and
was  visible  in  South  America  and  Australia,  in  Jan.-
Feb.  1865.

M.  Babinel  considered  that  comets  had  so  little  density
that  tlir  earth  might  pass  through  the  tail  of  one  with-
out our  being  aware  of  it,  4  May.  1857.


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.


236


COMMERCE.


Schiaparelli,  of  Milan,  discovered  that  the  August  meteors

move  round  the  sun  in  an  orbit  almost  identical  with

the  third  comet  of  1862.
The  comet  of  1866  is  said to  be  connected  with  the

November  meteors.
One  discovered  at  Carlsruhe  bv  Dr.  Winnecke,  13  June,

1868  ;  a  bright  one  by  Paid  Henry,  23  Aug.  1873.
Several  small  comets  discovered  by  various  astronomers,

1873-81.
A  bright  comet  appeared  in  the  southern  hemisphere,

large  nucleus,  fan-shaped  tail ;  visible  in  the  southern

hemisphere,  May  ;  in  London,  22  June  et  seq.  1881.
Sch^eberle's  comet  visible  to  naked  eye,  N.W.  26  Aug.

1881,  and  Jan.  1885.
Denning's  comet  appears  4  Oct.  1881.
New  comet  discovered  at  Dudley,  Boston,  U.S.  18  Mar.

1882.
Another  at  Madeira,  at  Ealing,  near  London,  &c.  (pro-
bably that  of  1843  and  1880)  17  Sept.  1882;  at  Paris,

27  Sept. ;  seen  at  Vienna,  29  Sept.  1882.
Another  at  Athens,  8  Oct.  1882.
Another  in  North  America,  23-24  Feb.  1883.
Another  in  North  America,  2  Sept.  1883.
Comet  seen  in  S.W.,  14  Jan.  1884.
New  comet  discovered  at  Strasburg,  20  Sept.  1884.
New  comet  seen  in  Tennessee  about  7  July,  1885.
Another  discovered  by  M.  Fabry  of  Paris  3  Dec.  1885  ;

by  Mr.  Brooks  of  New  York  Jan.  1886.
Three  comets  visible,  Brooks',  Fabry's,  and  Barnard's,

Jan.  ;  increasing  in  brightness,  May,  1886.
A comet visible in  Britain and  one  in  New  York,

April,  1886.
New  comet  discovered  by  Dr. Hartwig  of  Strasburg

6  Oct.  1886.
New comet discovered by Mr. Finlay  of  the Cape

observatory  26  Sept.  1886.
New  comet  discovered  by  Mr.  Barnard  of  Nashville,

Tennessee,  13  May,  1887.
New  comet  observed  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  18  Feb.

1888.
New  comet  observed  by  Mr.  Brooks,  New  York,  7  Aug.

1888.
New  comet  observed  by  Mr. Barnard, sixth  in  1888,

31  Oct.
New  comet  discovered  by  Mr.  Brooks  14  Jan.  ;  another

by  Mr. Barnard  at  Lick,  California,  31  March  ;  one

by  Mr.  Brooks  at  Geneva,  New  York,  6  July  ;  one  in

Queensland  19  July  ;  one  by  Mr.  Barnard  at  Lick  23

June  ;  one  by  Mr.  Davidson  in  Algiers  26  July ;  one

by  Prof.  Lewis  Swift  at  Rochester  16  Nov.  ;  one  by

M.  Borrelly  at  Marseilles  12  Dec.  1889.
A  comet  observed  by  Mr. Brooks  at New  York, 19

March ;  one  by  prof.  Denning  at  Bristol,  23  July  ;  one

by  prof.  Zona  at  Palermo,  15  Nov.  1890.
A  comet  observed  by  Mr.  Barnard  at  Lick,  29  March,

and  by  Mr. W. F. Denning  at  Bristol,  30 March  ;

Tempel  Swift's  comet  (1869  and 1880)  seen by  Mr.

Denning,  30  Sept.,  1 Oct.  ; one  by  Mr.  Barnard  at

Lick,  3  Oct.,  1891.
A  comet  observed  by  prof.  Swift,  6  March ;  one  by  Mr.

W.  F.  Denning  near  Bristol, 18  March  ; one  by  M.

Winnecke,  18  March,  1892.
Coggia's  Comet,  discovered  by  him  at  Marseilles,
18  April,  became  visible  (near  Polar  star)  in  London
about  4  July ;  gradually  increased  in  brightness,  and
passed  out  of  sight  in  a  few  weeks,  in  Europe  ;  and
appeared  brilliant  at  Melbourne,  1  Aug.  1874.

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,  an  office  in  the
British  army  frequently  vacant.  When  the  duke
of  Wellington  resigned  the  office,  on  becoming  prime
minister,  in  1828,  his  successor,  lord  Hill,  became
commander  of  the  forces,  or  general  commanding-
in-chief.

By  Order  in  Council  the  duties  of  the  Commander-in-
Chief  were  denned  and  published . 2  Feb.  1888

CAPTAINS-GENERAL.

Duke  of  Albemarle 1660

Duke  of  Monmouth 1678

Duke  of  Marlborough 1690

Schomberg,  duke  of  Leinster . . . . .  1691

DukeofOrmond 1711

Duke  of  Marlborough,  again 1714

Duke  of  Cumberland 1744

Duke  of  York 1799


COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF.

Duke  of  Monmouth 1674

Duke  of  Marlborough 1690

Duke  of  Schomberg . . . . . . .1691

DukeofOrmond 1711

Earl  of  Stair 1744

Field-Marshal  Wade 1745

Lord  Ligonier '. . .  1757

Marquis  of  Granby 1766

Lord  Amherst,  general  on  the  staff  . . . -1778

Gen.  Seymour  Conway 1782

Lord  Amherst,  again 1793

Frederick,  duke  of  York  .  .  .  .  11  Feb.  1795
Sir  David  Dundas ....  25  March,  1809

Frederick,  duke  of  York,  again . .  29  May,  181 1

Duke  of  Wellington  .  22  Jan.  —5  May ;  27  Aug.  1827
Lord  Hill,  general  commanding-in-chief  25  Feb.  1828
Duke  of  Wellington,  again  .  .  .  .  15  Aug.  1842
Viscount  Hardinge  (died  24  Sept. 1856), general

commanding-in-chief 28  Sept.  1852

Duke  of  Cambridge,  ditto  15  July,  1856;  appointed  com-
mander-in-chief by  patent 1887

COMMEMORATION,  see  Enecenia.

COMMEND  AM,  "a  benefice  or  church
living,  which  being  void,  is  commended  to  the
charge  of  some  sufficient  clerk,  to  be  supplied  until
it  may  be  conveniently  supplied  with  a  pastor."
Blount.  By  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77  (1836),  future
bishops  were  prohibited  from  holding  in  commendam
the  livings  they  held  when  consecrated.

COMMERCE early flourished in Arabia;,
Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians,  see  the  descrip-
tion of  Tyre,  588  B.C.,  Ezek.  xxvii. In  later  times
it  was  spread over Europe by  a  confederacy  of
mai-itime  cities,  1241  (see  Hanse Towns) ;  by  the
discoveries  of  Columbus  ;  and  by  the  enterprises  of
the Dutch and Portuguese; see Exports, Im-
ports, and  articles  connected  with  this  subject.
The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  England  with
any  foreign  nation  was  entered  into  with  the
Flemings,  1  Edw.  I.  1272. The  second  was  with
Portugal  and  Spain,  2  Edw.  II.  1308. Anderson  ;
see  Treaties. Hertslet's  Collection, in  16  vols.
8vo,  published  1828-85,  has  a  copious  index.
An  important  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  with

France  (see  French  Treaty) i860

Chambers  of  Commerce  originated  at  Marseilles  in
the 14th  century, and similar chambers  were
instituted  in  all  the  chief  cities  in  France,  about  1700
These  chambers  suppressed  in  1791  ;  restored  by

decrees 3  Sept.  1853

A  chamber  of commerce  was started by  John

Weskett,  merchant,  he  receiving  payment,  about  1782
The  chamber  of  commerce  at  Glasgow  was  esta-
blished 1783  ; at  Edinburgh,  1785  :  Manchester,
1820  ;  Hull,  1837  ;  at  Liverpool  (mainly  through
the  exertions  of  Professor  Leone  Levi)  . .  1849
Associated  (twenty-seven)  chambers  of  commerce
(not  including  Liverpool,  Manchester,  and  Glas-
gow) met at Westminster for interchange of
opinions  on  various  questions . . 21  Feb. 1865
Annual  and  other  meetings  held  since  :  London,  26
March  ;  Hull,  19  Sept.  1889  ;  London,  25  March,
1890  ;  3  March,  1891  ;  8  March,  1892.
Congress  of  chambers  of  the  empire . 28  June,  1892
Commercial  education  :  conference  at  the  Mansion
House  to  promote  the  scheme  put  forth  by  the
London  chamber  of  commerce . . 5  Feb.  1890
The London  chamber  of  commerce constituted,
Sept.  issued  prospectus,  about  10  Oct.  1881  ;  600
members  first  general  meeting ;  Mr.  Magniac,  pre-
sident 25  Jan.  1882

First  annual  meeting .... 24  Jan.  1883,
International  Congress  of  Commerce  at  Brussels

6-10  Sept. ,,
The International  Congress  of  Commercial Law

met  at  Antwerp,  1885  ;  Brussels  . . 30  Sept.  1888
A  Minister  of  commerce  in  England  proposed  1880,

dropped i%S\

Commercial Travellers'  schools, Pinner, founded

1845  ; — Benevolent  Institution,  Finsbury . . 1849
Commercial  Travellers'  Association  founded  in  Man-
chester, 1883,  has  many  branches  in  the  country.


COMMISSION.


237


COMMON PRAYER.


COMMISSION,  see  High  Commission,  Court  of.

_  COMMISSIONAIRES,  street  messengers
in  Paris.  Those  in  London  were  originally  pen-
sioned soldiers  wounded  either  in  the  Crimea  or
India,  first  employed  in  the  west-end.  They  were
appointed  by  a  society,  founded  in  Feb.  1859  by
capt.  Edward  "Walter,  which  is  now  under  the
patronage  of  the  queen  and  the  commander-in-
chief.  The  charges  are  regulated  by  a  tariff.  In
Jan.  1861  the  sociaty  commenced  the  gratuitous
issue  of  a  Monthly  Advertising  Circular.  In  March,

1864,  there  were  250  commissionnaires  in  London  ;
in  Nov.  1866,  about  340;  in  Oct.  1872,  500;  in
Feb.  1887,  1,650;  1  Jan.  1892,  1,880. On  17  June,

1865,  capt.  Edward  Walter  resigned,  and  a  perma-
nent system  of  administration  was  formed.  In  1865
eommissionnaires  were  first  engaged  as  private
night-watchmen.  A  testimonial  (piece  of  plate)
from  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  was  pre-
sented to  Captain  Walter,  14  June,  1884;  knighted,
1887.  Commissionnaires  have  been  introduced  in
the  colonies,  beginning  at  Sydney,  Feb.  1888.

COMMITTEES, Standing  and  Grand,  were

directed  to  be  appointed  by  the  new  rules  for  pro-
cedure passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1882,
for  facilitating  the  progress  of  legislation.  The  first
grand  committee  (on  trade,  shipping,  &c.)  met  9
April,  1883  ;  another  (on  law,  &c.)  soon  after.
These  Committees  were  re-appointed  by  the  new
rule  (13). March  1888,  and  since.

COMMON  COUNCIL  of  London. The

city  parliament,  consists  of  206  members  elected
annually  on  St.  Thomas'  day,  21  Dec.  by  the
freemen  householders  of  the  26  wards  and  their
aldermen.  This  court,  which  appears  to  have  been
gradually  organized  in  the  12th  century,  is  men-
tioned in  a  charter  granted  by  John,  12 14.  See
Plough  Monday.  A  Common  Sail  is  held  occa-
sionally. The  common  council  supported  the  prince
of  Orange  in  1688,  and  queen  Caroline  in  1820.

COMMON  LAW  of  England,  an  ancient

collection  of  unwritten  maxims  and  customs  {leges
non  scriptce) ,  of  British,  Saxon,  and  Danish  origin,
■which  has  subsisted  immemorially  in  this  kingdom ;
and  although  somewhat  impaired  by  the  rude  shock
of  the  Norman  conquest,  has  weathered  the  violence
of  the  times.  At  the  parliament  of  Merton,  1236,
■"all  the  earls  and  barons,"  says  the  parliament
roll,  "  with  one  voice  answered,  that  they  would
not  change  the  laws  of  England,  which  have
hitherto  been  used  and  approved ;"  eminently  the
law  of  the  land  ;  see  Bastard.  The  process,  prac-
tice, and  mode  of  pleading  in  the  superior  courts  of
common  law,  were  amended  in  1852  and  1854.

COMMON  PLEAS,  Court  of,  in  Eng-
land, in  ancient  times  followed  the  king's  person,
aud  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  King's  Bench ;  but
on  the  grant  of  Magna  Charta  by  king  John,
in  1215,  it  was  fixed  at  Westminster.  In  1833  the
mode  of  procedure  in  all  the  superior  courts  was  made
uniform.  In  England,  no  barrister  under  the  degree
of  serjeant  could  plead  in  the  court  of  common  pleas;
but  in  1846  the  privilege  was  extended  to  barristers
practising  in  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster.
Sat  last,  July,  1875.  The  Common  Pleas  division  of
the  high  court  of  justice  now  consists  of  the  chief
justice  and  four  judges. See  Supreme  Court.

chief  justices. (England.)
1558.  Sir  Anthony  Browne.
3559.  Sir  James  Dyer.
1582.  Sir  Edmund  Anderson.
1605.  Sir  Francis  Gawdy.
*6o6.  Sir  Edward  Coke.


613.  Sir  Henry  Hobart.
626.  Sir  Thomas  Richardson.
631.  Sir  Robert  Heath.
634.  Sir  John  Finch.

639.  Sir  Edward  Lyttleton.

640.  Sir  John  Bankes.
648.  Oliver  St.  John.

660.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  afterwards  lord  keeper.

668.  Sir  John  Vaughau.

675.  Sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord  keeper  Guildford.

683.  Sir  Francis  Pemberton.

,, Sir  Thomas  Jones.

685.  Sir  Henry  Bedingfield.

687.  Sir  Robert  Wright.

,, Sir  Edward  Herbert.

689.  Sir  Henry  Pollexfen.

692.  Sir  George  Treby.

701.  Sir  Thomas  Trevor,  afterwards  lord  Trevor.

714.  Sir  Peter  King,  afterwards  lord  chancellor  King.

725.  Sir  Robert  Eyre.

736.  Sir  Thomas  Reeve.

737.  Sir  John  Willes.

761.  SirCharles  Pratt,  afterwds.  lord  chancellor  Camden.

766.  Sir  John  Eardley  Wilniot.

771.  Sir  William  de  Grey,  afterwards  lord  Walsingham

780.  Alexander  Wedderburne,  aft.  Id.  ch.  Loughborough.

793.  Sir  James  Eyre.

799.  Sir  John  Scott,  afterwards  lord  chancellor  Eldon

801.  Sir  Richard  Pepper  Arden  (lord  Alvanley)  22  May.

804.  Sir  James  Manstield,  21  April.

814.  Sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  24  Feb.

818.  Sir  Robert  Dallas,  5  Nov.

824.  Sir  Robert  Gifford,  9  Jan.  ;  (lord  Gifford)  ;  after-
wards master  of  the  rolls.

„ Sir  William  Draper  Best,  afterwards  lord  Wynford,
15  April.

829.  Sir  Nicolas  C.  Tindal,  9  June  ;  died  July,  1846

846.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  n  July  ;  afterwards  lord  chan-
cellor Truro.

850.  Sir  John  Jervis,  16  July  ;  died  1  Nov.  1856.

856.  Sir  Alex.  Cockburn,  Nov.  ;  ch.  j.  Q.  B.  June 1859

859.  Sir  William  Erie,  June  ;  retired  Nov.  1866.

866.  Sir  William  Bovill,  29  Nov. ;  died  1  Nov.  1873.

873.  John  Duke  Coleridge, Lord  Coleridge,  Nov.';  re-
moved to  queen's  bench,  Nov.  1880.
The  abolition  of  the  distinct  divisions  of  common  pleas
and  exchequer  was  recommended  by  the  judges 30  Nov
and  ordered  by  the  privy  council  16  Dec.  1880.  '  '

The last  Chief  Justice  of  the  common  pleas  (see
Supreme  Court  0/  Judicature  Act,  1881).

chief  justices. (Ireland.)
1691. Richard  Pyne,  5  Jan.
1695.  Sir  John  Hely,  10  May.
1 701.  Sir  Richard  Cox,  4  May.
1703.  Robert  Doyne,  27  Dec.
1714.  John  Forster,  30  Sept.
1720.  Sir  Richard  Levinge,  13  Oct.
1724.  Thomas  Wyndham,  27  Oct.

1726.  William  Whitshed,  23  Jan.

1727.  James  Reynolds,  8  Nov.
1740.  Henry  Singleton,  n  May.
1754.  Sir  William  Yorke,  4  Sept.
1761.  William  Aston,  5  May.
1765.  Richard  Clayton,  21  Feb.
1770.  Marcus  Patterson,  18  June
1787.  Hugh Carleton, afterwards

30  April.

1800.  John  Toler,  afterwards  lord  Norbury  22  Oct
1827.  Lord  Plunket,  18  June.
1830.  John  Doherty,  23  Dec.
1850.  James  Henry  Monahan,  23  Sept.  ;  died  8  Dec.


viscount Carleton


1876.


Sir  Michael  Morris
justices.


Jan. The  last  of  the  chief


COMMON  PRAYER,  Book  of,  was  ordered

by  parliament  to  be  printed  in  the  English  language
on  1  April,  1548.  It  was  voted  out  of  doors  by  parlia-
ment, and  the  Directory  {which  see)  set  "up  in  its
room  in  1644,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued  against
it  in  1647.  With  a  few  changes  the  English°Com-
mon  Prayer-book  is  used  by  the  episcopal  churches
in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  North  America.


The  King's  Primer  published
First  book  of  Edward  VI.  printed


• • '545
7  March,  1549


COMMONS,  HOUSE  OF.


238


COMMONS.


Second  book  of  Edward  VI 1552

First  book  of  Elizabeth  (revised!) .... 1559

King  James's  book . ditto 1604

Scotch  book  of  Charles  1 1637

Charles  II.  's  book  (Savoy  Conference)  now  in  use  .  1662
[The  original  MS.  of  this  book,  signed  by  convocation
in  1661,  and  annexed  to  the  act  of  uniformity  in  1662,
-was  in  time  detached  and  lost,  and  not  found  till  1867  ;
photographs  were  published  by  the  queen's  printers  and
the  universities  early  in  1891.]

The  State  services  (which  had  never  formed  part  of  the
Prayer-book,  but  were  annexed  to  it  at  the  beginning  of
every  reign)  for  5  November (Gunpowder treason),  30
Jan.  (Charles  I.'s  execution),  and  29  May  (Charles  II.  's  re-
storation), were  ordered  to  be  discontinued  ;  17  Jan.  1859.
Changes  in  the  Lectionary  or  calendar  of  lessons
were  recommended  in  the  third  report  of  the
Ritual Commission, 12  Jan.  1870. A  bill  for
sanctioning  these  changes  passed  the  house  of
lords,  but  was  dropped  in  the  house  of  commons
through  want  of  time,  Aug.  ;  passed . 13  July,  1871
[The  old  tables  might  be  used  till  1  Jan.  1879.  J
The  fourth  report  of  the  Ritual  Commission  dis-
closed great  difference  of  opinion  amongst  the

commissioners Aug.  1870

Shortened  services  and  other  changes  were  autho-
rized by  the  New  Uniformity  Act,  passed  18  July,  1872
Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  (to  check  ritual-
ism) passed Aug.  1874

The  Wesleyan  Methodists  who  had  used  the  Prayer-
book  appoint  a  committee  to  revise  it . Aug. „
The  Prayer  Book  revision  society  petition  the  Abp.
of  Canterbury  for  changes . . Jan. -Feb.  1883

COMMONS,  HOUSE  OF,  originated  with
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  by  the
Provisions  of  Oxford  ordered  returns  to  be  made  of
two  knights  from  every  shire,  and  deputies  from


certain  boroughs,  to  meet  such  of  the  barons  and
clergy  as  were  his  friends,  with  a  view  ther-eby  to
strengthen  his  own  power  in  opposition  to  that  of
his  sovereign  Henry  III.,  1258.  Stoio  ;  see  Parlia-
ment. In  1859  Mr.  Newmarch  estimated  the  con-
stituency of  England  and  Wales  at  934,000.  It  waa
largely  increased  by  the  reform  act  of  1867 : — Regis-
tered parliamentary  electors,  1872 :  England  and
Wales,  boroughs,  1,250,019;  counties,  801,109.
Scotland,  burghs,  49,025  ;  counties,  79,919.  Ire-
land, boroughs,  171,912  ;  counties,  175,439.  Total,
2,526,423.  By  the  Franchise  Act  of  1884,  the
electors  of  the  United  Kingdom  were  increased  to
about  5,000,000,  and  many  changes  were  made  by
the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  (disqualified  persons-
about  7,000,000),  1,911,955  voters  in  boroughs  in
England  and  Wales;  and  2,579,403  in  counties  in
1888.  The  present  house  of  Commons  (counties,
boroughs,  and  universities):  England,  465  ;  Wales,,
30;  Scotland,  72;  Ireland,  103  members  (1892).
See  under  Reform.
Parliamentary electors : England and Wales : 1875,

2,301,266  ;  1878,  2,416,222  ;  1883,  2,632,223. Scotland,

1875,289,789;  1883,  226,511. Ireland, 1875,  230,436;

1883.  322,967  ;  total,  1878,  2,952,005. Electorate,  1889  :

England  and Wales, 4,501,851  ; Scotland, 571,911 ;

Ireland,  763,145 ;  total,  5,836,907. Return  in 1892,

6,161,456.

By  the  reform  Act  of  1884,  the  county  franchise  was-
made  uniform  with  that  of the  boroughs,  and  about
2,000,000  voters  were  added
By  the  acts  of  1884-5,  670  members : eleetions,  July,.

1892,  reported: Liberals,  270, Parnellites,  9; anti-

Parnellites,  72 ; labour  members,  4  ; Conservatives,.

268  ;  Liberal-Unionists,  47.


Old  House.

ENGLAND.

202  Cities  or  boroughs
40  Counties
2  Universities .


WALES.

12  Cities  or  boroughs
12  Counties


SCOTLAND.

15  Cities  or  burghs  .


Members.


33  Counties


IRELAND.

33  Cities  or  boroughs
32  Counties
1  University  .


• • 4°3

. 82

. . 4

489

12
12

24

• 15
. . 3°

45

• 35

. . - 64

1

100
Total 658

By  the  Reform  Act  0/1832.*
England.  Members.

187  Cities  or  boroughs  . . .  323
40  Counties . .  .  144

1  Isle  of  Wight  . i . . 1

2  Universities .'  . 4


230

WALES.

14  Cities  or  boroughs
12  Counties


SCOTLAND.

21  Cities  or  burghs
33  Counties


54

IRELAND.

33  Cities  or  boroughs  .
32  Counties
1  University


472


Members.

• • 23

• 3°


By  the  Acts  of  1867  and  1868.

England.  Members.

186  Cities  or  boroughs  t . .  286

40  Counties 1731

1  Isle  of  Wight ... 1
3  Universities . . . . 5


WALES.

14  Cities  or  boroughs
12  Counties

. is

• ■ is

26

30

SCOTLAND.

22  Cities  or  burghs  .
33  Counties
4  Universities

Members.

. 26

- • 33

59

60

IRELAND.

33  Cities  or  boroughs  f
32  Counties
1  University

• 39-

. . 64

■z

66

105

381

Total 658;


COMMONS.  In  1685,  of  the  37,000,000  acres
of  land  in  England,  about  18,000,000  were  moor-
land, forest,  and  fen.  In  1727,  about  3,000,000
acres  more  had  been  brought  into  cultivation  ;  and
from  that  time  to  1844,  by  means  of  4000  private

*  In  1844  Sudbury,  and  in  1852  St.  Alban's,  were  dis
franchised  for  bribery  and  corruption ;  each  having
previously  returned  two  members  ;  the  aggregate  number
of  the  house  then  became  654.  In  1861,  the  forfeited
seats  were  thus  distributed  by  act  of  parliament — two
additional  to  the  west  riding  of  York,  one  additional  to
South  Lancashire,  and  one  to  a  newly-created  borough,
Birkenhead.


acts of  parliament, about 7,000,000  acres more
were  enclosed. Since  the  Enclosure  Act  of  1845^
which  established  commissioners,  another  1,000,000-
acres  have  been  enclosed.
Act  for  improvement,  protection,  and  management

of  commons  near  the  metropolis,  passed  .  Aug.  1866"-
The  Commons  Preservation  Society  established  1865

elected  Win.  Cowper,  president  . ■ ■ Feb. 1867

t  Disfranchised  and  replaced,  1867 :  Lancaster,  Tar-
mouth,  Totnes,  and  Reigate. — Disfranchised,  1870:  Be-
verley and  Bridgwater,  eacli  two  members  ;  Cashel  and'
Sligo.ench  one  member  :  652  members,  1878  ;  12  members
short,  through  void  elections,  Aug.  1880.


COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND. 239


COMPANIES.


"  Six  Essays  on  Commons  Preservation,"  were  pub-
lished .  1867

It  is  stated  that  there  are  900,000  acres  of  common
land  capable  of  cultivation  in  England  and  Wales,

Aug.  1874

Act  for  the  regulation  of  commons,  passed  n  Aug. 1876

Mr.  de  Morgan,  active  opponent  of  enclosures,  im-
prisoned for  contempt  of  court  (The  Rolls)  .  Jan.  1878

Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  authorised  to  secure
commons,  &c.  by  act  passed  . . 16  Aug. ,,

About  14,000  acres  of  land  near  London  preserved
by  the  agency  of  the  Commons  Preservation
Society reported at the annual meeting on

io  Dec.  18S6
By  the  Ranges  Act,  passed  in  1891,  power  was  given  to

any  lord  of  the  manor  to  acquire  possession  of  any  part

of  any  common  over  which  his  rights  extend,  in  order

that  the  secretary  of  state  for  war  may  establish  ranges

for  rifle  practice,  &c,  with  regulations.

COMMONWEALTH  of  ENGLAND,  the

term  applied  to  the  interregnum  between  the  death
of  Charles  I.  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  A
republic  was  established  at  the  execution  of
Charles  I.,  30  Jan.  1649, — a  new  oath  called  the
"Engagement"  was  framed,  which  all  officials
were  obliged  to  take.*  Salmon.  Oliver  Cromwell
was  made  protector,  16  Dec.  1653  ;  succeeded  by  his
son  Richard,  3  Sept.  1658.  Monarch}'  was  restored
8  May,  and  Charles  II.  entered  London,  29  May,
1660.  For  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,
see  Australasia .

COMMUNALISTS,  or  Communists,  pro-
pose to  divide  France  into  about  a  thousand  small
thoroughly  independent  states,  with  councils  elected
by  all  the  population,  Paris  to  be  the  ruling  head.
They  declare  that  capital  and  its  holders  must  be
adapted  to  nobler  uses,  or  cease  to  exist.  Their
creed  is  stated  to  be  atheism  and  materialism.
They  are  intimately  connected  with  the  Interna-
tional Society  of  workmen  (see  Workmen),  and
with  the  communists  or  socialists  (1871-3)^

COMMUNES,  in  France,  are  territorial  divi-
sions under  a  mayor.  In  the  nth  century  the
name  was  given  to  combinations  of  citizens,  favoured
by  the  crown,  against  the  exactions  of  the  nobles.
In  1356  Stephen  Marcel,  during  the  English  inva-
sion, vainly  endeavoured  to  establish  a  confederation
of  sovereign  cities,  having  Paris  as  the  governing
head  ;  and  for  six  months  it  was  really  governed  by
a  commune  in  1588.  After  the  insurrection  of  July,
1 789,  the  revolutionary  committee  whichreplaced  the
city  council  took  the  name  of  "  commune  of  Paris,"
Pethion  being  mayor.  It  met  at  the  Hotel  de
Ville,  and  was  definitively  constituted,  21  May,
1791-  It  had  great  power  under  Robespierre,  and
fell  with  him  17  July,  1794;  being  replaced  by
twelve  municipalities.  The  commune  of  Paris  was
proclaimed  28  March,  1871,  during  the  insurrection,
which  began  18  March,  and  ended  with  the  capture
of  the  city  by  the  government  troops,  28  May  follow-
ing. 2245  communists  were  pardoned  by  decree
issued  17  Jan.  1879;  and  many  others  afterwards.
A  number  re-entered  Paris,  4  September  following.
For  the  events  of  the  communal  rule  in  Paris,  see
France,  1871. See  Socialism.

*  By  this  oath  they  swore  to  be  true  and  faithful  to
the  Commonwealth,  without  king  or  house  of  lords.
The  statues  of  Charles  were  next  day  demolished,  par-
ticularly that  at  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  one  at  the
west  end  of  St.  Paul's  ;  and  in  their  room  the  following
inscription  was  conspicuously  set  up  :  —"Exit  Tyrannus
Jlegurn  ultimus,  Anno  Libertatis  Anglice  Rcstltukc  Primo,
Anno  Dom.,  1648.  Jan.  30."

+  M.  Dufaure,  in  opposing  the  amnesty,  17  May,  1876,
asserted  that  the  outbreak  was  organised  by  about  7000
communists  and  1500  foreigners  ;  40,000  persons  were
inculpated  ;  10,000  tried  ;  25,000  dismissed. See  France.


COMMUNION,  a  name  given  to  the  ordinance-
of  the  Lord's  supper,  1  Cor.  x.  16.  Communicating
under  the  form  of  bread  alone  is  said  to  have  had
its  rise  in  the  west,  under  pope  Urban  II.,  1096.  The
cup  was  first  denied  to  the  laity  by  the  council  of
Constance,  1414-18.  The  fourth  Lateran  council,
1215,  decreed  that  every  believer  should  receive  the-
communion  at  least  at  Easter.  The  communion  ser-
vice of  the  church  of  England  was  set  forth  in  1549,.

COMMUTATION,  see  Tithes.

COMORN,  see  Komom.

COMORO  ISLANDS,  see  Madagascar,  1891..

COMPANIES.*  The  London  trade  com-
panies were  gradually  formed  out  of  the  trade  or
craft  guilds,  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  "Walter-
Harvey,  mayor,  in  1272,  who  is  said  to  have-
been  very  active  in  enlarging  and  maintaining  the-
liberties  and  privileges  of  the  city.  The  originaL
religious  element  in  the  companies  gradually
disappeared.  Among  the  earliest  commercial  com-
panies in  England  may  be  named  the  Steel-
yard society,  established  1232.  The  second  com-
pany was  the  merchants  of  St.  Thomas  a.  Beckett
in  1248.  Stow.  The  Merchant  Adventurers,,
incorporated  by  Elizabeth,  1564.  The  follow-
ing are  the  city  companies  of  London ;  the  first
twelve  are  the  chief,  and  are  styled  "the  Honour-
able." Many  companies  are  extinct,  and  many  dates
are  doubtful.  An  inquiry  into  their  affairs  was  par-
tially resisted  by  them  in  1835.  In  1869  the  gross-
income  of  the  endowed  charities  of  the  city  com-
panies was  stated  to  be  above  99,000/.  A  motion  in.
the  Commons  for  inquiry  iuto  the  revenues  and
other  affairs  of  89  companies,  by  Mr.  W.  H.  James,
withdrawn,  23  May,  1876.  A  commission  of  inquiry-
was  appointed  (the  earl  of  Derbjr,  duke  of  Bedford,,
lords  Coleridge  and  Sherbrooke,  sir  R.  A.  Cross,.
&c),  14  July,  1880.  Five  reports  issued  with  re-
commendations for  reform,  1884-5.

In  1884,  7319  liverymen  and  about  10,000  freemen,,
estimated  annual  income  about  750,000?.,  expended  in.
maintenance,  education,  and  charities ;  about  75,000?,
spent  in  entertainments.

Grants  from  the  companies  to  the  City  Guilds  of
London  Institute  (Goldsmiths  46,000?.,  Drapers  43,000?.,
Cloth  workers  37,000?.,  Fishmongers  34,000?.,  Mercers
22,000?.,  Grocers  10,000?.)  ;  for  technical  education,  &e_
(Drapers  60,000?.,  Goldsmiths  85,000?.,  Mercers  60,000?.)
and  others  promised  1878-88.


I.

Mercers

1393

IS-

Leather-sellers .

1444-

2.

Grocers  - . . .

1345

16.

Pewterers . .

T473

3-

Drapers

1438

17-

Barber-Surgeons  .

1462:

4-

Fishmongers  (salt,

18.

Cutlers .

1415

i433;stock,i5o9)

iq.

Bakers  .

1509.

united . . .

1537

20.

Wax-chandlers

1483

s.

Goldsmiths  .

1327

21.

Tallow-chandlers .

1462-

6.

Skinners  . . .

22.

Armourers and

7-

Merchant  Taylors.

1326

Braziers . .

1453;

8.

Haberdashers

1448

23.

Girdlers

1448

g-

Salters . . .

ISS8

24.

Butchers  .

1606--

10.

Ironmongers

1464

25.

Saddlers

1272^

II.

Vintners  . . .

1363

26.

Carpenters . .

J477

12.

Cloth-workers

1480

27.

Cordwainers

1438-


28.

Painter-stainers .

1581

n-

Dyers . . .

1471

2Q.

Curriers

1606-

14.

Brewers

1438

3°-

Masons . . .

1677-

*  Bubble  companies  have  been  formed,  commonly  by
designing  persons.  Law's  bubble,  in  1720-1,  was  "per-
haps the  most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  the  South
Sea  Bubble,  in  the  same  year,  was  scarcely  less  memor-
able for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of  families.  Many  com-
panies were  established  in  these  countries  in  1824  and
1825,  and  turned  out  to  be  bubbles.  Immense  losses
were  incurred  by  individuals,  and  the  families  of  thou-
sands of  speculators  were  totally  ruined.  .Many  v.iihvn
enterprises  (1844-5)  were  termed  bubbles.  See  Law's;
Bubble;  South  Sea;  Railways;  Joint-Stock  Companies.


COMPANIES' ACTS.


240


CONCHOLOGY.


3i-

Plumbers

l6ri

63-

Comb-makers

1635

32.

Inn-holders . .

1515

64.

Felt-makers . .

1604

33-

Founders

1614

65-

Framework knit-

34-

Poulterers . .

1504

ters  .

1663

35-

Cooks .

1482

66.

Silk-throwsters .

1629

36.

Coopers . . .

1501

67.

Silk-men

1608

37-

Tilers  and  brick-

68.

Pin-makers . .

1636

layers

1568

69.

Needle-makers

1656

38.

Bowyers  . . .

1621

70.

Gardeners . .

1605

39-

Fletchers

1536

71-

Soap-makers

1638

4°-

Blacksmiths . .

1S71

72.

Tinplate-workers .

1671

4i-

Joiners .

1571

73-

Wheelwrights

1670

42.

Weavers . . .

1184

74-

Distillers . . .

1638

43-

Woolmen

1484

75-

Hatband-makers  .

1604

44-

Scriveners . .

1617

76.

Patten-makers

1671

45-

Fruiterers .

1606

77-

Glass-sellers .

1664

.46,

Plasterers . .

1 501

78.

Tobacco  -  pipe

47-

Stationers .

1556

makers

T619

48.

Broderers . .

1561

79-

Coach and Har-

49-

Upholders .

1626

ness  makers

1677

3°-

Musicians . .

1604

80.

Gunmakers . .

1637

31-

Turners

,,

81.

Gold and Silvei

32.

Basket-makers

1569

wire-drawers .

1693

53-

Glaziers ,

1631

82.

Bowstring-makers

1440

54-

Homers . . .

1638

83.

Card-makers  .

1628

55-

Farriers

1684

84.

Fan-makers . .

1709

56.

Paviors . . .

1479

85-

Wood-mongers

1605

57-

Loriners

1712

86.

Starch-makers

1632

58.

Apothecaries . .

1617

87.

Fishermen . .

1687

59-

Shipwrights

1605

88.

Parish  clerks

1223

60.

Spectacle-makers

1629

89.

Carmen . . .

1606

6i.

Clock-makers

1631

90.

Porters

1154

62.

Glovers . . .

1639

91.

Watermen . .

1556

COMPANIES'  ACTS  :  one  passed  1862,  was
amended  and  continued,  20  Aug.  1867;  both
amended  by  acts,  2  July,  1877,  and  15  Aug.,  1879.
The  important  Companies  Winding-up  act  was
passed  18  Aug.  1890.

By  the  last  act,  unlimited  banking  companies  were
regulated  in  regard  to  their  issue  of  notes,  audit  of
accounts,  <&c.  The  acts  of  1862,  1867,  1877,  and  1879
were  amended  by  43  Vict.  c.  19  (1880),  in  1883  and  1886.
■Companies  registered  30,372  since  1862  ;  nominal
•capital  3,442,804,000?.  ;  reported  1889.  Companies
.registered  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1888,  2,346  ;  in
1889,  2,788;  in  189a,  2,789.

COMPASS,  MABINEE'S,  said  to  have
been  early  known  to  the  Chinese,  n  15  B.C.,  and
brought  to  Europe  by  Marco  J'olo,  a  Venetian,
1260,  a.d.  Flavio  Gioja,  of  Amalfi,  a  navigator,  of
Naples,*  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  suspension
of  the  needle,  1302.  The  compass  is  also  said  to
have  been  known  to  the  Swedes  in  the  time  of
king  Jarl  Birger,  1250.  Its  variation  was  discovered
first  by  Columbus,  1492 ;  afterwards  by  Sebastian
Cabot,  1540.  The  compass  box  and  hanging  com-
pass used  by  navigators  were  invented  by  William
Barlowe,  an  English  divine  and  natural  philosopher,
in  1608 ;  see  Magnetism.  The  measuring  compass
was  invented  by  Jost  Bing,  of  Hesse,  in  1602.  The
■compass  of  sir  William  Thomson  patented  in  1876
is  considered  the  best.

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS,  see

'Civil  Service.

COMPIEGNE,  a  French  city  north  of  Paris,
the  residence  of  the  Carlovingian  kings.  During
the  siege,  Joan  of  Arc  was  captured  by  the  Bur-
gundians,  25  May,  1430,  and  given  up  to  the  English
for  money.  The  emperor  Napoleon  III.  and  the  king
of  Prussia  met  here  on  6  Oct.  1861.

COMPLUTENSIAN  BIBLE,  see  Polyglot.

COMPOSING-MACHINES,  see  Printing
and  Times.


*  The  statement  that  the  fleur-de-lis  was  made  the
ornament  of  the  northern  point  of  the  compass  in  com-
pliment to  Charles,  the  king  of  Naples  at  the  time  of
the  discovery,  has  been  contradicted.


COMPOSITE OEDEB,  a  mixture  of  the
Corinthian  and  Ionic,  and  also  called  the  Roman
order,  is  of  uncertain  date.
Composite  Portraits. By  means  of  photography  in  1877-8,

Mr. Francis Galton  combined  from 2  to  9  separate

portraits  ;  the  result  was  generally  an  improvement

on  the  features  of  the  components.

COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDEES (in

regard  to  the  payment  of  rates)  were  constituted
by  the  Small  Tenements  act  of  1851.  Their  posi-
tion, with  regard  to  the  suffrage,  caused  much
discussion  during  the  passing  of  the  Reform  act  in
1867 ;  and  their  claims  were  rejected.

COMPOUND  EADICAL,  in  organic  chem-
istry, is  a  substance  which  although  containing
two  or  more  elements,  in  ordinary  circumstances
performs  the  part  of  an  element.  The  Iladical  or
Binary  theory  was  propounded  by  Berzelius,  1833,
and  by  Liebig,  1838 ;  and  modified  in  the  nucleus
theory  of  Aug.  Laurent,  1836.  The  first  compound
radical  isolated  was  cyanogen  (which  see),  by  Gay-
Lussac,  in  1815  ;  see  Amyl,  Ethyl,  and  Methyl  as
other  examples.

COMPEEHENSION  BILL.  Passed  by
the  House  of  Lords  in  1689,  it  proposed  changes
likely  to  induce  Nonconformists  to  join  the  Church
of  England — it  was  dropped  in  the  Commons,
being  unsatisfactory  to  all  parties.

COMPEOMISE,  see  Breda.

COMTE  PHILOSOPHY,  see  Positive
Philosophy.

CONCEPTION,  Immaculate. A  festival

(on  8  Dee.)  appointed  in  1389,  observed  in  the
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  honour  of  the  Virgin
Mary's  having  been  conceived  and  born  immacu-
late, or  without  original  sin.  Opposition  to  this
doctrine  was  forbidden  by  decree  of  pope  Paul  V.
in  161 7,  confirmed  by  Gregory  XV.  and  Alexander
VII.  Henault.  On  8  Dec.  1854,  pope  Pius  IX.
promulgated  a  bull,  declaring  this  dogma  to  be  an
article  of  faith,  and  charging  with  heresy  those  who
should  doubt  it  or  speak  against  it. — The  Concep-
tionists  were  an  order  of  nuns  in  Italy,  esta-
blished in  1488 ;  see  Santiago.

CONCEETINA,  a  musical  instrument  in-
vented by  prof,  afterwards  sir  Charles  Wheatstone,
about  1825,  and  improved  by  Mr.  G.  Case.  The
sounds  are  produced  by  free  vibrating  metal  springs.

CONCEETS.  The  Filarmonia  gave  concerts
at  Vicenza  in  the  16th  century.  The  first  public
subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford  in
1665 ;  the  first  in  London  is  said  to  have  been  in
1672,  by  John  Banister,  afterwards  by  Thomas
Britton  till  his  death,  1714.  The  Academy  of
Ancient  Music,  which  introduced  concerts  in  Lon-
don, began  in  1710;  the  Concerts  of  Ancient  Music
in  1776;  and  the  present  Philharmonic  Society  in
1813;  see  others,  under  Music ;  Crystal  Palace;
and  Handel.  Colossal  peace  concerts  were  held  at
Boston,  U.S.,  15  June,  &c.  1869;  17  June  to
4  July,  1872  ;  see  Boston.

Concerts  Spirituels  at  Paris,  organized  by  Anne  Dannican
Philidor,  began  in  Passion  week,  18  March,  1725 :
closed  in  1791  ;  re-established,  1805  ;  replaced  by  the
Concerts  du  Conservatoire,  begun  9  March,  1828.
Jullleris  Popular  Concerts,  with  monster  quadrilles,  began
at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  8  June,  1840 ;  a  farewell
series,  1859.  He  greatly  promoted  the  taste  for  classi-
cal music.
Promenade  Concerts  revived  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,
autumn,  1880.

CONCHOLOGY,  the  science  of  shells,  is
mentioned  by  Aristotle and  Pliny. It was  first


CONCILIATION COUNCILS.


241


CONFESSIONS.


reduced  to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major,  of
Kiel,  who  published  his  classification  of  the  Tes-
tacea  in  1675.  Lister's  system  was  published  in
1685;  and  that  of  Largius  in  1722.  Johnson's
Introduction  (1850)  and  Sowerby's  Manual  of
Concho  logy  (1842),  are  useful.  Forbes  and  Han-
ley's  "  British  Mollusca  and  their  Shells  "  (1848-53)
is  a  magnificent  work.  "  British  Conchology,"  by
J.  G.  Jeffreys,  published  in  1862-9.

CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see

Councils.

CONCLAVE.  A  range  of  small  cells  in  the
hall  of  the  Vatican,  or  palace  of  the  pope  of  Borne,
where  the  cardinals  usually  meet  to  elect  a  pope,
and  also  the  assembly  of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for
the  purpose.  The  practice  is  said  to  have  been
instituted  by  Alexander  III.  in  11 79.  Clement  IV.
having  died  at  Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals  were
nearly  three  years  unable  to  agree  in  the  choice  of
a  successor,  and  were  on  the  point  of  breaking  up,
when  the  magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Boua-
ventura,  shut  the  gates  of  their  city,  and  locked  up
the  cardinals  till  they  agreed,  1271.

CONCORD  (Massachusetts,  N.  America) .  Near
here  was  fought  the  battle  of  Lexington  {which
see),  19  April,  1775.

CONCORDANCE.  An  index  or  alphabetical
catalogue  of  all  the  words  and  also  a  chronological
account  of  all  the  transactions  in  the  Bible.  The
first  concordance  was  made  under  the  direction  of
Hugo  de  St.  Caro,  who  employed  as  many  as  500
monks  upon  it,  1247.  Abbe  Leng let.  It  was  based
on  one  compiled  by  Anthony  of  Padua.  Thomas
Gibson's  "Concordance  of  the  New  Testament"
published,  1535.  John  Marbeck's  "  Concordance  "
(for  the  whole  Bible),  1550.  Two  Concordances  (with
royal  privileges),  by  Bob.  F.  Herrey,  appeared  in
1578.  Cruden's  Concordance  was  published  in
London  in  1737.  Dr.  Bobert  Young's  valuable
"AnalyticalConcordance  to  the  Bible,"  1879-80.  The
Index  to  the  Bible,  published  by  the  Queen's  prin-
ters, prepared  by  B.  Vincent,  1848.

Verbal  indexes  accompany  good  editions  of  the
ancient  classics.  An  index  to  Shakspeare,  by  Ayscough,
appeared  in  1790;  another  by  Twiss  in  1805;  and  Mrs.
Cowden  Clarke's  (late  Mary  Novello)  concordance  to
Shakspeare' s  Plays  (on  which  she  spent  16  years'  labour)
in  1847.  Shakspeare-~Lexicon  by  Dr.  A.  Schmidt,  2  vols.
1874-5.  Mrs.  Horace  Furness's  concordance  to  Shak-
speare's  Poems,  1874.  Todd's  verbal  index  to  Milton,  1809.
Cleveland's  concordance  to  Milton,  1867.  Brightwell's
concordance  to  Tennyson,  1869.  Abbott's  concordance
to  Pope,  1875.  Dunbar's  concordance  to  Homer,  1880.
F.  S.  Ellis's  concordance  to  Shelley,  1892.

CONCORDAT.  An  instrument  of  agree-
ment between  a  prince  and  the  pope,  usually  con-
cerning benefices.  The  concordat  between  the  em-
peror Henry  V.  of  Germany  and  pope  Calixtus  II.,
in  1 122,  has  been  regarded  as  the  fundamental  law
of  the  church  in  Germany.  The  concordat  be-
tween Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  Pius  VII.,  signed
at  Paris,  15  July,  1801,  re-established  the  Catholic
church  and  the  papal  authority  in  France.  Napo-
leon was  made  in  effect  the  head  of  the  Gallican
church,  as  bishops  were  to  have  their  appointments
from  him,  and  their  investiture  from  the  pope.
Another  concordat  between  the  same  persons  was
signed  at  Fontainebleau,  25  Jan.  1813.  These  were
almost  nullified  by  another,  22  Nov.  181 7.  A  con-
cordat, signed  18  Aug.  1855,  between  Austria  and
Home,  by  which  a  great  ileal  of  the  liberty  of  the
Austrian  church  was  given  up  to  the  papacy,
caused  much  dissatisfaction. In  1868  it  was  vir-


tually abolished  by  the  legislatures  of  Hungary
and  Austria.

CONDENSATION,  see  Gas,  Beer,  Milk.

CONDOTTIERI,  conductors  or  leaders  of
mercenaries,  termed  free  companies  or  lances,
which  became  so  troublesome  in  Italy,  that  the
cities  formed  a  league  to  suppress  them  in  1342.
Many  ravaged  France  after  the  peace  of  Bretigny,
in  1360.

CONDUITS.  Two  remarkable  conduits,
among  a  number  of  others  in  London,  existed
early  in  Cheapside.  The  "  great  conduit"  was  the
first  cistern  of  lead  erected  in  the  city,  and  was
built  in  1285.  At  the  procession  of  Anna  Boleyn,
on  the  occasion  of  her  marriage,  it  ran  with  white
and  claret  wine  all  the  afternoon,  1  June,  1533.
Stow.

CONFEDERATE STATES of  North

America.  The  efforts  of  the  Southern  States  for
the  extension  of  slavery,  and  the  zeal  of  the  Northern
States  for  its  abolition,  with  the  consequent  political
dissensions,  led  to  the  great  secession  of  1860-1.  On
4  Nov.  i860,  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  Bepublican  or
Abolitionist  candidate,  was  elected  president  of  the
United  States.  Hitherto,  a  president  in  the  interest
of  the  South  had  been  elected.  On  20  Dec,  South
Carolina  seceded  from  the  Union;  and  soon  after
Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Louisiana,
Texas,  Virginia  (except  West  Virginia),  Arkansas,
Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  also.  Jefferson  Davis
was  inaugurated  president  of  the  Southern  Con-
federacy at  Montgomery  in  Alabama,  18  Feb.  1861.
For  the  events  of  the  war  which  ensued,  and  the
restoration  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  Union,
see  United  States,  1861-5.  Jefferson  Davis's  "  Bise
and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  2  vols.,
published  June,  1881 ;  he  died,  aged  81,  6  Dec.  1889.

CONFEDERATION  at  Paris,  14  July,

1 790 ;  see  Champ  de  Mars,  and  Bastille.

CONFEDERATION  of  the  Rhine,  the

League  of  the  Germanic  States,  formed  by  Napo-
leon Bonaparte,  12  July,  1806,  when  he  abolished
the  Holy  Boman  Empire,  and  the  emperor  of  Ger-
many became  emperor  of  Austria.  In  Dec.  it
consisted  of  France,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Saxony,
and  Westphalia ;  seven  grand  duchies ;  six  duchies ;
and  twenty  principalities.  The  princes  collectively
engaged  to  raise  258,000  troops  to  serve  in  case  of
war,  and  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort.  This
league  terminated  with  the  career  of  Bonaparte  in
1814 ;  and  in  1815  it  was  replaced  by  the  Germanic
Confederation  {which  see,  and  Germany).

CONFERENCES,  Ecclesiastical. One

was  held  at  Hampton  Court  palace,  between  the
prelates  of  the  church  of  England  and  the  puritan
ministers,  in  order  to  effect  a  general  union,  at  the
instance  of  the  king,  James  I.,  14,16,  18  Jan.  1604.
It  led  to  the  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  now  in
general  use  in  England;  executed  in  1607- 1 1.
Some  alterations  in  the  church  liturgy  were  agreed
upon ;  but  these  not  satisfying  the  dissenters,
nothing  more  was  done. — Another  conference  of  the
bishops  and  presbyterian  ministers,  with  the  same
view,  was  held  in  the  Savoy,  15  April  to  25  July,
1661.  The  dissenters'  objections  were  generally
disallowed,  but  some  alterations  were  recommended
in  the  Prayer-book.  See  Wesleyans  and  Congresses.

CONFESSIONAL,  see  Auricular  Confession.

CONFESSIONS  of  Faith,  or  Creeds;
see  Apostles' ,  Nicene  (325),  and  Athanasian  (about

K


CONFIRMATION.


242


CONGO  RIVER.


Greet


1564


• r579


1647


J. K. Lumby's  "  History of the
breeds,"  published  1874.

The  confession  of  faith  of  the  Greek  church  was
presented  to  Mahommed  II.  in  1453.  This  gave
way  in  1643  to  one  composed  by  Mogila,  metro-
politan of  Kiev,  which  is  the  present  standard
of  the  Russo-Greek  church.

The  creed  of  Pius  IV. ,  composed  of  the  Nicene  creed,
with  additional  articles  which  embody  all  the
peculiar  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,
published  by  the  council  of  Trent

The  church  of  England  retains  the  Apostles',
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds,  with  articles : —
42  in  1552  ;  reduced  to  39 1563

The  confession  of  Augsburg  (that  of  the  Lutherans)
was  drawn  up  principally  by  Melancthon,  in
1530,  and  has  since  undergone  modifications,  the
last  of  which  is  called  the  "  Form  of  Concord  "

The  Westminster  confession  was  agreed  to  in  1643
and  adopted  by  the  presbyterian  church  of  Soot-
land  ;  see  Westminster

The  congregational  dissenters  published  a  declara-
tion of  faith !833

CONFIRMATION,  or  laying  on  hands,  was
practised  by  the  Apostles  in  34  and  56  (Acts  viii.
17;  xix.  6),  and  was  general,  according  to  some
church  authorities,  in  190.  In  the  church  of  Eng-
land it  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian
religion  by  an  adult  person,  who  has  been  baptized
in  infancy.  It  is  made  a  sacrament  by  the  church
of  Rome.

CONFLANS  (near  Paris),  TREATY  OE,
between  Louis  XI.  of  France  and  the  dukes  of
Bourbon,  Brittany,  and  Burgundy,  5  Oct.  1465.
By  its  provisions  Normandy  was  ceded  to  the  duke
of  Berry,  and  an  end  was  put  to  the  "  War  of  the
Public  Good."  It  was  confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of
Peronne,  1468.

CONFUCIANISM,  the  doctrines  or  system
of j  morality  taught  by  Confucius  K'ung  FCt-tze,  or
"the  Master  K'ung"  (b.c.  551-479),  which  has
been  long  adopted  in  China  as  the  basis  of  juris-
prudence and  education.  It  inculcates  no  worship
of  a  god,  and  doubts  a  future  state.

:  CONGE  D'ELIRE  (permission  to  elect),  the
licence  given  by  the  sovereign  as  head  of  the  church,
to  chapters  and  other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,
particularly  bishops  ;  the  right  asserted  by  Henry
VIII.,  1535.  After  the  interdict  of  the  pope  upon
England  had  been  removed  in  12 14,  king  John
made  an  arrangement  with  the  clergy  for  the
election  of  bishops.

CONGELATION,  the  act  of  freezing.  Ice
was  produced  in  summer  by  means  of  chemical
mixtures,  by  Mr.  Walker,  in  1783.  Quicksilver
was  frozen  without  snow  or  ice,  in  1787.  In  1810
Leslie  froze  water  in  an  air-pump  by  placing  a
vessel  of  sulphuric  acid  under  it.  Numerous  freez-
ing mixtures  have  been  discovered  since.  Intense
cold  is  produced  bv  the  aerification  of  liquefied
carbonic  acid  gas.  Ice-making  machines  invented
by  Jacob  Perkins  1834,  John  Gorrice  1848,  and
others.  In  1857  Mr.  Harrison  patented  a
machine  for  manufacturing  ice  for  commercial
purposes,  by  means  of  ether  and  salt  water,  and
made  large  blocks.  In  i860,  M.  Carre  devised  a
method  of  freezing  to  60°  below  zero  by  making
water  in  a  close  vessel  absorb  and  give  off  the  gas
ammonia.  Siebe's  ice-making  machine,  exhibited
at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862,  excited
much  admiration.
In  R.  Reece's  ice-making  machine  (made  known  Dec.

1868),  liquefied  ammonia  is  vaporised  in  a  close  vessei

surrounded  by  water  to  be  frozen.
Mr.  Harrison's  method  of  freezing  was  applied  to  preser-


vation of  meat  in  Australia ;  a  cargo  of  carcases  was
shipped  from  Norfolk,  Australia,  13  July,  1873.  Not
successful. See  Ice,  Provisions.

CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD

(Ireland), constituted  by  the Purchase  of  Land
Act,  5  Aug.  1891.

CONGO  RIVER,  S.W.  Africa.  The  mouths
of  the  Congo  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in
1484,  and  they  have  ever  since  claimed  territories
on  its  banks,  having  founded  settlements,  and  sent
missionaries,  with  temporary  success.  Dr.  Living-
stone explored  the  Congo,  1867-71.  The  natives
on  its  bank  and  on  the  creeks  having  rifled  the
Geraldine,  and  committed  other  acts  of  piracy,
were  chastised  by  an  expedition  under  commodore
sir  Win.  Hewett,  3-1 1  Sept.  1875.  Several  villages
and  chiefs'  houses  were  destroyed.

For  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley's  expeditions  in  connection
with  the  Belgian  government,  and  his  settle-
ments, see  Africa,  1876,  et  seq.

M.  de  Brazza's  expedition  ;  his  treaty  with  the
king  of  Congo  ratified  by  the  French  govern-
ment 21  Nov.  1882

Colonies  formed  ;  nationaljealousies  excited  ;  regret
of  the  disinterested  king  of  the  Belgians  ;  the
British  government  partly  recognize  the  rights  of
the  Portuguese,  Jan.,  with  certain  modifications
(afterwards  set  aside) .... March,  1883

Sir  F.  Goldsmid,  chief  of  an  expedition  connected
with  the  International  African  Association  fa-
voured by  Belgium,  starts  summer . . . ,,

The  French  seize  fresh  territories,  28  March,  1883  ;
burn  a  village,  March,  et  seq.

Mr.  Stanley  had  peaceably  founded  12  stations  and
opened  up  4500  miles  of  rivers  to  trade  and  civi-
lization, reported  12  July  ;  he  advocates  a  British
protectorate,  Sept.  ;  M.  de  Brazza's  settlements
reported  unsuccessful .... Sept. ,,

Circular  from  the  Portuguese  government  assert-
ing rights  over  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  published
in  Times 5  Nov. ,,

Sir  F.  Goldsmid  ill ;  returns  to  England  ;  reports  ;
Gen.  (Chinese)  Gordon  appointed  by  the  king  of
Belgium  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  International
African  Association  on  the  Congo  for  the  sup-
pression of  slavery,  and  support  of  commerce,
Jan.  ;  but  is  sent  by  the  British  government  to
the  Soudan 18  Jan.  1884

Mr.  Stanley  returns  to  Stanley  Pool . 21  Jan. „

British  agreement  with  Congo,  announced 5  Feb. ,,

British  interest  secured  by  treaty  with  Portugal ;
signed Feb. ,,

The  International  African  Association  (captain
Strauch,  president),  aiming  at  the  suppression  of
slavery,  has  30  stations,  announced  9  April ;  its
flag  recognized  by  United  States,  22  April ;  it
formulates  itself  as  a  federal  state,  and  is  said  to
enter  into  engagements  with  France,  regarded  as  .
presumptuous,  but  justified  by  the  Association,

May-June, ,,

Recognized  by  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  other
powers,  Dec.  1884,  et  seq.

Colonel  sir  Francis  de  Winton  appointed  adminis-
trator-general of  the  Congo  territories  June, „

Free  trade  in  the  Congo  valley  declared  by  the
West  African  conference  (which  see) . Dec. ,,

The  Mouth  of  the  Congo  occupied  by  the  Portuguese

15  Jan.  1885

Treaty  between  the  Association  and  France  respect-
ing the  delimitation  of  territory,  signed 5  Feb. „

King  Leopold  II.  takes  the  title  of  Independent
Sovereign  of  the  State  about  . . 30  April , ,

Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley's  book  '■  Congo,  and  the  Found-
ing of  its  Free  State  "  published . . May ,.

Conference  at  Berlin  (which  met  1884-5)  ratifying
the  recognition  of  the  Congo  State  by  the  Powers

19  April,  i386

Stanley  Falls  Station  evacuated  . . . Dec. ,,

Leopoldville,  at  Stanley  Pool,  founded  by  Mr.  H.
M.  Stanley  in  1881  reported  prosperous . .  1887

Stanley  Falls  Station  re-occupied . . 4  June,  1888
The  state  appeals  to  Belgium  for  an  annual  subsidy
of  1,500,000  francs  for  ten  years about  12  Aug.  1889


CONGREGATION.


243


CONSCRIPTION.


Prosperity  of  the  country  reported  (Mr.  Janssen
governor-general) Sept.  1889

Supreme  council  of  the  Congo  State,  king  Leopold
president,  held  its  first  sitting  at  Brussels,  18  Dec. ,,

'The  Belgian  government  agree  to  lend  to  the  Congo
State  5,000,000  francs  at  once,  and  2,000,000  francs
annually  for  the  next  10  years  without  interest,
July  ;  the  bill  passed  by  the  chamber,  1 1  July,
by  the  senate 30  July,  1890

The budget shows  a  deficit  of  7,000,000 francs

17  April,  1892

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  Lord,  a  name
fallen  by  the  Scotch  reformers,  headed  by  John
Knox,  about  1546.  Their  leaders  (the  earls  of  Glen-
•eairn,  Argyle,  Morton,  and  others)  called  "lords  of
?the  congregation,"  signed  the  first  bond  or  covenant
which  united  the  protestants  under  one  association,
3  Dee.  1557. Tytler.

CONGREGATIONALISTS,  see  Indepen-
dents.

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  min-
isters for  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  nations  or
•of  a  people.  The  following  are  the  most  remark-
able congresses  of  Europe  :  —

Miinster 1643-8

Nimeguen 1676-8

Ryswiek . . . 1697

Utrecht 1713

"Soissons 1728

Antwerp  .  ..... 8  April,  1793

Rastadt ......  9  Dec.  1797-9

'Chatillon 5  Feb. 1814

Vienna 3  Nov. „

Aix-la-Chapelle 9  Oct. 1818

•Carlsbad 1  Aug. 18 19

"Troppau 20  Oct. 1820

Lay  bach 6  May, 182 1

Verona 25  Aug. 1822

■Paris 16  Jan. — 22  April,  1856

Frankfort  (see  Germany)  . . . 16-31  Aug. 1863

■Constantinople . .  23  Dec.  1876 — 20  Jan.  1878

Berlin  ....  13  June— 13  July, „

See  Alliances,  Church,  Conventions,  &c.

The  first  general  congress  of  the  United  States
of  America,  preparatory  to  their  declaration  of
independence,  when  strong  resolutions  were
passed,  also  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  an  address
to  the  people  of  England,  was  held,  5  Sept.  1774.
The  second  was  held,  10  May,  1775  ;  the  third,
when  the  independence  was  declared . 4  July,  1776

The  first  federal  American  congress,  under  the  con-
stitution, was  held  at  New  York  ;  George  Wash-
ington, president March,  1789

The  first  congress  of  the  seceding  southern  states
was  held  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  4  Feb.  ;  it
elected  Jefferson  Davis  president  of  the  con-
federate states  on  9  Feb.  For  political  reasons  it
adjourned  on  24  May,  to  meet  at  Bichmond,  in
Virginia,  on 20  July,  1861

En  1863,  the  emperor  Napoleon  invited  the  sove-
reigns of  Europe  to  a  congress  ;  which  was  de-
clined by  England  25  Nov.,  and  only  conditionally
acceded  to  by  other  powers.  He  proposed  a  con-
gress on  the  affairs  of  Italy  and  Rome  in  Nov.  1867,
without  effect.

CONGREVE  ROCKETS,  see  Sockets.

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  properties  were
probably  known  to  the  Greeks,  four  or  five  centuries
before  the  Christian  era,  and  their  study  was  culti-
vated in  the  time  of  Plato,  390  B.C.  The  earliest
treatise  on  them  was  written  "by  Aristams,  about  330
B.C.  Apollonius's  eight  books  were  written  about
240  B.C.  The  parabola  was  applied  to  projectiles
by  Galileo,  the  ellipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets  by
Kepler,  and  to  comets  by  Newton.

CONJURATION,  see  Witchcraft.

CONJURERS,  see  under  Wizard.

CONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS, the


French  nautical almanack, continuing Heoker's
Ephemerides,  was  first  published  by  Picard,  1679.

.CONN AUGHT,  TV.  Ireland;  long  a  nominal
kingdom,  divided  into  counties,  1590.  Prince
Arthur,  third  son  of  queen  Victoria,  bora  1  May,
1850,  was  created  duke  of  Connaught,  23  May,'
1874;  being  the  first  royal  prince  whose  leading
title  was  Irish.

The  Duke  of  Connaught' s  Establishment  Act,  passed  8  Aug.,
1878,  made  the  same  provision  for  the  duke,  as  for  his
brother  Alfred;  see  Edinburgh. The  duke  was  mar-
ried to  the  princess  Louise  Margaret  of  Prussia,  13
March,  1879. See  England  (Boyal  Family).
The  condition  of  the  peasantry  was  greatly  bene-
fited by the construction of light railways,
introduced  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,  the  Irish  chief
secretary 1890  ei  SC2.

CONNECTICUT  a  New  England  state  of  N.
America.  The  settlements  of  1635  and  1638  were
united  by  charter  in  1665.  Capital  Hartford.
Population  1880,  622,700;  1890,  746,258.

CONNOR,  Ireland.  The  bishopric  was  united
to  that  of  Down,  1442.  The  first  prelate,  ^ngus
Macnisius,  died  507.  The  united  sees  were  added  to
Dromore  on  the  death  of  its  last  bishop,  1 842,  in  accord-
ance with  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act,  1833.

CONQUEST,  the  era  in  British  history,  when
William  duke  of  Normandy  overcame  Harold  II.  at
the  battle  of  Hastings,  14  Oct.  1066,  and  obtained
the  crown  which  he  asserted  had  been  bequeathed
to  him  by  Edward  the  Confessor  (Edgar  being  the
rightful  heir) .  "William  has  been  erroneously  styled
the  Conqueror,  for  he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of
England  by  compact.  He  defeated  Harold,  who
was  himself  a  usurper,  but  a  large  portion  of  the
kingdom  afterwards  held  out  against  him  ;  and  he,
unlike  a  conqueror,  took  an  oath  to  observe  the
laws  and  customs  of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce
the  submission  of  the  people.  Formerly  our  judges
were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman  at  the
bar  who  said  casually  William  the  Conqueror,
instead  of  William  I.  Selden.  Maclise  exhibited
forty-two  drawings  on  the  events  of  the  Norman
conquest,  in  May,  1857.  E.  A.  Freeman's  "History
of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  6  vols,  1870-9,  is  valued.
He  died,  aged  69,  16  March,  1892.

CONSCIENCE  CLAUSE,  see  Education.

CONSCIENCE,  Courts  of,  or  of  Re-
quests for  recovery  of  small  debts,  constituted  by
a  stat.  of  Hen.  VII.  1493,  and  re-organised  by  stat.
9  Hen.  VIII.  1517.  These  courts  were  improved
and  amended  by  various  acts  ;  their  jurisdiction  in
London  reached  to  5^.  and  (until  superseded  by
county-courts)  to  405.  in  other  towns.  The  practice
was  by  summons,  and  if  the  party  did  not  appear,
the  commissioners  had  power  to  apprehend  and
commit ;  see  County  Courts.

CONSCIENCE,  Liberty  of,  a  principle

of  genuine  Christianity  (1  Cor.  x.  29);  repudiated
by  .Romanism,  proclaimed  by  James  II.  for  political
purposes,  1687.

CONSCIENCE MONEY. In the year

ending  31  March,  1873,  9,847/.  were  sent  to  the
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  for  unpaid  income  tax ;
1874,  8,588/. ;  1877,  14,835/.  ;  1S78,  5,572/. ;  1879,
6,732/.;  1880,5,801/.  /V'

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS  {patrcs  con-
script?) the  designation  given  to  the  Roman  sena-
tors, because  their  names  were  written  in  the  regis-
ters of  the  senate.

CONSCRIPTION,  a  mode  (derived  from  the
Romans) adopted for recruiting  armies on the

11  2


CONSECRATION.


244


CONSPIRACIES.


continent.  On  5  Sept.  1 798,  a  military  conscription
was  ordained  in  France,  comprehending  all  the
young  men  from  20  to  25  years  of  age :  from  whom
selections  were  made.  A  conscription  for  350,000
men  took  place  in  Jan.  1813,  after  the  disastrous
Russian  campaign,  and  in  Dec.  same  year,  another
for  300,000  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  Estimated
inscription,  1793-1813,  4,103,000.  The  law  of  1818
(modified  in  1824, 1832,  and  1868)  required  a  certain
annual  contingent  for  each  department.  The  con-
scription was  enlarged  and  modified  by  the  army
bill  which  was  enacted  in  Feb.  1868.  The  re-
organisation of  the  army  began  in  1871,  after  the
fatal  war  with  Germany.  Substitutes  were  allowed
under  certain  conditions.  Conscription  for  Great
Britain  was  advocated  and  strongly  opposed  in  1875.
CONSECEATION.  Aaron  and  his  sons  were
consecrated  priests,  1490  B.C.  {Lev.  viii.)  The
Jewish  tabernacle  was  dedicated,  1490  B.C.,  and
Solomon's  temple,  1004  B.C.  (1  Kings  viii.)  The
consecration  of  churches  began  in  the  2nd  century.
Anciently  the  consecration  of  popes  was  deferred
until  the  emperor  had  given  his  assent  to  their
election.  Gregory  IV.  desired  to  have  his  election
confirmed  by  the  emperor  Louis,  in  828.  Henault.
The  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c,
is  admitted  in  the  reformed  religion.  An  act  re-
lating to  the  consecration  of  churchyards,  passed
20  Aug.  1867,  was  amended  in  1868.  A  form  of
consecration  was  adopted  by  convocation,  but  not
sanctioned  by  the  crown,  April,  1712.  It  is  gene-
rally used  but  is  not  compulsory. — Burn.  The  form
of  consecrating  bishops  in  the  church  of  England
is  set  forth  in  the  prayer-book  of  1549. — Stow.

CONSERVATION  OF  FORCE.  The  doc-
trine that  no  physical  force  can  be  created  or  de-
stroyed, but  may  be  transferred,  is  maintained  by
Faraday,  Grove,  Helmholtz,  Tyndall,  and  other
philosophers;  see  Correlation.

CONSERVATIVES,  a  name  said  to  have
been  invented  by  John  Wilson  Croker,*  an  earnest
Tory,  in  1830,  assumed  by  a  party,  whose  leading
principle  is  the  preservation  of  our  national  institu-
tions. It  was  termed  a  new  cant  word  by  T.  B.  Mac-
aulay  in  Edinburgh  Revieiv,  July,  1832.  Sir  Robert
Peel  acknowledged  himself  a  conservative  when
reproached  by  the  Irish  party  in  parliament  with
being  an  Orangeman  ;  but  the  party  that  afterwards
separated  from  him  called  their  principles  conserva-
tive in  contradistinction  to  his, — his  policy  and
measures  being  changed. — The  Conservative  Club
was  founded  in  1840  ;  see  Protectionists  and  Clubs.
The  party  in  the  north  of  the  United  States  which
supported  the  president  in  his  conciliatory  efforts  to
re-establish  the  Union,  Jan.  1866,  were  termed
"  Conservatives."  A  great  meeting  of  the  National
Union  of  Conservative  Associations  was  held  at  the
Crystal  Palace,  24  June,  1872.  The  party  in  the
minority  at  the  elections  in  1868  obtained  a  majority
at  those  in  Feb.  1874,  and  came  into  office.  They
were  again  in  a  minority  at  the  general  election,
and  resigned  22  April,  1880.  The'  marquis  of
Salisbury  was  elected  leader  of  the  party,  9  May,
1 88 1,  succeeding  the  earl  of  Beaconsfield,  who  died
19  April  previous.  Constitutional  club  (central)
formed  in  London,  President,  marquis  of  Salisbury.
House  opened  8  Aug.  1883.  National  Conserva-
tive Clubs,  established  in  1866.  See  Derby  and
Disraeli,  Fourth  Party,  Liberals  (1886),  National
Union.
The  national union  of  conservative  associations

met  at  Salisbury,  25  July,  1889  ;  Liverpool,  1890  ;

Birmingham 24  Nov.  1891

*  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xlii.  p.  276,  Jan.  1830.


The  marquis  of  Salisbury  addresses  10,000  conser-
vatives at  Exeter 2  Feb.  189,2

CONSERVATOIRES,  a  name  given  to  es-
tablishments for  the  cultivation  of  music  and  the
arts  on  the  continent.  One  was  established  at
Naples  in  1537-  The  singing  school  at  Paris,
founded  in  1784,  and  closed  in  1789,  was  re-opened
in  1793  as  the  "  Institut  National  de  Musique,"  and
after  being  reorganised,  was  re-named  "  Conserva-
toire de  Musique"  in  1795,  and  flourished  under
Cherubini  (1822-42).  "The  Conservatoire  das
Arts  et  Metiers"  was  established  in  1784.  It  in-
cludes a  museum  and  library,  and  lectures  are  given,
to  workmen  there.

CONSERVATORS  of  the  Public  Lib-
erties. Officers  chosen  in  England  to  inspect  the-
treasury  and  correct  abuses  in  administration,
28  Hen.  III.  1244. — Rapin.  Conservators  were
appointed  to  see  the  king's  peace  kept. — Pardon.
Conservators  were  formerly  appointed  in  every  sea-
port to  take  cognisance  of  all  offences  committed
against  the  peace  upon  the  main  sea  out  of  the
liberty  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  — Bailey.

CONSISTORIES  for  regulating  ecclesiastical
discipline  and  divine  worship  in  the  Lutheran)
church  in  Germany,  were  established  at  the  refor-
mation— the  first  at  "Wittenberg  in  1542  ;  other
consistories  were  established  after  the  peace  of
Augsburg  in  1555.

CONSISTORY  COURT,  anciently  joined
with  the  hundred  court ;  and  its  original,  as  divided*
therefrom,  is  found  in  a  law  of  William  I.,  1079,.
quoted  by  lord  justice  Coke.  The  chief  and  most
ancient  consistory  court  of  the  kingdom  belongs  to*
the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  is  called  the  Court  of
Arches  {which  see) .

CONSOLIDATED  FUND  was  formed  by
combining  the  "aggregate,"  "general,"  and
"South  Sea  funds,"  1786.  On  5  Jan.  1816,  the  ex-
chequers of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  previously
separate,  were  amalgamated,  forming  "the  consoli-
dated fund  of  the  United  Kingdom."

CONSOLS,  see  Stocks.

CONSORZIO  NAZIONALE,  see  Italy,
1866.

CONSPIRACIES.  Among  the  recorded  con-
spiracies, real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most
remarkable :  see  Rebellions.

Of  the  duke  of  Gloucester  against  Richard  II.  .  1397
Of  the  earl  of  Cambridge  and  others  against  Henry  V.  1415
Of  Anthony  Babington  and  others  against  Elizabeth.

(See  Babington) 15S6

Of  Lopez,  a  Jew,  and  others 1594

Of  Patrick  York,  an  Irish  fenoing-master  hired  by

the  Spaniards  to  kill  the  queen . . .  ,,

Of  Walpole,  a  Jesuit,  and  Edward  Squyer  to  poison

the  queen 159S

Tyrone's  insurrection  in  Ireland ....  1599.

The  Gunpowder  plot  {which  see) 1605

Tyrone's  conspiracy  to  surprise  the  castle  of  Dublin.  1607
Of  Penruddock  (1655)  and of Syndercombe  and

others  to  assassinate  Oliver  Cromwell  .  Jan.  1657
Insurrection  of  the  Fifth-monarchy  men  against

Charles  II 1661

Of  Blood,  who  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond,  wounded

him,  and  would  have  hanged  him,  Dec.  1670 ;  and

who  afterwards  attempted  to  steal  the  regalia.

9  May,  1671
The  pretended  conspiracy  of  the  French,  Spanish,

and  English  Jesuits  to  assassinate  Charles  II.,

revealed  by  the  infamous  Titus  Oates,  Dr.  Tongue,

and  others .  .... Aug.  1678

The  Meal-tub  plot  {which  see) 1679

The  Rye-house  plot  to  assassinate  the  king  on  his

way  to  Newmarket. (See  Rye-house  Plot). . .  1683


CONSPIRACY.


245


CONSTITUENT.


Of  lord  Preston,  the  bishop  of  Ely,  and  others  to

restore  James  II.  ....  Jan.  1691

■Of  Granville,  a  French  chevalier,  to  murder  king

William  in  Flanders  1692

!Ehe  Assassination  plot  (which  sec)  frustrated  .  .  1696
Of  Simon  Fraser,  lord  Lovat,  against  queen  Anne.

(See  Rebellions) 1703

■Of  the  marquis  Guiscard  . . . .  March,  1711

•Of  James  Sheppard,  an  enthusiast,  to  assassinate

George  1 1718

Of  counsellor  Layer  and  others,  to  bring  in  the

Pretender 1722

Of  the  Corresponding  Society,  &c.  (ivhich  see)  . 1796-8

Of  colonel  Despard  1802

Of  Robert  Emmett, in Dublin,  when  lord Kil-

warden  was  killed  ....  23  July,  1803
Of  Thistlewood  and  others,  to  assassinate  the  king's

ministers. (See  Cato-street) 1820

Of  the  Sepoys  in  India. (See  India) . 10  May,  1857
Of  the  Fenians ...  . 1858-68
Major  Panitza  against  prince  Ferdinand,  see  Bul-
garia Feb.  et  seq.  1890

See  Rebellious,  Chartists,  &c.

CONSPIRACY  AND  PROTECTION
TO  PROPERTY  ACT,  passed  13  Aug.  1875  ;
relates  to  trade  disputes,  breaches  of  contract,  &c.

CONSTABLE  of  England,  Lord  High.

The  seventh  great  officer  of  the  crown,  and,  with  the
«arl  marshal,  formerly  a  judge  of  the  court  of
^chivalry,  called,  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  curia
militaris,  and  subsequently  the  court  of  honour.
The  power  of  this  officer  was  so  great,  that  in  1389
■a.  statute  was  passed  for  abridging  it,  and  also  the
power  of  the  earl  marshal  (ivhich  see).  The  office
•existed  before  the  conquest,  after  which  it  went  by
inheritance  to  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  Essex,  and
next  in  the  line  of  Stafford.  In  1521  it  was  for-
feited by  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,
.-attainted  for  high  treason,  and  has  never  since  been
granted  to  any  person,  otherwise  than  pro  hue  vice
(for  this  occasion),  to  attend  at  a  coronation  or  trial
hy  combat.  The  only  instance  of  a  trial  by  combat
Sbeing  ordered  since  this  office  fell  into  the  hands  of
the  crown,  was  that  commanded  between  lord  Reay
and  Mr.  David  Ramsey,  in  Nov.  1631 ;  but  the  king
prevented  it.

LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS

Queen  Anne,  Wriothesly,  duke  of  Bedford  .  . 1702

George  I.,  John,  Duke  of  Montague . .  .  . 1714

George  II.,  Charles,  duke  of  Richmond .  .  . 1727

George  III. ,  John,  duke  of  Bedford . .  .  .  1761

George IV.  ) «  ("1821

William  IV.  [Arthur,  duke  of  Wellington  .  \ 1831

Victoria .  j  (  1838

CONSTABLE  of  Scotland,  Lord  High.

The  office  was  instituted  by  David  I.  about  1147.
The  holder  had  the  keeping  of  the  king's  sword,
which  the  king,  at  his  promotion,  delivered  to  him
naked  (and  hence  the  badge  of  the  lord  high  con-
stable is  a  naked  sword)  ;  and  the  absolute  com-
mand of  the  king's  armies  while  in  the  field,  in  the
absence  of  the  king.  The  office  was  conferred
heritably  in  13 14  on  sir  Gilbert  Hay  by  Robert
Bruce.  One  of  Hay's  descendants  was  made  Earl
of  Erroll,  and  with  his  family  the  office  still  re-
mains, being  expressly  reserved  by  the  treaty  of
union  in  1707.  The  present  earl  of  Erroll  is  the
twenty-third  lord  high  constable  (1892).

CONSTABLES  of  Hundreds  and  Franchises,
instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  1285,  are  now
called  high  constables.  There  are  three  kinds  of
constables,  high,  petty,  and  special ;  the  high  con-
stable's jux-isdiction  extends  to  the  whole  hundred  ;
the  petty  constable's  to  the  parish  or  liberty  for
which  he  is  chosen ;  and  the  special  constable  is
appointed  for  particular  emergencies  (as  in  April,
1848, on  account  of  the  Chartists). The  general


appointment  of  parish  constables  was  made  un-
necessary by  an  act  passed  Aug.  1872.  See  Special
Constables  and  Tower.

CONSTABULARY  FORCE.  For  that  of
London,  see  Police.  The  Constabulary  of  Ireland
act  passed  in  1823,  when  this  species  of  force  was
embodied  throughout  the  country.  Several  subse-
quent acts  were  consolidated  in  1836.

CONSTANCE,  a  city  in  Baden  (S.  Germany).
Here  was  held  the  seventeenth  general  council,  1414-
18,  which  condemned  John  Huss;  and  here  he  was
burnt,  6  July,  1415;  see  Hussites.

CONSTANTINA,  the  ancient  capital  of
Numidia,  was  taken  by  the  French,  13  Oct.  1837.
During  the  assault  on  12  Oct.  the  French  general
Damremont  was  killed.  Achmet  Bey  retired  with
12,000  men,  as  the  victors  entered  Constantina.

CONSTANTINOPLE  (formerly  Byzantium)
(which  see),  now  Stamboul,  derives  its  name  from
Constantine  the  Great,  who  removed  the  seat  of  the
Eastern  Empire  here,  dedicating  it  II  May,  330.
See  Eastern  Empire.  Population,  1885,  873,565.
General  ecclesiastical  councils  against  heresy  were  held
here  in  381,  553,  680,  and  869.

Seized  by  Procopius 365

The  city  suffered  much  from  religious  dissensions,

and  was  burnt  during  the  "  Nika  "  conflicts  .  .  532
Rebuilt  by  Justinian  with  great  splendour .  ,,

St.  Sophia  dedicated 537

Resisted  the  Saracens  successfully  . . 675,  718

And  the  Russians .... 865,  904,  941,  1043

Taken  by  the  Latins 1203,  1204

Recovered  by  the  Greeks . . . .  .1261

Vainly  besieged  by  Amurath  the  Ottoman,  June —

Aug.  1422
Taken  by  Mahomet  II.  after  53  days'  siege,  29  May,  1453
Conference  on  Turkish  Affairs  ; representatives  :
Great  Britain, marquis of Salisbury ; Russia,
general  Ignatieff;  France,  Chaudordy  ;  Austria,
Zichy  ;  GernwMy,  Von  Werther  ;  Italy,  Corti ;  or-
dinary meetings  began . . . .23  Dec.  1876
Turkey  rejected  the  propositions  and  the  confer-
ence closed 20  Jan.  1S77

Treaty  of  peace  with  Russia:  12  articles  ;  Turkey  ac-
cepted modifications  of  treaty  of  San  Stefano
(ivhich  see) ;  an  indemnity  of  about  802,500,000
francs  to  be  paid  by  Turkey  (settlement  deferred);
Russian  troops  to  quit  within  40  days,  <fec. ;  signed

8  Feb.  1879
By  the  falling  down  of  a  barracks  at  Beykoi  about

200  soldiers  said  to  be  killed,  about  .  9  Feb.  1880
Conference  of  European  powers  respecting  Egypt

constituted  (see  Egypt)  .  .  .  .23  June,  1882
Great  fire,  thousands  homeless  .  .  .5  Oct.  1883
Great  fire,  about  900  houses  destroyed  12  July,  1890

Grand  opening  of  the  new  station  of  the  Orient
(European  Turkish)  railway . . .4  Nov. ,,
See  Turkey.
Era  of  Constantinople  has  the  creation  placed  5508
years  b.o. It  was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time
of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  still  used  in  the  Greek  church.
The  civil  year  begins  1  Sept. ,  and  the  ecclesiastical  year
in March  ; the  day is  not  exactly  determined. To
reduce  it  to  our  era,  subtract  5508  years  from  January
to  August,  and  5509  from  Sept.  to  the  end. Nicolas.

CONSTELLATIONS.  Areturus,  Orion,  the
Pleiades,  and  Mazzaroth  are  mentioned  in  Job  ix.
9,  and  xxxviii.  31,  about  1520  B.C.  Homer  and
H.esiod  notice  constellations ;  but  our  first  direct
knowledge  was  derived  from  Claudius  Ptolemajus,
about  a.d.  140.  Hipparchus  (about  147  B.C.)  made  a
catalogue  of  forty-eight  constellations,  and  others
were  added  by  Tycho  Brahe,  Hevclius,  Hallev,  and
others.  The  number  at  present  acknowledged  is  29
northern,  45  southern,  and  12  zodiacal.

CONSTITUENCIES,  see  Commons,  House  of.

CONSTITUENT,  see  National  Assembly.


CONSTITUTION.


246 CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION,


CONSTITUTION  or  England.  It  com-
prehends the  whole  body  of  laws  by  which  the  British
people  are  governed,  and  to  which  it  is  presump-
tively held  that  every  individual  has  assented.
Lord  Somers.  This  assemblage  of  laws  is  distin-
guished from  the  term  government  in  this  respect —
that  the  constitution  is  the  rule  by  which  the  sove-
reign ought  to  govern  at  all  times  ;  and  government
is  that  by  which  he  does  govern  at  any  particular
time.  Lord  Bolingbroke.  The  king  of  England  is
not  seated  on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power  :  on  the
contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in  the  co-existing
tranches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognises  his
superior  in  the  law.  Sheridan.  Hallam's  "  Con-
stitutional History  of  England"  was  first  published
in  1827;  May's  in  1861-3;  Stubbs'  in  1875.

CONSTITUTIONALIST  PARTY,  a  name
assumed  by  a  combination  of  Conservatives  and
seceded  "Whigs,  Aug.  1867,  and  used  during  the
severely  contested  elections,  Nov.  1868.  The  Con-
stitutional Union  held  its  first  anniversary  20  June,
1881. Dinner,  i4  June,  1890.

Constitutional  Press  Corporation. — An  active  conservative

body,  autumn,  1881.
Constitutional  Club. — President marquis  of  Salisbury,

established  1883.

CONSTITUTIONS of  France,  enacted

1789-91, 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852,
1875-

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  see  Trunsubstan-
tiation.

CONSULS  (meaning  colleagues),  Roman:  at
the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  a  republic  was  esta-
Mished,  to  be  ruled  by  two  praters  or  consuls
elected  annually :  the  first  being  Lucius  Junius
Brutus  and  Lucius  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  husband
of  the  injured  Lucretia,  509  B.C.  The  consular
power  was  in  emergencies  superseded  by  dictators
and  tribunes.

Government  of  the  Decemviri . . B.C.  451 — 449
Three  Military  Tribunes  with  consular  power  . . 444

A  Plebeian  elected  consul 366

[In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  the  consuls  were  nomi-
nated by  the  senate,  and  the  appointment  be-
caaie  henceforth  honorary.]
The  French  consulate  established  when  the  direc-
tory was  abolished  :  Bonaparte,  Sieves,  and  Roger
Ducos  made  provisional  consular  commissioners,
10  Nov.  ; Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Lebrun

made  consuls 13  Dec.  1799

Bonaparte  was  made  first  consul  for  10  years,  6  May,

and  for  life,  2  Aug.  1802  ;  emperor . 18  May,  1804
Commercial  agents  were  first  distinguished  by  the
name  of  consuls  in  Italy. Lorenzo  Strozzi  was  ap-
pointed by  Richard  III. 1485

A  British  consul  first  appointed  in  Portugal . .  1633
The  Associations  of  Foreign  Consuls  in  London  held
a  banquet  at  the  Hotel  Metropole . 22  Feb.  1890

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  ACT  for  naval
and  military  stations  passed  June  1866;  amended,
1869-71 ;  repealed  1886.  One  for  animals  passed
1866 ;  renewed  1867 ;  amended  1869.  Although
the  operation  of  the  first  act  was  reported  to  be
successful,  it  has  been  much  opposed.  A  royal  com-
mission appointed  to  inquire,  reported,  July,  1871 ;
and  alterations  have  been  proposed.  Its  repeal
negatived  in  the  Commons  (308-126),  23  June,
1875;  (224-102),  19  July,  1876;  16  March,  1886.
A  new  act  for  animals  was  passed  16  Aug.  1878 ;
amended,  1884  and  1886;  amended  in  relation  to
pleuro-pneumonia,  1890  and  1892. See  Cattle.

CONTEMPORARY  REVIEW,  first  ap-
peared Jan.  1866  ;  editor  Dean  Alford.


CONTINENTAL  S YSTEM,the  isarae  given.
to  Napoleon's  plan  to  exclude  the  British  merchan-
dise from  the  entire  continent.  It  began  publicly
with  his  Berlin  decree  in  1806,  and  occasioned  the-
Orders  in  Council  (which  see) .

CONTINUITY,  Mr.  (after  sir)  W.  R.  Grove,  in
his  address  as  president  of  the  British  Association,  on,
22  Aug.  1866,  at  Nottingham,  expounded  the  opinion
held  by  many  philosophers,  that  all  the  past  ebanges-
in  the  world  have  been  produced  by  the  continuous
action  of  the  causes  now  in  operation— that  "  con-
tinuity is  a  law  of  nature,  the  true  expression  of  the-
action  of  Almighty  Power."
Those  who  hold  this  opinion  are  termed  Uniformita-

rians  ;  their  opponents  are  termed  Cataclysmists,  who

attribute  the  changes  to  the  violent  action  of  fire  and

water.

CONTRABAND  of  War,  a  term  said  to
have  been  first  employed  in  the  treaty  of  Southamp-
ton between  England  and  Spain  in  1625.  During
the  struggle  between  Spain  and  Holland,  both
powers  acted  with  much  rigour  towards  ships  of
neutrals  conveying  goods  to  the  belligerents.  This-
provoked  the  resistance  of  England.  A  milder  policy
was  adopted  by  the  treaty  of  Pyrenees,  1650;  and
by  the  declaration  of  Paris,  26  April,  1856.  The
subject  was  much  discussed  during  the  North  Ameri-
can conflict,  1861-4.

CONTRACTORS  with  Government,  disquali-
fied from  sitting  in  parliament,  1782.

CONTRE-DANSE  (English,  country-dance),,
a  dance,  so  called  from  the  dancers  being  opposite-
each  other,  was  introduced  into  France  (probably
from  England)  about  1715,  et  seq.

CONTRIBUTIONS,  Voluntary,  to  avast

amount  have  been  several  times  made  by  the  British-
people  in  aid  of  the  government.  One,  in  1798,  to-
support  the  war  against  France,  amounted  to  two-
millions  and  a  half  sterling.  Several  men  of  wealth,,
among  others  sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lancashire,,
subscribed  each  10,000/. :  and  200,006/.  were  trans-
mitted from  India  in  1799;  see  Patriotic  Fiend..
For  India,  Qc,  see  Mansion  House.

CONTROL,  BOARD  OF.  Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  esta-
blishing this  board  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  and
controlling  the  executive  government  of  India,  and,
of  superintending  the  territorial  concerns  of  the
company,  was  passed  18  May,  1784.  Act  amended:
and  the  board  remodelled,  1793.  The  president  of '
the  board  was  a  chief  minister  of  the  crown,  and.
necessarily  one  of  the  members  of  the  cabinet.  This
board  was  abolished  in  1858,  when  the  government
of  India  was  transferred  from  the  company  to  the-
crown ;  see  India  Bills,  and  India.

CONTROL  DEPARTMENT,  in  the  British,
army,  was  divided  into  the  commissariat  and  trans-
port department,  and  the  ordnance  store  depart-
ment ;  the  old  title  was  abolished ;  order  issued
II  Dec.  1875.

CONVALESCENT  INSTITUTION  (Me-
tropolitan), at  Walton-on-Thames,  with  children's-
branches  at  Hendon  and  Mitcham,  was  established,
in  1840  ;  a  branch  at  Bexhill,  Sussex,  was-
founded  in  1880.  A  convalescent  hospital  for  the
east  of  London  was  founded  at  Snaresbrook  in  1866,
greatly  due  to  the  exertions  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles-
worth,  Mrs.  Gladstone,  and  Miss  Catherine  Marsh.
Homes  at  Eamsgate,  1866 ;  Waltham,  1867  ;  Mar-
gate, 1875,  &c.  See  Bartholomew,  St.,  1881.  Con-
valescent Home  for  Middle  Classes  proposed  by  Mr.
Burdett  and  others,  Feb.  1885.  There  were  42;
such  institutions  in  1888. 100,000/.  for  the  esta-


CONVENTICLES.


247


COOK'S EXCURSIONS.


blishment  of  a  general  hospital  convalescent  home
offered  by  a  secret  benefactor  (Peter  Eeid),  himself,
sir  W.  IS.  Savary,  and  W.  H.  Cross  to  be  joint
trustees,  30  Dec.  1889;  50,000/.  more  presented,
announced  18  March,  1890.  The  Surrey  Conva-
lescent Home,  erected  through  an  anonymous  gift  of
25,000/.,  opened  by  tbe  duke  of  Cambridge,  27
July,  1891.

CONVENTICLES,  private  assemblies  for
religious  worship,  held  by  Dissenters  from  the  esta-
blished church ;  but  first  applied  to  the  schools  of
Wickliffe.  35  Elizabeth,  c.  1  (1593)  passed  "  to  pre-
vent and  suppress  seditious  conventicles,"  was  re-
enacted  by  16  Charles  II.  c.  4  (1664)  and  by  22
Charles  it.  c.  1  (1670).  Persons  attending  them
were  liable  to  severe  punishment.  The  statutes
were  repealed  by  the  toleration  act,  24  May,  1689.

CONVENTION  PARLIAMENTS,  as-
sembled without  the  king's  writ  upon  extraordinary
occasions.  One  on  25  April,  1660,  voted  the  restora-
tion of  Charles  II.  A  second  met  22  Jan.  1689 ;
offered  the  crown  to  William  and  Mary  13  Feb. ;  and
dissolved  in  Feb.  1690 ;  see  National  Convention.

CONVENTIONS,  see  Treaties.
CONVENTS  were  first  founded,  according  to
some  authorities,  270.  The  first  in  England  was
erected  at  Folkestone,  by  Eadbald,  in  630.  Camden.
The  first  in  Scotland  was  at  Coldingham,  where
Ethelreda  took  the  veil  in  670.  They  were  founded
earlier  in  Ireland.  They  were,  suppressed  in  Eng-
land in  various  reigns,  particularly  in  that  of  Henry
VIII.  A  very  great  number  have  been  suppressed
in  Europe  in  the  present  century.  The  king  of
Prussia  secularised  all  the  convents  in  the  duchy  of
Posen.  Dom  Pedro  put  down  300  convents  in  Por-
tugal in  1834  ;  and  Spain  abolished  1800  convents.
Many  were  abolished  in  Italy  and  Sicily  in  i860,
1861,  and  1866,  and  many  in  Russia  31  July,  1832,
and  Nov.  1864.

In  1597  lady  Mary  Percy  founded  a  convent  at  Brussels,
which  flourished  there  till  1794,  when  the  nuns  were
compelled  to  remove  to  England. They  were  received
by  bishop  Milner,  and  placed  at  Winchester,  at  which
place  they  remained  till  their  removal  to  East  Berg-
holt,  in  Suffolk,  June,  1857. This  was  the  first  English
conventual  establishment  founded  on  the  continent
after  the  Reformation.
By  the  Emancipation  act  of  1829,  10  Geo.  IV.,  the
establishment  of  convents and other  religious
communities  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  prohi-
bited, butthis  enactment  has  been  a  dead  letter  . 1829
There  were  in  1832, 16  convents  in  England  ;  in  1870%

233  ;  and  70  monasteries  in  Great  Britain.
A  select  committee  to  investigate  into  the  revenues
of  British  convents  appointed  by  the  commons,
10  May,  1870  ;  reappointed . . . Feb. 1871
The  committee  reported  the  evidence  heard  .  June, „
Mr.  Newdegate's  motion  for  an  inquiry  respecting

these  institutions  was  negatived  .  .  12  June,  1874
Large convent at Bournemouth, in  connection

with  Church  of  England,  opened  .  3  Oct.  1875

A  Carmelite  convent,  specially  patronised  by  the
duke of  Norfolk and family, at  St. Charles's
Square,  Notting  Hill,  London,  \V., opened  by
Cardinal  Manning .... 29  Sept.  1878
Many  convents  in  France  abolished,  by  decree

29  March,  1880

CONVERSION,  see  National  debt,  1888.

CONVEYANCING  ACT  (Scotland)  passed
7  Aug.  1874.  Tbe  Conveyancing  and  Law  of  Pro-
perty Act  (England),  44  &  45  Vict.  c.  41,  passed  22
Aug.  1 88 1.

CONVICTS,  see  Transportation.

CONVOCATION,theancientgeneralassembly
of  the  clergy  of  the  nation,  convened  by  the  sove-
reign's writ,  to  consult  on  the  affairs  of  the  church;


the  writ  is  directed  to  the  archbishop  of  each  provi  nee
requiring  him  to  summon  all  the  bishops,  arch-
deacons, &c.  The  convocation  is  divided  into  two
houses,  the  upper,  consistingof  bishops  ;  and  lower,
of  deans,  prebendaries,  archdeacons,  and  members
(termed  proctors)  elected  from  the  inferior  clergy.
The  clergy  were  summoned  to  meet  the  king  by
writ,  23  Edw.  I.  1294.  The  power  of  the  convoca-
tion was  limited  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.,  in
whose  reign  the  convocation  was  reorganised.  The
two  houses  of  convocation  were  deprived  of  various
privileges  in  17 18,  and  ceased  to  meet.  The
annual  meetings  of  the  clergy  held  during  the
sitting  of  parliament  were  revived  in  the  province
of  Canterbury  1852,  and  York  1861,  and  fruitless  at-
tempts have  been  made  to  obtain  the  power  of
dealing  summarily  with  ecclesiastical  affairs ;  but
in  Feb.  1872,  convocation  was  authorised  to  deli-
berate respecting  alterations  in  the  Liturgy  ;  upon
which  it  acted,  5  March  ;  again  in  1879.  Petition
to  the  queen  for  reform  of  convocation,  Nov.  1882.
Convocation  relieved  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  secular
courts  by  Richard  III.,  1484.  The  Archbishop  of
York's  claim  for  this  in  regard  to  elections  (in  the  case
of  Canon  Tristram)  confirmed  by  the  Queen's-  Bench
Division,  Nov.  1887.  See  Laymen,  House  of,  which  first
met  16  Feb.  1886.

CONVOLVULUS.  The  Canary  Convolvulus
{Convolvulus  canariensis)  came  to  England  from
the  Canary  Isles,  1690. The  Many-flowered,  1779.

COOKERY,  an  art  connected  with  civilised
life.  Animals  were  granted  as  food  to  Noah,  2348
B.C.,  the  eating  of  blood  beiug  expressly  forbidden
{Gen.  ix.  3,  4).  In  1898  B.C.  a  calf  was  cooked  by
Abraham  to  entertain  his  guests  {Gen.  xviii.  7,  8).
"  The  Forme  of  Cury"  {i.e.  cookery)  is  dated  1390.
An  English  cookery-book  was  printed  1498;  see
Cottager's  Stove.

The  Cooks'  Company,  London,  chartered  1482,  celebrated
the  anniversary  Aug. 1882. Since  1877  the  company
have  given  instruction  to  girls,  and  prizes  for  profi-
ciency.
Military  Cookery.— Capt.  Grant  devised  a  system  of  cook-
ing for  the  camp  at  Aldershot,  which  has  continued  in
successful  operation  for  the  service  of  between  12,000
and  14,000  men.  From  April  to  August,  in  1857,  the  plan
was  subjected  to  the  severe  test  of  cooking  for  92,000
men, who  marched  in  and  out  of  the  encampment
during  that  period. The  consumption  of  fuel  requisite
for  this  system  of  cooking  was  one  half-pound  of  coal
per  man  per  day,  and  the  official  report  states  the  cost
to  be  one  halfpenny  per  man  per  week  for  the  three
daily  meals.
Self-supporting  Cooking  Depots  for  the  working  classes
were  set  up  at  Glasgow  (by  Mr.  Thomas  Corbett),  21
Sept. i860  ; and proved  successful in  Manchester,
Loudon,  and  other  places  soon  after.
Three  medals  were  awarded  to  the  Norwegian  self-acting
cooking  apparatus  (Soreuson's  patent)  at  the  Paris  Ex-
hibition, 1867. Cooking  is  effected  by  boiling  water,
the  heat  of  which  is  maintained  by  enclosing  it  in  a
non-conducting  substance.
A  Sclwol  of  Cookery  was  opened  at  the  international  ex-
hibition, South  Kensington,  14  April,  1873.
A National Training School for Cookery, proposed
17  July,  1873,  was  established  in  1874.

COOK'S EXCURSIONS. Mr. Thomas
Cook  in  1841  began  his  tourist  system  by  arranging
with  the Midland railway  company  for  the  con-
veyance of  a  party  of  570  from  Leicester  to  Lough-
borough and  back  at  is.  a-head.
He  gradually  extended  his  scheme  through  the  United
Kingdom,  and  thence  to  the  continent. In  1856  1»'
conducted  his  first  touring  party  from  Harwich  In  flu-
Rhine,  returning  home  Did Paris, lie  has  since  ap-
plied his  system  to  America,  India,  Egypt,  and  the
Holy  Land. Mr.  Cook  died  18  July,  1892,  aged  83.


COOK'S  VOYAGES.


248


COPPER.


COOK'S  VOYAGES.  James  Cook,  accom-
panied by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Joseph  Banks,  sailed
from  England  in  the  Endeavour  on  his  first  voyage,
30  July,  1 768 ;  and  returned  home  after  having
circumnavigated  the  globe,  arriving  at  Deal  12  June,
1 77 1.  The  chief  object  of  the  expedition,  at  the
request  of  the  Royal  Society,  was  the  observation  of
the  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk,  which  was
effected,  3  June,  1769.  Captain  Cook  sailed  to  ex-
plore the  southern  hemisphere,  13  July,  1772,  and
returned  30  July,  1775.  In  his  last  expedition
(begun  12  July,  1776)  he  was  killed  by  the  savages
of  Owhyhee,  14  Feb.  1779.  His  ships,  the  Resolution
and  Discovery,  arrived  at  Sheerness,  4  Oct.  1780.

COOLIES,  the  hill  tribes  of  India,  have  been
recently  much  employed  as  labourers  in  Australia
and  California,  especially  since  1861  ;  and  about
30,000  of  them  were  conveyed  by  M.  Kootmanschap,
to  assist  in  making  the  great  Pacific  railway.  His
proposal  in  1869  to  replace  the  negroes  in  the
Southern  States  of  North  America  for  the  cultiva-
tion of  cotton,  was  not  accepted.  "  The  Coolie,  his
Rights  and  Wrongs,"  by  E.  Jenkins,  was  published
187 1.  Coolie  emigration  has  been  the  subject  of
negotiation  between  the  British  and  Chinese  govern-
ments since  1855.

COOPERAGE,  an  ancient  art,  probably  sug-
gested for  preserving  wine.  The  coopers  of  London
were  incorporated  in  1501.

CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES  are  com-
posed of  working  men,  having  for  their  object  the
sale  of  articles  of  daily  consumption  to  the  members
at  low  prices.  The  Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers
Society  began  in  1844,  with  a  capital  of  28/.  In
i860,  the  business  done  amounted  to  152,063/.,  the
profits  being  15,906/.  These  societies  (332  in  1862)
are  registered  pursuant  to  13  &  14  Vict.  c.  115
(1849).  On  31  Dec.  1866,  749  industrial,  provident,
and  co-operative  societies  were  registered  ;  1 153,
May  1885  ;  1,281  in  1888.  By  an  act  passed  in  1867
they  are  bound  to  make  a  return.  The  fourth  con-
gress of  delegates  from  the  Co-operative  Societies  of
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  met  at  Bolton,  April  1,
1872  ;  fifth  at  Newcastle,  12  April,  1873  >  sixth  at
Halifax,  6  April,  1874;  seventh  in  London,  29
March,  1875;  eighth  at  Glasgow,  17  April,  1876;
ninth  at  Leicester,  2  April,  1877 ;  twelfth,  Newcastle,
17  May,  1880;  thirteenth,  at  Leeds,  6  June,  1881  ;
fourteenth,  Oxford,  29  May,  1882  ;  fifteenth,  Edin-
burgh, 14  May,  1883  I  sixteenth,  Derby  (co-opera-
tion in  production  proposed),  2  June,  1884 ;  seven-
teenth at  Oldham,  May,  1885  :  eighteenth  at  Ply-
mouth, 14  June,  1886;  at  Carlisle,  28  May,  1887;
at  Dewsbury,  21  May,  1888;  at  Ipswich.  10  June,
1889;  at  Glasgow,  26  May,  1890;  at  Lincoln,  18
May,  1891 ;  24th  at  Rochdale,  4  June,  1892.  A
national  trade  society  in  opposition  to  co-operation
was  formed  in  1872.

Co-operative  Cotton-mills  in  south  Lancashire  were
reported  successful  in  187s.

Ouseburn  Co-operative  Engineering  Works,  esta-
blished 1871,  failed  through  want  of  capital :  wound  up
1875-  *

Much  discontent  among  London  tradesmen  on  account
of  the  numerous  co-operative  stores,  1878—80.

Co-operative  farming  begun  in  Northamptonshire,  1886.

Establishment  of  a  Co-operative  Dwellings  Association
in  London,  proposed,  1887.

The  Tenant  Co-operators  (Limited)  started  Jan.  1888.

The  International  Co-operative  Congress  opened  at
Bologna,  1  Oct.  1888.

The Co-operative Union  included 1,500  societies
with  a  share  capital  of  11,000,000^.  . Nov.  1890

National Co-operative Festival at the Crystal
Palace  • •  •  . . 15  Aug.  1891  I


COORG,  a  province,  S.  India.  "War  broke  out
between  the  rajah  and  the  East  India  Company  1832,
which  ended  by  col.  Lindsay  defeating  and  deposing
the  rajah,  10  April,  1834,  and  his  territories  were
soon  after  annexed  by  the  British.  In  1853  the
rajah  brought  his  daughter  to  be  educated  in  Eng-
land, where  she  was  baptized.  She  married  a  col.
Campbell,  and  died  a  few  years  after.

COPENHAGEN  (Denmark),  built  by  Walde-
mar  I.,  1157,  made  the  capital,  1443;  the  university
founded  1479.  In  1728,  more  than  seventy  of  its
streets  and  3785  houses  were  burnt.  Its  palace,
valued  at  four  millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,
Feb.  1794,  when  100  persons  lost  their  lives.  In  a
fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arsenal,
admiralty,  and  fifty  streets  were  destroyed,  June,
1795-  A  new  national  theatre  was  founded  by  the
king,  18  Oct.  1872. — Copenhagen  was  bombarded  by
the  English  under  lord  Nelson  and  admiral  Parker ;
and  in  their  engagement  with  the  Danish  fleet  of
twenty-three  ships  of  the  line,  eighteen  were  taken
or  destroyed  by  the  British,  2  April,  1801.  Again,
after  a  bombardment  of  three  days,  the  city  and
Danish  fleet  surrendered  to  admiral  Gam  bier  and
lord  Cathcart,  7  Sept.  1807.  The  capture  consisted
of  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,
and  twenty-five  gun-boats,  and  immense  naval
stores.  Population,  with  suburbs,  1880,  273,727  ;
1890,375,251. See  Denmark.

The  czar  and  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Greece,  and
other  royal  persons,  breakfast  with  Mr.  Gladstone,
Mr.  Tennyson,  and  others  on  board  the  Pembroke  Castle,
18  Sept.  J883.

The  royal  castle  of  Christiansborg,  burnt ;  Thorwaldsen's
works  saved,  3,  4  Oct.  1884.

International  Exhibition  opened  by  the  king,  18  May  1888.

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London).  '
Here  the Corresponding Society  met  on  26 Oct.
1796;  and  the  Trades'  Union,  21  April,  1834. The
fields  are  now  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Metropolitan
Cattle-market,  opened  13  June,  1855.

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM,  so  called  from
its  author  Nicolas  Copernicus,  born  at  Thorn,  19
Feb.  1473,  died  24  May,  1543.  A  few  days  before
his  death,  the  printing  of  his  book  on  the  "  Revolu-
tion of  the  Celestial  Bodies"  was  completed.  The
system,  which  resembles  that  attributed  to  Pytha-
goras, was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  pope  Paul  V.
in  1616  ;  not  revoked  till  1818  by  Pius  VII.

COPLEY  MEDAL,  see  Royal  Society.

COPOPHONE,  a  musical  instrument,  con-
sisting of  a  series  of  glass  tumblers,  connected  with
a  sounding  board.  The  sounds  are  produced  by
moving  wet  fingers  along  the  edge  of  the  glasses.
It  was  played  on  at  parties  in  London  in  June,
1875,  by  Chevalier  Furtado  Coelho,  the  inventor.

COPPER.  One  of  the  six  primitive  metals,
said  to  have  been  first  discovered  in  Cyprus.  Pliny.
We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine
copper  (or  brass),  "  precious  as  gold,"  457  B.C.
{Ezra  viii.  27).  The  mines  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,
are  most  surprising  excavations.  In  England,  cop-
per-mines were  discovered  in  1561,  and  there  are
upwards  of  fifty  mines  in  Cornwall,  where  mining
has  been  increasing  since  the  reign  of  William  III.
In  1857,  75,832  tons  of  copper  ore  were  imported,
and  25,241  tons  extracted.  In  1865,  198,298  tons  of
copper  ore  were  extracted  from  British  mines,  and
11,888  tonssmelted  :  82,562  tons  were  imported.  In
1856,  24,257  tons  of  pure  copper  (worth  2,983,611/.),
in  1869,  8291  tons  (worth  644,065/.)  ;  in  1875,  4593
tons  (worth  413,284/.) ;  in  1876,  4694  tons  (worth


COPPERAS.


249


COPYRIGHT.


391,130/.):  in  1879,  3462  tons  (worth  222,507/.);
1883,  2,620  tons  (worth  181,067/.)  ;  1887,  889  tons
(worth  42,850/.);  1888,  1,456;  1889,905;  1890,936,
were  produced  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The
Burra-Burra  copper-mines,  in  S.  Australia,  dis-
covered 1842,  brought  great  prosperity.

Copper  Money.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign  of  Ser-
vius  Tnllius,  used  rude  pieces  of  copper  for  money  ;  see
Coin.

In  England  copper  money  was  made  at  the  instance  of
sir  Robert  Cotton,  in  1609  ;  but  was  first  really  coined
(when  Miss  Stewart  sat  for  the  figure  of  Britannia) 1665

Its  regular  coinage  began  in  1672,  and  it  was  largely
issued  in 1689

In  Ireland,  copper  was  coined  as  early  as  1339 ;  in
Scotland  in  1406  ;  in  France  in . . . . 1580

Wood's  coinage  (which  see)  in  Ireland  commenced  in  1723

The  copper  coinage  was  largely  manufactured  at
Birmingham,  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  in  . . . 1792

Penny  and  two-penny  pieces  were  extensively  issued  1797

The  half-farthing  was  coined,  but  disused  (see
Farthing) 1843

io,ooo?.  voted  towards  replacingthe  copper  coinage,

July,  1855

Bronze  coinage  (which  see)  issued . . .  Dec.  i860

A  French  Syndicate  formed  to  raise  the  price  of
■copper  by  a  monopoly.  Price  of  copper  recently
very  low . . Feb.  1888 ;  continued  March  1889

Collapse  and  financial  panic  (see  France) March ,,

Copper- Plate  Printing  was  first  invented  in  Ger-
many, about  1450  ;  and  rolling-presses  for  work-
ing the  plates,  about 1545

Messrs.  Perkins,  of  Philadelphia,  invented  a  mode
of  engraving  on  soft  steel,  which,  when  hardened,
will  multiply  copper-plates  and  fine  impressions
indefinitely  (see  Engraving) 1819

Copper  Sheathing  first  applied  to  the  bottom  of
H.M.S.  Alarm,  at  Woolwich,  1761  ;  all  the  navy
copper-bottomed  by 1780

Electrotyping  with  copper  printing  types  and  casts
from  woodcuts,  began .... about  1850

Copper-zino  Couple,  a  Voltaic  arrangement  made  by
Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone  and  Mr.  A.  Tribe  in  1872,  in
which  a  mixture  of  the  two  metals  is  finely  sub-
divided, with  the  points  of  junction  exposed,  so  as  to
promote  the  decomposition  of  any  binary  liquid  into
which  small  pieces  are  immersed  ;  the  resistance  of
the  liquid  being  greatly  reduced.  The  couple  is
formed  by  immersing  zinc  foil  in  a  solution  of  sul-
phate of  copper  ;  the  copper  being  deposited  on  the
zinc  in  minute  particles.  By  this  couple  impurities
in  water  are  readily  detected,  many  peculiar  analyses
have  been  made,  and  new  organic  bodies  formed.

COPPERAS,  a  mineral  composed  of  copper  or
iron  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  (vitriol),  found
in  copper-mines,  commonly  of  a  green  or  blue
colour ;  said  to  have  been  first  produced  in  England
by  Cornelius  de  Vos,  a  merchant,  in  1587.

COPPERHEADS,  a  name  given  about  1863
to  such  members  of  the  Democrat  party  in  the
United  States  as  were  in  favour  of  peace  with  the
South  on  any  terms.  —  Copperhead  is  a  poison-
ous serpent,  also  named  dumb-rattle  snake,  red
viper,  &c.

COPTIC  CALENDAR,  see  Diocletian.

COPTS,  in  Egypt,  the  supposed  descendants  of
the  ancient  Egyptians,  mingled  with  Greeks  and
Persians.  Their  religion  is  a  form  of  Christianity
derived  from  the  Eutychians.

COPYHOLDERS,  who  hold  an  estate  by  a
copy  of  the  rolls  of  a  manor  made  by  a  steward  of
the  lord's  court.  They  were  enfranchised  by  5  Vict,
c.  35,  1841.  By  the  Beform  act  in  1832,  copy-
homers  to  the  amount  of  10/.  became  entitled  to
a  vote  for  the  county.  The  copyhold  acts  were
amended  by  21  &  22  Vict.  c.  94  (1858)  and  by
.another  act,  1887.

COPYING-MACHINES (for  letters,  &c.)


were  invented  by  James  "Watt  in  1778  ;  patented  in
May,  1780;  and  150  machines  were  sold  before  the
end  of  the  year.  "Wedgwood's  "manifold  writer  "
was  patented  in  [806;  and  in  1855  Terry  patented
a  copying  machine  to  be  combined  with  the  cover
of  a  book.  Other  inventions  patented  since.
Zuccato's  papyrograph  is  much  esteemed.

COPYRIGHT.  Decree  of  the  Star-chamber
regarding  it,  1556.  Every  book  and  publication
ordered  to  be  licensed,  1585.

Ordinance  forbidding  the  printing  of  any  work  with-
out the  consent  of  the  owner ....  1649

The  first  copyright  act  (for  14  years,  and  for  the
author's  life  if  then  living),  8  Anne  . . . .  1709

This  act  confirmed  by  a  decision  of  the  house  of
lords,  and  the  claim  of  perpetual  copyright  over-
ruled 22  Feb.  T774

Later  acts  extended  the  author's  right  to  28  years,
and  if  living  at  the  end  of  that  time,  then  to  the
remainder  of  his  life.

Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engravings,
17  Geo.  III. 1777

Copyright  protection  act  (for  28  years,  and  the  re-
mainder of  the  author's  life  if  then  living),
54  Geo.  Ill 1814

Dramatic  authors'  protection  act,  3  Will.  IV.  c.  15  . 1833

Act  for  preventing  the  publication  of  lectures  with-
out consent,  6  Will.  IV.  c.  65 1835

International  copyright  bill,  1  Vict.  c.  59 . . 1838

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  45  (Talfourd's  or  lord  Mahon's  act),
to  amend  the  copyright  act  passed . . . .  1842

(By  this  act,  the  right  is  to  endure  for  the  life  of  the
author,  and  for  seven  years  after  his  death  ;  but  if
that  time  expire  earlier  than  42  years,  the  right  is
still  to  endure  for  42  years,  for  which  term  also  any
work  published  after  the  author's  death  is  to  con-
tinue the  property  of  the  owners  of  the  manu-
script)

The  colonies'  copyright  act,  10  &  n  Vict.  c.  95,
passed 1847

Canada  copyright  act,  passed ... 2  Aug. 1875

Royal  commission  on  copyright  nominated  :  earl
Stanhope,  chairman,  22  Sept.,  1875  ;  report
(signed  24  May)  issued ....  autumn,  187S

Warne  &  Co.  v.  Seebohm  ;  verdict  for  the  plaintiffs
prohibiting  printing  and  the  representation  of  a
dramatised  form  of  "Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,"  a
story  by  Mrs.  F.  Hodgson  Burnett, . 10  May  1888

Copyright (Musical Compositions) act passed

5  July  »

Copyright  for  articles  in  newspapers  affirmed,  see
Trials 2  June,  1892

copyright  for  designs.

Protection  granting  security  for  two  months  to  new
designs  applied  by  printing  to  linens,  calicoes,
and. 'muslins,  1787  ;  extended  to  three  months . 1794

A  copyright  of  14  years  conferred  on  sculpture,  1798

and  18 14

The  designs  act  of  Geo.  III.  made  to  embrace  printed
designs  on  wool,  silk,  and  hair  ;  and  1 2  mouths'
copyright  granted  to  designs  applied  to  all  tissues
except  lace  and  those  already  provided  for  ;  for
the  modelling,  embossing,  and  engraving  of  any
manufacture  not  being  a  tissue  ;  and  for  the  shape
or  configuration  of  any  article .... 1839

By  5  &  6  Vict.  c.  100,  all  existing  designs  acts  re-
pealed (except  that  for  sculpture),  and  provision
made  for  including  all  ornamental  designs  under
T3  classes,  and  conferring  upon  them  terms
of  protection,  varying  from  nine  months  to  three

years 1842

[Fees  on  registration  vary  from  is.  to  il.]

The'  "non-ornamental  designs  act,"  securing  the
configuration  of  articles  of  utility  (fee  10?.),
passed  in 1843

By  the  "  designs  act,"  the  Board  of  Trade  is  em-
powered to  extend  the  copyright  for  an  additional
term  of  three  years 1850

Copyright  of  photographs  secured  by  the  act  pro-
tecting works  of  art,  passed  in . . July,  1862

Another  copyright  of  designs  act  passed 13  Aug.  1875

Registration'  of  designs  and  trade  marks,  amal-
gamated with  the  patent  office . . Sept. ,,


COEBIESDALE.


250


COEINTH.


INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT.

Acts  passed  to  secure  to  authors,  in  certain  cases,
the  benefits  of  international  copyright  (i  &  2  Vict,
c.  59,  and  15  Vict.  c.  12),  and  conventions  have,
in  consequence,  been  entered  into  with  France,
Prussia,  &c 1838  and  1852

The  question  of  a  foreigner  possessing  a  copy-
right in  this  country  was  finally  decided  in  the
negative  by  the  house  of  lords,  who  reversed  the
decision  of  the  court  of  exchequer,  on  an  appeal
by  the  defendant  in  the  case  of  Boosey  v.  Jeffrey.
(In  1831,  Mr.  Boosey  purchased  the  copyright  of
Bellini's  opera,  La  Sonnambula,  from  which  Mr.
Jeffrey  published  a  cavatina.  Six  of  the  judges
were  for  protecting  foreign  copyrights,  and  seven
of  a  contrary  opinion.) Aug.  1854

International  copyright  bill  introduced  into  Ameri-
can house  of  representatives . . . 21  Feb.  1868

In  the  case  of  Routledge  v.  Low,  the  house  of  lords
on  appeal  decided  in  favour  of  the  copyright  of  a
foreign  author 29  May, ,,

Copyright  Association  of  England,  founded  by  emi-
nent London  booksellers  . . 19  March,  1872

The  subject  discussed  at  the  Literary  Congress,
Paris,  opened 18  June,  1878

International  copyright  congress  at  Berne  opened,

8  Sept.  1884

Another  (artistic)  Brussels  29  Sept.  1884  ;  again  at
Berne 1886

International  Copyright  Act  passed  . . .  1886

International  Copyright  Convention  signed  at  Berne
9  Sept.,.  1886  ;  ratified  at  Berne  5  Sept.,  1887  ;
by  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,
Belgium  and  Switzerland  (not  Austria),  Holland,
United  States

International  Copyright  Bill  passed  by  the  United
States :  by  the  house,  3  Dec.  1890 ;  by  the
senate,  18  Feb.  ;  by  the  president . 4  March,  1891

For  books  (which  must  be  set  up  and  printed  in
the  United  States),  works  of  art,  such  as  pictures,
engravings,  photographs,  etchings,  lithographs,
&c,  musical  compositions,  statuary,  models,  or
designs  :  the  act  came  into  effect . 1  July, ,,

COEBIESDALE,  Caithness  (N.  Scotland).
Here,  on  27  April,  1650^  the  gallant  marquis  of  Mon-
trose was  defeated  by  the  Covenanters.  He  was
taken  soon  after,  treated  with  great  contumely,  aud
hanged  at  Edinburgh,  on  21  May.

COECYEA  (now  Corfu,  chief  of  the  Ionian
Isles),  a  colony  founded  by  the  Corinthians  about
734  B.C.  It  had  frequent  wars  with  the  mother
country ;  one  about  the  possession  of  Epidamnus
(431  B.C.)  led  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  was
subdued  by  the  Romans,  230.  At  the  decline  of  the
eastern  empire  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vene-
tians about  a.d.  1386.  The  Turks  attacked  Corfu
in  1 716,  but  were  gallantly  repulsed,  and  retired,
18  Aug.  1717.  It  was  taken  from  the  French  by
the  allied  Eussian  and  Turkish  fleets  3  March,
1799,  and  formed  (with  the  other  isles)  into  the
Ionian  republic  ;  see  Ionian  Isles.

COBDELIEES,  friars:  of  the  order  of  St.
Francis  d'Assisi  (the  Minorites)  instituted  about
1223.  They  are  clothed  in  coarse  grey  cloth,  having
a  girdle  of  cord,  hence  the  name,  first  given  to
them  by  St.  Louis  of  France,  about  1227.  Several
members  of  the  French  revolutionary  party,  termed
"Cordeliers,"  established  at  Paris  Dec.  1790  (He-
bert,  Cloots,  &c),  were  executed  24  March,  1794.

COEDOVA,  the  Roman  Corduba  (S.  Spain),
founded  about  152  B.C.,  taken  by  the  Goths  A.n.
572,  aud  made  the  capital  of  an  Arab  kingdom  by
Abderahman  in  756,  who  founded  the  great  mosque
(now  the  cathedral)  786.  It  was  the  birthplace  of
Seneca  and  Lucan,  and  of  the  Arabian  physician
Averrhoes.  It  was  rescued  from  the  Arabs  by
Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  in  1236,  was  taken  by
the  French  under  Dupont  and  disgracefully  ravaged
7-9  June,  1808; surrendered  to  Joseph  Bonaparte


Jan.  1810;  abandoned  by  the  French  in  1813;
plundered  by  the  Carlists,  Oct.  1836.  Population}
1887,  55,614.

COEEA,  a  peninsula,  E.  Asia,  tributary  to
China,  and  from  which  foreigners  were  rigidly  ex-
cluded, till  June,  1882,  when  four  ports  were
opened  to  commerce  by  the  agency  of  the  United
States  of  America  and  China  by  treaty.  For  the
dispute  with  Americans  see  United  States,  June,
1871. King,  Li  Hung,  Jan.  1864.

Anti-foreign  insurrection  ;  outrages,  n  of  the  Ja-
panese legation  killed,  23  July ;  Japanese  prepa-
rations for  war  with  Corea  on  account  of
injuries,  announced .... Aug.  1882

War  averted  by  compensations,  reparation,  and
peace Sept. ,,

Treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed,  26  Nov.  1883 ;
ratified 1884

Another  insurrection;  the  king  attacked  in  his
palace,  and  his  ministers  massacred  by  Coreans
and  Chinese,  4-6  Dee. ;  peace  restored  by  inter-
vention of  Japanese . . .  about  13  Dec. ,,

Difficulty  between  Japan  and  China  settled  by
European  mediation,  Jan. ;  Japan  predominant

Feb.  1885

British  flag  set  up  at  Port  Hamilton,  as  a  station,
announced 13  May  1885  ;  decided  to  be  kept,

Nov.  1886

Port  Hamilton  restored  to  Corea,  subject  to  China

Jan.  1887

China  reasserts  by  proclamation  her  suzerainty
over  Corea Dec. ,,

Corea  endeavours  to  enter  into  independent  diplo-
matic relations  with  United  States  and  European
Powers May,  1888

Treaty  with  Eussia  "..... 8  Aug. ,,

The  Rev.  Charles  James  Corfe  consecrated  bishop
of  Corea 1  Nov.  i88g>

COEFU,  see  Corcyra.

COBINTH  (Greece),  a  city  said  to  have  been
built  1520  B.C.  and  named  Ephyra.  It  was  de-
fended by  an  elevated  fortress  called  Acrocorinth,.
surrounded  with  strong  walls,  and  Cicero  named  it
the  Eye  of  Greece. — -For  Corinth,  in  North  America,,
see  United  States,  1862,  1863.

The  Isthmian  games,  traditionally  said  to  have
been  instituted  by  Sisyphus,  who  founded  a  king-
dom  B.C. 1326

Return  of  the  Heraclidas,  or  Dorians  .  .  .  .  1107
Their  dynasty  established  by  Aletes  .  .  .  1074.
The  Corinthians  invent  ships  called  triremes  (with

three  benches  of  oars)  ....  786  or  758.
Reign  of  Bacchis,  925  ;  oligarchy  of  Bacchida?  747-657
Thelestes  deposed  ; the  government  of  Prytanes

instituted  ;  Automenes,  the  first,  .  .  about  745
The  Gorinthian  colonies  of  Syracuse  and  Corcyra

founded about 734

Revolt  of  the  Corcyreans :  they  defeat  the  Corin-
thians at  sea 664

Cypselus,  a  despot,  sets  aside  the  Prytanes  .  .  655
His  son  Periander  rules,  and  favours  learning .  627-585
Psammetichus  deposed,  and  a  republic  formed  .  580
The  Corinthians  engaged  in  the  Persian  war  .  .  480
Defeated  in  war  with  the  Corcyreans . . .435

The  Corinthian  war  {which  see) 395

Timoleon  kills  his  usurping  brother  Timophanes  .  344
Acf  ocorinth  (citadel)  taken  by  Aratus,  and  annexed

to  the  Achajan  League 243

The  Roman  ambassadors  first  appear  at  Corinth  228

Greeks  defeated  at  CynoscephaUe . . . . 197
Corinth  sacked  by  Lucius  Mummius,  who  sends  to
Italy  the  first  fine  paintings  there  seen  (Livy)  B.C. 146

Rebuilt  by  Julius  Ctesar 46

Visited  by  St.  Paul  (Acts  xviii.)  .  .  .  a.d.  54
His  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  . . about  59,  60

Ravaged  by  Alaric 396

Plundered  by  Normans  from  Sicily  ....  1146
Taken  by  Turks, 1446  ; by  Venetians, 1687  ;  by
Turks, June, 1714  ;  from  whom  it  was finally

taken  by  the  Greeks  in 1823

Nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  . . 21  Feb.  185S


COEINTHIAN  OEDEE.


251


COEN.


A  concession  granted  for  99  years  to  a  French  com-
pany to  cut  the  isthmus  for  a  canal ;  to  be  com-
pleted in  six  years,  by  MM.  E.  G:  Piat  and  Chollet,
April,  1870 ;  concession  transferred  to  baron  de
Lesseps  and  gen.  Turr . . . .28  May,  1881

Cutting  begun  in  presence  of  the  king  and  queen

5  May,  1882

Work  actively  proceeding  ;  stopped  through  claims
of  a  Paris  company .... 1  April,  1889

The  company  at  Paris  dissolved,  12  Feb.,  1890  ;  the
scheme  transferred  to  a  Greek  company,  capital
of  200,000?.  ;  agreement  signed  by  M.  Tricoupis,
about  18  March  ;  the  work  resumed,  22  June,
1890  ;  completion  in  1893  expected.

COEINTHIAN  OEDEE,  the  richest  of  the
orders  of  ancient  architecture,  called  by  Scamozzi
the  virginal  order,  is  attributed  to  Callitnachus,
540  B.C. ;  see  Abacas.

COEINTHIAN  WAE,  began  395  b.c;  re-
ceived this  name  because  mostly  in  the  neighbour-
hood of  Corinth ;  waged  by  a  confederacy  of  the
Athenians,  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,
against  the  Lacedaemonians.  It  was  closed  by  the
peace  of  Antalcidas,  387  B.C.  The  most  famous
battles  were  at  Coronea  and  Leuetra  {which  see).

COEIOLI,  a  Latin  city,  capital  of  the  Vol-
scians,  taken  by  the  Romans,  493  B.C.  The  exploits
of  Caius  Marcius  or  Coriolanus  against  it  are  deemed
mythical.

COEK  (S.  Ireland),  built  in  the  6th  century.
The  principality  of  the  M'Cartys  was  converted
into  a  shire  by  king  John,  as  lord" of  Ireland.  The
foundation  of  the  see  is  ascribed  to  St.  Barr,  or
Finbarr,  early  in  the  7th  century.  About  1431,
this  see  and  Cloyne  were  united  ;  but  in  1678  they
were  separated,  Ross  having  been  added  to  Cork
1582.  Cork  and  Cloyne  were  reunited  (by  the  act
of  1833)  183^.  Population  of  the  city,  1881,80,124;
1891,  75»°70.

Garrisoned  by  Henry  II 11 72

First  charter,  from  Henry  II 1185

Supported  Perkin  Warbeck,  who  landed  here  . . 1492

A  large  part  of  the  town  burnt 1621

Taken  by  Cromwell 1649

Marlborough  besieged  and  took  Cork  from  king
James, when the duke of Grafton, a  son  of

Charles  II. ,  was  slain 1690

The  cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  the  produce  of  a  coal

duty,  between  the  years . . . 1725  &  1735
Explosion  of  gunpowder  here . . 10  Nov.  1810
One  of  the  three  colleges,  endowed  by  government
pursuant  to  act  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  66,  passed  31  July,
1845,  was  inaugurated  in this  city  (see  Queen's

Colleges) 7  Nov.  1849

Railway  to  Dublin  finished  1850

Cork  industrial  exhibition  opened, 10  June,  and

closed 11  Sept.  1852

For  a  seditious  speech  in  favour  of  the  Fenians
(iu/iic/i  see),  on  27  April,  1869,  the  mayor  was  com-
pelled to  resign  (an  act  for  his  disability  having
been  introduced  into  parliament) .  n  May,  1870

Riots,  partially  connected  with  a  strike,  suppressed

26,  28  June,  ,,
New  protestant  cathedral  consecrated  .  30  Nov.  ,,
Industrial exhibition opened, 3 July  ; closed

13  Oct.  1883
Cork Defence Union, against National League

formed Oct.  1885

Strike  of  the  employed,  of  the  City  of  Cork  Steam
Packet Co.  (14  weeks),  ends  with  submission

27  Jan.  1891

COEK-TEEE,  Quercus  mber,  a  species  of  the
oak ;  part  of  its  bark  used  for  stopping  bottles.
The  Egyptians  made  coffins  of  cork.  The  tree
grows  in  great  abundance  on  the  Pyrenean  moun-
tains, and  in  other  parts  of  Spain,  in  France,  and
in  the  north  of  New  England.  It  was  brought  to
England  about  1690.  A  cork  carpet  company  was
formed  in  1862.


Life-preserving  clothes  made  of  cloth  into  which
cork  is  interwoven,  invented  by  Win.  Jackson,
tried  successfully  on  the  Thames . .  3  Sept.  188&

COEN.  The  origin  of  its  cultivation  is  attri-
buted to  Ceres,  who,  having  taught  the  art  to  the-
Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  B.C.  Arun-
delian  Marbles.  The  art  of  husbandry,  and  the-
method  of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine-
from  rice,  is  attributed  by  the  Chinese  to  Ching
Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  second  monarch
of  China,  1998  B.C.  Univ.  Hist.  Corn  provided  a
common  article  of  food  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the'
world,  and  baking  bread  was  known  in  the  patri-
archal ages;  see  Exodus  xii.  15.  The  first  impor-
tation of  corn,  of  which  we  have  a  note,  was  in
1347.  A  law  restricting  it  was  made  in  1361,  andi
similar  legislation  followed.  Bounties  were  granted
on  its  importation  into  England  in  1689.  See-
Wheat.

CORN LAWS.

The  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  corn  felt,  in
consequence  of  the  increase  of  manufactures,
about  1770 ;  relaxed . . . . . ■ 177S

Mr.  Robinson's  act  passed,  permitting  importation
when  wheat  is  80s.  a  quarter 1815;

During  the  discussions  on  this  bill,  mobs  assembled
in  London,  and  many  of  the  houses  of  its  sup-
porters were  damaged,  28  Jan.  ;  and  a  riot  in
"Westminster  continued  ... 6-9  March. ,,.

A  corn  bill,  after  passing  in  the  commons,  defeated
in  the  lords,  by  a  clause  proposed  by  the  duke  of
Wellington,  carried  by  a  majority  of  4 .1  June,  182^

The  act  (called  the  sliding  scale)  whereby  wheat  was
allowed  to  be  imported  on  payment  of  a  duty  of
il.  5s.  &d.  per  quarter,  whenever  the  average  price
of  all  England  was  under  62s.  ;  from  62s.  to  63s.,
1?.  4s.  Sd.  ;  and  so  gradually  reduced  to  is.,  when
•the  average  price  was  73s.  and  upwards,  passed

15  July.  1S2S:

The  act  5  Vict.  c.  14,  the  second  "  sliding  scale  act,"
regulating  the  duty  on  wheat  as  follows,  with
sliding  duties,  also,  on  other  articles  of  corn,
passed 29  April,  184-=

Average  per  quarter.  Duty.
Shillings. Sliillings. £,  s. cL
under  51 100

51  and  under  52 o  19 o

52  and  under  55 . .  - . . .  o  18 o

55  and  under  56 0170

56  and  under  57 o  16 o

57  and  under  58 o  15 o

58  and  under  59 o  14 o-

59  and  under  60 0130-

60  and  under  61 o  12 o<

61  and  under  62 o  11 o>

62  and  under  63 o  10 o

63  and  under  64  . . . . ..090

64  and  under  65 o 8 o

65  and  under  66 070

66  and  under  69 o 6 o-

69  and  under  70 05c

70  and  under  71 . . . . .04c

71  and  under  72  . . . . ..030

72  and  under  73 020

73  and  upwards o 1 c-

See  Anti-Corn  Laiv  Leagvtc.

The  Corn  Importation  Bill  (introduced  by  sir.
Robert  Peel),  9  &  10  Vict.  c.  22 (by  which  the  dutj
on  wheat  was  reduced  to  4s.  when  imported  a1  oi
above  53s.,  until  1st  Feb.  1849:  after  which  day
the  duty  became  is.  per  quarter  only,  on  all  kinds
of  grain  imported  into  the  United  kingdom,  at
any  prices),  received  the  royal  assent  .  26  June,  1S46
The  Vs.  duty  repealed  by  act  passed  .  24  June,  iS6q>
Corn  Exchange,  Mark-lane.  Loudon,  erected  at  an
expense  of  90,000'.  (replacing  one  established  in

1747),  was  opened 24  June,  1828

Corn  Exchange  Benevolent  Society,  founded  . .  1864
The  Society  of  Arts  gave  a  prize  to  Mr.  W.  A  Gibbs
for  his  essay  on  harvesting  corn  in  wet  weather

23  Nov.  1868


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY.


252


CORONETS.


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  Ithaca,  New
York  :  for  the  study  of  the  applied  sciences,  agri-
culture, engineering,  &c. ;  partially  on  a  self-sup-
porting system;  founded  by  Ezra  Cornell  in  1868,
that  "any  person  may  find  instruction  in  any  study."
He  had  risen  from  poverty  to  wealth  by  patenting
his  inventions.

CORNER,  a  term  applied  in  America  to  the
paralysis  of  trade  and  manufactures,  produced  by
speculators  purchasing  in  anticipation  grain,  petro-
leum, cotton,  &c.  (termed  futures).  The  cotton
earner  at  Liverpool  in  Sept.  1881  led  to  the  stopping
of  looms  in  Lancashire,  &c.,  by  way  of  counteraction.
The  corner  ended  30  Sept.  1881 .  Mr.  Morris  Banger,
a  great  cotton  speculator,  failed  31  Oct.  1883,
causing  much  disaster.

Another  "cotton  corner"  proposed  in  June  1887  was
resisted  by  the  joint  action  of  the  manufacturers  and
operatives.  A  cotton  corner  in  Liverpool  was  suc-
cessfully resisted  and  closed,  30  Sept.  1889.  See
Trusts.

CORNWALL,  S.  W.  extremity  of  England.
On  the  retreat  of  the  ancient  Britons  after  the
Saxon  conquest,  Cornwall  is  said  to  have  been
formed  into  a  kingdom,  and  to  have  existed  many
years  under  different  princes,  among  whom  were
Ambrosius  Aurelius,  and  the  celebrated  Arthur.
Cornwall  is  said  to  have  been  made  an  earldom  by
Alfred.  The  eldest  son  of  the  British  sovereign  is
born  duke  of  Cornwall.  See  Stannary  Courts.
Before  the  reform  of  1832,  Cornwall  sent  44
members  to  parliament,  in  1886  it  sent  7-
Bishopric  of Cornwall, founded, 909  ; united  to

Devonshire,  1040  ;  removed  to  Exeter  .  .  .  1046
Cornwall  given  by  the conqueror to Robert  de

Mortein,  his  half-brother,  1068  ;  killed  .  .  .  1087
William,  his  son,  dispossessed  by  Henry  I.  .  .  1104
Reginald  de  Dunstanville,  natural  son  of  Henry  I.,

earl  .  .  .  .  .  '  .  .  .  .  .  1140
John  Plantagenet,  son  of  Henry  II.,  earl,  about  .  1189
Richard  Fitz-Count,  son  of  Reginald,  earl,  1215  ;

resigned  .........  1220

Richard,  son  of  king  John,  1225  ;  elected  king  of  the

Romans,  1256  ;  died  ....  2  April,  1272
Edmund,  son,  earl,  1272  ;  died  without  issue  .  .  1300
Piers  de  Gaveston,  earl,  1308  ;  beheaded,  19  June,  1312
John,  son  of  Edward  II.,  earl,  1330  ;  died  with  issue  1336
•Cornwall  made  a  duchy,  by  Edward  III. ,  for  Edward

his  eldest  son,  afterwards  created  prince  of  Wales

17  March,  1337
Insurrection of Cornishmen under  lord  Audley,

Thomas  Flammock,  and  others, against  taxes  ;

they  march  to  London ;  defeated  at  Blackheath

22  June,  1497
insurrection  in  Devon  and  Cornwall  against  the

Protestant  liturgy,  defeated  by  lord  Russell,  Aug.  1549
Dolly  Pentreath,  said  to  have  been  the  last  person

who  spoke  Cornish,  died  aged  102  [contradicted]  1778
Rev.  R.  Polwhele's  "History  of  Cornwall  "published

1803-8
Prince  and  princess  of  Wales  visit  Cornwall, July,  1865
.Stoppage  of  the  Cornish  Bank  (Tweedy  &  Co.)  es-
tablished 1771 4  Jan.  1879

Receipts from  the duchy, 1866, 77,7552.  ; 1877,

87,895?.;  1887,99,3152. — paid to the  prince  of  Wales,

1866,  53,403?.;  1877,  69,339?.;  1887,60,290?. Receipts

from  the  duchy  in  1888,  107,572?.  ;  104,188?.  for  1889  ;

100,680?.  for  1891.

CORONATION.  Leo  I. ,  emperor  of  the  East,
was  crowned  by  Anatolius,  patriarch  of  Constan-
tinople, being  the  first  instance  of  a  Christian
sovereign  receiving  his  crown  from  the  hands  of  a
priest,  457.  Majorian,  emperor  of  the  West,  is  said
to  have  been  crowned  in  the  same  year  in  a  similar
manner.

Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the  west  by  the
pope  Leo  III.  (using  the  words  "  coronato  a  Deo,"
"  crowned  by  God  ") .... 25  Deo. 800
Edward  I.,  son  of  Alfred,  crowned . 16  May, 902


William  I.  crowned  at  Westminster.  .  25  Dec.  1066
Anointing  at  coronations  introduced  into  England

872,  and  Scotland 1097

Coronation  of  Henry  III.,  in  the  first  instance
without  a  crown,  at  Gloucester.  A  plain  circle
was  used  on  this  occasion  in  lieu  of  the  crown,
which  had  been  lost  with  the  other  jewels  and
baggage  of  king  John,  in  passing  the  marshes  of
Lynn,  or  the  Wash,  near  Wisbeach  .  28  Oct.  1216
William  and  Mary  crowned  by  Compton,  bishop  of
London,  as  Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,
would  not  take  the  oaths  . . . n  April,  1689

Anne  crowned 23  April,  1702

George  I.  crowned 20  Oct.  1714

George  II.  crowned n  Oct-  1727

George  III.  crowned  with  his  queen . 22  Sept.  1761

George  IV.  crowned 19  July,  1821

William  IV.  crowned,  with  his  queen  . .  8  Sept.  1831

Victoria  crowned 28  June,  1838

Coronation  Chair.  In  the  cathedral  of  Cashel,  formerly
the  metropolis  of  the  kings  of  Minister,  was  deposited
the  Lia  Fail,  or  Fatal  Stone,  on  which  they  were
crowned.  Tradition  says,  that  in  513  Fergus,  a  prince
of  the  royal  line,  having  obtained  the  Scottish  throne,
procured  the  use  of  this  stone  for  his  coronation  at
Dunstaffnage,  where  it  continued  until  the  time  of
Kenneth  II.,  who  removed  it  to  Scone  ;  and  in  1296  it
was  removed  by  Edward  I.  from  Scone  to  West-
minster ;  the  present  chair  being  made  to  receive  it.
A  Coronation  Oath  was  administered  by  Dunstan,
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  Ethelred  II. ,  in  978.  An
oath,  neaidy  corresponding  with  that  now  in  use,  was
administered  in  1377.  The  oath  prescribed  by  1  Will.  &
Mary,  c.  6  (1689)  was  modified  in  1706,  and  again  in
1821  on  account  of  the  union  of  the  Churches  of  England
and  Ireland.

CORONEA,  Battles  of. I.  (orChajronea).

The  Athenians  were  defeated  and  their  general
Tolrnides  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Boeotians  at
Coronea  near  Chasronea,  447  B.C.  II.  The  Athe-
nians, Thebans,  Argives,  and  Corinthians  having
entered  into  a  league,  offensive  and  defensive,
against  Sparta,  Agesilaus,  after  diffusing  the  terror
of  his  arms,  from  his  many  victories,  even  unto
Upper  Asia,  engaged  the  allies  at  Coronea,  a  town
of  Boeotia,  and  achieved  a  great  victory  over  them,
394  B-c-

CORONERS,  officers  of  the  realm,  mentioned
in  a  charter,  925.  Coroners  for  every  county  in
England  were  first  appointed  by  statute  of  West-
minster, 3  Edw.  I.  1275.  Stow.  They  are  chosen
for  life  by  the  freeholders,  and  their  duty  is  to
inquire  into  the  cause  of  unnatural  death,  upon
view  of  the  body.  By  an  act  passed  in  1843,
coroners  are  enabled  to  appoint  deputies  to  act  for
them  in  case  of  illness.  The  act  amended  1887.
Laws  respecting  coroners  amended  i860. — 20,315
coroners'  inquests  were  held  in  England  and  Wales
in  1859:—


i860  .

21,178

1874  .  .  27,184

1884  .  .  28,603

1861  .

21,038

(18,875  males.)

(19,280  males.)

1862  .

.  20,591

1875  .  .  28,587

1885  .  .  28,181

1863  .

•  22,757

1876  .  .  26,845

(18,863  males.)

1864  .

•  24,787

1877  .  .  26,287

1886  .  .  28,940

1865  .

.  25,011

1878  .  .  27,628

(19,329  males.)

1866  .

24,926

1879  .  .  27,039

1887  .  .  30,030

1867  .

24,648

(18,233  males.)

(19,814  males.)

1868  .

•  24.774

1880  .  .  26,569

1888  .  .  29,057

1869  .

•  24,709

(18,131  males.)

(19,120  males.)

(i7>IQI

males.)

1881  .  .  27,451

1889  .  .  29,675

1870  .

•  25,376

(18,548  males.)

(19,700  males.)

1871  .

.  25,898

1882  .  .  27,502

1890  .  .  32,027

1872  .

•  25,705

(18,673  males.)

(20,997  males.)

1873  .

.  26,427

1883  .  .  28,725

CORONETS,  caps  or  inferior  crowns  of  the
nobility.  The  coronets  for  earls  were  first  allowed
by  Henry  III. ;  for  viscounts  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and
for  barons  by  Charles  II.  Baker.  But  authorities
conflict.  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury,  was
the  first  of  the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a  coronet,


CORPORATE  REUNION.


253


CORSICA.


1604. It  is  uncertain  when  the  coronets  of  dukes
and  marquises  were  settled. Beatson.

CORPORATE  REUNION. See  Order.

CORPORATIONS.  Numa,  in  order  to  break
the  force  of  the  two  rival  factions  of  Sabines  and
Komans,  is  said  to  have  instituted  separate
societies  of  manual  trades.  Plutarch. — Municipal
Corporations  in  England.  Bodies  politic,
authorised  by  the  king's  charter  to  have  a  common
seal,  one  head  officer,  or  more,  and  members,  who
are  able,  by  their  common  consent,  to  grant  or
receive  in  law  any  matter  within  the  compass  of
their  charter.  Cowell.  Charters  of  rights  were
granted  by  the  kings  of  England  to  various  towns ;
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  Henry  I.,  and  succeed-
ing monarchs,  subject  to  tests,  oaths,  and  conditions.
Blackstone.  The  Corporation  and  Test  act,  passed
in  1661,  was  repealed  in  May,  1828.  The  Corpora-
tion Reform  act,  for  the  regulation  of  municipal
corporations  (London  not  included)  in  England
and  Wales,  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76  (1835),  was
amended  in  1869.  The  Irish  Municipal  Corpora-
tion act,  4  Vict.  c.  108,  passed  in  1840,  was  amended
in  1861.  The  Corrupt  Practices  (Municipal  Elec-
tions) act,  was  passed  6  Aug.  1872.  The  law  re-
lating to  municipal  elections  amended  by  act  passed
19  July,  1875.  Municipal  Elections,  Corrupt  and
Illegal  Practices  Act  passed  14  Aug.  1884.  Royal
commission  on  no  unreformed  municipal  corpora-
tions appointed  in  1876;  report  issued  17  Feb.
1880.  Bill  for  their  reform  introduced  by  sir
Charles  Dilke,  21  Feb.  1883.  A  consolidation  act
passed  1882.  Property  qualification  bill  rejected  in
commons  (173 — 167),  2  April,  1879.
Jubilee  of  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1835  celebrated

9  Oct.  1885
The  association  of  municipal  corporations  met,  5
Dec,  1884  ;  it  met  at  the  Guildhall,  London  ;  219
towns  represented, 12 March, 1890 ;  again, 13
March,  1891  ;  again  ... 10  March,  1892

CORPULENCE.

Mr.  Edward  Bright,  a  tallow-chandler  and  grocer,
of  Maldon,  in  Essex,  who  died  in  his  29th  year,
is  said  to  have  weighed  616  pounds.  Seven  per-
sons of  the  common  size  were  with  ease  enclosed
in  his  waistcoat  ;  buried  at  All  Saints,  Maldon

12  Nov.  1750

Daniel  Lambert,  supposed  to  have  been  the  heaviest
man  that  ever  lived,  died  in  his  40th  year,  at
Stamford,  in  •  Lincolnshire,  weighing  52  stone
11  pounds;  (10  stone  4  pounds  more  than  Mr.
Bright) 21  June,  1809

James  Mansfield,  died  at  Debden,  aged  82,  weigh-
ing 34  stone 9  Nov.  1856

Mr.  Win.  Banting  published  a  letter  on  corpulence,
recommending,  from  his  own  experience,  as  a
remedy,  great  moderation  in  the  use  of  sugar  and
starch  in  diet.  50,000  copies  of  this  letter  were
speedily  sold  or  given  away 1863

CORPUS  CHRISTI  {Fete  Lieu  in  France)
a  festival  in  the  Roman  church,  in  honour  of  the
Lord's  supper,  kept  on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity
Sunday  {which  see).  It  was  instituted  by  pope
Urban  IV.  between  1262  and  1264,  and  confirmed
by  the  council  of  Vienne  in  1311.

CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS,  see  Justinian
Code.

"  CORRELATION  of  the  PHYSICAL
FORCES,"  a  book  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  W.  R.
Grove,  F.R.S.,  who  in  1842  enunciated  the  theory
of  the  correlation  or  mutual  dependence  and  con-
vertibility into  each  other  of  all  the  forces  of  nature
(viz.  heat,  light,  electricity,  magnetism,  chemical
affinity,  and  motion).


CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY  of
LONDON,  was  formed  about  1791,  to  spread
liberal  opinions  and  check  the  severity  of  the
British  government,  then  much  alarmed  by  the
French  revolution.  Home  Tooke  and  other  mem-
bers were  tried  for  treason  and  acquitted,  Oct.  1794  'r
see  Trials,  1794.  The  meetings  of  the  society  at
Copenhagen-fields  and  elsewhere,  in  1795  and  1796,.
were  termed  treasonable. — On  21  April,  1798,  Messrs.
O'Connor,  O'Coigley,  and  others,  were  tried  for
corresponding  with  the  French  directory;  and  James-
O'Coigley  was  executed  as  a  traitor  (protesting  hia
innocence)  on  7  June.

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE,  see  Mercury,

CORRUPT  PRACTICES  ACTS,  respecting
elections  for  members  of  parliament,  were  passed  in
1854,  and  continued  in  following  years.  An  act
relating  to  Scotland  was  passed  in  1890.  See-
Bribery  at  Elections  and  Corporations.

By  an  act  passed  in  1881  elections  at  Boston,  Can-
terbury, Chester,  Gloucester,  Macclesfield,  and
Oxford,  were  temporarily  suspended  ;  and
Messrs.  May  and  Main  (Macclesfield),  Mr.  Edwards
(Deal),  Mr.  Olds  (Sandwich),  and  others  were
sentenced  to  imprisonment  varying  from  2  to  9
months 2Q  Nov.  188'a

Petition  for  their  release  signed  (in  vain)  by  43,841
persons about  23  Dee. „

The  act  46  <fe  47  Vict.  c.  51,  passed  25  Aug.  1883,
strictly  prohibits  hiring  carriages  and  illegal  pay-
ments. It  proved  very  effectual.  In  1880  the
election  by  about  3,000,000  electors  cost  about
3,ooo,oooL  In  1885  the  election  by  5,670,000
electors  cost  780,0002.

CORSICA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea
(called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos),  held  by  the  French.
The  ancient  inhabitants  had  the  character  of
robbers,  liars,  and  atheists,  according  to  Seneca.
Corsica  was  colonised  by  Phocaeans  564  B.C.,  and
afterwards  held  by  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom
it  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  238  B.C.  It  has  been
held  by  Vandals,  a.d.  456 ;  by  Saracens  852 ;  by
Pisans,  1077.  I*  was  dependent  upon  Genoa  from
1559  till  1768,  when  it  was  ceded  to  France.

During  a  revolt  erected  into  a  kingdom  under  Theo-
dore Neuhoff,  its  first  and  only  king . . . 1736

He came to England, was imprisoned in the  •
King's  Bench  prison  for  debt,  and  long  subsisted
on  private  friends,  but  released  ;  he  gave  in  his
schedule  the  kingdom  of  Corsica  to  his  creditors,
and  died  in  Soho I755

The  earl  of  Orford  wrote  the  following  epitaph/for
a  tablet  near  his  grave  in  St.  Anne's  church,
Dean-street : —

"  The  grave,  great  teacher  !  to  a  level  brings
Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-slaves  and  kings.
But  Theodore  this  moral  learn'd  ere  dead  ;
Fate  pour'd  its  lesson  on  his  living  head,
Bestow'd  a  kingdom  and  denied  him  bread."

Pascal  Paoli  chosen  for  their  general  by  the  Cor-

sicans

Defeated  by  the  count  de  Vaux,  he  fled  to  England
Napoleon  Bonaparte  born  at  Ajaccio  (5  Feb i768

baptismal  register  ;  doubtful)  .  .  15  Aug.
The  people  acknowledge  George  III.  of  England  for

ki»S 17  Juno,

Sir  Gilbert  Eliott  made  viceroy,  and  opened  a  par-

,  liament

A  revolt  suppressed,  June  ;  the  island  relinquished

by  the  British,  22  Oct.  ;  the  people  declare  for  (lie

French

A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince

Napoleon  Jerome  .  .  .  .  '  15  May,
Visit  by  the  empress  and  imperial  prince  .  4  Sept.'
Gen. Paoli's  remains  buried  at  Old St. Pancras

cemetery,  London,  exhumed  and  transferred  .111,!

re-interred  in  Corsica  .  .  31  Aug.  et  $eq.
Corsica  visited  by  president  Carnot 21-23  April,


1753
1769


1794
1795

1796

1865
1869


COETE NUOVA.


254


COTTON.


COETE  NUOVA,  near  Milan,  N.  Italy.  Here
the  emperor  Frederic  II.  defeated  the  Milanese
after  a  severe  conflict.  27  Nov.  1237.

COETES,  the  Spanish  parliament,  originating
an  the  old  Gothic  councils.  The  cortes  were  as-
sembled after  a  long  interval  of  years,  24  Sept.
j8io  ;  and  settled  the  new  constitution,  16  March,
1812,  which  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who
Vanished  many  members  of  the  assembly  in  May,
3814.  The  cortes  were  reopened  by  him  March,
3820,  dissolved  Oct.  1823;  again  assembled  April,
2834,  and  have  since  been  regularly  convened.  The
cortes  of  Portugal  assembled  by  virtue  of  Dom
Pedro's  charter,  30  Oct.  1826  ;  they  were  sup-
pressed by  Dom  Miguel  in  1828,  and  restored  in  1833.

COEUNNA  (N.  W.  Spain) .  The  British  army,
about  15,000  men,  under  the  command  of  sir  John
Moore,  had  just  accomplished  their  retreat  when
they  were  attacked  by  the  French,  whose  force  ex-
ceeded 20,000 :  the  enemy  were  completely  re-
pulsed, but  the  loss  of  the  British  in  the  battle  was
immense,  16  Jan.  1809.  Sir  John  was  struck  by  a
•cannon-ball,  which  carried  away  his  left  shoulder
and  part  of  the  collar-bone,  and  he  died  universally
lamented.  The  remains  of  the  army  embarked  at
•Corunna,  under  sir  David  Baird,  17  Jan.

COEUS  (Corupedion,  or  Cyropedium),  a  plain
in  Phrygia,  Asia  Minor,  where  the  aged  Lysi-
machus'  was  defeated  by  Seleucus,  and  slain,  281
S.c.  These  two  were  the  only  survivors  of  Alexander
the  Great's  generals.

COEVEE,  forced  labour  and  service  under  the
feudal  system  in  France,  was  partially  reduced  by
Louis  XVI.,  at  the  instigation  of  Turgot,  27  June,
1787  ;  by  the  constituent  assembly,  18  March,  1790 ;
and  totally  abolished  by  the  convention,  1 7  July,  1 792 .
.•See  Egypt,  Dec.  1889.

COEYPHiEUS,  the  principal  person  of  the
chorus  in  ancient  tragedy.  The  name  is  said  to
have  been  given  to  Tysias,  or  Stesichorus,  who  first
instructed  the  chorus  to  dance  to  the  lyre,  556  B.C.

COSMOGEAPHY,  see  Astronomy  and
•Geography .

COSPATEICK,  emigrant  vessel,  burnt,  see
Wrecks,  1874.

COSSACKS,  warlike  people  inhabiting  the
confines  of  Poland,  Kussia,  Tartary,  and  Turkey.
They  at  first  lived  by  plundering  the  Turkish
•galleys  and  the  people  of  Anatolia  ;  but  were  formed
into  a  regular  army  by  Stephen  Bathori,  about
1576,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  Kussia  from  the
Tartars.  They  joined  the  Russians  in  1654,  and
in  the  great  war  against  France  (1813-15)  formed  a
valuable  portion  of  the  Russian  army.

COSSOVA,  a  plain  in  Servia.  Here  Amurathl.
totally  defeated  the  Christian  army  (Servians,  Hun-
garians, &c),  15  June,  1389;  but  was  himself  killed
hy  an  expiring  soldier.  Here  John  Huniades  was
defeated  by  a  Turkish  army  four  times  larger  than
his  own,  17  Oct.  1448.

COSTA  EICA,  a  republic  in  Central  America,
part  of  Guatemala,  declared  independent  15  Sept.
1 82 1 .  "With  the  other  republics  of  Central  America
formed  a  single  state  1  July,  1823;  compact  dis-
solved 1840;  constitution  of  22  Dec.  1871  adopted
26  April,  1882.  It  has  been  much  disturbed  by  the
American  filibusters,  see  Nicaragua  and  America,
Central.  Constitution,  27  Dec.  1859.  On  14  Aug.
1859,  the  president  Juan  Mora  was  suddenly  de-
posed, and  Dr.  Jose  Montealegre  made  president;
Dr.  J.  Ximenes  president  3  April,  1863,  was  suc-


ceeded by  Dr.  Joseph  Castro,  8  May,  1866
J.  Jimenez,  governor,  Nov.  1868;  Vicente  Quadra
proclaimed  president  12  March,  1871  ;  J.  M.
Guardia,  1871  for  1872-6 ;  Aniceto  Esquivel,  8  May
1876;  Vicente  Herrera,  31  July,  1876,  resigned:
succeeded  by  Thomas  Guardia,  Oct.  1877  >  died
July,  1882,  succeeded  by  Prospero  Fernandez  ;  died
March,  1885,  succeeded  by  Bernardo  Soto  12  March,
1885  ;  by  J.  J.  Rodiguez,  8  May,  1890.  Population
1885,  estimated,  213,785.

COSTEEMONGEES,  itinerant  dealers  in
fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  &c,  deriving  their  name,  it
is  said,  from  costard,  a  favourite  apple.  The  Lon-
don costermongers  are  useful  in  relieving  the
markets  when  glutted;  and  it  was  said  in  i860,
that  3,000,000^.  passed  through  their  hands  an-
nually. Previous  to  fasting  and  thanksgiving  days,
they  sell  the  appointed  forms  of  prayers  in  great
numbers.  On  22  Nov.  i860,  they  held  a  meeting
in  order  to  represent  to  the  city  authorities  the
hardships  they  felt  by  the  police  restricting  their
means  of  livelihood  ;  and  the  Metropolitan  Streets
Act  was  modified,  7  Dec.  1867.

Their  moral  and  physical  condition  lias  been  much  im-
proved of  late  years,  greatly  through  the  instrumen-
tality of  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  who  constituted
himself  a  costermonger,  and  owned  a  barrow  in  1874.

COSTUME,  see  Dress.
COTOPAXI,  see  Ancles.

COTTAGE. The  term  was  originally  applied
to  a  small  house  without  land,  4  Edw.  I. 1275.
"  No  man  may  build a  cottage,  except  in  towns,
unless  he  lay  four  acres  of  land  thereto,"  &c,  31
Eliz.  1589. This  statute  was  repealed,  15  Geo.  III.
1775. By  returns  to  the  tax  office,  in  1786,  the
number  of  cottages  was  284,459. The  number  in
1800  was  428,214;  the  number  in  1840  was  about
770,000. In  i860  the  public  attention  was  much
drawn  to  the  deplorable  state  of  cottages  in  many
parts  of  the  country,  and  the  law  of  settlement  was
altered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli  (afterwards  lord
Beaconsfield)  said  that  "  every  cottage  should  have
a  tank,  an  oven,  and  a  porch."
Cottage  Improvement  Society,  founded  12  April,  1861,
7,  Adam-street,  Strand. Some  of  the  society's
models  appeared  in  the  International  Exhibitions
— in  London,  1862  ;  in  Paris  ....  1867

See  Slwftesbury  Park.
The  Cottager's  Stove,  designed  by  captain  John  Grant,
registered  and  presented  by  him  to  the  metropoli-
tan association  for  improving  the  dwellings  of  the

industrious  classes Dec.  1849

A  Cottage  Garden  Society  established  about  1846
still  exists 1886

COTTAGE  HOSPITALS  :  much  advocated
by  Dr.  Horace  Swete  in  1870.  Many  since  then
have  been  established :  one  by  the  baroness  Bur-
dett-Coutts,  1878.

COTTON,  a  vegetable  wool,  the  produce  of  the
Gossypium,  a  shrub  indigenous  to  the  tropical
regions  of  India  and  America.  Indian  cotton  cloth
is  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  was  known  in  Arabia
in  the  time  of  Mahomet,  627,  and  was  brought  into
Europe  by  his  followers.  It  does  not  appear  to
have  been  in  use  among  the  Chinese  till  the  13th
century ;  to  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  cotton
fabric  termed  nankeen.  Cotton  was  the  material
of  the  principal  articles  of  clothing  among  the
Americans  when  visited  by  Columbus.  It  was
grown  and  manufactured  in  Spain  in  the  10th
century;  and  in  the  14th  century  was  introduced
into  Italy.  Indian  muslins,  chintzes,  and  cottons
were  so  largely  imported  into  England  in  the  17th
century, that  in  1700  an  act  of  parliament  was


COTTON".  255


prohibiting  their  introduction.  Cotton
became  the  staple  commodity  of  England  in  the
present  century.  About  1841  the  "cotton"  or
*'  Manchester "  interest  began  to  obtain  political
influence,  which  led  to  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws
in  1846.  Failure  of  Mr.  Morris  Ranger,  a  great
cotton  speculator,  and  others  at  Liverpool  announced
31  Oct.  1883.  Cotton  manufacture  introduced  into
Bombay  about  1868  gradually  becomes  very  success-
ful, reported  Dec.  1889.  See  Calico,  Muslin,  Cor-
ner, Strikes.

Act  for  collection  of  cotton  statistics  passed  25  June,
1868.

John  Rylands,  the  head  of  the  company  of  Rylands
&  Sons  which  employs  12,000  hands  died  aged  87

11  Dec.  1888

In  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  the  mills  put  on  half
time,  to  limit  the  production  and  check  specu-
lations to raise the price of cotton, &c.

about  15  July,  1889

Cotton  mills  fully  engaged ... 5  Nov. ,,

Strike  and  lock-out  of  cotton-spinners  throughout
Lancashire  (not  Manchester),  16  April  et  seq. ;
dispute  settled  by  compromise . . 6  May,  1892

Fustian  and  Velveteen  made  of  cotton,  about  1641.

Calico  sheeting,  die..  The  fly-shuttle  was  invented  by
John  Kay,  of  Bury,  1738 ;  the  drop-box  by  Robert  Kay,
1760  ;  spinning  by  rollers  (also  attributed  to  John
Wyatt)  patented  by  Louis  Paul,  1738  ;  the  spinning-
jenny,  by  Hargreaves,  1767  ;  the  water-frame,  by  Ark-
wright,  1769  ;  the  power-loom,  by  Rev.  Br.  Edmund
Cartwright,  1785  ;  the  dressing  machine,  by  Johnson
and  Radeliffe,  1802-4 :  another  power-loom,  by  Horrocks,
1803-13.  A  eombing  machine  was  patented  by  Joshua
Heilmann,  in  1845.

British  muslin  (totally  superseding  that  of  India)  is  due
mainly  to  the  invention  of  the  Mule  (which  see)  by
Samuel  Crompton,  1774-9  ;  and  to  the  self-acting  mule
of  Mr.  Roberts,  1825.

Calico  Printing  commenced  1764.

The  Steam-Engine  first  applied  to  the  cotton  manufacture
(by  Boulton  and  Watt),  1785.

Bleaching  by  means  of  chloride  of  lime  introduced  by  Mr.
Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  1798.

Stockings.  The  stocking-frame  was  invented  by  William
Lee,  in  1589.  Cotton  stockings  were  first  made  by  hand
about  1730 ;  Jedediah  Strutt  obtained  a  patent  for
Derby  ribbed  stockings  in  1759  ;  and  llorton  patented
his  knotter  frame  in  1776  ;  Crompton's  mule  was  em-
ployed in  making  thread  for  the  stocking  manufacture
about  1770.

Cotton-Lace — Bobbin-net.  The  stocking-frame  of  Lee  was
applied  to  lace-making  by  Hammond,  about  1768  ;  the
process  perfected  by  John  Heathcoat,  1809.

COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

lb.  lb.

1.976,359  1866  . .  .  1,377,514,096

715,008  1868  . .  1,328,761,616

1,545,472  1870  . .  .  1,339,367,120

3>87°>392  l872  • -  i,4oS>837,472

.  11,828,039  1874  .  .  .  1,566,864,432

.  31,500,000  1875  . .  1,492,351,168

.  56,000,000  1876  .  .  .  1,487,858,848

.  132,500,000  1877  . .  1,355,281,200

.  151,500,000  1879  .  .  .  1,469,358,464

.  264,000,000  1881  . .  1,679,068,384

592,500,000  1883  .  .  .  1, 734, 333, 552

.  1,390,938,752  1885  . .  1,425,816,336

.  1,256,984,736  1887  .  .  .  1,791,437,312

• 523,973,296  1888  . .  1, 731, 755,088

670,084,128  1889  .  .  .  1,937,462,240

1864  . .  . 894,102,384  1890  . .  1,793,495,200

1865  . . 978,502,000

American  Cotton.  Previous  to  1795,  our  cotton  fibre
came  from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  the  Levant,  and
alittle  from  the  United  States.  About  1786,  the  growth
of  cotton  began  in  Georgia.  In  1793,  Eli  Whitney,  an
American,  invented  the  saw-gin,  a  machine  by  which
cotton  wool  is  separated  from  the  pod  and  cleaned  with
great  ease  and  expedition.* This  led  to  such  increased


1697.
1710

i73°-

1765
1782 .
1790
1800 .
1810
1820 .
1830
1840
i860  .


1863


*  A  trial  of  various  kinds  of  cotton  gins,  under  the  di-
rection of  Br.  Forbes  Watson,  took  place  at  Manchester,
28  Nov. -23  Bee.  1871.


COTTON.

cultivation  that the United States soon exported
1,500,000  lb.  of  cotton  : —

From  the  United  States,  N.A.


*795

5,250,0001b.

1874

874,926,864  lb

1820

89,999,174

1875

841,333,472

1830

210,885,358

1876

932,800,176

1840

487,856,504

1877

912,244,592

1847

364,599,291

1879

1,082,462,080

18.59

961,707,264

1881

1,210,980,288

i860

1,115,890,608

1883

1,239,410,592

1861

819,500,528

1885

1,050,546,000

1866

520,057,440

1887

1,256,894,464

1870

716,248,848

1888

I>348,571>84°

1871

1,038,677,920

1889

1,423,811,872

1872

625,600,080

1890

1, 3^,75(1^96

i*73

832,573,616

Cotton  imported  from  India :  1856,  463,000  bales  ;  official
value,  3,572,329?.  ;  in  1865,  1,266,520  bales ;  value,
25,025,856?.  ;  in  1866,  1,847,770  bales;  value,  25,270,547?. ;
in  1874,  412,025,0401b.  ;  in  1876,  275,856,3361b.  ;  in
1877, 193,856,320  fb.;  in 1879, 181,347,601  lb.  ; 1881,

■  198,577,680ft.;  1883,  260,698,480ft.;  1885,145,130,048ft.;
1887,  276,506,720  ft.  ;  1888,  170.238,768  ft.  ;  1889,
273,810,880  ft,  ;  1890,  238,746,704  ft.

Australian  Cotton  said  by  Manchester  manufacturers  to
be  superior  to  the  best  American  cotton,  Jan.  1861.

A  company  formed  at  Manchester  to  obtain  cotton  from
India,  Africa,  and  other  places  (arose  out  of  the  Cotton
Supply  Association,  formed  in  1857),  Sept.  i860.

Since  1861,  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  India,  Egypt,
Italy,  &c.  has  greatly  increased.

Cotton  imported  from  Egypt  in  1856,  34,399,008  ft.  ;  in
1870,  143,710,448  ft.  ;  in  1876,  199,245,312  ft.  ;  in  1877,
176,558,256  rb.  ;  in  1879,  158,232,032  ft.  ;  1881,
175,317,072ft.;  1883,170,685,200ft.;  rS85, 177,515,520ft.;


1887, 176,608,096 ft.


147,191,184  ft.


191,750,720  ft.  ;  1890,  181,266,176  ft.

EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C, FROM UNITED
JDOM.


1697
1 701
1751
1780
1790
1800
1820
1847


1866
1870


KINO

Official  Value.
£5,9*5

•  ■  23,253

45,986

•  • 355,ooo

1,662,369

. . 5,406,501

.  20,509,926

•  •  23,333,225
. 52,012,430

. .  46,872,489

•  36,750,971
.  .  54,882,329

•  74,565,426

•  •  71,416,345


Official  Value.
1874  .  .  £73,247,625
1876 .  .  .  67,641,286
l877  •  •  ■  69,228,073
1879  • •  • 63,974,053

11 •  • • 72,744,531

1883  . . . 76,445,757
^85 .  . . 66,976,887

1887  . .  . 70,959,766

(including  mixtures  of
cotton  and  wool.)
i888(cotton  only)6o,329,o5i

1889  . . . 58,793,448

1890  . . . 62,089,442


COTTON  FAMINE.

The  supply  of  cotton  from  North  America  nearly  ceased,
in  consequence  of  the  secession  of  the  southern  states
from  the  union  in  1860-61.  In  1852,  Mr.  T  Bazley
warned  the  country  on  the  danger  of  trusting  to  this
source.  In  May,  1862,  he  stated  that  through  its
failure  the  loss  of  the  labouring  classes  was  12,000,000?
sterling  a  year,  and  estimated  the  loss,  including  the
employing  classes,  at  nearly  40,000,000?.  a  year.

At  a  meeting  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  connected  with
the  cotton  manufacturing  districts,  at  Bridgewater-
house,  St.  James's,  on  19  July,  1862,  the  earl  of  Berby
in  the  chair,  10,000?.  were  subscribed  to  the  Cotton
District  Relief  Fund.  The  viceroy  of  Egypt,  in  London
at  the  time,  gave  1000?. ,  and  the  queen  gave  2000?.  on
24  July.  Liberal  subscriptions  flowed  in  from  all
parts.  On  28  Aug..  the  lord  mayor  had  received
41,902?.

In  the  Lancashire  district  (population  about  4,000,000)
there  were  receiving  parish  relief,  Sept.  1861,  43  50a
persons  ;  in  Sept.  1862,  163,498.  Earl  of  Derby,  2  Bee.
1862.

In  July,  1863,  about  the  value  of  700,000?.  remained  of
the  donations  which  had  been  received  in  money  and
goods,  amounting  to  about  1,900,000?.

On  9  Feb.,  1863,  the  "George  Griswold"  arrived,  con-
taining contributions  of  provisions,  &c,  from  North
America,  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  in  Lancashire.


COTTONIAN LIBEAEY.


256


COUNCILS.


The  Union  Relief  Act  (passed  Aug.  1862,  and  continued
in  1863)  gave  much  relief  by  enabling  overseers  to
borrow  money  to  be  expended  in  public  works  to  be
executed  by  the  unemployed  workmen.

In  Oct.  1864,  much  distress  still  existed,  and  fears  were
entertained  for  the  approaching  winter— 90,000  more
paupers  than  ordinary  in  cotton  districts.  Times,
18  Jan.  1865.

In  June,  1865,  Mr.  Farnall,  the  special  commissioner,
(appointed  in  May,  1862)  was  recalled  by  the  poor-law
board  and  the  famine  was  declared  to  be  ended.
i.ooo.oooJ.  had  been  expended  in  two  years.  The
executive  of  the  Central  Relief  Fund  held  their  last,
meeting,  4  Dec.  1865.

The  account  of  the  fund  was  made  up  in  1873.  The
balance,  above  130,000?.,  was  proposed  to  be  appro-
priated to  the  foundation  of  a  convalescent  hospital  for

A  memorial  window  (the  gift  of  the  cotton  operatives  of
Lancashire,  who  subscribed  to  commemorate  the  muni-
ficence of  the  metropolis  to  them  during  the  cotton
famine,  1861-4)  placed  in  Guildhall  and  uncovered,
15  July,  1868.

Cotton  Factories  regulated  by  acts  of  parliament  passed
in  1825,  1831,  1833,  1844,  and  1889.  The  hours  of  la-
bour were  limited,  and  the  employment  of  children
under  nine  years  of  age  prohibited.  In  1846,  1724
cotton  mills  employed  197,500  persons.  In  1862,  the
persons  employed  were  stated  to  be  451,000 ;  315,000
in  Lancashire.  Excitement  through  5  per  cent,  re-
duction of  wages  in  Lancashire,  &c,  Sept.  1883;
strike  ;  dispute  settled,  27  Sept.  1883.

COTTONIAN  LIBEAEY,  formed  by  sir
Kobert  Bruce  Cotton,  1600,  et  seq.  He  died  6  May,
1631.  It  was  rescued  from  the  republicans  during
the  protectorate,  1649-60,  and  was  secured  to  the
public  by  a  statute  in  1700.  It  was  removed  to
Essex-house  in  1712;  in  1730  to  Dean's-yard,
Westminster  (where  on  23  Oct.  1731,  a  part  of  the
books  sustained  damage  by  fire) ;  to  the  British
Museum  in  1757.

COTTON  OIL,  largely  manufactured  from
the  seeds  in  the  south  of  the  United  States ;  year
1876-7, 3,316,000  gallons;  1878-9,  8,175,000  gallons.

COTTON-WOOL,  see  Respiration.  Dr.
Percy,  in  1874,  applied  cotton-wool  to  purify  the
air  for  ventilating  the  houses  of  parliament.

COULMIEES,  a  village  ten  miles  west  of
Orleans,  central  France.  Here  the  Bavarians,
under  general  Von  der  Tann,  were  defeated  by  the
French  army  of  the  Loire,  under  general  d'Aurelle
de  Paladines,  who  took  about  2000  prisoners,  9  Nov.
1870,  and  regained  Orleans.

COUNANI,  a  territory  between  Brazil  and
French  Guiana.  The  ridiculous  attempt  to  found
an  independent  Kepublic  failed  here  (M.  Jules
Gros,  president),  Aug. -Sept.  1887.  An  arrange-
ment respecting  this  territory  was  made  between
France  and  Brazil  in  1862,  for  police  purposes.

COUNCIL  OF  JUDGES. See  Judges.

COUNCILS.  King  Alfred,  in  about  886,  is
said  to  have  so  arranged  the  business  of  the
nation,  that  all  resolutions  passed  through  three
councils.  The  first  was  a  select  council  which  con-
sidered all  affairs  to  be  laid  before  the  second  council,
bishops  and  nobles  appointed  by  the  king,  like  the
present  privy  council.  The  third  was  a  general
assembly  of  the  nation,  called,  in  Saxon,  "Wittena-
gemot,  in  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a  right  to
sit.  In  these  three  councils  we  behold  the  origin  of
the  cabinet,  privy  councils,  and  parliaments;  see
Cabinet,  Common  and  Privy  Councils,  &c.

COUNCILS  of  the  Church.  The  follow-
in0-  are  among  the  most  memorable.  Those  num-
bered are  the  Oecumenical  or  General  Councils. Sir


Karris  Nicolas  in  his  "Chronology  of  History,"
enumerates  1604  councils,  and  gives  an  alphabetical
list.

Of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.) . . .50
Of  the  western  bishops  at  Aries,  in  France,  to  sup-
press the  Donatists  ;  three  fathers  of  the  English
church  attended . . . . . . . 314

I.  First  Oecumenical  or  General,  at  Nice  (Constan-
tine  the  Great  presided),  decreed  the  consubstan-
tiality  of  the  Son  of  God,  condemned  Arianism,

and  composed  the  Nicene  creed .... 325

At  Tyre,  against  Athanasius 335

The  first  at  Constantinople,  when  the  Arian  heresy

gained  ground 337

At  Rome,  in  favour  of  Athanasius . . . . 342
At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con-
demned 347

At  Rimini  :  400  bishops  attended  ;  Constantine
obliged  them  to  sign  a  new  confession  . . . 359

II.  Constantinople:  oriental  council ;  150  orthodox
bishops  present  when  it  met ;  presided  over  1st
by  Meletius,  2nd  by  Gregory  Nazianzen,  3rd  by
Neetarius  ;  added  to  the  Nicene  creed  ;  declared
the  bishop  of  Constantinople  next  in  rank  to
Rome  ;  Constantinople  being  New  Rome . . 381

III.  Ephesus  :  Cyril  of  Alexandria  presided ;  an-
athematised and  deposed  Nestorius  ;  protested
against  any  addition  to  the  original  Nicene  creed 43s

IV.  Chalcedon  :  520  bishops  present ;  declared  the
two  natures  of  Christ,  Divine  and  Human,  as  de-
fined by  Leo  of Rome  ; accepted  and  decreed

.  the  Constantinopolitan  addition  to  the  Nicene
creed 453

V.  Constantinople  :  Eutyches,  patriarch  of  Con-
stantinople, presided ;  condemned  the  three
chapters  (written  by  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,
Theodoret,  and  others);  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Rome,
protested,  but  afterwards  assented . . . 553

VI.  Constantinople :  pope  Agatho  presided ;  against
Mono  thelites . .  7  Nov.  680,  to  16  Sept. 681

Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  re-established
by  Theodosius 715

VII.  Second  Nicene  :  350  bishops  attended ;  against
Iconoclasts ..." 24  Sept.  to  23  Oct. 787

VIII.  Constantinople  :  the  emperor  Basil  attended  ;
against  Iconoclasts  and  heresies

5  Oct.  869,  to  28  Feb. 870
At  Clermont, convened  by  Urban  II. to  autho-
rise the  crusades  :  310  bishops  attended . . 1095

IX.  First  Lateran  :  right  of  investiture  settled  by
treaty  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the  emperor
Henry  V. . . .  18  March  to  5  April,  1123

X.  Second  Lateran  :  Innocent  II.  presided  ;  pre-
servation of  temporalities  of  ecclesiastics,  the
principal  subject ;  1000  fathers  of  the  church
attended 20  April,  1139,

XI.  Third  Lateran,  against  schismatics

5  to  19  March,  11 79.

XII.  Fourth  Lateran  :  400  bishops  and  1000  abbots
attended  ;  Innocent  III.  presided  ;  against  Albi-
genses,  &c n  to  30  Nov.  1215

XIII.  Lyons  ;  under  pope  Innocent  IV.  :  emperor
Frederick  II.  deposed . 28  June  to  17  July,  1245

XIV.  Lyons  ;  under  Gregory  X.  :  temporary  union

of  Greek  and  Latin  churches 7  May  to  17  June,  1274

XV.  Vienne  in  Dauphine :  Clement  V.  presided,  and
the  kings  of  France  and  Aragon  attended  ;  order
of  Knights  Templars  suppressed

16  Oct.  131 1 ;  3  April  and  6  May,  1312

XVI.  Pisa  :  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  de-
posed ;  Alexander  elected  5  March  to  7  Aug. 1409.

XVII.  Constance :  Martin  V.  elected  pope ;  and
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  condemned  to

be  burnt 1414-1418

XVIII.  Basel 1431-1443

XIX.  Fifth  Lateran  :  begun  by  Julius  II. . . 1512
Continued  under  Leo  X.  for  the  suppression  of  the

pragmatic  sanction  of  France,  against  the  council

of  Pisa,  &c,  till 1517

XX.  Trent :  held  to  condemn  the  doctrines  of  the
reformers,  Luther,  Zuinglius,  and  Calvin.  (See
Trent.) .... 13  Dec.  1545,  to  3  Dec.  1563

XXI.  Rome  :  summoned  by  an  encyclical  letter,

8  Sept.  1868  ;  met 8  Dec.  1869.

Present:  6  archbishop-princes,  49  cardinals,  11
patriarchs,  680  archbishops  and  bishops,  28
abbots,  29  generals  of  orders — 803  in  all . . „


COUNCILS.


257


COURIERS.


U'here  were  held  four  public  sessions,  and  between
90  and  100  congregations.  New  canons  were
issued  24  April,  1870,  and  after  much  discussion
and  opposition,  the  infallibility  of  the  pope
as  head  of  the  Church  was  affirmed  by  547
placets  against  2  non-placets,  and  promulgated,

18  July,  1870

Many  bishops  withdrew  from  the  discussion.  The
council  then  adjourned  to  11  Nov.  (see  Rome.)

COUNCILS,  FRENCH.  The  Council  of
Ancients,  consisting  of  250  members,  together
with  the  council  of  Five  hundred,  instituted  at
Paris,  1  Nov.  1795:  the  executive  was  a  Directory
■of  Five.  Bonaparte  dispersed  the  council  of  Five
hundred  at  St.  Cloud,  9  Nov.  1799,  declaring  him-
self, Roger  Dueos,  and  Sieves,  consuls  provisoires  ;
see  France.

COUNCILS  of  Conciliation,  to  adjust

differences  between  masters  and  workmen,  may  be
established  by  licence  of  the  secretary  of  state,  by
virtue  of  an  act  passed  15  Aug.  1867.

The  labour  conciliation  board  of  the  London  cham-
ber of  commerce,  constituted  to  promote  amic-
able methods  of  settling  labour  disputes,  &c.

6  Feb.  1890

Circulars  issued  proposing  the  establishment  of  the
London  conciliation  board  with  separate  com-
mittees of  delegates . . about  6  March ,,

Meeting  of  delegates  of  labour  organisations  at  the
offices  of  the  chamber  of  commerce . 29  Oct. ,,

Successful  conciliation  conferences  in  Yorkshire
mining  districts Oct. „

First  meeting  of  the  board . . .  12  Dec. ,,

Active  in  1891. First  annual  report  issued  16  Jan.  1892

COUNCIL  OF  OFFICERS,  of  the  army,
constituted  by  Cromwell  and  termed  "  New  Model"
1642,  abolished  by  Charles  II.  1660.

COUNSEL  are  supposed  to  be  coeval  with  the
curia  regis.  Advocates  are  referred  to  the  time  of
Edward  I.,  but  are  mentioned  earlier.  Counsel  who
were  guilty  of  deceit  or  collusion  were  punishable
by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edw.  I.  1285.
Counsel  were  allowed  to  persons  charged  with
treason  by  act  8  Will.  III.  1696.  An  act  to  enable
persons  indicted  for  felony  to  make  their  defence
by  counsel,  passed  Aug.  1836;  see  Barristers  and
King's  Counsel.

COUNT,  Latin  comes,  a  companion ;  French
eomte ;  equivalent  to  the  English  earl  (whose  wife
is  still  termed  a  countess),  and  to  the  German  graf ;
see  Champagne  and  Toulouse.

COUNTERPOINT  (in  music),  the  art  of
combining  melodies  in  harmony.  The  earliest
known  specimen  of  contrapuntal  writing  is  by
Adam  de  la  Halle  in  the  12th  century.

COUNTESS  of  HUNTINGDON'S  Con-
nexion; see  Whitejlcldites.

COUNTIES  or  Shires.  .  The  division  of  this

kingdom  into  counties  began,  it  is  said,  with  king
Alfred;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names
above  a  century  before.  The  division  of  Ireland  into
counties  took  place  in  1562.  Lord-lieutenants  were
app-iintedin  1549  in  England,  and  in  183 1  in  Ireland.
Counties  first  sent  members  to  parliament,  before
which  period  knights  met  in  their  own  counties,
1285.  Chandos  Clause,  Sect.  20  of  the  Reform
act,  2  Will.  IV.  c.  45  (1832),  inserted  by  the  motion
of  the  marquis  of  Chandos.  By  it  occupiers  as
tenants  of  land  not  situate  in  a  borough,  paying  an
annual  rent  of  50^.,  became  entitled  to  a  vote  for
the  knight  of  the  shire.  It  increased  the  number
of  tory  voters,  and  in  consequence  several  attempts


were  made  to  repeal  it. It  was  superseded  by  the

Reform  act  of  15  Aug.  1867.

By  the  Winter  Assizes  Act,  1876,  certain  counties  were
united  (by  order  in  council,  first  time,  23  Oct.  1876)
to  facilitate  more  speedy  trials  of  prisoners.

COUNTRY  DANCE,  see  Contre-Danse.

COUNTRY  PARTY,  see  Court  Party.

COUNTY  CONVENTIONS,  see  Ireland
1885.

COUNTY  COUNCILS,  see  Local  Govern-
ment Act.  At  the  first  elections  in  Jan.  1889,  a
large  number  of  the  nobility,  gentry,  and  justices,
were  elected.

The  Councils  assume  their  powers  1  April  1889 ;
see  London  County  Councils. The  time  of  elec-
tion was  changed  from  Jan.  to  March,  by  act
passed  5  Aug.  1891.
County  Council  Magazine  started . . .  Feb.  1889
County  Councils  Association  held  their  first  meet-
ing at  Westminster . . . .23  May,  1890
Others  since.

COUNTY-COURTS  or  schyremotes,  in  the
time  of  the  Saxons,  were  important  tribunals.
Alfred  is  said  to  have  divided  England  into  coun-
ties, and  counties  into  hundreds ;  but  county-courts
seem  to  have  existed  much  earlier.

County-Courts,  for  the  recovery  of  debts  under  20Z.,
superseding  courts  of  requests,  instituted  by  9  &
10  Vict.  c.  95 26  Aug.  1846

The  counties  of  England  and  Wales  are  divided  into
sixty  districts,  each  district  having  a  county-
court,  with  a  barrister  as  judge,  and  juries  when
necessary.  Their  jurisdiction  extended  by  13  &  14
Vict.  c.  61,  to  sums  not  exceeding  50?.  . . 1850

Their  proceedings  facilitated  in  1852  and  1854  ;
60  county-courts  in  England  and  Wales . . 1868-72

In  1850  plaints  entered  at  the  courts  of  the  sixty
circuits  were  306,793,  for  1,265, 115!.  ;  in  1857,
744,652  plaints  for  1,937,745?.  ;  of  the  217,173
causes  tried,  4297  were  for  sums  between  20Z.
and  $ol.

Prom  1847  to  1858  judgment  was  obtained  in  these
courts  for  8,309,236!.

Equity  powers,  like  those  of  the  court  of  chancery,
in  cases  relating  to  sums  under  500L,  conferred  on
these  courts,  to  begin . . . . 1  Oct. 1865

Their  jurisdiction  still  further  enlarged .  20  Aug.  18(57

Admiralty  jurisdiction  conferred  on  them  by  act
passed  July,  1868,  amended . . . Aug.  1869

County  Court  Acts  amended  by  acts  passed  2  Aug.
1875  and 1S87

A  County  Boards  Bill,  withdrawn . . July,  1879

New  regulations,  respecting  procedure,  &c,  came
into  operation 28  April,  1886

Amendment  Act  passed . . . . 13  Aug.  1888

COUNTY  FRANCHISE,  a  bill  for  giving
votes  to  labourers  and  others,  annually  brought  in
by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  G.  0.  Trevelysin.  The  object
was  effected  by  the  reform  acts  of  1884-5.  See
Household  Suffrage.

COUNTY  OFFICERS  AND  COURTS,

Ireland  :  an  act  to  amend  the  law  respecting  them
passed  14  Aug.  1877.

COUP  D'ETAT,  in  France  (see  France,  2  Dec.
1851);  Pronunciamiento  in  Spain;  changes  in  the
government  effected  by  force,  either  by  the  ruler,
the  army,  or  the  populace.  The  Speaker's  Coup
d'etat,  see  Parliament,  2  Feb.,  1881.  See  Brazil,
Nov.  1889.

COURIERS.  Xenophon  attributes  the  first  to
Cyrus ;  and  Herodotus  says  that  they  were  common
among  the  Persians;  see  Esther  iii.  15,  about  510
B.C.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  no  regular
couriers  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  they  tra-
velled in  cars,  about  24  B.C. Couriers  or  posts  are


COUELAND.


258 COYENT  GAEDEN  THEATEE.


said  to  have  been  instituted  in  France  by  Charle-
magne about  a.d.  800.  Couriers  for  letters  were
employed  by  Louis  XI.  of  France,  1463.  Renault.
See  Post-office.

COUELAND,  a  duchy  of  Livonia,  conquered
by  Danes,  1218;  by  Teutonic  knights,  1239;  sub-
jected to  Poland  in  1561,  conquered  by  Charles  XII.
of  Sweden  in  1701;  Ernest  Biren,  duke,  1737;  his
son,  Peter,  1769;  annexed  to  Eussia,  March,  1795.
Population,  1886,  682,792.

COUET  BAEON,  an  ancient  court  which
every  lord  of  a  manor  may  hold  by  prescription.  In
it  duties,  heriots,  and  customs  are  received,  and
estates  and  surrenders  are  passed.  Its  jurisdiction
was  restricted  in  1747  and  1833.  By  the  Small
Debts  Act,  1856,  lords  of  the  manor  may  give  up
holding  these  courts.

COUET  CIECULAE,  conservative  weekly
paper;  established  26  April,.  1856.

COUET  DEESS,  see  Dress.

COUET  JOURNAL,  fashionable  journal,
established  1829.

COUET  LEET,  an  ancient  court  of  record,
belonging  to  a  hundred,  instituted  for  punishing
encroachments,  nuisances,  fraudulent  weights  and
measures,  &c.  The  steward  is  judge,  and  all  per-
sons residing  within  the  hundred  (peers,  clergymen,
&c,  excepted)  are  obliged  to  do  suit  within  this
court.

COUET  PAETY-COUNTEY  PAETY,

politicians  in  the  parliaments  of  England,  beginning
about  1620.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century  the
latter  embodied  toryism  and  high  church  principles,
maintained  the  rights  of  "the  land,"  as  opposed
to  whiggism  and  the  trading  interests.  Its  most
distinguished  statesman  was  sir  Thomas  Hanmer
(the  Montalto  of  Pope's  Satires),  who  died  in  1746.
Ashe.

COUET  OF  HONOUE-  In  England  the
court  of  chivalry,  of  which  the  lord  high  constable
■was  a  judge,  was  called  Curia  Militarise  in  the  time
of  Henry  IV.,  and  subsequently  the  Court  of  Honour.
In  Bavaria,  to  prevent  duelling,  a  court  of  honour
was  instituted  in  April,  1819.  Mr.  Joseph  Hamil-
ton for  many  years  ardently  laboured  to  establish  a
similar  institution  in  Britain.

COUET OF  JUSTICIAEY, HIGH,  in

Scotland,  constituted  by  a  commission  under  the
great  seal,  1671,  ratified  1672.  The  procedure  in
this  court  was  amended  by  an  act  passed  in  1868.
See  Court  of  Session.

COUET  OF  EEQUESTS,  see  Conscience.

COUET  OF  EEVIEW,  see  Bankruptcy.

COUET  OF  SESSION,  the  highest  civil
tribunal  in  Scotland,  was  instituted  by  James  V.  by
statute,  17  May,  1532,  its  origin  being  ascribed  to
the  regent,  duke  of  Albany.  It  consisted  of  14
judges  and  a  president,  and  replaced  a  committee
of  parliament.  In  1830  the  number  of  judges  was
reduced ;  and  the  court  now  consists  of  the  lord
president  (termed  lord  justice  general),  the  lord
justice-clerk,  and  11  ordinary  judges.  In  1867  the
necessity  of  renovating  this  court  was  asserted  by
high  legal  authority ;  and  an  act  to  amend  its
procedure  was  passed  31  July,  1868.  The  lord
president,  the  right  hon.  John  Inglis,  appointed,


Feb.  1867  ;  died  20  Aug.,  succeeded  by  James  P.
B.  Robertson,  Sept.  1891.

COUET  THEATEE,  Sloane-square,  Chelsea.,
opened  25  Jan.  1871 ;  Miss  Litton  first  manager.

COUETEAI  (Belgium).  Here  Robert,  count
of  Artois,  who  had  defeated  the  Flemings  in  1297,
was  defeated  and  slain  by  them,  11  July,  1302.  The
conflict  was  named  the  "  Battle  of  Spurs,"  from  the
number  of  gilt  spurs  collected.

COUETS  MAETIAL  are  regulated  by  the
Mutiny  act,  first  passed  in  1690.  The  powers  of
these  courts  were  much  discussed  in  1867,  in  conse-
quence of  the  measures  used  to  suppress  the  negro
insurrection  in  Jamaica,  Oct.  1866.  See  Armyy
1  Jan.  1887.

COUETS  OF  JUSTICE  were  instituted  at
Athens,  1507  B.C.  (see  Areiopagus) ;  by  Moses,  1491
B.C.  {Exod.  xviii.  25),  and  in  Rome.  For  these
realms,  see  Chancery,  Common  Pleas,  Exchequerr
King's  Bench,  &c.  The  citizens  of  London  were
privileged  to  plead  their  own  cause  in  the  courts  of
judicature,  without  employing  lawyers,  except  in
pleas  of  the  crown,  41  Hen.  III.  1257.  Stow.  The
rights  of  the  Irish  courts  were  established  by  the
British  parliament  in  April,  1783.  See  Supreme?
Court.

COUETS  OF  LAW  FEES  ACT,  passed  20
Aug.  1867,  directs  the  application  of  surplus  fees
towards  providing  new  courts  of  justice.  Acts  for
building  these  courts  were  passed  in  1865  and  1866,
See  Law.  Courts.

COUETS  OF  SUEYEY,  consisting  of  a,
judge  and  two  assistants,  for  appeals  respecting  un-
seaworthy  ships,  were  directed  to  be  appointed  in-
certain  ports  and  districts  by  the  Merchant  Ship-
ping Act,  39  &  40  Vict.  c.  80  (15  Aug.  1876).  They
sat  in  1877.

COUTEAS  (S.  "W.  France).  Here  Henry  of
Navarre  totally  defeated  the  due  de  Joyeuse  and  the-
royalists,  20  Oct.  1587.

COVENANTEES,  those  persons  who  in  the
reign  of  Charles  I.  having  signed  the  solemn  league
and  covenant,  engaged  to  stand  by  each  other  in
opposition  to  the  projects  of  the  king  in  1638.  The
covenant  or  league  between  England  and  Scotland
(the  preceding  one  modified),  solemnly  adopted  by
the  parliament,  25  Sept.  1643  ;  was  accepted  by
Charles  II.  16  Aug.  1650,  but  repudiated  by  him  on
his  restoration  in  1661,  when  it  was  declared  to  be
illegal  by  parliament,  and  copies  of  it  ordered  to  be
burnt.  See  Cameronians  and  Bothivell  Bridge.
The  covenant  consisted  of  six  articles  :

1.  The  preservation  of  the  reformed  church  in  Scotland
and  the  reformation  of  religion  in  England  and  Ireland.

2.  The  extirpation  of  popery,  prelacy,  schism,  &c.

3.  The  preservation  of  the  liberties  of  parliament  and  the
king's  person  and  authority.

4.  The  discovery  and  punishment  of  all  malignants.  <fcc.

5.  The  preservation  of  "a  blessed  peace  between  these
kingdoms  ; "

6.  The  assisting  all  who  enter  into  the  covenant :
"  This  xuill  we  do  as  in  the  sight  of  God."

COYENT  GAEDEN  (London),  corrupted
from  "  Convent  Garden,"  having  been  the  garden
of  St.  Peter's  convent.  The  square  was  built  about
1633,  and  the  piazza  on  the  north  side  and  the  church
were  designed  by  Inigo  Jones.  The  fruit  and  vege-
table markets  were  rebuilt  in  1829-30,  from  designs
by  Mr.  Fowler  (the  ground  belongmg  to  the  duke
of  Bedford).

COYENT  GAEDEN  THEATEE  sprang
out  of  one  in  Lincoln' s-inn-ficlds,  through  a  patent


COVENTRY  ACT.


259


CRAYFORD.


granted  14  Chas.  II.  1662,  to  sir  William  Davenant,
whose  company  was  denominated  the  "duke's  ser-
vants," as  a  compliment  to  the  duke  of  York,  after-
wards James  II. ;  see  under  Theatres. — The  theatre
was  hurnt  down  5  March,  1856,  during;  a  bal  masque
held  by  Mr.  Anderson,  the  wizard  of  the  north.
The  present  theatre  by  E.  Barry  was  opened  15  May,
1858.  The  Floral  Hall  adjoining  it  was  opened  7
March,  i860,  with  the  volunteers'  ball.

COVENTRY  ACT  passed,  to  prevent  malicious
maiming  and  wounding,  6  March,  1671,  in  conse-
quence of  sir  John  Coventry,  K.B.,  M.P.,  being
maimed  in  the  streets  of  London,  by  sir  Thomas
Sandys  and  others,  adherents  of  the  duke  of  Mon-
mouth, 21  Dec.  1670. Repealed  1828.

COVENTRY  (Warwickshire).  Leofric,  earl
of  Mercia,  lord  of  Coventry,  is  said  to  have  relieved
it  from  heavy  taxes,  at  the  intercession  of  Ms  wife
Godiva,  on  condition  of  her  riding  naked  through
the  streets,  about  1057.  Processions  in  her  memory
took  place  in  1851 ;  23  June,  1862  ;  4  June,  1866";
20  June,  1870;  4  June,  1877;  6  Aug.  1883;  and
2  Aug.  1892.  The  legend  is  probably  fabulous.
A  parliament  was  held  here  in  the  reign  of
Henry  IV.  called  parliamentum  indoctum,  or
the  unlearned  parliament,  because  lawyers  were
excluded,  1404;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.
another  met,  called  parliamentum  diabolicum,  from
the  acts  of  attainder  passed  against  the  duke  of  York
and  others,  20  Nov.  1459.  The  town  was  sur-
rounded with  strong  walls,  three  miles  in  circum-
ference, and  twenty-six  towers,  which  were  de-
molished by  order  of  Charles  II.  in  1662.  The
ribbon-makers  here  suffered  much  from  want  of
work  in  the  winter  of  1810-6.  An  industrial  exhi-
bition here  was  opened  by  earl  Granville,  19  June  ;
closed  by  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  21  Oct.  1867.
The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  were  warmly
received  7  Nov.  1874.  The  Bishopric  was
founded  by  Oswy,  king  of  Mercia,  656,  and  had
the  double  name  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,
which  was  reversed  by  later  bishops.  It  was
so  wealthy,  that  king  Offa,  by  the  favour  of
pope  Adrian,  made  it  archiepiscopal ;  but  this  title
was  laid  aside  on  the  death  of  that  king.  In  1075
the  see  was  removed  to  Chester ;  in  1 102  to  Coventry ;
and  afterwards  to  its  original  foundation,  Lichfield,
but  with  great  opposition  from  the  monks  of  Co-
ventry. Coventry  merged  into  the  bishopric  of
Lichfield  (which  see).  Population,  1881,  44,831 ;
1891,  52,720.

Rioting  on  the levying of the "vicar's rate"

11  Sept.  1882
New  park,  gift  of  Mr.  D.  Spencer,  opened 11  Oct.  1883

COW-POCK  INOCULATION;  see  Small

Pox  and  Vaccination.

CRABS.  The  size  at  which  they  are  to  be  sold
is  determined  by  the  Fisheries  Act,  1877.

CRACOW,  a  city  in  Austrian  Poland.  The
Poles  elected  Cracus  for  their  duke,  who  built  Cra-
cow with  thespoils  taken  from  the  Franks  about  700.
It  was  their  capital,  1320-1609.  Cracow  was  taken
by  Charles  XII.  in  1 702,  and  taken  and  retaken
several  times  by  the  Russians  and  other  confede-
rates. The  sovereign  was  crowned  at  Cracow  until
1764.  The  Russians,  who  had  taken  it  1768,  were
expelled  by  Kosciusko,  24  March,  1794  ;  but  it  sur-
rendered to  the  Prussians,  15  June  same  year,  and
in  1795  was  awarded  to  Austria.  Cracow  was  formed
into  a  republic,  June,  1815.  Occupied  by  10,000
Russians,  who  followed  here  the  defeated  Poles,
Sept.  1831.  Its  independence  was  extinguished:
and  it  was  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and


incorporated  with  his  empire,  16  Nov.  1846,  which
was  protested  against  by  England,  France,  Sweden,
and  Turkey ;  see  Poland.  A  dreadful  fire  laid  the
greater  part  of  the  city  in  ashes,  18  July,  1850.  The
discovery  on  22  Jul)',  1869,  of  Barbare  Abryk,  a  nun,
secluded  for  21  years  in  a  convent  cell,  led  to  violent
rioting.  Population,  1890,  76,025.
The  Bishop  Albin  Dunajewski,  made  a  prince  of  the

Empire,  and  primate  of  Poland  .  .  Jan.  1889
The  body  of  Adam  Mickiewicz,  the  Polish  poet,

brought  from  France,  re-interred  here  .  4  July,  1890
Polish  congress  of  natural  science  and  medicine

about  19  July,  1891

CRANES  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines
of  Arcliimedes  maybe  so  called.  In  1857  a  crane
had  been  erected  at  Glasgow  capable  of  lifting  50
tons. One  in  Woolwich  arsenal  in  1881  lifted  400

tons. See  Derricks.

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the

study  of  the  external  form  of  the  human  skull,  as
indicative  of  mental  powers  and  moral  qualities.
Dr.  Gall,  the  propounder,  was  a  German  physician,
born  March,  1758,  and  his  first  observations  were
among  his  schoolfellows.  Afterwards  he  studied
the  heads  of  criminals  and  others,  and  eventually
reduced  his  ideas  to  a  system,  marking  out  the  skull
like  a  map.  His  first  lecture  was  given  at  Vienna
in  1796 ;  but  in  1802  the  Austrian  government  pro-
hibited his  teaching.  In  1800  he  was  joined  by  Dr.
Spurzheim  ;  and  in  1810-12  they  published  at  Paris
their  work  on  the  "  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the
Nervous  System,  and  of  the  Brain  in  particular."
Gall  died  in  1828.  The  researches  of  Gall  and
Spurzheim  led  to  increased  study  of  the  brain.
Combe's  "  Phrenology,"  first  published  in  1819,  is
the  popular  English  work  on  this  subject.  Phreno-
logical societies  were  formed  early  in  London  and
Edinburgh.

Phrenology  was  refuted  by  Lord  Jeffrey  in  the  Edinburgh
Review,  in  1826,  and  more  recently  by  Dr.  W.  B.
Carpenter.  Professor  David  Ferrier  reported  the  results
of  researches  tending  to  prove  localisation  of  certain
faculties  in  the  brain  to  the  British  Association,  Sept.
1873.  He  published  his  work  "  The  Functions  of  the
Brain,"  1876;  2nd  edition  1887.

"  Brain,"  a  quarterly  journal,  began  in  1878.

CRANMER,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,  mar-
tyrdom of,  see  Protestants,  note.

CRANNOGES,  see  Lake-dwellings.

CRANNON  or  CRANON,  Thessaly,  N.  Greece.
Near  here  the  Macedonians  under  Antipater  and
Craterus  defeated  the  confederated  Greeks,  twice  by
sea,  and  once  by  land,  322  B.C.  The  Athenians  de-
manded peace,  and  Antipater  put  their  orators  to
death,  among  whom  was  Hyperides,  who,  that  he
might  not  betray  the  secrets  of  his  country  when
under  torture,  cut  out  his  tongue,  and  Demosthenes
is  said  to  have  taken  poison  shortly  after.

CRANWORTH'S  ACT,  LORD,  to  simplify
the  practice  of  conveyancers,  23  &  24  Vict.  c.  145
(i860).

CRAONNE  (N.  France).  Here  Victor  and
Ncy  defeated  the  Prussians  under  Blueher  after
a  severe  contest,  7  March,  1814.

CRAPE-  It  is  said  some  crape  was  made  by  Ste.
Badour,  when  queen  of  France,  about  680.  It  is
said  to  have  been  first  made  at  Bologna.

CRAVANT,  see  Orevant.

CRAYFORD  (Kent).  Hengist  the  Saxon  is
said  to  have  defeated  the  Britons  here,  457.

S  2


CEAYONS.


260


CRICKET.


CEAYONS,  coloured  substances  made  into
paste,  and  dried  into  pencils,  were  known  in  France
about  1422  ;  and  improved  by  L'Oriot,  1748.

CEEASOTE,  or  KREASOTE  (discovered  by
Reichenbach  about  1833),  a  powerful  antiseptic  and
coagulator  of  albuminous  tissue,  is  obtained  by  tbe
destructive  distillation  of  wood  and  other  organic
matters.  It  has  been  used  for  the  preservation  of
meat,  timber,  &c.

1  CEEATINE  (from  the  Greek  Jcreas,  flesh),  the
chemical  principle  of  flesh,  was  discovered  in  1835
by  E.  Chevreul,  and  has  been  investigated  byLiebig,
Gregory,  and  others.

CEEATION  of  the  Would.  The  date
given  by  the  English  bible,  and  by  Usher,  Blair,
and  some  others,  is  4004  B.C.  There  are  about  140
different  dates  assigned  to  the  Creation,  varying
from  3616  to  6984  b.c.  Dr.  Hales  gives  5411 ;  see
Eras,

Haydn's  Creation  (oratorio),  composed  1796—8;  first
performed  (in  London,  at  Co  vent  Garden  Theatre),
28  March,  1800  ;  in  Paris,  24  Dec.  same  year.

CEECHES,  establishments  for  temporarily  re-
ceiving the  young  children  of  working  mothers;
begun  at  Paris,  about  1844 ;  in  London  (in  Rath-
bone-place,  &c.)  about  1863  ;  others  since.

CEECY,  or  CRESSY  (N.  France),  where  Ed-
ward III.  and  his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,
and  an  army  of  about  36,800,  obtained  a  great  victory
over  Philip,  king  of  France,  with  about  130,000,  26
Aug.  1346.  John,  king  of  Bohemia  (nearly  blind) ;
James,  king  of  Majorca  ;  Ralph,  duke  of  Lorraine
(sovereign  princes) ;  and  a  number  of  French  nobles,
together  with  30,000  private  men,  were  slain,  while
the  loss  of  the  English  was  very  small.  The  crest
of  the  king  of  Bohemia  (three  ostrich  feathers,  with
the  motto  Ich  dim — in  English,  "  I  serve")  has
since  been  adopted  by  princes  of  Wales.

CEEDIT FONCIEE,  &c. A  plan  of  pro-
viding loans  to  landowners  was  introduced  by  Frede-
rick the  Great  of  Prussia,  in  1763,  in  some  of  the
Prussian  provinces,  as  the  best  method  of  alleviating
the  distresses  of  the  landed  interest  caused  by  his
wars. The  system consists  of  lending  money  to
landowners  on  the  security  of  their  estates,  and  pro-
viding the  loan  capital  by  the  issue  of  debentures
charged  upon  the aggregate mortgaged estates.
There  are  two  modes  of  carrying  out  this  scheme  :
(I)  by  means  of  an  association  of  landowners ;  (2)
by  means  of  a  proprietary  public  company. The
former  obtains  iti  Eastern  Prussia,  but  the  latter  is
exclusively  found  in  Western  Europe.
Credit  Fonder  companies  have  been  founded  in  Hamburg
(1782),  Western  Prussia  (1787),  Belgium  (1841),  France
(1852),  England  (1863). Similar  companies  were  formed
in  all  the  states  of  Europe,  in  India,  and  in  our  colonies
and dependencies. A. G. Heiiriques. See  France,
May,  1890.

CEEDIT  MOBILIEE  : a  joint-stock  com-
pany with  this  name  was  established  at  Paris  by
Isaac  and  Emile  Pereire,  and  others,  18  Nov.  1852.
It  took  up  or  originated  trading  enterprises  of  all  kinds,
applying to  them the principle of  commandite, or
limited  liabilities  ;  and  was  authorised  to  supersede  or
,  buy  in  any  other  companies  (replacing  their  shares  or
bonds  witli  its  own  scrip),  and  also  to  carry  on  the  ordi-
nary business  of  banking. The  funds  were  to  be  ob-
tained by  a  paid-up  capital  of  2!  millions  sterling,  the
issue  of  obligations  at  not  less  than  45  days'  date  or
sight,  and  the  receipt  of  money  on  deposit  or  current
account. The  society  apparently  prospered  ;  but  was
considered  by  experienced  persons  a  near  approach  to
Law's  bank  of  1716.


Several  of  the  directors  failed,  Sept.  1857,  no  divi-
dend paid May,  185

Many  companies  based  on  its  principles  established
in  London 1863

Emile  and  Isaac  Pereire  withdrew  from  the  manage-
ment ;  the  company  failed,  and  the  capital  was
said  to  have  disappeared ....  Oct. 1867

The  high  court  of  appeal  decided  that  MM.  Pereire
and  other  directors  were  responsible  for  their  acts,
and  that  damages  should  be  given  to  the  share-
holders 1  Aug. 1868

Emile  Pereire  died 6  Jan.,  1875  ;  Isaac  died  12  July,  1880

CEEEDS,  see  Confessions  of  Faith.  J.  B.
Lumby's  History  of  the  Greeds  appeared  1874.

CEEMATION",  see  Burning  the  Bead.  Cre-
mation halls  have  been  erected  at  Milan  and  Gotha.

CEEMEEA,  Battle  of,  see  Fabii.

CEEMONA  (N.  Italy),  a  city  founded  by  the
Romans,  221  b.c.  It  became  an  independent  re-
public in  1 107,  but  was  frequently  subjugated  by  its
neighbours,  Milan  and  Venice,  and  partook  of  their
fortunes.  In  Nov.  1859  it  became  part  of  the  king-
dom of  Italy.  Cremona  was  eminent  for  violin
makers  from  about  1550  to  1750.

CEESCENT,  a  symbol  of  sovereignty  among
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  device  of  Byzan-
tium, now  Constantinople,  whence  the  Turks
adopted  it.  The  Crescent  has  given  name  to  three
orders  of  knighthood ;  founded  by  Charles  I.  of
Naples,  1268  ;  by  Rene  of  Anjou,  in  1448;  by  the
sultan  Selim,  in  1801.

CEESPY  (N.  France).  Here  was  signed  a
treaty  between  Charles  V.  of  Germany  and  Francis
I.  of  France,  18  Sept.  1544.  The  former  renounced
Burgundy,  and  the  latter  Italy.

CEESTS  are  ascribed  to  the  Carians. Richard

I.  (1189)  had  a  crest  on  the  helmet  resembling  a
plume  of  feathers.  The  English  kings  had  gene-
rally crowns  above  their  helmets;  that  of  Richard

II.  1377,  was  surmounted  by  a  lion  on  a  cap  of  dig-
nity; see  Crecy.  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,
had  a  plume  of  feathers  ;  and  the  helmet  of  Robert
I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306 ;  and  that  of
James  I.  by  a  lion,  1424.  In  the  15th  and  16th
centuries,  the  crest  was  described  to  be  a  figure
placed  upon  a  wreath,  coronet,  or  cap  of  mainten-
ance. Gwillim.

CEETE,  see  Candia.

CREVANT-SUE-YONNE  (N.  France),  was
besieged  by  John  Stuart,  earl  of  Buchan,  with  a
French  army,  July,  1423,  and  relieved  by  the  earl  of
Salisbury  with  an  army  of  English  and  Burgundians.
After  a  severe  contest,  the  French  were  totally  de-
feated.

CEEVELDT,  near  Cleves  (W.  Prussia).  Here
on  23  June,  1758,  prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick
defeated  the  French  under  the  count  of  Clermont.

CEEWE,  Cheshire,  the  site  of  a  great  junction
and  works  of  the  London  and  North- Western  rail-
way since  1840.  The  company  presented  a  beautiful
park  to  the  town  in  1887-88.  Crewe  was  incorpo-
pated  in  1877.  Great  fire  at  the  railway  works;
estimated  damage  under  3,000^.,  28  March,  1892.
Population,  1881,  24,385  ;  1891,  28,761.

CEICKET,  an  ancient  Euglish  game,  said  to  be
identical  with  the  "club  ball"  of  the  14th  century ;
mentioned  in  1598.  Rules  were  laid  down  in  1774
by  a  committee  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  in-
cluding the  duke  of  Dorset  and  sir  Horace  Mann.
In  1861  the  All  England  Eleven  gained  and  lost
games  in  Australia ;  in  Sept.  1868,  they  beat  the


CRIME.


261 CRIMINAL  LAWS  OF  ENGLAND.


New  York  Twenty-two. In  1873-4  they  were  beaten
at  Melbourne.

Eleven  Australians  visited  England,  and  after  gain-
ing ten  games  and  losing  five,  gained  one  against
"Players  of  All  England,"  .  .  .  3  Sept.  1878
Thirteen  Australians  visited  England  in  May  1880  ;
they  won  21  out  of  37  matches,  and  lost  4  ;  the
others  were  drawn  or  indecisive  ;  they  were  vic-
tors in  a  match  with  the  "  Players  of  England  "
at  the  Crystal  Palace  . . 27,  28,  2q  Sept.  1880

The  Australians,  previously  victorious,  were de-
feated at  Manchester  by  the  north  of  England

team 16  Sept.  1882

England  beats  Australia ... 23  July,  1884
Australia  wins  12  out  of  20  matches  in . . . „
North  of  England  beat  Australians . .  3  Sept. ,,
English  cricketers  in  Australia  victorious .  Jan.  1885
Frequent  contests  with  the  Australians  with  varied

success  1885 — 8

Lord  Sheffield  and  his  English  eleven  at  Adelaide,
in  26  matches,  win  13,  lose  2,  11  drawn .  March,  1892

CRIME.  About  1856  it  was  computed  that  a
fifteenth  part  of  the  population  of  the  United  King-
dom lived  by  crime.  The  increase  in  education  and
manufactures  is  gradually  reducing  this  proportion.
From  1848  to  1865  there  had  been  no  commitment
for  political  offences,  such  as  treason  or  sedition.
The  returns  of  thirty-two  years  showed  that  crime
absolutely  and  relatively  diminished  (Sept.  1866).
"Judicial  Statistics,"  with  abundant  details,  are

Eublished by  the  government  annually,  price  2s.
ee  Murder,  Executions,  Trials,  Poisoning,  &c.

CONVICTIONS  (BY  TRIAL) IN ENGLAND  AND  WALES.


Persons.

Cap.  Off.

Persons.

Cap.  C

1847.

■  21,542

—  -

1870.

■ 12,953

15

1849

.  21,001

66

1871

.  11,946

13

1850.

•  20,537

49

1872  .

.  10,862

30

1851

•  21.579

70

1873

.  11,089

18

1852 .

.  21,304

61

1874-

■  11,509

2b

1853

.  20,756

55

1875

•  10,954

33

1854.

•  23,047

49

1876.

•  12,19s

32

1855

•  19.971

50

1877

.  11,942

34

1856.

-  14.734

. 69

1878  .

•  12,473

20

1857

•  IS.307

54

1879

•  12,525

34

1858.

.  13,246

53

1880.

.  11,214

28

1859

.  12,470

'52

1881

•  H.353

23

i860.

.  12,068

48

1882.

.  11,699

22

1861

■  13.879

5°

1883

•  ii,347

23

1862 .

•  J5.312

29

1884  .

•  n,i34

38

1863

.  15.799

29

1885

.  10,500

-5

1864 .

.  14.726

32

18S6  .

.  10,686

35

1865

.  .  14,740

20

1887

•  10338

35

1866.

•  i4.254

26

1888  .

.  10,561

36

1867

.  .  14,207

27

1889

•  •  9,348

20

1868  .

•  15.033

21

1890  .

•  9,242

42

1869 . . 14,340  ia

See  Executions.

Act  for  improving  the  administration  of  criminal  justice
passed  7  Aug.  1851.

The  Criminal  Justice  Act  authorises  justices,  with  the
consent  of  prisoners,  to  pass  sentence  for  short  periods,
instead  of  committing  them  to  trial,  1855.

Cost  of  criminal  prosecutions  in  England  and  Wales  :
1856,  194,9122.;  1878,  148,103?.;  1883,  144,026?.;  18S6,
141,329?.  ;  year  ending  31  March,  1890,  131,202?.  Ticket-
of-Uave  system  substituted  by  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  99,
passed  in  1853;  see  Transportation.  2666  persons
were  liberated  on  tickets-of-leave  in  1856.

On  17  Feb.  1857,  of  126  persons  thus  liberated,  58  were
believed  to  be  living  honestly.

In  1861,  1862,  and  1863,  the  system  was  considered  to
have  failed  through  the  numerous  crimes  committed
by  ticket-of-leavers ;  it  was  modified  by  the  Penal  Ser-
vitude act,  in  1864.

Sentences  to  penal  servitude,  1869,  2006;  in  1870,  1788;
1886,  910 ;  1887,  948  ;  1890,  729.

Criminal  classes  in  England  and  Wales  :  estimated  num-
ber, 1869-70,  45,800;  1878-9,  35,469;  1886-7,  28,729;
1887-8,  28,103  >  1888-9,  27,136  ;  1889-90,  26,406.

*' Statistical  Criminal  Act  "  passed  . . n  Aug. 1869

"  Prevention  of  Crimes  Act "  passed .  21  Aug. 1871

Great  decrease  in  crimes  in  relation  to  the  increase
of  population 1861-1891


Confirmed  by  lord  Coleridge  for  1874-84  19  Jan.  1885
The  number  of  female  convicts  fallen  in  ten  years

from  1477  to  706,  announced  .  .  .4  Nov.  1887
Crime—  International  Congress  for  the  prevention

and  repression  of  crime  met  in  the  Middle  Temple,

London 3  July,  1872

The  third international  congress on crime was

opened  on 25  Aug. 1891

Prevention  of  Crime  Act  (Ireland),  passed  15  Aug.  18,-9
Convict  Supervision  Office,  good  results  reported

by  Mr.  J.  Monro 1886

CRIMES  ACTS,  see  Prevention.

CRIMEA,  or  CbJM  TARTARY,  a  peninsula  in
the  Kuxine  or  Black  Sea,  the  ancient  Taurica  Cher-
sonesus,  colonised  by  the  Greeks  about  550  B.C.
The  Milesians  founded  the  kingdom  of  Bosporus,
now  Kertch,  which  about  108  B.C.  formed  part  of
the  dominion  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  whose
descendants  continued  to  rule  the  country  under
ltoman  protection  till  the  irruption  of  the  Goths,
Huus,  &c.  about  a.d.  258.  About  1237  it  fell  into
the  hands  of  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan  ;
soon  after  the  Venetians  established  commercial
stations,  with  a  lucrative  trade,  but  were  supplanted
by  the  Genoese,  who  were  permitted  to  rebuild  and
fortify  Kaffa,  about  1261.  In  1475  Mahomet  II.
expelled  the  Genoese,  and  subjected  the  peninsula
to  the  Ottoman  yoke  ;  permitting  the  government
to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  native  khans,  but
closing  the  Black  Sea  to  Western  Europe.  In  1774,
by  the  intervention  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,
the  Crimea  recovered  its  independence  :  but  on  the
abdication  of  the  khan  in  1783,  the  Russians  took
possession  of  the  country,  after  a  war  with  Turkey,
and  retained  it  by  the  treaty  of  Jassy,  9  Jan.  1792.
The  Crimea  (now  Taurida),  was  divided  into  eight
[  governments  in  1802.  War  having  been  declared
against  Russia  by  England  and  France,  28  March,
1854,  large  masses  of  troops  were  sent  to  the  East,
which,  after  remaining  some  time  at  Gallipoli,  and
other  places,  sailed  for  Vama,  where  the}'  disem-
barked 29  May.  An  expedition  against,  the  Crimea
having  been  determined  on,  the  allied  British,
French,  and  Turkish  forces,  amounting  to  58,000
men  (25,000  British),  commanded  by  lord  Raglan
and  marshal  St.  Arnaud,  sailed  from  Varna,  3  Sept.
and  landed  on  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th,  without
opposition,  at  Old  Fort,  near  Eupatoria,  about  30
miles  from  Sebastopol.  On  the  20th  they  attacked
the  Russians,  between  40,000  and  50,000  strong
(under  prince  Menschikoff),  entrenched  on  the
heights  of  Alma,  supposed  to  be  unassailable.  After
a  sharp  contest  the  Russians  were  totally  routed.
See  Alma  and  Russo-  Turkish  War.  Peace  was
proclaimed  in  April,  1856,  and  the  allies  quitted  the
Crimea  12  July  following.

CRIMINAL  LAW  PROCEDURE
(IRELAND)  ACT,  (see  Ireland)  50  &  51  Vict.
c.  20,  passed  19  July,  1887,  provides  for  summary
jurisdiction  by  magistrates,  special  juries,  change
of  place  of  trial,  proclamation  of  districts,  prohibi-
tion of  dangerous  associations,  and  continuance  of
44  &  45  Vict.  c.  5,  and  49  &  50  Vict.  c.  24.
Act  for  Scotland  passed  16  Sept.  1887  to  simplify  and

amend  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland.

CRIMINAL  LAWS  of  ENGLAND.  Their

great  severity,  pointed  out  by  sir  Samuel  Romilly,
sir  James  Mackintosh,  and  others,  about  1818,  was
considerably  mitigated  by  sir  R.  Peel's  acts,  passed
1826-8.  The  criminal  law  acts  were  consolidated
by  24  and  25  Vict.  cc.  94-IOO,  1861.  Some  defects
were  amended  by  an  act  passed  in  1867.  The  pun-
ishment of  death  is  now  virtually  restricted  to
treason  and  wilful  murder.
Sir  J.  F.  Stephen's  "  Digest  of  the  Criminal  Laws  "


CRIMISUS.


262


CROFTERS.


published,  1877  ;  and  "  History  of  the  Criminal
Law  of  England,"  published. ....  1883

Bill  for  amending  law  relating  to  indictable  offences
(resembling  a  digest  and  code)  brought  in  by  sir
John  Holker,  attorney-general . . 14  If  ay,  1878

Referred  to  royal  commission  (justices  Blackburn
and  Lush  and.  sir  James  F.  Stephen) ;  announced

8  July, ,,

The  bill  brought  in  and  withdrawn  ....  1879

Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  (relating  to  women)
passed 14  Aug.  1885

CRIMISUS,  a  river  in  Sicily,  near  which  Ti-
moleon  defeated  the  Carthaginians,  339  B.C.

CRIMPING-HOITSES  were  used  to  entrap
persons  into  the  army  ;  hence  the  name  of  "  crimp
sergeant."  Some  of  them  in  London  were  destroyed
by  the  populace,  in  consequence  of  a  young  man
who  had  been  enticed  into  one  being  killed  in  en-
deavouring to  escape,  16  Sept.  1794.

CRINAN  CANAL,  Argyleshire,  cut  through
Kintyre  peninsula,  1793-1801:  15  locks;  saves  about
115  miles.

CRINOLINE  (a  French  word,  meaning  stuff
made  of  crin,  hair)  is  the  modern  name  of  the  "  far-
dingale"  of  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  hoop-like
petticoats  made  of  whalebone,  &c,  revived  in  France
and  England  since  1855.  They  have  frequently
occasioned  loss  of  life,  by  coming  in  contact  with
fire  and  machinery.  In  No.  116  of  the  Tatter,  pub-
lished 5  Jan.  1 7 10,  is  an  amusing  trial  of  the  hoop-
petticoat  then  in  fashion.

CRIPPLEGATE  (London),  was  so-called
from  the  lame  beggars  who  sat  there,  so  early  as  the
year  1010.  The  gate  was  new  built  by  the  brewers
of  London  in  1244;  and  was  pulled  down  and  sold
for  Qil.  in  July,  1760.  The  poet  Milton  was  buried
in  the  church  near  it,  12  Nov.  1674. See  London.

CRIPPLES'  HOME,  Marylebone-road,  es-
tablished 1851,  for  crippled  girls  to  be  taught  suit-
able trades.  The  Cripples'  Nursery,  Old  Quebec-
street  and  Margate,  was  established  1862.

CRISPIN  AND  CriSPIANTTS  are  said  to  have
been  two  saints,  born  at  home,  from  whence  they
travelled  to  Soissons,  in  France,  to  propagate  the
Christian  religion.  They  worked  as  shoemakers ;
but  the  governor  of  the  town  discovering  them  to  be
Christians,  ordered  them  to  be  beheaded,  about  288.
Their  day  is  25  Oct.

CRITERION  THEATRE,  Regent's  Circus,
Piccadilly,  opened  by  Spiers  and  Poud,  21  March,
1874.

CRITH  (from  the  Greek  krithe,  a  barleycorn  or
small  weight),  a  term  suggested  by  Dr.  A.  W.  Hof-
mann  (about  1864)  to  express  the  volume-weight  of
gases  ;  a  cube  containing  1  litre  of  hydrogen  (0'o896
gramme)  to  be  the  unit.  Hydrogen  being  1  crith,
oxygen  will  be  16,  nitrogen  14  criths.

CRITICS.  The  first  society  of  them  was  formed
276  B.C.  Blair.  Varro,  Cicero,  Apollonius,  and
Aristarchus  were  ancient  critics.  In  modern  times
the  Journal  des  Sgavans  was  the  earliest  periodical
critical  work.  It  was  originated  by  Denis  de  Sallo,
ecclesiastical  councillor  in  the  parliament  of  France,
and  was  first  published  at  Paris,  30  May,  1655,  and
is  still  continued.  Jean  Le  Clerc's  "  Ars  Critica,"
published  1696,  is  said  to  be  the  earliest  systematic
treatise.  The  first  work  of  this  kind  in  England
was  the  Review  of  Daniel  Defoe  (the  term  being
invented  by  himself),  published  in  Feb.  1703.  The
Works  of  the  Learned  began  17 10,  and  the  Wales  of
Literature  in  1714 ;  discontinued  in  1722.  See
Reviews.


The  legality  of  fair  criticism  was  established  in  the  Eng-
lish courts,  in  Feb.  1794,  when  an  action  that  excited
great  attention,  brought  by  an  author  against  a  re-
viewer for  a  severe  critique  upon  his  work,  was  deter-
mined in  favour  of  the  defendant  on  the  principle  that
criticism  is  allowable,  however  sharp,  if  just,  and  not
malicious. See  Trials,  1875.

CROATIA,  conquered  by  Coloman,  king  of
Hungary,  in  1102,  was  with  that  country  united  to
Austria  in  1526.

The  Croatian  diet  abolished . . . Nov.  1861
The  Croats protest against incorporation with

Hungary 25  May,  1867

Their diet  (including  Croatia  and  Sclavonia), at

Agram  dissolved ....  27  May, „

The  union  of  Croatia  with  Hungary  recognised  by

a  Croatian  deputation  .... 27  May,  1868
Croatian  delegates  enter  the  Hungarian  diet  24  M  ov. „
The  emperor  and  empress  visit  Agram  9-10  March,  1869
Riots  in  Agram  and  other  places  against  the  Jews,
complicated  with  SclavoniC.jealousy  of  Hungary,
and  desire  for  autonomy,  Aug.  ;  the  ban  super-
seded by  gen.  Ramberg,  special commissioner

about  6  Sept.  1883
Conflicts  with  the  military,  8-10  Sept.; ten  rioters

killed 20  Sept. ,,

Agitation  increasing  ;  demand  for  separation  from

Hungary about  22  Sept. ,,

38  rioters  sentenced  to  imprisonment,  &c.  30  Sept. ,,
Count  Khiin-Hedervary,  appointed  ban  4  Dec. ,,

The diet opened  at Agram— important  meeting

17  Dec. ,,
Continued  political  disagreements ....  1884

Diet  dissolved 22  Jan. ,,

Again  dissolved 27  Aug. „

The  separatist  movement  said  to  be  totally  quelled
by  the  ban  after  much  resistance . . Nov.  1887

CROCKERY- WARE,  see  Pottery.
CROFTERS  and  Cottars,  the  holders  of  small

portions  of land,  and  the  labourers  in  the  high-
lands and  islands  of  Scotland.

A  royal  commission  appointed  22  March,  1883
(Francis  baron  Napier  and  others),  to  inquire
into  their  condition,  issue  their  report  and
describe  their  state  as  not  being  worse  than  for-
merly, but  acknowledge  the  existence  of  many
startling  grievances  relating  to  the  tenure  of
land,  high  rents,  the  deficiency  of  education,  of
postal  communication,  of  roads,  &c.  They
recommend,  among  other  remedies,  the  revival
of  the  ancient  highland  townships  with  common
privileges,  limiting  the  power  of  the  superior
lords,  &c. . ; . . . .28  April,  1884

Highland  Land  Law  Reform  Association  began  to
work March,  1883

Agitation  begun  at  Dingwall  by  the  Highland  Land
Law  Reform  Association .... Sept.  1884

Seditious  circulars  threatening  violence  ;  troops
conveyed  to  Skye ;  tranquillity  restored  by  free
church  ministers .... 15  Nov. ,,

Meeting  at  Inverness  of  chief  landlords;  concilia-
tory favourable  changes  proposed  . . 14  Jan.  1885

Act  giving  crofters  fixity  of  tenure,  enlargement  of
holdings,  and  state-aid  to  fisheries  25  June  1886 ;
amended 1888

Riotous  resistance  to  ejectments  at  Greenhill  Farm,
&c,  Isle  of  Tiree,  Hebrides;  50  police  repulsed
by  300  men  ;  marines  sent  to  the  Isle  25  July ;
order  restored  ;  six  crofters  apprehended  up  to

8  Aug.  sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment,

14  Dec.  1 886
Raid  of  2,000  cottars  on  Park  and  Aline  deer  forests

in  the  Island  of  Lewis,  22  Nov.  ;  stopped  23  Nov.  1887
Riots  at  Stornoway,  Lewis  ;  the  fences  of  the  sheep
farm  of  Mr.  Samuel  Newall  destroyed  and  the
sheep  dispersed  ;  severe  conflict,  between  the
crofters  and  the  police  and  military ;  many
wounded  ; the  rioters  dispersed  with  difficulty

9  Jan.  1888,  many  arrested  ;  16  sentenced  to  im-
prisonment, 3  Feb.  1888

Lewis  reported  quiet .... 28  Jan. „
Crofters colonization commission appointed by

Imperial  and  Canada  governments . .28  Dec. ,,
The  Canadian  settlements  reported  prosperous

March  1891


CROIX,  ST.


263


CROZIER.


CROIX,  ST.,  a  W.  India  Island,  purchased
from  the  French  by  Christian  VI.  king  of  Denmark,
in  1733 ;  taken  by  sir  Alexander  Cochrane,  22  Dec.
1807  ;  restored  in  1814.

CROMLECHS,  ancient  monuments,  formerly
considered  to  be  Druidical  altars,  but  novv  believed
<to  be  connected  with  burials.  One  still  exists  in
Anglesey  :  similar  structures  have  been  found  in
Ireland,  India,  Arabia,  and  other  countries.

CROXIX  CASE. See  United  States,  1889.

CROXSTADT,  Russia,  founded  by  Peter  the
<jreat,  1 7 10,  and  received  its  name  (Crown-town)
in  1 72 1.  It  was  not  attacked  by  the  fleets  in  the
war  with  Russia,  1854-5.

CROOK,  a  bishop's  pastoral  staff  or  crook,  dis-
tinct from  the  crosier.  Nine  pastoral  staffs  have
heen  recently  presented  to  English  bishops;  one  to
■the  bishop  of  Hereford,  Dr.  James  Atlay,  in  Jan.
1872.

CROPREDY  BRIDGE,  near  Banbury,  Ox-
fordshire. Here  the  royalists  defeated  sir  William
Waller  and  the  army  of  the  parliament,  29  June,
1644.

CROQUET.  This  game,  which  became  common
in  Britain  about  1850,  is  said  to  be  a  revival  of  the
old  Pall  Mall  {which  see).  It  has  been  much
superseded  by  Lawn  Tennis,  1877-89.

CROSIER,  a  staff  surmounted  by  a  cross,  borne
before  an  archbishop,  was  in  use  in  the  4th  century.
The  bearing  a  crosier  before  ecclesiastics  is  mentioned
in  the  life  of  St.  Caesareus  of  Aries  about  500.  The
term  "crozier  "  is  also  applied  to  the  pastoral  staff
of  a  bishop,  which  terminates  in  an  ornamental
<curve  or  crook.

CROSS.  That  on  which  the  Redeemer  suf-
fered on  Mount  Calvary,  was  said  to  have  been
found  at  Jerusalem,  with  two  others,  deep  in  the
.ground,  by  the  empress  Helena,  mother  of  Con-
.stantine  I.,  3  May,  326  (termed  the  Invention  of
the  Cross)  ;  commemorated  annually  on  that  day.
It  was  carried  away  by  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,
on  the  plundering  of  Jerusalem  ;  but  was  recovered
>by  the  emperor  Heraclius  (who  defeated  him  in
battle),  14  Sept.  615,  and  that  day  has  since  been
commemorated,  as  "  the  festival  of  the  Exaltation
of  the  Cross,"  established  in  642.

ft  is  asserted  by  church  writers  that  a  great  shining
cross  was  seen  in  the  heavens  by  Constantine,
and  that  it  led  him  to  adopt  it  on  his  standard,
with  the  inscription  "In  hoc  signo  vinces ;"
"Under  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer."  With
this  (Labarum)  he  advanced  to  Rome,  where  he
vanquished  Maxentius,  27  Oct.  312. Lenglet.

Signing  with  tke  Cross  was  first  practised  by  Chris-
tians to  distinguish  themselves  from  the  Pagans,

about no

5n  the  time  of  Tertullian,  it  was  deemed  efficacious
against  poison,  witchcraft,  &c.  . . . . 260

•Crosses  in  churches  and  chambers  were  introduced
about  431  ;  and  set  up  on  steeples  about . . 568

"Crosses  in  honour  of  queen  Eleanor  were  set  up  in
the  places  where  her  hearse  rested,  between  1296
(when  she  died)  and 1307

Crosses  and  idolatrous  pictures  were  removed  from
churches,  and  crosses  in  the  streets  demolished
by  order  of  parliament 1641

Maids  of  the  Cross  were  a  community  of  young
women  who  made  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and
obedience,  instituted  in 1625

The  order  of  Ladies  of  the  Star  of  the  Cross  was
instituted  by  the  empress  Eleonora  di  Gonzaga,
wife  of  Leopold  I.,  in  . . 1668

CROSSED  CHEQUES,  see  Drafts.


CROTOXA  (S.  Italy),  a  city  founded  by  the

Achaean  Greeks  about  710 B.C. Here  Pythagoras

taught  about  520. The  Crotons  destroyed  Sybaris,

510.

CROWX. An  Amalekite  brought  Saul's  crown

to  David,  1056  B.C.  (2  Sam.  i.) The  first  Roman

who  wore  a  crown  was  Tarquin  the  Elder,  616  B.C.

The  crown  was  first  a  fillet  tied  round  the  head;

afterwards  it  was  formed  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and

also  of  stuff's  adorned  with  jewels. See  Tiara.

The  crown  of  Alfred  had  two  little  bells  attached  (872)  ;
it  is  said  to  have  been  long  preserved  at  Westminster,
and  may  have  been  that  described  in  the  parliamentary
inventory  taken  in  1649.

Athelstan's  crown  resembled  an  earl's  coronet,  929.

William  I.  wore  his  crown  on  a  cap,  adorned  with  points,
1066.

Richard  III.  introduced  the  crosses,  1483.

Henry  VII.  introduced  the  arches,  1485.

The  crown  and  regalia  of  England  were  pledged  to  the
city  of  London  by  Richard  II.  for  2000/.  in  1386  ;  see
the  king's  receipt  on  redeeming  them. Rymer.

The  crown  of  Charles  II.,  made  in  1660,  is  the  oldest  ex-
isting in  England  ;  see  Blood's  Conspiracy.

The  Imperial  State  Crown  of  England  was  made  by  Run-
dell  and  Bridges,  in  1838,  principally  with  jewels  taken
from  old  crowns.  It  contains  one  large  ruby,  1  large
sapphire,  16  sapphires,  11  emeralds,  4  rubies,  1363
brilliants,  1273  rose  diamonds,  147  table  diamonds,  4
drop-shaped  pearls,  and  273  pearls. Professor  Tennant.

CROWX  OF  IXDIA,  Imperial  Order  of,  in-
stituted by  Queen  Victoria  (to  commemorate  the
assumption  of  the  title  of  empress,  1  Jan.  1877),  for
princesses  of  the  royal  family,  distinguished  Indian
and  British  ladies,  and  wives  of  viceroys  and  go-
vernors and  secretaries  of  state  for  India;  31  Dec.
1877.  Twelve  ladies  (the  marchioness  of  Salisbury
and  others)  invested,  29  April,  1878.

CROWX  LAXDS.  The  revenue  arising  from
those  in  England  is  now  nearly  all  subject  to  par-
liament, which  annually  provides  for  the  support
of  the  sovereign  and  government  about  375,000/.
The  revenue  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall  belongs
to  the  prince  of  Wales  even  during  his  minority.
Henry  VII.  (1485)  resumed  those  lands  which
had  been  given  to  their  followers  by  the  sove-
reigns of  the  house  of  York.  The  hereditary
estates  of  the  crown  were  largely  bestowed  on
their  courtiers  by  the  sovereigns  —  especially  by
the  Stuarts.  The  income  of  the  crown,  formerly
derived  from  lands,  royalties,  &c,  now  belongs  to
the  state  exchequer,  see  Civil  List.  In  the  year
ending  31  March,  1891,  the  receipts  were
515,737/.  $s.  iod.,  the  expenditure  87,121/.  19s.  6d.

CROWXS  in  gold  were  coined  by  Henry  VIII.,
1522.  Crowns  and  half-crowns  of  silver  were
coined  in  England  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  None
were  coined  in  1861,  and  they  were  gradually  with-
drawn from  circulation.  The  coinage  of  half-crowns
was  resumed  in  1874,  ^ter  an  inquiry  as  to  their
utility.  The  coinage  of  silver  crowns  recommenced
in  1887.

CROWS.  An  act  passed  for  their  destruction
in  England,  24  Hen.  VIII.  1532.  Crows  were
anciently  employed  as  letter-bearers,  as  carrier-
pigeons  are  now.

CROYDOX,  Surrey,  granted  to  Lanfranc,
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  about  1070.  Archbishop
AVhitgift's  hospital  was  founded  in  1596.  The  fine
old  parish  church  was  burnt,  5,  6  Jan.  1867.  Croy-
don incorporated  by  charter,  15  Feb.  1883.  Poly-
technic institution  opened  by  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury,  22  Dec.  1891.  Population,  1881,
78,811  ; 1891,  102,697.

CROZIER,  see  Crosier.


CRUCIFIX.


264


CRYSTAL PALACE.


CRUCIFIX,  the  cross  with  the  figure  of  Christ
attached  to  it,  first  known  in  the  fourth,  came  into
general  use  in  the  eighth  century.

CRUCIFIXION.  A  mode  of  execution  com-
mon among  the  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Persians,
Carthaginians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Ariarathes,
of  Cappadocia,  aged  80,  vanquished  by  Per-
diccas,  and  discovered  among  the  prisoners,  was
flayed  alive,  and  nailed  to  a  cross,  with  his  principal
officers,  322  B.C.  Jesus  Christ  was  crucified  3  April.
a.d.  33.  Usher.  (15  April,  a.d.  29,  Clinton;  28
March,  a.d.  3r,  Hales  ;  probably  7  April,  a.d.  30,
Lynn).  Crucifixion  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued
by  Constantine,  330. Lengkt.

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  see  Animals,
Children,  and  Vivisection.

CRUSADES  (French  Croisades),  wars  under-
taken to  drive  the  infidels  from  Jerusalem  and  the
"Holy  Land."  Peter  Gautier,  the  Hermit,  an
officer  of  Amiens,  on  his  return  from  pilgrimage  in-
cited pope  Urban  II.  to  expel  infidels  from  the  city
where  Christ  had  taught.  Urban  convened  a
council  of  310  bishops  at  Clermont  in  France,  at
which  the  ambassadors  of  the  chief  Christian
potentates  assisted,  and  gave  Peter  the  commission
to  summon  Europe  to  a  general  war,  1094.  The
first  crusade  was  published  ;  an  army  of  300,000  men
was  raised,  of  which  Peter  had  the  direction,  and
Godfrey  de  Bouillon  the  command,  1095.  The
warriors  wore  a  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulder  :
and  their  motto  was  Yolonte  de  Dieu,  "  God's  will."
— The  French  government  have  published  some  of
the  Historians  of  the  Crusades  in  a  magnificent  form
(1844-86).

I.  Crusade  (1095)  ended  by  Jerusalem  being  taken  by
assault,  15  July,  1099,  and  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  made
king.

II.  Preached  by  St.  Bernard  in  11 46,  headed  by  emperor
Conrad  II.,  and  Louis  VII.  of  France.  Crusaders  de-
feated ;  Jerusalem  lost  in  11 87.

III.  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  fee,  in  n88,  joined
by  Philip  II.  of  France  and  Richard  I.  of  England,  in
1 190. Glorious,  but  fruitless.

IV.  1 195,  by  emperor  Henry  VI.  :  successful  till  his
death  in  1197.

V.  Proclaimed  by  Innocent  III.,  1198.  Baldwin,  count
of  Flanders,  attacked  the  Greeks,  and  took  Constanti-
nople in  1203. His  companions  returned.

VI.  In  1216.  In  1229,  emperor  Frederick  II.  obtained
possession  of  Jerusalem  on  a  truce  for  ten  years.  In
1240,  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  arrived  at  Palestine,
but  soon  departed.

VII.  By  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis),  1248,  who  was  defeated
and  taken  prisoner  at  Mansourah,  5  April,  1250  ;  re-
leased by  ransom  ;  truce  of  ten  years.

VIII.  and  last,  in  1270,  by  the  same  prince,  who  died  of
a  contagious  disease,  at  Carthage,  in  Africa,  2  Aug.
Prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.  of  England,  was
at  Acre,  1271.  In  1291,  the  soldan  took  Acre,  and  the
Christians  were  driven  out  of  Syria.

CRUTCHED  FRIARS,  who  bore  the  figure
of  the  cross  on  their  back  and  breast ;  an  order
founded  at  Bologna  about  1 169.  They  are  also
called  Trinitarians.  They  had  a  monastery  in
London  in  a  district  still  called  Crutched  Friars.

CRUZ,  see  Santa  Cruz.

CRYOLITE,  a  Greenland  mineral,  a  fluoride
of  aluminium  and  sodium,  employed  in  procuring
metallic  aluminium  in  1855.

CRYOPHORUS,  an  instrument  (invented  by
Dr.  Wollaston  about  18 12)  to  demonstrate  the  i-e-
lation  between  evaporation  at  low  temperatures
and  the  production  of  cold.

CRYPTOGRAPH,  an  apparatus  for  writing
in  cipher,  invented  by  sir  Charles  Wheatstone,  and


made  known  in  1868,  in  which  different  key-words

may  be  employed,  and  it  is  said,  absolute  secrecy

ensured. A  cryptographic  machine  was  patented,

i860. See  Cipher.

A  system  of  secret  writing  described  in  "Archiv
der  Mathematik  "  . 179s

Joseph  Ludwig  Klnber  published  "  Kryptographik  "  1809,

Professor  J.  F.  Lorenz  published  a  system  at  Mag-
deburg 1806

Messrs.  Thos.  De  la  Rue  published  Mr.  Wm.
Henry  Rochfort's  system  of  secret  writing
termed  "Arcanography,"  resembling  Lorenz's . 1836

Mr.  A.  L.  Flamm  patented  an  improvement  upon
this  system about  Oct.  1875

Mr.  Weir's  cryptograph,  an  apparatus  in  which
type-writing  is  employed,  exhibited  at  9  Strand,
London 19  Oct.  i88oj

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY  is  the  science  re-
lating to  the  symmetrical  forms  assumed  by  sub-
stances passing  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state.
Rome  de  Lisle  published  his  "  Essai  de  Cristallo-
grapbie,"  in  1772;  but  Rene-Just  Haiiy  is  regarded
as  the  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  crystallo-
graphy (1801).  Whewvll.  Dana,  Dufresnoy,  and
Miller,  are  eminent  modern  writers  on  this  subject.

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  Hyde  Park,  London  ;
see  Exhibition  q/1851.

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  Sydenham.  The  Ex-
hibition building  of  1851  having  been  surrendered
to  Messrs  Fox  and  Henderson  on  1  Dec.  1851,  the?
materials  were  sold  for  70,000/.  to  a  company,
who  soon  after  commenced  re-erecting  the  Crystal
Palace  on  its  present  site,  near  Sydenham  in  Kent,,
under  the  direction  of  sir  Joseph  Paxton,  Owen
Jones,  Digby  Wyatt,  and  others.  The  proposed
capital  of  500,000/.  (in  100,000  s-hares  of  5/.  each>
was  increased  in  Jan.  1853  to  a  million  pounds.  In
Feb.  1887,  it  was  stated  that  the  total  expenditure
had  been  3,004,737/. ;  receipts,  4,409,969/. ;  paid
for  debentures,  &c,  1,405,232/. ;  number  of  visitors
above  50,000,000.  Bill  for  new  financial  arrange-
ments passed.

First  column  raised  by  S.  Laing,  M.  P. .  5  Aug. 1852-
During  the  progress  of  the  works  as  many  as  6400
men  were  engaged  at  one  time. By  the  fall  of
scaffolding,  12  men  were  killed . . 15  Aug. 1853
Dinner  given  to  professor  Owen  and  others  in  the
interior  of  the  model  of  the iguanodon, con-
structed by  Mr.  Waterhouse  Hawkins 31  Dec. ,,
The  palace  opened  by  the  queen  . . 10  June,  1854
Grand  musical  fete  on  behalf  of  the  Patriotic  Fund,

28  Oct. „
The  palace  visited  by  the  emperor  and  empress  of

the  French,  &c 20  April,  1855

First  grand  display  of  the  great  fountains,  before

the  queen  and  20,000  spectators .  18  June,  185.6

The receipts were 115,627/. ; the expenditure,
.87,872/.,  not  including  payments*  for  preference

shares,  &c. ,  in  year  ending . . . 30  April,  1857
The  preliminary  Handel  festivals  (see  Handel),  15,
17,  19  June,  1857  ;  and . . . .2  July,  1858;

On  the  Fast  day  (for  the  Indian  mutiny)  rev.  C.
Spurgeon  preached  here  to  23,000  persons  ;  4  76 J.
were  collected,  to  which  the  C.  P.  company  added
200J. ........ 7  Oct.  1857

Centenary  of  the  birth  of  Robert  Burns  celebrated  :
the  directors  awarded  50/.  to  a  prize  poem  on  the
subject,  which  was  obtained  by  Miss  Isa  Craig,

25  Jan. 1859.
The  Handel  festival . . .20,  22,  24  June, ,,
Festival  kept  in  honour  of  Schiller,  10  Nov.  1859  ;

of  Mendelssohn 4  May,  i860.

London  charity  children  sing  here . 6  June, ,„
3000  Orpheonistes  (French  musical  amateurs)  per-
forin choral  music,  25  June  ;  the  Imperial  band  of
Guides  perforin,  26  June  ;  both  dine  in  the  palace,

30  June, ,r
115  brass  bands  perform . . . .10  July, ,,

Annual  rose  show  began ,

North  wing  injured  by  a  gale  of  wind,  20,  21  Feb.  .  1861


CEYSTAL  PALACE.


255


CUBA.


Haydn's  "  Creation  "  performed  (Costa,  conductor)

i  May,  1 86 1
Blondin's  performances  on  an  elevated  rope  begin
here  (he  plays  on  violin,  cooks,  simulates  falling,

&c.) .1  June, .,

Successful  Handel  festival  :  a  new  arched  roof  con-
structed for  the  orchestra ;  about  4000  vocal
and  instrumental  performers  .  23,  25,  27  June,  1862
Successful  Handel  festival  .  .  26,  28,  30  June,  1865
North  wing,  containing  tropical  department,  the
Alhambra,  and  other  courts,  destroyed  by  fire
(about  150,000^.  damage) .  30  Dec.  1866

Prince  of  Wales  present  at  a  grand  concert  to  raise

funds  to  restore  the  palace . . .26  June,  1867
Visit  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  (gives  500?.),  July  ;  of

the  sultan  (gives  1000'.  j . . . xoJuly, „
Conservative  working  men's  demonstration

11  Nov. ,,
Meeting  of  shareholders  decide  by  ballot  that  free
tickets  shall  not  be  issued  to  admit  non-share-
holders on  Sundays . . . -31  Dec. ,,
North  wing  restored  and  re-opened  to  the  public,

15  Feb.  1868
An  Aeronautical  Exhibition  opened . 25  June, ,,
Protestant  meeting  to  defend  the Irish  Church,

17  Aug. ,,
Reception  of  the  vicomte  de  Lesseps . . July,  1870
Death  of  Mr. Robert  K. Bowley, fourteen  years

manager  of  the  company . . . 25  Aug. ,,
Successful  Handel  festival  . . 19,  21,  23  June,  1871
The  grand  duke  Wladimir  of  Russia  entertained

here  by  the  prince  of  Wales . .  26  June, ,,

Cat  show,  native  and  foreign  .  .  13  July,  2  Dec.  „
Dividend  on  stock,  i£  per  cent.  .  .  .  Dee.  „
Inauguration  of  the  great  aquarium  by  professor

Owen Jan. 1872

Lecture  by  professor  Flower . . .12  Jan. ,,

Bird  show  opens 10  Feb. ,,

Thanksgiving  festival  for  the  recovery  of  the  prince

of  Wales 1  May, ,,

Dog  show  opens ..... 4  June, ,,
Meeting  of  National  Union  of  Conservative  and  Con-
stitutional Associations . . . 24  June, ,,
National  music  meetings  ;  competition  and  concerts,

27  June — 6  July, ,.
Scottish southern gathering  ; highland sports.

25  July, ,,
National  cat  show .... 26 — 29  Oct. ,,

Bird  show 22  Feb.  1873

Grand  commemoration  of  the  opening  of  the  palace;

the  Paxton  memorial  unveiled . . 10  June, „
Visits  of  the  shah  of  Persia . 30  June,  3  July, ,,
National  music  meetings . 3,  5,  8,  10,  12  July, ,,
Resignation  of  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  George  Grove,  many
years  secretary,  announced  Sept.,  succeeded  by
capt.  (aft.  major)  Flood  Page  . . . Dec. ,,
Visit  of  the  czar . . . . . 16  May,  1874
Handel  festival ;  successful . .  22,  24,  26  June, ,,
Visit  of  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar . . .  19  June,  1875
National  music  meeting  . . . i-ioJuly, ,,

Visit  of  the  king  and  queen  of  Greece  and  prince

and  princess  of  Wales . . . .19  July,  1876
Great  clock  completed  ....  Nov. ,,

Handel  festival  .... 25,  27,  29  June,  1877
Handel  festival ;  successful .  21,  23,  25  June,  1880

Great  damage  done  by  bursting  of  a  water  tank,  no

lives  lost 30  Sept. „

International  Woollen exhibition,  opened  by  the

duke  of  Connaught  .... 2  June,  1881

Handel  festivals,  15,  18,  20,  22  June,  1883  ;  19,  22,
24,  26  June,  1885  ;  22,  25,  27,  29  June,  1888  ;  19,

22,  24  and 26  June,  1891

London  International  Universal  Exhibition  opened

by  the  lord  mayor ....  23  April  1884
Insolvency  of  the  Company  ; the chairman  ap-
pointed receiver Feb.  1887

Jubilee  fetes 22  June  et  seq. ,,

Visit  of  the  Shah  of  Persia ....  6  July,  1889
Grand  fete  of  the  unionists  of  the  metropolis  ;  Mr.

Goschen,  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  present 28  June,  1890
International  exhibition  of  mining  and  metallurgy

28  July-n  Oct. ,,
Visit  of  the  German  emperor  and  empress  ;  review

of  the  lire-brigade  (see  Germany) . n  July  J  1891
Tonic  Sol-fa  jubilee  largely  attended . 18  July ,,
Electrical  exhibition  opened . . .9  Jan.  1892

See  Handel  Festivals.


^  CTESIPHON  (afterwards  Al  Madayn),  on  the
Tigris,  the  splendid  capital  of  Parthia,  was  taken  by
Trajan  in  116;  and  by  Septimius  Severus  (who
made  100,000  captives),  198.  Its  defences  deterred
Julian  from  the  siege,  363.  It  was  taken  by
Omar  and  the  Saracens,  637,  and  utterly  destroyed,
and  Cufa  near  it  built  with  the  remains.

CUBA (its original name), an island (W.

Indies)  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage,

28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12.

Havannah,  the  capital,  settled  1519. Population,

1880,  1,521,684.

The  buccaneer  Morgan  rook  the  Havannah  ;  see
Buccaneers 1669

A  British  expedition  lands  and  remains,  20  July —

20  Nov.  1743

The  Havannah  taken  by  admiral  Pocoeke  and  lord
Albemarle,  1762  ;  restored  at  the  peace  of  Paris,

10  Feb. 1763.

Cuba  opened  to  the  trade  of  the  world . . . 1818

'*  Lone  Star"  society  (which  see),  for  the  acquisition
of  Cuba,  &c.  formed 1848

The  president  of  the  United  States  (Taylor)  pub-
lished a  strong  proclamation,  denouncing  the
object  of  the  invader's . . .  11  Aug. 1849;

Exjiedition  of  general  Lopez  and  a  large  body  of
Americans,  with  the  view  of  wresting  this  island
from  the  dominion  of  Spain,  lauded  at  Cuba,  (de-
feated) 17  May,  1850

Cuba  again  invaded  by  Lopez  and  others 13  Aug.  1851

They  are  defeated  and  taken  ;  50  shot,  and  Lopez
garotted  at  Havannah . . . . 1  Sept. ,,

The  president  of  the  United  States  again  issued  a
proclamation  against  an  intended  expedition
against  Cuba . .  . . 31  May,  1854

Messrs.  Buchanan,  Mason,  and  Soule,  United  States
envoys,  met  at  Ostend  and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and
reported,  recommending  the  purchase  of  Cuba,

Oct. „

The  Spanish  minister  in  cortes  declared  that  the
sale  of  Cuba  would  be  "  the  sale  of  Spanish
honour  itself " 19  Dec. ,,

Insurrection  of  Creoles,  headed  by  Carlos  Manuel  de
Cespedes,  for  expulsion  of  Spaniards  after  the
revolution  in  Spain — Volunteer  force  raised  to  aid
Lersundi,  the  governor. . . Sept. — Nov. 186S

A  filibusters'  attack  on  Cuba  repelled . 17  May,  1869.

The  United  States  decide  not  to  recognise  the  in-
surgents as  belligerents .... June,  1870

About  2000  lives  lost  by  a  hurricane,  about  14  Oct. „

The  captain-general  De  Rodas  resigned,  and  left
Cuba 15  Dec. ,,

Insurrection  subdued,  but  enduring  ;  the  volunteers
very  insubordinate  ;  military  despotism  ;  occa-
sional reign  of  terror ;  massacres . Jan. — Nov.  1871

Don  Gonzalo  Castaiion  murdered  by  Cubans  ;  his
tomb  desecrated  by  medical  students,  25  Nov.  ;
eight  tried  and  shot  at  Havannah . 27  Nov. ,,

Mr.  F.  Delano  sent  by  the  United  States  government
to  report  on  the  state  of  Cuba . . 9  Dec. 1872

The  merciless  war  still  continues  ;  no  quarter  given,

Dec. „

Suspended  hostilities  through  the  establishment  of
the  Spanish  republic .... Feb.  1873

Much  fighting  reported  .....  June, ,,

The  Virginias,  American  schooner,  while  conveying
men  and  arms  from  New  York  to  the  insurgents
in  Cuba,  is  captured  by  the  Spanish  gun-boat
Tornado,  31  Oct. ;  conveyed  to  Cuba  ;  above  90
insurgents  and  sailors  (some  British  and  Ameri-
cans) tried  ;  many  insurgents,  and  about 6 British
and  30  Americans  shot  . . . 4-7  Nov. ,,

After  much  correspondence  the  Vir gimius  was  sur-
rendered to  the  Americans,  19  Dec. ;  she  foun-
dered on  her  way  to  New  York . about  26  Dec. ,,

Bascones  defeats  the  marquis  Santa  Lucia  and  5000
insurgents  at  Naranjo  .... Feb.  1874.

Gen.  Martinez  Campos  appointed  governor,  with
plenary  powers Oct.  1876

The  struggle  going  on,  but  more  subdued,  summer  1877

A  "Cuban  league"  in  the  United  States,  said  to  be
formed  to  obtain  recognition  of  the  insurgents
as  belligerents,  &c. .... Sept. ,,

Estrada,  the  Cuban  president,  said  to  l>t  captured

Oct. ,,


CUBIT.


266


CUMULATIVE VOTE.


Reported  surrender  of  many  insurgents  23,  24  Dee.  1877
Surrender  of  the  insurgent  government ; end  of

the  insurrection  announced . . 21  Feb.  1878
Amnesty  declared,  with  freedom  to  slaves  present-
ing themselves  before  31  March  (slavery  to  be
abolished  gradually) .... March, ,,
•Campos  and  Jovellar  enter  Havannah  triumphantly

14  June, „
Insurrection,  state  of  siege ; amnesty promised,

19  Sept.  1879
Insurgents  totally  defeated  at  Placeta  ;  announced

*  3  Dec ,,

Uill  for  gradual  emancipation  of  the  slaves  passed
by  the  Spanish  Senate,  21  Dec,  1879;  by  cham-
bers of  Deputies  (230— ic,  21  Jan.)  ;  promulgated

18  Feb.  1880
"Cuba  reported  tranquil .... Sept. ,,
Surrender  of  gen.  Maceo  and  other  insurgents  to
the  Spaniards  at  Gibraltar  (see  Spain),  Aug.  and

Dec.  1882,  and  March,  1883
Aguerro  calls  on  Cubans  to  revolt about  26  Sept. „
Unsuccessful  American filibustering expeditions

Spring,  1884
■Gen.  Aguerro  at  the  head  of  forces  in  Cienfuegos

April,  ,,
Some  insurgents  defeated  .  .  about  23  April,  ,,
East  vestige  of  slavery  abolished  by  the  queen's

decree 6  Oct.  1886

.Destructive  cyclone,  with  great  loss  of  life  by  in-
undations, &c.  ;  about  1,000  lives  lost . 4  Sept.  1888
"The  governor-general  Salamanca  dies,  succeeded  by

Gen.  Rodriguez  Arias .... Feb.  1890
-Cuba  suffers  much  by  the  M'Kinley  tariff  bill,  and
appeals  to  the  queen-regent  for  help . 7  Jan.  1891

CUBIT,  a  measure  by  which  the  ark  of  Noah
■was  measured  (2448  B.C.).  It  was  the  distance
from  a  man's  elbow  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle
"finger.  According  to  Arbuthnot,  the  Hebrew  cubit
was  a  little  under  22  inches,  the  Koman  cubit  17J
inches,  and  the  English  cubit  18  inches.

CUCKING-STOOL  (or  Ducking-stool),

for  shrews  :  one  at  Kingston-on-Thames  was  used
in  April,  1745  ;  and  another  at  Cambridge  in  1780.
Chambers.

CUCUMBERS,  noticed  by  Virgil  and  other
ancient  poets,  were  brought  to  England  from  the
Netherlands  about  1538.

CUDDALORE  (India),  on  the  coast  of  the
Carnatie,  was  acquired  by  the  English  in  1681.  It
was  reduced  by  the  French  in  1 758,  but  recaptured
in  1760  by  sir  Eyre  Coote.  Again  lost  in  1 781,  it
(underwent  a  destructive  siege  by  the  British  under
general  Stuart,  in  1783,  which  was  continued  until
peace  was  signed,  when  it  reverted  to  them,  1784.

CUENCA,  New  Castile,  Spain,  80  miles  from
Madrid,  attacked  by  the  Carlists  13  July,  and
captured  14  July,  1874.  The  garrison  and  the
inhabitants  were  barbarously  used.  General  Lopez
Pinto  rescued  the  prisoners,  19  July.

CUIRASS,  a  part  of  Greek  and  Roman  armour.
The  skins  of  beasts,  and  afterwards  tanned  leather,
formed  the  cuirass  of  the  Britons  until  the  Anglo-
Saxon  era.  It  was  afterwards  made  of  iron  and
forass.  The  cuirass  was  worn  by  cavalry  in  the
reign  of  Henry  III.  1216  et  seq.  Napoleon  had
several  regiments  of  cavalry  wearing  cuirasses  ;  and
most  European  armies  have  picked  corps  of  such.

CULDEES,  said  to  derive  their  name  from
4ultores  Dei,  worshippers  of  God,  monks  in  Scotland
and  Ireland,  who  had  their  principal  seat  at  St.
Andrew's.  It  is  said  that  in  1185  at  Tipperary
there  was  a  Culdean  abbey  whose  monks  were  "at-
tached to  simple  truth  and  pure  Christian  worship,
and  bad  not  yet  conformed  to  the  reigning  super-
stition." They  were  eventually  subjected  to  the
papal  yoke.


CULLEN'S-WOOD  (Ireland).  An  English
colony  from  Bristol  inhabiting  Dublin,  went  to
divert  themselves  at  Cullen's-wood,  when  the
O'Byrnes  and  O'Tooles  fell  upon  them,  and
destroyed  500  men,  besides  women  and  children,
30  March,  1209  (on  Easter,  afterwards  called  Black,
Monday) .

CULLODEN,  near  Inverness,  where  the  Eng-
lish, under  William,  duke  of  Cumberland,  defeated
the  Scottish  headed  by  the  young  Pretender,  the
last  of  the  Stuarts,  16  April,  1746.  The  Scots  lost
2500  men  in  killed  upon  the  field,  or  in  the  slaughter
which  occurred  in  the  pursuit,  while  the  loss  of
the  English  did  not  far  exceed  200.  Prince
Charles,  who  wandered  among  the  wilds  of  Scotland
for  six  months,  while  30,000^.  were  offered  for
taking  him,  at  length  escaped  from  TJist  to  Mor-
laix,  and  died  at  Pome,  3  March,  1788.

CULTURE,  according  to  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold
("The  Apostle  of  Culture,  'sweetness  and
light,'  and  the  opponent  of  Philistinism") ;  is  the
knowledge  of  "  the  best  that  has  been  thought  and
said  in  the  world  "  (1880).  The  writings  of  John
Buskin  and  Matthew  Arnold  are  said  to  have
greatly  promoted  culture,  and  refinement  in  litera-
ture and  art  among  all  classes  in  Great  Britain.
Cultur-Kampf,  see  Kultur-Kampf.

CULVERIN,  cannon  so  called  from  the  French
couleuvrine,  said  to  have  been  introduced  into
England  from  a  French  model  in  1534.  It  was
originally  five  inches  and  a  quarter  diameter  in  the
bore,  and  carried  a  ball  of  eighteen  pounds. Bailey.

CUMiE  (S.  Italy),  a  Greek  colony,  said  to
have  been  founded  1050  B.C.,  probably  too  early,
and  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  ancient  Sibyl.
It  was  taken  by  the  Samnites  420  B.C.,  and  was
annexed  by  the  Romans  338  B.C.

CUMBERLAND,  a  N.W.  county  of  England,
was  granted  to  Malcolm  I.  of  Scotland  in  945,
by  king  Edmund,  "  on  condition  that  he  should  be
his  fellow-worker."  It  was  seized  by  William  I.,
but  restored  to  Malcolm  III.,  "who  became  his
man,"  1072.  William  the  Lion,  after  his  defeat  at
Alnwick,  resigned  Cumberland  to  Henry  II.,  and  it
was  finally  annexed  to  England  in  1237.

DUKES.

1726.  William  Augustus,  second  son  of  George  II.,  died

13  Oct.  1765.
1766.  Henry  Frederic,  son  of  Frederic,  prince  of  Wales,

died  18  Sept.  1790.
1799.  Ernest  Augustus,  fifth  son  of  George  III. ;  became
king  of  Hanover,  20  June, 1837  :  died  18  Nov.
1851.
1851.  George  V.,  the  ex-king  of  Hanover  ;  died  12  June,

1878.
1878.  Ernest  Augustus,  son  ;  born  21  Sept.  1845,  married
princess  Thyra  of  Denmark.  21  Dec,  1878. Issue,
George  William,  born  28  Oct.  1880,  and  five  other
children.
A  rescript  from  the  emperor  William  II.  was  issued  12
March,  1892,  restoring  the  Guelph  fund  (the  accumu-
lated property  of  king  George  V.),  which  had  been
sequestrated  in  2  March,  1868,  to  his  son,  the  duke  of
Cumberland,  on  certain  conditions,  the  duke  having
stated  in  a  letter  to  the  emperor,  dated  10  March,
"that  he  had  no  intention  of  engaging  in  any  under-
taking Which  would  threaten  the  peace  of  theGerman
Empire." The  Guelph Fund bill for making the
necessary  arrangements,  was  passed  by  the  Prussian
diet,  31  March-6  April,  1892.

See  Brunswick.

CUMBERLAND,  The,  see  Naval  Battles,
1S11.

CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary


CUNAXA.


267


CUSTOMS.


elections,  proposed  by  Mr.  Robert  Lowe,*  4  July,
during  the  debates  on  the  reform  bill ;  and  rejected,
5  July,  1867,  by  314  to  173.  By  the  act  passed  15
Aug.  1867  (30  &  31  Vict.  c.  162),  it  v\as  enacted
that  at  a  contested  election  for  any  county  or
borough  represented  by  three  members,  no  person
shall  vote  for  more  than  two  candidates.  The
cumulative  vote  was  used  in  1he  election  of  the
London  school  board,  29  Nov.  1870.

CUNAXA,  in  Mesopotamia,  near  the  Euphrates,
where  Cyrus  the  younger  was  defeated  and  slain  by
his  brother  Artaxerxes  II.,  against  whom  he  had
conspired  (401  B.C.),  narrated  in  Xenophon's
Anabasis.  His  Greek  auxiliaries  were  successful;
see  Retreat  of  the  Greeks.

CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS  (from
cuneus,  Latin  for  a  wedge),  in  characters  resembling
arrow-heads,  inscribed  on  bricks  or  clay-tablets,
found  at  Babylon,  Behistun,  &c,  have  lately  been
deciphered  by  English  and  foreign  scholars,  who
date  some  of  them  as  far  back  as  2000  B.C.  See
Assyria,  Babylon,  Behistun.

CUNNERSDORF  (in  Prussia).  On  12  Aug.
1759,  Frederick  II.  king  of  Prussia,  with  50,000
men,  attacked  the  Austrian  and  Russian  army  of
90,000  in  their  camp  near  this  place,  and  at  first
gained  considerable  advantages ;  but  pursuing  them
too  far,  the  Austrians  and  Russians  rallied,  and
gained  a  complete  victory.  The  Prussians  lost  200
pieces  of  cannon  and  30,000  men  in  killed  and
wounded.

CUPOLA  SHIPS,  see  Navy  of  England,  1861.

CUPPING-,  a  mode  of  blood-letting.  The  skin
is  scarified  by  lancets,  and  a  glass  cup  in  which  the
air  has  been  rarified  by  heat,  is  immediately  applied
to  it,  when  the  blood  usually  flows  into  the  cup.
This  operation  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and
is  described  by  Hippocrates  (413  B.C.)  and  Celsus
(20  B.C.). It  was  common  in  England  about  1820.

CURACOA  (correctly,  Curasao),  an  island  in
the  Caribbean  sea,  settled  by  the  Spaniards  about
1527,  was  seized  by  the  Dutch  in  1634.  In  1800
the  French,  settled  on  part  of  this  island,  quarrelled
with  the  Dutch,  who  surrendered  it  to  a  British
frigate.  It  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1802;
taken  from  them  by  the  British  in  1807,  and  again
restored  in  1814.

CURATES  were  of  early  appointment  as  coad-
jutors in  the  Romish  church,  and  are  mentioned  in
England  in  the  7th  century.  Among  the  acts
passed  for  the  relief  of  this  laborious  class  of  the
clergy  are  the  12th  Anne,  1713,  and  36th,  53d,  and
58th  Geo.  III.,  and  especially  the  beneficent  act,  2

will.  IV.  Oct.  183 1.  It  appeared  by  parliamentary
reports  on  ecclesiastical  revenues,  that  there  were
in  1831,  5230  curates  in  England  and  Wales,  whose
stipends  amounted  to  424,695/.  The  greatest  num-
ber of  curates  in  one  diocese  was  Lincoln,  629 ;  and
the  smallest  that  of  St.  Asaph,  43.  The  Pastoral
Aid  Society  was  established  in  1836;  the  Society
for  promoting  the  Employment  of  Additional
Curates,  in  1837  ;  the  Curates'  Augmentation  Fund,

1866.  The  Curates'  Alliance,  a  reforming  body,
issued  its  first  annual  report,  Dec.  1882.

CURFEW  BELL  (from  the  French  couvrc
feu), was  revived or  introduced  in England by

*  "  At  any  contested  election  for  a  county  or  borough
represented  by  more  than  two  members,  and  having
more  than  one  seat  vacant,  every  voter  shall  be  entitled
to  a  number  of  votes  equal  to  the  number  of  vacant  seats,
and  may  give  all  such  votes  to  one  candidate,  or  may
distribute  them  among  the  candidates  as  he  thinks  fit."


"Will.  I.  1068.  On  the  ringing  of  the  curfew  at
eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  all  fires  and  candles
were  to  be  extinguished  under  a  severe  penalty.
Bapin.  The  curfew  was  modified  1  Hen.  I.  1 100.
The  practice  has  been  continued  to  the  present  time
at  Sandwich  in  Kent,  and  some  other  places  (1891) .

CURIATII,  see  Borne,  669  b.c

CURLING,  a  Scotch  national  game  with  stones
on  the  ice,  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the
Low  Countries  in  the  16th  century.  The  Dudding-
stone  curling  club  was  instituted  1795.  The  royal
Caledonian  curling  club,  founded  in  1838,  owns  a
large  artificial  pond  at  Strathallan,  Perthshire.

CURRAGH,  see  Kildare.

CURRANTS,  from  Corinth,  whence,  probably,
the  tree  was  first  brought  to  us  about  1533.  The
name  is  also  given  to  a  small  kind  of  dried  grape,
brought  from  the  Levant  and  Zante.  The  duty
on  these  currants  (44s.  \d.  per  cwt.  in  1834)  has
been  reduced  to  7s.  ;  reduced  to  2s.  17  April,  1890.
The  hawthorn  currant  (Bibes  Oxyacanthoides)  came
from  Canada  in  1705.

CURRENCY  ACTS. See  under Bank  of
England,  1797-1823,  and  Gold,  1816. Those  of  sir
Robert  Peel  were  passed  in  1819  and  in  1844.
Royal  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  depre-
ciation of  silver,  relative  values  of  the  precious  metals,
&c,  Messrs.  A.  J.  Balfour  (chairman),  (succeeded  by
lord Herschell), J. Chamberlain, L. Courtney, L.
Cohen,  W.  H.  Houldsworth,  Sir  John  Lubbock,  D.  M.
Barbour,  J. W. Birch  (Bank of England), Sir  T.
Farrer,  C.  W.  Fremant'.e  (deputy  master  of  the  mint)
and  J.  R.  Bullen  Smith,  about  7  Sept.  1886.
In  their  final  report,  issued  6  Nov.  1888,  the  commis-
sioners  were  found  to  be  greatly  divided  in  opinion
respecting  bi-metallism,  a  paper  currency  and  other
questions.
Mr.  H.  Chap: in  advocates  his  "  thirty  shilling  "  theory
Jan.  1889.

CURSITOR  BARON.  This  office,  formerly
attached  to  the  court  of  exchequer,  was  abolished  in
1856,  on  the  death  of  the  right  hon.  George  Bankes.
CURTATONE,  near  Mantua,  N,  Italy.  Here
the  Austiians,  under  Radetzky,  crossed  the  Mincio,
and  defeated  the  Italians  after  a  severe  conflict,  29
May,  1848.

CUSHEE  PIECES,  invented  by  Richard
Leake,  the  master-gunner  of  the  Boyal  Prince  man-
of-war,  renowned  for  bravery  shown  in  the  engage-
ment with  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp,  in  1673.
CUSTOM  is  a  law  not  written  {lex  non  scripta),
established  by  long  usage  and  consent,  and  is  dis-
tinguished from  lex  scripta,  or  the  written  law.  It
is  the  rule  of  law  when  it  is  derived  from  1 189
downwards.  Sixty  years'  custom  is  binding  in  the
civil  law,  and  forty  years'  in  ecclesiastical  cases.

CUSTOMS  were  collected  upon  merchandise  in
England,  under  Ethelred  II.  in  979.  The  king's
claim  to  them  by  grant  of  parliament  was  estab-
lished 3  Edw.  I.  1274.  The  customs  were  farmed
to  sir  Thomas  Smith  for  annual  sums  varying  from
14,000/.  to  50,000/.  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Stow,
They  were  farmed  by  Charles  II.  for  390,000/.  in
1666.  Bavcnant.  In  1671  commissioners  were
appointed.  The  customs  were  consolidated  by  Mr.
Pitt  in  1787.  Between  1820  and  1830  so  many
reductions  and  consolidations  were  made  in  the
cu-toms  department,  that  above  a  quarter  of  a
million  was  saved  in  salaries,  though  the  work  had
enormously  increased. — Acts  consolidating  the  cus-
toms duties  were  passed  in  1853,  1854,  and  i860,
whereby  the  number  of  articles  in  the  tariff  and  the
amount  of  the  customs  were  greatly  reduced.  Many
changes have  been  made  since; by  the  Customs


CUSTOMS PAELIAMENT.


268


CYMBAL.


Customs

in  year  ending

31

March.

1872

20,225,892

1873  .

20,976,236

1874 .

20,323,325

1875  -

19.349.280

1876

20,196,691

1877  .

19,896,386

1878

20,043,180

1879  .

20,348,064

1880

19,169,605

1881  .

19,210,466

1882

19,275,668

1883  .

19,682,671

1884

19.653,352

7885  .

20,557,819

1886  . .

19,722,302

1887  .

20,135,855

1888  . .

19.579.476

1889  .

20, 06,, 000

1890

20,424,000

1S91  .

19,480,000

1892

19,736,000

ck  of  wool

yl. ;  a  last

Act  of  1890,  the  laws  were  amended  and  the  duties

modified; see Revenue, The disqualification of

custom-house  officers  and officers  of  excise  from

voting  for  the  election  of  members  of  parliament

in  1782,  was  removed  in  1867-8.

The  laws  respecting  the  customs  were  amended  by

an  act  passed  21  Aug.  187 1,  and  consolidated

by  acts  passed,  24  July,  1876  ;  amended, . 1887

Customs  in

1580 . . . £14,000

1592 . . . 50,000

1614 . . . 148,000

1622 . . . 168,000

1642 . . . 500,000

1684 • ■ • 530,000

1720 . . . 1,555,600

1748 . . .  2,000,000

1808 . . .  9,973,240

1823  . . 11,498,762

1830 . .  17,540,323

1835  . . 18,612,906

1840 . .  19,915,296

1845  . . 20,196,856

1850 . .  20,442,170

1855  • ■ 21,630,081

i860 . .  24,391,084

1864  . . 23,234,356

1867 . .  22,299,306

1869  . . 22,434,737

1870  . . 21,449,843

1871  . . . 20,238,880
The  customs  in  Ireland,  a  s

of  hides,  6d. ;  a  barrel  of  wine,  2d.  .  .  .  1224
The  Customs  business  of  Ireland  was  transferred  to

the  London  board 6  Jan.  1830

Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in
London  on  a  large  scale,  1304  ;  and  a  yet  larger  in
1559  ;  burnt  down  in  1666  ;  a  new  one,  built  by
Charles  II.,  burnt  down  in  1718,  again  rebuilt;
and  once  more  burnt  down,  and  immense  property
and  valuable  records  destroyed  . . 12  Feb. 1814
The  present  edifice  opened . . .12  May,  1817
Dublin  Custom-house  commenced  in  1781  ;  opened
in  1791. The  eastern  wing  of  its  warehouse  was
destroyed  by  fire,  with  property  to  the  amount
of4oo,oooL ...... 9  Aug. 1833

International conference on customs tariffs  ac
Brussels 1-5  July,  1890

CUSTOMS  PAELIAMENT,  see  Zollverein.

CUSTOS  EOTULOEUM,  keeper  of  the
rolls  or  records  of  the  sessions  of  the  peace,  pre-
viously nominated  by  the  lord  chancellor,  was  in
1545  directed  to  be  appointed  by  a  bill  signed  by  the
king. The  act  was  confirmed  in  1689.

CUSTOZZA,  near  Verona,  N.  Italy.  Here  the
Italians  were  defeated  by  marshal  Kadetzky,  23
July,  1848 ;  and  here  they  were  again  defeated,  24
June,  1866,  after  a  series  of  desperate  attacks  on  the
Austrian  army.  The  Italians  were  commanded  by
their  king,  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  the  Austrians  by
the  archduke  Albrecht.  The  Italian  loss  was  com-
puted to  be  720  killed,  31 12  wounded,  and  4315
missing;  the  Austrian  loss,  960  killed,  3690
wounded,  and  nearly  a  thousand  prisoners.  The
Italians  soon  recrossed  the  Mincio.

CUTCH  (Kachh),  W.  India,  a  principality
under  the  government  of  Bombay.  In  consequence
of  the  depredations  of  the  natives,  the  East  India
government  resorted  to  hostile  measures,  which
resulted  in  a  stringent  treaty  with  the  rao  in  Jan.
1816.  In  1819  he  was  deposed  for  misgovernment,
and  replaced  by  his  infant  son,  supported  by  a
British  contingent.  The  traffic  in  children,  detected
in  Dec.  1835,  was  suppressed  by  the  British.  Many
persons  perished  by  an  earthquake  in  July,  i8ig.
Thornton.

Cullers' Feast, see


CUTLEEY,  see Steel.
Sheffield,  1889.


CUTTACK  (Katak),  E.  India,  a  British  pro-
vince ceded  to  theE.  1.  company  in  1803.  Cuttack,
the  capital,  was  taken  by  col.  riarcouit,  14  Oct.
same  year.  The  Mahrattas  conquered  it  in  1750.
Thorn  ton.

CUTTING-OUT  MACHINES.  Wearing
apparel  was  first  cut  out  by  machinery  in  England
by  Messrs.  Hyams  in  1853.  The  machine,  invented
by  Mr.  Frederick  Osbourn,  consists  of  a  recipro-
cating vertical  knife  working  through  a  slot  in  the
table  that  supports  the  pile  of  cloth  to  be  cut.  The
cloth  being  pressed  up  to  the  edge  of  the  knife  by
the  attendant,  the  knife  will  sever  it  in  the  direction
of  the  lines  marked  on  the  upper  layer.

CUZCO,  capital  of  Peru,  was  entered  by  Pizarre
in  Nov.  1533,  and  taken  by  him  in  Aug.  1536,  after
five  months'  siege.

CYANOGEN,  a  colourless  gas  (composed  of
nitrogen  and  carbon),  irritating  to  the  nose  and
eyes,  derived  from  Prussian  blue,  was  first  obtained
in  the  free  state  by  Gay  Lussac  in  1815,  being  the
first  instance  of  the  isolation  of  a  compound  radical.

CYCLE  of  the  sun,  a  period  of  twenty-eight
yeais,  which  having  elapsed,  the  dominical  or
bunday  letters  return  to  their  former  place,  and
proceed  in  the  former  order  according  to  the  Julian
Calendar  ;  that  of  the  moon  is  nineteen  lunar  yeais
and  seven  intercalary  months,  or  nineteen  solar
years.  The  cycle  of  Jupiter  is  sixty  yeais.  The
Pasctial  cycle,  or  the  time  of  keeping  Easter,  was  first
calculated  for  the  period  of  532  years  by  Victorius,
463. Blair. See  Metouic  Cycle,  Calippic  Period.

CYCLE,  see  Velocipede.

CYCLONE  PULVEEIZEE,  an  apparatus
invented  by  Messrs.  Baymond,  Bros.,  of  America,
in  imitation  of  the  violent  action  of  air  in  cyclones,
for  pulverizing  various  substances.  It  is  said  to
have  been  successfully  applied  in  crushing  gold
quartz. Exhibited  in  London  in  May  1888.

CYCLONES,  circular  whirlwinds,  or  hur-
ricanes, common  in  the  East  and  West  Indian  and
Chinese  seas,  varying  fiom  200  to  500  miles  in
diameter.  Many  details  respecting  them  will  be
found  in  Reid's  "Law  of  Storms,"  published  1838.

Great  cyclone  in  India  ;  see  Calcutta . 5  Oct. 1864

Captain  Watson,  of  the  Clarence,  observing  the
barometer  falling,  and  foretelling  the  approach  of
the  cyclone,  saved  his  ship  by  steering  out  of  its
range „

Great  cyclone  in  the  Bahamas,  at  Nassau,  New
Providence,  above  600  houses  and  many  churches
and  other  buildings  thrown  down  ;  between  60
and  70  persons  killed,  and  a  great  many  ships  dis-
mantled 1,2  Oct. 1866

A  cyclone  desolated  Antigua,  St.  Kitts,  and  other
isles  ;  religious  and  manufacturing  buildings  de-
stroyed, and  thousands  made  homeless, 21  Aug. 1871

Destructive  cyclone  near  Madras  ;  ships  lost,  1  May,  1872

Destructive  cyclone,  S.  E.  Bengal ;  Calcutta  barely
escapjed  ;  about  215,000  persons  perished,  31  Oct.  1876

Destructive  cyclone  near  Aden,  about  50,000?.
damages  reported ;  ships  sunk,  &c, .  3  June,  1885

Destructive  cyclone  at  Calcutta . 23  May  et  seq.  1887
See Virgin  Isles, Storms, %cMch  see,  Bengal,
Madrid,  1886  et  seq.

CYCLOPAEDIA,  see  Enctjclopadia.

CYCLOPEAN  MASONEY,  a  term  given
to  very  ancient  buildings  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Asia
Minor,  probably  the  work  of  the  Pelasgi,  more  than

1000  B.C.

CYDEE,  see  Cider.

CYMBAL,  the  oldest  known  musical  instru-
ment, made  of  brass.  Xenophon  says  the  cymbal
was  invented  by  Cybele,  and  used  in  her  feasts
about  1580  B.C. Cymbals  were  used  by  the  ancient


CYMMRODORION SOCIETY.


269


CZECHS.


Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Hebrews  and  other  nations,
2  Sam.  vi.  5,  B.C.  1047.

CYMMRODORION  SOCIETY  was  estab-
lished in  Sept.,  1 75 r,  to  instruct  the  ignorant  and
relieve  distressed  Welsh.  It  was  suspended  in
1781,  and  revived  24  June,  1820,  for  literary  pur-
poses. The  society  was  re-established  in  1877  f°r
promotion  of  literature  and  the  arts  in  Wales.

CYMRI  or  KYMRI  (hence  Cambria),  the  great
Celtic  family  to  which  the  Britons  belonged,  and
which  came  from  Asia  and  occupied  a  large  part  of
Europe  about  1500  B.C.  About  a.d  640  Dyvnwal
Moelmud  reigned  "  King  oj 'the  Cymry ;"  see  Wales.

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by
Antisthenes  (about  396  B.C.,  Dioy.  Laert.,  Clinton).
who  professed  to  contemn  all  worldly  things,  even
sciences,  except  morality  ;  and  lived  in  public  with
little  shame. Diogenes,  the  eminent cynic,  died

323  B.C.

CYNOSCEPHAL^E  {dogs'  heads,  so  named
from  the  shape  of  the  heights),  in  Thessaly,  wrhere
Pelopidas  and  the  Thebans  defeated  Alexander
tyrant  of  Pherse  and  the  Thessalians,  364  B.C.
Pelopidas  was  slain.  Here  also  the  consul  Flami-
nius  totally  defeated  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  197  B.C.,
and  ended  the  war.

CYPRESS,  Capressus  sempervirens,  a  tree
found  in  the  isle  of  Cyprus.  The  Athenians  buried
heroes  in  coffins  made  of  this  wood,  of  which
Egyptian  mummy-chests  were  also  fabricated.  The
ancients  planted  it  in  cemeteries.  The  cypress  was
brought  to  England  about  1441.  The  deciduous
cypress,  C.  disticha,  came  from  North  America  before
1640.

CYPRUS,  a  large  island  in  the  Mediterranean,
near  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria ;  present
capital,  Levkosia  or  Nikosia ;  sea-ports,  Larnaka  and
Famagosta.  Here  the  ancients  found  copper  (ces
Cyprium),  silver,  and  precious  stones.  The  country
was  fertile,  and  abounded  with  trees  in  ancient
times ;  and  under  Venice  its  commerce  was  im-
portant. Population  in  1881,  186,173;  1891,
209,291.

Tlie  Phoenician  colonists  introduced  the  worship  of
Ashtaroth  (the  Greek  Astarte  or  Aphrodite,  the

Roman  Venus)

Conquered  by  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt ;  revolted  at
the invasion of  Cambyses, and  submitted to

Persia B.C. 525

Revolted,  and  subjected ....  500-499

Partly  independent  under  Bvagoras  and  Nicocles,

kings  of  Salamis 387  et  seq.

Supported  Alexander  the  Great .... 333
T  iken  from  Demetrius  by  Ptolemy  of  Egypt . . 295

Became  a  Roman  province 58

Visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii.) . a.d. 45

Great  revolt  of  the  Jews 117

Seized  by  the  Arabs,  646 ;  recovered  by  Greeks . 648

Isaac  Comnenus,  king 1184

Seized  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  1191  ;  given  by

him  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  as  king  . . .  1192

**  Order  of  Jie  Sword"  established  (ceased  with  8th

king) .  .... 1195

Guy's  descendant,  Catherine  de  Cornaro,  sold  it  to

Venice 1487

Cyprus  conquered  by  the  Turks  with  great  barbarity  1570-1
Insurrections  suppressed,  1764  ;  with  massacre . 1S23
General  di  Cesnola,  a  Genoese,  the  American  con-
sul, by  excavations,  discovers  many  Babylonian,
Egyptian,  Phosnician,  and  Greek  gold  and  silver
ornaments,  and  other  relics  (sold  to  the  New

York  museum) 1866  et  seq.

His  work, "Cyprus: its Ancient  Cities,  Tombs,

and  Temples,"  published  in  London . Dec.  1877
The  island  given  up  to  Great  Britain  for  administra-
tion by  the  Anglo-Turkish  convention 4  June,  1878
Possession  taken  by  admiral  lord  John  Hay, i->
July:  by  sir  Garnet  J.  Wolseley,  as  lord  high
commissioner 22  July, „


Much  sickness,  with  deaths,  reported Aug.  — Sept.  1878
Orders  for  the  government  by  a  lord  high  commis-
sioner, given  at  court .... 14  Sept. „
Sir  G.  J.  Wolseley's  decree  for  compulsory  labour

on  public  works,  dated  .... 16  Dec. ,,
He  is  sent  to  S.  Africa ;  succeeded  by  sir  Robert

Biddulph June,  1879

The  British  buy  the  Government  lands,  except  the

Sultan's  estates,  early  in ..... ,,
Increased general prosperity reported (in Blue

Book) Aug.  1880

Sir  R.  Biddulph  reports  that  the  British  govern-
ment is  popular, but the  finances depressed,
Aug. ;  78,000/.  voted  for  Cyprus . . 28  Aug.  1881
New  pier  at  Limasol  opened  by  Sir  R.  Biddulph

6  Oct. „
New  constitution  announced . . 24  March,  1882
Elective  legislative  council  opened  by  sir  R.  Bid-
dulph July,  1883

Long  continued  destructive  ravages  of  locusts,
greatly  checked  by  the  skill  and  energy  of  Mr.  S.

Brown,  reported Sept.  1884

Sir  R.  Biddulph  reports  great  prosperity  and  in-
creased revenue  (194, 051/.,  expenditure  111,685/.).
General  health  good ...  31  March, ,,

Sir  H.  E.  Bulwer  nominated  as  high  commissioner,

Aug.  1885  ;  arrived .  .  9  March,  1886

Cyprus  Society,  London,  formed  for  the  establish-
ment of  a  hospital  at  Kyrenia  and  other  objects,

June,  1888
Archaeological  excavations  ;  discoveries  on  the  site
of  the  temple  of  Aphrodite,  inscriptions,  &c.  ;

reported Sept. „

Long  drought  in  1887-8  ;  bad  harvest,  great  dis-
tress, relieved  by  government .  ' . July,  1889
Ail  excellent  harvest,  prosperity  increasing,  and  re-
duced taxation,  reported  by  sir  R.  Biddulph

18  Dec. ,,
Sir  Walter  Sendall  appointed  high  commissioner .

Feb  1892
CYR,  St.,  near  Versailles.  Here  a  college  for
ladies  was  founded  by  madame  De  Maintenon  in
1686,  and  here  she  died,  15  April,  1719.  It  was
made  a  military  college  in  1803  ;  suppressed  in  1886.
CYRENAIC  SECT,  founded  by  Aristippus
the  Elder,  365  B.C.  They  taught  that  the  supreme
good  of  man  is  pleasure,  particularly  that  of  the
senses;  and  that  even  virtue  ought  to  be  com-
mended only  because  it  gave  pleasure.

CYRENE  (N.  W.  Africa),  a  Greek  colony,
founded  by  Battus  about  630  B.C.  Aristaeus,  who
was  chief  of  the  colonists  here,  gave  the  city  his
mother's  name.  It  was  also  called  Pentapolis,  on
account  of  its  five  towns ;  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptole-
mais,  Berenice,  Apollonia,  and  Arsinoe.  It  was
conquered  by  Ptolemy  Soter  I.,  who  placed  many
Jews  here  (286  B.C.).  Cyrene  was  left  by  Ptolemy
Apion  to  the  Romans,  96  B.C.  It  is  now  a  desert.
Some  Cyrenaic  sculptures  were  placed  in  the
British  Museum  in  Jul}-,  1861.
CYROPEDIUM,  see  Corns.
CYZICUS  (Asia  Minor).  In  the  Peloponnesian
war,  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet  under  the  command
of  Mindarus,  assisted  by  Pharnabazus,  the  Persian,
was  encountered  by  the  Athenians  under  Alcibiades,
and  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  near  Cyzicus;
Mindarus  being  slain :  410  B.C. Plutarch.

CZAR,  more  properly  tsar  or  tzar,  the  title  of
the  emperor  of  Russia,  probably  derived  from  Caesar,
a  title  said  to  have  been  assumed  by  Ivan  Basi-
lowitz  after  defeating  the  Tartars,  about  1482.
The  empress  is  termed  czarina,  and  the  eldest  son
czare  witch.

CZECHS,  the  most  westerly  branch  of  the
Slavic  family  of  nations,  which  about  4  So  migrated
to  Bohemia  and  Moravia  (which  sec).  The  an-
tagonism between  the  Germans  and  Czechs  is  milder
in  Moravia  than  iii  Bohemia.  Their  representa-
tives entered  the  rcichsrath  at  Vienna,  8  Oct.,  1879.


D.


DACCA.

DACCA,  N.  E.  India,  a  province  acquired  by
the  East  India  Company  in  1765,  and  ruled  under
them  by  a  Nawab  till  its  annexation  in  1845.
Thornton.

DACIA,  a  Roman  province  (included  Temeswar
and  parts  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Wallachia,
Moldavia,  and  Galicia),  after  many  contests,  was
subdued  by  Trajan,  106,  when  Decebalus,  the
Dacian  leader,  was  killed.  Dacia  was  abandoned
to  the  Goths  by  Aurelian,  in  270  ;  subdued  by  the
Huns,  376;  by  Scythians,  566;  by  Charlemagne,
and  by  the  Magyars,  in  the  9th  century.

DACOITS,  hereditary  robbers  of  North  India,
formerly  employed  in  war  by  native  sovereigns.

It  is  stated  that  between  1818  and  1834,  one  tribe  alone,
in  118  "dacoitees,"  or  expeditions,  killed  172  persons,
and  obtained  plunder  valued  at  115,000?.  In  1838  lord
Auckland  did  much  to  suppress  the  dacoits,  and  many
•settlements  were  broken  up,  but  they  are  not  quite
extinct  in  Bengal  and  Burmah.  Several  dacoitees  were
suppressed  in  1879. See  Burmah.

DAFOITR,  see  Soudan,  1884.

DAGHESTAN  (a  mountain  country  S.  W.
Asia),  was  conquered  by  the  czar  Peter,  1723  ;  re-
stored to  Persia,  1735 ;  re-annexed  to  Russia  by
Alexander  I.,  1813.

DAGUERREOTYPE  PROCESS,  invented
by  Daguerre,  and  published  1838 ;  see  Photo-
graphy.

DAHLIA,  a  flower  discovered  in  Mexico  by
Vincent  Cervantes  in  1784,  and  brought  to  Europe
about  1787,  and  cultivated  by  the  Swedish  botanist,
Dahl.  About  1814  it  was  introduced  into  France
and  England ;  Andre  Thouine  suggested  improve-
ments in  its  culture,  and  it  soon  became  a  favourite.
Georgi  introduced  it  at  St.  Petersburg  ;  hence  it  is
known  in  Germany  as  the  Georgina.

DAHOMEY,  a  negro  kingdom,  West  Africa,
became  known  to  Europeans  early  in  the  last
century,  when  Trudo  Andati  or  Guadjor  Trudo,  a
man  of  energy  and  talent,  was  king.  He  died  in
1 732,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of  cruel  tyrants,
a  large  part  of  whose  revenue  was  derived  from  the
slave°trade.  Abbeokuta,  a  robbers'  haunt  in  1825,
has,  since  1829,  become  a  strong- walled  town,  inha-
bited by  free  blacks ;  and  was  consequently  opposed
by  the  king  of  Dahomey.  His  army  has  been
severely  defeated  in  its  attacks  on  this  place,  and
in  one  on  16  March,  1864,  a  great  number  of  his
Amazons  (female  celebates)  were  slain.  During
the  last  few  years  Dahomey  has  been  visited  by
captain  Burton  and  other  travellers,  who  have
described  the  royal  sanguinary  customs.  Capital  of
Dahomey,  Abomey.
Trade opened with Dahomey and settlements

made  by  M.  Regis,  of  Marseilles  .  .  .  1840-50
The  king  ordered  to  pay  a  fine  (for  an  outrage  on

Mr  Tumbull  at  Whydali,  23  Jan.)  .  March,  1876
He  refuses  in  insulting  terms,  April;  the  coast  about

to  be  blockaded July, „

The  king  threatens  massacre  of  Europeans  if  at-

tlCk-GCL  „•■•••  "-^S* it

Hemakes  concessions ;  blockade  removed  12  May,  1877


DAKOTA.

Renewed  massacres of  natives  ("  customs ")  and
outrages on foreigners  at  Whydah ; reported

26  Sept.  1878
The  king  attacks  Lagos,  kills  many  and  takes  about

1000  prisoners 10  May,  188s

Dahomey  placed  under  the  prote  iterate  of  Portu-
gal at  the  request  of  the  king . . 7  Oct. „
The  Dahomey  troops  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon
the  French  settlements  at  Zebo,  on  Lake  Den- „
ham,  by  commandant  Ferrillon,  100  killed  .

reported  24  Feb.  1890
The  king  after  losing  about  1,000,  retires  with  his

army reported  12  March ,,

Porto  Novo  and  Kotonou  well  held  by  the  French  *,

5  April ,,
The  Dahomey  coast  blockaded  by  the  French

from  4  April ,,
The  French  repulsed  in  a  conflict  with  the  king

reported  22  April ,,
The  king's  army  near  Porto  Novo  ;  French  reinforce-
ments from  Senegal  landed,  April ;  his  troops  re-
treat after  an  engagement  with  severe  loss  23April ,,
The  king  in  a  letter  to  president  Carnot  justifies
his  retention  of  French  merchants  at  Whydah  for
meddling  with  politics  .  received  about  28  April ,,
Whydah  bombarded  by  the  French  vessel  Kerguelin
29,  30  April ;  Commander  Fournier  demands  the
surrender  of  13  Frenchmen,  in  prison  since  Feb.,
3  May;  they  are  surrendered,  and  Dahomeyan

prisoners  released 5  May ,,

The  new  king  Behanzin  installed  ;  he  writes  to

president  Carnot  desiring  a  just  peace . 12  May ,,
Peace  with  France  concluded . reported  6  Oct. ,,
The  king's  continued  aggressions  and  threats  lead
' to  war,  April ;  the  French  chamber  votes  3,000,000
francs  for  an  expedition  to  protect  Porto  Novo
and  Kotonou,  and  avenge  injuries  . . n  April,  1892
French reinforcements from Senegal arrive at

Kotonou 20  April, ,,

Porto  Novo  and  Kotonou  besieged,  reported  23  May, ,,

DAHRA  (Algeria).  On  18  June,  1845,  above
500  Kabyles  at  war  with  the  French  were  suffo-
cated in  a  cave,  a  fire  having  been  kindled  by  order
of  general  Pelissier,  afterwards  duke  of  Malakoff.
They  had  fired  on  a  messenger  bearing  an  offer  of
a  truce.  The  massacre  was  condemned  by  marshal
Soult,  but  justified  by  marshal  Bugeaud.

DAILY  NEWS,  liberal  commercial  news-
paper, now  id.,  established  21  Jan.  1846.  In  the
number  for  23  June.  1876,  the  letter  from  a
correspondent  at  Constantinople  first  drew  attention
to  the  atrocities  in  Bulgaria.  The  first  Bulgarian
parliament  expressed  its  gratitude  for  this,  4  April,
i879-

DAILY  TELEGRAPH,  penny  paper,  liberal,
established  29  June,  1855.  It  became  a  conservative
paper,  1876,  but  is  often  independent.

DAIRY FARMERS' ASSOCIATION",

British,  established  24  Oct.  1876.  No.  1  of  a
journal  published  Sept.  1877.  Dairy  Shows,
exhibitions  at  Agricultural  Hall,  1S77  and  following;
years.

The  establishment  of  dairy  schools  in  Great  Britain
recommended  by  the  Departmental  Committee  ;
these  having  produced  successful  results  in
France,  Germany,  and  Denmark  ;  and  many  have
been  established 188S

DAKOTA  (North  America),  organised  as  a
territorv of the United States, 2 March, 1861.


DALECAELIANS.


271


DANE-GELD.


Capital  Yankton. North  and  South  Dakota  were

made  States  in  1889.

About  100,000  persons  destitute  in  North  Dakota
through  failure  of  the  crops . . .30  Oct.  1889

The  Sioux  reserves  in  S.  Dakota,  about  9,000,000
acres,  opened  to  settlers  by  proclamation  ;  imme-
diately occupied Feb.  1890

For  the  rising  of  the  Sioux,  see  Indians;  1890-91.

President  Harrison  proclaims  the  opening  of
1,600,000  acres  in  the  Fort  Berthold  Indian  Re-
servation, North  Dakota . . .21  May,  1891

Population,  1890 :  N.  Dakota,  182,719  ;  S.  Dakota,  328,808.

DALECAELIANS  (Sweden), revolted  against
Christian  of  Denmark,  1521,  and  placed  Gustavus
Vasa  on  the  throne  of  Sweden.

DALMATIA,  an  Austrian  province,  N.  E.  of
the  Adriatic  Sea,  conquered  and  made  a  province
by  the  Eomans,  34  B.C.  The  emperor  Diocletian
erected  his  palace  at  Spalato  (erroneously  written
Spalatro),  and  retired  there,  a.d.  305.  Dalmatia  was
held  in  turns  by  the  Goths,  Hungarians,  and  Turks,
till  its  cession  to  Venice  in  1699.  By  the  treaty  of
Campo  Formio  in  1797  it  was  given  to  Austria,  but  in
1805  it  was  incorporated  with  Italy,  and  gave  the  title
of  duke  to  marshal  Soult.  In  1814  it  reverted  to
Austria.  An  insurrection  opposed  to  the  new  mili-
tary law  broke  out  at  Bocche  di  Cattaro,  and  a  con-
flict with  the  troops  at  Dragali  took  place,  10  Oct.
1869.  Several  regiments  were  sent  there,  but  the
insurgents  obtained  several  successes  during  the
month.  A  deputation  offered  submission,  2  Nov.,
and  the  operations  against  them  were  suspended
about  the  end  of  the  month.  Population,  1890,
527,426.

DALTONISM,  see  Colour,  note.

DAMAEALAND  (S.W.  Africa),  a  territory
rich  in  minerals  and  pasture,  occupied  by  German
settlers  and  missionaries  since  1840.  See  Africa,
1885-91.  The  native  population  is  estimated  at
8o,ooo.

DAMASCUS  (Syria),  a  city  in  the  time  of
Abraham  ;  1913  B.C.  (Gen.  xiv.),  now  the  capital
of  a  Turkish  pachalic. Population,  1885,  150,000.

Taken  by  David  (1040  b.c.),  but  retaken  shortly
after  ;  made  the  capital  of  Syria  under  Benhadad

and  his  successors b.c. 930

Recovered  by  Jeroboam  II.  about 822

Taken  by  Tiglath-Pileser.  king  of  Assyria . . 740
From  the  Assyrians  it  passed  to  the  Persians,  and
from  them  to  the  Greeks,  under  Alexander . 333

To  the  Romans about 64

Paul,  converted,  preaches  here  (Acts  ix.) . .  a.d. 35
Taken  by  the  Saracens,  633  ;  by  the  Turks  in  1075
destroyed  by  Tamerlane .... Jan.  1401

Taken  by  Ibrahim  Pacha 1832

The  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest,  named  father
Tommaso,  from  here,  1  Feb.  1840,  led  to  the
torture  of  a  number  of  Jews,  suspected  of  his  mur-
der, and  to  a  cruel  persecution  of  that  people,
which  caused  remonstrances  from  many  states  of

Europe 1840

Damascus  restored  to  Turkey 1841

In  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the  Druses
and  Maronites,  the  Mahommedans  massacred
above  3000  Christians  and  destroyed  the  houses,
rendering  vast  numbers  of  persons  homeless  and
destitute  ;  a  large  number  were  rescued  by  Abd-
el-Kader,  who  held  the  citadel  .  9,  10,  11  July,  i860
Justice  executed  for  these  crimes  by  Fuad  Pacha  :
160  persons  executed,  including  the  Turkish  gover-  N
nor  ;  and  11,000  persons  made  soldiers,  Aug. -Sept. „

DAMASK  LINENS  and  SILKS,  first  manu-
factured at  Damascus,  have  been  beautifully  imi-
tated by  the  Dutch  and  Flemish.  The  manufacture
was  brought  to  England  by  artisans  who  fled  from
the  persecutions  of  Alva,  1571-3.  The  Damask
Rose  was  brought  here  from  the  south  of  Europe


by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about
1540,

DAMIENS'  ATTEMPT.  Louis  XV.  of
France  was  stabbed  with  a  knife  in  the  right  side-
by  Damiens,  a  native  of  Arras,  5  Jan.  1757.  The
culprit  endured  the  most  excruciating  tortures,  and
was  then  broken  on  the  wheel,  28  March.

DAMIETTA  (Lower  Egypt),  was  taken  by
the  crusaders,  5  Nov.  1219;  lost  1221  ;  retaken  by
Louis  IX.,  5  June,  1249;  surrendered  as  his  ran-
som when  a  prisoner,  6  May,  1250.  The  present  town,
was  built  soon  after.  See  Egypt,  Sept.  1882.  Popu-
lation, 1888,  34,044.

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS  (or  Phintias)^
Pythagorean  philosophers.  Damon  was  con-
demned to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syra-
cuse, about  387  b.c.  He  obtained  leave  to  go  and
settle  some  domestic  affairs,  promising  to  return  at
the  appointed  time  of  execution,  and  Pythias  be-
came his  surety.  When  Damon  did  not  appear,
Pythias  surrendered,  and  was  led  to  execution  ;  but
at  this  critical  moment  Damon  returned.  Diony-
sius remitted  the  sentence,  and  desired  to  share-
their  friendship.

_  DANAI :  an  ancient  name  of  the  Greeks  de-
rived from  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  1474  B.C.

DANCE  OF  DEATH. The  triumph  of  death
over  all  ranks  of  men  was  a  favourite  subject  with
the  artists  of  the  middle  ages,  and  appears  in  rude-
carvings  and  pictures  in  various  countries.
The Chorea  Machabceorum  or  Dansc  Macabre,  the
first  printed  representation,  published  by  Guyot
Marchand,  a  bookseller  of  Paris . . . .  1485
Holbein's  Dance  of  Death  (concerning  the  author-
ship of  which  there  has  been  much  controversy),
printed  at  Lyons  in  1538,  and  at  Basil  . . .  1594.
Many  editions  have  since  appeared  ;  one  with  an
introduction  and  notes  published  by  Mr.  Russell

Smith l84g>.

The  term  Dance  of  Death  was  also  applied  to  the
frenzied  movements  of  the  Flagellants,  who  had
sometimes  skeletons  depicted  on  their  clothing,
about  the  end  of  the  14th  century.
Dancing  mania,  accompanied  by  aberration  of
mind  and  distortions  of  the  body,  was  very-
prevalent  in  Germany  in  1374,  and  in  the  16th
century  in  Italy,  where  it  was  termed  Tarantismr
and  erroneously  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the
bite  of  the  Tarantula  spider.  The  music  and
songs  employed  for  its  cure  are  still  preserved.

DANCING  was  practised  by  the  Curetes,  15^
B.C.  Eusebius.  The  Greeks  combined  the  dance;
with  their  dramas,  and  pantomimic  dances  were
introduced  on  the  Roman  stage,  22  B.c.  Usher.
Dancing  by  cinque  paces  was  introduced  into  Eng-
land from  Italy,  a.d.  1541.  In  modern  times  the-
French  introduc'ed  ballets  analogues  in  their  musical
dramas.  The  country  dance  (contrc-clanse)  is  of
French  origin,  but  its  date  is  not  precisely  known.
Spelman.  See  Morice  Dance,  Quadrille,  anc£
Waltz.

Establishment  of  a  national  training  school  for
dancing,  by  Mr.  Mapleson  ;  second  annual  dis-
tribution of  prizes,  &c. . . . 21  Sept.  187S

DANE-GELD,  or  DANEGELT,  a  tribute  paid
to  the  Danes  to  stop  their  ravages  in  England  ;
first  raised  by  Ethelred  II.  in  991,  and  again  in
1003  ;  and  levied  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Danes
to  pay  fleets  for  clearing  the  seas  of  them.  The
tax  was  suppressed  by  Edward  tin-  Confessor  in
1051  ;  revived  by  William  I.  1068;  and  formed
part  of  the  revenue  of  the  crown,  until  abolished
by  Stephen,  1136.  Every  hide  of  land,  i.e.  as  much
as  one  plough  could  plough,  or  as  licde  says,


DANES.


272 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES.


much  as  could  maintain  a  family,  was  taxed  at  first
is.,  afterwards  as  much  as  7*.  Camden  says  that
•once  24,360/.  was  raised.

DANES,  or  NORTHMEN  ;  see  Denmark.
During  their  attacks  upon  Britain  and  Ireland
they  made  a  descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,
under  Hollo,  they  received  presents  under  the  walls
of  Paris.  They  returned  and  ravaged  the  French
territories  as  far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked
Italy  in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the  king  of
France  to  Hollo  and  his  Normans  (North-men),
hence  Normandy,  in  911.  The  invasions  of  Eng-
land and  Ireland  were  as  follows: —
First  hostile  appearance  of  the  Danes . . . 783

They  land  near  Purbeck,  Dorset 787

Descend  in  Northumberland  :  destroy  the  church
at  Lindisfarne  ;  are  repelled,  and  perish  by  ship-
wreck 8  Jan. 794

They  invade  Scotland  and  Ireland . .  795,  796

They  enter  Dublin  with  a  fleet  of  60  sail,  and  pos-
sess themselves  of  Dublin,  Fingal,  &c.  . . 798

They  take  the  Isle  of  Sheppey 832

Defeated  at  Hengeston,  in  Cornwall,  by  Egbert . 835
They  land  in  Kent  from  350  vessels,  and  take  Can-
terbury and  London 851

They  descend  on  the  north,  and  take  York  .  .  867
They  defeat  the  Saxons  at  Merton  .  .  .  .  871
They  take  Wareham  and  Exeter  ....  876
They  take  Chippenham  :  but  120  of  their  ships  are

wrecked 877

Defeated  :  Guthrum,  their  leader,  becomes  Chris-
tian, and  many  settle  in  England  .... 878
Alfred  enters  into  a  treaty  with  them  . . . . 882
Their  fleet  destroyed  by  Alfred  at  Appledore . . 894

Defeated  near  Isle  of  Wight 897

They  invade  and  waste  Wales 900

Defeated  by  Edward  the  Elder 922

They  defeat  the  people  of  Leinster  ....  956
Ravage  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  Dorset  . . . . 985

And  ravage  Essex  and  Suffolk 990

Said  to  assume  the  title  lord  dane  about . . . 991
Their  fleet  defeated  after  a  breach  of  treaty,  pur-
chased by  money 992

Anlaf  and  Sweyn  ravage  Kent  and  the  south  (erro-
neously said  to  have  been  paid  i6,oooZ.  for  peace) 994
A  general  massacre  of the Danes, by  order of

Ethelred  II.  13  Nov. 1002

Sweyn revenges  it, and  receives  36,000^. (as  an

annual  tribute)  to  depart 1003

Their  fleet  anchors  at  Isle  of  Wight  ....  1006
They  make  fresh  inroads,  and  defeat  the  Saxons  in
Suffolk,  1010  ;  sack  Canterbury,  and  kill  the  in-
habitants, ion  ;  receive  48,000^.  as  tribute,  and

murder  Alphege,  archbishop 1012

Vanquished  at  Clontarf,  Ireland  (see  Clontarf)  .  1014
Conquest  of  England  completed  ;  Canute  king . . 1017

They  settle  in  Scotland 1020

They  land  again  at  Sandwich,  carrying  off  much
plunder  to  Flanders  ....... 1047

Defeated  by  Harold  II.  at  Stamford-bridge,  25  Sept. 1066
They  burn  York,  and  kill  3000  Normans  . . . 1069
Once  more  invade England  to  aid  a  conspiracy  ;
but  compelled  to  depart 1074

DANGEROUS  ASSOCIATIONS  (IRE-
LAND) BILL  ;  see  Roman  Catholic  Association.

DANGEROUS  GOODS  :  act  regulating
their  deposit  and  carriage  passed  6  Aug.  1866.

DANGEROUS  PERFORMANCES,  see
Children.

D ANNE WERKE,  or  Dannawirke,  a  series
-of  earthworks,  considered  almost  impregnable,
stretching  across  the  long  narrow  peninsula  of
Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Jutland — said  to  have
been  constructed  during  the  "  stone  age,"  long-before
the  art  of  metal-working.  It  was  rebuilt  in  937
by  Thyra,  queen  of  Gormo  the  Old,  for  which  she
was  named  "Dannabod,"  the  pride  of  the  Danes.
It  was  repaired  by  Olaf  Tryggveson  between  995
and  1000. Near  here  the  Prussians,  helping  the


duchies,  defeated  the  Danes,  23  April,  1848.  The
retreat  of  the  Danes  from  it,  5  Feb.  1864,  occa-
sioned much  dissatisfaction  at  Copenhagen.

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was

first  printed  in  1472.  He  was  born  14  May,  1265,
died  at  Ravenna,  14  Sept,  1321.  A  festival  in  his
honour,  at  Florence,  was  opened  by  the  king,  14
May,  1865,  when  a  large  statue  of  Dante  by  Pazzi
of  Ravenna  was  uncovered.

DANTZIC  (N.  German}'),  a  commercial  city  in
997 ;  according  to  some  authorities,  built  by
Waldemar  I.  in  1165.  Poland  obtained  the
sovereignty  of  it  in  1454.  It  was  seized  by  the
king  of  Prussia,  and  annexed  in  1793.  It  sur-
rendered to  the  French,  May,  1807  ;  and  by  the
treaty  of  Tilsitwas  restored  to  independence,  under
the  protection  of  Prussia  and  Saxony,  July,  1807.
Dantzic  was  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1812  ;  and
surrendered  1  Jan.  1814.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  it
reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  By  the  Vistula
breaking  through  its  dykes,  10,000  head  of  cattle
and  4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  many  lives
lost,  9  April,  1829. Population,  1890,  120,459.

DANUBE  (German,  Donau;  anciently  Ister
and  Danuvius),  the  largest  river  in  Europe,  except
the  Wolga,  rises  in  the  Black  Forest  and  falls  into
the  Black  Sea.  Trajan's  bridge  at  Gladova  was
destroyed  by  Adrian,  to  prevent  the  barbarians
entering  Dacia.  Steam  navigation  was  projected
on  this  river  by  count  Szechenyi,  in  1830,  and  in
that  year  the  first  steam-boat  was  launched  at
Vienna,  and  the  Austrian  company  was  formed
shortly  after.  The  Bavarian  company  was  formed
1836.  A  canal  between  the  Danube  and  the
Maine  was  completed  by  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria.
Charlemagne,  in  the  8th  century,  contemplated
uniting  the  Danube  and  Rhine  by  a  canal.  At  the
peace  of  30  March,  1856,  the  free  navigation  of  the
Danube  was  secured,  and  an  independent  European
commission  appointed  to  make  it  navigable  from
Isaktclii  to  the  sea,  which  has  worked  with  good
effect.  The  British  government,  in  1868,  lent
135,000/.  to  complete  the  works.  The  treaty  re-
specting the  navigation  of  the  Danube  renewed  for
twelve  years,  13  March,  1871.  The  river  suddenly
took  possession  of  a  new  bed  near  Vienna,  17  April,
which  was  formally  opened  30  -May,  1875.
In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  the  Russians  crossed  the
Danube  and  entered  Bulgaria. (See  Russo-Turkish

War,  II.) June,  1877

The  navigation  of  the  Danube  was  regulated  by

Articles  50—54  of  Berlin  treaty . . 13  July,  1878
A  conference  of  the  powers  respecting  the  Danube
held  in  London,  8  Feb.  et  seq. ;  treaty  signed  re-
storing rights to Russia, 10 March : ratified

15  Aug.  1883
Huge  rocks  in  that  portion  of  the  Lower  Danube
called  the  "  Iron  Gates  "  blown  up  ;  M.  Baross,
the  Hungarian  minister  of  communications,  set
fire  to  the  first  mine,  5  Sept.,  1889  ;  the  explosion
of  the  rocks  recommenced  .  .  15  Sept.  1890
Foundation  of  a  great  bridge  at  Tchernavoda ;
laid  by  Charles,  king  of  Roumania,  21  Oct.  1890.;
work  going  on 1S92

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES;

WALLACHIA  and  MOLDAVIA  (capitals,  Bucha-
rest and  Jassy)  were  united  and  named  ROUMANIA,
1859. Population  of  the  two,  i860,  3,864,848; 1866,
4,424,961 ;  1887,  5,500,000.  These  provinces  formed
part  of  the  ancient  Dacia  {which  see).
Part f  Moldavia  ceded  to  Russia . . . .  1812
The  provinces  having  participated  in  the  Greek  in-
surrection in  1821,  were  severely  treated  by  the
Turks  ;  but  by  the  treaty of  Adrianople  were
placed  under  the  protection  of  Russia  . . . 1829


DARDANELLES.


273


DAUPHINE.


The  Porte  appointed  as  hospodars  prince  Stirbey
for  Wallachia, and  prince  Ghika  for  Moldavia,

June,  1849

They  retire  from  their  governments  when  the  Rus-
sians enter  Moldavia. See  Iiusso-Turkish  War.

2  July,  1853

The  Russians  quit  the  provinces  and  the  Austriaus
enter,  Sept.  1854;  retire . . . March,  1857

The  government  of  the  principalities  finally  settled
at  the  Paris  conference  :  (there  were  to  be  two
hospodars,  elected  by  elective  assemblages,  and
the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  was  to  be  preserved),

19  Aug. 1S58

Alexander  Coma  elected  hospodar  of  Moldavia,
17  Jan. ;  of  Wallachia .... 5  Feb. 1859

The  election  acknowledged  by  the  allies 6  Sept. ,,

The  definitive  union  of  the  provinces  (under  the
name  of  Roumania)  proclaimed  and  acknowledged
by  the  Porte Dec. 1861

[For  continuation,  see  Rournania.]

DARDANELLES.  Two  castles  (Sestos,  in
Roumania,  and  Abydos,  in  Auatolia),  built  by  the
sultan  Mahomet  IV.  in  1659,  commanding  the
entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli,  named  Dar-
danelles from  the  contiguous  town  Dardanus. — The
passage  of  the  strait  was  achieved  by  the  British
squadron  under  sir  John  Duckworth,  19  Feb.  1807  ;
but  he  repassed  them  with  great  loss,  3  March,  the
castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  stone-
shot  upon  the  British  ships.  The  allied  English
and  French  fleets  passed  the  Dardanelles  at  the
sultan's  request,  Oct.  1853 ;  see  Hellespont  and
Xerxes.

DARIC,  a.  Persian  gold  coin,  issued  by  Darius,
hence  its  name,  about  538  B.C.  About  556  cents.
Knowles.  It  weighed  two  grains  more  than  the
English  guinea. Dr.  Bernard.

DARIEN,  ISTHMUS  OF,  central  America,  dis-
covered by  Columbus,  1494.  In  1694,  William
Paterson,  founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  pub-
lished his  plan  for  colonising  Darien.  A  company
was  formed  in  1695,  alM  in  1698-9,  three  expedi-
tions sailed  thither  from  Scotland,  where  400,000^.
had  been  raised.  The  first  consisted  of  1200  young
men  of  all  classes,  besides  women  and  children.
The  enterprise  not  having  been  recognised  by  the
English  government,  the  settlements  were  threat-
ened by  the  Spaniards,  to  whom  they  were  finally
surrendered,  30  March,  1700.  Paterson  and  a  few
survivors  from  famine  and  disease,  had  set  off
shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the  second  expedition.
Several  years  after,  398,085^.  were  voted  by  parlia-
ment to  the  survivors  as  "Equivalent  money."
i8,OOOi?.  were  also  voted  to  Paterson ;  but  the  bill
was  rejected  in  the  house  of  Lords.  See  Panama.
The  average  breadth,  40  miles;  least  breadth,  30
miles .

DARJEELING-,  a  British  district  in  the  Him-
alayas, ceded  about  1824.  The  capital  Darjeeling,
is  used  as  a  sani'arium.  The  cultivation  of  tea  is
flourishing,  and  the  population  rapidly  increasing
(1889.)

DARK  AGES,  a  term  applied  to  the  Middle
Ages;  according  to  Hallain,  comprising  about  1000
years — from  the  invasion  of  France  by  Clovis,  486,
to  that  of  Naples  by  Charles  VIII. ,  1495.  During
this  time  learning  was  at  a  low  ebb.  Hallam's
"View  of  the  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle
Ages,"  published  1818.  Supplemental  Notes,  1848.
Darkest  Africa,  see  Soudan,  1887 — 90.  "  Darkest
England,"  see  Salvation  Army,  1890.

DARLINGTON,  see  under  Railways,  1825
and  1875.


DARMSTADT,  capital  of  Hesse  Darmsdadt,
made  a  city  1330,  became  the  residence  of  the
landgraves,  1567.  The  grand  ducal  palace  was
built  1568  et  seq. Population,  1890,  56,503.

DARTFORD  (Kent).  Here  commenced  the
insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler,  1381.  A  convent  of
nuns,  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin,  endowed  here
by  Edward  III.  1355,  was  converted  by  Henry  VIII.
into  a  royal  palace.  The  first  paper-mill  in  Eng-
land was  erected  at  Dartford  by  sir  John  Spielman,
a  German,  in  1590  (Stow),  and  ahout  the  same
period  was  erected  here  the  first  mill  for  splitting
iron  bars.  The  powder-mills  here  were  blown  up
four  times  between  1730  and  1738.  Various  ex-
plosions have  since  occurred,  in  some  cases  with
loss  of  life  to  many  persons :  12  Oct.  1790;  1  Jan.
1795;  and  others  recently.  Population,  1881,
10,163  ; I°9i,  11,962.

DARTMOOR,  South  Devm,  a  tract  of  land,
20  miles  long,  9  to  12  miles  broad,  subject  to  the
duchy  of  Cornwall.  The  Dartmoor  Preservation
Association  hold  their  annual  meeting  at  Plymouth,
26  Oct.  1885.  Dartmoor  Prison,  founded  Mar.  1806.
Seven  prisoners  of  war  were  shot  6  April,  1815,
after  an  insurrection.  The  autumn  military  ma-
noeuvres at  Dartmoor,  Aug.  1873,  were  unsuccessful
through  bad  weather.
A  mutiny  here  was  checked  with  loss  of  life  of  one

prisoner 12  Nov.  1880

DARTMOUTH  (Devon).  Burnt  by  the
French  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.  and  Henry  IV.
In  a  third  attempt  (1404),  the  invaders  were  de-
feated by  the  inhabitants,  assisted  by  the  valour  of
the  women.  The  French  commander,  Du  Chastel,
three  lords,  and  thirty-two  knights,  were  made
prisoners.  In  the  war  of  the  parliament,  Dart-
mouth was  taken  after  a  siege  of  four  weeks,  by
prince  Maurice,  who  garrisoned  the  place  for  the
king  (1643) ;  but  it  was  retaken  by  general  Fairfax
by  storm  in  1646.  Population,  1881,5,725;  1891,
6,038.

DARWINISM,  see  Devdopment  and  Species.

DATES  were  affixed  to  grants  and  assignments
18  Edw.  I.  1290.  Before  this  time  it  was  usual  at
least  to  pass  lands  without  dating  the  deed  of  con-
veyance. Lewis.  Numerous  instruments  of  assign-
ment enrolled  among  our  early  records  establish
this  fact.  The  date  is  determined  by  the  names  of
the  parties,  particularly  that  of  the  grantor :  the
posse-sion  of  land  was  proof  of  the  title  to  it.
Hardie.  A  useful  glossary  of  the  dates  given  in  old
charters  and  chronicles  will  be  found  in  Nicolas's
"  Chronology  of  History."  J.  J.  Bond's  "  Handy-
Book  for  Verifying  Dates,"  published  1866.

DAUPHINE,*  S.E.  France,  successively  held
by  the  Allobroges,  Bmgundinns,  and  Lombards ,
was,  about  732-4,  delivered  from  the  invading
Saracens  by  Charles  Martel.  After  forming  part  of
the  kingdom  of  Aries,  it  was  much  subdivided
among  counts.  One  of  these,  Humbert  II.,  ceded
Dauphine  and  the  Viennois  to  Philip  VI.,  in  1343,
for  his  eldest  son,  on  the  condition  that  the  prince
should  be  styled  dauphin,  which  took  effect  in
1349,  when  Humbert  became  a  monk.  Louis
Antoine,  duke  of  Angouleme,  son  of  Charles  X.,
the  last  dauphin  who  assumed  the  title  at  his
father's  accession,  16  Sept.  1824,  died  3  June,
1844.


*  One  of  the  counts  of  Viennc  placed  a  dolphin
(dauphin)  in  his  coat-of-arms,  and  assumed  the  title  of
dauphin.


DAVENTEY.


274


DEAF AND DUMB.


DAVENTEY,  Northamptonshire.  Near  here
Lambert,  having  escaped  from  the  Tower,  was  de-
feated and  retaken,  in  his  attempt  to  enkindle  the
.war,  by  Monk,  21  April,  1660.  The  dissenting
academy  removed  here  from  Northampton  in  1752,
was  transferred  to  Wymondley  in  1789,  thence  to
London  as  Coward  College,  and  finally  united  with
Homerton  and  Highbury  Colleges  as  New  College,
in  1850.

DAVENPOET,  see  Plymouth.

DAVID'S,  St.  (S.  W.  Wales),  the  ancient
Menapia,  now  a  poor  decayed  place,  but  once  the
metropolitan  see  of  "Wales,  and  archiepiscopal.
When  Christianity  was  planted  in  Britain,  three
archbishops'  seats  were  appointed,  viz.  London,
York,  and  Caerleon  upon  Usk,  in  Monmouthshire.
That  at  Caerleon  being  too  near  the  dominions  of
the  Saxons,  was  removed  to  Mynyw,  and  called
St.  David's,  in  honour  of  the  archbishop  who  re-
moved it,  522.  St.  Sampson  was  the  last  arch-
bishop of  the  Welsh ;  for  he,  withdrawing  himself
on  account  of  a  pestilence  to  Dole,  in  Brittany,
carried  the  pall  with  him.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  I.
the  archbishops  submitted  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.
Beat  son. Present  income  4500^.

BISHOPS.

1800.  Lord  George  Murray,  died  3  June,  1803.

1803.  Thomas  Burgess,  trans,  to  Salisbury,  June,  1825.

1825.  John  Banks  Jenkinson,  died  7  July,  1840.

1840. Connop Thirlwall ; resigned June, 1874 ; died

27  July,  1875.
1874.  Win.  Basil  Jones,  consecrated  24  Aug.

DAVID'S  DAY,  St.,  i  March,  is  annually
commemorated  by  the  Welsh,  in  honour  of  St.
David.  Tradition  states  that  on  St.  David's  birth-
day, 540,  a  great  victory  was  obtained  by  the
Welsh  over  their  Saxon  invaders ;  and  that  the
Welsh  soldiers  were  distinguished,  by  order  of  St.
David,  by  a  leek  in  their  caps.

DAVIS'S  STEAIT  (N.  America),  discovered
by  John  Davis,  n  Aug.  1585,  on  his  voyage  to  find
a  N.  W.  passage,  1585-87.  He  made  two  more
voyages  for  the  same  purpose,  and  five  voyages  to
the  East  Indies.  In  the  last  he  was  killed  by
Japanese  pirates,  on  the  coast  of  Malacca,  27  or  29
Dec.,  1605.

DAVY  LAMP,  &c,  see  Safety  Lamp.

The  Davy  Medal,  furnished  by  the  sale  of  Sir  Humphry
Davy's  plate,  was  first  awarded  by  the  Royal  Society
to  Professors  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff  in  1877  for  their
discovery  of  spectrum  analysis  (which  see).

DAVYUM,  a  new  metal,  discovered  by  Sergius
Kern,  28  June,  1877,  in  the  residuum  of  platinum
ore ;  said  to  be  hard,  infusible,  and  rather  ductile.
It  has  been  suspected  to  be  ruthenium.

DAY.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the
northern  nations,  at  sunset  among  the  Athenians
and  Jews ;  and  among  the  Romans  at  midnight  as
with  us.  The  Italians  in  some  places,  reckon  the
day  from  sunset  to  sunset,  making  their  clocks
strike  twenty-four  hours  round.  The  Chinese
divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.
The  astronomical  day  begins  at  noon,  is  divided
into  twenty-four  hours  (instead  of  two  parts  of
twelve hours). Thus the astronomical day

8  Dec.  begins  at  noon  of  8  Dec.  and  ends  at  noon

9  Dec.  At  Greenwich,  from  1  Jan.  1885,  the  day
of  24  hours  began  at  midnight ;  the  reckoning  was
recommended  for  railways,  &c.  A  system  of  uni-
versal time  for  all  countries  was  put  forth  by  Mr.
Sandford  Fleming,  of  Canada.  The  Washington
Prime  Meridian  Conference  adopted a resolution


declaring  the  universal  day  to  be  the  mean  solar
day,  beginning,  for  all  the  world,  at  the  moment  of
mean  midnight  of  the  initial  meridian,  coinciding
with  the  beginning  of  the  civil  day,  and  that
meridian  to  be  counted  from  zero  up  to  24  hours,
21  Oct.  1884.  The  scheme  for  universal  time  was
advocated  by  Mr.  W.  H.  M.  Christie,  the  Astro-
nomer Royal,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  19  March,
1886.

DEACONS  (literally  servants),  an  order  of
Christian  ministers,  began  with  the  Apostles,  about
53.  {Acts  vi.)  Their  qualifications  are  given  by
St.  Paul  (65),  1st  Timothy  iii.  8 — 14.  Mr.  John
Andrews,  master  of  Shrewsbury  High  School,  was
ordained  at  Lichfield  Cathedral  a  permanent  deacon
in  conformity  with  a  resolution  passed  in  the
Upper  House  of  Convocation,  Feb.  1884;  his  duties
are  to  assist  the  priest  in  the  communion  service,
&c,  18  Dec.  1887.

DEACONESSES,  or  ministering  widows,  have
their  qualifications  given  in  1  Tim.  v.  9,  10  (65).
Their  duties  were  to  visit  the  poor  and  sick,  assist
at  the  agapas  or  love  feasts,  admonish  the  young
women,  &c.  The  office  was  discontinued  in  the
Western  church  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  and
in  the  Greek  church  about  the  12th,  but  has  been
recently  revived  in  Germany.  The  appointment  of
deaconesses,  subject  to  the  parochial  clergy,  was
advocated  by  the  bishop  of  Ely  about  1853,  aud
some  were  appointed.  The  Diocesan  Deaconess
Institution,  London,  was  established  in  1861.

DEAD. Prayers  for  their  benefit  were pro-
bably offered  up  in  the  2nd  century,  being  referred
to  by  Tertullian,  who  died  220: The  practice  was
protested  against  by  Aerius,  and  defended  by  Epi-
phanius,  who  died  403. It  is  generally  objected  to
by  the  church  of  England,  but  is  not  expressly  for-
bidden ;  so  decided  by  sir  Herbert  Jenner  in  the
Court  of  Arches  (PhiUimore,  Peel.  Law,  1873-6).
Book  of  the  Dead,  a  collection  of  prayers  and  exorcisms
written  in  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  or  hieratic  charac-
ters, composed  for  the  benefit  of  the  pilgrim  soul  in
his  journey  through  Anient!  (the  Egyptian  Hades).
Portions  of  these  papyri  were  placed  with  the  mummy
in  his  tomb. They  are  said  to  form  fully  one  half  of
the  thousands  which  are  extant. The  "  Book  of  the
Dead  "  is  dated  from  the 4th  dynasty  3733-3566  B.C.
After  much  toil  a  pure  text  with  illustrations was
published  by  M.  Edouard  Naville,  1886. Translations
in  several  European  languages  have appeared. A
facsimile  of  the  Papyrus  of  Ani  in  the  British  Museum
was  printed  in  1890.

DEAD  WEIGHT  LOAN  acquired  its  name
from  its  locking  up  the  capital  of  the  Bank  of
England,  which  in  1823  advanced  11,000,000^.  to
the  government  (to  construct  new  ordnance,  &c).
The  latter  engaged  to  give  an  annuit}r  of  585,740^.
for  44  years,  which  ceased  in  June,  1867.

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic
attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  was  made
by  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,
on  Jerome  Cardan's  system,  about  1570.  See  PI  hid.
Bonet,  a  monk,  published  a  system  at  Madrid  .  .  1620
Dr. Wallis  published  a  work  in  England  on  the

subject 1650

The  first  regular  academy  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in

Britain  opened  in  Edinburgh 1773

In  modern  times  the  abbe  de  l'Epee  (1712-89),  and

his  friend  and  pupil  the  abbe  Sicardof  Paris  (1742 —

1822) ;  the  rev.  Mr.  Townsend  and  Mr.  Baker,  of

London ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood  of  Edinburgh  ;

and  surgeon  Orpen  of  Dublin,  have  laboured  with

much  success  in  promoting  the  instruction  of  the

deaf  and  dumb.
The  asylum  for  deaf  and  dumb  children,  opened  in

London  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Townsend


DEAL.


DEBTORS.


rHis

1816


1870


1S72


in  1792;  one  in  Edinburgh  by  Mr.  T.  Braidwood,
in  18 10  ;  and  one  in  Birmingham  by  Mr.  T.  Braid-
wood

The  asylum  at  Claremont,  Dublin,  opened  . . .

A  deaf  and  dumb  debating  club  (Walfis  club)  closed
its  third  session April,

The  foundation  sfone  of  St.  Saviour's  church,  near
Oxford  street,  London,  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  laid
by  the  prince  of  Wales  . . . 5  July,

In  1851,  there  were  in  Great  Britain,  12,553  deaf  and
dumb  out  of  a  population  of  20,959,477.

Oral  Teaching. — Mr.  Wm.  Van  Praagh  introduced
the  so-called  German  system  into  this  country  in
Jul}7,  1867;  published  his  "Plan  for  the  Estab-
lishment of  Day  Schools  [in  preference  to  board-
ing-houses] for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb"  (in  which
they  are  to  be  taught  by  speech  and  lip  teaching
only;  the  finger  alphabet  and  artificial  signs
being  rigidly  excluded),  in  1871.  By  the  help  of
the  baroness  Meyer  de  Rothschild  and  others,  the
"  Association  for  the  Oral  Instruction  of  the  Deaf
and  Dumb"  was  founded  in  1871,  and  a  day-
school  opened  at  12,  Fitzroy-square . 16  July,

The  Royal  Association  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,
London,  founded. fn  1840,  and  re-organised  1854.
It  provides  instruction  and  entertainment  under
clerical  direction.

International  congress  at  Milan  ;  great  majority  in
favour  of  oral  teaching  of  deaf-mutes . Sept.  1880

International  congress  at  Brussels. 13  Sept.  et  seg.  1883

DEAL,  a  cinque  port  with  Sandwich,  1229  ;  a
fishing  village  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ;  its
strong  castle  built  1539  by  Henry  VIII.  Deal  was
incorporated  and  made  independent  of  Sandwich,
1699. Population,  188 1,  8,500  ; 1891,8,898.

DEAN,  FOREST  OF,  Gloucestershire,  an-
ciently wooded  quite  through,  and  in  the  last
century,  though  much  curtailed,  was  twenty  miles
in  length  and  ten  in  breadth.  It  was  famous  for  its
caks,  the  material  of  our  ships  of  war.  lliots  in
this  district,  when  more  than  3000  persons  as-
sembled in  the  forest,  and  demolished  upwards  of
fifty  miles  of  wall  and  fence,  throwing  open  10,000
acres  of  plantation,  took  place  on  8  June,  183 1.
The  Dean  forest  (mines)  act  passed  16  Aug.  1871.

DEAN  (decanus),  a  name  commonly  given  to
the  arch-presbyter,  or  eldest  presbyter,  in  the  I2th
century;  originally  a  military  title,  an  officer  over
ten  soldiers.  In  the  church  of  England  the  dean
and  chapter  of  a  cathedral  nominally  elect  the
bishop  and  form  his  council.  By  13  &  14  Car.  II.
(1662),  a  dean  must  be  in  priest's  orders;  pre-
viously the  office  had  occasionally  been  held  by  a
layman,  with  special  dispensation.  The  ancient
office  of  "  rural  dean  "  has  been  much  revived  since
1850.  The  Deans'  and  Canons'  resignation  act
passed  13  May,  1872.  The  Five  Deans'  memorial,
and  counter  memorial,  see  Church  of  England,  1881.
See  Arches.

DEATH,  ordained  as  the  punishment  for  mur-
der, 2348  B.C.  (Gen.  ix.  6.)

The  Jews  generally  stoned  their  criminals  (Lev.
xx.  2) B.C.  1490

Draco's  code  punished  every  offence  with  death . 621

It  was  limited  to  murder  by  Solon .... 594

Mithridates,  a  Persian  soldier,  who  boasted  that  he
had  killed  Gyrus  the  Younger,  at  the  battle  of
Cunaxa,  was  by  order  of  Artaxerxes  exposed  to
the  sun  for  eighteen  days ....  . 401

Maurice,  the  son  of  a  nobleman,  was  hanged,  drawn,
and  quartered  for  piracy,  the  first  execution  in
that  maimer  in  England,  25  Hen.  III.  . a.d. 1241

The  punishment  of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great
number  of  eases  by  sir  Robert  Peel's  acts,  4  to  10
Geo.  IV 1824-g

By  the  criminal  law  consolidation  acts,  death  was
confined  to  treason  and  wilful  murder  .  1861

The  commission  on  capital  punishment  (appointed
1864)  issued  their report (recommending that


penal  servitude  be  substituted  for  death  in  some
cases where  murder  was unpremeditated, and  .
that  executions  should  not  be  public) . Dee.  1865

Capital  punishment  restricted  in  Italy . April, ,,

Its  proposed  abolition  in  Belgium  was  negatived,

18  Jan. 1867

"Capital  Punishment  within  Prisons  Bill"  passed
May,  1868.  First  case,  13  Aug.  1868  :  see  Execu-
tions:

Abolition  of  the  punishment  of  death  in  Great
Britain  proposed  by  Mr.  Gilpin  in  the  commons  ;
negatived  (127  to  23),  21  April,  1868  ;  negatived
(118  to  58),  29  July,  1869  ;  negatived  (167-54),  24
July,  1872;  (155-5°).  I2  June,  1S77  ;  (263-64),  13
March,  1878  ;  proposed  by  Mr.  (aft.  sir  j.)  Pease,
negatived  (175-79),  22  June,  1881;  again  10  May,
1S82;  again  (117-62) .... 11  May,  1886

Capital  punishment  abolished  in  Russia  by  Cathe-
rine II.,  except  for  treason 1767

Capital  punishment  abolished  in  Tuscany,  1859,
Romnania,  1864;  Portugal,  1867;  Saxony,  i  April,
1868  ;  Holland,  1870.  In  17  out  of  21  cantons  of
Switzerland,  1874  ;  Italy,  1888  ;  New  York  . .  1890

Practically  ceased  in  Belgium,  Prussia,  Bavaria,
Denmark,  and  Sweden,  though  not  abolished.

In  France  126  convictions  for  murder — 4  executed,
in  one  year  ;  similar  proportion  in  Italy.

Abolished  in  some  of  United  States.  Maine,  1876  ;
Rhode  Island,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  since ;
in  others,  virtually  ceased.

Capital  punishment  by  electricity  ordered  to  be
adopted  by  the  State  of  New  York  from .  1  Jan. 1889

The  execution  of  William  Kemmler  by  electricity
was  ordered,  but  deferred,  on  appeal" . 11  Oct. ,,

Execution  by  electricity  declared  constitutional  by
the  court  of  appeals . . . 22  March,  1890

Execution  stopped  by  habeas  corpus . 29  April ,,

Effected  with  some  difficulty . . .6  Aug. ,,

Four  men  executed  by  electricity  at  Sing-Sing,  N.  Y.

7  July,  1891

Others  since.

Modes  of  execution  (1889)  : — Austria,  gallows,  public  ;
Bavaria,  guillotine,  private  ;  Belgium,  guillotine,
public  ;  Brunswick,  axe,  private  ;  China,  sword  or
cord,  public  ;  Denmark,  guillotine,  public  ;  Ecuador,
musket,  public  ;  France,  guillotine,  public ;  Great
Britain,  gallows,  private  ;  Hanover,  guillotine,  pri-
vate ;  Italy,  capital  punishment  abolished  ;  Nether-
lands, gallows,  public  ;  Oldenburg,  musket,  public  ;
Portugal,  gallows,  public  ;  Prussia,  sword,  private  ;

-  Russia,  musket,  gallows,  or  sword,  public ;  Saxony,
guillotine,  private  ;  Spain,  garotte,  public  ;  Switzer-
land, fifteen  cantons,  sword,  public ;  two  cantons,
guillotine,  public  ;  two  cantons,  guillotine,  private  ;
United  States  (other  than  New  York),  gallows,  mostly
private.

See  Beheading,  Ravaillac,  Damiens.  Boiling,  Burn-
ing, Hanging,  Forgery,  and  Campbell's  Acts.

DEATHS,  Registers  of,  see  Bills  of  Mor-
tality, Public  Health,  and  Registers.

DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. See

Reporting.

DEBATING  SOCIETIES ;  several  formed
in  the  last  century.  The  celebrated  Oxford  Union
Society  was  founded  in  1823,  and  many  orators
have  been  trained  by  it.

DEBTORS  have  been  subjected  to  imprison-
ment in  almost  all  countries  and  times.  In  the
eighteen  months  subsequent  to  the  panic  of  Dec.
1825,  as  many  as  101,000  writs  for  debt  were  issued
in  England.  In  the  year  ending  5  Jan.  1830,  there
were  71 14  persons  sent  to  the  several  prisons  of
London ;  and  on  that  day,  1547  of  the  number
were  yet  confined.  On  the  1st  of  Jan.  1840,  the
number  of  prisoners  for  debt  in  England  and  Wales
was  1732  ;  in  Ireland  the  number  was  under  1000  ;
and  in  Scotland  under  100.  The  operation  of
statutes  of  relief,  and  othei  causes,  considerably
reduced  the  number  of  imprisoned  debtors.  VVheii
the  new  Bankruptcy  act  (abolishing  imprisonment
for  debt  except  when  fraudulently  contracted)
came  into operation  in Nov. 1861,  a  number  of

t  2


DEBTTSSCOPE.


276


DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS.


debtors  who  had  been  confined  were  released.
Arrest  of  Absconding  Debtors  bill,  14  &  15  Vict.
c.  52,  1852.  In  1863  nearly  18,000  persons  were
imprisoned  by  order  of  the  county  courts  :  average
time,  15  days,  amount  of  debt,  3Z.  10*.  By  an  act
passed  9  Aug.  1869,  the  imprisonment  of  fraudulent
debtors  was  abolished,  with  certain  exceptions,  and
nearly  a  hundred  debtors  were  released  by  a  judge's
order  in  Jan.  1870.  An  act  to  facilitate  the  arrest
of  absconding  debtors,  passed  9  Aug.  1870.  Im-
prisonment for  debt  in  Ireland  was  abolished  by  an
act  passed  6  Aug.  1872,  and  in  Scotland  (after  31
Dec.)  by  Dr.  Cameron's  Act,  passed  7  Sept.  1880.
See  Arrest,  King's  Bench,  Bankrupts,  Insolvents,
and  National  Debt.

7978  persons  were  committed  to  gaol  by  the  county
courts  in  1871  ;  4438  in  1874.  Imprisonment  for  debt
was  virtually  abolished  by  the  Bankruptcy  Act  of  1883,
which  relieved  small  debtors.

DEBTTSSCOPE,  an  instrument  of  French
origin,  somewhat  similar  to  the  kaleidoscope,  said
to  be  useful  for  devising  patterns  for  calico-printers,
&c,  made  its  appearance  in  i860.

DECAMERONE  (10  days),  see  Boccaccio.

DECAPITATION,  see  Beheading.

DECCAN  (Dekhan  or  Dakhan),  S.  India,  was
invaded  by  the  Mahometans  in  1294.  The  first
independent  sultan  was  Alaudin.  The  natives  re-
volted, and  the  dynasty  of  Bahmani  was  founded
by  Hasan  Ganga  in  1347.  About  1686-90,  Aurung-
zebe  I.  recovered  the  Deccan,  but  soon  lost  great
part  of  it  to  the  Mahrattas.  The  Nizam  al  Mulk,
his  viceroy,  became  independent  in  171 7.  A  large
part  of  the  Deccan  was  ceded  to  the  English  in
1818.

DECEMBER  (from  decern,  ten),  the  tenth
month  of  the  year  of  Romulus,  commencing  in
March.  In  713  B.C.  Numa  introduced  January
and  February  before  March,  and  thenceforward
December  became  the  twelfth  of  the  year.  In  the
reign  of  Commodus,  a.d.  181 — 192,  December  wag
called,  by  way  of  flattery,  Amazonius,  in  honour
of  a  courtesan  whom  that  prince  had  loved,  and  had
had  painted  like  an  Amazon.  The  English  com-
menced their  year  on  the  25th  December,  until  the
reign  of  William  I. ;  see  Year.  For  2  Dec.  revolu-
tion see  France,  185 1.

DECEMVIRI,  or  Ten  Men,  appointed  to
draw  up  a  code  of  laws,  to  whom  for  a  year  the
whole  government  of  Rome  was  committed,  451  B.C.
The  laws  they  drew  up  were  approved  by_  the
senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  people,  written
on  ten  metallic  tables,  and  set  up  in  the  place  where
the  people  met  {comitium).  Two  more  tables  were
added  by  a  second  decemvirate,  450  B.C.  The
tyrannical  conduct  of  Appius  Claudius,  one  of  the
Decemviri,  towards  Virginia,  who  wa<  stabbed  by
her  father  Virginius  to  save  her  from  slavery,  led
to  a  revolution,  and  the  re-eslablishment  of  the
consular  government,  449  B.C.

DECENNALIA,  festivals  instituted  by  Au-
gustus, 17  B.C.,  celebrated  by  the  Roman. emperors
every  tenth  year  of  their  reign,  with  sacrifices,
games,  and  largesses.  Livij.  Celebrated  by  An-
toninus Pius,  a.d.  148.

DECIMAL SYSTEM  or  Coinage,

WEIGHTS,  &<•■,  see  ALetric  System.

DECIPIUM,  a  new  metal  found  by  M.  Dela-
fontaine  in  the  same  earth  with  Philippium  {which
see);  announced  Nov.,  1878.


DECLARATION,  see  Independence  and
Bights.

DECORATED  STYLE,  see  Gothic.

DECORATIVE  ART.  Its  principles,  enun-
ciated by  A.  W.  Pugin,  in  his  "  Designs,"  in  1835,
have  been  advanced  by  Owen  Jones,  Redgrave,  and
others.  Owen  Jones's  elaborate  "Grammar  of
Ornament,"  was  published  in  1856.  A  Decorative
Art  society,  founded  in  1844,  existed  for  a  short
time  only.

DE  COURCY'S  PRIVILEGE,  that  of
standing  covered  before  the  king,  granted  by  king
John  to  John  de  Courcy,  baron  of  Kingsale,  and
his  successors,  in  1203.  He  was  the  first  Irish
nobleman  created  by  an  English  sovereign,  27
Hen.  II.  1 181,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  govern-
ment of  Ireland,  1185.  The  privilege  was  allowed
to  the  baron  of  Kingsale  by  Will.  III.,  Geo.  III.,
and  by  Geo.  IV.  at  his  court  held  in  Dublin,  in
Aug.  1821.  The  31st  baron,  John  Fitz-Roy  de
Cnurcy,  who  succeeded  1874,  died,  aged  69,  20  Nov.
1890.  The  present  baron  is  the  32nd  in  suc-
cession.

DECRETALS.  They  formed  the  second  part
of  the  canon  law,  or  collection  of  the  pope's  edicts
and  decrees  and  the  decrees  of  councils.  The  first
acknowledged  to  be  genuine  is  a  letter  of  Siricius
to  Himerus,  a  bishop  of  Spain,  written  in  the  firsfc
year  of  his  pontificate,  385.  Howel.  Certain  false
decretals  were  used  by  Gregory  Iv.  in  837.  The  de-
cretals of  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  (a  collection  of
canons),  were  compiled  in  1150.  Henault.  Five
books  were  collected  by  Gregory  IX.  1227  ;  a  sixth
by  Boniface  VIII.  1297  ;  the  Clementines  by  Cle-
ment V.  in  1313;  employed  by  John  XXII.  in  1317  ;
the  Extravagantes  range  from  1422  to  1483.

DEDICATION  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  took
place  1490  B.C. ;  of  the  temple,  1004  B.C.;  of  the
second  temple,  515  B.C.  The  Christians  under  Con-
stantine  built  new  churches  and  dedicated  them
with  great  solemnity,  in  a.d.  331,  et  seq.  The
dedication  of  books  (by  authors  to  solicit  patronage
or  testify  respect)  existed  in  the  time  of  Maecenas,
17  B.C.,  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  Augustus,  and
a  patron  of  Horace  {Ode  I.  1).

DEED,  a  written  contract  or  agreement.  The
formula,  "  I  deliver  this  as  my  act  and  deed/*
occurs  in  a  charter  of  933.  Fosbrooke.  Deeds  in
England  were  formerly  written  in  Latin  or  French ;
the  earliest  known  instance  in  English  is  the  in-
denture between  the  abbot  of  Whitby  and  Robert
Bustard,  dated  at  York  in  1343  ;  see  English  Lan-
guage.

.  DEEP-SEA  SOUNDINGS.  Much  new  and
interesting  information  respecting  the  animal  life
and  temperature  of  the  deep  sea  has  been  acquired
by  the  dredgings  on  the  coast  of  Norway  by  M.
Sars,  and  by  those  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  and
prof.  (aft.  sir)  Wyville  Thomson  on  our  own  coasts,
near  the  Faroe  isles,  in  1868  and  1869,  and  in  the
Mediterranean  by  Dr.  Carpenter  in  1870.  Living
animals  have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  three  miles.
On  21  Dec.  1872,  Dr.  Wyville  Thomson  and  a  party
of  scientific  men  sailed  in  H.M.S.  Challenger
(Capt.  G.  S.  Nares),  to  examine  into  the  physical
and  biological  condition  of  the  great  ocean  basins
and  the  direction  of  their  currents.  Deepest  sound-
ing then  known  was  taken  in  the  Atlantic,  north
of  St.  Thomas's,  3875  fathoms  (4  miles,  710  yards),
24  March,  1873.  On  10  Dec.  1874,  capt.  Thompson
succeeded  capt.  Nares,  who  took  the  command  of
the  new  Arctic expedition. The Challenger  re-


DEEE.


277


DELAWARE.


turned,  with  valuable  collections,  25  May,  1876,
lifter  a  voyage  of  above  80,000  miles.  The  "  Voyage  "
■was  published  by  sir  C.  Wyville  Thomson  in  Dec.
1877  ;  and  forty-eight  volumes  of  reports  had  been
published,  March,  1892.  A  Norwegian  expedition
explored  the  northern  seas  16  July — 18  Aug.  1877  ;
an  Italian  expedition  in  the  Mediterranean  started
2  Aug.  1881.

Jn  Sept.,  1889,  theSouth  Atlantic  Ocean,  midway  be-
tween the  island  of  Tristan  d  Ae.unha  and  the
mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  was  stated  to  be
40,236  feet,  or  8 \  miles.
The  deep  sea  explorations,  carried  on  in  the  eastern
Mediterranean  for  the  academy  of  Vienna,  re-
ported successful ;  the  greatest  depth,  i\  miles,
ds  between  Molla  and  Cerigo . . . March,  1891

DEER  are  mentioned  in  a  will  of  one  Athel-
6tau,  dated  1045.  Professor  Owen  thinks  that  fallow
deer  are  not  native,  but  were  introduced  here  at  an
warly  period.  There  are  now  in  England  334  deer
parks,  the  oldest  being  probably  lord  Abergavenny's
at  Eridge,  Sussex.  See  Evelyn  Shirley's  "  Account
of  Deer  Parks,"  July,  1867.  1658  deer  in  the
royal  parks,  1873.

DEERHOUND,  an  English  yacht,  while
conveying  arms  to  the  Carlists,  seized  by  the
Spanish  government  vessel  Buenaventura,  oft  tfiar-
ritz,  and  captain  and  crew  imprisoned,  13  Aug. ;
released  about  18  Sept.  1873.

DEFAMATION  is  punishable  by  fine  and
Imprisonment  \>y  statute  of  1S43.  The  jurisdiction
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  on  this  subject  was
abolished  by  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  41  (1855). See  Libel.

DEFENCE, see Church  Defence, National

Defence.

DEFENCE  ACT,  a  complete  conscription  act,
authorising  a  levy  en  masse,  1803,  was  unsuccessful;
new  measures  were  taken  in  1807-8.  The  Defence
of  the  Jieulm  Act  passed  28  Aug.  i860,  in  conse-
quence of  the  unsettled  state  of  Europe,  and  the
doubtful  policy  of  the  emperor  Napoleon ;  see  For-
tification and  Colonics.

"  DEFENCE  GOVERNMENT  "  in  France,
formed  011  4  Sept.  1870,  when  the  emperor  was
■deposed  and  a  republic  proclaimed,  gen.  Trochu
president ;  it  included  Gambetta,  Simon,  &c.  It
resigned,  after  Paris  had  capitulated,  5,  6  Feb.
1 87 1. See  France.

DEFENDER  of  the  Faith  {Fidel  De-

Jfensor),  a  title  of  the  British  sovereign,  conferred
.by  Leo.  X.  on  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  11  Oct.
S521,  for  the  tract  against  Luther  or.  behalf  of  the
•Church  of  Pome  (then  accounted  Domicilium  Jidei
Catholicce).

DEFENDERS,  a  faction  in  Ireland,  which
*irose  out  of  a  quarrel  between  two  residents  of
Market-hill,  4  July,  1784.  Each  was  soon  aided
hy  a  large  body  of  friends,  and  many  battles  ensued.
"On  Whit-Mondajr,  1785,  an  armed  assemblage  of
*one  of  the  parties  (700  men),  called  the  Nappagh
Fleet,  prepared  to  encounter  the  Baton  Fleet,  but
the  engagement  was  prevented.  They  subsequently
•became  religious  parties,  Catholic  and  Presbyterian,
distinguished  as  Defenders  and  Peep-o' '-day-boys :
the  latter  were  so  named  because  they  usually  visited
the  dwellings  of  the  Defenders  at  daybreak  in  search
•fif.arrus;  see  Diamond.

DEGREES-  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  deter-
mine the  length  of  a  geographical  degree  about  2C0
B.C.  See  Geodesy,  Latitude,  and  Longitude.  Col-
legiate degrees  are  coeval  with  universities.  Master*
and  doctors  existed,  826. See  Lambeth  Degrees.


Those  in  law  are  traced  up  to  1 149 ;  in  medicine,
to  1384;  in  music,  101463.  Middle  class  exam-
inations for  degrees  were  instituted  at  Oxford,  18
June,  1857 ;  at  Cambridge,  24  Nov.  1857 ;  and
girls  were  allowed  to  compete  for  degrees,  Oct.
1863.  Bill  to  enable  Scotch  universities  to  grant
degrees  to  women  rejected  by  the  Commons,  3
March,  1875. See  Women.

DEI GRATIA,  see  Grace  of  God.

DEIRA,  a  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom  of
Northumbria  ;  see  under  Britain.

DEISM,  Theism,  or  Monotheism  (Latin,

dens  ;  Greek,  theos,  God),  the  belief  in  one  God,  in
opposition  to  polytheism  and  to  the  doctrine  of  the
Trinity. About  the  middle  of  the 16th century
some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy  termed  them-
selves deists,  to  disguise  their  opposition  to  Chris-
tianity by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than  that
of  Atheism  {which  see). The  most  distinguished
deists  were  Herbert,  baron  of  Cherbury,  in  1624 ;
Hobbes,  Tindal,  Morgan,  lord  Bolingbroke,  Gibbon,
Hume,  Holcroft,  Paine,  and  Godwin.
A  high-caste  Brahmin,  Raminohun  Roy,  founded  a
Brahmin  monotheistic  church  in  1830,  termed  the
Brahmo  Somaj. He  died  at  Bristol  27  Nov.  1833.
His  reforming  work  was  revived in 1842 by
Debendra  Nath  Tangore. In  1858  Baboo  Keshub
(Jhunder  Sen  joined  the  society,  and  became  a
most energetic propagandist, advocating  also
social  reform  ;  being  much  opposed,  he  lormed
the  new  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India  in  . . . 1866
Keshub  Chunder  Sen  was  received  at  a public
meeting  in  London  as  a  reformer,  12  April,  and
subsequently preached in  a Unitarian chapel,

Finsbury,  London 1870

Schism  in  his  church  ;  new  church  formed  (Society

of  God) 1880

He  died  at  Calcutta 8  Jan.  1884

See  Unitarians  and  Voysey.

DEITIES,  see  Mythology.

DELAGOA  BAY,  S.  E.  Africa,  claimed  by
Great  Britain  and  Portugal.  Having  been  referred
to  arbitration,  the  southern  portion  was  awarded  to
Portugal  by  marshal  MacMahon,  Aug.  1875.

The  importance  of  the  port  was  greatly  increased
by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Transvaal  dis-
tricts. The  South  African  Republic  promoted
a  railway  to  be  constructed  by  German  and  Dutch
capitalists.  The  acquisition  of  the  bay  by  Great
Britain  strongly  advocated . . . Dec.  1887

The  Portuguese  government  in  14  Dec.  1883,
granted  a  concession  toa  Portuguese  company  for
the  construction  of  a  railway  from  the  bay  to  the
Transvaal  territory.  The  prospectus  of  the  East
African  railway  company  (capital  500,000?.)  was
issued  7  March,  1887.  As  the  railway  was  not
completed  in  the  specified  time,  the  works  were
confiscated  by  the  Portuguese  government,  25
June,  et  seq.,  who  cancelled  the  concession  (see
Fortuqal) 26  June,  1889

The  British  and  United  States  governments  re-
monstrate with  Portugal. . . . April,  1890

The  completed  railway  inaugurated . 28  April ,,

The  Portuguese  government  accepts  the  principle
of  arbitration ;  the  governments  request  the
Swissgovernment  to  appoint  three  .jurists  to  form
a  court  of  arbitration . . reported  2  May „

The  Portuguese  government  pays  28,000?.  to  the
British  government  for  the  railway  company
provisionally reported  July ,,

The  court  of  arbitration  meets  at  Berne . 8  Aug. ,,

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  United  States  of
North  America,  named  after  lord  de  la  Warre,  go-
vernor of  Virginia,  who  entered  the  bay  1610.  It
was  settled  by  Swedes,  sent  there  by  Oustavus  in
1627;  acquired  by  the  Dutch,  1655  ;  ceded  to  the


DELEGATES.


278


DELTA.


English,  1664. Capital,  Dover. Population,  1880,
146,608 ; 1890,  168,493.

By  an  explosion  at  Messrs.  Dupont's  powder  mills
near  Wilmington  13  persons  were  killed 7  Oct.  1890

DELEGATES,  Court  of.  Appeals  to  the
pope  in  ecclesiastical  causes  having  been  forbidden
(see  Appeals),  such  causes  were  for  the  future  to  be
heard  in  this  court,  established  by  Henry  YIII.
1533.  Stow.  This  court  was  abolished  in  1832,
and  appeals  now  lie  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of
the  Privy  Council,  according  to  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.
41  (1833) ;  and  6  &  7  Vict.  c.  38  (1843).  See  Arches.

DELEGATIONS,  in  the  Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy,  established  in  1867,  composed  of  60
Austrian  and  60  Hungarian  members.

DELFT  (S.  Holland),  a  town  founded  by  God-
frey le  Bossu,  about  1074  >  famous  for  "  Delft
earthenware  ;"  first  manufactured  here  about  1310.
The  sale  of  delft  greatly  declined  after  the  introduc-
tion of  potteries  into  Germany  and  England.  Gro-
tius,  jurist,  was  bom  here,  16  April,  1583  ;  tercen-
tenary celebrated  10  April,  1883.  His  statue
erected,  17  Sept.  1886.  And  here  "William,  the
great  prince  of  Orange,  was  assassinated  by
Gerard,  10  July,  1584 ;  tercentenary  celebrated  10
July,  1884. Population,  1890,  29,022.

DELHI,  the  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul
empire,  and  chief  seat  of  the  Mahometan  power  in
India ;  it  was  taken  by  Timour  in  1398.  It  is  how
in  decay,  but  contained  a  million  of  inhabitants  in
1700.  In  1739,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded  Hiu-
dostan,  he  entered  Delhi ;  100,000  of  the  inhabitants
perished  by  the  sword,  and  plunder  to  the  amount  of
62,000,000/.  sterling  is  said  to  have  been  collected.
Similar  calamities  were  endured  in  1761,  on  the
invasion  of  Abdalla,  king  of  Candahar.  In  1803,
the  Mahrattas,  aided  by  the  French,  took  Delhi ;
but  were  defeated  by  general  Lake,  n  Sept.,  and
the  aged  Shah  Aulum,  emperor  of  Hindostan,  was
restored  to  his  throne  with  a  pension ;  see  India,
1803.  On  10  May,  1857,  a  mutiny  arose  in  the
sepoy  regiments  at  Meerut.  It  was  soon  checked;
hut  the  fugitives  fled  to  Delhi  on  11  May,  and,
combined  with  other  troops  here,  seized  the  city ;
proclaimed  a  descendant  of  the  Mogul  king,  and
committed  frightful  atrocities.  The  rebels  were
anxious  to  possess  the  chief  magazine,  but  after  a
gallant  defence  it  was  exploded  by  order  of  lieut.
W-illoughby,  who  died  of  his  wounds  shortly  after,
The  other  heroes  of  this  exploit  were  lieutenants
Forrest  and  Rayner,  and  the  gunners  Buckley  and
Scully.  Delhi  was  shortly  after  besieged  by  the
British,  but  was  not  taken  till  20  Sept.  following.
The  final  struggle  began  on  the  14th  ;  brigadier
(aft.  sir)  Archdale  Wilson  being  the  commander.
Much  heroism  was  shown;  the  gallant  death  of
Salkeld  at  the  explosion  of  the  Cashmere  gate
created  much  enthusiasm.  The  old  king  and  his
sons  were  captured  soon  after:  the  latter  were
shot,  and  the  former  after  a  trial  was  sent  for  life  to
Rangoon,  where  he  died  11  Nov.  1862.  See  India,
1857.  A  camp  formed  at  Delhi  by  the  earl  of  Mayo,
the  viceroy,  Dec.  1871,  was  visited  bv  the  king  of
Siam,  Jan.  1872.  The  prince  of  "Wales  visited
Delhi,  II  Jan.  1876.  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed
empress  of  India  here  with  much  magnificence,  many
Indian  princes  being  present,  1  Jan.  1877.  Great
fire,  2000  houses  burnt,  19  April,  1883.
Foundation-stone  of  Dufferin  Hospital  laid  by  lord

Dufferin 2  Nov.  1885

Eiots  by  collisions  at  Hindoo  and  Mahoinnie.dan

festivals  quelled  by  the  military 5  Oct.  et  scq.  1886


Great  fire,  300  houses  destroyed,  much  distress,

11-12  May,  1889
Fanatical  riots  quelled . . about  8  April,  1892

"DELICATE  INVESTIGATION'tntothe
conduct  of  the  princess  of  Wales  (afterwards  queen
of  England,  as  consort  of  George  IV.),  was  com-
menced by  a  committee  of  the  privy  council,  under
a  warrant  of  inquiry,  dated  29  May,  1806.  The
members  were  lord  Grenville,  lord  Erskine,  earl
Spencer,  and  lord  Ellenborough.  The  inquiry,  of
which  the  countess  of  Jersey,  fcir  J.  and  lady  Doug-
las, and  other  persons  of  rank,  were  the  prompters,
led  to  the  publication  called  "The  Book;"  after-
wards suppressed.  The  charges  a»ainst  the  princess-
were  disproved  in  1807  and  in  181 3  ;  but  not  being
permitted  to  appear  at  court,  she  went  on  the  conti-
nent in  1814  ;  see  Queen  Caroline.

DELIUM,  Bceotia,  N.  Greece,  the  site  of  a
celebrated  temple  of  Apollo.  Here,  in  a  conflict
between  the  Athenians  and  the  Boeotians,  in  which
the  former  were  defeated,  Socrates  the  philosopher
is  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  Xenophon,.
424  B.C.

DELLA  CKUSCA  ACADEMY  of  Florence
merged  into  the  Florentine  in  1582. — The  Della
Crusca  School,  a  term  applied  to  some  English
residents  at  Florence,  who  printed  inferior  senti-
mental poetry  and  prose  in  1785.  They  came  to>
England,  where  their  works,  popular  for  a  short
time,  were  severely  satirised  by  Gifford  in  his  "  Ba-
viad"  and  "Maeviad"  (1792-5).

DELOS,  a  Greek  isle  in  the  .iEgean  sea.  Here
the  Greeks,  during  the  Persian  war,  477  B.C.,  estab-
lished their  cummon  tieasury,  which  was  removed
to  Athens,  461.  Excavations,  resulting  in  inter-
esting discoveries,  were  made  in  the  island  by  the-
French  in  1883.

DELPHI  (N.  Greece),  celebrated  for  its  enig-
matical oracles  delivered  by  the  Pythia  or  priestess-
in  the  temple  of  Apollo,  which  was  built,  some  say,
by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  1263  B.C.  The
Pythian  games  were  first  celebrated  here  586  B.C.
The  temple  was  burnt  b}r  the  Pisistratidse,  548  B.C.
A  new  temple  was  raised  by  the  Aiemaeonida?.  The
Persians  (480  B.C.)  and  the  Gauls  (279  B.C.)  were
deterred  from  plundering  the  temple  by  awful  por-
tents. It  was,  however,  robbed  and  seized  by  the
Phocians  357  B.C.,  which  led  to  the  sacred  war,  and
Nero  carried  from  it  300  costly  statues,  a.d.  67.
The  oracle  was  consulted  by  Julian,  but  silenced  by
Theodosius.

DELPHIN  CLASSICS,  a  collection  of  thirty-
nine  Latin  authors  in  sixty  volumes,  made  for  the
use  of  the  dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini)  son  of  Louis
XIV.,  and  published  in  1674-91.  Ausonius  was
added  in  1730.  The  due  de  Montausier,  the  young
prince's  governor,  proposed  the  plan  to  Huet,  bishop
of  Avranches,  the  dauphin's  preceptor  ;  and  he,  with
other  learned  persons,  including  Madame  Dacier,*
edited  all  the  Latin  classics  except  Lucan.  Each
author  is  illustrated  by  notes  and  an  index  of  words.
An  edition  of  the  Delphin  classics,  with  additional
notes,  &c,  was  published  \>y  Mr.  Valpy  of  London,
1818,  et  seq.

DELTA,  the  island  formed  by  the  alluvial  de-
posits between  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  so  named


*  This  beautiful  and  gifted  woman  translated  Calli-
maclms  at  the  age  of  23  ;  and  also  Anacreon,  Sappho,
I'lautus,  Terence, .and  Homer. She  died  in  1720.


DELUGE.


279


DENMARK.


•  2352
■  2344
.  2329

•  2293
.  2288
.  2104


by  the  Greeks  from  its  resemblance  to  their  letter

A  (our  D).

Delta  Metal,  a  modern  bronze  resembling  gold,  con-
taining a  small  proportion  of  iron,  invented  by  Mr.  A.
Dick  :  watch  cases  were  made  of  it  at  Geneva  in  1885.

t  DELUGE,  THE  UNIVERSAL,  predicted  by
Noah,  is  described  in  Genesis  vi.vii.  viii.;  dated  by
Usher  and  the  English  Bible  2348  B.C.  The  fol-
lowing- are  the  epochs  of  the  -deluge,  according  to
Dr.  Hales  :—

Septuagint . b.c.  3246 Clinton  . . b.c.  2482

Jackson . . .3170 Play  fair .

Hales . . . .  33:55 Marsham

Josephus . . .  3146 Petavius .

Persian  . . . .  3103 Strauchius

Hindoo . . .3102 Hebrew

Samaritan . . .  299S Vulgar  Jewish

Howard . . .  2698

Traditional  deluges  described  in  the  classics  :  in  Bceotia

and  Attica  in  the  reign  of  Ogyges,  18th  century  b.c.  ;

in  Thessaly  in  the  reign  of  Deucalion,  1503  B.C.  ;  the

dates  are  conjectural.

DEMERARA,  Esseqdtbo,  and  Berbice,

colonies  m  British  Guiana,  South  America,  founded
by  the  Dutch,  1580,  were  taken  by  the  British,  under
major-general  Whyte,  22  April, "1796,  but  were  re-
stored at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  March,  1802.  They
again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general
Grinfield  and  commodore  Hood,  Sept.  1803,  and
became  English  colonies  in  1814.  See  Guiana,
British.

DEMOCRATIC  FEDERALS,  a  political
party,  proposed  by  Mr.  Joseph  Cowen,  M.P.  for
Newcastle,  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  government
of  Mr.  Gladstone,  5  April,  1881.

DEMOCRATS,  advocates  for  governmentby  the
people  themselves  (demos,  people,  and  kratein,  to
govern),  a  term  adopted  by  the  French  republicans
in  1790  (who  termed  their  opponents  aristocrats,
from  aristos,  bravest  or  best).  The  name  Democrats
was  adopted  by  the  pro-slavery  party  in  N.  America
(the  southern  states),  and  the  abolitionists  were
called  Republicans.  Into  these  two  great  parties  a
number  of  smaller  ones  were  absorbed  at  the  presi-
dential election  in  1856.  In  i860,  the  Republicans
formed  ''  Wide-awake"  clubs  for  electioneering  pur-
poses, and  succeeded  in  getting  their  candidate,
Abraham  Lincoln,  elected  president,  4  Nov.,  which
led  to  civil  war  ;  see  United  States,  i860.

In  the  autumn  of  1874,  the  democrats,  free-traders,
and  opponents  of  negro-rule,  once  more  obtained  the
majority  in  the  elections  for  the  next  congress  ;  a  re-
action in  their  favour  against  the  republicans,  protec-
tionists, then  powerful ;  see  United  States,  1875-7.  Go-
vernor Cleveland,  democrat,  elected  president,  4  Nov.
1884  ;  not  re-elected,  being  replaced  by  general  Benjamin
Harrison,  republican ...  .5  Nov.  1888

DEMOGRAPHY.  A  modem  term,  signify-
ing "the  natural  history  of  sjcicty."  Quetelet.
See  Hygiene.

DEMONOLOGY,  see  Devil  Worship.

DENAIN  (N.  France).  Here  marshal  Villars
defeated  the  Imperialists,  24  July,  17 12.

DENARIUS,  the  chief  silver  coin  among  the
Romans,  weighing  the  seventh  part  of  a  Roman
ounce,  and  value  J%d.  sterling,  first  coined  about
269  B.C.,  when  it  exchanged  for  ten  ases  (see  As).
In  216  B.C.  it  exchanged  for  sixteen  ases.  A  pound
weight  of  silver  was  coined  into  ioo  denarii.  Digby.
A  pound  weight  of  gold  was  coined  into  twenty
denarii  aurei  in  206  B.C. ;  and  in  Nero's  time  into
forty-five  denarii  aurei. Lemprierc.

DENHAM  MURDERS,  see  Trials,  1870.


DENIS,  St.,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  near
Paris,  famous  for  its  abbey  and  church  ;  the  former
abolished  at  the  revolution,  the  latter  the  place  of
sepulture  of  the  French  kings,  from  its  foundation
by  Dagobert,  about  630 ;  the  remains  of  the  saint
Denis  were  placed  there  in  636.  On  6,  7,  8  Aug.
1793,  the  republicans  demolished  most  of  the  royal
tombs,  and  in  Uct.  following,  the  bodies  were  taken
from  coffins  and  cast  iuto  a  pit ;  the  lead  was  melted,
and  the  gold  and  jewels  taken  to  Paris.  By  a  de-
creeof  Bonaparte,  dated  20  Feb.  1806,  the  church
(which  had  been  turned  into  a  cattle-market)  was
ordered  to  be  cleansed  out  and  redecorated  as  "the
future  burial-place  of  the  emperors  of  France."  On
the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  more  restorations  were
effected,  and  the  due  de  Berri  and  Louis  XVIII,
were  buried  here.  The  damage  sustained  in  the
war  of  1870-1  has  been  well  "repaired.  Near  St.
Denis  the  Catholics  defeated  the  Huguenots,  but
lost  their  leader,  the  constable  Montmorency,  10
Nov.  1567.

DENISON'S  ACT  (18  &  19  Vict.  c.  34),  pro-
vides "for  the  education  of  the  children  of  persons
in  receipt  of  out-door  relief:  "  passed  26  June,  1855.

DENMAN'S.Act,  Lord,  6  &  7  Vict.  c.  85
(1843),  relates  to  juries  and  witnesses.

DENMARK  (N.Europe).  The  most  ancient
inhabitants  were  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  who  were
driven  out  by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones
settled  in  Germany  and  Gaul ;  the  Cimbrians  in-
vaded Italy,  where  they  were  defeated  byAlarius.
The  peninsula  of  Jutland  obtained  its  name  from
the  Jutes ;  and  the  name  of  Denmark  is  supposed  to
be  derived  from  Ban,  the  founder  of  the  Danish
monarchy,  and  mark,  a  German  word  signifying
country.  For  their  numerous  invasions  of  Britain,
&c,  see  Banes.  Population  of  the  kingdom  of  Den-
mark in  i860,  1,600,551  ;  of  the  duchies  of  Schles-
wig, Holstein,  and  Lauenburg,  1,004,473;  of  the  colo-
nics, 120,283.  By  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed  30
Oct.  1864,  the  duchies  were  taken  from  Denmark  ;
Schleswig  and  Holstein  were  to  be  made  indepen-
dent, and  Lauenburg  was  to  be  incorporated,  by
its  desire,  with  Prussia.  For  the  result,  see  Gastein
and  Prussia,  1866.  Population  of  the  monarchy,
1870,  1,784,741;  1880,  1,969,039;  of  the  colonies,
1880,  127,200;  1890,  127,209.  Revenue,  1889-90,
3,192,009/.;  expenditure,  3,462,732?.  Imports,
1890,  17,057,000?. ;  exports,  12,990,000/.

[The  early  dates  are  doubtful.]
Reign  of  Skiold,  alleged-first  king . . b.c. 60
The  Danish  chronicles  mention  18  kings  to  the  time
of  Ragnar  Lodbrog,  killed  in  an  attempt  to  invade

England a.d. 794

Canute  the  Great  conquers  Norway  . . 1016-28

By  the  union  of  Calmar. Denmark,  Norway,  and
Sweden made one kingdom under Margaret,

12  July,  1397

Copenhagen  made  the  capital 1440

Accession  of  Christian  I.  (of  Oldenburg),  from  whom

the  late  royal  family  sprang 1448

Christian  II. deposed  ; independence  of Sweden

under  Gustavus  Vasa  acknowledged  .  .  .  1523
Lutheranism introduced  ill 1527  ; established  by

Christian  III 1536

Danish  East-  India  Company  established  . . . 1612
Christian  IV.  chosen  head  of  the  Protestant  league

against  the  emperor 1629

Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  invades  Denmark,  be-
sieges Copenhagen,  and  makes  conquests  . . 1658
The  crown  made  hereditary  and  absolute . . 1665
Frederick  IV.  takes  Holstein,  Schleswig,  Tonningen,
and  Stralsund  ;  reduces  Weismar,  and  drives  the
Swedes  from  Norway .... 1716  tt  scq.
Copenhagen  nearly  destroyed  by  lire . . . 1728
The  peaceful  reign  of  Christian  VI. .  1730-46


DENMAEK.


280


DENMAEK.


Plot  of  the  queen  dowager  against  the  ministers  and
Matilda  (sister  of  our  George  III.  and  queen  of
Christian  VII.,  a  weak  monarch).  Matilda,  en-
trapped into  a  confession  of  criminality  to  save  the
life  of  her  supposed  lover,  Struenzee,  condemned
to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  castle  of  Zell,

1 8  Jan.  1772
Count  Struenzee  and  Brandt  beheaded 28  April, ,,

Queen  Matilda  dies,  aged  24 1775

Christian  VII.  becomes  deranged,  and  prince  Frede-
rick is  appointed  regent . . . . . . 1 784

One-fourth  of  Copenhagen  burnt  . . 9  June,  1795
Admirals  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard  Copenhagen
{which  see). (Confederacy  of  the  North,  see  Armed
Neutrality,  dissolved.) ...  2  April,  1801

Admiral  Gambierand  lord  Cath cart  bombard  Copen-
hagen ;  the  Danish  fleet  surrenders .  7  Sept. 1807
Peace  of  Kiel :  Pomerania  and  Riigen  annexed  to
Denmark  for  Norway .... 14  Jan.  1814

Pomerania  and  Riigen  ceded  to  Prussia  for  Lauen-

burg 1815

Commercial  treaty  with  England  ....  1824
Frederick  VI.  grants  a  new  constitution  .  .  .  1831
Christian  VIII.  declares  the  right  of  the  crown  to

Schleswig,  Holstein,  &c. . . .11  July,  1846
Accession  of  Frederick  VII.  20  Jan.  ;  he  proclaims
a  new  constitution, uniting  the  duchies more
closely  with  Denmark .... 28  Jan. 1848
Insurrection  in  the  duchies  :  a  provisional  govern-
ment founded 23  March, ,,

The  rebels  seize  fortress  of  Rendsburg 24  March, ,,
They  are  defeated  near  Flensburg .  9  April, ,,

The  Danes  defeated  by  the  Prussians  (helping  the

duchies)  near  Dannawerke,  Schleswig .  23  April, ,,
The  North  sea  blockaded  by  Denmark . 1  Aug. ,,
Hostilities  suspended  :  the  European  powers  recom-
mend peace 26  Aug. „

Hostilities  recommence ... 25  March,  1849
Victory  of  the  Danes  over  the  Holsteiners  and  Ger-
mans 10  April, ,,

Several  conflicts  with  varying  success . June, ,,
The king  sanctions a new  liberal constitution,

S  Juno, ,,
Armistice  renewed  at  Malmo . . . 10  July, ,,
Separate  peace  with  Prussia ... 2  July,  1850
Integrity  of  Denmark  guaranteed  by  England,  France,

Prussia,  and  Sweden  . .  . . 4  July, ,,

Battle  of  Idstedt,  and  defeat  of  the  Schleswig-Hol-

steiners  by  the  Danes . . . .25  July, ,,
Protocol  signed  in  London  by  the  ministers  of  all

the  great  powers . . . . . 23  Aug. ,,
Bombardment  of  Friedrichstadt  by  the  Holsteiners,
and  the  town  almost  destroyed,  but  not  taken,

29  Sept.  to  6  Oct. „
Proclamation  of  the  stadtholders  of  Schleswig-Hol-
stein,  placing  the  rights  of  the  country  under  the
protection  of  the  Germanic  confederation  10  Jan. 1851
The  integrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy  and  the  inde-
pendence of  Schleswig  and  its  old  union  with  Hol-
stein guaranteed  by  treaty . . . 18  Feb.  1852
Austrians  evacuate  Holstein,  &c. . .  2  March, ,,
Treaty  of  European  powers. [The  succession  in
the  line  of  Sonderburg-Gliicksburg  settled,  and
the  integrity  ot  the  Danish  kingdom  guaranteed.
Christian, duke  of  Augustenburg-Holstein, re-
nounced his  rights  for  a  compensation  in  money.]

8  May, ,,
The  king  promulgates  a  new  constitution,  29  July,

1854 ;  adopted ....  1  Oct. 1855

The  sound  dues  abolished  for  a  compensation  (see

Sound) 14  March,  1857

Dissension  between  the  government  and  theduchies,

Oct.  1857-62
Fortification  of  Copenhagen  decreed  27  March,  1858

New  ministry  appointed  3  Dec.  1859  :  resigns  9  Feb.  ;

bishop  Monrad  forms  a  ministry . . 24  Feb. i860
The  assembly  of  Schleswig  complain  that  the  pro-
mise of  equality  of  national  rights  in  1852  has  not
been  kept, n  Feb.  ;  protest  against  the  annexa-
tion to  Denmark 1  March, ,,

The  Prussian  chamber  of  deputies  receive  a  petition
from  Schleswig,  and  declare  that  they  will  aid  the
duchies,  4  May  ;  at  which  the  Danish  government

protests 16  May, „

Correspondence  ensues  between  the  Prussian,
Danish,  and  British  governments  ;  the  Danish
government  declare  for  war,  if  German  forces
enter  the  duchies .  . Jan. 1861


Warlike  preparations  in  Denmark . . . Feb.  1861
Decimal  coinage  adopted .... June, „
Agitation  in  favour  of union  of Denmark  with
Sweden,  June  ;  the  king  of  Sweden  visits  Den-
mark, and  is  warmly  received . . . 17  July,  1862
Earl  Russell  recommends  the  government  to  give
to  Holstein  and  Lauenburg  all  that  the  Germanic
confederation  desire  for  them,  and  to  give  self-
government  to  Schleswig . . -24  Sept. „
M.  Hall,  the  Danish  minister,  declines  to  accede  ;
stating  that  to  do  so  would  imperil  the  existence
of  the  monarchy  itself . . . . 20  Nov. ,,
Princess  Alexandra  of Denmark  married to the

Prince  of  Wales  at  Windsor . .  10  March,  1863

The  king  grants,  by  patent,  independent  rights  to

Holstein,  but  annexes  Schleswig  .  30  March,  ,,
Austria  and  Prussia  protest  against  it  .  17  April,  ,,
Further  diplomatic  correspondence  . .  May, „

The  king  accepts  the  crown  of  Greece  for  his  rela-
tive, prince  William-George,  and  gives  him  sound

political  advice 6  June, ,,

Death  of  the  crown  prince  Frederick-Ferdinand,

the  king's  Uncle 29  June, „

The  German  diet  demands  annulment  of  the  patent
of  30  March  ;  (Holstein  and  Schleswig  to  be  united
with  the  same  right ; )  and  threatens  an  army  of

occupation 9  July, ,,

The  king  replies  that  he  will  consider  occupation  to

be  an  act  of  war  .  .  .  .  -27  Aug.  ,,
Vain  efforts  for  alliance  with  Sweden . .  Aug. ,,

Extra  levy  for  the  army  decreed . . 1  Aug. ,,
New  constitution  (uniting  Schleswig  with  Denmark)

proposed  in  the  rigsraad  .  .  .  .  29  Sept.  ,,
Death  of  Frederick  VII.  and  accession  of  Christian

IX 15  Nov. „

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the

duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  .  .  16  Nov.  „
Great  excitement  in  Holstein  ;  many  officials  refuse

to  take  oath  to  Christian  . 21  Nov.  et  seq. ,.

Saxony,  Bavaria,  Hesse,  and  other  German  powers
resolve  to  support  the  prince  of  Augustenburg,

26  Nov.  et  seq. „
New  constitution  affirmed  by  the  rigsraad,  13  Nov.  ;

signed  by  king,  18  Nov.  ;  published, . 1,  2  Dec. „
The  Austrian  and  Prussian  ministers  say  that  they
will  quit  Copenhagen  if  the  constitution  of  18
Nov.  is  not  annulled ....  Dec. „

Great  excitement  in  Norway  :  proposals  to  support

Denmark Dec. „

Prince  Frederick's  letter  to  the  emperor  Napoleon,

2  Dec.  ;  an  ambiguous  reply  ...  10  Dec.  „
Denmark  protests  against  federal  occupation

19  Dec. ,,
goo  representatives  of  different  German  states  meet
at  Frankfort,  and  resolve  to  support  prince  Frede-
rick as  duke  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  and  the
inseparable  union  of  those  duchies . . 21  Dec. ,,
The  federal  execution  takes  place  ;  a  Saxon  regiment
enters  Altona,  24  Dec.  ;  and  the  federal  commis-
sioners assume  administrative  powers  . 25  Dec. „
The  Danes  retire  from  Holstein,  to  avoid  collision

with  federal  troops  . . .24  Dec.  et  seq. ,,

Prince  Frederick  enters  Kiel,  as  duke  of  Schleswig

and  Holstein 30  Dec. ,,

The  Danes  evacuate  Rendsburg . -31  Dec. ,,
Ministerial  crisis  :  Hall  retires,  and  bishop  Monrad

forms  a  cabinet 31  Dec. ,,

Dissension  among  Germans  : the  Austro-Prussian

proposition  rejected  by  the  diet . . 14  Jan.  1864
Austria  and  Prussia  demand  abrogation  of  the  con-
stitution (of  18  Nov.)  in  two  days,  16  Jan.  ;  the
Danes  require  six  weeks'  time  . 18  Jan. ,,

The German  troops  under  marshal  Wrangel  enter

Holstein 21  Jan. „

The  Prussians  enter  Schleswig,  and  take  Eckenforde,

1  Feb. „
They  bombard  Missunde,  2  Feb.  ;  which  is  burnt,

3Fel. „
The  Danes  abandon  the  Danncwerke  to  save  their
army, 5  Feb.  ;  great  discontent  in  Copenhagen,

6  Feb. „
The Danes defeated by  Wrangel at Oever-see ;

Schleswig  taken  ;  pr.  Frederick  proclaimed,  6  Feb.  ,,
The  allies occupy  Flensburg, 7 Feb.  ;  commence

their  attack  on  Dtippel ...  13  Feb. „

The  federal  commissioners  protest  against  the  Prus-
sian occupation  of  Altona . . . . 13  Feb. ,


DENMARK.


281


DENMARK.


The  Prussians  enter  Jutland  ;  take  Kolding,  18  Feb.  ;
Danes  fortify  Alsen . . .18  Feb.  et  seq.

A  conference  on  Danish  affairs  proposed  by  Eng-
land ;  agreed  to  by  allies . . . . 23  Feb.

A  subscription  for  the  wounded  Danes  begun  in
London 24  Feb.

De  Gertach,  general  of  the  Danes . . 1  Mar.

Defeated  at  Sonderbygaard  and  Veill - 8  Mar.

The  rigsraad  vote  a  firm  address  to  the  king,  26
Feb.  ;  adjourned 22  Mar.

The  Prussians  bombard  and  take  the  village  of  Diip-
pel,  or  Dybbol,  16,  17  March,  and  bombard  Fred-
ericia,  20  March  ;  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  the
fortress  28  Mar.

The  opening  of  the  conference  adjourned  from  12

to  20  April,

The  Prussians  take  the  fortress  of  Diippel,  by  assault.
with  much  slaughter 18  April,

Meetings  of  the  conference  at  London  :  result  un-
favourable to  Denmark  . . 25  April,  et  seq.

The  Danes  retreat  to  Alsen  ;  evacuate  Fredericia
and  fortresses  of  Jutland . . . .  29  April,

Agreement  for  an  armistice  for  one  month  from  12
May 9  May,

Jutland  subjected  to  pillage  for  not  paying  a  war
contribution  to  Prussians  . . 6  May,  et  seq.

The  Danes  defeat  the  allies  in  a  naval  battle  off
Heligoland 9  May,

The  armistice  prolonged  a  fortnight  . 9  June,

The  conference  ends 22  June,

Hostilities  resumed,  26  June  ;  the  Prussians  bom-
bard Alsen  ;  take  the  batteries  and  2400  prisoners,

29  June,

The  Monrad  ministry  resigns  ;  count  Moltke
charged  to  form  an  administration . 8-10  July,

Alsen  taken  ; — Jutland  placed  under  Prussian  ad-
ministration ; — Prince  John  of  Denmark  sent  to
negotiate  at  Berlin .... 9  July,

Formation  of  the  Bluhme  ministry . .11  July,

Armistice  agreed  to  . . . .18  July,

Conference  for  peace  at  Vienna  . . .26  July,

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Vienna  ; — the  king  of  Den-
mark resigns  the  duchies  to  the  disposal  of  the
allies,  and  agrees  to  a  rectification  of  his  frontier,
and  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money  to  defray  the
expenses  of  the  war .... 30  Oct.

Proclamation  of  the  king  to  the  inhabitants  of  the

duchies, releasing  them  from  their  allegiance,

*  16  Nov.

Project  of  a  new  constitution  presented  to  the
chambers,  21  Dec.  ;  rejected . . 25  Feb.

New  ministry  formed  under  count  Frijsenborg,
6  Nov. ;  a  new  constitution  proposed,  7  Nov.  1865  ;
app roved  by  the  two  chambers,  19  and  27  July  ;
sanctioned  by  the  king ... 28  July,

Princess  Dagmar  married  to  prince  Alexander  of
Russia 9  Nov.

New  rigsraad  opened . . . . 12  Nov.

The  king  visited  England .... March,

The  Danish  West  Indies,  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,
proposed  to  be  sold  to  the  United  States  for
i,5oo,oooZ. — proclamation  in  the islands  dated

25  Oct.

Proposed  sale  of  St.  Thomas's  to  the  United  States
approved  by  the  assembly  (not  carried  out),  30  Jan.

Marriage  of  the  crown  prince  Frederic  to  the  prin-
cess Louisa  of  Sweden ... 28  July,

New  ministry  formed  by  M.  Holsteinborg, 20  May,

Denmark  remains  neutral  in  the  Franco-Prussian
war  ;  fruitless  visit  of  the  due  de  Cadore  to
Copenhagen 4- 11  Aug

Birth  of  a  son  to  the  crown  prince  . . 27  Sept.

Destructive  hurricane  over  the  kingdom  ;  loss  of  life
and  property 12,  13  Nov.

Parliament  opened 1  Oct.

War  budget  reduced . . . .  18  Dec.

Meeting  of  the  International  at  Copenhagen  forbid-
den ;  chiefs  arrested .... 5  May,

Industrial  exhibition  opened . . 13  June,

Statue  of  Frederick  VII.,  at  Copenhagen,  solemnly
inaugurated 6  Oct.

A  communistic  party  in  the  assembly  (folkething)
defeat  the  ministry,  4  Dec.  ;  the  king  refuses  to
dismiss  it 6  Dec.

New  ministry  under  Fonnesbeck . . 14  July,

The  king  visits  Iceland  (which  sec),  July-Aug.  ;
Edinburgh  16  Aug.

Several  ministerial  changes


1865


A.D.

,,

794-

,,

803.

1867

850.

8S4-

883.

941.

,,

991.

1014.

1868

i°35-

1869

1042.

1870

1047.

I°73-

1076

1080.

1086

1C95.

,,

1 103.

1871

1 105.

„

"35

"37

1872

"47

"57

1873

1182

1202.

1241

,,

1250.

1874

1252.

,,

1259

1875

1286

/.  B.  S.  Estrup,  president  of  the  ministry,  11  June,  1875

The  folkething,  defeating  the  government  on  the
question  of  fortifications,  is  dissolved 29  March, „

New  assembly  meets,  15  May  ;  votes  no  confidence
in  the  ministry,  12  June  ;  is  adjourned,  24  June, 1876

Continued  contest  between  the  king  and  senate  and
the  lower  house Oct. ,,

Crisis  respecting  the  supplies  ....  Dec. ,,

The  session  closed  without  settling  the  budget,

4  April,  1877

Provision  made  by  the  king  for  it  in  accordance
with  the  constitution . . . .12  April, „

Political  crisis  ;  an  armistice  agreed  to . 8  Nov. ,,

Marriage  of  princess  Thyra  with  the  duke  of  Cum-
berland 11  Dec.  1878

The  lower  house  dismissed  by  the  king  as  incapable
and  idle about  10  May,  1881

Anna  Kristiane  Ludvigsen,  author  of  patriotic
songs,  dies,  aged  90 .... 27  July,  1884

Opposition  of  the  lower  house  continues  ;  legisla-
tion greatly  stopped 1881-4

Elections  :  lower  house,  82  liberals  (opposition) ;
20  conservatives June,  1884

The  king  recommends  unity  in  providing  national
defence about  30  Oct. ,,

The  king  refuses  to  dismiss  his  ministry,  21  March  ;
closes  parliament ;  decrees  financial  arrangement,

1  April,  1885

Importation  and  possession  of  arms  and  drill  pro-
hibited 5  May, „

M.  Estrup  fired  at  by  Julius  Rasinussen 21  Oct. ,,

The  parliament  condemns  the  restrictive  press  laws
by  great  majority 21  Dec. „

M.  Berg,  president  of  the  assembly,  sentenced  to
six  months'  imprisonment  for  obstructing  the
police  at  a  meeting Jan.  1886

Discord  in  parliament,  which  is  closed  . 8  Feb. ,,

Fusion  of  two  parties  forming  the  left  of  the
Diet  about 26  Oct. ,,

The  folkething  dissolved .... 8  Jan.  18S7

Amnesty  granted  to  political  prisoners  on  the
king's  70th  birthday .... 8  April,  1888

25th  anniversary  of  the  king's  accession  celebrated

15th  Nov. „

The  Budget  rejected  16  Oct.  1885  ;  26  Jan.  1886  ;
1  April,  1887  ;  1  April,  1888  ;  1  April,  1889  ;  31
March,  1890  ;  1  April,  1891 — the  revenue  collected
by  royal  decree ■ 1886-91

The  king  decrees  a  provisional  budget  for  1892-3

1  April,  1892

Elections  for  the  folkething  ;  the  moderates  suc-
cessful 20  April, ,,

National  celebration  of  the  king's  golden  wedding,

26  Mav, ,,


SOVEREIGNS.

Sigurd  Snogoje.

Hardi  Canute.

Eric  I.

Eric  II.

Gornio,  the  Old  ;  reigned  53  years.

Harold,  surnamed  Blue  Tooth.

Suenon,  or  Sweyn,  the  Forked-beard.

Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and

England.
Canute  III.,  son  (Hardicanute  of  England).
Magnus,  surnamed  the  Good,  of  Norway.
Suenon,  or  Sweyn  II.  (Denmark  only).
[Interregnum.]
Harold,  called  the  Simple.
Canute  IV.

Olaus  I V.  the  Hungry.
Eric  I.,  styled  the  Good.
[Interregnum.]

Nicholas  I.  killed  at  Sleswick.
Eric  II.,  surnamed  Harefoot.
Eric  III.  the  Lamb.

J  Suenon,  or  Sweyn  III.  :  beheaded.

1  Canute  V.  until  1157  (civil  war).
Waldemar,  styled  the  Great.
Canute  VI.,  surnamed  the  Pious.
Waldemar  II.  the  Victorious.
Eric  IV.
Abel  :  assassinated  his  elder  brother  Eric  ;  killed

in  an  expedition  against  the  Frisons.
Christopher  I.  :  poisoned.
Eric  V.
Eric  VI.


DENNEWITZ.


282


DERBY.


1320.  Christopher  II.

1334.  [Interregnum  of  seven  years.]

1340.  Waldemar  III.

x375-  [Interregnum.]

1376.  Olaus  V.

1387.  Margaret,  styled  the  "Semiramis  of  the  North,"

queen  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.
1397.  Margaret  and  Eric  VII.  (Eric  XIII.  of  Sweden.)
1412.  Eric  VII. reigns  alone ;  obliged  to resign  both

crowns.
1438.  [Interregnum.]
1440.  Christopher  III.  king  of  Sweden.
1448.  Christian  I. count  of  Oldenburg ;  elected  king  of

Denmark,  1448  ;  of  Sweden,  1457  ;  succeeded  by

his  son,
1481.  John  ;  succeeded  by  his  son,
1513.  Christian  II.  called  the  Cruel,  and  the  "  Nero  of

the  North  ;  "  he  caused  all  the  Swedish  nobility

to  be  massacred  :  dethroned  for  his  tyranny  in

1523  ;  died  in  a  dungeon  in  1559.
[Sweden  separated  from  Denmark.]

DENMARK  AND NORWAY.

1523.  Frederick  I.  duke  of  Holstein,  son  of  Christian  I.  ;

a  liberal  ruler.
1533.  Christian  III. son  of  Frederick  ;  established  the

Lutheran  religion  ;  esteemed  the  "  Father  of  his

People."
1559.  Frederick  II.  son  of  Christian  III.
1588.  Christian  IV.  son.
1648.  Frederick  III.  ;  changed  the  constitution  from  an

elective  to  an  hereditary  monarchy,  vested  in

his  own  family,  1665.
1670.  Christian  V.,  son  of  Frederick  III.  ;  succeeded  by

his  son.
1699.  Frederick  IV. ;  leagued  with  the  czar  Peter  and  the

king  of  Poland  against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.
1730.  Christian  VI.  his  son.
1746.  Frederick  V.  his  son  :  married  the  princess  Louisa

of  England,  daughter  of  George  II.
1766.  Christian  VII.  his  son. See  p.
1784.  Prince  Frederick  declared  regent,  in  consequence

of  the  mental  derangement  of  his  father.
1808.  Frederick  VI.  previously  regent,  now  king.
1814.  Norway  annexed  to  Sweden,  14  Jan.

DENMARK.

1839.  Christian  VIII.  (son  of  Frederick,  brother  of
Christian  VII.)

1848.  Frederick  VII.  son  of  Christian  VIII.  ;  20  Jan.  ;
born  6  Oct.  1808  ;  separated  from  "his  first  wife,
Sept.  1837  ;  from  his  second  wife,  Sept.  1846  ;
married  morganatioally  Louisa,  countess  of
Danner,  7  Aug.  1850  ;  died  15  Nov.  1863.

1863.  Christian  IX.  son  of  William,  duke  of  Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg  ;  15  Nov.  suc-
ceeded by  virtue  of  the  protocol  of  London,  8
May,  1852,  and  of  the  law  of  the  Danish  succes-
sion, 31  July,  1853.)  He  was  born  8  April,  1818  ;
married  princess  Louisa  of  Hesse-Cassel,  26
May,  1842.  [He  is  descended  from  Christian  III.
and  she  from  Frederick  V.  ;  both  from  George  II.
of  England.]

Heir :  Frederick  (his  son),  born  3  June,  1843  ;  married
princess  Louisa  of  Sweden,  28  July,  1869.  Son  :
Christian,  born  26  Sept.,  1870.

DENNEWITZ  (P.ussia),  here  a  victory  was
obtained  by  marshal  Bernadotte  (afterwards
Charles  XIV.,  king  of  Sweden),  over  marshal  Ney,
6  Sept.  1813.  The  loss  of  the  French  exceeded
13.000  men,  several  eagles,  and  cannon;  of  the
allies,  6000.  The  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Leipsic,  on
the  1 8th  of  October  following,  closed  this  disastrous
campaign.

DENOMINATIONS,  The  Theee (pres-

byterians,  congregationalists  or  independents,  and
baptists),  were  organised  in  1727  as  an  association,
with  the  privilege  of  direct  appeal  to  the  reigning
sovereign  of  Great  Britain.

DENTISTS,  an  act  for  regulating  their  educa-
tion and  registration,  passed,  22  July,  1878.
The  Odontologieal  Society  (of  Dentists),  established  1856.
The  Dental  Hospital  of  London,  Leicester-square,  was

established  i8j8. See  Odontology ■.


DEODAND  (Latin,  "  to  be  given  to  Gfad")  :
formerly  anything  which  had  caused  the  death  of
a  human  being  became  forfeit  to  the  sovereign  or
lord  of  the  manor,  and  was  to  be  sold  for  the  benefit
of  the  poor.  The  forfeiture  was  abolished  by  9  &
10  Vict.  c.  62  (1846).

D'EON,  CHEVALIER,  who  had  acted  in  a
diplomatic  capacity  in  several  countries,  and  been
minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  in  London,
was  affirmed  to  be  a  female,  at  a  trial  at  the  King's
Bench  in  1771,  in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to
his  sex.  He  subsequently  wore  female  attire  ;  but
at  his  death  he  was  proved  to  be  a  male.

DEONTOLOGY,  the  knowledge  of  what  is
right,  or  the  science  of  dut5r  (from  the  Greek  to  deon,
that  which  is  proper),  an  element  of  the  Utilitarian
philosophy  propounded  by  Jeremy  Bentham  in  his
"  Deontology,"  published  by  Dr.  Bowring  in  1834.

DEPARTMENTS,  see  France.

DEPRESSION  OF  TRADE,  see  Trade,  1885.

DEPTFOBD  (near  London).  The  hospital
here  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  about  1512,
and  called  the  Trinity-house  of  Deptford  Strond ;
the  brethren  of  Trinity-house  hold  their  corporate
rights  by  this  hospital.  The  dockyard,  founded
about  1513,  was  closed  31  March,  1869,  having  been
purchased  by  Mr.  T.  P.  Austin  for  70,000/.  He  sold
part  of  it  to  the  corporation  of  London  for  94,640/.,
for  a  market  for  foreign  cattle,  which  was  opened
for  use,  28  Dec.  1871.  On  4  April,  15S1,  Queen
Elizabeth  dined  at  Deptford  on  board  the  Golden
Hind,  the  ship  in  which  Drake  had  made  his
voyage  round  the  globe.  The  Deptford  victualling-
office  was  burnt  16  Jan.  1748-9;  the  store-house,  2
Sept.  1758;  the  red-house,  26  Feb.  1761;  and  the
king's-mill,  1  Dec.  1755.  Peter  the  Great  of  Kussia
lived  at  Evelyn's  house,  Say's-court,  while  learning
ship-building,  &c,  in  1698.  By  the  acts,  1884-5,
Deptford  returns  one  member  to  parliament,  John
Evelyn  the  first.  -

DEPUTIES,. Chamber  of,  the  title  borne

by  the  French  legislative  assembly,  from  the  resto-
ration of  the  Bourbons  in  1814  till  Jan.  1852,  when
it  was  named  "  Corps  Legislatif."

DERBY  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Egbert
(about  828) . Alfred  expelled  the  Danes  from  it  and
planted a  colony  in  8S0. His  heroic daughter,
Ethelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918.
William  I. gave  Derby to  his illegitimate son
William  Peveril. Lombe's  silk-throwing  machine
was  set  up  in  1718;  and  in 175&, Jedediah  Strutt
invented  the  Derby  ribbed  stocking-frame. The
young  Pretender  reached  Derby,  3  Dec.  1745,  and
retreated  thence  soon  after.  The  new  town-hall  was
opened  29  May,  1866. The  midland  counties  fine
art  exhibition  was  held  here,  and  was  opened  by  the
duke  of  Devonshire,  5  May,  1870. Mr.  M.  T.  Bass
gives  25,000/.  for  a  museum  and  library,  and  an  en-
dowment of  3000/.  for  an  art  gallery  announced,  Jan.
1882.  Art  gallery,  the  gift  of  Mr.  M.  Bass  and  others,
opened  4  Nov.  1882. The  Queen  laid  the  founda-
tion-stone of  the  Derbyshire  Royal  Infirmary,  21
May,  1891. Population,  1881,81,168;  1891,  94,146.
Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior,
Ludlam  junior,  Weightman,  and  others,  Luddites,  con-
victed at  a  commission  of  high  treason, 15  Oqt. 1817  ;
and  Brandreth,  Turner,  and  the  elder  Ludlam  exe-
cuted, 7  Nov.  following. 23  were  tried,  and  12  not
tried.
21  prisoners  indicted  at  Derby  for  the  murder  of  several
miners  in  the  Red-soil  mine  ;  but  were  acquitted  on  the
ground  that  the  mischief  was  not  wilful,  23  March,
1834.
The  new  Grand  Theatre  burnt ;  3  deaths,  6  May,  1886.


DERBY  ADMINISTRATIONS.


283


DERVISH.


DERBY  ADMINISTRATIONS  :  the  first
formed  after  the  resignation  of  lord  John  Russell,
21  Feb.  1852. (facetiously  termed  the  "who  ivJw
administration ,"  from  the  duke  of  'Wellington's
inquiry) .

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,  27  Feb. 1852.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Edward,  earl  of  Derby.*

Lord  chancellor,  lord  St.  Leonards  (previously  sir  Edward

Sugden).
President  of  the  council,  earl  of  Lonsdale.
Lord  privy  seal,  marquis  of  Salisbury.
Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries,  Spencer  Horatio

Walpole,  earl  of  Malmesbury,  and  sir  John  Pakington.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Benjamin  Disraeli.
Board  of  control,  John  Charles  Hemes.
Board  of  trade,  Joseph  Warner  Henley.
Postmaster-general,  earl  of  Hardwicke.
Secretary-at-war,  William  Beresford.
First  commissioner  of  works  and  public  buildings,  lord

John  Manners.
Robert  Adam  Christopher,  lord  Colchester,  &c.
[Defeated  on  the  budget,  16  Dee.  ;  resigned  17  Dec.  1852  ;

succeeded  by  the  Aberdeen  administration.]

SECOND ADMINISTRATION,  25  Feb. 1858.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  earl  of  Derby.

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Chelmsford  (previously  sir  F.
Thesiger).

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Benjamin  Disraeli.

Secretaries— foreign,  earl  of  Malmesbury  ;  home,  Spencer
H.  Walpole  (resigned  March,  1859),  T.  Sotheron  Est-
court ;  colonies,  lord  Stanley;  in  June,  1858,  sir  E.
Bulwer  Lytton  ;  war.  col.  Jonathan  Peel.

Presidents — of  the  council,  marquis  of  Salisbury  ;  of  board
of  control  (India),  1,  earl  of  Ellenborough  (who  resigned
in  May,  1858  ;  he  had  sent  a  letter,  on  his  own  autho-
rity, censuring  the  proclamation  of  lord  Canning  to  the
Oude  insurgents  ;  the  government  hardly  escaped  'a
vote  of  censure)  ;  2,  in  June,  1858,  lord  Stanley; —
board  of  trade,  Mr.  Joseph  W.  Henley  (resigned  in
March,  1859);  earl  of  Donoughmore  ; — board  of  ivories,
lord  John  Manners.

Lord  privy  seal,  earl  of  Hardwicke.

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  John  S.  Pakington.

Postmaster,  lord  Colchester.

Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  duke  of  Montrose.

[This  ministry  resigned  in  consequence  of  a  vote  of  want
of  confidence,  11  June,  1850  ;  it  was  succeeded  by  the
Palmerston-Bussell  cabinet  (which  see).] ■

THIRD  ADMINISTRATION,  CONSTITUTED  6  July,  1866.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Edward,  earl  of  Derby.

Lord  chancellor,  Frederick,  lord  Chelmsford.

President  of  council,  Richard,  duke  of  Buckingham ;
succeeded  by  John,  duke  of  Marlborough,  8  March,
1867.

Lord  privy  seal,  James,  earl  of  Malmesbury.

Secretaries — home,  Spencer  Horatio  Walpole,  resigned  ;
Gathorne  Hardy,  17  May,  T867  ;— foreign,  Edward,  lord
Stanley  ; — colonies,  Henry,  earl  of  Carnarvon,  resigned  ;
Richard,  duke  of  Buckingham  and  Chandos,  8  March,
1867  ; — war,  lieut.-gen.  sir  Jonathan  Peel,  resigned  ;
sir  John  Somerset  Pakington,  8  March,  1867  ;— India,
Robert,  lord  Cranborne,  resigned  ;  sir  Stafford  Henry
Northcote,  8  March,  1867.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Benjamin  Disraeli.

First  lord  of  admiralty,  sir  John  S.  Pakington  ;  suc-
ceeded by  Henry  Thomas  Corry,  8  March,  1867.

Chief  commissioner  of  works,  &c,  lord  John  Manners.

President  of  board  of  trade,  sir  Stafford  Northcote;  suc-
ceeded by  Charles  Henry,  duke  of  Richmond,  March,
1867.

Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  Richard,  lord  Naas  (afterwards
earl  of  Mayo)

President  of  poor-law  board,  Gathorne  Hardy  ;  succeeded
by  Wm.  Reginald,  earl  of  Devon  (not  in  cabinet),  17
May,  1867.

Horatio  Spencer  Walpole,  without  nfflce.

The  above  formed  the  cabinet,  Feb.  1868.

Postmaster-general,  James,  duke  of  Montrose.

Ijord  chamberlain,  Orlando,  earl  of  Bradford.

*  Born  1799  ;  M.P.  for  Stockbridge  (as  lion.  E.  G.  S.
Stanley)  in  1S20;  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  1830-33;
secretary  for  the  colonies,  1833-4,  and  1841-5  ;  termed  the
"  Rupert  of  debate  "  by  lord  Lytton  in  "the  New  Timon,"
1845  ;  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  of  Derby,  30  June,
1851  ;  resigned  25  Feb.  1868  ;  died  23  Oct.  1869.


Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  William,  earl  of
Devon  ;  succeeded  by  colonel  John  Wilson  Patten,
June,  1867.
Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  James,  earl  (afterwards  mar-
quis) of  Abercorn.
[The  earl  of  Derby  resigned  through  ill-health,  25  Feb.
1868  ;  and  Mr.  Disraeli  reconstituted  the  ministry,
see  Disraeli.]

DERBY  DAY  (see  Races),  generally  (not
always)  the  "Wednesday  in  the  week  preceding
Whitsunday,  the  second  day  of  the  grand  spring
meeting  at  Epsom.  Mr.  Henry  Hall,  who  painted
43  consecutive  winners  of  the  Derby,  died  22  April,,
1882.

'THE DERBY" AT EPSOM.

1876.  Kisber,  or  Mineral
Colt  (Hungarian,  owner,
Alex.  Baltazzi),  3r  May.

1877.  Silvio  (30  May).


RECENT WINNERS OF

1846.  Pyrrhus.

1847.  Cossaek.

1848.  Surplice.

1849.  Flying  Dutchman.

1850.  Voltigeur.

1851.  Teddington.

1852.  Daniel  O'Rourke.

1853.  West  Australian.

1854.  Andover.

1855.  Wild  Dayrell.

1856.  Ellington.

1857.  Blink  Bonny.

1858.  Beadsman.

1859.  Musjid.
i860.  Thormanby.
1861.  Kettledrum.
1S62.  Caractacus.

1863.  Macaroni.

1864.  Blair  A.thc-1.

1865.  Gladiateur,  31  May
(a  horse  reared  in  France,
the  property  of  the  comte
de  la  Grange.  He  also
won  the  St.  Legerat  Don-
caster,  13  Sept.).

1866.  Lord  Lyon  (16  May).

1867.  Hermit  (22  May).

1868.  Blue  Gown  (27  May).

1869.  Pretender  (26  May).

1870.  Kingcraft  (1  June).

1871.  Favouius  (24  May).

1872.  Cremorne  (29  May).

1873.  Doncaster  (28  May).

1874.  George Frederick
(3  June).

1875.  Galopin  (26  May).


1878.  Sefton  (5  June).

1879.  Sir  Bevys  (baron
Rothschild's)  28  May

1880.  Bend  Or  (duke  of
Westminster's)  May  26.

1881.  Iroquois  (Mr.  Loril-
lard's,  au  American),  r
June.

1882.  Shotovei  (duke  of
Westminster's),  24  May.

1883.  St.  Blaise  (sir  Fredk.
Johnstone's)  23  May.

1884.  St.  Gatien  (J.  Ham-
mond's), and  Harvester
(sir  J.  Willouguby's),  2S
May.

1885.  Melton  (Id.  Hastings)*
3  June.

1886.  Ormonde  (duke  of
Westminster)  26  May.

1887.  Merry  Hampton  (Mr.
Abington)  25  May.

1888.  Ayrshire  (duke  of
Portland)  30  May.

1889.  Donovan  (duke  of
Portland),  5  June.

1890.  Sanfoin  (sir  James
Miller),  4  June.

1891.  Common  (sir  F.  John-
stone), 27  May.

1892.  Sir  Hugo  "(lord  Brad-
ford), 1  June.


DERELICT  LAND  TRUST,  formed  by
subscription  to  promote  the  cultivation  of  farms  in
Ireland  from  which  the  tenants  have  been  evicted
for  non-payment  of  rent.  "Plantations"  in  County
Wexford  were  formed  in  1889.

DERRICKS  are  lofty,  portable  crane-like
structures,  used  on  land  and  water  for  lifting  enor-
mous loads,  and  in  some  cases  depositing  them  at  am
elevation.  They  are  extensively  used  in  the  United
States,  and  were  introduced  into  England  as  floating
derricks  for  raising  sunken  vessels,  by  their  inventor,.
A.  D.  Bishop,  in  1857.

DERRY  (N.  Ireland),  a  bishopric  first  at  Ard-
frath  ;  thence  translated  to  Maghera ;  and  in  1158
to  Deny.  The  cathedral,  built  in  1164,  becoming
ruinous,  was  rebuilt  by  Londoners,  who  settled  hero-
in the  reign  of  James  I.  The  see  is  valued  in  the
king's  books  at  250/.  sterling  ;  but  it  has  been  one  of
the  richest  sees  in  Ireland.  Bcatson.  The  see  was-
united  to  Derry,  1834  ;  see  Bishops ;  Londonderry.

DERVISH.  Probably  a  corruption  of  der-pish
or  iler-bish,  one  in  advance.  The  dervishes  of  the-
present  time,  fanatical  enthusiasts,  unrecognized  by
orthodoxy,  originated  in  Persia,  whence  they  spread
over  the  Mahommedan  world.  Those  now  attack-
ing Egypt  are  said  to  be  subject  to  Imam  Mahomet
el  Manai,  a  successor  of  the  late  Mahdi  of  Obeid  of
Khartoum.  The  dervishes  have  great  influence-
over  the  ignorant  masses. See  Soudan.


DESCENT OF MAN.


284


DIADEM.


DESCENT  OF  MAN,  see  Development.

"DESERTED  VILLAGE,"  a  poem,  by  Dr.
Oliver  Goldsmith,  first  published,  May,  1770.

DESICCATING  APPARATUS,  see  under
Say.

DESIGN,  SCHOOLS  OF,  established  by  go-
vernment, began  at  Somerset-house,  London,  1  Jan.
1837.  In  1852  the  head  school  was  removed  to
Marlborough-house,  and  became  eventually  "  the
department  of  science  and  art,"  transferred  to  South
Kensington  in  1857.  It  is  under  the  direction  of  the
committee  of  council  on  education. See  Copyright.

DESPAED'S  CONSPIRACY.  Colonel  Ed-
ward Marcus  Despard,  a  native  of  Ireland,  Brough-
ton,  Francis,  Graham,  Macnamara,  Wood,  and
Wratten,  conspired  to  kill  the  king,  and  establish  a
republic,  on  the  day  of  opening  parliament,  16  Nov.
1802.  Above  30  persons  including  soldiers  were
taken  in  custody  ;  of  those  tried,  20  Jan.  1803,
Despard  and  six  others  were  executed,  21  Feb.  He
had  been  a  distinguished  officer  under  Nelson.

DESTITUTE  CHILDREN'S  DINNER
SOCIETY,  established  in  1867,  to  give  weekly
meat  dinners.  16,822  dinners  given  in  1869;
147,858  dinners  in  58  dining  rooms  in  1870  ;  1 14,000
dinners  in  42  dining  rooms,  year  1876-7;  170,000
dinners  in  49  rooms,  1878-9 ;  now  about  283,000
annually.  In  1890,  the  co-operation  of  several
societies  was  effected.

DESTRUCTIVE  INSECTS  (to  crops),  an
act  passed  to  prevent  their  introduction  and  spread-
ing in  Great  -Britain,  14  Aug.  1877. See  Colorado.

DETECTIVE POLICE, see Police, and

Trials,  1877.

DETROIT,  Michigan,  N.  America,  the  oldest
city  in  the  west,  was  built  by  the  French  about  1670.
It  is  eminent  for  large  metal  works.  Population  in
1880,  116,340; 1890,  205,876

DETTINGEN  (Bavaria),  BATTLE  OP,  16  (or
27  0.  S.)  June,  1743,  between  the  British,  Hano-
verian, and  Hessian  army  (52,000),  commanded  by
king  George  II.  of  England  and  the  earl  of  Stair,  and
the  French  army  (60,000),  under  marshal  Noailles
and  the  due  de  Grammont.  The  French  passed  a
defile,  which  they  should  have  merely  guarded.
The  due  de  Grammont  with  his  cavalry  charged  the
British  foot  with  great  fury,  but  was  so  received
that  he  was  obliged  to  give  way,  and  to  repass  the
Maine,  losing  3000  men.  Handel's  "  Dettingen  Te
Deum,"  first  performed,  27  Nov.  1743.

DEUTERONOMY. See  Bible,  note.

DEVELOPMENT  (or  Evolution) .  Wolff  put
forth  a  theory  of  epigenesis  in  1759;  Lamarck,  the
naturalist,  in  1809,  propounded  a  theory  that  all
animals  had  been  developed  from  "monads,"  living
minute  particles ;  see  Species  and  Vestiges.  Buffon
held  a  similar  doctrine.  In  1827  Ernst  von  Baer  of
Kbnigsberg  demonstrated  that  all  mammals  are  de-
veloped from  a  minute  egg  not  a  hundredth  of  an
inch  in  diameter.  Mr.  C.  Darwin's  views  are  given
in  his  "Origin  of  Species,"  1859;  and  "Descent
of  Man,"  1871.  He  supposes  that  man  was  gradu-
ally evolved  from  the  lowest  created  form  of  animal
life.  Hoeckel,  his  most  advanced  follower,  pub-
lished in  German  a  "  History  of  Creation,"  1873  ;  a
translation  in  English,  1875.  Mr.  Alfred  Wallace
published  his  work  on  Natural  Selection  in  1870.
See  Evolution.
The  theory  of  the  development  of  living  beings  out  of

the  substance  of  the  earth  was  put  forth  by  Lucretius

in  his  "  De  Rerum  Natur:e,"  about  57  B.C.

We  cannot  teach,  we  cannot  pronounce  it  to  be  a  con-


quest of  science,  that  man  descends  from  the  ape  or

from  any  other  animal. We  can  only  indicate  it  as  a

hypothesis." — Professor  Virchow,  1877.
"  The primitive monads  were  born by spontaneous

generation  in  the  sea. " — Professor  Hceckel,  1878.
The  Royal  Society's  Darwin  medal  was  first  awarded  to

Mr.  Alfred  Russel  Wallace  in  1890.

DEVIL  WORSHIP.  Devil,  Greek,  diabolos,
false  accuser;  Hebrew,  satan,  an  adversary ;  abad-
don,  desti'oyer,  &c.  The  worship  of  devils  is  fre-
quently mentioned  in  the  Bible  (Lev.  xvii.  7 ;
2  Citron,  xi.  15 ;  1  Cor.  x.  20 ;  Rev.  ix.  20,  &c.)
Mr.  Layard  describes  the  Yezidees  as  recognising
one  supreme  being,  yet  reverencing  the  devil  as  a
king  or  mighty  angel,  to  be  conciliated  (1841).
Mr.  Moncure  Conway's  "  Demonology  and  Devil-Lore,"

first  published  Dec.  1878.

DEVIZES,  a  borough,  Wiltshire;  the  castle
here  was  founded  by  bp.  Roger,  about  1 107;  and
was  for  some  time  royal  property  until  Cromwell
besieged  and  ruined  it.  The  remains  were  sold  by
the  executors  of  the  last  holder,  Mr.  R.  V.  Leach,
for  8,000/.  in  August,  1888.  At  Roundway  Down,
near  here,  sir  William  Waller  and  the  parliamenta-
rians were  defeated,  13  July,  1643.  Population  in
1881,6,645;  1891,6,426.

DEVOLUTION,  a  term  applied  in  1886-8  to
the  transfer  of  business  of  minor  importance  in  the
parliament  to  grand  or  other  committees  (see  Com-
mittees).

DEVONPORT,  see  Dockyards  and  Plymouth.

'  DEVONSHIRE,  the  country  of  the  Dam-
nonii  or  Dumnonii.  Odun,  earl  of  Devon,  in  878,
defeated  the  Danes,  slew  Ubbo  or  Hubba  their  chief,
and  captured  his  magic  standard.  A  bishopric  of
Devonshire  was  founded  in  909 ;  see  Exeter.
Richard  de  Redvers,  first  earl  of  Devon,  son  of  Baldwin,

sheriff  of  Devonshire,  died  1137.

William  Courtenay,  the  present  earl,  is  descended  from

Robert  de  Courtenay  and  Mary  de  Redvers,  daughter

of  William  de  Redvers,  earl  of  Devon  in  1184.

William  Cavendish,  created  first  earl  of  Devonshire,  1618.

William  Cavendish  (his  great  grandson),  created  first  duke

of  Devonshire,  1694.
His  descendant,  William  Cavendish,  born  27  April,
1808  ;  becaine  earl  of  Burlington,  1834  ;  and  7th  duke
of  Devonshire,  1858  ;  chancellor  of  the  university  of
London,  1836 ;  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  1861.
See  Barrow-in-Furness,  Eastbourne,  and  Owens  College.
The  duke  died  21  Dec,  1891.  Spencer  C.  Cavendish,
the  8th  duke,  was  born  23rd  July,  1833.  See  Gladstone.
Administrations  1st  and  2nd  ;  elected  chancellor  of  the
university  of  Cambridge,  4  Jan.,  1892.

DEVONSHIRE  and  PITT  ADMINIS-
TRATION,  formed 16  Nov. 1756; dismissed

5  April,  1757.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  William,  duke  of  Devonshire.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  hon.  Henry  Bilson  Legge.

Lord  president,  earl  Granville  (lord  Carteret).

Privy  seal,  earl  Gower.

Secretaries  of  state,  earl  of  Holdernesse  and  Win.  Pitt

(afterwards  earl  of  Chatham,  the  virtual  premie?').
George  Grenville,  earl  of  Halifax,  dukes  of  Rutland  and

Grafton,  earl  of  Rochfort,  viscount  Barrington, &c.

The  great  seal  in  commission.

"  DEVOUT  LIFE."  "  Introduction  a  la  Vie
devote,"  written  by  St.  Francois  de  Sales,  and
published  1608.  He  was  born  21  Aug.  1567;  bishop
of  Geneva,  1602  ;  died,  28  Dec.  1622.

DEW,  the  modern  theory  respecting  it  was  put
forth  by  Dr.  Wells  in'his  book,  1814.

DEWANGIRI,  see  India,  1865.

DIADEM,  the  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the
ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and  consecrated  to  the
gods. At  first  it  was  made  of  silk  or  wool,  set  with


DIALECTICAL SOCIETY.


28.3


DIAMONDS.


precious  stones,  and  was  tied  round  the  temples  and
forehead,  the  two  ends  being  knotted  behind,  and
let  fall  on  the  neck.  Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman
emperor  who  wore  a  diadem,  272. Tillcmont,

DIALECTICAL  SOCIETY,  London,  for
the  philosophical  consideration  of  all  subjects,  with
a  view  to  the  discover}^  and  elucidation  of  truth,
was  established  in  1865.  The  report  of  their
committee  on  spiritualism  was  published  in  Nov.
1 87 1.  The  dissolution  of  the  Society  reported
May,  1888. See  Wales,  1890.

DIALS.  "The  sun-dial  of  Ahnz,"  713  B.C.
(Isa.  xxxviii.  8).  Adial  invented  by  Anaximander,
S50  B.C.  Pliny.  The  first  dial  of  the  sun  seen  at
Rome  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Quirinus  by  L.
Papirius  Cursor,  when  time  was  divided  into  hours,
293  B.C.  Blair.  Dials  set  up  in  churches  about
a.d.  613.  Lent/let.  Mrs.  Alfred  Gatty's  "  Book  of
Sun  Dials  "  was  published  in  1872.

DIALYSIS,  an  important  method  of  chemical
analysis,  depending  on  the  different  degrees  of
diffusibility  of  substances  in  liquids,  was  made
known  in  1861,  by  its  discoverer,  professor  Thomas
Graham,  then  master  of  the  mint.

DIA-MAGNETISM,  the  property  possessed
by  nearly  all  bodies  of  behaving  differently  to  iron,
when  placed  between  two  magnets.  The  pheno-
mena, previously  little  known,  were  reduced  to  a
law  by  Faraday  in  1845,  and  confirmed  by  Tyndall
and  others.

DIAMOND,  a  hamlet,  Armagh,  N.  Ireland,
where  was  fought  the  "  battle  of  the  Diamond,"  21
Sept.  1795,  between  the  "  Peep-o'-day -boys'"  and
the  "Defenders,"  and  many  of  the  latter  were  killed.
To  commemorate  this  conflict  the  first  Orange
Lodge  was  formed  immediately  after.  See  De-
fenders.

DIAMONDS  were  first  brought  to  Europe
from  the  East,  where  the  mine  of  Sumbulpoor  was
the  first  known.  Golconda,  in  India,  now  in  ruins,
Avas  a  celebrated  diamond  mart.  The  mines  of
Brazil  were  discovered  in  1728.  From  these
last  a  diamond,  weighing  1680  carats,  or  fourteen
ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  and  was
valued  by  Mr.  Romeo  de  I' Isle  at  224  millions;
by  others  at  56  millions,  and  at  35  millions ;  its
true  value  (not  being  brilliant)  was  400,000/.

The  great  Russian  diamond  weighs  193  carats,  or  1  oz.
12  dwts.  4  gr.  troy.  The  empress  Catherine  II.  offered
for  it  104,166?.  13s.  4c?.,  besides  an  annuity  for  life  to
the  owner  of  1041?.  13s.  41?.,  which  was  refused  ;  but  it
was  afterwards  sold  to  Catherine's  favourite,  count
Orloff,  for  the  first -mentioned  sum,  without  the
annuity,  and  was  by  him  presented  to  the  empress
on  her  birthday,  1772  ;  it  is  now  in  the  sceptre  of
Russia.

The  Pitt  (or  Regent)  diamond  weighed  136  carats,  and
after  cutting,  106  carats  :  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of
France  for  125,000?.  in  1720.

The  Pigott  diamond  (bought  by  Mr.  Pitt,  grandfather
of  Win.  Pitt)  was  sold  for  9500  guineas,  10  May,  1802.

'The  diamond  called  the  Kohinoor,  Koh-i-Nub,  or
Mountain  of  Light,  has  a  legendary  history,  and
is  said  to  have  belonged  in  turn  to  Shah  Jehan,
Aurungzcbe,  Nadir  Shah, the  Afghan  rulers,  and  after-
wards to  the  Sikh  chief  Runjeet  Singh.  Upon  the  ab-
dication of  Dhuleep  Singh,  the  last  ruler  of  the  Pun-
jab, and  the  annexation  of  his  dominions  to  the  British
empire,  in  1849,  the  Kohinoor  was  surrendered  to  the
queen.  It  was  accordingly  brought  over  and  presi  nted
to  her,  3  July,  1850.  It  was  shown  in  the  Great  Exhi-
bition, 1851. Its  original  weight  was  neaiTy  800  carats,

'  but  it  was  reduced  by  the  unskilfulness  of  the  artist,
Hortensio  Borghese,  a  Venetian,  to  279  carats.  Its
shape  and  size  resembled  the  pointed  half  (rose  cut)  of


a  small  hen's  egg.  The  value  is  scarcely  computable,
though  two  millions  sterling  have  been  mentioned  as  a
justifiable  price,  if  calculated  by  the  scale  employed  in
the  trade.  This  diamond  was  re-cut  in  1852,  and  now
weighs  102J  carats.

The  Sanci  diamond,  which  belonged  to  Charles  the
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  bought  by  sir  C.
Jejeebhoy  from  the  Demidoff  family  for  20,000?.  in
Feb.  1865.

Mr.  Porter  Rhode's  great  diamond  (weighing  150  carats;
alleged  value  60,000?.)  found  at  Kimberlev  12  Feb'
1880,  exhibited  by  Mr.  Streeter,  Bond-street,  London
Nov.  1 88 1.

Ancient  diamond  said  to  have  belonged  to  the  Mogul
emperors  of  India,  date  of  engraved  characters  possibly
1200,  shown  by  Mr.  Bryce  Wright,  Jan.  1882.

A  diamond,  termed  the  Star  of  the  South,  was  brought
from  Brazil  in  1855,  weighing  254^  carats,  half  of  which,
was  lost  by  cutting.

Diamonds  were  discovered  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  in
March,  1867.  A  fine  one,  termed  the  '"'Star  of  South
Africa,"  brought  to  England  in  1869,  was  purchased  by
Messrs.  Hunt  and  Roskell.  After  cutting,  it  weighed
46J  carats,  and  was  valued  at  25,000?.,  in  June,  1870.

Rich  diamond  fields  recently  discovered  near  the  Vaal
and  Orange  rivers,  Sept.  1870.

Great  influx  of  diggers,  and  many  fine  diamonds  found,,
Nov.  Value  of  141  diamonds  fe-ud  in  1869,  7405?. ;  oif
5661  found  in  1870,  124,910?.  ;  about  2,000,000?.  said  to
be  exported  in  1877. See  GriquoAand,  West.

The  largest  African  diamond  found,  weighing  302
carats,  at  Kimbcrley,  named  "  Victoria,"  27  March,
1884.

Several  magnificent  South  African  diamonds  have  since
been  discovered— one  said  to  weigh  400  carats,  reduced
by  cutting  to  180. 1884-8.

Estimated  value  of  South  African  diamonds  up  to  1886,
40,000,000?.

By  a  fire  and  panic  in  De  Beer's  mine,  Kimberley,  about
220  perish,  11  July,  1888.

Diamonds  discovered  in  British  Guiana  by  Mr.  Kaufmann ,
spring,  1891.

Diamond  Necklace  Affair.-  In  1785,  Boehmer,  the
court  jeweller  of  France,  ottered  the  queen  Marie  An-
toinette, a  diamond  necklace,  for  56,000?.  The  queen
desired  the  necklace,  but  feared  the  expense.  The
countess  de  la  Motte  (of  the  ancient  house  of  Valois)
forged  the  queen's  signature,  and  by  pretending  that
the  queen  had  an  attachment  for  him,  persuaded  the
cardinal  de  Rohan,  the  queen's  almoner,  to  conclude  a.
bargain  with  the  jeweller  for  the  necklace  for  56,000?.
De  la  Motte  thus  obtained  the  necklace  and  made  away
with  it.  For  this  she  was  tried  in  1786,  and  sentenced
to  be  branded  on  the  shoulders  and  imprisoned  for  life.
She  accused  in  vain  the  celebrated  Italian  adventurer.
Cagliostro,  of  complicity  in  the  affair,  he  being  then
intimate  with  the  cardinal.  She  made  her  escape  and
came  to  London,  where  she  was  killed  by  falling  from
a  window-sill,  in  attempting  to  escape  an  arrest  for
debt.— De  Rohan  was  tried  and  acquitted,  14  April.
1786.  The  public  in  France  at  that  time  suspected  the
queen  of  being  a  party  to  the  fraud.  Talleyrand  wrote
at  the  time,  that  he.  should  not  be  surprised  if  this
miserable  affair  overturned  the  throne.

Diamond  Robbery. See  Trials,  1871.

Diamonds  valued'  at  50,000?.  stolen  from  the  post-office
at  Capetown  about  20  March,  1880.

Artificial  Diamonds:  those  prepared  by  Mr.  MacTcar  of
Glasgow,  examined  by  Mr.  Story  Maskelyne,  and  de-
clared not  to  be  diamonds,  30  Dec.  1879 ;  acknowledged
by  Mr.  MacTear,  Jan.  1880.

Diamonds  said  to  have  been  made  by  J.  Ballantine
Hannay  at  Glasgow,  announced  in  Tim  s,  20  Feb.  1880.

Diamonds  said  to  have  been  made  at  Paris,  18S0.

For  the  "  imperial  diamond  "  case,  see  Trials,  Dec.  1891.

Inflammability  of  Diamonds.

Boetius  de  Boot  conjectured  that  the  diamond  was  in-
flammable, 1609.  When  exposed  to  a  high  temperature
it  gave  an  acrid  vapour,  in  which  a  part  of  it  was  dis-
sipated, 1673. Boyle.

Sir  Isaac  Newton  concluded  from  iis  great  refracting
power,  that  it  must  be  combustible,  1675.

Averani  demonstrated,  by  concentrating  the  rays  or  the
sun  upon  it,  that  the  diamond  was  exhaled  in  vapour,
and  entirely  disappeared,  while  other  precious  stones
merely  grow  softer,  1605.


DIANA.


286


"DIEFJ-DONNE."


St  has  been  ascertained  by  Guy  ton,  Davy,  and  others,
that  diamonds  contain  nothing  but  pure  charcoal,  or
■carbon.  Diamonds  were  charred  by  the  intense  heat
of  the  voltaic  battery— by  M.  Dumas,  in  Paris,  and  by
professor  Faraday,  in  London,  in  1848.

DIANA,  TEMPLE  OF  (at  Ephesus),  accounted
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  was  built  at
the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  states,  552
B.C. ;  the  chief  architect  being  Ctesiphon.  Pliny
■says  that  220  years  were  employed  in  completing  it.
It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad,  and  was  supported
by  127  columns  (60  feet  high,  each  weighing  150
tons  of  Parian  marble),  furnished  by  so  many
kings.  It  was  set  on  fire,  on  the  night  of  the  birth
of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  Herostratus  or  Erato-
stratus,  who  confessed  that  his  sole  motive  was  the
■desire  of  transmitting  his  name  to  future  ages,  356
B.C.  The  temple  was  rebuilt,  but  again  burnt  by
the  Goths,  in  their  naval  invasion,  a.d.  256  or  262.
In  April,  1869,  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood  discovered  the  site
•of  the  second  temple ;  and  since  then  sculptured
marble  columns  have  been  removed  to  the  British
Museum.  Diana  was  the  Koman  name  of  the
Greek  Artemis.

DIARY  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  see
Prussia,  188?.

DICE.  The  invention  of  dice  is  mythically
ascribed  to  Palamede«,  of  Greece,  about  1244.  B.C.
The  game  of  tali  and  tessera  among  the  Eomans
was  played  with  dice.  Stow  mentions  two  enter-
tainments given  by  the  city  of  London,  at  which
-dice  were  played.  Act  to  regulate  the  licences  of
makers,  and  the  sale  of  dice,  9  Geo.  IV.  1828.

DICHEOOSCOPE,  an  optical  apparatus,  de-
scribed by  the  inventor,  professor  Dove  of  Berlin,
in  i860,  who  intended  it  to  represent  interferences,
spectra  in  coloured  lights,  polarisation  of  light,  &c.

DICTATORS  were  supreme  and  absolute
magistrates  of  Rome,  appointed  to  act  in  critical
times.  Titus  Lartius,  the  first  dictator,  was  ap-
pointed, 501  B.C.  Cams  Marcius  Rutilus  was  the
first  plebeian  dictator,  356  B.C.  This  office  became
odious  by  the  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  Julius
€a?sar;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  Roman
senate,  on  the  motion  of  the  consul  Antony,  passed
a  law  forbidding  a  dictator  to  exist  in  Rome,  44  B.C.
The  dictator  was  also  called  master  of  the  people,
and  had  under  him  a  master  of  the  horse.

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the
Chinese  language,  containing  about  40,000  charac-
ters, most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  representa-
tions, somewhat  like  our  signs  of  the  zodiac,  was
perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who  lived  about  1100  B.C.
Morrison;  see  Encyclopedias,  Music,  &c.
A  Latin  one  was  compiled  by  Varro,  born  .  B.C.  116
Varro's  work  "  de  Lingua  Latina  "  ;  he  died  .  .  28
The  "  Onomastieon,"  a  collection  of  vocabularies

in  Greek,  by  Julius  Pollux,  was  published  about  a.  d.  177
The  "  Catholicon,"  an  attempt  at  a  Latin  Lexicon,
by  Friar  Johannes  Balbus  Januensis,  printed  at

Mentz 1460

The  lirst  noted  polyglot  dictionary,  perhaps  the
first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepiui,  a  Venetian  friar,  in
Latin  ;  he  wrote  one  in  eight  languages. Niceron.

about  1500
John  E.  Avenar's  Dictionarium  Hebraicwm  was  pub-
lished  at  Wittenberg  in 1589. Buxtorf's  great
work,  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  &c,  appeared . .1621
The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  by  Edmund

Castell,  in 1669

The  great  English  dictionary  by  Samuel  Johnson

appeared  in i75S

Francis  Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue

(or  Slang)  was  compiled  in 1768

"  Slang  Dictionary,"  by  Albert  Barrere  and
Charles  G.  Leland,  2  vols. .... 1889-90


The  following  academies  have  published  large  dic-
tionaries of  their  respective  languages  :  the  French
academy,  (the  first,  edited  by  Vaugelas,)  1694;
new  editions,  1718,  1740,  1762,  1835,  and  1878  ;
the  Spanish,  1726  ;  the  Italian  academy  (della
Crusea)  1729  ;  and  the  Russian . . . 1789-94

Schwan's  great  German-French  dictionary  appeared  1782

Richardson's  English  dictionary  appeared . .  1836

Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary,  which  first  ap-
peared in  1788,  is  now  superseded  by  Dr.  W.
Smith's  classical  series 1842-90

The  Philological  Society  of  London  issued  "pro-
posals for  a  New  English  dictionary,"  on  the  his-
torical method,  1859  ;  after  some  delay  the  work
was  vigorously  revived  ;  editor,  Dr.  J.  H.  Murray  1879

[About  5000  authors,  dating  from  1150  to  18S3,  have
been  read  by  about  13,000  persons  (British  and
American),  who  made  about  3,000,000  extracts.
Part  I.,  published  Feb.  1884,  was  considered
highly  successful,  and  a  specimen  of  the  grandest
lexicographical  work  ever  produced.  Vol.  III.
part  I.  1892.]

The  great  German  dictionary,  by  Jacob  andWilhelm
Grimm 1854  ci  se(l-

Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood's  Dictionary  of  English
Etymology 1859-67

Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  was  published . 1860-3

The  earliest  known  English- Latin  dictionary  is  the
Promptorium  Parvulorum,  compiled  by  Galfridus
Grammaticus,  a  preaching  friar  of  Norfolk,  in
1440 ;  and  printed  by  Pynson,  as  Promptorius
Puerorum,  in  1499.  A  new  edition,  carefully
edited  by  Mr.  Albert  Way,  from  MSS. ,  was  pub-
lished by  the  Camden  Society . . . 1843-65

The  great  French  dictionary,  by  E.  Littre,  1863-72  ;
supplement 1877

The  "Bona  Fide  French  and  English  Dictionary"
(4J inches  by  2J,  weight  4  oz.),  printed  by  Bellows,

1873  et  seg.

The  Imperial  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,
by  John  Ogilvie.  New  edition  by  Charles  An-
nandale,  4  vols,  published 1882

Rev.  W.  W.  Skeat's  "Etymological  Dictionary  of
the  English  language"  published . . . 1882-4

"  The  Century  Dictionary :  "  an  encyclopedic
lexicon  of  the  English  language,  edited  by  Prof.
W.  D.  Whitney,  6  vols 1889-91

DIDYMIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  by
Mosander  in  1841.  It  appears  to  be  always  asso-
ciated with  lanthanum  and  cerium.  Declared  to  be
a  compound  by  Mr.  W.  Crookes  in  1888.

DIEPPE  (N.  France).  This  town  was  bom-
barded by  an  English  fleet,  under  admiral  Russell,
and  laid  in  ashes,  July,  1694.  It  was  again  bom-
barded in  1794  ;  and  again,  together  with  the  town
of  Granville,  by  the  British,  14  Sept.  1803.

"DIES  IRJE"  ("Day  of  Wrath"),  a  Latin
mediaeval  hymn  on  the  day  of  judgment,  is  ascribed
to  various  authors,  amongst  others  to  pope  Gregory
the  Great  (died  about  604) ;  St.  Bernard  (died  1153) ;
but  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  composed
by  Thomas  of  Celano  (died  1255),  and  to  have  been
used  in  the  Roman  service  of  tlie  mass  before  1385.

DIET  of  the  German  Empire  (in  which
the  supreme  court  of  authority  of  the  empire  may
be  said  to  have  existed)  was  composed  of  three
colleges  :  one  of  electors,  one  of  princes,  and  one  of
imperial  towns,  and  commenced  with  the  edict  of
Charles  IV.  1356;  see  Golden  Bull;  Wurzburg
(1180) ;  Nuremberg  (1467)  ;  Worms  (1521)  ;  Spires
(1529) ;  Augsburg  (1530) ;  Batisbon  (1541) ;  Frank-
fort (1806,  et  seq.) ;  and  Germany.

DIETHEROSCOPE,  an  apparatus  for
geodesy  and  teaching  optics,  constructed  by  G.
Luvini,  of  Tunis,  and  announced,  April,  1876.

"  D  LEU-DONNE,"  the  name  given  in  his  in-
fancy to  Louis  le  Grand,  king  of  France,  the  queen,
his  mother,  having  been  barren  for  23  years  pre-


DIEU ET MON DROIT.


287


DIPLOMAS.


viously,- 1638.  Also  to  the  comte  de  Chambord,son  of
the  duchess  of  Berri,born  29  Sept.  1820,  died  24  Aug.
1883.  His  father  was  assassinated,  14  Feb.  1820.  One
of  the  popes  (672)  was  named  Adeodat  us  or  God's  gift.

.DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT  ("God  and  my
right"),  the  royal  motto  of  England,  was  the  parole
of  the  da)r,  given  by  Richard  I.  of  England  to  his
army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors,  in  France,  20  Sept.
1 198,  when  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated.
" Dicu  et  mon  droit"  appears  to  have  been  first
assumed  as  a  motto  by  Henry  VI.  (1422-1461)  ;  see
Semper  Eadem.

,  DIFFERENTIAL  ENGINE,  see  Calcula-
ting Machine.

DIFFUSION  of  Gases.  In  1825,  Dobereiner
observed  the  transmission  of  hydrogen  gas  through
a  crack  in  a  glass  vessel,  and  professor  Thomas
Graham  discovered  the  passage  of  gases  through
porous  porcelain,  graphite,  and  other  substances,
and  established  laws  in  1832,  and  to  him  we  are
indebted  for  the  discovery  of  Atmohjsis  and  Dia-
lysis. He  died  16  Sept.  1869.

DIFFUSION  of  .Useful Ejstoweedge

SOCIETY,  which  published  a  number  of  books
relating  to  history,  science,  and  literature,  and  an
atlas,  in  a  cheap  form,  ridiculed  as  the  "  Sixpenny
Sciences,"  was  established  by  Lord  Brougham,  Mr.
William  Tooke,  Mr.  Charles  Knight,  and  others.
It  published  its  "  Library"  1827-48,  and  patronised
the  publication  of  the  Penny  Magazine  and  the
Penny  Cyclopaedia.  Its  proceedings  were  suspended
in  1846.  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain
was  established  in  1799,  for  "the  Promotion,  Dif-
fusion, and  Extension  of  Science  and  Useful  Know-
ledge."

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws
under  this  title  was  prepared  by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the
civilian,  of  Cremona,  66  B.C.  Quintil.  The  "Di-
gest," so  called  by  way  of  eminence,  was  the
collection  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian,
529 :  it  made  the  first  part  of  the  Roman  law  and
the  first  volume  of  the  civil  law.  Quotations  from  it
are  marked  with  a  ff.  Pardon.  The  "Digest  of
Law "  commissioners  signed  their  first  report
13  May,  1867,  recommending  the  immediate  prepa-
ration of  a  digest  of  the  English  common  law,  statute
law,  and  judicial  decisions.

DIGITS  {digitus,  finger),  any  whole  number
under  10:  1,  2,  &c,  are  the  nine  digits  ;  see  Arith-
metic. In  astronomy,  the  digit  is  a  measure  used  in
the  calculation  of  eclipses,  and  is  the  twelfth  part  of
the  luminary  eclipsed.

DIJON,  E.  France,  the  ancient  capital  of  Bur-
gundy, is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Julius
Caesar,  fortified  by  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,
and  named  Divio,  about  274.  It  has  been  several
times  captured  in  Avar ;  and  a  castle  was  erected
here  by  Louis  XL  Dijon  became  the  capital  of  the
dukes  of  Burgundy  about  1 180.  It  was  attacked  by
the  Germans,  under  general  Beyer,  30  Oct.  1870.
The  heights  and  suburbs  were  taken  by  prince
"William  of  Baden,  and  the  town  surrendered  on
31  Oct.

DILAPIDATIONS,  see  Ecclesiastical.

DILETTANTI,  Society  of,  established  in
*  734  by  the  viscount  Harcourt,  lord  Middlesex,  duke
of  Dorset,  and  others  who  had  travelled  and  who
were  desirous  of  encouraging  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts
in  Great  Britain.  The  society  published,  or  aided  in
publishing,  Stuart's  Athens  (1762-1816),  Chandler's
Travels  (1775-6),  and  several  other  finely  illustrated


works.  The  members  dine  together  from  time  to
time  at  the  Thatched-house  tavern,  St.  James's.
Mr.  R.  P.  Pullan,  on  behalf  of  this  society,  exca-
vated the  temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  of  Apollo
Smintheus  in  the  Troad,  and  of  Minerva  Polias  at
Priene,  between  1861-70.  Published  "Antiquities
of  Ionia,"  4  parts,  1 769- 188 1.

DIMITY,  the  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek,

dis,  twice,  and  mitos,  thread.

DINAS,  see  Accidents  under  Coal,  and  Mansion
Souse.

DINNERS,  see  Destitute.

DIOCESE.  The  first  division  of  the  Roman
empire  into  dioceses,  at  that  period  civil  govern-
ments, is  ascribed  to  Constantine,  323  ;  but  Strabo
remarks  that  the  Romans  had  the  departments
called  dioceses  long  before.  In  England  the  princi-
pal dioceses  are  coeval  with  the  establishment  of
Christianity  ;  of  28  dioceses,  20  are  suffragan  to  the
diocese  of  Canterbury,  and  six  to  that  of  York  ;  see
Bishops,  and  the  sees  severally.  Diocesan  confer-
ences of  the  clergy  and  laity  now  frequent.

DIOCLES'  CODE,  drawn  up  by  him  for
Syracuse,  where  he  was  a  popular  leader,  412  B.C.
It  was  highly  approved,  and  copied  by  other  nations,
and  remained  in  force  till  superseded  by  the  Roman
laws,  after  the  conquest,  212  B.C.

DIOCLETIAN  ERA  (called  also  the  era  of
Martyrs,  on  account  of  the  persecution  in  his  reign)
was  used  by  Christian  writers  until  the  introduction
of  the  Christian  era  in  the  6th  century,  and  is  still
employed  by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  dates
from  the  day  on  which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed
emperor  at  Chalcedon,  29  Aug.  284.

DIOPTRIC  SYSTEM  (from  the  Greek,  dia,
through,  and  optomai,  I  see),  an  arrangement  of
lenses  for  refracting  light  in  lighthouses,  devised
by  Fresnel,  about  1819,  based  on  the  discoveries  of
Buffon,  Condorcet,  Brewster,  and  others;  see  Light-
houses.

DIORAMA.  This  admired  exhibition  was  first
opened  by  MM.  Bouton  and  Daguerre  in  Paris,
II  July,  1822;  in  London,  29  Sept.  1823.  It  was
not  successful  commercially  here,  and  was  sold  in
1848.  The  building  in  Regent's-park  was  pur-
chased by  sir  S.  M.  Peto,  in  1855,  to  be  used  as  a
Baptist  chapel.

DIPHTHERIA  (from  the  Greek  diphthera,
leather),  a  disease  resembling  croup  which  has
the  essential  character'  of  developing  a  false  mem-
brane on  the  mucous  membrane  connected  with  the
throat.  It  was  named  diphtheritis  bv  Bretonneau
of  Tours  in  1820.  From  its  prevalence"  in  Boulogne,
it  has  been  termed  the  Boulogne  sore-throat ;  many
persons  were  affected  with  it  in  England  at  the  be-
ginning of  1858.  The  princess  Alice,  grand-duchess
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  died  of  this  disease,  14  Dec.
1878,  after  nursing  her  husband  and  children.

.  DIPLOMACY,  the  art  of  managing  the  rela-
tions of  foreign  states  by  means  of  ambassadors,
envoys,  consuls,  charges  d'affaires,  &c. ;  see  Ambas-
sadors and  Consuls.  New  regulations  for  the  British
diplomatic  service  were  issued  5  Sept.  1862.

DIPLOMAS.  The  wholesale  fraudulent  sale
of  diplomas  of  M.D.,  &c,  for  10V.,  by  a  Dr.
Buchanan,  dean  of  the  American  University  of
Philadelphia,  and  others,  was  detected  in  1880.  He
attempted  escape  by  a  sham  suicide,  but  was  cap-
tured, prosecuted,  and  imprisoned.


DIPLOMATICS.


288 DISRAELI  ADMINISTRATIONS.


DIPLOMATICS,  the  foreign  term  for^  the
science  of  palaeography  or  ancient  writings.  Valu-
able works  on  this  subject  have  been  compiled  by
Mabillon  (1681),  De  Vaines  (1774),  Astle  (1781),
De  Wailly  (1838),  and  other  antiquaries.

"  DIRECTORY  for  the  Public  Worship

OF  GOD  "  was  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of  the  par-
liament by  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster
in  1644,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Book  of  Common
Prayer.  The  general  hints  given  were  to  be  man-
aged with  discretion  ;  for  the  Directory  prescribed
no  form  of  prayer  or  manner  of  external  worship,
and  enjoined  the  people  to  make  no  responses  except
Amen.  It  was  adopted  by  the  parliament  of  Scot-
land in  1645,  and  many  of  its  regulations  are  still
observed  by  presbyterians.

DIRECTORY,  The  French,  established
by  the  constitution  of  the  5th  of  Fructidor,  an  III.
(22  Aug.  1795),  and  nominated  1  Nov.,  was  com-
posed of  five  members  (MM.  Lepeaux,  Letourneur,
Eewbel,  Barras,  and  Carnot).  On  18  Fructidor,
4  Sep.  1797,  two  directors  (Carnot  and  Barthelemy)
were  deposed,  and  afterwards,  with  other  officials,
transported  to  Cayenne  for  favouring  royalty.  The
directory  ruled  in  conjunction  with  two  chambers,
the  Council  of  Ancients  and  Council  of  Five  Hun-
dred (which  see),  till  the  revolution  of  the  18th  of
Brumaire  (9,  10  Nov.  1799).  It  was  deposed  by
Bonaparte,  who,  with  Cambaceres  and  Lebrun,  as-
sumed the  government  as  three  consuls,  himself  the
first,  13  Dec.  1799;  see  Consuls.

DIRECTORY,  the  first  London,  is  said  to
have  been  printed  in  1677.  The  "Post-office  Direc-
tory "  first  appeared  in  1800.

Messrs.  Kelly's  "  Directory  of  the  Merchants,  Manu-
facturers, and  Shippers  of  the  United  Kingdom,"
was  first  published  in  1877  ;  at  first  triennially,  now
annually.

DIRECTORS'  LIABILITY  Act,  relating
to  prospectuses,  &c.,  of  public  companies,  passed
18  Aug.  1890.

"DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST"  (also  called
Campkeli.ites)*  profess  adherence  to  pure  Scrip-
tural doctrine  and  practice,  reject  human  creeds
and  formularies,  and  admit  to  their  communion  all
who  recognise  Christ's  obedience  and  death,  as
"  the  only  meritorious  cause  of  the  sinner's  accept-
ance with  God;"  and  are  baptized  (by  immersion)
in  his  name.

DISCIPLINE,  ecclesiastical,  originally  con-
ducted spiritually  according  to  the  divine  commands
in  Matt,  xviii.  15,  1  Cor.  v.,  2  Thess.  iii.  6,  and
other  texts,  was  gradually  changed  to  a  temporal
character,  as  it  now  appears  in  the  Roman,  Greek,
and  other  churches.  The  "  First  Book  of  Disci-
pline" of  the  presbyterian  church  of  Scotland  was
drawn  up  by  John  Knox  and  four  ministers  in
Jan.  1560-1.  The  more  important  "Second  Book"
was  prepared  with  great  care  in  1578  by  Andrew
Melville  and  a  committee  of  the  leading  members
of  the  general  assembly.  It  lays  down  a  thoroughly
presbyterian  form  of  government,  defines  the  posi-
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers,  &c.

*  The  term  Campbellite  originated  through  their  first
church  at  Brush  Run,  in  America,  having  been  set  up
by  a  Scotch  presbyterian  preacher  from  Ireland,  named
Thomas  Campbell,  and  his  son  Alexander.  In  1812  they
renounced  infant  baptism,  and  were  rebaptized  by  im-
mersion. Their  number  in  America  is  said  to  be  about
600,000 ;  and  in  the  United  Kingdom,  where  the  move-
ment began  independently  and  simultaneously,  about
5000. They  have  also  churches  in  the  British  colonies.


DISCOUNT,  see  under  Bank  of  England.

DISESTABLISHMENT.  See  Church  of
Ireland.

DISPENSARIES,  to  supply  the  poor  with
medical  advice  and  medicines,  began  in  London.
The  Royal  General  Dispensary,  London,  was  estab-
lished in  St.  Bartholomew's  Close,  in  1770.  It
relieved  about  20,000  persons  in  1861 ;  about  17,000
in  1866.  Western  Dispensary,  1789.  Garth's  satiric
poem,  "  The  Dispensary,"  published  1699.

DISPENSATIONS,  ecclesiastical,  were  first
granted  by  pope  Innocent  III.  in  1200.  These
exemptions  from  the  discipline  of  the  church,  with,
indulgences,  absolutions,  &c,  led  eventually  to  the
Reformation  in  Germany  in  1517.

DISPENSING-  POWER  of  the  Crown

(for  setting  aside  laws  or  their  power)  asserted  by
some  of  our  sovereigns,  especially  by  Charles  II.
(in  1672  for  the  relief  of  nonconformists)  and  by
James  II.  principally  to  enable  Roman  Catholics  to-
bold  civil  and  military  offices,  in  1686-8,  was
abolished  by  the  bill  of  rights,  1689.  It  has  been
on  certain  occasions  exercised,  as  in  the  case  of
embargoes  upon  ships,  the  Bank  Charter  act,  &c. ;
see  Indemnity.

DISRAELI  ADMINISTRATIONS. t  On

the  resignation  of  the  earl  of  Derby  through  ill-health ,
25  Feb.,  1868,  Mr.  Disraeli  reconstituted  the  minis-
try, 29  Feb.  (see  Derby  Administrations,  III.).  As.
the  elections  gave  a  large  majority  to  the  liberal
party,  Mr.  Disraeli's  ministry  resigned  2  Dec.  He
declined  to  take  office  with  the  then  house  of
commons  when  Mr.  Gladstone  resigned,  12  March,
1873,  and  the  latter  resumed  office.

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,  29  Feb. 1868.

First  lord  of  treasury,  Benjamin  Disraeli.

Lord  chancellor,  Hugh  MacCalmont,  lord  Cairns.

Lord  president  of  the  council,  John,  duke  of  Marlborough.

Lord  privy  seal,  James,  earl  of  Malmesbury.

Secretaries— home,  Gathorne  Hardy  ; — foreign,  Edward,
lord  Stanley  ; — colonies,  Richard,  duke  of  Buckingham
and  Chandos  ; — war,  sir  John  S.  Pakington  ; — India,
sir  Stafford  Henry  Northcote.

Chancellor  of  exchequer,  George  Ward  Hunt.

First  lord  of  admircdt.y,  Henry  Thomas  L.  Corry.

Chief  commissioner  of  works,  lord  John  Manners.

President  of  board  of  trade,  Charles  Henry,  duke  of  Rich-
mond.

Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  Richard,  earl  of  Mayo  ;  made
viceroy  of  India,  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by  col.  J.  Wilson
Patten,  7  Nov.  1868.

President  of  poor-law  board,  Wm.  Reginald,  earl  of  Devon.
The  above  formed  the  Cabinet.

Postmaster-genercd,  James,  duke  of  Montrose.

Lord  great  chamberlain,  Orlando,  earl  of  Bradford.

Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  col.  John  Wilson  Patten ;
succeeded  by  col.  Thos.  E.  Taylor,  7  Nov.  1868.

Lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  James,  earl  (afterwards  mar-
quis) of  Abercorn.

*  Benjamin  Disraeli  (son  of  Isaac  Disraeli,  author  of  the
"Curiosities  of  Literature,"  &c. ,)  born  21  Dec.  1805;
published  "Vivian  Grey,"  1825;  M.P.  for  Maidstone,
1837-41  ;  Shrewsbury,  1841-7  ;  Bucks,  1847-76.  Chancel-
lor of  Exchequer  (see  Derby  administrations),  Feb.  1852  ;
Feb.  1858  ;  July,  1866 ;  installed  lord  rector  of  Glasgow
university,  19  Nov.  1873  ;  created  earl  of  Beaeonsfield,.
Aug.  1876  ;  plenipotentiary  at  the  Berlin  Congress,  13
June — 13  July,  1S78  ;  KG.  invested  by  the  queen,  22-
July,  1878  ;  received  freedom  of  London,  3  Aug.  1878  ;
("at  the  pinnacle  of  ministerial  renown;  the  favourite
of  his  sovereign,  and  the  idol  of  society," — Times,  8  Aug.
1878);  see  People's  Tribute;  resigned  (through  liberal
majority  in  elections),  22  April,  1880  ;  published  "Endy-
mion,"  Dec,  1880;  died  19  April,  1881,  buried  at  Hugh-
enden  ;  prince  of  Wales  and  many  present,  26  April  ;
monument  in  Westminster  abbey  voted,  9  May,  1881.
Mrs.  Disraeli  created  viscountess  Beaeonsfield,  28  Nov.
1868  ;  died  15  Dec.  1872.


DISSECTION.


289


DIVINE  EIGHT.


Mr.  Disraeli's  Letter  of  30  Oct.  1873,  to  lord  Grey  de
Wilton,  severely  censuring  the  Gladstone  ministry  as
having  "harassed  every  trade,  worried  every  profession,
and  assailed  or  menaeed  every  class,  institution,  and
species  of  i>roperty  in  the  country  ;"  and  also  stating
that  the  country  has  "  made  up  its  mind  to  close  this
career  of  plundering  and  blundering  ;"  was  published
7  Oct.  1873. (See  Gladstone  Administration.)

vsecond  administration,  received  seals,  21  Feb.  1874.

tfirst  lord  of  the  treasury,  Benjamin  Disraeli  (earl  of
Beaconsfield,  16  Aug.  1876),—  and  lord  privy  seal,  Aug.,
1876  to  Jan.  1878).

Lord  chancellor,  Hugh,  lord  Cairns.

Lord  president  0/  the  council,  Charles  Henry,  duke  of
Richmond.

Lord  privy  seal,  James,  earl  of  Malmesbury ;  resigned,
12  Aug.  1876;  earl  of  Beaconsfield,  Aug.  1876;  Alger-
non, duke  of  Northumberland,  4  Feb.  1878.

^Secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  Edward,  earl  of
Derby  ;  resigned  ; — Robert,  marquis  of  Salisbury,  28
March,  1878.

■Secretary  of  state  for  India,  Robert,  marquis  of  Salis-
bury ; — Gathorne  Hardy,  created  viscount  Cranbrook,
2  April,  1878.

■Secretary  of  state  for  the  Colonies,  Henry,  earl  of  Carnar-
von ;  resigned,  24  Jan.  1878 ;  sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach,
4  Feb.  1878.

■Secretary  of  state  for  war,  Gathorne  Hardy  ;  col.  Fred.
Arthur  Stanley,  2  April,  1878.

■Secretary  of  state  for  home  department,  Richard  Assheton
Cross.

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  George  "Ward  Hunt,  died
29  July,  1877  ;  Wrn.  Henry  Smith,  7  Aug.  1877.

Trendent  of  board  of  trade,  sir  Charles  Adderley,  re-
signed, created  baron  Norton,  April,  1878  ; — Dudley
Ryder,  viscount  Sandon.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Sir  Stafford  Northcote.

jPostmaster-general,  lord  John  Manners.

(The  above  formed  the  Cabinet.)

Lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  James,  duke  of  Abercorn,
resigned  Dee.  1876  ;  John,  duke  of  Marlborough,  Dec.
1876.

Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  sir  Michael  Edward  Hicks-
Beach  (entered  the  cabinet,  Nov.  1876)  :  succeeded  by
James  Lowther,  Feb.  1878.

Vice-president  of  council  (education),  Dudley,  viscount
Sandon  ;  lord  George  Hamilton,  April,  1878.

•Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  col.  Thos.  E.  Taylor.

■Commissioner  of  woods  and  forests,  lord  Henry  Lennox,
resigned  July,  1876  ;  Gerard  James  Noel,  14  Aug.  1876.

DISSECTION,  see  Anatomy.

DISSENTERS,  the  modern  name  of  the
Puritans  and  Nonconformists  (which  see).  In
1 85 1,  in  London,  the  number  of  chapels,  meeting-
laouses,  &€.,  for  all  classes  of  dissenters  amounted
to  more  than  554.  (The  Church  of  England  had
458  ;  Soman  Catholics,  35.)  The  great  act  (9  Geo.
IV.  c.  17)  for  the  relief  of  dissenters  from  civil  and
religious  disabilities  was  passed  9  May,  1828.  By
this  act,  called  the  Corporation  and  Test  Kepeal  act,
so  much  of  the  several  acts  of  preceding  reigns  as
imposed  the  necessity  of  receiving  the  sacrament  of
the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for  certain
offices,  &c,  was  repealed.  By  6  &  7  Will-  IV.  c.  85
(1836),  dissenters  acquired  the  right  of  solemnising
marriages  at  their  own  chapels,  or  at  a  registry
office  ;  see  Worship  in  England.

A  Burials  Bill  to  permit  the  ministers  of  dissenters  to
officiate  at  funerals  in  churchyards  several  times  re-
jected ;  in  the  commons  248  to  234,  21  April,  1875  >
279  to  248,  3  March,  1876 ;  earl  Granville's  resolution
in  the  lords  rejected  148  to  92,  15  May,  1876.

Sl,ord  Harrowby's  additional  clause  to  the  government
burials  bill  (permitting  dissenters  to  have  religious
•services  in  churchyards),  was  supported  by  the  arch-
bishops, and  carried  against  government,  (127-m,)
18  June  ;  the  bill  withdrawn,  25  June,  1877.

Mr.  Osborne  Morgan's  resolution  for  reforming  burial
laws  (i.e.  permitting  other  services),  rejected  (242-227),
15  Feb.  1878.

Act  to  amend  the  burial  laws,  permitting  dissenters  to
have  their  own  service  or  no  service  in  churchyards  ;


passed  commons  (258-79),  13  Aug.,  royal  assent,  7
Sept.  1880.

The  Rev.  W.  H.  Fremantle  having  proposed  to  preach
at  Dr.  Parker's  city  temple,  and  the  bishop  of  London
having  disapproved,  the  opinion  of  two  counsel
(Messrs.  Fitzjames  Stephen  and  Benjamin  Shaw),
was  taken.  They  declared  it  to  be  illegal  for  the
clergy  of  the  English  church  to  take  part  in  worship
of  dissenters,  June,  1875.

Several  episcopal  clergymen  take  part  in  the  dedication
services  of  Christ  church  (formerly  Surrey  chapel)
Blackfriars,  middle  of  July,  1876.

DISSOLVING  VIEWS.  Henry  Langdon
Childe,  the  alleged  inventor,  died  15  Oct.  1874,
aged  92.

DISTAFF  (or  Eock),  the  staff  to  which  flax  or
any  substance  to  be  spun  is  fastened.  The  art  of
spinning  with  it  at  the  small  wheel,  first  taught  to
English  women  by  Anthony  Bonavisa,  an  Italian.
Stow.  St.  Distaff's  or  Rock  day,  was  formerly  the
first  free  day  after  the  Epiphany  (6th  Jan.")  because
the  Christmas  holidays  were  over  and  women's  work
was  resumed.

DISTILLATION,  and  the  various  processes
dependent  on  it,  are  believed  to  have  been  intro-
duced into  Europe  by  the  Moors  about  1150;  see
Alcohol,  Brandy.  The  distillation  of  spirituous
liquors  was  in  practice  in  Great  Britain  in  the  16th
century.  Bums.  The  processes  were  improved  by
Adam  of  Montpellier  in  1801.  M.  Payen's  work
(1861)  contains  recent  improvements.  An  act  to
prevent  the  use  of  stills  by  unlicensed  persons
was  passed  in  1846.  118  licences  to  distillers  were
granted  in  the  year  ending  31  March,  1858,  for  the
United  Kingdom.

M.  Raoul  Pictet  announces  a  method  of  distillation  by
use  of  ice  made  by  the  air-pump,  April,  1881.

DISTINGUISHED  SERVICE  ORDER,

for  army  and  navy  officers  established  9  Nov. ;  first
investiture,  17  Deo.  1886.

DISTRICT  AUDITORS  ACT,  42  Vict.  c.
6  (28  March,  1879),  regulated  then-  appointment,
duties,  and  payment.

DISTRICT  CHURCHES  ACTS. By  the

one  passed  in  1865  certain  new  churches  were  con-
stituted rectories,  and  by  another  act,  passed  in  1868
(the  Bishop  of  Oxford's  act)  the  new  parishes  not
rectories  were  ordered  to  be  styled  vicarages.

DITCH,  see  Expedition.

"DIVERSIONS  OF  PURLEY"  (" Epea
Pteroenta  "  flying  words)  a  collection  of  gramma-
tical treatises  by  John  Home  Tooke,  published  in
1786,  named  from  the  residence  at  Purley,  near
Wandsworth,  Surrey.

DIVIDENDS  of  Public  Stocks. By  an

act  passed  11  Aug.  1869,  these  may  be  paid  by  post
if  the  recipients  desire  it,  as  railway  dividends  are.

DIVINATION  was  forbidden  to  the  Jews,
B.C.  14.51.  (JDciit.  xviii.  9.)  It  was  common  among
their  neighbours :  and  is  described  by  Ezekiel
(xxi.  21)  493  B.C.

DIVINE  RIGHT  of  Kings,  the  absolute

and  unqualified  claim  of  hereditary  sovereigns  to  the
obedience  of  their  subjects,  a  doctrine  which  is  gene-
rally considered  to  be  foreign  to  the  genius  of  the
English  constitution,  was  defended  by  many  persons
of  otherwise  opposite  opinions,  e.g.,  by  James  I.,
by  Hobbes  the  free-thinker  (1642),  by  Salmasius
(1640),  by  sir  Robert  Filmer  (about  1653),  in  his
Patriarcha,  published  in  1680,  and  by  the  High
Church  party  generally  about  17 14,  but  opposed  by

V


DIVING-BELL.


290


DOCKS OF ENGLAND.


Milton  (1651),  Algernon  Sydney,  and  others.  The
comte  de  Chambord,  the  last  of  "the  elder  branch  of
the  Bourbons,  and  the  last  consistent  holder  of  the
divine  right  of  kings,  died  24  Aug.  1883.  See
France,  1872,  ct  seq.

DIVING-BELL  (first  mentioned,  though  ob-
scurely, by  Aristotle,  about  325  h.c.)  was  used  in
Europe  about  a.d.  1509.  It  is  said  to  have  been
used  on  the  coast  of  Mull,  in  searching  for  the
wreck  of  part  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  before  1662.
Halley  (about  17 16)  greatly  improved  this  machine,
and  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who,  by  means  of  a
diving-bell,  set  his  foot  on  the  ground'at  the  bottom
of  the  sea.  Smeaton  made  use  of  the  diving-bell
in  improving  Ramsgate  harbour,  1779-88.  Mr.
Spalding  and  his  assistants  going  down  in  a  diving-
hell  in  Ireland  were  drowned,  1  June,  1783.  The
Royal  George  man-of-war,  which  was  sunk  off
Portsmouth  in  1782,  was  first  surveyed  by  means  of
a  diving-bell  in  May,  1817.  Latterly  it  has  been
employed  in  submarine  surveys  and  harbour  works.
The  "  talpa  marina,"  or  sea-mole,  a  diving  machine
for  laying  down  torpedoes,  &c,  being  a  cylinder
provided  with  compressed  air  sufficient  for  two  per-
sons for  50  hours,  was  invented  by  Toselli,  a
Venetian,  and  was  successfully  tried  in  the  bay  of
Naples,  26  Aug.  1871.  Divine/  Dress,  a  close  dress
made  by  Mr.  Siebe  about  1836;  used  by  sir  C.  W.
Pasley  in  1838.  M.  Cabirol,  maker  of  one,  died
Dec.  1874.

Mr.  Fleuss  invented  a  helmet  with  a  mouthpiece,  into
which  he  introduced  enough  oxygen  to  fast  five  hours,
and  thus  was  enabled  to  remain  under  water  several
hours.  He  exhibited  his  method  at  the  Polytechnic
Institution,  London,  Nov.  1879,  and  at  the  Society  of
Arts,  6  May,  1880.

DIVINING  ROD  {virgula  divina,  bacula-
torius),  formed  of  wood  or  metal,  was  formerly  be-
lieved, even  by  educated  persons,  tohavethe  property
of  indicating  the  position  of  minerals  and  springs  of
water.  Instances  were  alleged  in  185 1  by  Dr.  H.
Mayo,  in  his  work  on  "-Popular  Superstitions."

DIVINITY,  see  Theology  and  Mythology.

DIVORCE  was  permitted  by  the  law  of  Moses
(Dent,  xxiv.  1),  1451  b.c,  but  forbidden  by  Christ
except  for  unchastity  {Matt.  v.  31,  32).  It  was  put
in  practice  by  Spurius  Carvilius  Ruga  at  Rome,
234  B.C.  At  this  time  morals  were  so  debased  that
3000  prosecutions  for  adultery  were  enrolled.  Di-
vorces are  of  two  kinds  ;  one,  a  vinculo  matrimonii
(total  divorce)  ;  the  other  d  mensu  et  thoro  (from
hoard  and  bed).  Divorces  were  attempted  to  be  made
of  more  easy  obtainment  in  England  in  1539.  The
Judicature  act,  1873,  constituted  the  probate,  divorce,
and  admiralty  division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,
with  two  judges.  See  Supreme  Court  and  Probate.
Bill  to  prevent  women  marrying their  seducers

brought  into  parliament j8oi

The  commissioners on  the  law  of  divorce  issued

their  first  report April,  1857

In  1S57  there  had  been  in  England,  since  the  Re-
formation, 317  divorces  by  act  of  parliament ;  in
Scotland,  by  the  law,  174  divorces  since  1846  ;
1858-67,  1279  dissolutions  of  marriage,  213  judicial
separations.  In  1887,  7,321  applications  for  divorce
or  judicial  separation  were  successful.
From  the  establishment  of  the  divorce  court,  to
March,  1859,  37  divorces  had  been  granted  out
of  288  petitions  ;  from  Nov.  i860  to  July,  1861, 164.
By  20  &  21  Vict.  c.  85,  the  .jurisdiction  of  the  eccle-
siastical courts  respecting  divorce,  &c,  was
abolished,  and  the  Divorce  and  Matrimonial
Causes  court  instituted,  to  consist  of  three
.judges,  the  judge  of  the  Probate  court  to  be  one

(if  possible)

A  full  court  sat— lord  Campbell,  chief  baron  Pollock', '


sir  Cresswell  Cresswell  (judge  of  the  Probate  court)
when  five  marriages  were  dissolved . 10  May,  1858

The  act,  amended  by  acts  passed  in  consequence  of
the  increase  of  the  business  of  the  court  .  1858-60

An  act  respecting  divorces  in  Scotland  passed . . 1861

Sir  C.  Cresswell  died  in  July  ;  sir  James  P.  Wilde
(afterwards  lord  Penzance)  successor . Sept.  1863:

Lord  Penzance  retired,  Oct. ;  succeeded  by  sir  James

Hannen Nov.  1872

See  Probate  Court  and  Supreme  Court.

The  Divorce  Amendment  act  passed  21  July,  1868.

Between  1856  and  1867  1279  dissolutions  of  mar-
riage and  213  judicial  separations  were  decreed.

Divorces  1858-87,  7321.  In  1858,  200 ;  1868,  200 ;
1878,  403  ',1887,  450;  divorces  in  United  States,
1867-86,  328,716.

On  appeal,  the  House  of  Lords  decide  that  proceed-
ings may  be  taken  foi  divorce  from  a  wife  insane
(see  Mordaunt  case,  Trials,  1870) . 22  June,  1874:

Sebright  case,  1886,  see  Trials.

Divorce  legalized  by  the  French  Republic  ;  about
7000  divorces  in  Paris  alone  1793-4  i  prohibited  by
the  civil  code,  yet  Napoleon  I.  divorced  Josephine
16  Dec.  1809  ;  again  prohibited  1816  ;  again  lega-
lized (with  conditions)  by  M.  Naquet's  bill,  passed
July  ;  many  suits  instituted . . . Aug.  1884.

Total  up  to  end  of  1889,  15,521.

In  the  United  States  of  N.A.  in  twenty  years  (1867-
86),  there  were  328,716  divorces.  To  check
divorce  by  reforming  the  law,  the  National
Divorce  League  addressed  congress . . .  1889

Bills  greatly  facilitating  divorce  passed  by  the  par-
liaments of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,
vetoed  by  the  colonial  office .... 1888-9.

A  divorce  bill  for  Victoria,  having  received  the
assent  of  the  home  government,  the  bishops  of
Victoria  forbid  their  clergy  marrying  divorced
persons ...  ... May,  1890

DIZIER,  ST.  (N.E.  France).  Here  a  siege
was  sustained  for  six  weeks  against  the  army  of  the
emperor  Charles  V.,  1544.  The  allies  here  defeated
Napoleon,  27  Jan.  and  26  March,  1814.

DOBRUDSCHA,  the  N.E.  corner  of  Bulgaria ;
in  1854,  the  scene  of  the  earlier  incidents  of  the
Russo-Turkish  war  (which  see) .  At  the  close  of  the
war  of  1877-8  it  was  given  to  Roumania  in  ex-
change for  the  part  of  Bessarabia  restored  to  Russia,
and  occupied  26  Dec.  1878.

DOCE'LZE,  a  sect  of  the  1st  century,  said  to  have
held  that  Jesus  Christ  was  God,  but  that  his  body
was  an  appearance,  not  a  reality.

DOCKS  OF  ENGLAND.  The  following  are
the  principal  commercial  docks : —

Commercial  Docks,  Rotherhithe,  originated  about  1660.

West  India  Docks  commenced  3  Feb.  1800 ;  opened
27  Aug.  1802,  when  the  "Henry  Addingtou,"  West
Indiaman,  first  entered  them,  decorated  with  the
colours  of  the  different  nations  of  Europe.

London  Docks  were  commenced  26  June,  1802,  and
opened  20  Jan.  1805.

East  India  Docks  commenced  1803  ;  opened  4  Aug.  1806.

St.  Katharine's  Docks  began  3  May,  1827  ;  and  2500  men
were  daily  employed  on  them  until  they  were  opened.
25  Oct.  1828.

Royal  Victoria  Docks  (in  Plaistow  marshes)  completed
and  opened  Nov.  1855  ;  great  enlargement  proposed,
July,  1876  ;  completed  and  named  Royal  Albert  Docks
by  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught,  24  June,  i88u.

Magnificent  docks  at  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  erected
1810-57.

Millwall  Docks.near  London,  formally  opened,  14  March,
1868.

A  great  floating  iron  dry  dock,  which  cost  250,000?.,  was
launched  at  North  Woolwich,  3  Sept.  1868 ;  and
towed  from  the  Medway  by  two  ships  of  war,  23  June,
1869,  and  arrived  at  the  Bermudas  (in  thirty-six  days),
30  July.

The  construction  for  floating  docks  for  repairing  ships
advocated  by  lord  Brassey,  Jan.  1887.

Erection  of  docks  at  Tilbury  determined  on  30  Sept.
1881  ;  begun  8  July,  1882  ;  opened  17  April,  1886.


DOCTOE.


291


DOG-DAYS.


New  Barry  docks,  7  miles  west  of  Cardiff,  Bristol  channel
(which  with  breakwater,  &c,  cost  850,000/.),  opened
iS  July,  1889.

For  the  dock  labourers'  strike,  see  Strikes,  15  Aug.-i4  '
Sept.,  1889.

The  wharfingers  and  other  employers  of  labour  resolve
to  form  a  union,  4  Feb.  1890.

The  Port  of  Loudon  Docks,  &c,  Association,  &c,  resolve
to  employ  any  men  they  please,  whether  belonging  to
the  union  or  not,  12  Feb.  1890.

The  dock  companies  employ  free  and  union  labour,  with-
out much  resistance  from  the  union  and  the  men,  3
Nov.  et  seq.  1890.

A  co-operative  system  working  well,  Nov.,  Dec,  1890.

Renewal  of  strikes  ;  the  unionists  opposing  the  engage-
ment of  federation  men,  see  under  Shipping,  Feb.  1891.

ROYAL DOCK-YAEDS.

Woolwich,  an  extensive  one  in  1509 ;  closed  1  Oct.  1869.

Deptford  dock-yard  founded  about  1513,  closed  31  March,
1869.

Chatham  dock-yard  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth.
Three  grand  docks  constructed  at  a  cost  of  about
2,000,000/.  independent  of  cost  of  convict  labour,
1866-83.

Portsmouth  dock-yard  established  by  Henry  VIII.

Plymouth  dock,  now  Devonport,  about  1689.  Great  fire
here,  by  which  the  1'alavera,  of  74  guns,  the  Imogene
frigate,  of  28  guns,  and  immense,  stores,  were  de-
stroyed ;  the  relics  and  figure-heads  of  the  favourite
ships  of  Boscawen,  Rodney,  Duncan,  and  other  naval
heroes,  which  were  preserved  in  a  naval  museum,
were  also  burnt:  the  loss  was  estimated  at  200,000/.,
27  Sept.  1840. Great  fire,  damage  20,000/.  8  Feb.  1882.

Sheerness  dock-yard  was  built  by  Charles  II.  after  the
insult  of  the  Dutch,  who  burnt  our  men-of-war  at
Chatham  in  1667.  A  fire  occurred  at  Sheerness  dock-
yard, on  board  the  Camperdown,  9  Oct.  1840.

Milford-Haven  dock-yard,  1790;  removed  to  Pembroke
in  18 14. — See  Hull.

DOCTOE.  Doctor  of  the  Church,  was  a  title
given  to  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,
and  Chrysostom  in  the  Greek  church ;  and  to
Jerome,  Augustin,  Ambrose,  and  Gregory  the  Great
in  the  Latin  church ;  see  Fathers.  Afterwards  the
title  of  doctor  only  was  conferred  on  certain  persons
with  distinguishing  epithets,  viz. :  Thomas  Aquinas
(Angelicus),  Bonaventura  (Seraphicus),  Alexander
de  Hales  (Irrefragabilis),  Duns  Scotus  (Subtilis),
Roger  Bacon  (Mirabilis),  William  Occam  (Singu-
laris),  Joseph  Gerson  (Christianissimus),  Thomas
Bradwardine  (Profundus),  and  so  on.  Doctor  of  the
Law,  was  a  title  of  honour  among  the  Jews.  The
degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England,  8  John,
1207.  Spelman.  Some  give  it  an  earlier  date,
referring  it  to  the  time  of  the  Venerable  Bede  and
John  de  Beverley,  the  former  of  whom,  it  is  said,
was  the  first  that  obtained  the  degree  at  Cam-
bridge in  the  8th  century.

DOCTOES'  COMMONS,  the  college  for  the
professors  of  civil  and  canon  law  in  the  8th  century.
In  February,  1568,  Dr.  Henry  Hervie,  dean  of  the
arches  and  master  of  Trinity -hall  (a  seminary
founded  at  Cambridge  chiefly  for  the  study  of  the
civil  and  canon  laws),  procured  from  the  dean  and
chapter  of  the  diocese  of  London  a  lease  of  Montjoy-
house  and  buildings  in  the  parish  of  St.  Benet,
Paul's  wharf,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  society.
Other  courts  being  held  here,  the  whole  place  re-
ceived the  appellation  of  "Doctors'  Commons."
The  original  college  was  destroyed  in  the  great
fire  of  1666;  in  1672  it  was  rebuilt  on  the  old
site.  After  the  great  fire,  until  1672,  the  society
held  its  courts  at  Exeter-house  in  the  Strand,  ft
was  incorporated  by  charter  in  June,  1768.  Coote.
The  buildings  of  the  College  of  Advocates,  which
included  all  the  courts  of  Doctors'  Commons,  (arches,
admiralty,  consistory,  &e.)  were  purchased  by  the
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  and  were  pulled  down


in  April,  1867,  for  the  new  Queen  Victoria  Street  ;
some  new  buildings  were  erected.  Till  18^7  the
causes  taken  cognizance  of  here  were  blasphemy,
divorces,  bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes,
mortuaries,  probate  of  wills,  &c. ;  see  Ecclesiastical
Courts,  Civil  Law,  &c.

The  building  in  Knightrider-street  being  dilapidated  and
too  small,  the  wills  were  removed  to  Somerset-house,
where  the  office  was  opened  24  Oct.  1874.

DOCTEINAIEES,  a  name  given  since  1814
to  a  class  of  politicians  in  France  (Guizot,  Mole,
the  due  de  Broglie  and  others),  who  upheld  con-
stitutional principles,  in  opposition  to  arbitrary
monarchical  power.  The  party  came  into  office  in
1830  under  Louis-Philippe,  and  fell  with  him  in
1848.  The  term  has  been  applied  in  this  country
to  the  writers  in  the  "  Westminster  Review  "  (1824,
et  seq.),  Bentham,  Molesworth,  and  others.

DODONA,  Epirus.  The  temple  of  Jupiter
here,  renowned  for  its  ancient  oracle,  delivered  by
the  sound  of  wiud  in  a  grove  of  trees,  was  destroyed
by  the  iEtolians,  219  B.C.  'I  he  foundations  of  the
temple,  with  other  relics,  were  discovered  in  1883,
by  the  excavations  of  M.  Carapanos.

DODSON'S  ACT  (brought  forward  by  Mr.
John  G.  Dodson,  and  passed  1  Aug.  1861)  provides
that  votes  for  electing  members  of  parliament  for
the  universities  may  be  recorded  by  means  of  polling
papers. The  act  was  amended  in  1868.

DOGS  were  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians  and
hated  by  the  Hebrews.  The  greyhound  and  mastiff
are  represented  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures  in  the
British  Museum.  V.  Shaw's  "Book  of  the  Dog"
(new  edition),  1881 ;  J.  H.  WaL-h's  "Dogs  of  the
British  Islands,"  (new  edition),  1878.

Statute  against  dog  stealing,  10  Geo.  III.  . . 1770

Dog-tax  imposed,  1796 ;  and  again  in  1808 ;  12s.  a  year
realised  219,313/.,  in  1866

Assessed  taxes  on  dogs  repealed,  29  Mar.  1867  ;  an
annual  excise  duty  of  5s.  imposed  on  all  dogs
more  than  six  months  old,  to  begin  on  5  April,
1867 ;  increased  to  7s.  6d. . . . 1  June,  1878'

Employment  of  dogs  in  drawing  carts,  <fec,  abol-
ished in  London,  1839 ;  in  the  United  Kingdom .  1854

Several  clubs  have  been  formed  to  improve  the
breeds.

Dog  shows  held  in  London  in  1861 ;  since  1862  at
the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington,  at  the  Crystal
Palace,  and  other  places.

"  Dogs'  temporary  home  "  opened,  Hollingsworth-
stre.et,  London,  N. ,  1861 ;  removed  to  Battersea
in  187 1 ;  about  2200  animals  have  been  sheltered  in
a  year  ;  adapted  for  cats,  1882.

As  a  nuisance,  dogs  at  large  unmuzzled  in  the
metropolis  were  ordered  to  be  seized  by  the
police July  to  27  Nov.  1868

A  new  act,  more  stringent,  passed . 24  July,  1871

Master  McGrath,  an  excessively  fleet  hound,  the
property  of  Lord  Lurgan,  thrice  won  the  Waterloo
cup ;  was  sent  for  the  queen  to  see,  1  Mar. ,  and
died 24  Dec. .,

"  Help,"  the  railway  dog  (a  colley),  by  mute  appeals,
collected  above  200?.  lor  the  railway  men's  orphan
fund Jan. — Sept.  1884

About  7,000  dogs  sent  to  the  home  at  Battersea,

mid-Doc.  1SS5

The  muzzling  of  dogs  in  the  metropolis  ordered  by
the  police  ceased,  31  Dec.  1886  ;  a  similar  order
made  in  1889  ;  ceased,  31  Dec.  1890,  rabies  having
greatly  diminished.

Dog  licences  issued  in  financial  year  1S71-2,  produced
279,425'-  ;m  1875-6,  343>257'-;  i'1  1876-7,  349.613'-  :
iu  1877-8,  372, 699?.  ;  in  1881-2,  342,836/.;  1111883-4,
336,665/.  ;  1887-8,  354,278/.

Number  of  dogs  licensed  in  United  Kingdom:  in
1866,  445,656;  in  1876,  1,362,176.

DOG-DAYS.  The  canicular  or  dog-days  now
commence  on  3  July  and  end  II  Aug;  other  dates

v  2


DOGE.


292


DONCASTER.


•were  formerly  given.  The  rising  and  setting  of
Sirius  or  the  dog-star  with  the  sun  has  been
erroneously  regarded  as  the  cause  of  excessive
heat  and  of  consequent  calamities.

DOGE  or  DtTKE  :  Venice  was  first  governed  by
a  doge  named  Anafesto  Paululio,  or  Paoluccio,  697 ;
see  Venice.  The  Genoese  chose  their  first  doge,
Simone  Boccanegra,  in  1339. Muratori.

DOGGER-BANK  (German  Ocean).  Here  a
gallant  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought  between
the  British,  under  admiral  sir  Hyde  Parker,  and
the  Dutch,  5  Aug.  1781.

DOGGETT'S COAT  and BADGE.

Thomas  Doggett,  an  eminent  actor  of  Drury-lane,
at  the  first  anniversary  of  the  accession  to  the
throne  of  George  I.,  1  Aug.  1715,  gave  a  water-
man's coat  and  silver  badge  to  be  rowed  for  by  six
young  watermen  in  honour  of  the  day,  and  be-
queathed at  his  death,  in  1722,  a  sum  of  money  to
continue  the  custom.  Bowed  for  1  Aug.  1888  as
usual.

DOIT.  The  ancient  silver  Scottish  penny,  of
which  twelve  were  equal  to  a  penny  sterling.
The  circulation  of  "doydekyns"  (small  Dutch
coins)  was  prohibited  by  statute  in  1415.

DOLLAR,  the  German  thaler.  Stamped
Spanish  dollars  (value  4s.  gd.)  were  issued  fiom
the  Mint  in  March,  1797,  but  called  in  Oct.  fol-
lowing. The  dollar  is  the  principal  silver  coin  in
the  United  States  of  North  America,  value  about
4s.  British  money.

DOLLY'S  BRAE,  see  Riots,  1849.

DOM  and  DITOMO,  see  Cologne  and  Milan.

DOM-BOC  or  Doom-Book  (Liber  Judicialis),
the  code  of  law  compiled  by  king  Alfred  from  the
West-Saxon  collection  of  In  a  and  other  sources.
Alfred  reigned  from  871  to  901.

DOME'S-DAY  BOOK  orDOOM'S-DAY

[Domus  Dei  book,  Stoiv]  (Liber  Censualis  Angliai) ,
a  book  of  the  general  survey  of  England,  com-
menced in  the  reign  of  William  I.,  1080  (some  say
1085),  and  completed  in  1086.  It  was  intended  to
be  a  register  to  determine  the  right  in  the  tenure
of  estates*  ;  and  from  it  the  question  whether  lands
be  ancient  demesne  or  not,  is  sometimes  still  de-
cided. The  book,  formerly  kept  in  the  Chapter-
house of  Westminster,  is  now  in  the  Public  Record
Office.  It  consists  of  two  volumes,  a  greater  and  less,
wherein  all  the  counties  of  England,  except  North-
umberland, Durham,  Westmorland,  and  Cumber-
land, are  surveyed.  "  This  Dome's-day  book  was
the  tax-book  of  kinge  William."  Camden.  The
taxes  were  levied  according  to  this  survey  till
13  Hen.  VIII.,  1522,  when  a  more  accurate  survey
was  taken,  called  by  the  people  the  New  Doom's-
Day-Book.  It  was  printed  in  four  vols,  folio,  with
introductions,  &c,  1783-1816.  Photo-zinco-graphic
copies  of  various  counties  have'  been  published
since  1861.  In  Sept.  1872,  government  ordered  a
return  of  all  the  owners  of  land  in  England  and
Wales — in  fact,  anew  Dome's-Day-Book ;  the  work
to  be  done  by  the  Local  Government  Board.  The
eighth  centenary  of  the  completion  of  the  original
Doomsday  Book,  celebrated  in  London,  25-29  Oct.
1886.

The  return  for  Scotland  1872-3,  was  published  by  go-
vernment, April,  1874;  for  England  and  Wales  (ex-
clusive of  the  metropolis)  in  1875  ;  for  Ireland,  1876.

*Sir  Martin  Wright  says,  "to  discover  the  quantity  of
every  man's  fee,  and  to  fix  his  homage,"  i.e.,  the  question
of  military  aid  he  was  bound  to  furnish.


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  or  the  study  of
food  and  clothing,  was  introduced  into  the  govern-
ment educational  department  in  1874;  the  congresses
begun  at  Birmingham,  16  July,  1877  ;  and  others
since.

DOMINGO,  St.,  see  Hayti  and  Dominican
Republic.

DOMINICA  (W.  Indies),  discovered  by
Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  on  Sunday,  3  Nov.

1493.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and
confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  1763.
The  French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it
at  the  subsequent  peace  in  1783.  Their  admiral
Villeneuve  ineffectually  attacked  it  in  1805.  It
suffered  great  damage  hy  a  hurricane  in  1806,  and
also  4-5  Sept.  1883.  Population,  1881,  28,211.  See
Leeward  Lsles.

DOMINICAL  LETTER,  noting  the  Lord's
day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days  of  the  week,
reckoned  as  beginning  on  the  1  Jan.,  are  desig-
nated by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,
A  (1  Jan.),  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G;  and  the  one  of  these
which  denotes  Sunday  is  the  Dominical  letter.  If
the  year  begin  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical
letter ;  if  on  Monday,  G ;  on  Tuesday,  F ;  and  so
on.  Generally  to  find  the  Dominical  letter  call
New  Y ear's  day  A,  the  next  B,  and  go  on  thus
until  you  come  to  the  first  Sunday,  and  the  letter
that  answers  to  it  is  the  Dominical  letter ;  in  leap
years  count  two  letters.  The  letters  for  1893,  A ;
1894,  G;  1895,  F;  1896,  E  D.  The  letter  or  its
number  (figure  of  1  for  A,  &c.)  used  in  ancient
charters.

DOMINICALS. See  Exeter.

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  or  San  Domin-
go, formerly  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island  of
Hayti,  the  oldest  European  settlement,  founded  in

1494,  by  Bartolomeo  Columbus.  The  capital,  San
Domingo,  contains  the  cathedral  and  Columbus's
residence.  See  Hayti,  1844,  et  seq.  Population,
1887,  504,000.  President,  Ulises  Heureaux,  20
July,  1886.

DOMINICANS,  formerly  a  powerful  religious
order  (called  in  France,  Jacobins,  and  in  England,
Black  friars),  founded  to  put  down  the  Albigenses
and  other  heretics  by  St.  Dominic,  approved  by
Innocent  III.  in  1215,  and  confirmed  by  Honorius
III.  in  1216,  under  St.  Augustin's  rules  and  the
founder's  particular  constitution.  In  1276  the
corporation  of  London  gave  the  Dominicans  two
streets  near  the  Thames,  where  they  erected  a
large  convent,  whence  that  part  is  still  called
Blackfriars.  A  Dominican  establishment  at  Haver-
stock  hill,  near  London,  was  consecrated  10  Oct.
1867.

DOMINION  OF  CANADA,  see  Canada.

DOMINOES,  "  a  sport  imported  from  France
a  few  years  back." Strutt's  Sports,  1801.

DONATISTS,  an  ancient  strict  sect,  formed
about  313-318,  by  an  African  bishop,  Donatus,  who
was  jealous  of  Csecilian,  bishop  of  Carthage  :  it
became  extinct  in  the  7th  century.  The  Donatists
held  that  the  Father  was  above  the  Son,  and  the
Son  above  the  Holy  Ghost.  Their  discipline  was
severe,  and  those  who  joined  them  were  re-
baptized.

DONAUWERTH  (Bavaria).  Here  the
French  and  Bavarians  were  defeated  by  the  duke  of
Marlborough,  after  a  severe  conflict,  2  July,  1704.

DONCASTER  (Yorkshire),  the  Roman
Danum,  the  Saxon  Donne  ceastre. The  races  here


DONKEY  SHOW.


293


DOVER.


(held  annually  in  September)  began  about  1703;
see  Races.  Royal  Agricultural  Society  met  here
22-26  June,  1891.  Population,  1881,  21,139  ;  1891,
25,936.

DONKEY  SHOW.  An  exhibition  of  donkeys
and  mules  belonging  to  the  upper  and  lower  classes
took  place  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington,  9
Aug.  1864;  and  since.  One  at  the  People's
Palace,  Aug.  1887.

DON  QUIXOTE,  by  Saavedra  Miguel  de
Cervantes  (born  1547;  died  1616).  The  first  part
of  this  work  appeared  in  1605,  and  the  second  part
in  1608.  It  is  said  that  upwards  of  12,000  copies  of
the  first  part  were  circulated  before  the  secoud  was
printed. Watts.

DOOM'S-DAY  BOOK,  see  Dome's-day  Book.

DORADO,  see  El  Dorado.

DORCHESTER  (Oxfordshire)  was  once  a
bishopric,  founded  about  636.  The  first  bishop
Birinus,  the  apostle  of  the  West  Saxons  (ivhich  see),
was  succeeded  in  650  by  Agilbert.  In  659  the
see  was  divided  by  the  king.  Dorchester  remained
with  Agilbert,  and  "Wina,  established  at  Winchester,
in  660  obtained  the  whole.  The  see  of  Dorchester
was  revived  about  764.  In  1072  the  bishop  Remigius
de  Feschamp  removed  the  see  to  Lincoln.

DORCHESTER  (Dorsetshire),  the  Roman
Durnovaria-,  the  Saxon  Dornccaster.  Here  are
found  remains  of  a  Roman  theatre  and  of  a  British
camp.  Here  Jeft'eries  held  his  "bloody  assize"
(after  Monmouth's  rebellion)  3  Sept.  1685.  Much
excitement  was  caused  by  six  labourers  of  Dor-
chester being  sentenced  to  transportation  17  March,
1834,  for  administering  illegal  oaths.  Population,
1881,  7,567  ;  1891,  7,946.

DORIANS,  Greeks,  who  claimed  descent  from
Dorus,  son  of  Hellen ;  see  Greece.  The  return  of
the  Dorians,  named  Heraclida),  to  the  Peloponnesus
is  dated  1104B.  c.  They  sent  out  many  colonies.
To  them  we  owe  the  Doric  architecture,  the  second
of  the  five  orders.

DORKING,  Surrey,  an  ancient  town  ;  the
manor  having  been  given  by  the  Conqueror  to  earl
Fitzwarren.  An  imaginary  battle  of  Dorkingin  which
the  German  invaders  totally  defeat  the  British  army
is  the  subject  of  a  clever  article,  attributed  to
col.  George  Chesney,  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  for
May,  1871.  It  provoked  much  controversy,  and
caused  the  publication  of  several  pamphlets.  Popu-
lation, 1881,6,328;  1891,7,132.

DORMANS  (N.  E.  France).  The  Huguenots
and  their  allies,  under  Montmorency,  were  here
defeated  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  10  Oct.  1575.

DORT,  or  DORDRECHT,  an  ancient  town  in
Holland.  Here  happened  an  inundation  of  the
Meuse  in  1421,  through  the  breaking  down  of  the
dykes.  In  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000  persons
perished ;  and  more  than  100,000  round  Dollart,  in
Friesland,  and  in  Zealand.  The  independence  of
the  thirteen  provinces  was  declared  here  in  1572,
when  William  Prince  of  Orange  was  made  stadt-
holder.  A  Protestant  synod  sat  at  Dort  13  Nov.
1618,  to  25  May  1619;  to  which  deputies  were  sent
from  England,  and  from  the  reformed  churches  in
Europe,  to  settle  the  difference  between  the  doctrines
of  Luther,  Calvin,  and  Arminius,  principally  upon
points  of  justification  and  grace.  This  synod  con-
demned the  tenets  of  Arminius.  Population,  1890,
2,934-


DORYLiEUM  (Phrygia).  Soliman,  the
Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium,  having  retired  from  the
defence  of  Nicoea  his  capital,  was  here  defeated  with
great  loss  by  the  crusaders  1  July,  1097. Michaud.

DOTEREL,  H.M.S.,  destroyed  by  explosion,
26  April,  1881. See  under  Navy.

DOUAY  (N.  France),  the  Roman  Duacum,  was
taken  from  the  Flemings  by  Philip  the  Fair  in
1297;  restored  by  Charles  V.  "in  1368.  It  reverted
to  Spain,  from  which  it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in
1667.  It  was  captured  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough
in  June,  1710;  and  retaken  by  the  French  8  Sept.
1 712.  This  town  gives  its  name  to  the  Roman
Catholic  English  version  of  the  Bible  authorised  by
the  pope,  the  text  being  explained  by  notes  of
Roman  divines.  The  Old  Testament  was  published
by  the  English  college  at  Douay  in  1609 ;  the  New
had  been  published  at  Rheimsin  1582.  The  English
college  for  Roman  Catholics  was  founded  in  1568  by
William  Allen,  afterwards  cardinal. Bodcl.

DOURO,  a  river  (separating  Spain  and  Portu-
gal), which,  after  a  desperate  struggle  between
Wellington's  advanced  guard  under  Hill,  and  the
French  under  Soult,  was  successfully  crossed  by  the
former  on  12  May,  1809.  So  sudden  was  the  move-
ment, that  Wellington  at  4  o'clock  sat  down  to  the
dinner  prepared  for  the  French  general. Alison.

DOVER  (Kent),  the  Roman  Dubris.  Near
here  Julius  Caesar  is  said  to  have  first  landed  in
England,  26  Aug.,  55  f.  c,  and  its  original  castle  to
have  been  built  by  him  soon  after;  but  this  is
disputed.  The  works  were  strengthened  by  Alfred
and  succeeding  kings,  and  rebuilt  by  Henry  II.
The  earliest  named  constable  is  Leopoldus  de  Bertie,
in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.,  followed  by  earl
Godwin,  Odo  the  brother  of  William  I.,  &c.  In
modern  times,  this  office,  and  that  of  warden  of  the
Cinque  Ports,  have  been  frequently  conferred  on
the  prime  minister  for  the  time  being, — e.g.,  lord
North,  Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Liverpool,  and  the  duke  of
Wellington.  The  earl  of  Dalhousie,  late  governor-
general  for  India,  appointed  in  Jan.  1853,  died  19
Dec.  i860.  Lord  Palmerston,  appointed  constable
March,  1861,  died  18  Oct.  1865.  Earl  Granville
appointed  Dec.  1865,  died  31  March,  1891.  W.  H.
Smith,  appointed  May,  died  6  Oct.  1891.  The
marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava,  about  4  Nov.  1891.
See  Tunnels.  Population,  1881,  30,270 ;  1891,
33»4i8.
The  priory  was  commenced  by  archbishop  Corboyl,

or  Corbois,  about 1130

At  Dover,  king  John  resigned  his  kingdom  to  Pan-

dolf,  the  pope's  legate  ...  13  May,  1213
The  pier  projected  by  Henry  VIII.  . . .  1533

Charles  II.  landed  here  from  his  exile  .  26>May,  1660
Iniquitous  secret  treaty  with  France  signed here

May,  1670
The  foot  barracks  burnt  by  accident . 30  July,  1800

Admiralty  pier  commenced 1S44

Railway  to  London  opened ... 7  Feb. ,,
A  submarine  telegraph  laid  down  between  Dover

and  Calais  by  Brett  .  .  .  .28  Aug.  1850
A.  telegraph between Dover  and  Calais  opened,

13  Nov.  1851
Part  of  the  cliff  fell,  27  Nov.  1810  ;  and  13  Jan. 1853

Faster  volunteer  review  here  .  .  .22  April,  1867
Suffragan  bishop,  Edward  Parry,  D.  D.  .  .  .  1870
Dover  College  inaugurated  by  earl  Granville  4  Oct.  1871
Dover  and  Deal  railway  begun  by  earl  Granville,

29  June,  1878;  opened  ....  June,  1881
New  municipal  buildings  and  park  opened  14  July,  1883
Coal-field  discovered  under  the  cliffs  .  15  Feb.  1890
Construction  of  a  new  harbour  proposed  by  the

admiralty,  Oct.  1890;  great  works  proceeding  .  1892
Discovery  of  closed-up  caves  and  passages,  under

the  east  cliff ;  closed  up  again . early  March,  1891
Mr.  W.  F.  Smith presents  1"  the  nation the  valu-
able relics  of  William  Pitt,  the  duke  of  Wellington,


DOWEB.


294


DRAMA.


and  other  lord  wardens,  which  had  become  the
property  of  his  late  father,  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  and
which  were  preserved  in  Walmer  Castle April,  1892

DOWER,  the  gifts  of  a  husband  to  a  wife  before
marriage  (Genesis  xxxiv.  12).  The  portion  of
a  man's  lands  or  tenements  which  his  wife  enjoys
for  life  after  her  husband's  death.  By  the  law  of
king  Edmund,  a  widow  was  entitled  to  a  moiety  of
her  husband's  lands  or  tenements  for  her  life,  941.
The  widows  of  traitors,  but  not  those  of  felons,  are
debarred  their  dower  by  statute  5  Edw.  VI.  1551.
By  the  Dower  act  passed  in  1833,  the  power  of  the
wife  over  her  dower  was  much  diminished.

DOWN  (N".  E.  Ireland).  An  ancient  sec,  first
bishop  St.  Cailan,  in  499.  At  the  instance  of
John  de  Courcy,  the  conqueror  of  Ulster,  the  cathe-
dral, consecrated  to  the  Trinity,  was  re -dedicated  to
St.  Patrick  about  1 1 83.  The  sepulchre  of  St.  Patrick
(buried  here  in  493,  in  the  abbey  of  Saul,  founded
by  himself)  brought  this  place  "into  great  repute.
The  see  was  united  with  that  of  Connor  in  1441
(see  Connor) ;  and  the  see  of  Dromore  was  united  to
both  by  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act,  3  &  4
Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug.  14,  1833.  The  cathedral  of
Downpitrick  was  destroyed  by  lord  Grey,  lord
deputy  of  Ireland ;  for  this  and  other  crimes  he  was
impeached  and  beheaded  in  1541. Beatson.

DOWNS,  see  Naval  Battles,  1652-3.

DRACO'S  LAWS  (enacted  by  him  when
archon  of  Athens,  621  e.  a),  on  account  of  their
severity,  were  said  to  be  written  in  blood.  Idleness
was  punished  as  severely  as  murder.  This  code  was
set  aside  by  Solon's,  594  b.  c.

DRAFTS  (or  cheques).  In  1856,  drafts  crossed
with  a  banker's  name  were  made  payable  only  to  or
through  the  same  banker.  This  act  was  passed  in
consequence  of  a  decision  to  the  contrary  in  the
case  of  Carlon  v.  Ireland,  12  Dec,  1855.  In  1858
the  crossing  was  made  a  material  part- of  a  cheque,
but  bankers  are  not  held  responsible  when  the
crossing  does  not  plainly  appear,  and  a  penny  stamp
was  ordered  to  be  affixed  to  drafts  on  bankers,  com-
mencing 25  May.  In  the  case  of  Simmonds  v.  Taylor,
May,  1858,  it  had  been  decided  that  the  crossing
formed  no  part  of  the  draft.  The  crossing  had  been
erased,  and  the  money  paid  to  the  holder  of  the
draft,  who  had  stolen  it.
The "  Cheque-barilc," established  for  issuing  drafts  for

limited  amounts,  opened  23  July,  1873.
The  payment  of  a  stolen  draft  crossed  on  one  banker

and  presented  by  another  banker  declared  legal ;  Smith

v.  Union  Bank  of  London  :  verdict  for  defendants,  20

Nov.  1875.
Crossed  Cheques  act  passed,  Aug.  15,  1876.

DRAG-ONNADES.  Tnefierce  persecution  of
the  Protestants  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  by
dragoons,  by  the  minister  Louvois,  1684,  was  con-
summated by  the  revocation  of  Henry  IV.'s  edict
of  Nantes,  22  Oct.  1685,  which  drove  50,000  families
from  France. Duruy.

DRAGOON.  A  cavalry  soldier  with  infantry
arms ;  the  name  is  of  doubtful  origin,  the  Roman
Draconarii  were  horse  soldiers,  who  bore  dragons
for  ensigns.  Charles  de  Cosse,  Marshal  of  Brisac,
instituted  French  dragoons  about  1600.  The  oldest
British  regiment,  the  Scots  Greys,  was  enrolled  in
1683.

DRAINAGE  OF  LAND,  in  England,  is  of
early  date — remains  of  British  works  being  still
extant  in  the  Fens  district.  Cornelius  Vermuyden,
the  Dutch  engineer,  was  invited  to  England  in  1621,
and  amidst  much  opposition,  he  and  his  successors
drained  the  districts  termed  the  Great  Levels;  see


Levels.  In  the  present  century  great  progress  has
been  made  in  drainage.  In  1861  was  passed  "an
act  to  amend  the  laws  relative  to  the  drainage  of
land  for  agricultural  purposes ; "  see  Sewers.

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir

Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Falmouth  13  Dec.  1577,
circumnavigated  the  globe,  and  returned  to  England
after  many  perils,  3  Nov.  1580.  He  was  vice-admiral
under  lord  Howard,  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the
conflict  with  the  Spanish  Armada,  19  July,  1588.
He  died  at  Panama,  28  Jan.  1596,  during  an
expedition  against  the  Spaniards.

DRAMA,  ANCIENT.  Both  tragedy  and  comedy

began  with  the  Greeks.

The  first  comedy  performed  at  Athens,  by  Susarion
and  Dolon,  on  a  movable  scaffold  about . b.  c. 562

The  chorus  introduced 556

Tragedy  first  represented  at  Athens  by  Thespis,  on
a  waggon  (Arund.  Marb.) 535

Thespis  of  Icaria,  the  inventor  of  tragedy,  performed
at  Athens  "Alcestis,"  and  was  rewarded  with  a
goat  (tragos).  Pliny ,,

iEschylus  introduced  dresses  and  a  stage . . . 486

The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rome,  on  oc-
casion of  a  plague  which  raged  during  the  consu-
late of  C.  Sulpieius  Peticus  and  C.  Licinius  Stolo  :
the  magistrates,  to  appease  the  deities,  instituted
games  called  the.  "  Scenici ;"  actors  from  Etruria
danced,  after  the  Tuscan  manner,  to  the  flute . 364

Anaxandrides,  first  dramatic  poet  who  introduced
intrigues  upon  the  stage  ;  composed  about  100
plays,  of  which  10  obtained  the  prize  ;  died  . 340

Plays  were  represented  by  Livius  Audronicus,  who,
abandoning  satires,  wrote  plays  with  a  regular
and  connected  plot ;  he  gave  singing  and  dancing
to  different  performers 240

The  greatest  ancient  dramatic  writers  were —
Greek,  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides  (tragedy),
and  Aristophanes  (comedy),  525  -427 ;  Latin,
Plautus  and  Terence  (comedy),  184—  160  ;  Seneca
(tragedy) 7  b.  c. — a.  d. 65

Acted  in  Greek  at  Cambridge;  "  Agamemnon  "  of
iEschylus  and  "  Ajax  "  of  Sophocles,  Nov.  1882  ;
"  Birds  "  of  Aristophanes,  28  Nov.  1883.  The
"  Eumenides "  of  iEschylus  1  Dec.  1885  ;
"  CEdipus  Tyrannus  "  of  Sophocles^  22  Nov.  1887  ;
"  Ion  "  of  Euripides,  25  Nov.  1890  ;  "  The  Frogs  "
of  Aristophanes  at  Oxford  about . 24  Feb. "1892

Mr.  Todhunter's  "  Helena  in  Troas,"  written  in
English,  and  successfully  performed  in  the  Greek
style  at  Hengler's  circus  near  Oxford  Street,  W".

, 17  May,  1886

DRAMA,  MODERN,  arose  early  in  the  rude
attempts  of  minstrels  and  buffoons  at  fairs  in  France,
Italy,  and  England,  and  also  in  the  performance  of
classical  plays  at  the  universities,  still  represented
by  the  Westminster  play.  Stories  from  the  Bible
(Mystery  Plays),  represented  by  the  priests,  were
the  origin  of  sacred  comedy. Warton.

Gregory  Nazianzen,  father  of  the  Church,  is  said  to
have  constructed  a  drama  on  the  Passion  of
Christ,  to  counteract  heathen  profanities about 364

Ancient  Mahometan  miracle-play  of  "Hasan  and
Husan,"  sons  of  Ali ;  imblished  by  sir  L.  Pelly  .  1879

Fitzstephen,  in  his  "  Life  of  Thomas  a  Becket,"
asserts  that — "London  had  for  its  theatrical
exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representation  of
miracles,  wrought  by  holy  confessors;"  he  died

about  1 190

The  Chester  Mysteries  performed . . about  1270

The  Coventry,  Chester,  Townley,  York,  and  other
mysteries  have  been  printed  during  the  present
century.

Plays  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the  parish  clerks,
and  "  miracles  "  represented  in  the  fields . . 1397

The  "Passion  of  Christ,"  a  miruelr-plny,  still  fre-
quently performed  at  Ober-Ainmergnu  in  Bavaria,
is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  after  a  pestilence  in 1633

This  play  was  witnessed  by  the  prince  of  Wales  and
other  distinguished  persons  in  the  summer  and
autumn  ^71


DRAMATIC COLLEGE.


295


DEESS.


Performance,  17-26  May, 25  Sept. 1S80  ;  and  fre-
quently since . . . .28  Sept.  et  seq.  1890
Its  proposed  performance  at  the  Westminster  Aqua-
rium, 4  Nov. ,  was  stopped  by  the  disapprobation
of  many Oct. 1878

If_The  "  Passion-play  "  is  still  performed  in  Spain,
with  painful  realism.]

Allegorical  characters  introduced  in  the  15th  cen-
tury.

Rkelton  and  others  wrote  "  Moralities  " . about  1500

"The  first  regular  drama  acted  in  Europe  was  the
"Sophonisba"  of  Trissino,  at  Rome,  in  the  pre-
sence of  pope  Leo  X.  (Voltaire)  . . . . 1515

First  royal  licence  for  the  drama  in  England  (to
master  Burbage,  and  four  others,  servants  to  the
earl  of  Leicester)  to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bank-
side  1574

^Shakespeare  began  to  write  . . . about  1590

A  licence  granted  to  Shakespeare  and  others . . 1603

Plays  opposed  by  the  Puritans  in  1633,  suspended
during  the  commonwealth,  1649  '•  restored . . 1660

'Two  companies  of  regular  performers  were  licensed
by  Charles  II.,  Killigrew's  and  sir  William  Dave-
nant's.  The  first  was  at  the  Bull,  Vere-street,
Clare-market,  which  was  immediately  afterwards
removed  to  Drury-lane  ;  the  other  in  Dorset-
gardens,  1662.  Till  this  time,  boys  performed
women's  parts ;  but  Mrs.  Coleman  (the  first
female  on  the  stage)  had  performed  Ianthe,  in
Davenant's  "  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  in  . . . 1666

.Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  operas,  and  both
companies  united,  1684,  and  continued  together
till  1694,  when  a  schism  under  Betterton  led  to  the
opening  of  a  theatre  in  Lincoln's-inn-fields,  the
parent  of  Covent-gardeu 1695

Act  for  the  revision  of  plays  and  for  licensing  them
previously  to  being  performed . . .  1737

Authors'  Dramatic  Copyright  Protection  act,  3  Will.
IV.  c.  15, 10  June,  1833  ;  extended  to  operas,  1  July,  1842

School  of  Dramatic  Art,  Argyle-street,  London,  W.,
opened 4  Oct.  1882

:See  Theatres,  Govent-garden,  Drury-lane,  and  Copyright.

DEAMATIC  COLLEGE,  for  the  benefit  of
■distressed  actors  and  their  children,  was  proposed
21  July,  1858,  at  the  Princess's  theatre,  by  Messrs.
C.  Dickens,  Thackeray,  C.  Kean,  B.  Webster,  and
-others.  Mr.  Henry  Dodd's  offer  of  land  and  money,
"with  certain  stipulations,  was  declined  Jan.  1859.
The  first  stone  of  the  buildings  at  Maybury,  near
Woking,  was  laid  by  the  prince  consort,  1  June,
i860;  and  on  29  Sept.  1862,  seven  annuitants  were
installed.  The  central  hall  was  opened  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  5  June,  1865.  The  queen  was  the
pati'on.  The  viceroy  of  Egypt  was  present  at  the
annual  fete  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  July  1867,  and
gave  500^.  to  the  college.  The  scheme  was  unsuc-
cessful. On  12  Nov.  1877?  it  was  determined  to
close  the  college,  and  provide  for  the  inmates.
The  buildings  were  sold  by  private  contract  about
23  July,  1880.

DEAMATIC  EEFOEM  ASSOCIATION,

started  at  Manchester,  Jan.  1878.

DEAPIEE'S  LETTEES,  by  dean  Swift,
published  in  1 723-4  against  Wood's  Halfpence
{which  see) .

DEAWING  SOCIETY  (made  Royal,  1892)
•of  Great  Britain,  formed  in  July,  1888,  to  promote
the  teaching  of  drawing  in  schools.

DEEADNOUGHT.  In  this  ship,  which  was
.engaged  in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  21  Oct.  1805,
was  established  a  hospital  for  the  seamen  of  all
nations  (whose  sovereigns  are  subscribers),  by  the
Seamen's  Hospital  Society  established  1821.  The
■old  vessel  was  replaced  hy  others.  The  removal  of
the  men  to  Greenwich  hospital  was  proposed  in
1867;  effected,  April,  1870.

DEEAMS  aire  mentioned  in  Scripture,  c.  gr.,
Joseph's and  Pharaoh's,  1715  b.  C.  {Gen.  xxxvii.


and  xli.),  and  Nebuchadnezzar's,  603  and  570  B.  c.
{Daniel  ii.  and  iv.).  The  first  attempt  to  interpret
dreams  and  omens  is  ascribed  to  Amphictyon  of
Athens,  1497  B.  c.

DEED SCOTT  CASE; see United  States,
I857-
DEEDGLSTG;  Bee  Deep  Sea.

DEEPANUM  (Sicily).  Near  this  place  the
Carthaginian  admiral  Adherbal  totally  defeated  the
Roman  fleet  under  Publius  Claudius,  249  b.  c.

DEESDEN", termed the German Florence,

became  the  capital  of  Saxony  in  1548.* Population

in  1885,  246,086;  1890,  276,085.

Alliance  of  Dresden  between  Saxony  and  Denmark
and  Russia ' . . . . . 28  June,  1709

Peace  of  Dresden  between  Hungary,  Prussia,  and
Saxony 25  Dec. 1745

Taken  by  Frederick  of  Prussia  in  1756  ;  by  the
Austrians 1759

Bombarded  in  vain  by  Frederick . . July,  1760

Held  by  Austrians  . . .  June — July,  1809

Severe  contests  between  the  allied  army  under  the
prince  of  Schwarzenberg,  and  the  French  com-
manded by  Napoleon  .■ .  26,  27  Aug. 1813

The  allies,  200,000  strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  Ins
position  at  Dresden,  and  the  event  had  nearly
proved  fatal  to  them,  but  for  an  error  in  the  con-
duct of  general  Vandamme.  They  were  defeated
with  dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat
into  Bohemia  ;  but  Vandamme  pursuing  them  too
far,  his  division  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself
and  all  his  staff  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle,
general  Moreau  received  his  mortal  wound,  while
in  conversation  with  the  emperor  of  Russia  27  Aug. ,,

Marshal  St.  Cyr,  and  25,000  French  troops,  sur-
rendered Dresden  to  the  allies  . n  Nov. ,,

During  a  political  commotion  the  king  abdicated,
and  prince  Frederick,  his  nephew,  was  declared
regent 9  Sept.  et  seq.  1830

An  insurrection  3  May  ;  suppressed . . 6  May,  1849

DEESS.  The  attire  of  the  Hebrew  Avomen  is
censured  in  Isaiah  iii.,  about  760  B.C.  Excess  in
dress  among  the  early  Romans  wras  restrained  by
sumptuary  laws  :  and  also  in  England  by  numerous
statutes,  in  1363,  1465,  1570,  &c.  (see  Cap).  Stow.
F.  W.  Fairholt's  ."Costume  in  England"  (1846)
contains  a  history  of  dress  with  numerous  illustra-
tions derived  from  MSS.,  the  works  of  Strutt,  &c.
J.  R.  Planche's  elaborate  "Cyclopaedia  of  Costume  "
first  appeared  in  1876.  A  "dress-making  com-
pany" was  established  in  London,  6  Feb.  1865,
with  the  view  of  improving  the  condition  of  the
workwomen.

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  wore  a  white  satin-pinked  vest,  close-
sleeved  to  the  wrist,  and  over  the  body  a  doublet  finely
flowered,  and  embroidered  with  pearls,  and  in  the
feather  of  his  hat  a  large  ruby  and  pearl  drop  at  the
bottom  of  the  sprig  in  place  of  a  button.  His  breeches,
with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the
end,  all  white  ;  and  buff  shoes,  which,  on  great  court
days,  were  so  gorgeously  covered  with  precious  stones
as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  6600/.  ;  and  he  had  a
suit  of  armour  of  solid  silver,  with  sword  and  belt
blazing  with  diamonds,  rubies,  and  pearls.

King  James's  favourite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  had  his
diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to
shake  a  few  off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained  all  the  fame
he.  desired  from  the  pickers-up,  who  were  generally  les
Damesde  la  Cour.

The  court  dress  of  civilians,  previously  that  of  the  time  of
the  Georges,  was  modified  by  the  lord  chamberlain,
lord  Sydney,  in  1869.

*  Dresden  china  was  invented  by  John  Frederick
B6ttger(or  Bottcher),  an  apotl ary's  boy,  about  1709.

lie  died  13  March.  1710.  A  cosily  service,  each  piece
exquisitely  painted,  with  battles,  &c.,  was  presented  to
the  duke  of  Wellington  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  1816.


DKEUX.


296


DETTNKAEDS.


The  Bloomer  Costume,  introduced  into  America  in
1849,  by  Mrs.  Ann  Bloomer,  and  worn  there  by  many
of  the  women.  It  resembled  male  attire,  being  an
open-fronted  jacket  and  loose  trowsers,  the  latter  wide
like  those  of  the  Turk,  but  gathered  in  at  the  ankles.
The  Bloomer  dress  was  adopted  by  a  few  females  in  the
west  of  London,  in  August,  1851  ;  but  though  recom-
mended by  some  American  ladies  in  popular  lectures,
it  was  soon  totally  discontinued.

A  dress  exhibition  opened  in  Piccadilly,  London,  19  May,
1883.

Rational  Dress  Association  active,  May,  1883.

DEEUX  (N.  W.  France).  Here  the  Hugue-
nots were  defeated,  and  their  general  Conde  taken
prisoner  ;  and  the  catholic  leader  Montmorenci  was
captured  by  the  protestants ;  the  slaughter  was
great  on  both  sides,  19  Dec.  1562.  Here  is  the
burying-place  of  the  Orleans  family  since  1816.
The  duke  of  Guise,  aged  18,  the  last  surviving
child  of  the  due  d'Aumale,  was  buried  here  27
July,  1872.  The  bodies  of  king  Louis  Philippe
and  others  of  his  family  were  brought  here  from
England  and  buried,  9  June,  1876.

DEILL  EEVIEW  of  children ;  see  Educa-
tion, 1870.

DEILLING-MACHINES,  in  agriculture.
One  was  invented  by  Jethro  Tull,  early  in  the  last
century.

DEINK,  see  Drunkards.

DEINKING-FOUNTAINS.  Several  were
erected  in  Liverpool  in  1857.  The  Metropolitan
Drinking  Fountain  Association  was  formed  in  Lon-
don in  April,  1859,  by  lord  John  Russell,  the  earl
of  Carlisle,  Mr.  S.  Gurney,  and  others.  The  first
of  the  numerous  fountains  since  erected  is  that  near
St.  Sepulchre's  church,  Skinner-street,  21  April,
1859.  The  magnificent  fountain  in  Victoria-park,
London,  was  inaugurated  by  the  donor,  Miss  (after-
wards baroness)  Burdett-Coutts,  28  June,  18&2.  A
remarkable  drinking-fountain  (the  gift  of  the  maha-
rajah  of  Vizianagram)  was  inaugurated  in  IJyde-
park,  29  Feb.  1868 ;  another  in  Regent' s-park,  the
gift  of  a  Parsee,  Aug.  1869. — 324  in  the  metropolis,
June,  1877;  392  fountains,  404  cattle-troughs,  July,
1879;  437  fountains,  438  troughs,  July,  1880;  672
drinking  fountains,  726  troughs,  July,  1890.
The  fountain  at  the  Royal  Exchange,  with  the  statue  of

Charity  (cost,  by  subscription,  1500?.),  finished  Oct.

1879  ;  many  fountains  erected  since.

DEOGHEDA  (Ireland,  E.),  formerly  Tre-
dagh,  a  place  of  great  importance,  having  the
privilege  of  coining  money.  Here  was  passed
Poynings'  law  {which  see)  in  1494.  In  the  reign  of
Edward  VI.  an  act  was  passed  for  the  foundation
of  a  university  here.  The  town  was  besieged
several  times  in  the  contests  between  1641  and
1691,  and  Cromwell  took  it  by  storm,  and  put  the
governor,  sir  A.  Aston,  and  the  whole  of  the  garri-
son, to  the  sword,  12  Sept.  1649.  More  than  30CO
men,  most  of  them  English,  perished.  It  sur-
rendered to  William  III.  in  1690.

DEOMOEE,  Bishopric  of  (N.  E.  Ireland),
founded  by  St.  Coleman,  first  bishop,  about  556.
By  an  extent  returned  15  James  I.,  this  see  was
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  50/.  Jeremy  Taylor
was  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  in  1660,  and  of
this  see  in  1661.  In  1842  Dromore  was  united  to
Down  by  the  Irish  Church  Temporalities  act  of
1833-

DEONTHEIM,  capital  of  Norway,  founded  by
Olaf  I.  about  998.

DEOWNING,  an  ancient  punishment.  The
ancient  Britons  are said  to  have  inflicted death


by  drowning  in  a  quagmire.  Stoic.  It  is  said  to
have  been  inflicted  on  eighty  intractable  bishops-
near  Nicomedia,  a.d.  370 ;  and  to  have  been  adopte  d
as  a  punishment  in  France  by  Louis  XL  The
wholesale  drownings  of  the  royalists  in  the  Loire'
at  Nantes,  by  command  of  the  brutal  Carrier,  Nov.

1 793,  were  termed  Noyades.  94  priests  were  drowned
at  one  time. He  was  condemned  to  death  in  Dec

1794.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drowning  persons'
were  first  instituted  in  Holland,  in  1767.  The  second
society  is  said  to  have  been  formed  at  Milan,  in
1768  ;  the  third  in  Hamburg,  in  1771 ;  the  fourth
at  Paris,  in  1772 ;  and  the  fifth  in  London,  in  1774.
The  motto  of  the  Royal  Humane  Society  in  England
is:  Lateat  scintiUula  forsan — "A  small  spark  may
perhaps  lie  hid."  Francois  Texier,  of  Dunkerque,.
after  saving  50  lives  at  different  times,  was  drowned
in  a  storm,  Oct.  1871.

Browned  in  inland  waters  in  England  and  Wales,  1877,,
266?. In  United  Kingdom  in  1880,  4044.

DEUGS,  sales  regulated  by  Sale  of  Food  and
Drugs  Act,  passed  11  Aug.  1875. See  Pharmacy.

DEUIDS.  Priests,  among  the  ancient  Ger-
mans, Gauls,  and  Britons,  so  Bamed  from  their
veneration  for  the  oak  (Brit,  dertv).  They  ad-
ministered sacred  things,  were  the  interpreters  of
the  gods,  and  supreme  judges.  They  headed  the-
Britons  who  opposed  Caesar's  first  landing,  55  B.C.,
and  were  exterminated  by  the  Roman  governor,,
Suetonius  Paulinus,  a.d.  61.

DEUM.  It  was  used  by  the  Egyptians  and
other  ancient  nations ;  and  brought  by  the  Moors
into  Spain.  The  drum,  or  drum  capstan,  for
weighing  anchors,  was  invented  by  sir  S.  Morland^
in  1685. Anderson.

DEUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the
covenanters  defeated  Graham  of Claverhouse, ow
1  June,  1679. An  account  of  the  conflict  is  given,
by  Walter  Scott,  in  "Old  Mortality."
DEUMCONDEA,  see  Roman  Catholic.
DEUMMOND  LIGHT ;  see  Lime-light.
DEUNKAEDS  were  to  be  excommunicated'
in  the  early  church,  59  (1  Cor.  v.  11). In  England,,
a  canon  law  forbade  drunkenness  in  the  clergy,  747.
Constantine,  king  of  Scots,  punished  it  with  death,.
870. By  21  James  I.,  c.  7,  1623,  a  drunkard  was-
hable to  a  penalty  of  Ave  shillings,  or  six  hours  in.
the  stocks. See  Temperance  and  Tee-totaller.
A commission  to  inquire  into  the  prevalence of
intemperance  granted  by  the  lords  on  the  motion
of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  30  June,  1876;
report  neutral  respecting  alcohol, recommends
trial  of  modified  Gothenburg  system  (which  see),
issued ....  .18  March,  1879

A  society  for  promoting  legislation  for  the  control

and  cure  of  habitual  drunkards  formed  .  22  Sept.  187&
The  establishment  of  an  industrial  home  for  intem-
perate females  proposed  at  the  Mansion  house,

London 29  Oct.  1877*

Habitual  Drunkards  bill,  read  2nd  time  in  commons,

3  July, 1878  ; passed  30  July, 1879  ; amended  1888.
Society  for  the  study  and  cure  of  Inebriates,  esta-
blished 25  April,  1884,

Drink  Bill,  Mr.  Win. Hoyle  computes  that  the
nation  in i860  spent in intoxicating liquors,
85,276,870?.  ; in 1876, 147,288,760?.  ; in 1879,
128,143,863?. In 188!, for beer, 67,881,673?.;,
British spirits, 28,457,486?. ; foreign spirits,.
10,173,014?. ;  wine,  14,287,102?. ;  British  wines,  &c.,.
estimated  1,500,000?.  ;  total,  122,299,275?.
Total  drink  bill  1881,127,074,4^0?.;  1884, 126,349,256?.,-.
1885,  123,268,906?.  ;  Dr.  Dawson  Burns  computes
in  1886, 122,389,045?.  ;  1887,  124,347,369?.  ;  1888,
124,603,939?.  ; 1889,  about 132,103,000?.  ; 1890,
139,495,470?.  ;  1891,  141,250,000?.
On  comparison,  it  was  asserted  that  our  drink  bill
does  not  exceed  that  of  France ....  i88ir


DBUEY-LANE THEATEE.


297


DUBLIN.


DEUEY-LANE  THEATEE  derives  its
origin  from  a  cock-pit,  which  was  converted  into  a
theatre  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  It  was  rebuilt
and  called  the  Phoenix  ;  and  Charles  II.  granted  an
exclusive  patent  to  Thomas  Killigrew,  25  April,
1662.  The  actors  were  called  "  the  king's  servants,"
and  ten  of  them,  called  gentlemen  of  the  great
chamber,  had  an  annual  allowance  of  ten  yards  cf
scarlet  cloth,  with  lace;  see  under  Theatres.
Drury-lane  Theatrical  Fund,  established,  1766.

DEUSES,  a  warlike  people  dwelling  among  the
mountains  of  Lebanon,  derive  their  origin  from  a
fanatical  Mahometan  sect  which  arose  in  Egypt
about  996,  and  fled  to  Palestine  to  avoid  persecution.
They  now  retain  hardly  any  of  the  religion  of  their
ancestors :  they  eat  pork  and  drink  wine,  and  do
not  practise  circumcision,  pray,  or  fast.  In  the
middle  of  i860,  in  consequence  of  disputes  (in
which  doubtless  both  parties  were  to  blame),  the
Druses  attacked  their  neighbours  the  Maronites
{which  see),  whom  they  massacred,  it  was  said,  with-
out regard  to  age  or  sex.  Peace  was  made  in  July ;
but  in  the  meantime  a  religious  fury  seized  the
Mahometan  population  of  the  neighbouring  cities,
and  a  general  massacre  of  Christians  ensued.  Fuad
Pacha  with  Turkish  troops,  and  general  Hautpoul
with  French  auxiliaries,  invaded  Lebanon  in  Aug.
and  Sept.  The  Druses  surrendered,  giving  up  their
chiefs,  Jan.  1861. See  Damascus  and  Syria.

DEYING  MACHINES,  see  under  Hay.

DUALIN,  an  explosive  substance  (said  to  be
from  four  to  ten  times  more  powerful  than  gun-
powder), composed  of  varying  proportions  of  cellu-
lose (wood}'  fibre),  nitro-srarch,  nitro-mannite,  and
nitro-cellulose  ;  invented  by  Carl  Ditmar,  a  Prus-
sian, and  made  known  in  1870.  This  name  is  also
given  to  another  explosive  compound,  invented  by
Mr.  Nobel,  composed  of  ammonia  and  sawdust,  acted
on  by  nitro-sulphuric  acid.

DUALISM,  a  term  applied  to  the  equally-
matched  conflicting  powers  of  good  and  evil  in  the
Persian  mythology,  the  Hormuzd  and  Ahriman
of  Zoroaster :  is  also  applied  to  the  principles
of  the  advocates  for  a  separate  government  of
Hungary  under  the  emperor  of  Austria;  effected  in

i867r

DUBLIN,  capital  of  Ireland,  anciently  called
Ashcled,  said  to  have  been  built  140.  Auliana,
daughter  of  Alpinus,  a  lord  or  chief  among  the
Irish,  having  been  drowned  at  the  ford  where  now
"Whitworth-bridge  is  built,  he  changed  the  name  to
Auliana,  by  Ptolemy  called  Eblana  (afterwards  cor-
rupted into  Dublana).  Alpinus  is  said  to  have
brought  "  the  then  rude  hill  into  the  form  of  a
town,''  about  155;  see  Ireland  and  Trinity  Colleges.
Lublin  returns  4  M.P.'s  by  Act  passed  25  June,  1885.
Population  in  1881,  249,602  ;  in  1891,  254,709.
Christianity  introduced  by  St.  Patrick  .  .  .  448
Dublin  environed  with  walls  by  the  Danes  .  .  798
Named  by  king  Edgar  iujfche  preface  to  his  charter

"  Nobilissi/ma  Civitas  " 964

Battle  of  Clontarf  (which  see) . . .  23  April,  1014
Dublin  taken  by  Rainond  leGros,  1 1 70,  for  Henry  II.

who  soon  after  arrives 1171

Charter  granted  by  this  king 1173

Christ  church  built  by  the  Danes, 1038  ; rebuilt

about 1 180— 1225

Slaughter  of  500  British  by  the  Irish  citizens  near

Dublin  (see  Cullens  Wood) 1209

Assemblage  of  Irish  princes,  who  swear  allegiance

to  king  John 1210

Foundation  of  Dublin  castle  laid  by  Henry  de  Loun-

dres,  1205  ;  finished ...... 1213

John  de  Deeer  first  provost ;  Richard  de  St.  Olave

and  John  Stakebold  first  bailiffs  (see  Mayor) . .  1308


Thomas  Cusack,  first  mayor 1409

Besieged  by  the  son  of  the  earl  of  Kildare,  lord

deputy 150G

Christ church made a  deanery  and  chapter  by

Henry  VIII.  (see  Christ  Church) .... 1541
Bailiff  changed  to  sheriffs  ;  John  Ryan  and  Thomas

Comyu,  first 154.8

Trinity  college  founded iSQ1-2-

Charter  granted  by  James  I. 1609

Convocation which established the Thirty-nine

articles  of  religion 1614;

Besieged  by  the  marquis  of  Ormond,  defeated  at

battle  of  Rathmines  (which  sec)  . .  2  Aug.  1649.

Cromwell  arrives  in  Dublin  with  9000  foot  and  400

horse Aug. ,,

Chief  magistrate  styled  lord  mayor  .  .  .  .  1665
Blue  coat  hospital  incorporated  ....  1676
Essex  bridge  built  by  sir  H.  Jervis . .  . 1670

Royal  hospital,  Kilmainham,  founded  .  .  .  1683,
James  II.  arrives  in  Dublin,  24  March  ;  proclaimed

4  May,  1689,

Great  gunpowder  explosion 1693

Lamps  first  erected  in  the  city . . . .  1698

Infirmary,  Jervis-street,  founded 1728.

Parliament-house  begun J729

Foundling  hospital  incorporated  .  .  .  ••  •  1739
St.  Patrick's  spire  erected  (see  St.  Patrick)  .  .  1749.
Royal  Dublin  Society  originated,  173 1  ;  ineorpd. . ,,

Hibernian  society 1765

Marine  society 176&

Queen's  bridge  first  erected,  1684  ;  destroyed  by  a

flood,  1763  ;  rebuilt 1768

Act  for  a  general  pavement  of  the  city  .  .  .  1773
Royal  exchange  begun,  1769  ;  opened . . .  1779

Order  of  St.  Patrick  instituted 1783

Bank  of  Ireland  instituted  (see  Bank)  ,,

Police  established  by  statute 1786

Royal  academy  incorporated ,,

Custom  house  begun,  1781  ;  opened . . . .  17911

Dublin  library  instituted ,,

Fire  at  the  parliament  house 1792

Carlisle  bridge  erected 179+

City  armed  association I79(>

New  Four  law  courts  opened ,,

The  rebellion  ;  arrest  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald,  in

Thomas-street 19  May,  1798

Union  with  England  (see  Union)  .  .  1  Jan.  i8ot
Emmett's  insurrection  .... 23  July,  1803.

Hibernian  Bible  society 1806

Bank  transferred  to  College-green . . . . 180S

Dublin  institution  founded 181 1

Riot  at  the  theatre . . . . ■  16  Dec.  1814,

Visit  of  George  IV 12  Aug. 1821

Theatre  Royal  opened ,  >

The  "  Bottle  riot " 14  Dec.  1822

Hibernian  academy . . . . 16  Aug.  1823,
Dublin  lighted  with  gas . . . 5  Oct.  1825
Rd.  Whately  made  archbishop  (very  active  in  edu-
cation) 1831

Great  custom-house  Are ....  9  Aug.  1833.

Railroad  to  Kingstown 1834,

British  Association  meet  here . . .6  Aug.  1835
Dublin  new  police  act .  • . . . ■  4  July,  1836.
Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,,
Royal  arcade  burnt .... 25  April,  1837
Poor-law  bill  passed  .... 31  July,  1838

Awful  storm  raged 6  Jan. 1839

O'Connell's  arrest  (see  Trials)  .  .  ■  14  Oct.  1843.
He  is  found  guilty, 12 Feb.  ;  liberated  in  Sept. 1844

His  death  at  Genoa 15  May,  184?

Arrest of Mitchell, of  the "  United  Irishman  "

newspaper 13  May,  184S

State  trial  of  Win.  Smith  O'Brien  and  Meagher  in

Dublin 15  May, ,„

[These  persons  were  afterwards  tried  at  Cloiunel,

and  found  guilty.]
Trial  of  MitcheE;  guilty  .  .  .  .  26  May,  ,,
"Irish  Felon"  newspaper  first  published,  1  July,  ,,
"  Nation  "  and  "  Irish  Felon''  suppressed,  29  July,  ,y
Conviction  of  O'Doherty  ....  1  Nov.  ,,
The  queen  visits  Dublin  ... 6  Aug.  1849.

Royal  exchange  opened  as  a  city  hall  .  30  Sept.  1852
Dublin  industrial  exliihiliim,  which  owed  its  exis-
tence to  Mr.  Dargan,  who  advanced  8o,oooi.  for
the  purpose,  was  erected  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)
John  Benson,  in  the  Dublin  society's  grounds,
near  Merrion-square.  It  consisted  of  one  large
and  two  smaller  halls,  lighted  from  above. It


DUBLIN.


298


DUDLEY GALLEEY.


was  opened  by  earl  St.  Germains,  the  lord-lieu-
tenant 12  May,

Visited  by  the  queen  and  prince  Albert,  30  Aug.  ;
and  closed  on 1  Nov.

Acts  passed  to  establish  a  national  gallery,
museum,  &c. . . 10  Aug.  1854  ;  and  2  July,

British  Association  meet  here  (2nd  time) .  26  Aug.

-Arrival  of  lord  Eglinton — disgraceful  contest  be-
tween the  Trinity  college  students  and  the  police  ;
the  latter  severely  blamed .  - . .12  March,

Wine  art  exhibition  proposed,  20  July,  i860  ;  opened
by  the  lord-lieutenant,  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  24
May,  1861  ;  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  1  July  ;
and  by  the  queen  and  prince  consort . 22  Aug.

^National  association  for  social  science  met,  14-22  Aug.

Demonstration  at  the  funeral  of  the  rebel  M'Manus,

10-12  Nov.

SJord  Rosse  installed  as  chancellor  of  the  university,

17  Feb.

Abp.  Whately  dies,  8  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by  Ed.
Chenevix  Trench Nov.

'Statue  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  inaugurated  by  the
lord-lieutenant,  5  Jan.  ;  who  opens  the  national
gallery  of  Ireland 30  Jan.

INew  Richmond  hospital,  to  be  called  the  "  Carmi-
chael  School  of  Medicine,"  founded  by  lord  Car-
lisle (Mr.  Carmichael,  the  surgeon,  bequeathed
io,ooo<.  to  it) 29  March,

•Industrial  exhibition  opened  by  the  lord  chancellor,

25  May,

'The  O'Connell  monument  founded . . 8  Aug.

St.  Patrick's  cathedral  restored  by  Mr.  Benjamin
L.  Guinness  ;  re-opened ... 24  Fell.

The  international  exhibition  opened  by  the  prince
of  Wales g  May,

The  newspaper  "  The  Irish  People "  seized,  and
several  Fenians  taken  in  custody.  (See  Fenians,
and  Ireland.) 15  Sept.

international  exhibition  closed . . . 9  Nov.

■Great  fire:  Mrs.  Delany  and  five  others  burnt ;  fire-
brigade  blamed 7  June,

•Great  banquet  to  John  Bright . . .30  Oct.

Meeting  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Ireland,

27  Aug.
Two  policemen  shot  (probably  by  Fenians),  31  Oct.
Funeral  demonstration  for  Allen,  Gould,  and  Larkin,

the  Fenians 8  Dec.

Visit  of  prince  of  Wales  (see  Ireland) .  15  April,

Sir  Benjamin  L.  Guinness,  benefactor,  died  19  May,

Church  congress  held . . 29  Sept. — 2  Oct.

Public  entry  of  earl  Spencer  as  lord-lieut.  .  16  Jan.

Smith  O'Brien's  statue  unveiled  . . .26  Dec.

State  funeral  of  lord  mayor  Bulfin  (died  in  office),

16  June,

Fine  art  and  industrial  exhibition  opened  by  the
duke  of  Edinburgh 5  June,

■Closed  by  the  lord-lieutenant,  earl  Spencer,  30  Nov.

Spencer  dock  inaugurated  by  the1  lord-lieutenant,

15  April,

Great  fire ; rioting  suppressed  by the  military,

7  June,

"Conference  on  "Home  Rule" in  the Rotondo,

18-21  Nov.

International  Rifle  Match,  Irish  and  Americans;
Americans  won 29  June,

Statue  of  Henry  Grattan  unveiled . . 6  Jan.

Entry  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  new  lord  lieu-
tenant 10  Jan.

Freedom  of  city  given  to  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,

7  Nov.

•Christ  church  cathedral  thoroughly  restored  by  Mr.
G.  E.  Street,  at  the  expense  of  Mr.  Henry  Roe
(above  250,000?.),  re-opened . . . 1  May,

British  Association  meet  here  (3rd  time) .  14  Aug.

Death  of  cardinal  Paul  Cullen,  r.c.  abp.  of  Dublin
(since  1851),  24  Oct.  ;  successor,  monsignor
McCabe,  elected 28  Nov.

•Centenary  of  birth  of  Thomas  Moore  celebrated,

28  May,
Theatre  Royal  burnt  down,  Mr.  Egerton,  the  mana-
ger, and  5  others,  perish ... 9  Feb.

■Great  convention  of  the  land  league  ;  Mr.  Parnell
declares  for  abolition  of  landlordism  15  Sept.
Phoenix  park  murders  (see  Ireland)  .  .  6  May,
Statue  of  D.  O'Connell  unveiled,  and  the  Exhibition
of  Irish  Arts  and  Manufactures  (not  patronised
by  the  queen  and  loyalists)  opened  by  the  lord
mayor  Dawson,  15  Aug.  1S82,  closed  6  Jan.  1883.


1853


1855
1857


C865


1872
1873


1875
1S76


:877


187S


Discovery  of  the  assassination  plot  (see  Ireland)

Feb.  18S3

A  futile  attempt  to  blow  up  Ship-street  barracks

25  April,  1884

Visit  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  with  the  Channel
fleet  warmly  received  end  of  Aug.  ,,

Grand  review  of  the  troops  in  the  Phoenix  park  by
the  duke  of  Cambridge  . . . . 30  Sept. ,,

Archbishop  Trench  retires,  28  Nov.  [dies  28  March,
1886];  lord  Plunket  elected  archbishop  about

18  Dec. „

Death  of  cardinal  M'Cabe . . .  n  Feb.  1885

The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  enthusiastically
received,  8  April ;  he  lays  foundation  of  Museum
of  Science  and  Art,  &c. . . .10  April, ,,

Dr.  Wm.  J.  Walsh  appointed  R.C.  archbishop  by
the  pope June, ,,

Entry  of  the  marquis  of  Londonderry,  lord-lieut.,

18  Sept.  1886

Four  Courts  building  much  damaged  by  fire  10  Feb.  1887

Princes  Albert  Victor  and  George  of  Wales  arrive  at
Dublin  27  June  ;  review  in  Phoenix  Park  28  June  ;
received  deputations,  jubilee  cathedral  service
and  State  banquet,  &c,  29  June  ;  left 30  June, ,,

The  lord  mayor,  T.D.  Sullivan,  appears  in  full  state
at  the  police  court  to  answer-  charge  of  offence
against  the  Crimes  Act  by  publication  in  his
paper,  the  "  Nation  "  ;  discharged  through  in-
sufficient evidence  6  Oct.  ;  on  appeal  the  objection
set  aside  by  the  Exchequer  Division  10  Nov.  ;
sentenced  to  two  months'  imprisonment  as  first-
class  misdemeanant  ..... 2  Dec. ,,

Great  Unionist  meeting  in  Leinster  Hall  to  receive
lord  Harrington  and  Mr.  Goschen . 29  Nov. „

Mr.  T.  Sexton,  M'.P.,  lord  mayor . . 2  Jan.  1888

Great  meeting  of  Irish  Nationalists  to  receive  the
marquis  of  Ripon  and  Mr.  John  Morley,  M.P.,
amid  great  enthusiasm  . . . . 2  Feb. „

Dublin  barracks  built  about  1708  ;  enteric  fever
long  prevalent,  greatly  increased  in  1888;  govern-
ment inspection,  special  inquiry  by  Mr.  Rogers
Field,  aided  by  Drs.  Dupre  and  Klein,  ordered
Nov.  ;  interim  report  with  recommendations
dated  25  Feb.  ;  issued .... April,  1889

The  earl  of  Zetland  sworn  in  lord  lieut.  . 5  Oct. ,,

Mr.  E.  Kennedy,  lord  mayor . . .1  Jan. 1890

Strike  of  servants  of  Great  S.  and  AV.  railway  com-
pany at  Dublin,  25  April ;  closed  by  the  efforts
.  of  Abp.  Walsh  and  others . . . 3  May, ,,

The  earl  of  Zetland  opens  the  new  museum  of  Science
and  Art  and  the  National  Library  . .  29  Aug. ,,

Mr.  C.  S.  Parnell  dies  at  Brighton,  6  Oct.,  buried
in  Glasnevin  cemetery  ;  solemn  funeral 11  Oct.  1891

Explosion  at  Dublin  castle  attributed  to  nitro-
glycerine ;  much  destruction  but  no  one  injured

31  Dec. ,,

Telephonic communication with  Belfast opened

5  April,  1892

Great  Unionist  meeting . . . .23  June, „

Tercentenary  of  the  foundation  of  Trinity  college
celebrated 5-9  July, ,,

DUBLIN",  Archbishopric  of.  it  is  sup-
posed that  the  bishopric  of'  Dublin  was  founded  by
St.  Patrick,  in  448.  Gregory,  bishop  in  1121,  be-
came archbishop  in  1 152.  It  was  united  to  Glan-
dalagli  in  1214.  George  Browne,  an  Augustine  friar
of  London  (deprived  by  queen  Mary  in  1554),  was
the  first  Protestant  archbishop.  Dublin  has  two
cathedrals,  St.  Patrick's,  said  to  have  been  founded
1 190,  restored  1865;  Christ  Church,  built  about
1038,  made  a  cathedral  in  1541.  The  revenue  was
valued,  in  the  king's  books,  30  Henry  YIII.,  at
534/.  15s.  2d.  Irish.  Kildare,  on  its  last  avoidance,
was  annexed  to  Dublin,  1846  ;  see  Bishops.

DUCAT,  a  coin  so  called  because  struck  by
dukes.  Johnson.  First  coined  by  Longinus,
governor  of  Italy.  Procopius.  First  struck  in  the
duchy  of  Apulia,  1 140.  Du  C'ange.  Coined  by
Robert,  king  of  Sicily,  in  1240.

DUCKING-STOOL ;  see  Cucking-stool.

DUDLEY  GALLEEY.  The  exhibition  held
since  1865  in  the  Egyptian  Kail  was  removed  to  a


DUELLING.


299


DUFFERIN FUND.


new  building'  in  Piccadilly,  under  the  direction  of
the  Dudlejr  Gallery  Art  Society,  established  in
1883.

DUELLING  took  its  rise  from  the  judicial
combats  of  the  Celtic  nations.  The  first  formal
duel  in  England,  between  William  count  of  Eu  and
Godfrey  Baynard,  took  place  1096.  Duelling  in
civil  matters  was  forbidden  in  France,  1305.
Francis  I.  challenged  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1528
without  effect.  The  fight  with  small  swords  was
introduced  into  England,  1587.  Proclamation  that
no  person  should  be  pardoned  who-  killed  another  in
a  duel,  1679.*  Duelling  was  checked  in  the  army,
1792  ;  and  has  been  abolished  in  England,  by  the
influence  of  public  opinion,  aided  by  the  prince
consort.  A  society  "for  the  discouraging  of  duel-
ling "  was  established  in  1845.  "  The  British  Code
of  Duel,"  published  in  1824,  was  approved  by  the
duke  of  Wellington  and  others.  See  Battle,  Wager
of,  Combat,  and  Jarnac.


MEMORABLE DUELS.

Between  the  duke  of  Hamilton  and  lord  Mohun,
fought 15  Nov.

[This  duel  was  fought  with  small  swords,  in  Hyde-
park.  Lord  Mohun  was  killed  upon  the  spot,
and  the  duke  expired  of  his  wounds  as  he  was
being  carried  to  his  coach.]

Capt.  Peppard  and  Mr.  Hayes  ;  latter  killed

Messrs.  Hamilton  and  Morgan  ;  former  killed

S.  Martin  wounded  Mr.  Wilkes,  M.P. . 16  Nov.

Lord  Byron  killed  Mr.  Chaworth . .  26  Jan.

Lord  Townsend  wounded  lord  Bellamont, 1  Feb.

Comte  d'Artois  wounded  by  due  de  Bourbon,  at
Paris 21  March,

Mr.  Donovan  and  capt.  Hanson  ;  the  latter  killed,

13  Nov.

Charles  James  Fox  wounded  by  Mr.  Adam,  30  Nov.

Col.  Fullerton  wounded  lord  Shelburne,  22  March,

Rev.  Mr.  Allen  killed  Lloyd  Dulany  . . 18  June,

Col.  Thomas  killed  by  col.  Gordon .  4  Sept.

Lord  Macartney  wounded  by  major-general  Stuart,

8  June,
Mr.  M'Keon  killed  George  N.  Reynolds,  1787  ;  exe-
cuted ■, 16  Feb.

Mr.  Purefoy  killed  col.  Roper  ....  Deo.

Duke  of  York  and  col.  Lennox,  aft.  duke  of  Rich-
mond (for  an  insignificant  cause) .  26  May,

Sir  George  Ramsay  and  cai:>tain  Macrea  :  sir  George
killed

Mr.  G'urran  and  major  Hohart . .  1  April,

Mr.  Macduff  and  Mr.  Prince  ;  latter  killed 4  June,

Mr.  Harvey  Aston  and  lieut.  Fitzgerald  ;  the  former
severely  wounded .... 25  June,

Mr.  Anderson  killed  Mr.  Stevens . . 20  Sept.

Mr.  Julius  killed  Mr.  Graham . . 19  July,

Mr. John  Kemble  and  Mr. Aiken ; no  fatality,

1  March,

Earl  of  Lonsdale  and  captain  Cuthbert ;  no  fatality

9  Juue,
M.  de  Chauvigny  wounded  Mr.  Lameth  .  8  Nov.
Wm,  Pitt  and  Geo.  Tierney  .  .  .27  May,
Lord  Valentia  wounded  by  Mr.  Gawler  .  28  June,
Mr.  Carpenter  killed  by  Mr.  Pride  .  20  Aug.
Henry  G  rat  tan  wounded  Isaac  Cony  .  15  Jan.
Lieut.  Willis  killed  major  Impey  .  .  26  Aug.
George  Ogle  and  Bernard  Coyle  :  no  fatality  .  .
Sir Richard Musgrave  and  Mr. Todd  Jones  ;  sir

Richard  wounded  ....  8  June,
Capt.  Mac  Namara  killed  col.  Montgomery,  6  April,
Gen.  Hamilton  and  col.  xVaron  Burr  (in  America) ;

the  general  killed

Capt.  Best  killed  lord  Camelford  6  (died  10)  March,
Surgeon  Fisher  killed  lieut.  Torrens  .  22  March,
Baron  Hompesch  wounded  Mr.  Richardson,  21  Sept.
Sir  Francis  Burdett  and  Ml'.  Paull ;  both  wounded

5  May,


1728
174S
1763
1765
1773

1778


1782
1783


1791
1792

1796


1000
1801
1802


1803
1S04
1S06

1807


*  "  As  many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  were
fought  during  my  grand  climacteric." — Sir  J.  Barrington.
A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in  which  63  indi-
viduals were  killed  and  96  wounded  :  in  three  of  these
cases  both  the  combatants  were  killed,  and  18  of  the
survivors  suffered  the  sentence  of  the  law. Hamilton.


Mr.  Alcock  killed  Mr.  Colclough ;  and  lost  his  reason

8  June,  1807
M.  de  Granpre  and  M.  Le  Pique,  in  balloons,  near

Paris,  and  the  latter  killed ... 3  May,  1S08
Major  Campbell  and  captain  Boyd  ;  latter  killed

(former  hanged,  2  Oct.  1808) . . 23  June, „
Lord  Paget  and  captain  Cadogan  ;  neither  wounded

30  May,  1809
Lord  Castlereagh  wounded  Geo.  Canning  21  Sept.  ,,
Mr.  Clarke  killed  George  Payne  .  .  .6  Sept.  1810
Ensign  de  Balton  kiUed  capt.  Boardman,  4  March,  1811
Lieut.  Stewart  killed  lieut.  Bagnal  .  .  7  Oct.  1812
Mr.  Edward  Maguire  killed  lieut.  Blundell,  9  July,  1813
Captain  Stackpole  (of  "  Statira  "  frigate)  and  lieut.

Cecil ;  the  captain  killed  (arose  on  account  of
words  spoken  four  years  previously) . April,  1814
Mr.  D.  O'Connell  killed  Mr. D'Esterre .  31  Jan. 1815
Colonel  Quentin  and  colonel  Palmer . 7  Feb. ,,
Mr.  O'Connell  and  Mr.  Peel ;  an  affair,  no  meeting

31  Aug. „
Major  Greene  and  Mr.  Price,  in  America  ;  the  latter

killed,  greatly  lamented 1816

Lieut.  Conroy  killed  lieut.  Hindes . 8  March,  1817
Major  Lockyer  killed  Mr.  John  Sutton . 10  Dec. ,,
Mr.  O'Callaghan  killed  lieut.  Bayley . .  12  Jan. 1818
Mr.  Grattan  and  the  earl  of  Clare . . 7  June,  1820
Mr.  Henshaw  and  Mr.  Hartinger  ;  both  desperately

wounded 18  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Christie  killed  Mr.  Scott . ' . .16  Feb. 1821
M.  Manuel  and  Mr.  Beaumont . . 9  April, ,,
Mr. James Stuart  killed  sir  Alexander  Boswell,

26  March,  1822
The  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  duke  of  Bedford  ;

no  fatality 2  May, „

Gen.  Pepe  wounded  gen.  Carascosa  . 28  Feb. 1823

Mr.  Westall  killed  capt.  Gourlay 1824

Mr.  Beaumont  and  Mr.  Lambton  :  no  result  1  July,  1S26
Mr.  Hayes  killed  Mr.  Brie ... 26  Dec. ,,
Rev.  Mr.  Hodson  wounded  Mr.  Grady . Aug.  1827
Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of  Winchelsea  ;  no

injury 21  March,  1829

Capt.  Helsham  killed  lieut.  Crowther . 1  April, ,,
Mr.  W.  Lambrecht  killed  Mr.  O.  Clayton .  8  Jan. 1830
Capt.  Smith  killed  Mr.  O'Grady . .  18  March, ,,
Mr.  Storey  wounded  Mr.  Matthias .  22  Jan. 1833

Sir  John  W. Jeffcott  and  Dr. Hennis  ;  the  latter

wounded,  and  died  on  the  18th  . 10  May, ,,

Lord  Alvanley  and  Mr.  Morgan  O'Connell  ;  2  shots

each 4  May,  1835

Sir  Colquhoun  Grant  and  lord  Seymour  ;  no  fatality

29  May, „
Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  and  Mr.  Black,  editor  of  the

"  Morning  Chronicle  ;"  2  shots  each . 19  Nov. ,,
Capt.  Dickson  wounded  gen.  Evans  . . 8  April,  1836
Mr.  Ruthven  and  Mr.  Scott ;  and  Mr.  Ruthven  and

Mr.  Close  (Mr.  Scott's  second)  ;  the  latterwounded

23  May, ,,
Emile  de  Girardin  killed  Armand  Carrel  (both  jour-
nalists) 24  July, ,,

The  earl  of  Cardigan  and  captain  Tuekett ;  2  shots

each;  the  latter  wounded ;  (the  earl  was  tried  in  the

house  of  lords  and  acquitted,  16  Feb.  1841)  12  Sept. 1S40
Captain  Boldero  and  hon. Craven  Berkeley  ; no

fatality 15  July,  1842

Lieut.  Munroe  killed  col.  Fawcett 1  (died  3)  July,  1843
Lieut.  Hawker  killed  lieut.  Seton .  20  May,  1845

Due  de  Grammont  Caderousse  kills  Mr.  Dillon  at

Paris,  for  a  newspaper  attack . . . Oct. 1862
Paul  de  Cassagnac  and  M.  Lissagaray,  journalists  ;

(latter  run  through) .... 4  Sept. 1868
Don  Enrique  de  Bourbon  killed  by  the  due  de  Montr

pensier,  near  Madrid,  much  provocation,  12  Mar.  1870
Paul  de  Cassagnac  (wounded)  and  M.  Ranc,  Puis,

7  July,  1S73
Prince Soutza  kills  N. Ghika  at  Fontainebleau,

27  Nov. ,,
MM.  Gambetta  and  Dc  Fortou;  neither  hit

21  Nov.  1878
Duels  (often  nominal)  still  frequent  in  France  1S75-84
Capt. Fournier  and  H. Roehefort, for  attack in

Intransitjeant ;  both  slightly  wounded 10  Oct. 1884
M. Hubert  killed  M. Felix Dupuis (artist), who

resented  satirical  verses,  Paris . . 29  April,  i833
Gen.  Boulanger,  seriously,  ami  M.  Floquet  slightly

wounded  (see  France) . . . 13  July, ,,
Capt.  .Mayer  killed  by  111:1  rq.  de  Mores,  Paris,  23  .lone  1892

DUFFERIN  FUND,  LADY,sce/^.w,  1S87.


DUKE.


300


DUN ECHT.


DUKE,  from  Latin  dux,  a  leader.  In  England,
during  Saxon  times,  the  commanders  of  armies
•were  _  called  dukes,  duces.  Camden.  In  Genesis
xxxvi.  some  of  Esau's  descendants  are  termed
dukes,  puke-duke  was  a  title  given  to  the  house  of
Sylvia,  in  Spain,  on  account  of  its  possessing  many
duchies.
Edward  the.  Black  Prince  made  duke  of  Cornwall

17  March,  1337
Robert  de  Vere  was  created  marquis  of  Dublin  and

duke  of  Ireland,  9  Rich.  II I38s

Robert  III.  created  David,  prince  of  Scotland,  duke

of  Rothsay,  a  title  which  afterwards  belonged  to

the  king's  eldest  son,  1398,  and  is  now  borne  by

the  prince  of  Wales.
Cosmo  de'  Medici  created  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,

the  first  of  the  rank,  by  pope  Pius  V.  .  .  .  1569
The  dukes  of  Buccleuch,  Grafton,  Richmond,  and

St.  Albans  are  descendants  of  Charles  II.

DULCIGNO,  a  port  in  Albania  on  the  Adri-
atic.

Taken  by  Turks I57I

In  the  17th  century  a  den  of  pirates,  and  the  resi-
dence of  Sabbatai  Zewi,  a  Smyrnese  Jew,  who
declared  himself  to  be  the  Messiah,  became  Maho-
metan ;  and  died ID70

Taken  by  Venetians  ;  and  held  for  a  short  time  '  '.  1722
The  Montenegrins  take  it  by  storm  ;  butgiveitup  1878
Assigned  to  them  by  the  Berlin  conference  June,

July,  1880
Seized  by  8000  Albanians,  who  expelled  the  Turks

about !8  Sept. „

After  much  delay  the  Sultan  signed  the  decree  for
its  cession  to  Montenegro . . .12  Oct.
After  a  slight  conflict  with  Albanians  22  Nov.,  occu-
pied by  Dervish  Pasha  24  Nov.,  and  surrendered
to  the  Montenegrins . . .26,  27  Nov.

DULWICH  COLLEGE  (Surrey)  called
Goci's-gift  college,  founded  by  Edward  Alleyn,  an
eminent  comedian,  was  completed  and  solemnly
opened  13  Sept.  1619.  Alleyn  was  its  first  master,
and  died  in  1626.  In  1686  Win.  Cartwright,  an
actor,  gave  a library  and  some  portraits, and  on

20  Dec.  1810  sir  Francis  Bourgeois  bequeathed  his
collection  of  pictures,  the  gallery  for  which  was
erected  by  sir  John  Soane,  and  opened  in  1812.  Sir
Francis  died  8  Jan.  181 1.  In  1857,  an  act  was
passed  by  which  the  college  was  reconstituted.  Two
schools  were  established  ;  and  the  number  of  the
almspeople  increased.  In  i860  the  annual  income
was  11,482^.  The  new  school  buildings,  founded
26  June,  1866,  were  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,

21  June,  1870.  The  Endowed  Schools  Commis-
sioners put  forth  a  draft  scheme  for  remodelling  the
charity  about  Oct.  1872 ;  and  another  scheme  was
approved  18  Aug.  1882.  Four  parishes  are  bene-
fited by  the  charity,  St.  Luke's,  Middlesex  ;  St.
Botolph's,  JBishopsgate ;  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark;
and  St.  Giles's,  Camberwell.  Dulwich  Park,  72
acres,  presented  to  the  public  by  the  governors  of
the  college,  opened  by  the  earl  of  Eosebery,  26  June,
1890.  _  Mr.  Win.  Young's  history  of  the  college,
including  many  documents,  2  vols.  4to,  was  pub-
lished in  1890.

DUMB,  see  Deaf  and  Dumb.

DUMBLANE  or  Dunblane (Perth), an

ancient  city,  near  which  took  place  a  conflict  called
the  battle  of  Sheriffmuir,  between  the  royalist  army
under  the  duke  of  Argyle,  and  the  Scots  rebels
under  the  earl  of  Mar,  13  Nov.  1715.  Both  claimed
the  victory.

DUNBAB  (Haddington).  Here  the  Scottish
army  and  king  John  Baliol  were  defeated  by  War-
renne,  earl  of  Surrey,  27  April,  1296,  and  Scotland
was  subdued. Near  here  also  Cromwell  obtained  a


signal  victory  over  the  Scots,  in  arms  for  Charles  II.
3  Sept.  1650.

DUNCIAD,  the  celebrated  satirical  poem  by
Alexander  Pope,  was  published  in  1728.

DUNCOMBE  PAEK,  N.  E.  Yorkshire,  the
magnificent  mansion  of  the  earl  of  Feversham,  with
valuable  treasures  (really  a  museum  open  to  the
public),  was  destroyed  by  fire,  11  Jan.  1879.

DUNDALK  (Louth,  Ireland).  On  5  Oct.  1318,
at  Foughard  near  this  place,  was  defeated  and  slain
Edward  Bruce,  who  had  invaded  Ireland  in  1315.
The  walls  and  fortifications  of  Dundalk  were  de-
stroyed in  1641.  It  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in
1649.  The  first  cambric  manufacture  in  Ireland
was  established  in  this  town  by  artisans  from
France  in  1727.

DUNDEE  (E.  Scotland),  on  the  Tay.  The
site  was  given  by  William  the  Lion  (reigned  1165 —
1214)  to  his  brother  David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,
who  built  or  strengthened  the  rustle,  and  erected  a
large  church,  the  tower  of  which,  156  feet  high,
still  remains.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  English
in  1385  ;  pillaged  by  Mont  ose,  1645 ;  stormed  by
Monk  in  165 1 ;  and  visited  by  queen  Victoria  in
1844.  It  has  thriven  since  1815,  through  its
extensive  linen  manufactories ;  at  one  of  these
(Edwards's)  a  steam  explosion  took  place  on  15  April,
1859,  when  twenty  persons  were  killed.  Claver-
house,  viscount  Dundee  (killed  1689),  had  a  house
here.  See  Population.
The  Baxter  park, the  gift  of  sir  David  Baxter,

opened' by  earl  Russell .... 9  Sept. 1863
The  British  association  met  here . . 4  Sept.  1867
While  preparing  for  building  the  great  Tay  bridge
of  the  N.  British  railway  six  men  were  killed,

27  Aug.  1873
The Albert Institution opened by the  earl of

Dalhousie 1  Nov. ,,

The  Queen-street  calendering works  burnt, loss

between  15,000?.  and  20,000?. . . 20  Dec. „
New  wet  dock (Victoria)  opened  by  lord  Strath-
more 16  Aug.  1875

The  Tay  bridge  {which  see)  completed  Aug.  1S77  ;
opened,  31  May,  1878  ;  destroyed  by  a  gale  ;  be-
tween 80  and  90  lives  lost,  7.15  p.m.  28  Dec.  1879
Statue  of  Burns  unveiled  . . . .16  Oct.  1880
Armistead's flax warehouse burnt, loss about

10,000? 16  Jan.  1883

New  university  founded  by  sir  D.  Baxter  ;  pro-
fessor appointed  Nov.  1882.  Munificent  addi-
tions made  to  the  funds  by  Miss  Mary  Ann
Baxter,  sister  of  sir  David,  1882  [she  died  19  Dec.
1884];  college  opened  by  earl  of  Dalhousie  5  Oct.  ,,
Great  demonstration  in  favour  of  the  government

and  franchise  bill .... 20  Sept.  1884
Mr.  T.  H.  Cox  gives  12,000?.  for  the  establishment
of a medical school in connection with  the

college 13  Dec.  1886

Mr.  J.  M.  Keiller  gives  10,500?.  for  the  free  library,
museum  and  picture  gallery  as  a  jubilee  offering

24  Dec. ,,
The  old  theatre,  newly  renovated,  burnt . 6  Oct.  18S&
Rt.  Hon.  C.  T. Ritchie,  a  native,  president  of  the

Local  Government  Board,  made  a  burgess  13  Oct. ,,.
Dundee  created  a  city ....  Dee. ,,

The  Victoria  art  galleries,  opened  by  the  marquis

of  Lome 26  Oct.  1889

The  freedom  of  the  city  given  to  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley

14  June,  1890.
Rt.  lion.  E.  Baxter,  statesman  and  benefactor,  dies

aged  65 10  Aug. ,,

The  freedom  of  the  city  given  to  Mr.  Gladstone

29  Oct. ,,
The  provost  ordered  to  be  styled  "lord  provost"

11  Feb.  1892

DUN  ECHT,  Aberdeenshire,  seat  of  the  earl
of  Craw  lord,  who  erected  an  observatory  here.  In
the  autumn,  1888,  he  presented  to  the  nation  his.
valuable instruments, which will be set up in


DUNES.


301


DURHAM.


Edinburgh. The  earl  issued  the  179th,  and  last,

"  Dun  Echt  Circular,"  Feb.  1890.

On  3  Dec.  1881,  it  was  discovered  that  the  body
of  the  late  earl  had  been  stolen  from  the  mau-
soleum in  the  grounds ;  it  was  found  near  the
spot,  18  July,  1882,  through  information  given
by  Chas.  Soutar,  who  was  convicted  of  stealing  it.

24  Oct. 1882
DUNES,  see  Dunkirk.

DUNGAN-HILL  (Ireland).  Here  the  Eng-
lish army,  commanded  by  colonel  Jones,  signally
defeated  the  Irish,  of  whom  6000  are  said  to  have
been  slain,  while  the  loss  on  the  side  of  the  English
was  inconsiderable,  8  Aug.  1647.

DUNKELD  (Perthshire)  was  made  a  bishopric
by  David  I.  in  1 127;  the  ancient  Culdee  church,
founded  by  king  Constantine  III.,  becoming  the
cathedral,  The  beautiful  bridge  over  the  Tay,
erected  by  Thomas  Telford,  was  opened  in  1809.

DUNKIRK  (N.  France),  founded  in  the  7th
century,  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  Sept.  1652,
and  retaken  from  them  by  the  English  and  French
after  Turenne's  victory  over  them  under  Conde  on
the  dunes  (or  sands),  14  June,  1658,  and  put  into
the  hands  of  the  English,  25  June  following.  It
was  sold  by  Charles  II.  for  500,000/.  to  Louis  XIV.,
17  Oct.;  restored  1662,  and  was  one  of  the  best
fortified  ports  in  the  kingdom  ;  but  the  works  were
demolished  in  conformity  with  the  treaty  of  Utrecht
in  1713.  The  works  were  ordered  to  be  demolished
at  the  peace  of  1763;  but  in  1783  tbey  were  again
resumed.  The  English  attempted  to  besiege  Dun-
kirk ;  but  the  duke  of  York  was  defeated  by  Hoche,
and  forced  to  retire  with  loss,  7  Sept.  1793.  It  was
made  a  free  port  in  1816.

DUNMOW  (Essex),  famous  for  the  tenure  of
the  manor  (made by  Kobert  Fitz- Walter, 1244),
■"that whatever married couple will  go  to the
priory  and  kneeling  on  two  sharp-pointed  stones,
will  swear  that  they  have  not  quarrelled  nor  repented
of  their  marriage  within  a  year  and  a  day  after  its
celebration,  shall  receive  a  flitch  of  bacon."
The  earliest  recorded  claim  for  the  bacon  was  in  1445,
since  when  to  1855  it  is  said  to  have  been  demanded
only  five  times.
The  last  claimants  previous  to  1855  were  John  Shake-
shanks  and  his  wife,  20  June,  1751  ;  they  made  a  large
sum  by  selling  slices  of  the  flitch  to  witnesses  of  the
ceremony  (5000  persons).
Flitches  were  awarded  to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Barlow,  of  Chip-
ping-Ongar,  and  the  Chevalier  Chatelaine  and  his  lady,
19  July,  1855.
The  lord  of  the  manor  opposed  the  revival,  but  Mr.  W.
Harrison  Ainsworth,  the  novelist,  and  some  friends,
defrayed  the  expense, and  superintended  the cere-
monials.
A  flitch  was  awarded  in  i860  and  9  July,  1873 ;  on  17  July,
1876,  to  James  Henry  and  Mary  Boosey  ; to  others
23  July,  1877.

DUNSE  (S.  Scotland).  Here  on  18  June,
1639,  by  treaty  between  the  Scots  commission  and
Charles  I.,  their  demands  were  acceded  to,  and  they
agreed  to  disband  their  army.  Disputes  arose,  and
the  treaty  was  not  carried  into  effect.

DUNSINANE  (Perthshire).  On  the  hill  was
fought  the  battle  between  king  Macbeth  formerly  the
thane  of  Glammis,  and  Siward,  earl  of  Northum-
berland, 27  July,  10^4-  Edward  the  Confessor  had
sent  Siward  on  behalf  of  Malcolm  III.,  whose  father
Duncan,  the  usurper  had  murdered.  Macbeth  was
defeated,  and  it  was  said  was  pursued  to  Lumpha-
sian,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  there  slain,  105601- 1057.

DUOMO,  see  Milan,  Florence.

DUPES  (day  of),  11  Nov.  1 630,  when  Richelieu
energetically  and  adroitly  frustrated  the  plan  for


his  ruin,  formed  by  the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis  and
Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans,  and  others,  during  the
king's  illness.

DUPLEX  TELEGRAPHY. See  Electric

Telegraph  under  Electricity .

DUPPELorDYBOL.  See  underDe?imark,  1864.

DUPPLIN  (Perthshire).  Here  Edward  Balliol
and  his  English  allies  totally  defeated  the  Scots
under  the  earl  of  Mar,  1 1  Aug.  1332,  and  obtained
the  crown  for  three  months.

DURBAR,  an  East  Indian  term  for  an  audience-
chamber  or  court.  On  18  Oct.  1864,  a  durbar
was  held  at  Lahore  by  the  viceroy  of  India,  sir  John
Lawrence,  at  which  604  of  the  most  illustrious
princes  and  chieftains  of  the  north-west  province
were  present,  magnificently  clothed.  Similar  ones
were  held  in  1866,  1867,  and  on  27  March,  1869,  at
Umballah.

Sir  Seymour  Fitzgerald,  governor  of  Bombay,  held
a  great  durbar  of  the  princes  of  Western  India  at

Poona 6  Oct.  1868

The  earl  of  Mayo,  the  viceroy,  held  a  solemn  durbar

at  Ajmere  in  Rajpootana  ...  22  Oct.  1870
The  marquis  of  Ripon's  grand  durbar  (as  viceroy)  at

Lahore  (after  Afghan  war) . . . 15  Nov.  1880
The  earl  of  Dufferin,  viceroy,  held  a  grand  durbar
at  Rawul  Pindi,  at  which  the  Ameer  of  Afghanis-
tan and  the  Duke  of  Connaught  were  present,

8  April,  1885
Sir  Auckland  Colvin,  lieut. -governor  of  the  N.W.

Provinces,  held  a  grand  durbar  at  Meerut  10  March,  1888
A  durbar  held  at  Quetta  by  the  viceroy,  19  Nov.,
1889  ;  at  Agra 24  Nov.  1890

DURHAM,  an  ancient  city,  the  Dunholme  of

the  Saxons,  and  Dureme  of  the  Normans.  The
bishopric  was  removed  to  Durham  from  Chester-
le -street  in  995;  whither  it  had  been  transferred
from  Lindisfarne,  or  Holy  Island,  on  the  coast
of  Northumberland,  in  875,  in  consequence  of  the
invasion  of  the  Danes.  The  bones  of  St.  Cuth-
bert,  the  sixth  bishop,  were  brought  from  Lin-
disfarne, and  interred  in  Durham  cathedral.  This
see,  deemed  the  richest  in  England,  was  valued  in
the  king's  books  at  282 1£.  Present  income  8ooo£.
Population,  1881,  14,932  ;  1891,  14,863.
College  founded  (abolished  at  the  Reformation)  .  1290
Near  Durham  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  ATe-

ville's  cross  (see  Strikes)  . . . . 17  Oct.  1346
Durham  ravaged  by  Malcolm  of  Scotland,  1070 ;  oc-
cupied by  the  Northern  rebels ....  1569

By  the  Scots ^40

Cromwell  quartered  his  Scotch  prisoners  in  the  ca-
thedral r65o

Cromwell  established  a  college, 1657 ;  which  was

suppressed  at  the  Restoration ....  1660
The  palatine  privileges,  granted  to  the  bishop  by
the  Danish  Northumbrian  prince  Guthmm,  taken

by  the  crown June,  1836

Present  University,  located  in  the  ancient  castle,
established  in  1831,  opened  Oct.  1833  ;  chartered

June,  1837
Certain  new  ordinances,  recommended  by  a  commis-
sion, 1862,  set  aside 1863

Cathedral  renovated;  re-opened  . .  18  Oct.  1876

See  Coal  (strike,  1892).

RECENT BISHOPS.

1791.  Hon.  Shute  Barrington,  died  in  1826.

1826.  Wm.  Van  Mildert  (the  last  prince  bishop),  died  21
Feb.  1836.

1836.  Edward  Maltby,  resigned  in  1856  ;  died  3  July,
1859,  aged  90.

1856.  Charles  Thomas  Longley  ;  became  archb.  of  York,
May,  i860.

i860.  Hon.  H.  Montagu  Villiers  (translated  from  Car-
lisle) ;  died  10  Aug.  1861.

1861.  Charles  Baring,  resigned 3  Feb.,  1879  ;  (lie'l  idSept.
187-j.

1879.  Joseph  Barber  Liglltfoot,  died  21  Dec.  18S9.

1890.  Brooke  loss  Westcott,  D.D.,  March,  consecrated
1  May.


DUEHAM  LETTEE.


302


DYNAMITE.


DUEHAM  LETTEE,  see  Papal  Aggression.
DUST.  A  controversy  respecting  the  connec-
tion between  dust  and  disease  originated  with
a  lecture  on  the  subject  by  professor  Tyndall  at
the  Royal-  Institution,  21  Jan.  1870,  when  he  de-
monstrated the  presence  of  organic  matters  in  the
dust  of  the  atmosphere  in  conformity  with  the  ex-
periments of  Pasteur  and  other  eminent;  philosophers.
See  Germ  Theory  and  Vivisection.  The  agency  of
dust  in  promoting  fires  and  explosions  was  asserted
by  Faraday  in  relation  to  coal  mines  in  1845,  and
by  Rankine  and  Macadam  in  relation  to  flour  mills
in  1872.  Professor  F.  A.  Abel' s  discourse  on  Some
of  the  Dangerous  Properties  of  Dusts,  28  April,  1882.
Mr.  Aitken's  dust-counting  apparatus  was  set  up
on  Ben  Nevis,  Feb.  1890.

DUTCH  PLAYS,  "Annie  Mie,"  by  Rosier
Faassen,  and  others,  were  performed  at  the  Imperial
Theatre,  Westminster,  7  June  et  seq.,  1880.  Madame
Catherine  Beersman's  acting  was  much  approved.
DUTCH  EEPUBLIC,  see  Holland.
DUTIES,  see  Customs,  Excise,  §c.
DUTY,  see  Whole  and  Deontology.
DUUMVIEI,  two  Roman  patricians  appointed
hy  Tarquin  the  Proud  520  B.C.  to  take  care  of  the
books  of  the  Sibyls,  which  were  supposed  to  contain
the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire. The  books  were
placed  in  the  Capitol,  arid  secured  in  a  chest  under
the  ground. The  number  of  keepers  was  increased
to  ten  (the  Decemviri)  365  B.C.,  afterwards  to  fifteen,
the  added  five  called  quinque  viri.

DWAEFS, OR PIGMIES, are described  by
several  ancient  classical  writers. Herodotus  gives
an  account  of  a  race  of  pigmies  living  in  Libya  and
the  Sjnrtes,  to  which  Aristotle  and  Pliny  also  refer.
Mr. H.  M.  Stanley,  hi  his  journey  across  Africa
in 1888,  came upon  a  dwarfish race, which he
thought might be descended from that men-
tioned by  Herodotus. Philetas  of  Cos,  distinguished
about  330  B.C.,  as  a  poet  and  grammarian, was
jocularly  said  to  have  carried  weights  to  prevent
his being blown away. He was preceptor to
Ptolemy Philadelphus. Lilian. Julia, niece of
Augustus,  had  a  dwarf  named  Coropas,  two  feet  and
a  hand's  breadth  high ; and  Andromeda,  a  freed-
maid  of  Julia's,  was  of  the  same  height. Pliny.
Modern Dwarfs.— John d'Estrix, of  Mechlin, was
brought  to  the  duke  of  Parma,  in  1592,  when  he  was
35  years  of  age,  having  a  long  beard. He  was  skilled
in  languages,  and  not  more  than  three  feet  high.
Geoffrey'Hudson,  an  English  dwarf,  when  a  youth  of  18
inches  high,  was  served  up  to  table  in  a  cold  pie,  before
the  kin°-  and  queen,  by  the  duchess  of  Buckingham,  in
1626 He  challenged  Mr.  Crofts  to  tight  a  duel,  but  the
latter  came  armed" with  a  squirt. At  another  meeting
the  dwarf  shot  his  antagonist  dead,  1653.
Count  Borowlaski,  a  Polish  gentleman,  of  great  accom-
plishments and  elegant  manners,  well  known  in  Eng-
land, where  he  resided  for  many  years,  was  bom  in
Nov'  1739 His  growth  was  at  one  year  of  age,  14
inches  ;  at  six,  17  inches  ;  at  twenty,  33  inches  ;  and
at  thirty,  39. He  had  a  sister,  named  Anastasia,  seven
years  younger  than  himself,  and  so  much  shorter  that
she  could  stand  under  his  arm. He  visited  many  of
the  courts  of  Europe,  and  died  in  England  in  1837.
Charles  Heywood  Stratton  (termed  general  Tom  Thumb),
an  American,  was  exhibited  in  England,  by  Mr.  P.  T.
Barnum,  1846. In  Feb.  1863,  in  New  York,  when  25
years  old and 31  inches  high,  he married Lavinia
"Warren,  aged  21,  32  inches  high. He,  his  wife  and
child,  and  commodore  Nutt,  another  dwarf,  came  to
England  in  Pec.  1864,  and  remained  there  some  time.
Died  15  July,  1883.
Mr.  Collard.  aged  22,  smaller  than  Stratton,  sang  at  con-
certs in  London,  and  was  termed  the  "Pocket  Sims
Reeves,"  May,  June,  1873.  -

Several  dwarfs  (said  to  be  smaller  than  the  preceding)
exhibited  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  July,  1878.


Ohe-mah,  a  Chinese,  42  years  old,  25  inches  high,  exhi-
bited at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  11  June,  1880.

Lucia  Zarate,  born  2  Jan.  1863,  in  Mexico,  height  20
inches,  weight  4J  lbs.,  and  general  Mite,  Francis  Joseph
Flynn,  born  2  Oct.  1864,  in  New  York  State,  height  21
inches,  weight  9  lbs.,  exhibited  in  Piccadilly.  22  Nov.
1880,  etseq.  Milly  Edwards  exhibited  in  London,  July,
1882,  15  years  of  age,  weighing  7  lbs.  ;  these  two  were
married  at  Manchester,  28  May,  1884.

DYEING  is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians,  about
1500  B.C.  The  English  are  said  to  have  sent  fine
goods  to  be  dyed  in  Holland,  till  the  art  was  brought
to  them  probably  in  1608.  "  Two  dyers  of  Exeter
were  flogged  for  teaching  their  art  in  the  north"  (of
England),  1628.  A  statute  against  abuses  in  dyeing
passed  in  1783.  The  art  has  been  greatly  improved
by  chemical  research.  A  discovery  of  Dr.  Stenhouse
in  1848,  led  to  M.  Marnas  procuring  mauve  from
lichens;  and  Dr.  Hofmann's  production  of  aniline
from  coal-tar,  has  led  to  the  invention  of  a  number
of  beautiful  dyes  (mauve,  magenta,  red,  green,
black,  &c.) ;  see  Aniline.

DYNAMICS  is  the  science  which  treats  of
matter  and  motion  recently  substituted  for  "  mecha-
nics," which  see.  Professor  "W.  Iv.  Clifford's  "  Ele-
ments of  Dynamics,"  2  vols.,  1878-87.

DYNAMITE,  a  new  explosive  compound,  con-
sisting of  25  parts  of  silicious  earth  saturated  with
75  parts  of  nitro-glycerine  {which  see) .  It  is  suitable
for  mining  purposes,  and  was  tried  and  approved
at  Merstham  14  July,  1868.  It  was  invented  by
Alfred  Nobel  to  obviate  danger.  Its  manufacture
is  very  dangerous.  A  preparation  called  "  Safety  "
Dynamite,  invented  by  Herr  von  Dahmen,  who  by
the  addition  of  a  simple  substance  renders  dynamite
uncongealable,  thus  avoiding  the  danger  of  thawing
in  cold  weather,  1889.  Dynamite  which  cannot  be
frozen,  invented  by  Herr  Edward  Liebert,  of
Berlin  (very  important,  many  deaths  having  been
caused  by  thawing  frozen  dynamite);  reported
Aug.  1890. See  Cannon,  1891.

Snyder  dynamite  projectile ;  experiments  at  Aberdare,
S.  Wales  ;  British  and  foreign  officers  present ;
reported  fairly  successful  5  Oct.  1891.
Thirteen  men  killed  by  explosion  of  dynamite  in  a  rail-
way tunnel  at  Cymmer,  S.  Wales,  21  April,  1876.
A  man  named  Thomson,  Thomassin,  or  Thomas,  con-
signed a  cask  of  dynamite  to  Bremerhafen,  to  be  con-
veyed by  the  North  German  Lloyd  steamer  Mosel.
With  it  he  sent  a  clock-work  machine,  which  would
in  eight  days  give  the  cask  a  blow  powerful  enough  to
explode  the  dynamite  and  destroy  the  ship.  From
some  cause  the  machine  went  off  and  exploded  in
the  dock,  killing  above  80  and  wounding  about  200
persons,  chiefly  emigrants  and  their  friends,  11  Dec.
1875.  Thomson  committed  suicide,  dying  16  Dec.
1875,  after  confessing  his  crime,  his  object  being  to
obtain  the  paltry  sum  for  which  he  had  insured  his
goods.  It  appears  that  similar  machines  were  known
in  1873.
Use  of  dynamite  for  killing  oxen  tried  and  advocated,

summer,  1877.
Its  use  in  fisheries  prohibited  by  parliament,  14  Aug.

1877.
A  parcel  containing  27  cartridges  of  dynamite  placed  on
the  London  and  N.  W.  Railway,  between  Bushey  and
Watford (perpetrators not  discovered), night  12-13
Sept.  1880.
Failure of attempt  at  explosion  at  the  Times  office,

15  Mar.  1883.
Thomas  Callan,  alias  Scott,  of  Lowell,  Massachusetts,
and  Michael  Harkins,  of  Philadelphia,  both  residing-
in  Islington,  charged  with  conspiring  together  to  cause
a  dynamite  explosion,  a  large  quantity  of  dynamite
having  been  found  in  their  dwellings  in  Islington  21
Nov.  ;  committed  19  Dec.  (Cohen,  a  co-conspirator
died  19  Oct.)  1887  ;  as  secondaries  sentenced  to  iifteeni
years'  penal  servitude  1-3  Feb.  1888.
Zalinski  gun  for  the  projection  of  dynamite  adopted!
by  the  United  States  for  coast  defence  Feb.  1889.


DYNAMITE.


303


DZOUNGAEIA.


Lieut.  Graydon's  safe  dynamite  for  use  in  shells,  &c,

announced  April,  1889.

See  Explosions  and  Glasgow,  1SS3.
The  violent  Irish  party  in  America  termed  Dynamitards,

April,  1883. Many  said  to  be  settled  in  Paris.  Report

refers to two associations — one under O'Donovan

Rossa  (failing), another  named  Clan-na-gael — 2  men

said  to  have  been  killed  ;  25  convicted  and  imprisoned

issued  1886.
O'Donovan  Rossa  said  to  have  been  succeeded  by  Dr.

Hamilton  AVilliams  at  New  York  (see  Fenians)  14  Dec.

1887.
Portmanteaus,  containing  dynamite,  with  clock-work  of

American  make,  which  had  failed,  found  at  Charing-

cross  and  Paddington  stations,  28  Feb.,  and  at  Lud-

gate-hill  station,  1  March,  1884.
FitzGerald  arrested  in  London,  10  April,  1884.
Denman,  or  Daley,  with  three  infernal  machines,  arrested

at  Birkenhead.
James  Francis  Egan  and  Patrick  Hogan  arrested  at

Birmingham,  11  April,  1884.

[Treasonable  papers  about  Irish  republic,  &c,  dis-
covered in  Egan's  garden.]


Wm.  M'Donnell  arrested  at  Wcdnesbury,  1  May,  1884.
Daley  sentenced to  penal  servitude  for  life  ;  Egan  to

20 years,  for  treason-felony  ;  M'Donnell  discharged  on

recognizances,  1  Aug.  1884.
Explosion  at  Nobel's  dynamite  factory  near  Stevenston,;

Ayr ;  ten  lives  lost,  8  May,  1S84.

DZO  UNGARIA,  a  region  of  Central  Asia,  N..
of  China,  with  about  2,000,000  inhabitants,  fierce,,
warlike  Mahometans.  After  being  long  tributary
to  China,  they  rebelled  in  1864,  massacred  the-
Chinese  residents,  and  set  up  their  countryman
Abel  Oghlan  as  sultan.  As  he  was  unable  to  re-
strain predatory  attacks  upon  the  Russians,  tbe-
czar  declared  war  in  April,  187 1.  After  a  brief-
campaign  in  May  and  June,  and  several  conflicts-
in  which  the  Russians  were  victors,  the  sultan
surrendered  himself  to  general  Kolpakoviski,  q
July,  and  the  country  was  annexed  to  the  Russian
empire.


E.


EAGLE.


EARTHQUAKES.

under  ground  which  have  a  communication  'with,
each  other,  some  of  which  abound  with  water,
others  with  exhalations,  arising  from  inflammable
substances,  as  nitre,  bitumen,  sulphur,  &c.  Dr.
Stukeley  and  Dr.  Priestley  attributed  earthquakes
to  electricity.  They  are  probably  due  to  steam
generated  by  subterraneous  heat.  An  elaborate
Catalogue  of  earthquakes  (from  B.C.  1606  to  A.D.
1842),  with  commentaries  on  the  phenomena,  by  R.
and  J.  W.  Mallet,  was  published  by  the  British
Association  in  1858.  In  i860  the  velocity  of  their
propagation  was  estimated  by  Mr.  J.  Brown  at
between  470  and  530  feet  per  second.*  See
Seismometer.

One  which  made  Eubcea  an  island  .  .  .  b.  c.  425
Helice  and  Bura  in  Peloponnesus  swallowed  up  .  373
The  chasm  in  the  Roman  Forum  into  which  Quintus

Curtius  leaped,  was  probably  an  earthquake  .  .  364
Duras,  in  Greece,  buried  with  all  its  inhabitants  ;

and  12  cities  in  Campania  also  buried  .  .  .  345
Lysimachia  and  its  inhabitants  buried  about  .  .  283
Ephesus  and  other  cities  overturned  .  .  a.d.  17
One  accompanied  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  when.

Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  buried  .  .  79
Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  and  two  in  Ga-

latia  overturned 105  or  106

Antioch  destroyed 115

Nicomedia,  Cajsarea,  and  Nicea  overturned  . . 126

In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia, 150  cities  and

towns  damaged 157

Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its  inhabitants

buried  in  its  ruins 358

One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world  .... 543
At  Constantinople  ;  its  edifices  destroyed,  and  thou-
sands perished 557

In  Africa  ;  many  cities  overturned  ....  560
Awful  one  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Asia  ;  more  than

500  towns  were  destroyed,  and  the  loss  of  life  sur-
passed all  calculation 742

In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  .... 801

Constantinople  overturned  ;  all  Greece  shaken . . 936

One  felt  throughout  England 1089

One  at  Antioch  ;  many  towns  destroyed  .  .  .1114
Catania,  in  Sicily,  overturned,  and  15,000  persons

buried  in  the  ruins . 1137

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln 1142

In  Syria,  <fec,  20,000  perished 1158

At  Calabria ;  one  of  its  cities  and  all  its  inhabitants

overwhelmed  in  the  Adriatic  sea . . Sept.  1186

In  Cilicia,  60,000  perished 1268

One  again  felt  throughout  England  ;  Glastonbury

destroyed 1274

In  England  ;  the  greatest  known  there  .  14  Nov.  1318
At  Naples  ;  40,000  persons  perished  .  5  Dec.  1456
Constantinople  ;  thousands  perished  .  .  14  Sept.  1509
At  Lisbon  ;  1500  houses  and  30,000  persons  buried

in  the  ruins ;  several  neighbouring  towns  engulfed,

26  Feb.  1531
One  felt  in  London  ; part  of  St. Paul's  and  the

Temple  churches  fell  .  .  .  .6  April,  1580
In  Japan  ;  several  cities  made  ruins,  and  thousands

perish 2  July,  1596

In  Naples  ;  30  towns  or  villages  ruined ;  70,000

lives  lost . .  • . . . .  30  July,  1626

Awful  one  at  Calabria  .  .  .  .27  March,  1638
Ragusa  ruined  ;  5000  perished . .  6  April,  1667

At  Schamaki,  lasted  3  months  ;  80,000  perished . ,,
At  Rimini  ;  above  1500  perished . . 14  April,  1672
One  severely  felt  at  Dublin,  &c.  .. . .17  Oct.  1690

*  Mrs.  Somerville  states  that  about  25s  earthquakes
have  occurred  in  the  British  Isles  ;  all  slight.  To  avoid
the  effects  of  a  shock  predicted  by  a  madman,  for  the  8th
of  April,  1750,  thousands  of  persons,  particular^  those
of  rank  and  fortune,  passed  the  night  on  the  7th  in  their
carriages  and  in  tents  in  Hyde-park.


EAGLE,  an  ancient  coin  of  Ireland,  made  of  a
base  metal,  and  current  in  the  first  years  of  Ed-
ward I.  about  1272,  was  so  named  from  the  figure
impressed  upon  it.  The  American  gold  coinage  of
•eagles,  half  eagles,  and  quarter  eagles,  began  6  Dec.
1792  ;  an  eagle  is  of  the  value  of  10  dollars,  or  about
"2.1.  is. — The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  borne  by  the
Persians,  at  Cunaxa,  401  B.C.  The  Romans  carried
gold  and  silver  eagles  as  ensigns,  and  sometimes
■represented  them  with  a  thunderbolt  in  their  talons,
■on  the  point  of  a  spear,  102  B.C.  Charlemagne
added  the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms,  to
denote  that  the  empires  of  Borne  and  Germany
were  united  in  him,  a.d.  802.  The  eagle  was
the  standard  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Napoleon  III. ;
as  well  as  of  Austria,  Eussia,  and  Prussia;  see
Knighthood.

EARL  (Latin,  comes),  introduced  at  the  con-
quest, superseded  the  Saxon  ealdorman,  and  con-
tinued the  highest  rank  in  England,  until  Ed-
ward III.  created  dukes  in  1337  and  1351,  and
Richard  II.  created  marquises  (1385),  both  above
■earls.  Alfred  used  the  title  of  earl  as  a  substitute
for  king.  William  Eitz-Osborn  was  made  earl  of
Hereford  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1066.  Gil-
•christ  was  created  earl  of  Angus,  in  Scotland,  by
king  Malcolm  III.  in  1037,  and  sir  John  de  Coun-y
created  baron  of  Kingsale  and  earl  of  Ulster  in  Ire-
land, by  Henry  II.  1181.

Earl  Marshal  of  England,  the  eighth  great  officer  of
state.  This  office,  until  it  was  made  hereditary,  always
passed  by  grant  from  the  king.  Gilbert  de  Clare  was
created  lord  marshal  by  king  Stephen,  1135.  The  last
lord  marshal  was  John  Fitz-Alan,  lord  Maltravers.
■Camden.  Richard  II.  in  1397  granted  letters  patent  to
the  earl  of  Nottingham  by  the  style  of  earl  marshal.  In
1672,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Henry  lord  Howard  the
dignity  of  hereditary  earl  marshal.  The  earl  marshal's
court  was  abolished  in  1641. (See  Howard.)

Earl  Marischal  of  Scotland  was  an  officer  who  com-
manded the  cavalry,  whereas  the  constable  commanded
the  whole  army  ;  "but  they  seem  to  have  had  a  joint
■command,  as  all  orders  were  addressed  to  "our  con-
stable and  marischal."  The  office  was  never  out  of  the
Keith  family.  It  was  reserved  at  the  Union,  and  when
the  heritable  jurisdictions  were  bought,  it  reverted  to
the  crown,  being  forfeited  by  the  rebellion  of  George
Keith,  earl  marischal,  in  1715.

EARL  DE  LA  WARR'S  ACT,  see  Chil-
dren.

EARLY  CLOSING  ASSOCIATION  esta-
blished 1842,  to  abridge  the  hours  of  labour,  and  to
abolish  Simdajr  trading.

Frequent  meetings. Congress  Feb.  1888.

Sir  John  Lubbock's  Early  Closing  Bill  for  shops  (8  p.m.

and  10  p.m  on  Saturdays)  rejected  by  the  Commons

(278-95),  2  May,  1888.

EARLY  ENGLISH TEXT  SOCIETY

began  to  publish  in  1864.

EARRINGS  were  worn  by  Jacob's  family,
1732  B.C.  (CrCW.  xxxv.  4).

EARTH,  see  Globe.  "  Earth  to  Earth  "  discus-
sion in  1875;  advocacy  of  cremation,  see  Burials.

EARTHENWARE,  see  Pottery.

EARTHQUAKES.  Kircher,  Des  Cartes,  and
others,  supposed  that  there  were  many  vast  cavities


EARTHQUAKES.


305


EARTHQUAKES.


One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroyed  Port  Royal,
whose  houses  were  engulfed  40  fathoms  deep,  and
3000  perished .....' 7  June,

One  in  Sicily,  which  overturned  54  cities  and  towns,
and  300  villages  ;  of  Catania  and  its  18,000  inhabi-
tants, not  a  trace  remained  ;  more  than  100,000
lives  were  lost Sept.

Aquila,  in  Italy,  ruined  ;  5000  perished  2  Feb.

Jeddo,  Japan,  ruined  ;  200,000  perished . . .

In  the  Abruzzi  ;  15,000  perished . . 3  Nov.

At  Algiers  ;  20,000  perished . . May  &  June,

Palermo  nearly  destroyed  ;  nearly  6000  lives  lost

I  Sept.
Again  in  China  ;  and  100,000  people  swallowed  up

at  Pekin 30  Nov.

In  Naples,  &c.  ;  1940  perished . . .29  Nov.

Lima  and  Callao  demolished  ;  18,000  persons  buried
in  the  ruins 28  Oct.

In  London,  &c,  a  slight  shock . . .19  Feb.

Port-au-Prince,  St.  Domingo,  ruined . 21  Nov.

Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed  . . .29  July,

At  Grand  Cairo  ;  half  of  the  houses  and  40,000
persons  swallowed  up ... . Sept.

Quito  destroyed April,

Kaschan, N.  Persia, destroyed  ;  40,000  perished,

7  June,

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.  In  about  eight  minutes
most  of  the  houses  and  upwards  of  50,000  inhabi-
tants were  swallowed  up,  and  whole  streets
buried.  The  cities  of  Coimbra,  Oporto,  and
Braga,  suffered  dreadfully,  and  St.  Ubes  was
wholly  overturned.  In  Spain,  a  large  part  of
Malaga  became  ruins.  One  half  of  Fez,  in  Mo-
rocco, was  destroyed,  and  more  than  12,000
Arabs  perished  there.  The  island  of  Madeira  was
affected  ;  and  2000  houses  in  the  island  of  Mity-
lene,  in  the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown.  This
awful  earthquake  extended  5000  miles  ;  even  to
Scotland 1  Nov.

In  Syria,  extended  over  10,000  square  miles ;  Baalbec
destroyed  ;  here  20,000  perished  . 30  Oct.

Comorn,  Pestli,  &e.,  much  damaged . 28  June,

At  Martinico  ;  1600  persons  perished . . Aug.

At  Guatemala ;  Santiago,  with  its  inhabitants,
swallowed  up 7  June,

A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna . . .3  July,

At  Tauris  ;  15,000  houses  thrown  down,  and  multi-
tudes buried

Messina  and  other  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily  over-
thrown :  thousands  perished  ... 5  Feb.

Ezinghian,  near  Erzeroum,  destroyed,  and  5000
persons  buried  in  its  ruins . . 23  July,

St.  Lucia,  W.  Indies  ;  900  perished  . . 12  Oct.

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro  ;  many  houses  and  1000
persons  swallowed  up ... 30  Sept.

In  Naples  ;  Vesuvius  overwhelmed  the  city  of
Torre  del  Greco June,

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Fe  and  Panama
destroyed,  including  Cuzco  and  Quito;  40,000
people  buried  in  one  second . .  4  Feb.

Cumana,  S.  America,  ruined . . .14  Dec.

At  Constantinople,  which  destroyed  the  royal  palace,
and  many  buildings . . . .26  Sept.

From  Cronstadt  to  Constantinople .  26  Oct.

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland . . end  of  Jan.

At  Frosolone,  Naples  ;  6000  lives  lost  . 26  July,

At  the  Azores  ;  a  village  of  St.  Michael's  sunk,
and  a  lake  of  boiling  water  appeared  in  its  place,

II  Aug.
Awful  one  at  Caracas  (which  see)  .  26  March,
Several  throughout  India  ;  district  of  Kutch  sunk  ;

2000  persons  buried .... 16  June,
Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and  many other towns

greatly  damaged  ;  thousands  perish

Aleppo  destroyed ;  above  20,000  perish  ;  shocks  on

10  &  13  Aug.,  and  5  Sept.

Coast  of  Chili  permanently  raised . .  19  Nov.

Very  violent  at  Palermo  and  other  parts  of  Sicily

5  March,
Violent  shocks  at  Granada, in Spain  ; buildings

destroyed 15-17  May

Island  of  Ischia  ;  28  men  killed  in  Casamicciola ;

many  buildings  destroyed ... 2  Feb.
In  Spain  ;  Murcia  and  numerous  villages  devastated  ;

6000  persons  perish . . . .  21  March,
Ca  lton  and  neighbourhood;  above  6000  perished,

26  &  27  May,


1693
1703

1706
1716

1726

1731
i732

1746
1750
1751
1752

1754
I7S5


1759
1763
1767

1773
1778


1783
1784


1800
1802


1805


ibio
1812


1B23
1826
1828
1829
1830


In  the  duchy  of  Parma  ;  40  shocks  at  Borgotaro  ;  and
at  Pontremoli  many  houses  thrown  down  14  Feb.  1834

Concepcion,  &c,  in  Chili,  destroyed . 20  Feb. 1835

In  Calabria,  Cosenza  and  villages  destroyed  ;  1000
persons  buried 29  April, ,,

In  Calabria  ;  100  perish  at  Castiglione . 12  Oct. „

At  Martinique;  nearly  half  of  Port  Royal  destroyed  ;
nearly  700  persons  killed,  and  the  whole  island
damaged n  Jan.  1839

At  Ternate  ;  the  island  made  a  waste,  and  thousands
of  lives  lost . . . . . .14  Feb. 1S40

Awful  and  destructive  earthquake  at  mount  Ararat,
in  one  of  the  districts  of  Armenia  ;  3137  houses
were  overthrown,  and  several  hundred  persons
])erished 27  July, ,,

Great  earthquake  at  Zante,  where  many  persons
perished 30  Oct. ,,

At  Cape  Haytien,  St.  Domingo,  which  destroyed
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  town ;  between  4000
and  5000  lives  were  lost ... 7  May,  1842

At  Point  a  Pitre,  Guadaloupe,  which  was  entirely
destroyed 8  Feb.

At  Rhodes  and  Macri,  when  a  mountain  fell  in  at
the  latter  place,  crushing  a  village,  and  destroying
600  persons  .... 28  Feb.  —  7  March,

At  Valparaiso,  where  more  than  400  houses  were
destroyed 2  April,

In  South  Italy  ;  Melfl  almost  laid  in  ruins  ;  14,000
lives  lost 14  Aug.

Philippine  isles  ;  Manilla  much  injured 16-30  Sept.

In  N.W.  of  England,  slight . . . 9  Nov.

Thebes,  in  Greece,  nearly  destroyed . . 18  Aug.

St.  Salvador,  S.  America,  destroyed . 16  April,

Anasaca,  in  Japan,  and  Simoda,  in  Niphon,  de-
stroyed ;  Jeddo  much  injured  . . .23  Dec.

Broussa,  in  Turkey,  nearly  destroyed . 28  Feb.

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed,

25,  26  July,

Jeddo,  Japan,  nearly  destroyed . . 11  Nov.

At  the  island  of  Great  Sanger,  one  of  the  Moluccas,
volcanic  eruption  and  earthquake  ;  nearly  3000
lives  lost 2  March,

In  the  Mediterranean  :  at  Candia,  500  lives  lost ;
Rhodes,  100  ;  and  other  islands,  150 . 12  Oct.

In  Calabria,*  Montemurro  and  other  towns  de-
stroyed, and  about  10,000  lives  lost . 16  Dec.

Corinth  nearly  destroyed . . . .21  Feb.

At  Quito  ;  about  5000  persons  killed,  and  an  im-
mense amount  of  property  destroyed, 22  March,

Erzeroum,  Asia  Minor  ;  thousands  perished,

2  June— 17  July,

At  San  Salvador  ;  many  buildings  destroyed,  no
lives  lost 8  Dec.

•In  Cornwall,  slight . . 21  Oct.  1859  ;  13  Jan.

At  Mendoza,  South  America  ;  about  two-thirds  of
the  city  and  7000  lives  lost . . 20  March,

In  Perugia,  Italy  ;  several  lives  lost . 8  May,

In  Greece  ;  N.  Morea,  Corinth,  and  other  places
injured 26  Dec.

Guatemala ;  150  buildings  and  14  churches  de-
stroyed 19  Dec.

Rhodes  ;  13  villages  destroyed,  about  300  persons
perished, and much  cattle  and  property  lost,

22  April,

Manilla,  Philippine  isles  ;  immense  destruction  of
property  ;  about  1000  persons  perish 2,  3  July,

Central, west, and north-west of England, at
3  h.  22  in.  a.m.  6  Oct.

At  Macchia,  Bendinella,  &c,  Sicily;  200  houses
destroyed,  64  persons  killed . . iS  July,

Slight  earthquake  near  Tours  and  Blois,  in  France,

14  Sept.

Argostoli,  Cephalonla  ;  above  50  perished 4  Feb.

At  Mityiene  ;  about  1000  killed . 8,  9  March,

Djocja,  Java  ;  above  400  perished  ;  town  destroyed

10  Junp,

The  cities  of  Arequipa,  Iquique,Tacna,  and  Chencha,
and  many  small  towns  in  Peru  and  Ecuador
destroyed  ;  about  25,000  lives  lost,  and  30,000
rendered  homeless  ;  loss  of  property  estimated
at  6o,ooo,oooi.  .... 13-15  Aug

[About  n.oooJ.  collected  in  London  to  relieve  the
sufferers.]


1843
1851


1852


1853
1854


1855

1S56
1857


1S60
1861


1S65


1866
1867


1868


*  In  the  course  of  75  years,  from  1783  to  1857,  *'"'
kingdom  of  Naples  'ost,  at  least,  m.ooo  inhabitants  by
the  effects  nf  earthqi  akes,  or  more  than  1500  per  year,
out  of  an  averagepo]  u  ation  of  6,000,000  ! — Lacuita.


EARTHQUAKES.


306


EARTHQUAKES.


Slight  earthquake  in  W.  England  and  S.  Wales  ;
felt  at  Bath,  Swansea,  &c. . . .  .  30  Oct

Iu  Santa  Maura,  an  Ionian  isle,  the  town  Santa
Maura  destroyed; about 17  persons  perished,

28  Dec.

At  Quebec,  not  much  damage . . .20  Oct.

In  Calabria  ;  several  villages  destroyed,  early  in  Oct.

N.  W.  England  ;  houses  shaken,  crockery  broken,
evening,  17  March  ;  slight  in  Yorkshire,  22  March,

California  ;  several  small  towns  destroyed  ;  about
30  killed 26,  27  March,

Lehree,  Eastern  Catchi,  Sind  frontier,  India,  de-
stroyed ;  about  500  killed . . 14, 15  Dec.

San  Salvador  nearly  destroyed  ;  about  50  killed  ;  the
rest  escaped  through  timely  warning 19  March,

North  of  Italy  :  at  Feletto,  near  Conegliano,  Vene-
tia,  church  destroyed  ;  about  50  killed ;  lives
lostatBelluno,  &c.  ;  shock  felt  at  Venice,  Verona,
&c 29  June,

Azagra,  Spain  :  200  killed  by  a  landslip 22  July,

Antigua  and  other  places  in  Guatemala  destroyed  ;
great  loss  of  life 3  Sept.

Kara  Hissar  and  other  places  in  Asia  Minor  ;  great
destruction  of  life .... 3-5  May,

Smyrna,  and  neighbourhood  ;  many  perish,  12  May,

San  Jose  de  Cucuta  and  other  towns  near  San-
tander  on  the  boundary  of  Colombia,  destroyed  :
about  14,000  lives  said  to  be  lost . 16-18  May

Lahore  and  vicinity,  India  ;  several  killed 12  Dec.

At  Scheibs  on  the  Danube,  felt  throughout  Austrian
empire 17  July,

Earthquake  and  great  tidal  wave  near  Callao  ;  went
southward ;  much  shipping  and  several  towns
destroyed  ;  not  much  mortality  . .  9,  10  May,

■Cua,  Venezuela,  nearly  destroyed,  about 300  killed,
loss  about  30,000?. .... 14  April,

Shocks  felt  at  Cologne  and  other  parts  of  Germany  ;
and  Holland  ;  houses  much  shaken  ;  bells  rung,
&c,  q-11  a.m. 26  Aug.

Aci  Reale,  Catania,  Sicily,  5  villages  destroyed,  10
persons  killed 17  June,

Severe  shock  at  Brieg  in  Switzerland,  felt  at  Berne,
Zurich,  Geneva,  &c,  several  killed . 4  July,

Manilla,  &c,  Philippines,  cathedral  destroyed,  seve-
ral killed,  many  hurt . . . 18-24  July,

Smyrna  and  neighbourhood,  many  houses  destroyed,
2  persons  killed . . . -29,  30,  July,

Valparaiso ; at  Illapel, Chili, about  200  perish,

13  Sept.

South  Austria,  much  damage  with  loss  of  life,  at
Agram,  &c. . . .  10-16  Nov.— 8  Dec.

Slight  shocks  at  Inverary  and  other  places  W.  Scot-
land 28  Nov.

Berne,  and  other  places,  Switzerland,  houses  split
up,  <fec 27  Jan.  and  3  March,

Severe  shocks  in  South  Italy,  much  destruction  and
loss  of  life  at  Casamicciola,  a  town  in  the  Isle  of
Ischia,  289  houses  destroyed,  114  lives  lost,  about
36,000?.  loss,  4  March ;  more  destruction  by
another  shock 15  March,-

■gcio— the  town  and  several  villages  destroyed,  about
4000  perish,  much  destitution  ensues,  successive
shocks,  beginning  1.30  p.m. . . 3  April,

Panama;  railway  partially  destroyed  7,  9,  10  Sept.

A  slight  shock  iu  Cornwall  and  Devon . 25  June,

■Casamicciola,  and  several  villages  in  the  island  of
Ischia,  almost  entirely  destroyed,  1990  lives  lost,
28  July  ;  slight  shocks  since  ;  one  severe  3  Aug.
[Great  exertions  of  the  military ;  many  remark-
able preservations.]

Anatolia,  coast  of  Asia  Minor  ;  Ischesne  and  about
30  small  towns  and  villages  destroyed,  about  100
lives  lost  and  30,000  destitute  ;  Smyrna  much
shaken about  16  Oct.

Shocks  felt  at  Gibraltar  . 20  Oct.  et  seq.

Severe  shocks  in  eastern  counties  of  England,  pro-
ceeding from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  centre  Colchester,
where  the  congregational  church  steeple  fell,  as
well  as  many  chimneys ;  damage  estimated  at
io.oooZ.  ;  much  destruction  in  neighbouring  vil-
lages ;  many  inhabitants  rendered  homeless ;
Lange'nhoe  church  wrecked;  much  damage  at
Abberton  ;  a  child  killed  at  Rowhedge;  an  invalid
died  ;  the  shock  felt  more  or  less  distinctly  at
Coggeshall,  Sudbury,  Ipswich,  Cambridge,
Bishop's Stortford, Northampton, Leicester,


1871
1872


1873


1875


1877


Woolwich,  Sheerness,  different  parts  of  London,

Hampstead,  Arc 22  April,

[See  Mansion  house  Funds.]

Severe  shocks  for  several  days  on  Asiatic  shore  of
sea of Marmora  ; about "  20 deaths reported

19  May,

A  violent  shock  on  the  Island  of  Kishm,  near  the
mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  12  villages  destroyed  ;
about  200  people  killed  . . 19-20  May,

Slight  shocks  in  the  Alban  hills,  near  Rome  7  Aug.

Slight  shocks  throughout  United  States,  from
Washington  to  New  York  . . .10,  11  Aug.

At  Genoa, 27  Nov.  ; at  Marseilles,  Lyons,  <fec.

29  Nov.

Severe  shocks  in  Andalusia,  Malaga  ;  many  houses
destroyed,  about  266  persons  killed ;  felt  at  Madrid

25  Dec.

Several  towns  destroyed  :  Albania.  Granada,  many
killed  ;  Periana,  about  900  killed . 26,  27  Dec.

Shocks,  intermitting ....  26-31  Dec.

Slight  shocks  in  Carinthia  and  Styria . 28  Dec.

et  seq.

Shocks,  1-27  Jan.,  much  camping  out

Slight  shocks  in  Styria ... 27,  28  Jan.

Slight  shocks  at  Alhama . . . 12  Feb.

Alarming  shocks  at  Malaga  and  other  towns,

27  Feb.

Stated  number  of  victims  in  province  of  Granada,
690  (see  Spain,  1884-5)  . . . . 28  Feb.

Slight  shocks  at  Rome  9  April ;  in  Granada  1 1  April,

Severe  shock  at  Srinagur,  Cashmere ;  87  killed
30-31  May ;  successive  shocks,  3081  deaths,
70,000  dwellings  destroyed,  reported  up  to  20
June  ;  slight  shocks  up  to  . . . 8  July,

Sikuch,  in  the  Caucasus,  destroyed  about 12  June,

Shocks  in  Yorkshire . . . .18  June,

Three  shocks  in  Bengal ;  a  village  near  Nattore
sunk  ;  announced 25  July,

Shocks  in  Central  Asia,  Vernoe,  Tashkend,  &c,
above  54  killed .... about  2  Aug.

Shocks  in  Algeria,  about  30  killed  at  Msila  3-5  Dec.

Shocks  at  Amatitlan,  Guatemala . . 18  Dec.

Severe  shock  at  Granada,  &c. . . 14  March,

Severe  shocks  in  the  Morea,  Ionian  Islands,  Malta,
and  neighbourhood ;  Filiatra,  Gargaliano,  and
Pyrgos  on  the  mainland  destroyed ;  300  lives  lost

27  Aug.

Shocks  throughout  United  States,  chiefly  in  South
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Alabama  ;  three-fourths  of
Charleston  destroyed,  96  persons  perish  ;  Savan-
nah, Washington  ;  17  shocks  at  Charleston  31
Aug.  ;  other  shocks  on  Atlantic  coast  2,  3  Sept.  ;
slight  shocks  occasionally  3-14  Sept.  and  22  Oct.

Severe  shocks  from  Corsica  to  Lyons  and  Geneva,
and  from  Milan  to  beyond  Marseilles  ;  centre  point
Nice  and  neighbourhood ;  buildings  thrown
down  and  much  damage,  5.37  to  9  a.m.  ;  about  12
deaths  in  French  territory  and  2,000  in  Italy  23
Feb.  ;  San  Remo  district  300  killed ;  slight
shocks 24  Feb.

Slight  shocks  near  Mentone . . 11  March,

Violent  shocks  at  Montezuma,  &c,  San  Francisco,
about  170  perish  ;  announced . . 8  May,

Violent  long-continued  earthquake  at  Tokio,  Japan

15  Jan.

Earthquake  at  Vernoe  and  Almatensky,  Turkestan  ;
about  140  perish  ;  announced . . 13  June,

Earthquake  shocks  in  Hawaii  (Owhyhce);  167  persons
perish  5  May,  et  seq.

Violent  earthquake  shocks  at  Athens  and  neigh-
bourhood 4  Oct.

Destruction  of  Bisignano,  Cosenza,  Calabria,  by
earthquake ;  about  25  lives  lost,  about  4,000
homeless ....... 4  Dec.

Slight  shock  all  over  Scotland  . . 2  Feb.

Earthquake  at  Yunnan,  China,  4,000  persons  killed

March,

Slight  shocks  in  Annandale,  Scotland .  19  July,

Several  severe  shocks  in  New  Zealand,  without
loss  of  life 1  Sept.

Shocks  at  Vostitza,  Greece,  damage  estimated  at
2,000,000  drachmas .... 10  Sept.

Destructive  shocks  at  Costa  Rica,  with  loss  of
life,  cathedral  and  palace  destroyed 29,  30  Dec.

Slight  earthquake at Edinburgh, little damage

18  Jan.

Earthquake  in  Asia  Minor  . . .17  Jan

Slight  shock  in  East  Lancashire . . 10  Feb.


1887


EAST  AFEICA.


307


EASTERN EMPIRE.


Shock  at  Djarkend,  government  of  Semiretehinsk  ;
half  the  town  destroyed . reported  12  July,  1S89

^Earthquakes  in  Japan,  wkicli  see  . . 28  July, ,,

Shocks  at  Inverness  and  Forres,  buildings  damaged

15  Nov. ,,

The  town  of  Joana,  in  Java,  greatly  injured,  12  lives
lost 12  Dec.  1890

Algeria — Gouraya  and  Villebourg  villages  nearly
destroyed,  about  40  natives  perish . 15  Jan.  1891

Adil-Djevas  in  Van,  Armenia  ;  146  houses  destroyed

3  April, „

Violent  shocks  in  Italy,  especially  in  the  province
of  Verona,  where  there  is  much  damage  and  some
loss  of  life,  7  June,  et  seq.  ;  continued  slighter
shocks n-i4June, ,,

San  Salvador,  which  see,  Central  America,  great  de-
struction of  lil'e  and  property . . 9  Sept. ,,

Very  destructive earthquake  in  Japan,  which  see

28  Oct. ,,

Shocks  of  earthquake  in  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,
and  Tasmania .... about  27  Jan.  1892

EAST  AFRICA,  see  under  Africa,  Slave
Trade  and  Zanzibar,

EAST  ANGLES,  the  sixth  kingdom  of  the
Heptarchy,  commenced  by  Utfa,  526 ;  ended  with
Ethelbert  in  792 ;  see  Britain.  The  bishop's  see
founded  by  St.  Felix,  who  converted  the  East
Angles  in  630,  was  eventually  settled  at  Norwich
{which  see)  about  1094.

EASTBOURNE,  a  town  on  the  coast  of
•Sussex.  Koman  remains  found  here.  Incorporated
July,  1883.  Many  buildings  have  been  erected
by  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  who  died  21  Dec.  1891.
Town  hall  opened  9  Oct.  1884.  Population  1881,
22,014;  1891,  34i977-

The  Sunday  processions  of  the  salvation  army,  which
were  forbidden  by  a  clause  in  the  Eastbourne  Improve-
anent  act  of  18S5,  continued,  1890-1.  Elkanah  Clark-
son  and  8  others  of  the  army,  convicted  of  holding  an
unlawful  assembly,  3  Dec.  1891.  The  judgment  set
aside,  23  Jan.  1892.  Another  act  to  repeal  the  clause,
passed  June,  1892.

EAST  END  JUVENILE  MISSION  esta-
blished 1866,  to  reclaim  destitute  children.  It
maintains  homes,  schools,  an  infirmary,  &c.  Hon.
director.  Dr.  T.  J.  Barnardo,  see  Earnardo's  Homes.
For  East-end  murders,  see  Whitcchapel.

EASTER,  instituted  about  68,  the  festival  ob-
served by  the  church  in  commemoration  of  Gur
Saviour's  resurrection,  so  called  in  England  from
the  Saxon  goddess  Eostre,  whose  festival  was  in
April.  After  much  contention  between  the  eastern
and  western  churches,  it  was  ordained  by  the
council  of  Nice,  325,  to  be  observed  on  the  same
day  throughout  the  whole  Christian  world.  But
the  eastern  and  western  churches  generally  differ ;
they  coincided  in  1882.  "  Easter-day  is  the
Sunday  following  that  fourteenth  day  of  the
calendar  moon  which  happens  upon  or  next  after
the  2 1st  March  :  so  that,  if  the  said  fourteenth
day  be  a  Sunday,  Easter-day  is  not  that  Sunday
but  the  next."  Easter-day  may  be  any  day  of
the  five  weeks  which  commence  with  March  22
and  end  with  April  25.  The  dispute  between  the
old  British  church  and  the  new  Anglo-Saxon
church  respecting  Easter  was  settled  about  664. —
Easter  Sunday,  1893,  2  April;  1894,  25  Mar.;  1895,
14  April  ; 1896,  5  April.

EASTER  ISLAND,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,
was  discovered  by  Davis  in  1686;  it  was  visited  by
Roggewein,  April  1722,  and  from  him  obtained  the
name  it  now  bears  ;  it  was  visited  by  captain  Cook,
March  1774.  At  the  south-east  extremity  is  the
crater  of  an  extinguished  volcano,  about  two  miles
in  circuit  and  800  feet  deep.

EASTERN  (or  GREEK)  Church,  see
Greek  Church.


EASTERN  EMPIRE.  After  the  death  of
the  emperor  Jovian,  in  Feb.  364,  the  generals  at
Nice  elected  Valentinian  as  his  successor,  who,  in
June,  made  his  brother  Valens  emperor  of  the  West;
the  final  division  was  in  395,  between  the  son3  of
Theodosius.  The  eastern  empire  ended  with  the
capture  of  Constantinople,  and  death  of  Constan-
tine  XILI.,  29  Ma}',  1453 ;  see  Tarlcey.

Nestorius,  the  bishop,  nominated  the  first  patriarch

of  Constantinople ....  9  July, 381

Theodosius  the  Great  succours  Valentinian  H.,  the
western  emperor,  and  defeats  the  tyrant  Maxi-

mus,  at  Aquileia 388

Valentinian  II.  slain  by  Arbogastes  the  Frank,  who

makes  Eugenius  emperor 392

Eugenius  defeated  and  slain  by  Theodosius,  who

re-unites  the  two  empires ... 6  Sept. 394
Dea.th  of  Theodosius  ; the  empire  finally  divided
between  his  sons — Arcadius  receives  the east,

Honorius  the  west 17  Jan. 395

Constantinople  walled  by  Theodosius  II.  . . 413

Alaric  the  Goth  begins  to  ravage  the  empire . . ,,
Violent  religious  dissensions  :  Theodosius  II.  estab-
lishes schools,  and  revives  learning . . . 425
The  Theodosian  code  promulgated . . . . 438
The  councils  of  Ephesus,  431,  449  ;  of  Chalcedon . 451
Frequent  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the  Blues

and  Greens,  circus  factions  at  Constantinople, 498-520
The  Justinian  code  published .  . . 529

War  with  Persia  ;  beginning  of  the  victorious  career

of  Belisarius,  the  imperial  general . . 529-531
He  suppresses  the  "Nika"  ("conquer")  insurrec-
tion of  the  circus  factions  ;  30,000  Greeks  slain,

and  Constantinople  burnt 532

Dedication  of  St.  Sophia 537

Victories  of  Belisarius  in  Africa,  Italy,  and  the  East

533-541
Recalled  through  Justinian's  jealousy,  542  ;  again,

548  ;  again,  549  ;  disgraced .  .  562

Beginning  of  the  Turkish  power  in  Asia . . . 545

The  Slavonians  ravage  Illyria 551

Narses  defeats  Totila  and  the  Goths  near  Rome  . . 552

Disaffection  of  Narses 561

Death  of  Belisarius,  aged  84  ;  of  Justinian  (83)  .  565
Victories  of  Maurice  and  Narses  in  the  East,  579  et  seq.
Severe  contests  with  the  Avars  ....  594-620
Narses  burnt  at  Constantinople  ....  60S
The  flight(Hejira)of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,
where  he  establishes  himself  as  a  prophet  and

prince 16  July, 622

Victorious  career  of  Heraclius  II. . . . 622  et  scq.

He  recovers  his  lost  territories 627

The  Saracens  invade  the  empire,  632  ;  defeat  Hera-
clius at  Aiznadin,  633  ;  at  Yermuk,  636  ;  take
Alexandria, 640 ; and  the Greek  provinces in

Africa 648

Constans  purchases  peace  with  them  . . . . 660
They  besiege  Constantinople  seven  times . 672-677
The  Bulgarians  establish  a  kingdom  in  Mcesia  (now
Bulgaria), 678  ;  they  ravage  the  country  up  to

Constantinople 7II

The  Saracens  vainly  invest  Constantinople,  716,  718  ;

defeated 72o

Leo  III.  tho  Isaurian,  forbids  the  worship  of
images :  (this  leads  to  the  Iconoclast  contro-
versy, and  eventually  to the separation  of  the

eastern  and  western  churches) 726

A  great  invading  Arab  force (90,000)  defeated  by

Aeronius 73g

The  monasteries  dissolved 770

Destruction  of  images  throughout  the  empire  de-
creed, 754  ;  image-worship  restored  by  the  empress
Irene  (for  which  she  was  canonized) . . . 7s7
The  empire  loses  the  exarchate  of  Italy,  752  ;  Dal-

matia,  825  ;  Sicily  and  Crete £27

Image-worship  persecuted,  830  ;  restored,  842  ;  for-
bidden at  Constantinople by  one  council,  869  ;

restored  by  another 879

South  Italy  annexed  to  the  empire . . . . 890
Five  emperors  reigning  at  one  time  .... 028

Naples  added  to  the  empire „

Basil  subdues  the  Bulgarians ....  987,  1014

Bulgaria  annexed  to  the  empire IOi8

The  Turks  invade  Asia  Minor j068

The  Normans  conquer  South  Italy . . . . I08o
The  first  crusade  ;  Alexis  I.  recovers  Asia . . 1097

x  2


EASTERN EMPIEE.


308


EASTERN EMPIRE.


The  Venetians  victorious  over  the  Greeks . . .  1125
The  Hungarians  repelled, 1152  ;  peace  made  with

the  Normans  in  Sicily 1156

Wars  with  the  Turks  and  the  Venetians . . .1172

Cyprus  lost  to  the  empire 1190

The  fourth  crusade  begins 1202

Revolt  of  Alexis  against  his  brother  Isaac  ;  the
crusaders  take  Constantinople,  and  restore  Isaac
and  his  son  Alexis  IV.  19  July,  1203

Alexis  Ducas  murders  Alexis  IV.  and  usurps  the
throne  ;  the crusaders  take  Constantinople,  kill
Alexis, and  establish  the  Latin  empire, under
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders  ... 9  May,  1204
.Empire  of  Nice  founded  by  Theodore  Lascaris . ,,
Kingdom  of  Epirus  and  iEtolia  established . .  1208
Constantinople  recovered,  and  the  empire  re-estab-
lished by  Michael  Pakeologus . . 25  July,  1261
Establishment  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  Asia,  under

Othman  1 1299

The  Genoese  trade  in  the  Black  sea  .... 1303
The  Turks  ravage  Mysia,  &c, 1340  and  1345;  and

settle  in  the  coast  of  Thrace 1353

The  sultan  Amurath  takes  Adrianople,  and  makes
it  his  capital,  1362  ;  and,  by  treaty,  greatly  re-
duces the  emperor's  territories .... 1373
All  the  Greek  possessions  in  Asia  lost  . . . 1390

Sultan  Bajazet  defeats  the  Christians  under  Sigis-

mund  of  Hungary,  at  Nicopolis . 28  Sept.  1396
The  emperor  Manuel  vainly  solicits  help  from  the

western  sovereigns 1400

A  Turkish  pacha  established  at  Athens . . . 1401
The  Greek  empire  made  tributary  to  Timour,  1402  ;
who  subjugates  the  Turkish  sultan,  and  dismem-
bers his  empire,  1403  ;  death  of  Timour,  on  his

way  to  China 1405

Dissension  amongst  the Turks defers  the  fall  of
Constantinople,  1403-12  ; Mahomet I.  aided  by
the  emperor  Manuel,  becomes  sultan . . . 1413
Amurath  II.  in  vain  besieges  Constantinople,  1422  ;

peace  made 1425

John Palseologus  visits Rome and  other  places,

soliciting  help  in  vain 1437-40

Accession  of  Constantine  XIII.,  last  emperor  .  1448

Accession  of  Mahomet  II.  1451  ;  begins  the  siege  of

Constantinople,  6  April  ;  takes  it . 29  May,  1453
(He  granted  the  Christians  personal  security  and
free  exercise  of  their  religion.) See  Turkey.


3°4-
379-
395-
408.
45o.
457-
474-

491.
518.
527-
565.
578-
582.

602.


610.
641.


cr.8.
685,


695


711.
7*3


716.


EMPERORS OF  THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Valens.

Theodosius  I.  the  Great.

Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius.

Theodosius  II.  succeeded  his  father.

Marcian,  a  Thraeian  of  obscure  family.

Leo  I.  the  Thraeian.

Leo  II.  the  Younger,  died  the  same  year.

Zeno,  called  the  Isaurian.

Anastasius  I.  an  Illyrian,  of  mean  birth.

Justin  I.  originally  a  private  soldier.

Justinian  I.  founder  of  the  Digest.

Justin  II.  nephew  of  Justinian.

Tiberius  II.  renowned  for  his  virtues.

Maurice,  the  Cappadocian  :  murdered  with  all  his

children,  by  his  successor,
Phocas,  the  Usurper,  a  centurion,  whose  crimes

and  cruelties  led  to  his  own  assassination  in

610.
Heraclius,  by  whom  Phocas  was  dethroned.
(Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few

months  ;  poisaaied  by  his  step-mother  Martina.
Constans  II.  ;  assassinated  in  a  bath.
Constantine  III.  (or  IV.)  Pogonatus.
Justinian  II. son  of  the  preceding ;  abhorred  for

his  exactions,  debaucheries,  and  cruelties  :  de-
throned and  mutilated  by  his  successor,
Leontius  : dethroned and mutilated  by  Tiberius

Aspimar.
Tiberius  III.  Aspimar.
Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius

degraded  in  the  Hippodrome,  and  put  to  death.

Justinian  slain  in  711.
Philippicus-Bardanes  :  assassinated.
Anastasius  II.  :  fled  on  the  election  of  Theodosius

in  716  ;  afterwards  delivered  up  to  Leo  III.  and

put  to  death.
Theodosius  III


718.  Leo  III.  the  Isaurian.

[In  this  reign  (726)  commences  the  great  Icono-
clastic controversy ;  the  alternate  prohibition  and
restoration  of  images  involves  the  peace  of
several  reigns.]

741.  Constantine  IV.  (or  V.)  Copronymus,  son  of  the
preceding  ;  succeeded  by  his  son.

775.  Leo  IV.

780.  Constantine  V.  (or  VI.)  and  his  mother  Irene.

790.  Constantine,  alone,  by  the  desire  of  the  people,
Irene  having  become  unpopular.

792.  Irene  again,  jointly  with  her  son,  and  afterwards
alone,  797  ;  deposed  for  her  cruelties  and  mur-
ders, and  exiled.

802.  Nicephorus  I.  Logothetes  :  slain.

811.  Stauracius  :  reigns  a  few  days  only.
„ Michael I.  : defeated in battle, abdicates the
throne,  and  retires  to  a  monastery.

813.  Leo  V.  the  Armenian  :  killed  in  the  temple  at  Con-
stantinople on  Christmas-day,  820,  by  conspira-
tors in  the  interest  of  his  successor,

820.  Michael  II.  the  Stammerer.

829.  Theophilus,  son  of  Michael.

842.  Michael  III.  Porphyrogenitus,  and  the  Sot,  son  of
the  preceding  ;  murdered  by  his  successor,

867.  Basil  I.  the  Macedonian.

886.  Leo  VI.  the  Philosopher.

911.  Alexander  and  Constantine  VI.  (or  VII.)  Porphy-
rogenitus, brother  and  son  of  Leo,  the  latter
only  six  years  of  age  ;  the  former  dying  in  912,
Zoe,  mother  of  Constantine,  assumes  the  re-
gency.

919.  Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with

him  his  sons  :

920.  Christopher,  and

928.  Stephen  and  Constantine  VII.  (or  VIII.)

[Five  emperors  now  reign :  Christopher  dies,
931  ;  Romanus  exiled  by  his  sons  Constantine
and  Stephen,  who  are  themselves  banished  the
next  year.  ]

945.  Constantine  VII.  (or  VIII.)  reigns  alone  :  poisoned
by  his  daughter-in-law,  Theophania,  959.

959.  Romanus  II.  son  of  preceding:  contrived  his
father's  death  ;  banished  his  mother,  Helena.

963.  Nicephorus  II.  Phocas  :  married  Theophania,  his.
predecessor's  consort,  who  has  him  assassi-
nated.

969.  John  I.  Zimisces,  celebrated  general ;  takes
Basil  II.  and  Constantine  VIII.  (or  IX.),  sons  of
Romanus  II. ,  as  colleagues ;  John  dies,  supposed
by  poison,  and

976.  Basil  II.  and  Constantine  VIII.  reign  :  the  former

dies  in  1025  ;  the  latter  in  1028.
1028.  Romanus  III.  Argyropulus  :  poisoned  by  his  pro-
fligate consort  Zoe,  who  raises
1034.  Michael  IV.  the  Paphlagonian,  to  the  throne  :  on>
his  death  Zoe  places

1041.  Michael  V. Calaphates, as his successor: Zoe

dethrones  him,  has  his  eyes  put  out,  and!
marries

1042.  Constantine  IX. (or  X.)  Monomachus,  and Zoe

reign  jointly :  Zoe  dies,  1050.
1054.  Theodora,  widow  of  Constantine.

1056.  Michael  VI.  Stratiotes,  or  Strato :  deposed.

1057.  Isaac  I.  Comnenus  :  abdicates.
1059.  Constantine  X.  (or  XI.)  Ducas.

1067.  Eudocia,  consort  of  the  preceding,  and  Romanus
IV.  Diogenes,  whom  she  marries,  reign  to  the
prejudice  of  Michael,  Coustantine's  son.

1071.  Michael  VII.  Parapinaces,  recovers  his  throne,  and
reigns  jointly  with  Constantine  XI.  (or  XII.)

1078.  Nicephorus  III. ;  dethroned  by

1081.  Alexis  or  Alexius  I.  Comnenus,  succeeded  by

1 1 18.  John  Comnenus  (Kalos),  his  son,  died  of  a  wound
from  a  poisoned  arrow.

1143.  Manuel  I.  Comnenus,  son  of  John.

1 180.  Alexis  II.  Comnenus,  son  of  the  preceding,  under
the  regency  of  the  empress  Maria,  his  mother.

1 183.  Andronicus  I.  Comnenus,  causes  Alexis  to  be
strangled,  and  seizes  the  throne;  put  to
death  by

1 185.  Isaac  II.  Angelus-Comnenus,  who  is  deposed,  im-
prisoned, and  deprived  of  his  eyes  by  his
brother,

1195.  Alexis  III.  Angelus,  the  Tyrant:  deposed,  and  his
eyes  put  out ;  died  in  a  monastery.

1203.  Isaac  II.  again,  with  his  son,  Alexis  IV.  ;  deposed.


EASTERN QUESTION.


309


ECKMUHL.


E204.  Alexis  V.  Ducas,  murders  Alexis  IV. ;  is  killed  by
the  crusaders.

LATIN EMPERORS.

£204.  Baldwin  I. earl of  Flanders,  on  the  capture  of

Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  elected  emperor ;

made  a  prisoner  by  the  king  of  Bulgaria and

never  heard  of  afterwards.
3206.  Henry  I.  his  brother:  dies  in  1217.
1216.  Peter  de  Courtenay,  his  brother-in-law.
1221.  Robert  de  Courtenay,  his  son.
1228.  Baldwin  II.  his  brother,  a  minor,  and  John  de

Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate

emperor.
E261.  [Constantinople  recovered,  and  the  empire  of  the

Franks  or  Latins  terminates.]

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE.

1204.  Theodore  Lascaris  I.
11222.  John  Ducas  Vataces.
1255.  Theodore  Lascaris  II.,  his  son.
J259.  John  Lascaris,  and  (1260)  Michael  VIII. Palaeo-
logus.

GREEK EMPERORS AT  CONSTANTINOPLE.

1261.  Michael  VIII.  now  at  Constantinople:  puts  out
the  eyes  of  John,  and  reigns  alone.

11282.  Andronicus  II.  PaUeologus  the  Elder,  son  of  pre-
ceding :  deposed  by

1328.  Andronicus  III.  the  Younger,  his  grandson.

1341.  John  Palieologus  I.  under  the.  guardianship  of
John  Cantacuzenus :  the  latter  proclaimed  em-
peror at  Adrianople.

5347.  John  Cantacuzenus  abdicates.

J355-  John  Palpeologus  I.  restored.

1391.  Manuel  II.  Palseologus,  his  son:  succeeded  by  his
son  and  colleague.

1425.  John  Palieologus  II.  The  throne  claimed  by  his
three  brothers.

1448.  Constantine  Pakeologus  XII.  (XIII.  or  XIV.  some
of  the  other  emperors  being  called  Constantine
by  some  writers)  killed,  when  Constantinople
was  taken,  20  May,  1453.

EASTERN  QUESTION.  In  the  19th
century  related  especially  to  the ;. Hairs  of  the  Turkish
<empire  and  its  connecti  jn  with  its  neighbours  ;  see
Turkey  and  Basso- 'Turkish  wars.  An  Eastern
■Question  Association  was  formed  in  London,  Dec.
1876,  the  duke  of  Westminster  president.  The
eastern  question  became  again  prominent  through
the  troubles  in  the  I'alkan,  see  Bulgaria  and
JServia,  1889-92.

EASTERN ROUMELIA,  see  Roumelia.

EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, for  the

advocacy  of  the  interests  of  all  the  inhabitants  of
India,  founded  7  .Nov.  1866.  A  journal  is  pub-
lished.

EAST  INDIA  STOCK  DIVIDEND  RE-
DEMPTION ACT  passed  15  May,  1873.  It  finally
abolished  the  company  on  1  June,  1874,  and  made
needful  arrangements.

EAST  INDIES,  see  India.

EAST  LONDON  MUSEUM,  see  Bethnal
Green.

EAST  SAXONS,  see  under  Britain.

EBELIANS,  a  German  revivalist  sect,  which
began  at  Ivonigsberg  in  Prussia,  about  1836,  its
leaders  being  archdeacon  Ebel  and  Dr.  Diestel,
who  were  tried  and  condemned  for  unsound  doc-
trine and  impure  lives  in  1839.  The  sentence  was
annulled  in  1842,  it  is  said  by  royal  influence.  The
sect  is  popularly  termed  "Mucker,"  German  for
hypocrites.  Their  theory  and  practice  of  spiritual
marriage  is  described  by  Mr.  Hepworth  Dixon  in
his  "  Spiritual  Wives,"  "1868.

EBIONITES,  heretics,  in  the  1st  century,  a
bianch  of  the  Nazarenes,  were  of  two  kinds :  one
believed  that  Our  Saviour  was  born  of  a  virgin,


observed  all  the  precepts  of  the  Christian  religion,
but  added  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jews ;  the  other
believed  that  Christ  was  born  after  the  manner  of
all  mankind,  and  denied  his  divinity.  Photinus
revived  the  sect  in  342.

EBONITE  (vulcanised  india-rubber),  see
Caoutchouc.

EBRO,  a  river  in  Spain — the  scene  of  a  signal
defeat  of  the  Spaniards  by  the  French,  under
Lannes,  near  Tudela,  23  Nov.  1808  ;  and  also  of
several  important  movements  of  the  allied  British
and  Spanish  armies  during  the  Peninsular  war
(1809-1813).

ECBATANA,  capital  of  Media ;  the  date  of
foundation  is  unknown;  Herodotus  ascribes  it  to
Deioces  about  700  B.C. ;  it  was  taken  by  C\rus  549,
and  became  the  summer  residence  of  himself  and
his  successors.

ECCLESIASTICAL  COMMISSIONS:
appointed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1559;  by  James  I.
in  Scotland,  161 7;  by  the  English  parliament  in
1641 ;  and  by  James  II.  to  coerce  the  universities
in  1687.  A  Church  Inquiry  Commission,  appointed
23  June,  1832,  reported  June,  1835.  The  present
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  (bishops,  deans,  and
laymen)  for  the  management  of  church  property,
were  appointed  in  Feb.  1835;  incorporated  in  1836;
and  their  proceedings  regulated  in  1840  and  1841.
The  law  relating  to  them  was  amended  in  1868.

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There

existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and  ecclesiastical
courts  in  England  until  1085,  after  the  Norman  con-
quest ;  see  Arches  and  Consistory  Courts.  Till  the
establishment  of  the  Divorce  and  Prolnte  courts
{which  see)  in  1857,  the  following  were  the  causes
cognisable  in  ecclesiastical  courts :  blasphemy,
apostasy  from  Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordina-
tions, institutions  to  benefices,  matrimony,  divorces,
bastardy,  tithes,  incest,  fornication,  adultery,  pro-
bate of  wills,  administrations,  &c.
A  royal  commission  of  inquiry  respecting  these  courts

agreed  to,  house  of  lords  ;  7  March, 1881,  appointed.

Report  issued,  Aug.  1883.

ECCLESIASTICAL  DILAPIDA-
TIONS, law  respecting,  amended  by  acts  passed
in  187 1  and  1872.

ECCLESIASTICAL  GAZETTE,  Church
of  England  semi-official  journal ;  sent  gratuitously
to  all  dignitaries  and  incumbents  ;  established  10
July,  1838.

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE,  or  States
OF  THE  CHURCH,  see  Borne,  Modern.

ECCLESIASTICAL  TITLES  ACT,  14  &

15  Vict.  c.  60(1851),  repealed  24  July,  1871;  see
Tapal  Aggression.

ECCLESIOLOGICAL  SOCIETY,  formed

in  1839,  was  originally  the  Cambridge  Campden
Society,  mainly  established  by  the  2nd  carl  of
Gainsborough  (Charles  George  Noel)  for  the  proper
restoration  of  ancient  churches.

ECHO.  The  time  which  elapses  between  the
utterance  of  a  sound  and  its  return  must  be  more
than  one-twelfth  of  a  second,  to  form  an  echo.
The  whispering  gallery  of  St.  Paul's  is  a  well-
known  example.  The  Echo,  independent  evening
paper,  price  \d.,  established  Dec.  1868.

ECKMUHL  (Bavaria),  the  site  of  a  battle
between  the  main  armies  of  France  (75,000)  and
Austria  (40,000);  Napoleon  and  marshal  Daroust
(hence  prince  d'Eckmiihl)  defeated  the  archduke
Charles,  22  April,  1809.


ECLECTICS.


310


ECOECHEUES.


ECLECTICS  (from  Greek,  eklego,  I  choose),
ancient  philosophers  (called  Analogetici,  and  also
JPMlalethes,  the  lovers  of  truth),  who,  without
attaching  themselves  to  any  sect,  chose  what
they  judged  good  from  each  :  of  them  was  Potamon
of  Alexandria,  about  a.d.  I.  Also  a  Christian  sect,
who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato  conformable
to  the  spirit  of  Christianity.

ECLIPSE  (the  race-horse),  see  Races.

ECLIPSES.  Their  revolution  was  calculated
hy  Calippus,  the  Athenian,  336  B.C.  The  Egyptians
said  they  had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of
the  sun,  and  832  of  the  moon,  in  the  period  from
Vulcan  to  Alexander,  who  died  323  B.C.  The
theory  of  eclipses  is  said  to  have  been  known  to
the  Chinese  before  120  B.C.  The  first  eclipse  re-
corded in  history  happened  19  March,  721  B.C.,  at
8/;.  4OOT.  p.m.,  according  to  Ptolemy;  it  was  lunar,
and  was  observed  with  accuracy  at  13abylon.
A  list  of  eclipses  to  the  year  2000  is  given  in  "  L'Art  de

Verifier  leg  Dates."
The  Royal  Astronomical  Society  published  a  volume  of

"  Observations  made  during  total  solar  eclipses,"  1880.

ECLIPSES  OF  THE SUN.

Eclipse  recorded  in  the  Assyrian  tablets  B.C.  . . 661
The Nineveh  eclipse  (recorded, according  to sir
Henry  Rawlinson,  on  a  Nineveh  tablet  in  the
British  Museum) .... 15  June,  b.c. 763
That  predicted  by  Thales  ; see  Halys  (Pliny,  lib.
ii.  9),  believed  to  have  occurred . 28  May, 585
[Sir  G.  B.  Airy  thinks  the  date  should  be  610 ;
others  say  603  or  584  b.  c. It  is  the  one  recorded
by  Herodotus  as  interrupting  a  battle  between
the  Medes  and  Iydians.]
The  alleged  eclipse  at.  the  time  of  Xerxes'  expedition
against  Greece,  480  B.C.,  is  much  disputed,  and
the  darkness  was  probably  meteorological.
One  at  Athens  (Thucydides,  lib.  iv.) . . b.c. 424
Eclipse  of  Agathocles  (Airy) . . .15  Aug. 310
Total one: three  days' supplication  decreed  at

Rome  (Livy) 188

One  observed  at  Constantinople . . .  a.d. g68
At  the  battle  of  Sticklestadt . . 29  July,  1030
In France, when  it  was  dark  at noon-day  (Du
Fresnoy)  . . . . . . . 29  June,  1033

In  England:  a  total  darkness  (IV.  Malmsb.),  20  Mar.  1140
Again  ; the  stars  visible  at  ten  in  the  morning
(Camden) ...... 23  June,  1191

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  another,  so
that  astronomers alone could distinguish the
difference  by  coloured  glasses . . . . ,,

Observed  in  Scotland; termed  the  "black  hour"

7  June,  1433
Observed  in  Scotland;  termed "Mirk  Monday"

8  April,  1652
Total  eclipse,  visible  in  England ;  the  darkness  so

great  that  the  stars  shone,  and  the  birds  went  to
roost  at  noon 3  May,  1715

Last  total  eclipse  observed  in  England ;  seen  near
Salisbury 22  May,  1724

Remarkable  one,  central  and  annular  in  the  interior
of  Europe 7  Sept. 1802

Total  eclipses — 17  July,  1833;  8  July,  1842;  28
July,  1851.

An  annular  eclipse  ;  it  was  seen  and  photographed
at  Oundle ; but  not  seen  well  at  other  places

15  March,  1858

Total  eclipse  of  the  sun ;  well  seen  by  sir  G.  B.
Airy,  astronomer  royal,  and  others  in  Spain;
Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue  took  photographs,  18  July,  i860

Total  eclipse  of  the  sun  of  the  longest  possible  dura-
tion; (the  Royal  Society  provided  means  for  its
observation  in  India,  by  col.  Walker,  Mr.  Herschel,
and  others) .  .... 18  Aug. 1868

During  the  solar  eclipse,  18  Aug.  1868,  as  observed
in  India,  M.  Janssen  invented  a  method  of  study-
ing the  phenomena  of  the  sun  at  any  time,  by
employing  several  spectroscopes,  whereby  the
spectrum  is  lengthened  and  the  dazzling  bril-
liancy diminished.  Mr.  Joseph  Norman  Lockyer
had  suggested  a  similar  method  of  observation
11  1866,  but  did  not  use  it  till  20  Oct.  1868,  being
hen  not  aware  of  M.  Janssen's  discovery.


The  solar  eclipse  well  observed  in  North  America,

7  Aug.  1869

Two  expeditions  to  observe  the  solar  eclipse  of
22  Bee.  1870,  sent  out  by  the  British  government,
were  not  successful .... 22  Dec.  1870-

The  solar  eclipse  well  observed  at  Ceylon  and  in
southern India, 12 Dec. 1871  ; and  in  North
America,  29,  30  July,  1878  ;  and  in  Egypt  17  May,  1882
[The  same  eclipses  (about  70)  recur  in  a  period  of
18  years  105  days.]

Except  the  total  eclipse,  12  Aug.  1999,  there  can  be
no  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  visible  in  England  for
250  years  :  July,  1871. Hind.

Grand  eclipse,  well  seen  by  astronomers  at  Caroline
island,  &c,  Pacific .... 6  May,  1883;

Eclipse  of  the  sun  well  seen  in  North  America,  &c.

16  March,  1885,

8  Sept.  seen  in  New  Zealand „

Aug.  in  Russia 1887-

Solar  eclipse  29  August,  1886  ;  British  expedition
to  island  of  Grenada  (West  Indies)  authorized  by
Government  April ;  eclipse  well  observed  and
photographed  at  Grenada 188S

Great  solar  eclipse  observed  in  the  U.S.  Pacific
States 1  Jan.  i88g>

Eclipse  Dec.  22  observed,  Saint  isle,  near  Deme-
rara,  by  Father  Stephen  J.  Perry,  who  dies  there ,,

OF  THE MOON.

The  first,  observed  by  the  Chaldeans  at  Babylon

(Ptolemy  iv.) b.c. 7211

A  total  one  observed  at  Sardis  (Thucydides,  vii.) . 415

Again,  in  Asia  Minor  (Polybius) 219=

One  at  Rome, predicted  by  Q. Sulpitius  Gallus

(Livy,  xliv.) 168I

One  terrified  the  Roman  troops  and  quelled  their
revolt  (Tacitus) a.d. 14.

ECNOMUS,  see  Himera.

ECOLE  POLYTECHNIQUE,  a  military
academy  at  Paris,  established  in  1794,  and  reor-
ganised and  given  its  present  name  on  1  Sept.  1795.
The  "  Journal"  (which  began  in  1795)  contains  pro-
found mathematical  papers.  The  school  was  reor-
ganised 4  Sept.  1816.  The  pupils  helped  to  defend
Paris  in  1 8 14  and  1830.

ECONOMIC.  MUSEUM  (or  Museum  of
Domestic  and  Sanitary  Economy),  at  Twickenham,
open  free,  was  established  chiefly  by  the  agency
of  Mr.  Thos.  Twining,  in  i860.  It  originated  from,
the  Paris  exhibition  of  1855.  Economic  Revietvr
No.  1,  published  Jan.  1891.

ECONOMIST,  London  weekly  journal,  de-
voted to  financial  matters,  first  appeared  2  Sept.
1843.

ECONOMISTES,  a  philosophical  sect,  founded*
by  Francois  Quesnay  (1694 — 1774),  who  exalted
agriculture  above  all  other  arts  ;  he  asserted  that  it;
gave  two  things,  the  support  of  the  labourer  and  an
excess  of  value  which  belonged  to  the  proprietor  of
the  land  ("product  net"),  and  which  alone  should
be  taxed.  He  also  favoured  great  freedom  for  in-
dustry and  trade.  His  "  Pliysiocratie"  (1768),  and
other  works,  were  at  the  time  very  popular,  even,
at  court,  and  are  said  to  have  influenced  Adanii
Smith,  author  of  "  The  "Wealth  of  Nations."

ECONOMY,  see  Political  Economy.
The  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of
Economic  Knowledge  was  founded  20  Nov. Mr.
G.  J.  Goschen  elected  first  president,  23  Nov. .  1890*

ECOECHEUES  (Flayers),  bands  of  armed
adventurers  who  desolated  France  and  Belgium
during  the  15th  centu^',  beginning  about  1435.
Amongst  their  leaders  were  Chabannes,  comte  de-
Dammartin,  the  bastard  of  Armagnac,  and  Vil-
landras ;  and  they  at  one  time  numbered  100,000;.
They  are  said  to  have  stripped  their  victims  to  their
shirts,  and  flayed  the  cattle.  They  were  favoured
by  the  English  invasion  and  the  civil  wars*.


ECRASITE.


311


EDINBURGH.


ECRASITE,  an  explosive  invented  by  Siersch
and  Kubin,  Austrian  engineers,  impervious  to
damp,  shock,  or  tire,  Oct.  1889.

ECUADOR,  see  Equator.

EDDAS  (thought  formerly  to  mean  Oldemoder,
or  "mother  of  mothers,"  by  others,  "art,")  two
books  of  songs  and  sagas  (prose  and  verse)  contain-
ing the  Scandinavian  mythology  (or  history  of  Odin,
Thor,  Frea,  &c),  written  by  skalds  or  bards  about
the  nth  or  12th  centuries.  Translations  have  been
made  into  French,  English,  &c.  MSS.  of  the
Eddas  exist  at  Copenhagen  and  Upsal.

EDDYSTONE  (or  Edystoxe) LIGHT-
HOUSE, off  the  port  of  Plymouth,  erected  by
the  Trinity-house to enable ships  to avoid the
Eddystone'rock. The first lighthouse  was com-
menced under  Mr.  Winstanley,  in  1696  ;  finished
in  1699; and destroyed  in  the  dreadful  tempest
of  27  Nov.  1703,  when  Mr.  Winstanley  and  others
perished. A  wooden  one,  by  Rudyerd,  was  built  by
order  of  parliament,  and  all  ships  were  ordered  to
pay  one  penny  per  ton  inwards  and  outwards  towards
supporting  it,  1708. This  lighthouse  was  burnt  4
Dec.  1755;  and  one  on  a  better  plan,  erected  by
Mr.  Smeaton,  finished  9  Oct.  1759. The  woodwork
of  this,  burnt  in  1 770,  was  replaced  by  stone.
The  foundation  having  given way,  a  new  one  was  de-
signed by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  James  N.  Douglass,  engineer  of
the  Trinity  House. The  foundation-stone  was  laid  by
the  duke  of  Edinburgh  in  the  presence  of  the  prince  of
Wales,  19  Aug.,  1879. The  corner-stone  was  placed  by
the  duke  on  1  June,  1881. Successfully  lit,  3 Feb.
1882  ;  opened  by  the  duke,  18  May,  1882.
Smeaton's  light-house  memorial  tower  erected  at  Ply-
mouth ;  founded  by  duke  of  Edinburgh,  20  Oct.  1882.
Inaugurated,  24  Sept.  1884.

EDEN,  ship  burnt ;  see  Wrecks,  1873.

EDESSA  (now  Orfah),  a  town  in  Mesopo-
tamia, said  by  some,  to  have  been  built  by  Nimrod;
by  Appian,  to  have  been  built  by  Seleucus.  It  be-
came famous  for  its  schools  of  theology  in  the  5th
century.  It  was  made  a  principality  by  the  crusa-
ders, and  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  1145;  °y
Nur-ed-deen,  in  1 144;  and  the  Turks  in  1184.  Its
ancient  kings  or  rulers  were  named  Abgarus  and
Mannus.

EDGECOTE,  see  Banbury.

EDGEHILL  FIGHT  (23  Oct.  1642),  War-
wickshire, between  the  royalists  under  prince  Ru-
pert and  the  parliament  army  under  the  earl  of
Essex,  was  the  first  important  engagement  in  the
civil  war.  Charles  I.  was  present,  and  the  earl  of
Lindsay,  who  headed  the  royal  foot,  was  mortally
wounded.  The  king  lost  5600  dead.  The  action
was  indecisive,  though  the  parliament  claimed  the
victory.

EDICT  OP  NANTES,  by  which  Henry  IV.  of
France  granted  toleration  to  his  protcstant  subjects,
13  April,  1598,  was  confirmed  by  Louis  XIII.  in
iblO,  and  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1652.  It  was  revoked
by  Louis  XIV.  22  Oct.  1685.  This  act  cost  France
50,000  Protestant  families,  and  gave  to  England
and  Germany  thousands  of  industrious  artisans.
It  also  caused  a  fierce  insurrection  in  Languedoc.
See  Camisards.  Some  of  the  refugees  settled  in  Spital-
fields,  where  their  descendants  yet  remain;  others
settled  in  Solio  and  St.  Giles's,  and  pursued  the  art
of  making  crystal  glasses,  and  carried  on  the  silk
manufacture  and  jewellery,  then  little  understood
in  England.

EDICTS,  public  ordinances  and  decrees,
usually  set  forth  by  sovereigns ;  originated  with


the  Romans.  The  Perpetual  Edict:  Salvius
Julianus,  of  Milan,  a  civilian  at  Rome  (author  of
several  treatises  on  public  right),  was  employed  by
the  emperor  Adrian  to  draw  up  this  body  of  law's
for  the  praetors,  promulgated  132.

EDINBURGH,  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,
derives  its  name — in  ancient  records  Edinbure  and
Hun  Edin,  "the  bill  of  Edin" — from  its  castle,
founded  or  rebuilt  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northum-
bria,  who,  having  greatly  extended  his  dominions,
erected  it  for  the  protection  of  his  newly  acquired
territories  from  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and
Picts,  626.  But  it  is  said  the  castle  was  first  built
by  Camelon,  king  of  the  Picts,  330  B.C.  It  makes
a  conspicuous  appearance,  standing  on  a  rock  300
feet  high  at  the  west  end  of  the  old  town,  and,  before
the  use  of  great  guns,  was  a  fortification  of  con-
siderable strength.  Edinburgh  returns  4  M.P.'sby
act  passed  25  June,  1885. See  Population.

Christianity  introduced  (reign  of  Donald  I. )  .  .  201
City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm

Canmore 1074

St.  Giles's  church  founded  (845  ?) ....  1120

Improved  by  David  1 1124  to  1153

Holyrood  abbey  founded  by  David  1 1128

Edinburgh  constituted  a  burgh . . about ,,

Castle  held  by  England 1174-S6

A  parliament  held  here  under  Alexander  II. . . 1215

City  taken  by  the  English 1296

Grant  of  the  town  of  Leith  to  Edinburgh . . 1329

Surrenders  to  Edward  III 1355

St.  Giles's  church  destroyed 1385

Rebuilt 1387

City  burnt  by  Richard  II.,  1385  ;  and  by  Henry  IV.  1401
The  parliament  hall, Edinburgh  castle, built  by

James  I.  . about  1434

James  II.  first  king  crowned  here . . . . 1437

Execution  of  the  earl  of  Athol „

Annual  fair  granted  by  James  II.  . . . . 1447

City  strengthened  by  a  wall 1450

Charter  of  James  III 1477

Edinburgh  made  the  metroxiolis  by  James  III.  .  1482
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  incorporated . . .  1505

Charter  of  James  IV. 1508

[The  palace  of  Holyrood  was  built  in  the  reign  of
James  IV.']

High  school  founded,  about 1518-

A  British  force,  landing  from  a  fleet  of  200  ships,

burns  both  Edinburgh  and  Leith  .  .  May,  1544
Leith  is  again  burnt,  but  Edinburgh  is  spared .  1547

Tolbooth  built 1561

Marriage  of  queen  Mary  and  lord  Darnley . .  1565
David  Rizzio  murdered . . . . . . 1566

Lord  Darnley  blown  up  in  a  private  house  by  gun-
powder 10  Feb. 1567

Mary  marries  James,  earl  of  Bothwell  15  May, ,,

Mary's  forced  resignation  ;  civil  war . . . 1570

Death  of  John  Knox .- 1572

University  chartered  ;  see  Ed.  University  14  April,  1582
Bothwell's  attempt  on  Holyrood-house  27  Dec.  1591

Riot  in  the  city  ;  the  mob  attacks  the  king  .  .  1596
James  VI.  leaves  Edinburgh  as  king  of  England,

S  April,  1603  ;  he  revisits  it  .  .  .  16  May,  1G17
George  Heriot's  hospital  founded  by  his  will  .  .  1624
Charles  I.  crowned  at  Edinburgh  . . .  June,  1633

Edinburgh  made  a  bishopric

Riots in Greyfriars  church  at  the  reading  of  the

English  Liturgy  .  .  .  _  .  .23  July,  1637
Parliament  house  finished ......  1640

Charles  again  visits  the  city 1641

The  castle  is  surrendered  to  Cromwell  .  Dec.  1650
"  MercuriusCuled-onius,"  first  Edinburgh  newspaper,

appeared  1661

Coffee-houses  first  opened 1677

Merchants'  Company  incorporated ....  16S1
College  of  Physicians  incorporated . . . . ,,
Earl  of  Argyll  beheaded .... 30  June,  1685
African  and  East  India  Company  incorporated .  1605

Bank  of  Scotland  founded

Union  of  the  kingdoms 1707

Royal  bank  founded 1727

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures
appointed  ....  .


EDINBURGH.


312


EDINBURGH.


Royal  Infirmary  incorporated 1736

Affair  of  Captain  Porteous  (see  Porteous) 7  Sept. ,,

Medical  Society  instituted 1737

The  young  Pretender  occupies  Holyrood 17  Sept. 1745
Battle  of  Preston  Pans . . . .21  Sept. „
Modern  improvements,  "New  town,"  commenced  .  1753

Magistrates  assigned  gold  chains 1754

Royal  Exchange  completed 1761

Foundation  of  the  North  Bridge  . . .  21  Oct.  1763

Theatre  Royal  erected 1769

Great  fire  in  the  Lawn-market 1771

Register-office,  Princes-street,  commenced  .  .  .  1774
Ualton-hill  observatory  founded  .  .  25  July,  1776
Great  commotion  against  popery  . . .2  Feb.  1779

Society  of  Antiquaries 1780

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  incorporated  .  .  .  1783
South  Bridge  commenced ...  1  Aug.  1785

Royal  College  of  Surgeons  incorporated  .  .  .  1788
First  stone  of  present  university  laid  16  Nov.  1789

Robertson,  the  historian,  dies  here  . n  June,  1793

Bridewell,  Calton-hill,  erected 1796

Holyrood, an  asylum  to Louis XVIII. and his

brother,  afterwards  Charles  X.  .  .  1795  to  1799
New  Bank  of  Scotland  commenced  .  .  3  June,  1801
"  Edinburgh  Review  "  first  published  .  10  Oct.  1802
New  system  of  police  established . . . . 1805

Alarming  riots  here 31  Dec. 1811

Nelson's  monument  completed 1815

Gas  company  incorporated 1818

Water  convpany  incorporated 1819

Professor  Play  fair  dies .... 20  July, „

Society  of  Arts  instituted 1821

Union  Canal  completed 1822

George IV.  's visit ; foundation  of the national

monument 15-27  Aug. „

Royal  Institution  erected 1823

Destructive  fires .... June  and  Nov.  1824

Scottish  Academy  founded 1826

Xord  Melville's  monument  erected  .  .  .  .  1828
Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith  railway  opened  . July,  1831

.Statue  of  George  IV.  erected 1832

T)eath  of  sir  Walter  Scott  . . . 21  Sept. ,,

Chambers's  Edinburgh  Journal  published  . . . „

Association  of  the  Fine  Arts 1833

The  British  Association  meets  here  .  .  8  Sept.  1834
Edinburgh  and  Grantou  railway  begun . . . 1836

Art-union  of  Scotland [S37

Men  ur.ent  to  sir  Walter  Scott  commenced  . . .  1840
Society  of  Arts,  founded  1821  ;  incorporated . . 1842
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  railway  opened . Feb. ,,
Queen  Victoria  visits  Edinburgh,  &c,  31  Aug. -15  Sept. ,,
Secession,  and  formation  of  the  Free  Church,  18  May,  1843

New  College  instituted

North  British  railway  commenced  .  .  .  .  1844
The  monument  to  the  political  martyrs  of  1793-4

laid  by  Mr.  Hume  .  21  Aug. ,,

■Granton  pier,  &c,  constructed  by  the  duke  of  Buc-

cleuch 1835-44

.Sir  Walter  Scott's  monument  completed  .  .  .  1845
Edinburgh Philosophical  Association  (established

1832)  re-organised  as  the  Edinburgh  Philosophi-
cal Society tq  6

N.  British  railway  opened . . . 18  June, ,,
British  Association  (2nd  time)  meets . 31  July,  1850
The  queen  again  visits  Edinburgh .  29  Aug. ,,

Prince Albert lays the  foundation-stone  of  the

Scotch  national  gallery .  . .  30  Aug.

Meeting  to  vindicate  Scottish  rights  .  2  Nov.  1853
Old  buildings  near  Lawn-market  burnt  .  5  Aug.  1S57
Act  passed  for  building  new  Post-office  .  .  July,  1858
National  gallery  opened  ...  21  March,  1859
Agitation  against  Ministers'  Annuity  tax  .  Sept.
Lord  Brougham  elected  chancellor  of  the  university,

Edinburgh x  Nov.'

Ministers'  tax  abolished,  and  other  arrangements

made which  did  not give  satisfaction  : riots

ensued Nov.  i860

20,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  in  Queen's

Park 7  Aug.

Industrial  museum  act  passed  .  .  .28  Augi
Edinburgh  visited  by  empress  Eugenie,  20  Nov!
The  prince  consort  lays  foundation of  new  Post- '

office  and  industrial  museum  .  .  .23  Oct.  1861
Fall  of  a  house  in  High-street,  35  persons  killed,

24  Nov. ,
Accident  on  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  railway — 17

killed;  above  100  wounded  . . . 13  Oct. 1862


Lord  Palmerston's  visit .  31  March-4  April,

Theatre  royal  burnt :  George  Loriiner,  dean  of
guild,  and  seven  persons,  killed  by  fall  of  wall,
while  endeavouring  to  extricate  others, 13  Jan.

Statues  of  Allan  Ramsay  and  John  Wilson  inaugu-
rated 25  March,

New  Post-office  opened .... 7  May,

National  museum  of  science  and  art  opened  by
prince  Alfred  (who  is  created  duke  of  Edinburgh,
&c. ,  the  first  royal  prince  whose  leading  title  was
Scotch,  24  May) 19  May,

Great  reform  demonstration ... 17  Nov.

Explosion  in  the  Canongate,  at  Hammond's,  a  fire-
work-maker's ;  5  killed,  many  injured . 9  Oct.

Visit  of  Mr.  Disraeli,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,
conservative  demonstration . . 29,  30  Oct.

Meeting  to  propose  restoration  of  St.  Giles's  cathe-
dral .1  Nov.

Visit  of  John  Bright,  made  freeman . 3  Nov.

The  annuity-tax  abolition  act  passed . 9  Aug.

The  prince  of  Wales  installed  as  patron  of  the
Freemasons  of  Scotland,  12  Oct.  ;  laid  the  founda-
tion of  the  new  royal  infirmary  . .  13  Oct.

Meeting  of  British  Association  (3rd) . .  2  Aug.

Scott  centenary  celebrated .  (9  for  15)  Aug.

Restoration  of  St.  Giles's  cathedral  begun,  17  June,

Lady  Burdett-Coutts  made  a  burgess . 15  Jan.

The  earl  of  Derby  elected  lord  rector  of  the  uni-
versity 14  Nov.

Theatre  Royal  destroyed  by  fire . . 6  Feb.

Advocates'  library  injured  by  fire . 3  March

Southminster  theatre  burnt . . .14  March

Freedom  of  city  given  tort.  hon.W.  E.  Forster,  5  Nov.

Earl  of  Derby's  address  as  lord  rector, .  17  Dec.

Statue  of  Dr.  Livingstone  unveiled  . . 15  Aug.

Albert  Memorial  inaugurated  by  the  queen,  17  Aug.

Fire  at  Leith  Walk,  7  killed  through  fall  of  a  house,

20  Dec.

Messrs.  Nelson's  printing-office  burnt ;  great  loss,

10  April,

Statue  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  by  Steell,  unveiled  27  July

Marquis  of  Hartington  installed  lord  rector,  31  Jan.

New  waterworks  (Portmore  reservoir  at  the  Moor-
foot  Hills)  opened  by  the  lord  provost 13  June,

St.  Mary's  Cathedral  (Episcopal)  founded  by  the
duke  of  Bucc.leueh,  1874  ;  consecrated 30  Oct.

New  dock  at  Leith  opened  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh

26  July,

About  40,000  Scottish  volunteers  reviewed  in  the
queen's  park  by  the  queen  ... 25  Aug.

Fishery  Exhibition  opened . . .11  April,

Academy  of  Music  for  Scotland  (at  Edinburgh)
founded Sept.

Freedom  of  the  city  given  to  the  marquis  cf  Salis-
bury , . 27  Nov.

A  severe  snow-storm  ;  locomotion  stopped  ;  frost

9-18  Dec.

Death  of  William  Chambers,  bookseller,  restorer
of  St.  Giles's  [which  is  reopened  23  May]  20  May,

Sir  Stafford  Northeote  lord  rector  of  the  university

3  Nov.

Theatre  Royal  again  destroyed  by  fire . 30  June,

Mass-meeting  to  support  the  government  and  the
franchise  bill 12  July,

Visit  of  the  prince  and  princess  and  family  22  Aug.

Demonstration  in  favour  of  the  government;
speeches  of  Mr.  Gladstone . . 30  Aug.  and

1-2  Sept.

The  ancient  cross  restored  bv  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,

Nov.

International  Industrial  Exhibition  opened  by
prince  Albert  Victor,  6  May  ;  visited  by  the
queen,  grand  civic  demonstration  18  Aug.  1886  ;
2,740,000  visitors  ;  closed . . . 31  Oct.

Jubilee  gifts  of  Dr.  R.  H.  Gunning  for  prizes,  etc.
to  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  Society  of  Anti-
quaries of  Scotland,  University  of  Edinburgh,
Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Edin-
burgh, Ben  Nevis  observatory,  &c.  announced  July,

The  Heriot-Watt  College  inaugurated  ;  address  by
Sir  F.  Bramwell  .... 10  Jan.

S'ight  earthquake 18  Jan.

Naval  and  Military  exhibition  opened  18  June,

Freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  Mr.  C.  S.  Parnell
(18,000 municipal electors protest  against  it)

20  July,
[His  name  erased  from  the  roll,  1891.]


1867


1870


1871


1872
1873


1874
1875


1877


1879


EDINBURGH.


313


EDUCATION.


National  Association  for  the  advancement  of  Art-
congress  meets . .  -  28  Oct. — 2  Nov.  1889

International  Industrial  exhibition,  buildings
erected  at  Merchiston  and  S.W.  suburb  ;  nearly
90  acres  occupied  ;  the  exhibition  opened  by  the
duke  and  duchess  of  Edinburgh,  the  duke  of
Buccleuch,  lord  Kingsburgh,  the  provosts  of
Glasgow,  Leith,  Perth,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and
Manchester,  and  other  eminent  persons  were  pre-
sent 1  May,  1890

Visited  by  the  lord  mayor  of  London  in  state

20  June, ,,

Closed 31  Oct. „

The  exhibition  was  not  successful  financially

13  Nov. ,,

The  free  public  library  (for  which  Mr.  Andrew  Car-
negie gave  50,000/.)  opened  by  the  earl  of  Rose-
bery 9  June, ,,

Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley,  the  African  explorer,  receives
the  freedom  of  the  city  ....  n  June, ,,

The  parliament  Hall  restored  ;  see  Parliament  of
Scotland Feb.  1891

Statue  of  Win.  Chambers  (subscribed  for)  in
Chambers  street :  unveiled . . .5  March »

Dr.  James  A.  Russell  elected  lord  provost 6  Nov. ,,

Banquet  to  Mr.  G.  J.  Goschen  . . .20  Nov. ,,

Fire  at  the  house  of  Prof.  Copeland,  astronomer
royal  for  Scotland,  valuable  instruments  and
books  much  damaged ... 8  March,  1892

Meeting  of  British  Association  (4th)  . 3  Aug. ,,

EDINBUKGH,  Bishopric  of,  was  created

by  Charles  I.  when  in  Scotland  in  1633  ;  and  "Wil-
liam Forbes,  minister  of  Edinburgh,  first  bishop.
The  king  allotted  the  parishes  of  the  shires  of
Edinburgh,  Linlithgow,  Haddington,  and  a  part
of  Berwick  and  of  Stirlingshire,  to  compose  the  see.
The  sixth  and  last  prelate  was  Alexander  Ross,  who
was  ejected  on  the  abolition  of  episcopacy,  at  the
period  of  the  revolution,  in  1689.  Edinburgh  be-
came a  post-revolution  bishopric  in  1720;  see
Bishops.

EDINBURGH,  Duke  OF,  Alfred  Ernest,
second  son  of  queen  Victoria,  born  6  Aug.  1844,
created  duke  of  Edinburgh  and  carl  of  Kent  24
May,  1866.

The  duke  was  married  to  Marie  Alexandrovna,  the  grand
duchess  of  Russia,  23  Jan.  1874.  [The  queen  was
empowered  by  parliament,  5  Aug.  1873,  to  grant
an  additional  annuity  of  10,000?.  to  the  duke  on
liis  marriage,  and  an  annuity  of  6,000?.  to  the  grand
duchess  if  she  should  survive  the  duke.]  For  Bio-
graphy and  Issue,  see  England,  present  Royal  Family.

EDINBURGH  REVIEW  (by  Francis  Jef-
frey, rev.  Sydney  Smith,  Henr}7  Brougham,  and
other  whigs)  published  first  on  10  Oct.  1802.

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY.  A  college
was  commenced  by  the  town  council  of  Edinburgh,
in  1 58 1,  for  which  queen  Mary  had  given  the  site
of  ancient  religious  houses,  and  .Robert  Reid,  bishop
of  Orkney,  the  funds  in  1558.  The  university  was
chartered  14  April,  1582.  On  24  Oct.  1582  the
university  was  chartered  by  James  VI.,  afterwards
James  I.  of  England.  The  first  principal  was  ap-
pointed in  1585.  The  foundation-stone  of  the  new
buildings  was  laid  by  Francis,  lord  Napier,  grand-
master of  the  masons  of  Scotland,  16  Nov.  1789.
The  constitution  of  the  university  was  modified
by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1858.  In  18415,  the
library  contained  upwards  of  80,000  volumes,
besides  numerous  curious  and  rare  MSS.  and
documents.  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  elected  the  first
M.P.  for  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrew's  univer-
sities in  conformity  with  the  act  of  1868,  4  Dec.
1868.  Great  movement  to  extend  the  university;
meeting  in  London:  large  subscriptions,  7  Dec.
1874.  The  tercentenary  of  the  university  was  cele-
brated by  a  distinguished  assembly,  16—18  April,
1384. Students'  union  formed  to  promote  recrea-


tion, discussion,  comfort,  &c.  Fancy  fair  opened
for  its  support  by  the  marquis  of  Lome,  30  Nov.
1886.  Miss  Jane  Jeffrey,  of  Portobello,  bequeaths
5000/.  for  scholarships,  announced  Nov.  1887.
University  gathering  to  promote  the  University
Extension  Scheme,  24  Sept.  et  seq.  1889.  Mr.  A.
J.  Balfour,  m.  p.,  elected  chancellor  of  the  university,
30  Oct.  1891.  Mr.  G.  J.  Goschen's  address  (on
Imagination)  as  lord  rector,  19  Nov.  1891.

EDLINGHAM  BURGLARY,  see  Trials,

>  ov.  1888.

EDMUNDS'  CASE,  see  under  Patents.
EDOM,  see  Idumcea.

EDUCATION,  the  art  of  developing  the
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties  of  man,
has  occupied  the  greatest  minds  in  all  ages :  Socrates,
Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Ouintilian,  Bacon,  Milton,
Locke,  Rousseau,  &c.  In  England  the  earliest
schools  for  the  lower  classes  were  those  attached  to
the  monasteries ;  for  the  higher  classes  halls  and
colleges  were  gradually  founded  ;  see  Arts,  Colleges,
Schools,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Endowed  Schools,
jrischam  Society,  Technical  Education,  %c.
William  of  Wykeham  planted  the  school  at  Win-
chester, whence  arose  his  colleges  at  that  place

and  Oxford 137^

Etoii  college  founded  by  Henry  VI 1443

After  the  reformation,  education  was  greatly  pro-
moted, and  many  grammar  schools  were  erected
and  endowed  by  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth . 1535-65
Christ's  hospital,  the  bluecoat  school,  established,  1553
Westminster  school  founded  by  Elizabeth . .  1560
Foundation  of  Rugby  school  by  Lawrence  Sheriff,

1567  ;  of  Harrow  school  by  John  Lyon . . . 1571
The  Charterhouse  founded  by  Thomas  Sutton  . 161 1

Many charity schools  founded  in opposition  to

Romish  ones about  1687

Parish  schools  appointed  by  the  parliament  of  Scot-
land 1697

Queen  Anne,  a  zealous  friend  of  education,  founded
the  Greycoat  school,  Westminster,  and  cordially
supported  parochial  charity  schools  (one  esta-
blished at  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  1688)  .  1698
Nearly  2000  of  these  schools  established  in  Great
Britain  and  Ireland,  principally  by  the  instru-
mentality of  the  Society  for  the Promotion  of

Christian  Knowledge 1698-1741

Robert  Raikes  set  up  Sunday  Schools  about .  .  .  1781
In 1833 there  were  16,828  of  these  schools,  with

1,548,890  scholars.
Joseph  Lancaster,  a  young  Quaker,  began  to  instruct

the  children  of  the  poor 1796

He  had  90  pupils  before  he  was  18  years  old,  and

1000  pupils  in 1798

Sunday  School  Union  formed 1802

To  provide  teachers,  Lancaster  invented  the  moni-
torial system.  In  consequence  of  his  exertions
the  present  British  and  Foreign  School  Society
was founded with the  name of  the "Royal

Laneasterian  Institution,"  &e 1805

This,  being  unexclusive,  was  followed  by  the  insti-
tution of  the  Church  of  England  "  National
Society  for  Educating  the  Poor,"  on  Dr. Bell's

system 1811

Injant  Schools  began about  1815

The  Charity  Commission,  appointed  at  the  instance
of  Mr.  (afterwards  lord)  Brougham,  published
their  reports  on  Education,  in  37  volumes  folio,  1819-40
Irish  National  School  System  (to  accommodate  both
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants)  organised
mainly  by  archbishop  Whately  and  the  Reman

Catholic  archbishop  Murray 1831

City  of  London  School,  Honey-lane,  opened . . 1834
The  Home  and  Colonial  School Society  was  insti-
tuted 1836

In  1834,  the  government  began  annual  grants  (the
lirst  20,000/.),  which  continued  till  the  Committee
of  the  Privy  Council  on  Education  was  con-
stituted Cor  the  distribution  of  the  money  .  1839
The  Voluntary  School  Society  and  the  Congrega-
tional Board  of  Education  formed . . about  1843


EDUCATION.


314


EDUCATION.


Bagged  School  Union  established .... 1844

Educational  Times,  monthly,  established . Oct. 1847

Out  of  a  population  of  17,927,609,  there  were
2,466,481  day  scholars 1851

A  great  educational  conference  took  place  at
Willis's  Rooms,  the  prince  consort  iu  the  chair,

22-24  June,  1857

The  Industrial  Schools  act  passed  in  „

Middle  Class  Examinations  from  the  university  of
Oxford  began,  June,  1858.  The  examiners  granted
the  degree  of  A.A.  to  many  persons  at  Liverpool,
Leeds,  &c.  ;  similar  examinations  from  Cam-
bridge took  place  in  the  autumn,  and  are  to  be
continued 1858

Report  of  commissioners  on  popular  education  (ap-
pointed 1858),  published  18  March,  1861,  led  to
tlie  Minute  of  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council
on  Education,  establishing  a  Revised  Code  of  Regu-
lations ;  Mr.  Lowe's  adopted  21  July,  1861,  to  come
intooperation.after 31  March,  1862.  Itdecreedregu-
lar  examinations  of  the  pupils,  payment  by  results,
evening  schools  for  adults,  and  other  changes,
which  raised  a  storm  of  opposition  from  the
clergy  and  schoolmasters.  The  subject  was  much
discussed  in  parliament  (25,  28  March,  1862)  ;  but
eventually  a  compromise  was  effected, 5 May,  1862

Official  instructions  for  the  administration  of  the
Revised  Code  issued Sept. ,,

"Conscience-clause,"  founded  on  the  Endowed
Schools  act,  March,  i860,  introduced  by  the  Com-
mittee of  Council  on  Education  for  parishes  where
only  one  school  is  required.  It  provided  for  the
admission  of  children  of  dissenters,  and  exempted
them  from  religious  teaching,  and  attendance  at

public  worship Nov.  1863

(Report,  10  June,  1865.)

It  has  been  much  opposed  by  the  clergy  ever  since,
and  created  much  controversy  ill . . . 1866-7

College  and  Public  School  Commission  Report,
signed 16  Feb. 1864

Royal  Commission  appointed,  to  inquire  into  the
state  of  education  in  Scotland.  First  meeting  at
Edinburgh 14  Nov. „

Miss  (aft.  baroness)  Burdett-Coutts  proposes  the
establishment  of  small  village-schools,  to  be
taught  by  "  ambulatory "  teachers . . Jan. 1865

Parliamentary  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into
the  best  mode  of  benefiting  schools  unassisted  by
the  state 28  Feb. „

Training  ship  established  for  homeless  boys  of
London  ;  50  boys  placed  there  by  Boys'  Refuge
committee. See  Chichester . . .18  Be:;.  1866

Foundation  of  the  London  College  of  the  Inter-
national Education  Society  laid  by  the  prince  of
"Wales 10  July,  1867

Four  establishments  in  England,  France,  Germany,
and  Italy  proposed  ;  the  idea  is  attributed  to  Mr.
Cobden  and  M.  Michel  Chevalier . . ... 1862

Committee  appointed  at  a  meeting  for  establishment
of  higher  schools  for  middle  classes  in  Loudon,  by
means  of  funds  of  lapsed  charities,  &c. ,  7  Nov.  ;
nearly  28,ooo(.  subscribed  by  end  of  Bee.  1865  ;
51,349?.  received Oct. 1866

The  subscribers  incorporated  by  charter  ;  their  first
school  opened  by  lord  mayor  and  others  in  Bath-
street,  St.  Luke's 1  Oct. ,,

Great  prosperity  reported  at  the  annual  meeting,

18  March,  1867

Resolutions  moved  in  the  lords  by  earl  Russell  (as-
serting that  every  child  has  a  right  to  education,
and  recommending  appointment  of  a  cabinet
minister  of  education),  withdrawn . .  2  Bee. ,,

Important  report  of  schools  inquiry  commissioners
signed 2  Bee. ,,

Conference  at  Manchester  recommend  compulsory
education,  to  be  paid  for  by  rates . 15  Jan. 1868

Public  Schools  bill  brought  into  the  commons  7  Feb. ,,

Public  Elementary  Education  bill  brought  into  the
lords  by  duke  of  Marlborough,  24  March  ;  with-
.  drawn 18  May, „

Mr.  (aft.  sir  Joseph)  Whitworth's  offer  to  found  30
scholarships  of  annual  value  of  100I.  each,  for  in-
struction of  young  men  in  mechanics,  &c,  18
March,  accepted  by  the  lords  of  the  council  27  Mar. ,,

Foundation  of  the  first  new  building  for  a  middle
class  school  in  London  laid  by  the  lord  mayor,
Lawrence  {very  successful,  1873) . . 15  Bee. ,,


Public  Schools  Act  (modifying  the  government  of
Eton,  Winchester,  Westminster,  Charterhouse,
Harrow,  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury  schools)  passed
31  July,  1868  ;  amendment  acts .  9  Aug.  1869-70-73

New  statutes  for  them  issued .* . Oct. -Nov.  1869

National  Education  League  (advocating  compulsory
secular  education  by  the  state),  first  met  at  Bir-
mingham (see  below,  1877) . . 12,  13  Oct. 1869

National  Education  Union  for  supplementing  the
present  denominational  system,  first  met  at
Manchester 3  Nov. ,,

Conference  at  the  Society  of  Arts  to  reconcile  the
League  and  the  Union 7  Feb.  1870

Scientific  instruction  and  advancement  commission
appointed 19  May, ,,

First  "  drill-review  "  of  London  charity  schools,  and
others,  at  the  Crystal  Palace . .21  June, ,,

Elementary  Education  Bill  introduced  by  Mr.  W.  E.
Forster,  17  Feb.  ;  after  much  discussion,  and  op-
position  from  the  dissenters,  it  passed,  and  re-
ceived the  royal  assent  ... 9  Aug. ,,
[Amended  in  1872, 1873,  and  1876.]  [Mr.  Forster
died,  aged  67,  5  April,  1886  ;  his  statue  on  the
Victoria  Embankment  unveiled  1  Aug.  1890.]

io.oooJ.  voted  by  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society
in  aid  of  Church  of  England  schools . 20  Oct. ,,

First  election  of  Metropolitan  school-board  {which
see)  (lord  Lawrence,  chairman) . . 29  Nov. ,,

Regulations  for  school-boards  issued . 21  Bee. ,,

New  Revised  Code  discussed . . .  March,  1873

London  School-board  Education  Scheme  proposed,

23  June, ,,

At  the  London  school-board,  after  sharp  discussion,
the  religious  difficulty  respecting  payment  for
poor  children  at  denominational  schools  settled
for  a  year - . .2  Nov. „

Arrangements  for  erecting  or  adapting  buildings  for
new  schools  made  by  London  school-board,  Bee. ,,

Conference  of  masters  of  grammar  schools  at  High-
gate 28  Bee. ,,

Mr.  Bixon's  and  the  nonconformists'  censure  on
the  Elementary  Education  Act ;  negatived  in  the
commons,  355-94 ....  5  March,  1872

Scientific  instruction  :  royal  commission  appointed,
May,  1870 ;  reported . . April,  1871,  April, ,,

Education  (Scotland)  Act  passed . . 10  Aug. „

The  London  school-board  determine  to  open  separate
schools  for  dirty  unruly  children . .  20  Nov. ,,

"Society  for  Organization  of  Academical  Study"
proposed  by  sir  B.  C.  Brodie,  Br.  Carpenter,
Prof.  Rolleston  and  others  at  a  meeting,  16  Nov. „

Irish  University  Bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone,

13  Feb.  1S73

First  London  board-school  (at  Whitechapel)  opened,

12  July, ,,

College  for  northern  counties  at  Knutsford  ;  foun-
dation laid 24  Sept. ,,

College  for  higher  education  of  women,  opened  at
Girton,  which  see Oct. ,,

Great  meeting  for  religious  denominational  educa-
tion at  St.  James's  hall . . . . 6  Nov. „

Second  Metropolitan  school-board  elected  ;  religious
party  the  strongest  (Mr.  (after  sir)  Charles
Reed,  M.  P.  chairman) . . . 27  Nov. ,,

The  universities  nominate  a  board  for  the  examina-
tion of  pupils  from  public  schools . . Bee. ,,

Domestic  Economy. — Study  of  food  and  clothing  in-
troduced into  government  educational  depart-
ment 1S74

Mr.  Bixon's  compulsory  attendance  bill  rejected
(320-156) 1  July, „

Result  of  first  university  examination  of  221  schools  :
Winchester,  34  certificates ;  Manchester,  27 ;
Marlborough,  15;  Eton,  13 ;  Sherborne,  11 ;  Wel-
lington college,  10 ;  Rugby,  6,  &c.  ;  Christ's  Hos-
pital and  others,  1 published  . . . Sept. ,,

London  school-board  occupy  their  new  building  on
Victoria  Embankment . . . -30  Sept. ,,

New  code  of  raised  standards  for  schools  issued,

March,  1875

Newnham  college  at  Cambridge  for  women  opened,

18  Oct. ,,
First  annual  conference  of  teachers . . 14  Jan.  1876
Mr. Bixon's  bill  for  universal  school-boards  and
compulsory  education  rejected  by  the  commons

(281-260)  April, „

Another Elementary Education act introduced


EDUCATION.


315


EGYPT.


by  lord  Sandon,  18  May  ;  a  clause  permitting  un-
necessary school-boards  to  be  suppressed,  intro-
duced by  Mr.  Pell,  carried,  24  July ;  3rd  reading
(119-46),  s  Aug. (considered  reactionary) royal

assent 15  Aug.

International  congress  on  education  at  Philadelphia,

July,

Third  Metropolitan  school  board  elected  ;  majority

against  denominational  school  systems(sir  Charles

Reed,  chairman) ....  30  Nov.

National  Education  League  dissolved .  2S  March,

Election  of  school  attendance  committees  under

the  new  act  . .  . . . April,

Intermediate Education act for Ireland passed

16  Aug.
Education  Act  (Scotland)  amended  .  16  Aug.
Revised  Code,  7  Feb.  1877;  2  April,  1878;  April,
161st  metropolitan  board  school  opened  by  sir
Charles  Reed,  at  Portland  town  .  23  June,
The  Queen  v.  sir  Charles  Reed  ;  the  Queen's  bench
decide  that  the  school  board  has  power  to  borrow

money 27  June,

Fourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir
Charles  Reed,  chairman) . . -27  Nov.
Important  decision  respecting. school  fees  and  attend-
ance, see  Trials 27  June,

Death  of  sir  Charles  Reed,  25  March  ;  succeeded  by

Mr.  Edward  North  Buxton

Changes  in  the  code  ;  circular  issued  .  .  Aug.
Education  Society,  formed  in  July,  1875,  for  ex-
amining and  propounding  the  principles  upon
which  the  practice  of  education  should  be  founded,
by  professor  Alexander  Bain,  Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone,
and  others.  Branches  have  been  formed  in  Dublin,
and  other  places.

Ascham  Society  (which  see)  formed

Lord  Aberdare Mr.  W.  E.  Forster sir  John  Lub-
bock, and  others  form  a  committee  to  instruct
electors  of  school  board ... 23  Oct.
Fifth  Metropolitan  school  board  elected  (old  policy
affirmed  ;  E.  N.  Buxton,  chairman) .  24  Nov.
The  Boy's Public Day  school  company  founded,
5  Dec.  1882  ;  first  school  opened . 12  Sept.
Art for Schools, proposed Societies  formed in

London  and  the  provinces

New  education  code  (much  attacked)  comes  into
operation,  3  April, 1884 ; revised  instructions
issued  ....  . . June,

International Educational Conference at South
Kensington  opened .... 4  Aug.

Dr.  (after  sir)  Crichton  Browne's  report  on  over-
pressure in  primary  and  secondary  schools,  with
Mr.  Fitch's  memorandum  against  it  published
Sept.  1884  ;  denied  after  investigation  report

16  July,

H.  T. Holland (after  lord Knutsford)  appointed

vice-president  of  council,  about . 25  Aug.

Sixth  Metropolitan  school board  elected, 2 Nov.

(new economical policy), Rev. J. R. Diggle

elected  chairman 3  Dec.

Royal  commission  on  elementary  education  in
England  and  Wales,  Sir  R.  A.  Cross  (chairman),
Earl  of  Harrowby,  Dr.  Temple  (bishop  of
London),  cardinal  Manning,  Mr.  A.  J.  Mundella,
Sir  John  Lubbock,  Sir  F.  Sandford,  and  others.
First  report  issued  4  Sept. 1886. Final  report

Aug.

Majority  report  for  aiding  voluntary  schools  from

the  rates  and  development  of  moral  and  religious

education,  June  ;  opposite  opinions  reported  by

the  minority July,

The government declines  to interfere with the

settlement  of  1870 Nov.

New  scheme  for  enforcing  payment  of  fees  stated
to  be  inquisitorial  and  partially  ineffectual Oct.
About  30,000  elementary  scholars  entertained in
Hyde  Park,  see  Jubilee ... 22  June,
School  accommodation  in  the  eleven  divisions  re-
ported sufficient Oct.

Seventh  Metropolitan  school  board  elected,  26  Nov.  ;
Rev.  J.  R.  Diggle  elected  chairman  . 4  Dec.

New  code  introducing  many  changes  brought  for-
ward . . .  . . .19  March

Committee  on  relieving  children  coming  to  school
unfed,  2  Nov.  :  London  Schools  Dinner  Associa-
tion formed,  by  combination  of  several  societies

Dec.


1877


1879


Bill  for  enforcing  new  education  code,  withdrawn,
22  July,  1889  ;  new  code  with  important  changes
brought  forward  by  sir  William  Hart-Dyke,
_  March  ;  bill  passed 25  Jnly,  1890

Number  of  voluntary  schools  largely  increased
since  1870  .... reported  April,  1891

Grant  for  free,  or  assisted  education,  2,000,000/.
annually,  proposed  by  Mr.  Goschen 23  April, ,,.

A  new  Elementary  Education  act  (reducing  or
abolishing  school  fees)  passed  5  Aug.,  comes  into
operation 1  Sept. , ,.

Eighth  Metropolitan  school  board  elected,  26  Nov. ,,

Mr.  Joseph  R.  Diggle  re-elected  chairman 3  Dec. ,,

Irish  free  education  act  passed  . . 27  June,  1892

The  grant  for  Public  Education  in  Great  Britain,  'in  1851,
was  150,000/.  ;  1856,  451,213/.  ;  i860,  798, 167/.  ;  1861,
803,794/.  ;  1864,  705,404/.  ;  1867,  705,865/..  England,
1872,  1,554,560/. ; 1877,  1,910,000/.  : 1882,  2,749,863/. :.

1884,  3,016,167/.  For  Ireland,  i860,  270,722/.  ;  1861,.
285,377/. :  1863,  316,770/.  From  1839  to  i860.  3,655,067/.
were  granted  for  education.  The  grant  for  education,
science,  and  art,  in  1861,  was  1,358,996'.  ;  for  1867-8,
1,487,554/.  ;  1874-5,  2,228,470/.,  (in  addition,  3,060,566?.,
were  locally  raised) ;  1876-7,  England,  707,055/.  ;  Scot-
land, 438,227/.  ;  Ireland,  649,949/.  ;  for  year  1876-7
(United  Kingdom),  3,349,397/.-;  i879-8o(Great  Britain),
2,854,938/. ;  United  Kingdom,  1880-1,  3,730,329/.;  1882-3,
3>955.737z-  >  1884-5,  4.4i°,i95'-  !  1886-7,  4,780,945'.  ;.
1888-9,5,042,614/.;  1889-90,5,098,304/.;  1890-1,5,244,447/-

Primary  schools  in  Great  Britain  :  in  1854,  3825  ;  in  1855,
4800  ;  in  i860,  7272  ;  in  1870,  10,949  ;  in  1877,  18,118  ;.
1111878,19,291;  in  1879,  20, 169 ;  in  1880,  20,670;  in  1881,
21,136;  in  1882.  21,362;  in  1883,  21,630;  1884,  21,892  ;

1885,  21,976;  1886,  22,114;  J887,  22,265;  1888,  22,326;.
1889,  22,426-;  1890,  22,495.

Annual  grant  for  primary  schools  in  Great  Britain  :  in.
1861,  813,442/.  ;  in  1865,  636,806/.  ;  in  1870,  840,330"/.  ;.
in  1878,  2,463,283/.  ;  in  1879,  2,732,067/. ;  in  1880,
2,854,067/.  ;  1881,  2,978,224/.  ;  1882,  3,101,028/.  ;  1883,
3,247,725/.  ;  1884,  3,403,415/.  ;  1885,  3,664,174/.;  1886,
3,802,009/. ;  1887,  3,945,038/. ;  1888,  4,011,464/. ;  1889,
4,167,884/.;  1890,  4,259,080/.  ;  1891,  4,392,937/.

Metropolitan  school  board  children  on  the  rolls  :  1871,
1,117;  '873,  50,606;  1876,  146,031;  1878  (Christmas),
207,289  ;  1883,  293,811;  1888,  420,914;  1890,  443,143.

EGALITE  (Equality),  see  Orleans.

EGGS.  The  duty  011  imported  eggs  was  re-
pealed 111  i860,  whereby  the  revenue  lost  about
20,000^.  a  year.  Number  imported  into  Great
Britain  :  in  1861,  203,313,360  ;  in  1865,  364,013,040;.
in  1869,442,172,640;  in  1870,430,842,240;  in  1876,
753,026,640;  1877,751,185,600;  1879,766,707,840;
1883,  940,436,160;  1887,  1,090,089,000;  1890,,
1,234,949,000.  Great  quantities  are  now  brought
from  Italy  by  the  St.  Gothard  railway.

EGLINTO UN  TOUKNAMENT,  see  Tour-
nament.

EGYPT,*  N.E.  Africa,  the  earliest  known  seat
of  civilization,  the  hieroglyphic  and  Coptic  Kemi,,
Hebrew  iMazor  (Lower  Egypt),  Mizraim  (Upper
and  Lower  Kgypt),  Greek  name  Egypt,  Arabic  for
all  Egypt  Misr  or  Masr.

For  our  present  knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  Egypt
we  are  almost  wholly  indebted  to  discoveries  in  the
present  century,  and  to  the  interpretation  of  monu-
mental inscriptions,  and  the  papyri  found  in  the
tombs.  The  most  recent  investigators  are  Brugsch,
Maspero,  Lepsius,  De  Rouge,  Marietta,  Cliabas,  Lieb-
lein,  Birch,  Naville,  Le  Page,  Kenouf,  and  Petrie.
with  some  others;  see  Egypt  exploration  Fund  mid
Rosetta  stone,  etc.
Manetho  a  high-priest  of  On  or  Eeliopolis  in  the  second
century  B.C.,  at  the  request  of  king  Ptolemy  Philadel-


*  Three  magnificent  works  mi  Egypt  have  been  pub-
lished: in  France  (commenced  by  Napoleon,  and  tin
savans  who  accompanied"  him  to  Egypt),  Description  at
I'Egypte,  1809-22  ;  in  Italy.  Etosellim's  Momimenti  dell'
Egitto,  1832-44  ;  and  in  Prussia,  K.  It  Lepsius'  Denkmdkr
aus  JEgypten,  1848-56.  All  these  are  in  tin'  Library  of  tin-
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  London,


EGYPT.


316


EGYPT.


pirns,  wrote  a  history  of  Egypt,  divided  into  30  dynas-
ties from  Menes  to  the  Persian  conquests  ;  of  his  work
lists  only  have  been  preserved,  by  Julius  Africanus,  a
writer  who  lived  about  300  a.d.  Eusebius  died  about
340,  Georgius  Syncellus,  800.

The  fabulous  god  kings,  including  the  sun  god,  Osiris  god
of  Hades,  and  Isis  his  wife,  Typhon,  Horus  the  last,
were  said  to  have  reigned  13,900  years,  the  demi-gods
and  manes  4,000  years.

The  following  table  of  Dynasties,  including  the  more
important  kings,  is  derived  from  various  source!),  the
names  and  dates  vary.  B.  stands  for  Brugsch,  and  M.
for  Mariette.

I Thinite  (from  This,  near  Abydus)  M.  5004  ;  B.  4400B.C.

Mena  or  Menes  ;  hrst  known  king  and  law-giver,  founder
of  Memphis.  M.  5004  ; .  B.  4455.  Tola  or  Athothis—
Ouenephes  I.,  conjectured  to  have  built  the  Stepped
pyramid  of  Sakkarah.

II.  Memphite. M.  4751 ;  B.  4133.

Kakaoo  or  Kaiechos.  The  worship  of  Apis  the  bull
established  at  Memphis. B.  4100.

III.  Memphite  (monumental  history  properly  begins).
M.  4449  ;  B.  3966.

Seneferoo— soldier,  architect  and  patron  of  literature  and
art.

IV.  Memphite. M.  4235  ;  B.  3733.

Shoofoo  or  Khufa,  the  Cheops  of  Herodotus,  built  the
great  pyramid  of  Geezeh.  M.  4235  ;  B.  3733.  The
great  limestone  rock  at  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  moun-
tains was  converted  into  a  man-headed  lion,  termed  by
the  Greeks  Sphinx.  Khafra  built  the  second  Gizeh
pyramid.  B.  3666.  Menkaura  (Mycerinus  III.).
B.  3633.  High  state  of  civilization  and  art,  and  the
vast  cemetery  of  Memphis  erected.  The  book  or  ritual
of  the  dead  (papyri)  found  in  tombs.

V.  Memphite. M.  3951 ;  B.  3566.

Raenooser.  B.  3433.  Katkara.  B.  3366.  Unas  trun-
cated pyramid  near  Sakkarah  built. B.  3333

VI.  Memphite  (history  nearly  a  blank  to  the  nth  dy-
nasty). M.  3703  ;  B.  3300.

Pepi  I.— powerful— long  reign.  B.  3233.  Romantic
story  of  queen  Nitocris  in  Herodotus.

VII.  Memphite. B.  3100.
Petty  kings.

VIII.  Memphite.

IX.  Heracleopolite. M.  3358.

X.  Heracleopolite. M.  3249.

XI.  Theban. M.  3064.

Sankhkara,  expedition  to  Ophir  and  Punt  (S.  Arabia  ?).
B.  2500.

XII.  Theban  (Egypt  very  prosperous). B.  2466.
Amenernhat  I. M.  3064  ;  B.  2466.

Osirtasen  I.  (obelisk  of  On  or  Heliopolis  erected).
Osirtasen  II.  (memorial  temple  discovered  in  1889).
Osirtasen  III.,  important  national  works,  excavated  the

lake  Moeris  and  made  the  labyrinth  and  theNilometer.

B.  2300.

XIII.  Theban. M.  2851  ;  B.  2233.
Sebekhotep,  name  of  several  kings.

XIV.  Xoite. M.  2398.

XV.  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  kings. M.  2214.

Invaders  from  Asia  take  Memphis  and  settle  in  Lower-
Egypt.

XVI.  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  kings.

XVII.  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  kings.
Nub — arrival  of  Joseph. B.  1750.

Dynasties  XIII.— XVII.  history  very  obscure  ;  probably
Theban  kings  reigned  in  southern,  while  the  Hyksos
reigned  in  Lower  Egypt.

XVIII.  Theban. M.  1703  ;  B.  1700.

Achmes  I.  conquers  the  Hyksos.  M.  1703 ;  B.  1700.
Amenhotep  I.  B.  1666.  Thothmes  I.  B.  1633
Thothmes  II.  and  Hatasoo,  sister.  B.  1600.  Thoth-
,mes  III.,  great  king,  victor  in  western  Asia,  &c,  his
exploits  recorded  in  his  temple  at  Karnak.  B.  1600.
Amenhotep  II.  B.  1566.  Thothmes  IV.  B.  1533.
Amenhotep  III.  victorious  in  Ethiopia  ;  the  Colossi  or
vocal  Memnon  bear  his  name.  B.  1500.  Amenhotep
IV.  introduced  Semetic  worship.  Two  or  three  here-
tical successors.  Haremhebi  or  Horus  restores  the
old  worship.

XIX.  Theban. M.  1462  ;  B.  1400.

Barneses  I.  M.  1462 ;  B.  1400.  Seti  or  Sethos  (Mene-
tah  I.)  victorious  in  Asia  ;  made  first  canal  from  the
Red  sea  to  the  Nile  ;  many  monuments  of  him  at
Karnak,  &c.  B.  1333.  Rameses  II.  son,  the  legendary
Sesostris,  took  Salem,  conquered  Ethiopia,  and  set  up
a  fleet,  his  epoch  about  1322. Maneptah  son,  probably


the  Pharoah  of  the  Exodus,  1300  ;  Seli  II.  and  two  or
three  unimportant  kings.

XX.  Theban. M.  1288  ;  B.  1200.

Rameses  III.  (Rhampsinitus  of  Herodotus)  victorious,
cultivated  navigation  and  commerce.  M.  1288 ;
B.  1200. Inglorious  line  of  kings  named  Rameses.

XXI.  Tanite. M.  mo  ;  B.  1100.

History  obscure — Hirhor,  high  priest  of  Amen,  probably

first  of  priest  kings — Assyrian  governors.
XXH.  Bubasite. M.  980;  B.  966. Shashank  or  Shes-

honk  L,  Shishak,  1  Kings  XIV.,  25-28.

XXIII.  Tanite,  probably  only  three  petty  kings.  M.  810  ;
B.  766.

XXIV.  Saite. M.  721 ;  B.  733.

Bocchoris  (Bokenranef),  taken  prisoner  by  Sabaco,  king
of  Ethiopia,  and  burnt  alive.  During  the  last  three
dynasties,  the  Ethiopians  appear  to  have  ruled  in  the
south.

XXV.  Karnak. Ethiopian. M.  715  ;  B.  700.

Shabat  or  Sabaco.  M.  715  ;  B.  700.  Takaraka  or  Tir-
hakah  (2  Kings  XIX.  9).  B.  693.  Egypt  frequently
invaded  by  the  Assyrians  ;  subdued  and  divided  into
12  governments.

XXVI.  Saite. M.  665  ;  B.  666.

Psammetichus  I.  (Greek),  one  of  the  governors  under  the
Assyrians,  restored  the  monarchy  and  revived  art.
M.  665  !  E.  666.  Necho  II.  son,  attempted  the  con-
struction  of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  defeated
Josiah  king  of  Judah  at  Megiddo  (II.  Kings  xxiii.  29);
defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Carchemish,  612.
rsammetichus  II.  ;  inglorious.  B.  596.  Uahbra  or
Hophra  (Jer.  xliv.  30)  son  ;  went  to  help  Zedekiah,
but  deserted  him.  B.  591.  Apries  loses  the  conquests
and  is  strangled  by  Amasis,  who  has  a  long  prosperous
reign  and  increased  intercourse  with  the  Greeks.
B.  572.  Psammetichus  III.  son  (defeated  by  Cam-
byses,  son  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia). B.  528.

XXVII.  Persian. M.  527  ;  B.  527.

Cambyses,  conquers  Egypt ;  his  army  perished  in  an
expedition  against  Ethiopia.  M.  527  ;  B.  527.  Darius  I.
Hystaspes,  greatly  favoured  Egypt,  521.  Xerxes  I.
severe  (Egyptian  revolt  subdued),  486.  Artaxerxes  I.
Longimanus(anotherrevolt),465.  Darius  II.Nothos, 424.
Egypt  regained  its  independence  by  Armyrtams,  424.

XXVIII.  Saite. M.  406.
Armyrtajus,  406.

XXIX.  Mendesian. M.  399  ;  B.  399.
Nepherches  and  Achoris  maintain  Greek  alliance.

XXX.  Sebennyte. M.  378 ;  B.  378.

Nectanebes  I.  Nectanebes  II.  conquered  by  Artaxerxes
Ochus,  king  of  Persia.

XXXI.  Persia  340.

Darius III. Codomanus — defeated  by  Alexander

the  Great  and  killed.
Alexander  conquered  Egyptand  founded  Alexandria, 332
The  empire  divided,  323. One  of  Alexander's  gene-
rals, Ptolemy  I.  (the  son  of  Lagus)  Soter  became
king  of  Egypt,  323.
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus  (with  his  father)  285  ;
alone  [the  museum  of  Alexandria  founded  ;  the
Septuagint version  of the Hebrew Scriptures
made ;  the  Pharos  completed]  . . .  283-247

Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome .... 269
Ptolemy  III. Euergetes,  247 ;  overruns  Syria,  and

returns  laden  with  spoils 246

Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator .... Nov. 222
Battle  of  Raphia  ;  Ptolemy  defeats  Antioclms,  king

of  Syria 217

Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes Nov. '  205

Embassy  to  Rome ....... 200

Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor  .... Oct. 181

At  the  death  of  Philometor,  his  brother  Physcon

(Ptolemy  VII.  Euergetes)  marries  his  queen,  and

on  the  day  of  his  nuptials  murders  the  infant  son

of  Philometor  in  its  mother's  arms . .  Nov. 146

His  subjects,  wearied  by  his  cruelties  and  crimes,

compel  him  to  flee 130

He  defeats  the  Egyptians  and  recovers  his  throne,

128  ;  dies 117

Ptolemy  VIII.  Soter  II.  and  Cleopatra  his  mother, ,,

Alexander  I.  and  Cleopatra 107

Ptolemy  VIII.  restored  . . . . .89

Revolt  in  Upper  Egypt  ;  Thebes  destroyed  after  a
siege  of  three  years  (Diod.  Siculus) . . . . 82

Alexander  II.  and  Cleopatra  1 81

Ptolemy  IX.  Auletes 80

Berenice  and  Tryphcena . .  ... 58


EGYPT.


317


EGYPT.


Auletes  restored,  55  :  leaves  his  kingdom  to  Ptolemy

and  Cleopatra 51

During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy  and  Cleopa-
tra II.,  Alexandria  is  besieged  by  Caesar,  and  the
library  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  (Blair)  ...  47
Caesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  crossing  the  Nile,
is  drowned  ;  and  the  younger  Ptolemy  and  Cleo-
patra reign 46

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother,  and  reigns  alone . 43
She  appears  before  Marc  Antony,  to  answer  for  this
crime  ;  fascinated  by  her  beauty,  he  follows  her
into  Egypt . . ' '  . ." . . . . 41

Cleopatra  in  Syria 36

Antony  defeated  by  Octavius  Caesar  at  the  battle  of

Actium  (Blair) . . . .■ . .2  Sept. 31
Octavius  enters  Egypt  ;  Antony  and  Cleopatra  kill
themselves  ;  and  the  kingdom  becomes  a  Roman

province Sept. 30

Egypt  visited  by  Adrian,  122;  by  Severus  .  a.d.  200
Monachism  begun  in  Egypt  by  Antony  .  .  .  305
Destruction  of  the  temple  and  worship  of  Serapis,  389
Egypt  conquered  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia.  .  .  616
Invasion  of  the  Saracens  under  Ainrou  .  June,  638
Conquest  of  Alexandria .... 22  Dec. 640

Cairo  founded  by  the  Saracens 969

Conquest  by  the  Turks 1163-91

Government  of  the  Mamelukes  established . . 1250
Selim  I.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  conquers  Egypt . 1567
It  is  governed by beys  till  a  great  part  of  the
country  is  conquered  by  the  French,  under  Bona-
parte (see  Alexandria) 1798-99

The  invaders  dispossessed  by  the  British,  and  the

Turkish  government  restored .... 1801
Mehemet  Ali  massacres  the  Mamelukes,  and  obtains

the  supreme  power .... 1  March, 181 1
Arrival  of  Belzoni,  1815  ;  he  removes  statue  of  Meni-

non,  1816;  explores  temples,  &c. . . .  1817
Formation  of  the  Mahmoud  canal,  connecting  Alex-
andria with  the  Nile 1820

Mehemet  Pasha  revolts  and  invades  Syria  .  .  1831
His  son Ibrahim takes Acre,  27  May ; overruns

Syria ;  defeats  the  Turks  at  Konieh . 21  Dec. 1832
He  advances  on  Constantinople,  which  is  entered
by  Russian  auxiliaries,  3  April;  war  ends  with
convention  of  Kutayah  ... 4  May,  1833

Mehemet  again  revolts,  claiming  hereditary  power ;

Ibrahim  defeats  the  Turks  at  Nezib  24  June,  1839

England,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  undertake
to  expel  Ibrahim  from  Syria ;  Napier  bombards
Beyrout,  10  Oct.  ;  Acre  taken  by  the  British
and  Austrian  fleets,  under  sir  R.  Stopford,  3  Nov. ;
the  Egyptians  quit  Syria .  21  Nov. ,  ct  seq.  1840

Peace  restored  by  treaty ;  Mehemet  made  hereditary

viceroy  of  Egypt,  but  deprived  of  Syria 15  July,  1841
Ibrahim  Pacha  dies  (see  Suez) . . 10  Nov. 1848

The  Suez  canal  begun 1858

Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed

19  April,  1861
Hereditary  succession  and  right  of  coining  money
granted ;  but tribute raised from 400,000?. to

750,000? 27  May, „

Malta  and  Alexandria  telegraph  opened .  1  Nov. ,,
The  viceroy  Said  visits  Italy,  France,  and  England,

May  to  Sept.  ;  returns  to  Alexandria . 1  Oct. 1862
Sultan  of  Turkey  visits  Egypt . .  7  April,  1863

Increased  cultivation  of  cotton  in  Egypt .  1863-67

At the  demand  of  the  sultan,  the  viceroy  sends

troops  to  repress  the  insurgents  in  Arabia, May,  1864
Opening  of  part  of  the Suez canal (which see),

15  Aug. 1865
Direct  succession  to  the  viceroyalty  granted  by  the

porte 21  May,  1866

Egyptian  legislative  chamber  opened  with  a  speech

from  the  viceroy 27  Nov. ,,

Viceroy  invested  with  Order  of  the  Bath  (as  G.C.B. )

by  lord  Clarence  Paget . . . -30  Jan. 1867
Designated  "  sovereign  "  by  the  sultan  9  June, ,,

The  viceroy  visits  Paris  . . .  16  June-5  July, ,,
He  arrives  in  London  6  July  ;  received  by  the  queen
at  Windsor,  8  ;  by lord  Derby,  10 ; by the  lord
mayor,  11;  departs .... 18  July, ,,
The viceroy  (now  termed the Khedive) visited

England  22  June,  1869

Present  at  the inauguration  of  the Suez canal,

17  Nov. ,,
The differences  between the sultan and himself
respecting  prerogatives arranged, the viceroy


giving  up  the  power  of  imposing  taxes  and of
contracting  loans . .  .  Dec. 1869,

Sir  Samuel  Baker  appointed  sole  commander  of  a
military  expedition  to  suppress  the  slave-trade
up  the  Nile,  with  absolute  authority  over  the
country  south  of  Gondokoro  (for  four  years  from
1  April,  1869) 10  May, ,,

Departure  from  Khartoum ... 8  Feb.  1870

Many  delays  and  impediments  ;  proceeds  to  explore
White  Nile n  Aug. ,,

Arrives  at  Gondokoro,  15  April ;  names  it  Ismailia,
and  officially  annexes  it  to  Egypt  . 26  May,  1873

War  with  the  warlike  and  treacherous  Baris  of
Belinian ; beats them  in  several  engagements,

July-Sept.

Supported  by  his  model  corps,  "the  forty  thieves,"
he  quells  disaffection  and  mutiny  in  his  troops,Oct. ,,

Sends  vessels  with  women,  children,  and  sick,  to
Khartoum 3  Nov. ,,

Makes  peace  with  the  Baris,  and  returns  to  Gondo-
koro 19  Nov. „

Advances  south  ;  suffers  much  by  negro  treachery,
and  inefficiency  of  his  Egyptian  troops  :  heroism
of  lady  Baker Jau.-Feb.  187a

Arrives  at  the  African  Paradise,  Faliko ;  meets
there  his  enemy,  Abou  Saoud,  the  slave-dealer,
6  March  ;  at  Masindi,  in  Unyoro . 25  April, ,,

Received  by  Kabba  Rega,  the  young  king ;  who
attempts  to  poison  Baker's  party,  and  attacks
them  in  the  night ;  he  is  defeated,  and  Masindi
burnt 8  June, „

Baker  marches  to  Foweera  ;  received  by  Raongi,
enemy  of  Kabba  Rega,  18  July  ;  returns  to  Faliko,
and  suppresses  an  insurrection  of  slave-dealers,
probably  incited  by  Abou  Saoud . .  2  Aug. ,,

Slave-trade  apparently  subdued;  "peace  and  pro-
spect of  prosperity" .... 31  Dec. ,,

Baker  returns  to  Gondokoro,  1  April;  receives
honours  from  the  khedive  at  Cairo,  25  Aug.  ;
arrives  in  London 0  Oct.  1873

Col.  Gordon  appointed  his  successor ;  Abou  Saoud
his  subordinate ,,

Baker's  work,  "  Ismailia,"  published  . . Nov.  1874

The  first  stone  of  the  new  port  laid  by  the  khedive,

15  May,  187s

The  khedive 's  son,  prince  Hassan,  made  D.C.L.  at
Oxford I3  jlme,  1872

The  khedive  visits  the  sultan;  Constantinople
rejoices  . . ... . . . 25  june, ,,

The  sultan,  by  a  firman,  renders  the  khedive  prac-
tically independent ;  (he  must  not  coin  money,
make  treaties,  or  build  ironclads)  . 8  June,  1873.

First  Egyptian  budget  produced  ;  asserted  revenue',
10,166,000?.  ;  expenditure,  9,040,000?.  . Oct. »,

Mr.  Acton  and  Mr.  Penned  employed  to  arrange
finances  of  Egypt  .... spring  of  1875

International  court  of  justice  opened  by  the  khedive,

28  June, ,>

The  khedive's  shares  of  Suez  canal  (which  see)  pur-
chased by  the  British  government;  announced,

Nov. ,,

Egyptian  expedition  into  Abyssinia  surprised  and
defeated  with  much  slaughter .  t6  Oct. ,r

Rt.  hon.  Stephen  Cave  sent  on  special  mission  to
Egypt Dec. ,.

New  (Gregorian)  style  adopted  ;  mixed  courts
opened T  Jan_ l8  6

Resignation  of  Nubar  Pasha,  able  minister  of  com-
merce, announced ja]1

War  with  Abyssinia  (which  see) .  '1875*7

Mr.  Cave's  report— (refers  to  waste  and  extaiva-  '
gance  ;  great  works  undertaken  with  insufficient
means ;  loss  by  adventure]  s ;  military  expenditure ;
and  necessity  for  intervention  of  superior  power
to  restore  credit  and  restrain  expenditure)  ;  sent
13  March  ;  published  in  'l'iuus  . 4  April, 1876

The  khedive  decrees  consolidation  of  his  debt'
91,000,000?.,  at  7  per  cent.,  and  a  sinking  fund,'
7  May  ;  decrees  signed  .  .  i4  and  25  May
His  son  Hassan  received  by  the  queen  .  27  June,
Decisions  of  the  international  law  court  not  ac-
cepted by  the  government;  the  court  closed  by
M.  Haakman ;  he  is  superseded  July,

Mr.  Goschen  with  M.  Joubert  (on behalf  of  the '
khedive's  creditors),  arrive  at  Cairo,  14  Oct.  ;  their
scheme  accepted  (debt  of  about  91,000,000/.  to  be
reduced  to  about  59.ooo.oc-o/.,  interest ct 7  per
cent,  to  be  reduced  to  about  6  per  cent.) ;  agri  •  ■-


EGYPT.

ment  signed  about  10  Nov.  announced  (termed
since,  "  Goschen  decree ") . . . 18  Nov.

Ismail  Sadyk,  autocratic  finance  minister,  suspected
of  conspiracy ;  resigns  insolently ;  seized  and
banished Nov.

Mr.  Gosehencs  report  approved  by  a  meeting  in
London 28  Nov.

«Col.  Gordon,  after  successful  administration,  re-
turns to  England Feb.

Peace  with  Abyssinia  negotiating  by  col.  Gordon,
June  ;  terms  said  to  be  accepted . . Oct.

'Bad  report  respecting  Egyptian  finances,  Feb.  ;
commission  appointed  .... March,

Egypt  at  peace  ;  all  soldiers  at  home . 20  April,

Confidence  restored  by  decree  for  payment  of
official  salaries 12  May,

Nubar  Pasha  again  minister ... 15  Aug.

'The  khedive  accepts  the  terms  of  the  commission ;
he  and  his  family  give  up  landed  property  to  the
state Aug.

Mr.  Rivers  Wilson  appointed  finance  minister ;  and
M.  de  Blignieres,  minister  of  works,  soon  after,

Sept.

Attacks  on  them  and  Nubar  Pasha  by  discontented
officers  at  Cairo  dispersed . . .18  Feb.

Nubar  Pasha  resigns  .... 19  Feb.

.Definitive  peace  between  the  khedive  and  Abys-
sinia, announced Feb.

Prince  Tewfik,  president  of  the  council,  and  Nubar
Pasha,  foreign  minister,  about . .  5  March,

Mr.  Rivers  Wilson  and  M.  de  Blignieres  remonstrate
with  the  khedive 6  April,

He  puts  forth  a  new  financial  scheme  ;  Tewfik  Pa-
sha, Mr.  Rivers  Wilson,  and  M.  de  Blignieres,  dis-
anissed :  new  ministry  under  Cherif  Pasha  formed
about 7  April,

Coi.  Gordon's  lieutenant,  Gessi  (Nov.  1878)  com-
pletely defeats  the  rebel  slave-dealers  in  the  Sou-
dan, Central  Africa .... 5  May,

England  and  France  in  a  note  require  the  appoint-
ment of  European  ministers,  a'bout . 5  May,

England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  re-
commend the  khedive  to  abdicate,  about  20  June,

He  refers  to  the  sultan,  who  declines  to  interfere,
the  khedive  offers  to  pay  his  debts  in  full  22  June

The  khedive  deposed  by  the  sultan,  prince  Tewfik,
his  son,  proclaimed  his  successor  . 26  June,

;The  khedive  leaves  for  Naples . . . 30  June,

Tewfik  succeeds  as  khedive ... 8  Aug.

Mr.  Baring  and  M.  de  Blignieres  appointed  comp-
trollers-general .... 4  Sept.

New  ministry,  Riaz  Pasha,  &c,  announced  9  Sept.

•Col.  Gordon  negotiating  with  Abyssinia  to  prevent
war,  reported  successful  . . .  Oct.

He  resigns  governorship  of  the  Soudan,  Oct.,  1879 ;
accepted Jan.

Peace  with  Abyssinia  announced  . end  of  June,

New ministry  appointed,  the  khedive  president,

18  Aug.

Public  festivities  at  Cairo  on  anniversary  of  the
khedive's  accession . . about  26  June,

International  committee  on  the  debt  appointed,
4  April ;  issue  a  report,  on  which  is  based  a  law
of  liquidation  in  99  articles,  approved  by  the
khedive * 7  July.

General  prosperity  reported  .... Oct.

Military  revolt  (for  pay)  at  Cairo  vigorously  checked
by  Mr.  E.  Malet  (British  minister  1879)  and  baron
deRing ,I""F?lD-

Decree  for  abolition  of  slavery  . . end  of  July,

{Insurrection  in  the  Soudan  (which  sec) . . July,

British  pacific  interference . . about  11  Aug.

Ministerial  crisis  ;  the  khedive  calls  for  Riaz  Pasha

Aug.

Ahmed  Arabi  Bey  and  about  4,000  soldiers  surround
the  khedive's  palace,  demanding  increased  pay-
agreed  to  ;  Cherif  Pasha  made  minister 9  Sept.

Negotiations  of  Cherif  and  the  consuls  with  the
troops  succeed  ;  tranquillity  restored  11-13  Sept.

Envoys  from  the  sultan  received  by  the  khedive

7  Oct.

Jealousy  of  England  and  France,  the  envoys  leave

Cairo l8  Oct.

Important  letter  from  earl  Granville  to  sir  Edwd.

Malet ,-,,-, 1  4  N?X'

The  khedive  opens  the  chamber  of  delegates  with

excellent  speech 26  Dec.

Arabi  Bey  appointed  under-secretary  of  war Jan.


318


1877


1879


EGYPT.

English  and  French  note  in  support  of  the  khedive

about  7  Jan.  3

Deputies  demand  entire  control  of  the  ministry,
about  19  Jan.  ;  dead  lock . . -27  Jan.

Resignation  of  Cherif  Pasha,  2  Feb.  ;  new  ministry
under  Mahmoud  Pasha . . 3  Feb.  et  seq.

M.  Blignieres  resigns March

Alleged  conspiracy  of  Circassian  officers  to  assas-
sinate Arabi  Pasha . . . about  10  April,

43  persons  convicted  of  conspiracy  to  kill  Arabi
Pasha,  and  dethrone  the  khedive ;  exiled  28  April ;
sentence  confirmed  by  khedive . . 9  Slay

Political  crisis  continues,  9-13  May;  the  khedive  firm;
ministry  submits,  about  16  May ;  English  and
French  squadron  arrive  at  Alexandria,  20  May  ;
Arabi  Pasha  refuses  to  resign,  23  May ;  ultimatum
of  English  and  French  consuls  ;  Arabi  Pasha  to
retire ; khedive's  authority  to  be  restored,  &c.

25  May,

Ministry  resigns  ;  Cherif  Pasha  appointed,  May ;
the  officers  resist  ;  Arabi  Pasha  reinstated,
27-28  May ;  anarchy ;  Europeans  quitting  the
country,  29  May  ;  6,000  Egyptian  soldiers  said
to  be  massacred June,

Dervish  Pasha  and  others  sent  to  Cairo  by  the
sultan,  4  June  ;  well  received  at  Cairo 8  June

Commencement  of  a  rebellion ;  riots  at  Alexandria  ;
Arabs  attack  Europeans  ;  quelled  by  Egyptian
troops,  with  great  loss  of  life  (about  60  Euro-
peans killed), town ravaged, and deserted

11  June,

Panic at Cairo and Alexandria; many arrests

15,  16  June,

About  37,000  Europeans  in  Egypt . . . .

Ragheb  Pasha  forms  a  ministry ;  about  20,000  Eu-
ropeans said  to  be  leaving  Egypt . . June,

The  powers  agree  to  a  conference  at  Constantinople ;
Turkey  objects 19  June,

Conference  opened .... 24  June,

Great  emigration  from  Alexandria  to  Malta June,

Dervish  Pasha's  favourable  report  . . 27  June,

30,000 Arabs  said  to be  starving  at  Alexandria

29  June,

Arabi  Pasha  decorated  by  the  sultan  . . about

28  June,

The  English  and  French  admirals  protest  against
the  fortifying  of  Alexandria . about  4  July,

British  subjects  warned  to  quit  Egypt . about

6  July,

Bombardment  of  forts  of  Alexandria  threatened  by
adm.  Seymour,  if  works  threatening  the  British
fleet  are  not  stopped .... 9  July,

Ships  entering  Suez  canal  cautioned  by  adm.  Sey-
mour 10  July,

Bombardment  begun  by  the  Alexandra,  7.5  a.m.;
vessels  engaged  :  Monarch,  Invincible,  Penelope,
Temeraire,  and  Inflexible  ;  gunboats,  Condor,
Cygnet,  Bittern,  Decoy,  &c,  very  effective ;  forts
Mexs,  Marabout,  &c,  silenced;  10  sailors  from
Invincible  land  and  spike  guns  of  fort  Mexs  ;
object  of  bombardment  fully  obtained ;  the  bom-
bardment ceases  5.30  p.m.  Egyptians  fought
well;  heavy  loss  in  forts  and  part  of  the  town,
British  loss,  6  killed,  including  lieut.  Jackson  of
the  Inflexible,  and  28  wounded . .11  July,

Defiant  "letter  of  Arabi  Pasha  to  Mr.  Gladstone,
2  July,  received  . . .  about  12  July,

The sultan protests  against the  bombardment  ;

Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia  said  to  approve

about  12  July,

1,000  marines  sent  from  Malta  to  Alexandria
about  12  July,

Gaining  time  by  a  flag  of  truce,  Arabi  Pasha  and
part  of  his  army  abandon  Alexandria  and  retreat
into  the  interior ;  he  releases  convicts,  who  with
the  Arab  mob  plunder  and  set  fire  to  the  city,
and  massacre,  it  is  said,  many  christians,  12  July,

Conflagration  increasing  (about  a  mile  long) ;  about
800  marines  land  to  maintain  order  as  police

13  July,

European  portion  entirely  destroyed . 13  July,

The  khedive  escapes  assassination,  and  gains  over
part of Arabi Pasha's army; views the city

12,  13  July,

English  marines  active . . . .14  July,

Fire  dying  out ;  order  restored ;  shops  re-opened ;
foreign  marines  enter  city  . . 15  July,

The  khedive  at  his  palace  Ras-el-Tin  guarded  by


EGYPT.


319


EGYPT.


British  marines ;  degrades  Arabi  Pasha  from  his
offices ;  sends  for  Ch'erif  Pasha,  Riaz  Pasha,  and
others about  16  July,

About  5,000  soldiers  land  at  Alexandria .  17  July,

Identical  note  from  the  six  powers  inviting  the
Porte  to  intervene  to  support  the  khedive  and
restore  oi'der iS  July,

Arabi  Pasha  with  his  army  said  to  be  intrenched
at  Kafr-Douar 18  July,

Arabi Pasha  attempts  to  exit  off  water supply  ;

denounces  the  khedive,  and  calls  on  the  people

about  20-21  July,

Proclamation  of  the  khedive  declaring  Arabi  a
rebel,  &c.  ;  reported  anarchy  at  Cairo . about

23  July,
Skirmish  with  the  Arabs  by sir  A. Alison  ; he

takes  about  60  prisoners, aud holds Bamleh

24  July,
Arabi  proclaims  a  Jihad  or  holy  war,  said  to  have

30,000  men ....  about  24  July,

British  troops  landed  at  Alexandria . 24  July,

Troops  sent  to  Egypt  from  England  and  India
about  25  July,

Withdrawal  of  French  fleet  ordered . 31  July,

The duke of  Connaught  sails in  the  Orient for

Egypt 3lJuly,

Indecisive  skirmish  of  outposts  . . .2  Aug.

Sir  Evelyn  Wood  sails  for  Egypt . . 3  Aug.

Town  of  Suez  occupied  by  British  marines 3  Aug.

Reconnaissance  ;  sharp  skirmish  near  Mahmoudieh
canal ;  Gen.  Sir  A.  Alison  commanding ;  British
success  ;  lieut.  Howard  Vyse  and  3  others  killed  ;
about 30  wounded ; Egyptian loss  about  300

5  Aug.

Prof.  Palmer,  capt.  Gill,  and  lieut.  Charrington
start  from  Suez  to  buy  camels  of  the  Bedouins,
&e 7  Aug.

Arrival  of  duke  of  Connaught  and  officers  at  Alex-
andria 10  Aug.

The  conference  agrees  to  the  international  protec-
tion of  the Suez  canal,  aud  adjourns  sine  die,

14  Aug.

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  lands  at  Alexandria  and  as-
sumes the  command  ;  the  khedive  gives  up  power
to  the  British  commanders  to  establish  order

Troops,  &c,  under  gen.  Willis  embark  as  if  for
Aboukir,  but  proceed  eastward,  and  occupy  Port
Said,  Ismailia,  and  Kantara  ;  thus  command  the
canal,  19-20  Aug.  ;  skirmishes  near  Mahmoudieh
canal,  sir  Evelyn  Wood  successful ;  the  enemy
shelled  out  of  Neflche . . ' . .20  Aug.

Total  British  force  in  Egypt,  31,468  men  of  all
ranks 20  Aug.

Chaloux-el-Terraba  captured  by  sailors,  &c,  great
Egyptian  loss 20  Aug.

Twenty-six  ironclads  at  Alexandria . 20  Aug.

Successful  skirmishes;  gen.  Hamley,  &c,  from
Bamleh  ;  capt.  Hastings  and  maj.  Kelsey  repel
Egyptians,  who  suffer  heavy  loss,  20  Aug.;  sir
G. Wolseley's proclamation to the Arabs

21  Aug.

Arrival  of  gen.  Macpherson  with  the  Indian  troops
at  Suez 21  Aug.

Advance  from  Ismailia  of  two  squadrons  of  house-
hold cavalry,  with  two  guns,  and  detachment  of
19th  hussars,  mounted  infantry,  &c,  on  Nefiche
met  by  above  10,000  Egyptians  with  much
artillery .  ....  24  Aug.

Cavalry  and  artillery  engagement ;  enemy  routed  ;
capture  of  5  Krupp  guns,  and  train  of  ammunition
and  provisions,  Egyptian  camps  at  Tel-el-Mahuta
and  Mahsameh  occupied  ;  British  loss,  6  killed,
30  wounded . .  ... 25  Aug.

Suez  canal  held  by  the  British . .  26  Aug.

Kassassin  occupied  by  Gen.  Graham  with  above
2,000  infantry 26  Aug.

Mustapha  Fehmy,  Arabi  Pasha's  second  in  com-
mand, captured  while  reconnoitring  (sent  to  the
khedive) 27  Aug.

Gen.  Graham  at  Kassassin  vigorously  attacked  by
13,000  Egyptians ;  signals  for  assistance,  rendered
by  Gen.  Drury  Lowe  with  household  cavalry  ;
brilliant  charge  and  capture  of  11  guns  (after-
wards lost),  rout  of  the  enemy  ;  disorderly  flight ;
British  loss,  7  killed,  70  wounded .  28  Aug.

Military  convention  with  Turkey  about  to  be
signed 29  Aug.

Arabi  Pasha  strengthening  his  intrenchments  near


Tel-el- Kebir  (said to  have  about  28,000 men)

about  31  Aug.

Artillery  duel  at  Ramleh,  little  result .  4  Sept.

Arabi  Pasha's  estimated  forces  :  infantry,  44,600  ;

cavalry,  1802  ;  guns,  143  ;  Bedouins,  30,500
Vigorous  attack  on  the  British  camp  at  Kassassin

repelled  with  severe  loss,  4  guns  taken,  6  British

killed 9  Sept.

Siege  train  sent  in  the  Copia , . .9  Sept.
Capture  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  which  see;  total  defeat  of

the  Egyptians  ;  flight  of  Arabi  Pasha  ;  surrender

of  Zagazig  with  railway  trains,  &c.  .  13  Sept.
The British  enter Cairo ; Arabi Pasha  aud  his

officers  surrender  unconditionally ;  about  10,000

Egyptian  soldiers  lay  down  their  arms  14  Sept.
Sir  Garnet  Wi  dseley  and  British  troops  enter  Cairo ;

warmly  received  .  .  .  .  .15  Sept.
Surrender  of  Kafr  Douar; about  500  Egyptians

march  to  Damietta  ...  16,  17  Sept.
The  khedive  dissolves  the  Egyptian  army  17  Sept.
Surrender  of  Aboukir, 17  Sept. ;  re-establishment

of  the  khedive's  authority . .  19  Sept.

Abd-el-Al  holding  Damietta  with  about  7,000  men,

21  Sept. ; British  expedition  sent  against  him,

22  Sept. ; he  surrenders  to  sir  Evelyn  Wood

23  Sept.
Triumphal  entry  of  the  khedive  into  Cairo,  25  Sept.
Valentine  Baker  Pasha  nominated  commander  of

a  new  Egyptian  army  (10,900) . end  of  Sept.

Cairo  railway  station  partly  burned  by  explosion  of
shells,  large  amount  of  stores  and  ammunition
destroyed ;  4  persons  killed,  about  15  wounded

28  Sept.

18,000  British  troops  "march  past"  the  khedive
at  the  Abdin  palace . . . .30  Sept.

12,000  British  to  remain  i:i  Egypt,  sir  A.  Alison
commander 30  Sept.

Return  of  the  troops ;  warmly  received  in  London

21  Oct.  et  seq.

The  prophet  said  to  hold  all  the  country  south  of
Khartoum ■-.... 25  Oct.

Murder  of  prof.  Palmer,  capt.  Gill  and  lieut  Char-
rington  . .  about  10  Aug.  announced  26  Oct.

Thanks  of  Parliament  voted  to  army  and  navy  :

Admiral  John  Miller  Adye  ;  vice-admiral  William
Montagu  Dowell  ;  lieutenant-generals  George
Harry  Smith  Willis,  sir  Edward  Bruce  Hamley ;
major-general  sir  Archibald  Alison ;  rear-admirals
sir  William  Nathan  Wrighte  Hewett,  sir  Francis
William  Sullivan,  Anthony  Hiley  Hoskins ;
major-generals  his  royal  highness  Arthur  duke
of  Connaught,  William  Earle,  sir  Henry  Evelyn
Wood,  Gerald  Graham,  George  Bvng  Harman.
Drury  Curzon  Drury-Lowe,  sir  Herbert  Taylor
Macpherson 26  Oct.

An amnesty  of officers signed  by the  khedive

24  Oct.
Lord  Dufferin  arrives  at  Cairo  .  .  7  Nov.
Anglo-French  control  abolished  .  .  9  Nov.'
British  troops  from  Egypt  with  Indian  contingent

reviewed  by  the  queen  at  St.  James's  Park

18  Nov.

Queen's  thanks  published  21  Nov.  ;  distributes
medals,  &c,  at  Windsor . . . 21  Nov.

Trial  of  Arabi  Pasha ;  secret  examination  of  wit- '
nesses  (his  defence  supported  by  Mr.  Wilfred
Blunt) jfov.

Pleads  guilty  of  rebellion  ;  sentence  of  death  com-
muted to  banishment  for  life . . 3  Dec.

General  amnesty  aud  release  of  political  prisoners

about  1  Dec.

Letter  from  Arabi  Pasha  to  Mr.  Wilfred  Blunt,  ex-
pressing gratitude  to,  and  confidence  in,  England
4  Dec.  ;  Times,  5  Dec.

Mahoud  and  other  rebel  leaders  sentenced  to
banishment 7  Dec.

Eiaz  Pasha  resigns  ; succeeded  by  Nu'bar  Pasha

. ,  .  „  7>  8  Dec.

Arabi  Pasha  and  others  to  be  sent  to  Ceylon  9  Dec.

Sir  Evelyn  Wood,  appointed  commander  of  the  uew
Egyptian  army,  arrives  at  Cairo .  22  Dec.

Nine  of  the  murderers  of  professor  Palmer  and
others  captured . . . about  30  Dec.

Arabi  and  others  sailed  for  Ceylon,  27  Dec.  ;  arrived

10  Jan.  i

End  of  the  dual  control .... n  Jan.

British  circular  to  the  powers  laid  before  the
Porte,  &c. (the  Suez  Canal  to  be free, with


EGYPT

restrictions  in  time  of  war ;  formation  of  Egyptian
army,  &c.) . . ...  n  Jan.  et  seq.  18

All  trie  powers  accept  proposals  except  France
and  Turkey .... about  27  Jan. ,,

Sir  Auckland  Colvin  appointed  financial  adviser

24  Jan. ,,

Trial  of  professor  Palmer's  murderers ;  several
confess  ;  5  executed . . . .28  Feb. ,,

Lord  Dufferm's  report  on  reorganization  of  Egypt
published 20  March, „

Constitution  signed  by  the  khedive,  30  April ;  pro-
mulgated 1  May, „

Lieut. -gen.  Alison  replaced  by  gen.  F.  0.  Stephenson

May, ,,

Major  Evelyn  Baring  nominated  resident . May, „

Suleiman  Sami  convicted  of  the  firing,  massacre,
and  plundering  at  Alexandria  (11  June,  1882),
hanged 9  June, „

Greatly  improved  condition  of  the  country June, ,,

The  ex-khedive  Ismail  in  London . . 28  June, „

Parliamentary  grants  to  lord  Alcester  (Seymour,),
25,000?.,  lord  Wolseley,  30,000?. . 29  June, ,,

Eruption  of  cholera  (see  Cholera) . . . . ,,

British  force  reduced  to  6,763 . . . Aug. ,,

Council  of  state  nominated . . . 24  Sept. ,.

The  khedive  grants  a  general  amnesty,  about  10  Oct. ,,

New  council  of  state  opened  by  Cherif  Pasha,  30  Oct. ,,

Departure  of  part  of  the  British  troops  counter-
manded on  account  of  the  destruction  of  gen.
Hicks'  army  (see  Soudan)  .... Nov. „

The  khedive  proposes  reduction  of  his  court  ex-
penses 1  Jan. 18

The  British  government  require  a  limitation  of  the
line  of  defence  in  regard  to  the  Soudan 6  Jan. ,,

Cherif  Pasha  and  his  ministry  resign  ;  Nubar  Pasha
(an  Armenian  christian)  becomes  minister,

about  7  Jan. ,

Loan  of  950,000?.  to  the  khedive  by  Messrs.  Roth-
schild about  30  Jan. ,

Disorder  in  the  government  and  finances  reported,

20  March, ,

British  army :  total  killed,  255 ;  July  1882  to  March, ,

Resignation  of  Nubar  Pasha  in  opposition  to  Mr.
Clifford  Lloyd,  6  April ;  both  remain  in  office,

11  April, ,

Chaos  at  Cairo  ;  sir  Evelyn  Baring  comes  to  London ,

Conference  of  the  powers,  respecting  Egyptian
finance  proposed  by  England,  accepted  by  Ger-
many, Austria,  Russia,  Italy,  France,  and  Turkey,

May, ,

Need  of  loan  of  8,000,000?.  to  meet  several  years'
deficits,  indemnification  for  damages  at  Alex-
andria (3,950,000? ),  civil  and  Soudan  war  ex-
penses, (fee. May, ,.

Proposed  relaxation  of  the  international  law  of
liquidation May, ,.

Mr.  Clifford  Lloyd  leaves . . Maj  and  June, ,,

Select  committee  by  examination  discovers  serious
defects  in  the  commissariat  and  transport  systems
during  the  war  of  1882,  announced . .June, ,.

Conference  of  six  great  powers  on  Egyptian  affairs
meets  (see  London  Conferences) . .  28  June, ,.

Conference  adjourns,  without  result,  sine  die,  2  Aug. ,

Credit  for  300,000?.  voted  to  assist  gen.  Gordon,

5  Aug. ,,

Lord  Northbrook,  as  high  commissioner,  and  lord
Wolseley  as  commander-in-chief,  sail  31  Aug.
arrive  at  Cairo 9  Sept. ,

Suspension  of  the  international  law  of  liquidation
in  regard  to  the  sinking  fund,  from  18  Sept.  to
2=;  Oct.  decreed,  with  consent  of  lord  Northbrook

20  Sept. ,

France,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Italy  pro-
test, 25  Sept.  et  seq.  but  tacitly  acquiesce Oct. „

Lord  John  Hay  and  the  fleet  arrive  at  Alexandria,

24  Sept. ,;

Egyptian  army  reduced  to  4000  men,  announced,

24  Oct. ,

Lord  Northbrook  leaves  Egypt . . 28  Oct. ,

Arrives  in  London 3  Nov. ,

British  force  in  Egypt  and  Soudan,  about  16,000 men,

Nov. ,

Action  of  the  caisse  (commission)  of  the  public,
debt  against  the  Egyptian  government  for  sus-
pension of  the  sinking  fund  ;  the  court  condemns
it  to  refund,  9  Dec.  ;  the  khedive  appeals Dec. „

Reply  of  France  and  other  powers  to  the  British


320


EGYPT.


proposals  respecting  the  financial  condition  of
Egypt,  17  Jan.  ;  English  reply . . 24  Jan. 1885

Prince  Hassan,  brother  of  the  khedive,  appointed
high  commissioner  in  the  Soudan about  15  Feb. ,,

Egyptian  financial  scheme  ;  convention  agreed  to
by  the  Powers  signed,  18  March  [reduction  of
interest  on  debt,  loan  of  9,000,000?.  on  inter-
national guarantee,  &c] ;  adopted  by  the  Com-
mons  on  Mr. Gladstone's  resolution  (294-246),

27-28  March, ,,

Gen.  Grenfell  succeeds  sir  E.  Wood  as  com-
mander-in-chief . . . about  1  April, ,,

Bosphore  Egyptien,  a  Cairo  newspaper,  suppressed
by  decree,  29  Feb.  1884 ;  carried  into  effect,  for
publication  of  a  proclamation  of  the  Madhi,  on
9  April,  1885 ;  the  French  government  much
offended  by  the  manner  of  suppression  ;  the  dis-
pute settled  by  British  intervention,  announced,
28  April,  1885  ;  paper  reappears,  20  May,  1885  ;
stopped 5  Sept. ,,

Sir  F.  Stephenson,  commander-in-chief  of  British
army 6  July, ,,

Lord  Wolseley  arrives  in  London .  13  July, ,,

Payment  of  indemnity  begins . . 16  Aug. ",,

Telegraph  system  freed  from  Eastern  company,
through  Mr.  Floyer . . . about  12  Sept. ,,

Great  improvements  in  irrigation,  conducted  by
col.  Scott  Moncrieff 1884-5

Turkish  convention  with  sir  H.  D.  Wolff  on
Egyptian  affairs  ;  departure  of  the  British  de-
ferred till  their  work  be  accomplished,  signed

24  Oct.  1885

Sir  H. D. Wolff  arrives  at  Cairo  on  commission

29  Oct. ,,

High  commissioners,  Ghazi-Mukhtar  Pasha  and  sir
H.  D.  Wolff Nov. „

British  forces  in  Egypt,  exclusive  of  Indians  and
Egyptians,  14,000 1  Dec. ,5

Mukhtar  arrives  at  Cairo .... 27  Dec. ,,

Ancient  .necropolis  discovered  at  Assouan  by
general  Grenfell Feb.  1886

Discovery  of  petroleum  at  Jebel  Zeit  on  the  Red
Sea, March ; probable  success  reported  about

24  April, ,„

Ismail  Pasha  claims  5,000,000?.  arrears  of  annual
payments  for  surrendered  estates  . . June ,>

The  khedive's  two  sons  presented  to  the  queen  at
Windsor ....  .6  July, ,,

Reduction  of  the  British  army  begins . Jan.  1887

Improvement  in  the  state  of  the  country  reported

Feb. „

Neutralisation  of  Egypt  and  defence  of  the  Suez
canal  proposed  to  the  sultan  by  sir  H.  Drum-
mond  Wolff (?)  9  Feb. „

Anglo-Turkish  convention  respecting  Egypt  signed
at  Constantinople  ;  (British  troops  to  leave  in
three  years ;  Turkish  troops  to  intervene  or
British  to  return  ;  Suez  canal  to  be  neutral,  etc.,)
28  May  ;  ratified  by  queen  Victoria,  June ;  not
ratified  by  the  Sultan  ;  sir  H.  D.  Wolff  leaves
Constantinople 15  July, ,,

Immense  increase  in  postal  communications  . .  18S0-6

Sudden  death  of  general  Valentine  Baker  Pasha,
aged  62 17  Nov.  1887

Major  Dormer  appointed  commander  of  the  British
army Dec. ,,

Ismail  Pasha  permitted  to  reside  at  Constantinople

Dec. ,7

General  prosperity  of  the  country  ;  surplus  in  the
budget Jan.  188S

The  exorbitant  claims  of  the  ex-khedive  on  the
Egyptian  government  reduced  and  liberally
settled  by  the  influence  of  sir  Edgar  Vincent
and  Mr.  Marriott,  Q.C.,  the  judge  advocate
general ;  he  receives  100,000?. with much  laud

Jan. ,,

Death  of  prince  Hassan . . . 22  March ,„

Mr.  Limperopoulos's  claim  for  2,910?  (Egyptian)  on
Gordon  bonds  said  to  have  been  issued  at
Khartoum,  disallowed .... May, ,,

Nubar  Pasha  dismissed ;  Riaz  Pasha  succeeds
(see  Soudan) 8  June ,E

Sir  Edgar  Vincent's  proposal  to  convert  the  Egyp-
tian preference  debt  of  22,000.000?.  at  5  per  cent,
to  a  loan  at  4  per  cent,  not  accepted  by  the
French  government,  unless  a  time  be  fixed  for
the  evacuation  of  Egypt  by  the  British

27  June,  et  seq. 1S89


EGYPT.


321


EGYPTIAN  ERA.


Sir  Edgar  Vincent  resigns  the  office  of  financial
adviser  to  the  khedive,  21  Aug.  ;  succeeded  by
Mr.  Edwin  Palmer,  director-general  of  accounts  .

Sept.  1889
The  prince  of  Wales  and  prince  George  received  by
the  khedive  at  Cairo,  1  Nov.  ;  review  of  the
British  and  Egyptian  armies  ;  the  prince  sud-
denly takes  the  command  of  the  British  ;  during
the  march  past  he  salutes  the  Khedive,  2  Nov.  ;

leaves  Egypt 5  Nov. ,,

Mr. Palmer's  budget, surplus 150,000^. after  re-
duced taxation,  announced, . . .18  Nov. ,,
The  Equatorial  province  lostjby  the  retirement  of
Emin  Pasha,  through  the  mutiny  of  his  officers

18S8-89
Abolition  of  forced  labour  (corvee)  of  the  peasantry
(fellaheen),  a  tax  proposed  to  thegeneral  assembly,
15  Dec,  bill  passed . . . .17  Dec.  1889
Negotiations  with  France  respecting  the  conversion

scheme  (see  June,  1889),  again  fails . Jan.  1890
New  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  (signed

29  Oct.  1889)  from 1  Jan. ,,

National accounts for 1889, declared surplus
196,000?. . . . . . . .28  Jan. ,,

Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  visits  the  Khedive

at  Cairo,  reviews  the  army,  &c. . 7-15  April ,,
The  French  government  assents  to  the  conversion
of  the  preference  debt,  under  conditions  which
are  accepted  by  the  Egyptians reported  7  May „
The  first  settlement was effected at Paris by
Tigrane  pasha,  Mr. Edwin  Palmer,  and  M.  Bi-
bot,  21  May  ;  the  assent  of  the  other  great  powers
reported  2  June,  the  khedive's  decree  authorizing
the  conversion  issued .... 7  June ,,

Mr.  Justice  Scott's  plan  for  the  decentralization  of
justice  and  creation  of  local  courts,  adopted  by

decree reported  3  July ,,

Annual  meeting  of  the  society  (formed  in  1888)  for
the preservation  of  the  monuments  of  ancient

Egypt;  London 9  July ,,

Death  of  Hussein  Bey,  son  of  Ismail  pasha,  aged  50

27  July ,,
The  corvee  tax  for  1890,  not  to  be  collected .

reported  17  Aug. ,,
Highly  favourable  report  of  the  results  of  British

occupation  since  1882 .... Aug. „
Much  needed  judicial  reforms  recommended  by  Mr.
Justice  Scott,  of  Bombay,  Jan.,  opposed  by  a

commission 2  Feb.  1891

Return  of  the  khedive  from  a  successful  five  weeks'
tour  (during  which  he  visited  Wady-Halfa)  ;  Cairo

illuminated 8  Feb. ,,

Discovery  of  the  vast  tomb  of  a  high  priest  of  Am-
nion, W.  of  Thebes,  see  under  Mummies

announced  Feb. ,,
Sir  Evelyn  Baring  recommends  to  the  khedive  the
nomination  of  Mr.  Justice  Scott  as  judicial  ad-
viser and president  of  a  judicial  committee  of
three  (one  Italian  and one Egyptian)  for  the
supervision  of  the  local  tribunals,  about 11  Feb. „
The  khedive  assents  ;  officially  announced 16  Feb. ,,
Revenue  returns  for  1890,  about  10,250,000?.,  said  to

be. the  largest  ever  received . . 18  Feb. „
The  judicial  changes  disapproved  by  France,  about

20  Feb. ,,
Count  d'Aubigny, the French  minister,  recalled,

and  disgraced,  leaves . . . 1  March, ,,
Resignation  of  Riaz  pasha,  the  premier,  for  ill-health

12  May ,,
New  ministry  under  Mustapha  pasha  Fehmy  (influ-
ence of  the  khedive  increased) . . 13  May ,,
Sir  Colin  Monerieff  reports  the  beneficial  results  of
the  great  improvements  in  irrigation,  5  March  ;

published June, „

The  khedive's  palace,  the  Abdin,  greatly  injured  by
fire,  22-23  July  ;  the  British  troops  thanked  for

their  help 24  July, ,,

Great  increase  in  the  crops  of  cotton  and  cereals,
and  in  railway  receipts  ;  large  surplus  revenue  ;
proposed  reduction  of  taxation  .  end  of  Nov. ,,

Sudden death of the khedive Tewfik ; much

lamented 7  Jan.  1892

His  eldest  son,  Abbas, recognised  by  the  Porte,

8  Jan.  ;  state  reception  at  Cairo . . 16  Jan. ,,
Reduction  of  the  salt  tax,  40  per  cent.,  ordered

about  28  Jan. ,,
The  khedive  opened  the  general  assembly  with  a
■cheerful  speech 30  Jan.


Arrival  of  Ahmed  Eyoub  pasha  at  Cairo  with  the
sultan's  firman  for  the  investiture  of  the  khedive
4  April ;  the  reading  delayed  through  proposed
changes  relating  to  Mount  Sinai,  which  are  settled
satisfactorily  through  British  influence  ;  the  fir-
man read  in  public .... 14  April,  1892

New  railway  bridge  over  the  Nile,  opened  by  the
khedive s  May

Justice  Scott's  judicial  reforms,  reported  very
successful 22  May

Sir  Evelyn  Baring  created  a  peer  (baron  Cromer) . ,,

KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS

(nearly  independent).

1806.  Mehemet  Ali  Pasha;  abdicated  Sept.  1848;  dies
2  Aug.  1849.

1848.  Ibrahim  (adopted  son),  Sept.  ;  dies  9  or  10  Nov.  1848.
,, Abbas  (his  son),  10  Nov. ;  dies  14  July,  1854.

1854.  Said  (brother),  14  July ;  dies  18  Jan.  1863.

1863.  Ismail  (nephew),  18  Jan.  (born  31  Dec.  1830);  de-
posed by  the  sultan  at  the  request  of  England,
France  and  other  powers,  26  June,  1879.

1879.  Mechmet  Tewfik,  bornNov.,  185?,  invested  with  the
star  of  India  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  25  Oct.  1875  ;
proclaimed  26  June,  invested  14  Aug.;  died  7
Jan.  1892.

1892. Abbas  Hilmi,  born  14  Julv,  1874.

.EGYPT  EXPLORATION  FUND,  ori-
ginated by  Miss  Amelia  B.  Edwards,  and  promoted
by  sir  Erasmus  Wilson,  first  president  (died  8  Aug.
1884),  and  Mr.  E.  S.  Poole,  secretary,  1881.  Its
object  is  to  promote  excavations  in  order  to  eluci-
date the  history  and  arts  of  ancient  Egypt  and
biblical  history.  Miss  Edwards,  a  learned  Egyp-
talogist,  died  15  April,  1892.  She  bequeathed
property  to  endow  a  professorship  of  Egyptology  in
University  College,  London.

M.  Edouard  Naville's  explorations  began  19  Jan.  1883.  The
excavations  conducted  by  M.  Naville,  1883-4,  led  to
many  important  discoveries,  including  the  site  of
Goshen.  Mr.  W.  M.  F.  Petrie  examined  more  than
twenty  sites  in  1884-5,  and  made  remarkable  dis-
coveries. Some  of  the  results  were  given  to  British
and  foreign  museums.  Makes  discoveries,  including
Naucratis,  which  was  a  flourishing  Greek  com-
mercial and  manufacturing  city,  on  the  Canopic  arm
of  the  Nile,  about  550  b.c,  and  declined  after  the
Persian  invasion  and  the  founding  of  Alexandria
332  B.C.  Explorations  carried  on  by  Mr.  F.  Llewellyn
Griffith  at  Tanis,  1886 ;  Mr.  Petrie,  in  the  mounds  of
Tel-Defenneh,  discovered  the  remains  of  "Pharaoh's
house  in  Tahpanhes,"  (588  B.C.  ;  Jeremiah  xliii.,  8-11),
May,  1886.
Mr.  Ernest  A.  Gardner  reported  the  results  of  his
excavations  in  the  spring  at  Naucratis,  and  exhibited
relics  with  statuettes,  pottery,  &c,  obtained  from  the
sites  of  temples,  cemeteries,  &c,  6  July,  1886.  M.
Naville's  explorations  at  the  city  of  Onia  and  the
"Mound  of  the  Jews,"  continued  spring  1887.  He
discovers  the  great  temple  of  Bubastis  (about  b.c.
1300),  granite  monolithic  columns,  sculpture,  &c,
April-June,  1887;  resumes  his  excavations  March,
1888.
Exhibition  of  Egyptian  antiquities  at  the  Egyptian
Hall,  Piccadilly ;  by  Mr.  Flinders  Petrie,  of  his
excavations  at  Fayoum,  July,  1888.
Mr.  Petrie  forces  an  entrance  into  the  sepulchral  chamber
of  the  pyramid  of  Anenemhat  III.  at  Hawara,  .Ian.;
exhibits  the  results  of  his  explorations,  at  the  Oxford
Mansions,  London,  mummies,  ornaments,  implements,
<fcc,  Sept.  1889  et  sey.
A  monograph  on  the  results  of  M.  Naville's  excava-
tions at  Bubastis  in  18S7-9,  was  published  in  the

"Memoirs" Feb.  1891

Mr. Petrie  discovers  fragments  of  a  lost  play  of
Euripides, of  the Phsedo of Plato and other
writers,  which  have  boon  published  by  Professor
Maha'ffy  after  study  by  himself  and Professor
Sayce,  reported  July,  1891.  Mr.PetrieVTen  Yens
Digging  in  Egypt,  1881  to  1891,"  published  .  May  1892
EGYPTIAN ERA, &C The old  Egyptian
year  was  identical  with  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  be-
ginning 26  Feb.  747  B.C.,  and  consisted  of  365  days
only. It  was  reformed  30  B.C., at which  period
the  commencement  of  the  year  had  arrived,  by
continually  receding  to  the  29th  Aug.,  which  was


EGYPTIAN  HALL.


322


ELECTORS.


determined  to  be  in  future  the  first  day  of  the  year.
To  reduce  to  the  Christian  era,  subtract  746  years
125  days.  The  canicular  or  heliacal  period  of  the
Egyptians  and  Ethiopians  (1460  years)  began  when
Sirius  or  the  dog  star  emerged  from  the  rays  of  the
sun,  on  20  July,  2785  B.C.,  and  extended  to  1325
B.C.  This  year  comprised  12  months  of  30  days,
with  5  supplementary  days.

EGYPTIAN  HALL,  Piccadilly,  erected  in
l8i2byG.  F.  Kobinson  for  "Bullock's  natural  history
collections,  which  were  sold  in  18 19  ;  since  used  for
exhibitions,  concerts,  &c. See  Dudley  Gallery.

EHRENBREITSTEIN  (Honour's  broad-
stone),  a  strong  Prussian  fortress  on  the  Rhine,
formerly  belonged  to  the  electors  of  Treves.  It
was  often  besieged.  It  surrendered  to  the  French
general  Jourdain,  24  Jan.  1799.  The  fortifications
Avere  destroyed  on  its  evacuation,  9  Feb.  1801,  at
the  peace  of  Luneville.  The  works  have  been
restored  since  1814.

EIDER,  a  river  separating  Schleswig  from
Holstein,  was  passed  by  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,
4  Feb.  1864.  Eider,  German  steamer,  see  Wrecks,
1892.

EIDOGRAPH,  see  Pantograph.

EIFFEL  TOWER,  see  Paris,  1889.  Re-
opened 30  M  arch,  1890.

EIGHT  HOURS.  In  1889-92  there  was  much
agitation  among  the  working  classes  in  Britain  and
on  the  Continent,  in  favour  of  limiting  the  working
day  to  eight  hours,  'lhis  was  one  of  the  objects  of
the  demonstrations  in  May,  1890-92,  see  Working
Men.

The  factories  and  shops  act,  which  limits  the  work-
ing hours  of  women  only  to  eight  hours,  passed

at  Melbourne 1890

The  limitation  adopted  by  some  trades  in  England ;

by  the  bookbinders  of  London . .  Nov.  1891
The  mines  (eight  hours)  bill  rejected  by  the  com-
mons (272-160) .... 23  March,  1892
Great  meeting  in  Hyde  park  to  support  the  move-
ment 1  May, ,,

The  marquis  of  Salisbury  and  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour
receive  a  deputation  of  workmen  ;  they  deprecate
legislation  as  premature  . . . .11  May, ,,

EIGHTY  CLUB.  Established  in  1879  and
1880,  to  promote  political  education  and  to  stimulate
liberal  organisation  by  Mr.  Albert  Grey,  Sir  Henry
James,  and  lord  Richard  Grosvenor.  Mr.  Glad-
stone, president,  1887.  The  club  adopted  Home
Rule,  and  80  Liberal  Unionists  seceded,  18  May,
1887.

EIKON  BASILIKE  ("the  Portraiture  of
His  Sacred  Majesty  in  his  Solitudes  and  Suffer-
ings"), a  book  of  devotion  formerly  attributed  to
king  Charles  I.,  but  now  generally  believed  to
have  been  written  partially,  if  not  wholly,  by
bishop  Gauden,  and  possibly  approved  by  the  king  :
it  was  published  in  1648,  and  sold  quickly.

EISENACH  DECLARATION,  see  Ger-
many, 1859.

EISTEDDFOD,  see  Bards.

ELAM,  see  Persia.

EL  ARISCH,  Egypt,  captured  by  the  French
under  Reynier,  18  Feb.  1799.  A  convention  was
signed  here  between  the  grand  vizier  and  Kleber
for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  28  Jan.
1800.  He  beat  the  Turks  at  HeHopolis  on  20  March  ;
and  was  assassinated  on  14  June  following.

ELBA,  ISLE  OF  (on  the  coast  of  Tuscany),
taken  by  admiral  Nelson  in  1796;  but  abandoned


1797.  Elba  was  conferred  upon  Napoleon  (with
the  title  of  emperor)  011  his  relinquishing  the
throne  of  France,  5  April,  1814.  He  s«cretly  em-
barked hence  with  about  1200  men  in  hired  feluccas^
on  the  night  of  25  Feb.  1815,  landed  in  Proveneey
I  March,  and  soon  after  recovered  the  crown  ;  see
France,  1815.  Elba  was  resumed  by  the  grand)
duke  of  Tuscany,  July,  1815.

ELCHINGEN,  Bavaria.  Here  Ney  beat  the
Austrians,  14  Oct.  1805,  and  was  made  duke  of"
Elchingen.

ELCHO  SHIELD,  see  under  Volunteers.

ELDERS  (in  Greek,  presbuteroi),  in  the  early
church  equivalent  with  episvopoi,  or  bishops  (see
I  Tim.  iii.  and  Titus  i.),  who  afterwards  became  a.
distinct  and  superior  order.  Elders  in  the  presby-
terian  churches  are  laymen.

Elders'  Widows  Fund,  established  by  the  East  India  Com-
pany, in  182c,  to  provide  for  widows  and  orphans  of
some  of  its  servants,  was  closed  in  i860.  In  1878  am
act  was  passed  to  transfer  the  surplus  money  to  the-
provident  fund,  &c.

ELDON'S  ACT,  see  Bankrupts.

EL  DORADO  (the  "  Gilded  Man").  When-
the  Spaniards  had  conquered  Mexico  and  Peru,
they  began  to  look  for  new  sources  of  wealth,  and
having  heard  of  a  golden  city  ruled  by  a  king  or
priest,  smeared  in  oil  and  rolled  in  gold  dust  (which
report  was  founded  on  a  merely  annual  custom  of
the  Indians),  they  organised  vaiious  expeditions
into  the  interior  of  South  America,  which  were
accompanied  with  disasters  and  crimes,  about  1560.
Raleigh's  expeditions  in  search  of  gold  in  1596  and
161 7  led  to  his  fall.

ELEASA,  Palestine.  Here  Judas  Maccabseus-
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Bacchides  and  Alcinius,.
and  the  Syrians,  about  161  B.C.  (1  Mace,  ix.)

ELEATIC  SECT,  founded  at  Elea  in  Sicily^
by  Xenophanes,  of  Colophon,  about  535  B.C.,.
whither  he  had  been  banished  on  account  of  his.
wild  theory  of  God  and  nature.  He  supposed  that
the  stars  were  extinguished  evety  morning  and;
rekindled  at  night;  that  eclipses  were  occasioned
by  a  partial  extinction  of  the  sun  ;  that  there  were
several  suns  and  moons  for  the  convenience  of  the
different  climates  of  the  earth,  &c.  Strabo.  Zeno-
(about  364)  was  an  Eleatic.

ELECTIONS  PETITIONS.  The  laws
respecting  them  were  consolidated  in  1828,  1839,.
and  1844.  An  act  passed  in  1848  was  amended  in
1865.  By  the  act  of  1868,  3  new  judges  were  ap-
pointed, and  three  to  be  selected  from  all  the  judges
to  try  election  cases;  justices  Willes  and  Blackburn,
and  baron  Martin  were  first  appointed,  Nov.  1868.

ELECTOR  PALATINE,  see  Palatinate.

ELECTORS  for  members  of  parliament  for
counties  were  obliged  to  have  forty  shillings  a-year
in  land,  8  Hen.  VI.  1429.  Among  the  acts  relating
to  electors  are  the  following  :  Act  depriving  excise
and  custom-house  officers  and  contractors  with
government  of  their  votes,  1 782 ;  see  Customs.  Act  to
regulate  polling,  1828.  Great  changes  were  made
by  the  Reform  Acts  of  1832,  1867,  1868,  and  1885.
County  elections  act,  1836 ;  see  Bribery.  The
forty-shilling  freeholders  in  Ireland  lost  their
privilege  in  1829.  By  Dodson's  act,  passed  in
1 86 1,  university  electors  are  permitted  to  vote
by  sending  balloting  papers.  Hours  of  polling  in
metropolitan  boroughs  extended  (from  8  a.m.  to
8  p.m.)  by  act  passed  25  Feb.  1878.


ELECTOES OF GEEMANY.


323


ELECTEICITY.


Mr.  Shaw  Lefevre's  Plural  Voting  (Abolition)  bill,
based  on  the  principle,  "one  man,  one  vote,"  re-
jected by  the  commons  (243-196) . .  18  May,  1892

Mr.  Stansfeld's  Electors'  Qualification  and  Regis-
tration bill  (removing  certain  vexatious  clauses),
read  a  2nd  time 25  May ,,

ELECTOES  of  Germany.  Tn  the  reign  of
Conrad  I.  king1  of  Germany  (912-918),  the  dukes
and  counts,  from  being  merely  officers,  became
gradually  independent  of  the  sovereign,  and  sub-
sequently elected  him.  In  919  they  confirmed  the
nomination  of  Henry  I.  duke  of  Saxony  by  Conrad
as  Ms  successor.  In  the  13th  century  seven  princes
(the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,
the  king  of  Bohemia,  the  electors  of  Brandenburg
and  Saxony,  and  the  elector  Palatine),  assumed
the  exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  em-
peror. Robertson.  An  eighth  elector  (Bavaria)  was
made  in  1648;  and  a  ninth  (Hanover)  in  1692.
The  number  was  reduced  to  eight  in  1777  (by  the
elector  palatine  acquiring  Bavaria)  and  increased
to  ten  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801.  On  the
dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  the  crown  of
Austria  was  made  hereditary,  1804-1806;  see  Ger-
many.

ELECTEIC  CLOCK;  seep.  326.

ELECTEICAL  ENGINEEES,  see  under
Telegraphs.

ELECTEICITY,  from  the  Greek  elektros,
electrum,  amber.  The  electrical  properties  of  rubbed
amber  are  said  to  have  been  known  to  Thales,  600
B.C.;  and  Pliny,  70  a.d.;  see  Magnetism,  Elec-
trical transmission  of  force,  p.  328,  and  Niagara.

Electrical  measurements  :  the  following  terms  (after
great  electricians)  were  adopted  by  the  electrical
congress  at  Paris,  22  Sept.  1881  :  ohm,  volt,
ampere,  coulomb,  and  farad.  Important  resolu-
tions were  passed  by  the  international  conference
on  electrical  units  at  Paris  (the  "congress  ohm"
agreed  to) April-May,  1884

An  electrical  standard  committee  (consisting  of
lord  Raleigh,  sir  Win.  Thomson  and  others)
appointed,  Bee.  1890 ;  it  was  recommended  that
new  denominations  of  standards  be  made,  and
determined  with  reference  to  the  centimetre,
gramme,  and  second,  of  the  Board  of  Trade  ;  the
ohm  to  be  the  standard  of  resistance  ;  the
ampere,  the  standard  of  electrical  current ;  the
volt,  the  standard  of  electrical  pressure ;  all
being  scientifically  defined . . .20  Feb.  1891

The  committee's  report  printed . . .  Aug. ,,

Capital  punishment  by  electricity  adopted  by  the
state  of  New  York . . . from  1  Jan.  1889

FRICTIONAL OB  STATIC ELECTRICITY.

Gilbert  records  that  other  bodies  besides  amber
generate  electricity  when  rubbed,  and  that  all
substances  may  be  attracted 1600

Otto  von  Guerieke  constructed  the  first  electric
machine  (a  globe  of  sulphur),  about . . .  1647

Boyle  published  his  electrical  experiments  . . 1676

Stephen  Gray,  aided  by  Wheeler,  discovered  that
the  human  body  conducts  electricity,  that  elec-
tricity acts  at  a  distance  (motion  in  light  bodies
being  produced  by  frictional  electricity  at  a  dis-
tance of  666  feet),  the  fact  of  electric  induction,
and  other  phenomena 1720-36

Bufay  originated  his  dual  theory  of  two  electric
fluids:  one  vitreous,  from  rubbed  glass,  <fcc,  the
other  resinous,  from  rubbed  amber,  resin,  &c. ;
and  showed  that  two  bodies  similarly  electrified
repel  each  other,  and  attract  bodies  oppositely
electrified,  about 1733

The  Leyden  jar  (vial  or  bottle)  discovered  by  Kleist,
1745,  and  by  Cuna-us  and  Muschenbroek,  of  Ley-
den  :  Winckler  constructed  the  Leyden  battery  .  1746

Besaguliers  classified  bodies  as  electrics  and  non-
electrics 1742

Important  researches  of  Watson,  Canton,  Beccaria
and  Nollet 1740-7

Franklin  announced  his  theory  of  a  single  fluid,
terming  the  vitreous  electricity  positive,  and  the


resinous  negative,  1747;  and  demonstrated  the
identity  of  the  electric  spark  and  lightning,
drawing  down  electricity  from  a  cloud  by  means
of  a  kite June,  1752

At  a  pie-nic,  he  "  killed  a  turkey  by  the  electric
spark,  and  roasted  it  by  an  electric  jack  before
a  fire  kindled  by  the  electric  bottle  " . . . 1748

Professor  Richman  killed  at  St.  Petersburg,
while  repeating  Franklin's  experiments  Aug. 1753

Beccaria  published  his  researches  on  atmospheric
electricity,  1758;  and  iEpiuus  his  mathematical
theory 1759

Electricity  developed  by  fishes  investigated  by
Ingenhousz,  Cavendish,  and  others,  about . . 1773

Lichtenberg  produced  his  electrical  figures . . 1777

Electro-Statics :  Coulomb  applied  the  torsion  balance
to  the  measurement  of  electric  force . . . 1785

Electro-Chemistry—  water  decomposed  by  Caven-
dish, Fourcroy,  and  others .... 1787-90

Discoveries  of  Galvani  and  Volta  (see  Voltaic  Elec-
tricity, below) 1791-3.

Oersted,  of  Copenhagen,  discovered  electro-mag-
netic action  (see  Electro-Magnetism,  next  page) .  1819,

Thermo  -  Electricity  (currents  produced  by  heat),
discovered  by  Seebeck :  it  was  produced  by
heating  pieces  of  copper  and  bismuth  soldered
together,  1821:  the  Thermo-electrometer  invented
by  Wm.  Snow  Harris,  1827  ;  theThermo-inultiplier
constructed  by  Melloni  and  Nobili,  1831.  [Marcus
constructed  a  powerful  thermo-electric  battery  in
1865.]

M.  C.  V.  Boys  exhibits  his  very  sensitive  quartz-
fibre  thermopile  at  the  Royal  Institution,  see
Moon 14  June,  1889

Faraday  produced  a  spark  by  the  sudden  separation
of  a  coiled  keeper  from  a  permanent  magnet  (see
Magneto-Electricity,  next  page) ....  1831

Wheatstone  calculated  the  velocity  of  electricity,
on  the  double  fluid  theory,  to  be  288,000  miles
a  second  ;  on  the  single  fluid  theory,  576,000  miles
a  second ...  1834

Armstrong  discovered,  and  Faraday  explained,  the
electricity  of  high  pressure  steam,  which  produces
the  hydro-electric  machine 1840

Electric  Machines.  Otto  von  Guerieke  obtained
sparks  by  rubbing  a  globe  of  sulphur,  about  1647 ;
Newton,  Boyle,  and  others  used  glass,  about  1675  ;
Hawksbee  improved  the  machine,  about  1709  ;
Bose  introduced  a  metallic  conductor,  1733  ;
Winckler  contrived  the  cushion  for  the  rubber,
1741  ;  Gordon  employed  a  glass  cylinder,  1742;
for  which  a  plate  was  substituted  about  1770  ;
Canton  introduced  amalgam  for  the  rubber,  1751 ;
Van  Marum  constructed  an  electric  machine  at
Haarlem,  said  to  have  been  the  most  powerful
ever  made,  1785  ;  the  Rev.  A.  Bennet  invented
the  "doubler  of  electricity,"  17S6 ;  Carvallo
discovers  that  metals  when  insulated,  acquire
slight  charges  of  electricity,  1787  ;  Nicholson
constructs  an  influence  machine,  1788;  modified
by  Ronalds,  1823  ;  Dr.  H.  M.  Noad  set  up  at  the
Panopticon,  Leicester-square,  London,  a  very
powerful  electric  machine  and  Leyden  battery  [in
possession  of  Mr.  Edwin  Clark,  1862] . . . 1855

The  Hydro-Electric  machine,  by  Armstrong,  was
constructed 1&40

Holtz's  induction  machine 1865.

The  Electrophorus, a  useful  apparatus  for  ob-
taining frictional  electricity, was  invented by
Volta  in  1775,  and  improved  by  him  in  . . 17S2
C.  F.  Varley's  "reciprocal  electrophorus"  invented  1862
Sir  William  Thomson's "electric  replenishcr"  de-
scribed Jan. 1868.

The  Carre  machine  invented

The  Voss  machine  introduced i£8o»

Mr.  Apps's  great  induetorium,  or  induction  coil,
giving  the  largest  sparks  ever  seen, exhibited  at
the  Royal  Polytechnic  Institution . 29  March,  i86o>
Mr.  James  Wixnshurst  invents  a  "  continuous  elec-
trophorus" (very  successful),  and  an  "influew

machine"

Electroscope  and  Electrometer,  as  the  terms
signify,  an' apparatus  for  ascertaining  the  presence
and  quantity  of  electrical  excitation.  Pith-balls
were  employed  in  various  ways  as  electroscopes
by  Gilbert,  Canton,  and  others. Dr.  Milnerin-

vented  an  electrometer  s'milar  tn  Peltiers. 1

The  gold  leaf  electrometer  was  invented  by  rev.

y  2


ELECTRICITY.


324


ELECTRICITY.


A.  Bennet,  1789,  and  improved  by  Singer,  about
1810 ;  Lane's  discharging  electrometer  is  dated
1767 ;  Henley's,  1772  ;  Bohneuberger's  electro-
scope, 1820  : Peltier's  induction electrometer,

about  1848

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS,
AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.

(See  Electro-Physiology,  p.  305.)
Sulzer  noticed  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  tongue
when  silver  and  lead  were  brought  into  contact

with  it  and  each  other 1762

Madame  Galvani  observed  the  convulsion  in  the
muscles  of  frogs  when  brought  into  contact  with
two  metals,  in  1789  ;  and  M.  Galvani,  after  study-
ing the  phenomena,  laid  the  foundation  of  the

galvanic  battery 1791

Volta  announced  his  discovery  of  the  "  Voltaic
pile,"  composed  of  discs  of  zinc  and  silver,  and

moistened  card 1800

Mr.  W.  Cruikshank's  experiments . . . . ,,
By  the  voltaic  pile,  Nicholson  and  Carlisle  decom-
posed water,  and  Dr.  Henry  decomposed  nitric

acid,  ammonia,  &c. . >>

Transfer  of acids and alkalies  by  Hisinger  and

Berzelius 1803

Behrens formed a dry  pile  of  80  pairs  of  zinc,

copper,  and  gilt  paper 1805

By  means  of  a  large  voltaic  battery  in  the  Royal
Institution,  London,  Davy  decomposed  the
alkali  potash,  and  evolved  the  metal  potassium,
(soda  and  other  substances  soon  after)  .  6  Oct.  1807
Zamboni  constructed  a  dry  pile  of  paper  discs,
coated  with  tin  on  one  side  and  peroxide  of
manganese  on  the  other  . . ' . . .  1809

Children's  battery  fused  platinum,  &c. . . . „
J.  W. Bitter constructed his "secondary  pile"

about  1 812
Davy  exhibited  the  voltaic  arc  . . . . .  1813
Wollaston's  thimble  battery  ignited  platinum  wire,  1815
Multipliers  or  rheometers,  popularly  termed  "  gal-
vanometers," invented by Ampere and by
Schweigger, 1820 ; by  Cumming, 1821 ; De la
Bive,  1824  ;  Ritchie  (torsion),  1830  ;  Joule  (mag-
netic), 1S43. Sir  William  Thomson has made
many  improvements  since  1856  ;  he  described  his
reflecting  galvanometer,  and  similar  apparatus  in
the  report  of  the British  Association  in  1867.
Very  large  galvanometer  made  by  prof.  Win.  A.
Cornell,  of  New  York .... Aug.  1885
Faraday  described  his  discovery  of  electro-magnetic

rotation Jan.  1822

Georg  Simon  Ohm  enunciated  his  formulae  relating
to  the  galvanic  current,  1827;  proposed  erection
of  a  statue  of  Ohm,  at  Munich,  on  the  centenary
of  his  birth,  16  March, 1789  .  .  .  Feb.  1889
Improvement  in  constructing  the  Voltaic  battery
made  by  Wollaston,  1815  ;  Becquerel,  1829  ;  Stur-
geon, 1830  ;  J.  F.  Daniell,  1836  ;  Grove  (nitric
acid,  &c),  1839  ;  Jacobi,  1840 ;  Smee,  1840  ;  Bunsen
(carbon,  &c),  1842  ;  Grove  (gas  battery),  1842.
Faraday  read  the  first  series  of  his  "  Experimental
Researches  on  Electricity  "  at  the  Royal  Society,

21  Nov.  1831
Faraday  demonstrated  the  nature  of  electro-chemi-
cal decomposition, and  the  principle  that the
quantity  and  intensity  of  electric  action  of  a  gal-
vanic battery  depend  on  the  size  and  number  of

plates  employed 1834

Wheatstone  invented  his  electro-magnetic  chrono-

scope 1840

Copper-Zinc Couple (which  sec) constructed by

Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone  and  Mr.  A.  Tribe . . . 1872
Batteries ;  Bichromate  of  potash  battery  ;  a  modifica-
tion of  Dr.  Leeson's  ;  very  powerful  ;  now  much
■  used. (Gaston  Plante's  lead  battery,  powerful,
i860.) Chloride  of  silver  battery  (14,400  cells) —
results  of  its  discharge  published  by  Drs.  Warren
de  la  Rue  and  Hugo  Muller. Powerful  results
exhibited  at  Royal  Institution,  London,  21  Jan.,  1881
Dr.  Byrne's  pneumatic  battery  (air  blown  in),  very

effective,  announced 1878

See  under  Electric  Lir/hting.
Mr.  Coad's  primary  battery,  put  forth  in  1884,
greatly  improved,  exhibited  in  Soho  square,
London,  W.,  Jan.  ;  Major  Renard's  primary  bat-
tery exhibited  in  London,  Jan.  ;  Mr.  Weymersch's
primary  battery  exhibited __  '  Feb.  1890


Electric  Accumulator,  or  secondary  battery,  a
modification  by  M.  Faure,  of  Gaston  Plante's
powerful  lead  battery  of  1 860,  was  exhibited  at
Paris,  May,  1881.  In  June  a  box,  one  cubic  foot
in  size,  containing  four  cells,  inclosing  thin  sheets
of  lead  surrounded  with  felt  saturated  with
dilute  acid,  &c. ,  was  conveyed  from  Paris  to
London.  Sir  Win.  Thomson  found  it  to  possess
the  electric  energy  of  one  million  foot-pounds  ;
and  said,  in  a  letter  to  The  Times  of  9  June,
1881 :  "  This  solves  the  problem  of  storing  elec-
tricity in  a  manner  and  in  a  state  useful  for
many  important  applications  " . .6  June,  1881

Electro-Magnetism  began  with  Oersted's  discovery
of  the  action  of  the  electric  current  on  the  mag-
netic needle,  1819  ;  proved  by  Ampere,  who
exhibited  the  action  of  the  voltaic  pile  upon  the
magnetic  needle,  and  of  terrestrial  magnetism
upon  the  voltaic  current ;  he  also  arranged  the
conducting  wire  in  the  form  of  a  helix  or  spiral,
invented  a  galvanometer,  and  imitated  the  mag-
net by  a  spiral  galvanic  wire 1820

Arago  magnetised  a  needle  by  the  electric  current,
and  attracted  iron  filings  by  the  connecting  wire
of  a  galvanic  battery „

The  first  electro-magnet 1825

Induction  of  electric  currents  discovered  by  Fara-
day and  announced 1831

Becquerel  invented  an  electro-magnetic  balance . ,,

Faraday  discovered  the  electro-magnetic  rotative
force  developed  in  a  magnet  by  voltaic  electricity,

1831  ;  experiments  on  the  induction  of  a  voltaic
current,  &c 1834-5

Sturgeon  made  a  bar  of  soft  iron  magnetic  by  sur-
rounding it  with  coils  of  wire,  and  sending  an
electric  current  through  the  wire  . . . . 1837

Induction  coil  made  by  Professor  G.  C.  Page  of
Salem,  Mass ,,

Joseph  Henry  announced  his  discovery  of  secondary
currents 2  Nov.  1838

Breguet  used  electro-magnetic  force  to  manufacture
mathematical  instruments,  about . . . . 1854

Magneto-Electricity  (the  converse  of  Oersted's
discovery  of  electro-magnetism),  discovered  by
Faraday,  who  produced  an  electric  spark  by  sud-
denly separating  a  coiled  keeper  from  a  perma-
nent magnet ;  and  found  that  an  electric  current
existed  in  a  copper  disc  rotated  between  the  poles
of  a  magnet 1831

The  Magneto-Electric  machine  arose  out  of  Faraday's
discovery,  and  was  first  made  at  Paris  by  Pixii,

1832  ;  and  in  London  by  Saxton . . . . 1833
"Faraday  as  a  Discoverer,"  by  Professor  Tyndall,

published March,  1868

Magneto-electricity  applied  to  electro-plating  by
Woolwich  ,  1842

Ruhmkorffs  magneto-electric  induction  coil  con-
structed, about 1850

Siemens' armature  produced 1854

H.  Wilde's  description  of  his  machine  (a  powerful
generator  of  dynamic  electricity,  by  means  of
permanent  magnets)  and  the  magneto-electric
machine  (constructed  in  1865)  sent  to  the
Royal  Society  by  professor  Faraday  and  reported,

26  April,  1866

The  light  (resembling  bright  moon-light)  exhibited
on  the  top  of  Burlington  house . 2  March,  1867

Principle  of  accumulation  by  successive  action  dis-
covered by  Wilde;  1865/by  mutual  action  (by
which  permanent  steel  magnets  are  dispensed
with),  independently  by  Wheatstone  and  Siemens,  1866

Mr-  W.  Groves'  electro-induction  balance . .  1879

Dynamo-magueto-electric  machines,  by  Wheatstone
and  Siemens,  described  at  the  Royal  Society,
I4  Feb.  ;  by  Ladd . . . .14  March,  1867

Trial  of  Siemens'  dynamo-magneto  electric  light  in
the  torpedo  service  at  Sheerness  reported  suc-
cessful 18  Deo.  1871

Two  of  Siemens'  machines  ordered  for  the  Lizards,
announced 1878

Gramme's  magneto-electric  machine  described . 1S75

International Electrical Congress at Paris  with

exhibition 15  Aug.-is  Nov.  1881

[Medals  and  other  honours  awarded  to  England.]

Mi-.  E.  J.  Atkins'  method  of  separating  metals  from
their  alloys  by  electrolysis,  announced . Nov.  1883


ELECTRICITY.


325


ELECTRICITY.


applications — electric  telegraph. See  Telegraph.

The  transmission  of  electricity  by  an  insulated  wire
was  shown  by  Watson  and  others . . . . 1747

Telegraphic  arrangements  were  devised  by  Lesarge,
1744  ;  Betancourt,  1787  ;  Cavallo,  1795  ;  Salva,
1796  ;  Soemmering,  exhibited  29  Aug.  1809  :
Ronalds "  . . . . 1816

Ampere  invents  his  telegraphic  arrangement,  em-
ploying the  magnetic  needle  and  coil,  and  the
galvanic  battery 1820

F.  Ronalds  publishes  an  account  of  his  electric
telegraph  (died,  aged  85,  8  Aug.  1873) . . .  1823

Professor  Wheatstone  constructs  an  electro-mag-
netic apparatus,  by  which  30  signals  are  conveyed
through  nearly  four  miles  of  wire  . . June,  1836

Telegraphs  invented  by  Schilling,  Gauss,  and  Weber
(magneto-electric),  1833  ;  by  Steinheil  and  by
Masson,  1837  ;  by  Morse  (died  1872). . . . 1837

The  magnetic  needle  telegraph  patented  by  (aft.
sir)  Wm.  F.  Cooke  and  (aft.  sir)  Charles  Wheat-
stone.  (The  Society  of  Arts  Albert  gold  medal
was  awarded  to  them  in  June,  1867) . 12  June, „

Mr.  Robert  Stirling  Newall,  of  Gateshead,  patented
his  wire  rope  used  for  submarine  telegraphs . .  1840

Mr.  Cooke  set  up  the  telegraph  line  on  the  Great
Western  Railway,  from  Paddington  to  West
Drayton,  1838-9  ;  on  the  Blackwall  line,  1840  ;
and  in  Glasgow 1841

Wheatstone's  alphabetical  printing  telegraph
patented 1841

The  first  telegraph  line  in  America  set  up  from
Washington  to  Baltimore 1844

The  murderer  Tawell  apprehended  by  meaus  of  the
telegraph 1845

The  electric  telegraph  company  established  (having
purchased  Cooke  and  Wheatstone's  telegraphic
inventions) 1846

Gutta-percha  suggested  as  an  insulator  by  Faraday  1847

Professor  Charles  Wheatstone  drew  plans  of  a  pro-
jected submarine  telegraph  between  Dover  and
Calais  1S40

Mr.  John  Watkins  Brett  (on  behalf  of  his  brother,
Jacob  Brett,  the  iuventor  and  patentee),  submit-
ted a  similar  plan  to  Louis  Philippe  without  suc-
cess 1847

He  obtained  permission  from  Louis  Napoleon  to
make  a  trial,  1847  ;  took  place . .  28  Aug. 1850

The  connecting  wires  (27  miles  long)  were  placed
on  the  government  pier  in  Dover  harbour,  and  in
the  Goliath  steamer  were  coiled  about  30  miles  in
length  of  telegraphic  wire,  enclosed  in  a  covering
of  gutta-percha,  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The
Goliath  started  from  Dover,  unrolling  the  tele-
graphic wire  as  it  proceeded,  and  allowing  it  to
drop  to  the  bed  of  the  sea.  In  the  evening  the
steamer  arrived  on  the  French  coast,  and  the  wire
was  run  up  the  cliff  at  cape  Grisnez  to  its  termi-
nal station,  and  messages  were  sent  to  and  fro
between  England  and  the  French  coast.  But  the
wire,  in  settling  into  the  sea-bottom,  crossed  a
rocky  ridge,  and  snapped  in  two,  and  thus  the
enterprise  for  that  time  failed.

New  arrangements  were  soon  made,  and  on  a  scale
of  greater  magnitude  ;  and  the  telegraph  was
opened  ;  the  opening  and  closing  prices  of  the
funds  in  Paris  were  known  on  the  London  stock
exchange  within  business  hours,  and  guns  were
fired at  Dover  by  communication  from Calais,

13  Nov.  1851

Duplex  Telegraphy — two  messages  transmitted  along
a  single  wire  at  the  same  time  in  opposite  direc-
tions first  accomplished  by  Dr.  Gintl,  Austrian,
1853  ;  by  Messrs.  Siemens,  1857 ;  in  the  same
direction,  by  Stark,  of  Vienna,  1855 ;  apparatus
perfected  by  Stearns,  an  American  ;  applied  to
British  telegraphs 1873

Quadruplex  Telegraphy — four  messages  along  one
wire ;  successful  experiments  between  London
and  Liverpool 25  Sept. 1877

Mr.  T.  E.  Edison's  quadruplex  instrument,  by
which  four  messages,  two  from  each  end,  may  be
transmitted  upon  one  wire  simultaneously,  and
professor  Delaney's  synchronous  multiplex  instru-
ment by  which  six  messages  may  be  so  trans-
mitted on  one  wire,  were  exhibited  at  the  Post
Office  Jubilee  Fete 2  July,  1890


Communications  complete  between  Dover  and  Os-
tend  and  between  Portpatrick  and  Donaghadee,

May,  1853
Holyhead  and  Howth .... June,  1854

Paris  and  Bastia Nov. ,,

London  and  Constantinople .  . May,  1858

Cromer  and  Emden ,,

Aden  and  Suez May,  1859

Malta  and  Alexandria ....  28  Sept. 1861

England  and  Bombay,  opened  . . .1  March,  1865
Marsala,  Sicily,  and  La  Calle,  Algeria . 21  June, ,.


Over-house  electric  telegraphs  (first  erected  at  Paris)
set  up  between  their  premises  in  the  City  and
West-end  by  Messrs.  Waterlow,  in  1857,  extended
throughout  Loudon 1859-73

House's  printing  telegraph,  1846 ;  Bain's  electro-
chemical telegraph,  1846  ;  Hughes's  system,  1855;
the  American  combination  system  (of  the  pre-
ceding), which  can  convey  2000  words  an  hour,
adopted  by  the American  telegraph  company,

Jan.  1859

Wheatstone's  automatic  printing  telegraph  pa-
tented i860

It  was  stated  that  there  were  in  work  15,000  miles  of
electric  telegraph  wire  in  Great  Britain ;  80,000  on
the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  48,000  in  America  ;
and  altogether  about  150,000  miles  laid  down  in
the  world July,  1862

Bonelli's  typo-electric  telegraph,  made  known  and
company  established,  i860  ;  and  tried  between
Liverpool  and  Manchester,  1863  ;  promised  revival,

June,  1864

An  "electric  telegraph  "  conference,  at  which  16
states  (not  Great  Britain)  were  represented,  met
at  Paris  (16  states  represented),  see  Telegraph

March,  1865

The  Telegraph  Act  (see  Telegraph)  passed 31  July,  1868

It  enabled  H.M.'s  postmaster-general  to  acquire,
work,  and  maintain  electric  telegraphs  ;  postal
telegraphy  began 5  Feb. 1872

Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  established,  28  Feb. 1872

Result  of  the  "  Derby  "  race  sent  to  Calcutta  in  five
minutes 24  May,  1871

Statue  of  Morse  at  New  York  uncovered, 10  June, ,,

Messages  rise  from  6,000,000  to  20,000,000  a  year .  1875

The  "  shilling  telegraph  "  said  not  to  pay . July, ,,

A  new  international  telegraphic  convention  came
into  operation 1  Jan.  1876

Direct  line  between  New  Zealand  and  London,
completed  18  Feb.  ;  communication  between  lord
mayor  and  mayors  of  Wellington  and  Dunedin,

23  Feb. „

Atlantic  Telegraph.  A  plan  to  unite  Europe
and  America  by  telegraph  was  entered  at  the
government  registration  office  in  June,  1845,  by
Mr.  J.  Watkins  Brett  and  Mr.  Jacob  Brett,  who
made  proposals  to  the  government,  which  were
not  accepted.  This  plan  was  attempted  to  be
carried  out  by  a  company  in  1857  and  1858,  with
the  concurrence  of  the  British  and  American
governments.

2500  miles  of  wire  were  manufactured,  and  tested  in

March,  1857

The  laying  it  down  commenced  at  Valentia,  in
Ireland  on 5  Aug. ,,

The  vessels  employed  were  the  Niagara  and  Susque-
hanna, (American  vessels),  and  the  Leopard  and
Agamemnon  (British  vessels).  After  sailing  a  few
miles  the  cable  snapped.  This  was  soon  repaired  ;
but  on  11  Aug.  after  300  miles  of  wire  had  been
paid  out,  it  snapped  again  (and  the  vessels
returned  to  Plymouth) . . . n  Aug. ,,

A  second  attempt  to  lay  the  cable  failed  through  a
violent  storm,  .... 20-21  June,  1858

The  third  voyage  was  successful.  The  junction
between  the  two  continents  was  completed  by  the
laying  down  of  2050  miles  of  wire  from  Valentia,
in  Ireland,  to  Newfoundland.  The  first  two
messages,  on  5  Aug.,  were  from  the  queen  of
England  to  the  president  of  the  United  St.-iles,
and  his  reply 5  Aug. ,,

This  event  caused  great  rejoicing  in  both  countries  ;
but,  unfortunately,  the  insulation  of  the  wire
gradually  became  more  faulty,  and  the  power
of transmitting intelligence utterly  ceased on

4  Sept. „


ELECTRICITY


326


ELECTRICITY.


A  new  company  was  formed i860

The  Great  Eastern  steamer,  engaged  to  lay  down
2300  miles  of  wire,  with  25,000  tons  burden,  sailed
for  Valentia,  Ireland,  from  the  Thames,  com-
manded by  capt.  Anderson,  accompanied  by  pro-
fessor Wm.  Thomson  and  Mr.  Cromwell  F.
Ifarley,  to  superintend  the  paying  out  the  cable,

15  July,  1865
After  connecting  the  wire  with  the  land,  the  Great

Eastern  sailed  from  Valentia  .  .  23  July,  ,,
Telegraphic  communication  with  the  vessel  (inter-
rupted by  two  faults,  clue  to  defective  insulation,
caused  by  pieces  of  metal  pressed  into  the  gutta-
percha coating,  which  were  immediately  repaired)
finally  ceased  on  2  Aug.  The  apparatus  for
raising  the  wire  proving  insufficient,  the  vessel
returned,  and  arrived  at  the  Medway  19  Aug.  ,,
Atlantic  telegraph  company  reconstituted  as  the
Anglo-American telegraph company limited,

March,  1866
The  Great  Eastern,  with  a  new  cable,  sailed  from
the  Medway,  30  June  ;  the  shore-end  at  Valentia
was  spliced  with  the  main  cable,  and  the  Great
Eastern  sailed,  13  July  ;  1200  miles  of  cable  had
been  laid,  22  July  ;  the  cable  was  completely  laid
at  Heart's  Content,  Newfoundland,  and  a  message
sent  to  lord  Stanley,  27  July  ;  message  from  the
queen  to  president  of  the  United  States  sent,  28
July,  "  From  the  queen,  Osborne,  to  the  presi-
dent of  the  United  States,  Washington.  The
queen  congratulates  the  president  on  the  success-
ful completion  of  an  undertaking  which  she  hopes
may  serve  as  an  additional  bond  of  union  between
the  United  States  and  England. " To  which  he

replied 30  July, „

The  lost  cable  of  1865  recovered,  2  Sept.  ;  and  its

laying  completed  at  Newfoundland  .  8  Sept.  ,,
The  Great  Eastern  arrived  at  Liverpool .  19  Sept.  ,,
Messrs.  Samuel  Canning,  Daniel  Gooch,  and  capt.

Anderson  knighted Oct. ,,

[It  was  stated  (in  Sept.  1866)  that  the  engineer  of
the  cable  passed  signals  through  3700  miles  of
wire  by  means  of  a  battery  formed  in  a  lady's
thimble.]
The  U.  S.  congress  voted  a  gold  medal  to  Cyrus
Field,  for  his  exertions  connected  with  Atlantic

telegraphs 7  March,  1867

At  a  dinner  given  to  Cyrus  Field  at  Willis's  Rooms,
London,  telegraphic  messages  were  exchanged
between  the  company  and  lord  Monck,  viceroy
of  Canada  and  president  Johnson  .  1  July,  1S68
French  Atlantic  Telegraph  company  formed ;  French
government  grant  concession  for  20  years,  from
1  Sept.  1869,  to  Julius  Renter  and  baron  Emile

d'Erlangen 8  July, „

Anglo-Danish  telegraph  (Newbiggin  to  Copenhagen)

completed 31  Aug. ,,

European  end  of  the  French  Atlantic  cable  laid  at
Brest,  17  June  ;  the  American  end  at  Duxbury,

Massachusetts 23  July,  1869

Reported  union  between  the  Anglo-American  and

French  Atlantic  telegraph  companies . Jan.  1870
Telegraph  between  Bombay  and  Suez  completed . ,,
Telegraph between Adelaide and Port  Darwin,

Australia,  completed . . . .22  Aug.  1872
Message  from  the  mayor  of  Adelaide  received  by
the lord mayor of London, and replied to,

21  Oct. ,,
The  fourth  Atlantic  telegraph cable  laid  by  the
Great  Eastern,  from  Valentia,  Ireland,  to  Heart's
Content,  Newfoundland . . 8  June-3  July,  1873
The  Brazil  telegraph  cable  completely  laid,  22  Sept. „
"Faraday,"  a  great  electric  cable  ship,  built  for
Siemens  Brothers,  launched  at  Newcastle  (see
Steam), 17  Feb.  ;  sails  to  lay  the  "  Direct  United
States  Company's"  cable,  16  May;  laid  shore-end  '
in Nova  Scotia,  31 May ; in New  Hampshire,
8  June  ;  connected  with  Newfoundland,  July . 1874
The sixth  Anglo-American  telegraph  laid  by  the

Great  Eastern Aug. -Sept. ,,

E.  A.  Gowper's  Writing  telegraph:  quick  plain  writ-
ing (36  miles),  exhibited  at  Royal  Institution,  &c.
[an  improved  one  by  J.  Hart  Robertson  exhibited

in  London,  1887] May,  1879

South  African  line  laid  between  Mozambique  and
Natal,  23  Aug.;  connected  witli  Capetown  ;  tele-


grams sent  by  the  queen  to  sir  Bartle  Frere  and
others,  25  Dec.  ;  opened  to  the  public 29  Dec.  1879

The  new  French  Transatlantic  Cable  to  be  laicl  from.
Brest  to  St.  Pierre  by  the  Faraday,  sailed  June ;
connected  with  Halifax,  Oct.  1879 ;  line  from
Paris  to  New  York_opened . . .1  June,  1880

International  Congress  of  Electricians  opened  at
Paris,  15  Sept.  ;  exhibition . 11  Aug. -20  Nov.  1881

New  Atlantic  Cable  laid  by  the  Faraday 22  Aug.

el  seq. ,,

Telegraph from England to  Panama  completed

Sept.  1882

International  Sub-marine  Conference,  Paris,  16  Oct. ,,

Cromwell  Fleetwood  Varley,  electrical  engineer,
who  patented  many  inventions,  died . 2  Sept.  1883

International  Conference  for  protection  of  sub-
marine cables,  Paris,  closed  ;  convention  agreed
to,  26  Oct.  1883;  signed  at  London,  14  March ;
signed  for  26  states  at  London,  at  Paris  26  March,
1884;  another  conference  ....  1  Dec.  1886

International  Electro-Technical  congress  at  Frank  -
fort-on-Maine,  opened .... 8  Sept.  1891

Electrical  exhibition  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  near
London,  opened 9  Jan.  1892

Electrical  Exhibition  at  St.  Petersburg,  opened

23  Jan. ,,

The  Volta,  an  electric  launch  (37  feet  long,  7  feet
beam)  built  of  steel,  constructed  by  Messrs.
Stephens,  Smith  &  Co.  of  Millwall,  designed  by
Mr.  A.  Rcckenzaun,  crossed  from  Dover  to  Calais
and  back  by  means  of  one  charge  of  the  accumu-
lators ;  about  4  hours  crossing  . . 13  Sept.  1886

Electric  boat  for  communicating  light  to  powder
houses,  &c.  ;  invented  by  Thomas  Webb ;
launched  at  Waltham  Abbey  ... . Aug. „

Arrangements  invented  for  transmitting  telegraphic
messages  from  railway  trains  in  motion  without
contact  with  the  ordinary  wires . . . 1S87

A  central  laboratory  of  electricity  inaugurated  at
Grenelle,  Paris,  by  the  International  society  of
electricians 1888

Electric  omnibus  invented  by  Mr.  Radcliffe  Ward,
running  in  London Feb.  1889

Messrs.  Moore  &,  Wright  announce  their  column
printing  telegraph  in  which  messages  are  pro-
duced resembling  type  writing  .- . . April „

The  Metropolitan  electric  supply  company  pro-
pose six  central  stations,  W.  &  W.C. . April ,,

Electric  Clock,  &c.  Professor  Wheatstone  in-
vented an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  clock  in
1840.  Clocks  worked  by  electricity,  invented  by
Mr.  Alexander  Bain,  Mr.  Shepherd,  and  others,
appeared  in  the  exhibition  of  1851.  An  electric
clock,  with  four  dials,  illuminated  at  night,  was
set  up  for  some  time  in  front  of  the  office  of  the
electric  telegraph  company,  in  the  Strand,  Lon-
don, July,  1852.  A  time-ball  was  set  up  by  Mr.
French,  in  Cornhill,  in  1856.  In  i860,  Mr.  C.  V.
Walker  so  connected  the  clock  of  the  Greenwich
observatory  with  that  of  the  South-eastern  station,
London,  that  they  could  be  controlled  by  elec-
tricity.

Electric  Light.

Humphry  Davy  produced  electric  light  with  carbon
points 1S00

Apparatus  for  regulating  the  electric  light  were
devised  in  1846,  and  shown  by  W.  Staite's  patents,
1846,  1849  ;  Staite  (at  Sunderland,  25  Oct.  1847),
and  Petrie  in  1848  ;  by  Foucault  soon  after.

Jules  Duboscq's  Electric  Lamp  (the  most  perfect  of
the  kind)  appeared  at  the  Paris  exhibition  in
1855  ;  and  was  first  employed  by  professor  Tyn-
dall,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  for  illus-
trating lectures  on  light  and  colours . . . 1856

The  works  of  new  Westminster  bridge  were  illumi-
nated by  Watson's  electric,  light . . . . 185S

M.  Serrin,  of  Paris,  exhibited  his  improved  electric
lamp 1862

The  Magneto-Electric  light  (the  most  brilliant  artifi-
cial light  yet  produced),  devised  by  Prof.  Holmes,
successfully  tried  at  the  South  Foreland  light-
house, Dover 1858  and  1859

The  French  government  ordered  eight  lighthouses
to  be  illuminated  by  electric  light .  .  April,  1861

Electric  Candle,  invented  by  Paul  Jablochkoff  (an
electric  current  passed  through  two  carbons  side


ELECTRICITY.


327


ELECTEICITY.


by  side  with  a  slip  of  kaolin  between  them,  pro-
•duces  a  steady,  soft,  noiseless  light ;  the  carbons
'burn  like  wax) ;  reported  to  the.  Academy  of
Sciences,  Paris,  by  M.  Denayrouze . .  Oct.

'-The  electric  light  successfully  employed  for  photo-
graphy by  Mr.  H.  Van  der  Weyde

lHead,  Wrightson,  &  Co.,  of  Stockton-on-Tees,  use
Siemens'  electric  light  for  bridge  building .

.At  the  Magasin  du  Louvre,  8  electric  lights  replaced
ioo  Carcel  gas-burners  ;  as  manageable  as  coal
gas  supply  ;  tried  at  West  India  docks 15  June,

'Tyndall's  experiments  at  S.  Foreland,  demonstrate

superiority  of  Siemens'  dynamo-electric  machine,

Aug.  1 870- July,

•Gramme's  machine  (light  equal  to  758  candles)

-■Serrin's  and  Jablochkoff's  lights  improved  by  Ra-
pieff,  a  Russian  ;  taken  up  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed,
M.P. ;  a  small  magneto-electric  machine,  worked
by  steam  ;  conducting  wires  replace  the  gasworks
and  pipes July,

3Ir.  Stayton  reports,  that  the  light  is  much  dearer
than  gas,  and  not  suitable  for  street  lighting  in
London Sept.

Electric  light  tried  at  Westminster  palace,  28  March,

Two  of  Siemens' dynamo- magneto-electric  machines
ordered  for  the  Lizards  lighthouses  . . .

'The  Gaiety  theatre  lit  by  light  from  Lontin's
machine  and  modification  of  Jablochkoff's Aug.

iHippolyte  Fontaine's  treatise  on  Electric  Lighting,
1877  ;  translated  by  Paget  Higgs,  published

Mr.  T.  E.  Edison  announces  at  New  York  his  dis-
covery of  a  method  of  producing  a  great  number
of  lights  and  much  mechanical  power  from  a
Ritchie  inductive  coil,  a  dynamo-electric  machine,
which  he  terms  "  telemachon,"  which  may  be
worked  by  water-power  or  steam  ;  this  causes  a
panic  among  gas  companies  in  London,  and  de-
pression in  value  of  shares . . Sept.,  Oct.

JEdison's  plans  of  subdividing  lights  filed  at  patent
office 23  Oct.

National  Electric  Light  company  forming Nov.

Richard  Werdermann's  electric  light  subdivided  ;  a
number  of  jets  lit  simultaneously  ;  shown  by
British  telegraph  company . . .2  Nov.

.Electric  light  used  for  large  workshops  at  Woolwich,
&c,  throughout  the  country -. . . Nov.

Times  machine-room  lit  by  six  lights  from  one  cur-
rent;  Rapieff  system . . . . Oct. -Nov.

'Three  systems  trying  at  New  York  by  Edison,
Sawyer,  and  Brush Nov.

Wallace  lamp  (American),  introduced  by  Mr.  Ladd,

autumn,

-Jabloehkoff  candle  tried  at  Westgate-on-Sea,  by  Mr.
E.  F.  Davis,  2-26  Dec. ;  light  successful ;  diffi-
culty in  practice ;  given  up . . . Dec.

.Formation  of  nitric  acid  in  the  air  by  electric  light ;
announced  by  Mr.  T.  Wills,  13  Dec.  1878  ;  of
hydro-cyanic  or  prussic  acid  by  prof.  J.  Dewar,

autumn,

■Machines  of  Fanner  <fe  Wallace,  Lontin,  De  Meri-
tens,  Browning,  Carre,  and  others  in  use  in  Lon-
don

"Light  given  tip  at  Billingsgate  market,  about  30  Jan.

.Siemens'  light  successful  at  the  Albert  Hall,  13  Feb.

.Edison  obtains  beautiful  light  from  platinum  which
fuses  ;  used  600-horse  power  to  obtain  20,000
lights  at  one  station ;  failure  announced,  March  ;
his  patent  registered . . . -23  April,

Exhibition  of  lights  at  Royal  Albert  Hall  opened
by  the  prince  of  Wales  .... 7  May,

M.  Jantin's  electric  candle  exhibited  at  Academy  of
Sciences,  Paris  . . . about  17  March,

A  continuous  current  dynamo -magneto-electric
machine  patented  by  lord  Elphinstone  and  C.  W.
Vincent  (since  improved)

A.  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  appointed
"  to  consider  whether  it  is  desirable  to  authorize
municipal  corporations  or  other  local  authorities
to  adopt  any  schemes  for  lighting  by  electricity  "
(Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  chairman),  reports  :  "  The
energy  of  one-horse  power  may  lie  converted  into
gaslight,  and  yields  a  luminosity  equal  to  12-candle
power.  But  the  same  amount  of  energy  trans-
formed into  electric  light  produces  1,600-candle
power.  .  .  .  Scientific  witnesses  considered  that
in  the  future  the  eleetric  current  might  be  exten-
sively used  to  transmit  power  as  well  as  light  to
considerable  distances,  so  that  the  power  applied


1876


1877


to  mechanical  purposes  during  the  day  might  lie
made  available  for  light  during  the  night.  .  .  .
There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the
electric  light  has  established  itself  for  lighthouse
illumination,  and  is  fitted  to  illumine  large  sym-
metrical places,  such  as  squares,  public  halls,
railway  stations,  and  workshops.  .  .  .  Compared
with  gas,  the  economy  for  equal  illumination  does
not  yet  appear  to  be  conclusively  established.
.  .  .  Gas  companies,  in  the  opinion  of  your  com-
mittee, have  no  special  claims  to  be  considered
as  the  future  distributors  of  electric  light  .  .  .
Your  committee,  however,  do  not  consider  that
the  time  has  yet  arrived  to  give  general  powers  to
private  electric  companies  to  break  up  the  streets,
unless  by  consent  of  the  local  authorities." —
Times 19  June,

Electric  light  placed  on  Thames  Embankment,  in
British  Museum,  at  Victoria  Station,  &c. Dec.

System  of  C.  F.  Brush  (American),  exhibited  in  Lon-
don, said  to  be  simple  and  trustworthy 23  Dec.

Dr.  C.  William  Siemens  reports  to  Royal  Society,
that  electric  light  acts  like  solar  light  on  vegeta-
tion 2  March,

Electric  lights  set  up  for  trial  on  Thames  Embank-
ment, north  side  (Jabloehkoff  system),  13  Dec.
1878  ;  Waterloo  Bridge,  10  Oct.  1879  ;  continued,

April,

Mr.  J.  W.  Swan  exhibits  his  system  of  dividing  light,
&c,  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (aft.  in  London)  20  Oct.

Trial  of  three  systems  in  London  :  Lontin's,  South-
wark  bridge,  <fee. ;  Brush,  Blackfriars' bridge,  &c. ;
Siemens',  Guildhall,  &c.  . . 3iMarch,  :

Swan's  incandescent  lamp  set  up  in  Earnoek
colliery,  Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  9  Aug.;  also  in
the  Savoy  Theatre,  London,  successfully,  opened

10  Oct.

Godalming  lit  by  electric  light  produced  by  water
wheels  driven  by  the  Wey,  Sept. ;  reported  suc-
cessful 15  Dec.

Junior  Carlton  Club  first  lit  by  the  electric  accu-
mulator 16  Sept.

New  lamp  (the  sun)  by  Louis  Clerc,  a  combination
of  the  arc  and  incandescent  systems . June,  i

The  electric  "  sun  "  lamp  and  power  company  was
formed July,

Eleetric  lighting  act  passed . . . . 18  Aug.

The  Ferranti  system  of  electric  lighting  (invented
by  Sir  William  Thomson,  Mr.  S.  Ziani  de  Ferranti,
and  Mr.  Alfred  Thomson)  successfully  tried,  Dec.

International  electrical  and  gaslight  exhibition  at
the  Crystal  Palace  opened . . -13  Dec.

Electric  light  applied  by  Bell  Brothers,  Newcastle,
to  their  mines Dec.

Elphinstone  and  Vincent  machine  advertised  for
sale

Mr.  J.  E.  H.  Gordon's  great  dynamo  machine  ex-
hibited at  Woolwich .... 25  Oct.

Messrs.  G.  C.  V.  Holmes,  F.  E.  Burke,  and  F
Cheesewright's  invention  for  the  use  of  the  elec-
tric light  in  railways  tried  on  Great  Northern  line,
reported  successful  ....  25  Oct.

St.  Matthew's  Church,  Brixton,  lit  by  electricity

28  Oct.  .

Gaulard-Gibbs'  system  of  secondary  generators
announced  April ;  inaugurated  on  the  Metro-
politan railway Nov.

H.  T.  Baruett's  secondary  battery  tried  at  the
Great  Western  station . . . Oct.  et  seq.

Mr.  O.  C.  D.  Ross's  improved  galvanic  battery  for
light  and  motion iS

Up  ward's  primary  battery  (an  advance) ;  use  of  acid
dispensed  with July,

Schanschieffs  primary  battery ;  applicable  to
lighting,  miners'  lamps  &c. . . autumn

Domestic  electric  Lighting  by  the  Beemau,  Taylor
and  King  system  tried  at  Colchester n  June,

Electric  light  employed  in  Liverpool  and  Man-
chester trains Aug.

Electric  lighting  successful  at  the  Fisheries,  1883,
and  Health  exhibitions.

Brighton  successfully  lit  by  the  Hammond-Wright
sytsem  ;  described Nov.

The  Ellison  &  Swan  united  electric  lighl  company
y.  Woodhouse  &  Rawson  fur  infringemenl  of
patent  for  carbon  filaments;  verdict  fur  plaintiffs

20  May,

Affirmed  on  appeal,judge  Cotton  dissentient  31  Jan.


1887


ELECTRICITY.


328


ELECTRICITY.


Kensington & Knightsbridge electric lighting

company's  first  station  opened . .  . Jan.  1887
Mr.  Edison's  "  tyro-Magnetic  "  dynamo,  in  which
heat is directly transformed into electricity
without the intervention of steam-engine or
other  machinery, announced  to  the  American

association Sept ,,

Due  de  Feltre's  suggestion  for  the  employment  of
windmills  to  produce  electric  light  by  working
dynamo  machines  ;  experiments  made  at  Cap  de

la  Heve Sept. „

Mr.  Urquhart's  new  portable  electric  lamp,  weighing
4  lb.  2  oz.,  adapted  for  coal  mines,  &c.  ;  exhibited

in  London Dec. ,,

Proposal  to  light  part  of  the  city  by  the  Anglo-
American  Brush  system  submitted  to  the  com-
missioners of  sewers,  deferred . . 21  Feb.  1888
Electric  light  only  in  theatres  in  Spain,  ordered  by

royal  decree 31  March, ,,

The  Edison  &  Swan  united  electric  light  company
v.  Holland  and  others  ;  21  days'  trial ;  divided
verdict,  Edison's  patent  of  1879  declared  invalid.
Cheeseborough  patent  of  1878  maintained  16  July,
1888. Edison's  patent  declared  valid  on  appeal,

18  Feb.  1889
Erection  by  the  London  electric  supply  corporation
of  works  at  Deptford  to  supply  the  metropolis

with  electric  light, 1888

The  house-to-house  electric  supply  company  founded

1888  ;  the  first  station  at  West  Brompton  opened

24 Jan., about  nine  stations established and

others  in  preparation .... Feb.  1889

The  city  of  London  from  Fleet  street  to  Aldgate

about  to  be  electrically  lighted . . Feb. „
The  electric  light  had  been  adopted  at  Milan,  Rome,
Paris,  Tours, Marseilles,  New  York  and  other
great  cities  up  to . . . . . June,  1890
Fourteen companies have been established to
supply  electricity  in  the  Metropolis  alone  up  to

Feb.  1891
The  first  permanent  electric  lights  in  the  city  of
London  set  up  in  Queen  Victoria  street  from 'the
Mansion-house  to  Blackfriars . . summer, ,,
Electric  light  extension  acts  brought  in,  . .  1892

Electric  Loom.  M.  Bonelli,  of  Turin,  in  1854,  de-
vised a  plan  of  employing  magnets  and  electro-
magnets in  weaving,  thereby  superseding  the
tedious  and  costly  Jaequard  system  of  cards.
His  loom  was  set  up  in  London  in  1859,  ancl  ^e0"
tured  upon  at  the  Royal  Institution  By  professor

Faraday 8  June,  i860

Electric  Pen  (for  copying,  &c),  invented  by  Mr.
T.  Edison,  an  American  ;  an  electric  writing  com-
pany was  established  ;  active  in . . . 1877-8
Lamp-lighting  by  Electricity. —Mr.  St.  George  Lane
Fox's  invention  tried  at  Fulham,  and reported
successful,  autumn  1S77  ;  doubtful . . .  1879
Electrophone, nvented  by  Br.  Strethill  Wright,
for  producing  sound  by  electric  currents  of  high
tension: one  laid before the Royal Scottish
Society  of  Arts. See  Telephone . .  25  April,  1864
Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street,
London,  patented  inventions  by  which  engravings
may  be copied  from engraved  plates,  and  the
engraving itself actually produced, by elec-
trical agency, and  one  process  he  termed  gly-

phography l84J

Electro-Type  or  Beposit.  Mr.  W.  Cruikshank's
experiments,  1800;  Mr.  Spencer,  in  England,
and  professor  Jacobi,  in  Russia,  made  the
first  successful  experiments  in  this  art  in  1837
and  1838.  Since  then,  Mr.  A.  Smee  and  others
have  perfected  the  processes.  In  1840,  Mr.  Rob
Murray  applied  black-lead  to  non-metallic  bodies
as  a  conducting  surface.  In  1840,  Mr.  Ruolz  and
Mr.  Elkington  applied  it  to  gilding  and  silver
plating.  Since  1850,  printing  types  and  wood-
cuts, and  casts  from  them,  have  been  electrotyped
with  copper,  and  the  process  is  now  largely
adopted  in  the  arts.
Messrs.  C.  Wheatstone  and  F.  A.  Abel  experiment  on

the  application  of  electricity  to  military  purposes.  1861
An  Electric  safety  lamp  made  by  MM.  Dumas  and

Benoit ;  exhibited  at  Paris . . .8  Sept. 1862
The  Electro-block  company  established,  i860  ;  by
their  processes  the  enlargement  and  reduction  of
engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be
immediately  transferred  to  a  lithographic  stone


and  multiplied. Leech's  engravings,  so  enlarged,,
were  coloured  by  himself,  and  exhibited  in  -  rS.62:

Ozone,  generated  by  a  current  produced  by
Wild's  magneto-electric  machine,  employed  to
bleach  sugar,  at  Whitechapel  (Edward  Beaiae's

patent) Aug.  1868;

Electric  furnace,  formed  in  the  electric  arc,  by  C.
ffm.  Siemens,  fuses  platinum,  iridium,  etc.,  shown
at  Royal  Institution . . . .12  March,  1880
Electric  light  applied  by  him  to  grow  vegetables

and  fruit  in  greenhouses ,,

The  electric  welding  syndicate  exhibit  at  Hoxton,
Professor  Elihu  Thomson's  process  of  welding
metals by  electricity  (discovered  in  1887, and

shown  in  New  York) Jan.  189a

Machines  at  work  at  Crewe . . . April, ,,
Electric Railway by Werner Siemens and

Halske,  opened  near  Berlin . . 12  May,  188s:
Siemens'  motive  machines  6  inches  square,  2  inches
deep  ;  Tissandier's  electr'cally  propelled  balloon;
Menier's  ploughing  machine, 11 Aug.  ; electric
tramway  set  up  in  Paris . . . Aug. ,„
Siemens' new electric railway  tired at Berlin

about  7  Nov. ,,,
Irternational  electrical  exhibition,  Crystal  Palace,
completed,  inaugurated  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,
25  Feb.  ;  closed  ....  3  June,  1882

First  electric  tramway  cars  run  at  Leytoitstoiie,

Essex 4  March ,,

New  electric  railway  opened  at  Berlin  . 1  May, ,,.
Electric  congress  at  Paris  opened . .11  Oct. ,,.
A  boat  ("  Electricity  ")  with  screw-propeller  moved
by  power, provided by  electric accumulators
(built  by  the  Electrical  Storage  Company),  sails
from  Miilwall  to  London  Bridge . 28  Sept. ,,.
Siemens'  electrical  tramway  between  Portrush  and
Giant's  Causeway  completed,  Dec.  1882 ;  opened

by  earl  Spencer 28  Sept.  1883

Electric  tramcars  first  run  from  Kew  to  Hammer-
smith 10  Mar. „

Electrical exhibition  at Westminster  Aquarium

opened 14  Mar. ,„

International electric exhibition at Vienna

16  Aug.-3  Nov. ,,

Electric  exhibition  at  Philadelphia  opened,  8  Sept.  1884

Electrical  transmission  of  force ;  M.  Marcel  Deprez

experiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by

M.  Rothschild,  reported  successful : — mechanical

power transmitted 35 miles for industrial

purposes 23  July,  1886

Elieson  company's  electric  engines  reported  suc-
cessful at  Stratford  ;  tramcars  driven  five  miles

Oct.  et  seq. ,.,
Electrical  traction on tramways at  Northfleet ;

successful  demonstration . . .14  March, ,,
Successful  trial  of  an electric  trarncar  on  a  new

principle,  at  Birmingham ... 23  Oct.  1889
Mr. M. Immisch's  electric  motors  employed  suc-
cessfully in  pumping  and  hauling  at  St.  John's
colliery,  Normanton  and  other  places . Nov. ,,
The  City  &  South  London  Electric  Railway  opened
by  the  prince  of  Wales  4  Nov.,  to  the  public,

18  Dec.  189a
Mr.  Nickola  Tesla,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  ex-
hibited his  alternate-current  electric  motor,  by
which  currents  are  transformed  by  rapidly  chang-
ing their  direction  to  and  fro  into  mechanical
power.  It  was  stated  that,  with  the  increase  of
physical  power,  the  effect  upon  the  human  frame

is  diminished 3,  4  Feb. 1892

[By  means  of  Mr.  Tesla's  apparatus,  the  force  of
about  777  horse  power  was  transmitted  from  the
rapids  of  the  Neckar  to  Frankfort-on-Maine,  no.
miles,  Sept.  1891.]  See  Niagara.
Electro-Physiology.  Aristotle  and  Pliny  refer
to  the  powers  of  the  torpedo ;  Walsh  and
Ingenhouss,  the  discoveries  of  Galvani  in  1790,
and  the  researches  of  Matteucci  about  1830,  have
greatly  advanced  the  science.
Fowler  experimented  on  animals  with  galvanism,
1793  ;  and  Aldini,  1796,  who  produced  muscular
contractions  ina  criminal  recently  executed,  1803;

Ure  did  the  same 181S

Du  Bois  Reymond  lectured  on  animal  electricity  at
the  Royal  Institution,  and  showed  the  existence
of  an  electric  current,  developed  by  action  of  the
human  muscles,  in May,  1.855


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  ACT.


329


ELEPHANT.


Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson  announced  his  discovery  of
electricity  in  plants  to  the  British  Association  at
Bradford Sept.  1873

Executions  hy  electricity,  see  under  Death.

ELECTEIC  LIGHTING  ACT,  45  &  46

Vict.  c.  56,  passed  18  Aug.  18S2.  Amendment
act  passed  1888  (extending  the  monopoly  of  electric
light  companies  from  21  to  42  years).  Regulations
of  the  Board  of  Trade  published  18  May,  1889.

ELECTEOLYSIS,  see  Electricity,  p.  324.

ELEGY.  Elegiac  verse  (consisting  of  a  hexa-
meter and  pentameter  alternately)  was  the  first
variation  from  the  hexameter  or  epic  measure,  used
by  Tyrtaeus  and  other  early  poets.  The  elegies  of
Ovid  and  Catullus  are  celebrated.  Gray's  "  Elegy,
written  in  a  country  churchyard,"  was  published
in  1749.

ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION ACT,

33  &  34  Vict.  c.  75,  passed  9  Aug.  1870  ;  amended
in  1872.  Clause  25,  which  authorizes  payments  to
support  denominational  schools,  much  objected  to
by  dissenters ;  bill  to  repeal  it  rejected  by  the
commons  (373-128),  10  June,  1874.  Another  act
(for  agricultural  districts,  &c.,)  brought  in  by  lord
Sandon,  18  May,  1876;  royal  assent,  15  Aug.  1876.
Another  combining  act  passed  5  Aug.  1891.  See
Education.

ELEMENTS  were  formerly  reckoned  as  four:
earth,  air,  lire  and  water.  Lavoisier  enunciated
the  principle  that  all  bodies  which  cannot  be
proved  to  be  compounded  are  elements,  and  to  be
treated  as  such.  Mr.  W.  Crookes,  F.R.S.,  in  a
lecture  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  by  delicate
experiments  demonstrated  that  yttrium  is  a  com-
pound body,  and  expounded  a  theory  that  all  the
elements  have  been  evolved  from  what  he  termed
Protyle,  18  Feb.  1887.  Above  twelve  new  elements
said  to  have  been  discovered  in  rare  earths  by  MM.
Kriiss  and  Nilson  by  the  spectroscope  in  1887.
Mr.  Crookes  declared  Didymium  to  be  a  compound
body.  See  Table,  and  separate  articles.  The
chemical  elements  were  stated  to  be  about  77
in  1881.*

LIST OF  63 ELEMENTS, 1872 {OillilWJ).


._

Gold .

©

—

Silver .

• • I)

—

Mercury

9

—

Copper .

. • ?

—

. • 6

—

Tin

H

—

■ ■ h

1490.

Antimony

. . B.  Valentine.

1530-

Bismuth .

. Agricola  ?

1541-

Zinc

. . Paracelsus.

Carbon

—

Sulphur.

1669.

Phosphorus

. Brandt.

1702.

Borax,  boron .

. . Homberg.

J733-

(  Arsenic  |
\  Cobalt ) '

. G.  Brandt.

1741.

Platinum

. . Woods.

175*-

Nickel

. Cronstedt.

1  Soda  -ium

Potash
I  Lime

. .  \  Duhamel.

1736
to
1758

■  1  Marggraf.

.  /Bergmann,

Alumina

. . and

Ma.gnesia .

.)  Scheele.

1766.

Hydrogen

. . Cavendish.

1771.

Fluor  -ine  .

. Scheele.

j  772.

Nitrogen

. . Rutherford.

1778.

1 78 1.
1782.


1791.

J793-
1794.
1797.
1798.


1811.
1817,

i8"8.
1826.
1828,
1830.


1843-


*  Mr.  Joseph  Norman  Lockyer,  in  a  paper  read  at
the  Royal  Society,  12  Dec.  1878,  expressed  doubts  of  the
elementary  character  of  some  of  the  following  substances
based  on  his  spectroscopic  experiments.  His  views
were  not  supported  by  the  researches  of  professors  Dewar
and  Liveing,  1880-81. See  Chlorine.


Chlorine!  (doubtful>  see  I
cnioime-| chlorine) )

Oxygen

{Manganese

Baryta  -ium  .  . . .
Molybdenum

Tungsten .  . . .

Tellurium  .

f  Uranium .  . . .

\  Zirconia  -ium  .

Titanium .  . . .

Strontia  -ium

Yttria  -ium .  . . .
j  Chromium.

(  Gluclna  -um  .  . . .

Tantalum .  . . .

Cerium

(  Palladium .  . . .

\  Rhodium .  . . .
I  Iridium .

( Osmium .  . . .

Iodine .

Lithium .  . . ,

Selenium .  . . .

Cadmium .  . . .

Bromine .  . . .

Thorinum .  . . .

Vanadium  .

Lanthanum .  . . .

Didymium

Erbium

Ruthenium

Niobium .  . . .

Csesium .  . . .

Rubidium .  . . .

Thallium .  . . .

Indium .  . . .

Gallium .  . . .


■  Klaproth.


Scheele.

Priestley.
Gahn.

Scheele.

Delhuart.
M  tiller.

Gregor.

Hope.

Gadolin.


>  Vauquelin.

Hatchett.
Klaproth.

j-  Wollaston.

|_  Descotils  &  SmithsoR
j  Temiant.

Courtois.

Aifwedson.

Berzelius.

Stromeyer.

Balard.

Berzelius.

Sefstrom.

VMosander.

Claus.
H.  Rose.

!■  Bunsen.


Crookes.
Reich  and  Richter
Lecoq  de  Boisbau-
dran.


1877-


1879.


Davyum  (?)  .

. . Kern.

Neptunium

. Hermann.

Ilmenium(V)

Philippium

. Delafontaine.

Norwegium

. . Tellef  Dahll.

Mosandruin  (?)  .

. Lawrence  Smith

Decipium  (?)

. . Delafontaine.

Scandium  (?)

Ytterbium  (?)

. . Marignac.

Holmium
Thulium

•  j-Soret.

Vesbium

. . Scacchi.

Germanium

ELEPHANT,  in  the  earliest  times  trained  to>
war.  The  history  of  the  Maccabees  informs  usr
that  "  to  every  elephant  they  appointed  IOOO  men
armed  with  coats  of  mail,  and  500  horse  :  and  upon
the  elephants  were  strong  towers  of  wood,  &c."  The-
elephants  in  the  army  of  Antiochus  were  provoked
to  fight  by  showing  them  the  "blood  of  grapes  and
mulberries."  The  first  elephant  said  to  have  been
seen  in  England  was  one  of  enormous  size,  presented
by  the  king  of  France  to  our  Henry  III.  in  1238.
Baker's  Chron.  Polyaenus  states  that  Caosar
brought  one  to  Britain  54  B.C.,  which  terrified  the
inhabitants  greatly.  See  Knighthood.  13  elephants-
in  lord  mayor's  procession,  9  Nov.  1876.

Chunce,  an  elephant  13  feet  high,  in  Cross's  menagerie,
Exeter  Change,  London,  becoming  dangerous,  was.
shot,  receiving  1S0  musket  balls  before  he  fell,  1  March,
1826.

A  young  elephant  brought  into  Court  of  Exchequer  to-
show  his  peaceful  character,  in  a  suit  for  damages  for
frightening  a  pony  at  the  Alexandra  Palace,  18  July,.
1879.

Barnum,  the  American  showman,  bought,  for  2,000.'.,
the  large  male  African  elephant  Jumbo,  6  tons  weight ,
of  the"  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park,  London.
Jumbo  re  (used  to  go  iS  Feb.  After  much  trouble  lie
was  removed  in  the  night,  22-23  March,  and  placed  in
the  Assyrian  Monarch,  24  March  ;  arrived  at  New
York,  9  April,  1882 ; killed on  the  railway,  15  Sept.


ELETJ.SINIAN  MYSTEEIES.


330


EMANUEL  HOSPITAL.


A  so-called  white  elephant  (little  differing  from  others),
named  Toung  Taloung,  bought  by  Mr.  Barnum  from
the  king  of  Siam,  arrived  at  Liverpool,  14  Jan.,  at
.Zoological  gardens,  London,  17  Jan.;  left  12  March,

i  -1884  ;  burnt  with  Alice,  "Jumbo's  wife  '  and  others  at
the  destruction  of  Mr.  Barnum's  show  and  menagerie
at  Bridjport,  U.S.  by  fire,  20  Nov.  1887.

•Joseph  Merrick,  deformed,  termed  the  "elephant  man,"
supported  at  the  London  hospital,  1886  et  seq.

^  ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES-  The  insti-
tution of  these  annual  secret  religious  ceremonies
in  honour  of  Demeter  (Ceres)  at  Athens,  is  tra-
ditionally attributed  to  Cadmus,  1550;  to  Erech-
ttheus,  1399;  or  to  Kumolpus,  1356  B.C.  If  any  one
•revealed  them,  he  was  to  be  put  to  death.  They
•were  introduced  from  Eleusis  into  Home,  lasted
about  1800  years,  and  were  abolished  by  Theodosius
-A.d.  389.  The  laws  were — 1.  To  honour  parents;
-2.  To  honour  the  gods  with  the  fruits  of  the  earth;
3.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty.  Cicero  makes
the  civilisation  of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial
•effects  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.

ELGIN"  MARBLES,  derived  chiefly  from  the
farthenon,  a  temple  of  Minerva,  on  the  Acropolis  at
Athens,  of  which  they  formed  part  of  the  frieze  and
pediment,  the  work  of  Phidias,  under  the  govern-
ment of  Pericles,  about  440  is.c.  Thomas  e  irl  of  Elgin
%egan  the  collection  of  these  marbles  during  his
•mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  1802 ;  and  from  him
they  were  purchased  by  the  British  government  for
.35,000/.  and  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  in  1816.
The  ship  conveying  them  was  wrecked  near  Cerigo,
and  Mr.  W.  R.  Hamilton,  who  was  on  board,  re-
trained several  months  at  Cerigo,  and  recovered
them  from  the  sea.

ELGUETA,  N.  Spain ;  near  here  the  Carlists
•defeated  the  republicans  under  gen.  Soma,  and
'took  600  prisoners,  5-6  Aug.  1873.

ELINGA,  W.  Spain.  Here  P.  Scipio  Africanus
totally  defeated  the  Carthigehians  under  Hasdrubal
Gisco,  which  led  to  their  expulsion  from  the  country ,
206  B.C.

ELIS,  a  Greek  state  termed  the  "  Hoi}'  Land,"
in  the  Peloponnesus,  founded  by  the  Heraclidse,
1 103  B.C.  Here  Iphitus  revived  the  Olympic  games,
584,  which  were  regularly  celebrated  after  Corcebus
rgained  the  prize  in  776.  Elis  surrendered  many
towns  to  the  Spartans  in  war,  400.  After  various
■changes,  Elis  joined  the  Achaean  league,  274;  and
with  the  rest  of  Greece  was  subjugated  by  the
Homans  in  146.

ELL  (so  named  from  ulna,  the  arm)  was  fixed  at
45  inches,  by  king  Henry  I.  in  1101.  The  old
French  ell,  or  aune,  was  46790  inches.

ELLISON  GALLERY.  In  April,  i860,
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Ellison  (in  conformity  with  the  wish
■of  her  deceased  husband,  Richard),  presented  to  the
South  Kensington  Museum  a  series  of  50  original
■water-colour  drawings,  by  the  first  masters.

ELLORA  or  ELORA,  Central  India  ;  remark-
able for  its  very  ancient  rock-cut  temple  ;  excavated
according  to  Hindoo  legends  nearly  7000  years  ago  ;
but  more  probably  about  800  a.d.  The  town  was
■ceded  to  the  British  by  Holkar  in  1818,  and  trans-
ferred by  them  to  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan  in  1822.

ELMINA,  and  Dutch  Guinea,  W.  Africa,
were  ceded  by  the  Dutch  government  by  treaty,
signed  Feb.  1872,  and  consolidated  with  "the  West
African  settlements;  first  governor,  Mr.  Pope  Hen-
messy,  April,  1872. See  Ashantecs.

EL-OBEID,  Battle  of,  3-5  Nov.  1S84.  See
Soudan.


ELOPEMENT.  A  wife  who  departs  from  her
husband,  loses  her  dower  by  the  statute  of  Westm.
1285 — unless  her  husband,  without  coercion  of  the
church,  be  reconciled  to  her.  Earlier  laws  punished
elopement  with  death  when  adultery  followed.

ELPHIN  (Ireland) .  St.  Patrick  founded  a  cathe-
dral near  Elphin,  in  the  5th  century,  and  placed  over
it  St.  Asicus,  whom  he  created  bishop,  and  who
soon  after  filled  it  with  monks.  After  many  cen-
turies, Roscommon,  Ardcarn,  Drumclive,  and  others
of  less  note,  were  also  annexed  to  Elphin,  which
became  one  of  the  richest  sees  in  Ireland.  It  is
valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned
28  Eliz.,  at  103/.  18.5.  sterling.  The  see  was  united
to  Kilmore  in  1841,  under  the  provisions  of  the
Church  Temporalities  act,  passed  Aug.  1833.

ELSINORE,  Zealand,  Denmark,  formerly  the
station  for  receiving  the  Sound  dues  {which  see).
Population,  1890,  1 1,082.

EL-TEB,  Battle  of,  29  Feb.  1884.  See  Soudan.

ELY,  an  island  in  Cambridgeshire,  on  which  a
church  was  built  about  673,  by  Etheldreda,  queen
of  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumberland  ;  she  also  founded
a  religious  house,  tilled  it  with  virgins,  and  became
herself  first  abbess.  The  1200th  anniversary  was
celebrated  17-21  Oct.  1873;  about  60,000/.  had
then  been  spent  on  the  restoration  of  the  cathedral.
The  Danes  ruined  the  convent  about  870 ;  but  a
monastery  was  built  in  879,  on  which  king  Edgar
and  succeeding  monarchs  bestowed  great  privileges
and  grants  of  land  ;  whereby  it  became  the  richest
in  England.  Richard,  the  eleventh  abbot,  wishing
to  free  himself  from  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  made
great  interest  with  Henry  I.  to  get  Ely  erected  into
a  bishopric,  1 108,  and  bis  successor  Hervseus  was
the  first  prelate,  1 109.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's
books  at  2134/.  18*.  5^  ;  present  stated  income,
5500/. Population  in  1881,8,171  ; 1891,8,017.

KECENT  BISHOPS.

1781.  James  York,  died  26  Aug.  1808.

1808.  Thomas  Pampier,  died  13  May,  1812.

1812.  Bowyer  Edward  Sparke,  died  4  April,  1836.

1836.  Joseph  Allen,  died  20  March,  1845.

1845.  Thomas  Turton,  died  7  Jan.  1864.

1864.  Edward  Harold  Browne,  translated  to  Winchester,

Aug.  1873.
1873.  James  Russell  Woodford,  Aug.  ;  died  24  Oct.  1885.
1385.  Lord  Alwyne  Corr.pton.

ELY  CHAPEL,  Holborn,  London,  erected  in
the  14th  century,  sold  for  5250/.,  29  Jan.  1874;
acquired  by  the  R.  C.  fathers  of  the  order  of  Charity,
1874;  and  finely  restored  at  the  expense  of  the
duke  of  Norfolk  and  others,  opened  as  St.  Ethel-
dreda's  chapel,  23  June,  1876.

ELZEVIR,  or  ELSEVIER,  a  family  of  print-
ers, in  Holland,  whose  reputation  is  based  on  fine
pocket  editions  of  the  classics.

Louis,  the  founder,  was  born  in  1540  ;  began  business  at
Leyden  in  1580  ;  he  printed  about  150  works,  and  died
4  Feb.  1617.  His  sons  (especially  Bonaventure)  and
grandsons,  were  celebrated  for  their  work.

EMANCIPATION,  see  Roman  Catholics  and
Slavery.  The  Emancipation  Society  for  slaves
lasted  1862-5.

EMANUEL  HOSPITAL,  Westminster,
founded  in  1594  by  lady  Anne  Dacre  for  aged  people
and  children.  Its  original  annual  income  had  in-
creased from  360/.  to  about  4000/.  in  1870,  when
changes  in  the  disposition  of  the  funds  were  pro-
posed by  the  Charity  Commi-sioners,  and  some
effected.  Through  reduction  of  income  to  about
800/.  the  buildings  decay,  and  the  number  of
inmates  decrease,  reported  Jan.  1890.  The  proposed
change  of  site  much  opposed,  1892.


EMBALMING.


331


EMIGRATION.


EMBALMING. The  ancient  Egyptians  be-
lieving that  their  souls,  after  many  thousand  years,
would  reinhabit  their  bodies,  if  preserved  entire,
embalmed  the  dead. Some  of  the  bodies, called
mummies,  buried  3000  years  ago,  are  still  perfect.
*l  The  physicians  embalmed  Israel,"  1689  B.C. Gen.
i.  2  ;  see  Mummies. Carbolic  acid  was  successfully
employed  by  professor  Seely  in  America,  in  1868.
The  most  perfect  specimens  of  modern  embalming  are  pre-
served in  the  museum  of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons,
one  being  the  body  of  the  wife  of  Van  Butchell,  pre-
served by  John Hunter by  injecting camphorated
spirits  of  wine,  &c. ,  into  the  arteries  and  veins  ;  and
the  other  the  body  of  a  young  woman,  who  died  about
1780  of  consumption,  in  the  Lock  hospital.  The  method
of  embalming  royal  personages  in  modern  times  is  fully
described  in  Hunter's  "  Posthumous  Works." He  died
in  1793.  —During  the American  War (1861-5), many
soldiers'  bodies  were  embalmed  and  sent  home.
Improvements  in  embalming  made  by  Prof.  Laskowski
of  Geneva,  1885.

EMBANKMENTS  of  earth  were  erected  by
the  ancients  for  preservation  from  their  enemies
and  the  inundations  of  the  tide.  Those  of  the
Egyptians  and  Babylonians  are  described  by  Hero-
dotus and  Strabo.  To  the  Komans  are  attributed
the  first  dykes  of  Holland,  and  the  embankments  of
llomney  Marsh,  considered  to  be  the  oldestm  Britain.
In  1250  Henry  III.  issued  a  writ  enforcing  the  sup-
port of  these  works ;  and  his  successors  followed  his
example.  James  I.  greatly  encouraged  the  embank-
ment of  the  Thames.  Sir  W.  Dugdale's  "  History
of  Embanking"  first  appeared  in  1662  ;  see  Brain-
age,  Levels,  and  Thames.  Since  1830,  millions  of
pounds  have  been  expended  in  embankments  for
railways.

EMBARGO,  from  the  Spanish  embargar,  to
detain,  applied  to  the  restraining  ships  from  sailing.
This  power  is  vested  in  the  crown,  but  is  rarely
exercised  except  in  extreme  cases,  and  sometimes  as
a  prelude  to  war.  The  most  memorable  instances
of  embargo  were  those  for  the  prevention  of  corn
going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766  ;  and  for  the  de-
tention of  all  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships
in  the  several  ports  of  the  kingdom,  owing  to  the
armed  neutrality,  14  Jan.  1801  ;  see  Armed  Neu-
trality.

EMBER  WEEKS,  instituted,  it  is  said,  by
pope  CallLxtus  I.  (219-223),  to  implore  the  blessing
of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and
fasting,  in  which  penitents  used  to  sprinkle  the
ashes  (embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  In
the  English  church  the  Ember  dags  are  the  Wed-
nesday, Friday,  and  Saturday,  after  the  following
days — the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  Whit-sunday,  14
Sept.  (Holy  Cross),  and  13  Dec.  (St.  Lucia).

EMBROIDERY  is  usually  ascribed  to  the
Phrygians  ;  but  the  Sidonians  excelled  in  it,  and  it
is  mentioned  in  1491  B.C.  Exodus  xxxv.  35  and
xxxviii.  23.  See  Bageux  Tapestry.  Embroidery  is
now  done  by  machinery.  The  first  embroidery  ma-
chine is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  John  Duncan
of  Glasgow  in  1804.  Heilman's  embroidery  machine
was  patented  by  Kochlin.  Berlin  Wool-work  lias
been  much  improved  of  late  years  by  the  production
of  more  elegant  patterns,  first  published  by  Mr.
Wittich  in  Berlin,  about  1810.

EMERALD,  a  precious  stone,  of  a  green  colour,
found  in  the  East  and  in  Peru.  It  has  been  er-
roneously alleged  that  there  were  no  true  emeralds
in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of  Peru  ;  but  there  is
one  in  the  Paris  Museum,  taken  from  the  mitre  of
pope  Julius  II.  who  died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was  not
conquered  till  1545. It  is  stated  that  there  were


mines  at  Gebel  Zabara  worked  by  Egyptians,  1800

B.C.

EMERGENCY  MEN,  a  name  given  to  the
more  energetic  members  of  the  Irish  Defence  As-
sociation ;  and  especially  to  the  men  engaged  in
carrying  out  evictions  in  Ireland.  See  Mansion
House  Funds,  1881.

EMESA,  now  Hems,  Syria,  renowned  for  a
temple  of  the  sun,  the  priest  of  which,  Bassianus,
was  proclaimed  emperor  with  the  name  Heliogabalus
or  Elagabalus,  218.  His  atrocities  led  to  his  assas-
sination, n  March,  222.

EMIGRANTS.  The  French  aristocracy  and
clergy  {emigres)  began  to  leave  their  country  in
July,  1789,  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution:
their  estates  were  confiscated  in  Dec.  A  large  num-
ber returned  in  1802,  by  an  amnesty  granted  after
the  peace  of  Amiens.  Many  were  indemnified  after
the  restoration  in  1815.

EMIGRATION.  Phoenician  and  Greek  emi-
grants colonised  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and
the  Black  Sea ;  see  Magna  Grmcia,  Marseilles,  &c.
The  discovery  of  America  opened  a  vast  field  for
emigration,  which  was  restrained  by  Charles  I.  in
1637.  It  has  been  greatly  encouraged  since  1819.
Regulations  for  emigration  were  made  in  1831,  and
in  Jan.  1840,  the  Colonial  Land  and  Emigration
Board  was  established.  Emigration  much  promoted
through  want  of  employment  in  London,  1869-70  ;
from  Ireland,  by  act  passed,  1 883.  Much  emigra-
tion from  Great  Britain  and  Germany  to  America,
1881-5.  Fare  of  steerage  passengers  from  Britain
to  America  by  steamers  reduced  to  about  $1.  Jan.
1883.

The  "Order  of  the  Sons  of  St.  George,"  at  Phil-
adelphia, which  was  established  to  succour  emi-
grants, still  exists.  (See  under  George,  St.)  It
published  a  letter  dissuading  unsuitable  emigra-
tion 31  July,  1874

Meetings  at  the  Mansion  House  to  promote  State-
directed  emigration  of  the  unemployed 5  April,  1882
A  tax  of  2S.  per  head  levied  in  United  Slates  on
immigrants  ;  act  passed  by  congress  in  opposition
to  the government  and steam  ship companies

Aug. „
Association  formed  to  promote  State-directed  emi-
gration and  colonization ... 10  Aug.  1883
Emigrants'  Information Offlce,  London,  opened  7

Oct.  1886  ;  reported  to  be  highly  successful  May,  1888
The Self-Help  Emigration Society,  supported  by
the  earls  of  Aberdeen  and  Roden,  lords  Monks  well
and  Dorchester  and  other  gentlemen,  established
in  1884. Up  to  1891,  3,666  emigrants  had  been
assisted  by  the  society.
About 2,000 deserted children domesticated in
Liverpool,  and  sent  to  Canada  by  the  agency  of
Mr.  Samuel  Smith  and  Mrs.  Birt,  reported Dec.  1886
Increased emigration from Ireland to  America,

reported April,  1889

Emigration  from  the  United  Kingdom,  in  1815,  2081  ;  in
1820,  25,729  ;  in  1830,  56,907  ;  in  1840,  90,743  ;  in  1850,
280,843  ;  in  i860,  128,469  ;  in  1866,  204,882  ;  in  1867,
195,953  ;  in  1868,  196,325  ;  in  1869,  258,027  ;  in  1870,
256,940;  1111871,252,435;  1872,295,213;  1873,310,612;
1874,  241,014;  1875,  173,809.  Of  British  origin  only,
1876,  109,469  ;  1877,  95,195  ;  1878,  112,902  ;  1879,
164,274  ;  1880,  227,542  ;  1881,  243,032  ;  1882,  279,366  ;
1883,  320,118;  1884,  242,179;  1885,  207,644;  1886,
232,900;  1887,  281,487;  1888,  279,928;  1889,  253.795;
1890,218,116;  1891,218,507. See  Immigration.

1846.  1851.

Prom  England 86,611  254.97°

,, Scotland 3.427  18,646

,. Ireland 38,813  62,350


128,851  335, 966

Emigration  to  North American  colonics, West Indies,

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  Smith  Wales,  Swan Uivcr,

Van  Diomen's  Land,  &c. ,  in  1820-30, 154,291  :  in  1830-40,

277,695.


EMILY ST. PIERRE.


332


ENCAENIA.


To  North  American  Colonies,  in  1842,  54,123  ;  in  1847,
109,680 ;  in  1856,  16,378 ;  in  1861,  12,707 ;  in  1863,
18,083  ;  in  1864,  12,721  ;  in  1866,  13,255  ;  in  1867, 15,503  ;
in  1868,  21,062  ;  in  1869,  33,891  ;  in  1870,  35,295  ;  1871,
32,671 ;  1872,  32,205 ;  1873,  37,208 ;  1874,  25,450.  Of
British  origin,  1876,9335;  1877,  7720;  1878,  10,652:
1879,  17,952;  1880,  20,902  ;  1881,  23,912;  1882,  40.441  ;

1883,  44,185  ;  1884,  31,134  ;  1885,  19,838  ;  1886,  24,745  ;
1887,  32,025;  1888,  34,853  ;  1889,  28,269  ■  1890,  22,520.

To  United  States,  in  1842,  63,852  ;  in  1847,  142,154  ;  in
1857,  126,905  ;  in  1861,  49,764  ;  in  1863,  146,813  ;  in
1864,  147,042;  in  1866,  161,000;  in  1867,  159,275;  in
1868,  155,532  ;  in  1869,  203,001  ;  in  1870,  196,075;  1871,
198,843;  1872,  233,747;  1873,  233,073;  1874,  148,161.
Of  British  origin,  1876,  54,554 ;  1877,  45,4Sl  :  1878,
54,694;  1879,  91,806;  1880,  166,570;  1881,  176,104;
1882,  181,903;  1883,  191,573;  1884,  155,280;  1885,
I37,687  ;  1886,  152,710;  1887,  201,526;  1888,  195,986;
1889,  168,771  ;  1890,152,413.

To  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  in  1842,  8534  ;  in  1845,
830  ;  in  1850,  16,037  ;  in  1852  (gold  discovery),  87,881  ;
in  1853,  61,401 ;  in  1854,  83,237  ;  in  1855,  52,309  ;  in
1856,  44,584  ;  in  1857,  61,248  ;  in  1861,  23,738  ;  in  1863,
53,054  ;  in  1864,  40,942  ;  in  1S66,  24,097  ;  in  1867,  14,466  ;
in  t868,  12,809  '•  m  1869,  14.001  ;  in  1870,  17,065;  in  1871,
12,227;  ^72,  15,876;  1873,  26,428;  1874,  53,958.  Of
British  origin,  1876,  32,196  ;  1877,30,13s;  1878,36,479;
1879,  40,959  ;  1880,  24,184  ;  1881,  22  682  ;  1882,  37,289  ;
1883,71,264;  1884,44,255";  1885,39,395;  1886,  43,076;

1887,  34,183  ;  1888,  31,127  ;  1889,  28,294  ;  1890,  21,179.
To  other  places,  in  1854,  3366  ;  in  1859,  12,427  ;  in  1868,

6922;  in  1870,  8505;  1871,  8694;  1872,  13,385;  1873,
*3>9°3'<  T874,  13.445;  1875,173,809.  Of  British  origin,
1876,  13,384;  1877,  11,856;  1S78,  11,077;  1879,  13,557;
1880, 15,886 ;  1881,  20  304  ;  1882,  19,733  ;  1883,  13,096  ;

1884,  11,510;  1885,  10,724;  1886,  12,369;  1887,  13,753;

1888,  17,962  ;  1889,  28,461  ;  1890,  22,004.

EMILY  ST.  PIERRE,  see  United  States,
1862.

EMINENCE,  a  title  conferred  upon  cardinals
by  pope  Urb;in  VIII.  Jan.  10,  1631,  as  more  honour-
able than  "Excellency."  Previously  cardinals  had
the  title  of  Illustrissimi.  Ashe.  The  grand-master
of  Malta  also  obtained  this  title. Pardon.

EMIN  PASHA  RELIEF. The  committee
for  the  purpose  appointed,  1887.
Sir  William  Mackinnon,  chairman,  lord  Kinnaird,

Mr.  W.  Burdett-Coutts  and  others. See  Soudan

1886-7,  all(l  Africa  (German  East).
The  German  committee  at  Berlin,  dissolved  itself

Dec. 1890

EMIR,  a  title  of  the  caliphs  among  the  Turks
and  Persians,  first  awarded  to  the  descendants  of
Mahomet's  daughter  Fatima,  about  650.  To  such
only  was  originally  given  the  privilege  of  wearing
the  green  turban.

EMISSION  THEORY  of  Light  (advo-
cated by  Newton,  about  1672),  supposes  that  indi-
vidual particles  pass  from  the  luminous  body  to  the
eye,  and  that  each  ray  of  light  passes  from  the  sun
to  the  earth.  It  is  opposed  to  the  Undulatory
Theory  (which  see)  now  generally  received.

EMLY,  an  Irish  see,  said  to  have  been  founded
by  St.  Patrick.  Emly  was  called  Imelaca-Ibair :
St.  Ailbe  was  the  first  bishop  in  448.  In  1568,  the
see  was  united  to  Cashel  (which  see).  It  is  now  an
inconsiderable  village.

EMPALEMENT.  This  mode  of  executing
criminals,  mentioned  by  Juvenal,  and  often  inflicted
in  Pome,  is  still  used  in  Turkey  and  Arabia.  In
England  the  dead  bodies  of  murderers  were  some-
times staked  in  this  manner,  previously  to  being
buried  ;  abolished,  1823. See  Suicide.

EMPEROR,  from  Imperator (ruler),  a  title  j
conferred  on  victorious  Roman  generals.
Augustus  Caesar  the  first  Roman  emperor .  n.c. 27
Valentinian  I.  first  emperor  of  the  west,  and  Valens,

first  emperor  of  the  east . . .  a.d. 364


Charlemagne  first  emperor  of  Germany,  crowned  by
Leo.  Ill 800

Othman  I.  founder  of  the  Turkish  empire,  the  first
emperor  of  Turkey 1299

The  Czar  the  first  emperor  of  Russia . 22  Oct.  1721

Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  emperor  of  the  French 1804.  .

Napoleon  III.,  his  nephew,  founded  the  second
French  empire,  Dec.  1852,  deposed . 4  Sept.  1870

Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822  ; shot

19  July,  1824,

Pom  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal  the  first  emperor  of
Brazil 1825

Faustin  I.  the  first  emperor  of  Hayti,  in  1849  ;  de-
posed 1859

Maximilian  I.  emperor  of  Mexico,  10  April,  1864  ;
shot 19  June,  1867

EMPEROR'S  HYMN  (of  Austria),  words  by
L.  L.  Haschka,  music  by  Joseph  Haydn;  first  sung,
12  Feb.,  1797. ^^aasssF-

EMPIRE.  Umpire  City,  a  name  given  to-
New  York.  Empire  Club,  Constitutional,  estab-
lished 10  Oct.  1881,  founded  1883;  closed  1886.
Empire  Route  to  the  east,  by  the  Canadian  Pacific
Railway  ;  term  applied  1887.

EMPIRICS,  a  sect  of  physicians,  formed  in  the
3rd  century  before  Christ,  who  contended  that  all
reasoning  respecting  the  animal  economy  was  use-
less, and  that  experience  and  observation  were  the
only  foundations  of  medicine.  The  sect  adopted
the  principles  of  Acron  of  Agrigentum,  who  flour-
ished about  430  B.C.

EMPLOYERS  OF  LABOUR,  National
Federation  of  Associated,  formed  in  London  about
ro  Dec.  1873.  The  founders  were  said  to  employ
about  2,000,000,  principally  in  N.W.  and  N.  Eng-
land. Their  object  was  to  counteract  the  influence
of  trade  unions.  The  first  annual  meeting  held
24  Feb.  1875.

Iron  trades  employers,  association  issued  a  circular  pro-
posing increase  in  hours  of  labour,  Dec.  i8;8.  See
Coal  Strikes,  1890.

EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT (to

make  compensation  for  personal  injuries  suffered  by
workmen),  passed  for  7  years,  7  Sept.  1880;  effects-
neutral  (1884).  New  act  passed  24  Dec.  1888.  The
stringent  application  of  the  spirit  of  these  laws  by
the  decision  of  the  house  of  lords  in  the  case  of
Smith  v.  Charles  Baker  &  Sons  on  appeal  was
strongly  enforced  21  July,  1891.

EMPLOYERS  AND  WORKMEN  ACT,

passed  13  Aug.  1875,  relates  to  legal  settlement  of
disputes,  &c.

EMPRESS  OF  INDIA  (Imperatrix  Indite),
addition  to  the  royal  titles,  proclaimed  in  London,
I  May,  1876.

ENAMELLING  was  practised  by  the  Egyp-
tians, Chinese,  and  other  nations,  and'  was  known
in  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  At  Oxford
is  an  enamelled  jewel,  which  belonged  to  Alfred,
and  which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was  made
by  his  order,  in  his  reign,  about  887.  Limoges
enamelled  ware  was  popular  in  the  16th  century.
Magnificent  specimens  by  Lepeo,  Elkington,  Eman-
uel, and  others,  appeared  at  the  exhibi  ioa  at  Paris,
1867.  See  Mosaic.  On  19  June,  1862,  madame
Rachel  (Levison  or  Leverson)  sued  captain  Carnegie
for  928A  for  enamelling  his  wife's  face,  and  was
nonsuited  ;  see  Trials,  1868.  She  was  convicted
of  fraud  in  1878  ;  and  died  in  prison  12  Oct.,  1880,
See  Trials.

ENCAENIA.  Greek  festivals  kept  on  days  on
which  cities  were  built  and  temples  consecrated;
and  in  later  times,  as  at  Oxford,  at  the  celebration


ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.


333


ENGINEEES.


or  commemoration  of  founders  and  benefactors.
Oldisworth.  The  public  commemoration  at  Oxford
suspended  in  1875;  restored,  21  June,  1876.  They
were  the  origin  of  church-wakes  in  England,  about
600.  They  were  also  feasts  celebrated  by  the  Jews
on  the  25th  of  the  ninth  month,  in  commemoration
of  the  Maccabees  cleansing  the  temple,  which  bad
been  polluted  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  131  B.C.

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING,  enamelling  by
fire.  Painting  with  burnt  wax  is  said  to  have  been
known  to  Praxiteles  about  360  B.C.  This  art  was
revived  by  M.  Bachelier,  1749,  by  count  Caylus,
1765,  and  by  Miss  Greenland,  1785  and  1792.

ENCLOSUEE,  see  Inclosure.

ENCBATITES,  followers  of  Tatian,  about  170,
denounced  marriage,  and  abstained  from  flesh,  and
from  wine  even  at  the  Lord's  supper.

ENCUMBEEED  ESTATES  ACT,  passed
July  1849,  to  enable  owners  of  land  or  leases  in
Ireland,  subject  to  encumbrance,  to  apply  to  com-
missioners appointed  under  it  to  direct  a  sale  of  such
property.  These  commissioners  held  their  first
court  in  Dublin,  24  Oct.  1849,  and  their  last  28  July,
1858,  a  new  court  being  established  under  the
Landed  Estates  act.  The  number  of  estates  sold,  up
to  1858,  was  2380,  producing  twenty-two  millions  of
pounds.  In  1854  a  similar  act  was  passed  for  the
West  Indies.

ENCYCLICAL  Letter,  see  Rome,  1864,  et
seq.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA  or Cyclopaedia, a

general  dictionary  of  art,  science,  and  literature.
This  name  has  been  given  to  a  work  by  Abulphara-
gius  in  the  13th  century.

Alsted's  Encyclopaedia 1620

Louis  Moreri's  Dictionnaire  Historique . . .  1673

Hofmann's  Lexicon  Universale 1677

Corneille's  Dictionnaire  des  Arts 1694

Bayle's  Dictionnaire 1696

Lexicon  Technicum  of  John  Han-is  (earliest  English

encyclopedia)  1704 ;  supplements .  1710,  1741

Ephraim  Chambers'  Cyclopaedia 1728

Zedler's  Universal  Lexicon  ....  1732-50
Encyclopedie  (by  Diderot  and  D'Alembert)  .  1751-80
IThe  contributors  were  termed  Encyclopedistes,

and their  daring  writings  are  believed  to  have

hastened  the  French  revolution  in  1789.]
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (1st  edition  by  William

Smellie) 1771

[The  8th  completed  1861,  (sale  5,000) ;  9th  (sale

50,000)  1875-89.]

Encyclopedie  Methodique  (by  Pancoucke) . 1782-1832

■Chambers'  Cyclopaedia  (edited  by  Roes) . . .  1785

Rees'  Cyclopaedia 1802-19

Brockhaus's  Conversations  Lexicon,  1st  edition . 1818

[New  editions  frequent.] 13th,  1883  et  seq.
Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana ....  1817-45
Cabinet  Cyclopaedia  (a  collection  of  treatises) .  1829-46

Penny  Cyclopaedia 1833-46

K.night's  English  Cyclopaedia  (4  divisions)  .  1853-61-70
Chambers' Cyclopaedia  1859-68;  1874-5;  1888  et  serj.

Ersch  and  Gniber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopadie,  began

i8i3  ;  164  vols,  published 1889

Chinese  cyclopaedia,  6109  vols,  (all  the  valuable

books  then existing), printed  by  order  of  the

emperor  between 1661-1721

A  copy  bought  for  British  Museum  .  .  .  .  1877
American  cyclopaedia,  by  Geo.  Ripley  and  Charles

A.  Dana,  17  vols 1873-8

Globe  encyclopaedia,  completed  ....  1879
Encyclopaedic  Dictionary  completed  .  .  .  .  1889
Meyer's  Conversations  Lexicon,  1840  (new  edition),  1891

ENDEEBY  LAND,  see  Southern  Continent.

ENDOSMOSIS.  M.  Dutrochct,  about  1826,
found  that  if  two  fluids,  gases  or  vapours,  of  unequal
density,  are  separated  by  an  animal  or  vegetable
membrane, the  denser  will  attract  the  less  de.isc


through  the  medium.  This  property  he  called
endosmose,  when  the  attraction  is  from  the  outside
to  the  inside,  and  exosmose  when  it  operates  from
the  inside  to  the  outside.  Many  natural  phenomena
are  thus  more  clearly  understood. Brande.

ENDOWED  SCHOOLS  ACT,  containing
the  "  Conscience  Clause,"  passed  i860  ;  another
similar  act  passed  2  Aug.  1869.  A  committee  re-
ported on  the  working  of  the  act,  June,  1887.

ENDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION

(consisting  of  lord  Lyttelton,  canon  Robinson,  and
others),  was  appointed  under  the  act  32-33  Vict,
c.  56  (2  Aug.  1869).  It  threw  open  many  endow-
ments to  the  nation,  and  carried  out  reforms,  being
frequently  much  opposed.  By  an  act  passed  7  Aug.
[874,  its  duties  were  transferred  to  the  charity
commissioners,  two  new  commissioners  (Mr.  Long-
ley,  lord  Clinton),  and  canon  Robinson  being  ap-
pointed. The  commissioners  had  dealt_  with  74
schools;  prepared  schemes  for  66;  leaving  about
660  to  be  dealt  with  ;  Aug.  1874.

ENEEGY.  In  an  address  to  the  British  As-
sociation at  York,  1  Sept.  1881,  sir  William  Thom-
son described  the  sources  of  all  the  energy  in  nature
available  to  man  for  the  production  of  mechanical
effect,  as  tides,  food,  fuel,  wind  and  rain,  all  except
the  tides  derived  from  the  sun.
ENFIDA  CASE,  see  Tunis.
ENFIELD,  N.  Middlesex  ;  a  manor  belonging
to  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  is  mentioned  in  Domes-
day, and  was  given  to  De  Mandeville  by  William  I.
after  1066.  After  various  changes  it  became  the
property  of  the  crown  by  the  marriage  of  Mary,
heiress  of  the  Bohuns,  to  Henry  duke  of  Lancaster,
afterwards  king  Henry  IV.  1399.  Edward  VI.  gave
it  to  his  sister  Elizabeth,  who  resided  here  in  1552,
in  a  palace,  part  of  which  still  remains.  The
grammar  school  was  founded  about  1586.  The
ancient  chase  was  dischased  and  enclosed,  after
I  Jan.  1779.  Population,  1881,  18,944;  1891,
31.532.
ENFIELD  MUSKET,  see  Fire-arms.
ENGEN,  Baden.  Here  Moreau  defeated  the
Austrians,  3  May,  1800.

ENGHIEN  or  STEENKIRK  (S.  W.  Belgium).
Here  the  British  under  William  III.  were  defeated
by  the  French  under  marshal  Luxemburg,  24  July,
1692. — The  due  d'Enghien,  a  descendant  of  the
great  Conde,  was  seized  in  Baden  by  order  of  Bona-
parte, conveyed  to  Vincennes,  and,  after  a  hasty
trial,  &hot  by  torch-light,  immediately  after  con-
demnation, 21  March,  1804.  The  body  was  ex-
humed, 20  March,  18 16.

ENGINEEES,  Military,  formerly  called
Trench-masters.  Sir  William  Pelham  officiated  as
trench-master  in  1622  ;  the  chief  engineer  was
called  camp-master-general  in  1634.  Capt.  Thomas
Rudd  had  the  rank  of  chief  engineer  to  the  king
about  1650.  The  corps  of  engineers  was  formerly
a  civil  corps,  but  was  made  a  military  force,  and
directed  to  rank  with  the  artillery,  25  April,  17S7.
It  has  a  eolonel-in-chief,  16  colonels-commandant,
and  16  colonels.  Civil  Engineering  became  im-
portant in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when
Smeaton  began  the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  ar.d.
Brindley  the  Bridgewater  canal.  Since  then  the
Itennies,  Telford,  the  Stephensons  and  Brunels,
Locke,  and  others  have  constructed  breakwaters,
docks,  bridges,  railways,  tunnels,  &c,  which  are
the  marvel  of  our  age.

"  Engineering  is  the  art  of  directing  tic  great
sources  of  power  in  nature  lor  tic  us,'  and  con-
venience of  man." (Thos.  Tredgold,  died  1829.)


ENGLAND.


331


ENGLAND.


The  first  society  of  Civil  Engineers  formed  by  Smea-
ton  and  others,  afterwards  termed  the  Smeatonian
Society  of  Civil  Engineers 1793

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  established  2  Jan.
1818  ;  obtained  a  charter ... 3  June,  1828
5728  members  .... April,  1889

Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  which  had  its
head-quarters  in  Birmingham,  moved  to  Loudon,
1877  ;  annual  meetings  are  held  ;  established . 1847

Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers'  Society  founded .  1859

Isambard  Kingdom  Brunei,  projector  of  the  Great
Eastern,  aged  53,  died  15  Sept.  ;  Robert  Stephen-
son, railway  engineer,  aged  59,  died . 12  Oct. ,,

Engineers'  Amalgamated  Society,  in  1867,  consisted
of  above  30,000  members  ;  annual  income,  86,oooL  ;
disbursed  to  disabled  workmen,  &c,  about  50,000^ ;
amassed  capital,  about  125,000^.

Engineer,  weekly  journal,  established . 4  Jan. 1856

Engineering,  weekly  journal,  established . Jan.  1866

Newcastle  strike  (see  Newcastle) . May— Oct.  1871

Strike  of  engineers  in  London  (18  firms)  7  Feb.—

4  Oct.  1879

College  of  Practical  Engineers,  Muswell  hill,  near
London,  opened  by  sir  Henry  Bessemer,  sir
Joseph  Whitworth,  Dr.  C.  Wm.  Siemens,  and
others Sept.  1881

Engineering  exhibition,  Agricultural  Hall,  London

5-2i  July,  1883

A  party  of  American  engineers  entertained  by  the
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers . . June,  1889

Mr.  T.  A.  Walker,  contractor  for  the  Manchester
ship  canal  and  other  great  works,  dies  . 25  Nov. „

Sir  John  Hawkshaw,  engineer  of  the  Severn  tunnel,
dies  aged  80 2  June,  1891

Sir  John  Coode,  eminent  for  breakwaters  and  other
works,  born  1816,  died.  . . .2  March  1892

ENGLAND  (from  Angles  and  lond,  land),  so
named,  it  is  said,  by  Egbert,  first  king  of  the
English,  in  a  general  council  held  at  Winchester,
829;  or  by  Athelstan,  925.  See  Anglo-Saxons.
England  was  united  to  Wales,  1283 ;  to  Scotland  in
1603;  they  have  had  the  same  legislature  since  1707,
when  the  three  were  styled  Great  Britain.  James  T.
first  adopted  the  title  of  king  of  England,  Scotland,
afterwards  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland.
After  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  signed  27  March,  1802,
France  was  omitted  from  the  royal  style.  Ireland
was  incorporated  with  them,  by  the  act  of  legis-
lative union,  I  Jan.  1801,  as  the  United  Kingdom
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland.  The  British
empire  is  computed  to  contain  about  7,000,000  square
miles  of  territory,  with  340,220,000  inhabitants.
Statistical  details  are  given  under  the  respective
headings ;  Army,  Navy,  Revenue,  Population,  &c.
Population  of  England  and  Wales,  1891,  29,001,018.
For  previous  history,  see  Britain.  Histories  of  Eng-
land, by  Kapin  (in  English),  1725-31;  Thomas  Carte,
1747-55;  David  Hume,  1755-62;  Tobias  Smollett,
1757-65;  John  Lingard,  1819-30  ;  Charles  Knight,
1856-62 ;  J.  B.  Green,  1874-80.  Parts  by  T.  B.
Macaulay,  Earl  Stanhope,  J.  A.  Froude,  Miss  II.
Martineau,  and  others.  See  Chronicles.
Egbert,  "king  of  the.  English,"  828; defeats  the

Welsh,  Danes,  &c,  at  Hengestdown . . . 835
Alfred,  king, 871  ;  after  many  vicissitudes, van-
quishes the  Danes 871-896

He  frames  a  code  of  laws,  890  ;  forms  a  militia  and
navy,  surveys  and  subdivides  the  country,  and

promotes  education 896

Athelstan's  great  victory  over  the  Danes,  Scots,  &c.

at  Brananburg 937

Predominance  of  Dunstan  ;  he  promotes  monachism

and  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  about . . . 952
Ethelred  compounds  with  the  Danes  for  peace . 991

Causes  their  massacre 13  Nov.  1002

Avenged  by  Sweyn, king  of  Denmark: Ethelred

flees  to  Normandy 1003

Sweyn  dies,  and  Ethelred  returns,  1014  ;  dies . . 1016

Canute  the  Dane  sole  monarch 1017

Edward  the  Confessor  king ;  Saxon  dynasty  restored  1042
Harold  II.  crowned,  6  Jan.  ;  defeats  the  Norwegians,
25  Sept.  ;  defeated  and  slain  at  Hastings  by  Wil-
liam of  Normandy _ 14  Oct.  1066


William  I.  crowned  ....  25  Dec.  1066
The  northern counties  rebel ; ravaged  from the

Humber  to  the  Tyne 1069-70

Introduction  of  the  feudal  system,  about . . . 1070

Justices  of  peace  appointed 1076

Domesday  book  compiled 1085-6  -

William  II.  crowned  .  .  .  .26  Sept.  1087
The  crusades  begin . . . ... . . 1096

Henry  I.  crowned, restores  Saxon  laws,  <fec

5  Aug.  1 100
Defeats  his  brother  Robert,  and  gains  Normandy  .  1106
Prince  William  and  nobles  drowned . 25  Nov.  1120

Stephen  crowned .... 26  Dec.  1135
Civil war between  the  empress Maud, Henry's
daughter,  and  Stephen  ;  her  friends  the  Scots  de-
feated at  the  battle  of  the  Standard . 22  Aug. 1 138
She  lands  in  England,  and  is  successful  . . . 1139.
Crowned  at  Winchester ... 3  March,  1141

Defeated  ;  retires  to  France 1147

Concludes  a  peace  with  Stephen 1153

Henry  II.  crowned  ....  19  Dec.  1154.
Constitutions  of  Clarendon  enacted  .  .  Jan.  1164
Arrogance  of  Becket ;  murdered . . 29  Dec.  11 70

Conquest  of  Ireland 1171,1172

England  divided  into  six  circuits  for  the  administra-
tion of  justice , 1176

English  laws  digested  by  Glanville,  about . . 1181

Richard  I.  crowned .... 3  Sept.  1189

He  joins  the  crusades 1191

Defeats  Saladin 1192

Made  prisoner  by  duke  of  Austria, and  sold  to

Henry  VI.  of  Germany .... Dec. ,,
Ransomed  for  about  300,000^. ..... 1194

John  crowned May,  1199

Normandy  lost  to  England 1204

England  put  under  an  interdict  .  .  .  .  .  1208
Magna  Charta  granted . . . .15  June,  1215

Henry  III.  crowned . . . .28  Oct.  1216
The  Barons'  war  (ivhich  see) .... 1262-S
Simon  de  Montford,  earl  of  Leicester,  summoned
two  parliaments ; one  including  knights  of  the
shire,  1264  (the  other  first  including  burgesses)  ;
the  first  regular  parliament  met  . . Jan.  1265

Edward  I.  crowned . . . . 20  Nov. 1272

Wales  subdued,  united  to  England . . . .  1283

Death  of  Roger  Bacon . . ... . . 1292

Scotland  subdued,  1296  ;  revolts 1297

Edward  II.  crowned  ....  8  July,  1307
Defeated  by  Bruce  at  Bannockburn  .  24  June,  1314
Insurrection  of  the  barons  against  his  favourites 1308,

1315,  1325

Edward  III.  crowned  ...  25  Jan.  1327
Defeat  of  theScots  at  Hallidown-hill  .  .  .  .  1333
Invades  France  ;  victorious  at  Creey . 26  Aug. 1346

Takes  Calais 1347

Order  of  the  Garter  instituted 1349

Victory  at  Poictiers .... 19  Sept. 1356

Peace  of  Bretigny 8  May,  1360

Law  pleadings  in  English 1362

Richard  II.  crowned .  .  .  .22  June,  1377
Insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler  suppressed  .  15  June,  13S1
Death  of  Wickliffe 1385

Henry  IV.  crowned ... 30  Sept.  1399
Order  of  the  Bath  instituted  by  Henry  IV. . . ,,
Insurrection  of  the  Percies  and  the  Welsh  . . 1402-5

Henry  V.  crowned . . .  21  March,  1413

France  invaded  by  Henry  V.  who  gains  the  battle  of

Agmcourfc 25  Oct.  1415

Treaty  of  Troyes  ;  the  French  crown  gained . . 1420

Henry  VI.  crowned  at  Paris . . .  Dec.  1430
Appearance  of  the  maid  of  Orleans  ;  the  conquests  in
France  lost,  except  Calais  .... 1429-31

Cade's  insurrection June,  1450

War  of  the  Roses  (see  Roses  and  Battles) . .  1455-71

Edward  IV.  deposes  Henry  VI.  .  4  March,  1461

Printing  introduced  by  Caxton . . ... 1471

Edward  V.  accession  ....  9  April,  1483
Murdered  in  the  Tower  (soon  after) . . . . ,,

Richard  III.  deposes  Edward  V. . 25  June, ,,
Valuable  statutes  enacted 1484

Henry  VII. accession  ;  Richard  defeated and
slain  at  Bosworth  Field  . . .22  Aug. 1485
Yeomen  of  the  guard, the.  first  appearance  of  a

standing  army  in  England  instituted  . . ,,

Henry  marries  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  .  i486
Insurrection  of  Lambert  Simnel  quelled  .  .  1486-7
Court  of  Star-Chamber  instituted .... 1487


ENGLAND.


335


ENGLAND.


Insurrection  of  Perkin  Warbeck  quelled  .  .  1492-8
Gardening  introduced  into  England,  principally  from

the  Netherlands,  about 1302

Death  of  prince  Arthur .... 2  April, ,,
Henry  VIII.  accession  ... 22  April,  1509

Eise  of  Wolsey 1514

Henry  VIII.  's  interview  with  Francis  I,  at  Ardres

(see  "  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold") . 4-25  June,  1520
First  map  of  England  drawn  by  G.  Lilly,  about . ,,
Henry  VIII.  becomes  "  Defender  of  the  Faith  "  . . 1521
Fall  of  Wolsey  ;  he  dies . .  -29  Nov. 1530

Henry  VIII.  marries  Anne  Boleyn  privately,  14  Nov.
1532 or  January  1533  ;  divorced  from  Catherine,

23  May,  1533
Henry  VITI.  styled  "  Head  of  the  Church  " . . 1534
The  pope's  authority  in  England  is  abolished . . ,,
Sir  Thomas  More  beheaded ... 6  July,  153s
Queen  Anne  Boleyn  beheaded . .  19  May,  1536

Queen  Jane  Seymour  dies ... 24  Oct.  1537

Monasteries  suppressed 1538

Statute  of  Six  Articles  passed 1539

Abbots  of  Glastonbury,  Reading,  &c.  executed  . . ,,
The  first  authorised  edition  of  the  Bible  (Cranmer's)

printed ,,

Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  beheaded 1540

Anne  of  Cleves  divorced .... 9  July, ,,
Queen  Catherine  Howard  beheaded  .... 1542
The  title  of  ' '  king  of  Ireland  "  confirmed  to  the  Eng-
lish sovereigns 1543

Henry  marries  Catherine  Parr  . . .12  July, „
Edward  VI.  accession,  28  Jan.  ;  promotes  the
Reformation  (Somerset,  protector) . . . 1547
Book  of  Common  Prayer  authorised . . . . 1548
Somerset  deprived  of  power,  1549  ;  beheaded  . .  1552
Mary,  accession,  6  July  ;  restores  popery . . 1553
Execution  of  lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  friends . . 1554
Maiy  marries  Philip  of  Spain  ;  persecutes  the  Pro-
testants „

Ridley,  Latimer,  and  Cranmer  burnt . 1555  and  1556
Calais  re-taken  by  the  French . . .7  Jan.  1558
Elizabeth,  accession  ;  the  church  of  England
re-established . ... . .  17  Nov. ,,

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  lands  in  England,  1568  ;  exe-
cuted 8  Feb. 1587

The  Spanish  armada  repulsed  ....  July,  1588

Devereux,  earl  of  Essex,  beheaded .  25  Feb. 1601

James  I.  accession ;  union  of  the  two  crowns

24  March,  1603
Styled  "  king  of  Great  Britain  " . -24  Oct.  1604

The  Gunpowder  Plot Nov. 1605

The  present  translation  of  the  Bible  completed . .1611

Baronets  first  created May, ,,

The  Overbury  murder . . . .  15  Sept. 1613

Shakespeare  dies 23  April,  1616

Raleigh  beheaded  ...  . .  29  Oct. 1618

Book  of  Sports  published  . .  24  May,  1618

Charles  I.  accession ... 27  March,  1625

Death  of  lord  Bacon 9  April,  1626

Duke  of  Buckingham  assassinated .  23  Aug. 1628

Hampden's  trial  respecting  "  ship  money  " . . . 1637
Contest  between  the  king  and  parliament ;  impeach-
ment and  execution  of  lord  Strafford . . . 1641
Attempted "arrest  of the  five  members"  (John
Hampden, John Pym, Sir  Arthur Hasilrigge,
Denzil  Holies,  and  Win.  Strode)  . 4  Jan. 1642

Civil  war  begins  ;  see  Battles . . . 23  Oct. ,,
Archbishop  Laud  beheaded  . . . .10  Jan. 1645
Charles  defeated  at  Naseby . . . 14  June,
He  flees  to  the  Scotch,  5  May  ;  is  given  up,  21  Sept. 1646

Execution  of  Charles  1 30  Jan. 1649

Cromwell's  victory  at  Worcester . . 3  Sept.  1651
Oliver  Cromwell  protector  of  the  Common-
wealth 16  Dec.  1653

Naval  victories  of  Blake 1652-7

Richard  Cromwell,  protector  . . 3  Sept. 1658

Richard  resigns 25  May,  1659

Charles  II.  :  monarchy  re-established,  29  May,  1660
Act  of  uniformity  passed  ;  church  of  England  re-
stored .... 1662

The  great  plague 1665

The  great  fire  of  London  .  .  .  .  2,  3  Sept.  1666
Disgrace  of  lord  Clarendon  ....  Nov.  1667
Secret  treaty  with  France  signed  at  Dover  May,  1670
Deatli  of  John  Milton  ....  8  Nov.  1674
Oates's  "  popish  plot "  creates  a  panic  .  13  Aug.  1678
Sir  Edmundbury  Godfrey  found  murdered,  17  Oct. ,,


Many  Roman  Catholics  executed  .... 1678-0
The  Habeas  Corpus  act,  for  protecting  English  sub-
jects against  false  arrest  and  imprisonment,  passed
,..  , . . 27  May,  1679.
Violent  reaction,  many  protestants  executed  ;  Lon-
don humbled Ig3I

"Rye-house  plot  ;"  William, lord  Russell  (executed
21  July),  and  Algernon  Sydney  executed . . 1683;
James  II.  accession .... 6  Feb. 168?!
Duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion  defeated  at  Sedge-
moor,  6  July  ;  he  is  beheaded . . 15  July,
Acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops . . 30  June!  1688.

Abdication  of  James  II n  Dee.

William  III.  and  Mary  proclaimed  by  the  con-
vention parliament ...  13  Feb. 1689.

National  debt  begins 1692-

Bank  of  England  incorporated . . 27  July,  1694-
Death  of  the  queen  regnant,  Mary . . 28  Dec. ,,

Peace  of  Ryswick 1697-

Death  of  James  II.  in  exile . . 6  (16)  Sept.  1701

Anne,  accession .... 8  March,  1702-

Victory  of  Marlborough  at  Blenheim . 2  Aug. 1704.

Uni on  of  the  two  kingdoms  .... 1  May,  1707-

Sacheverell  riots 1710

Treaty  of  Utrecht,  advantageous  to  Great  Britain

11  April,  1715;
George  I.  of  Hanover,  accession  . .  1  Aug.  1714

The  Scots' rebellion  quelled 171c

South-sea  bubble 172c.

Death  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough . 16  June,  172&

Order  of  the  Bath  revived  (which  see) „ . , . 172=-.

George  II.  accession  . . . . n  June,  1727-

Death  of  Newton 20  March, „

George  II.  at  the  victory  of  Dettingen . 16  June,  1743;
Second Scots' rebellion  : prince Charles-Edward
gains  Edinburgh,  17  Sept.  ;  victor  at  Prestonpans,

21  Sept.  174^-,
Victory  at  Falkirk,  18  Jan.  ;  defeated  totally  at  Cul-

loden 16  April,  i746-

Death  of  prince  Frederick  Louis,  son  of  George  II.

and  father  of  George  III.  . . 20  March, 1751

New  style  introduced  into  England,  3  Sept.  (made  14)  1752-
Seven  years'  war  begins  .... May,  1756-

Conquest  of  India  begins,  under  colonel  (afterwards

lord)  Clive  (see  India) . 1757-

Victory  and  death  of  general  Wolfe  (see  Quebec)  !  1759.
George  III.  accession  ...  25  Oct.  1760
His  marriage  with  Charlotte  Sophia,  of  Mecklen-
burg Strelitz,  8  Sept.  ;  crowned  .  .  22  Sept.  1761
Peace  of  Paris  ;  Canada  gained  .  .  .  10  Feb.  1763:
Isle  of  Man  annexed  to  Great  Britain  .  .  .  176c'
Death  of  the  Old  Pretender,  the  "  chevalier  de  St!

George" .' 30  Dec.

Royal  marriage  act  passed 1772-

American  war  begins  (see  United  States) . . .  1775,
Death  of  earl  of  Chatham . . .  11  May,  1778

"  No  Popery  "  riots 2-7  June.'  1780

Separation  of  America  from  England  . .  30  Nov. 17C2
Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of

George  III 2  Aug.  1786-

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings  begins . . 13  Feb. 178S.
Death  of  the  Young  Pretender,  at  Rome,  3  March,
The  king's  illness  made  known . .  12  Oct!
He  recovers,  and  goes  to  St.  Paul's  to  make  thanks-
giving 23  April,  i78q,

First  coalition  against  France . . 26  June,  1792-
Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  . . .23  May,  i7gl

Howe's  victory T  June!

Marriage  of  the  prince  of  Wales  with  the  princess

Caroline  of  Brunswick  .... 8  April,  1795;
Warren  Hastings  acquitted ... 23  April,
Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales  born . . 7  Jan!  179&
Cash  payments  suspended ... 25  Feb.  1797-
Death  of  Edmund  Burke .... 9  July,

Irish  rebellion May!  1798

Habeas  Corpus  act  again  suspended.
Battle  of  the  Nile;  Nelson  victor. . .  1  Aug! "
Hatfield's  attempt  On  the  king's  life. . 15  May, 1800.
Union  of  Great  Britain  with  Ireland . . 1  Jail! iSok
Nelson's  victory  at  Copenhagen . . 2  April,
Habeas  Corpus  act  again  suspended . 19  April', ",
Peace  of  Amiens  concluded . . . 1  Oct! "
War  against  France  under  Bonaparte  . .  iS  May,  1803:
Nelson's  victory  and  death  at  Trafalgar  . 21  Oct. 1805.
Deatli  of  Mr.  Pitt  . . . . .23  Jan. 1806.

"Delicate  investigation"  (which  sec) . .May,
Lord  Melville  impeached,  29  April;  acquitted  12  June, ',


ENGLAND.


336


ENGLAND.


Death  of  Charles  James  Fox ... 13  Sept.  1806
Orders  in  council  against  Berlin  decree . 7  Jan.  1807
Abolition  of  the  slave  trade  by  parliament,  25  Mar. ,,
Victory  and  death  of  sir  J.  Moore. (See  Corunna)

16  Jan.  1809
Duke  of  York  impeached  by  col.  Wardle . Jan. „
Jubilee  celebrating  king's  accession  . . 25  Oct. ,,
Unfortunate  Walcheren  expedition . Aug. -Nov. „
Disappearance  of  Mr. Benjamin Bathurst,  diplo-
matist at  Perleberg, N. Germany ; suspected
assassination  by  French . . .25  Nov. „
Sir  Francis  Burdett's  arrest,  and  riots . 6  April,  1810
Death  of  princess  Amelia  ;  king's  malady  returns,

2  Nov. ,,
Great  commercial  embarrassment . . Dec. „
Regent— The  prince  of  Wales  . .  5  Feb. 181 1

JLuddite  riots Nov. „

Assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval,  premier 11  May,  1812
Earl  of  Liverpool  premier ... 9  June, „
War  with  America  commenced  . . . 18  June, ,,

Peace  with  France,  &c 14  April,  1814

"Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  king  of  Prussia

to  England 7  June, „

Centenary  of  the  house  of  Hanover . . 1  Aug. „
Peace  with  America  (treaty  of  Ghent) . 24  Dec. ,,
Battle  of  Waterloo  (close  of  French  war),  18  June,  1815
Princess  Charlotte  marries  prince  Leopold,  of  Saxe-

Coburg 2  May,  1816

Death  of  R.  B.  Sheridan .  . 9  July, „

Spa-fields  meeting  {which  see)  . .  2  Dec. „

Green-bag  inquiry  (which  see) ... 2  Feb.  1817
Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended . . .24  Feb. „
Cash  payments  resumed . . . .22  Sept. ,,
Princess  Charlotte  dies  in  childbirth . .  6  Nov. „
'■Queen  Charlotte  dies  at  Kew ... 17  Nov.  1818
•Queen  Victoria  born .... 24  May,  1819
Manchester  reform  meeting  (Peterloo) . 16  Aug. „

Duke  of  Kent  dies 23  Jan.  1820

George  IV.  accession ...  29  Jan. „

Cato-street  conspirators  arrested,  23  Feb.  executed,

1  May, „
Trial  of  queen  Caroline . . 19  Aug.  to  10  Nov. ,,

Coronation  of  George  IV 19  July,  1821

Queen  Caroline  dies  at  Hammersmith . 7  Aug. ,,

Lord  Byron  dies 19  April,  1824

Commercial  panic 1825-6

Duke  of  York  dies 5  Jan. 1827

Mr.  Canning,  premier,  30  April ;  dies . 8  Aug. ,,
Battle  of  Navarino  ....  20  Oct. ,,

Roman  Catholic  Relief  bill  passed  .  .  13  April,  1829
Political  panic  in  London  ; — riots . . Nov. ,,

William  IV.  accession ... 26  June,  1830
Mi'.  Huskisson  killed  at  the  opening  of  the  Liver-
pool and  Manchester  railway  . . .15  Sept. „
Grey  administration  formed  .... Nov. „
King  opens  new  London  bridge  . . . Aug. 1831
The  cholera  morbus  in  England . . .26  Oct. ,,
Reform  bill  rejected  by  the  lords, 7  Oct.  ; fatal

Bristol  riots 29  Oct. ,,

English  Reform  act  passed  . . 7  June,  1832

Assault  on  William  IV.  by  a  discharged  pensioner  at

Ascot 19  June, ,,

Sir  Walter  Scott  dies .... 21  Sept. „
S.  T.  Coleridge  dies  .  .... 25  July,  1834

Slavery  ceases  in  the  colonies . . .1  Aug. ,,
Corporation  reform  act  passed  ... 9  Sept. 1835
Victoria,  accession  ;  Hanover  separated  from
Great  Britain .... 20  June,  1837
Coronation  of  queen  Victoria  . . 28  June,  1838

Beginning  of  war  with  China  .  .  .  March,  1839
Penny  postage  begins  ....  10  Jan.  1840
Marriage  of  the  queen  with  prince  Albert  of  Saxe-

Coburg  (see  p.  299)  . . . .  10  Feb. ,,

Oxford's  assault  on  the  queen  .  .  .  10  June,  ,,
Prince  of  Wales  born  .... 0  Nov. 1841

King  of  Prussia  visits  England . . 24  Jan. 1842
John  Francis  fires  at  the  queen  . . .30  May, ,,
Bean  presents  a  pistol  at  her  ... 3  July, ,,
Income  tax  act  passed  . .  . Aug. ,,

Queen  embarks  for  Scotland  (1st  visit)  . 29  Aug. ,,
Peace  of  Nankin  (with  China) . . . Dee. ,,
Death  of  duke  of  Sussex . . . 21  April,  1843
Queen's  visit  to  the  Orleans  family  at  Chateau  d'Eu,

2  Sept. ,,
Emperor  of  Russia  visits  England . . 1  June,  1844
Kim,'  Louis  Philippe's  visit  (see  France) . 6  Oct. ,,
Tractai'ian  or  Puseyite  controversy . . . 1S44-5


Anti-corn-law  agitation 1845

Queen's  visit  to  Germany . . . .9  Aug. ,,
Peel's  new  tariff,  1845  ;  railway  mania . .  Nov. ,,
Commercial  panic ..... March,  1846
Corn  laws  repealed  .  . .26  June, „ -

Chartist  demonstration  in  London . .  10  April,  1848
Cholera  re-appears  in  England  in  . . 1848  and  1849
Queen  embarks  on  her  visit  to  Ireland . 1  Aug. ,,
Adelaide,  queen  dowager,  dies . . .2  Dec. ,,
"  Exhibition  of  1851  "  announced . . 3  Jan.  1850
Death  of  Wordsworth  (aged  80) . . 23  April, ,,
Pate's  assault  on  the  queen . . .27  June, ,,
Death  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (aged  62) . .2  July, „
Duke  of  Cambridge  dies .... 8  July, ,,
Queen's  visit  to  Belgium ... 21  Aug. ,,
Great  excitement  occasioned  by  the  pope's  establish-
ment of  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,

Nov. ,,
Sixth  census  of  United  Kingdom  (see  Population)

(27,637,761) 30  March,  1851

The  first  "  Great  Exhibition  "  opened  . 1  May, ,,

Australian  gold  arrives .... Dec. ,,
Death  of  the  poet  Thomas  Moore . . 26  Feb.  1852
John  Camden  Neild,  an  eccentric  miser,  bequeathed

about  250,000?.  to  the  queen  ;  he  died  30  Aug.  ,,
Slight  earthquake  at  Liverpool,  &c.  .  .9  Nov.  ,,
Death  of  Wellington  (aged  83), Sept. 14  ;  public

funeral 18  Nov. „

Camp  at  Chobham  ...  14  June-19  Aug.  1853
Death  of  sir  Charles  Napier,  conqueror  of  Scinde,

29  Aug. ,,
English  and  French  fleets  enter  Bosphorus,  22  Oct. ,,
Protocol  signed  between  England,  France,  Austria,
and  Prussia,  for  re-establishment  of  peace  between

Russia  and  Turkey 5  Dec. ,,

Many  meetings  on  eastern  question,  favourable  to

Turkey Sept.  to  Dec. „

Great  strike  at  Preston  ;  14,972  hands  unemployed

at  one  time . . .15  Oct.  1853,  to  1  May,  1854
Queen  reviews  Baltic  fleet . . .  11  March, „
Treaty  of  alliance  between  England,  France,  and

Turkey  signed 12  March, ,,

War  declared  against  Russia  (see  Russo-Turkish  War)

28  March,  ,,
Fast  day  on  account  of  the  war  .  .  26  April,  ,,
Marquis  of  Anglesey  dies  .  .  ...  28  May,  „
King  of  P6rtugal  visits  England  .  .  .  June,  ,,
Crystal  Palace  opened  by  the  queen .  10  June, ,,

Cholera  prevails  in  the  south  and  west  of  London,

Aug.  and  Sept.  ,,
Thanksgiving  for  abundant  harvest  .  .  1  Oct.  ,,
Great  explosion  and  fire  at  Gateshead  and  Newcastle,

6  Oct.  „
Meeting  of  Parliament  ....  12  Dec.  ,,
Resignation  of  Aberdeen  ministry  .  .  29  Jan.  1855
Formation  of  Palmerston  ministry  .  .  Feb.  ,,
Death  of  Joseph  Hume  (aged  78)  .  .  20  Feb.  ,,
Sebastopol  inquiry  committee  named  .  23  Feb.  ,,
Visit  of  emperor  and  empress  of  French,

16  to  21  April, ,,
Loan  of  16  millions  agreed  to  April, ,,

Distribution  of  Crimean  medals  .  .  18  May,  ,,
Metropolitan  cattle  market  opened  .  .  13  June,  „
Agitation  and  rioting  concerning  Sunday  trading

bill,  which  is  withdrawn ...  2  July, „
The  queen  and  prince  visit  Paris . .18  Aug. „
Peace  with  Russia  proclaimed,  19  April ;  thanks-
giving day,  4  May  ;  illuminations,  &c. 29  May,  1856
War  with  China  (which  see) .... Oct. ,,
War  with  Persia  (which  see) . . .  Nov. ,,
Mutiny  of  Indian  army  begins  (see  India) .  March,  1857
Dissolution  of  parliament,  21  March ;  new  parlia-
ment meets 30  April, ,,

Death  of  duchess  of  Gloucester  (aged  81),  the  last  of

George  III. 's  children . . . 30  April, ,,
Opening  of  the  Fine  Arts  exhibition  at  Manchester,

5  May, ,,
Educational  conference  in  London,  prince  Albert  in
the  chair ......  22  June, „

Victoria  crosses  (which  see)  distributed  by  the  queen

in  Hyde-park 26  June, ,,

Meetings  for  relief  of  sufferers  by  the  mutiny  in

India  [by  15  Nov.  260,000?.  raised] .  25  Aug. ,,

Great  commercial  panic  ;  relieved  by  susjiension  of

Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844 . . .12  Nov. „
Parliament  meets 3  Dec. ,,


ENGLAND.


337


ENGLAND.


Marriage  of  princess  royal  to  prince  Frederick-Wil-
liam of  Prussia 25  Jan. 1858

Excitement  respecting  attempted  assassination  of

Louis  Napoleon,  14  Jan.  ;  indiscreet  addresses  of

French  colonels,  published . . -27  Jan. ,,

"  Conspiracy  to  Mulder  "  bill  (introduced  by  lord

Pahnerston,  8  Feb.)  rejected,  19  Feb.  ;  Palmerston

ministry  resigns 22  Feb. ,,

Derby-Disraeli  administration  formed  .  26  Feb.  „
Dr.  Simon  Bernard  acquitted  of  conspiracy  against

the  life  of  Louis  Napoleon  .  .  .  17  April,  ,,
The  Jewish  Disabilities  bill  passed  .  .  23  July,  ,,
The  India  bill  passed ....  2  Aug. ,,

The  queen  visits  Birmingham,  15  June;  Cherbourg,
4,  5  Aug.  ;  the  princess  royal  (at  Potsdam), 12
Aug.  &e.  ;  and  Leeds .... Sept. „
Excitement  about  the  confessional ;  public  meet-
ings held  against  it  .12  July  and  18  Sept. „
The  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science

meet  at  Liverpool 12  Oct. ,,

Excitement  respecting  the  Italian  war  ;  proclama-
tion for  manning  the  navy  ... 30  April,  1859
Thanksgivingfor  suppression  of  Indian  mutiny,  1  May, ,,
Declaration  of  neutrality  of  England  . . 12  May, „
Proclamation  for  the  organisation  of  volunteer  rifle

corps  :  many  formed .... May-Oet. „
The  Derby  ministry  defeated  on  the  Reform  bill  ;
dissolve parliament,  23 April  ; again  defeated,
they  resign  n  June  ;  the  Pahnerston- Russell  ad-
ministration formed . . . .18  June, „
The  Handel  commemoration  . .  20,  22,  24  June, ,,
The  income-tax  increased  to  provide  for  the  defences

of  the  country July, ,,

Lord  Macaulay  dies  (aged  59) .  28  Dec. „

Commercial  treaty  with  France,  signed  23  Jan.  ;

approved  by  parliament ....  March,  i860
Sir  Charles  Barry  dies  (aged  65) . . 12  May, „
The  queen  reviews  18,000  volunteers  in  Hyde-park,

23  June. „
National  rifle  shooting  match  at  Wimbledon  (see

Volunteers) 2-7  July, „

The  earl  of  Derby  reviews  about  11,000  Lancashire

volunteers  at  Knowsley  .  .  .  .1  Sept.  „
The  queen  and  prince  visit  their  daughter  in  Prussia

Sept.  „
Peace  with  China  signed  .  .  .  .24  Oct.  ,,
Thos.  Cochrane,  earl  of  Dundonald.  dies  (aged  82)

31  Oct. „
Prince  of  Wales  visits  Canada  and  United  States,

24  July-20  Oct.  ;  returns . . .15  Nov. ,,
Severe  cold  (see  Cold)  . . Dec.  i860,  and  Jan. 1861
Charter  granted  for  Exhibition  of  1862 . 14  Feb. „
Death  of  duchess  of  Kent  (aged  75) . 16  March, ,,
Excitement  about  "  Essays  and  Reviews  " . . ,,
Seventh  census  taken  (29,192,419) . . .  8  April, ,,
King  of  Sweden  and  his  son  visit  London Aug. ,,
Great  excitement  through capt. Wilkes  (of  U.S.
navy)  forcibly  taking  Messrs.  Slidell  and  Mason
from  the  Royal  British  Mail  steamer  Trent  (see

United  States) 8  Nov. „

Death  of  the  prince  consort  of  "typhoid  fever,
duration  21  days," 14  Dec.  ;  buried  (see  Albert

Memorial) 23  Dec. ,,

The United States' government  release  Messrs.

Slidell  and  Mason 28  Dec „

Second  great  International  Exhibition  opened  by  the

duke  of  Cambridge 1  May,  1862

Inundations  in  Norfolk  (see  Levels)  .  .  .  May,  ,,
Marriage  of  princess  Alice  to  Louis  of  Hesse,  1  July,  ,,
Prince  Alfred  declared  king  of  Greece  at  Athens

(throne  declined) 23  Oct. ,,

Final  closing  of  international  exhibition  .  15  Nov.  ,,
Remains  of  the  prince  consort  transferred  to  the

mausoleum  at  Frogmore ...  18  Dec. ,,

Great  distress  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  districts
begins,  April :  contributions  received,  central  re-
lief fund,  407,830/. ;  Mansion-house  fund,  236,926/.

20  Dec. ,,

Rupture  witli  Brazil Jan. 1863

Prince  Alfred  elected  king  of  Greece  . . 3  Feb. ,,
Princess Alexandra  of Denmark enters  London,
7 March ; married to the prince of Wales,

10  March, „
The  British,  French,  and  Austrian  governments  re-
monstrate with  Russia  on  cruelties  in  Poland,

7  April, ,,
Inauguration  of  the  Great  Exhibition  memorial  to


the  prince  consort  in  the  Horticultural  gardens,

London tI  June,  1863

Arrival  of  captains  Grant  and  Speke  from  exploring

the  source  of  the  Nile .... June, ,,
Great  decrease  of  distress  in  cotton  districts Oct. ,,
Earthquake  in  central  and  N.  W.  England .  6  Oct. ,,
The  government  declines  the  French  emperor's  pro-
posal for  a  congress  of  sovereigns  . .  Nov. ,,
Death  of  William  Thackeray  (aged  52)  . 24  Dec. ,,
Birth  of  prince  Albert- Victor  of  Wales . 8  Jan. 1864
Final  judgment  of  the  judicial  committee of  the
privy  council  that  the  government  had  no  autho-
rity to  seize  the  Alexandra  (Confederate)  steamer

8  Feb.  „
Garibaldi's  visit  to  England  .  .  .  3-27  April,  ,,
The  Ionian  isles  made  over  to  Greece  .  1  June,  ,,
European  conference  at  London  on  the  Schleswig-

Holstein  question  ;  no  result, 24  April — 25  June, ,,
Great  excitement  through  the  murder  of  Mr.  Briggs
in  a  first-class  carriage  on  the  North-London  rail-
way 9  July, „

Great  explosion  of gunpowder  at  the Belvedere

magazine,  near  Woolwich  .  .  .  .1  Oct.  ,,
Death  of  John  Leech  (aged  47) .  .  .  29  Oct.  ,,
Death  of  Richard  Cobden  (aged  61)  .  2  April,  1865
Prince  George  of  Wales  born  ...  3  June,  ,,
Resignation  of  lord-chancellor  Westbury  .  "4  July,  ,,
General  election ;  majority  for  Palmerston  adminis-
tration 10  July,  &e. ,,

Visit  of  Abd-el-Kader  ;  departs . . 6  Aug. ,,
Prevalence  of  a cattle  plague, June-Oct.  ; royal

commission  appointed  ;  met . . .10  Oct. ,,
English  fleet  visits  Cherbourg,  15  Aug.  ;  French  fleet

visits  Portsmouth . . . . 29,  30  Aug. ,,
Fine  art  and  industrial  exhibitions  opened  in  Lon-
don and  the  provinces . . . July-Sept. ,,
Death  of  lord  Pahnerston,  18  Oct.  ;  public  funeral

27  Oct.  „
Earl  Russell  premier  ....  3  Nov.  ,,
Important  commercial  treaty  with  Austria  signed

16  Dec. „
New  parliament  opened  by  the  queen  . . 6  Feb. 1866
New  reform  bill introduced by  Mr. Gladstone,

12  Mar.  ,,
Commercial  panic  in  London  .  .  11  May,  et  se<i.  ,,
International  botanical  congress  opened  .  22  May,  ,,
Defeat  of the government on the reform bid,

18  June  ;  resignation  of  ministers . 26  June, ,,

Marriage  of  princess  Helena  to  prince  Christian  of
Schleswig-Holstein .... 5  July, ,,

The  third  Derby  cabinet  formed  . . . 6  July', ,,

The  Atlantic  telegraph  completely  laid,  and  mes-
sages sent  to  lord  Stanley ... 27  July, (>

The  cable  of  1865  recovered,  and  communication
established  with  Valentia,  2  Sept.  ;  and  with  New-
foundland 8  Sept.

Projected  attack  of  Fenians  on  Chester  prevented
by  the  authorities . . . .  11,  12  Feb. 1867-

The  queen  laid  foundation  of  the  Albert  hall  of  arts
at  S.  Kensington 20  May,

Visit  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  . . . 6-18  July, ,,

Visit  of  the  Belgian  volunteers  (see  Belgium),

to-22  July, ,,

Visit  of  the  Sultan  (see  T11  rkey)  . . 12-23  July,

"Early  Years  of  the  Prince  Consort,"  published
end  of July, ,,

New  Reform  act  passed  (see  Reform)  . . 15  Aug.

Michael  Faraday,  natural  philosopher(nearly  76)  died

25  Aug. ,,

Preparations  for  the  expedition  to  Abyssinia  (see
Abyssinia) ....... Aug.

Fenian  outrages  ;  rescue  of  prisoners  at  Manchester
(see  Fenians) 18  Sept „

Synod  of  bishops  at  Lambeth  (see  Pan-Anglican)

24-27  Sept. ,,

Meeting  of  parliament  respecting  Abyssinian  war,

19  Nov. ,,

Fenian  explosion  at  Clcrkenwell  prison, London,

13  Dec
Special  constables  called  for  ;  113,674  (in  the  U.K.)

sworn  in  by 28  Jan. 186S

"  Leaves  from  our  Journal  in  Scotland,"  &<•.,  by  the

queen,  published Jan.

Resignation  of  earl  of  Derby,  25  Feb.  ;  the  Disraeli

ministry  formed 29  Feb.

The  queen  holds  a  drawing-room  again 12  March',
Mr.  Gladstone's  resolution  for  disestablishing  the

Irish  church  ;  adopted  by  the  commons,  30  April,


ENGLAND.


338


ENGLAND.


Death  of  lord  Brougham,  aged  89  .  .  7  May,  1 868
Arrival  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  from  Ausnalia

26  June, ,,
Irish  and  Scotch  reform  acts  passed . 13  July, ,,
Nearly  21,000  extra  deaths  attributed  to  the  hot
summer  (23  July  said  to  be  the  hottest)

i  July — 30  Sept. ,,
Parliament  dissolved  1 1  Nov. ,  new  parliament  meets

10  Dec. „
Resignation  of  Disraeli  ministry,  2  Dec.  ;  Gladstone

ministry  take  office 9  Dec. „

Convention  with  the  United  States  respecting  the
Alabama  claim  signed  (afterwards  rejected  by  the

States) 14  Jan. 1869

New  parliament  meets  for  business  .  .  16  Feb.  ,,
Irish Church  bill  introduced  into  the  commons,

1  March  ;  royal  assent.  ...  26  July,  ,,
The  earl  of  Derby  dies  (aged  70) . . . 23  Oct. „

Parliament  meets 8  Feb. 1870

Charles  Dickens  dies  (aged  58)  .  .  .9  June,  „
Earl  of  Clarendon  dies  (aged  70)  .  .  27  June,  „
Irish  land  bill  brought  in,  15  Feb.,  received  royal

assent 8  July, „

Neutrality  in  Franco-Prussian  war  (which  see)  pro-
claimed 19  Jllly. i)

2,ooo,oooZ.  voted  to  increase  the  army  by  20,000  men

1  Aug. ,,
Foreign  enlistment  act  passed, 1  Aug.  ;  stringent

proclamation  of  neutrality  issued  .  .  9  Aug.  ,,
Parliament  prorogued  ....  10  Aug.  „
Treaty  with  Prussia  and  France  for  neutrality  ol

Belgium  signed .... 9,  11  Aug. ,,
Long  drought :  bad  hay  harvest :  good  wheat  har-
vest Mar.— Aug. „

Earl  Granville  repels  the  charge  of  violating  neu-
tralities made  by  the  Prussian  government,

1-15  Sept. „
'The  queen's  consent  to  the  marriage  of  the  princess
Louise to the marquis of Lome announced

24  Oct. ,,
Foot  and  mouth  disease  prevalent  among  cattle

Aug.  —Nov.  ,,
Election  of  elementary  school-boards  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Excitement  through  the  Russian  note  respecting

the  Black  sea  (see  Russia)  .  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Eoundation  of  new  Post-office  laid  .  16  Dec.  ,,
Resignation  of  Mr.  Bright  announced . 20  Dec. ,,

Parliament  meets 9  Feb.  1871

Marriage  of  the  princess  Louise  and  the  marquis  of

Lome 21  March, ,,

Royal  Albert  Hall,  Kensington,  opened  by  the  queen

29  March,  ,,
Eighth  census  taken  (31,817.108)  .  .  3  April,  ,,
Death  of  sir  John  F. Herschel, astronomer  and

philosopher  (aged  79)  ....  11  May,  „
Death  of  George  Grote,  historian  of  Greece  (aged  77)

18  June, ,,
First  annual  International  Exhibition  at  South  Ken-
sington, opened  1  May,  closed  . . 30  Sept. „
Black  Sea  conference  met  17  Jan..  closed  (neutrali-
sation of  Black  Sea  abrogated,  &c) .  13  March, ,,
Disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  England  bill  re-
jected in  the  commons  (374 — 89),  1  May  ;  parlia-
ment prorogued . . . . ■ .  21  Aug. ,,
Illness  of  the  queen  at  Balmoral,  4  Sept.  ;  recovery

13  Sept. „
Serious  illness  of  the  prince  of  Wales  from  typhoid

fever,  Dec.  ;  began  to  recover  .  .  14  Dec.  ,,
Letter  from  the  queen  and  princess  to  the  people,

thanking  them  for  sympathy  .  .  .26  Dec.  ,,
Thanksgivings for recovery  of prince of  Wales

21  Jan.  1872
Excitement  respecting  the  American  claims  under
the  treaty  of  Washington .... Feb. „

Meeting  of  parliament 6  Feb.

The  queen,  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  and  court
and  parliament  go  in  state  to  St.  Paul's  ;  national
thanksgiving  for  recovery  of  the  prince  of  Wales  ;
London  decorated  ;  illuminations,  &e.  ;  a  success-
ful day 27  Feb.

The  queen  in  a  public  letter,  gazetted  1  March,  says,
"Words  are  too  weak  for  the  queen  to  say  how
very  deeply  touched  and  gratified  she  has  been
by  the  immense  enthusiasm  and  affection  ex-
hibited towards  her  dear  son  and  herself,"  dated

29  Feb. „
The "  queen, while entering Buckingham Palace,


threatened  by  Arthur  O'Connor,  aged  about  18,
who  presents  an  unloaded  pistol,  with  a  paper  to
be  signed  ;  immediately  apprehended .  29  Feb. 1872
The  queen  sailed  for  Germany,  and  stayed  several

weeks 23  March — 7  April, ,,

Strikes  among  agricultural  labourers  in  Warwick-
shire and  other  counties ;  union  formed,  29  March, ,,
Arthur  O'Connor  pleads  guilty  (sentenced  to  im-
prisonment and  flogging) . . . .9  April, „
Correspondence  between  the  British  and  American
governments  respecting  the  claims  for  indirect
losses,  which  the  former  rejects  . 3  Feb.— May, ,,
Supplemental  treaty  proposed  ;  accepted  by  U.  S.
senate,  25  May  ;  further  discussion  in  parliament ;
unsatisfactory correspondence; the  U.S. con-
gress adjourns 10  June, „

Strikes  among  builders  and  other  trades .June, ,,
Final  meeting  of  arbitrators  ; damages  awarded  ;
see  Alabama ...... 14  Sept. ,,

New commercial  treaty with France signed at

London 5  Nov. ,  ,

Continued  rain  ;  floods  in  Midland  counties  .  Dec.  ,,
Death  of  Edward  Bulwer  Lord  Lytton,  orator,  poet,

and  novelist,  aged  66 . . . .18  Jan.  1873
Strikes  among  colliers,  Jan.  ;  great  dearth  of  coal  ;

the  best,  52s.  a  ton  in  London  . . 15  Feb. ,,

Resignation  of  Mr.  Gladstone  on  account  of  a  defeat
in  the  Commons  on  the  Dublin  university  bill
(287 — 284),  13  March;  resumes  office,  17  March,  ,,
Visit  of  the  shah  of  Persia  .  18  June — 5  July,  ,,
Proposed  marriage  of  duke  of  Edinburgh  to  grand-
duchess  Marie  of  Russia  announced  by  the  queen,
17  July  ;  Annuity  bill  for  the  duke  passed,  5  Aug. ,,

Judicature  Act  passed 5  Aug. ,,

Severely  contested  elections  :  conservative  reaction,

Sept. -Oct. „
Marriage  of  duke  and  duchess  of  Edinburgh,  23  Jan.'  1874

Parliament  dissolved 26  Jan. ,,

General  election ;  conservative  majority  about  50,
Feb.  ;  Gladstone  ministry  resigns,  17  Feb. ;  Dis-
raeli ministry  formed  . . . . 21  Feb. ,,
Close  of  the  Tiehborne  trial  (see  Trials) . 28  Feb. ,,
Meeting  of  parliament . . .  5  March, ,,

The  duke  and  duchess  of  Edinburgh  enter  London,

12  March, ,,
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  returns  from  his successful

expedition  against  the  Ashautees  .  21  March,  ,,
Visit  of  the  czar  of  Russia  .  .  .  13-21  May,  ,,
Public  worship  regulation  act  passed  .  7  Aug.  ,,
Fruitful  season  ;  excellent  corn  crop  .  Aug. -Sept.  ,,
The  queen  receives  a  testimonial  of  gratitude  from
the  French  nation  for  British  assistance  during

the  war  (see  France) 3  Dec. ,,

Meeting  of  parliament 5  Feb. 1875

Moody  and  Sankey,  American  revivalists,  arrive  in
London,  9  March ;  sail  from  Liverpool  (see  Re-
vivals) 4  Aug. ,,

Parliament  prorogued .... 13  Aug. ,,
Railway  jubilee  at  Darlington . . .  27  Sept. ,,
Departure  of  the  prince  of  Wales  for  India,  11  Oct. „
The  khedive's  shares  in  the  Suez  canal  bought  by
the British government (see Suez) 1 Nov.,

announced 25  Nov. ,,

Parliament  opened  by  the  queen  in  person,  8  Feb. 1876
The  queen  sails  for  Germany  (all  her  sons  abroad),

28  March ;  returns 22  April, ,,

Royal  titles  bill  received  royal  assent  .  27  April,  ,,
The  queen  proclaimed  "empress  of  India,"  1  May,  ,,
Arrival  of  prince  of  Wales  at  Portsmouth,  11  May, ,,

Parliament  prorogued 15  Aug. ,,

Great  heat ;  failure  in  fruit  crops  ;  harvest  beneath

average middle  Aug. „

Great  excitement  and  many  public  meetings  respect-
ing the  Turkish  atrocities  in  Bulgaria,  Aug. -Oct. ,,
Mr.  Gladstone's  "  Horrors  in  Bulgaria  "  published,

6  Sept. „
National  conference  against  war  to  defend  Turkey,

St.  James's  hall 8  Dec. ,,

Parliament  opened  by  the  queen . . . 8  Feb.  1877
Proclamation  of  neutrality  in  Russo-Turkish  war,

30  April,  ,,
Debate  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  resolutions  :— 1st.  That
this  house  found  much  cause  for  dissatisfaction
and  complaint  in  the  conduct  of  the  Ottoman
Porte,  with  regard  to  the  despatch  written  by  the
earl  of  Derby,  21  Sept.  1876,  and  relating  to  the


ENGLAND.


339


ENGLAND.


massacres  in  Bulgaria,  (for  the  resolution,  225  ;
against,  354) 7-14  May,  1877

Fleet  sent  to  Besika  bay .... 3  July, ,,

Statue  of  king  Alfred  by  count  Gleiehen,  at  Wan-
tage, unveiled  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  his  de-
scendant ' .14  Jul}", ,,

Early  meeting  of  parliament  on  account  of  Russo-
Turkish  war 17  Jan.  1878

"Vote  of  6,000,000?.  asked  for  before  entering  into
conference  respecting  eastern  affairs,  24  Jan.  ;
debate * . .31  Jan. „

Jjiberal  amendment  withdrawn  on  report  of  Russian
advance  on  Constantinople,  7  Feb.  ;  vote  passed
(204-124) 8  Feb. „

■Warlike  policy  of  the  ministry  ;  resignation  of  lord
Carnarvon,  24  Jan.  ;  and  earl  of  Derby  (seeDisraeli
Administration) .... 28  March, „

Message  of  the  queen,  respecting  calling  out  the
reserves,  &c,  2  April  ;  adopted  by  parliament,

April, „

.Earl  of  Salisbury's  circular,  indicting  the  Treaty  of
San  Stefano,  2  April ;  moderate  reply  of  Gort-
schakoff,  printed 10  April, ,,

Indian  troops  ordered  to  Malta,  about . 17  April, ,,

■Censured  by  the  opposition  ;  debate  in  commons  ;
for  government,  347  ;  against,  226 . 20-23  May, „

Earl  Russell  died,  aged  85 . . . .28  May „

The  ministry  announce  the  meeting  of  a  European
congress  on  the  eastern  question,  to  meet  on  "13
June ;  the  earl  of  Beaconsfield  and  the  marquis
<of  Salisbury  to  attend  for  England. (See  Berlin),

3  June, ,,
Anglo-Turkish  convention  (see  Turkey)  signed,

4  June, ,,
The  conference  meets  at  Berlin  (xuMcli  see)  13  June  ;

treaty  signed 13  July, „

10,000?.  a  year  voted  for  the  duke  of  Connaught  for
his  proposed  marriage  with  princess  Louise  Mar-
garet of  Prussia 25  July, ,,

Debate  on  the  Berlin  treaty,  in  the  commons ;
great  speech  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  30  July  ;  majority
for  government  (338 — 195) . 29  July — 3  Aug. ,,

-Parliament  prorogued  ...  .16  Aug. ,,

Meeting  of  parliament  on  account  of  Afghan  war,

5  Dec. ,,

Majority  for  ministers  on  vote  of  censure,  lords  (201-
65),  10  Dec;  commons  (328-227) . 13-14  Dec. „

Death  of  princess  Alice  by  diphtheria  at  Darmstadt,
alter  attendance  on  her  husband,  the  grand-duke,
and  children,  7.30  a.m. ... 14  Dec. ,,

Severe  winter,  many  persons  unemployed  Dec. ,,

Parliament  adjourned  (to  13  Feb.) .  . 17  Dec. ,,

'The  Queen  in  a  letter  thanks  her  subjects  for  their
sympathy  with  her  loss  of  a  dear  child,  who
was  "  a  bright  example  of  loving  tenderness,  cou-
rageous devotion,  and  self-sacrifice  to  duty,"  dated

26  Dec. ,,

Edward  Byrne  Madden  (?  lunatic)  arrested  for
threatening  to  attack  the  Queen  in  letters  to  the
Home  Office,  12  Dec.  1878  ;  judged  insane,  13  Jan.  1879

2,500,000?.  voted  for  Zulu  war . . 27  Feb. „

Expedition  sent  (between  8,000  and  9,010  men,  1,800
horses,  &c), Feb.,  March, ,,

Marriage  of  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  at
Windsor 13  March, „

The  Queen  at  Paris,  26  March,  arrives  at  Baveno,
on  Lago  Maggiore . . . .28  March, ,,

Proposed  censure  of  government  respecting  Zulu
war,  <fec,  negatived,  lords  (156-61),  25  March;
commons  (306-246) . . 31  March-i  April, „

Great  depression  of  trade  (attributed  to  bad  har-
vest, famine,  pestilence,  war,  and  over-trading)  1878-9

Commons  debate  on  the  budget,  for  government,
303 ;  against,  230 . . . . 28-29  April, >>

Cold  and  very  wet  summer,  little  sunshine,  failure
of  corn  and  fruit  crops . . . autumn,  1879

Severe  weather,  Nov.  very  cold,  i-i2Dec.  and  Jan.,
much  fog 1880

Parliament  opened  by  the  Queen,  5  Feb.,  dissolved

23  Feb. ,,

General  election,  great  liberal  majority,  30  March —
16  April  ;  resignation  of  ministry . 22  April, „

Gladstone  ministry  formed . . .29  April, ,,

New  parliament  meets  29th  April,  Bradlaugh  diffi-
culty (see  pa rlia vie nts)  . . 3  May  et  scq. ,,

Fine  autumn,  good  average  harvest,  improved  trade,

Oct. ,


Early  meeting  of  parliament  on  account  of  Ireland,

6  Jan.

Successful  review  of  about  52,000  volunteers  by  the
queen  at  Windsor 9  July,

Parliament  prorogued .... 27  Aug.

Wet  autumn ;  deficient  harvest ;  much  depression

Sept.

Court  and  general  mourning  for  death  of  gen.
Garfield,  president  of  United  States 21-27  Sept.

Gradual  revival  of  trade . . .1  July-30  Oct.

Great  hurricane  throughout  England,  causing  de-
struction of  life,  property,  and  shipping,  13-15  Oct.

Very  mild  winter Nov. -Feb.

Meeting  of  parliament .... 7  Feb.

The  queen  shot  at,  at  Great  Western  railway  station,
Windsor,  by  Roderick  Maclean,  aged  27  ;  2nd
March  ;  he  is  committed  for  trial  for  high  treason

10  March,

The  queen's  letter  of  thanks  for  general  sympathy
dated 12  March,

She  sails  for  Mentone,  14  March ;  arrives,  16
March  ;  leaves  it,  12  April ;  at  Windsor,  14  April,

The  queen  dedicates  Epping  Forest  to  the  use  of
the  people  for  all  time . . . . 6  May,

Parliament  adjourned,  and  meets  on  24  Oct.  ;  pro-
rogued 2  Dec.

New  law  courts,  London,  opened  by  the  queen  4  Dec.

Great  excitement  through  attempted  explosion  of
Local  Government  office . .  15  March,

Detection  of  secret  manufacture  of  explosives  at
Birmingham,  4  April;  arrest  of  Alfred  White-
head, Thos.  Gallagher,  phvsician,  Win.  Norman,
H.  H.  Wilson.  H.  D.  E.  and  Henry  Dalton,  other-
wise John  O'Connor . . . .5-6  April,

Other  arrests  in  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  and  London
about  6-7  April,

Parliament  prorogued  ....  25  Aug.

The  queen  publishes  "More  Leaves  from  my
Journal  in  the  Highlands" . . .11  Feb.

Egypt  and  the  Soudan:  censare  of  the  government
for  its  "vacillating  and  inconsistent  policy,"
voted  by  the  lords  (181-81)  12  Feb.  ;  rejected  by
the  commons  (311-262) . . . 12-20  Feb.

Prince  Leopold,  duke  of  Albany,  dies,  age  nearly
31,  28  March  ;  buried  at  Windsor  . . 5  April,

The  queen  starts  for  Darmstadt . . 16  April,

The  queen  in  a  letter  expresses  her  deep  sense  of
the  loving  sympathy  of  her  subjects  in  all  parts
of  her  empire  and  also  of  foreign  countries  with
herself  and  the  duchess  of  Albany . 14  April,

The  queen  present  at  the  marriage  of  her  grand-
daughter princess  Victoria  of  Hesse  to  prince
Louis  of  Battenburg  at  Darmstadt,  30  April  ;
returned  to  Windsor  . . . .7  May,

Vote  of  censure  of  the  government  for  not  support-
ing Gordon  negatived  in  the  commons  (303-275)

12-14  May,

Parliament  prorogued . . . .14  Aug.

Good  harvest,  continued  fine  weather  . July,  Aug.

Parliament  meets ... 23  Oct. — 6  Dec.

Franchise  bill  passed,  see  under  Reform . 6  Dec.

Prince  Albert  Victor  Edward  of  Wales  comes  of
age 8  Jan.

Parliament  meets 19  Feb.

Ordered  that  the  militia  be  embodied  and  soldiers
stopped  from  entering  the  reserve . 18  Feb.

Vote  of  censure  on  the  government  respecting
Egypt,  passed  by  the  lords  (189-58);  negatived  by
the  commons  (302-288)  ... 27,  28  Feb.

Day  of  mourning  for  general  Gordon  and  the  killed
in  the  Soudan 13  March,

Reserves  to  be  called  out  in  prospect  of  war  with
Russia 27  March,

The  queen  visits  Aix-les-Bains,  &C.  1  April-2  May,
(See  Ireland,  Parliament,  and  Revenue.)

Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  (see  under  Reform)
passed ." 25  June,

Vigorous  preparations  for  war  :  vote  of  credit  for
11,000,000?.  passed  by  the  commons  (see  Russia)

27  April,

Resignation  of  the  Gladstone  ministry  on  account
of  minority  on  the  Budget  bill  (264-252)  8-9  June,

Ministry  of  (be  marquis  of  Salisbury  formed  24  June,

Parliament  prorogued . . . .14  Aug.

Very  dry  summer,  average  harvest . . . .

The  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  a  great  philanthropist,
dies,  aged  84 1  Oct.

z  2


ENGLAND.


340


ENGLAND.


Agitation  for  the  disestablishment  of  the  Church,  &c.

autumn,  1885
Dissolution  of  parliament . . .  18  Nov. ,,

Elections  :  about  333  Liberals,  251  Conservatives,

86  Parnellites  ....  23  Nov-18  Dec.  „
The  new  parliament  meets  12  Jan.  ;  opened  by  the

queen 21  Jan.  1886

Resignation  of  the  Salisbury  administration  (ivhich

see) 27 Jan- 11

Gladstone's  third  administration  formed 2-6  Feb. ,,

Long  winter  ;  severe  cold,  Feb.  ;  heavy  snowstorms

in N.E. counties ; railway  trains snowed  up

several  days . . . . 1,  2,  3  March, ,,

Mr.  Gladstone  introduces  his  bill  to  "  make  better

provision  for  the  future  government  of  Ireland  "

8  April, „
Colonial and Indian  Exhibition  (the  first  great
national  exhibition)  opened  at  South  Kensington

by  the  queen 4  Mav> n

International  exhibition  of  navigation,  commerce,

&c,  at  Liverpool  opened  by  the  queen  11  May,  „
Queen  Victoria's  jubilee  year  begins  .  20  June,  ,,
Excessively  cold  spring  and  summer  .,..,,
"Very  hot  part  of  June  and  July  .  .  .  .  ,,
Parliamentary  election  on  Mr.  G'adstone's  Irish
policy  (reported,  316  conservatives,  191  Glad-
stonians,  78  unionists,  85  Parnellites)  .  July,  ,,
The  Gladstone  administration  resigns  20  July, ,,

The  second  Salisbury  administration  {which  see)
formed  26  July  ;  the  marquis  of  Hartington  and
friends decline to form a coalition  ministry

31  Deo. ,,
Revival  of  trade  and  commerce,  last  half  of „

Meeting  of  parliament .... 28  Jan.  188;
The  queen  starts  for  the  Riviera  29  March  ;  visits
Cannes, Aix-les-Bains, &c. 1 April, ct seq. ;
returns  to  England . . . .29  April, ,,
The  queen  attends  the  jubilee  service  at  "Westmin-
ster Abbey  (see  Jubilee)  21 June  ; she  issues  a
letter  to  the  nation expressing  her profound
gratitude  for  the  very  kind  reception  by  the  vast
multitude  during  her  progress  to,  and  return
from  the  Abbey,  and  her  high  admiration  for  the
excellent  order  preserved  ... 24  June, ,,
Severe  drought ; 35  rainless  days  in  some  parts

(11  weeks)  ....  June-mid.  Aug.  ,,
Very  early  harvest  ....  summer,  „
Parliament  prorogued  .  .  .  .16  Sept.  ,,
Amicable  conventions  respecting  Suez  canal  and

New  Hebrides,  signed  at  Paris  .  .  24  Oct.  ,,
Meeting  of  parliament  .... 9  Feb.  i88>

The  queen  starts  for  Florence  21  March ;  at
Florence  24  March  ;  at  Innsbruck  23  April  ;  at
Berlin  24  April ;  in  London  . . 27  April, ,,

Local  Government  Act  (ivhich  see)  passed 13  Aug. ,,
Parliament  adjourns  till  6  Nov.  . . 13  Aug. „

The  queen's  visit  to  Glasgow . . 18,  19  Aug. ,,
Cold  wet  summer,  very  fine  autumn  1888  ;  very
mild  weather, London much warmer  than  at
Constantinople,  Paris,  &c. . . .4  Dec. ,,
Parliament  meets  6  Nov. ;  adjourns . 24  Dec. ,,
Epidemic of measles throughout the country

winter,  1888-

Parliament  meets 21  Feb.  188

The  queen  started  for  Biarritz  5  March  :  meets  the
queen-regent  of  Spain  at  San  Sebastian  27  March  ;

returns 3  April, ,,

Death  of  Mr.  John  Bright,  M.P.  (aged  78),  orator,
"  tribune  of  the  people,"  free-trader  (see  Anti-
Corn  Law  League)  fearless,  honest,  independent
27  March  ;  "  one  of  the  noblest  figures  that  we
have  ever  known  in  Parliament " — Lord  Har-
tington 29  March, ,,

Great  improvement  in  trade  and  revenue  Jan-April, ,,
Warren de  la  Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., astronomer,

chemist,  and  physicist,  aged  74,  died  .  19  April,  „
The  queen  visits  the  prince  of  "Wales  at  Sandring-

ham 23-27  April,  et  seq. „

Parliament  prorogued .... 30  Aug. ,,
The tmperor  "William II. visits the  queen,  see

Germany  .  ... i--8Aug. ,,

The  queen  visits  Wales  (ivhich  see) .  23  Aug.

Fine summer and autumn ; excellent hay  and

moderate  corn  harvests  ami  good  wool  season .

Envoys  from  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  received  by

the  queen  at  Balmoral  .  ...  29  Oct.  „
Many  strikes,  and  much  agitation  respecting  labour


and  wages  in  London  and  throughout  the  country

Aug.-Dec.  1883
Great  revival  in  trade . . . June-Dec. , ,
Epidemic  of  influenza  (which  see) . . . Jan.  i8go

Parliament  meets n  Feb. ,„

The  queen  visits  Aix-les-Bains  26  March-22  April ;
at  Darmstadt  receives  the  empress  Frederick,  the
emperor  William II. and  others  of  her  family

23-29  April, ,r

At  Windsor 30  April, ,,,

The  queen  visits  Aylesbury  and  baron  Ferdinand

de  Rothschild  at  Waddesdon  Manor . 14  May, ,,
The  ex-queen  Isabella  of  Spain  visits  the  queen  at
Windsor,  and  attends  the  state  Ball,  Buckingham
Palace,  20  May  ;  leaves  England  . . 29  May, ,r
Anglo-German Agreement (which  see)  respecting

East  Africa,  signed  at  Berlin . . . 1  July ,r
Return of Mr. H. M. Stanley (see Soudan)

26  April,  1887-90
The  queen  inaugurates  the  Empress  dock  at  South-
hampton • 26  July,  18901

The emperor William II. visits the  queen at

Osborne,  inspects  the  fleet,  &c. . 4-8  Aug. ,r
Anglo-French  Agreement  (which  see) respecting

Africa,  signed 5  Aug. ,,

Parliament  prorogued .... 18  Aug. ,,
Anglo  Portuguese  Agreement  settled  20  Aug.  ;  not

ratified  (see  Portugal) .... Nov. ,,,
Meeting  of  parliament .... 25  Nov. „r
Parliament  meets  after  the  recess . . 22  Jan.  iSgr
The  queen present  at  the  launch of  the  Royal
Sovereign, great  battleship, and  of  the Royal
Arthur,  first  class  cruiser  ;  Portsmouth 26  Feb. „
The  queen  visits  Grasse,  a  French  town  near  Cannes,

in  the  Alpes-Maritimes . 25  March-28  April, ,„
Destructive snow  -  storm in the S. and S.W.
counties  (see  Storms)  9,  10  March  ;  close  of  nearly
six  months'  winter  (see  Frosts)  25  March . . ,,
Death  of  earl  Granville,  eminent  statesman,  aged  75

31  March, ,r
The  empress Frederick  visits  England 27  Feb.-

8  April. ,r
Visit  of  the German  emperor  and  empress  very-
successful  (see  Germany) . . 4-13  July, ,,.
Visit  of  the  prince  of  Naples  (see  Italy)  22  July- Aug. ,,
The  queen  receives  Veldtman,  a  Fingoe  chief,  and

his  presents 7  Aug. ,r

Visit  of  the  French  fleet  to  Portsmouth  (see  France)

19  Aug. ,,
Prince  George  of  Wales  attacked  by  typhoid  fever,

10  Nov.,  recovery 23  Dec. ,,

The  duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondale  attacked  with
influenza  and  pneumonia,  10  Jan.,  died  at  Sand-
ringham,  14  Jan. Universally  lamented  ;  military
funeral  at  Windsor .... 20  Jan.  1892
Letter  from  the  queen,  to  the  empire

(London  Gazette,  2  Feb.)

"Osborne,  January  26,  1892.
"  I  must  once  again  give  expression  to  my  deep  sense
of  the  loyalty  and  affectionate  sympathy  evinced  by
my  subjects  in  every  pai't  of  my  empire  on  an  occasion
more  sad  and  tragical  than  any  but  one  which  has
befallen  me  and  mine,  as  well  as  the  nation.  The  over-
whelming misfortune  of  my  dearly  loved  grandson  having-
been  thus  suddenly  cut  off  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  full
of  promise  for  the  future,  amiable  and  gentle,  and  en-
dearing himself  to  all,  renders  it  hard  for  his  sorely
stricken  parents,  his  dear  young  bride,  and  his  fond'
grandmother  to  bow  in  submission  to  the  inscrutable
decrees  of  providence.

"The  sympathy  of  millions,  which  has  been  so
touchingly  and  visibly  expressed,  is  deeply  gratifying  at
such  a  time,  and  I  wish,  both  in  my  own  name  and  that
of  my  children,  to  express  from  my  heart,  my  warm.
gratitude  to  all.

"  These  testimonies  of  sympathy  with  us,  and  ap-
preciation of  my  dear  grandson,  whom  I  loved  as  a  son,
and  whose  devotion  to  me  was"  as  great  as  that  of  a  son,
will  be  a  help  and  consolation  to  me  and  mine  in  our
affliction.

"  My  bereavements  during  the  last  thirty  years  of  my
reign  have  indeed  been  heavy.  Though  the  labours,
anxieties,  and  responsibilities  inseparable  from  my
position  have  been  great,  yet  it  is  my  earnest  prayer  that
God  may  continue  to  give  me  health  and  strength  to
work  for  the  good  and  happiness  of  my  dear  Country
and  Empire  while  life  lasts.  "  Victoria,  R.l."


ENGLAND.


341


ENGLAND,


The  seventh  session  of  the  queen's  twelfth  parlia-
ment opened 9  Feb. 1892

The  queen  visits  Costebelle,  a  suburb  of  Hyeres,  an
ancient  town  in  Provence  13  miles  from"  Toulon,
■21  March-25  April ;  at  Darmstadt,  26  April-2  May, ,,

KINGS  AND  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND.

BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

827.  Egbert,  styled  "  king  of  England  "  in  828.

£37.  Ethelwolf ;  his  son.

.857. Ethelbald  ;  his  son.

860.  Ethelbert;  brother.

866.  Ethelred;  brother.

S71.  Alfred  the  Great ;  brother  ;  died  21  or  2S  Oct.  901.

901. Edward  the  Elder  ;  son  ;  died  925.

325.  Athelstan  ;  eldest  son  ;  died  17  Oct.  940.

940.  Edmund  L ,  fifth  son  of  Edward  the  Elder ;  died

from  a  wound  received  in  an  affray,  26  May,  946.
.946.  Edred  ;  brother  ;  died  955.

955. Edwy,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  ;  died  of  grief  in  958.
957.  Edgar  the  Peaceable  ;  brother  ;  died  1  July,  975.
975.  Edward  the  Martyr, his son, stabbed  at Corfe

Castle,  at  the  instance  of  his  step-mother  Elfrida,

18  March,  979.
979.  Ethelred  II.  ;  half-brother  ;  retired.

1013.  Sweyn,  proclaimed  king  ;  died  3  Feb.  1014.

1014.  Canute  the  Great ;  his  son.

1014.  Ethelred  restored  in  Canute's  absence ;  died  24  April,
1016.

1016.  Edmund  Ironside,  his  son,  divided  the  kingdom

with  Canute  ;  murdered  at  Oxford,  30  Nov.  1016  ;
reigned  seven  months.

1017.  Canute  sole  king  ;  married  Emma,  widow  of  Ethel-

red ;  died  12  Nov.  1035.

1035.  Harold  I.  ;  son;  died  17  Mar.  1040.

1039.  Hardicanute,  son  of  Canute  and  Emma ;  died  of  re-
pletion at  a  marriage  feast,  8  June,  1042.

2042.  Edward  the  Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred  and  Emma ;
died  5  Jan.  1066.

1066.  Harold  II.,-  son  of  earl  Godwin;  reigned  nine
mouths  ;  killed  near  Hastings,  14  Oct.  1066.

THE NORMANS.*

ko66.  William  the  Conqueror  ;  crowned  25  Dec.  :  died  at

Kouen,  9  Sept.  1087.
Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl  of

Flanders  ;  married  in  1054  ;  died  in  1083.
0087.  William  II.  Rul'us  ;  reign  began  26  Sept.  ;  killed  by

an  arrow,  2  Aug.  1100.
«ioo. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign  began

5  Aug.  ;  died  of  a  surfeit,  1  Dec.  1135.
Queens,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  king  of

Scotland;  married  11  Nov. 1100  ;  died  1  May,

1119. 2. Adelais,  daughter  of  Godfrey,  earl  of

Louvaine  ;  married  29  Jan.  1129  ;  died  1151.

*  The  regnal  dates  are  those  given  by  sir  H.  Nicolas.
'The  early  Norman  and  Plantagenet  kings  reckoned  their
reigns  from  the  day  of  their  coronation  ;  the  later  Plan-
<tagenets  from  the  day  after  the  death  of  their  prede-
cessor. With  Edward  VI.  began  the  present  custom  of
beginning  the  reign  on  the.  day  of  the  death  of  the  pre-
•ceding  sovereign.

ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND.

William I., William II., and  Henry I.— two  lions  or

leopards  passant.
.Stephen — Sagittarius,  the  archer,  one  of  the  signs  of  the

zodiac  (traditional).
Henry  II.  to  Edward  II. Three  lions  passant.
Edward  III.  and  his  successors  quartered  the  preceding

with  fleurs  de  lys,  the  aims  of  France.
Henry  V.  used  only  3  fleurs  de  lys.
Mary  I.  quartered  the  preceding  with  the  arms  of  her

husband  Philip  II.  of  Srain.

UNITED KINGDOM.

James  I.  and  his  successors  combined  the  arms  of  Eng-
land and  France  (1st  and  4th  quarter) ;  2nd,  the  lion
rampant  of  Scotland  ;  3rd,  the  harp  of  Ireland.  He
introduced  the  unicorn  as  a  supporter  of  the  arms.

■George  I.,  George  II.  and  George  III.  introduced  the  arms
of  Brunswick.

In  1801  the  arms  of  France  were  omitted.  In  1816  the
arms  were  modified  through  Hanover  being  made  a
kingdom.

Victoria.  In  1837  the  arms  of  Hanover  were  omitted.
The  arms  are  now:  1st  and  4th  quarters,  3  lions  passant
for  England  ;  2nd,  lion  rampant  for  Scotland  ;  3rd,  harp
for  Ireland.


1 135.  Stephen,  earl  of  Blois,  nephew  of  Henry;  reign
began  26  Dec.  ;  died  25  Oct.  1154.

Queen,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Eustace,  count  of
Boulogne  ;  married  in  1128  ;  died  3  May,  1151.

[Maud,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  and  rightful  heir  to
the  throne;  born  1101  ;  betrothed,  in  1109,  at
eight  years  of  age,  to  Henry  V.  emperor  of  Ger-
many, who  died  1125.  She  married,  secondly,
Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  earl  of  Anjou,  1130.  Was
set  aside  from  the  English  succession  by  Stephen,
1135  ;  landed  in  England  and  claimed  the  crown,
1139.  Crowned,  but  soon  after  defeated  at  Win-
chester, 1 141  ;  concluded  a  peace  with  Stephen,
which  secured  the  succession  to  her  son  Henry,
1153  ;  died  1165.]

THE PLANTAGENETS.

1154.  Henry  II.  Plantagenet,  grandson  of  Henry  I.  and  son
of  Maud  ;  reign  began  19  Dec.  ;  died  6  July,  1189.
Queen,  Eleanor,  the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis  VII.
king  of  France,  and  heiress  of  Guienne  and
Poitou  ;  married  to  Henry,  1151  ;  died  26  June,
1202  ;  see  Rosamond.

1 189.  Richard  I.  Cosur  de Lion, his son  ;  reign  began
3  Sept.  ;  died  of  a  wound,  6  April,  1199.
Queen,  Berengaria,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Navarre ;
married  12  May,  1191  ;  survived  the  king.

1199.  John,  the  brother  of  Richard  ;  reign  began  27  May  ;
died  19  Oct.  1216.
Queens,  Avisa,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester  ;
married  in  1189  ;  divorced.  2.  Isabella,  daughter
of  the  count  of  Angouleme  :  she  was  the  young
and  virgin  wife  of  the  count  de  la  Marche  :
married  to  John  in  1200.  Survived  the  king,  on
whose  death  she  was  re-married  to  the  count  de
la  Marche.

1216.  Henry  III.  son  of  John  ;  reign  began  28  Oct.  ;  died
16  Nov.  1272.
Queen,  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the count  de  Pro-
vence ;  married  14  Jan.  1236 ;  survived  the  king  ;
and  died  in  1291,  in  a  monastery.

1272.  Edward  I.  son  of  Henry,  surnamed  LongslumJcs ;
reign  began  20  Nov.  ;  died  7  July,  1307.
Queens,  Eleanor  of  Castile ;  married  in  1253  ;  died
of  a  fever,  on  her  journey  to  Scotland,  at  Grant-
ham, in  Lincolnshire,  1290.  2.  Margaret,  sister
of  the  king  of  France ;  married  12  Sept.  1299,
survived  the  king,  dying  in  1317.

1307.  Edward  II.  son  of  Edward  I.  ;  reign  began  8  July  ;

dethroned  20  Jan. 1327 ;  murdered  at  Berkeley

castle,  21  Sept.  following.

[An  inscription  in  the  castle  of  Melazzo, Piedmont,  states

that  he  escaped  from  Berkeley  castle,  was  sheltered  by

Pope  John  XXII.  at  Avignon. After  long  wandering,

resided  secretly  in  this  castle  1330-33. Reported  by

count  Negra,  Oct.,  1890.]

Queen,  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France  ;
married  in  1308. On  the  death,  by  the  gibbet,  of
her  favourite  Mortimer,  she  was  confined  for  the
rest  of  her  life  in  her  own  house  at  Risings,  near
Lynn,  and  died  in  1357.
1327.  Edward  III.  his  son ;  reign  began 25  Jan.  ;  died
21  June,  1377.
Queen,  Philippa,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Hainault ;
married  in  1326 ;  died  15  Aug.  1369.
1377. Richard  II.  son  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and
grandson  of  Edward  III.  ;  reign  began  22  June  ;
dethroned  29  Sept.  1399  ;  said  to  have  been  mur-
dered at  Pomfret  castle,  10  Feb.  1400.
Queens,  Anne  of  Bohemia,  sister  of  the  emperor
Weneeslaus  of  Germany  ;  married  in  Jan.  1382  ;
died 7  June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter  of
Charles  V.  of  France  ;  married  when  only  seven
years  old,  1  Nov.  1396. On  the  deposition  of  her
husband  she  returned  to  her  father.

HOUSE OF LANCASTER.

1399.  Henry IV. cousin of  Richard II.  ; reign began

30  Sept.  ;  died  20  March,  1413.

Queens,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford  ;
she  died  before  Henry  obtained  the  crown,  in
1394.  2.  Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of  the  duke  of
Bretagne  ;  married  1403  ;  survived  the  king  ;
died  1437.
1413.  Henry  V. his  son  ;  reign  began  21  March died

31  Aug.  1422.


ENGLAND.


342


ENGLAND.


Queen,  Catherine,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France  ;
married  30  May,  1420.  She  outlived  Henry,  and
was  married  to  Owen  Tudor,  grandfather  of
Henry  VII.,  in  1423  ;  died  1437.
1422.  Henry  VI.  his  son  ;  reign  began  1  Sept.  ;  deposed
4  March,  1461 ;  said  to  have  "been  murdered  by
Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  in  the  Tower,  20
June,  1471.
Queen,  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  duke  ,of  Anjou  ;
married  22  April,  1445  ;  survived  the  king  ;  died

25  Aug.  1481.

HOUSE OF  YOEK.

1461.  Edward  IV.  ;  died  9  April,  1483.

Queen,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  sir  Richard  Wood-
ville,  and  widow  of  sir  John  Grey,  of  Groby ;
married  1463  or  1464.  Suspected  of  favouring
the  insurrection  of  Lambert  Simnel ;  and  closed
her  life  in  confinement,  8  June,  1492. >

1483.  Edward  V.  his  son  ;  deposed  25  June, 1483,  and
said  to  have  been  murdered  in  the  Tower ;  reigned
two  months  and  thirteen  days.
„ Richard  III.  brother  of  Edward  IV.  ;  began  to  reign,

26  June ;  slain  at  Bosworth,  22  Aug.  1485.
Queen,  Anne,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and

widow  of  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  murdered
1471.  She  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by
Richard  (having  died  suddenly,  16  March,  1485),
to  make  way  for  his  intended  marriage  with  prin-
cess Elizabeth  of  York.

HOUSE OF  TUDOR.

1485.  Henry  VII.  (son  of  Edmund  Tudor,  earl  of  Rich-
mond, and  Margaret,  daughter  of  John  Beaufort,
duke  of  Somerset,  legitimated  descendant  of
John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster) ;  began  to
reign  22  Aug.  ;  died  21  April,  1509.
Queen,  Elizabeth  of  York,  princess  of  England,
daughter  of  Edward  IV.  ;  married  18  Jan.  i486  ;
died  11  Feb.  1503.

1509.  Henry  VIII.  his  son ;  began  to  reign,  22  April ;  died
28  Jan.  1547.
Queens,  Catherine  of  Aragon,  widow  of  Henry's
elder  brother,  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales  ;  married

11  June,  1509;  mother  of  queen  Mary;  repudi-
ated, and  afterwards  formally  divorced,  23  May,
1533  ;  died  7  Jan.  1536.

2.  Anne  Boleyn,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Boleyn,
and  maid  of  honour  to  Catherine  ;  privately
married,  before  Catherine  was  divorced,  14  Nov.
1532,  or  Jan.  1533  ;  mother  of  queen  Elizabeth  ;
beheaded  at  the  Tower,  19  May,  1536.

3.  Jane  Seymour,  daughter  of  sir  John  Seymour,
and  maid*  of  honour  to  Anne  Boleyn  ;  married
20  May,  1536,  the  day  after  Anne's  execution  ;
mother  of  Edward  VI.  of  whom  she  died  in
childbirth,  24  Oct.  1537.

4.  Anne  of  Cleves,  sister  of  William,  duke  of
Cleves  ;  married  6  Jan.  1540  ;  divorced  10  July,
1540  ;  died  1557.

5.  Catherine  Howard,  niece  of  the  duke  of  Nor-
folk ;  married  28  July,  1540  ;  beheaded,  12  Feb.
1542.

6.  Catherine  Parr,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Parr,
and  widow  of  Nevill,  lord  Latimer ;  married  12
July,  1543  ;  survived  the  king,  after  whose  death
she  married  sir  Thomas  Seymour,  created  lord
Sudley  ;  died  5  Sept.  1548.

1547  Edward  VI.  son  of  Henry  VIII.  (by  Jane  Seymour)  ;
died  6  July,  1553.

1553.  Jane,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  wife  of
lord  Guildford  Dudley  ;  proclaimed  queen  on  the
death  of  Edward  ;  ten  days  afterwards  returned
to  private  life  ;  was  tried  13  Nov.  1553  ;  beheaded

12  Feb.  1554,  when  but  17  years  of  age.

1553.  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  (by  Catherine  of  Aragon);

married  Philip  of  Spain,  25  July,  1554  ;  died  17

Nov.  1558.
1558.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  (by  Anne  Boleyn),

died  24  March,  1603.

HOUSE OF STUART.

1603.  James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland,  sen  of

Mary,  queen  of  Scots  ;  died  27  March,  1625.
Queen,  Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  daughter of

Frederick II.  ; married  20  Aug. 1590 ; died

March,  1619.
3625.  Charles  I.  his  son  ;  beheaded  at  Whitehall,  30  Jan.

1649.


Queen,  Henrietta-Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV-
king  of  France  ;  married  13  June,  1625  ;  sur-
vived the  king  ;  died  in  France  10  Aug.  1669.

1649.  Commonwealth.  Oliver  Cromwell  made  pro-
tector, 16  Dec.  1653  ;  died  3  Sept.  1658.

1658.  Richard  Cromwell,  his  son,  made  protector,  4,
Sept.  ;  resigned  22  April,  1659.

1660.  Charles  II.  son  of  Charles  I.  ;  died  6  Feb.  1685.

Queen,  Catherine  of  Braganza,  infanta  of  Portugal,
daughter  of  John  IV.  and  sister  of  Alfonso  VI.;
married  21  May,  1662;  survived  the  king;  re-
turned to  Portugal ;  died  21  Dec.  1705.

1685.  James  II.  his  brother;  abdicated  by  flight,  11  Dec
1688  ;  died  in  exile,  6  (16)  Sept.  1701.
[1st  Wife,  Ann  Hyde,  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde,,
earl  of  Clarendon  ;  married  Sept.  1660 ;  died
1671 ;  mother  of  queens  Mary  II.  and  Anne.]
Queen,  Mary  Beatrice,  princess  of  Modena,  daughter-
of  Alphonso  d'Este,  duke ;  married  21  Nov..
1673  ;  in-  1688  retired  with  James  to  France ;
died  at  St.  Germains,  1718.

1689.  William  III.  prince  of  Orange,  king,  and  Mary,
queen,  daughter  of  James  II. ;  married  4  Nov.
1677 ;  began  their  reign,  13  Feb.  1689  ;  Mary  died
28  Dee.  1694.

1694.  William  III. ;  died  of  a  fall  from  his  horse,  8  March,
1702.

1702.  Anne,  daughter  of  James  II.  ;  married  George,
prince  of  Denmark,  28  July,  1683  ;  succeeded  to
the  throne,  8  March,  1 702  :  had  seventeen  children,
all  of  whom  died  young  (William,  duke  of  Glou-
cester, born  24  July,  1689,  died  30  July,  1700)  ;
lost  her  husband,  28  Oct.  1708  ;  died  1  Aug.  1714-
house  of  hanover. (See  Brunswick  and  Este.)

1714.  George  I.  elector  of  Hanover  and  duke  of  Bruns-
wick-Luneburg  ;  son  of  Sophia,  who  was  daugh-
ter of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I.  ;  died
11  June,  1727.
Queen,  Sophia-Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  duke  of
Zell ;  died  in  prison,  2  Nov.  1726.

1727.  George  II.  his  son  ;  died  25  Oct.  1760.

Queen,  Wilhelmina  Carolina  Dorothea,  of  Branden-
burg  Anspach ; married 1705  ; died  20  Nov_

1737-
1760.  George  III. grandson  of  George  II.  ;  died  29  Jan_

1820.
Queen,  Charlotte  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  duke  of

Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761  ;

died  17  Nov.  18 18.
1820.  George  IV.  his  son  ;  died  26  June,  1830.

Queen,  Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  daughter  of  the-

duke  of  Brunswick  ;  married  8  April,  1795  ;  died

7  Aug.  1821  (see  article  Queen  Caroline)
1830.  William  IV.  brother  of  George  IV.  ;  died  20  June,

1837-
Queen,  Adelaide  Amelia  Louisa  Theresa  Caroline,
sister  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen ;  married
11  July,  1818  ;  died  2  Dec.  1849.
1837.  Victoria, the  reigning queen, whom God pre-
serve.

the  present  royal  family  of  great  britain.

The  Queen,*  Alexandrina  Victoria,  only  daughter  of
Edward,  duke  of  Kent,  (fourth  son  of  king  George
III.)t  bom  24  May,  1819  ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  on
the  decease  of  her  uncle,  William  IV.  20  June,  1837  »
crowned  at  Westminster,  28  June,  1838 ;  married
(10  Feb.,  1S40)  to  her  cousin,

Francis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel,  duke  of
Saxony,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  ; born  261

*  On  1  Nov.  1858,  the  queen  was  proclaimed  through-
out India  as  "  Victoria,  by  the  grace  of  God,  of  the  united
kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  of  the  colonies-
and  dependencies  thereof,  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,
America,  and  Australasia,  Queen,  defender  of  the  faith,""
Sic.  "  Empress  of  India  "  added  to  the  "royal  style  by
proclamation,  28  April,  1876  (see  Style,  lioya.l).  The
colonial  conference  in  May,  1887,  recommended  that  the-
title  of  her  majesty  should,  in  recognition  of  the  unity
of  the  empire,  be  "Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom  of
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  the  Colonies  and
Dependencies  thereof."

t  He  was  born  2  Nov.  1767;  and  died  23  Jan.  1820;
he  married  Victoria-Maria-Louisa  (widow  of  the  prince  of
Leiningen,  sister  of  Leopold,  king  of  the  Belgians,  and
aunt  to  the  prince  consort),  29  May,  1818.  She  was  born
17  Aug.  17S6  ;  and  died  16  March,  1861.


ENGLISH  CHURCH  UNION.


343


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.


Aug.  1819,  naturalized,  24  Jan.  1840;  (ordered  to  be
styled  Prince  Consort  25  June,  1857  ;)  elected  chan-
cellor of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  28  Feb.  1847  ;
died  14  Dec.  1861.

ISSUE.

1.  ViCTORiA-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa,  princess  royal,  born

21  Nov.  1840;  married  to  prince  Frederick-William,
of  Prussia,  25  Jan.  1858  (dowry  40,000?.  and  annuity
of  8000Z.).  Issue:  William,  bom  27  Jan.  1859;  and
5  other  children  living.

2.  Albert-Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of  Saxony,

duke  of  Cornwall  and  Rothsay,  earl  of  Chester,
Carrick,  and  Dublin,  baron  of  Renfrew,  and  lord  of
the  Isles,  born  9  Nov.  1841 ;  married  princess  Alex-
andra of  Denmark  (bom  1  Dec.  1844)  IO  March,
1863.  Issue:  Albert  Victor,  born  8  Jan.  1864;
died  14  Jan.  1892  ;  George,  bom  3  June,  1865  ;  Louise,
bom  20  Feb.  1867  ;  Victoria,  born  6  July,  1868  ;
Maud,  26  Nov.  1869  ;  Alexander  John,  born  6  April,
died  7  April,  1871. (See  Wales.)

3.  ALiCE-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843  ; married

prince  Louis  (since  grand  duke)  of  Hesse-Darmstadt
(which  see),  1  July,  1862  (dowry  30,000?.,  annuity
6000?.);  d.  of  diphtheria,  14  Dec.  1878.  Issue:  Vic-
toria, s  April,  1863  ;  and  6  other  children.

4.  ALFRED-Ernest,  born,  6  Aug.  1844  ;  entered  the  En-

ryalus  as  midshipman,  31  Aug.  1858  ;  created  duke
of  Edinburgh,  &c.  24  May,  1866  ;  visited  Cape  of
Good  Hope,  Aug.  ;  Australia,  Nov.  1867  ;  escaped
assassination  by  a  Fenian  at  Port  Jackson,  12
March,  1868  ;  visited  Japan,  China,  and  India,  1869  ;
married  archduchess  Marie  of  Russia  (bom  17  Oct.
1853),  23  Jan.  1874  ;  commander  of  the  Channel  fleet,
Nov.  1883  ;  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  Feb.  1880  ;
at  Davenport,  Aug.  1890.  Issue:  Alfred,  born  15  Oct.
1874  ;  Mary,  29  Oct.  1875  ;  Victoria,  25  Nov.  1876  ;
Alexandria,  1  Sept.  1878  ;  Beatrice,  20  April,  1S84.

5.  Helena- Augusta- Victoria,  born  25  May,  1846  ;  married

to  prince  Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  5  July,
1866.  Issue:  Christian  Victor,  bom  14  April,  1867;
and  4  other  children.

6.  LouiSE-C'arolina-Alberta,  bom  18  March,  1848  ;  mar-

ried to  John,  marquis  of  Lome  (60m.  6  Aug.  1845),
21  March,  1871.

7.  ARTHUR-William-Patrick-Albert, born 1 May,  1850  ;

created  duke  of  Connaught,  earl  of  Sussex  and
Strathearn,  23  May,  1874  ;  married  13  March,
1879,  princess  Louise  Margaret  of  Prussia  (born  25
July,  i860).  Issue  :  Margaret,  born,  15  Jan.  1882  ;
Arthur  Frederick,  born  13  Jan.  1883 ;  Victoria
Patritia,  17  March,  1886.  Commander-in-chief  at
Bombay,  1886  et  seq.  ;  commander  of  the  S.  Military
District,  Aug.  1890.

8.  LEOPOLD-George-Duncan-Albert,  bom  7  April,  1853  :

voted  15,000?.  a  year  by  parliament,  23  July,  1874 ;
created  baron  Arklow,  earl  of  Clarence,  and  duke  of
Albany,  24  May,  1881  ;  married,  princess  Helene,
4th  daughter  of  the  prince  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont,  27
April,  1882.  10.000/.  additional  income  granted,  21
April,  1882;  died  at  Cannes,  28  March,  1884.  Issue:
Alice  Mary,  born  25  Feb.,  1883;  Leopold  Charles,
born  19  July,  1884.

9.  BEATRiCE-Mary-Victoria-Feodore,  born  14  April,  1857;

married  prince  Henry  of  Battenberg,  23  July,  1885.
Issue:  Alexander  Albert,  born  23  Nov.  1886  ;  Victoria
Eugenie,  1887; Leopold,  18S9  ;  and  Maurice,  1891.

First  greatgrandchild,;  Feodore.  bom  12  May,  1879;
daughter  of  Charlotte,  daughter  of  princess  royal
Victoria,  and  prince  Bernard  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  See
Germany,  children  of  William  II.

The  Queen's  Aunt  and  Cousins,  Augusta,  duchess
(willow  8  July  1850,  of  duke)  of  Cambridge,  bom  25
July,  1797  ;  married  1  June,  1818  ;  died  6  April,  i38o.
Her  son,  George,  duke  of  Cambridge,  commander-in-
chief,  born  26  March,  1819  ;  [wife,  Mis.  Fitz-George,
aged  74,  died  12  Jan.  1890].
Her  daughters,  Augusta,  grand  duchess  of  Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz,  born  19  July,  1822  ;  married  28  June,
1843  ;  and  the  princess  Mary  of  Cambridge,  born  27
Nov.  1833  ;  married  to  the  prince  Francis,  now  duke,
of  Teek,  12  June,  1866.  Isstic :  Adolphus,  and  3
other  children.

ENGLISH  CHURCH  UNION,  established
i860,  when  it  consisted  of  2 10  members ;  there  were
22,100 in 1888. Its object is to defend the


Church  of  England  and  its  ancieut  constitution,
doctrine  and  liturgy,  and  her  right  to  regulate  her
own  affairs;  and  has  supported  clergymen  who  have
suffered  for  so  doing. Annual  meetings  are  held,

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  is  traced  from  the
Frisian  variety  of  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic  branch
of  the  great  Indo-European  family.  "  The  English
tongue  possesses  a  veritable  power  of  expression,
such  as,  perhaps,  never  stood  at  the  command  of
any  other  language  of  man."  Grimm.
Celtic  prevailed  in  England  . . . a.d. i

Latin  introduced about 1

Saxon  prevails  (Beowulf ;  Csedmon  ;  Alfred)  450-1066
Latin  re-introduced  by  missionaries  . . . 596

Norman-French  combining  with  English . 1066-1250
William  I.  and  his  successors  used  English  in  their
laws,  &c.  ;  it  was  superseded  by  Latin  in  the
reign  of  Henry  II. Norman- French  was  not  used
in  law-deeds  till  the  reign  of  Henry  III.
Early  English .  .... 1250-1500.

The  present  English  settled  in  the  16th  century.
Law  pleadings  were  made  in  English  by  order  of

Edward  III.  instead  of  in  French . . . .  1362
The  English  tongue  and  English  apparel  were  or-
dered to  be  used  in  Ireland,  28  Hen.  VIII. . . 1536
The  English  language  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all

law-suits,  and  the  Latin  disused . . May,  1731
Per-centage  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  in  the  English
bible,  97  ;  Swift,  89  ;  Shakspeare  and  Thomson,
85  ;  Addison,  83  ;  Spenser  and  Milton,  81  ;  Locke,
80  ;  Young,  79  ;  Pope,  76  ;  Johnson,  75  ;  Robert- '
son,  68  ;  Hume,  65  ;  Gibbon,  58. Marsh.
Of  100,000  English  words,  60,000  are  of  Teutonic
origin  ;  30,000  Greek  and  Latin ;  and  10,000  from
other  sources.
Early  English  Text  Society  began  publishing . . 1864
English  Diakct  Society, established to print  old

glossaries May,  1873,

English  greatly  used  in  the  East,  Japan,  China,  &c.

Dr.  S.  A.  Allibone's  great  "Critical  Dictionary  of

English  Literature,"  published  in  1859  and  1871 ;

he  died  12  Sept.,  1889,  supplement  by  John  F.

Kirk i89r

PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS.

Born.  Died.

John  Wickliffe,  t 1324  1384:

Geoffrey  Chaucer,  p 132S  J400

John  Gower,  p.  ...  about  1320  1402
Paston  Letters,  1460-1482

Win,  Caxton . . ... 1421  •  1491

Sir  Thomas  More,  h.  p. . . .  1482  1535

Sir  Philip  Sidney,  n.  p.  .  .  1554  1586
Holinshed's  Chronicles,  1586

John  Fox,  t.  h 1517  1587

Edmund  Spenser,  p. . 1553  159S

Richard  Hooker,  t 1553  1600

Wm,  Shakspeare,  d 1564  1616

Walter  Raleigh,  h.  p 1552  1618

Francis  Bacon,  ph "  . 1561  1626

George  Herbert,  p. . . . ■  1593  1633:

Ben  Jonson,  d. 1574  1637

Philip  Massinger,  d 1584  1640

Jeremy  Taylor,  t 1613  1667

John  Milton,  p 1608  1674

Isaac  Barrow,  t 1630  1677

Thomas  Hobbes,  phil 1588  1679

Samuel  Butler,  p •  1612  1680

John  Bunyan,  t 1628  1688-

John  Dryden,  p 1631  1700.

John  Locke,  ph 1632  1704

Joseph  Addison,  c 1672  1719

Matthew  Prior,  j>. 1664  1721

Richard  Steele,  e 1671  1729

Daniel  De  Foe,  n.  pol 1663  1731

John  Gay,  p. 1688  1732

Alexander  Pope,  j) 16S8  17.(4

Jonathan  Swift,  n.  p 1667  1745

James  Thomson,  p 1700  1748

Henry  Fielding,  n.  d 1707  1754

Sam.  Richardson,  w. 1689  1761

Edward  Young,  ;> 16S1  1765

Laurence  Sterne,  n 1713  1768

Mark  Akenside,  p 1721  177°

Thomas  Gray,  p 1716  177*


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.


344


ENGRAVING.


Tobias  Smollett,  n. .
Oliver  Goldsmith,  n.  p.
David  Hume,  h.  ph.  .
Samuel  Johnson,  e.  n.  p.
Benjamin  Franklin,  ph.  pol
William  Robertson,  h.
Edward  Gibbon,  h. .
Robert  Burns,  p.  .
Edmund  Burke,  pol.
William  Cowper,  p.
John  Keats  p. .
Percy  B.  Shelley,  p.
George  lord  Byron,  p.
George  Crabbe,  p.
Walter  Scott,  n.  p.
Samuel  T.  Coleridge,  p.  pl<
Charles  Lamb,  e.  .
William  Cobbett,  pol.  e.
Robert  Southey,  p.  h.  .
Thomas  Arnold,  h. .
Thomas  Campbell,  p. .
Sidney  Smith,  e.  pol.
Thomas  Hood,  hum. .
Edgar  Allan  Poe,  p.
Maria  Edgeworth,  n. .
Win,  Wordsworth,  p.
J.  Fennimore  Cooper,  n.
Joanna  Baillie,  p.
Thomas  Moore,  p.  m.  .
John  Wilson,  p.  e. .
Samuel  Rogers,  p.
Charlotte  Bronte,  n.
E.  T.  Channing,  m. .
Henry  Hallam,  h.
Thomas  de  Quincey,  e.
Leigh  Hunt,  e.

William  Prescott,  h.
Washington  Irving,  n.  h.
T.  B.  Macaulay,  l>.  p.
Eliz.  (Barrett)  Browning
Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  h.
Abp.  Richd.  Whately,  yl
Wm.  M.  Thackeray,  n.
W.  S.  Landor,  m.

Nathl.  Hawthorne,  n.  .
W.  Whewell,  m. .

Henry  lord  Brougham,  pol.  h.
Charles  Dickens,  n.
Sir  J.  Hersehel,  ph.  .

George  Ticknor,  h.

G.  Grote,  h.

Edwd.  Bulwer-Lytton,  lord  Lytt

John  Stuart  Mill,  ph.

Bryan  W.  Procter  ("  Barry  Cornwall '

Arthur  Helps,  e.  .

Charles  Kingsley,  m.

Harriet  Martineau,  m,

Marian  Evans  ("George  Eliot")  n.  p.

Benjamin  Disraeli,  lord  Beaeonsfield,  n.

Thomas  Carlyle,  h.  e.

H.  W.  Longfellow-,  p.

Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  p.

Charles  Darwin,  nat. .

Anthony  Trollope,  a.

R.  W.  Emerson, e.  p.

Sir  Henry  Taylor,  p.cl.

Matthew  Arnold,  p.  m.

W.  G.  Palgrave,  tr.

George  Bancroft,  h.

W.  E.  Gladstone,  m.

O.  W.  Holmes,  e.  p.  n.

Alfred  Tennyson  (lord,  1883),  p

Thomas  Trollope,  n.

Robert  Browning,  p. .

Sir  Theodore  Martin,  h.  p.  m.  .

Mrs.  M.  Oliphant,  n. .

James  Anthony  Froude,  h.  m.

J.  R.  Lowell,  hum.  p.  pol. .

John  Ruskin,  art  critic .

Herbert  Spencer,  ph.  .

John  Tyndall,  m.

E.  A.  Freeman,  h.

Francis  Turner  Palgrave,  p.

T.  H.  Huxley,  m.

Lord  Lytton,  p.  m.  .

Edwin  Arnold,  p.

Wm.  Morris  p


Born.
1720
1728
1711
1709
1706
1721
1737
1759
1729

1731
I79S
1792
1788
1754
1771
1772

1775
1762

1774

I79S
1777
1771

1799


1769
1770
1798
1763
1780
1785
1763
1816
1790
1778
1786
1784
1796
1783


1787
1811

1775
1804

J794
1778
1812
1792
1791

!794
1805
1806
1790
1813
1819
1802
1820
1805

1795
1807
1828


1809
1810
1812
1816
1818
1818
1819
1819
1820
1820
1823
1824
1825
1831
1832
1834


Died.
1771
1774
1776
1784
1790
1793
1794
1796
1797
1800
1821
1822
1824
1832
1832
1834
1834
1835
1842
1843
1844
1845


1854
1855
1855
1856
1859
1859


1866
1868
1870


1873
1873
1874
187s
1875


Born. Died.

A.  C.  Swinburne  p 1837

Robert  Buchanan,  p 1841

R.  L.  Stevenson,  n 1850

Wm.  Wilkie  Collins,  n 1824  1889

A.  W.  Kinglake,  h. .  . . ...  1812  1891

Walter  Whitman,  Am., p. . . .  1819  1892

John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  Am.,  p. . .  1807  1892

d.  dramatist ;  e.  essayist ;  h.  historian  ;  hum,  humourist ;
m.  miscellaneous ;  n.  novelist ;  nat.  naturalist ;  p.  poet ;
t.  theologian  :  tr.  traveller  ;  pol.  political ;  ph.  philo-
sopher.

'■ENGLISHMAN,"  a  newspaper  edited  by
Dr.  Kenealy,  published  in  April,  1874,  soon  after  the
conviction  of  the  claimant  of  the  Tichborne  estates
(see  Trials,  1873-4).  For  its  libellous  character,
the  editor  was  disbenched  by  the  society  of  Gray's
Inn,  1  Aug.  1874 ;  ordered  to  give  up  his  chambers
by  vice-chancellor,  29  June,  1876.  He  died  16
April,  1880.

ENGRAVING  on  signets  is  mentioned  Exod.
xxviii.  11  (b.c.  1491).  Engraving  on  plates  and
wood  began  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.
Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  by  Bourdier,  of
Pans,  1799.  The  copyright  to  engravings  has  been
protected  by  several  statutes  ;  among  the  principal
are  the  acts  16  &  18  Geo.  III.  1775  and  1777;  and
the  acts  7  &  8  Vict.  6  Aug.  1844,  and  15  Vict.  28
May,  1852.  A  process  of  enlarging  and  reducing
engravings  by  means  of  sheets  of  vulcanised  india-
rubber,  was  shown  by  the  electro-printing  block
company  in  i860 ;  see  Lithography  and  Photo-
Galvanography.  In  "  Lyra  Germanica,"  published
in  1861,  are  illustrations  engraved  upon  blocks
photographed  from  negatives  taken  by  John  Leigh-
ton,  F.S.A.

Engraving  on  Copper.  Prints  from  engraved  copper-
plates made  their  appearance  about  1450,  and  were
first  produced  in  Germany.  Masso,  surnamed  Fini-
guerra,  is  considered  to  have  been  the  first  Italian
engraver,  about  1440. (See  Niello.)

The  earliest  date  known  of  a  copper-plate  engraving  is
1461.

Rolling-presses  for  working  the  plates  inveuted  in  1545.

Of  the  art  of  etchi ng  on  copper  by  means  of  aqua-fortis,
Francis  Mazzuoli,  or  Parmegiano,  is  the  reputed  in-
ventor, about  1532. De  Piles.

Etching  was  practised  by  Albert  Diirer,  and  most  espe-
cially by  Rembrandt.  Its  revival  began  about  i860.
Eminent  modern  etchers  : — Messrs  Lalanne,  P.  G.
Hamerton,  F.  Seymour  Haden,  Bracquemond,  Jacque-
mart,  Martial,  and  others.  The  Etching  Club  was
established  in  1838.

Mr.  Lumb  Stocks,  R.A.,  line  engraver,  born  1812,  died
April,  1892.

Royal  Society  of  Painter-etchers  formed  ;  opened  an  exhi-
bition, April,  1881.

Engraving  on  Wood,  long  known  in  China,  began  in
Europe  with  the  brief-mahlers  or  manufacturers  of
playing-cards,  about  1400  (see  Printing).  The  art  is
referred  by  some  to  a  Florentine,  and  by  others  to
Reuss,  a  German  ;  it  was  greatly  improved  by  Diirer
(1471-1528)  and  Lucas  van  Leyden  (1497).  Itwas  much
improved  in  England  by  Bewick  and  his  brother,  and
pupils,  Nesbitt,  Anderson,  &c. .  1789,  et  seq.  The
earliest  wood  engraving  which  has  reached  our  times
is  one  representing  St.  Christopher  carrying  the  infant
Jesus  over  the  sea  ;  it  bears  date  1423.

Mr.  W.  J.  Linton's  "  Masters  of  Wood  Engraving,"  with
250  fine  examples,  published  July,  1890.

Engraving  on  Soft  Steel,  to  be  hardened  afterwards,
was  introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Perkins  and
Heath,  of  Philadelphia,  1819.

John  Pye,  "  father  of  English  landscape  engraving,"  born
1782;  died  6  Feb.  1874.

Mezzotinto  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  col.  von
Siegen,  who  engraved  a  portrait  of  princess  Amelia  of
Hesse  in  mezzotinto  in  1643  ;  it  was  improved  by
prince  Rupert  in  1648  ;  and  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,
about  1662.


ENLISTMENT.


345


EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.


Aquatinta,  by  which  a  soft  and  beautiful  effect  is  pro-
duced, was  invented  by  the  celebrated  French  artist,
St.  Non,  about  1662  ;  he  communicated  his  invention
to  Le  Prince.  Barabbe  of  Paris  was  distinguished  for
his  improvements  in  this  kind  of  engraving,  1763.
Chiar'-oscuro  engraving  originated  with  the  Germans,
and  was  first  practised  by  Mair,  one  of  whose  prints
bears  date  1491  (see  Zinc,  &c.)

ENLISTMENT.  No  persons  enlisting  as
soldiers  or  sailors  are  to  be  sworn  in  before  a  magis-
trate in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  after,  and  they
are  then  at  liberty  to  withdraw  upon  their  return-
ing the  enlistment  or  bounty  money,  and  21s.  costs.
Enlistment  is  now  entirely  voluntary.  In  1847  the
term  of  enlistment  was  limited  to  ten  years  for  the
infantry,  and  twelve  years  for  the  cavalry,  artillery,
and  royal  marines  ;  and  in  1867,  to  twelve  years  ;
see  Army,  1867  and  1879,  and  Foreign  Enlistment.

ENNISKILLEN  (N.  W.  Ireland).  This
town  made  an  obstinate  defence  against  the  army  of
Elizabeth,  1595,  and  resisted  James  II.,  1689.  1500
Enuiskilleners  met  his  general  M'Carthy  at  Newton
Butler  with  6000  men  (of  whom  3000  were  slain,
and  nearly  all  the  rest  made  prisoners),  they  losing
but  twenty  men,  30  July,  1689.  The  dragoon  regi-
ment, the  "Inniskillingers,"  was  originally  re-
cruited here.

ENOCH,  BOOK  OF,  an  apocryphal  work,
quoted  by  the  fathers,  disappeared  about  the  8th
century.  A  MS.  Ethiopic  version  was  found  in
Abyssinia  by  Bruce,  and  brought  to  England  in
1773.  Of  this,  archbishop  Lawrence  published  an
English  translation  in  1821,  and  the  Ethiopic  text
in  1838.

ENSILAGE  (from  silo,  a  pit),  a  system  of  pre-
serving com  and  green  fodder  for  cattle  in  pits
made  air  and  water  tight,  recently  practised  by
French  agriculturists  ;  described  by  M.  Goffart  and
by  professor  Thorold  Rogers,  M.P.,  in  his  "Ensi-
lage," published  1883.  Ensilage  reported  successful
at  Peckforton,  Cheshire,  27  Nov.  1883  ;  commended
by  the  prince  of  Wales  and  others  at  a  meeting  of
the  Institute  of  Agriculture,  17  March,  1884;  en-
silage has  been  found  successful  in  India,  1884.
Favourable  reports  of  a  private  practical  and  scien-
tific commission  issued,  5  Aug.  1885  ;  and'  14  May,
1886 ;  opinions  differ  as  to  economy.  Ensilage
with  building  silos  practised  in  188".

ENSISHEIM  (E.  France).  Here  Turenne
defeated  the  Imperial  army,  and  expelled  it  from
Alsace,  4  Oct.  1674.

ENTAIL  of  estates  began  with  the  statute  of
Westminster,  1285.  Subsequent  legislation  broke
the  entail  incases  of  treason  (1534),  when  the  estate
is  to  revert  to  the  crown,  and  of  bankruptcy  (1833
and  1849),  when  it  is  to  be  sold.  The  law  of  entail
in  Scotland  was  amended  in  1875.

ENTERTAINMENT  of  the  People  So-
ciety, for  the  very  poor,  held  first  concert  at  the
board  school  room,  Saffron-hill,  London,  Saturday,
12  April,  1879.

ENTOMOLOGY,  the  science  of  insects,  now
mainly  based  upon  the  arrangement  of  Linnanis,
1739.  Ray's  "  Methodus  Insectorum,"  1705  ;  "  In-
sectorum  Historia,"  1 7 10.  The  Entomological
Society  of  London  was  instituted  3  May,  1833  ;  was
made  Royal  Aug.  188$.  A  National  Entomological
Exhibition  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium  was
opened  9  March,  1878.  Miss  Ormerod  appointed
honorary  consulting  entomologist  to  the  Royal
Agricultural  Society,  1882.

ENVELOPES  for  letters  are  mentioned  by
Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopei came


into  general  use  shortly  after  the  establishment  of
the  penny  postal  system,  10  Jan.  1840.  Machinery
for  tlieir  manufacture  was  patented  by  Mr.  George
Wilson  in  1844 ;  and  by  Messrs.  E.  Hill  and  Warren
de  la  Rue,  17  March,  1845.

ENVOYS  AT  COURTS,  in  dignity  below  am-
bassadors, enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the  cere-
monies of  ambassadors.  Envoys  extraordinary  are
of  modern  date. Wicquefort.

EOZOON  CANADENSE,  asserted  to  he  the
earliest  known  form  of  life,  is  a  species  of  foramini-
fera,  found  by  professor  J.  W.  Dawson,  of  Montreal,
in  Laurentiau  limestone  in  1858.

EPACT  (Greek,  added)  is  the  excess  of  the
solar  month  above  the  lunar  synodical  month,
1  day,  11  hours,  15  minutes,  57  seconds,  the  lunar
month  being  only  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes,  3
seconds ;  and  the  excess  of  the  solar  year  above  the
lunar  synodical  year  (nearly  11  days),  the  lunar
year  being  354  days.  The  epact  of  any  year  in-
dicates the  moon's  age  on  the  1st  Jan.  in  that  year.
The  number  of  the  Gregorian  epact  for  1893,  12  ;
1894,  23;  1895,  4  5  i&fi,  15.

EPERNAY  (N.E.  France),  seat  of  the  trade
in  champagne,  was  taken  from  the  League  by
Henry  IV.,  26  July,  1592,  when  marshal  Annand
Biron  was  killed.

EPHESUS  (in  Asia  Minor),  a  city  said  to  have
been  founded  by  the  Carians  and  Leleges,  burnt  by
the  Amazons,  rebuilt  by  the  Ionians  about  1043  B.C.
It  was  subdued  by  Cyrus  in  544  b.c.  ;  revolted
from  the  Persians,  501  B.C.  and  was  destroyed  by
an  earthquake  in  a.d.  17.  See  Diana,  Temple
of,  and  Seven  Churches.  Paul  preached  here
a.d.  55,  56  {Acts  xviii.  xix.)  His  epistle  to
the  Ephesians  is  dated  a.d.  64.  The  third  general
council  was  held  here  in  431.  After  investi-
gation, begun  in  1863,  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood  dis-
covered the  site  of  the  temple  of  Diana  in  Apiil,
1870;  and  about  60  tons  of  marble  were  shipped  at
Smyrna  for  the  British  Museum,  Jan.  1872,  part  of
which  arrived  in  the  summer.  Mr.  Wood  published
an  illustrated  account  of  his  discoveries  in  1876.
The  site  of  the  temple  was  purchased  for  the  liritish
Museum.  Mr.  J .  T.  Wood  resumed  his  excavations,
summer,  1883.

EPIIORI,  powerful  magistrates  of  Sparta,  five
in  number,  said  to  have  been  first  created  by
Theopompus  to  control  the  royal  power,  about
757  B.C.

EPIC  POEMS (from Greek epos, a song),
narratives  in  verse. Eminent  examples  : —
Homer's  "  Iliad  "  and  "  Odyssey  "  (Greek),  between

8th  and  10th  century  B.C.  (see  Homer).
Maha-barhata,  Sanscrit,  very  ancient  ; by  several

authors  ;  the  longest  epic  known  (220,000  lines).
Virgil's  " iEneid "  (Latin)  about . . . b.c. 19
Ovid's  " Metamorphoses "  (Latin),  about . a.d. i
Dante  (died 1321),  "  Divina  Commedia  "  (Italian)

published 1472

Axiosto,  "  Orlando  Furioso "  (Italian)  .  .  .  1516
Camoens'  "  Lusiad  "  (Portuguese)  ....  1569
Tasso,  "  Jerusalem  Delivered "  (Italian)  .  .  .  1581
Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen  " .... 1590-6

Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost " 1667

Voltaire,  "  Henriade  "  (French)  ....  1728
Walter  Scott,  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  &c. . . 1805

EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Epicurus
of  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  about  306  B.C.,  taught
that  the  greatest  good  consists  in  peace  of  mind
springing  from  virtue,  as  tending  to  prevent  dis-
quiet :  but  the  name  epicurean  is  frequently  given
to  those  who  derive  happiness  from  sensual  plea-
sure. (See  Atoms.)


EPIDAURUS.


346


ERAS.


EPIDAURUS  (Greece),  celebrated  for  the
temple  of  Asclepius,  or  ./Esculapius,  god  of  medicine,
and  enriched  by  gifts  from  persons  healed.  The
Romans  sent  an  embassy  to  seek  the  help  of  the
god  during  a  pestilence,  and  his  worship  was  in-
troduced at  Rome,  293  B.C.  The  temple  was  visited
by  iEmilius  Paulus,  after  his  conquer  of  Mace-
donia, 167  B.C.

EPIDEMIC  PREVENTION  ACT,  46  &

47  Vict.  c.  59,  passed  25  Aug.  1883.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF

LONDON,  established  in 1850  ;  has  done  valu-
able work.

EPIGENESIS,  see  Spontaneous  Generation.

EPIGRAMS.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  the
Latin  epigrammatist,  who  flourished  about  a.d.  83,
is  allowed  to  have  excelled  all  others,  ancient  or
modern.  The  following  epigram  on  Christ's  turning
water  into  wine  {John  hi.)  is  an  example  : — "  Vidit
et  erubuit  lympha  pudica  Deum."  "  The  modest
water  saw  its  God,  and  blushed."  Crashaw  (died
1650).

"  The  Epigrammatists,"  a  collection  by  rev.  H.  P.  Dodd,
published  1870  and  1875.

EPIPHANY  (appearance),  a  feast  (Jan.  6),
termed  Twelfth  Day,  celebrates  the  manifestation
of  the  Saviour,  by  the  appearance  of  the  star  which
conducted  the  Magi  to  the  place  where  he  was  to  be
found;  early  observed,  but  became  a  separate  feast,
813. Whately.

EPIRUS  (Northern  Greece).  Its  early  history
is  very  obscure.

The  first  Pyrrhus  (Neoptolemus)  settled  in  Epirus,
after  the  Trojan  war,  1 170  B.C.,  and  was  killed  in
the  temple  of  Delphi  . . . . about  B.C. 1165

Alexander  the  first  king  invades  Italy  to  assist  the
Tarentines,  against  the  Lucanians,  &c,  is  de-
feated and  slain  at  Pandosia . . . B.C. 326

Pyrrhus  the  Great  reigns,  295 ;  he  takes  Macedon
from  Demetrius ;  is  compelled  to  yield  to  Lysi-
machus 287

Invited  by  the  Tarentines,  invades  Italy,  see  Rome,

281-275

Temporary  success  in  Sicily .  279  et  seq.

He  takes  Macedon  from  Antigonus  . . . 273

He  unsuccessfully  invades  Sparta;  enters  Argos,  and
is  killed  by  a  tile,  thrown  by  a  woman  . . 272

Philip  unites  Epirus  to  Macedon  . . .  220

Its  conquest  by  the  Romans 167

*******

Epirus  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire . a.d.  1466
An  insurrection  against  the  Turks  put  down . . 1854

EPISCOPACY,  see  Bishops.

EPISTLES  or  LETTERS.  An  Egyptian  letter
about  1300  B.C.  is  tran.-dated  in  "  Records  of  the
Past,"  vol.  6.  A  letter  was  sent  to  Joab  by  David
by  the  hands  of  Uriah,  about  1035  B.C.  (2  Ham.  xi.
14);  see  under  article  Bible.  Horace  Walpole,  re-
nowned for  his  letters,  was  born  5  Oct.  1717 ;  died
2  March,  1797.  The  collection  entitled  •'  Elegant
Epistles,"  commencing  with  Cicero,  was  published
in  1790.  It  ends  with  an  essay  on  letter  writing  by
Dr.  Johnson.

EPITAPHS  were  inscribed  on  tombs  by  the
Egyptians,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Mr.  T.  J.
Pettigrew  published  a  collection  entitled  "  Chroni-
cles of  the  Tombs,"  in  1857.

EPITHALAMIUM,  a  nuptial  song  at  mar-
riage. Tisias,  the  lyric  poet,  is  said  to  have  been
the  first  writer  of  one.  He  received  the  name  of
Stc-sichorus,  from  the  alterations  made  by  him  in
music  and  dancing,  about  536  B.C. Bossuet.


EPOCHS,  points  of  time  made  remarkable
by  some  event,  from  which  subsequent  years  are
reckoned  by  historians  and  chronologers ;  see  Eras.
See  Anno  Domini,  Hegira,  &c.

EPPING  FOREST,  see  Forests,  note.

EPSOM  (Surrey).  The  mineral  springs  were
discovered  in  1 61 8.  The  races  began  about  171 1,
and  have  been  held  annually  since  1730.  Popula-
tion, 1881,  6,916  ;  1891,  8,417.

EQUATION  OP  TIME. See  Geodesy.

EQUATOR  or  ECUADOR,  a  South  American
republic,  formerly  Quito  and  other  provinces,  part
of  Columbia,  1821;  independent  in  1831,  when  the
Columbian  republic  was  divided  into  three; the
other  two  being  Venezuela  and  New  Granada. The
population  of  Equator  in  1885,  1,004,651.
Presidents:  general  Franco,  21  Aug.  1859;  defeated
in  battle  by  general  Flores,  Aug. i860  ; G. G.
Moreno,  Jan. 1861  ;  Geronimo  Carrion,  4  Aug.
1865  ;  disputes  with  the  chambers ;  resigns Dec.  1867
Dr.  Xavier  Espinosa  was  elected  president,  13  Sept. ,,
Dr.  Gabriel  Garcia  Moreno,  president, . end  of  1872
President  Moreno  assassinated,  6  Aug.  ; state  of
siege  proclaimed,  Sept.  1875  ;  Yeintiinille,  presi-
dent Sept.  1876

Revolt ;  constitutional  army  under  Aparicio  defeated

at  Galte 14  Dec. ,,

Eruption  of  Cotopaxi .... 25  June,  1877

Alfaro  dictator Jan.  1883

Jose  Maria  Plaoido  Caamano,  president 12  Feb.  1884
Revolution  at  Esmeraldas,  headed  by  Eloy  Alfaro

with  military  administration . . 4  Nov.  i836
Seiior  Antonio  Flores, president, 30  June,  1888 ;
Sen.  Louis  Cordero,  about . . .18  June,  1892
See  Earthquakes,  1868.

EQUATORIAL AFRICA. See Soudan,

1886.

EQUESTRIAN  ORDER  in  Rome  was  estab-
lished with  Romulus,  about  750  B.C. ;  see  Knight-
hood.

EQUINOX.  When  the  sun  in  his  progress
passes  throug*h  the  equator  in  one  of  the  equinoc-
tial points,  the  day  and  night  are  equal  all  over
the  globe.  This  occurs  twice  in  the  year:  about
21  March,  the  vernal  equinox,  and  22  Sept.,  the
autumnal  equinox.  The  equinoctial  points  move
backwards  about  50  seconds  yearly,  requiring  25,000
years  to  accomplish  a  complete  revolution.  This  is
called  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  which .  is
said  to  have  been  observed  by  the  ancient  astrono-
mers.

EQUITY,  COURTS  OF,  are  those  of  the  lord
chancellor,  the  vice-chancellors,  and  the  master  of
the  rolls,  their  office  being  to  correct  the  operations
of  the  literal  text  of  the  law,  and  supply  its  defects
by  reasonable  construction  not  admissible  in  a  court
of  law.  The  supreme  court  of  session  in  Scot-
land combines  the  functions  of  law  and  equity.  Ill
1865  equity  powers  were  conferred  on  the  county
courts  for  cases  respecting  sums  under  500/.  See
Supreme  Court,  in  which  law  and  equity  are
combined.

ERAS. The  principal  are  more  fully  noticed
in  their  alphabetical  order.
Common  Era  (English  Bible,  Usher,  &c.) . B.C.  4004

Era  of  the  Jews 376j

Era  of  Constantinople,  1  Sept.  5508  ;  of  Antioch,

1  Sept.  5492
Alexandrian  or  Mundane  era . . 29  Aug.  5502

Julian  era 1  Jan.  4713

Era  of  Abraham 1  Oct.  2015

Era  of  Nabonassar,  after  which  the  astronomical

observations  made  at  Babylon were  reckoned,

began  26  Feb. 747


ERASTIANISM.


347


ESSEN.


753  i

125

48


Era  of  the  Seleucidce  (used by  the Maccabees),

commenced
The  Olympiads  belong  to  the  Grecians,  and  date

from  1  July,  776  b.c.
The  Romans  reckoned  from  the  founding  of  their

city,  a. u.c.  (anno  urbis  conditce) ....

Era  of  Tyre 19  Oct.

Ccesarean  era  of  Antioch  1  Sept.

Spanish  Era  (of  the  conquest  of  Spain),  the  16th  year

of  the  emperor  Augustus  (see  Ccesars),  long  used

by  the  Spaniards  . . . . a.d.  1  Jan.

Actian  era b.c.  i  Jan.

Pontifical  or  Ecclesiastical  Initiation,  25  Dec.  or  1  Jan.
Vulgar  Christian  era  ....  a.d.  i  Jan.
Era  of  Diocletian  or  Martyrs,  began  .  .  29  Aug.
The  Mahometans  began  their  era  from  the  Ilegira,

or  flight  of  their  prophet  from  Mecca 16  July,

Armenian  era a.d.  7  July,

Era  of  Yczdegird  III.  or  Persian  era  a.d.  16  June,
Era  of  Vicramadityo,  used  in  India,  began  B.C.

See  Creation,  Cali  Yvga,  Anno  Domini,  Calendar.

EEASTIANISM,  the  opinions  of  Thomas
Lieber  (latinised  Erastus),  a  German  physician
C1524-83),  who  taught  that  the  church  had  no
right  to  exclude  any  person  from  church  ordi-
nances, to  inflict  excommunication,  &c.  Persons
who  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  power
in  spiritual  matters  and  the  law  of  patronage  are
now  termed  Erastians.

ERASURES.  By  order  of  sir  John  Romilly,
master  of  the  rolls,  in  1855,  no  document  corrected
hy  erasure  with  the  knife  was  to  be  henceforth
received  in  his  court.  The  errors  must  be  corrected
with  the  pen. It  is  so  in  the  army  courts.

ERDINGTON  ORPHANAGE,  &c ;  see
Orphans' -houses.

ERFURT  (Central  Germany),  was  founded  in
476 ;  and  its  university  established  about  1390.
Erfurt  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1802.  It  capitu-
lated to  Murat,  when  14,000  Prussian  troops  surren-
dered, 16  Oct.  1806.  In  this  city  Napoleon  and
Alexander  met,  and  offered  peace  to  England,  27
Sept.  1808.  The  French  retreated  to  Erfurt  from
Leipsic,  18  Oct.  1813.  A  German  parliament  met
here  in  March  and  April,  1850.  Population,  1S90,
72,371-

ERICSSON'S  CALORIC  ENGINE,  see
Heat,  note.

ERITREO,  a  new  Italian  colony  on  the  Red
Sea,  established  by  royal  decree,  2  Jan.  1890.

ERIVAN  (Armenia),  in  the  16th  century  the
residence  of  the  shahs  of  Persia,  was  taken  by  the
Turks  in  1553  and  1582;  but  recovered  by  Abbas
the  Great,  1604.  After  being  several  times  cap-
tured, it  was  ceded  to  Persia,  1769.  It  was  taken
by  Paskiewitch  in  1827,  and  annexed  to  Russia  by
treaty  in  Feb.  1828.

ERZEROUM  (Asiatic  Turkey),  a  city  built
by  Theodosius  II.,  415;  taken  by  the  Seljuk  Turks
in  the  13th  century,  and  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  in
1517.  It  was  captured  by  the  Russian  general
Paskiewitch,  June,  1829,  but  restored  in  1830.  It  was
almost  totally  destroyed  by  earthquakes,  2  June  to
17  July,  1859. Population  in  1885,60,000.

ESCHEAT,  the  reverting  of  any  lam!  or  tene-
ments to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  or  to  the  state,  through
failure  of  heirs;  formerly  al>o  through  attainder  of
the  tenant,  which  last  was  abolished  by  the  Felony
Act,  1870.

ESCOMBRERA  BAY,  Battle  of  ; see

Spain,  II  Oct.  1873.

ESCURIAL,  properly  ESCORIAL  (25  miles
N.W.  of  Madrid),  the  magnificent  palace  of  the


sovereigns  of  Spain,  termed  the  eighth  wonder  of
the  world,  was  commenced  by  Philip  II.  in  1563,.
and  completed  in  1586,  at  a  cost  of  about  I0,000,ooo'.
It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron  in  honour  of
St.  Lawrence,  on  whose  day  (10  Aug.  1557)  the
Spaniards  gained  the  victory  of  St.  Ouentin.  Ac-
cording to  Francisco  de  los  Santos  the  total  length
of  all  its  rooms  and  apartments  is  above  120  English
miles.  The  Escurial  comprises  a  church,  mauso-
leum, monastery,  palace,  library,  and  museum.  It
was  struck  by  lightning  and  caught  fire  11.30  p.nu
1  Oct.  1872,  and  was  much  damaged;  but  the-
grand  library  and  other  treasures  were  preserved.

ESPARTO,  from  the  Latin  spartum,  stipct
tenacissima  of  Linnaeus,  a  Spanish  grass  used  by
Romans  for  whip-thongs,  and  now  largely  employed;
in  paper-making.  In  1856  about  50  tons,  in  187O1
above  100,000  tons,  and  in  1890,  403,263  tons,  were-
imported  into  Britain.  The  price  has  risen  front
/\l.  to  10^.  per  ton.  Living  plants  were  received
at  Newcastle,  July,  1867.

ESPIERRES  (Belgium).  At  Pont-a-Chiny
near  this  village,  the  French,  under  Pichegru,
attacked  the  allied  English  and  Austrian  army
(100,000  men),  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York,
and  were  repulsed  after  a  long  and  desperate  en-
gagement, losing  the  advantages  gained  by  the-
victory  at  Turcoing,  22  May,  1794.

ESPRIT,  SAINT  (or  Holy  Ghost),  the  title  of
an  order  of  knighthood,  founded  by  Henry  III.  of
France  in  1578,  and  abolished  in  1791.

ESQUIRES,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,
were  armour-bearers  to,  or  attendants  on  a  knight.
Blount.  In  England  the  king  created  esquires  by
putting  about  their  necks  the  collars  of  SS,  and
bestowing  upon  them  a  pair  of  silver  spurs.  John/
de  Kingston  was  created  a  squire  by  patent,  13,
Richard  II.,  1389-90.  There  are  now  legally
esquires  by  birth,  by  creation,  and  by  holding  some-
office,  butthe  title  is  very  loosely  given  by  courtesy.

"ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS,"  by  six  clergy-
men and  one  layman  of  the  church  of  England  (the
Rev.  Drs.  Fred.  Temple  and  Rowland  Williams,,
professor  Baden  Powell,  H.  B.  Wilson,  Mark
Pattisou,  and  professor  B.  Jowett,  and  Mr.  C.  W.
Goodwin)  were  published  in  an  8vo  vol.  in  March,
i860.  The  book  did  not  excite  much  attention  at
first,  but  having  been  severely  censured  for  hetero-
dox views  by  nearly  all  the  bishops  and  many  of
the  clergy,  it  created  much  excitement  in  1861,
and  was  condemned  by  convocation  24  June,  1864.
The  ecclesiastical  courts  sentenced  the  revs.  R.
Williams  and  H.  B.  Wilson  to  suspension  for  one
year,  and  costs,  15  Dec.  1862;  but  on  appeal  the
sentence  was  reversed  by  the  judicial  committee  of
the  privy  council,  8  Feb.  1864.  The  most  remark-
able amongst  the  works  put  forth  in  opposition  (in
1862)  are  the  "Aids  to  Faith,"  edited  by  the  bishop
of  Gloucester  (W.  Thomson,  now  abp.  of  York),
and  "Replies  to  Essays  and  Reviews,"  edited  by
the  bishop  of  Oxford  (S.  Wilberforce).  The  elec-
tion of  Dr.  Temple  to  the  see  of  Exeter  was  much
opposed  on  account  of  his  essay  iu  this  collection;
see  Church  of  England,  1869.

ESSENES,  an  ascetic,  Jewish  sect  at  the  time
of  Christ.

ESSEN,  a  to >  n  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  which
began  with'  the  Benedictine  nunnery,  about  873.
Among  the  iron  manufactories,  the  chief  are  thos
of  Erupp,  in  which  were  employed  74  men  in  1S4S,
and  20,960  in  1888,  when  the  works  contained  1. 195


ESSEX.


348


ETON  COLLEGE.


-furnaces,  92  steam-hammers,  370  steam-engines,
and  other  great  apparatus.  See  Cannon.  Popula-
tion, 1890,  78,723. See  Westphalia,  1889.

ESSEX,  KINGDOM  OF  ;  see  under  Britain.

EARLS  OF  ESSEX  (from  Nicolas).

Geoffrey  de  Mandeville,  created  earl  of  Essex  by

Matilda,  was  slain .... 14  Sept.  1144
Humphrey  de  Bohun,  succeeded  by  right  of  his  mo-
ther, Mary,  sister  of  William,  who  died  without  heir  1189
Humphrey  de  Bohun,  died  without  heir . . 1372
Thomas  of  Woodstock,  son  of  Edward  III. 1372  ;

murdered 1397

Henry  Bourchier  (grandson)  .... 1461

Henry Bourchier, grandson ; died without  heir

(earldom  extinct) 1539

Thomas  Cromwell,  1539 ;  beheaded  .  .  .  1540
William  Parr,  1543  ;  attainted ....  1543

Walter  Devereux,  1572  ;  died .... 1576
Robert  Devereux,  lord  lieut.  of  Ireland,  1599  ;  cen-
sured for  misgovernment ;  conspired  against  the
government ;  beheaded,  25  Feb. . . . 1601
Robert,  son ;  died  without  heir  . . .  1646

Arthur  Capel,.  ancestor  of  the  present  earl . . 1661

ESSLING,  Battle  of,  see  Asperne.

ESTE,  HOUSE  OF.  Boniface,  count  of  Lucca
and  duke  of  Tuscany,  about  811,  is  £aid  to  have
descended  from  Odoacer,  king  of  Italy.  From
Boniface  sprang  Albert  Azzo  II.  marquis  of  Italy
■and  lord  of  Este,  born  about  996,  who  married —
first,  Cunegonda  of  the  house  of  Guelf,  by  whom  he
had  Guelf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  the  ancestor  of  the
house  of  Brunswick  (see  Bavaria  and  Brunswick) ;
and  secondly,  Gersonda,  by  whom  he  had  Fulk,
the  ancestor  of  the  Estes,  dukes  of  Ferrara  and
Modena.

ESTELLA,  N.  Spain.  In  a  conflict  at  Pcha
Mura,  near  this  place,  25-28  June,  1874,  the  repub-
licans were  repulsed,  and  their  general,  Manuel  de
Concha  (aged  66),  killed,  by  the  Carlists,  27  June.

ES  rHONIA  or  BEVEL,  a  Russian  province,
said  to  have  been  conquered  by  the  Teutonic
knights  in  the  I2th  century;  after  various  changes
it  was  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Oliva,  3
May,  1660,  and  finally  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of
Nystadt,  30  Aug.  1721,  having  been  conquered  by
Peter  in  1710. Population,  1886,  395,979.

ETATS,  see  States.

ETCHING,  see  Engraving.

ETHEB  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.
Nitric  ether  was  first  discovered  by  Kunkel,  in
1681  ;  and  muriatic  ether,  from  the  chloride  of  tin,
hy  Courtanvaux,  in  1759.  Acetic  ether  was  dis-
covered by  count  Lauraguais,  same  year ;  and
hydriotic  ether  was  first  prepared  by  Gay-Lussac.
The  phosphoric  ether  was  obtained  by  M.  Boullay.
The  discovery  that  by  inhaling  ether  the  patient  is
rendered  unconscious  of  pain,  is  due  to  Dr.  C.
T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  U.  S.  Mr.  Thomas  Morton,
of  the  same  place,  first  introduced  it  into  surgical
practice,  under  Dr.  Jackson's  directions  (1846) ;  see
Chloroform,  and  Amylene.  The  drinking  of  ether
as  an  intoxicant  greatly  increased  in  the  north  of
Ireland,  was  checked  by  the  enforcement  of  the
Poisons  Act  of  1870,  in  regard  to  its  sule,  Oct.  1891.
The  term  "ether"  was  applied  to  the  transparent
celestial  space  by  the  German  astronomer  Encke,
about  1829,  when  studying  the  elements  of  Pons'
■comet,  discovered  in  iSi-8.

ETHICS  (Greek  term  for  Morals).  The  works
of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Confucius,  contain  heathen
systems  ;  the  New  Testament  is  that  of  Christianity.
Paley's  Moral  Philosophy  appeared  in  1785,  and
Whewell's  Elements  of'  Morality  in  1845.  An
Ethical  Society  existed  in  London,  1890.


ETHIOPIA.  The  name  was  applied  anciently
rather  vaguely  to  countries  the  inhabitants  of
which  had  sun-burnt  complexions,  in  Asia  and
Africa  ;  but  is  now  considered  to  apply  properly  to
the  modern  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and  Northern  Abyssinia.
Many  pyramids  exist  at  Napata,  the  capital  of
Meroe,  the  civilised  part  of  ancient  Ethiopia.
The  Ethiopians  settle  near  Egypt  . . B.C. 1615

Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  defeated  by  Asa . . . 941
A  dynasty  of  Ethiopian  kings  reigned  over  Egypt

765  to  715
Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  inarches  against  Senna-
cherib 710

Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Cambyses . .  525-522

Ptolemy  HI.  Euergetes  extended  his  conquests  in

Ethiopia 225

Candace,  queen  of  Meroe,  advancing  against  the
Roman  settlement  at  Elephantine,  defeated  and
subdued  by  Petronius  . . . . a.d.  22-23

ETHNOLOGY,  a  branch  of  Anthropology,  is
defined  as  the  science  "which  determines  the  dis-
tinctive characters  of  the  persistent  modifications  of
mankind,  their  distribution,  and  the  causes  of  the
modifications  and  distribution."  The  study  of  the
relations  of  the  different  divisions  of  mankind  to
each  other  is  of  recent  origin.  Balbi's  Ethnographic
Atlas  was  published  in  1826,  and  Dr.  Prichard's
great  work,  Researches  on  the  Physical  History  of
Mankind,  1841-7.  The  Ethnological  Society,
established  in  1843,  published  transactions.  On  17
Jan.  1871,  it  was  amalgamated  with  the  Anthropo-
logical Society,  (which  see)  and  named  the  Anthropo-
logical Institute.  Dr.  R.  G.  Latham's  works,  on
the  Ethnology  of  the  British  Empire,  appeared  in
1851-2.  Professor  T.  H.  Huxley  gave  lectures
on  Ethnology  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,
in  1866-7.  Annual  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethno-
logy, Washington, U.S.,  began  to  be  published,  1879.
The  International  Congress  of  the  Ethnographic
Sciences  met  at  Paris  Sept.  30,  1889.

ETHYL,  a  compound  radicle,  a  colourless  gas,
with  a  slightly  ethereal  odour,  a  compound  of
carbon  and  hydrogen,  first  obtained  in  the  free  state
by  professor  Edw.  Frankland  in  1849.  Several  of
it=  compounds  with  metals  take  fire  in  the  air.

ETNA,  MOUNT  (Sicily).  Here  were  the  fabled
forges  of  the  Cyclops :  and  it  is  called  by  Pindar
the  pillar  of  heaven. Eruptions  are  mentioned  by
Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and
Thucydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions  as  occurring
734,  477,  and  425  B.C. There  were  eruptions,  125,
121,  and  43  B.C. Livy.
Eruptions,  a.  d.  40,  254,  and  420. Carrera.
One  in  1312. Geoffrey  de  Viterbo.
One  overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15,000  inhabitants

perished  in  the  burning  ruins  . . . 1169

Eruptions,  1329,  1408,  1445,  1536,  1537,  1564,  et  seq.
In  1669,  when  tens  of  thousands  of  persons  perished

in  the  streams  of  lava  which  rolled  over  the  whole

country  for  forty  days.
Eruptions  in  1766, 1787, 1809, 1811,  and  in  May,

1830,  when  several  villages  were  destroyed,  and

showers  of  lava  reached  near  to  Rome.
The  town  of  Bronte  was  destroyed  .  .  18  Nov.  1832
Violent  eruption  occurred  in  .  .  Aug.  and  Sept.  1852
An  eruption  began  on  1  Feb.,  and  ceased  in  July  1865
Violent  eruptions  began  28  Nov.  1S68,  and  29  Aug.  1874
Violent  eruption  . . .16  May — 7  June,  1879

Eruption 22  March — 4  April,  1883

A violent eruption, with earthquakes ; much

damage 18  May — 4  June,  1886

Destructive  eruptions,  with  earthquake  shocks,

9  July — 2  Sept.  et  seq.  1892

ETON  COLLEGE  (Buckinghamshire),
founded  by  Henry  VI.  in  1440,  and  designed  as  a
nursery  to  King's  College,  Cambridge.  John
Stanbery,  confessor  to  Henry  VI.  (bishop  of  Bangor,


ETRURIA.


319


EURASIAN PLAIN.


in  1448),  was  nominated  the  first  provost.  One  of
the  provosts,  William  Waynflete,  (bishop  of  Win-
chester, 1447)  greatly  promoted  the  erection  of  the
buildings.  Besides  about  three  hundred  noblemen's
and  gentlemen's  sons,  there  were  seventy  king's
scholars  on  the  foundation,  who,  when  properly
qualified,  were  formerly  elected,  on  the  first  Tuesday
in  August,  to  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  re-
moved there  when  there  were  vacancies,  according
to  seniority.  The  establishment  of  the  Moritem  is
nearly  eoeval-with  the  college.  It  consisted  in  the
procession  of  the  scholars,  arrayed  in  fancy  dresses,
to  Salt-hill  once  in  three  years ;  the  donations  col-
lected on  the  road  (sometimes  as  much  as  800^.)
were  given  to  the  senior  or  best  scholar,  their  captain,
for  his  support  while  studying  at  Cambridge.  The
montem  was  discontinued  in  1847.  The  college
system  was  modified  by  the  Public  Schools  act,  1868.
In  1873  election  Saturday  ceased,  the  scholars  to  be
students  at  Cambridge  being  chosen  there.  In  1880
there  were  853  students;  in  1891,  1,007.
The  Queen  laid  the  comer  stone  of  the  new  school

buildings 18  May,  1889

Ninth jubilee  of  the  foundation of the college

celebrated  24  June,  1891

Population  of  Eton  in  1881,  3,464  ;  1891,  2,499.

ETRURIA  (or  TUSCIA,  hence  the  modern
name  Tuscany),  a  province  of  Italy,  whence  the
Romans,  in  a  great  measure,  derived  their  laws,
customs,  and  superstitions.  Herodotus  asserts  that
the  country  was  conquered  by  a  colony  of  Lydians.
The  subjugation  of  this  country  forms  an  important
part  of  early  Roman  history.  It  was  most  powerful
under  Porsena  of  Clusium,  who  attempted  to  rein-
state the  Tarquins,  506  B.C.  Veii  was  taken  by
Camillus,  396  B.C.  A  truce  between  the  Romans
and  Etrurians  for  forty  years  was  concluded.  351  B.C.
The  latter  and  their  allies  were  defeated  at  the
Vadimonian  lake,  310,  with  the  Boii  their  allies,
283  B.C.,  and  totally  lost  their  independence  about
265  B.C.  The  vases  and  other  works  of  the  Etrus-
cans still  remaining  show  the  degree  of  their
civilisation.  Napoleon  I.  established  a  kingdom  of
Etruria,  1801,  and  suppressed  it  1807,  see  Tuscany. —
"The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,"  by  George
Dennis,  published  1848  and  1878.  Etruria,  Staf-
fordshire, the  site  of  Josiah  Wedgwood's  porcelain
works,  &c,  was  founded  in  1 77 1 .

EUBCEA,  the  largest  island  in  the  .TEgean  sea.
Two  of  its  cities,  Chalcis  and  Eretria,  were  very
important,  till  the  former  was  subdued  by  Athens,
506  B.C.  and  the  latter  by  the  Persians,  490.  After
the  Persian  war,  Eubcea  became  wholly  subject  to
Athens,  and  was  its  most  valuable  possession.  It
revolted  in  445,  but  was  soon  subdued  by  Pericles.
After  the  battle  of  Chuerouea,  338,  it  became  subject
to  Macedon.  It  was  made  independent  by  the
Romans  in  194;  but  was  afterwards  incorporated  in
the  province  of  Achaia.  It  now  forms  part  of  the
kingdom  of  Greece.

EUCALYPTUS  GLOBULUS,  or  Blue
Gum  Tree,  a  very  last  growing  Tasmanian  ever-
green, of  the  order  Mi/rtacrce.  From  the  extraor-
dinary power  of  its  roots  of  absorbing  moisture,  and
the  salutary  aromatic  odour  of  its  leaves,  it  has
been  found  highly  beneficial  in  counteracting  the
malaria  of  marshy  districts  of  hot  climates,  and
hence  has  been  named  the  fever-destroying  tree.
M.  Ramel  first  sent  seeds  from  .Melbourne  to  Paris
in  1854,  and  subsequently  seeds  were  distributed
over  the  south  of  Europe,  the  north  and  south  of
Africa,  and  elsewhere. He  died  in  188 1.

So  rapid  is  the  growth  of  this  tree,  that  a  forest  may
be  formed  in  twenty  years. It  sometimes  reaches  the


height  of  ^50  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  100  feet,
rivalling  Wellingtonia  gigantea,  which  see.

The  timber,  bark,  and  oils  of  the  Eucalyptus  are
highly  valuable,  and  professor  Bentley  says  that  the
genus  is  one  of  the  most  important  to  man  in  the  vege-
table kingdom.  In  1874  its  medicinal  value  was  said  to
have  been  exaggerated.

EUCHARIST,  thanksgiving,  an  early  name
for  the  Lord's  Supper;  see  Sacrament.

EUCLID'S  ELEMENTS.  Euclid,  a  native*
of  Alexandria,  flourished  about  323-283  B.C.  The
Elements  are  not  wholly  his;  for  many  of  the
demonstrations  were  derived  from  Thales,  Pytha-
goras, Eudoxus,  and  others ;  Euclid  reduced  them
to  order,  and  probably  inserted  many  theorems  of
his  own.  The  Elements  were  first  printed  at  Basil
by  Simon  Grynaeus,  in  1533.  Euclid  is  said  to  have
told  king  Ptolemy  that  there  was  no  royal  road  lo>
geometry.

EUDIOMETER,  an  apparatus  to  ascertain
the  purity  of  atmospheric  air,  or  the  quantity  of
oxygen  gas  or  vital  air  contained  in  it ;  one  waa
invented  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1772.

EUGENICS,  see  Heredity.

EUGUBINE  TABLES,  seven  tablets  of
brass,  probable  date  about  400  B.C.,  (with  inscrip-
tions relating  to  sacrifices,  &c,  four  in  Umbrian,  two-
Latin,  and  one  partly  in  both  dialects),  we:e  disco-
vered in  1444  at  Gubbio,  the  ancient  Eugubium  or
Iguviuin.  The  inscriptions  are  accurately  given  by
Lepsius,  in  his  "  Inscriptiones  Umbricne  et  Oscas,"
184 1.

EUNUCHS,  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyp-
tians and  Assyrians,  and  said  to  have  been  first
employed  by  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria,  about
2007  B.C.  Eunuchs  frequently  attained" to  political
power  iu  the  later  Eastern  empire.

EUPATORIA  (KOSLEFF),  a  sea-port  on  the
west  coast  of  the  Crimea.  After  the  allied  French,
English,  and  Turkish  armies  landed  in  the  Crimea,
14  Sept.  1854,  a  detachment  under  captain  Brock
occupied  this  place,  which  was  afterwards  reinforced
by  the  Turks.  It  was  attacked  17  Feb.  1855,  by
40,000  Russians  under  Liprandi.  The  latter  were
repulsed  with  the  loss  of  500  men  by  the  Turks,
whose  loss  was  only  50,  among  which,  however,
was  Selim  Pasha,  the  commander  of  the  Egyptian
contingent.

EUPHRATES,  the  largest  river  in  Western
Asia.  It  rises  in  Armenia,  and  has  two  branches.
On  its  banks  are  the  remains  of  numerous  ancient
cities,  such  as  Babylon  and  Birs  Nnnrud.  The
Euphrates  Valley  Railway,  as  a  speedy  means  of
reaching  India,  has  been  much  advocated,  espe-
cially by  the  late  general  Chesney,  who  published
his  survey  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  in  1850.
A  parliamentary  commission  reported  on  it,  Aug.
1872,  when  it  was  also  considered  at  the  meeting  of
the  British  association  at  Brighton.  The  con-
struction would  cost  from  five  to  ten  millions
sterling,  and  its  advantages  are  considered  rather
hypothetical  by  the  best  judges.

EUPHUISM,  an  affected  style  of  language,
prevalent  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  arose  from
"  Kuphues;  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,"  by  John  Lyly,
published  in  1581.

EURASIAN  PLAIN,  the  great  central  plain

of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists

(1865). The  offspring  of  a  European  father  and  an

Asiatic  mother  is  termed  Eurasian. The  degraded

|  condition  of  the  Eurasians,  which  has  caused  much


EUROPE.


350


EXAMINER  OF  PLAYS.


anxiety,  especially  at  Calcutta,  was  discussed  early
in  1891.  The  Marchioness  of  Dufferin  was  deeply
interested  in  the  matter  about  1884.

EUROPE,  the  smallest  of  the  three  divisions
<of  the  old  continent,  really  an  appendage  of  Asia ;
area,  nearly  3,800,000  square  miles;  population,
301,700,000(1872);  310,675,966(1877) ;  330,321,680
,(1884)  333>0S4,908  ti888);  357,379,ooo  (1891).
For  the  history,  see  Greece,  Rome,  and  the  modern
kingdoms.

EUROPEAN,  ASSURANCE Company,

see  Insurance.

EURYDICE,  H.M.S.  frigate,  foundered  in  a
squall  off  Dunnose,  near  Ventnor,  Isle  of  Wight,
24  March,  1878  ;  see  Navy  and  Wrecks,  1878.

EURYMEDON,  a  river  in  Pamphylia,  near
which  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  destroyed  the  fleet
of  the  Persians  at  Cyprus,  and  defeated  their  land
forces,  469  B.C.

EUSTACE,  ST.  (Lower  Canada).  The  rebels
were  defeated  here,  14  Dec.  1837,  and  compelled
to  surrender  their  arms. Their  chiefs  fled.

EUSTATIUS,  ST.,  a  West  India  island,  set-
tled by  the  Dutch,  1632 ;  taken  by  the  French  in
5689;  by  the  British  in  1690 ;  again  by  the  British
forces  under  Bodney  and  Vaughan,  3  Feb.  1781.
It  was  recovered  by  the  French  under  the  marquis
de  Bouille,  26  Nov.  same  j'ear;  captured  by  the
British,  1801,  1810;  restored  to  the  Dutch,  1814.

EUSTON  SQUARE  Mystkby,  see  Trials,
July,  1879.

EUTAW  SPRINGS  (S.  Carolina).  Here  the
Americans  were  defeated  by  the  British  under
Arnold,  8  Sept.  1781.

EUTYCHIANS,  so  called  from  Eutyches,  an
abbot  of  Constantinople,  who  asserted  in  446  that
there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ,  the  human
having  been  absorbed  in  the  divine.  This  doctrine
was  condemned  by  councils — at  Constantinople  in
448,  and  at  Chalcedon  in  451.  It  has  been  also
called  Monophysite  (of  one  nature),  and  Jacobite,
from  Jacobus  Baradasus,  its  zealous  defender  in  the
6th  century.  It  is  the  form  of  Christianity  now
existing  among  the  Copts  and  Armenians.

EUXINE,  see  Black  Sea.

EVACUATION  TREATY,  see  France,
Sept.  1871.

EVANGELICAL,  a  term  applied  to  a  portion
of  the  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  (also  called
the  low  church),  who  profess  to  preach  the  gospel
more  purely  than  their  brethren  termed  the  high
church  party;  see  Church  of  England.

The  Evangelical  Alliance  was  founded  by  sir  Culling
Eardley  Smith  and  others  at  Liverpool  in  1845,  with  the
view  of  promoting  unity  among  all  denominations  of
Protestant  Christians  against  Romanism  and  infidelity.

At  a  general  meeting  held  in  London  19  Aug.  1846,  921
members  were  present  from  all  parts  of  the  world.

Since  1845,  annual  meetings  have  been  held  in  various
towns  in  the  United  Kingdom.

General  international  conferences  have  been  held  :
London,  1851  ;  Paris,  1855 ;  Berlin  (received  by  the
"king),  Sept.,  1857;  Geneva,  t86i  ;  Amsterdam,  1867;
Hew  York,  Oct.,  1873;  Basle,  1879;  Copenhagen,
J885  ;  Florence,  4  April,  1891.

A  conference  in  connection  with  the  Evangelical
Alliance  met  at  Washington,  U.S.  9  Dec.  1887.

The  "Evangelical  Church"  in  Germany  began  with  a
fusion  of  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  in  Nassau  in
181 7;  followed  by  similar  movements  in  different  parts
of  Germany,  1818-22.


EVANGELISTS,  preachers  of  the  "gospel,"
or  good  news ;  see  Gospels.

EVELINA  HOSPITAL,  Southwark,  esta-
blished in  1869  by  baron  Ferdinand  de  Rothschild,
in  memory  of  his  wife,  and  since  maintained  by
him. Its  enlargement  by  public  aid  was  proposed


EVENING  SCHOOLS  for  adults  of  the  lower
classes  were  strongly  recommended  by  bishop  Hinds
in  1839,  and  by  the  committee  of  the  Privy  Council
on  Education  in  1861.  One  was  set  up  at  Bala  in
Wales  by  the  rev.  T.  Charles  in  1811.  See  under
Recreation.

EVESHAM  (Worcestershire),  where  prince
Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  defeated  the  barons
headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,
4  Aug.  1265,  when  the  earl,  his  son  Henry,  and
most  of  his  adherents  were  slain.  Henry  III.  at
one  period  of  the  battle  was  on  the  point  of  being
cut  down  by  a  soldier  who  did  not  know  him,  but
was  saved  by  exclaiming,  "  Do  not  kill  me,  soldier;
I  am  Henry  of  Winchester,  thy  king!"  This  vic-
tory broke  up  the  combination  of  the  barons.

EVICTIONS  (in  Ireland),  482,000  persons
evicted  from  1849-82,  119,000  reinstated  as  care-
takers, see  Ireland,  1886  et  seq.  Many  evicted
tenants  made  terms  with  their  landlords,  and
returned  to  their  farms,  1891-2.

EVIDENCE,  LAW  OF,  regulated  by  14  &  15
Vict.,  c.  99  (1851),  16  &  17  Vict.,  c.  83  (1853),  32  &
33  Vict.,  c.  68  (1869).

Mr.  Labouehere's  application  for  a  mandamus  of
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  to  compel  sir  Robert
Carden  to  hear  irrelevant  evidence,  refused  20  Nov.  1879

EVIL  MAY-DAY  (1  May,  1517),  thus  called
on  account  of  the  violence  of  the  apprentices  and
populace,  directed  against  foreigners,  particularly
the  French.  The  rioters  were  headed  by  one
Lincoln,  who,  with  15  others,  was  hanged;  and
400  more  in  their  shirts,  and  bound  with  ropes,  and
halters  about  their  necks,  were  carried  to  West-
minster ;  but  they  crying  ' '  mercy,  mercy ! "  were  all
pardoned  by  the  king,  Henry  VIII.

EVOLUTION THEORY  includes  the

nebular  theory  and  Mr.  Darwin's  doctrine  of  natural

selection ;  see  Developmient,  and  Progressionists.

In 1877  three  forms of evolution  were  discussed : —

1.  That  of  all  animals  gradually  from  the  lowest  form,

the  amoeba,  up  to  man,  in  opposition  to  the  Biblical

account  of  the  creation  ;  2.  that  of  every  animal  from

protoplasm  in  a  cell,  or  egg  ;  3.  that  of  all  the  parts

of  an  animal  from  its  blood.

EXALTATION,  see  Cross.

EXAMINATIONS  of  candidates  for  employ-
ment in  the  civil  service  has  been  enforced  since
1855.  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1862  said  that  the  present
might  be  termed  the  "age  of  examinations;"  see
Civil  Service.
A  strong protest against the system, fully  signed,

Nineteenth  Century,  Nov.  1888.

EXAMINER,  liberal  weekly  journal,  estab-
lished Jan.  1808;  extinct;  last  number,  26  Feb.
1881.

EXAMINER OF STAGE  PLAYS,  an

office  under  the  lord  chamberlain,  now  held  by
Mr.  E.  F.  S.  Pigott,  appointed  25  Aug.  1874.
His  more  recent  predecessors  were,  George  Colman,
Chas.  Kemble,  and  his  son  John  Mitchell  Kemble,
and  Mr.  Wm.  Bodham  Donne  (1857-74).


EXAECHS.


351


EXCHEQTTEK.


EXAECHS,  appointed  by  the  Byzantine  em-
perors of  the  East,  to  govern  central  Italy  after  its
conquest  by  Belisarius  and  Narses,  548-553.  They
rule  Ravenna  from  568  to  752,  when  Eutychus,  the
last,  was  overcome  by  Astolphus  the  Lombard.  The
Exarch  in  the  churcli  was  next  in  dignity  to  the
patriarch.

EXCHANGE,  formerly  Bourse,  the  Royal
Exchange  being  "  Britain's  Burse;"  that  at  Paris
is  still  named  ,lZa  Bourse,"  from  bursa,  a  purse.
One  called  Collegium  Mercatorum  existed  at  Rome,
493  B.C.  The  Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reck-
oned the  finest  structure  of  the  kind  in  the  world.
See  Royal  Exchange,  and  Bills  of  Exchange.

EXCHEQUEE,  an  ancient  institution,  con-
sisting of  officers  with  financial  and  judicial  func-
tions :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  the  financial
officer,  formerly  sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above
the  barons.  The  first  chancellor  was  Eustace  de
Fauconbridge,  bishop  of  London,  in  the  reign  of
Henry  III.  about  1221.  Sir  Robert  Walpole  was
the  last  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  who  acted
judicially  (in  1735).  The  legal  function  of  the
chancellor  was  abolished  by  the  Judicature  act,
Aug.  1873.  Charles  II.  seized  on  the  Goldsmiths'
funds  in  the  exchequer  to  prepare  for  war,  2  Jan.
1672.  The  English  and  Irish  exchequers  were
consolidated  in  1816;  see  Chancellors  of  the  Ex-
chequers, and  Tally  Office.

Exchequer  Bills.  The  government  securities,  so  called,
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Montague,  afterwards
earl  of  Halifax,  were  first  issued  in  1697,  and  first  cir-
culated by  the  bank  in  1796.  These  bills,  of  which
more  than  twenty  millions  sterling  are  often  in  circu-
lation, are  in  effect  accommodation  notes  of  govern-
ment, that  are  issued  in  anticipation  of  taxes,  at  daily
interest ;  and  being  received  for  taxes,  and  paid  by  the
bank  in  lieu  of  taxes,  in  its  dealings  with  the  exchequer,
they  usually  bear  a  premium.  Amount  in  circulation,
56,974,780?.  in  1817;  in  1854,  16,008,700/.

Robert  Aslett,  a  cashier  of  the  bank  of  England,  tried
for  embezzling  exchequer  bills,  and  found  not  guilty,
on  account  of  the  invalidity  of  the  bills,  though  the
actual  loss  to  the  bank  amounted  to  342,697?.,  18  July,
1803.

Mr.  Beaumont  Smith  tried  for  forging  exchequer  bills  to
the  amount  of  350,000?.  ;  pleaded  guilty;  sentenced  to
transportation,  4  Dec.  1841.

Exchequer  Bonds,  a  species  of  public  securities,  intro-
duced by  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  in  1853,  have  not  been
well  received.

Tellers  of  the  Exchequer.  Besides  chamberlains  of
the  exchequer,  clerks  of  the  pells,  and  auditor  of  the
exchequer  (offices  which  have  all  been  discontinued
since  their  last  avoidance  in  Oct.  1826,  or  by  surrender
or  abolition,  in  Oct.  1834),  there  were  the  four  lucrative
offices  of  tellers  of  the  exchequer,  also  abolished,  10
Oct.  1834.

John  Jeffreys  Pratt,  earl,  afterwards  marquis  Camden,
was  appointed  a  teller  of  the  exchequer,  in  1780,  and
held  the  appointment  until  his  death,  in  1840.  During
nearly  half  of  this  long  term  he  relinquished  the  income
(amounting  in  the  whole  to  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a
million  sterling)  and  placed  it  at  the  service  of  the  state,
as  it  annually  accrued.

Comptroller-General  of  the  Exchequer.  This  office
was  created  on  the  abolition  of  the  offices  of  the  auditor
and  the  four  tellers  of  the  exchequer,  and  the  clerk  of
the  pells,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The
first  comptroller-general  was  sir  John  Newport,  ap-
pointed 11  Oct.  1834. — 34,438?.  per  annum  have  been
saved  to  the  state  by  the  retrenchments  in  this  depart-
ment of  the  government.

Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber.  Erected  by  Edward
III.  in  1357.  It  was  remodelled  by  Elizabeth,  in  1584,
and  then  made  to  comprise  the  judges  of  all  the  courts.
This  court  is  for  error  from  the  judgments  of  the  courts
of  queen's  bench,  common  pleas,  and  exchequer  of
pleas  in  actions  commenced  therein.  Re-modelled  by
act  2  Geo.  IV.  &  1  Will.  IV.  c.  70(23  July,  1830).


The Exchequer  office,  Westminster,  was  instituted  by
Henry  IV.  in  1399.

chancellors  of  the  exchequer
Henry  Addington  (aft.  lord  Sidmouth) 21  March,  1801

Wm.  Pitt .(premier) 16  May,  1804

Lord Henry  Petty  (afterwards  marquis  of  Lans-

downe) 10  Feb. 1806

Spencer  Perceval ....  31  March,  1807

And  premier  6  Dee.  1809  (assassinated  11  May,  1812)
Nicholas  Vansittart  (aft.  lord  Bexley)  .  9  June,  1812
Fred.  J. Robinson  (afterwards  lord  Goderich  and

earlofRipon) 31  Jan.  1823

George  Canning  (premier)  ....  April,  1827
John  C.  Hemes .....  17  Aug. „

Henry  Goulburn 26  Jan.  1828

Viscount  Althorp  (aft.  earl  Spencer) .  22  Nov.  1830

Sir  Robert  Peel  (premier)  ....  10  Dee.  1834
Thos.  Spring  Rice  (aft.  lord  Monteagle)  18  April,  1835
Francis  T.  Baring  (afterwards  baronet) . 26  Aug. 1839

Henry  Goulburn ^  Sept. 1841

Charles AVood  (afterwards  baronet,  lord  Halifax,

1866) 6  July,  1846

Benjamin  Disraeli  . . . .21  Feb. 1852

William  Ewart  Gladstone  . . . .28  Dec. ,,
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis . . . 5  March,  1855
Benjamin.  Disraeli,  again . . . - 27  Feb. 1858
William  Ewart  Gladstone,  again  . . June,  1859

Benjamin  Disraeli,  again  ....  6  July,  1866
George  Ward  Hunt ....  29  Feb. 1868

Robert  Lowe 9  Dec. ,,

William  Ewart  Gladstone  (and  premier)  .  Aug.  1873
Sir  Stafford  Northcote  .  .  .  .21  Feb.  1874
William  Ewart  Gladstone  (and  premier)  28  April,  1880
Hugh  Culling  Eardley  Childers  .  .  .  Dec.  1882
Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach  ...  24  June,  1885
Sir  William  V.  Harcomt  .  .  .  about  6  Feb.  1886
Lord  Randolph  Henry  Spencer-Churchill  26  July,

(resigned) n

George  Joachim  Goschen  .  .  .  .3  Jan.  1887
Sir  William  V.  Harcourt . . . .18  Aug.  1892

EXCHEQUEE,  Court  OF  (Curia  Regis),
instituted  by  William  I.  on  the  model  of  the  Trans-
marine Exchequer  of  Normandy,  in  1079;  according
to  some  authorities,  by  Henry  I.  It  included  the
common  pleas  until  they  were  separated,  16  John,
1215.  Coke's  Reports.  The  exchequer  is  so  named
from  a  chequered  cloth  which  anciently  covered  the
table  where  the  judges  and  chief  officers  sat.*  Here
are  tried  all  causes  relating  to  the  king's  revenue  ;
such  as  are  concerning  accounts,  disbursements,
customs,  and  fines  imposed,  as  well  as  all  matters  at
common  law  between  subject  and  subject.  The
judges  are  styled  barons,  first  appointed  1234.  There
were  a  chief  and  four  puisne  barons  :  the  fifth  judge
having  been  added  23  July,  1830.  The  office  of
Cursitor  Baron  was  abolished  in  1856.  For  changes,
see  Supreme  Court.  The  ancient  court  sat  for  last
time,  10  July,  1875.  The  Exchequer  division  was
abolished  in  1881 ;  in  Ireland  in  1887.  See  Supreme
Court  Judicature  Act,  passed  27  Aug.  1881.


CHIEF  BARONS.

Robert  Atkins. 10  April.
Edward  Ward. 10  June.
Samuel  Dodd. 22  Nov.
Thomas  Bury, u  June.
James  Montagu. 9  May.
Robert  Eyre. 5  Dec.
Geoffrey  Gilbert. 1  June.
Thomas  Pengelly. 29  Oct.
James  Reynolds. 30  April.
John  Comyn. 7  July.
Edmund  Probyn. 24  Nov.


1689.

Sir

1695.

Sir

1714.

Sir

1716.

Sir

1722.

Sir

1723-

Sir

1725.

Sir

1726.

Sir

1730-

Sir

1738-

Sir

1740.

Sir

*  In  process  of  time  the  court  of  exchequer  became
gradually  enlarged  in  its  jurisdiction,  until  at  length  it
was  not  merely  a  revenue  court  and  one  at  common  law
between  subject  and  subject,  but  one  in  which  suits  in
equity  were  also  instituted.  In  fact,  until  the  act  5  Vict,
c.  5  (1841),  the  court  of  exchequer  possessed  a  triple
jurisdiction  ;  but  by  this  statute  ils  equity  business  was
transferred  to  the  court  of  chancery.


EXCISE.


352


EXECUTIONS.


Sir  Thomas  Parker. 29  Nov.

Sir  Sidney  Stafford  Smytlie. 29  Oct.

Sir  John  Skynner. 17  Dec.

Sir  James  Eyre. 26  Jan.

Sir  Archibald  Macdonald. 12  Feb.

Sir  Vicary  Gibbs. 8  Nov.

Sir  Alexander  Thomson. 24  Feb.

Sir  Richard  Richards. 22  April.

Sir  William  Alexander. 9  Jan.

John,  lord  Lyndhurst. 18  Jan. Previously  lord

chancellor  ;  again  lord  chancellor,  1834.
Sir  James  Scarlett. 24  Dec. Created  lord  Abinger,

Jan.  1835.
Sir  Frederick  Pollock. 15  April.
Sir  FitzRoy  Kelly. 16  July,  [died  17  Sept.  1880.]
The  ktst  of  the  chief  barons.

CHIEF  BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND.

John  Hely. 5  Dec.

Robert  Doyne. 10  May.

Nehemiah  Donnellan. 27  Dec.

Richard  Freeman. 25  June.

Robert  Rochfort. 12  June.

Joseph  Deane. . 14  Oct.

Jeffrey  Gilbert. 16  June.

Bernard  Hale. 9  June.

Thomas  Dalton. 2  Sept.

Thomas  Marlay. 29  Sept.

John  Bowes. 21  Dec.

Edward  Willis. 11  March.

Anthony  Foster. 5  Sept.

James  Dennis  (aftds.  baron  Tracton). 3  July.

Walter  Hussey  Burgh. 2  July.

Barry  Yelverton  (afterwards  viscount  Avonmore).

29  Nov.
Standish  O'Grady  (aft.  viscount  Guillamore)  5  Oct.
Henry  Joy. 6  Jan.
Stephen  Woulfe. 20  July.
Maziere  Brady. 11  Feb.

David  Richard  Pigott;  1  Sept.,  died  22  Dec.  1873.
Christopher  Palles. Jan.

The  last  of  the  chief  barons.

EXCISE.  The  system  was  established  in
England  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1643,  duties
being  levied  on  wines,  beer,  &c,  and  tobacco,  to
support  the  army  against  Charles  I.  It  was  con-
tinued under  Charles  II.  The  present  system  was
settled  about  1733.  The  old  excise  office  was  built
on  the  site  of  Gresham  college  in  1774;  the  present
is  at  Somerset-house.  The  officers  of  excise  and
customs  were  deprived  of  their  votes  for  returning
members  to  parliament  in  1782  ;  but  received  them
again  in  1868.  In  1849  the  boards  of  excise,
stamps  and  taxes,  were  united,  as  "  the  board  of
commissioners  of  inland  revenue.'''  Notwithstand-
ing the  abolition  of  the  excise  duty  upon  numerous
articles,  and  the  reduction  of  duty  upon  various
others,  of  late  years,  the  total  excise  revenue,  so  far
from  having  decreased,  has  progressively  advanced
(1847  and  1861  excepted)  in  its  aggregate  annual
amount.  Additional  excise  duties  were  charged  by
17  &  18  Vict.  c.  27,  July  3,  1854.  The  excise  duties
were  further  modified  in  i860  ;  see  Revenue.


1742.
1772.

1777-
1787.

!793-
1813.
1814.
1817.


1834-


1844.
i860.


1695.
i7°3-
1706.
1707.
1714.
i7I5-
1722.
1725-
1730.
1741.
1757.
1766.
1777.
1782.
1783-


1874.


REVENUE FROM EXCISE.

Great  Britain.


1744

1786 . . .

1808.

1820 . . .

1827 (United

Kingdom)
1830.

1834  .  •  •
1837

1840  .  .  .
1845.

1847  .  .  .
1848.

1850  .  .  .
1858  to  Mar.  31.
i860  „  „
1865


£3.754.072

5. 54°."4

19,867,914

26,364,702

20,995,324
18,644.385
16,877,292
14,518,142
12,607,766
13,585,583
12,883,678
i3>9IQ,°52
15,278,208
17,901,545
20,240,467
19,428,324


1S70
1871
1872
1873
1874
1S75
1876
1S77


i£S4


to  Mar.  31.  £20,190,338

,,  20,475,740

,, ,.  21,879,238

,. ,,  22,833,907

,, ,,  23,386,064

,, ,,  25,904,450

.. .,  27,115,969

„ „  27.254,132

,,  27,569,323

„ ,,  27,681,523

,, „  27,710,514

,, „  27,186,021

,, ,,  25,218,303

,, ,,  25,372,183

n ,,  27,170,798

,, ,,  26,982,916

,, ,,  27,048,051


1885  to  Mar.  31  £26,501,612  I  1889  to  Mar.  31  £25,600,000-

1886  ,, ,,  25,441,922  I  1890 ,, ,,  24,160,000

1887  ,, „  25,212,883  I  1891 ,, ,,  24,788,000

1888  ,, ,,  25,625,520  I  1892 ,, ,,  20,121,000

__  EXCLUSION  BILL  (to  exclude  the  duke  of
York,  afterwards  James  II.,  from  the  throne),  was
passed  by  the  commons,  but  rejected  by  the  lords  in
1680.  The  revival  of  the  question  led  to  the  disso-
lution of  parliament  in  1681.

EXCOMMUNICATION,  or  separation  from
Christian  communion  {Matt,  xviii.  17;  1  Cor.  v.,
&c),  was  instituted  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the
church.  The  Roman  church  excommunicated  by
Bell,  Book,  and  Candle  {which  see). See  Interdict.

Gregory  VII.  excommunicated  the  emperor
Henry  IV.,  and  absolved  his  subjects  from
their  allegiance 1077

Innocent  III.  excommunicated  John  of  England,
placing  the  country  under  an  interdict .  1208-14.

Gregory  IX.  excommunicated  the  emperor
Frederick  II.  four  times  between  . . . 1228-45

Louis  XII.  of  France  was  excommunicated  by
Julius  II.  1510  ;  Luther  by  Leo  X.  1521  ;  Henry
VIII.  of  England  by  Paul  III.  in  1535 ;  and
Elizabeth  by  Pius  V 25  April,  1570

The  emperor  of  France,  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and
others,  were  virtually  excommunicated  (but  not
by  name)  on  account  of  the  annexation  of  the
Romagna  by  Sardinia ... 29  March,  i860.

EXECUTIONS,  see  Crime.  In  the  reign  of
Henry  VIII.  (38  years)  it  is  said  that  no  less  a
number  than  72,000  criminals  were  executed.  Stow.
In  the  ten  years  between  1820  and  1830,  there  were
executed  in  England  alone  797  criminals ;  but  as  our
laws  became  less  severe,  the  number  of  executions
decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  1820,  the
executions  in  England  and  Wales  amounted  to
312 ;  in  the  three  years  ending  1830,  they  were
178  ;  in  the  three  years  ending  1840,  they  were  62.
The  place  of  execution  in  London  (formed)'  gene-
rally at  Tyburn)  was  in  front  of  Newgate  from  1783
to  1868,  when  an  act  was  passed  directing  execu-
tions to  take  place  within  the  walls  of  prisons.  The
dissection  of  the  bodies  of  executed  persons  was-
abolished  in  1832,  see  Death,  1868.

John  Calcraft,  born  1800,  executioner  for  London,  1828-
1871,  died  13  Dec.  1879  ;  his  successor,  Wm.  Marwood.
died  4  Sept.  1883  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Berry  ;  said
to  have  resigned  March,  1892.


1820,
1837,  2;
—  1844,


1847


1850
1S51
1852
1853
1854
1855
1S56
1857
1S58
1859
i860


1863
1S64
1865
1S66
1867


EXECUTIONS  IN  LONDON.

: — 1825,  17  ; — 1830,  6  ; — 1835,  o  ; — 1836,  o  ; — ■
338,  o  ; — 1839,  2  ; — 1840,  1 ; — 1842,  2 ; — 1843,  o  ;
-1845,  3  ;— 1846,  2.


IN ENGLAND.

rfand.  London.


1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1S76
1877


England.  London.
.10 . 3
.6.2
• 3 • o-
.15 . 1


10


•  23

•  15

•  17


1886  .

•  19

1887 .

.  2T

I8SS  .

.  16

1889  .

•  14

1890

•  15

EXECUTIONS.


353


EXECUTIONS.


EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS.*

Gunpowder  plot  conspirators,  Digby,  R.  Winter,
Grant,  and  Bates,  30  Jan. ;  T.  Winter,  Rookwood,
Keys,  and  Fawkes,  31  Jan. ;  Henry  Garnett,  Jesuit :
at  London 3  May,  1606

John  Felton,  murder  of  duke  of  Buckingham  ;
Tyburn ....  .28  Nov. 1628

■James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  treason; Tower-hill,

15  July,  1685

Ckarnock,  King,  and  Keys,  18  March  ;  sir  John
Friend,  and  sir  Wm.  Perkins  ("assassination
plot ") 3  April,  1696

(Capt.  Wm.  Kidd  and  three  others,  piracy 23  May,  1701

■James,  earl  of  Derwentwater,  and  William,  earl  of
Kenmure,  rebellion  ;  Tower-hill . . 24  Feb. 1716

Jelm Price, the  hangman;  murder,  Bunhill-row,

21  May,  1718

Jack  Sheppard,  highwayman  ;  Tyburn  16  Nov.  1724

.Richard  Turpin,  highwayman  ;  York  7  or  10  April,  1739

Lord  Balmerino  and  others,  rebellion  ;  Tower-hill,

18  Aug. 1746

Lord  Lovat,  rebellion  ;  Tower-hill .  9  April,  1747

Richard  Wm.  Vaughau,  first  forger  of  Bank  of  Eng-
land notes 11  May,  1758

Eugene  Aram,  murder  ;  York . . .6  Aug. 1759

Earl  Ferrers,  murderof  his  steward  ;  Tyburn,  5  May,  1760

Theodore  Gardelle,  murder  ;  Haymarket 4  April,  1761

John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt  ; Smithfield,

n  Nov. ,,

John  M'Naughten,  esq.,  murder  of  Miss  Knox;
Strabane 13  Dec. ,,

Elizabeth  Brownrigg,  murder  of  her  apprentice  ;
Tyburn 14  Sept.  1767

Daniel  and  Robert  Perreau,  wine  merchants,  forgery  ;
Tyburn 17  Jan. 1776

Rev.  Dr.  Dodd,  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond,  in
the  name  of  lord  Chesterfield  for  4200Z.  ;  the
highest  influence  was  exerted  to  save  him,  but
when  the  case  came  before  the  council,  the
•minister  of  the  day  said  to  George  III.,  "If
your  majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will  have
murdered  the  Perreaus  ;"  Tyburn . 27  June,  1777

Slev.  Henry  Hackman,  murder  of  Miss  Reay,  mis-
tress of  earl  of  Sandwich  ;  Tyburn  . 19  April,  1779

•Capt.  John  Donellan,  murder  of  .sir  Theodosius
Boughton ;  Warwick . . . .2  April,  1781

Christian  Murphy  (or  Bowman),  a  woman  ;  strangled
and  burnt  for  coining  ... 18  March,  1789

Kichard  Parker  and  others,  mutiny  at  the  Nore,

30  June,  1797

Mrs. Phepoe,  celebrated  murderess  ; Old  Bailey,

11  Dec. ,,

Sir  Edward  Crosbie,  high  treason  ;  Ireland,  4  June,  1798

M-essrs.  Sheares,  high  treason  ;  Dublin 12  July,  1799

•Galloping  Dick,  highwayman  ;  Aylesbury, 4  April, 1800

•Governor  Joseph  Wall,  murder  of  Serjeant  Arm-
strong ;  Old  Bailey .... 28  Jan. 1802

Mr. Crawley, murder  of two females  ; Dublin,

10  March, „

George  Foster,  murder  of  wife  and  child  ;  Old  Bailey,

18  Jan. 1803

Colonel  Despard  and  others,  high  treason  ;  Horse-
•monger-lane 21  Feb.

John  Hatfield  (a  rank  impostor,  who  married,  by
msans  of  the  most  odious  deceit,  the  celebrated
"Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; Carlisle,

3  Sept. „

Robert  Emmett,  high  treason  ;  Dublin 20  Sept. ,,

Richard  Patch,  murderof  Mr.  Bligh  ;  Horsemonger-
lane 8  April,  1806

John  Holloway,  Owen  Haggerty,  murder  of  Mr.
Steele  ;  Old  Bailey  (28  of  the  spectators  of
this  execution  were  trodden  to  death,  and  num-
bers were  pressed,  maimed  and  wounded),  23  Feb. 1807

T.  Simmons,  the  man  of  blood,  murder;  Hertford,

7  March,  1808

Major  Campbell,  murder  of  capt.  Boyd  in  a  duel ;
Armagh 2  Oct. „

Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock,

29  June, 1809

Richard  Armitage,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey 24  June,

John  Bellingham,  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval ;  Old
Bailey ,8  May,

Philip  Nicholson,  murder  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar  ;
Peunenden-heath  .... 23  Au<*.


iSii
1812
1813


*  For  some other  executions, see England,  1535-6,
16 1 8-4 1  -45-83  ;  and  Oates's  Plot.


Francis  Tuite, murder  of  Mr. Goulding ;  Dublin.
_. , _  ,, ,  9  Oct. 1813
Charles  Callaghan,  murder  of  Mr.  Merry  •  Horse-
monger-lane 2  April,  1814

William  Sawyer,  murder  of  JackHacket;  Old  Bailey,

15  May,  ,,
Eliza  Fenning,  administering  poison  ;  Old  Bailey,

,TT .  26  July,  1815

[Universally  believed  to  be  innocent ;  she  denied
her  guilt  on  the  scaffold  ;  and  thousands  accom-
panied her  funeral.  In  the  "Annual  Register"
for  1857,  p.  143,  it  is  stated  on  the  authority  of
Mr.  Gnrney,  that  she  confessed  the  crime  to  Mr.
James  Upton,  a  baptist  minister,  shortly  before
her  execution.]

John Cashman, Spa-fields  riots  ; Skinner-street,

12  March,  1817

Murderers  of  the  Lynch  family.  Wild-goose  Lodge
affair  ;  Ireland tg  July,

The  three  Ashcrofts,  father  and  sons,  murder;
Lancaster 8  Sept. ,,

Brandreth  and  others,  high  treason  ;  Derby,  7  Nov. ,,

Charles  Hussey,  murder  of  Mr.  Bird  and  his  house-
keeper ;  Pennenden-heath . . .3  Aug.

John  Scanlan,  esq.,  murder  of  Ellen  Hanley ;  Lime-
rick 16  March,

Arthur  Thistlewood,  John  Brunt,  James  Ings,  John
Davidson,  Richard  Tidd  (see  Cato-street)  ;  Old
Bailey \  May,

John  Chennell,  Thomas  Calcraft,  murder  of  Mr.
Chennell,  senr. ;  Godalming . . 17  Aug.

Josiah  Cadman,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey . 21  Nov.

Samuel  Greenwood,  highway  robbery  ;  Old  Bailey,

27  Dec.
John  Thurtell,  murder  of Mr.  Weare  ;  Hertford,

9  Jan.

John  Wayte,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey . .  24  Feb.

Henry Fauutleroy, banker, forgery; Old  Bailey,

30  Nov.

Wm.  Probert  (an  accomplice  of  Thurtell's  in  the
murder  of  Mr.  Weare ;  he  became  approver),
horse-stealing ;  Old  Bailey . . 20  June,

Spitaltields'  gang,  highway  robbery; Old  Bailey,

29  Nov.

Chas.  Thos.  White,  arson  ;  Old  Bailey . 2  Jan.

Edward  Lowe,  coining  (the  last  coiner  drawn  on  a
sledge  to  the  scaffold) ;  Old  Bailey  22  Nov.

Catherine  Walsh,  murder  of  her  child  ;  Old  Bailey,

14  April,  1828

William  Rea,  highway  robbery  ;  Old  Bailey,  4  July, ,,

Captain  Charles  Montgomery  was  ordered  for  exe-
cution this  day  for  forgery  ;  but  he  took  a  close  (an
ounce  and  a  half)  of  prussic  acid,  to  save  himself
from  the  ignominy  of  the  gallows,  and  was  found
dead  in  his  cell 4  July,

William  Corder,  murder  of  Maria  Marten  ;  Bury  St.
Edmunds xl  Aug.

Joseph  Hunton,  quaker,  forgery  ;  Old  Bailey,  8  Dec. "

Wm.  Burke,  murderer  (see  Burking)  ;  Edinburgh,

28  Jan. 1829
Anne  Chapman,  murder  of  her  child ;  Old  Bailey,

30  June,  ,,
Stewart  and  wife,  murder  ;  Glasgow  .  24  July,  ,,
Thomas  Maynard,  the  last  executed  for  forgery  ;

Old  Bailey 31  Dec. „

Mr.  Comyn,  arson  ;  Ennis . . .18  March,  1830
John  Any  Bird  Bell,  a  bny  of  14  years  of  age,  for

the  murderof  Richard  Taylor,  aged  13,  Maidstone

1  Aug.  1 83 1
John  Bishop,  Thomas  Williams,  murder  of  a  poor

Italian  boy  (see  Bn/rking) ;  Old  Bailey, 5  Dec. ,,
John  Smith,  James  Pratt,  unnatural crime  ;  Old

Bailey 8  April,  1835

Maryanne  Burdock,  remarkable  case  of  poisoning  ;

Bristol 15  April, „

John  Pegsworth,  murder  ;  Old  Bailey  7  March,  1837

James  Greenacre,  murder  of  Hannah  Brown  ;  Old

Bailey 2  May, ,,

William Lees,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey,

16  Dec. 1839
Francois  Benj.  Courvoisier,  murder  of  lord  W.  Rus-
sell;  Old  Bailey 6  July,  1840

Josiah  Misters,  wounding  Mr.  Mackreth;  Shrews-
bury 3  April. 1841

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon  ; Old

Bailey 15  Nov. ,,

John  Delahunt,  murder  of  ThomasMaguire  ;  Dublin,

5  Feb. 1842
A  A


181S
1820


1B21
1822
1824


1826
1827


EXECUTIONS.


354


EXECUTIONS.


Daniel  Good,  murder  of  Jane  Jones ;  Old Bailey,

23  May,
"William  Crouch,  murder  of  his  wife  ;  Old  Bailey,

27  May,
James  Tapping, murder  of  Emma  Whiter  ; Old

Bailey ?'.'"'..  -24  March,

John  Tawell, murder  of  Sarah  Hart ;  Aylesbury,

28  March,
Thomas  Henry  Hocker, murder  of  Mr.  Delarue  ;

Old  Bailey .  . . . -28  April,

Joseph  Connor, murder of  Mary Brothers  ; Old

Bailey 2  June,

John  Platts,  murder  of  Co]  lis  ;  Derby . 1  April,
Catherine  Foster,  murder  of  her  husband  ;  Bury  St.

Edmunds 17  April,

James  Bloomfield  Rush,  murder  of  Messrs.  Jenny,

sen.  and  jun. ;  Norwich  ...  21  April,
Fred.  George  Manning,  and  his  wife,  Maria  Manning,

murder of O'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane,

13  Nov.
James  Barbour,  murder  ;  York . . 15  Jan.
Hy.  Horler,  murder  of  wife  ;  Old  Bailey . 15  Jan.
Grant,  Quin,  and  Coomey,  murder  of  Thomas  Bate-
son  ;  Monaghan 9  April,

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder  of  Mr.  Moore  and

C.  Collard  ;  Old  Bailey  ...  22  Jan.
William  Bousfleld,  murder  of  his  wife  and  three

children  ;  Old  Bailey  ...  31  March,
William  Palmer  (of  Rugeley),  murder  of  J.  P.  Cook

by  poison  ;  Stafford 14  June,

William  Dove,  murder  of  his  wife  by  poison  ;  York

9  Aiijr.
Joseph  Jenkins,  alias  Robert  Mar-ley,  murder  of

Cope,  a  shopman,  in  Westminster  ;  Old  Bailey,

15  Dec.
William  Jackson,  murder  of  two  children ;  Chester,

20  Dec.

Lagava, Bartelano, and  Pettrick,  murder  of  two

officers  and  piracy  ;  Winchester .  23  Dec.

Dedea Redaines, murder of  two  girls  at  Dover  ;

Maidstone 1  Jan.

Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite),

murder  of  a  soldier  ;  Maidstone .  6  July,

Capt.  H.  Rogers,  murder  of  A.  Rose,  a  black,  with

great  cruelty ;  Liverpool  .  .  .11  Sept.
Thomas  Davis,  murder  of  wife  ;  Old  Bailey,  16  Nov.
John  William  Beale,  murder  of  Charlotte  Pugsley,

his  sweetheart  ;  Taunton  .  .  .12  Jan.
John  Thomson,  alias  Peter  Walker,  murder  of  Agnes

Montgomery  by  poison — discovered  by  a  child  ;

Paisley 14  Jan.

Christian  Sattler,  a  German,  murder  of  inspector

Thain  ;  Old  Bailey  ....  8  Feb.
Giovanni  Lani,  murder  of  Heloise  Thaubin  ;  Old

Bailey 26  April,

John  B.  Bucknall,  murder  of  his  grandfather  and

grandmother  ;  Taunton  ...  24  Aug.
Wm.  Burgess,  murder  of  his  daughter ;  Taunton,

4  Jan.
Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford,

31  March,
William  Youngman,  murder  of  sweetheart,  Mary

Streeter,  and  mother  and  two  brothers,  on  Aug.

16 ;  Horsemonger-lane ...  4  Sept.

James  Mullins,  murder  of  Mrs.  Emsley,  at  Stepney ;

Old  Bailey 19  Nov.

James  Johnson,  murder  of  two  non-commissioned

officers  ;  Winchester 1  Jan.

Matthew  and  Charles  Wedmore, murder  of  their

aunt ;  Taunton 5  April,

Martin  Doyle, barbarous  attempted murder  (last

exemition for  this  crime);  Chester  .  27  Aug.
Wm.  Cogan,  murder  of  wife  ;  Old  Bailey,  14  Oct.
Thomas  Jackson, a soldier, murder  of  sergeant

John  Dickson  ;  Winchester  .  .  27  Dec.
Wm.  Charlton,  engine-driver,  murdered  Jane  Em-

merson,  to  obtain  the  money  she  had  saved  for

her  funeral  ;  Carlisle  ...  15  March,
G.  J.  Gilbert,  brutal  murder  of  Miss  M.  S.  Hall,  on

her  way  to  church  ;  Winchester  .  .  4  Aug.
William  Taylor,  murder  of  Mr.  Meller  from  revenge  ;

he  previously  killed  his  own  children ;  Kirkdale,'

13  Sept.
Catherine  Wilson,  murder  of  Mrs.  Soames  by 'poison

[and of several other persons]  ; Old Bailey,

20  Oct.
William  Ockold  (aged  70),  murder  of  his  wife,  after

50  years'  marriage  ;  Worcester . _  . 2  Jan.


1845


1847


1853

1854
1855
1856


1857


1859
1 86c


1863


Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford,

24  March,
Bobert  A. Burton, murder  of  a  boy  ;  Maidstone,

11  April,
Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed  son ;

Shrewsbury . . . . . ri  April,
Dennis  Delane,  hired  Beckham  and  Walsh  to  mur-
der his  landlord,  F.  Fitzgerald . . 13  April,
John  Ducker,  murder  of  Tye,  a  policeman  ;  Ipswich,

14  April,
Wm.  Hope,  violation  and  murder  of  Mary  Corbett ;

Hereford 15  April,

D.  MacPhail  and  G.  Woods,  murder  of  Mrs.  "Walne ;

Kirkdale 25  April,

Joseph  Brooks, murder of Davy, a  policeman  ;

Old  Bailey 27  April,

Joseph  Kelly,  murder  of  Fitzheury,  a  schoolmaster ;

Wexford n  Aug.

Thomas,  Alvarez,  Hughes,  and  O'Brien,  ferocious

murderers  ;  Liverpool .  .  .  .11  Sept.
Alice  Holt,  murder  of  her  mother ;  Chester,  28  Dec.
Samuel  Wright,  murder  of  his  paramour,  12  Jan.
John  Lyons  and  four  others  (foreigners);  murder

and  piracy  ;  Old  Bailey  ...  22  Feb.
Charles Brickuell, murder of his sweetheart,

1  Aug.
Franz  Miiller,  murder  of  Mr. Briggs  in  a  railway

carriage  (see  Trials) ;  Old  Bailey .  14  Nov.
Ferdinand  Kohl,  murder  of  M.  Fuhrkop  ;  Chelms-
ford 26  Jan.

Edw.  William  Pritchard, M.D., murder  of  wife

and  her  mother  ;  Giasgovv  .  .  .28  July,
John  Currie,  murder  of  major  De  Yere ;  Maidstone,

12  Oct.
Stephen  Forward,  alias  Ernest  Southey,  murder  of

wife  and  four  children  ;  Maidstone  .  11  Jan.
Mary Ashford, murder of husband  ; Exeter,

28  March,
John  Wm.  Leigh,  murder  of  wife's  sister ;  Brighton,

10  April,
Robert  Coe,  murder  of  a  young  man  for  his  wages,

30s. ;  Swansea 12  April,

John  Grant,  a  soldier,  murder  of  a  boy ;  Exeter,

15  Aug.
J.  R.  Jeffreys,  murder  of  his  son  (aged  7);  Old  Bailey,

9  Oct.
Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder  of Harriet  Sax

(6  years  old)  - 16  April,

Hubbard  Lingley,  murder  of  his  uncle,  Benj.  Black ;

Norwich ...... 26  Aug.

George Britten, murder  of his .  wife  ; Taunton,

29  Aug.
John Wiggins, murder  of  his  concubine, Agues

Oakes  ;  Old  Bailey  ....  15  Oct.
Louis  Bordier,  murder  of  his  concubine,  Mary  Ann

Snow ;  Horsemonger-lane  .  .  .15  Oct.
Wm.  O'Meara  Allen,  Wm.  Gould  (or  O'Brien),  and

Michael  Larkin,  Fenians,  for  murder  of  Brett,  a

policeman ;  Salford  .  .  .  .23  Nov!
Frederick  Baker,  murder  of  a  little  girl,  whom  he

afterwards  cut  up  ;  Winchester  .  .  24  Dec.
Wm.  Worsley,  murder  of  Wm.  Bradbury ;  Bedford,

31  March,
Frances  Kidder,  murder  of  her  husband's  child  ;

Maidstone 2  April,

Timothy Faherty, for  murder  of  his  sweetheart,

Mary  Hanmer  (for  rejecting  him),  and
Miles  Weatherill,  murder  of  Rev.  Mr.  Plow,  of  Tod-

morden,  and  his  maid  (for  revenge);  Manchester ;

4  April,
Frederick  Parker,  murder  of  Daniel  Driscoll ;  York,

4  April,
John  Mapp,  murder  of  little  girl  ; Shrewsbury,

9  April,
O'Farrell,  for  attempting  to  assassinate  the  duke  of

Edinburgh  ;  Sydney,  N.S.  Wales  .  21  April,
Richard Bishop; murder  of  Alfred  Cartwright  ;

Maidstone 30  April,

MichaelBarrett,  Fenian;  for  Clerkenwell explosion;

THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND  ; Old

Bailey 26  May,

Thomas Wells, murder  of Mr. Walsh, station-
master  at  Dover  ;  (the  first  private execution),

1 3,  Aug.

William  Sherward,  for  murder  of  his  wife,  Norwich

(see  Norwich) . .  -  . . 20  April,

Josiah  Detheridge,  murder  of  warder  in  Portland

prison  ;  Dorchester 12  Aug.


1863


1865;


EXECUTIONS.


355


EXECUTIONS.


"Win.  Taylor,  soldier ;  murder  of  his  corporal ;  Exeter,

n  Oct. 1869

Frederick  Hinson,  murder  of  his  concubine,  Maria
Death,  and  of  Win.  Douglas  Boyd,  her  paramour,
at  Wood  Green,  Middlesex  ;  Old  Bailey, 13  Dec. ,,

Win.  Mobbs,  purposeless  murder  of  a  child  ;  Ayles-
bury 28  March,  1870

"Walter  Millar,  murder  of  Rev.  Elias  Huelin  and
Ann  Boss  (at  Chelsea) ;  Old  Bailey . 1  Aug. ,,

John  Owen  or  Jones,  for  murder  of  a  family  (7
persons)  at  Denham  ;  Aylesbury . .  8  Aug. ,,

Thomas  Rateliffe  ;  murder  of  a  warder  in  Portland
prison ;  Dorchester . . . .15  Aug. ,,

Margaret  Waters  ;  murder  of  infants  ;  baby-farming
case ;  Horsemonger-lane ...  11  Oct. ,,

Patrick  Durr ; murder  of  his  wife  ; Manchester,

26  Dec. „

"Wm.  Bull ;  brutal  murder  of  an  old  woman ;  Bed-
ford 3  April,  1871

Michael  Campbell  ;  murder  of  Mr.  Galloway  at
Stratford  ;  Springfield  gaol,  Essex . 24  April, ,,

Richard  Addington  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Northampton,

31  July, „

Frederic  Jones ;  murder  of  Emily  Gardner,
through  jealousy  ;  Gloucester .  8  Jan. 1872

Edward  Roberts  ;  murder  of  Ann  Merrick,  who  re-
fused to  marry  him  ;  Oxford . . 18  March, ,,

Wm.  Fred.  Horry;  murder  of  wife  ;  Lincoln,  1  April, ,,

Charles  Holmes ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Worcester,  12  Aug. „

Thomas  Moore,  murder  of  wife  ;  James  Tooth,  sol-
dier, murder  of  drummer ;  Francis  Bradford,
soldier,  murder  of  comrade  ;  Maidstone, 13  Aug. ,,

Christopher  Edwards  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Stafford,

13  Aug. ,,

Wm.  Lace  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Taunton . 26  Aug. ,,

Augustus  Elliott ;  murder  of  paramour ;  Old  Bailey,

9  Dec. ,,

Mich.  Kennedy ;  murder  of  wife ;  Manchester, 30  Dec. ,,

Edwd.  Handcock;  murder  of  wife;  Warwick,  7  Jan. 1873

Richard  Spencer;  murder  of  paramour;  Liverpool,

8  Jan. „

Hugh  Slane  and  John  Hayes  ;  murder  of  Joseph
Waine  ;  Durham 13  Jan. ,,

Mary  Ann  Cotton  ;  murder  of  child  (see  Poisoning)  ;
Durham 24  March „

Henry  Evans,  at  Aylesbury ;  and  Benjamin  Hud-
son, at  Derby,  for  murder  of  their  wives 4  Aug. ,,

Thos.  Hartley  Montgomery,  murder  of  Mr.  Glasse,
Omagh 26  Aug. ,,

James  Connor ;  murder  of  James  Gaffney ;  Liver-
pool 8  Sept. „

Charles  Dawson,  William  Thompson,  and  Edward
Gough  ;  murders  ;  Durham  ;  Thos.  Corrigan  ;  m.
of  mother ;  Liverpool .... 5  Jan.  1874

Edward  C.  Butt ;  murder  of  Miss  Phipp,  through
jealousy  ;  Edwin  Bailey  and  Ann  Barry  ;  murder
of  child;  Gloucester .... 12  Jan. ,,

Thos. Chamberlain ; murder ; Northampton

30  March, „

James  Godwin  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate,  25  May, ,,

Frances  Stewart ;  murder  of  grandchild  ;  Newgate,

29  June, „

Thos.  Macdonald ;  murder  of  paramour ;  Exeter,

10  Aug. ,,

"Wm.  Jackson  ;  murder  of  sister  ;  York . 18  Aug. ,,

James  H.  Gibbs  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Usk  . 24  Aug. ,,

Henry  Flanigan  ;  murder  of  aunt ;  Mary  Williams  ;
murder  of  Nicholas  Manning  ;  Liverpool,  31  Aug. „

John  W.  Coppen ;  murder  of  wife ;  Horsemonger-
lane 13  Oct. ,,

Private  Thos.  Smith,  20th  Hussars ;  murder  of
Capt.  Bird,  in  revenge  for  slight  punishment ;
"Winchester 16  Nov. „

Robert  Taylor  ;  111.  of  Mrs.  Kidd  ;  Stafford 29  Dec. ,,

James  Cranwell ;  murder  of  Emma  Bellamy  ;  New-
gate. Michael  Mullen,  John  McCrave,  and  Wm.
Worthington  ;  Liverpool. . . . 4  Jan.  1875

Richard  Coates ;  murder  of  girl,  10  years  old ;
Chelmsford 29  March, ,,

John  Morgan;  murder  of  comrade;  Maidstone;
John  Stanton  ;  m.  of  uncle  ;  Station! 30  March, ,,

Alfred  T.  Heap,  quack  ;  murder  of  Margaret  Mc-
Kivett ;  Liverpool .... 19  April, ,,

Wm.  Hole;  murder  of  wife  ;  Bristol  . 26  April, ,,

Jeremiah  Corkery ;  murder  of  policeman  ;  Warwick,

27  July, „

McHugh,  Gilligan,  and  Pearson  (woman) ;  murders ;
Durham r>  Aug. ,,


Peter Blanchard ; murder of Louisa Hodgson ;

Lincolnshire 9  Aug.  1875

Philip  Lebrun  ;  murder  of  sister  ;  Jersey, 12  Aug. ,,
Wm. McCullogh  ; murder  of  Wm. Watson ; and

Mark  Fiddler ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Lancaster,  16  Aug. ,,
Wm.  Baker  and  Edward  Cooper ;  murders ;  Liver-
pool 6  Sept. ,,

Henry  Wainwright ;  murder  of  Harriet  Lane,  his

mistress  (see  Whitccliapel) ;  Newgate,  .  21  Dec.  ,,
Wm. Sinedley ; murder  of Elizabeth Filth, his

mistress  ;  Armley,  near  Leeds  .  .  21  Dec.  ,,
John  William  Anderson ; murder  of  wife  ; New-

castle-on-Tyne 22  Dee. ,,

Richard  Charlton  ;  m.  of  wife  ;  Morpeth 23  Dec. ,,
George  Hunter ;  murder  of  fellow  workman  ;  Mor-
peth 28  March,  1876

Thos. Fordred ; murder  of  Ann  Bridger ; Maid-
stone 4  April, ,,

George  Hill ;  murder  of  his  illegitimate  child,  and

nearly  of  its  mother ;  Hertford  .  .  10  April,  ,,
Edward  Deacon  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Bristol,  24  April,  ,,
John  Webber ;  murder ;  Cardiff  .  .  26  April,  ,,
Henry  Webster  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Norwich,  1  May,  ,,
"Lennie"  mutineers  and  murderers:  Matteo  Car-
galis,  Pascalis  Caludis,  George  Kaida,  and
Giovanni  Carcaris  ;  Newgate  . . 23  May, ,,

John  Williams  ;  shot  his  brother-in-law  ;  Durham,

26  July, ,,
James  Parris  ;  murder  of  a  child  ;  Maidstone  1  Aug. ,,
Wm.  Fish  ;  murder  of  a  child  (see  Trials) ;  Richard
Thompson,  murder  of  J.  H.  Blundell ;  Liverpool ;

14  Aug. ,,
C. E. Baumbos  (see  Mutinies)  ; and Crowe  (see

Ireland) :  Cork  .  .  .  .  .25  Aug.  ,,
John  Ebelthrift ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate  26  Aug.  ,,
Charles  O'Donnell ;  murder  of  wife ;  Newgate  11  Dec.  ,,
Robert  Browning;  murder  of  Emma  Rolfe,  aged  16  ;

Cambridge 14  Dec. ,,

Silas  Barlow  ;  murder  of  Ellen  Sloper,  paramour ;
Horsemonger-lane  ;  James  Dalgleish  ;  murder  of
Sarah  Wright  ;  Carlisle  .... 19  Dec. ,,
John  Thomas  Green  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Leicester,

20  Dec. ,,
Wm.  Flanagan  ;  murder  of  paramour  ; Manchester

21  Dec. ,,
Isaac  Marks,  Jew  ;  murder  of  Fredk.  Barnard,  for

revenge;  (Newington murder);  Horsemonger-lane

2  Jan.  1877

Henry  &  Francis  George  Tidbury  ;  murder  of  two
policemen  ;  Reading  .... 12  March, ,,

Wm. Clark  (or  Slenderman) ; murder of  Henry
Walker,  gamekeeper  ;  Lincoln . 26  March, ,,

John McKenna  ; murder of wife ; Manchester

27  March,

James  Bannister  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Chester  2  April, ,,

John Henry  Johnson ; murder  of Amos  White ;
through  jealousy  ; 3  April, ,,

Frederick Baker  ; murder of Mary Saunders ;
jealousy ;  Warwick .... 17  April, ,,

John  Henry  Starkey  ;  murder  of  wife;  Leicester;
Henry  Rogers  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Stafford  31  July, ,,

Henry  Leigh  ;  murder  of  child  ;  Chester 13  Aug. „

Caleb Smith  ; murder of nominal wife (Eliza
Osborne) ;  Horsemcmger-lane  . . .14  Aug. ,,

John  Goulding  and  Patrick  McGovern  ;  murders  ;
Liverpool 21  Aug. „

John  Lynch  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate. .  15  Oct. „

Thos.  Pratt ;  murder  of  paramour ;  Newgate  12  Nov. „

Wm.  Hussell ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Exeter . 19  Nov. ,,

Henry March  ; murder  of  employer  and  fellow-
workman ;  Norwich  ....  20  Nov. ,,

Thos.  Gray ; murder  of  Ann  Mellors,  who  refused
him  ;  Nottingham 21  Nov. „

Cad  wallader  Jones;  murder  of  paramour;  Dolgelly,

23  Nov. „

James  Sachwell,  John  Upton,  and  John  Wm.  Swift;
brutal  murder  of  an  old  man  ;  Leicester  27  Nov. „

Geo.  Pigott;  murder  of  Florence  Galloway;  Man-
chester 4  Feb. 1878

James  Caffyn  ;  murder  of  Maria  Barber  ;  Winches-
ter 11  Feb. ,,

James  Trickett;  murder  of  wife  ;  Liverpool  12  Feb. ,,

John Brooks  ; murder of Caroline Woodhead ;
Nottingham 13  Feb. ,,

Harry Bowles ; murder of sweetheart  ; Oxford

1  A)  ril, „

Vincent  Knowles  Walker  ;  murder  of  woman  ;  Vol  k,

15  April, .,
A A 2


EXECUTIONS.


356


EXECUTIONS.


Charles  J.  Revell ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Chelmsford,

29  July, if

Robert  Vest ;  ship  steward  ;  murder  of  Wm.  Wal-
lace, a  pilot ;  Durham ... 3°  JulY,

Thos.  Cholerton  ;  murder  of  paramour;  Notting-
ham • -,,I2iu°-

Selina  Wadge  ;  murder  of  illegitimate  child  ;  Bod-
min ....•■■  I5  Aug.

Thomas  Smithers,  murder  of  woman,  Wandsworth,

8  Oct.

Patrick  John  Byrne  ;  murder  of  two  brother  ser-
geants ;  Northampton . . ■ • i2.,,.0^

Joseph  Garcia,  Spanish  sailor,  murder  of  William
Watkins  and  his  wife  and  three  children,  Usk,

18  Nov.
James McGowan  ; murder  of  wife  ;  Manchester  ;

19  Nov.
Henry  Gilbert ;  murder  of  illegitimate  child  ;  Hun-
tingdon 25  Nov.

Stephen  Gaiiibrill ;  murder  of  Arthur  Gillow  while
defending  his  machinery  (Wednesborough)  Maid-
stone ...■■•• 4  Feb.  l879

Enoch  Whist'on  ;  murder  of  Alfred  Meredith  ;  Wor-
cester IO  Feb. „

Wm  McGuiness  ;  murder  of  wife ;  Lancaster  11  Feb. „

Charles  Peace  ;  murder  of  A.  Dyson  ;  Leeds  ;  (see
Trials,  1878-9) 25  Feb „

James  Simms  ;  American  seaman ;  murder  of
woman  ;  Newgate . . ■ -24  March „

Edwd.  Smart ;  murder  of  woman ;  Gloucester,  12  May „

"Wm Cooper  •  murder  of  Ellen  Mather ;  Manchester,

20  May,  ,,
Catherine  Churchill  ;  murder  of  husband  ;  Taunton,

26  May,  ,,
John  Darcy  ;  murder  of  Wm.  Mitechalle  ;  York  ;

27  May, „
Thomas  Johnson  ;  murder  of  Eliza  Patten  ;  Liver-
pool 28  May, „

Catherine  Webster  ;  murder  of  Mrs.  Julia  Martha
Thomas  ;  Wandsworth  ;  (see  Richmond),  29  July, ,,

Annie  Took  ;  murder  of  nurse-child  ;  Exeter  n  Aug. ,,

James  Dilley  ;  murder  of  illegitimate  child  ;  New-
gate 25  Aug. „

John  Ralph  ;  murder  of  Sarah  Vernon  ;  Birming-
ham 26  Aug. „

Henrv  Bedingfield ;  murder  of  Eliza  Rudd ;  Ipswich,

3  Dec. „

Charles  Shurety ;  murder  of  child  ;  Newgate,  5  Jan.  188c

Wm.  Cassidy ;  murder  of  wife ;  Manchester,  17  Feb. ,,

Hugh  Burns  and  Patrick  Kearns ;  murder  of
Patrick  Tracey  at  Widnes  ;  Liverpool 2  March, „

John  Wingfield; murder  of  his  wife; Newgate,

22  March, ,,

"Wm.  Dumbleton ;  murder  of  John  Edmunds  ;
Aylesbury 10  May, „

John  Henry  Wood  ;  murder  of  John  Coe  ;  York  ;

11  May, ,,

John  Wakefield  ;  murder  of  a  child  ;  Derby  16  Aug. „

Wm.  Brownless  ;  murder  of  sweetheart ;  Durham  ;

16  Nov.  ,,
"Wm. J. Distin  ; murder  of  paramour  ; Bristol ;

22  Nov.  „
Thos  Wheeler  ;  murder  of  Edward  Anstee,  near  St.

Albans 29  Nov. ,,

George  Pavey  ;  murder  of  Ada  Shepherd,  aged  11  ;
and  Wm.  "Herbert,  murder  of  Jane  Messenger,
sister-in-law  ;  Newgate  . . . -13  Dec. ,,
Wm.  Stanway  ;  murder  of  Ann  Mellor  ;  Chester  ;

21  Feb.  188
James  Williams ;  murder  of  Eliz.  Bagnall ;  Stafford  ;

22  Feb.  ,,
Albert  Robinson  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Derby  28  Feb.  ,,
Albert  Moore  ;  murder  of  old  woman  ;  Maidstone  ;

17  May,  ,,
James  Hall  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Leeds  .  23  May,  ,,
Joseph  P.  McEntee  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Liverpool  ;

31  May, ,,
Thos.  Brown  ;  murder  of  Eliza  Caldwell ;  Notting-
ham iS  Aug. 1..

George  Burling  ;  murder  of  Fanny  Musson,  Maid-
stone 23  Aug. „

John  Aspinal  Simpson  ;  murder  of  girl  ;  Man-
chester 28  Nov. ,,

Percy  Lefroy  Mapleton  ;  murder  of  F.  T.  Gold  in  a

Brighton  railway  carriage  ;  Lewes .  29  Nov. ,,

Alfred Gough ; murder  of  a  little girl ; Derby ,,
Robert Templeton ; murder of landlady ; Man-
chester . .  • 13  Feb.  186


Dr.  G.  H.  Lamson  ;  murder  of  Percy  M.  John  (see

Wimbledon) ;  Wandsworth . . 28  April,  18S2
Thos.  Fury  ;  murder  of  Maria  Fitzsimons  in  1869  ;

Sunderland 16  May, ,,

Wm. Geo. Abigale ; murder of  girl ; Norwich,

22  May,  „
Osmond  Otto  Brand  ;  murder  of  apprentice  at  sea  ;

Leeds 23  May, ,,

Charles  Gerrish  ;  murder  of  fellow  pauper  ;  Wilts  ,,
Wm.  Tinner  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Liverpool,  21  Aug.  „
Wm.  Meager  Bartlett;  murdei'  of  infant;  Bodmin,

13  Nov.  ,,
Edward  Wheatfill ;  cruel  murder  of  Peter  Hughes,

aged  16 ;  York .' . . . -27  Nov. ,,
Bernard Mullarkey  ; murder  of  Thomas Cruise ;

Liverpool 4  Dec. ,,

Charles Taylor ; murder  of wife ; Wandsworth,

12  Dec.  ,,
Louisa  Jane Taylor ; murder  of  Mrs. Tregiltis ;

Wandsworth 2  Jan.  1883

Abraham  Thomas,  a  butler  ; murder  of  Mrs. C.

Leigh  ;  Manchester ....  12  Feb. ,,

James  Anderson;  murder  of  wife  ;  Lincoln,  19  Feb.  ,,
Thomas  Garry  ;  murder  of  John  Newton  ;  Lincoln

7  May „
Patrick  Carey,  or  John  White  ;  murder  of  Thomas

Eastain  and  Mary  Moran  ;  Chester . 8  May „
George  White  ;  murder  of  wife;  and  Joseph  Wedlake,

murder  of  Mark  Cox  ;  Taunton . . 21  May, ,,
James Burton  ; murder of Elizabeth Sharpe ;

Durham 6  Aug. ,,

Henry  Powell  ;  murder  of  master's  son,  J.  H.  D.

Bruton  ;  Wandsworth . . . .6  Nov. „
Thomas  Lyons  ;  murder  of  his  child .  13  Nov. ,,

Peter  Bray  ; murder  of  Thomas  Pyle ; Durham,

19  Nov. ,,
Thomas  Riley  :  murder  of  Elizabeth  Alston  ;  Man-
chester 26  Nov. „

Henry Dutton ; murder of Hannah Henshaw ;

Liverpool 3  Dec. ,,

Patrick  O'Donnell  ;  murder  of  James  Carey,  the

informer ;  Newgate .... 17  Dec. ,,
Charles  Kite  ; murder  of  Albert  Miles  ;  Taunton,

25  Feb.  1884
Michael  Maclean  ;  murder  of  Spanish  sailor ;  Liver-
pool 10  March ,,

Mary Leffley  ; murder of husband ; Lincoln,

26  May,  ,,
Joseph  Lawson ;  murder  of  sergeant  Smith ;  Durham

27  May,  ,,
Peter  Cassidy  ;  murder  of  wife;  Liverpool,  19  Aug.  ,,
Joseph  I.aycock  ;  murder  of  wife  and  4  children  ;

Leeds 26  Aug. ,,

Thos.  Henry  Orrock  ;  murder  of  policeman  Cole ;

Newgate ....  . . 6  Oct. ,,

Thomas  Harris  ;  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate  6  Oct.  ,,
Kay  Howarth  and  Henry  Hammond  ; Swindell's

murder ;  Manchester . . . .24  Nov. „
Ernest  Ewerstadt  and  Arthur  Shaw  ;  murder  of

women 8  Dec. ,,

Horace  Robert  Jay  ;  murder  of  a  girl  ;  Wandsworth

13  Jan.  1885
Henry  Kimberley;  murder  of  Mrs.  Palmer; Bir-
mingham 17  March, ,,

John Lee, murder  of  police-inspector  Simmons

Chelmsford 18  May, „

Moses  Shrimpton,  murder  of  policeman  ;  Worcester,

25  May,  „
Henry  Alt,  murder  of  C.  Howard;  Newgate,  13  July,  ,,
Joseph  Tucker,  murder  of  Elizabeth  Williamson  ;

Nottingham 3  Aug. ,,

Thomas  Boulton,  murder  of  niece  ;  Stafford,  17  Aug.  ,,
Henry  Norman,  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate  5  Oct.  ,,
John Hill and John Williams, murder  ol  Arm

Dickson ;  Hereford . . . -23  Nov. „
Robert Goodale, murder of wife ; head  severed

through  long  drop ;  Norwich . . .  30  Nov. ,,
Daniel  Minahan,  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate 7  Dec. „
George  Thomas,  murder  of  woman ;  Liverpool  8  Dec. ,,
John  Horton,  murder  of  his  father  ;  Devizes  1  Feb.  i88(
Anthony  Benjamin  Rudge,  John  Martin,  and  James

Baker,  murder  (see  Trials) ;  Carlisle  8  Feb. ,,

Joseph  Baines,  murder  of  wife  ;  Lancaster  9  Feb.  ,,
John  Thurston,  murder  of  H.  Springall ;  Norwich

10  Feb.  ,,
George  Saunders,  murder  of  wife  ;  Ipswich  16  Feb.  ,,
Owen  M'Gill,  murder  of  wife  ;  Cheshire  22  Feb.  ,,
Thomas  Nash,  murder  of  child Swansea March, ,,


EXECUTIONS.


357


EXETER.


David  Roberts,  murder  of  David  Thomas  ;  Cardiff

2  March,  i
Albert  Edward  Brown, and  James Whelan, for
murders ;  Winchester ... 31  May,
Edward Hewitt, murder of wife ; Gloucester

15  June,
William Samuel, murder of Wm. Mabbott ;

Shrewsbury 26  July,

Maiy  Ann  Britland,  murder  of  Mrs.  Dixon  ;  Man-
chester 9  Aug.

Patrick  Judge,  murder  of  wife  ;  Newcastle  16  Nov.
James  Murphy,  poacher,  murder  ;  York  29  Nov.
James Banton, murder of police constable ;

Leicester 30  Nov.

George  Harmer,  murder  of  an  old  man ;  Is  orwich

13  Dec.
Thomas  Leatherbarrow,  murder  of  woman  ;  Man-
chester  15  Feb.  1

Thomas  Bloxham,  murder  of  wife  ;  Leicester  14  Feb.
Edward  Pritchard, murder  of  Allen  ;  Gloucester

17  Feb.
Richard  Insole,  murder  of  wife  ;  Lincoln  21  Feb.
Benjamin Terry, murder of wife ; Nottingham

22  Feb.
Elizabeth  Berry,  murder  of  daughter  ; Liverpool

14  March,
Joseph  King,  murder  of  woman  and  child  ;  Newgate

21  March,

Thomas  William  Carroll,  murder  of  Lydia  Green

(see  Trials)  ;  Newgate ... 18  April,

Charles Smith, murder of wife ; Cowley near

Oxford 9  May,

Henry William Young, murder  of  child ; Dor-
chester 16  May,

Walter  Wood,  murder  of  wife  ;  Manchester  31  May,
Alfred  Sowery,  murder  of  sweetheart ;  Lancaster

1  Aug.
Israel  Lipski,  murder  of  woman  ;  Newgate  22  Aug.
Henry  Hobson,  murder  of  Ada  Stodhart ;  Leeds

22  Aug.
Thomas  H. Bevan, murder of  woman ; Chester

17  Aug.
William  Wilton,  murder  of  wife  ;  Lewes  29  Aug.
William  Hunter,  murder  of  a  child  ;  Carlisle  14  Nov.
Joseph  Walker,  murder  of  wife  ;  Oxford  15  Nov.
Joseph  Morley, niurder  of  woman  ; Chelmsford

21  Nov.
Enoch  Wadley, murder of woman ; Gloucester

28  Nov.
Thomas Payne, murder of his sister-in-law ;

Warwick 6  Dec.

David  Rees,  murder  of  Thomas  Da  vies  ;  Carmarthen

13  March,  1
Alfred Scandrett and James Jones, murder  of
Philip  Ballard ;  Hereford . . 20  March,
George  Clarke,  murder  of  stepdaughter  ;  Winchester

27  March,
William Arrowsmith, murder of his uncle  ;

Shrewsbury 28  March,

John  Alfred  Gell,  murder  of  Mrs.  Mary  Miller ;

Manchester ^  May,

James  William  Richardson,  murder  of  Wm.
Berridge  ;  Leeds.  ....  22  May,
Robert  Upton,  murder  of  wife  ;  Oxford  17  July,
Thomas  Wyre,  murder  of  son  ;  Worcester  18  July,
John  Jackson,  murder  of  warder  Webb ;  Manchester,

7  Aug.
Arthur  T.  Delaney,  murder  of  wife  ;  Derby  10  Aug.
George Sargeant, murder of wife ; Chelmsford

15  Aug.
George  N.  Daniels  and  Harry  B.  Jones,  murders  ;

Birmingham 28  Aug.

Levi  Richard  Bartlett,  murder  of  wife; Newgate

13  Nov.
Samuel  Crowther,  murder  of  John  Willis  ;  Worcesl  er

11  Dec.
William Waddell, murder of woman ; Durham

18  Dec.
Charles  Bulmer,  murder  of  wife  ;  Leeds .  1  Jan.  1
Thomas  Clews,  murder  of  woman  ;  Stafford 1  Jan.
George  Nicholson,  murder  of  wife  ;  Warwick  8  Jan.
William Gower, aged 18, and Charles Joseph

Dobell,  aged  19,  confessed  to  murder  of  Bensley
C.  Lawrence,  timekeeper  at  saw-mills  at  Tun-
bridge  Wells  ;  Maidstone  .  .  .  .2  Jan.
Ebenezer  Samuel  Jenkins,  murder  of  his  sweet-
heart; Wandsworth.  6  March,


Samuel  Rylands,  murder  of  little  girl ;  Shepton
Mallet  gaol 13  March,  1889

Thomas  Allen,  a  Zulu  ;  murder  of  F.  G.  Kent ;
Swansea 10  April, ,,

John  Witney,  murder  of  wife  ;  Bristol n  April, ,,

George  Horton,  murder  of  little  daughter ;,  Derby,

21  Aug.  ,,
Benjamin  Purnell,  murder  of  wife  ;  Devises,  9  Dec.  „
William Dukes, murder  of Mr. Gordon ; Bury,

24  Dec.  , ,
Robert  West  and Frederick  Brett,  wife  murder ;

Leeds 31  Dec. ,,

William  Thomas  Hook,  wife  murder  ;  Maidstone,

31  Dec.  ,,
Charles  Lister  Higginbotham,  murder  of  landlady,

7  Jan.  189c
Joseph  Boswell  and  Samuel  Boswell,  for  murder

of  Frank Stephens, gamekeeper  ; Worcester,

n  March, ,,
William  Row,  for  the  murder  of  Lily  McClarence  ;

Newcastle-on-Tyne  .  .  .  .12  March,  ,,
Thomas  Neal,  murder  of  wife  ;  Newgate,  26  March,  ,,
Richard Davies, murder  of father (see Trials),

Knutsford,  Cheshire  ....  8  April,  ,,
William Chadwick, murder of Walter Davies ;

Liverpool 15  April, ,,

Daniel  Stewart  Gorrie,  murder  of  fellow-workman  ;

Wandsworth 10  June, ,,

George  Bowling,  murder  of  Eliza  Nightingale,  with

whom  he  lived,  Wandsworth  .  .  29  July,  ,,
Felix  Spicer,  murder  of  two  children  ;  Knutsford,

22  Aug.  ,.
James  Harrison,  murder  of  wife  ;  Leeds  26  Aug.  ,,
Frederick Davis, murder  of  wife ; Birmingham,

26  Aug. ,,

Francois  Manteau,  murder  of  Francois  De  Grave ;
Newgate 27  Aug. ,,

Mary  Eleanor  Wheeler,  otherwise  Pearcey,  for
murder  of Mrs. Hogg (see Trials)  ; Newgate,

23  Dec. ,,

Thomas  Macdonald,  murder  of  Miss  Alice  Holt,
schoolmistress,  near  Bolton  ;  Liverpool ;  Robert
Kitching, murder  of  policeman  Weedy  ;  York,

30  Dec. „

Alfred  Turner,  murder  of  sweetheart,  Mary  Moran  ;
Manchester 19  May,  1891

Franz  Joseph  Munch,  niurder  ot  James  Hickey  ;
Wandsworth 21  July, ,,

Arthur  Spencer,  murder  of  Mary  Ann  Garner ;
Lincoln 28  July, „

Walter  Lewis  Turner,  murder  of  Barbara  Water-
house,  5  years  old  ;  Leeds . . .18  Aug. ,,

Thomas  Sadler,  murder  of  Wm.  Wass  ;  Chelms-
ford iS  Aug. ,,.

Robert  Bradshaw,  murder  of  wife  ;  Wandsworth,

19  Aug. ,,

John  Conway,  murder  of  Nicholas  Martin,  a  youth  ;
Liverpool ...... 20  Aug. ,,

Edward  H.  F.  Watts,  murder  of  wife  ;  Winchester,

26  Aug. ,,

Harry  Dainton,  murder  of  wife  at  Bath  ;  Shepton
Mallett 15  Dec. „

John  William  Johnson,  murder  of  Margaret  Addi-
son ;  Durham 22  Dec. ,,

Charles Saunders, murder of child  ; Hereford,

23  Dec.  ,,
James Stockwell, murder  of  Catherine  Dennis ;

Armley,  Yorkshire ....  5  Jan.  1892-

James  Muir,  murder  of  Abigail  Sullivan  ;  Newgate,

1  March, ,,
Frederick  Eggleton  and  Charles  Rayner,  poachers,
murder  of  two  gamekeepers,  Joseph  Crawley  and
William  Pimdlephat ;  Oxford  . 17  March, „

Joseph  Wilson,  murder  of  Marion  Greaves  Cross-
man  ;  Carlisle  .... 22  March, ,,
George  H. Wood,  murder  of  Edith  Jeal  ; Lewes,

26  April,  ,,
EXETER  (Devonshire),  said  to  have  been
named  Augusta  from  having  been  occupied  by  the
second  Augustan  legion  commanded  by  Vespasian  :
its  present  name  is  derived  from  Exccstrc.  It  was
for  a  considerable  time  the  capital  of  the  West
Saxon  kingdom.  The  BISHOPRIC  anciently  com-
prised two  sees:  Devonshire  (founded  about  909)
and  Cornwall.  The  church  of  the  former  was  at
Crediton,  of  the  latter  at  Bodmin,  and  afterwards  at


EXETEE.


3-58


EXHIBITION.


St.  German's.  About  1040  the  sees  were  united.
St.  Petroc  was  the  first  bishop  of  Cornwall,  before
900 ;  Eadulphus,  the  first  bishop  of  Devonshire,  905  ;
and  Leofric,  the  first  bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1049.
The  cathedral  originally  belonged  to  a  monastciy
founded  by  Athelstan  :  Edward  the  Confessor  re-
moved the  monks  to  his  new  abbey  of  Westminster,
and  give  their  church  for  a  cathedral  to  the  united
see,  1049  ;  the  see  was  valued  in  the  king's  books  at
z,OOl.  per  annum.  Present  stated  income,  4200^.
Population,  1881,37,665;  1891,37,580.

Alfred  invested  the  city,  held  by  the  Danes,  and

compelled  them  to  capitulate . . . 877  &  894
Exeter  sacked  by  Sweyn ....... 1003

Besieged  by  William  the  Conqueror . . . . 1067

The  castle  surrendered  to  king  Stephen  .  .  .  1136
The  city  first  governed  by  a  mayor . . . . 1200

The  celebrated  nunnery  founded 1236

The  ancient  bridge  built 1250

Edward  I.  holds  a  parliament  here .... 1286

The  Black  Prince  visits  Exeter 1371

The  duchess  of  Clarence  takes  refuge  in  the  city . 1469
Besieged  by  sir  William  Courtenay . . . . ,,
City  assaulted  by  Perkin  Warbeck . . .  - 1497
Exeter  constituted  a  county  of  itself . . . . 1536
Welsh,  the  vicar  of  St.  Thomas's, hanged  on  the

tower  of  his  church,  as  a  Cornish  rebel  . 2  July,  1549
Annual  festival  established  ....  6  Aug. ,,

The  guildhall  built 1593

Prince Maurice  takes  Exeter  for king  Charles  I.

Sept. 1643
It  surrenders  to  the  parliamentarians . April,  1646

The  canal  to  Topsham  cut 1675

A  mint  established  by  James  II 1688

Water- works  erected 1694

The  sessions-house  built 1773

The  new  bridge  built 1778

The  theatre  erected 1 783

Lunatic  asylum  founded 1795

■County  gaol  built 1796

Devon  and  Exeter  institution  for  the promotion

of  science  established 1803

Subscription  library  founded 1807

New  city  prison  built 1818

The  last  of  the  ancient  gates  removed . . . ,,

The  subscription  rooms  opened 1820

The  public  baths  erected 1821

Mechanics'  institution  opened 1825

New  cemetery  commenced , 1837

Bailway  to  Bristol  opened  .  .  .  .1  May,  1844
Great  fire,  20  houses  burnt ... 2  Aug. ,,

Another  great  fire 26  April,  1847

Inauguration  of  a  statue  of  John  Dinham,  who
died  June,  1864,  bequeathing  24,000?.  to  charities,

26  March,  1866
Bread  and  meat  riots  ;  suppressed  .  4-5  Nov.  1867
Albert  Memorial Museum  given  up  to  the  town

council 21  April,  1870

A  new  reredos,  by  sir  Gilbert  Scott  (see  Reredos),
set  up  in  the  cathedral  (1873):  ordered  to  be.  re-
moved by  decision  of  the  "bishop  and  justice
•Keating,  15  April ;  this  decision  rsversed  by
the  court  of  arches  (sir  R.  Phillimore),  6  Aug.
1874 ;  the  privy  council  decided  that  the  reredos

should  remain 24  Feb.  1875

The church-tax "  dominicals," or "sacrament-
money,"  said  to  be  of  the  nature  of  tithes  ;  dis-
traints for  payment ;  much  excitement . Oct. ,,
Destructive  fire  on  the  quay,  of  warehouses,  &c.

22  Dec.  1882
Theatre  Royal  burnt  during  first  performance  of
Romany  Rye ;  panic  and  loss  of  about  127  lives  ;
gallery  exit  insufficient  5  Sept.  ;  (Percy  S.  M.
Gosset,  M.A.,  assistant  master  of  Bradford
college,  Berks,  and  Robert  M.  Tamplin,  B.A.,
victims)  the  coroner's  jury  censure  the  licensing
magistrates  and  Mr.  Phipps  the  architect2i  Sept.  1887
Captain  Shaw  agrees,  and  points  out  twelve  serious

defects  in  the  construction,  Times . 16  Nov. ,,
A  new  theatre  opened ...  7  Oct.  1889

Visit  of  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  ;  he  addresses
about  10,000  persons  in  a  temporary  building,

2  Feb.  1P92

RECRNT BISHOPS.

1803.  John  Fisher,  translated  to  Salisbury  in  1807.


1807.  Hon.  George  Pelham,  translated  to  Lincoln,  Sept.

1820.
1820.  William  Carey,  translated  to  St.  Asaph,  March,  1830.
1830.  Christopher  Bethell,  translated  to  Bangor,  1830.

1830.  Henry  Philpotts,  died  18  Sept.  1869.

1869.  Frederick  Temple,  elected  n  Nov.,  and  enthroned
(after  much  opposition  from  some  of  the  clergy)
29  Dec.  1869  ;  translated  to  London,  Jan.  1S85.

1885.  E.  H.  Biekersteth.

EXETER  CHANGE  (London),  was  built
about  1680,  on  part  of  the  site  of  Exeter  house,
the  palace  of  Walter  IStapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter
and  lord  treasurer  in  1319,  beheaded  by  order  of  the
queen- regent,  Isabella,  in  1326.  It  was  entirely
demolished  at  the  period  of  the  Strand  improve-
ments, in  1829.  The  new  Exeter  Change,  built  by
the  marquis  of  Exeter  near  its  site,  opened  in  1845,
was  pulled  down  in  1862,  for  the  Strand  Music-hall,
now  Gaiety  theatre.

EXETEE  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded
by  Walter  Stapleton,  bishop  of'Exeterin  1314.  The
college  buildings  mainly  consist  of  a  quadrangle  in
the  later  Gothic  style.

EXETEE  HALL  (Strand,  I  ondon).  erected
in  1830- 1  for  the  meetings  of  religious  and  philan-
thropic institutions,  concerts,  oratorios,  and  musical
societies,  a  large  and  magnificent  apartment  with  a
splendid  orchestra  and  organ,  and  having  rooms
attached for committees, &c,  opened 29 March,

1831.  See  under  Music.  Religious  services  were
held  here  in  1856  by  the  Rev.  C.  Spurgeon,  and
in  1857  by  ministers  of  the  church  of  England,  on
Sundays.

The  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  met  here  1831-80  ;  last
concert,  "  Israel  in  Egypt,"  30  April,  1880.

The  hall  was  purchased  for  the  Young  Men's  Christian
Association  for  25,000?.  July  1880  ;  re-opened  (jubilee),
29  March,  1881.

EXHIBITION  of  1851  (the  great  ex-
hibition). The  original  idea  of  a  National  Ex-
hibition* is  attributed  to  Mr.  F.  Whishaw,  secretary
of  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1844.  It  was  not  taken  up
till  1849,  when  prince  Albert,  president  of  the
society,  said,  "Now  is  th«  time  to  prepare  for  a
Great  Exhibition,  an  exhibition  worthy  of  the
greatness  of  this  country  ;  not  merely  national  in  its
scope  and  benefits,  but  comprehensive  of  the  whole
world ;  and  I  offer  myself  to  the  public  as  their
leader,  if  they  are  willing  to  assist  in  the  under-
taking."

Royal  commission  appointed  .  .  .3  Jan.  1850
A  subscription  list  opened,  headed  by  the  queen  for

1000?.
Civic  banquets  in  support  of  the  plan,  at  London,

21-22  March  ;  and  at  York . . .25  Oct. ,,
The  building  t  commenced ... 26  Sept. ,,


*  Industrial  exhibitions  began  with  the  French  ;
Expositions  having  been  organised  and  opened  at  Paris
in  1798,  1801,  1802, 1806,  1819,  1823, 1827,  1834,  1839,  1844,
and  1849,  the  last,  being  the  eleventh,  exceeding  all  the
preceding  in  extent  and  brilliancy.  The  first  exhibition
of  the  kind  in  this  country  was  the  National  Repository,
opened  under  royal  patronage  in  1828,  near  Charing-
cross.  It  was  not  successful.  Other  exhibitions  were
opened  at  Manchester  in  1837,  at  Leeds  in  1839,  and  at
Birmingham  in  1849.  Exhibitions  have  since  been  held
at  Cork,  Dublin,  Manchester,  New  York,  Paris,  Montreal,
Florence,  Constantinople,  Bayonne,  Melbourne,  Vienna,
Philadelphia,  and  many  other  places  {which  see).

+  The  palace,  with  the  exception  of  the  flooring  and
joists,  was  entirely  of  glass  and  iron.  It  was  designed  by
Mr.  (aft.  sir  Joseph)  Paxton  (who  died  8  June,  1865),
and  the  contractors  were  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson,  to
whom  it  was  agreed  to  pay  79,800?. ,  or  150,000?.  if  the
building  were  permanently  retained.  Itcosti76,o3o?.  13s.  8&
Its  length  was  1851  feet,  corresponding  with  the  year  ;
the  width  408  feet,  with  an  additional  projection  on  the


EXHIBITION.


359


EXPEDITIONS.


Many  persons  admitted  into  it  in  Jan. ;  it  is  virtually
transferred to  the  royal  commissioners  by  the
contractors,  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson, Feb. 1851
Reception  of  goods  began  12  Feb.,  and  the  sale  of

season  tickets 25  Feb. „

The  Exhibition  opened  by  her  majesty . 1  May, ,,
The  number  of  exhibitors  exceeded  17,000,  of  whom
2918 received prize medals and 170 council
medals. The  articles  exhibited  in  arts,  manufac-
tures, and  the  various  produce  of  countries,  defied
calculation.
The  palace  continued  open  above  23  weeks,  alto-
gether 144  days  (1  May  to  15  Oct.)  within  which
time  it  was  visited  by  6, 170,000  persons,  averaging
43,536  a  day, whose  admission  at  the  respective
prices  of  one  pound,  half-a-crown,  and  one  shilling,
amounted  to  505,107?.  including  season  tickets,
leaving  a  surplus,  after  payment  of  expenses,  of
about  150,000?.* .......  1851

The  greatest  number  of  visitors  in  one  day  was
109,760  (8  Oct.) ;  and  at  one  time (2  o'clock,  7 Oct.)
there  were  93,000  ;  these  persons  were  assembled
at  one  time,  not  in  an  open  area,  like  a  Roman
amphitheatre,  but  within  a  windowed  and  floored
.and  roofed  building. There  is  no  like  vast  assem-
blage recorded  in  either  ancient  or  modern  annals,
as  having  been  gathered  together,  it  may  be  said,
in  one  room.
The  Exhibition  was  closed  to  the  public . 11  Oct. ,,
A  memorial  statue  of  the  prince  consort  by  Joseph
Durham,  placed  in  the  gardens  of  the  Royal  Hor-
ticultural Society,  uncovered  in  the  presence  of
.the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales . 10  June,  1863
See  Crystal  Palace.

EXHIBITION  OF  1862  (INTERNATIONAL).
A  proposal  in  1858  for  another  great  exhibition,  to
be  held  in  1861,  was  withdrawn  in  consequence  of
.the  war  in  Italy  in  1859,  &c.  The  scheme  was  re-
vived in  ApriL  i860,  when  the  prince  consort  en-
gaged to  guarantee  10,000^.  if  240,000^.  should  be
subscribed  for  by  other  persons.
A  charter  granted  to  the  following  commissioners  :

earl  Granville, the  marquis  of  Chandos,  C.  W.

Dilke,  jun. ,  and  Thomas  Fairbairn  .  22  Feb.  1861
The  guarantee  fund  amounted  to  349,000?.  in  Nov.

i860,  and  to  452,300?.  ... 22  Aug. 1862

The building, t erected  at  South  Kensington,  by

Messrs.  Kelk  and  Lucas,  according  to  a  design  by

capt.  Fowke,  made  over  to  the  commissioners,

12  Feb.  1862
The  Exhibition  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge

and  royal  commissioners . . . 1  May, ,,
The  fine  arts  department  included  a  noble  collec-
tion of  paintings  and  sculptures.
The  jurors'  award  of  medals  was  announced  in  the

building 11  July, ,,

The  Exhibition  was  closed  1  Nov.,  when  the  total

number  of  visitors  (exclusive  of  attendants)  had

been  6,117,450.

.north  side,  936  feet  long,  by  48  wide.  The  central  por-
tion was  120  feet  wide  and  64  feet  high,  anil  the  great
avenues  ran  east  and  west  through  the  building  ;  the
transept  near  the  centre  was  72  feet  wide  and  108  feet
.high.  The  entire  area  was  772,784  square  feet,  or  about
19  acres.  Four  galleries  ran  lengthways,  and  others
round  the  transept.  The  ground-floor  and  galleries  con-
tained 1,000,000  square  feet  of  flooring.  There  were
altogether  4000  tons  of  iron  in  the  structure,  and  17  acres
•of  glass  in  the  roof,  besides  about  1500  vertical  glazed
-sashes.

*  This  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  commissioners,  who
.have  promoted  the  South  Kensington  museum,  and  in
1876  proposed  the  establishment  of  a  science  library.

t  The  main  building  occupied  about  16  acres  of
.ground,  and  the  annexes  7  acres.  The  south  front  was
.1150  feet  long  and  55  feet  high,  and  over  the  east  and
west  fronts  rose  the  two  domes  260  feet  high.  The  inte-
rior was  decorated  by  Mr.  John  G.  Crace.  The  building
was  given  up  to  Messrs.  Kelk  and  Lucas  on  31  Dec.  1862,
the  house  of  commons  having  refused  to  purchase  it  for
.80,000?.  2  July,  1863  ;  and  the  pulling  down  commenced
•on  6  July.  The  domes  and  other  parts  of  the  structure
■r.vere  purchased  fur  erection  in  Alexandra-park,  Muswell-
Siill,  near  London  (north),


The  Exhibition  reopened  on  3  Nov.  for  the  sale  of
goods  exhibited  ;  was  finally  closed  15  Nov.  1862

The  success  of  the  Exhibition  was  much  impaired
by  the  decease  of  the  prince  consort,  14  Dec.  1861,
and  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  the
United  States  of  America.  The  foreign  exhibitors
in  1851  were  6566  ;  in  1862,  16,456.

Exhibitors  at  London,  in  1851,  14,000  ;  at  Paris,  in
1855,  24,000  ;  at  London,  in  1862,  29,000 ;  at  Paris,
in  1867,  50,000.

EXHIBITIONS,  INTERNATIONAL.  A

meeting  was  held  4  April,  1870,  the  prince  of
Wales  in  the  chair,  to  promote  annual  international
exhibitions  at  South  Kensington,  to  commence
I  May,  1871.

I.  1871.  Fine  aits,  pottery,  woollen  and  worsted  manu-
factures ;  educational  department ;  opened  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  1  May  ;  closed  30  Oct.

[34  countries  contributed ;  total  number  of  visitors,
1,142,154  ;  highest  on  one  day  (Whit-Monday,  29  May),
21,946.]

II.  1872.  Fine  arts,  cotton,  jewellery,  stationery,  with
machinery  ;  and  raw  materials  ;  opened  by  the  duke
of  Edinburgh,  1  May  ;  closed  19  Oct.

III.  1873.  Fine  arts  ;  manufactures  (silk,  steel,  surgical
instruments,  &c.  ;  carriages  for  rails  or  tramways  ;
food) ;  scientific  inventions  and  new  discoveries  ;
opened  14  April  ;  closed  31  Oct.

IV.  Fine  arts  ;  manufactures  and  raw  materials,  and
engineering,  and  recent  scientific  inventions  ;  opened,
6  April  ;  closed,  31  Oct.  1874.

[The  annual  exhibitions  having  proved  unsuccessful,  the
building  was  appropriated  by  the  East  India  Museum].

Exhibition  of  1884,  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  opened
on  23  April.

See  Fisheries,  Forests,  and  Sanitation.

International  Health  Exhibition,  8  May-30  Oct.  1884

Exhibition  of  the  products,  manufactures  and  arts
of  India  and  the  colonies  at  South  Kensington
(See  under  Colonies) .  .4  May-10  Nov.  1886

EXODUS  (Greek,  way  out),  a  term  applied  to
the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  1491  B.C. ;
and  described  in  the  book  of  Exodus.  Uhronologers
vary  in  the  date  of  this  event :  the  LXX.  give  1614;
Hales,  1648;  Wilkinson,  1495;  Bunsen,  1320  or
I3I4-

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are

those  hied  by  the  attorney-general,  by  virtue  of  his
office,  without  applying  to  the  court  where  they  are
tiled  for  leave,  or  giving  the  defendant  an  oppor-
tunity of  showing-  cause  why  they  should  not  be
tiled.  Cabinet  Laivyer.  They  were  used  by  the
Liverpool  administration  about  1817-19.  William
Hone  was  tried  on  criminal  information,  18-20  Dec,
1 81 7,  and  acquitted.  The  British  bank  directors
were  thus  tried,  1857.

EXPEDITIONS.  Many  are  described  under
their  respective  heads.

Expedition  of  "the  Nations"  or  "the  Ditch";  the
third  expedition  of  the  Koreish  (which  sec)  against
Mahomet,  named  from  the  nations  who  marched  under
their  leader  Abu  Sophian,  and  from  the  ditch  which  was
drawn  before  the  city.  They  were  principally  vanquished
by  the  fury  of  the  elements. Gibbon. 625.


BRITISH EXPEDITIONS.

France,  near  Port  l'Oricnt . . . 1  Oct.

Cherbourg 7  Aug.

St.  Malo  ;  4000  men  lost ....  Sept.

Quiberon  Bay  (French  emigrants)  .  .  .  .
Ostend  (all  mime  prisoners)  .  .  .  May.
Helder  Point  and  Zuyder  Zee . . . Sept.

Ferrol,  in  Spain Aug.

Egypt  (Abercrombie) March,

Copenhagen Sept.

Walcheren  (unfortunate) July,

Bergen-op-Zoom 8  March,

Crimea Sept.

Abyssinia Oct.  TS67-A )>ril.

Against  the  Ashautees  (which  see) . . 12  Sept.
See  Egypt,  India,  Soudan,  &c.


1746
1758

1796
1798
1799


1807


1814
1854


1873


EXPENDITURE.


360


EXTRADITION TREATIES.


EXPENDITURE,  see  under  Revenue.

EXPLOSIONS,  see  Boilers,  Coal.
Criminal  Explosions,  close  to  the  local  government  office,
Charles  Street,  Westminster  ;  great  damage,  no  loss
of  life  ;  9  p.m.  ;  15  March,  1883.

Ex-plosions  (by  nitroglycerine  1)  30  Oct.  1883,  on  Metro-
politan District  railway,  between  Charing  Cross  and
Westminster  stations ;  some  damage ;  no  persons
injured.  Metropolitan  railway,  near  Praed  Street
Station;  two  thiid  class  carriages  shattered;  above
62  persons  injured,  8.13  p.m.  Capt.  Majendie  and
prof.  Abel  consider  it  to  have  been  caused  "by
dynamite  thrown  from  a  railway  carriage.

Victoria  Station,  Pimlico,  building  much  injured,  pro-
perty destroyed,  and  two  men  hurt  by  an  explosion
in  the  cloak-room,  1.3  a.m.,  27  Feb.  1884.

9  20,  30  May,  1884.  Detective  department,  Scotland
Yard,  Whitehall ;  wall  blown  down,  windows  broken  ;
public  house  wrecked,  many  persons  injured,  two
seriously.  9.20  p.m  Junior  Carlton  club  house  and
Sir  W.  W.  Wynne's,  St.  James's  Square,  much  damage,
some  persons  injured.

Sixteen  cakes  of  dynamite  and  fuse  found  at  foot  of
Nelson's  monument,  Trafalgar  Square,  30  May,  1884.

Explosion  at  Genoa,  10  June  ;  at  Madrid,  18  June,  1884.

Failure  of  attempt  to  explode  S.W.  end  of  London
Bridge,  about  6  p.m.,  13  Dec,  1884.

Explosion  in  Metropolitan  railway  near  Gower  Street,
(by  a  bomb  shell),  about  9  p.m.,  2  Jan.  1885.

Three  explosions,  see  Parliament,  Westminster  Hall,  and
Tower,  24  Jan.  1885.

EXPLOSIVES :  see  Gunpowder,  Gun  Cotton,
Nitro-Glycerine,  Dynamite,  Dualine,  Lithot'racteur,
Glyoxiline,  Blasting,  Gelatine,  Bellite,  Roburite,
Helloffite,  Melenite,  Silotvor,  §c.  A  committee
to  examine  into  the  nature  and  properties  of  various
explosives  was  appointed  by  government  in  1871.
Explosives  have  been  much  studied  by  sir  F.  A.
Abel,  of  Woolwich  since  1881.

Professor  Osborne  Reynolds  produced  a  new  explosive,
75  parts  chlorate  of  potash,  25  sulphuria,  a  product  of
coal  gas ; the  ingredients kept apart till required ;
announced  1878.
The  manufacture  and  use  of  explosives  greatly  increased

1885-6.
Carbo-dynamite,  a  new  explosive,  invented  by  Mr.  W.

F.  Reid  and  Mr.  W.  D.  Borland  ; announced  April,

1888.

EXPLOSIVES  ACT,  passed  14  June,  1875,
amends  the  law  with  respect  to  the  manufacturing,
keeping, selling, carrying, and importing gun-
powder, nitro-glycerine,  and  other  explosive  sub-
stances. Amendment  act  passed,  1883.
In  consequence  of  the  attempt  at  explosion  in  London
in  March,  a  new  act  to  watch  over  the  manufacture  of
sxplosives  and  punish  possessors  for  felonious  purposes,
&c,  passed  by  both  houses,  9  April  ; royal assent,
10  April,  1883. The  authors  of  attempted  explosions
are  punishable  with  penal  servitude  for  life.

EXPORTS.  Edward  III.  by  bis  encourage-
ment of  trade  turned  the  scale  so  much  in  favour  of
English  merchandise,  that,  by  a  balance  taken  in
his  time,  the  exported  commodities  amounted  to
294,000?".  and  the  imported  to  only  38,000?".  ;  see
Revenue.  The  declared  value  is  of  much  less
amount  than  the  official.

OFFICIAL  VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN
TO ALL PARTS  OF THE WORLD. VIZ.  : —


i860  . . £135,891,227 1878  . . £192,848,914

1861  . . 125,102,814 1879  - • ■I9i,53i,758'

1862  . . .  123,902,264 1880  . . 223,060,446'

1863  . . 146,602,342 1881  . . .234,022,678.

1865  .  . .165,835,725  I  1882  . . 241,467,162

1866  . . 188,917,536  I  1883  . . .239,799,473

1867  . . .  180,961,923  I  1884  . . 233,025,2421

1868  . . 179,677,812  I  1885  . . .213,115,114.

1869  . . .  180,953,957  I  1886  .  . 212,725,200.

1870  . . 199,586,822 1887  . . .221,913,910

1875  . .  223,465,963 1888  . . 234,534,912

1876  - . 200,639.204  I  1889  . . .248,935,195-,

1877  . . .  198,893,065  I  1890  "  . . 263,530,585,

Exports  of  all  kinds  to  foreign  countries,  in  1875  :
152,373, 800?.  ;  in  1876,  135,779,980?.  ;  in  1877,.
128,969,715?.  ;  1878,  126,611,428?.  ;  1879,  130,529,647?.  ;
1880, 147,806,267?. ;  1881,154,658,083?.;  1882,156,640,727?.;
1883, 156,321,921?.;  1884, 152,149,296?.;  1885, 135,120,194?.  ;
1886,  137,053,799?.  ;  1887,  146,543,654?.  ;  to  British  posses-
sions in  1875,  71,092,163?.;  in  1876,  64,859,224?.  ;  in  1877,
69,923,350?.;  1878,  66, 23-, 486?.  ;  1879,  61,002,111?.;  1880,
75,254,179?. ;  1881,  79,364,595?.  ;  1882,  84,826,435?. ;  1883^,
83,477,552?.  ;  l884i  80,875,946?.  ;  1885,  77,929,626?.  ;  1886,

75,506,637?.  ; 1887, 75,135,849?.  ; 1888, 150,293,399?. ;.
1889,  165,656,205?.  ;  1890,  176,160,202?.


1700

,£6,097,120

1830

■ £66,735.445

1750  .

. 10,130,991

1835 •

■ 78.376,732

1775

16,326,363

1840

97,402,726

1800  .

. 38,120,120

1845 .

.  131,564,503

1810

45,869.839

1850

175,126,706

1820 .

• 5i.  733.  "3

l85I .

.  190,397,810

DECLARED

VALUE OF BRITISH AND
EXPORTED.

IRISH PRODUCE

1851 .

^74,448,722  1 1856

£115,826,948

1853

98,933,781 1857 .

.122,155,237

1855 .

. 95,688,085

1859

. 130,440,237

EXTENSION,  see  University.

EXTINCTEUR,  see  Fire-Annihilator.

EXTRACT  OF  MEAT,  obtained  by  Liebig
in  1847;  a  company  was  formed  to  manufacture  it
in  South  America  in  1866.

EXTRADITION  TREATIES.  The  extra-
dition of  criminals  formed  part  of  the  Ashburtott)
treaty  {which  see),  9  Aug.  1842.  Between  Great
Britain  and  France,  1843.  In  Dec.  1865,  the  French
government  gave  notice  of  withdrawing  from  it
in  six  months.  It  was  renewed,  wiih  modifica-
tions, for  six  months,  21  May,  1866.  A  new  act
was  passed,  9  Aug.  1870;  amended  in  1873-
Similar  treaties  have  been  concluded  with  other
powers;  with  Austria,  3  Dec.  1873;  Switzerland,
4  April, 1874;  Holland,  Aug. 1874;  with  Spain,


In  1866,  M.  Lamirancl,  charged  with  forgery  and  fraud
against  the  Bank  of  France,  fled  to  America.  He  was
pursued,  and  was  arrested  at  Montreal,  on  1  Aug.,  under
the  governor-general's  warrant.  On  15  Aug.,  while  his.
examination  was  still  pending,  he  petitioned  the  gover-
nor-general not  to  warrant  his  surrender  before  he  could
apply  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  was  assured  on  17
Aug.  that  ample  time  should  be  allowed  for  this  purpose.
On  22  Aug.  he  was  finally  committed  ;  and  on  24  Aug.
his  petition  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  presented  to»
judge  Drummond,  twenty-four  hours'  notice  having  been
given  to  the  representatives  of  the  crown  and  the  Bank
of  France.  After  arguments  had  been  heard  and  the  case
adjourned  until  the  following  day,  he  was  surreptitiously
carried  off  the  same  night  by  train  to  Quebec,  and  hurried
on  board  a  steamer  bound  for  Europe,  by  virtue  of  an
extradition  warrant,  purporting  to  be  signed  by  the
governor-general  at  Ottawa,  on  23  Aug.  He  was  con-
veyed to  France,  and  on  5  Dec.  was  tried,  found  guilty,
and  condemned  to  ten  years'  imprisonment.  These  cir-
cumstances led  to  much  discussion,  and  the  Canadian
authorities  were  censured  for  irregularity  and  want  of
discretion.  The  discussion  ended  by  Lamirand  declining
British  intervention.

Dispute  with  United  States  respecting  the
surrender  of  Ezra  D.  Winslow,  a  forger,  by
Great  Britain,  which  is  refused  unless  it  is
agreed  that  the  prisoner  shall  only  be  tried  for
the  offence  for  which  he  has  been  committed
(according  to  the  treaty)  April,  187S

Mr.  Hamilton  Fish,  the.  American  foreign  secretary,
stands  on  Ashburton  treaty  of  1842,  wherein  no
stipulation  is  mentioned  ;  although  it  is  found
in  other  treaties  with  other  governments.
Winslow  was  discharged, 15 June; and Brent,

another  fugitive,  a  few  days  after  . . . 187S

The  British  Government  yield,  27  Oct.;  Brent  recap-
tured, Dec.  1876. Winslow,  claimed  by  Swiss


EXTRAVAGANTES.


361


EYRE.


government,  escapes  through  flaw  in  the  treaty ;
decision  of  queen's  bench . . . 2  Nov.  1877

Stringent  treaty,  for  anarchists  and  political
offenders,  between  Russia  and  Prussia  . 13  Jan.  1885

Similar  treaty  between  Germany  and  Russia  pro-
posed 12  Feb.  1885  ;  accepted  . . . April, ,,

Enlarged  treaty  between  United  States  and  Great
Britain  proposed  1886  ;  deferred  till  Dec.  1888  ;
rejected  by  the  senate  (38-15) .  .1  Feb.  1889

New  treaty  ratified  by  the  senate,  18  Feb.  1890  ;  it
is  an  enlargement  of  the  Ashburton  treaty  of
1842,  proclaimed  at  Washington  and  gazetted  in
London 25  March,  1890

Extradition  treaty between England  and  Russia

April,  1887

EXTRAVAGANTES,  see  Decretals.

EXTREME  UNCTION,  see  Anointing.


EYLAU  (Prussia),  where,  on  7-8  Feb.  1807,  the
French,  defeated  the  Russians  in  one  of  the  most
bloody  contests  of  the  war.  Napoleon  commanded
in  person.  Both  armies  by  this  and  other  battles
were  so  much  reduced,  that  the  French  retired  to,
the  Vistula,  and  the  Russians  on  the  Pregel.

EYRE  (old  P'rench  for  ire,  to  go  on),  the  itine-
rant court  of  justices,  the  justices  in  eyre,  was  in-
stituted by  Henry  II.  1 176;  and  when  the  forest
laws  were  in  force,  its  chief-justice  had  great
dignity.  Thes-e  justices  were  to  go  their  ciicuit
every  third  year,  and  punish  all  abuses  committed
in  the  king's  forests.  The  last  instance  of  a  court
beinsj  held  in  any  of  the  forests  is  said  to  have  been
in  1671. JBeatson.


F.


FS.

F'S,  Three  (that  is,  "  fixity  of  tenure,  fair  rents,
.and  free  sale"),  term  much  used  respecting  Irish
land  question  in  1880- 1.  Sir  Stafford  Northcote
termed  them  "fraud,  force,  and  folly,"  and  they
were  much  opposed  by  lord  Dufferin  and  others.

FABII.  A  noble  family  at  Rome,  said  to  have
■derived  their  name  from  f aba,  a  bean,  because  some
■of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  pulse;  or  to  have
■descended  from  Fnbius,  a  son  of  Hercules.  Accord-
ing to  the  legend,  the  whole  family,  on  behalf  of
the  state  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Veientes.
Duiing  a  march  to  Rome,  they  were  sin  prised,  and
■all  the  grown  up  males  (306)  were  slain  477  B.C.
From  a  boy  detained  at  Rome,  arose  the  noble  Fabii
■of  the  following  aues.  Fabius  Cunctator  (the  de-
layer) kept  Hannibal  in  check  for  some  time  with-
out coming  to  an  engagement,  217-216  B.C.

FABLES.  "Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees
■{Judges  ix.,  about  1209  B.C.)  is  the  oldest  extant,
and  as  beautiful  as  any  made  since."  Addison.
Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man  (2  Sam.  xii.,  about
1034  B.C.)  is  next  in  antiquity.  The  earliest  collec-
tion of  fables  extant  is  of  eastern  origin,  and  pre-
served in  the  Sanscrit.  The  fables  of  Vishnoo
Sarma,  or  Filpay,  are  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the
most  ancient  in  the  world.  Sir  William  Jones.
Professor  Max  M tiller  traced  La  Fontaine's  fable  of
the  Milkmaid  to  a  very  early  Sanscrit  collection.
JEsop's  fables  {which  see)  supposed  to  have  been
written  about  565  or  620  B.C.,  were  versified  by
Babrius,  a  Greek  poet,  about  130  B.C.  (Coray),  and
■turned  into  prose  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a  Greek
monk,  about  1320,  who  added  other  fables  and  ap-
pended a  worthless  life  of  iEsop.  The  fables  of
Phsedrus  in  elegant  Latin-iambics  (about  a.t>.  8),  of
La  Fontaine  (1700)  and  of  (iay  (1727)  are  justly
celebrated.

FACIAL  ANGLE  (that  contained  by  one
line  drawn  horizontally  from  the  middle  of  the  ear
to  the  edge  of  the  nostrils,  and  another  from  the
latter  point  to  the  ridge  of  the  frontal  bone)  was  in-
vented by  Peter  Camper  to  measure  the  elevation
of  the'forehead.  In  negroes  this  angle  is  about  70° ;
in  Europeans  varies  from  75°  1°  ^5°-  Camper  died
7  April,  1789.  His  book  on  ''  Characteristic  Marks
•of  Countenance  "  was  published  in  1791.

FACTIONS  of  the  Circus  among  the  Romans,
were  parties  that  fought  on  chariots  in  the  circus,
■and  who  were  distinguished  by  colours,  as  green,
blue,  red,  and  white;  Domitian  added  gold  and
■scarlet,  about  a.d.  90.

N'ika  sedition. — In  Jan.  532,  a  conflict  took  place  at
(Constantinople,  lasting  five  days,  when  about  30,000  lives
were  lost,  and  Justinian  was  mainly  indebted  for  his  life
and  throne  to  the  heroism  of  his  empress  Theodora.  The
Vjlues  and  greens  united  for  a  day  or  two  against  the  em-
peror, taking  Nika !  (overcome)  for  a  watchword.  The
"blues  soon  turned,  and  massacred  nearly  all  the  greens.
'The  conflict  was  suppressed  by  Belisarius  with  difficulty,
and  the  games  were  abolished  for  a  time.

FACTORIES,  supplied  with  machinery  for
producing  manufactures,  have  immensely  increased
in  this  country  since  1815.  I'he  Factory  act,  regu-
lating the  hours  of  labour,  &c,  was  passed  in  1833
and  amended  1834  and  1844. Similar  acts have


FAIRS.

been  passed  since ;  and  an  act  for  the  extension  of
the  principles  of  the  Factory  acts  was  passed in
1867  in  relation  to  women  and  children  employed
in manual labour; short  time on  Saturdays  was
enacted. Other  acts  were  passed  in  1870-1878.
The  Act  of  1878  (like  that  of  14  July,  1874)  relates  to
sanitary  provisions,  safety  from  machinery,  hours  of
employment,  meal  hours,  women  and  children,  holi-
days, education  of  children,  accidents,  &c,  passed  27
May,  1878. Consolidating  act  passed  in  1883.
The  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  the  energetic  promoter  of  this

legislation,  died  1  Oct.  1885,  aged  84.
New  Factories  and  Workshops  Act  passed  5  Aug.  1891.
Mr.  Alexander  Redgrave,  chief  inspector  of  factories  in
1851, retired, and was succeeded by Mr. F. H.
Whymper,  Sept.  1S91.

FACULTIES, Court of, giving powers

to  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York,  25
Hen.  VIII.  cap.  21,  1534.

FAENZA,  central  Italy,  the  ancient  Faventia,
submitted  to  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  1 162;  was
taken  by  Frederick  II,  12  .April,  1241  ;  held  by  the
pope,  1275  ;  by  the  Bolognese,  1282 ;  by  Csesar
Borgia,  1501 ;  by  Venice,  1504;  by  the  papacy,
1509;  by  the  French,  1512.  After  various  changes
early  in  the  16th  century  it  was  acquired  by  the
papacy  and  retained  till  the  annexation  by  Sardinia,
1859.  Faience  pottery  owes  its  name  to  this  place,
where  it  was  invented.

"FAERIE  QUEEN,"  by  Edmund  Spenser;
a  part  was  published  in  1590;  the  whole,  1611.

FAHRENHEIT,  see  Thermometer.
FAINEANTS,  see  Mayors  of  the  Palace.

FAIRLOP  OAK,  with  a  trunk  48  feet  in
circumference,  the  growth  of  five  centuries,  in
Hainault  forest,  Essex,  was  blown  clown  in  Feb.  1820.
Beneath  its  branches  an  annual  fair  was  long  held
on  the  first  Friday  in  July,  which  originated  with
the  eccentric  Mr.  Day,  a  pump  and  block  maker  of
Wapping,  who,  having  a  small  estate  in  the  vicinity,
annually  repaired  here  with  a  party  of  friends,  to
dine  on  beans  and  bacon.

FAIROAKS,  near  the  Chickahominy,  Virginia,
the  site  of  two  sanguinary  indecisive  battles  between
the  Confederates,  under  general  Joseph  Johnson,
and  the  Federal  army  of  the  Potomac,  under  general
M'CLellan,  31  May  and  1  June,  1862.

FAIR TRADE  LEAGUE, National,

founded  by  lord  Dunraven,  Mr.  Sampson  Lloyd,
Mr.  David  Macliver,  and  others,  agriculturists  and

merchants,  who  issued  a  circular  in  Aug.  1S81.  It
is  opposed  to  what  it  considers  unfair  free  trade.
They  advocate  recurrence  to  duties  on  foreign  corn  and

manufactures,  but  not  on  raw  materials.
Unsuccessful  in  the parliamentary  election  of 1885.

Meeting  of  the  league  28  April  and  2  Nov.  1887.
The National Association for the Preservation of

Agriculture  and  other  industries  held  a  meeting  in

London  8  Dec.  1887.

FAIRS  AND  WAKES,  of  Saxon  origin,  were
instituted  in  Italy,  about  500;  in  England  by  Alfred,
886.  Spclman.  Wakes  were  established  by  order
of  Gregory  VII.  in  1078,  and  termed  Fericc,  at
which  the  monks  celebrated  the  festival  of  their
patron  saint :  the  vast  resort  of  people  occasioned


FAITH.


363  FAN.


a  great  demand  for  goods,  wares,  &c.  Fairs  were
established  in  France  about  800  by  Charlemagne,
and  encouraged  in  England  about  1071  by  William
the  Conqueror.  Many  statutes  were  made  for  the
regulation  of  fairs  (1328 — 1868).  The  "Fairs  Act,"
passed  25  May,  1871,  provides  for  the  abolition  of
fairs;  in  1872,  Charlton  and  Blackheath  fairs,  and
in  1873  Clauham  fair,  were  abolished  as  nuisances
See  Frosts.
An  "old  English  fair"  was  opened  at  the  Royal  Albert

Hall  by  princess  Christian,  to  aid  the  Chelsea  Hospital

for  Women,  9  June,  1881. See  Markets.

FAITH,  see  Defender.

FALCK  LAWS,  see  Prussia,  1873.

FALCONRY or Hawking  in  England

cannot  be  (raced  with  certainty  before  the  reign  of
king  Etbelbert,  ibe  Saxon  monarch,  858.  Pennant.
The  grand  seignior  at  one  time  kept  six  thousand
falconers  in  his  service.  Juliana  Berners'  book  on
"  Hawkynge  and  Huntynge"  was  printed  in  1496;
see  Angling,  Recent  attempts  have  been  made  to
revive  falconry.  Hawking  was  practised  in  Thrace.
Aristotle.

FALCZI,  on  the  Pruth,  Turkey.  Here  was
concluded  a  Peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey,
21  July,  171 1,  the  Russians  giving  up  Azof,  and  all
the  possessions  on  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Turks.  The
Russians  were  saved  from  imminent  destruction  by
the  address  of  Catherine  the  empress.  Tn  1712  the
war  was  renewed,  and  terminated  by  the  peace  of
Constantinople,  16  April,  1712.

FALERII,  a  city  of  the  Falisci,  an  Etruscan
people  who  joined  the  Veientes  against  Rome,  and
were  beaten  by  Cornelius  Cossus,  437  B.C.  It  is
recorded  that  when  the  city  was  besieged  by  Ca-
millus  in  394,  a  schoolmaster  offered  to  betray  to
him  the  children  of  the  principal  citizens.  On  his
refusal,  the  citizens  from  gratitude  surrendered.
Tbey  opposed  Rome  during  the  first  Punic  war;
and  in  241  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed.

FALERNIAN  WINE,  celebrated  by  Virgil
and  Horace,  was  the  produce  of  Falernus,  or,  as
called  by  Martial,  Mons  Massicus,  in  Campania.
Horace  in  his  Odes  boasts  of  having  drunk  Falernian
wine  that  had  been,  as  it  were,  born  with  him,  or
which  reckoned  its  age  from  the  same  consuls,
14  B.C.

FALKIRK  (Stirlingshire,  Scotland),  the  site
of  a  victory  by  the  English  under  Edward  I.  over
the  Scots,  commanded  by  Wallace,  part  of  whose
forces  deserted  him.  It  is  said  from  20,000  to  40,000
Scots  were  slain,  22  July,  1298.  A  battle  was  fought
at  Falkiik  Muir  between  the  royal  forces  under
Hawley,  and  prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  in  which
the  former  were  defeated,  17  Jan.  1746.

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the
South  Atlantic,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  seen  by
Americus  Vespucius,  1 502,  and  visited  by  Davis,
1592;  explored  by  Hawkins,  1594;  taken  possession
of  by  France,  1764.  The  French  were  expelled  by
the  Spaniards  ;  and  in  1771,  Spain  resigned  them  to
England.  Not  having  been  colonised  by  us,  the
republic  of  Buenos  Ayres  assumed  a  right  to  these
islands,  and  a  colony  from  that  country  settled  at
Port  Louis  ;  but  owing  to  a  dispute  with  America,
the  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the  latter  in  1831.
In  1833  the  British  flag  was  hoisted  at  Port  Louis,
and  a  British  ofticer  has  since  resided  there.  Popula-
tion in  1888,  1,890.  Governors,  Wm.  C.  F.  Robin-
son, 1866;  col.  George  A.  K.  D'Arcy,  1870 ;  Thos.
F.  Callaghan,  1876;  Thos.  Kerr,  1880;  Sir  Roger
T.  Goldsworthy,  Feb.  1891.  Falkland  Islands
created  a  crown  colony,  March,  1892.


FALLING  STARS,  see  Meteors.

FAMILISTERE,  see  Fourierism.

FAMILY  COMPACT,  see  Bourbon.

FAMILY  OF  LOVE,  a  society,  called  also
Phlhuielphians,  from  the  love  they  professed  to  bear
to  all  men,  assembled  at  Brew-house  yard,  Notting-
ham. Their  founder,  David  George,  an  Anabaptist,
of  Holland,  propagated  his  doctrines  in  Switzerland,
where  he  died  in  1556.  The  tenets  of  the  society
were  declared  impious,  and  George's  body  and  books
ordered  to  be  burned  by  the  hangman.  In  Eng-
land a  sect  with  a  similar  title  was  repressed  by
Elizabeth,  1580  ;  but  existed  in  the  following  cen-
tury. See  Agapemone.

FAMINES. The  famine  of  the  seven  years  in
Egypt  began  1708  B.C. Usher;  Plait:
Famine  at  Rome,  when  thousands  of  people  threw
themselves  into  the  Tiber . . . . b.c. 436

Awful  famine  in  Egypt a.d. 42

At  Rome,  attended  by  plague 262

In  Britain  ;  people  ate  the  bark  of  trees  . . . 272

In  Scotland  ;  thousands  died 306

In  England  ;  40,000  perished 310

Awful  one  in  Phrygia 370

In  Italy,  when  parents  ate  their  children  (Dufresnoy)  450
In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland  . . . . 739

Again,  when  thousauds  starve 823

Again,  which  lasts  four  years  . . . . 954

Awful  one  throughout  Europe 1016

In  England,  21  William  1 1087

In  England  and  Prance  :  this  famine  leads  to  a  pes-
tilential fever,  which  lasts  from . . 1 193  to  1 195
Another  famine  in  England ....  1251

Again,  so  dreadful  thai  the  people  devoured  the  flesh
of  horses,  dogs,  cats,  and  vermin  . . . . 1315

One  occasioned  by  long  rains 1335

One  in  England  and  France  (Rapin) . . .  1353
Again,  one  so  great,  that  bread  was  made  from  fern-
roots  (Stow)  1:438

One  throughout  these  islands . .  . . 1565

Awful  one  in  France  (Voltaire)  .... 1603

One  general  in  these  realms 1748

One  which  devastates  Bengal 1771

At  Cape  de  Verde  ;  16,000  persons  perish . . . 1775

One  grievously  felt  in  France 1789

One  severely  felt  in  England 1795

Again,  throughout  the  kingdom  ....  1801
At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Sweden  intercepting  the

supplies 1S13

Scarcity  of  food  severely  felt  by  the  Irish  poor,  1814,
1816,  1822,  1831,  1846,  in  consequence  of  the
failure  of  the  potato  crop.  Grants  by  parliament,
to  relieve  the  suffering  of  the  people,  were  made
in  the  session  of  1847,  the  whole  amounting  to  ten
millions  sterling.
In  N.W.  India  ;  above  800,000  perish .  . 1S37-8

In  N.W.  India ;  thousands  perish  .  .  .  18S0-1
In  Bengal  and  Orissa  ;  about  1,000,000  perish  .  1865-6
In  Rajpbotana,  &c.  ;  about  1,500,000  perish  .  1868-9
In  Persia  very  severe . . . .  ,  . 1871-2

In  Bengal,  through  drought. (See  India)  . . 1874

In  Asia  Minor .  1874-5

In  Bombay,  Madras, Mysore,  &c.  ;  about  500,000

perish  (see  India  and  Mansion-house) . . . 1S77
In N. China; very  severe  ;  9,500,000  said  to  have
perished  (45, 503/.  collected  in  England  for  relief)  1S77-8

rn  Cashmere  (which  see) 1879

Very  severe  in  Tauris,  &c,  Asia  Minor . July,  1880

Asia  Minor 1887

China  (which  see) 1887-9

In  Madras 18S9-92

Montenegro „

Japan 1890

Very  severe  throughout  Russia .... 1891-2

FAN-  Used  by  the  ancients;  Cape  hoc  fla  hel-
ium, et  ventulum  hide  sic  faeito,  "  Take  this  tan,
and  give  her  thus  a  little  air."  Terence's  Eunuchus,
166  B.C. — Fans,  together  with  muffs,  masks,  and
false  hair,  were  first  devised  by  the  harlots  in  Italy,
and  were  brought  to  England  from  France.  Stow.
In  the  British  Museum  are  Egyptian  fan-handles.


FARADAY  MEMORIALS,  &c


364


FAUGHARD.


Great  competitive  exhibition  of  fans  at  Drapers

hall,  London,  opened  . . . 2  July,  1878

'  English  Fans  and  Fan  Leaves,  collected  and
described,"  by  lady  Charlotte  Schreiber  ;  a  mag-
nificent work  was  published  by  Mr.  John  Murray.
It  includes  historical,  allegorical  and  satirical
pictures,  Jan.  1889  ;  her  work  on  foreign  fans  was
published  April,  1891.  Lady  Schreiber  was  granted
the  freedom  of  the  Fanmakers'  Company,  London

17  Dec.  1891

Exhibition  of  fans  at  Drapers'  hall,  London,  opened
8  May,  1889. Similar  exhibitions . . 1890  et  seq.

FARADAY  MEMORIALS,  &c. Professor

Michael  f  araday,  natural  philosopher  and  chemist
(see  Electricity),  died  25  Aug-.  1867.  A  public  meet-
ing was  held  at.  the  Koyal  Institution,  21  June,  1869,
the  prince  of  Wales  in  the  chair,  to  take  measures  to
provide  a  public  monument  to  him.  A  sufficient
sum  having  been  subscribed,  the  production  of  a
statue  was  entrusted  to  Mr.  Foley.  The  statue  was
placed  at  the  Koyal  Institution.  London,  in  1876.
From  the  same  fund  a  niaible  bust  was  provided
and  placed  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  1886.
The  "  Faraday  Medal,"  to  be  given  to  distinguished
foreign  philosophers  by  the  Chemical  society,  was
awarded  to  M.  Dumas,  June,  1869 ;  to  professor
Cannizzaro,  May,  1872  ;  to  Dr.  A.  W.  Hofmann,
March,  1875 !  to  professor  A.  Wurtz,  and  given  to
him  after  his  lecture,  12  Nov.  1878 ;  to  professor  H.
Helmholtz,  April,  1881  ;  professor  Demetri
Mendeleef,  June,  1889.  For  "Faraday,"  steamship,
see  Steam.  The  centenary  of  the  birth  of  Michael
Faraday  (22  Sept.  1791)  was  celebrated  at  the  Koyal
Institution  on  17  June,  1891 ;  the  prince  of  Wales,
vice-patron  R.  I.,  in  the  chair;  discour.-e  by  Pro-
fessor lord  Rayleigh ;  on  26  June  the  duke  of
Northumberland,  president,  in  the  chair;  discourse
by  professor  Janic  s  Dewar.

FARADISATION, the medical  application

of  the  magneto- electric  cm  rents  which  Faraday
discovered  in  1837.  Apparatus  for  this  purpose  was
first  made  by  M.  Pixii,  and  employed  by  Dr.  Neef
of  Frankfort.  "  Farad,"  name  taken  for  a  unit  of
electric  capacity,  1875.

FARCE,  a  short  comic  drama,  usually  of  one  or
two  acts.  One  by  Otway  is  dated  1677.  '  The  best
English  farces  (by  Foote,  Garrick,  Biokerstaff,  eve.)
appeared  from  about  1740  to  1 780.  This  species
of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll
shows  which  were  exhibited  by  charlatans  and  their
buffoons  in  the  open  streets  ;  see  Drama.

FARMERS'  ALLIANCE,  an  organization
of  agricultural  reformers ;  held  a  provisional  meet-
ing 27  May,  and  a  conference  2  July,  1879.  ^  was
active  during  the  elections  of  April,  1880.  A
Farmers'  Alliance  for  Sco'land  was  founded  at
Aberdeen,  1  Dec.  1881.  The  Farmers' Alliance  in  the
United  States,  N.A.,  begun  about  1873,  became
influential  and  elected  ah  ut  2}  representatives  for
Congress,  Nov.  1890,  see  United  States,  N.A.

The  Farmers'  Club  was  established  in  1843  for  discus-
sions on  agricultural  subjects.

FARMERS-GENERAL,  see  Fermiers.

FARMERS'  UNION,  National,  established
at  Leamington,  by  lord  Walsingham  and  others,  to
oppose  the  Agricultural  Labourers'  Union,  June,
1874.

FARNESE  FAMILY  became  important
through  the  elevation  of  Alexander  Farnese  to  the
papacy  as  Paul  III.  He  gave  his  natural  son  Peter
the  duchy  of  Parma,  and  his  descendants  ruled  till
the  death  of  Antony  without  issue  in  1 731 .  Alex-
ander prince  of  Parma  was  governor  of  the  Nether-
lands in  1579.


FARRINGDON-MARKET,  erected  by  the
corporation  of  London,  near  the  abolished  Heet-
market,  was  opened  20  Nov.  1829.  After  several
changes  it  was  re-opened  as  a  Fish  Market  in  1882.
The  scheme  was  altogether  unsuccessful,  occasion-
ing great  loss  to  the  corporation  ;  abandoned,  1892.

FARTHING,  an  early  English  coin.  Farth-
ings in  silver  were  coined  by  king  John,  in
copper  by  James  I.  and  Charles  I. ;  the  Irish
farthing  of  John's  reign  (1210)  is  rare.  Farthings
were  coined  in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  VIII.
First  coined  in  copper  by  Charles  II.  1665 ;  and
again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a  large  coinage  of
copper  money.  Half-farthings  were  first  coined  in
1843  ;  see  Queen  Anne's  Farthings.  A  single  copy
of  the  "  Penny-a-week  Country  Daily  Newspaper"
(conservative),  No.  1,  sold  for  \d.,  25  June,  1873.
The  Farthings  Act,  21,  22  Vict.  c.  75,  1858,  relates
to  the  payment  for  portions  of  a  mile  travelled  by
third  class  railway  trains.

FARTHINGALE,  see  Crinoline.

FASTI  CAPITOLINI,  marble  tablets  dug
up  in  the  forum  at  Rome,  1547,  contain  a  list  of  the
consuls  and  other  officers  from  the  year  cf  Rome  250
to  765.  Other  fragments  were  found  in  181 7  and
1818.  The  "Fasti  Consulares,"  from  509  ls.c.  to
A.D.  235,  are  given  at  the  end  of  Smith's  "Dictionary
of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities."

FASTS,  observed  by  most  nations  from  the  re-
motest antiquity  ;  by  the  Jews  (2  Chron.  xx.  3)  ;
by  the  Ninevites  (Jonah  iii.)  ;  see  Isai.  lviii.  A
fast  was  observed  by  the  Jews  on  the  great  clay  cf
atonement.  Lev.  xxiii.  1490  B.C.  Moses  fasted  40
days  and  nights  on  Sinai,  Fxod.  xxiv.  1491  B.C.
The  first  Christian  ministers  were  ordained  with
fasting  (a.d.  45)  Acts  xiii.  2.  Annual  fasts,  as  that
of  Lent,  and  at  other  stated  times,  and  on  particular
occasions  to  appease  the  anger  of  God,  began  in  the
Christian  church,  in  the  second  century,  138.  The
Mahometan  fast  is  termed  Ramadan  (which  see).
Fast  days  are  appointed  by  the  Reformed  churches
in  times  of  war  and  pestilence  (as  21  March,  1855,
for  the  Russian  war,  and  7  Oct.  1857,  for  the  Indian
mutiny).  The  Jeynes,  which  see,  have  religious
fasts  of  30  to  40  days'  duration. See  Abstinence.


FATHERS  of  the  CHURCH

lowing  are  the  principal : —
first  century. Greek.
Apostolical.
Hernias

Barnabas . .
Clemens  Romanus, d. 100
Ignatius . . .  d.  115
Poly  carp . d.  abt. 169

second  century.  Greek.
Justin  Martyr,  d.  abt.  166
Irenaeus  .  d.  abt.  200
Athenagoras.


The  fol-


Greek.


FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN-
TURIES. Greek.
Eusebius . d.  abt.  340
Athanasius .  d. 373

Ephiem  Syrus,  d.  abt.  378
Basil  .  .  .  d.  379
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  d.  386
Gregory  Nazianzen  .  d.  389
Macarius  .  d.  abt.  391
Gregory  Nyssen  d.  abt.  394
Epiphanius  . d.  403.

John  Chrysostom  .  rf.  407
Cyril  of  Alexandria  d.  444
Theodoret . .  d.  457


THIRD CENTURY.

Clemens  Alexan-

drinus . d.  abt.  217  1

Hippolytus . . d.  230  Latin.

Origen . . d.  abt.  253 Arnobius . . .  fl.  303
Latin.  !  Lactautius . d.  abt.  330

Tertullian . d.  abt.  220  !  Ambrose  . . .  d.  397

Minutius  Felix,  fl.  abt.  230  j  Jerome . .  d.  420

Cyprian . .  d.  abt.  258  I  Augustine . .  d.  430

FATIMITES,  see  Ali  and  Mahometanism.

FATS  are  oils  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures.
The  researches  of  Chevreul  since  181 1  on  their
chemical  nature  are  very  important;  see  Candles.

FAUGHARD,  see  Foughard.


FAUSTUS.


365


FENIANS.


FAUSTUS,  a  professor  of  magic,  renowned  in
eliiip  books,  flourished  about  the  end  of  the  15th
century.  Christopher  Marlowe's  powerful  trasedy
"Dr.  Faustus,"  was  published  in  1616.  Goethe's
dramatic  poem,  "  Faust,"  appeared  in  1790.

FEASTS  and  Festivals. The  "  Feasts  of

the  Lord,"  viz.,  those  of  the  Passover,  Pentecost,

Trumpets,  and  Tabernacles,  were  instituted  1490  B.C.

{Leviticus  xxiii.)

Feast  of  Tabernacles,  celebrated  upon  the  dedication  of
the  Temple  of  Solomon,  1004  b.c.

Hezekiah  (726  b.c.)  and  Josiah  (623)  kept  the  feast  of
Passover  in  a  most  solemn  manner.

In  the  Christian  Church  the  feasts  of  Christmas,  Easter,
Ascension,  and  the  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide  {which
see),  are  said  to  have  been  ordered  to  be  observed  by
all  Christians  in  the  1st  century.

Rogation  days  appointed  469.

Jubilees  in  the  Romish  Church  were  instituted  by  Boni-
face VIII.  in  1300  ;  see  Jubilees.

For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  Church  of  England,  as
settled  at  the  Reformation,  et  seq.,  see  Book  of  Common
Prayer.

Feasts  of  Charity  ;  see  Agapce.

FEBEUAEY  (from  Februus,  an  Italian  di-
vinity), the  second  month  of  the  year,  in  which  were
<  elebrated  Februa,  feasts  on  behalf  of  the  manes  of
deceased  persons.  This  month,  with  January,  was'
added  to  the  year  by  Numa,  about  713  B.C.  The
February  of  1886,  siid  to  be  the  coldest  for  27  years
—continued  frost.  February  24,  25  Constitution,  see
France,  1875.

FECIALES  or  FETLALES,  twenty  in  number,
heralds  of  Home,  to  denounce  war  or  proclaim  peace,
appointed  by  Numa,  about  712  B.C.

FEDERAL  STATES  are  those  united  by
treaty  as  one  state,  without  giving  up  self-govern-
ment— as  in  Switzerland.  The  people  of  the
Northern  United  States  of  America  during  the  great
conflict  in  1861-5  were  styled  Federals;  their  oppo-
nents Confederates.  See  Imperial  Federation.
Federal  council  of  Australasia  Act  introduced  by  the

earl  of  Derby  23  April,  passed  14  Aug.  1885.
See  Australia,  1885  et  seq.,  Argentine,  Brazil,  &c.

FEEJEE,  see  Fiji.

FELIBRIGE.  A  literary  septennial  festival
held  in  Provence  by  felibres,  writers  in  prose  and
verse  in  the  langue  d'oc,  founded  in  1854,  in  honour
of  seven  eminent  troubadours.

FELO DE SE,  see  Suicide.

FELONY,  in  English  law  (says  Blackstone,  in
1765),  comprises  every  species  of  crime  which  occa-
sions the  forfeiture  of  land  and  goods.  An  act  to
abolish  forfeitures  for  treason  and  felony,  and  to
otherwise  amend  the  law  relating  thereto,  passed  4
July,  1870.

FEMALE  MEDICAL  SCHOOL,  London,
held  its  first  session  in  1865,  when  courses  of  lec-
tures were  given.  Dr.  Mary  Walker  attended  Mid-
dlesex hospital,  in  a  modified  female  dress,  in  1866.
She  gave  an  autobiographical  lecture  at  St.  James's
Hall,  20  Nov.  1866.  In  1869  the  decision  that
"ladies  should  be  admitted  to  study  medicine  in  the
university  of  Edinburgh,"  led  to  disturbances.
Femile  Orphan  Asylum,  Beddington,  Surrey,  esta-
blished 1758

Female  Orphans'  Home,  Hampton,  Middlesex  . .  1855

Female  Servants' Home  Society 1836

Female  Aid  Society 1836

FEMALE  SUFFRAGE,  &c,  see  Women.

FENCIBLE  LIGHT  DRAGOONS,  a  body

of  cavalry  raised  voluntarily  in  various  counties  of
England  and  Scotland  in  1794,  to  serve  during  the


war  in  any  part  of  Great  Britain.  This  force  (be-
tween 14,000  and  15,000),  which  did  its  duty  with
much  judgment  during  a  period  of  intense  popular
excitement,  was  disbanded  in  1800.

FENCING  was  introduced  into  England  from
France.  F'encing-schools  having  led  to  duelling  in
England,  were  prohibited  in  London  by  statute  13
Edw.  I.  1285.  In  1859  there  were  eight  teachers  of
fencing  in  London  ;  in  1872,  ten.

FENIANS  (the  name  of  ancient  Irish  national
heroes,  Fionna),  a  "brotherhood"  in  the  United
States  and  Ireland  united  to  liberate  Ireland  and
establish  a  republic*  The  agitation  was  begun,  it
is  said,  by  Stephens  in  March,  1858,  and  in  1864
enlistments  and  secret  drillings  took  place.  A  con-
vention was  formed  in  1863  in  America.  The
movement  is  opposed  by  the  Koman  Catholic  clergy.
See  Ireland^.
Riot  between  the  Fenians  and  their  opponents  at

the  Rotondo,  Dublin  . . . .22  Feb. 1864

25  persons  arrested  in  Dublin,  and  the  newspaper

the  Irish  People  (established  Sept.  1863)  seized,  15

Sept.  ;  others  arrested  at  Cork,  &c.  16-30  Sept.  1865
The  Fenians  in  America  publish  an  address,  stating

that  officers  were  going  to  Ireland  to  organise  an

army  of  200,000  men .... Sept.
Fenians  arrested  at  Manchester . . 21  Sept. ',',
A  ship  with  gunpowder  seized  at  Liverpool Sept. ,','
Allocution  of  the  pope,  condemning  secret  societies

30  Sept. „
Evidence  that  5000L  and  2000  pike-heads  had  been

received  from  America  in  Sept.

O'Donovan  and  5  others  committed  for  high  treason

„ .  2  Oct. „

33  Fenians  committed  for  trial . up  to  14  Oct.
A  Fenian  provisional  government  at  New  York,  and

a  congress  of  600  members  held  at  Philadelphia

x, •  °ct. „

I  enians  in  United  States  said  to  have  raised  200,000?.

Oct. ,,
Capture  of  James  Stephens,  Irish  head-centre,  n

Nov.  ;  he  escapes  from  gaol . . 24  Nov
Fierce  disputes  between  the  senate  and  O'Mahony', '

the  head-centre,  who  is  charged  with  corruption

and  deposed ;  Mr.  Roberts  appointed  his  successor

„ .  Dec. ,,

380,000  Fenians  reported  in  the  United  States  Jan.  1866
Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  in  Ireland  ;  about  250

suspected  persons  arrested  immediately 17  Feb.
Great  mass  meeting  at  New  York,  threatening  to '

invade  Canada 4  March

Fenian  schooner  Friend  captures  British  schooner '

Wentworth,  and  scuttles  her  near  Eastport,  N.  A.
_  „. ,  1  May, ,,

James  Stephens  arrives  at  New  York . 10  May,
Col.  O'Niel  and  Fenians  cross  the  Niagara  and  enter '

Canada,  31  May;  a  conflict  ensued  with  the  volun-
teers, with  bloodshed .... 2  June
The  American  generals  Grant  and  Meade  capture '

many  retreating  Fenians  •  . . 2  June  et  seq.
Sweeny  and  others  arrested . . 6,  7  June" '
President  Johnson's  proclamation  against  the  Fe- '

nians ?  jlme)

Spear  and  others  cross  the  boundary  near  Vermont '

7  June; the  corps  demoralised; many  return

.  9  June, ,,

Much  dissension  among  the  Fenians, July,  et  sen
They  exercise  much  influence  in  the  elections  iii "

America  in qc^

Trials  in  Canada.— Col. Lynch  and  Rev.'johii "

MacMahon  (sentenced  to  be  hanged  on  13  Dec  )

reprieved 24-26  Oct. „

James  Stephens, "central organiser  of  the  Irish

republic,"  saiil  to  sail  from  America . 24  Nov
The  British  government  offer  2000/.  for  his  appre- "

hension ^-,,v

Meaney,  a  delegate,  arrested  in  London  . r  Dee'
Arms  and  ammunition  seized  in  Dublin,  Cork,  and '

Limerick  ;  many  arrests .  Dec

»  Fenian  oath.  "  I  promise  by  the  divine  law  of  God
to  do  all  in  my  power  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  soeietj
F  B. ,  and  to  free  and  regenerate  Ireland  from  the  yoke
of  England. So  help  me  God."


FENIANS.


366


FENIANS.


Gen.  Millen,  head  of  the  Fenian  military  depart-
ment, denounces  Stephens  "  as  a  cheat  and  a  ras-
cal," and  declares  the  cause  for  the  present  hope-
less, hut  exhorts  to  watchfulness  for  an  opportunity

3  Dec.  1 8

Sweeny  (released)  rejoins  the  U.S.  army  . .  Jan.  18

22  convictions  at  Toronto .... Jan. ,

67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin

12  Feb. ,

Irruption  of  Fenians  into  Chester  ;  compelled  to
retire ">  I2  Fel)- >

Outbreak  in  Kerry;  Killarney  threatened;  eapt.
Moriarty  and  others  captured . . .12  Feb. ,

Attack  on  coastguard  station,  Cahirciveen,  12  Feb. ;
movement  collapsed .... 16  Feb. ,

Kilmallock  police  barrack  defended  for  three  hours
by  14  constables,  who  drove  off  200  armed  Fenians,
with  loss,  by  a  sally  .... 5  March, ,

General  Massey  captured . . 4  or  6  March, ,

Rising  at  Midleton  in  Cork  ;  Daly,  a  leader,  killed  ;
rails  of  South  and  Midland  railway  taken up

6  March, .
Proclamation  of  the  Irish  republic  sent  to  the  Times

and  other  papers .... 6  March, ,
Fenian  rising  near  Dublin  ;  telegraph  destroyed  ;
attack  on  the  police  station  at  Tallaght  repelled  ;
several  shot, 208  prisoners  taken  into Dublin

7  March,
1000  Fenians  hold  market-place  at  Drogheda,  but

retreat  at  the  approach  of  police . 7  March,

Capt.  Maclure  captured . . .  31  March,

Special  commission  to  try  230  Fenians  ;  Whiteside,

ch.-just.  ; Deasy  and  Fitzgerald,  begin  (Massey,

Keogh, Corydon, and  McGough, approvers)

9  April,  et  seq.
Burke  and  Doran  sentenced  to  death,  1  May  ;  re-
prieved 26  May,

Many  convictions  of  treason  (M'Afferty,  M'Clure,
and  others)  and  treason-felony,  and  many  dis-
charged May,

Trials  at  Limerick  begin  .  .  .  11  June,
President  Roberts  retires  ;  the  party  in  the  United
States  said  to  be  demoralised  .  .  .  July,
Many  Fenians  tried  and  convicted  July  and  Aug.
Several  imprisoned  Fenians  released  and  sent  to

America Aug.  and  Sept.

Fenian  congress  at  Cleveland,  Ohio . ■ . Sept.
Kelly  and  Deasy,  two  Fenians,  remanded  for  further
examination, rescued  from the  prisoners'  van,
near  Manchester ;  and  Brett,  a  policeman,  shot
for  refusing  to  give  up  his  keys .  .  18  Sept.

Many  persons  taken  up  ;  23  committed  on  charge
of  murder— tried, 5  condemned  to  death  (2  re-
prieved) ;  7  sentenced  to  7  years'  imprisonment
29  Oct-12  Nov.
Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford,

23  Nov.
Funeral  demonstration  in  London . . 24  Nov.
Trials  of  Halpin  and  others  at  Dublin, Oct. -Nov.
Funeral  demonstrations  for  Allen,  &c,  at  Cork,
1  Dec. ;  Dublin  and  Limerick . . 8  Dec.
Address  of  the  president  and  senate  of  the  Fenian
brotherhood  of  America  to  the  "liberty-lov.ing
people  of  England,"  dated  New  York, 12  Dec.
Reunion  of  the  Roberts  and  Stephens  parties  under
a  new  president . . . about  20  Dee.
Premeditated explosion  of Clerkenwell  house  of
detention,  London,  to  release  Burke  and  Casey,
leading  Fenians,  at  3.45. (A  cask  of  gunpowder
was  fired  close  to  the  prison  wall  ;  Timothy  Des-
mond, Jeremiah  Allen,  and  Ann  Justice  captured

on  suspicion) 13  Dec.

iConseqvences  of  the  explosion. — "Six  persons  were
killed  '  outright,'  six  more  died  from  its  effects,
according  to  the  coroner's  inquests  ;  five,  in
addition,  owed  their  deaths  indirectly  to  this
means  ;  one  young  woman  is  in  a  madhouse,  40
mothers  were  prematurely  confined,  and  20  of
their  babes  died  from  the  effects  of  the  explosion
on  the  women  ;  others  of  the  children  are  dwarfed
and  unhealthy.  One  mother  is  now  a  raving
maniac  ;  120  persons  were  wounded  ;  50  went
into  St.  Bartholomew's,  Gray's  Inn-lane,  and
King's  College  Hospitals  :  15  are  permanently
injured,  with  loss  of  eyes,  legs,  arms,  &e. ;  besides
20,000?.  worth  of  damage  to  person  and  property."
— Times,  29  April,  1868.]


Capt. Mackay  and  others  rifle a Martello  tower,

27  Dec. 1867
Audacious seizure  of  arms  and  ammunition  in  a

gunsmith's  shop  in  Cork ... 30  Dec. „
12  suspected  Fenians  captured  at  Merthyr  Tydvil,

31  Dec. „
Mullany,  a  prisoner,  -turns  queen's  evidence,  and
accuses  Barrett  or  Jackson  (captured  at  Glasgow,
14 Jan.) of firing  the barrel  at Clerkenwell,

28  Jan.  1868
Attack  on  Martello  tower  near  Waterford 28  Jan. ,,
Capt.  Mackay  arrested  at  Cork,  7  Feb.  ;  much  riot-
ing there 11,  12  Feb. ,,

Conviction  of  Patrick  Lennon,  a  leader,  12  Feb.  „
Habeas  corpus  act  susp.  till  1  March,  1869  Feb.  ,,
Mullany  and  Thompson  convicted  as  accessories  in

murder  of  Brett . . . .' 18  March, ,,
Capt.  Mackay  convicted  ; sentenced  to 12  years'

imprisonment 20  March, „

O'Farrell,  a  Fenian,  wounds  the  duke  of  Edinburgh
at  Port  Jackson, 12  March;  sentenced  to  death,

31  March, „
Mr.  Darcy  M'Gee,  M.P.,  shot  dead  by  a Fenian  at

Ottawa 7  April, „

Trial  of  Win.  and  Timothy  Desmond,  Nicholas  Eng-
lish, John  O'Keefe,  Michael  Barrett,  and  Ann
Justice,  for  murder  (Clerkenwell  outrage)  begun
20  ;  acquittal  of  Justice,  23  ;  of  O'Keefe,  24  ;  and
of  the  two  Desmonds  and  English,  27.  Conviction

of  Barrett 27  April, „

Richard  Burke,  a  leader,  convicted  of  treason-felony ,

30  April, „
Michael  Barrett  (for  causing  the  Clerkenwell  ex-
plosion) executed .... 26  May, „
O'Donovan Rossa and others released, behave

violently March,  1869

The  government  declines  to  release  others, 18  Oct. ,,
Manifesto  from  John  Savage,  executive  officer,  Dec. „
Fenian  raid  into  Canada  vigorously  repelled  by  the
militia,  and  their  general,  O'Neill,  captured  by  the

U.  S.  marshal 26  May,  1870

Formation  of  the  Clan-na-Gael  {which  see) . . ,,
Michael  Davitt and John Wilson convicted of
treason-felony  for  endeavouring  to  transmit  arms
secretly  to  Ireland  (detected  March) . 18  July, ,,
Captured  Fenian  generals  (Thompson  and  Starr)  in
United  States, sentenced  to imprisonment  for
breach  of  neutrality  laws . . . July, ,,
President  Grant's  proclamation  against  Fenian  raids
into  Canada . . . . . .13  Oct- „

Letter  from  Mr.  Gladstone  announcing  early  release
of  Fenian  convicts .... 15  Dec. „

The  convicts  released Jan.  1871

The released convicts welcomed  in  the United

States Jan. „

The  Fenians  favour  the  French  in  the  war,

Aug.  1870-Feb. ,,
Fenian  raid  into  Manitoba  suppressed  by  United
States  troops, and  general  Neill  arrested  ; see

Ireland about  12  Oct. ,,

Gen.  Cluseret  (a  short  time  in  the  service  of  the
Fenians)  publishes  an  account  of  them  in  Fraser's
Magazine :  he  says,  "  Their  insurrection  was
foolishly  planned  and  still  more  foolishly  exe-
cuted," and  strongly  advises  reconciliation  with

England July,  1872

Great  demonstration  near  Drogheda . 20  Sept.  1874
Escape  of  Fenian  prisoners from  West  Australia
in  the  Catalpa,  American  ship,  17  April ;  arrived

at  New  York 19  AuS-  iS76

O'Mahony,  head-centre,  dies  at  New  York;  grand

funeral  service 6  Feb. 1877

Davitt  and  other  Fenian  convicts  released  Jan.  to

Sept.  1878
Davitt  prominent  during  the  land  league  agitation,  1880-81
Arrested  and  committed  to  prison  .  3,  4  Feb.  1881
Elected  M. P.  for  co.  Meath  .  .  .  22  Feb.  1882
Seizure  of  arms  and  ammunition,  St.  John  Street
Road, Clerkenwell  ; Thomas Walsh arrested

17  June ,,
Committed  for  trial,  17  July  ;  sentenced  to  7  years'

penal  servitude 9  Aug. „

Detection  of  a  murderous  Fenian  plot  in  Dublin,
carried  out  by  a  band  termed  the  "Irish  Invinci-
bles,"  said  to  be  connected  with  the  Land  League

19  Jan.— 17  Feb.  1883


FERE-CHAMPENOXSE.


367


FETE  de  DIEU.


Plot  to  explode  public  buildings  in  England  con-
cocted in  New  York,  by  O'Donovan  Rossa,  a  chief
of  The  Fenian  Brotherhood,  Win. -J.  Lynch  (Nor-
man) sent  to  England  ;  conveys  explosives  from
Birmingham  to  London  (see  Birmingham),  gives
evidence  at  Bow-street  19  April,  1883

Great  convention  at  Philadelphia  opened,  25  April  ;
denounced  by  O'Donovan  Rossa,  who  revives  the
Irish  Revolutionary  Brotherhood . 6  May, ,,
See  Dynamite  and  Explosions.

Centre  of  Fenian  organization  discovered  at  Paris  ;
Frederick  Allen  apprehended . . .  Oct. „

Capt.  Thos.  Phelan  stabbed  (not  killed)  as  a  sus-
pected traitor  by  Richard  Short — in  Rossa's
house,  in  New  York,  9  Jan.  ;  O'Donovan  Rossa
shot  in  the  street  by  Lucilla  Y'seult  Dudley,  an
English  widow,  2  Feb.  ;  Phelan  and  he  recover,
in  the  same  hospital,  Feb. ;  Short  acquitted,
6  May  ; Mrs.  Dudley  declared  insane .  30  June,  1885

Threatening  Fenian  manifesto  sent  to  Mr.  Glad-
stone and  others  from  Paris . about  19  Feb. ,,

Great  Fenian  congress  held  in  Paris . 23  Feb. ,,

James  Stephens  expelled  from  France . March, „

Fenianism  becomes  prominent  in  Ireland autumn  1887

The  brotherhood  expels  O'Donovan  Rossa  about
8  Dec.  1886  ;  said  to  be  succeeded  by  Dr.  Hamil-
ton Williams  at  New  York,  having  200,000?.  to
be  employed  in  war  against  England  by  means
of  dynamite  explosions,  &c.  ;  statement  in  Times
14  Dec. ;  stated  to  be  absurd . . 14  Dec.  1887

Meeting  of  the  old  Fenian  Brotherhood  at  New
York  ;  they  decide  to  discard  Mr.  Parnell  and  all
leaders,  and  to  maintain  only  military  organisation

14  July,  1891

Michael  Davitt  elected  M.P.  for  N.  Meath .  July,  1892

FERE-CHAMPENOISE  (France).  Here
the  French  army  under  Marmont,  Mortier,  and
Arrighi,  were  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  allies
under  the  prince  of  Schwarzenberg,  25  March,
1814,  after  a  heroic  resistance.  Paris  surrender*,  d
six  days  after.

FERGHANA,  see  EJwkand.

FERLE  LATINJE,  solemn  Roman  festivals,
said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Tarquin  the  Proud,
about  534  B.C.  The  principal  magistrates  of  forty-
seven  towns  of  Latium  assembled  on  a  mount  near
Rome,  and  with  the  Roman  authorities  offered  a
bull  to  Jupiter  Latialis.

FERMENTATION,  termed  by  Gay-Lussac
one  of  the  most  mysterious  processes  in  nature  :  he
showed  that  in  the  process,  45  lbs.  of  sugar  are
resolved  into  23  of  alcohol  and  22  of  carbonic  acid.
His  memoir  appeared  in  1810.  In  1861  Pasteur
brought  forward  evidence  to  show  that  fermenta-
tion depends  on  the  presence  of  minute  organisms
in  the  fermenting  fluid,  and  that  the  source  of  all
such  organisms  is  the  atmosphere.  For  his  re-
searches he  was  awarded  an  annual  pension  of
120,000  francs  in  1874.

FERMIERS  GENERAUX,  officers  who
farmed  the  French  revenues  previous  to  1789,  fre-
quently with  much  oppression.  Lavoisier  and  27
of  these  were  executed  8  May,  1794.

FERNDALE  COLLIERY  EXPLO-
SION; 8  N.ov.  1867;  about  178  lives  lust.  See
under  Coal.

FERNS  (Ireland),  an  ancient  bishopric,  once
archiepiscopal.  St.  Edsen  was  seated  here  in  598.
Leigh  tin  and  Ferns  were  united  in  1600;  and  by
the  Church  Temporalities  Act,  passed  Aug.  1833,
both  were  united  to  the  bishopric  of  Ossory.  See
Ossory. — Ferns,  an  order  of  cryptogamous  plants,
much  cultivated  in  Wardian  cases;  which  see,
and  also  Nature-Printing.

FEROZESHAH  (India).  The  British,  com-
manded by  sir  Hugh  Gough,  attacked  the  en-
trenchments of  the  Sikhs, and  carried  their  first


line  of  works,  21  Dec.  1845  ;  but  night  coming  on,
the  operations  were  suspended  till  daybreak,  when
their  second  line  was  stormed  by  general  Gilbert,,
and  74  guns  captured.  The  Sikhs  advanced  to  re-
take their  guns,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,
and  retreated  towards  the  Sutlej,  22  Dec. ;  and  re-
crossed  that  river  unmolested,  27  Dec.  The  British
loss  was  reckoned  at  2415.

FERRARA,  formerly  part  of  the  exarchate  of
Ravenna,  under  the  emperors  of  the  East.  It  was
subdued  by  the  Lombards  in  the  8th  century,  and
taken  from  them  about  752  by  Pepin,  who  gave  it
to  pope  Stephen  II.  About  1208  it  fell  into  the
hands  of  the  house  of  E;te  (which  see),  and  became
the  principal  seat  of  the  literature  and  fine  arts-
in  Italy.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  obtained  the  sove-
reignty in  1598,  on  the  death  of  the  duke  Alphonso-
II.,  the  last  legitimate  male  of  the  Este  family. -
His  illegitimate  nephew,  Caesar,  became  duke  of
Modena.  The  French  under  Massena  took  Ferrara
in  1796;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  pope  in  1814.
An  Austrian  garrison  held  it  from  1849 ;  it  retired
in  June,  1859,  and  the  people  rose  and  declared  for
annexation  to  Sardinia,  which  was  accomplished  in
March,  i860.  The  centenary  of  the  university,,
founded  in  1392,  celebrated  18  April,  1892.

FERRARS'  ARREST.  In  March,  1542,  Mr.
George  Ferrars,  a  member  of  parliament,  while  in
attendance  on  the  house  was  taken  in  execution;
by  a  sheriff' s  officer  for  debt,  and  committed  to  the
Compter  prison.  The  house  despatched  their  Ser-
jeant to  require  his  release,  which  was  resisted,,
and  an  affray  taking  place,  his  mace  was  broken.
The  house  in  a  body  repaired  to  the  lords  to  com-
plain, when  the  contempt  was  adjudged  to  be  veiy
great,  and  the  punishment  of  the  offenders  was-
referred  to  the  lower  house.  On  another  messenger
being  sent  to  the  sheriffs  by  the  commons,  they
delivered  up  the  senator,  and  the  civil  magistrates
and  the  creditor  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  the
inferior  officers  to  Newgate,  and  an  act  was  passed
releasing  Mr.  Ferrars  from  liability  for  the  debt.
The  king,  Henry  VEIL,  highly  approved  of  all
these  proceedings,  and  the  transaction  became  the
basis  of  that  rule  of  parliament  which  exempts
members  from  arrest. HoliusJted.

FERRO,  see  Canary  Isles.

FERROL  (N.W.  Spain).  Upwards  of  10,000
British  landed  near  Ferrol  under  the  command  of
sir  James  Pulteney,  in  Aug.  1800.  They  gained
possession  of  the  heights ;  but,  despairing  of  suc-
cess, on  account  of  the  strength  of  the  works,  sir
James  re-embarked  his  troops.  His  conduct  was
much  condemned.  Soult  captured  Ferrol,  27  Jan.
1809.  An  insurrection  of  about  1500  men  in  the
arsenal  here  broke  out,  headed  by  brigadier  Pozas
and  cant.  Montojo,  who  raised  the  red  flag,  11
Oct.  Thev  dispersed  or  surrendered  when  about
to  be  attacked,  17  Oct.  1872.

FESCENNINE  VERSES  were  rude  extem-
porary dialogues,  frequently  licentious,  in  favour
among  the  ancient  Etruscans  at  weddings,  and  stil?
popular  in  Italy.

FESTIVALS,  see  under  Feasts,  Clergy,  Music.

FETE  DE  DIEU,  a  feast  of  the  Roman  church
in  honour  of  the  real  presence  in  the  Lord's  Sup-
per, kept  on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday.
See  Corpus  Chrisli.  Berengaiius,  archbishop  of
Angers,  opposed  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia-
tion,  and  to  atone  for  his  crime  a  yearly  pro-
cession was  made  at  Angers,  called  la  file  de  JDieut
1019.


FETE de  VERTU.


^68


FILTERERS.


FETE  DE  VERTU,  an  annual  assemblage,
■chiefly  of  young  persons,  to  whom  were  adjudged
rewards  for  industry  and  virtue.  These  fetes,  held
at  Nuneham,  in  Oxfordshire,  begun  by  lady  Har-
dcourt in  1789,  were  continued  till  her  death.

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land  by
■suit  and  service  to  lord  or  owner,  partly  m  use
in  England  by  the  Saxons,  was  mainly  esta-
blished by  William  I.  in  1066.  The  kingdom  was
divided  into  baronies,  which  were  given  on  condition
of  the  holders  furnishing  the  king  with  men  and
money.  The  vassalage,  limited  by  Henry  VII.,
149s,  was  abolished  by  statute,  1660.  The  feudal
system  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  Malcolm  II.
ail  1008,  and  the  hereditary  j  urisdictions  were  finally
abolished  in  that  kingdom,  1746-7-  The  feudal
iaws,  established  in  France  by  Clovis  I.  about  486,
were  discountenanced  by  Louis  XL  in  1470.

FEUILLANTS,  a  religious  order  founded  by
Jean  de  la  Barriere  in  1577  at  the  abbey  of  Feuil-
lant,  near  Toulouse,  and  settled  in  Pans  in  1587.
The  Feuillant  club,  formed  in  Paris  by  La  Fayette
and  others  in  1789,  to  counteract  the  intrigues  of
•the  Jacobins,  was  so  named  from  the  convent  where
they  met.  A  body  of  Jacobins  burst  into  their  hall
and  obliged  them  to  separate,  25  Dec.  1791 ;  and
■the  club  was  broken  up  in  1792.

FEVER,  see  Scarlet  Fever.  Enteric  and
Scarlet  Fever  prevalent  in  the  metropolis,  Aug.
Sept.  1887. Increasing  15  Sept.  1887.

FEZ  (in  the  ancient  Mauritania,  Africa),
founded  by  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Mahomet,  about
787,  was  long  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Fez.
After  long-continued  struggles,  it  was  annexed  to
Morocco  about  1550.  Leo  Africanus  describes  it  as
•containing  more  than  700  temples,  mosques,  and
other  public  edifices,  in  the  12th  century.

FICTION'S,  see  Romances.— Fictions  in  Law
were  invented  'by  the  lawyers  in  the  reign  of
Edward  I.  as  a  means  of  carrying  cases  from  one
■court  to  another,  whereby  the  courts  became  checks
to  each  other.  Hume.  Lord  Mansfield,  in  the  court
of  King's  Bench,  emphatically  declared  that  "no
fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against  the
real  truth,  as  to  prevent  the  execution  of  justice  :  "
31  May,  1784.  They  have  been  mostly  abolished
in  the  present  century.

"FIDELIO,"  Beethoven's  single  opera;  com-
posed in  1804,  produced  at  Vienna,  20  Nov.  1805.

FIDENiE, a  Sabine  city,  frequently  at  war
with  Rome. It  was  finally  captured  and  the  in-
habitants enslaved,  426  B.C.,  by  the  Romans,  whose
ambassadors  they  had  slain.
FIEF,  see  Feudal  Laws.

FIELD.  The  country  gentleman's  weekly
paper,  devoted  to  natural  history,  sports,  &c,  first
appeared  I  Jan.  1853.

FIELD  op  March  and  May,  see  Champ.—
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  a  plain  near
A'dres,  near  Calais,  in  France,  on  which  Henry
VIII.  met  Francis  I.  of  France,  7-25  June,  1520.
The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  displayed  their
magnificence,  and  many  involved  themselves^  in
debt.  Paintings  of  the  embarcation  and  interview
are  at  Windsor  castle.

FIELD-MARSHAL,  see  Marshal.

FIERY-CHAMBER,  see  Chambre  Ardente.

FIESCHI'S  ATTEMPT  on  Louis-Phi-
XIPPE,  see  France,  1835.


FIFTH-MONARCHY  MEN,  about  1645,
supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be  just
at  hand,  when  Jesus  Christ  should  descend  from
heaven,  and  erect  the  fifth  universal  monarchy.
They  proceeded  so  far  as  to  elect  him  king  at
London.  Cromwelldispersedthem,  1653.  Kearsley.
Another  rising  with  loss  of  life  was  suppressed,
6  Jan.  1661.  Thos.  Venner,  a  cooper,  their  leader,
and  16  others,  were  executed  soon  after.

FIFTH  PARTY,  a  term  applied  to  the  ad-
vocates of  temperance  in  the  House  of  Commons
(about  60),  Feb.  1884.

FIG-TREE  {Ficus  carica)  brought  from  the
south  of  Europe,  before  1548.  The  Botany-Bay
fig,  Ficus  australis,  brought  from  N.  S.  Wales  in
1789.

FIGURES,  see  Arithmetic.

FIJI or  VlTI  ISLES,  in  the  Pacific Ocean,
about 1500  miles  from Sydney. Discovered  by
Tasman,  Dutch  navigator,  in  1643. There  are  above
200  isles ;  80  inhabited  ;  the  largest  about  360  miles
in  circumference. Capital  Suva.
Population  in  1887,  124,658  ;  including 2, 105  Europeans;
1891,  121,180. 1890,  revenue, 66,817?.  ; expenditure,
60,826?.  ;  imports,  206,757?.  ;  exports,  364  531?.
The  islands  offered  by  the  king,  Thakombau,  and
chiefs  to  the  British  government,  but  not  accepted

July,  1859
The  house  of  commons  granted  1680Z.  for  expendi-
ture in  them  ;  and  European  settlements  made  .  i860
Annexation  to  Great  Britain  proposed  in  parlia-  •
ment ;  declined  25  June,  1872  ;  but  unconditional
cession  to  the  British  government  accepted  by
sir  Hercules  Robinson,  July  :  and  announced  by

him .25  Oct. 1874

His  club  sent  as  a  present  to  the  queen  by  the  king

Thakombau ,,

Sir  Arthur  Hamilton  Gordon,  first  governor . .  1875
About  50,000  deaths  by  epidemic  measles early  in ,,
Outbreak  of  cannibal  devil-worshippers  suppressed
by  the  military ;  about  20  ringleaders  executed

about  June,  1876
Sir  George  Wm.  Des  Voeux,  governor  .  .  Oct.  1880
King  Thakombau  died  ....  Feb.  1883
Sir  Charles  Bullen  Hugh  Mitchell,  governor  Sept.  1886
Sir  John  Bates  Thurston  . . .  Dec.  1887

FILES  are  mentioned  (1  Sam.  xiii.  21)  1093  B.C.
The  manufacture  of  them  has  attained  to  great  per-
fection, by  means  of  file-cutting  machinery.  That
set  up  by  Mr.  T.  Greenwood  of  Leeds,  in  1859,  was
invented  by  M.  Bernot  of  Paris.  It  is  said  that
the  price  of  files  made  by  it  is  reduced  from  32^.  to
4^.  per  dozen.

FILIBUSTERS  (properly  Flibustiers) ,  a
name  given  to  the  freebooters  who  plundered  the
coasts  of  America  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries;
see  Buccaneers  and  Nicaragua.

FILIOQUE,  ("and  from  the  Son"),  inserted
in  the  Nicene  creed,  in  respect  to  the  procession  of
the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  by
the  second  council  at  Constantinople,  381  ;  was  re-
jected, by  the  Greek  church,  431  ;  accepted  by  the
Spanish,  447,  and  by  the  Roman  883.  The  omission
of  the  phrase  was  considered  at  the  Old  Catholic
Conference  at  Bonn,  Aug.  1875.  See  Athanasitm
Creed  and  Nice.

FILTERERS.  A  plan  for  purifying  corrupted
water  was  patented  by  Wm.  Woolcott  in  1675.
Other  modes  followed.  James  Peacock's  method  of
filtration  was  patented  in  1 791;  and  many  others
since :  Ransome's,  1856.
Apparatus for  freshening  salt  water,  brought  forward

by  Grant, 1849  ;  by  Macbride,  1849  ; Gravely,  1858.

Dr.  Normandy's greatly  improved  apparatus, 1859,

much  used  in  the  royal  navy.


FINANCES.


369


FIRE-BRIGADE.


FINANCES  of  Great  Britain,  &c,  see  Revenue

and  other  articles.

A  select  committee  of  the  commons  consisting  of  Mr.
Goschen,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  J.  Morley,
Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,  Mr.  Chiklers,  lord  E.  Churchill,
and  others,  was  appointed  to  consider  the  present
Financial  Relations  between  England,  Scotland,  and
Ireland,  13  Aug.  1890.

The  "Statistical  Abstract,"  published  annually  by  the
government,  contains  much  financial  information.

FINE  ARTS,  see  Arts,  Paintings,  Sculpture,
Engraving,  &c.

FINES  and  Recoveries,  conferring  the

power  of  breaking  ancient  entails  and  alienating
estates,  began  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  but  was
not,  properly  speaking,  law,  till  Henry  VII.,  by
correcting  some  abuses  that  attended  the  practice,
gave  indirectly  a  sanction  to  it,  1487.  Fines  and
recoveries  were  abolished  in  1833.

FINISTERRE,  see  Cape  Finisterre.
FINLAND,  a  Russian  grand  duchy,  in  the
middle  of  the  12th  century  was  conquered  by
Eric  IX.  of  Sweden,  who  introduced  Christianity.
It  was  several  times  taken  by  the  Russians  (1714,
1742,  and  1808),  and  restored  (1721  and  1743) ;  but
in  1809  they  retained  it  by  treaty  ;  see  Abo.  Its
political  constitution  was  confirmed  by  the  Czar  in
1800, 1825,  and  1855.  It  was  made  nearly  autono-
mous in  1883.  .Population  in  1862,  1,746,229;
in  1867, 1,830,853;  1875,  i,9T2,647;  1889,  2,388,404.
During  a  dreadful  famine,  whole  villages  were
starved.  Elias  Lonnten,  editor  of  the  ancient
national  epic,  "Kalevala"  (1834-49),  died  1884.
Triennial  Diet  opened  with  constitutional  speech
sent  by  the  Czar,  19  Jan.  1885.  The  Czar  warmly
received  at  Helsingfors,  Aug.  1885.
Discontent  of  the  chambers  and  people  at  expected
changes  by  the  Russian  government . reported

Jan.  1891
Rescript  of  the  czar  to  the  governor-general,  assur-
ing the  people  of  the  maintenance  of  their  ancient
rights  and  privileges . . about  18  March, ,,
The  czar  visits  P'inland,  coolly  received .  July, ,,
A  new  stringent  press  law  enforced  . 1  Oct. ,,

Famine  in  N.W.  Finland  ;  much  suffering .  Dec. „

FINNIAN,  see  Fenians.

FINSBURY  PARK,  London,  N.  In  1866,
land  was  purchased,  and  preparations  for  the  park
began  ;  and  it  was  opened  7  Aug.  1869.

FIRE.  Heracleitus  about  596  B.C.  maintained
that  the  world  was  evolved  from  fire,  which  he
deemed  to  be  a  god  omnipotent.  Fire  was  wor-
shipped by  the  Persians  and  other  ancient  nations,
see  Guebres  and  Farsees.

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR,  an  apparatus  in-
vented  by  Mr.  T.  Phillips,  and  made  known  by
him  in  1849.  When  put  in  action,  steam  and  car-
bonic acid  are  formed,  which  extinguish  flame.  It
was  not  successful  commercially.  L' Fxtincteur
was  invented  by  Dr.  F.  Carlier,  and  patented  by
A.  Vignon  in  July,  1862.  It  is  an  iron  cylinder
filled  with  water  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  generated
by  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid.  The
apparatus  was  developed  and  improved  by  Mr.
W.  B.  Dick,  in  his  Manual  and  Chemical  Fire-
Engines,  which  give  a  continuous  flow  of  water
and  gas,  patented  April,  1869.

The  "Mata  Fuego,"  or  "Fire-killer,"  of  M.  Banolas  of
Paris, was successfully exhibited at  the  Alexandra
Palace, 16  Oct., 1880. Great  bodies  of flame were
almost  instantaneously  extinguished.
The  Harden  Grenade  Fire  Extinguisher  tried success-
fully near  Farringdon-road,  London,  24  July,  1884.
The Draper-Hetherington sprinkler reported success-
ful, Nov.  1888.
See  Antipyrogene  and  Jsbestos.


FIRE-ARMS,  see  Artillery,  Cannon,  Needle-
gun,  Chassepot,  and  Pistols. The  first  small  fire-
arms were  a  species  of  cannon,  borne  by  two  men.
Fire-arms  made  at  Perugia,  in  Italy  . . . 1364

Employed  by  the  Burgundians  at  Arras . . . 1414
Edward  IV. ,  when  he  landed  at  Ravenspur,  is  said

to have  been accompanied by  300 Flemings,


armed  with  hand-guns  .


1471


At  Morat,  the  Swiss  are  said  to  have  had  10,000

arquebusiers  (men  armed  with  tire-arms) . . 1476
Fire-arms  said  to  have  been  used  at  the  siege  of

Berwick : . . . 1521

The  petronel  (from  poUrine,  the  chest)  or  arquebus
came  into  use,  1480;  and  the  musket  employed
in  the  armies  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  about  .  ,,
All  these  were  of  very  rude  construction,  being
first  discharged  by  a  lighted  match,  afterwards,
about  1517,  by  a  wheel-lock,  then  by  the  flint.
The  match-lock  and  wheel-lock  superseded  by  the

flint-lock,  about 160-2

The  rev. Mr. Forsythe patented  the  percussion
principle  of  igniting  gunpowder  in  muskets,  by
means  of  detonating  powder . . April,  1807
Percussion  caps  came  into  use  between .  1820  &  1830

Percussion  musket ;  pattern 1842

Artillery  carbine  ;  pattern

Regulation  rifle  musket  ;  pattern .... 1851
Application  of machinery  in small  arms  factory
established  at  Enfield  (the  old  musket  Brown  Bess

superseded) Jan. 1S57

Mr.  Jacob  Snider's  system  of  breech-loading  in-
vented in  1859  ;  presented- to  the  British  govern-
ment ;  finally  adopted,  1866. He  received  ioooZ.

for  expenses  in  June  ;  died  25  Oct 1866

100,000  breech-loaders  said  to  have  been  ordered  by

the  British  government ....  July,

New  government  advertises  for  propositions for

conversion  of  Enfield  rifles  into  breech-loaders,

Aug. „
"  Chassepot "  guns  in  use  in  France . 1  Oct. ,,
War-office advertises for proposals for breech-
loading  rifles,  to  replace  those  in  use  22  Oct. ,,
Nine  systems  selected  for  further  trial ;  ioooJ.  to  be

awarded  to  the  best .... June,  1867
Snider's  rifle  reported  very  successful  at  Wimbledon,

July, ,,

61,682  new  arms  had  been  made  at  Enfield  ;  175,550

converted  to  Sniders,  up  to . . . Dec.

The  "  Money-Walker  "  rifle  (patented  by  Mr.  Mow-

bray-Money  and  lieut.-col. Walker),  tried and

approved zs  june>  xq6S

A  report  in  favour  of  the  Martini  and  Henry  rifle

issued  [adopted] March,  1869

An  act  to  grant  a  duty  of  excise  on  licences  to  use

guns,  passed Q  Aug. 1870

Complaints  respecting  the  Martini-Henry  rifle  (for

weight  and  recoil) Aug.  1874.

Magazine  rifles  came  into  use  in  Germany  1870-1 ;
the  Mauser  rifles  used  there  in  1887,  which
contain  enough  ammunition  for  five  or  more
almost  simultaneous  discharges,  were  coming  into
general  adoption  in  Europe  in  1887

An  improved  form  (tiring  from  6  to  9  shots  succes-
sively) determined  upon  by  the  small  arms  com-
mittee, Dec.  1887  ;  ordered  to  be  made  for  general
use,  announced  (name,  Lee-Metford)  .  Nov.,  1888
This  magazine  rifle  censured  in  the  Times,  defended
by  Mr.  Stanhope  and  the  War  office . Times,

15  Nov. 1890
The merits of  the Lee-Speed  magazine  rirle  dis-
cussed, Feb.  ;  and  also  the  French  Berthier  maga-
zine rifle Nov. 1S91

See  Mitrailleuse  and  Gatling.

FIRE-BRIGADE.  The  "London  Fire-en-
gine Establishment,"  an  amalgamation  of  tho
engines  of  the  different  companies,  was  established
in  London  in  1832  by  Mr.  Charles  Bell  Ford,  di-
rector of  the  Sun  Fire-office.  It  then  had  80  men
and  19  stations.  In  1863  it  had  130  men  and  20
stations.  In  May,  1862,  a  commission  recom-
mended the  establishment  of  a  fire-brigade,  which
was  effected  by  the  Metropolitan  Fire-brigade  Act,
in  1865.  The  establishment  then  gave  up  its  plant  to
the  Metropolitan  Board  of  "Works. The  fire-brigade


FIRE  DAMP INDICATOR.


370


FIRES.


is  supported  by  a  \d.  rate,  and  by  contributions
from  government  and  from  the  insurance  offices.  It
came  into  action,  and  its  energies  were  success-
fully tested  at  the  great  fire  at  St.  Katharine's
docks,  I  Jan.  1866.  In  1889,  591  men  and  55  land
fire-engine  stations.  Captain*  Eyre  M.  Shaw,  re-
commends to  the  London  County  Council,  a  large
increase  of  the  establishment,  April,  1889;  which
was  carried  into  effect  in  1 890.
Great  fire-brigade  exhibition  at  Oxford,  with  men
and  appliances  representing  the  united  kingdom

31  May,  1887
The  success  of  a  similar  exhibition  with  the  pre-
sentation of  medals  by  the  prince  and  princess  of
Wales  at  the  Horse  Guards  Parade,  Westminster,
was  greatly  marred  by  insufficient  arrangements
for  the  preservation  of  order  . . .  27  May,  1889
The  London  County  Council  orders  the  appoint-
ment of  138  additional  firemen  and  4  new  stations
with  the  usual  appliances . . . early  Aug.  1889
Capt.  Byre  M.  Shaw,  c.b.,  appointed  chief  officer  of
metropolitan  fire  brigade  in  succession  to  Mr.
James  Braidwood  (see  Fire.*,  1861) . . . ,,
Keview  of  the  brigade  at  Crystal  Palace  by  the

German  Emperor ....  11  July,  1891

Capt.  Shaw  announces  his  intention  to  resign
26  June;  (made  k.c.b.),  31  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by
capt.  J. S.  Simonds  (previously  second  in  command)

22  Dec. ,,

FIRE-DAMP  INDICATOR,  a  small  appa-
ratus, about  the  size  of  a  chronometer,  invented  by
Mr.  G.  F.  Ansell,  and  patented  by  him  in  1865,  by
which  the  presence  of  very  small  quantities  of  fire-
damp or  light  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  may  be
detected  in  mines.  It  is  an  application  of  the  law
of  the  diffusion  of  gases.

FIRE-DETECTOR  and  ALARUM,  a  me-
chanical and  chemical  apparatus  invented  by  prof.
'Grechi,  which  causes  a  bell  to  be  rung  and  exhibits
•coloured  light,  when  the  temperature  of  a  room  is
greatly  increased.  It  was  tried  at  the  Inter-
national exhibition,  London,  4  June,  1873.

FIRE-ENGINES  are  said  to  have  been  in-
vented by  Ctesibius,  250  B.C. They  are  mentioned
by  Pliny,  a. d.  70. A  "water-bow"  was  patented
by  Thos.  Grent  in  1632, one  was  constructed  by
John  Van  der  Heyden,  about  1663.  Bramah's  engine
was  patented  in  1793. Mr.  John  Braithwaite  con-
structed a  steam  fire-engine  in  1830. A  trial  of
steam  fire-engines  took  place  at  the  Crystal  Palace,
Sydenham,  on  1,  2,  3  July,  1863,  when  prizes  were
awarded  to  a  large one  by  Merryweather  and  a
small  one  by  Shand  and  Mason.
W.  Dennis's  portable self-acting  pneumatic  fire-
engine  was  tried  successfully  at,  gas-works  near
the  Thames 30  Nov.  1876

FIRE-ESCAPES  were  patented  by  David
Marie  (1766),  and  Joachim  Smith  (1773).  The  Koyal
Society  for  the  Protection  of  Life  from  Fire  was
first  established  in  1836;  its  object  was  not  fully
attained  till  1843,  when  it  was  re-organised,  begin-
ning with  six  escape  stations  in  London ;  in  March,
1859,  it  possessed  67 ;  in  1866,  85.  In  1858,  504
fires  had  been  attended,  and  57  persons  rescued.
In  1861  it  was  stated  that  84  lives  had  been  saved
by  the  society's  officers.  In  1866,  695  fires  had
been  attended,  and  78  lives  saved.  In  Aug.  1867,
the  plant  of  the  society  was  virtually  presented  to
the  Board  of  "Works,  in  consequence  of  the  passing
of  the  Metropolitan  Fire  Brigade  Act,  1865.  Vers-
mann's  composition  for  rendering  washing  dresses
fire-proof 'was  published  about  i860.

FIRE INSURANCE,  see  Insurance.

FIREMAN'S  RESPIRATOR,  the  inven-
tion of  Dr.  Tyndall  (1870-71),  is_  a  combination  of
his  respirator  of  cotton-wool  moistened  with  gly-


cerine,  and Dr. Stenhouse's  charcoal  respirator.

Armed  with  this  apparatus  a  man  may  remain  a

long  time  in  the  densest  smoke.

The  Loeb  respirator  was  tried  in  smoke  and
poisonous  vapour,  and  was  reported  efficacious
at  Westminster July,  1888

FIRE,  ROYAL  SOCIETY  FOR  PRO-
TECTION FROM. 86e  Fire-Escapes.

FIRE-SALVAGE  CORPS  formed,  in  1865,
by  the  London  Fire  Insurance  Offices.

FIRE-SHIPS.  Among  the  most  formidable
contrivances  of  this  kind  ever  used,  was  an  ex-
plosion vessel  to  destroy  a  bridge  of  boats  at  the
siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585.  The  first  use  of  them  in
the  British  navy  was  by  Charles  lord  Howard  of
Effingham,  in  the  engagement  with  the  Spanish
Armada,  July,  1588. Eapin.

FIRE-WATCH  or  FlRE-GuARD,  of  Lon-
don, was  instituted  Nov.  1791.

FIRE-WORKS are  said  to  have  been  made
by  the  Chinese  in  remote  ages. They  were  invented
in  Europe  at  Florence  about  1360 ;  and  were  exhi-
bited as  a  spectacle  in  1588.
Mac.aulay  states  that  the  fire-works  let  off  in  England  at

the  peace  of  Kyswick,  in  1697,  cost  12,000^.
Very  grand  fire-works  were  let  off  from  a  magnificent
building  erected  in  the  Green-park, London, at  the
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nov.  1748.
Exhibition  of  fire-works  in  Paris,  31  May,  1770,  in  honour
of  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XVI. ;
nearly  1000  persons  perished  by  pressure  aud  drown-
ing, through  a  panic.
The  display  of  fire-works,  under  sir  Wm.  Congreve,  at
the  general  peace,  and  the  centenary  of  the  accession
of  the  Brunswick  family  to  the  throne,  1  Aug.  1814.
Another  at  the  coronation  of  William  IV.,  8  Sept.  1831.
A  grand  display  of  this  kind  (at  a  cost  of  io,oooZ.)to  cele-
brate the  peace  with  Russia,  29  May,  1856.
In  consequence of  explosions  frequently  occurring  at
fire-work  makers  (particularly  one  on  12  July,  1858,  at
Mr.  Bennett's  in  the  Westminster-road,  Lambeth,  when
five  lives  were  lost,  and  about  300  persons  seriously
injured,  and  much  property  destroyed),  it  was  deter-
mined to  enforce  9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  7  (1697),  an  act  to
prevent  the  throwing  and  forming  of  squibs,  serpents,
and  other  fire-works. An  act  regulating  the  making  of
fire-works  was  passed  in  i860.
Ralph Fenwick,  a  maker, his wife, and six  others,
Broad-street,  Lambeth,  killed  by  explosion  4  Nov.  1873.
Mr.  C.  T.  Brock,  the  greatest  pyrotechnist  of  the  time,
has  a  manufactory  at  Nunhead  ;  exhibits  at  the  Crystal
Palace,  &c,  and  abroad,  1871,  et  seq.

FIRES  IN  LONDON. The  conflagration  of  a
city,  with  all  its  tumult  of  concomitant  distress,  is
one  of  the  most  dreadful  spectacles which this
world  can  offer  to  human  eyes. Dr.  Johnson.
A  great  part  of  the  city  destroyed,  including  St.

Paul's  cathedral 962  &  1087

One  at  London-bridge,  began  on  the  Southwark
side,  and  was  communicated  to  the  other  side,
and  hemmed  in  a  numerous  crowd  ;  about  3000
were  drowned,  and  a  great  part  of  the  city,  north

and  south,  bumed . 1212

The  Great  Fire,  whose  ruins  covered  396  acres,  ex-
tended from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple-church,  and
from  the  north-east  gate  to  Holborn-bridge.  It
began  iu  a  baker's  house  in  Pudding-lane,  behind
Monument-yard,  and  destroyed,  in  the  space  of
four  days,  88  churches  (including  St.  Paul's),  the
city  gates,  the  Royal  Exchange,  the  Custom-
house, Guildhall,  Sion  college,  and  many  other
public  buildings,  besides  13,200  houses,  laying
waste  400  streets.  About  200,000  persons  encamped
in  Islington  andHighgate  fields.  (See  Monument.)

2-6  Sept.  1666
In  Southwark,  60  houses  burnt  ....  1676
Iu  Wapping,  150  houses  burnt,  50  lives  lost . . 1715

Custom-house  burnt 1718

At  Shadwell,  50  houses  burnt . ,  10  Sept. 1736


FIRES.


371


FIRES.


Jn  Cornhill  ward,  200  houses  burnt ;  this  fire  began
in  Change-alley,  and  was  the  most  terrible  since
the  great  fire  of  1666 . . .  ■ 25  March,  1748
At  Covent  Garden,  50  houses  burnt . . . . 1759
in  Smithfield,  28  houses  burnt  . . . .1761

At  Shadwell,  30  houses  burnt ,,

In  Throgmorton-street,  20  houses .... 1774

At  Wapping,  20  houses 1775

At  Hermitage-stairs,  31  houses .... 1779
At  Horselydown, 30  houses,  besides  many  ware-
houses and  ships .... 30  April,  1780
Newgate,  &c. ,  by  the  Gordon  mob  . .  June, ,,

In  the  Strand,  40  houses  burnt 1781

•In  Aldersgate-street,  40  houses ;  the  loss  exceeding

100,000? 5  Nov.  1783

The  Opera-house 17  June,  1789

At  Rotherhithe,  20  houses . . . 12  Oct. 1790
Again,  when  many  ships  and  60  houses  were  con-
sumed 14  Sept. 1791

Pantheon,  Oxford-street  ... 14  June,  1792

At  Wapping,  630  houses,  and  an  East  India  ware-
house, in  which 35,000  bags  of  saltpetre  were
stored  :  the  loss  1,000,000?.  (tents  for  thesufferers
were  lent  by  the  government) . . 21  July,  1794
Astley's  amphitheatre .... 17  Sept. ,,
■'St.  Paul's  church,  Covent-garden  . 11  Sept. 1795

At  Shadwell,  20  houses  burnt  . . 1  Nov. 1796

In  the  Minories,  30  houses  ...  23  March,  1797
In  the  King's  Bench,  50  residences  . 14  July,  1799

UNTear  the  Customs,  three  West  India  warehouses  ;

loss  300,000 J 11  Feb.  1800

At  Wapping,  30  houses .... 6  Oct. ,,
In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense

property  destroyed ....  27  Sept. 1802

The  great tower  over  the choir  of  Westminster

abbey  burnt 9  July,  1803

Astley's  again,  and  40  houses . .  1  Sept. ,,

Frith-street,  Soho,  lasted  several  days,  many  houses

destroyed 2  Dec. ,,

■Surrey  Theatre 12  Aug. 1805

■Covent-garden  Theatre . . . .20  Sept. 1808

Drury-lane  Theatre 24  Feb. 1809

In  Conduit-street  ;  Mr.  Windham,  in  aiding  to  save
Mr. North's library, received  an  injury  which

caused  his  death 9  July, ,,

In  Bury-street,  St.  Mary-axe,  half  the  street  made
ruins . . . . . . .12  June,  181 1

■Custom-house : warehouses, and public  records

destroyed 12  Feb. 1814

At  Rotherhithe,  60  houses  and several  ships  de-

troyed  ;  loss  80,000! 16  March,  1820

At  Mile-end  ;  loss  200,000?.  . . .  22  Jan. 1821

In  Smithfield  ;  loss  100,000?.  ...  14  Aug.  1822
Royalty  Theatre,  Wellclose-sq.,  destroyed  11  April,  1826
In  Red  Lion-street,  15  houses  . . 6  June,  1828

Argyle  rooms  destroyed . . . .5  Feb. 1830
English  opera-house,  &c. ,  burnt . . 16  Feb. „
Houses  of  parliament  consumed  . . 16  Oct. 1834

Tenning's-wharf,  London-bridge,  &c.  ;  loss  250,000?.

30  Aug.  1836
The  Royal  Exchange  destroyed  .  .  10  Jan.  1838
At  Wapping,  12  houses ...  16  June,  1840

Oamberwell  church 7  Feb. 1841

Astley's  theatre  again 8  June, ,,

At  the  Tower  ;  the  armoury  and  280,000  stand  of

arms,  &c. ,  destroyed . . .  30  Oct. ,,

Raggett's  hotel,  Dover-street,  Piccadilly ; several

eminent  persons  perished . . .27  May,  1845
Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's inn,

14  Jan. 1849

Olympic  Theatre 29  March, ,,

One  in  St.  Martin's-lane  (at  a  publican's  named  Ben

Caunt),  three  lives  lost . . . .15  Jan. 1851
Fire  at  Duke-street,  London-bridge  ;  property  lost

estimated  at  60,000? 19  Feb. ,,

At  the  Rose  and  Crown,  Love-lane,  City,  four  lives

lost 18  May, ,,

Foot  of  London-bridge,  four  large  hop  warehouses

burnt;  loss  150,000? 23  June, „

Collard  and  Co. ,  pianoforte  makers,  Camden-town  ;
loss  60,000?.  ..... 19  Dec. „

The warehouses  of  Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's

churchyard,  burnt 24  Feb. 1853

Works  of  Gutta  Percha  Company,  near  City-road  ;

loss  ioo.oooZ 5  June, „

Kirkman's  pianoforte  manufactory . . 10  Aug. ,,
Messrs. Scott  Russell  and  Co.'s  works,  M  ill  wall ;
loss  100,000? 10  Sept. „


Premises  of  Messrs.  Savill  and  Edwards,  printers,

Chandos-street,  destroyed . . .30  Sept. 1853
Premises of  Townend  and Co., Bread-street,  de-
stroyed ;  loss  about  100,000?. . . 31  Dec. ,,
Messrs.  Cubitt's  premises,  Pimlico .  17  Aug.  1854

Whittington  club-house  ... 3  Dec. ,,

Premises  of  Messrs.  Routledge,  Messrs.  Rennie,
&c. ,  Blackfriars-road ;  loss,  one  life  and  150,000?.,

16  Fel). 1855
Of  Etna  steam  battery  at  Messrs.  Scott  Russell's
■ works  ;  loss  about  120,000?. . .  3  May, ,,

Pavilion  Theatre 13  Feb. 1856

Covent-garden  Theatre  .... 5  March, ,,
Messrs.  Scott  Russell's  (third  fire),  much  valuable

machinery  destroyed  ...  12  March,  ,,
Messrs.  Dobbs'  premises,  Fleet-street  .  1  April,  ,,
Shad  Thames  flour-mill; loss about 100,000?.,

17  July, „
Messrs.  Broadwood's,  pianoforte  makers,  Westmin-
ster 12  Aug. ,,

Premises  of  Messrs.  Almond,  army  accoutrement
makers,  and  others,  in  St.  Martin's-lane  ;  esti-
mated loss  20,000? 9  Nov. ,,

Messrs.  Pickford's  premises,  at  Chalk  Farm  station,

9  June,  1857
Gilbert-street,  Bloomsbury  ;  15  lives  lost,  28  March,  1858
Fresh-wharf;  25,000?.  of  silk . . 21  June, ,,
London  docks  ; great  explosion ; man  killed  by

fright  ;  loss  about  150,000?. . . 29  June, ,,
Limehouse  ;  Messrs.  Forest,  Dixon's,  &c. ,  premises
destroyed,  and  Blackwall  railway  arches ;  insured,

19-20  July, ,,
Gt.  James-st. ,  Marylebone  ;  six  lives  lost, 26  Feb. 1859
Messrs. Hubbuck  and  Co. ,  Lime-street ;  one  life

and  a  large  amount  of  property . .  20  May, ,,
West  Kent  wharf  and  New Hibernia  wharf;  de-
stroyed property  valued  at  200,000?.  ;  fire  lasted
nearly  a  month  ;  commenced . . 17  Aug. 186c
St.  Martin's-hall,  built  for  Mr.  Hullah,  and  other

premises,  destroyed 26  Aug. ,,

Thames  iron-works,  Blackwall . . 31  Aug. ,,
Kilburn  church,  Maida-hill,  destroyed 29  Nov. ,,
Surrey  music-hall  destroyed . . 11  June,  1861
Cotton's  wharf  and  depot  and  other  wharves  near
Tooley-street,  containing  oil  and  other  combust-
ible substances,  took  fire  about  half-past  4  p.m.,
22  June, and continued  burning  for  a  month.
(Several persons were killed, including  James
Braidwood,  the  able  superintendent  of  the  Lon-
don fire-brigade  ;  the  loss  of  property  was  esti-
mated at  2,000,000?.) ,,

Davis's wharf, Horselydown,  burnt ;  loss about

15,000? 1  Aug. ,,

Near  Paternoster-row  ;  Messrs. Longman's,  book-
sellers, Messrs. Knight's,  tallow-melters, and
others  ;  loss  above  50,000?.  ... 4  Sept. ,,
Mr.  Price's,  Fountain-court,  Strand,  three  lives  lost,

3  Jan. 1862
At  Campden-house,  Kensington,  pictures  and  other
valuable  property  of  Mr.  Woolley  destroyed  (see

Trials,  1863) 23  March, „

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three
lives  lost . .  . . . 5  May,

Mr.  Joel's,  Fore-street,  City,  four  lives  lost,  21  May,
Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo-
sion ;  two  lives  lost . . . . 7  J  line,

Great  Cumberland-street,  Hyde-park  ;  Mr.  S. Bar-
rett and  two  daughters  burnt . . 15  Aug.
Messrs.  Price's  oil-mills,  Blackfriars  bridge,  burnt ;
great  loss  of  property .... 20  Nov.

Ancient  Austin-friars  church, City, partially  de-
stroyed ....... 22  Nov.

Mr.  Chard's,  Portland-street,  Soho  ;  six  lives  lost,

26 Dee.

Messrs.  Capel's,  Secthing-lane,  City  ;  great  destruc-
tion of  property .  . •  18  April,  1863

Warehouses  of  Messrs.  Grant  and  others,  between
Wood-street  and  Milk-street ;  property  worth
about  100,000?.  destroyed ... 19  Dec, ,,

Meriton's  wharf,  Dockhead  ;  immense  loss  of  pro-
perty 7  June,  1864

Royal  Savoy  chapel.  Strand,  destroyed  7  July,

llalierdashers'-hall  and  Messrs.  Tapling  and  others'
warehouses 19  Sept. ,,

Messrs.  Barry,  Sufferance  wharves,  Dockhead  ;
great  loss 25, 26  Nov. „

Surrey  Theatre  destroyed . . . 3°.  31  J'™- '865

b  n  2


FIEES.  372


FIEES.


Saville-house  (where  George  III.  was  born),  Leices-
ter-square 28  Feb.  1865

Poulterers'  arms, Leadenhall  market ; two  lives

lost 13  June, ,,

Messrs.  Meeking  and  Co. ,  Holborn ;  damage  30,000?.

24  June, ,,
Messrs. Sotheby  and  Co., auctioneers ;  valuable

library  destroyed .... 29  June, ,,
Great  fire  at  Beale's  wharf ;  about  18,000?.  damage,

30  Oct. ,,
Immense  fire  at  St.  Katharine's-docks . 1  Jan. 1866
Holland and Hennen's premises, Duke-street,

Bloomsbury,  destroyed ... 26  Aug. ,,
Great  fire  in  Haydon-square,  Minories  ;  depot  of
N.  W.  Railway  company,  and  other  warehouses  ;

great  loss 11  Sept. „

Standard  Theatre,  Shoreditch,  burnt  down,  21  Oct.  ,,
In  Hampstead-road,  thirteen  lives  lost  .  5  Nov.  ,,
North wing of the Crystal palace destroyed

30  Dec. ,,
Quebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost,

11  March,  1867
Rotherhithe, 16  or 17  houses  burnt ; about 100

persons  destitute .... 12  Sept. ,,
Her Majesty's theatre, Royal opera-house, de-
stroyed: see  Opera .... 6  Dec. ,,
Oxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de-
stroyed 11  Feb.  1868

Above  20  shops  burnt  in  Portman-market,  Maryle-

bone 23  Feb. „

Hubbard  and  Stutters'  hop-warehouses  ;  and  many

small  houses  destroyed ... 10  Aug. „
Northumberland  house,  Strand  ;  valuable  pictures,
&c,  injured ...... 19  Aug. ,,

Adelaide  rooms,  Strand,  destroyed  .  14  March,  1869

All  Saints  church,  Walworth,  destroyed 27  April, ,,
Mrs.  Jago's,  Pentonville-hill  ;  3  perish  5  June, ,,

Moscow-road, Bayswater ; through explosion of

fireworks  ;  7  persons  perish . . .1  Oct. ,,
Mr.  McMicken's,  Newiugton-butts  ;  4  lost 10  Oct. „
Old  Star  and  Garter  hotel,  Richmond  ;  Wm.  Lever,
the  manager,  killed .... 12  Jan. 1870

Mr.  Hill's,  upholsterer's,  Waterloo-road ;  6  children

suffocated 23  July, ,,

Church-street,  Rotherhithe 3  lives  lost, 23  Aug. ,,
Cecil-house,  Cecil-street,  Strand  ;  Mr.  Forbes  burnt;
architectural  books, &c.,  of  Mr.  G.  G.  Scott  de-
stroyed 4  Sept, ,,

Mr. Bush's, manufacturing chemist, Liverpool-
street,  Bishopsgate  ;  4  lives  lost . 27  Sept. ,,
Chapel- street,  Edgware-road,  4  lives  lost ;  Crouch-
end,  Hornsey,  3  lives  lost . . .5  March,  1871
Pavilion-road,  Chelsea  ;  5  deaths . 26  March, ,,
Gray's-inn-road  ;  James Ford, a  fireman,  lost  his

life  after  saving  6  .... 7  Oct. ,,

Thames-street ;  Nicholson's  and  other  warehouses

destroyed  ;  great  loss . . . .24  Oct. ,,
Oxford  music-hall  ;  quite  destroyed . 1  Nov.  1872
City  flour-mills,  Upper  Thames-street;  1 fireman

killed 10,  11,  12  Nov. ,,

Grosvenor-mews,  Bond-street,  6  killed .  27  May,  1873
Alexandra-palace, Muswell-hill, destroyed, 1 life

lost 9  June, ,,

Silver-street,  Stepney  ;  2  killed  .  .10  Sept.  ,,
Lloyd's newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars,

destroyed .... 4  p.m.  29  Dec. ,,
Pantechnicon  (which  see), Knightsbridge ; much

valuable  property  destroyed . .  13,  14  Feb.  1874
Carnaby-street,  W.  ;  2  lives  lost . . 15  Feb. „
Latta's great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, de-
stroyed 28  Dec. „

Rimmel's  perfumery  manufactory,  Beaufort-house,

Strand,  destroyed .... 19  March,  1875
W. Walker's cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row,

E.C.,  destroyed  ;  estimated  loss  30,000?. 14  Sept. „
Mr.  H.  A.  Hankey's  new  mansion,  near  St.  Anne's
gate,  St.  James's  park,  destroyed  ;  about  60,000?.

damage 7,  8  Oct. ,,

East  London  Rice  and  Flour  Mills,  Devonshire-
street  ;  and  18  other  buildings  . . 3  Jan.  1876
Chick's  Great  Western  Pantechnicon . 2  June, „
Messrs. Warner's and other premises, Brook's-

wharf,  Upper  Thames-street . . 15-18  June, „
Little  Windmill-street,  Haymarket  ;  about  80,000?.

damage ;  many  poor  sufferers . . 15  July, tt
Bridgman's  saw-mills,  St.  Luke's,  destroyed

24-25  July, „


Grant  &  Co.'s  printing-office,  <fec,  Turnmill-street,
Clerkenwell ;  about  100,000?.  loss . 10,  11  Aug.

Mill-street,  Hanover-square,  W.,  three  lives  lost

18  Sept.

New  wharf  flour-mills,  &c,  Rotherhithe,  de-
stroyed ;  above  80,000?.  loss  . . 8  Oct.

Near  Old  Kent-road,  two  lives  lost  ;  susjiected
arson 2,  Nov.

House  of  Correction,  Clerkenwell,  mill-house,  &c. ;
no  prisoners  injured  or  escaped . 24  March,

Charing-cross  restaurant,  one  life  lost  21  May,

Little  Britain,  E.G.,  a  paraffin  lamp  upset;  four
lives  lost 9  July,

250,  Mile  End-road,  two  lives  lost . . 23  Oct.

Scottish  Corporation  hall,  Crane-court,  Fleet-street
(built  by  Wren),  burnt  many  valuable  portraits,
&c 14  Nov.

Watson's  wharf,  Wapping,  lossabt.  30,000?.  31  Dec.

Manchester  warehouses,  Watling-street ;  Crocker
&  Co.  ;  and  others  ;  about  200,000?.  loss 12  Jan.

Elephant  and  Castle  theatre  destroyed 26  March,

Price  and  Co.,  oil-merchants,  &c. . . 3  Sept.

Messrs.  Tylor's,  brass-founders,  &c,  Newgate-street,
great  loss 2-3  Jan.

New  East  London  Theatre,  Whitechapel-road,  seve-
ral houses  injured  .... 16  March,

Wesley's  chapel,  City -road,  nearly  destroyed,  caused
by  heating  apparatus  . . . . 7  Dec.

Holborn,  Roworth's  printing  office . .  19  April,

Messrs.  Hodgkinson's,  chemists,  and  others,  four
perish 30  April,

The  Duke's  Theatre,  Holborn,  burnt. . 4  July,

Whitechapel  church,  recently  rebuilt, destroyed,

26  Aug.

Trinity -lane,  Thames-street,  large  block  of  buildings,
and  much  property  destroyed . . 3  Feb.

Cooperative  stores,  Haymarket,  destroyed ;  loss
about  20,000? 23  April,

Mr.  Allen's,  stationer,  96,  Walworth-road,  4  deaths,

26  April,

422,  Portobello-road,  Notting-hill,  6  deaths,  16  May;
(Win,  Nash,  shopkeeper,  charged  with  arson  and
murder  ;  convicted,  "but  reprieved) . 30  May,

Messrs.  T.  Foster  and  Co.'s  warehouses,  Cheapside  ;
much  property  destroyed  :  checked  by  firemen
and  good  building . . . . 1  Sept.

Dowgate  dock  warehouse  ;  aid.  Breffit's 3  Sept.

Park  theatre,  Camden  Town,  destroyed 10  Sept.

Morson  and  Son,  chemical  works,  explosion ;  2  killed

17  Jan.

Philharmonic  Theatre,  Islington,  interior  destroyed

6  Sept.

Whiteley's  great  stores,  Westbourne  Grove,  W.,
about  100,000?.  damage  ... 17  Nov.

The  Royal  Alhambra  Theatre  destroyed;  3  men
killed 7  Dec.

Wood-street,  &c,  premises  of  Foster,  Porter,  and
Co.,Rylands,  Silber,  and  Fleming,  and  others.
A  large  block  of  buildings  destroyed,  estimated
loss  nearly  2,000,000?. ;  1  death . 8-10  Dec.

St.  Ann's  restaurant  and  warehouses  in  Cheapside
destroyed 15  Dee.

St.  John's  Presbyterian  church,  Forest-hill,  de-
stroyed 17  Dec.

Another  fire  at  Whiteley's ...  26  Dec.

Windsor-street,  E.C.,  5  deaths  . . 16  Jan.

Newnham-  street, Edgeware  -  road, 5 deaths

14  April,

Messrs.  Kegan,  Paul,  and  Co.'s  premises,  and  other
buildings  (16  firms),  Paternoster-square  17  April,

Freemason's-hall  much  injured  . . 3  May,

Lunatic  asylum,  Southall-park,  W.,  Dr.  Boyd  and
5  others  perish 14  Aug.

Hay  warehouses  at  Foreign-cattle-market,  Dept-
ford  ;  damage,  about  18,000?.  . . 18  Sept.

Great  fire  at  Haggerston,  beginning  at  Messrs.
Lines,  timber  merchants,  saw  mills  and  eleven
small  houses  destroyed  ; 40  families  homeless

5-9  Nov.

Messrs. Silver and  Co., premises  near  Cornhill

17  Jan.

Premises  of  Messrs.  Pardon,  printers,  &c,  Messrs.
Williams,  Faudel,  and  Phillips,  Smith  Brothers,
and  others,  Lovell's-court,  Paternoster-row,  de-
stroyed, 7.30  P.M.  ;  by  great  exertions  fire  quelled,
11  p.m.  2  April,

Bell  hotel,  Old  Bailey  ;  three  young  women  lament-
ably perish,  about  2.30  a.m. . . 23  April,


1872


1879


FIEES.

Another  Are  at  Whiteley's  stores,  loss  about  150,000?.

26  April,  18

East  End  Aquarium,  menagerie,  and  waxwork,
■&c,  Bishopsgate,  <lestroyed  ;  lioness,  bear,  mon-
keys, and other animals perish, 8.30 a.m.

4  June, ,,

Wappiimg,  Messrs.  B.  H.  Cousens  and  Co.,  ware-
houses and others  ; damage about 100,000?.

19-20  July, ,,

Mr.  Abrahams,  hatter,  33,  Wilton-road,  Pimlico,
7.45  a.m  ,  4  deaths .... 12  Aug. ,,

Messrs.  Hodgson's  envelope  manufactory,  Little
Trinity- lane,  destroyed,  about  10,000?.  loss,  9.45
a.m 15  Aug. ,,

Jones's  wharf;  great  destruction  of  timber  17  Dec.  ,,

Holies-street,  Clare-market,  4  deaths . 31  Dec. ,,

Mr.  H.  Chandler's,  194,  Union-st.,  Borough ;  5
lives  lost,  including  Alice  Ayres,  who  courageously
saved  3  children, ....  23-24  April,  18

Japanese  village  burnt ;  1  life  lost . . 2  May, ,

Jackson  and  Graham's  upholstery  workshops,  near
Oxford-st.,  6  May ,

Messrs.  Groom's  wood-yard  at  Camberwell  de-
stroyed, 9  May, ,

India  Museum,  South  Kensington,  much injured

12  June, ,

Mr.  W.  Whiteley's  establishment  at  Westbourne-
grove, over 100,000?. damage, (? incendiary)

17  June, ,

St.  John's-road,  Hoxton  ;  3  lives  lost  . 26  Aug. ,

Charterhouse buildings, &c  , Clerkenwell  ; 14
.  houses  destroyed  ;  loss  20,000?. . . 8  Oct. ,

Anton,  Brenda  &  Co.,  Japanese  merchants,  Hounds-
•ditch  ;  damage  25,000?. ... 15  Feb.  18

■"  Three  Compasses,"  Beak-street,  W.  ;  3  lives  lost ;
2. 20  a.m. ...... 28  April, ,

•'  Jacob's  Well,"  Shoreditch  ;  3  lives  lost 12  May, ,

Grandison-road,  Battersea  ;  2  lives  lost 30  Nov. ,

Knightrider-street,  city  ;  several  houses  and  St.
Mary  Magdalene  church  destroyed . 2  Dec. ,

24, Grafton-street, W. , and adjoining buildings

18-19  Dec. ,

303,  104,  Wood-street,  city . . . 1  Jan.  18

22, Newman-street, Oxford-street ; 4 lives lost

26  June, ,

Mr.  W.  Whiteley's  establishment  and  neighbouring
houses  destroyed  by  lire  ;  estimated  damage
500,000?.  ;  3  lives  lost ;  3,000?.  reward  for  dis-
covery of  incendiary . .  . 6-9  Aug. ,

Messrs.  Kindon  &  Powell's  oil-cloth  manufactory
burnt,  loss  about  50,000?. ... 6  Dec. ,

•Grand  Theatre,  Is  ington,  totally  destroyed  in  an
hour,  12.55  a-m 29  Dec. ,

No.  274,  Strand  ;  2  boys  perish  ;  Sunday,  18  Sept.  ;
Leon  Serne,  the  father,  and  John  Henry  Gold-
finch tried  for  murder,  13  Dec.  ;  acquitted  15
Dec.  1887.  Leon  Serne  sentenced  to  twenty
years'  penal  servitude  ;  Goldfinch  acquitted  21  Jan.  i3

Houndsditch,  4  persons  (foreigners)  perish,  20  Jan. ,

Bay -tree  tavern,  No.  5,  St.  Swithin's-lane  12  May, ,

Messrs.  Garrould's,  drapers,  &c,  Edgware-road,  6
women  perish  ;  6  a.m.  30  May  ;  jury  censures  the
kitchen-maid  for  carelessness  with  a  lucifer-
match,  and  two  fire-brigade  men  for  neglect
of  duty 11  June, ,

Messrs.  Doulton's  potteries,  Lambeth  ;  great  part
of  the  works  destroyed,  damage  15,000?. 11  Dec.

IFarringdon  meat  market,  thirty  shops  destroyed

6  Jan.  18

Ward's  Wharf,  Commercial-rd.,  Lambeth;  damage
about  20,000? 7-8  Feb. ,

Messrs.  W.  &  D.  Gibb's  great  soap-works,  Milton-
street  and  surrounding  premises  destroyed,
estimated  damage  250,000?.  ... 6  May, ,

Messrs.  W.  H.  &  F.  Croker,  builders,  and  Messrs.
Bonsey,  corn  merchants,  extensive  buildings
near  Great  Dover-street,  Borough . ."July, ,.

Messrs.  Burroughs  and  Wellcome,  manufacturing
chemists.  Bell-lane,  Wandsworth,  fireman  Jacobs
suffocated  ;  (long  inquest) . . .11  Oct. ,

The  Salvation  army  offices,  Queen  Victoria-street,
upper  floors  destroyed .... 3  Dec. ,

Block  of  buildings  in  Charterhouse-square,  W.
Sinithfield  (Mr.  Burgess,  printer,  Messrs.  Rud-
diman,  Johnston  &  Co.,publishers,  &  Mr.  Ferranti,
electrical  engineers)  ;  great  destruction .  25  Dec. ,

Forest-gate  District  Industrial  school,  London,  E.,
partly  destroyed  ;  26  boys,  aged  between  7  and


373


FIEES.


12  years,  suffocated  ;  many  escaped  through  the
energy  of  Mr.  Charles  Duncan,  the  supermtend-
ant,  and  other  officials,  early  1  Jan.;  inquest,
verdict,  accidental  death  with  strong  recommend-
ations 20  Jan. :

Premises  of  Messrs.  James  &  Pike,  mantle  manu-
facturers, back  of  the  General  Post-office,  partly
destroyed,  estimated  loss  40,000/. . . 3  Feb.

Premises  of  Messrs.  Gay,  Armstrong  &  Co.,  skin
merchants,  Westminster-bridge-road,  2  lives  lost

18  Feb.

Sir  W.  A.  Rose  &  Co.'s  great  oil  mills,  Bankside,
Southwark,  destroyed  ;  London  illuminated  by
the  blazing  oil ;  no  loss  of  life,  two  firemen  in-
jured, horses  rescued ... 24  April,

Old  Sun,  coal  wharf,  Messrs.  Ray,  destroyed

29  Aug.
Messrs.  Rowley  &  Brock,  hat-makers,  premises  in

Cloth-fair  destroyed,  by  the  combustion  of
naphtha;  8  deaths,  3  men  and  5  women,  about  1  p.m.

13  Oct.

Messrs.  Vogan  &  Co.'s  granaries,  &c,  Mill-street,
Dockhead,  destroyed  ;  great  fire . . 9  Nov.

Wellington  barracks,  Westminster,  much  injured  ;
six  persons  hurt ;  no  deaths  through  the  gallant
and  orderly  conduct  of  the  soldiers  [two  children
died  afterwards] . .  . .  12  Nov.

Messrs.  Lever,  Wright  &  Co.,  furriers,  Bunhill-
row  ;  great  loss . . .  .  28  Nov.

Herbert-passage,  Strand  ;  four  lives  lost 21  Dec.

Messrs.  Davidson,  paper  manufacturers,  Upper
Thames-street,  Queen  Victoria-street,  &c,  Messrs.
Frankau,  fancy  goods  importers,  Revillon  Freres,
furriers,  and  other  firms  in  Upper  Thames  street,
and  Queen  Victoria  street ;  a  large  block  of  build-
ings wholly  or  partially  destroyed,  tenanted  by
Messrs.  C.  Davidson,  paper-makers,  Messrs.  Revii-
lon,  furriers,  and  16  other  firms ;  St.  Beliefs  church,
damaged;  estimated  loss 500,000/.  midday, 30 Dec.

Hope's  chemical  works,  Hackney-wick,  destroyed .

30  Dec.
Messrs. Morgan & Company, carriage builders,

Long-acre,  and  others  ;  loss  about  50,000/.  13  Feb.

Messrs.  J.  Tylors,  engineers,  Newgate-street,  and
otherpremises,  workshops  destroyed  ;  serious  loss
to  workmen 21  March,

Messrs.  Pay  ton  &  Co.,  tea  dealers,  Tower-hill,  and
other  premises,  greatly  damaged . 11  April,

M. C.  Duffy  &  Son,  saw-mills,  Stork's-road,  Ber-

mondsey,  destroyed  and  about  24  private  houses

damaged  ;  inhabitants  compelled  to  leave  their

homes  hastily ;  much  suffering ;  5  a.m. — 6  p.m.

29  April,  et  seq.

House  of  John,  Lord  Romilly,  38,  Egerton-gardens,
Brompton,  W.,  through  the  upsetting  of  a  large
spirit-lamp  ;  his  lordship  and  two  servants  suffo-
cated and  others  injured  . . . .23  May

Mr.  Louis  Tussaud  s  waxwork  exhibition,  Regent-
street,  destroyed  by  fire  ....  20  June,

25,  Duncan-square,  Hackney  ; 3  lives lost  .

20  Aug.

Tooley-street ;  wharves,  occupied  by  Messrs.  Leach
anil  others,  and  several  warehouses  destroyed,
4-5  Oct.,  enormous  loss;  lire  still  burning*  24
Oct

401,  West  Ferry-road,  Millwall ;  5  deaths 16  Oct.

Satcbwell-rents,  Bethnal-green-road  ;  Mr.  J.  D.
Rawlins'  timber  yard  and  other  premises  de-
stroyed 12  Nov.

Premises  of  Messrs.  Everleigh  and  others  in  Fore-
street,  E.C 9,  10  Dec.

Messrs.  Rothschild  and  others,  11,  Silk-street,
Cripplegate,  City,  E.C 14  Dec.

3,  Cheyne-row,  Chelsea,  2  lives  lost .  15  Dec.

Mr.  Minnis  and  others,  Lavender-hill,  Battersea;
2  lives  lost 19  Dee.

Messrs.  Shoolbred's  workshops  and  other  premises,
Mitford-place,  Tottenhani-court-road . 22  Dec.

Premises  of  Bottle  Seal  company,  Eagle-wharf-
road,  N 23  Dec.

Premises  of  A.  Wicklow  and  others,  Bermondsey-
street,  S.E 24  Dec.

JIu  111  ford's  Hour  mills,  Albert  Embankment,  near
Vauxhall-bridge ;  nearly  destroyed . 27  Jan.

Premises  of  Messrs.  Grindley  &  Co.  and  others,
Upper  North-street,  Poplar . . 27-29  Jan.

J.  Latham,  timber-merchant,  premises  in  Curtain-


FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.


374


FISH, FISHERIES.


road,  E.C.,  many  houses  destroyed  or  injured,
causing  much  distress . . .  8-n  March,  189:
House  of  Mr. Weston, butcher, 10, Lillie-road,
Pnlhara  ;  his  wife,  2  children  and  Miss  Glover

burnt  to  death 18  March, ,,

Mr. G. Odone's  restaurant, 152, Victoria-street,

Westminster,  3  lives  lost . . 29  March, ,,
Messrs.  Eyre  &,  Spottiswoode,  the  queen's  printers,
premises  at  Little  New-street-hill,  Fetter-lane,
much injured  and property  destroyed (about

15,000/.) 4  April, „

Premises  of  Page  &  Pratt  and  other  firms,  Great
Saffron-hill,  E.C.,  destroyed  or  much  injured

10  April, ,,
Scott's  supper-rooms,  Coventry-street,  Haymarket,

4  youths  perish 9  May, ,,

Union-street,  W.C.,  Mary  Ann  Flood,  perishes in

vainly  endeavouring  to  save  a  child  .  7  May,  ,,
There  were  953  fires  in  1854  ;  1113  in  1857  .'  II:r4  in
1858  (38  lives  lost)  ;  1183  in  1861.  1303  fires  in
1862  ;  1404  in  1863  ;  and  1715  in  1864.  In  1866,
1338  fires  (326  serious);  in  1867,  1397  fires  (245
serious) ;  in  1868,  1668  fires  (235  serious) ;  in  1869,
1572  fires  (199  serious) ;  in  1870,  1946  fires  (276
serious) ;  in  1871,  1842  (207  serious)  ;  in  1872,
1494(120  serious);  in  1873,  1548  (166  serious  :  35
lives  lost) ;  in  1874,  1573  (154  serious  :  23  lives
lost);  in  1875,  1529  (163  serious  :  29  lives  lost);
in  1876,  1632  (166  serious  :  35  lives  lost) ;  in  1877,
2S33  (!59  serious:  29  lives  lost);  in  1878,  1659
(170  serious);  in  1879,  1718;  1880,  1871  (162  seri-
ous; 33  lives  lost) ;  in  1881,  1991  (167  serious:  40
lives  lost)  ;  1882,  1926  (164  serious :  36  lives
lost);  1883,  2144  (184  serious:  39  lives  lost) ;  1884,
2,289  (J94  serious :  42  lives  lost) ;  1885,  2,270
(160  serious ;  47  lives  lost) ;  1886,  2,149  ^S1
serious  ;  49  lives  lost)  ;  1887.  2,363  (175  serious  ;
55  lives  lost);  1888,  1,884(121  serious;  48  lives
lost).  In  but  few  cases  were  the  premises  totally
destroyed.  1889,  2,338  (153  serious,  44  lives  lost) ;
1890,  2,555  (153  serious,  61  lives  lost)  ;  1891,  2,892
(193  serious,  47  lives  lost):
Several  fires  were  occasioned  by  careless  use  of
coal  oils  in  1861-2.

FIRE-WORSHIPPERS :  see  Parsees.

FIRST-FRUITS  were  offerings  which  made
a  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew  priest-
hood. First-fruits  (called  Annates,  from  annus,
a  year),  in  the  Roman  church,  originally  the  profits
of  one  year  of  every  vacant  bishopric,  afterwards  of
every  benefice,  were  first  claimed  by  pope  Clement  V.
in  1306,  and  were  collected  in  England  in  1316  ;  but
chronologers  differ  on  this  point.  In  the  26th  of
Henry  VIII.  1534,  the  first-fruits  were  assigned,  by
parliament,  to  the  king  and  his  successors.  Mary
gave  the  Annates  to  the  popes  (1555);  but  Eliza-
heth  resumed  them  (1559).  They  were  granted,
together  with  the  tenths,  to  the  poor  clergy,  by
queen  Anne,  in  1703.  The  offices  of  First-fruits,
Tenths,  and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty  were  consoli-
dated by  1  Vict.  c.  20,  1838;  see  Augmentation  of
Poor  Livings.  Annates  were  long  resisted  in  France,
but  not  totally  suppressed  till  1789.

FIRST  OFFENDERS'  PROBATION
ACT,  permits  the  conditional  release  of  First
Offenders  in  certain  cases,  passed  8  Aug.  1887.

FIRTH  COLLEGE :  see  Sheffield,  1879.

FISH,  FISHERIES,  &c  Laws  for  the  pro-
tection of  fisheries  were  enacted  by  Edward  I  in
1284  and  by  his  successors.  The  rights  of  the
JlmgLish  and  I  rench  fishermen  were  defined  by  treaty
in  E8jA;jBee  Ichthyology,  Herring,  Whale,  New-
fotmdlwnd  Fisheries,  Oysters,  Trawling.  Theknown
species  of  fish  are  about  8525.  Giinther,  1880.
Fishmongers' company of London (salt) ia??  ■

(stock)  1509 ;  united .'.'..'  1^6

Fishing  towns  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in  '  '  i*!.
Fishing  on  our  coast  forbidden  to  strangers  .  '  .'  j&L
The  Dutch  paid  30,000/,  for  permission  to  fish  on

the  coasts  of  Britain _ l6  6


Corporation  of  Free  British  fisheries  instituted . 1750
Fish-machines,  for  conveying  fish  by  land  to  Lon-
don,  set  up  in  1761  ;  and  supported  by  parlia-
ment .......... 1764

The  British  Society of Fisheries established  m

London  in 1786

The  Irish  Fishery  Company  formed  in  .  Dec.  181S.
In  1849,  two  peasants,  Remy  and  Gehin,  obtained
medals  for  their  exertions  in  cultivating  fish  in.
France,  and  the  government  set  up  an  establish-
ment for  this  purpose  at  Huningue,  under  M..
Coumes.
In  i860  great  progress  had  been  made  by  M.  Coste

and  others.
Commission  to  examine  into  British  fisheries  was.
appointed  in  i860,  and  acts  to  amend  the  law  rev
lating  to  fisheries  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland

were  passed 1861-2-3-8-g:-

In  April,  Mr.  Ponders  placed  in  the  Thames  76,000
young  fish  (salmon,  trout,  char,  and  grayling)  :
and  on  17  April,  Mr.  Frank  Buckland  demon-
strated the  importance  of  fish  culture  before  the
members  of  the  Royal  Institution,  London  .  .  1863,
In  1853  Mr.  Buist  began  the  culture  of  fish  at  Stor-
montfield,  Perthshire :  reported  highly  successful,

Sept. 1866.
Act  for  the  protection  of  freshwater  fish  passed,

8  Aug.  1878;
International  fish  and  fishing  exhibition  at  Berlin,

opened  by  the  Crown  Prince  . . .20  April,  i88o>
National  fisheries  exhibition  at  Norwich,  opened

by  the  prince  of  Wales . . .  18 — 30  April,  i88l
International exhibition at Edinburgh opened

11  April,  1882?
Fishery  board  for  Scotland  established . . . ,,
National  Fish  Culture  Association  established .  1883.
London  Central  Fish  Market,  Smithfield,  opened

10  May,  ,,
International  fisheries  exhibition,  South  Kensing-
ton, London,  opened  and  closed  by  prince  of
Wales,  14  May — 31  Oct.  1883.  335  gold  medals
(160  to  Great  Britain)  awarded,  and  other  testi-
monials. Receipts,  140,346/.  13s.  ;  surplus,
15,243/.  2,703,051  persons  admitted.
Sea  Fisheries  Act,  46  <fe  47  Vict.  c.  22,  relates  to
international  convention  concerning  fisheries  in
North Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act  also

passed 2  Aug. ,,

International  fisheries,  Vienna,  opened 29  Sept.  1884;-
Aquaculture. — Mr.  W.  Oldham  Chambers  (in  Times,
10  Nov.)  advocated  the  formation  of  ponds  in
waste  lands  for  the  cultivation  of  carp  and  other
fish. Sir  Lyon  Playfair  recommends  the  scheme
to  be  taken  up  by  government Times,  11  Nov. ,,
A  convention  with  France  respecting  sea  fisheries,
signed  at  Paris, n  Nov. 1867  ; ratified  by  the
"Sea Fisheries Act," passed, 13 July, 1868;
amended  1884  ;  convention  signed . 14  Nov.  1885.
Introduction  of  American  salmon-trout  tried at

Burghley  park  in ,,

Board  of  trade  inquiry  ordered  concerning  the  in-
juries done  to  British  drift-net  fishing  by  foreign
trawlers  in  the  north  seas  (see  Trawling) Nov.  1886"-
First  stone  of  a  new  fish  market  laid,  Farringdon-

street,  London . . . . . 13  Dee. ,,
Conference  at  fishmongers'  hall  respecting  railway

charges,  &c.  2  Feb.  i8S;r

Fishing  school  established  at  Baltimore  (which  see)

Ireland 17  Aug. „

Many  attacks  on  British  fishermen  by  foreigners

Aug.-Sept.  „.
One  by  Belgians  near  Southwokl  .  .  8  Sept.  ,,
Intervention  of  the  king  of  the  Belgians  .  Sept.  ,,
Conference  on  sea  fisheries  at fishmongers' hall

opened 20,  23  March,  1888".

New  central  fish  market,  Farringdon-street,  opened

7  Nov. ,,
Mr.  Francis  Day,  the  author  of  important  works  on

British  and  foreign  fishes,  died . .10  July,  18891
The  Sea  Fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom,  produce
in  1889  :  fish  12,678,000  cwt.,  value 5,608,000/.,
shell  fish  added  make  6,000,000/.
International  conference  called  by  the National
Sea  Fisheries  Protection  Association  opened  at '
Fishmongers'  hall,  London . . .1  July,  1890-
TJie  Royal Provident Fund  ft>r  Sea Fishermen,
founded  1884,  incorporated  ....  1891


FISHGUARD.


375


FLAX.


International  declaration  respecting  the  North  Sea
fisheries,  ratified  by  act  passed  . . 21  July,  1891

Piscatorial  exhibition  at  the  Royal  Aquarium,
Westminster .... middle  Feb.  1892

Fisheries  Disputes,  &c.  The  fisheries  on  the
North  American  coast  were  settled  by  treaty,
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in
1818,  the  privileges  of  the  latter  extended  to  1866
by  treaty  in  1854,  aiKl  renewed  for  ten  years,
1871,  and  again  to  1885.  On  the  failure  of
negociations,  the  restrictions  of  1818  were
revived  March  1886.  A  joint  commission  was
appointed,  Rt.  hon.  J.  Chamberlain  (chief),  hon.
sir  Lionel  S.  West  afterwards  lord  Sackville,
British  minister,  and  sir  Charles  fupper,  Aug.
1887,  received  at  Washington  19  Nov.,  met  22
Nov.  et  seq 1887

Treaty  (with  a  modus  Vivendi  till  ratified)  was
signed  at  Washington,  15  Feb.  1888  ;  passed  by
Canadian  parliament,  2  May  ;  royal  assent,  16
May  ; United States senate refuse to ratify

21  Aug.  1SS8

FISHGUARD  (Pembroke).  On  22  Feb.  1797,
1400  Frenchmen  landed  in  Cardigan  Bay.  On  the
24  Feb.  they  surrendered  to  lord  Cawdor  with  the
Castlemartin  yeomanry,  and  some  countrymen,
armed  with  scythes  and  pitchforks,  near  Fish-
guard.

FITZWILLIAM  MUSEUM  (Cambridge),  I
founded  by  Richard  viscount  Fitzwilliam,  who  died
in  18 16,  and  bequeathed  his  colleciion  of  books,
pictures,  &c,  to  the  university,  with  100,000^.  to
erect  a  building  to  contain  them.  The  building
was  begun  by  G.  Basevi  in  1837,  and  finished  by
Cockerell  some  years  after.

FIUME  (meaning  river) ,  the  port  of  the  king-
dom of  Hungary,  on  the  Adriatic  :  a  very  ancient
town,  built  on  the  supposed  site  of  Tersatica,  de-
stroyed by  Charlemagne  about  799,  and  afterwards
known  as  Vitopolis,  Civita  Sancti  Viti  ad  Flumen,
and  finally  Fiume.  After  being  successively  sub-
jected to  the  Greeks,  Romans,  the  eastern  emperors,
and  the  pope,  it  was  transferred  to  the  house  of
Austria.  It  was  captured  by  the  French  early  in
the  century,  from  whom  it  wa-*  taken  by  the  Eng-
lish in  1813,  and  given  to  Austria  in  1814.  It  was
transferred  to  Hungary  in  1822 ;  to  the  Croats  in
1848 ;  restored  to  Hungary  in  1868.  A  new  port
and  railways  have  been  recently  constructed  (1877).
Yisit  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  entertained  by
admiral  Hoskins  and  the  British  fleet,  23  June  et  seq.
1891.

FIVE  FORKS,  near  Richmond,  Virginia.
Here  general  Sheridan  turned  the  front  of  the  Con-
federates, and  defeated  them  after  a  fierce  struggle,
I  April,  1865.

FIVE  HUNDRED,  Council  of,  esta-
blished by  the  new  French  constitution,  22  Aug.
1795,  was  unceremoniously  dissolved  by  Napoleon
Bonaparte,  10  Nov.  1799.

FIVE  MEMBERS,  see  under  England,  4
Jan.  1642.

FIVE  MILE  ACT,  17  Chas.  II.  c.  2  (Oct.

1665),  forbade  Nonconformist  teachers  who  refused
to  take  the  non-resistance  oath,  to  come  within  five
miles  of  any  corporation  where  they  had  preached
since  the  act  of  oblivion  (unless  they  were  travel-
ling'), under  the  penalty  of  40^.  They  were  relieved
by  Will.  III.  in  1689.

FLADENHEIM,  or  FlATCIIEIM,  Saxony.
Here  Rodolph  of  Swabia  defeated  the  emperor
Henry  IV.,  27  Jan.  1080.

FLAG.  The  flag  acquired  its  present  form  in
the  6th  century,  in  Spain  ;  it  was  previously  small


and  square.  Ashe.  It  is  said  to  have  been  intro-
duced there  by  the  Saracens,  before  whose  time
the  ensigns  of  war  were  extended  on  cross  pieces  of
wood;  see  Carrocium.  The  honour -of- the -flag
salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  England  from  very
early  times ;  but  it  was  formally  yielded  by  the
Dutch  in  1673.  at  which  period  they  had  been
defeated  in  many  actions.  Louis  XIV.  obliged  the
Spaniards  to  lower  their  flag  to  the  French,  1680.
Renault.  After  an  engagement  of  three  hours
between  Tourville  and  the  Spanish  admiral  Papa-
chin,  the  latter  yielded  by  firing  a  salute  of  nine
guns  to  the  French  flag,  2  June,  1688.  Idem  ;  see
Salute  at  Sea,  and  Union  Jack.
The  comte  de  Chambord  definitively  declined  to  give

up  the  white  flag  for  the  tricolor  (see  France),  5  July,

1871  and  27  Oct.  1873.

FLAGELLANTS,  at  Perouse,  about  1268,
during  a  plague,  they  maintained  there  was  no
remission  of  sins  without  flagellation,  and  publicly
lashed  themselves.  Clement  VI.  declared  them
heretics  in  1349 :  and  90  of  them  and  their  leader,
Conrad  Schmidt,  were  burnt,  1414.  In  1574,
Henry  III.  of  France  became  a  flagellant  for  a
short  time.

FLAGEOLET,  a  musical  instrument  said  to
have  been  invented  by  Juvigny,  about  1581  ;
double  flageolet  patented  by  Wm.  Bainbridge,  1803  ;
improved  1809  and  1819.

FLAMBEAUX,  Feast  of,  see  Argos.

FLAMINEAN  WAY,  the  great  road  from
Rome  to  Ariminum  in  Umbria,  made  under  the  di-
rection of  C.  Flaminius,  when  censor  in  221  B.C.,
when  he  also  constructed  the  Flaminium  circus.  In
217  he  was  defeated  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  the
Trasimene  lake,  when  resisting  the  march  of
Hannibal.

FLAMMOCK'S  REBELLION,  see  Rebel-
lions, 1497.

FLANDERS,  the  principal  part  of  ancient
Belgium,  which  was  conquered  by  Julius  Cresar,  51
B.C.  It  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  France,  a.d.
843,  and  was  governed  by  counts  subject  to  the
king,  from  862  till  1369,  the  first  being  Baldwin,
Bras  de  Fer,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced  the
cloth  manufacture.  In  1204,  Baldwin  IX.  became
emperor  at  Constantinople.  Iu  1369,  Philip  duke  of
Burgundy  married  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  count
Louis  II.  After  this,  Flanders  was  subjected  suc-
cessively to  Burgundy  (1384),  Austria  (1477),  and
Spain  (1555).  In  1580  it  declared  its  independence,
but  afterwards  returned  to  its  allegiance  to  the  house
of  Austria.  In  17 13  it  was  included  in  the  empire
of  Germany.  France  obtained  a  part  of  Flanders
by  treaty  in  1659  and  1679.  See  Burgundy  and
Belgium.

FLANNEL,  see  Woollen.

FLASHING  SIGNALS,  see  under  Fog.

FLATBUSH,  BATTLE  OF,  see  Long  Island.

FLATTERY,  CAPE  (W.  roast  of  North
America),  so  named  by  captain  Conk,  because  at  a
distance  it  had  the  deceptive  appearance  of  a  har-
bour, 1778.

FLAVIAN  CJESARS,  the  Roman  emperors
Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian,  66-96.

FLAX.  The  manufacture  in  Egypt  in  very
early  times  was  carried  thence  to  Tyre  about  588
B.C.,  and  to  Gaul  about  I  B.C. ;  and  thus  reached
Britain. It  was  ordered  to  be  grown  in  England,  by


FLAYERS.


376


FLORAL  HALL.


statute,  24  Hen.  VIII.  1533.  For  many  ages  the
core  was  separated  from  the  flax,  the  bark  of  the
plant,  by  the  hand.  A  mallet  was  next  used  ;  but
the  old  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the  flax
yielded  to  a  water-mill  which  was  invented  in
Scotland  about  1750  ;  see  Hem]).  The  duty  imposed
on  imported  flax,  1842,  was  repealed  1845.  In  1851
chevalier  Claussen  patented  a  method  of  "  cotton-
ing" flax.

FLAYERS,  see  Ecorcheurs.

FLEECE,  see  Golden  Fleece.

FLEET,  see  Navy.

FLEET  PRISON,  MARKET,  &c  (London),
were  built  over  ttie  small  river  Fleta,  now  used  as  a
common  sewer.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  this
river  is  said  to  have  been  navigable  to  Holborn-
bridge.

Fleet  Prison  was  founded  in  the  first  year  of
Richard  I. ,  and  was  allotted  for  debtors,  1640  ;  and
persons  were  committed  here  who  had  incurred
the  displeasure  of  the  Star-Chamber,  and  for  con-
tempt of  the  court  of  Chancery.  It  was  burnt
during  the  Gordon  riots,  7  June,  1780,  and  re-
built 1781-2.  It  was  pulled  down  in  1845  (and  the
debtors  removed  to  the  Queen's  Bench  prison).
The  site  was  sold  to  the  London,  Dover,  and  Chat-
ham railway  company  for  6o,ooo£.  on  2  June,  1864.

Last  vestige  removed Feb. 1868

Fleet-market,  originally  formed  in  1737,  was  re-
moved, and  the  site  named  Farringdon-street  in
1829.  A  new  (Farringdon)  market  was  opened  20
Nov.  1829.  The  granite  obelisk  in  Fleet-street,  to
the  memory  of  alderman  Waitlnnan  was  erected

25  June,  1833
Fleet  Marriages. Between  the  19th  of  October,
1704,  and  12  Feb. 1705,  there  were  celebrated  295
marriages  in  the  Fleet  without  licence  or  certiii-
cate  of  banns. 20  or  30  couples  were  sometimes
.  joined  in  one  day,  and  their  names  concealed  by
private  marks,  if  they  chose  to  pay  an  extra  fee.
Pennant  says  that  in  his  youth  he  was  often  ac-
costed with,  "  Sir,  will  you  please  to  walk  in  and
be  married?"  Painted  signs,  of  male  and  female
hands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar-
riages  performed  within,"  were  common  along
the  building.
'  This  abuse  abolished  by  the  Marriage  Act . . 1753

FLEETS,  see  Navy,  Gr'at  Britain. In  1886,
Great Briiain, 20  turret-ships,  6  in  progress,  29
broadside ships, and numerous smaller vessels.
France,  16  turret  ships,  13 in  progress, 12  other
large  vessels. Russia,  6  armour  vessels,  1  in  pro-
gress (not formidable). Germany, 13 armoured
ships. Italy,  14  armoured  vessels, 7  in  progress.
Austria,  10  armoured  vessels,  2  in  progress. Greece
.  2  armoured  vessels.
1 891.  Great  Britain,  82  ships  (see  Navy) ;  France,  75  ;
Russia, 48  ; Germany, 31  ; Italy, 22  ;  Austria,  14  ;
Greece,  5.
1891.  First-class battle-ships  : Great Britain, 32 ;
France,  14  ;  Russia,  6. Second  class  : Great  Britain,
13 ; France, 13 ; Russia, 4. Armoured cruisers :
Great  Britain,  18  ;  France,  12  ;  Russia, 8. Protected
cruisers: England,  46; France, 8;  Russia,  2  (from
the  Navy  Annual,  1891).

FLEETWOOD,  see  Hythe.

FLENSBORG,  N.  Germany.  Here  the  Danes
defeated  the  Slesingers  and  Germans,  9  April,  1848.
It  was  entered  by  the  Germans,  7  Feb.  1864.

FLETA,  an  ancient  English  law  treatise,  an
abridgment  of  Bract  on,  dated  about  1290,  said  to
have  been  composed  in  Fleta,  in  the  Fleet  prison,
by  some  lawyer.

FLEUR-DE-LIS,  the  emblem  of  France,  said
to  have  been  brought  from  heaven  by  an  angel  to
Clovis,  he  having  made  a  vow  that  if  he  proved  vic-


torious in  a  pending  battle  with  the  Alemanni  near
Cologne,  he  would  embrace  Christianity,  496.  It
was  the  national  emblem  till  the  revolution  in  1789,
when  the  tricolor  (white,  red,  and  blue)  was  adopted.
The  comte  de  Chambord  declared  his  adherence  to
the  old  national  flag,  5  July,  1871  and  27  Oct.  1873.

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several

bittles.

Between  the  Catholic  league  under  Gonzales  de  Cor-
dova, and  the  Protestant  union  (indecisive)  30  Aug.  1622

The  prince  of  Waldeck  defeated  by  marshal  Luxem-
burg 1  July,  1690

The  allies  under  the  prince  of  Coburg,  defeated  by
the  French  revolutionary  army  commanded  by
Jourdan,  who  was  enabled  to  form  a  junction
with  the  armies  of  the  Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and
the  north.  (The  French  used  a  balloon  to  recon-
noitre the  enemy's  army,  which,  it  is  said,  contri-
buted to  their  success) ... 26  June,  1794

Here  Napoleon  defeated  Blueher  at  the  battle  of
Ligny  (which  see) 16  June,  1815

FLIES-  An  extraordinary  fall  of  these  insects
in  London  covered  the  clothes  of  passengers,  1707.
Chamberlain.  In  the  United  States  of  America  the
Hessian  fly,  so  called  from  the  notion  of  its  having
been  brought  there  by  the  Hessian  troops  in  the
service  of  England  in  the  War  of  Independence,
ravaged  the  wheat  in  1777.  Before  and  during  the
severe  attack  of  cholera  at  Newcastle  in  Sept.  1853,
the  air  was  infested  with  small  flies.

FLINTS,  see  Man.

FLOATING  BATTERIES,  see  Batteries,
and  Gibraltar,  1781.

FLOATING  DOCKS,  see  Docks.

FLODDEN  FIELD  (Northumberland).  The
site  of  a  battle  on  9  Sept.  1513,  between  the  English
and  Scots  ;  in  consequence  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland
having  taken  part  with  Louis  XII.  cf  France  against
Henry  VIII.  of  England.  James,  many  of  his
nobles,  and  upwards  of  10,000  of  his  army,  were
slain  ;  while  the  English,  who  were  commanded  by
the  earl  of  Surrey,  lost  only  persons  of  small  note.

FLOGGING  by  the  Jewish  law  was  limited  to
forty  stripes,  "lest  thy  brother  should  seem  vile
unto  thee,"  1451  B.C.  {Dent.  xxv.  3).  Win.  Cobbett
in  1810,  and  John  Drakard  in  181 1,  were  punished
for  publishing  severe  censures  on  flogging  in  the
army.  Flogging  was  made  a  punishment  for  at-
tempts at  garrotting  in  1863  ;  and  for  juvenile
criminals,  1847  and  1850;  for  burglars  carrying
revolvers  proposed;  the  bill  enacting  it  was  with-
drawn 2  Aug.  1889.

Flogging  in  the  army  much  diminished  by  orders

9  Nov.  1859

First-class  seamen  not  to  be  flogged,  except  after  a
trial,  Dec.  1859  >  more  diminished . March,  1867

By  an  amendment  on  the  clause  in  the  mutiny  bill,
flogging  abolished  in  the  army  in  time  of  peace

April,  1868

New  regulations  for  the  navy  issued . 18  Dec.  1871

Proposed  total  abolition  negatived  in  commons
(120-60),  20  June,  1876;  (164-122),  10  April,  1877;
(2*9-56) 20  May,  1879

By  the  Army  Discipline  Act  (42  &  43  Viet.  c.  34),
flogging  reduced,  and  may  be  commuted  by  im-
prisonment ,,

Total  abolition  of  flogging  by  Army  Discipline  Act

April,  1881

Substitutes  for  flogging  (handcuffing,  <fcc.)  an-
nounced Oct.  1881

21  soldiers  flogged .  1869  I  41  soldiers  flogged .  1878

61  sailors ,,  . ,, | 8  sailors ,,  ,,

FLOODS,  see  Inundations.

FLORAL  HALL,  adjoining  Covent-garden
theatre,  is  a  large  conservatory,  220  feet  long,  75


FLORALIA.


377


FLOWERS.


feet  wide,  and  55  feet  high,  designed  by  Mr.  E.  M.
Barry,  and  was  opened  with  the  volunteers'  ball,  7
March,  i860.  It  was  used  as  a  flower-market,  22
Hay-Aug.  1861.  Hei-e  was  held  the  West  London
industrial  exhibition,  1  May  to  2  Aug.  1865.

FLORALIA,  annual  games  at  Rome  in  honour
of  Flora,  early  instituted  but  not  celebrated  with
regularity  till  about  174  B.C.

FLORENCE  {Florentia),  capital  of  Tuscany
{which  see),  and  from  1864  to  1871,  of  Italy,  is  said
to  have  been  founded  by  the  soldiers  of  Svlla  (80
B.C.),  and  enlarged  by  the  Roman  triumviri.  In
its  palaces,  universities,  academies,  churches,  and
libraries,  are  to  be  found  the  rarest  works  of  sculp-
ture and  painting  in  the  world.  The  Florentine
academy  and  Academia  delta  Crmca  (established
1582)  were  instituted  to  enrich  literature  and  im-
prove the  language  of  Tuscany  ;  the  latter  was  so
named,  because  it  rejects  like  bran  all  words  not
purely  Tuscan  :  both  are  now  united  under  the
former  name.  Population,  1890,  191,453.
Destroyed  by  Totila  .... about 541

Rebuilt  by  Charlemagne  ....  about  800
Becomes  an  independent  republic  .  .  about  1198
Wars  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines . 1215  ct  seq.

Dante  born  here 14  May,  1265

Arti  or  guilds  established 1266

Factions  of  the  Bianchi  and  Neri 1300

Great  plague,  the  Black  Death 1348

The  influence  of  the  Medici  begins  with  Cosmo  de'

Medici,  "  the  father  of  his  country  " .  about  1420

Death  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  ...  8  April,  1492
Savonarola  strangled  and  burnt . .  23  May,  1498

Appointment  of  Alexander  de'  Medici  as  perpetual

governor 1530

Cosmo  de'  Medici  created  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  ;

makes  Florence  his  capital :  see  Tuscany  .  .  1569
Revolution  at  Florence  .  .  .  .27  April,  1859
Annexation  to Sardinia  voted  by  people, 11,  12

March  ;  the  king  enters  Florence  .  .  7  April,  i860
The king  opens  the exhibition  of  the  industrial

products  of  Italy . .  15  Sept. 1861
Florence  decreed  the  capital  of  Italy  till  the  acqui-
sition of  Rome n  Dec. 1864

The  king  and  court  remove  there .  13  May,  1865

The Dante  festival  (the 600th  anniversary  of  his

birth)  opened  by  the  king  ...  14  May, ,,

Inauguration  of  a  national  rifle-meeting  ;  the  king

fires  the  first  shot  ....  18  June,  ,,
First  assembly  of  Italian  parliament  here  18  Nov.  „
The  government  removes  to  Rome  as  capital  of  Italy

July,  1871
Fourth centenary  of  Michel Angelo Buonarroti

kept 12  Sept.  1875

Torchlight  procession  ;  shell  thrown  among  crowd  ;

5  killed  . .  ... 18  Nov.  1878

The  brick  duomo.  begun  by  Arnulfo,  1294  ;  dedi-
cated by  pope  Eugenius  IV.,  1436  ;  was  completed
by  Brunelleschi,  1447  ;  the  facade  was  cased  with
marble  by  the  Italian  government  and  uncovered
in  presence  of  the  king  ...  12  May,  1887
Other  renovations  of  public  buildings  carried  on  1883-6
Successful  visit  of  the  Queen  of  England,  24  Maich

—  22  April,  1888
Equestrian statue  of  king  Victor  Emmanuel  un-
veiled 2oSept.i89o

FLORES,  or  Isle  of  Flowers  (one  of  the  Azores,
which  see),  discovered  by  Vanderberg  in  1439;  and
settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1448.

FLORIDA,  a  peninsula,  one  of  the  southern
states  of  North  America,  first  discovered  by  Sebastian
Cabot  in  14.97.  It  was  visited  by  Juan  Ponce  de
Leon,  the  Spanish  navigator,  April  4,  1512,  in  a
voyage  be  had  undertaken  to  discover  a  fountain
whose  waters  had  the  property  of  restoring  youth  to
the  aged  who  tasted  them  !  Florida  was  conquered
by  the  Spaniards  under  Ferdinand  de  Soto  in  1539  ;
but  the  settlement  was  not  fully  established  until
1565. It  was  plundered  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in


1585  ;  and  by  Davis,  a  buccaneer,  in  1665.  It  was
invaded  by  the  British  in  1702;  and  again  by  gen.
Oglethorpe  in  1740  ;  ceded  to  the  British  crown  in
1763  ;  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1781  ;  and  guaran-
teed to  them  in  1783.  Capital,  Tallahassee.  Popu-
lation in  1880,  269,493;  1890,  391,422.
The  Americans  purchase  Louisiana  from  the  French

and  claim  West  Florida  •  1801

The  Spaniards  compelled  to  cede  all  Florida  to  the

United  States 24  Oct.  1820

Florida  admitted  as  a  state 1845

Seceded  from  the  Union,  Dec.  i860  ;  readmitted

(see  United  States) 1865

A  ship  canal  proposed  ;  company  organized May  1883
Alter  long  neglect,  this  beautiful  and  fertile  wil-
derness warmly  taken  up  by  British  and  Ameri-
can capitalists 1883-4

Yellow  fever  prevailed  here,  especially  in  Jackson-
ville, in  the  autumn  of 1888

FLORIN,  a  coin  first  made  by  the  Florentines.
A. florin  was  issued  by  Edward  III.  which  was  cur-
rent in  England  at  the  value  of  6*.  in  1337.  Cam-
den. This  English  coin  was  called  floren  after  the
Florentine  coin,  because  the  latter  was  of  the  best
gold.  Ashe.  The  florin  of  Germany  is  in  value
2s.  \d. ;  that  of  Spain,  4s.  $\d. ;  that  of  Palermo
and  Sicily,  2s.  6d. ;  that  of  Holland,  2*.  Ayliffe.
Silver  florins  (value  2s.)  were  issued  in  England  in
1849.

FLOWERS-  Many  of  our  present  common
flowers  were  introduced  into  England  from  the
reign  of  Henry  VII.  to  that  of  Elizabeth  (1485-
1603).  The  art  of  preserving  flowers  in  sand  was
discovered  in  1633.  A  mode  of  preserving  them
from  the  effects  of  frost  in  winter,  and  hastening
their  vegetation  in  summer,  was  invented  in  America,
by  Geo.  Morris,  in  1792.  A  very  great  number
have  been  introduced  from  America,  Australia,  the
Cape,  &c,  during  the  present  century.  Many  of
the  dates  in  the  following  list,  given  in  botanical
works,  are  d'  ubtfuL
London, Flotver-glrl Brigade  formed  by  baroness

Burdett-Coutts  and  others . . . autumn  1880

Acacia,  N.  America,  before 1640

Allspice  shrub,  Carolina 1726

Aniseed  tree,  Florida,  about 1766

Arbor  Vitse,  Canada,  before 1596

Arctopus,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 1774

Auricula,  Switzerland 1567

Azarole,  S.  Europe,  before 1640

Bay,  Royal,  Madeira . 1665

Bay,  sweet,  Italy,  before 1548

Camellia,  China 1811

Canary  bell-flower,  Canaries 1696

Canary  Convolvulus,  Canaries 1690

Carnation,  Flanders 1567

Ceanothus,  blue,  New  Spain 1818

Chaste  tree,  Sicily,  before 1570

Christ's  thorn,  Africa,  before 1596

Chrysanthemums,  China .... 1763  or  1790

Convolvulus,  many  flowered 1779

Coral  tree,  Cape 1816

Coral  tree,  bell-flowered,  Cape 1791

Coral  tree,  tremulous,  Cape 1789

Creeper,  Virginian,  N.  America 1629

Dahlia,  China 1803

Dryandria,  New  Holland ...  . . ,,

Evergreen  Thorn,  Italy ...  . .  1629

Everlasting,  giant-flowered,  Cape  . . . . 1781

Everlasting,  giant,  Cape 1793

Fernbusli,  sweet,  N.  America .  ... 1714

Fox-glove,  Canaries 1698

Fuchsia  fulgens,  Mexico,  about 1835

Geranium,  Flanders 1534

Gillyflower,  Flanders 1567

Gold-plant,  Japan 1783

Golden-bell-flower,  Madeira 1777

Bawthom,  American,  before 1683

I  leal  lis.  Cape 1774-1803

Honeyflower,  great,  Cape 1688

Honeysuckle,  Chinese,  China 1806


FLUORESCENCE.


378


FOG.


Honeysuckle,  fly,  Cape 1752

Honeysuckle,  trumpet,  N.  America . . . . 1656

Hyssop,  S.  Europe,  before 1548

Jasmine,  C'ircassia,  before  .  .  .  .'•'..  1548
Jasmine,  Catalonia,  East  Indies  ....  1629
Judas  tree,  S.  Europe,  before  .  .  .  .  .  1596
Laburnum,  Hungary  . . . ' . . .1576

Laurel,  Alexandrian,  Portugal,  before  . . . 1713

Laurustine,  S.  Europe,  before 1596

Lavender,  S.  Europe,  before 1568

Lily,  Italy,  before 1460

Lily,  gigantic,  N.  South  Wales 1800

Lily,  red  coloured,  S.  America  .....  1623
Loblolly  bay,  N.  America,  before  . . . . 1739

Lupine  tree,  Cape,  about 1793

Magnolia  (see  Magnolia),  N.  America  . . . . 1688

Magnolia,  dwarf,  China 1786

Magnolia,  laurel-leaved,  N.  America . . . . 1734

Maiden-hair,  Japan 1714

Mignonette,  Italy  . . 1528

Milk- wort,  giant-flowered,  Cape . . . .1713

Milk-wort,  showy,  Cape . . . . . . 1814

Mock  orange,  S.  Europe,  before .... 1596

Mountain  tea,  N.  America,  before . . . . 1758

Myrtle,  candleberry,  N.  America . .  . 1699

Myrtle,  woolly-leaved,  China 1776

Nettle  tree,  S.  Europe,  before ..... 1596

Oleander,  red,  S.  Europe ,,

Olive,  Cape,  Cape 1730

Olive,  sweet-scented,  China 1771

Paraguay  tea,  Carolina,  before 1724

Passion-flower,  Brazil ^92

Passion-flower,  orange,  Carolina . . . .1792

Petunia,  S.  America 1823

Pigeon-berry,  N.  America 1736

Pink,  from  Italy I567

Ranunculus,  Alps 1528

Roses,  Netherlands 1522

Rose,  China,  China 1789

Rose,  damask,  S.  Europie,  about 1543

Rose,  the  Japan,  China 1793

Rose,  the  moss,  before 1724

Rose,  the  musk,  Italy ...... 1522

Rose,  the  Provence,  Flanders 1567

Rose,  sweet-scented  guelder,  from  China  . . 1821

Rose,  tube,  from  Java  and  Ceylon  .  .  .  .  1629
Rose  without  thorns,  N.  America,  before . . 1726

Rosemary,  S.  Europe 1548

Sage,  African,  Cape i73I

Sage,  Mexican,  Mexico 1724

St.  Peter's  wort,  N.  America I73o

Sassafras,  N.  America,  before 1663

Savin,  S.  Europe,  before 1584

Snowdrop,  Carolina  xj^b

Sorrel-tree,  N.  America,  before 1752

Sweet-bay,  S.  of  Europe,  before .... 1548

Tamarisk  plant,  Germany I56o

Tea  tree,  China,  about I768

Tooth-ache  tree,  from  Carolina,  before  . . 1739

Trumpet-flower,  N.  America . .... . 1640

Trumpet-flower,  Cape 1823

Tulip,  Vienna I578

Verbena,  S.  America ^27

Victoria  Regia,  Guiana ^g

Virginian  creeper,  N.  America ^ig

Virgin's  bower,  Japan I776

Wax-tree,  China I7n,

Weeping  willow,  Levant,  before .... 1692

Winter-berry,  Virginia I736

Youlan,  China . . . . . ..  xi&g

FLUORESCENCE.  When  the  invisible
chemical  rays  of  the  blue  end  of  the  solar  spectrum
are  sent  through  uranium  glass  or  solutions  of
quinine,  horse-chestnut  bark,  or  stramonium  datura,
they  become  luminous.  This  phenomenon  was
termed  "  fluorescence"  by  its  discoverer,  professor
Stokes,  in  1852.  By  means  of  fluorescence  Drs.
Bence  Jones  and  Dupre  detected  the  presence  of
quinoidine  in  animal  tissues;  see  Calorescence.

FLUORINE,  a  gaseous  element,  obtained  from
fluor  spur  ;  first  collected  over  mercury  by  Priestley.
Its  property  of  corroding  all  vessels  is  so  great  that
it  is  separated  with  great  difficulty.  It  was  named
by  Ampere in 1810. Its  chemical  history  was


further  elucidated  by  Davy  (1809),  Berzelius  (1824),
and  succeeding  chemists.  The  corroding  property
of  fluoric  acid  was  employed  in  the  arts  in  1760,  by
Schwankhard  of  Nuremberg. Gmelin.

FLUSHING-,  a  seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  on
the  isle  of  VYahheren.  For  the  siege,  see  Wal-
cher -en  Expedition.  It  was  fortified  by  Napoleon  I.,
but  the  works  were  finally  dismantled  in  1867.  The
port  improved,  and  new  dock  opened  by  the  king
of  Holland,  8  Sept.  1873.

FLUTE.  The  transverse  flute,  incorrectly
termed  the  "German"  instead  of  the  Swiss  flute,
was  known  to  the  ancients.  It  was  described  by
Michael  Pretorius,  of  Wolfenbuttel,  in  1620,  and  by
Mersenne  of  Paris,  in  1636.  It  was  much  improved
by  the  French  in  the  17th  century,  by  Quantz,
Tacet,  Florio,  Potter,  Miller,  Nicholson,  and  others
in  the  18th.  In  the  present  century  also  the  Nichol-
sons, Boehm  of  Munich,  Godfrey  of  Paris,  Carter,
Rockstro,  and  Rudall  and  Hose  of  London,  have
greatly  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  this  instru-
ment. See  Flageolet.

FLUXIONS,  a  branch  of  the  higher  mathe-
matics, invented  by  Newton,  1665,  similar  to  the
differential  calculus  described  by  Leibnitz,  1684.
A  fierce  controversy  ensued  as  to  the  priority  of  the
discovery.  The  finest  applications  of  the  calculus
are  by  Newton,  Euler,  La  Grange,  and  La  Place.
The  first  elementary  work  on  fluxions  in  England
is  a  tract  of  twenty-two  pages  in  A  Neiv  Short
Treatise  of  Algebra,  together  with  a  Specimen  of  the
Natwe  and  Algorithm  of  Fluxions,  by  John  Harris,
M.A. London,  1702.

FLYING,  Artificial.  In  Greek  mythology,

Dnedalus  is  said  to  have  attached  wings  of  wax  to
the  body  of  his  son  Icarus,  who,  neglecting  the
advice  of  his  father,  flew  so  high  that  the  sun
melted  his  wings,  and  he  fell  into  the  Icarian  sea.
Archytas  is  said  to  have  made  a  flying  dove,  about
400  B.C.  Friar  Bacon  maintained  the  possibility
of  the  art  of  flying,  and  predicted  it  would  be  a
general  practice,  1273.  Bishop  Wilkins  says  (1651),
it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man  call  for  his
wings  when  he  is  going  on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now
to  hear  him  call  for  his  boots  !  Borelli  (about  1670)
showed  the  futility  of  these  speculations.  About
1800  sir  George  Cayley  experimented  on  the  sub-
ject, and  in  1843  Mr.  Henson  invented  a  flying:
machine ;  but  nothing  has  been  devised  capable  of
serving  a  practical  purpose.  The  motion  of  birds.
in  relation  to  aeronautics  was  much  discussed  by
scientific  men  in  1867-8.  At  a  meeting  of  the
Aeronautical  society,  26  March,  1868,  it  was  stated
that  a  member  had  actually,  by  his  muscular  force,
aided  by  apparatus,  risen  from  the  ground  and
flown  horizontally.  Dr.  James  Pettigrew  published
his  elaborate  researches  on  flying,  1867-71.-  M.
Von  Groof,  a  Belgian,  "the  flying-man,"  descended
from  a  balloon  by  means  of  a  parachute  resembling
wings,  in  1874  :  but  was  killed  by  falling  through
failure  of  his  apparatus  at  Chelsea,  9  July.
Mr.  Simmonds  tried  his  flying-machine  (combining  an

umbrella  and  kite),  at  Chatham,  and  failed  :  it  carried

sand  bags  about  100  feet  high  ;  and  fell,  15  Dec. It

failed  again  23  Dec.  1875.
Mr.  H.  C.  Linfield  tried  his  steam  flying  machine  on  the

railway  near  West  Drayton,  29  Aug.  1883.

FLY  SHEETS,  see  under  Wesleyans.

FO,  RELIGION  OF,  the  form  of  Buddhism  {ivhich
see)  existing  in  China.

FOG-  In  1862  much  attention  was  paid  to  the
subject  of  fog  signals  by  the  Royal  commission  on


FOIX.


379 FOREIGN CATTLE  MARKET.


Lighthouses,  &c.  The  use  of  bells,  steam-trumpets,
a  battery  of  whistles  blown  by  steam,  the  trans-
mission of  sound  through  water,  the  siren,  &c,
were  considered.  A  fog  horn  blown  by  steam  is  in
use  at  Dungeness  lighthouse  (1869).  For  Dr.  Tyn-
dall's  experiments,  see  Acoustics.

Continued  fogginess  in  London,  Nov.  1879,  to  Feb.  1880,
caused  much  mortality  ;  very  bad  on  25  Dec.  1879.

Fatal  fogs,  Dec.  1881,  Jan.  1882 ;  Jan.  1888,  general
over  the  British  Isles  and  N.  W.  Europe.

Mr.  De  Cordova's  fog  signals  announced,  March,  1883.

Prof.  Holmes'  siren  fog  horn  tried  in  the  Zuyder  'Zee.,
reported  successful,  Sept.  1883.

Capt.  Barker's  marine  safety  signal  code  for  merchant
vessels  ;  he  indicates  directions  for  sailing  by  combina-
tions of  short  and  long  blasts  of  a  fog  horn,  1879— 1884.

Improved  fog  signalling  by  sound  set  up  at  Ailsa
Craig,  mouth  of  the  Clyde  . . . 17  July,  1886

Adin.  Colomb's  systems  of  signalling  by  flashing
lights  at  night,  or  by  spurts  of  sound  in  fogs,  in-
vented 1858  et  seq.,  adopted  1868  ;  these  are  con-
sidered highly  valuable  for  manoeuvring  squad-
rons of  ships,  and  also  for  the  army . . .  1890

Lord  Middleton's  application  in  the  house  of  lords
for  the  appointment  of  a  royal  commission  re-
specting London  fogs  negatived . . 12  Feb.  1892

Little  fog  m  London,  winter,  1801-2,  except  at
Christmas  ;  very  bad  then  throughout  England.

FOIX  (S.  France),  a  county  established  1050,
and  united  with  Beam,  1290.  About  1494  Catherine
de  Foix,  the  heiress,  married  Jean  d'Albret,  whose
descendant,  Henry  IV.,  as  king  of  France,  united
Foix  to  the  monarchy,  1589.

FOLK  LOEE,  a  general  name  given  by  Mr.
~W.  J.  Thorns,  in  1846,  to  popular  legends,  fairy  tales,
local  traditions,  old  outdying  customs,  superstitions,
and  similar  matters.  The  formation  of  the  Folk-lore
society  was  advocated  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Thorns  in
_" Notes  and  Queries"  1  Dec.  1877;  established
in  1878. National  congresses  are  held.

FOLKMOTE,  or  Folkmoot,  Anglo-Saxon,  a
general  assembly  of  the  people  to  deliberate  on
general  matters  relating  to  the  commonwealth,
resembling  the  public  meetings  of  later  times.  From
these  meetings,  parliaments  and  other  elective
assemblies  were  gradually  developed.  The  name
was  also  given  to  local  courts.

FONT.  Formerly  the  baptistery  was  a  small
place  partitioned  off  in  a  church,  within  which  a
large  font  was  placed,  where  the  persons  to  be
baptised  (frequently  adults)  were  submerged.
Previously,  lakes  and  rivers  were  resorted  to  for
immersion.  Fonts  are  said  to  have  been  set  up  in
churches  in  the  sixth  century.

FONTAINEBLEAU,  near  the  Seine,  France.
The  royal  palace,  founded  by  Robert  le  Pieux  about
999,  enlarged  and  adorned  by  successive  kings,  was
completed  by  Louis  Philippe,  1837-40.  Fontaine-
bleau  was  entered  by  the  Austrians,  17  Feb.  1814.
Here  Napoleon  resigned  his  dignity,  4  April,  and
bade  farewell  to  his  army,  20  April,  1814.
Peace  between  France,  Denmark,  ire.  .  2  Sept.  1679
Treaty  between  Germany  and  Holland  .  8  Nov.  1785
Treaty  between  Napoleon  and  Spain  .  27  Oct.  1807
The  decree  of  FontaLnebleau  for  the  destruction  of

British  merchandise  issued  . . 19  Oct. 1810

Concordat  between  Napoleon  and  pope  Pius  VII.

25  Jan.  1813

FONTENAILLE,  or  Fontenay  {Fori,  lane  turn) ,
a  village  in  Burgundy.  Near  here  Charles  the
Bald  and  Louis  the  German  totally  defeated  their
brother  the  emperor  Lothaire  I.  25  June,  841.
This  victory,  termed  "  the  judgment  of  God,"  con-
duced to  the  formation  of  the  French  monarchy.

FONTENOY,  near  Tournay,  in  Belgium,  the
site  of  an  obstinate  sanguinary  battle  on  30  April


(11  May,  n.s.),  1745,  between  the  French,  com-
manded by  marshal  Saxe,  and  the  English,  Hano-
verians, Dutch,  and  Austrians,  commanded  by  the
duke  of  Cumberland.  The  king  Louis  XV.  and  the
dauphin  were  present.  The  success  of  the  British
at  the  commencement  is  still  quoted  as  an  illustra-
tion of  the  extraordinary  power  of  a  column  ;  and
the  advance  of  the  Austrians  during  several  hours
at  Marengo  (14  June,  1800)  was  compared  to  it  by
Bonaparte.  The  allies  lost  12,000  men,  and  the
French  nearly  an  equal  number;  but  the  allies
were  compelled  to  retire.  Marshal  Saxe  (ill  of  the
disordcr  of  which  he  afterwards  died)  was  carried!
about  to  all  the  posts  in  a  litter,  assuring  his  troops-
that  the  day  would  be  their  own.

FONTHILL  ABBEY,  Wiltshire,  founded  in
1796,  the  mansion  of  William  Beckford,  author  of
"  Vathek,"  and  son  of  Alderman  Beckford.  He
died  2  May,  1844.  Within  this  edifice  (which  alone
cost  273,000/.)  were  collected  costly  articles  of
virtu  and  art,  and  the  rarest  works  of  the  old
masters.  The  sale  of  the  abbey  and  its  contents  to
Mr.  Farquhar  took  place  in  1822  ;  7,200  catalogues-
at  a  guinea  each  were  sold  in  a  few  days.  On  21
Dec.  1825,  the  lofty  tower  fell,  and  in  consequence
the  remaining  buildings  were  sold.

FOOD,  see  Provisions.  A  Food  Journal  pub-
lished 1870;  continued  several  years.  Sale  of  Food
and  Drugs  Act  passed  11  Aug.  1875.  Dr.  Arthur
Hill  Hassall's  "Food  and  its  Adulterations"  pub-
lished 1854,  and  since.  International  food  exhibi-
tion at  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington,  13-20  Oct.
1880.  Nasional  food  reform  society,  advocates-
abstinence  from  animal  food,  1883.  "Foods:  Com-
position and  Analysis,"  by  A.  W.  Blyth,  published
1882.

FOOLS,  FESTIVALS  OF,  were  held  at  Paris  on
the  1st  of  January,  when,  we  are  told,  all  sorts  of
absurdities  were  committed,  from  1198  to  1438.  Fools-
or  licensed  jesters  were  kept  at  court  in  England  up
to  the  time  of  Charles  I.  1625.  Ths  "order  of  Fools  "
founded  by  Adolphus,  count  of  Cleves,  for  philan-
thropic purposes,  138 1,  existed  in  1 520.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see

Cattle.

FOOTPATH  (National)  Preservation  Society,
founded  under  the  patronage  of  the  duke  of
Westminster  and  others,  1884.  Annual  meeting
Jan.  1890.

FORBES  MACKENZIE'S  ACT  (16  &  17

Vict.  c.  67)  "for  the  better  regulation  of  public-
houses  in  Scotland,"  passed  in  1853.  It  permits-
grocers  to  sell  spirits,  &c,  as  usual,  but  forbids-
drinking  on  the  premises,  which  is  to  be  confined  to-
places  duly  licensed.  Much  dram-drinking  pre-
viously took  place  in  grocers'  shops.

FORCE,  see  Conservation,  and  Correlation.

FOREIGN  BOND-HOLDERS,  were  in-
corporated by  licence  of  the  Itoard  of  Trade  as  art
association  1  Aug.  1873.  A  fund  was  created  for
the  protection  of  the  investing  public.  At  the
annual  meeting,  2  March,  1891,  a  favourable  report
was  received.

FOREIGN  CATTLE  MARKET. The  city

of  London  having  been  required  to  provide  this-
market  before  1  Jan.  1872,  by  the  Contagious-
Diseases  Act  (for  Animals),  1869,  the  Common
Council,  7  Nov.  1870,  agreed  to  the  expenditure  of
160,000/.  for  the  purpose.  The  site  chosen,  Dept-
ford  dockyard,  was  much  opposed.  The  requisite
alterations  were  made  by  Mr.  Horace  Jones,  and  the


FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT.


380


FORGERY.


market  was  formally  opened  by  the  lord  mayor,  23
Dec.  187 1 ;  for  use  on  1  Jan.  1872.

FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT,  59  Geo.
III.  c.  69  (1819),  forbids  British  subjects  to  enter
the  service  of  a  foreign  state,  without  licence  from
the  king  or  privy  council,  and  prohibits  the  fitting
out  or  equipping  ships  for  any  foreign  power  to  be
employed  against  any  power  with  which  our  govern -
jnent  is  at  peace ;  see  Trials,  1862,  1863.  In  1606,
Englishmen  were  forbidden  to  enter  foreign  service,
without  taking  an  oath  not  to  be  reconciled  to  the
pope.  The  act  was  suspended  in  1835  on  behalf  of
the  British  Legion  [which  see) .  The  act  passed  9
Aug.  1870,  relates  to  illegal  enlisting,  shipbuilding,
and  expeditions.

FOREIGNERS,  see  Alien  and  Law.
Fon-ignerj  in  the  United  Kingdom:  1871,  113,779;
in  18S1,  135,640;  the  Germans  being  about  one-
third.

FOREIGN  JURISDICTION  ACTS,  passed
in  1843,  1865,  and  1866,  were  extended  and  amended
by  41  &  42  Vict.  c.  67,  passed  16  Aug.  1878  ;  these
acts  were  consolidated  in  1890.

FOREIGN  LEGION.  Foreigners  have  fre-
quently been  employed  as  auxiliaries  in  the  pay  of
the  British  government;  see  Hessians.  An  act
(18  &  19  Vict.  c.  2)  for  the  formation  of  a  foreign
legion  as  a  contingent  in  the  Russian  war  (1855),
was  passed  23  Dec.  1854.*  The  queen  and  prince
Albert  reviewed  3500  soldiers,  principally  Swiss
and  Germans,  at  Shorncliffe,  9  Aug.  1855.  On  the
peace  in  1856,  many  were  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good
Hope ;  but  not  prospering,  returned.

FOREIGN  LOANS,  see  Loans.

FOREIGN  MISSIONS,  see  Missions.

FOREIGN  OFFICE  was  established  at  the
re-arrangement  of  the  duties  of  secretaries  of  state
in  1782.  It  has  the  exclusive  charge  of  British
interests  and  subjects  in  f  reign  countries.  The
secretary  for  foreign  affairs  negotiates  treaties,
selects  ambassadors,  consuls,  &c,  for  foreign
•countries,  and  grants  passports.  The  new  foreign
office  building  in  the  Italian  style  (designed  by
Sir  Gilbert  Scott),  was  begun  in  1864.  A  portion  of
it  was  inaugurated  by  Mr.  Disraeli's  reception,  25
March,  audit,  was  occupied  by  lord  Stanley,  24  June,
i868.  See  Administrations  under  separate  heads,
and  Secretaries.
Foreign  Office  Circular  warning  travellers  and  others

that  they  will  incur  capture  at  their  own  risk  Aug.  1881
Important  changes  in  the  departments  announced

Feb.  1883

FOREIGN  ORDERS.  No  British  subject  is
permitted  to  accept  a  foreign  order  from  the  sovereign
of  any  foreign  country,  or  wear  the  insignia  thereof,
without  her  majesty's  consent,  by  orders  issued  in
u8i2  and  1834; — regulations  published  in  London
Gazette,  10  May,  1855.

FORESTALLING  was  forbidden  by  statutes
(in  1350,  1552,  &c),  all  repealed  in  1844.

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in
fhe  last  century,  as  many  as  68  forests,  18  chases,
and  upwards  of  780  parks. See  New  Forest.f


*  The  endeavour  to  enlist  for  this  legion,  in  1854,  in  the
United  States,  gave  great  offence  to  the  American  govern-
ment. Mr.  Crampton,  our  envoy,  was  dismissed,  28
May,  1856,  in  spite  of  all  the  judicious  pacific  efforts  of
lord  Clarendon.  Lord  Napier  was  sent  out  as  our  repre-
sentative in  1857.

t  The  commissioners  appointed  to  enquire  into  the
■state  of  the  woods  and  forests,  between  1787  and  1793,
reported  the  following  as  belonging  to  the  crown,  viz.  :—


International  Forestry  exhibition  at  Edinburgh,  re-
commended by  government,  Nov.  1883  ;  opened
on  1  July  ;  closed .... 11  Oct.  1884
"  The  Forester,"  by  J.  Brown  ;  new  edition . .  1882
Parliamentary  committee on forestry  appointed

May,  1885 "

FORESTS,  Charter  of  the,  Charta  de
Foresta,  granted  by  Henry  III.  in  1217,  was  founded
on  Magna  Charta,  granted  by  king  John,  15  June
1215.  It  was  confirmed  in  1225  and  1297.  See
Woods.

FORESTERS,  Ancient  Order  of,  a  species  of
benefit  society,  founded  on  the  principle  that  many
can  help  one  ;  all  religious  and  political  discussions
are  strictly  avoided.  The  54th  High  Court  at  Read-
ing ;  number  of  members  reported  690,000,  6  Aug.
1888.  At  Bournemouth,  5  Aug.  1889.  At  Hull,
4  Aug.  1890.  At  London;  1  Aug.  1891.  Number  of
members  reported  Dec.  1891,  830,720.  Reported
capital,  3,670,114/.  31  Dec.  1887.  At  Ipswich,  I
Aug.  1892.

FOREST  GATE,  Essex,  see  Fires,  1  Jan.  1890.

FORFARSHIRE  STEAMER,  on  its  passage
from  Hull  to  Dundee,  on  6  Sept.  1838,  was  wrecked
in  a  violent  gale,  and  thirty-eight  persons  out  of
fifty-three  perished.  The  Outer-Fern  Lighthouse
keeper,  James  Darling,  and  his  heroic  daughter
Grace,  ventured  out  in  a  tremendous  sea  in  a  coble,
and  rescued  several  of  the  passengers.
The  "  journal  of  William  Darling  "  from  1795  to  i860
published  in  1887,  states  that  forty -three  persons  out
of  sixty-one  perished.

FORGERY  of  deeds,  or  giving  forged  deeds  in
evidence,  was  made  punishable  by  tine,  by  standing
in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off",  the  nostrils
slit  up  and  seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land,  and  per-
petual imprisonment,  5  Eliz.  1562.  Since  the
establishment  of  paper  credit  many  statutes  have
been  enacted  ;  the  latest  Forgery  act  passed  9  Aug.
1870.  The  Forged  Transfer  acts  were  passed  to  pre-
serve purchasers  of  stock  from  losses  by  forged
transfers,  1891  and  1892.  Convictions  for  forgery  and
offences  against  the  currency,  1887-8,  652  ;  1888-9,
493  ;  1889-90,  420.

Forgery  first  made  punishable  by  death  .  .  1634
Forging  letters  of  attorney  made  capital  .  1722

Mr.  Ward,  M.P. ,  a  man  of  wealth,  expelled  the  house
of  commons  for  forgery,  16  May,  1726;  and  con-
signed to  the  pillory  :  .  .  17  March,  1727
The  first  forger  on  the  bank  of  England  was  Richard
William  Vaughan,  once  a  linen-draper  of  Stafford.
He  employed  a  number  of  artists  on  different
parts  of  the  notes  fabricated.  He  filled  up
twenty  of  the  notes  and  deposited  them  in  the
hands  of  a  young  lady  whom  he  was  on  the  point
of  marrying,  as  a  proof  of  his  being  a  man  of  sub-
ttance; no  suspicion  was  entertained. One  of

In  Berkshire,  Windsor  Forest  and  Windsor  Great  and
Little  Park.  In  Dorset,  Cranburn  Chase.  In  Essex,
Waltham  or  Epping  and  Hainault  Forest.  In  Gloucester-
shire, Dean  Forest.  In  Hampshire,  the  New  Forest,
Alice  Holt,  Woolmer  Forest,  and  Bere  Forest.  In  Kent,
Greenwich  Park.  In  Middlesex,  St.  James's,  Hyde,
Bushey,  and  Hampton-court  Parks.  In  Northampton-
shire, the  forests  of  Whittlebury,  Salcey,  and  Rockingham.
In  Nottingham,  Sherwood  Forest.  In  Oxford,  Which-
wood  Forest.  In  Surrey.  Richmond  Park.  Several  of
these  have  been  disforested  since  1851,  viz.  Hainault,
Whichwood,  and  Whittlebury.  A  committee  of  the
house  of  commons  respecting  forests,  sat  in  1863.
Motion  in  parliament  to  preserve  Epping  Forest,  adopted
14  Feb.  1870  ;  and  the  decision  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,
10  Nov.  1874,  stopped  the  enclosures  by  the  lords  of
manors.  The  lord  mayor  Stone  visited  the  forest  in
state  14  Oct.  1875.  The  commissioners'  new  schemewas
published  July,  1876.  Memorial  trees  were  planted  by  the
duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught,  16  Oct.  1880.  The  forest
was  dedicated  to  the  use  of  the  people  by  the  Queen,
6  May,  1882.


FOEKS.


381


FOETH.


the  artists  informed,  and  Vaughan  was  executed

at  Tyburn i  May,  1758

Value  of  forged  notes  presented  to  the  bank  1801-10

nominally  101,661?.
The  bank  prosecuted  142  persons  for  forgery  or  the

uttering  of  forged  notes 1817

Thos.  Maynard,  the  last  person  executed  for  forgery,

31  Dec. 1829
Statutes  reducing  into  one  act  all  such  forgeries  as

shall  henceforth  be  punished  with  death . . 1830
The  punishment  of  forgery  with  death  ceases,  except
in  eases  of  forging  or  altering  wills  or  powers  of

attorney  to  transfer  stock 1832

These  cases  also  reduced  to  transportable  offences  1837
A  barrister,  Jem Saward, and others, tried  for

forging  numerous  drafts  on  bankers  5  March,  1857
The  law  respecting  forgery  amended  in  .  1861  and  1870
For  TV.  Roupell's  ease,  see  Trials .  Aug.  Sept. 1862

An  elaborate  system  of  bill  forgery  in  London,  dis-
covered by  the  Bank  of  England . 1  March,  1873
Ralph Cooper, "  king  of the  forgers," sentenced to
fifteen  years  for  forging  a  cheque  of  3,670?.  on  the
London  &  Westminster  bank. . 24  March,  1888

[See  Executions  (for  forgery),  1776,  1777,  et  seq.]
FORKS  were  in  use  on  the  Continent  in  the  13th
and  14th  centuries.  Voltaire.  This  is  reasonably
disputed.  In  Fynes  Moryson's  Itinerary,  reign  of
Elizabeth,  he  says,  "At  Venice  each  person  was
served  (besides  his  knife  and  spoon)  with  a  fork  to
hold  the  meat  while  he  cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem
it  ill  manners  that  one  should  touch  it  with  his
hand."  Thomas  Coryate  describes,  with  much
solemnity,  the  manner 'of  using  forks  in  Italy,  and
adds,  "  I  myself  have  thought  it  good  to  imitate  the
Italian  fashion  since  I  came  home  to  England,"
1608.  Two-pronged  forks  were  made  at  Sheffield
soon  after.  Three-pronged  forks  are  more  recent.
Silver  forks,  previously  only  used  by  the  highest
classes,  came  into  more  general  use  in  England
about  1814.

Mr.  G.  Smith  found  a  bronze  fork  with  two  prongs  at

Kouyunjik,  Assyria,  1873.
A  "flesh-hook  of  three  teeth"  mentioned  1  Sam.  ii.  13,

about  1 165  b.c.

.  FOEMA  PAUPERIS.  A  person  having  a
just  cause  of  suit,  certified  as  such,  yet  so  poor  that
he  cannot  meet  the  cost  of  maintaining  it,  has  an
attorney  and  counsel  assigned  him  on  his  swearing
thathe  is  not  worth  5;.,  by  stat.  11  Hen.  VII.  1495.
— This  act  lias  been  remodelled,  and  now  any  per-
son may  plead  in  forma  pauperis  in  the  courts  of
law.

FOEMIC  ACID,  the  acid  of  ants  (formica).
Its  artificial  production  by  Pelouze  in  183 1  was
considered  an  event  in  the  progress  of  organic
chemistry.

FOEMIGNI  (N.W.  France),  Here  the  con-
stable de  Kichemont  defeated  the  English,  15  April,
1450.

FOEMOSA,  an  island  in  the  Pacific,  90  miles
from  the  Chinese  coast.  In  May,  1874,  the  Ja-
panese, with  the  consent  of  a  Chinese  mandarin,
chastised  the  savage  tribes  here  for  massacring
Japanese  sailors  on  their  proposed  settlement  on
the  isle.  The  Chinese  threatened  war  if  they  did
not  quit  within  90  days,  18  Aug.  1874.  By  British
interposition  the  Japanese  withdrew,  an  indemnity
having  been  agreed  on  ;  treaty  between  Japan  and
China  signed  31  Oct.  1874.  Formosa  flourished
under  the  rule  of  Ting  ;  removed  in  1878.  The
plant  of  the  Woosung  railway  brought  here  in  1878.
C-eorge  Psalmanazar  published  his  fabricated  de-
scription of  Formosa  in  1704.  See  China,  1884-5.
Severe fighting between the Chinese and the

natives Dec.  1889 ;  Feb.  1890

Nearly 200 Chinese soldiers massacred by an

ambush,  reported .... 13  March, „
General  rebellion May, ,,


FOENOVO  (Parma,  Italy).  Near  here  Charles
VIII.  of  1- ranee  defeated  the  Italians,  6  July,
1495-

FOESTEE'S  ACT,  see  Education,  1870.

FOET  DU  QUESNE,  N.  America.  Near
here  general  Braddock  was  surprised  by  a  party  of
French  and  Indians,  his  troops  routed  and  himself
killed,  9  July,  1755.  The  fort  was  named  Fori
Fitt  after  its  capture  by  Forbes,  24  Nov.  1758.  It
is  now  Fittsburg.

FOET  EEIE  (Upper  Canada).  This  fortress
was  taken  by  the  American  general  Browne,  3  June,
1814.  After  several  conflicts  it  was  evacuated  by
the  Americans,  5  Nov.  1814.

FOET  GEOEGE,  Inverness,  N.W.  Scotland,
was  erected  in  1747,  to  restrain  the  Highlanders. —
FORT  WILLIAM,  besieged  by  them  in  vain  in  1 746,
is  now  in  ruins.

FOETH,  a  great  river  of  Scotland,  rising  In
Ben  Lomond,  and  entering  the  North  Sea  as  an
estuary,  termed  the  Firth  of  Forth.  The  Forth
and  Clyde  Canal  was  commenced  10  July,  1768,
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Smeaton,  and  opened,  28
July,  1790.  A  communication  was  thus  formed
between  the  eastern  and  western  seas  on  the  coast
of  Scotland.

The  Forth  Railway-Bridge  projected,  and  a  raft
launched  in  June,  1866.

Mr.  (afterwards  sir  T.)  Bouch,  of  Edinburgh,  was  en-
gaged to  prepare  plans  for  a  suspension-bridge,  1878.

The  Forth  bridge  company  accepted  tenders  from  TVm.
Arrol  <fc  Co.  (1,250,01,0?.)  for  constructing  bridge  and
railway,  Oct.  1879;  through  Tay-bridge  disaster,  <fcc,
the  scheme  was  suspended  and  eventually  abandoned
by  the  company,  13  Jan.  1S81.

The  construction  of  the  present  Forth  Bridge  was
undertaken  by  the  company  supported  by  the  North
British,  North  Eastern,  Great  Northern,  and  Midland
railway  companies  ;  the  act  was  passed,  June,  1882  ;
engineers,  Mr.  John  Fowler  and  Mr.  Benjamin  Baker,.
whose  plans  were  based  on  the  cantilever  or  bracket
principle  ;  Messrs.  Wm.  Arrol  &  Co.  were  the  con-
tractors. The  rocky  islet  of  Inchgarvie  was  of  great
importance  in  the  construction  of  the  bridge ;  the
works  began  by  building  the  foundations,  Jan.'  1883.

The  last  bolt  was  driven,  6  Nov.  1889  ;  the  strength  of  the
bridge  was  tested  by  the  passage  of  nearly  2,000  tons,
steamed  halfway  across,  21  Jan. ;  and  officially  testtd
for  the  board  of  trade,  20  Feb.  1890.

The  first  train  which  crossed  the  entire  bridge  was
driven  by  the  marchioness  of  Tweeddale,  carrying  a
distinguished  company,  in  five  minutes,  24  Jan.  1890.

The  prince  of  Wales  after  driving  in  the  last  rivet,  in  the
presence  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  the  duke  of  Fife,
prince  George  of  Wales,  the  marquis  of  Tweeddale,
the  earl  of  Rosebery,  and  other  distinguished  visitors,
including  M.  Eiffel,  and  other  eminent  engineers,  said
"  Ladies  and  gentlemen,  I  now  declare  the  Forth
bridge  open,"  1.30  p.m.  4  March,  1890.

The  ceremony  was  followed  by  a  banquet  in  a  hall
adjoining  the  works.

The  length  of  the  bridge  (from  North  to  South
Queensferry),  with  the  approaching  viaducts,  is
one  mile  1,005  yards;  the  highest  part  of  the  bridge
is  361  feet ;  the  clear  headway  under  the  centre  of
the  bridge  is  152  feet  above  high  water.  The  greatest
number  of  men  employed  at  one  time  was  5,000.  56
lives  were  lost  during  the  construction,  in  spite  of
great  precautions.

Estimated  cost  1,600,000?.,  actual  cost  about  2,500,000/.

Mr.  Matthew  William  Thompson,  chairman  of  the  Forth
bridge  and  Midland  railway  companies,  and  Mr.  John
Fowler,  were  created  baronets,  Mr.  Benjamin  Baker,
was  made  K.C.M.G.,  and  Mr.  William  Arrol  was
knighted,  1890.

The  bridge  was  opened  for  the  ordinary  railway  trains,
2  June,  1890.

The  bridge  slowly  crossed  by  the  queen  coming  south,
19  June,  1891.


FORTIFICATION.


382


"FOUK MASTERS."


By  the  fall  of  scaffolding  through  high  wind,  3  painters

killed,  29  Sept.  1891.
The  bridge  firmly  withstood  a  violent  gale,  29  Jan.  1892.

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were
the  first  people  to  fortify  cities.  Apollodorus  says
that  Perseus  fortified  Mycenae,  where  statues  were
afterwards  erected  to  him.  The  modern  system
was  introduced  about  1500.  Albert  Diirer  wrote  on
fortification  in  1527  ;  and  great  improvements  were
made  by  Vauban,  who  fortified  many  places  in
France;  he  died  1707.  The  new  fortifications  of
Paris  were  completed  in  1846 ;  see  Paris.  In  Aug.
i860,  the  British  parliament  passed  an  act  for  the
-expenditure  of  2,000,000?.  in  one  year  upon  the
fortifications  of  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  Pembroke,
and  Portland,  the  Thames,  Medway,  and  Sheemess,
Chatham,  Dover,  and  Cork,  and  on  the  purchase  of
a  central  arsenal  establishment ;  the  estimated  ex-
pense being  9,500,000/.  A  committee  to  investigate
•our  fortifications  was  appointed,  16  April,  1868.

FORTIS,  a  powerful  explosive  invented  in
Belgium  about  1887,  said  to  be  well  adapted  for
mining  purposes.  In  May,  1890,  it  was  manu-
factured by  the  Fortis  Powder  and  Explosives  Com-
pany. Successful  experiments  at  Liege,  8  Sept.  1891 .

FORTNIGHTLY  REVIEW,  first  published
in  1865,  edited  by  G.  H.  Lewes,  succeeded  by  John
Morley  in  1867  and  others.  It  was  afterwards
published  monthly.

FORTUNATE  ISLES,  see  Canaries.

FORTUNE  BAY  AFFAIR,  see  Canada,
S878,  1880-1,  and  Neivfoundland.

FORTUNE-TELLING  is  traced  to  the  early  |

astrologers,  by  whom  the  planets  Jupiter  and  Venus  |
were  supposed  to  betoken  happiness.  The  Sibyllas
were  women  said  to  be  inspired  by  Heaven;  see
■Sibyls  and  Gipsies.  In  England  the  laws  against
fortune -telling  were  at  one  time  very  severe.  A
declaration  was  published  in  France,  II  Jan.  1680,
of  exceeding  severity  against  fortune-tellers  and
poisoners,  under  which  several  persons  suffered
death.  Henaidt.  Fortune-tellers,  although  liable
by  the  acts  of  1743  and  1824  to  be  imprisoned  as
rogues  and  vagabonds,  still  exist  in  England.

FORTY-SHILLING  FREEHOLDERS,

see  Freeholders.

FORUM,  at  Pome,  originally  a  market-place,
became  about  472  B.C.  the  place  of  assembly  of  the
people  in  their  tribes  (the  Comitia),  and  was
gradually  adorned  with  temples  and  public  build-
ings.— Near  Forum  Trebronii,  in  Mcesia,  the
Romans  were  defeated  by  the  Goths,  Nov.  251.
After  a  struggle  in  the  morass,  the  emperor  Dccius
and  his  son  were  slain  and  their  bodies  not  re-
covered. See  Rome,  1885-

FOSSALTA,  near  Bologna,  central  Italy.
Here  Enzo  or  Enrico,  titular  king  of  Sardinia,
natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  was  de-
feated and  made  prisoner,  26  May,  1249,  and  re-
tained. He  was  kept  in  honourable  captivity  till
his  death,  14  March,  1272.

FOTHERINGHAY  CASTLE  (Northamp-
tonshire), built  about  1400.  Here  Richard  III.  of
England  was  born  in  1450  ;  and  here  Mary  queen
of  Scots  was  tried,  11- 14  Oct.  1586,  and  beheaded,  8
Feb.  1587.  It  was  demolished  by  her  son,  James  I.
of  England,  in  1 604.

FOUGHARD,  near  Dundalk,  N.  Ireland.
Here  Edward,  brother  of  Robert  Bruce,  after
invading  Ireland  in  1315,  wras  defeated  by  sir  John


Bermingham, 5  Oct: 1318. Bruce  was  killed  by
Roger  de  Maupis,  a  burgess  of  Dundalk.

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS  are  ancient.
A  species  of  foundling  hospital  was  set  up  at  Milan
in  787,  and  in  the  middle  ages  most  of  the  principal
cities  of  the  continent  possessed  one.  The  French
government  in  1790  declared  foundlings  to  be  the
"  children  of  the  state."

No  Foundling  hospital  in  England  when  Addison
wrote  in 1713

London  foundling  hospital,  projected  by  Thomas
Coram,  a  sea-captain,  incorporated,  Oct.  1739  ;
opened 2  June,  1756

Handel  gave  an  organ;  opened  it  . .1  May,  1750

It  succours  about  500  infant  children  ;  Coram's
statue  was  put  up  in 1856

Foundling  hospital  in  Dublin  instituted  in  1704.
Owing  to  great  mortality,  and  from  moral  con-
siderations, the  internal  department  was  closed
by  order  of  government . . . 31  March,  1835

Foundling  hospital  at  Moscow,  founded  by  Cathe-
rine II.  in  1772;  about  12,000  children  are  re-
ceived annually.

FOUNTAINE  COLLECTION  of  Renais-
sance works,  Faience,  Limoges,  Raffaelle,  and
Palissy  enamelled  ware,  &c.  (unequalled) ;  and
also  a  fine  collection  of  coins,  medals,  carved  ivory
wrork,  &c,  formed  by  sir  Andrew  Fountaine,  in
the  reigns  of  Anne  and  George  I.  ;  placed  in
Narford  Hall,  Norfolk,  about  1730;  sold  by  Christie
and  Mans  ui  for  91,112/.,  16-19  June,  1884;  by
the  sale  of  ancient  drawings,  on  11  July,  the  sum
was  raised  to  96,278/.  Sir  Andrew  "Fountaine
died  in  1873.

FOUNTAINS.  The  fountain  of  Hero  of
Alexandria  was  invented  about  150  B.C.  Among
the  remarkable  fountains  at  Rome  are  the  Fontana
di  Trevi,  constructed  for  pope  Clement  XII.  in
1735;  the  Fontana  Paolina,  erected  for  pope
Paul  V.  in  1612  ;  and  Fontana  dell'  Acqua  Felice,
called  also  the  Fountain  of  Moses.  The  fountains
in  the  palace  gardens  at  Versailles,  made  for
Louis  XIV.,  and  the  Grand  Jet  d'Eau,  at  St.  Cloud,
are  exceedingly  beautiful.  There  are  above  100
public  fountains  in  Paris,  the  most  striking  being
the  Chateau  d'Eau  on  the  Boulevard  St.  Martin
(by  Girard,  181 1)  and  that  at  the  Palais  Royal.
London  is  not  remarkable  for  fountains ;  the
largest  are  in  Trafalgar-square,  constructed  in
1845,  after  designs  by  sir  Charles  Barry.  There
are  beautiful  fountains  at  Chatsworth,  in  Derby-
shire, the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  The
magnificent  fountains  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Syden-
ham, were  first  publicly  exhibited  on  18  June,
1856,  in  the  presence  of  the  queen  and  20,000
spectators.
The  fountain  at  Park-lane,  London,  W.,  the  gift  of  Mrs.

Brown,  was  inaugurated  and  uncovered,  9  July,  1875.

It  has  statues  of  Chaucer,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton,  the

work  of  Mr.  Thomas  Croft,  and  cost  5000L

FOURIERISM,  a  social  system  devised  by
M.  Charles  Fourier  (who  died  in  1837).  The
Phalanstery  (from  phalanx),  an  association  of  400
families  living  in  one  edifice,  was  to  be  so  arranged
as  to  give  the  highest  amount  of  happiness  at  the
lowest  cost.  The  system  failed ;  caused,  it  is  said,
by  the  smallness  of  the  scale  on  which  it  was
tried.

he  Familistere,  a  somewhat  similar  system,  established

by  M.  Godin,  a  manufacturer  of  stoves  &c,  at  Guise,  N.

France,  was  reported  successful  in  Jan.  1886.

."FOUR  MASTERS,"  a  name  given  to
Michael,  Conary,  and  Cucogry  O'Cleiy,  and  Fer-
feasa  O'Mulconry,  who  compiled  from  original
documents  the  annals  of  Ireland  from  2242  B.C.  to


FOURTH ESTATE.


3?3


FRANCE.


a.d.  1616.  An  edition  of  these  "  Annals,"  printed
from  autograph  MSS.,  with  a  translation  edited  by
Dr.  John  0' Donovan,  was  published  at  Dublin  in
1851.  The  "  Four  Masters  "  lived  in  the  first  half
of  the  17th  century.

FOUETH  ESTATE.  Thomas  Carlyle  states
that  this  term  was  applied  to  the  newspaper  press
by  Edmund  Burke  when  speaking  in  the  House  of
Commons. Burke  died  9  July,  1797.

FOURTH  PARTY,  a  name  facetiously  given  to
lord  Randolph  Churchill,  sir  Henry  Drummond
"Wolff,  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  John  Gorst,  and  a  few  other
conservative  members,  active  opponents  of  the  gov-
ernment, also  termed  "free  lances."  The  other
parties  were  liberals,  conservatives,  and  home-rulers
(1880-5).

Lord  Randolph  Churchill  and  some  of  his  friends
desire  to  imitate  Radical  organization  (popular,
responsible,  and  representative),  advocating
"  tory  democracy  " May,  1884

He  and  some  others  took  office  under  the
Salisbury  administration . . . June,  1885

FOX,  see  Reynard.

FOX  and  GRENVILLE  ADMINISTRA-
TION, see  Grenville  Administration.

FOX-GLOVE  (folks'  or^  fairies*  glove),  a
handsome  indigenous  flower.  The  canary  fox-glove
{Digitalis  canariensis)  came  from  the  Canary
inlands,  1698.  The  Madeira  fox-glove  came  here
in  1777.  The  fox-grape  shrub  {Vitus  Vulpina),
from  Virginia,  before  1656.

FRAGA,  N.E.  Spain.  Near  here  the  Christians,
under  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon,  were  defeated  by  the
Moors,  17  July,  1 134.

FRANC,  the  current  silver  French  coin  (value
iOd.),  superseded  the  Here  tournois  by  law  in
1795-

FRANCE,  the  Roman  Gaul  (ivhich  see).  In
the  5th  century  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a
people  of  Germany,  then  inhabiting  Frauconia,
where  they  became  known  about  240.  The  country
was  gradually  named  Franhen-ric,  Franks'  king-
dom. For  the  dynastic  changes,  see  list  of  sove-
reigns, infra.  Previous  to  the  revolution,  France
■was  divided  into  40  governments.  In  1790  it  was
divided  into  83  departments,  and  subsequently  into
130,  including  Corsica,  Geneva,  Savoy,  and  other
places,  chiefly  conquests.  In  1815  the  departments
were  reduced  to  86 ;  in  i860  they  were  raised  to  89
by  the  acquisition  of  Savoy  and  Nice,*  re-
duced to  87  by  the  loss  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  The
political  constitution  has  been  frequently  changed
since  1789. For  details  of  more  important  events,


*  Population  of  France  in  1700,  19,669,320  ;  in  1762,
21,769,163  ;  in  1801,  27,349,003  ;  in  1820,  30,451,187  ;  in
1836,  33,540,910  ;  in  1846,  35,401,761 ;  in  1856,  36,039,364;
in  1861,  including  the  new  departments,  37,382,225  ;  in
1872  (after  the  war),  36,102,921.  Population  31  Dec.
1876,  36,905,788  ;  18  Dec.  1881,  37,672,048  ;  1886  (May),
38,218,903;  1891,38,343,192.  Population  of  the  colonies
<i876)  (in  'Asia,  Pondicherry,  &c.  ;  Africa,  Algeria,  &c.  ;
America,  Martinique,  Guadaloupe,  &c.  ;  Oceania,  the
Marquesas,  &c),  in  185S,  3,641,226,  in  1872,  about
5,621,000  ;  in  1877,  about  6,440,660.  [Alsace  and  Lorraine
lost  with  population  of  1,597,219  in  1871.]  In  May,  1862,
the  Moniteur  asserted  the  effective  army  to  be  447,000,
with  a  reserve  of  170,000  :  virtually  raised  to  1,200,000  in
1868  ;  disposable  force  in  1869,  about  1,350,000  ;  in  1875,
1,750,000;  in  1880,  2,423,164  men,  non-military  adjuncts
nbout  1,330,000.  Revenue,  1890-1,  126,611,900'..  ;  ex-
penditure, 126,595,261?.  ;  1890,  imports,  218,080,000?,  ;
exports,  193,600,000?.


see  separate  articles. The  title  of  king  of  France,
adopted  by  the  English  sovereigns  from  Edwd.  3rd,
1340,  was  given  up  by  Geo.  3  in  1802.
The Fianks settle  in  that  part  of  Gaul,  till  late

called  Flanders about 418

Clovis,  481  ;  defeats  Syagrius  and  the  Gauls  at
Soissons,  486  ;  and  the  Alemanni  at  Tolbiae,  near
Cologne  ;  and  embraces  Christianity  .  .  .  496
He  kills  Alaric  the  Goth  at  the  battle  of  Vougle,
near  Poictiers,  unites  his  conquests  from  the
Loire  to  the Pyrenees, and makes  Paris  his

capital 507

He  X'roclaims  the  Salique  law  ;  and  dies,  leaving

four  sons 511

Frequent  invasions  of  the  Avars  and  Lombards,  562-584
The  mayors  of  the  palace  now  assume  almost  sove-
reign authority 584

Charles  Martel  becomes  mayor  of  the  palace,  and

rules  with  despotic  sway 714

Invasion  of  the  Saracens,  720  ;  defeated  by  Charles
Martel,  near  Tours ....  10  Oct. 732

Reign  of  Pepin  the  Short , 752

Charlemagne,  king, 768  ; conquers Saxony and
Lombardy,  773-4  ;  crowned  emperor  of  the  West,

25  Dee. 800
The  Normans  invade  Neustria,  876  ;  part  of  which
is  granted  Rollo,  as  Normandy,  by  Charles  the

Simple 9ir

Reign  of  Hugh  Capet 987

Paris  made  capital  of  all  France 996

Letters  of  franchise  granted  to  cities  aud  towns  by

Louis  VI. 1135

Louis  VII.  joins  in  the  Crusades 1146

Philip  Augustus  defeats  the  Germans  at  Bouvines  . 1214
Louis  VIII. ,  Cmur  de  Lion,  frees  his  serfs . . . 1224
Louis  IX.  conducts  an  army  into  Palestine  ;  takes
Damietta,  1249  ;  see  Crusades;  dies  before  Tunis,

25  Aug.  1270
Charles  of  Anjou  conquers  Naples  and  Sicily  .  1266
His  tyranny  leads  to  the  massacre  called  the  Sicilian

Vespers  (which  see) 12S2

Philip  the  Fair's  quarrels  with  the  Pope  .  .  1101-2
Knights  Templars  suppressed .... 1307-8

Union  of  France  and  Navarre 13 14

English  invasion — Philip  VI. defeated  at  Cressy,

26  Aug.  1346
Calais  taken  by  Edward  III. . . .3  Aug. 1347

Dauphiny  annexed  to  France 1340

Battle  of  Poictiers  (which  sec)  ;  king  John  taken

(brought  prisoner  to  England)  .  .  19  Sept.  1356
France  laid  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope  .  .  1407
Battle  of  Agincourt  (which  see)  .  .  .25  Oct.  1415
Massacre  of  the  Armaguacs  by  the  Burgunilians,

June,  1418
Henry  V. of England acknowledged  heir  to  the

throne I420

Henry  VI.  crowned  at  Paris  ;  duke  of  Bedford  re-
gent .  1422

Siege  of  Orleans  raised,  by  Joan  of  Arc,  8  May  ;

battle  of  Patay  ;  the  English  defeated  18  June,  1429
Joan  of  Arc  burnt  at  Rouen  .  .  .  30  May,  1431
England  lost  all  her possessions (but Calais) in

France,  between  .  '  .  .  .  1434  and  1450
'•  League  of  the  public  good  "  against  Louis  XI.  1  ly  1

the  nobles Dec.  1464-Oct. 1465

Edward  IV.  of  England  invades  France  .  .  .  1475
Charles  VIII.  conquers  Naples,  1494  ;  loses  it  .  .  1496
League  of  Cambray  against  Venice  ....  1508
Pope  Julius  II. forms the  Holy  League  against

France i5II

English  invasion — battle  of  Spurs  .  .  16  Aug.  1513
Interview  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  between

Francis  I.  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England  .  .  .  1520
Francis  I.  defeated  and  taken  at  Pavia . 24  Feb. 1525

IYaee  of  Cambray 5  Aug. 1529

Persecution  of  protestants  begins  ....  1530
Royal printing press  established, 1531 ; Robert

Stephens  prints  his  Latin  Bible . . . . 1532
Brittany  annexed  to  France . . ...
League  of  England  with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  ;

Henry  VIII.  invades  France 1544

Peace  with  England  .... 7  June,  1546

Successful  defence  "f  Met/,  by  the  duke  of  Liuise  .  1552
He  takes  Calais  (which  sec) . .  ...  1558

Religious  wars  ;  massacre  of  protestants  at  Vassy,

1  March,  1562
Guise  defeats  the  Huguenots  at  Dreux  19  Dee. ,,


FEANCE.


384


FEANCE.


Guise  killed  at  siege  of  Orleans,  18  Feb. ;  temporary

peace  of  Amboise  ....  19  March,  1563
Huguenots  defeated  at  St.  Denis  .  .  10  Nov.  1567
At  Jarnae  13  March  ;  at  Moncontour  .  .  3  Oct.  1569
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  .  .  .24  Aug.  1572
"  Holy  Catholic  League  "  established  .  .  .  .  1576
Duke of Guise assassinated by  king's  order,  23

Dec. ;  and  his  brother,  the  cardinal  .  24  Dec.  1588.
Henry  III.  stabbed  by  Jacques  Clement,  a  friar, 1

Aug. ;  died 2  Aug. 1589

Henry  IV.  defeats  the  league  at  Ivry  14  March,  1590
Henry  IV.  becomes  a  Roman  Catholic  25  July,  1593

The  league  leaders  submit  to  him  .  .  Jan.  1596
He  promulgates  the  edict  of  Nantes  .  13  April,  1598
Silk  and  other  manufactures  introduced  by  him  and

Sully  ....-.••  1606-1610
Quebec  in  North  America  settled  .  .  .  .  1608
Murder  of  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac . . 14  May,  1610

Regency  of  Mary  de  Medici 1610-14

The states-general meet and complain of the

management  of  the  finances  .  .  -27  Oct.  1614
Rise  of  the  Concinis,  1610  ;  their  fall  and  death . 1617

Navarre  annexed  to  France 1620

Vigorous  and  successful  administration  of  Richelieu,

begins  with  finance 1624

Rochelle  taken  after  a  long  siege  .... 1628

"Day  of  Dupes;"  Richelieu's  energy  defeats  the

machinations  of  his  enemies  .  .  n  Nov.  1630
Richelieu  organises  the  Academic  de  France . 1634-5

His  death  (aged  58) 4  Dec. 1642

Accession  of  Louis  XIV.,  aged  four  years  (Anne  of

Austria,  regent) 14  MaY.  1643

Administration  of  Mazarin  ;  victories  of  Turenne,

1643-6
Civil  wars  of  the  Fronde  ....  1648,  &c.
Death of Mazarin, 9 March ; Colbert  financial

minister 1661

War  with  Holland,  &c. 1672

Canal  of  Languedoc  constructed  .  .  .  1664-81
Peace  of  Nimeguen ....  10  Aug. 1678

Edict  of  Nantes  revoked . .  .22  Oct.  1685

Louis  marries  Madame  de  Maintenon  . . . . ,,
War  with  William  III.  of  England . . . 1689,  &c.

Peace  of  Ryswick 20  Sept. 1697

War  of  the  Spanish  succession  . .  Sept. 1701

French  defeated  at  Blenheim . . .2  Aug. 1704

At  Ramillies 23  May,  1706

Peace  of  Utrecht  (which  see)  .  .  11  April,  1713
Dissensions  of  Jesuits and Jansenists  ;  the bull

Unigenitus ......  Sept. „

Accession  of  Louis  XV. ;  stormy  regency  of  the  duke

of  Orleans 1  Sept.  1715,  &c.

Law's  bubble  in  France  (see  Law)  .  .  .  .  1716
French  defeated  at  Dettingen  ...  16  June,  1743
Successful  campaign  of  marshal  Saxe  .  .  .  .  1746
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  .  .  .  .  18  Oct.  1748
Seven  years' war  begun  ....  May,  1756
Damiens'  attempt  on  life  of  Louis  XV.  .  5  Jan.  1757
Canada  lost— battle  of  Quebec . .  13  Sept. 1759

The  Jesuits  banished  from  France,  and  their  effects

conflscateu I7^2

Peace  of  Paris  ;  Canada  ceded  to  England,  10  Feb.  1763
Louis  XV.  enslaved  by  madame  du  Barry . . . 1769

Deat.li  of  Louis  XV 10  May,  1774

Famine  riots  at  Versailles  ....  May,  1775
The  minister  Turgot  dismissed  . .  May,  1776

Ministry  of  Necker Nov. ,,

Louis  XVI.  assists  America  to  throw  off  its  depen-
dence on  England,  at  first  secretly  .  .  .  .  1778
Torture  abolished  in  French  judicature  .  .  .3780
Peace  of  Versailles  with  England  .  .  3  Sept.  1783
The  diamond-necklace  affair  (which  see)  .  .  -1785
Meeting  of  the  assembly  of  notables,  22  Feb.  1787  ;

again 6  Nov. 1788

Opening  of  states  general  (308  ecclesiastics, 285

nobles  ;  621  deputies,  tiers  etat)  . 5  May,  1789

The  tiers  etat  constitute  themselves  the  National

Assembly 17  June, ,,

The French  revolution commences  with  the  de-
struction of  the  Bastille  (which  see) . 14  July, „
The  National  Assembly  decrees  that  the  title  of  the

"  king  of  France  "  shall  be  changed  to  that  of  the

"  king  of  the  French  " .... 16  Oct. „
The  property  of  the  clergy  confiscated  .  2  Nov. ,,

Emigration  of  nobles  . . . . Oct. -Dec. „
Confederation  of  the  Champ  de  Mars ;  France  de-
clared a  limited  monarchy  ;  Louis  XVI. swears
to  maintain  the  constitution  . 14  July,  1790


The  silver  plate  used  in  the  churches  transferred  to

the  mint  and  coined  ... 3  March,  i79r

Death  of  Mirabeau  .... 2  April, ,,

The  king, queen, ami royal family arrested at

Varennes,  in  their  flight . . . .21  June, ,,
Louis  (a  prisoner)  sanctions  the  National  Constitu-
tion 15  Sept. „

War  declared  against  the  emperor . 20  April,  1792
The  Jacobin  club  declare  their  sittings  permanent,

18  June, ,,
The  multitude,  bearing  the  red  bonnet  of  liberty,

march  to  the  Tuileries  to  make  demands  on  the
king .  20  June, ,,

First  coalition  against  France  ;  commencement  of
the  great  French  war .... June, ,,
[See  Battles,  1792  to  1815.]
The  royal  Swiss  guards  cut  to  pieces  ;  massacre  of

5000  persons  .....  10  Aug.  ,,
Revolutionary  tribunal  set  up  .  .  .  19  Aug.  ,,
Decreeof  the  National  Assembly  against  the  priests  ;

40,000  exiled  .....  26  Aug.  ,,
Massacre  in  Paris  ;  the  prisons  broken  open,  and

1200  persons  (100  priests)  slain . 2-5  Sept. ,,
Murder  of  the  princess  de  Lamballe . 3  Sept. ,,
The  National  Convention  opened . 17  Sept. ,,
Convention  establishes  a  republic,  20  Sept.  ;  pro-
claimed 22  Sept. ,,

Duke  of  Brunswick  defeated  at  Valmy 20  Sept. ,,
The French  people  declare  their  fraternity  with
all  nations  who  desire  to  be  free,  and  offer  help,

19  Nov. ,,

Flanders  conquered Dec.

Decree  for  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the  Bourbon

family,  those  confined  in  the  Temple  excepted,

20  Dec. ,,
Louis  imprisoned  in  the  Temple  distinct  from  the

queen,  and  brought  to  trial,  19  Jan. ;  condemned
to  death,  20  Jan. Beheaded  in  the  Flace  de  Louis

Ouinzp. .21  Jan.  1793

Committee  of  public  safety  established 21  Jan. ,,
War  with  England  and  Holland  declared 1  Feb. „

War  in  La  Vendee March, „

Reign of terror — proscription of  Girondists, 31

May;  establishment  of  convention  23  June, ,,

Marat  stabbed  by  Charlotte  Corday . 13  July, „
The  queen  beheaded  . ... 16  Oct. ,,

Execution  of  the  Girondists  . . .  31  Oct. ,,

Philip  Egalite,  duke  of  Orleans,  who  had  voted  for
the  king's  death,  guillotined  at  Paris  (see  Orleans),
6  Nov. ;  and  madame  Roland . . 8  Nov. ,,
Worship  of  goddess  of  reason . .  10  Nov. ,,

Adoption  of  new  republican  calendar . 24  Nov. ,,
Execution  of  Danton  and  others,  5  April ;  of  madame
Elizabeth  ...  ... 12  May,  1794

Robespierre  president,  4  June  ;  he  and  71  others

guillotined 28  July, ,,

Abolition  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal 15  Dec. ,,

Peace  with  Prussia 5  April,  1795

Insurrection  of  the  Faubourgs  .  .  20,  21  May,  ,,
Louis  XVII.  dies  in  prison  ...  8  June,  ,,
French  directory  chosen  .  .  .  .1  Nov.  ,,
Bonaparte's  successful  campaigns  in  Italy,  1796,  &c
Babeuf  s  conspiracy  suppressed  .  .  12  May,  ,,
Pichegru's  conspiracy  fails  . . . May,  1797

Expedition  to  Syria  and  Egypt  (which  see)  July,  1798
European  coalition  against  France  .  .  April,  1799
Council  of  live  Hundred  deposed  by  Bonaparte,

who  is  declared  First  Consul . . 10  Nov. ,,
He  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Marengo . 14  June,  1800
His  life  attempted  by  the  infernal  machine,  24  Dec. „
Peace  of  Amiens  (with  England,  Spain,  and  Hol-
land) signed .... 25-27  March,  1802
Amnesty  to  the  emigrants . . . April, ,,
Legion  of  Honour  instituted . . .19  May, ,,
Bonaparte  made  consul  for  life . . • 2  Aug. ,,
The  bank  of  France  established  . . 14  April,  1803
Declaration  of  war  against  England . 22  May, „
Conspiracy  of  Moreau  and  Pichegru  against  Bona-
parte, 15  Feb. ;  Pichegru  found  strangled  in  prison

(see  Georges) 6  April,  1804

Due  d'Enghien  executed  . . . .21  March, ,,
France  made  an  empire  ;  Napoleon  proclaimed  em-
peror, 18  May  ;  crowned  by  the  pope  2  Dec. ,,
He  is  crowned  king  of  Italy . . .26  May,  1805
Another  coalition  against  France  . . . Aug. ,,
Napoleon  defeats  the  allies  at  Austerlitz 2  Dee. „
And  the  Prussians  at  Jena . . .14  Oct.  1806
And  the  Russians  at  Eylau ... 8  Feb.  1S07


FKANCE.


385


FRANCE.


His  interview  with  the  czar  at  Tilsit,  26  June ;  peace

signed 7  July,

His Milan decree against British commerce,

17  Dec.

New  nobility  of  France  created . . 1  March,

Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  and  his  son,  in

favour  of  Napoleon,  5  May ;  insurrection  in  Spain,

27  May,
Commencement  of  the  Peninsular  war  (see  Spain),

July,
Alliance  of  England  and  Austria  against  France,

April,
Victories  in  Austria;  Napoleon  enters  Vienna,  May,

Peace  of  Vienna 14  Oct.

Divorce  of the  emperor  and  empress  Josephine

decreed  by  the  senate . . . .16  Dec.

Marriage  of  Napoleon  to  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,

1  April,
Holland  united  to  France  ...  9  July,
Birth  of  the  king  of  Rome  (since  styled  Napoleon  II. ),

20  March,  18
War  with  Russia  declared . . .22  June,  18

Victory  at  Borodino 7  Sept. ,

Disastrous  retreat ;  French  army  nearly  destroyed,

Oct. ,
Alliance  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  against

France March,  18

The  British  enter  France  .  .  .  .7  Oct.  ,
Surrender  of  Paris  to  the  allies  .  .  31  March,  18
Abdication  of  Napoleon  negotiated  .  5  April,  ,
Bourbon  dynasty  restored,  and  Louis  XVIII.  arrives

in  Paris 3  May, ,

Napoleon  arrives  at  Elba  ....  4  May,  ,
The  Constitutional  Charter  decreed  .  4-10  June,  ,
Quits  Elba,  and  lands  at  Cannes .  1  March,  18

Arrives  at  Fontainebleau  (the  100  clays),  20  March,  ,
Joined  by  all  the  army  ...  22  March,  ,
The  allies  sign  a  treaty  against  him  .  March,  ,
He  abolishes  the  slave  trade  .  .  29  March,  ,
Leaves  Paris  for  the  army  ...  12  June,  ,
Defeated  at  Waterloo  .  .  .  .18  June,  ,
Returns  to  Paris,  20  June  ;  abdicates  in  favour  of

his  infant  son 22  June, ,

Intending  to  embark  for  America,  he arrives  at

Rochefort 3  July, ,

Louis  XVIII.  enters  Paris . . . .3  July,

Napoleon  surrenders  to capt. Maitland, of the

Bellertrphon,  at  Rochefort . . .15  July,

Transferred  at  Torbay  to  the  Northumberland,  and

with  admiral  sir  George  Cockburn  sails  for  St.

Helena 8  Aug.

Arrives  at  St.  Helena  to  remain  for  life  15  Oct.

Execution  of  marshal  Ney ... 7  Dec.
The  family  of  Bonaparte  excluded  for  ever  from

France  by  the  law  of  amnesty
Duke  of  Berry  murdered
Death  of  Napoleon  I.  (see  Wills)
Louis  XVIII.  dies  ;  Charles  X.  king ,
National  Guard  disbanded
War  with  Algiers  ;  dey's  fleet  defeated
Seventy-six  new  peers  created
Election  riots  at  Paris  ;  barricades  ;  several  per-
sons killed 19-20  Nov. ,,

The  Villele  ministry  replaced  by  the  Martignac,

4  Jan.  1828
Beranger  imprisoned  for  political  songs 10  Dec. „
Polignac  administration  formed . . 8  Aug. 1829
Chamber  of  deputies  dissolved . . 16  May,  1830

Algiers  taken 5  July, „

The  obnoxious ordinances regarding the  press,
and  reconstruction  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,

26  July, ,,
Revolution  commences  with  barricades 27  July, ,,
Conflicts in  Paris between the populace (ulti-
mately aided  by  the  national  guard)  and  the  army,

28-30  July, ,,
Charles  X. retires  to Rambouillet ; flight  of  his

ministry,  31  July  ;  he  abdicates . .  2  Aug. ,,
The  duke  of  Orleans  accepts  the  crown  as  Louis-
Philippe  1 7  Aug. „

The constitutional charter of  July published,

14  Aug.  ,,
Charles  X.  retires  to  England  .  .  17  Aug.  ,,
Polignac  and  other  ministers  tried  and  sentenced  to

perpetual  imprisonment  21  Dec. „

The  abolition  of  the hereditary  peerage  decreed
by  both  chambers  ;  the  peers  (36  new  peers  being


12  Jan.

1816

13  Feb.

1820

5  May,

1821

16  Sept.

1824

30  April,

1827

4  Nov.

,,

5  Nov.

„

created)  concurring  by  a  majority  of  103  to  70,

27  Dec. 1831
The  ABC  (abaisses)  insurrection  in  Paris  sup-
pressed 5-6  June,  1832

Charles  X.  leaves  Holyrood-house  for  the  conti-
nent 18  Sept. ,,

Ministry  of  Soult,  duke  of  Dalmatia . .  11  Oct. ,,
Bergeron  and  Benoit  tried  for  an  attempt  on  the

life  of  Louis-Philippe  ;  acquitted . 18  March,  1833
The  duchess  of  Berry,  who  has  been  delivered  of  a
female  child, and asserts her secret  marriage
with  an  Italian  nobleman,  sent  to  Palermo,  9  June, , .
Death  of  La  Fayette . . . .20  May,  1834
Marshal  Gerard  takes  office . . .15  July, ,,

M.  Dupuytren  dies 8  Feb.  1835

Due  de  Broglie,  minister  ....  Feb.  ,,
Fieschi  attempts  the  king's  life  .  .  28  July,  ,,
[He  fired  an  infernal  machine  as  the  king  and  his
sons  rode  along  the  lines  of  the  national  guard,
on  the  Boulevard  du  Temple.  The  machine
consisted  of  twenty-five  barrels,  charged  with
various  missiles,  and  lighted  simultaneously  by  a
train  of  gunpowder.  The  king  and  his  sons  es-
caped ;  but  marshal  Mortier,  duke  of  Treviso,
was  shot  dead,  many  officers  dangerously
wounded,  and  upwards  of  forty  persons  killed
or  injured.]

Fieschi  executed 19  Feb.  1836

Louis  Alibaud  fires  at  the  king  on  his  way  from  the

Tuileries,  25  June  ;  guillotined  . . 11  July, „
Ministry  of  count  Mole,  vice  M.  Thiers . 6  Sept. ,,

Death  of  Charles  X 6  Nov. ,,

Attempted  insurrection  at  Strasburg  by  Louis
Napoleon  (afterwards  emperor),  planned,  it  is
said,  by  Filain  de  Persigny,  29-30  Oct.  ;  he  is  sent

to  America 13  Nov. ,,

Prince  Polignac  and  others  set  at  liberty  from  Ham,

and  sent  out  of  France  . . . -23  Nov. ,,
Meunier  fires  at  the  king  on  his  way  to  open  the

French  Chambers ... 27  Dec. ,,
Amnesty  for  political  offences  ... 8  May  1837
"  Idees  Napoleoniennes,"  by  prince  Louis  Napo-
leon, published 1838"

Talleyrand  dies 20  May, ,,

Marshal  Soult  at  the  coronation  of  the  queen  of

England 28  June, ,,

Birth  of  the  count  of  Paris . . . 24  Aug. ,,
Death  of  the  duchess  of  Wurtemberg  (daughter  of

Louis  Philippe),  a  good  sculptor . . 2  Jan. 1839
Insurrection  of  Barbes  and  Blanqui  at  Paris,  12  May, ,,
M.  Thiers,  minister  of  foreign  affairs . 1  March,  1840
The  chambers  decree  the  removal  of  Napoleon's  re-
mains from  St.  Helena  to  France  . .12  May, ,,
[By  the  permission  of  the  British  government  these
were  taken  from  the  tomb  at  St.  Helena  (15  Oct.
1840),  and  embarked  on  the  next  day  on  board
the  Belle  Poule  French  frigate,  under  the  com-
mand of  the  prince de Joinville  ; the  vessel
reached  Cherbourg  on  30  November  ;  and  on  15
December  the  body  was  deposited  in  the  Hotel
des  Invalides. The  ceremony  was  witnessed  by
1,000,000  of  persons  ;  130,000  soldiers  assisted  in
the  obsequies  :  and  the  royal  family  and  all  the
high  personages  of  the  realm  were  present ;  all
the  relatives  of  the  emperor  were  absent,  being;
proscribed,  and  in  exile  or  in  prison. The  body-
was  finally  placed  in its  crypt  on  31  March,
1861.]
Descent  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon,  general  Montho-
lon,  and  50  followers,  at  Vimereux,  near  Bou-
logne, 6  Aug.  ;  the  prince  sentenced  to  imprison-
ment for  life 6  Oct. ,,

Darines  fires  at  the  king ...  15  Oct. ,y

M.  Guizot,  minister  of  foreign  affairs . 29  Oct. ,,
Project  of  law  for  an  extraordinary  credit  of  140,000,000
of  francs,  for  erecting  the  fortifications  of  Paris,

15  Dec. ,,
The duration  of  copyright  to 30  years  after  the

author's  death,  fixed . . . .30  March,  1S41
Bronze  statue  of  Napoleon  placed  on the  column
of  the  grande  armee,  Boulogne  . 15  Aug.

Attempt  to  assassinate  the  duke  of  Aumale  (king's

son)  on  return  from  Africa  . . 13  Sept. ,,

The  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  to  the  throne,  killed  by  a

fall  from  his  carnage . . . .13  Jllly>  1842
The  queen  of  England  visits  the  royal  family  at

Chateau  d'Eu 2  to  7  Sept 1843

An  extradition  treaty  with  England  signed . . „

C  O


FKANCE.


386


FRANCE.


War  with  Morocco,  May  ;  peace . . 10  Sept.  1844
The  king  visits  England  ;  received  by  the  queen  6

Oct.  ;  installed  k.g.  9  Oct.  ;  departs . 13  Oct „
Attempt  of  Lecompte  to  assassinate  the  king  at

Fontainebleau 16  April,  1846

Louis  Napoleon  escapes  from  Ham . 25  May, ,,
The  seventh  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  king  :  by

Joseph  Henri 29  July, „

Spanish  marriages  :  marriage  of  the  queen  of  Spain
with  her  cousin,  and  of  the  due  de  Montpensier
with  the  infanta  of  Spain ... 10  Oct. „
Disastrous  inundations  in  the  south  . . 18  Oct. ,,
The  Praslin  murder  (see  Praslin) . . 18  Aug. 1847
Death  of  marshal  Oudinot  (duke  of  Reggio)  at  Paris,
in  his  91st  year,  13  Sept.  ;  Soult  made  general  of
France,  in  his  room .... 26  Sept. ,,
Jerome  Bonaparte  returns  to  France  after  an  exile

of  32  years 10  Oct. ,,

Surrender  of  Abd-el-Kader . . . 23  Dec. ,*
Death  of  the  ex-empress,  Maria  Louisa,  18  Dec.  ;

and  of  madame  Adelaide  . . . • 3°  Dec. „
The grand reform  banquet  at  Paris  prohibited,

21  Feb. 1848
Revolutionary  tumult  in  consequence; impeach-
ment and  resignation  of  Guizot,  22  Feb.  ;  barri-
cades thrown  up,  the  Tuileries  ransacked, the
prisons  opened,  and  frightful  disorders  committed,

23-24  Feb. „
Louis  Philippe  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  infant
grandson,  the comte  de  Paris,  who  is  not  ac-
cepted;  the  royal  family  and  ministers  escape,

24  Feb. ,,
A  republic  proclaimed  from  the  steps  of  the  Hotel

deVille 26  Feb. „

The  ex-king  and  queen  arrive  at  Newhaven  in  Eng-
land 3  March, „

Grand  funeral  procession  in  honour  of  the  victims

of  the  revolution 4  March, „

The  provisional  government  resigns  to  an  executive
commission,  elected  by  the  National  Assemblv  of
the  French  Republic  .  ■ -  7  May> ..

[The  members  of  this  new  trovernment  were  :  MM.
Dupont  de  l'Eure,  Arago,  Garnier-Pages,  Marie,
Lamartine  Ledru-Rollin,  and  Cremieux.  The
secretaries :  Louis  Blanc,  Albert,  Flocon,  and
Marrast.]
The  people's  attack  on  the  assembly  suppressed,

15  May, „
Perpetual  banishment  of  Louis  Philippe  and  his

family  decreed 26  May, „

Election  of  Louis  Napoleon  (to  the  National  As-
sembly) for  the  department  of  the  Seine  and  three
other  departments  .... 13  June, „

Rise  of  the  red  Republicans  :  war  against  the  troops
and  national  guard  ;  more  than  300  barricades
thrown  up,  and  firing  continues  in  all  parts  of
Paris  during  the  night  ...  23  June,  „
The  troops  under  Cavaignac  and  Lamoriciere,  with
immense  loss,  drive  the  insurgents  from  the  left

bank  of  the  Seine 24  June, „

Paris  declared  in  a  state  of  siege  . . 25  June, „
The  Faubourg  du  Temple  carried  with  cannon,  and

the  insurgents  surrender ... 26  June, ,,
[The  national  losses  caused  by  this  outbreak  esti-
mated at  30,000,000  francs  ;  16,000  persons  killed
and  wounded,  and  8000  prisoners  were  taken.  The
archbishop  of  Paris  was  killed  while  tending  the
dying,  26  June.]
Cavaignac,  president  of  the  council  . .  28  June, „
Louis  Napoleon  takes  his  seat  in  the  National  As-
sembly 26  Sept. „

Paris  relieved  from  a  state  of  siege,  which  had  con-
tinued four  months .... 20  Oct. ,,
Solemn  promulgation  of  the  constitution  of  4  Nov. ,

in  front  of  the  Tuileries  . . . .12  Nov. „
Louis Napoleon  elected president  of  the  French

republic,  11  Dec.  ;  proclaimed . . 20  Dec. „
[He  had  5,587,759  votes  ;  Cavaignac,  1,474,687  ;  Le-
dru-Rollin, 381,026;  Raspail,  37,121  ;  Lamartine,
21,032  ;  and  Changarnier,  4,975.]
Military  demonstration  to  stifle  an  anticipated  in-
surrection of  the  reds . . . . "29  Jan.  1849
Death  of  king  Louis  Philippe, at Claremont, in

England 26  Aug. 1850

Liberty  of  the  press  restricted . . 26  Sept. ,,
Gen.  Changarnier  deprived  of  the  command  of  the
national  guard , - ,  10  Jan.  185 1


Death  of  the  duchess  of  Angouleme,  daughter  of

Louis  XVI. ,  at  Frohsdorf  . . .  19  Oct.  1851

Death  of  marshal  Soult .... 26  Oct. „
Electric  telegraph between  England  and  France

opened 13  Nov. ,,

Factious  oppositions  in  the  chamber  ;  alleged  plots

Nov. ,,
Coup  d'etat  planned  by  the  prince-president, Per-
signy, and De Morny ; carried  out  by  C.  de
Maupas, minister  of police, St. Arnaud, and
others  ;  legislative  assembly  dissolved ;  universal
suffrage  established,  and  Paris  declared  in  a  state
of  siege  ;  the  election  of  a  president  for  ten  years
proposed,  and  a  second  chamber  or  senate,

2  Dec. ,,
MM.  Thiers,  Changarnier,  Cavaignac,  Bedeau,  La-
moriciere, and  Charres  arrested,  and  sent  to  the
castle  of  Vincennes .... 2  Dec. ,,

About  180  members  of  the  assembly,  with  M.  Ber-
ryer  at  their  head,  attempting  to  meet,  are  ar-
rested,  and  Paris  is  occupied  by  troops.

2  Dec. „
M. Charles  Baudin, a  deputy, shot  dead  while

protesting  against  the  violation  of  the  law  2  Dec. „
Sanguinary  conflicts  in  Paris  ;  the  troops  victorious,

3-4  Dec. „
Consultative  commission  founded . . 12  Dec. „
Voting  throughout  France  for  the  election of  a
president  of  the  republic  for  ten  years  ; affirma-
tive votes  7,473,431,  negative  votes  641,351.

21-22  Dec. ,,
Installation  of  the  prince-president  in  the  cathe-
dral of Notre  Dame ; the day  observed  as  a
national  holiday  at  Paris,  and  Louis  Napoleon
takes  up  his  residence at  the Tuileries,

1  Jan. 1852
Generals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others,

conducted  to  the  Belgian  frontier . . 9  Jan. ,,
83  members  of  the  legislative  assembly  banished  ;
575  persons  arrested  for  resistance  to  the  coup
d'etat  Of  2  Dec. ,  and  conveyed  to  Havre  for  trans-
portation to  Cayenne .... 10  Jan. ,,

[The  inscription  "  Lioerty, Fraternity,  Equality,"
ordered  to  be  forthwith  erased  throughout  France,
and  the  old  names  of  streets,  public  buildings,
and  places  of  resort  to  be  restored. The  trees
of liberty are everywhere hewn down and
burnt.  ]
The  national  guard  disbanded,  reorganised  anew,
and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  executive  ;
the  president  appointing  the  officers . 10  Jan. „
A  new  constitution  published . .  14  Jan. ,,

Decree  obliging  the  Orleans  family  to  sell  all  their
real  and  personal  property  in  France  within  a
year  ....... 22  Jan. ,,

Second  decree,  annulling  the  settlement  made  by
Louis  Philippe  upon  his  family  previous  to  his
accession  in  1830,  and  annexing  the  property  to
the  domain  of  the  state  . . . .22  Jan. „

The  birthday  of  Napoleon  I.  (15  Aug.)  decreed  to  be

the  only  national  holiday . . . 17  Feb. ,,
The  departments  of  France  released  from  a  state  of
siege ......  27  March, ,,

Legislative  chambers  installed . . 29  March, ,,
A  crystal  palace  authorised  to  be  erected  in  the

Champs  Elysees  at  Paris . . -30  March, ,,
Plot  to  assassinate  the  prince-president  discovered

at  Paris 1  July, ,,

President's  visit  to  Strasburg . . ig  July, ,,
M.  Thiers  and  others  permitted  to  return  to  France,

8  Aug. „
The  French  senate  prays  "  the  re-establishment  of
the  hereditary  sovereign  power  in  the  Bonaparte

family " 13  Sept. ,,

Enthusiastic  reception  of  the  prince-president  at

Lyons . .  ■ 19  Sept. ,,

Infernal  machine,  to  destroy  the  prince-president,

seized  at  Marseilles .... 23  Sept. „
Prince-president  visits  Toulon,  27  Sept.  ;  and  Bor-
deaux,  where  he  says "the  empire  is  peace"
(L'Empire  e'est  lapaix) .... 7  Oct. ,,
He  releases  Abd-el-Kader  (see  Algiers)  . 16  Oct. ,
He  convokes  the  senate  for  November  to  deliberate
on  a  change  of  government,  when  a  senatus  consul-
turn,  will  be  proposed  for  the  ratification  of  the

French  people 19  Oct. -"

Protest  of  comte  de  Chambord  . . .25  Oct. '


FRANCE.


387


FRANCE.


Ju  his  message  to  the  senate,  the  prince-president
announces  the  contemplated  restoration  of  the
empire,  and  orders  the  people  to  he  consulted

upon  this  change 4  ~biov.  1852

Votes  for  the  empire, 7,824,189; noes, 253,145;

null,  63,326 21  Nov. „

The  prince-president  declared emperor ; assumes
the  title  of  Napoleon  III. . . . 2  Dec. „

His  marriage  with  Eugenie  de  Montijo,  countess  of
Teba,  at  Notre-Dame  .... 29  Jan. 1853

4312  political  offenders  pardoned  . . .2  Feb. ,,
Bread  riots  . . . . . . Sept. ,,

Military  camp  at  Satory,  near  Paris . . Sept. „
Emperor  and  empress  visit  the  provinces  (many

political  prisoners  discharged) . . . Oct. ,,
Francis  Arago,  astronomer,  &c. ,  died  . . 2  Oct. „
Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor — ten  per-
sons transported  for  life ....  Nov. ,,

Reconciliation  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Bourbons
at  Frohsdorf . . . . . .20  Nov. ,,

Marshal  Ney's  statue  inaugurated  exactly  38  years
after  his  death  on  the  spot  where  it  occurred,

7  Dec. ,,
War  declared  against  Russia  (see  Russo-Turkish  War)

27  March,  1854
Visit  of  prince  Albert  at  Boulogne . 5  Sept. ,,
Death  of  marshal  St.  Arnaud . . .  29  Sept. „
Emperor  and  empress  visit  London 16-21  April,  1855
Industrial  exhibition  at  Paris  opened . 15  May ,,
■Queen Victoria and  prince  Albert  visit  France,

18-27  Aug. ,,
Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor  by  Pianort,
28  April ;  by  Bellemarrc  . ... 8  Sept. ,,

Death  of  count  Mole 24  Nov. ,,

. Birth  of  the  imperial  prince  ;  amnesty  granted  to

1000  political  prisoners ... 16  March,  1856
Peace  with  Russia  signed . .  30  March, ,,

Awful  inundation  in  the  south . . .  June, ,,
^Subscriptions in  London  to  relieve  the  sufferers
amounted  to  43,000^. Sir  Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy,
of  Bombay,  gave  500L  for  the  same  purpose.]
Distress  in  money  market  .... 6  Oct. ,,
Sibour,  archbishop  of  Paris,  assassinated  by  Verger,

a  priest 3  Jan.  1857

Elections  (3,000,000  voters  to  elect  257  deputies) :
gen.  Cavaignac  elected  deputy,  but  declines  to

take  the  oath 21,  22  June, ,,

•Conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  emperor  in  Paris  de-
tected n  July, ,,

Death  of  Beranger,  popular  poet . . 16  July, ,,
Longwood,  the residence  of Napoleon  I.  at  St.

Helena,  bought  for  180,000  francs . . . . ,,
The  conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi,
tried,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  transportation,

&c 6,  7  Aug. ,,

Emperor  and  empress  visit  England .  6-10  Aug. ,,
The  emperor  meets  the  emperor  of  Russia  at  Stutt-
gart 25  Sept. ,,

Death  of  Eugene  Cavaignac  (aged  55) . 28  Oct. ,,
■Death  of  Mdlle.  Rachel  (aged  38) . . 4  Jan. 1858
Attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor  by  Orsini,
Pieri,  Rudio,  Gomez,  &c,  by  the  explosion of
three  shells  (two  persons  killed,  many  wounded)

14  Jan.  ,,
.(Felix  Orsini,  a  man  of  talent  and  energy,  earnest  to
obtain  Italian  independence,  was  born  Dec.  1819  ;
studied  at  Bologna  in  1837  ;  joined  a  secret  society
in  1843  ;  was  arrested  and  condemned  to  the  gal-
leys for  life  in  1844  ;  was  released  in  1846  ;  took
part  in  the  Roman  revolution  in  1848,  when  he
was  elected  a  member  of  the  assembly  ;  and  on  the
fall  of  the  republic,  fled  to  Genoa  in  1849,  anil
came  to  England  in  1853.  Entering  into  fresh
conspiracies,  he  was  arrested  in  Hungary,  Jan.
1855,  and  sent  to  Mantua  ;  he  escaped  thence  and
came  to  England  in  1856,  where  he  associated
with  Kossuth,  Mazzini,  &c.  ;  delivered  lectures,
and  where  he  devised  the  plot  for  which  he  suf-
fered. In  his  will  he  acknowledged  the  justice  of
his  sentence.]
Public  safety  bill  passed— bold  protest  against  it  by

Ollivier 18  Feb. „

France  divided  into  five  military  departments ;
general  Espinasse  becomes  minister  of  the  interior,

Feb. ,
"Napoleon  III.  ct  VAngktcrre"  published n  Mar. ,,


Intemperate  speeches  in  France  against  England-
misconceptions  between  the  two  countries  par-
tially removed  in March,  1858

Republican  outbreak  at  Chalons  suppressed

9  March, ,,
Orsmi  and  Pieri  executed . . .13  March,
Simon  Bernard,  tried  in  London  as  their  accomplice^

acquitted I2.I7  April, „

Marshal  Pelissier,  ambassador  to  London,

15  April, ,,
Espinasse  retires  from  ministry  of  the  interior  [he
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  4  June,  1859]

June, ,,
Queen  of  England  meets  the  emperor  ;  visits  Cher-

_,  bo'uig 4>  5  Aug. „

Conference  at  Paris  respecting  the  Danubian  prin-
cipalities closes IQ  Aug. „

Dispute  with Portugal  respecting  the  Charles  et

Georges  (lolnoh  sec)  settled ...  23  Oct. „

Trial  of  comte  de  Montalembert  .  .  25  Nov.
[In  Oct.  1858,  the  comte  published  a  pamphlet  en-
titled "  Un  Debat  sur  I'Inde,"  eulogising  English
institutions  and  depreciating  those  of  France.
He  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment
and  a  fine  of  3000  francs,  but  was  pardoned  by  the
emperor,  2  Dec.  The  comte  appealed  against  the
sentence  of  the  court,  and  was  again  condemned  ;
but  acquitted  of  a  part  of  the  charge.  The  sen-
tence was  once  more  remitted  by  the  emperor
(21  Dec).  In  Oct.  1859,  the  comte  published  a
pamphlet  entitled  *'  Fie  IX.  et  la  France  en  1849
et  1859,"  in  which  Ens-land  is  severely  censured
for  opposition  to  popery.]
Emperor's  address  to  the  Austrian  ambassador  (see

Austria) r  jan. l8sg

Marriage  of  prince  Napoleon  to  princess  Clotilde  of
Savoy . . . . . . . 30  Jan. ,,

Publication  of  "  Napoleon  III.  et  I'ltalie  " . Feb.

On  the  Austrians invading  Sardinian  territories,

France  declares  war,  and  the  French  enter  ;  the

empress  appointed  regent ;  the  emperor  arrives  at

Genoa 12  May, „

Loan  of  20,000,000  francs  raised . . 21  May, ,,
Victories  of  the  allies  (French  and  Sardinians)  at
Montebello,  20  May  ;  Palestro,  30,  31  May  ;  Ma-
genta, 4  June  ;  Melegnano  (Marignano),  8  June  ;
Napoleon  enters  Milan,  8  June  ;  victory  of  allies

at  Solferino 24  June,

Armistice  agreed  on 6  July,

Meeting  of  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  at  Villa

Franca „  jxtly,

Peace  agreed  on I2  July,

Louis  Napoleon  returns  to  Paris  17  July,

The  emperor  addresses  the  senate,  19  July ;  and  the

diplomatic  body 21  July,

Reduction  of  the  army  and  navy  ordered . Aug.
Conference  of  Austrian  and  French  envoys  at  Zurich

(see  Zurich) 8  Aug. -No  v.

Amnesty  to  political  offenders . 17-18  Aug.
Violent  attacks  of  the  French  press  on  England  re-
pressed Nov.

"  he  Pape  et  le  Congres  "  published  ;  50,000  sold  in  a

few  days . Dec.

Count  Walewski,  the foreign  minister, resigns ;

M.  Thouvenel  succeeds  him  . . Jan.  i860

The  emperor  announces  a  free  trade  policy ;  Mr.

Cobden  at  Paris 5  Jan.

Commercial  treaty  with  England  signed . 23  Jan.
L'Univcrs  suppressed  forpublishingthe  pope'sletter

to  the  emperor. 29  Jan.

Treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  signed

24  March,
The press censured for attacking England,

7  April,
The  emperor  meets  the  German  sovereigns  at  Baden

15-17  June,
Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies

(aged  76) 24  June,

The  emperor,  in  a  letter  to count  Persigny, dis-
claims hostility  to  England . . .25  July,
The  emperor  and  empress  visit  Savoy,  Corsica,  and

Algiers i-i7  Sept

New  tariff  comes  into  operation  . . . 1  Oct.

Public  levying  of  Peter's  pence  forbidden,  and  free

issue  of  pastoral  letters  checked . . . Nov.

The  empress  visits  London,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,

&c,  privately Nov.-Dec

c  c  2


FBANCE.


FKANCE.


Important  ministerial  changes  ;  greater  liberty  of
speech  granted  to  the  chambers  ; two sets  of
ministers  appointed — speakers  and  administra-
tors ;  Pelissier  made  governor  of  Algeria  ;  Per-
signy,  minister  of  the  interior  ;  Flahault,  English
ambassador.. .... Nov.  &  Dec.  i860

Passports  for  Englishmen  to  cease  after  1  Jan.  1861

16  Dec. ,,

Six  bishoprics  vacant Dec. ,,

Persigny  relaxes  the  bondage  of  the  press,  Dec.  11 ;

[but  for  a  short  time] .... 20  Dec. ,,
The  emperor  advises  the  pope  to  surrender  his  re-
volted provinces 31  Dec. ,,

"  Rome  et  les  Eveques  "  published . . . 6  Jan. 1861
Jerome  (son  of  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Elizabeth
Paterson,  an  American  lady)  claims  his  legitimate
rights  ;  non-suited  after  a  trial 25  Jan. -15  Feb. „
[The  marriage  took  place  in  America,  on  24  Dec.
1803  ;  but  was  annulled,  and  Jerome  married  the
princess  Catherine  of  Wurtemberg,  12  Aug.  1807  ;
their  children  are  the  prince  Napoleon  and  the
princess  Mathilde  (see  Bonaparte).  ]
Purchase  of  the  principality  of  Monaco  for  4,000,000

francs,  Feb.  2;  announced . . . 5  Feb., ,,
Meeting  of  French  chambers,  4  Feb.  ;  stormy  de-
bates in  the  chambers . . Feb.  &  March, ,,
"  La  France,  Rome,  et  Vltalie  "  published 15  Feb. ,,
Angry  reply  to  it  by  the  bishop  of  Poitiers,  who

compares  the  emperor  to  Pilate . . 27  Feb. „
Failure  of  Mires,  a  railway  banker  and  loan  con-
tractor, &c.  ;  he  is  arrested . . .17  Feb. ,,
Many  influential  persons  suspected  of  participating
in  his  frauds ; the  government  promise  strict

justice Feb.  &  March, ,,

Eugene  Scribe,  dramatist,  dies  (aged  80) 20  Feb. „
Speech  of  prince  Napoleon  in  favour  of  Italian
unity,  the  English  alliance,  and  against  the  pope's
temporal  government . . .  1  March, ,,

Strong  advocacy  of  the  temporal  government  of  the
pope  in  the  chambers ;  the  French  army  stated  to
consist  of  687,000  men . . . March, „
Circularforbiddingthe  priests  to  meddle  withpolitics

11  April, ,,
Liberal  commercial  treaty  with  Belgium  . 1  May, „
Publication  in  Paris  of  the  due  dAumale's  severe
letter  to  prince  Napoleon,  13  April. Printer  and
publisher  fined  and  imprisoned  . . . May, „
Declaration  of  neutrality  in  the  American  conflict

11  June, ,,
Official  recognition  of  kingdom  of  Italy . 24  June, ,,

Visit  of  king  of  Sweden 6  Aug. ,,

Conflict  between  French  and  Swiss  soldiers  at  Ville-

la-Grande 18  Aug. ,,

Mires,  the  speculator,  sentenced  to  five  years'  im-
prisonment 29  Aug. „

Commercial  treaty  between  France,  Great  Britain,

and  Belgium  comes  into  operation . 1  Oct. „
Meeting  of  emperor  and  king  of  Prussia  at  Com-

piegne,  6  Oct.  ;  and  king  of  Holland . 12  Oct. ,,
French  troops  enter  the  valley  of  Dappes  (Switzer-
land) to  prevent  an  arrest ... 27  Oct. „
Convention  between  France, Great  Britain, and
Spain,  respecting  intervention  in  Mexico,  signed „

(see  Mexico) 31  Oct. „

Embarrassment  in  the  government  finances ;  Achille
Fould  becomes  finance  minister,  14  Nov.  ;  with

enlarged  powers 12  Dec. „

The  emperor  reminds  the  clergy  of  their  duty  "  to-
wards Ctesar  " z  Jan.  1862

French  army  lands  at  Vera  Cruz . . .7  Jan. „
The  French  masters  of  the  province  of  Bienhoa,  in

Annam 20  Jan. „

Fruitless  meeting  of  French  and  Swiss  commis-
sioners respecting  the  Ville-la-Grande  conflict

3  Feb. „
Fould  announces  his  finance  scheme  (reduction  of
4j  per  cent,  stock  to  3  per  cent. ,  and  additional
taxes  and  stamp  duties) ... 24  Feb. ,.
Fierce  debate  in  the  legislative  chamber,  in  which

prince  Napoleon  takes  part . . .27  Feb. „
French  victories  in  Cochin-China  (6  provinces  ceded

to  France) 28  March, „

The  Spanish  and  British  plenipotentiaries  decide  to
quit  Mexico  ;  the  French  declare  war  against  the
Mexican  government  (for  the  events  see  Mexico)

16  April, ,,


Sentence  against  Mires  examined  and  reversed  at

Douai ;  he  is  released . . . .21  April,  1862:
Treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  Annam  signed

3  June,
Duke  Pasquier  dies  (aged  96)  . .  5  July,

New  commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  .  2  Aug.
Newspaper  La  France,  opposed  to  Italian  unity,  set

up  by  Lagueronniere Aug.

Ship  Prince  Jerome,  with  reinforcements  for  Mexico,

burnt  near  Gibraltar  ;  crew  saved . .  Aug.

Camp  at  Chalons  formed  on  account  of  Garibaldi's

movements  in  Sicily ;  broken,  when  he  is  taken

prisoner 29  Aug.

Great  sympathy  for  him  in  France  .  .  Sept.
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Madagascar  .  12  Sept.
Drouyn  de  Lhuys  made  foreign  minister  in  room  of

Thouvenel 15  Oct.

Baron  Gros,  ambassador  at  London  in  room  of
cornte  de  Flahault,  resigned  .  .  18  Nov.
Serjeant  Glover  brings  an  action  in  the  court  of
queen's  bench  against  the  eomte  de  Persigny  and
M.  Billault,  claiming  14,000?.  for  subsidising  the
Morning  Chronicle,  and  other  newspapers  22  Nov.
The  emperor  inaugurates  "Boulevard  Prince  Eu-
gene," Paris 7  Dec.

Great  distress  in  the  manufacturing  districts  through
the  cotton  famine  and  the  civil  war  in  America

Dec.
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Italy  signed . 17  Jan. :
Revolt  in  Annam  suppressed . . .26  Feb.
Convention  regulating  the  French  and  Spanish  fron-
tiers concluded 27  Feb.

Resignation  of  Magne,  the  "  speaking  minister,"  in

the  assembly 1  April,

Dissolution  of  the  chambers  ...  8  May,
Persigny  issues  arbitrary  injunctions  to  electors

May,
Thiers,  Ollivier,  Favre,  and  other  opposition  candi-
dates elected  in  Paris . . 31  May- 15  June,
Changes  in  the  ministry — resignation  of  Persigny,
Walewski,  and  Rouland ... 23  June,
The  empress  visits  queen  of  Spain  at  Madrid Oct.
Baron  Gros  resigns,  prince  Tourd'Auvergne  becomes
ambassador  at  London  .... 14  Oct.
Death  of  Billault  (born  1805)  "  speaking  minister  "
in  legislative  assembly, 13  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by
Rouher,  as  "  minister  of  state  " . .  18  Oct.
The  emperor  proposes  the  convocation  of  a  European
congress,  and  invites  the  sovereigns  or  their  de-
puties by  letter 4  Nov.

Thiers and his friends form  a new  opposition

9  Nov.
The  invitation  to  the  congress  declined  by  England

25  Nov.
Thiers  speaks  in  the  chamber . . 24  Dec.
Arrest  of  Grego  and  other  conspirators  against  the
emperor's  life, 3  Jan.  ;  tried  and  sentenced  to
transportation  and  imprisonment  . . 27  Feb. 18641
Convention  between  France,  Brazil,  Italy,  Portugal,
and  Hayti,  for  establishing  a  telegraphic  line  be-
tween Europe  and  America . . 16  May, „
Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff,

governor  of  Algeria  (born  1794) . . 22  May, ,,
Convention  between  France  and  Japan  signed  by

Japanese  ambassadors  at  Paris  . . 20  June, ,„
Convention  of  commerce,  &c. ,  between  France  and

Switzerland,  signed . . . -30  June, ,,
Prince  Napoleon  Victor,  son  of  prince  Napoleon

Jerome  and  princess  Clotilde,  born  .  16  July, ,,

Convention  between  France  and  Italy  respecting

evacuation  of  Rome,  &c. . . -15  Sept. ,»
Garnier-Pages  and  12  others  who  had  met  at  his
house  for  election  purposes,  convicted  as  mem-
bers of  a  society  "  of  more  than  20  members  "

7  Dec. ,,
Death  of  the  emperor's  private  secretary  and  old

friend,  Mocquard 9  Dec. „

Death  of  Proudhon  (born  1809),  who  said  "  la  pro-
priety e'est  le  vol  " .... 19  Jan. 1865
The  clergy  prohibited  from  reading  the  pope's  ency-
clical letter  of  8  Dec.  in  churches  ;  much,  excite-
ment ; the  archbishop  of  Besangon  and  other

prelates  disobey 5  Jan. „

The  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  appointed  vice-presi-
dent of  the  privy  council .... Jan. „
Decree  for  an  international  exhibition  of  the  products
of  agriculture  and  industiy,  and  of  the  fine  aits,
at  Paris,  on  1  May,  1867  . . . . 1  Feb. „


FEANCE.


389


FEANCE.


Treaty  with  Sweden  signed . . . 14  Feb. 1865

The  minister  Duruy's  plan  of  compulsory  education
rejected  by  the  assembly  . .  8  March,

Death  of  the  due  de  Morny,  said  to  be  half-brother
of  the  emperor 10  March,

"  Loi  des  suspects  "  (or  of  public  safety)  suffered  to
expire 31  March,

Attempted  assassination  of  a  secretary  at  the
Russian  embassy .... 24  April,

The  emperor  visits  Algeria . . .  3-27  May,

Inauguration  of  the  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  at
Ajaecio,  with  an  imprudent  speech  by  prince
Napoleon  Jerome,  15  May ;  censured  by  the
emperor,  23  May ;  the  prince  resigns  his  offices

9  June, ,,

The  English  fleet  entertained  at  Cherbourg  and
Brest,  15  Aug.  et  seq. ;  review  of  the  fleets

15  &  21  Aug. „

The  French  fleet  entertained  at  Portsmouth,

29  Aug. -1  Sept. „

Protest  of  the  United  States  against  French  inter-
vention in  Mexico — prolonged  correspondence  (see
Mexico) . . . . Aug.  1865-Feb.  1866.

Count  Walewski  nominated  president  of  the  corps
legislatif 2  Sept. ,,

Death  of  general  Lamoriciere . . .  n  Sept. ,,

The  queen  of  Spain  visits  the  emperor  at  Biarritz

11  Sept. „

Notice  given  of  the  abrogation  of  the  extradition
treaty  in  six  months 4  Dec. ,_.

Riots  of  republican  students  at  Paris  (several  ex-
pelled from  the  Academy  of  Medicine) . 18  Dec. ,,

Emperor  opens chambers  with  a  pacific speech

22  Jan.  1 866

At  Auxerre,  Napoleon  expresses  his  detestation  of
the  treaties  of  18 15 6  May, „

In  a  letter  says  that  m  regard  to  the  German  war,
"France  will  observe  an  attentive  neutrality"

11  June, ,,

The  emperor  of  Austria  cedes  Venetia  to  France,  and
invites  the  emperor's  intervention  with  Prussia

4  July» »

Empress  of  Mexico  arrives  at  Paris . .  8  Aug. ,,

Note  to  the  Prussian  government  desiring  rectifica-
tion of  the  French  frontier  to  what  it  was  in
1S14 ; declared by  Prussia  to  be  inadmissible

Aug. „

Resignation  of  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  foreign  minis-
ter  (succeeded by  the marquis de Moustier)

2  Sept. „

inundations in the south ;  railways destroyed,

Sept. ,,

Pacific  circular  of  the  emperor  sent  to  foreign
courts 16  Sept. ,,

Death  of  M.  Thouvenel,  formerly  foreign  minister,

18  Oct. „

Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  advisa-
bility of  modifying  the  organisation  of  the  army;
the  emperor  president ;  report . . 30  Oct. ,,

The  French  troops  quit  Rome . .3-11  Dec. ,,

Publication  of  letter  from  the  comte  de  Chambord
to  his  adherents  in  favour  of  the  pope's  temporal
power,  dated 9  Dec. „

Commercial  treaty  with  Austria  signed . n  Dec. „

General  opposition  to  the  army  organisation  plan
published 12  Dec. ,,

Richelieu's  head,  after  many  removals,  deposited  in
the  Sorbonne 17  Dec. ,,

Imperial  decree  announcing  political  reforms ;
interpellation  in  the  chambers  ;  relaxation  of  the
restriction  on  the  press ... 19  Jan. 1867

Ministerial  changes  ;  Rouher  becomes  minister  of
finance;  Niel,  of  war,  &c. . . . Jan. ,,

The  chambers  opened  by  the  emperor . 14  Feb. ,,

Emile Girardin fiued for libel in La Liberie,

7  March, ,,

Severe  speech  of  Thiers  on  foreign  policy,  18  March, ,,

International exhibition opened (see Paris),

1  April, „

Resignation  of  Walewski,  president  of  the  chamber,
29  Mar.;  succeeded  by  M.  Schneider  11  April, ,,

Scheme  for  organising  the  army  rejected  by  com-
mittee . ,  .... May, ,,

Paris  visited  by  the  czar,  1-12  June  ;  and  the  king
of  Prussia 5-14  June, „

Three  provinces  in  Annani  annexed  to  the  French
empire 25  June, „


International  conference  at  Paris  respecting  mone-
tary currency . . .  17  June-9  July,  2?6j

The  emperor  distributes  the  prizes  of  the  inter-
national exhibition 1  July, ,,

Protectorate  of  France  over  Cambodia  assured  by
treaty 15  July „

Law  abolishing  imprisonment  for  debt  adopted  by
the  senate 18  July, „

Meeting  of  the  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  at
Salzburg 18-21  Aug. „

The  emperor's  letter  recommending  money  to
be  expended  in  improving  intercommunica-
tion by  means of  railways,  canals, and  roads,

15  Aug. ,,

Emperor  of  Austria  visits  Paris . 23  Oct. -2  Nov. ,,

French  troops  enter  Rome  (see  Rome) . 30  Oct. ,,

Garibaldians  defeated  at  Mentana . . 3  Nov. „

Lord  Lyons  received  as  British  ambassador  9  Nov. ,,

Pacific  and  liberal  speech  of  the  emperor  on  open-
ing the  chambers .... 18  Nov. ,,

"  Napoleon  III. et  VEurope  en  1867,"  published,

Nov. „

During  a  debate  in  the  legislative  assembly,  Rouher,
the  minister,  says,  "  We  declare  that  Italy  shall
never  seize  upon  Rome  "  (the  government  sup-
ported by  238  votes  to  17) . . . 5  Dec. „

12  persons  convicted  for  belonging  to  a  secret
seditious  society  .... about  24  Dec. ,,

Friendly  reception  of  foreign  ministers . 1  Jan. 1868

New  army  bill  (allowing  100,000  men  to  be  added
to  the  army  annually ;  establishing  a  new  national
guard,  &c.  ;  giving  the  empire  virtually  an  army
of  1,200,000  men),  passed  in  the  Corps  Ugislatif
(206  to  60) 1  Jan. „

Ten  journals  fined  for  printing  comments  on  legis-
lative debates end  of  Jan. ,,

M.  Magne  announces  a  deficiency  in  the  budget ;
and  a  loan  for  17,600,000^. . . .29  Jan. ,,

The  army  bill  passes  the  senate — 125  to  1  (Michel
Chevalier,  who  spoke  warmly  against  it),  30  Jan. ;
becomes  law 4  Feb. „

The  "Arcadians"  (new  ultra-conservative  party)
oppose  the  new  press  law ;  fierce  debates  on  it,

Feb. „

New  press  law  passed  in  legislative  chamber,  240
to  1  (M.  Berryer) March, ,,

"  Les  Titres  de  la  Dynastie  imperiale  " appeared,

about  20  March, ,,

Riotous  opposition  to  enlistments  for  "garde
mobile"  (new  national  guard)  at  Bordeaux,
Toulon,  and  other  towns . 20  March,  et  seq. „

Defeat  of  an  attack  on  free  trade  in  the  chamber,

May, „

New  press  law  put  in  force ;  increasing  facility  for
publishing  new  journals . . . June, ,,

The  assembly  closes .... 30  July, ,,

Rochefort's  weekly  satirical  pamphlet  La  Lanterne.
suppressed  ;  he  and  his  printer  condemned  to
fine  and  imprisonment,  escapes  to  Belgium,  Aug. ,,

M.  Berryer,  the  advocate  (born  1790)  died, 29  Nov. ,,

Ministerial  changes  ;  marquis  de  la  Valette,  foreign
minister,  in  room  of  De  Moustier  ;  Forcade  de  la
Roquette  minister  of  the  interior . . Dec. ,,

The  Moniteur  replaced  by  the  Journal  officiel,

1  Jan. 1869

Meeting  of  the  assembly .... iS  Jan. ,,

De  Moustier  dies 5  Feb. „

Death  of  Lamartine  (born  Oct.  1792),  28  Feb.  ;  of
Tin] ilong,  president  of  the  senate . 1  March, „

Dissolution  of  the  legislative  assembly  of  1863,

26  April, ,,

Difference  with  Belgium  respecting  the  Luxem-
bourg railway  settled . . . 27  April, ,,

Fierce  election  riots  at  Paris,  9  June  ;  the  emperor
and  empress  ride  boldly  through  the  Boulevards,

11  June, „

The  new  legislative  chamber  meets  ;  the  oppo-
sition to  the  government  more than trebled,

26  June, ,,

Message  from  the  emperor  announcing  important
political  changes  ;  introducing  ministerial  respon-
sibility, &c.,read  i2July ;  resignation  of  ministers,

13  July, ,,

New  ministry:  Forcade  de  la  Roquette  (interior);  La
Tour  d'Auvergne  (foreign) ;  Chasseloup-Laubat,
president,  &c 17  J"ly. ..

M.  Rouher  made  president  of  the  senate 20  July, ,,

French  Atlantic  telegraph  completely  laid 23  July, ,,


FRANCE.


390


FRANCE.


Marquis  de  la  Valette  appointed  ambassador  in

London '-.■'■'■}  .... July,  1869

The political changes announced  to  the  senate,

5  Aug. „

Marshal  Niel,  war  minister,  aged  66 dies, 13  Aug. „
Centenary  of  the  birth  of  Napoleon  I.  ; amnesty
granted  to political offenders  ;  increased pen-
sions to  survivors  of  the  grand  army  ;  troops  re-
viewed by  the  imperial  prince  (the  emperor  ill),

iS  Aug. „
Ultra-liberal  speech  of  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  in
the  senate 1  Sept. „

New  constitution  promulgated . .  10  Sept. „

Pere  Hyacinthe  (name  Loyson),  popular  Carmelite
preacher  at  Paris,  protests  against  papal  infalli-
bility and  encroachments,  and  resigns  by  letter,

20  Sept. ,,

Great  excitement  at  Paris  through  discovery  of
Tropmann's  murder  of  the  Kinck  family  at  Pantin,

about  19  Sept. „

Proposed  meeting  of  republicans  at  Paris  (did  not
take  place) 26  Oct. ,,

Agitation  against  free  trade . Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec. ,,

Journey  of  the  empress  to  the  East ;  arrival  at
Constantinople,  13  Oct.  ;  at  Alexandria, 13  Nov. „

Pirm  and  temperate  manifesto  of  the  left  (ultra
republican  opposition)  issued .  about  16  Nov. ,,

Henri  Rochefort  (of  La  LatUerne)  elected  a  deputy
for  Paris 22  Nov. „

The  chambers  opened  by  the  emperor  witli  a  liberal
speech -29  Nor. „

Resignation  of  ministers  announced . 27  Dec. ,,

New  liberal  ministry  formed  by  Emile  011ivier(jus-
tice);  Daru  (foreign);  Le  Bceuf  (war) . 3  Jan.  1870

Resignation  of  M.  Haussmann — rebuilde.r  of  Paris —
prefect  of  the  Seine, . . . about  6  Jan. „

Victor  Noir,  a  journalist,  killed  by  Pierre  Bona-
parte during  an  interview  at  Auteuil  respecting
a  challenge  sent  to  M.  Rochefort . 10  Jan. ,,

Tropmann,  the  murderer,  executed . . 19  Jan. „

Great  excitement  amongst  lower  orders  ;  prosecu-
tion of  Rochefort  for  libel  in  his  paper,  the  Mar-
seillaise; he  is  sentenced  to  fine  and  imprison-
ment 22  Jan. ,,

Barricades  erected  in  Paris,  and  riots  after  the  ap-
prehension of  Rochefort, 7  Feb.;  soon  quelled,

8,  9  Feb. „

Jules  Favre's  attack  on  the  ministry  in  the  cham-
ber defeated  (236  to  18) . . . 22  Feb. „

Charles,  comte  de  Montalembert,  eminent  author,
dies  (see  1858) 13  March, ,,

Trial  of  Pierre  Bonaparte  at  Tours  ;  acquitted
(but ordered to pay 1000I.  to Noir's  family) ;

21 — 27  March, „

Emperor's  letter  to  Ollivier,  agreeing  to  modifica-
tion of  the  constitution  of  the  senate 22  March, „

Senatus  consultum  communicated  to  the  senate,
28  March ;  adopted . . . .20  April, „

Ministerial  crisis  :  resignation  of  Daru  and  other
ministers opposing the proposed plebiscite,

10  April, ,,

Proclamation  of  the  emperor  respecting  changes  in
the  constitution ....  24  April, ,,

Conspiracy  against  the  emperor's  life  detected ;
Baurie  (aged  22)  and  others  arrested,

about  30  April, ,,

Plebiscite  to  ascertain  whether  the  people  approve
of  above  changes,— yes,  7,527,379;  no,  1,530,909,

8  May, „

Ollivier  ministry  reconstructed,  13  April;  due  de
Grammont  foreign  minister . about  15  May, „

Rioting  and  barricades  in  Paris,  9,  10  May  ;  about
100  arrested,  many  sentenced  to  imprisonment,

14  May, „

Speech  by  the  emperor  on  receiving  result,  of  the
plebiscite ...... 23  May,

The  Orleans  princes  address  the,  legislative  assem-
bly, demanding  their  return  to  France,  19  June  ;
opposed  by  173  to  31 .... 2  July, „

Discovery  of  a  plot  against the emperor's life,

5  J«iy, „

Great  excitement  through  the  nomination  of  prince
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  Sigmaringen  for  the
Spanisli  throne ;  warlike  speeches  of  the  ministers,

5,  6,  7  July, „

The  prince  Leopold  withdraws  from  candidature  ;
guarantees  required  by  France  from  Prussia  re-


fused ; France  decides  to  declare  war against
Prussia,  15  July;  declaration  signed  17  July,

[For  events  of  the  war,  see  Franco-Prussian  War.}

The  empress  appointed  regent . . 23  July,

The  emperor  joins  the  army . . .28  July,

Publication  of  the  Marseillaise  of  Rochefort  ceases,

end  of  July,

The  government  declare  that  they  are  only  "at  war
with  the  policy  of  Bismarck  " . . 2  Aug.

Great  excitement  in  Paris  through  the  false  an-
nouncement of  a  great  victory ■. . .6  Aug.

State  of  siege  proclaimed  in  Paris  after  the  great
defeat  of  MacMahon  at  Wcerth . . 7  Aug.

Decrees  for  the  enlargement  of  the  national  guard,
appealing  to  patriotism  and  deprecating  discord,

7,  8  Aug.

At  Blois,  the  conspirators  against  the  emperor's
life  sentenced  to  Ions  imprisonments . 8  Aug.

Energetic  measures  taken  for  the  defence  of  Paris  ;
Changarnier  offers  his  services  to  the  emperor ;
well  received 8  Aug.

The  government  appeals  to  France  and  Europe
against  Prussia 8  Aug.

Stormy  debate  in  the  Corps  Ugislatif;  (M.  de  Keratry
called  on  the  emperor  to  abdicate  ;  M.  Guyot
Montpeyroux  said  that  the  army  were  "lions  led
by  asses");  resignation  of  Ollivier  and  his
ministry 9  Aug.

New  ministry  formed :  General  Cousin-Montauban
comte  de  Palikao  (distinguished  in  the  war  with
China),  minister  of  war,  chief:  M.  Chevreau,
minister  of  the  interior :  M.  Magne,  minister  of
finance  ;  M.  Clement  Duvernois,  minister  of  com-
merce and  agriculture :  admiral  Rigault  de
Genouilly,  minister  of  marine ;  baron  Jerome
David,  minister  of  public  works ;  prince  dc  la
Tour  d'Auvergne,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  ;  and
others 10  Aug.

Decree  for  the  great  augmentation  of  the  army
during  the  war,  and  appointing  a  "defence  com-
mittee "  for  Paris .... 10  Aug.

The  Orleans  princes  (the  due  d'Aumale,  prince  de
Joinville,  and  due  de  Chavtres),  proffer  their
services  in  the  army ;  declined . . Aug.

Extraordinary  sitting  of  the  Corps  Ugislatif  respect-
ing the  new  levies . .  Sunday,  14  Aug.

Great  disturbances  at  La  Villette,  a  suburb  of
Paris  :  about  200  armed  men  attack  the  police,
crying  '■  Vive  la  Republique ! "  soon  suppressed,
and  many  arrested .... 14  Aug.

The  government  declare  against  any  negotiations
for  peace 34  Aug.

Atrocious  murder  of  M.  Allain  de  Moneys,  sus-
pected of  republicanism  and  Germanism ;  he  was
half  killed  by  blows  and  then  burnt  to  death  by
infuriated  peasants  at  Hautefaye,  Dordogne,  not
far  from  Bordeaux . . . . 16  Aug.

General  Trochu  (Orleanist),  energetic  and  able
author  of  "l'Armee  franchise  en  1S67,"  appointed
governor  of  Paris,  17  Aug.  :  issues  a  stirring  pro-
clamation 18  Aug.

A  loan  of  750  million  francs  announced, 21  Aug.

Frequent  diplomatic  conferences  at  the  British
embassy  respecting  mediation . about  22  Aug.

Confident  statement  of  the  national  position  by
the  ministry 23  Aug.

M.  Thiers  placed  on  the  defence  committee,

about  26  Aug.

Decree  of  M.  Trochu  for  the  expulsion  from  Paris
of  all  foreigners  not  naturalized .  28  Aug.

Death  of  count  Flahault  de  la  Billarderie,  chancellor
of  the  legion  of  honour,  aged  85  (served  under
Napoleon  I.,  Louis  Philippe,  and  Napoleon  III.),

31  Aug.

Deputation  from  10,000  persons  call  on  Trochu
to  assume  the  government :  he  declines,

8  p.m.,  3  Sept.
The  news  of  the  final  defeat  of  MacMahon  near
Sedan,  and  the  surrender  of  the  emperor  and  the
remainder  of  MacMahon's  army  (90,000),  to  the
king  of  Prussia  announced  by  comte  de  Palikao  to.
the  legislative  assembly!  Jules  Favre  declares
for  defending  France  to  the  last  gasp,  attacks  the-
imperial  dynasty,  and  proposes  concentration  of
all  power  in  the  hands  of  general  Trochu,  amid
profound  silence  .  .  .  3.35  a.  m. ,  4  Sept.
The  ruin  of  MacMahon's  aimy  announced  in  the
Journal  officicl ....  4  Sept.


1870


FEANCE.


391


FEANCE.


On  the  proposition  of  Thiers  the  chamber  appoints
a  commission  of  government  and  national  de-
fence, and  orders  the  convocation  of  a  constituent
assembly,  and  adjourns . 3.10  p.m.,  4  Sept. 1870

At  the  resumption  of  the  sitting  of  the  assembly  it
is  invaded  by  the  crowd,  demanding  a  republic  ;
most  of  the  deputies  retire.  Gambetta  and  other
liberal  members  of  the  "  left "  proclaim  the  depo-
sition of  the  imperial  dynasty  and  the  establish-
ment of  a  republic . . 4. 15  p.m.,  4  Sept. „

Last  meeting  of  the  senate ;  it  declares  adhesion  to
the  emperor 4  Sept. „

Proclamation  of  a  "government  of  defence,"  gene-
ral Trochu,  president;  MM.  Leon  Gambetta  (inte-
rior), Jules  Simon  (public  instruction),  Jules
Favre  (foreign),  Cremieux  (justice),  Jules  Picard
(finance), general  LeFlo(war),  Fourichon(marine),
Magnin  (agriculture),  Dorian  (public  works),
Etienne  Arago  (mayor  of  Paris),  Keratry  (police).

4  Sept. .,

An  informal  meeting  of  the  legislative  assembly
held,  M.  Thiers,  president.  M.  Jules  Favre  re-
ports to  it  the  formation  of  the  provisional
government ;  some  protest ;  Thiers  recommends
moderation,  and  the  meeting  retires,

evening  4  Sept. „

The  empress,  the  comte  de  Palikao,  and  other  minis-
ters secretly  leave Paris and enter Belgium,

evening,  4  Sept. „

Legislative  chamber  dissolved  ;  senate  abolished  ;
regular  troops  and  national  guard  fraternize ;
"  perfect  order  reigns " . . . 5  Sept. „

M.  Favre  calls  on  the  United  States  of  America
for  moral  support 5  Sept. ,,

The  emperor  Napoleon  arrives  at  Wilhelmshohe,
near  Cassel  . . . 9.35  p.  m.  5  Sept. ,,

The  republican  deputies  in  the  Spanish  cortes  greet
the  republic 5  Sept. „

Henri  Rochefort  added  to  the  government 5  Sept. ,,

The  red  republican  flag  raised  at  Lyons  5  Sept. „

Victor  Hugo  and  Louis  Blanc  arrive  in  Paris,  6  Sept. „

Jules  Favre,  in  a  circular  to  French  diplomatic
representatives,  while  j.irofessing  desire  for  peace,
says,  "  We  will  not  cede  either  an  inch  of  our
territories  or  a  stone  of  our  fortresses  " 6  Sept. „

Proclamation  of  general  Trochu,  saying  that  the
defence  of  the  capital  is  assured . . 6  Sept. „

The  police  replaced  by  national  guards  . 6  Sept. ,,

Proffered  services  of  the  Orleans  princes  again
declined 6  Sept. ,,

The  imperial  cone spondence  seized,  about 7  Sept. „

The  government  proclaim  that  to-day,  as  in  1792,
the  republic  signifies  the  hearty  union  of  the  army
and  people  for  the  defence  of  the  country 7  Sept. ,,

The republic recognised  by  the  United States,

8  Sept. „

The  defence  committee  summon  the  king  of  Prussia ,,
to  quit  French  territory  without  loss of  time

8  Sept. ,,

Reappearance  of  the  Marseillaise :  Rochefort  resigns
editorship,  and  disclaims  connection  on  account
of  a  violent  article ;  the  paper  ceases  to  appear
soon  after 8  Sept. ,,

Decree  convoking  the  constituent  assembly,  to  be
composed  of  750  members  (to  be  elected  on  16
Oct.) 8  Sept. „

The  imperial  prince  at  Hastings,  7  Sept.,  joined  by
the  empress . . . . . .8  Sept. „

Victor  Hugo  publishes  an  address  to  the  Germans,
appealing  to  their  fraternal  sentiments 9  Sept. .,

Cattle  plague  began  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine Sept. „

The  republic  recognised  by  Spain,  8  Sept.  ;  by
Switzerland 9  Sept. ,,

M.  Thiers  arrives  in  London  on  a  mission  from  the
government 13  Sept. ,,

Lyons  said  to  be  ruled  by  a  "  committee  of  safety  ; "
red  flag  raised  ;  reign  of  terror . . 13  Sept. ,,

Letter  from  M.  Pietri,  private  secretary  to  the
emperor,  stating  that  "  his  master  has  not  a
centime  in  foreign  funds "  . . 15  Sept. „

Elections  for  constituent  assembly  ordered  to  take
place  on  2  Oct 16  Sept. „

The  academies  of  the  institute  protest  against  the
bombardment  of  the  monuments,  museums,  &e. ,
in  Paris 16  Sept. ,,

Diplomatic  circular  from  M.  Jules  Favre  :  he  admits
lie  has  no  claim  on  Prussia  for  disinterestedness  ;
urges  that  statesmen  should  hesitate  to  continue


a  war  in  which  more  than  200,000  men  have
already  fallen  ;  announces  that  a  freely  elected
assembly  is  summoned,  and  that  the  government
will  abide  by  its  judgment,  and  that  France,  left
to  her  free  action,  immediately  asks  the  cessation
of  the  war,  but  prefers  its  disasters  a  thousand
times  to  dishonour.  He  admits  that  France  has
been  wrong,  and  acknowledges  its  obligation  to
repair  by  a  measure  of  justice  the  ill  it  has  done

17  Sept 1870

A  government  delegation  at  Tours  under  M.
Cremieux,  the  minister  of  justice  ;  the  foreign
ambassadors  proceed  there . . 18  Sept. ,,

Manifesto  of  the  red  republicans  signed  by  general
Cluseret,  placarded  in  Paris . .  about  1 3  Sept.

Bronze  statues  of  Napoleon  ordered  to  be  made
into  cannon .... about  19  Sept. ,,

Stern  proclamation  of  Trochu  respecting  the  cowar-
dice of  the  Zouaves  on  19  Sept.  . 20  Sept. „

M.  Duruof  in  a  post-balloon  quits  Paris  with  mail-
bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours

23  Sept. „
The Journal official replaced by  the Moniteur

universel as the organ of the government,

about  23  Sept. „
Esquiros  struggles  to  maintain  order  at  Marseilles

24  Sept. „
Failure  of  the  negotiations  for  peace  between  count

Bismarck  and  Jules  Favre ;  manifesto  of  thegovern-
ment  at  Tours,  calling  on  the  people  to  rise  and
either  disavow  the  ministry  or  "fight  to  the
bitter  end  ;  "  the  elections  for  the  assembly  sus-
pended Sept.  24 ,,

All  Frenchmen  between  20  and  25  years  of  age  pro-
hibited leaving  France . .  about  26  Sept. ,,

Great  enthusiasm  in  the  provinces  on  the  failure  of
the  negotiations  ;  "  war  to  the  knife  "  and  levee  en
masse  proclaimed  by  the  prefects  ;  efforts  made  to
excite  warlike  ardour  in  Brittany  by  M.  Cathe-
liiieau  26,  27  Sept. ,,

The  due  dAumale  consents  to  become  a  candidate
for  the  representative  assembly,  and  promises
submission  to  the  de  facto  government  for  defence

about  27  Sept. ,,

Attempted  insurrection  of  the  red  republicans  at
Lyons  ;  order  restored  by  national  guards  ;  general
Cluseret  disappears .... 28  Sept. „

Great  order  in  Paris  maintained  by  the  national
guard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt,

28  Sept. ,,

All  between  21  and  40  to  be  organised  as  a  national
garde  mobile  ;  all  men  in  arms  placed  at  the  dis-
posal of  the  minister  of  war . . 30  Sept. ,,

The  empress  and  her  son  residing  at  Camden-house,
Chiselhurst,  Kent  .... Sept. „

The  elections  for  the  constituent  assembly  (753
members)  ordered  by  the  delegates  at  Tours  to
take  place  on  16  Oct. . . 29  Sept. — 1  Oct. ,,

Proclamations  of  general  Trochu  for  maintaining ,,
order  in  Paris  .... about  1  Oct. ,,

Marseilles  said  to  be  unsettled  : many arrested,

i  Oct. „

The  elections  deferred,  till  they  can  be  carried  out
throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  republic,  by
order  of  the  government  at  Paris  . 1  Oct. ,,

M.  Cremieux  becomes  delegate  minister  of  war  at
Tours  in  room  of  admiral  Fourichon,  still  minister
of  marine 3  Oct.

Gustave  Flourens,  heading  five  battalions  of  national
guards,  inarches  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville  and
demands  chassepots  (not  to  be  had) . 5  Oct. „

Suppression  of  the  schools  of  the  "  brethren  of  the
Christian  doctrine  "  by  the  republicans  :  much
dissatisfaction 8  Oct. ,,

All  Frenchmen  under  60  years  of  age  forbidden  to
quit  France 8  Oct.

M.  Gambetta  escapes  from  Paris  in  a  balloon,  7  Oct. ;
arrives  at  Rouen  and  declares  for  "a  pact  with
victory  or  death,"  8  Oct.  ;  arrives  at  Tours  and
becomes  minister  of  war  as  well  as  of  the  interior

9  Oct. „

Address  from  the  comte  de  Chambord,  saying  that
his  whole  ambition  is  to  found  with  the  people  a
really  national  government  . . 9  Oct. ,,

Battalions  of  amazons  said  to  be  forming  in  Paris

12  Oct. „
Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-Rollin, Felix
Pyat,  and  other  red  republicans  defeated  in  their


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attempts  to  establish  the  commune  at  Paris  to
supersede  the  government,  10,  n  Oct.  :  reconcilia-
tion effected  by  Rochefort  . about  14  Oct.

Riots  at  Honfleur  :  the  people  oppose  the  embarka-
tion of  cattle  to  England,  12  Oct. ;  similar  riots  at
St.  Malo 15  Oct.

M. Edmond  Adam, prefect  of  police  ;  ■  replacing

M. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission,

about  16  Oct.

M.  de  Keratry  quits  Paris  in  a  balloon,  12  Oct.  ;  at
Madrid  fails  in  obtaining  assistance  from  Prim

19,  20  Oct.

Marseilles  disturbed  by  red  republicans  ;  Esquiros
still  in  office 19  Oct.

Publication  of  the  imperial  correspondence  seized
in  the  Tuileries Oct.

Decree  for  a  loan  of  io,ooo,ooo£.  issued  on  behalf  of
the  French  government ... 25  Oct.

The  imperial  guard  suppressed  . . 26  Oct.

Circular  of  Gambetta  stigmatising  the  surrender  of
Metz  (on  27  Oct.)  as  a  crime . .  28  Oct.

Death  of  M.  Baroche  in  Jersey . . 30  Oct.

M.  Thiers  arrives  in  Paris  with  news  of  the  sur-
render of  Metz  and  the  proposals  for  an  armistice

30  Oct.

Riots  in  Paris :  general  Trochu  threatened ;  the
principal  members  of  the  defence  government  im-
prisoned in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  ;  Ledru-Rollin,
Victor  Hugo,  and  Gustave  Flourens,  and  others,
established  as  a  committee  of  public  safety  and
of  the  commune  of  Paris,  under  the  direction  of
M.  Picard ;  the  national  guard  releases  the
government,  and  order  is  restored . 31  Oct.

General  Boyer,  replying  to  Gambetta,  says,  "  We
capitulated  with  hunger  " . . . 31  Oct.

The  empress  arrives  at  Wilhelmshohe  ;  interview  of
Bazaine  with  the  emperor . . .31  Oct.

Etienne  Arago  and  other  mayors  of  Paris  resign,

1  Nov.

Marshals  Canrobert  and  Le  Boeuf  and  many  generals
at  Wilhelmshohe  . . . . 1  Nov.

Proclamation  of  Gambetta  calling  on  the  army  to
avenge  the  dishonour  at  Metz  .  1  Nov.

The  government  proclaim  a  plebiscite  in  Paris  on  3
Nov.  to  ascertain  whether  the  people  maintain
the  power  of  the  government  of  national  defence

1  Nov.

M.  Rochefort,  member  of  the  defence  government,
resigns  2  Nov.

Result  of  the  plebiscite: — for  the  defence  govern-
ment, 557,976  ;  against,  62,638  .  3  Nov.

Resignation  of  M.  Esquiros  at  Marseilles,  succeeded
"by  M.  Alphonse  Gent .... 3  Nov.

The  ex-empress  returned  to  Chiselhurst  3  Nov.

Mobilisation  of  all  able-bodied  men  between  20  and
40,  ordered 4  Nov.

Failure  of  the  negotiations  for  an  armistice 6  Nov.

Felix  Pyat  and  others  arrested  for  the  affair  of  31
Oct 6  Nov.

■"  France  can  do  nothing  now  but  carry  on  with
such  courage  and  strength  as  remain  to  her  a  war
a  outrance." — Guizot. ... .8  Nov.

Decree  for  melting  some  of  the  church-bells  to  make
cannon 10  Nov.

Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies

10  Dec.

The  delegate  government  removed  from  Tours  to
Bordeaux n  Dec.

Murder  of  lieut.  Arnaud  at  Lyons  by  the  people  for
resisting  them 20  Dec.

Trial  of  21  peasants  for  murder  of  M.  Moneys  (see
16  Aug.):  4  condemned  to  death;  others  to  im-
prisonment .... about  23  Dec.

Firm  proclamation  of  Trochu  at  Paris . 30  Dec.

Gambetta  at  Bordeaux  declares  that  the  govern-
ment only  holds  office  for  defence  of  the  country;
demonstration  in  honour  of  the  republic 1  Jan.

Foreigners  not  permitted  to  leave  Paris  by  the
Germans lg  Jan.

Fierce  speech  of  Gambetta  at  Lille,  demanding  con-
tinuance of  the  war . . . .22  Jan.

Disturbances  at Paris suppressed  by  the  army,

23  Jan.

Resignation  of  Trochu  ;  Vinoy  made  governor  of
Paris 24  Jan.

Capitulation  of  Paris  ;  armistice  signed  by  Favre
and  Bismarck 28  Jan.

Disavowed  by  Gambetta  at  Bordeaux . 31  Jan.


1870


Manifesto  of  the  due  d'Aumale  in  favour  of  a  con-
stitutional monarchy 1  Feb.

Arrival  of  food  from  London  to  relieve  Paris  (see
Mansion-house) 3  Feb.

The  defence  government  publish  their  reasons  for
capitulation  (2,000,000  people  in  Paris  with  only
ten  days'  provisions),  4  Feb.  ;  and  annul  Gam-
betta's  decree,  4  Feb.;  he  and  his  ministry  resign,

5,  6  Feb.

Railway  accident  between  Bandoz  and  St.  Nizaire  ;
explosion  of  casks  of  gunpowder ;  60  killed ;
about  100  wounded .... 5  Feb.

Four  murderers  of  M.  Moneys  (16  Aug.  1870)  exe-
cuted 8  Feb.

Proclamation  of  Napoleon  III.  "  Betrayed  by
fortune,"  he  condemns  the  government  of  4  Sept. ;
states  that  his  government  was  four  times  con-
firmed in  20  years  ;  submits  to  the  judgment  of
time;  saying  "that  a  nation  cannot  long  obey
those  who  have  no  right  to  command  " 8  Feb.

General  election  of  a  national  assembly . 8  Feb.

M.  F.  P.  J.  Grevy  elected  president  . .  Feb.

First  meeting  of  the  new  national  assembly,  12  Feb.

Supplementary  armistice  signed  . . 15  Feb.

Garibaldi  resigns  his  election,  13  Feb.  ;  Grevy
elected  president  by  519  out  of  538 . 16  Feb.

Termination  of  the  war ;  the  Belfort  garrison
(12,000) marches out with military honours,

16  Feb.

"  Pact  of  Bordeaux : "  M.  Thiers  made  chief  of  the
executive  power,  by  agreement  of  the  different
parties  in  the  assembly,  17  Feb. ;  voted 18  Feb.

Thiers  ministry;  Dufaure  (justice);  Jules  Favre,
(foreign),  Picard  (interior),  Jules  Simon  (public,
instruction),  Lambrecht  (commerce),  gen.  Leflo
(war),  admiral  Pothuan  (marine),  De  Larcy
(public  works) 17  Feb.

The  French  government  recognised  by  the  great
powers  of  Europe 18  Feb.

The  due  de  Broglie  appointed  French  minister  at
London 21  Feb.

Negotiations  for  peace  between  Thiers  and  Bis-
marck 22,  23,  24  Feb.

Preliminaries  of  a  treaty  of  peace  accepted  by  MM.
Thiers  and  Favre,  and  15  delegates  of  the  national
assembly  at  Versailles  (cession  of  parts  of  Alsace
and  Lorraine,  including  Strasbourg  and  Metz,
and  payment  of  five  milliards  of  francs  —
2oo,ooo,oooJ.),  25  Feb. ;  signed . . 26  Feb.

Intense  excitement  in  Paris  ...  27  Feb.

Preliminaries  of  the  treaty  accepted  by  the  assembly
(546  to  107)  ;  the  fall  of  the  empire  unanimously
confirmed  ;  and  the  emperor  stigmatised 1  Mar.

A  strong  party  of  the  national  guard  seize  some
cannons  and  transport  them  to  Montmartre  and
Belleville,  to  defend  themselves  against  the
Germans  entering  Paris . . .1  March,

The  emperor  of  Germany  reviews  about  100,000  of
his  troops  at  Longchamps  near  Paris, 1  March,

About  30,000  Germans  enter  Paris,  1  March  ;  re-
main 48  hours  ;  depart ... 3  March,

Impeachment  of  the  defence  government  demanded
by  the  party  of  the  left  (Victor  Hugo,  Louis
Blanc,  Quinet,  and  others) . .  6  March,

The  ex-emperor  jnotests  against  his deposition,

6  March,

The  army  of  the  north  and  other  special  army  corps
dissolved 7-10  March,

Meeting of national guard in Paris quelled,

10  March,

The  national  assembly  vote  for  removal  to  Ver-
sailles (461-104) .  * . . . 10  March,

Le  Vengeur  and  four  other  violent  journals  sup-
pressed in  Paris  by  Vinoy . . 11  March,

Blanqui,  Flourens,  and  others  condemned  for
insurrection  of  31  Oct.  1870 . .  12  March,

Central  committee  of  republican  confederation  of
national  guards  (termed  "  the  government  of  the
Buttes  ")  meet ;  depose  Vinoy  and  appoint  Gari-
baldi general-in-chief ... 15  March,

Insurrection  at  Paris :  the  regular  troops  take
possession  of  the  Buttes  Montmartre  and  Belle-
ville, for  the  assembly ;  the  national  guard
attempt  to  recover  them  ;  after  a  brief  conflict
the  troops  fraternise  with  the  insurgents,  who
capture  and  shoot  generals  Lecomte  and  Clement
Thomas,  and  take  possession  of  the  Hotel  de
Ville ; barricades erected in Belleville and


1871


FRANCE.


393


FRANCE.


other  places ;  general  Vinoy  with  the  gendarmerie
retire  across  the  Seine  .  .  .  18  March,  18
The  insurgents  nominate  a  central  committee  of
the  national  guard,  headed  by  Assy,  a  workman,
which  takes  possession  of  public  offices  ;  Thiers
issues a circular, enjoining obedience to  the

assembly lg  March, .

The  central  committee  order  communal  election  in
Paris,  19  March ;  and  liberate  about  11,000
political  prisoners  in  Paris  .  .  20  March,  ,
The  national  assembly  meet  at  Versailles  ;  propose
conciliatory  measures  ;  and  appoint  a  committee
to  support  the  government  .  .  20  March,
Napoleon  III.  arrives  at  Dover  .  20  March,

The  Journal  des  Debuts  and  other  papers  renounce
the  central  committee . . .20  March,
The  bank  of  France  saved  by  the  courage  of  the
governor,  marquis  de  Plceuc,  and  by  the  forbear-
ance of  citizen  Beslay ... 20  March,
The  assembly  appeal  to  the  nation  and  the  army,

21  March,
Requisitions levied on  the Paris shop-keepers,

21  March,

Unarmed  demonstration  of  the  Friends  of  Order  ;

they  are  fired  on  by  the  insurgents  ;  10  killed,

20  wounded 22  March,

Lullier  arrested  by  the  central  committee,  22  March,

Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the

national  guard  for  the  assembly  . .  23  March,

The  69th  regiment  of  the  line  retire  to  Versailles,

23  March,
The  central  committee  appoint  some  of  their  dele-
gates generals 24  March ,

The  insurgents  hold  central  Paris  ;  Saisset  returns

to  Versailles .  ... 25  March,

Municipal  elections  at  Paris  ;  200,000  out  of  500,000

vote  ; majority  of  two-thirds in  favour  of  the

insurgents 26  March,

The  government  of  the  commune  proclaimed  at  the

Hotel  de  Ville 28  March,

Meeting  of  the  conference  for  the  peace  at  Brussels,

28  March,

Gustave  Flourens,  Blanqui,  and  Felix  Pyat  now  at

the  head  of  the  movement :  they  propose  revival

of  the  system  of  the  Italian  republics  of  the  middle

ages 29  March,

The  remission  of  part  of  the  rents  due  by  tenants

ordered  ;  the  standing army to be  named  the

national  guard  .... 29  March,

Reign  of  terror  :  "  Paris  has  no  longer  liberty  of  the

press,  of  public  meeting,  of  conscience,  or  of

person." — LeSoir 1  April,

Military  operations  commence  9  a.m.  ;  action  at
Courbevoie ;  Flourens  marches  his  troops  to
Versailles,  via  Rueil  ....  2  April,
The  corps  d'armee  of  general  Bergeret  at  the  Rond
Point,  near  Neuilly,  stopped  by  the  artillery  of
Mont  Valerien  ;  exchange  of  shot  between  Fort
Issy  and  Fort  Vanves,  occupied  by  the  insurgents,

and  Meudon 3  April,

General  Duval  made  prisoner  in  the  engagement  at
Chatillon  and  shot ;  death  of  Flourens  at  Cliatou ;
Delescluze,  Cournet,  and  Vermorel  succeed  Ber-
geret, Budes,  and  Duval  on  the  executive  com-
mission ;  Cluseret,  delegate  of  war,  and  Bergeret,
commandant  of  Paris  forces  .  .  4  April,
Communist  insurrection  at  Marseilles  suppressed,
;  _;_  ;  ^  ~  ~~  4  April,

General  Cluseret  commences  active  operations  ;
military  service  compulsory  for  all  citizens  under
40  ;  the  archbishop  of  Paris  arrested  5  April,
Extension  of  action  to  Neuilly  and  C<  mrbevoie  ;  severe
decree  concerning  complicity  with  Versailles,  and
arrest  of  hostages  ;  Dombrywski  succeeds  Berge-
ret as  commandant  of  Paris  ;  the  guillotine  burnt
on  the  Place  Voltaire  ....  6  April,
Federals  abandon  Neuilly  ;  commission  of  barri-
cades created  and  presided  over  by  Gaillard
Senior ;  military  occupation  of  the  railway  ter-
mini by  the  insurgents  ...  8  April,
Insurgents  repulsed  in  an  attempt  to  take  Chatil-
lon ;  forts  Vanves  and  Montrouge  disabled ;
Mont  Valerien  shells  the  Avenue  des  Ternes  ;
Bergeret  arrested by  order of the commune,

9  April,

Marshal MaeMahon, commander-in-chief  for  the

assembly,  distributes  his  forces,  and  commences

the  investment  of  Fort  Issy  . . 11  April,


Versailles  batteries  established  on  Chatillon  ;  the
Orleans  railway  and  telegraph  cut ;  communica-
tions of  the  insurgents  with  the  south  inter-
cepted ;  decree  ordering  the  fall  of  the  column

Vendome I2  April,

Publication  of  the  reports  of  the  sittings  ot  the

commune J3  April,

The  redoubt  of  Gennevilliers  taken  ;  the  troops  ot
Versailles  advance  to  the  Chateau  de  Becon,  a
post  of  importance ; Assy  at the bar  of  the

commune J4  April,

The  national  assembly  pass  the  new  municipal  bill

(419-18) 14  April,

Complementary  elections  ;  organisation  of  a  court-
martial  under  the  presidence  of  Rossel, chief
officer  of  the  staff .... 16  April,
Capture  and  fortification  of  the  Chateau  de  Becon
by  the  Versailles  troops . . . 17  April,
Station  and  houses  at  Asnieres  taken  by  the  army

of  Versailles 18  April,

The  communists  appeal  to  the  nation 19  April,
Bagneux  occupied  by  the  Versaillais  ;  reorganisa-
tion of  commissions  ;  Eudes  appointed  inspector-
general  of  the  southern  forts  ;  transfers  his  quar-
ters from  Montrouge  to  the  palace  of  the  Legion

of  Honour 20  April,

The  Versailles  batteries  at  Breteuil,  Brimbonon,
Meudon,  and  Moulin  de  Pierre  trouble  the  federal
fort  Issy,  and  battery  between  Bagneux  and
Chatillon  shells  fort  Vanves  ;  truce  at  Neuilly
from  9  a.m.  to  5  p.ln.  ;  the  inhabitants  of
Neuilly  enter  Paris by the  Porte des  Ternes,

25  April,
Capture  of  Les  Moulineaux,  outpost  of  the  insur-
gents, by  the  troops,  who  strongly  fortify  them-
selves on  the  27th  and  28th  .  .  26  April,
Cemetery  and  park  of  Issy  taken  by  the  Versaillais
in  the  night ;  freemasons  make  a  new  attempt  at
reconciliation  ;  the  commune  levies  a  sum  of
two  millions  of  francs  from  the  railway  companies,

29  April.
A  flag  of  truce  sent  to  fort  Issy  by  the  Versaillais,
calling  upon  the  federals  to  surrender ;  general
Elides  puts  fresh  troops  in  the  fort,  and  takes
the  command  ;  Cluseret  imprisoned  at  Mazas  by
order  of  the  commune  ;  Rossel  appointed  provi-
sional delegate  of  war  . . . -3°  April,
The  Versaillais  take  the  station  of  Clamart  and  the
Chateau  of  Issy  ;  creation  of  the  committee  of
public  safety  ;  members  :  Antoine  Arnauld,  Leo
Meillet,  Ranvier, Felix  Pyat,  Charles  Gerardm  ;
aUeged  massacre  of  communist  prisoners,  1  May,
Lacretelie carries  the  redoubt  of  Moulin  Saquet,

3  May,
Colonel  Rossel  appointed  to  the  direction  of
military  affairs,  defines  the  military  quarters  of
Dombrowski,  La  Cecilia,  Wroblewski,  Bergeret,
and  Eudes •  S  Mai-
Central  committee  of  the  national  guard  charged
with  administration  of  war  ;  the  Chapelle  expia-
toire  condemned  to  destruction— the  materials  to

be  sold  by  auction 5  May,

Concert  at  the  Tuileries  in  aid  of  the  ambulances.

Suppression  of  newspapers ... 6  May,

Battery  of  Moutretout  (70  marine  guns)  opens  lire  ;

Thiers  exhorts  the  Parisians  to  rise  against  the

commune 8  ""&'

Morning  ; insurgents  evacuate  the  fort  Issy  ;  the

committee  of  public  safety  renewed  ;  members  :

Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gaiubon, Eudes,

Delescluze  ;  Rossel  resigns .  .8  May,

Treaty  of  peace  with  Germany  signed  at  Frankfort,

10  .May,

Cannon  from  the  fort  Issy  taken  to  Versailles  ;
decree  for  the  demolition  of  M.  Thiers'  house  ;
Delescluze.  appointed  delegate  of  war 10  May,

Thiers  opposed  ;  "tiers  to  resign  ;  the  assembly  vote
confidence  in  Mm  (495-10)  . . . n  May,

Troops  take  possession  of  the  Convent  des  Oiseaux
at  Issy.  and  the  Lyceum  at  Vanves  ;  Auber,  the
composer,  dies,  aged  89  . . . • 12  May,

Triumphal  entry  of  the  troops  into  \  ersailles  w.th
flags  and  cannon  taken  from  the  convenl  :  evacua-
tion of  the  village  of  Issy  completed  ;  fort  Vanves
taken  by  the  troops . . . . 13  May.

Vigorous  cannonade  from  the  batteries  of  Courbe-
voie, Becon,  Asnieres,  on  Levallois  ami  Chchy


1871


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394


FRANCE.


both  villages  evacuated  ;  commencement  of  the
demolition  of  house  of  M.  Thiers  . . 14  May,

Report  of  the  re-armament  of  Montrnartre 15  May;

The  column  Vendome  overthrown . . 16  May,

Secession  from  the  communist  government ;  a
central  club  formed ;  a  battalion  of  women  formed,

17  May,

Stringent  conscription  in  Paris . about  17  May,

Silver  ornaments  in  churches  seized  ;  explosion  of
a  cartridge  factory  near  the  Champ  de  Mars  ;
above  100  killed 17  May,

The  assembly  adopt  the  treaty  of  peace 18  May,

Rochefort  brought  a  prisoner  to  Versailles  ;  last
sitting  of  the  commune . . . 21  May,

Noon,  explosion  of  the  powder  magazine  of  the
Manege  d'Etat-Major  (staff  riding-school)  ;  the
hostages  transferred  from  Mazas  to  La  Roquette  ;
Assy  arrested  in  Paris  by  the  Versaillais  ;  the
assembly  votes  the  re-erection  of  the  column
Vendome  ;  M.  Ducatel,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,
having  signalled  that  the  way  was  clear,  the
Versailles  troops  enter  Paris  by  the  gates  of  St.
Cloud  and  Montrouge,  2  p.m.,  21  May;  take
possession  of  the  south  and  west,  and  about
10,000  prisoners,  after  some  conflicts . 22  May,

Montrnartre  taken  by  Douai  and  Ladmirault :
death  of  Dombrowski.  Morning  :  Assy  arrives
at  Versailles ;  execution  of  gendarmes  and  Gus-
tave  Chaudey  at  the  prison  of  Sainte-Pelagie.
Night :  the  Tuileries  set  on  fire  ;  Delescluze  and
the  committee  of  public  safety  hold  permanent
sittings  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville . . 23  May,

Morning :  Palais  Royal,  Ministry  of  Finance,
H6tel  de  Ville,  &c,  set  on  fire.  1  p.m..  the
powder  magazine  at  the  Palais  du  Luxembourg
blown  up  ;  the  committee  of  public  safety  organ-
ise detachments  of  fusee-bearers  ;  petroleum
pumped  into  burning  buildings  ;  Raoul  Rigault
shot  in  the  afternoon  by  the  soldiers.  Evening:
execution  in  the  prison  of  La  Roquette  of  the
archbishop,  abbe  Deguerry,  president  Bonjean,
and  64  others,  hostages  . . . .24  May,

The  forts  Montrouge,  Hautes-Bruyeres,  Bicetre
evacuated  by  the  insurgents  ;  the  death  of  Deles-
cluze reported  ;  executions  in  the  Avenue
dTtalie  of the Peres Dominicans of  Arcueil,

25  May,

16  priests  and  38  gendarmes  shot  at  Belleville  by
the  insurgents  ;  many  women  fighting,  and  cast-
ing petroleum  into  fires,  shot . 26,  27  May,

The  Buttes  Chaumont,  the  heights  of  Belleville,
and  the  cemetery  of  Pere  Lachaise  carried  by  the
troops  ;  taking  of  the  prison  of  La  Roquette  by
the  marines  ;  deliverance  of  169  hostages  ;  the
investment  of  Belleville  complete  ;  last  position
captured  by  MacMahon  ;  fighting  ends,

5  p.m.,  28  May,

Federal  garrison  of  Vincennes  surrendered  at  dis-
cretion 29  May,

Reported  results  of  seven  days'  fighting  in  Paris  :
regular  troojis,  877  killed,  645  wounded,  183  miss-
ing ;  insurgents,  about  50,000  dead,  25,000  pri-
soners ;  nearly  all  the  leaders  killed  or  prisoners  ;
about  a  fourth  part  of  Paris  destroyed  22-27  May,

Estimated  loss  of  property  through  the  insurrection,
32,000,000? April,  May,

Thiers'  decree  for  disarming  Paris  and  abolishing
the  National  Guard  of  the  Seine . .  .  29  May,

Victor  Hugo  expelled  from  Belgium . 30  May,

Reported  wholesale  execution  of  prisoners  by  the
marquis  de  Gallifet ;  Paris  put  under  martial  law  ;
about  50,000  insurgents  still  at  large . 30  May,

Severe  letter  from  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  to  Jules
Favre,  dated 3I  May,

Changes  in  the  ministry ;  resignation  (and  reappoint'
ment  of  some)  of  those  who  had  been  members
of  the  government  of  defence . .  6  June,

Solemn  funeral  of  Darboy,  archbp.  of  Paris 7  June^

Abrogation  of  the  laws  of  proscription  by  the  as-
sembly (484—103)  ;  elections  of  the  due  d'Aumale
and  the  prince  de  Joiuville  declared  valid

8  June,

Important  speech  of  Thiers  for  maintaining  the  re-
public at  present  . 8  June

Imposition  of  new  taxes  (463,000,000  francs)  and  a
loan  proposed  by  M.  Pouyer  Quertier . 12  June

Gen.  Trochu's  powerful  speech  defending  the  "go-
vernment of  national  defence  " . 13,  14  June,


Army  of  reserve  ordered  to  be  dissolved 14  June,  1873

Financial  measures  of  M.  Pouyer-Quertier  opposed
by  Dufaure  and  the  free-traders about  14  June, „

Theatres  and  public  places  reopened  in  Paris  about

20  June, „

Letter  from  M.  Guizot  to  M.  Grevy  recommending
political  moderation  to  all  parties,  and  main-
tenance of the  present  government, published

22  June, „

The  loan  of  2  milliards  francs  (8o,ooo,oooZ.)  decreed
26  June  ;  subscription  opened,  27  June  ;  about  4
milliards  subscribed  for  in  France  alone 28  June ,,

132  members  elected  for  the  assembly  ;  includes
Gambetta,  and  a  few  legitimists  and  Bonapart-
ists  ;  the  rest  support  the  government . 2  July, ,,

Letter  from  the  comte  de  Chambord  at  Chambord,
professing  devotion  to  France,  and  adhesion  to
modern  policy  and  liberality  ;  but  declining  to
give  up  the  white  flag  of  Henry  IV.  ;  he  retires  to
Germany  to  avoid  all  pretext  for  agitation,  dated

5  July. »

The  government  said  to  have  500  votes  in  the
assembly;  bill  for  new  taxes  passed  (483  to  5)

8  July, „

2o,ooo,oooZ.  part  of  the  indemnity,  paid  to  the  Ger-
mans about  14  July, „

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  expelled  from  France  (at
Havre) 15  July, „

M.  Devienne,  president  of  the  court  of  cassation,
acquitted  of  blame  for  settling  disputes  relative
to  an  imperial  scandal  (in  Nov.  i860) .  21  July, ,,

Jules  Favre,  foreign  minister,  resigns  about  23  July ;
succeeded  by  Charles  de  Remusat about  3  Aug. „

Full  compensation  for  losses  claimed  by  the  invaded
provinces  refused  by  Thiers,  who  acknowledges
no  debt,  but  proposes  to  act  generously . Aug. „

Trial  of  communist  prisoners  at  Paris,  begun  about

8  Aug. „  .

Great  dissensions  in  the  assembly  between  the
monarchists  and  republican  parties  ;  resignation
of  Thiers  not  accepted,  24  Aug.  ;  prolongation  of  his
power  and  the  sovereign  and  constituent  authority
of  the  assembly  voted  (443  to  227) about  25  Aug. „

Thiers'  powers  prolonged,  and  nominated  president
of  the  French  republic,  by  the  assembly ;  to  con-
tinue till  the  assembly  shall  terminate  its
labours ; (the Rivet- Vitet proposition), 491-93

31  Aug. „

French  postage  increased .... Sept. „

Societe  de  Prevoyance  established  to  counteract  the
Internationale ;  becomes  permanent . Sept. -„

Ferre  and  Lullier  sentenced  to  death,  others  to
transportation  or  imprisonment,  2  Sept.  ;  3  women
(petroleuses)  sentenced  to  death  for  throwing
petroleum  on  fires 5  Sept. „

Bill  for  making  the  whole  nation  bear  the  losses  of
the  invaded  provinces  adopted  by  the  assembly

6  Sept. „
Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death

8  Sept. „

Message  from  Thiers  to  the  assembly  ;  consideration
of  the  budget  adjourned  12  Sept.  ;  read 13  Sept. „

Disarmament  of  the  national  guard  begun  at  Lyons,
&c 14  Sept. „

Bill  introduced  concerning  treaty  with  Germany
relating  to  tariff  on  goods  from  Alsace  and  Lor-
raine, and  the  reducing  German  troops  in  France
to  50,000  men,  14  Sept.  ;  adopted  by  the  assembly
(533-33)  ;  the  session  declared  closed, 2  a.m.

17  Sept. „

Courts-martial  on  communists  go  on  . . Sept. „

"  Permanent  Committee"  of  25  of  different  rjarties
appointed  by  the  assembly  to  watch  over  the
course  of  the  government  during  the  recess  (17
Sept. -4  Dec.) 15  Sept. „

25,000  communists  yet  to  be  tried  ;  about  half  to  be
set  free 15  Sept. „

Evacuation  of  Paris  forts  by  the  Germans  begun

about  20  Sept. ,,

Rochefort(of  " LaLanterne"  and  " LeMot  d'Ordre")
sentenced  to  life-imprisonment . . 21  Sept. „

Difficulty  in  settling  the  Alsace  and  Lorraine  treaty

21  Sept. „

M.  Pouyer-Quertier,  the  French  finance  minister,
arrives  at  Berlin 8  Oct. „

M.  Lambrecht,  minister  of  the  interior,  dies  sud-
denly, 8  Oct.  ;  succeeded  by  M.  Casimir  Perier

10  Oct.. ,,


FEANCE.


395


FEANCE.


Tranquil  election  of  above  2000  general  councillors

Oct.

Convention  for  evacuation  of  6  departments,  and
finance  convention  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  signed,
12  and  13  Oct.  ;  exchanged . . .21  Oct.

Count  Benedetti  publishes  an  apology,  attacking  the
Prussian  government ;  count  Bismarck  replies  (in
"Official  Journal")  disproving his assertions

22  Oct.

Dispute  with  Tunis  settled . . about  25  Oct.

Prince  Napoleon  resigns  his  seat  in  the  council-
general  of  Corsica ; and  denounces  intimidation

28  Oct.

Insurrection  in  Algeria  ended . . . Nov.

Eight  of  the  murderers  of  generals  Lecomte  and
Thomas  condemned .... 18  Nov.

Eossel,  Ferre,  and  Bourgeois,  communist  leaders,
shot  at  Satory  in  presence  of  3000  soldiers  28  Nov.

Gaston  Cremieux  executed  at  Marseilles  . 30  Nov.

Territory  held  by  Germans  put  into  state  of  siege

4  Dec.

Meeting  of  the  national  assembly . . 4  Dec.

Sixteen  political  parties  said  to  exist . . Dec.

Thiers  reads  his  message  to  the  assembly  ;  depre-
cates free  trade,  but  proposes  moderate  protec-
tion of  French  manufactures . .  7  Dec.

Sharp  despatch  from  count  Bismarck  in  reference
to  the  acquittal  of  murderers  of  Germans  at
Melim  and  Paris 7  Dec.

After  some  discussion  with  M.  Thiers,  the  due
d'Aumale  and  prince  de  Joinville  take  their  seats
in  the  assembly 19  Dec.

A  committee  of  the  assembly  decide  against  the
assembly  removing  to  Paris  . . 22  Dec.

Joseph  Lemettre  condemned  to  death  for  27  crimes
(chiefly  atrocious  murders)  ... 23  Dec.

Income-tax  proposed  and  negatived . .  28  Dec.

Vautram,  a  government  candidate,  elected  deputy
for  Paris,  and  not  Victor  Hugo . . 7  Jan.

The  due  de  Persigny  dies . . .  12  Jan.

Long  debate  in  the  assembly  ;  opposition  to  the
2U'oposed  taxes  on  raw  materials ;  government  de-
feated (377-307) .  . . -19  Jan.

Resignation  of  Thiers  and  the  ministry  opposed  by
the  assembly;  M'Mahon  writes  that  the  army  will
respect  the  orders  of  a  majority  of  the  assembly,
but  not  obey  dictatorship  ;  Thiers  resumes  office

20  Jan.

Death  of  Aries  Dufour,  of  Lyons,  St.  Simonian  and
free-trader ..... about  22  Jan.

The  government  taxes  voted . . .22  Jan.

Conviction  of  the  assassins  of  archbishop  Darboy
and  others  (on  24  May,  1871),  1  to  death 23  Jan.

Manifesto  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  ;  his  mind  un-
changed ;  he  will  not  become  a  legitimate  king  by
revolution 29  Jan.

Abrogation  of  the  commercial  treaties  with  Great
Britain  and  Belgium  determined  on .  Feb.

Sardou's  play,  "  Rabagas,"  satirising  the  radicals  ;
causes  much  excitement . . . .1  Feb.

Proposed  return  of  the  assembly  to  Paris  negatived
(377-318)  ;  resignation  of  Casimir  Perie'r,  minister
of  the  interior 2  Feb.

League  for  commercial  liberty  formed . .  Feb.

Five  communists  sentenced  to  death  for  murder  of
the  Dominicans  on  25  May . . . 17  Feb.

Blanqui  condemned  to  transportation  to  a  fortified
prison about  17  Feb.

M.  Rouher  elected  a  member  of  the  assembly  about

15  Feb.

Universal  subscription  to  pay  the  indemnity  to  the
Germans  begins Feb.

Manifesto  in  favour  of  a  constitutional  monarchy
signed  by  about  280  of  the  "  Right,"  about  21  Feb.

Assassins  of  generals  Lecomte  and  Clement  Thomas
executed 22  Feb.

Janvier  de  la  Motte,  a  prefect,  prosecuted  for  forgery,
&c. ,  by  government,  acquitted  ;  M.  Pouyer-Quer-
tier,  who  gives  evidence  in  his  favour,  resigns,
about  5  March,

Joseph  Lemettre  executed . . .5  March,

The  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain  (i860),
denounced  (to  cease  in  12  months) . 15  March,

War  budget  of  27,000,000/.  (formerly  10,000, oool.)
proposed ...... March,

Publishers  of  "Figaro"  convicted  of  libel  against
general  Trochu  ;  moderate  punishment 2  April,


1872


Abolition  of  passports  for  British  subjects  an-
nounced 10  April,

Law  against  the  International  Society  placarded

22  April,

In  a  letter,  the  ex-emperor  takes  upon  himself  the
whole  responsibility  of  the  surrender  at  Sedan

12  May,

Rouher  in  the  assembly  repels  the  due  d'Audiffret
Pasquier's  severe  attack  on  the  empire 21  May,

Three  more  condemned  communists  shot 25  May,

The  due  dAumale  speaks  in  the  chamber  in  favour
of  the  army  organisation  bill . . .28  May,

Marshal  Yaillant  dies 4  June,

Thiers  threatens  to  resign  at  opposition  in  the
chamber about  9  June,

Interview  of  delegates  of  the  majority  (the  right)  in
the  assembly  with  Thiers  (respecting  his  policy) ;
much  censured 20  June,

Budget  for  1873  ;  deficiency,  4,800,000?.  ;  8,000,000/.
to  be  raised  ;  Thiers  advocates  duty  on  raw  mate-
rials, and  opposes  income-tax  26  June,  et  seq.

The  majority  in  the  assembly  propose  MacMahonas
president  in  room  of  Thiers . . . July,

New  convention  between  Germany  and  France  re-
specting speedy  payment  of  the  indemnity  and
evacuation  of  territory,  signed . . 29  June,

Anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille  cele-
brated by  public  dinners  ;  important  moderate
speech  by  Gambetta  at  Ferte-sous-Jouarre,  14  July,

Announcement  of  a  public  loan  of  120,000,000/.  at
6 J  per  cent 26  July,

Three  communists  (murderers  of  hostages)  executed
at  Satory 25  July,

The  loan  subscribed  for,  nearly  12  times  the  amount,
chiefly  in  France July,

Thiers'  financial  measures  carried  (taxes  on  raw
materials,  &c.) ;  the  session  of  the  assembly  closed

3  Aug.

Meeting  of  Guizot  and  Thiers  at  Val  Richer  11  Sept.

Three  more  communist  murderers  shot  at  Satory

15  Sept.

Arrest  of  Edmond  About  at  Saverne,  by  the  Ger-
mans, on  account  of  a  newspaper  article  (written
Oct.  1871),  14  Sept.  ;  released . . 21  Sept.

Attempted  celebration  of  the  anniversary  of  the
establishment  of  the  first  French  republic  ;  ban-
quet at  Chambery  stopped . . .22  Sept.

M.  Thiers  and  the  ministry  in  Paris . . Sept.

Progress  of  Gambetta  in  the  south  ;  violent  speech
at  Grenoble  against  Thiers ... 27  Sept.

Pilgrimage  of  about  20,000  persons  to  the  grotto  of
the  Virgin  Mary  at  Lourdes,  on  account  of  alleged
miracles  (the  Virgin  was  said  to  have  appeared  to
two  girls,  14  Feb.  1858) .... 6  Oct.

Report  that  the  Russian  minister  remonstrated  on
Gambetta's  speech  at  Grenoble . . Oct.

The  supreme  council  of  war  constituted  ;  includes
MacMahon,  Canrobert,  due  d'Aumale,  and  other
eminent  generals ;  first  meeting,  Thiers  present

9  Oct.

Prince  Napoleon  and  princess  Clothilde  come  to
Paris  ;  expelled  by  order  of  the  government  (he
protests)  . . 12  Oct.

Letter  from  the  comte  de  Chambord  to  M.  de  la
Rochette,  protesting  against  a  republic,  and  assert-
ing that  France  can  be  saved  by  a  monarchy
alone  ;  that  she  is  catholic  and  monarchical,  and
cannot,  therefore,  perish  ;  dated . . 15  Oct.

Elections  for  vacancies  in  the  assembly ;  radical
republicans  mostly  elected ... 20  Oct.

The  Germans  evacuate  Haute  Marne  and  other  de-
partments Oct.,  Nov.

Banquet  of the  monarchical  party  at Bordeaux

31  Oct.

New  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed  at
London 5  Nov.

Re-assembling  of  the  national  assembly,  11  Nov.  ;
Thiers  in  his  message  declares  that  the  republic  is
the  legal  government ;  and  that  to  exist  it  must
be  conservative ;  and  proposes  changes 12  Nov.

Service  of  prayer  on  behalf  of  the  assembly  17  Nov.

Fruitless  attack  of  general  Changarnier  on  Thiers'
policy  and  Gambetta's  Speech  at  Grenoble;  mo-
tion to  pass  to  order  of  the  day  ;  majority  for
government,  150  ;  (300  did  not  vote) . 18  Nov.

The  result  becomes  the  law  of . . 10  Nov.

M.  Kerdrel  proposes  a  commission  to  consider
Thiers'  proposals  for  changes  ;  adopted 19  Nor.


1S72


FEANCE.


396


FEANCE.


Thiers  threatens  to  resign  ;  crisis . 19,  20  Nov.
Report  of  the  commission  read  by  M.  Batbie,  claim-
ing the  right  of  the  assembly  to  frame  a  constitu-
tion with  a.  responsible  ministry  ;  the  president
not  to  speak  in  the  assembly,  &c.  ;  he  advocated
"  gouvernement  de  combat " . . 26  Nov.
Amendment  proposed  by  Dufaure,  minister  of  jus-
tice, accepting  ministerial  responsibility,  rejected
by  the  committee .... 28  Nov.

3VL  Thiers  addresses  the  assembly  ;  declares  he  pre-
fers the  English  to  the  American  system  ;  but
that  a  monarchy  in  France  is  at  present  impos-
sible ;  that  he  is  faithful  to  the  republic  ;  and
that  he  wishes  to  render  it  conservative  ;  and  that
he  has  for  two  years  served  his  country  with
boundless  devotion  ;  Dufaure's  amendment  car-
ried by  370-334  (union  of  royalists  with  Bonapart-
ists  against  the  radicals) . . -29  Nov.
Vote  of  censure  on  the  home  minister  (Lanfranc)
carried ;  305-299  ;  he  resigns . . 30  Nov.
Agitation  respecting  the  appointment  of  the  com-
mission of  30,  proposed  by  Dufaure  ;  it  consists
of  19  for  the  right,  11  for  the  government,  6  Dec.  ;
changes  in  the  ministry  announced . 8  Dec.
Manifesto  of  the  left,  proposing  a  dissolution  of  the
assembly  by  legal  means ...  10  Dec.

Negatived  by  the  assembly  (490-201) . 14  Dec.
Powerful  si^eech  of  Thiers  to  the  commission  of  30

16  Dec.

Execution  of  Poitevin,  a  traitor . . 23  Dec.

Debt (before the war, about 460,500,000?.)—

748,700,000?. ...... Dec.

Illness  of  the  ex-emperor  .... 4  Jan.

Meeting  of  the  national  assembly  . . 6  Jan.

Death  of  Napoleon  III.  at  Chiselhurst  9  Jan.

Bonapartist  manifesto  ;  "  the  emperor  is  dead,  but
the  empire  is  living  and  indestructible  " 15  Jan.
'The  "30  committee"  considering  Tallon's  project

for  a  constitution Jan.

'Three  communist  murderers  shot  at  Satory  22  Jan.
Reported  recognition  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  as
king  by  the  Orleans  princes . . .26  Jan.
Powerful  speech  of  Thiers  before  the  commission  of
30  against  their  proposed  changes . .  2  Feb.
The  commission  of  30  close  their  meetings 8  Feb.
Letter  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  published ;  destroys
all  hopes  of  the  fusion  of  the  Bourbons . Feb.
Debate  begins  on  the  report  of  the  commission,
which  reserves  the  legislative  rights  of  the  present
assembly,  and  the  adherence  to  the  provisional
state in  accordance  with  the "  pacte  de  Bor-
deaux," 27  Feb.  ;  powerful  speech  of  Thiers  in
favour  of  this  "truce  of  parties,"  adopted  (475-

5:99) 4  March,

Convention  for  the  total  evacuation  of  the  depart-
ments in  Sept.  on  payment  of  indemnity,  signed

at  Berlin 15  March,

Declaration  in  the  assembly  "  that  M.  Thiers  has  de-
served well  of  his  country  " . . 17  March,
M.  Grevy  resigns  the  presidency  on  account  of  the
conduct of the party  of the right, b  April ;
M.  Buffet,  a  liberal  Bonapartist,  elected  in  oppo-
sition to Martel,  the  government  candidate,  4  April,
M.  Barodet, radical,  ex-mayor  of Lyons, elected
member  of  the  assembly  for  Paris  by  a  large  ma-
jority over  the  minister  de  Kemusat  . 27  April,
Changes  in  the  ministry  :— Casimir  Perier,  interior ;
W.  H. Waddington, of  Cambridge, public  in-
struction (in room  of De Goulard  and  Jules

Simon) ^  May,

Meeting  of  the  national  assembly,  19  May ;  the
government  introduce  their  constitutional  bills,
21  May  ;  the  due  de  Broglie  leads  an  attack  on
the  government,  23  May  ;  speech  of  Thiers  ;  the
government  defeated  (362-34S)  at  a  sitting,  2  p.  m. ,

24  May,
Resignation  of  Thiers  and  his  ministry  accepted
(368-339),  24  May  ;  marshal  McMahon,  due  de
Magenta  (born  1808)  elected  president  of  the  re-
public by  390  votes  (the  left  did  not  vote);  he
accepts  the  office,  declaring  his  independence  of
party,  24  May  ;  in  his  message  to  the  assembly
he  says,  "  The  post  in  which  you  have  placed  me
is  that  of  a  sentinel,  who  has  to  watch  over  the
integrity  of  your  sovereign  power. "  .  26  May,
The  due  de  Broglie chief  of  the new  ministry

26  May,


1872


General  Ladmirault  succeeds  MacMahon  in  the
command  of  the  army  of  Versailles . 3  June,  1873

Private  circular  of  the  minister  to  prefects  re-
questing them  to  sound  newspapers  of  his  de-
partment ;  censured  in  the  assembly  . 11  June, „

The  assembly  (by  a  large  majority)  order  the  prose-
cution of  Ranc,  formerly  a  communist,  now
deputy  for  Lyons  .... 19  June, ,,

Visit  of  the  Shah 5  July, „

Grand  review  of  the  renovated  army  at  Paris,  and.
assembly  prorogued . . . .10  July, „

Renewal  of  the  Anglo-French  treaty  of  23  Jan.
i860  (till  30  June,  1877) ;  signed  24  July  ;  ratified

29  July, ,,

Evacuation  of  all  the  French  territories  by  the
Germans,  except  Verdun,  by  . . .2  Aug. „

Fusion  of  the  Legitimists  and  Orleanists  ;  after  an
interview  of  the  comte  de  Paris  with  the  comte
de  Chambord; the  latter  recognised  as  chief

5  Aug. „

Odilon-Barrot  died 6  Aug. „

The  imperial  prince  Napoleon  declares  the  policy
of  his  family  to  be  "Everything  by  the  people
for  the  people " 15  Aug. „

Last  instalment  of  10,000,000?.  of  the  indemnity  of
200,000,000?.  paid ..... 5  Sept. ,,

About  2,700  communists  yet  to  be  disposed  of

Sept.. ,,

Verdun  quitted  by  the  Germans ._ . 13  Sept. „

The  last  quitted  the  French  territory  . 16  Sept. „

Due  Decazes  ambassador  for  London . .  Oct. „

Letter  from  comte  de  Chambord  to  the  vicomta
de  Rodez-Benavent ;  not  explicit ;  shows  ten-
dency to  concession  ;  says,  "I  want  the  co-opera-
tion of  all,  and  all  have  need  of me " dated

19  Sept. „

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  joins  the  republican  party,

26  Sept. ,,

Letter  from  Thiers  to  mayor  of  Nancy,  censuring
the  fusionists,  who  "without  the  consent  of
France  pretend  to  decide  upon  her  destinies"

29  Sept. „

France  divided  into  18  new  military  regions  ;  18
generals  appointed . . . -30  Sept. ,,

Trial  of  marshal  Bazaine,  late  commander  of  the  army
of  the  Rhine  in  1870,  for  alleged  treachery  and
misconduct  at  Metz  ;  due  d'Aumale  president  of
the  court ;  begins 6  Oct. ,,

Changes  in  the  ministry  ;  due  Decazes  foreign  and
Changarnier  war  minister . . .6  Oct. ,,

Rouher's  letter  to  the  Bonapartists  against  the
monarchists 9  Oct. ,,

M.  Remusat  and  3  other  republicans  elected  de-
puties ....... 12  Oct. ,,

Ranc  condemned  to  death  in  contumaciam  13  Oct. „

M.  Lemoinne  (in  the  Journal  des  Debats)  says  "The
partisans  of  an  absolute  monarchy  make  a  tabula
rasa  of  history  ;  for  them  nothing  has  occurred.
If  that  be  so,  nothing  will  return  " . 15  Oct.

Manifesto  of  the  monarchists  proposing  restoration
of  the  monarchy,  guaranteeing  all  necessary
liberties,  &c 18  Oct. „

M.  Leon  Say  and  the  left  centre  decline  negotia-
tion with  the  monarchists  ;  who  threaten  absten-
tion in  the  next  elections,  if  successfully  opposed

23  Oct. „

Letter  from  the  comte  de  Chambord  to  M.
Chesnelong  ;  he  says,  "  I  retract  nothing,  and
curtail  nothing  of  my  previous  declarations.  I
do  not  wish  to  begin  a  reign  of  reparation  by  an
act  of  weakness ;  if  enfeebled  to-day,  I  should
be  powerless  to-morrow  ;  I  am  a  necessary  pilot ;
the  only  one  capable  of  guiding  the  ship  to  port,
because  I  have  for  it  a  mission  of  authority."
dated 27  Oct. „

M.  Leon  Say  and  the  left  centre  say  the  moment
has  arrived  for  the  organisation  of  a  conservative
republic 30  Oct. „

Meeting  of  national  assembly ;  message  from  mar-
shal MacMahon,  requesting  increased  and  pro-
longed power  (ten  years) ;  this  referred  to  a  com-
mittee of  15  ;  voted  urgent  (by  360  to  350)  5  Nov. „

M.  Buffet  re-elected  president . . 6  Nov. „

Conspiracy  at  Autun  to  seize  marchioness  Mac-
Mahon ;  offenders  convicted  . . . 7  Nov. ,,

Eight  of  the  committee  vote  for  prolongation  of
MacMahon's  presidency  for  five  years  after  date
of  meeting  of  the  next  legislature,  under  existing


FRANCE.


397


FRANCE.


conditions  till  the  passing  of  constitutional  laws ;
the  others  vote  for  ten  years'  prolongation  with-
out conditions 13  Nov.

M.  Laboulaye's  report  of  the  committee  laid  before
the  assembly;  MaeMahon's  message  suggesting
7  years'  prolongation  of  his  powers . 17  Nov.

Warm  debate  in  the  assembly  ;  majority  of  68  for
ministers,  18  Nov.  ;  7  years'  power  voted  to
marshal  MacMahon  (383-317),  jg  Nov. ; decree

20  Nov.

Incognito  visit  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  to  Paris
about  20  Nov.

Ministry  resigns,  20  Nov.  ;  re-constituted  ;  due  de
Broglie,  minister  of  interior ;  due  Decazes,
foreign  minister  ;  announced . . 26  Nov.

Committee  of  30  for  constitutional  changes,  com-
pleted 4  Dec.

Holds  its  first  meeting,  Batbie,  president 5  Dec.

Embassy  to  London  declined  by  Guizot ;  accepted
by  the  due  de  la  Rochefoucauld-Bisaecia Dec.

Bazaine's  trial  ends  ;  he  is  found  guilty  of  capitu-
lating with  his  army  (of  170, 000  men)  in  the  open
field ;  of  negotiating  dishonourably  with  the
enemy,  and  surrendering  a  fortified  place  ;  sen-
tence, death  and  degradation,  10  Dec.  ;  com-
muted to  20  years'  imprisonment . .12  Dec.

Peaceful  republican  demonstration  in  Paris  at  the
funeral  of  Victor  Hugo's  second  son,  Frangois,

28  Dec.

Meeting  of  the  assembly ;  majority  against  the
nomination  of  mayors  bill,  through  the  legiti-
mists (268-226),  8  Jan.  ;  the  ministry  resign,  9
Jan.  ;  vote  of  confidence  in  the  ministry  (379  to
329),  12  Jan.  ;  the  ministers  resume  office  13  Jan.

Vote  for  ministers  on  the  nomination  of  mayors
bill  (341-336) 17  Jan.

The  Ultramontane  newspaper,  L'Unlvers  (edited
by  M.  L.  Veuillot),  suspended  for  2  months  for
attacks  on  Italy  and  Germany,  about 19  Jan.

Nomination  of  mayors  bill  passed,  21  Jan.  ;  many
mayors  replaced Feb.

A  person  calls  himself  comte  Albert  de  Bourbon,
and  claims  to  be  son  of  Louis  XVII.  ;  his  claim
rejected 27  Feb.

Ledru-Rollin  and  Lepetit  elected  members  of
the  national  assembly  . . . .1  March,

New  electoral  law  presented  by  the  committee  ;
about  3  millions  disfranchised . 11  March,

Demonstration  at  Chiselhurst  on  prince  Louis
Napoleon's  coming  of  age  (at  18)  ;  6000  French-
men present ;  he  says  that  he  waits  the  result  of
the  8th  plebiscite .... 16  March,

Gabriel  Hugelmann,  political  spy  and  swindler,
convicted  and  sentenced  to  5  years'  imprison-
ment 25  March,

Ferrand,  contractor  (made  about  8o,oooZ.  during
war),  fined  and  imprisoned,  about . 25  March,

Proposal  of  Dahirel,  legitimist,  of  a  law  enacting
that  on  1  June  the  assembly  should  vote  for
either  a  monarchy  or  republic,  negatived  (330-
256) 27  March,

Assembly  adjourns  to  12  May . . 28  March,

Two  republican  deputies  elected . 29  March,

Reported  escape  of  Rochefort,  the  communist,  from
New  Caledonia . . announced  30  March,

Death  of  Beule",  ex-minister . . .4  April,

Newspapers  warned  not  to  attack  the  septennate

12  April,

Clement  Duvernois,  ex-imperial  minister,  arrested
for  suspected  fraud  .... 14  April,

The  assembly  meets,  12  May ;  the  ministry  de-
feated on  electoral  law  (381-317),  resigns  16  May,

M.  Goulard  failing  to  form  a  ministry,  the  presi-
dent re-appoints  the  former  without  Broglie ;
nominal  head,  gen.  De  Cissey . . 22  May,

Prince  Hohenlohe,  the  new  German  ambassador,
received  by  the  president ;  mutual  professions
of  peace 23  May,

Rochefort  and  other  communists  arrive  at  San
Francisco . . . announced  21  May,

Bourgoing,  a  Bonapartist,  elected  for  Nievre  (as-
serted that he was  devoted to  the  marshal)

24  May,

Thiers  addresses  some  Gironde  friends  ;  refers  to
the  failure  of  his  opponents  ;  and  recommends
dissolution  of  the  assembly . . 24  May,

Electoral  bill;  assembly  pass  to  second  reading
(.393-318) 1  June,


1873


1874


Ledru-Rollin's  speech  a  failure . .  3  June,  1874

Hot  disputes  between  republicans  and  Bonapar-
tists  ;  left  centre  demand  the  establishment  of
the  republic, or  dissolution  of the assembly

8,  9  June, „

Bonnard,  communist,  condemned  for  murder,  25
Feb.,  shot 6  June, ,,

Electoral  bill ;  age  of  electors  fixed  at  21,  not  25
(defeat  of  ministry) . . . .10  June, „

Gambetta  having  called  the  Bonapartists  "misera-
Ues,"  is  struck  at  a  railway  station  by  comte  de
Sainte  Croix,  xi  June,  who  is  condemned  to  fine-
and  imprisonment . . . -13  June, „

Casimir  Perier  (leader  of  left  centre)  moves  for
recognition  of  the  republic  ;  MacMahon  president
til?  20  Nov.  1880,  and  revision  of  the  constitu-
tion ;  voted  "urgent "  (345-341) . 14,  15  June, ,T

Due  de  Rochefoucauld-Bisaceia's  motion  for  re-
storation of  the  legitimate  monarchy  negatived ;
he  resigns  British  embassy  . . .15  June, ,„

Rochefort  in  London .... 19  June, ,,

The  "  fusion  "  between  legitimists  and  Orleanists
ended ;  conflict  now  between  republicans  and
Bonapartists June, ,„

Grand  review  of  60,000  men  at  Longchamps,  near
Paris 28  June, ,f

In  his  order  of  the  day,  marshal  MacMahon  de-
clares that  with  the  army  he  will  maintain  the
authority  of  the  land  for  the  seven  years  29  June, ,,

Casimir  Perier's  motion  negatived  by  commission
of  thirty 29  June, „

Manifesto  from  comte  de  Chambord,  saying,
"  France  has  need  of  monarchy.  My  birth  has
made  me  your  king.  .  .  The  Christian  and
French  monarchy  is  in  its  very  essence  limited
(temperre).  It  admits  of  the  existence  of  two
chambers  :  one  nominated  by  the  sovereign,  the-
other  by  the  nation. .  I  do  not  wish  for

those  barren  parliamentary  struggles,  whence
the  sovereign  too  frecpuently  issues  powerless,
and  enfeebled.  .  .  I  reject  the  formula  of
foreign  importation,  which  all  our  national  tradi-
tions repudiate,  with  its  king  who  reigns  and
does  not  govern." — Signed,  Henri  V. . 2  July, ,,

"  L' Union,"  legitimist  paper,  suspended  for  pub-
lishing the  above 4  July, ,y

M.  Goulard,  ex-minister,  dies . . 4  July, „

Debate  on  the  manifesto  ;  legitimists  defeated  ;
ministers  defeated  on  a  motion  in  favour  of  the
septennate,  resign  (368-331) ;  their  resignation
not  accepted  by  the  marshal  . . 8  July, „

He  states,  in  a  message  to  the  assembly,  his  deter-
mination to  maintain  the  law  of  20  Nov. ,  and  ex-
horts them to pass the constitutional laws

9  July, ,,

"Figaro"  suspended  for  15  days  for  attacking  the
assembly 11  July, ,,

Reports  of  committee,  by  Ventavon  (the  bill  pro-
poses maintenance  of  the  authority  of  the  presi-
dent of  the  republic  ;  ministerial  responsibility  ;
two  legislative  assemblies  ;  dissolution  of  the
chamber  of  deputies  by  the  president ;  &c),  sus-
pended 16  July, ,,

Casimir  Perier's  motion  for  a  republic  rejected
(375-313) 23  July, „

Malleville's  motion  for  dissolution  of  the  assembly
rejected  (374-332) >

The  assembly  adjourns  (to  30  Nov.)  . . 5  Aug. ,,

Marshal  Bazaine  escapes  from  the  isle  of  Ste.
Marguerite  (see  Dec.  1873)  10  p.m.  [His  wife  as-
serted that  he  descended  by  an  old  gutter  by
means  of  a  knotted  rope  ;  was  received  into  a>
boat  by  her  and  her  nephew,  Alvarez  de  Rul,
and  conveyed  to  the  steamer  Baron  Ricasola,
which  landed  him  at  Genoa]  . . .9  Aug.

Forcade  de  Roquette,  a  minister  under  the  empire,
dies,  aged  53 16  Aug.

MaeMahon's  progress  in  the  N.W.  provinces  ;  well
received 17  Aug.

Vendome  column  restored ... 31  Aug.

Comte  de  Jarnac,  minister  at  London,  arrives  there

4  Sept.

Death  of  M.  Guizot . . . .12  Sept.

Bazaine's  defence,  sent  by  him  to  the  New  Yuri-
Herald, dated 6  Sept., published  in London

14  Sept.


FRANCE.


FRANCE.


'Trials  for  complicity  in  Bazaine's  escape ;  col.
Villette  and  others  sentenced  to  imprisonment

17  Sept.  1874

'Thiers,  at  Vizille  near  Grenoble,  in  reply  to  an
address,  says,  "  Since  you  cannot  establish  the
monarchy,  establish  the  republic,  and  do  it
frankly  and  sincerely "  . . . . 27  Sept. ,,

Poirier  executed  at  Chartres  for  5  murders  29  Sept. ,,

Severe  note  from  Spanish  government  complaining
of  French  neglect  in  regard  to  the  Carlists  on
the  Spanish  frontier  .... early  Oct. „

Clement  Duvernois,  ex-imperial  minister,  con-
victed of  fraud  ;  2  years'  imprisonment 25  Nov. „

Political  Parties.

Extreme  right.  Legitimists  :  adherents  of  Henry  V.
Moderate  right :  monarchists.  Bight  centre:
septennates,  Imperialists  or  Bonapartists.  Left
centre :  moderate  republicans  (chief,  Thiers).
Left :  more  pronounced.  Extreme  left :  radicals
(chief,  Gambetta) Nov. „

St.  Genest's  pamphlet,  "  V Assembles  et  la  France,"
inciting  to  a  coup  d'etat . . . end  of  Nov. „

<Comte  de  Chambord  requests  his  friends  not  to
vote  so  as  to  prevent  or  delay  the  restoration  of
the  monarchy Nov. ,,

Four  ornamented  volumes  of  addresses  from  towns,
&c. ,  in  Prance,  conveying  thanks  for  relief  during
the  war  1870-1  (inscribed  on  the  outside,  "Bri-
tannia grata  Gallia")  with  about  12,000,000
signatures,  presented  to  the  queen  by  M.  D'Agiout
and  the  comte  de  S'errurier  [placed  in  the  British
Museum  for  inspection]  .... 3  Dec. ,,

The  assembly  meets  ;  firm  moderate  message  from
MacMahon 3  ^>ec. „

Sudden  death  of  M.  Ledru-Bollin . 31  Dee. „

President  in  his  message  having  recommended  the
passing  a  bill  for  constituting  a  senate,  motion
against  it  passed  (420  to  250),  6  Jan.  ;  ministers'
resignation  not  accepted  .... 7  Jan. 1875

■Cost  of  the  war  (395,400,000?.) announced  Jan.

Eniile  Pereire,  financier . . . died  6  Jan.

A  Bonapartist  elected  deputy  for  Hautes-Pyrenees

17  Jan.

Nine  days'  debate  on  the  new  army  bill . Jan.

Stormy  debate  on  Ventavon's  bid  for  organising
MacMahon's  powers,  1st  reading  passed  (557  to
146) 22  Jan.

Laboulaye's  amendment  rejected  (359-335) 29  Jan-

Wallon's  amendment  (the  president  of  the  republic
to  be  elected  by  absolute  majority  of  the  two
chambers  for  7  years,  and  to  be  eligible  for  re-
election ; the republic virtually established) ;
passed  1  a.m.  31  Jan.

Great  satisfaction  throughout  the  country Feb.

Duprat's  amendment  carried  (senate  to  be  chosen
by  universal  suffrage),  11  Feb.  ;  third  reading  of
the  constitutional  bill  rejected  (357-345) ;  pro-
posed dissolution  of  the  assembly  negatived
1(407-266),  12  Feb.  ;  message  from  the  marshal
disapproving  of  last  votes  ... 13  Feb.

Senate  bill  (senate  to  consist  of  300 ;  225  to  be
elected  by  the  departments,  75  by  national
assembly) 22  Feb.

Laws  passed  constituting  French  republic  by  union
of  moderate  monarchists  and  republicans  ;  legiti-
mists and  Bonapartists  defeated ;  senate  bill
passed  (448-244),  24  Feb.  ;  final  vote  for  republic,
constitutional  laws  passed  (436-262)

5  p.m.  25  Feb.,  published  1  March,

New  ministry  under  Buffet  constituted  ;  Buffet,
interior;  Dufaure,  justice;  Leon  Say,  finance;
Wallon,  instruction ;  De  Meaux,  agriculture  and
commerce ;  Cissey  war ;  Decazes,  foreign ;  Mon-
taignac,  marine  ;  Caillaux,  public  works

10  March,

Due  d'Audiffret  Pasquier  elected  president  of  the
assembly  almost  unanimously  . -15  March,

Death  of  M.  Jarnac-Chabot,  ambassador  at  London

22  March,

Assembly  adjourns  to  11  May . . 20  March,

Edgar  Quinet,  author  of  "  Les  J6suites,"  a  staunch
republican,  died . . . . 27  March,

Powerful  speech  of  Gambetta  at  Belleville,  de-
fending the  new  constitution . . 23  April,

Meeting  of  the  assembly,  11  May  ;  the  ministry
propose  to  refer  a  bill  to  the  committee  of  30  ;


defeated;  part  of  the  committee  resign,  18  May;
new committee elected  (republican majority)

26  May, 1875

Louis  Blanc's  speech  against  the  conservative  re-
public, 21  June;  self-denying  resolution  of  the
left  party  (to  avoid  delaying  the  dissolution  by
speaking,  &c.) June, ,,

Destructive  inundations  at  Toulouse  ;  about  1000
lives  lost,  with  much  property . 23  June, ,,

Election  of  baron  de  BoUrgoing,  a  Bonapartist,  an-
nulled by  the  assembly,  13  July  ;  warm  defence
of  his  party  by  Rouher  (on  the  charge  of  there
being  a  central  committee  of  Bonapartists  in
Paris  with  branches  in  the  provinces,  actively
endeavouring  to  overthrow  the  republic  in  1874)

14  July, „

Fierce  debate  in  assembly ;  Buffet  defends  the
imperialistic  prefects,  and  gains  vote  of  con-
fidence ;  the  left  not  voting  . . 15  July, ,,

H.  Roehefort,  after  challenging  Paul  de  Cassagnac,
declines  accepting  the  conditions  of  the  combat
at  Geneva Aug. ,,

The  assembly  adjourns .... 4  Aug. „

Naquet,  an  "irreconcilable"  republican,  attacks
Gambetta  for  his  moderation . end  of  Aug. ,,

Plon  having  lost  by  publishing  "  Julius  Csesar,"
by  Napoleon  III.,  sues  the  emperor's  executors  ;
fails  ;  and  is  adjudged  to  pay  costs . . Aug. „

L'Echo  de  Blois  fined  for  libel  on  the  due  d'Aumale

28  Aug. „
"Les  ResponsaJiilitcs,"  pamphlet  recommending  the

comte  de  Chambord  to  resign  his  rights  to  the
crown Aug. ,,

Belgian  and  German  pilgrimage  to  Lourdes  (see
1872) Sept. ,,

Admiral  De  la  Ronciere  Noury  superseded  for
writing  a  letter  animadverting  on  the  republic
(2  Sept.) 8  Sept, „

Alleged  adhesion  of  the  Orleanist  party  to  the
republic about  10  Sept. ,,

Important  speeches  ;  M.  Thiers  at  Arcachon  de-
fending his  policy ;  advocating  a  conservative
republic,  and  censuring  delay ;  M.  Rouher  at
Ajaccio,  advocating  imperialism  and  universal
suffrage,  and  asserting  that  the  nation  will  not
accept  the  republic  as  a  definite  government

17  Oct. „

Important  letter  of  Gambetta  to  his  frier.ds  at
Lyons  (in  favour  of  the  conservative  republic),
said  to  be  "  too  advanced  for  the  moderate,  and
too  moderate  for  the  advanced." . . 25  Oct. ,,

Meeting  of  the-  assembly  :  due  d'Audiffret  re-
elected president 4  Nov. ,,

The  assembly  virtually  votes  its  dissolution  before
31  March,  1876  ;  6  months'  residence  in  a  com-
mune to  give  right  to  vote,  9  Nov.,  majority  for
ministers  ;  the  scrutin  d'arrondissement  adopted
instead  of  scrutin  de  list'e  (357-326) ;  able  speech
of  Gambetta  for  the  latter . . 11  Nov. ,,

New  Catholic  University  opened . .17  Nov. ,,

Beginning  of  ballot  for  senators  for  life ;  due
d'Audiffret  Pasquier  elected ;  the  result  dis-
closes a  breach  between  the  legitimists  and
Orleanists  ;  government  defeated . . 9  Dec ,,

Committees  on  the  bills  relating  to  the  press  and
the  state  of  siege  protest  against  them  strongly

about  13  Dec. ,,

Seventy-five  senators  for  life  (52  republicans)
elected  by  the  assembly . . 9 — 21  Dec. „

Powerful  speech  of  Buffet  in  favour  of  rigid  press
law  and  state  of  siege,  23  Dec.  ;  much  censured,
but  approved  in  a  letter  by  MacMahon 24  Dec. ,,

Majority  for  ministers  (376-303) . . 24  Dec. ,,

Solemn  funerals  of  generals  Clement  Thomas  and
Lecomte,  killed  by  the  communists  (18  March,
1871); violent recrimination  in  the  assembly

27  Dec. ,,

Re-election  to  the  assembly  declined  by  the  due
d'Aumale,  27  Dec.  ;  by  the  prince  de  Joinville,

29  Dec. ,,
New  press  law  (abolishing  interdiction)  passed ;

state  of  siege  raised  excepit  in  Paris,  Versailles,
Lyons,  and  Marseilles ;  proposal  to  raise  it  at
Paris  negatived  (369-279) ... 29  Dec. „
The  assembly  prorogued  till  8  March,  1876  31  Dec. „
Powerful  letter  from  Gambetta . . 31  Dec. ,,
Communist  trials report : 9,596  convicted  ; no
sentenced  to  death Dec. ,,


FEANCE.


399


FEANCE.


Ministerial  crisis  :  difference  between  Buffet  and
Say  respecting  an  electoral  list ;  resignation  of
Say ;  withdrawn  at  MacMahon's  request.  10  Jan.
et  seq.;  the  marshal  issues  a  proclamation,  coun-
tersigned by  Buffet ;  he  says,  "  I  think  that  the
constitution  ought  not  to  be  revised  before  having
been  loyally  worked.  I  shall  fulfil  to  the  end
the  mission  entrusted  to  me."  .  .  13  Jan.  1876
New  Catholic  university  inaugurated  at  Paris  by

the  archbishop . . . . .10  Jan. ,,
Commencement  of  election  of  senators  in  depart-
ments 17  Jan. ,,

General  prosperity ;  revenue  for  1875  estimated
100,000, 000L,  said  to  be  the  highest  ever  received

by  any  government Jan. ,,

Election  of  senators ;  mostly  moderate  republicans ;
Thiers  for  Belfort  nearly  unanimous  ;  Buffet  and
Louis  Blanc  rejected ;  Victor  Hugo  elected  30  Jan. ,,
Resignation  of  Leon  Renault,  prefect  of  police,

opposed  to  Buffet  .... 9  Feb. „

Election  of  deputies ;  great  majority  of  repub-
licans, 20  Feb. — 5  March  ;  resignation  of  Buf-
fet, about  22  Feb.  ;  Dufaure  chief  minister,  with

a  modified  cabinet 24  Feb. ,,

Estimated  result  of  elections  : moderate  repub-
licans, 270  ;  radicals,  .60  ;  Bonapartists,  92  ;  Or-
leanists,  58  ;  legitimists,  36 . . 7  March, ,,
Dufaure's  ministry  complete  (including  Decazes,

Say,  Waddington,  de  Cissey,  &c.)  about  9  March, ,,
Senate  and  assembly  meet,  8  March  ;  due  d'Audif-
fret  Pasquier  elected  president  of  senate  ; M.  F.
P.  Jules  Grevy,  president  of  assembly 13  March, „
Amnesty  bill  for  communists introduced  in  the
senate  by  Victor  Hugo ; in  the  assembly  by

Raspail 21  March, „

Proposed  international  exhibition,  Paris,for  1  May,

1878 5  April, ,,

Archbishop  Guibe.rt,  of  Paris,  declines  to  give
evidence  concerning  the  election  of  comte  de

Mun  as  deputy April, ,,

Gambetta  president  of  budget  committee  for  1877

about  19  April, ,,
Queen  Victoria  in  Paris  ;  received  by  the  president,

21  April,  „
Death  of  Ricard,  popular  liberal  minister  of  the
interior,  aged  48,  12  May;  succeeded  by  M.  De
Mercere,  under-secretary  .  about  15  May,  ,,
Debate  on  the  amnesty  to  communists,  14  May ;
rejected  (394-52),  17  May;  Victor  Hugo's  speech
in  favour  of  amnesty  ;  proposal  rejected  almost

unanimously 22  May, ,,

Funeral  procession  of  Michelet  at  Paris  18  May,  ,,
M.  Buffet,  ex-minister,  elected  life-senator  16  June,  ,,
87  communists  pardoned  . . .28  June, ,,

Casimir  Pe'rier  dies 6  July, ,,

Nearly  2,000,000?.  voted  for  public  instruction

31  July, „
Chambers  prorogued . . . .12  Aug. ,,
68  communists  pardoned ...  17  Aug. ,,
Observatory  at  Puy  de  D6me  near  Clermont  in-
augurated 22  Aug. ,,

New  fortifications  round  Paris  nearly  completed,

Sept. „
The  assembly  reopened,  30  Oct. ;  the  due  Decazes'

firm  pacific  speech .... 3  Nov. ,,
Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  becomes  prominent  in  the

assembly Nov. ,,

Resignation  of  Dufaure's  ministry  through  defeats

in  the  senate,  &c 2  Dec. ,,

Pardons  and  commutations  granted  to  many  com-
munist convicts 2  Dec. ,,

New ministry: Jules Simon, president  of  the
council  and  minister  of  interior;  Martel,  justice  ;
others  remain . . . . 12,  13  Dec. ,,
Estimated  revenue  109,000,000/. . . . Dec. ,,

Chambers  opened 9  Jan.  1877

Gambetta  president  of  the  budget . .  26  Jan. ,,
Above  fifty  prefects,  hostile  to  the  republic,  re-
moved Jan. ,,

Gen.  Changarnier  died,  aged  83 . -14  Feb. ,,
Paul  de  Cassagnac  fined  ami  imprisoned  for  libel
against chamber of  deputies  in  the  "Pays,"

5  April,  ,,
Rochefort's  "  Lantemc "  re-published  .  April,  ,,
M.  Jules  Simon  compelled  to  yield  to  Gambetta  in

the  chamber 4  May, ,,

Peremptory  letter  of  censure  from  marshal  Mac-


Mahon to Jules Simon causes him and  his

ministry  to  resign 16  May,

The  due  de  Broglie  forms  a  ministry  (royalist  and
imperial),  De  Fourtou,  interior ;  Cailloux,  finance ;
Paris,  public works ; De Meaux, agriculture  ;
Brunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign,
and  Berthaut,  war,  remain) . . 17  May,
Gambetta's  resolution  in  chamber  in  favour  of  par-
liamentary government  carried,  (355  - 154)  17  May  ;
protest  of  363  liberal  deputies  signed . 18  May,
The  marshal  prorogues  the  chambers  for  a  month  ;
a  fim  manifesto  issued  by  the  left . 18  May,
Many  changes  made  in  the  prefects  . 20  May,

Thiers  -accepted as leader by  the  republicans  ;
Brogtte's  circular  for  repressing  the  press  issued
about  29  May,
Bonnet  Duverdier,  chief  of  municipality  of  Paris  ;
arrested  for  speaking  against  the  marshal,  1  June ;
sentenced  to  fine  and  imprisonment  . 8  June,
Meeting  of  chambers ; stormy  debate  in  second
chamber, 16 June ; vote against government
carried  (363-158) .... 19  June,
The  deputies  vote  the  necessary  supplies,  but  not

direct  taxes 21  June,

The  senate  votes  dissolution  of  the  chambers  (150-

130)  22  June  ;  decreed ... 25  June,

The  marshal,  in  an  order  of  the  day,  after  a  review

at  Longehamps,  says  :  "  I  appeal  to  the  army  to

defend  the  dearest interests  of  the  country,"

2  July,
Quarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against

Cassagnac) July,  Aug.

Repressive  measures  towards  the  press,  <fee.  July.Aug.
Prosecution  of  Gambetta  (and  Murat,  editor  of  the
"Republique  Franchise,"  in  which  it  appeared)
for  a  speech  at  Lille  (29  July)  in  which  he  said
the  marshal  must,  if  the  elections  be  against
him,  "  submit  or  resign  "  ("  se  soumettre  ou  se

demettre") about  25  Aug.

Thiers  dies,  aged  So ;  3  Sept.  public  funeral  ;  no

disorder 8  Sept.

Gambetta  and  Murat  convicted  ;  sentence  3  months
imprisonment  and  fine  of  80I.  11  Sept. ;  on  appeal
sentence  affirmed ....  22  Sept.

The  marshal's  excursions  to  various  places  ;  recep-
tion differs  .  .  .  .  '  .  Aug.  Sept.
In  his  manifesto  respecting  the  elections,  he  refers
to  his  successful  government,  and  says :  "  I
cannot  obey  the  injunctions  of  the  demagogy  ;
I  can  neither  become  the  instrument  of  radical-
ism nor  abandon  the  post  in  which  the  constitu-
tion has  placed  me "  .  .  -19  Sept.
Thiers'  manifesto  to  electors  (an  historical  defence
of  the  republic  and  late chamber) published

24  Sept.
The  clergy  energetically  support  the  government

Sept.  Oct.
Temperate  manifesto  of  the  left,  4  Oct. ;  of  Grevy

and  Gambetta 7  Oct.

Justificatory  manifesto  of  the  marshal,  appealing

to  voters IX  Oct.

Gambetta  convicted  for  placarding  his  address  ;
fine  150/.  and  3  months'  imprisonment  12  Oct.'
M.  de  Fourtou  interferes  very  energetically  in
elections  ;  foreign  papers  stopped',  &c.  .  Oct.
General  election  ;  quiet  and  dignified  ;  results :
defeat  of  Bonapartist  and  clerical  parties  ;  (of
506  official  candidates  about  199  elected ;  re-
publicans, 320) I4  Oct.

Final  result:  325  republicans;  112 Bonapartists;

96  monarchists 2s  Oct.

Ministry  hold  office  till  successors  appointed  ;  M.'
Pouyer-Quertier  fails  to  form  11  ministry  .  Nov!
Election  of  departmental  councils  who  elect  sena-
tors ;  majority  for  republicans  .  .  4  Nov.
Meeting  of  chambers  .  .  .  .  7  Nov'.
Census  for  1876  announced  ;  36,905,788  (increase  of

802,867  over  1872) 8  Nov.

The  marshal  determines  not  to  resign  ;  his  ministry

agree  to  remain  temporarily  ;  announced  8  Nov.

F. P. Jules Grevy  re-elected president of the

chamber  of  deputies  now  constituted  . 10  Nov.

Albert  Greyy's  resolution  for  the  appointment  of  a

commission  of  33  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of

the  government  respecting  elections, 13  Nov.  ;

carried  after  a  warm  debate  (312-205) . 15  Nov.

Debate  in  senate  on  M.  Kerdiels  motion  respecting


1S77


FRANCE.


400


FRANCE.


ministers  ;  vote  in  their  favour  indirectly  reflect-
ing on  Grevy's  resolution,  <&c.  ('151-129) 19  Nov.  1877

Eesignation  of  ministers  announced . 20  Nov. „

New  ministry  formed  under  gen.  Rochebouet,
president ;  no  member  of  it  in  the  senate  or
assembly  ;  termed  "  ministry  of  affairs  "  23  Nov. „

No  confidence  in  the  new  ministry  voted  in  the
second  chamber  (323-208) ... 24  Nov. „

Important  meeting  of  commercial  men  at  Paris  ;
petition  to  the  marshal  agreed  on  .2  Dec. „

The  chamber  refuses  to  discuss  the  budget 4  Dec. „

The  ministry  resign  ;  negotiations  with  Dufaure  to
form  a  parliamentary  ministry  fail ;  Batbie  (see
26  Nov.  1872)  also  fails . . . 7-13  Dec. „

The  marshal  submits  unconditionally  13  Dec.  A
thorough  republican  ministry  formed  under  M.
Dufaure,  president  of  the  council  and  minister
of  justice  ;  De  Marcere,  interior  ;  Waddington
(protestant),  foreign  affairs ;  Bardoux,  public
instruction  ;  general  Borel,  war ;  vice-admiral
Pothuau,  marine  ;  Le'on  Say,  finance  ;  Teisserenc
de  Bort,  commerce ;  De  Freycinet,  public  works  :
announced ;  the  marshal  in  his  message  accepts
the  will  of  the  country . . . 14  Dec. „

Restrictions  of  the  press  removed  ;  many  prefects
resign  and  others  are  removed  15  Dec.  et  seq. ,,

Death  of  gen.  Aurelle  de  Paladines  . . 17  Dec. ,,

Budget  voted  ;  chambers  adjourn. . 18  Dec. ,,

Limoges  affair ;  gen.  Rochebouet  said  to  have
issued  orders  to  gen.  de  Bressoles  for  a  military
movement  which  he  issued  12  Dec.  ;  major  Labor-
dere  denounces  the  orders  as  illegal,  13  Dec.  ;
the  orders  nullified  by  the  change  of  ministry,
14  Dec.  ;  De  Bressoles  suspended  for  alleged
mistake  ;  Labordere  cashiered  ;  much  excitement
in  Paris  on  account  of  suspected  preparations  for
a  coup  d'etat Jan.  1878

Legislative  assembly  meets ... 8  Jan.

Gen.  Ducrot  dismissed  from  command  for  suspected
connection  with  projected  coup  d'ttat  10,  11  Jan. ,,

Committee  of  18  liberal  deputies  (formed  in  May)
virtually  dissolve . . . . 13  Jan. „

Break  up  of  combined  reactionary  parties  ;  the
ministry  generally  successful . . March, „

International  exhibition  at  Paris  opened  by  the
marshal  president  (see  Paris) . . 1  May, „

Joan  of  Arc  and  Voltaire  centenaries  celebrated,

30  May, ,,

M.  Waddington,  foreign  minister,  a  plenipotentiary
at  the  Berlin  Conference . 13  June — 13  July „

Temporary  strikes  of  workmen . . July,  Aug. ,,

Republican  success  in  electing  departmental  coun-
cils Aug. „

Solemn  commemoration  of  death  of  Thiers  at  Notre
Dame,  &c. 3  Sept. „

Execution  of  Barre,  stockbroker,  and  Lebiez,
medical  student,  for  murder  of  a  milkwoman  for
her  funded  property .... 7  Sept. „

Review  of  55,000  soldiers  at  Vincennes . 15  Sept. „

Powerful  speech  of  Gambetta  at  Romans  (depart-
ment Drome),  proposing  abolition  of  the  exemp-
tion of  theological  students  from  military  service,
18  Sept.,  and  at  Grenoble . . . 10  Oct. „

Dupanloup,  bishop  of  Orleans,  dies  suddenly,  11  Oct. ,,

The  assembly  meets 28  Oct. ,,

12,000  national  lottery  tickets  of  1  franc  sold  (see
Lotteries) ....  . \ip  to  Nov. „

Energetic  manifesto  of  united  Legitimists,  Orlean-
ists,  and  Bonapartists  against  republicans  re-
specting election  of  senators  . .13  Nov. ,,

Elections  of  Paul  de  Cassagnac  (7  Nov.)  and  M.
Fortou  invalidated  by  the  Chamber,  18  Nov. ;  of
Decazes 7  Dee. „

Letter  from  comte  de  Chambord  to  M.  de  Mun
maintaining  his  rights  ;  published . 25  Nov. ,,

All  foreign  commercial  treaties  denounced  in  view
of  a  new  tariff 31  Dec. „

Elections  for  Senate  ;  64  republican,  16  opposition,

5  Jan.  1879

Compulsory  resignation  of  gen.  Borel,  war  minister,
13  Jan. ;  succeeded  by  gen.  Gresley . 13  Jan. ,,

Meeting  of  chambers  ;  M.  Martel  elected  president
of  the  senate 15  Jan. ,,

Confidence  in  the  ministry  voted  in  chamber  of
deputies  (223-121)  .... 20  Jan. ,,

2,245  communists  pardoned  by  decree,  issued  17  Jan. ' ,,

Ministerial  programme  :  pardons  to  communists  ;


check  of  clerical  influence  upon  education  ;  dis-
missal of  officials  opposed  to  the  republic,  &c.

16  Jan.  1879
Drawing  of  the  national  lottery  begun . 26  Jan. „
Budget:  revenue,  about  110,242, 812L;  expenditure,

110,177,304? Jan. „

Marshal  MacMahon  refuses  to  supersede  military
officers,  28  Jan.  resigns ;  F.  P.  Jules  Grevy  elected
president  by  the  senate,  and  deputies  united  as
"The  National  Assembly"  (536  for  Grevy  ; 99

for  gen.  Chanzy) 30  Jan. ,,

Gambetta  elected  president  of  the  chamber,  31  Jan.  ,,
Resignation  of  Dufaure ;  1  Feb.  new  ministry  formed
by  M.  Waddington  ;  changes  (see  Nov.  1877) ;  M.
le  Royer  (keeper  of  seals  and  justice),  Jules  Ferry
(public  instruction),  M.  Lepere  (agriculture),  adtn.
Jaureguiberry  (marine)  ...  4  Feb.  „
Communist  amnesty  bill  passed  by  chamber  of  depu-
ties 21  Feb. „

Resignation  of  M.  de  Marcere,  minister  of  the  in-
terior (police  scandals),  3  March  ;  succeeded  by
M.  Lepere . .  ... 4  March, ,,

Admiral  Pothuau,  ambassador  to  England, March, ,,
Impeachment  of  De  Broglie  and  Rochebouet  (late
ministers)  recommended  by  a  commission,  .

8  March, „
Impeachment  negatived  by  the  chamber  (317-159) ;

vote  of  censure  passed  (240-154) . 13  March, ,,
Proposed  return  of  the  assemblies  to  Paris ;  congress

to  be  appointed  (315-128)  .  .  .22  March,  ,,
M.  Ferry's  education  bills  to  check  clerical  influ-
ences, abolishing  Jesuit  colleges,  &c.  March,  ,,
Pardon  of  252  communists  signed  .  8  April,  „
Blanqui  (a  convict)  elected  for  Bordeaux  20  April,  ,,
Pardon  of  400  communists  signed  .  24  May,  ,,
Prince  Louis  Napoleon  killed  while  reconnoitering

in  Zululand  . . . . . 1  June, ,,

Blanqui's  election  annulled  by  the  chamber  (372-33),

4  June  ;  pardoned  and  released .  11  June, „
Pardon  of  288  more  communists  signed . 5  June, „
Violent  opposition  of  Paul  de  Cassagnac  ;  he  is  ex-
pelled the  house  for  3  days  for  abusing  govern-
ment '. 16  June, ,»

Congress of  senate  and  deputies  vote for their

return  to  Paris  (526-249) ... 20  June, (>
M.  Ferry's  law  of  superior  public  instruction  passed

by  the  deputies 9  July, ,,

President  Grevy's first  grand  military  review  at

Longchamps 13  July, ,,

Fete  of  the  republic 14  July, ,,

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  coldly  accepted  as  chief  of

the  Bonapartists . . . . 20  July, ,,
Comte  de  Chambord' s  letter  :  "  With  the  co-opera-
tion of  all  honest  men,  and  with  the  grace  of  God,
I  may  save  France,  and  will " . . 26  July, ,„
Chambers  prorogued ....  2  Aug. ,,

Treaties  of commerce with England  prolonged  ;

signed 10  Oct. ,,

Humbert,  an  amnestied  communist,  elected  to  the
municipal  council,  Paris,  n  Oct.;  imprisoned  for
seditious  speeches,  &c,  22  Oct.  ;  election  an-
nulled 4  Nov. ,,

About  60  mayors  in  La  Vendee  dismissed  for  cele-
brating comte  de  Chambord's  birthday . Nov. ,,
The  senate  and  assembly  meet  again  at  Palis,

27  Nov.  ,„
Michel  Chevalier,  political  economist,  dies,  28  Nov.  ,T
M.  Waddington  demands  a  vote  of  confidence,  2  Dec.  ,,
[Republican  sections  :  left  centre,  pure  left,  ad-
vanced left,  extreme  left.]
Ministerial  majority  (22 1-97);  many  abstainers,  4 Dec.  ,,
Resignation  of  Lepere  and  Le  Royer,  ministers,

n,  12  Dec. ,,
Resignation  of  the  Waddington  ministry  . 21  Dec. ,,
New  ministry  (more republican  left)  formed  by
M.  de  Freycinet ;  includes  Jules Ferry  (public
instruction)  and  Lepere  (interior) ;  not  Wadding-
ton or  Leon  Say . . . . 28,  29  Dec. „
Gen.  Farre,  new  war  minister,  dismisses  heads  of

departments  in  War  office .... Jan.  1880
Meeting  of  the  Chambers .... 13  Jan. ,r
M.  de  Freycinet's  moderate  programme 16  Jan. ,,
Death  (ex-foreign  ministers) :  due  de  Gramont,  16

Jan. ;  Jules  Fa vre .... 20  Jan. „
Budget  for 1881 announced  : estimated  revenue,
110,935,000?.  ;  960,000?.  more  than  for  1880  ;  sur-
plus, 1,300,000/, Feb. ,,

Death  of  M.  Cremieux ...  10  Feb. „


FRANCE


401


FKANCE.


Plenary  amnesty  for  communists  rejected  toy  the
Chambers 12  Feb.  i£

Debate  in  senate  :  7th  clause  of  Ferry's  education
bill  (abolishing  Jesuit  schools,  &c);  Jules  Simon
speaks  against  it ;  rejected  (148-129) 9  March,

Decree  dissolving  order  of  Jesuits  and  other  orders
in  France 29  March,

Letter  from  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  in  favour  of
the  decree  ;  offends  Bonapartists, about  5  April,

Many  bishops  and  others  protest  against  the  de-
cree April, .

Pacific  circular  of  M.  de  Freycinet  respecting  inter-
national relations 16  April,

Ministerial  defeat  on  public  meetings  bill  ;  M.  Le-
pere  resigns,  15  May  ;  M.  Constans  succeeds,

18  May, .
General  Martel,  president  of  senate,  resigns  ;  suc-
ceeded by  M.  Leon  Say ... 20  May,

Amnesty  bill  for  political  offences,  19  June  ;  pre-
sented by  M.  de  Freycinet,  19  June  ;  passed  by
the  chambers  (333-140) . . . .21  June,

Otaheite  formally  annexed  to  France . 29  June, ,

Expulsion  of  religious  orders  (much  officially  op-
posed) carried  into  effect  with  Jesuits 30  June,

Amnesty  bill  passed  for  all,  except  incendiaries  and
assassins,  by  senate  (143-138)  . . 3  July, ,

The  president,  Grevy,  grants  a  general  amnesty,  10
July ;  Rochefort  warmly  received  in  Paris,  12  July,

First  grand  republican  national  fete . 14  July,

Chambers  prorogued 15  July,

Elections  of  councils-general ;  great  majority  for
republicans  (anti-clerical  and  anti-Bonapartist),

1  Aug. ,

MM.  Grevy,  Gambetta,  and  Leon  Say,  witness  the
launch  of  a  man-of-war  at  Cherbourg,  &c,

8— 11  Aug. ,

M.  de  Freycinet,  in  a  speech  at  Montauban,  ex-
presses disagreement  with  his  colleagues  respect-
ing decree  against  religious  orders  ;  resigns,

19  Sept.
New  ministry : Jules Ferry  (premier  and  public

instruction),  adm.  Clouet  (marine),  Sadi-Carnot
(public  works),  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire  (foreign)  ;
other  offices  unchanged  . . .20  Sept. ,

Two  important  letters  from  Guibert,  abp.  of  Paris,
to  the  president,  recommending  suspension  of
execution  of  the  decree  of  29  Marcli  against  reli-
gious orders,  delivered . . .  6,  15  Sept. ,

Felix  Pyat,  editor  of  the  Commune,  sentenced  to  im-
prisonment and  fine  for  justifyingregicide,i9  Oct. ,

Carmelites  and  other  religious  orders  expelled,

16  Oct. — Nov. ,

Meeting  of  the  assembly :  majority  against  the
ministry  (who  resign)  (200-166) . . 9  Nov. ,

The  ministry  withdraw  their  resignation  on  vote  of
confidence  (240-149) .... 12  Nov. ,

M.  Baudry  d'Asson,  deputy,  excluded  9  Nov.;  re-
fuses to  retire  from  the  chamber ;  forcibly  ex-
pelled 11  Nov. ,

Violent  attacks  of  Rochefort  (in  I'Intransigeant)  on
Gambetta ;  crushing  replies  . . .  Dec. ,

Municipal  council  elections  strongly  in  favour  of
the  government 9  Jan.  18

Meeting  of  the  chambers  .... 20  Jan. ,

Bill  greatly  freeing  the  press  brought  in 26  Jan. ,

Projected  loan  of  40,000,000^  (public  debt,  about
1,200,000^)  immediately  taken  up  for  30  times  the
amount March, ,

Di-scussion  respecting  the  scrutin  de  liste  (which
see),  advocated  by  Gambetta  ;  opposed  by  presi-
dent Grevy,  who  yields  . . -21,  22  March, ,

Expedition  to  N.  Africa  to  chastise  the  Kroumirs  ;
invasion  of  Tunis . . . March,  April, ,

Treaty  with  the  bey  signed  (see  Tunis)  12  May, ,

Excitement  at  Marseilles  and  in  Italy  (which  see),

13  May,  et  seq. ,

M.  Bardoux's  bill  for  the  scrutin  dc  liste  adopted  by
the  chamber  of  deputies  (243-235) . 18  May, ,

The  Tunis  treaty  ratified  by  the  chamber  (453-1),

23  May, ,

Warm  reception  of  Gambetta  at  Cahors  and  other
places 25  May, ,

Proposed  revision  of  the  constitution  negatived  in
the  chambers 31  May, ,

The  scrutin  de  liste  rejected  by  the  senate  (148-114),

9  June, ,

Adjournment  of  the  chambers  . . . July, ,


Election  addresses.  M.  Rouher  retires  from  poli-
tical life  (virtual  end  of  Bonapartism),  about  31
July  ;  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  advocates  pro-
gress— "everything  for  and  by  the  people" —
about  31  July ;  speeches  of  M.  Gambetta  at
Tours,  Belleville,  12  Aug.,  advocating  revision
of  the  constitution,  Aug. ;  M.  Jules  Ferry  at
Nancy  deprecates  division . about  11  Aug.  :

Negotiations  for  treaty  of  commerce  broken  off;
announced 16  Aug.

Elections ;  triumph  of  Gambetta  and  moderate  re-
publicans ;  gain  of  about  44  members  ;  hopeless
minority  of  extremists  of  both  kinds . 21  Aug.

French  treaty.  French  government  propose  meeting
of  the  commissioners  at  Paris  on  22  Aug.;  England
requests  3  months'  extension  of  existing  treaty;
France  declines ;  negotiations  stopped ;  an-
nounced 18  Aug.

Complications  respecting  Tripoli  cleared  up  about

18  Aug.

General  elections  ;  great  republican  majority;  num-
ber of  extremists  on  both  sides  much  reduced
21  Aug.  et  seq.

Negotiations  respecting  the  commercial  treaty  re-
sumed (France  agrees  to  3  months'  extension  of
the  treaty  from  8  Nov.) . . .19  Sept.

Capuchins  and  other  orders  relieved  from  their
monastic  vows  by  the  pope . . . Oct.

Meeting  of  new  chamber  of  deputies . 28  Oct.

M.  Brisson  elected  president  ... 3  Nov.

Treaty  with  the  bey  of  Tunis  confirmed  by  the
chamber.  Vote  of  censure  on  the  Ferry  ministry
respecting  Tunis  war  negatived  by  a  great  ma-
jority, 9  Nov.  ;  the  ministry  resign . 10  Nov.

New  ministry  gazetted  ;  M.  Gambetta  (minister  of
foreign  affairs  and  premier),  M.  Cazot  (justice),
M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  (interior),  M.  Allain-Targe
(finance),  general  Campenon  (war),  M.  Gougeard
(marine),  M.  Paul  Bert  (education  and  worship),
M.  Raynal  (public  works),  M.  Rouvier  (com-
merce and  colonies),  M.  Cochery  (posts  and  tele-
graphs), M.  Deves  (agriculture),  and  M.  Proust
(Arts) 12  Nov.

Moderate  declaration  of  Gambetta  to  the  chambers
(everything  to  be  for  France) . . .  15  Nov.

M.  H.  Rochefort  acquitted  of  bitter  libel  against
M.  Roustan  in  I'Intransigeant ;  a  virtual  censure
of  the  Tunis  affair 15  Dec.

Anglo-French  treaty  negotiations  stop ;  French
concessions  insufficient ... 30  Dec.

Elections  for  senators ;  republicans  gain  27  ;  now
207  —93 ;  opposition  announced . . 9  Jan.

Much  speculation  ;  panic  on  the  bourse,  19  Jan. ;
checked  by  resolution

The  League  of  Patriots  established  to  support  the
army  by  encouraging  military  spirit,  and  support
M.  Gambetta  ...  ...

Defeat  of  the  government;  rejection  of  the  scrutin
de  liste  (305 — 119)  ;  resignation  of  M.  Gambetta,

26  Jan.

New  ministry :  M.  de  Freycinet  (president  of  the
council  and  minister  for  foreign  affairs),  M.  Leon
Say  (finance),  M.  Jules  Ferry  (public  instruction),
M.  Goblet  (interior  and  public  worship),  M.  Hum-
bert (justice),  general  Billot  (war),  admiral  Jau-
reguiberry  (marine),  M.  Varroy  (public  works),
M.  Tirard  (commerce),  M.  Mahy  (agriculture),
M.  Cochery  (posts  and  telegraphs) 30,  31  Jan.

Failure  of  the  Union  Generale  company  ;  continu-
ance of  panic 30  Jan.

Arrest  of  Bontoux,  president,  and  Feder,  manager

2  Feb.

Proposed  revision  of  constitution  negatived,  287—66

6  Feb.

Anglo-French  treaty  renewed  till  1  March,  6  Feb. ;
till  15  May 27  Feb.

M.  Tissot  ambassador  at  London . . March,

New  education  bill  passed;  much  government  in-
terference .... about  31  Marcli,

Commercial  convention  with  Great  Britain  for  ten
years  proposed April,

Vote  of  confidence in the  government  (298 — 70)

1  June,

Crisis  :  confidence  in  the  ministry  respecting  Egypt
voted  (286 — 105) .... 20  July,

Vote  of  credit  lor  protection  of  Suez  canal  negatived
on  motion  of  M.  Clemenceau  (416 — 75);  resigna-
tion of  ministry 29  July

D D


FRANCE.


402


FRANCE.


The  New  French  ministry,  composed  as  follows :
M.  Duclerc  (president  of  the  council  and  minister
for  foreign  affairs),  M.  Tirard  (finance),  M.  Deves
(justice) ,  M.  Fallieres  (interior) ,  M.  Pierre  Legrand
(commerce,  and  ad  interim  public  works) ,  general
Billot  (war),  admiral  Jaureguiberry  (the  navy),
M.  Cochery  (post  office  and  telegraphs),  M.  de
Mahy  (agriculture),  M.  Duvaux  (public  instruc-
tion) - • i  Aug.  188

Gambetta  advocates  activity  in  foreign  affairs,  and
abstention  in  domestic ;  Clemenceau  the  reverse,
July — Aug.  ;  chambers  prorogued. . 9  Aug. ,,
Disturbance  amongst  the  miners  of  the  Saone  and

Loire about  17  Aug. ,,

The  Bonapartists  select  prince  Victor  as  their  chief

about  31  Aug. „
The  compulsory  education  act  comes  into  operation

2  Oct. „
Discovery  of  an  organisation  of  anarchists  (alleged
origin  at  Geneva,  and  prince  Krapotkine,  mem-
ber) ;  tracts  distributed  by  groups  of  young  men
throughout  the  country ;  attempted  insurrection
at  Montceau-les-Mines  suppressed  . Aug. ,,
Many  arrested  [9  convicted,  22  Dec] . 21  Oct. „
Place  of  trial  changed  ;  dynamite  explosions  threa-
tened about  26  Oct. „

Disturbances  at  Lyons  ;  anarchy  and  panic  ;  busi-
ness and  amusements  suspended  ;  the  town  said
to  be  held  by  the  mob  ... 27  Oct. „

Government  official  note  promising  public  security

27  Oct. ,,
Arrest  connected  with  an  explosion  at  a  cafe  (one
man  killed)  on  23  Oct.  ;  railway  station  held  by

troops 28  Oct. „

Much  dynamite  seized 29  Oct. ,,

Great  distress  in  Lyons Oct. ,,

Panic  subsiding  in  Paris,  &c.  . . 8  Nov. ,,

Opening  of  the  chambers .... 9  Nov. ,,
Crown  jewels  (value  about  100,000?.)  stolen  from

the  cathedral  of  St.  Denis ... 23  Nov. „
Treaty  with  the  king  of  Congo  negotiated  by  M.

Brazza  ratified 21  Nov. ,,

Death  of  Louis  Blanc 6  Dec. „

MM.  Bontoux  &  Feder,  directors  of  the  "  Union
Generate"  (a  financial  company  established  in
1878,  and  patronised  by  the  legitimists,  clergy,
and  the  middle  classes),  sentenced  to  imprison-
ment and  tines  for  gross  frauds,  which  caused
very  great  universal  distress  (it  stopped  28  Jan.)

20  Dec. ,,
Prince  Krapotkine,  anarchist,arrested  about  21  Dec. ,,
Death  of  M.  Gambetta,  aged  44.  after  several  weeks
illness  through  an  accidental  wound,  midnight,

31  Dec. ,,
His  grand  state  funeral  at  Paris  . . 6  Jan.  188

Death  of  gen.  Chanzy,  aged  about  60 . . 5  Jan. „

Death  of  gen.  Vinoy Jan. ,,

Trial  of  Krapotkine  and  about  50  anarchists  begun

at  Lyons 8  Jan. „

He  sentenced  to  5  years'  imprisonment  and  fine,

others  to  imprisonment ... 19  Jan. ,,
Gambetta's  remains  removed  and  re-buried  at  Nice

13  Jan. ,,
Prince  Napoleon  publishes  a  manifesto  against  the

government ;  arrested  ... 16  Jan. „

M.  Floquet's  bill  for  expulsion  of  Bourbons  and

Bonapartes 16  Jan. ,,

Government  bill  of  M.  de  Fallieres  for  power  to

expel  the  same 20  Jan. „

Ministerial  crisis 23  Jan. „

Expulsion  bill  adopted  by  committee  .  25  Jan.  „
M.  Duclere's  ministry  resigned  .  .  .28  Jan.  ,,
Ministry  re-constituted  under  M.  Fallieres  29  Jan.  ,,
M.  Fabre's  bill  permitting  princes  to  remain  with
deprival  of  civil  rights,  discussed,  29  Jan. ;  passed
by  the  chamber  (343-163)  .  .  .  1  Feb.  ,,
Prince  Napoleon's  indictment  quashed  ;  released,

9  Feb. „
Expulsion  bill  rejected  by  the  senate  ;  amendment
of  MM.  Say  and  Waddington  adopted  (165-127)  ;
princes  to'be  expelled  only  after  trial .  12  Feb. ,,
Resignation  of  M.  Fallieres  and  ministry 13  Feb. ,,
M.  Barbey's  bill  empowering  the  president  to  expel
princes  when  dangerous,  adopted  by  the  deputies,
15  Feb.  ;  rejected  by  the  senate . .17  Feb. „
M.  Jules  Ferry (opportunist) forms a  ministry
(Gambettist)  ; M. Jules Ferry (premier and
minister  of public  instruction),  M. Challemel-


Lacour  (foreign  affairs),  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau
(interior),  M.  Martin  Feuille  (justice),  General
Thibaudin  (war),  M.  Charles  Brun  (marine),
M.  Tirard  (finance),  M.  Raynal  (public  works),
M.  Meline  (agriculture),  M.  Cochery  (posts  and
telegraphs),  M.  Herisson  (commerce)  .  21  Feb.  1
Decree  for  retirement  of  the  Orleanist  princes  from
the  army  in  virtue  of  the  law  of  1834  (the  due
d'Aumale,  the  due  de  Chartres,  and  the  due
d'Alengon),  approved  by  the  deputies  (295-103),

24  Feb.
M.  Clemenceau's  motion  for  revision  of  the  Consti-
tution rejected  by  the  deputies  . 6  March,
Open-air  meeting  of  artisans  out  of  work  at  Paris
excited  to  violence  by  Louise  Michel  the  anar-
chist and  others ;  bakers'  shops  rifled ;  checked
by  police,  9  March;  many  arrested 10  March,
Louise  Michel  arrested ... 30  March,
Trial  of  madame  Monasterio  and  others  for  putting
her  daughter  Fidelia  in  a  mad-house,  and  ill-
usage  ;  case  referred  back  to  public  prosecutor,

March,
Death  of  Louis  Veuillot,  ultramontane,  editor  of

VUnivers 8  April,

Marshal  Bazaine  publishes  his  defence  at  Madrid.
Conversion  of  Rentes  bill  (5  to  4J)  passed  27  April,
Museum  of  revolution  established  at  Versailles,

20  June,
Louise  Michel  sentenced  to  6  years'  imprisonment,
and  others  to  different  terms . . 23  June,
National  fete  ;  colossal  statue  of  the  Republic  un-
covered 14  July,

M.  Waddington,  ambassador  in  London,  appointed
about  16  July,  arrives ... 23  July,  '

The  chambers  close 2  Aug.

The  inauguration  of  the  monument  (byM.  Barrias)

erected  atCourbevoie  to  commemorate  the  defence

of  Paris  in  1870-1 .... 12  Aug.

Death  of  the  comte  de  Chambord,  aged  nearly  63

24  Aug.
Statue  of  Lafayette  unveiled  at  Lepuy  .  6  Sept.
Great  royalist  meeting  at  Paris;  little  excitement,

20  Sept.

The  king  of  Spain  received  by  president  Grevy  at

Paris  ;  hooted  by  the  mob  . . 29  Sept.

Gen.  Thibaudin,  minister  of  war,  resigns,  5  Oct. ;

succeeded  by  gen.  Campenon . . 9  Oct.

M.  Jules  Ferry  declares  for  a  Republic  of ' '  common

sense,"  and  opposition  to  the  extreme  left  at

Rouen,  13  Oct. ;  and  at  Havre . . 14  Oct.

The  government  awards  1,000?.  to  Mr.  Shaw  (see

Madagascar,  1883) . . . about  15  Oct.

The  chambers  meet 23  Oct.

Correspondence  between  France  and  China  respect-
ing Tonquin  published  in  Times;  China  firm  in
resisting  French  encroachments. . 29  Oct.
Debate  on  Tonquin;  votes  of  confidence  in  minis-
try (339-160)  . . . 29-31  Oct.;  10,  18  Dec.
M.  Ferry  becomes  foreign  minister  on  the  retire-
ment of  M.  Challemel-Lacour ;  other  changes  in
the  ministry . . . about  17-20  Nov.
Government  defeated  on  Algerian  colonisation  (249-

211) 28  Dec.

Death  of  M.  Rouher,  prime  minister  of  Napoleon

III 3  Feb.  :

Industrial  crisis  in  Paris  ;  defeat  of  the  government ;

a  committee  of  investigation  into  the  condition  of

the  working  classes  appointed  (254-249) 4  Feb.

Proposals  for  loan  of  14,000,000?.  issued 12  Feb.

Government  defeated  on  its  seditious  meetings  bill,

16  Feb.
Death  of  Francois  Mignet,  French  historian,  aged

about  87 24  March,

Statue  of  Gambetta  (by  Falquieres)  at  Cahors,  un-
veiled by  M.  Jules  Ferry  ... 14  April,
Municipal elections  : radicals  rather  more  than
opportunists  ;  few  of  other  parties  . May,

Bill  for  revision  of  the  Constitution  (abolition  of
life  senators,  &c.)  brought  in  by  M.  Jules  Ferry,

24  May,
Prince  Victor  acknowledged  chief  of  the Bona-
partists ;  his  father  publishes  painful  correspon-
dence . . . .  . . June,

Cholera  prevalent  in  the  south,  &c.  (see  Cholera)

June,  ct  seq.

Colossal  statue  of  Liberty  by  Bartholde  given  to

the  United  States  of  America  unveiled  by  M.

Jules  Ferry  at  Paris .  -4  Jnly


FRANCE.


403


FRANCE.


Revision  bill,  modified  by  the  senate,  accepted  by
the  deputies 31  July,

Congress  of  senate  and  deputies  meet  at  Versailles,
M.  Le  Royer,  president ... 4  Aug.

The  revision  of  the  Constitution  accepted  by  the
congress,  509-172 .... 13  Aug.

Excitement  about  the  price  of  bread  at  Paris  and
other  places Oct.,  Dec.

Wife  of  M.  Clovis  Hugues,  a  deputy,  shoots  Morin,
a  slanderous  libeller,  in  the  Palace  of  Justice  ;  he
dies  ;  [she  acquitted  !  8  Jan.  1885] . 27  Nov.

Credit  for  Tonquin  war  adopted  by  the  deputies,
282-187,  z8  Nov. ;  by  the  senate . n  Dec.

Resignation  of  gen.  Campenon,  war  minister,  3  Jan.
succeeded  by  gen.  Lewal ... 5  Jan.

Senatorial  elections  (67  republicans  and  20  con-
servatives returned) . . .  25-26  Jan.

The  Chamber  votes  for  engagement  of  unemployed
workmen  on  public  works ... 5  Feb.

The  Ferry  ministry  resign  in  consequence  of  defeat
in  the  chamber 30  March,

New  ministry  formed  by  M.  Brisson . 6  April,

Peace  with  China,  announced . . 7  April,

Duty  on  foreign  corn  voted  by  the  senate  27  March,

M.  Ferry's  ministry  defeated  on  vote  of  credit  for
_  Chinese  war  (308-161)  ;  resigns  . . 30  March,

Vote  of  credit  for  2,000,000?.,  31  March ;  for
6,000,000? 7  April,

New  ministry  ;  H.  Brisson  (president  and  justice),
D.  E.  Freycinet  (foreign),  Allain  Targe  (interior),
Goblet  (public  instruction  and  worship),  gen.
Campenon  (war),  adm.  Galiber  (marine),  Clama-
geran,  afterwards  Sadi-Carnot (finance),  and  others

6  April,

Bosphore  Egyptien  Affair. See  Egypt . May,

Anarchist  demonstration  at  Pere  la  Chaise  ;  many
wounded  by  the  police ... 24  May,

Death  of  Victor  Hugo,  poet,  dramatist  and  novelist,
aged  83,  22  May  ;  buried  in  the  Pantheon ;  pro-
cession 3  miles  long,  all  Paris  spectators 1  June,

Scrutin  de  liste  bill  passed  with  the  senate's  amend-
ments 8  June,

Death  of  admiral  Courbet . . . 11  June,

Great  excitement  in  Paris  about  Olivier  Pain  (see
Soudan) Aug.

Chambers  prorogued  6  Aug.  ;  parliamentary  elec-
tions, 200  conservatives,  230  moderates  or  oppor-
tunists, 150  radicals .... 4  Oct.

The  ministers  not  re-elected  resign  . 6  Oct.

M.  de  Freycinet  shot  at  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde

29  Oct.

New  chamber  meets .... to  Nov.

Republican  party  disorganised  . . 10  Nov.

The  ministry  propose  retrenchment  in  colonial  war
expenditure,  and  consideration  of  church  dis-
establishment .....  16  Nov.

Report  of  committee  on  Tonquin  recommends  vote
of  19,000,000 francs  instead  of  75,000,000  proposed
by  government 16  Dec.

Great  commercial  depression,  attributed  to  govern-
ment prodigality,  &c Dec.

v  ote  for  government  (274-270)  . . 21-23  Dec.

F.  P.  Jules  Grevy  elected  president  for  seven  years
(457  for  Grevy,  68  for  M.  Brisson) . 28  Dec.

M.  Brisson's  ministry  resigns . . .29  Dec.

New  ministry  ;  M.  de  Freycinet  (president  and
foreign  affairs),  M.  Demole  (justice),  M.  Sarrien
(interior),  M.  Goblet  (education),  M.  Sadi-Carnot
(finance),  general  Boulanger  (war),  admiral  Aube
(marine  and  colonies),  M.  Ba'ihaut  (public  works),
M.  Develle  (agriculture),  M.  Lockroy  (commerce),
M.  Granet  (posts  and  telegraphs) . . 7  Jan.

Amnesty  for  political  offenders  granted .  14  Jan.

The  prefect  of  Eure  (M.  Barreme)  assassinated  in  a
railway  carriage 13  Jan.

Riotous  strike  of  3,000  miners  at  Decazeville,  in
Aveyron,  murder  of  M.  Watrin,  manager,  end  of

Jan.

New  elections  increase  the  Republican  members  |i>
400,  the  Right  184  . . . .  about  16  Feb.

M.  Sadi-Carnot's  budget ;  proposed  new  loan  of
about  58,500,000?.  (70,000,000/.  really  wanted)  17
March ;  the  modified  loari  immediately  sub-
scribed for,  20,000,000?.  passed  by  the  deputies

21  April,

Abp.  Gnibert  of  Paris,  in  a  letter  to  president
Grevy,  protests  against  prohibiting  monks  anil
nuns  to  teach  in  schools . . about  1  April,


M.  Barthelemy's  book,  "  Avant  la  Bataille,"  advo-
cating the  re-conquest  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,
published  .... about  6  April,

Grand  reception  of  the  comte  de  Paris  on  account
of  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with  the  duke  of
Braganza  15  May  ; causes  republican  jealousy

May,

Bills  for  giving  discretionary  power  to  expel  the
Orleans  princes  and  prince  Napoleon  and  son
from  France  and  confiscating  their  property,
introduced  in  the  chambers  (M.  Freycinet  in-
fluenced by  M.  Clemenceau)  27  May  ;  reported
disagreement  in  the  cabinet  on  the  subject  2,  3 .
June  ;  bill  for  immediate  expulsion  of  heads  of
families  and  heirs  of  dynasties  who  have  reigned
in  France  passed  by  the  chamber  n  June  ;  and
by  the  senate  (137-122)  22  June  ;  promulgated  ;
the  Bonapartes  quit  France  23  June  ;  the  comte
de  Paris  and  family  leave  ;  at  Dover  he  issues  a
protest  declaring  monarchy  to  be  the  most
suitable  government  for  France,  and  j)laees  him-
self as  head  of  the  royalists  . . . 24  June,

Death  of  Guibert,  abp.  of  Paris  . . .8  July,

The  due  d'Aumale  remonstrates  against  the  depri-
vation of  his  rank  in  the  army  ;  his  expulsion
from  France  voted  13  July  ;  rev.  W.  J.  Drought,
English  chaplain  at  Chantilly,  expelled  from
France  for  delivering  an  address  of  sympathy
to  the  duke Aug.

Session  closed 15  July,

Celebration  of  the  100th  birthday  of  M.  Chevreul,
chemist  and  physicist ... 31  Aug.

Education  bill  permitting  lay  teachers  only  passed
by  the  chamber 28  Oct.

Ministry  defeated  in  the  chamber  (by  13  majority),
resigns 3  Dee.

New  ministry  :  M.  Goblet  (president  and  interior),
M.  Flourens  (foreign),  M.  Dauphin  (finance),  M.
Berthelot(publicinstruction),  M.  Sarrien  (justice),
gen.  Boulanger  (war),  adm.  Aube  (marine),  M.
Granet  (posts  and  telegraphs),  M.  Lockroy
(commerce),  M.  Millaud  (public  works),  M„
Develle  (agriculture) .... Dee.

Continued  deficit ;  budget  rejected  ;  amended  one
accepted  by  government ... 22  Jan.

Panic  on  the  bourse  through  war  rumours 1  Feb.

Bill  for  increasing  duty  on  foreign  corn  adopted  by
the  chamber  (318-248)  14  March  ;  by  the  senate
25  March  ;  duty  on  foreign  cattle  and  meat  raised

March

M.  Schnaebell,  commissary  of  police,  arrested  near
Pagny-sur-Moselle,  territory  doubtful,  and  sent
to  Metz  20  April ;  charged  with  treason  22  April ;
statements  contradictory  ;  released  by  order  of
the  emperor  William ...  29  April,

Sale  of  the  crown  jewels  for  274,560?.,  diamonds
289,000?.  ;  the  diamonds  distributed  between  the
Louvre  and  other  museums . .  12-23  May,

The  Goblet  ministry  defeated  on  the  budget  bill
(275-257)  ;  resigns t7  May,

MM. Freycinet,  Floquet, Deves  and  Duclerc  fail

May,

M.  Rouvier  forms  a  moderate  ministry,  consisting
of  M.  Rouvier  (finances,  posts  and  telegraphs),
M.  Flourens  (foreign  affairs),  M.  Mazeau  (justice),
M.  Fallieres  (interior),  M.  Spullcr  (public  instruc-
tion and  worship),  M.  Barbcy  (marine  and
colonies),  gen.  Ferron  (war),  M.  Dautresme  (com-
merce and  public  works),  M.  Barbe  (agriculture)

30  51  ay,
Gen.  Boulanger,  the  late  war  minister,  issues  a

monitory  order  to  the  army  .  .  30  May,
Exemption  of  ecclesiastical  students  (seminarists)

abolished  in  new  army  bill  .  .  25  June,
Gen.  Boulanger  warmly  received  in  his  progress

to  Clermont  Ferrand  ....  9  July.
Radical  attack  on'  the  ministry  defeated  (382-120)

11  July,
Pranzini, a sordid profligate, convicted of  the

murder  of  Marie  Regnault  and  two  other  women

13  July;  executed 31  Aug.

Session  closed 22  .inly.

Gen.  Boulanger  challenges  M.  Ferry  for  remarks  in
a  speech  about  29  July  ;  seconds  differ  ;  no  result

Aug.
Mobilization  of  17th  army  corps,  near  Toulouse

31  Aug.

D D 2


i337


FRANCE.


404


EKANCE.


Manifesto  of  the  comte  de  Paris  calling  for  the  re-
establishment  of  a  constitutional  monarchy  by
universal  suffrage  as  specially  needful  for  France

14  Sept.

M.  Brignon  killed,  and  M.  Wangen  de  Girolseck
(French  sportsmen)  wounded  by  Kaufmann,  a
German  soldier  and  gamekeeper,  near  the  boun-
dary in  the  Vosges  24  Sept. ;  German  redress  given,
2, 500L  presented .to  Mad.  Brignon  announced  7  Oct.

Military  scandal ;  gen.  Caffarel  of  the  war  office
convicted  by  a  military  tribunal  of  dishonourable
conduct  in  trafficking  with  decorations 13  Oct.

Gen.  Boulanger  under  arrest  for  thirty  days  for
remarks  respecting  the  scandal  . . 14  Oct.

Amicable  conventions  respecting  Suez  Canal  and
New  Hebrides  signed  at  Paris . . 24  Oct.

Prince  Victor  Napoleon  issues  a  Bonapartist
manifesto 25  Oct.

The  chambers  meet 27  Oct.

Lord  Lyons,  British  ambassador,  retires  (appointed
in  1867) ;  [died  5  Dec.  ;]  succeeded  by  the  earl  of
Lytton Oct.

Trial  of  gen.  Caffarel  and  others  ;  discharged  7  Nov.

Gen.  count  D'Andlau  and  Madame  Rattazzi  sen-
tenced to  imprisonment  and  fines  for  trafficking
in  decorations 14  Nov.

M.  Wilson,  son-in-law  of  the  president,  implicated  ;
also  charged  with  tampering  with documents

Nov.

The  old  four-and-a-half  per  cent,  rentes  converted
to  three  per  cents,  accepted ... .  Nov.

M.  Rouvier  defeated  in  the  chamber  on  a  motion  of
M.  Clemenceau  (317-227) ;  the  ministry  resigns  ;
M.  Grevy  refuses  to  resign  19  Nov.  ;  but  is  com-
pelled by  the  combination  of  opposite  parties ;
the Rouvier  ministry  retains  office ; on their

'  announcing  that  M.  Grevy  defers  his  resignation
the  chamber  immediately  adjourns  (531-3)  1  Dec.  ;
receives  M.  Grevy's  resignation . . 2  Dec.

National  assembly  at  Versailles ;  congress  of
senators  and  deputies  (833) ;  M..  Sadi-Carnot
("moderate  independent")  elected  president
(616) ;  general  Saussier,  an  unwilling  candidate
(148)  ;  (MM.  Ferry  and  de  Freycinet  withdrawn)

3  Dec.

M.  Goblet  fails  to  form  a  ministry  9  Dec.  ;  M.
Fallieres  fails 10  Dec.

Attempted  assassination  of  M.  Ferry  by  Aubertin,
a  lunatic,  in  the  lobby  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,
a  narrow  escape 10  Dec.

The  tribunals find no case against M. Wilson

13  Dec.

New  ministry  :  M.  Tirard  (finance  and  premier),
M.  Flourens  (foreign  affairs),  M.  Fallieres  (justice),
M.  Sarrien  (interior),  M.  Faye  (education  and
worship),  M.  de  Mahy,  afterwards  adm.  Krantz,
Jan.  1888  (marine  and  colonies) ;  M.  Loubet
(public  works),  M.  Dautresme  (commerce),  M.
Viette  (agriculture),  gen.  Logerot  (war) 13  Dec.

The  session  of  the  chambers  closed . 18  Dec.

Mr.  Archibald  M'Neill,  journalist,  wounded  and
drowned  (suspected  murder)  at  Boulogne  20  Dec.
1887 ;  Vermersch  arrested . . . Jan.

Gen.  Boulanger  deprived  of  his  command  for  in-
subordination in  visiting  Paris  against  orders  ;
announced  15  March,

Death  of  M.  L.  H.  Carnot,  father  of  the  president,
aged  86 z(,  March,

Trial  of  M.  Wilson  for  traffic  in  decorations ;
sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  loss  of
civil  rights  for  five  years,  and  fine  of  3,000  francs,
1  March ;  sentence  quashed  by  court  of  appeal

26  March,
Gen.  Boulanger  tried  by  court  of  five  generals  ;

sentenced  to  retirement  26  March; confirmed

27  March,
M. Tirard's ministry defeated when opposing

urgency  for  revision  of  constitution  (26S-234) ;

resigns 30  March,

M.  Floquet  forms  a  ministry :  M.  Charles  Floquet
(president  of  the  council  and  minister  of  the
interior),  M.  de  Freycinet  (war),  M.  Goblet
(foreign  affairs),  admiral  Krantz  (marine  and  the
colonies),  M.  Peytral  (finance,  posts,  and  tele-
graphs), M.  Edouard  Lockroy  (public  instruction,
fine  arts,  and  worship),  M.  Deluns  Montaud
(public  works),  M.  Ferrouillat  (justice),  M.  Pierre


1887


Legrand (commerce and  industry), M. Viette

(agriculture) 3  April,

Gen.  Boulanger  begins  to  form  a  party  ; elected

deputy  for  the  Dordogne  (59,500-35,750)  8  April ;

for  the  Nord  (172,528-75,901)  .  .  15  April,
Rise  of  an  anti-parliamentary  party,  a  mixture  of

conservatives,  radicals,  &c.  .  .  .  April,
After  vote  of  confidence  in  the  ministry  (379-177),

it  is  defeated  on  the  revision  question  (340-215)

19  April,
A  committee  advises  postponement  of  revision  ;

riots  between  students  and  Boulangists  20  April,
Great circulation of gen. Boulanger's (alleged)

"  German  Invasion,  no.  1 "  8  May  ;  soon  fell  off

18  May,
Royalist  banquet  at  the  chateau  de  Mons,  near  St.

Etienne  ;  powerful  speech  of  general  de  Charette

27  May,

Gen.  Boulanger's  motion  in  the  chamber  for
urgency  in  the  revision  of  the  constitution
rejected  (377-186) .... 4  June,

The  manifesto  of  the  comte  de  Paris  to  the  mayors
of  communes  against  the  republic  signed  6  July,

Gen.  Boulanger  in  the  chamber  demands  dissolu-
tion, firmly  resisted  by  M.  Floquet ;  the  general
accuses  M.  Floquet  of  falsehood,  resigns  his  seat,
and  leaves  the  House  in  great  excitement,  12
July  ;  duel,  gen.  Boulanger  seriously,  and  M.
Floquet  slightly  wounded,  13  July  ;  gen.  Boulan-
ger reported  convalescent . . .20  July,

Unveiling  of  the  Gambetta  monument  at  Paris  by
president  Carnot . . . .13  July,

National  fete  passes  quietly . . .14  July,

67,000,000  francs  voted  for  the  defence  of  Brest,
Toulon  and  Cherbourg ... 17  July,

Session  of  chambers  closed . . . 18  July,

Gen.  Boulanger  defeated  in  elections  for  Ardeche,  &c.

July,

Funeral  of  Eudes  the  communist ;  rioting  sup-
pressed ;  no  deaths 8  Aug.

Diplomatic  dispute  with  Italy  respecting  Massowah
(MM.  Goblet  and  Crispi). . . . Aug.

Gen.  Boulanger  elected  for  tire  Nord,  Somme,  and
Charente 19  Aug.

Death  of  marshal  Bazaine,  aged  77 . .23  Sept.

Decree  of  president  Carnot  and  M.  Floquet  respect-
ing resident  foreigners  and  immigrants  2  Oct.  ;
registration  causes  much  annoyance ;  time  pro-
longed to  1  Jan.  1889  ... 28  Oct.

The  League  of  the  Rose  formed  to  promote  the  re-
establishment  of  the  monarchy .  autumn,

The  chambers  re-open  ; M.  Floquet  introduces  a

bill  for  the  revision  of  the  constitution,  which  is

declared  urgent  15 Oct.  ; much  dissatisfaction

16  Oct.  et  seq.

Graduated  tax  on  incomes  above  2,000  francs  pro-
posed by  M.  Peytral .... 22  Oct.

Increase  of  Boulangist  demonstrations . Oct.

Prado,  alios  count  Linska  de  CasfTllon,  and  other
names,  a  daring  unprincipled  adventurer,  the
husband  and  associate  of  many  women,  whom  he
had  robbed  of  jewelry,  &c,  and  some  of  whom
he  was  strongly'  suspected  to  have  murdered,  is
convicted  of  the  murder  and  robbery  of  diamonds
of  Marie  Aguetant,  an  unfortunate,  in  Paris  (14
Jan.  1886) 14  Nov-

M.  Numa  Gilly  tried  for  defamation  against  the
budget  committee  ;  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence

17  Nov.

Festival  of  the League  of  Patriots  (Boulangists)

25  Nov.

Demonstration  at  Paris  in  honour  of  M.  Baudin,  a
deputy  killed  on  the barricades  2  Dec. 1851,

2  Dec.

Powerful  speech  of  M.  Challemel-Lacour  on  the
demoralization  of  parliament  by  reckless  faction

19  Dec.
Prado  executed  (see  14  Nov.)  ...  28  Dec.
Windfall  of  1,218,000  francs  to  the  government  (see

Tontine) Dec.

Gen.  Boulanger  elected  for  the  department  of  the
Seine  (244,000) ;  M.  Jacques,  advanced  republican,
(162,000) 27  Jan.

M. Floquet  has  majority  of  62 in  the  chamber

31  Jan.

Bill  for  replacing  the  scrutin  de  lute  by  the  scrutin
d'arrondissement  carried  in  the  chamber  (268-222)
11  Feb.  ;  in  the  senate  (228-54) • *3  Feb.


18S9


FEANCE.


405


FEANCE.


The  ministerial  scheme  for  the  revision  of  the
constitution rejected (307-218); they resign

14  Feb.  1

Dissension  between  the  opportunists  and  the
radicals  ...  ...  Feb.

M.  Meline  fails  to  form  an  opportunist  ministry

18  Feb.

M.  Tirard  forms  a  mixed  ministry,  including  several
ex-premiers  :  M.  Tirard  (premier  and  minister  of
commerce),  M.  Constans  (interior),  M.  Spiiller
(foreign),  M.  de  Freycinet  (war),  M.  Eouvier
(finance),  M.  Thevenet  (justice),  adm.  Jaures
(died  13  March ;  succeeded  by  admiral  Krantz)
(marine),  M*.  Fallieres  (education),  M.  Yves  Guyot
(public  works),  M.  Faye  (agriculture)  21,  22  Feb.

The  League  of  Patriots,  established  in  1882,  becoming
seditious  and  connected  with  Boulangism,  sup-
pressed by  the  government  28  Feb. ;  alleged
number  240,000  ;  protest  about  2  March  ;  MM.
Deroulede,  Laguerre,  and  others,  committee
of  the  League,  prosecuted  ;  trial  2  April ;  each
lined  100  fr 6  April,

Fall  in  the  shares  of  the  Comptoir  d'Bscompte  de
Paris  through  speculations  in  copper  (which  see),
Feb. ;  suicide  of  M.  Denfert-Bochereau,  the  mana-
ger, 5  March ;  panic ;  checked  by  the  intervention
of  government  and  bank  of  France,  9  March  ;
supported  by  Messrs.  Rothschild  and  other
bankers,  March  ;  reconstituted  successfully

March-May,

Decree  of  expulsion  of  the  due  d'Aumale  revoked
■  7  March;  the  due  received  by  M.  Carnot,  12  March,

Manifesto  of  gen.  Boulanger  to  the  Nord  against
the  government .... 18  March,

He  escapes  to  Brussels  1,  2  April ;  his  trial  for  con-
spiracy by  the  senate  proposed  ;  issues  manifesto
5  April  ;  expects  expulsion  ;  arrives  in  London

24  April,

The  senate  meets  as  a  high  court  for  his  trial

12  April,

M.  Chevreul,  chemist,  dies  aged  102 . 9  April,

M.  Carnot,  the  president,  opens  the  "Revolution
Exhibition"  of  relics,  at  Paris  . 18  April,

Great  Royalist  banquet  at  Paris . . 1  May,

Centenary  celebration  of  the  meeting  of  the  States
General  (afterwards  the  Constituent  Assembly)
5  May,  1789 — president  Carnot  in  the  presence  of
a  grand  assembly  in  the  "  Hall  of  Mirrors,"
Versailles,  delivers  a  eulogium  on  the  revolution

5  May.

[On  his  way  to  Versailles,  the  president's  carriage

was  fired  at  by  a  semi-lunatic  named  Perrin —

sentenced  to  four  months'  imprisonment  28  May]

The  Universal  Exhibition  opened  by  the  president
(see  Paris) 6  May,

New  army  bill  reducing  the  term  of  service  from
five  years  with  exemptions  to  three  years,  nomi-
nally without  exemptions,  passed  by  the  chamber

July  9,

M.  Quesnay  de  Beaurepaire  hands  in  the  indictment
against  gen.  Boulanger .... 7  July,

Sale  (at  Paris)  of  the  pictures,  tapestries,  china,
&c,  of  M.  Secretan  (ruined  by  speculations  in
copper) ;  enormous  prices  realised,  1-4  July  ;  17
of  M.  Secretin's  pictures  were  sold  by  Messrs.
Christie  in  London  for  27,824?..  10s. . 13  July,

Anniversary  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  celebrated  in
France,  the  United  States,  <tc. .  14  July,

Bill  prohibiting  a  man  to  be  candidate  for  more
than  one  place  in  the  chamber  passed  by  the
senate 15  July,

Cantonal  elections  :  republicans,  752 ;  conserva-
tives, 497  ;  gen.  Boulanger,  12  . . 28  July,

The  chamber  votes  2,400,000?.  for  the  increase  of
the  navy  (3  ironclads,  &c.) ;  the  session  closed

15  July,

Indictment  against  gen.  Boulanger,  charging  him
when  director  of  infantry  in  1882,  with  courting
popularity  by  corruption,  &c,  and  when  minister
of  war  in  1886  with  malversation  of  public  money,
and  plotting  against  the  state,  with  count  Dillon,
H.Rochefort  and  other  confederates;  they  are  cited
to  appear  before  the  High  Court  of  Justice  on  6
Aug.;  non-appearance  to  be  followed  by  loss  of  civil
rights  and  sequestration  of  property 17,  28  July,

Gen.  Boulanger  appeals  to  the  people  in  reply  to
the  indictment 6  Aug.


The  trial  of  gen.  Boulanger,  count  Dillon,  and  H.
Rochefort  begins 8  Aug.  1889

Sentenced  to  deportation  to  a  fortress,  and  payment
of  costs  of  the  trial 14  Aug. ,,

The  comte  de  Paris,  prince  Gerome  Napoleon,  his
son  Victor,  and  gen.  Boulanger  set  forth  their
claims  for  political  power . . . Aug. ,,

Elections  of  the  chamber  of  Deputies ;  decisive
victory  of  the  government  . 22  Sept.  and  6  Oct. ,,

[112  Monarchists,  62  Bonapartists,  325  Re-
publicans, 41  Bonlangists,  32  uncertain  Liberals.
Gen.  Boulanger's  election  was  annulled.]

The  universal  exhibition  closed  . . .6  Nov. ,,

The  new  chamber  opened,  12  Nov. ;  M.  Floquet
elected  president . . . . 18  Nov. ,,

Moderate  statement  by  M.  Tirard . . 19  Nov. ,,

The Boulangist demonstration easily quelled

12  Nov. ,,

Supreme  naval  council  created  by  decree  . 6  Dec. ,,

Gen.  Boulanger's  election,  and  that  of  several
Boulangists,  for  Montmartre,  annulled  by  the
chamber  (370 — 123) .... 9  Dec. ,,

Three  Boulangist  deputies  expelled  from  the
chamber  for  disorderly  conduct . . 20  Jan.  1890

The  duke  of  Orleans  (aged  21)  comes  to  Paris,  and
offers  to  enter  the  army ;  arrested ,  7  Feb.  ;  sen-
tenced to  two  years'  imprisonment  for  breaking
the  exile  law  of  1886, 12  Feb.  ;  taken  to  Clairvaux

25  Feb. ,,

Miners'  strike  at  St.  Etienne,  2,700  out . 20  Feb. ,,

Resignation  of  M.  Constans,  minister  of  the  In-
terior, succeeded  by  M.  Leon  Bourgeois  1  March, ,,

M.  Tirard  and  his  cabinet  defeated  in  the  senate,
resign . . . . . . 14  March, ,,

New  ministry,  M.  de  Freycinet  (premier  and  war
minister),  M.  Rouvier  (finance),  M.  Constans
(interior),  M.  Bourgeois  (public  instruction),  M.
Ribot  (foreign),  M.  Fallieres  (justice  and  public,
worship),  M.  Jules  Roche  (commerce),  M.  Deville
(agriculture),  M.  Barbey  (marine),  M.  Guyot
(public  works) March, ,,

M.  Camot's  tour  in  S.  France,  Corsica,  &c. 16 — 27

April ,,

The  Boulangists  totally  defeated  in  the  Paris  muni-
cipal elections 27  April, .,

Suspected  anarchist  plot :  the  marquis  de  Mores,
Louise  Michel,  and  about  300  others  arrested,
28  April — 2  May  ;  the  marquis  and  others  liberated

3  May,  et  seq. „

The  labour  day  of  the  working  classes  passes  off
tranquilly  at  Paris,  &c. . . . 1  May, „

Strike  of  thousands  of  workmen  at  Croix,  Roubaix
and  Tourcoing,  in  the  Nord  ;  serious  rioting  sup-
pressed by  the  military,  1,  2  May;  strikes  sub-
siding 8  May, ,,

AVar  with  Dahomey,  which  see  . . Feb. ,  May, ,,

Trial  of  M.  Secretan  and  other  directors  of  the
Comptoir  d'Escompte for  fraud,  &c,  see  above

Feb.  1889—5  May, ,,

M.  Secretan  sentenced  to  6  months'  imprisonment
and  fine  of  10,000  francs  ;  the  others  received  less
sentences 28  May, ,,

Gen.  Boulanger  submits  to  the  government ;  the
Boulangist  committee  dissolves  . . 21  May ,,.

17  Russian  Anarchists  or  Nihilists,  engaged  in  the
manufacture  of  explosives  at  Raincy,  arrested

29  May,  et  seq. ,,

All  discharged  except  8 ... 25  June, ,,

The  duke  of  Orleans  pardoned  and  expelled  from
France 3  June, ,r

Revelations  respecting  the  affairs  of  the  Credit
Foncier ;  investigation  ordered  by  government,

9  May, ,,

Explanations  given  by  M.  Christophle,  May ;  the
inspectors'  report  stated  that  the  establishment
had  departed  from  its  original  object  and  gone
into  banking,  d'e.,  without  proper  precautions,
but  that  it  is  stable .... 21  June, ,,

Trial  of  8  Russian  Nihilists,  4  July  ;  6  men  con-
victed sentenced  to  3  years'  imprisonment ;
Landesen  the  instigator  (absent)  to  5  years'
imprisonment,  two  women  acquitted . 5  July, ,,

Close  of  the  session ....  6  Aug. „

Anglo-French  agreement  (which  see)  signed  in
London 5  Aug.

Violent  cyclone  in  the  department  of  the  Aude  ;
great  destruction  of  vines,  15  Aug.  also  at
Drcux 18  Aug. ,


FEANCE.


406


FEANCE.


"  Les  Coulisses  du  Boulangisme,"  by  M.  Mermeix,
published  by  liim  in  the  Figaro,  describing  an
alleged  conspiracy  of  Royalists,  early  Sept.  ;
causes  much  excitement  and  involves  the  author
in  several  duels,  in  one  of  which  he  is  wounded

15  Sept.  181
Destructive  storms  and  floods  in  the  departments
of  Gard,  Ardeche  and  Herault,  with  loss  of  life

21 — 24  Sept.  ,
Meeting  of  chamber  of  deputies  .  .  20  Oct.  ,
The  Union  for  the  promotion  of  Free  Trade  in  Raw

Materials,  &c,  formed  in  Paris . . Oct. ,
Assassination  of  gen.  Michael  Seliverskoff,  aged  69,
wealthy  retired Russian  general  and  formerly
a  minister  of  secret  police,  at  the  Hotel  de  Bade,
Paris,  18  Nov.  ;  died  .... 19  Nov. ,
Mme.  Due  Quercy,  MM.  Labruyere  and  Gregoire
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  aiding  the  escape
of  Padlewski,  the  suspected  murderer  of  gen. ,
Seliverskoff(i9  Nov.) . . . .23  Dec. ,
The  French  Africa  Committee  formed  ;  expeditions

rjroposed Nov. ,

The  government  defeated  in  the  chambers on  a

financial  question  (303 — 248) . . 28  Nov. ,
Cardinal  Lavigerie  and  other  prelates  declare  their
adhesion  tto  the  republic,  with  the  approval  of

the  pope Dec. ,

Parliamentary  session  opened . . . 13  Jan.  i£

Vote  of  censure  on  the  ministry  relative  to  the  loan

of  gold  by  the  Bank  of  France  to  the  Bank  of

England,  during  the  Baring  crisis  (see  London,

15  Nov.  1890),  negatived  (419 — 29) . 17  Jan. .

Communication between Paris and London  by

telephone  {which  see) ... 18  March, .
The  performance,  of  Sardou's  new  play  Thermidor
{which  see),  stopped by  order  of  the  ministry

27  Jan.
Michel  Eyraud  sentenced  to  death,  and  Gabrielle
Bompard  sentenced  to  20  years'  penal  servitude,
for  murder  of  Toussaint  Gouffe,  a  process-server,
whom  they  had  inveigled  to  their  rooms,  about
25  July,  1889.  His  decomposed  body  was  found
at  Millery  (Rhone;,  13  Aug.,  to  which  place  it
had  been  carried  in  a  trunk.  Gabrielle  confessed
to  the  police,  Jan.  1890.  Eventually,  Eyraud
was  brought  from  the  Havanah,  Cuba,  to  Paris
(five  days'  trial  at  Paris),  20  Djc.  1890  ;  executed

3  Feb.
Royalist  demonstration  in  Par'.s  in  honour  of  the

duke  of  Orleans 7  Feb.

The  empress  Frederick  visits  Paris,  chiefly  on  be-
half of  the  Berlin  International  Exhibition  of
Fine  Arts  ;  many  French  works  promised,  after-
wards withdrawn,  through  popular  opposition,
chiefly  of  the  Boulangists  and  others  18 — 27  Feb.
Financial  panic  in  Paris,  through  embarrassment
of  the  Societe  des  Depots  et  Comptes  Courants,
relieved  by  the Bank of France and others

12  March,
Death of prince  Napoleon, son of Jerome  (see

Bonaparte) 17  March,

Annual  banquet  of  the  Republican  Association  at

the  Elysee 21  March,

Census  of  the  population  taken . . 12  April,

"Labour  day"  generally  quiet;  some  excitement

at Paris — dynamite explosion, little damage ;

fighting  at  Lyons,  Marseilles  and  other  places

1  May,
Riots  at  Fourmies  (Nord)  suppressed  by  the  mili-
tary ;  14  persons  killed  and  about  40  wounded  -

1  May,
Many  strikes  in  the  department  of  the  Nord,  about

6  May,
National  fete  celebrated . . . -14  July,
A  protectionist  customs tariff adopted by the
chamber  (385 — m) .... 18  July,
A  French  naval  squadron  under  admiral  Gervais
warmly  received  at  Cronstadt . . 23  July,
Visited  by  the  Czar,  25  July. The  French  officers
received  at  St.  Petersburg,  28  July. The  fleet
leaves  Cronstadt,  4  Aug. The  fleet  {Marengo  flag-
ship,  with Admiral Gervais),  6 other  vessels,
and  2  torpedo  boats  arrive  in  Osborne  Bay,  near
Portsmouth,  5-3o  p.m.,  19  Aug. Admiral  Gervais
and  officers  presented  to  the  queen  at  Osborne,
and  dined  with  her,  20  Aug. The  fleet  inspected
by  the  queen  ;  admiral  Gervais  and  officers  dine


with  admiral  the  earl  of  Clanwilliam  and  officers

at  Portsmouth ..... 21  Aug.  1!

Dinner  with  the  duke  of Connaught, 24  Aug. ;

departure  of  the  fleet .... 26  Aug.

Death  of  ex-president  M.  Jules  Grevy,  aged  about  84

9  Sept.
Suicide  of gen. Boulanger in a cemetery  near

Brussels'- 3°  SePt-

M.  de  Giers,  the  Russian  foreign  minister,  visits  M.
Carnot,  M.  de  Freycinet,  and  M.  Ribot . 20,

21  Nov.
Death  of  Robert,  earl  of  Lytton,  British  ambas-
sador, much  regretted,  at  Paris  .  24  Nov.
Xavier  Gouthe  Soulard,  archbishop  of  Aix,  sen-
tenced to  a  fine  of  3,000  francs,  for  writing  an
insulting  protest  against  a  circular  of  M.  Fallieres
the  minister  of  public  worship,  respecting  pil-
grimages 24  Nov.

New  customs  bill  issued  ;  it  authorized  the  govern-
ment to. prolong  or  modify  the  treaties  expiring

15  Feb.  1892 3  J)ec-

M.  de  Freycinet  takes  his  seat  as  a  member  of  the
French  Academy .... 10  Dec.
Stormy  debate  in  the  chamber  on  church  and  state  ;
the  government  support  the  concordat  {whicli  see) ;
majority  for  government  (243 — 223)  . 11-13  Dec.
The  marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava  appointed  British
ambassador  at  Paris,  announced . 12  Dec.
Death  of  Mons.  Freppel,  bishop  of  Angers,  power-
ful champion  of  the  French  church . 22  Dec.
Walter  Bedwell  and  John  S.  Cooper  convicted  of
acting  as  British  spies  in  relation  to  the  arsenal
at  St.  Etienne ;  sentenced  to  fine  and  imprison-
ment 26  Dec.

The  new  tariff  bill  passed  by  the  senate . 26  Dec.

Best  vintage  since  1884  ;  reported . .  Jan.  j

M.  Constans,  a  minister,  having  been  attacked  by

M.  Laur,  a  Boulangist  deputy  strikes  him  as  he

leaves  the  tribune  ;  his  apology  accepted  by  the

chamber 19  Jan.

The  new"  minimum"  tariff  comes  into  operation
with  Great  Britain  and  some  other  powers,  1  Feb. ;
the  "maximum"  tariff  to  be  enforced  in  Spain,
Portugal,  Italy,  Roumania,  and  the  United  States

Feb.

The  De  Freycinet  cabinet  defeated  in  a  debate  on

the Associations bill (relating  to  church  and

state),  resign 18  Feb.

Encyclical  of  the  pope  to  the  French  bishops  en-
joining submission  to  the  government  of the

republic 16  Feb.

76  French  bishops  accept  the  declaration  of  car-
dinal Lavigerie  and  four  other  cardinals,  Dec.
1890,  recognizing  the  republic 26  Jan — 19  Feb.
MM. Rouvier  and Bourgeois  successively  fail  to

form  a  ministry 23-26  Feb.

New  ministry :  M.  Loubet  (premier  and  minister
of  interior),  M.  de  Freycinet  (war),  M.  Ribot
(foreign  affairs),  M.  Rouvier  (finance),  M.  Bour-
geois (public  instruction),  M.  Ricard  (justice  and
public  worship),  M.  Cavaignac  (marine),  M.  De-
velle  (agriculture),  M.  Jules  Roche  (commerce),
M.  Viette  (public  works)  ...  28  Feb.
The  ministerial  declaration  accepted  by  the  cham-
ber (341  to  91) 3  March,

Death  of  Etienne  Arago,  statesman  and  dramatist
(brother  of  the  astronomer),  aged  90 . 7  March,
Dynamite  explosions  in  the  Boulevard  St. Ger-
main, in  Paris,  attributed  to  the  anarchists

11  March  et  seq.
Explosion  at  the  Lobau  barracks,  buildings  injured,

15  March,

Bill  introduced  to  punish  the  authors  of  explosions

with  death,  15  March  ;  several  arrests 17  March,

The  marquis  of  DufTerin  received  as  ambassador  by

president  Carnot . . . .21  March,

A  bomb  factory in  Paris  discovered,  23  March  ;

other  explosions  at  the  houses  of  legal  officials

in  Rue  de  Clichy,  6  injured ." . 27  March,

Ravachol,  otherwise  Leon  Leger  (real  name  said  to

be  Francis Kbnigstein),  a  notorious  anarchist,


*  Georges  Ernest  J.  M.  Boulanger,  born  at  Rennes,
29  April,  1837  ;  entered  the  army  1856  ;  served  with  dis-
tinction in  Algeria,  Italy,  Cochin  China,  and  at  Paris,
1870-1  ;  brigader-general,  1880  ;  sent  on  a  mission  to
America,  1881  ;  general  of  division  at  Tunis,  1884 ;
minister  of  war,  7  Jan.  1886  {*ee  above),  1887-1891.


FRANCE.


407


FRANCE.


arrested  in  the  Cafe  Very  in  the  Boulevard  Ma-
genta, through  the  agency  of  Lherot,  a  w  liter,
and  M.  Very 30  March,  181

The  anti-dynamite  bill  passed  by  the  senate,

31  March, ,,

Louis  Anastey,  who  murdered  his  benefactress,
Madame  Dellard,  mother  of  baron  Dellard,  at
Paris,  4  Dec.  1891,  executed . . 9  April, ,,

'The  chamber  votes  300,000,000  francs  for  an  expedi-
tion against  Dahomey  .... 11  April, „

Order  for  the  prosecution  of  the  archbishop  of  Avig-
non and  the  bishops  of  Nimes,  Montpellier,  Va-
lence, and  Viviers,  for  their  concerted  addresses
to  the  Catholic  electors  in  opposition  to  the  state,

about  22  April, ,,

Many  anarchists  arrested  at  Paris,  Lyons,  and  other
places,  51  in  Paris,  reported . . 22  April, „

The  restaurant  of  M.  Very  wrecked  by  explosion  :
he  and  4  others  seriously  wounded  (MM.  Very
and  Hamonod  died,  May) . . . 25  April, „

Trial  of  anarchists ;  Ravaehol  and  Simon  sentenced
to  penal  servitude  for  life,  3  others  acquitted,

26,  27  April, ,,

"'  Labour  day  "  at  Paris,  &c,  very  orderly  through
precautions 1  May, ,,

The  stipends  of  several  bishops  stopped  on  account
of  their  pastorals,  &c. .... May, ,.

Many  suspected  anarchists  released 7  May,  et  seq. ,.

Public  funeral  of  M.  Very  ;  the  premier,  M.  Loubet,
present 13  May, ,,

The  proceedings  of  the  government  approved  by

the  chamber 21  May, ,

[See  Tonquin.]

Sovereigns  of  France,
merovingian  race.
Pharamond  (his  existence  doubtful).

428.  Clodion  the  Hairy  ;  his  supposed  son  ;  king  of  the
Salic  Franks.

447.  Merovaeus,  or  Merovee  ;  son-in-law  of  Clodion.

458.  Childeric  ;  son  of  Merovee.

481.  Clovis  the  Great,  his  son,  real  founder  of  the  mo-
narchy. His  four  sons  divided  the  empire  :

511.  Childebert ;  Paris.

,,  Clodoinir;  Orleans.

,,  Thierry  ;  Metz  ;  and

,,  Clotaire  ;  Soissons.

534.  Theodebert ;  Metz.

548.  Theodebald  ;  succeeded  in  Metz.

558.  Clotaire  I.  ;  sole  ruler.  Upon  his  death  the  king-
dom divided  between  four  sons  :  viz. ,

561.  Charibert,  ruled  at  Paris.

,, Gontram,  in  Orleans  and  Burgundy.

,, Sigebert, at Metz, and  )  Both  assassinated  by

,, Chilperic,  at  Soissons. J Fredegond.

575.  Childebert  II.

584.  Clotaire  IL  ;  Soissons.

596.  Thierry  IL,  sou  of  Childebert;  in  Orleans.
,, Theodebert  II.  ;  Metz.

613.  Clotaire  IL  ;  became  sole  king.

■628.  Dagobert  I.  the  Great,  son  of  Clotaire  II.  ;  divided
Lhe  kingdom  between  his  two  sons  :

638.  Clovis  II. ,  Burgundy  and  Neustria.
,, Sigebert  IL,  Austrasia.

656.  Clotaire  III.,  son  of  Clovis  II.

670.  Childeric II.  ;  sole king ;  assassinated,  with  his
queen  and  his  son  Dagobert,  in  the  forest  of  Livri.
,, Thierry  III.  ;  Burgundy  and  Neustria.

674.  Dagobert  II. ,  son  of  Sigebert,  in  Austrasia;  assas-
sinated 679.

691.  Clovis  IIL  (Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace,  rules  iu  his
name ;  succeeded  by  his  brother).

695.  Childebert  III. ,  the  Just  ; Pepin  supreme.

711.  Dagobert  HI.,  son  of  Childebert.

715.  Clnlperic  IL,  deposed  by  Charles  Martel,  mayor  of
the  palace.

717.  Clotaire  IV.,  of  obscure  origin,  raised  by  Charles
Martel  to  the  throne ;  dies  soon  after;  Chilperic
is  recalled  from  Aquitaine.

720.  CtiUperie  IL  restored;  shortly  afterwards  dies  at

Noyon ;  succeeded  by
,, Thierry  IV.,  son  of  Dagobert  III,,  surnamed  de
Ckclles;  died  in  737. Charles  Martel  now  reigns
under  the  new  title  of  "duke  of  the  French."
lleuauU.

737.  Interregnum,  till  the  death  of  Charles  Martel,  in  741.


814.
8  40.
877.
879.


922.
923-

936.
954'


742.  Childeric  III. ,  sou  of  Chilperic  II. ,  surnamed  the
Stupid  Carloman  and  Pepin,  the  sons  of  Charles
Martel,  share  the  government.

THE CARLOV1NGIANS.

752.  Pepin  the  Short,  son  of  Charles  Martel ;  he  is  suc-
ceeded by  his  two  sons,
768.  Charles  the  Great  (Charlemagne)  and  Carloman;
Charles crowned  Emperor  of  the  West, by
LeoIII.,800. Carloman  reigned  but  three  years.

Louis  I.  le  Dcbonnaire,  Emperor  ;  dethroned,  but
restored  to  his  dominions.

Charles,  surnamed  the  Bald,  King  ;  Emperor  in
875 ;  poisoned  by  Zedechias,  a  Jewish  physician.

Louis  II. ,  the  Stammerer,  son  of  Charles  the  Bald,
King.

Louis  III.  and  Carloman  II.  ;  the  former  died  in
882,  and  Carloman  reigned  alone.

Charles  III.  le  Gros;  a  usurper,  in  prejudice  to
Charles  the  Simple.

Eudes,  or  Hugh,  count  of  Paris.

Charles  III.  (or  IV.),  the  Simple;  deposed,  and
died  in  prison  in  929;  he  married  Edgiva,
daughter  of  Edward  the  Elder,  of  England,  by
whom  he  had  a  son,  King  Louis  IV.

Robert,  brother  of  Eudes  ;  crowned  at  Rheims  ;
Charles  killed  him  in  battle. Henault.

Rudolf  or  Raoul,  duke  of  Burgundy ;  elected  king,
but  never  acknowledged  by  the  southern  pro-
vinces. Henault.

Louis  IV.  d'Outremer,  or  Transmarine  (from  having
been  conveyed  by  his  mother  into  England),  son
ofCharlesIII.  (or IV.);  diedbyafallfromhishorse.

Lothaire,  his  son;  reigned  jointly  with  his  father  from
952,  and  succeeds  him  at  15  years  of  age,  under
the  protection  of  Hugh  the  Great ;  poisoned.

Louis  V.,  the  Indolent,  son  of  Lothaire;  also
poisoned,  it  is  supposed  by  his  queen,  Blanche ;
last  of  the  race  of  Charlemagne.


THE CAPETS.

Hugh  Capet,  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  &c. ,  eldest
son  of  Hugh  the  Abbot,  3  July ;  he  seizes  the
crown,  in  prejudice  to  Charles  of  Lorraine,  uncle
of  Louis  Transmarine.  From  him  this  race  of
kings  is  called  Capevingians  and  Capetians.  He.
died  24  Oct.

Robert  II. ,  surnamed  the  Sage ;  son;  died  lamented,
20  July.

Henry  I. ,  son  ;  died  29  Aug.

Philip  I.  the  Fair,  VAmoureux;  son;  succeeded  at
8  years  of  age ;  ruled  at  14  ;  died  3  Aug.

Louis  VI. ,  surnamed  the  Lusty,  or  le  Gros;  son;
died  1  Aug.

Louis  VII.  ;  son ;  surnamed  the  Young,  to  distin-
guish him  from  his  father,  with  whom  he  reigned
for  some  years ;  died  18  Sept.

Philip  II.  (Augustus) ;  son  ;  succeeds  at  15 ;
crowned  at  Rheims  in  his  father's  lifetime ;  died

14  July.

Louis  VIII.,  Cceur  de  Lion;  son  ;  died  8  Nov.
Louis IX.  ;  son ;  called St. Louis ;  ascended  the

throne  at 15, under  the guardianship  of his

mother,  who  was  also  regent ;  died  in  his  camp

before  Tunis 25  Aug.
Philip  IIL,  the  Hardy;  son;  died  at  Terpignan,

6  Oct.
Philip  IV.,  the  Fair;  son;  king  in  his  17th  year

died  29  Nov.
Louis  X.  ;  son ;  surnamed  Hutin,  an  old  word  for

headstrong,  or  mutinous  ;  died  5  June.
John I., posthumous sou of Louis X.; born

15  Nov.  ;  died  19  Nov.

Philip  V.  the  Long  (on  account  of  his  stature);

brother  of  Louis  ;  died  3  Jan.
Charles  IV.,  the  Handsome;  brother;  died  31  Jan.

1328.

HOUSE OF VALOIS.

rhilip  VI.,  de  Valois,  the  Fortunate;  grandson  of

Philip  III.  ;  died  23  Aug.
John  II.  the  Good;  sou;  died  suddenly  in  the  Savoy

in  London,  8  April.
Charles  V.,  the  Wise;  son;  died  16  Sept.
Charles  VI.  the  Beloved;  son;  died  21  Oct.
Charles  VII.,  the  Victorious  ;  son  ;  died  22  July.
Louis  XI.  ;  son;  able  but  Cruel  :  died  30  Aug.
Charles  VIII.,  the  Affable;  son  ;  died  7  April.


1031.
1060.


1223.
1226.


1270.
1285.
1314.
1316.


1328.
i35°-

1364.
1380.
1422.
1461.
1483.


FEANCE.


408


FEANCE.


1498.  Louis  XII.,  Duke  of  Orleans;  the  Father  of  his

People  ;  great-grandson  of  Charles  V.  ;  died  1  Jan.
1515.  Francis I. of  Angouleme; called the Father  of

Letters  ; great-great-grandson of Charles  V.  ;

died  31  March.
1347.  Henry.  II.  ;  son ;  died  of  a  wound  received  at  a

tournament  at  the  nuptials  of  his  sister  with  the

duke  of  Savoy,  accidentally  inflicted  by  the  comte

de  Montmorency,  10  July.
1539.  Francis  II.  ;  son ;  married  Mary  Stuart,  queen  of

Scots  ;  died  5  Dec.
1360.  Charles IX.  ;  brother ;  Catherine  de  Medicis,  his

mother,  regent ;  died  30  May.
1574.  Henry  III. ;  brother;  elected  king  of  Poland;  last

of  the  house  of  Valois ; stabbed by  Jacques

Clement,  a  Dominican  friar,  1  Aug.  ;  died  2  Aug.

1589.

HOUSE OF  BOURBON.

1589.  Henry  IV. ,  the  Great,  of  Bourbon,  king  of  Navarre  ;

son-in-law  of  Henry  II. ;  murdered  by  Francis

Ravaillac,  14  May.
1610.  Louis  XIII.,  the  Just;  son;  died  14  May.
1643.  Louis XIV., the Great, Dieudonne; son; died

1  Sept.
1715.  Louis  XV,  the  Well-beloved;  great-grandson;  died

20  May,
1774.  Louis  XVI.,  his  grandson;  ascended  the  throne  in

his 20th  year ;  married  the  archduchess  Marie

Antoinette, of  Austria,  May,  1770 ;  dethroned,

14  July,  1789;  guillotined,  21  Jan.  1793,  and  his

queen,  16  Oct.  following.

[Louis  was  executed  Monday,  21  January,  1793,  at
eight  o'clock  a.m.  On  the  scaffold  he  said,  "French-
men, I  die  innocent  of  the  offences  imputed  to  me.  I
pardon  all  my  enemies,  and  I  implore  of  Heaven  that

my beloved France " At  this instant Santerre

ordered  the  drums  to  beat,  and  the  executioners  to
perform  their  office.  When  the  guillotine  descended,
the  priest  exclaimed:  "Son  of  St.  Louis!  ascend  to
heaven."  The  bleeding  head  was  then  held  up,  and  a
few  of  the  populace  shouted,  "  Vive  la  Republique ! "
The  body  was  interred  in  a  grave  that  was  immediately
afterwards  filled  up  with  quick  lime,  and  a  strong
guard  was  placed  around  until  it  should  be  consumed.  ]

1793.  Louis  XVII. ,  son  of  Louis  XVI.  He  never  reigned  ;
and  died  in  prison,  supposed  by  poison,  8  June,
1795,  aged  10  years  2  months.  It  is  believed
by  some  that  he  escaped  to  England,  and  lived
there  some  time  as  Augustus  Meves.*  In  1874
a  person  calling  himself  Auguste  de  Bourbon
claimed  to  be  his  son.  In  France  also  Albert  de
Bourbon,  son  of  one  Naundorff,  claimed  to  be
son  of  Louis  XVII.  At  a  trial  in  Paris,  when
Jules  Favre  was  his  counsel,  the  verdict  was
strongly  against  his  claim,  27  Feb.  1874.

THE FIRST REPUBLIC.

1792.  The  National  Convention  (750  members),  first

sitting,  21  Sept.

1793.  The  Directory  (Lareveillere  Lepaux,  Letourneur,

Rewbell,  Barras,  and  Carnot)  nominated  1  Nov.  ;
abolished,  and  Bonaparte,  Ducos,.  and  Sieyes
appointed  an  executive  commission,  Nov.  1799.
1799.  The  Consulate.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Camba-
ceres,  and  Lebrun  appointed  consuls,  24  Dec.
Napoleon  appointed  consul  for  10  years,  6  May,
1802  ;  for  life,  2  Aug.  1802.

first  empire. (See  article  Bonaparte  Family.)

[Established  by  the  senate  18  May,  1804.]

1804.  Napoleon (Bonaparte) I.  ; born 15 Aug. 1769.

He  married,
1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de

Beauharnais,  8  March,  1796  (who  was  divorced

16  Dec,  1809,  and  died  29  May,  1814)  ;
2nd, Maria-Louisa  of  Austria,  2  April, 1810  (she

died  17  Dec.  1847).  Son,  Napoleon  Joseph,  duke

of  Reichstadt,  bom  20  March, 1811  ; died,  22

July,  1832.
He  renounced  the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy,

and  accepted  the  isle  of  Elba  for  his  retreat,  5

April,  1814.
Again  appeared  in  France,  1  March,  1815.

*  He  died  insane,  Jan.  1880


Was  defeated  at  Waterloo,  18  June,  1813.
Abdicated  in  favour  of  his  infant  son,  22  June,

1815.
Banished  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  dies,  5  May,

1821. (See  France,  1840.)

BOURBONS RESTORED.

1814.  Louis  XVIII.  (comte  de  Provence),  brother  of
Louis  XVI.  ;  born  17  Nov.  1755  ;  married  Marie-
Josephine-Louise  of  Savoy  ;  entered  Paris,  and
took  possession  of  the  throne,  3  May,  18 14  ;
obliged  to  flee,  20  March,  1815  ;  returned  8  July,
same  year  ;  died  without  issue,  16  Sept.  1824.

1824.  Charles  X.  (comte  d'Artois),  his  brother  ;  born  9  Oct.
1757  ;  married  Marie-Therese  of  Savoy  ;  deposed
30  July,  1830.  He  resided  in  Britain  till  1832,
and  died  at  Gratz,  in  Hungary,  6  Nov.  1835.
[His  grandson,  Henry,  due  de  Bordeaux,  called
comte  de  Chambord,  son  of  the  due  de  Berry  ;
born  29  Sept.  1820  ;  married  princess  Theresa  of
Modena,  Nov.  1846 ;  no  issue  ;  styled  himself
Henri  V. See  France,  1870,  et  seq.]

house  of  Orleans.  (See  Orleans.)
1830.  Louis-Philippe,  son  of  Louis-Philippe,  duke  of
Orleans,  called  Egalite,  descended  from  Philippe,
duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Louis  XIII.  ;  born  6
Oct.  1773  ;  married  25  Nov.  1809,  Maria-Amelia,
daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.  (IV.)  king  of  the  Two
Sicilies  ;  (she  died  24  March,  1866).  Raised  to  the.
throne  as  king  of  the  French,  9  Aug.  1830 ;  abdi-
cated 24  Feb.  1848.  Died  in  exile,  in  England,
26  Aug.  1850.
[Heir :  Louis-Philippe,  count  of  Paris ;  born  24
Aug.  1838.]

SECOND REPUBLIC, 1 848.

The  revolution  commenced  in  a  popular  insurrection  at
Paris,  22  Feb.  1848.  The  royal  family  escaped  by
flight  to  England,  a  provisional  government  was  estab-
lished, monarchy  abolished,  and  France  declared  a
republic.

Charles-Louis-Napoleon  Bonaparte,  declared  by  the
National  Assembly  (19  Dec.)  president  of  the  republic
of  France  ;  and  proclaimed  next  day,  20  Dec.  ;  elected
for  ten  years,  22  Dec.  1851.

French  empire  revived.  (See  Bonaparte.)
[1821.  Napoleon  II.  (decreed  to  be  so  termed  by
Napoleon  III.  on  his  accession).  .  Napoleon,
Joseph,  son  of  Napoleon  I.  and  Maria-Louisa,
archduchess  of  Austria  ;  born  20  March,  1811  :
created  king  of  Rome.  On  the  abdication  of  his
father  he  was  made  duke  of  Reichstadt,  ia
Austria  ;  and  died  at  the  palace  of  Schoenbrium,
22  July,  1832,  aged  21.]
1852.  Napoleon  III.  formerly  president  of  the  French
republic,  elected  emperor,  21,  22  Nov.  1852  ;
proclaimed,  2  Dec.  1852  ;  surrendered  himself  a
prisoner  to  the  king  of  Prussia  at  Sedan,  2  Sept.
1870  :  deposed  at  Paris,  4  Sept.  ;  arrives  at  Wil-
helmshohe,  near  Cassel,  5  Sept.  ;  deposition  con-
firmed by  the  national  assembly,  1  March  ;  he
protested  against  it,  6  March,  1871 ;  diedat  Chisel-
hurst,  England,  9  Jan.  1873;  buried  there  15  Jan.

Empress  :  Eugenie-Marie  (a  Spaniard,  countess  of
Teba),  born  5  May,  1826  ;  married  29  Jan.  1853.

Heir:  Napoleon -Eugene -Louis-Jean -Joseph,  son  ;
styled  Napoleon  IV.,  born  16  March,  1856;  killed
in  Zululand,  1  June,  1879  ;  buried  beside  his
father  at  Chiselhurst  (the  prince  of  Wales  and
other  princes  present),  12  July,  1879  [both  re-
moved to  mausoleum,  Farnborough,  9  Jail.
1888]. See  Wills.

At  the  celebration  of  the  fdte  Napoleon,  15  Aug.,
1873,  the  prince  declared  the  policy  of  his.
family  to  be  "Everything  by  the  people,  for
the  people."

[On  18  Dec.  1852,  the  succession,  in  default  of  issue
from  the  emperor,  was  determined  in  favour  ot
prince  Jerome-Napoleon  and  his  heirs  male.]

THIRD  REPUBLIC.

I.  Louis  Adolphe  Thiers  (born  16  April,  1797)  appointed
chief  of  the  executive  power,  17  Feb.,  and  president
of  the  French  republic,  by  the  national  assembly,  31
Aug.  1871 ;  resigned,  24  May,  1873  ;  died,  3Se.pt.  1837.


FRANCE, ISLE OF.


409


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


II.  Marshal  M.  E.  Patrice  Maurice  MacMahon,  due  de
Magenta,  elected  president,  24  May  ;  nominated  for
seven  years,  20  Nov.  1873.

III..  Francois  Paul  Jules  Grevy  (born  15  Aug.  1813) ;
elected  30  Jan.  1879 ;  re-elected  28  Dec.  1885 ;  re-
signed 2  Dec.  1887.

IV.  Marie-Frangois  Sadi-Carnot  (born  11  Aug.  1837);
elected  3  Dec.  1887.

FRANCE,  ISLE  OF,  see  Mauritius.

FRANCHE  COMTE,  in  upper  Burgundy,  E.
France,  was  conquered  by  Julius  Ca?sar,  about  45
B.C. ;  by  the  Burgundians,  earl}'  in  the  fifth  century,
a.d.  ;  and  by  the  Franks  about  534.  It  was  made
a  county  for  Hugh  the  Black  in  915,  and  received
its  name  from  having  been  taken  from  Kenaud  III.
(1127-48),  and  restored  to  him.  By  marriage  with
the  count's  daughter,  Beatrice,  the  emperor
Frederick  I.  acquired  the  county,  1156.  Their
descendant,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  by  marriage  with
the  archduke  Maximilian,  conveyed  it  to  the  house
of  Austria,  1477.  It  was  conquered  by  the  French,
1668;  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,
2  May,  1668  ;  again  conquered  ;  and  finally  annexed
to  France  by  treaty,  1678.

FRANCHISE.  A  privilege  or  exemption
from  ordinary  jurisdiction,  and  anciently  an  asylum
or  sanctuary  where  the  person  was  secure.  In
Spain,  churches  and  monasteries  were,  until  lately,
franchises  for  criminals,  as  formerly  in  England  ;
see  Sanctuaries.  In  1420,  the  elective  fkan-
chise  for  counties  was  restricted  to  persons'having
at  least  40*.  a  year  in  land,  and  resident ;  for  recent
changes,  see  Reform.

FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen.

John  Francis,  a  youth,  fired  a  pistol  at  queen  Vic-
toria as  she  was  riding  down  Constitution-hill,  in
an  open  barouche,  accompanied  by  prince  Albert,  30
May,  1842.  The  queen  was  uninjured.  Previous
intimation  having  reached  the  palace  of  the  inten-
tion of  the  criminal,  her  majesty  had  commanded
that  none  of  the  ladies  of  her  court  should  attend
her.  Francis  was  condemned  to  death,  17  June
following,  but  was  transported  for  life.  He  was
liberated  on  ticket-of-leave  in  1867.

FRANCISCANS.  Grey  or  Minor  Friars,  an
order  founded  by  St.  Francis  d'Assisi,  about  1209.
Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and
very  austere  regimen.  About  1220  they  appeared  in
England,  where,  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of
monasteries  by  Henry  VIII.,  they  had  fifty-five
abbeys  or  other  houses,  1536-38.

FRANCISCO,  SAN,  the  largest  city  in  Cali-
fornia, which  see.  The  centenary  of  the  foundation
of  the  city  by  Franci-can  monks,  8  Oct.  1776,  was
celebrated  in  1876.  The  city  suffered  by  earth-
quakes in  1868  and  1872.  Population,  18S0, 233,959;
1890,  298,997.

FRANCONIA,  or  Feankenland  (on  the
Maine),  formerly  a  circle  of  the  German  empire,
part  of  Thuringia,  was  conquered  by  Thierry,  king
of  the  Franks,  530,  and  colonized.  Its  count  or  duke,
Conrad,  was  elected  king  of  Germany,  8  Nov.  911 ;
and  his  descendant  was  the  emperor  Conrad  III.,
elected  1 138,  and  another  duke.  Franconia  was  made
a  distinct  circle  from  Thuringia  in  1512.  At  its  sub-
division in  1806  various  German  princes  obtained
a  part ;  but  in  1814  the  largest  share  was  awarded
to  Bavaria.

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR  originated  in
the  emperor  of  the  French's  jealousy  of  the  greatly
increased  power  of  Prussia,  through  the  successful
issue  of  the  war  with  Denmark  in  1864,  and  with


Austria  in  1866.  The  German  Confederation  was
thereby  annulled,  and  the  North  German  Con-
federation established  under  the  supremacy  of
the  king  of  Prussia,  to  whose  territories  were
further  annexed  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nas-
sau, Frankfort,  and  other  provinces.  This  great
augmentation  of  the  power  of  Prussia  was  mainly-
due  to  the  energetic  policy  of  count  Bismarck-
Schonhausen,  prime  minister  since  Sept.  1862.

In  a  draft  treaty,  secretly  proposed  to  the  Prussian
government  by  the  French  emperor  in  1866  :  "  1.
The  emperor  recognises  the  acquisitions  which
Prussia  has  made  in  the  last  war";  2.  The  king  of
Prussia  promises  to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of
Luxemburg  by  France  ;  3.  The  emperor  will  not
oppose  a  federal  union  of  the  northern  and
southern  states  of  Germany,  excluding  Austria  ;
4.  The  king  of  Prussia,  in  case  the  emperor  should
enter  or  conquer  Belgium,  will  support  him  in
arms  against  any  opposing  power  ;  5.  They  enter
into  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive. "

[This  draft  treaty  was  published  in  the  Times,  25
July,  1870.  After  some  discussion,  its  authenti-
city was  admitted ;  count  Bismarck  asserting;
that  it  emanated  entirely  from  the  French  em-
peror, and  that  the  scheme  had  never  been
seriously  entertained  by  himself.]

In  March,  1867,  a  dispute  arose  through  the  French
emperor's  proposal  for  purchasing  Luxemburg
from  the  king  of  Holland,  which  was  strongly  op-
posed by  Prussia,  as  that  province  had  formed
part  of  the  dissolved  Germanic  Confederation  ;
and  the  affair  was  only  settled  by  a  conference  of
the  representatives  of  the  great  powers  in  London,
at  which  the  perfect  neutrality  of  Luxemburg
was  determined,  together  with  the  withdrawal  of
the  Prussian  garrison  and  the  destruction  of  the
fortifications 7-11  May,  1867

Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  (con-
nected with  the  Prussian  dynasty,  and  brother  of
Charles,  prince  of  Roumania),  consented  to  be-
come a  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Spain,  4  July,  1870

This  was  denounced  by  the  French  government.
Threatening  speeches  were  made  in  the  French
chamber  by  the  due  de  Grammont,  the  foreign
minister,  and  eventually,  after  some  negotiation
and  the  intervention  of  Great  Britain,  prince  Leo-
pold, with  the  consent  of  his  sovereign,  declined
the  proffered  crown . . . .12  July, ,,

The  submission  did  not  satisfy  the  French  govern-
ment aud  nation,  and  the  demand  for  a  guarantee
against  the  repetition  of  such  an  acceptance
irritated  the  Prussian  government,  and  led  to  the
termination  of  the  negotiations,  the  king  refusing
to  receive  the  count  Benedetti,  the  French
minister 13  July, r,

Energetic  but  fruitless  efforts  to  avert  the  war  were
made  by  earl  Granville,  the  British  foreign
minister about  15  July, „

War  was  announced  by  the  emperor,  with  the
hearty  consent  of  the  great  majority  of  the
chambers.  The  left  or-republiean  party  opposed  the
war  ;  M.  Thiers  and  a  few  others  only  protested
against  it  as  premature .... 15  July, ,,

[After  his  surrender  on  2  Sept. ,  the  emperor  told
count  Bismarck  that  he  did  not  desire  war,  but
was  driven  into  it  by  public  opinion.  He  appears
to  have  been  greatly  deceived  as  to  the  numerical
strength  of  his  army,  and  its  state  of  preparation.]

"  The  greatest  national  crime  that  we  have  had  the
pain  of  recording  since  the  days  of  the  first
French  revolution  has  been  consummated.  War
is  declared — an  unjust  but  premeditated  war." —
Times,  16  July,  1870.

(For  details  of  the  battles  see  separate  articles.)

French  Army,  about  300,000  : —

1st  corps,  uuiler  marshal  MacMahon.
2nd  corps,  under  general  Frossard.
3rd  corps,  under  marshal  Bazaine.
4th  corps,  under  general  Ladmirault.
5t.l1  corps,  under  general  De  Fully.
6th  corps,  under  marshal  Canrobert,
Imperial  guard,  under  general  Bouibaki.
Commander-in-chief,  the  emperor  :  general  Le  Bceuf,
second  ;  succeeded  by  marshal  Bazaine.


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


410


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


P .rcssian  Army,  about  640,000 : —

1.  Northern,  under  general  Vogel  von  Falckenstein,

about  220,000,  defending  the  Elbe,  Hanover,  &c.
.2.  Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about

180,000.
3.  Centre, under  generals  Von Bittenfeld and  Von

Steinmetz,  about  80,000.
.4.  The  left,  under  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  about

166,000.
•Commander-in-chief,  king William  ; second, general
Helmuth  Karl  Bernhard  von  Moltke  (born  26  Oct.,
1800 ;  died  24  April,  1891).

The  North  German  army,  at  the  beginning  of  August,
consisted,  firstly,  of  550,000  line,  with  1,200  guns  and
53,000  cavalry  ;  secondly,  of  187,000  reserve,  with  234
.guns  and  18,000  cavalry  ;  and,  thirdly,  of  205,000  land-
wehr or  militia,  with  10,000  cavalry,  making  a  grand
total  of  944,000  men,  with  1,680  mobilised  guns  and
103,000  horses.

To  these  must  be  added,  firstly,  the  Bavarians,  69,000
line,  with  192  guns  and  14,800  horses — 25,000  reserve
with  2,400  horses,  and  22,000  landwehr  ;  secondly,  the
Wiirtembergers — 22,000  line  witli  54  guns  and  6,200
horses,  6,500  reserve,  and  6,000  landwehr  ;  and,  thirdly,
the  Badenese — 16,000  line  with  54  guns,  4,000  reserve,
and  9,600  landwehr.

All  the  German  troops  taken  together  as  under  arms  at
present,  1,124,000  men. Aug.  1870.

Four  weeks  previously,  on  the  peace  footing,  they  num-
bered only  360,000.

The  French  and  Germans  in  this  war  were  considered  to
be  equally  brave  and  efficient ;  but  the  French  generals
appear  to  have  acted  greatly  upon  impulse.  The  Ger-
mans seem  to  have  been  invariably  guided  by  a  well
matured  plan,  their  tactics  mainly  consisting  in  bring-
ing vast  masses  to  bear  on  the  point  where  they  were
anxious  to  prevail.  From  Saarbriiek  to  Sedan,  Moltke
appears  to  have  left  nothing  to  chance  ;  and  all  his  ar-
rangements were  ably  carried  out.

The  causes  of  the  early  ruin  of  the  French  army  were  :
"  1,  the  enormous  superiority  of  the  Germans  in  regard
to  numbers  ;  2,  the  absolute  unity  of  their  command
and  concert  of  operation  ;  3,  their  superior  mechanism
in  equipment  and  supplies  ;  4,  the  superior  intelli-
gence, steadiness  and  discipline  of  the  soldiers  ;  5,
superior  education  of  the  officers,  and  the  dash  and
intelligence  of  the  cavalry." — Quarterly  Review.

Estimated  cost  of  the  war  to  France,  395,400,000/.,  Jan.
1875-


War  resolved  on  by  the  French  government,  15  July ;
declaration  delivered  at  Berlin . . 19  July,  1870

The  north  German  parliament  meet  at  Berlin,  and
engage  to  support  Prussia  in  the  war 19  July, ,,

Wiirtemberg,  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Hesse  Darm-
stadt declare  war  against  France,  and  send  con-
tingents to  the  army  . . . . 20  July, ,,

War  proclamation  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  de-
claring that  the  national  honour,  violently  excited
.  .  .  alone  takes  in  hand  the  destinies  of  the
country 23  July, ,,

Part  of  the  bridge  at  Kehl  blown  up  by  the
Prussians 23  July, ,,

Proclamation  of  the  king  that  "  love  of  the  common
fatherland,  and  the  unanimous  uprising  of  the
German  races,  have  conciliated  all  opinions,  and
.dissipated  all  disagreements  ....  The  war  will
procure  for  Germany  a  durable  peace,  and  from

i  this  bloody  seed  will  arise  a  harvest  blessed  by
God — the  liberty  and  unity  of  Germany,"  25  July, ,,

Skirmish  at  Niederbronn  ;  a  Bavarian  officer  killed,

26  July, ,,

Day  of  general  prayer  observed  in  Prussia,  27  July, „

The  emperor  Napoleon  joins  the  army  ;  at  Metz.as-
sumes  the  chief  command,  and  issues  a  proclama-
tion declaring  that  the  war  will  be  long  and  severe,

28,  29  July, „

Repulse  of  a  French  attack  at  Saarbriiek,  30  July, „

20  Badenese  enter  France  at  Lauterburg ;  Mr.
Winsloe  killed  ;  some  captured  ;  others  escape
with  valuable  information . . . 31  July, ,,,

Proclamation  of  the  king  of  Prussia  to  his  people,
granting  an  amnesty  for  political  offences,  and
"resolving,  like  our  forefathers,  placing  full
trust  in  God,  to  accept  the  battle  for  the  defence
of  the  fatherland " .... 31  July, „


He  leaves  Berlin  for  the  army,  1  Aug.,  and  an-
nounces that  "  all  Germany  stands  united  in  arms"

3  Aug.  ]

The  French  government  announce  that  ' '  they
make  war,  not  against  Germany,  but  against
Prussia,  or  rather  against  the  policy  of  count
Bismarck  " 2  Aug.

The  French  under  Frossard  bombard  and  take  Saar-
briiek in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  and  his
son  ;  the  Prussians,  dislodged,  retire  with  little
loss 2  Aug.

The  due  de  Grammont,  French  foreign  minister,  pub-
lishes a  circular  replying  to  Bismarck's  charges
against  France 3  Aug.

The  crown  prince  crosses  the  Lauter,  the  boundary
of  France,  and  defeats  the  French  under  Frossard,
storming  the  lines  of  Wissembourg  and  Geisberg  ;
general  Douay  killed 4  Aug.

Battle  of  Woerth  :  in  a  desperate,  long-continued
battle  the  crown  prince  defeats  marshal  MacMa-
hon  and  the  army  of  the  Rhine  ;  they  retire  to
Saverne  to  cover  Nancy  .... 6  Aug.

Battle  of  Forbach :  Saarbriiek  recaptured,  and  For-
bach (in  France)  taken  by  generals  Von  Goeben
and  Von  Steinmetz,  after.a  fierce  contest;  all  the
French  retreat 6  Aug.

General  Turr  publishes,  in  a  letter,  statements  of
proposals  by  Bismarck  for  the  annexation  of  Lux-
embourg and  Belgium  by  France,  in  1866  and
1867 6  Aug.

The  emperor,  reporting  these  defeats,  says,  "Tout
peut  se  retablir  " 7  Aug.

The  Germans  occupy  Forbach,  Haguenau,  and  Saar-
guemines 7  Aug.

Marshal  Bazaine  appointed  to  the  chief  command
of  the  French  army  at  Metz  (about  130,000);
MacMahon  has  about  50,000  near  Saverne ;  Can-
robert  about  50,000  near  Nancy . . 8  Aug.

Nine  French  iron-clads  pass  Dover  for  the  Baltic,

9  Aug.

St.  Avoid  occupied  by  the  Germans . 9  Aug.

Marshal  Bazaine  takes  command  of  the  army  at
Metz .9  Aug.

Phalsburg  invested 9  Aug.

Treaty  with  Great  Britain  guaranteeing  the  neu-
trality of  Belgium,  signed  on  behalf  of  Prussia,
9  Aug.  ;  of  France ....  11  Aug.

Forced  resignation  of  the  Ollivier  ministry 9  Aug.

New  ministry  constituted  under  general  Cousin
Montauban ; comte de  Palikao, war  minister,

10  Aug.
Strasburg  invested  by  the  Germans  .  .  10  Aug.
The  king  of  Prussia,  at  Saarbriiek,  proclaims  that

"  he  makes  war  against soldiers, not against
French  citizens "  .... 10  Aug.

Lichtenburg  capitulates  to  the  Germans 10  Aug.

MacMahon's  army  retreating upon the Moselle,

11  Aug.
The  little  fortress,  "  La  Petite  Pierre,"  evacuated,

11  Aug.
Communication  with  Strasburg  cut  off  11  Aug.
Nancy  occupied  by  the  Germans  without  resistance,

12  Aug.
The  Bavarians  pass  the  Vosges  .  .  .  12  Aug.
The  king  at  St.  Avoid  forbids  conscription  for  the

French  army  in  territories held by  Germans,

13  Aug.
Marshal  Bazaine  made  commander  of  the  army  ol

the  Rhine  . . 13  Aug.

Bombardment  of  Strasburg  begun .  14  Aug.

The  French  government  declare  that  "  there  can

be,  for  a  moment,  no  question  of  negotiation  of

peace" 14  Aug.

Blockade  of  the  German  ports  on  the  Baltic,  from

15 Aug., announced by the French admiral,

14  Aug.
Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs-

tireurs)  take  the  field  (not  recognised  as  soldiers
by  the  Germans) .... about  14  Aug.
Toul  refuses  to  surrender ...  14  Aug.

The  emperor  retires  to  Verdun . . 14  Aug.
Marshal  Bazaine's  army  defeated  in  several  long-
continued  sanguinary  battles  before  Metz  (see
Metz)  :—

1.  Battle  of  Courcelles  (Pange  or  Longeville)

gained  by  Von  Steinmetz  and  the  1st  army,

14  Aug.


870


FEANCO-PEUSSIAN  WAE.


411


FEANCO-PEUSSIAN  WAE.


2.  Battle  of  Vionville  or  Mars-la-Tour,  gained

by  prince  Frederick  Charles  and  the  2nd
arniy 16  Aug.

3.  Battles  of  Gravelotte  and  Rezonville,  gained

by  the  combined  armies  commanded  by
the  king 18  Aug.

French  sortie  from  Strasburg  repulsed;  German
attack  on  Phalsburg  repulsed . . 16  Aug.

MacMahon  reaches  Chalons,  16  Aug.  ;  joined  by  the
emperor;  his  army  between  130,000  and  150,000,

20  Aug.

The  king  appoints  governors-general  of  Alsace  and
Lorraine 17  Aug.

Energetic  fortification  of  Paris  by  general  Troehu,
the governor, and the  "defence committee"

18  Aug.

Estimated  German  losses :  killed,  wounded,  and
missing,  2088  officers,  46,480  men;  up  to  18  Aug.

Severe  bombardment  of  Strasburg . 19  Aug.

MacMahon's  army  of  the  Rhine  retreats  as  the
Prussians  under  the  king  and  crown  prince
advance;  prince  Frederick  Charles  opposed  to
Bazaine  at  Metz ;  [German  armies  in  France  about
500,000 ;  the  French  armies  about  300,000 ;  com-
munications between  marshals  Bazaine  and  Mac-
Mahon very  difficult] . . .  about  20  Aug.

Lieut.  Harth,  a  Prussian  spy,  tried  and  shot  at
Paris 20  Aug.

MacMahon  raises  his  camp  at  Chalons  20  Aug.

The  troops  extended  along  the  line  of  the  Maine,

21  Aug.
Exportation  of  food  prohibited  .  .  .  21  Aug.
Bazaine  at  Metz  said  to  be completely  isolated,

22  Aug.
MacMahon  at  Rheims  with  his  army,  including  the

remains  of  the  corps  of  Failly  and  Canrobert ;  he
marches  in  hope  of  joining  Bazaine,  23  Aug.  ;  the
crown-prince  and  prince  of  Saxony  start  in  pur-
suit, 23  Aug.  ;  march  upon  Chalons  .  24  Aug.
Prussian  royal  head-quarters  removed  from  Pont  a
Mousson  to  Bar-le-Duc  (125  miles  from Paris)

24  Aug.
The  alleged  violation  of  the  neutrality  of  Belgium

denied  by  its  government ... 25  Aug.
The  Germans  enter  the  arrondissement  of  Vassy,

25  Aug.
Germans  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  Verdun,  25  Aug.
Soo  French  national  guards  captured  at  St.  Mene-

hould 25  Aug.

Chalons  occupied  by  the  Germans  . . 25  Aug.

Capitulation  of  Vitry,  a  small  fortress .  25  Aug.

Formation  of  three  German  armies  of  reserve  in
Germany,  and  a  fourth  army  in  the  field,  under
the  crown-prince  of  Saxony,  to  co-operate  with
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  against  Paris,  26  Aug.

Strasburg suffering much by bombardment,

23-26  Aug.

Powerful  sortie  of  Bazaine  from  Metz  repulsed,

26  Aug.
Phalsburg  heroically  resisting  .  .  26  Aug.
Thionville  invested  by  the  Germans  .  27  Aug.
Engagement  at Busancy, between  Vouziers and

Stenay  :  a  regiment  of  French  chasseurs  nearly
annihilated 27  Aug.

Two  German  armies  (220,000)  marching  on  Paris,

28  Aug.

Continued  retreat  of  MacMahon's  army;  severe
fighting  at  Dun,  Stenay,  and  Mouzon 28  Aug.

Nicholas  Schull,  a  German  spy,  shot  atMetz  28  Aug.

Vrizy,  between  Vouziers  and  Attigny,  stormed  by
the  Germans 29  Aug.

Municipal  meetings  at  Berlin,  Konigsberg,  and
other  German  cities,  protest  against  foreign  inter-
vention for  peace  ...  30,  31  Aug.

MacMahon's  army,  about  150,000,  accompanied  by
the  emperor,  retreating  northwards ;  part  of  it,
under  De  Failly,  surprised  and  defeated  near  Beau-
mont, between  Mouzon  and  Moulins ;  several  other
engagements,  unfavourable  to  the  French,  oc-
curred during  the  day  .... 30  Aug.

Count  Bismarck-Bohlen  installed  governor  of  Alsace
at  Haguenau 30  Aug.

The  Germans  enter  Carignan ;  attack  the  French  in
the  plain  of  Douzy  ;  the  French,  at  first  success-
ful, are  defeated,  and  retreat  to  Sedan 31  Aug.

A  French  army  of  old  soldiers,  about  100,000,  are
said  to  be  forming  near  Lyons . .31  Aug.


1870


Bazaine  defeated  in  his  endeavour  to  escape  from

Metz ;  after  a  fierce  struggle,  retreats  into  Metz,

31  Aug.  1  Sept.

Battle  round  Sedan:  begun  at  4  a. in.  between
Sedan  and  Douzy ;  the  French  at  first  successful ;
after  a  severe  struggle  and  dreadful  carnage,  the
Germans  victorious;  MacMahon  wounded,  5.30
p.m.  ;  general  de  Wimptt'en  refuses  to  accept  the
terms  offered  by  the  king  of  Prussia . 1  Sept.

Capitulation  of  Sedan  and  the  remainder  of  Mac-
Mahon's army ;  the  emperor  surrenders  to  the
king  (see  Sedan) 2  Sept.

Vigorous  'artillery  action  at  Strasburg  ;  a  sortie
repulsed 2  Sept.

Revolution  at  Paris  after  the  declaration  of  the
capture  of  MacMahon's  army ;  proclamation  of  a
republic  (see  France) .... 4  Sept.

Rheims  occupied  by  the  Germans  and  the  king,

5  Sept.
Jules Favre, the French  foreign  minister,  in a

circular  to  the  French  diplomatic  representa-
tives, says,  "  We  will  not  cede  either  an  inch  of
our  territories or  a  stone of our fortresses "

6  Sept.
General  Vinoy  and  a  corps  sent  too  late  to aid

MacMahon ;  retreat  and  arrive  in  Paris,  6,  7  Sept.

St.  Dizier  occupied  by  the  Germans . .  7  Sept.

Strasburg  invested  by  60,000  men . . 8  Sept.

Verdun  vigorously  resisting  ...  8  Sept.

The  German  army,  in  five  corps,  advancing  on  Paris,

9  Sept.

Laon  surrendered  to  save  the  town  from  destruc-
tion ;  by  the  accidental  or  treacherous  explosion
of  a  magazine  seme  of  the  German  staff  and  many
French  perish 9  Sept.

Metz,  Strasburg,  Thionville,  Phalsburg,  Toul,
Bitsche,  and  other  fortified  places  holding  out,

10  Sept.

Messages  between  belligerents  transmitted  by  lord
Lyons  (at  Paris)  and  count  Bernstorff  (Prussian
minister)  in  London .... 9-10  Sept.

German  attack  on  Toul  repulsed . . 10  Sept.

Bridge  at  Creil  over  the  Oise  blown  up  . 12  Sept.

Seven  German  corps  (about  300,000  men)  approach-
ing Paris,  which  is  said  to  contain  300,000  com-
batants 13  Sept.

M.  Thiers  arrives  in  London  on  a  mission  from  the
government 13  Sept.

Colmar  occupied  by  the  Germans . . 14  Sept.

General  Troehu  reviews  the  troops  in  Paris,  13  Sept.  ;
delivers  a  stirring  address ;  the  daily  guard
ordered  to  be  70,000 ...  14  Sept.

Estimated  German  loss :  60,000  killed  and  wounded ;
between  20,000  and  30,000  sick;  about  1,000
prisoners -15  Sept.

French  prisoners  in  Germany :  62  generals,  4,800
officers,  140,000  privates,  about .  15  Sept.

Correspondence  between  count  Bernstorff  and  earl
Granville  respecting  neutrality,  said  to  have
been  broken  ;  denied  by  the  earl  1-15  Sept.

Siege  of  Paris  begun ;  ingress  and  egress  prohibited
without  a  permit ....  15  Sept.

Blockade  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser  non  -  effective,

15  Sept.

Important  circular  of  M.  Favre,  condemning  the  war
and  recognising  the  obligations  of  the  country,

17  Sept.
Circular  letters  of  count  Bismarck,  recounting  the

history  of  French  aggressions  on  Germany,  and
asserting  the  necessity  of  obtaining  material
guarantees  for  the  future  safety  of  Germany,  and
removing  the  frontiers  and  point  of  attack  further

west 13,  16  Sept.

Prussian  head-quarters  at  Mcux  (20  miles  from  Paris)

18  Sept.
32 German merchant  ships  reported  to  have  been

captured  by  the  French  fleet  up  to . iS  Sept.

Vessels  sunk  in  the  Seine  and  Marne,  and  other
vigorous  defensive  measures  adopted,  18, 19  Sept.

Paris  said  to  be  completely  invested ;  the  fortifica-
tions reconnoitred  by  the  king,  who  has  fixed  his
head-quarters  at  Baron  Rothschild's  chateau  at
Ferrieres,  near  Lagny  . . . 19  Sept

Three  French  divisions  under  general  Vinoy  attack
the  Germans  on  the  heights  of  Sceaux  ;  repulsed
with  loss  of  7  guns  and  2500  prisoners :  tin'  defeat
attributed  to  the  disorder  of  the  Zouaves;  the
national  guard  behave  well . . . 19  Sept.


1870


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAE.


412


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


Count  Bismarck  consents  to  receive  Jules  Favre
(about  16  Sept.);  they  meet  at  Chateau  de  la
Haute  Maison,  19  Sept.  ;  and  at  the  king's  head-
quarters, Ferrieres,  near  Lagny  . 20  Sept.

Jules  Favre  reports  to  the  government  the  result
of  his  interviews  with  count  Bismarck :  Prussia
demands  the  cession  of  the  departments  of  the
Upper  and  Lower  Rhine  and  part  of  that  of
Moselle,  with  Metz,  Chateau  Salins  and  Soissons,
and  would  agree  to  an  armistice  in  order  that  a
French  constituent  assembly  might  meet ;  the
French  to  surrender  Strasburg,  Toul  and  Verdun
(or  Phalsburg  according  to  Favre),  and  Mont
Valerien,  if  the  assembly  meet  at  Paris ;  these
terms  are  positively  rejected  by  the  French
government 21  Sept.

Versailles  and  the  troops  there  surrender,  19  Sept.  ;
entered  by  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia 20  Sept.

A  lunette  captured  at  Strasburg . . 20  Sept.

General  von  Steinmetz  sent  to  Posen  as  governor-
general  ;  prince  Frederick  Charles  sole  commander
before  Metz 21  Sept.

Sevres  surrenders 22  Sept.

The  blockade  of  German  ports  raised;  officially
announced  in  London . . . .22  Sept.

The  French  government  issue  a  circular  expressing
readiness  to  consent  to  an  equitable  peace,  but
refusing  "to  cede  an  inch  of  our  territory  or  a
stone  of  our  fortresses  " . . -23  Sept.

Three  conflicts  before  Paris  :  at  Drancy,  Pierrefitte,
and  Villejuif ;  the  two  last  reported  favourable  to
the  French 23  Sept.

Toul  surrenders  after  a  most  vigorous  resistance,

23  Sept.

Levee  en  masse  of  men  under  25  ordered  by  the
French  government .... 23  Sept.

Germans  repulsed  in  conflicts  before  Paris ;  said  by
them  to  be  unimportant ... 23  Sept.

Verdun  invested  by  the  Germans . . 25  Sept.

Desperate  ineffective  sallies  from  Metz,

23,  24,  27  Sept.

All  the  departments  of  the  Seine  and  Marne  occu-
pied by  Germans .... 26  Sept.

The  iron  cross  given  by  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia
to  above  30  soldiers  beneath  the  statue  of  Louis
XIV.  at  Versailles 26  Sept.

Circular  of  Von  Thile,  Prussian  foreign  minister,
stating  that  as  the  ruling  powers  in  France
decline  an  armistice,  and  as  no  recognised  govern-
ment exists  in  Paris  (the  government  de  facto
being  removed  to  Tours),  all  communications
with  and  from  Paris  can  only  be  carried  on  so  far
as  the  military  events  may  permit . 27  Sept.

Clermont  occupied  by  the  Germans  after  a  brief
vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery,

27  Sept.

Commencement  of  attack  on  Soissons . 28  Sept.

Capitulation  of  Strasburg,  27  Sept.  ;  formally  sur-
rendered 28'Sept.

Sortie  of  general  Vinoy's  army  (at  Paris) ;  repulsed,
after  two  hours' fighting,  crown  prince  present;
above  200  prisoners  taken ;  general  Giulham
killed 30  Sept.

Above  375,000  national  guards  said  to  be  in  Paris,

30  Sept.

Conflict  near  Rouen  ;  at  first  favourable  to  the
French  ;  their  loss  1,200  killed  and  wounded  ;  300

prisoners 30  Sept.

Beauvais  captured  by  the  Germans . 30  Sept.
Mantes  occupied  by  the  Germans . . 1  Oct.
Circular  from  count  Bismarck,  disclaiming  any  in-
tention of  reducing  France  to  a  second-rate  po  wer,

1  Oct.
The  American  general  Burnside  visits  M. Favre,

1  Oct.
Surgeon-major  Wyatt  writes  that Paris is  well-
provisioned,  and  nearly  inexpugnable . 1  Oct.

M.  Thiers'  fruitless  visit  to  Vienna,  23  Sept.  ;  to
St.  Petersburg,  27  Sept.  ;  dined  with  the  czar,

2  Oct.
The  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  at Rheims  ap-
pointed governor  of  the  country  conquered  in  ad-
dition to  Alsace  and  Lorraine . . .2  Oct.

M.  Favre,  in  the  name  of  the  diplomatic  body,
requests  count  Bismarck  to  give  notice  before
bombarding  Paris,  and  to  allow  a  weekly  courier  :
the  count  declines  both  requests,  but  permits  the
passage  of  open  letters  ;  reported  . . 3  Oct.


1870


Count  Bismarck  in  a  circular  corrects  Favre's  re-
port of  the  negotiations,  and  accuses  the  French
government  of  keeping  up  the  difficulties  opposed
to  a  conclusion  of  peace  ;  reported . .  3  Oct.

Epernon  and  La  Ferte  occupied  by  the  Germans
after  an  engagement .... 4  Oct.

The  king's  head-quarters  removed  to  Versailles  ;
arrival  of  the  king,  Bismarck,  Moltke,  and  others,

5  Oct.

The  Germans  victors  in  several  small  engagements,

2-6  Oct.

General  Treskow,  in  command  of  a  German  army,
to  advance  into  Southern  France . . 5  Oct.

Colmar  occupied  by the Prussians for  an  hour,

5  Oct.
Battle  at  Thoury  ;  General  Reyan,  with  the  ad-
vanced guard  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  under
general  La  Motte  Rouge,  defeats  the  Germans
between  Chaussy  and  Thoury,  and  captures  some
prisoners  and  cattle . . . . .5  Oct.

Fictitious  manifesto  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.,
entitled  "  Les  Idees  de  I'Empereur,"  advocating
peace  on  moderate  terms,  dated  26  Sept.,  pub-
lished in  the  imperialist  journal  in  London,  La
Situation,  and  in  Daily  News,  4  Oct.  ;  disclaimed
by  the  emperor 6  Oct.

M.  Thiers'  mission  to  foreign  courts  reported  to  be
quite  abortive 6  Oct.

Part  of  the  army  of  Lyons,  under  general  Dupre,
defeated  by  the  Badenese  under  general  Von
Gegenfeld,  near  St.  Remy;  French  loss,  about
1,500,  and  660  prisoners  ;  German  loss,  about  430,

6  Oct.
General  Burnside leaves  Paris  in  order  to  meet

count  Bismarck 7  Oct.

Great  sortie  from  Metz  ;  the  Germans  surprised  ;
40,000  French  engaged  ;  repulsed  after  severe  con-
flicts ;  French  loss,  about  2,000 ;  German,  about
600 ........ 7  Oct.

Estimated  number  of  French  prisoners  in  Germany,
3577  officers,  and  123,700  men . . 8  Oct

Neil  Breisach  bombarded .... 8  Oct.

Breton  volunteers  organising  by  M.  Cathelineau  ;
volunteers  in  the  west  organising  by  general
Chare tte  (from  Rome) . . . . 8  Oct.

German  attack  on  St.  Quintin  vigorously  repulsed,

8  Oct.
Long  despatch,  from  count  BernstorfF  to  earl  Gran-
ville, complaining  of  the  British  supplying  arms
to  France 8  Oct.

M.  Thiers  again  at  Vienna ... 8  Oct.
Garibaldi  arrives at Tours  ;  enthusiastically re-
ceived ; reviews the  national  guard  at  Tours,

9  Oct.
Direct  mediation  declined  by  Russia,  Great  Britain,

and  Spain 10  Oct.

Prussian  circular  to  the  European  powers,  regret-
ting the  obstinate  resistance  of  the  French  govern-
ment to  peace,  and  foretelling  the  consequences
— social  disorganisation  and much starvation,

10  Oct.

Ablis,  near  Paris,  burnt  for  alleged  treachery
(killing  sleeping  soldiers)  . . . .10  Oct.

M.  Gambetta  escapes  from  Paris  by  a  balloon,  7
Oct.  ;  in  his  proclamation  at  Tours,  states  that
Paris  possesses  560,000  troops  ;  that  cannon  are
cast  daily,  and  that  women  are  making  cartridges  ;
he  urges  unanimous  devoted  co-operation  in
carrying  on  the  war .... 10  Oct.

Part  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  defeated  at  Arthenay,
near  Orleans,  by  Bavarians  under  Von  der  Tann  ;
about  2,000  prisoners  taken . . .10  Oct.

Prussian  attack  on  Cherizy  repulsed . 10  Oct.

French  reply  to  Bismarck's  circular  on  the  negotia-
tions 10  Oct.

About  20  villages  burnt,  and  150  peasants  shot  for
illicit  warfare . . .  up  to  n  Oct.

The  French  fleet  appears  off  Heligoland  . ri  Oct.

3,000  national  guard  mobilised  at  Rouen .  11  Oct.

Three  first  shots  tired  against  Paris. . 11  Oct.

Orleans  captured  by  gen.  Von  der  Tann  after  nine
hours'  fighting ;  the  army  of  the  Loire  defeated
retires  behind  the  Loire . . . .11  Oct.

Stenay  captured  by  a  sortie  from  the  French  garri-
son of  Montmedy  11  Oct.

Gen.  Bourbaki  accepts  the  command  at  Tours;
gen.  La  Motte  Rouge  superseded  in  the  command


1870


FEANCO-PEUSSIAN  WAE.


413


FEANCO-PEITSSIAN  WAE.


of  the  army  of  the  Loire  by  gen.  D'Aurelle  de
Paladines 12  Oct.

Battalions  of  Amazons  said  to  be  forming  in  Paris,

12  Oct.

Favourable  intelligence  from  Paris  by  balloons  re-
ceived . . . . . . .12  Oct.

Garibaldi  appointed  commander  of  the  French
irregulars 12  Oct.

Epinal  captured  by  the  Germans . . 12  Oct.

M.  Aries  Dufour  of  Lyons  appeals  to  the  people  of
Great  Britain  for  active  sympathy  in  endeavouring
to  obtain  peace 12  Oct.

Breteuil  occupied  by  the  Germans  after  a  sharp
resistance 12  Oct.

Slight  engagements  (termed  victories  by  the  French)
before  Paris 13  Oct.

All  the  Vosges  district  in  arms  ;  no  regular  army  ;
the  defiles  occupied  by  the  francs-tireurs,  13  Oct.

Reported  successfu  i  sorties ;  Neu  Breisach  com-
pletely invested 13  Oct.

Reported  French  success  at  Bagneux,  near  Paris —
the  Prussians  surprised . . . -13  Oct.

St. Cloud fired on  by  the  French and burnt,

13,  14  Oct.

Frequent  sorties  from  Metz  . about  14  Oct.

Sharp  fight  at  Ecouis  ;  the  French  escape  from
being  surrounded 14  Oct.

Gambetta  announces  that  the  Germans  are  dis-
lodged from  their  innermost  belt  round  Paris,

14  Oct.

M.  Thiers  arrives  at  Florence  ;  Garibaldi  at  Besan-
qou 14  Oct.

Gen.  Boyer,  aide-de-camp  to  marshal  Bazaine,  ar-
rives at  Versailles  and  meets count  Bismarck,

14  Oct.

Gen.  Trochu's  letter  to  the  mayors  of  Paris,  on  re-
organising the  national  guard  and  repressing  the
ardent  desire  for  immediate  action . 15  Oct.

Soissons  surrenders  after  three  weeks'  investment
and  four  days'  bombardment . . .16  Oct.

French  successes  before  Paris  denied  by  the  Prus-
sians, who  hold  the  same  position  as  on  19  Sept.,

16  Oct,

M.  Gambetta  proceeds  to  the  army  of  the  Vosges  ;
gen.  Bourbaki  appointed  commander  of  the  army
of  the  north  ;  gen.  Maziere  appointed  to  a  com-
mand in  the  army  of  the  Loire . . 17  Oct.

Montdidier  attacked  by  the  Germans  :  150  mobile
guards  captured 17  Oct.

The  emperor  Napoleon  declares  that  "  there  can  be
no  prospect  of  peace,  near  or  remote,  on  the  basis
of  ceding  to  Prussia  a  single  foot  of  French
territory ;  and  no  government  in  France  can
attach  its  signature  to  such  a  treaty  and  remain
in  power  a  single  day  " .... 17  Oct.

4,000  French  attacked  and  defeated  near  Chateaudun
after  ten  hours'  fighting  and  the  barricaded  town
stormed 18  Oct.

Circular  of  Jules  Favre,  asserting  that  Prussia
"  coldly  and  systematically  pursues  her  task  of
annihilating  us.  France  has  now  no  illusions
left.  For  her  it  is  now  a  question  of  existence.
.  .  .  We  prefer  our  present  sufferings,  our  perils,
and  our  sacrifices  to  the  consequences  of  the
inflexible  and  cruel  ambition  of  our  enemy.
France  needed,  perhaps,  to  pass  through  a
supreme  trial — she  will  issue  from  it  transfigured,"

18  Oct.

Asserted  repulse  of  the  Germans  at  Fort  Issy  before
Paris 18  Oct.

Despatch  from  earl  Granville  to  count  Bismarck
urging  the  negotiations  for  peace  on  terms  lenient
to  the  French 20  Oct.

Conclusive  reply  of  earl  Granville  to  count  Bern-
storff's  charge  of  breach  of  neutrality .  21  Oct.

Vigorous  sortie  from  Mont  Valerien  against  Ver-
sailles ;  an  engagement  at  Malmaison  ;  the  French
retire  after  three  hours'  fighting,  losing  about
400  killed  and  wounded  and  100  prisoners  ;  Ger-
man loss  about  230  killed  and  wounded,  21  Oct.

Chartres  occupied  by  the  Germans  under  Wittich,

21  Oct.

Intervention  of  the  British  government  (supported
by  the  neutral  powers)  to  obtain  an  armistice  for
the  election  of  a  national  assembly . 21  Oct.

Vesoul  occupied  by  the  Germans  . .  21  Oct.

Many  deserters  from  Metz  .  20—22  Oct.

Schelestadt  bombarded  vigorously .  22  Oct.


1870


Engagement  near  Evreux  ....  22  Oct.
Fighting  at  Vouray,  Cussey,  &c. ,  in  the  Vosges  ;

French  "  army  of  the  east "  defeated  22  Oct.

German  attack  on  Chatillon  le  Due  repulsed  by  gen.

Cambriels 22  Oct.

M.  de  Keratry  assumes  command  of  the  army  in

Brittany 23  Oct.

St.  Quentin  taken  by  the  Germans  after  half-an-

hour's  cannonading,  21  Oct.  ;  evacuated  by  them,

23  Oct.
Reported  failure  of  the  suggestions  concerning  an

armistfee, through Prussia demanding that
France  should  consent  to  a  cession  of  territory,

24  Oct.
Gambetta  informs  the  mayors  of  towns  that  "re-
sistance is  more  than  ever  the  order  of  the  day,"

24  Oct.

Reported  negotiations  for  the  surrender  of  Metz,

24  Oct.

Thiers  undertakes  the  mission  to  obtain  an  armistice,

about  24  Oct.

Capitulation  of  Schelestadt  (2,400  prisoners  and  120
guns  taken) 24  Oct.

A  girl  calling  herself  a  successor  of  Jeanne  d'Arc  at
Tours 24  Oct.

Marshal  Bazaine  surrenders  Metz  and  his  army,
"  conquered  by  famine  "  (see  Metz  and  France,
Oct.-Dec.  1873) 27  Oct.

The  French  defeated  near  Gray  (Haute  Saone)  by
Von  Werder 27  Oct.

About  2000  sick  and  wounded  of  both  nations  in
Versailles 27  Oct.

Le  Bourget,  near  Paris,  recaptured  by  the  French,

28  Oct.

A.  safe-conduct  given  to  M.  Thiers  to  enter  Paris  for
negotiation 28  Oct.

Despatch  from  count  Bismarck  to  earl  Granville,
expressing  desire  for  the  meeting  of  a  French
national  assembly  to  consider  terms  of  peace  ;  but
statingthat  overtures  must  come  from  the  French,

28  Oct.

Badenese  troops  defeated  near  Besangon  ;  Prussian
attack  on  Formerie  on  the  Oise  repulsed 28  Oct,

Gen.  Von  Moltke  created  a  count  on  his  70th  birth-
day 28  Oct.

Vigorous  proclamation  of  Bourbaki  to  the  French
army  of  the  north 29  Oct.

The  crown  prince  and  prince  Frederick  Charles
created  field-marshals  .... 29  Oct.

Dijon  captured  after  bombardment . . 29  Oct.

The  francs-tireurs  defeated  by  the  Wurtembergers
between  Montereau  and  Nangis  . . 29  Oct.

Estimated  :  856,000  Germans  in  France ;  French
prisoners  in  Germany,  223,000 . . 29  Oct.

Le  Bourget  retaken  by  the  Germans ;  heavy  losses
on  both  sides ; about 1200 French prisoners,

30  Oct.

Proclamation  of  Gambetta,  accusing  Bazaine  of
treason  ;  the  war  to  go  on  . . .  30  Oct.

M.  Thiers  enters  Paris . . . .30  Oct.

Garibaldi  defending  Dole  (Jura)  with  about  7500
men 31  Oct.

M.  Thiers  receives  powers  from  the  French  defence
government  to  treat  for  an  armistice,  and  has  in-
terviews with  count  Bismarck,  31  Oct.  and  1  Nov.

Gen.  Bourbaki  attempting  to  form  an  army  of  the
north,  near  Lille .... Oct. — Nov.

Thionville  invested 1  Nov.

The  francs-tireurs  dispersed  in  several  slight  en-
gagements between  Colmar  and  Belfort,  2,  3  Nov.

Letter  from  marshal  Bazaine  repelling  the  charge
of  treason 2  Nov.

Count  Bismarck  offers  an  armistice  of  25  days
for  the  election  of  a  French  national  assembly,

3  Nov.

Defeat  of  an  attempted  revolution  in  Paris  :  see
France 3  Nov.

M.  Favre  declares  to  the  national  guard  that  the
government  has  sworn  not  to  yield  an  inch  of
territory,  and  will  remain  faithful  to  this  engage-
ment 3  Nov.

Proclamation  of  Garibaldi  to  the  army  of  the
Vosges, and  appealing  to  other  nations,

about  3  Nov.

"  Campanile  de  1S70 ;  par  tin,  Offider  attache1  a
Vital  major-general"  (a  pamphlet  ascribed  to
the  emperor),  appears in the  Daily  Telegraph,

Nov.


1S70


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


414


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR.


Failure  of  the  negotiation,  as  count  Bismarck  will
not  permit  food  to  enter  Paris  during  the  armis-
tice without  any  military  equivalent ;  M.  Thiers
ordered  to  break  off  negotiation . . 6  Nov.  1870

Chateaudun  recaptured  by  the  French .  6  Nov. „

The  Prussian  semi-official  journal  says,  "  The
French  government  having  refused  to  listen  to
reason  the  cannon  will  be  resorted  to  for  giving
them  a  lesson" 7  Nov. „

Bombardment  of  Thionville . . . 7  Nov. „

Circulars  on  the  armistice  negotiations— of  M.
Favre,  7  Nov.  ;  of  Count  Bismarck .  8  Nov. „

The  king's  permission  for  the  election  of  a  French
national  assembly  declined  by  the  French  govern-
ment 7  Nov. »

Orders  that  no  one  shall  enter  or  quit  Paris,  7  Nov. ,,

A  Prussian  column  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  the
army  of  the  Loire  at  Marchenoir  . 7  Nov. ,,

Capitulation  of  Verdun .... 8  Nov. ,,

Seven  persons,  captured  in  balloons  from  Paris,  sent
to  German  fortresses  to  be  tried  by  court  martial,

8  Nov. „

The  French  fleet  off  Heligoland . . 8  Nov. „

German  corps,  under  Manteuffel,  advancing  on
Amiens  and  Rouen 8  Nov. ,,

Firm  circular  from  M.  Favre  to  French  diplomatic
representatives,  about  .... 8  Nov. ,,

The  Germans  enter  Montbeliard  (Doubs) 9  Nov. „

The  Germans,  under  gen.  Von  der  Tann,  defeated
between  Cculmiers  and  Baccon,  near  Orieans,
retire  to  Thoury  .  • •  9 Nov. »»

M.  Thiers'  report  of  the  unsuccessful  negotiations
for  an  armistice .... dated  9  Nov. „

Reported  naval  victory  of  the  Prussian  steamer
Meteor  over  the  French  steamer  Bouvet  off
Havannah ......  9 Nov. ..

Continued  fighting;  Orleans  retaken  by  general
D'Aurelle  de  Paladines :  French  losses,  2000;
Germans  about  700,  and  2000  prisoners 10  Nov. „

Capitulation  of  Neu  Breisach,  5000  prisoners  and
100  guns  taken 10  Nov. ,,

The  French  repulsed  near  Montbeliard  on  the  Swiss
frontier ■ • ™  Nov. „

Von  der  Tann's  army  reinforced  by  30,000,  now
70,000,  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  com-
mander; the  Loire  army  about  150,000,  but  only
12,000  regulars •  *2  Nov. „

Bankers  at  Berlin  and  Frankfort  arrested  for  deal-
ing in  French  war  loan  . . .  about  12  Nov. ,,

Dole, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans,

13  Nov. „

Calm,  truthful  proclamation  of  gen.  Trochu,  at
Paris ■  J4  Nov. ,,

The  armies  in  central  France  have  been  placed
under  prince  Frederick  Charles  and  the  grand
duke  of  Mecklenburg .... 14  Nov. ,,

Eleven  French  towns,  3653  guns,  155  mitrailleuses,
nearly  500,000  chass'epots,  about  90  eagles  and
standards,  and  nearly  4,000,000?.  in  money,  taken
by  the  Germans . . . .  up  to  14  Nov. ,,

Montmedy  completely  invested . . 15  Nov. „

French  sorties  from  Mezieres  repulsed,  15  Nov.  ;
from  Belfort  repulsed  . . • 16  Nov. „

The  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  repulses  the  army
of  the  Loire  near  Dreux,  which  is  captured  by
Von  Treskow 17  Nov. »>

Successful  French  sortie  from  Mezieres,  500  Ger-
mans said  to  be  killed ... 17  Nov. „

Germans  victorious  in  an  engagement  near  Cha-
teaudun ;  French  claim  the  success  18  Nov. „

Ricciotti  Garibaldi  said  to  have  beaten  700  or  800
men  at  Chatillon 19  Nov. >•

The  national  guard  at  Evreux  repulse  a  German
attack 19  Nov. „

The  German  army  under  prince  Frederick  Charles
and  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  (135,000)
said  to  be  retreating  towards  Paris . 19  Nov. „

Paris  engirdled  with  a  second  line  of  investment,

20  Nov.  ,,
French  attempt  to  release  La  Fere  repulsed  with

heavy  loss 20  Nov. ,,

Several  balloons  from  Paris  captured  about  20  Nov. „
French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles,

21  Nov.  ,,
Bombardment  of  Thionville  begun  .  .  22  Nov.  „
Ham  occupied  by  the  Prussians  .  .  .22  Nov.  „
Prince  Frederick  Charles  takes  up  a  position  near

Orleans 24  Nov. „


Thionville,  in  flames,  cajiitulates,  with  about  2000
prisoners 24  Nov.  16

The  Germans  repulsed  near  Amiens  and  nearStagil,

24  Nov. ,
La  Fere  surrenders,  after  two  clays'  bombardment,
with  about  70  guns  and  2000  men .  27  Nov. .

The  Garibaldians  defeated  near  Pasques  (Cote  d'Or)
by  Von  Werder 27  Nov. ,

The  French  army  of  the  north  defeated  by  Man-
teuffel between  Villers  Bretonneux  and  Soleur,
near  Amiens 27  Nov. ,

Amiens  occupied  by  Von  Goeben  after  a  severe  en-
gagement 28  Nov. ,

Severe  engagement  near  Beaune  la  Rolande  (Loiret)
between  part  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  under
D'Aurelle  de  Paladines  and  the  Germans  under
Voigts  Rhetz  ;  prince  Frederick  Charles  ar-
rives and  turns  the  day ;  the  French  retire ;
heavy  loss  on  both  sides  . . . .28  Nov.

M.  de  Keratry  resigns  his  command,  accusing  M.
Gambetta  of  misconduct,  28  Nov.  ;  Bourbaki  ap-
pointed to  command  an  army  corps . 29  Nov.

Fruitless  endeavours  of  the  army  ii.  Paris  and  the
army  of  the  Loire  to  unite . 29  Nov. — 4  Dec.

Sorties  from  various  parts  of  Paris  repulsed  with
loss 29  Nov. j

Great  sortie  of  120,000,  under  generals  Trochu  and
Ducrot,  who  cross  the  Marne ;  severest  conflict
between  Champigny-sur-Marne,  Brie-sur-Marne,
and  Villiers-sur-Marne ;  the  French  retain  the
taken  possessions,  but  their  advance  is  checked ;
great  loss  on  both  sides  (chiefly  Saxons  and  Wtir-
tembergers  engaged) . . . . 30  Nov.

The  contest  resumed  at  Avron ;  the  Germans  retake
Champigny  and  Brie ;  the  French  retreat 2  Lee.

The  army  of  the  Loire :  Chanzy  defeated  by  the
grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  at  Bazoche  des
Hautes,  2  Dec.  ;  near  Chevilly  (the  French  report
these  engagements  indecisive) . . .3  Dec.

Prince  Frederick  Charles  dislodges  an  encampment
in  the  forest  of  Orleans. . . . 3  Dec.

Ducrot  bivouacks  in  the  woods  of  Vincennes,
3  Dec. ;  he  issues  a  final  order  of  the  day,  re-
ferring to  two  days'  glorious  battles . 4  Dec.

General  D'Aurelle  de  Paladines  entrenched  before
Orleans ;  proposes  to  retreat ;  the  government
opposes  him,  but  yields  ;  he  determines  to  await
the  attack ;  part  of  his  army  defeated  by  prince
Frederick  Charles,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Meck-
lenburg ;  he  retreats  with  about  100,000  men ;
Orleans  threatened  with  bombardment;  surrenders
at  midnight 4  Dec.

The  Germans  said  to  be  in  pursuit  of  D'Aurelle  de
Paladines  (superseded)  .... 5  Dec.

10,000  prisoners,  77  guns,  and  4  gun-boats  cap-
tured at  Orleans 5  Dec.

Rouen  occupied  by  Manteuffel . .  6  Dec.

General  order  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  "  We  enter
on  a  new  phase  of  the  war  .  .  .  Every  attempt  to
break  through  the  investment  or  relieve  Paris  has
failed" 6  Dec.

The  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  attacks  gen.
Chanzy  and  the  army  of  the  Loire  near  Beau-
gency ;  indecisive,  7  Dee.  ;  the  Germans  victo-
rious, taking  about  1 100  prisoners  and  six  guns,
and  occupying  Beaugency  (severe  loss  to  Germans),

8  Dec.
Gen.  Manteuffel's  army  in  two  parts,  one  occupies

Evreux,  and  inarching  to  Cherbourg;  the  other
marching  to  Havre ....  8  Dec.

Continued  severe  engagements  between  the  Ger-
mans and  the  army  of  the  Loire ;  the  defeated
French  retreat  (7  battles  in  9  days) 9,  10  Dec.

Vigorous  siege  of Belfort ; obstinately  defended,

9  Dec.
Pamphlet  (attributed to  the  emperor  Napoleon)

published  under  the  name  of  his  friend,  the  mar-
quis de  Gricourt,  throwing  the  blame  of  the  war
upon  the  French  nation . . early  in  Dec.

Fighting  along  the  whole  line  of  the  army  of  the
Loire,  under  general  Chanzy  and  others ;  it  re-
treats, but  obstinately  resists . 5 — 10  Dee.

Brilliant  action  by  De  Chanzy  . . . 11  Dec.

The  delegate  government  transferred  from  Tours  to
Bordeaux ;  Gambetta  remains  with  the  army  of
the  Loire ...  ,11  Dee.

Dieppe  occupied  by  the  Germans . 12  Dec.


FEANCO-PEUSSIAN  WAE.


41-5


FEANKFOET.


La  Fere  threatened  by  Faidherbe,  commander  of

the  army  of  the  north . . .  12  Dec.  1870

Phalsburg  surrenders, subdued  by  famine  ; com-
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy,

12  Dec. „
Evreux  and  Blois  occupied  by  the  Germans,  13  Dec. ,,
Montmedy  surrenders .... 14  Dec. „

Sharp  engagement  at  Freteval ;  which  is  taken  and

abandoned  by  the  Germans . .  14  Dec. „

Nuits  near  Dijon  captured  by  the  Badenese  under

Von  Werder,  after  a  severe  conflict . 18  Dec. ,
The  French  government  issue  a  circular  against  the
propagation  of  false  news  . . . .20  Dec. ,

Conflict  at  Monnaie : about  6000  French  gardes

mobiles  driven  back  to  Tours . . 20  Dec. ,
Vigorous  sortie  from  Paris  repulsed — an  artillery
action . .  .... 21  Dec. ,

Tours  partially  shelled ;  submits,  but  not  occupied

by  Germans 21  Dec. ,

Chanzy  and  part  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  said  to  have
reached  Le  Mans  and  joined  the  Bretons,  about

21  Dec. ,
Seven  hours'  battle  at  Pont  a  Noyelles  between
Manteuffel  and  the  army  of  the  north  under  Faid-
herbe : both  claim  the  victory ; Faidherbe  re-
treats 23  Dec. ,

Six  English  colliers,  said  to  have  had  Prussian  per-
mits, after  delivering  coal  at  Rouen,  are  sunk  in
the  Seine  at  Duclair  near  Havre  by  the  Prussians
• for  strategic  reasons ...  21  Dec. ,

Explanation  given  by  Bismarck  and  compensation
promised  . .  .... 26  Dec. ,

hanzy,  in  a  letter  to  the  German  commandant  at
Vendome,  accuses  the  Germans  of  cruelly  pillag-
ing St.  Calais,  and,  denying  his  defeat,  says,  "  We
have  foughtyou  and  held  youin  check  since  4  Dec."

26  Dec.  ,
Trochu  said  to  be  making  Mont  Valerien  a  vast

citadel 27  Dec. ,

Mont  Avron,  an  outlying  fort  near  Paris,  after  a
day's  bombardment,  abandoned  and  occupied  by

the  Germans 29  Dec. ,

Alleged  defeat  of  the  Germans  by  detachment  of

Chanzy's  army  near  M'ontoire . .  27  Dec. ,

Several  small  engagements  in  Normandy — reported

successful  to  the  French . . 28 — 31  Dec. ,
Capitulation  of  Mezieres  with  2000  men  and  106

guns 1,2  Jan.  18

Severe  battles  near  Bapaume  between  the  army  of
the  North  under  Faidherbe  and  the  Germans  under
Manteuffel  and  Von  Gceben ;  victory  claimed  by
both,  the  French  retreat  .  .  .  2,  3  Jan.  ,
Indecisive  conflict  near  Dijon  le  Mans  :  between
general  Chanzy  and prince Frederick  Charles,

6  Jan. ,
Daujoutin ,  S.  of  Belfort,  stormed  by  Germans,  6  Jan. ,
Bombardment  of  eastern  front  of  Paris,  and  of  the
southern  forts,  4  Jan.  ;  forts  of  Issy  and  Vanvres

silenced 6  Jan. ,

Fortress  of  Rocroy  taken  by  the  Germans,  5,  6  Jan. ,
General  Roy  defeated  near  Jumieges .  7  Jan. ,

Von  Gceben  in  the  north,  Manteuffel  sent  to  the  east

about  7  Jan. ,
Conflicts  (in  the  east)  between  Von  Werder  and

Bourbaki  at  Villarais,  south  of  Vesoul 9,  10  Jan. ,
Bombardment  of  Paris, many  buildings injured,
and  people  killed  :  the  French  government  appeal
to  foreign  powers . . . . g,  10  Jan. ,
Capitulation  of  Peronne  with  garrison . 9  Jan. ,
Chanzy  retreating  ;  defeated  near  Le  Mans  by  prince
Frederick  Charles  and  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklen-
burg 11  Jan. ,

Prince  Frederick  Charles  enters  Le  Mans  ;  after  6
days'  fighting,  (about  20,000  French  prisoners
made  ;  German  loss  about  3400)  . 12  Jan. ,

Vigorous  sorties  from  Paris  repulsed . 13  Jan. ,
Chanzy  retreating,  14  Jan.  ;  defeated  near  Vosges,

15,  16  Jan. ,
Indecisive conflicts between  Bourbaki  and Von

Werder,  near  Belfort ...  15,  16  Jan. ,

St.  Quentin  recaptured  by  Isnard  under  Faidherbe,

16  Jan.  ,
Bourbaki  defeated  near  Belfort  after  three  days'

fighting,  15 — 17  Jan.  ;  retreats  south  18  Jan. ,

The  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  enters  Aleneon,

17  Jan.  ,
Bombardment  of  Longwy  begun  .  .  17  Jan.  ,
Faidherbe  defeated  near  St.  Quentin  ;  after  seven


hours'  fighting ;  by  Von  Gceben,  4000  prisoners
taken 19  Jan.  187X

Great  sortie  from  Paris  of  Trochu  and  100,000  men
repulsed  with  loss  of  about  1000  dead  and  50C0
wounded . ... . . .19  Jan.

Bourbaki  hard  pressed  by  Von  Werder  19  Jan.' '*

Armistice  for  two  days  at  Paris  refused  22  Jan. ,,

Bombardment  of  St  Denis  and  Cambrai  22  Jan. „

Faidherbe  asserts  that  the  German  successes  are
exaggerated 22  Jan. ,,

Resignation  of  Trochu ; Vinoy,  governor  of  Paris,

23,  24  Jan. ,,.

Favre  opens  negotiations  with  Bismarck 24  Jan. „.

Longwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns,

25  Jan. ,y.

Letter  from  M.  Guizot  to  Mr.  Gladstone  proposing
the  demolition  of  fortresses  on  both  sides  of  the
Rhine  ;  and  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of
power  by  congresses  ;  published  . 26  Jan. ,r

Capitulation  of  Paris  ;  armistice  for  21  days  signed
by  count  Bismarck  and  Jules  Favre  28  Jan. ,,.

The  forts  round  Paris  occupied  by  the  Germans,

29  Jan. >y.
Advance  of  German  troops  into  France  suspended,

30  Jan. ,,.
Bourbaki and  his army,  about  80,000,  driven  by

Manteuffel  into  Switzerland  near  Pontarlier,  about
6000  having  been  captured . 30  Jan.  ,1  Feb. ,,.
French  loss  about  350,000  men,  800  guns  up  to  Jan. ,,
Dijon  occupied  by  the  Germans  .  1  Feb. t>

Belfort  capitulates  with  military  honours 13  Feb.
Negotiations  for  peace  between  Thiers  and  Bismarck

22 — 24  Feb.  ,j.
Preliminaries  of  a  treaty  accepted  by  Thiers,  Favre,
and  15  delegates  from  the  national  assembly  ;  it
includes  cession  of  parts  of  Lorraine,  including
Metz  and  ThionviHe  and  Alsace  less  Belfort  ;  and
payment  of  5  milliards  of  francs,  200,000,000?. ,
25  Feb. ,  signed  26  Feb. ,  accepted  by  the  national

assembly z  March, „

German  loss  in  battles  throughout  the  war  ;  killed

or  died soon after, 17,570 ; died  of wounds

eventually 10,707; total killed and wounded

127,867.

German  troops  enter  Paris  and  remain  48  hours,

'  ,  i — 3  March, ,,.

They  quit  Versailles . . . .12  March,
Conference  for  peace  open  at  Brussels, 28  March j*
Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Frankfort,  10  May  ;  ratified
by  the  French  national  assembly  . 18  May,

FEANCS-TIEEUES,  free  shooters,  took  an
active  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  from  about
14  Aug.  1870;  and  more  especially  after  the  sur-
render of  MacMahon's  army  at  "Sedan,  2  Sept.
Their  conduct  was  much  censured.

FEANKENHAUSEN,  N.  Germany:  near
this  place  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  his  allies-
defeated  the  insurgent  peasantry  headed  by  Munzer
the  anabaptist,  15  May,  1525.

FEANKFOET-ON-THE-MAINE,  central  Ger-
many, founded  in  the  5th  century;  was  the  resi-
dence of  Charlemagne  in  794  ;  walled  by  Louis  I.
838;  a  capital  city,  843;  an  imperial  city,  1245.
Population  in  1885,  154,513;  in  1S90,  179,550;  see-
Germain/.

Union  of  Frankfort :  treaty  between  France,  Sweden,
Prussia,  and  other  German  states  led  to  war  with
Austria •■.... 22  May 174A

Frankfort  captured  by  the  French  by  a  surprise,'

_, . ,.  , _■ ,,  2  Jan. 175Q.

Captured  by  Custme,  28  Oct.  ;  retaken  by  the
Prussians 2  Dec I7g2

Bombarded  by  the  French;  surrendered  to  Kleber,

16  July,  1796-

Made  part  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine . 1806

A  grand  duchy  under  Carl  von  Dalberg . . i8io.

Republic  restored;  appointed  capital  of  the  Ger-
manic confederation j3ic-

Vain  attempts  at  insurrection  by  students,  April,
1833 May,  1834:

The  Frankfort  diet  publish  a  federative  constitution,

30  March,  1848


FKANKFOET.


416


FEANKLIN.


The  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Bavaria,  Saxony,
Hanover,  Wiirtemberg,  Mecklenburg,  &c,  here
constitute  themselves  the  council  of  the  Germanic
diet i  Sept.  1850

The  German  sovereigns  (excepting  the  king  of
Prussia)  met  at  Frankfort  (at  the  invitation  of
the  emperor  of  Austria),  to  consider  a  plan  of
federal  reform,  17  Aug.  ;  the  plan  was  not
accepted  by  Prussia .... 22  Sept.  1863

Meeting  of  diet  of  Germanic  confederation;  con-
demn the  treaty  of  Gastein  . . 1  Oct. 1865

The  diet  adopts  the  Austrian  motion,  that  Prussia
has  broken  the  treaty  ;  the  Prussian  representative
declares  the  confederation  at  an  end,  and  proposes
a  new  confederation .... 14  June,  1866

Entered  by  the  Prussians,  who  exact  heavy  supplies,

•  16  July, ,,

Annexed  to  Prussia  by  law  of  20  Sept.  ;  promulgated
at  Frankfort ;  (the  legislative  corps  and  15,000
citizens  protest  against  it) . . . 8  Oct. „

Visited  by  the  king  of  Prussia ;  an  ancient  cathedral,
•St.  Bartholomew  (founded  1315,  completed  1512),
destroyed  by  fire . . . . 14.  is  Au8- l867

Frankfort  supported  Prussia  in  the  war  July,  1870

Treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  Germany,  signed
here 10  May,  1871

Eiots  through  rise  in  price  of  beer  ;  suppressed
by  N.  German  soldiers  :  37  of  the  people  killed  ;
about  100  wounded . . . 21,  22  April,  1873

International Electro-Technical  congress opened

8  Sept.  et  seq.,  1891

FEANKFOET -ON -THE -ODER  (N.  Ger-
many) ;  a  member  of  the  Hanseatie  league  ;  suffered
much  from  marauders  in  the  middle  ages,  and  in
the  thirty  years'  war.  The  university  was  founded
in  1506,  and  incorporated  with  that  of  Breslau  in
181 1.  Near  Frankfort,  12  Aug.  1759,  Frederick  of
Prussia  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians
see  Cunnersdorf. Population,  1890,  55,724.

FEANKING  LETTEES,  passing  letters  free
of  postage,  was  claimed  by  parliament  about  1660.
The  privilege  was  restricted  in  1839,  and  abolished
after  the  introduction  of  the  uniform  penny  postage,
10  Jan.  1840.  The  queen  was  amongst  the  first
to  relinquish  her  privilege.

FEANKLIN,  the  English  freeholder  in  the
middle  ages;  see  "the  Franklin's  Tale,"  in
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  (written  about  1364).

FEANKLIN,  Search  for.  Sir  John  Frank-
lin, with  captains  Cfozier  and  Fitzjames,  in  H.  M.
ships  Erebus  and  Terror  (carrying  in  all  138
persons),  sailed  on  his  third  arctic  expedition  of
discovery  and  survey,  from  Greenhithe,  on  24  May,
J  845;  see  North-west  Passage.  Their  last  des-
patches were  from  the  Whaletish  islands,  dated  12
July,  1845.  Their  protracted  absence  caused  intense
anxiety,  and  several  expeditions  were  sent  from
England  and  elsewhere  in  search  of  them,  and
coals,  provisions,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries,
were  deposited  in  various  places  in  the  Arctic  seas
by  our  own  and  by  the  American  government,  by
lady  Franklin,  and  numerous  private  persons.  The
Truelove,  captain  Parker,  which  arrived  at  Hull,
4  Oct.  1849,  from  Davis's  Straits,  brought  intelli-
gence (not  afterwards  confirmed)  that  the  natives
had  seen  sir  John  Franklin's  ships  in  the  previous
March,  frozen  up  by  the  ice  in  Prince  Regent's
inlet.  Other  accounts  were  equally  illusory.  Her
majesty's  government,  on  7  March,  1850,  offered  a
reward  of  20,000^.  to  any  party  of  any  country,  that
should  render  efficient  assistance  to  the  crews  of  the
missing  ships.  Sir  John's  first  winter  quarters  were
found  at  Beechy  island  by  captains  Ommanney  and
Penny.

1.  H.M.S.  Plover,  capt.  Moore  (afterwards  under
capt.  Maguire),  sailed  from  Sheerness  to  Behring's
.Straits,  in  search  . . . . 1  Jan. 1848


2.  Land  expedition  under  sir  John  Richardson  and
Dr.  Rae,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  left
England 25  March,  1848

LSir  John  Richardson  returned  to  England  in
1849,  and  Dr.  Rae  continued  his  search  till  1851.]

3.  Sir  James  Boss,  with  the  Enterprise  and  Investi-
gator (12  June,  1848),  having  also  sailed  in  search
to  Barrow's  Straits,  returned  to  England  (Scar-
borough) 3  Nov.  1849

4.  The  Enterprise,  capt.  Collinson,  and  Investigator,
commander  M'Clure,  sailed  from  Plymouth  for
Behring's  Straits  .... 20  Jan.  1850

[Both  ships  proceeded  through  to  the  eastward.]

5.  Capt.  Austin's  expedition,  viz.  :  Resolute,  capt.
Austin,  C.B.  ;  Assistance,  capt.  Ommanney;
Intrepid,  lieut.  Bertie  Cator ;  and  Pioneer,  lieut.
Sherard  Osborn,  sailed  from  England  for  Barrow's
Straits  25  April, ,,

[Returned  Sept.  1851.]

6.  The  Lady  Franklin,  capt.  Penny  ;  and  Sophia,
capt.  Stewart,  sailed  from  Aberdeen  for  Barrow's
Straits 13  April, „

[Returned  home  Sept.  1851.]

7.  The  American  expedition  in  the  Advance  and
Rescue,  under  lieut.  De  Haven  and  Dr.  Kane  (son
of  the  judge),  towards  which  Mr.  Grinned  sub-
scribed 30,000  dollars,  sailed  for  Lancaster  Sound
and  Barrow's  Straits  ;  after  drifting  in  the  pack
down  Baffin's  Bay,  the  ships  were  released  in
1851  uninjured 25  May, ,,

8.  The  Felix,  sir  John  Ross,  fitted  out  chiefly  by  the
Hudson  Bay  Company,  sailed  to  the  same  locality,

22  May, ,,
[Returned  in  1851.]

9.  H.M.S.  North  Star,  commander  Saunders,  which
had  sailed  from  England  in  1849,  wintered  in
Wolstenholme  Sound,  and  returned  to  Spithead,

28  Sept. ,,

10.  H.M-S.  Herald,  captain  Kellett,  C.B.,  which
had  sailed  in  1848,  made  three  voyages  to
Behring's  Straits,  and  returned  in  . .  1851

Lieut  Pirn  went  to  St.  Petersburg  with  the  intention

of  travelling  through  Siberia  to  the  mouth  of  the

river  Kolyma ;  but  was  dissuaded  from  proceeding

by  the  Russian  government . . 18  Nov. „

[The  Enterprise  and  Investigator  (see  No.  4  above)

not  having  been  heard  of  for  two  years.]

11.  Sir  Edward  Belcher's  expedition,  consisting  of
— Assistance,  sir  Edward  Belcher,  C.B.  ;  Resolute,
captain  Kellett,  C.B.  ;  North  Star,  capt.  Pullen ;
Intrepid,  capt.  M'Clintock;  and  Pioneer,  capt.
Sherard  Osborn,  sailed  from  Woolwich 15  April,  1852

[This  expedition  arrived  at  Beechy  Island  14
Aug.  1852.  The  Assistance  and  Pioneer  pro-
ceeded through  Wellington  Channel,  and  the
Resolute  and  Intrepid  to  Melville  Island  ;  the
North  Star  remaining  at  Beechy  Island.]

LADY  FRANKLIN'S  EQUIPMENTS.

Lady  Franklin,  aided  by  a  few  friends  (and  by  the
"Tasmanian  Tribute"  of  1500?.),  equipped  four
expeditions  (Nos.  12,  13,  14,  16).

12.  Prince  Albert,  capt.  Forsyth,  sailed  from  Aber-
deen to  Barrow  Straits . . . 5  June,  1850

[Returned  1  Oct.  1850.]

13.  The  Prince  Albert,  Mr.  Kennedy,  accompanied
by  lieut.  Bellot,  of  the  French  navy,  and  John
Hepburn,  sailed  from  Stromness  to  Prince
Regent's  Inlet 4  June,  1851

[Returned  Oct.  1852.]

14.  The  Isabel,  commander  Inglefield,  sailed  for  the
head  of  Baffin's  Bay,  Jones's  Sound,  and  the
Wellington  Channel,  6  July  ;  and  returned Nov.  1852

15.  Mr.  Kennedy  sailed  again  in  the  Isabel,  on  a
renewed  search  to  Behring's  Straits . .  1853

16.  H.M.S.  Rattlesnake,  commander  Trollope,  des-
patched to  assist  the  Plover,  capt.  Maguire  (who
succeeded  capt.  Moore),  at  Point  Barrow  in  April ;
met  with  it Aug. ,,

17.  The  second  American  expedition,  the  Advance,
under  Dr.  Kane .... early  in  June, „

18.  The  Pha'nix  (with  the  Breadalbane  transport),
commander  Inglefield,  accompanied  by  lieut.
Bellot,  sailed  in  May  ;  he  returned,  bringing  des-
patches from  Sir  E.  Belcher,  <fec. . . Oct. ,,

The  Investigator  and  sir  E.  Belcher's  squadron
were  safe  ;  but  no  traces  of  Franklin's  party  had


FRANKLIN.


417


FREDERICKSBURG.


been  met  with.  Lieut.  Bellot  was  unfortunately
drowned  in  August  while  voluntarily  conveying
despatches  for  sir  E.  Belcher.  Capt.  M'Clure  had
left  the  Herald  (10)  at  Cape  Lisburne,  31  July,
1850.  On  8  Oct.  the  ship  was  frozen  in,  and  so
continued  for  nine  months.  On  26  Oct.  1850,
while  on  an  excursion  party,  the  captain  dis-
covered an  entrance  into  Barrow's  Straits,  and
thus  established  the  existence  of  a  N.E.  — N.W.
passage.  In  Sept.  1851,  the  ship  was  again  fixed
in  ice,  and  so  remained  till  lieut.  Pirn  and  a  party
from  capt.  Kellett's  ship,  the  Resolute  (11),  fell  in
with  them  in  April,  1853.  Tne  position  of  the
Enterprise  (4)  was  still  unknown.

A  monument  to  Bellot's  memory  was  erected  at
Greenwich. His  "  Journal "  was  published  in 1854

Dr.  Rae,  in  the  spring  of  1853,  again  proceeded
towards  the  magnetic  pole;  and  in  July,  1854,
he  reported  to  the  Admiralty  that  he  had  pur-
chased from  a  party  of  Esquimaux  a  number  of
articles  which  had  belonged  to  sir  J.  Franklin
and  his  party — namely,  sir  John's  star  or  order,
part  of  a  watch,  silver  spoons,  and  forks  with
crests,  &c.  He  also  reported  the  statement  of
the  natives,  that  they  had  met  with  a  party  of
white  men  about  four  winters  previous,  and  had
sold  them  a  seal ;  and  that  four  months  later,  in
the  same  season,  they  had  found  the  bodies  of
thirty  men  (some  buried),  who  had  evidently
perished  by  starvation  ;  the  place  appears,  from
the  description,  to  have  been  in  the  neighbour-
hood of  the  Great  Fish  river  of  Back.  Dr.  Rae
arrived  in  England  on  22  Oct.  1854,  with  the
relics,  which  have  since  been  deposited  in  Green-
wich hospital.  He  and  his  companions  were
awarded  10,000?.  for  their  discovery.

19.  The  Phainix,  North  Star,  and  Talbot,  under  the
command  of  capt.  Inglefield,  sailed  in  May,  and
returned  in Oct.  1854

Sir  E.  Belcher  (No.  11),  after  mature  deliberation,
in  April,  1854,  determined  to  abandon  his  ships,
and  gave  orders  to  that  effect  to  all  the  captains
under  his  command ;  and  capt.  Kellett  gave
similar  orders  to  capt.  M'Clure,  of  the  Investigator.
The  vessels  had  been  abandoned  15  May*  when
the  crews  of  the  Phcen  ix  and  Talbot  (under  capt.
Inglefield)  arrived  (19).  On  their  return  to
England  all  the  captains  were  tried  by  court
martial  and  honourably  acquitted  17-19  Oct. „

Capt.  Collinson's  fate  was  long  uncertain,  and
another  expedition  was  in  contemplation,  when
intelligence  came,  in  Feb.  1855,  that  he  had  met
the  Rattlesnake  (16)  at  Fort  Clarence  on  21  Aug.
1854,  and  had  sailed  immediately,  in  hopes  of
getting  up  with  capt.  Maguire  in  the  Plover  (1),
which  had  sailed  two  days  previously.  Capt.
Collinson  having  failed  in  getting  through  the  ice
in  1850  with  capt.  M'Clure,  returned  to  Hong-
Kong  to  winter.  In  1851  he  passed  through
Prince  of  Wales's  Straits,  and  remained  in  the
Arctic  regions  without  obtaining  any  intelligence
of  Franklin  till  July,  1854,  when,  being  once
more  released  from  the  ice,  he  sailed  for  Fort
Clarence,  where  he  arrived  as  above  mentioned.
Captains  Collinson  and  Maguire  arrived  in  England
i" May,  1855

20.  The  third  American  expedition  in  search  of
Dr.  Kane,  in  the  Advance,  consisted  of  the
Release  and  the  steamer  Arctic,  the  barque  Enngo,
and  another  vessel  under  the  command  of  lieut.
H.  J.  Hartstene,  accompanied  by  a  brother  of
Dr.  Kane  as  surgeon,  . . . 31  May, ,,

[On  17  May,  1855,  Dr.  Kane  and  his  party  quitted
the  Advance, and  journeyed  over  the'  ice,  1300


*  Capt.  Kellett's  ship,  the  Resolute,  was  found  adrift
1000  miles  distant  from  where  she  was  left,  by  a
Mr.  George  Henry,  commanding  an  American  whaler,
who  brought  her  to  New  York.  The  British  government
having  abandoned  their  claim  on  the  vessel,  it  was
bought  by  order  of  the  American  congress,  thoroughly
repaired  and  equipped,  and  entrusted  to  capt.  II.  J.
Hartstene,  to  be  presented  to  queen  Victoria.  It  arrived
at  Southampton,  12  Dec.  1856  ;  was  visited  by  her  majesty
on  the  t 6th  ;  and  formallysurrendered  on  the  30th.  When
the  ship  was  broken  up  a  desk  was  made  of  the  wood,
and  presented  by  queen  Victoria  to  the  president  of  the
United  States,  29  Nov.  t88o.


miles,  to  the  Danish  settlement ;  on  their  way
home  in  a  Danish  vessel,  they  fell  in  with  lieut.
Hartstene,  18  Sept.  ;  and  arrived  with  him  at
New  York,  n  Oct.  1855.  Dr.  Kane  visited
England  in  1856  ;  he  died  in  1857.]

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  under  advice  of  Dr.  Rae
and  sir  G.  Back,  sent  out  an  overland  expedition,
June  1855,  which  returned  Sept.  following.  Some
more  remains  of  Franklin's  party  were  discovered.  1855

21.  The  18th  British  expedition  (equipped  by  lady
Franklin  and  her  friends,  the  government  having
declined  to  fit  out  another) — the  Fox,  screw
steamer,  under  capt.  (since  sir)  F.  L.  M'Olintock,
R.N.  (see  No.  11) — sailed  from  Aberdeen  1  July,
1857 ;  returned  .... 22  Sept. 1859

On  6  May,  1859,  lieut.  Hobson  found  at  Point
Victory,  near  Cape  Victoria,  besides  a  cairn,  a  tin
case,  containing  a  paper,  signed  25  April,  1848,
by  capt.  Fitzjames,  which  certified  that  the  ships
Erebus  and  Terror,  on  12  Sept.  1846,  were  beset  in
lat.  700  50'  N. ,  and  long.  980  23'  W. ;  that  sir  John
Franklin  died  11  June,  1847;  and  that  the  ships
were  deserted  22  April,  1848.  Captain  M'Clintock
continued  the  search,  and  discovered  skeletons
and  other  relics.  His  Journal  was  published  in
Dec.  1859  ;  and  on  28  May,  i860,  gold  medals
were  given  to  him  and  to  lady  Franklin  by  the
Royal  Geographical  Society.

Mr.  Hall,  the  arctic  explorer,  reported,  in  Aug.  1865,
circumstances  that  led  him  to  hope  that  capt.
Crozier  and  others  were  surviving.

A  national  monument  by  Noble,  set  up  in  Waterloo-
place,  was  inaugurated,  15  Nov.  1866.  It  is
inscribed  to  "  Franklin  the  great  navigator  and
his  brave  companions  who  sacrificed  their  lives
in  completing  the  discovery  of  the  north-west
passage,  a.d.  1847-8."

Sir  John  Franklin  discovered  the  north-west  passage
by  sailing  down  Peel  and  Victoria  Straits,  now
named  Franklin  Straits.

"  Franklin  search  expedition,"  under  lieut.  Sehwatka,
of  U.S.  navy,  in  an  overland  expedition  in  summer
and  autumn  of  1879,  discovers  some  human
remains  of  the  crews  of  the  ships  and  other
things  ;  he  set  up  memorials,  and  brought  away
the  remains  of  lieut.  John  Irving,  of  the  Terror  ;
and  returned  to  Massachusetts about  23  Sept.  1880

Remains  of  lieut.  John  Irving  buried  at  Edinburgh,

7  Jan.  1 881

FRANKS  (or  freemen),  a  name  given  to  a  com-
bination of  the  North-western  German  tribes  about
240,  which  invaded  Gaul  and  other  parts  of  the
empire  with  various  success  in  the  5th  century ;
see  Gaul  and  France  ;  see  Franking.

FRASER'S  MAGAZINE,  first  appeared,
Feb.  1830 ;  discontinued  Oct.  1882.

FRATRICELLI  (Little  Brethren),  a  sect  of
the  middle  ages,  originally  strict  Franciscan  monks.
Their  numbers  increased,  and  they  were  condemned
by  a  papal  bull  in  13 1 7  ;  and  suffered  persecution  ;.
but  were  not  extinct  till  the  16th  century.  They
resembled  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit."

FRAUDS,  Statute  of. 29  Charles  II.,  c.  3,.

1677.  "  An  act  for  prevention  of  frauds  and  per-
juryes."

FRAUDULENT  TRUSTEES  ACT,  20  &

21  Vict.  c.  54,  passed  Aug.  1857,  in  consequence  of
the  delinquencies  of  sir  John  D.  Paul,  the  British
Bank  frauds,  &c.  It  was  brought  in  by  sir  R.
Bethell,  then  attorney-general  (afterwards  lord
Westbury),  and  is  very  stringent.

FRAUNHOFER'S  LINES,  see  Spectrum.

FREDERICKSBURG  (Virginia,N.  America).
On  10  Dec.  1862,  general  Bumside  and  the  federal
army  of  the  Potomac  crossed  the  small  deep  river
Rappahannock.  On  1 1  Dec.  Fredericksburg  was
bombarded  by  the  federals  and  destroyed.  On  the
13th  commenced  a  scries  of  desperate  unsuccessful
attacks on the confederate works, defended by

V, B


FEEDEBICKSHALD.


418


FEEEMASONBY.


generals  Lee,  Jackson,  Longstreet,  and  others.
General  Hooker  crossed  the  river  with  the  reserves,
and  joined  in  the  conflict,  in  vain.  On  15  and  16
Dec.  the  federal  army  recrossed  the  Rappahannock.
The  battle  was  one  of  the  most  severe  in  the  war.

FEEDEBICKSHALD  (Norway).  Charles
XII.  of  Sweden  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  before
its  walls,  while  examining  the  works.  His  hand
was  on  his  sword,  and  a  prayer-book  in  his  pocket,
11  Dec.  1718.

FEEE CHUECH  OF  ENGLAND. An

Episcopal  Church  founded  in  1844,  and  enrolled  in
her  majesty's  High  Court  of  Chancery  in  1863.

The  bishops  are  Benjamin  Price  (bishop  primus),  who
resides  at  Ilfracombe  ;  Frederick  Newman,  at  Ashford,
Kent ;  and  a  missionary  bishop,  Henry  Orion  Meyers,
at  Hounslow.

This  church  grew  out  of  the  Oxford  traetarian  move-
ment of  1830.  The  first  church  was  planted  at  Bridge-
town, Devon,  by  the  rev.  James  Shore,  M.A.,  curate
of  the  parish  ;  it  was  built  by  the  duke  of  Somerset,
and  opened  in  1844.  Two  other  churches  were  esta-
blished in  the  same  year— one  at  Exeter,  and  the  other  at
Ilfracombe.  But  it  was  not  till  1849  that  much  progress
was  made,  when  an  impetus  was  given  to  the  movement
by  the  late  bishop  of  Exeter's  (Philpott)  prosecution
of  Mr.  Shore,  for  preaching  in  his  diocese  without  his
licence.  The  work  spread,  and  the  organization  was
enrolled  under  a  deed  poll  as  an  "  Episcopal  Church."
But  as  "  Consecration  "  could  not  be  obtained  a  bishop
president  was  elected  till  1876,  when  the  secession  of
the  right  rev.  bishop  Cummins  from  the  "Protestant
Episcopal  Church  of  America "  (the  first  bishops  of
which  church  were  consecrated  by  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury  at  Lambeth  Palace  chapel,  in  1787),  af-
forded an  opportunity,  which  was  embraced,  of
obtaining  episcopal  consecration  for  the  bishops  of
the  Free  Church  of  England  in  the  Canterbury  line  of
episcopal  succession.

The  services  of  the  F.  C.  E.  are  conducted  exactly  as
those  of  the  evangelical  section  of  the  national  church,
excepting  the  omission  of  some  words  in  the  offices
which  express  doctrines  opposed  to  the  Protestant
Beformation.

FEEE  CHUECH OF  SCOTLAND  was

formed  by  an  act  of  secession  of  nearly  halt  the  body
from  the  national  church  of  Scotland,  headed  by  Dr.
Thos.  Chalmers  and  other  eminent  ministers,  18  May,
1843.  The  difference  arose  on  the  question  of  the
right  of  patrons  to  nominate  to  livings;  see  Patron-
age. The  Free  Church  claims  for  the  parishioners
the  right  of  a  veto.  Much  distress  was  endured  the
first  year  by  the  ministers  of  the  new  church,
although  366,719/.  14s.  3<£-  had  been  subscribed.
In  1853  there  were  850  congregations  ;  in  1873,  954.
A  large  college  was  founded  in  1846.  In  1856  the
sustentation  fund  amounted  to  108,638/.  from  which
was  paid  the  sum  of  138/.  each  to  700  ministers.
The  Rev.  Mr.  Knight,  censured  for  opinions  re-
specting prayer,  seceded  ...  22  Oct.  1873
The  Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Came-

ronians),  joined  the  Free  Church  .  .  25  May,  1876
Professor  Robertson  Smith,  generally  censured  for
his  article  "Bible,  &c,"  in  the  "  Encyclopedia
Britannica,"  1875,  after  long  consideration  by  the
assembly,  admonished  only  .  .  27  May,  1880
Professor  Robertson  Smith  expelled  from  his  pro-
fessorship, but  to  retain  salary,  by  the  general
assembly  (394—231) .... 26  May,  1881

FEEE  CHUECH  SOCIETY,  or  National
Association  for  Freedom  of  Public  Worship,  esta-
blished in  1857,  to  abolish  the  pew-rent  system
and  revive  the  weekly  offertory  to  defray  the  ex-
penses of  public  worship.  The  Free  and  Open
Church  Association  was  formed  in  1866.

FEEE  COMPANIES  and  LANCES,  see
Condottieri.


FEEEDMEN'S  BUREAUS,  established  in
the  Southern  States  of  North  America  in  March,
1865,  to  protect  the  freed  negroes.  Having  the
support  of  martial  law,  these  bureaus  became  very
oppressive,  and  the  act  of  congress  making  them
permanent  was  vetoed  by  president  Johnson  in
Feb.  1866.

FEEE  EDUCATION  ACT.  See  under
Education,  1891.

FEEEHOLDEES.  Those  under  forty  shil-
lings per  annum  were  not  qualified  to  vote  for
members  of  parliament  by  8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7,  1429.
Various  acts  have  been  passed  for  the  regulation  of
the  franchise  at  different  periods.  The  more  recent
were,  the  act  to  regulate  polling,  9  Geo.  IV.,  1828  ;
act  for  the  disqualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland,
which  deprived  those  of  forty  shillings  of  this  privi-
lege, passed  13  April,  1829 ;  Reform  acts,  1832,
1867,  1868.  County  elections  act,  7  Will.  IV.,  1836.
See  Chandos  Clause.

FEEE  HOSPITAL,  EOYAL,  Gray's  Inn-
road,  founded  in  1828  by  Dr.  William  Marsden
(born  Aug.  1796),  who  actively  superintended  it  till
his  death,  16  Jan.  1867.  In  1851,  he  founded  the
Cancer  Hospital  (Brompton),  which  see.  Patients
admitted  without  letters.  In  1878  Mr.  Wm.  Birks
Rhodes,  "the  Hounslow  miser,"  bequeathed  to  the
hospital  about  39,000/.

FEEE  LABOUE  BEGISTEATION

SOCIETY,  established  for  the  benefit,  of  em-
ployers and  non-unionist  workmen,  in  opposition
to  trades'  unions,  about  July,  1867.

FEEE  LAND  LEAGUE,  see  Zand.

FEEE  LIBEAEIES,  see  Libraries.

FEEEMASONEY.  Writers  on  masonry,
themselves  masons,  affirm  tfcat  it  has  had  a  being
"  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and  harmony  dis-
played her  charms."  It  is  traced  by  some  to  the
building  of  Solomon's  temple;  and  it  is  said  the
architects  from  the  African  coast,  Mahometans,
brought  it  into  Spain,  about  the  9th  centuiy.  A
modern  speculative  cosmopolitan  freemasonry  with
some  analogies  has  essential  differences  from  some
early  secret  societies,  and  is  not  earlier  than
the  seventeenth  century.  In  1717,  the  grand  lodge
of  England  was  established ;  that  of  Ireland  in
1730;  and  that  of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freemasons
were  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1738;  again
condemned,  30  Sept.  1865.  Freemasons'  Hall,
Great  Queen  -  street,  London,  built  1771 ;  re-
built, and  consecrated  14  April,  1869.  Partly
burnt,  3  May,  1883.  The  charity  instituted,  1788.
The  duke  of  Sussex  and  the  earl  of  Zetland
were  each  twenty-five  years  grand-master  of  Eng-
land. Earl  de  Grey,  afterwards  marquis  of  Ripon,
was  installed  grand-master  of  the  English  free-
masons in  room  of  the  earl  of  Zetland,  14  May,
1870.  The  marquis  (on  becoming  a  Romanist)  re-
signed 1  Sept.  1874.  He  was  succeeded  by  the
prince  of  Wales;  installed  in  the  Royal  Albert
Hall,  28  April,  1875.  The  duke  of  Leinster,  grand-
master for  Ireland  for  60  years,  died  10  Oct.  1874  •
succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Abercorn.  The  prince  of
Wales  was  installed  at  Edinburgh  as  patron  of  tbe
freemasons  of  Scotland,  12  Oct.  1870.  As  grand-
master past  and  present  of  the  mark  masons,
London,  8  Dec.  1883.  Installed  as  Grand  Master  of
the  Grand  Lodge,  1  July,  1886.  Prince  Leopold
installed  as  master  of  the  "  lodge  of  antiquity"  (at
one  time  held  by  sir  Christopher  Wren) ,  25  June,
1879.
Royal  Masonic  Institutions  :  for  girls  (Battersea),

founded  1788;  for  boys  (Wood  Green),  1798; for

the  aged  and  widows 1842


FKEE  POETS.


419


FEENCH  EEVOLUTIONS.


FEEE  POETS,  see  Hanse  Towns.

FEEE  STATE,  see  Orange.

FEEETHINKEES,  professors  of  natural  re-
ligion ;  see  JJeists.

FEEE  TEADE  principles,  advocated  by  Adam
Smith  in  his  "  Wealth  of  Nations"  (1776),  tri-
nrnphed  in  England  when  the  corn  laws  were
abolished  in  1846,  and  the  commercial  treaty  with
France  was  adopted  in  i860.  Richard  Cobden,  who
was  very  instrumental  in  passing  these  measures,
■and  termed  "  Apostle  of  Free  Trade,"  died  2  April,
3865.  Since  1830  the  exports  have  been  tripled.
'See  French  Treaty.  An  agitation  for  free  trade  has
begun  in  the  United  States.  A  reform  league  was
formed  at  Boston,  20  April,  1869;  and  the  move-
ment became  active  in  New  York  in  Nov.,  and  has
since  continued.  A  free-trade  budget  was  brought
in  by  the  ministiy  in  Sydney  in  1873.  A  new  free-
irade  league  was  inaugurated  in  London  in  Dec.
1873  ;  and  one  at  Melbourne,  Australia,  Sept.  1876.
Free  trade  warmly  advocated  in  New  South  Wales,
supported  in  New  Zealand;  opposed  in  Canada  and
in  Victoria,  Australia,  1877-80.  Much  agitation
against  free-trade  in  1880-2.  See  Anti-Corn  Law
League,  and  Fair  Trade.  American  Free  Trade
League  formed  at  Detroit,  June,  1883.  Protection,
■which  sec,  dominant  in  Europe,  Feb.  1885  et  seq.

President  Cleveland's  message  strongly  urges  fiscal
reform,  large  reduction  of  protective  duties  and  other
taxation  6  Dec.  1887.

Reform  elub  at  New  York  to  support  tariff  reform  ;  first
banquet  21  Jan.  t888.

Powerful  speech  of  M.  Leon  Say  on  behalf  of  free  trade
in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  pointing  out  the  dangers
of  retrogression  9  and  11  May,  1891.

The  marquis  of  Salisbury,  in  a  speech  at  Hastings,  advo-
cates duties  on  foreign  luxuries  r8  May,  1892.

FEEEZING,  see  Congelation  and  Lee.

"FEEIHEIT,"  German  newspaper.  See
Trials,  18S1.

FEENCH  ASSOCIATION  for  the  ad-
vancement OF  THE  SCIENCES  was  established
by  the  general  assembly,  22  April,  1872,  its  chief
founders  being  Mil.  Balard,  Claude  Bernard,  De-
launay,  Dumas,  Pasteur,  Berthelot,  Wurtz,  and
others.  It  held  its  first  meeting  at  Bordeaux,
5  Sept.  1872,  when  many  foreign  scientific  men
were  present,  M.  De  Quatrefages,  president;  second,
Lyons,  21  Aug.  1873;  third,  Lille,  20  Aug.  1874;
fourth,  Nantes,  19  Aug.  1875 »  fifth,  Clermont
Ferrand,  19  Aug.  1876;  sixth,  Havre,  30  Aug.  1877;
seventh,  Paris,  22  Aug.  1878 ;  eighth,  Montpellier,
28  Aug.  1879;  ninth,  Rheims,  II  Aug.  1880;
tenth,  Algiers,  14  April,  1881  ;  La  Rochelle,  23
Aug.  1882;  Rouen,  17  Aug.  1883;  Blois,  3  Sept.
1884 ;  Grenoble,  12  Aug.  1885  ;  Nancy,  12  Aug.
1886 ;  Toulouse,  22  Sept.  1887  ;  Oran,  Algeria,  29
March,  1888;  Paris,  8-14  Aug.  1889;  Limoges,
7-14  Aug.  1890;  Marseilles,  17  Sept.  1891  ;
Pau,  1892;  Besanc,on,  1893.

FEENCH  CHUECH,  see  Church  of  France.

FEENCH  EXHIBITION,  at  Earl's  Court,
West  Brompton,  London,  W.,  was  opened  by  the
lord  mayor  Isaacs,  17  May,  closed  1  Nov.  1890.
The  exhibition  principally  consisted  of  objects  which
appeared  in  the  Universal  Exhibition  at  Paris,  1889.
It  included  works  of  art,  manufactures,  books,  pano-
ramas of  parts of  Paris,  and  a  hypodrome. In  the
•"  Wild  East  grounds  "  appeared  Algerian  Arabs,  with
their  families  and  steeds ; a  chariot  drawn  by  three
African  lions  was  driven  by  their  owner  round  the
arena.


FEENCH  LANGUAGE  is  mainly  based  on
the  rude  Latin  of  the  western  nations  subjugated
by  the  Romans.  German  was  introduced  by  the
Franks  in  the  8th  century.  In  the  9th  the  Gallo-
Romanic  dialect  became  divided  into  the  Langue
d'oc  of  the  south  and  the  Langue  d'oil  of  the  north.
The  dialect  of  the  Isle  of  France  became  predomi-
nant in  the  12th  century.  The  French  language  as
written  by«Froissart  assimilates  more  to  the  modern
French,  and  its  development  was  almost  completed
when  the  Aeademie  Franchise  (established  by  Riche-
lieu in  1634)  published  a  dictionary  of  the  language
in  1674.  The  French  language,  laws,  and  customs
were  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.,  1066.
Law  pleadings  were  changed  from  French  to  English
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  1362. Stoiv.


PRINCIPAL FEENCH AUTHORS.

Born Died


Chanson  de

Roland

nth  century.

Roman  d'

Alexandre

12th  century.

R.  Wace  Ro-

man de  Brut

12th  century.

Roman  de  la

Rose

12th  century.

Villehardouin

.  1 160

1213

Join vi  lie .

•  1223

I3I9

Froissart

-  1333

1410

Monstrelet  about  1390

*453

Comines .

• 1445

1509

Marot .

• 1495

1544

Rabelais .

• 1483

!553

Ronsard

• J524

1585

Montaigne

• 1533

1592

Baza

• 1519

1605

Malherbe  .

• I55S

1628

Des  Cartes .

• 1596

1650

Pascal

• 1623

1662

Moliere

. 1622

1673

La  Rochefou-

cauld .

• 1613

1680

Corneille

. 1606

1684

La  Fontaine

. 1621

!695

Mad.  de  Sevigi

re  1626

1696

La  Bruyere

•  1645

1696

Racine .

•  1639

1699

Bossuet .

. 1627

1704

Bourdaloue  .

■  1632

1704

Bayle

• l647

1706

Flechier

•  1<532

1710

Boileau .

• 1636

1711

Fenelon

• 1651

17*5

Vertot

• 1655

J735

Rollin  .

. 1661

1741

Massillon  .

.  1663

1742

Le  Sage

. 1668

*747

Montesquieu

. 1689

1755

Voltaire .

. 1604

1778

■T.  J.  Rousseau.  1712

1778

DAlembert

• 1717

1783

Diderot

• 1713

1784

Buffon  .

• *7°7

17S8

Beaumarchais

•  i732

1799

Marmontel

• i723

1799

Mad.  Cottin

• 1773

1807

'Born

■  1738
•  1737
. 1766

■  1746

■  J773
1793


I79S
1780
1804


Delille  .
St.  Pierre .
De  Stael . .
De  Genlis .
Sismondi . .

C.  Delavigne  .
Chateaubriand.
Balzac

D.  F.  Arago
Augustin

Thierry . .
Beranger  .
Eugene  Sue . .
Alfred  deMusset  1810
A.  Eugene

Scribe  . 1751

A.  de  Vigny .  1797
A.  G. De  Ba-

rante  .  .  1782
A.  F.  Villemain  1790
Victor  Cousin  .  1792
A  De  la  Martine  1790
Sainte  Beuve  .  1804
Alexandre

Dumas  .  .  1803
C.  F.  Montalem-

bert  .  .1810
P.  Merimee  .  1803
Theophile

Gautier  .  181 1
Amedee  Thierry  1797
F.  Guizot .  .  1787
Jules  Michelet.  1798

E.  Quinet . .  1803
L.  A.  Thiers
Lanfrey .
Louis  Blanc
L. H. Martin

hist. . . .
Victor  Hugo
E.  About  .
E.  Renan  .
H.  A.  Taine .
Erekmann
Chatrian . ,
Alphonse  Karr.
Octave  Feuillet  1812


Died
1813
1814
1817

1830


1799  1850
1786  1853


1797
1828
1811

1810
1802
182S
1823
1828
1822
1826


1856
1857
1857
1857


1863

1866
1867


1870

1870
1870

1872
1873
1874
1874

1875
1877
1877


FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for

social,  commercial,  and  artistic  purposes,  founded
in  London  15  Jan.  1881.

FEENCH NAVY,  see  Navy.

FEENCH  PEOTESTANT  HOSPITAL,

founded  in  1708  to  maintain  poor  descendants  of
French  protestant  refugees,  40  females,  20  males.

FEENCH  EELIEF  FUND,  see  Mansion-
house  Fund.  The  French  peasant  relief  fund,
originated  by  the  Daily  News,  in  Sept.  1870,  was
closed  April,  1871.

FEENCH  EEVOLUTIONS, see France.

1789,  1830,  1848,  1870.


FRENCH RE  VOL  Y. CALENDAR. 420


FROBISHER'S STRAITS.


FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  CA-
LENDAR. In  1792,  the  French  nation  adopted
a  calendar  professedly  founded  on  philosophical
principles.  The  first  year  of  the  era  of  the  republic
began  at  midnight,  between  21  and  22  Sept.  1792;
but  its  establishment  was  not  decreed  until  the
4th  Frimaire  of  the  year  II.,  24  Nov.  1793.  The
calendar  existed  until  the  10th  Nivose,  year  of  the
republic  XIV.,  31  Dec.  1805,  when  the  Gregorian
mode  of  calculation  was  restored  by  Napoleon  I.
1800  was  not  a  leap  year.

AUTUMN.

Vendemiaire  .  .  Vintage  month,  22  Sept.  to  21  Oct.
Brumaire  .  .  .  Fog  month  .  .  22  Oct.  to  20  Nov.
Frimaire . . .  Sleet  month .  21  Nov.  to  20  Dec.

WINTER.

Nivose  .  .  .  .  Snow  month  .  21  Dec.  to  19  Jan.
Pluviose  .  .  .  Rain  month  .  20  Jan.  to  18  Feb.
Ventose . . .  Wind  month . 19  Feb.  to  20  Mar.

SPRING.

Germinal  .  .  .  Sprouts' month,  21  Mar.  to  19  April.
Floreal .  .  .  .  Flowers' month,  20  April  to  19  May.
Prairial . . .  Pasture  month,  20  May  to  18  June.

SUMMER.

Messidor  .  .  .  Harvestmonth,  19  June  to  18  July
Fervidor,  or

Thermidor  . .  Hot  month  . .  19  July  to  17  Aug.

Fructidor .  . Fruit  month .  18  Aug.  to  16  Sept.

SAT5TSCUL0TIDES, OR  FEASTS DEDICATED TO

Les  Vertus  ....  The  Virtues  . .17  Sept.

Le  Genie . . . .  Genius .  . .  18  Sept.

Le  Travail ....  Labour .  . .19  Sept.

L'Opinion . ...  Opinion .  . .  20  Sept.

Les  Recompenses . . Rewards  . .21  Sept.

FRENCHTOWN  (Canada),  was  taken  from
the  British  by  the  American  general  Winchester,
22  Jan.  1813,  during  the  second  war  with  the
United  States  of  America.  It  was  retaken  by  the
British  forces  under  general  Proctor,  24  Jan.,  and
the  American  commander  and  his  troops  were  made
prisoners.

FRENCH  TREATY,  the  term  given  to  the
treaty  of  commerce  between  Great  Britain  and
France,  signed  23  Jan.  i860,  at  Paris,  by  lord
Cowley  and  Richard  Cobden  and  by  the  ministers
MM.  Baroche  and  Bouher.  The  beneficial  results
of  this  treaty  compensated  for  the  depression  of
trade  occasioned  by  the  civil  war  in  North  America
(1861-5).  The  French  assembly  determined  that
on  15  March,  1871,  this  treaty  should  cease  in  12
months  from  that  date.  A  fresh  treaty  was  signed
at  Paris  29  Jan.  1873.  Free  trade  was  somewhat
restricted,  but  the  new  French  navigation  law  was
relaxed.  Negotiations  for  a  new  treaty  began  in
London,  26  May,  1881. See  France,  1881-2.

FRESCO  PAINTINGS  are  executed  on
plaster  while  fresh.  Very  ancient  ones  exist  in
Egypt,  Italy,  and  England,  and  modern  ones  in  the
British  houses  of  parliament,  at  Berlin,  and  other
places.  The  fresco  paintings  by  Giotto  and  others
at  the  Campo  Santo,  a  cemetery  at  Pisa,  executed
in  the  13th  century,  are  justly  celebrated.  Sse
Stereochromy.

FRESHWATER  FISH,  see  Fish.

FRETEVAL  (Central  France).  Here  Richard
I.  of  England  defeated  Philip  II.  of  France,  and
captured  his  royal  seal,  archives,  &c,  15  July,
1 194.  Freteval  was  taken  by  the  Germans,  14  Deo.,
1870,  and  soon  abandoned.

FRIARS  (from  the  French  frere,  a  brother)  ;
eee  Minorites,  Carmelites,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,
Crutched  Friars,  and  other  orders.

FRIDAY,  the  sixth  day  of  the  week  ;  so  called
from  Friga,  or  Frea,  the  Scandinavian  Venus,  the


wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility,  and
riches,  who  with  Thor  and  Odin  composed  the
supreme  council  of  the  gods.  See  Good  Friday  and
Black  Friday.

FRIEDLAND  (Prussia).  Here  the  allied
Russians  and  Prussians  were  beaten  by  the  French,,
commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  14  June,  1807.  The
allies  lost  eighty  pieces  of  cannon  and  about  18,000
men  ;  the  French  about  10,000  men.  The  peace  of
Tilsit  followed,  by  which  Prussia  was  obliged  to
surrender  nearly  half  her  dominions.

FRIENDLY  ISLES,  in  the  Southern  Pacific,
consist  of  a  group  of  more  than  150  islands,  form-
ing an  archipelago  of  very  considerable  extent.
These  islands  were  discovered  by  Tasman,  in  1643  -T
visited  by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel  Isles,
1767  ;  and  by  captain  Cook,  who  named  them  on
account  of  the  friendly  disposition  of  the  natives,
1773.  Subsequent  voyagers  describe  them  as  very
ferocious.

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES,  which  originated
in  the  clubs  of  the  industrious  classes,  were  sub-
jected to slight  control  in 1793, and  have  been
regulated  by  various  enactments. Other  acts  were-
passed  in 1855, 1858 and i860 ;  important  ones,
II  Aug. 1875,  24  July,  1876,  1882  and  1887. In
London, the Defoe Friendly  Society  dates  from
1687;  the  Norman,  1 703;  the  Lintot,  1708.
An  example  of  fraud,  credulity,  and  mismanagement  was.
given  on  investigation  by  the  registrar-general  into  the
affairs  of  the  ' '  Independent  Mutual  Brethren  Friendly
Society,"  founded  in 1873,  and broken  up in 18S6-
Members,  2,225,000 ;  capital,  about  i6,ooo,oooJ. ;  re-
turn, July,  1891.

FRIENDS,  see  Quakers,  and  under  Clergy.

FRIENDS  OF  THE  PEOPLE,  an  association
formed  in  London  to  obtain  parliamentary  reform,
1792.

FRIESLAND  :  EAST  (N.  Germany),  the
ancient  Frisia,  formerly  governed  by  its  own  counts.
On  the  death  of  its  prince  Charles  Edward,  in  1744,
it  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Prussia;  Hanover
disputed  its  pos-ession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.  It  was
annexed  to  Holland  by  Bonaparte,  in  1806,  to  the
French  empire,  1810  ;  and  awarded  to  Hanover  in
1815.  The  English  language  is  said  to  be  mainly
derived  from  the  old  Frisian  dialect. — Friesland,
West,  in  Holland,  was  part  of  Charlemagne's-
empire  in  800.  It  passed  under  the  counts  of
Holland  about  936,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  pro-
vinces which  renounced  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1580.
The  term  Chevaux  de  Frise  (or  Cheval  de  Frise,  a
Friesland  Horse)  is  derived  from  Friesland,  where-
it  was  invented.

FRIULI  (Venetia),  made  a  duchy  by  Alboin
the  Lombard,  when  he  established  his  kingdom
about  570.  It  was  conquered  by  Charlemagne.
Henri,  a  Frenchman,  made  duke,  was  assassinated
in  799,  which  was  the  fate  of  duke  Berengarius,
king  of  Italy  and  emperor,  in  924.  The  emperor
Conrad  gave  the  duchy  to  his  chancellor  Poppo,
patriarch  of  Aquileia,  in  the  nth  century  ;  it  was
conquered  by  Venice  in  1420  ;  annexed  to  Austria,
1797;  to  France,  1805;  to  Austria,  1814;  to  Italy,
1866.

FROBISHER'S  STRAITS,  discovered  by
sir  Martin  Frobisher,  who  tried  to  find  a  north-
west passage  to  China,  and  after  exploring  the  coast
of  New  Greenland,  entered  this  strait,  n  Aug.
1576.  He  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him
a  quantity  of  black  ore,  supposed  to  contain  gold,
which  induced  queen  Elizabeth  to  patronise  a  second
voyage.  This  led  to  a  third  fruitless  expedition.
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Brest,  Nov.  1594.


FECEBEL SOCIETY.


421


FRUITS.


FECEBEL  SOCIETY,  established  to  promote
the  Kindergarten  system  {which  see),  1874;  annual
meeting,  17  Jan.  1889.

FEOGMOEE,  near  Windsor,  Berks.  A  house
here,  built  by  IS'ash,  was  the  residence  of  queen
Charlotte  and  afterwards  of  the  duchess  of  Kent.
Here  is  situate  the  mausoleum  of  the  late  prince
consort. See  Albert.

FEOHSDOEF,  a  village  near  Vienna,  lately  the
a-esidence  of  the  comtedeChambord,  seeFrance,  1873.

FEOJSTDE,  CIVIL  WARS  OF  THE,  in  France,
in  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1648-52),  during
the  government  of  queen  Anne  of  Austria  and
■cardinal  Mazarin,  between  the  followers  of  the
court  and  the  nobility,  and  the  parliament  and
the  citizens.  The  hitter  were  called  Froncleurs
{slingers),  it  is  said,  from  an  incident  in  a  street
quarrel.  In  a  riot  on  27  Aug.  1648,  barricades  were
■erected  in  Paris.

FEOSTS. The  following  are  some  of  the  most
remarkable  recorded  : (see  Gold.)
The  Euxine  Sea  frozen  over  for  20  days  401

A  frost  at  Constantinople,  when  the  two  seas  there

were  frozen  a  hundred miles  from  the  shore,

Oct.  763 — Feb. 764
A  frost  in  England  on  Midsummer-day  is  said  to

have  destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth  . . . 1035

Thames  frozen  for  14  weeks 1063

Dreadful  frosts  in  England  from  Nov.  to  April . 1076

The  Cattegat  entirely  frozen 1294

.Baltic  passable  to  travellers  for  six  weeks  .  .  1323
The  Baltic  frozen  from  Pomerania  to  Denmark  .  1402
In  England,  when  all  the  small  birds  perished  .  1407-8
The  ice  bore  riding  upon  it  from  Liibeck  to  Prussia,  1426
Severe  frost ,  when  large  fowl  of  the  air  sought

shelter  in  the  towns  of  Germany  .  .  .  .  1433
The  river  frozen  below  London-bridge  to  Gravesend,

from  24  Nov.  to  Feb.  10 1434

The Baltic  frozen,  and horse  passengers  crossed

from  Denmark  to  Sweden 1460

The  winter  so  severe  in  Flanders  that  the  wine

distributed  was  cut  by  hatchets  ....  1468
Carriages  passed  over  from  Lambeth  to  Westminster  1515
Wine  in  Flanders  frozen  into  solid  lumps  .  .  .  1544
Sledges  drawn  by  oxen  travelled  on  the  sea  from

Rostock  to  Denmark 1548

Diversions  on  the  Thames  .  .  .21  Dec.  &c.  1564
The  Scheldt  frozen  so  hard  as  to  sustain  loaded

waggons 1565

The  Rhine,  Scheldt,  and  sea  at  Venice  frozen  .  .  1594
Fires  and  diversions  on  the  Thames  .  .  .  .  1607-8
The  rivers  of  Europe  and  the  Zuyder  Zee  frozen  ;

ice  covers  the  Hellespont 1622

Charles  X.  of  Sweden  crossed  the  Little-Belt  over

the  ice  from  Holstein  to  Denmark,  with  his  whole

army 1658

The  forest  trees,  and  even  the  oaks  in  England,

split  by  the  frost ;  most  of  the  hollies  were  killed  ;

the  Thames  covered  witli  ice  eleven  inches  thick  ;

and  nearly  all  the  birds  perished,  Dec.  1683— Feb.  1684
"  The  people  kept  trades  on  the  Thames  as  in  a

lair,  till  4  Feb. 1684. About  forty  coaches  daily

plied on  the  Thames  as  on  drye  land. Bought

this  book  at  a  shop  upon  the  ice  in  the  middle  of

the  Thames." Entry in the memoranda  of  a

Citizen.
The  wolves,  driven  by  the  cold,  entered  Vienna,

and  attacked  cattle  and  men 1691

Three  months'  frost,  with  heavy  snow,  from  Dec.

to  March  1709
A  fair  held  on  the  Thames,  and  oxen  roasted  ;  frost

continued 24  Nov.  to  9  Feb. 1716

One  lasted  9  weeks,  when  coaches  plied  upon  the

Thames, and festivities and diversions of  all

kinds  were  enjoyed  upon  the  ice. (The  "hard

winter") 1740

From  25  Dec.  to  16  Jan.  and  from  18  to  22  Jan.  ;

most  terrible 1766

One  general  throughout  Europe ;  the  Thames  pass-
able opposite  the  Custom  House Nov.  to  Jan. . 1789
One  from  24  Dec.  1794,  to  14  Feb.  1795,  with  the

intermission  of  one  day's  thaw  .  .  23  Jan.  1795
Intense  frosts .....  all  Dec.  1796


Severe  frost  in  Russia 1812

Very  destructive  to  the  French  army  in  its  retreat
from  Moscow.  Napoleon  commenced  his  retreat
on  the  9th  Nov.  The  men  perished  in  battalions,
and  the  horses  fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads.
France  lost  in  the  campaign  of  this  year  more
than  400,000  men.
Booths  erected  on  the  Thames ; the  winter  very

severe  in  Ireland 1813-14

Severe  frost  (Thames  blocked)  . 7  Jan.-Feb.,  1838

The  frosts so  intense  in  parts of  Norway, that
quicksilver  freezes,  and  persons  exposed  to  the
atmosphere  lose  their  breath . . 2  Jan.  1849
Very  severe  frost  in  London, 14  Jan.  to  24  Feb.  ;

and  very  cold  weather  up  to  26  June . . .  1855
On 22 Feb.  fires  were  made on the Serpentine,
Hyde  Park. A  traffic  on  the  ice  of  35  miles  long,
was  established  in  Lincolnshire ...  ,,

Very  severe  frost,  20  Dec.  i860 ;  to  . 5  Jan. 1861

Very  severe  frosts Dec.  1874

Long  frost  with  thaws . .  22  Nov.  1879-2  Feb.  1880
Very  severe  frost  in  Britain,  begun  18  Jan.  lasted

about  14  days 1881

Fairs  on  the  Thames  recorded,  1564,  1607-8,  1620,
1683-4  (special),  1688-9,1715-16,  1739-40,  1788-9,
1813-14.
A  frost  in  Britain  began  25  Nov.  1890,  and  con-
tinued with  intermissions  till  .  .  22  Jan.  1891
A  trap  with  a  tandem  team  driven  across  the  Serpen-
tine . . . . . . . 16  Jan. ,,

FEOST'S  INSUBBECTION,  see  Newport.

FEUCTLDOB  CONSTITUTION;  that
promulgated  in  France  on  the  5th  Fructidor,
year  3,  or  22  Aug.  1795.  See  Directory  for
changes.

FEUITS.  Several  varieties  introduced  into
Italy,  70  B.C.  etscq.  Many  exotic  fruits  and  flowers,
previously  unknown  in  England,  were  brought
thither  between  1500  and  1578,  and  very  many  in
the  present  century  See  Gardening,  and  Flowers.
A  conference  of  British  fruit-growers  was  held  at
the  Crystal  Palace,  London,  7  Sept. ;  association
formed  11  Oct.  1888.  Many  donations  were  made
to  the  fund  for  the  encoimigement  of  fruit-culture,
founded  by  the  lord  mayor  and  the  Fruiterers'
Company,  autumn,  1889.  Successful  fruit-growing
reported,  Dec.  1890.  Many  of  the  following  dates
are  uncertain : —

Almond-tree,  Barbary,  about 1548

Apples,  Syria 1522

Apple,  custard,  N.  America 1736

Apple,  osage,  ditto 1818

Apricots,  Epirus 154°

Cherry-trees,  Pontus 100

Cherries,  Flanders 1540

Cornelian  cherry,  Austria 1596

Currant,  the  hawthorn,  Canada 1705

Fig-tree,  S.  Europe,  before  .... 1548

Gooseberries,  Flanders,,  before 154°

Grapes,  Portugal 1528

Lemons,  Spain I5S4

Limes,  Portugal,  about 1554

Limes,  American,  before 1752

Melons,  before i54°

Mulberry,  Italy 1520

Mulberry,  white,  China,  about  .... 1596

Mulberry,  the  red,  N.  America,  before . . . 1629
Mulberry,  paper,  Japan,  before .... 1754

Nectarine,  Persia 1652

Olive,  Cape 173°

Olive,  the  sweet-scented  China 1771

Oranges 1595

Peaches,  Persia 1562

Pears,  uncertain *

Pine-apple,  Brazils 1568

Pippins,  Netherlands i525

Plums,  Italy 1522

Pomegranate,  Spain,  before 1548

Quince,  Austria J573

Quince,  Japan I796

Raspberry,  the  Virginian,  before 1696

Strawberry,  Flanders '53°

Strawberry,  the  Oriental,  Levant . • • •  '724
Walnut,  the  black,  N.  America,  before . . • i6?<»


FUCHSIA.


422


FUTTEHGHUR.


FUCHSIA,  ail  American  plant  named  after  the
German  botanist  Leonard  Fuchs,  about  1542.  The
Fuchsia  fulgens,  the  most  beautiful  variety,  was
introduced  from  Mexico,  about  1830.

FUEL,  see  Coal,  Bogs.  In  the  autumn  of
1873,  it  was  announced  that  Louis  Ravneckers,  a
French  peasant,  had  discovered  that  earth  mixed
with  coal  and  a  little  soda  made  good  fuel.

FUENTES  DE  ONORO  (central  Spain).
On  2  May,  181 1,  Massena  crossed  the  Agueda  with
40,000  infantry,  5000  horse,  and  about  30  pieces  of
artillery,  to  relieve  Almeida.  He  expected  every
day  to  be  superseded  in  his  command,  and  wished
to  make  a  last  effort  for  his  own  military  character.
"Wellington  could  muster  no  more  than  32,000  men,
of  which  only  1200  were  cavalry.  He  however  de-
termined to  fight  rather  than  give  up  the  blockade
of  Almeida.  After  much  lighting,  on  3  May,  night
came  on  and  stopped  the  conflict.  Next  day  Mas-
sena was  joined  by  Bessieres  with  a  body  "of  the
Imperial  guard ;  and  on  5  May,  made  his  grand
attack.  In  all  the  war  there  was  not  a  more  dan-
gerous hour  for  England.  The  tight  lasted  until
evening,  when  the  lower  part  of  the  town  was
abandoned  by  both  parties— the  British  maintaining
the  chapel  and  crags,  and  the  French  retiring  a
cannon-shot  from  the  stream. Napier.

FUESSEN,  Bavaria.  By  a  treaty  signed  here,
22  April,  1745,  peace  was  made  between  Maria
Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary,  and  the  elector  of
Bavaria,  the  latter  renouncing  his  claim  to  the
imperial  crown  and  recovering  his  lost  territories.

FUGGEE,  an  illustrious  German  family  (the
present  head,  prince  Leopold  Fugger  Babenhausen,
since  28  May,  1836),  derives  its"  origin  from  John
Fugger,  a  master  weaver  in  Augsburg  in  1370;
and  its  wealth  by  trade,  and  by  money-lending  to
monarchs,  especially  the  emperors.

FUGITIVE OFFENDERS  ACT  passed,

27  Aug.  1881.  '

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  BILL  passed  by  the
American  legislature  in  1850.  It  imposed  a  fine  of
IOOO  dollars  and  six  months'  imprisonment  on  any
person  harbouring  fugitive  slaves  or  aiding  in  their
escape.  This  law  was  declared  to  be  unconsiitu-
tional  by  the  judges  of  the  superior  court  on  3  Feb.
1855,  was  carried  into  effect  with  great"  diffi-
culty, and  was  not  received  by  Massachusetts.
It  was  repealed  13  June,  1864;  see  Slavery  in
America.

FUGITIVE  SLAVE CIRCULARS, see

Slavery.

FUGUE  in  Music  (in  which  one  part  seems  to
chase  another),  is  described  in  Morley's  "  Introduc-
tion to  Practieall  Mnsicke,"  1597.  Sebastian  Bach
and  Handel  were  eminent  fugue-writers.

FULDA  ("W.  Germany),  the  seat  of  an  abbey,
founded  by  St.  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germain,
in  744.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1752,  and'a
principality  in  1803.  Napoleon  incorporated  it  with
Frankfort  m  1810;  but  in  1815  it  was  ceded  to
Hesse-Cassel.

FULFORD,  Yorkshire.  Here  Harold  Har-
drada  of  Norway,  and  Tostig,  brother  of  Harold  of
England,  defeated  the  eaiis  Edwin  and  Morcar
20  Sept.  1066 ;  and  the  people  near  York  submitted
to  them  ;  see  Stamford-bridge.

FULLER  CASE,  see  India,  1876.

FUMIGATION.  Acron,  a  physician  of  Agri-
gentum,  is  said  to  have  first  caused  great  fires  to
be  lighted  and  aromatics  to  be  thrown  into  them


to  purify  the  air,  and  thus  to  have  stopped  the
plague  at  Athens  and  other  places  in  Greece,  about
473  B-c

FUNDS,  see  Stocks,  and  Sinking  Fund,  and
Foreign  Bondholders.

FUNERALS.  David  lamented  over  Saul  and
Jonathan,  1056  B.C.,  and  over  Abner,  1048  B.C.
2  Sam.  i.  and  iii.  In  Greece,  Solon  was  the  first
who  pronounced  a  funeral  oration,  according  to
Herodotus,  580  B.C.  The  Bomans  pronounced
harangues  over  their  illustrious  dead.  Theopompus-
obtained  a  prize  for  the  best  Funeral  Oration  in
praise  of  Mausolus,  353  B.C.  Popilia  was  the  first
Roman  lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her
funeral,  which  was  done  by  her  son,  Crassus  ;  and
it  is  observed  by  Cicero  that  Julius  Caesar  did.  the-
like  for  his  aunt  Julia  and  his  wife  Cornelia. —
Funeral  Games,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans-
included  horse-races,  dramatic  representations,  pro-
cessions, and  mortal  combats  of  gladiators.  These
games  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Claudius,.
a.d.  47.  A  tax  was  laid  on  funerals  in  England,
1793-

Church  of  England  Funeral  and  Mourning  Eeform
Association,  founded  at  Sheffield,  by  earl  Nelson

and  others 5  Oct.  187S

See  Burials  and  Windsor.

Public  Funerals  voted  by  parliament : —

Duke  of  Rutland,  in  Ireland . . .17  Nov.  1787

Lord  Nelson  (see  Nelson) . . . .9  Jan.  1806

Win.  Pitt 22  Feb.  „

Chas.  Jas.  Fox 10  Oct. ,,

Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan . . .13  July,  181&

George  Canning 16  Aug.  1827'

Duke  of  Wellington 18  Nov.  1852

Viscount  Palmerston  (at  her  majesty's  request),

27  Oct.  1865

Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  (by  order) . 21  Jan.  1890

FURNACE,  see  Blowing-machines,  Iron.

FURNITURE.  Specimens  of  Egyptian  fur-
niture, represented  on  the  interior  walls  of  the
pyramids,  appear  in  Bosellini's  "  Monumenti  dell'
Fyitto,"  1832-44,  Vol.  II.  Mr.  J.  G.  Pollen's-
"  Ancient  and  Modern  Furniture  and  "Woodwork  "■
in  the  South  Kensington  museum,  1874,  illus-
trated by  photographs  and  engravings,  was  pub-
lished, July,  1874.  Many  interesting  examples-
will  be  found  in  Fosbroke's  "  Encyclopedia  of
Antiquities"  Vol.  I.  1825.

FURRUCKABAD  (N.  India),  a  province  ac-
quired by  the  East  India  company,  in  June,  1802.  -
Near  the  capital  of  the  same  name,  17  Nov.  1804,
lord  Lake  defeated  the  Maharatta  chief  Holkar,  and
about  60,000  cavalry,  himself  losing  2  killed  and
about  20  wounded.

FURS  were  worn  by  Henry  I.  about  1 125.
Edward  III.  enacted  that  all  persons  who  could  not
spend  joo£.  a  year  should  be  prohibited  this  species
of  finery,  28  March,  1336-7,

FUSILIERS.  Foot  soldiers,  formerly  armed
with  fusees  with  slings  to  sling  them.  The  7th.
regiment  (or  Royal  English  Fusiliers)  was  raised,
II  June,  1685;  the  21st  (or  Royal  North  British),
23  Sept.  1679;  the  23rd  (or  Royal  Welsh),  17  March,
1688. Grose.

FUSION  of  the  French  legitimists  and  Or-
leanists  into  one  monarchical  party,  5  Aug.  1873.
See  France.

FUTTEHGHUR  (India).  Here  Nana  Sahib
massacred  both  the  English  defenders  of  the  fort  and
their  Sepoy  assailants,  July,  1857 ;  and  here  the
Sepoy  rebel's  weie  defeated  by  sir  Colin  Campbell,
7.  Jan.  1858.


G.


GABELLE.


GALLEYS.


GABELLE  (from  Gabe,  a  gift),  a  term  applied
to  various  taxes,  but  afterwards  restricted  to  the
duty  upon  salt,  first  imposed  by  Philip  the  Fair  on
the  French  in  1286.  Duruy.  Uur  Edward  III.
termed  Philip  of  Valois,  who  exacted  the  tax
rigorously,  the  author  of  the  Salic  law  (from  sal,
salt),  1340.  The  assessments  were  unequal,  being
very  heavy  in  some  provinces  and  light  in  others  ;
owing  to  exemptions  purchased  from  the  sovereigns.
The  tax  produced  38  millions  of  francs  in  the  reign
of  Louis  XVI.  It  was  a  giievous  burden,  and
tended  to  hasten  the  revolution,  during  which  it
was  abolished  (1790).

GADES,  S.W.  Spain,  an  anc'ent  town  suc-
cessively subjected  by  the  Phoenicians,  Carthagi-
nians, and  Romans  ;  see  Cadiz.

GAELIC,  the  northern  branch  of  the  Celtic
languages,  Irish,  Erse  or  Highland  Scottish,  and
Manx.  The  "Dean  of  Lismore's  book"  (written
1511-51)  contains  Gaelic  poetry;  specimens  were
published,  with  translations,  in  1862,  by  rev.  T.
M'Lachlan. See  Celts,  Clan-na-gael.

Gaelic  Society  0/ London,  founded  1777.

Gaelic  speaking  population  of  Scotland,  1881,  231,602.

The  Gaelic  Union,  organised  in  Ireland,  proposed  the

publication  of  a  monthly  journal,  to  be  devoted  to

Irish  literature,  1  Nov.  1882.
A  Gaelic  athletic  association  existing  in  Ireland  ;

said  to  be  infected  with  fenianism  . . Dec.  1887

GAETA  (the  ancient  Cajeta),  a  fortified  Nea-
politan seaport,  has  undergone  several  remarkable
sieges.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,  4  Jan.  1799;
by  the  English,  31  Oct.  T799;  by  the  French,
18  July,  1806;  and  by  the  Austriaus  in  1815  and
182 1. .  Here  pope  Pius  IX.  took  refuge,  24  Nov.
1848,  and  resided  more  than  a  year.  Here  also
Francis  II.  of  Naples,  with  his  queen  and  court,
fled,  when  Garibaldi  entered  Naples,  7  Sept.  i860;
and  here  he  remained  till  the  city  was  taken  by
the  Sardinian  general  Cialdini,  13  Feb.  1861,  after
a  severe  siege,  uselessly  prolonged  by  a  French  fleet
remaining  in  the  harbour.  Cialdini  was  created
duke  of  Gaeta.

GAGGING  ACT,  properly  so  called,  meant
to  protect  the  king  and  government  from  the
harangues  of  seditious  meetings,  was  enacted  8  Dec.
1 795»  when  the  popular  mind  was  much  excited.
In  Dec.  1819,  soon  after  the  Manchester  affray,  an
act  was  parsed  for  restraining  public  meetings  and
cheap  periodical  publications;  it  was  popularly  called
"gagging  bill."  See  Six  Acts.  Statutes  coerc-
ing popular  assemblies,  particularly  in  Ireland,  have
been  also  so  designated. See  Germany,  1879.

GAIETY  THEATRE,  Strand,  opened  21  Dec.
1808,  Mr.  John  Hollingshead,  manager.

GAIKAS  AND  GALEKAS,  see  Kaffraria.

GALAPAGOS,  islands  ceried  to  the  United
States  by  Ecuador,  3  Nov.  1854,  the  British,  French,
and  other  powers  protesting  against  it.

GALATIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the
3rd  century  B.C.  the  Gauls  under  Brennus  invaded
Greece,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  conquered  the
Troas,  278  ; were  checked  by  Attalus  I.  in  a  battle


about  241  ;  and  then  settled  in  what  was  called
afterwards  GallograDcia  and  Galatia.  The  country
was  ravaged  by  Cneius  Manlius,  189  B.C.,  and  was
finally  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire,  25  B.C.,  on
the  death  of  the  king  Amyntas.  Paul's  Epistle  to
the  Galatians  was  probably  written  a.d.  58.

GALATZ  (Moravia).  The  preliminaries  of
peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey  signed  here,
II  Aug.  1791,  led  to  the  treaty  of  Jassy,  9  Jan.
1792.  The  site  of  several  conflicts,  in  which  the
Russians  defeated  the  Turks,  Nov.  1769;  10  May,
1828.

GALAXY,  see  Milky  Way.

G ALICIA,  a  province,  N.Vf.  Spam,  was  con-
quered by  D.  Junius  Brutus,  136  B.C.  and  by  the
Vandals  a.d.  419;  and  was  subdued  by  successive
invaders.  In  1065,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  I.
king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  when  his  dominions  were
divided,  his  son  Garcia  became  king  of  Galicia.
Ruling  tyrannically,  he  was  expelled  by  his  brother
Sancho ;  returned  at  his  death  in  1072  ;  was  again
expelled  by  his  brother  Alfonso,  1073  >  an(^  died  im-
prison in  1091.  Alfonso,  son  of  Urraca,  queen  of
Castile,  was  made  king  of  Galicia  by  her  in  1109.
He  defended  his  mother,  a  dissolute  woman,  against
her  husband,  Alfonso  VIL,  and  at  her  death  in
1 126,  acquired  Castile,  and  once  more  re-united  the
kingdoms.

GALICIA,  Poland.  East  Galicia  was  acquired
by  the  emperor  of  Germany  at  the  partition
in  1772;  and  West  Galicia  at  that  of  1795.
The  latter  was  ceded  to  the  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw
in  1809;  but  recovered  by  Austria  in  1815.  The-
appointment  of  count  Goluchowski,  a  Pole,  as
governor,  in  Oct.  1866,  gave  much  satisfaction  to
the  Poles,  about  2,000,000  in  this  province ;  see
Poland,  note.

Stry,  a  prosperous  town,  destroyed  by  fire  ;  loss  of  life
and  great  privation,  18  April ;  above  100  deaths
reported,  22  April,  1886.

Lisko  (about  7,000  inhabitants)  burnt,  27-28  April,  1886.

For  emigration  frauds,  see  Austria,  March,  1890.

G  ALIGN  ANT  S  WEEKLY  MESSEN-
GER, English  newspaper,  published  in  Paris ;
began  in  1814,  at  the  restoration.  William  Galig-
nani  died  Dec.  1882,  aged  84.

GALL,  ST.  (in  Switzerland).  The  abbey,
founded  in  the  7th  century,  was  surrounded  by  a
town  in  the  10th.  St.  Gall  became  a  canton  of  the
confederation  in  1815.

GALLERIES,  see  National,  Louvre,  and
Vemailles.

GALLEYS,  long  boats,  sometimes  with  sails,
with  seats  for  rowers,  varj  ing  in  number,  much
employed  by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese  till  the
16th  century.  "Galley  slaves"  were  condemned
criminals  employed  in  navigation.  In  France  they
had  a  general  of  galleys,  of  whom  the  baron  de  la
Garde  was  the  first,  1544.  The  punishment  of  the
galleys  (aalires)  was  superseded  by  the  "  travaux
forces,"  forced  labour,  regulated  by  a  law  of  1854,
the  men  being  called  "forgats."


GALLICAN  CHUECH.


424


GANGES.


GALLICAN  CHUECH,  see  Church  of
France.

A  building  for  the  Catholic  Gallican  church,  was  opened
by  father  Hyacinthe  Loyson,  9  Feb.  1879.

GALLIPOLI,  the  ancient  Callipolis,  a  sea-
port in  Turkey  in  Europe,  128  miles  west  of  Con-
stantinople. It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1357,
and  fortified  by  Bajazet  I.  The  first  division  of  the
French  and  English  armies  proceeding  against  the
Eussians  landed  here  in  March  and  April,  1854.

GALLIUM,  new  elementary  metal,  discovered
by  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran,  by  means  of  the  spectro-
scope :  reported  to  French  academy  of  sciences,
20  Sept.,  and 6  Dec.  1875.

GALOCHES,  French  for  overshoes,  formerly
of  leather ;  but  since  1843  made  of  vulcanised  India
rubber.  The  importation  of  Galoshes  was  prohibited
by  3  Edw.  IV.  c.  4  (1463).

GALVANISM  and GALVANOPLAS-

TICS,  see  under  Electricity.

GALWAY  (W.  Ireland).  The  ancient  settlers
'here  were  divided  into  thirteen  tribes,  a  distinction
:not  yet  forgotten.  It  was  conquered  by  Richard  de
Burgo  in  1232.  In  1690  Gal  way  city  declared  for
king  James,  but  was  taken  by  general  Ginckel  soon
after  the  decisive  battle  of  Aughrim,  12  July,  1691.
Here  is  one  of  the  new  colleges,  endowed  by
government,  pursuant  to  act  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  66
(1845),  inaugurated,  30  Oct.  1849,  see  Colleges  and
Ireland,  1872-3.

In  1858  the  sailing  of  mail  steam  packets  from  Galway  to
America  began  ;  but  the  subsidy  ceased  in  May,  1861,
.through  the  company's  breach  of  contract,  which
'■occasioned  much  discussion  in  parliament.  In  July,
1863,  the  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  from
Galway  to  America  was  renewed,  and  75,000^  voted  for
the  purpose.  The  scheme  was  not  successful.  On  9
Nov.  the  steamer  Anglia  struck  on  the  Black  rock,  and
the  mails  were  taken  to  Dublin.  The  last  packet  sailed
in  Feb.  1864.
The  Duke  of  Edinburgh  warmly  received  here,  middle
of  Aug.  1884.

;  GAMBIA,  West  Africa. The  proposed  ces-
sion of  Gambia  to  France  in  exchange  for  other
territories  was  opposed  in  Jan.  1876,  and  eventually-
given  up. Administrator,  R.  B.  Llewelyn  (1891).
Gambia  separated from Sierra Leone and made an

independent  colony,  22  Dec.  1888.
Chief  town,  Bathurst. Some  villages  of  a  marauding

chief  punished  for  aggressions,  about  7  Jan.  1892.
Toniataba  destroyed  after  a  battle  ;  capt.  A.  S.  Roberts
killed, 28  April ;  successful  British  expedition,  re-
ported 11  May,  1892.

GAMBOGE,  a  medicine  and  pigment,  brought
from  India  by  the  Dutch,  about  1600.  Hermann
in  1677  announced  that  it  was  derived  from  two
trees  of  Ceylon,  since  ascertained  to  belong  to  the
order  Guttifera.

G  AME  LAWS  are  a  remnant  of  the  forest
laws  imposed  by  William  the  Conqueror,  who,  to
preserve  his  gamp,  made  it  forfeiture  of  property
to  disable  a  wild  beast,  and  loss  of  eyes,  for  a  stag,
buck,  or  boar.  The  clergy  protested  against  amelio-
rations of  these  laws,  under  Henry  III.  The  first
game  act  passed  in  1496.  Game  certificates  were
first  granted  with  a  duty  in  1784.  The  Game  act
(1  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  32),  greatly  modifying  all  pre-
vious laws,  was  passed  in  183 1.  By  it  the  sale  of
game  is  legalised  at  certain  seasons.  By  the  Game
Poaching  Preventive  act,  passed  in  1862,  greatly
increased  powers  were  given  to  the  couuty  police.
Licences  to  kill  game  (3/.  a  year)  granted  for  the
year  1856-7,  28,950;  for  1865-6,  43,231;  for  1869,


54,203  ; received  for  licences, 1877-8, 196,352/.  ;

1883-4,  177,834^. ;  1887-8,  179,  143/. Convictions

under  the  game  laws  in  1869,  10,345.

Motions  for  abolition  made  annually  in  commons
by  Mr.  P.  Taylor,  lost  (160-87) . .  2  March,  1880

The  Ground  Game  act,  to  protect  farmers  from  in-
jury to  crops,  43  <fc  44  Vict.  c.  47,  passed 7  Sept. ,,

Proposed  reduction  of  licence  to  shoot  game  to  xl.
for  short  periods April,  1883

A  gaming  act  relating  to  hares  was  passed  in  . .  1892.

GAMES. Candidates for  athletic  games  in
Greece  were  dieted  on  new  cheese,  driea  figs,  and
boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat. The
sports  were  leaping, foot-races,  quoits,  wrestling,
and  boxing ; see Capitoline,  Isthmian, Olympic,
Pythian,  Secular  Games,  American  Baseball,  &c.
Gaming  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons;
the  loser  was  often  made  a  slave  to  the  winner,  and
sold  in  traffic  like  other  merchandise. Camden.
Act  prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and  inter-
dicting tennis,  cards,  dice,  bowls,  &c. ,  to  inferior
people,  except  at  Christmas  time)  ... 1541

Gaming-houses  licensed  in  London . . . . 1620
Any  person  losing,  by  betting  or  playing,  more  than
100L  at  any  one  time,  not  compellable  to  pay  the

same,  16  Chas.  II 1663

Bonds  or  other  securities  given  for  money  won  at
play  not  recoverable  ;  and  any  person  losing  more
than  10/.  may  sue  the  winner  to  recover  it  back,

9  Anne,  c.  14 1710

Act  to  prevent  excessive  and  fraudulent  gaming,
when  all  private  lotteries  and  the  games  of  faro,
basset,  and  hazard  were  suppressed  .  .  .  1739
The  profits  of  a  gaming-house  in  London  for  one
season  have  been  estimated  at  150,000^.  In  one
night  a  million  of  money  is  said  to  have  changed
hands  at  this  place.  Leigh.  A  bankrupt  was
refused  his  certificate  because  he  had  lost  5/.  at
one  time  in  gaming  ....  17  July,  1788
Three  ladies  of  quality  convicted  in  penalties  of

50L  each  for  playing  at  faro  .  .  March  11,  1797
Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  Paris  until  .  .  1838
Amended  laws  respecting  games  and  wagers,  8  &  9
Vict.  c.  109(1845);  by  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  114  (1822),  a
gaming-house  keeper  is  to  be  imprisoned  with
hard  labour  ;  and  by  2  &  3  Vict.  c.  47,  gaming-
houses may  be  entered  by  the  police,  and  all  per-
sons present  taken  into  custody . . . .  1839

Betting-houses  suppressed 1853

Public  gaming-tables  totally  suppressed  at  Wies-
baden, Homburg,  &c. See  Monaco . 31  Dec. 1S72
Mr.  Jenks,  proprietor  of  the  Park  Club  house,  and
others,  heavily  fined  for  gambling,  7  Feb.  ;  sen-
tence confirmed ....  24  June,  1884
The  clock  tower  club and institute, Newington
Butts,  a  bad  gambling  house  suppressed  ;  John
James Hunt, the  proprietor, sentenced  to  six
months'  penal  servitude ... 23  Sept.  1887
The  proprietors  of  the  Field  Club  (Mr.  Seaton)  and
of  the  Adelphi  Club  (Mr.  S.  C.  Cohen)  fined  each
500Z.  for  keeping  a  gambling  house,  London,  W.,
the  subordinates  fined  ;  the  players  discharged

20  &  23  May,  1889
Similar  prosecutions  and  penalties . . 1889-92
National anti-gambling  league begins work in
Glasgow . • April,  1891

GAMUT.  The  scale  of  musical  intervals  (com-
monly termed  do  or  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  to  which
si  was  added  afterwards),  for  which  the  first  seven
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  now  employed,  is  men-
tioned by  Guido  Aretino,  a  Tuscan  monk,  about
1025.

GANDAMAK  (orGuNDAMTIK),N.  India.  A
treaty  with  Yakoob  Khan,  ameer  of  Afghanistan,
was  signed  here  by  major  Cavagnari,  26  May,  1879,
principal  articles,  British  to  hold  Khyber  Pass,  &c.
a  British  Resident  to  be  at  Cabul,  annual  subsidy
of  60,000/.  to  the  ameer,  &c.  The  treaty  was  not
carried  out,  see  Afghanistan,  Sept.  1879.

GANGES,  the  great  sacred  river  of  N.  India,
which  rises  in  the  S.  Himalayas,  receives  several


GANGS.


425


GAS.


great  rivers,  divides  into  several  brandies,  ending  in
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  Ganges  Canal,  for  irrigating
the  country  between  the  Ganges  and  ihe  Jumna.
The  main  line  (525  miles  long)  was  opened  8  April,
1854.  The  immense  ditricu.ties  in  its  execution
were  overcome  by  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  its
engineer,  sir  Proby  Cautley.  In  Oct.  1864,  sir
Arthur  Cotton  asserted  that  the  work  was  badly
done,  and  the  investment  only  paid  3  per  cent.

GANGS,  see  Agricultural  Gangs.

GAOL  DISTEMPEE,  see  Old  Bailey.

GAOLS,  see  Prisons.

GAEDENEES'  CHEONICLE,  a  weekly
paper,  long  edited  by  Dr.  John  Lindley,  first  ap-
peared, 2  Jan.  1841.

GAEDENING.  The  first  garden,  Eden,
planted  by  God.  Gen.  ii.  The  Scriptures  abound
with  allusions  to  gardens,  particularly  the  Song  of
Solomon  and  the  prophets ;  and  Christ's  agony  took
place  in  a  garden.  Xenophon  describes  the  gardens
at  Sardis;  and  Epicurus  and  Plato  taught  in  gardens.
Theophrastus's  History  of  Plants  was  written  about
322  B.C.  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Ovid  derive  many
images  from  the  garden  (50  B.C.  to  a.d.  50) ;  and
Pliny's  Tusculan  villa  is  circumstantially  described
(about  a.d.  100).  The  Romans  introduced  garden-
ing into  Britain,  the  religious  orders  maintained  it,
and  its  cultivation  increased  in  the  16th  century,
when  many  Flemings  came  here  to  escape  the  per-
secutions of  Philip  II.  Miller's  dictionary  was  pub-
lished in  1724;  the  Horticultural  Society  {which
see)  was  established  in  1804;  Loudon's  Encyclo-
paedia of  Gardening  was  first  published  in  1822,  and
liis  Encyclopaedia  of  Plants  in  1829;  an  act  for  the
protection  of  gardens  and  ornamental  grounds  in
cities  was  passed  in  1863.  See  Botany,  Flowers,
Fruits.  Gardeners'  Eoyal  Benevolent  Institution,
founded  1838.

GAEIGLIANO,  a  river  (S.  W.  Italy).  After
long  waiting  and  refusing  to  recede  a  step,  the  great
captain  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  made  a  bridge  over
this  river,  27  Dec.  1503,  and  surprised  and  totally
defeated  the  French  army.  Gaeta  surrendered  a
few  days  after.

GAEOTTE,  a  machine  for  strangling  criminals,
used  in  Spain.  After  five  years'  interval,  a  young
woman,  her  lover,  and  an  accomplice  thus  executed
in  Madrid  for  murder,  11  April,  1888.  Many  at-
tempts to  strangle  made  by  thieves  (termed
"  garotters,")  in  the  winter  of  1862-3,  leu"  to  the
passing  of  an  act  in  July,  1863,  termed  the  "Ga-
rotting  Act,"  to  punish  these  acts  by  flogging,  which
proved  effectual.

GAETEE,  Order  of  tiie. Edward  III.,

when  at  war  with  France  and  eager  to  draw  the
be~t  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  projected  the
revival  of  king  Arthur's  round  table,  and  proclaimed
a  solemn  tilting.  On  New  Year's  day  1343-4,  ne
published  letters  of  protection  for  the  safe  coining
and  returning  of  such  foreign  knights  as  would
venture  their  reputation  at  the  jousts  and  tourna-
ments about  to  be  held.  These  took  place  23rd
April,  1344.  A  table  was  erected  in  Windsor  castle
of  200  feet  diameter,  and  the  knights  were  enter-
tained at  the  king's  expense.  In  1346  Edwaid  gave
his  garter  for  the  signal  of  a  battle  that  had  been
crowned  with  success  (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  and
being  victorious  on  sea  and  land,  and  having  David,
king  of  Scotland,  a  prisoner,  he,  in  memory  of  these
exploits,  is  said  to  have  instituted  this  order,  23
April,  1340. See  below.


Edward  III.  gave  the  garter  pre-eminence  among
the  ensigns  of  the  order  ;  it  is  of  blue  velvet  bor-
dered with  gold,  with  the  inscription  in  old
French — " Hpni  soit  qui  mnl  y  pense  "  (Evil  be  to
him  who  evil  thinks)  The  knights  are  installed
at  Windsor,  and  styled  Equites  av/rece Periscelidis,
knights  of  the  golden  garter.  Beatson.
The  order  until  king  Edward  VI. 's  time  was  called
the  order  of  St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of
England.  His  figure  on  horseback,  presented  as
holding  a  spear,  and  killing  the  dragon,  was  first
worn  by  the  knights  of  the  institution.  It  is  sus-
pended by  a  blue  ribbon  across  the  body  from  the

shoulder.

Instituted, according  to Selden, 23  April,  1344  ;

aceoi ding  to  Nicolas,  1347;  to  Ashmole  . . 1349

The  office  of  "  Garter  king  of  arms  of  Englishmen"

instituted  .  .  .  between  May  and  July,  1417
Additions  to  the  statutes  decreed  .  .  .  1421,  1423
Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted by

Edward  IV. ,  1466;  abolished ...  .  1494

Collar and George of  the order instituted by

Henry  VII about  1497

The  statutes  reformed  by  order,  28  May,  1519;

issued 23  April,  1522

The ceremonies altered in  consequence  of the

reformation 20  April,  1548

Revision  of  the  statutes 1560

The  annual  feast  of  St.  George  discontinued  .  .  1567
The  escocheon  converted  into  a  star  .  .  .  1629
The  number  of  knights  increased  by  seven  . .  1786

The  order  reconstituted ;  to  consist  of  the  sovereign,
the  prince  of  Wales,  25  knights  companions,  and
lineal  descendants  of  George  III. ,  when  elected,

17  Jan.  1805
Several  European  sovereigns  elected  . . . 1813-14
Abdul  Aziz,  sultan  of  Turkey,  invested  with  the
garter  by  the  queen  on  board  her  yacht  at  the

naval  review 17  July,  1867

The  shah  of  Persia  invested  by  the  queen  at  Wind-
sor 20  June,  1873

Alphonso  XII.  of  Spain  invested  with  the  order  at
Madrid 11  Oct.  1881

ORIGINAL KNIGHTS.

King  Edward  III. ,  sovereign.

Edward,  prince  of  Wales  (called  the  Black  Prince).

Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster.

Thomas,  earl  of  Warwick.

John,  captal  de  Buch.

Ralph,  earl  of  Stafford.

William,  earl  of  Salisbury.

Roger,  earl  of  Mortimer.

Sir  John  Lisle.

Bartholomew,  lord  Burghershe

John,  lord  Beauchamp.

John,  lord  Mohun,  of  Dunster.

Sir  Hugh  Courtenay.

Thomas,  earl  of  Kent.

John,  lord  Grey,  of  Rotherfield.

Sir  Richard  Fitz-Simon.

Sir  Miles  Stapleton.

Sir  Thomas  Wale.

•Sir  Hugh  Wrottesley.

Sir  Nele  Loryng.

Sir  John  Chandos.

Sir  James  Audeley.

SirOtho  Holand."

Sir  Henry  Earn.

Sir  Sanchet  d'Abrichecourt.

Sir  Walter  Paveley.

GAS,  in  chemistry,  a  permanently  elastic  aeri-
form fluid;  see  Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  Nitrogen,  Chlo-
rine, &c.

It  is  stated  that  Monge  and  Clouet  condensed  sul-
phurous acid  before  1800,  and  Northmore  lique-
fied chlorine 1S05

Faraday  determined  a  gas  to  be  the  vapour  of  a
volatile  liquid  existing  at  a  temperature  consider-
ably above  the  boiling  point  of  the  liquid  ;  and
that  the  condensing  points  of  different  gases  are
merely  the  boiling  points  of  the  liquids  producing
them  ;  he  by  pressure  condensed  chlorine  gas  into

a  liquid 1823

Other  gases  liquefied  by  intense  cold  and  great
pressure  (as  indicated by  Faraday) ;  oxygen  by


GASUONY


426


GATESHEAD.


Cailletet,  at  Paris,  2  Dec,  and  independently  by
Raoul  Pictet  at  Geneva . . . .22  Dec.  1877

Nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  atmospheric  air,  liquefied
by  Cailletet,  soon  after 1877-8

The  process  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Institution,
London,  by  prof.  James  Dewar . 14  June,  1878

Ozone  liquefied  by  Hautefeuille  and  Chappuis,  Paris,

Oct. 1880

Liquefied  gases  used  by  Krupp  in  casting  guns,  &c.  1884

See  Giffard's  gun,  in  article  Cannon..

Prof.  Thos.  Graham's  paper  on  the  law  of  the
diffusion  of  gases  appeared,  1834  ;  he  showed  that
platinum  and  other  metals  can  absorb  gases . . 1866

Furnaces  in  which  gases  are  used  as  fuel  invented  by
C.  W.  Siemens,  and  employed  in  glass  works,  &c. 1861

Gas  engines.  Barnett  patented  a  plan  for  em-
ploying heated  gas  as  a  motive  power  . . .  1838

Lenoir's  gas-engine,  in  which  the  motive  power  is
obtained  by  the  ignition  of  combined  gases  by
electricity 1861

143  of  these  engines  had  been  working  in  Paris  ;
and  introduced  into  England . . .  Deo.  1864

Pierre  Hugon's  gas-engine  (said  to  be  superior  to
Lenoir's,  1S71)  exhibited 1867

The  Otto-Langen  gas  engine,  exhibited  in  1876,  lias
been  superseded  by  the  Otto  Silent  Gas  Engine.

Gas  engines  have  been  greatly  improved  by  Messrs.
Crossley  Bros.,  and  are  now  so  largely  employed
that  sir  F.  Bramweil  foretold  their  eventually
superseding  steam  engines  ... 5  Sept.  t8S8

Mr.  Purnell's  gas  engine,  of  simple  construction,
driven  by  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air,  exhibited  at
"Webber  Street,  S.E Jan.  1890

Katural  gas  rising  from  the  ground  largely  em-
ployed as  fuel  at  Pittsburg,  U.S.  &c,  1884  et  seq.,
long  known  to  the  Persians,  Chinese,  and  others.

GASCONY  (S.  W.  France),  a  duchy,  part  of
Aquitaine  {which  see).

GAS  INSTITUTE.  _  The  name  assumed,  16
June,  1881,  by  the  British  Association  of  Gas
Managers,  founded  in  1863  for  the  advancing  of  gas
engineering.

GAS-LIGHTS;  theinflammable aeriform  fluid,
earburetted  hydrogen,  evolved  by  the  combu.-tion  of
coal,  was  described  by  Dr.  Clayton  in  1739.

Application  of  coal  gas  to  the  purposes  of  illumina-
tion tried  by  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Cornwall  . . . 1792

Gaslight  introduced  at  Boulton  and  Watt's  foundry
in  Birmingham 1798

Lyceum  Theatre  lit  with  gas  as  an  experiment  by
Mr.  Winsor 1803

Permanently  used  at  the  cotton-mills  of  Phillips
and  Lee,  Manchester  (1000  burners  lighted)  . 1805

Introduced  in  London,  at  Golden-lane,  16  Aug.
1807;  Pall  Mall,  1809 ;  generally  through  LondoruSi4-2o

Mr.  David  Pollock,  father  of  the  late  chief  baron,
was  governor  of  the  first  "  chartered"  gas  com-
pany which  began  in  1810  (called  "  the  gas  light
and  coke  company.") 1812

Gas  first  used  in  Dublin,  1818  ;  the  streets  generally
lighted Oct. 1825

Gas-lighting  introduced  in  Paris,  1819  ;  ten  gas
companies  in  Paris  .... July,  1865

Sydney,  in  Australia,  was  lit  witli  gas  25  May,  1841

The  sale  of  gas  is  regulated  by  acts  passed  in . . i8to

The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  extend  upwards
of  2000  miles,  and  are  daily  increasing.  It  was
said  in  i860,  that  of  the  gas  supply  of  London  a
leakage  of  9  per  cent,  took  place  through  the
faulty  .joints  of  the  pipes.

Processes  to  obtain  illuminating  gas  from  water
have  been  patented  by  Cruickshanks  (1839),  White
(1849),  ana  others.  Water-gas  made  by  Buck's
process  mixed  with  ordinary  gas  tried  and  re-
ported successful  at  Chichester,  Aug.  1873  ;  at
Harrogate Aug.  1890

Water-gas  employed  in  metallurgy  by  Mr.  Samson
Fox  at  Leeds,  reported .... Sept. „

A  combination  of  various  processes  set  up  by  Mr.
Samson  Fox  at  the  Leeds  forge  works  29  Sept.
1887,  and  reported  successful  . . . Jan.  1889

Gas-meters  patented  by  John  Malam  (1820),  sir  W.
Congreve  (1824),  Samuel  Clegg  (1830),  Nathan
Defries  (1838),  and  others


Explosion  of  a  large  gasometer  at  the  London  Gas-
light Company's  works  at  Nine-elms  ;  10  persons
killed,  and  many  injured  (first  accident  of  the
kind) 31  Oct.  1863

Moscow  first  lit  with  gas ... 27  Dee. 1866

An  economical  gas  produced  from  bitumen  at
Woolwich  arsenal Jan.  1868

Central  Gas  Company,  London,  established . . 1S49

Gas  successfully  tried  as  fuel  for  the  generation  of
steam  by  Jackson's  patent . . . April,  1868

The  Central  Gas  company  robbed  of  about  70,000?.
by  Benjamin  Higgs,  a  clerk  ;  discovered, April,  1869

Gas-light  tried  at  Howth  lighthouse,  near  Dublin,

July, „

Gasworks  clauses  act  passed . .  13  July,  1871

By  the  London  gas  act,  passed  13  July,  1868,  ordi-
nary gas  charged  3s.  gel.  the  1000  cubic  feet,  after
1  Jan.  1870.  The  charges  raised  on  account  of
dearness  of  coal  and  labour,  Jan.  1874

Strike  of  London  gas-stokers,  2400  out,  2  Dec.  ;  the
inconvenience  met  by  great  exertion,  2-6  Dec.  ;
several  tried  and  imprisoned . . . Dec. 1872

Gas  supply  of  London  :  receipts  1872,  2,133,000?.  ;
1873,  2,544,000?.

Capital  of  metropolitan  companies,  12,681,818?.
("Chartered  Company,"  9,096,771?.);  total  annual
income,  3,926,769?.  (average  profit,  9?.  3s.  51?.  per
cent.) J879

Street  gas  lit  by  electricity,  by  Mr.  St.  G.  Lane
Fox's  method  ;  a  trial,  partially  successful,  Pall
Mail,  &c 13  April,  1878

Depression  in  gas  companies  through  prospects  of
electric  light,  Oct.  1878 ;  recovery  . . . 1879-80

Explosions  of  gas-mains  near  Bedford-street,  Totten-
ham-eourt-road,  London ;  2  killed ;  others  in-
jured ;  much  property  destroyed . . 5  July,  1880

"Koh-i-noor  Gas,"  produced  from  shale  oil  by
Messrs.  Rogers,  of  Watford,  (said  to  be  pure
and  cheap)  1881-3

Mr.  West's  and  Mr.  Cooper's  inventions  for  the
economical  production  of  pure  coal  gas,  with
reduction  of  human  labour,  at  Tunbridge  wells
gasworks Jan.  et  seq.  1884

The  Bower-lamp,  a  combination  of  the  Grimstone
patents,  on  the  regenerative  principle,  (the  pro-
ducts of  combustion  being  burned),  invented  by
Messrs.  G.  Bower  and  son,  St.  Neots,  Hunts .  i884

Mr.  Lawrence's  gas  economizer,  professing  to
increase  light  and  diminish  expense,  exhibited
by  a  company 29  Nov.  1888

Strikes  of  gas-stokers  in  Southwark  and  Manchester
successfully  resisted . . . .12  Dec.  1889
See  Strikes,  Feb.  1890.

The  London  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company  (which
illuminates  the  metropolis  the  north  of  the
Thames)  makes  great  preparations  against  a  pos-
sible strike.  A  conference  with  the  Union  ;  no
strike  or  lockout  ensues .... 3  Oct.  1890

GAS  MUSIC,  see  PyropJwne.

GASTEIN  (Salzburg,  Austria).  The  long  dis-
cussion between  Austria  and  Prussia  respecting  the
disposal  of  the  duchies  conquered  from  Denmark,
was  closed  by  a  provisional  convention  signed  here
by  their  ministers  (Blum  for  Austria  and  Bismarck
for  Prussia)  14  Aug.  1865.  This  convention  was
severely  censured  by  the  other  powei's  and  abrogated
in  1866.

Austria  was  to  have  the  temporary  government  of  Hol-
stein,  and  Prussia  that  of  Sleswig  ;  the  establishment
of  a  German  fleet  was  proposed,  with  Kiel  as  a  Federal
harbour,  held  by  Prussia  ;  Lauenburg  was  absolutely
ceded  to  Prussia,  and  the  king  was  to  pay  Austria  as  a
compensation  2,500,000  Danish  dollai-s.
Emperors  of  Austria  arid  Germany  met  at  Gastein

Aug.  1886
GATE-MEETINGS,  see  Races.

GATES,  see  London  Gates.

GATESHEAD,  a  borough  in  Durham,  on  the
Tyne,  opposite  Newcastle.  At  Gateshead-fell,
William  I.  defeated  Edgar  Atheling  and  his  Scotch
auxiliaries  in  1068.  Gateshead  was  made  a  par-
liamentary borough  by  the  reform  act  in  1832. Re-


GATLING GUN.


427


GEMS.


turns  one  member  (1885).  Population,  i88r,
65,803;  1891,85,709.

Between  twelve  and  one  o'clock,  5,  6  Oct.  1854,  a  fire
broke  out  in  a  worsted  manufactory  here,  which  set
flre  to  a  bond  warehouse  containing  a  great  quantity  of
nitre,  sulphur,  &c. ,  causing  a  terrific  explosion,  felt  at
nearly  twenty  miles'  distance,  and  totally  destroying
many  buildings,  and  burying  many  persons  in  the
ruins.  At  the  moment  of  the  explosion,  large  masses
of  blazing  materials  flew  over  the  Tyne  and  set  fire  to
many  warehouses  in  Newcastle.  About  fifty  lives  were
lost,  and  very  many  persons  were  seriously  wounded.
The  damage  was  estimated  at  about  a  million  pounds.

Collapse  of  chemical  condensers  through  tire  at  the  Friar
Goose  chemical  works,  on  the  Tyne,  near  Gateshead  ;
seven  men  killed,  26  July,  1891.  Estimated  loss
about  10,000/.

At  the  Theatre  Royal,  by  a  panic  caused  by  an  alarm  of
fire,  11  persons,  chiefly  young,  are  crushed  to  death  ;
the  exit  from  the  gallery  was  insufficient,  26  Dec.  1891.

GATLING GUN ox BATTERY. An

American  invention  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1867.  It
is  intended  to  discharge  at  once  a  number  of  pro-
jectiles smaller  than  the  shells  of  field  guns,  and  it
has  as  many  locks  as  barrel-.  It  was  tried  at  Shoe-
buryness  and  rejected  as  inferior  to  a  field  gun  firing
shrapnel.  A  powder  to  be  used  in  the  Gatling.  in-
vented by  11.  Pertuiset,  was  tried  in  Loudon,
Aug.  1870.

GAUGAMELA,  see  Arbela.

GAUGES  (in  railways).  Much  discussion
(termed  '"the  battle  of  the  gauges")  began  among
engineers  about  1833.  Mr.  I.  M.  Brunei  approved
of  the  broad  gauge,  adopted  on  the  Great  Western
Railway  ;  and  Ai r.  K.  Stephenson,  Joseph  Locke,
and  others,  chose  the  narrow*.  A  2  foot  gauge
was  recommended  in  Feb.  1870,  having  Leon
successful  on  the  Festiniog  railway,  Wales ;
■with  Robt.  Fairlie's  ''bogie"  engine  was  much
adopted  at  home  and  abroad.  About  2CO  miles  of
the  S.W.  lines  of  the  Great  Western  were  altered
from  the  broad  to  the  narrow  gauge  in  a  few  days,
June,  1874,  and  on  20-23  May,  1892,  the  broad
gauge  was  totally  superseded  on  the  Great  Western.

GAUGING,  -measuring  I  he  contents  of  any
vessel  of  capacity,  with  lespectto  wine  and  other
liquids,  was  established  by  a  law,  27Edw.  III.  1352.

GAUL  AND  GAULS.  Gallia,  the  ancient
name  of  France  and  Belgium.  The  Gauls  termed
by  the  Greeks  Galatie,  by  the-Romans,  Galli  or
Celtse,  came  originally  from  Asia,  and  invading
Eastern  Europe,  were  driven  westward,  and  settled
in  Spain  (in  Gulicia),  North  Italy  (Gallia  Cisalpina),
France  and  Belgium  (Gallia  Transalpina),  and  the
British  isles  (the  lands  of  the  Cymry  or  Gaels).

B.C.

The  Phocseans  found  Massilia,  now  Marseilles . 600

The  Galli  Senones  under  Brennus  defeat  the  Romans

at  the  river  Allia,  and  sack  Home,  but  are  repulsed

from  the  Capitol,  accept  a  ransom  and  retire  ;  a

fabulous  legend  asserts  that  they  were  defeated

and  expelled  by  Camillas 300

Defeated 360

The  Gauls  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Sentinuni  .  295
The  Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium  ;

nearly  exterminated  by  Dolabella . . . . 2S3
The  Gauls  overrun  Northern  Greece,  280  B.C.  ;  are
beaten  at  Delphi,  279  ;  and  by  Antigonus,  king  of

Macedon 2-/3

The  Gauls  defeated  with  great  slaughter  near  Pisa . 225
The  Insubres  totally  overthrown  by  Marcellus,  and
their  king  Viridomarus  slain  ..... 222

They  assist  Hannibal 218,  &e.

The  Romans  conquer  Gallia  Cisalpina,  220;  invade

Gallia  Transalpina,  with  varied  success.  .  121-58
They  colonise  Aix,  123  B.C. ;  and  Narbonne . . 118


Julius  Csesar  subdues  Gaul  in  8  campaigns . .  58-50
Lyons  (Lugdununi)  founded  . .  41

A.V.

Druids'  religion  proscribed  by  Claudius  ...  43,
Adrian  visits  and  favours  Gaul,  hence  called  Re-
storer of  the  Gauls 120

Introduction  of  Christianity 160

Christians  persecuted . . 177,  202,  257,  286,  288;
The  Franks  and  others  defeated  by  Aurelian  . .  241
And  by  Probus,  275,  277  ;  who  introduces  the  cul-
ture of  the  vine 280

Maximian  defeats  the  Franks 281

Constantine  proclaimed  emperor  of  Gaul  .  .  .  306
Julian  arrives  to  relieve  Gaul,  desolated  by  bar-
barians ;  defeats  the  Alemanni  at  Strasburg  .  357
Julian  proclaimed  emperor  at  Paris,  360;  dies  .  .  363,
Gaul  harassed  by  the  Alemanni  .  .  .  365-377
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians,

Franks,  Visigoths,  &e 378-450

Clodion,  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks,  invades  Gaul ;

is  defeated  by  Aetius 447

The  Iluns  under  Attila  defeated by Aetius  near

Chalons 451

iEgidius,  the  Roman  commander,  murdered . .  464
Childeric  the  Frank  takes  Paris ....,,
All  Gaul,  west  of  the  Rhone,  ceded to the  Visi-
goths 475

End  of  the  Roman  empire  of  the  West,  and  estab-
lishment of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks . .  476
(See  France.)

GAUNTLET,  an  iron  glove,  first  introduced  m
the  13th  century,  perhaps  about  1225.  It  was-
commonly  thrown  down  as  a  challenge  to  an
adversary.

GAUZE,  a  fabric  much  prized  among  the
Roman  people.  "  Brocades  and  damasks  and  tab-
bies and  gauzes  ha\  e  been  lately  brought  over  "  (to
Ireland).  Lean  Swift,  in  1698.  The  manufacture
of  gauze  and  articles  of  a  light  fabric  at  Paisley-,  in
Scotland,  began  about  1759.

GAVEL-KIND  (derived  from  the  Saxon  gif
eal  ci/n,  "give  ail  suitably;"  or  from  gafolcynd,
and  yielding  rent),  the  custom  in  Kent  of  dividing
paternal  estates  in  land,  the  wives  to  have  half,  the
rest  equally  among  male  children,  without  any  dis-
tinction, 550.  By  the  Irish  law  of  gavel-kind,  even
bastards  inherited.  Davies.  Not  only  the  lands  of
the  father  were  equally  divided  among  all  his  sons,
but  the  lands  of  the  brother  also  among  all  his-
brethren,  if  he  had  no  issue  of  his  own. Law  Lict.

GAZA,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  of  which  Sam-
son carried  off  the  gates  about  1120  B.C.  {Judges
xvi.)  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  after  a  long  siege,
332;  and  near  to  it  Ptolemy  defeated  Demetrius-
l'olioreetes,  312  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  Saladin  a.d.
1170;  by  Bonaparte,  March,  1799;  and  by  the
Egyptians  under  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1831.

GAZETTES,  see  Newspapers.

GELHEIM,  near  Worms,  central  Germany.
Here  the  emperor  Adolphus  of  Nassau  was  de-
feated and  slain  by  his  rival  Albert  I.  of  Austria,
2  July,  1298.

GEMAEA  or  GHEMARA,  see  Talmud.

GEMS. The  Greeks  excelled  in  cutting  precious
stones,  and  many  ancient  specimens  remain. The
art  was  revived  in  Italy  in the  15th  century. In
Feb. 18G0,  Ilerz's  collection  of  gems  was  sold  for
10,000/. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems" ap-
peared in  i860,  and  his "Natural  History  of  Pre-
cious Stones  and  Gems"  in  1S65. Dr.  A.  Billing's
"  Science of  Gems," 1868. Artificial  gems  have-
been produced  by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville,
W'ohler,  and  others),  1S58-65.
The  duke  of  Marlborough's  collection, valued at
60,000/., sold  by  auction  to -Mr. Bromilow  for
36,750/ 28  J  une,  1875


GENEALOGY.


428


GENOA.


GENEALOGY,  from  the  Greek  genea,  birth,
descent.  The  earliest  pedigrees  are  contained  in
the  5th,  10th,  and  nth  chapters  of  Genesis.  The
first  book  of  Chronicles  contains  many  genealogies.
The  pedigree  of  Christ  is  given  in  Matt.  i.  and
Lulce  iii.  Man}r  books  on  the  subject  have  been
published  in  all  European  countries  ;  one  at  Magde-
burg, Theatrum  Genealogicum,  by  Henninges,  in
1598.  Anderson,  Royal  Genealogies,  London,  1732.
Sims'  Manual  for  the  Genealogist,  &c,  1888.  will
be  found  a  useful  guide.  The  works  of  Collins
(1756  et  &eq.),  Edmondson  (1764-84),  and  Nicolas
(1825  and  1857),  on  the  British  peerage,  are  highly
esteemed.  The  Genealogical  society,  London,  estab-
lished in  1853.  "  The  Genealogist,"  published
quarterly,  began  1875.  "The  Genealogist's  Guide  to
Printed  Pedigrees,"  by  George  W.  Marshall,  pub-
lished in  1879.

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY,  see  Church  of
Scotland.

GENERAL  COUNCILS,  WARRANTS,

see  Councils,  Warrants.

GENERALS.  Matthew  de  Montmorency
was  the  first  general  of  the  French  armies,  1203.
Henault.  Balzac  states  that  cardinal  Richelieu
coined  the  word  Generalissimo,  upon  his  taking  the
supreme  command  of  the  French  armies  in  Italy,
in  1629.  Ulysses  Grant  was  the  first  general  of  the
army  of  the  United  States  of  America,  so  styled  in
1S66;  see  Commanders-in-Chief.

GENERATION  (in  Chronology),  the  interval
of  time  between  the  birth  of  a  father  and  the  birth
of  his  child:  ^  years  are  allowed  for  the  average
length  of  a  generation.  Harvey's  thesis  "  Oinne
vivum  ex  ovo  "  (Every  living  being  springs  from  an
egg),  has  been  disproved  by  the  researches  of  Von
Sebold  and  others. See  Spontaneous.

GENEVA,  a  town  of  the  Allobroges,  a  Gallic
tribe,  58  B.C. ;  became  part  of  the  empire  of  Charle-
magne, about  a.d.  800;  and  capital  of  the  kingdom
of  Burgundy,  426.

The  Republic  founded  in 1512

Emancipated  from  Savoy 1526

Calvin  settled  here,  and  obtaining  much  influence,
Geneva  was  termed  the  "  Rome  of  Calvinism  "

about  1536
Through  him  Servetus  burnt  for  heresy, 27  Oct. 1553
Geneva  allied  to  the  Swiss  Cantons . . . . 1584
Insurrection,  Feb.  1781  ;  about  1000  Genevcse,  in
consequence,  applied,  in 1782,  to  earl  Temple,
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  for  permission  to  settle
in that country : the  Irish  parliament voted
5o,oooZ.  to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  journey,
and  to  purchase  them lands near  Waterford.
Many  of  the  fugitives  came  to  Ireland  in  July,
1783  ;  but  they  soon  after  abandoned  it ;  many

Genevese  settled  in  England 1784

A revolution  ; executions and imprisonments,

July,  1794
Geneva  incorporated  with  France . 26  April,  1798
Admitted  into  the  Swiss  Confederation, 30  Dec. 1813
The  constitution  made  more  democratic . . . 1846
Revolution,  through  an  endeavour  of  the  Catholic
cantons  to  introduce  Jesuits  as  teachers  ;  a  pro-
visional government  set  up ... 7  Oct. 1848
[The  scheme  was  withdrawn.]
About  50  persons  from  Geneva  land  at  Thonon  and
Evian,  to  set  up  the  Swiss  flag;  but  are  brought
back  by  Swiss  troops  .... 30  Mar.  i860
Election  riots,  with  loss  of  life,  through  the  indis-
cretion of  M.  Fazy 22  Aug.  1864

49th annual  meeting  of the  Helvetic  Society  of

National  Sciences  held  .  .  .  21-23  Aug.  1865
Violent peace congress  —  Garibaldi present,

12  Sept.  1867
The  Alabama  arbitration  commission  met ;  received
the  cases  and  adjourned  to  15  June,  1872,  18  Dec.  1871


1872

1873

1875
1878

1879


Formal  meeting  of  the  commission  (see  Alabama),

15  June,
Monsignor  Mermillod,  nominated  bishop  of  Geneva

(in  the  diocese  of  the  bishop  of  Lausanne),  and

vicar  apostolic  ; his  arrest  proposed, 2 Feb.  ;

ordered  to  quit,  if  he  will  not  submit  to  the  civil

government  by  15  Feb.  he  is  expelled  17  Feb.
Geneva  visited  by  the  shah  .  .  .  July,
The  ex-duke  of  Brunswick  dies  here  and  bequeaths

his  vast  property  (above  764,0002.)  to  the  city  18  Au;
Violent  hail  storm  ;  great  destruction  of  glass  and

crops 7,  8  July,

Rousseau  centenary  celebrated  .  .  2  July,
The  duke  of  Brunswick's  remains  placed  in  the

grand  mausoleum  .... 7  Sept.

Riots  through  Salvation  army  . Jan. -Sept.

Collision  of  steam  boats  on  the  lake,  20  persons

drowned 23  Nov.

Explosion  of  a  boiler  on  the  steamer  Mont  Blanc

on  the  lake  ;  26  pei  sons  perish  .  .  q  July,
Population,  1888  :  Canton,  105,509  ;  City,  &c.,  71,8c


GENEVA  CONVENTION,  for  the  succour
of  the  wounded  in  time  of  active  warfare.  Having
been  a  witness  of  the  horrors  of  the  battle-field  of
Solferino,  24  June,  1859,  M.  Henri  Dunant,  a
S«iss,  published  his  experiences,  which  induced
the  Societe  Genevoise  d'  Utilite  Publique  in  Feb.
1863  to  discuss  the  question  whether  relief  societies
might  not  be  formed  in  time  of  peace  to  help  the
wounded  in  time  of  war  by  means  of  qualified  volun-
teers. At  an  international  conference  held  26  Oct.
1863,  fourteen  governments,  including  Great  Britain,
France,  Austria,  Prussia,  Italy,  and  Kussia,  were
represented  by  delegates.  The  propositions  then
drawn  up  were  accepted  as  an  international  code  by
a  congress  which  met  at  Geneva,  8  Aug.  1864,  and
on  22  Aug.  a  convention  was  signed  by  twelve  of
the  delegates,  and  it  was  eventually  adopted  by  all
civilised  powers  except  the  United'  States.  Inter-
national conferences  were  held  at  Paris  in  1867  and
at  Berlin  in  1869  for  further  developing  in  a  practi-
cal manner  the  objects  of  the  Geneva  conference.
The  International  Society  (termed  "the  Red  Cross
Society"),  established  in  consequence  of  these  pro-
ceedings was  very  energetic  in  relieving  the  wounded
and  sick  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in  1870,
its  flag  being  recognised  as  neutral.  See  jLid  to
Sick  and  Wounded.  Above  13,000  volunteers  said
to  be  employed  in  attending  the  sick  and  wounded,
Sept.—  Dec,  1870.  At  a  meeting  in  London,  6  Aug.,
1872,  M.  Dunant  proposed  a  plan  for  the  uniform
treatment  of  prisoners  of  war.

GENOA,  the  ancient  Genua  (N.  Italy).  Its
inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the
Romans,  115  B.C.  It  partook  of  the  revolutions  of
the  Roman  empire. Population,  1890,  206,485.

Genoa  becomes  a  free  commercial  state . about  1000

Frequent  wars  with  Pisa 1070- 1284

Frederick  II. captures  22  galleys,  and  vainly  be-
sieges Genoa 1241

The  families  of  Doria  and  Spinola  obtain  ascendancy,

about  1270
The  Genoese  destroy  the  naval  power  of  Pisa  at

Melora  (which  see) .... 6  Aug. 1284
Frequent  wars  with  Venice . . 1218-32  ;  1293-99
Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed
itains


cap'


1335


Simon  Boecanegra  made  the  first  doge,  1339 :  set

aside  by  the  nobles,  1344;  re-appointed  . . .  1356
Great  discord  ;  many  doges  appointed . . . 1394
Genoa  successively  under  protection  of  France,
1396;  of  Naples,  1410;  of  Milan,  1419  ;  losing  and


regaining  freedom


1421-1512


Sacked  by  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  under  Prosper
Colonna 1522

Andrew  Doria  deserts  the  French  service,  and
restores  the  independence  of  his  country . . 1528

Genoa  bombarded  by  the  French . . May,  1684

By  the  British Sept. 1745


GENS-D'AEMES.


429


GEOLOGY.


1746
1747
1750
1797


1800
1805
1814


1849


Taken  by  the  imperialists,  who  are  soon  after  ex-
pelled Sept.

Another  siege  raised .... 10  June,

The  celebrated  bank  failed

Genoa  made  the  Ligurian  republic  . . May,

The  city,  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian
army,  until  literally  starved,  evacuated  by  capitu-
lation, 5  June ;  it  was  surrendered  to  the  French,
soon  after  their  victory  at  Marengo . 14  June,
Genoa  annexed  to  the  French  empire  .  4  June,

Surrenders  to  the  English  and  Sicilians 18  April,
United  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  . . .  Dec.
The  city  seized  by  insurgents,  who,  after  a  murder-
ous straggle,  drove  out  the  garrison  and  pro-
claimed the  Ligurian  republic,  3  April ;  but  sur-
rendered to  general  La  Marmora . . 11  April,
Columbus's  first  voyage,  1492,  celebrated . Sept.

GENS-D'AEMES  were  anciently  the  king's
horse-guards  only,  but  afterwards  the  king's gardes-
du-corps ;  the  musqueteers  and  light  horse  were
reckoned  among  them.  There  was  also  a  company
of  gentlemen  (whose  number  was  about  250)  bearing
this  name.  Scots  guards  were  about  the  persons  of
the  kings  of  France  from  the  time  of  St.  Louis,
who  reigned  in  1226.  They  were  organised  as  a
rojral  corps  by  Charles  VII.  about  1441  ;  the  younger
sons  of  Scottish  nobles  being  usually  the  captains.
The  name  gens-d' amies  was  afterwards  given  to  the
police  ;  but  becoming  obnoxious,  was  changed  to
"  municipal  guard"  in  1830.

GENTLEMAN  (from  gentilis,  of  a.  yens,  a  race
or  clan).  The  Gauls  observing  that  during  the
empire  of  the  Komans,  the  scutarii  and  gentiles  had
the  best  appointments  of  all  the  soldiers,  applied  to
them  the  terms  ecuyers  and  gentilshomines.  This
distinction  of  gentlemen  was  much  in  use  in  Eng-
land, and  was  given  to  the  well-descended  about
1430.  Sidney.  Gentlemen  by  blood  were  those
who  could  show  four  descents  from  a  gentleman
who  had  been  created  bj'  the  king  by  letters  patent.

GENTLEMEN- AT-AEMS  (formerly  styled
the  Band  of  Gentlemen  Pensioners)  is  the  oldest
corps  in  England,  with  the  exception  of  the  Yeomen
of  the  Guard.  The  band  was  instituted  by  Henry
VIII.  in  1509,  and  was  originally  composed  entirely
of  gentlemen  of  noble  blood,  whom  he  named  his
pensioners  or  spears.  William  IV.  commanded
that  it  should  be  called  his  majesty's  honour-
able corps  of  gentlemen-at-arms,  7  March,  1834.
Curling.

GENTLEWOMEN'S  SELF-HELP  IN-
STITUTION, London,  established  by  the  earl  of
Shaftesbury,  duchess  of  Sutherland,  and  others,
May,  1870.

GEODESY  (from  daio,  I  divide),  the  art  of
measuring  the  surface  and  determining  the  figure
of  the  earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke's  "Geodesy,"
published  1880. See  Latitude.
The  7th  International  Geodetic congress  met  at
Rome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It  recommended the
international  unification  of  the  hour,  and  longi-
tude  with  Greenwich. An  international con-
ference of  40  delegates  met  at  Washington,  1  Oct.,
president Adm. Rogers,  agree to recommend
Greenwich  as  prime  meridian  ;  France  and  Brazil

abstain 13  Oct.  1884

The  terms  of  a  universal  day  were  also  agreed  upon

t  Nov. ,,
International  geodetic  conference met  at  Berlin
27  Oct.  1886  ;  met  at  Salzburg,  17  Sept.  1888  ;  at
Paris 3  Oct.  1889

GEOGEAPHY.  The  first  geographical  re-
cords are  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  in  the  book  of
Joshua.  Homer  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as
representing  the  earth  surrounded  by  the  sea,  and
also  the  countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the  Archi-


pelago, and  site  of  Troy.  Iliad.  The  priests  taught
that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Dclphos  was  the  centre
of  the  world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the
inventor  of  geographical  maps,  about  568  B.C.
Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to  a
mathematical  basis,  about  135  B.C.  Strabo,  the
great  Greek  geographer,  lived  71-14  B.C.  Ptolemy
flourished  about  139  a.d.  The  science  was  brought
to  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain,
about  1240.  Lenglet.*  Maps  and  charts  were  intro-
duced into  England  by  Bartholomew  Columbus  to
illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western
continent,  1489.  Geography  is  now  divided  into
mathematical,  physical,  and  political,  and  its  study
has  been  greatly  promoted  during  the  present
century  by  expeditions  at  the  expense  of  various
governments  and  societies.  The  Royal  Geographical
Society  of  London  was  established  in  1830 ;  that  of
Paris  in  182 1.  The  Geographical  Society's  exhi-
bition opened  by  the  marquis  of  Lome,  9  Dec.  1885.
The  society  issued  a  circular  for  promoting  a  more-
uniform  spelling  of  geographical  names,  Dec.  1891.
— See  Africa,  North  West  1'assage,  §-c.
An  international  congress  of  geographers  held  at
Antwerp  in  1871 ;  2.  at  Paris,  3  Aug.  1875  ;  3.  at
Venice,  15  Sept.  1881  ;  4.  Paris,  6-11  Aug.  1889  ;

5.  Berne 10-14  Aug.  i8gr

Dr.  August  Heinrich  Petermann,  founder  and  edi-
tor of  the  celebrated  "  Mittheilungen  fiber  wich-
tige  neue  Erforsehungen  auf  der  Gesamnitgebiete
der  Geographie"  in  1855,  and  an  eminent  carto-
grapher, died 26  Sept.  1878

A  congress  on  commercial  geography  met  at  Brussels,

Oct.  1879
Mr.  E.  H.  Bunbury's  "History  of  Ancient  Geo-
graphy among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  published
1879.  He  refers  especially  to  Hecatajus,  Hero-
dotus, Hanno,  Pytheas  (discoverer  of  Britain) ;
Eratosthenes  (born  B.C.  276)  made  a  map  ;  and
to  Ptolemy,  about  a.d.  139.
E  A.  Freeman's  "Historical  Geography  of  Europe,"

published 1S8'i

65  geographical  societies  in  the  world  . . Jan. ,,
British  Commercial  Geographical  Society  ;  founded
at the mansion  house,  London,  15  July, met

27  Oct.  1884
Scottish  Geographical  Society,  Edinburgh,  inaugu-
rated 3  Dec. ,,

Manchester  Geographical  Society  established Jan.  1885.
Sudden  death  of  the  great  Russian  explorer,  gen.
Prjevalsky  at  Vernoje  in  Asia,  announced  2  Nov.  1888'

GEOK  TEPE,  a  strong  Turkoman  fortress  ;.
see  Russia,  1879-81.

GEOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  earth,  is  said
to  have  been  cultivated  in  China  before  the  Chris-
tian era,  and  occupied  the  attention  of  Aristotle,
Theophrastus,  Pliny,  Avicenna,  and  the  Arabian
writers.

In  T574  Mercati  wrote  concerning  the  fossils  in  the  pope's.
museum  :  Oesalpino  Majoli,  and  others  (1597),  Steno
(1669),  Scilla  (1670),  Quirini  (1676),  Plot  and  Lister
(1678),  Leibnitz  (16S0)  recorded  observations,  and  put
forth  theories  on  the  various  changes  in  the  crust  of
the  earth.
Hooke  (1668),  in  his  work  on  Earthquakes,  said  that
fossils,  "  as  monuments  of  nature,  were  more  certain
tokens  of  antiquity  than  coins  or  medals,  and  though
difficult,  it  would  not  be  impossible  to  raise  a  chrono-
logy out  of  them. "
Burnet's "Theory of the Earth," appeared in 1690,.

Winston's  in  1696.
Button's  geological  views  (1749)  Were  censured  by  the
Sorbonne  in  1751,  and  recanted  inconsequence.  The
principle  he  renounced  was  that  the  present  condition
of  the  earth  is  due  to  secondary  causes,  and  th.it  these
same  causes  will  produce  further  changes.  His  more
eminent  fellow-labourers  and  successors  were  (icsnei
(1758),  Michell  (1760),  Raspe  (1762-73),  Pallas  and
Saussure  (1793-1800).
Werner  (1775)  ascribed  all  rocks  to  an  aqueous  origin,
and  even  denied  the  existence  of  volcanoes  in  primitive


GEOLOGY.


430


GEOLOGY.


geological  times,  and  had  many  followers,  Kirwan,  De
Luc,  &c— Hutton  (1788)  supported  by  Playfair  (1801)
warmly  opposed  Werner's  views,  and  asserted  that  the
principal  changes  in  the  earth's  crust  are  due  to  the
energy  of  fire.  The  rival  parties  were  hence  termed
Neptunists  and  Vulcanists.

JUr.  A.  Geikie  and  other  eminent  modern  geologists
ascribed  the  origin  of  the  landscape  features  of  the
earth  chiefly  to  denudation  by  the  action  of  water
1865  et  seq.  '

William  Smith,  the  father  of  British  geology  (who  had
walked  over  a  large  part  of  England)  drew  up  a  Tabular
View  of  British  Strata,  in  1799,  and  published  it  and
liis  Geological  Map  of  England  and  Wales,  1812-15  ;
died  28  Aug.  1839.  The  Rev.  Adam  Sedgwick,  another
father,  died  27  Jan.  1873,  aged  87.  Sir  Charles  Lyell,
died  22  Feb.  1875.

In  1803  the  Royal  Institution  possessed  the  best  geologi-
cal collection  in  London,  collected  by  H.  Davy,  C.
Hatchett,  and  others  ;  the  proposal  of  sir  John  St.
Aubyn,  sir  Abraham  Hume,  and  the  right  lion.  C.  F.
Greville,  to  aid  the  government,  in  establishing  a
school  of  mines  there  in  1804-7,  was  declined,  13  Nov.

in  1807  the  Geological  Society  of  London  was  established.
By  collecting  a  great  mass  of  new  facts,  it  greatly
tended  to  check  the  disposition  to  theorise,  and  led  to
the  introduction  of  views  midway  between  those  of
Werner  and  Hutton.

The  Geological  Society  of  Dublin,  1832  ;  of  Edinburgh,
1834;  of  France,  1830;  of  Germany,  1848.

In  1835  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Henry)  De  la  Beche  suggested
the  establishment  of  the  present  Museum  of  Geology,
which  began  at  Craig's-court,  and  which  was  removed
to  its  present  position  in  Jermyn-street.  To  him  are
also  due  the  valuable  geological  maps  formed  on  the
ordnance  survey.  The  building  was  erected  by  Mr.
Pennethorne,  and  formally  opened  by  the  prince  con-
sort, 14  May,  1851.  Attached  to  the  Museum  are  the
Mining  Records  office,  a  lecture  theatre,  laboratories,
&c.  Sir  H.  De  la  Beche,  the  first  director,  died  13
April,  1855  ;  succeeded  by  sir  Roderick  Murchison,
who  died  22  Oct.  1871 ;  succeeded  by  professor(  after-
wards sir)  A.  C.  Ramsay,  March,  1872,  died  9  Dec.
1891  ;  by  Archibald  Geikie,  1881,  knt.,  1891.

A  great  many  maps  have  been  published,  with  memoirs.
The  survey  of  England  on  the  scale  of  an  inch  to  a
mile,  was  completed  in  Jan.  1884.  Some  maps  have
been  made  on  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile.  The
surveys  of Scotland and Ireland are in progress

A  similar  institution  was  established  at  Calcutta  by  the

E.  I.  Company  in  1840.  .

International  geological  congress  originated  at  the
Buffalo  meeting  of  the  American  association  for  the
advancement  of  science  in  1876  ;  met  at  Paris  1878  ;
Bologna,  26  Sept.  1881 ;  Berlin,  29  Sept.  1885  ;  London,
17  Sept.  1888.
The  English  standard  works  on  geology  at  the  present
time  are  those  of  Lyell,  Murchison,  Phillips,  De  la
Beche,  Mantell,  Ansted,  and  Geikie.
Cuvier  and  Brongniart's  work  on  Geology  of  Paris,  1808,

et  seq.
L.  Agassiz,  "  Poissons  Fossiles, 1833-45.  ,..,-,

The  strata  composing  the  earth's  crust  may  be  divided

into  two  great  classes  :
J Those  generally  attributed  to  the  agency  of  water  ;
II.  To  the  action  of  tire  :  which  may  be  subdivided  as
follows  :—
Aqueous  formations,  stratified,  rarely  crystalline  :—
Sedimentary  or  fossiliferous  rocks.
Metamorphic  or  unfossiliferous.
Igneous  formations,  unstratitied,  crystalline  :—
Volcanic,  as  basalt,  &c.
Plutonic,  as  granite,  &c.
Fossiliferous,  or  Sedimentary,  rocks  are  divided  into  three
great  series  : —  .,..»»

The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life) or

Primary.
The  Mesozoic  (middle  life  period),  or  Secondary.
The  Neozoic  or  Cainozoic  (more  recent  forms  of  life),
or  Tertiary.

Table  of  Strata  {chiefly  from  Lyell).
NEOZOIC  :
I.  Post-Tertiary  :
A. Post-Pliocene:

t Recent: Marino  strata; with human  re-
mains;  Danish  peat;  kitchen  middens;


bronze  and  stone  implements  ;  Swiss  lake-
dwellings  ;  temple  of  Serapis  at  Puzzuoli.

2.  Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint

knives,  and  bones  of  living  and  extinct
quadrupeds  ;  ancient  valley  gravels ;  glacial
drift ;  ancient  Nile  mud ;  post-glacial  N.
American  deposits  :  remains  of  mastodon;
Australian  breccias.

II.  Tertiary  or  Cainozoic  Series  :

B.  Pliocene :

3.  Newer  Pliocene  (or  Pleistocene)  Mammalian

beds,  Norwich  Crag. [Marine  Shells.]

4.  Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag

(Suffolk,  Antwerp).

C.  5,  6.  Miocene: Upper  and Lower; Bordeaux;

Virginia  sands  and  Touraine  beds  ;  Pikerme
deposits  near  Athens ;  volcanic  tuff  and
limestone  of  the  Azores,  &e. ;  brown  coal  of
German  y,  &c.  [Mastodon,  Gigantic
Elk,  Salamander,  &c]

D.  7,  8,  9.  Eocene  : Upper, Middle, and Lower  ;

Freshwater  and  Marine  beds ;  Barton  Clays ;
Bracklesham  Sands;  Paris  Gypsum;  Lon-
don Plastic,  and  Thanet  Clays.  [Palms,
Birds,  &c]

III.  Secondary  or  Mesozoic  Series  :

E.  10.  Cretaceous:  Upper ;  British  Chalk ;  Maestri cht

•beds.  —  Chalk  with  and  without  Flints,
Chalk  Marl.  Upper  Green  Sand,  Gault,
Lower  Green  Sand.  [M esosaurus;  Fish,
Mollusks,  &c]
11.  Lower  (or  Neocomian  or  Wealden) ;  Kentish
rag ;  Weald  Clay ;  Hastings  Sand.  [Iguano-
clon,  Hylceosaurus,  &c]

F.  12.  Oolite:  Upper;  Purbeck  beds,  Portland  Stone

and  Sand,  Kimmeridge  Clay  ;  Lithographic
Stone  of  Solenhofen  with  Archwopteryx.
[Fish.]
,13.  Middle:  Calcareous  Grit,  Coral  Rag,  Oxford
Clay,  Kelloway  Rock. [Belemnites  and  .
Ammonites.  ]

14.  Lower:  Cornbrash,  Forest  Marble,  Bradford

Clay,  Great  Oolite,  Stonesfield  Slate,  Fuller's
Earth,  Inferior  Oolite.  [Ichthyosaurus,
Plesiosaurus,  Pterodactyl.]

G.  15.  Lias:  Lias  Clay  and  Marl  Stone. [Ammo-

nites, Equisetum,  Amphibia,  Laby-
rinthodon. ]
H.  16.  Trias :  Upper  ;  White  Lias,  Red  Clay,  with

Salt  in  Cheshire,  Coal  Fields  in  Virginia,
N.A. [Fish,  Dromatherium.]
17.  Middle  or  Muschelkalk  (wanting  in  England).
[Encrinus;  Placodus  gigas.]

15.  Lower  :  New  Red  Sandstone  of  Lancashire

and  Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon,  Foot-
prints of  Birds  and  Reptiles.]
IV.  Primary  or  Palaeozoic  Series  :

I.  19.  Permian:  Magnesian  Limestone,  Marl  Slates,

Red  Sandstone  and  Shale,  Dolomite  :  Kup-
ferschiefer. [Firs,  Fishes,  Amphibia.]

K.  20,  21. Carboniferous,  Upper  and  Lower:  Coal

Measures,  Millstone  Grit,  Mountain  Lime-
stone. [Ferns,  Catamites,  Coal.]

L.  22,  23,  24.  Devonian,  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower:

Tilestones,  Cornstones,  and  Marls,  Quartz-
ose,  Conglomerates.  [Shells,  Fish,  Tri-
lobites.  ]

M.  25,  26,  27.  Silurian,  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower:

Ludlow  Shales,  Aymestry  Limestone,  Wen-
lock  Limestone,  Wenlock  Shale,  Caradoc
Sandstone,  Llandeilo  Flags  ;  Niagara  Lime-
stone. [Sponges,  Corals,  Trilobites,
Shells.]

N.  28,  29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala

Limestone,  Festiniog  Slates,  Bangor  Slates
and  Grits,  Wicklow  Rock,  Hasleets  Grits,
Huronian  Series  of  Canada.  [Zoophytes,
Lingula,  Ferns,  Sigillaria,  Stig-
maria,  Catamites,  and  Cryptogamia.]

O.  30.  Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb-

rides (?) :  Labradorite  Series,  N.  of  the  St.
Lawrence ;  Adirondack  Mountains,  New
York.
31.  Lower:  Gneiss  and  Quartzites,  with  Inter-
stratified  Limestones,  in  one  of  which,  1000
feet  thick,  occurs  a  foraminifer,  Eozobn
Canadense,  the  oldest  known  fossil.


GEOMETEY.


431


GERMAIN", St.


GEOMETEY,  so  termed  from  its  original  ap-
plication to  measuring  the  earth,  is  ascribed  to  the
Egyptians ;  the  annual  inundations  of  the  Nile
having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away  the  land-
marks and  boundaries.

Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece,  about  600  B.C.
Pythagoras  cultivated  the  science  about  580.
The  doctrine  of  curves  originally  attracted  the  attention

of  geometricians  from  the  conic  sections,  which  were

introduced  by  Plato,  about  390  b.  c.
Euclid's  Elements  compiled  about  300  b.  c.
Archimedes,  a  discoverer  in  geometry,  287-212  B.C.
The  conchoid  curve  invented  by  Nicomedes,  220  B.C.
Ptolemy,  the  astronomer,  2nd  century  a.  d.
Geometry  taught  in  Europe  in  the  13th  century.
Books on  geometry  and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in

England  as  infected  with  magic,  7  Edw.  VI.,  1552.

Stow.
Descartes  published  his  Analytical  Geometry ,  1627.
Sir  Isaac Newton  (Arithmetica  Universalis,  &c),  1642-

1727.
Simson's  edition  of  Euclid,  first  appeared,  1756.
La  Place's  Mecanique  Celeste,  1799-1805.

GEOEGE.  A  gold  coin  current  at  65.  8d.  in
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. Leake.

GEOEGE,  ST.,  the  tutelary  saint  of  England,

and  adopted  as  patron  of  the  order  of  the  garter  by

Edward  III. His  day  is 23  April ; see Garter,

and  Knighthood.

St.  George  was  a  tribune  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  and
being  a  man  of  great  courage,  was  a  favourite ;  but
complaining  to  the  emperor  of  his  severities  towards
the  Christians,  and  arguing  in  their  defence,  he  was
put  in  prison,  and  beheaded,  23  April,  290. — On  that
day,  in  1192,  Richard  I.  defeated  Saladin.

St.  George's,  Hanover-square,  returns  one  M.P.,  by  act
passed  1885. Population,  1881,  149,748  ;  1891,  134,122.

St.  George's  in  the  East  returns  1  member  by  the  act
of  1885. Population,  1881,  47,157  ;  1891,  45,546

The  Order  of  the  Sons  of  St.  George,  established  at
Philadelphia  as  a  society  to  succour  emigrants  (see
under  Emigration).  It  gradually  acquired  political
influence,  and  many  branches  were  formed  in  order
to  counteract  the  dominant  aggressive  policy  of  the
Irish  party.  It  works  in  unison  with  the  "  British
American  association  "  which  was  formed  to  promote
naturalization — its  organ  being  the  British  American,
a  weekly  newspaper,  Dec.  1887.

GEOEGES'  CONSPIEACY,  in  France.
General  Moreau,  general  Pichegru,  Georges  Cadou-
dal,  who  was  commonly  known  by  the  name  of
Georges,  and  others,  were  arrested  at  Paris,  charged
with  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and
for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  Feb.  1804.
Pichegru  was  found  strangled  ih  prison,  6  April.
Twelve  of  the  conspirators,  including  Georges,  were
executed  25  June,  and  others  imprisoned.  Moreau
was  exiled,  and  went  to  America.  In  1813  he  wras
killed  before  Dresden  (which  see).

GEOEGIA,  the  ancient  Iberia,  now  a  province
of  S.  Russia,  near  the  Caucasus,  submitted  to  Alex-
ander about  331  B.C.,  but  threw  off  the  yoke  of  his
successors.  It  was  subjugated  to  Rome  by  1'ompey,
■65  B.C.,  but  retained  its  own  sovereigns.  Chris-
tianity was  introduced  into  it  in  the  3rd  century.
In  the  8th  century,  after  a  severe  struggle,  Georgia
was  subdued  by  the  Arab  caliphs  ;  by  the  Turkish
sultan  Alp-Arslan,  1068;  and  by  the  Tartar  hordes,
1235.  From  the  14th  to  the  iStli  centuries,  Georgia
■was  successively  held  by  the  Persian  and  Turkish
monarchs.  In  1 740  Nadir  Shall  established  part  of
Georgia  as  a  principality,  of  which  the  last  ruler
Heraclius,  surrendered  his  territories  to  the  czar  in
1799;  and  in  1802  Georgia  was  declared  to  be  a
Russian  province. — Georgia,  in  North  America,
was  settled  by  gen.  Oglethorpe,  in  1732.  Separating
from  the  congress  of  America,  it  surrendered  to  the
British,  Dec.  177^;  find  its  possession  was  of  vast


importance  to  the  royalists  in  the  war.  Count
d'Estaing  joined  the  American  general  Lincoln,  and
made  a  desperate  attack  on  Georgia,  which  failed,
and  the  French  fleet  returned  home ;  the  colony
was  given  up  to  the  Union  by  the  British  in  1783.
It  seceded  from  the  Union,  by  ordinance,  18  Jan.
1861,  and  was  conquered  by  Sherman  in  1864-5,  an(l
readmitted  as  a  state  Jan.  1868.  A  ridiculous  negro
insurrection  suppressed  Aug.  1875.  Population
in  1880,  1,542,180;  1890,  1,837,353;  Atlanta,
65,533;  Savannah,  43,189.  See  United  States. — ■
Georgia,  in  the  Pacific,  was  visited  by  captain
Cook  in  1775.  Population  1880,  1,542,180;  capital,
Atlanta.
Riots  at  Jessop  :  fight  between  whites  and  negroes  ;

22  negroes  killed  and  2  whites  .  25,  26  Dec.  1889
Destructive  cyclone  with  loss  of  life  in  many  places.

6  Jan. 1892

GEOEGIUM  SLDTTS,  the  first  name  of  the
planet  Uranus  (which  see),  discovered  13  March,
1781.

GEEBEEOI  (Normandy,  N.  France).  Here
William  the  Conqueror  was  wounded  in  battle  by
his  son  Robert,  who  had  joined  the  French  kino-
Philip  I.,  1078.

GEEM  THEOEY  OF  DISEASE  sup-
poses "that  many  diseases  are  due  to  the  presence
and  propagation  in  the  animal  system  of  minute
organisms  [termed  microbes]  having  no  part  or
share  in  its  normal  economy."  Maclagan,  1876.
See  Animalcules  and  Bacteria.  Dr.  Cohn,  of
Breslau,  whose  work  was  published  in  1872,
classifies  bacteria  as — I.  Sphcero  or  micrococci;  II.
Micro-bacteria,  or  bacteria  proper  (rod-shaped) ;  III.
Desmo-baeteria,  the  same  but  longer;  IV.  Spiro-
bacteria,  spiral-shaped  or  curly.  Translation  of
his  work,  1881.

The  doctrine of  conlaginm  animatum  was  held  in  the
middle  ages  and  put  forth  in  the  16th  century,  but
contagious  organisms  were  not  discovered  till  the  19th
by  professors  Pasteur,  Tynrlall,  and  others,  1875  et  seq.
At  the  British  Association,  14  Sept. 1870,  professor
Huxley  expressed his concurrence  with  the  ""erin
theory." See  under  Dust  and  Vivisection,  1882.
Dr.  Robert  Koch  is  said  to  have  identified  the  micro-
scopical germs  of  cattle  disease,  of  consumption,  of
cholera,  and  other  diseases,  1879  et  seq.,  discredited  in
England,  May,  June,  1885. See  Tuberculosis.
Dr.  E.  Klein  in  Feb.  1885  reported  his  investigations  on
the  relation  of bacteria  to  cholera. At  the Roval
Institution  on  May  27, 1887, he  demonstrated  the
propagation  of scarlet  fever  by  microbes  in  cow's
milk.
Numerous  specimens  of  these  germs  were  exhibited  at  the
Royal  Institution  in  illustration  of  professor  Tyndall's
discourse  on  "  Living  contagia,"  16  Jan.  1885.
By  taking  means  to  exclude  these  germs  from  wounds,
<Sic,  sir  Joseph  Lister  introduced  anti-septic  surgery
about  1870.
"  Louis  Pasteur,"  by  M.  Radot,  his  son-in-law,  gives  an
account  of  Pasteur's  success  in  mitigating  the  virulence
of  some  diseases  by  inoculation. A  translation  by  lady
Claud  Hamilton  was  published  in  Feb.  1885.
M. Engelmann  demonstrated  the  action  of  microbes  in
the  development  of  vegetable  cells  from  carbonic  acid
and  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.
Fur  Pasteur  institute  see  Hydrophobia,
Professors Behring  and  Kisasato  of  Berlin  announce
their  method  of  treating  tetanus  and  diphtheria Jan
1891.
Discovery of the  influenza bacillus by Dr. Richard
Pfeiffer,  announced  Jan.  1892.

GEEMAIN,  ST.,  near  Paris.  The  palace
here  was  begun  by  Louis  the  Fat,  1124,  and  en-
larged and  embellished  by  his  successors,  especially
by  Francis  I.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIV.  Here
James  II.  of  England  resided  in  state  after  his
abdication,  in  1689,  and  here  he  died,  16  Sept.  1701 ;
see  Treaties.


GERMAN ASSOCIATION.


432


GERMAN  UNION.


GERMAN ASSOCIATION, see German

Union.

GERMAN  COLONIZATION  SOCIETY,

constituted  at  Frankfort,  6  Dec.  1882.  A  Charter
was  granted  by  the  emperor  to  Dr.  Carl  Peters
and  others,  whereby  this  society  was  authorised
to  acquire  Usagara,  N'Gury,  and  other  territories
west  of  Zanzibar,  27  Feb.  1885.

GERMAN  EAST  AFRICA,  see  under
Africa.

GERMAN  EXHIBITION  at  Earl's  Court,
"West  Brompton,  London,  W.  Hon.  President,
duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ;  hon.  President  of
committee  in  Germany,  prince  Blucher  von  Wahl-
statt ;  director-general,  John  J.  B..  Whitley,  assisted
by  lieut.  F.  Jaffe.  Opened  by  the  lord  mayor,
Mr.  Joseph  Savory,  in  the  presence  of  the  marquis
of  Lome,  and  many  eminent  persons,  9  May  ;  closed
10  Oct.  1891.  Total  number  of  visitors,  1,377,908.
The  galleries  contained  specimens  of  arts  classified
in  nine  groups ;  300  artists  were  represented  by  700
pictures,  and  a  gigantic  trophy  of  Germania  and
many  interesting  models.

GERMANIA,  colossal  statue,  see  Germany,
Sept.  1883.

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION,

superseding  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine  {which
see),  was  constituted  8  June,  1815;  held  its  first
diet  at  Frankfort,  16  Nov.  1816,  and  its  last,  24  Aug.
1866. See  next  article. It  comprised —

I.  Austria 2. Prussia  ; 3. Bavaria ;  4. Saxony ;

5.  Hanover  ;  6.  Wlirtemberg ;
7. Baden;  8,  9.  Hesse  (electorate  and  grand  duchy);
10.  Denmark  (for  Holstein  and  Lauenburg)  ;

II.  Netherlands  (for  Luxemburg) ;

12.  Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen,

and  Saxe-Altenburg  ;

13.  Brunswick  and  Nassau  ;

14.  Mecklenburg -Schwerin, and Mecklenburg  -

Strelitz  ;

15.  Oldenburg,  three  Anhalts, and  two  Schwarz-

burgs  ;

16.  Two  Hohenzollerns,  Liechtenstein,  two  Reuss,

Sehaumburg-Lippe,  Lippe,  and  Waldeck  ;

17.  Free  cities  : — Liibeek,  Frankfort,  Bremen,  and

Hamburg.

The  diet  declares  for  a  constituent  assembly,  30
March,  which  met .... 18  May,  1848

The  diet  remits  its  functions  to  the  archduke  John,
vicar  of  the  empire  (see  Germany)  . .  12  July, „

The  diet  re-established,  meets . . 30  May,  1851

The  emperor  of  Austria  proposes  a  reform  of  the
confederation,  17  Aug.  ;  accepted  by  the  diet,
1  Sept. ;  rejected  by  Prussia . . 22  Sept. 1863

The  diet  celebrates  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its
establishment 8  June,  1865

Vote  of  the  majority  of  the  diet  supports  Austria  in
the  dispute  respecting  Sehleswig  and  Holstein  ;
Prussia  announces  her  withdrawal  from  the  con-
federation, and  its  dissolution ;  the  diet  declares
itself  indissoluble,  continues  its  functions,  and
protests ...... 14  June,  1866

The  diet  removes to Augsburg during  the  war,

14  July, „

The  confederation  renounced  by  Austria  at  Nikols-
burg 26  July, ,,

The  diet  holds  its  last  sitting . . 24  Aug. ,,

GERMAN  CONFEDERATION,  North,

established  in  room  of  the  Germanic  Confederation
(which  see)  :  population  1867,  estimated  29.906,092.
The  confederation  ceased  on  the  re-establishment
of  the  German  empire,  1  Jan.  187 1.

The  king  of  Prussia  invites  the  states  of  North
Germany  to  form  a  new  confederation 16  July,  18(36

Treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between
Prussia  and  the  following  states  : — Saxe-Weimar,
Oldenburg,  Brunswick,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha,  Anhalt,  two  Sehwarzburgs,  Wal-


deck, the  younger  Reuss,  two  Lippes,  Liibeck,

Bremen,  and  Hamburg,  signed . . 18  Aug.  1866

And  two  Mecklenburgs  .... 21  Aug.  „

And  Hesse  (for  country  north  of  the  Maine),  3  Sept.  ,,

And  the  elder  Reuss .... 26  Sept.  ,,

And  Saxe-Meiningen 8  Oct.  „

And  Saxony 21  Oct.  „

Meeting  of  North  German  Parliament  (295  deputies

from  the  22  states)  at  Berlin  . . . 24  Feb.  1867
See  Germany.

GERMAN  HOSPITAL,  Dalston,  founded
1845,  for  Germans,  and  English  in  cases  of  accident.
German  Society  of  Benevolence  and  Concord,  esta-
blished 1817.

GERMANITES,  a  name  given  to  a  sect,  of
which  members  appeared  in  the  British  Mediter-
ranean fleet  in  1867.  They  called  themselves  "  non-
fighting  men,"  and  hold  no  communion  with  other
religious  bodies.

GERMANIUM,  a  new  metal  discovered  by
"Winkler  early  in  1886.

GERMAN  LANGUAGE  has  two  great
branches :  hoch  and  platt  Deutsch,  high  and  low
German.  The  former  became  the  literary  language,
principally  through  its  use  by  Luther  in  his  trans-
lation of  the  Bible  and  in  other  works,  1522-34.
The  latter  is  that  spoken  by  the  lower  classes.
There  are  many  dialects  :  the  satirical  epic  in  low
German,  "Reineke  Fuchs,"  appeared  in  1498  ;  see
Reynard.

PRINCIPAL  GERMAN  AUTHORS.

Bom.  Died.
Ulfilas  (Gothic  Bible)  about  a.d.  360

Martin  Luther  (German  Bible,  &c.  1522-34).  1483  1546

Han's  Sachs 1494  I578

Godf.  Leibnitz 1646  1716

G.  F.  Gellert 1715  I769

G.  E.  Lessing 1729  1783

G.  A.  Biirger 1748  1794

J.  G.  von  Herder 1744  -1803

Fred.  T.  Klopstock 1724  1803

Im.  Kant 1724  1804

J.  C.  Fred,  von  Schiller ....  1759  ^05

Ch.  M.  Wieland 1733  ^ij

C.  T.  Korner 1791  1813

Jean  Paul  Richter 1763  1825

J.  H.  Voss ... ...  1751  1826

F.  Schlegel . . ...  1772  1820

G.  W.  F.  Hegel  .  .  ...  i77o  1831
B.  G.  Niebuhr ...  .  .  1776  1831
J.  W.  von  Goethe.  .  .  .  1749  11832
Wm.  von  Humboldt . . . . 1767  1835

A.  Wm.  Schlegel i767  1845

L-  Tieck i773  ^53

H.  Heine i7Q7  zs56

Alex,  von  Humboldt . . . . . 1769  1859

Ernst  M.  Arndt 1769  1S60

Chr.  Carl  J.  Bunsen 1791  ;[86o

F.  C.  Schlosser 1776  1861

J.  Hillebrand  ......  1788  1862

G.  G.  Gervinus 1805  1871

E.  H.  Fichte 1797  ^79

Leopold  Ranke 1795  18S6

Theod.  Mommsen 11817

GERMAN OCEAN,  see  North  Sea.

GERMANS,  ST.,  was  made  the  seat  of  the
bishopric  of  Cornwall  for  a  short  time,  about  905.

GERMAN SILVER, an alloy of nickel,
copper,  and  zinc,  first  made  at  Hildburghausen  in
Germany. There are many patents ; Cutler's
1838,  Parkes',  1844,  &c.

GERMAN  UNION  of  Natural  Phi-
losophers, the  forerunner  of  the  British  Asso-
ciation, was  founded  by  Oken,  at  Leipsic,  in  1822 ;
partly  to  promote  political  unity  in  Germany.  It
has  met  annually,  except  in  troubled  years,  such  as
1848,  1866,  and  1870;  50th  time,  17  Sept.  1877;
meeting at Dantzic, 18 Sept. 1880; Salzburg,


GERMANY.


433


GERMANY.


18  Sept.  18S1 ;  Eisenach,  18  Sept.  1882 ;  Frei-
burg, 17  Sept.  1883;  Magdeburg,  18  Oct.  1884;
Strasburg,  17  Sept.  1885  ;  Berlin,  16  Sept.  1886  ;
Wiesbaden,  18  Sept.  1887;  61st  at  Cologne,  18
Sept.  1888;  62nd  at  Heidelberg,  1889;  63rd  at
Bremen,  Sept.  1890;  64th  at  Halle,  Sept.  1891.
The  Union  is  now  termed  the  "  German  Association
"of  Naturalists."

"  GERMANY  ( Ger man ia,A leman i«), anciently,
as  now,  divided  inlo  independent  states.  The  Ger-
mans long  withstood  the  attempts  of  theKomans  to
subdue  them  ;  and  although  that  people  conquered
some  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  expelled  before
the  clo.-e  of  the  3rd  century.  In  the  5th  century
the  Huns  and  other  tribes  prevailed  over  the  greater
portion  of  Germany.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  8th
century,  Charlemagne  subdued  the  Saxons  and
other  tribes,  and  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome,
25  Dec.  800.  A  list  of  his  successors  is  given  in
another  page.  At  the  extinction  of  his  family,  the
empire  became  elective,  911,  and  was  subsequently
obtained  by  members  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg
(from  1437  till  1804).  Germany  was  divided  into
cireles,  1501-12.  The  confederation  of  the  Rhine
was  formed  12  July,  1806;  the  Germanic  confede-
ration, 8  June,  1815  ;  and  the  North  German  con-
federation, 18  Aug.  1866;  the  treaty  ratified,  8  Sept.
1866.  The  present  German  empire  was  established
in  1871.  The  emperor  is  styled  "  German  em-
peror." {See  that  date  below).  See  Franco-
Prussian  War,  1870-71.  Population  of  the  German
empire  1880,  45,234,061  ;  in  1885,  46,855,704;  1890,
49,421,803.

The  empire  of  Germany  was  established  Jan.  1,  1871,
founded  upon  treaties  concluded  between  the  North
German  confederation  (which  see)  and,  1.  the  grand
duchies  of  Baden  and  Hesse,  15  Nov.  1870;  2.  the
kingdom  of  Bavaria,  23  Nov.  1870 ;  3.  the  kingdom  of
Wiirtemberg,  25  Nov.  1870 ;  ratified,  29  Jan.  1871.
William  I.,  king  of  Prussia,  was  proclaimed  German
emperor  at  Versailles,  18  Jan.  1871,

Population  in  1871  (including  Alsace-Lorraine,  con-
quered, 1870),  41,069,846.  The  parliament  (reichstag)
is  elected  by  manhood  suffrage  and  ballot.

The  first  chancellor  of  the  empire,  prince  Otho  von
Bismarck,  May,  1871  ;  resigned  18  March,  1890.

The  Teutones,  united  with  the  Cymry,  defeat  the

Romans  at  Noreia B.C. 113

After  varying  success  are  defeated  by  Marius  . 102

Drusus  invaded  Germany 12-3

Battle of  Teutoburg  ; Hermann  or  Arminius  de-
stroys the  Romans  under  Varus . . a.d. 9

Hermann  assassinated 19

The  Franks  invade  Gaul 238

Great  irruption  of  Germanic  tribes  into  Gaul  450  et  seq.
Charlemagne after a long  contest subdues  the

Saxons,  who  become  Christians  .  .  .  772-785
He  is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome  by  the

pope 25  Dec. 800

He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle,  to  denote  that
the  empires  of  Rome  and  Germany  are  united

in  him 802

Louis (la Dabonnaire) separates Germany from

France 839-840

The  Germans  under  Arnold  take  Rome  .  .  .  896
The  German  princes  assert  their  independence,  and

Conrad  I.  of  Franconia  reigns . . 8  Nov. 911
(The  electorate  began  about  this  time.  See  Electors.]
Reign  of  Henry  I.  [king],  surnamed  the  Fowler ;
lie  vanquishes  the  Huns,  Danes,  Vandals,  and

Bohemians 918-934

Otho I. extends his  dominions,  and  is  crowned

emperor  by  the  pope 962

Otho  II.  conquers  Lorraine 978

Henry  III.  conquers  Bohemia 1042

Contest  between  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII.  (Hilde-

brand) 1075

Henry's  humiliation  at  Canossa  (which  sec) . . 1077
He  takes  Rome  1084  ;  and  Gregory  dies  in  exile  at
Salerno 1085


Disputes  with  the  pope  relating  to  ecclesiastical
investitures 1073-1123

The  Guelph  and  the  Ghibeline  feuds  begin  . . 1140

Conrad  III.  leads  an  army  to  the  holy  wars  ;  it  was
destroyed  by  Greek  treachery .... 1147

Frederick  Barbarossa  emperor,  1152  ;  wars  in  Italy,

IX54-77

He  destroys  Milan 1162

Ruins  Henry  the  Lion  (see  Bavaria) . . . 1180
Is  drowned  during  the  crusade  in  Syria,  10  June,  1190

Teutonic  order  of  knighthood „

Hanseatie  league  established . . . about  1245
Reign  of  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  chosen  by

the  electors 1273

The  edict,  called  the  Golden  Bull,  by  Charles  IV. . 1356

The  Tyrol  acquired 1363

Sigismund,  king  of  Bohemia,  elected  emperor. He
betrays  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  who
are  burned  alive  (see  Bohemia) . . . 1414-16
Sigismund  driven  from  the  throne,  Albert  II.,  duke

of  Austria,  succeeds 1437

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  confining  the  empire  to  the

house  of  Austria 1439

Peasants'  wars 1502,  1514,  1524

Era  of  the  Reformation  (see  Lutheranism)  . . . 1517
German Bible  and  liturgy  published  by  Luther,

1522-46
Luther  excommunicated  by  the  diet  at  Worms,

17  April,  1521
War  with  the  pope — the  Germans  storm  Rome  .  1527
Diet  at  Spires  ;  Protestants  condemned,  13  March,  1529
Confession  of  Augsburg  published  .  .  25  Jan.  1530
Protestant  League  of  Smalcalde  .  .  .  31  Dec.  1531
The  anabaptists  seize  Minister,  24  June,  1535  ;  de-
feated, and  John  of  Leyden  slain  .... 1536

Death  of  Luther 18  Feb.  1546

War  with  the  Protestants  . . .26  June, ,,

Who  are  helped  by  Henry  II.  of  France — Peace  of

Religion  at  Passau 31  July,  1552

Abdication  of  Charles  V.  announced . 25  Oct. 1555

Hungary  joined  to  the  empire 1570

The  Thirty  years'  war  begins  between  the  Evangelic
union  under  the  elector  palatine,  and  the  Catholic
league  under  the  duke  of  Bavaria .... 1618
Battle  of  Prague,  which  ruined  the  elector  palatine,

8  Nov. 1620
Gustavus-Adolphus  of  Sweden  invades  Germany,

June,  163c
Gustavus-Adolphus,  victor,  killed  at  Lutzen,

16  Nov.  1632
Treason  of  Wallenstein  ;  he  is  assassinated,  25  Feb.  1634
End  of  the  Thirty  years'  war  :  treaty  of  Westphalia,
establishing  religious  toleration  . . 24  Oct. 1648

War  with  France 1674

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  after  defeating  the
Turks,  obliges  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna,

12  Sept.  1683

Peace  of  Ryswick  (with  France) . . 20  Sept.  1697

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  (with  the  Turks) 26  Jan. 1699

War  with  France,  &c,  6  Oct.  1702  ;  Marlborough's

victory  at  Blenheim . . . -13  Aug. 1704

Peace  of  Utrecht 11  April,  1713

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  (which  see) . . . . 1722
Francis  I. ,  duke  of  Lorraine,  marries  the  heiress  of
Austria,  Maria-Theresa  (1736)  ;  she  succeeds  her
father,  and  becomes  queen  of  Hungary,  20  Oct.  1740
The  elector  of  Bavaria  elected  emperor  as  Charles

VII 22  Jan. 1742

He  dies  Jan. 20;  Francis I., duke  of  Lorraine,

elected  emperor 15  Sept. 1745

The  Seven  years'  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia
and  their  respective  allies  begins  Aug.  1756  ;  ends
with  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  . . 15  Feb. 1763

Lorraine  ceded  to  France 1766

Joseph  II.  extends  his  dominions  by  the  dismem-
berment of  Poland,  1772  ;  many  civil  reforms  and

liberal  changes 1782

War  with  Turkey 17S8

Victory  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians  at  Rininik,

22  Sept. 17S9
J.  G.  Basedow,  educational  reformer,  dies  25  July,  1790

The  Rhenish  provinces  revolt 1793

Francis  I.  joins  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland,  1795
In  the  ruinous  wars  between  Germany  and  Fiance,
the  emperor  loses  th  • Netherlands,  all  his  terri-
tories west  of  the  Rhine,  and  his  states  in  Italy,

1 793-1803
F P


GERMANY.


434


GERMANY.


Cessions  of  territory  to  France  by  the  treaty  of

Luneville 9 Feb-  l8cI

Francis  II.  assumes  the  title  of  Francis  I. ,  emperor

of  Austria n  Aug. 1804

Napoleon  establishes  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria  and

Wiirtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia,  1807  ;

dissolution  of  the  German  empire  ;  formation  of

the  confederation  of  the  Rhine . .12  July,  1806

North  Germany  annexed  to  France . 13  Dec.  1810-11

Commencement  of  the  war  of  independence  :  the

order  of  the  iron  cross  instituted . .  March,  1813
Final  defeat  of  the  French  at  Leipsie 16-19  Oct. ,,
Congress  of  Vienna  . . 1  Nov.  1814  &  25  May,  1815
The Germanic confederation (which  see) formed

8  June,  1818
The  Zollverein  (which  see)  formed . . .  ,,

"  Society  for  promoting  the  knowledge  of  ancient

German  history,"  founded  by  Stein . . .  1819
A  German  scientific  association  formed,  "Naturfor-
scher  Vereine "  (see  German  Union) . .  Sept.  1822

General  depression  in  trade 1824

Death  of  J.  H.  Voss,  poet,  &c.  . .  29  March,  1826

Revolution  at  Brunswick  (flight  of  the  duke)  7  Sept.  1830
In  Saxony  (abdication  of  the  king) . 13  Sept. ,,
Death  of  Goethe,  poet,  novelist,  and  philosopher,

22  Marth,  1832
Becker's  song  about  the  free  German  Rhine  ;  and
Alfred  de Musset's song in reply,  "  Le  Rhin
Aliemand  "  (see  Rhine)  appear ....  1841
Excitement  about Ronge,  the  Catholic  reformer,

and  the  holy  coat  of  Treves 1844

Insurrection  at  Vienna  and  throughout  Germany

(see  Austria,  Hungary,  &c.) 1848

Revolt  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein  (see  Denmark)

March, „
The  king  of  Prussia  takes  the  lead  as  an  agitator,  to
promote  the  reconsolidation  of  the  German  em-
pire, by  a  proclamation  ... 27  March, ,,
German  national  assembly  meet  at  Frankfort  (see

Germanic  confederation) ... 18  May, ,,
Archduke  John  of  Austria  elected  vicar  of  the  em-
pire 12  July, „

The  national  assembly  elects  the  king  of  Prussia

emperor,  28  March  ;  he  declines . . 3  April,  1849
He  recalls  the  Prussian  members  of  the  assembly,

14  May, ,,
The Frankfort  assembly  transfers  its  sittings  to

Stuttgardt  ...  . .  30  May, , ,

Treaty  of  Vienna  between  Austria  and  Prussia  for
the formation  of  a  new  central  power for a
limited  time  ;  appeal  to  be  made  to  the  govern-
ments of  Germany .... 30  Sept. „
Protest  of  Austria  against  the  alliance  of  Prussia

with  the  smaller  German  states .  12  Nov. ,,
Treaty  of  Munich  between  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and
Wiirtemberg,  for  a  revision  of  the  German  con-
federation 27  Feb.  1850

Parliament  meets  at  Erfurt . . . March, ,,
The  king  of  Wiirtemberg  denounces  the  insidious

ambition  of  the  king  of  Prussia . 15  March, ,,
German  diet  meets  at  Frankfort . . 10  May, „
Hesse-Cassel  sends  no  representative  to  Erfurt,  7
June ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the
Prussian  league ....  20  June, ,,

Austria  calls  an  assembly  of  the  German  confedera-
tion, 19  July  ;  which  meets  at  Frankfort,  2  Sept. „
Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter

Hesse-Cassel  (see  Hesse-Cassel) . . 12  Nov. ,.
Conferences  on  German  affairs  at  Dresden,

23  Dec.  1850,  to  15  May,  1851
Max  Schneckenburger, author  of  the  song "  Die

Wacht  am  Rhein,"  died )t

Re-establishment  of  the  diet  of  the  Germanic  con-
federation at  Frankfort ... 30  May, ,,
Conference  at  Nuremberg  relative  to  a  general  code

of  commerce 15  Jan.  1857

Great  excitement  in  Germany  at  the  French  suc-
cesses in  Lombardy :  warlike  preparations  in
Bavaria,  &c.  ....  May  and  June,  1859
Meetings  of  new  liberal  party  in  Eisenach,  Saxe
Weimar,  17  July  ;  seven  resolutions  put  forth
recommending  that  the  imperfect  federal  consti-
tution be  changed ;  that  the  German  diet  be  re-
placed by  a  strong  cent'al  government ;  that  a
national  assembly  be  summoned  ;  and  that  Prus-
sia be  invited  to  take  the  initiative  14  Aug.  ,,
This  proposal  not  accepted  by  Prussia,  and  warmly
opposedby  Hanover Sept. ,,


The  Austrian  minister,  Rechberg,  severely  censur-
ing the  duke  of  Saxe  Gotha,  for  a  liberal  speech,
4  Sept.  ;  and  accusing  the  Prussian  government
of  favouring  the  liberals,  meets  with  cutting
retorts  ...  ....  Sept.  1839.

Death  of Ernst  Moritz  Arndt,  patriot  and  poet,

29  Jan.  i860

The  federal  diet  maintains  the  Hesse-Cassel  consti-
tution of  T852  against  Prussia . 24  March, „

Meeting  of  the  French  emperor  and  the  German
sovereigns  at  Baden,  16,  17  June  ;  and  of  the  czar
and  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the  regent  of
Prussia  at  Toplitz .... 26  July,  &c. ,,

Meeting  at  Coburg  in  favour  of  German  unity
against  French  aggression ... 5  Sept. ,,

Dispute  with  Denmark  respecting  the  rights  of
Holstein  and  Schleswig  .... Nov. ,,

First  meeting  of  a  German  national  shooting  match
at  Gotha 8-1 1  July,  1861

Meeting  of  German  national  association  at  Heidel-
berg ;  decides  to  form  a  fleet  . . 23  Aug. ,y

Subscriptions  received  for  fleet . Sept.  and  Oct. .,

The  national  association  meet  at  Berlin  ;  they  re-
commend the  formation  of  a  united  federal
government  with  a  central  executive,  under  the
leadership  of  Prussia . . . .13  March,  1862

Meetings  of  plenipotentiaries  from  German  states
on  federal  reform . . .8  July — 10  Aug. ,,

Deputies  from  German  states  meet  at  Weimar,  and
declare  that  Germany  wants  formation  into  one
federal  state 28,  29  Sept. ,t

Congress  of  deputies  from  German  states  declare
in  favour  of  unity .... 21  Aug.  1863

The  emperor  of  Austria  invites  the  German
sovereigns  to  a  congress  at  Frankfort,  31  July  ;
king  of  Prussia  declines,  4  Aug.  ;  nearly  all  the
sovereigns  meet,  16,  17  Aug.  ;  they  approve  the
Austrian  plan  of  federal  reform,  1  Sept.  ;  which
is  rejected  by  Prussia . . . .22  Sept. ;l

The  diet  determines  to  have  recourse  to  federal  exe-
cution in  Holstein  if  Denmark  does  not  fulfil  her

obligations 1  Oct. ,?

50th  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Leipsie  celebrated

18  Oct. „
Death  of  Frederick  VII.  of  Denmark . 15  Nov. ,,
German  troops  enter  Holstein  for  "federal  execu-
tion" (see  Denmark  for  events)  . . 23  Dec. ,,

Death  of  Maximilian  II.  of  Bavaria  . 10  March,  1864
Prussia  retains  the  duchies  ;  discussion  between
Austria  and  Prussia  ;  the  diet  adopt  the  resolu-
tion of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  requesting  Austria
and  Prussia  to  give  up  Holstein  to  the  duke  of
Augustenburg ;  rejected . . .6  April,  1865
50th  anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  the  Ger-
manic coufederation  . . . . • 8  June, „
The  Gastein  convention  (which  see)  . . 14  Aug. )r
Condemned  by  the  diet  at  Frankfort . . 1  Oct. ,,
The  diet  calls  on  Austria  and  Prussia  to  disarm,

19  May,  1866
Meeting  of  deputies  from  smaller  German  states

condemn  the  impending  war  .  .  .20  May,  ,,
Austria  declares  that  Prussia  has  broken  the  treaty
by  invading  Holstein,  11  June;  the  diet  adopts
this,  by  9  votes  ;  the  Prussian  representative  de-
clares the  Germanic  confederation  at  an  end,  and
invites  the  members  to  form  a  new  one,  excluding

Austria 14  June,

The  Prussians  enter  Saxony,  and  the  war  begins,

15  June,
The  diet  determines  for  war,  16  June  ; proclaims
prince  Charles  of  Bavaria  general  of  the  confedera-
tion troops 27  June,

[For  the  war  and  its  consequences,  see  Prussia,
and  German  Confederation,  North.]
Treaty  of  alliance  between  Prussia  and  the  northern

states  ;  ratified 8  Sept.

Continued  disputes  between  the  diet  and  Austria
and  Prussia  respecting  Schleswig-Holstein,

Oct.  and  Nov.
Draft of  new  constitution for North Germany

settled 9  Feb.

Elections  commence .... 12  Feb.

North  German  parliament  opened  at  Berlin  by  the

king  of  Prussia, 24 Feb.  ; Dr.  Simson  elected

president 2  March,

The federal constitution adopted (printed in
Almanach  de  Gotha,  1868) ;  the  parliament  closed,

17  April,


GERMANY.


435


GERMANY.


The  constitution  put  in  action  i  Jul}7,

Meeting  of  50  deputies  from  parliaments  of  Bavaria,

Wlirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt,

declare  necessity  of  union  with  North  Germany,

Aug.
Luxemburg  evacuated by  the  Prussian  garrison,

9  Sept.
New  North  German  parliament  meets, 10  Sept.  ;

closed 26  Oct.

Opened  by king  of  Prussia, 23 March ; closed,

20  June,

Delegates  from  the  Zollverein  meet,  April ;  close

23  May,

Inauguration  of  the  Luther  monument  at  Worms
by  the  king  of  Prussia . . . .25  June,

German  rifle  association  meeting  at  Vienna,  26
July  ;  addressed  by  Von  Beust  at  the  close,  giving
as  toast,  "  Peace  and  Reconciliation  " . 6  Aug.

After  negotiations  between  Bavaria,  Wlirtemberg,
and  Baden,  July,  a  South  German  military  com-
mission appointed Oct.

Wilhelmshafen,  at  Hippens,  bay  of  Jahde,  Olden-
burg, the  first  German  military  port,  inaugurated
by  the  king  of  Prussia . . . .17  June,

Centenary  of  the  birth  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt
celebrated 14  Sept.

Count  Arnim,  German  representative  at  Rome,
protests  against  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility

May,

German  parliament  opened  by  the  king,  14  Feb.  ;
closed 26  May,

Count  Bismarck  announces  the  declaration  of  war
by  France,  and  terms  it  groundless  and  presump-
tuous 19  July,

Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  and
Baden,  support  Prussia  in  the  war  declared  by
France (See  Franco-Prussian  War).  15  July,

Munich,  Stuttgart,  and  other  cities,  declare  for
union  with  North  Germany  . . about  6  Sept.

Socialists  declare  against  annexation  of  Alsace,  &e.

Sept. -Nov.

Baden  and  Hesse  Darmstadt  join  the  North  German
Confederation  by  treaty,  about  15  Nov.  ;  also
Wurtemberg,  25  Nov.  ;  and  Bavaria,  23  Nov.  ;  re-
taining certain  powers  in  military  and  diplomatic
affairs Nov.

The  North  German  parliament  opened  at  Berlin  by
Dr.  Simson  on  behalf  of  the  king . .  24  Nov.

The  parliament  vote  100,000,000  thalers  to  continue
the  war 28  Nov.

The  king  of  Bavaria,  in  a  letter  to  the  king  of
Saxony,  proposes  the  king  of  Prussia  to  be
nominated  emperor  of  Germany  about  4  Dec.

The  parliament  in  an  address  request  the  king
to  become  emperor  (votes  for,  188  ;  against,  6),

10  Dec.
The  address  solemnly  presented  to  the  king  in  an

assembly  of  princes  by  Dr.  Simson  . .  18  Dec.

Re-establishment  of  the  German  empire,  1  Jan.  ;
William  I.  of  Prussia  proclaimed  emperor  at  Ver-
sailles 18  Jan.

Mr.  Odo  Russell  (aft.  Id.  Ampthill)  appointed  am-
bassador at  Berlin

Several  German  bankers  condemned  to  imprison-
ment for  subscribing  to  the  French  loan 3  Jan.

Preliminaries  of  peace  with  France  signed  at  Ver-
sailles 26  Feb.

The  emperor  reviews  part  of  his  army  at  Long-
champs,  near  Paris 1  Mar.

First  Reichstag  or  imperial  parliament  opened  at
Berlin  by  the  emperor,  397  members. 21  .Mar.

The  new  constitution  of  the  empire  comes  into
force 4  May,

Chancery  of  the  empire  :  prince  Bismarck,  chan-
cellor 12  May,

The  treaty  of  peace  ratified . . . 16  May,

Dr.  Dollinger,  of  Munich,  excommunicated  for
opposing  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  18
April ;  made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford . . June,

Triumphal  entry  of  the  German  armies  into  Berlin  ;
statue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated,

16  June,

Dr.  Dollinger  elected  rector  of  the  university  of
Munich 29  July,

The  emperors  of  Austria  and  Germany  meet  at
Salzburg,  Bismarck  and  Beust  present 6-8  Sept.

The  Bavarian  minister  of  public  worship  declares


1870


against  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  in  a  letter

to  the  archbishop  of  Munich . . 27  Sept. 1871

The  German  parliament  opened  by  the  emperor;
who  expresses  his  conviction  "  that  the  new  Ger-
man empire  will  be  a  reliable  shield  of  peace,"

16  Oct. ,,

Reform  in  the  coinage :  introduction  of  a  gold  coin
approved  by  the  federal  council about  6  Nov. ,,

Law  forbidding  the  clergy  to  meddle  with  politics
in  the  pulpit ....  about  26  Nov. ,,

Triennial  war-budget  voted ...  1  Dec. ,,

Sharp  despatch  from  count  Bismarck  to  the  Ger-
man ambassador  at  Paris  respecting  the  acquittal
of  murderers of  Germans  at  Melun  and  Paris,

7  Dec. ,,

Ultramontane  agitation  against  the  government;
excitement  amongst  the  Polish  Romanists ;  count
Bismarck  carries  his  school  inspection  bill  against
the  Roman  catholic  clergy  .... Mar. 1872

The  empress-queen  visits  England . . May, ,,

Bismarck  reports  to  the  parliament  the  pope's
refusal  to  receive  cardinal  Hohenlohe  as  ambas-
sador 14  May, ,r

Bill  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  passed  in  the
German  parliament  (131-93);  end  of  session,
19  June  ;  the  law  published . . .5  July, .,,

Inauguration  of  a  memorial  to  Von  Stein,  the  pa-
triotic  statesman  at Nassau, by  the  emperor

9  July, ,,

Imperial  congress :  the  czar  arrives  at  Berlin,
5  Sept.  ;  the  emperor  of  Austria,  6  Sept.  ;  both
leave ;  prince  Bismarck  declares  the  meeting  t<>
be  merely  an  act  of  friendship ;  ' '  prince  Gortscha-
koff  thankful  that  nothing  was  written,"  about

6  Sept. ,,.

Great  emigration  of  young  men  to  America  to  avoid
the conscription; forbidden by government,

Sept. „

The  German  parliament  opened . .  12  Mar. 1873

Treaty  with  France  settling  the  total  evacuation  of
the  departments  held  by  German  troops  on  pay-
ment of  the  indemnity  in  Sept.  signed 15  Mar. ,,

The  emperor  William  warmly  received  at  St.  Peters-
burg 27  April— 11  May, ,,

The  monetary  reform  law  passed,  23  June  ;  the  par-
liament closed ..... 25  June, „

Last  payment  of  French  war  indemnity . 5  Sept. ,,,

The  emperor's  visit  to  Vienna . . 17  Oct. ,,.

Elections  for  the  parliament — (397  members  ;  about
two-thirds  nationalist  liberals  ;  about  100  ultra-
montauists) 10  Jan.  1S74

Parliament  opened 5  Feb. „

Letter  from  earl  Russell  to  the  emperor,  expressing
sympathy  of  himself  and  others  with  the  struggle
against  the  pope,  28  Jan.  ;  the  emperor  replies

18  Feb. ,,

Bismarck  confined  by  illness . March,  April, ,,

Constitutional  struggle  in  the  parliament  res-
pecting the  army  bill .... March, ,,

The  government  require  401,659  men  (instead  of
360,000)  permanently  : — compromise  ;  the  army
to  be  settled  for  seven  years . about  10  April, ,,

The  parliament  session  closed  by  the  emperor  witli
a  pacific  speech ....  26  April ,

German  Liberal  Association,  formed  against  Par-
ticularists  and  Ultramontanists .  about  June,

Count  Harry  Arnim,  formerly  ambassador  at  Rome
and  Paris,  suddenly  arrested  and  imprisoned  in
Berlin  :  ostensibly  for  refusing  to  give  up  official
papers,  4  Oct,  ;  released  on  bail . .  28  Oct. ,,

Parliament  opened  by  the  emperor  ;  declaration  of
firm  legislative  and  defensive  policy  .  29  Oct. ,,

Bismarck  resigns  the  chancellorship  after  an  ad-
verse vote  in  the  parliament,  16  Dec,  on  a  vote
of  confidence  (199-71)  retains  it . .  18  Dec. ,,

Important  registration  law  for  births,  deaths,  and
marriages  passed Jan. 1875

Civil  marriage  bill  passed  ... 25  Jan. ,,

International  rifle  meeting  at  Stuttgart . 1  Aug. ,,

Statue  of  Hermann  (or  Arminius),  by  Von  Bandel,
at  Detmold,  uncovered  by  the  emperor  William

16  Aug. ,,

Parliament  meets;  pacific  speech  of  the  emperor
read 27  Oct. ,,

The  imperial  bank  of  Germany  opens . 1  Jan.  187

Proposal  for  purchase  of  all  (lie  railways  by  the
imperial  government  (opposed  in  the  south)

20  March, ,,
F F 2


GERMANY.


436


GERMANY.


The  czar  at  Berlin  ....  n  May,  1876

Parliament  opened  with  a  royal  pacific  speech,

30  Oct. ,,
Elections  : liberal  majority ; socialist  democrats

elected  for  Berlin . . . . 10,  11  Jan.  1877
Parliament  opened  by  the  emperor  :  he  hopes  for

peace  in  the  east .  . . .22  Feb. „

Supreme  Court  for  Germany  settled  to  be  at  Leipsic

by  parliament 21  March, ,,

New  code  of  laws  enacted ,,

Resignation  of  Bismarck  as  chancellor,  3  April ;

withdrawn 8  April, „

Exportation  of  horses  forbidden . . 7  July, ,,
Parliament  re-opened .... 6  Feb.  1878
In  consequence  of  the  attempted  assassination  of
the  emperor  by  HOdel,  11  May,  a  stringent  bill
to  repress  socialism  is  brought  into  the  parlia-
ment, and  rejected  (251— 57) . . 24,  25  May, ,,
'  Grosser  Kurfiirst,  ironclad,  sunk  by  collision  with
Konig  Wilhelm  off  Folkestone,  about 300 lost

31  May, „
The emperor fired  at  and  wounded  by  Dr.  Karl
Edouard  Nobiling,  a  professor  of  philology  and

socialist,  at  Berlin 2  June, „

The  tarown-prince  authorised  to  direct  public  affairs,

4,  5  June, ,,
Parliament  dissolved  . . . .12  June, „

Death  of  king  George  of  Hanover  .  .  12  June,  ,,
Emil  Heinrich  Max  Hftdel  condemned  10  July,  ,,
Elections  held  (severe  struggle)  .  .  30  July,  ,,
The  Berlin  conference  (ivhinh  see)  13  June — 13  July,  ,,
Hodel  executed  at  Berlin  ...  16  Aug.  „
New  parliament  opened  :  national  liberals,  123  ;  119
imperialists  and  conservatives ;  105  centre  (Ro-
man Catholics,  &c.)  ....  9  Sept.  ,,
Dr.  Nobiling  dies  of  self-inflicted  wounds,  10  Sept.  ,,
The  emperor  quite  recovered  ;  announced  14  Sept.  „
The  repressive  Socialist  Bill  piassed  (72  majority)

19  Oct. „
Decree  for  expulsion  of  Socialists  and  others,  issued

Nov. „
The  emperor  returns  to  Berlin  and  resumes  govern-
ment 5  Dec. ,,

174  clubs,  44 newspapers,  and  157 other  papers

suppressed  by  injunctions  up  to . . Dec. „
Parliamentary Discipline Bill (to "muzzle"
speakers);  a  "Gagging  Bill"  introduced  about

9  Jan.  1879
Bismarck's  negotiations  with  the  Roman  curia  re-

spectingtheFalklaws(CMMMW;:a?)i7i/)  fruitless  Jan.  „
"  Gagging  "  Bill  rejected  by  the  parliament  7  March,  ,,
Prince  Bismarck's  protectionist  tariff  bill  virtually

passed,  about 9  May, „

Resignation  of  Von.  Forckenbeck  (liberal),  presi-
dent of  the  parliament,  20  May  ;  election  of  an
ultramontane,  about . . . .22  May, „
The  emperor's  golden  wedding  kept . n  June, „
Resignation of Falk and other  ministers  ; an-
nounced 30  June, „

Bismarck  in  the  parliament  disclaims  connection

with  the  liberal  party  ....  9  July,  „
The  customs  bill  finally  passed  (217-117)  ;  session

closed I2  July, ,,

Ministry  reconstituted  about . . . 14  July,
Adm.  Batsch  tried  and  sentenced  to  6  months'  im-
prisonment for  loss  of  Grosser  Kurfiirst  (see  31

May,  1878) July, „

Grand  military  manoeuvres  at  Konigsberg  5-9  Sept. „
Meeting  of  Bismarck  and  Jacobini,  papal  nuncio,  at

Gastein,  about j6  Sept.

Bismarck  visits  Vienna  ;  renews  friendship with

Andrassy, 21-24  Sept.  ; supreme  court  for  all

Germany,  opened  at  Leipsic . . . 1  Oct.

New  code  of  laws  made  in  1877  come  into  operation',

Nov. ,.
Bill  for  enlargement  of  the  army  (by  27,000  men),

proposed jan.'  l88o

German  parliament  opened ;  pacific  speech  from  the

emperor I2  Feb. „

In the  Federal  Council  22  small  states out-vote
Prussia, Saxony, and  Bavaria, respecting  new

stamp  duties 3  April

Bismarck's  resignation  not  accepted  by  the  em-
peror ;  the  states  give  in.  .  .  .  .  April,
The  new  army  bill  passed  (186-96)  .  .  9  April'
The  parliament  prorogued  .  .  .10  May,
"  New  Liberal  "  party  formed  by  secession  from  the
reactionary  "  National  Liberals " . . Aug.


Grand  army  manoeuvres  in  a  plain  10  miles  south

of  Berlin 10  Sept.  et  seq.  1880

German  parliament  opened . . .16  Feb.  1S81
German  army  manoeuvres  near  Hanover  30  Aug.

and  Sept.  ,,
G  neral  elections  ;  large  liberal  majority  .  28  Oct.  „
The  parliament  opened  by  Prince  Bismarck  with

pacific  message  from  the  emperor . 17  Nov. „
Bismarck  says  Germany  is  not  to  be  ruled  after

English  fashion 29  Nov. ,,

He  is  defeated  in  a  financial  question  169-83 1  Dec. ,,
Imperial  rescript  against  parliamentary  government

published 7  Jan.  1882

Violent  debates  in  the  parliament . 24  Jan.  et  seq. ,,
Bismarck's  tobacco  tax  bill  rejected  by  his  economic
council  21  March;  rejected  by  Parliament  276-43

14  June „
Important autumn manoeuvres near Brcslau

6  Sept. ,,
German  Colonization  Society  constituted  at  Frank-
fort 6  Dec. ,,

The  budget  rejected  by  the  chambers . 11  Dec. ,,
Death  of  Prince  Charles,  brother  of  the  Emperor

21  Jan.  1883
Enthusiastic  commemoration  of  Luther's  birth  (see

Lutheranism) Aug. -Sept. ,,

Autumn manoeuvres  at Merseburg,  15 Sept.,  at

Homburg 20  Sept. ,,

Germonia,  a  colossal  statue,  &c,  by  Prof.  Schilling,
a  national  memorial  of  German  unity  and  victories
of  1870-1  set  up  in  the  Niederwald  at  Rudesheim
on  the  Rhine,  uncovered  by  the  emperor  William
in  the  presence  of  German  sovereigns  and  5,000
spectators  ;  Von  Moltke  there  but  not  Bismarck

28  Sept. ,,

[Plot  to  blow  up  the  monument  by  dynamite  and

destroy  the  royal  and  eminent  persons  present

this  day,  frustrated  by  bad  weather  ;  discovered

in  1884].

The  fourth  centenary  of  Luther's  birth  (10  Nov.

1483)  celebrated  at  Erfurt,  Halle,  &c.  31  Oct.,  et  s«q. „
Successful  visit  of  the  Crown  Prince  to  Spain  and

Italy 23  N0V.-22  Dec. „

Prince  Bismarck  refuses  to  present  to  the  chamber

a  letter  of  condolence  from  the  United  States  on

the  death  of  the  eloquent  Dr.  Lasker,  formerly

his  supporter,  afterwards  his  opponent . Feb.  1884

German parliament  opened; disputes  respecting

the  Lasker  affair ....  6,  7  Mar. ,,
Mr.  Sargent,  the  obnoxious  U.S.  minister,  settled
to  be  removed  to  St.  Petersburg,  26  Mar.  ;  de-
clined 27  Max-. ,,

Anti-socialist  lawprolonged  fortwo  years  (189-157),
10  May;  trial  of  Kraszewski,  Polish  poet  and
novelist,  and  captain  Hentsch,  ex-telegraph
official  at  Leipsic,  ior  high  treason  in  military
communications  to  Austrian,  French,  and  other
governments  in  1866-71 ;  Kraszewski  sentenced  to
32  years' imprisonment  [released  on  bail  Nov.  1885];
Hentsch  to  9  years' penal  servitude  .  12-19  May,  >>
Foundation  of  the  new  German  parliament-house

at  Berlin  laid  by  the  emperor . . .9  June „
Autumn  manoeuvres  at  Diisseldorf,  15  Sept.,  et  seq. „
German colony founded at Cameroons, and
Bimbia,  west  coast  of  Africa,  by  HerrNachtigall ;

Aug. „
Death  of  Lord  Ampthill,  British  ambassador,  Aug.  ;

succeeded  by  Sir  Edward  Malet . . Sept. „
Elections  for  the  parliament ; number  of  liberals

diminished,  social  democrats  increased 28  Oct. „
Parliament  opened  by  the  emperor . 20  Nov. ,,
Bismarck  defeated  ;  votes  for  payment  of  members,
180-99,  26  Nov.  ;  parts  of  May  ecclesiastical  laws

repealed  (217-93) 3  T)ec. ,,

Eight  dynamitards,  Friedrich  A.  Reinsdorf  and
others  for  attempting  to  kill  the  emperor,  28  Sept.,
1883  (see  above)  :  tried  at  Leipsic  ;  F.  A.  Reins-
dorf, Rupsch,  and  Kiichler  sentenced  to  death ;
two  to  imprisonment ;  three  acquitted  15-22  Dec.  ,,
German  flag  said  to  be  hoisted  on  N.  coast  of  New

Guinea, New Britain, and  other  islands, Dec. ,,
Great  increase  of  emigration  (fivefold) . . 1879-18S4
"Germany does  not want colonies" — Bismarck,
1871 — 180,000 marks voted for protection of

colonies 10  Jan.  1885

Speech  of  Prince  Bismarck  attacking  the  Gladstone

cabinet 2  Mar. ,,

Dispute  said  to  be  settled . . . .9  Mar. ,,


GEEMANY.


437


GEEMANY.


Lieske  convicted  of  murder  of  Rumpff  at  Frankfort

i  July,  i

Parliament  opened  , . . . 19  Nov,

Prince  Bismarck's  "Schnapps"  (dram  of  spirits)

monopoly  bill  introduced 11  Jan.  ;  rejected  by

committee 12  March,

Sarauw  sentenced  to  12  years'  penal  servitude  for
high  treason  (giving  information  respecting
fortresses  to  the  French  government). 1 1  Feb.

Prince  Bismarck  reproves  parliament  for  opposing
government  bills .... 26  March,

The  "  Schnapps  "  bill  rejected  (181-3) 27  March,

Socialist  law  prolonged  for  two  years 31  March,

Leopold  von  Ranke,  the  historian,  died  (aged  go)

23  May,

Autumn  manoeuvres  at  Strasburg ;  the  army
reported  to  be  perfect . . about  15  Sept. .

Parliament  opened 25  Nov. .

Bill  for  increase  of  the  army  (41,000)  for  seven
years  brought  in  3  Dec.  ;  much  opposed  by
clericals,  socialists,  and  others ;  adjourned  to
Jan.  1887,  17  Dec.  1886 ;  amendment  limiting
increase  to  three  years  carried  (183-154) ;  parlia-
ment immediately  dissolved - . 14  Jan.  i£

Elections  :  (efforts  to  make  the  army  parliamentary
instead  of  imperial) ;  majority  for  the  govern-
ment 21  Feb. .

Parliament  opened ....  3  March, .

Army  bi.l  passed  (227-31) . . . 11  March, .

Treaty  of  alliance with  Austria  and  Italy  signed

13  March, .

The  emperor's  90th  birthday  royally  celebrated  at
Berlin 22  March, ,

Arrest of M. Schnasbell (see under France)

20-22  April, ,

Foundation  stone  of  opening  lock  of  a  canal  from
the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea,  61  miles  long,  laid
at  Holteuau  near  Kiel  by  the  emperor ;  (esti-
mated cost  7,800,000/.) ... 3  June, .

Eight  Alsatians,  members  of  the  "  Ligue  des
Patriotes "  formed  for  the  reunion  of  Alsace-
Lorraine  to  France  (advocated  by  M.  Deroulede,
a  fiery  poet  of  "  La  Revanche  ")  tried  at  Leipsic
for  high  treason,  13  June  ;  four  sentenced  to  one
to  two  years'  imprisonment ;  four  acquitted  18
June  ;  Klein  and  Grebert  sentenced  to  six  and  five
years'  respectively -  . . . . 8  July,

Parliament  closed 18  June,

The  emperor  present  at  military  manoeuvres  at
Stettin 12  Sept.

Celebration  of  25th  anniversary  of  Prince  Bis-
marck's premiership  of  Prussia  . 23  Sept.

Border  disputes  (see  France)

Signor  Crispi,  Italian  premier,  visits  prince  Bis-
marck ....  . 2,  3  Oct.

The  czar  formally  received  in  Berlin . 18  Nov.  :

Meeting  of  the  parliament . , . . 24  Nov.

Statement  in  the  Cologne  Gazette  of  the  existence  of
letters  &c,  purporting  to  come  from  prince  Bis-
marck sent  to  the  czar  tending  to  create  dis-
affection ;  asserted  to  be  forged  ;  attributed  to
Orleanists,  especially  princess  Clementine  of
Coburg,  daughter  of  king  Louis  Philippe  . Nov.

Cabannes  sentenced  to  ten  years'  penal  servitude  for
selling  military  secrets  to  the  French  government

19  Dec.

Indisposition  of  the  crown  prince,  (since  termed
perichondritis),  winters  in  Italy  and  S.  France
under  the  care  of  sir  Morell  Mackenzie,  1887  ;
stated  to  be  malignant  growth  in  the  larynx  ;
tracheotomy  performed  (the  German  doctors  ami
sir  Morell  Mackenzie  differ) . . . Feb.  :

Herr  von  Puttkamer's  more  stringent  anti-socialist
bill  opposed  by  all  parties  ;  revelations  of  govern-
ment detectives  inciting  socialists  to  violence  in
Zurich:  the  bill  committed  30  Jan.  1888  ;  passed

17  Feb.

Defensive  treaty  with  Austria  against  Russian  or
other  aggression, 7  Oct. 1S79  ;  first  published

3  Feb.

Powerful  speech  of  prince  Bismarck,  alike  for  peace
and  preparation  for  war ... 6  Feb.

Serious  illness  of  the  emperor ;  prince  William
(grandson)  entrusted  with  official  powers,  17  Nov.
1887  ;  this  publicly  announced . 8  March,

"  The  great  emperor  who  founded  Germany's  unity
is  dead." — Prince  Bismurck . . 9  March,


The emperor Frederick III. arrives at Berlin

11  March,

Solemn  German  national  funeral  of  the  emperor  at
Berlin  ;  preseut  the  kings  of  Belgium,  Saxony,
and  Roumania,  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  duke
of  Cambridge,  the  crown  princes  of  Austria,
Russia,  Denmark,  and  other  princes  and  nobles
(not  the  emperor  Frederick,  prince  Bismarck,
and  count  Moltke)  .... 16  March,

Parliament  prorogued . . . .20  March,

Rescript  empowering  the  crown  prince  to  act  for
the emperor in state affairs when required

21  March,

Visit  of  the  queen  of  England. . 24-26  April,

Continued improvement  of  the  emperor's  health

15  May,

The  emperor  becomes  much  worse  11, 12  June  ;  dies
(of  cancer  of  the  larynx) . . . 15  June,

Simple,  impressive  funeral  at  Potsdam 18  June,

The  imperial  parliament  opened  by  the  emperor
with  much  pomp  ;  many  princes  present ;  in  his
speech  the  emperor  said  "  I  will  follow  the  same
path  by  which  my  deceased  grandfather  won  the
confidence  of  his  allies,  the  love  of  the  German
people,  and  the  goodwill  of  foreign  countries,"
25  June.  The  house  adjourns  after  voting  a
cordial  address 26  June,

Herr  Dietz,  a  former  railway  official  in  Alsace-
Lorraine,  his  wife  and  Appel  convicted  of  treason
and  giving  railway  information  to  the  French
government,  5  July ;  Dietz  sentenced  to  ten
years'  penal  servitude,  his  wife  to  four  years,
and  Appel  to  ten  years'  confinement.  9  July,

The  emperor's  visit  to  the  czar  at  Peterhof,  19-23
July  ;  visited  Stockholm  and  Copenhagen July,

The  emperor  arrives  at  Vienna,  3  Oct.  ;  at  Rome,
11  Oct.  ;  at  Naples . . . . 16  Oct.

Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  publishes  "  The  Fatal  Illness
of  Frederick  the  Noble  "  ;  its  sale  temporarily
prohibited  in  Germany  ;  he  stops  the  sale  in
England  of  the  German  surgeon's  report  of  the
case  ;  statements  differ . . about  15  Oct.

Opening  of  parliament  by  the  emperor 22  Nov.

The  East  African  bill  passed,  granting  money  for
the  defence  of  German  interests  and  the  suppres-
sion of  the  slave  trade,  30  Jan.  ;  adopted  by  the
federal  council  (see  Africa,  German  Fast  Africa),

1  Feb.  :

The  empress  Frederick  and  her  daughters  visit
England . . . .19  Nov.  1888-26  Feb.

Three  German  war  vessels  lost ;  nine  officers  and
87  men  drowned,  in  a  storm  off  Samoa  (which
see) 16  March,

Great  strike  of  coal  miners  in  Westphalia  (which
see) May,

The  King  of  Italy,  his  son  and  Signor  Crispi
warinlv  received  at  Berlin . . 21-26  May,

33  Silesian  miners  engaged  in  the  strikes ;  sen-
tenced to  various  terms  of  penal  servitude  ( En-
kel,  the  ringleader,  to  7  years  for  riotous  con-
duct)  24  July,

Prince  Bismarck's  bill  to  compel  the  working
class,  with  the  assistance  of  the  state  and
their  employes,  to  provide  for  sickness  (passed
1883),  for  accidents  (passed  1884),  for  old  age  and
infirmity,  passed .... 24  May,

The  emperor  with  a  fleet  arrives  at  Spithead,  1
Aug.,  and  proceeds  to  the  queen  at  Osborne,
2  Aug.  ;  created  a  British  admiral  ;  present  at
the  grand  naval  review,  5  Aug.,  and  at  a  sham
fight  at  Aldershot,  7  Aug.  ;  queen  Victoria  made
colonel  of  a  German  regiment  to  be  called  "  The
Queen  of  England's  Own,"  about  3  Aug.  ;  the
emperor  leaves  England  .... 8  Aug.

The  emperor  of  Austria  and  his  heir  at  Berlin,

12-15  Aug.

The  emperor  visits  Strasburg,  well  received,  20
Aug.  ;  at  Metz.  24  Aug.

The -emperor  present  at  the  autumn  army  man-
oeuvres near  Hanover .... Sept.

Prince  Bismarck  declines  to  give  state  support  to
the  German  colonial  company  in  S.W.  Africa,

Sept.

Tin1  czar  visits  Berlin .... n-i3<>et.

The  imperial  parliament  opened  with  a  pacific
speech 22  Oct.

Bill  for  amending  the  socialist  law  of  1878,  pro-
longing it  indefinitely,  introduced . . Oct.


GERMANY.


4S8


GERMANY.


The  emperor  and  empress  present  at  the  marriage
of  his  sister  to  the  duke  of  Sparta,  27  Oct. ;  warmly-
received  by  the  sultan  at  Constantinople

2-6  Nov.
Visit  Venice . .  ....  12  Nov.

The  Austrian  and  German  emperors  meet  at  Inns-
bruck I4  Nov.

91  Socialists,  members  of  a  secret  society,  tried  at
Elberfeld  fur  illegally  promoting  socialism,  20
Nov.  et  seq.  ;  47  acquitted,  the  rest  sentenced  to
imprisonment(terms  18  months  to  14  days) 30  Dec.
The  stringent  anti-socialist  bill  rejected  (169—98),
the  parliament  closed  with  a  moderate  speech  by

the  emperor 25  Jan.

Two  rescripts  issued  by  the  emperor,  urgently  re-
commending action  tor  the  improvement  of  the
condition  of  the  working  classes,  and  suggesting
the  co-operation  of  France,  England,  Belgium,
and  Switzerland. See  Berlin . . 4  Feb.

Elections  for  the  new  parliament,  increased  num-
ber of  socialists  elected.  See  Cartel.  20  Feb.  et  seq.

Resignation  of  prince  Bismarck,  chancellor  of  the
empire 18  March,

He  declines  being  created  duke  of  Lauenburg,

about  23  March,

He  is  succeeded  by  gen.  George  von  Caprivi  de  Ca-
prera  de  Montecucculi . . about  20  March,

Count  Herbert  Bismarck,  secretary  for  foreign
affairs,  resigns,  succeeded  by  baron  Marschall  von
Biederstein about  1  April,

New  colonial  department  formed,  reported  16  April,

About  25,000  workmen  on  strike  in  Germany  re-
ported 30  April,

The  demonstration  in  favour  of  an  eight  hours
working  day  passes  off  tranquilly . 1  May,

The  new  parliament  opened  by  the  emperor  ;  in  his
speech,  while  professing  ardent  desire  for  peace,
he  required  supplies  for  the  increase  of  the  army
(18,000,000  marks) 6  May,

Vote  of  4,500,000  marks,  and  an  annual  subsidy  of
350,000  marks,  for  the  suppression  of  slavery,
and  protection  of  German  interests  in  East  Africa
proposed  by  gen.  von  Caprivi . . 12  May,

First German national horse show  (at Berlin)
12  June,  et  seq.

The new army  bill passed by  the parliament

28  June,

Anglo-German  convention  (which  see)  respecting
East  Africa,  signed  at  Berlin . . 1  July,

Newly  created  colonial  department  subjected  to  the
chancellor  in July

The  emperor  visits  queen  Victoria '  at  Osborne
4-8  Aug.  ;  visits  Heligoland  (which  see) 10  Aug.

The  emperor  visits  Russia  ;  met  by  the  czar  at
Nawa,  17  Aug.  ;  at  Peterhof ;  left . 23  Aug.

Naval  review  at  Kiel 3"  Sept.

Military  manoeuvres  in  Silesia . . . Sept'.

Cordial  meeting  of  the  German  emperor  and  the
emperor  of  Austria  at  Rhonstock  in  Silesia
17-20  Sept.  ;  at  Vienna &c. . . 1-8  Oct.

The  socialist  (or  "muzzling  ")  law  of  1878  expires  ;
great  demonstration . . . .30  Sept.

International  socialist  congress  at  Halle,  Prussian
Saxony 12-18  Oct.

establishment  of  a  colonial  council  decreed  15  Oct.

Birthday  of  field  marshal  count  Hellmuth  Moltke
(born  26  Oct.,  1800)  celebrated  at  Berlin  ;  the
emperor,  the  king  of  Saxony  and  other  German
sovereigns  and  the  count  himself  present  26  Oct.

Marriage  of  the  princess  Victoria,  daughter  of  the
empress  Frederick  II.,  to  prince  Adolphus  of
bchaumburg-Lippe,  at  Berlin . . IQ  Nov.

The  parliament  (adjourned  in  July)  meets 2  Dec

The  emperor  at  a  conference  in  Berlin,  strongly
advocates  reform  in  public  education 4-17  Dec

Sudden  death  of  Field-Marshal  von  Moltke,  aged 90,
24  April ;  grand  military  funeral,  accompanied  by
the  emperor,  German  sovereigns,  state  officers
ambassadors  and  a  great  multitude,  Berlin
28  April ;  quiet  interment  at  Kreisau  in  Silesia

-„  . _  ,  29  April,

Prince  Bismarck  elected  deputy  for  the  parliament
at  Geestemiinde x  May

The  parliament  adjourns  (the  important  Trades
Law  Amendment  Act  passed)  . . 9  May,

The  triple  alliance  renewed . . .28  June'

Tour  of  the  emperor  and  empress;  they  land  at
Hell  oland  30  June  ;  arrive  at  Amsterdam  (in


1890


the  Hohenzollcrn) ;  warmly  received  by  the  queens,
1  July  ;  at  the  Hague  and  Rotterdam,  3  July  ;  re-
ceived at  Port  Victoria  by  a  British  squadron  ;
arrive  at  Windsor  (which  see).  4  July  ;  at  Bucking-
ham palace ;  receptions  and  opera  at  Covent,
Garden,  8  July  ;  garden  party  at  Marlborough
house  ;  state  concert  at  Albert  hall,  9  July  ;  visit
the  Naval  Exhibition  ;  state  entry  into  the  city  ;
banquet  at  Guildhall ;  speech  of  the  emperor
("  My  aim  is  above  all  the  maintenance  of  peace")
10  July ;  he  reviews  about  25,000  volunteers  at
Wimbledon  ;  at  Crystal  palace ;  review  of  National
Fire  Brigade  ;  concerts  ;  dinner  by  the  prince  of
Wales;  grand  fireworks,  11  July;  at  St.  Paul's;
visit  to  Hatfield  (marquis  of  Salisbury),  12  July ;
banquet  at  Hatfield  ;  farewell  to  the  queen  at
Windsor ;  the  empress  goes  to  her  five  sons  at
Felixstowe,  Suffolk,  13  July ;  the  emperor  proceeds
from  London  to  Leith  ;  embarks  on  the  Bohen-
zollern,  sails  up  the  Forth  to  view  the  bridge,  and
then  proceeds  to  the  coast  of  Norway,  13,  14  July;
lands  at  various  places,  18  July  et  .-.eg.  ;  at  North
Cape,  21  July  ;  leaves  Bergen,  4  Aug.  ;  arrives  at
Kiel,  8  Aug. ;  the  empress  and  the  princes  leave

Felixstowe 6  Aug.  1891

Great  rise  in  the  price  of  grain,  especially  rye,
through  the  prohibition  of  exportation  by  the

czar Aug. ,,

Socialist  congress  at  Erfurt  closed  . . 21  Oct. ,,
Strike  of  journeymen  printers  throughout  Germany

for  a  9  hours  day  begun  at  Berlin about  2  Nov. ,,
The  WeUsenburrj,  ironclad  named  by  the  emperor  at
Stettin  . .  .... 14  Dec. ,,

New  commercial  treaty  with  Austria,  Italy,  and

Belgium,  adopted  by  the  parliament . Dec. ,,
Gen.  von  Caprivi  made  a  count  . . .  18  Dec. ,,
The  printers'  strike  supported  by  above  3,oooL  sent
by  English  trade  unions,  2  Jan.  ;  collapse  of  the

strike  reported 15  Jan.  1892

The  emperor's  speech  at  Brandenburg,  in  which  he
severely  censures  the  opponents  of  his  political
policy,  Styling  them  "grumblers,"  causes  great
sensation  among  all  parties  .  24  Feb.  et  seq.  ,,
Several  newspapers  at  Berlin  confiscated  for  re-
printing the  Times  leader  on  the  emperor's  speech

3  March, ,,
Rioting  at  Berlin, Hanover, Dantzig  and other

places  through  distress  . 25  Feb.  et  seq. ,,

Ministerial  crisis  in  Prussia  (which  see) 22  March, ,,
The  government  defeated  in  the  parliament ;  the

vote  for  an  imperial  corvette  negatived  29  March, ,,
The  parliament  prorogued  . . 31  March, ,,

See  Prussia.
Emperors  of  Rome  and  Kings  of  Germany,
carlovingian  race.
800.  Charles  I.  the  Great,  or  Charlemagne.
814.  Louis  I.  le  Debonnaire,  king  of  France.
840.  Lothaire  I. ,  or  Lother,  son  of  Louis ;  died  in  a

monastery  at  Treves,  Sept.  855.
855.  Louis  II.,  son  of  Lothaire.
875. Charles  II.,  the  Bald,  king  of  France  ;  died  877.
38i.  Charles  III.,  the  Fat,  crowned  king  of  Italy;  de-
posed ;  succeeded  by
387.  Arnulf  or  Arnoul ;  crowned  emperor  at  Rome,  896.
899.  Louis  III.,  the  Blind.
„ Lou:s  IV.,  the  Child,  son  of  Anmlf;  the  last  of  the
Carlovingian  race  in  Germany.

SAXON  DYNASTY.

911.  Otho,  duke  of  Saxony; refuses  the dignity  on

account  of  his  age.
,, Conrad  I.,  duke  of  Franconia,  Icing.
918.  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler,  son  of  Otho,  duke  of  Saxony,

king.
936.  Otho  I. ,  the  Great,  son  of  Henry,  crowned  by  pope

John  Xtl. ,  2  Feb.  962,  the  beginning  of  the  holy

Roman  empire.
973.  Otho  II. ,  the  Bloody :  massacred  his  chief  nobility

at  an  entertainment,  981 ;  wounded  by  a  poisoned

arrow.
983.  Otho  III. ,  the  Red,  his  son,  yet  in  his  minority,

poisoned.
1002.  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  surnamed  the  Holy

and  the  Lame.

HOUSE  OF  FRANCONIA.

1024.  Conrad  II.,  surnamed  the  Salique.

1039.  Henry  III.,  the  Black,  son.

1056.  Henry  IV.,  son;  a  minor;  Agnes,  regent;  deposed


GEEMANY.


439


GHENT.


by  his  son  and  successor  ;  Rudolph  (1077)  and

Herman  (1082)  nominated by  the  pope ; and

Conrad  (1087).
1106.  Henry  V.  ;  married  Maud  or  Matilda,  daughter  of

Hemy  I.  of  England.
ii2$.  Lothaire  II.,  surnamed  the  Saxon.

HOUSE  OF  HOHENSTAUFEN,  OR  OF  SUAB1A.

1138.  Conrad  III.,  duke  of  Franconia.

1152.  Frederick  I. Barbarossa ; drowned  by  his  horse

throwing  him  into  river  Saleph,  10  June,  1190.
1190.  Henry  VI. ,  son,  surnamed  Asper,  or  Sharp  ;  detained
Richard  I.  of  England  a  prisoner;  died  1197.
[Interregnum  and  contest  for  the  throne  between
Philip  of  Suabia  and  Otho  of  Brunswick.]
2198.  Philip,  brother  to  Henry;  assassinated  at  Bam-
berg by  Otto  of  Wittelsbaeh.
i2c8. Otho  IV.,  surnamed  the  Superb  ;  excommunicated

and  deposed ;  died  1218.
3215.  Frederick  II.,  king  of  Sicily,  son  of  Henry  VI.  :
deposed by  his  subjects,  who elected Henry,
landgrave  of  Thuringia,  1246;  Frederick  died  in
1250,  naming  his  son  Conrad  his  successor;  but
the  pope  gave  the  imperial  title  to
1247.  William,  earl  of  Holland  (nominal).
1250.  Conrad  IV.,  son  of  Frederick.
[His  son Conradin  was proclaimed  king  of Sicily,
which was, however, surrendered to his uncle
Manfred,  1254 ;  on  whose  death  it  was  given  by  the
pope  to  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1263. Conradin,  on  the
invitation  of  the  Ghibeline  party,  entered  Italy  with
a  large  army,  was  defeated  at  Tagliacozzo,  23  Aug.
1268,  and  beheaded  at  Naples  29  Oct.,  thus  ending
the  Hohenstaufen  family.]
E256.  [Interregnum.]

1257.  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  and  Alphonso,  of  Castile,
merely  nominated.

HOUSES  OF  HAPSBURG,  LUXEMBURG,  BAVARIA,  ETC.

1273.  Rudolph,  count  of  Haps  burg.

1291.  [Interregnum.]

1292.  Adolphus,  count  of  Nassau,  to  the  exclusion  of

Albert,  son  of  Rodolph :  deposed  ;  slain  at  the

battle  of  Gelheim,  2  July,  1298,  by
1298.  Albert  I.,  duke  of  Austria,  Rodolph's  son;  killed

by  his  nephew  at  Rheinfels,  1  May,  1308.
1308.  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg.

1313.  [Interregnum.]

1314.  Louis  IV.  of  Bavaria,  and  Frederick  III.  of  Austria,

son  of  Albert,  rival  emperors  ;  Frederick  died  in

I33°-

2330.  Louis  reigns  alone.

E347.  Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg. (At  Nuremberg,  in

1356,  the  Golden  Bull  became  the  fundamental

law  of  the  German  empire.)
E378.  Wenceslas, king  of  Bohemia, son, twice  impri-
soned ;  forced  to  resign ;  but  continued  to  reign

in  Bohemia.
1400.  Frederick  III. duke  of  Brunswick; assassinated

immediately  after  his  election,  and  seldom  placed

in  the  list  of  emperors.
,, Rupert,  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine;  crowned  at

Cologne ;  died  1410.
1410.  Jossus,  marquess  of  Moravia  ;  chosen  by  a  party  of

the  electors  ;  died  next  year.
,, Sigismund, king  of  Hungary ;  elected  by another

party,  on  the  death  of  Jossus  recognised  by  all ;

king  of  Bohemia  in  1419.

HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA.

1438.  Albert  II.  the  Great,  duke  of  Austria,  and  king  of

Hungary  and  Bohemia ;  died  27  Oct.  1439.

1439.  [Interregnum.]

1440.  Frederick IV. (or  III.)  surnamed the Pacific;

elected  emperor  2  Feb.,  but  not  crowned  until
June,  1442.

1493.  Maximilian I., son; died  in 1519. In 1477  he
married  Mary  of  Burgundy.
Francis  I.  of  France  and  Charles  I.  of  Spain  be-
came competitors  for  the  empire.

1519.  Charles  V.  (I.  of  Spain)  son  of  Joan  of  Castile  and
Philip  of  Austria,  elected  ;  resigned  both  crowns,
1556;  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died
21  Sept.  T55S.

1556.  Ferdinand  I.,  brother;  succeeded  by  his  son

1564.  Maximilian  II.  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.

1576.  Rodolph  II.,  son.

11612. Matthias,  brother.

*6ig. Ferdinand  II.,  cousin,  king  of  Hungary.

1637. Ferdinand  III.,  son.


1658.  Leopold  I. ,  son.

1705.  Joseph  I. ,  son.

1711.  Charles  VI.,  brother.

1740.  Maria-Theresa,  daughter, queen  of  Hungary  and.

Bohemia ;  her  right  sustained  by  England.
1742.  Charles  VII. elector  of  Bavaria, rival  emperor,

whose  claim  was  supported  by  France.
[This competition gave  rise to  a  general  war.

Charles  VII.  died  Jan.  1745.]
1745.  Francis  I. of  Lorraine,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,

consort  of  Maria-Theresa.
1765.  Joseph  II.,  son.
1790.  Leopold  II.,  brother.
1792.  Francis  II.,  son,  became  emperor  of  Austria  only,

as  Francis  I.,  1804.

See  Austria.

house  of  hohenzollern  (See  Prussia).
1871.  William  I. king  of  Prussia, 18  Jan.  (born  22

March, 1797  ;  died  9  March,  1888  ;  empress,

Augusta,  born  30  Sept.  1811,  died  7  Jan.  1890).
1888.  Frederick  (William)  III.  "the  Noble,"  son;  born

18  Oct. 1831  ; died 15  June, 1888  (married

princess  Victoria,  princess  royal  of  England

(born  21  Nov.  1840)  25  Jan.  1858).
,, William II.,  son, born  27  Jan. 1859  (married

princess  Auguste  Victoria  (born  22  Oct.  1858),

27  Feb.  1881.
Heir :  William,  born  6  May,  18S2  ;  other  children.
See  Prussia.

GERMINAL INSURRECTION, in  the

faubourgs  of  Paris,  suppressed  on  12th  Germinal,
year  III.  (1  April,  1795).

GEEONA  (N.  E.  Spain),  an  ancient  city,  fre-
quently besieged  and  taken.  In  June,  1808,  it
successfully  resisted  the  French  ;  but  after  suffer-
ing much  by  famine,  surrendered  12  Dec.  1809.

GEEEYMANDEEING,  an  American  slang
term,  signifying  the  arranging  the  political  divisions
of  a  state,  so  that  the  minority  may  get  the  advan-
tage over  the  majority.  The  name  is  derived  from
the  action  of  Elbridge  Gerry,  governor  of  Massa-
chusetts, in  181 1.  The  Irish  Party  causelessly
applied  the  term  to  earl  Spencer,  lord-lieutenant  of
Ireland,  in  regard  to  electoral  boundaries  in  1885.

GEESATJ,  a  Swiss  valley,  near  the  Rigi,
about  4  miles  i>5r  3,  the  site  of  a  miniature  republic,
which  bought  its  independence  in  1359,  maintained
it  till  1798,  and  still,  every  May,  elects  government
officers.

GESTA  EOMANOEUM;  a  collection  of
popular  tales  derived  from  Oriental  and  classical
sources,  written  in  Latin  by  an  unknown  author,
about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  and  one  of
the  first  books  printed  in  the  15th.  These  tales
have  been  largely  used  by  our  early  poets  and
dramatists,  including  Shakspeare.  The  English
translation,  by  the  Rev.  C.  Swan  (from  an  edition
printed  at  Hagenau,  1508),  appeared  1824.

GETTYSBUEG  (Philadelphia). Here  severe
fighting  took  place  1-3  July,  1803,  between  the  in-
vading confederate  army  under  generals  Lee,  Long-
street,  and  Ewe  11,  and  the  federals  under  general
George  Meade. The  confederates  were  long  suc-
cessful, but eventually  were compelled to retire
from  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland. The  killed  and
wounded  on  each  side  estimated  at  about  15.000.
Grand  national  and military  demonstration held
here,  1-3  July,  i838.
GHEMAEA,  see  Talmud.
GHENT  (Belgium),  an  ancient  city,  built  about
the  71I1 century, during  the  middle-ages  became
very  rich. John,  third  son  of  Edward  III.  of  Eng-
land, is  said  to  have  been  born  here  in  1340  (hence
named  John  of  Gaunt)  during  the  revolt  under
Jacob  Vi.n  Artevelde.  a  brewer,  whose  son  Philip
revived the insurrection against  Louis, count  of
Flanders,  1379-82. Popu'aton  in  1887,  147,912  ;
in  1890,  153,740.


GHIBELINES.


440


GIBRALTAR.


Ghent  rebelled  against  Philip  of  Burgundy,  1451 ;  against
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  1539;  severely  punished,  1540.

"Pacification  of  Ghent"  (when  the  north  and  south  pro-
vinces of  the  Netherlands  united  against  Spain)  pro-
claimed 8  Nov.  1576,  broken  up  1579.  The  300th  anni-
versary celebrated  3-10  Sept.  1876.

Ghent  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  9  March,  1678 ;  and
by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  1706.

Ghent  seized  by  the  French,  1793 ;  annexed  to  the
Netherlands,  1814  ;  made  part  of  Belgium,  1830.

Peace  of  Ghent,  between  Great  Britain  and  America,
signed  24  Dec.  1814.

New  docks  opened  at  Ghent  by  the  king,  Sept.  1881.

GHIBELINES,  see  Guelphs.

GHIZNEE,  or  GHUZNEE  (East  Persia),  the
seat  of  the  Gaznevides,  who  founded  the  city,  969.
They  were  expelled  by  the  Seljuk  Tartars  in  1038.
The  British  under  sir  John  Keane  attacked  the
strong  citadel  of  Ghiznee  at  2  a.m.  23  July,  1839.
At  3  o'clock  the  gates  were  blown  in  by  the  artillery,
and  under  cover  of  a  heavy  fire,  the  infantry  forced
their  way  into  the  place  and  at  5  fixed  the  British
colours  on  its  towers.  —  It  capitulated  to  the
Afghans,  1  March,  1842,  who  were  defeated  6  Sept.
and  general  Nott  re-entered  Ghiznee  7  Sept.  same
vear.  Seized  for  Musa  Khan  by  Mahomed  Jan  in
Jan.,  retaken  after  a  conflict,  19-20  April,  1880.

GHOORKAS,  see  Goorkas.

GHOSTS,  produced  by  optical  science.  Mr.
Dircks  described  his  method  at  the  British  Associa-
tion meeting  in  1858.  Dr.  John  Taylor  produced
ghosts  scientifically  in  March;  and  Mr.  Pepper  ex-
hibited the  ghost  illusion  at  the  Royal  Polytechnic
Institution,  July,  1863. See  Cock-lane  Ghost.

GIANTS  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  vi.  4.  The
bones  of  reputed  giants,  17,  18,  20,  and  30  feet  high,
have  been  proved  to  be  remains  of  animals. — The
battle  of  Marignano  (1515)  has  been  termed  the
"  battle  of  the  Giants."  See  Dwarfs.
Og,  king  of  Bashan,  of  the  remnant  of  the  giants :  his

bedstead  was  9  cubits  long  (about  16J  feet). 1451  b.c.

(Devi.  iii.  n.)
Goliath  of  Gath's  "height,  was  6  cubits  and  a  span."

Killed  by  David  about  1063  b.c.  (i  Sam.  xvii.  4.)
Four  giants,  sons  of  Goliath,  killed  (2  Sam.  xxi. 15-22)

about  1018.
The  emperor  Maximin  (a.d.  235)  was  8}  feet  in  height,

and  of  great  bulk. Some  say  between  7  and  8  feet ;

others  above  8.
*'  The  tallest  man  that  hath  been  seen  in  our  age  was

one  named  Gabara,  who  in  the  days  of  Claudius,  the

late  emperor,  was  brought  out  of  Arabia. He was

9  feet  9  inches  high. " Pliny.
John  Middleton  (born  1578),  commonly  called  the  child

of  Hale  (Lancashire),  whose  hand,  from  the  carpus  to

the  end  of  his  middle  linger,  was  17  inches  long;  his

palm  8i  inches  broad ;  his  whole  height  9  feet  3  inches.

Plot,  Nat.  Hist,  of  Staffordshire,  p.  295.
Patrick  Cotter, Irish  giant,  born  in  1761,  was  8  feet

7  inches  in  height ;  his  hand,  from  the  commencement

of  the  palm  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger,

measureel  12  inches,  and  his  shoe  was  17  inches  long ;

died  Sept.  1806.
Charles  Byrne,  called  O'Brien,  8  feet  4  inches  high ;  died

1783  ;  his  skeleton  is  in  the  Museum,  Royal  College  of

Surgeons.
■ Big  Sam,  porter  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  atCarlton-palace,

near  8  feet  high,  performed  as  a  giant  in  "  Cymon,"

at  the  Opera-house,  1809.
M.  Brice,  a  native  of  the  Vosges,  7  feet  6  inches  high.

He  exhibited  himself  in  London,  Sept.  1862,  and  Nov.

1863.
Robert  Hales,  the  Norfolk  giant,  died  at  Great  Yarmouth,

22  Nov.  1863  (aged  43). He  was  7  feet  6  inches  high,

and  weighed  452  lbs.
Chang-Woo-Gow, a  Chinese,  aged 19, 7 feet  8 inches

high, exhibited himself in London in Sept., foe.,

1865. Grown  to 8  feet, exhibited at Westminster

Aquarium  ;  with  him Brustav,  a  Norwegian,  7  feet  9

inches,  aged  35,  11  June,  1880.
Capt.  Martin  Van  Buren  Bates,  of  Kentucky,  and  Miss

Ann  Hanen  Swann,  of  Nova  Scotia,  both  about  7  feet


high ; exhibited  themselves  in  London,  in  May ;  and
married  at  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  17  June,  1871.
Marian,  the  amazon  queen,  8  feet  2  inches  high ;  born
at  Benkeudorf,  Thuringia,  21  Jan.  1866  ;  exhibited  in
London,  July,  1882.
Josef  Winkelinaier,  an  Austrian,  8  ft.  9  in.  (born  1865),
healthy, exhibited  in  London,  10  Jan.  1887  ;  died  at
Lengau,  24  Aug.  1887.
Elizabeth  Lyska,  Russian,  aged 12,  height  6  ft.  8  in-
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Aquarium,  London,  Nov.  1889.
GIAOUR,  Turkish  for  infidel,  a  term  applied
to  all  who  do  not  believe  in Mahomedanism. —
Byron's  poem, "  The Giaour,"  was  published  in
1813.

GIBRALTAR.  The  ancient  Calpe  (which,
with  Abyla,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  ob-
tained the  name  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules),  a  town
on  a  rock  in  South  Spain,  on  which  is  placed  a
British  fortress,  considered  impregnable.  The
height  of  the  rock,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1437
English  feet.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under
Tank,  whence  its  present  name  (derived  from  Gibel-
el-Tarik),  in  711.  Population,  1891,  civilians,
19,100;  troops,  5.896.

Taken  from  the  Moors,  1309 ;  surrendered  to  them,
1333;  finally  taken  from  them  by  Henry  IV.,  of
Castile,  1462  ;  strengthened  by  Charles  V.  .  .  1552
Attacked  by  the  British  under  sir  George  Rooke,
the  prince  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  sir  John  Leake,
and  admiral  Byng,  21  July ;  taken  .  24  July,  1704
Besieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French ;  they  1  se
10,000 men ; the victorious English but  400,

11  Oct. „
Sir  John  Leake  captured  several  ships,  and  raised

the  siege 10  March,  1705

Ceded  to  England  by  treaty  of  Utrecht 11  April,  1713
The  Spaniards  in  an  attack  repulsed  with  great

loss ' 1720

They  again  attack  it  with  a  force  of  20,000  men,

and  lose  5000 ;  English  loss,  300  .  .  22  Feb.  1727
Siege  by  the  Spaniartls  and  French,  whose  arma-
ments (the  greatest  brought  against  a  fortress)
wholly  overthrown  ....  16  July,  1779
In  one  night  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyeel
with  red-hot  balls,  and  their  whole  line  of  works
annihilated  by  a  sortie  commanded  by  general
Eliott;  the  enemy's  loss  in  munitions  of  war,  on
this  night,  was  estimated  at  upwards  of2,ooo,ooo£.
sterling ; the army  amounted to 40,000 men,

27  Nov. 1781
Grand  defeat  by  a  garrison  of  only  7000  British,

13  Sept.  1782
The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded.  12,000  of  the  best
troops  of  France.  1000  pieces  of  artillery  were
brought  to  bear  against  the  fortress,  besides
which  there  were  47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three-
deckers  ;  10  great  floating  batteries,  esteemed
invincible,  carrying  212  guns;  innumerablefrigates,
xebeques,  bomb-ketches,  cutters,  and  gun  and
mortar-boats ;  while  small  craft  for  disembarking
the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For  weeks  together
6000  shells  were  daily  thrown  into  the  town.

Blockade  ceased 5  Feb. 1783

Royal  battery  destroyed  by  fire . . . Nov.  1800
Engagement  between  the  French  and  English  fleets
in  the  bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74  guns, lost,

6  July,  1803
The  Royal  Carlos  and  St.  Hermenigildo,Spajiish  ships,
each  of  112  guns,  blew  up,  with  their  crews,  at
night-time,  in  the  straits  here,  anil  all  on  board

perished 12  July, ,,

A  malignant  disease  caused  great  mortality Sept. 1804

A  dreadful  plague  raged 1805

A  malignant  fever  raged ....  Aug. 1814

Again  : courts  of  justice  and  places  of  worship

closed  by  proclamation  ...  5  Sept.  1828
The  fatal  epidemic  ceased  .  .  .  .12  Jan.  1829
Destructive  storm  .....  17  Nov.  i834h
Bishopric  of  Gibraltar  established  ....  1842
Gen.  sir  Richard  Airey  appointed  governor  Sept.  1S65
Popular  eliscussion respecting its exchange for

Ceuta Dec.  1868 — Jan. 1869

Destructive  fire 28  June,  1874

Gen. sir Fenwick Williams  of Kars, governor,

Aug. 1870— Nov.  1875


GIBSON GALLEEY.


441 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS.


Destructive  storm  and  floods  .  .  23-24  Nov.  1875
Lord  Napier  of  Magdala,  governor  .  .  .  Jan.  1876
Visit  of  prince  of  Wales  .  .  .  15  April,  ,,
Sir  John  Miller  Adye,  governor  .  .  1  Jan.  1883
General  sir  Arthur  Hardinge,  governor  .  Nov.  1886
Gen. hon. sir  Leicester  Smyth,  Aug.  1890  ;  died

27  Jan.  1891
Gen.  sir  Lothian  Nicholson . . . April, ,,
For  the  loss  of  Utopia  steamer  (see  Wrecks)  17  March, ,,

GIBSON  GALLERY,  see  Royal  Academy.

GIFFORD  LECTURESHIPS,  on  Natural
Theology  in  its  widest  sense  -without  reference  to
creeds,  i'oundi  d  in  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,
Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrews,  by  bequest
of  80,000/.,  by  Adam  Lord  Gifibrd,  a  Scotch  judge,
21  Aug.  1885.

GILBERT  CLUB  was  established  28  Nov.
1889,  by  sir  Wm.  Thomson  (lord  Kelvin  in  P'eb.
1892),  president,  sir  F.  Brumwell,  professors  D.  E.
Hughes,  G.  Forbes,  Silvanus  Thompson,  and  other
physicists,  to  celebrate  the  tercentenary  of  William
Gilbert  and  his  work,  and  to  publish  translations  of
his  "De  Magnete,"  and  other  works  connected
with  magnetism  and  electricity.

GILBERTINES,  an  order  of  canons  and
nuns  established  at  Sempringham,  Lincolnshire,
by  Gilbert  of  that  place,  1131-1148.  At  the  disso-
lution there  were  25  houses  of  the  order  in  England
and  Wales.

GILCHRIST  TRUST.  A  fund  of  between
3000/.  and  4000/.,  left  by  Dr.  John  Gilehri-t  in
1841  to  promote  education.  Office,  4,  The  Sanctuary,
S.W.

GILDING  on  wood  formed  part  of  the  decora-
tions of  the  Jewish  tabernacle,  1490  B.C.  {Exod.
xxv.  11);  was  practised  at  Home,  about  145  k.c.
The  capitol  was  the  first  building  on  which  this
enrichment  was  bestowed.  Pliny.  Of  gold  leaf  for
gilding  the  Romans  made  but  750  leaves,  four
fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole  ounce.  Pliny.  Gild-
ing with  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammoniac  was  first  intro-
duced by  Margaritone  in  1273. See  Electrotype.

GIN,  ardent  spirit,  flavoured  with  the  essential
oil  of  the  juniper  berry.  The  "gin  act,"  1735,
laying  an  excise  of  5s.  per  gallon  upon  it,  passed
14  July,  1736.  In  London  alone  7044  houses  sold
gin  by  retail;  and  a  man  could  intoxicate  himself
for  one  penny.  Salmon.  About  1700  gin-shops
were  suppressed  in  London  in  1750. Clarke.

GIN  (contracted  from  engine),  a  machine  for
separating  cotton  wool  from  the  seed  ;  see  under
Cotton.

GINGER,  the  root  of  the  Amomum  Zinziber,
a  native  of  the  East  Indies  and  China,  now  culti-
vated in  the  West  Indies.  In  1842  the  duty  was
reduced  from  53.S.  to  10s.  per  cwt.  of  foreign  ginger,
and  from  us.  to  5s.  per  cwt.  of  that  from  .British
colonies.

GIPSIES,  see  Gypsies.

GIRAFFE  or  Camelopaed,  a  native  of  the
interior  of  Africa,  was  well  known  to  the  ancients.
In  1827  one  was  brought  to  England  for  the  first
time  as  a  present  to  George  IV.  It  died  in  1829.
On  25  May,  1835,  four  giraffes,  obtained  by  M.
Thibaut,  were  introduced  into  the  Zoological  gar-
dens, Regent's  park,  where  a  young  one  was  born
in  1839.  The  last  giraffa  living  at  the  Zoological
gardens  died  28  March,  1892.

GIRLS,  charities  for.
Girls'  Industrial  Home,  Stoekwell,  established . .  1857
Girls' Home, 22, Charlotte-street,  Portland-place,

established 1867

Girls'  Friendly  Society,  to  provide  homes,  <fec,  for

working  girls,  supported  by  the  archbishops  and

bishops,  founded 1878


GIRONDISTS,  an  important  party  during  the
French  revolution,  principally  composed  of  deputies
from  the  Gironde.  They  were  ardent  republicans,
but  after  the  cruelties  of  Aug.  and  Sept.  1 792,  laboured
in  vain  to  restrain  the  cruelties  of  Robespierre  and
the  Mountain  party,  and  their  leaders,  Brissot,
Vergniand,  and  many  others,  were  guillotined
31  Oct.  1793.  Lamartine's  "  Histoire  des  Giron-
dins,"  published  in  1847,  tended  to  hasten  the
revolution  of  1848.

GIRTON  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  for  the
higher  education  of  women.  It  began  at  Hitchin,
1869;  removed  here,  and  was  opened  Oct.  1873.
Newnham  college,  Cambridge,  in  connexion  with
it,  was  opened  18  Oct.  1875.  Miss  Anne  Clough,
who  ably  managed  the  little  hall  from  which  the
college  rose  in  1871,  died  27  Feb.  1892.
Miss  Charlotte  Angas  Scott,  aged  about  22,  attained  the

position  of  "wrangler"  (for  mathematics),  Jan.  1880.
Lady  Margaret  and  Somerville  halls,  similar  institutions

established  at  Oxford,  1884.
Miss  Agneta  Frances  Ramsay,  of  Girtnn,  and  Miss  B.

M.  Hervey  of  Newnham,  obtained  the  highest  honours,

see  Cambridge,  18  June,  1887.

GISORS,  BATTLE  OF  (France),  on  20  Sept.
or  10  Oct,  1 198,  when  Richard  I.  of  England  defeated
the  French.  His  parole  for  the  day,  "  Dieu  et
mon  droit"  —  "God  and  my  right" — afterwards
became  the  motto  to  the  arms  of  England.

GITSCHIN  (Bohemia),  was  captured  by  the
Prussians  after  a  severe  conflict  with  the  Austrians,
29  June,  1866.  Near  Gitschin,  the  same  evening,
the  crown  prince  of  Prussia  was  victor  in  another
engagement.

GIURGEYO  (Wallachia).  Here  the  Russians
were  defeated  by  the  Turks,  aided  by  some  English
officers,  7  July,  and  repulsed  in  an  attack,  23  July,
1854.

GLACIARIUM,  at  King's-road,  Chelsea;
containing  a  surface  of  artificially  made  ice  for
rinking,  constructed  by  Dr.  John  Gamgee,  and
opened  March,  1876.  The  freezing  was  accomplished
by  Raoul  Pictet's  process,  and  W.  E.  Ludlow's
rotary  engine  and  pump  were  employed.  Dr.
M'Leod's  newly  invented  skating  surface,  success-
fully tried  at  Lillie  Bridge,  10  May,  1884.

GLADIATORS  were  originally  malefactors,
who  fought  for  their  lives,  or  captives  who  fought
for  freedom.  They  were  first  exhibited  at  the
funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  26^  B.C.,  and
afterwards  at  festivals,  about  215  B.C.  Their  revolt
under  Spartacus,  73  B.C.,  was  quelled  by  Crassus,
71.  When  Dacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000
gladiators  fought  at  Rome  in  celebration  of  his
triumph,  for  123  days,  a.b.  103.  These  combats
were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantino  the
Great,  325,  and  in  the  West  by  Theodoric  in  t;oo.

GLADSTONE  ADMINISTRATIONS.*

Mr.  Disraeli  resigned  2  Dec.  and  was  succeeded  by

*  William  Ewart  Gladstone,  born  29  Dec.  1809  ;  master
of  the  mint,  Sept.  1841;  president  of  the  board  of  trade,
May,  1843 — Feb.  1845  ;  secretary  for  colonies,  Dec.  1845
— July,  1846;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Jan.  1S53 —
Feb.  1855,  June,  1859 — June,  1866;  lord  high  com-
missioner extraordinary  to  the  Ionian  Isles,  Nov.  1858;
M.P.  for  Newark,  13  Dec,  1832-46;  for  Oxford,  1847-65;
for  South  Lancashire,  1865-8;  for  Greenwich,  Nov.  1868  ;
announced  the  dissolution  of  parliament,  2^  Jan.  1874;
resigned,  17  Feb.  1874;  temporarily  resigned  leadership  of
liberal  party,  13  Jan.  1875;  elected  M.P.  for  Mid-Lothian
(1579-1368)^  5  April,  1880;  his  ministry  resigned  on
account  of  minority  on  the  budget  bill  (264-252)
9  June,  1885  ;  he  declines  an  earldom,  16  June,  1S85.

Among  the  measures  carried  by  the  Gladstone  ministries
are  :— The  Irish  church  act,  the  Irish  land  act  of  1870,
the  education  act,  the  ballot  act,  the  Irish  land  law  act


GLADSTONE  ADMINISTRATIONS. 442 GLADSTONE  ADMINISTRATIONS.


Itfr.  Gladstone,  whose  ministry  received  the  seals
9  Dec.  1868.  In  consequence  of  a  majority  of  three
against  the  Irish  University  bill,  early  on  12  March,
1873,  Mr.  Gladstone  tendered  his  resignation,  but
withdrew  it  a  few  days  after,  as  Mr.  Disraeli  de-
clined office  with  the  existing  house  of  commons.
Changes  were  made  Aug. -Sept.  1873  >  tne  niinistry
resigned  17  Feb.  1874.

FIRST ADMINISTRATION  (1868-74).

dfirst  lord  of  the  treasury,  Win. Ewart  Gladstone  (and

chancellor  of  exchequer,  Aug.  1873).
Zord  chancellor,  sir  Wm.  Page  Wood,  baron  Hatherley,

resigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Sel borne,

Oct.  1872.
Lord  president  of  the  council,  Geo.  Fred.  Samuel  Robinson,

earl  de  Grey  and Ripon (marquis  of  Ripon,  1871);

■■succeeded  by  Mr.  Austin  Bruce,  made  lord  Aberdare,

Aug.  1873.
Lord  privy  seal,  John  Wodehouse,  earl  of  Kimberley ;

succeeded  by  viscount  Halifax,  July,  1870.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Robert  Lowe;  succeeded  by

Mr.  Gladstone,  Aug.  1873.
Secretaries — home,  Henry  Austin  Bruce ;  succeeded  by

Mr.  Lowe,  Aug.  1873  ;  foreign,  Geo.  Wm.  Fred.  Villiers,

earl  of  Clarendon  (died  27  June,  1870);  succeeded  by

earl  Granville  ;  colonies,  Granville  Geo.  Leveson-Gower,

■earl  Granville ;  succeeded  by  earl  of  Kimberley,  July,

1870;  war,  Edward  Ca.d.vell;  India,  George  Douglas

Campbell,  duke  of  Argyll.
Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  Frederick  lord  Dufferin,

appointed  governor-general  of  Canada ;  succeeded  by

H.  E.  Childers,  Aug.  1872;  by  John  Bright,  Sept.  1873.
First  lord  of  admiralty,  Hugh  Culling  Eardley  Childers;

succeeded  by  G.  Joachim  Goschen,  9  March,  1871.
Chief  secretary  for  Ireland, Chichester S. Fortescne  ;

succeeded  by  the  marquis  of  Hartington,  1  Jan.  1871.
President  of  board  of  trade,  John  Bright;  succeeded  by

Chichester  S.  Fortescue,  Dee.  1870.
President of  poor law {now local  government)  boa.rd,

George  Joachim  Goschen ;  succeeded  by  James  Stans-

feld,  9  March,  1871.
Wm.  Edward  Forster,  vice-president  of  the  committee

of  council  on  education ; admitted  to  the  cabinet,

July,  1870.

The  above  formed  the  cabinet.
Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  John  Poyntz  earl  Spencer.
■Office  of  works,  Austen  Layard ;  succeeded  by  Acton  S.

Ayrton,  Nov.  1869  ;  by  Wm.  Patrick  Adam,  Aug.  1873.
Postmaster-general, Spencer  C. Cavendish, marquis of

Hartington ; succeeded  by  Wm.  Monsell  (not  in  the

cabinet),  Jan.  1871 ;  by  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  Nov.  1873.

This  ministry  carried — the  disestablishment  of  the
Irish  church  in  1869;  the  Irish  tenant  act  in  1870;  was
censured  in  the  house  of  loids  for  advising  the  royal
warrant  abolishing  purchase  in  the  army  (162  —  82),
1  Aug.  1871 ;  carried  the  ballot  in  1872.  See  letter  in
note,  Disraeli  Administration.

SECOND ADMINISTRATION  (28  April,  1880 — 9  June,  1885).

See  under  England  and  Parliament.

First  lord  of  the  treasury  (and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer
till  16  Dec.  1882),  Wm.  Ewart  Gladstone.

Lord  chancellor,  Roundell  Palmer,  baron  Selborne.

Lord  president  of  the  council,  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer;
succeeded  by  Chichester  S.  Fortescue,  lord  Carlingford,
9  March,  1883.

Lord  privy  seal,  George  Douglas  Campbell,  duke  of  Ar-
gyll; resigned;  succeeded  by  lord  Carlingford,  April,
1S81  ;  Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  earl  of  Rosebery,
11  Feb.  1885.


of  1S81,  the  employers'  liability  act,  the  agricultural
holdings  act,  the  burials  act,  the  ground  game  act,  the
franchise  act.

He  introduces  his  Irish  bill,  see  Ireland,  8  April  ;
3-ejected  (343-313),  7-8  June ;  minority  in  general
■election  ;  resigns  20  July,  1S86  ;  opposes  the  government
crimes  bill  unsuccessfully  Feb.-July,  1887  ;  receives
silver  trophy  presented  by  the  hon.  Joseph  Pulitzer,
editor  of  New  York  World,  the  result  of  subscriptions
and  public  entertainments,  9  July,  1887.

The  term  "  grand  old  man"  is  said  to  have  been  first
applied  to  Mr.  Gladstone  by  Mr.  Henry  Labouchere,  M.P.,
about  April,  1881,  and  sonn  generally  adopted.  Mr.
^Gladstone  made  many  speeches  in  and  out  of  parliament,
1887  et  seq.


Secretaries  —home,  sir  Wm.  Hareourt ;  foreign  affairs,
George  Leveson-Gower,  earl  Granville  ;  the  colonies,
John  Wodehouse,  earl  of  Kimberley,  succeeded  by
Edward,  earl  of  Derby,  16  Dec.  1882  ;  India,  Spencer
C.  Cavendish,  marquis  of  Hartington,  succeeded  by
John  Wodehouse,  earl  of  Kimberley,  16  Dec.  1882  ;
war,  Hugh  C.  E.  Childers,  succeeded  by  marquis  of
Hartington,  16  Dec.  1882.

First  lord  of  tlie  admiralty,  Thos.  Geo.  Baring,  earl  of
Northbrook.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Hugh  C.  E.  Childers,  16  Dec.
1882.

Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer,
May,  1882.

Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  John  Bright ;  resigns
about  15  July,  1882  ;  earl  of  Kimberley,  25  July ;  John
George  Dodson  (afterwards  lord  Monk  Bretton),  28
Dec.  1882;  George  O.  Trevelyan,  about  20  Oct.  1884.

President  of  local  government  board,  John  George  Dodson,
succeeded  by  sir  Charles  Wentworth  Dilke,  28  Dec.
1882.

President  of  board  of  trade,  Joseph  Chamberlain.

Postmaster-general,  George  Shaw  Letevre,  entered  the
cabinet,  n  Feb.  1885.

The  above  formed  the  cabinet.

Lord -lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Franeis  Thomas  de  Grey,
earl  Cowper  ;  resigned,  May,  1882  ;  earl  Spencer  (see
above).

Postmaster-general,  Henry  Fawcett,  died  6  Nov.  1884 ;
George  Shaw  Lefevre,  18  Nov.  1884.

Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  W.  E.  Forster  ;  resigned  about
2  May,  1882  ;  lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  4  May  ;  assas-
sinated, 6  May  ;  G.  O.  Trevelyan,  9  May,  1882 ;  Henry
Campbell  Bannerman,  about  20  Oct.  1S84.

Chief  commissioner  of  works,  W.  P.  Adam,  succeeded  by
G.  Shaw  Lefevre  till  Nov.  1884.

Attorney-general,  sir  Henry  James.

Solicitor-general,  sir  Farrer  Herschell.

Governor-general  of  India,  Geo.  Fred.  Samuel  Robinson,
marquis  of  Ripon  ;  succeeded  by  Frederick  Temple
Hamilton-Blackwood,  earl  of  Dufferin,  Nov.  1884.

Chairman  of  ways  and  means,  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair.

third  administration  (2-6  Feb.  resigned  20  July,  1886).
See  under  England  and  Parliament.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Wm.  Ewart  Gladstone.

Lord  chancellor,  sir  Farrer  Herschell  (lord  Herschell).

Lord  president  of  the  council,  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer.
Secretaries — home,  Hugh  C.  E.  Childers ;  'foreign,
Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  earl" of  Rosebery ;  colonial,
George  Leveson-Gower,  earl  Granville ;  India,  John
Wodehouse,  earl  of  Kimberley  ;  war,  Henry  Campbell-
Bannerman.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  sir  William  George  Granville
Vernon  -Hareourt.

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  George  Frederick  Samuel
Robinson,  marquis  of  Ripon.

President  of  the  local  government  board,  Joseph  Chamber-
lain, succeeded  by  James  Stansfeld,  27  March,  1886.

Secretary  for  Scotland,  George  Otto  Trevelyan;  suc-
ceeded by  John  William  Ramsay,  earl  of  Dalhousie  ;
(not  in  the  cabinet),  27  March,  1886.

President  of  the  board  of  trade,  Anthony  John  Mundella.

Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  John  Morley.

The  above  formed  the  cabinet.

Lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  John  Campbell  Hamilton-
Gordon,  earl  of  Aberdeen.

Postmaster-general,  George  Grenfell  Glyn,  lord  Wolverton.

First  commissioner  of  works,  Albert  Edmund  Parker,  earl
of  Morley  ;  succeeded  by  Victor  Alexander  Bruce,  earl
of  Elgin,  13  April.

Attorney-general,  sir  Charles  Russell,  Q.C.

Solicitor-general,  sir  Horace  Davey,  Q.C.

Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  Edward  Heneage  ;  suc-
ceeded by  sir  U.  Kay-Shuttleworth,  10  April,  1886.

FOURTH ADMINISTRATION.

(Succeeded  the  second  Salisbury  Administration,

which  see,  i3  Aug.  et  seq.).

First  lord  of  the  treasury  and  lord  privy  seed,  Win.  Ewart

Gladstone.
Lord  high  chancellor,  Lord  Herschell.
Lord  president  of  the  council  and  secretary  of  state  for

India,  Earl  of  Kimberley.
Secretaries — home, Herbert Henry Asquith ; foreign,

Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  earl  of  Rosebery ;  colonial,

George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinson,  marquis  of  Ripon ;

War,  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman.


GLADSTONIANS.


443


GLASGOW.


First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  sir  William  George  Granville

Vernon-Harcourt.
Chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  John  Morley.
Secretary  for  Scotland,  sir  George  Trevelyan.
President  oj  the  board  of  trade,  Anthony  John  Mundella.
President  of  the  local  government  board,  Henry  H.  Fowler.
First  commissioner  of  works,  George  John  Shaw-Lefevre.
Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster,  James  Bryce.
Postmaster-general,  Arnold  Morley.
Vice-president  of  the  committee  of  council  on  education,

Arthur  Acland.

The  above  form  the  cabinet.
Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Robert  O.  A.  Milnes,  baron

Houghton.
Financial  secretary  to  the  treasury,  Mr.  Hibbert.
Attorney-general,  sir  Charles  Russell.
Solicitor-general,  John  Rigby.
Lord  advocate  for  Scotland,  J.  B.  Balfour.
Attorney-general  for  Ireland,  the  MacDermot.
Lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  Samuel  Walker.
President  of  the  board  of  agriculture,  Herbert  Gardner.
Lord  chamberlain,  Charles  Robert,  baron  Carrington.
Secretary  to  the  admiralty,  sirUghtred  Kay-Shuttleworth.
Secretary  to  the  local  government  board,  sir  W.  Foster.

GLADSTONIANS.  A  name  given  to  the  ad-
herents of  Mr.  Gladstone  in  his  Irish  policy;  they
included  earl  Granville,  earl  Spencer,  marquis  of
KipoE,  earl  of  Rosebery,  sir  W.  Vernon-Harcourt,
Mr.  John  Morley,  and  other  liberals,  1886;  see
Liberals.

GLASGOW  (Lanarkshire),  the  largest  city  in
Scotland.  Its  prosperity  greatly  increased  after  the
union  in  1707,  in  consequence  of  its  obtaining  some
of  the  American  trade.  Glasgow  returns  seven
M.P.'s  by  Act  passed  25  June,  1885.  See  Population.
The  cathedral  or  high  church, dedicated  to St.

Kentigern  or  Mungo,  began  about . . . 1136

Erected  into  a  burgh 1190

Charter  was  obtained  from  James  II.  .  .  .  1451
University  founded  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  and  bishop

Turnbull 1450

Made  a  royal  burgh  by  James  VI 1611

Town  wasted  by  a  great  fire 1652

Charter  of  William  and  Mary 1690

Glasgow  Courant,  the  first  newspaper  published  .  1715
First  vessel  sailed  to  America  for  its  still  great

import,  tobacco 1718

Great  Shawfield  riot 1725

Calico  printing  begun,  about 1742

Plundered  by  rebels 1745

Theatre  opened 1764

Power-loom  introduced 1773

Theatre  burnt ;  Glasgow  Herald  published  . . .  1782

Chamber  of  commerce  formed 1783

Trades'  hall  built 1791

Walter  Stirling's  public  library  founded,  by  will . ,,


Spinning  machinery  by  steam  introduced . . 1795
Anderson's  university  founded  . . 7  May, ,,

New  College  buildings  erected 181 1

Great  popular  commotion  . . . April, ,,

Trials  for  treason  followed .... July, ,,

Theatre  again  burnt Jan. 1829

The  loyal  exchange  opened  . . .  3  Sept. ,,

Great  fire,  loss  150,000? 14  Jan. 1832

The  Glasgow  lotteries,  the  last  drawn  in  Britain,
were  granted  by  licence of  parliament  to the
commissioners  for  the  improvement  of  Glasgow.
The  third  and  final  Glasgow  lottery  was  drawn  in
Loudon,  at  Coopers'  Hall,  28  Aug.  1834. Their
repetition  was  forbidden  by  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  37 . 1834
British  Association  meet  here  . . .24  Sept. 1840
Wellington's  statue  erected  . . . . 8  Oct. 1844
False  alarm  of  lire  at  the  theatre,  when  70  persons

are  crushed  to  death .... 17  Feb. 1849
Visit  of  the  queen  and  prince  Albert . .  14  Aug. ,,
British  Association  meet  (2nd  time)  12  Sept. 1855

Failure  of  Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  and  City  of

Glasgow  bank,  and  other  (inns  . . Nov.  1857

In  which  great  frauds  were  discovered . . Oct. 1858
New  water-works  at  Loch  Katrine  opened  by  the

queen 14  Oct. 1859

[Supplies  25,000,000  gallons  daily,  can  supply
50.000,000 ;  engineer,  J.  F.  Bateman  ;  cost  about
9iS,ooo/.  independent  of  price  paid  for  old  works.  ]


Self-supporting  cooking  establishments  for  work-
ing classes  begun  by  Mr.  Thos.  Corbett,  21  Sept.  i860
Glasgow  visited  by  the empress of  the French,

27  Nov.

Theatre  burnt  again 31  Jan-  l863

Visited  by  lord  Palmerston  ;  installed  lord  rector,

29  March, ,.
Industrial  exhibition  opened . .  12  Dec.  1865

Fine  stained  glass  windows,  by  German  artists,  put

up  in  the  cathedral  by  private  munificence 1859-66
Site  of  the  old  university  sold  to  railway  company;

new  buildings  to  be  erected  near  Western-park  . 1866
Great  reform  demonstration  ;  visit  of  John  Bright,

16  Oct. ,,
The  duke  of  Edinburgh  inaugurates  the  statue  of

the  prince  consort,  in  George's-square 18  Oct. ,,
Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  universities  to  elect  one
M.P.,  and  Glasgow  to  elect  three  instead  of  two
M.P.'s,  by  the  Scotch  reform  act,  passed  13  July,  1868
Foundation  of  the  new  university  buildings  laid  by

the  prince  of  Wales .... 8  Oct. ,,
Foundation  of  Albert  bridge  laid  .  3  June>  l87°

The  new  university  buildings  opened  . 7  Nov. ,,

[The  spire  completed  14  Oct.  1887.]
Technical  college  established  about . . . . ,,
Scott  centenary  celebrated ... 9  Aug.  1871
Fraser  and  Maclaren's  warehouse,  Buchanan-street,

burnt ;  about  100,000?.  lost . . 27  March,  1872
Explosion  at  Tradeston  flour  mills  ;  about  14  lulled ;

loss -0,000? 9  J^y. »

Mr.  Disraeli  installed  lord  rector . . 19  Nov.  1873
Mr.  Stephen  Mitchell  bequeaths  70,000?.  to  tound  a

free  library,  &c - ■  spring,  1874

Great  fire  in  Buchanan-street  . . 22  April,  1876

British  Association  meeting  (3rd) . . . . ,,
Rt  lion.  R.  A.  Cross  receives  freedom  of  the  city

2  Oct. „
Foundation  of  new  post-office  laid  by  the  prince  of

Wales J7  Oct. „

Statue  of  Burns  in  George's  square  uncovered  by

lord  Houghton . . . -. . . 25  Jan. 1877
New  stock  exchange  opened . . 3  April, ,,
Weaving  school  opened .... 3  Sept. ,,
Freedom  of  city  presented  to  gen.  U. Grant,  ex-
president,  U.S 13  Sept. „

New  Queen's  dock  opened ... 18  Sept ,,
Freedom of city presented to the marquis of

Hartington 5  Nov. „

Statue  of  Thos.  Campbell,  in  George's  square,  un-
covered 28  Dec. „

Apothecaries'  hall  burnt,  loss  about  30,000?.  9  June,  187S
Stoppage  of  "City  of  Glasgow"  bank,  with  many

branches,  total  ruin  to  many,  see  Banks  2  Oct.  „
National  fund  formed  to  relieve  sufferers,  9  Nov. ;

amount  received,  about  118,000?.  .  .  12  Nov.  ,,
Glasgow  relief bank  founded,  321,423?.  received,

13  Dec. ,,
"  City  of  Glasgow"  bank :  Stronach  and  some  direc-
tors sentenced  to  18  months'  imprisonment,  others
to  8  months,  see  Trials  1  Feb.  1879

Theatre  Royal  burnt  .  ... 2  Feb. ,,

Boiler"  explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23  killed,

5  March, ,,
Statue  of  Livingstone,'  George's-square,  unveiled,

19  March, ,,
Sir  Win.  Harcourt,  home  secretary,  receives  freedom

of  the  city 25  Oct.  1881

Mr.  Macdonakl,  M. P.,  bequeaths  a  mining  library

and  1000/.  to  the  university  .  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Black  and  Wingate's  weaving  mills  burnt  3  Dee.  ,,
Great  fires  :  Anchor  line  engine  works  on  the  Clyde

and  Parker's  soap  works;  damage,  about  50,000?.  18S2
Destmctive  fire  in  the  Trongate,  15,000?.  estimated

damage r7  Aug. „

The  duke  of  Albany  receives  the  freedom  of  the  city

14  Oct.  „
Galbraith's  spinning  mill  burnt  .  .  .14  Get.  ,,
Rt lion.  W.  E.  Forster  receives  the  freedom  of  the

city 18  Dec. „

Mr.  Bright  installed  as  lord  rector . 22  Marcn,  1003
The  Daphne  steamer,  during  launch  in  the  Clyde,

heels  over; 124  perish  . .  . . 3  July, ,,

Wylie  and  Lochhead's  premises, near  Buchanan-
street,  burnt. ;  loss  about  200,000?. . .  3  Nov. ,,
"John  Elder"  professorship  of  naval  architecture
at  the  university  endowed  by  Mrs.  Elder,  12,500?.

announced  Nov. ,,
Mr.  Fawcett,  M.P.,  elected  lord  rector . 15  Nov. ,,


GLASGOW.


444


GLASTONBURY.


Trial  of  Terence  M'Dermott  and  nine  other  ribbon-
men  at  Edinburgh  for  conspiracy  to  blow  up
buildings  in  Glasgow  ;  M'Dermott  and  four  sen-
tenced to  penal  servitude  for  life,  rive  others  to
seven  years ..... 17-21  Dec.  1883

Through  Glasgow  Improvement  Act,  great  numbers
of  horrible  rookeries  removed,  1866,  and  whole-
some houses  erected . . . announced ,,

Great  popular  demonstration  in  favour  of  the
government  and  the  Franchise  bill ;  Mr.Trevelyan
there 6  Sept.  1884

Visit  of  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  ;  great  conser-
vative demonstration . . .30  Sept.  et  acq. ,,

Star  theatre  :  15  persons  killed  through  false  panic
of  fire 1  Nov. „

Templeton's  carpet  manufactory  burnt,  about
30,000?.  damages 28  Jan.  1886

Underground  railway  opened . . 15  March, ,,

The  Elderslie  rock  in  the  Clyde  near  Renfrew
removed  by  dynamite  ;  cost  about  40,000?.  .

Bailie  Young,  Councillor  Duncan  and  five  other
persons  killed  and  many  injured  by  poisonous
gases  of  ignited  gunpowder  rushing  into  the
vacancy  occasioned  by  the  blasting  of  an
enormous  mass  of  rock  near  Loch  Fyne 25  Sept.  ifi

Glasgow  blind  asylum  burned  down  ;  damage  about
10,000? 3  Dec- >

Jubilee  fete  of  30,000  school  children . 10  Sept.  ig

Great  international  exhibition,  the  largest  in  the
empire  since  that  in  London  in  1862  ;  patron,  the
queen;  the  buildings  in  the  west  end  park
occupied  about  16  acres,  cost  about  70,000?.  ;
opened  by  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  ;  the
route  of  the  procession  was  five  miles  (fine  day)  8
May;  visit  of  the.  queen,  magnificent  reception,
new  municipal  buildings, George's-square,  inaugu-
rated ;  the  exhibition  publicly  visited  22  Aug. ;  she
visited  Paisley  23  Aug.,  privately,  the  exhibition,
the  university,  and  queen  Margaret's  college,
24  Aug.  The  queen  was  the  guest  of  sir
Archibald  Campbell  of  Blytheswood  22-24  Aug.  ;
exhibition  closed,  10  Nov.  1888;  reported  number
of  visitors,  5,748,379,  surplus  40,000?.

Destructive  thunderstorm  with  loss  of  life  19  May,  iE

Fire  in  Buchanan-street,  155,000?.  damages 14  Oct. .

Destructive  storm,  the  exhibition  and  other
buildings  much  injured,  and  loss  of  life 16  Nov. .

Mr.  Win.  Stirling  bequeaths  20,000?.  to  Glasgow
charities  ;  he  died Sept.  i£

The  magnificent  municipal  buildings  in  George's-
square,  architect  Mr.  Wm.  Young;  cost  about
550,000?.,  opened  by  the  lord  provost,  sir  James
King 7  Oct. ,

Mr.  R.  Ramsay's  hide  and  wool  mart  burnt ;  esti-
mated loss,  30,000?.  . . . . 27  Oct. ,

Messrs.  Templeton's  carpet-weaving  mill,  in  the
course  of  erection  at  Greenhead,  during  a  gale
falls  on  the  sheds  where  about  140  girls  were  at
work,  about  29  killed  1  Nov. .

Co-operative  societies  of  the  United  Kingdom  22nd
annual  congress  (the  earl  of  Rosebery  president),

26  May,  etseq., 1!

The  freedom  of  the  city  given  to  Mr.  H  M.  Stanley,

12  June,

Meeting  of  miners'  delegates  from  all  parts  of  Scot-
land demanding  increase  of  wages,  &c,

15  Sept.,  et  seq., .

Strike  and  lock-out  in  the  iron-works,  respecting
wages 4  Oct. ,

The  earl  of  R,osebery  receives  the  freedom  of  the
city 10  Oct.

Great  meeting  of  Scotch  railway  men  ;  a  general
strike  resolved  on ;  see  under  Railways 21  Dec. ,

Eastern-end  Industrial  Exhibition  opened  by  the
marquis  of  Lothian  . . . .23  Dec. ,

Freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  the  marquis  of
Salisbury 20  May,  ii

Great  strike  of  shipwrights  on  the  Clyde,  5  July  ;

ended 20  Aug. ,

Visit  of  the  lord  mayor  of  London  and  sheriffs,

17-22  Aug. ,

Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,  lord  rector  of  the  university,
delivers  his  address  on  "  Progress" 26  Nov. „

Messrs.  Wm.  Primrose's  flour  mills  burnt ;  loss
about  10,000? 27  Feb.  il

Erection  of  a  new  fine  art  gallery  at  the  west-end
proposed  by  a  committee  ... 13  April,

Proposed  reduction  of  wages  of  seamen  and  fire-


men ;  great  meeting  of  the  men,  28  April ;  strike
begins 4  May,  1892

GLASGOW,  Bishopric  of. Kennet,  in  his

Antiquities,  says  it  was  founded  by  St.  Kentigern,
alias  Mungo,  in  560;  Dr.  Heylin,  speaking  of  the
see  of  St.  Asaph,  in  Wales,  sa}  s  that  that  see  was
founded  by  St.  Kentigern,  a  Scot,  then  bishop  of
Glasgow,  in  583.  This  prelacy  became  archiepiscopal
in  1491,  ceased  at  the  Kevolution,  and  is  now  a
post-revolution  bishopric.  The  cathedral,  com-
menced in  1 121,  has  a  noble  crypt;  see  Bishops.

GLASITES  (in  Scotland)  and  SANDEMANIANS
(in  England).  In  1727,  John  Glas,  a  minister  of
the  church  of  Scotland,  published  "The  Testimony
of  the  King  of  Martyrs,  concerning  his  Kingdom
(John  xviii.  36),"  in  which  he  opposed  national
churches,  and  described  the  original  constitution  of
the  Christian  church,  its  doctrines,  ordinances,
officers,  and  discipline,  as  given  in  the  New  Testa-
ment. Having  been  deposed  in  1728,  he  and  others
established  several  churches  formed  upon  the  pri-
mitive models.  The  publication  of  a  series  of  letters
on  Ilervey's  "  Theron  and  Aspasio,"  by  Robert
Sandeman,  in  1757,  led  to  the  establishment  of
churches  in  London  and  other  places  in  England,
and  also  in  North  America.

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have
known  the  art  of  making  glass  1150  B.C.  The
discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria.  Pliny.
Glass-houses  \\  ere  erected  in  Tyre.  It  was  in  use
among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius;  and
we  know,  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows
were  formed  of  glass  before  79.
Glass  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  England  by

Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth,  in  .  .  676
The  glass  manufacture  established  in  England  at

Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy  (Stow)  .  .  1557
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  manu-
facture, through  the  immense  increase  of  chemical
knowledge  in  the  present  century.  Professor
Faraday  published  his  researches  on  the  manu-
facture of  glass  for  optical  purposes  in  .  .  1830
The  duties  on  glass,  first  imposed  1695  ;  repealed,

1698;  re-enacted,  1745  ;  finally  remitted,  24  April,  1845
Glass- Painting  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyp-
tians. It  was  revived  about  the  10th  century,
and  is  described  in  the  treatise  by  the  monk
Theophilus  ;  was practised  at Marseilles  in a
beautiful  style,  about  1500,  and  attained  great
perfection  about 1530. Specimens  of  the  13th
century  exist  in  England ;  C.  Winston's  work  is
the  best  on  the  subject,  1846,  new  edition . . 1S6S
Glass  -  Plate, for  coach -windows, mirrors, &c,
made  at  Lambeth  by  Venetian  artists,  under  the
patronage  of  Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham  . .  1673
The  manufacture  was  improved by  the  French,
who  made  very  large plates ; and  further  im-
provements in  it  were  made  in  Lancashire,  when
the  British  Plate  Glass  company  was  established  1775
Manufacture  of  British  sheet  glass  introduced  by

Messrs.  Chance,  of  Birmingham,  about . . . 1832
Tampered  or  Toughened  glass:  M.  De  laBastie's  pro-
cess (plunging  heated  glass  into  a  hot  bath  of
oleaginous or  alkaline  compounds)  announced,
April,  1875  ;  largely  manufactured  in  France,  and

sold  cheap  in  London 1876

Mr.  Frederick  Siemens  described  his  process  for  pro-
ducing strong  homogeneous  tempered  glass  at  the

Society  of  Arts 26  Feb.  1885

The  application  of  glass  for  rails  proposed  by  Mr.
H.  Lindsay-Bucknalland  for  railway  sleepers  pro-
posed by  Mr.  F.  Siemens,  1885-6.  This  glass
asserted  to  be  much  stronger  than  iron.

GLASTONBURY  (Somerset),  traditionally
said  to  have  been  the  residence  of  Joseph  of
Arimathea,  and  the  site  of  the  first  Christian  church
in  Britain,  about  60.  A  church  was  built  here
by  Ina  about  708.  The  town  and  abbey  were
burnt,  1 184,  and  an  earthquake  did  great  damage
in 1275. Richard  Whiting,  the  last  abbot,  who


GLEBE.


445


GLOUCESTER.


had  IOO  monks  and  400  domestics,  was  hanged  on
Tor-hill  in  his  pontificals  for  refusing  to  take  the
oath  of  supremacy  to  Henry  VIII.,  14  Nov.  1539.
The  monastery  was  suppressed  1540.

GLEBE  (glcba,  a  clod),  the  land  belonging  to  a
parish  church,  or  ecclesiastical  benefice.
An  act  to  facilitate  the  sale  of  glebe  land  was  passed  in
1888.

GLEE,  a  piece  of  unaccompanied  vocal  music,
in  at  least  three  parts.  Their  composition  began
early  in  the  18th  century.  Eminent  composers,
Samuel  "Webbe  (1 740-1816),  Stevens,  Callcott,  Hors-
ier, Danby,  Paxton,  Lord  Momington,  Spufibrth,
&c.  The  Glee  Club,  founded  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Callcott,
Dr.  Arnold,  and  others,  1787.

GLENALMOND,  Perthshire.  Trinity
College  here,  projected  in  1841,  was  opened  in
1847.  It  was  lounded  principally  by  the  exertions
of  Mr.  \V.  E.  Gladstone  and  Mr.  'Hope  Scott,  aided
by  dean  Ramsay,  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  the
marquis  of  Lothian,  and  o:her  gentlemen,  to  sup-
port the  Scottish  episcopal  church.  Toe  site  was
given  by  Mr.  George  Patton,  afterwards  lord  Glen-
almoud,  1846.  The  foundation  stone  of  a  new
wing  was  laid  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  I  Oct.  1891.
GLENCOE  MASSACRE  of  the  Macdonalds,
a  Jacobite  clan,  for  not  surrendering  before  1  Jan.
1692,  the  time  stated  in  king  William's  proclama-
tion. Sir  John  Dalrymple,  master  (afterwards
earl)  of  Stair,  their  enemy,  obtained  a  decree  "  to
extirpate  that  set  of  thieves,"  which  the  king  is
said  to  have  signed  without  perusing.  Every  man
under  70  was  to  be  slain.  This  mandate  was  trea-
cherously executed  by  120  soldiers  of  a  Campbell
regiment,  hospitably  received  by  the  Highlanders,
13  Feb.  1692.  About  60  men  were  slain ;  and  many
women  and  children,  turned  out  naked  in  a  freez-
ing night,  perished.  This  excited  great  indigna-
tion ;  and  an  inquiry  was  set  on  foot,  May,  1695,
but  no  capital  punishment  followed.

GLENDALOUGH,  or  "  Seven  Churches,"  an
ancient  Irish  bishopric,  said  to  have  been  founded
by  St.  Keven  in  498;  united  with  Dublin,  1214.

"  GLOBE.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the
five  zones,  some  of  the  principal  circles  of  the
sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  causes
of  lunar  eclipses,  were  taught,  and  an  eclipse  pre-
dicted, by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  B.C.  Pytha-
goras demonstrated,  from  the  varying  altitudes  of
the  stars  by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth  must
be  round ;  that  there  might  be  antipodes  on  the
opposite  part  of  the  globe ;  that  Venus  was  the
morning  and  evening  star ;  that  the  universe  con-
sisted of  twelve  spheres — the  sphere  of  the  earth,
the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the  air,  the
sphere  of  fire,  the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the  sun ;
Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the
spheres  of  the  stars ;  about  506  B.C. — Aristarchus
of  Samos  maintained  that  the  earth  turned  on  its
own  axis,  and  revolved  about  the  sun,  which  doc-
trine was  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,
that  the  philosopher  nearly  lost  his  life,  280  B.C.  ;
see  Circumnavigators.

To  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth,  a  degree  of  latitude

has  been  measured  in  different  parts  of  the  world  ;  by

Bouguer  and  La  Condamine  in  Peru,  and  by  Mauper-

tuis  and  others  in  Lapland,  1735.

Estimated  density  s-6  that  of  water;  weight,  6,000,000,

000,000,000,000,000  tons. — Proctor,  1875.
France and Spain  measured  by Meehain, Delambre,

Biot,  and  Arago,  between  1792  and  1821.
Measurements made in India  by  col. (afterwards sir

George)  Everest,  published  in  1830.
Experiments  made  by  pendulums  to demonstrate  the
rotation  of  the  earth  by  Foueault  in 1851 ; and  to
determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and


others  ;  and  in  1826,  1828,  and  1854,  by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)
G.  B.  Airy,  the  astronomer  royal.
Artificial  Globes.  It  is  said  that  a  celestial  globe  was
brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt,  368  B.C.,  and  that
Archimedes  constructed  a  planetarium  about  212  B.C.
The  globe  of  Gottorp,  a  concave  sphere,  eleven  feet  in
diameter,  containing  a  table  and  seats  for  twelve  per-
sous,  and  the  inside  representing  the  visible  surface
of  the  heavens,  the  stars  and  constellations,  all  dis-
tinguished according  to  their  respective  magnitudes,
and  being  turned  by  means  of  curious  mechanism,
their  true  position,  rising  and  setting,  are  shown.
The  outside  is  a  terrestrial  globe.  The  machine,  called
the  globe  of  Gottorp,  from  the  original  one  of  that
name,  which,  at  the  expense  of  Frederick  II.  duke  of
Holstein,  was  erected  at  Gottorp,  under  the  direction
of  Adam  Olearius,  and  was  planned  after  a  design  found
among  the  papers  of  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe.
Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  presented  it  to  Peter  the
Great  in  1713.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in
1757 ;  but  it  was  afterwards  reconstructed.  Coxe.
The  globe  at  Pembroke-hall,  Cambridge,  erected  by  Dr.

Long  (master,  1733),  eighteen  feet  in  diameter.
In  1 85 1  Mr.  Abrahams  erected  in  Leicester-square,  for
Mr.  Wyld,  a  globe  60  feet  4  inches  in  diameter,  lit
from  the  centre  by  day,  and  by  gas  at  night.  It  was
closed  in  July,  1861 ;  the  models  were  sold,  and  the
building  eventually  taken  down.
Mi.  James  Wyld,  geographer  to  the  queen,  died  17  April
1887.  ' L '

GLOBE  THEATRE,  Backside  (London),

was  built  by  agreement  dated  22nd  Nov.  1593,
and  licensed  to  Shakespeare  and  others ;  see
Theatres,  and  Shakespeare's  Theatre. — The  Globe
"  Theatre,"  erected  on  the  site  of  Lyon's-inn,
Strand,  was  opened  28  Nov.  1868,  Mr.  Sefton  Parry,
manager.— The  Globe  evening  newspaper;  formerly
whig,  now  conservative  ;  established  1803.

GLOIRE,  French  steam  frigate,  see  Wavy.
French.

GLORY,  the  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round
the  heads  of  saints,  angels,  and  holy  men,  and  the
circle  of  rays  on  images,  adopted  from  the  Ca?sars
and  their  flatterers,  were  used  in  the  1st  century.
The  doxology,  "  Gloria  Patri,"  is  very  ancient,
and  originally  without  the  clause  "  as  it  was  in
the  beginning,"  &c.  In  the  Greek  it  began  with
"  doza,"  glory.

GLOUCESTER  (Roman  Gleviim),  submitted
to  the  Romans  about  45,  and  to  the  Saxons  577'.
The  statutes  of  Gloucester,  passed  at  a  parlia-
ment held  by  Edward  I.  1278,  relate  to  actions  at
law.  This  city  was  incorporated  by  Henry  III.  •
and  was  fortified  by  a  strong  wall,  which  was  de-
molished after  the  Restoration,  in  1660,  by  order  of
Charles  II.,  as  a  punishment  for  the  successful
resistance  of  the  city  to  Charles  I.,  under  col.
Massey,  Aug.,  Sept.  1643.  The  Gloucester  and
Berkeley  canal  was  completed  in  April,  1827.
Gross  bribery  took  place  here  at  the  election  for  the
parliament  in  1859.— The  Bishopric  was  one  of
the  six  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1541,  and  was
formerly  part  of'  Worcester.  It  was  united  to
Bristol  in  1836,  but  in  1884  an  act  was  passed  to
provide  for  their  again  becoming  separate  bishoprics.
The  church,  which  belonged  to  the  abbey,  and  its
revenues,  were  appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of
the  see.  The  abbey,  which  was  founded  by  king
Wulphere  about  700,  was  burnt  in  1102,  and  again
in  1 122.  In  it  are  the  tombs  of  Kohert,  duke  of
Normandy,  and  Edward  II.  In  the  king's  books,  this
bishopric  is  valued  at  315/.  17*.  2d.  per  annum.
Present  income,  5000^.  _  An  act  was  passed  in  1884
to  provide  for  the  disunion  of  the  sees  of  Gloucester
and  Bristol.  Population,  1881,36,542  ;  1891,  39,444.

RECENT  BISHOPS  OF  GLOUCESTER  AND  BRISTOL.

1802.  George  Isaac  Huntingford,  translated  to  Hereford

June,  1815.
1815.  Hon.  Hen.  Ryder,  translated  to  Lichfield,  1824.


GLOVES.


446


GOETHE SOCIETY.


1824.  Christopher  Bethell,  translated  to  Exeter,  1830.

1830.  James  Henry  Monk,  died.

1856.  Charles  Baring,  translated  to  Durham,  Sept.  1861.

1861.  Wm.  Thomson,  translated  to  York,  1862.

1862.  Charles  John  Ellicott  (present  bishop).
GLOVES. Woodstock  and  Worcester  leather

gloves  are  of  ancient  celebrity.  In  the  middle
ages,  the  giving  a  glove  was  a  ceremony  of  inves-
titure in  bestowing  lands  and  dignities;  and  two
bishops  were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  by  each
receiving  a  glove,  1002.  In  England,  in  the  reign
of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves  was  a
ceremony  of  degradation.  The  Glovers'  company
of  London  was  incorporated  in  1556.  Embroidered
gloves  are  presented  to  judges  at  maiden  assizes.
The  importation  of  foreign  gloves  was  not  permitted
till  182s.  "Gloves  and  their  Annals,"  by  S.  W.
lieck,  published  in  1883.

GLUCINUM  (from  glukus,  sweet).  In  1798
Yauquelin  discovered  the  earth  glucina  (so  termed
from  the  sweet  taste  of  its  salts).  It  is  found  in
the  beryl  and  other  crystals.  From  glucina  \Y  ohler
and  Bussy  obtained  the  rare  metal  glucinum  in
1828.  Gmelin.
GLUCOSE,  see  Sugar.

GLUTEN,  an  ingredient  of  gram,  particularly
wheat,  termed  the  vegeto-animal  principle  (con-
taining nitrogen).  Its  discovery  is  attributed  to
Beccaria  in  the  18th  century.

GLYCEBTNE,  discovered  by  Scheele,  about
1779,  and  termed  by  him  the  "  sweet  principle  of
fats,"  and  further  studied  by  Chevreul,  termed  the
"father  of  the  fatty  acids."  It  is  obtainedpure
by  saponifying  olive  oil  or  animal  fat  with  oxide  of
lead,  or  litharge.  Glycerine  is  now  much  employed
in  medicine  and  the  arts.

GLYOXYLINE  (invented  by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  F.
A.  Abel,  the  chemist  of  the  war  department,  in  1867) ,
an  explosive  mixture  of  gun-cotton,  pulp  and
saltpetre  saturated  with  nitro-glycerine.  it  was
abandoned  for  compressed  gun-cotton.

GNOMIUM,  a  new  element  recently  discovered
by  Gerhard,  Kruss,  and  F.  W.  Schmidt  (1889).

GNOSTICS  (from  the  Greet  gnosis,  know-
ledge), a  sect  who,  soon  after  the  preaching  of
Christianity,  endeavoured  to  combine  its  principles
-with  the  Greek  philosophy.  Among  their  teachers
were  Saturnius,  in;  Basi'lides,  134;  and  Valentine,
140.  Priscillian,  a  Spaniard,  was  burnt  at  Treves
as  a  heretic,  in  384,  for  endeavouring  to  revive
Gnosticism.

GOA  (S.W.  Hindostan),  was  taken  by  the  Por-
tuguese under  Albuquerque  in  1510,  and  made  their
Indian  capital.  It  was  visited  by  the  prince  of
Wales,  27  Nov.  1875.  New  harbour  and  railway
works  inaugurated,  31  Oct.  1882.
Election  riots,  conflict  with  the  police  and  mili-
:  tary,  17  persons  shot  dead,  accounts  conflicting,

22,  23  Sept.  1S90

Order  restored 26  Sept. ,,

Treaty  with  Great  Britain  (1878)  respecting  customs
duty,  and  an  annual  payment  to  Portugal  of  2
lakhs  of  rupees,  suffered  to  expire  through  dis-
agreement 14  Jan.  1892

GOAT  SHOW  at  Alexandra  palace,  16-22
Sept.  1880,  supported  by  the  British  Goat  Society,
recently  established.  A  goat  farm  for  the  supply  of
milk  established  near  Dorking,  1882.
Annual  shows  of  the  British  goat  society  have  been
held  ;  one  opened  8  June,  1886.
GOBELIN-TAPESTBY,  so  called  from  a
house  at  Paris,  formerly  possessed  by  wool-dyers,
whereof  the  chief  (Jehan  Gobelin),  in  the  reign  of
Francis  I.,  is  said  to  have  found  the  secret  of  dyeing
scarlet. This  house  was  purchased  by  Louis  XIV.


about  1662,  for  a  manufactory  of  works  for  adorn-
ing palaces  (under  the  direction  of  Colbert),  espe-
cially tapestry,  designs  for  which  were  drawn  by  Le
Brun,  about  1666.  Establishment  (1878)  cost  about
8000/.  a  year.

"  GOD  BLESS  YOU!"  see  Sneezing.

"  GOD  SAVE  THE  KING"  This  melody
is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  John  Bull,  Mus.
D.,  in  1606,  for  a  dinner  given  to  James  I.  at
Merchant  Taylors'  Hall ;  others  ascribe  it  to  Henry
Carey,  author  of  "  Sally  in  our  alley,"  who  died,
4  Oct.  1743.  It  was  much  sung  1745-6.  It  has  been
claimed  by  the  French.  The  controversy  on  the
subject  is  summed  up  in  Chappell's  •'  i'opular  Music
of  the  Olden  Times"  (1859).  The  melody  has  been
adopted  for  the  German  national  anthem  ("  Heil  dir
im  Siegerkranz  !"),  and  also  for  the  Danish.
The  words  translated  in  15  East  Indian  dialects  .  1882
Meeting  at  the  Mansion-house  to  promote  their

adoption 2  Nov. ,,

GODEBICH  ADMINISTBATION. Vis-
count Goderich  *  (afterwards  earl  of  Ripon)  became
first  minister  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Canning,  8  Aug.
1827  ;  he  resigned  8  Jan.  1828.
Viscount  Goderich,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Duke  of  Portland,  president  of  the  council.
Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor.
Earl  of  Carlisle,  lord  privy  seal.
Viscount  Dudley,  Mr.  Huskisson,  and  the  marquis  of

Lansdowne,  foreign,  colonial,  and  home  secretaries.
Lord  Palmerston,  secretary-at-war.
Mr.  C.  W.  Wynn,  president  of  the  India  board.
Mr.  Charles  Grant(aft.erwar<is  lord  Glenelg),  board  of  trade,
Mr.  Herries,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Mr.  Tierney,  master  of  the  mint,  &c.

GODFATHEBS  and  Godmothers,  or
sponsors.  The  Jews  are  said  to  have  had  theni  at
circumcision ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  them  in
scripture.  Tradition  sayrs  that  sponsors  were  first
appointed  by  Hyginus,  a  Roman  bishop,  about  154,
during  a  time  of  persecution.  In  Roman  Catholic
countries  bells  have  godfathers  and  godmothers  at
their  baptism.

GODOLPHIN  ADMINISTBATIONS
(see  Administrations),  1684  and  1690.  Lord
Godolphin  became  prime  minister  to  queen  Anne,
8  May,  1702.  The  cabinet  was  notified  in  1704.
The  earl  resigned  8  Aug.  1710,  and  died  1712.
Sidney,  lord  (afterwards  earl)  Godolphin,  treasury.
Sir  Nathan  Wright,  lord  keeper.

Thomas,  earl  of  Pembroke  and  Montgomery,  lord  pre-
sident.
John  Sheffield,  marquis  of  Normanby  (afterwards  duke

of  Normanby  and  Buckingham),  privy  seal.
Hon.  Henry  Boyle,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Sir  Charles  Hedges  and  the  earl  of  Nottingham  (the  latter

succeeded  by  Robert  Harley,  created  earl  of  Oxford  in

1704),  secretaries  of  state.

GODS,  Greek  and  Roman ;  see  under  Mythology.

GODWIN  SANDS,  sand-banks  off  the  east
coast  of  Kent,  occupy  land  which  belonged  to
Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  the  father  of  king  Harold  II.
Earl  Godwin  is  said  to  have  died  suddenly',  15  April,
1053.  This  ground  was  afterwards  given  to  the
mouastery  of  St.  Augustin  at  Canterbury;  but
the  abbot  neglecting  to  keep  in  repair  the  wall  that
defended  it  from  the  sea,  the  tract  was  submerged
about  I IOO,  leaving  these  sands,  upon  which  many
ships  have  been  wrecked. Salmon.

GOETHE  SOCIETY  (ENGLISH),
founded  in  February,  1886,  for  making  known  and

*  Born  1782  ;  held  various  inferior  appointments  from
1809  to  1818,  when  he  became  president  of  the  board  of
trade  ;  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  1818  to
April,  1827,  when  he  became  colonial  secretary,  which
ofhce  he  held  in  the  Grey  cabinet,  Nov.  1830 ;  created  earl
of  Ripon,  1833  :  died  28  Jan.  1859.


GOG.


447


GOLDEN  FLEECE.


illustrating  German  literature.  Professor  Max
M tiller,  president.  Inaugural  meeting,  28  May.
GOG  AND  MAGOG,  see  Guildhall.
GOLD  (mentioned  Gen.  ii.  11),  the  purest,  and
most  ductile  of  all  the  metals,  for  which  reason  it
has  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the
most  valuable.  It  is  too  soft  to  be  used  pure,  and
to  harden  it  it  is  alloyed  with  copper  or  silver :  our
coin  consists  of  twenty-two  carats  of  pure  gold,  and
two  of  copper.  By  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  96  (1854),  gold
wares  are  allowed  to  be  manufactured  at  a  lower
standard  than  formerly  ; — wedding  rings  excepted,
by  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  60  "(1855).  Th*3  present  stated
price  is  3^.  17*.  iOj^.  per  oz. ;  see  Coin  of  England,
and  Guineas.  In  1816,  it  was  enacted  by  56  Geo.  III.
c.  68,  that  "  gold  coins  only  should  be  legal  tender
in  all  payments  of  more  than  40s,"  the  tender  of
silver  being  previously  unlimited.
Estimated  amount of  gold  in  the  ivorld;  value, 1848,

560,000,000!.  ;  1875,  1,000,000,000?.
The  value  of  gold  compared  with  silver  is  said  to  have
been  estimated  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  b.c. 450,
about  10  to  1  ;  of  Plato,  b.c.  38,  12  to  1 ; a.d.  1876,
more  than  15  to  1. See  Silver.
The  weight  of  the  maharajah of Travancore  in gold

given  in  charity  (an  old  custom),  May,  1885.
The  Amalgamation  of  Gold  is  described  by  Pliny  (about
77)  and  Vitruvius  (about  27  B.C.). The  alchemist  Basil
Valentine  (in  the  15th  century)  was  acquainted  with
the  solution  of  the  chloride  of  gold  and.  fulminating
gold. Andreas Cassius,  in  1685,  described the  pre-
paration of  gold  purple,  which  was  then  adapted  by
Kunkel  to  make  red  glass,  and  to  other purposes.
Gmelin. Gold  has  been  subjected  to  the  researches  of
eminent  chemists,  such  as  Berzelius  and  Faraday.
Mr. Rowland  Jordan, of  London devised  a  new  and
successful  method  of  preventing  waste,  in  separating
gold  from  its  ore,  announced  Oct.  1884.
H.  R.  Cassel's  process  for  extraction  of  chlorine  used  in

London,  1885.
Mr.  B.  C.  Molloy's  hydrogen-amalgam  process  for  ex-
tracting  gold  from  the ores exhibited  by  Messrs.
Johnson  of  Finsbury,  London,  Aug.  1887.
Mr. T. Rowland  Jordan's  method  of  extracting  gold,

exhibited  in  George  Street,  London,  B.C.,  Oct.  1889.
Gold  Mines.  Gold  was  found  most  abundantly  in
Africa,  Japan,  and  South  America.  In  the  last  it
was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1492,  from  which
time  to  1731  they  imported  into  Europe  6000  millions
of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold  and  silver,  exclu-
sively of  what  were  unregistered.

Peter  the  Great  re-opened  ancient  gold  mines  in
Russia,  1699.

The  Ural  or  Oural  mountains  of  Russia  long  pro-
duced gold  in  large  quantity.

A  piece  of  gold  weighing  ninety  marks,  equal  to
sixty  pounds  troy  (the  mark  being  eight  ounces),  was
found  near  La  Paz,  a  town  of  Peru,  1730.

Gold  discovered  in  Malacca  in  1731 ;  in  New  Anda-
lusia in  1785 ;  in  Cejdon,  1800;  2887  oz.  of  gold,  value
9991?.,  obtained  from  mines  in  Britain  and  Ireland  in
1864 ;  it  has  been  found  in  Cornwall,  and  in  the  county
of  Wicklow  in  Ireland  (1797).

Gold  discovered  in  California,  Sept.  1847;  and  in
Australia,  1851.  On  28  April,  1858,  a  nugget,  said  to
weigh  146  pounds,  was  shown  to  the  queen.  It  is
estimated  that  between  1851  and  1859  gold  to  the  value
of  88,889,435!.  was  exported  from  Victoria  alone  (see
California  and  Australia  severally).

Gold  discovered  in  what  is  now  termed  New  Columbia
in  1856 :  much  emigration  there  in  1858.

Gold  discovered  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  Nova  Scotia
in  1861.

Gold  discovered  in  South  Africa  (Transvaal  republic,
<&c),  and  discovered  in  Sutherlandshire ;  much  excite-
ment, Oct.  1868  ;  in  West  Australia,  reported  Sept.  1870 ;
in  the  Bendigo  fields,  Victoria,  Nov.  1871  ;  in  Laud
of  Midian,  by  capt.  R.  Burton,  announced,  May,  1877.
The  district  of  Witwatersrand,  S.  Africa,  declared  a
public  goldfleld  20  Sept.  1886.

The  prosperous  town  of  Johannesburg  erected,
March  1887.

Productive  gold  fields  discovered  in  the  valley  of
the  Djolgute  river,  opposite  Ignachino  on  the  Amoor,


May,  1884  ;  a  Russian  colony  with  foreign  adventurer*
formed,  January,  1885.

Great  discovery  of  auriferous  quartz,  E.  of  the-
Transvaal,  1886.

Discovery  of  alluvial  gold  at  Waukaranga,  South.
Australia,  Oct.  1886.

Alleged  discovery  of  gold  at  mount  Lyell  in  Tasmania,
July,  1886.  p'w^

"Midas  "gold  nugget  named  "lady  Loch,"  weight  617-
ozs  ;  value  2,537/..  !  found  in  the  Midas  gold  companv's-
claim,  3  Aug.  1887  ;  exhibited  with  other  nuggets  by
Miss  Alice  Cornwall  at  Queen  Victoria-street,  London
28  Oct.  1887.

Discovery  of  gold  in  large  quantities  in  Mr.  Pritchard
Morgan's  Gwynfynydd  mines.  Mawddach  valley,
Merionethshire,  Wales,  announced,  Times,  7  Dec.  1887  ~
great  success  reported  ;  the  crown  claims  heavy  royall
ties,  April,  but  makes  concessions,  May,  1888  ;  work
going  on,  April,  1889-90.  Yield  of  gold  valued  at.
50,000!.,  royalty  paid  to  the  state,  reported  March,.
1890  ;  legal  decision  by  Mr.  Justice  North  that  the-
mine  is  royal  property  ;  working  restrained  till  the
royalties  are  paid  to  the  state,  6  Aug.  1890  ;  the  mine-
transferred  to  a  company,  which  obtained  a  licence,
and  paid  royalties.

Mr.  Morgan's  appeal  against  the  decision  of  Aug.  6,  dis-
allowed, 21  Jan.  1891  ;  his  estate  seized  by  the  govern-
ment for  the  royalties  due,  22  March ;  the  bailiffs
withdrawn,  pending  an  arrangement ;  work  resumed,,
early  April,  1892.

Important  gold  discoveries  in  Queensland,  which  see*
1882-9.

In  Malay  Peninsula,  announced  Aug.  1889.

Gold  mining  greatly  developed  in  the  Transvaal  district,.
Johannesburg,  founded  in  1887.

Gold  found  in  Western  Australia,  July,  1891.

Gold  obtained  in  United  Kingdom  ;  value  in  i86r^
10,816!.  ;  in  1862,  20,390!.  ;  in  1863,  1747!.  ;  in  1864,
9991!.  ;  in  1865,  5894!.  ;  in  1868,  3522?.  ;  in- 1876,  1138!.  ;,
in  1878,2848?.;  in  1880,  38!. ;  in  1882,863!. ;  in  1887, 210!.;.
in  1888,  29,982!.  ;  in  1889,  13,227!. ;  in  1890,  675?.

Gold  Wire  was  first  made  in  Italy  about  1350.  An
ounce  of  gold  is  sufficient  to  gild  a  silver  wire  above
1300  miles  in  length ;  and  such  is  its  tenacity  that  a
wire  the  one-eighteenth  part  of  an  inch  will  bear  the-
weight  of  500  lb.  without  breaking. Fourcroy.

Gold  Leaf.  A  single  grain  of  gold  may  be  extended
into  a  leaf  of  fifty-six  square  inches,  and  gold  leaf  can
be  reduced  to  the  300,000th  part  of  an  inch,  and  gilding
to  the  ten-millionth  part. Kelly's  Cambist.

Gold  Robbery.  Three  boxes,  hooped  and  sealed,  con-
taining gold  in  bars  and  coin  to  the  value  of  between
18,000?.  and  20,000!.  were  sent  from  London,  15  Mav,
1855.  On  their  arrival  in  Paris,  it  was  found  that
ingots  to  the  value  of  12,000?.  had  been  abstracted,
and  shot  substituted,  although  the  boxes  bore  no-
marks  of  violence.  Many  persons  were  apprehended
on  suspicion;  but  the  police  obtained  no  trace  till
Nov.  1856.  Three  men  named  Pierce,  Burgess,  and
Tester,  were  tried  and  convicted  13-15  Jan.  1857,  om
the  evidence  of  Edward  Agar,  an  accomplice.  They
had  been  preparing  for  the  robbery  for  eighteen  mouths-
previous  to  its  perpetration.

GOLD  COAST,  West  Africa,  discovered  ancT
named  by  Santarem  and  Escobar  in  1471 ;  settlements-
made  by  the  Dutch ;  transferred  to  Great  Britain,
by  treaty,  signed  2  Feb.  1872  ;  joined  with  Lagos
to  form  the  "Gold  Coast  Colony,"  governor,  capt.
Geo.  Cumine  Strahan,  appointed  1874 ;  Sandfori
Freeling,  1876;  Herbert  Taylor  Ussher,  1879;  sir-
Samuel  Rowe,2$  Jan.  1881 ;  "William  A.  G.  Toun"-
died  25  April,  1885  ;  sir  W.  Bradford  Griffith,  1886.
Population  of  the  colony  and  protectorate,  estimated
at  1.500,000. Capital  Ghristiansburg.

GOLD  FISH  (the  golden  carp,  cyprinus
auratus),  brought  to  England  from  China  in  1691 ;
but  not  common  till  about  1723.

GOLDEN  BULLS,  EOSE,  see  Bulls,  Rose,
note.

GOLDEN  FLEECE  (see Argonauts).  Philip,
the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1429,  at  his  mar-
riage, instituted  the  military  order  of  "  Toison  (For'"
or  "golden  fleece  ; "  it  was  said  on  account  of  the


GOLDEN HORDE.


418


GOEDON  MEMOEIAL.


profit  he  made  by  wool.  The  number  of  knights
was  thirty-one.  The  king  of  Spain,  as  duke  of
Burgundy,  afterwards  became  grand  master  of  the
order.  The  knights  wore  a  scarlet  cloak  lined  with
ermine,  with  a  collar  opened,  and  the  duke's  cipher,
in  the  form  of  a  13,  to  signify  Burgundy,  together
with  flints  striking  tire,  with  the  motto  "■Ante
ferit,  quarn  jlamma  micat."  At  the  end  of  the
collar  hung  a  golden  fleece,  with  this  device,
" Pretium  non  vile  laborum."  The  order  afterwards
became  common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of
Austria,  as  descendants  of  Mary,  daughter  of
Charles  the  Bold,  last  duke  of  Burgundy,  who
married  Maximilian  of  Austria  in  1477,  and  now
belongs  to  both  Austria  and  Spain,  in  conformity
with  a  treaty  made  30  April,  1725.  P'or  the  legend
of  the  Gulden  Fleece,  see  Argonauts.

GOLDEN  HOEDE,  a  name  given  to  the
Mongolian  Tartars,  who  established  an  empire  in
Kaptchak  (or  Kibzak),  now  S.E.  Russia,  about
1224,  their  ruler  being  Batou,  grandson  of  Gengis
Khan.  They  invaded  Russia,  and  made  Alexander
Newski  grand-duke,  1252.  At  the  battle  of  Biela-
wisch,  in  1481,  they  were  crushed  by  Ivan  III.  and
the  Nogai  Tartars.

GOLDEN  LEGEND,  "Legenda  Aurea."
The  lives  of  our  Lord  and  the  saints,  written  by
Giacomo  Varaggio,  or  Jacobus  de  Voragine,  a
Dominican  monk  about  1260;  first  printed  1470 ;
a  translation  printed  by  Caxton,  1483.

GOLDEN  NUMBEE,  the  cycle  of  nineteen

years,  or  the  number  that  shows  the  years  of  the

moon's  cvcle ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of

Athens,  about  432  B.C. Pliny. To  find  the  golden

number  or  year  of  the  lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the

<iate,  and  divide  by  19;  the  quotient  is  the  number

of  cvcles  since  Christ,  and  the  remainder  the  golden

number.  The  golden  number  for  1 893,  13;  1894,14;

1805,  15  ; 1896,  [6.

GOLDEN  WEDDING,  see  Wedding.

GOLDSMID  FAMILY. Aaron  Goldsmid,

a  native  of  Holland, settled  in  London  in  1763,  and

brought  with  him  wealth  and  important  commercial

influence. His  son  Asher  joined  in  establishing

the  firm  of  Mocatta  and  Goldsmid,  bullion  brokers

to  the  Bank  of  England. The  Goldsmids  became  at

the  end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th

.century  most  distinguished  financiers  of  the  realm.

Isaac  Lyon,  the  son  of  Asher  Goldsmid,  was  conspicuous

in the  formation of the London Institution, the

building  of  the  London  Docks,  the  earliest  attempts

in  the  introduction  of  railways,  the  improvement  of

prisons, the  establishment of the Society  for  the

Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  and  the  founding  of

the  London  University  (afterwards  called  University

College). In  his  numerous  national  and  philanthropic

■works  he  was  aided  by  his  sons,  Francis  Henry,  and

Frederick David. In 1844  the  queen  of Portugal

conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Baron  da  Palmeira,  in

recognition  of  his  services  in  regulating  the  debt  due

t>y  Brazil  to  Portugal. Regarding  him  and  his  son

Francis,  see  also  "Jews."

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London)

heo-an  about  1327, and  incorporated  16  Rich.  II.,

1392. The  old  hall  was  taken  down  in  1829,  and

the  present  magnificent  edifice  by  Philip  Hardwick,

was  opened  15  3u\y,  1835  ;  see  Assay,  and  Standard.

The  first  bankers  were  goldsmiths.

Goldsmiths'  hall  marks  on  gold  and  silver  plate  are  five  :—

1 The  sovereign's  head  (after  1784) ;  2,  lion  passant  (the

standard  mark),  probably  introduced  between  1538  and

I5S8  •  3, the standard  mark, fixed  8 &  9  Will.  III.

11696-7; 4, leopard's  head, the hall mark; 5, the

maker's  mark  (an  old  custom).

[The  date-letter  is  one  of  an  alphabet  of  20  letters  ;  A  to

U  or  V,  J  being  omitted. The  letter  is  changed  on  30

May  annually,  and  the  shape  of  the  letter  every  20  years ;


thus  1716,  A,  &c. ;  1736,  a,  &e.  ;  1756,  %  &c.  ;  1776,

a,  &c.  ; 1796-1816,  A,  &c.  ;  1816-36,  a,  &c.  ;  1836-56,  gl,

&c. ;  1856-76,  a,  &c.  ;  1876-1896,  A,  &c. The  earliest

known  alphabetical  series  began  1438-9.]
A  parliamentary  commission  on  hall  marking  reported

in  favour  of  its  continuance  with  modifications,  May,

1879.
The  company  offer  about  85,000!.  for  the  establishment  of

the  goldsmiths'  company's  polytechnic  institute,  New

Cross, Surrey,  Oct. 18S8 ; accepted  by  the  Charity

Commissioners,  1889. See  Polytechnic  Institutions.
Goldsmiths'  exhibition  at  Vienna  opened,  22  April,  1889.

GOLIATH,  training-ship,  burnt,  22  Dec.  1875  '■>
see  under  Wrecks.

GOMAEISTS,  see  Arminians.

GONFALONIEE,  or  Standard  Bearer
OF  JUSTICE,  originally  a  subordinate  officer  in
Florence;  instituted  1292;  became  paramount  in
the  15th  century,  and  was  suppressed,  27  April,
1532,  when  the  constitution  was  changed  and  Alex-
ander de  Medicis  made  duke.

GOOD  FEIDAY  (probably  God's  Friday),
the  Friday  before  Faster  day,  on  which  a  solemn
fast  has  long  been  held,  in  remembrance  of  the
crucifixion  of  Christ  on  Friday,  3  April,  ^,  or
15  April,  29  Its  appellation  of  good  appears  to  be
peculiar  to  the  church  of  England  ;  our  Saxon  foie-
t'athers  denominated  it  Long  Friday,  on  account  of
the  length  of  the  offices  and  fastings  enjoined  on
this  day. See  Paster.

GOODMAN'S  FIELDS  THEATEE,
London,  opened  1729.  Here  David  Garrick  made
his  debut  as  Richard  III.,  19  Oct.  1741.  The  new
theatre  erected  about  1746,  was  burnt  down,  June,
1802.  The  Garrick  Theatre  here  was  opened  in
1830 ;  burnt,  4  Nov.  1846 ;  and  since  rebuilt.

GOOD  TEMPLAES  (first  lodges  formed  in
America) ,  pledge  themselves  not  to  make,  buy,  sell,
furnish,  or  cause  to  be  furnished,  intoxicating
liquors  to  others  as  a  beverage.  The  first  English
lodge  was  formed  at  Birmingham  in  May,  1868.
There  were  said  to  be  3743  lodges,  and  210,255
members  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1874.  Special
session  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England,  8,  9  Sept.
1889.

GOODWIN,  see  Godwin.

GOODWOOD  EACES,  see  Paces.

GOOJEEAT  (N.  India),  see  Guzerat.

GOOEKHAS,  a  warlike  tribe  of  Nepaul,
became  prominent  in  the  17th  century.  Their  in-
vasions were  defeated  about  1791  by  the  Chinese,
whose  vassals  they  became.  In  a  war  with  the
British  in  1814  they  were  at  first  successful,  but
were  eventually  subdued,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was
signed  in  Feb.  1816.  Since  1841  the  native  regi-
ments have  been  largely  recruited  by  Goorkhas,
who  have  rendered  valuable  service  in  nearly  all
our  Indian  wars,  and  in  Afghanistan,  1878-9.

GOOSE,  see  Michaelmas.

GOEDIAN  KNOT,  is  said  to  have  been  made
of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to  the  waggon
of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  afterwards  king  of
Phrygia.  Whosoever  loosed  this  knot,  the  ends  of
which  were  not  discoverable,  the  oracle  declared
should  be  ruler  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut
away  the  knot  with  his  sword  until  he  found  the
ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a  military  sense  at  least,
interpreted  the  oracle,  3^0  B.C.

GOEDON  MEMOEIAL ;  proposed  by  lady
Burdett-Coutts  in  the  Times,  24  Feb.  1885.  See
Khartoum,  and  Mansion  PLousc.

Committee  formed  :  the  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of  Cam-
bridge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone,

marquis of Salisbury, cardinal Manning, Chinese

minister,  marquis  of  Lome,  earl  Granville  and  other

persons,  24  Feb.  et  seq.  1885.


GORDON  RIOTS.


419


GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.


Proposed  grant  of  2o,oooL  to  the  Gordon  family,  March,
1885.

Gordon  Memorial  Hospital  at  Port  Said  proposed  at
Mansion  House,  London,  14  March,  1885.

Subscriptions  20,320^  19  Oct.  1885  ;  given  to  trustees  of
Gordon  boys'  home.  Port  Said  hospital  scheme  given
up,  30  May,  1885.

Opening  of  penny  subscription  to  establish  a  Gordon
camp  at  Aldershot  for  the  military  training  of
destitute  boys ;  originated  by  Mr.  Hallam  Tennyson,
May,  1885.

Gordon  league  to  provide  entertainment  for  the  very
poor,  instituted  by  the  princess  Louise  and  others,  19
May,  1885  ;  first  meeting  18  Oct.  1885.

A  Gordon  memorial  boys'  home  proposed  1  July,  united
with  memorial  fund,  20  July,  opened  at  Fareham  near
Portsmouth,  1  Oct.  1885.  At  the  annual  meeting  it
was  stated  that  160  boys  were  sheltered  ;  an  appeal  was
made  for  means  to  increase  the  number,  21  May,  1889  ;
again  5  July,  1890.

A  statue  proposed  by  government,  about  14  July,  1885.

Statue  by  Mr.  Hamo  Thornycroft  set  up  in  Trafalgar-
square,  25  Sept.  ;  uncovered  by  Mr.  D.  R.  Plunket,  16
Oct.  1888.

Another  statue,  by  Mr.  Onslow  Ford,  at  the  school  of
military  engineering,  Chatham,  uncovered  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  19  May,  1890.

GORDON'S "NO  POPERY" RIOTS,

occasioned by  the zeal  of lord George Gordon,

June  2-9,  1780.

On  4  Jan.  1780,  he  tendered  the  petition  of  the  Protestant
Association  to  lord  North.

On  P'riday,  2  June,  he  headed  the  mob  of  40,000  persons
who  assembled  in  St.  George's  Fields,  under  the  name
of  the  Protestant  Association,  to  carry  up  a  petition  to
parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the  act  which  granted
certain  indulgences  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  mob
proceeded  to  pillage,  burn,  and  pull  down  the  chapels
and  houses  of  the  Roman  Catholics  first,  but  after-
wards of  other  persons,  for  nearly  six  days.  The  Bank
was  attempted,  the  gaols  opened  (the  King's  Bench,
Newgate,  Fleet,  and  Bridewell  prisons).  On  the  7th,
thiity-six  fires  were  seen  blazing  at  one  time.  At
length  by  the  aid  of  armed  associations  of  the  citizens,
the  horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  militia  of  several
counties,  then  embodied  and  marched  to  London,  the
riot  was  quelled  on  the  8th.

210  rioters  were  killed  and  248  wounded,  of  whom  75
died  afterwards  in  the  hospitals,  and  many  were  tried,
convicted  and  executed.

The  loss  of  property  was  estimated  at  i8o,oooZ.

Lord  George  was  tried  for  high  treason  and  acquitted,
5  Feb.  1781. He  died  a  prisoner  for  libel,  1  Nov.  1793.

Alderman  Kennett  was  found  guilty  of  a  dereliction  of
duty,  10  March,  1781.

GOREE,  a  station  near  Cape  Verd,  W.  coast
of  Africa,  planted  by  the  Dutch,  1617.  It  was
taken  by  the  English  admiral  Holmes  in  1663  ;
seized  by  the  French,  1677 ;  and  ceded  to  them  by
the  treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678 ;  taken  by  the
British  in  1758,  1779,  1800,  and  1804;  ceded  to
France,  1814.  Governor  Wall  was  hanged  in  Lon-
don, 28  Jan.  1802,  for  the  murder  of  sergeant  Arm-
strong, committed  while  governor  at  Goreein  1782.

GOREY  (S.E.  Ireland).  Near  here  the  king's
troops  under  colonel  Walpole  were  defeated,  and
their  leader  slain,  by  the  Irish  rebels,  4  June,  1798.

GORGET,  the  ancient  breast-plate,  was  very
large,  varying  in  size  and  weight.  The  present
diminutive  breast-plate  came  into  use  about  1660,
see  Armour.

GORHAM  CASE,  see  Trials,  1849-50.

GORILLA,  a  powerful  ape  of  W.  Africa,  about
five  feet  seven  inches  high.  It  is  a  match  for  the
lion,  and  attacks  the  elephant  with  a  club.  It  is
considered  to  be  identical  with  the  hairy  people
called  Gorullai  by  the  navigator  Hanno,  in  his
Periplus,  about  400  B.C.  In  1847  a  sketch  of  a
gorilla's  cranium  was  sent  to  professor  Owen  by  Dr.
Savage,  then  at  the  Gaboon  river,  and  preserved
specimens  have  been  brought  to  Europe, and a


living  one  died  on  its  voyage  to  France. In  185 1
professor  Owen  described  specimens  to  the  Zoolo-
gical Society;  in  1859  he  gave  a  summary  of  our
knowledge  of  this  creature  at  the  Royal  Institution,
London;  and  in  1861  several  skins  and  skulls  were
there  exhibited  by  M.  Du  Chaillu,  who  stated  that
he  killed  21  of  them  in  his  travels  in  Central  Africa.
The  gorilla  was  not  known  to  Cuvier.
A  young  gorilla  landed  at  Liverpool,  21  June,  1876  ;  went
to  Berlin  ;  was  exhibited  at  Westminster  aquarium,
23  July  ;  died  at  Berlin,  13  Nov.  1877  ;  another  brought
to  the  Crystal  palace,  England,  soon  died,  Aug.  1879.
An  African  gorilla  landed  at  Liverpool,  Sept.  1881.
Another  Sept.  1885.

One  placed  in  the  zoological  gardens, London,  Oct.  ;
died  9  Dec.  1887.

GOSPELLERS,  a  name  given  to  the  followers
of  Wicklifl'e,  who  attacked  the  errors  of  popery,
about  1377.  "Wicklift'e  opposed  the  authority  of  the
pope,  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  &c.,  and
is  called  the  father  of  the  Reformation.

GOSPELS  (Saxon  god-spell,  good  story).  Mat-
thew's and  Mark's  are  conjectured  to  have  been
written  between  a.d.  38  and  65  ;  Luke's  55  or  65  ;
John's,  about  97.  Irenaeus  in  the  2nd  century
refers  to  each  of  the  gospels  by  name.  Dr.  Robert
Bray  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Society  for  the
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Countries,
incorporated  in  1701.  A  body  termed  "Bray's
Associates,"  still  exists;  its  object  being  to  assist  in
forming  and  supporting  clerical  parochial  libraries.
GOSPORT  (Hampshire),  contains  the  Royal
Clarence  victualling  yard.  The  great  Haslar  hos-
pital, near  Gosport,  was  built  in  1762.

GOTHA,  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe  Coburg-
Gotha.  Here  is  published  the  celebrated  Almanack
de  Gotha,  which  first  appeared  in  1764,  in  German.
Population,  1890,  29,134.

GOTHARD,  see  Golthard  and  Alps.
GOTHENBURG  SYSTEM  (in  Sweden).
Bv  this  alcoholic  drinks  are  dispensed  by  persons
deriving  no  protit  from  the  sale.  It  was  advocated
in  England  by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  M.P.,  and  much
discussed,  1876-7.

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  began  about
the  9th  century  after  Christ,  and  spread  over -Europe.
Its  great  feature  is  the  pointed  arch  ;  hence  it  has
been  suggested  to  call  it  the  pointed  style.  "  Gothic"
was  originally  a  term  of  reproach  given  to  this  style
by  the  renaissance  architects  of  the  16th  century,
its  invention  has  been  claimed  for  several  nations,
particularly  for  the  Saracens.  The  following  list  is
from  Godwin's  Chronological  Table  of  English
Architecture  : —
Anglo-Roman— b. c.  55  to  about  a.d.  250— St.  Martin's

church,  Canterbury.
Anglo-Saxon— a.d.  800  to  1066— Earl's  Barton  church

St.  Peter's,  Lincolnshire.
Gothic Anglo-Roman— a.d. 1066  to  1 135— Rochester
cathedral  nave  ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield  ;  St.
Cross,  Hants,  &c.
Early  English,  or  Pointed — a.d.  ii35to  1272 — Temple-
church, London  ;  parts of  Winchester,  Wells, Salis-
bury, and  Durham  cathedrals,  and  Westminster  Abbey.
Pointed,  called  Pure  Gothic— a.d.  1272  to  1377— Exeter
cathedral,  Waltham  Cross,  &c,  St.  Stephen's,  West-
minster.
Florid  Pointed— a.d.  1377  to  1509— Westminster  Hall
King's  College,  Cambridge  ;  St.  George's  Chapel,  Wind-
sor ;  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  Westminster.
Elizabethan  — a.d. 1509 to 1625— Northumberland
House,  Strand,  pulled  down  1874  ; part  of  Windsor
Castle  ;  Hatfield  House,  Schools  at  Oxford.
Revival  of  Grecian  architecture  about  1625. Banqueting

House,  Whitehall,  &o.
The  revival  of  Gothic architecture commenced  about
1825,  mainly  through  the  exertions  of  A. W. Pugin.
The  controversy  as  to  its  expediency  was  rife  in  1860-1.

G G


GOTHLAND.


450


GEAMMAEIANS.


GOTHLAND,  an  isle  in  the  Baltic  sea,  was
conquered  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  1397-8  ;  given
up  to  the  Danes,  1524;  to  Sweden,  1645;  conquered
by  the  Danes,  1677,  and  restored  to  Sweden,  1679.

GOTHS,  a  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the
country  between  the  Caspian,  Pontus,  Euxine,  and
Baltic  seas.  They  entered  Mcesia,  took  Philippo-
polis,  massacring  thousands  of  its  inhabitants  ;  de-
feated and  killed  the  emperor  Decius,  251  ;  but  were
defeated  at  Naissus  by  Claudius,  hence  surnamed
Gothicus,  320,000  being  slain,  269.  Aurelian  ceded
Dacia  to  them  in  272  ;  but  they  long  troubled  the
empire.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  western
empire  by  the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  under  Theo-
deric,  became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy,
•where  they  retained  their  dominion  till  JJ53,  when
they  were  finally  conquered  by  N  arses,  Justinian's
general.  The  Visigoths  settled  in  Spain,  and
founded  a  kingdom,  which  continued  until  the
■country  was  subdued  by  the  Saracens.

GOTTHAED,  ST.,  near  the  river  Raab,  Hun-
gary. Here  the  Turks,  under  the  grand  vizier
Kupriuli,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Imperialists
and  their  allies,  commanded  by  Montecuculi,  1  Aug.
1664. Peace  followed  this  great  victory.  See  Alps.

GOTTINGEN  (Hanover),  a  member  of  the
Hanseatie  league  about  1360.  The  university
"'  Georgia  Augusta,"  founded  by  George  II.  of
England  in  1734,  was  opened  1737.  It  was  seized
hy  the  French,  1760,  and  held  till  1762.  In  1837
several  of  the  most  able  professors  were  dismissed
for  their  political  opinions.  Population,  1890,23,693.

GOVEENESSES'  BENEVOLENT  IN-
STITUTION, was  established  in  1843,  and  incor-
porated in  1848.  It  affords  to  aged  governesses
^annuities  and  an  asylum  ;  and  to  governesses  in
distress  a  temporary  home  and  assistance.

GOVEENMENT  Annuities  Act,  see  An-
nuities. The  building  of  the  new  Government
•Offices  began  in  1861.

GOVEENMENT  OE  IEELAND  BILL,
-see  Ireland,  1886.

"GOVEENOUE,  The,"  a  moral  and  educa-
tional work,  full  of  anecdotes,  by  sir  Thomas  Elyot,
first  published  in  153 1 ;  an  annotated  edition  with
a  glossary  by  Mr.  H.  H.  S.  Croft  was  published  in
1880.

GOWEIE  CONSEIEACY.  John  Ruthven,
earl  of  Gowrie,  in  1600,  reckoning  on  the  support  of
the  burghs  and  the  kirk,  conspired  to  dethrone  James
VI.  of  Scotland,  and  seize  the  government.  For
this  purpose  the  king  was  decoyed  into  Gowrie' s
house  in  Perth,  on  5  Aug.  1600.  The  plot  was  frus-
trated, and  the  earl  and  his  brother,  Alexander,
•were  slain  on  the  spot.  At  the  time,  many  persons
believed  that  the  young  men  were  rather  the  victims
than  the  authors  of  a  plot.  Their  father,  William,
*was  treacherously  executed  in  1584  for  his  share  in
the  raid  of  Ruthven,  in  1582 ;  and  he  and  his  father,
Patrick,  were  among  the  assassins  of  Rizzio,  9
March,  1566.

GEAAL,  Holy  (Sangreal).  The  publication
•of  Tennyson's  poem  with  this  title,  Dec.  1869,  led
to  much  discussion.  Tennyson  treats  it  as  the  cup
in  which  Christ  drank  at  the  Last  Supper.  The
mediaeval  romances  treat  it  as  the  dish  which  held
the  paschal-lamb.  The  word  is  probably  old  French,
grial,  from  the  old  Latin  gradalis,  a  dish.

GEACE,  a  title  assumed  by  Henry  IV.  of  Eng-
land, on  his  accession,  in  1399.  Excellent  Grace
was  assumed  by  Henry  VI.  about  1425.  Till  the
time  of  James  I.  1603,  the  king  was  addressed  by
that  title,  but  afterwards  by  the  title  of  Majesty


only.  "  Your  Grace  "  is  the  manner  of  addressing
an  archbishop  and  a  duke  in  this  realm. — The  term.
"Grace  of  God"  is  said  to  have  been  taken  by
bishops  at  Ephesus,  431  (probably  from  I  Cor.  xv.
10),  by  the  Carlovingian  princes  in  the  9th  century,
by  popes  in  the  13th  century;  and  about  1440  it  was
assumed  by  kings  as  signifying  their  divine  right.
"  Dei  gratia"  was  put  on  his  great  seal  by  Wil-
liam II.  of  England,  and  on  his  gold  coin  by
Edward  III.  The  king  of  Prussia's  saying,  that
he  would  reign  "  by  the  grace  of  God,"  gave  much
offence,  18  Oct.  1861.

GEACE  AT  MEAT.  The  ancient  Greeks
would  not  partake  of  any  meat  until  they  had  first
offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits,  to  their  gods.
The  short  prayer  said  before,  and  by  some  persons
after  meat,  in  Christian  countries,  is  in  conformity
with  Christ's  example,  John  vi.  11,  &c.

GE^ECIA  MAGNA,  colonies  planted  by  the
Greeks,  974-748  B.C. ;  see  Italy.

GEAFFITI,  a  term  given  to  the  scribblings
found  on  the  walls  of  Pompeii  and  other  Roman
ruins  ;  selections  were  published  by  Wordsworth  in
1837,  and  by  Garrucci  in  i8<;6.

GEAFTON ADMINISTEATION, suc-
ceeded that  of  lord  Chatham,  Dec.  1767. The  duke
resigned,  and  lord  North  became  prime  minister,
Jan.  1770;  see  North's  Administration.
Augustus  Henry,  duke  of  Grafton,  first  lord  of  the  trea-
sury [born,  1735  ;  died  1S11].
Frederick,  lord  North,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Earl  Gower,  lord  president.
Earl  of  Chatham,  lord  privy  seal.
Earl  of  .Sherburne  and  Viscount  Weymouth,  secretaries  of

state.
Sir  Edward  Hawke,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.
Marquis  of  Granby,  master-general  of  the  ordnance.
Lords  Sandwich  and Le  Despencer,  joint  postmasters-
general.
Lords  Hertford,  duke  of  Ancaster,  Thomas  Townshend,

Lord  Camden,  lord  chancellor,  succeeded  by  Charles
Yorke  (created  lord  Mordeu),  died  (it  is  said  by  his  own
hand)  20  Jan.  1770.

GEAHAM'S  DIKE  (Scotland),  a  wall  built  in
209  by  Severus  Septimus,  the  Roman  emperor,  or,
as  others  say,  by  Antoninus  Pius.  It  reached  from
the  Firth  of  Forth  to  the  Clyde.  Buchanan  relates
that  there  were  considerable  remains  of  this  wall  in
his  time,  and  vestiges  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen.

GEAIN.  Henry  III.  is  said  to  have  ordered  a
grain  of  wheat  gathered  from  the  middle  of  the  ear
to  be  the  origiual  standard  of  weight :  12  grains  to
be  a  pennyweight ;  12  pennyweights  one  ounce,  and
12  ounces  a  pound  Troy.  Laicson.
An  act  for  the  safe  carriage  of  grain  (43  &  44  Vict.  c.  43),

passed  7  Sept.  1880.

GEAMMAEIANS.  A  society  of  grammarians
was  formed  at  Rome  so  early  as  276  B.C.  Blair.
Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Varro,  Cicero,  Messala,
Julius  Caesar,  Nicias,  iElius  Donatus,  Remmius,
Palemon,  Tyrannion  of  Pontus,  Athenaeus,  and  other
distinguished  men,  were  of  this  class.  A  Greek
grammar  was  printed  at  Milan  in  1476  ;  Lily's
Latin  grammar  (Brevis  Institutio),  1513  ;  Lindley
Murray's  English  grammar,  1795 ;  Cobbett's  English
grammar,  1818. — Harris's  Hermes  was  published  in
1750,  Home  Tooke's  "  Epea  Pteroenta,"  or  the
"Diversions  of  Purley,"  in  1786,  treatises  on  the
philosophy  of  language  and  grammar.  Cobbett
declared  Mr.  Canning  to  have  been  the  only  purely
grammatical  orator  of  his  time  ;  and  Dr.  Parr,
speaking  of  a  speech  of  Mr.  Pitt's,  said,  "  We  threw
our  whole  grammatical  mind  upon  it,  and  could  not
discover  one  error."  The  science  of  grammar  has
been  recently  much  studied  with  excellent  results.


GEAMMAE SCHOOLS.


451


GEATTAN'S PAELIAMENT.


GEAMMAE  SCHOOLS,  see  Education.

GEAMME,  see  Metrical  System.  Gramme
machine,  see  under  Electricity.

GEAMOPHONE  and  Graphophone,  see

under  Phonograph.

GEAMPIAN  HILLS  (central  Scotland).  At
Ardoch,  near  Mons  Grampius  of  Tacitus,  the  Scots
and  Picts  under  Galgacus  were  defeated  by  the
Romans  under  Agricola,  84  or  85.

GEAMPOUND  (Cornwall)  was  disfranchised
in  1 82 1,  for  bribery  and  corrupt  practices  in  18 19.
Sir  Manasseh  Lopez  was  sentenced  by  the  court  of
king's  beneh  to  a  tine  of  10,000^.  and  two  years'
imprisonment.

GEAN,  (Hungary).  Here  the  Hungarians
■defeated  the  Austrians,  27  Feb.  1849.

GEANADA,  a  city,  S.  Spain,  was  founded  by
the  Moors  in  the  8th  century,  and  formed  at  first
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Cordova.  In  1236,  Mo-
hammed-al-Hamar  made  it  the  capital  of  his  new
kingdom  of  Granada,  which  was  highly  prosperous
till  its  subjugation  by  the  "  great  captain,"  Gonsalvo
de  Cordova,  2  Jan.  1492.  In  1609  and  1610  the
industrious  Moors  were  expelled  from  Spain,  by  the
t)igoted  Philip  III.,  to  the  lasting  injury  of  his
•country.  Granada  was  taken  by  marshal  Soult  in
1810,  and  held  till  1812.  See  New  Granada.  Popu-
lation, 1887:  province,  484,638  ;  city,  73,006.
In  the  2>rovi%ce  of  Granada,  five  towns  were  destroyed,
914  persons  killed,  with  an  immense  loss  of  property,
through  the  earthquakes  of  25  Dee.  et  seq.  1884.

GEANAEIES  were  formed  by  Joseph  in
Egypt,  1715  b.  c.  (Genesis  xli.  48.)  There  were
three  hundred  and  twenty-seven  granaries  in  Rome.
Univ.  Hist.  Twelve  new  granaries  were  built  at
Bridewell  to  hold  6000  quarters  of  corn,  and  two
store  houses  for  sea-coal  to  hold  4000  loads,  thereby
to  prevent  the  sudden  dearness  of  these  articles  by
great  increase  of  inhabitants,  7  James  I.  1610.
■Stow.

GEAND  ALLIANCE  between  the  emperor
and  the  Dutch  States- General  (principally  to
prevent  the  uniou  of  the  French  and  Spanish
monarchies  in  one  person),  signed  at  Vienna,  12
May,  1689,  to  which  England,  Spain,  and  the  duke
■of  Savoy  afterwards  acceded.

GEAND  COMMITTEES,  see  Committees.

GEAND-DUKE,  see  Duke.

GEANDEES,  see  Spanish  Grandees.

GEAND.  JUNCTION"  CANAL  (central
England),  joins  several  others,  and  forms  a  water
communication  between  London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,
and  Hull.  The  canal  commences  at  Braunston,  on
the  west  borders  of  Northamptonshire,  and  enters
the  Thames  near  London. Executed  1793-1805.

GEAND  JUEIES,  see  Juries.

.  GEANDMONTINES,  a  monastic  order  estab-
lished in  Limousin,  in  France,  by  Stephen,  a
gentleman  of  Auvergne,  about  1076.  They  came  to
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (1100-35).
Tanner.

GEAND  PENSIONAEY,  a  chief  state
functionary  in  Holland,  in  the  16th  century.  In
the  Constitution  given  by  France  to  the  Batavian
republic,  previously  to  the  erection  of  the  kingdom
of  Holland,  the  title  was  revived  and  given  to  the
head  of  the  government,  29  April,  1805,  Rutger
Jan  .  Schimmelpenninck  being  made  the  grand
pensionary;  see  Holland.


GEAND  EEMONSTEANCE,  see  Remon-
strance.

GEANICUS  (a  river  1ST. W.  Asia  Minor),  near
which,  on  22  May,  334  b.  c,  Alexander  the  Great
signally  defeated  the  Persians.  The  Macedonian
troops  (30,000  foot  and  5000  horse)  crossed  the
Granicus  in  the  face  of  the  Persian  army  (600,000
foot  and  20,000  horse).  Justin.  The  victors  lost
fifty-five  foot  soldiers  and  sixty  horse.  Sardis
capitulated,  Miletus  and  Halicarnassus  were  taken
by  storm,  and  other  great  towns  submitted  to  the
conqueror.

GEANSON,  near  the  lake  of  Neufchatel,
Switzerland,  where  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of
Burgundy,  was  defeated  by  the  Swiss,  3  March,
1476.

GEANTON  PIEE,  breakwater,  &c.  forming
a  harbour,  on  the  Forth,  three  miles  from  Edin-
bui-gh,  were  constructed  by  Messrs.  Stevenson,  at
the  cost  of  about  500,000^.,  given  by  Walter,  duke
of  Buccleuch,  1835-44.

GEAPES.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Edward
VI.  grapes  were  brought  to  England  in  large  quan-
tities from  Flanders,  where  they  were  first  cultivated
about  1276.  The  vine  was  introduced  into  England
in  1552  ;  being  first  planted  at  Bloxhall,  in  Suft'olk.
In  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  a  vine,
stated  to  surpass  any  in  Europe  ;  it  is  72  feet  by  20,
and  has  in  one  season  produced  2272  bunches  of
grapes,  weighing  18  cwt. ;  the  stem  is  13  ineb.es  in
girth;  it  was  planted  in  1769. Leigh.

GEAPHIC,  illustrated  weekly  journal,  estab-
lished 4  Dec.  1869.  The  Daily  Graphic  first
appeared  4  Jan.  1890.

GEAPHITE  (from  the  Greek  graphein,  to
write),  a  peculiar  form  of  mineral  carbon,  with  a
trace  of  iron,  improperly  termed  black  lead  and
plumbago.  In  1809  sir  Humphry  Davy  investi-
gated into  the  relations  of  three  forms  of  carbon,
the  diamond,  graphite,  and  charcoal.  A  rude  kind
of  black  lead  pencil  is  mentioned  by  Gesner  in  1565.
Intei-esting  results  of  sir  B.  C.  Brodie's  researches
on  graphite  appeared  in  the  International  Exhi-
bition of  1862.  Fresh  discoveries  were  made  in  the
nearly  exhausted  Borrowdale  mines,  Cumberland,
in  1875.

GEAPHOSCOPE,  an  optical  apparatus  for
magnifying  and  giving  fine  effects  to  engravings,
photographs,  &c,  invented  by  C.  J.  Rowsell;  ex-
hibited in  187 1.

GEAPHOTYPE,  a  new  process  for  obtaining
blocks  for  surface-printing,  the  invention  of  Mr.  De
Witt  Clinton  Hitchcock  in  1S60.  It  was  described
by  Mr.  Fitz-Cook  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  6  Dec.
1865.  Drawings  were  made  on  blocks  of  chalk  with
a  silicious  ink ;  when  dried,  the  soft  parts  were
brushed  away,  and  the  drawing  remained  in  relief ;
stereotypes  were  then  taken  from  the  block.

GEATES.  The  Anglo-Saxons  had  arched
hearths,  and  chafing-dishes  were  in  use  until  the
introduction  of  chimneys  about  1200  ;  see  Chimneys
and  Stoves.

GEATTAN'S  PAELIAMENT,  a  name
popularly  given  to  the  Irish  parliament,  after  it
had  been  declared  independent,  mainly  by  the  exer-
tions of  Henry  Grattan,  by  an  act  passed  in  Eng-
land, May,  1782.  It  came  to  an  end  by  the  passing
of  the  Act  of  Union,  2  July,  1800.  In  1806,  Grattan
said  of  his  parliament  "  I  have  a  parental  recollec-
tion. I  sat  by  her  cradle  ;  I  followed  her  hearse."
Grattan  strongly  urged  the  passing  of  an  act  for
Catholic  emancipation  till  his  death  4  June,  1820.

G G 2


GRAVELINES.


452


GREECE.


GEAVELINES  (N.  France^.  Here  the
Spaniards,  aided  by  an  English  fleet,  defeated  the
French  on  13  July,  1558.

GRAVELOTTE,  Battle  of,  18  Aug.  187c
See  Metz.

GRAVESEND,  Kent  (Domesday  Graveshaf),
on  the  Thames ;  burned  by  the  French,  1380 ;
chartered  by  Elizabeth,  1562  ;  fortified,  1588  ;  de-
structive fire,  24  Aug.  1727;  has  one  M.P.  by  act
of  1867. Population,  1881,23,302;  1891,24,067.

GRAVITATION,  as  a  supposed  innate  power,
was  noticed  by  the  Greeks,  and  also  by  Seneca,  who
speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters,  about  38.
Kepler  investigated  the  subject  about 1615, and
Hooke  devised  a  system  of  gravitation  about  1674.
The  principles  of  gravity  were demonstrated by
Galilep  at  Florence,  about  1633  ;  but  the  great  law
on  this subject, laid down by  Newton in his
"Principia,"  in  1687,  is  said  to  have  been  proved  by
him  in  1670.  The  fall  of  an  apple  from  a  tree  in  1666
is  said  to  have  directed  his  attention  to  the  subject,
Newton  says,  "I  do  not  anywhere  take  on  me  to  define
the  kind  or  manner  of  any  action,  the  causes  or  physi-
cal reasons  thereof,  or  attribute  forces  in  a  true  and
physical  sense  to  certain  centres,  when I  speak of
them  as  attracting,  or  endued  with  attractive  powers. "
On  15 July, 1867,  M. Chasles laid before the Paris
Academy  of  Sciences  some  letters  alleged  to  be  from
Newton  to  Pascal  and  others  tending  to  show  that  to
Pascal  was  due  the  theory  of  gravitation. The  authen-
ticity of  these  letters  was  authoritatively  denied,  and
their  forgery  and  his  own  delusion  were  acknowledged
by  M.  Chasles  before  the  academy  13  Sept.  1869.

GREAT  BETHEL,  see  Big  Bethel.

GREAT  BRITAIN,  the  name  given  in  1604
to  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland  {which  see).
King  James  I.  styled  himself  king  of  Great  Britain,
1604.  See  Population.  "  Greater  Britain,"  the  title
of  sir  Charles  Dilke's  book,  describing  his  travels  in
the  British  colonies,  published  in  1868  ;  8th  edition,
June  1885.

GREAT  BRITAIN,  EASTERN,  &c,  see

under  Steam. — The  Eastern  Counties  Railway
assumed  the  name  of  Great  Eastern  in  1862,
when  it  was  incorporated.  The  Great  Northern
Railway  Company,  an  amalgamation,  was  incor-
porated in  1846.  Their  station  at  King's-cross,
London,  was  opened  in  Oct.  1852. — The  Great
Western  Railway  opened  as  far  as  Maidenhead,
4  June,  1838;  as  Twyford,  1  July,  1839;  between
London  and  Bristol,  30  June,  1841  ;  was  re-modelled
by  acts  of  1867  and  1869.

GREAT  EXHIBITION,  see  Exhibition.

GREAT  PAUL,  see  Bells.

GREAT  SEAL  of  ENGLAND.  The  first
seal  used  by  Edward  the  Confessor  was  called  the
broad  seal,  and  affixed  to  the  grants  of  the  crown,
1048.  Baker's  Chron.  The  most  ancient  seal  with
arms  on  it  is  that  of  Richard  I.  James  II.,  when
fleeing  from  London  in  1688,  dropped  the  great  seal
in  the  Thames.  The  great  seal  of  England  was
stolen  from  the  house  of  lord  chancellor  Thurlow,
in  Great  Ormond-street,  and  carried  away,  with
other  property,  24  March,  1784,  a  day  before  the
dissolution  of  parliament ;  it  was  never  recovered,
and  was  replaced  the  next  day.  A  new  seal  was
brought  into  use  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  1  Jan.
1801.  A  new  seal  for  Ireland  was  brought,  into  use
and  the  old  one  defaced,  21  Jan.  1832.  The  Great
Seal  Offices  Act,  passed  7  Aug.  1874,  abolished
certain  offices,  transferred  duties,  &c.  The  Great
Seal  Act  passed,  2  Aug.  1880,  relates  to  appoint-
ment of  judges,  patents,  &c.


GREECE,  anciently  termed  Hellas.  The
name  of  Gratia  first  occurs  in  the  writings  of  Aris-
totle (b.c.  384-322).  Greece  was  so  called  from  an,
ancient  king,  Greecus,  and  Hellas  from  another  king,
Hellen,  the  son  of  Deucalion.  From  Hellen's  sons,
Dorus  and  iEolus,  came  the  Dorians  and  jEolians;-
another  son  Xuthus  was  father  of  Achseus  and  Ion,
the  progenitors  of  the  Achaeans  and  Ionians.
Homer  calls  the  inhabitants  indifferently  Myrmi-
dons, Hellenes,  and  Achaians.  They  were  also-
termed  Danai,  from  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  1474  B.C.
Greece  anciently  consisted  of  the  peninsula  of  the
Peloponnesus,  Greece  outside  of  the  Peloponnesus,,
Thessaly,  and  the  islands.  The  principal  states  of
Greece  were  Athens,  Sparta,  Corinth,  Thebes,.
Arcadia,  and  afterwards  Macedon  (all  which  see).
The  limits  of  Modern  Greece  are  much  more  con-
fined. Greece  became  subject  to  the  Turkish  empire-
in  the  15th  century.  The  population  of  the  kingdom,
established  in  1829,  96,810;  in  1861,  1,096,810,  with
the  Ionian  isles  (added  in  1864),  about  1,348,522;
in  1870,  1,457,894;  in  1879,  1,979,147;  in  1889,,
2,187,208.  "The  early  history  is  mythic,  and  the
dates  purely  conjectural.

Sicyon  founded  (Eusebius)  .  .  .  .  B.C.  2089*
Uranus  arrives  in  Greece  (Lenglet) . . .  2042-

Revolt  of  the  Titans  ;  War  of  the  Giants . . .  * *

Inachus  king  of  the  Argives 1910

Kingdom  of  Argos  begun  by  Inachus  (Eusebius)  .  1856
Reign  of  Ogyges  iD  Boeotia  (Eusebius)  .  .  .  .  1796
Sacrifices  to  the  gods  introduced  by  Phoroneus .  1773;

Sicyon  now  begun  (Lenglet) ,

Deluge  of  Ogyges  (which  see) ^764

A  colony  of  Arcadians emigrate  to  Italy under
CEnotrus : the country first called (Enotria,
afterwards  Magna  Grcecia  (Eusebius) . . .  1710.
The  Pelasgi  hold  the  Peloponnesus  1700-1550  ;  suc-
ceeded by  the  Hellenes  .... isso-isoo
Chronology  of  the  Arundelian  marbles  commences

(Eusebius)  1582

Cecrops  arrives  from  Egypt  . .  .about  i<y;o,

The  Areopagus  established 1  §£4

Deluge  of  Deucalion  (Eusebius) .... 1503

Panathencean  games  instituted 149S

Cadmus  with  the  Phoenician  letters  settles  in  Boeotia,

and  founds  Thebes  .... about,  1493

Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called

Sparta 1490

Danaus  said  to  have  brought  the  first ship  into
Greece,  and  to  have  introduced  pumps  (see  Argos)  1485,

Reign  of  Hellen  (Evsebius)  1459

First  Olympic  games  at  Elis,  by  the  Idcei  Dactyli  .  1453
Who  are  said  to  have  discovered  iron . . .  140&

Corinth  re-built  and  so  named 1384

Eleusinian  mysteries  instituted  by  Eumolpus  (1356)

and  Isthmian  games .  1326

Kingdom  of  Mycense  created  out  of  Argos . . . 1313
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece,
(Peloponnesus)  .... about  1283


1263,


1225
1213-


1 193


Argonautic  expedition  (which  see)

The  Pythian  games  begun  by  Adrastus

War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains  against  Thebes

The  Amazonian  war . .  ...

Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus .  ...

Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris

Commencement  of  the  Trojan  war

Troy  taken  and  destroyed  on  the  night  of  the  7th  of

the  month  Thargelion  (27th  of  May,  or  nth  June)  1184
jEneas  said  to  arrive  in  Italy  .  .  .  about  1182.
Migration  of  iEolians  who  build  Smyrna,  <fcc.  .  .  1123
Return  of  the  Heraclidas  ....  about  1 103:
Settlement  of  the  Ionians  in  Asia  Minor  . .  1044

The  Rhodians  begin  navigation  laws . . . . 916

Lycurgus  flourishes  884

Olympic games revived  at  Elis, 884 ; the first

Olympiad . 776"-

The  Messenian  wars 743-669

Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between  the  Corin-
thians and  the  inhabitants  of  Corcyra . . . 664

Byzantium  built 657

Seven  sages  of  Greece  (Solon,  Periander,  Pittacus,

Chilo,  Thales,  Cleobulus,  and  Bias)  flourish,  about  590.
Persian  conquests  in  Ionia 544,


GREECE.


453


GREECE.


.Sybaris  in  Magna  Graecia  destroyed  :  100,000  Cro-

tonians  under  Milo  defeat  300,000  Sybarites .  .  508
Sardis  burnt  by  the  Greeks, which  occasions  the

Persian  invasion, 504 ; Thrace  and Macedonia

conquered 496

Athens  and  Sparta  resist  the  demands  of  the  king

of  Persia 491

The  Persians  defeated  at  Marathon . 28  Sept.  490
Xerxes  invades  Greece,  but  is  checked  at  Thermo-
pylae by  Leonidas Aug.  480

Battle  of  Salamis  (lohich  see) ... 20  Oct.  „
Mardonius  defeated  and  slain  at  Plataea  ;  Persian

fleet  destroyed  at  Myeale  ...  22  Sept.  479

Battle  of  Eurymedon  (end  of  Persian  war)  . . .  469

Athens  begins  to  tyrannise  over  Greece . . .  459

The  sacred  war  begun 448

"War  between  Corinth  and  its  colony  Corcyra  .  .  435
Leads  to  the  Peloponuesian  war  .  .  .  431-404
Disastrous  Athenian  expedition  to  Syracuse 415-413

Retreat  of  the  10,000  under  Xenophon . . .  400

Death  of  Socrates 399

The  sea-fight  at  Cnidus 394

The  peace  of  Antalcidas 387

Rise  and  fall  of  the  Theban  power  in  Greece .  370-360

Battle  of  Mantinea  ;  death  of  Epaminondas . .  362

Ambitious  designs  of  Philip  of  Macedon  .  .  .  353
Sacred  wars  ended  by  Philip, who  takes  all  the

cities  of  the  Phoceaiis 346

Athens  and  allies  declare  war  against  Philip,  340  ;

who  totally  defeats  them  at  Chserjnea  {which  see)  338

Philip  assassinated  by  Pausanias  . . . .  336

Alexander,  his  son,  subdues  the  Athenians,  and

destroys  Thebes „

Alexander  conquers  the Persian  empire,  334-331  ;

dies 323

Greece  harassed  by  his  successors  ;  the  iEtolian  and

Achaian  leagues  revived 284-280

Greece  invaded  by  the  Gauls,  280 ;  they  are  defeated

at  Delphi,  279  ;  and  expelled ....  277

Dissensions  lead  to  Roman  intirvention  .  .  .  200
.Macedon  made  a  Roman  province,  after  the  defeat

of  the  last  king,  Perseus,  at  Pydna  .  .  .  .  168
■Greece  conquered  by  Mummius  and  made  a  Roman

province 147-146

Greece  visited  and  favoured  by  Augustus,  21  b.c.  ;

and  by  Hadrian a.d.  122-133

Invaded  by  Alaric 396

Plundered  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily  .  ...  1146
Conquered  by  the Latins, and  subdivided into

small  governments 1204

The  Turks  under  Mahomet  II.  conquer  Athens  and

part  of  Greece 1456

The  Venetians  hold  Athens  and  the  Morea  .  .  1466
Greece  mainly  subject  to  the  Turks  .  .  .  .  1540
The  Morea  held  by  Venice,  1687  ;  till  taken  by  the

Turks 1715

Great  struggle  for  independence  with  Russian  help  ;

1770  et  seq.,  fruitless  insurrection  of  the  Suliotes  1803
Secret  Society,  the  Hetairia,  established  .  .  .  1815
Insurrection  in  Moldavia  ami  Wallachia,  in  which

the  Greeks  .join,  suppressed 1821

Proclamation  of  prince  Alexander  to  shake  off  the
Turkish  yoke,  March,  1821  ;  he  raised  the  stan-
dard of  the  cross  against  the  crescent  and  the
war  of  independence  began . . 6  April, ,,
The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at  Constantinople

23  April,  ,,
The  Morea  gained  by  the  Greeks  .  .  June,  ,,
Missolonghi  taken  by  Greeks .  .  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Independence  of  Greece  proclaimed  .  .  27  Jan.  1822
Siege  of  Corinth  by  the  Turks  .  .  .  Jan.  „
Bombardment  of  Scio  ;  its  capture  ;  most  horrible
massacre  recorded  in  modern  history  (see  Chios)

11  April, ,,
The  Greeks  victors  at  Thermopylae,  &c. 13  July, „

Massacre  at  Cyprus July, ,,

Corinth  taken 16  Sept. „

National  congress  at  Argos . . .10  April,  1823
Victories  of  Marco  Botzaris,  June  ;  killed  10  Aug. ,,
Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece  to  devote  himself  to  its

cause Aug. ,,

First  Greek  loan Feb. 1824

Death  of  lord  Byron  at  Missolonghi . .  19  April, ,,
Defeat  of  the  capitan  pacha,  at  Samos  . 16  Aug. ,,
Provisional  government  of  Greece  set  up 12  Oct. ,,
Ibrahim  Pacha  lands,  25  Feb.  ;  takes  Navarino,  23
May ;  Tripolitza . . .  . 30  June,  1825


The  Greek  fleet  defeats  the  capitan  pacha  June,  1825
The  provisional  government  invite  the  protection

of  England July, „

Ibrahim  Pacha  takes  Missolonghi  by  assault,  after  a

long  and  heroic  defence . . . .  23  April,  1826
70,000?.  raised  in  Europe  for  the  Greeks  . . . ,,
Rescind  Pacha  takes  Athens . . .2  June,  1827
Egypto-Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Navarino,  20  Oct. ,,
Treaty  of  London,  between  Great  Britain,  Russia,

and  France,  on  behalf  of  Greece,  signed 6  July, ,,
Count  Capo  d'Istria  president  of  Greece 18  Jan. 1828
The  Panhellenion  or  Grand  Council  of  State  estab-
lished 2  Feb. ,,

National  bank  founded . . . .14  Feb. „
Convention  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  with  sir  Edward
Codrington,  for  the  evacuation  of  the  Morea,  and
delivery  of  captives .... 6  Aug. ,,
Patras, Navarino, and  Modon  surrender  to  the

French 6  Oct. „

The  Turks  evacuate  the  Morea . . . Oct. ,,
Missolonghi  surrendered  to  Greece . .16  May,  1829
Greek  National  Assembly  commences  its  sittings

at  Argos 23  July, ,,

The Porte acknowledges the independence of

Greece  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople . 14  Sept. ,,
Prince  Leopold  declines  the  sovereignty 21  May,  1830
Count  Capo  d'Istria, president  of  Greece,  assas-
sinated by  the  brother  and  son  of  Mavromichaelis,
a  Mainote  chief  whom  he  had  imprisoned,  9  Oct. 1831
The  assassins  immured  within  close  brick  walls,
built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  sup-
jilied  with  food  until  they  died . . 29  Oct. ,,
Otho  of  Bavaria  made  king  of  Greece  by  a  conven-
tion signed 7  May,  1832

Colocotroni's  conspiracy  ....  Sept. ,,

He  is  condemned  but  spared  .  .  .7  June,  1834
Otho  I.  assumes  the  government  .  .  1  June,  1835
University  at  Athens  established, 1837  '•  building

commenced 1839

A  bloodless  revolution  at  Athens  is  consummated,
establishing  a  new  constitution,  enforcing  minis-
terial responsibility  and  national  representation,

14  Sept.  1843
The  king  accepts  the  new  constitution  16  March,  1844
Admiral  Parker,  in  command  of  the  British  Medi-
terranean fleet,  blockades  the  harbour  of  the
Piraeus,  the  Greek  government  having  refused  the
payment  of  moneys  due  to  British  subjects,  and
to  surrender  the  islands  of  Sapienza  and  Caprera,

18  Jan. 1850
France  interposes  her  good  offices,  and  the  blockade

is  discontinued 1  March, ,,

Negotiations  terminate,  and  the  blockade  of  Athens

is  renewed 25  April, ,,

Dispute  with  France  accommodated  21  June, ,,

Insurrections  against  Turkey  in  Thessaly  and  Epi-
rus,  favoured  by  the  Greek  court,  Jan.  and  Feb.  ;
lead  to  a  rupture  between  Greece  and  Turkey,

28  March,  1854

After  many  remonstrances,  the  English  and  French

governments send  troops which  arrive  at  the

Piraeus  ;  change  of  ministry  ensues,  and  the  king

promises  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality,  25, 26  May, „

A  newspaper  in  the  modern  Greek  language  printed

in  London,  beginning .... 9  July,  i860
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate
with  the  Greek  government  respecting  its  debts,

18  Oct. „
Agitation in the  Ionian  isles  for  annexation  to

Greece  ;  the  parliament  prorogued  . . March,  1861
The  king  retires  to  Bavaria ....  July, ,,
Attempted  assassination  of  the  queen  by  Darios,  an

insane  student 18  Sept. ,,

Great  earthquake  in  the  Peloponnesus . 26  Dec. ,,
Leopold  of  Bavaria  proposed  as  heir  to  the  throne,

Jan. 1862
Military  revolt  begins  at  Nauplia . . 13  Feb. ,,
Blockade  of  the  coast  decreed . . 9  March, „
The  insurgents  demand  reforms  and  a  new  succes-
sion to  the  throne April, ,,

The  royal  troops  enter  the  citadel  of  Nauplia  ;  in-
surgents removed .... 25  April, „
Change  of  ministry  :  Colocotroni  becomes  premier,

7  June, ,,

Insurrection  begins  at  Patras  and  Missolonghi,  17

Oct.  ;  a  provisional  government,  established  at

Athens,  deposes  the  king,  23  Oct.  ;  he  and  the

queen  flee  ;  arrive  at  Corfu,  27  Oct.  ;  the  Euroj


GEEECE.


454


GEEECE.


pean  powers  neutral  ;  general  submission  to  pro-
visional government . . . . 31  Oct.  1862

Great  demonstrations  in  favour  of  prince  Alfred  of
Great  Britain,  who  is  proclaimed  king  at  Lamia
in  Phthiotis,  22  Nov.  ;  great  excitement  in  his
favour  at  Athei  s 23  Nov. ,,

The  provisional  government  establish  universal
suffrage .4  Dec. ,,

The  national  assembly  meets  at  Athens . 22  Dec. ,,

The  national  assembly  elects  M.  Balbis  president,
29  Jan.  ;  and  declares  prince  Alfred  king  of
Greece  by  230,016  out  of  241,202  votes  3  Feb.  1863

Military  revolt  of  lieut.  Canaris  against  Bulgaris
and  others,  who  resign,  20  Feb.  ;  a  new  ministry
appointed  under  Balbis . . . .23  Feb. „

The  assembly  decides  to  offer  the  crown  to  prince
William  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  18  March  ;  pro-
claim him  as  king  George  I.  . .30  March, „

Protocol  between  the  three  protecting  powers,
France,  England,  and  Russia,  signed  at  London,
consenting  to  the  offer  of  the  crown  on  condition
of  the  annexation  of  the  Ionian  isles  to  Greece,

5  June, ,,
The  king  of  Denmark  accepts  from  the  aged  admiral

Canaris  the  Greek  crown  for prince William,
whom  he  advises  to  adhere  to  the  constitution
and  gain  the  love  of  his  people . . 6  June ,,
Military  revolt  at  Athens,  suppressed  30  June —

9  July, „
The  king  arrives  at  Athens,  30  Oct.  ;  takes  the  oath

to  the  constitution 31  Oct. ,,

The  Balbis  ministry  formed . . .28  April,  1864
Protocol  annexing  the  Ionian  isles  to  Greece,  signed
by  M.  Zaimis  and  sir  H. Storks,  28  May  ;  the
Greek  troops  occupy  Corfu,  2  June  ;  the  king

arrives  there 6  June, „

New  ministry  under  Canaris  formed . 7  Aug. „

The  assembly  recognises  the  debt  of  1824 5  Sept. „

After  much  delay,  and  a  remonstrance  from  the  king,

19  Oct.  a  new  constitution  (with  no  upper-house)

is  passed  by  the  assembly,  1  Nov.  ;  and  accepted

by  the  king 28  Nov. „

New  ministry  under  Coumoundouros 29  March, ,,
The  anniversary  of  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  inde-
pendence (6  April,  1821)  kept  with  enthusiasm,

6  April, ,,
The king visits the eastern  provinces ; general

tranquillity 20  April, ,,

The  king  opens  chamber  of  deputies . 9  June, ,,

Death  of  Alexander  Mavroeordato,  one  of  the  early
patriots 18  Aug. ,,

The  king  gives  up  one-third  of  his  civil  list  to  re-
lieve the  treasury  . . .25  Sept. ,,

An  economical  financial  policy  proposed  ;  a  new
ministry  formed Nov. ,,

Brigandage  prevails  ;  frequent  ministerial  changes
under  Deligeorges,  Coumoundouros,  Bulgaris,  and
Boufos Oct.  1865— June,  1866

New  ministry  under  Bulgaris  and  Roufos,  23  Jan. ,,

Chambers  vote  payments  to  themselves  ;  suddenly
dissolved  by  the  king . . . .3  Feb. „

Great  agitation  in  favour  of  the  Cretan  insurrection
(see  Candia) Aug. -Dee. ,,

New  ministry  headed  by  Coumoundouros . Jan. 1867

Manifesto  of  the  so-named  "Greek  nation,"  issued
at  Paris 19  April, „

Great  sympathy  with  the  insurrection  in  Candia ;
the  blockade  run  by  Greek  vessels  with  volun-
teers, arms,  and  provisions  . . April,  et  seq. ,,

Marriage  of  the  king  with  the  grandduchess  Olga
of  Russia 27  Oct. „

Their  cordial  reception  at  Athens . . 24  Nov. ,,

New  ministry  under  Moraitinis,  1  Jan.  ;  under  Bul-
garis Feb. 1868

Constantine,  duke  of  Sparta,  heir  to  the  crown,
bom 2  Aug. „

Greek  vessel  Enosis  fires  on  Turkish  vessels  and
enters  port  of  Syra .... 14  Dec. „

Rupture  between  Turkey  and  Greece  in  conse-
quence of  Greek  armed  intervention  in  Candia
(which  see) Dec. „

After  a  conference  of  representatives  of  the  Western
powers  at  Paris,  Jan.,  their  requisitions  were
accepted,  and  diplomatic  relations  between
Turkey  and  Greece  resumed . . .26  Feb.  1869

Prince  and  princess  of  Wales  visit  Athens,  19  April, ,,

Law  authorising  the  cutting  the  isthmus  of  Corinth

.....  7  Nov. ,,


New  ministry  under  M.  Zaimis  .  9  Jan. 1870

Concession  to  cut  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of

Corinth  granted  to  a  French  company  .  April,  „, '
Lord  and  lady  Muncasterand  a  party  of  English
travellers  seized  by  brigands  at  Oropos,  near
Marathon  ;  lord  Muncaster  and  the  ladies  sent  to
treat ;  25,000!.  demanded  as  ransom,  with  free
pardon 11  April, ,„

The  brigands  retreating,  and  surrounded  by  troops,
kill  Mr.  Vyner,  Mr.  Lloyd,  Mr.  Herbert,  and  the
count  de  Boyl . . . . . 21  April, ,,,

Great  excitement ;  the  king  shows  great  liberality  ;
but  many  influential  persons  are  charged  with
connivance  at  brigandage . . May,  June, ,*

Several  brigands  killed  ;  seven  captured,  tried  and
condemned,  23  May  ;  five  executed  . 20  June, ,y

A  new  ministry  under  M.  Deligeorges .  19  July, ,,

Greek  college  opened  at  Bayswater,  London,W.  1  Oct. ,p

Decree  for  suppression  of  brigandage  issued Oct. ,,

Two  gentlemen  carried  off . .  .  11  Oct. ,,

A  new  ministry  under  M.  Coumoundouros 22  Dec. ,,

Coumoundouros  ministry  resigns . . 6  Nov.  187a

Succeeded  by  Zaimis 8  Nov. ,,

Bulgaris  minister,  7  Jan.  ;  resigns  ;  Deligeorges
again  minister 26  July,  1872;

The  Laurium  mines  of  lead,  zinc,  &c,  were  pur-
chased by  MM.  Roux  and  Serpieri  and  a  company,
1863  ;  and  worked  profitably  ;  roads  being  made
and  a  village  built.  The  mines  having  been  heavily
taxed  and  scoria?  claimed  by  the  government,
loss  ensued  ;  the  company's  offer  to  sell  the  mines
to  the  government  was  accepted,  but  payment
evaded  by  the  legislature.  Hence  arose  disputes
with  France  and  Italy,  and  ministerial  changes
in  Greece autumn, ,„

Speech  of  the  king  to  the  legislature,  announcing
formation  of  roads  and  other  improvements.
[The  Laurium  mines  had  been  purchased  by  M.
Syngros,  a  Greek  capitalist,  supported  by  the
banks] 25  Feb. 1873

52nd  anniversary  of  Greek  independence  kept  in
London 5  April, „

The  university  at  Athens  closed,  through  insubor-
dination of  the  students . . . . Dec. „

New  cabinet  under  Bulgaris,  22  Feb.  ;  resigns,  27
April ;  resumes  office  ...  7  May,  18745.

Tricoupi  minister,  8  May;  dissolves  chambers,  31
May ;  meet Aug. 1875,

Greece  neutral  in  regard  to  insurrection  in  the
Herzegovina  .... July— Sept. „

The  prince  of  Wales  warmly  received  at  Athens,

18  Oct. „

New  ministry  under  Coumoundouros,  about  27  Oct. ,,

Several  ex-ministers  fined  for  extortion  from  bishops
and  others  on  appointment . . . April,  1876

The  king  and  queen  travelling  in  England  in  July ;
at  the  Crystal  palace .... 19  July „

Greece  neutral  in  the  Servian  war . . July „

Deligeorges  forms  a  ministry,  8  Dec.  ;  replaced  by
Zaimis  and  Coumoundouros . . 10  Dec. „

Deligeorges  prime  minister,  10  March — 28  May  ;
succeeded  by  a  coalition  ministry,  29  May ;  re-
formed under  the  aged  Canaris . .  3  June,  1877

National  excitement  for  war  allayed  by  the  king,

29  May, ,,

Discovery  of  relics  at  Spata  near  Athens  ;  tombs
containing  bones,  precious  metal  ornaments,  &c.
(removed  to  Athens  by  M.  Stamataki)  about  1  July, ,,

Revival  of  the  Theban  "sacred  band,"  instituted
by  Epaminondas  (to  be  ioco  instead  of  300)  about

July, ,r

Death  of  the  aged  Canaris,  1 4  Sept.  ;  the  king  takes
his  place  as  president ... 14  Sept. „

British  and  Turkish  governments  remonstrate  with
Greece  for  apparently  arming  against  Turkey,

Sept.,  Oct. „

Death  of  Bulgaris,  statesman,  about . 10  Jan. 1878?

New  ministry  under  Coumoundouros  . .  23  Jan. „

Insurrection  in  Thessaly  against  Turks,  28  Jan.  ;
10,000  Greeks  enter  the  country,  retire  at  the
armistice early  in  Feb. „

Insurrection  struggling ;  battles  at  Maerinitza,  28,  29
March  ;  Mr.  C.  Ogle,  Times  correspondent,  killed
by  Turks  (investigation  led  to  no  result)  29  March, ,,,

Insurrection  closed  through  British  intervention ;
announced 6  May, ;>

Greece  disappointed  by  the  Berlin  treaty,  13  July  :


GEEECE.


455


GEEEK CHUECH.


rectification  of  the  frontiers  by  the  sultan,  pro-
posed about 24  July,  1878

Safvet  Pacha's  despatch  resisting  the  claims  for

Greece 8  Aug. „

New  ministry  under  Tricoupis . . -31  Oct. ,,
Defeated  in  assembly, 4  Nov.  ; Coumoundouros

forms  a  ministry 7-10  Nov. „

Recruiting  law  for  the  army  (all  men  between  21

and  40  liable) Nov. ,,

Death  of  Deligeorges,  late  minister  . . 26  May,  1879
Monument  of  Mr.  Ogle  set  up  at  Athens . Aug. ,,
Recruiting  law  came  into  force . . .1  Jan.  1880
Crisis  ;  Coumoundouros  remains . . 28  Jan. ,,
Tricoupis  ministry  formed  . . 22  March, ,,

Berlin  conference  to  propose  settlement of  the

Turkish  and  Greek  frontiers,  meets . 16  June, „
The  king  visits  England  ;  receives  freedom  of  Lon-
don, 16  June  ;  leaves .... 5  July, ,,
Order  for  mobilisation  of  the  army  signed, 5  Aug. ,,
The  king  and  queen  arrive  at  Athens  after  a  long
European  torn- ;  national  feeling  warlike  ;  Thes-
saly  and  Epirus  demanded . . .17  Oct. ,,
King's  speech  opening  parliament ;  moderate  and

firm 21  Oct. ,,

Tricoupis  ministry  defeated  ;  resigns . 22  Oct. ,,
Coumoundouros  forms  a  ministry . . 25  Oct. ,,
Much discussion with negotiations respecting
Greek  and  Turkish  frontiers,  (see  Turkey),

Oct.  1880— May,  1881
Convention  between  Turkey  and  Greece  agreed  to
at  Constantinople  ; Thessaly  ceded  to Greece,

24  May  ;  signed 2  July, ,,

Carried  into  effect ;  Greek  flag  raised  in  Arta,  6  July, ,,
The  parliament  dissolved  by  the  king . 4  Nov. ,,
New  ministry  under  Tricoupis . . 15  March,  1882
Cutting  of the Isthmus  of Corinth begun (see

Corinth) 5  May, „

Frontier  disputes  in  Thessaly,  between  Greeks  and
Turks, at Navantyk, near Derbend, Bosnia,

about  26  Aug. ,,

Settlement 9  Nov. ,,

Death of the statesman Coumoundouros, much

lamented 9  March,  1883

Improved  finances ;  good  budget,  announced  March,  1884
Tricoupis  ministry  resigns,  17  Feb.  ;  M.  Delyannis
unsuccessful ; M. Tricoupis resumes office

21  Feb.  1885

Chamber  dissolved 23  Feb. ,,

Railway between Athens and Corinth opened

15  April, ,,
Tricoupis  ministry  resigns through  minority  in
elections about  20  April ; Delyannis ministry

formed 1  May, ,,

Enthusiastic  military  movements  consequent  upon

the  coitp  d'etat  in  Roumelia . . . Oct. „
Vote  for  loan  of  1,200,000/. ... 7  Nov. ,,
Increased warlike  demonstration  ; British  inter-
vention supported  by  the  great  powers, about
23  Jan.  ; foreign  ironclads sent  to  Suda  bay,

Crete 30  Jan.  et  s&i. „

Great  discovery  of  statuary,  &c,  near  the  Acropolis,

Athens ,,

National  fete  to  commemorate  declaration  of  inde-
pendence in  1821,  6  April,  1884,  and . 6  April,  1886
Proposed  loan  of  about  800, oool.  to  raise  the  army
from  85,000  to  1 10,000,  about  14  April ;  and  calling

out  of  reserves 19  April, „

Ultimatum  of  the  powers  calling  upon  Greece  to
disarm,  delivered  26  April;  special  intervention
of  the  French  minister,  about  26  April ;  inadequate

reply  of  Greece 30  April, ,,

The British, Austrian, German, and Italian

ambassadors  leave  Athens  ...  7  May,  ,,
Greek  troops  sent  to  the  front  .  .  7-8  May,  ,,
Blockade  of  Greek ports notified  and enforced,

8  May,  ,,
Resignation  of  M.  Delyannis,  9  May  ;  M.  Tricoupis
declines  to  form  a  ministry,  10  May ;  M.
Papamichalopoulos  also  declines,  n  May  ;  pro-
visional one  formed  by  M.  Yalvis,  12  May  ;
succeeded  by  M.  Tricoupis  . . 20  May, „

The  king  signs  a  decree  for  disarmament,  24  May,

announced  to  the  powers . . . 1  June ,,
Fighting  at  the  outposts  near  Nezeres  ;  the  origin
uncertain ; 20-21 May ; about  200 killed  and
wounded  ;  armistice  agreed  on,  24  May  ;  formal
declaration  of  the  raising  of  the  blockade 7  June ,,
Great  electoral  reform  bill  passed  17  June, „


New  chamber  opened .... 3  Feb.  1887

The  100th  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Lord  Byron,
celebrated  at  the  Greek  church,  Bayswater,
London,  W 22  Jan.  1888

The  king  returns  to  Athens  after  a  foreign  tour

- 8  Oct. „

Celebration  of  the  25th  anniversary  of  the  king's
accession . • 31  Oct. ,,

National  industrial  exhibition  at  Athens  opened  by
the  king 1  Nov. ,,

Marriage  of  the  princess  Alexandra  and  the  arch-
duke Paul  of  Russia  .... 17  June,  1889

The  king  visits  Paris . . . .22  July, „

Marriage  of  the  duke  of  Sparta  and  the  princess
Sophie  of  Prussia,  at  Athens,  in  the  presence  of
the  empress  Frederick  (her  mother),  the  king
and  queen  of  Greece  (his  parents)  ;  the  king  and
queen  of  Denmark,  the  German  emperor  and
empress,  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  the
Czare  witch  of  Russia,  and  other  relatives,  27  Oct. ,,

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Athens,

17  April,  et  seq.  1890-

Formation  of  a  "  Young  Greek  party"  at  Athens,
leader  M.  Ralli Aug. ,,

Statues,  &c,  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Phidias,
at  Rhamnus  in  Attica  ;  discovered  during  ex-
cavations made  for  the  Archaeological  School  of
Athens;  reported .9c*i" "

Elections  ; great majority for the opposition,

26  Oct. ,,

M.  Tricoupis  resigns,  28  Oct.  ;  M.  Delyannis  forms
a  ministry,  3  Nov.  ;  the  new  chamber  opened  by
the  king 10  Nov. ,,

By  an  avalanche  near  Trikkala,  25  persons  are
killed 29  Jan. 1891

Seventieth  anniversary  of  Greek  Independence,
celebrated 6  April, „J

Death  of  the  grandduchess  Paul  (see  abore,  1889),

25  Sept. ,,

A  commission  exonerates  M.  Tricoupis  from  charges
against  him,  about .... 27  Dec. ,,.

Mr.  Egerton,  appointed  British  minister  at  Athens,
in  succession  to  the  Hon.  sir  Edmund  J.  Monson,
about 21  Jan.  1892-

A  fanatical  mob  attack  and  destroy  the  new  Pro-
testant church  at  the  Piraeus  and  ill-use  the
ministers  and  congregation  ;  the  riots  suppressed

by  the  military 14  Feb. ,,

The proposed impeachment of M. Tricoupis

dropped  by  the  government . . .22  Feb. ,,
The  king,  for  financial  reasons,  dismisses  M.  Del-
yannis ;  a  new  ministry  formed  by  M.  Constan-
topoulo,  1  March  ;  the  king  is  supported  by  the
parliament, large retrenchments to be  made,

5  March, ,r
Dissolution of the chamber, 25 March  ; new
chamber  elected  ;  majority  for  M Tricoupis,  15
May  ;  he  forms  a  new  ministry . 22  June, ,,

KINGS OF  GREECE.

1832.  Otho  I.,  prince  of  Bavaria;  born, 1  June,  1815  ;
elected  king,  7  May, 1832  ;  under  a  regency  till
1  June,  1835  ;  married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria
Frederica,  daughter  of  the  grand-duke  of  Olden-
burg ;  deposed,  23  Oct.  1862  ;  died  in  Bavaria,  26.
July,  1867.
1863.  George  I.  (son  of  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark),  king.-
of  the  Hellenes  ;  born  24  Dec.  1845  ;  made  king  5
June,  takes  the  oath  31  Oct.  1863  ;  declared  of  age,
27  June, 1863  ; married grand-duchess  Olga of
Russia,  27  Oct.  1867.
Heir:  Coustantine.  duke  of  Sparta,  born  2  Aug.  1S68  :
married  to  the  princess  Sophie  of  Prussia,  27  Oct.,  1889.
Heir,  George,  born  19  July,  1890.

GEEEK  AECHITECTUEE,  see  Architec-
ture.

GEEEK  CHUECH,  or  Eastern  church,
established  in  Russia  and  Greece,  disowns  the
supremacy  of  the  pope,  and  is  strongly  opposed  to
many  of  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Roman
church.  The  Greek  orthodox  confession  of  faith
appeared  in  1643  ;  see  Fathers  of  the  Church.  This
church,  in  1876,  had  279  dignitaries,  under  the
patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  136  bishops,  66  in
Russia,  24  in  Greece,  15  in  Jerusalem,  II  in
Austria,  &c.


GEEEK EMPIRE.


456


GREENLAND.


Catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  (Origen,  Clemens,

&c.) 180-254

Rise  of  monachism about 300

Foundation  of  the  churches  of  Armenia,  about  300  ;

of  Georgia  or  Iberia 318

First  council  of  Nice  (see  Councils)  ....  325
Rivalry  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  begins

about 340
"Dlphilas  preaches  to  the  Goths . . . about 376
Nestorius  condemned  at  the  council  of  Ephesus . 431
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt,
Syria,  and  Armenia,  separate  from  the  church  of

Constantinople 461

Close  of  the  school  of  Athens  ;  extinction  of  the

Platonic  theology 529

The  Jacobite  sect  established  in  Syria  by  Jacobus

Baradseus . 541

The  struggle  with  the  Mahometans  begins  .  .  634
The  Maronite  sect  begins  to  x>revail  .  about  676
The  Paulicians  severely  persecuted  .  .  .  .  690
Iconoclastic  controversy  begins . .  about 726

Pope  Gregory  II.  excommunicates  the  emperor  Leo,
which  leads  to  the  separation  of  the  Eastern
(Greek)  and  Western  (Roman)  churches . . . 729

Image  worship  condemned 734

Foundation  of  the  church  in  Russia  :  conversion  of

princess  Olga,  955  ;  of  Vladimir  .  .  .  .  988
The  Maronites  join  the  Roman  church  .  .  .  1182
Re-union  of  Eastern  and  Western  churches  at  the

council  of  Lyons,  1274 ;  again  separated  . . .  1277
Proposed  union  with  the  Church  of  England  . . 1723
The  patriarchate  of  Moscow  established,  1582  ;  sup-
pressed in 1762

Successful  drainage  of  lake  Topolias  (the  ancient
Cephissis  and  Copais),  much  land  reclaimed  and
disease  prevented  ....  t88i  et  seq.
The  archimandrite  Nilos,  representing  Constanti-
nople and  4  patriarchates,  visits  London  on  be-
half of  the  Greek  clergy  in  the  Danubian  princi-
palities 1863

The  pope's  invitation  to  an  oecumenical  council,  8
Dec. 1869, firmly  declined  by  the  patriarch  of

Constantinople about  3  Oct. 1868

Letter  from  the  patriarch  Gregory  to  the  archbishop
of  Canterbury  acknowledging  receipt  of  English
prayer-book, and objecting to some of "39

Articles," dated  8  Oct. 1869

Greek  church  at  Liverpool  consecrated  by  an  arch-
bishop 16  Jan. 1870

A  new  church  of  S.  Sophia  consecrated  by  the  arch-
bishop of  Corfu 5  Feb.  1882

Political  reforms  in  Turkey  affect  privileges  of  the
Greek  church  ;  see  Turkey,  1883 ;  new  patriarch
Joachim  IV.  (archbishop  of  Dercos)  not  elected
till  13  Oct.;  ratified  by  the  Porte  18  Oct.  1884;

resigns Nov.  1886

Dionysius,  bishop  of  Adrianople,  elected  patriarch

4  Feb.  1887
He  resigns  through  disapproval  of  the  appointment
of  Bulgarian  bishops  in  Macedonia  by  the
Turkish  government,  about  5  Aug.  ;  after  fruit-
less negotiations,  the  Oecumenical  Synod  orders
the  closure  of  a'l  the  orthodox  churches  in
Turkey,  15  Oct.  ;  the  sultan  renews  and  defines
former  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  the
church,  about  25  Oct.  ;  this  not  accepted  by
the  synod,  27  Oct.  ;  churches  generally  con-
tinued closed Nov.  1890

Decision  of  the  Turkish  government  respecting
various  disputed  points,  issued  2  Dec.  1890 ;
the  disputes  ended  ;  the  patriarch  remains,  the
churches  re-opened  .... 6  Jan.  1891

Neophytos,  archbishop  of  Nikopolis,  elected  pa-
triarch in  succession  to  Dionysius  V.  8  Nov. ,,

GREEK  EMPIRE,  see  Eastern  Empire.

GREEK  FIRE,  a  combustible  composition
(now  unknown,  but  thought  to  have  been  princi-
pally naphtha),  thrown  from  engines,  said  to  have
been  invented  by  Callinicus,  an  engineer  of  Helio-
polis,  in  Syria,  in  the  7th  century,  to  destroy  the
Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general
of  the  fleet  of  Constantine  Fogonatus,  and  30,000
men  were  killed.  A  so-called  "Greek  fire,  pro-
bably a  solution  of  phosphorus  in  bi-sulphide  of


carbon,  was  employed  at  the  siege  of  Charleston,
U.S.,  in  Sept.  1863.

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  The  study  was  re-
vived in  western  Europe  about  1450;  in  France,
1473;  William  Grocjn,  or  Grokeyn,  an  English
prulessor  of  this  language,  introduced  it  at  Oxford,
about  1491,  where  he  taught  Erasmus,  who  himself
taught  it  at  Cambridge  in  1510.  Wood' s  Athen.
Oxon.  England  has  produced  many  eminent  Greek
scholars,  of  whom  may  be  mentioned  Richard  Bent-
ley,  died  1742  ;  professor  Richard  Porson,  died  1808;
Dr.  Samuel  Parr,  died  1825  ;  and  Dr.  Charles
Burner,  died  1817.  "  Society  for  promoting  Helle-
nic Studies,''  formed  16  June,  1879.  Modem  Greek
literature  is  now  cultivated.  See  Aristotelian  and
Egyptian  Exploration.
Homer  flourished . . . . about  B.C.  962-927

Hesiod about 850

iEsop .  572

Auacreon about 559

jEschylus 525-456

Herodotus about 443

Pindar 522-439

Aristophanes 427

Euripides 480-406

Sophocles 495-405

Thucydides 470-404

Xenophon 443"359

Plato 429-347

Isocrates 436-338

Aristotle . 384-322

Demosthenes 382-322

Menander about  321

jEschines 389-314

Theocritus about  272

Epicurus 342-270

Tlieophrastus 287

Archimedes .  287-212

Polybius 207-122

Diodorus B.C.  50— a. d.  13

Strabo 10

Dionysius  Halicarnassus  .... about  30

Plutarch about  96

Ejiictetus about 118

Appian  . . . .  . . about 147

A  man . . . '. . . . about 148

Athenasus about 194

Lucian . about  120-200

Herodian about 204

Louginus dies  273

Julian,  emperor 33J-363

(See  Fathers,  and  Philosophy.)

GREENBACKS,  a  name  given,  from  the
predominating  colour  of  the  ink,  to  notes,  for  a
dollar  and  upwards,  first  issued  by  the  United
States  government,  in  1862.  Notes  for  lower  sums
(oven  3  cents)  wrere  termed  "fractional  currency."
For  Greenbachers  see  United  States,  1878.

GREEN-BAG  INQUIRY  took  its  name
from  a  Green  Bag,  full  of  documents  of  alleged
seditions,  laid  before  parliament  by  lord  Sidmouth,
3  Feb.  1817.  Secret  committees  presented  their
reports,  19  Feb. ;  and  bills  were  brought  in  on  the
21st  to  suspend  the  Habeas  Corpus  act,  and  prohibit
seditious  meetings  then  frequent.

GREEN  CLOTH,  BOARD  OF,  in  the  depart-
ment of  the  lord-steward  of  the  household,  included
an  ancientcourt(abolished  in  1849),  with  jurisdiction
of  all  offences  committed  in  the  verge  of  the  court.

GREENLAND,  an  extensive  Danish  colony
in  North  America,  discovered  by  Icelanders,  under
Eric  Raude,  about  980,  and  named  from  its  verdure.
It  was  visited  by  Frobisher  in  1576,  and  by  Jobn
Davis,  1585.  The  first  t-hip  from  England  to  Green-
land was  sent  for  the  whale-fishery  by  the  Muscovy
company,  2  James  I.  1604.  In  a  voyage  performed
in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind  by  accident,
who  suffered  inn  edible  hardships  till  the  following


GREENOCK.


457 GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS.


year,  when  the  company's  ships  brought  them  home.
Tindal.  The  Greenland  Fishing  company  was  in-
corporated in  1693. —  Hans  Egede,  a  Danish  mission-
ary, founded  a  new  colony,  called  Godhaab,  or  Good
Hope,  in  1720-3  ;  and  other  missionary  stations  have
been  since  established.  Scoresby  surveyed  Greenland
in  1821 ;  and  captain  Graah,  by  order  of  the  king  of
Denmark,  in  1829-30.  Population  in  1878,  about
9408;  in  1888,  10,221.  Nordenskjold  and  others
advanced  into  the  interior,  and  found  nothing  but
mountainous  ice  and  snow,  July-Sept.  1883.

Dr.  Pridtjof  Nansen,  Mr.  Sverdrup,  and  two  other
Norwegians  and  two  Lapps  wearing  snow  shoes  crossed
Greenland  from  E.  to  W.,  amid  great  hardships,  17  July
et  seq.  1888,  and  arrived  at  Copenhagen,  21  May,  1889.
Important  results  to  be  published.

Dr.  Nansen  described  his  journey  across  Greenland  at  a
meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  society,  24  June,
1889.

His  first  crossing  of  Greenland  was  published  in  Dec.
1890.

GREENOCK  (W.  Scotland).  Charters  were
granted,  in  1635  to  John  Shaw,  and  1670  to  his
son  sir  John,  of  the  barony  of  Greenock.  It  was  a
fishing  station  till  1697,  when  the  Scottish  Indian
and  African  company  resolved  to  erect  salt-works
in  the  Frith,  and  thus  drew  the  aitention  of  sir
John  Shaw,  its  superior,  to  its  maritime  advan-
tages. It  was  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1757,
and  a  parliamentary  burgh  in  1832.  The  erection
ot  the  new  quay  was  entrusted,  about  1773,  to  James
Watt,  who  was  born  here  in  1736.  The  East  India
harbour  was  built  1805-19,  and  Victoria  harbour
1846-50.  James  Watt  docks  opened  by  provost
Shankland,  5  Aug.  1886.  End  of  strike  of  iron
shipbuilders  {8  weeks),  24  Aug.  1891.  Population,
1891,  63,498.

GREEN  PARK  (near  Buckingham  palace,
London)  forms  a  part  of  the  ground  enclosed  by
Henry  VIII.  in  1530,  and  is  united  to  St.  James's
and  Hyde-parks  by  the  road  named  Constitution-
hill.  Over  the  arch  at  the  entrance,  the  Wellington
statue  was  placed  in  1846.  On  the  north  side  was
a  reservoir  of  the  Chelsea  water-works,  rilled  up  in
1856.

GREENWICH  (Kent),  anciently  Grenawic,
an  ancient  manor,  near  which  the  Danes  murdered
the  archbishop  Elphege,  1012.  The  Hospital
stands  on  the  site  of  a  royal  residence  erected  in  the
reign  of  Edward  I.  and  "mu-h  enlarged  by  his  suc-
cessors. Here  were  born  Henry  VIII.,  his  daugh-
ters Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and  here  his  son  Edward
VI.  died.  Charles  II.  intended  to  build  a  new
palace  here,  but.  erected  one  wing  only.  Greenwich
returns  one  M.P.  by  act  of  1885.  Population,  18S1,
131,233;  1891,  134,184.

William  III.  and  Mary  converted  the  palace  into  a
Royal  hospital  for  seamen,  1694,  and  added  new

buildings,  erected  by  Wren 1696

100  disabled  seamen  admitted 1705

The  estates  of  the  attainted  earl  of  Derwentwater

(beheaded  in  1716)  bestowed  upon  it  .  1735

A  charter  granted  to  the  commissioners  6  Dec. 1775

The  chapel,  the  great  dining-hall,  and  a  large  portion
of  the  buildings  appropriated  to  the  pensioners

destroyed  by  lire 2  Jan.  1779

The  chapel  rebuilt 1789

Sixpence  per  month  to  be  contributed  by  every  sea-
man ;  the  payment  advanced  to  one  shilling,  from

June,  1797
The  payment  abolished  in 1829,  and  that  of  "the

merchant  seamen's  "  sixpence  also  in  .  .  .  1834
The  hospital  had  lodging  for  2710  seamen  and  a

revenue  of  about  1 50,000^.  per  annum . . . 1853
Greenwich  Fair  was  discontinued . . April,  1857
The  office  of  the  commissioners  was  abolished . . 1865
Reported annual income,  155, 532Z.,  1867 ;  income
168,305^.,  1887-8.


By  an  act  of  parliament,  about  900  indoor  pensioners
received  additions  to  their  pensions,  quitted  the
hospital,  1  Oct.  1865  ;  henceforth  to  be  used  as  an
infirmary.  All  the  remaining  inmates,  except  31
bedridden  persons,  had  left  the  place . 1  Oct.  1869

The  patients  of  the  Dreadnought  seamen's  hospital
removed  here 13  April,  1870

Acts  for  the  application  of  the  revenues  were  passed

in  1869-1872

Amended  by  act  passed  1883.

A  part  of  the  buildings  appropriated  for  a  naval  col-
lege, opened 1  Feb.  1873

Greenwich  Royal  Hospital  Schools  (on  the  industrial
plan),  opened  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Childers,  1870

Construction  of  great  steam-ship  ferry  (on  the
American  system)  over  the  Thames,  authorised
by  the  commons  ;  formally  opened . 13  Feb.  1888

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY,  built  at
the  S'dicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore  and  sir  Christo-
pher Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flam-
steed-hill,  so  called  from  the  first  astronomer-royal.
The  building  was  founded,  10  Aug.  1675,  and  Flam-
steed  commenced  his  residence,  10  July,  1676.  In
1852,  an  electric  telegraph  signal  ball  in  the  Strand
was  completed,  and  put  in  connection  with  Green-
wich observatory.  Greenwich  recommended  as  the
universal  meridian  by  the  Geodetic  Congress  at
Rome,  Oct.  1883,  and  at  an  international  conference
at  Washington,  13  Oct.  1884.  Telegraphic  com-
munication completed  between  Greenwich  and
M'Gill  college  observatory,  Montreal,  1890.

ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL.

John  Flamsteed 1675

Edmund  Halley 1719

James  Bradley 1742

Nathaniel  Bliss 1762

Nevil  Maskelyne 1765

John  Pond 1811

George  Biddell  Airy  (knt.  1872) .... 1835

(Under  whose  superintendence  the  apparatus  was
greatly  increased  and  improved  ;  he  died,  2  Jan.  1892.)
Wm.  Henry  Mahoney  Christie . . . Aug.  1881

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR,  see  Calendar,
and  New  Style. — Gkegokian  Chant  received  its
name  from  pope  Gregory  I.,  who  is  siid  to  have
improved  the  Ambrosian  chant,  about  590.  See
Chanting.

Gregorian  Modes,  musical  scales  as  set  in  order  by  pope
Gregory  the  Great  about  590.  On  these  the  ritual
music  of  the  western  churches  is  founded.

GRENADA,  a  West  India  island,  discovered
by  Columbus  in  1498 ;  settled  by  the  French,  1650;
captured  by  the  British,  5  April,  1762  ;  re-taken  by
the  French,  July,  1779  ;  given  up  by  them  by  treaty
of  Versailles,  3  Sept.  1783.  Population  in  1891,
53,209.  See  Granada,  New  Granada,  and  Wind-
ward Isles.

GRENADE,  an  explosive  missile,  so  named
from yranada,  Spanish,  invented  in  1594.  It  is  a
small  hollow  globe,  or  ball,  of  iron,  about  two
inches  in  diameter,  which  is  tilled  with  tine  powder,
and  set  on  tire  by  a  fusee  at  a  touchhole.

GRENADIERS.  The  Grenadier  corps  was  a
company  armed  with  a  pouch  of  hand-grenades,
established  in  France  in  1667 ;  and  in  England  in
1685. Brown. See  Guards  and  Army,  1890.

GRENELLE,  see  Artesian  Wells.

GRENOBLE  (the  Roman  GratianopolU),
S.E.  France.  Here  Napoleon  was  received  on  his
return  from  Elba,  8  March,  1815,  and  here  he  issued
three  decrees.

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS.

The  first  succeeded  the  Bute  administration,  8  April,
1763  ;  and  resigned  in  July,  1765.


GEESHAM  COLLEGE.


458


GEISONS.


George  Grenville  (born  1712,  died  1770),  first  lord  of  the

treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Earl  Granville  (succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Bedford),  lord


Duke  of  Marlborough,  privy  seal.

Earls  of  Halifax  and  Sandwich,  secretaries  of  state.

Earl  Gower,  lord  chamberlain.

Earl  of  Egmont,  admiralty.

Marquis  of  Granby,  ordnoMce.

Lord  Holland  (late  Mr.  Fox),  -paymaster.

Welbore  Ellis,  secretary-at-war.

Viscount  Harrington,  treasurer  of  the  navy.

Lord  Hillsborough,  first  lord  of  trade.

Lord  Henley  (afterwards  earl  of  Northington),  lord  chan-
cellor.

Duke  of  Rutland,  lords  North,  Trevor,  Hyde,  <&c.

Second  Grenville  administration,  formed  after  the
death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  on  23  Jan.  1806.  From  the  ability
of  many  of  its  members,  their  friends  said  it  contained
"  all  the  talents,  wisdom,  and  ability  of  the  country,"  a
term  applied  to  it  derisively  by  its  opponents.  The
death  of  Mr.  Fox,  13  Sept.  1806,  led  to  changes,  and
eventually  the  cabinet  resigned,  25  March,  1807  : — ■

Lord  Grenville,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Lord  Henry  Petty  (afterwards  marquis  of  Lansdowne),
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Earl  Fitzwilliam,  lord  president.

Viscount  Sidmouth  (late  Mr.  Addington),  privy  seal.

Charles  James  Fox,  foreign  secretary.

Earl  Spencer,  home  secretary.

William  Windham,  colonial  secretary.

Lord  Erskine,  lord  chancellor.

Sir  Charles  Grey  (afterwards  viscount  Howick  and  earl
Grey),  admiralty.

Lord  Minto,  board  of  control.

Lord  Auckland,  board  of  trade.

Lord  Moira,  master  general  of  the  ordnance.

ft.  B.  Sheridan,  treasurer  of  the  navy.

Richard  Fitzpatrick,  &c.

Lord  Ellenborough  (  lord  chief  justice)  had  a  seat  in  the
cabinet.

GEESHAM  COLLEGE  (London),  esta-
blished by  sir  Thomas  Gresham  in  1575,  founder  of
the  Royal  Exchange.  He  left  a  portion  of  his  pro-
perty in  trust  to  the  city  and  the  Mercers'  company
to  endow  this  college  for  lectures  in  divinity,  astro-
nomy, music,  geometry,  civil  law,  physic,  and
rhetoric ;  he  died  21  Nov.  1579.  The  lectures
commenced  in  Gresham's  house,  near  Broad-street,
June,  1597  (where  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society
first  met  in  1645).  'I  he  buildings  were  pulled  down
in  1768,  and  the  Excise  office  erected  on  its  site,
the  property  having  been  acquired  by  the  crown
for  an  annuity  of  500^.  The  lectures  were  then
read  in  a  room  over  the  Royal  Exchange  for  many
years.  On  the  rebuilding  of  the  exchange,  the
Gresham  committee  erected  the  present  building  in
Basinghall-street,  which  was  designed  by  G.  bmith,
and  opened  for  lectures.  2  Nov.  1843.  It  costabo-v  e
70002.  In  1871  the  college  acquired  a  valuable  col-
lection of  books  and  pictures,  bequeathed  by  Mrs.
Ilollier.  Changes  respecting  the  lectures  were
advocated  in  1875,  and  some  made  in  1876.
The  amalgamation  of  the  university  teaching  ex-
tension society  advocated  by  Mr.  Goschen,  15  Oct.  1888
The  proposal  to  make  the  college  a  teaching  uni-
versity for  London  was  referred  to  a  royal  com-
mission, March.  Earl  Cowper,  chairman  ;  first
meeting .  ..... 30  June,  1892

GEETNA  GEEEN  (Dumfries,  S.  Scotland,
near  the  boroer).  Here  runaway  marriages  were
contracted  for  many  years,  as  Scotch  law  ruled  that
an  acknowledgment  before  witnesses  made  a  legal
marriage.  John  Paisley,  a  tobacconist,  and  termed
a  blacksmith,  who  officiated  from  1 760,  died  in  1814.
His  first  residence  was  at  Megg's  Hill,  on  the  com-
mon or  green  betwixt  Gretna  and  Springfield,  to
the  last  of  which  villages  he  removed  in  1782.  A  man
named  Elliot  was  afterwards  the  principal  officiating
person. The  General  Assembly,  in  1826,  in  vain


attempted  to  suppress  this  system ;  but  an  act  of
parliament,  passed  in  1856,  made  these  marriages
illegal  after  that  year,  unless  one  of  the  persons
married  had  lived  in  Scotland  21  days.

GEEY  ADMINISTRATION  succeeded  the
Wellington  administration,  which  resigned  16  Nov.
1830.  It  carried  the  Parliamentary  and  Corporation
Reform  Acts  {which  see),  and  terminated  9  July,
1834.

Earl  Grey,*  first  lord  of  the.  treasury.
Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor.
Viscount  Althorpe,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  president  of  the  council.
Earl  of  Durham,  privy  seal.
Viscounts  Melbourne,  Palmerston,  and  Goderich,  home,

foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries.
Sir  James  Graham,  admiralty.
Lord  Auckland  and  Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards,  183c,

lord  Glenelg),  boards  of  trade  and  control.
Lord  Holland,  cJiancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster.
Lord  John  Russell,  paymaster  of  the  forces.
Duke  of  Richmond,  earl  of  Carlisle,  Mr.  Wynne,  &c.
E.  G.  Stanley  (afterwards  earl  of  Derby),  chief  secretary

for  Ireland,  became  colonial  secretary,  March,  1833.

GEEY  COAT  HOSPITAL,  Westminster,
founded  (for  girls)  1698  ;  reconstituted  1873.

GEEY  FEIAES,  see  Christ's  Hospital.
GEEYTOWN,  see  Mosquito  Coast.

GEIFFITH'S  VALUATION  of  land  in
Ireland;  that  calculated  by  Mr.,  afterwards  sir
Richard  Griffith  (appointed  commissioner  in  1828)
and  published  about  1850 ;  4th  edition,  1855 ;
much  discussed,  1880- 1.

GEIMM'S  LAW  of  the  transmutation  of
consonants  in  the  Aryan  family  of  languages  ;  pro-
pounded by  Jacob  L.  Grimm  in  his  "  History  of
the  German  Languages,"  in  1848.

Labials.  Dentals.  Gutturals
Greek,  Latin,  Sanskrit  p  b  f  it  d  th  k  g  ch
Gothic  . . . . / p  b  \  th  t d  k

Old  High  German  . . b  (v)  f  p\  d z t g ch k
Examples  :  Sanskrit,  pitri ;  Greek  and  Latin,  pater  ;
Italian,  padre;  Spanish,  padre;  French,  pere;  Gothic,
fadrein  (pi.);  Old  High  German,  vatar  ;  English,  father.

GEIQUALAND  WEST  and  EAST,  two  dis-
tricts in  British  South  Africa,  containing  diamond
fields.  The  first  diamond  was  discovered  in  West
Griqualand  in  March,  1867,  and  caused  a  great  in-
flux of  immigrants  from  all  nations,  and  the  forma-
tion of  many  settlements.  Diamonds  to  the  value
of  12,000,000^.  were  found  there  between  1S71  and
1880,  and  about  15,000,000/.  between  1883  and  1887.
The  district  was  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  27  Oct.
1871,  and  incorporated  with  it  in  1880.  Kimberley,
the  capital,  was  founded  in  1871;  population  in
1890,  about  6,000  Europeans  and  10,000  natives.
GinauALAND  East,  between  the  Kaffir  border  and.
Southern  Ratal,  was  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in
1875  ;  population  in  1888,  98,000.
By  a  tremendous  explosion  of  stored  dynamite  near

Kimberley,  only  two  men  were  killed  .  Jan.  1884
Kimberley  was  the  site  of  the  South  African  and

International  Exhibition,  Opened  by  sir  H.  B.

Loch 8  Sept.  iSq2

GEISONS,  a  Swiss  canton ;  see  Caddee.  It
was  overrun  by  the  French  in  1798  and  1799.  The
ancient  league  was  abolished,  and  the  Grisons  be-
came a  member  of  the  Helvetic  confederation,  19
Feb.  1803.

*  Born  13  March,  1764  ;  M.P. ,  as  Charles  Grey,  in  1786  ;
first  lord  of  the  admiralty  and  afterwards  foreign  secre-
tary in  1S06  ;  resigned  in  1806  on  account  of  his  favouring
Roman  Catholic  emancipation  ;  died  17  July,  1845.


GEISSELL  CASE.


459


GUATEMALA.


GEISSELL  CASE,  see  Parliament,  1879-80.

GRIST-TAX  (imposta  sul  macinato).  Prin-
ciple of  the  tax  adopted  by  the  Italian  parliament,
I  April,  1868.

GROAT,  from  the  Dutch  groat,  value  of  four-
pence,  was  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England  until
after  135 1.  Fourpenny  pieces  were  coined  in  1836
to  the  value  of  70,884^. ;  in  1837,  16,038/. ;  discon-
tinued since  1856.

GROCERS  anciently  meant  "ingrossers  or
monopolisers,"  as  appears  by  a  statute  37  Kdw.  III.
1363  :  "  Les  marchauntz  nomez  engrossent  totes
maners  de  merchandises  vendables."  The  Grocers'
company,  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of
London,  was  established  in  1345,  and  incorporated
in  1429.

The  Grocers'  and  Shopkeepers'  Licensing  Acts  passed
in  i860  and  1861,  authorises  the  sale  by  them  of  wine,
spirits,  and  beer,  in  bottles.

GROCHOW,  near  Praga,  a  suburb  of  Warsaw.
Here  took  place  a  desperate  contiiet  between  the
Poles  and  Russians,  19,  20  Feb.  1831,  the  Poles  re-
maining masters  of  the  field  of  battle.  The  Rus-
sians shortly  after  retreated,  having  been  foiled  in
their  attempt  to  take  Warsaw.  'ihey  are  said  to
have  lost  7000  men,  and  the  Poles  2000 ;  see  also
Poland,  1 86 1.

GROG,  sea  term  for  rum  and  water,  derived  its
name  from  admiral  Eclw.  Vernon,  who  wore  grogram
breeches,  and  was  hence  called  "  Uld  Grog."  About
1 745,  he  ordered  his  sailors  to  dilute  their  rum  with
water.*

GROSSER  KURFttRST,  see  Wrecks,  1878.

GROSVENOR  GALLERY,  &c,  Bond-
street,  London,  W.,  for  the  exhibition  of  modern
pictures,  erected  by  sir  Coutts  Lindsay,  at  a  cost
of  about  100,000/.,  supported  by  eminent  artists,
Aug.  1876;  opened  1  Alay,  1877.  The  last  regular
exhibition  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  was  that  of  the
society  of  British  Pastellists,  opened  18  Oct.  1890 ;
the  building  was  afterwards  solely  occupied  by  the
Grosvenor  club,  by  whom  pictures  for  sale  were
from  time  to  time  exhibited.

Differences  in  regard  to  management  having  arisen,
a  secession  of  subscribers  ensued,  who,  headed
by  Messrs.  Halle  and  Comyns  Carr,  opened  "  The
New  Gallery,"  {which  see)  Regent  Street  9  May,  1888

GROSVENOR  GALLERY  LIBRARY,

opened  25  March,  1880.

GROUND  GAME,  see  Game.

GUADALOUPE,  a  West  India  Island,  dis-
covered by  Columbus  in  1493.  The  French  took
possession  of  it  in  1635,  and  colonised  it  in  1664.
Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and  restored  in  1763.
Again  taken  by  the  English  m  1779,  1794,  and  1810.
The  allies,  in  order  to  allure  the  Swedes  into  the
coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.
It  was,  however,  by  the  consent  of  Sweden,  restored
to  France  at  the  peace  in  1814.  It  was  again  taken
by  the  British,  10  Aug.  1815,  and  restored  to  the
French.  July  1816.

GUAD-EL-RAS  (N.  W.  Africa).  Here  the
Spaniards  signally  defeated  the  Moors,  23  March,

■*  He  did  great  service  in  the  West  Indies,  by  taking
Portobello,  Chagre,  &c.  ;  but  by  his  disagreement  with
the  commander  of  the  land  forces,  the  expedition  against
Carthagena,  in  1741,  is  said  to  have  failed.  He  was  dis-
missed the  service  for  writing  two  pamphlets  attacking
the  admiralty  ;  he  died  30  Oct.  1757.


i860,  after  a  severe  conflict :  general  Prim  mani-
fested great  braver}-,  for  which  he  was  ennobled.
The  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  on  the  25th,

GUANO  or  HUANO  (the  Peruvian  term  for
manure),  the  excrement  of  sea-birds  that  swarm  or*
the  coasts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  of  Africa  and
Australia.  It  is  mentioned  by  Herrera  in  1601,  and
Garcilasso  stated  that  the  birds  were  protected  by
the  incas.  Humboldt  was  one  of  the  first  by  whom
it  was  brought  to  Europe,  in  order  to  ascertain  its
value  in  agriculture.  The  importation  of  guano
into  the  United  Kingdom  appears  to  have  commenced
in  1839.  283,000  tons  were  imported  in  1845  (of
which  207,679  tons  came  from  the  western  coast  of
Africa);  243,016  tons  in  1851  (of  which  6522  tons-
came  from  Western  Australia)  ;  131,358  tons  in
1864;  237,393  tons  in  1865  ;  135,697  tons  in  1866;
280,311  in  1870  ;  114,454  iu  1875  ;  iS2-"?^  in  1877  ;
177,793  i11  ^78;  74,221  in  1883;  21,175  iu  1887;
1888,  24,432  ;  1889,  28,604; 1890,  27,095.

GUARANTEES.  The  "  Guarantee  by  Com-
panies ai-t,"  relating  to  the  security  by  means  of
sureties  required  for  persons  employed  in  the  public-
service,  was  passed  20  Aug.  1867  (30  &  31  Vict,
c.  108).

GUARDIAN,  a  moderate  high-church  weekly-
journal,  first  published  21  Jan.  1846.

GUARDS. The  custom  of  having  guards  is-

said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Saul,  1093  B.C.

Body  guards  were  appointed  to  attend  the  kings  of  Eng-
land, 1  Henry  VII.  1485.

Horse  Guards  were  raised  4  Edw.  VI.  1550.

The  royal  regiment  of  guards  was  first  raised  by  Charles
II.  in  Flanders  in  1656,  colonel,  lord  Wentworth  •
another  regiment  was  raised  by  colonel  John  Russell,.
1660,  under  whom  they  were  combined  in  1665.  The-
Coldstream  Guards,  raised  by  general  Monk,  were  con-
stituted the  2nd  regiment  in  1661  ;  see  Coldstream.
These  guards  were  the  beginning  of  our  standing  army.

Gen.  sir  F.  Wm.  Hamilton's  "  History  of  the  Grenadier
Guards,"  an  elaborate  work,  appeared  1874.

The  Horse  Grenadier  guards  first  troop,  raised  in  1693,
was  commanded  by  general  Cholmondeley  ;  the  second
troop  was  raised  in  1702,  and  was  commanded  by  lord.
Forbes  ;  this  corps  was  reduced  in  1783,  the  officers-
retiring  on  full  pay. See  Army,  1890.

Guards'  Institute,  Francis-street,  Vauxhall-bridge  road  ;.
reading  and  lecture  rooms,  &c,  for  all  officers  and
soldiers  in  the  metropolis  ;  inaugurated  by  the  duke  of
Cambridge,  11  July,  1S67.

See  Horse  Guards,  Yeomen,  National,  and  Imperials
Guards.

GUASTALLA,  N.  Italy,  a  city,  near  which
the  imperial  army,  commanded  by  the  king  of
Sardinia,  was  defeated  by  the  French,  19  Sept.
1734.  The  ancient  duchy,  long  held  by  the  dukes
of  Mantua,  was  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Germany,
1746,  and  ceded  to  Parma,  1748.  After  having:
been  comprised  in  the  Italian  republic,  1796,  and
subjected  to  other  changes,  it  was  annexed  to
Parma,  1815,  and  to  Modena,  1847.

GUATEMALA.  A  republic  in  Central  Ame-
rica, revolted  from  Spain,  1821,  and  declared  inde-
pendent,  21 March, 1847. Constitution  settled,.

2  Oct.  1859.  President  (1862),  general  Raphael
Oarrera,  elected  1851 ;  appointed  for  life,  1854;.
died 14  April,  1865 ;  succeeded  by  Vincent  Cerna,.

3  May,  1865-9.  Manuel  Garcia  Granedos,  Dec.
1872  ;  R.  Barrios,  9  May,  1873 ;  General  Barillas,
Jan.  1886.  A  war  between  Guatemala  and  San
Salvador  broke  out  in  Jan.  1863;  and  on  16  June-
the  troops  of  the  latter  were  totally  defeated.  An
insurrection  became  formidable,  July,  1871.  Alliance-
with  Honduras  against  San  Salvador,  March,  1872.


GUEBRES.


460


GUILDHALL.


Population, 1887, 1,394,233  ; 1891, 1,452,003.

■Capital  Guatemala.

Col.  Gonzales,  commandant  of  San  Jose'  de  Guatemala,
imprisoned,  flogged,  and  nearly  killed  Mr.  John  Magee,
the  British  consul,  who  was  rescued  by  capt.  Morse,
■of  the  Pacific  Mail  Company's  steamer,  Arizona,  about
24  April,  1874.

Announced,  that  Gonzales  had  been  sentenced  to  five
years'  imprisonment,  and  that  Mr.  Magee  had  received
io.oooZ.  as  compensation,  Oct.  1874.

Plot  to  kill  the  president  and  his  ministry  ;  conspirators
shot,  7  Nov.  1877.

^General  Barrios's  i>roposal  to  re-unite  the  States  of  Central
America  under  himself,  as  dictator,  March  ;  resisted  ;
defeated  and  killed  in  a  severe  battle  at  Chalchuapa,
2  April,  1885  ;  succeeded  by  Barillas  ;  peace  signed
16  April,  1885.  M.  L.  Barillas,  president,  15  March,
1886.

War  with  San  Salvador,  which  see,  July-27  Aug.  1890.

Revolt  against  president  Barillas,  suppressed,  July-
Aug.  1890.

The  insurgent  general  and  ex-minister  Bunundia  shot
while  resisting  arrest  on  board  the  U.S.  steamer
Aeapulco,  28  Aug.;  his  young  daughter  fails  in  her
attempt  to  shoot  the  U.S.  minister,  Mizner,  1  Sept.
1890.

Peace  with  San  Salvador  signed  ;  announced  17  Nov.
1890.

Gen.  Barrios  assumes  office  as  president,  16  March,  1892.

GUEBKES  (from  the  Arabic  Kafir,  unbeliever),
a  name  given  to  the  descendants  of  the  fire- worship-
pers of  Persia  by  their  Arab  conquerors,  in  the  7th
century.  They  are  now  represented  by  the  Parsees
-of  Bombay,  whither  they  migrated,  see  Parsees.

GUELPHIC  ORDER  of  knighthood  was
instituted  for  Hanover  by  the  prince  regent,  after-
wards George  IV.,  12  Aug.  1815.

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINES,  names
given  to  the  papal  and  imperial  factions  who  de-
stroyed the  peace  of  Italy  from  the  12th  to  the  end
•of  the  15th  century  (the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.
of  France  in  1495).  The  origin  of  the  names  is
ascribed  to  the  contest  for  the  imperial  crown
between  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen,  duke  of  Swabia,
lord  of  Wiblingen  (hence  Ghibelin),  and  Henry
nephew  of  Well',  or  Guelf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1138.
The  former  was  successful;  but  the  popes  and
several  Italian  cities  took  the  side  of  his  rival.  Hie
Guelf  and  Hie  Gibelin  are  said  to  have  been  used
as  war-cries  in  1140,  at  a  battle  before  Weinsberg,
in  Wurternberg,  when  Guelf  of  Bavaria  was  defeated
by  the  emperor  Conrad  IV.  who  came  to  help  the
rival  duke  Leopold.*  The  Ghibelines  were  almost
totally  expelled  from  Italy  in  1267,  when  Conradin,
the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  was  beheaded  by
Charles  of  .Anjou.  Guelph  (of  uncertain  origin),
is  the  popular  name  of  the  present  royal  family  of
England ;  see  Brunswick.

The  Guelph  Exhibition  of  pictures  and  objects  of
interest  connected  with  the  Royal  House  of  Guelph,  was
opened  in  the  New  Gallery,  Regent  street,  31  JDec.  1890  ;
closed,  9  April,  1891.  The  queen  contributed  greatly  to
"the  exhibition,  and  gave  it  its  name.

Guelph  Fund,  see  under  Cumberland.

GUERNSEY,  see  Jersey.  Major-gen.  sir
Edward  Bulwer  appointed  governor  of  Guernsey  in
.succession  to  licut.-gen.  Elkington,  March,  1889.

GUERRILLA,  Spanish,  "a  little  war";  a
term  applied  to  the  armed  peasants  who  worried
the  French  armies  during  the  Peninsular  war,
1808-14.  The  resistance  of  the  dacoits  to  the
British  in  Burmah  was  of  guerrilla  character.


*  It  is  stated,  traditionally,  that  the  emperor  con-
demned all  the  men  to  death,  but  permitted  the  women
to  bring  out  whatever  they  most  valued  ;  on  which  they
carried  out  their  husbands  on  their  shoulders.


GUEUX  (beggars),  a  name  given  by  the  comte
de  Barlaimont  to  the  300  Protestant  deputies  from
the  Low  Countries,  headed  by  Henri  of  Brederode
and  Louis  of  Nassau,  who  petitioned  Margaret,
governess  of  the  Low  Countries,  to  abolish  the
inquisition,  5  April,  1566.  The  deputies  at  once
assumed  the  name  as  honourable,  and  immediately
organised  armed  resistance  to  the  government ;  see
Holland.

GUIANA  (N.E.  coast  of  South  America),  dis-
covered by  Columbus  in  1498,  visited  by  the
Spaniards  in  the  16th  century ;  and  explored  by  sir
Walter  Raleigh  in  1596  and  1617.  The  French
settlements  here  were  formed  in  1626-43  >  an(^  the
Dutch,  1627-67.  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice
were  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1814 ;  see  Demerara.
Governor  of  British  Guiana,  John  Scott,  1868 ;
James  Robert  Longden,  1874 ;  C.  H.  Kortright,  1876;
sir  Henry  T.  Irving,  1882;  Viscount  Gormanstown,
Dec.  1887.
Mr.  Kaufmann  discovered  in  the  goldfields  633  valuable

diamonds  early  in  1891.
Revolt  in  Dutch  Guiana  of  the  lower  against  the  upper

classes  ;  much  alarm,  13  May,  1891.

GUIDE-BOOKS  for  travellers  are  an  English
invention.  Paterson's  "British  Itinerary,"  ap-
peared in  1776;  the  last  edition  in  1840:  when  it
was  superseded  by  railway  guides.  Galignani's
"  Picture  of  Paris,"  1814.  Murray's  "  Handbook
for  Travellers  on  the  Continent,"  the  parent  of  the
series,  appeared  in  1836.  The  publication  of  Carl  and
Fritz  Ba'deker's  foreign  guide-books  began  in  1828
with  a  handbook  for  the  Rhine  in  German-French.
This  was  followed  by  German  handbooks  for  other
parts  of  the  continent,  which  owed  much  to  Murray's
handbooks,  and  included  much  original  matter.
The  first  English  editions  appeared  in  i860.  See
Murray.

GUIDES,  a  corps  in  the  French  army,  espe-
cially charged  with  the  protection  of  the  person  of
the  general,  was  formed  by  Bessieres,  under  the
direction  of  Bonaparte,  who  had  been  nearly
carried  off  by  the  enemy,  30  May,  1796.  Several
squadrons  of  "guides"  were  formed  in  1848,  to
guard  the  ministers.  They  formed  a  portion  of
the  imperial  guard  till  Sept.  1870.

GUIENNE,  a  French  province,  was  part  of
the  dominions  of  Henry  II.  in  right  of  his  wife
Eleanor,  1152.  Philip  of  France  seized  it  in  1293,
which  led  to  war.  It  was  alternately  held  by
England  and  France  till  1453,  when  John  Talbot,
earl  of  Shrewsbury,  in  vain  attempted  to  retake  it
from  the  latter.

GUILDHALL  (London)  was  built  in  141 1.
When  it  was  rebuilt  (in  1669),  after  the  great  fire
of  1666,  no  part  <>f  the  ancient  building  remained,
except  the  interior  of  the  porch  and  the  walls  of
the  hall.  The  front  was  erected  in  1789;  and  a
new  roof  built,  1864-5.  Beneath  the  west  window
are  the  colossal  figures  of  Gog  and  Magog,  said  to
represent  a  Saxon  and  an  ancient  Briton  ;  replaced
older  ones,  1708;  renewed,  1837.  The  hall  can  con-
tain 7000  persons.  Here  were  entertained  the  allied
sovereigns  in  1814,  and  Napoleon  III.,  19  April,
1855  ;  and  here  the  city  industrial  exhibition  was
held,  6  March,  1866,  and  the  International  Botanical
banquet,  22  May,  1866.  A  memorial  window,  the
gift  of  the  cotton  workers  of  Lancashire,  to  com-
memorate the  munificence  of  the  metropolis  towards
them  in  the  famine  of  1862-4,  waa  uncovered,  15
July,  1868.  The  prince  consort  memorial  window
was  unveiled  in the  presence  of  prince  Arthur,


GUILDS.


461


GUN- COTTON.


3  Nov.  1870.  A  library  existed  in  the  Guildhall  in
1426,  from  which  books  were  taken  by  the  protector
Somerset  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  A  new
library  was  founded,  2  June,  1824.  This  library  is
open  to  the  public.  The  new  handsome  building  by
Horace  Jones  was  opened  by  the  lord  chancellor
Selbome,  5  Nov.  1872  ;  seeLondon.  The  law  sittings
which  had  been  removed  to  the  Royal  law  courts,
were  resumed  in  the  Guildhall,  28  Oct.  1891,  when
the  lord  chief  justice  was  received  by  the  lord  mayor.
Art  gallery  opened  24  June,  1886.
Magnificent  memorials  by  J.  E.  Price  published  Nov.

1886.
Guildhall  School  of  Music  founded  (62  pupils)  1880  ;  new

building  on  the  Thames Embankment,  9  Dec. 1886

(2,053  pupils).
Visit  of  the  German  emperor  and  empress,  see  Germany,

10  July,  1891.

GUILDS.  Associations  of  men  of  the  same
class  or  trade,  formed  for  mutual  aid  and  protection ;
in  England,  of  Saxon  origin,  about  the  8th  century.
In  the  middle  ages  there  were  religious,  social,
mercantile,  and  craft  guilds.  Some  of  the  London
livery  companies  were  formed  out  of  the  merchant
and  craft  guilds  in  the  13th  century.  See  Companies.

The  guild  of  Corpus  Christi,  York,  had  14,800  members
when  a  return  respecting  these  guilds  was  ordered  to
be  made,  1388.

The  Early  English  Text  Society  published  the  "Ordi-
nances "  of  more  than  100  guilds,  1870.

"The  Gild  Merchant,"  by  Charles  Gross,  Ph.D.,  pub-
lished in  1891,  is  a  valuable  work.

The  "  Guild  of  Literature  and  Art"  (including  sir  E.  B.
Lytton,  C.  Dickens,  and  others)  founded  an  institu-
tion (on  ground  given  by  sir  E.  B.  Lytton,  at  Stevenage)
consisting  of  thirteen  dwellings,  retreats  for  artists,
scholars,  and  men  of  letters,  which  were  completed
and  inaugurated,  29  July,  1865.

The  revival  of  religious  guilds  began  in  1851,  with
that  of  St.  Alban,  which  held  its  21st  anniversary
20  June,  1872.

Guilds  Inquiry  Commission,  see  Comx>anies.

GUILLOTINE,  an  instrument  for  causing
immediate  and  painless  death,  named  after  its  sup-
posed inventor,  a  physician  named  Joseph  Ignatius
Guillotin.  In  1866  M.  Dubois,  of  Amiens,  stated
that  the  idea  only  was  due  to  Guillotin,  who  at  a
meeting  of  the  legislative  assembly  in  1789  ex-
pressed an  opinion  that  capital  punishment  should
be  the  same  for  all  classes.  Accordingly,  at  the
request  of  the  assembly,  M.  Louis,  secretary  of  the
"Academie  de  Chirurgie,"  submitted  to  it  on  20
March,  1792,  a  mode  of  capital  punishment,  "sure,
quick,  and  uniform,"  which,  he  had  invented.  The
first  person  executed  by  it  was  a  highway  robber
named  Pelletier,  on  25  April ;  and  Dangremont  was
its  first  political  victim,  21  Aug.  following.  Guillotin
died  in  1814.  The  guillotine  at  Paris  was  burnt
by  the  communist  insurgents,  7  April,  187 1.  A
similar  instrument  (called  the  Mannaia)  is  said  to
have  been  used  in  Italy,  at  Halifax  in  England
(see  Halifax),  and  in  Scotland,  there  called  the
Maiden  and  the  Widow.

GUINEA  (W.  coast  of  Africa)  was  discovered  by
the  Portuguese  about  1446.  From  their  trade  with
the  Moors  originated  the  slave  trade,  sir  John  Haw-
kins being  the  first  Englishman  who  engaged  in  this
traffic.  Assisted  by  English  gentlemen  with  money
for  the  purpose,  he  sailed  from  England  in  Oct.  1562,
with  three  ships,  proceeded  to  the  coast  of  Guinea,
purchased  or  forcibly  seized  300  negroes,  sold  them
profitably  at  Hispaniola,  and  returned  home  richly
laden  with  hides,  sugar,  ginger,  and  other  mer-
chandise, in  Sept.  1563.  This  voyage  led  to  similar
enterprises.  Hahlmjt.  See  Slave  Trade.  An  African
company  to  trade  with  Guinea  was  chartered  1588.
The Hutch  settlements  here  were  transferred  to


Great  Britain, 6  April,  1872. See  Elmina, and

Ashantees.

Portuguese  settlement ;  troops  defeated  with  loss  in  an

attack upon  the  natives  at Inhim  and  Bandim  ; 4.

officers  and  71  men  killed,  reported  21  April,  1891.

GUINEAS,  English  gold  coin,  so  named  from
having  been  first  coined  of  gold  brought  by  the-
African  company  from  the  coast  of  Guinea  in  1663,
valued  then  at  20s.;  but  worth  30s.  in  169=5.  Re-
duced at  various  times;  in  1717  to  21s.  In  1810
guineas  were  sold  for  22*.  6d. ;  in  1816,  for  27s. .  In
181 1  an  act  was  passed  forbidding  their  exportation^
and  their  sale  at  a  price  above  the  current  value,  21s.
The  first  guineas  bore  the  impression  of  an  elephant,
having  been  coined  of  this  African  gold.  Since  the
issue  of  sovereigns,  1  July,  1817,  guineas  have  not
been  coined.

GUINEGATE,  Battles  op,  h  July,  1302,

and  16  Aug.  1513. See  Spurs.

GUINNESS  TEUST,  see  Artisans.

GUISE,  a  French  ducal  family  :—
Claude  of  Lorraine, first  duke,  a  brave  warrior,

favoured  by  Francis  1.  ;  died  .  .  .  April,  1550
Francis,  the  great  general,  born,  1519  ;  assassinated,

24  Feb.  1563
Henry,  head  of  the  Catholic,  league  ;  born  1550  ;

revenged  his  father's  death ;  assassinated  by  order

of  Henry  III.  .  ... 23  Dec.  1588

Charles,  first opposed, and  then submitted  to,

Henry  IV.  ;  died 1640

Henry  died  without  issue ....  . 1664.

GULLIVEE'S  TEAVELS,  by  Dean  Swift,
first  published  1726-7.

GUN,  see  Artillery,  Cannon,  Fire-arms. — Gun-
CLTJB,  for  pigeon-shooting,  founded  by  sir  Gilbert
East,  in  1862,  had  200  members,  noblemen  and
gentlemen,  in  July,  1867.

GUN-COTTON,  a  highly  explosive  substance,
invented by professor Schonbein, of  Basel,  and
made  known  in  1846. It  is  purified  cotton,  steeped
in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  sul-
phuric  acid,  and  afterwards  dried,  retaining the
appearance  of  cotton  wool.  See  Collodion.  Its  nature
was  known  to  Braconuot  and  Pelouze.
The  diet  of  Frankfort  voted,  3  Oct.  1846,  a  recompense,
of 100,000  florins  to professor Schonbein and  Dr.
Boettger,  as  the  inventors  of  the  cotton  powder,  pro-
vided the  authorities  of  Mayence,  after  seeing  it  tried,
pronounced  it  superior  to  gunpowder  as  an  explosive.
Improvements  were  made  in  the manufacture  of  gun-
cotton  by  an  Austrian  officer,  Baron  von  Lenk,  about.
1852,  and  it  was  tried  by  a  part  of  the  Austrian  army
in  1855,  but  did  not  obtain  favour.
In  1862  details  of  the  manufacture  were  communicated
by  the  Austrian  government  to  our  own  government,
and Mr. (late sir Frederick)  Abel,  our war-office,
chemist,  was  directed  to  experiment  on  the  constitu-
tion and  desirability  of  gun-cotton. The  British  Asso-
ciation also  appointed  a  scientific  committee  to  consider
its  merits. A  complete  decision  was  not  arrived  at.
The  first  trial  of  English-made  gun-cotton  was  made  in
the  spring  of  1864,  at  the  manufactory  at  Stowmarket,
Suffolk,  by  Messrs.  Prentice.
There  was  manufactured,  by  a  company,  the  "  patent  safety
gun-cotton,"  according  to  Mr.  Abel's  patent  (including
the  pulping,  compressing,  and  wet  processes),  based.
on  researches  commenced  in 1866. The  cotton  was
said to be explosive by detonation, and not  by
ignition. A  great  explosion  took  place  at  Stowmarket;
24  persons  were  killed  (including  A.  E.  II.  and  W.  R.
Prentice,  managers) ;  about  60 were  dreadfullywounded,
and  nearly  the  whole  town  was  destroyed  as  it'  by  a
bombardment,  11  Aug.  1871.
The  verdict  at  the  inquest  attributed  the  explosion  to
the  culpable  "addition  of  sulphuric  acid  to  the  gun-
cotton  subsequent  to  its  passing  the  tests  required  by-
government,"  6  Sept.  1871.


GUNDAMUK.


462


GUTTA PEECHA.


A  government  commission,  appointed  in  Sept.  to  con-
sider the  manufacture  and  use  of  gun-cotton,  reported
in  favour  of  both,  with  special  regard  to  compressed
gun-cotton,  13  Dec.  1871.

Another  report  recommended  this  gun-cotton  to  be
stored  wet,  with  drying  apparatus  near ;  and  to  be
kept  in  slighter  boxes,  25  July,  1872.

Mr.  E.  O.  Brown,  of  the  war  department,  Woolwich,  dis-
covers that  wet  gun-cotton  can  be  exploded  by  con-
cussion by  a  detonating  fuse,  about  Nov.  1872.

It  is  used  as  an  explosive  agent  in  mining,  &c.

<Gun-Cloth,  made  on  a  similar  principle,  was  patented
by  Mr.  W.  A.  Dixon,  about  1866.

Cotton-Gunpowder,  patented  by  Mr.  R.  Punshon,  1871.

A  modified  form  was  tried  and  reported  successful,  near
Faversham,  3  Feb.  1875. See  Ivory.

GUNDAMUK,  see  Gandamuk.

GUN  LICENCE  ACT,  passed  9  Aug.  1870 ;
annual  licence,  10s.  Licences  issued  :  year  1876-7,
77,068;  1877-8,  75,571 ;  1880-1,  72,834;  1881-2,
74,063. See  under  Game  Laws,  1883.

GUNPOWDEE.  The  invention  of  gunpowder
as  generally  ascribed  to  Bertholdus  or  Michael
•Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of
.Brunswick,  in  Germany,  about  1320.  But  many
writers  maintain  that  it  was  known  much  earlier
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  say  that  the
Chinese  and  Hindoos  possessed  it  centuries  before.
Its  composition,  moreover,  is  expressly  mentioned
by  Roger  Bacon,  in  his  treatise  l)e  Nullitate
JIagice.  He  died  in  1292  or  1294.  Various  sub-
stitutes for  gunpowder  have  been  recently  invented,
such  as  the  white  gunpowder  of  Mr.  Horsley  and
Dr.  Ehrhardt,  and  gun-paper  by  Mr.  Hochstodten.
A  new  gunpowder  by  M.  Newniayer,  of  Toy  a,  near
leipsic,  was  discussed  in  Nov.  1866.  "  Pellet  gun-
powder" was  ordered  to  be  used  in  gun-charges  in
the  army,  March,  1868.  An  act  to  amend  the  law
•concerning  the  making,  keeping,  and  carriage  of
gunpowder,  &c.  was  passed  28  Aug.  i860,  and  other
acts  since.  See  Birmingham,  1870.  In  May,  1872,
a  company  was  formed  to  manufacture  Mr.  R.
Punshon's  patent  cotton -gunpowder,  asserted  to  be
very  safe  and  controllable.  The  manufacture  of  the
new  German  "  brown  "  or  "  cocoa"  powder,  set  up
at  Chil worth  in  Surrey,  1886. See  Chronoscope.

The  use  of  gunpowder  was  denounced  by  Ariosto,  1516  ;
by  Jean  Marot,  1532  ;  by  Cervantes,  1604 ;  termed
"  villanous  salt-petre  "  by  Shakspeare,  about  1598.

English  War  Gunpowder  :  75  parts  nitrate  of  potash
(saltpetre) ;  10  sulphur  ;  15  carbon.  These  proportions
may  be  slightly  varied.

W.  Hunter,  after  a  careful  examination  of  the  question,
in  1847,  thus  states  the  result: — "July  and  August,
1346,  may  be  safely  assumed  to  be  the  time  when  the
explosive  force  of  gunpowder  was  first  brought  to  bear
on  the  military  operations  of  the  English  nation. "

Above  11  tons  of  gunpowder  on  board  the  Lottie  Sleigh,
in  the  Mersey,  exploded  ;  much  damage  done  in  Liver-
pool and  Birkenhead,  but  no  lives  lost,  16  Jan.  1864.

About  104,000  lbs.  of  gunpowder  exploded  at  the  Belve-
dere powder  magazines  of  Messrs.  Hall  &  Co.,  at
Plumstead,  near  Woolwich  ;  13  persons  perished,  and
the  shock  was  felt  at  50  miles'  distance,  1  Oct.  1864.
Searching  inquiries  were  made  into  the  circumstances,
and  new  regulations  for  the  keeping  and  transmission
of  powder  issued  in  November  ;  see  Dartford.

Mr.  Gale,  a  blind  gentleman  of  Plymouth,  on  22  June,
1865,  patented  his  method  of  rendering  gunpowder
uninflammable  by  combining  with  it  finely  powdered
glass,  which  can  be  readily  separated  by  a  sieve  when
the  powder  is  required  for  use.  Successful  public
experiments  were  made.

Mr.  Gale  exhibited  his  process  before  the  queen  at
Windsor,  10  Nov.  1865,  and  it  was  severely  tested  at  a
martello  tower,  near  Hastings,  20  June,  1866.  The
attainment  of  perfect  security  was  still  doubtful.
Gale's  Protected  Gunpowder  Company  was  formed,
Oct.  1865,  and  wound  up,  March,  1867.


Great  explosion  at  Messrs. Hall's  powder-mills,  near

Faversham ;  11  men  killed,  much  damage  done  ;  shock

felt  at  Canterbury,  10  miles  off,  28  Dec.  1867. Another

explosion  about  21  Dec.  1868.
Dixon  &  Beck's  works  blown  up  ;  9  lives  lost,  25  July,

1868.
Explosion  at  Hounslow  mills,  3  lives  lost.  6  Sept. 1872  ;

again  one  life  lost  and  great  destruction  of  property,  3

May,  1887.
Milner's  powder-magazines  placed  in  fire  at  Woolwich

arsenal  and  found  secure,  8-9  Oct.  1872.
About  s  tons  of  gunpowder  in  barrels  exploded  in  the

barge  Tilbury,  on  the  Regent's  Canal,  near  the  North

Bridge-gate,  Regent's-park,  nearly  5  a.m.  2  Oct.  1874.

Three  men  on  the  barge  killed ;  sh  ock  felt  about  3omiles

off ;  destruction  extended  over  about  a  square  mile  ;

some  houses  thrown  down  ;  very  many  windows  blown

in  ;  the  house  of  Mr.  Alma  Tadema,  the  artist,  much.

injured.
The  powder  was  sent  by  Pigou  and  Wilks  to  Derbyshire

for  blasting  purposes  ; — order  of  the  barges  :  Ready,

tug steamer; Jane, Dee, Tilbury, Limehouse, and

Haxokesbury.
6333Z.  had  been  subscribed  for  the  sufferers  up  to  1  May

1875.
Verdict  of  Inquest  —  Explosion  caused  by  ignition of

vapour  from  benzoline  by  a  fire  or  light  in  the  cabin

of  the  Tilbury. The  Junction  Canal  Company  guilty

of  gross  negligence,  and  the  present  laws  inadequate

for  public  safety,  19  Oct.  1874.
The  company  declared  responsible  on  trial  (by  Capt.

Jackson),  14  May,  1875.
One  thousand  and  fifty-four  claims  had  been  settled  for

63,660?.,  June,  1876.
Recently  smokeless  gunpowder  has  been  produced  ;  the

Duttenhofer,  the  Stein,  the  Pallina,  the  Schultz  and

Hengst,  Chilworth  and  Lebel  powders  give  very  little

smoke,  1888-9.
The  smokeless gunpowder  of  Herr  Falkenstein  tried

at  Berlin,  reported  efficient,  Aug.  1889.
Sir  F.  A.  Abel,  in  a  discourse  at  the  Royal  Institution,

31  Jan. 1890  (Proceedings,  vol.  XIII.),  explained  and

illustrated  the  merits  and  demerits  of  "smokeless

explosives." Smokeless  gunpowder  much  used  in  the

autumn  manoeuvres,  1890.
See  Rome,  23  April,  1891.
Gunpowder exported  : 1876, 14,268,672 lbs.  ; 1880,

14,927,500 lbs.  ; 1885, 12,763,900 lbs.  ; 1890,

10,330,400  lbs.

GUNPOWDEE  PLOT,  for  springing  a  mine
under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  destroying  the
three  estates  of  the  realm — king,  lords,  and  commons
— there  assembled,  was  discovered  on  4  Nov.  1605.  It
was  projected  by  Robert  Catesby  early  in  1604,  and
several  Eoman  Catholics  of  rank  were  in  the  plot.
Guy  Faux  was  detected  in  the  vaults  under  the
house  of  lords,  hired  for  the  purpose,  preparing
the  train  for  being  fired  on  the  next  day.  Catesby
and  Percy  (of  the  family  of  Northumberland)  were
killed  at  Holbeach  house,  whither  they  had  fled,
8  Nov. ;  and  Guy  Faux,  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rook-
wood,  "Winter,  and  others,  were  executed,  30,  31
Jan.  1606.  Henry  Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  suffered  as  an
accomplice,  3  May  following.  An  anonymous  letter
sent  to  lord  Monteagle  led  to  the  discovery.  It
contained  the  following  words,  "  Though  there  be
no  appearance  of  any  stir,  yet  I  say  they  shall
receive  a  terrible  blow  this  parliament,  and  yet
they  shall  not  see  who  hurts  them."  The  vault
called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in  which  the  conspirators
lodged  the  barrels  of  gunpowder,  remained  till
1825,  when  it  was  converted  into  offices.

GUNTEE'S  CHAIN,  used  in  measuring  land,
invented  by  Edmund  Gunter,  in  1606.

GUENEY'S ACT, 31 &  32  Vict.,  c. 116 \
(1868), amends  the law  relating  to  larceny  and
embezzlement.

GUTTA  PEECHA  is  procured  from  the  sap
of  the  Isonandra  Gutta,  a  large  forest  tree,  growing
in  the  Malayan  peninsula  and  on  the  islands  near


GUY'S HOSPITAL.


463


GYEOSCOPE.


it.  It  was  made  known  in  England  by  Drs.  De
Almeida  and  Montgomery,  at  the  Society  of  Arts,
in  1843.  As  a  non-conductor  of  electricity  it  is  in-
valuable in  constructing  submarine  telegraphs,  an
application  suggested  by  Faraday  and  Werner  Sie-
mens independently,  1847.  70,176  cwts.  were  im-
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1890.

GUY'S  HOSPITAL  (London).  Thomas  Guy,
a  wealthy  bookseller,  after  bestowing  large  sums  on
St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  found  a  new  hospital.
At  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced
the  present  building,  and  lived  to  see  it  nearly
completed.  It  cost  him  18,793/.,  and,  in  addition,
he  endowed  it  with  219,499/.  In  1829,  196,115/.
were  bequeathed  to  this  hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to
provide  accommodation  for  100  additional  patients.
Income much reduced by agricultural depression  ;

ioo,oooZ. proposed to be  raised ; Mansion  House,

ij,oool.  received  20  Dec.  1886.

GUZEEAT,  a  state  in  India,  founded  by  Mah-
moud  the  Gaznevide,  about  1020,  was  conquered  by
Akbar  in  1572 ;  and  became  subject  to  the  Mahrattas
1732  or  1752.  At  the  battle  of  Guzerat,  near  the
Chenab,  in  the  Punjab,  21  Feb.  1849,  lord  Gough
totally  defeated  the  Sikhs  and  captured  the  town  of
Guzerat.

GWALIOE,  an  ancient  state  in  Central  India

occupied  by  the  Mahrattas ;  since  1803,  under  British

protection. Scindiah, the maharajah, remained

faithful  during  the  revolt  of 1857  ; visit  of  the

prince of  "Wales,  31  Jan. 1876. His  present  of

carved  stone  work  of  a  gate,  arrived  in  London  in

the  autumn  of  1884. Population,  1881,  1,115,857.

The  ancient  citadel  was  taken  by  major  Popham  in  the

Mahratta war  in  1780  ; seized  by  the  rebels  during

the  Indian  mutiny,  13  June  ;  and  retaken  by  sir  Hugh

Rose,  19  June,  1858. Surrendered  to  the  maharajah

by  lord  Dunerin,  the  viceroy,  2  Dec.  1885,  for  15  lakhs

of  rupees;  actually  surrendered,  10  March,  1886. The

maharajah  Bhajeerut  Rao  Scindiah,  aged  51,  died  21

June, 1886. Succeeded  by  his  son,  a  boy, with  a

regency.

Gwalior  visited  by  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne,  warmly

received,  18  Nov.  1891.

GYMNASIUM,  a  place  where  the  Greeks
performed  public  exercises,  and  where  philosophers,
poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.
In  wrestling  and  boxing  the  athletes  were  often
naked  (gymnos),  whence  the  name.  A  London
gymnastic  society,  formed  in  1826,  did  not  flourish.
In  1862,  M.  Ravenstein  set  up  another  gymnastic
association.  The  German  Gymnastic  Institution,
in  St.  Pancras-road,  London,  was  opened  on  29  Jan.
1865,  and  a  large  and  perfect  gymnasium  at  Liver-
pool was  inaugurated  by  lord  Stanley,  6  Nov.  1865.
A  London  athletic  club  existed  in  Nov.  1866.


GYMNOSOPHIST^E,  a  set  of  naked  philo-
sophers in  India.  Alexander  (about  324  B.C.)  was
astonished  at  the  sight  of  men  who  seemed  to
despise  bodily  pain,  and  endured  tortures  without
a  groan. Pliny.

GYPSIES, Gipsies,  or  Egyptians

(French,  Bohemiens ; Italian,  Zingari;  Spanish,
Gitanos ;  German,  Zlgeuner)  ;  vagrants,  supposed
to  be  descendants  of  low-caste  Hindoos  expelled  by
Timour,  about  1399. They  appeared  in  Germany
and  Italy  early  in  the  15th  century,  and  at  Paris  in
1427. In  England  an  act  was  made  against  their
itinerancy,  in  1530;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.
thirteen  persons  were executed  at  one  assizes  for
having  associated  with  gypsies  for  about  a  month.
The  gypsy  settlement  at  Norwood  was  broken  up,
and  they were treated  as  vagrants, May,  1797.
There  were  in Spain alone,  previously to 1800,
more  than  120,000  gypsies,  and  many  communities
of  them  yet  exist  in  England. Notwithstanding
their  intercourse  with  other  nations,  their  manners,
customs,  visage,  and  appearance  are  almost  wholly
unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of
futurity gives  them  power  over  the  superstitious.
Esther  Faa  was  crowned  queen  of  the  gypsies  at
Blyth,  on  18  Nov.  i860. The  Bible  has  been  trans-
lated into  gypsy  dialects. Gypsy  parliaments  are
occasionally held. Geoi-ge Smith, king  of the
gypsies,  Falcoln  hall,  Edinburgh,  protested  against
the  Movable  Dwellings  bill,  10  Jan.  1891. The
Gypsy  Lore  society,  founded  in  1888,  had  70  mem-
bers in  1891,  and  published  a  journal.
George  Borrow  fraternised  with  the  gypsies  and  wrote
several works describing  his  adventures,  especially
"TheZincali"  (1841)  ;  "The  Bible  in  Spain  "  (1842)  ;
"  Lavengro"  (1850);  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Gypsy
Language  "  (1874). He  was  born  in  1803,  and  died  in
Aug.  1 88 1.
A  band  of  89  gypsies  from  Corfu,  with  500Z.  bound  for
America, landed  at  Millwall  docks,  July  ; passage
refused  them  at  Liverpool ;  connection  disclaimed  by
the Greek  government ; some remain  at  Liverpool
and  others  at  Hull,  Aug.-Sept.  1886. Wandering  in
England, Oct. 1886 ; at  Sunderland, April, 1887.
Some of them  conveyed  to King's Cross station,
London,  16  April,  1887  ;  at  Chester,  April,  1887.
Matilda  II.  crowned  queen  of  the  American  gypsies  near
Dayton,  Ohio,  Nov.  1888.

GYEOSCOPE  (from  gyrere,  to  revolve),  the
name  of  a  rotatory  apparatus  invented  by  Fessel  of
Cologne  (1852),  and  improved  by  professor  Wheat-
stone  and  M.  Foucault  of  Paris.  It  is  similar  in
principle  to  the  rotatory  apparatus  of  T3ohnen-
berger  of  Tubingen  (born  1765,  died  1831). — The
gyroscope,  by  exhibiting  the  combined  effects  of  the
centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces,  and  of  the
cessation  of  either,  illustrates  the  great  law  of
gravitation.


H.


HAARLEM.


HAILEYBUEY COLLEGE.


HAARLEM,  an  ancient  town  in  Holland,  once
the  residence  of  the  counts,  was  taken  by  the  duke
of  Alva,  in  July,  1573,  after  a  siege  of  seven
months.  He  violated  the  capitulation  by  butcher-
ing half  the  inhabitants.  The  lake  was  drained,
1 839-5  J. Population,  1890,  51,626.

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects'  Writ  of
Right,  passed  "  for  the  better  securing  the  liberty
of  the  subject,"  31  Charles  II.  c.  2,  27  May,  1679.
If  any  person  be  imprisoned  by  the  order  of  any
court,  or  of  the  queen  herself,  he  may  have  a  writ
of  habeas  corpus,  to  bring  him  before  the  court  of
queen's  bench  or  common  pleas,  which  shall  deter-
mine whether  his  committal  be  just.  This  act
(founded  on  the  old  common  law)  is  next  in  im-
portance to  Magna  Charta.  The  Habeas  Corpus  act
can  be  suspended  by  parliament  for  a  specified  time
when  the  emergency  is  extreme.  In  such  a  case
the  nation  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  liberty  to
secure  its  own  permanent  welfare,  and  suspected
persons  may  then  be  arrested  without  cause  or
purpose  being  assigned.  Blackstone.
Act  suspended  for  a  short  time  in  .  1689,  1696,  1708
Suspended  for  Scots'  rebellion  .  .  .  1715-6
Suspended  for  twelve  months  ....  1722
Suspended  for  Scots'  rebellion  in  .  .  1745-6
Suspended  for  American  war  ....  1777-9
Again  by  Mr.  Pitt,  owing  to  French  revolution  .  1794
Suspended  in  Ireland,  on  account  of  the  great  re-
bellion 1798

Suspended  in  Eng'.and,  28  Aug. 1799  ;  and

14  April,  1 801
Again,  on  account  of  Irish  insurrection  .  .  .  1803
Again,  owing  to  alleged  secret  meetings  (see  Green

Bag) 21  Feb.  1817

Bill  to  restore  the  Habeas  Corpus  brought  into  par-
liament 28  Jan.  1818

Suspended  in  Ireland  (insurrection) . 24  July,  1848

Restored  there 1  March,  1849

Suspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1S66 ;
26  Feb.  and  31  May,  1867 ;  and  28  Feb.  1868  till

25  March,  1869,  and  virtually  in  1881
The  constitution  of  the  United  States  provides  that
"the  privilege  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus-
pended, unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or
invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it ;"  but
does  not  specify  the  department  of  the  govern-
ment having  the  power  of  suspension.  A  series
of  contests  on  this  subject  between  the  legal
and military authorities began in Maryland,

May,  1861
In  consequence  of  the  affair  of  John  Anderson  (see
Slavery  in  England,  note),  an  act  was  passed  in
1862,  enacting  that  no  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  should
issue  out  of  England  into  any  colony,  &c,
having  a  court  with  authority  to  grant  such
writ.

HABITUAL  CRIMINALS  ACT,  for  the

more  effectual  prevention  of  crime,  giving  powers
for  the  apprehension  of  habitual  criminals  on  sus-
picion, passed  11  Aug.  1869;  117,568  reported  in
the  metropolis,  1873.
A  black  book,  printed  at  Brixton  prison,  contained  the

names  and  aliases  of  12,164  criminals,  selected  from

179,601  entered  on  the  register,  1869-76

HABITUAL DRUNKARDS, see

Drunkards.

HABSBURG,  see  Hapsburg.


HACKNEY,  a  parish  N.E.  of  London ;  by
the  division  of  the  Tower  Hamlets,  was  made  a
metropolitan  borough  by  the  Reform  act,  15  Aug.,
1867.  Two  members  were  eleeted.  The  election
4  Feb.  1876,  void,  through  neglect  of  officers.  Re-
turns three  members  by  the  act  of  1885.  Popula-
tion, 1881,  186,462 ; 1891,229,531.

HACKNEY  COACHES,  probably  from  the
French  coche-d-haquenee,  a  vehicle  with  a  hired
horse,  haquenee.  Their  supposed  origin  in  Hackney,
near  London,  is  a  vulgar  error;  see  Cabriolets,  and
Omnibuses.
Four  were  set  up  in  London  by  a  capt.  Bailey  ;

their  number  soon  increased  ....  1625

They  were  limited  by  the  star-chamber  in 1635;

restricted  in  1637  and  in 1652

The  number  was  raised  to  400,  in  1662 ;  to  700,  in

1694  ;  to  800,  in  1715  ;  to  1000,  in  1771  ;  to  1100,  in

1814;  and  finally,  to  1300,  in  ....  1815

One-horse  hackney  carriages  (afterwards  cabriolets)

permitted  to  be  licensed ,,

All  restriction  as  to  number  ceased,  by  2  Will.  IV.

(the  original  fare  was  is.  a  mile)  ....  1831
Two  hundred  Hackney  Chairs  were  licensed  .  .1711
Office  removed  to  Somerset-house  .  .  .  .  1782
Coach-makers  made  subject  to  a  licence  .  .  .  1785
Lost  and  Found  Office  for  the  recovery  of  property

left  in  hackney  coaches,  established  by  act  55

Geo.  Ill 1815

All  public  vehicles  to  be  regulated  by  the  act  16  &

17  Vict.  cc.  33, 127, by  which  they  are  placed

under  the  control  of  the  commissioners  of  police,

June  and  Aug.  1853
By  the  Metropolitan  Carriages  Act,  passed  12  Aug.

1869,  various  restrictions  respecting  the  amount

of  fare,  &c.,  were  removed,  commencing  1  Jan.  1870.
Further  regulations  for  cabs  issued  by  the  home

secretary 10  March,  187 1

HADRIAN,  see  Adrian.
HADRIANOPLE,  see  Adrianople.

HAFSFIORD  (Norway). Here  Harold  Hiir-

fager,  in  a  sea-fight,  finally  defeated  his  enemies  ;
and  consolidated  his  kingdom,  872.  A  millenary
festival  was  held  throughout  .Norway,  and  a  monu-
ment to  his  memory  at  Hangesund,  inaugurated  by
prince  Oscar  of  Sweden,  18  July,  1872.

HAGUE,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland,
once  called  the  finest  village  in  Europe ;  the  place
of  meeting  of  the  states-general,  and  residence  of
the  former  earls  of  Holland  since  1250,  when
William  II.  built  the  palace  here.  Population  in
1887,  149,447  ;  in  1890,  160,531.
Here  the  states  abjured  the  authority  of  Philip  II.

of  Spain 1580

A  conference  upon  the  five  articles  of  the  remon-
strants, which  occasioned  the  synod  of  Dort  . .  161  o
Treaty  of  the  Hague,  (to  preserve  the  equilibrium
of  the  North),  signed  by  England,  France,  and

Holland 21  May,  1659

The  De  Witts  torn  in  pieces  here  . . .4  Aug.  1672
The  French,  favoured  by  a  hard  frost,  took  posses-
sion of  the  Hague  ;  the  inhabitants  and  troops
declared  in  their  favour  ;  general  revolution  en-
sued, and  the  stadtholder  and  his  family  fled  to

England 19  Jan.  1795,

The  Hague  evacuated  by  the  French  .  .  Nov.  1813;
The  stadtholder  returned ....  Dec. ,,

HAILEYBURY  COLLEGE  (Herts),
wherein  students  were  prepared  for  service  in  India  ;


HAINAULT.


465


HAMBURG.


it  was  founded  by  the  East  India  Company  in  1806  :

was  closed  in  1858,  and  became  a  private  educational

establishment.

In  the  case  of  "  Hutt  and  another  v.  the  Governors  of
the  College  and  others,"  Mr.  Robertson,  the  head-
master, and  Mr.  Fenning,  assistant,  were  exonerated
from  the  charges  of  unlawfully  expelling  Henry  Hutt,
aged  15,  on  suspicion  of  stealing  money  ;  and  the  boy
was  declared  innocent  by  the  Queen's  Bench  Division,
19  June  ;  100I.  awarded  to  the  plaintiffs,  27  June,
1888.

HAINAULT,  a  province  in  Belgium,  anciently
governed  by  counts,  hereditary  after  Regnier  I.,
who  died  in  916.  The  count  John  d'Arsenes  became
count  of  Holland  in  1299.  Hainault  henceforth
partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Flanders.

HAINAULT  FOREST  (Essex), disafforested
in  1851. Here  stood  the  Fairlop  oak  (which  see).

HAIR.  In  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,
hence  the  appellation  Gallia  comata ;  cutting  olf
the  hair  was  a  punishment.  The  royal  family  of
France  held  it  as  a  privilege  to  wear  long  hair  art-
fully dressed  and  curled.  "  The  clerical  tonsure  is  of
apostolic  institution !  "  Isidorus  Hispalensis.  Pope
Anicetus  forbade  the  clergy  to  wear  long  hair,  155.
Long  hair  was  out  of  fashion  during  the  pro-
tectorate of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Sound-
heads;  in  1795;  and  also  1 80 1. — Hair -powder  came
into  use  in  1590;  and  in  1795  a  tax  of  a  guinea
was  laid  upon  persons  using  it,  which  yielded  at
one  time  20,000^.  per  annum.  The  tax  was  repealed
24  June,  1869,  when  it  yielded  about  lOOQl.  a  year.
See  Beard.

Some  members  of  a  Burmese  family  totally  covered  with
hair  were  exhibited  in  London  in  July,  1886.

HAITI,  see  Hayti.

HAKLUYT  SOCIETY,  established  for  the
publication  of  rare  voyages  and  travels,  15  Dec.
1846,  was  named  after  Richard  Hakluyt,  who  pub-
lished his  "  Principal  Navigations,  Voyages,  and
Discoveries  made  by  the  English  Nation,"  in  1589;
and  died  23  Nov.  1616.

HALF  CROWNS,  see  under  Coinage  and
Crowns.

HALIARTUS,  a  town  in  Boeotia,  near  which
Ly sander  the  Spartan  general  was  killed  in  battle
with  the  Thebans,  395  B.C.

HALICARNASSUS,  Caria (Asia Minor);  the
reputed  birth-place  of  Herodotus,  484 B.C. ;  the  site
of  the  tomb  of  Mausolus,  erected  352;  was  taken  by
Alexander,  334;  see  Mausoleum.

HALIDON  HILL,  near  Berwick,  where,  on
19  July,  1333,  the  English  defeated  the  Scots,  the
latter  losing  upwards  of  14,000  slain,  among  whom
were  the  regent  Douglas  and  a  large  number  of  the
nobility ;  a  comparatively  small  number  of  the
English  suffered.  Edward  Balliol  thus  became  king
of  Scotland  for  a  short  time.

HALIFAX  (Yorkshire).  The  woollen  manu-
factory was  successfully  established  here  in  the
15th  century.  The  power  of  the  town  to  punish
capitally  (by  a  peculiar  engine  resembling  the
guillotine)  anjr  criminal  convicted  of  stealing  to
the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen  pence  halfpenny,
was  used  as  late  as  1650.  In  1857,  Mr.  J.  Cross-
ley  announced  his  intention  of  founding  a  college
here,  and  Mr.  F.  Crossley  presented  the  town  with
a  beautiful  park.  Boiler  explosion  at  Batme  and
Pritchard's  ;  Mr.  Pritchard  and  5  men  killed,  9
Oct.  1879.  Public  demonstration  for  the  franchise
bill,  9  Sept.  1884.  Population,  1881,  73,630;  i8gr,
82,864.


Halifax,  the  capital  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  founded
in  1749  by  the  hon.  Edwd.  Cornvvallis,  and  named
after  the  earl  of  Halifax.  Population,  1881,  36,100;
1891,  38,556.  About  31  were  burnt  to  death  in
an  almshouse  hospital  here . . . Nov.  1882

Large  graving  dock  opened . . .20  Sept.  1880.

Great  fire,  10  wharves  and  35  warehouses  destroyed

1  Oct.  1891

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION.

Charles,  earl  of  Halifax,  was  appointed  first  lord  of

the  treasury,  5  Oct.  1714. He  died  19  May,  1715,

and  was  succeeded  by  Charles,  earl  of  Carlisle,  on

10 Oct. following; and Robert  Walpole  became

premier.

Charles,  earl  of  Halifax,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

William,  lord  Cowper,  aft.  earl,  lord  chancellor.

Daniel,  earl  of  Nottingham,  lord  president.

Thomas,  earl  of  Wharton,  privy  seal.

Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  admiralty.

James  Stanhope,  afterwards  earl  Stanhope,  and  Charles,

viscount  Townshend,  secretaries  of  state.
Sir  Richard  Onslow,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Dukes of Montrose  and Marlborough,  lord  Berkeley,

Robt.  Walpole,  Mr.  Pulteney,  &c.

HALIFAX  AWARD,  see  Canada,  1877.

HALL,  principal  apartment  in  mediaeval  man-
sions. Westminster  and  Eltham  halls  are  fine
examples ;  see  Westminster  Hall.

HALL  MARK,  see  Goldsmiths  and  Standard.

HALLE  (Saxony,  N.  Germany),  first  men-
tioned in  801,  was  made  a  city  by  the  emperor
Otho  II.  in  981.  The  orphan-house  here  was  estab-
lished by  August  Francke,  1698-9.  Halle  suffered
much  by  the  Thirty  years'  and  Seven  years'  wars.
It  was  stormed  by  the  French,  17  Oct.  1 806,  and
added  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia ;  but  given  up
to  Prussia  in  1814. Population,  1891,  101,401.

HALLELUJAH  and  AMEN  (Praise  the
Lord,  and  So  be  it),  expressions  used  in  the
Hebrew  hymns ;  said  to  have  been  introduced  by
Haggai,  the  prophet,  about  520  B.C.  Their  intro-
duction into  Christian  worship  is  ascribed  to  St.
Jerome,  about  a.d.  390.

HALLS  in  London, see  Agricultural,  Egyptian,
Exeter,  Floral, Freemasons' ,  Independents,  James's,
St.,  Music  and  Westminster.

HALYS,  a  river  (Asia  Minor),  near  which  a
battle  was  fought  between  the  Lydians  and  Medes.
It  was  interrupted  by  an  almost  total  eclipse  of  the
sun,  which  led  to  peace,  28  May,  585  b.c.  (the
fourth  year  of  the  48th  Olympiad).  Plin.  Nat.
Hist.  ii.  Others  give  as  the  date  584,  603,  and
610  B.C.  This  eclipse  is  said  to  have  been  predicted
many  years  before  by  Thales  of  Miletus.  Hero-
dotus, i.  75.

HAM,  on  the  Sonime,  N.  France.  The  castle
was  built  in  1470  by  the  constable  Louis  of  Luxem-
bourg, comte  de  St.  Pol,  beheaded  by  Louis  XI.
19  Dec.  1475-  Here  were  imprisoned  the  ex-
ministers  of  Charles  X.,  1830  ;  and  Louis  Napoleon
Bonaparte  after  his  attempt  at  Boulogne,  from  Oct.
1840  till  25  May,  1846,  when  he  escaped.

HAMBURG, formerly  a  free city, N.  W.
Germany,  founded  by  Charlemagne,  about  809. It
joined  the  Hanseatic  league  in  the 13th  century,
and  became  a  flourishing  commercial  citv. Popu-
lation of the State, 1875, 388,618  ; 'in 1880,
453,869; in  1885, 518,620; [890,622,530;  of  the
city, 1885, 305,690; 1890, 323,923. Hamburg
Massacre;  see  Massacres,  1876.
A  free  imperial  city  by  permission  of  the  dukes  of
Holstein,  1296  ;  subject  to  them  tiil  1618  ;  pur-
chased its  total  exemption  from  their  claims . 1768

II 11


HAMILTON.


466 HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS,


French  declared  war  upon  Hamburg  for  its
treachery  in  giving  up  Napper  Tandy ;  see  Tandy,

Oct.  1799
British  property  sequestrated  .  .  March,  1801
Hamburg  taken  by  the  French  after  the  battle  of

Jena,  in 1806

Incorporated  with  France 1810

Evacuated  by  the  French  on  the  advance  of  the

Russians  into  Germany 1813

Restored  to  independence  by  the  allies . May,  18 14
Awful  fire  here,  which  destroyed  numerous  churches
and  public  buildings,  and  2000  houses  ;  it  con-
tinued for  three  days .... 4  May,  1842
Half  the  city  inundated  by  the  Elbe . 1  Jan. 1855
New  constitution  granted  by  the  senate,  July,  i860;

the  new  assembly  (of  191  members)  first  met,  6  Dec.  i860
The  constitution  began  .  .  .  .  1  Jan.  1861
Hamburg  joined the N. German  confederation,

21  Aug. 1866

Joined  the  German  empire,  Jan. ;  its  privileges  as  a

free  port  confirmed  16  April,  1871 ;  these  were

given  up,  and  Hamburg  joined  the  Zollverein,

being  the  last  of  the  German  free  ports .  15  Oct.  1888

The  emperor  William  II.  with  a  hammer  completes

the  new  great  harbour  works  . . 29  Oct. „

Exhibition  of  Trade  and  Industry  .  15  May— 7  Oct.  1889
Strike  of  gas-workers,  city  some  time  in  darkness  ;
violent  rioting,  checked  by  armed  police,  with
bloodshed  ....  about  13-15  May,  1890

Visitation  of  cholera,  see  Addenda . Aug. -Sept.  1892

HAMILTON,  Ontario,  the  Birmingham  of
Canada,  founded  in  1813.  Population,  in  1861,
19,096;  1886,  41,280.

HAMILTON  PALACE  SALE.  The  total
sum  realised  by  the  sale  of  the  vast  collection  of
pictures  and  other  works  of  art,  cabinets,  crystals,
&c.  amounted  to  397,562/.  20  Juljr,  1882.

The  MSS.  purchased  by  the  German  government ;
reported  price  about  70,000?.,  Oct.  1882.  Part
resold  to  the  British  Museum,  soon  after.  The
greater  part  returned  to  London  for  sale  ;  the
British  Museum  bought  the  most  valuable  part
for  15,189?.  15s.  6c? May,  1889

Sale  of  the  united  Beckford  and  Hamilton  libraries
realised  86,444? 1883-4

HAMMERSMITH,  a  parish  in  S.  Middlesex,
made  a  parliamentary  borough  in  1885,  returning
one  member.  A  suspension  bridge  was  erected
1825-7 ;  a  new  one  was  opened  by  Prince  Albert
"Victor,  18  June,  1887.

HAMPDEN  CLUBS,  see  Radicals,  and
Chalgrove.

HAMPSTEAD,  N.W.  of  London;  originally
a  chapelry  of  Hendon,  was  made  a  parish  after  the
Eeformation.  The  ancient  chapel  was  taken  down
1745;  and  a  church  was  consecrated,  8  Oct.  1747.
An  act  authorising  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works
to  purchase  the  heath,  from  sir  John  Maryon
"Wilson,  bart.,  passed  29  June,  1871,  and  the  heath
was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  the  Metropo-
litan Board  of  Works,  13  Jan.  1872,  45,000/.  being
paid.  Hampstead  returns  one  M.  P.  by  act  of  1885.
Population,  1881,45,452; 1891,68,425.

Temporary  small-pox  hospital  established . .  1S71

Charges  of  mismanagement  against  the  officers  ;
official  inquiry  (33  meetings,  from  23  Sept.  to
3  Nov.);  inquiry  respecting  disappearance  of  a
child,  Elizabeth  Bellue  ;  medical  officers  exone-
rated from  blame Dec. ,,

A  small-pox  hospital  erected  here  by  Metropolitan
District  Asylum  Board  was  much  opposed,  and
led  to  litigation,  see  Trials,  1878  ;  the  house  of
lords  on  appeal  decided  against  the  inhabitants

7  March,  1881

Finally  the  board  agreed  to  buy  the  property
affected  for  20,000? Dec.  1883

The  Board  voted  152,500?.  towards  the  purchase  of
"  Parliament  Hill "  fields,  about  261  acres,  as  an
addition  to  the  heath  ;  the  parishes  of  Hampstead
and  St.  Pancras  having  voted  50,000?. . 14  Oct.  1887


50,000?.  given  by  the  Charity  Commissioners  andi
above  46,000?.  subscribed  by  the  public  ;  final
meeting  of  the  Hampstead  Heath  Extension
Committee,  23  March,  1889.  The  duke  of  West-
minster, chairman,  and  Mr.  Shaw  Lefevre,  vice-
chairman.

For  Hampstead,  or  rather  Kentish  town  murder,
see  Ti-ials Dec.  1890

On  Easter  Monday,  above  100,000  persons  were  on
the  heath  ;  2  women  and  6  boys  were  suffocated
by  the  dense  crowd  descending  the  stairs  at  the
railway  station,  6  p.m. ...  18  April,  1892

HAMPTON  COTJET  PALACE  (Middle-
sex), built  by  cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the-
manor-house  of  the  knights-hospitallers,  and  in.
1525  presented  to  Henry  VIII. ;  perhaps  the  most
splendid  offering  ever  made  by  a  subject  to  a
sovereign.  Here  Edward  VI.  was  born,  12  Oct.
1537  ;  here  his  mother,  Jane  Seymour,  died,  24  Oct.
following ;  and  here  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Charles,  and
others  of  our  sovereigns  resided.  Much  was  pulled
down,  and  the  grand  inner  court  built  by  William
III.  in  1694,  when  the  gardens,  occupying  40  acres,
were  laid  out.  The  vine  was  planted  1769.  Here?
was  held,  14-16-18  Jan.  1604,  the  Conference
between  the  Puritans  and  the  Established  church
clergy,  which  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  ;
see  Conference.  An  alarming  fire  in  apartments;
over  the  picture  gallery  extinguished  ;  one  woman,
suffocated,  14  Dec.  1882.

By  another  fire  many  apartments  destroyed  and  in-
jured, 19  Nov.  1886  ;  estimated  damage  20,000?.

HAN  APES  OFFICE  (of  the  court  of  chan-
cery), where  writs  relating  to  the  business  of  the
subject,  and  their  returns,  were  anciently  kept  in
hanaperio  (in  a  wicker  hamper) ;  and  those  relating-
to  the  crown,  in  parva  baga  (a  little  bag) .  Hence
the  names  Hanaper  and  Petty  Bag  Office.  The-
office  was  abolished  in  1842.

HANAU  (Hesse-Cassel),  incorporated  1303.
Here  a  division  of  the  combined  armies  of  Austria)
and  Bavaria,  of  30,000  men,  under  general  Wrede,
encountered  the  French,  70,000  strong,  under  Na-
poleon I.,  on  their  retreat  from  Leipsie,  30  Oct.
1813.  The  French  suffered  very  severely,  though
the  allies  were  compelled  to  retire.  The  county  off
Hanau  was  made  a  principality  in  1803  ;  seized  by
the  French  in  1806 ;  incorporated  with  the  -duchy
of  Frankfort  in  1809 ;  restored  to  Hesse  in  1813^
which  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866.

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS.

The  first  was  held  in  Westminster  abbey,  26  May,.
1784;  king  George  III.  and  queen  Charlotte,  and:
above  3000  persons  being  present.  The  band  con-
tained 268  vocal  and  245  instrumental  performers^
and  the  receipts  of  three  successive  days  were
12,746/.  These  concerts  were  repeated  in  1785,.
1786,  1787,  and  1791.

Second  great  commemoration,  in  the  presence  of  king
William  IV.  and  queen  Adelaide,  when  there  were  644.
performers,  24,  26,  28  June,  and  1  July,  1834.
Great Handel  festival  (at  the Crystal  Palace)  on  the
centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred
Harmonic  Society. Grand  Rehearsal  at  the  Crystal;
Palace,  15,  17,  19  June,  1857,  and  2  July,  1858.
Performances  :  Messiah,  20  June  ;  Selections,  22  June ;  Is-
rael in  Egypt,  24  June,  1859,  when  the  prince  consort,  the
king  of  the  Belgians,  and  26,827  persons  were  present.
There  were  2765  vocal  and  393  instrumental  performers,
and  the  performance  was  highly  successful. The  re-
ceipts amounted  to  about  33,000?.,  from  which  there
were  deducted  18,000?. for  expenses  ;  of  the  residue
(15,000?.),  two  parts  accrued  to  the  Crystal  Palace  Com-
pany, and  one  part  to  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.
Handel's  harpsichord,  original  scores  of  his  oratorios,
and  other  interesting  relics,  were  exhibited.
Handel  festivals  (at  the  Crystal  Palace) :  4000  performers  •
highly  successful ;  23,  25,  27  June,  1862  ;  again,  26,  2S*


HANDEL SOCIETIES.


467


HANSE TOWNS.


30  June,  1865  ;  again,  15,  17,  19  June,  1868  (about
25,000  present)  ;  also,  19,  21,  23  June,  1871  (about
84,000  persons  subscribed) ;  also,  22,  24,  26  June,  1874
(total  present,  78,839)  ;  also,  25,  27,  29  June,  1877
(present,  74,124)  ;  18,  21,  23,  25  June,  1880  (present,
79,643) ;  15,  18,  20,  22  June,  1883  (present,  87,769)  ;
(centenary)  22,  24,  26  June,  1885  (present,  85,437)  !  25j
27,  29  June,  1888,  chorus  above  3,000  (present  86,337) ;
1891,  19,  22,  24,  26  June.

HANDEL  SOCIETIES  ;  for  publication  of
Handel's  works : —

Founded  in  London,  1843  ;  first  volume  issued,  1843-4;
society  dissolved,  1848  ;  work  continued  by  Cramer  &
Co.  completed,  1855.

Founded  at  Leipsic,  in  1856  ;  publications  began,  1858.

Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  Boston,  U.S.  for  perfor-
mances only;  founded  181 5.

HANDKERCHIEFS,  wrought  and  edged
with  gold,  used  to  be  worn  in  England  by  gentle-
men in  their  hats,  as  favours  from  young  ladies,
the  value  of  them  being  from  five  to  twelve  pence
for  each  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558.  Stoiv' s
Chron.  Paisley  handkerchiefs  were  first  made  in
1743-

HANDS,  imposition  of,  was  performed  by  Moses
in  setting  apart  his  successor  Joshua  (Num.  xsvii.
23);  in  reception  into  the  church,  and  in  ordination,
by  the  apostles  {Acts  viii.  17  ; 1  Tim.  iv.  14).

HANG-IN  G-,  Drawing,  and  Quarter-
ing, said  to  have  been  first  inflicted  upon  William
Marise,  a  pirate,  a  nobleman's  son,  25  Hen.  III.,
1241.  Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the  duke  of
Gloucester  were  arraigned  and  condemned  for  trea-
son, and  at  the  place  of  execution  were  hanged,  cut
down  alive  instantly,  stripped  naked,  and  their
bodies  marked  for  quartering,  and  then  pardoned,
25  Hen.  IV.  1447.  Stotv.  The  Cato-street  con-
spirators (which  see)  were  beheaded  after  death  by
hanging,  1  May,  1820.  Hanging  in  chains  (pirates,
murderers,  and  others),  an  old  custom,  was
abolished  in  1834;  see  Death.

HANGO  BAY  (Finland).  On  5  June,  1855,
a  boat  commanded  by  lieut.  Geneste  left  the
British  steamer  Cossack  with,  a  flag  of  truce  to
land  some  Russian  prisoners.  They  were  fired  on
by  a  body  of  riflemen,  and  five  were  killed,  several
wounded,  and  the  rest  made  prisoners.  The  Rus-
sian account,  asserting  the  irregularity  to  have
been  on  the  side  of  the  English,  was  not  sub-
stantiated.

HANOVER  (N.  W.  Germany),  successively  an
electorate,  and  a  kingdom,  chiefly  composed  of
territories  which  once  belonged  to  the  dukes  of
Brunswick  (which  see).  Population  of  the  province
in  1859,  1,850,000;  in  1875,  2,017,393;  in  x885,
2,172,702;  1890,  2,230,491;  of  the  city,  1885,
139,731;  1890,165,499.  It  was  annexed  to  Prussia,
which  see,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  20  Sept.  1866 ;
see  Guelph.

Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate  .  .  19  Dec.  1692
Suffered  much  during  the  seven  years'  war  .  1756-63
Seized  by  Prussia  ....  3  April,  1801

Occupied  and  hardly  used  by  the  French, 5  June,  1803

Delivered  to  Prussia  in 1805

Retaken  by  the  French 1807

Part  of  it  annexed  to  Westphalia  . . . . 1810

Regained  for  England  by  Bemadotte  .  6  Nov.  1813
Erected  into  a  kingdom  .  .  .  .12  Oct.  1814
The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy,

and a  representative government  established,

Nov.  1816

Visited  by  George  IV Oct.  1821

Ernest,  duke  of  Cumberland,  king  .  20  June,  1837
He  granted  a  constitution  with electoral  rights,

1848 ; which  was annulled  in  obedience  to  the

decree  of  the  federal  diet . . .  12  April,  1855


The  king  claims  from  England  crown  jewels,  which
belonged  to  George  III. (value  about  120,000?.),
1857  :  by  arbitration,  the  jewels  given  up .  Jan.  1858
Stade  dues  given  up  for  compensation, 12  June,  1861
In  the  war  the  king  takes  the  side  of  Austria  ;  and
the  Prussians  enter  and  occupy  Hanover,

13  June,  et  seq.  1866
The  Hanoverians  defeat  the  Prussians  at  Langen-
salza,  27  June  ;  but  are  compelled  to  surrender,

29  June, ,,
Hanover  annexed  to  Prussia  by  law,  20  Sep ;  pro-
mulgated b  Oct. ,,

Protest  of  the  king  of  Hanover  addressed  to  Europe

23  Sept. ,,
Arrangement  with  Prussia  by a treaty  ratified

18  Oct.  1867
The  king  celebrates  his  "  silver  wedding  "  at  Hiet-
zing,  near  Vienna,  expressing  hopes  of  recovering

his  kingdom,  &c 18  Feb. 1868

Part  of his property sequestrated by Prussia,

March, ,,
Still  further,  in  consequence  of  his  maintaining  a
Hanoverian  legion  (the  king  protested  against  it),

Feb.  1869
TheemperorWilliam  II.  warmly  received  at  Hanover,
during  the  autumn  manoeuvres . .11  Sept.  1889

ELECTORS.

1692.  Ernest- Augustus,  youngest  son  of  George,  that  son
of  William,  duke  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  who
obtained  by  lot  the  right  to  marry  (see  Bruns-
wick). He  became  bishop  of  Osnaburg  in  1662,
and  in  1679  inherited  the  possessions  of  his
uncle  John,  duke  of  Calenberg ;  created  Elector
of  Hanover  in  1692.
[He  married,  in  1659,  the  princess  Soxihia,  daugh-
ter of  Frederick,  elector  palatine,  and  of  Eliza-
beth, the  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  In
1701,  Sophia  was  declared  next  heir  to  the  British
crown,  after  William  III.,  Anne,  and  their  de-
scendants. ]

1698.  George-Lewis,  son  of  the  preceding  ;  married  his
cousin  Sophia,  the  heiress  of  the  duke  of  Bruns-
wick-Zell  ;  became  king  of  Great  Britain,  1  Aug.
1714,  as  George  I.

1727.  George-Augustus,  his  son  (George  II.  of  England),.
11  June.

1760.  George- William-Frederick,  his  grandson  (George
III.  of  England),  25  Oct.


1814.  George-William-Frederick  (the  precedingsovereign),
first  king  of  Hanover,  12  Oct.

1820.  George-Augustus-Frederick,  his  son  (George  IV.
of  England),  29  Jan.

1830.  William-Henry,  his  brother  (William  IV.  of  Eng-
land), 26  June  ;  died,  20  June,  1837.
[Hanover  separated from the crown  of Great
Britain.]

1837.  Ernest-Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland,  brother  to
William  IV.  of  England,  on  whose  death  he
succeeded  (as  a  distinct  inheritance)  to  the
throne  of  Hanover,  20  June.

1851.  George  V.  (born  27  May,  1819),  son  of  Ernest  ;
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,
18  Nov.  His  states  annexed  to  Prussia,  20  Sept.
1866 ;  visited  England,  May,  June,  1 876  ;  died,
12  June,  1878.

1878,  Ernest-Augustus  II.,  son,  born  21  Sept.  1845  ;
niaintamed  his  claims  in  a  circular  to  the
sovereigns  of  Europe,  dated  11  July,  1878  ;
married  princess  Thyra  of  Denmark,  21  Dec.
1878. See  Cumberland.

HANOVER  SQUARE,  built  about  1718;
the  concert  rooms  opened  by  John  Gallini,  1  Feb.
1775;  the  house  taken  for  a  club,  Dec.  1874;  re-
built, 1875.

HANSARD'S  DEBATES,  see  Reporting.

HANSE  TOWNS.  The  Hanseatic  league
(from  Iiansa,  association),  formed  by  port  towns  in
Germany  against  the  piracies  of  the  Swedes  and
Danes  :  "began  about  1140;  the  league  signed  1241.
At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns  situate  on  the
coasts  of  the  Baltic  sea,  but  iu  1370  it  was  composed

H  h  2


HANSOM.


468


HAEP.


of  sixty-six  cities  and  forty-four  confederates.  The
league  proclaimed  war  against  Waldemar,  king  of
Denmark,  about  the  year  1348,  and  against  Eric  in
1428,  with  forty  ships  and  12,000  regular  troops,
besides  seamen.  On  this  several  princes  ordered
the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  with-
draw their  effects.  The  Thirty  years'  war  in  Ger-
many (1618-48)  broke  up  the  strength  of  the  asso-
ciation, and  in  1630  the  only  towns  retaining  the
name  were  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen.  The
league  suffered  also  by  the  rise  of  the  commerce  of
the  Low  Countries  in  the  15th  century.  Their
privileges  by  treaty  in  England  were  abolished  by
Elizabeth  in  1578.

HANSOM,  see  Cabriolets.

HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM,  for

Middlesex,  established  1831.

HAPSBURG  (Habsbtjbg  or  Habichts-

BUKG),  HOUSE  OF,  the  family  from  which  the
imperial  house  of  Austria  sprang  in  the  nth  cen-
tury, Werner  being  the  first  named  count  of  Habs-
burg,  1096.  Hapsburg  was  an  ancient  castle  of
Switzerland,  on  a  lofty  eminence  near  Schintznach.
Eodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg,  became  archduke  of
Austria,  and  emperor  of  Germany,  1273 ;  see
Austria,  and  Germany.

HARBOURS.  England  has  many  fine  natural
iarbours;  the  Thames  (harbour,  dock,  and  depbt),
Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  &c.  Acts  for  the  improve-
ment of  harbours,  &c,  were  passed  in  1847,  1861,
and  1862.

HAEES AND EABBITS ACT. See

Game.

HAEFLEUE,  seaport,  N.W.  France,  taken
by  Henry  V.,  22  Sept.  1415.

HAELAW  (Aberdeenshire),  the  site  of  a
desperate  indecisive  battle  between  the  earl  of
Mar,  with  the  royal  army,  and  Donald,  the  lord  of
the  Isles,  who  aimed  at  independence,  24  July,  141 1.
This  conflict  was  very  disastrous  to  the  nobility,
some  houses  losing  all  their  males.

HAELEIAN  LIBEAEY,  containing  7000
manuscripts,  besides  rare  printed  books,  bought  by
Edward  Harley,  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford  and
Mortimer,  1705,  et  seq.,  is  now  in  the  British
Museum.  A  large  portion  of  his  life  and  wealth
■was  spent  on  the  collection.  He  died  21  May,
1724.  The  Harleian  Miscellany,  a  selection  from
the  MSS.  and  Tracts  of  his  library,  was  published
in  1744  and  1808.
Haelbian  Society,  founded  in  1869  for  the  publication

of  heraldic  visitations,  &c.

HAELEY  ADMINISTRATION,  see  Ox-
ford.

HAELEY  STEEET,  London,  W.  At  No.
139,  the  house  inhabited  by  Mr.  Henriques,  the  de-
composed body  of  a  woman,  stabbed  in  the  breast
and  covered  with  chloride  of  lime,  was  found  3
June ;  verdict  of  coroner's  inquest,  wilful  murder
by  person  unknown,  14  June,  1880.

HAEMONICA,  or  musical  glasses  (tuned  by
regulating  the  amount  of  water,  and  played  by  a
moistened  finger  on  the  rim),  were  played  011  by
Gluck  in  London,  23  April,  1746  ;  "arranged"  by
Puckeridge  and  Delaval,  and  improved  by  Dr.
Franklin  in  1760;  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  others
composed  for  this  instrument  ;  see  Copophone.
"Harmonicon,"  an  excellent  musical  periodical,
edited  by  "W.  Ayrton,  Jan.  1823 — Sept.  1833.


HAEMONICHOED,  a  keyed  instrument,  in
which  sounds  are  produced  by  friction,  invented  by
Th.  Kauff'mann  in  18 10.

HAEMONISTS,  a  sect,  founded  in  Wiirtem-
berg  by  George  and  Frederick  Bapp,  about  1780.
Not  much  is  known  of  their  tenets,  but  they  held
their  property  in  common,  and  considered  marriage
a  civil  contract.  They  emigrated  to  America,  and
built  New  Harmony  in  Indiana  in  1815.  Bobert
Owen  purchased  this  town  about  1823  ;  but  failed
in  his  scheme  at  establishing  a  "social"  community
and  returned  to  England :  see  Socialists.  The
Harmonists  removed  to  Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania
in  1822.

HAEMONIUM,  a  keyed  instrument,  resem-
bling the  accordion,  the  tones  being  generated  by
the  action  of  wind  upon  metallic  reeds.  The
Chinese  were  well  acquainted  with  the  effects  pro-
duced by  vibrating  tongues  of  metal.  M.  Biot
stated,  in  1810,  that  they  were  used  musically  by
M.  Grenie ;  and  in  1827-29,  free  reed  stops  were
employed  in  organs  at  Beauvais  and  Paris.  The
best  known  harmoniums  in  England  are  those  of
Alexandre  and  Debain,  the  latter  claiming  to  be  the
original  maker  of  the  French  instrument.  In  1841,
Mr.  W.  E.  Evans,  of  Cheltenham,  produced  his
English  harmonium,  then  termed  the  Organ-Har-
monica, and  by  successive  improvements  he  produced
a  fine  instrument,  with  diapason  quality,  and  great
rapidity  of  speech,  without  loss  of  power.

HAEMON  Y,  the  combination  of  musical  notes
of  different  pitch,  appears  not  to  have  been  practised
by  the  Greeks.
Hucbald,  a  Flemish  monk,  published  combinations  in

his  "  Enchiridion  Music*,"  9th  century.
Harmony  greatly  promoted  by  Palestrina,  and  especially

by  Monteverde.
Jean de Muris wrote "Ars Contrapuncti " in 14th

century.
Francis  of  Cologne  described  "  descant,"  1600.
Beethoven  greatly  enlarged  the  range  of  harmonic  bases.

HAENESS,  chariots  and  the  leathern  dress-
ings used  for  horses  to  draw  them,  are  said  to  have
been  the  invention  of  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  who
was  made  a  constellation  after  his  death,  under  the
name  of  Bootes  (Greek  for  ploughman),  about
1487  B.C.

HAEO,  CRY  OF  {Clameur  de  Haro),  tradition-
ally derived  from  Baoul,  or  Bollo,  of  Normandy,
ancestor  of  our  Norman  princes  of  England.  Bollo
administered  justice  so  well,  that  injured  persons
uttered  the  cry  "7T«  Rou  !  Ha  Rou  !  A  monaide,
mon  prince,  on  me  fait  tort."  The  cry  was  raised
in  a  church  in  Jersey  in  1859.  It  has  now  no  legal
effect.

HAEP. Invented  by  Jubal,  387;  B.C.  {Gen.  iv.

2l). David  played  the  harp  before  Saul,  1063  B.C.

(1  Saw.  xvi.  23.) The  Cimbri,  or  English  Saxons,

had  this  instrument. The  celebrated Welsh  harp

was  strung  with  gut;  and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the

more  ancient  harps,  with  wire. Erard's  improved

harps  were  first  patented  in  1795.

One  of  the  most  ancient  harps  existing  is  that  of  Brian

Boroimhe,  monarch  of  Ireland  :  it  was  given  by  his

son  Donagh  to  pope  John  XVIII.,  together  with  the

crown  and  other  regalia  of  his  father,  in  order  to  obtain

absolution  for  the  murder  of  his  brother  Teig. Adrian

IV.  alleged  this  as  being  one  of  his  principal  titles  to

the  kingdom  of  Ireland  in  his  bull  transferring  it  to

Henry II. This harp  was given by Leo X. to

Henry  VIII., who  in'esented  it  to  the  first  earl  of

Clanriearde  :  it  then  came  into  possession  of  the  family

of  De  Burgh  ;  next  into  that  of  MacMahon  of  Clenagh,

county  of  Clare  ;  afterwards  into  that  of  MacNamara

of  Limerick;  and  was  at  length  deposited  by  the  right


HARPER'S FERRY.


469


HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT.


hon.  William  Conyngham  in  tlie  College  Museum,
Dublin,  in  1782.
The  claviharp,  fitted  like  the  pianoforte  with  a  keyboard,
and  played  like  the  pianoforte,  was  introduced  into
Brussels  and  Antwerp  by  Mdlle.  Dratz,  and  played  on
by  her  at  Prince's  Hall,  London,  13  March,  1888.

HARPER'S  FERRY  (Virginia),  see  United
States,  1859-62.

HARPSICHORD,  see  Pianoforte,  note.

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by
John  Harrison, of  Foulby, near Pontefract. In
1714,  the  government  offered  rewards  for  methods
of  determining  the  longitude  at  sea ;  Harrison  came
to  London,  and  produced  his  first  time-piece  in
1735  ;  his  second  in  1739;  his  third  in 1749;  and
his  fourth, which procured him the  reward of
20,000^.  offered  by  the  Board  of  longitude,  a  few  years
after. He  obtained  10,000/.  of  his  reward  in  1764,
and  other  sums,  more  than  24,000/.  in  all,  for  fur-
ther improvements  in  following  years.
In  the  patent  museum  at  South  Kensington  is  an  eight-
day  clock  made  by  Harrison  in  171 5. It  strikes  the
hour,  indicates  the  day  of  the  month,  and  with  one
exception (the escapement)  its  wheels  are  entirely
made  of  wood. The  clock  was  going  in  1871.

HARROGATE  (Yorkshire).  The  first  or  old
spa  in  Rnaresborough  forest  was  discovered  by  capt.
Slingsby  in  157 1 :  a  dome  was  erected  over  the  well
by  lord  Rosshn  in  1786.  Two  other  chalybeate
springs  are  the  Alum  well  and  the  Towit  spa.  The
sulphureous  well  was  discovered  in  1783.  The
theatre  was  erected  in  1788.  The  Bath  hospital  was
erected  by  subscription  in  1825.  Population,  188 1,
9,482 ; 1S91,  13,917.

HARROW -ON -THE -HILL  SCHOOL

(Middlesex),  founded  and  endowed  by  John  Lyon
in  1 57 1.  To  encourage  archery,  the  founder  . in-
stituted a  prize  of  a  silver  arrow  to  be  shot  for
annually  on  the  4th  of  August ;  but  the  custom  has
been  abolished.  Lord  Palmerston,  sir  R.  Peel,  the
statesman,  and  lord  Byron,  the  poet,  were  educated
here.  The  school  building  suffered  b}r  fire,  22  Oct.
1 838.  The  school  arrangements  were  modified  by
the  public  schools  act,  1868.  Charles  II.  called
Harrow church  "  the  visible  church."

HARTLEPOOL,  E.  Durham,  an  ancient  sea-
port, said  to  have  been  burnt  by  the  Danes,  800,
fortified  by  the  Braces  and  others,  and  chartered  by
John.  The  foundation  of  West  Hartlepool,  with
its  harbour,  docks,  churches,  &c,  is  due  to  the
sagacity,  skill,  and  energy  of  Mr.  Ralph  Ward
Jackson.  The  work  began  in  1844,  and  the  harbour
■was  opened  1  June,  1847.  The  population,  about
400  in  1840,  was  16,998  in  1881 ;  and  21,521  in
1891.  West  Hartlepool,  1881,29,448;  1891,42,492.
Mr.  R.  W.  Jackson,  first  M.P.  for  "The  Hartle-
pool*" in  1868-74.  died  6  Aug.  1880,  muchhonoured
at  home  and  abroad.

HARTLEY  COAL  MINE  (Northumber-
land). On  16  Jan.  1862,  one  of  the  iron  beams,
about  20  tons  weight,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ventilating
shaft,  broke  and  fell,  destroyed  the  brattice,  divided
the  shaft,  and  carried  down  sufficient  timber  to  kill
five  men  who  were  ascending  the  shaft,  and  buried
alive  202  persons,  men  and  boys.  Several  days
elapsed  before  the  bodies  could  be  removed.  Much
sympathy  w  as  shown  by  the  queen  and  the  public,
and  about  70,000/.  were  collected  for  the  bereaved
families.  The  coroner's  verdict  asserted  the  neces-
sity of  two  shafts  to  coal  mines,  and  recommended
that  the  beams  of  colliery  engines  should  be  of
malleable  instead  of  cast  iron.


HARTWELL  (Buckinghamshire),  the  retreat
of  Louis  XVIII. ,  king  of  France,  1807-14.  He
landed  in  England  at  Yarmouth,  6  Oct.  1807,  took
up  his  residence  at  Gosfield-hall,  in  Essex,  and
afterwards  came  to  Hartwell,  as  the  count  de  Lille.
His  consort  died  here  in  1810.  On  his  restoration,
he  embarked  at  Dover  for  France,  24  April,  1814.
See  France.

HARUSPICES,  priests  or  soothsayers,  of
Etruscan  origin,  who  foretold  events  from  observ-
ing entrails  of  animals.  They  were  introduced  to
Rome  by  Romulus  (about  750  B.C.),  and  abolished
by  Constantiue,  a.d.  337,  at  which  time  they  were
seventy  in  number.

HARVARD  COLLEGE,  Cambridge  (Mas-
sachusetts, JS'orth  America),  was  founded  by  the
general  court  at  Boston,  on  28  Oct.  1636.  It  derived
its  name  from  John  Harvard,  of  Emmanuel  College,
Cambridge,  who  bequeathed  to  it  his  library  and  a
sum  of  money  in  1638.  250th  anniversary  of  its
foundation  kept  6-8  Nov.  1886.

HARVEIAN  ORATION.  William  Harvey
bequeathed  his  property  to  the  Royal  College_  of
Physicians.  The  annual  delivery  of  the  oration
began  in  1656. See  under  Stood.

HARWICH,  a  sea-port,  Essex,  a  Roman
station,  and  the  Saxon  Harewic ;  chartered  by
Edwd.  2nd ;  absorbed  into  Essex,  1885.

Near  here  Alfred  defeated  the  Danish  fleet.
Parkeston,  the  new  port  near  Harwich,  was  constructed
in  1882.

HASTINGS,  a  cinque-port,  Sussex;  said  to
owe  its  name  to  the  Danish  pirate  Hastinge,  who
built  forts  here,  about  S93  ;  but  Mr.  Kemble  thinks
it  was  the  seat  of  a  Saxou  tribe  named  Hastingas-
At  Senlac,  now  Battle,  near  Hastings,  more  than
30,000  were  slain  in  the  conflict  between  Harold  II>
of  England  and  William  duke  of  Normandy,  the
former  losing  his  life  and  kingdom,  14  Oct.  1066,
his  birthday.  He  and  his  two  brothers  were  interred
at  Waltham  abbey,  Essex.  The  new  town,  St.
Leonard' s-on-sea,  was  begun  in  1828.  A  new  pier
here  was  inaugurated  by  earl  Granville,  5  Aug.
1872.  New  town-hall  opened  by  the  mayor,  7
Sept.  1881.  Convalescent  home  and  Alexandra
Park  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  26  June,  1882.
Marine  parade  much  damaged  by  high  tide,  24  Nov.
1882.  Great  conservative  meeting,  powerful  speech
of  the  marquis  of  Salisbury,  18  May,  1892.  Popu-
lation, 1881,42,258; 1891,52,340.

HASTINGS'  TRIAL.  Warren  Hastings,
governor-general  of  India,  was  tried  by  the  peers  of
Great  Britain  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours.
Among  other  charges  was  his  acceptance  of  a  present
of  100,000/.  from  the  nabob  of  Oude ;  see  Chunar,
Treaty  of.  The  trial  occupied  145  days,  and  lasted
seven  years  and  three  months ;  commencing  13
Feb.  1788,  terminating  in  his  acquittal,  23  April,
1795.  Mr.  Sheridan's  speech  on  the  impeachment
excited  great  admiration.

Hastings  was  born  in  1732  ;  went  to  India  as  a  writer  in
1750;  became  governor-general  of  Bengal  in  1772  :  of
India,  177^  ;  governed  ably,  but,  it  is  said,  unscrupu-
lously and"  tyrannically,  till  he  resigned  in  1785.  The
expenses  of  his  trial  (70,000?.)  were  paid  by  the  East
India  Company  ;  and  a  pension  was  granted  to  him.
He  died  a  privy-councillor  in  1818.

HATELEY  FIELD,  see  Shrewsbury.

HATFIELD'S  ATTEMPT.  On  15  May,
1800,  during  a  review  in  Hyde-park,  a  shot  from  an
undiscovered  hand  was  fired,  which  wounded  a
young  gentleman  who  stood  near  king  Geo.  III.  In
the  evening,  when  his  majesty  was  at  Drury-lane


HATHEELEY'S ACT.


470


HAYTI.


theatre,  Hatfield  fired  a  pistol  at  him.  Hatfield
was  confined  as  a  lunatic  till  his  death,  23  Jan.  1841,
aged  69  years :

HATHEELEY'S  ACT,  see  Bankrupt.
HATS,  first  made  by  a  Swiss  at  Paris,  1404.
When  Charles  VII.  made  his  triumphal  entry  into
Eouen,  in  1449,  he  wore  a  hat  lined  with  red  velvet,
and  surmounted  with  a  rich  plume  of  feathers.
Henceforward,  hats  and  caps,  at  least  in  France,
began  to  take  the  place  of  chaperons  and  hoods.
Henault.  Hats  were  first  manufactured  in  England
by  Spaniards  in  1510.  Stow.  Very  high-crowned
hats  were  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth's  courtiers ;  and
high  crowns  were  again  introduced  in  1783.  A
stamp-duty  laid  upon  hats  in  1784,  and  in  1796,
was  repealed  in  181 1.  Silk  hats  began  to  supersede
beaver  about  1820.

None  allowed  to  sell  any  hat  for  above  20&  nor  cap  for
above  2s.  8&,  5  Henry  VII.  1489.  Every  person  above
seven  years  of  age  to  wear  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  a
cap  of  wool,  knit,  made,  thickened,  and  dressed  in
England  by  some  of  the  trade  of  cappers,  under  the
forfeiture  of  three  farthings  for  every  day's  neglect,
1571.  Excepted  :  maids,  ladies,  and  gentlewomen,  and
every  lord,  knight,  and  gentleman,  of  twenty  marks  of
land,  and  their  heirs,  and  such  as  had  borne  office  of
worship,  in  any  city,  town,  or  place,  and  the  wardens
of  London  companies,  1571.

HATTEEAS  EXPEDITION,  see  United
States,  Aug.  1861.

HATTON  GAEDEN,  now  covered  by  a  mass
of  houses,  was  formerly  the  garden  of  a  palace  of
the  bishop  of  Ely,  demised  to  the  crown  and
given  by  queen  Elizabeth  to  sir  Christopher  Hatton,
the  lord  keeper,  who  died  20  Nov.  1591.  See
Jewel  Robberies.

HAU-HAU  FANATICS,  see  New  Zealand,
1865.

HAVANNAH,  capital  of  Cuba,  West  Indies,
founded  by  Velasquez,  15 1 1  19;  taken  by  lord  Albe-
marle, 14  Aug.  1762;  restored,  1763;  the  remains
■of  Columbus  were  brought  from  St  Domingo  and
-deposited  in  the  Cathedral  here,  1795.  By  an  ex-
plosion of  gunpowder  here,  34  persons  were  killed,
=and  about  100  injured,  17  May,  1890.

HAVEE-DE-GEACE  (N.  W.  France)  was
defended  for  the  Huguenots  by  the  English  in  1562 ;
who,  however,  were  expelled  in  1563.  It  was  bom-
barded by  Rodney,  6  to  9  July,  1759;  by  sir  Richard
Strachan,  25  May,  1798;  and  blockaded,  6  Sept.
1803.  The  attempts  of  the  British  to  burn  the
shipping  here  failed,  7  Aug.  1804.  The  Inter-
national Maritime  Exhibition  here  opened,  1  June,
1868;  another  exhibition,  7  May,  1887.  The  volun-
teers visited  Havre :  began  to  shoot,  26  May ;  50
British  received  prizes,  29  June,  1874.  The  French
Association  for  Science  met  here,  30  Aug.  1877.
Population,  1891,  109,541.

HAWAII,  see  Owhyhcc,  and  Sandwich  Isles.

HAWKEES  AND  PEDLARS  were  first
licensed  in  1698.  Licensing  commissioners  were
appointed  in  1810.  The  expense  of  licensing  was
reduced  in  1861,  and  regulated  by  the  Pedlars'  Act,
1871.  Exemptions  from  charges  ou  licences
granted  by  the  Hawkers  Act,  1888.

HAWKING,  see  Falconry.

HAY,  average  value  of  the  produce  of  the  United
fiingdom  in  1874,  48,000,000^,  Hay-making  ma-
chinery exhibited  at  Taunton,  July,  1875.  Mr.
¥m.  A.  Gibbs's  apparatus,  with  artificial  heat  for
drying  hay,  corn,  &c. :  tried  atGilwell  Park.  Ching-
ford,  Essex,  reported  successful,  3  July,  1875 ;  at  other


places  in  July,  1880.  His  drying  machines  used
for  other  purposes,  such  as  gunpowder  works  (1885).
See  Ensilage.

HAYMAN  CASE,  see  Rugby.

HAYMAEKET  (Westminster),  opened  in
1664,  was  removed  to  Cumber  laud-market,  I  Jan.
1831.  The  Haymarket  theatre  was  opened  in  1702;
see  Theatres.

HAYTI  or  HAITI,  Indian  name  of  a  West
Indian  island,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  Dec.
1492,  and  named  Hispaniola,  and  afterwards  St.
Domingo.  Before  the  Spaniards  fully  conquered
it,  thejr  are  said  to  have  destroyed,  in  battle  or  cold
blood,  three  million  of  its  inhabitants,  including
women  and  children,  1495.  The  island  now  com-
prises the  Dominican  republic  {which  see)  in  the
east,  and  the  republic  of  Hayti  in  the  west.  The
population  of  Hayti  in  1887  was  about  550,000 ;
capital,  Port-au-Prince.

Hayti  seized  by  the  filibusters  and  French  bucca-
neers 1630

The French  government  took  possession  of the

whole  colony 1677

The  negroes  revolt  against  France  .  .  23  Aug.  1791
And  massacre  nearly  all  the  whites  21-23  June,  1793
The  French  directory  recognise  Toussaint  l'Ouver-

ture  as  general -in-chief 1794

The  eastern  part  of  the  island  ceded  to  France  by

Spain 1795

Toussaint  establishes  an  independent  republic  in

St.  Domingo 9  May,  1801

He  surrenders  to  the  French  ...  7  May,  1802
Is  conducted  to  France,  where  he  dies  .  .  .  1803
A  new  insurrection,  under  the  command  of  Dessa-

lines;  the  French  quit  the  island . . Nov. ,,
Dessalines  proclaims  the  massacre  of  all  the  whites,
29  March ;  crowned  emperor  of  Hayti,  as  Jacques  I. ,

Oct. 1804
He  is  assassinated,  and  the  isle  divided 17  Oct. 1806
Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of  colour,  president  in
Feb.  1807  ;  crowned  emperor  by  the  title  of  Henry
I.,  while  Pethion  rules  as  president  at  Port-au-
Prince March,  18  n

Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  created . ,,
Pethion  dies  ;  Boyer  elected  president . May,  1818
Christophe  commits suicide,  Oct. 1820; the  two
states  united  under  Boyer  as  regent  for  life,  Nov.
1820;  who  is  recognised  by  France . . .  1825

Revolution :  Boyer  deposed 1843

St.  Domingo  and  the  eastern  part  of  Hayti  pro-
claim the  "Dominican  republic"  Feb.  1844 ;  recog-
nised by France, 1848 ; Buenoventura Baez,

president 1849-53

Hayti  proclaimed  an  empire  under  its  late  president
Solouque, who  takes  the  title of Faustin I.,
26  Aug.  1849;  crowned . . . 18  April,  1S52
Santana,  president of the Dominican  republic,

1853-6;  succeeded  by  B.  Baez  ....  1856-8
Faustin  attacking  the  republic  of  St. Domingo,

repulsed 1  Feb.  1856

Revolution  in  Hayti:  general  Fabre  Geffrard  pro-
claims the  republic  of  Hayti . .  22  Dec. 1858

Faustin  abdicates 15  Jan. 1859

Geffrard  takes  oath  as  president  of  Hayti  23  Jan.  ,,
Sixteen  persons  executed  for  a  conspiracy  against

Geffrard Oct. „

Jose  Valverde  elected  president  of  the  republic  of

St.  Domingo,  or  Dominican  republic . March,  1858
Spanish  emigrants  land :  a  declaration  for  reunion
with  Spain  signed 18 March, decreed  by  the

queen 20  May,  1861

Insurrection  against  Spain  in  St.  Domingo,  18  Aug.  1863
A  Spanish force  sent; the  insurgents  generally

defeated 1864

Great  fire  at  Port-au-Prince;  600  houses  destroyed,

23  Feb.  1865
St.  Domingo  renounced  by  Spain . .  5  May, ,,
Military  insurrection  under  Salnave  against Gef-
frard, 7  May;  Cape  Hayti  seized  . . 9  May, ,,
Cabral  provisional  president  of  St.  Domingo,  Sept.
1865  ;  B.  Baez  proclaimed  president  . 14  Nov. „


HAYTI.


471


HEAT.


Valdrogue,  a  rebel  vessel,  fires  into  British  Jamaica
packet,  near  Acul,  St.  Domingo,  22  Oct. ;  C'apt.
Wake,  H.  M.  S.  Bulldog,  threatens  Valdrogue  ;
.Salnave  orders  the  removal  of  refugees  from
British  consulate  at  Cape  Hayti,  shoots  them,
and  destroys  the  building.  The  Bulldog,  failing
to  obtain  satisfaction,  shells  the  fort,  sinks  the
Valdrogue,  but  gets  on  a  reef;  the  crew  is  taken
out,  and  she  is  blown  up.  H.M.S.  Galatea  and
Lily  take  the  other  forts  and  give  them  up  to
Gerhard ;  the  rebels  flee  inland . . 9  Nov.

Capt.  Wake  censured  by  court-martial  for  losing
his  ship Jan.

Hayti — another  revolt  against  Geffrard  suppressed,

5-1 1  July,

Revolution ;  Geffrard  flies ;  banished  for  ever ;
Salnave  president  of  Hayti . . 27  March,

.New  constitution June,

Revolution  caused  by  Pimentel ;  Baez  flies ;  Cabral
becomes  president  of  St.  Domingo  . . June,

Revolt  against  Salnave ....  Sept.

The  ex-emperor  Faustin  (born  a  slave,  1791),  died

Aug.

City  of  San  Domingo  nearly  destroyed  by  the
hurricane 30  Oct.

B.  Baez,  president  of  Dominican  republic,  March,

Insurrection  against  Salnave,  10  May ;  said  to  be
successful,  26  May;  English  consul  protecting
foreigners June,

Salnave  defeats  insurgents,  and  kills  his  prisoners,

3  June,

Salnave  proclaims  himself  emperor,  Aug. ;  offers  an
amnesty Oct.

•Civil  war  continued :  Saget  and  Dominguez  pro-
claimed president  by  their  respective  followers,

Oct.

Salnave,  finally  defeated,  flies  to  the  woods,  18  Dec.
1868 ;  captured,  tried,  and  shot . . 15  Jan.

Sale  of  Samana  bay  to  the  United  States  discussed,

Jan.

Gen.  Nissage  Saget  elected  president  of  Hayti  for
four  years  (from  15  May) . . -19  March,

Baez  supports  an  insurrection  against  Hayti Aug.

Tranquillity  of  Hayti  reported  by  Saget . 9  May,

Gen. Gaiiier  d'Aton, president of St.  Domingo,

Oct.

Michel  Domingue  elected  president  of  Hayti  (from
15  May) 14  June,

Insurrection  in  St. Domingo  in  favour  of  Baez,

30  Aug.

Insurrection  headed  by  Louis  Tanis  about  7  March,

Cruel  executions  of  suspected  persons  by  presi-
dent Domingue .... 20  March

Insurrection  successful,  Domingue  flies  to  St.
Thomas's middle  of  April

Election  of  Boisrond  Canal  as  president  of  Hayti,

19  July,

Peaceful  revolution  in  St.  Domingo;  president
Espaillat  replaced  by  Gonzales  . . . Oct.

Insurrection  in  St.  Domingo ;  city  surrounded  by

Guillermo  aud  Bellini  ; Baez  almost  powerless,

about  22  Feb.

Guillermo  declared  president  . . March,

Revolution  ;  hard  fighting  ;  Boisrond  Canal  resigns  ;

about  17  July,

Gen.  Salomon  elected  president  of  Hayti  22  Oct.
[re-elected  14  July,  1886]

Hayti  reported  tranquil . . . . 1  Jan.

Don  Fernando  Arturo  de  Marino,  a  priest,  president
of  San  Domingo,  Oct.  1880  ;  said  to  become  dic-
tator June,

Revolution  broke  out  March  25,  and  government
troops  defeated  .... 31  March,

Bridge  exploded  by  rebels,  about  2000  killed May,

Insurrection  nearly  quelled ;  amnesty  proclaimed
end  of  June

Fresh  insurrection  ; battle at  Jacmel  indecisive

3  Aug.

Negro  insurrection  at  Port-au-Prince,  suppressed
after  damage  to  persons  and  property 22  Sept.

Alp,  British  steamer,  fired  on  by  the  government  Oct.

Death  of  the  rebel  leader  Bazelais  ;  surrender  of
rebel  town  Jeremie,  announced  26  Dec;  collapse
of  the  insurrection . . . about  10  Jan.

Gen.  F.  Bellini  proclaimed  president  of  San  Domingo

11  Aug.

Sir  Spencer  St.  John  in  his  Black  Republic  describes


1870


1871
1872

1873

1874

1875


1877


the  degraded,  profligate,  cruelly  savage  condition

of  Hayti 1884

General  Ulises  Heureaux  elected  president  of  San
Doviingo  for  1886-8 .  . . 28  June,  1886

Insurrection  ;  rebels  defeated  :  reported 14  Aug. „

National  bank  of  Hayti ;  mysterious  disappearance
of  bonds  and  cheques  ;  M.  Vouillon,  the  director,
charges  Mr.  D'Almena  (American),  sub-manager,
and  Mr.  Coles  (British),  accountant,  with  theft,
and  others  with  receiving,  summer  1884 ;  prisoners
tried,  at  first  acquitted,  afterwards  illegally
convicted  and  imprisoned  ;  the  American,  French,
and  British  governments  protest ;  British  squad-
ron at  Port-au-Prince  ;  prisoners  released  1885-6

Revolution  in  Hayti;  gen.  Salomon  deposed ;  arrives
in  Cuba  16  Aug.  ;  dies  at  Paris . . 19  Oct.  1888

Insurrection  of  gen.  Telemaque  ;  in  an  attack  on
the  Palais  National  at  Port-au-Prince  killed  with
300  of  his  followers  29  Sept. ;  civil  war  between
north  and  south  Hayti Oct. „

Gen.  Legitime  elected  president . . 22  Oct. ,,

Cape  Haytien  bombarded . ... 7  Dec. ,,

Gen.  Hippolyte  installed  president  at  Haytien ;
announced 1  Jan.  1889

Indecisive  conflict  between  gens.  Hippolyte  and
Legitime .21  Dec.  188S

General  Legitime  recognised  as  president  by  Great
Britain  and  France Feb.  1S89

President  Legitime  defeated  by  gen.  Hippolyte ;
reported  29  Jan. ,,

Gen.  Hippolyte  defeated  about . . 20  Feb. ,,

Dessalines  captured  ;  announced . 16  April, ,,

Reported  advance  of  Gen.  Hippolyte  on  Port-au-
Prince 28  May ,,

The  blockade  of  Haytian  ports,  of  November  last-
declared  to  be  non-effective,  and  the  ports  to  be
open;  London  Gazette . . .  12  July, ,,

Unsuccessful  attacks  of  gen.  Hippolyte  on  Port-au-
Prince . . -ii,  12,  and  about  25  July ,,

Port-au-Prince  surrendered  to  gen.  Hippolyte  by
gen.  Legitime  (who  goes  to  France) .  24  Aug. ,,

Gen.  Hippolyte  elected  president  . . 16  Oct. ,,

Gen.  Hippolyte  confirmed  as  president .  15  May,  1890

Attempted  revolution  at  Port-au-Prince  suppressed
with  bloodshed,  about  30  killed . .  28  May,  1891

M.  Rigaud,  French  citizen,  shot;  80,000  francs  paid
to  his  widow  by  the  Haytian  government .

reported  20  July, „

The  ministry  censured  by  the  chamber,  then  re-
signs 15  Aug. ,,

New  cabinet  formed . . . . 17  Aug. „

By  an  overflow  of  the  river  St.  Marc,  about  80  lives
lost 14  Aug. ,,

An  amnesty  proclaimed  .... 10  Dec. ,,

HEAD  ACT,  see  Ireland,  1465.
HEALTH,  General  Board  of,  was

appointed  by  the  act  for  the  promotion  of  the
public  health,  passed  in  1848.  This  board  was
reconstructed  in  Aug.  1854,  and  sir  Benjamin
Hall  was  placed  at  its  head,  with  a  salary  of
2000I.  ;  succeeded  by  "W.  F.  Cowper,  Aug.  1855,
and  by  Ch.  B.  Adderley  in  1858.  In  1858  this  board
was  incorporated  into  the  privy  council  establish-
ment; Dr.  Simon  being  retained  as  medical  officer.
See  Ilyqiene,  Bi/r/eiojjolis,  Sanitation,  Exhibitions,
Public  Health,  &c.

HEARTH,  or  Chimney,  Tax,  on  every
fire-place  or  hearth  in  England,  was  imposed  by
Charles  II.  in  1662,  "when  it  produced  about
200,0001'.  a  year.  It  was  abolished  by  William  and
Mary  at  the  Revolution  in  1689 ;  imposed  again,
and  again  abolished.

HEAT  (called  by  French  chemists  Caloric).
Little  progress  had  been  made  in  the  study  of  the
phenomena  of  heat  till  about  1757,  when  Joseph
Black  put  forward  his  theory  of  latent  heat  (heat,
be  said,  being  absorbed  by  melting  ice),  and  of
specific  heat.  Cavendish,  Lavoisier,  and  others,
continued  Black's  researches.  Sir  John  Leslie  put
forth  his  views  on  radiant  heat  in  1804.  Count
llumford  put  forth  the  theory  that  heat  consists  in


HEBREWS.


472


HELIGOLAND.


motion  among  the  particles  of  matter,  which  view
he  supported  by  experiments  on  friction  (recorded
in  1802). This  theory  (now  called  the  dynamical
or  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  and  used  to  explain
all  the  phenomena  of  physics  and  chemistry)  has
heen  further  substantiated  by  the  independent  re-
searches of  Dr.  J.  Meyer  of  Heilbronn  and  of  Mr.
James  P. Joule  of  Manchester, who assert  that
heat  is  the  equiyalent  of  work  done. Mr.  Joule,
in  his  papers  published  1841-2,  laid  the  foundation
of  the  science  of  thermo-ds  namics,  on  which he
worked  till  his  death,  11  Oct. 1889. The  Joule
Memorial  fund  proposed,  30  Nov.  1889,  was  insti-
tuted by  the  Royal  Society,  Jan.  1890. In  1854,
Sir  William  Thomson,  of  Glasgow, published  his
researches  on  the  dynamical  power  of  the  sun's  rays.
Thermo-electricity,  produced  by  heating  pieces  of
copper  and  bismuth  soldered  together,  was  discovered
by  Seebeck  in  1823. A  powerful  thermo-electric
battery  was  constructed  by  Marcus  of  Vienna,  in
1865. Professor Tyndall's "Heat, a Mode of
Motion,"  first  published  Feb.  1863,  third  edition,
1868, sixth edition, 1880. The researches of
philosophers  are  still  devoted  to  this  subject;  see
Boiling Colore  seer/ ce. Greatest  heat  in the  hot
summer  of  1868  :  at  Nottingham,  in  sun,  122-4;  m
shade,  92-2,  22  July,  I  p.m.  : 14  Aug.  18/6,  95-7  in
the  shade;  147  m  sun;  26  June,  1878, 95  in  the  shade.
Sir  George  Cayley  invented  a  heated-air  engine  in  1807,
and  Mr.  Stirling  applied  it  to  raising  water  in  Ayr-
shire in 1818. One  invented by  Mr.  Wenham was
described  in  1S73. Improvements  have  been  made  by
C.  Wm.  Siemens. Coal  gas  is  generally  employed. —
See  Gas  Engines.
Captain  JohnEricsson  constructed  a  ship,  in  which  caloric,
or  heat,  was  the  motive  power. On  4  Jan.  1853,  it  sailed
down  the  bay  of  New  York,  at  the  rate  of  14  miles  an
hour,  it  is  said  at  a  cost  of  80  per  cent,  less  than  steam.
Although  caloric  engines  were  not successful,  capt.
Ericsson  continued  his  experiments,  and  patented  an
improved  engine  in  1856. In  1868  he  proposed  con-
densation of  the  sun's  rays,  and  their  employment  as
a  motive  power ; in  March, 1889,  he  exhibited  his
apparatus  in  New  York shortly  before his  death,
aged  86.
Mr.  C.  Prince  states  that  on  14  July,  1847,  the  temperature
was  98°  in  the  shade  at  Uckfleld,  Sussex. In  London,
94°- 1 in the  shade,  15  July,  1881. In London,  W.
11 Aug. 1884, in  the shade, 92'6. In Princetown,
Dartmoor,  94°  in  the  shade,  24  July, 1885. London,
91°  in  the  shade,  31  Aug.  1885. See  United  States,  1892.

HEBREWS;  see  Jews.  The  Epistle  to  the
Hebrews  ascribed  to  St.  Paul  is  dated  64.  The
chief  classic  authors  of  all  nations,  except  Greece,
have  been  translated  into  Hebrew.

HEBRIDES  (the  Ebuda  of  Ptolemy  and  the
Hebudes  of  Pliny),  western  isles  of  Scotland,  long
subject  to  Norway ;  ceded  to  Scotland  in  1264  ;  and
annexed  to  the  Scottish  crown  in  1540  by  James  V.
The  heritable  jurisdictions  were  abolished  in
1747-

HEBRON  (in  Palestine).  Here  Abraham  re-
sided, i860  B.C. ;  and  here  David  was  made  king  of
Judah,  1048  B.C.  On  7  April,  1862,  the  prince  of
Wales  visited  the  reputed  cave  of  Machpelah,  near
Hebron,  said  to  contain  the  remains  of  Abraham
and  his  descendants.

HECATOMB,  an  ancient  sacrifice  of  a  hundred
oxen,  particularly  observed  by  the  Lacedaemonians
when  they  possessed  a  hun dred  cities.  The  sacrifice
was  subsequently  reduced  to  twenty -three  oxen,  and
goats  and  lambs  were  substituted.

HECLA,  MOUNT  (Iceland).  Its  first  re-
corded eruption  is  1004.  About  twenty-two  erup-
tions have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and
Paulson. Great  convulsions  of  this  mountain  oc-


curred in  1766,  since  when  a  visit  to  the  top  in
summer  is  not  attended  with  great  difficulty.  Per-
haps the  most  awful  volcanic  eruption  on  record
took  place  in  1784-5,  when  rivers  were  dried  up,
and  many  villages  overwhelmed  or  destroyed.  The-
mount  was  in  a  state  of  violent  eruption  from  2  Sept.
1845,  to  April,  1846.  Three  new  craters  were-
formed,  from  which  pillars  of  fire  rose  to  the  height
of  14,000  English  feet.  The  lava  formed  several
hills,  and  pieces  of  pumice  stone  and  scoriae  of  2
cwt.  were  thrown  to  a  distance  of  a  league  and  a  half  -
the  ice  and  snow  which  had  covered  the  mountain
for  centuries  melted  into  prodigious  floods.

HEGIRA,  EBA  OF  THE,  dates  from  the  flight
(Arabic  hejra)  of  Mahomet,  from  Mecca  to  Medina,
on  the  night  of  Thursday,  15  July,  622.  The  era
commences  on  the  16th.  Some  compute  this  era
from  the  15th,  but  Cantemir  proves  that  the  16th
was  the  fir&t  day.  33  of  its  lunar  years  are  equal  to
32  of  tho.-e  of  the  vulgar  era.

HEIDELBERG  (Germany)  was  the  capital
of  the  Palatinate,  1362- 17 19.  The  protestant  elec-
toral house  becoming  extinct  in  1693,  a  war  ensued,
in  which  the  castle  was  ruined,  and  the  elector
removed  his  residence  to  Mannheim.  It  was  an-
nexed to  Baden  in  1802.  Here  was  the  celebrated
tun,  constructed  in  1343,  when  it  contained  twenty-
one  pipes  of  wine.  Another  was  made  in  1664,
which  held  600  hogsheads.  It  was  destroyed  by  the
French  in  1688 ;  but  a  larger  one,  fabricated  in
1 75 1,  which  held  800  hogsheads,  and  was  formerly
kept  full  of  the  best  Khenish  wine,  is  said  to  be
mouldering  in  a  damp  vault,  empty,  since  1769.
Population,  1890,  31,737.

The  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  university  in
13S6  was  enthusiastically  celebrated  early  in  August!
1886.

HELDER  POINT  (Holland).  The  fort  and
the  Dutch  fleet  lying  in  the  Texel  surrendered  to
the  British  under  the  duke  of  York  and  sir  Ealph
Abercromby,  for  the  prince  of  Orange,  after  a  con-
flict. 540  British  were  killed,  30  Aug.  1799.  The
place  was  left  in  Oct. ;  see  Bergen.

HELENA,  ST.,  an  island  in  the  South  Atlantic
Ocean,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  under  Juan  d®
Nova  Castilla,  on  St.  Helena's  day,  21  May,  1502.'
The  Dutch  afterwards  held  it  until  1600,  when  they
were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East
India  Company  settled  here  in  165 1 ;  and  the
island  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  English  ami
Dutch  until  1673,  when  Charles  II.,  on  12  Dec,
assigned  it  to  the  company  once  more.  St.  Helena
was  the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity,  16  Oct.  18 15  ;
and  here  he  died,  5  May,  1821.  His  remains  were
removed  in  1840,  and  interred  at  the  Hotel  des  In-
valides,  Paris ;  see  France,  1840.  The  house  and
tomb  have  been  purchased  by  the  French  govern-
ment. The  bishopric  was  founded  in  1859.
Governor,  adm.  sir  Cha*.  Elliot,  1863-9  >  adm.
Charles  George  Edward  Patey,  1869 ;  Hudson  Ralph
Janisch,  1873,  died  April,  1884;  col.  Grant  Blunt;
lion.  Wm.  Grey  Wilson,  18S9.  Population,  1871,
6241;  in  1883,  5,085  ;  1891,  4,116.  Revenue,  1891,
8,7281?. ;  expenditure,  9,032,?.
No  crime,  debt  or  disease  reported  by  the  governor

spring,  1S90
By  the  fall  of  a  rock  near  Jamestown,  9  persons

killed 1  May, „

HELIGOLAND,  an  island  in  the  North  Sea,
formerly  a  dependence  of  the  duchy  of  Holstein,
subject  to  Denmark,  was  taken  from  the  Danes  by
the  British,  5  Sept.  1807  ;  made  a  depot  for  British


HELIOGEAPHY.


473


HEPTAECHY.


merchandise  ;  confirmed  to  England  by  the  treaty
of  Kiel.  14  Jan.  1814.  In  a  naval  engagement  oil'
Heligoland,  between  'he  Danes  and  the  Austrians
and  Prussians,  the  allies  were  compelled  to  retire,

9  May,  1864.  A  fashionable  bathing  place  for
Germans.  Governor,  col.  llenry  F.  B.  Maxse,
1863;  lt.-col.  J.  T.  N.  O'Brien,  1881  ;  Mr.  A.  C.
S.  Barkley,  Nov.  1888.  Heligoland  was  ceded  to
Germany  by  the  Anglo-German  agreement,  18
June  ;  given  up  by  Mr.  Barkley  to  the  new  Gernian
governor,  9  Aug.  ;  visited  by  the  emperor
William  II.,  and  proclaimed  part  of  the  empire,

10  Aug.  1890. Population,  1881,  about  2000.

HELIOGEAPHY  (from  hellos,  the  sun).
A  system  of  telegraphing  by  mirrors  flashing  the  rays  of

the  sun,  said  to  have  been  employed  by  the  ancients

in  the  time  of  Alexander,  about  333  B.C.
A  portable  heliograph,  invented  by  Mr.  H.  Mance,  of  the

Persian  telegraph  department,  was  announced  in  1875.

It  was  employed  in  India,  1877-78  ;  and  in  the  Afghan

and  Zulu  campaigns,  1879-80. See  also  Photography.

HELIOMETEE,  an  instrument  for  measur-
ing the  diameters  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and
stars,  invented  by  Savary,  in  1743;  applied  by  M.
Bouguer,  in  1744.  A  fine  heliometer,  by  Eepsold
of  Hamburg,  was  set  up  at  the  liadcliffe  observatory,
Oct.  1849.

HELIOPOLIS;  see  Baalbec  (in  Syria).  The
name  was  also  given  to  a  city  in  Lower  Egypt  (the
biblical  On  or  Bethshemesh)  in  the  earliest  known
times,  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  sun.  It
suffered  much  by  the  Persian  invasion,  525  B.C.,
and  was  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  died
about  a.d.  24.

HELIOSCOPE  (a  peculiar  sort  of  telescope,
prepared  for  observing  the  sun  so  as  not  to  affect
the  eye),  was  invented  by  Christopher  Scheiner  in
1625.

HELIOSTAT,  an  instrument  invented  to  make
a  sunbeam  stationary,  or  apparently  stationary,  in-
vented by  s'Gravesande  about  1719,  and  greatly
improved  by  Malus  and  others.  One  constructed
by  MM.  Foucault  and  Duboscq  was  exhibited  at
Paris  in  Oct.  1862.

HELLAS,  in  Thessaly,  the  home  of  the  Hel-
lenes and  the  Greek  race,  which  supplanted  the
Pelasgians  from  the  15th  to  the  nth  century  B.C.,
derived  its  name  from  Hellen,  king  of  Phthiotis,
about  1600  B.C.  The  Hellenes  separated  into  the
Dorians,  JEolLins,  Ionians,  and  Achaians.  The
present  king  of  Greece  is  called  '"  king  of  the
Hellenes :"  see  Greece.

HELLENIC  SOCIETY,to  promote  Hellenic
studies,  formed  at  a  meeting,  16  June,  1879,  by  Mr.
C.  T.  Newton  and  others.  Journal  published  1881,
et  seq.

HELLESPONT  (now  the  Strait  of  the  Darda-
nelles) was  named  after  Helle,  daughter  of  Atha-
mas,  king  of  Thebes,  who  was  drowned  here.
According  to  the  legendary  story  of  the  loves  of
Hero  of  Sestus,  and  Leander  of  Abydos,  Leander
■was  drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night  as  he  was
swimming  across  the  Hellespont  (about  one  mile),
and  Hero,  in  despair,  threw  herself  into  the  sea,
dated  seventh  century  B.C.  Lord  Byron  and  lieut.
Ekenhead  also  swam  across,  3  May,  1810.  See
Xerxes.

HELL-FIEE  CLUBS-  Three  of  these  as-
sociations were  suppressed,  172 1.  They  met  at
Somerset-house,  and  at  houses  in  "Westminster  and
in  Conduit-street.


HELLHOFFITE,  a  new  powerful  and  safe
explosive,  composed  of  nitrates,  &c,  invented  by
Hellhoffand  Gruson  of  St.  Petersburg,  announced
August,  1885.

HELMETS,  among  the  Romans,  were  pro-
vided with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise  above  the
eyes,  and  beaver  to  lower  for  eating;  the  Greek
helmet  was  round,  the  Roman  square.  Richard  I.
of  England  wore  a  plain  round  helmet;  but  most
of  the  English  kings  had  crowns  above  their  hel-
mets. Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had  a
fiat  helmet,  with  a  square  grated  vizor,  and  the
helmet  of  Robeit  I.  was  surmounted  by  a  crown,
1306. Gwilllm.

HELOTS,  captives,  derived  by  some  from  the
Greek  helein,  to  take  ;  by  others  from  Helos,  a  city
which  the  Spartans  hated  for  refusing  to  pay  tri-
bute. The  Spartans,  it  is  said,  ruined  the  city,
reduced  the  Helots  to  slavery,  and  called  all  their
slaves  and  prisoners  of  war  Hclotcc,  700  B.C.  The
number  of  the  Helots  was  much  enlarged  by  the
conquest  of  Messenia,  668  B.C. ;  and  is  considered
to  have  formed  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants  of
Sparta.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Helots  be-
haved with  uncommon  bravery,  and  were  rewarded
with  liberty,  431  B.C. ;  but  the  sudden  disappear-
ance of  2000  manumitted  slaves  was  attributed  to
Lacedaemonian  treachery.  Herodotus.  The  con-
nection between  the  Helots  and  Helos,  is  now  con-
sidered mythical.

HELVETIAN  EEPTJBLIC  Switzerland
having  been  conquered  by  the  French  in  1797,  a
republic  was  established  April,  1798,  with  this  title;
see  Switzerland.

HELVETII,  a  Celto-Germanic  people,  who
inhabited  part  of  what  is  now  called  Switzerland.
They  joined  the  Cimbri,  were  with  them  when  the
Romans  were  defeated  near  Geneva,  and  the  consul
Longinus  killed,  107  B.C.,  and  when  they  them-
selves were  defeated  by  Marius  and  Catulus,  101.
Invading  Gaul,  61  B.C.,  they  were  defeated  and
massacred  by  Julius  Caesar,  58  B.C.,  near  Geneva.

HEMP  AKD  Flax.  Flax  was  first  planted  in
England,  when  it  was  directed  to  be  sown  for  fish-
ing-nets, 1532-3.  "  Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage
its  cultivation  in  1783;  and  every  exertion  should
be  made  by  the  government  and  legislature  to  ac-
complish such  a  national  good.  In  1785  there  were
imported  from  Russia,  in  British  ships,  17,695  tons
of  hemp  and  flax."  Sir  John  Sinclair.  The  im-
portation of  hemp  and  flax  in  1870,  was  3,^10,178
cwt. ;  in  1877,  3,502,44.7  cwt. ;  in  1879,  2,943,738
cwt. ;  in  1883,  3,082,109  cwt.  ;  in  1887,  3,105,169
cwt.;  in  1890,  3,777,364  cwt.  The  cultivation  of  flax
was  revived  at  the  dearth  of  cotton  during  the
American  civil  war,  186 1-4.

HENGESTDOWN  (Cornwall).  Here  Egbert
is  said  to  have  defeated  the  Danes  and  West
Britons,  835.

HENOTICON  (from  the  Greek  henotes,  unity),
an  edict  of  union  for  reconciling  the  Eutyehians  with
the  church,  issued  by  the  emperor  Zeno  at  the  in-
stance of  Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  482.
It  was  zealously  opposed  by  the  popes  of  Rome,  and
was  annulled  by  Justin  I.  in  518.  The  orthodox
party  triumphed,  and  many  heretic  bishops  were
expelled  from  their  sees.

HEPTAECHY  (or  government  of  seven  rulers)
in  England  was  gradually  formed  from  4155,  when
Hcngist  became  king  of  Kent.  Ii  terminated  in
828,  when  Egbert  became  sole  monarch  of  England.
There  were  at  first  nine  or  ten  Saxon  kingdoms,  but


HEEACLEA.


474 HEEITABLE JURISDICTIONS.


-Middlesex  soon  ceased  to  exist,  and  Bernicia  and
Deira  were  generally  governed  by  one  ruler,  as
Northumbria :  see  Britain.

HEEACLEA,  see  Pcmdosia.

HEBACLIDiE,  descendants  of  Hercules,  who
•were  expelled  from  the  Peloponnesus  about  1200
•B.C.,  but  reconquered  it  in  1048,  1103-4  or  n  09  B.C.,
a  noted  epoch  in  chronology,  all  the  history  pre-
•eedirjg  being  accounted  fabulous.

HEBALDBY-  Marks  of  honour  were  used  in
the  first  ages.  Nisbet.  The  Phrygians  had  a  sow ;
the  Thracians,  Mars;  the  Romans,  an  eagle;  the
Goths,  a  bear;  the  Flemings,  a  bull;  the  Saxons,
a  hoi-se ;  and  the  ancient  French  a  lion,  and  after-
wards the  fleur-de-lis  {which  see).  Heraldry,  as  an
.art,  is  ascribed  first  to  Charlemagne,  about  800 ;  and
next  to  Frederick  Barbarossa,  about  1152;  it  began
and  grew  with  the  feudal  law.  Mackenzie.  The  great
English  works  on  Heraldry  are  those  of  Barcham
■or  Barkham,  published  by  Gwillim  (1610) ,  Edmond-
.-son  (1780),  and  Burkes  "Armory"  (1842;  new
■ed.  1883,  contains  a  history  and  the  arms  of  above
■66,00a  British  families,  &c).  See  Blazonry.
JEdward  III.  appointed  two  heraldic  kings-at-arms

for  the  south  and  north  (Surroy,  Norroy)  .  .  1340
Hichard III. incorporated and endowed the

Heralds'  College 1483-4

Philip  and  Mary  enlarged  its  privileges,  and  con-
firmed them  by  letters  patent . .  15  July, 1554
formerly,  in  many  ceremonies,  the  herald  repre-
sented the  king's  person,  and  therefore  wore  a
crown,  and  was  always  a  knight.
The  college  has  an  earl  marshal,  3  kings  of  arms
(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds
(Richmond,  Lancaster,  Chester,  Windsor,  Somer-
set, and  York),  4  pursuivants,  and  2 extra  heralds;
see  Earl  Marshal,  and  Kings-of-Arms.
The  building  in  Doctors'  Commons,  London, was
erected  by  sir  Christopher  Wren  (after  the  great

fire  in  1666) 1683

Heralds'  Visitations  were  occasionally  held  in
former  times,  at  which  the  landed  gentry  were
required  to  attend  to  prove  their  pedigrees,  which
were  then  entered  in  a  book.  The  last  is  said  to
have  been  held  in  1687.  Some  of  the  records  have
been  printed.
A  heraldic  exhibition  to  which  the  queen  contri-
buted was  opened  in  Edinburgh,  July — August,
1891.  The  Treatise  by  the  Rev.  J.  Woodward  and
the  late  G.  Burnett  was  completed  in  two  vols.  .  1892

HEBAT,  on  the  confines  of  Khorasan,  a  strong
city,  called  the  key  of  Afghanistan.  It  was  con-
quered by  Persia,  early  in  the  16th  century  ;  by  the
Afghans,  in  1715  ;  by  Nadir  Shah,  1731 ;  recovered
iby  the  Afghans,  1749.  The  Persians,  baffled  in  an
attempt  in  1838  ;  took  it  25  Oct.  1856,  in  violation
•of  the  treaty  of  1853  ;  and  war  ensued  between
■Great  Britain  and  Persia.  Peace  was  made  in  April,
1857  ;  and  Herat  was  restored  27  July  following.
It  was  seized  again  by  Dost  Mahommed,  26  May,
1863  ;  taken  by  Yakoob  Khan,  rebelling  against  his
•father,  6  May,  1871.  Yakoob,  reconciled  to  his
father,  was  made  governor,  16  Sept.  1871.
Ayoub  governor  for  his  brother  Yakoob,  ameer  at

Cabul ........ May,  1879

3Iutiny,  many  officials  killed . . .5  Sept. ,,
Ayoub invades Candahar  {which  see) ; defeated,

1  Sept.  ;  returns  to  Herat  ....  Sept.  1880
His  troops defeated  in  several  conflicts ; Ayoub

flees  to  Persia  ;  and  the  Ameer's  general  enters

Herat Oct.  1881

S\>r  following  events,  see  Afghanistan.

HEEBEET  HOSPITAL  for  Soldiers,  Wool-
wich, erected  1866.

HEBCULANEUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Cam-
pania, overwhelmed,  together  with  Pompeii,  by  an
eruption  of  lava  from  Vesuvius,  23  or  24  Aug.  79.


Successive  eruptions  laid  them  still  deeper  under
the  surface,  and  all  traces  of  them  were  lost  until
excavations  began  in  1711  ;  andin  1713  many  anti-
quities were  found.  In  1738  excavations  were  re-
sumed, and  works  of  art,  monuments,  and  memorials
of  civilized  life  were  discovered.  150  rolls  of
MSS.  papyri  were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754  ;  and
many  antiquities  were  purchased  by  sir  VVilliani
Hamilton,  and  sold  to  the  British  Museum,  where
they  are  deposited  ;  but  the  principal  relics  are
preserved  in  the  museum  of  Portici.  The  "  Anti-
chita  di  Ercolano,"  8  vols,  folio,  were  published  by
the  Neapolitan  government,  1757-92.

HEEEDITY.  The  transmission  of  qualities
of  like  kind  of  those  of  the  parents  has  been
specially  studied  by  Mr.  Francis  Galton,  F.R.S.
who  published  "  Hereditary  Genius,"  1869,  and
"  Eecords  of  Family  Faculties,"  containing  tabular
forms  to  be  filled  up,  in  order  to  obtain  authentic
data  for  his  new  science  of  "Eugenics."  Money
prizes,  5^.  and  upwards,  were  offered  for  the  best
records.  His  "Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty"
was  published  in  1883,  and  "Natural  Inheritance"
in  1889.

HEBEFOBD  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric
about  676,  Putta  being  first  bishop.  The  cathedral
was  founded  by  a  nobleman  named  Milfride,  in
honour  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  the  East  Saxons,  who
was  treacherously  slain  by  his  intended  mother-in-
law,  the  queen  of  Mercia.  The  tower  fell  in  1786,
and  was  rebuilt  by  Mr.  Wyatt.  The  cathedral  was
re-opened  after  very  extensive  repairs,  on  30  June,
1863.  The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  768?.
per  annum.  Present  income,  4200/.  Population,
1881,  19,821 ;  1891,  20,267.

BISHOPS.

1803.  Folliott  H.  W.  Cornwall,  translated  to  Worcester,

1808.
1808.  John  Luxmoore,  translated  to  St.  Asaph,  1815.
1815.  George  Isaac  Huntingford,  died  29  April,  1832.
1832.  Hon.  Edward  Grey,  died  24  June,  1837.
1837.  Thomas  Musgrave,  trans,  to  York,  Dec.  1847.
1847. Renn  D.  Hampden,  died  23  April,  1S68.
1868.  James  Atlay  ;  consecrated  24  June.

HEEETICS  (from  the  Greek  hairesis,  choice).
Paul  says,  "After  the  way  they  call  heresy,  so  wor-
ship I  the  God  of  my  fathers,"  60  (Acts  xxiv.  14).
Heresy  was unknown  to the Greek and  Roman
religions. Simon  Magus  is  said  to  have  broached
the  Gnostic  heresy  about  41. This  was  followed  by
the  Manichees,  Nestorians,  Arians,  &c.  ; see  In-
quisition. It  is stated that  the promulgation  of
laws  for prosecuting  heretics  was begun  by  the
emperor'  Frederick  II.  in  1 220;  and  immediately
adopted  by  pope  Honorius  III.
Epiphanius  chosen  bishop  of  Constantius  in  Cyprus,
367,  wrote  "Panarium,"  a  discourse  against  here-
sies, died 402

Thirty  heretics  came  from  Germany  to  England  to
propagate  their  opinions,  and  were  branded  in
the  forehead,  whipped,  and  thrust  naked  into  the
streets  in  the  depth  of  winter,  where,  none  daring
to  relieve  them,  they  died  of  hunger  and  cold

(Speed) 1160

Laws  against  heretics  repealed,  25  Henry  VIII.  1534-5
The  last  person  executed  for  heresy  in  Britain  was

Thomas  Aikenhead,  at  Edinburgh . . . 1696
[The orthodox Mahommedans  are  Sonnites  ; the
heretics — Shiites,  Druses,  &c.l

HEEITABLE  JUEISDICTIONS  (i.  e.,
feudal  rights)  in  Scotland,  valued  at  164,232^.,  were
abolished  by  the  act  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43  (1747),  and
restored  to  the  crown  for  money  compensation  after
25  March,  174S.  Heritable  and  Movable  Bights,  in
the  Scottish  law,  denote  what  in  England  is  meant  by
real  and  personal  property  :  real  property  in  Eng-


HEEMANDAD, SANTA.


475


HESSE.


land  answering  nearly  to  heritable  rights  in  Scot-
land, and  personal  property  to  the  movable  rights.

HEEMANDAD,  SANTA  (Spanish  for  holy
brotherhood),  associations  of  cities  of  Castile  and
Arragon  to  defend  their  liberties,  began  about
the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  The  brotherhood
was  disorganised  in  1498,  order  having  been  firmly
established.  It  is  said  to  have  been  continued  as  a
species  of  voluntary  police.

HEEMAS,  author  of  "the  Shepherd,"  a
Christian  apocryphal  book,  supposed  to  have  been
written  about  131.  Some  believe  Hernias  to  he
mentioned  in  Romans  xvi.  14.

.  HEEMETIC  .  SOCIETY,  a  mystical,  spi-
ritual philanthropic  association,  based  upon  Chris-
tianity, founded  by  Dr.  Anna  Kingsford,  early  in
1884,  *  presumed  author  of  "The  Perfect  Way"
(lectures  delivered  in  188 1,  and  since  published).
Mrs.  Anna  Kingsford  died  22  Feb.  1888.  See  under
Theosophists.

HEEMITS,  see  Monacldsm.

HEENE  BAY,  Kent,  a  watering-place,  begun
1830 ;  the  pier,  five-eighths  of  a  mile  long,  having
decayed,  a  new  one  was  opened,  27  Aug.  1873,  by
lord  mayor  Waterlow.  Population,  1881,  2,816;
1891,  3,829.

HEEO,  British  Man-of-War,  see  Wrecks,
[811.

HEEEEEA  (Arragon).  Here  don  Carlos,  of
Spain,  in  his  struggle  for  his  hereditary  right  to
the  throne,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men,  encountered
and  defeated  general  Buerens,  who  had  not  much
above  half  that  number  of  the  queen  of  Spain's
troops.  Buerens  lost  about  1000  in  lulled  and
wounded,  24  Aug.  1837.

HEEEING-FISHEEY  was  largely  en-
couraged by  the  English  and  Scotch  in  very  early
times.  The  "  statute  of  herrings,"  passed  in
1357,  placed  the  trade  under  government  control.
The  mode  of  preserving  herrings  by  pickling  was
discovered  about  1397.  Anderson.  The  British
Herring-Fishery  company  was  instituted  2  Sept.
1750.  A  scientific  commission  in  relation  to  the
fishery  was  appointed  in  1862.

HEEEINGS, Battle of the, fought

12  Feb.  1429,  obtained  its  name  from  the  due  de
Bourbon  being  defeated  while  attempting  to  inter-
cept a  convoy  of  salt  fish,  on  the  road  to  the  English
besieging  Orleans.

HEEENHUTEES,  see  Moravians.

HEESCHEL  TELESCOPE,  see  Telescopes.

HEETFOED,  Hertfordshire,  a  Saxon  town.
Castles  were  erected  here  by  Alfred  and  by  Edward
the  Elder.  Charters  were  granted  in  1588  and
1680.  All  Saints'  church  burnt,  21  Dec.  1891.
Population,  1881,  7,747  ;  1891,  7,232.

HEETFOED  COLLEGE,  Oxford ;  founded
in  1312;  dissolved,  1 805;  revived,  and  Magdalen
hall  incorporated  with  it,  1874.

HEEULI,  a  German  tribe,  which  ravaged
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  in  the  3rd  century  after
Christ.  Odoacer,  their  leader,  overwhelmed  the
western  empire  and  became  king  of  Italy,  476.  He
was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Theodoric  the
Ostrogoth,  491-3.

HEEVEY  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean),
Rarotonga,  &c.  British  protectorate  proclaimed,  ?o
Sept.  1888.


HEEZEGOVINA  or  HeRTSEK  (European
Turkey),  originally  a  part  of  Croatia,  was  united
with  Bosnia  in  1326,  and  made  the  duchy  of  St.
Saba  by  the  emperor  Frederic  III.  in  the  following
century.  It  was  ceded  to  Turkey  in  1699  at  the
peace  of  Carlowitz.  In  Dec.  1861  an  insurrection
against  the  Turks  broke  out,  fostered  by  the  prince
of  Montenegro.  It  was  subdued;  and  on  23  Sept.
1862,  Vucatovitch,  chief  of  the  insurgents,  surren-
dered on  behalf  of  his  countrymen  to  Kurschid
Pasha,  and  an  amnesty  was  granted.

An  insurrection  against  the  Turks  breaks  out,  chief
leader  said  to  be  Lazzaro  Socica ;  several  conflicts
with  varying  results  1  July,  1875

Turks  said  to  be  defeated  at  Nevesinje . 12  July, ,,

The  European  Powers  counsel  to  send  a  commis-
sion to  redress  grievances ... 22  Aug. ,,

Server  Pacha  unsuccessful;  Turkish  victories  re-
ported Aug. „

The  insurgents  in  a  document  describe  their  suffer-
ings, as  Christians  ;  demand  full  and  real  free-
dom, and  declare  that  they  will  not  be  subject
to  the  Turks  again . . . . 12  Sept. ,,

Futile  intervention  of  foreign  consuls . Sept. ,,

Sanguinary  engagements  ;  various  results;  29  Sept.,

13  Oct.,  11 — 14  Nov. ,,

Insurgents  defeated  near  Trebinje  ;  Bacevics,  a
leader,  killed  .... 18 — 20  Jan.  1876

Negotiations  of  the  Austrian  gen.  Rodich  fail ;
the  insurgents  ask  too  much . . . April „

Mukhtar  Pasha  said  to  have  defeated  insurgents,
and  revietualled  Niksichs  besieged . 29  April ,,

Other  engagements  reported  . .  May,  June, ,,

The  new  Sultan,  Murad,  grants  an  armistice  for
negotiation  June ,,

All  intelligence  very  uncertain. July,  1875 — July, ,,
See  Turkey.

Herzegovina  was  occupied  by  the  Austrians  in
Aug.  1878,  in  conformity  with  the  treaty  of
Berlin 13  July,  1878

Fighting  at  Mostar,  the  capital . . .4  Aug. ,,

Novi-Bazar  quietly  occupied  by  Austrians,  8  Sept.  1879

Insurrection  (see  Austria) ....  Jan.  1882

HESSE  ("W.  Germany),  the  seat  of  the  Catti,
formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne;  from
the  rulers  of  it  in  his  time,  the  present  are  de-
scended. It  was  joined  to  Thuringia  till  about
1263,  when  Henry  I.  (son  of  a  duke  of  Brabant  and
Sophia,  daughter  of  the  landgrave  of  Thuringia)
became  landgrave  of  Hesse.  The  most  remarkable
of  his  successors  was  Philip  the  Magnanimous
(1509),  an  eminent  warrior  and  energetic  supporter
of  the  lieformation,  who  signed  the  Augsburg  Con-
fession in  1530  and  the  League  of  Smalcald  in  1531.
At  his  death,  in  1567,  Hesse  was  divided  into
Hesse-Cassel  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  under  his
sons  William  and  George,  and  their  descendants
played  an  eminent  part  in  the  convulsions  of  Ger-
many during  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.*  In  1803
Hesse-Cassel  became  an  electorate,  and  in  1806
Hesse-Darmstadt  a  grand  duchy;  which  titles  were
retained  in  1814.  In  1807  Hesse-Cassel  was  incor-
porated with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but  in
1813  the  electorate  was  re-established.  Capital,
Darmstadt.  Population  (1875),  grand  duchy,
884,218;  (1885),  956,611;  (1890),  993,659.

Hesse-Cassel  (made  an  electorate, 1803 ;  incor-
porated with  Westphalia,  1807 ;  restored,  1813).


*  Six  thousand  Hessian  troops  arrived  in  England,  in
consequence  of  an  invasion  being  expected  in  1756.  The
sum  of  471,000^.  three  per  cent,  stock  was  transferred  to
tin.'  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian  auxiliaries  lost  in
the  American  war,  at  30^.  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The
Hessian  soldiers  were  again  brought  to  this  realm  at  the
close  of  the  last  century,  and  served  in  Ireland  during
the  rebellion  in  1798.


HESSIAN FLY.


476


HIGH AND LOW CHITKCH.


ELECTORS.

1803.  William  I.  ;  born  3  June,  1743  ;  succeeded  as  land-
grave, 1785  ;  made  elector,  1803  ;  deprived  of  his
states,  1806;  restored,  1813;  died  27  Feb.  1821.

1821.  William  II.  ;  born  28  July,  1777;  died  20  Nov.  1847.

1847.  Frederic  William ;  bom  20  Aug.  1802.

Tlie  elector,  in  1850,  remodelled  the  constitution
given  in  1831  (by  which  the  chamber  had  the
exclusive  right  of  voting  the  taxes),  and  did  not
convene  the  chamber  until  the  usual  time  for
closing  the  session  had  arrived,  when  his  de-
mand for  money  for  1851  was  laid  before  it.  The
chamber  called  for  a  regular  budget,  that  it
might  discuss  its  items.  The  elector  dissolved
the  chamber,  and  declared  his  dominions  in  a
state  of  siege,  7  Sept.  1850.

He  fled  to  Hanover,  and  subsequently  to  Frank-
fort; and  on  14  Oct.  he  formally  applied  to  the
Frankfort  diet  for  assistance  to  re-establish  his
authority  in  Hesse.  On  6  Nov.  an  Austro-
Bavarian  force  of  10,000  men  entered  Hesse-
Cassel,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Thurn-
und-Taxis,  who  fixed  his  head-quarters  in  Hanau  ;
and  on  the  next  day  a  Prussian  force  entered
Cassel.  The  elector  returned  to  his  capital,  the
taxes  having  been  collected  under  threats  of
imprisonment,  27  Dec.  1850.

The  constitution  of  1831  was  abolished,  and  a  new
one  established,  1852.

The  conflict  was  soon  resumed,  and  continued
till,  by  law  of  20  Sept.  1866,  Hesse-Cassel  was
annexed  to  Prussia,  8  Oct.  1866.

The  ex-elector's  property  sequestrated  for  intriguing
against  Prussia,  2  Nov.  1868  and  Feb.  1869.  He
died  6  Jan.  1875.

The  landgrave  of  Hesse  mysteriously  drowned
near  Batavia,  14  Oct.  1888.

Hesse -Darmstadt.  (Population,  Dec.  1885,
956,611.)

GRAND-DUKES.

1806.  Louis  I.  ;  born  14  June,  1753  ;  died  6  April,  1830.
1830.  Louis  II.  ;  born  26  Dec.  1777  ;  died  16  June,  1848.

1848.  Louis  III.  ;  born  9  June, 1806. By  treaty  with

Prussia,  15  Sept.  1866,  he  ceded  the  northern
part  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  paid  a  war  con-
tribution ;  supported  Prussia  in  the  Franco-
Prussian  war,  Aug.  1870  ;  died  13  June,  1877.
1877.  Louis  IV.,  nephew,  born  12  Sept.  1837  ;  married
princess  Alice  of  Great  Britain  (born  25  April,
1843),  1  July,  1862 ;  died  of  diphtheria  after
nursing  her  husband  and  children,  14  Dec.  1878.
The  grand-duke  died  13  March,  1892.

Issue:  Ernest  Louis  ;  Frederick- William,  2nd  son,
killed  by  a  fall, 29 May, 1873 ;  and 5 other
children.
[Sisters  married  :  Victoria  to  prince  Louis  of
Battenberg, 30  April;  Elizabeth  to  Grand-
duke  Sergius  of  Russia,  15  June,  1884.]
1892.  Ernest  Louis  ;  born  25  Nov.  1868.

Hesse-Homburg,  a  landgraviate,  established  by
Frederic,  son  of  George  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,
in  1596.  His  descendant,  Augustus-Frederic,
married  7  May,  1818,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of
George  III.  of  England,  who  had  no  issue.

The  landgraviate  was  absorbed  into  the  grand
duchy  of  Hesse  in  1806,  but  re-established  in
1815  with  additional  territories.  The  landgrave
Ferdinand  succeeded  his  brother,  8  Sept.  1848,
and  died  24  March,  1866.

Hesse-Homburg  annexed  to  Prussia,  8  Oct.  1866.

HESSIAN  FLY  (Cecidomyia  destructor),  the
American  wheat  midge,  very  destructive  to  the
corn  in  the  United  States  in  1786,  whither  it  is
said  to  have  been  brought  by  the  Hessian  soldiers
in  British  pay — hence  its  name.

The  crops  suffered  severely  in  New  York  state  in  1846
and  t886.  It  appeared  in  England  in  1788,  and  was
described  by  sir  Joseph  Banks.  Its  appearance  here  in
1887  occasioned  much  alarm  throughout  the  country.
Its  action  said  to  be  checked  by  a  parasite — Saw-fly
(Ceraphron  destructor) — W.  Fream,  Aug.  1887.  Very
prevalent  in  eastern  coast  of  Britain,  not  much  inland.
Ormerod,  Aug.  1887.
In  twenty  English  and  ten  Scotch  counties  ;  the  alarm

considered  to  be  exaggerated. Pari.  Rep.  Sept.  tt87-
Presence  of  the  insect  reported  in  Lincoln,  Suffolk,
Herts,  Perthshire 28  July,  1890


HETEROGENY,  see  Spontaneous  Genera-
tion.

HEWLEY'S  CHARITY,  see  Unitarians.

HEXAMETER,  the  most  ancient  form  of
Greek  verse,  six  measures  or  feet,  each  containing
two  long  syllables  (a  spondee),  or  a  long  one  and
two  short  (a  dactyl),  the  form  of  verse  in  which
Homer  wrote  his  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  Virgil  the
JSneid.

HEXHAM  or  HaGITLSTAD,  Northumberland.
The  see  of  Hexham  was  founded  about  678;  it  had
ten  bishops  successively,  but  by  reason  of  the  rapine
of  the  Danes  it  was  discontinued;  the  last  prelate
appointed  810.  At  the  Battle  of  Hexham  the
Yorkist  army  of  Edward  IV.  obtained  a  complete
victory  over  the  Lancastrian  army  of  Henry  VI.,
15  May,  1464.  Population,  1881,  5,919;  1891,
5,945-

HEXTHORPE,  Yorkshire,  see  Railway  Ac-
cidents, 16  Sept.  1887.

HIBBERT  FUND.  Bobert  Hibbert  on  19
July',  1847,  established  a  trust  fund  "  for  the  pro-
motion of  comprehensive  learning  and  thorough
research  in  relation  to  religion  as  it  appears  to  the
eye  of  the  scholar  and  philosopher,  and  wholly  apart
from  the  interest  of  any  particular  church  or
system."

Hibbert  lectures ;  first  course  of,  seven  by  prof.
Max  Miiller  (given  at  Westminster)  "on  the
Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  as  illustrated  by
the  Religions  of  India"  .  25  April — 30  May,  1878
Since  given  by  M.  Renouf,  in  1879  ;  M.  Ernest  Renan,
6—14  April,  1880  ;  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,
26  April — 24  May,  1881  ;  by  professor  Kuenen,
25  April— May,  1882  ;  by  Mr.  C.  Beard,  1883  ;  by
professor  Albert  Reville,  21  April  et  seq.  1884  ;  by
Professor  O.  Pfleiderer,  1885  ;  Mr.  J.  Rhys,  1886  ;
by  professor  A.  Sayce, ....  April,  1887

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia,  and  Ierne,  a

name  given  to  Ireland  by  ancient  writers  (Aristotle,
Ptolemy,  &c.) ;  see  Ireland,  and  Wrecks,  1833.

HICKS'S  HALL,.Clerkenwell,  London.  The
sessions-house  of  the  justices  of  Middlesex  was
long  so  named  on  account  of  its  having  been  erected
for  them  by  sir  Baptist  Hicks,  at  his  own  expense,
1611-12.

HIEROGLYPHICS,  literally  sacred  sculp-
tures or  engravings,  the  representation  of  objects  to
express  language,  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,
Mexicans,  and  other  nations.  The  Egyptians  used
about  1700  hieroglyphs,  engraved  on  stone,  painted
on  wood,  and  written  on  papyri.  They  were  either
phonetic  or  ideographic.  Their  invention  is
mythically  ascribed  to  Athotes.  See  ' '  Book  of  the
Dead,"  in  article  Death.  Young,  Champollion,
Bosellini,  Lepsius,  Brugsch,  Mariette,  Ihabas,
Birch,  and  others  (in  the  present  century)  have
much  elucidated  Egyptian  hieroglyphics ;  see
Eosetta  Stone.

HIGH  and  LOW  CHURCH,  sections  in
the  Church  of  England  became  prominent  in  the
reign  of  Elizabeth.  High  church  principles  were
maintained  by  Abp.  "Whitgift,  and  set  forth  by
Eichard  Hooker  "  the  judicious"  in  his  Ecclesias-
tical Polity,  1593-7.  They  were  opposed  by  the
Puritans.  The  contest,  hot  in  the  reign  of  Anne,
has  continued  since.  Dr.  Sacheverell,  preacher  at  St.
Saviour's,  Southwark,  was  prosecuted  for  two  sedi-
tious sermons  preached  (14  Aug.  and  9  Nov.  1709)
to  create  apprehension  for  the  safety  of  the  church,
and  to  excite  hostility  against  dissenters.  His
friends  were  called  High  Church  and  his  opponents
Low  Church,  or  moderate  men,  1720. The  queen


HIGH COMMISSION.


477


HISTORY.


favoured  Sacheverell,  and  presented  him  with  the
rectory  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn. He  died  in  1724.

HIGH  COMMISSION,  Court  of,  an
ecclesiastical  court,  erected  by  1  Eliz.  c.  I,  1559,
by  which  all  spiritual  jurisdiction  was  vested  in
the  crown.  It  originally  had  no  power  to  fine  or
imprison;  but  under  Charles  I.  and  archbishop
Laud  it  assumed  illegal  powers,  was  complained  of
by  the  parliament,  and  abolished  in  1641.

HIGH  CONSTABLE,  see  Constable.

HIGH  COUET  OF  JUSTICE,  see  Supreme
Court.

HIGH COUET  OF  JUSTICIAET,  see

Supreme  Court  and  Law.

HIGHGATE  AECHWAY,  over  a  road  made
to  avoid  the  hill ;  first  stone  laid  by  Edward  Smith,
31  Oct.  1812  ;  toll  through  ceased,  1  May,  1876.
See  London,  Nov.  1889.

HIGHGATE  COLLEGE,  founded  by  sir
Roger  Cholmeley,  1565.

HIGHLANDS  (of  Scotland),  long  held  by
semi-barbarous  clans,  were  greatly  improved  by  the
construction  of  military  roads  by  general  Wade,
about  1725-6;  by  the  abolition  of  heritable  juris-
diction of  feudal"  rights  in  1747,  and  by  the  esta-
blishment of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society
in  1784;  centenary  celebrated  at  Edinburgh,  Julj^,
1884.  See  Regiments,  Crofters.
Highland Society  of  London,  founded 28 May, 1778.

Highland  Land  League  held  fifth  annual  conference  at

Oban,  15  Sept.  1887.

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highness  was  given
to  Henry  VII. ;  and  this,  and  sometimes  Your
Grace,  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  VIII. ;
but  about  the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  latter,  the
titles  of  "Highness"  and  "Your  Grace"  were
absorbed  in  that  of  "Majesty."  Louis  XIII.  of
Eranee  gave  the  title  of  Highness  to  the  prince  of
Orange,  in  1644;  this  prince  had  previously  only
the  distinction  of  Excellency.  Louis  XIV".  gave
the  princes  of  Orange  the  title  of  High  and  Mighty
Lords,  1644. Henault.

HIGH  PEIEST,  see  Priest.

HIGH  TEEASON.  To  regulate  the  trials
for  this  crime  the  statute,  so  favourable  to  liberty,
the  25th  of  Edward  III.,  1352,  was  enacted,  by
which  two  living  witnesses  are  required.  By  an  act
parsed  19  April,  1821,  this  provision  was  extended
to  Ireland,  parliament  having  refused  to  sanction
the  sentence  of  death  against  the  duke  of  Somerset.
In  1800  it  was  enacted  that  when  the  overt  act  was
a  direct  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  sovereign,  the
trial  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  in
the  case  of  an  indictment  for  murder;  see  Treason.

The  last  two  cases  of  execution  for  high  treason  : —

I.  William  Cundell  alias  Council,  and  John  Smith;
tried  on  a  special  commission,  6  Feb.  1812,  being  two  of
fourteen  British  subjects  taken  in  the  enemy's  service  in
the  isles  of  France  and  Bourbon.  Mr.  Abbot,  afterwards
lord  Tenterden  and  chief  justice,  and  sir  Vicary  Gililis,
attorney -general,  conducted  the  prosecution,  and  Mr.
Brougham,  aft.  lord  Brougham,  defended  the  prisoners.
The  defence  was,  that  they  had  assumed  the  French
uniform  to  aid  their  escape  to  England.  They  were
hanged  and  beheaded  on  the  lodge  of  Horsemonger-lane
gaol  on  16  .March,  1812.

All  the  other  convicts  were  pardoned,  upon  condition
of  serving  in  colonies  beyond  the  seas.

II.  The  Cato-street  Conspirators  (which  see),  executed
1  May,  1820


HIGHWAYS,  seeJRoads.

HILL,  EOWLAND,  Memorial  Fund,

see  Mansion  House.

HILLSBOEOUGH  (Down,  N.E.  Ireland),
founded  by  sir  A.  Hill,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.
Here  were  held  two  great  protestant  meetings  in
favour  of  the  Irish  church:  (1.)  on  30  Oct.  1834,
to  protest  against  the  "appropriation  clause;"
(2.)  30  Oct.  1867,  in  consequence  of  a  commission  of
inquiry  into  the  Irish  church  establishment,  and  the
agitation  consequent  thereon.

HIMALAYA,  a  range  of  mountains  between
India  and  Tibet. Its  loftiest  peak  is  Mount  Everest,
height  29,002  ft.,  the  highest  known  in  the  world.
Mr.  W.  W.  Graham,  with  two  Swiss  guides,  ascended

Mount  Kabru  (height 24,000  feet)  and three other

mountains  over  19.000  feet  in  the  Sikkim  group  with

much  difficulty,  Nov.  1883.

HIMEEA  (Sicily).  Here  (in  480  B.C.)  Gelon
of  Syracuse  and  Theron  of  Agrigentum  defeated
the  Carthaginians;  and  at  Ecnomus,  near  here,
the  latter  defeated  Agathocles  of  Syracuse,  310  B.C.

HINDOO  EEA  (see  CWe'-?/«^«)began3ioiB.c.,
or  756  before  the  Deluge,  in  2348.  The  Hindoos
count  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the  sun
through  the  zodiac.  The  Samoat  era  begins  56  B.C. ;
the  Saca  era  a.d.  79.

HINDOSTAN,  see  India.

HIPPODEOME,  a  circus  for  horse-riding.
One  opened  by  Mr.  John  Whyte,  near  Notting-hill,
London,  on  29  May,  1837,  was  closed  in  1841  by  the
Kensington  vestry. See  under  Agricultural  Hall.

HIPPOPHAGY,  see  Horse.

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek,  river-horse), a

native  of  Africa,  known  to,  but  incorrectly  described
by,  ancient  writers.  Hippopotami  were  exhibited
at  Rome  by  Antoninus,  Commodus,  and  others,
about  138,  180,  and  218.  The  first  brought  to
England  arrived  25  May,  1850,  and  was  placed  in
the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent' s-park,  London  ;
(died,  11  March,  1878;)  another,  a  female,  four
months  old,  was  placed  there  in  1854  (died,  Dec.
1882).  One  born  here,  21  Feb.  i87i,and  another  born
1  Jan.  1872,  lived  a  few  days  only;  another  born
5  Nov.  1872.  Two  young  ones  born  at  Paris  in  May,
1858,  and  June,  1859,  were  killed  by  their  mother.
One  born  at  Amsterdam,  29  July,  18615.

HISPANIA,  Latin  name  of  Spain.
HISPANIOLA,  see  Ha ,jti.

HISTOLOGY  (from  hist os,  a  web),  the  science
which  treats  of  the  tissues  which  enter  into  the
formation  of  animals  and  vegetables;  mainly  prose-
cuted by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  Schwann
Valentin,  Kolliker,  Quekett,  and  Robin  are  cele-
brated for  their  researches.  Professor  Quekett's
"Lectures  on  Histology"  were  published  in  18152
and  1854.  Important  "Atlas  of  Histology,"  By
Drs.  E.  Klein  and  E.  N.  Smith,  published  in  1SS0;
"  Elements  of  Histology,"  by  Dr.  E.  Klein,  third
edition  published  in  1884.

HISTOEY.  The  Bible,  the  Parian  Chronicle,
the  histories  of  Herodotus,  "  the  father  of  history,"
and  Ctesias,  and  the  poems  of  Homer,  are  the
foundations  of  early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient
history  is  considered  as  ending  with  the  destruction
of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  476.  Modern  history
dates  from  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  800.
There  was  not  a  professorship  of  modern  history  in
either  of  our  universities  until  the  years  1724  and
1736,  when  Regius  professorships  were  established


HITTITES.


478


HOLLAND.


by  George  T.  and  George  II.  At  Oxford  pro-
fessor E.  A.  Freeman,  appointed  1884,  died  16  March,
1892,  succeeded  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Froude,  April,  1892.
— Royal  Historical  Society,  London,  established
1868,  Earl  Russell  president,  1872,  incorporated
by  charter,  Aug.  1889.  A  commission  was  appointed
31  Aug.  1869,  to  examine  historical  MSS.  in  the  pos-
session of  institutions  and  private  families,  and  to
publish  any  considered  desirable.  It  has  issued
several  reports,  1870,  et  seq.  New  commission
appointed,  18  June,  1883.

HITTITES,  descendants  of  Hetk,  second  son

of  Canaan,  a  commercial  tribe,  from  whom  Abraham

bought  a  grave  for  his  wife  i860  B.C. Gen.  xxiii.

They  opposed  Joshua, B.C.  1451  ;  and  the  Egyp-

tians,  about  1340  B.C.

The  castle  of  Jerablus,  a  mound  and  ruins,  20  miles
below  Beredjik  on  the  Euphrates  ;  was  visited  by  Henry
Maundrell,  1699  ;  by  Dr.  Pococke,  1745  ;  and  by  J.  H.
Skene  and  Mr.  Geo. 'Smith  (died  1876),  who  agreed  in
considering  the  remains  to  be  those  of  Carchemish,  the
ancient  capital  of  the  Hittites,  captured  and  annexed
by  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria  (about  721  B.C.)  when  the
nation  was  thoroughly  subdued.  The  site  had  been
held  successively  by  Hittites,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Arabs.

A  rich  harvest  may  be  expected  from  its  exploration.

Captain  C.  R.  Conder's  discovery  of  a  key  to  the
language  of  Hittite  inscriptions  on  bas-reliefs,  gems,
&c,  some  of  which  were  discovered  by  Burckhardt,
1808,  and  re-discovered  by  Mr.  Palmer  in  1870,  an-
nounced 26  Feb.  1887  ;  they  consist  of  invocations,
hymns,  &c.  to  the  sun,  &c.  His  "Altaic  Hieroglyphs
and  Hittite  Inscriptions  "  published  1887.

Prof.  A.  Sayce,  in  1879,  considered  the  Hittites  to  have
been  in  very  early  times  the  predominant  power  in
Asia  Minor  and  N.  Syria.  The  investigations  of
Messrs.  Ramsay,  Hogarth  and  Headlam,  in  1890,  sup-
ported by  the  English  Asia  Minor  Exploration  Fund,
lead  to  many  discoveries  which  are  described  in  the
Times  of  25  July,  1891.

HOBAET  TOWN  or  HOBART,  a  sea-port
and  capital  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  founded  in
1804  by  col.  Collins,  the  first  lieutenant-governor,
who  died  here  in  1810.  Population  in  1881,  21,118  ;
in  1891,  24,905.

HOBHOUSE'S  ACT,  1  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  60,
1831,  relates  to  vestries  and  charities.

HOCHKIRCHEN  (Saxony).  Here,  on  14
Oct.  1758,  the  Prussian  army,  commanded  by
Frederick  II.,  was  surprised  and  defeated  by  the
Austrians  commanded  by  count  Daun.  Marshal
Keith,  a  Scotsman  in  the  Prussian  service,  was
killed.  The  Austrian  generals  shed  tears,  and
ordered  his  interment  with  military  honours.  A
conflict  between  the  Russians  and  Prussians  and  the
French,  in  which  the  last  were  victorious,  took
place  21  May,  1813.

HOCHSTADT,  a  city  on  the  Danube,  in
Bavaria,  near  which  several  important  battles  have
been  fought:  (1.)  20  Sept.  1703,  when  the  Im-
perialists were  defeated  by  the  French  and  Bavarians,
under  marshal  Villars  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.
(2.)  2  (N.  S.  13)  Aug.  1704,  called  the  battle  of
Blenheim  (which  see).  (3.)  19  June,  1800,  when
Moreau  totally  defeated  the  Austrians,  and  avenged
the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Blenheim.

HOFWYL,  see  Pestalozzian  System.

HOGrUE,  see  La  Hogue.

HOHENLINDEN  (Bavaria).  Here  the
Austrians,  commanded  by  archduke  John,  were
beaten  by  the  French  and  Bavarians,  commanded
by  Moreau,  3  Dec.  1800.  The  peace  of  Luneville
followed.


HOHENSTAUFEN, see Germany, and

Guelphs.

HOHENZOLLERN,  the  reigning  family  in
Prussia.  Its  origin  is  referred  to  Thassilo,  about
800,  who  built  the  castle  of  Hohen-zollern.  In
141 7,  Frederick  of  Nuremburg,  his  descendant,  was
made  elector  of  Brandenburg.  The  princes  of
Hohenzollern-Hechingen  and  Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen  abdicated  in  favour  of  the  king  of  Prussia,
7  Deo.  1849.  Charles,  son  of  Charles  Anthony,
the  prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  was
elected  prince  of  Roumania,  20  April,  1866  (see
Danuhian  Principalities).  His  brother  Leopold,
nominated  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Spain,  with-
drew July,  1870  ;  their  father  Charles  Anthony
died  2  June,  1885. See  Brandenburg ,  and  Prussia.

HOLBEIN  SOCIETY,  for  obtaining  photo-
lithographic representations  of  ancient  wood  en-
gravings, established  in  1868,  sir  William  Stirling
Maxwell  president.

HOLBORN  (Holeborne,  in  Doomsday  book),
said  to  be  identical  with  the  river  Fleet.  Holborn-
hill,  in  the  time  of  Stow,  1600,  was  termed  "  heavy-
hill."  Gerard,  the  herbalist,  speaks  of  his  "  house
in  Holborne,"  1597.  The  Holborn-theatre  was
opened  by  Mr.  Sefton  Parry,  6  Oct.  1866,  with
"Flying  Scud,"  a  new  jhece,  by  Mr.  Dion
Boucicault.  The  Holborn  amphitheatre  was  opened
25  Mav,  1867.  The  Holborn  valley  viaduct,  founded
by  Mr.  F.  H.  Fry,  3  June,  1867  (Mr.  William
Haywood,  chief  engineer),  was  opened  for  foot-
passengers  14  Oct.,  and  inaugurated  by  the  queen,
6  Nov.  1869.  "Middle-row"  was  pulled  down  in
1867.  Western  Approach-street  opened  25  June,  1868.
The  statue  of  prince  Albert  uncovered  by  the  prince
of  Wales,  9  Jan.  1874.  Holborn  town-hall  opened
by  the  lord  mayor,  18  Dec.  1879.

HOLIDAYS,  see  Bank  Holidays.

HOLLAND  (Hollow  land,  or,  some  say,
Wooded  land),  a  kingdom,  N.W.  Europe,  the  chief
part  of  the  northern  Netherlands,  composed  of  land
rescued  from  the  sea,  and  defended  by  immense
dykes.  It  was  inhabited  by  the  Batavi  in  the  time
of  Cresar,  who  made  a  league  with  them.  It  became
part  of  Gal  lia  Belgica,  and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom
of  Austrasia.  From  the  10th  to  the  15th  century  it
was  governed  by  counts  under  the  German  emperors.
In  1861,  the  population  of  the  kingdom  in  Europe
was  3,521,416;  of  the  colonies,  18,175,910;  of  both
in  1863,  21,805,607;  1876,  3,865,456  ;  colonies,
about  25,110,000;  1879,  kingdom,  4,012,693  ;  1887,
4,450,870.  Revenue,  1889,  10,184,158^.;  expendi-
ture, 11,256,249^.

The  parties  termed  Hooks,  (followers  of  Margaret,
countess  of  Holland,)  and  Cod-fish,  (supporters  of
her  son  William,  who  endeavoured  to  supplant
her,)  create  a  civil  war,  which  lasts  many  years  .  1347
Holland  united  to  Hainault,  1299  ;  and  Brabant  .  1416
Annexed  to  Burgundy  by  duke  Philip,  who  wrests
it  from  his  niece  Jaqueline,  of  Holland,  daughter

of  the  last  count 1436

Annexed  to  Austria  through  marriage  of  Mary  of

Burgundy  with  archduke  Maximilian  .  .  .  1477
Government  of  Philip  of  Austria  . ... 1495

Of  Margaret  of  Austria  and  Charles  V. . . . 1506

Of  Philip  II i5s5

Philip  II.  establishes  the  Inquisition ;  the  Hol-
landers ha.ving  zealously  embraced  the  reformed
doctrines  ;  severe  persecution ;  about  100,000
persons  said  to  have  perished  1555  et  seq.  ;  the
Confederacy  of  Gueux  (Beggars)  formed  by  the

nobles 1566

Compromise  of  Breda  presented . . . Jan. „
Commencement  of  the  revolt  under  "William,  prince
of  Orange 1572


HOLLAND.


479


HOLLAND.


Elizabeth  of  England  declines  the  offered  sovereignty,

but  promises  help 1575

The  pacification  of  Ghent — union  of  the  North  and

south  provinces 1576

The  seven  northern  provinces  contract  the  league  of

Utrecht 1579

And  declare  their  independence  .  .  25  July,  1581
Assassination  of  William  of  Orange  .  10  July,  1584
The  ten  southern  provinces  conquered  by  the  prince

of  Parma . . 1585

The  provinces  solicit  help  from  England  and  France  ;
expedition  of  the  earl  of  Leicester  ;  English  and

Dutch  disagree 1585-7

Battle of Zutphen— sir Philip Sidney mortally

wounded  22  Sept.  1586

Prince  Maurice  appointed  stadtholder . . . 1587
Death  of  Philip  II. His  son  Philip  III.  cedes  the
Netherlands  to  Albert  of  Austria,  and  the  infanta

Isabella 1598

Campaigns  of  Maurice  and  Spinola . . . 1599-1604
Maurice  defeats  the  archduke  at  Nieuport 2  July,  1600
The  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  recog-
nised ; truce of  Antwerp for twelve  years,

9  April  (30  March),  1609

Batavia  in  Java  built 1610

Pierce  religious  dissensions  between  the  Arminians

and  Gomarists 1610-19

Maurice  favours  the  latter  and  intrigues  for  royal

power 1616

Synod  of  Dort  ;  persecution  of  the  Arminians  T618-19
Execution  of  the  illustrious  Barneveldt  14  May,  1619
Renewal  of  the  war  ;  Maurice  saves  Bergen-op-Zoom  1622
His  tyrannical  government :  plot  against  him,  and

sixteen  persons  executed 1623

His  death  ;  his  brother  Frederick  succeeds  him,  and

annuls  the  persecution 1625

Manhattan,  now  New  York,  North  America,  founded ;

massacre  of  English  at  Amboyna,  East  Indies  1624

Victories  of  Van  Tromp,  who  takes  two  Spanish  fleets

off  the  downs  . . 16  Sept.  and  21  Oct.  1639

Peace  of  Westphalia,  the  republic  recognised  by

Europe 1648

War  with  England — naval  actions — Blake  defeats
De  Ruyter,  22  Oct.  ;  but  is  surprised  by  Van
Tromp,  who  takes  some  English  ships,  and  sails
through  the  channel  with  a  broom  at  his  mast-
head 29  Nov. 1652

Indecisive  sea-fights,  12-14  June ;  death  of  Van
Tromp,  21  July  ;  peace  follows .... 1653

Victorious  war  with  Sweden 1659

Another  war  with  England 1665

Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4  June  ;  victory  of  Monk

over  De  Ruyter 25  July,  1666

Triple  alliance  of  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden

against  France  1668

Charles  II.  deserts  Holland  ;  joins  France . .  1670

The  French  overran  Holland 1671

Desperate  condition  of  the  States — the  populace
massacre  the  De  Witts — William  III.  made  stadt-
holder 1672

The  French  repelled  by  the  sluices  being  opened  ,,

Indecisive  campaigns 1673-7

William  marries  princess  Mary  of  England .  1677

Peace  with  France  (Nimeguen)  ....  1678
William  becomes  king  of  England . . .  1689

Sanguinary  war  with  France  . . .  1689-96

Peace  of  Ryswick  signed ...  20  Sept. 1697

Death  of  William .  .... 8  March,  1702

No stadtholder appointed — administration of

Heinsius ,,

War  against  France  and  Spain  ;  campaigns  of  Marl-
borough 1702-13

Peace  of  Utrecht  .... n  April,  1713

Holland  supports  the  empress  Maria-Theresa  .  1743-8
William  Henry  hereditary  stadtholder  .  .  .  1747
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  . . . 18  Oct. 1748

War  with  England  for  naval  supremacy — Holland

loses  colonies  1781-3

Civil  wars  in  the  Low  Countries  . . . 1787-9

The  French  republicans  inarch  into  Holland  ;  the

people  declare  in  their  favour .... 1793
Unsuccessful  campaign  of  the  duke  of  York  . 1794

Tlic  Batavian  republic  established  in  alliance  with

„  France 1795

Battle  of  Camperdown,  Duncan  signally  defeats  the

Dutch 11  Oct. 1797

The  Texel  fleet,  of  twelve  ships  of  the  line,  with


thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British

admiral,  without  firing  a  gun  . . 30  Aug.

A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Batavian  republic  ;

the  chief  officer  (R.  J.  Schimmelpenninek)  takes

the  title  of  grand  pensionary  .  .  26  April,
Holland  erected  into  a  kingdom ,  and  Louis  Bonaparte,

father  of  Napoleon  III. ,  declared  king  .  5  June,
The  ill-fated  Walcheren  expedition . July,  Sept.

Louis  abdicates 1  July,

Holland  united  to  France  ....  9  July,
Restored  to  the  house  of Orange, and Belgium

annexed  to  its  dominions  .  .  -17  Nov.
The  prince  of  Orange  jiroclaimed  sovereign  prince  of

the  united  Netherlands  ... 6  Dec.

Religious  discord  between  Holland  and  the  southern

provinces 1817

The  revolution  in  Belgium ...  25  Aug.

Belgium  separated  from  Holland  .  .  12  July,
Holland  makes  war  against  Belgium  .  .  3  Aug.
Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, signed in

London 19  April,

Abdication  of  William  1 7-10  Oct.

Death  of  the  ex-king  William  I. . .  12  Dec.

Louis Bonaparte, count  de St. Leu, ex-king of

Holland,  dies  of  apoplexy  at  Leghorn  .  25  July,
The  king  agrees  to  political  reform,  March ;  a  new

constitution  granted  ... 17  April,

Death  of  William  II.  ...  17  March,

Re-establishment  of  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy

announced 12  March,

General  van  den  Bosch's  scheme  carried  out  by  the

society  of  beneficence  of  home  colonization  in  east

Holland  for  destitute  persons  of  all  sorts,  started

about  1815,  having  failed  is  modified  ; free  and

penal  colonies  constituted  ;  (generally  successful)
Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly

30,000  villagers  made  destitute  Jan.  and  Feb.
Great  fire  at  Endschede,  the  Manchester  of  Holland,

loss  about  a  million  pounds  . . 7  May,

The  states-general  pass  a  law  for  the  abolition  of

slavery  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies  [after  1  July,

1863] 6  Aug.

Treaty  for  capitalising  Scheldt  dues  signed  12  May,
Slavery  ceases  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies  1  July,
50th  anniversary  of  deliverance  from  France,  17  Nov.
Commencement  of  canal  to  connect  Amsterdam  with

the  North  sea 8  March,

The government undertake a  canal to connect

Rotterdam  with  the  sea  . . . March,

Commercial  treaty  with  France  .  .  7  July,
New  ministry  (protectionist)  .  .  .1  June,
Correspondence with Prussia respecting the

Prussian  garrison  in  Luxemburg  .  July-Aug.
The  lower  chamber  barely  passes  a  vote  of  censure

on  the  ministry  respecting  government  of  Java,

<fec.  ;  the  king  dissolves  the  chamber  .  10  Oct.
Alleged  treaty  with  France  respecting  cession  of

Luxemburg  (which  see) ... 22  March,
The  fortifications  of  Luxemburg  razed . May,
Long  struggle  between  the  ministry  and  the  cham-
bers, Nov.  iS67-May,  1868,  the  ministry  resign ;  a

new  ministry  formed  by  M.  de  Thorbecke,  June,
International  exhibition  opened  at  Amsterdam  by

prince  Henry  .  .  '  .  .  .15  July,
Meeting  of  the  chambers  ; strict  neutrality  in  the

Franco-Prussian  war  to  be  maintained  19  Sept.
Cession  of  Dutch  possessions  in  Guinea  to  Great

Britain,  voted 7  July,

Tercentenary  celebration  of  the  commencement  of

Dutch  independence  by  the capture  of  Briel,

1  April,
Death  of  de  Thorbecke,  a  great  statesman  4  June,
A  new  ministry  formed  by  Devries  .  .  29  June,
Discussions  respecting  the  war  against  the  Sultan

of  Achin  in  Sumatra  (which  see)  .  .  April,
New  port  at  Flushing  opened  by  the  king  .  S  Sept.
Expedition against the Achinese (see  Sumatra)

embarks Dec.

New  ministry,  under  Dr.  Heemskirk . 2S  July,

New  penal  code  issued Aug.

Tercentenary  of  Pacification  of  Ghent  celebrated,

Sept.
Canal  between  North  sea  and  Amsterdam,  passed

by  a  monitor  (see  1865)4  Oct.  ;  inaugurated  by

the  king r  Nov.

New  ministry  ;  president,  baron  Kappeijne  van  de

Coppello 3  Nov.


1806.
1809.


1830
183=


1840-


1859.
i86x


1863
1865

1866


1S67-
1S6S


1S70
1871

187=


1874
1S75


1S76


iS77


HOLLAND.


iSO HOLSTEIX  AND  SOHLESWIG.


Marriag?  Henry,  the  king's  brothel

ess  SI  . th  of  Prussia . 24  Aug. i  ,c-.c

...  g  s  brother,  aged  5  S

i;  Jan.  tSyg
It.  Van  Lyndon . to  Aug.
".  ■ . a . .. l  visit  England  . . .-.-  April,  *88s
;..:.. . ■  I

stry  resign . . 9  May, „
.  I u ..-..  sa  I  ..  s afcinet

i  Mar, tSS  :
>" .  -  Ler Dr. Heenisfeerk putei

2S A",  t  '.. ..

. . .-,.:...-..-  ... .

i  May, „

....... a  appointed

is  May, ..
FBelg  i .  .  .  .  :

Amsterdam,  8sc iS  >  :.  sis . ..

..">-  received  at  Brussels

20-22  May,  tS&i
si  J  ane, „
a  bss1 be  regent  if

I  Aug. ,,

Resignai  3 13  April;  dec!  nedby

g saAj  :

;'s  ass . ' :  " V .'.".  i  ■■• i
c siitnt  3S : :  . . . sed  i

3°  SfoT.  1SS7

x tr  minis  '  '"  April,  iSSS

ang;  thequee

x S3 . -

_ .  -  - -  --"-"

. a ssu - - snent

May.  iSSg
:\:  jota  anniversary  of  the  king's

session . 1-  May, ••

.... able of

a State  tog

■ 1S90
a  ntat  s  sitting  af the
j5  bakes  the  oath  . 20  Xbv. ..

K g lliani  in.,  a  real  constitutional
3  dang  iter  Wuhehuui _;
N- grand  al . . .4  Dec ..

S
Visit the  <  ss, see

1-3  ^  ""•>"■  --"-

stry,S  July  :  v..
■"■.'•'...■  ;A  ©  .

stei . "-  ctviiet

r "-"-  Aug. ..

Ne . .  :  ■ ■ H « jueen-regent

isSept ..

MRAXOB [SW .  . > '-  ■ ■ U>ERS.

130s P

1530.  K le5  ss m -  •  ■ .' '  i

.:  \  (ss . s  .-■ : .  ms  n  fa

:  ge  in  1539.

\  -  . 1579 kail*  3  V an  assas-

DL  of  S  15^

,, -  3  son; steles

. .  I

s

...  STABT-

o  - junger  son  of  Wil-

»)S JTHOIJDKB.

- -
_ - .  be  had  a

. -.-
-  d  De  Witt,  grand  pens

. .  -

-  .  - .

1  --

- S 5TA1

Ham  III.,  los  -

inexed to

.  - -  -  ITS

SS  ■ •

bv  his  s

French

- -

a  re-


Knras  Asr>  c"  ass
iScc-  Louis  Bo  ..-.-  ..  .. \ g Bouans  by  his

brother  Napoleon,  5  June,  tSofi abdicated,  31
July.  -.;-..-
■ /..'Hand  again  united  to  Prance,]
-.-.:-  stored. 'William-Frederick,

177s),  proclainie  1  S  Pee.
18x3  ; rook  the  oath  of fidelity  as  sovereign
prince,  30  March. 1S14;  assumed  the  style  of
king  of  the  NETHERfcASBS,  16  March,  1J15 :  for-
ma:,, sd  in  favour  of  hiss -. ■.>..- :
died  1  j  Dec.  1843.
.- ' .  "."..  born  6  Dee.  170s  ; succeeded  on  his
father's  abdication;  died  1-  March,  1S49, sue-
. .  i  by
1S49.  William  I  XL.  son:  bora  10  Fteb.  1S1-: married
Sophia : White  berg,  18 Tune, tSso. (She
Lied,  3  June.  1877  ) Ess :  W  Uiani,  |  rinee  of
_  . m  4  Sept [S40; lied  a  June.  1879;
Alexander  (philosoj a  .  V  rn .-5  Aug. 1851  :
died  ai  June.  1884. Married  Emma  of  Waldeck-
Pyrr.:  nt,  -  fan.  -.;-;  : Ess :  Wilhehnina,  born
21  Aug.  t8So. I'.;  Lv  ng  lied  S3  Nov 1S90
1S90.  v\"  I .  pieeu-raothea  reg  laughter.

HOLLAND .  Xev,  see  A  -  and  A.us-

HOLLO\YAY  HOSPITALS  and  COL-
LLJi  E.  rhos.  Holloway,  proprietor  of  the  popu-
lar oiutraenr.  &c,  ofiered  the  government  250,000^.
:.  erect,  for  :  ..  as*  .:  line  middle  classes,  a  Sana-
torium or  asylum  for  the  insane,  and  hospitals  for
incurables  and  eonyal  scents.  The  asylum  was
ere  feed  at  5:.  Anne's  Hill.  Ecliam,  near  Virginia
Water,  1873  '  -. ;.  Opened  by  the  prinee  of
Tales  t6  June.  1885.

EOTAi  HoiiOWiS Coixr";e  fos  the  Higher  EnrcA-
ligham. First  liriek  laid.  ia  Sept.

r87o. Opened  .. :.. ijneen,  30  June,  iSSS. It  in-
les  1  iding-room.  museum,  and  picture

gallery. Estimated si 900,000 ; endowment

sogsqodL The  princely  buildings  are

renaissance  sryle.  temp.  Francis  1.  ^1515--.;.-

rc;r.  W.  Grassland There  is  good 8  . ...  ."...:.  n

for  s5«  stud  nts. H*e session apened  4  O^r. [887.

Mt.  H:  _ . 250,000!  .  and pi as*  I  too,ooo?.

H« li I .  • Dec,  1SS3,

sgedSs,  leai  ngan  nunense -.:.:••-..  .-.".thorrgh  he  was
as  during  his  lifetime ;  he  is  said  to

".  ..-_-..-  arinad  ::-:rseinents.

HOLMFIKTH  FLOOD. On  5  Feb.  1852,

Llberry  reservoir  above  Holmnrtli.  nearHnd-

.  YorksMre,  burst  its  banks,  and  levelled

four  mills  and  many  ranges of other  buildings,

killing  more  than  or  persons,  and  devastating  pro-

pertj  estimated  at  above  half  a  mill:;::.

HOLOPHOTE.  a  form  ::  lamp  in  whi  '
light  is  converged  and  dire  fee  1  : a  particular  spot
cut  collisions  at  sea.  &e. 1':  . Is

have  been  invented  by  Stevenson,  MSiedonald,
. . .  and  ithers, ;v-

HOLSTEIX  axi>  SCHLESWIG  [N.W.
Germany  3 once  belonging  to l>enmark.

The  eountry,  inhabited  by  Saxous.  was  subdued  by
Charlemagne  in  the  beginning  of  the  orh  century,
.::...::..  3  . strtof  the  duchy  of  Saxony.

Ln  1106  x  [HO,  Adolphus  of  Schauenberg )
. ;  mt  of  Holstein  :  his  descendants  ruled  till  14^0,
when  Adolphus  VII.  died  without  issue,  and  the
states  :  Holstein  and  Schleswig  elected  Christian,
kingof  Denmark,  bis  nephew,  as  their  duke,  I  .  .
:.  ii  if  his  arms. Da  1544.  his  grandson,  Christian

1  his  states : ngst - tners,  with

-  - wild  remain  s
to  Denmark.  The  eldest  branch  of  the  f;unily  reigned
in Denmark  till  the  decease  of  Frederick  VII.,

;  > 1  1863. From  a  y _  ach  vthe  dukes

stein-boi  3  I  thr ;":  marriagt .

:... % _- of Sweden  from 1751-1818, and the


HOLY  ALLIANCE.


481


H.OLYEOOD  PALACE.


reigning  family  in  Russia  since  170-2,  when  the
duke,  as  the  husband  of  Anne,  became  czar,  In
1773,  Catherine  II.  of  Rus.-.ia  ceded  Jfolst.ein-Got-
torp  to  Denmark  in  exchange  for  Oldenburg,  &o.
Thednchiea  irere  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  [813,
hut  restored  to  Denmark  in  1814,  and  on  28  May,
1831,  constituent  assemblies  were  granted  to  them.
Since  1844  disputes  have  been  rife  betwi  en  the
duchies  and  Denmark,  and  in  1848  the  states-general
of  the  duchies  voted  their  annexation  to  the  German
confederacy,  in  which  they  were  supported  by
Prussia;  war  ensued,  which  lasted  till  1850,  when
they  submitted  to  Denmark.  The  agitation  in  the
duchies,  encouraged  by  Prussia,  revived  in  1857.
The  Germans  in  Schleswig  desired  it  to  be  made  a
member  of  the  German  confederation,  like  Hol.-.tein  ;
but  both  duchies  demanded  a  local  government  more
independent  of  Denmark,  which  change-  were  re-
sisted by  that  power.  For  the  events  of  the  war  of
1864,  see  Lenrnark.  By  the  convention  signed  at
Gastein  {which  see),  14  Aug.  1865,  the  government
of  Holstein  was  left  with  Austria,  and  that  of
Schleswig  with  Prussia.  The  whole  of  Hol.-.tein
and  part  of  Schleswig  were  ceded  to  Prussia  by  the
treaty  of  Prague,  signed  23  Aug.  1866.  Population
in  i860,  1,004,473.  Ine  Stn  clause,  directing  North
Schleswig  to  be  given  to  Denmark  if  the  people
voted  for  it,  was  not  acted  on,  although  claimed  ;
and  was  abrogated,  Feb,  1879.

HOLY  ALLIANCE  was  ratified  at  Paris,  26
Sept.  1815,  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  (its
originator)  and  Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by
which  they  ostensibly  bound  themselves,  among
other  things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles
in  all  their  political  transactions,  with  a  view  to
perpetuating  the  peace  they  had  achieved.  The
compact  was  severely  censured  in  this  country  as
opposed  to  rational  liberty.

HOLY  BEOTHEEHOOD,  see  Sermandad.

HOLY  CEOSS,  Society  of,  formed  in  1855,
by  several  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England,
"for  deepening  "spiritual  life  in  their  brethren;"
president,  the  Rev.  A.  H.  ilackonochie.  It  favours
auricular  confession  and  other  Eomanist  practices.
One  of  its  books  "  The  Priest  in  Absolution,"  was
censured  by  the  bishops  in  convocation,  6  July.
1877,  and  caused  much  public  excitement.  See
under  Winchester.

HOLYDAYS  ACT,  see  Bank  Rolidays.

HOLY  GHOST,  see  Esprit.

HOLYHEAD,  W.  Anglesea.  A  college  was
established  here  in  the  12th  century.  The  harbour
was  improved  by  Rennie,  and  Holyhead  was  made
the  chief  packet  station  for  Ireland.  The  break-
water, erected  by  Rondel  and  Hawkshaw  (1846  et
seq.)  was  inaugurated  by  the  prince  of  Wales.  19
Aug.  1873  ;  and  a  new  harbour  and  railway  exten-
sion inaugurated  bv  the  prince,  17  June,  1880.
Population,  1881,  8,680; 1891,  8,726.

HOLY  ISLAXD,  see  Lindisfarne.

HOLY  LEAGUE,  see  Leagues.

HOLY  "MATT)  OF  TTe.nt,  Elizabeth  Barton
was  incited  by  the  Roman  Catholic  party  to  oppose
the  Reformation  by  pretending  to  inspirations  from
heaven.  She  foretold  the  speedy  and  violent  death
of  Henry  VIII.  if  he  divorced  Catherine  of  Spain,
and  married  Anne  Boleyn,  and  direful  calamities  to
the  nation.  She  and  her  confederates  were  executed
at  Tyburn,  5  May,  1534.

HOLYOKE,  Massachusetts,  U.S.  A  Roman
Catholic  church  here  took  tire ;  a  panic  ensued ;  and


ftbontSc i .  -.Tit  or  trampled  to  death,  2' '-'
May,  [875,
HOLY PLACES  IH  Pales-tote. TL^e

. ..  ;  I : .:.. i ..-■.: : .... r  itlOn  betWee.'

(jreek  and  L.-  ... In

the  reign  of  Francis  I.  they  were  placed  under  1
monk  .  . by  the  Pre:.  ...tent;  but

the  Greeks  from  time  to  time  obtained  rlnnan.-. :
the  Porte  invalidating  the  rights  of  the  Latins. :.  1
were  at  last  (in 175"; expell
buildings,  which  w^re  coram,  (be

Greeks  by  a  hatti-scheriff,  or  imperial  ordi-o
The  holy  sepulchre  partial  I , lestt  '07  fire  and

rebuilt .'-...-.  ..0  claim  additional  0.0 .-

leges,  an.fi  ca ;  ... iSofi

The  Russian  and  French  guveuuu  -  .0  1  .-..-.  - 1
c.vr.  Dashhofl  and  M.  MareeHns)  to  adj .  it  "...
pute  ;  an.  arrangement  prevented  by  "...  i Sbae  —-"

revolution 1^21

The  subject  again  agitated,  and  the  Porte  proposed
that 3 mixed eonmna  I ... sateen '.the

rival  claims. M.  Titoff,  the  Ru.-. . .  leting

on  behalf  of  the  Greeks,  and  M.  Laralette  B  i
French  env«  I  the  Latins,  took  tip  the

question,  very  warmly 1850

A  firman  issued  by  the  Porte,  confirm:'  g in ..."--
lating  the  rights  p.-:  - ated  tc  the

Greek  Christ, is,  declaring  thai  the  LaSms

had  no  right  to  claim,  exclusive  possession,  of  cer-
tain holy  pii  .  .  "out  permitting  them,  to
possess  a  key  of  the  church  at  Bethlehem,  fee.,  as

in  former  times g  March, 1:5^

The  French  government  acquiesced  with  much  dis-
satisfaction ;  but  the  Russian  envoy  still  d-
the  key  to  be  withheld  from  the  Latin  ro
1L L>  Ozeroff  made  a  formal  declare". 1 the
. . t  of  Russia  to  protect  the -".-.  .lox  in  virtue

the  treaty :  i-i  □  .---_ ...i  demanded

that  the  firman  of  5  Mare  i  read

at  Jerusalem, although  it  militated  against  his
t  oosions,  which  was accordingly  done The
dispute  still  continued,  the  Porte  being  exposed
to  the rttaehs :  'joth  the  Russian  and  French

governments March. : '.  5 -■

Prince  Menschikoff  arrives  at  Constantinople  as
envoy  extraordinary,  and  in  addition  to  the  claims
respecting  the  holy  places,  made  demands  respect-
ing the  protection  of  the  Greek  Christians  in
Turkev  which  led  to  the  war  of  1854-6.  (See  Russa-
Turkish  War) 23  Feb. ,,

HOLY  EOAIAX  EMPIRE.  The  German
empire  received,  this  title  under  the  emperor  Otho  I.
the  great,  crowned  at  Rome  by  pope  John  XLL,  2
Feb.  962. See  Rome,  and  Germany.

HOLY  EOOD  or  CROSS.  A  festival  insti-
tuted on  account  of  the  recovery  of  a  large  piece  of
the  cross  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  after  it  had
been  taken  away,  on  the  plundering  of  Jerusalem,
about  615.  The  feast  of  the  invention  (or  finding)
of  the  Cross  is  on  3  May  ;  that  of  the  exaltation  of
the  Cross,  14  Sept.  At  Boxley  abbey,  in  Ken:,
a  crucifix,  called  the  Rood  of  Grace ;  at  the  di?;  .  1  -
tion  it  was  broken  in  pieces  as  an  imposture  by
Hilsey,  bishop  of  Rochester,  at  St.  Paui's  eross,
London,  1536.

HOLYEOOE  PALACE  (Edinburgh),
merly  an  abbey,  was  for  several  centuries  the  resi-
dence of  the  monarchs  of  Scotland.  The  abbey,  of
which  some  vestiges  remain,  was  founded  by  David
I.  in  1 128,  and  in  the  burial-place  within  its  «
are  interred  several  of  his  successors.  The  palace
is  a  large  quadrangular  edifice  of  hewn  stone,  with
a  court  within  surrounded  by  piazzas.  In  the
north-west  tower  is  the  bed-chamber  which  was
occupied  by  queen  Mary;  and  from  an  adjoining
cabinet  to  it  David  Rizzio,  her  favourite,  was  dragged
forth  and  murdered,  9  March,  1566.  The  north-
west towers  were  built  by  James  V".,  and  the  re-
maining part  of  the  palace  was  added  during  the

1  I


HOLY  SEPULCHRE.


482


HOMICIDE.


reign  of  Charles  II.  Mr.  Pinkerton  states  that  the
palace  was  burnt  in  1650,  and  rebuilt  in  1659.
Great  improvements  were  made  in  1857.  The
queen  held  her  court  here,  30  Aug.  1850.

HOLY  SEPULCHRE,  a  Byzantine  church
in  modern  Jerusalem.  Fergusson,  Eobinson,  and
others,  consider  the  true  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre
to  be  the  mosque  of  Omar,  the  "  dome  of  the  Rock."
The  question  is  still  undecided.  The  order  of  the
Holy  Sepulchre  was  founded  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,
1099 ;  revived  by  pope  Alexander  YI.  1496 ;  re-or-
ganised, 1847  and  1868.

HOLY  WARS,  see  Crusades.

HOLY  "WATER  is  said  to  have  been  used  in
churches  as  early  as  a.d.  120. Ashe.

HOLY  WEEK,  or  the  "Week  of  Indulgences,"
is  the  week  before  Easter. See  Passion  Week.

HOME  AND  COLONIAL  SCHOOL
SOCIETY,  Gray's  Inn  Road;  founded  1836.
Governesses  and  teachers  are  trained.

HOME HOSPITALS' ASSOCIATION

for  Paying  Patients,  founded  in  July,  1877.
The  first  home  hospital,  in  Fitzroy-square,  London,
was  opened  28  June,  1880.  Supported  by  the
queen,  1884. 7th  annual  meeting,  10  June,  1885.

HOME  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY,

founded  1819.  In  1878  it  had  192  stations,  and
employed  187  agents  and  243  lay  preachers.

HOME  RULE.  The  Home  Government  As-
sociation (for  Home  Rule),  established  in  Dublin
in  1870;  held  its  first  anniversary  meeting,  26  June,
1871.  It  includes  both  catholics  and  protestants
amongst  its  members.
Mr.  Isaac  Butt,  a  leader  of  the  movement,  elected

M. P.  for  Limerick  ....  20  Sept.  1871
Home  rule  advocated  by  archbishop  McHale  and

others  of  the  Romanist  clergy  in  Ireland . . 1873
The  programme  of  the  party  requiring  an  Irish  par-
liament of  queen,  lords,  and  commons,  and  other
powers,  published .... 25  Oct. „
A.  conference  at  the  Rotondo,  Dublin,  reported  a

failure* 18 — 21  Nov. ,,

A  motion  in  the  commons  in  favour  of  home  rule

defeated  (314  to  52) ....  20  March,  1874
Mr.  I.  Butt's  motion  for  a  committee  on  the  sub-
ject, 30  June  ;  was  negatived  (458  to  61),  2,  3  July,  1875
again  (291  to  61),  30  June,  1  July,  1876 ;  again  (417
to  67) ...  .24  April,  1877

Stormy  convention  at  Dublin,  Mr.  Butt,  chairman,

21, 22  AUg. „

The  home  rule  party  in  the  house  of  commons  very
obstructive  (see  Parliament)  . . . . „

Meeting  of  home  rule  M.P.'s  at  Dublin  ;  Mr.  Butt
still  leader 9  Oct. ,,

He  virtually  gives  in  to  the  obstructionists,  Jan.  ;
resigns April,  1878

Meeting  at  Dublin,  14  Oct.;  continued  dissensions
between  moderate  party  (Mr.  Butt  and  others)
and  obstructives  (Mr.  Charles  Stewart  Parnell
and  others) .  ... Oct. — Nov. ,,

Death  of  Mr.  Butt,  5  May ;  succeeded  as  leader  by
Mr.  Win.  Shaw ^g

Mr.  Parnell  proposes  election  of  a  convention  to
meet  at  Dublin,  11  Sept.  ;  this  is  opposed  by
Mr.  W.  Shaw,  Mitchell  Henry,  and  others Sept. ,,

Meeting  at  Dublin ;  pronounced  opposition  to
British  government . . . . 20,  21  Jan.  1880

About  65  home  rulers  in  the  new  parliament,  under
Mr.  Shaw  and  Mr.  Parnell . . . April, „

Mr.  Parnell  chosen  by  45  as  parliamentary  chair-
man 17  May, ,,

31  home  rulers  voted  with  the  government ;  16  with
Mr.  Parnell 13  July, ,,

Home  rule  convention  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  9  Aug. ,,

Meeting  at  Dublin  ;  Mr.  Justin  McCarthy  appointed
vice-president ;  resolution  to  resist  coercion  in
Ireland  adopted . ; . . „ . 27  Dec. „


Trial  of  Mr.  Parnell  and  others  at  Dublin  (see
Trials) . . .  28  Dec,  1880 — 25  Jan.  1881

Strong  manifesto  of  Mr.  Parnell ;  a  counter  one  by
Mr  Shaw Feb. „

Home  rule  agitation  revived  ;  meeting  at  Dublin

8  Nov. ,,

Mr.  Shaw,  opposed  to  the  separatists,  secedes  from
the  party about  3  Dec. ,,

Home  rule  movement  in  Scotland;^  first  annual  meet-
ing of  the  burgh  convention  at  Edinburgh
propose  a  representative  assembly  to  legislate  on
Scotch  affairs,  subject  to  the  approval  of  parlia-
ment 4  April,  1882

Proposal  for  Scotch  home  rule  rejected  by  the
commons 20  Feb.  1890

Again  (no  house) 6  March,  1891

Home  rule  conference  at  Dundee,  25  Sept.  1889  ;  at
Edinburgh,  24  Sept.  1890 ;  again  at  Edinburgh,

12  March,  1892

The  home  rule  league  (closing  meeting,  24  Nov.
1882)  merged  into  Irish  national  league;  first
meeting 7  Feb.  1883

Mr. A. M. Sullivan, an eminent nationalist

died  17  Oct.  1884

Mr.  Parnell  and  85  followers  elected  for  parliament
Dec.  1885,  again, July  1886

For  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  government  (Home
Rule)  bill  see  Ireland  .... 8  April, ,,

British  home  rule  association  started  in  London,
10  Feb. ;  United  kingdom  home  rule  league  formed
23  July  ;  these  two  combined  as  the  home  rule
union about  1  Dec. ,,

Annual  meetings  held 1891

It  publishes  a  new  Home  Rule  bill  differing  from
Mr.  Gladstone's Aug. ,,

Dr.  Clarke's  resolution  for  giving  home  rule
separately  to  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales,
rejected  by  the  commons  . . 29  April,  1892

(See  Ireland,  Parliament,  and  Pamelliles.)

HOME  SECEETAEY,  see  Secretaries,  and
all  the  administrations  under  the  name  of  their
premier.  New  Home  Office,  Westminster,  occupied
6  Aug.  1875.

"  HOME,  Sweet  Home."  The  words  are
attributed  to  John  Howard  Payne,  an  American
actor,  who  died  in  1852 ;  the  music  is  said  to  be
Sicilian,  but  it  is  probably  by  sir  Henry  Bishop,
who  introduced  the  song  into  Clari,  or  the  Maid  of
Milan,  in  1823.

HOMEE'S  ILIAD  and  ODYSSEY,  the

earliest  and  most  perfect  epic  poems  in  the  world.
The  first  begins  with  the  wrath  of  Achilles,  and
ends  with  the  funeral  of  Hector;  the  second  re-
counts the  voyages  and  adventures  of  Ulysses,  after
the  destruction  of  Troy.  Various  dates  are  assigned
to  these  works,  from  962  to  915  B.C.  Among  the
thousands  of  volumes  burnt  at  Constantinople,
a.d.  477,  are  said  to  have  been  the  works  of  Homer,
written  in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a
dragon,  120  feet  long.

F.  A.  Wolf,  in  his  Prolegomena,  in  1795,  argued  that  the
Homeric  poems  were  composed  of  independent  epic
songs,  collected  and  arranged  by  Peisistratus  about
550  b.  c. This  theory  occasioned  much  controversy.

The  first  English  version  of  the  Iliad,  by  Arthur  Hall,
appeared  in  1581.  The  present  text  is  attributed  to  the
time  of  Pericles,  who  died  b.  c.  429.  The  most  cele-
brated versions  of  Homer's  works  are  Chapman's,  1616  ;
Hobbes',  1675 ;  Pope's,  1715-25  ;  Cowper's,  1791.  The
translation  of  the  Iliad  by  the  earl  of  Derby  (1S64)  is
much  commended.

HOMICIDE  is  said  to  have  been  tried  at  Athens
by  the  Areopagites.  Among  the  Jews,  wilful
murder  was  capital;  but  for  chance-medley  the
offender  was  to  tiee  to  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and
there  continue  till  the  death  of  the  high-priest,
1451  B.C.  (Num.  xxxv.).  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (1828),
distinguishes  between  justifiable  homicide  and
homicide  in  its  various  degrees  of  guilt,  and  cir-


HOMILDON HILL.


483


HORN;  HORNPIPE.


•cumstances  of  provocation  and  wilfulness;  see
Murder.

Animals  have  been  tried  and  punished  for  killing
human  beings.  A  bull  was  hanged  for  homicide
near  the  abbey  of  Beaupres . . . May,  1499

HOMILDON  HILL  (Northumberland), where
the  Scots,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Douglas,  were  de-
feated by  the  Percies  (among  them  Hotspur),  14
Sept.  1402.  Douglas  and  the  earls  of  Angus,  Mur-
ray, Orkney,  and  the  earl  of  Fife,  son  of  the  duke
of  Albany,  and  nephew  of  the  Scottish  king,  with
many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry,  were  takeD  pri-
soners.

HOMILIES  in  early  Christian  times  were  dis-
courses delivered  by  the  bishop  or  presbyter,  in  a
homely  manner,  for  the  common  people.  Charle-
magne's "  Honiilarium"  was  issued  809.  The  Book
of  Homilies  drawn  up  by  abp.  Cranmer,  and  pub-
lished 1547,  and  another  prepared  by  an  order  of
convocation,  1563,  were  ordered  to  be  read  in  those
•churches  that  had  not  a  minister  able  to  compose
iproper  discourses.

HOMOEOPATHY,  a  hypothesis  promulgated
in  his  '"Organon  of  Medicine,"  1810,  and  in  other
works,  by  Dr.  Samuel  Hahnemann,  of  Leipsic  (died
2  July,  1843),  according  to  which  every  medicine
has  a  specific  power  of  inducing  a  certain  diseased
state  of  the  system  {similia  similibus  curardur,  likes
are  cured  by  likes) ;  and  if  such  medicine  be  given
to  a  person  suffering  under  the  disease  which  it  has
a  tendency  to  induce,  such  disease  disappears,  be-
cause two  similar  diseased  actions  cannot  simul-
taneously subsist  in  the  same  organ.  Branch.
Infinitesimal  doses  of  medicine,  such  as  the  mil-
lionth of  a  grain  of  aloes,  have  been  employed,  it  is
said,  with  efficacy.  The  system  requires  the  patient
to  regulate  his  diet  and  habits  carefully.  It  has
led  to  a  more  accurate  study  of  the  materia  medica.
Introduced  into  England,  1827.  The  Hahnemann
hospital  was  opened  inBloomsbury-square,  16  Sept.
1850.  "  The  World's  Convention  of  Homoeopathic
Physicians"  opened  at  Philadelphia,  26  June,  1876,
London  School  of  Homoeopathy,  founded  15  Dec.
1876.  Homoeopathic  congress  met  at  Liverpool,
14  Sept.  1877.  Under  the  heading  Odium  Medicum,
inany  controversial  letters  from  allopaths  and
homoeopaths  appeared  in  the  Times,  Jan.  1888.

HOMOUSION and HOMOIOUSION

'{Greek,  same  essence,  and  similar  essence  or  being),
terms  employed  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  the
Father  and  the  Son  in  the  Trinity.  The  orthodox
party  adopt i-d  the  former  term  as  a  party  cry  at  the
council  of  Nice,  325  ;  the  Arians  adopted  the  latter
at  Seleucia,  359.

HOMS,  Syria. Here  Ibrahim  Pacha  and  the

Egyptians  severely  defeated  the  Turks,  8  July,  1832.

HONDURAS,  discovered  by  Columbus  in
1502,  and  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  1523,  is
one  of  the  republics  of  Central  America  ;  see
America.  Great  Britain  ceded  the  Bay  Islands
to  Honduras,  28  Nov.  1859.  President,  general
J.  M.  Medina,  elected  1  Feb.  1864,  and  in  1869.
Provisional  president,  C,  Arias  (Dec.  1872).  P.
Leiva,  1875;  M .  A.  Soto,  29  May,  1877 ;  general  Louis
Bogran,  27  Nov.  1883 ;  re-elected,  1887.  Gen.
Pariano  Leista  elected  10  Nov.  1891.  War  with
San  Salvador,  May,  187 1,  and  May,  1872.  The
town  of  Oni'ia,  Spanish  Honduras,  was  bombarded
by  H.M.S.  Niobe,  to  obtain  redress  for  injuries  to
British  subjects,  19  Aug.  1873.  Population,  1889,
43Ii9I7  !  capital,  Comayagua.
Insurrection  ;  Tegucigalpa  besieged  ;  the  president,

gen.  Bogran,  surrounded  ;  reported  11  Nov.  ;  he


escapes,  gen.  Sanchez  holds  the  capital,  12  Nov. ;
gen.  Bogran  recovers  the  capital ;  gen.  Sanchez

commits  suicide 15  Nov.  1890

Insurrection,  headed  by  sen. L.  Sierra,  reported
12  Dee.  ;  sen.  Bonilla  proclaimed  president

12  Dec.  1891

British  Honduras,  Central  America,  was  settled
by  English  from  Jamaica  soon  after  a  treaty  with
Spain  in  1667.  They  were  often  disturbed  by  the
Spaniards,  and  sometimes  expelled,  till  1783.  Balize
or  Belize,  the  capital,  is  a  great  seat  of  the  maho-
gany trade.  In  1861,  the  population  was  25,635  ;
in  1881,  27,452;  1891,  31,471-  Governor,  James
K.  Longden,  1867;  Wm.  VV.  Cairns,  1870;  major
Robert  Miller  Mundy,  1874;  r-  p-  Barlee,  1877;
Roger  Tuckfield  G<dd"sworthy,  1884;  sir  Cornelius
A.  Moloney,  Feb.  1891.

HONG-KONGr,  an  island  off  the  coast  of
China,  was  taken  by  capt.  Elliott,  23  Aug.  1839,
and  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  20  Jan.  1841.  Its
chief  town  is  Victoria,  built  in  1842,  and  erected
into  a  bishopric  in  1849.  Sir  John  Bowring,  gover-
nor from  1854  to  1859,  was  succeeded  by  sir  Hercules
Robinson:  Governors,  sir  Rich.  G.  MacDonnell,
1865 ;  sir  Arthur  Edward  Kennedy,  1872 ;  John
Pope  Hennessy,  Nov.  1876;  sir  G.  F.  Bowen,  Dec.
1882 ;  sir  G.  C.  Strahan,  appointed  Jan.  1887 ;
died  17  Feb.  1887;  sir  George  William  des  Voeux,
1887;  sir  Wm.  Robinson,  July,  1891.  Population
200,99©  (1886).
The  queen's  jubilee  warmly  celebrated  by  the  British

and  Chinese,  9,  10  Nov.  1887.
The  governor,  sir  Geo.  W.  des  Vceux,  reports  the  flourish-
ing state  of  the  colony,  Nov.  1889.
Visit  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught,  1-4  April,
1890.

HONI  SOIT  QFI  MAL  Y  PENSE,  "Evil
be  to  him  who  evil  thinks."  It  is  mythically  said
that  the  countess  of  Salisbury,  at  a  ball  at  court,
happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king,  Edward  III. ,
took  it  up,  and  presented  it  to  her,  with  these  words,
which  afterwards  became  the  motto  of  the  order  of
the  garter ;  see  Garter.

HONOUR.  Temples  were  erected  to  Honour  by
Scipio  Africanus,  about  197  B.C. ;  and  by  C.  Marius,
about  102  B.C. — The  Legion  of  Honour  was  created
by  Bonaparte  in  1802.

HONVEDS,  the  militia  of  Hungary.  They
supported  the  rebellion  against  the  emperor  in  1849,
but  on  the  completion  of  the  changes  whereby  the
independence  of  Hungary  was  secured,  in  1868,
they  offered  a  loyal  address  to  the  emperor-king.

HOOKS  AND  CODFISH,  party  names,  see
Holland,  1347.

HOOP-PETTICOAT,  see  Crinoline.

HOPS  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  into
England  from  Flanders  in  the  early  part  of  the
1 6th  century,  and  to  have  been  much  cultivated  in
Kent  by  Reginald  Scot  in  the  16th  century.  In
the  year  ending  5  Jan.  1853,  there  were  46,157!
acres  under  hops  in  England  and  Wales,  chiefly  in
Herefordshire,  Kent,  and  Worcestershire,  which
paid  447,144^.  duly;  the  quantity  yielded  was
51, 102,494  lbs.,  whereof  955,855  luS-  were  exPolted-
The  duty  on  hops  was  repealed  in  1862,  after  many
applications.  An  act  for  preventing  fraud  in  the
trade  was  passed  in  June,  1866.— The  hop  and  malt
exchange,  Southwark,  was  opened  in  Oct.  1867.

HORATII AND CURIATII, see Borne,

669  B.C.

HORN ;  HORNPIPE.  The  horn  is  thought
to  be,  next  to  the  reed,  the  earliest  wind  instrument,


HOENE  TOOKE.


484


HOETICULTUEE.


and  has  been  found  among  most  savage  nations.  It
was  first  made  of  horn,  hence  the  name  ;  afterwards
of  brass,  with  keys,  for  the  semi-tones,  in  the  last
century. — The  dance  called  the  Hornpipe  is  sup-
posed to  be  so  named  from  its  having  been  per-
formed to  the  Welsh  pib-com,  that  is  hornpipe,
about  1300.  Spencer.  Many  hornpipes  were  com-
posed in  the  1 8th  century.  The ' <  College  hornpipe ' '
was  very  popular.

HOENE  TOOKE,  &c.  The  trial  of  Messrs.
Hardy,  Tooke,  Joyce,  Thelwall,  and  others,  on  a
charge  of  high  treason,  caused  a  great  sensation.
They  were  taken  into  custody  on  20  May,  1794.
Mr.  Hardy  was  tried  29  Oct.,  and,  after  a  trial  of
eight  days,  was  honourably  acquitted.  John  Home
Tooke  was  tried  and  acquitted,  20  Nov. ;  and  Mr.
Thelwall  was  acquitted,  5  Dec;  the  others  were
discharged.  Acts  were  passed  to  prohibit  Mr.  Thel-
wall's  political  lectures  in  1795.

HOEOLOGY,  see  Clocks.  The  British  Horo-
logical  institute,  Clerkenwell,  London,  established
in  1858,  for  the  benefit  of  watchmakers,  publishes  a
monthly  journal.

HOESE.  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excel-
lent equestrians,  and  probably  first  among  the
Greeks  who  broke  them  in  for  service  in  war;
whence  probablv  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was
originally  inhabited  by  centaurs.  "Solomon  had
40,000  stalls  of  horses  for  his  chariots,  and  12,000
horsemen,"  1014  B.C.  1  Kings  iv.  26.  The  Greeks
and  Komnns  had  some  covering  to  secure  their
horses'  hoofs  from  injury.  In  the  9th  century
horses  were  only  shod  in  time  of  frost.  Shoeing
was  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.,  1066.
"The  Horse,"  by  W.  Youatt,  new  edition,  1880.
See  Races.

British  horses.  Their  great  strength  is  described  by
Julius  Csesar  about  54  b.c.  Henry  VIII.  estab-
lished a  royal  stud,  and  enacted  laws  to  promote
the  breed  of  strong  horses  in  certain  shires,  hence
the  term  shire  horses ;  these  afterwards  became
draught  or  cart  horses.
The  horse-tax  was  imposed  in  1784.  Its  operation
was  extended,  and  its  amount  increased,  in  1796  ;
and  again  in  1808.  The  existing  duty  upon
"horses  for  riding"  only,  in  England,  amounts  to

about  350,0002.  per  year 1862

Annual  licence  duty  on  horses  and  mules,  10s.  6tf.
each ;  horse-dealers'  licence,  12Z.  10s.  (act  passed
1869) . • • • . • • • • • • l87°

Mr.  J.  S.  Rarey,  an  American,  made  a  great  sensa-
tion in  London  by  taming  vicious  and  wild  horses,
and  even  a  zebra  from  the  Zoological  Gardens.
His  system  is  founded  on  a  profound  study  of  the
disposition  of  the  animal,  and  on  kindness. He
initiated  many  illustrious  persons  in  his  method
(on  20  March,  lord  Palmerston  and  twenty  others)
binding  them  to  secrecy ;  from  which  they  were
released  in  June,  when  his  book  was  reprinted  in
England  without  his  consent . .  1858,  1859

He  was  engaged  to  instruct  cavalry  officers  and

riding  masters  of  the  army . . . July,  1859
He  gave  a  lecture  to  the  London  cabmen,  12  Jan.
i860  ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  received  a  present
of  20  guineas  from  the  Society  for  the  Prevention
of  Cruelty  to  Animals .... May,  i860

Mr. Sydney Galvayne, Australian horse-trainer,
exhibited and  taught  his  method of training
at  the  Wellington  Riding  School,  London,  June,
1890  ;  his  patrons  included  the  queen  with  many
peers  and  military  officers.
Great  annual  horse-shows  held  at  the  Agricultural
Hall,  Islington,  began .... July,  1864

Horse-flesh.  An  establishment  for  the  sale  of  it  as
human  food  was  opened  at  Paris  on  9  July,  1866,
with  success,  and  its  use  as  food  strongly  advo-
cated. About  150  persons  (including  sir  Henry
Thompson  and  sir  John  Lubbock)  dined  on  horse-
flesh at  the  Langhani  hotel,  London  . .  6  Feb. 1868


A  great  Franco-Anglo-American  horse,  mule,  and

donkey  banquet  was  held  at  Paris  . .  3  April,  1875.
The  sale  of  horse-flesh,  &c,  regulation  act,  passed

24  June,  1889
Subscriptions  (of  100L  each  person  for  five  years)
to  improve  the  breed  of  horses,  proposed  by  earl
Calthorpe,  headed  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  many
nobles  and  gentlemen,  the  London  General  Omni-
bus Company,  and  others  .  .  .  June,  1875
Horse-shoes.  Goodenough's  American  horse-shoes,
made  by  machinery,  put  on  cold  (patented  i860),
were  used  by  the  London  General  Omnibus  Com-
pany, Oct. -Dec.  1868.  The  international  horse-
shoe company  for  adopting  the  patent  was  estab-
lished early  in 187c*

Horse  epidemic  ("  epizootic  "),  from  Canada,  at  New
York,  Boston,  &c. ,  caused  much  inconvenience,

Oct.  1872
Scarcity  of  horses  in  Britain  ;  a  commission  of  in-
quiry appointed,  Feb. ,  reported  (no  result) Aug.  1873;
[Another  commission  issued  its  report  Dec.  1887.
The queen's  plate for  races  in Great Britain
abolished,  and  the  money  to  be  devoted  to  the
improvement  of  the  breed  of  horses.]
Stud  Company, to  improve  the  breed  of  horses,
held  first  annual  meeting . . .20  Sept. „

Horse  duty  taken  off . 1874

British Empire Horse-supply  Association, esta-
blished Spring  1878

English  Cart-horse  Society  (since  named  the  Shire
Horse  Society),  established,  earl  of  Ellesmere,
president,  3  June,  1878.  The  shows  are  held  at
the  Agricultural  hall,  Islington.
The  queen  and  some  of  the  royal  family,  present  at
the  show  of  the  Hunter  and  Hackney  Horse  Show
at  the  Agricultural  hall  .  .  .5  March,  i8gr
13th  annual  Shire  horse  show  at  the  Agricultural

hall 23  Feb.  1892.

The  English  Horse  Society's  first  show  at  Olympia,

W.  Kensington,  15  May,  1889  ;  at  Islington,  29  May,  1890
Horses  imported 1862-1872, 79,000; 1873- 1882,
197,000. Horses  now  exported,  1890,  12,192.

HOESE  GUAEDS.  The  regiment  is  said  to
have  been  instituted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.
1550,  and  revived  by  Charles  II.  1661.  The  first
troop  of  Horse  Grenadier  Guards  was  raised  in  1693,
and  was  commanded  by  general  Cholmondeley;  and
the  second  troop,  commanded  by  lord  Forbes,  was
raised  in  1702.  There  was  a  reduction  of  the  Horse
and  Grenadier  Guards,  and  Life  Guards,  as  now
established,  were  raised  in  their  room,  26  May,
1788.  Philips.  The  present  edifice  called  the
Horse  Guards  was  erected  about  1758.  In  the  front
are  two  small  arches,  where  horse-soldiers,  in  full
uniform,  daily  mount  guard.  In  the  building  was
formerly  the  office  of  the  commander-in-chief,  now
in  Pall  Mall.

HOESE-EACING,  see  Races.

HOETENSIAN  LAW,  passed  by  Q.  Hor-
tensius,  dictator,  286  B.C.,  after  the  secession  of  the
plebeians  to  the  Janiculum,  affirmed  the  legislative
power  granted  them  by  previous  laws  in  446  and
336  B.C.

HOETICULTUEE  (from  hortus  and  cultura) ,
the  art  of  cultivating  gardens  ;  see  Gardening.

The  (now  royal)  Horticultural  society  of  London
founded  by  sir  Joseph  Banks  and  others  in  1804  ;
incorporated, 17  April, 1809; transactions  first

published 1812

Planting  the  garden  at  Chiswick  begun . . . 1822

Annual  exhibitions 1831

The  library  sold 1859

Proposal  for  laying  out  a  garden  for  the  society  on
the  Brompton  estate,  belonging  to  the  Crystal
Palace  Commissioners,  July,  1859 ;  received  the
support  of  the  queen,  nobility,  &c. ,  and  Mr.
Nesfield's  design  was  adopted,  May,  i860 ;  the
new  gardens  opened  by  the  prince  consort,  who
planted  a  Wellingtonia  gigantea  (which  see)  5  June.
The  queen  planted  one . . . .24  July  i86r


HOSIEEY.


48-5


HOSPITALS.


Dr.  John  Lindley  (who  "  raised  horticulture  from
an  empirical  art  to  a  developed  science  ")  secre-
tary, 1822-62 died  1  Nov.  1865

The  Albert  memorial  uncovered  in  the  presence  of
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales . . 10  June,  1863

An  International  Horticultural  exhibition  was
opened  in  the  gardens. . . . 23-31  May,  1866

International  horticultural  exhibition  opened

24  Aug.  1881

The  society  compelled  to  quit  south  Kensington,
the  greater  part  of  the  ground  being  required  for
the  imperial  institute.  The  council  of  the
society  proposes  important  alterations  and
.appeals  for  support,  9  Dec.  1887.  At  the
annual  meeting,  14  Feb.  1888,  arrangements
were  made  for  the  maintenance  of  the  society.
.Shows  to  be  held  at  the  drill  hall  of  the  London
Scottish  volunteers,  James-street,  Westminster  ;
first  opened  27  March,  1888.  The  revival  of  the
society  reported  at  the  meeting  . . 12  Feb.  1889

International  horticultural  exhibition  at  Earl's
court,  Kensington,  with  extra  attractions  (in-
cluding "  the  Wild  West,"  by  col.  Cody),  opened
by  the  duke  of  Connaught  ... 7  May,  1892

Horticultural  societies  established  at  Edinburgh,
1809  ;  at  Dublin 1817

HOSIERY,  see  Stockings,  and  Cotton.
HOSPITALLEES,  see  Malta.
HOSPITAL  SUNDAYS  are  said  to  have
iegun  at  Birmingham,  13  JSov.  1859.  Glasgow
began  hospital  Sundays  about  1844.  It  is  said  the
present  system  of  hospital  Sunday  began  at  Man-
chester in  1870.  Near  the  end  of  1872,  it  was  pro-
posed that  collections  for  the  benefit  of  hospitals  and
dispensaries  in  London  should  be  annually  made  on
•one  Sunday  in  the  year  at  all  places  of  worship.
A  committee  for  effecting  this  met  at  the  Mansion-
Jhouse,  31  Jan.  1873;  and  soon  after,  15  June  was
appointed  as  the  day  for  the  collection.

Hospital  Sundays  in  London  :
1873.  15  June.  About  25,511?.,  received  on  the  day
from  about  1200  places  of  worship,  including
Jews  ;  1859?.  received  afterwards  (July).
24,571?.  awarded  to  54  hospitals;  2185?.  to
53  dispensaries.

14  June.  About  29,817?.  received.
13  June.  About  26,703?.  received.
18  June. About  27,042?.  received.

(23,943?.  awarded  to  73  hospitals  ;  2,336?.  to

45  dispensaries,  9  Aug.  1876.)
17  June. 26,083?.  received  ;  25,870?.  distributed.
30  June. About  24,904?.  received,  25  July.

15  June. 26,501?.  received  ;  24,961?.  distributed.
13  June. 12,000?. received, 16  June ; 29,000?.,

5  July;  30,000?.,  12  July; 30,411?.,  31  Oct.  ;
total,  30,423?.,  Nov.

1881.  19  June  ;  received  up  to  29  June,  25,000?.  ;  Nov.

31,855'-

1882.  11  June  ;  total  receipts  (9  Dec.)  34,146?.

1883.  10  June  ;  26,000?. ;  19  June  ;  total,  33,935?.;  1  Dec.

39.329'-

1884.  15  June  ;  11  July;  32,000?.

1885.  14  June  ;  total  receipts,  34,320?.  ;  Dec.

1886.  27  June  ;  total  receipts,  40,399?. ;  30  Nov.

1887.  19  June  ;  total  receipts,  40,607?.  ;  30  Nov.
2888. 10  June  ;  total  receipts,  40,379?.  ;  10  Dec.

1889. 23  June  ;  amount  received  up  to  29  July,  41,107?.  ;

up  to  31  Oct.  41,744?.
2890. 8  June;  amount  received  up  to  n  June,  about

15,000?.  ;  28  Nov.  42,814?.
S891. 7  June  ;  amount  received  up  to  2  July,  39,000?.  ;

24 Nov. 45,330?. (5,000?. from the  duke of

Cleveland and 1,000?. from sir Savile

Crossley).
1892. 19  June  ;  received,  29  July,  40,228?.  (sir  Savile

Crossley,  1,000?.,  24  June).
Hospital Saturdays  in  London  for  work-
men, began 17 Oct. 1874, tae movement being
greatly  promoted  by  capt.  Charles  Mercier  and  lord
Brabazon ;  about  6463/.  said  to  have  been  collected  :


1874.

£■875.
E876.


2877.
2878.
1879.


1875.

31  July  .

• 5,343'-

1878.

7  Sept. .

. 6,528?.

z876.

2  Sept. .

• 5,525'-

1879.

6  Sept. .

• 6,152?.

1877.

1  Sept. .

4,500?.

1S80.

4  Sept. .

. 6,604?.

1881.  3  Sept. . . 8,372?.  I  1883. 1  Sept. . . 9,497?.

1882.  2  Sept. . . 8,861?.  I  1884. 6  Sept. . .  10,173?.

1885.  18  July  ;  total  receipts,  11,192?.  8s.  iokZ. ;  31  Dec.

1886.  17  July  ;  total  receipts,  12,213?.  !  31  Cec.

1887.  11  June;  total  receipts,  11,300?.;  Dec.

1888.  14  July  ;  receipts,  9,069?.  ;  11,426?.  Dec.

1889.  13  July  ; outdoor receipts, 4,644?.  ; workshop

collections,  8,800?.  ;  total,  14,090?.

1890.  12  July ; outdoor receipts,  5,096?.  ; workshop

collections, nearly 15,000?.  ; total receiijts,
Jan.  1891,  20,333?.

1891.  18  July  ;  receipts  up  to  4  Jan.  1892,  19,646?.

1892.  16  July  ;  receipts  up  to  8  Sept.,  nearly  1,200?.

HOSPITALS,  originally  Eospitia  for  the
reception  of  travellers.  That  at  Jerusalem,  built
by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  11 12,  was  capable  of
receiving  2000  guests,  and  included  an  infirmary
for  the  sick.  The  "five  royal  hospitals"  under
"  the  pious  care  of  the  lord-mayor  of  London,"  are
St.  Bartholomew's,  St.  Thomas's,  Bridewell,  Beth-
lehem, and  Christ's  ;  see  Infirmaries,  and  Dispen-
saries. Benjamin  Attwood,  who  gave  anonymously
about  250,000?".  in  cheques  of  1000Z.  to  hospitals,
&c,  died  in  1874.  In  April,  1890,  the  house  of  lords
appointed  a  select  committee  to  enquire  into  the
management  of  metropolitan  hospitals  and  similar
institutions,  first  sitting  5  May.  Reports  issued,
1890,  1891, 1892.  The  Hospital,  a  weekly  periodical,
first  appeared,  1886.

In  1 883  there  were  in  the  metropolis  24  general  and
no  special  hospitals  ;  described  in  Low's  hand-
book to  the  charities  of  London.
Royal  Commission  respecting  hospitals  for  in-
fectious diseases  (lord  Blachford,  sir  James
Paget,  and  others)  appointed  . . Nov.  1881

The  Hospitals  Association  for  the  consideration  and
discussion  of  hospital  management,  &c. ,  origin-
ated in  the  National  Social  Science  Association,

1881,  et  seq.  ;  founded 1884

Bethlehem  (oldest  lunatic  asylum  in  Europe  except

one  at  Granada)  founded 1547

Cancer,  Brompton 1851

Charing-cross,  founded  1818  ;  new  hospital  built . 1831

Consumption,  Brompton 1841

Dental 1858

Dreadnought  ship  (seaman's) 1821

Evelina  (baron  Rothschild's) 1869

Fever - . 1802

Free  Royal,  Gray's  Inn-lane 1828

German,  Dalston 1845

Great  Northern,  1856;  New  Central  at  Holloway  . 1888

Guy's  (see  Guy's) 1721

Hahnemann  (homoeopathic) 1850

Idiots' 1847

Incurables 1850

Jews' 1747

King's  College 1839

Lock  1746

London 1740

London  Ophthalmic,  Royal,  Finsbury . . . 1804
London  Ophthalmic,  Central,  Gray's  Inn-road . .  1843

Lying-in,  British 1749

,, City  of  London 1750

,, General,  Lambeth 1765

,, Queen  Charlotte's 1752

,, Queen  Adelaide's 1824

Middlesex 1745

National  Dental,  Gt.  Portland-street . . .  1861
North-west  London  hospital,  Kentish-town-road. 1878

Orthopaedic 1838

Samaritan  Kree,  for  women  and  children .  1847  and  1889

Small  Pox 1746

St.  Bartholomew's  (see  Bartholomew,  St.) . 1102,  1546

St.  George's .  .  1733

St.  John's,  Leicester  Square  (skin)  .... 1863

St.  Luke's  (lunatics) 1751

St.  Mark's 1835

St.  Mary-le-bone 1871

St.  Mary's,  Paddingtou 1843

St.  Thomas's  (removed  1862  and  1871)  . . . .  1553
Sick  Children,  1851  ;  new  building  opened . Nov. 1875
Temperance  Hospital,  opened . . . Oct.  1873
Throat,  Golden-square,  founded  by  Dr.  (after  sir)
Morell  Mackenzie  .  ....  1863


HOST.


486


HUDSON'S BAY.


Throat  and  Ear  diseases,  Gray's  Inn-road March,  1874

University  College 1833

"Westminster 1719

Westminster  Ophthalmic,  Royal 1816

"Women's,  Soho-square 1842

"Women  and  Children  (superintended  by  women),

Crawford-street 1866

HOST,  ELEVATIOX  OF  THE,  introduced  into
Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  prostration,  said  to
have  been  enjoined  about  1201.  Pope  Gregory  IX.
was  the  first  pontiff  who  decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung  as
a  signal  for  the  people  to  adore  the  host,  1228.  Pees.
HOT  BLAST,  see  Blowing  Machine.

HOTEL  DE  YILLE,  Paris,  the  residence
of  the  chief  magistrate,  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  was
begun  in  1533,  and  completed,  after  his  own  design,
by  Dominico  da  Cortona,  1628.  Here  La  Fayette
introduced  Louis- Philippe,  the  citizen-king,  to  the
people,  Aug.  1830 ;  and  here  the  republic  was  pro-
claimed, 26  Feb.  1848.  The  communists,  who  had
established  themselves  here,  set  fire  to  the  building,
24  May,  1871,  after  their  total  defeat.  The  Hotel
was  reopened  13  July,  1882.

H6TEL  DIEU  see  Pares,  656,  1S77.

HOTEL METBOPOLE, Northumberland

Avenue,  London,  an  enormous  building  with  highly
decorated  suites  of  rooms,designed  by  F.  &  H. Francis,
F.  F.  Sanders  and  others,  completed  May,  1885.

HO  UK.  The  early  Egyptians  divided  the  day
and  night  each  into  twelve  hours,  a  custom  adopted
by  Jews  or  Greeks  probably  from  the  Babylonians.
The  da3-  is  said  to  have  been  first  divided  into  hours
from  293  B.C.,  when  L.  Papirius  Cursor  erected  a
sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Pome.  Pre-
viously to  the  invention  of  water-clocks  (which  see)
158  B.C.,  the  time  was  called  at  Rome  by  public
criers.  In  England,  the  measurement  of  time  was.
in  early  days,  uncertain :  one  expedient  was  by
wax  caudles,  three  inches  burning  an  hour,  and  sis
wax  candles  burning  twenty-four  hours,  said  to
have  been  invented  by  Alfred,  a.d  886  ;  see  Day.
For  Hours  of  Prayer,  see  Breviary.  The  Hour,
daily  conservative  newspaper,  first  appeared,  24
March,  1873  ;  last  time,  11  Aug.  1876.

HOUSE  DUTY  was  imposed  in  1695.  Its
rate  was  frequently  changed  till  its  repeal.  It  was
re-imposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  window-tax,  in
1851.  The  duty  was  reduced  for  houses  rented  at
from  20/.  to  40/.  to  2d.,  and  for  those  rented  at  from
40^.  to  60/.  to  4.0*.  and  bd.,  17  April,  1890.  In  the
year  1872-3  it  produced  1,243,818/. ;  in  1875-6,
1,421,052/. ;  1880,  1,623,000/. ;  1885,  1,885,000/. ;
1891,  1,570,000/.  See  Taxes.  House  League,  see
Ireland,  1886.

HOUSEHOLD  SUFFBAGE,  after  one
year's  residence,  was  introduced  into  parliamentary
elections  for  boroughs,  by  the  reform  act  passed  15
Aug.  1867.  Attempts  have  been  frequently  made
to  extend  household  suffrage  to  counties,  and  have
failed ;  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  G.  0.  Trevelyan's  pro-
posal lost  in  the  commons  (287  to  173)*,  13  May,
1874;  (268  to  166),  7  July,  1875;  (264  to  165),  ^o
May,  1876;  (276  to  220),  29  June,  1877;  (271  to
219),  22-23  FeD-  1878;  (291  to  226),  4  March,
1879. The  object  was  effected  by  the  act  of  1884-5.

HOUSELESS  POOB  ACT  (Metropolitan)
passed,  1864;  made  perpetual,  1865.  See  1'oor  and
Artisans'.

HOUSE  of  Commons,  Lords, &c,  see

Parliament,  Lords,  and  Commons.

HOUSING  OF  THE  POOB  ACT,  rassed
14  Aug.  1885 ;  another  important  act  passed,  iS
Aug.  1890;  Bee  under  Artisans.


HOYAS,  see  Madagascar.

HOWABD  ASSOCIATION,  instituted  in
1866,  under  the  patronage  of  the  late  lord  Brougham,
for  the  improvement  of  prison  discipline  and  pre-
vention of  crime.  See  Prisons.  The  annual  award
of  a  Howard  medal  was  determined  on  by  the  Sta-
tistical Society  of  London,  Dec.  1873.

HOWABD  FAMILY.  John  Howard,  son,
of  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  the  Mowbrays,  was-
created  earl  marshal  and  the  7th  duke  of  Norfolk  in.
1483.  He  was  slain  with  his  master,  Richard  III.,.
at  Bosworth,  22  Aug.  1485.  His  son  was  restored
to  the  earldom  of  Surrey  in  1489 ;  in  reward  for
having  gained  the  victory  of  Flodden,  9  Sept.  1513,
he  was  created  the  8th  duke  of  Norfolk,  in  1514-
Thomas,  the  10th  duke,  was  beheaded  for  conspiracy
against  queen  Elizabeth  on  behalf  of  Mary,  queen-
of  Scots,  in  1572.  Henry  Fitzalan  Howard,  now
the  2 1  st  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  the  15th  of  the-
Howard  family,  premier  duke  and  earl  of  England
and  hereditary  earl  marshal,  wras  born  in  1847.

HOWABD  MEDAL.  One  was  awarded  by
the  Statistical  Society  to  the  best  essay  "  On  the-
Improvements  in  Education  during  the  18th  and'
19th  centuries,"  in  Nov.  1S79.

HOWITZEB,  a  German  piece  of  ordnance,
ranking  between  a  cannon  and  a  mortar,  came  intc>
use  early  in  the  18th  century.

HUASCAE,  see  Peru,  1877  and  1S79.

HUBEBTSBUBG  (Saxony).  The  treaty
between  the  empress,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  the-
elector  of  Bavaria,  signed  here,  15  Feb.  1763,  ended
the  Seven  years'  war,  whereby  Prussia  gained
Silesir,

HUDDEBSFIELD,  a  manufacturing  town,.
W.  R.  Yorkshire,  chiefly  the  property  of  the  Rams-
den  family.  Sir  John  Ramsden  built  the  town-
hall,  1765.  The  theatre  was  burnt,  i5thFeb.  1880-
the  new  market  hall  opened, 31  March,  1880.  Popu-
lation, 1881,  86,502  ;  1891,95,422.
First  Musical  Festival  .  .  .  20-22  Oct.  18S1
Fine  art  and  industrial  exhibition  opened  1  July,  1883,
Beaumont  park  opened by  the  duke of  Albany

13  Oct. ,,

HUDIBBAS.  The  first  three  cantos  of  this
political  satire,  by  Samuel  Butler,  appeared  in.
1663  ;  the  other  parts  in  1664  and  1678.

HUDSON'S  BAY,  discovered  by  Sebastian
Cabot,  1512,  and  re-discovered  by  captain  Henry
Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a  north-west  passage  to
the  Pacific  Ocean,  1610,  had  been  visited  by
Frobisher.  The  "governor  and  company  of  adven-
turers of  England  trading  to  Hudson' s  Bay ,"  obtained
a  charter  from  Charles  II.  in  1670.  The  "fertile-
belt"  was  settled  by  lord  Selkirk  in  1812.  For
these  territories  the  bishopric  of  Rupert's  Land
was  founded,  1849.  The  charter  having  expired,,
the  chief  part  of  the  company's  territories,  on  the-
proposition  of  earl  Granville,  the  colonial  secretary
(9  March,  1869),  were  transferred  to  the  Dominion
of  Canada  for  300,000/.,  and  a  right  to  claim  a  cer-
tain portion  of  land  within  fifty  years,  and  other
privileges;  the  company  having  consented  to  this,
9  April,  1869.  A  portion  of  the  people  resisted  the
annexation,  and  gen.  Louis  Riel  proclaimed  inde-
pendence and  seized  the  company's  treasury,  Jam
1870.  On  3  or  4  March  he  tried  and  shot  Thomas
Scott,  a  Canadian,  who  had  escaped  from  his  cus-
tody. Col.  (afterwards  lord)  Wolseley  con-
ducted a  Canadian  expedition  to  the  territories  (now
named  Manitoba),  and  issued  a  proclamation  to  the
loyal  inhabitants,  23  July, saying  "our  mission


HUE.


487


HUNGARY.


is  one  of  peace."  Kiel  was  unsupported  and  offered
no  resistance.  The  licut. -governor,  Adams  George
Archibald,  arrived  3  Sept.  The  Company  had  a
large sale of  furs in 1888. See Manitoba and

Western  Territories.

HUE,  see  Tonquin,  1883.

HUE  AND  CRY,  the  old  common-law  pro-
cess of  pursuing  "  with  horn  and  with  voice,"  from
hundred  to  hundred,  and  county  to  county,  all
robbers  and  felons.  Formerly,  the  hundred  was
bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occasioned  by  the  rob-
beries therein  committed,  unless  the  felon  were
taken;  but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made  answer-
able only  for  damage  committed  by  riotous
assemblies.  Tbe  pursuit  of  a  felon  was  aided
by  a  description  of  him  in  the  Hue  and  Cry,  a
gazette  established  for  advertising  felons  in  17 10.
Ashe.

HUGSTETTEN,  Baden;  see  Railway  Acci-
dents, 1882.

HUGUENOT  SOCIETY  of  London,  estab-
lished by  sir  H.  Austen  Layard  and  other  descend-
ants of  Huguenots,  about  15  April,  1885.  The
society  publishes  historical  works,  1888.

HUGUENOTS,  a  term  (derived  by  some  from
the  German  Jiidgeuossen,  confederates ;  by  others
from  Hugues,  a  Genevese  Calvinist)  applied  to  the
Reformed  party  in  France,  followers  of  Calvin.
They  took  up  arms  against  their  persecutors  in
1561.  After  a  delusive  edict  of  toleration,  a  great
number  were  massacred  at  Vassy,  1  March,  1562,
when  the  civil  wars  began,  which  lasted  with  some
intermission  till  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1598  (re-
voked in  1685).  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's
day,  24  Aug.  1572,  occurred  during  a  truce ;  see
Culvinists,  Protestants,  Bartholomew,  Edict,  and
Camisard.  S.  Smiles's  ''  History  of  the  Huguenots,"
appeared  in  1867.  The  crypt  in  Canterbury  cathe-
dral, assigned  to  French  protestants  in  1550,  is
still  used  by  them  for  divine  worship.

HULL  (E.  Yorkshire),  a  rising  commercial
place  in  1200,  was  named  Kingston-upon-Hull  in
1296  by  Edward  I.,  who  purchased  the  town,
formed  the  port,  and  granted  a  charter.  Great  fire  ;
damage  about  100,000^.,  15  Aug.  1864.  Royal
Albert  dock  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  21
July,  1869.  Inauguration  of  the  Alexandra  dock,
and  the  Hull  and  Bamsley  railway,  23  Jan.  1883.
Dr.  Hillmuth  appointed  Suffragan  Bishop  of  Hull
(under  Ripon),  March,  1883.  Fire  at  Messrs.  Stead's
crushing  mills,  about  80,000/.  damage,  16  March,
1885.  il  ull  returns  three  M. P. 's  by  act  passed  25
June,  1885.  See  under  Population.  Serious  dis-
pute between  the  Shipping  Federation  and  the
Dockers'  Union  closed  31  Dec.  1890.

HULSE'S  FOUNDATIONS.  The  rey.
John  Hulse,  who  died  in  1790,  bequeathed  his
estates  in  Cheshire  to  the  university  of  Cambridge
for  the  advancement  of  religious  learning : — by  the
maintenance  of  two  scholars;  the  payment  of  a
prize  of  40/.  annually  for  a  theological  dissertation  ;
the  establishment  of  the  office  of  Christian  advocate
(made  a  professorship  of  divinity,  1  Aug.  i860) ;  and
the  payment  of  a  lecturer,  to  be  chosen  annually.
The  first  Hulsean  lectures  were  given  by  the  rev.
Christopher  Benson,  in  1820.

HUMAITA,  a  strong  post  on  the  river  Para-
guay, fortified  at  a  great  cost  with  a  battery  of
300  cannon,  by  Lopez,  the  president  of  Paraguay,
and  believed  to  be  impregnable,  was  passed  by  the
Brazilian  ironclads,  17  Feb.  1868.  On  the  19th,
Caxias,  the  Brazilian  general, stormed  a  work  to


the  north  of  Humaita,  and  captured  many  stores.
Humaita  itself,  after  a  severe  siege,  was  abandoned,
24  July,  1868.

HUMANE  SOCIETY,  ROYAL  (London),
for  the  recovery  of  persons  apparently  drowned,
was  founded  in  1774,  by  Dr».  Goldsmith,  Heberden,
Towers,  Lettsom,  JIawes,  and  Cogan,  but  princi-
pally by  the  last  three.  The  society  has  above  280
depots  supplied  with  apparatus.  The  principal  one
was  erected  in  1794,  on  a  spot  of  ground  given  by
George  III.  on  the  north  side  of  the  Serpentine
river,  Hyde-park.  The  motto  of  this  society  is
appropriate — "  Latcat  scintillula  forsan" — "a
small  spark  may  perhaps  lie  hid."  Nearly  500
persons  were  relieved  in  1887;  544  in  1890;  536
persons  rewarded  for  bravery.  See  Itrowning,  and
Lisbon,  Dec.  1890.

HUMANISM,  a  name  given  to  the  philoso-
phical study  of  man's  personality  as  distinguished
from  a  class,  especially  advanced  by  Petrarch  and
other  energetic  advocates  of  the  revival  of  the  study
of  ancient  classic  literature,  termed  the  "  new
learning,"  and  (''  literal  humaniures")  the  age  of
the  renaissance,  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centu-
ries, whereby  freedom  of  thought  and  language
was  greatly  promoted.

HUMANITARIANS,  a  small  sect  in  London,
founded  by  Mr.  Kaspary,  a  German  Jew.  Their
moral  principles  are  set  forth  in  "The Fifteen  Doc-
trines of  the  Religion  of  God,"  written  in  1866.
These  include  pantheism  and  transmigration  of  souls.

HUMANITY, Religion  or,  see  Positive

Philosophy ',  and  Secularism.

HUMILIATI,  a  congregation  of  monks,  said
to  have  been  formed  by  some  Milanese  nobles,  who
had  been  imprisoned  by  Frederick  I.  1162.  The
order  had  more  than  ninety  monasteries ;  but
was  abolished  for  luxury  and  cruelty  by  pope
Pius  V.,  and  the  houses  were  given  to  the
Dominicans,  Cordeliers,  and  other  communities  in
1570.

HUMMING-BIRDS.  Mr.  Gould's  beautiful
collection  of  the  skins  of  these  birds  exhibited  at
the  Zoological  Gardens,  Loudon,  in  1851,  was  bought
with  other  birds  for  the  British  museum  for  3000/.,
April,  1881.  His  elaborate  work  on  them  in  five
folio  volumes,  with  richly  coloured  plates,  was  com-
pleted in  1862.

HUNDRED,  a  Danish  institution,  was  a  part
of  a  shire,  so  called,  as  is  supposed,  from  its  having
been  composed  of  a  hundred  families,  at  the  time
the counties  were  originally divided, about  897.
The  hundred-court  is  a  court-baron  held  for  all  the
inhabitants  of  a  hundred  instead  of  a  manor.
Hundred  days  ;  a  term  given  to  Napoleon's  resto-
ration, dating  from  his  arrival  in  Paris,  20  March,
to  his  departure  on  . . -29  June,  1815

Hundred years'  war, in French history, com-
menced with  the.  English  invasion  in  1337.

HUNGARY,  part  of  the  ancient  Pannonia  and
Dacia,  was  subjected  to  the  Romans  about  106,  and
retained  by  them  till  the  3rd  century,  when  it  was
seized  by  the  Goths,  who  were  expelled  about  376
by  the  Huns.  See  Huns,  and  Attila.  After  Attila's
death,  in  453,  the  Gepidao,  and  in  500  the  Lombards
held  the  country.  It  was  acquired  by  the  Avars
about  568,  and  retained  by  them  till  their  destruc-
tion by  Charlemagne  in  799.  About  890  the
country  was  settled  by  a  Scythian  tribe,  named
Vingours  or  Uhgri  (whence  the  German  name
Ungarn)  and  the  Magyars  of  Finnish  origin.  The
chief  of  the  latter,  Arpad  (889),  was  the  ancestor  of


HUNGAEY.


HUNGAEY.


a  line  of  kings  (see  below).  The  progress  of  the
Magyars  westward  was  checked  by  their  defeat  by
the  emperor  Henry  the  Fowler,  934.  Population
of  the  kingdom,  including  Transylvania,  Fiume,
Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  31  Dec.  1887,  16,901,023;
in  1890,  17,449,705.  Eevenue,  1890,  355,307,000
florins ;  expenditure  355,815,000  florins.  See
Austria.

Stephen,  founder  of  the  monarchy  of  Hungary,  em-
braces and  establishes  Christianity  and  subdues
the  Slaves,  <fec. ,  receives  the  title  of  the  Apostolic

king  from  the  pope 997

The  Poles  overrun  Hungary 1061

Bela  III.  introduces  the  Greek  civilisation  1174,  &c.

Ravages  of  the  Tartars  under  the  sons  of  Genghis
Khan,  throughout  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Russia,

1241  et  seq.
Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal
rights .........  1222

Death  of  Andrew  III. ,  end  of  the  Arpad  dynasty  .  1301
Victories  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulgaria,  Servia,

and  Dalmatia 1344-82

He  inarches  into  Italy  and  avenges  the  murder  of

his  brother,  Andrew,  king  of  Naples . . . 1348
Sanguinary  anarchy: Elizabeth,  queen  of  Louis,
is  drowned :  and  King  Mary,  the  daughter,  mar-
ries Sigismond,  of  Brandenburg ;  they  govern  with

great  severity 1382

[The  Hungarians  had  an  aversion  to  the  name  of
queen;  and  whenever  a  female  succeeded  to  the
throne,  she  was  termed  ki?ig.]
Sigismond's  atrocious  cruelties  compel  his  subjects

to  invite  the  assistance  of  the  Turks  .  .  .  1393
Battle  of  Nicopolis  :  Bajazet  vanquishes  Sigismond

and  a  large  army 28  Sept. 1396

Sigismond  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and  is

elected  emperor  of  Germany 1410

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of

Hungary 1437

"Victories  of  the  great  John  Hunniades  (reputed
illegitimate  son  of  Sigismond)  over  the  Turks 1442-4

"Who  obtain  a  truce  of  ten  years 1444

Broken  by  Ladislas  king  of  Hungary  (at  the  pope's
instigation) ;  he  is  defeated  and  slain,  with  the
papal  legate,  at  Varna . . . . 10  Nov. ,,
John  Hunniades  escapes  ;  becomes  regent .  1444-53

Raises  siege  of  Belgrade,  14  July ;  dies  10  Sept. . 1456
Hungarians  insult  Turkish  ambassadors;  war  en-
sues :  Solyman  II.  takes  Buda .... 1526
Disastrous  battle  of  Mohatz  (which  see) 29  Aug. „

Hungary  subject  to  Austria „

Peace  of  Vienna,  granting  toleration  to  Protestants,

23  June,  1606
John  Sobieski  defeats  the  Turks  in  several  battles,

and  raises  the  siege  of  Vienna  .  .  12  Nov.  1683
The  duke  of  Lorraine  retakes  Buda  (which  sec)  2  Sept.  1686
Prince  Louis  of  Baden  defeats  the  Turks  at  Salenc-

kemen 19  Aug. 1691

Prince  Eugene  defeats  them  at  Zenta  11  Sept. 1697

Peace  of  Carlowitz  *. .  26  Jan.  1609

Pragmatic  sanction,  autiiorising  female  succession

to  the  throne . 1722-3

Servia  and  Wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey  at  the  peace

of  Belgrade 1739

The Hungarians  enthusiastically  support Maria-
Theresa  against  France  and  Bavaria . . .  1740
The  protestants  permitted  to  have  churches . 1 784
Independence  of  Hungary  guaranteed .  . 1790

The  diet  meets  ;  Hungarian  academy  established  .  1825
The  people,  long  discontented  with  the  Austrian

rule,  break  out  into  rebellion . . n  Sept. 1848
Murder  of  the  military  governor,  count  Lamberg,
by  a  mob  at  Pesth ;  the  Hungarian  diet  appoint
a  provisional government  under  Kossuth and
Louis  Batthyany,  28  Sept.  ; Hungarians  defeat

' the  ban  of  Croatia 29  Sept. ,,

The  diet  denounces  as  traitors  all  who  acknowledge
the emperor  of Austria  as  king of Hungary,

8  Dec. „
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at
Szaikszo,  21  Dec. ;  at  Mohr  by  the  ban  Jellachich,

29  Dec. ,,
Buda-Pesth  taken  by  Windischgratz . 5  Jan. 1849
Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt,

21  Jan. „


Hungary  declares  itself  a  free  state,  Kossuth
supreme  governor . . . .14  April,

The  Hungarians  defeat  the  Imperialists  before  Gran,

18  April,

March  of  the  Russian  army  through  Gallicia  to
assist  the  Austrians 1  May,

The  Austro-Russian  troops  defeat  the  Hungarians
at  Pered  ...  . . 20  June,

Battles  of  Acs  between  the  Hungarians  and  Aus-
trians ;  former  retire  . . . . 2,  10  July,

Hungarians  defeat  Jellachich . . .14  July,

The  Hungarians  defeated  by  the  Russians :  Gorgey
retreats  after  three  days'  battle . . 15  July,

Battle  before  Komorn,  between  the  insurgents  and
the  Austro-Russian  army  . . . 16  July,

Insurgents  under  Bern  enter  Moldavia,  23  July ;
defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Schassberg 31  July,

Utter  defeat  of  the  Hungarian  army  before  Temes-
war,  by  gen.  Haynau .... 10  Aug.

Gorgey  and  his  army  surrender  to  the  Russians,

13  Aug.

Kossuth,  Andrassy,  Bern,  &c. ,  escape  to  the  Turkish
frontiers,  and  are  placed  under  protection  at
New  Orsova  (see  Turkey)  . . . 21  Aug.

Komorn  surrenders  to  the  Austrians ;  close  of  the
war. 27  Sept.

Louis  Batthyany  tried  at  Pesth,  and  shot ;  many
other  insurgent  chiefs  put  to  death  at  Arad  6  Oct.

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Hungarian  insurgents,  who
return  home 16  Oct.

Bern  dies  at  Aleppo ....  10  Dec.

Count  Julius  Andrassy,  in  exile,  sentenced  to  death,
as  traitor ;  announced ... 23  Feb.

The  country  remains  in  an  unsettled  state ;  many
executions ....... 1

Crown  of  St.  Stephen  and  royal  insignia  discovered
and  sent  to  Vienna .  . .  8  Sept.

Amnesty  for  political  offenders  of  1848-9 12  July,

The  emperor  and  empress  visit  Buda . 4  May,

During  the  Italian  war  in  1859,  an  insurrection  in
Hungary  was  in  contemplation,  and  communica-
tions took  place  between  Louis  Napoleon  and
Kossuth ;  which  circumstances  it  is  said  led  the
emperor  of  Austria  to  accede  to  the  peace  of  Villa-
franca  so  suddenly,  and  shortly  afterwards  to
promise  many  reforms  and  to  grant  more  liberty
to  the  protestants  in  Hungary . Aug. -Oct.

Recall  of  archduke  Albert;  general  Benedek  ap-
pointed governor April,

Demand  for  restoration  of  the  old  constitution ;  re-
union of  the  Banat  and  Voivodina  with  Hungary,
&o Oct.

Restoration  of  old  constitution  promised 20  Oct.

Sehmerling  appointed  minister . . 13  Dee.

National  conference  at  Gran . . . Dec.

Demand  for  the  constitution  of  1848 .  Jan.

The  emperor  promulgates  a  new  liberal  constitu-
tion for  the  empire 26  Feb.

Which  does  not  satisfy  the  Hungarians  March,

Hungarian  diet  opened .... 6  April,

Meeting  of  the  Reichsrath  at  Vienna :  no  deputies
present  from  Hungary  or  Croatia . 29  April,

Count  Teleki  (see  Austria,  i860)  found  dead  in  his
bed  at  Pesth  :  intense  excitement . 8  May,

The  diet  votes  an  address  to  the  emperor,  desiring
restoration  of  the  old  constitution . .  5  July,

The  military  begin  to  levy  the  taxes . .  July,

Imperial  rescript  refusing  the  entire  independence
of  Hungary,  21  July:  the  diet  protests,  20  Aug. ;
and  is  dissolved  ....  21  Aug.

The  archbishop  of  Gran,  the  primate,  indignantly
protests  against  the  act  of  the  imperial  govern-
ment Sept. -Oct.

Summoned  to  Vienna ;  he  stands  firm  25  Oct.

The  magistrates  in  the  comitat  of  Pesth  resign ;
military  government  established  ;  passive  resist-
ance of  the  nobility Dec.

Amnesty  declared  for  political  offences,  and  cessa-
tion of  prosecutions . . . .18  Nov.

Newspapers  confiscated  for  publishing  seditious
speeches 29  March,

The  emperor  visits  Buda-Pesth ;  well  received ;
inauguration  of  a  new  policy ;  the  rights  of  Hun-
gary to  be  restored  ....  6-9  June,

Imperial  rescript,  abolishing  the  representative  con-
stitution of  the  empire,  with  the  view  of  restoring
independence  of  Hungary,  &e. . . 21  Sept.


1851

853-5

1853
1856
1857


1859


1862
1863

1865


HUNGAEY.


489


HUNGAEY.


The  Deak  or  moderate  party  demand  restoration  of
the  monarchy,  with  a  responsible  government,

ii  Nov.  1865

The  emperor  visits  Pesth ;  the  diet  opened,  14  Dec. ;
Carl  Szentivanyi  elected  president . 20  Dec. ,,

Emperor  and  empress  arrive  at  Pesth . 29  Jan.  1866

Hungarian  legions  join  the  Prussian  army,  June :
(after  the  peace,  they  were  allowed  to  return  to
their  allegiance) Oct. ,,

Prolonged  political  negotiations  for  autonomy;
Deak  and  national  party  wearied,  threaten  to
break  off Oct. „

Hungarian  diet  opened  by  a  conciliatory  rescript,

19  Nov. ,,

Deak's  address  in  reply,  demanding  the  restoration
of  the  constitution,  adopted  by  the  diet  with  a
large  majority 15  Dec. „

Much  opposition  to  the  convocation  of  the  Reichs-
rath Jan.  1867

Restoration  of  the  constitution  of  1848 ;  an  inde-
pendent ministry  appointed,  headed  by  count
Julius  Andrassy 17  Feb. „

[Andrassy  carries  freedom  of  the  press,  removal  of
Jewish  disabilities  and  promotes  railways,  &c,
1867  et  seq.]

The  Croats  protest  against  incorporation  with
Hungary 25  May, ,,

The  emperor  and  empress  crowned  at  Buda  with
the  ancient  ceremonies  .... 8  June, ,,

Amnesty  granted  for  all  political  offences 9  June, ,,

The  coronation  gift  to  the  emperor  of  50,000  ducats
bestowed  on  orphans  and  invalids . 10  June, ,,

Discussion  between  the  Austrians  and  Hungarians
respecting  the  division  of  the  liability  for  the
national  debt Aug. -Sept. „

A financial convention signed by deputations,

23  Sept. ,,

Kossuth's  letter  to  his  constituents  at  Waitzen,
censuring  Deak  and  the  moderate  party  Oct. „

Deak  joined  by  Klapka  and  other  liberals  Nov. ,,

The  "  Nazarenes,"  a  sect  resembling  Quakers,  be-
come prominent Nov. ,,

Bills  for  financial  arrangement  with  Austria,  and
for  Jewish  emancipation,  received  royal  assent,

29  Dec. „

First  trial  by  jury  of  press  offences  ;  (fine  and  im-
prisonment inflicted  for  publishing  a  letter  of
Kossuth) 27  Feb.  1868

Kossuth  (elected  a  member  of  the  legislature)
resigns  by  letter 14  April, „

A  Croatian  deputation  accepjts  union  with  Hungary,

27  May, „

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome's  visit ;  warmly  received,

June, ,,

Dispute  respecting  the  apportionment  of  the  army
settled 5  Dec. „

The  diet  of  1865  closed  with  an  address  from  the
eruperor 10  Dec. ,,

Congress  of  Hungarian  Jews  opened ;  Joseph  Eotvos
minister 14  Dee. ,,

Powerful  counter-addresses  from  Andrassy  and
Kossuth  published Jan. 1869

Royal  Hungarian  guard  organised . . 9  Feb. ,,

Chamber  of  deputies  meet . . . 22  April, ,,

Remains  of  Louis  Batthyany  (executed  and  pri-
vately buried,  Oct.  1849),  re-interred  solemnly  in
the  public  cemetery,  Pesth . . .9  June,  1870

Count  Andrassy  promotes  the  neutrality  of  Austria
in  the  Franco-German  war . . . July, ,,

Joseph  Eotvos,  author,  patriot,  and  minister,  died,
deeply  lamented,  aged  58 . . .3  Feb. 1871

Autumn  military  manoeuvres,  near  Waitzen,  22  Sept.

et  seq. „

Andrassy  succeeds  count  von  Beust  as  foreign  minis-
ter at  Vienna ;  count  Lonyay,  Hungarian  premier,

14  Nov. ,,

The diet, after sitting three years, dissolved,

16  April,  1872

Elections  ;  increased  majority  of  the  Deak  or  con-
stitutional party,  July  ;  diet  opened  4  Sept. ,,

Resignation  of  the  count  Lonyay  ministry,  2  Dec.  ;
Szlavy  forms  a  ministry .... Dec. ,,

The  Fiume  railway  partly  opened . . 24  June, 1873

Buda-Pesth  formally  constituted  the  capital,  Nov. ,,

Ministry  resigns  ;  crisis  ; Bitto  forms  a cabinet,

20  March,  1874

Parliament  closes 14  Aug. ,,


Ministry  resigns,  n  Feb.  ;  coalition  ministry  under
baron  von  Wenckheim  formed,  26  Feb. — 1  March,  1875

Elections  ;  greatly  fh  favour  of  government July, ,,

Koloman  Tisza,  chief  of  the  ministry . 20  Oct. ,,

Death  of  the  constitutional  patriot,  Francis  Deak,
28  Jan.,  state  funeral  .... 3  Feb.  1876

Ministerial  crisis  ;  Tisza  resigns  ;  remains  in  office

Feb.  1877

Projected  raid  into  Roumania  to  favour  the  Turks
cheeked;  censured  by  Klapka  end  of  Sept. ,,

Miskolcz  nearly  destroyed  by  a  waterspout,  30  Aug.  1878

Resignation  of  Szell,  finance  minister,  26  Sept.  ;
followed  by  that  of  the  Tisza  ministry . 4  Oct. ,,

Tisza  ministry  retained  modified . . 5  Dec. ,,

Distressing  inundation  at  Szegedin  ;  great  loss  of
life  and  much  property  (see  Inundations),

12,  13,  March,  and  12  Dec.  1879

Murder  of  lord  chief  justice  George  von  Majlath
von  Szekhely,  about .... 29  Mar.  1883

Joseph  Scharf  and  nine  other  Jews  tried  at  Nyireghy-
haza  for  alleged  murder  of  a  Christian  maid,
Esther  Solymosi  (on  1  April,  1882) . June, ,,

Acquitted 3  Aug. ,,

Violent  auti-jewish  riots  Pesth,  Zala,  Egersseg,  &c.
July,  Aug.  ;  martial  law  proclaimed 29-30  Aug. „

Three  men  convicted  of  the  murder  of  the  chief
justice 6  Oct. ,,

Thirty-six  Socialists  arrested  at  Pesth ;  many  ex-
pelled about 13  Mar.  1884

Liberal  majority  in  the  elections,  about 13  June, ,,

National  exhibition  at  Buda-Pesth  opened  by  the
emperor  2  May  ;  closed .... 4  Nov.  1885

Bi-centenary  of  the  recapture  of  Buda  from  the
Turks  celebrated 2  Sept.  1886

Panic  in  the  Franciscan  church  in  Kadna  through
ignition  of  the  altar  cloth  ;  15  persons  crushed  to
death 12  Sept. „

M.  Tisza  declares  for  maintenance  of  the  treaty  of
Berlin  and  Bulgarian  independence  . 30  Sept. ,,

Increased  army  estimates  voted  . . 5  March,  1887

Accident  through  explosion  of  dynamite  at  Jasz
Bereny  near  Pesth  ;  27  persons  killed 5  July, ,,

Bronze  statue  of  Francis  Deak  unveiled  by  the
emperor 29  Sept. ,,

Great  opposition  to  M.  Tisza's  army  bill  ;  demon-
stration in  Buda-Pesth .... Feb.  1889

The  small  town  of  Paks  totally  destroyed  by  fire

20  July, ,,

The  army  ordered  to  be  styled  "Imperial  and  Royal"
by  desire  of  the  Hungarian  ministry . 19  Oct. ,,

Count  Julius  Andrassy  dies  in  Istria,  18  Feb.  ;
funeral  service  at  Buda-Pesth  ;  the  emperor  and
ministry  present,  21  Feb.  ;  buried  in  family  vault
at  Terebes 22  Feb.  1890

M.  Tisza,  the  premier,  an  earnest  liberal,  resigns,
through  opposition  of  his  colleagues,  7  March,
succeeded  by  count  Julius  Szapary 13  March, ,,

The  town  of  Moar  burnt,  estimated  damage  2,000,000
florins 7  Aug. ,,

Unveiling  at  Arad  of  the  national  monument  of  the
13  generals  executed  6  Oct.  1849 . .  6  Oct. ,,

At  Bistritz  on  the  Waag,  about  30  persons  were
drowned  by  the  upsetting  of  a  ferry-boat,  10  Nov. „

Death  of  cardinal  John  Simor,  archbishop  of  Gran,
primate  of  Hungary,  who  crowned  the  king  and
queen  in  1867,  23  Jan.  ;  succeeded  by  arch-abbot
Claude  Vaszara 1  Nov.  1891

Currency  reform  bills  (gold  to  be  the  basis)  intro-
duced into  the  diet 14  May,  1892

Death  of  gen.  Klapka,  the  hero  of  Komorn  (buried
at  Buda-Pesth]  . . . about  17  May, ,,

SOVEREIGNS.

997.  St.  Stephen,  duke  of  Hungary  (son  of  Geisa);  es-
tablished the  Roman  catholic  religion  (1000),
and  received  from  the  pope  the  title  of  Apostolic
King,  still  borne  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  as
king  of  Hungary.

1038.  Peter,  the  German ;  deposed.

1041.  Aba  or  Owen.

1044.  Peter,  again  :  deposed  ;  and  his  eyes  put  out.

1047.  Andrew  I. ;  deposed.

1061.  Bela  I. :  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous  tower.

1064.  Salamon,  son  of  Andrew.

1075.  Geisa  I.  sou  of  Bela.

1077.  Ladislas  I.  the  Pious.

1095.  Coloman,  son  of  Geisa.

1 1 14.  Stephen  II.  named  Thunder.


HUNGEEFOED BEIDGE.


490


HUTCHINSONIANS.


1131.  Bela  II. :  had  his  eyes  put  out.

1141.  Geisa  II. :  succeeded  by  his  son,

1 161.  Stephen  III.:  and  Stephen  IV.  (anarchy).

1173.  Bela  III.:  succeeded  by  his  son,

1 196.  Emeric:  succeeded  by  his  son,

1204.  Ladislas  II. ;  reigned  six  months  only.

1205.  Andrew  II.  son  of  Bela  III.
1235.  Bela  IV.

1270.  Stephen  IV.  (or  V.)  his  son.

1272.  Ladislas  III. :  killed.

1290.  Andrew  III.  surnamed  the  Venetian,  son-in-law  of
Bodolph  of  Hapsburg,  emperor  of  Germany  (last
of  the  house  of  Arpad),  died  1301.

1301.  Wenceslas  of  Bohemia,  and  (1305)  Otho  of  Bavaria,
who  gave  way  to

1309.  Charobert,  or  Charles  Robert  of  Anjou.

1342.  Louis  I.  the  Great ;  elected  king  of  Poland,  1370.

1382.  Mary,  called  King  Mary,  daughter  of  Louis.

1385-6.  Charles  Durazzo.

1387.  Mary  and  her  consort  Sigismond :  the  latter  be-
came king  of  Bohemia,  and  was  elected  emperor
in  1410.

1392.  Sigismond  alone  (on  the  death  of  Mary).

1437.  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  married  Elizabeth,  daughter
of  Sigismond,  and  obtains  the  thrones  of  Hun-
gary, Bohemia,  and  Germany ;  dies  suddenly.

1439.  Elizabeth  alone :  she  marries

1440.  Ladislas  IV.  king  of  Poland,  of  which,  kingdom  he

was  Ladislas  VI. :  slain  at  Varna.

1444.  [Interregnum.]

1445.  John  Hunniades,  regent.

1458.  Ladislas  V.  posthumous  son  of  Albert :  poisoned.
„ Matthias-Corvinus,  son  of  Hunniades.

1490.  Ladislas  VI.  king  of  Bohemia:  the  emperor  Maxi-
milian laid  claim  to  both  kingdoms.

1516.  Louis  II. of  Hungary  (I. of  Bohemia):  loses  his

life  at  the  battle  of  Mohatz.

/John  Zapolski,  waivode  of  Transylvania,  elected

1 by  the  Hungarians,  and  supported  by  the  sul-

I tan  Solyman; by  treaty  with  Ferdinand,  he

1526. { founds the principality of Transylvania,
1536-
Ferdinand  I.  king  of  Bohemia,  brother  to  the
emperor  Charles  V. ;  rival  kings.

1540.  Ferdinand  alone :  elected  emperor,  15-58.

1563.  Maximilian,  son;  emperor  in  1564.

1572.  Rodolph,  son;  emperor  in  1576.

1608.  Matthias  II.  brother;  emperor  in  1612.

1618.  Ferdinand  II.  cousin,  emperor.

1625.  Ferdinand  III.  son ;  emperor,  1637.

1647.  Ferdinand  IV.  son ;  died  in  1654,  three  years  before
his  father.

1655.  Leopold  I.  brother:  emperor,  1657.

1687.  Joseph  I.  son:  emperor  in  1705.

1712.  Charles  VI.  (of  Germany),  brother,  and  nominal
king  of  Spain.

1 741.  Maria-Theresa,  daughter;  empress;  survived  her
consort,  emperor  Francis  I.,  from  1765  until
1780;  see  Germany.

1780.  Joseph  II.  son,  emperor  in  1765:  succeeded  to
Hungary  on  the  death  of  his  mother.

1790.  Leopold  II.  brother;  emperor;  succeeded  by  his
son,

1792.  Francis  I.  son  (Francis  II.  as  emperor  of  Ger-
many): in  1804  he  became  emperor  of  Austria
only.

1835.  Ferdinand  V.  son:  Ferdinand  I.  as  emperor  of
Austria.

1848.  Francis-Joseph,  emperor  of  Austria,  nephew;  suc-
ceeded on  the  abdication  of  his  uncle,  2  Dec.
1848 ;  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  8  June,  1867.
See  Austria.

HUNGEEFOED  BEIDGE,  over  the
Thames  from  Hungerford-stairs  to  the  Belvedere-
road,  Lambeth,  opened  I  May,  1845,  was  taken
down  in  July,  1862,  to  make  way  for  the  Charing-
cross  railway-bridge,  and  transferred  to  Clifton
{■which  see).  The  market  (opened  in  July,  1833),
was  removed  at  the  same  time.

HUNS,  a  race  of  warlike  Asiaties,  said  to  have
conquered  China,  about  210  B.C.,  and  to  have  been
expelled  therefrom  about  a.d.  90.  They  invaded
Hungary,  about  376,  and  drove  out  the  Goths.
Marching  westward,  under  Attila,  they  were  tho-


roughly beaten  at  Chalons  by  the  consul  Aetius,
451 ;  see  Attila.

HUNTEEIAN  OEATION,  annually  at  the
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London,  founded  1813.

HUNTEEIAN  SOCIETY  (surgical)  esta-
blished Feb.  1819  ;  first  president,  sir  fm.  Blizard.
See  Surgeons,  College  of.

HUNTING :  an  ancient  pastime.  The  "  Bokys
of  Hawking  and  Huntyng,"  by  Lame  Julyana
Barnes,  was  printed  at  St.  Alban's,  i486.

HUNTINGDON,  Huntingdonshire  ;  a  Saxon
town;  a  royal  castle  was  erected  here  by  Edward
the  Elder,  917  ;  the  town  was  incorporated  in  1189.
Oliver  Cromwell,  the  protector,  was  born  here
25  April,  1599.  Population,  1881,  4,228 ;  1891,
4,349-

HUNTINGDON  CONNECTION,  see
White jitldites .

HUEEICANES,  see  Cyclones  and  Storms.

HUSSAES,  Hungarian  militia,  provided  by
the  landholders ;  instituted  by  Matthias  Corvinus,
about  1359.  (Hussar  is  derived  from  huss,  20  ;  and
at;  price.)  The  British  Hussars  were  enrolled  in
1759-

HUSSITES.  After  the  death  of  Huss,*  many
of  his  followers  took  up  arms,  in  1419,  and  formed  a
political  party  under  John  Ziska,  and  built  the
city  of  Tabor.  He  defeated  the  emperor  Sigismond,
11  July,  1420,  and  a  short  truce  followed.  Ziska,
blinded  at  the  siege  of  Rabi,  beat  all  the  armies
sent  against  him.  He  died  of  the  plague,  18  Oct*
1424,  and  is  said  to  have  ordered  a  drum  to  be  made
of  his  skin  to  terrify  his  enemies  even  after  death.
Two  Hussite  generals,  named  Procopius,  defeated
the  imperialists  in  1431 ;  and  a  temporary  peace
ensued.  Divisions  took  place  among  the  Hussites,
and  on  30  May,  1434,  they  were  defeated,  and  Pro-
copius the  elder  slain  at  Bomischbrod  or  Lippau.
Toleration  was  granted  by  the  treaty  of  Iglau,  and
Sigismond  entered  Prague  23  Aug.  1436.  The  Hus-
sites opposed  his  successor,  Albert  of  Austria,  and
called  Casimir  of  Poland  to  the  throne ;  but  were
defeated  in  1438.  A  portion  of  the  Hussites  existed
in  the  time  of  Luther,  and  were  called  "Bohemian
brethren."

HUSTINGS  (said  to  be  derived  from  house
court,  an  assembly  among  the  Anglo-Saxons),  an
ancient  court  of  London,  being  its  supreme  court  of
judicature,  as  the  court  of  common  council  is  of
legislature.  The  court  of  hust.yngs  was  granted  to
the  city  of  London,  to  be  holden  and  kept  weekly,
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  1052.  One  was  held  to  out-
law defaulters,  6  Dec.  1870.  Winchester,  Lincoln,
York,  &c,  were  also  granted  hustings  courts.

HUTCHINSONIANS  included  many  emi-
neut  clergy,  who  did  not  form  any  sect,  bdt  held
the  opinions  of  John  Hutchinson,  of  Yorkshire
(1674-1737)  ;  they  rejected  the  Newtonian  system,
and  contended  that  the  scriptures  contain  a  complete
system  of  natural  philosophy. His  work,  "  Moses'

*  The  clergy  having  instigated  the  pope  to  issue  a  bull
against  heretics,  John  Huss  (born  in  Bohemia  in  1373),  a
zealous  preacher  of  the  Reformation,  was  cited  to  appear
before  a  council  of  divines  at  Constance,  the  emperor
Sigismond  sending  him  a  safe-conduct.  He  presented
himself  accordingly,  but  was  thrown  into  prison,  and
after  some  months'  confinement  was  adjudged  to  be
burned  alive,  which  he  endured  with  resignation,  6  or  7
July,  1415.  Jerome  of  Prague,  his  intimate  friend,  who-
came  to  this  council  to  support  and  second  him,  also
suffered  death  by  fire,  30  May,  1416,  although  he  also  had
a  safe-conduct.


HYDASPES.


491


HYDEOCHLOEIC ACID.


Principia,"  was  published  in  1724.  He  derived  all
things  from  the  air,  whence,  he  said,  proceeded  fire,
light,  and  spirit,  types  of  the  Trinity.  In  17 12  he
invented  a  time-piece  for  finding  the  longitude.  He
died  in  1737.

HYDASPES,  a  river  in  India,  where  Alex-
ander the  Great  defeated  Porus,  after  a  severely
contested  engagement;  327  B.C.

HYDE-PAEK (London, W.), the ancient

manor  of  Hyde,  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  West-
minster, became  crown  property  at  the  dissolution,

1535. It  was  sold  by  parliament  in  1652  ;  but  was

resumed  by  the  king  at  the  restoration  in  1660.

The  Serpentine  was  formed  1730-33.

Colossal  statue  of  Achilles,  cast  from  cannon  taken
in  the  battles  of  Salamanca,  Vittoria,  Toulouse,
and  Waterloo,  and  inscribed  to  "Arthur,  Duke  of
Wellington,  and  his  brave  companions  in  arms,  by
their  countrywomen, "  erected  on  . .18  June,  1822

Hyde  Park  corner  entrance  erected . . . . 1828

Marble  arch  from  Buckingham  Palace  set  up  at
Cumberland  Gate .... 29  March,  1850

Crystal  palace  erected  for  the  great  exhibition. . 185 1

Disturbances  in  consequence  of  a  Sunday  bill  hav-
ing been  brought  before  parliament  by  lord  Robert
Grosvenor,  which  was  eventually  withdrawn,

Sundays,  24  June,  and  1  and  8  July,  1855

Riotous  meetings  held  here,  on  account  of  the  high
price  of  bread . . Sundays  14,  21,  28  Oct. ,,

Democratic  meetings  on  the  reform  question,  March,  1859

The  queen  reviewed  18,450  volunteers . 23  June,  i860

Great  meeting  of  admirers  of  Garibaldi,  28  Sept. ;  who
are  violently  attacked  by  the  Irish  ;  many  persons
wounded 5  Oct. 1862

Public  meetings  in  the  park  henceforth  prohibited,

9  Oct. „

20,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  prince  of  Wales,

28  May,  1864

Proposed  reform  meeting  in  the  piark  opposed  ;
great  rioting ;  the  palings  broken  down,  and  much
damage  done ;  fierce  conflicts  with  the  police,  and
many  hurt 23,  24  July,  1866

Peaceful  reform  demonstrations  in  the  park,

6  May  and  5  Aug. 1867

Regulations  with  restrictions  on  public  meeting  in
the  parks  issued  (afterwards  modified) . Oct. 1872

Meeting  of  Fenian  sympathisers  in  Hyde  park  con-
trary to  the  regulations . . . .3  Nov. „

Odger  and  others  prosecuted  and  fined  . . Nov. ,,

The  convictions  confirmed  by  the  judges  on  appeal

22  Jan. 1873

Great  meeting  on  behalf  of  the  Tichborne  claimant,
Dr.  Kenealy  and  Mr.  Guildford  Onslow  present,

Easter  Monday,  29  March,  1875

Great  meetings  for  and  against  government  policy
on  the  eastern  question

Sundays  24  Feb.  and  10  March,  1878

Great  orderly  meeting  to  protest  against  arrest  of
Irish  agitators  (Killen,  Daly,  and  Davitt)

30  Nov.  1879

About  40,000  persons  meet  to  protest  against
arrest  of  Mr.  Parnell  and  others ;  Mr.  O'Donnell
chief  speaker  ;  little  sympathy  . 23  Oct.  1881

Mass  meeting  to  support  the  London  government
bill 13  July,  1884

Great  demonstration  ;  seven  meetings  of  trade  dele-
gates, political  clubs,  &c,  about  40,000,  to  pro-
test against  the  peers'  rejection  of  the  franchise
bill  and  to  support  the  Gladstone  Ministry

21  July, ,,

Demonstration  for  abolition  of  house  of  lords ;  nine
meetings,  Sunday 26  Oct. ,,

Great  meeting  of  the  social  democratic  federation,
Sunday 21  Feb.  1886

Great  demonstration  against  the  Irish  coercion
bill 11  April,  1887

Jubilee  entertainment  of  about  30,000  children  of
elementary  schools,  see  Jiibilee  . . 22  June ,,

Meeting  of  the  unemployed  ;  dispersed  by  the
police  after  a  fight,  18-19  Oct.  1887  ;  orderly
meetings . . .23  Oct.,  and  15,  20,  27  Nov. „

Orderly  demonstration  to  meet  the  released  Irish
M.P.'s,  Mr.  T.  D.  Sullivan  and  Mr.  E.  Harrington,

13  Feb.  1888


Demonstration  against  proposed  compensation  to
publicans  dispossessed  by  local  government  bill,

2  June,  1888;

Meetings  to  protest  against  the  treatment  of  Mr.
W. O'Brien, M.P., and others  in prison  (see

Ireland) ; 10  Feb.  1889.

See  Strikes,  1889.

Meeting  of  Postmen's  union . . . 20  Oct. ,,

Demonstrations  in  relation  to  the  proposed  bakers'
strike  and  the  Silverton  strike . . 10  Nov. ,,

Great meeting of men employed on railways

15  Dec. ,,

Meeting  of  trades  unions  to  support  the  gas-stokers'
union 19  Jan.  1890

"Labour  Day  "  demonstrations,  see  Working-men

1,  4  May, „

Great meeting of  railway workers and others

11  May, ,r

Demonstration  against  government  proposal  to
compensate  publicans  and  others  for  loss  of
drink  licences 7  June, ,„

"  Labour  Day  "  demonstrations,  orderly  ;  foreign
anarchists,  1  May  ;  building  trade  unions,  2  May  ;
combined  trades  unions,  in  favour  of  an  eight
hours  working  day ;  present,  Mr.  Cunniughame
Graham,  M.P.,  Messrs.  John  Burns,  Ben  Tillet,
Tom  Mann,  and  Dr.  Aveling . . 3  May,  1891

Mass meeting to support the omnibus strike

7  June, ,P

Great  demonstration  of  the  building  trades  in
favour  of  an  eight  hours  day . . 27  Sept. ,,

Great  meeting  of  the  Salvation  Army  to  welcome
gen.  Booth  on  his  return  from  his  long  tour  in
Europe,  Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia . 13  Feb.  189a

Mass  meeting  of  London  anarchists . 10  April, ,,

Mass  meeting  of  members  of  the  National  Union  of
Clerks 24  April ,,

"  Labour  Day  ;  "  great  orderly  meeting  to  support
and  promote  an  international  8  hours  working
day 1  May, ,,

HYDEEABAD  (S.  India),  the  territory  of  the-
Nizam  (the  greatest  mahometan  potentate  in
India),  who  derives  his  authority  from  Azof  Jah,
a  chief  under  Aurungzcbe,  who  made  him  viceroy  as-
Nizam-ool-Moolk,  regulator  of  the  state.  He  died
in  1748.  Population  in  1881,  9,845,594;  in  1891,
10,458,930.

Civil  war  between  his  descendants  ensues  .  1748-65
Nizam  Ali  dethroned  his  brother,  1761  ;  ravaged
the  Carnatic,  1765  ;  made  a  treaty  with  the  East
India  Company,  1766;  he  joined  Hyder  Ali  ;  left
him,  1768;  acquired  part  of  Tippoo  Sultan's  terri-
tories ; and  became  feudatory of the British

empire,  1799  et  seq.  ;  died 1802*

One  of  his  successors,  Secunder  Jah,  ruled  feebly;

died,  succeeded  by  an  illegitimate  son . .  1829,
The  Nizam  died,  leaving  his  young  son  in  charge
of Salar  Jung  ; enjoining  him  to support  the
British  during  the  mutiny,  which  he  did  faith-
fully i857-S

Sir  Salar  Jung  made  K. C.S.I.  ;  visits  Europe  ;  pre-
sented to  the  Queen,  29  June  ;  returned  to  Bom-
bay, 24  Aug.  1876  ;  died  ....  8  Feb.  1883
The  young  Nizam  Mir  Mahbub  Ali  (aged  18)
installed  at  Hyderabad  by  the  viceroy  of  India,
the  marquis  of  Ripon  ....  5  Feb.  18S4.
The  Nizam  in  a  letter  to  lord  Dufl'erin,  the  viceroy,
makes  an  offer  to  present  20  lakhs  of  rupees
for  three  years,  total  600,000/.,  for  the  defence  of
the  N.W.  Indian  territories,  Sept.;  acknowledged
with  thanks  by  the  viceroy,  announced  10  Oct.  ;
and  by  the  queen,  about  26  Oct.  1887  ;  the  offer
with  others  declined  (see  India)  .  18  Nov.  188S
The  long-standing  disputes  between  the  Nizam's
government  and  the  Decean  company,  settled  on
terms  approved by  the  India  office,  signed at

Hyderabad 2  Jan.  1890.

See  Chloroform,  1889-90.
For  the  "imperial  diamond  "  case,  see  Trials,  Dec.  1891-

HYDEAULIC  PEESS,  see  under  Hydro-
statics.

HYDEOCHLOEIC  ACID  or  Chloriiyd--
RIC  ACID,  the  only  known  compound  of  chlorine
and  hydrogen,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  1772  ;


HYPEOGEN.


492


HYPNOTISM.


its  constitution  determined  by  Davy,  1810.  It  is
also  called  muriatic  acid  and  spirit  of  salt;  see
under  Alkalies.

HYDEOGEN  (from  hydor,  water).  Paracelsus
observed  a  gas  rise  from  a  solution  of  iron  in  oil  of
vitriol,  about  1500;  Turquet  de  May  erne  discovered
its  inflammability,  1656;  as  did  Boyle,  1672;  Le-
mery  noticed  its  detonating  power,  1700.  In  1766
Cavendish  proved  it  to  be  an  elementary  body ;  and
in  1781,  he  and  Watt  first  showed  that  in  the  com-
bination of  this  gas  with  oxygen,  which  takes  place
when  it  is  burnt,  water  is  produced ;  subsequently
Lavoisier  decomposed  water  into  its  elements,  and
gave  hydrogen  its  present  name  instead  of  "inflam-
mable air."  One  volume  of  oxygen  combines  with
two  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  form  water.  Hydrogen
is  never  found  in  the  free  state.  It  was  liquefied
by  Eaoul  Pictet  and  Cailletet,  end  of  1877.

HYDEOGENIIJM,  a  hypothetical  metal.
In  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  7  Jan.
1869,  Mr.  Thomas  Graham,  master  of  the  Mint,
suggested  that  a  piece  of  the  metal  palladium,  into
which  hydrogen  had  been  pressed,  became  an  "  alloy
of  the  volatile  metal  hydrogenium."

HYDEOGEAPHY  is  the  description  of  the
surface  waters  of  the  earth.  The  first  sea-chart  is
attributed  to  Henry  the  Navigator,  in  the  16th  cen-
tury. There  is  a  hydrographic  department  in  the
British  admiralty,  by  which  a  series  of  charts  has
been  issued.

HYDEOMETEE,  the  instrument  by  which
is  measured  the  gravity,  densitj-,  and  other  pro-
perties of  liquids.  The  oldest  mention  of  the
hydrometer  occurs  in  the  5th  century,  and  may  be
found  in  the  letters  of  Synesius  to  Hypatia  ;  but  it
is  not  improbable  that  Archimedes  was  the  inventor
of  it,  though  no  proofs  of  it  are  to  be  found.  Beck-
mann.  Archimedes  was  killed  in  212  B.C.,  and
Hypatia  was  torn  to  pieces  at  Alexandria,  a.d.  415.
Robert  Boyle  described  a  hydrometer  in  1675 :
Baume's  (1762)  and  Sykes',  about  1818,  have  been
much  employed.  Modifications  of  the  apparatus
have  been  invented.

HYDEOPATHY,  a  term  applied  to  the  treat-
ment of  diseases  by  cold  water,  practised  by  Hippo-
crates in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  by  the  Arabs  in  the
10th  century  a.d.,  and  revived  by  Dr.  Currie  in
1797.  A  system  was  suggested  in  1825  by  Vincenz
Priessnitz,  of  Grafenberg,  in  Austrian  Silesia.  The
rational  part  of  the  doctrine  was  understood  and
maintained  by  Dr.  Sydenham,  before  1689.  Priess-
nitz died  26  Nov.  1851.
A  grand  hydropathic  establishment  at  Bushey.  Herts,

opened,  13  Feb.  1883. Many  others  exist  throughout

the  kingdom.

HYDEOPHOBIA,  in  man,  rabies  in  animals,
M.  Pasteur  announced  his  discovery  of  a  method  of
checking  this  disease,  analogous  to  vaccination.
He  operates  on  monkeys  and  other  animals  suc-
cessfully, May,  on  dogs,  Aug.  1884  ;  on  40  persons
14  Dec.  1885.  An  international  hospital,  after-
wards termed  the  Pasteur  institute,  founded
(40,000?.. subscribed)May,  1886;  opened  by  president
Carnot,  14  Nov.  1888.  Out  of  726  cases  treated,  4
deaths  reported  12  April,  1886 ;  1673  persons
treated,  1  May,  1888,  to  1  May,  1889.  The  prin-
ciple much  opposed  1886-7.  A  British  commis-
sion for  inquiry  (sir  James  Paget,  Dr.  Burdon
.Sanderson,  and  others)  appointed  12  April,  1886  ;
visits  Paris,  and  reports  confidence  in  M.  Pas-
teur's treatment,  27  June,  1887.  M.  Pasteur  pro-
poses and  verifies  other  applications  of  his  prin-
ciples, 1887-8.  The  book,"M.  Pasteur,  Histoire
<l'un  Savant,"  was  published  in  1883  ;  and  an
English  translation  by  lady  Claud  Hamilton  in  .  1885


Reported  number  of  patients  by  M.  Pasteur  since
1885,  6,950,  up  to  28  June,  1889  ;  1,810  patients,
13  deaths  in  the  year,  Oct.  1889.

Meeting  of  eminent  men  at  the  mansion  house,
London,  to  establish  a  fund  to  support  the
Pasteur  institute,  1  July ;  above  2,000?.  sub-
scribed 2  Oct.  1889

See  Mansion  House  Funds.

1,546  patients  (10  deaths) 1890

HYDEOSTATICS,  &c,  were  probably  first
studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school  about  300  B.C.
Pressure  of  fluids  discovered  by  Archimedes,

about  b.  c. 250
The  forcing  pump  and  air  fountain  invented  by  Hero

about 120
Water  mills  were  known . . . about  a.d. i
The  science  revived  by  Galileo,  Castellio,  Torricelli,
and  Pascal  (who  suggested  the  principle  of  the
hydraulic  press) .... 17th  century
The  theory  of  rivers  scientifically  understood  in . 1697
The  correct  theory  of  fluids  and  oscillation  of  waves

explained  by  Newton 1714

A  scientific  form  was  given  to  hydro-dynamics,  by

Bernouilli 1738

Joseph  Bramah's  hydrostatic  or  hydraulic  press  pa-
tented first  in 1785

Sir  Win.  Armstrong's  hydraulic  crane  patented . 1846

John  Crowther's 1825

Dr.  Emil  Fleischer's  Hydromotor  successfully  ap-
plied to  the  propulsion  of  ships  on  the  Elbe,
near  Dresden 11  Oct.  1883

HYGEIOPOLIS  (city  of  health),  planned  by
Dr.  B.  Ward  Richardson,  in  1876.  A  company  was
proposed  for  its  erection,  Jan.  1877. No  result.

HYGIENE  (Hygeia,  goddess  of  health),  see

Sanitation.

International  congresses  on  Hygiene  and  Demo-
graphy :  1.  Brussels,  27  Sept.  1876  ;  2.  Paris,  1
Aug.  1878  ;  3.  Turin,  Aug.  1880 ;  4.  Geneva,  4
Sept.  1882  ;  5.  Hague,  21  Aug.  1884  ;  6.  Vienna,
26  Sept.  1887  ;  7.  London,  the  queen  patron,  the
prince  of  Wales  president ;  met . 10-17  Aug.  1891

HYGEOMETEE,  an  instrument  for  measur-
ing the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  That  by
Saussure  (who  died  in  1799)  is  most  employed.  It
consists  of  a  human  hair  boiled  in  caustic  lye,  and
acts  on  the  principle  of  absorption.  Brande.
Daniell's  hygrometer  (1820)  is  much  esteemed.  M.
Crova's  new  hygrometer,  said  to  be  ver)r  accurate,
described,  June,  1882.

HYMNS-  The  song  of  Moses  is  the  most  an-
cient, 1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xv.)  The  Psalms  date
from  about  1060  B.C.  to  about  444  B.C.  (from  David
to  Ezra).  The  hymns  of  the  Jews  were  frequently
accompanied  by  instrumental  music.  Paul  (a.d.
64)  speaks  of  Christians  admonishing  one  another
"  in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs"  {Col.
iii.  16.)  The  composition  of  hymns  for  the
Christian  church  is  very  ancient.  The  hymns
of  Dr.  Watts  (died  1784),  of  John  Wesley  (died
1791),  and  of  his  brother  Charles  (died  1788),
are  used  by  English  churchmen  and  dissenters.
"Hymns,  Ancient  and  Modem,"  edited  hj  rev.  sir
Henry  Baker,  first  appeared  in  i860.  "A  Diction-
ary of  Hymnology,"  edited  by  the  rev.  John  Julian,
was  published  Jan.  1892.

HYPNOTISM  (Greek  hi/pnos,  sleep)  or  ner-
vous sleep,  terms  given  by  Mr.  Braid  (in  1843)  to  a
sleep-like  condition,  produced  in  a  person  by  steadily
fixing  his  mind  on  one  particular  object.  Minor
surgical  operations  have,  it  is  said,  been  performed
without  pain  on  persons  in  this  state.  Tbe  lecture
by  R.  Heidenhain,  at  Breslau  19  Jan.  1880,  on
"Hypnotism  or  Animal  Magnetism"  was  trans-
lated by  L.  C.  Wooldridge;  and  published  in  1888.
See  Mesmerism.
"  The  use  of  hypnotical  suggestion "  (the  entire

concentration  of  the  mind  on  one  subject  caused


HYPOTHEC.


493


HYTHE.


by  the  suggestion  of  another  person)  in  medical
practice,  has  been  advocated  by  Bernheim,
Beaunis  and  other  foreign  physicians,  Oct.  1889  ;
but  strongly  opposed  by  other  eminent  physi-
ologists, especially  Du  Bois  Reymond . Oct.  1890

The  first  meeting  of  the  International  Congress  on
Hypnotism  took  place  at  Paris . . Aug.  1889

Prof.  Germane's  experiments  were  exhibited  at  the
Aquarium,  Westminster  .... Nov.  1891

HYPOTHEC,  LAW  OF,  in  Scotland  gives
landlords  a  preferential  right  to  levy  for  rent  and
follow  and  seize  crops  and  cattle.  A  bill  for  its
abolition  was  brought  in  annually  since  1874.  One
was  read  a  second  time  19  March,  1879,  but  did  not
pass  till  24  March,  1880  (43  Vict.  c.  12) ;  which
came  into  operation  11  Nov.  188 1.


HYPSOMETEE,  a  thermometrical  barometer
for  measuring  altitudes,  invented  by  F.  J.  Wollaston
in  1817,  much  improved  by  Kegnault,  about  1847.

HYRCANIA,  Asia,  near  the  Caspian,  a  pro-
vince subject  to  Persia,  B.C.  334;  held  by  Par-
thians,  244.  It  is  now  Mazenderan,  a  Persian
province.

HYTHE,  Kent,  a  cinque-port.  The  haven  has-
been  choked  up  with  sand  since  the  end  of  the
16th  century.  A  school  of  musketry  was  established
here  in  1854,  under  the  charge  of  major-gen.
Charles  Crawford  Hay.  He  resigned  in  1867.
Railway  to  Sandgate  opened.  9  Oct.  1874.  Popula-
tion, 1881,4,173;  1891,4,351.


I.


IAMBIC  VEESE.


IDAHO.


IAMBIC  VEESE,  mythically  named  from
6he  poetical  effusions  of  Iambe,  an  attendant  of
Metanira,  wife  of  Celeus,  king  of  Sparta.  Archi-
lochus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  wrote
satirical  iambic  verses  B.C.  700.

IBEEIA,  see  Georgia,  and  Spain.

IBEEUS,  a  river  in  N.E.  Spain,  now  called
Ebro,  which  see.  It  was  very  important  during  the
second  Punic  war,  218 — 201  B.C.

ICE.  Galileo  observed  ice  to  be  lighter  than
•water,  about  1597.  See  Congelation,  where  is  a
notice  of  the  ice-making  machines  of  Harrison  and
of  Siebe.  In  1841  there  were  sixteen  companies  in
Boston,  U.S.,  engaged  in  exporting  ice,  brought
from  Wenham  lake  and  Fresh  and  Spy  Ponds,
about  18  miles  from  that  city.  The  trade  was  begun
by  Mr.  Tudor  in  1806.  156,540  tons  -were  sent
from  Boston  alone  in  1854.  In  New  York,  in  1855,
305,000  tons  were  stored  up,  of  which  20,000  were  for
"exportation.  The  Wenham  lake  company  import  ice
largely  from  their  ponds  near  Christiania,  Norway,
from  whence  43,359  tons  were  shipped  to  Great
Britain  in  1865.

Regelation  and  other  properties,  exhibited  by  professor
Faraday,  in  1850,  became  the  subject  of  investigation
by  eminent  physicists  of  the  day,  especially  J.  D.  Forbes,
Dr.  Tyndall,  and  sir  William  Thomson.

"  ley  night "  or  "  silver  thaw  "  in  London,  22  Jan.  1867.
After  a  severe  frost  came  rain  freezing  as  it  fell.  Many
accidents  occurred  in  consequence  of  the  glassy  pave-
ments and  roads.

ICELAND  (North  Sea),  discovered  by  Norwe-
gian chiefs,  about  861  ;  according  to  some  accounts,
It  had  been  previously  visited  by  a  Scandinavian
pirate. Population,  1888,  69,224.

Colonised  by  Norwegians  . .  ... 874

Had  a  republican  government,  and  a  flourishing
literature,  till  it  was  subjected  to  Hakon,  king  of
Norway 1264

Christianity  introduced .... about  1000

The  annual  general  assembly  was  termed  Althing  :
there  were  four  great  schools,  like  universities,
founded  in  the  nth  century ;  and  education  was
general .

The  great  warrior,  statesman,  and  poet,  Snorri  Stur-
luson,  was  murdered . . . .22  Sept.  1241

Protestantism  introduced  about . . . -1551

Thousands  perished  by  famine  through  failure  of
the  crops 1 753-4

■  A  new  constitution  signed  by  the  king,  5  Jan. ,
came  into  operation  1  Aug.,  when  king  Christian
of  Denmark  visited  Iceland,  and  the  thousandth
anniversary  of  the  colonisation  was  celebrated  at
the  capital,  Reykjavik . . . . 1  Aug.  1874

Cleasby's  great  Icelandic-English  Dictionary,  pub-
lished in  England 1869-73

Iceland  has  suffered  much  by  volcanic  eruptions,
especially  in  1783  ;  and  on  29  March,  1875,  whole
districts  of  pasture  land  were  devastated.

A  reported  severe  famine  (see  Mansion  House  funds).

Summer,  1882

Belief  was  given  by  prof.  Magnusson  to  many
sufferers Oct. ,,

A  large  emigration  of  Icelanders  to  west  Canada,
1872  et  seq.

Agitation  for  home-rule  ;  resisted  by  Denmark,
Nov.  1885  ;  demanded  by  the  diet July-Aug.  1886

Death  of  Dr.  Vigfusson,  great  Icelandic  scholar

Feb.  1889


Exhibition  of  Icelandic  handicraft  at  Kensington

..May,  1889
Mr. Frederick  W.  W.  Howell  ascended  the  Orsefa
Jbkull  (about  6,550  feet)  . . .17  Aug.  1891

See  Eddas  and  Hecla.

ICENI,  a  British  tribe  which  inhabited  chiefly
Suffolk  and  Norfolk.  In  61,  while  Suetonius  Pau-
linus  was  reducing  Mona  (Anglesey)  they  marched
southwards  and  destroyed  Verulam,  London,  and
other  places,  with  great  slaughter  of  the  Romans ;
but  were  defeated  by  Suetonius  near  London,  and
their  heroic  queen  Boadicea  or  Boudicca  died  or
committed  suicide.

"  ICH  DIEN,"  /  serve,  the  motto  under  the
plume  of  ostrich  feathers  found  in  the  helmet  of
the  king  of  Bohemia  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  at
which  he  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army,
26  Aug.  1346.  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  in  respect
to  his  father,  Edward  III.,  who  commanded  that
day,  though  the  prince  won  the  battle,  adopted  the
motto,  which  has  since  been  borne  with  the  feathers,
by  the  heirs  to  the  crown  of  England.

ICHNOLOGY,  the  science  of  footprints,  treats
of  the  impression  made  in  mud  or  sand  by  the
animals  of  former  ages.  Dr.  Duncan  discovered  the
footprints  of  a  tortoise  in  the  sandstone  of  Annan-
dale,  in  1828 ;  since  then  numerous  discoveries
have  been  made  by  Owen,  Lyell,  Huxley,  and
others.

ICHTHYOLOGY,  the  science  of  fish.
Eminent  authors  are  Aristotle  (384 — 322  B.C.),
Willoughby,  Ray,  Valenciennes,  Cuvier,  Owen,
Agassiz,  &c.  Yarrell's  "  British  Fishes"  (1836-59)
is  a  classical  work ;  see  Fish.

ICONIITM  (Syria).  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas
preached,  38.  Soliman  the  Seljuk  founded  a  king-
dom here  in  1074,  which  lasted  till  1307,  when  it
was  conquered  by  the  Turks.  It  had  been  subdued
by  the  Crusaders  in  1097  and' 1 190  ;  see  Konieh.

ICONOCLASTS  (image-breakers).  The  con-
troversy respecting  images  (which  had  been  intro-
duced into  churches  for  popular  instruction  about
300)  was  begun  about  726,  and  occasioned  much
disturbance  and  loss  of  life  in  the  Eastern  Empire.
Leo  Isauricus  published  two  edicts  for  demolishing
images  in  churches  in  that  year,  and  enforced  them
with  great  rigour  in  736.  The  defenders  of  images
were  again  persecuted  in  752  and  761,  when  Con-
stautine  forbade  his  subjects  becoming  monks.  The
worship  of  images  was  restored  by  Irene  in  780.
This  schism  was  the  occasion  of  the  second  council
of  Nice,  787.  Theophilus  banished  all  the  painters
and  statuaries  from  the  Eastern  Empire,  832.  The
Iconoclasts  were  finally  excommunicated  at  the
8th  general  council  at  Constantinople,  869-870.
This  controversy  led  to  the  separation  of  the  Greek
and  Latin  churches.  Many  images  in  churches
were  destroyed  in  Scotland  and  the  Netherlands  in
the  16th  century,  and  in  England  during  the
Reformation  and  the  civil  war,  1641-8.

IDAHO,  a  northern  "  territory"  of  the  United
States  of  Nortli  America,  was  organised  in  1863 ;
as  a  state,  1890.  Capital  Boisee.  Population  in
1880,  32,610; 1890,  84,385.


IDENTISCOPE.


495


IMPEACHMENT.


IDENTISCOPE,  an  optical  apparatus  for
combining  two  photograph  portraits  into  one,  sold
in  1884. See  Com2iosite  Portraits.

IDES  (Latin  Idus),  were  eight  days  in  the
Roman  and  church  calendar,  following  the  Nones.
They  were  reckoned  backward.  In  March,  May,
July,  and  October,  the  8th  Idus  was  on  the  8th  of
the  month,  the  7th  on  the  9th,  &c,  the  first,  or  Ide,
being  the  15th.  In  the  other  months  the  8th  Ide  fell
on  the  6th,  and  the  first  on  the  13th.  On  the  Idus
of  March  (the  15th)  44  B.C.,  Julius  Csesar  was  as-
sassinated.

IDIOTS.  About  1855  there  were  in  England,
exclusive  of  lunatics,  pauper  idiots,  or  idiots  pro-
tected in  national  institutions,  males,  3372 ;  females,
3893;  total,  7265  ;  see  Lunacy.  The  Idiot  Asylum
at  Earlswood,  near  Reigate,  Surrey,  began  in  1847  ;
was  chartered,  1862  ;  additional  buildings  were
founded  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  28  June,  1869.
The  foundation  of  the  Imbecile  Asylum,  Caterham,
was  laid  by  Dr.  Brewer,  M.P.,  17  April,  1869.
Idiots  Act  passed,  1886.

IDOLS.  Images  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxi.
19,  30,  1739  B.C.  The  Jews  frequently  deserted  the
worship  of  God  for  idols  till  their  captivity,  588  B.C.
Edict  of  Theodosius  for  the  suppression  of  idolatry,
392.  Idolatry  was  revived  in  Britain  by  the  Saxons
about  473,  but  it  gave  way  in  Britain,  after  the
coming  of  Augustin,  about  597.  See  Iconoclasts,
Week.

IDSTEDT  (N.  Germany).  Here  the  insurgent
army  of  Holstein  and  Schleswig,  commanded  by
Willisen,  was  defeated  by  the  Danes,  25  July,  1 850.

IDUMiEA,  the  country  of  the  Edomites,  the

descendants  of  Esau,  the  brother  of  Jacob  :  see  Gen.

xxxvi.,  Josh.  xxiv.  4.

The  Edomites  prevent  the  Israelites  from  passing
through  their  country b.  c. 1453

They  are  subjugated  by  David 1040

They  revolt  against  Ahaziah,  892  ;  and  are  severely
defeated  by  Amaziah 827

They  join  the  Chaldseans  against  Judah,  and  are
anathematised  in  Psalm  cxxxvii. . .  about 570

John  Hyrcanus,  the  Maccabee,  subjugates  and  en-
deavours to  incorporate  them  with  the  Jews  . . 125

Herod  the  Great,  son  of  Antipater  an  Idumsean,
king  of  Judsea 40

IEBNE,  see  Ireland.

IGLAU,  see  Hussites.

ILBEBT  BILL,  see  India,  1883.

ILDEFONSO,  ST.,  Spain.  Here  was  signed  a
treaty  between  France  and  Spain,  19  Aug.  1796;
and  another  by  which  France  regained  Louisiana,
I  Oct.  1800.

ILIUM  (Asia  Minor),  see  Troy.

ILLINOIS,  a  western  state  of  North  America,
was  settled  by  the  French  in  1 749 ;  acquired  by
the  British,  1763  ;  made  a  territory,  1809  ;  and  ad-
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state,  3  Dec.  1818.
Capital,  Springfield.  Population,  1880,  3,077,871;
1890,  3,826,351.

By  flooding  of  a  coal  mine  75  men  drowned 16  Feb. 1883
Convent and school at  Belleville  burnt, about

27  young  persons  perish . . -5-6  Jan.  1884
See  Railway  Accidents,  11  Aug.  1887.

ILLUMINATED  BOOKS.  The  practice
of  adopting  ornaments,  drawings,  and  emblematical
figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MSS.,  is  of
great  antiquity.  Varro  wrote  the  lives  of  700
illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  with
their  portraits,  about  70  B.C. Plin.  Nat.  Hist.


Some  beautiful  missals  and  other  works  were
printed  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  et  seq. ,  and
fine  imitations  have  lately  appeared.

ILLUMINATI,  heretics  who  sprang  up  in
Spain,  where  they  were  called  Alombrados,  about
1575.  After  their  suppression  in  Spain,  they  ap-
peared in  France.  One  of  their  leaders  was"  friar
Anthony  Buchet.  They  professed  to  obtain  grace
and  perfection  by  their  sublime  manner  of  prayer.
A  secret  society  bearing  this  name,  opposed  to
tyranny  and  priestcraft,  was  founded  at  Ingoldstadt,
Bavaria,  by  Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt,  in  May,  1776,
and  was  suppressed  in  1784-5.

ILLUSTEATED  LONDON  NEWS,  the
earliest  publication  of  the  kind,  established  by  Mr.
Herbert  Ingram,  M.P.,  first  appeared  on  14  "May,
1842. Jubilee  number  published,  14  May,  1892.
He  purchased  the  Illustrated  Times,  first  published
9  June,  1855,  and  incorporated  it  with  the  Penny
Illustrated  Paper, established  by the Ingram
family ;  first  number . . . . I2  Oct.  1861
Mr.  Ingram  and  his  eldest  son  were  accidentally
drowned  in  the  Lady  Elgin  in  Lake  Michigan,

(see  Wrecks)  8  Sept.  i860
Illustrated  Sporting  and  Dramatic  News,  begun  .  1874
English  Illustrated  Magazine  begun  by  Macmillaii

Oct.  1883
ILLYBIA  (now  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Bosnia),
after  several  wars  (from  230  B.C.)  was  made  a
Roman  province,  167  B.C.  In  1809  Napoleon  I.
gave  the  name  of  Illyrian  provinces  to  Camiola,
Dalmatia,  and  other  provinces,  then  part  of  the
French  empire,  now  Carinthia,  Carniola,  &c.

.  ILMENIUM,  a  metal  of  the  tantalum  group,
discovered  by  R.  Herrmann,  about  1847,  but  re-
jected by  chemists ;  its  claims  were  reasserted  by
him  in  1867.

IMAGE  WOESHLP,  see  Iconoclasts.

"IMITATION  OF  JESUS  CHEIST "
(De  Imitatione  Christi).  The  author  of  this  devo-
tional work  is  unknown.  It  has  been  attributed  to
an  abbot  Gersen  (whose  very  existence  is  doubtful) ;
to  Jean  Gerson,  the  celebrated  chancellor  of  Paris'
who  died  in  1429  ;  and  to  Thomas  a.  Kempis,  said
to  have  been  merely  a  compiler  and  editor,  who  died
25  July,  1471.

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,  see  Con-
ception.

IMMIGEATION  into  the  United  Kingdom
first  estimated  in  the  Emigration  Report  for  187c
In  1870,  49, 157;  in  1874,  118,129;  in  1875,  94,228';
in  1876,  93,557;  m  1877,  81,848;  1S79,  53,973
1881,77,105;  1883,100,503;  1884,  123,466;  188c
113,549;  1886,  108,879;  1887,  119,013  («,«8
foreigners);  1888,  128,879;  1889,  147,398;  1890,
155,910. Compare  this  with  Emigration.

IMMOETALS  (Greek,  athanatot),  the  flower
of  the  Persian  army,  limited  to  10,000  in  number
and  recruited  from  the  nobility  alone,  about  500
B.C.  The  name  was  also  given  to  the  body-guard  of
the  emperors  at  Constantinople  in  the  4th  and  5th
centuries.

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment
by  the  commons  house  of  parliament,  and  the  first
of  a  lord  chancellor,  Michael  de  la  Pole,  earl  of
Suffolk,  was  in  1386.  By  statute  12  &  13  Will.
&  Mary,  1700,  it  was  enacted  that  no  pardon  under
the  great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to  an  impeachment
by  the  commons  in  parliament.

Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  13  Feb.  1788,  to  25

April,  1795  ;  acquittal.
Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  9  April ; acquittal 12

June,  1806.


IMPERIAL  CHAMBER.


496


IMPOSTORS.


Inquiry  into  the  charges  of  colonel  Wardle  against  the
duke  of  York,  27  Jan.  to  20  March,  1809  ;  acquittal.

Trial  of  Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  by  bill  of  pains
and  penalties,  before  the  house  of  lords,  commenced
16  Aug.  ;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on  her  majesty's  de-
fence, 3  Oct.  ;  and  the  last  debate  on  the  bill  took  place
10  Nov.  1820  ;  see  Queen  Caroline.

Impeachment  of  the  president .;  see  United  States,  1868.

IMPERIAL  CHAMBER,  see  Aulic  Council.

IMPERIAL  DEFENCE  :  an  act  for  de-
fraying the  expenses  of  carrying  into  effect  an
agreement  for  naval  defence  with  the  Australasian
colonies,  and  providing  for  the  defence  of  certain
ports  and  coaling  stations,  and  for  making  further
provision  for  imperial  defence,  passed  13  Aug.
1888. See  Colonies.

IMPERIAL  FEDERATION  of  Great  Bri-
tain and  her  colonies  (for  defence,  &c.) ,  the  principle
was  affirmed,  and  a  provisional  committee  of  an
association  constituted  at  a  great  meeting  of  emi-
nent politicians  of  all  parties,  and  representatives
of  the  colonies,  held  at  Westminster  Palace  Hotel,
Mr.  "W".  E.  Forster,  M.P.  in  the  chair,  29  July ;
a  league  constituted  18  Nov.  1884. The  electric  tele-
graph has  now  brought  the  colonies  into  closer  com-
munication than  Exeter  and  Newcastle  were  formerly.
In  1885  many  of  the  colonies  offered  military  assist-
ance in  the  Soudan ;  which  was  accepted.
Conference at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition,
London ; earl Rosebery, president, 1  July, 1886 ;
rt.  hon.  Edward  Stanhope,  Sept.  1892. The  report  of
sir  Rawson  Rawson  discloses  great  difficulties  through
opposing  tariffs,  March,  1888.
Fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  League  held  in  London  23
May,  1889  ;  meeting  at  the  Mansion-house 15  Nov.
1889  ; meeting  at Edinburgh  12 Feb.  ; at  People's
Palace,  E.  London,  duke  of  Cambridge  in  the  chair,
28  April,  1890  ;  at  Westminster,  18  June,  1891.

IMPERIAL  GUARD  of  France,  was  created
by  Napoleon  from  the  guard  of  the  convention,  the
directory,  and  the  consulate,  when  he  became
emperor  in  1804.  It  consisted  at  first  of  9775  men,
but  was  afterwards  enlarged.  It  was  subdivided  in
1809  into  the  old  and  young  guard.  In  Jan.  1814,
it  numbered  102,706.  It  was  dissolved  by
Louis  XVIII.  in  1815  ;  revived  by  Napoleon  III.  in
1854.  It  surrendered  with  Metz  to  the  Germans
27  Oct.  1870;  and  was  abolished  by  government
soon  after. It  took  part  in  the  Crimean  war  in  1855.

IMPERIAL  INSTITUTE  of  the  colo-
nies AND  INDIA,  to  represent  arts,  manufac-
tures, and  commerce  :  established  as  a  memorial  of
the  queen's  jubilee,  proposed  by  the  prince  of
"Wales  in  a  letter  to  the  lord  mayor  of  Loudon,  13
Sept.  1886.

Preliminary  meeting  at  the  Mansion  House,  27  Sept.
prince  of  Wales's  committee  meet  10  Nov.  1.886.
Sir  Frederick  Abel,  organizing  secretary  .  Nov.  1886
Issue  of  report  recommending  the  constitution  of
the  Institute  at  South  Kensington,  consisting  of
two  sections  ;  I.  to  illustrate  the  commercial  and
natural  resources  of  the  Colonies  and  India  ;  II.
the  condition  of  the  natural  products  and  manu-
factures of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  with  suitable
accompaniments  ....  23-24  Dec.  ,,
Meetings  at  St.  James's  Palace  and  Mansion  House

12  Jan.  1887
Sir.  F.  Abel  expounded  the  objects  of  the  Institute
at  the  Royal  Institution  with  the  approbation  of
the  prince  of  Wales,  who  was  in  the  chair  22  April, ,,
25,000/.  awarded  to  the  Institute  out  of  the  surplus

of  the  Colonial  Exhibition  of  1886 . 30  April, „
Architect,  Mr. T.  E. Colcutt ; contractors,  John

Mowlem  and  Co.
Munificent  donations  from Indian princes  ; the
maharajah  of  Jodhpore  gave  io,oool.  June,  1887  ;
maharajah  Holkar  of  Indore,  100,000  rupees,  Feb.
1889;  the  Maharajah  of  Jeypore,  20,000/.  Nov


1890  ;  the  Indian  government  grant  1,000/.  annu-
ally for  the  museum . . beginning  Nov. 1891

Foundation  stone  laid  by  the  queen  ;  (ode  by  Mr.
Lewis  Morris,  music  by  sir  Arthur  Sullivan,
sung  ;  addresses) 4  July,  1887

20,000?.  received  from  Canada . . 24  Aug. ,,

Amount  received  or  definitely  promised,  400,000?.

Oct. „

Receipt  of  310,000?.  exclusive  of  the  Indian  contri-
bution, reported 2  July,  1888

See  Oriental  studies,  1890.

The  premiers  of  the  Australasian  colonies,  announce
their  hearty  co-operation  in  the  work  of  ;the  Insti-
tute, June,  1890;  the  constitution  of  the  Imperial
Institute,  published  in  the  London  Gazette,  28
April,  1891  ;  the  prince  of  Wales  nominated  first
president ;  governing  body  18  governors,  12  nomi-
nated by  the  queen,  6  by  the  president,  and  8
ex-officio  officers,  abp.  of  Canterbury,  lord  chan-
cellor, and  others.  First  meeting  of  the  per-
manent governing  body,  Lord  Herschell  elected
chairman,  and  the  executive  council  constituted

23  July,  1891

The  Institute  was  partly  opened  to  the  Fellows  and

public 22  June,  1892

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT,  see  Commons,

Lords,  Parliament,  and  Reform.

IMPERIAL  THEATRE  at  the  Aquarium,
Westminster  {which  see).

IMPERIALISM.  The  word  was  much  used
in  1878,  to  signify  that  which  related  to  the  welfare
of  the  British  empire  as  a  whole,  in  contradistinc-
tion to  that  of  Great  Britain  itself  or  any  other
separate  part  of  the  empire.

IMPORTS of  Merchandise.  _  The  vast

progressive  increase  of  our  commercial  intercourse
with  other  countries  is  shown  by  our  imports  and
exports  {which  see) : —

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL
PARTS OF THE WORLD.


[n  1710 .

• £4,753.777

In  1869 .

£295,460,214.

1750 .

7,289,582

1870 .

•  303,257,493

1775 •

. 14.815.855

1871 .

■ 33I,oI5,48»

1800 .

• 3°>57°>6°5

1875 •

• 373,939,577

1810 .

. 41,136,135

1876 .

• 375,154,703

1820 .

• 36.514,564

1877 ■

. 394,419,682:

1830 .

. 46,245,241

1878 .

• 368,770,742

1840 .

62,004,000

1879 •

• 362,99I>875

1845 .

. 85,281,958

1880 .

.  411,229,565

1850 .

. 95,252,084

1881 .

• 397,022,489

1851 .

• 103,579,582

1882 .

. 413,019,608

1856 .

• I72.544.I54

1883 .

.  426,891,579.

1857 •

. 187,844,441

1884 .

. 390,018,569

1859 •

. 179,182,355

1885 .

• 370,967,955

1861 .

. 217,485,024

1886 .

• 349,863,472

1864 .

. 274,952,172

1887 .

. 362,227,564

1865 .

. 271,072,285

1888 .

•  387,635, 743-

1866 .

. 295,290,274

1889 .

•  427>637,59S

1867 .

. 275,183,137

1890 .

. 420,691,997

1868 .

. 294,693,608

1891 .

•  435,44i>264

From  foreign  counl

ries.

Exports  to

1871

1875

1877

1877

£258,071,062

£289,515,606

£304,865,684

£176,593,870'

From

British  posses

sions.

£72,944,418

84.423.971

89.553,998

75,752,i5»

IMPOSTORS. The

following  are  among  the-

most  extraordinary  : —

Mahomet  promulgated  his  creed,  604 :  see  Mahometan/ism.

Aldebert,  a  Gaul,  in  743,  pretended  he  had  a  letter  from
the  Redeemer,  which  fell  from  heaven  at  Jerusalem  ;
he  seduced  multitudes  to  follow  him  into  woods  and
forests,  and  to  live  in  imitation  of  John  the  Baptist.
He  was  condemned  by  a  council  at  Rome  in  745.

Gonzalvo  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to  be  the  angel
Michael  in  1359 :  he  was  burnt  by  the  inquisition  in
Spain  in  1360.

George  David,  son  of  a  waterman  at  Ghent,  styled  him-
self the  son  of  God,  sent  into  the  world  to  adopt
children  worthy  of  heaven :  he  denied  the  resurrection,
preached  in  favour  of  a  community  of  women,  and
taught  that  the  body  only  could  be  defiled  by  sin  ;  he


IMPRESSIONISTES.


497


INCOME  TAX.


had  many  followers  ;  died  at  Basle,  1556,  promising  to
rise  again  in  three  years.

Otreflef,  a  monk,  pretended  to  be  Demetrius  the  son  of
Ivan,  czar  of  Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris  had
put  to  death  ;  he  maintained  that  another  child  had
been  substituted  in  his  place  :  he  was  supported  by
Poland  ;  his  success  led  the  Russians  to  invite  him  to
the  throne,  and  deliver  into  his  hands,  Feodor,  the
reigning  czar,  aud  all  his  family  :  his  imposition  dis-
covered, he  was  assassinated  in  his  palace,  1606.

Sabbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused  the  Jews  and
Turks  a  long  time  at  Constantinople  and  other  places,
by  personating  our  Saviour,  1666.

Joseph  Smith,  see  Mormonites.

Apparition  of  our  Lady  of  Salette  ;  the  imposture  ex-
posed and  several  persons  prosecuted,  April,  1846.
The  superstition  revived  and  flourishing,  Aug.  1872.

Pilgrimage  of  about  20,000  persons  to  Lourdes,  in  the
Pyrenees,  on  account  of  alleged  miracles  (the  virg:n
was  said  to  have  appeared  to  two  girls,  11  Feb.  1858),
•6  Oct.  1872  ;  see  France.

Insurrection  of  the  Mahdi,  see  Soudan,  1881  et  seq.

An  adventurer,  who  named  himself  "  Comte  Blanco,"
and  "  prince  Louis  Marie  Cesar  of  Bourbon,  grandson
of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,"  was  recognised  at  Paris
in  1869  by  queen  Isabella  and  others.  Detected  by  a
.photographer  as  his  son-in-law.  Supported  by  a  rich
English  widow.  Kept  a  small  court  at  Jurangon  near
Pau,  as  a  king.  Deposed  and  expelled  by  the  police.
He  afterwards  went  to  Holland  and  England,  and  died
in  London.

IN  BRITISH HISTORY.

A  man  pretending  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  a  woman  as-
suming to  be  the  Virgin  Mary,  were  burnt,  1222.

Jack  Cade  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer ;  see  Cade,  1450.

In  1487,  Lambert  Simnel,  tutored  by  Richard  Simon,  a
priest,  supported  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  personated
the  earl  of  Warwick.  Simnel's  army  was  defeated  by
Henry  VII. ,  and  he  was  made  a  scullion  in  the  king's
kitchen.

For  Warbeck's  imposture  in  1492,  see  Warbeck.

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  Maid  of  Kent,  spirited
up  to  hinder  the  Reformation  by  pretending  to  inspira-
tions from  heaven,  foretelling  that  the  king  would
have  an  early  and  violent  death  if  he  divorced  Cathe-
rine of  Spain  and  married  Anne  Boleyn.  She  and
her  confederates  were  executed  at  Tyburn,  21  April,  1534.

&n  !553  (first  year  of  Mary's  reign,  after  her  marriage  with
Philip  of  Spain),  Elizabeth  Croft,  a  girl  18  years  of  age,
was  secreted  in  a  wall,  and  with  a  whistle  made  for  the
purpose,  uttered  many  seditious  speeches  against  the
queen  and  the  prince,  and  also  against  the  mass  and
confession,  for  which  she  did  penance.

William  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  our  Saviour,  and
was  executed  for  blasphemy,  1591.

Valentine  Greatrix,  an  Irish  impostor,  who  pretended  to
cure  all  diseases  by  stroking  the  patient :  his  imposture
deceived  the  credulous,  and  occasioned  very  warm  dis-
putes in  Ireland  and  England  about  1666.  Boyle  and
Flanisteed  believed  in  him.

Dr.  Titus  Oates,  see  Oates.

Robert  Young,  a  prisoner  in  Newgate,  forged  the  hands
of  the  earls  of  Marlborough,  Salisbury,  and  other
nobility,  to  a  pretended  association  for  restoring  king
James  :  the  lords  were  imprisoned,  but  the  imposture
being  detected,  Young  was  lined  1000?. ,  and  put  in  the
pillory,  1692. He  was  afterwards  hanged  for  coining.

Three  French  refugees  pretend  to  be  prophets,  and  raise
tumults  ;  convicted  as  impostors,  Nov.  1707.

Mary  Tofts  of  Godalming,  by  pretending  she  bred  rabbits
within  her,  so  imposed  upon  many  persons  (among
others,  Mr.  St.  Andre,  surgeon  to  the  king),  that  they
espoused  her  cause,  1726.

The  Cock-lane  ghost  impostures  by  William  Parsons,  his
wife,  and  daughter,  1762  ;  see  Cock-lane  Ghost.

Johanna  Southcote,  who  proclaimed  her  conception  of
the  Messiah,  and  had  a  multitude  of  followers  ;  she
died  27  Dec.1814.

W.  Thorn,  see  Thomites.

Louis  XVII.,  see  France,  list  of  sovereigns.
[See  Abstinence  and  Sugar.]

IMPRESSIONISTES,.  a  name  given  to
artists  who  aim  at  producing  rapid  unstudied
effects  independent  of  the  canons  of  art,  such  as
Manet,  Duez,  and  others  in  France.  In  England
Mr.  Whistler  exhibited  such  pictures  in  1877,  ^n"


eluding  moonlight  scenes,  &c,  painted  in  two  days,
showing  great  sense  of  colour.  For  Mr.  Kuskin's
criticisms  see  Trials,  1878.  The  Inipressionistes
are  also  characterized  as  illustrators  of  their  own
times  by  pure  art ;  MM.  Manet,  Durand,  Euel,
Degas,  and  Renoir,  are  French  examples;  they
exhibited  in  London  in  June,  1882  and  since,
especially  in  April,  1889.

.  IMPRESSMENT  of  Seamen,  affirmed  by

sir  M.  Foster  to  be  of  ancient  practice.  The  stat.
2  Rich.  II.  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well
known,  1378.  The  first  commission  for  it  was
issued  29  Edw.  III.  1355.  Pressing,  either  for  the
sea  or  land  service,  declared  to  be  illegal  by  the
parliament,  Dec.  1641,  but  practised  till  present
times.  Impressment  was  not  resorted  to  in  the
Russian  war,  1854-5.

IMPRISONMENT  FOR  DEBT,  see  Arrests,
Debtors,  and  Ferrars'  Arrest.

IMPROPRIATION  (applying  ecclesiastical
property  to  lay  purposes).  On  the  suppression  of
abbeys  in  1539,  their  incomes  from  the  great  tithes
were  distributed  among  his  courtiers  by  Henry
VIII. ;  and  their  successors  constitute  7597  lay
impropriators.

INCAS,  see  Peru.

INCENDIARIES. See  Arson.

INCEST.  Marriage  with  very  near  relations,
almost  universally  forbidden,  took  place  in  Egypt,
Persia,  and  Greece.  For  recent  cases  see  Portugal,
1760,  1777,  and  1826;  Italy,  1888.  The  table  of
kindred  in  the  book  of  common  prayer  was  set  forth
in  1563.  For  the  Hebrew  law  see  Leviticus,  chap,
xviii.  1490  B.C.

INCH.  It  was  defined  in  1824  by  act  of  par-
liament, that  39- 13929  inches  is  the  length  of  a
seconds  pendulum  in  the  latitude  of  London,  vi-
brating in  vacuo  at  the  sea  level,  at  the  temperature
of  62°  Fahrenheit ;  see  Candle,  and  Standard.

INCHCAPE  BELL,  see  Bell  Rock.

INCLOSURE  ACT,  to  facilitate  the  inclo-
sure  and  improvement  of  commons,  appointing
commissioners,  etc.,  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  118,  passed
8  Aug.  1845 ;  another  act  passed  in  1876 ;  see
Commons.

INCOME  TAX.  In  1512,  parliament  granted
a  subsidy  of  two-fifteenths  from  the  commons,  and
two-tenths  from  the  clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to
eater  on  a  war  with  France.  In  Dec.  1798,  Mr.
Pitt  proposed  and  carried,  amid  great  opposition,
resolutions  for  increased  taxes  "as  an  aid  for  the
prosecution  of  the  war"  with  France.
Graduated  duties  on  income  imposed, beginning  with

60?.  per  annum,  by  the  act  passed  9  Jan.  1799.
The  "  property  tax  "  passed  which  levied  a  rate  of  5  per

cent,  on  all  incomes  above  150?.  and  lower  rates  on

smaller  incomes,  11  Aug.  1803.
Increased  to  6 J  per  cent.  1805  ;  10  per  cent,  embracing

the  dividends  at  the  bank,  1806.
In  1800  the  tax  produced  5,716,572?.  ;  in  1804,  4,650,000?.  ;

in 1806, 11,500,000?.  ;  in 1808, 16,548,985?.  ;  in 1S15,

I4.978,557?-
The tax  produced  from  lands, houses, reutages, &c,

8,657,937?.  : from funded and stock properties,

2,885,505?.  ;  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade,  3,831,088?.  ;

and salaries and  pensions, 1,174,456?. Repealed 18

March,  1816,  on  motion  of  H.  Brougham.
Sir  Robert  Peel's  bill  imposing  the  present  tax  at  a  rate

of  7<?,  in  the  pound  (2?.  18s.  41/.  per  cent.)  per  aim.  (for

three  years)  passed  22  June,  1842.
It  produced  about  5,350,000?.  a-year ;  and  led  to  repeal  of

about  12,000,000?.  indirect  taxes.
Renewed  for  three  years,  1845  :  and  1848.
Large  meetings  assembled  in  Trafalgar-square,  London

(for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  opposing  the  income  tax) ;

K K.


INCOEPOEATED.


498


INDEMNITY BILL.


rioting  ensued,  which  was  soon  quelled,  S,  7  March,
1848.
Tax  continued  for  one  year  in  1851  and  1852.
The  tax  of  jd.  limited  to  seven  years  (till  i860) ;  to  he
gradually  reduced  in  amount;  but  all  incomes  from
100I.  to  150I.  made  liable  to  scl.  in  the  pound  for  all
that  period :  the  tax  also  extended  to  Ireland,  June,
1853.
In  consequence  of  the  Crimean  war,  the  rate  was  doubled,

14&,  1854.

zd.  (making  i6ii)  added  to  the  tax  on  incomes  above

150I.,  and  ijci  on  those  between  100I.  and  150I.  ;  the

former  being  is.  ^d. ,  the  latter  1 1  Jcl  in  the  pound,  1855.

The  former  assessment  reduced  to  yd. ,  the  latter  to  $d. ,

1857. Both  became  $d. ,  1858.
The  former  raised  to  gd. ,  the  latter  to  6M.  •  and  the  tax
on  incomes,  derived  from  lands,  tenements,  &c. ,  raised
from  3^d  to  s^d.  for  England,  and  from  i\d.  to  i,d.  for
Scotland  and  Ireland,  July,  1859.
The  assessment  on  incomes  raised — on  those  above  100Z.

to  yd.  ;  on  those  above  150L  to  ioci
[The  object  of  the  increase  was  to  provide  for  a  deficiency
occasioned by  extra  expenditure  for defending  the
country,  April,  i860.]
A  committee  to  inquire  into  the  working  of  the  income

tax  appointed,  14  Feb.  1861.
Reduction  of  the  last  assessment  from  yd.  to  6d.,  and
from  iod.  to  gd.  for  three-quarters  of  the  financial  year
1861-62.
The  rates  of  6d.  and  gd.  to  continue,  April,  1862.
The  rate  of 7c?. on  all  chargeable  incomes  ; ^d. on
farms,  &c. ,  in  England  ;  and  2  JcZ.  in  Scotland  and  Ire-
land. Incomes  under  100I. a-year  exempted  ;  those
above  100L  and  under  200I.  allowed  an  abatement  on
60I. ,  8  June,  1863.
The  rate  of  6d.  on  chargeable  incomes,  with  some  exemp-
tions and  abatement,  13  May,  1864.
The  rate  of  $d.  on  chargeable  incomes,  with  same  exemp-
tions and  abatement,  May,  1865  ;  continued,  1866,  and
1867.
Raised  to  $d.  (for  year  ending  1  April,  1868),  to  provide

for  Abyssinian  war,  Nov.  1867.
Raised  to  6d.  (for  1868-9),  Mav>  l8°8.
Reduced  to  5c?.  in  the  pound,  April,  1869  ;  to  \d.,  April,
1870. Raised  to  6d.  on  account  of  re-organisation  of
army, abolishing  purchase, 1871. Reduced  to  $d. ,
April,  1872.
Renewed  agitation  against  the  tax  ;  conference  at  Bir-
mingham, 22  May  ;  at  the  Mansion-house, London,
proposed  formation  of a  National  Anti-Income  Tax
League,  13  Dec.  1872.
Reduced  to  3d  from  6  April,  1873  ;  to  2d. ,  23  April,  1874.
Mr. C.  Lewis's  motion  for  reducing  or  abolishing  the

tax  defeated  (139-38),  3  July,  1874.
Raised  to 3d.  ;  incomes under 150J. to  be exempt ;
120I.  of  incomes  under  400I.  exempt,  April,  1876.


Raised  to  5d.  (through  preparations  for  war),  April,  1878.

Raised  to  6d.  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  June ;  act  passed,  12
Aug.  1880.

Reduced  to  5&  by  Mr.  Gladstone  ;  budget  4  April,  1881.

Raised  to  6^d.  for  the  year  (in  consequence  of  the
Egyptian  expedition) ,  Aug.  1882.

Reduced  to  50!.  April,  1883.

Raised  to  6d.  1  Dec.  1884  ;  to  Sd.  30  April,  1885  ;  con-
tinued, April,  1886  ;  reduced  to  7$.  April,  1887  ;  land,.
&c,  England  3^.  ;  Scotland  and  Ireland,  2.\d.  (act  23-.
May,  1887);  reduced  to  6d.  16  May,  1888;  continued
April,  1889-92.

Mr.  Bartley's  motion  for  a  committee  to  enquire
into  the  working  and  incidence  of  the  income-tax
negatived  by  the  commons  (161-106)  . 24  Feb. 189s

The  house  of  lords  decides  on  appeal  that  religious
and  charitable  societies  are  exempt  from  income-


PRODUCE OF THE INCOME  TAX.

1842 .

■ £571.055

1872(31

March) £9,084,000-

1844

• S.io^So?

1873

,,

■ 7.403.73&

1846 .

• 5.395.391

1874

„

- 5.641,791

1852

• 5.509,637

1875

rr

• 4,315, I32'

1855  (31  March)

. 10,642,621

1876

,,

4,109,000.

1856

15,070,958

1877

,,

5,284,091

1857

16,089,933

1878

„

. 5,820,000.

1858

11,586,115

1879

„

8,710,000

1859

6,683,587

1880

,,

9,230,000--

i860 „

9,596,106

1881

Tt

. 10,650,000.

1861

10,923,186

1882

„

• 9,945,°°°'

1862 „

10,365,000

1883

M

.  11,900,000

1863

10,567,000

1884

,,

-  10,718,00c-

1864 „

9,084,000

1885

„

-  12,000,000-

1865

7,958,000

1886

„

.  15,160,000-

1866 „

6,390,000

1887

,,

.  15,900,00c

1867

5,700,000

1888

,,

.  14,440,000-

1868

6,177,000

1889

,,

. 12,700,000

1869 „

8,618,000

1890

„

.  12,770,000-

1870

10,044,000

1891

„

.  13,250,000

1871

6,350,000  1

(Estimated  thai

id. in  the

pound  yields

772,000?.  a-

year, 1842 ;

1, 727, 000 1.

1876;

I,0O0,

xol., 1878  ".

1,980,000,  188;

■)

TOTAL  ANNUi

L VALUE OF

PROPERTY  AND  PROFITS

AS

SESSED, UNI'

CED KINGDOM.

£430,368,976'

1873 .

513,807,284.

5?8,294,97E

601,450,977

629,397,962.

636,154,693.

645,158,689.

660,358,613.

698,407,540s.

ESTIMATED  ANNUAL  INCOME.

England  and  "Wales.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1814

1891

165,956,061
306,854,829

1814

1891

19,682,692
33,772,698

1854

1891

Real  property,  land,  &c. . .
Professions,  trades,  &c. .

•53,495,000
34,288,000

6,643,000
2,771,000

11,892,000
4,780,000

13,660,855
10,963,164

87,783,000

472,810,890

9,414,000

53,455,39°

16,672,000

24,624,019

INCOEPOEATED,  see  Authors,  Law.

INCUMBENTS'  BESIGNATION  ACT,

with  provision  for  pensions,  passed  13  July,  187 1,
amended  1887.

INCUMBEEED  ESTATES,  see  Encum-
bered Estates.

INCUEABLES.  The  royal  hospital  for  in-
curables, founded  by  Dr.  Andrew  Heed,  at  Car-
shalton  in  Surrey,  in  1850,  has  since  been  removed
to  Putney.

British  Home  for  Incurables,  Clapham-rise,  esta-
blished 1861

National  Hospital  for  Incurables,  Oxford . . .  1874
Home  for  Incurable  Children,  Maida- vale . .  1875


INDEMNITY  BILL,  by  which  the  minister
of  the  crown  or  the  government  is  relieved  from
the  responsibility  of  measures  adopted  in  extreme-
and  urgent  cases,  without  the  previous  sanction  of
parliament.  One  was  passed  19  April,  1801 ;  an-
other to  indemnify  ministers  against  their  acts
during  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  act,
was  carried  in  the  commons  (principal  divisions,
190  to  64) ;  and  in  the  lords  (93  to  27),  10  March,
1818.  In  1848  and  1857,  bills  of  indemnity  were;
passed  for  the  suspension  of  the  Bank  Charter  act
by  the  ministry;  see  Oblivion.  An  indemnity  bill
is  passed  at  the  end  of  every  session  of  parliament
for  persons  who  transgress  through  ignorance  of  th&
law. The  practice  began  in  1715.


INDEPENDENCE.


499


INDIA.


INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION

OF,  by  United  States  of  North  America,  4  July,
1776,  is  annually  celebrated.

"  INDEPENDENT  THEATRE,"  a  name
assumed  by  a  company  conducted  by  Mr.  J.  T.
Green  at  the  Royalty  Theatre,  providing  entertain-
ments resembling  those  of  the  Thiutre-Libre  of
M.  Antoine,  to  include  the  plays  of  Ibsen  and
Tolstoi  which  could  not  be  licensed  in  this  country.
As  the  theatre  is  supported  by  subscription,  and  no
money  taken  at  the  doors,  it  is  considered  inde-
pendent of  the  lord  chamberlain's  censorship  in
regard  to  the  plays  performed.  Ibsen's  "  Romers-
holm"  was  performed  23  Feb.,  and  his  "  Ghosts"
13  March,  1891.  Other  performances  were  given
at  the  private  theatre  in  the  club-house  erected  on
the  site  of  Evans'  hotel,  Covent  Garden,  22  May,
1891  et  seq.  An  EDglish  version  of  Zola's  "  Therese
Raquin"  given  at  the  Royalty,  9  Oct.  1891.  Other
pieces  licensed  by  the  lord  chamberlain,  4  March,
1892. The  censorship  accepted,  July,  1892.

INDEPENDENTS  or  Congregational-
ISTS,  hold  that  each  church  or  congregation  is
independent  of  all  others  in  religious  matters  ;  that
there  is  no  absolute  occasion  for  synods  or  councils,
whose  resolutions  may  be  taken  for  advice,  but  not
as  decisions  to  be  peremptorily  obeyed ;  and  that  one
church  may  advise  or  reprove  another,  but  has
no  authority  to  excommunicate.  Robert  Brown
preached  these  doctrines  about  1585,  but,  after  32
imprisonments,  he  eventually  conformed  to  the
established  church.  A  church  was  formed  in  Lon-
don in  1593,  when  there  were  20,000  independents.
They  were  driven  by  persecution  to  Holland,  where
they  formed  several  churches ;  that  at  Leyden  was
under  Mr.  Robinson,  often  regarded  as  the  author
of  Independency.  In  1616  Henry  Jacobs  returned
to  England  and  founded  a  meeting-hous3.  Crom-
well, himself  an  independent,  obtained  them  tole-
ration, in  opposition  to  the  Presbyterians.  The
independents  published  an  epitome  of  their
faith,  drawn  up  at  a  conference  at  the  Savoy,  in
1658 ;  and  the  congregational  union  of  England
and  Wales  formed  in  1831,  published  their  "  de-
claration of  faith,  order,  and  discipline,"  in  1833.
In  1851  they  had  3244  chapels  for  1,067,760  per-
sons in  England  and  Wales;  in  1887,  the  con-
gregationalists  had  4338  churches  and  mission
stations;  annual  meetings  are  held;  see  Worship.
The  first  independents  in  Scotland  were  the  Glasites
{ivhich  see).  The  first  independent  church  in
America  was  founded  by  the  followers  of  John
Robinson,  at  Plymouth,  New  England,  in  1620.

Congregational  Fund  Board  to  assist  poor  minis-
ters, established 1695

Congregational  Board  of  Education,  Homerton . 1843

Nonconformist  Bicentenary  fund  begun  . .  1862

The  Congregationalist  Memorial-hall,  Farringdon-
strect,  London,  erected  in  memory  of  the  minis-
ters ejected  in  1662,  as  a  home  for  religious
societies,  was  subscribed  for  and  opened  19  Jan. 1875

An  important  congregationalist  synod,  held  in
London i  . early  in  Oct. ,,

Rev.  John  Waddington's  "Congregational  History,
1200-1854,"  published  .... 1869-78

Samuel  Morley,  a  wealthy  London  merchant,  a
liberal  supporter  of  the  independent  churches,
and  general  philanthropist,  died , . . 5  Sept.  1886

James  Spicer,  a  man  of  similar,  qharacter,  died

23  Jan.  1888

The  first  International  Council  of  Congregational-
ists  held  at  Memorial-hall,  Lou-don,  Rev.  R.  W.
Dale  presiding . . . . 13— 24  July,  1891

INDEXES  OP  PROHIBITED  BOOKS.

The  Index  by  which  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures
was  forbidden  (with  certain  exceptions)  to  the  laity,


was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in
1595-

The  council  of  Nice  (325)  forbade  magical  books.

Pope  Paul  IV.,  1555,  began  the  "Index"  published  by-
Pius  IV.,  1559.  The  Talmud  and  heretical  books  were
especially  prohibited,  causing  much  dissatisfaction.
The  Inquisition  .was  engaged  in  the  work,  which  was
organized  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  Congregation
of  the  Index  was  instituted  and  rules  laid  down.

The  Indexes  are— 1.  Prohibitoriits,  of  books  absolutely
forbidden  to  be  read  ;  2.  Expiirgatorius,  of  books  not
•  to  be  licensed  till  purged  from  error.

Many  of  the  works,  of  the  great  authors  of  France-
Spain,  Germany,  and  England,  are  thus  prohibited!
On  25  June,  1864,  Hugo's  "  Les  Miserables "  and
other  books  were  added  to  the  number  and  many-
others  since.

INDEX  SOCIETY,  established  by  the  libra-
rians of  various  London  scientific  and  literary
institutions  and  societies,  and  literary  men,  to  form
a  library  of  indexes,  and  to  make  indexes  to  rare
serial  works,  important  books,  &c.  17  Dec.  1877.

INDIA  or  HlNDOSTAN.  The  Hindoo  his-
tories ascribe  their  origin  to  a  period  ages  before
the  ordinary  chronologies.  The  Tynans,  Egyptians,
and  Romans  carried  on  commerce  with  India.
The  expansion,  consolidation,  and  conciliation  of
India  have  been  greatly  effected  during  the  reign  of
queen  Victoria,  1837  et  seq. 117  native  states  1888.*

Religions  :  the  pre-historic  Hindu  or  Vedic  system  was
reformed  and  superseded  by  Buddhism  about  b.c.
500.  The  reformed  and  modified  Vedic  system,  since
termed  Brahmanism,  was  restored  about  a.d.  500,  and
prevailed  till  the  introduction  of  Mahometanism,  early
in  the  nth  century ;  see  Population  in  foot-note,
below.

Provinces,  Bengal,  Bombay,  Madras,  Punjaub,  N.W.
and  central  provinces,  Assam,  and  Burmah.

Northern  India  is  said  to  have  been  invaded  and  con-
quered by  an  Arian  race  from  central  Asia,  between
b.c.  1500  and  1000.

Invasion  of  Alexander  the  great ;  king  Porus  is  de-
feated, submits  and  retains  his  kingdom . . 327

Irruptions  of  the  Mahometans,  under  Mahmud
Ghuzni,  100 [-24. He  captured  Somnath  . a.d.  1024.

Extinction  of  the  house  of  Ghuzni,  1186 ;  rule  of  the
slave-kings  of  Delhi,  1206-1288  ;  of  the  Kilghis  and
house  of  Toghlak,  1288-1412 ;  of  the  Syuds,  1412-50;
of  the  house  of  Lodi 1450-1526*

Pathan,  or  Afghan  empire,  founded . . . . 1205

Invasion  of  the  Moguls  under  Genghis  Khan,  1219  ;
he  died . .  . .  .  1227-

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct  of  Timour,
or  Tamerlane,  invade  Hindostan,  and  take  Delhi ;


*  British  India  extends  from  8"  to  34"  N.  lat.  and  from
70°  to  90°  E  long,  (exclusive  of  the  Burmese  additions),
about  1,500,000  square  miles.  The  population  in  all
India,  1881,  252,541,210  ;  1891,  286,696,960 ;  British  India,,
221,356,187  ;  Native  States,  66,803,485.  (Hindoos.
207,654,407;  Mussulmans,  57,365,204;  Christians,
2,284,191 ;  Jains,  1,416,109;  Sikhs,  1,907,836  ;  Buddhists,
7,101,057;  Parsees,  89,887;  Jews,  17,180;  forest  tribes,
animal  worshippers,  9,302,083.)  Cotton  was  planted  in
1839,  and  the  tea-plant  in  1S34.  Railways  (8545  miles  in
1879)  and  the  electric  telegraph  are  being  rapidly  con-
structed, and  canals  for  irrigation ;  see  Ganges  Canal ;
railways  in  1890-1,  16,996  miles  open.  The  Indian
revenue  in  1854-5  was  20,371,450/.  The  expenditure,
22,915, 160?.  In  1858-9:  revenue.  36,060, 788?.  ;  expenditure,
49,642,350?.  In  1869-70  :  revenue,  52,942,482?.  :  expendi-
ture, 56,184,489/..  In  1875-6,  revenue,  52,515,780?.  ;  ex-
penditure, 55,117,536?.  In  1877-8,  revenue  58,969,301?.  ;
expenditure,  66,917,000?.  ;  1881-2,  revenue  73,606,000?. ;
expenditure,  71,113,000?.;  1883-4,  revenue,  67,274,000?.  ;
expenditure,  66,617,000?.  ;  1886-7,  revenue,  77,337, 134RX.
(ten  rupees);  expenditure,  77, 158, 707 Rx.  ;  revenue,
1889-90,  85,085, 203RX.  ;  expenditure,  82,473, 170HX.
Exports  and  imports,  1837,  about  21,000.000?.;  1856.
53,000,000?.;  1885-6,  156,000,000?.;  1888-9,  about
8o,ooo,oooBx.  ;  1890-1,  ig6,26o,382Rx.

K K 2


INDIA.


500


INDIA.


defeat  the  Indian  army,  1397 ;  conquer  Hindostan,
and  butcher  100,000  of  its  people . . . 1398-9
Passage  to  India  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama . 1497
The  first  European  settlement  (Portuguese)  estab-
lished by  him  at  Cochin  (S.  Coast) . . . . 1502

Albuquerque  governor-general,  1508  ;  dies  at  Goa,  1514
Conquest  of  India  completed  by  the  sultan  Baber,
founder  of  the  Mogul  empire ....  1519-26

Reign  of  his  son  Humayun .... 1531-56

Reign  of  Akbar,  greatest  sovereign  of  Hindostan

1556-1605
The  Portuguese  introduce  tobacco . . . .  1600

The  Dutch  first  visit  India,  1601 ;  establish  a  United
East  India  Company . . . . . . 1602

Tranquebar  granted  to  the  Danes . . . .  1619

Reign  of  Jehanghir 1605-27

Reign  of  Shah  Jehan  ;  golden  age  of  the  Moguls,  1627-58
Aurungzebe  dethrones  his  father  and  murders  his

brothers,  1658;  reigns  ....  1658-1707
French  East  India  Company  established  .  .  .  1664
Rise  of  the  Mahratta  power  under  Sevajee,  1659 ;  he

assumes  royalty,  1674;  dies .  ...  1680

Aurungzebe  conquers  Golconda,  &c.  . . .  1687

His  prosperity  wanes,  1702  ;  dies .  .  .22  Feb.  1707
Bahadoor  Shah  succeeds,  1707;  dies  .  .  .  1712
Jehander  Shah,  1713  ;  dethroned  and  killed . .  1718

Accession  of  Mahomed  Shah 1719

Independence  of  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan  . . .  1723
Rise  of  the  Mahratta  families,  Holkar  and  Scindiah  1730
Invasion  of  the  Persian  Nadir  Shah  or  Kouli  Khan :
at  Delhi  he  orders  a  general  massacre,  and  150,000
persons  perish ;  carries  away  treasure  amounting
to  125,000,000?.  sterling  ...... 1739

Mahomed  Shah  dies 1748

The  Mogul  empire  now  became  merely  nominal,  in-
dependent sovereignties  being  formed  by  petty
princes.  In  1761,  Shah  Alum  II.  attacking  the
English  was  defeated  at  Patna,  15  Jan.  In  1764,
after  the  battle  of  Buxar,  he  was  thrown  upon  the
protection  of  the  English,  who  established  him  at
Allahabad.  After  the  victory  at  Delhi  in  1803,
gen.  Lake  restored  the  aged  monarch  to  a  nominal
sovereignty,  which  descended  at  his  death  to  his
son,  Akbar  Shah.  Akbar  died  in  1837,  and  was
succeeded  by  the  last  king  of  Delhi  (Ms  son),  who
received  a  pension  of  about  125,0002.  per  annum.
He  joined  the  mutiny  in  1857;  was  tried  in  1858,
and  transported  to  Rangoon ;  died  there,  1 1  Nov.
1862.]

BRITISH POWER IN INDIA.

Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the  north-east  and

north-west  passages 1528

Sir  Francis  Drake's  expedition 1579

Levant  company's  land  expedition  ....  1589
First  commercial  adventure  from  England  .  .  .  1591
First  charter  to  the  London  company  of  merchants

(see  India  Company) 1600

Factories  established  at  Surat,  &c 1612

Sir  Thos.  Roe,  first  English  ambassador  .  .  .  1615
Madras  founded,  1640;  made  a  presidency  .  .  .  1652
Bombay  ceded  to England  as  part  of  dowry  of

Catherine,  queen  of  Charles  II 1662

French  company  established 1664

They  settle  at  Pondicherry 1668

Calcutta  purchased 1698

"War  between  the  English  and  French  in  India  1746-9

English  besiege  Pondicherry,  the  seat  of  the  French

government,  without  success  .... 1748

Clive  takes  Arcot 1751

Peace  made 1754

Severndroog  and  other  strongholds  of  the  pirate

Angria  taken 11  Feb.  1756

Capture  of  Calcutta  by  Surajah  Dowla  ;  suffocation

of  English  in  the  Black  hole  (which  see) 20  June, „
Calcutta  retaken  by  Clive,  2  Jan.  ;  lie  defeats  the

Soubah  at  Plassey  ....  23  June,  1757
Fort  William,  the  strongest  fort  in  India,  built  ,,

French  successful  under  Lally 1758

But  lose  nearly  all  their  power  ....  1759

The  French  under  Lally  defeated  by  sir  Eyre  Coote

near  Wandewash  ....  2  July,  1760

Hyder  Ali  usurps  the  sovereignty  of  Mysore  .  1763-4
Conquest  of  Patna  ....  6  Nov.  1763

Battle  of  Buxar  (which  see)  . . . 23  Oct.  1764

The  nabob  becomes  subject  to  the  English  .  .  1765
Lord  Clive  obtains the  Dewanny  by  an  imperial

grant,  which  constitutes  the  company  the  receivers


of  the  revenue  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  and
gives  the  British  the  virtual  sovereignty  of  these

countries 12  Aug. 1765

Treaty  with  Nizam  Ali : the  English obtain  the

Northern  Circars  .... 12  Nov.  1766

Hyder  Ali  ravages  the  Carnatic  . .  Jan.  1769

Frightful  famine  in  Bengal 1770

Warren  Hastings  governor  of  Bengal  13  April,  1772

India  Bill ; supreme  court  established  (see  India

Bills) 1773

Treaty  with  Bhootan 1774

Death  of  Clive  ;  ungratefully  treated . . . . „
Accusations  commence  against  Warren  Hastings  ;
accused  of  taking  a  bribe  from  a  concubine  of
Meer  Jaffier  (see  Hastings) . .  30  May,  1775

Nuncomar,  a  Brahmin,  accuses  Warren  Hastings  of

receiving  bribes .... 11  March,  1776
Is  hanged  for  forgery '  . . . . 5  Aug. „
[Sir  Elijah  Impey,  the  judge,  was  censured  at  the
time,  but  afterwards  vindicated]

Pondicherry  taken 11  Oct.  1778

Fortress  of  Gwalior  taken  by  Popham . 4  Aug. „
Hyder  Ali  overruns  the  Carnatic,  and  defeats  the

British,  10  Sept.  ;  takes  Arcot  . . 31  Oct.  1780

Hyder  Ali  defeated  by  sir  Eyre  Coote . 1  July,  1781
Warren  Hastings  accused  of  taking  more  bribes  (see

Chwnar) 19  Sept. ,,

Bussy  lands  with  a  French  detachment  March,  1782

War  with  Hyder  Ali  aided  by  the  French  . ,,

Hyder  Ali  overthrown  by  Coote . . 2  June, ,,
Death  of  Hyder,  and  accession  of  his  son,  Tippoo

Sahib  Dec. „

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes

Bednore  April,  1783

Pondicherry  restored to  the French, and Trin-

comalee  to  the  Dutch ,,

Fox's  India  bill  thrown  out ,,

Pitt's  India  bill  establishing  the  board  of  control

{which  see) 1784

Ignoble  peace  with  Tippoo . . . 11  March, ,,
Charges  against  Warren  Hastings .... 1786

His  trial  begun 13  Feb.  1788

War  with  Tippoo  renewed 1790

Bangalore  taken  (see  Bangalore) . . 21  March,  1791
Cornwallis  defeats  Tippoo  at  Arikera . 15  May, ,,
Fortress  of  Savandroog  taken  . . . 21  Dec. ,,
Definitive  treaty  with  Tippoo  ;  his  two  sons  hostages

19  March,  1792
Civil  and  criminal  courts  erected ....  1793

Pondicherry  again  taken ,,

Tippoo's  sons  restored ... 29  March,  1794
First  dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by

general  Erskine .  1795

Warren  Hastings  acquitted . .  23  April, ,,

Government  of  lord  Mornington,  afterwards  mar-
quis Wellesley ....  17  May,  1798
Seringapatam  stormed  by  gen.  Baird  ;  Tippoo  Sahib

killed,  4  May  ;  Mysore  divided  .  .  22  June,  1799
Victories  of  the  British  ;  the  Carnatic  conquered  1800
The  nabob  of  Furruckabad  cedes  his  territories  to

the  English  for  a  pension  .  .  .4  June,  1802
Important  treaty  of  Bassein  (with  Mahratta  s)

31  Dec. „
Mahratta  war. Victories  of  sir  Arthur  Wellesley

and  general  Lake 1803

Wellesley's  great  victory  at  Assaye  . 23  Sept. ,,
Pondicherry  (restored  1801)  retaken . . Dec. ,,
War  with  Holkar ■ .... 1804-5
Capture  of  Bhurtpore ... 2  April,  1805
Lord  Wellesley  superseded  by  the  marquis  Corn-
wallis, who  dies 5  Oct. „

The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by  the

British;  treaty  of  peace . . . 23  Nov. „
Treaty  of  peace  with  Holkar . . . 24  Dec. ,,
Sepoy  mutiny  at  Vellore  ;  800  executed . July,  1806
Cumoona  surrenders .... 21  Nov. 1807
Mutiny  at  Seringapatam  quelled . . 23  Aug. 1809
Act  opening  the  trade  to  India . . . July,  1813

War  with  Nepaul 1814-15

Holkar  defeated  by  sir  T.  Hislop  . .  21  Dec. 1817

Pindaree  war. English  successful . . . 1817-18

Peace  with  Holkar 6  Jan. 1818

Burmese  war. The.  British  take  Rangoon 5  May,  1824
Lord  Combermere  commands  in  India  . . . ,,

Malacca  ceded,  and  Singapore  purchased  .  ,,

Barrackpore  mutiny,  many  sepoys  killed . Nov. ,,
General  Campbell  defeats  the  Burmese  near  Prome,

25  Dec.  1825


INDIA.


501


INDIA.


Bhurtpore  stormed  by  Conibennere  18  Jan. 1826

Peace  with  the  Burmese  . . 24  Feb. ,,

[They  pay i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, and cede  a  great

extent  of  territory.  ]
Abolition  of  suttees,  or  the  burning  of  widows  (see

Suttee)  , 7  Dec. 1829

Act  opening  the  trade  to  India,  and  tea  trade,  &c,
to  China,  forming  a  new  era  in  British  com-
merce 28  Aug. 1833

Coorg  annexed  ;  Rajah  deposed  . .  10  April,  1834

The  natives  admitted  to  the  magistracy  1  May, „

The  Nawab  Shumsoodden  put  to  death  for  the
murder  of  Mr.  Frazer,  British  resident  8  Oct. 1835

Severe  famine  1837-8

Slavery  abolished ...  .1  Aug. 1838

Afghan,  war. Proclamation  against  Dost  Mahomed

1  Oct. ,,
The  British  occupy  Candahar  . . 21  April,  1839

Battle  of  Ghiznee  ;  victory  of  sir  John  (afterwards

lord)  Keane  (see  Ghiznee) ... 23  July, ,,
Wade  forces  the  Khyber  pass . .  26  July, „

English  defeat  Dost  Mahomed  . . 18  Oct. 1840

Kurrock  Singh,  king  of  Lahore,  dies  ;  at  his  funeral
his successor  is killed  by  accident, and Dost
Mahomed,  next  heir,  surrenders  to  England  5  Nov. ,,
Rising  against the British  at  Cabul ; sir  Alex.

Burnes  and  others  murdered . . 2  Nov.  1841
Sir  Wm.  Macnaghten  assassinated . .  23  Dec. ,,
Jellalabad  held  by  sir  R.  Sale .  . . 1841-2

The British under  a  convention  evacuate Cabul,
placing  lady  Sale,  (fee,  as  hostages  with Akbar
Khan  ;  a  massacre  ensues  of  about  16,000  men,
women,  and  children . . . 6-13  Jan.  1842
The  British  evacuate  Ghiznee  . . 1  March, „

Sortie  from  Jellalabad  ;  general  Pollock  forces  the

Khyber  pass 5  April, ,,

Ghiznee  retaken  by  general  Nott  .  .  6  Sept.  ,,
General  Pollock  enters  Cabul  .  .  16  Sept.  ,,
Lady  Sale  and  other  prisoners  rescued  by  sir  R.

Shakspeare  :  arrive  at  gen.  Pollock's  camp2i  Sept. ,,
Cabul  evacuated  after  destroying  the  fortifications

12  Oct. „
Scinde  war. Ameers  defeated  by  sir  Charles  Napier

at  Meanee 17  Feb. 1843

Scinde  annexed  to  the  British  empire  ;  sir  Charles

Napier  governor June, „

Gwalior  war.  Battles  of  Maharajpoor  and  Punniar  :
the  strong  fort  of  Gwalior,  the  "  Gibraltar  of  the

East,"  taken 29  Dec. ,,

Danish  possessions  in  India  purchased . . . 1845
Sikh  war.* The  Sikhs  cross  the  Sutlej  river  and

attack  the  British  at  Ferozepore .  14  Dec. ,,

Sir  H.  Hardinge,  after  a  long  rapid  march,  reaches
Moodkee  ;  the Sikhs  (20,000)  make  an  attack  ;
after  a  hard  contest  they  retire,  abandoning  their
guns  (see  Moodkee) .... 18  Dec. ,,
Battle  of  Ferozeshah  (which  see) . 21,  22  Dec. ,,
Battle  of  Aliwal  ;  the  Sikhs  defeated  (see  Aliwal

and  Sutlej) 28  Jan. 1846

Great  battle  of  Sobraon  ;  the  enemy  defeated  with

immense  loss  (see  Sobraon)  . . 10  Feb. ,,

Citadel  of  Lahore  occupied  by  sir  Hugh  Gough,  and

the  war  terminates  . . . .20  Feb. ,,

Sir  R.  Sale  dies  of  his  wounds  received  at  Moodkee

(18  Dec.  1845) 23  Feb. ,,

The  governor-general  and  sir  Hugh  Gough  raised  to
the  peerage, as viscount Hardinge and  baron
Gough  ;  receive  the  thanks  of  parliament  and  of
the  E.I.  company ....  2,  6  March, ,,
Treaty  of  Lahore  signed ....  9  March, ,,
Vizier  Lall  Singh  deposed . . .  13  Jan. 1847

Mr. Vans Agnew  and lieut. Anderson  killed by

the  troops  of  the  dewan  Moolraj . 21  April,  1848
Lieut.  Edwardes  joins  general  Courtland,  and  most
gallantly  engages  the  army  of  Moolraj,  which  he
defeats  after  a  sanguinary  battle  of  nine  hours,  at

Kennyree 18  June, ,,

General  Whish  raises  the  siege  of  Mooltan  through
the  desertion  of  Shere  Singh . . 22  Sept. ,,

*  Runjeet  Singh,  long  the  ruler  of  the  Sikhs  and  the
Punjab,  lived  in  amity  with  the  British.  After  his  death,
27  June,  1839,  several  of  his  successors  (children  and
grandchildren)  were  in  turn  assassinated.  During  the
minority  of  his  grandson  Dhuleep  Singh,  the  favourite  of
the  Maharanee,  Lall  Singh,  ruled  ;  and  finding  the
army  ungovernable,  sanctioned  the  unprovoked  attack
on  the  British,  as  given  above.


Cavalry  skirmish  at  Ramnuggur  .  .  22  Nov.  1848
Shere  Singh,  entrenched  on  the  right  bank  of  the
Chenab,  with  40,000  men  and  28  pieces  of  artil-
lery ;  gen.  Thackwell  crosses  the  river  with  8
infantry  regiments,  with  cavalry  and  cannon,  1
Dec,  and  attacks  his  left  flauk  at  Sadoolapore,

3  Dee. „
Lord  Gough  attacks  the  enemy's  advanced  position;

victory  of  Chillianwallah  (which  see) . 13  Jan. 1849

Unconditional  surrender  of  the  citadel  of  Mooltan
by  Moolraj  (see  Mooltan) ... 22  Jan.

Victory  of  Guzerat  (which  see) . .  21  Feb. ,,

Sir  Chas.  Napier  appointed  comm. -in-chief,

7  March, ,,

The  Sikhs  surrender  unconditionally 14  March, „

Formal  annexation  of  the  Punjab  to  the  British
dominions  ;  Dhuleep  Singh  obtains  a  pension  of
4o,oooZ 29  March, ,,

Moolraj  sentenced  to  death  for  the  murder  of  Mr.
Agnew  and  lieut.  Anderson,  Aug.  ;  commuted  to
transportation  for  life ....  Sept. „

Sir  Charles  Napier  disbands  the  66th  Bengal  native
infantry,  for  mutiny  . . . .27  Feb. 1850

Dr.  Healy,  of  the  Bengal  army,  and  his  attendants,
murdered  by  the  Aft'reedis . . .  20  March. ,,

Embassy  from  the  king  of  Nepaul  to  the  queen
of  Great  Britain  arrives  in  England  (see  Nepaul)

25  May, ,,

Resignation  of  his  command  in  India  by  sir  Charles
Napier 2  July, ,,

His  farewell  address  to  the  Indian  army 15  Dec. ,,

Burmese  war.  Death  of  Bajee  Rao,  ex-peishwa  of
the  Mahrattas.  [His  nephew  Nana  Sahib's  claim
for  continuance  of  the  pension  (8o,oooZ.)  refused.]

28  Jan. 1851

A  British  naval  force  arrives  before  Rangoon,  in
the  Burman  empire,  and  commodore  Lambert
allows  the  viceroy  thirty-five  days  to  obtain  in-
structions from  Ava .  . . 29  Oct. ,,

The  viceroy  of  Rangoon  interdicts  communication
between  the  shore  and  the  British  ships  of  war  :
and  erects  batteries  to  prevent  their  departure,

4  Jan. 1852-
[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ;

the  Fox,  Hermes,  <fec. ,  attacked  by  the  batteries,
destroy  the  fortifications,  and  kill  nearly  300  of
the  enemy.  ]
Martahan  (5  April),  Rangoon  (14  April),  and  Bassein

stormed  by  the  British  ...  19  May,  ,r
Pegu  captured,  afterwards  abandoned  .  4  June,  ,,
Prome  captured  by  capt.  Tarleton .  9  July, ,,

Pegu  recaptured  by  general  Godwin  . 21  Nov. ,r

Pegu  annexed  to  our  Indian  empire  by  proclama-
tion of  the  governor-general . . 20  Dec. ,,
Revolution  at  Ava  ;  the  king  of  Ava  deposed  by  his

younger  brother Jan. 1853

Rangoon  devastated  by  fire ... 14  Feb. „
Capt.  Lock  and  many  men  killed  in  an  attack  on  the
stronghold  of  a  robber  chief,  3  Feb.  ;  which  is
taken  by  sir  J.  Cheape . . -19  March, ,,
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to

Tannah) 16  April, ,,

Termination  of  the  war  ....  June,  ,,
New  India  bill  passed  ....  20  Aug.  „
Death  of  general  Godwin  ....  26  Oct.  ,,
Assassination  of  capt.  Latter  . . 8  Dec. ,,

Rajah  of  Nagpoor  dies,  and  his  territories  fall  to

the  E.  I.  Company n  Dec. ,,

Opening  of  Ganges  Canal 1854

Opening  of  the  Calcutta  railway . . 3  Feb.  1855
Treaty  of  friendship  with  Dost  Mahomed  of  Cabul

30  March,  ,,
Insurrection  of  the  Sonthals  (whiSh  see)  .  July  ,,
Which  is  only  finally  suppressed  . . May,  1856

Oude  annexed  (see  Oiulc) .... 7  Feb. ,,

MUTINY OK THE NATIVE ARMY.

Mutinies  in  the  Bengal  army :  at  Barrackpore,  &c,

several  regiments  disbanded . . .  March,  1857
"India is quiet throughout." — Bombay Gazette.

1  May, ,,
Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The
mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out-
rages, and  proclaim  the  king  of  Delhi  emperor,

11-12  May,  &c. ,,

*  On  the  introduction  of  the  improved  (Enfield)  mus-
ket in  the  Indian  army,  greased  cartridges  had  been


INDIA.


502


INDIA.


Three  native  regiments  disbanded  at  Lahore  by
the  energy  of  Mr.  Montgomery  and  brigadier
Corbett,  who  save  the  Punjab . . 12  May,  1857

Martial  law  proclaimed  by  the  British  lieut.  -gover-
nor, J.  ft.  Colvin May, „

British  troops  under  general  Anson  advance  on
Delhi :  his  death 27  May, ,,

Mutineers  often  defeated . . 30  May-23  June, „

Mutiny  at  Lucknow  .-'•... . . . 30  May, „

Neill  suppresses  the  mutiny  at  Benares,  3  June  ;•
and  recovers  Allahabad . . . .4  June, „

Mutiny  spreads  throughout  Bengal :  fearful  atroci-
ties committed  *  ....,,

Native  troops  disbanded  at  Mooltan,  which  is
saved 11  June, ,,

'Ex-king  of  Oude  arrested . . . 14  June, ,,

■fiiiege  of  the  residency  at  Lucknow  by  the  rebels,
commences 1  July, ,,

'Sir  H.  Lawrence  dies  of  his  wounds  at  Lucknow,

4  July. ..

The  liberty  of  the  press  restricted . .^4  July, ,,

Sir  H.  Barnard  commanding  before  Delhi  dies  of
cholera,  succeeded  by  general  Reed . 5  July, ,,

General  Nicholson  destroys  a  large  body  of  rebels
at  Sealcote 12  July, ,,

Cawnpore  surrenders  to  Nana  Sahib,  who  kills  the
garrison,  &c. ,  28  June  ;  he  is  defeated  by  general
Havelock,  16  July :  who  re-captures  Cawnpore
(see  Cawnpore) 17  July, „

Mutinies  suppressed  at  Hyderabad,  18  July  ;  and  at
Lahore 20  July, „

♦General  Reed  retires,  and  sir  Archdale  Wilson  takes
the  command  before  Delhi . . .22  July, ,,

Revolt  at  Dinapore  :  the  British  repulsed  with
severe  loss  at  Arrah .... 25  July, ,,

Heroic  exertions  and  numerous  victories  of  general
Havelock  and  his  army,  although  suffering  from
disease 29  July,  to  16  Aug. ,,

Lord  Canning's  so-called  "clemency"  proclama-
tion 31  July, ,,

Victory  of  Neill  at  Pandoo  Nuddee  . . 15  Aug. „
■  General  Nicholson's  victory  at  Nujuffghur  pie  dies
23  Sept.] 25  Aug. „

Assault  of  Delhi,  14  Sept.  ;  taken,  20  Sept.  ;  the
king  captured,  21  Sept.  ;  his  son  and  grandson
slain  by  colonel  Hodson ... 22  Sept. ,,

Sir  James  Outram  joins  Havelock  and  serves  under
him 16  Sept. ,,

Mavelock  marches  to  Lucknow  and  relieves  the  be-
sieged residency ;  retires  and  leaves  Outram  in
command ;  Neill  killed . .  25,  26  Sept. ,,

Colonel  Greathed  defeats  the  rebels  at  Bolundsho-
hur, 27  Sept.  ;  destroys  a  fort  at  Molaghur,  29


brought  from  England.  These  were  objected  to  by  the
i-native  soldiers,  and  the  issue  of  them  was  immediately
■discontinued  by  orders  in  Jan.  1857.  A  mutinous  spirit
.however  gradually  arose  in  the  Bengal  native  army.
In  March  several  regiments  were  disbanded,  followed  by
others,  till  in  June  the  army  had  lost  by  disbandment
and  desertion,  about  30,000  men.  On  5  April,  a  sepoy,
and  on  20  April,  a  jemadar,  or  native  lieutenant,  were
executed.  At  the  end  of  May  34  regiments  were  lost.
In  April,  85  of  the  3rd  Bengal  native  cavalry  at  Meerut
refused  to  use  their  cartridges.  On  9  May  they  were
committed  to  gaol.  On  Sunday,  the  10th,  a  mutiny  in
the  native  troops  broke  out ;  they  fired  on  their  officers,
killing  col.  Finnis  and  others.  They  then  released  their
comrades,  massacred  many  Europeans,  and  tired  the
public  buildings.  The  European  troops  rallied  and  drove
.them  from  their  cantonments.  The  mutineers  then  fled
rfco  Delhi  (which  see).

*  At  the  end  of  June  the  native  troops  at  the  follow-
ing places  were  in  open  mutiny  :  Meerut,  Delhi,  Feroze-
.porc,  Allyghur,  Roorkee,  Murdaun,  Lucknow,  Cawnpore,
Nusseerabad,  Neemuch,  Hansi,  Hissur,  Jhansi,  Mehidpore,
Jirllundur,  Azimghur,  Futtehghur,  Jaunpore,  Bareilly,
Shahjehanpore,  Allahabad.  At  the  stations  printed  in
italics,  European  women  and  children  were  massacred.
— The  Relief  Fund  for  the  sufferers  in  India  was  com-
menced 25  Aug.  1857.  The  Queen,  the  emperor  Napo-
leon, and  the  Sultan,  gave  each  1000J.  In  Nov.  1857,
280,749^.  had  been  collected  ;  in  Nov.  1858,  433, 620Z.  In
Dee.  1861,  140,000/.  had  been  distributed  to  sufferers  in
India  ;  and  100,000/.  to  those  at  home  ;  246,069/.  re-
mained for  the  benefit  of  widows  and  orphans.  A  fast  '
■was  observed  on  7  Oct.


Sept.  ;  takes  Allyghur,  5  Oct.  ;  and  defeats  rebels

at  Agra 10  Oct. 1857

Sir  Colin  Campbell  (afters,  lord  Clyde)  appointed
commander-in-chief,  11  July ;  arrives  at  Cawnpore

3  Nov. „

Marches  to  Ahimbagh,  near  Lucknow,  9  Nov.  ;  and
takes  Secunderabagh  .... 16  Nov. ,.

Joined  by  Havelock,  he  attacks  the  rebels  and
rescues  the  besieged  in  the  residency,  18-25  Nov. ,,

Havelock  *  dies  of  dysentery  at  Alumbagh,  24  Nov. ,,

General  Windham  (at  Cawnpore)  repulsed  with
loss  in  an  attack  on  the  Gwalior  contingent,  who
take  part  of  Cawnpore ....  27  Nov. ,,

Sir  C.  Campbell  arrives  at  Cawnpore,  which  he  re-
takes, 28  Nov.  ;  and  defeats  the  Gwalior  rebels,

6  Dec.  • ,,

The  rebels  defeated  by  Seaton,  14,  17,  and  27  Dec.  ;
at  Goruckpore  by  Rowcroft,  27  Dec.  ;  and  at  Fut-
tehghur  by  sir  C.  Campbell . . .2  Jan.  1858

Lucknow  strongly  fortified  by  the  rebels  Jan. ,,

Generals  Rose,  Roberts,  Inglis,  and  Grant,  victo-
rious in  many  encounters . .  Jan.  and  Feb. ,,

Trial  of  king  of  Delhi  ;  sentenced  to  transportation

27  Jan.  to  9  March, ,,

Sir  C.  Campbell  marches  to  Lucknow,  11  Feb.  ;  the
siege  commences,  8  March  ;  taken  by  successive
assaults  ; the  enemy  retreat ; Hodson  killed,

14-19  March, „

Severe  proclamation  of  the  governor-general  in
Oude  t 14  March, ,,

General  Roberts  takes  Kotah . . 30  March, ,,

Sir  Hugh  Rose  beats  the  enemy  severely,  and  takes
Jhansi . . . .  . .4  April, „

General  Whitelock  takes  Budaon  . . 19  April, ,,

Death  of  capt.  sir  W.  Peel,  of  small-pox,  at  Cawn-
pore 27  April, ,,

General  Penny  killed  in  Rohilcund  . . 4  May, ,,

Bareilly  recaptured 7  May, „

Sir  Hugh  Rose  defeats  the  rebels  several  times — at
Kooneh,  May  11,  and  near  Calpee,  which  he  re-
takes 23  May, „

Victory  of  sir  E.  Lugard  at  Jugdespore 29  May, ,,

The  rebels  seize  Gwalior,  the  capital  of  Scindiah,
who  escapes  to  Agra . . . .13  June, ,,

The  rebels  defeated  by  sir  H.  Rose  (the  heroic
Ranee  of  Jhansi  killed),  1 7  June  ;  Gwalior  retaken
and  Scindiah  reinstated ... 19  June, „

Tantia  Topee  heads  a  division  of  the  rebels . . ,,

Rajahs  of  Jeypore,  &c. ,  surrender ;  Rohilcund  and
other  provinces  tranquillised . .  July, ,,

General  Roberts  destroys  the  remains  of  the
Gwalior  rebels 14  Aug. ,,

Many  Oude  chiefs  surrender . . . Aug. ,,

An  attempt  of  disbanded  regiments  to  retake  their
arms  at  Mooltan,  suppressed  by  major  Hamilton
(300  killed  on  the  spot,  and  800  slain  or  captured
afterwards) 31  Aug. ,,

The  government  of  the  East  India  Company  ceases,

1  Sept. ,,

General  Mitchell  defeats  Tantia  Topee,  near  Raj-
ghur 15  Sept. „

The  queen  proclaimed  throughout  India — lord  Can-
ning to  be  the  first  viceroy . . . 1  Nov. ,,

Campaign  in  Oude  begins  ;  several  chiefs  submit,
others  subdued 1-30  Nov. ,,

At  Dhooden  Khera  lord  Clyde  (formerly  sir  C.  Camp-
bell) defeats  Beni  Mahdo . . .24  Nov. ,,

Flight  of  Tantia  Topee — he  is  beaten  in  Guzerat  by
major  Sutherland ....  25  Nov. ,,

The  ex-king  of  Delhi  sails  for  the  Cape  of  Good
Hope,  4-1 1  Dec.  ;  the  colonists  refuse  to  receive
him  ;  he  is  sent  to  Rangoon ,,

Brigadier  John  Jacob  dies  at  Jacobabad  (greatly
lamented) ...  . .  6  Dec. ,,

Indecisive  skirmishes  with  Ferozeshah , Dec. „

Who  joins  Tantia  Topee  :  they  are  defeated  in
several  small  engagements .  . Jan. 1859

*  Born  5  April,  1795  ;  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,
London,  where  he  was  called  "  old  Fhlos ;"  went  to  India,
1823  :  served  in  the  Burmese  war,  1824  ;  and  in  the
Sikh  war,  1845. He  was  a  Baptist.

t  Lord  Ellenborough,  the  minister  for  India,  sent,  un-
known to  his  colleagues,  a  despatch  severely  censuring
this  proclamation.  This  despatch  became  public  and
led  to  his  resignation  and  very  nearly  to  the  defeat  of
the  ministry,  a  vote  of  censure  being  "moved  for  in  both
houses  of  parliament,  but  not  carried.


INDIA.

Enforcement  of  the  Disarming  Act  in  the  north-
west provinces Jan.

The  Punjab  made  a  distinct  presidency  i  Jan.

Rebels  completely  expelled  from  Oude  ;  enter  Ne-

paul Jan.

Guerilla  warfare  continues  in  Rohilcund . Feb.
Tantia  Topee  hemmed  in  ;  deserted  by  his  troops,

about  25  Feb.

Defeat  of  the  Begum  of  Oude  and  Nana  Sahib  by

general  Horsford ....  10  Feb.

The  new  Indian  tariff  creates  much  dissatisfaction,

March,
Maun  Singh  surrenders  ....  2  April,
Tantia  Topee  taken,  7  April ;  hanged  .  18  April,
Thanksgiving  in  England  for  pacification  of  India

1  May,

Mutinous  conduct  of  British  troops  lately  in  the

company's  service  at  Meerut  and  other  places,  on

account  of  their  transfer  to  the  queen's  service

without  bounty 5  May,

Sir  Hope  Grant  defeats  Nana  Sahib  in  the  Jorwah

pass 23  May,

A  court  of  inquiry  appointed . . . June,
Sir  Chas.  Wood  becomes  sec.  for  India  . 22  June,
Dissatisfaction  among  the  troops  at  their  transfer
from  the  service  of  the  company  to  that  of  the
crown,  without  a  bounty,  settled  by  discharge
offered  to  them,  which  about  10,000  accept  July,
Thanksgiving  day  observed  in  India  . . 28  July,
An  income  tax  bill  (called  "  the  Trades'  and  Pro-
fessions' Licensing  Bill ")  passes  the  legislative
council  ;  great  meetings  at  Calcutta  and  Madras
protesting  against  it  .  . . . Sept.

Rajah  Jey-loll  Singh  hanged . . . 1  Oct.
Nana  Sahib,  in  force,  in  Nepaul  on  the  frontiers  of

Oude Oct.

Insurgents  in  Nepaul  dispersed . . 24  Dee.

Important  financial changes  made  by  Mr.  James

Wilson,  new  finance  secretary . . . Feb.

■Company  formed  to  obtain  cotton,  flax,  <fec. ,  from

India March,

Paper  currency  determined  on  March,

Bahadoor  Khan, ex-king  of  Bareilly, hanged  for
murders  caused  by  him  . . . .2  March,
Sir  Chas.  Trevelyan  recalled  from  Madras,  for  pub-
lishing a  government  minute  against  Mr.  Wilson's

commercial  scheme May,

Sir  Hugh  Rose  takes  command  of  the  Indian  army,
amalgajnated  with  the  British . .  July,

Lord  Clyde  arrives  in  London . .  18  July,

Lord  Canning's  recommendation  that  the  adopted
successors  of  Indian  princes  should  be  recognised
agreed  to  by  the  home  government . 21  July,
Death  of  sir  H.  Ward,  new  governor  at  Madras,
3  Aug. ;  and  of  Mr.  James  Wilson . .11  Aug.
Nana  Sahib,  supposed  to  have  died  of  jungle  fever
in  Aug.  1858,  is  said  to  be  living  in  Tibet .  Dec.
Mutiny  of  5th  European  regiment  at  Dinapore,  sup-
pressed ;  breaks  out  again,  5  Oct.  ;  is  again  sup-
pressed, Wm.  Johnson  shot,  and  the  regiment  dis-
banded ...... 13  Nov.

British  troops  repulsed  in  Sikkim . . Nov.

Agitation against  the income  tax  suppressed  at

Bombay  and  other  places  .... Dec.

Excitement against sir Chas. Wood's grant of

520,000^.  to  descendants  of  Tippoo  Sahib .  Dec.

Mr.  Samuel  Laing,  successor  to  Mr.  James  Wilson,

arrives 10  Jan. ]

Awful  famine  in  N.W.  provinces  through  failure
of  the  crops  ;  immense  exertions  of  the  govern-
ment and  others  to  relieve  the  sufferers,

Jan. -June,
Expedition  marches  against  Sikkim  ;  natives  retire

Feb.
Disturbances  in  the  indigo  districts . .  March,
Kootoob-ood-deen,  grandson  of  Tippoo  Sahib,  mur-
dered by  his  servants . . . .31  March,
British  subscriptions  for  relief  of  the  famine  com-
mence at  the  Mansion-house,  London,  with  4000?.,
28  March  ; 52,000^ subscribed  20  April  ;  closes

with  114,807! Nov.

Order  of  the  "  Star  of  India"  (ickich  sec)  constituted

25  June,

Exc.itemcut  through  the  printing  and  circulation  of

"  Nil  Darpan,"  a  Hindu  drama  libelling  the  indigo

planters June,

The  rev.  James  Long,  the  translator,  sentenced  to
tine  and  imprisonment Aug.


503


INDIA.


New  Indian  council  and  newhigh  court  of  judicature
established Aug. 1861

Mr.  J.  P.  Grant,  lieut. -governor  of  Bengal  (who  had
authorised  the  translation  of  "  Nil  Darpan  ")  and
Mr.  Seton  Kerr,  his  secretary  (who  had,  without
authority,  distributed  copies)  are  censured  and
resign Sept. „

Law  of  property  in  India  altered  ;  sale  of  waste
lands  authorised Oct. ,,

Lords  Harris  and  Clyde,  sir  J.  Lawrence,  Dhuleep
Singh,  and  others  invested  with  the  Star  of  India
by  the  queen 1  Nov. „

Reported  prosperity  of  Indian  finances  ;  licence  tax
not  to  be  reimposed 31  Dec. ,,

First  meeting  of  new  legislative  council ;  includes
several  Indian  princes  .... 18  Jan. 1862

Lord  Elgin,  new  governor-general,  installed  at  Cal-
cutta 12  March, ,,

Lord  Canning  arrives  at  Southampton,  26  April ;
dies 17  June, „

Mr.  S.  Laing  returns  to  England  through  ill  health ;
censured  by  sir  C.  Wood  ;  he  justifies  himself  and
resigns . July, „

High  court of  judicature  at  Bengal  inaugurated

12  July, „

Reported  suspension  of  sale  of  waste  lands Aug. ,,

Rao  Sahib  hanged  for  murders  during  the  revolt

8  Sept. ,,

Great  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  India,
reported Oct. „

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,  new  finance  minister,  arrives

8  Jan.  1863

First  agricultural  exhibition  at  Calcutta 19-30  Jan. „

Rise  of  Ram  Singh,  a  fanatic,  in  N.W.  provinces  Oct. ,,

War  with  warlike  hill-tribes  on  the  N.W.  frontiers,
Oct.  ;  severe  conflict,  gen.  Chamberlain  wounded,
20  Nov.  ;  command  assumed  by  major-gen.  John
Garvock,  who  totally  defeated  the  enemy  (about
15,000)  in  Chamta  pass,  15,  16  Dec.  ;  war  ended

29  Dec. „

The  Hindu  religion  deprived  of  government  support

Dec. ,.

Death  of  the  viceroy,  lord  Elgin . . 20  Nov. „

Sir  John  Lawrence,  his  successor,  assumes  office

12  Jan. 1864

Excitement  amongst  the  Hindoos  on  account  of  go-
vernment suppressing  funeral  rites  on  sanitary
grounds March,

Prosperous  financial  statement  of  sir  Charles  Tre-
velyan April,

Mr.  Ashley  Eden,  envoy  at  Bhootan,  seized  and
compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  giving  up  Assam

about  April,

Gold  currency  (a  sovereign  =  10  rupees)  ordered  to
be  introduced  at  Christmas . . . July,

Terrific  cyclone— immense  loss  of  life,  property,  and
ships  at  Calcutta  and  elsewhere . . .5  Oct.

Grand  durbar,  held  by  sir  John  Lawrence,  at  La-
hore ;  604  native  princes  present . . 18  Oct.

War  with  the  Bhootanese- -fortress  of  Dhalimcote
taken 12  Dec.

Much  commercial  speculation  at  Bombay .  Dec.

The  Bhootanese  attack  on  Dewangiri  repulsed
with  severe  loss,  29  Jan. ,  evacuated  by  the  British

Feb. 1865

Opening  of  the  Indo-European  telegraph — a  tele-
gram from  Kurrachee  received . . 1  March,

W.  Massey  succeeds  sir  C.  Trevelyan  as  finance
minister;  he  arrives  at  Calcutta . 31  March,

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  declares  a  large  deficit  in  the
revenue 1  April,

Dewangiri  recaptured  by  gen.  Tombs  .  2  April,

Sir  Hugh  Rose  retires  from  command  of  the  army  ;
which  is  assumed  by  sir  Win.  Mansfield,  23  April,

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan's  plans  reversed  by  sir  C.
Wood May,

Dentil  of  the  able  and  beneficent  hoi.  Juggonath
Sunkersett,  the  recognised  representative  of  the
Hindoo  community . .  . .  31  July,

Negotiation  with  the  Bhootanese . .  July,

Shipwreck  of  the  Eagle  Speed  near  Calcutta;  265
coolies  perish  through  neglect  . .  24  Aug.

Peace  with  the  Bhootanese  signed . . 13  NoV.

Much  dissatisfaction  at  mildewed  cotton  goods
being  received  from  England . .  July-Oct. ,,

Settlement  of  the  question  respecting  marriage  of
Hindoo  converts April,  1866

"Simla Scandal." Trial of  capt, E. Jervis ; ac-


INDIA.


504


INDIA.


quitted  on  charge  of  peculation  of  stores  belong-
ing to  sir  W.  Mansfield,  commander-in-chief,  but
condemned  for  insubordination  ;  sentence  (dis-
missal from  the  service) approved  by sir  "W.

Mansfield 17  Sept. 1866

Awful  famine  in  Orissa,  Bengal ;  about  1,500,000

perished Aug. -Nov. „

Relief  by  Government Oct. „

Dr.  Cotton,  bishop  of  Calcutta,  accidentally  drowned

6  Oct.  „
Famine  abating ;  official  inquiry  ordered  .  Nov.  „
Great  durbar  held  at  Agra, by  sir  J. Lawrence

10-20  Nov. „
Simla  case ;  sentence  against  capt.  Jervis  confirmed,
and  sir  W. Mansfield  censured  by  the  duke  of
Cambridge,  by  letter  dated  . . . 17  Jan.  1867
Deficiencies  in  the  revenue ;  Massey's  proposed  new

licence  tax  much  opposed  .  '.  April  &  May,  ,,
False  rumour  of  mutiny  at  Meerut .  .  20  May,  „
Report  on  Orissa  famine ;  authorities  blamed,  June,  „
Deficiency  in  revenue  for  1867,  2,400,0002.  reported

Aug. „
Massacre  of  Hindoo  chiefs  by  the  nawab  of  Tonk

(for  which  he  was  deposed) . . .1  Aug. ,,
Grand  durbar  at  Lucknow . . .9-17  Nov. ,,
The  fierce  Wagheers  of  Kattywar,  in  a  night  attack,
are  nearly  exterminated ;  cajits.  Hibbert  and  La

louche  killed 29  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Massey's  budget ;  surplus  of  Soo.oocZ. ;  licence
tax  abolished,  tax  on  trades,  &c. ,  substituted ;  ex-
penditure of  1,700,000?.  on  public  works  proposed

14  March,  1868

War  on  the  N.  W.  frontier ;  the  Bazotees,  fanatical

Mahometans,  defeated  by  general  Wilde;  30  killed

and  wounded ;  all  dispersed,  4  Oct.  ;  villages  burnt

as  punishment  for  outrages . . . Oct. ,,

Death  of  the  begum  of  Bhopal,  who  helped  the

British  during  the  mutiny  .  .  .30  Aug.  ,,
The  duke  of  Argyll  secretary  for  India  .  9  Dec.  ,,
Arrival  of  the  earl  of  Mayo,  the  new  viceroy,  at

Calcutta 12  Jan. 1869

Severe  famine 1868-9

Sir R. Temple's budget ; deficiency of about

2,750,000?.  ; a 1 per  cent, income  tax  put  on

(excessively  opposed) .... March,  1869

Meeting  of  the  viceroy  and  Shere  Ali,  the  Afghan

sovereign,  who  receives  a  subsidy  and  presents

27  March,  ,,
New  divorce  act  in  operation  .  .  .1  April,  „
Rise  of  a  body  of  Indian  religious  reformers  termed

the  Brahmo  Somaj  (see  Deism)  .  .  .  Aug.  ,,
Act  for  the  better  governing  India  and  defining  the

eovernor-general's  powers  passed  .  .  n  Aug.  ,,
India  visited  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  Dec.  1869-

April,  1870
Railway  between  Calcutta  and  Bombay  completed

March, „
Announced  deficiency  in  the  revenue ; increased
taxation  proposed;  much  opposition  to  the  in-
come tax May, ,,

Grand  durbar  at  Bhurtpore  ...  10  Oct.  ,,
Lamented  death  of  sir  H.  Durand,  from  fall  from  an

elephant 1  Jan. 1871

Sir  Proby  Cautley,  designed  Ganges  canal  works,

&c. ,  died,  aged  68 25  Jan. ,,

Volunteer  system  proposed  for  India  .  .  Jan.  ,,
Indian  finance  committee  appointed .  .  Feb.  „
Sir  R.  Temple's  budget  ....  9  March,  ,,
Moulvi  Liakat  Ali,  a  cruel  rebel  who  in  1857  ruled

as  viceroy  at  Allahabad,  apprehended  .  5  July,  „
Indian  civil  engineering  college,  Cooper's-hill,  opened

by  the  duke  of  Argyll,  secretary  for  India,  5  Aug. „
Justice  Norman  stabbed  at  Calcutta,  20  Sept.  ;  dies
21  Sept.  ;  assassin  convicted,  28  Sept.  ;  executed

4  Nov.  ,,
Much  corrupt  opposition  to  the  income  tax  reported

Nov. ,,
Lord  Mayo  visits  Palumpore  fair,  and  holds  a  rural

durbar 6  Nov. „

Military  expedition  under  generals Nutthall  and
Bourchier,  aided  by  the  rajah  of  Munnipore,  against
the  Looshais,  about  13  Nov.  ;  skirmishes, 1  Dec. „
Death  of  the  earl  of  Ellenborough,  a  late  governor-
general  (see  Somnath) .... 22  Dec. ,,
Skirmishes  with  the  Looshais,  21,  23  Dec.  ;  they

sue  for  peace 29  Dec. ,,

The  king  of  Siam  visits  Calcutta . . 7-12  Jan. 1872
Outbreak  of  the  Kookas,  near  Loodiana,  severely


suppressed  by  commissioners  Cowan  and  Forsyth

(see  Kookas) 15-17  Jan. 1872

Camp at  Delhi ;  military  manoeuvres,  by  sir  H.

Tombs  and  others  ....  13-23  Jan.  ,,
Looshais  repulsed  and  strongholds  taken  28  Jan.  )Jb
The  viceroy  arrives  at  Rangoon,  28  Jan.  ;  on  his
return  he  visits  the  convict  establishment  in  the
Andaman  Islands,  and  is  assassinated  at  Port
Blair  by  Shere  Ali,  a  convict,  while  about  to
embark  in  the  Glasgow ...  8  Feb. ;>

Lord  Napier  acts  as  viceroy . . -23  Feb. ,r
Looshais  surrender  unconditionally ;  army  returning

28  Feb. ,„
The  Kamous  tribe,  while  carrying  off  Looshai  cap-
tives, defeated,  and  captives  rescued  ;  British  re-
turning to  Calcutta .... 7  March, ,,
Shere  Ali  hanged,  without  confessing  associates,

12  March, ,,
Annual  pension  from  Indian  government  to  lady
Mayo, 1000Z.  ; grant of  20,000?. for  children,

March, ,,
Sir  Richard  Temple's  budget  favourable ;  income

tax  to  be  reduced April, ,r

Lord  Northbrook  sworn  in  as  viceroy . 3  May, ,„
Liakat  Ali,  on  confession,  condemned  to  transporta-
tion for  life 27  July, ,,

Christian  marriage  bill  passed . . .  July, ,,

The  begum  of  Bhopal  made  a  knight  of  the  Star  of

India  at  Bombay ....  16  Nov. ,,

Changes  in  criminal  procedure  ;  compromise in ,,
The  income  tax  not  renewed . . .21  March,  1873
Riots of the Moplahs, Mahometan  fanatics, on
coast  of  Malabar,  suppressed  by  military  ;  about

13,  14  Sept. ,„
New  tax  (road  cess)  reported  successful . Oct. „
Messrs. Bernard,  Geddes,  &  Robinson appointed
commissioners in anticipation of famine in

Bengal Nov. ,,

Sir  B.  Temple  appointed  superintendent  of  relief

in  Behar Jan.  1874

15  districts  (25,000,000  inhabitants)  much  dis-
tressed ; 11  districts  (14,000,000)  affected

middle  of  Jan. ,„
Subscriptions  at  Mansion-house  (which  see),  London

begun  24  Jan. ,,
1,000?.  given  by  the  Queen  . . . . 4  Feb. ,,
The  marquis  of  Salisbury  secretary  for  India,  21  Feb. ,,
Report  from  Calcutta: "  people  well  employed  on
public  works  ;  no  adult  should  die  now  from

starvation  " 25  March, ,,,

A  loan,  not  exceeding  10,000,000?.  for  India  Govern-
ment authorised  by  parliament . .  30  March, ,t
Sir  R.  Temple  installed  lieut.-gov. of  Bengal  in
room  of  sir  George  Campbell : about  500  deaths
from  disease  and  hunger  reported,  about  8  April, ,  „
The  famine  kept  under ; estimated  net  expendi-
ture on  relief,  6,500,000?.  (see  Mansimi-house)  May, ,„
Crisis  of  famine  past ;  reported  declining  ;  much

rain  ;  good  prospects .... June, ,,
Only  24  deaths  from  famine  alone  ;  125,000?.  raised
for  relief  in  London . . . .27  July, ,,.

Abundance  of  rain Sept. ,,

Sadun  Khan,  a  cruel  leader  in  the  mutiny,  sen-
tenced to  death Sept. ,,

A  person  said  to  be  Nana  Sahib  captured  at  Gwalior
by  the  Maharajah  Scindia  (identity  since  dis-
proved) 21  Oct. ,,

Attempts  to  poison  col.  Phayre,  resident  at  Baroda,

Nov.  ; he  is  replaced  by  col.  Pelly . . Dec. ,,
Outrages  of  Dufflatribes  on  N.  W.  frontier  (trouble-
some, 1838-9;  1852;  Feb.  1873);  expedition  against

them Dec. ,,

Mulhar  Rao,  gaekwar  of  Baroda,  carried  to  Calcutta
for  trial  for  attempting  to  poison  col.  Phayre  ;
his  child  recognised  as  his  successor,  provision-
ally 14  Jan.  1875

The  Duffla  tribes  surrender  and  pay  line . 29  Jan. ,,
The  gaekwar's  trial  begins,  3  native  judges  (Scin-
diah,  the  maharajah  of  Jeypore,  and  one  other)

and  3  British 23  Feb. „

Lieut.  Holeombe  and  a  surveying  party  (about  70)
in  Assam,  massacred  by  Naga  natives

about  24  Feb. ,,

Close  of  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  gaekwar

of  Baroda  ;  verdict  of  3  British  judges,  guilty  ;  ol

3  natives,  not  proved  ;  30  March  ;  he  is  deposed

for  misgovernment  by  the  viceroy,  and  ordered


INDIA.


505


INDIA.


to  live  in  British  India  with  suitable  provision  ;
proclamation  that  a  successor  be  appointed

23  April, 1875

Naga  tribes  chastised  severely ;  the  objects  of  the
expedition  accomplished . . 15-25  March, „

Eldest  son  of  the  gaekwar  appointed  successor

22  May, ,,

Difficulties  with  Burmah .... May, „

Mission  of  sir  Douglas  Forsyth  to  Mandalay  (see
Burmah) June, „

New  gaekwar  of  Baroda  installed . . 3  June, „

Establishment  of  a  new  Mahometan  college  for  the
N.  W.  provinces  (chiefly  by  Ahmed  Khan) ;  an-
nounced July, „

Dispatch  from  marquis  of  Salisbury  on  repeal  of
cotton  duties Sept. „

The  Prince  of  Wales  sails  for  India,  11  Oct.,  arrives
at  Bombay  8  Nov.  ;  warmly  received  at  Baroda,
9  Nov.  ;  at  Goa,  27  Nov.  ;  in  Ceylon,  1-8  Dec.  ;
at  Madras,  13  Dec.  ;  at  Calcutta,  23  Dec.  ;  grand
reception  of  Indian  potentates . . 24  Dec. ,,

Unveiled  statue  of  Lord  Mayo  at  Calcutta  . 1  Jan.  1876

At  Benares,  Lucknow,  (fee,  5  Jan.  et  seq.;  in  Nepaul,
12  Feb.  ;  sails  from  Bombay . .13  March, ,,

Lord  Lytton,  new  viceroy,  takes  oath  at  Calcutta,

12  April, „

The  Queen  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  in  London

1  May, ,,

Indian  finances  :  deficiency  through  depreciation
of  silver  currency;  loss  about  2,300,000?.,  pro-
posed loan  of  4,000, oool. . . . 11  Aug. ,,

Vice-regal  proclamation  of  the  Queen's  title,
"Empress  of  India  ; "  (to  be  proclaimed  at  Delhi,
1  Jan.,  1877) 19  Aug. ,,

Sir  John  Strachey  appointed  financial  minister,
about  17  Oct.  ;  governor  of  N.W.  Provinces  Nov. ,,

At  Agra  Mr.  Fuller  slapped  for  neglect  a  native
servant,  31  Oct.  1875,  who  died  soon  after  ;  he
was  fined  by  a  magistrate ;  sentence  considered
too  light  by  the  high  court;  the  viceroy  in  a
minute  censured  all ;  this  caused  much  dissatis-
faction ;  (lord  Salisbury  supported  the  viceroy,
1877) July, „

Famine  in  Bombay,  Madras,  &c. . Nov.,  Dec. ,,

Proclamation  of  the  queen  as  empress  of  India
with  much  magnificence  at  Delhi,  by  the  viceroy;
also  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay 1  Jan.  1877

Creation  of  the  "  Order  of  the  Empire  of  India"  an-
nounced 1  Jan. „

Sir  R.  Temple  removed  from  Bengal  to  Bombay

19  Jan. ,,

Relief  works  organizing,  favourable  reports  an-
nounced 29  April, „

The  raids  of  the  Affreedis  on  N.W.  frontiers  sup-
pressed;  announced  . . end  of  April, „

Famine  formidable,  but  energetically  met June, ,,

Misery  increasing;  establishment  of  "Mansion-
house  relief  fund  "  (which  see)  .  12  Aug. „

The  secretary  for  India  authorised  by  parliament
to  raise  a  loan  for  5,000,000?. . . 14  Aug. ,,

919,771  employed  by  government;  1,326,971  relieved
gratuitously ;  reported  . . ' 29  Aug. ,,

Disturbances  on  N.W.  frontier;  raids  of  the  Jawa-
kies,  or  Jowakies,  an  Affreedi  tribe  ;  chastised
by  expedition  under  sir  Rd.  Pollock,  29,  30  Aug.  ;
again  by  gen.  Keyes  .... Nov. „

Copious  rain  in  the  south  reported  ;  greatly  im-
proved prospects  . . . Sept.,  Oct. „

Formation  of  a  new  N.W.  government  proposed

Oct.,  Nov. „

Mansion-house  Indian  fund  closed,  by  request  of
the  duke  of  Buckingham  (by  telegram) 5  Nov. ,,

Jummu,  the  Javvakies'  stronghold,  taken  ;  they
are  defeated  and  dispersed  . Nov.,  Dec. ,,

Sir  John  Strachey 's  budget ;  1,500,000?.  to  be
raised  annually  for  famines  (they  cost  16,000,000?.

I  in  five  years) ;  taxation  raised ;  trade  licences,
&c.  ....... Dec. „

"  Imperial  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India,"  for  ladies  ;
instituted 3t  Bee. ,,

The  Jawakies  defeated  by  cavalry,  15  Feb.  ;  sur-
render unconditionally  ;  announced  22  Feb.  1878

Bill  to  restrain  licence  of  the  native  press,  passed
by  the  council  at  Calcutta . . 14  March, „

The  Indian  press  commission  to  help  and  control
the  press,  established

Budget;  cost  of  famine  about  3,450,000?. March, ,,


Native  Indian  troops  sent  to  Malta,  April;  com-
mended by  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  June ;  re-
moved to  Cyprus  ....  Aug.  1873

War  with  Afghanistan  (which  see) . . Sept. ,,

England  now  holds  the  passes  through  which  India
is  acsessible  by  land ....  Feb. 1879

Revenue— Gross  receipts,  65,207,694?. . . .  1878-9
Expenditure,  67,545,201?. . .  ,, ,,

8545  miles  of  railways  opened  (expenditure  about
120,000,000?.)  up  to . . . . 31  March,  1873

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Gandamuk  (rvhich  see),

26  May, ,,.

Indian  railways  guarantee  act  passed . n  Aug. ,r

Loan  of  sum  under  5,000,000?.  for  India  ;  authorized
by  act 15  Aug. ,-

Disaffection  and  plundering  of  the  Rumpa  hill  tribes,
Aug.  ;  subdued Oct. ,,

Mutiny  and  massacres  at  Cabul  (see  Afghanistan),

Sept. „

Murder  of  Mr.  Damant,  commissioner,  in  Naga
hills  by  natives,  during  an  outbreak . 14  Oct. ,,

New  stringent  rules  for  newspaper  correspondents
with  army  ;  issued Oct. ,r

Lord  Lytton  fired  at  by  Busa,  a  half-mad,  intoxi-
cated East  Indian  ;  no  injury . . 12  Dec. ,,

Rumpa  rebellion  in  Central  India  dying  out ;  several
defeats  of  rebels ,,

Naga  raids  and  murders .... Jan.  i88o>

Indian  budget,  by  sir  John  Strachey,  surplus  of
119,000?.  reported 24  Feb. ,,

Marquis  of  Ripon,  new  viceroy,  arrives  at  Calcutta  ;
col.  Gordon,  his  secretary ,,,

Errors  in  the  budget,  through  mistakes  in  esti-
mating. Afghan  war  expenses ;  large  deficiency ;
announced  May  ;  sir  John  Strachey  resigns  (suc-
ceeded by  major  Baring) . . . June, ,,

Deficiency  stated  to  be  about  900,000?.  by  marquis
of  Hartington 5  July, ,„

By  a  landslip  the  hill  station  Nynee  Tal  or  Naini
Tal,  in  the  Himalayas,  destroyed ;  many  lives  lost
(see  Landslips) 18  Sept. ,r

Sir  Donald  Stewart  appointed  commander-in-chief
of  the  Indian  army  ....  Jan. 1883

Death  of  Gholam  Hussein  Khan,  able  and  faithful
friend  to  the  British  ....  March, ,,

War  declared  against  the  Wazaris,  12  April  ;  ends
with  their  submission . . . about  8  May, ,,

Proposals  for  loan  of  3,000,000?.,  issued, 27  June, ,r

Budget  introduced  by  the  marquis  of  Hartington  ;
revenue,  68,484,666?.  ;  expenditure,  69,667,615?.  ;
deficit,  1,182,949? 22  Aug. ,,

The  budget  for  1882-3 — Revenue,  66,439,000?.  9  Mar.  1882
Expenditure,  66,174,000?. .

The  Indian  contingent  distinguished  in  Egyptian
war Aug.—  Sept. ,,

Officers  visit  London  .... Nov. ,,.

The  Sirhind  canal  (502  miles,  for  irrigation)  opened
by  the  viceroy 24  Nov. ,,

Mr.  llbert's  Criminal  Procedure  Amendment  bill
strongly  opposed  by  all  the  non-official  Europeans
and  the  army  throughout  India ;  very  great
meeting  at  Calcutta .... 28  Feb.  1883

European  and  Anglo-Indian  defence  association,
Calcutta,  formed  ;  first  meeting . 29  March, ,,

An  Anglo-Indian  association  for  the  natives  formed
in  London April,

Mr.  Banerjee,  editor  of  the  Bengalee,  sentenced  to
two  months'  imprisonment  for  gross  libel  against
judge  Norris ;  great  excitement  of  Hindoos,
monster  meeting  at  Calcutta  [appeal  refused  in
England,  July] . . .  about  11  May, ,,

Dreadful  inundation  in  Cachar,  N.E.  Calcutta,  caus-
ing great  distress  ;  prompt  British  help 16  May, ,„

Major  Baring  succeeded  by  sir  Auckland  Colvin  as
finance  minister July, ,,

High  courts  of  Bombay  and  Madras  favour,  that  of
Calcutta  opposes,  the  Ilbert  bill . July — Aug. ,,

Abundant  food  supply  and  great  prosperity Oct. ,,

Ilbert  bill  :  compromise  announced  ;  Europeans
allowed  to  claim  a  jury  wholly  or  partly  European

21  Dec. ,,

Akha  raids  into  Assam  ;  major  Beresford's  forces
repulsed 24  Dec. ,,

Budget — revenue  71,727,000? 1883-4

expenditure,  70,340,000?.  . . . „ ,,

The  Akhas  dispersed  by  gen.  Hill . . 8  Jan. 1884

He  returns Jan. ,,

Ilbert  bill  amended  and  passed  25  Jan.


INDIA.


506


INDIA.


"Great  increase  of  cultivation  and  exports  through
railways  since  1848.

^Exports:  25,000,0002.  raised  to  147,837,920?.  in  1883

announced  1

Stndian  budget:  finances  sound  and  improving,  8  Aug.

.Expedition  to  the  Zhob  valley  to  punish  the  Kakar

Pathans for  their  raids  into  British territory

about  22  Sept.

'They  are  defeated  by  gen.  Tanner  ;  56  killed  23  Oct.

.No resistance reported, 6  Nov.; troops  return

22  Nov.

"Upwards  of  1000  addresses  from  natives  to  the
marquis  of  Bipon  on  his  leaving  India . Nov.

JEarl  of  Dufferin  installed  viceroy  at  Calcutta  13  Dec.

^Budget — revenue,  70,690,681?.  ' 188

expenditure,  71,077,127/ ,,

Important  Bengal  tenancy  bill  passed 11  March,  1

.■Sir  A.  Colvin's  budget ;  combined  surplus  of  3  years
(1882-5),  1,378,000?.  ;  lessened  by  depreciation  of
silver  currency;  revenue  for  1885-6,  73,508,100?.  ;
expenditure,  1885-6,  76,488,960?. . . 17  March,

Sir  Donald  Stewart,  with  50,000  men,  ordered  to
advance  to  Quetta March,

Meeting  of  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  and  the  viceroy
at  Bawul  Pindi  conference  and  durbar  2-12  April,

'The  na vvab  of  Moorshedabad  and  other  princes  offer
to  sell  their  jewels,  &c,  to  provide  money  to  aid
the  British  government  in  India  against  Bussia

April-May,

Thorough  defence  of  India  determined  on  by  the
British  government,  declared . . 12  May,

Proposed  loan  of  10,000,000?.  21  May,  et  seq. ;  act
passed 22  July,

'The  formation  of  native  volunteer  corps  under  the
commander-in-chief .... May,

'Lord  Bandolph  Churchill  appointed  secretary  for
India 24  June,

Sir  Frederick  Roberts  appointed  commander-in-
chief  ;  announced 30  July,

National  congress  of  71  delegates  (principally  law-
yers, schoolmasters,  and  editors,  not  Mahometans)
meet  at  Bombay,  express  great  loyalty  to  the
■queen,  and  pass  nine  resolutions  to  endeavour
to  obtain  a  royal  commission  of  inquiry  and
increased  political  power . .  end  of  Dec. ,,

■Grand  military  review  at  Delhi  held  by  the  viceroy
(35,000  troops,  709  officers,  &c.) . .  19  Jan. 1886

Upper  Burmah  annexed  by  proclamation  of  the
viceroy,  lord  Dufferin . . . .1  Jan. ,,

Powerful  speech  of  lord  Dufferin  ;  deficit  of  about
2,000,000?.  through  war  preparations,  &c.  ;  pro-
posed increase  of  income-tax  . . 4  Jan. ,,

SLady  Dufferin's  fund  for  providing  female  medical
practitioners  for  the  natives  of  India,  highly
successful 1885-6

income-tax  bill  passed .... 29  Jan.  1886

Earl  of  Kimberley  appointed  secretary  for  India,

about  6  Feb. ,,

Sir  A.  Colvin's  budget,  1886-7 ;  revenue,  75,798,700?.  ;
expenditure  75,616,500? 24  March,  ,,

-Sir  Richard,  aft.  viscount  Cross,  appointed  secretary
for  India July, ,,

National  Indian  congress  at  Calcutta,  400  delegates
(Hindoos)  to  promote  native  advancement,  28
Dec.  1886  ;  and  again  early  in ...  1887

The  queen's  jubilee  celebrated  with  great  magnifi-
cence ;  honours  distributed  ;  25,000  prisoners  of
good  character  released . . 16  Feb.  et  seq. ,,

Maharajah  of  Indore  and  many  Indian  princes
present  at  the  jubilee  celebration  in  Westminster
Abbey . , 2I  june, „

53,390  miles  of  railway  in  India  ;  reported  . . . ,,

The  nizam  of  Hyderabad  in  a  letter  to  lord  Dufferin
the  viceroy,  offers  to  present  20  lakhs  of
rupees  for  three  years,  total  600,000?.,  for  the
defence  of  the  N.W.  territories,  Sept.  ;  acknow-
ledged with  thanks  ;  announced . 10  Oct. ,,

The  rajah  of  Kaparthala  ofTers  his  army  and  five
lakhs  of  rupees  for  the  defence  of  India ;
announced ^  Oct.

Four  lakhs  offered  by  rajah  of  Nabha . . Nov." "

Similar  offers  by  other  princes . . . Nov. ,]

Subscriptions  to  lady  Dufferin's  jubilee  fund  in
support  of  the  national  association  for  supplying
female  medical  aid  amounts  to  478,465  rupees  in
India,  and  1,770?.  in  England  15  Oct. ;  amount
received  50,000? 25  Oct.


Districts  in  Beloochistan  annexed  (which  see)
announced Nov.  18

India  4  per  cent,  stock  converted  into  3J  per  cent,
by  act 23  May, ,

The  maharajah  of  Darbhanga  in  Bengal,  establishes
a  female  medical  hospital  in  aid  of  lady  Dufferin's
fund autumn, ,

Military  demonstration  against  Sikkim  (which  see)
ordered .24  Jan. 18

Budget  1887-8  ;  great  deficit ;  tax  on  petroleum
and  increase  of  salt  duty  proposed  Jan.  ;  passed

10  Feb. ,

Lord  Dufferin,  the  viceroy,  announces  his  intention
of  resigning,  for  private  reasons  . . 9  Feb.

Moderate  National  Indian  Congress  at  Madras
recommends  representative  institutions,  &c.  Feb.

Major  L.  R.  Battye  and  captain  H.  B.  Urmiston
and  five  Sepoys  killed  by  the  Akozais  during  an
exploration  on  British  territory  near  Black
Mountain,  N.W.  frontier  . . .  10  June,

Black  Mountain  expedition,  or  "  The  Hazara
Field  Force  "  under  general  McQueen  to  avenge
the  outrage  of  19  June  ;  organized  Sept. ;  advance,
seizure  of  Manakadana  4  Oct. ;  the  enemy  defeated
with  the  loss  of  200  men  by  gen.  Galbraith  ;
guerrilla  warfare  ;  British  success  at  Kotkai  with
slight  loss  5  Oct.  ;  villages  burnt,  enemy  retiring ;
British  casualties,  59  killed  and  wounded  9  Oct.  ;
gen.  McQueen  advances  18  Oct.  ;  more  villages
burnt ;  col.  Crookshank  dies  of  wounds  24  Oct.  ;
the  tribes  submit  and  pay  fines  21-30  Oct.  ;
Gorapher  peak  of  the  Chaila  mountains,  9,500  feet,
taken  by  gen.  Channer  2  Nov.  ;  return  com-
menced  5 Nov. ; final submission announced

18  Nov.

Lord  Dufferin  at  a  durbar  at  Patiala  announces
the  decision  of  the  government  to  decline  the
acceptance  of  money  from  the  princes ;  but
recommends  to  raise  the  character  of  their  armies
and  so  to  fit  them  to  combine  with  the  British
for  defence  of  India .... 18  Nov.

Farewell  address  of  700  native  ladies  presented  to
lady  Dufferin  privately  ... 4  Dec.

Installation  of  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne  as
viceroy  ;  departure  of  lord  Dufferin . 10  Dec.

Raid  of  Lushais  on  the  Chittagong  border  announced

23  Dec.

Native  Indian  congress  at  Allahabad  (moderate
and  illogical)  opened . . . .26  Dec. .

Fortress  of  Quetta,  a  bulwark  of  India,  finished

Jan.  16

Raid  of  Chittagong  hill  tribes  on  British  territory
near  Tipperah,  24  villages  destroyed,  above  100
British  subjects  killed  and  91  carried  off  prisoners,
announced 28  Jan. .

Sukkur  bridge  opened . . . .27  March,

Mr.  Arthur  Travels  Crawford,  an  able  commissioner
for  34  years  in  Bombay,  after  a  long  investiga-
tion, was  acquitted  of  serious  charges  of  financial
misconduct,  but  was  for  indiscreet  borrowing
dismissed  the  service.  After  some  correspondence
the  sentence  was  confirmed  by  lord  Cross,  secre-
tary for  India,  in  a  despatch . . 29  March, ,

Military  expedition  sent  to  chastise  the  hill  tribes
for  their  raids  and  the  murder  of  lieut.  Steward  ;
object  effected  ;  reported . . . April, ,

Proposal  for  a  new  4  per  cent,  loan  (20,000,000
rupees)  issued 1  July, ,

Subscription  list  closed  .... 30  July, ,

Lord  Reay's  condoning  the  native  Bombay  officials,
who  confessed  themselves  guilty  of  bribery  and
corruption  in  relation  to  the  Crawford  case,  much
censured,  but  eventually  approved  by  the  govern-
ment . .  .... Sept. ,

Tantia  Bheel,  robber  chief  of  the  central  provinces,
a  kind  of  Robin  Hood,  in  the  Holkar  territory
began  his  career  about  1874  ;  robbed  the  rich  and
helped  the  poor  ;  lately  suffered  much,  captured
about  18  Aug.,  convicted  of  murder  (in  1879),
about  20  Oct.,  executed  at  Jubbulpore .  4  Dec. ,

Tour  of  the  viceroy  in  the  N.W.  provinces,  Oct.  ;
a  durbar  held  at  Quetta  . . . .19  Nov. ,

5th  native  Indian  Congress  meets  at  Bombay  (Mr.
Bradlaugh  present) . . .26  Dec.  et  seq. ,

Military  expedition  of  sir  R.  G.  Sandeman  to  pro-
mote commerce  by  opening  a  road  through  the


INDIA.

Zhob  districts,  N.W.  frontier,  reported  success-
ful without  bloodshed .... 2  Feb.
Treaty  with  China  respecting  Sikkim,  which  see,

signed i7  March,

Sir  David Barbour's budget  presented  ; a  large

surplus 21  March,

Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  received  at  Bombay
by  the  duke  of  Connaught  and  lord  Reay  ;  Hy-
derabad, 15  Nov.  ;  Madras,  19  Nov.  ;  Mysore,  23
Nov.  ;  Rangoon,  20  Dec.  ;  Mandalay,  24  Dec,
1889 ;  Calcutta,  received  by  the  viceroy,  3  Jan.
1890 ;  Benares,  14  Jan.  ;  Lucknow,  18  Jan.  ;
N.W.  provinces,  20  Jan.  et  seq.  ;  Lahore,  25  Jan.  ;
Khyber  pass,  31  Jan.  ;  Delhi,  9  Feb.  ;  Bombay,
22  March  ;  embarked  for  home  .  28  March,
Expeditions  (organised  by  gen.  Gordon)  to  chas-
tise the  Chins  and  Lushais  for  their  raids,  and  to
form  a  road  connecting  Upper  Burmah  and  Lower
Bengal ;  gen.  Symons  proceeds  from  the  east,
gen.  Tregear  from  the  west,  to  form  a  junction,
Jan.  ;  the  resistance  generally  feeble  ;  the  troops
at  times  suffered  much  by  disease  ;  the  Yokwa
Chins  submit  to  gen.  Symons,  10  Jan.  ;  peaceful
surrender  of  Mongpunga  or  Lienpunga,  a  Lushai
chief ;  construction  of  road  proceeding  ;  recon-
naissances and  skirmishes  ;  200  Hakas  submit,
two  villages  burnt ;  health  of  troops  improved  ;
junction  of  the  two  parties  reported,  Feb.  .
Guerilla  warfare  ;  Haka  chiefs  submit . about

22  March,
The  Tashon  chiefs  submit  to  gen.  Symons  and  pay
fine  and  tribute . . reported  24  March,
Major  Gordon-Cumming on convoy duty, shot
dead,  from  an  ambuscade . about  24  March,
Ten  days'  reconnaissance  of  gen.  Symons south-
ward ;  col.  Tregear  at  Haka  . 13-16  April
The  new  road  to  Haka  completed  connecting  Bur-
mah and  India  ;  Haka  and  other  posts  garrisoned
reported  20  April,
Gen.  Symons  and  the  expedition  return  to  India .

1  May  et  seq.

Submission  of  Malliam-pai  chiefs  to  gen.  Tregear;

raiding  to  cease,  roads  to  be  made,  &c. 20  May,

Increased  agitation  in  India  and  England  against

Hindoo  child  marriages  .... Aug.

Revolution  at  Manipur . . . . 21  Sept.

Insurrection  in  Cambay  with  bloodshed,  the  nawab

appeals to  the British  for  help  : they  restore

order reported  23  Sept.

[Major  Kennedy,  a  political  officer,  was  autho-
rised to  redress  grievances,  reform  the  finances,
&c,  Jan.  1891.]

Insurrection  in  Manipur  in  N.E.  state  ;  the  Maha-
rajah abdicates  in  favour  of  his  brother,  who  had
seized  the  palace,  &c. . . . 21-24  Sept.
Eruption  of  the  Lushais near  Dalleswary  river ;
capt.  Herbert  Browne  killed,  reinforcements  sent
reported  12  Sept.
Lieut.  Swinton  killed  in  an  attack . .  2  Oct.
The  Black  Mountain  Expedition  under  gen.  sir  J.
M.  M'Queen  starts,  22  Oct.  ;  returns . 3  Nov.
The  Zhob  valley  expedition  under  gen.  White  arrives

at  Fort  Sandeman 30  Oct.

Ultimatum  sent ;  skirmish ... 30  Oct.

The  tribes  submit . . .  reported  12  Nov.

Tlie Lushai  party under capt. Shakespear and

Mr.  Pughe  advance  to  Jadunas  village,  34  miles

W.  of  Fort  White,  6  Nov.  ;  returns  successful .

20  Nov. .
Tour  of  the  viceroy  in  the  N.W.,  he  visits  Delhi,
&c,  Nov.;  holds a  durbar  at  Agra,  24  Nov.;

Benares 4  Dec. ,

Indian  Factory  commission  ; report  with  recom-
mendations issued ....  early  Dec. ,
The principal Lushai  chiefs  surrender uncondi-

,  tionally o  Dec. ,

The  6th  National  Congress  of  mixed  character,  no
government  officials  present,  26-30  Dec,  1890;
sir  A.  Scoble  introduces  a  bill  into  the  legislative
council  to  raise  the  age  of  consent  to  marriage  by

girls  from  10  to  12 9  Jan. 1!

Capt.  Rundall  witli  200  rifles  marches  to  Lushailand

about  22  Jan. ,

A  strong  force  marches  against the marauding

tribes  of  the  Miranzai  valley  on  the  N.W.  frontier

about  30  Jan.

Several  tribes  submit . about  .16  Feb.  et  seq.

Mukkmudin,  principal  chief  of  the  Rubbia  Klieyl '


507


INDIA.


1S90


tribe,  surrenders,  reported  19  Feb.  ;  the  force  re-
t"rus about  24  Feb.  18

The  important  factory  bill  for  the  protection  of
women  and  children  passed . . 19  March, ,

After  much  public  discussion,  the  "age  of  consent
to  marriage  bill"  is  passed  by  the  legislative
council 1Q  March, ,,

Disastrous  expedition  to  Manipur,  which  see

March ,

Sir  D.  Barbour's  financial  statement ;  reported  sur-
plus, 20  March  ;  he  recommends  a  commission  to
consider  the  currency  and  the  introduction  of  a
gold  standard,  &c March, ,

Black  Mountain  Expedition,  N.W.,  under  gen.  Elles,
two  columns  under  col.  Williamson  and  col.
Hammond,  starts  about  15  Jan.,  crosses  the
frontier about  15  March, „

The  Ghazis  attack  the  Pioneers,  slight  loss,  19
March  ;  successful  movement  forward  26  March, „

Sharp  engagement,  9  soldiers  killed . 5  April, ,,

Road-making  party  attacked,  14  sepoys  killed

reported  7  April, ,,

Bridge  of  boats  over  the  Indus,  broken  up

about  20  April, ,,

The  party  ascend  the  Machai  peak,  9,800  feet  high,
a  few  shots  exchanged,  18  April ;  difficult  travel-
ling, severe  weather,  April;  huts  to  be  con-
structed for  the  troops .... May ,,

The  country  evacuated  by  the  British  . . Dec. „

Miranzai  Valley  Expedition.— Sir  W.  Lockhart  with
7,000  men  at  Kohat  preparing  to  resist  the  Orak-
zais  and  other  tribes  (Panthans  and  Afreedes) ;
sudden  attack  of  the  tribes  repulsed  by  the  Pun-
jaub  infantry,  reported  12  April ;  the  Samana
heights  held  by  Syed  Mir  Basha,  a  fanatical
priest  ;  the  Mollahs  preaching  a.  jihad,  which  see

reported  12  April ,,

Sir  W.  Lockhart  with  three  columns  captures  some
outposts,  and  clears  the  Samana  ridge,  col.
Cramer  and  major  Egerton  severely  wounded,  17,
18,  April  ;  successful  fighting;  the  enemy  dis-
persed and  villages  burnt,  19,  20  April ;  about
300  Orakzais  killed,  they  disperse,  and  other
tribes  retreat . .-  .21  April  et  seq.

Sir  W.  Lockhart  advances  against  the  very  aggres-
sive Akhel  tribe  ;  severe  fighting,  several  villages
destroyed 22  April,

Samana  range  occupied  ;  several  tribes  submit

April,  May,

Sir  W.  Lockhart  advances  to  punish  the  Shekhans,
29  April,  their  towers  blown  up  ;  various  tribes
submit,  accepting  conditions  . . .3  May,

The  tribes  restore  stolen  property,  and  seek  for
peace  ;  all  opposition  ceases,  reported  12  May ;
the  troops  ordered  to  return  . . .17  May,

A  representative  meeting  of  delegates  agrees  to  re-
solution to  be  sent  to  the  viceroy  condemning
sir  Joseph  Pease's  resolution  respecting  opium,
adopted  by  the  commons,  12  April  (see  Opium)

12  May

Alarming  deficiency  of  rain,  especially  in  Madras,

Rajputana,  the  Punjaub,  and  the  south,  middle

of  July  ;  supply  of  rain  in  north  and  north-west

about  2  Aug.

Trial  of  the  Bangabasi  newspaper  for  sedition  con-
cluded ;  jury  disagree  ;  no  verdict,  24  Aug.,  the
defendants  submit  and  apologise  . . 23  Sept.

A  good  supply  of  rain  in  Malabar  and  other 'places
about  27  Sept.

The  N.W.  provinces  relieved . . . Sept.

The  Hunza  and  Nagar  tribes  oppose  British  road-
making  ;  fighting  ensues  near  Gilgil,  N.  of  Cash-
mere ;  a  fort  of  Nilt,  taken  by  lieut.-col.  Durand
who  is  wounded  ;  several  sepoys  killed  . 2  Dee.

Further  successes  of  capt.  Colin  Mackenzie,  lieut.
Manners  Smith  and  others  near  Nilt ;  about  70
natives  killed ;  other  places  occupied  ;  Jafar
Khan  of  Nagar  submits  ;  end  of  the  war

20-22  Dec.

Seventh  Indian  National  congress  opened  at  Nag-
pur  with  strong  professions  of  loyalty  28-30  Dee.

Gen.  sir  Frederick  Sleigh  Roberts  created  a  peer  as
Baron  Roberts  of  Candahar . . . Feb. 1


INDIA.


508


INDIA COMPANY, EAST.


M.  Clement  Thomas,  governor-general  of  French
India,  received  by  the  viceroy  at  Calcutta

8  Jan.  et  seq.

General  mourning  throughout  India  at  the  death  of
the  duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondale . 14  Jan.

Death  of  col.  sir  Robert  Groves  Sandeman,  29  Jan. ;
eulogised  by  the  viceroy  in  council  (see  Beloo-
chistan) Feb.

Increased  gloom  in  the  districts  threatened  by
famine  through  want  of  rain . Feb.,  March,

Total  employed  on  relief  works,  32,855

early  March,

Sir  Juland  Danvers,  able  government  director  of
Indian  guaranteed  railway  companies  for  fifty
years,  retires 23  March,

Famine  relief  works  ;  persons  employed  ;  Madras,
48,000  ;  Bombay  2,000  ;  Bengal,  17,000  ;  Burma,
28,000  ;  Mysore,  13,000  ;  Rajputana,  33,000

reported  2  April,

The  Hunza-Nagar  rising  suppressed,  and  order  re-
stored reported  25  March,

Desultory  war  with  the  Lushai  tribes,  the  British  •
under  Mr.  M'C'abe  generally  successful

March,  April,

The  Lushais  attack  the  tea-estate  at  Boorooncherra
and  kill  52  coolies . . reported  4  April,

Advance  of  capt.  Shakespeare . . .  April,

Death  of  gen.  sir  Lewis  Felly,  M.P.,  an  able  official,
aged  67 22  April,

Report  of  the  Public  service  commission  ;  import-
ant changes  recommended . about  24  April,

Extensive  rising  of  the  Lushai  tribes  ;  several  con-
flicts, villages  destroyed,  about  24  April  ;  several
chiefs  surrender  to  Mr.  M'Cabe,  about  26  April ;
tranquillity  gradually  restored . . 3-29  May

Rain  in  Bengal . . . end  of  April,  May,

71,000  total  on  relief  works . . .12  May,

Themaharajah  of  Ulwar,  enlightened  and  loyal,  dies

22  May,

His  heir  10  years  old  ;  his  minister  assassinated

reported  26  May,

Indian  Currency  Association  formed  to  promote
the  abolition  of  silver  as  the  sole  standard  in
India May,

The  maharajah  gaekwar  of  Baroda  dines  with  the
queen  at  Windsor  (see  above,  1874-5) . 4  July,

Good  monsoon ;  famine  averted ;  relief  woiks
diminished July,

Value  of  the  ru  pee  reduced  to  is.  3d.  ;  great  anxiety,

Aug.

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA,  (fee*

Warren  Hastings  assumes  the  govt.  . . 13  April,

Sir  John  Maepherson 1  Feb.

Lord  Cornwallis 12  Sept.

Sir  John  Shore  (afterwards  lord  Teignmouth)  28  Oct.
Lord  (afterwards  marquis)  Cornwallis  again : he

relinquished  the  appointment.

Sir  Alured  Clarke 6  April,

Lord  Mornington  (afterwards Marquis  Wellesley)

17  May,
Marquis  Cornwallis  again  .  .  .  .30  July,
Sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow . . . .10  Oct.

Lord  Minto 3I  July,

Earl  of  Moira,  afterwards  marquis  of  Hastings,  4  Oct.

Hon.  John  Adam 13  Jan.

George  Canning,  relinquished  the  appointment
William,  Lord  (afterwards  earl)  Amherst. 1  Aug.
Hon.  W.  Butterworth  Bayley . . 13  March,
Lord  Win.  Cavendish  Bentinck . . 4  July,

[This  nobleman  became  the  first  governor-general
of  India,  under  the  act  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  85  :
Aug  28,  1833.]
Sir  Charles  Theophilus Metcalfe  (afterwards  lord

Metcalfe) 2Q  March,

William,  lord  Heytesbury ;  did  not  proceed  .  .
George,  lord  Auckland  (afterwards  earl  of  Auckland)

4  March,
Edward,  lord  Ellenborough . .  28  Feb

William  Wilberforce  Bird  ...  15  June,
Sir  Henry  (afterwards  viscount)  Hardinge,  23  July,
James-Andrew,  earl  (afterwards  marquis)  of  Dal-

housie 12  Jan.  1848

*  Several  of  these  appointments  were  provisional,  as,
for  instance,  sir  Alured  Clarke,  sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow,
hon.  William  Butterworth  Bayley,  William  Wilberforce
Bird,  &c.  The  appointments  of  governors-general  were,
of  course,  of  earlier  date  than  their  assumption  of  office.


1772
17S5


1805

1807
1813
1823


1835


1836
1842
1S44


Charles  John,  viscount  Canning,  appointed,  July,  1855
Proclaimed  the  first  viceroy  throughout  India,  1  Nov.  1858
James,  earl  of  Elgin,  appointed,  Aug.  1861  ;  died

20  Nov.  1863
Sir  John  Lawrence  appointed .  Dec. ,,

Richard  Southwell,  earl  of  Mayo (see  Mayo)  ap-
pointed. [Assassinated  8  Feb.  1872.] . Oct. 1868
Thomas  George  Baring,  lord  Northbrook  .  Feb.  1872

Edward  Robert  Bulwer  Lytton,  lord  Lytton,  took

oath  at  Calcutta 12  April,  1876

George  Frederick Samuel  Robinson, marquis  of

Ripon Maj',  1880

Frederick  Temple  Hamilton-Blackwood,  earl  of
Dufferin,  Sept.  1884  ;  created  marquis  of  Dufferin
and  Ava ....  T2  Nov.  1888

Henry  Charles  Keith  Fitz-maurice,  marquis  of
Lansdowne,  installed . . . .10  Dec. ,,

INDIA  COMPANY,  EAST. The  first  com-
mercial intercourse  of  the  English  with  the  East
Indies  was  a  private  adventure  of  three  ships  fitted
out  in  1591. Only  one  of  them  reached  India;  and,
after  a  voj  age  of  three  years,  the  commander,  cap-
tain Lancaster,  was  brought  home  in  another  ship,
the sailors having  seized  his  own ; hut  his  in-
formation gave  rise  to  a  mercantile  voyage,  and  the
establishment  of  a  company,  whose  first  charter,  im
Dec.  1600,  was  renewed  in  1609,  1657,  1661,  1693,
and  1744. Its  stock  in  1600  consisted  of  72,000^.,
when  it  fitted  out  four  ships.  Meeting  with  success,
it  continued  to  trade,  and  India  stock  sold  at  500^.
for  a  share  of  100^.  in  1683.
A  new  company  (the  "English")  was  chartered  5
Sept.  1698,  and  the  old  (the  "London")  suspended
from  trading  for  three  years  ;  the  two  were  united  1702
New  East  India  company  established  . . . . 1708
Privileges  of  the  company  continued  till  1783  . . 1744
Affairs  of  the  company  were  brought  before  parlia-
ment, and  a  committee  exposed  a  series  of  in-
trigues and  crime Aug.  1772

As  remedial  measures  two  acts  passed,  (one  autho-
rised a  loan  of  i,ooo,oooZ.  to  the  company;  the
other  celebrated  as  the  India  bill)  effected  most
important  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the
company  and  its  relations  to  India.  A  governor-
general  was  appointed  to  reside  in  Bengal,  to
which  the  other  presidencies  were  then  made
subordinate  ;  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  was
instituted  at  Calcutta:  the  salary  of  the  governor
was  fixed  at  25,000^.  per  year ;  that  of  the  council
at  io,oooZ.  each  ;  and  of  the  chief  judge  at  8000J.  ;
the  affairs  of  the  company  were  controlled  ;  all  the
departments  were  re-organised,  and  all  the  terri-
torial correspondence  was  henceforth  to  be  laid
before  the  British  ministry  . . .  June,  1773

Mr. Pitt's  bill  appointing  the Board  of  Control

(tohich  see),  passed 18  May,  1784

The  company's  charter  was  renewed  for  20  years . 1793

Trade  with  India  thrown  open 18 13

Trade  to  China  opened  ;  Charter  renewed  till  1854  . 1S33
The  government  of  India  was continued  in  the
hands of  the company  till  parliament  should

otherwise  provide 1853

In  consequence  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  anc^  the  dis-
appearance of  the  company's  army,  the  govern-
ment of  India  was  transferred  to  the  crown,  the
Board  of  Control  was  abolished,  and  a  Council  of
State  for  India  instituted  by  the  act  21  &  22  Vict.
c.  106,  which  received  the  royal  assent,  2  Aug.  *  1858
The  company's  political  power  ceased  on  1  Sept.,
and  the  queen  was  proclaimed  as  Queen  of  Great
Britain  and  the  Colonies,  &c. ,  in  the  principal
places  in  India,  amid  much  enthusiasm  1  Nov.  ,,
The  company  to  be  dissolved, 1  June,  1874,  and


*  Lord  Palmerston  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  purpose  on
12  Feb.,  which  was  accepted  by  the  house  on  18  Feb.
He  resigned  on  the  following  day,  and  the  bill  dropped.
A  similar  bill  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Disraeli  on  12  March  ;
but  many  of  its  details  being  objected  to,  it  was  with-
drawn. On  lord  John  Russell's  proposition,  the  house
proceeded  to  consider  the  matter  by  way  of  resolutions  ;
on  17  June,  lord  Stanley  brought  in  the  above  mentioned
bill,  being  the  third  on  the  subject  introduced  during  the
session.


INDIA, COUNCIL OF.


509


INDIANS.


dividends  redeemed,  bj'  the  "  East  India  Stock
Dividend  Redemption  Act,"  passed . 15  May,  1873
The  East  India-House  built  1726;  enlarged  and  a
new  front  erected,  1799  ;  sold  with  the  furniture,
1861  ;  pulled  down  in  Sept.  and  Oct. . . . 1862

INDIA,  COUNCIL  OF,  established  by  act  of
parliament,  2  Aug.  1858,  in  the  place  of  the  board
of  control  (which  see).  It  consists  of  15  members
(salary  1200I.  a  year),  eight  of  whom  were  appointed
by  the  queen,  and  seven  elected  by  the  directors  of
the  East  India  company.  The  members  may  not
sit  in  parliament.  The  council  met  first  on  3  Sept.
1858,  when  lord  Stanley,  secretary  of  state  for  India,
presided.  The  members  of  the  first  council  are
recorded  below.  Members  were  added  to  the
council  by  an  act,  passed  20  June,  1892.


Charles  Mills.
John  Shepherd.
Boss  D.  Mangles.
William  J.  Eastwick,


ELECTED.

Sir  J.  Weir  Hogg.
Elliot  Macnaghten.
Henry  T.  Prinsep.


APPOINTED.


Sir  Frederick  Carrie.
Sir  Henry  Rawlinson.
Sir  R.  Hussey  Vivian.
J.  Pollard  Willoughby.


Sir  John  Lawrence.
Sir  Henry  Montgomery.
Sir  Proby  Cautley,  and
Win.  Arbuthnot.


queen  Victoria  so  pn>
1876,  in  India,  1  Jan.


INDIA,  Empress  of

claimed  in  London,  1  May

1877. Order  of  the Indian Empire instituted,

1  Jan.  1878. Enlarged,  15  Feb.  1887.

INDIA  MUSEUM,  The,  was  proposed  by
sir  Charles  Wilkins  and  approved  by  the  East  India
company  in  1798.  The  valuable  collections  were
removed  from  Leadenhall-street  to  Fife  house,
behind  the  chapel  royal,  Whitehall,  and  opened
24  July,  1861  ;  removed  to  the  East  India
museum,  which  was  opened  to  the  public  May,
1869  ;  removed  to  South  Kensington,  opened  June,
1875 ;  closed  25  Oct.  1879,  and  the  collections  re-
moved to  Kew  Gardens  Museum,  there  re-opened
17  May,  1880.

INDIAN  ASSOCIATION  (National),  to
promote  social  progress  and  education  in  India,  was
established  under  the  patronage  of  the  princess  of
Wales  in  1870. Annual  meetings  held  1892.

INDIANA,  a  western  state  of  North  America.
It  was  included  in  Ohio  till  1801;  was  constituted
a  territory  in  1809,  and  admitted  into  the  Union
II  Dec.  1816.  Capital,  Indianapolis;  popula'ion,
1890,  105,436.  Population,  18S0,  1,978,301  ;  1890,
2,192,404.

At  a  great  fire  at  Indianapolis  about  13  firemen
were  killed  and  19  injured — estimated  loss  200,000
dollars '17  March,  1890

By  the  burning  of  an  hospital  at  Indianapolis,  19
persons  perish 22  Jan.  1892

INDIAN  CIVIL  SERVICE  COLLEGE,

established  at  Cooper's  hill,  Surrey,  1870.

INDIAN  INSTITUTE,  Oxford;  promoted
by  professor  Monier  Williams,  1875  et  seq.  ;
established  1878 ; first  stone  of  the  building  laid,

2  May,  1883;  opened,  14  Oct.  1884.

The  Institute  has  received  liberal  donations  from
Indian  princes  ;  reported .... Dec.  1891

INDIAN  NATIONAL  CONGRESS,  ad-
vocating legislative  and  administrative  changes  in
favour  of  the  natives,  met  at  Bombay,  end  of  Dec.
1885,  and  annually  since.  Not  favoured  by  Ma-
hometans. See  India,  1885  et  seq.

INDIANS  occupying  the  south-western  parts
of  the  United  States,  termed  Indian  territory,  in
direct  connexion  with  the  government,  were  num-


bered at  239,506  in  1861;  261,912  in  1881 ;  244,704
in  1 89 1.  The  larger  tribes  are  the  Cherokees  (22,000),
the  Chocktaws  (18,000),  the  Creeks  (13,550),  and
the  Chickasaws  (5000);  the  Sioux  (30,600).  A
large  proportion  are  in  comfortable  circum-
stances, and  have  schools  and  churches ;  other  tribes
are  the  Delawares,  Sacs,  Foxes,  Shawnees,  Sioux,
and  Ioways.  During  the  American  civil  war  in  1861,
the  Choctaws  joined  the  confederates,  who  per-
mitted two  Choctaw  delegates  to  sit  in  congress  ;
the  first  being  Sampson  Folsom  and  Eastman  Lo-
man  ;  but  the  principal  chief  of  the  Cherokees,  on
4  May,  1861,  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality,
which  was  maintained  with  great  difficulty.  In  a  war
provoked  by  outrages  general  Sheridan  defeated  the
Indians,  and  they  surrendered  unconditionally  Dec.
1868.  Negotiations  undertaken  by  the  Quakers  had
no  effect,  and  the  war  was  renewed  June,  1869.
As  a  chastisement  for  murders  and  other  outrages
major  Baker  killed  173  Indians,  including  women
and  children,  Jan.  1870.  In  June  following  a
deputation  of  eminent  chiefs  was  received  by  the
president  at  Washington,  and  promises  and  presents
were  made  to  them.  On  1  Oct.  1869  prince  Arthur
visited  the  villages  of  the  Canadian  Indians,  and
was  made  a  chief  of  the  "Six  Nations."  A  depu-
tation of  Indian  chiefs  were  well  received  by  the
president  at  Washington,  Jan.  1870.  A  meeting  of
delegates  from  various  tribes  met  at  Ocmulgee,  5-17
June,  1871,  and  agreed  to  a  constitution  for  the
common  government  by  means  of  a  senate  and  par-
liament representing  17  tribes  of  60,000 people;  see
Modoc.

Professor  Marsh  reports  to  the  president  of  the
United  States  the  corruption  and  fraudulent
conduct  of  the  "Indian  Ring,"  the  officials  em-
ployed to  pay  compensation,  and  deal  with  the
Indians  (this  said  to  cause  war  of  1876)  ;  cor-
roborated by  gen.  Custer  ....  July,  1875
[Bishop  Butler,  an  American,  said  that  if  the  In-
dians were  treated  as  fairly  as  they  are  in  Canada
there  would  be  no  wars,  1878.]
Thirteen  Iroquois  and  14  Canadians  performed  the
Canadian  national  game  "  La  Crosse,"  before  the
Queen  at  Windsor  ... 27  June,  1876

Gen.  Geo.  A.  Custer,  a  brave,  able  officer,  attacks
about  2,500  Sioux  Indians,  led  by  Sitting  Bull,  an
able  chief,  on  Little  Horn  river,  Montana,  in  a
ravine ;  he  and  his  family  and  nearly  all  his
force  destroyed  (275  killed,  60  wounded)  25  June,  ,,
Urgent  measures  taken  by  the  United  States  govern-
ment, Sheridan  put  in  command  .  .  July,  ,,
Sheridan  unsuccessful ;  commissioners  arrange  a
treaty  with  the  Sioux  Indians  to  remove  for  self-

sustentation 7 — 27  Oct. ,,

War  going  on ;  gen.  Howard  opposed  to  an  able

chief,  Joseph July,  1877

The  tribe  "Nez  Perces  ".  defeat  the  U.S.  troops  in
Idaho,  and  kill  about  33, during  and  after  the

battle about  14  Sept. ,,

Great  conference  of  Indian  chiefs  with  president
Hayes,  at  Washington  ;  they  accept  terms

end  of  Sept. ,,
"Sitting Bull"  and  Sioux  Indians  defeated  in  a
raid  retire  to  Canada  [when  pardoned  returned

to  his  tribes] July,  1879

Fighting  witli  Indians  at  Mill  creek,  near  Rawlins,
in  Colorado ;  17  whites  and  major  Thornbury
killed,  29  Sept.  ;  gen.  Merritt  entrenched  ;  said
to  be  surrounded  ;  reinforced ;  Indians  retreat

14  Oct. „
200  Apache  Indians  turn  and  kill  32  of  the  pursuing

whites 9  Nov. ,,

Indians  in  Canada.  In  1883,  110,505 ;  in  1892,
121,638 ;  numbers  increasing ;  condition  im-
proving and  prosperous 1892

The  Sioux  sell  to  the  United  States  11,000,000  acres,
part  of  their  Dakota  reservation,  for  14,000,000
dollars  ;  the  Chippewa  agree  to  sell  4,000,000
acres  of  their  lands  ....  Aug.  1889
A  rising  of  the  Sioux  Indians,  about  25,000,  in  Bad-
Lands  (the  Mauvaises  Terres  of  the  French  pio-


INDIANS.


510


INDUCTION.


neers),  in  South  Dakota,  stated  to  be  suffering  by-
want,  in  consequence  of  the  reduced  government
rations  ;  they  are  incited  by  their  fanatical  medi-
cine men,  who  predict  the  coming  of  a  conquer-
ing Messiah,  and  begin  their  ghost  war-dances ;
they  attack the outlying white  settlers and
friendly  Indians  ;  marauding  and  outrages  ensue,
causing  great  alarm  ;  troops  and  supplies  of  food
sent  to  the  Dakota  frontier  ;  the  Sioux  are  soon
joined  by  other  tribes,  Nov.  ;  col.  Wm.  F.  Cody,
"  Buffalo  Bill "  (see  American  Exhibition),  sent  to
the  front ...... 23  Nov.  18c

Gen.  Miles,  chief,  commanding  in  Dakota  aided  by
gen.  Brook  ;  the  troops  in  Missouri,  Nebraska,
Kansas,  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Wyoming,  ordered

for  active  service 25  Nov. ,,

Rapid  advance  of  troops  and  cannon  into  the  reser-
vations ;  Little  Wound  and  other  Sioux  chiefs

tender  submission 26  Nov. ,,

Father  Jule,  a  missionary,  visits  the  Indian  forti-
fied camp,  to  dissuade  them  from  war  ;  the  older
chiefs  inclined  to  yield,  the  younger  determined  ;

he  returned 6  Dec. „

The  hostile  Indians said  to  be  demoralised  by  a

display  of  troops  and  cannon .  .  .  12  Dec.  „
The  old  Sioux  chief  Sitting  Bull  (see  above,  1876-7)
captured  by  the  police,  14  Dec,  and  in  an
attempt  to  rescue  him,  his  son  Crow  Foot  and
himself  are  killed  with  others,  and  his  camp  is
occupied  by  the  troops  .  .  .  .15  Dec.  ,,
Gen.  Miles'  head-quarters  at  Rapid  city  .  18  Dec.  ,,
Red  Cloud,  at  a  great  council,  recommends  sur-
render, and  warns  resisters  .  .  19  Dec.  ,,
Battle  of  Wounded  Knee  Creek.
Desiring  to  revenge  Sitting  Bull's  death,  the  re-
mains of  his  band  join  Big  Foot's  band  on  Chey-
enne River  ;  they  start  lor  Badlands,  and  are
joined  by  other  Indians,  making  about  160  war-
riors in  all  ;  they  are  met  by  the  7th  cavalry
under  lieut.  Hawthorne,  and  artillery  under
major  Whiteside,  and  made  to  surrender,  28  Dec.  ;
in  the  evening  major  Forsyth  with  other  troops
arrives.  While  pretending  to  surrender  their
arms,  at  the  command  of  major  Whiteside,  the
Indians  suddenly  attack  the  dismounted  troopers,
and  a  murderous  hand-to-hand  .light  ensues  ;  the
Indians  are  joined  by  others,  and  additional
troops  arrive,  the  Indians  flee  to  the  ravines,  are
pursued  by  the  artillery,  much  slaughter  ensues  ;
during  the  confused  fight,  Big  Foot  and  his
band  were  nearly  exterminated,  together  with
many  women  and  children  (about.  200).  Capt.
Wallace,  lieuts.  Casey  and  Mann,  and  several
non-commissioned officers and privates were

killed 29  Dec. ,

Vigorous  attack  on  the  Pine  Ridge  Agency,  re-
pulsed, 29  Dec.  et  seq.  ;  sharp  skirmish  in  which
nearly  3,000 Indians  are dispersed by  major

Forsyth 29,  30  Dec. ,

The  great  body  of  3,000  Indians  near  Pine  Ridge
Agency,  gradually  surrounded  by  the 2nd  In-
fantry regiment  under  gen.  Brook 2  Jan.  et  seq.  i2
A  sharp  Indian  attack  on  supply  waggons  repulsed

5  Jan. ,
Kansas  and  other  states  called  on  to  supply  troops

7  Jan. ,
Gen.  Miles  receives  the  submission  of  the  rebel
chiefs  of  the  Brules ; provisions  sent to the

Indians 14  Jan. ,

About  4,000  Indians, nearly  surrounded  by  the
troops,  come  in  and  surrender  their  arms . . ,
15  Jan.  et  seq. ,
Gen.  Miles,  in  an  address,  commends  his  troops,

and  declares  the  war  at  an  end . .  19  Jan. ,
He  takes  40  Indians  and  also  some  friendly  chiefs  to
Washington,  Feb.  ;  they  have  a  conference  with
Mr.  Noble,  secretary  of  the  Interior,  7  Feb.,  and
president  Harrison  . . . .12  Feb. ,

Proposed  enlistment  of  about  2,000  young  Indians,

as  separate  companies  in  the  army  about  10  Feb.  ,
The  delegates  return  to  Pine  Ridge  from  Washing-
ton, much  dissatisfied  with  their  reception  ;  their
loyal  chief  "  American  Horse,"  comi>lains  bitterly
of  the  injustice  and  harshness  of  the  government
and  the  officials,  but  speaks  well  of  gen.  Miles

23  Feb. ,


Revolt  of  the  Chippewa  and  other  Indians  in  Min-
nesota and  Arizona,  reported  12  July  ;  defensive
measures  ordered  by  government .  July, 1891

Great  mining  explosion  at  Krebs,  in  the  Indian
territory  ;  about  70  men  killed . . 7  Jan. 1892

INDIA  RUBBER,  see  Caoutchouc.

INDICTION,  a  Roman  term  original  ly  applied
to  a  tribute  of  corn,  paid  every  fifteen  years,  and  to
the  time  at  which  it  was  paid.  The  first  examples
in  the  Theodosian  code  are  of  the  reign  of  Con-
stantius  II.,  who  died  361. — In  memory  of  the  great
victory  obtained  by  Constantine  over  Maxentius,
8  Cal.  Oct.  312,  the  council  of  Nice  ordained  that
the  accounts  of  years  should  be  no  longer  kept  by
the  Olympiads,  but  by  the  Indiction,  which  has  its
epocha  1  Jan.  313.  It  was  first  used  by  the  Lathi
church  in  342.

INDIGO,  the  dye  obtained  from  the  woad
plant,  isatis  linctoria,  was  used  by  the  Egyptians,
and  other  ancient  nations ;  and  the  processes  are
described  by  Pliny.  After  the  passage  of  the  Cape  of
Good  Hope,  in  1497,  it  was  gradually  superseded  by
the  eastern  indigo,  got  from  the  indigofera.  The
mention  of  indigo  occurs  in  English  statutes  in  1581-
Its  cultivation  was  begun  in  Carolina  in  1747.  The
quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1840  was


5,831, 269IDS.; in  1845, 10,127,488  lbs.


1850,
1861,
1869,
1871,
in 1876,


70,482 cwt.  ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt.  _
83,109 cwt.; in 1866, 74,256 cwt.;

86.721  cwt.; in 1870, 79,255 cwt.;
106,307 cwt. ; in 1874, 85,707 cwt.

88.722  cwt. ;  in  1877,  60,640  cwt. ;  in  1879,  80,146
cwt.;  in  1880,  58,283  cwt.;  in  1881,  81,088  cwt.;
in  1882,  95,272  cwt. ;  in  18S3,  100,243  CVf*-  '■>  in
1884,  104,423  cwt. ;  in  1885,  94.314  cwt.  ;  in  1887,
76,700  cwt. ;  in  1888,  78,128  cwt.;  in  1889,  90,238
ewt. ;  in  1890,  81,854  cwt.

After  long  continued  experiments,  especially  by
prof.  A.  Baeyer,  the  dye  has  been  prepared  artifi-
cially from  its  chemical  elements  in  coal  tar 1869-80

Professor  H.  E.  Roscoe,  at  the  Royal  Institution,
proved  that  the  properties  of  the  artificial  and
natural  indigo  were  identical . . 27  May,  1881

INDIRECT  CLAIMS,  see  Alabama,  Wash-
ington.

INDIUM,  a  metal  discovered  in  the  arsenical
pyrites  of  Freiberg  by  F.  Reich  and  T.  Richter  in
1863.  Its  name  is  due  to  its  giving  an  indigo  blue
ray  in  its  spectrum.

INDIVIDUALIST  CLUB,  proposed  to  be
formed  for  the  physical  and  political  benefit  of  the
working  classes,  on  the  principle  of  self-help,  Feb.
1885.

INDORE,  a  province  of  British  India;  the
principal  native  rulers  have  been  the  Mahratta
chiefs,  named  Holkar,  rivals  of  the  Scindiahs  at
Gwalior.  Rao  Holkar  received  a  grant  of  territory
from  the  British  in  17^3.  After  severe  conflicts  the
Mahratta  chiefs  were  finally  quelled  in  1818.  The
town  of  Indore,  founded  in  1 767,  was  destroyed  by
Scindiah  after  a  battle  on  14  Oct.  1801.  The
maharajah  Shivaja  Rao  Holkar  died  17  June,  1886.
Succeeded  by  his  son,  Tuckaji  Rao  Holkar,  who  was
present  at  the  queen's  jubilee  in  London  in  1887.
Indore  was  visited  by  the  viceroy,  the  marquis  of
Lansdowne,  24  Nov.  1891.  Population,  1881,
i,055>217-

INDUCTION  of  electric  currents,  discovered
by  Faraday,  and  announced  in  his  "Experimental
Researches,"  published  in  1831-2.  Ruhmkorff's
magneto-electric  induction  coil  was  constructed  in
1850; See  under  Electricity.


INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY.


511


INFIRMARIES.


INDUCTIVE  PHILOSOPHY,  based  on
the  results  of  observations  and  experiments,  really
common  sense,  is  especially  expounded  by  Bacon  in
the  second  book  of  his  "  Novum  Organon"  pub-
lished 1620.  Wm.  Harvey  (1578-1657)  endeavoured
"to  search  out  the  secrets  of  nature  by  the  way  of
experiment." See  Blood.

INDULGENCES  in  the  early  church  were
the  moderation  of  ecclesiastical  punishment.  The
papal  system  for  the  absolute  pardon  of  sin,  com-
menced by  Leo.  III.  about  800,  were  granted  in
the  nth  century  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  by  Urban
II.,.  and  by  others,  in  the  12th  century  as  rewards
to  the  crusaders.  Clement  V.  was  the  first  pope
who  made  public  sale  of  indulgences,  1313.  In
1517,  Leo  X.  published  general  indulgences
throughout  Europe,  and  the  resistance  to  them  led
to  the  Reformation.

INDUSTRIAL DWELLINGS, see

Artisans.

INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS,  in  Great
Britain,  are  now  frequent.  One  for  South  London
was  opened  at  Lambeth,  I  March,  1864;  for  North
London,  by  earl  Russell,  at  the  Agricultural  hall,
Islington,  17  Oct.  1864;  for  West  London,  at  the
Floral  hall,  Covent-garden,  1  May,  1865;  for  the
city  of  London,  at  Guildhall,  6  March,  1866;  one
was  opened  at  York,  24  July,  1866;  and  several
since.  The  "Workmen's  International  Exhibition,
Agricultural  Hall,  London,  was  opened  16  July;
closed,  31  Oct.  1870.

INDUSTRIAL  PROPERTY;  an  inter-
national conference  for  its  protection  was  opened  at
Paris,  6  March,  1883 ;  third,  at  Rome,  30  April,
1886  ;  at  Madrid,  1890.

INDUSTRIAL  REMUNERATION
CONFERENCES,  at  Prince's  Hall,  Piccadilly,
London,  held  28-30  Jan.  1885.  Papers  read  on  the
relation  between  Capital  and  Labour,  &c.  by  lord
Bramwell,  sir  Thomas  Brassey,  and  others.

INDUSTRIAL  AND  PROVIDENT
SOCIETIES  ACTS,  1852  and  1862,  were
amended  by  acts  passed  1867,  1871,  and  1876.

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  ACT,  21  &  22

Vict.  c.  48  (1857)  was  enacted  to  make  better  pro-
vision for  the  care  and  education  of  vagrant,  desti-
tute, and  disorderly  children.  Another  act  was
passed,  1861.  These  acts  were  consolidated  by  an
act  passed  in  Aug.  1866.  Forty-seven  of  these
schools  had  been  certified  under  these  acts  up  to
29  Sept.  1864.  The  act  was  extended  to  Ireland,
1868.  England  and  Wales,  1872,  71  schools  (4870
boys,  1516  girls) ;  in  1890,  133  schools.

.INDUSTRIAL  SOCIETIES,  see  Co-opera-
tive  Societies.

INDUSTRIAL  VILLAGES,  the  formation
of  these  by  the  removal  of  workmen  from  towns,
was  proposed  at  a  meeting  of  the  Society  of  Arts,
26  June,  1885. Annual  meeting,  26  July,  1888.

INDUSTRY,  see  Scientific.
INEBRIATES,  see  Drunkards.

INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  POPE,  in

regard  to  faith  and  morals,  was  decreed  by  the  Va-
tican Council,  and  promulgated,  18  July,  1870.  The
doctrine  was  much  opposed  in  Germany,  and  led  to
the  constitution  of  the  church  named  "Old  Ca-
tholics," which  see.  Mr.  Gladstone's  pamphlets,
"The  Vatican  Decrees  in  their  bearing  on  Civil


Allegiance," published Nov. 1874, and "Vati-
canism," in  Feb.  1875.

INFANTICIDE,  especially  female,  was  very
prevalent  in  barbarous  countries.  Lord  Macartney
stated  that  20,000  infants  were  killed  annually;  it
is  now  gradually  decreasing  in  India.  On  12  Nov_
185 1,  Mr.  Raikes  induced  the  Chohan  chiefs  to
agree  to  resolutions  against  it,  and  a  great  meeting;
in  the  Punjab  was  held  for  the  same  purpose,
14  Nov.  1853.  Much  suspicion  was  caused  in  Lon-
don in  1867  through  the  deaths  of  children  farmed
out  to  improper  persons.  The  agitation  revived,,
June,  1870.  Margaret  Waters  was  convicted  of  the-
murder  of  John  Cowen,  an  illegitimate  infant,  by
poison  and  neglect,  23  Sept.  1870.  She  had  adopted)
about  40  children,  receiving  a  few  pounds  as  pre-
mium; in  four  years,  many  had  died.  John  and
Catherine  Barns,  of  Tranmere,  near  Birkenhead,
convicted  of  manslaughter  29  Oct.  1879  >  a  gross-
case.  See  Trials,  1879.  The  Infant  Life  Protec-
tion act  passed  25  July,  1872.  Female  infanticide-
prohibited  in  China  about  June,  1873.

INFANTRY,  foot  soldiers ;  their  organisations
much  improved  during  the  wars  of  Charles  V.  and
Francis  I.,  in  the  16th  century.  The  British  army-
comprised  99  regiments  of  regular  infantry  in  1858,,
when  the  Canadians  raised  a  regiment  which  is
termed  the  100th.  The  number,  now  109,  includes-
the  nine  regiments  formerly  in  the  pay  of  the  East
India  company,  and  several  colonial  corps.  Marshal
Soult  (or  marshal  Bugeaud)  said,  "The  British
infantry  is  the  finest  in  the  world :  happily  there-
is  not  much  of  it." In  1891, 69,274.

INFANTS'  RELIEF  ACT,  passed  7  Aug,
1874,  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  contracts  niade-
by  persons  under  age.

The  powers  of  wives  and  widows  in  respect  to  the  carfe
and  training  of  their  children,  were  somewhat  en-
larged in  1839,  more  so  in  1873,  and  very  much  more;
by  a  bill  brought  in  by  Mr.  James  Bryce,  read  "a  second,
time  26  March,  1884.

Guardianship  of  Infants  Act  passed,  1886.

INFANT  SCHOOLS  began  in  New  Lanark,,
Scotland,  in  1815  ;  in  London  in  1818.

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES.  By  an  act.
passed  30  Aug.  1889,  notification  of  any  person?
suffering  from  infectious  disease  is  required  to  be?
given  by  the  nearest  relative  or  any  person  in
charge,  and  also  by  the  medical  attendant  to  the-
medical  officer  of  health  of  the  district.  An  act  to*
prevent  the  spread  of  infectious  disease  was  passed
4  Aug.  1890.

INFERNAL  MACHINES,  see  France,  1800,
1835,  and  1858;  Baltic,  note;  Dynamite ;  Russia?
1 880- 1  ;  Liverpool,  1881  ;  Uxplosives.

INFIRMARIES.  Ancient  Rome  had  no-
houses  for  the  cure  of  the  sick  ;  diseased  persons-
were  carried  to  the  temple  of  JEsculapius  for  cure-
Institutions  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers,,
the  indigent,  and  sick  were  founded  by  the  em-
peror Julian  about  362;  and  infirmaries  or  hospitals-
were  frequently  built  to  cathedrals  and  monas-
teries. The  emperor  Louis  II.  caused  infirmaries
situated  on  mountains  to  be  visited,  855.  In  Jeru-
salem the  knights  and  brothers  attended  on  the
sick.  There  were  hospitals  for  the  sick  at  Constan-
tinople, in  the  nth  century.  The  oldest  mention;
of  physicians  and  surgeons  established  in  infirm-
aries occurs  in  1437.  Bcckmann ;  see  Hospitals,
Parish  workhouse  infirmaries  established,  1867.


INFLUENZA.


512


INQUISITION.


INFLUENZA,  a  name  given  in  Italy  about
1741  to  an  epidemic  febrile  catarrh  with  variations,
probably  known  to  the  ancient*.
It  prevailed  in  Europe  in  1510,  and  has  since  frequently
appeared,  generally  commencing  in  Russia  and
■.thence  spreading  over  the  continent.  It  appeared  in
JBritain  in  1762  and  frequently  since,  especially  in
1830-1,  1833,  1836-7,  and  1847.  It  appeared  at  Paris  in
1866-7,  and  at  Berlin,  1874-5.  In  Oct.  1889,  it  was
severe  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  thence  spread  over
Europe,  reaching  Great  Britain,  Canada  and  the
United  States  N.A.,  Jan.  1890,  causing  indirectly  the
•deaths  of  several  eminent  persons.  In  the  spring,  the
•disease  was  severe  in  India  and  Australia.  In  1891
the  disease  was  severe  in  the  west  of  the  United  States
N.A.,  and  in  London  and  other  parts  of  England,  and
also  on  the  continent.  The  disease  reappeared  in  Jan.
1892,  in  much  the  same  localities.  In  London  the
general  mortality  was  much  increased,  all  classes
being  attacked.  The  death  of  the  duke  of  Clarence
■and  Avondale,  14  Jan.  1892,  was  attributed  to  pneu-
monia following  influenza.  Report  of  the  epidemic  of
1889-90,  by  Dr.  Parsons,  issued  by  government,  about
.3  July,  1891.  Special  government  inquiry  into  the
disease  ordered,  early  Feb.  1892.

INFOEMEES,  upon  penal  statutes,  com-
pounding with  defendants  without  leave  of  the
■court,  were  punishable  with  fine  and  pillory,  by
18  Eliz.  c.  5  (1576).  Their  share  of  a  penalty  was
regulated  by  2  &  3  Vict.  c.  71  (1839).

INFUSOEIA,  see  Animalcules.

INGESTEE  HALL,  Staffordshire,  destroyed
by  fire  12  Oct.  1882.  It  was  built  in  1676.  Many
valuable  portraits,  &c.  were  destroyed.

INGOUE,  a  river  rising  in  the  Caucasus  and
falling  into  the  Black  Sea.  Omar  Pasha,  marching
to  the  relief  of  Ears,  crossed  this  river  on  6  Nov.
1855,  with  10,000  men,  and  attacked  the  Russians,
12,000  strong,  who,  after  a  struggle,  retreated  with
the  loss  of  400  men.  The  Turks  had  68  killed  and
242  wounded. Kars,  however,  was  not  saved.

INK.  The  ancient  black  inks  were  composed  of
soot  and  ivory  black,  and  Vitruvius  and  Pliny  men-
tion lamp-black;  but  they  had  ink  of  various
colours,  as  red,  gold,  silver,  and  purple.  Red  ink
was  made  of  vermilion  and  gum.  Indian  ink  was
brought  from  China,  and  must  have  been  in  use  by
the  people  of  the  east  from  the  earliest  ages.  Invis-
ible, or  Sympathetic  Inks,  were  known  at  early
periods.  Ovid  (a.d.  2)  teaches  young  women  to
write  with  new  milk.  Receipts  for  preparing  in-
visible ink  were  given  by  Peter  Borel,  in  1653,  and
by  Le  Mort,  in  1669. Beckmann.

INKEEMANN  (Crimea) .  The  Russian  army
(about  40,000)  having  received  reinforcements,  and
being  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  the  granddukes
Michael  and  Nicholas,  attacked  the  British  (8000)
near  the  old  fort  of  Inkermann,  before  daybreak,
5  Nov.  1854.  They  were  kept  at  bay  for  six  hours
till  the  arrival  of  6000  French.  The  Russians  were
then  repulsed,  leaving  9000  killed  and  wounded.
The  loss  of  the  allies  was  462  killed,  1952  wounded,
and  191  missing.  Sir  George  Cathcart,  and  generals
Strangways,  Goldie,  and  Torrens,  were  among  the
6lain.  On  15  Nov.  1855,  an  explosion  of  about
100,000  lbs.  of  gunpowder  occurred  near  Inker-
mann, and  caused  great  loss  of  life.

INLAND NAVIGATION,  see  Canals.

INLAND  EEVENUE  BOAED  was  con-
stituted in  Feb.  1849.  It  comprises  the  boards  of
Excise,  Stamps,  and  Taxes  {which  see).  The  law
respecting  the  inland  revenue  amended  1871.


INNOCENTS'  DAY,  28  Dec.  in  the  western
church  ;  29  Dec.  in  the  Greek  or  eastern  church  ;
see  Childermas.

INNS  at  Rome  were  regulated  by  laws  ;  and
Edward  III.  enacted  that  they  should  be  subjected
to  inquiry,  1353. See  Taverns,  and  Victuallers.

INNS  OF  COUET  (London)  were  established
at  different  periods,  in  some  degree  as  colleges  for
teaching  the  law. Annual  revenue  in  1872  said  to
be  about  25,000^.
The  Temple  founded,  and  the church built  by

Knights  Templars 1185

The  Inner  and  Middle  Temple  made  inns  of  law

about  1340  ;  the  Outer  about  (Stow)  .  .  .  1560
Barnard's  Inn,  an  inn  of  Chancery  (on  sale,  49,400^.

refused  20  June,  1888,  let  to  Art  Workers'  Guild,

Oct.  1888) 1445

Clement's  Inn before  1478

Clifford's  Inn,  20  Edw.  Ill 1345

Furnival's  Inn,  5  Eliz 1563

Gray's  Inn,  32  Edw.  Ill .  1357

Lincoln's  Inn,  4  Edw.  II 1310  or  1312

Lyon's  Inn 1420

New  Inn,  1  Hen.  VII 1485

Serjeants'  Inn,  Fleet  Street 1429

Serjeants'  Inn,  Chancery-lane  (sold  for  57,000?. 23

Feb.  1877) 1666

Staples  Inn,  4  Hen.  V 1415

Thavies'  Inn,  10  Hen.  VIII. 1519

Staple  Inn,  Clement's  Inn,  and  Clifford's  Inn  said

to  he  sold  to  builders Dec.  1884

INNSBEUCK,  capital  of  the  Tyrol,  captured
by  Maurice  of  Saxony  in  1552  ;  by  the  Bavarians
in  1703 ;  by  the  French  and  Bavarians,  1805.
Much  fighting  took  place  in  1809,  and  Innsbruck
changed  masters  several  times,  being  finally  taken
by  the  Austrians,  12  Aug.  The  emperor  Francis
Joseph  met  queen  Victoria  here,  23  April,  1888.

INOCULATION,  see  Small  Fox.  Lady  Mary
Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoculation  from
smallpox  to  England  from  Turkey.  In  1 718  she
had  her  son  inoculated  at  Adrianople  with  success.
She  was  allowed  to  have  it  first  tried  in  England  on
seven  condemned  criminals,  1721  ;  and  in  1722  two
of  the  royal  family  were  inoculated.  The  practice
was  preached  against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and
clergy  until  1760.  Dr.  Mead  practised  inoculation
very  successfully  up  to  1754,  and  Dr.  Dimsdale  of
London,  inoculated  Catherine  II.,  empress  of
Russia,  in  1768.  Of  5964  who  were  inoculated  in
1797-99,  on^y  three  died.  An  inoculation  hospital
was  established  in  1746.  Vaccine  inoculation  was
introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  21  Jan.  1799;  he  had
discovered  its  virtue  in  1796,  and  had  been  making
experiments  during  the  intermediate  three  years.
Inoculation  was  forbidden  by  law  in  1840.  See
Vaccination,  Sheep,  and  Hydrophobia.

INQUESTS,  see  Coroner.

INQUISITION  or  Holy  Office.  Pre-
vious to  Constantine  (306),  heresy  and  spiritual
offences  were  punished  by  excommunication  only  ;
but  shortly  after  his  death  capital  punishments
were  added,  and  inquisitors  were  appointed  by
Theodosius,  382.  Priscillian  was  put  to  death  in  384
by  the  emperor  Maximus.  Justinian  decreed  the
doctrine  of  the  four  holy  synods  as  to  the  holy  scrip-
tures and  their  canons  to  be  observed  as  laws,  529 ;
hence  the  penal  code  against  heretics.  About  800
the  power  of  the  western  bishops  was  enlarged,  and
courts  were  established  for  trying  and  punishing  spi-
ritual offenders,even  with  death;  the  punishment  be-
ing termed  in  Spain  auto-da-fe,  "  an  act  of  faith."
In  the  12th  century  many  heresies  arose,  and  during
the  crusades  against  the  Albigenses,  Gregory  IX.,


INSANITY.


513


INTENDMENT OF CEIMES.


in  1233,  established  by  rules  the  inquisitorial
missions  sent  out  by  Innocent  III.,  1210-15,  and
committed  them  to  the  Dominicans.  Pietro  da
Verona  (styled  Peter  Martyr),  the  first  inquisitor
who  burnt  heretics,  assassinated  by  an  accused  gon-
falonier, 6  April,  1252,  was  canonized.

Pierre  de  Castelnau  sent  against  the  Albigenses,
1210 ;  St.  Dominic  made  the  first  inquisitor-
general I2I5

The  Inquisition  constituted  by  Gregory  IX. ,  1233  ;
established in Aragon, 1233  ; Venice, 1249  ;

France,  1255  ;  Castile 1290

The  Inquisition  revived  by  a  bull . . 1  Nov. 1478
The  Holy  Office  was  reinstituted  in  Spain  by  Ferdi-
nand and Isabella ; Torquemada inquisitor-
general I480

Nearly  3000  persons  burnt  in  Andalusia,  and  17,000

suffer  other  penalties ....  .  1481

"  Instructions  "  of  the  new  tribunal  promulgated,

29  Nov.  1484
New  articles  were  added . . . 1488  &  1498

Established  in  Portugal 152b

The  establishment  resisted  in  Naples,  and only
introduced  into  other  parts  of  Italy  with  jealous
limitations  by  the  temporal  power . . 1546-7
New  ordinances in 81 articles compiled  by  the

inquisitor-general  Valclez 1561

Suppressed  in  France  by  edict  of  Nantes . . . 1598
Carnesecchi  executed  at  Rome, 1567,  and  Galileo
compelled  to  abjure  his  philosophical  opinions .
Louis  XIV.  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  but  re-
fused to  introduce  the  Inquisition . . . .  1685
20  persons  perish  at  an  auto-da-fe  at  Goa  . -1717

Gabriel  Malagrida,  a  Jesuit,  burnt  at  Lisbon  .  .  1761
A  woman  accused  of  making  a  contract  with  the

devil  burnt  at  Seville  ....  7  Nov.  1781
The  tribunal  abolished  in  Tuscany  and  Lombardy  .  1787
Suppressed  in  Spain  by  Napoleon,  4  Dec.  1808,  and

by  the  Cortes  , 12  Feb.  1813

Restored  by  Ferdinand  VII.  . . 21  July,  1814

Finally  abolished  by  the  Cortes .... 1820
[Llorente  states  that  in  236  years  the  total  number
of  persons  put  to  death  in  Spain  by  the  Inquisi-
tion was  about  32,000  ;  291,000  were  subjected  to
other  punishments.]

INSANITY,  see  Lunatics.

INSECTS.  About  200,000  species  known,  Jan.
1877.  An  exhibition  of  these  creatures,  illustrat-
ing their  structure,  food,  and  habits,  was  opened
in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  at  Paris,  7  Sept.,
1874;  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  9  March,  1878 ;
and  in  the  Zoological  gardens,  Regent's  park,  1881.
See  Entomology.

INSOLVENCY.  The  first  insolvent  act  was
passed  in  1649,  but  it  was  of  limited  operation  ;  a
number  of  acts  of  more  extensive  operation  were
passed  at  various  periods,  and  particularly  in  the
reign  of  George  III.  The  benefit  of  the  act  known
as  the  Great  Insolvent  Act,  was  taken  in  England  by
50,733  insolvents  from  the  time  of  its  passing  in
1814,  to  March,  1827,  a  period  of  thirteen  years.
Since  then  the  acts  relating  to  insolvency'  have
been  several  times  amended.  Persons  not  traders,
or  being  traders  whose  debts  are  less  than  300^.,
might  petition  the  court  of  bankruptcy,  and  pro-
pose compositions,  and  have  pro  tern,  protection
from  all  process  against  their  persons  and  property,
by  6  Vict.  c.  116  (1842).  In  1861,  by  a  new  bank-
ruptcy act,  the  business  of  the  insolvent  debtors'
court  was  transferred  to  the  court  of  bankruptcy ;
and  a  number  of  imprisoned  debtors  were  released
in  Nov.  1861. See  Bankrupts.

INSTITUTE  OF  France,  see  Academies
(Pans).  On  25  Oct.  1795,  all  the  Royal  Academies,
viz.,  the  French  academy,  the  academy  of  inscrip-
tions and  belles  lettres,  that  of  the  mathematical
and  physical  sciences,  of  the  fine  arts,  and  of  the
moral  and  political  sciences,  were  combined  in  one


body,  under  the  title  of  "Institut  National,"  after-
wards Royal,  Imperial,  and  again  National.

INSTITUTES,  see  Code,  Actuaries,  Agricul-
ture, Architects,  Chemical,  Inventors,  $c.

INSTITUTION,  see  Royal,  London,  Civil
Engineers,  &c.

INSUEANCE  on  Ships  and  Merchan-
dise. Suetonius  conjectures  that  Claudius  was
the  first  contriver  of  the  insurance  of  ships,
a.d.  43.

Insurance  in  general  use  in  Italy,  1194,  and  in
England 1560

Insurance  policies  first  used  in  Florence . . . 1523

The  first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted .  1601

Insurance  of  houses  and  goods  against  Fire,  in
London,  began  the  year  following  the  Great  Fire
of  London 1667

An  office  set  up  for  insuring  houses  and  buildings,
chiefly  on  the  plan  of  Dr.  Barton,  one  of  the  first
and  most  considerable  builders  of  London . . „

The  first  regular  office  set  up  in  London  was  the
Hand-in-Hand 1696

First  Life  Insurance  Office  (the  Amicable),  esta-
blished 1706

Sun  fire-office  established 1710

The  Sun  introduces  the  double  option  system  (in-
vented by  Mr.  Harris  Saunders)  combining  two
forms  of  assurance  against  death  and  old  age,
announced 1889

The  first  Marine  Insurance  was  the  Royal  Exchange
Insurance,  and  the  London  Insurance  . . . 1720

Duty  first  laid  on  insurances  of  is.  6c?.  per  100I.  in-
sured, 1782  ;  duty  increased 1797

In  1857,  1,451, 110J.  were  paid  as  duty  for  fire  insur-
ances on  property  amounting  to  72,136,585?.

A  new  Commercial  Union  fire  insurance,  founded
in  consequence  of  the  increased  charges  of  the
companies Sept. i86r

Rate  of  tax  on  insurance,  reduced  from  3s.  to  is.  6d.
per  cent,  on  stock  in  trade,  from  13  May,  1864  ;
on  household  goods 1865.

Sea  insurance  duties  reduced . . .31  May,  1867

Policies  of  Assurance  act  (enabling  assignees  of
assurances  to  sue  in  their  own  names  for  policy
monies),  passed  ....  20  Aug. „

Fire  insurance  duties  totally  repealed . 24  June,  1869

Albert  Assurance  Company  failfor  about  8,000,000?.

Aug. „

Acts  amending  the  law  respecting  life  assurance
companies  passed 1870-1-2

The  "  People's  Provident  Assurance  Society,"  established
2  Sept.  1854;  named  European  Assurance  Society ,  1869;
said  to  have  absorbed  44  other  societies  ;  brought
into  chancery,  1871  ;  subjected  to  arbitration  by  act
of  parliament,  1872  ;  first  meeting  before  lord  West-
bury,  22  Oct.  1872 ;  successive  arbitrators,  lord
Romilly,  sir  Win.  James  ;  Mr.  Francis  Reilly  (last)  ;
final  award  signed  2  Sept.  1879.  Immense  loss  to
shareholders.

A  scheme  for  the  insurance  of  the  lives  of  its
sailors,  and  others,  proposed  by  the  Shipping
Federation,  see  under  Shipping . . April,  1891

AMOUNT INSURED.

1782 £130,000,000

1802.  ..... .  220,000,000

1822. ......  399,000,000

1842.  ..... .  652,000,000

1862. .....  1,007,000,000

Sum  insured  in  125  offices,  about  338,000,000?.  ;  ac-
cumulated life-funds,  94,000,000/.  ;  premium  income
nearly  11,000,000?. — Board  of  Trade  Report,  1874.

INSUEEECTIONS,  see  Conspiracies,  Mas-
sacres, Rebellions,  Riots,  &c.

INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENTS,

Military,  see  under  Army,  1  April, 1873  ;  Naval,
see  under  Navy,  I  Feb.  1887.

INTENDMENT  of  Crimes, in  cases  of

treason,  wounding,  burglary,  &c,  intention  proved
was  made  as  punishable  as  crime  completed,  by  7

L  L


INTEEDICT.


514


INUNDATIONS.


Geo.  II.  1734.  The  rigour  was  modified  by  sir
Eobert  Peel's  revision  of  the  statutes,  4-10  Geo.  IV.
1823-29.

INTEEDICT  or  Ecclesiastical  Cen-
sure, seldom  decreed  in  Europe  till  the  time  of
Gregory  VII.  1073,  but  often  afterwards.  "When  a
prince  was  excommunicated,  all  his  subjects  re-
taining their  allegiance  were  excommunicated  also,
and  the  clergy  were  forbidden  to  perform  any  part
of  divine  service,  or  any  clerical  duties,  save  the
baptism  of  infants,  and  taking  the  confessions  of
dying  penitents.  In  11 70,  pope  Alexander  put  all
England  under  an  interdict ;  and  when  king  John
was  excommunicated  in  1208,  the  kingdom  lay
under  a  papal  interdict  for  six  years.  England  was
put  under  an  interdict,  on  Henry  VIII.  shaking  off
the  pope's  supremacy,  1535 ;  and  pope  Sixtus  V.
published  a  crusade  against  queen  Elizabeth  of
England  in  1588 ;  see  Excommunication.

INTEEEST,  see  Usury.  The  word  interest
was  first  used  in  an  act  of  parliament  of  the  21st
James  I.  1623,  wherein  it  was  made  to  signify  a
lawful  increase  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  use
of  money  lent.  The  rate  fixed  by  the  act  was  8^.
for  the  use  of  100?.  for  a  year,  in  place  of  usury  at
10I.  before  taken.  The  Commonwealth  lowered  the
rate  to  61.  in  1651 ;  confirmed  in  1660;  and  by  an
act  of  the  13th  of  queen  Anne,  1713,  it  was  reduced
to  5^.  The  restraint  being  found  prejudicial  to
commerce  was  somewhat  relaxed  in  1839,  and  was
totally  removed  by  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  90  (1854).

INTEEIM  OE  AUGSBURG,  a  decree  issued
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1548,  with  the  view
of  attempting  to  reconcile  the  Catholics  and  Pro-
testants, in  which  it  entirely  failed.  It  was  revoked
in  1552.  The  term  Interim  has  been  applied  to
other  decrees  and  treaties.

INTEEMEDIATE EDUCATION  ACT

for  Ireland,  passed  16  Aug.  1878.

INTEEMEZZI,  light  dramatic  entertain-
ments, introduced  between  the  acts  of  a  tragedy,
comedy,  or  grand  opera ;  of  very  ancient  origin.
They  became  more  important  in  the  16th  century.
Those  connected  with  Bardi's  "  Amico  JFido,"
1589,  were  very  fine.

INTEEMITTENT FILTEATION of

Sewage,  a  process  much  advocated  by  Professor  E.
Frankland  and  others,  in  1875,  and  stated  to  have
been  successful  at  Merthyr  Tydvil  since  1872.

INTEENATIONAL  AFEICAN  ASSO-
CIATION, see  Congo.

INTEENATIONAL,  see  under  Chess,
Cholera,  Copyright,  Education,  Electricity,  Exhi-
bitions, Geneva,  Havre,  Horticulture,  Literary,
Statistics,  Scientific,  Working-men,  and  Wounded.

INTEENATIONAL LAW. See  Neutral

Powers.

The  professorship  of  international  law,  at  Cambridge,
endowed  by  bequest  of  Dr.  Win.  Whewell,  master  of
Trinity  College,  1867.

The  Association  for  the  Reform  and  Codification  of  the
Law  of  Nations  first  met  at  Brussels,  10  Oct.  1873  ;
Geneva,  2-5  Sept.  1874 ;  The  Hague,  Sept.  1875 ;
Bremen,  1876;  Antwerp,  30  Aug.— 3  Sept.  1877;
Frankfort,  about  20  Aug.  1878  ;  London,  n  Aug.  1879 ;
Berne,  24  xVug.  1880;  Cologne,  16-19  AuS-  1881 ;  Liver-
pool, about  15  Aug.  1882;  Turin,  11  Sept.  1882;  Milan,
11  Sept.  1883  ;  London,  July,  1887  ;  Liverpool,  end  of
Aug.  1890.

The  Institute  of  International  Law  was  organized  at
Ghent  by  Dr.  Lieber,  M.  Jaquemyns,  and  M  Moy-
nier,  in  1873. It  has  since  met  at  Geneva, 1874 ;


the  Hague,  1875  ;  Zurich,  1876  ;  Paris,  1878  ;  Brus-
sels, Sept.  1879;  Oxford,  6-10  Sept.  1880;  Turin,  1882;
Munich,  4  Sept.  1883  ;  Hamburg,  9  Aug.  1885  ;  Heidel-
berg, 5  Sept.  1887  ;  Lausanne,  8  Sept.  1888;  Hamburg,
7  Sept.  1891 ;  6  Sept.  1892.

See  under  Peace.

INTEEOCEANIC  CANAL  between  the
Atlantic  and  Pacific. See  Panama.

INTEE-PAELIAMENTAEY  CON-
FEEENCES,  held  by  members  of  different  legis-
latures, when  not  in  session,  see  under  Peace.

INTEEPEETATION  ACT,  "  for  consoli-
dating enactments  relating  to  the  construction  of
acts  of  parliament  and  for  further  shortening  the
language  used  in  acts  of  parliament "  was  passed
30  Aug.  1889.

INTEEEEGNUM,  see  Commonwealth.

INTESTATE.  A  person  who  dies  without
leaving  a  will.  Intestates'  Estates  act  passed,  25
July,  1890.

INTEANSIGENTES,  or  Irreconcileables,  a
party  of  extreme  republicans  in  Spain,  who  with-
drew from  the  Cortes  and  became  very  troublesome,
1  July,  1873  ;  joined  by  communists  they  held  Car-
thagena  from  August  to  12  Jan.  1874.

INUNDATIONS. The  following  are  among
the  most  remarkable  : —
An  inundation  of  the  sea  in  Lincolnshire  laid  under

water  many  thousand  acres.  Camden  .  a.d.  24s
Another  in  Cheshire,  by  which  3000  persons  and

an  innumerable  quantity  of  cattle  perished  .  .  353

An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  which  drowned  more

than  400  families. Fordv/n ..... 758
The  Tweed overflowed  its  banks,  and  laid  waste
the  countiy  for  30  miles  round  . . . . 836

An  inundation  on  the  English  coasts,  demolished  a
number  of  sea-port  towns 1014

Earl  Godwin's  lands,  exceeding  4000  acres,  over-
flowed by  the  sea,  and  an  immense  sand-bank
formed  on  the  coast  of  Kent,  now  known  by  the
name  of  the  Godwin  sands. Camden. . . .  1100

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town  and
harbour  of  Ostend  totally  immersed . . .  1108

More  than  300  houses  overwhelmed  at  Winchelsea
by  an  inundation  of  the  sea .  .  1280

At  the  Texel,  which  first  raised  the  commerce  of
Amsterdam .... -  .  1400

The  sea  broke  in  at  Dort,  and  drowned  72  villages,
and  100,000  people  (see  Dort) . . 17  April,  1421

The  Severn  overflowed  during  ten  days,  and  carried
away  men,  women,  and  children,  in  their  beds,
and  covered  the  tops  of  many  hills  ;  the  waters
settled  upon  the  lands,  and  were  called  the
Great  Waters  for  100  years  after,  1  Richard  III.
Hollinshed. . .  ...  1483

A  general  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the  dikes  in
Holland  ;  the  number  of  drowned  said  to  have
been  400,000 ........  1530

The  waters  rose  above  the  tops  of  the  houses,  and
above  100  persons  perished  in  Somersetshire  and
Gloucestershire 1607

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  persons  perished . .  1617

An  inundation  in  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock  opened,
and  poured  out  water  to  the  height  of  a  church
steeple. Vide  Phil.  Trans.  ....  1686

Part  of  Zealand  overflowed,  1300  inhabitants  were
drowned,  and  incredible  damage  was  done  at  Ham-
burg ...  1717

At  Madrid,  several  of  the  Spanish  nobility  and
other  persons  of  distinction  perished .  .  1723

In  Yorkshire,  a  dreadful  inundation,  called  Ripon
Flood  -  ...  1771

In  Navarre,  where  2000  persons  lost  their  lives  by
the  torrents  from  the  mountains  .  Sept.  1787

Inundation  of  the  Liffey,  which  did  immense
damage  in  Dublin,  12  Nov.  1787  ;  again,  2-3  Dee.  1802

Lorca,  a  city  of  Murcia,  in  Spain,  destroyed  by  th
bursting  of  a  reservoir,  which  inundated  mora
than  20  leagues,  and  killed  1000  persons,  besides
cattle  r r  , 14  April ,,


INUNDATIONS.


515


INUNDATIONS.


At  Pesth,  near  Presburg,  the  overflow  of  the
Danube,  by  which.  24  villages  and  their  inhabi-
tants were  swept  away  .... April,  1S11

In  the  vicinity  of  Salop,  by  the  bursting  of  a  cloud
during  a  storm,  many  persons  and  much  stock
perished  May, „

Dreadful  inundation  in  Hungary,  Austria,  and
Poland,  in  the  summer  of 1813

Overflow  of  the  Danube  ;  a  Turkish  corps  of  2000
men,  on  a  small  island  near  Widdin,  surprised,
and  met  instant  death  .... 14  Sept. ,,

In  Silesia,  6000  inhabitants  perished,  and  the  ruin
of  the  French  army  under  Macdonald  was  accele-
rated by  the  floods  ;  also  in  Poland  4000  lives
were  supposed  to  have  been  lost  . . . . „

At  Strabane,  Ireland,  by  the  melting  of  the  snow
on  the  surrounding  mountains,  most  destructive
floods  were  occasioned  . . .2  Jan.  1816

In  Germany,  the  Vistula  overflowed  ;  many  villages
were  laid  under  water,  and  great  loss  of  life  and
property  was  sustained . . .21  March, ,,

In  England,  5000  acres  were  deluged  in  the  Fen
countries June,  18 19

Enundation  at  Dantzic,  occasioned  by  the  Vistula
breaking  through  some  of  its  dikes,  by  which
10,000  head  of  cattle  and  4000  houses  were  de-
stroyed, and  numerous  lives  lost  . . 9  April,  1829

'The  "  Moray  Floods,"  caused  by  rainfall,  when  the
Spey  and  Findhorn  rose  in  some  places  50  feet
above  their  ordinary  level,  and  caused  great  de-
struction of  property.  Many  lives  were  lost,  and
whole  families  who  took  refuge  on  elevated  places
were  with  difficulty  rescued. Sir  T.  Dick  Lauder.

3,  4,  27  Aug. „

At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  so.ooo  of  its  inhabitants
laid  under  water Feb. 1830

so, 000  houses  swept  away,  and  about  1000  persons
perished,  at  Canton,  in  China,  in  consequence  of
an  inundation,  occasioned  by  incessant  rains.
Equal  or  greater  calamity  was  produced  by  the
same  cause  in  other  ports  of  China .  Oct. 1833

Awful  inundation  in  France  :  the  Saone  poured  its
waters  into  the  Rhone,  broke  through  its  banks,
and  covered  60,000  acres  ;  Lyons  was  inundated  ;
in  Avignon  100  houses  were  swept  away;  218
houses  were  earned  away  at  La  Guillotiere  ;  and
upwards  of  300  at  Vaise,  Marseilles,  and  Nismes  ;
the  Saone  had  not  attained  such  a  height  for  238
years . . . . .31  Oct.  to  4  Nov.  1840

SJamentable  inundation  at  Brentford  and  the  sur-
rounding country  ;  several  lives  lost,  and  im-
mense property  destroyed ... 16  Jan. 1841

Disastrous  inundation  in  the  centre,  west,  and
south-west  of  France  ;  numerous  bridges,  with
the  Orleans  and  Vierzon  viaduct,  swept  away  ;
the  latter  had  cost  6,000,000  of  francs.  The
damage  done  exceeded  4,000,000?.  sterling.  The
Loire  rose  twenty  feet  in  one  night . 22  Oct.  1846

Lamentable  catastrophe  at  Holmtirth  (see  Holm-
firth  Flood)  .  . . 4  Feb.

Inundation  of  the  valleys  of  the  Severn  and  Teme
after  a  violent  thunderstorm . . 5  Sept.

Inundations  of  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the
Rhone,  overflowing  the  country  to  a  great  extent,

19  Sept.

Hamburg  half-flooded  by  the  Elbe . .  1  Jan.

Inundations  in  south  of  France,  with  immense
damage  (see  France) . . May  and  June,

In  Holland,  nearly  40,000  acres  submerged, Jan.

Great  inundation  through  the  bursting  of  the  out-
fall sluice  at  St.  Germain's,  near  King's  Lynn
(see  Levels)  .... 4-15  May,  1862

Another  marshland  sluice  bursts ;  many  acres
inundated 4  Oct. ,,

Bursting  of  the  Bradfield  reservoir  (see  Sheffield) ;
about  250  persons  drowned . . 11  March,  1864

Great  inundations  in  France . .  26  Sept.  etscq.  1866

Great  floods  in  north  of  England,  immense  damage
in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  and  Derbyshire  ;  farms
destroyed,  mines  flooded,  mills  thrown  down,
railways  stopped  ;  and  much  suffering  at  Leeds
(about  20  drowned),  Manchester,  Preston,  Wake-
field, &e 16-17  Nov. ,,

Inundations  at  Cork,  Dublin,  and  other  places,

about  30  Jan. 1869

Inundation  at  Rome,  causing  great  distress  ;  re-
lieved by  the  king ...  28,  29  Dec. 1870


1852


1855


1856
1861


Great  inundations  from  the  mountains  in  N.  Italy  ;
the  Po  and  other  rivers  overflow ;  thousands  of
people  unhoused  ;  Mantua,  Ferrara,  &c. ,  suffer
much latter  part  of  Oct.  1872

Floods  on  banks  of  the  Thames  through  very  high
tide 20  March,  1874

Mill  River  Valley,  near  Northampton,  Massa-
chusetts, U.  S.,  several  villages  destroyed
through  the  bursting  of  a  reservoir,  badly  dam-
med ;  above  144  perished  . .  16  May, ,,

Eureka,  Nevada  ;  through  rain  and  a  waterspout  ;
between  20  and  30  persons  perish . 24  July „

Pittsburg  and  Alleghany,  W.  Pennsylvania  ;  storm
of  rain ;  the  rivers  overflow  ;  about  220  persons
drowned 26  July, ,,

A  large  part  of  Toulouse  destroyed  by  the  rising  of
the  Garonne  ;  about  1000  lives  lost  and  much
property  (St.  Cyprien  quarter,  a  sepulchre)

June,  1875

Heavy  rains  cause  inundations  in  West  of  England
and  Wales  ;  destruction  and  loss  of  life  at  New-
port and  Monmouth,  15-16  July ;  in  the  midland
and  western  counties,  especially  near  Notting-
ham, about  17-23  Oct.  ;  again  . . 13-16  Nov. ,,

Great  storms  in  India  ;  Ahmedabad  inundated ;
about  20,000  homeless . . . 22-24  Sept. ,,

Severe  inundations  in  Holland  and  France Mar.  1876

Severe  floods  in  England  through  heavy  rain,

25-31  Dec. ,,

Piers  at  Folkestone,  Dover,  and  Hastings  much  in-
jured 1  Jan.  1877

Much  damage  through  floods  on  banks  of  the
Thames,  and  throughout  the  country,  middle  of

June, ,,

Inundations  in  London  through  heavy  rain,

10,  11  April,  1878

Szegedin,  Hungary ;  through  storms  and  rain,  the
dams  of  the  river  Theiss  gave  way ;  the  town  was
nearly  destroyed  ;  out  of  6566  houses,  only  331
stocd  ;  many  parsons  drowned  ;  thousands  home-
less, 12-13  March,  1879.  [Another  inundation  here
not  quite  so  disastrous,  about  3  June,  18S7  ;  again
March,  1888].

North  Italy ;  much  damage  through  overflowing
of  the  Po  and  Mincio .... June, ,,

Inundations  in  Murcia,  Spain,  through  heavy  rains  ;
provinces  of  Andalusia,  Alicante,  Almeria,  and
Malaga ;  about  1000  lives  lost ;  much  damage  to
property ;  about  2000  houses  destroyed,

16,  17  Oct. ,,

Again  in  Hungary .... about  10  Dec. ,,

Midland  counties  of  England ;  much  damage,

about  8-11  Oct.  1880

Much  rain; floods  in  Cheshire, Lancashire,  &c.

Aug.  1881

Great  inundations  in  S.E.  Europe  through  rains

Oct. „

Inundations  by  the  rising  of  the  Lossie  and  Spey,
N.  Scotland  ;  bridge  is  broken  and  other  damage

mid.  Sept.  1882

Inundations  in  the  Tyrol ;  much  damage  with  loss
of  life  in  north  Italy  and  Hungary,  and  south  of
France Sept. „

In  Germany  :  great  rise  Of  the  Rhine  and  Danube,
Nov.— Dec. ;  destruction  of  five  villages  with
above  250  houses,  near  Wiesbaden ' . Dec. „

Great  floods  in  the  Thames  valley  and  midland
counties  of  England Dec. „

Much  destruction  near  Worms  ;  about  60  drowned

early  in  Jan.  1883

Raab  in  Hivngary  partly  submerged . .  10  Jan. ,,

In  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Cincinnati . .  Feb. ,,

Cachar  in  India  in  great  distress  . . 16  May, „

In  Silesia,  the  river  Neisse  rises ;  much  damage

about  21  June, ,,

In  Thames  valley,  Ontario,  Canada,  much  destruc-
tion of  property, about  30  lives  lost

about  11-12  July, ,,

Overflow  of  the  river  Peneus,  Thessaly,  Greece ;
much  damage  . . . .  announced  29  Oct. ,,

Great  inundations  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  <fec.  ;
about  15  deaths  and  5000  homeless about  7  Feb.  1884

Disastrous  floods  in  E.  Spain .  end  of  May, ,,

Floods  in  Galicia ;  new  railway  bridge  over  the
Vistula  destroyed  ;  20  lives  lost about  23  June, ,,

Great  inundation  through  heavy  rains  in  eastern
Spain  ;  much  distress  in  Alicante,  Almeria  and
Valencia ....... Not. ,,

Ll2


INVALIDES.


516


IODINE.


Great  inundation  of  lower  town  of  Montreal ;
about  5oo,oooL  damage ;  much  privation

17-18  April,  1881

Great  inundation  at  Mandalay,  Burmah  . 18  Aug. ,,

Great  floods  in  S.  United  States  . . . July,  188;

Great  overflow  of  the  Hoang-Ho  or  Yellow  River
(see  China),  Sept.-Oct.  1887,  and  Sept.  1889.

Overflow  of  the  Elbe ;  about  100  villages  sub-
merged ;  loss  of  life  and  destruction  of  property,
about  26  March ;  also  of  the  Vistula,  about  77
villages  submerged . . .  about  27  March,  i88<

Great  flood  in  the  Canton  river ;  3,000  people  said
to  be  drowned,  announced ... 8  May, ,,

Destructive  freshet  in  the  Mississippi ;  Illinois
coast ;  Quincy,  Hannibal,  Alexandria  and  other
towns  overflowed . . . . 17  May, ,,

Inundations  in  Mexico  through  heavy  rains  ;  great
loss  of  life 17-20  June, ,,

Heavy  rains  caused  the  rising  of  rivers  in  Essex
and  Kent  ;  form  lakes  navigable  by  boats  ;  stop
railways  ;  sweep  away  the  crops  from  the  soil,
creating  much  calamity  30-31  July,  1  Aug. 188!

Great  floods  also  in  Germany,  July,  Aug.  ;  France
and  Switzerland Oct. ,,

Destructive  floods  in  the  midland  and  S.W.
England  ;  Leicester,  Bristol,  Taunton  and  other
places  suffer  much  .... 8,  9  March,  1881

Conemaugh  Valley,  &c.  See  Pennsylvania  &  United
States May, ,,

Destructive  floods  in  China  and  Japan  (which  see)
July,  Aug.  1889  ;  and  China  .  . . Aug.  1891

Disastrous  floods  on  the  upper  Severn ;  much
suffering early  Feb. ,,

Destructive  floods  through  heavy  rains  in  the  Mis-
sissippi valley  and  Southern  States,  U.S.A.  (see
Mississippi) .... about  13  Marc ,,

Destructive  floods  in  Austria,  Bohemia,  central
Europe  and  France. See  Neiv  South  Wales

Aug.  —  Sept

Overflow  of  the  Orinoco  and  tributaries,  S.  America,
causing  great  destruction . . 16,  17  Sept. ,,

Destructive  inundations  caused  by  violent  gales
throughout  Europe,  especially  in  Germany,
Austria,  Mecklenburg,  Baltic  coast,  Belgium,  and
Denmark 23-25  Nov. ,,

Serious  floods  in  Kent,  &c. ,  through  the  thaw,  after
the  long  frost ;  also  in  many  places  on  the  Con-
tinent Jan.  189:

Destructive  inundations  in  W.  Virginia,  Ohio,  Alle-
ghany, &c,  about  17  Feb.  ;  in  Arizona  (which
see)  reported  2  March  ;  in  Tennessee  and  Missis-
sippi about  8  March

Destructive  floods  by  the  rising  of  the  Yang-tse-
Kiang  ;  great  loss  of  life  at  Foochoo  about  21  July

Great  floods  in  Posen,  loss  of  life  and  destruction
of  property about  26  July

Heavy  rains  and  destructive  floods  in  E.  Lancashire

13,  14  Aug.

Heavy  rains  and  destructive  inundations  in  Spain
(ivhich  see) 13  Sept.  et  seq.

Disastrous  floods  in  Spain,  France,  Italy,  and
England  (especially  S.  and  W.)  about  22  Oct.  et  seq.

Collapse  of  buildings  through  floods  at  Limoux,
France  ;  about  20  persons  killed,  about  25  Oct.

Great  floods  in  Somersetshire,  with  destruction  of
buildings  and  crops  ;  travelling  impeded,  much
distress Nov.

Disastrous  floods  in  Andalusia,  Murcia,  and  Estre-
madura,  about  12  March,  et  seq.,  and  in  upper
Italy  ;  railway  communications  stop

about  31  March,  1892

Rise  of  the  rivers  in  Illinois  ;  15  towns  flooded  (see
Mississippi  and  Iowa) . . . about  6  May „
See  Mansion  House  Funds.

INVALIDES,  H6TEL  DES,  Paris,  founded
in  167 1  by  Louis  XIV.  Its  chapel  contains  the
body  of  Napoleon  I.,  deposited  there  15  Dec.  1840.

INVASIONS  of  the  British  Islands,

8ee  Britain,  and  Bancs. From  the  death  of  Edward
the  Confessor,  only  the  following  invasions  marked
(s)  have  been  successful : —
William  of  Normandy  (s.) . . . . 29  Sept.  1066

The  Irish Io6g

The  Scots,  1091  ;  king  Malcolm  killed . . .  Iogl


Robert  of  Normandy 1103

The  Scots , .  1136

The  empress  Maud . .  ....  1139

Ireland,  by  Fitz-Stephen  (s.) 1169

Ireland,  by  Edward  Bruce 13 15

Isabel,  queen  of  Edward  II.  (s.) ....  1326

Duke  of  Lancaster  (s.) .  1399;

Queen  of  Henry  VI 1462

Earl  of  Warwick  (s.) 1470

Edward  IV.  (s.) .  1471

Queen  of  Henry  VI 147,1

Earl  of  Richmond  (s.) .  - . . . . .  i4S"5

Lambert  Simnel ........  1487

Ferkin  Warbeck 1495

Spaniards  and  Italians,  Ireland 1580

Ireland,  Spaniards .......  i6ar

Duke  of  Monmouth .  1685

William  of  Orange  (s.) ......  1688.

James  II. ,  Ireland  . .  ....  16S9-

Old  Pretender 1708

Pretender  again 171.5

Young  Pretender 1745

Ireland  (see  Thurot) ,  1760

Wales,  the  French 1797

Ireland  :  the  French  land  at  Killala  (which  see)  . .  179S

INVENTION.  See  Cross,  Patents.  An  inter-
national exhibition  of  inventions  and  music  at
South  Kensington  in  1885;  proposed,  .Aug.  1884;
opened  by  the  prince  of  "Wales,  4  May,  1885 ;  chair-
man, sir  F.  J.  Bramwell ;  closed  9  Nov.  1885 ;
3,760,581  persons  admitted.  The  receipts  were-
214,403^. See  Colonies.

INVENTOES'  INSTITUTE,  established  in
May,  1862 ;  first  president,  sir  David  Brewster.

INVEBABY,  Argyllshire,  made  a  royal  burgh,
1648.  The  duke  of  Argyll's  castle,  rebuilt  by  Adam,
1745-8,  was  greatly  injured  by  fire,  12  Oct.  1877.

INVEENESS  (N.W.  Scotland),  a  city  of  the
Picts  up  to  843.  It  was  taken  by  Edward  I. ;  re-
taken by  Bruce,  13 13;  burnt  by  the  lord  of  the
islea,  141 1  ;  taken  by  Cromwell,  1649;  and  by
prince  Charles  Edward  in  1746.  He  was  totally
defeated  at  Culloden,  about  five  miles  from  Inver-
ness, 16  April,  1746.  Population,  1S81,  17,365  ;
1891,  19,214.

INVESTIGATION. See  Delicate.
INVESTITUEE  of  Ecclesiastics,  was  a

cause  of  discord  between  the  pope  and  temporal
sovereigns  in  the  middle  ages ;  and  led  to  actual
war  between  Gregory  VII.  and  the  emperor  Henry
IV.  1075-1085.  The  pope  endeavoured  to  deprive
the  sovereign  of  the  right  of  nominating  bishops
and  abbots,  and  of  investing  them  with  the  cross
and  ring.  Henry  V.  gave  up  the  right,  by  treaty,
Feb.  1  in  ;  but  other  sovereigns  resolutely  refused
to  concede  it.

INVINCIBLE  AEMADA  or  Spanish
ARMADA,  see  Armada.

INVINCIBLES,  IEISH,  see  D-ish  Invin-
cibles,  Fenians  and  Ireland,  1882-3.

INVOCATION of the Virgin and

SAINTS  to  intercede  with  God.  This  practice  of
the  Romish  church  has  been  traced  to  the  time
of  Gregory  the  Great,  593.  The  Eastern  church
began  (in  the  5th  century)  by  calling  upon  the
dead,  and  demanding  their  suffrage  as  present  in
the  divine  offices.

IODINE  (from  the  Greek  iodes,  violet-like),
was  discovered  by  M.  De  Courtois,  a  manufacturer
of  saltpetre  at  Paris  in  1812,  and  investigated  by
M.  Clement,  1813.  On  the  application  of  heat  it
rises  in  the  form  of  a  dense  violet-coloured  vapour,
easily  evaporates,  and  melts  at  220  degrees :  it
changes  vegetable  blues  to  yellow,  and  a  seven-  .


IONA.


517


IRELAND.


thousandth  part  converts  water  to  a  deep  yellow
colour,  and  starch  into  a  purple.

IONA,  ICOLMKILL,  or  Hll,  one  of  the
Hebrides.  About  565  St.  Columba  founded  a
monastery  here,  which  flourished  till  the  8th  and
9th  centuries,  when  it  was  frequently  ravaged  by
the  Norsemen.  Other  religious  bodies  afterwards
were  formed  here,  and  the  isle  was  long  esteemed
sacred.

IONIA  (Asia  Minor).  About  1040  B.C.  the
Iones,  a  Pelasgic  race,  emigrated  from  Greece,  and
settled  here  and  on  the  adjoining  islands.  They  built
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  and  other  noble  cities.  They
were  conquered  by  the  great  Cyrus  about  548  B.C. ;
revolted  504,  but  were  again  subdued.  After  the
victories  of  Cimon,  Ionia  became  independent  and
remained  so  till  387,  when  it  was  once  more  sub-
jected to  Persia.  It  formed  part  of  the  dominions
of  Alexander  and  his  successors ;  was  annexed  to
the  Roman  empire,  133,  and  conquered  by  the
Turks. — Ionia  was  renowned  for  poets,  historians,
and  philosophers.  The  "Antiquities  of  Ionia"
were  published  by  Chandler,  Revett,  and  Pars,
1769-1840,  and  the  Dilettanti  Society,  1840-1881.

IONIAN  ISLANDS  (on  W.  coast  of  Greece).
Corfu,  the  capital,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  Ithaca,  Santa
Maura,  Cerigo,  and  Paxo.  They  were  colonised  by
the  Iones,  and  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Greek
people ;  were  subject  to  Naples  in  the  13th  cen-
tury, and  in  the  14th  to  Venice.
The  islands  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Campo

Formio 17  Oct.  1797

Formed  into  the  republic  of  the  seven  islands  under

Russia  and  Turkey ...  21  March,  1800

Restored  to  France  by  treaty  of  Tilsit . 7  July,  1807
Taken  by  the  English .... 3-is  Oct. 1809
Formed  into  an  independent  state  under  the  protec-
tion of  Great  Britain  (sir  Thomas  Maitland,  lord

high  commissioner) 5  Nov. 1815

A  constitution  ratified  .  .  .  .11  July,  1817
A  university  established  at  Corfu  .  .  .  .  1823
The  constitution  liberalised  during  the  government

of  lord  Seaton  . .  ... 1848-9

In  consequence  of  complaints,  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone

went  out  on  a  commission  of  inquiry,  <fec.  .  Nov.  1858
Sir  H.  Storks,  lord  high  commissioner  .  Feb.  1859
The  parliament  declare  for  annexation  to  Greece,

March,  1861,  and  April,  1862
The  islands  annexed  to  Greece,  28  May  ;  the  British
troops  retired,  2  June,  and  king  George  I.  arrived
at  Corfu  (see  Greece) .... 6  June,  1864

IONIC  ORDER  of  Architecture,  an

improvement  on  the  Doric,  was  invented  by  the
Ionians  about  1350  B.C.  Vitruvius.  Its  distinguish-
ing characters  are  the  slenderness  and  flutings  of
its  columns,  and  the  volutes  of  rams'  horns  that
adorn  the  capital.

IONIC  SECT  of  Philosophers,  founded

by  Thales  of  Miletus  about  600  B.C.  distinguished
for  its  abstruse  speculations  under  his  successors
and  pupils,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  Anaxa-
goras,  and  Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates.  They
held  that  the  world  is  a  living  being,  and  that  water
is  the  origin  of  all  things.

IOWA,  a  western  state  of  North  America,  was
organised  as  a  territory  12  June,  1838;  and  ad-
mitted into  the  Union,  28  Dec.  1846.  Capital,  Des
Moines.  Population,  1880,  1,624,615;  1890,
1,911,896.

Sioux  City  suffered  much  by  inundations,  causing
great  loss  of  life  .  .  .  about  18  May,  1892
IPSUS  (Phrygia),  BATTLE  OF,  Aug.  301  B.C.,
when  Seleucus  was  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  of
Syria  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Antigonus,  king
of  Asia.  The  latter  led  into  the  field  an  army  of
about  70,000  foot,  and  10,000  horse,  with  75  ele-


phants. The  former  had  64,000  infantry,  besides
10,500  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed  chariots.
Plutarch.

IPSWICH  (Suffolk),  the  Saxon  Gippeswic,
was  ravaged  by  the  Danes,  991  and  1000.  Wolsey
was  born  here,  1471 ;  and  founded  a  school  in  1525.
The  port  was  greatly  improved  by  the  erection  of
wet  docks,  1837-42.  The  railway  to  London  was
opened  25  June,  1846;  and  the  new  town-hall,
29  Jan.  1868.  New  corn  exchange  opened,  26  July,
1882.

IQUIQUE,  see  Chili,  1879.

IRELAND,  anciently  named  Eri  or  Erin,
Ierne  and  Hibernia,  is  said  to  have  been  first
colonised  by  Phoenicians.  The  early  mythical
history  has  many  beautiful  legends.  The  Irish
language  is  a  branch  of  the  Gaelic.  See  Church
of  Ireland,  and  Population,  1891,  4,706,162.  "  The
Annals  of  the  Four  Masters,"  edited  by  O'Donovan,
were  published  in  Irish  and  English,  1848.  J.  T.
Gilbert's  "  History  of  the  Viceroys  of  Ireland,"
published  1865. See  foot-note  p.  527.

A.D.

A  rrival  of  St.  Patrick  .  .  probably  4th  or  5th  century
Christianity  established  ....  about  448
The  Danes  and  Normans,  known  by  the  name  of

Easterlings,  or  Ostmen,  invade  Ireland  .  .  795
They  build  Dublin  and  other  cities  .  .  .  about  800
Brian  Boroimhe  totally  defeats  the  Danes  at  Clon-

tarf ;  and  is  killed  .  .  .  .  23  April,  1014
Magnus  III. ,  king  of  Norway,  defeated  and  slain

during  an  invasion 1103

[In  the  12th  century  Ireland  is  divided  into  five
kingdoms,  viz.  :  Ulster,  Leinster,  Meath,  Con-
naught,  and  Munster,  besides  a  number  of  petty
principalities, whose  sovereigns  continually  warred
with  each  other.]
Adrian  IV.  permitted  Henry  II.  to  invade  Ireland,
on  condition  that  he  compelled  every  Irish  family
to  pay  a  carolus  to  the  holy  see,  and  held  it  as  a

fief  of  the  Church 1155

Dermot  MacMurrough,  king  of  Leinster,  driven  from

his  throne  for  his  oppression 1166

Flees  to  England,  where  he  takes  an  oath  of  fidelity

to  Henry  II.  who  promises  to  restore  him  .  .  1168
Invasion  of  the  English  under  Fitz-Stephen  .  .  1169
Landing  of  Strongbow  at  Waterford  . .  ,,

Dermot  dies 1171

Henry  II.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  receives  the
submission  of  the  princes  of  the  country,  settles
the  government,  and  makes  his  son  John  lord  of

Ireland .  May,  1177

Invasion  of  king  John,  English  laws,  &c,  intro-
duced 1210

Invasion  of  Edward  Bruce,  1315  ;  crowned  king  .  1316
Defeated  and  slain  at  Foughart,  near  Dundalk  1318

Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,

marries  Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  heiress  of  Ulster . 1361
Statute  of  Kilkenny  passed  by  him  (which  see) . .  1367
Richard  II.  lands  at  Waterford  withatrain  of  nobles,
4000  men-at-arms,  and  30,000  archers  ;  gains  the
affection  of  the  people  by  his  munificence,  and
confers  the  honour  of  knighthood  on  then  chiefs 1394
Richard  again  lands  in  Ireland  .... 1399

The  sanguinary  Head  act  passed  at  Trim,  by  the
earl  of  Desmond,  deputy,  to  suppress  robbery.
Much  slaughter  is  said  to  have  ensued . . . 1465
Apparel  and  surname  act  (the  Irish  to  dress  like  the

English,  and  to  adopt  surnames)  ....,,
Sir  Edward  Poynings  sent  to  punish the  Anglo-
Irish  for  supporting  Perkin  Warbeck  ;  he  enacts
a  law.  subjecting  the Irish  parliament  to  the

English  council 1494

Great  rebellion  of  the Fitzgeralds,  or  Geraldines

subdued 1534

Henry  VIII.  assumes  the  title  of  king,  instead  of

lord  of  Ireland 1542

The  reformed  religion  embraced  by  some  of  the  Eng-
lish settlers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  . . 1547
Ireland  finally  divided  into  shires . . . . 1569
Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced  by  N.  Walsh,
chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's  .  1571


IEELAND.


518


IEELAND.


700  Italians,  headed  by  Fitzmaurice,  land  in  Kerry  ;
they  are  treacherously  butchered  by  the  earl  of

Ormond 1580

Insurrection  of  Shan  O'Neill,  earl  of  Tyrone,  1561 ;
pardoned  and  received  in  London,  1562  ;  rebels
and  becomes  dominant  in  Ulster,  1564  ;  assassi-
nated 2  June,  1567

Great  expedition  of  Walter  Devereux,  earl  of  Essex,
to  put  down  the  O'Neills,  sanguinary,  but  un-
successful . . 1573  et  seq.

Hugh  or  Shan  O'Neill,  who  had  been  brought  up
at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  returns  to  Ireland  as
earl  of  Tyrone  ;  revolts,  1597  ;  defeats  the  English
at  Blackwater  (which  see) . .  14  Aug. 1598

Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Robert,  earl  of  Essex  1599
O'Neill  invites  over  the  Spaniards,  and  settles  them
in  Kinsale  ;  defeated  by  the  lord  depul  y  Mountjoy

1601-2
Flight  of  the  earls  of  Tyrone,  Tyrconnel,  and  others,

to  join  the  Spaniards 1606

In  consequence  of  repeated  rebellions  and  for-
feitures, 511,465  acres  of  land  in  the  province  of
Ulster  became  vested  in  the  crown,  and  James  I.
after  removing  the  Irish  from  their  hills  and  fast-
nesses, divides  the  land  among  such  of  Ids  English
and  Scottish  protestant  subjects  as  choose  to
settle  there.  (See  Irish  Society)  .  .  .  1609-12
Ulster  civil  war :  More  and  Maguire's  rebellion  :  the
catholics  said  to  conspire  to  expel  the  English,
and  massacre  the  protestant  settlers  in  Ulster,
commenced  on  St.  Ignatius'  day  [some  doubt  the

massacre] 23  Oct.  1641

O'Neill  defeats  the  English  under  Monroe  at  Ben-

burb 5  June,  1646

Massacre  and  capture  of  Drogheda  by  Cromwell

11  Sept.  1649
Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  the  whole  island  and

redivide  it 1649-1656

Landing  of  James  II 12  March,  1689

3000  protestants  attainted  . . . July, ,,

William  III.  lands  at  Carrickfergus . 14  June,  1690
Battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  James  defeated . 1  July, ,,
Treaty  of  Limerick  (see  Limerick)  .  3  Oct. 1691

Linen  manufacture  encouraged  ....  1696

Popery  act  passed 1704

Excitement  against  Wood's  halfpence  (which  see) .  1724

Thurot's  invasion  (see  Thurot) 1760

Indulgences  granted  to  the  catholics  by  the  relief

Ml 1778

Ireland  admitted  to  a  free  trade .... 1779
Henry  Grattan  claims  independence  for  the  Irish
parliament  in  speeches  delivered  19  April,  1780,

and  16  April,  1782
The  Irish  parliament  declared  independent  by  an
act  passed  in  the  English  parliament,  May  1782  ;
confirmed  by  another  act  passed ....  1783
Genevese  refugees  received  in  Ireland,  and  an  asylum

given  them  in  Wateriord 1783

Order  of  St.  Patrick  established „

Society  of  United  Irishmen  founded  . . .  1791

Orange  clubs,  <fcc,  formed  (see  Diamond)  .  .  .  1795
Irish  rebellion  commenced  4  May,  1798  ;  cost  150,000

Irish  lives,  20.000  English  ;  gradually  suppressed  1799
LegislativeUnionofGreatBritainandlreland  iJan.  1801
Emmett's  insurrection  ....  23  July,  1803

English  and  Irish  exchequers  consolidated  5  Jan.  18 17
Visit  to  Ireland  of  George  IV.  .  11  Aug.-i6  Sept.  1821
The Catholic Association organised by Daniel

O'Connell  and  others  (see  Roman  Catholics)  . 1823

The  currency  assimilated  .  .  .  .  1  Jan.  1826
Daniel  O'Connell  is  elected  M.P.  for  Clare,  but  does

not  sit 5  July,  ^28

Roman  catholic  emancipation  act  passed  13  April,  1829
Customs  consolidated ....  6  Jan. 1830

Dr. Whately,  supporter  of  Irish  National  School

system,  becomes  abp.  of  Dublin  ....  1831
Irish  reform  act  passed  ...  7  Aug. 18^2

Poor  laws  introduced  :  act  passed  .  .  31  July,  1838
•'  Young  Ireland"  (which  see)  party  formed  . . 1840

Population  by  census,  8,196,597 .... 1841
Great  Repeal  movement,  lead  by  O'Connell ;  meet-
ing at  Trim  (see  Repeal) ... 16  March,  1843
Molly  Maguire,  a  secret  society,  formed  . . . ,,
O'Connell's  trial  (for  political  conspiracy),  found

guilty  (see  Trials) ... 15  Jan.-i2  Feb.  1844
Appointment  of  new  commissioners  of  charitable
bequests  (rank  of  the  R.  C.  bishops  recognised)

18  Dec. „


Irish  National  Education  Board  incorporated

23  Sept.  1845
Committal  of  William  Smith  O'Brien  to  the  custody

of  the  serjeant-at-arms,  for  contempt  in  not  obey-
ing an  order  of  the  bouse  of  commons  to  attend  a

committee 30  April,  1846

Failure  of  the  potato crop  throughout  Ireland  ;

sufferers  relieved  by  parliament . . .  ,,
William  Smith  O'Brien  and  the  "  Young  Ireland,"  or
physical  force  party,  secede  from  the  Repeal  Asso-
ciation 29  July, ,,

O'Connell's  last  speech  in  the  commons  8  Feb. 1847

Grants  from  Parliament  amounting  to  io,ooo,oooj.
to  relieve  the  people  suffering  from  famine  and

disease ,>

Death  of  O'Connell  at  Genoa,  on  his  way  to  Rome,
in  his  73rd  year ;  he  bequeathed  his  heart  to  Rome

15  May, ,y
Deputation  from  the  Irish  people  (?) — Smith  O'Brien,
Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamartine and
others,  members  of  the  provisional  government  at

Paris 3  April,  1848

Great  meeting  of  "Young  Irelanders"  at  Dublin

4  April, ,,
Arrest  of  Mitchell,  editor  of  the  "  United  Irishman"

13th  May, ,y.
State  trials  in  the  Irish  queen's  bench 15-27  May, ,„
Mitchell  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  transporta-
tion for  14  years . . . . .26  May, ,r
Arrest  of  Gavan  Duffy,  Martin,  Meagher,  Doheny,

&c. ,  for  felonious  writings,  speeches,  &c.  8  July,  ,,
Confederate  clubs  prohibited  .  .  .26  July,  ,„
The  Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  .  26  July,  ,,
O'Brien's  rebellion  suppressed  .  .  .  2g  July,  „
Arrest  of  Smith  O'Brien  at  Thurles  ;  he  is  conveyed

to  Kilmainham  gaol,  Dublin  .  .  5  Aug.  „.
Arrest  of  Meagher,  O'Donoghue,  <fcc.  .  .  12  Aug.  „.
Martin  sentenced  to  transportation  .  14  Aug.  „
Encumbered  estates  act  passed  . . Sept. ,,

Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  and  the  other  confederates

tried  and  sentenced  to  death  ... 9  Oct. „
The  Irish  court  of  queen's  bench  gives  judgment
on  writs  of  error  sued  out  by  the  prisoners  con-
victed of  high  treason,  and  confirms  the  judgment

of  the  court  below 16  Jan.  1849;

O'Brien,  Meagher,  McManus,  and  O'Donoghue  trans-
ported 9  July, ,,

Orange  and  catholic  affray  at  Dolly's  Brae  ;  several

lives  lost 12  July, ,,

Her  majesty  visits  Ireland,  and  holds  her  court  at

Dublin  castle 5  Aug. „

First  court  under  the  encumbered  estates  act  (which

see)  held  in  Dublin  .... 24  Oct. ,,

Queen's  university  in  Ireland  established 15  Aug.  1850
Synod  of  Thurles  condemns  queen's  colleges  22  Aug. ,',
Census  taken  ;  population,  6,574,278 . 30  March,  1851
Roman catholic  university  originated, aad  large

sums  subscribed 5  May, „

Death  of  R.  Lalor  Sheil,  at  Florence  .  25  May,  ,,
McManus  escapes  from  transportation,  and  arrives

at  San  Francisco,  in  California  . .  5  June, ,„

The  Irish  Tenant  League  hold  a  meeting  on  the  site

of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  ...  14  July  „
First  meeting  of  the  "  Catholic  Defence  Association"

17  Oct. „
Meagher  escapes  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  ar-
rives at  New  York 24  May,  185a:

Cork  National  Exhibition  opened  . 10  June, ,,

Irish  Industrial  Exhibition  set  on  foot;  Mr.  Dargan,
arailway  contractor,  contributes  towards  it  26,000?.

24  June, ,„
"Tenant Right"  demonstration at  Warrenstown

dispersed  by  the  magistrates  . . 3  July, ,„

Fierce  religious  riots  at  Belfast  .  .  14  July,  ,,.
Fatal  election  riot  at  Six-Mile  Bridge  .  22  July,  ,„
Irish members  of  parliament  found  a  "Religious

Equality  Association  "... 10  Sept. „.
Cork  Industrial  Exhibition  closed . '. 11  Sept. ,,
Income  tax  extended  to  Ireland . . . June,  1853;
Mitchell  escapes  from  Hobart  Town  . 9  June, ,,

Dublin  Exhibition  opens  .  .  .  .12  May,  ,,
Queen  visits  Ireland  ....  29  Aug.  ,,.
Tenant  Right  League  conference  .  .  4  Oct.  „
Dreadful  railway  accident  near  Dublin  .  5  Oct.. ,,,

Dublin  Exhibition  closed  1  Nov. ,,

Train  wilfully  upset  after  an  Orange  demonstration

at  Londonderry,  one  person  killed  and  many  hurt

15  Sept.  1854


IRELAND.


519


IRELAND.


A  pardon  granted  to  O'Brien  ;  he  shortly  after  re-
turned to  Ireland 3  May,

Religious  riots  at  Belfast .... Sept.

Progress  of  cardinal  Wiseman  in  Ireland  Sept.

A  packet  from  Galway  reaches  N.  America  in  six
days Sept.

Proclamation  against  secret  societies .  Nov.

Arrests  of  members  of  Phoenix  Society . Dec.

Proposed  demonstration  of  landlords  (headed  by
marquis  of  Downshire)  given  up  . -27  Jan.

National  Gallery  founded .... Feb.

Agitation  against  the  Irish  National  School  system,

Sept.

Religious  revival  movement  in  the  north,  particu-
larly at  Belfast Oct.

Great  emigration  to  America  in  the  spring

Many  Irishmen  enlist  in  the  service  of  the  pope,
May,  June  ;  many  return  dissatisfied . July,

The  remainder  taken  prisoners  by  the  Sardinians  are
released,  and  return  to  Dublin,  where  they  receive
an  ovation Nov.

Attempted  revival  of  Repeal  agitation . .  Dec.

Agrarian  outrages  ;  alderman  Sheehy  murdered,

23  Oct.

Census  taken  ;  population,  5,798,967 . 8  April,

Suspension  of  packet  service  between  Galway  and
America  through  the  company's  breach  of  contract,

23  May,

Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  29  June  ;  and  the  queen
and  prince  consort  . . . 24-31  Aug.

Irish  Law  Court  commission  appointed 13  Dec.

Numerous  agrarian  murders  ;  Gustav  Thiebault,  28
April ;  Francis  Fitzgerald,  16  May  (and  others) ;
Michael  Hayes  shoots  Mr.  John  Braddell,

30  July,

The  primate,  J.  G.  Beresford,  abp.  of  Armagh,  dies,
aged  89 19  July,

Building  for  the  catholic  university  founded,

20  July,

An  Orange  demonstration  at  Belfast  leads  to  de-
structive riots 17  Sept.

Great  agricultural  distress  ;  many  murders  and  out-
rages, end  of  1862,  beginning  of .

Galway  packet  service  restored  by  subsidy  of  70,000?.
(see  Galway) Aug.

Insignificant  "  Nationalist "  meeting . 15  Aug.

Death  of  archbishop  Whately . . .8  Oct.

Great  emigration  of  able-bodied  labourers  in .

Appearance  of  the  Fenians  (which  see)  . . Jan.

Death  of  Smith  O'Brien,  descendant  of  king  Brian
Boroimhe 16  June,

Address  of  the  "  National  Association  "  to  liberate
tenant  capital,  recover  the  property  of  the  Catho-
lic church,  <&c 12  Jan.

Opening  of  the  International  Exhibition  at  Dublin
by  the  prince  of  Wales ...  9  May,

General  election  favourable  to  the  government  and
liberal  party July,

Importation  of  cattle  from  England  prohibited  on
account  of  the  plague  ... 25  Aug.

Seizure  of  the  newspaper  "Irish  People"  and  30
Fenians  (see  Fenians) . 15-17  Sept. 14  Oct.

International  Exhibition  closed  . . 9  Nov.

Stephens  escapes  from  gaol . . . 24-25  Nov.

Fenian  trials  began  at  Dublin,  27  Nov.  ;  Thomas
Clarke  Luby  convicted  of  treason  felony  ;  sen-
tenced to  20  years'  penal  servitude .  1  Dec.

O'Leary  and  others  convicted,  Dec.  ;  O'Donovan
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life,

13  Dec.

More  Fenians  arrested  and  convicted  at  Cork  and
Dublin Jan.,  Feb.

Discovery  of  an  arms  manufactory  at  Dublin  ;  the
city  and  county  proclaimed  as  put  under  the  pro-
visions of  the  Peace  Preservation  act, n  Jan.

Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended  ;  many  Fenians  flee

17  Feb.

Agitation  respecting  Irish  church  ;  debates  in  par-
liament April,

Lord  Abercorn  made  lord-lieutenant . July,

About  320  suspected Fenians remain  in  prison,

1  Sept.

Great  seizure  of  fire-arms .... 15  Dec.

Clare  and  other  counties  proclaimed  under  Peace
Preservation  act Dec.

Election  riots  at  Dungarvan  ;  capt.  Barthol-Kelly
killed 28  Dec.


1856
1857


1859


i860


1863


Death  of  Win.  Dargan,  promoter  of  Irish  Exhibition,

7  Feb. 1867

Irish  college  of  science  established  atDublin  early  in ,,

Another  Fenian  outbreak  (see  Fenians),  5-13  March, „

Appointment  of  commission  respecting  church  of
Ireland  agreed  to .... 24  June, ,,

Chancery  and  Common-law  Offices  act  passed, 20  Aug. „

Irish  church  commission  appointed,  earl  Stanhope
chairman 30  Oct. ,,

More  trials  of  Fenians .... Nov. ,,

Execution  of  Fenians  (Allen,  Gould,  and  Larkin)
for  murder  of  Brett,  a  policeman,  at  Manchester,

23  Nov. „

Funeral  demonstrations  for  them  at  Cork,  24  Nov.  ;
Dublin  and  Limerick . . . . 1  Dec. „

Party  funeral  processions  prohibited  . .  12  Dec. „

Protest  of  Irish  noblemen  and  gentlemen  against
Irish  church  establishment  signed,  about  12  Dec. ,,

Declaration  of  many  Roman  catholic  clergy  profes-
sing loyalty,  but  claiming  self-government  for
Ireland 23  Dec. „

Bp.  Moriarty,  of  Kerry,  publishes  a  circular  censur-
ing the  funeral  processions  for  Fenians 30  Dec. ,,

Prosecution  of  the  "Irishman"  newspaper  for
sedition 10  Jan. 1868

Arrest  of  Geo.  Francis  Train  on  his  arrival  from
America,  on  suspicion  of  Fenianism  ;  soon  dis-
charged (claimed  10,000?.) . . . 18  Jan. ,,

Publication  of  facts  proving  the  increased  pro-
sperity of  the  country . . .  28  Jan. ,,

Great  protestant  defence  meeting  at  Dublin,  many
peers  present  . . . .  . • 6  Feb. ,,

Habeas  Corpus  act  saspended  till  1  March,  1869  (S3
persons  detained  on  suspic.on) . . .Feb. „

Messrs.  Sullivan  and  Pigott,  convicted  of  seditious
libels  in  their  newspapers  (the  "  Weekly  News  "
and  "Irishman"),  sentenced  to  imprisonment
and  fine 18,  19  Feb. „

Mr.  Johnston,  grand  master  of  an  Orange  lodge,  im-
prisoned for  infraction  of  Party  Processions  act,

March, ,,

Train  arrested  for  debt ...  3  March, „

Four  nights'  debate  on  Ireland  in  the  Commons
ended  (Mr.  Gladstone  declared  for  disestablish-
ment of  the  Irish  protestant  church) 16  March, „

Irish  reform  bill  introduced  into  the  Commons,

19  March, „

Debate  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  proposal  for  a  committee
on  his  resolutions  for  the  disestablishment  of  the
•church  (carried  by  328  to  272),  30  March  to  early
morning  of 4  April, ,,

Mr.  Featherstonehaugh,  J. P.,  a  deputy-lieu t. ,  shot
dead  while  returning  from  Dublin  (he  had  re-
cently raised  the  rent  of  his  tenants) .  15  April, „

Visit  of  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  ;  arrive  at
Dublin  ;  intense  enthusiasm  . .  15  April, „

The  prince  and  princess  at  Punchestown  races,

16  April, ,,

The  prince  installed  as  a  knight  of  St.  Patrick,

18  April, „

The  prince  and  princess  at  review  in  Phcenix-park,
20  April  ;  leave  Dublin ... 24  April, „

Increased  emigration  to  United  States . April, ,,

Mr.  Gladstone's  first  resolution  passed  in  the  com-
mons (by  330  to  265)  early  on  1  May  ;  second  and
third  resolutions  passed ... 7  May, ,,

Irish  archbishops  and  bishops  present  address  to
the  queen  at  Windsor,  on  behalf  of  the  Irish
Church  establishment . . . .14  May, „

Irish  Church  commission  recommend  consolidation
of  dioceses  and  other  reforms  (1st  report),  27  July, „

Earl  Spencer  lord  lieutenant  .... Dec. ,,

Visit  of  prince  Arthur . . .5  April  e t  seq.  1869

Many  murders  :  Mr.  Anketell,  3  March  ;  Mr.  Brad-
shaw,  J. P.,  24  April  ;  Capt.  Tarleton 28  April, „

Mayor  of  Cork,  for  a  speech  eulogizing  Fenians,  27
April,  compelled  to  resign . . . 11  May, „

Address  of  archbishop  Leahy  condemning  agrarian
murders ...  . .  16  May, „

Irish  Church  bill  introduced  into  the  commons,  1
March  ;  after  much  opposition  passed,  26  July, „

Irish  mixed  schools  denounced  by  abp.  Cullen  ;
support  for'a  Catholic  university  demanded  in  a
circular  elated 18  Aug. ,,

Great  agitation  for  amnesty  to  the  Fenian jnvicts,

Oct. „

Tenant-right '  agitation  ;  a  conference  at  Cork,  10
Sept.  ;  county  meeting  at  Kilkenny . 18  Oct.  ,  ,,


IEELAND.


520


IEELAND.


Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict,

ele*cted  M.  P.  for  Tipperary . .  25  Nov.  1869

Many  agrarian  outrages . . .  Jan.,  Feb.  1870

O'Donovan  Rossa's  election  annulled . 10  Feb. ,,
Irish  Church  convention  met . about  21  Feb. „
Irish  Land  bill,  read  a  second  time  in  commons
(442  against  11),  1  a;m.,  12  March;  read  second
time  in  the  lords  . . . .  17  June, „

New "Irish Peace Preservation act" passed,

4  April,  ,,
Eight  counties  placed  under  this  act  .  29  April,  „
Reported  growth  of  a  "  Nationality  "  party  among

the  Protestants July, ,,

Irish  Land  act  passed . . . . 1  Aug. „
The  "  Home  Government  Association,"  to  include

all  parties,  meet  at  Dublin  . . . 1  Sept. ,,
Aggressive  outrages  and  murders . . Nov. ,,
Some  Fenian  convicts  released  from  prison,  Jan.  1871
John  Martin,  a  nationalist,  elected  M.  P. ,  for  Meath,

5  Jan. ,,
Census  taken  ;  population,  5,402,759 . 3  April, „
Bill  for  protection  of  life  and  property  in  West-
meatli  brought  in  (and  passed  16  June)  on  account

of  ribandism 2  May, „

Chief  constable  Talbot  shot,  night  of  11  July  ;  died

15  July, „
Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  to  open  the  Royal
Agricultural  exhibition . . . . 1  Aug. „

Riot through attempted repression of Fenian

sympathisers ;  several  killed . . 7  Aug. „
French  deputation  (comte  de  Flavigny  and  others)
to  thank  the  Irish  for  the  assistance  of  the  Irish
ambulance  during the  war ; warmly  received,
with  seditious  demonstrations  against  England,

16-28  Aug. ,,
Mr. Isaac  Butt,  leader  of  Home-rule  movement,

elected  M.  P.  for  Limerick . . . 20  Sept. „
The  R. C. bishop  of  Deny,  the  O'Donoghue,  and
0'Bhers, declare against  the movement, Jan.  ;
members in  its  favour  elected  for  Galway  and
Kerry ...  ....  Feb.  1872

Peaceful  state  of  the  south  ;  few  prisoners  for  trial,

March, „
Mrs.  Neill  murdered  at  her  own  door  near  Dublin,

27  May, ,,
Capt.  Nolan,  M.  P.  for  Galway,  unseated  for  intimi-
dation by  his  agents  ; the R. C. bishops  and
clergy severely  censured  by  justice Keogh  in
giving  sentence  .... about  27  May, ,,

O'Byrne  v.  Marquis  of  Hartington,  and  others
(police)  for  exceeding  duty  in  suppressing  a
meeting  in  Phoenix-park,  Dublin,  in  Aug.  1871  ;
verdict  for  plaintiff,  25L  damages  .  11  July,  ,,
Fathers  Loftus  and  Quain  tried  for  undue  interfer-
ence inGalway  election  ;  jury  disagreed,  10-14  Feb.  1874
Mr. Gladstone  brings  into  the  commons  the  Irish

University  bill  (rejected  and  withdrawn) 13  Feb. „
The  R.  C. bishop  of  Clonfert,  Dr. Duggan,  tried

and  acquitted  (see  Dublin) . . 15-19  Feb. ,,
Trial :  O'Keeffev.  Cardinal  Cullen  ;  begins  (see  Trials)

12  May,  ,,
Home  rule  and  amnesty  associations  active,  Oct.  „
Motions  in  favour  of  Home-rule  (which  see)  defeated

in  parliament  . . . 20  March  &  3  July, ,,
Ireland  reported  very  prosperous  . . Aug. „

John  Mitchell  (see  above,  1848,  1853),  elected  M.P.
for  Tipperary,  16  Feb.  ;  election  declared  null  by
the  Commons  ;  he  died  20  March  ;  his  friends,
John  Martin,  M.P.,  died  29  March  ;  and  sir  John

Gray,  M.P.  died 9  April,  1875

Mitchell's  election  declared  void  . . 26  May, „
Peace  Preservation  Act  renewed . . 28  May, „
Centenary  of  the  birth  of  Daniel  O'Connell  cele-
brated at  Dublin,  many  foreign  R.  C.  dignitaries
present ;  much  dissension  at  the  banquet  between
the  Clerical  and  Home-rule  parties . .  6  Aug. „
Mr.  McSwiney,  lord  mayor  of  Dublin,  endeavours
to  form  a  new  party  for  "  faith  and  fatherland,"
opposed  to  Home-rule . . . Aug. -Sept. ,,
Catholic synod  at  Maynooth ; mixed  education

censured Sept. „

Riots  at  Callan,  Mr.  O'Keeffe's  chapel  and  house

attacked  (28  men  committed  for  trial) . n  Oct. „
Dissension  between  members of O'Connell  cen-
tenary committee,  which  is  dissolved  . 26  Nov. „
Agrarian  outrage,  Mr.  Bridges  and  party  fired  on  in
daylight,  the  coachman  killed  ;  several  wounded


at  Mitchelstown,  Cork  (Crowe  convicted  of  mur-
der 25  July,  executed  25  Aug.) . .  30  March,  1876

O'Keeffe  (see  above,  May,  1874)  submits  to  cardinal
Cullen  for  compensation .... May, „

An  Irish  university  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Butt

(withdrawn) 16  May, ,,

County  officers  and  courts  act  passed . 14  Aug.  1877

Supreme  court  of  judicature  act  for  Ireland,  passed

14  Aug.  „
Temporary  strike  of  men  on  Great  Southern  and

Western  railway,  about  . . . 14-22  Sept. „
Dr.  Moriarty,  R.C.,  bp.  of  Kerry,  patriotic,  judi-
cious died  1  Oct. ,,

Mr.  Gladstone's  private  visit . 17  Oct.  et  seq. ,,
The  judicature  act  comes  into  operation . 1  Jan.  1878
The  earl  of  Leitrim  (eccentric),  his  clerk,  and  driver
shot  dead  near  his  lodge,  Manor  Vaughan,  Done-
gal 2  April, ,,

Bill  for  reducing  Irish  borough  suffrage  to  il.  re-
jected in  the  commons  (232-26)  . 15  May, „
Irish  Sunday  closing  (public  houses)  bill,  much  op-
posed ;  passed 16  Aug. „

Irish  intermediate  education  act  passed .  16  Aug. ,,
Irish  volunteer  bill  lost .... 7  Aug.  1879
Bill to  abolish the  Queen's University, and  to
establish  a  new  university  (for  Roman  catholics),
introduced  by  lord  chancellor  Cairns,  30  June ;
carried  in  commons  (257-90),  25  July  ;  passed

15  Aug.  ,,
Prevention  of  crime  act  passed  .  .  15  Aug.  „
An  Trish  national  convention  to  meet  at  Dublin,

proposed  by  Mr.  Charles Stewart  Parnell  (see
Home  Rule) 11  Sept. „

Progresses  of  Mr.  Parnell ;  much  anti-rent  agitation

autumn, „

Appeal  for  the  Irish  national  land  league  by  Mr.
Parnell,  soliciting  subscriptions  to  buy  the  land
for  the  tenants 9  Oct. ,,

Exciting  speeches  of  Mr.  Parnell  at  Navan

11,  13  Oct. ,,

James  Bryce  Killen,  barrister,  J.  W.  Daly,  pro-
prietor of  "  Connaught  Telegraph,"  and  Michael
Davitt  (ex- Fenian,  on  ticket  of  leave)  arrested  at
Dublin  for  sedition  (at  anti-rent  meeting  at
Gurteen,  Sligo,  2 Nov.) ; [prosecution  lapsed,]

19  Nov. ,,

Great  orderly  meetings  held  at  Dublin,  Balla,  &c.

21  Nov.  et  seq. ,,

Government  arrangements  for  relieving  distress
published  in  Dublin .... 22  Nov. „

Pastoral  by  abp.  McCabe  against  the  agitation ;
read 23  Nov. „

Thos.  Brennan  arrested  for  seditious  speech  (at
Balla,  on  22  Nov.) 5  Dec. „

The  duchess  of  Marlborough  (the  viceroy's  wife)
appeals  for  help  for  distress  in  the  west  (Times).
(See  under  Mansion  House,  1879)  . 18  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Parnell  arrives  at  New  York  to  agitate  for  help
to  relieve  Ireland  politically  and  pecuniarily  2  Jan.  1880

Riots  at  Carraroe,  Connemara,  and  other  places  in
Galway,  in  consequence  of  notices  of  eviction

2  Jan.  et  seq. ,,

Contributions  to  the  famine  funds  arrive  from
Canada,  Australia,  India,  United  States,  <fcc.

Jan.  Feb.

Mr.  Parnell's  agitation  said  to  be  a  dead  failure  Feb.

2o,ooo£.  received  from  lord  mayor  of  London ;
(Dublin  co.  returns,  82,422^.) . . 28  Feb.

Seed  supply  act  passed  1  March,

Relief  of  distress  (Ireland)  act  passed 15  March,

Relief  fund :  129,000^  received  up  to  25  March  ;
141, 562Z up  to  17  April,

Charter  for  new  Irish  university  signed  by  the  queen

19  April,

Relief  for  Irish  distress  brought  in  the  Constellation
from  United  States  ;  arrives  at  Cork 20  April,

Received  for  Irish  distress,  177,4012.  ;  distributed,
i7°>357* up  to  23  July,

Compensation  for  Disturbance  bill  (to  check  evic-
tions, restrain  landlords,  and  benefit  tenants),
2nd  reading  in  commons  (295-217),  5-6  July ;
passed  in  commons  (303-237),  27  July  ;  rejected
by  the  lords  (282-51) .... 3  Aug.

Mr.  Thos.  Boyd,  crown  solicitor,  and  sons  fired  at
and  wounded,  Charles  killed,  at  Shanlough,  near
New  Ross .... Sunday,  Aug.  8,

40  cases  of  arms  (960  weapons),  stolen  from  the


IEELAND.


521


IEELAND.


June,  a  Norwegian  vessel,  in  the  docks  at  Cork,
ii  Aug.  ;  some  found  concealed . 13  Aug.
Rioting  at  Dungannon,  Belfast . 15-18  Aug.
Violent  speech  of  Mr.  Dillon,  M.P.,  at  Kildare,  in
favour of the land league 15 Aug.  ;  termed
"wicked  and  cowardly"  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Forster,
who  justifies  the  terms  in  parliament 23  Aug.
Mr.  Parnell  proposes  that  tenant  should  become
owner  of  land  after  paying  35  years' just  rent  Sept.
The  duchess  of  Marlborough's  relief  fund  ;  total  re-
ceived from  all  parts  135,2452.,  and  ugl.  interest
from  the  Bank  of  Ireland  ;  reported  19  Sept.

Lord  Mountmorres  shot  at  Kutheen  near  Clonbar,
■Gal way,  about  8  p.m.  . . . 25  Sept.

Progress  of  agitation  ;  exciting  speeches  of  Messrs.
Parnell,  Redpath,  Dillon,  and  others  advocating
the  principle  of  "  boycotting  "  .  Sept.,  Oct.
105  leading  landowners  with  agents  wait  on  the
lord  lieutenant  at  Dublin,  describing  the  terrorist
state  of  the  south  and  west  of  the  country  and

need  of  protection 7  Oct.

R.  C.  abp.  McCabe's  pastoral  against  agitation  and
murders  ;  read  in  chapels . . .10  Oct.
Agrarian  outrages  ;  John  Downing,  a  driver,  killed
by  a  shot  aimed  at  his  employer,  Mr.  Samuel
Hutchins,  near  Drimoleague,  Cork . 16  Oct.
Arrest  of  Timothy  M.  Healy,  Mr.  Parnell's  secre-
tary, and  Mr. Walsh,  for  intimidation  of  Mr.
Manning  (on  16  Oct.) ... 26,  27  Oct.
Messrs.  Parnell  and  others  arrested  for  conspiracy
and  intimidation  to  prevent  tenants  paying  rent,
<Sic.  (19  counts)  ;  notices  served 3  Nov.  et  seq.
Mr.  Boycott  of  Lough  Mask  farm,  near  Ballinrobe,
Mayo,  besieged  ; his  labourers threatened  ;  his
tradesmen refuse to supply him ; — his crops
gathered  by  immigrant  labourers,  protected  by

military,  &c 11,  12  Nov.

Mr.  Henry  Wheeler,  land  agent,  murdered  12  Nov.

Mr.  Forster,  Irish  Secretary,  sends  a  circular  to  the

magistrates  reminding  them  of  their  statutory

powers about  8  Dec,

Mr.  W.  Bence  Jones  of  Ballinascorthy,  treated  like

Mr.  Boycott Dec.

Three  judges  (Fitzgerald,  Barry,  and  Dowse),  de-
liver alarming  charges  on  state  of  country Dec.
Trial  of  Mr. Parnell  and others for  conspiracy,

begins  (see  Trials) 28  Dec.

Jury  disagree  ;  discharged ... 25  Jan.  1
About  25,000  soldiers  in  Ireland  . . Jan.

Report  of  Agricultural Commission  (for  Ireland)
issued  ; great  distress, 1877-9  ! good harvest,
1880  ;  it  opposes  the  three  F's.  ;  recommends  emi-
gration in  some  districts .... Jan.
Bill  for  protection  of  life and  property  (termed
coercion  bill)  brought  in  by  Mr.  Forster,  24  Jan.  ;
long  debates ;  much  obstruction  (see  Parliament)  ;
passed  commons,  (281-36), 25,  26  Feb.  ;  passed
lords,  1-3  March  ;  royal  assent . .  3  March,
Peace  preservation  bill  (arms  bill)  ;  introduced  1
March  ;  passed  commons,  11,  12  March  ;  passed
lords,  18  March  ;  royal  assent . . 21  March,
Many  agitators  arrested;  23  in  Kilniainham  gaol,

10  March,
"  Clan-Na-Gael "  secret  society  to  replace  Fenians

said  to  be  formed March,

Irish  land  bill  ("  legalized  confiscation" — Beacons-
field)  introduced  into  the  commons  by  Mr.  Glad-
stone ...  ... 7  April,

More  arrests  (total  about  40)  up  to  20  April,

Cruel  outrages  in  different  places  ;  Dublin  city  pro-
claimed under  coercion  act,  1  May  ;  John  Dillon,
M.P.  arrested  [released  Aug.]  . . 2  May,

Division  in  Irish  parliamentary  party  ;  Mr.  Parnell
and  others  oppose  the  land  bill,  about  . 5  May,
Increase  in  amount  of  crime . . April,  May,
Total  arrests,  54  ;  increase  of  evictions . May,
Irish  land  bill  read  2nd  time  (352-176);  Mr.  Parnell
and  about  20  retire,  19,  20  May  ;  3rd  time  (220-14)

29  July, ,

Agrarian outrages, 439, Jan.  ; 170, Feb.  ; 146,

March  ;  296,  April  ;  238  in  three  weeks . May,

Riots  connected  with  evictions  at  Scareff,  co.  Clare  ;

some  persons  killed  ;  many  injured  . 2  June,

Rioting  at  various  places  in  co.  Cork.,  &c,

5,  6,  7  June,

Population  diminished  one  ninth  in  ten  years  (by

•census) ...  ... June,

First  publication  of  United  Ireland  . . July,


Land  bill  in  house  of  lords  ;  read  2nd  time,  2,  3
Aug.  ;  3rd  time  (with  amendments),  8  Aug. ;  the
commons  reject  some  of  the  amendments,  12
Aug.  ;  the  lords  resist,  13  Aug.  ;  the  commons
modify  the  amendments,  15  Aug. ;  the  lords
yield,  16  Aug. ;  royal  assent . . 22  Aug.  iE

Increased  boycotting  of  shop-keepers  and  others,
and  much  cruelty Sept. ,

Great  meeting  of  delegates  from  the  Land  League,
denouncing  the  land  act  as  a  sham  ;  Mr.  Parnell
present ... ... 17-19  Sept. ,

Mr.  Parnell  arrested  on  charge  of  inciting  to  in-
timidation and  for  urging  non-payment  of  rent ;
put  into  Kilniainham  gaol,  Dublin  (a-hich  see)

13  Oct.

This  arrest  "legal,  merited,  and  expedient,"  Times

15  Oct. ,

Arrest  of  Messrs.  Sexton,  O'Kelly,  J.  P.  Quinn,
secretary  of  Land  League,  Dillon,  O'Brien,  and
others 14-16  Oct. .

Violent  rioting  at  Dublin  and  Limerick ;  about
2000Z.  damage ;  soon  suppressed ; more  arrests

15-18  Oct. .

More  troops  sent  to  Ii  eland  from  Chatham,  &c.  ;
manifesto  of  the  Land  League  denouncing  the
government,  and  ordering  non-payment  of  rent

18  Oct. ,
This manifesto censured by archbishop Croke

19  Oct.
First  meeting  of  the  Irish  Land  Commission  court ;

addressed  by  justice  O'Hagan  .  .  20  Oct.  .
Great  calm  at  Dublin  and  Limerick  20  Oct.  ct  seq.
The  lord  lieutenant  on  the  responsibility  of  Mr.
W.  E.  Forster  proclaims  the  suppression  of
the  Land  League  as  an  illegal  and  criminal
organization,  20  Oct.  ;  the  leaders  declare  for
passive  resistance  ;  archbishop  M'Cabe's  pastoral
against  the  Land  League  manifesto  read  in  R.  C.
churches  in  Dublin  . . . .30  Oct. ,

Important  decisions  in  favour  of  tenants  by  sub-
commissions  at  Belfast,  &c. . . . Nov. ,
2448  persons  in  prison ;  more  arrests  ;  some  released

announced  5  Nov.  ,
Home  rule  meeting  at  Dublin  .  .  .8  Nov.  ,
Death  of  Dr.  M'Hale,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  "Lion

of  the  fold  of  Judah" .... 8  Nov. ,
Above 40,000 applications to the land courts

12  Nov. ,
Continuance  of  agrarian  murders  and  outrages Nov. ,
Strike  against  payment  of  rent  in  Limerick  ;  evic-
tions ordered 30  Nov. ,

Irish  Property  Defence  association  (formed  Nov.
1880)  active  and  successful (see  Mansion-house

Fund) Nov. — Dec. ,

Great  increase  of  crime  in  Munster  announced  Dec. ,
An  association  formed to support the law

about  20  Dec. ,
Proclamation  against  possession  of  arms  iu  Dublin,
<fcc. .......  27  Dec. ,

Appointment  of  five  special  magistrates,  with  extra
powers, in disturbed districts ; 4439 agrarian
outrages  in  the  year . . .  about  30  Dec. ,
Several  lady  land  leaguers  arrested 2  Jan.  et  seq.  18
Day  of  humiliation  for  Protestants . .  13  Jan. ,
About  40  suspects  arrested  . . 28  Jan. ,

Frequent  murders  reported  .... Feb. ,

Committee  to enquire into  working of  land act
voted by  lords  (96 — 53,  17  Feb.), earl  Cairns,
chairman  . . . . . -23  Feb. ,

Michael  Davitt,  convict,  elected  M.P.  for  co.
Meath, 22 Feb.  ; annulled by the  commons,

28  Feb. ,,
Bailey,  an  informer  against  Land  League,  murdered

at  Dublin 25  Feb. ,,

Mr.  Gladstone's  resolution  against  the  lords'  com-
mittee, 27  Feb.  ;  carried  (303 — 235) 9-10  March, ,,
The  lords' committee  sit .... March, ,,
Continuance  of  murderous  outrages . . March, ,,
Archbishop  M'Cabe  created  cardinal  27  March, ,,

Mr.  Forster  confesses  failure  of  government  policy
through  influence  of  secret  societies 27  March, „

511  suspects  in  prison 1  April, „

Mr.  Parnell  released  en  parole  for  ten  days,

10  April, ,,
New  government  policy  ;  resignation  of  Mr.  W.  E.
Forster  [Mr.  Forster  narrowly  escaped  assassin-
ation several  times] ;  release  of  Mr.  Parnell  and
other  suspects  ;  earl  Spencer  appointed  lord  lieu-


IRELAND.


522


IEELAND.


tenant  about  2  May,  1882 ;  release  of  Michael
Davitt 6  May,  ]

Earl  Spencer  enters  Dublin  ;  lord  Frederick  Caven-
dish, new  chief  secretary,  and  Mr.  T.  H.  Burke,
permanent  under-secretary,  assassinated  by  stab-
bing, by  four  men  ("  Invincibles  ")  about  7  p.m.,
in  Phoenix-park,  Dublin,  6  May  ;  manifesto  ex-
pressing abhorrence  of  the  deed  signed  by  C.  S.
Parnell,  J.  Dillon,  and  M.  Davitt  . . 7  May,

Government  offers  io.oooZ.  reward  for  discoveries
of  the  murderers  ;  Mr.  G.  O.  Trevelyan  appointed
chief  secretary 9  May,

Bill  for  the  prevention  of  crime  in  Ireland  intro-
duced by  sir  W.  V.  Harcourt  (new  tribunal  of
three  judges  without  jury  for  special  occasions  ;
powers  of  police  increased ;  alien  act  to  be
revived  ;  supervision  of  newspapers  and  of  assem-
blies, &c),  11  May,  1882  ;  second  reading
(383—45) i9-2°  May.

Many  arrests 12  May  et  seq.

Alleged  agreement  of  the  government  with  Mr.  Par-
nell and  party,  early  May,  i882,sarcastically  termed
the  treaty  of  Kilmainham ;  arrears  of  rent  bill,
second  reading  (269— 157) . . 23-24  May,

Mr.  Walter  Bourke  and  corporal  Wallace,  his  escort,
shot  dead  by  five  men  near  Gort,  Gal  way  8  J  une,

Mr.  John  Henry  Blake,  agent  to  the  marquis  of
Clanriearde,  and  his  steward,  Mr.  Kane,  shot
dead  near  Loughrea  . ... 29  June,

A  long  discussion  in  the  commons  on  the  preven-
tion of  crime  bill ;  23  Irish  members  suspended,
30  June — 1  July,

Mr.  Parnell  and  home  rulers  withdraw,  July,  1882 ;
22  arrests  at  Loughrea,  4  July  ;  government  de-
feated in  an  amendment  checking  domiciliary
visits  of  suspected  persons  at  night,  207 — 194 ;
prevention  of  crime  bill  read  third  time,  7-8  July  ;
passed by the  lords, 11 July; royal assent,

12  July,

17  counties  proclaimed . . .  about  13  July,

170  suspects  in  custody . . . .2  Aug.

The  Lords'  committee  on  the  land  act  adjourns,

15  Aug.

Mr.  Edmund  Dwyer  Gray,  M.P.,  high  sheriff  of
Dublin,  ex-lord  mayor,  sentenced  to  three  months'
imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  500L  for  contempt  of
court  in  articles  in  Freeman's  Journal  attacking
the  jury  on  trial  of  Francis  Hynes . 16  Aug.

Arrears  bill  passed  in  the  commons  (285 — 177),  21
July;  by  the  lords,  with  injurious  amendments
(169—98),  31  July;  which  are  modified  or  .nega-
tived by  the  commons,  8,  9  Aug. ;  the  revision
accepted  by  the  lords,  10  Aug. ;  royal  assent,

18  Aug.

50  suspects  released  ....  about  18  Aug.

John  Joyce  and  his  wife,  son,  and  daughter,  shot
dead  by  band  of  men  near  Maatntrasma,  in
Oloncler  district,  Galway,  for  giving  information
to  the  police  . . . 17-18  Aug.

John  Leahy,  aged  farmer,  of  Scarteen,  Killarney,
murdered  by  a  moonlight  party . . 20  Aug.

Discontent  and  insubordination  of  the  constabulary

at Dublin, Cork,  and  especially  at  Limerick,

settled by  firmness  and  judicious  concessions

end  of  Aug.

Dismissal  of  some  police  for  holding  a  public  meet-
ing in  Dublin  ;  all  the  police  of  the  city  resign  ;
order  maintained  by  the  military,  who  charge  on
rioters  in  the  evening,  1  Sept. ;  special  constables
sworn  in  2  Sept. ;  resignation  withdrawn  peni-
tently with  respectful  petition,  3  Sept. ;  208  re-
instated 6-7  Sept.

Execution  of  Francis  Hynes  (for  murder  of  John
Doloughty)at  Limerick,  1 1  Sept. ;  of  Patrick  Walsh,
for  murder  of  Martin  Lyden,  at  Galway,  22  Sept.

Successful  progress  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  earl
Spencer,  in  the  west . . .  middle  Sept.

Conviction  of  Michael  Walsh,  for  murder  of  Kava-
nagh,  a  policeman,  29  Sept. ;  penal  servitude  for
life 19  Oct.

Mr.  E.  D.  Gray  released . . . .30  Sept.

Expiration  of  coercion  act ;  all  suspects  released

30  Sept.

Land  league  fund  in  North  America  closed 6  Oct.

Nationalistic  conference  at  Dublin  constitutes  a
new  Irish  National  League  (ultra)  to  obtain  self-
government  and  land-law  reform,  Mr.  C.  Parnell
president 17  Oct.


Diminution  of  agrarian  crime . . April — Nov.  1

Murderous  assault  on  justice  Lawson  at  Dublin  by
Patrick  Delany,  a  returned  convict  .  11  Nov.

Irish  land  commission  report  issued  about  13  Nov.

The  land  corporation  of  Ireland  dissolved Nov.

Conviction  of  murderers  of  Joyce  family  ;  Patrick
Joyce,  15  Nov. ;  Patrick  Casey,  17  Nov.  ;  Myles
Joyce,  18  Nov.  [all  executed,  15  Dec] ;  Michael
Casey,  Thomas  Joyce,  John  Casey,  and  Martin
Joyce,  confess  ;  sentence  commuted  ;  Thomas
Casey  and  Philbyn,  approvers . . 21  Nov.

Murderous  assault  on  detectives  in  Dublin  ;  Cox
killed ;  his  murderer,  Dowling,  severely  wounded

25  Nov.

Mr.  Field,  a  juryman,  stabbed,  27  Nov. ;  reward  of
5000Z.  for  assassin ;  Dublin  proclaimed  under
martial  law 28  Nov.

Patrick  and  Thomas  Higgins  convicted  of  murder
of  Haddys  at  Lough  Mask  [executed  15-17  Jan.
1883] . .• . . . .13  and  16  Dec.

Also  Michael  Flyn 20  Dec.

Sylvester  Poff,  James  Barrett,  convicted  of  murder,
at  Cork 22  Dee.

Emigration  from  Ireland,  89,566  in  the  year . .

Great  distress  in  Donegal  in  the  north-west ;  3433
agrarian  outrages  in  the  year . .  Dec.  1882 — :

Arrest  in  Dublin  of  21  persons,  suspected  of  con-
spiracy to  murder . . . . 12,  13  Jan.

Robert  Farrell,  approver,  reveals  plot  for  assassi-
nation of  the  government ... 19  Jan.

The  pope's  letter  to  archbishop  McCabe,  exhorting
the  clergy  against  secret  societies,  &c.  about  20  Jan .

Execution  of  Sylvester  PofT  and  James  Barrett,  at
Tralee,  for  murder 23  Jan.

M.  Davitt,  Thos.  Healy,  M.P.,  and  P.  Quinn  bound
over  for  seditious  speeches,  24  Jan. ;  elect  to  be
imprisoned,  6  Feb. ;  imprisoned . . 8  Feb.

Eight  men  charged  with  complicity  in  murder  of
lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  Mr.  Burke 3  Feb.

Irish  national  league,  first  meeting . . 7  Feb.

Revelations  of  James  Carey,  approver,  implicating
the  Land  League  (Thos.  Brennan,  sec,  and  P.  J.
Sheridan) ;  statement  respecting  the  Irish  Invin-
cibles; arrest  of  Mrs.  F.Byrne,  charged  with  trans-
mitting arms,  &c,  17  Feb. ;  discharged 20  Feb.

Accused  prisoners  committed  for  trial .  20  Feb.

Mr.  W.  E.  Forster's  defence  in  the  commons,  and
charges  against  Mr.  Parnell ;  Mr.  O'Kelly  sus-
pended for  a  week,  for  givinghim  the  lie 22-23  Feb.

Mr.  Parnell's  unsatisfactory  reply . .  23  Feb.

Arrest  of  Mr.  Byrne  at  Paris,  27  Feb.  ;  released,
about  9  March,

Flight  of  Patrick  Egan,  treasurer  of  the  Land
League,  from  Dublin, 1 March;  in  New  York

12  March,

Many  thousand  young  forest  trees  for  planting
given  by  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish  nurserymen

spring,

K.  C.  bishops  advocate  government  relief  for  dis-
tress in  Connaught,  Jan. ;  refused,  poor-law  relief
reckoned  sufficient March,

Twelve  members  of  the  "Patriotic  Brotherhood"
(established  at  Crossmaglen,  1881)  sentenced  to
penal  servitude  for  conspiracy  to  murder  land-
lords . . . . . .  28  March,

Phoenix-park  murders  ;  Robt.  Farrell,  Jas.  Carey,
and  others,  approvers ;  trial  of  Joseph  Brady,
convicted,  11-13  April  ;  Timothy  Kelly,  third
trial,  7-0  May  ;  Thomas  Caffrey  pleads  guilty,
2  May  ;  Patrick  Delany  and  Daniel  Cm-ley,  16-18
April ;  Michael  Fagan . . . 25-27  April,

Irish  convention  at  Philadelphia ;  Parnell's  policy
adopted  ;  dynamiters  defeated . 25-27  April,

Detection  of  conspiracy  of  the  "Vigilance"  murder
organization  at  Dublin; jirisoners  examined,

May,

Powerful  circular  from  the  pope,  strictly  enjoining
the  bishops  to  abstain  from  favouring  disaffection
to  the  government,  not  to  subscribe  to  testimo-
nials, &c.  [archbishop  Croke,  of  Cashel,  had  given
50Z.  to  the  Parnell  testimonial,  &c] . 11  May,

James FitzHarris  and others  convicted  of  con-
spiracy to  murder  ;  sentenced  to  penal  servitude
16  May  et  seq.

Messrs.  Davitt,  Healy,  and  Quinn  released  4  June,

Executed : Joseph  Brady (actual murderer), 14


IEELAKD.


523


IEELAND.


May  ;  Daniel  Curley,  18  May  ;  Michael  Fagan,  28
May ;  Thomas  Caff'rey,  2  June  ;  Timothy  Kelly,

9  June,  :

Irish  lace  exhibition  at  the  Mansion-house,  London
25  June— 7  July,

James  Carey,  the  approver,  shot  dead  by  Patrick
O'Donnell,  29  July,  on  board  the  Melrose  Castle,
near  Port  Elizabeth,  South  Africa . 29  July,

Loans  amounting  to  4,600,000?.  for  public  works
authorised  by  parliament ... 25  Aug.

National  League  invade  Ulster,  strongly  resisted
by  the  Orangemen  at  Auchnacloy,  Dungannon,
and  other  places .... end  of  Sept.

Sir  Stafford  Northcote  warmly  received  at  Belfast,
Londonderry,  <fec 3  Oct.

Meeting  of  National  League  at  Ennis  prohibited

SOct.

Meetings  of  Orangemen  and  National  Leaguers  at
Garrison,  Fermanagh,  prohibited  . . 13  Nov.

Patrick  O'Donnell  convicted . . .1  Dee.

Mr.  Trevelyan  reports  great  diminution  in  agrarian
outrage Oct. — Dec.

38,000?.  presented  to  Mr.  Parnell  ("as  a  national
tribute  "  from  the  Irish  pieople)  at  a  banquet  at
the  Rotunda,  Dublin  . . .  11  Dec.

Execution  of  Patrick  O'Donnell  (see  29  July),  at
Newgate,  17  Dec.  ;  of  James  Poole,  at  Dublin,
for  murder  of  John  Kenny,  informer . 18  Dec.

A  Parnellite  land  law  amendment  bill  rejected  by
the  commons  (as  tending  to  confiscation),  by
235—72 5  March,  :

Earl  Spencer  warmly  received  at  Belfast 18  June,

Serious  libellous  charges  against  Mr.  Bolton,  crown
solicitor ; subornation of  witnesses, &c.

July,  Aug.

Charges  disproved ;  letter  from  earl  Spencer  23  Aug.

Irish  National  League  convention  at  Dublin,  Mr.
P.  O'Connor  in  the  chair  ;  urges  revival  of  agita-
tion against  the  government ... 6  Sept.

Death  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Sullivan,  eminent  Nationalist

17  Oct.

Mr.  H.  Campbell-Bannerman,  chief  secretary,
sworn  in 24  Oct.

Maamtrasma  trial  impugned ;  their  verdict  sup-
ported by  the  commons  '219 — 48)  . 28  Oct.

Attempted  explosion  of  Edinburn-house  (Samuel
Hussey,  land  agent)  by  dynamite,  near  Tralee,
Kerry  ;  no  deaths ....  28  Nov.

Death  of  cardinal  McCabe,  pacific  and  loyal 11  Feb.

Parnellite  manifesto  directing  Nationalist  corpora-
tions to  maintain  an  attitude  of  reserve  during  the
prince  of  Wales'  visit  in  April,  issued  about  16  Mar.

The  prince  of  Wales  arrives  at  Dublin,  8  April ;
sails  from  Larue .... 27  April,

The  Irish  R.  C.  bishops  summoned  to  Rome ;
arrive  21  April ;  rebuked  by  the  pope  for
disloyalty,  &c,  in  separate  interviews,  27  April-
15  May ;  bishop  Nulty's  pastoral,  foretelling
secession  of  Ireland  from  Rome,  causes  great
displeasure ;  the  bishops  oppose  projected  reforms
at  Maynooth,  but  are  said  to  submit,  announced
19  May  ;  dismissed  about ... 25  May,

The  earl  of  Carnarvon,  lord  lieutenant,  arrives  in
Dublin 30  June,

Sir  William  Hart-Dyke  appointed  chief  Secretary

June

Stoppage  of  the  Munster  bank  for  about  70,000?. ;
fraud  disclosed  July-Aug.  1885  ;  reconstituted  ;
opened 19  Oct.

Lord  Ashbourne's  act,  granting  5,000,000?.  for  the
purchase  of  land  by  tenant  to  be  paid  by  instal-
ments, passed 14  Aug.

Progress  of  the  earl  of  Carnarvon,  lord  lieut.  in  the
west ;  well  received  ... 17  Aug.  el  seq.

Mr.  Parnell's  resolute  declaration  to  the  nationalists
at  Dublin 25  Aug.

Prevention  of  crime  act  expires ;  revival  of  boy-
cotting and  outrages .... Sept.

The  first  county  con  vention ,  for  controlling  elections,
held  at  Wicklow  under  Mr.  Parnell . 5  Oct.

Cork  defence  union  formed  (the  earl  of  Band  on
president)  against  the  tyranny  of  the  national
league . Oct.

The  Cork  steam  packet  company  threatened  with
boycotting  by  the  league  ;  the  company  deter-
mined on  resistance .... 10  Oct.


Aghadoe  house,  Killarney  (Mr.  Hussey's),  attacked
by  "moonlighters"  and  defended  with  fire-arms

11  Oct.  zl

Manifesto  of  Mr.  Parnell  claiming  "home  rule"
&c,  published n  Nov.

Castle  farm,  Molahiffe,  in  Kerry,  attacked  for  arms
by  moonlighters  ;  Mr.  John  O'Connell  Curtain
killed,  while  his  sons  and  daughters  bravely
resist ;  one  assailant  killed  .  .  13  Nov.
[S.  Cassey  and  D.  Daly  convicted  of  burglary,
&c. 21  Dec]

Elections  :  home-rule  manifesto  issued 21  Nov.

Irish  defence  union  formed  to  support  local  defence
unions

Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  M.P.,  chief  secretary  for  a  short
time '•  Jan.  1

The  earl  of  Aberdeen,  as  lord  lieut.,  and  John
Morley,  as  chief  secretary,  sworn  in  . 10  Feb.

Irish  loyal  union,  report  to  Mr.  Gladstone,  the
systematic  cruel  oppression  of  the  national
league 27  March,

Mr.  Gladstone  in  a  long  speech  introduces  a  bill
"  to  make  better  provision  for  the  future  govern-
ment of  Ireland  "  ;  it  proposes  to  establish  a
legislative  body  to  sit  in  Dublin,  to  consist  of
two  orders  each  with  a  veto  ;  I.  twenty-eight
representative  peers  and  seventy-five  members
elected  for  ten  years  ;  II.  the  present  103  Irish
members,  and  101  additional :  the  lord  lieutenant
with  a  privy  council  to  be  independent  of  Great
Britain  ;  the  new  body  empowered  to  enact  laws
and  to  impose  and  collect  taxes,  except  the
customs,  but  not  to  interfere  with  the  army  and
navy,  or  foreign  and  colonial  affairs,  and  not  to
enact  any  religious  endowment ;  present  legal
and  police  arrangements  to  remain  temporarily
subject  to  the  crown  ;  no  Irish  members  to  sit  at
Westminster,  8-9  April ;  read  first  time,  13-14
April ;  seeond  reading  rejected  (343  [250  conser-
vatives, 93  liberals]-3i3)  ... 7-8  June,

The  loyal  and  patriotic  union  formed  May,  1885  ;
great  meeting  at  H.  M.'s  theatre,  London,  earl
Cowper  in  the  chair,  the  marquises  of  Salisbury
and  Harrington,  and  many  leading  eonservath  e
and  liberal  leaders  present.  Resolutions  con-
demning Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  government  bill
passed ;  petitions  to  be  presented  to  parliament

14  April,

Sale  and  purchase  of  land  bill  introduced  by  Mr.
Gladstone  ;  (proposed  creation  of  50,000,000?.  3
per cent, stock  from 1887-90) read 1st time

16  April,

944  agrarian  offences  in  1885,  reported . April,

Archbishop  Croke  and  his  clergy  express  warm
gratitude  to  Mr.  Gladstone . about  30  April,

Important  meetings  of  liberals  and  conservatives
against  Mr.  Gladstone's  policy . 14-15  May,

Intimidation  practised  by  the  "  house  league "
upon  owners  of  houses  in  Kerry  &c,  to  procure
reduction  of  rent May,

Riots  at  Belfast  (which  see) . 9,  10  June  et  seq.

Armagh  and  Tyrone  proclaimed  under  peace  preser-
vation act  ...... 18  June,

Dissolution  of  parliament ;  Mr.  Gladstone  being  in
a  minority,  resigns  20  July ;  Marquis  of  Salisbury
supported  by  unionists,  resumes  office 26  July,

The  marquis  of  Londonderry  as  lord  lieut.,  and
sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach  as  chief  secretary,
appointed 26  July,

Convention  of  about  1,000  delegates  of  Irish
national  league  of  America  meet  at  Chicago  ;
John  Fitzgerald  elected  president 19-22  Aug.

Gen.  sir  Redvers  Buller  with  civil  plenary  powers
appointed  to  command  in  Kerry,  Clare,  and  Cork  ;
arrives  at  Killarney .... 30  Aug.

Mr.  Parnell's  amendment  on  the  address  negatived
(304-181) 27,  28  Aug.

Mr.  Parnell  introduces  tenants' relief  bill,  n  Sept.  ;
rejected  (297-202) .... 21-22  Sept.

Capture  of  moonlighters  and  arms  at  Castleisland,
Kerry 26  Sept.

Two  women  shot  by  moonlighters  for  refusing  to
cive  ui)  arms  at  a  farm  near  Williamstown,  Cork,
6  l  4  Oct.

Plans  of  organization  (termed  plan  of  campaign)  of
tenantry  in  ench  estate  against  the  landlords
with  stringent  measures  proposed  (probably
by  Mr. John Dillon,  leader of the national


IEELAND.


524


IEELAND.


party,  and  Mr.  William  O'Brien)  in  United
Inland,  organ  of  the  national  league  (the  tenant
was  to  pay  his  rent  to  the  league,  and  be  sup-
ported by  it  if  evicted) .... 21  Oct.  1886

Sir  Kobert  Hamilton,  under  secretary  (said  to  be
home  ruler)  resigns;  (sir  Red  vers  Buller  temporary
successor)  ;  col.  Turner  acts  in  Kerry 30  Nov. ,,

Increased  agrarian  agitation . . . Nov. ,,

Offices  opened  for  the  receipt  of  rents  at  Charleston,
Mayo  (lord  Dillon's  estate),  many  deposits  2  Dec. ,,

Prosecution  of  Mr.  Dillon  ;  the  attorney-general
terms  the  "  plan  of  campaign  "  a  combination  of
debtors  to  coerce  creditors  n  Dec.  ;  'court  of
queen's  bench  requires  Mr.  Dillon  to  find  securi-
ties for  good  behaviour,  or  be  imprisoned  for  six
months I4  Dec. ,,

Messrs.  Dillon,  Wm.  O'Brien,  Matthew  Harris,  and
Sheehy  arrested  whilst  receiving  rents  on  lord
Clanricarde's  estate,  the  books  and  money  seized

16  Dec. ,,

Proclamation  against  "  plan  of  campaign  " 18  Dec. ,,

Bents still illegally  received by  several  M.P's.

about  18  Dec.  et  seq. „

The  seat  of  prosecution  removed  from  Loughrea  to
Dublin 20  Dec. „

Mr.  Pamell  states  that  he  defers  his  opinion  on  the
plan  of  campaign . . . about  18  Dec. ,,

Chief  Baron  Palles  in  sentencing  36  Irish  rioters,
censures  the  "dispensing  power"  of  the  executive
and  the  abstention  of  the  police  during  riots  at
evictions 5  Jan.  1887

Prosecution  of  Mr.  Dillon,  five  other  M.P's.,  and
Mr.  O'Brien  (editor  of  United  Ireland)  begun  at
Dublin,  23  Dec.  ;  committed  and  bailed n  Jan.

Mr.  Parnell's  amendment  on  the  address  relating  to
Irish affairs negatived (352 [68 liberals]-246)

11,  12  Feb.

Evictions  resisted  by  armed  men  ;  an  "  emergency  "
man  dies  of  wounds  at  Ballycar . 14,  15  Feb.

Resignation  of  sir  M.  Hicks-Beach,  chief  secretary,
for  ill-health ;  succeeded  by  Mr.  Arthur  J.
Balfour 5  March,

Riots  at  Youghal  with  bloodshed . 8  March,

Justice  O'Brien  at  Kerry  says  :  "  Law  is  at  an  end.
There  is  a  state  of  war  with  authority. " 10  March,

*'  Parnellism  and  crime  "  (which  see)  published  in
the  Times 7  March,  et  seq.

Arrest  of  father  Keller  (supported  by  abp.  Walsh)  for
contempt  of  court  in  refusing  to  give  evidence
(as  a  confessor)  in  a  bankruptcy  case,  18  March  ;
committed  to  prison  19  March ;  father  Ryan
committed  for  same  cause . . 29  March,

Increase  of  crime  and  lawlessness  in  south  and
west  March,

Trial  of  Messrs.  Dillon  and  others,  14  Feb.  ;  jury
disagreeing,  discharged  24  Feb.  ;  proceedings
withdrawn 1  April,

Fathers Keller and Ryan and others  released

21-24  May,

Liberal  unionist  organization begins  in Ireland

24  May,

New  criminal  law  procedure  bill  introduced  by  Mr.
Balfour,  28  March ;  much  opposition,  Irish
members  and  others  retire  17-30  June,  read  3rd
time  8-9  July,  passed  by  the  lords  18  July  ;
royal  assent* 19  July,


*  Members  of  parliament  sentenced  to  imprisonment
under  the  new  act.  1887.  Mr.  W.  O'Brien  31  Oct. ;  Mr.
E.  Harrington  1  Dec;  Mr.  T.  Harrington  19  Dec;
Mr.  Hooper  19  Dec.  ;  Mr.  Sheehy  21  Dec.

1888.  Mr.  J.  R.  Cox  25  Jan.  ;  Mr.  P.  O'Brien  8  Feb.  ;
Mr.  Pyne  15  Feb.  ;  Mr.  Flyn  25  Feb.  ;  Mr.  Gilhooly  5
March  ;  Mr.  W.  O'Brien  3  May,  20  June  ;  Mr.  Condon  27
May  ;  Mr.  Dillon  20  June  ;  Mr.  James  O'Kelly  10  Aug.  ;
Mr.  Redmond  26  Sept.

1889.  Mr.  John  O'Connor  31  Jan.  ;  Mr.  D.  Sheehy  1
Feb.  ;  Mr.  J.  R.  Cox  2  Feb.  ;  Mr.  T.  Condon  7  Feb.  ;  Mr.
Kilbride  8  Feb.  ;  Mr.  W.  O'Brien  19  Feb.  ;  Mr.  Carew
21  Feb. ;  Dr.  Tanner  7  Match  ;  Mr.  Condon,  Mr.  Connor,
and  Dr.  Tanner  1  May  ;  Mr.  Conybeare  3  May  ;  Mr.  W.
O'Brien  and  Mr.  Gilhooly  25  Aug.  ;  Mr.  Redmond  22
Sept.

1890.  Messrs.  Wm.  and  Patrick  O'Brien  and  John
Dillon  19  Nov.

1891.  Mr.  W.  O'Brien  and  J.  Dillon,  13  Feb 31  July.


Evictions  at  Bodyke  in  Clare,  on  property  of
colonel  O'Callaghan;  violently  resisted  early  June,  1S87

Labourer  shot  by  a  gang  near  Killarney 13  June, ,,

Prince  Albert  Victor  and  George  of  Wales  visit
Ireland 27  June, „

Jubilee  address  of  unionist  Roman  catholics  to  the
queen 29  June, „

Great  meeting  at  Cork  to  resist  the  operation  of  the
crimes  act 19  July, ,,

Eighteen  counties  proclaimed  under  the  crimes  act ;
twelve  counties  partly  proclaimed,  together  with
Dublin  and  nine  other  cities . . 23  July, ,,

Monsignor  Persico  visits  Ireland  on  behalf  of  the
pope July, ,,

New  Irish  land  bill  (favourable  to  the  tenant)
passed  ;  royal  assent  .... 23  Aug. ,,

The  national  league  proclaimed  as  a  "  dangerous
association  "  19  Aug  ;  Mr.  Gladstone's  motion  for
an  address  to  the  queen  against  the  proclamation
negatived  (272-194) . . ■ . 25-26  Aug. „

Nationalist  meeting  at  Ballycoree  in  Clare  pro-
claimed 31  Aug.  ; attempted  meeting  dispersed

4  Sept. „

Meeting  in  support  of  Mr.  W.  O'Brien,  M.P.,
and  Mr.  Mandeville,  who  refuse  to  obey  the
magistrates'  summons  respecting  speeches  at
Mitchelstown  on  9,  10  Aug.  ;  about  150  horse-
men and  crowd,  about  3,000,  armed  with
bludgeons  and  stones ;  Messrs.  Labouchere,
Dillon,  Brunner  and  other  M.P's.  present ;  the
police  with  the  government  reporter  (Conderon)
attacked  with  stones  and  bludgeons,  retreat  to
barracks  ;  return  reinforced  ;  compelled  to  fire  ;
Michael  Lonergan  and  John  Shinnery  killed
and  many  wounded  ;  town  quieted  by  military

9  Sept. ,,

Constable  Whelehan  killed  and  three  others
wounded  in  defending  T.  Sexton's  house  near
Lisdoonvarna  against  moonlighters  . 11  Sept. ,,

[Leary  and  four  others  sentenced  to  penal  servitude
10  Dec]

The  national  league  in  Clare  and  several  baronies
(200  branches)  suppressed  by  proclamation  20  Sept. , ,

Mr.  O'Brien  and  Mr.  Mandeville  sentenced  to  three
months'  imprisonment ... 24  Sept. ,,

The  lord  mayor  of  Dublin  (Mr.  T.  D.  Sullivan)
charged  with  offence  against  the  crimes  act  (see
Dublin) 6  Oct. „

Many  meetings  of  suppressed  branches  of  the
national  league 9  Oct. „

Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain,  M.P.,  warmly  received  at
Belfast  and  other  places  in  Ulster  by  the  liberal
unionists  and  others  . . . 11  Oct.  et  seq. „

Verdict  of  coroner's  jury  on  deaths  at  Mitchelstown ;
wilful  murder  against  county  inspector  Brown-
rigg,  sergeants  Ryder  and  Kirwan,  and  con-
stables Gavan,  Brennan,  and  Doran . 12  Oct. ,,

[Verdict  quashed  by  the  queen's  bench,  Dublin,
10  Feb.  1888.]

Col.  sir  Joseph  West  Ridgeway  succeeds  sir
Redvers Buller  as under-secretary  for Ireland

about  15  Oct. „

Midnight  meeting  at  Woodford ;  Mr.  O'Brien
present 16  Oct. ,,

Cork  county  and  city  placed  under  the  crimes  act

24  Oct. „

At  a  riotous  meeting  at  Woodford  which  had  been
proclaimed,  Mr.  Wilfrid  Blunt,  the  chairman,
and  others  arrested,  and  the  meeting  dispersed,
23  Oct;  Mr.  Blunt  sentenced  to  two  months'
imprisonment ;  appeals ... 27  Oct. ,,

[Sentence  confirmed  7  Jan.  i388.]

Many  evictions  violently  resisted,  autumn .  ,,

Mr.  W.  O'Brien  withdraws  his  appeal  ;  after
resistance  sent  to  prison  for  three  months ;
sentence  confirmed  against  Mr.  Mandeville,  two
months'  imprisonment,  31*  Oct  ;  removed  from
Cork  to  Tullamore  gaol,  King's  county 2  Nov. ,,

Other  arrests  and  imprisonments . . Nov. „

Limerick  city  proclaimed . . about  14  Nov. „

The  national  league  suppressed  in  Kerry 22  Nov. ,,

Serious  riots  at  Limerick  through  attempted
meeting  to  inaugurate  a  memorial  of  the  so-
called  martyrs  executed  at  Manchester  (which
see)  in  1867 . .  . . . 27  Nov.

Great  unionist  meeting  at  Leinster  hall,  Dublin,  to
receive  lord  Harrington  and  Mr.  Gbschen  ; the


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most  eminent  persons  in  professions,  learning,
' commerce  &c.  present ... 29  Nov.  18
Death  of  Dr.  Daniel  M'Gettigan,  R.  C.  archbishop
of Armagh ; judicious, tolerant, and amiable

3  Dec. ,
Convention  of  Irish  landlords  in  Dublin  to  consider
their  prospects  and  conduct,  15  Sept.  ;  require

legislation 13-15  Dec. ,

Father  Matthew  Ryan, R. C,  sentenced  to  one

month's  imprisonment  for  sedition . 22  Dec. ,
Large  reductions of  rents ordered by  the  land

commission 27  Dec. ,

Many  arrests  under  the  crimes  act,  and  imprison-
ments Dec.  1887-Jan.  18

Visit  of the marquis of Ripon  and Mr. John

Morley,  M.P.,  to  Dublin ... 1-3  Feb. ,
Mr.  Parnell's  amendment  on  the  address  attacking
the government  Irish  policy  moved, 13  Feb.  ;
negatived  (317-229) . . . . 17  Feb. ,
Mr.  Parnell's  land  law  amendment  bill  dealing  with
arrears  rejected  (328-243) . . 21  March,
Attempted  proclaimed  meetings  dispersed  by  the
police  and  military  at  Loughrea,  Ennis  (by  col.
Turner),  and  other  places ... 8  April, ,
The  plan  of  campaign  and  boycotting  condemned
by  the  pope  on  moral  grounds,  18  April ;  rescript

issued 20  April,

Mr. Carew's county government bill rejected

(282-195) 25  April,

Execution  of  Daniel  Hayes  and  Daniel  Moriarty  for
the  murder  of  James  Fitzmaurice,  a  farmer  (on

31  Jan.) 28  April,

Execution  of  James  Kirby  at  Tralee  gaol  for  the
murder  of  Patrick  Quirke  at  Liscahane,  Kerry,

(8  Nov.  1887) 7  May.

The exchequer  division  affirms right of  county

court  to  increase  sentences  on  appeal 17  May,

Meeting of catholic M.P's. in Dublin, who

resist  the  pope's  interference  in  political  affairs,

17  May  ;  of  others  in  Phoenix  park . 20  May,

The  R.  C.  bishops  accept  the  papal  rescript May,

Mr.  John  Morley's  motion  for  vote  of  censure  of  the

government  for  its  Irish  policy  negatived  (366-

273) 25-27  June,

The  duke  of  Argyll's  resolution  in  the  lords
warmly  commending  the  government's  Irish
policy  accepted  nem.  con.  ...  12  July,
Evictions  on  the  Vandeleur  estate  violently  but
unsuccessfully  resisted  .  .  19,  20,  24  July,
Coroner's  inquiry  into  the  death  of  Mr.  John
Mandeville  (imprisoned  Nov.  1887)  ;  19  July  ;
[suicide  of  Dr.  Ridley  of  Tullamore  gaol,  20  July  ;
1888] verdict — disease caused by  ill-usage in

prison 28  July,

Mr.  Parnell  in  the  house  of  commons  asserts  the
letters  attributed  to  him  in  Parnellism  and  crime
to  be  forgeries,  and  the  charges  against  him  to  be
false,  6  July ;  Mr.  Parnell'srequestfor  a  select  com-
mittee to  investigate  the  charges  in  the  Times
refused  by  the  government,  9  July  ;  Mr.  W.  H.
Smith  proposes  the  appointment  of  a  royal
commission  of  judges  to  examine  these  charges,
12  July  ;  bill  read  first  time,  16-17  July  ;  names
mentioned,  sir  James  Hannen,  president,  Mr.
Justice  Day,  and  Mr.  Justice  A.  L.  Smith  ;  act

passed 13  Aug.

Great  diminution  of  crime  ;  boycotting  reduced  by .

three-fourths  in  twelve  months . . Aug.
Mr. Parnell  proceeds  against  the Times  in the

Scotch  courts Aug.

See  Parnellite  commission.
Nonconformist  ministers of Ireland present an
address to the marquises of Salisbury and
Hartington, protesting against the separatist

policy 14  Nov.

Mr.  E.  Harrington  fined  500L  for  contempt  of
court  in  his  paper,  the  Kerry  Sentinel  .  Nov.
Renewal  of  lord  Ashbourne's  act  of  1885,  granting
5,000,000?.  proposed  Nov.  ;  Mr.  Gladstone's
amendment  rejected  (330-246),  20  Nov.  ;  2nd  read-
ing carried  (299-224),  22  Nov.  ;  passed  24  Dec.
Verdict  for  Mr.  Joyce  against  lord  Clanricarde  for

libel  on  appeal Dec.

Letter  from  pope  to  Irish  people  expressing
sympathy  and advice and  gifts to the Irish

churches 1  Jan.

Mr.  Win.  O'Brien,  M.P.,  sentenced  to  four  months'


imprisonment,  25  Jan.  ;  (escaped),  arrested  at  a
meeting  at  Manchester  ....  29  Jan.  i£
Deputy  inspector  Win.  Limerick  Martin  killed
while  attempting  to  arrest  father  McFadden,  P.  P. ,
at  Gweedore,  Donegal  ....  3  Feb.  ,
The  court  of  session,  Edinburgh,  dismisses  Mr.
Parnell's  action  against  the Times  with  costs

5  Feb.

Mr.  Dillon,  sir  Thomas  Esmonde,  and  Mr.  Deasy,

M.P.'s,  Home  Rule  delegates  to  Australia,  &c,

arrive  at  Adelaide .... 11  April,

Mr.  Parnell  moves  for  a  trial  against  the  Times  in

the  exchequer  division,  Dublin  11  Feb.  ; finally

stopped April,

Great  decrease  of  agrarian  outrages  (1881,  4,439  ;

1888,  660)  announced .... 21  Feb.

Liberal subscription  to support  Mr. Olphert  of

Gweedore, Donegal, in his conflict with the

national  league  and  the  plan  of  campaign May,

The  negotiations  between  Sir.  T.  W.  Russell  and  Mr.

Shaw  to  settle  the  dispute  fail . . May,

Resisted  evictions  on  the  Vandeleur,  Lansdowne,

Smith-Barry, Ponsonby, and other estates

May-July,
Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  explains  his  bills  for  the  improve-
ment of  Ireland  (drainage  of  the  Bann,  Barrow,
and  Shannon,  by  grants  of  383,000?.,  and  the  con-
struction of  light  railways  was  also  proposed)

31  May,
Mr.  William  O'Brien  arrested  for  speech  at  Clona-

kilty 30  June,

Mr.  W. O'Brien  and Mr. Parnell announce  the
formation  of  a  New  Tenants'  Defence  League,
{which  see)  . . . . . . 10,  n  July

Dr.  Tanner  sentenced  to  one  month's  imprisonment
for  an  assault,  and  to  three  months  for  contempt

of  court 29  July,

The  light  railways  bill  read  scond  time  19  July,

The  mission  of  Mr.  Dillon  and  other  delegates  to

Australia  to  obtain  support  for  home  rule,  reported

unsuccessful ;  meetings  at  Sydney,  Melbourne,

and  Brisbane,  protest  against  them  . . July,

The  Suck  drainage  bill  and  the  light  railways  bill

passed 30  Aug.

Father  O'Dwyerandg  of  his  parishioners  sentenced
to  5  months  and  other  terms  of  imprisonment  for
intimidation  and  conspiracy  . . middle  Sept.
Mr.  William  O'Brien  sentenced  to  two  months'  im-
prisonment and  Mr.  James  Gilhooly  to  six  weeks

25  Aug.
The  earl  of  Zetland  sworn  in  as  lord  lieutenant  5  Oct.
National  league  proclaimed  in  Dnngarvan  district
7  Oct.,  and  in  places  in  county  Tipperary,  n  Oct.
Mr.  Justice  Gibson  at  Maryborough  tries  persons
implicated in  the  murder  of  deputy-inspector
Martin  at  Gweedore  (3  Feb.)  17  Oct. Sentences
for  manslaughter  Wm.  Coll,  10  years'  penal  servi-
tude : — pleaded  guilty,  Patrick  Roarty  and  Domi-
nick  Rogers,  7  years' ;  Connell  M'Gee,  5  years' ;  3
others,  6  months'  imprisonment  with  hard  labour  ;
fathei  M'Fadden  reprimanded . . 30  Oct.
The  mission  of  Mr. Dillon  and  other  M.P.'s  to
Australia,  said  to  have  received  27,000?. ;  proceeds
to  New  Zealand .... about  31  Oct.
Meeting  of  the  Tenants'  Defence  Association at

Thurles 28  Oct.

The  tenants  on  the  Ponsonby  estate,  who  have  paid
no  rent  and  refused  very  liberal  terms,  appeal

against  ejectment 5  Nov.

Failure  of  Plan  of  Campaign  through  combination  of
landlords ;  the tenants of  the Olphert  estate

pay  the  rent  due Nov.

Mr.  Parnell  speaks  at  Nottingham 17,  18  Dec. ;
visits  Mr.  Gladstone  at  Hawarden,  18  Dec.  ;  at

Liverpool 19  Dec.

First  meeting  of the Landlords' convention at

Dublin 18  Dec.

Proclamations  relaxing  the  stringency  of  the  Crimes

act  in  some  counties . . . 24  Jan.,  16  Feb.

The  Irish  Democratic  Labour  Association started

at  Cork  by  Michael  Da vitt . . . 21  .tan.

Mr.  Parnell's  censure  of  the  government  policy  in

Ireland  (negatived  307-240) . . 14-18  Feb.

Mr.  Joseph  Gillis  Biggar,  M.P.,  eminent  Parnellite,

dies  suddenly 19  Feb.

New  Land  Purchase  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  A.  J.
Balfour  24  March,  read  2nd  time,  348-286 1  May,


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'The  new  Land  Purchase  bill  re-introduced  by  Mr.
A.  J.  Balfour 28  Nov.

Ponsonby  estate,  Cork  (237  tenants),  plan  of  cam-
paign adopted,  Nov.  1886 ;  evicted,  1887,  10 ;
1888,  3  ;  1889,  32  ;  the  remainder  without  resist-
ances I7-3°  April,

Nationalist  meeting  at  New  Tipperary,  held  though
proclaimed ;  Messrs.  Dillon,  W.  O'Brien,  J.
O'Connor,  and  others  present . . . 25  May

"General  Viscount  Wolseley  appointed  commander-
in-chief  in  Ireland  (beginning  Oct.,  succeeding
prince  Edward  of  Saxe-Weimar) . . July,

Thomas  Walsh  and  two  others  sentenced  to  seven
years' penal servitude  for  moonlight  outrages

26  July

The  National  League  issues  a  circular  to  its  branches

urging  exertions  to  obtain  subscriptions, &c,

announced  7  Aug.

.•Strikes in Dublin, Belfast, and other places

July,  et  seq.

Tour  of  Messrs.  John  Dillon  and  William  O'Brien
in  Tipperary,  &c.  ;  arrested  with  three  M.P.'s  and
seven  others,  on  charge  of  conspiring  to  induce
Mr.  Smith  Barry's  tenants  not  to  pay  rent,  and
to  intimidate  them  ;  bailed,  18  Sept.  ;  prosecu-
tion begun  at  Tipperary  before  Mr.  J.  B.  Irwin
and  Mr.  G.  B.  Shannon  ... 25  Sept.

{Mr.  W.  O'Brien  and  Mr.  Dillon  do  not  appear,
10  Oct.  ;  at  Paris,  16  Oct.  ;  sail  for  America,  25
Oct.  ;  at  New  York,  2  Nov.]

Sentences:  W.  O'Brien,  M. P.,  John  Dillon,  M. P.,
Patrick  O'Brien,  M.P.,  and  John  Cullinane,  6
months'  imprisonment ;  Michael  O'Brien,  Dalton,
Patrick  Mockler,  and  Thos.  Walsh, 4  months'

19  Nov.

Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  visits  Mayo  and  other  western
districts  threatened  with  famine;  warmly  re-
ceived 24-3°  Oct.

Bridget  Flanagan,  daughter  of  Patrick,  shot  dead

in  her  bed  by  moonlighters,  probably  in  mistake

for  her  father,  who  had  taken  a  derelict  farm

about  28  Oct.

Mr.  Balfour  visits  Donegal,  &c. . . 4-7  Nov.

Extensive  evictions  on  the  Olphert's  estate  at  Fal-
carragh 12  Nov.  et  seq.

Intervention  of  the  R.  C.  bishop  of  Raphoe,  Dr.
O'Donnell :  Mr.  Olphert  requires  the  total  aban-
donment of  the  "plan  of  campaign"  on  the
estate  ;  no  agreement  12  Nov.  ;  evictions  proceed

15  Nov.

The  National  League  suppressed  in  townlands  in
Fermanagh,  Monagan  and  Waterford . 14  Nov.

Mr.  Balfour  introduces  new  Land  Purchase  and
Congested  Districts  bills,  27  Nov.  ;  and  a  bill  to
relieve  the  congested  districts  by  providing  seed
potatoes,  and  by  the  construction  of  railways,
roads,  &c,  4  Dec.  ;  royal  assent  given  to  the  bills

9  Dec.

For  the  division  in  the  Irish  Home  Rule  party  see
Parnellites Dec.

Mr.  Parnell  warmly  received  at  Dublin,  Cork,  &c.
10  Dec.  et  seq.

He  forcibly  occupies  the  office  of  United  Ireland  at
Dublin,  9, 10  Dec.  ; two  rival  editions  issued

12  Dec.

North  Kilkenny  election  ;  Mr.  Vincent  Scully,  Par-
nellite,  opposed  by  sir  J.  Pope  Hennessy,  anti-
Parnellite  ; fierce  conflicts  ; Hennessy  elected.

23  Dec.

Moonlighters  of  Clare  and  Leitrim,  convicted  of
outrages,  at  Sligo  :  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  :
Timothy  Lalor  for  life  ;  seven  others  for  20  years  ;
four  for  two  years,  and  two  for  1  year  . 19  Dec.

'The  construction  of  the  light  railways  begun  at
Valencia ;  road-making  begun . . . Dec.

'The  anti-Parnellite  newspaper  named  Insuppressible
about  24  Dec.

The  earl  of  Zetland,  lord  lieutenant,  and  Mr.  A.  J.
Balfour  appeal  to  the  public  for  assistance  in  the
relief  of  the  distress  in  the  congested  districts
of  the  western  coast,  3  Jan.  (see  Irish  Distress
Fund),  published 5  Jan.  1

Relief  works  actively  progressing  ;  several  thou-
sands employed — men,  women,  and  children  Jan.

The  Inswppressiole  stopped . . . . 24  Jan.

Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre's  resolution  for  the  application
of  arbitration  in  disputes  between  landlord  and
tenant  negatived  (213-152) . . . 3oJaD.


Bartholomew  Sullivan  executed  at  Tralee  for  the
murder  of  Patrick  Flahive  (30  Aug.  ^1886),  who
had  taken  an  evicted  farm  . . . . 2  Feb.  1

Men  employed  on  light  railways,  281  ;  unskilled,
7,412 2  Feb.

Mr.  Parnell  refuses  to  resign  his  leadership  ;  dis-
ruption of  the  party,  11  Feb.  ;  Messrs.  W.  O'Brien
and  J.  Dillon,  after  fruitless  conferences  with  Mr.
Parnell  at  Boulogne,  come  to  Folkestone,  are
arrested  and  conveyed  to  Clonmel  gaol,  13  Feb.  ;
to  Galway 19  Feb.

Mr.  John  Morley's  resolution,  condemning  the
Tipperary  prosecutions,  negatived  by  the  com-
mons (320-245) 16-17  Feb.

Mr.  Parnell  commences  a  long  series  of  public  meet-
ings on  Sundays  ;  at  Roscommon  and  other  places

22  Feb.

The  National  Press,  anti-Parnellite  paper,  first  pub-
lished 7  March

National  Federation  {which  see),  anti-Parnellite,
inaugurated  at  Dublin . . . . 10  March

Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  reports  to  the  commons  the  suc-
cessful results  of  the  efforts  made  to  relieve  Irish
distress  ;  55,831?.  voted  for  relief  works,  &c.  ;
136,200?.  for  construction  of  light  railways  (7,392
persons  employed  on  28  Feb.) . .12  March

Great  decrease  of  crime  in  the  south,  reported  by
justice  Monroe 18  March,

The  countess  of  Zetland,  Miss  Balfour,  and  others
visit  the relieved districts ; warmly  received

6-1 1  April

The  lord  lieutenant  visits  counties  Cork,  Kerry,
Clare,  and  Galway ;  warmly  received 5-14  May

Explosion  of  a  powder  magazine  by  dynamite  at
Donaghadee,  co.  Down . . . -13  May

The  crimes  act  suspended  throughout  Ireland,
except  in  co.  Clare  and  a  few  baronies .  13  June

Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  in  the  commons  reports  the  com-
plete success  of  his  remedial  measures  . 22  July

Mr.  W.  O'Brien  and  Mr.  Dillon  liberated  from  gaol ;
declare  their  opposition  to  Mr.  Parnell  . 31  July

Purchase  of  Land  and  Congested  Districts  act
passed . 5  Aug.

The  Freeman's  Journal  proprietors  determine  to
support  the  anti-Parnellites  . . .28  Aug.

Visit  of  the  duke  of  Cambridge  to  inspect  the  forces  ;
arrives  in  Dublin 26  Sept.

National  League  convention  at  Limerick .  Oct. ,

Mr.  Parnell  delivers  an  address  at  Greggs,  Galway,
27  Sept.  ;  dies  of  rheumatic  fever  near  Brighton,
6  Oct.  ;  public  Nationalist  funeral  at  Dublin,
orderly  and  impressive . . . .11  Oct.

Mr. Wm. L. Jackson becomes chief secretary

9  Nov.

Relief  works  closed  as  not  required . . Nov.

The  Independent,  new  Parnellite  journal,  published

18  Dec.

Mr.  J.  E.  Redmond,  Parnellite,  elected  M.P.  for
Waterford,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Michael  Davitt,
the  clerical  candidate . . . -23  Dec. .

The  corporation  of  London,  the  Irish  Society,  and
43  London  companies,  summoned  to  appear  in
Dublin  to  answer  charges  respecting  the  manage-
ment of  their  Irish  estates . . . 2  Jan.  18

Landowners'  convention,  annual  meeting  3,  4  Feb. ,

Mr.  Justin  M'Carthy  elected  by  the  anti-Parnellites
sessional  chairman 5  Feb. ,

Above  150  tenants  on  the  Ponsonby  estate  sign
agreements  to  purchase  their  holdings  under  the
Ashbourne  act Feb. ,

Irish  Education  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Wm.  L.
Jackson,  22  Feb.,  much  opposed  by  the  R.  C.
clergy early  March ,

Evicted  Tenants'  (relief)  bill  rejected  by  the  com-
mons (229-174) 2  March ,

The  National  Press  amalgamated  with  the  Freeman's
Journal  (litigation  ensued) . about  25  March ,

Meeting  of  Ulster  men  at  Belfast  to  form  a  conven- ,
tion  to  oppose  Home  Rule  (to  be  on 17  June)

8  April ,

Meeting of Irish unionist alliance at Dublin

28  April ,
Local  Government  bill  (which  see)  introduced  by
Mr.  Balfour, 18  Feb.,  read  2nd  time,  24  May;

withdrawn 13  June, ,,

The  education  bill  passed  . . .27  June, ,,

Ulster  convention  (which  see)  at  Belfast  . 17  June, ,.
Great  unionist  meetings  at  Dublin . . 23  June, „


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1014.


1072.


1132.


1172.


KINGS  AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.*
KINGS.

979  or  980. Maol  Ceachlin  II.  (Malachi)  deposed,
xooi  or  1002. Brian  Baromy  or  Boroimhe,  king  of  Mini-
ster, slain  after  totally  defeating  the  Danes  at
Clontarf,  23  April,  1014.

Maol  Ceachlin  II.  restored  ;  dies  1022  or  1023.
[Disputed  succession.]

Donough,  or  Denis,  O'Brian,  son.

Tirloch,  or  Turlough,  nephew  ;  dies  1086.
-1132. The  kingdom  divided  ;  fierce  contests  for  it.

Tordel  Vach  ;  killed  in  battle.

Roderic,  or  Roger,  O'Connor.

Henry  II.  king  of  England.

[The  English  monarchs  were  styled  "Lords  of
Ireland"  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  who
first  styled  himself  king.]

governors  of  Ireland  (with  various  titles.  )t

172.  Hugues  de  Lasci.  1 173,  Rich.  Fitz-Gislebert,  earl  of
Pembroke.  11 76,  Raymond leGros.  ii77,prince
John  (afterwards  king),  made  lord  of  Ireland.

1184  et  seq.  Justiciars.  The  changes  were  so  frequent
that  the  more  important  officers  only  are  given.
See  "Gilbert's  History  of  the  Viceroys,"  1865.

1189,  1203,  1205. Hugues  de  Lasci.

1199,  1204. Meiller  Fitz-Henri  (son  of  Henry  II.)

1215,  1226. Geoffrey  de  Marreis.

1229-32-33. Maurice  Fitzgerald.

1308.  Piers  Gaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall.  1312,  Edmund
le  Botiller.  1316,  Roger  de  Mortimer.  1320,
Thomas  Fitzgerald.  1321,  John  de  Bermingham.
1327,  earl  of  Kildare.  1328  and  1340,  Prior
Roger  Utlagh.  1332,  sir  John  d'Arcy.  1337,
sir  John  de  Cherlton.  1344,  sir  Raoul  d'Ufford.
1346,  sir  Roger  d'Arcy ;  sir  John  Moriz.  1348,
Walter  de  Bermingham.  135s,  Maurice,  earl  of
Desmond.  1356,  Thomas  de  Rokeby.  1357,
Almeric  de  St.  Amand.  1359,  James,  earl  of
Ormond.  1361,  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence.  1367,
Gerald,  earl  of  Desmond.  1369  and  1374,  Wil-
liam de  Windsor.  1376,  Maurice,  earl  of  Kildare,
and  James,  earl  of  Ormond.  1380,  Edmund  Mor-
timer, earl  of  March.  1385,  Robert  de  Vere,
earl  of  Oxford.  1389  and  139S,  sir  John  Stanley.
1391,  James,  earl  of  Ormond.  1393,  Thomas,
duke  of  Gloucester.  1395,  Roger  de  Mortimer,
earl  of  March,  killed.  1398,  Reginald  Grey  and
Thomas  de  Holland.

1401  and  1408,  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster.  1413,  sir  John
Stanley  and  sir  John  Talbot.  1420,  James,  earl
of  Ormond.  1423,  Edmund  de  Mortimer,  earl  of
March.  1425,  sir  John  Talbot.  1427,  sir  John
de  Grey.  1428,  sir  John  Sutton,  lord  Dudley.
1431  and  1435,  sir  Thomas  Stanley.  1438,  Leon,
lord  de  Welles.  1446,  John,  earl  of  Shrewsbury.
1449,  Richard,  duke  of  York.  1461,  George,
duke  of  Clarence.  1470,  earl  of  Worcester.  1478,
John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk.  1481,  Richard,
earl  of  Kildare.  1483,  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare.
1484,  John  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Lincoln.  1485,
Jasper,  duke  of  Bedford.  1494,  Henry,  duke  of
York,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.  (his  deputy,  sir
E.  Poynings).  1496,  Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,
and  in  1504,  1513.  1521,  Thomas  Howard,  earl
of  Surrey. 1529,  Heniy,  duke of  Richmond.

*  The  list  of  Irish  sovereigns,  printed  in  previous  edi-
tions, has  been  omitted.  The  Irish  writers  carry  their
succession  of  kings  very  high.  The  learned  antiquary,
Thomas  Innes,  of  the  Scots'  College  of  Paris,  expressed
his  wonder  that  "the  learned  men  of  the  Irish  nation
have  not,  like  those  of  other  nations,  yet  published  the
valuable  remains  of  their  ancient  history  whole  and  en-
tire, with  just  translations,  in  order  to  separate  what  is
fabulous,  and  only  grounded  on  the  traditions  of  their
poets  and  bards,  from  what  is  certain  history."  "O'Fla-
herty,  Keating,  Toland,  Kennedy,  and  other  modern
Irish  historians,  have  rendered  all  uncertain,  by  deducing
their  history  from  the  Deluge  with  as  much  assurance  as
they  deliver  the  transactions  of  Ireland  from  St.  Patrick's
time. " — Anderson.

t  Lords  justices  and  deputies,  and  latterly  Lords
Lieutenant  It  has  been  several  times  proposed  to
abolish  the  viceroyalty  of  Ireland,  but  without  success.
The  last  time  25  March,  1858,


Gerald,  his  son,  1556-61.  Thomas,  earl  of
Sussex.  [Among  the  lord  deputies,  1560,  &c,
sir  Wm.  Fitzwilliam.  15S4,  sir  John  Perrotj.
1599,  Robert,  earl  of  Essex.

1603.  Sir  Charles  Blount,  lord  Mountjoy,  made  earl  of
Devonshire.  1640,  Thos. ,  viscount  Wentworth,
earl  of  Strafford.  1643  and  1648,  James,  marquis
of  Ormond.  1647,  Philip,  lord  Lisle.  1649,  Oliver
Cromwell.  1657,  Henry  Cromwell.  1662,  James
Butler,  duke  of  Ormond.  1669,  John  Roberts,
lord  Roberts.  1670,  John,  lord  Berkeley.  1672,
Arthur  Capel,  earl  of  Essex.  1677,  James  Butler,
duke  of  Ormond.  1685,  Henry  Hyde,  earl  of
Clarendon.  1687,  Richard  Talbot,  earl  of  Tyr-
connel.  1690,  Henry  Sydney,  lord  Sydney.  1695,
Henry  Capel,  lord  Capel.

1700.  Laurence  Hyde,  earl  of  Rochester.  1703,  James
Butler,  duke  of  Ormond.  1707,  Thomas,  earl  of
Pembroke.  1709,  Thomas,  earl  of  Wharton.
1710,  James,  duke  of  Ormond,  again.  1713,
Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury.  1717,  Charles,
duke  of  Bolton.  1721,  Charles,  duke  of  Grafton.
1724,  John,  lord  Carteret.  1731,  Lionel,  duke  of
Dorset.  1737,  William,  duke  of  Devonshire.
1745,  Philip,  earl  of  Chesterfield.  1747,  William,
earl  of  Harrington.  1751,  Lionel,  duke  of  Dor-
set, again.  1755,  William,  duke  of  Devonshire,
1757,  John,  duke  of  Bedford.  1761,  George,  earl
of  Halifax.  1763,  Hugh,  earl  of  Northumberland.
1765,  Francis,  earl  of  Hertford.

1767.  George,  viscount  Townshend,  14  Oct.

1772.  Simon,  earl  of  Harcourt,  30  Nov.

1777.  John,  earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  25  Jan.

1780.  Fred.,  earl  of  Carlisle,  23  Dec.

1782.  Win.  Henry,  duke  of  Portland,  14  April.
,, George,  earl  Temple,  15  Sept.

1783.  Robert,  earl  of  Northington,  3  June.

1784.  Charles,  duke  of  Rutland,  24  Feb.;  died  24  Oct.

1787.
1787.  George,  marquis  of  Buckingham  (late  earl  Temple),

again,  2  Nov.
1790.  John,  earl  of  Westmorland,  5  Jan.
1794.  William,  earl  Fitzwilliam,  10  Dec.

,, John,  earl  Camden,  n  March.
1798.  Charles,  marquis  Cornwallis,  13  June.
1801.  Philip,  earl  of  Hardwicke,  25  May.

1806.  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  18  March.

1807.  Charles,  duke  of  Richmond,  ig  April.
1813.  Charles,  earl  Whitworth,  26  Aug.
1817.  Charles,  earl  Talbot,  9  Oct.

1821.  Richard,  marquis  Wellesley,  29  Dec.

1828.  Henry,  marquis  of  Anglesey,  1  March.

1829.  Hugh,  duke  of  Northumberland,  6  March.

1830.  Henry,  marquis  of  Anglesey,  again,  23  Dec.

1833.  Marquis  Wellesley,  again,  26  Sept.

1834.  Thomas,  earl  of  Haddington,  29  Dec

1835.  Henry,  marquis  of  Normanby,  23  April

1839.  Hugh,  viscount  Ebrington,  afterwards  earl  For

tescue,  3  April.
1841.  Thomas  Philip,  earl  de  Grey,  15  Sept.
1844.  William,  lord  Heytesbury,  12  July.

1846.  John  William,  earl  of  Bessborough,  9  July ;  died

16  May,  1847.

1847.  George  William  Frederick,  earl  of  Clarendon,  26  May.

1852.  Archibald  William,  earl  of  Eglinton,  28  Feb.

1853.  Edward  Granville,  earl  of  St.  Germans,  Jan.
1855.  George,  earl  of  Carlisle,  March.

1858.  Archibald,  earl  of  Eglinton,  again,  Feb.,  resigned.

1859.  George,  earl  of  Carlisle, again,  June;  died  5  Dec.  1864!
1864.  John,  lord  Wodehouse,  aft.  earl  of  Kimberley,  1  Nov.
1866.  James,  marquis  of  Abercorn,  July  ; made  duke,

6  Aug.  1868.
1868.  John,  earl  Spencer,  Dec.

1874.  James,  duke  of  Abercorn,  Feb.  ;  died  37  Oct.  1S85.
1876.  John,  duke  of  Marlborough,  28  Nov.
1880.  Francis  T.  de  Grey,  earl  Cowper,  5  May.  Resigned

April,  1882.
1882.  John  Poyntz,  earl  Spencer,  May.

1885.  Henry  Howard  Molyueux  Herbert,  earl  of  Car-

narvon, 24  June,  resigned  Jan.  1886.

1886.  John  Campbell  Hamilton Gordon,  earl  of  Aber-

deen, about  5  Feb.

1886.  Charles  Stewart  Vane-Tempest-Stewart,  marquis  of
Londonderry,  Aug.

1889.  Lawrence  Dundas.  Earl  of  Zetland,  29  May ;  mar-
quis, Aug.  1892.

1892.  Robert  O.  A.  Milnes,  baron  Houghton,  18  Aug.


IRELAND FORGERIES.


528


IRON.


IRELAND  FORGERIES.  In  1786  W.  H.
Ireland  made  public  the  Shakspeare  manuscripts
which  he  had  forged,  and  deceived  many  critics.
The  play,  "  Vortigern,"  was  performed  at  Drury-
lane  theatre  on  2  April,  1796.  He  shortly  after  ac-
knowledged the  forgery,  and  published  his  "Con-
fessions" in  1805. He  died  in  1835.

IRELAND,  YOUNG,  a  party  (or  rather
"school"),  formed  for  the  regeneration  of  the
country,  founded  by  Thos.  Oshorne,  Charles  Gavan
Duffy  (who  established  and  conducted  "  The
Nation"  from  1842  to  1855),  Smith  O'Brien  and
others  in  1840.  Some  of  their  proceedings  led  to  the
state  trials  of  1843  and  1848.  Mr.  Duffy  (afterwards
premier  of  Victoria,  Australia,  and  K.C.M.G.)  pub-
lished "Young  Ireland,  a  Fragment  of  Irish  History,
1840-50,"  in  1880.  The  formation  of  a  "Young
Ireland  league,"  was  proposed  at  a  meeting  in
Dublin,  17  Sept.  1891.

IRIDIUM  AND  OSMIUM.  In  i804Tennant
discovered  these  two  rare  metals  in  the  ore  of
platinum,  in  which,  in  1845,  Claus  discovered  a
third,  Ruthenium.  Iridium  is  said  to  be  the
heaviest  known  metal,  1878. See  Weights.

IRISH  CHURCH;  see  Church  of  Ireland.
The  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  act,  passed  16  June,
1871,  regulates  the  management  of  certain  trust
properties  for  that  church.

IRISH  DISTRESS  FUND,  to  relieve  the
sufferers  by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  the
■western  coasts  of  Ireland,  was  started  in  Dublin  by
the  lord  lieutenant,  the  earl  of  Zetland,  and  Mr.
A.  J.  Balfour,  the  chief  secretary,  3  Jan.  1891.
Eeceived,  up  to  26  Jan.  39,000/.  ;  up  to  9  April,
49,067/.  The  queen  gave  200/. ;  the  mayor  of  Bel-
fast 2,000/. ;  sir  Edward  C.  Guinness  (lord  Iveagh)
2,000/.  Large  donations  of  clothing  were  also  re-
ceived.

IRISH  EXHIBITION,  in  the  Olympia,  W.

Kensington,  opened  by  the  Lord  Mayors  of  London

(De  Keyser),  and  Dublin  (Sexton),  4  June,  1888.

It  included  natural  products,  manufactures  of  all
kinds,  valuable  antiquities,  fine  works  of  art,
facsimiles  of  a  castle,  round  towers,  a  village  &c,
horses  and  cows.  The  amusements  comprised
theatrical  performances,  concerts,  races,  &c.
Lord  Arthur  Hill,  honorary  secretary ;  among
the  patrons  were  the  duke  of  Westminster,  lord
Leitrim,  lord  Charles  Beresford,  sir  John
Lubbock,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  cardinal
Manning,  lord  Hartington.  The  exhibition  was
closed Oct.  1888

The  exhibition  was  financially  unsuccessful,  and
an  indemnity  fund  was  started  in . . July,  1891

IRISH  INVINCIBLES,  a  secret  society
established  in  Dublin  Nov.,  1881,  said  by  James
Carey,  a  member,  to  have  been  formed  by  one  Walsh
and  others,  from  England,  to  "make  history"  by
killing  tyrants.  Each  member  was  bound  to  obey
orders,  under  pain  of  death.  By  some  of  its
members  the  life  of  judge  Lawson  was  attempted,
and  lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  Mr.  Burke
murdered,  6  May,  1882.  Mr.  W.  E.  Forster  was
frequently  watched  with  a  similar  intention.  See
under  Fenians,  Ireland,  1S82-3.  In  Feb.  1883
there  were  said  to  be  250  members  in  Great  Britain
and  Ireland.  "  The  general  No.  1,"  was  said  to  be
a  wealthy  man.  "Murder  leagues,"  and  "assas-
sination circles"  were  mentioned.

IRISH  LAND  BILLS,  see  Ireland,  1870,
1880-81,  1887,  1890.

IRISH  LAND  LAW  ACT  (44  &  45  Vict.
c.  49,  passed  22  Aug.  1881. See  Ireland,  April-


Aug.  1 881).  It  settles  the  rights  of  landlords  and
tenants ;  establishes  a  court  of  commission,  which
first  met,  20  Oct.  1881,  to  try  differences  between
them,  and  determines  the  conditions  by  which
tenants  may  become  proprietors ;  it  affirms  the
virtual  ownership  of  tenants  with  the  power  of
selling  their  rights,  securing  the  payment  of  a  just
rent  to  the  landlords  to  be  settled  by  the  court,  and
restricting  evictions.  First  court  of  commission,
sergeant  O'Hagan,  Edward  Falconer  Litton,  and
John  Edward  Vernon.  Royal  Assent,  22  Aug.
1881.
Important  decisions  in  favour  of  tenants  by  the

sub-commissions  at  Belfast,  &c. . .  Nov.  1881

Above  2500  applications  to  the  land  courts  up  to

11  Nov.  ,,
Bill  for  amending  purchase  clauses  of  land  act;
means  of  purchase  greatly  facilitated  :  not  above
5,ooo,ooo£.  to  be  advanced  by  the  state  in  one
year,  and  not  more  than  20,000,000?.  in  all ;  bill
introduced  by  Mr.  Trevelyan,  27  May,  withdrawn

10  July,  1884

'  IRISH  LANGUAGE,  a  branch  of  the' Celtic
or  Gaelic,  of  which  much  literature  exists  in  books
and  MSS.  of  early  date.  The  New  Testament  was
published  in  Irish  in  1603,  and  the  Old  in  1685.  A
society  for  the  preservation  of  the  Irish  language
has  been  formed ;  in  its  annual  report  for  1890,  it
was  stated  that  Irish  is  taught  in  45  national
schools.

IRISH  LOYAL  AND  PATRIOTIC
UNION,  see  Ireland,  1886.  Annual  meetings,
held.

IRISH  NATIONAL  LEAGUE.  See  Ire-
land, 17  Oct.  1882.

IRISH  PROPERTY  DEFENCE  ASSO-
CIATION, formed  by  landlords,  Nov.  1880.

IRISH  REPUBLIC.  Treasonable  plans  for
its  establishment  dated  1869,  were  discovered  in
James  F.  Egan's  garden  in  Birmingham,  April,
1884.

IRISH  SOCIETY, The  Honourable,

the  name  given  to  a  committee  of  citizens  of  twelve
London  companies  invited  by  king  James  I.  to
colonize  the  confiscated lands  in the north of
Ireland,  termed  the  Ulster  plantations,  including
Londonderry  and  Coleraine,  1609. The  committee
received  a  charter,  1613,  which  was  taken  away  in
1637,  and  restored  after  various  changes  1670. The
affairs  of  this  company  and  its  methods  of  business
were  discussed  in  parliament  in  1868  and  1869.
The  sale  of  the  companies'  estates  under  lord  Ashbourne's
act  began  in  1887. Receipts  from  the  estates  in  1887,
9,o6iL  besides  receipts  for  fisheries  and  other  rents.
The  select  committee  respecting  the  Irish  Society
(sir  Win. T. Marriott, Mr. John Morley, sir
Richard  Temple,  and  others),  first  met,  17  July,
1889 ; met again  9  June  et  seq., 1890. Three
reports  adopted,  4  May,  1891  ;  see  Ireland Jan.  1892

IRISH  UNIVERSITY  BILL  (to  com-
bine Trinity  College  and  the  Catholic  College),  in-
troduced by  Mr.  I.  Butt,  16  May,  1876;  withdrawn.

IRON-  The  Greeks  ascribed  the  discovery  of
iron  to  themselves,  and  referred  glass  to  the  Phoe-
nicians. Moses  relates  that  iron  was  wrought  by
Tubal- Cain  (Gen.  iv.  22).  Swedish  iron  is  very
celebrated,  and  Dannemora  is  the  greatest  mine  of
Sweden. — The  weekly  publication  "  Iron"  began
18  Jan.  1873.  See  Stei  I.
Belgium,  an  early  seat  of  the  iron  manufacture ;  coal  said

to  have  beeu  employed  at  Marehe-les-dames,  1340.
British  iron  cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude,  in

Sussex,  1543. Rymer's  Fcedcra.
Iron-mills  used  for  slitting  iron  into  bars  for  smiths,  by

Godfrey  Bochs,  1590.


IRON.


529


IRRIGATION.


Tinning  of  iron  introduced  from  Bohemia,  1681.  Till
■about  1730  iron  ores  were  smelted  entirely  with  wood
charcoal,  which  did  not  wholly  give  way  to  coal  and
coke  till  1788.

The  operation  termed  puddling,  and  other  very  great
improvements  in  the  manufacture,  invented  by  Mr.
Henry  Cort,  about  1781,  who  did  not  reap  the  due  re-
ward of  his  ingenuity. He  died  in  1800.

Mr.  James  B.  Neilson  of  Glasgow,  patented  his  hot  air
blast  in  1828  ;  see  under  blowing  machines.

Mr.  Henry  Bessemer  patented  his  method  of  manufac-
turing iron  and  steel,  17  Oct.,  5  Dec,  185s;  12  Feb.,
1856.

Strike  of  the  puddlers  and  lock-out  of  the  masters  in
Staffordshire,  Northumberland,  &c,  lasted  during
March,  April,  and  May,  1865.

Ironworkers  of  Great  Britain  determine  to  form  one
trades'  union,  with  one  executive,  Oct.  1866.

Strike  of  ironworkers  in  the  north  over,  31  Dec.  1866.

Mr.  Win.  Robinson  announced  a  method  of  making
wrought  iron  from  cast  iron  by  means  of  magnetism,
July,  1867.

Mr.  John  Heaton's  process  for  making  steel  announced
about  Nov.  1867,  discussed  Oct.  1868.

One  of  the  finest,  thickest,  and  heaviest  armour-plates
•ever  rolled  in  the  world  was  pressed  into  the  very  per-
fection of  a  manufactured  armour-plate  at  the  great
Atlas  Ironworks  of  sir  John  Brown  and  Co. ,  Sheffield.
The  size  of  it  when  in  the  furnace  was  a  little  over  20
feet  long  by  about  4  feet  broad  and  21  inches  thick.
Its  rough  weight  was  over  21  tons.  It  was  built  up  in
the  furnace  before  being  rolled  by  five  mould  plates,
each  3  inches  thick,  and  one  solid  plate  of  6  inches.
This  mass  when  reduced  by  intense  heat  to  the  con-
sistency of  dough,  was  withdrawn  from  the  furnace,
and  in  the  course  of  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  was
passed  between  the  enormous  rollers  many  times,  was
reduced  to  a  compact  slab  of  iron  of  a  uniform  thick-
ness of  15  inches,  and  then  passed  on  to  its  bed  to  cool
till  fit  for  having  its  rough  edges  planed  down  to  the
proper  dimensions,  6  Sept.  1867.  Armour-plate  24
inches  thick  rolled  at  same  works,  Oct.  1876.

iron  forts  (cost  about  i,ooo,ooo2.  made  by  Whitworth  and
Co.  at  Manchester)  put  up  at  Spithead  early  in  1872.

Mr.  Crampton's  iron  furnace,  in  which  definite  propor-
tions of  coal  dust  and  air  are  introduced  under  pressure,
was  tried  at  Woolwich  and  was  reported  successful,
May,  1873.

Ironstone  miners  in  Yorkshire  :  great  strike  through
reduction  in  wages,  May,  1874.

Iron  trades,  see  Employers.

Iron  merchant  vessels  built  in  i860,  181  ;  in  1877,  545.

Alfred  Newman,  an  eminent  art  iron-worker ;  of  the
"smithy,"  Haymarket,  London,  dies  aged  35,  Jan.
1887.

Iron  Manufacture  :  between  1865-75  the  capital  invested
rose  from  7,ooo,oooL  to  29,000,000?.  Number  of  pud-
dling furnaces  rose  from  3462  to  7159 ;  also  great
increase  in  blast  furnaces.

Great  depression  since  1876  ;  due  to  excessive  production
and  increased  and  cheap  manufacture  of  steel ;  revival
1889  et  seq.

Iron  and  Steel  congress  at  New  York  . Sept. -Oct.  1890

Strike  or  lock-out  in  the  Scotch  iron  trade  respect-
ing wages 4  Oct. ,,

IRON PRODUCED IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.

1740 . . 59  furnaces  . . 17,350  tons.

. . 61,920  ,,

124,789  ,,

227,000  ,,

250,000  ,,

400,000  ,,

581,367  „

. . 1,396,400  ,,

• i,998»SS8  „

. 2,701,000  ,,

In  1855,  3,217,154  tons  of  pig  iron  were  produced;  in
i^Sl*  31659,447  tons  ;  in  1865,  4,819,254  tons  ;  in  1869,
5-445.757  tons ;  in  1873,  6,566,451  tons  ;  in  1876,  6,555,997
tons;  in  1879,  5,995,337  tons;  in  1882,  pig,  8,586,680
tons  ;  in  1884,  7,811,727  tons;  in  1886,  7,009,754  tons  ;
in  1887,  7,559>5i8  tons  ;  in  1888,  7,998,969  tons  ;  in  1889,
8,322,824  tons  ;  in  1890,  7,904,214  tons.
Exports  of  Iron  and  Steel,  from  United  Kingdom.
i860,  1,502,500  tons;  1865,  1,687,071  tons;  1870,
21825,575,  tons ; 1875,  2,457,306  tons; 1879,  2,883,484


1788

•  77

1796  .

.  121

1802

.  168

1806  .

.  227

1820

.  260

1825  .

•  374

1840

.  402

1848  .

.  623

1852

■  655

tons;  1883,  4,043,308  tons  ;  1885,  3,130,682  tons;  1887,
4,143,028  tons;  1888,  3,966,593  tons;  1889,4,186,182;
1890,  4,001,430.

IRON  and  STEEL  INSTITUTE,  the  duke
of  Devonshire,  president,  held  its  first  meeting  in
London  22  June,  1869,  first  provincial  meeting  at
Merthyr-Tydvil,  6  Sept.  1870 ;  first  foreign  meeting  at
Liege,  18  Aug.  1873;  second  at  Paris,  16  Sept.  1878.
Frequently  at  other  places  (Vienna,  19  Sept.  1882) ;
at  Ne»v  York,  Sept.,  Oct.,  at  Ottawa,  Nov.  1890.

IRONCLADS,  see  Circular,  Navy,  and  United,
States,  1862;  Germany,  1878.

IRON  CROSS,  an  order  of  knighthood  esta-
blished by Frederick William  III. of Prussia,

10  March,  1813,  to  honour  patriotic  bravery  in  the
war  against  France ;  was  revived  by  William  I.  in
the  Franeo-Prussian  war,  and  awarded  by  him  to
his  son  for  bis  victory  at  Wissembourg,  4  Aug.
1870.  About  40,000  persons  were  decorated  in
1870-71.

IRON  CROWN  (of  Italy),  of  gold  and  pre-
cious stones,  set  in  a  thin  ring  of  iron,  said  to  have
been  forged  from  a  nail  of  Christ's  cross,  was  made
by  order  of  Theudelinde  for  her  husband,  Agilulf,
king  of  the  Longobards,  591.  She  presented  it  (to
be  kept)  to  the  church  at  Monza.  Charlemagne
was  crowned  with  this  crown,  and  after  him  all
the  emperors  who  were  kings  of  Lombardy;
Napoleon  I.  at  Milan,  on  26  May,  1805,  put  it  on
his  head,  saying,  "  Dleu  me  I' a  donnce  ;  gare  a  qui
y  touchera."  (God  has  given  it  to  me;  woe  to
him  who  touches  it.)  The  crown  was  removed  from
Monza  to  Mantua  by  the  Austrians,  on  23  April,
1859.  After  the  peace  of  Vienna  in  1866,  the
crown was given up to general Menabrea on

11  Oct.,  and  presented  to  king  Victor  Emmanuel,
at  Turin,  on  4  Nov.  The  order  of  the  "  Iron
Crown  of  Italy,"  instituted  by  Napoleon  26  May,
1805,  was  abolished  in  1814,  but  revived  by  the
emperor  of  Austria  12  Feb.  1816;  see  Gotha.  The
order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy  was  instituted  by  king
Victor  Emmanuel  20  Feb.  1868.

IRON-MASK,  the  Man  with  the.* A

mysterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a  mask  and
closely  confined  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pignerol
(1679),  Exilles(i68i),  Sainte Marguerite  (1687), and
at  the  Bastille  (1698),  where  he  died  19  Nov.  1703.
He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was  treated  with  pro-
found respect ;  but  his  keepers  had  orders  to  de-
spatch him  if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St.  Mars  himself
always  placed  the  dishes  on  his  table,  and  stood  in
his  presence.

IRON-PLATED  SHIPS,  see  Ironclads.

IRREDENTISTS,  see  Italia  Irredenta.

IRRIGATION,  practised  in  the  east  and  in
Egypt  from  the  most  remote  ages. It  was  strenu-


*  The  following  conjectures  have  been  made  as  to  his
identity  : — An  Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from
Constantinople  (who  died  ten  years  before  the  mask) ;
the  due  de  Vermandois,  son  of  Louis  XIV.,  reported  to
have  perished  in  the  camp  before  Dixmude  ;  the  due  de
Beaufort,  whose  head  is  reported  to  have  been  taken  off
before  Candia ;  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  executed  on
Tower-hill  ;  a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  Louis
XIII.,  either  by  cardinal  Mazarine,  or  by  the  duke  of
Buckingham  ;  the  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  (a  conjec-
ture received  by  Voltaire  and  others) ;  Foucquet,  an
eminent  statesman  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  and  a
count  Matthioli,  secretary  of  state  to  Charles  III.,  duke
of  Mantua.  M.  Delort  and  the  right  hon.  Agar  Ellis
(afterwards  lord  Dover)  endeavoured  to  prove  Matthioli
to  have  been  the  person.  The  mask,  it  seems,  was  not
made  of  iron  ;  but  of  black  velvet,  strengthened  with
whalebone,  and  fastened  behind  the  head  with  a  padlock.

M M


IBUN.


530


ISTEIA.


ously  advocated  for  India  by  sir  A.  Cotton  and
others  at  the  Social  Science  Congress  at  Manchester,
Oct.  1866.  In  1865  acts  were  passed  for  utilising
London  sewage  in  the  irrigation  of  grass  land,  and
the  results  are  said  to  be  generally  favourable.  The
subject  was  much  discussed,  Aug.  1873.  A  method
of  producing  artificial  rain  from  ponds  by  means  of
steam-power,  patented  by  Isaac  Brown,  of  Edin-
burgh, was  tried  by  Mr.  Coleman,  at  Stoke  Park,
and  reported  successful ;  see  Sewage,  and  Inter-
mittent Filtration.

IBUN  (a  frontier  village  of  Spain) .  On  16  May,
1837,  the  British  auxiliary  legion  under  general
Evans,  marched  from  St.  Sebastian  to  attack  Irun
(held  by  the  Carlists),  which  after  a  desperate  re-
sistance was  carried  by  assault,  1 7  May.

IBVLNGITES,  followers  of  Edward  Irving,*
now  called  the  "  Holy  Catholic  Apostolic  Church."
They  use  a  liturgy  (framed  in  1842,  and  enlarged
1853),  and  have  church  officers  named  apostles,
angels,  prophets,  &c.  In  1852  lighted  candles  were
placed  on  the  magnificent  altar,  and  burning  of
incense  during  prayers  was  prescribed.  The  Gothic
church  in  Gordon-square  was  solemnly  opened
I  Jan.  1854.  It  is  said  that  all  who  join  the  church
offer  it  a  tenth  of  their  income.  They  had  30
chapels  in  England  in  1851.

ISANDULA,  Isandlana,  or  Isandlwana,  termed
the  "English  Cremera";  see  Zululand,  22  Jan.
1879.

ISATTBIA  (a  province  in  Asia  Minor),  con-
quered by  the  Bomans  B.C.  78,  by  the  Saracens
a.d.  650;  was  retaken  by  the  emperor  Leo  III.,
who  founded  the  Isaurian  dynasty,  718,  which
ended  with  Constantine  YI.  in  797.  Isauria  was
incorporated  with  Turkey  1387.

ISCHIA,  see  Earthquakes,  1883.

ISEENIA  (S.  Italy).  Here  the  Sardinian
general  Cialdini  defeated  the  Neapolitans,  17  Oct.
i860.

ISLAM,  or  ESLAM,  submission  to  God,  the
name  given  to  Mahometanism  {which  see).

ISLE  OF  France,  Man,  &c,  see  Mauri-
tius, Man,  &c.

ISLES,  BISHOPRIC  OF.  This  see  contained
not  only  the  Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles,  but  the
Isle  of  Man,  which  for  nearly  400  years  had  been  a
separate  bishopric.  The  first  bishop  of  the  Isles
was  Amphibalus,  360 ;  see  lona.  Since  the  revo-
lution (when  this  bishopric  was  discontinued)  the
Isles  have  been  joined  to  Moray  and  Boss,  or  to
Boss  alone.  In  1847,  however,  Argyll  and  the  Isles
were  made  a  seventh  post -revolution  and  distinct
bishopric ;  see  Bishops.

ISLINGTON  (anciently  Isendone,  Iseldone,
and  "Merrie"),  a  large  suburban  parish  in  N.
London,  still containing Boman and medieval


*  Edward  Irving  was  born  15  Aug.  1792,  and  was  en-
gaged as  assistant  to  Dr.  Chalmers,  at  Glasgow,  in
1819.  In  1823  he  attracted  immense  crowds  of  distin-
guished persons  to  his  sermons  at  the  Scotch  church,
Hatton-garden.  A  new  church  was  built  for  him  in
Regent-square  in  1827.  Soon  after,  he  propounded  new
doctrines  on  the  human  nature  of  Christ:  and  the  "  Ut-
terances of  Unknown  Tongues,"  which  began  in  his  con-
gregation with  a  Miss  Hall  and  Mr.  Taplin,  16  Oct.  1831,
were  countenanced  by  him,  as  of  divine  inspiration.  He
was  expelled  from  the  Scotch  church,  15  March,  1833.
His  church,  "  reconstituted  with  the  threefold  cord  of  a
sevenfold  ministry,"  was  removed  to  Newman-street.
He  died  8  Dec.  1834.


remains,  and  old  buildings,  all  gradually  disap-
pearing. Four  members  were  allotted  to  Islington
by  the  Act  of  1885.  Population,  1801,  10,121;
1881,  282,865 ;  1891,  319,433.  Churches  in  1837^
4  ;  1887,  about  35.
The  great  northern  central  hospital,  Holloway-road,

opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales  .  .  17  July,  1888;
Union  Chapel,  Compton-terrace,  erected  in  1802
by  a  union  of  Episcopalians  and  Nonconformists  ;
rebuilt,  opened  5  Dec.  1877  ;  completed  and  sur-
mounted by  a  tower,  Oct.  1889.  The  rev.  Dr.
Henry  Allon,  at  first  co-pastor  (1843)  with  the
first  minister,  the  rev.  Thomas  Lewis,  and  after-
wards sole  pastor,  an  accomplished  writer  and
active  administrator  of  schools,  &c. ,  died,  aged
73  (colleague  and  successor,  the  rev.  Wr  Harwood)

16  April,  1892:

Public  baths  and  wash-houses  opened  by  the  lord
mayor  Evans . . , 21  May  and  26  July ,,

ISLY  (N.W.  Africa).  Here  Abd-el-Kader,  the
Arab  chief,  was  totally  defeated  by  the  French,,
under  Bugeaud,  14  Aug.  1844.

ISMAIL  (Bessarabia)  was  taken  by  the  Bus-
sians,  6  Aug.  1770,  after  a  long  siege,  when  the
Bussians  lost  20,000  men  ;  the  town  was  taken  by
storm,  22  Dec.  1790 ;  when  Suwarrow,  the  most
merciless  warrior  of  modern  times,  put  the  brave-
Turkish  garrison  (30,000  men)  to  the  sword  and
delivered  up  Ismail  to  pillage,  and  ordered  the
massacre  of  6000  women.  It  was  again  captured
by  the  Bussians  26  Sept.  1809,  and  retained  till
the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856,  when  it  was  ceded  to-
Moldavia.

ISMAILIA,  the  half  way  station  on  the  Suez
Canal.'  It  is  supposed  to  occupy  nearly  the  site  of
Barneses.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  named  it  Ismailia  in-
stead of  Gondokoro,  May,  1869.  The  rebel  Egyp-
tian army  was  defeated  near  here  by  the  British,  25
Aug.  1882. See  Egypt.

ISPAHAN  was  made  the  capital  of  Persia  by
Abbas  the  Great,  in  1 590.  It  lost  its  supremacy  in
1796,  when  Teheran  became  the  capital.

ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OP,  see  Jeivs.— Handel's
oratorio,  "  Israel  in  Egypt,"  first  performed  4  April,.
1739.

ISSTJS  (Asia  Minor),  the  site  of  Alexander' s-
second  great  battle  with  Darius,  whose  queen  and
family  were  captured,  Oct.  333  B.C.  The  Persian
army,  according  to  Justin,  consisted  of  400,000
foot  and  100,000  horse;  61,000  of  the  former  and
10,000  of  the  latter  were  left  dead  on  the  spot,
and  40,000  were  taken  prisoners.  Here  the  emperor
Septimius  defeated  his  rival  Niger,  a.d.  194.

ISTAMBOUL,  see  Constantinople.

ISTEB,  see  Danube.

ISTHMIAN  GAMES  received  their  name
from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  ob-
served: their  institution  is  mythically  attributed
to  Sisyphus  of  Corinth,  1326  B.C.,  and  to  Theseus-
in  honour  of  Neptune  about  1234  The  games,
which  were  solemnly  kept  every  third  year,  were
discontinued  at  the  destruction  of  Corinth  by  Lucius
Mummius,  146  B.C.  The  games  were  revived  by
Julius  Ca3sar,  60  B.C. ;  and  by  the  emperor  Julian,
a.d.  362,  and  ceased  in  396,  when  Corinth  was
sacked  by  the  Goths.

ISTBIA  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Bomans,
177  B.C.  After  various  changes  it  came  under  the
rule  of  Venice  in  1378,  and  was  annexed  1420.  It
was  obtained  by  Austria  1796;  by  France  1806 ;
by  Austria  1814. Population  in  1890,  317,610.


ITALIA  IEBEDENTA.


531


ITALY.


ITALIA  IRREDENTA  ("  unredeemed
Italy"),  a  secret  society  which  first  appeared  in
Italy  Not.  1877,  and  said  to  have  200  committees,
the  chief  at  Naples.  Its  professed  object  is  to  add
to  the  Italian  kingdom  Trieste,  the  Tyrol,  and  other
Austrian  provinces  on  the  Adriatic.

Cry  for  Italia  Irredenta :  meetings  at  Rome,  &c.

21  July,  1878
In  1879,  col.  Haymerle,  an  Austrian  military  resident
at  Rome,  published  "Beg  Italicce,"  freely  discussing  the
subject.  The  Italians  were  much  annoyed,  and  the  pub-
lication was  disavowed  by  the  Austrian  government.
Sig.  Crispi,  in  a  speech  at  Florence,  strongly  de-
clares against  the  Irredentists . . . 8  Oct.  1890

ITALIAN  ASSOCIATION  FOE THE

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  first  met  at
Pisa,  under  the  patronage  of  the  grand  duke  of
Tuscany,  in  1837.  It  met  in  Rome,  20  Oct.  1873,
and  at  other  places  since.

ITALIAN  BENEVOLENT  SOCIETY,

London,  founded  by  the  king  of  Italy  and  others,
1861.

ITALIAN  CATHOLIC  CHUECH  (be-
tween  two  and  three  thousand  persons) ;  first
bishop,  Domenico  Panelli ;  a  synod  met  at  Naples
in  1875. Great  progress  reported  Feb.  1888.

Its  statute  (of  62  articles)  asserts  that  the  Catholic
church  is  nothing  but  the  society  of  all  believers  in
Jesus  Christ,  and  that  he  only  is  its  supreme  head  and
pastor ;  rejects  all  miracles  since  the  death  of  the
Apostles  ;  declares  that  the  Catholic  faith  is  only  that
revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  &c.  The  congregation
of  St.  Paul,  of  the  Italian  Catholic  church  headed  by
lions.  Savarese,  declared  heretical,  Oct.  1884.

ITALIAN  EXHIBITION,  West  Brompton,
London,  opened  by  the  Lord  Mayor,  12  May,  1888.

It  comprised  models  of  the  Roman  forum,  coliseum  &c,
diorama  of  the  bay  of  Naples  &c,  paintings,  sculpture,
manufactures  and  natural  products  of  Italy.  The
celebrated  sculptor,  signor  Focardi,  had  a  studio
there  and  did  work. Closed  31  Oct.  1888.

ITALIAN  LANGUAGE,  based  on  Latin,  is
said  by  Dante  to  be  formed  of  a  selection  of  the
best  portions  of  the  different  dialects.  Pure  ele-
gant poetry  was  written  by  Guido  Cavalcanti,  who
died  1301 ;  and  good  prose  by  Malespini,  about  1250.

PRINCIPAL ITALIAN  AUTHORS.


Born

Died

Bom

Died

Dante  .

1265

1321

Parini

• 1729

1799

Petrarca . .

1304

1374

Alfieri  .

• J749

1803

Boccaccio .

1313

J375

Volta .

• I745

1826

Machiavelli .

1469

1527

Monti

• 1754

1828

Ariosto

1474

I533

Leopardi

■ 1798

1837

Guicciardini

1482

1540

Gioberti

. 1801

1852

Tasso . .

1544

1595

Nicolini  .

. 1782

1861

Galileo

1564

1642

Manzoni

• 1784

1873

Metastasio  .

1698

1782

Amari

. 1806

1889

Goldoni

1707

*795

The  following  terms  are  often  used  with  reference  to
certain  periods  in  the  history  of  Italian  literature  and
art.

1.  Trecento  (three  hundred),  from  the  birth  of  Dante
(1265)  to  the  death  of  Boccaccio  (1375),  which  two,
with  Petrarca,  are  styled  "the  triumvirate  of  the
Trecento."

2.  Quattrocento  (four  hundred),  from  1375  to  the  revival
of  Italian  literature  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  in  the  15th
century.  During  this  period  Latin  was  revived,  to  the
prejudice  of  Italian.

3.  Cinquecento  (five  hundred),  from  about  1480  to  1590.
A  sensuous  style  of  art,  founded  on  the  heathen  my-
thology, began  to  prevail.

4.  Seiccnto  (six  hundred),  from  1590  to  1700.  The  bad
taste  which  prevailed  (luring  this  period  is  ascribed  to
the  influence  of  the  Spaniards  and  the  Jesuits  through-
out Italy. Seicentisti  is  a  term  of  reproach.

The  Trecento  and  Cinquecento  were  the  most  flourishing
periods.


ITALIAN  EEPUBLIC  was  the  name  given
to  the  remodelled  Cisalpine  republic.  Napoleon
Bonaparte,  president,  Jan.  1802.

ITALY,  a  name  mythically  derived  either  from
Italus,  an  early  king,  or  italics,  a  bull  calf.  The
invading  Pelasgians  from  Greece,  and  the  Abori-
gines (Umbrians,  Oscans,  and  Etruscans),  com-
bined, form  the  Latin  race,  still  possessing  the
southern  part  of  Europe.  The  history  of  Italy  is
soon  absorbed  into  that  of  Rome,  founded  753  B.C.
In  the  middle  ages  it  was  desolated  by  intestin  e
wars  and  the  interference  of  the  German  emperors ;
since  then,  Spain,  France,  and  Germany  struggled
for  the  possession  of  the  country,  which  has
been  divided  among  them  several  times.  Spain,
which  predominated  in  Italy  during  the  16th  and
17th  centuries,  yielded  to  the  house  of  Austria  at
the  beginning  of  the  18th.  The  victories  of  Bona-
parte in  1797-8  changed  the  government  of  Italy;
but  the  Austrian  rule  was  re-established  at  the
peace  in  1814.  In  1848  the  Milanese  and  Venetians
revolted  and  joined  Piedmont,  but  were  subdued  by
Radetzky ;  see  below.  The  hostile  feeling  between
Austria  and  Piedmont  gradually  increased  till  war
broke  out  in  April,  1859.  The  Austrians  were
defeated,  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising
Piedmont,  Sardinia,  Lombardy,  Tuscany,  Modena,
Parma,  the  Romagna,  Naples,  and  Sicily  was  re-
established, 17  March,  1861,  by  the  Italian  parlia-
ment (consisting  of  443  deputies  from  59  provinces).
On  29  Oct.,  1 861,  the  internal  government  was  re-
organized ;  the  59  provinces  were  placed  under  pre-
fects, subject  to  four  directors-general.  War  with
Austria  was  declared  18  June,  1866;  and  on  3  Oct.,
peace  was  signed  at  Vienna,  and  Venetia  was  ceded
to  Italy ;  see  beloiv  for  the  events.  The  settlement
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  consummated  by  the
occupation  of  Rome  as  the  capital,  1870.  Esti-
mated population  of  the  kingdom,  1862,  25,003,635
(Rome  was  added  in  1870).  1878,  28,209,620;
Jan.  1882,  28,452,639 ;  1890,  30,158,408.  1890-91,
revenue,  78,129,383/.;  expenditure,  81,850,050/.;
imports,  71,905,383/.;  exports,  51,171,079/.  For
other  details  see  Rome  and  the  various  Italian
cities  throughout  the  volume.

Early  history  mythical ;  Italy  (Saturnia)  fabled  to
have  been  ruled  by  Saturn  during  the  golden  age

B.C.  2450
Arrival  of  GSnotras  from  Arcadia,  1710 ; and  of

Evander ;  reign  of  Latinus . . . about  1240
iEneas  the  Trojan  said  to  land  in  Italy,  defeat  and
kill  Tumus,  marry Lavinia, daughter  of king
Latinus,  and  found  Lavinium,  in  South  Italy,  1182,  &c.
Greek  colonies  (see  Magna  Grcecia)  founded . .  974-443

Romulus  builds  Rome 753

[For  subsequent  history,  see  Rome.]
Odoacer,  leader  of  the  Heruli,  establishes  the  king-  a.d.

dom  of  Italy 476

The  Ostrogoths  invade  Italy,  489,  and  retain  it  till 491
They  are  expelled  by  the  Imperial  generals  Narses

and  Belisarius 552

[See  Kings  of  Italy,  tm&Iron  Croron.']
Narses,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the  Lombards

from  Germany,  568  ;  wlio  overrun  Italy  .  .  .  596
Invasion  and  defeat  of  Constans  II.  ... 662

Venice  first  governed  by  a  doge ... . . 697
Pepin  gives  Ravenna  to  the  pope . .  . 754

Charlemagne  invades  Italy,  774 ;  overcomes  the  Lom-
bards ;  crowned  emperor  of  the  west  at  Rome  by

pope  Leo  III 25  Dec. 800

The  Saracens  invade  Italy  and  settle  at  Bari . . 842
Invasion  of  Otho  I.  951  ;  crowned  emperor,  2  Feb. 962

Genoa  becomes  important 1000

The  Saracens  expelled  by  the.  Normans  . 1016-17

The  Normans  acquire  Naples  from  the  pope . . 105 1
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  Hildebrand,  pretends  to  uni-
versal sovereignty, in  which  lie  is  assisted  by
Matilda,  countess of  Tuscany, mistress of  the

greater  part  of  Italy 1073-85

M M 2


ITALY.


532


ITALY.


Disputes  between  the  popes  and  emperors,  relative
to  ecclesiastical  investitures,  begin  (and  long  agi-
tate Italy  and  Germany) ....  about  1073
Rise  of  the  Lombard  cities ....  about  1120

Who  war  with  each  other 11 44

The Venetians obtain many victories  over  the

Eastern  emperors 1125

Wars  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibelines  (which  see)  begin

about  1 161
Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa)  interferes  :  his  wars 1154-75

Lombard  league  formed 1167

His  defeat  at  Legnano .... 29  May,  11 76

Peace  of  Constance 1183

Civil  wars  again "99.  &c.

Rise  of  the  Medici  at  Florence . . . about  1251
Wars  of  Frederick  II.  and  the  Lombard  league,  1236-50
His  natural  son,  Manfred,  king  of  Sicily,  defeated
and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Benevento,  by  Charles

ofAnjou 26  Feb.  1266

Who  defeats  Conradin,  at  Tagliacozzo  . 23  Aug.  1268

The  Visconti  rule  at  Milan 1277

The  Sicilian  vespers  ;  massacre  of  the  French,  who

are  expelled  from  Sicily . . 30  March,  1282
Clement  V.  (pope,  1305),  fixes  his  residence  at  Avig-
non in  France 1309

Louis  Gonzaga  makes  himself  master  of  Mantua,
with  the  title  of  imperial  vicar ....  1328

First  doge  of  Genoa  appointed 1339

Lucca  independent 1370

Rome  again  the  seat  of  the  pope 1377

Charles  VIII. of  France  invades  Italy,  1494,  and

conquers  Naples,  1495  ;  loses  it  in  .  .  .  1496
Louis  XII.  joins  Venice  and  conquers  Milan  (soon

lost) 1499

League  of  Cambray  (1508)  against  Venice,  which  is

despoiled  of  its  Italian  possessions  .  .  .  1509
Leo  X.  pope,  patron  of  literature  and  art  .  .  1513-22
Wars  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  1515-21

Francis  defeated  and  prisoner  at  Pa  via  24  Feb. 1525

Parma  and  Placentia  made  a  duchy  for  his  family
by  pope  Paul  III.  (Alexander  Farnese) . . . 1545

Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis 1559

War  of  the  Mantuan  succession  .  .  .  1627-31
Catinat  and  the  French  defeat  the  duke  of  Savoy

at  Marsaglia 4  Oct.  1693

War  of  Spanish  succession  commences  in  Italy .  1701

Battle  of  Turin 7  Sept.  1706

Division  of  Italy  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  11  April,  1713
The  duke  of  Savoy  becomes  king  of  Sardinia  .  .  1720
Successful  French  campaign  in  Italy  .  .  .  .  1745
Milan,  &c,  obtained  by  the  house  of  Austria,  1706  ;

confirmed  by  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  .  .  .  1 748
Italy  overrun  by  the  French  .  .  .  May— Dec.  1796
Division  of  the  Venetian  states  by  France  and
Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  ;  Cisal-
pine republic  founded  ....  17  Oct.  1797
Pius  VI.  deposed  by  Bonaparte  .  .  .  Feb.  1798
The  Russians,  under  Suwarrow,  defeat  the  French

at  Trebia,  &c 1799

Bonaparte  crosses  the  Alps,  16-20  May  ;  defeats  the

Austrians  at  Marengo . . . -14  June,  1800
The  Cisalpine  becomes  the  Italian  republic  (Bona-
parte, president) Jan.  1802

Napoleon  crowned  king  of  Italy . . 26  May,  1805
Eugene  Beauharnois  made  viceroy  of  Italy  . . . „
Austria  loses  her  Italian  possessions  by  the  treaty

of  Presburg  ;  ratified ....  1  Jan. 1806
The  kingdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,
1814  ; the Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  esta-
blished for  Austria 7  April,  1815

Formation  of  the  young  Italy  party  by  Mazzini ;  in-
surrections 1831-33

Italian  Association  for  Science  first  met  (at  Pisa) .  1837
Insurrection  in  Lombardy  and  Venice,  March ;  sup-
ported by  the  king  of  Sardinia  and  by  the  pope,

April,  1848
The  king  defeated  at  Novara,  abdicates,  23  March  ;
and  Lombardy  reverts  to  Austria . . May,  1849
[See  Sardinia  and  Austria.}

"  Napoleon  III.  et  l'ltalie  "  published  .  .  Feb.  1859
The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia,

26  April, ,
The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino,  27  April ;  and  the

French  enter  Genoa 3  May, ,

Peaceful  revolution  at  Florence,  27  April ;  Parma,

3  May  ;  Modena 15  June, ,

The  Austrians  defeated  at Montebello, 20  May ;


Palestro,  30-31  May  ;  Magenta,  4  June  ;  Marig-
nano,  8  June  ;  Solferino ... 24  June,

Provisional  governments  established  at  Florence,
27  April ;  Parma,  May  ;  and  Modena  [the  sove-
reigns retire] 15  June,

Insurrection  in  the  papal  states  Bologna,  Fer-
rara,  &e 13-15  June,

Massacre  of  the  insurgents  at  Perugia  by  the  Swiss
troops .  ....  20  June,

The  allies  cross  the  Mincio  .  .  .  1  July,
Armistice  between  Austria  and  France  8  July,

Preliminaries  of  r?eace  signed  at  Villafranca  ;  Lom-
bardy surrendered  to  Sardinia . .11  July,

Italy  dismayed  at  the  peace  ;  agitation  at  Milan,
Florence,  Modena,  Parma,  &c.  ;  resignation  of
count  Cavour  as  minister . . . July,

The  pope  appeals  to  Europe  against  the  king  of
Sardinia 12  July,

Garibaldi  exhorts  the  Italians  to  arm . 19  July,

Grand  duke  of  Tuscany  abdicates  . 21  July,

Constitutional  assemblies  meet  at  Florence,  1 1  Aug.  ;
and  at  Modena 16  Aug.

Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  the  Romagna  enter
into  a  defensive  alliance,  and  declare  for  annexa-
tion to  Piedmont,  20  Aug. -10  Sept.  ;  fiscal  restric-
tions between  them  and  Piedmont abolished,

10  Oct.

Assassination  of  col.  An viti  at  Parma . 5  Oct.

Garibaldi  appeals  to  the  Neapolitans  ;  subscriptions
in  Italy  and  elsewhere  to  supply  arms  for  the
Italians Oct.

Tuscany,  &c. ,  choose  the  prince  Eugene  of  Carignan-
Savoy,  as  regent  of  central  Italy,  5  Nov. ;. the  king
of  Sardinia  refusing  his  consent,  the  prince  de-
clines the  office,  but  recommends  the  chevalier
Buoncampagni 14  Nov.

Treaty  of  Zurich  (establishing  Italian  confederacy,
&c. ),  signed 10  Nov.

Garibaldi  retires  from  Sardinian  service .  18  Nov.

New  Sardinian  constitution  proclaimed  7  Dec.

The  pope  condemns  the  pamphlet  "  Le  Pape  et  le
Congres" ...... 31  Dec.

The  emperor  Napoleon  recommends  the  pope  to
give  up  the  legations . . . .31  Dec.

The  pope  refuses and denounces  the emperor,

8  Jan.

Count  Cavour  charged  with  the  formation  of  a
ministry .....  16  Jan.

Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  for  (by  universal  suf-
frage) in  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  Romagna,  13
March ;  Tuscany,  16  March ;  accepted  by  the  king,
18-22  March,

Treaty  ceding  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France  signed,  24
March ;  approved  by  the  Sardinian  parliament,

29  May,
The  French  troops  retire  from  Italy . . May,
Vain  insurrections  in  Sicily . 4  April  ;  2  May,
Garibaldi  lands  at  Marsala  in  Sicily, 11  May;  as-
sumes the  office  of  dictator, 14 May  ;  defeats
the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and
at  Melazzo, 20 July; by .a convention the
Neapolitans  agree  to  evacuate  Sicily  (see  Sicily),

30  July,
Garibaldi lands  at Reggio in  Calabria,  18  Aug.  ;

enters  Naples  ;  king  Francis  retires . 7  Sept.

Insurrection  in  Papal  States,  8  Sept.  ;  the  Sardi-
nians enter,  n  Sept.  ;  defeat  the  papal  troops
at  Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept.  ; take  Ancona,

17-29  Sept.

Victor-Emmanuel  takes  the  command  of  his  army,

4  Oct.

The  Sardinians  enter  kingdom  of  Naples,  15  Oct.  ;
defeat  Neapolitans  at  Isernia . . 17  Oct.

Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans  attheVolturno,  1  Oct.
1860  ;  meets  Victor-Emmanuel,  and  says,  "  King
of  Italy  !  "  the  latter  replies, "  I  thank  you  !  "

26  Oct.

By  universal  suffrage  (plebiscitum),  Sicily  and
Naples  vote  for  annexation  to  Sardinia 21  Oct.

Capua  bombarded  ;  the  Neapolitans  retire,  2  Nov. ;
and  are  defeated  at  the  Garigliano . .  3  Nov.

Victor-Emmanuel  enters  Naples  as  king,  7  Nov.  ;
Garibaldi  resigns  the  dictatorship  and  retires  to
Caprera 9  Nov.

Victor-Emmanuel  receives  homage  from  the  Neapo-
litan clergy,  &c. ;  gives  money  to  encourage  educa-
tion ;  appoints  a  ministry,  including  Poerio,  <&c. ,

Nov


1859


ITALY.


533


ITALY.


Siege  of  Gaeta  commences ;  attack  by  sea  pre-
vented by  the  presence of  the  French fleet,

3  Nov.  &c. i860

Treaty  of  Zurich  signed  (see  Zurich) . 10  Nov. ,,

Decree  in  honour  of  Garibaldi's  army  .  16  Nov. ,,

Reactionary  movements  suppressed . Nov. -Dec. „

Prince  of  Carignan-Savoy  appointed  lieutenant  of
Naples Jan. 1S61

The  French  fleet  retires  from  Gaeta,  19  Jan.  ;  after
severe  bombardment  it  surrenders  ;  Francis  II.
retires  to  Rome 13  Feb. „

Monastic  establishments  in  Naples  abolished,  with
compensation  to  the  inmates  ;  schools  established,

Feb. „

Assembly  of  the  first  Italian  parliament,  18  Feb.,
which  decrees  Victor-Emmanuel  king  of  Italy,

26  Feb.  and  14  March, „

Naples  unsettled  through  reactionary  intrigues  of
the  papal  party . . . March  and  April, ,,

Italy  recognised  by  Great  Britain . 31  March, „

Order  for  the  levy  of  70,000  soldiers .  April, „

Cavour  forms  a  new  ministry,  including  members
from  all  parts  of  Italy .... April, „

The  pope  protests  against  the  kingdom, 15  April, „

Altercation  in  parliament  between  Cavour  and
Garibaldi,  18  April ;  reconciled . 25  April, ,,

Bourbouist  bands  defeated . . 7  May,  &c. „

Prince  of  Carignan  resigns  ;  San  Martino  appointed
lieutenant  at  Naples ...  13  May, „

Death  of  count  Cavour,  aged  52 . .6  June, „

Ricasoli  forms  a  ministry  to  continue  Cavour's  policy,

11  June, „

The  kingdom  recognised  by  France . 24  June, ,,

San  Martino  resigns  the  government  of  Naples  ;
active  measures  taken  against  the  insurgents  and
brigands  by Cialdini,  his  successor,  appointed,

16  July, „

The  king  opens  the  exhibition  of  Italian  industry
at  Florence 14  Sept. „

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Portugal  and  Belgium,
1  Oct.  ;  divided  into  fifty-nine  prefectures,  &c,

13  Oct. „

Skirmishes  in  the  south  with  brigands  and  foreign
emissaries  in  the  cause  of  Francis  II.  . . Oct. „

Cialdini  retires,  and  La  Marmora  becomes  lieu-
tenant-general of  Naples ... 2  Nov. ,,

Brigandage  still  prevailing  in  the  south,  aided  by
the  king  of  Naples  ;  insurgents  defeated  ;  and
many  killed 19  Nov. „

Jose  Borges,  a  Spaniard,  lands  in  Calabria,  15
Sept. ;  calls  on  the  people  to  rise  for  Francis  II.,
Sept.  ;  taken  and  shot .... 8  Dec. ,,

The  reactionist  warfare  continues  ;  cruelties  of
the  brigands  lead  to  reprisals,

Dec.  1861,  Jan.  and  Feb.  1862

Ricasoli  compelled  to  resign  by  court  influence,
1 March ; Rattazzi forms an administration,

3  March, „

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Prussia . 1  March, ,,

Surrender  of  Civatella  del  Tronto,  the  last  Bourbon
fortress  in  Sicily ....  14  March, ,,

Triumphant  progress  of  Garibaldi  through  Italy,
establishing  rifle  clubs . March  and  April, ,,

Mr.  J.  F.  Bishop,  an  active  English  Bourbonist
propagandist,  captured . . . .2  April, ,,

Conspiracy  among  the  Neapolitan  soldiers  at  Milan
suppressed 19  April, „

The  king  received  at  Naples  with  great  enthusiasm,

28  April, ,,

The  French  general  Guyon  aids  in  the  suppression
of  the  Bourbonist  brigands . . . April, ,,

The  kingdom  recognised  by  Russia  . . 3  July, „

Garibaldi  proceeds  to  Sicily  ;  at  Marsala  he  calls
for  volunteers,  giving  as  his  watchword,  "  Rome
or  death  !  " 19  July, ,,

Calls  on  the  Hungarians  to  rise . . 26  July, ,,

The  king  issues  a  proclamation  against  his  proceed-
ings, as  tending  to  rebellion  ... 3  Aug. ,,

Garibaldi  enters  Catania,  and  organises  a  provisional
government 19  Aug. ,,

Sicily  proclaimed  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege,  21  Aug.  ;
and  put  under  general  Cialdini . . 22  Aug. „

Garibaldi  issues  his  last  proclamation  ;  embarks  at
Catania ;  lands  at  Melito,  in  Calabria,  and  marches
towards  Reggio,  25  Aug.  ;  La  Marmora  proclaims
a  state  of  siege,  26  Aug.  ;  Garibaldi  and  his  fol-
lowers fall  in  with  the  royalists  under  Pallavicmi,
at  Aspromonte,  where,  after  a  short  skirmish,  he


is  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  29  Aug.  ;  removed

to  Varignano,  near  Spezzia . . .1  Sept. 1862

Mr.  J.  F.  Bishop  sentenced  to  10  years'  imprison-
ment 6  Sept. ,,

General  Durando  issues  a  diplomatic  circular  con-
demning Garibaldi's  proceedings,  yet  asserting
the  necessity  of  the  Italian  government  possess-
ing Rome 10  Sept. ,,

A  subscription  in  England  enables  professor  Part-
ridge, of  King's  College,  London,  to  go  to  Garibaldi,

19  Sept. ,.

Princess  Maria  Pia  married  by  proxy  to  the  king  of
Portugal 27  Sept. „

Garibaldi  issues  a  rhetorical  appeal  to  the  English
nation,  urging  its  intervention  for  the  cause  of
liberty 28  Sept. ,,

Inflammatory  manifesto  addressed  to  the  people  of
Italy  by  Joseph  Mazzini .... Sept. ,,

Amnesty  granted  to  Garibaldi  and  his  followers,

5  Oct. „
Sharp  reply  of  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  to  Durando's

note 8  Oct. ,,

End  of  state  of  siege  in  Naples  and  Sicily  .  17  Oct. ,,
Disorderly  encounter  between  Italians  and  Austrians

on  the  banks  of  the  Po  .  .  .  .1  Nov.  ,,
Father  Passaglia  and  10,000  (out  of  80,000)  Italian

priests  sign  a  declaration  against  the  temporal

authority  of  the  pope Nov. ,,

Garibaldi  removed  to  Pisa,  9  Nov.  ;  ball  extracted

from  his  foot  by  Zanetti  .  .  .  .23  Nov.  ,,
Meeting  of  parliament ;  determined  opposition  to

Rattazzi,  18  Nov.  ;  he  resigns  .  .  30  Nov.  ,,
New  ministry  formed  by  Farina  .  .  9  Dec.  ,,
It  declines  further  negotiations  with  France  on  the

Roman  question 18  Dec. ,,

Commercial  treaty  with  France  signed . 17  Jan. 1863
Farina  resigns  ;  Minghetti  succeeds .  24  March, ,,
Grand Cavour  canal  for irrigation  of Piedmont

opened 1  June, ,,

Income  tax  bill  passed July, ,,

Tristany  and  other  bandits  captured  . . July, ,,
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed,

6  Aug. ,,

Death  of  Farina 5  Sept. „

Several  bandits  captured  on  board  the  French  ship

Aunis ;  given  up  to  France,  July ;  restored  to  Italy,

12  Sept. „

The  army  of  Piedmont  (50,000)  consolidated  by  La
Marmora  and  expanded  into  the  "army  of  Italy"
(250,000) .......  Oct. ,,

The  king  visits  Naples  ;  reviews  National  Guard,  &c.

11-17  Nov. ,,

Mr.  (after  sir)  James  Hudson,  British  minister,
greatly  assisted  Cavour  in  the  unification  of
Italy 1852-63

General  election  ;  triumph  of  the  moderate  party,

Jan. 1864

Garibaldi's  visit  to  England  amidst  much  enthusiasm,

April, ,,

Franco-Italian  convention  signed  (French  troops  to
quit  Rome  in  two  years  [from  6  Feb.  1865],
Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c),

15  Sept. ,,

Riots  at  Turin  in  consequence  ;  many  persons  killed
by  the  military 21-22  Sept. ,,

Minghetti  and  his  colleagues  blamed  ;  resigned  ;  a
ministry  formed  by  La  Marmora . . 24  Sept. ,,

Garibaldi  denounces  the  convention .  10  Oct. ,,

Desperate  state  of  the  finances  announced  by  Sella,
the  minister ; he  proposes stringent  remedies,

Nov. ,,

Railway  from  Turin  to  Florence  opened . 4  Nov. ,,

The  convention  approved  by  the  chamber  of  depu-
ties, 19  Nov.  ;  by  the  senate  (after  an  able  speech
by  Cialdini,  6  Dec.) 9  Dec. ,,

Decree  for  transfer  of  the  capital  published,  11  Dec. ,,

Prince  Humbert  resides  at  Naples . . .  Dec. ,,

Stated  that  346  brigands  had  been  killed  in  action  ;
453  taken  in  action,  and  732  surrendered  ;  about
300  remain  to  be  tracked  ;  many  pretend  to  be
subjects of  the  ex-king  Francis  II. of  Naples,

Dec. „

Demonstration  against  the  king  at  Turin,  30  Jan.  ;
he  goes  to  Florence 3  Feb. 1865

Amnesty  for  political  offences  published  ;  brigandage
in  the  Neapolitan  and  Roman  states  increasing,

March, ,,


ITALY.


534


ITALY.


Fruitless  negotiations  with  the  pope  by  Vegezzi

respecting  the  position  of  bishops,  April  to  July,  1865
The  king  and  court  proceed  to  Florence,  13  May  ;
he  opens  the  Dante  festival,  the  600th  anniversary

of  the  poet's  birth 14  May, „

Mr.  Moens,  a  British  subject,  seized  and  retained

by  brigands 15  May, „

45  monks  and  others  arrested  at  Salerno  on  charge

of  a  Bourbonist  conspiracy  .  .  .  12  June,  M
Inauguration  of  a  national  rifle  meeting  at  Florence  ;

the  king  fires  the  first  shot  .  .  18  June,  „
Numerous  atrocities  committed  by  brigands  ;  Giar-

dullo  and  8  brigands  captured  .  .  19  June,  ,,
The  kingdom  recognised  by  Spain  .  .  J  une,  ,.
Mr. Moens  released  after  a  ransom  of  5000Z.  had

been  paid 26  Aug. „

Bank  of  Italy  established . . . .7  Nov. „
French  troops  leaving  Italy  ;  general  election,  the

moderate  party  predominate  . . .  Nov. ,,

The  new  parliament  meets  at  Florence .  18  Nov. ,,
Serious  financial  deficiency ;  heavy  taxation  pro-
posed, 13  Dec.  ;  much  dissatisfaction  ;  the  minis-
ters resign,  21  Dec.  ;  a  new  ministry  formed  under

La  Marmora 31  Dec. „

Death  of  the  patriot  and  soldier,  Massimo  D'Azeglio,

15  Jan.  i86(
Formation  of  the  "Consorzio  Nazionale,"  a  public
subscription for reducing the national debt,

27  Feb.  ,,
Massacre  of  Protestants  at  Barletta,  Naples  ;  attri-
buted to  priests  ....  19  March,  ,,
Alliance  with  Prussia  ....  12  May,  ,,
Volunteers  numerously  enlisted  .  7  June,  et  seq.  ,,
War  declared  against  Austria  .  .  18  June,  ,,
New  ministry  formed  under  Ricasoli  .  20  June,  ,,
Royal  manifesto  to  the  people  .  .  20  June,  „
The  army,  headed  by  the  king,  crosses  the  Mincio,

23  June  ;  defeated  at  Custozza  .  .  24  June,  „
"Venetia  ceded  to  France  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,

3  July, ,,
Fruitless conflicts  ; the volunteers under  Gari-
baldi defeated  at  Monte  Suello . . 4  July, „
Bill  for  suppression  of  monasteries  and  confiscation

of  property  passed  ....  7  July,  „
Cialdini  crosses  the  Po,  and  enters  Venetia,  8  July,  „
Naval  battle  near  Lissa  ;  Italians  defeated  by  Aus-

trians  (Re  d'ltalia  and  Palestro  blown  up),  20  July,  „
The  Italians beaten  at  Versa ; the  last  conflict,

26  July,  ,,
Armistice  for  four  weeks  signed  .  .  .12  Aug.  ,,
Volunteers  disbanded ;  Garibaldi  retires  to  Caprera,

15  Aug.  „
Treaty  of  peace  with  Austria  signed  at  Vienna,

3  Oct.  ;  ratified 12  Oct. ,,

Court  constituted  at  Florence  to  try  admiral  Persano

for  neglect  of  duty  at  battle  of  Lissa . n  Oct. „
The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct.  ;
Mantua, 10 Oct  ; Verona, 16  Oct.  ; Venice,

17  Oct. „
General  Menabrea  pays  to  count  Mensdorff  a  sum
of  money,  and  receives  the  iron  crown  of  Italy,

11  Oct.  „
National  loan  freely  subscribed . .  Oct. „

Plebiscitum  in  Venetia ;  for  annexation  with  Italy,

641,758  ;  against,  69  .  .  .  .  21  Oct.  „
This  result  reported,  and  the  iron  crown  presented

to  the  king  at  Turin  ....  4  Nov.  „
The  king  enters  Venice, 7 Nov.  ; visits Verona,

Mantua,  &c. Nov. „

Circular  of  Ricasoli  to  the  prefects,  recommending
industrial  development  and  commerce,  forbidding
agitation,  and  enjoining  neutrality  regarding  Rome,

is  Nov.  „
Letter  from  Ricasoli  to  the  clergy  recommending  a

free  church  in  a  free  state  .  .  .26  Nov.  ,,
Persano  committed  for  trial ;  examination  begins,

1  Dec. ,,
Parliament  opened  by  the  king,  who  declares  that

"  Italy  is  now  restored  to  herself"  .  15  Dec.  „
Sig.  Tonello  received  by  the  pope,  15  Dec.  ;  many

bishops  return  to  their  dioceses . . Dec. „
Persano  acquitted  of  cowardice  at  Lissa  . 30  Jan. 1S67
Government proposal for  investing part  of the
property  of  the  religious  bodies  for  support  of
clergy  ("  Free  Church  and  Ecclesiastical  Liquida-
tion bill  ")  brought  forward . . . Jan. ,,
reat  reduction  in  the  army  (to  146,000)  ordered,

Jan. ,,


Defeat  of  the  ministry  on  question  of  the  right  of
public  meetings  in  Venetia,  11  Feb.  ;  parliament

dissolved 13  Feb.  1867

Ricasoli  reconstructs  his  ministry .  17  Feb. ,,

The  pope  accepts  Italian  help  to  suppress  brigandage,

March, ,,  ;

Elections  give  a  majority  for  government March, ,,

Resignation  of  Ricasoli,  5  April ;  a  ministry  formed
by  Rattazzi 8  April, ,,

Persano  condemned  ;  degraded  and  dismissed  the
service  for  disobedience,  incapacity,  and  negli-
gence . . . . . .  15  April, „

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Austria  signed  at  Florence,

23  April, ,,

Public  funeral  of  the  patriot  Carlo  Poerio 1  May, „
Italy  joins  in  the  conference  at  London  respecting

the  Luxemburg  question . .  7-1 1  May, ,,

National  financial  embarrassments  ;  the  king
gives  up  part  of  his  civil  list ;  proposed  sale
of  church  lands,  and  reduction  of  expenditure,

May,  et  seq. ,,  '
17,200,000^. advanced  for  church  lands  by  Fould

and  others  of  Paris May, „

Church  property  bill  passed . . . Aug. „
Garibaldi,  about  to  enter  the  Roman  territory  with
volunteers, captured  by  Italian  government  at
Sinalunga  (or  Asinalunga)and  sent  to  Alessandria,

23  Sept.  „
Sent  to  Caprera, 27  Sept.  ; escapes to  Leghorn,

and  is  sent  back 2  Oct. ,,

Bands  of  Garibaldians  invade  Roman  territories,

Sept. -Oct. „
Garibaldi  escapes  from  Caprera . . 15  Oct. ,,
Embarkation  of  French  troops  at  Toulon,  suspended
by  the  resignation  of  Rattazzi  and  his  ministry,

20  Oct.  ,,
Cialdini  tries  to  form  a  ministry  in  vain,  21-25  Oct.  „
Garibaldi  at Florence  announces an expedition

against.  Rome 22  Oct. ,,

The  French  minister  Moustier's circular  against

the  invasion 25  Oct. ,,

Garibaldians  defeated  at  Viterbo . . 25  Oct. „
Enter  Roman  territories  ;  defeat  papal  troops,  and

take  Monte  Rotondo . . .26,  27  Oct. „
Menabrea's  ministry  formed  ;  proclamation  of  Vic-
tor-Emmanuel against  the  Garibaldian  invasion,

27  Oct.  „
Riots  at  Naples",  Turin,  Pavia,  and  other  places,

suppressed  ....  26-28  Oct.  et  seq,  ,,
French  army  arrives  at  Civita  Vecchia,  28  Oct. ;  two

brigades  enter  Rome .... 30  Oct. ,,
Royal  Italian  troops  enter  papal  territory  ;  Mena-
brea's justificatory  circular ;  suppression  of  insur-
rectional committees  in  Italy  . . 30  Oct. ,,
De  Moustier's  reply ....  1  Nov. „
Garibaldi  defeated  at  Mentana,  3  Nov. ;  retreats  into
Italy  with  his  son  ;  captured  and  sent  to  Var-
ignano,  gulf  of  Spezzia .... 4  Nov. ,,
Fiery  manifesto  of  Mazzini ... 8  Nov. „
Garibaldi  sent  to  Caprera . . . .25  Nov. ,,
French proposal of a European conference  on

Roman  question  discussed  .  .  9  Nov. -Dec.  ,,
French  troops  left  Rome  for  Civita  Vecchia,  3  Dec.  ,,
Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an

amnesty  for  Garibaldians  proclaimed  .  5  Dec.  „
Long  army  debate  ;  vote  against  the  ministry  (201

to  199) ;  Menabrea  resigns  .  .  .22  Dec.  ,,
His  ministry  reconstituted ...  5  Jan. iS6£

M. Cambray  Digny's  financial  statement : great

deficit ;  a  grist  tax  proposed  .  .  .21  Jan.  „
Exculpatory  letter  of  La  Marmora  issued  .  Feb.  „
Government  financial  measures  announced  Feb.  „
New  order  of  knighthood,  the "Crown  of  Italy,"

constituted 20  Feb. „

Grist  tax  adopted  after  21  days'  debate . 1  April, „
Enthusiastic  reception  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,

20,  21  April, ,,
Marriage  of  prince  Humbert  to  his  cousin  Mar-

gherita  at  Turin  ....  22  April,  ,,
Frightful  atrocities committed by brigands in

south  Italy April,  May, „

Grist  tax  adopted  by  the  senate . . Juue, ,,
Arrangement  made  for  debt  of  the  late  papal  pro-
vinces 3°  July. i>

Government  tobacco  monopoly  ordered  to  be  farmed ;
resignation  of  the  ministers, Lanza  and  Sella,

8  Aug. „


ITALY.


535


ITALY.


Long  continued  rain  ;  dreadful  inundations  in  the
K  Alpine  regions  ;  great  storm . . 27  Sept. 1S68
Meeting  of  chamber  of  deputies ;  Garibaldi  with-
draws 24  Nov. „

Ministerial  victory  respecting  the  grist  tax  in  the

chambers 26  Jan. 1869

Thomas,  duke  of  Genoa,  entered  a  pupil  at  Harrow

(see  Spain,  1870) April, „

Circular  of  Menabrea  against  the  council  at  Rome,

5  Oct. „
Victor-Emmanuel  Ferdinand,  son  of  prince  Hum-
bert, born  at  Naples . . . .11  Nov. „
Serious  illness  and  recovery  of  the  king, 6-20  Nov. ,,
Offered  resignation  of  Menabrea,  about  19 Nov.  ; ,,

Cialdini  and  Sella  unable  to  form  a  ministiy,  10

Dec.  ;  Lanza  and  Sella  succeed .  13  Dec.

<Ecumenical  council  at  Borne  (see  Rome,  Councils)

opened 8  Dec. ,,

Republican  risings  in  Pavia  and  otherplaces quelled,

about  24  March,  1870
^Neutrality  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  announced,

18  July,  additional  armaments  ordered  .  4  Aug.  ,,
Mazzini  arrested  at  Palermo  and  sent  to  Gaeta,

14  Aug. „
Fruitless  mission  of  prince  Napoleon  to  obtain  help

for  France 21-25  Aug. ,,

•Circular  note  from  the  government  recounting  the

failure  of  all  attempts  to  conciliate  the  pope  since

i860  ;  and  proposing  favourable  terms  29  Aug.  „
French  vessel  Orenoque  placed  at  Civita  Vecchia  on

behalf  of  the  pope  . . . .  Aug. „

.Respectful  letter from the king to the pope,

announcing  the  occupation  of  Rome  necessary  to

order 8  Sept. ,,

The  Italian  troops  enter  the  papal  territories  (see

Rome);  occupy  Viterbo  and  other  places,  12  Sept.  ,,
General  Bixio  marches  towards  Rome,  18,  19  Sept.  „
After  a  short  resistance,  the  Italians  under  General

Cadorna  enter  Rome.  [FordetailsseeEo?re«.]2oSept.  ,,
Plebiscite  in  papal  territories  :  for  union  with  the

kingdom  of  Italy  (out  of  167,548  voters)  133,681  ;

against  1507 2  Oct. „

■The  king  receives  the  result  of  the  plebiscite,  8  Oct. ,,
Rome  incorporated  with Italy by  royal decree,

general  La  Marmora  governor  .  .  9  Oct.  ,,
Arrival  of  La  Marmora  at  Rome  as  viceroy ;  reported

agitation  in Nice for reunion with Italy  or

autonomy Oct. ,,

Capture  and  death  of  Pilone,  a  great  Bourbonist

brigand  chief 14  Oct. ,,

Mazzini  arrives  at  Florence . . . 15  Oct. ,,
Amnesty  to  political  offenders  proclaimed,  10  Oct.  ;

including  Mazzini  ....  16  Oct.  ,,
Diplomatic  circular  announcing  the  occupation  of

Rome  as  the  capital  of  Italy . . .18  Oct. „
Soman  provinces  united  into  one,  with  five  sub-
prefectures 19  Oct. „

Ministerial  changes  completed  . 30  Oct. „

Ricasoli  retires  into  private  life  ;  about 14  Nov. ,,
Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta,  the  king's second  son,

elected  king  by  the  Spanish  cortes  .  16  Nov.  ,,
Elections  favourable  to  the  government ; all  the

ministers  elected  .  .  .  about  28  Nov.  ,,
Parliament  meets  ;  the  king  declares  Rome  to  be

the  capital  of  Italy ....  5  Dec. ,,

Bills  introduced  for  the  transfer  of  the  capital  and

the preservation  of  the pope's rights, about

10  Dec. ,,
The  Cenis  tunnel  completed .  . 25  Dec. ,,

Great  inundation  ;  the  king  visits  Rome 31  Dec. ,,
The  senate  vote  the  transfer  of  the  capital  from

Florence  to  Rome  (94 — 39) . .  26  Jan. 1871

The  king  and  ministers  remove  to  Rome,  1,  2  July,

which  is  inaugurated  as  the  capital  .  3  July,  ,,
The  parliament  opened  there  by  the  king  27  Nov.  ,,
Telegraphic  conference  at  Rome  .  18  Dec. ,,

-Joseph  Mazzini  dies  at  Pisa  . . 10  March,  1872

Elections  favourable  to  the  liberals . . Aug. „
Great  inundations  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  &c,  loss
of  life  and  of  much  property  ;  much  saved  by  the
exertions  of  the  military . . .  Oct. „

Opposition  to  the  income-tax in the  assembly  ;

majority  for  government  (144 — 116)  .  .  Dec.  „
Great  sorrow  at  the  death  of  Napoleon  III.,  9  Jan.

proposals  for  monument  in  Milan . . Jan.  1873
Bill  dealing  with the religious establishments at
Rome  introduced April, „


The  Lanza-Sella  ministry  resign;  but  resume  office  at

the  request  of  the  king . . about  4  May,  1873
Death  of  Alessandro  Manzoni  . . .22  May, ,,
Death  of  Urbano  Rattazzi . . .5  June, „
Law  for  expulsion  of  Jesuits  passed . 25  June, „

See  Jesuits.
Lanza  and  Sella  resign,  26  June  ;  a  ministry  formed

by  Minghetti 10  July, „

The  king's  visit  to  Vienna,  17  Sept.  ;  to  Berlin,

22-26  Sept. ,,
Monuments  to  Cavour  at  Turin  inaugurated  by  the

king 8  Nov. „

The king  opens  parliament  with congratulatory

speech 15  Nov. „

Academy  of  San  Luca  replaced  by  a  new  academy,

Jan.  1874
National  festival  on  the  25th  anniversary  of  the

king's  accession .  ...  23  March, ,,

Minghetti  ministry  defeated  on  a  finance  bill ;  their

resignation  not  accepted  by  the  king . 24  May, „
Accoltellatori (secret assassinating  societies)  re-
ported in  Ravenna  and  other  places, Sept.-Oct. ,,
About 80 secret extortioners (see Canwrra)  in

Naples  seized  and  transported . .  Sept.-Oct. ,,
Teodali,  a  papal  chamberlain,  seized  by  brigands,

ransomed  for  2000?. . . . about  8,  9  Oct. ,,
The  Orenoque  (French)  sails  from  Civita  Vecchia

13  Oct. „

Jesuits  ordered  to  quit  their  establishments

15  Oct. „

Result  of  elections  in  support  of  government,  Nov. ,,

The  Camorra,  Maffei,  and  Brigantaggio  (terrorist
secret  societies)  prevalent  in  south  Italy . 1874-5

Garibaldi  declines  a  sum  of  money  (3500J.)  voted  to
him' 31  Dec.  1874

He  enters  Rome  amid  great  excitement,  takes  his
seat  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  takes  the
oath  to  the  king 24  Jan.  1875

Accepts  the  sum  voted  and  devotes  it  to  improve-
ment of  the  Tiber,  &c 12  Feb. „

The  emperor  of  Austria  and  king  of  Italy  meet  at
Venice 5-7  April, „

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  to  expire
26  June,  1876,  announced  . . . June, „

Synod  of  Italian  Catholic  church  (which  see)  held
at  Naples Aug. „

Elections  of  parish  priests  declared  valid  in  opposi-
tion to  the  bishops .... July-Aug. „

Michel-Angelo  fete  at  Florence . . 12  Sept. „

Italian  Catholic  congress,  blessed  by  the  pope,
meets  at  Florence;  scanty  attendance, 22-25  Sept. „

Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  Milan;  warmly
received  by  the  king  and  people  . .  18-23  Oct. ,,

Minghetti  ministry  defeated  on  the  budget,  18  Mar.  ;
resign 19  March,  1876

Agostino  Depretis  forms  a  cabinet . . March, „

The  Diulio,  great  iron-clad,  launched  at  Castella-
mare,  in  presence  of  the  king . . .8  May, „

Discovery  of  a  "  black  book"  in  the  home-office,  re-
cording misdeeds  of  many  officials,  &c.  ;  gives
much  offence ....  .  June, „

Italian  geographical  society's  expedition  in  Africa  ;
ill-treated  at  Zeila  ;  the  khedive  informed July, ,,

Marchese  Mantegazza  tried  for  forging  the  signa-
tures of  the  king  and  prince  Humbert  on  bills
and  letters  to  obtain  money  ;  confessed,  but  re-
fused to  disclose  name  of  associate  or  instigator,
18  Aug.  ;  sentence,  8  years'  penal  servitude

31  Aug. ,,

Elections  ;  great  majority  for  Depretis  ministry,

about  6  Nov. ,,

Maria  Vittoria,  duchess  of  Aosta,  ex-queen  of  Spain,
aged  28,  dies,  greatly  lamented . . 8  Nov. ,,

Parliament  opened  by  the  king . . 20  Nov. ,,

Discovery  near  Verona  of  above  50,000  coins  of  Gal-
lienus  and  others,  eliieliy  bronze . . Jan.  1877

Bill  for  repressing  clerical  abuses  adopted  by  the
deputies  ;  the  pope  expresses  j^reat  displeasure  in
his  circular  to  foreign  powers,  21  March  ;  the
bill  rejected  by  the  senate . . - 7  May, ,,

Antonelli  Case— Countess  Loreta  Lambertini  claims
property  of  her  alleged  father,  cardinal  Antonelli ;
resisted' by  his  brothers,  30  June;  trial;  her  case

not  proved 6  Dec. „

Ministerial  changes . . . about  12  Nov. „
Monument  at,  Montana  (which  sec)  inaugurated,

25  Nov. „


ITALY.


533


ITALY.


Resignation  of  the  ministry,  15  Dec.  ;  Depretis
re-forms  his  ministry  (Nicotera  replaced  by
Crispi) 16-26  Dec.  1877

Father  Curci  (see  Jesuits)  publishes  "Dissidio  Mo-
demo  fra  la  Chiesa  e  l'ltalia,"  against  the  pope's
temporal  power Dec. „

Death  of  La  Marmora,  aged  74,  5  Jan.  ;  death  of
king  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  9  Jan.  ;  his  funeral  ;
procession  2  miles  long ;  buried  in  the  Pantheon,
Rome 17  Jan.  1878

Death  of  pope  Pius  IX.  7  Feb. ;  election  of  Leo
XIII 20  Feb. „

Antonelli  Case— the  countess  permitted  to  appear  in
court:  the  case  deferred . . . . Feb. „

Resignation  of  the  Depretis  ministry . 10  March, „

Cairoli  forms  a  liberal  ministry,  Corti  foreign  mi-
nister ;  new  men  . . . .23  March, „

Seismet  Doda,  finance  minister,  announces  probable
surplus June, ,,''

Dandnlo,  largest  Italian  ironclad,  launched  at
Spezzia,  in  presence  of  the  king . . 10  July, „

Popular  discontent  at  the  Berlin  treaty  ;  desire  for
acquiring  Trent  and  Trieste  ;  cry  of  "  Italia  irre-
denta!" (vhich  see)  meetings  at  Rome,  &c.

about  21  July, ,,

Death  of  Giorgio  Pallavicino,  senator,  patriot,  friend
of  Cavour,  aged  84 3  Aug. „

David  Lazzaretti,  "  the  saint,"  a  peasant,  aged  48,
founder  of  a  religious  socialistic  sect  in  1868,  with
12  apostles,  &c,  and  creed  somewhat  protestant ;
proposed  to  erect  seven  hermitages  ;  marched  to-
wards Arcidosso,  in  Tuscany,  with  between  two
and  three  thousand  followers  ;  David,  clad  in  a
half-regal,  half-pontifical  costume,  proclaiming
the  Christian  republic,  resisted  dispersion  by  the
police,  who,  when  fired  on,  fired  and  killed  David
and  one  of  his  followers ;  these  retired,  carrying
off  David's  body 18  Aug. „

Ministerial  crisis  ;  resignation  of  Corti  and  others,
19  Oct. ;  of  all  the  Cairoli  ministry . 22  Oct. „

Sig.  Cairoli  reconstitutes  the  ministry . 25  Oct. „

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  at  Naples  by
Giovanni  Passanante,an  internationalist,  aged  29 ;
the  king  and  Cairoli,  the  minister,  slightly
wounded 17  Nov. „

"  Pietro  Barsanti "  Clubs  (in  memory  of  a  sergeant
executed  for  gross  insubordination  a  few  years
ago)  become  prominent ;  oppose  ministry,  autumn, ,,

The  Cairoli  ministry  defeated  on  vote  of  confidence
(263-189),  11  Dec.  ;  resign . . .12  Dec. ,,

Sig.  Depretis's  ministry  takes  office . 19  Dec. „

Passanante  condemned  to  death  at  Naples,  7  March ;
to  perpetual  imprisonment  (by  the  king), 29  March,  1879

Antonelli  case  :  the  countess  Lambertini's  appeal
rejected 3  July, „

Government  defeated  on  the  grist  bill  (251-159);  re-
signs 3  July, ,,

Sig.  Cairoli  forms  a  ministry  . . 8-12  July, ,,

New  clerical  conservative  party  issues  a  manifesto,

iE  Aug. ,,

"  Res  Italicce"  pamphlet  (see  Italia  Irredenta),  Aug. ,,

The  followers  of  Lazzaretti  tried  and  acquitted,

12  Nov. ,,

Cairoli  ministry  reconstructed .  18-24  Nov. >>

First  publication  of  "  Aurora,"  a  papal  daily  news-
paper, at  Rome 1  Jan. 1880

Parliament  opened  by  the  king  ;  relief  of  taxation
promised 17  Feb. ,,

Majority  in  chamber  against  ministers,  17  Feb.;  its
resignation  not  accepted  by  the  king,  29  April  ;
dissolution  of  the  chamber  . .  2  May, ,,

Elections  :  absolute  majority  for  the  Cairoli  minis-
try ;  parliament  meets  . . . .26  May, ,,

Cordigliani,  a  half-mad  tailor,  condemned  to  im-
prisonment for  throwing  paving-stones  at  a  group
>f  deputies  (25  June)  .... 26  Aug. „
Celebration  of  capture  of  Rome  by  Italians  in  1870,

20  Sept. ,,

Italia,  great  ironclad,  launched  at  Castellamare,

29  Sept. ,,

Garibaldi  (and  his  son  Menotti)  resign  as  deputies
on  account  of  the  imprisonment  of  his  son-in-law,
gen.  Canzio,  for  republican  manifestations,  27
Sept.  ;  Garibaldi  goes  to  Genoa,  Oct. ;  Canzio  re-
leased 10  Oct. ,,

Col.  John  Whitehead,  "  Garibaldi's  Englishman,"
dies,  aged  69 21  Nov. „

Resignation  of  Cairoli  and  his  cabinet,  8  April  ;  re-


turn to  office ;  censured  011  account  of  the  Tunis

affair 18  April,  1

The  Cairoli  ministry  again  resign .  14  May,

M.  Depretis  forms  a  ministry  . . 28  May,

Father  Curci  publishes  "New  Italy  and  Old  Zealots ,"

June,
The  king  and  queen  warmly  received  at  Vienna,

28-31  Oct.

The government complain of  Vatican  intrigues

about  28  Dec.

Death  of  Lanza,  General  Medici  patriot,  died  9  Mar.

Opening  of  St.  Gothard  railway  from  Lucerne  to

Milan 20,  21  May,  j

Death of  Garibaldi at  Caprera  deeply  lamented

2  June,
Buried  there  in  the  presence  of  thousands  8  June,
Parliament  dissolved  .... 4  Oct.

Destructive  floods  in  North  Italy  .  Sept.,  Oct.
Elections  in  favour  of  the  ministry  about  28  Oct.
First  reform  parliament  opened  by  King  Humbert

22  Nov
Death  of  the  duke  of  Sermoneta  .  .  .  12  Dec.
Demonstrations against Austria on account of

execution of Oberdank for threatening the

emperor's  life  .... 20-22  Dec.

International  fine  art  exhibition  opened  at  Rome

21  Jan.  :
Specie  payments  resumed ... 12  April,
Lepanto,  Italian  built  iron-clad  launched  at  Leg-
horn ;  the  king  present .... 17  Mar.
The  four-hundredth  anniversary  of  Raphael's  birth

celebrated  at  Rome ....  28  Mar.

Confidence  in  the  Depretis  ministry  voted  (348-29)  ;

it  resigns,  and  returns .  . 25,  26  May,

New  important  treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed,

15  June,
About  50  persons  perish  by  fire  in  a  theatre  at

Dervio,  near  Como .... 24  June,
King  Victor  Emmanuel's  body  removed  to  the  Pan-
theon 5  Jan. ;  thousands  of  pilgrims  visit  his  tomb

up  to 21  Jan.

Death  of  Sig.  Sella,  great  financial  minister,  14  Mar.
Resignation of  the Depretis ministry,  20 Mar.  ;

reconstituted ... 22  Mar.-io  April,
Discussion  respecting  the  sale  of  the  Propaganda

property  at  Rome April,

National  exhibition  at  Turin  opened  by  the  king,

26  April,  closed 20  Nov.

Fifth  ironclad  launched  at  Castellamare  .
Twenty-one  new  members added to the  Senate

28  Nov.
Total  number  of soldiers  in  the  army,  2,113,969

1  Jan.
Navy  consisted of  112  vessels  afloat  or  building

1  Jan.
Heavy  snow  storms  in  Piedmont,  near  Mont  Cenis ;

many  avalanches ;  many  villages  destroyed ;  very

great  loss  of  life .... 16-28  Jan.
Expedition  to  Assab  to  avenge  the  massacre  of

Guiletti  and  Bianchi

Ironclad  Cattclfidardo  arrived  at  Beilul  .  25  Jan.
The  ministry  determine  to  assist  Great  Britain  in

the  Soudan ....  .6  Feb.

Italian  flag  hoisted  at  Massowah  (which  see)  6  Feb.
Resignation  of  the  Depretis  ministry  on  account  of

Mancini's  foreign  policy,  18  June ;  reconstituted

about  24  June,

Ironclad Francisco  Morosini launched  at  Venice

30  July,
Elections  : ministerial  majority  about  55, about

"  24  May,
Death  of  Marco  Minghetti  (prime  minister  in  1864

et  seq.),  aged  70 10  Dec.

Depretis  ministry  resigns  ...  8  Feb.
Destructive  earthquakes  (which  see)  23,  24  Feb.
Several statesmen having declined office, the

Depretis  ministry  resumes  office . 5  March,
Defensive  treaty  of  alliance  with  Austria-Hungary

and  Germany  signed ... 13  March,
Coalition  cabinet  formed,  Depretis,  foreign  minister,

premier 3  April,

Depretis  dies,  aged  74,  29  July  ;  M.  Crispi  becomes

premier Aug.

Signor  Crispi  visits  prince  Bismarck  .  2,  3  Oct.
Signor  Crispi  at  Turin  declares  his  policy  to be

thorough  peace 25  Oct.

Parliament  opened . . . . .16  Nov.


ITALY.


537


ITALY.


Increased  formation  of  workman,  socialistic,  and
republican  leagues 1882-87

Duke  Torlonia,  syndic  of  Rome,  dismissed  for
congratulating  the  pope  on  his  jubilee  2  Jan.  1888

The  progress  of  the  Italian  catholic  church
opposed  to  the  papacy,  reported . . Feb. „

Fall  of  vast  avalanches  in  north  Italy  ;  23  persons
killed  at  Valtorta,  23  Feb. ;  30  persons  killed  at
Sparone,  29  Feb.  1888 ;  above  200  persons
said  to  have  perished  in  the  Alps Feb.-March ,,

Italian  exhibition  (which  see),  London, 12  May,-

31  Oct. „

The  abolition  of  capital  punishment  passed  by  the
chambers June, ,,

Cheap  popular  edition  of  the  Italian  bible  (with
Cassell's  illustrations)  issued  by  signor  Sonzogno,
editor  of  the  Secolo,  Milan . . . July, ,,

For  war  with  Abyssinia,  see  Massowah . . 1887-88

Marriage  of  the  duke  of  Aosta,  ex-king  of  Spain,
with  his  niece  princess  Loetitia,  daughter  of  his
sister Clotilde and prince Napoleon Jerome,

11  Sept.  1888

The  emperor  William  II.  warmly  received  at  Rome,
11  Oct.  ;  32,000  troops  reviewed  at  Centocelle,  13
Oct.  at  Naples  ;  (launch  of  the  great  ironclad
Re  Umberto  at  Castellamare) . . 16  Oct. ,,

Landslip  between  Salandra  and  Graseano ;  de-
struction of  an  excursion  train,  about  22  persons
killed 20  Oct. ,,

Marquis  of  Dufferin,  British  ambassador,  received
by  the  king 7  Jan.  1889

Death  of  Father  Gavazzi,  church  reformer,  aged  80

9  Jan. ,,

Opening  of  parliament  by  the  king . 28  Jan. ,,

Signor  Crispi  resigns  28  Feb.  but  reconstitutes  his
ministry 7  March, ,,

The  king,  his  son  and  Signor  Crispi  warmly  re-
ceived at  Berlin .... 21-26  Mar. ,,

Death  of  Benedetto  Cairoli,  aged  63,  patriot  and
statesman,  associated  with  Victor  Emanuel,
Cavour  and  Garibaldi,  in  the  unification  of  Italy,
deeply  lamented 8  Aug. ,,

Sig.  Cr.spi  injured  by  a  stone  thrown  at  him  during
a  carriage  drive  by  Emilio  Caporali,  a  silly  youth

13  Sept. ,,

The  king  ratifies  treaty  of  2  May  with  Abyssinia .

2  Oct. „

Italian  protectorate  over  Abyssinia  announced

14  Oct. ,,

The  parliament  opened  with  a  cheerful  speech  by
the  king 25  Nov. ,,

Death  of  the  duke  of  Aosta,  aged  44 . 18  Jan.  1890

Ministry  defeated  in  the  senate  on  a  minor  ques-
tion, 5  May  ;  the  crisis  passes  over  9  May,  et  seq. ,,

Democratic  congress  at  Rome,  470  associations  re-
presented 11  May,  et  st>q. „

Riots  at  Conselice,  in  the  Romagna,  3  or  4  rioters
killed  by  the  military  . . . about  24  May ,,

Confidence  in  Signor  Crispi's  ministry  voted  (329-61)

31  May, ,,

The  prince  of  Naples  visits  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin

May,  June, ,,

Major  Gaetani  Casati  returns  from  his  expedition
to  Bmin  pasha  (see  Africa)  ;  received  at  Rome,  14
July  ;  by  the  king 17  July, „

Sig.  Filonanli  becomes  director  of  the  Italian  East
Africa  company . . . announced  12  Aug. „

Anglo-Italian  steamer  line  (Naples,  Palermo,  and
London),  inaugurated ... 22  Aug. ,,

Destructive  cyclone— San  Marino,  Turin,  Como,
Naples,  Sardinia,  &c.  ... 26  Aug. „

Great  ironclad,  Sardegna,  launched  at  Spezia

20  Sept. ,,

Conference  at  Naples,  of  representatives  of  Great
Britain  and  Italy,  respecting  the  limits  of  the
territories  in  East  Africa  ;  sig.  Crispi  and  lord
Dufferin  present  ;  disagreement  respecting
Kassala,  &c.  ;  the  conference  closes  without
result 4-10  Oct. ,,

The  parliament  dissolved ... 24  Oct. ,,

Parliamentary  elections  held,  great  majority  for
the  government 23  Nov. ,,

Ministerial  changes ....  8-9  Dec. ,,

Parliament  opened  10  Dec.  ;  confidence  in  the
ministry  voted 19  Dec. ,,

Signor  Crispi  defeated  on  a  financial  question  (186-
123),  and  resigns 31  Jan. 1891

New  Ministry ;  marquis  di  Rudini  (president  and


foreign  minister),  and  others,  6  Feb.  et  seq.  ;  they
propose  maintenance  of  peace,  and  reduced  ex-
penditure, &c. 11  Feb.  :

Vote  of  confidence  in  the  ministry  adopted  .

21  March,

Treaty  for  the  delimitation  of  the  British  and
Italian  spheres  of  influence  in  East  Africa,  signed
at  Rome 15  April

Financial  difficulties  ;  opposition  to  reduction  of
the  army  expenditure . . about  31  March

Trial  of  179  persons  connected  with  the  Mala  Vita
conspiracy  at  Bari,  see  Cainorra . . April

The  triple  alliance  renewed  ... 28  June,

Tour  of  the  prince  of  Naples  ;  arrives  in  London,
received  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  22  July  ;  dined
with  the  queen  at  Osborne,  24  July  ;  visited  the
marquis  of  Salisbury  at  Hatfield,  25  July  ;  other-
visits  ;  with  lord  Mayor,  28  July  ;  made  E.G.  at
Osborne,  3  Aug.  ;  visits  Edinburgh  and  other
places  in  Scotland,  7  Aug.  et  seq.  ;  at  Newcastle,
14  Aug.  ;  leaves  for  Bergen,  &c. . 15  Aug.

The  mail  steamer  Taormina  sunk  by  collision  with
the  Greek  steamer  Thessalia,  off  Cape  Sunium,
about  60  lives  lost,  2  a.m. .  .  12  Sept.

The  Russian  foreign  minister,  M.  de  Giers,  meets
the  Marquis  di  Rudini,  the  Italian  premier,  at
Milan,  12  Oct.  ;  they  visit  the  king  at  Monza  (no
political  results)  . . . 13  and  17  Oct.

Trial  of  60  anarchists  .... 14  Oct.

New  commercial  treaty  with  Austria  and  Germany
signed  at  Rome . . . . . 16  Dec.

Lord  Vivian  succeeds  lord  Duflerin  as  British
minister about  22  Jan.

Death  of  count  de  Launay,  minister  at  Berlin  suc-
cessively for  Sardinia  and  Italy  for  37  years

7  Feb.

Signor  Crispi  retires  from  public  affairs  .

about  15  Feb.

Cipriani  Palla  and  other  anarchists  sentenced  to
different  terms  of  imprisonment . 24  March

Resignation  of  the  cabinet  through  differences  re-
specting finance,  14  April  ;  most  of  the  resigna-
tions withdrawn ....  21  April,

Difficulty  with  the  United  States  settled,  see  New
Orleans about  14  April,

Anarchist  leaders  arrested  in  Rome  and  other
places,  25  April,  et  seq.  ;  48  arrested  up  to  29
April ;  42  arrests  on ... 30  April,

The  Rudini  ministry,  defeated  in  the  Chamber
(193-185),  resign . . .  . 5  May,

A  new  ministry  formed  by  sig.  Giolitti n-15  May,

Resignation  of  the  ministry  not  accepted  by  the
king 27  May,


476.


526.
S34-
536.
54°-

54i-


573-
575-
59'-
615.
625.
636.

652.

653-
661.
662.
671.
686.
700.
701.


KINGS OF ITALY.

Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli,  invades  Italy,  ami
becomes  king,  conquered  and  slain  by

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  an  able  prince.
He  put  to  death  the  philosophers  Boethius  and
Symmaehus,  falsely  accused,  about  525.

Athalaric,  his  grandson,  dies  of  the  plague.

Theodatus  elected  ;  assassinated.

Vitiges  elected.

Theodebald  (Hildibald)  elected  ;  assassinated.

Totila,  or  Badiula,  a  great  prince  ;  killed  in  battle
against  the  imperial  army  under  Narses.

Theias  falls  in  battle.

Italy  subject  to  the  eastern  empire  till

Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  with  a  huge  mixed
army,  conquers  Italy  ;  poisoned  by  his  wife
Rosamond,  for  compelling  her  to  drink  wine  out
of  a  cup  formed  of  her  father's  skull.

Cleoph  ;  assassinated.

Autharis  ;  poisoned.

Agilulph.

Adaloald  ;  poisoned.

Arioakl.

Rotharis  ;  married  the  widow  of  Arioald  ;  pub-
lished a  code  of  laws.

Rodoald  (son);  assassinated.

Aribert  I.  (uncle)

Bertharit  and  Godebert  (sons) ;  dethroned  by

Grimoald,  duke  of  Benevento.

Bertharit  re-established.

Cunibert  (son).

Luitbert ,  dethroned  by

Ragimbert.

Aribert  II.  (son).


ITALY.


538


IVET.


712. Ansprand  elected.
„ Luitprand  (son),  a  great  prince,  and  a  favourite  of

the  churcli.
744. Hildebrand  (nephew) ;  deposed.

„ Eaehis,  duke  of  Friuli,  elected  ;  became  a  monk.
•749. Astolph  (brother).
•756. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope

Adrian,  who  invited  Charlemagne  into  Italy,  by

whom Desiderius  was  deposed,  and  an  end.  put

to  the  Lombard  kingdom.
-781. Pepin  er  Carloman  (son  of  Charlemagne).
:Si2. Bernard.
.820. Lothaire  (son  of  Louis  le  De'bonnaire)

EMPERORS.

•875.  Charles  the  Bald.

•877.  Carloman.

$79.  Charles  the  Fat

888.  Berenger  L

889.  ,,  and  Guy.
■894. ,, and  Lambert.

•921-  .*  and  Rudolph  of  Burgundy.

•526. Hugh  of  Provence.

<94S. Lothaire  II.

.950. Berenger  II.  and  Adalbert  his  son  ;  deposed  in  96)

by  the  emperor  Otho  the  Great,  who  added  Italy

to  the  German  empire.

MODERN  KINGS OV ITALY.

3805.  Napoleon  I.  proclaimed  king  of  Italy,  18  March  ;
crowned  at  Milan,  26  May  ;  abdicated,  1814.

2861.  Victor-Emmanuel  II.  (of  Sardinia,  which  see),  born
14  March,  1820  ;  declared  king  of  Italy  by  the
parliament,  17  March,  1861  ;  died  9  Jan.  1878.

1878.  Humbert  (son),  born  14  March,  1844;  married  his


cousin  Margherita  (born  20  Nov.  1851),  22  April,
1868.
Heir :  Victor-Emmanuel  (son),  prince  of  Naples,
born  11  Nov.  1869.

ITHACA,  kingdom  of  Ulysses,  see  Ionian
Isles.  It  was  explored  by  Dr.  Schliemann,  in  1878 ;
few  discoveries  being  made.

ITINEBAKIES.  The  Eoman  Itinerarium
was  a  table  of  the  stages  between  important  places.
The  "Itineraria  Antonini,"  embracing  the  whole
Eoman  empire,  usually  ascribed  to  the  emperor
Aurelius  Antonius,  and  his  successors,  a.d.  138-180,
was  probably  based  upon  the  survey  made  by  order
of  Julius  Caesar,  44  B.C.  The  "Itinerarium
Hierosolymitanum  "  was  drawn  up  for  the  use  of
the  pilgrims  about  a.d.  333.

IVOBY  was  brought  to  Solomon  from  Tarshish,
about  992  B.C.  (1  Kings  x.  22).  The  colossal  statues
of  Jupiter,  Minerva,  &c,  by  Phidias,  were  formed
of  ivory  and  gold,  444  B.C.  Ivory  tusk,  7  feet  long,
sent  by  the  Zulu  king  Cetywayo  to  lord  Chelms-
ford, as  a  token  of  peace,  summer,  1879.  Celluloid,
an  imitation  of  ivory,  tortoiseshell,  etc.,  composed
of  guncotton  and  camphor,  used  for  the  manufacture
of  buttons,  billiard  balls,  and  various  ornaments,
reported  dangerous  as  being  inflammable  at  low
temperatures,  Feb.  1892.

IVKY  (near  Evreux,  N.'W.  France).  Here
Henry  IV.  totally  defeated  the  due  de  Mayenne,
and  the  League  army,  14  March,  1590.


J.


JACOBINS.


JAMAICA.


J  was  distinguished  from  I  by  the  Dutch  scholars
of  the  16th  century,  and  introduced  into  the  alphabet
by  Giles  Beys,  printer,  of  Paris,  1550. Dufresnoy.

JACOBINS,  a  name  given  to  the  Dominicans
in  France,  because  their  first  convent  was  the
hospital  of  the  pilgrims  of  St.  James  (Jacobus),
at  Paris,  at  the  request  of  pope  Honorius  III.
(1216-27).  The  Jacobin  club  (first  called  "club
Breton " )  consisted  of  about  forty  gentlemen
and  men  of  letters,  who  met  in  the  hall  of  the
Jacobin  friars,  at  Paris,  in  Oct.  1789,  to  discuss
political  and  other  questions.  Similar  societies
were  instituted  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  the
kingdom. The  club  was  closed  11  Nov.  1794.

JACOBITES*  a  Christian  sect,  so  called  from
Jacob  Baradaeus,  a  Syrian,  about  541 ;  see  Euty-
chians. — The  partisans  of  James  II.  (Latin,
Jacobus  II.)  were  so  named  after  his  expulsion  from
England  in  1688-9.

A  sentimental  revival  of  Jacobitism  appeared  in  Eng-
land in  1891,  the  "White  Hose  League"  having  been
formed.  The  marquis  de  Ruvigny  and  other  members
of  the  "  Legitimist  Jacobite  League  "  were  stopped  in
their  attempt  to  place  a  large  floral  wreath  on  the
tomb  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  in  Westminster  Abbey,
8  Feb.  1892.

JACOBUS,  a  gold  coin,  so  called  from  king
James  I.  of  England,  in  whose  reign  it  was  struck,
1603-25.

JACQUAED  LOOM,  for  figured  fabrics,  in-
vented by  Joseph  Marie  Jacquard,  of  Lyons,  and
patented  23  Dec.  1801.

JACQUEBIE,  a  term  applied  to  bands  of
revolted  peasants  (headed  by  one  Caillot,  called
Jacques  Bonhomme),  who  ravaged  France  during
the  captivity  of  king  John  in  1358,  and  were  quelled
with  much  bloodshed.  Similar  insurrections  oc-
curred in  Germany.  One  was  termed  the  Bundschuh,
from  the  large  shoe  especially  worn  by  peasants,  in
1502  ;  and  another  termed  the  Bund  (or  league)  of
the  Poor  Conrad,  1514  and  1524,  which  also  cost
about  100,000  lives,  and  led  to  the  insurrection  of
the  anabaptists.

JAFFA,  a  seaport  of  Syria,  celebrated  in  scrip-
ture as  Joppa,  whence  Jonah  embarked  (about  862
B.C.),  and  where  Peter  raised  Tabitha  from  the  dead
(a.d.  38) ;  in  mythology  the  place  whence  Perseus
delivered  Andromeda.  Jafla  was  taken  by  the
caliph  Omar,  in  636 ;  by  the  Crusaders,  1099 ;  by
Saladin,  1 193;  byLouisIX.,  1252;  and  by  Bonaparte,
7  March,  1 799 ;  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the
British  in  J  une,  the  same  year.  Here,  according  to
sir  Robert  Wilson,  were  massacred  3800  prisoners
by  Bonaparte ;  but  this  is  doubted.  Jaffa  suffered
by  an  earthqdake  in  Jan.  1837,  when  it  is  said  that
13,000  persons  were  killed.

JAGELLONS,  a  dynasty  whichat  times  reigned
over  Lithuania,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,
beginning  with  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania
(husband  of  Hedwig,  daughter  of  Louis  of  Hungary,
1384),  who  became  king  of  Poland  as  Ladislas  III.
or  V.  in  1399,  and  ending  with  Sigismund  II.,  who
died  in  1572.

JAINS,  see  Jeynes.


JAMAICA,  a  W.  India  island,  discovered  by
Columbus,  3  May,  1494,  and  named  St.  Jago.  It
was  conquered  from  the  Spaniards  by  admiral
Penn,  with  land  forces  commanded  by  Venables,
3  May,  1655,  and  settled  soon  after.  Population  in
1861,  13,816  whites;  81,074  coloured;  346,374
blacks;  "in  1871,  506,154;  whites,  13,101 ;  coloured,
100,346;  blacks,  392,707;  in  1881,  585,582;  1891,
639,491.  Revenue,  1890-1,  764,045/.  ;  expenditure,
510,058/.  The  government  of  Jamaica  includes
Turks  and  Caicos  islands.

An  awful  earthquake  here  . . .2  June,  1692

The  Maroons  (runaway  slaves)  permitted  to  settle

in  the  north  of  the  island  1738

Desolating  hurricanes  in . . . 1722,  1734,  &  1751
In  June,  179s,  the  Maroons  rose  against  the  English,

and  were  not  quelled  till  ....  March,  1796
Many  transported  to  Sierra  Leone ....  1800

Slave  trade  abolished 1  May,  1807

Tremendous  hurricane,  by  which  the  whole  island
was  deluged,  hundreds  of  houses  washed  away,
vessels  wrecked,  and  1000  persons  drowned,  Oct. 1815

Bishopric  .established 1824

Insurrection  of  the  negro  slaves  ;  numerous  planta-
tions burnt ;  the  governor,  lord  Belmore,  declared

martial  law 22  Dec.  1831

Emancipation  of  the  slaves . . . 1  Aug. 1834

About  50,000  die.  of  cholera  in 1850

In  May,  1853,  the  dissension  between  the  colonial
legislature  and  sir  Charles  Grey,  the  governor,
occasioned  his  recall ;  his  successor,  sir  H.  Barkly,

arrived Oct.  1853

Bishopric  of  Kingston  established . . . .  1856
Charles  Henry  Darling  appointed  governor . .  1857
Edward  John  Eyre  appointed  governor . July,  1864
Negro  insurrection  begins  at  Mo  rant-bay,  by  resist-
ing the  capture  of  a  negro  criminal,  7  Oct.  ;  the
court-house  fired  on  ;  baron  Ketelholdt,  rev.  V.
Herschell,  and  others  cruelly  murdered,  and  many

wounded n  Oct.  1865

Rebellion  spreads,  and  many  atrocities  are  com-
mitted ;  it  is  suppressed  by  the  energy  of  the
governor,  the  military  and  naval  officers,  volun-
teers, the  Maroons,  and  the  loyal  negroes,

13-24  Oct. „
George  Wm. Gordon,  a  coloured  member  of  the
legislature,  convicted  of  encouraging  the  rebel-
lion, 21  Oct.  ;  executed . . . .23  Oct. ,,

Paul  Bogle  executed 24  Oct. ,,

Numerous  executions  ....  Oct.  <fe  Nov.  ,,
Sir  Henry  Storks  summoned  from  Malta,  and  sent
to  Jamaica,  with  Messrs.  Russell  Gurney  and  John
B.  Maule,  as  commissioners,  to  inquire  respecting
the  disturbances,  and  the  measures  taken  in  sup-
pressing them  ....  11  Dec.  et  seq.  ,,
Governor  Eyre  temporarily  suspended  ;  sir  Henry

Storks  arrives  in  Jamaica  . . . .6  Jan. 1866
The  legislative  assembly  of  Jamaica  dissolves  itself,
and  abrogates  the  constitution  (which  had  existed

200  years) 17  Jan. ,,

1600Z.  subscribed  at  Jamaica  for  defence  of  gov.

Eyre Feb. ,,

Commission  ojiened  23  Jan.  ;  closed  .  21  March,  „
They  receive  evidence  of  the  existence  of  widely
spread  discontent  during  1S65;  they  reported  that
439  persons  had  suffered  by  martial  law  ;  that  about
1000  dwellings  had  been  burnt ;  that  about  600
(many  women)  had  been  flogged  ;  that  they  con-
sidered the  punishments  inflicted  excessive,  the
executions  unnecessarily  frequent,  the  burning
the  houses  wanton  ;  and  that  they  saw  no  proof
of  Gordon's  complicity  in  the  outbreak,  or  in
an  organised  conspiracy  against  government,

9  April, „
The  "  Jamaica  Government  act  "  passed  in  England

23  March, „


JAMES'S  GAZETTE,  ST.


540


JAPAN.


Sir  J.  P.  Grant  gazetted  governor  in  room  of  governor

. Eyre 16  July,  1866

A  "  Jamaica  Committee,"  J.  S.  Mill,  chairman,  pro-
pose prosecution  of  governor  Eyre  . .  27  July, ,,
He  arrives  at  Southampton,  12  Aug.  ;  welcomed  by

a  banquet 21  Aug. ,,

A  committee  for  his  defence  formed  . . Sept. „
The  governor,  sir  J.  P.  Grant,  promulgates  the  new
constitution  ;  opening  of  the  legislative  council
(consisting  of  the  governor  and  six  members),

16  Oct. „
G.  D.  Ramsay,  accused  of  murder,  discharged  oy

grand  jury 18  Oct. „

Warrants  issued  against  gov.  Eyre,  col.  Nelson,  and
lieut.  Brand,  Feb.  ;  the  grand  jury  discharges
the  bills  against  Eyre,  29  March,  and  the  others,

11  April,  1S67
A bill of  indictment for misdemeanor against
governor  Eyre  brought  in,  15  May  ;  discharged  by

grand  jury 2  June,  1868

Chief-justice  Cockburn  disclaimed  agreement  with
part  of  justice  Blackburn's  charge  on  the  occasion ;
an  almost  unexampled  case ... 8  June, „
Trial  of  Phillips  v.  Eyre  (for  beating  and  imprison-
ment during  the  rebellion  of  1866) ;  Eyre  pleaded
act  of  indemnity  ;  verdict  for  defendant 29  Jan.  1869
Episcopal  church  disestablished  . . .31  Dec. ,,
Appeals  in  England  for  its  support . .  July,  1870

Legal  expenses  of  Mr.  Eyre  ordered  to  be  paid,  after

discussion  in  the  commons  .  .  .8  July,  1872
Many  estates  in  Jamaica  offered  for  sale  in  the

London  papers July, ,,

Returning  prosperity  reported  .  .  .  May,  1873
Sir  Win.  Grey  appointed  governor  .  .  March,  1874
Sir  Anthony  Musgrave,  appointed  governor  .  Nov.  1876
Edward  Everard  Rushworth,  governor,  April,  1877  ;

gen.  sir  Henry  Wylie  Norman  .  .  .  Oct.  1883
Destructive  Are  at  Port  Antonio  . .  18  Oct. ,,

Introduction of representative government  pro-
posed ;  Sir  Henry  W.  Norman  arrives 21  Dec. ,,
Great  public  dissatisfaction  at  the  proposals,  Feb.  1884
The legislature rejects proposed confederation

with  Canada 11  Nov. ,,

Sir  Henry  Arthur  Blake  appointed  governor Dec.  1888
Rioting  of  the  1st  West  India  regiment  at  the  races
at Kingston  ; severe conflict  with  the  police,
who  are  badly  injured  ; the  rioting  quelled  by
pickets  from  the  camp  . reported  28  Jan. 1891

The  International  exhibition  at  Kingston  was  sug-
gested by  Mr.  Win.  Fawcett,  director  of  public
gardens,  9  July  1889  ;  15,000^.  subscribed  by  the
public,  and  15,000/.  given  by  the  government,
Mr.  S.  Lee  Banty,  general  manager  ;  the  exhi-
bition was  opened  by  prince  George  of  Wales,
who  was  in  the  harbour  with  a  squadron,  27  Jan.,
and  closed  by  the  governor  . . 2  May, ,,

Jamaica  made  the  head-quarters  of  the  Imperial
forces  in  the  West  Indies  announced . March, ,,

JAMES'S  GAZETTE,  ST.,  anti-radical
evening  paper,  edited  by  Fred.  Greenwood,  formerly
editor  of  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  first  appeared,  31  May,
1880. Price  2d.,  reduced  to  id.  2  Jan.  1882.

JAMES'S  HALL,  ST.,  near  Piccadilly,
erected  for  public  meetings,  &c,  was  opened  on
25  March,  1858,  with  a  concert  for  the  benefit  of
the  Middlesex  hospital.  Mr.  Owen  Jones  was  the
architect.  The  "  Popular  Monday  Concerts"  es-
tablished by  Mr.  Thos.  Chappell  here  began  14  Feb.
1859.

The  Moore  and  Burgess  ("  Christie  ")  Minstrels  have
performed  here  regularly  since  1865.

JAMES'S  PALACE,  ST.,  &c,  London,  was
built  by  Heury  VIII.  on  the  site  of  an  hospital  of
the  same  name,  1530-6.  It  has  been  the  official
town -residence  of  the  English  court  since  the  fire  at
Whitehall  in  1698.
The  Park  a  marsh  till  Henry  VIII.  enclosed  and

laid  it  out  in  walks . : 1530

Much  improved  by  Charles  II. ,  who  employed  Le
Notre  to  plant  lime-trees,  and  to  layout  "the
mall,"  for  the  purpose  of  playing  a  game  with  a

ball  called  a  mall 1668

William  III.  granted  a  passage  into  it  from  Spring-
gardens !6g9


A  grand  display  of  fireworks  took  place  here  at  the
peace,  when  the  pagoda  bridge  erected  here  by
sir  W.  Congreve  was  burnt . . . 1  Aug. 1814

The  park  improved  by  Geo.  IV. . . . 1827  et  seq.

The  enclosure  first  opened  to  the  public  in  Jan.
1829 :  the  opening  by  Carlton-steps  in  . . .1831

The  marble  arch  at  Buckingham  -palace  removed
to  Cumberland-gate,  Hyde-park . 29  March,  1851

An  iron  bridge  over  the  ornamental  water  con-
structed 1857

JAMES'S  THEATRE,  ST.,  erected  by
Beazley  for  John  Braham,  the  singer;  opened
14  Dec.  1835. See  Theatres.

JANINA,  see  Albania.

JANISSARIES  (Turkish  ieni  tcheri,  new
soldiers),  an  order  of  infantry  in  the  Turkish  army;
originally,  young  prisoners  trained  to  arms ;  were
first  organised  by  Orcan,  about  1330,  and  remodelled
by  his  son  Amurath  I.  1360 ;  their  numbers  being
increased  by  following  sultans.  In  later  days  they
degenerated  from  their  strict  discipline,  and  several
times  deposed  and  killed  the  sultans.  During  an  in-
surrection, 14-15  June,  1826,  when  nearly  3000  of
them  were  killed,  the  Ottoman  army  was  re-orga-
nised by  Mahmud  II.  and  a  firman  was  issued  on
17  June,  abolishing  the  Janissaries.

JANSENISTS,  persons  who  embraced  the
doctrines  of  Cornelius  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres,  who
died  in  1638.  The  publication  of  his  "  Augustinus"
1640,  in  which  he  maintained  the  doctrine  of  free
grace,  kindled  a  fierce  controversy,  and  was  con-
demned by  a  bull  of  pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1642.
Through  the  Jesuits  Jansenism  was  condemned  by
Innocent  X.  in  1653,  and  by  Clement  XI.,  in  1713,
by  the  bull  Unigenitus.  This  bull  the  French
church  rejected.  Jansenism  still  exists  at  Utrecht
and  Haarlem ;  see  Port  Royalists.  Loos,  abp.  of
Utrecht,  died,  June,  1873.

JANUARY  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  an
early  Roman  divinity.  January  was  added  to  the
Roman  calendar  by  Numa,  713  B.C.  He  placed  it
about  the  winter  solstice,  and  made  it  the  first
month,  because  Janus  was  supposed  to  preside  over
the  beginning  of  all  business.  In  1751  the  legal
year  in  England  was  ordered  to  begin  on  1  Jan.  in-
stead of  25  March.  Mild  Januaries  in  England,  1804,
mean  temperature,  43*2  ;  1834,  44  4  ;  1846,  437  ;
JS/S.  43'4!  1884,  43-9;  1890,  43-5  (on  18  days
above  50).

JANUS,  TEMPLE  OF,  at  Rome,  was  erected
by  C.  Duilius  in  3rd  century  B.C.,  kept  open  in  time
of  war,  and  closed  in  time  of  peace.  It  was  shut
at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  235  B.C.;  and  under
Augustus.  29,  25,  and  5  b.c.

JAPAN,  an  Asiatic  empire,  comprehends  four-
large  islands,  Niphon  or  Nippon,  Shikoku,  Kyushu,
and  Yezo,  and  about  3,850  small  ones.  Iu  1869
Tokio,  previously  called  Jedo,  was  declared  the
eastern  capital  till  500  a.d.,  the  ancient  Kyoto,  re-
named Saikyo  or  Sakei,  becoming  the  western.
Population,  1890,  40,453,461.
The  early  history  is  legendary  till  a.  d.  500.  Jimmu  Tenno,

the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty,  is  said  to  have

reigned  B.C.  665.
The  empress  Jingo  is said  to  have  conquered Corea

201  A.D.
Corean  civilization  introduced  285.
Introduction  of  Buddhism  from  Corea  about  552.
Its  hierarchy  established,  624.
Yoritomo,  Slwgun  or  generalissimo,  since  called  by  the

Chinese  Tycoon,  usurps  supreme  power,  the  Mikado  or

emperor  becoming  the  spiritual  emperor,  1192  et  seq.
Sanguinary  wars  among  the  chiefs  during  four  centuries.
Japan  visited  by  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  about  1275-95.

[His  "  Maravigliose  Cose  "  printed  1496.]


JAPAN.


541


JAPAN.


Weak  rival  dynasties  in  the  north  and  south,  1333-92.

Japan  visited  by  Mendez  Pinto,  a  Portuguese,  about
I537-58-

Tyeyasu,  victorious  over  southern  barons,  establishes  a
strictly  conservative  government  at  Jedo,  1600.
(His  dynasty  lasted  till  1868.]

The  Portuguese  establish  trading  settlements  about  1543,
and  introduce  Jesuit  missionaries  who  make  many
converts  ;  by  a  fierce  persecution  beginning  1590,  the
Portuguese  and  their  missionaries  are  expelled,  and
their  converts  massacred,  1637-42.

The  Dutch  settlements  under  severe  restrictions,  suffered
to  remain  for  a  time,  1600  et  seq.

The  learned  Engelbert  Kiempfer  visits  Japan  about  1690.
[All  foreigners  rigidly  excluded  from  Japan  till  1853.]

An  American  expedition,  under  commodore  Parry,
reaches  Jedo,  and  is  favourably  received  ;  but
Temains  only  a  few  days ... 8  July,  1853

A  treaty  of  commercial  alliance  concluded  between
the  two  countries .... 31  March,  1854

A  similar  treaty  with  Great  Britain . 14  Oct. ,,

With  Russia 26  Jan.  1855

Destructive  earthquake  ;  Anasaca  and  Simoda  de-
stroyed, Jedo  much  injured . . .23  Dec.  1854

Nagasaki  and  Hakodadi  opened  to  European  com-
merce .  1856

Commercial  treaty  with  Russia  . . 19  Aug. 1858

Lord  Elgin  visits  Japan,  with  a  present  of  a  steamer
for  the  emperor,  and  is  honourably  received,
July ;  obtains  the  treaty  of  Jedo,  opening
Japan  to  British  commerce  ... 26  Aug. ,,

The  secular  emperor  dies  (aged  36) . 16  Sept. „

Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Rutherford  Alcoek  appointed
consul-general,  Dec.  1858  ;  envoy  extraordinary,

Nov. 1859

A  Japanese  embassy  visits  Washington,  New  York,
&c. ,  United  States . . 14  May — 30  June,  i860

Attack  on  the  British  embassy  at  Jedo  ;  some
persons  wounded ....  5  July,  1861

Embassy  received  at  Paris,  13  April ;  London,  June ;
in  Holland,  Prussia,  <fec. . . July— Sept. 1862

Foreign  ministers  transfer  the  residence  from  Jedo
to  Yokohama 27  June, ,,

Mr.  Richardson  murdered  and  his  companions
cruelly  assailed  by  a  Japanese  noble  and  his  suite,

14  Sept. „
[Monument  erected  by  Mr.  Kurokawa,  a  Japanese
gentleman,  in  honour  of  Mr.  Richardson,  1884.]

The  batteries  and  vessels  of  the  prince  of
Nagato  fire  on  an  English  and  a  French  vessel
at  the  entrance  of  the  straits  of  Simonosaki,

15,  19  Nov. ,,

Some  English,  French,  and  American  vessels  bom-
bard his  forts  and  his  vessels . . 15-19  July,  1863

Reparation  demanded ;  ioo,oooZ.  paid  by  the  govern-
ment ;  the  prince  of  Satsuma  resists  payment  of
25,oooZ. ,  his  portion  ;  admiral  Kuper  enters  the
bay  of  Kagosima,  and  is  fired  upon ;  whereupon  he
bombards  the  town  and  bums  the  prince's
steamers 15  Aug. ,,

The  Japanese  minister  announces  that  the  ports
opened  by  virtue  of  the  treaties  will  be  closed,

24  June, ,,

The  prince  of  Satsuma  pays  the  25,000^. n  Dec. „

The  Japanese  government  refuse  to  abide  by  the
treaties  ;  a  combined  fleet  enters  the  straits  of
Simonosaki,  4  Sept.  ;  and  attacks  and  destroys
the  Japanese  batteries . . . 5,  6  Sept.  1864

Major  Baldwin  and  lieut.  Bird  murdered,  20  Nov.  ;
two  assassins  executed  ....  Dec. „

Sir  Harry  Parkes  appointed  to  succeed  sir  R.
Alcoek  as  envoy April,  1865

Treaties  with  England,  France,  &c,  ratified,  25  Nov. ,,

Two  more  ports  opened .... Jan. 1866

Death  of  the  tycoon :  his  successor  said  to  be
favourable  to  foreigners . . .  Sept. ,,

Town  of  Yokohama  and  third  part  of  European
settlement  destroyed  by  fire  . . 26  Nov. ,,

Jedo  and  other  places  opened  to  trade,  by  the
government 25  April,  1867

Visit  of  sir  Harry  Parkes  to  the  tycoon,  Stots  Bashi,

1  May, ,,

Prince  Minbontaiyou,  brother  of  the  tycoon,  ar-
rives at  Dover,  2  Dec.  ;  presented  to  the  queen,

4  Dec. ,,

Osaka  and  Niogo  opened  to  European  commerce,

1  Jan.  1868


Insurrection  of  the  Daimios  ;  rivalry  between  the

mikado  and  tycoon, Dec.  ;  foreigners  neutral,

27  Jan. — Feb.

Japanese  outrages  on  French  sailors  ;  culprits  exe-
cuted, 16  March ; further outrages  punished,

23  March,

The  mikado's  troops  defeat  the  tycoon's,  who  flies,
26-30 Jan.  ;  the  mikado's  defeated  near  Jeddo,

10-17  May,

After  long  war  and  varying  success  the  rebellion
ends  ;  the  mikado  re-established . . July,

Majority  of  the  mikado  proclaimed . . Nov.

His  marriage,  9  Feb.  ;  another  rebellion  of  the
tycoon's  partisans Feb.

Visit  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  29  Aug.  ;  received
by  the  mikado 22  Sept.

The  tycoon  submits  to  the  mikado . . Dec.

Great  progress  of  internal  improvements,  and
assimilation  to  European  civilisation ;  proposed
establishment  of  railways,  telegraphs,  &c. . 18'

Industrial  exhibition  opened  at  Kioto  10  April,

Destructive  fire  at  Jedo .... May,

Embassy  of  distinguished  Japanese  arrives  at
Washington,  4  March  :  in  London  . .  17  Aug.

Pacific  mail  screw  steamer  America  burnt  at  Yoko-
hama ;  about  40  killed ... 24  Aug.

First  railway  (from  Yokohama  to  Shinagawa)
opened,  12  June,  to  Jedo ;  opened  by  the  mikado,

Oct.

Japanese  ambassadors  received  by  queen  Victoria.

5  Dec.

English  proposed  as  the  national  tongue . Dec.

Public  library  at  Tokio  established  ....

Insurrection,  through  desire  for  war  with  Corea  ;
soon  suppressed . . . . Feb.-April,

A  successful  expedition  against  Formosa  to  chas-
tise savage  tribes  for  massacring  Japanese  sailors,
May  ;  Chinese  protest,  Aug.  ;  Japanese  withdraw
(see  Formosa),  announced ....  Nov.

Mr.  L.  Haber,  German  consul,  murdered  at  Hako-
dadi, by  a  fanatic,  8  Aug.,  executed . 26  Sept.

The  Japanese  minister  received  by  queen  Victoria,

3  Mar.

The  mikado  decrees  a  new  constitution  ;  2  cham-
bers, &c i4  April,

The  mikado  opens  a  parliament  of  officials,  nomi-
nated by  himself,  in  Jedo . . .20  June,

Industrial  exhibition

Insurrection  of  Satsuma  and  other  clans  specially
against  the  ministry,  Feb.  ;  suppression  an-
nounced Sept.

"  Foo  Soo,"  iron-clad  man-of-war,  launched  at  Pop-
lar, London, Chinese ambassador present,

14  Apl.

Insurrection  suppressed  ;  power  of  the  Daimios
virtually  suppressed;  principals  only  punished;
announced I3  Oct.

Progress  in  Japan  :  3744  post-offices  ;  22,053,430
letters,  and  7,372,566  domestic  newspapers  sent
by  post ;  2  railways  in  operation  ;  34  lighthouses  ;
ample  religious  freedom  and  virtual  free  trade .

Okuto,  able  reforming  minister  of  the  interior,
killed  by  six  men  (political  motives) . 14  May,

Scientific  works  in  English,  published  by  Tokio
university xs-

Imperial  decree  convoking  a  national  assembly  in '
1890 I2  Oct.

Entirely  new  criminal  code  enforced .  .

53,760  primary  schools  and  compulsory  education
established autumn,

The  Japanese  commander  in  chief  with  presents
received  by  the  queen  at  Windsor . 25  Nov.

Rev.  Arthur  W.  Poole,  consecrated  Anglican  bishop
of  Japan xq  Oct.

All  Japan  to  be  thrown  open  to  foreign  trade,  with
mixed  tribunals . . . annouueed  Nov.

Death  of  the  last  tycoon ....  April

A  new  order  of  hereditary  nobility  instituted Sept!

The  national  religion  disestablished  and  freedom
given  to  other  religions . . . n  Aug.

A  Japanese  village  exhibited  in  London,  iSS^;
burnt  2  May ;  re-opened .  . 2  Dec.

A  Japanese  dictionary  printed  in  Roman  characters,
completed summer,

Amicable  correspondence  between  the  mikado  and
the  pope Oct.

Bishop  Poole  died  9  July  ;  succeeded  by  rev.  E.
Bickersteth Nov.


0-71
1872


1874


1S75


1876
1877


1S7S


1884


18S5


JAPAN.


542


JAVA.


Gradual  adoption  of  alphabetical  in  place  of  ideo-
graphic writing  by  agency  of  the  Roma-ji-Rai,  or
Roman  Alphabet  Association ....  1885
Decree  giving  enlarged  power  to  the  prime  minister

solely  responsible  to  the  mikado . .  1  Dec. „
Prince  Komatsu  arrives  in  London  to  confer  on  the
prince  of  Wales  the  order  of  the  chrysanthemum
20  Nov.  ; received  by  the queen at  Windsor

22  Nov.  1886
Count  Ito,  the  prime  minister,  energetically  intro-
duces western  dress  and  habits . . spring,  1887
Death  of  Shimadju  Saburo,  ex-prince  of  Satsuma

6  Dec. „
Japanese  commission  to  examine  the  fine  arts  in
Europe  and  America  ;  reports  in  favour  of  Japan  ;
"pure  art is asleep in Japan, but dead in

Europe  " 1886-7

Japanese  Fine  Art  Exhibitions  opened  in  London  T887-8
Completion  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into

Japanese  celebrated .... 3  Feb.  1888
Volcanic  eruption  at  Sho-Bandai-San  ;  reported  400

persons  killed 15-18  July ,,

New  constitution  promulgated  by  the  mikado  at
Tokio  ;  the  houses  of  lords  and  commons  esta-
blished ;  religious  liberty  and  general  freedom

granted 11  Feb.  1889

The  government  desires  new  commercial  treaties
with  the  European  powers ;  they  hesitate  ;  one
with  the  United  States  promptly  signed,  Feb.  ;
with  Russia  8  Aug.  ;  with  Italy,  with  Germany,

with  France ,,

Destructive  storms  and  inundations  in  Yezo,  &c. ,

April, ,,
On  west  coasts,  1,200  houses  destroyed . June, ,,
Volcanic  eruption  on Ishima  Island, 300  houses

destroyed  ;  170  persons  killed . 13,  14  April „
Earthquakes at Kumamoto, 19 persons perish

. 28  July-3  Aug. ,,
The  southern  island  of  Kiushiu,  embankments,  &c,
destroyed,  July  ;  S.E.  Japan  the  Chikugo  river
rose  28J  feet  above  its  usual  level  twice,  73,694
persons  made  destitute .... Aug. ,,

Japanese  commission  of  enquiry  respecting  parlia-
mentary procedure  in  Europe,  arrives  in  London
early  in ...... . Oct. ,,

Japanese  national  banks  reported  highlv  prosperous,

Oct. „
Nine  non-treaty  ports  opened  to  commerce,  early

Oct. „
Several  changes  in  the  ministry . Oct. -Dec. ,,
N.  Japan,  destructive  gales,  11  Sept.,  total  loss  12
prefectures devastated  ; 2,419 persons killed,
above  90,000  destitute,  50,000  houses  swept  away  ;
150,000  acres  of  crops  destroyed,  6,000  bridges
destroyed,  reported  . . . about  18  Nov. „
Volcanic eruption of the Zoo, Bingo district,

Fukuvama  buried,  inhabitants  escaped 16  Jan.  1890
Violent  cyclone  on  the  coast ;  900  fishing  boats

wrecked,  great  loss  of  life . . . 24  Jan. ,,
The  pope  proposes  to  appoint  a  metropolitan,  and

four  bishops  for  Japan . . .12  March ,,
National  Industrial  and  Fine  Art  Exhibition  opened

at  Tokio  by  the  Mikado  . . . 27  March, „
New  civil  code  promulgated  ... 21  April, „
The  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  visit  Yoko-
hama 15-22  April, ,,

The  mikado  institutes  a  new  order  of  knighthood,
"the  Golden  Falcon,"  to  commemorate  the
2,555th  anniversary  of  the  coronation  of  Jimmu
Tenno,  the  semi-mythical  first  sovereign  of  Japan,

reported 12  May, ,,

First  parliamentary  election . . . 1  July, ,,
The  Japanese  mail  steamer,  Muslia  Mam,  founders
in  a  gale  off  the  Japanese  coast  losing  nearly  all
her  crew,  reported .... 18  Sept. ,,
The  first Japanese parliament, opened by the

emperor,  with  great  rejoicing . . 29  Nov. ,,
The  parliament  house  (wood)  burnt  down 15  Jan.  1891
The Japanese  commodore, Canaka, warmly re-
ceived by  the sultan  at  Constantinople, and
thanked  for  help  given  to  the  wrecked  Ertogrul

(18  Sept.  1890) 8  Feb. „

Death  of  prince  Sanjo,  prime  minister  since  1868,

highly  honoured 18  Feb. ,,

The  czarewitch  travels  in  Japan  ;  wounded  by  a
fanatic  at  Otsa,  1 1  May,  visited  by  the  mikado,

13  May, „
Collision  between  the  Tamaye  and the  Miyoshi


(racing  in  Suirakami  Bay,  off  the  coast  of  Yezo),
about  260  lives  lost .... 12  July,  1891

Typhoon  at  Kobe,  H.M.S.  gunboat  Tweed  and  many
other  vessels  sunk  with  great  loss  of  life  16  Aug. „

Very  destructive  earthquake  on  the  Niphon  islands ;
about  84,000  houses  and  railways,  bridges,  <&c. , ,,
destroyed ; about 10,000 persons killed and
300,000  homeless  ; minor  shocks  follow ; esti-
mated loss  2,000,000?.  ... 28  Oct. ,,

The  parliament,  opposing  the  government,  dis-
solved 25  Dec. ,,

Government  ordinance  to  provide  for  the  relief  of
the  sufferers  by  the  earthquake  . 29  Dec. ,,

Violent  election  riots  with  loss  of  22  lives 15  Feb.  1892

The  establishment  of  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy
authorized,  reported  . . . .15  March, ,,

The  Japanese  parliament  opened  by  the  mikado,

6  May, ,,

RETGNING  EMPEROR  OR  MIKADO.

Mutsu  Hito,  born  3 Nov., 1852;  succeeded his
father,  Komei  Tenuo,  1867. . . 13  Jan.  1867
Heir  apparent,  prince  Haru,  installed  3  Nov.  1889.

JAPAN  SOCIETY,  London,  was  founded  by
lord  de  Saumarez,  professors  "W.  Anderson,  Church  r
and  others,  to  promote  the  study  of  Japanese  art,
science,  finance,  commerce,  language,  literature,
etc. ;  instituted  Jan. ;  inaugural  meeting,  29  April,
1892.

JAPGONITTM,  a  new  metal  discovered  by
professor  A.  Church  in  combination  with  the  zircon
of  Ceylon.  The  spectrum  was  shown  by  Mr.  H.
Sorby,  6  March,  1869.

JAENAC  (W.  France).  On  13  March,  1569,
the  duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III.  of  France,
here  defeated  the  Huguenots  under  Louis,  prince  of
Conde,who  was  killed  in  cold  blood  by  Montesquieu.
The  victor  (seventeen  years  of  age),  on  account  of
his  success  here  and  at  Moncontour,  was  chosen
king  of  Poland.

A  Jarnac  Stroke ;  a  term  of  opprobrium,  is  derived
from  the  Seigneur  de  Jarnac,  who,  in  a  duel  with
La  Chataigneraye,  for  a  great  insult,  disabled
his  antagonist  by  an  unexpected  wound  in  the
ham 1547

JASMINE  or  JESSAMINE  {Jasminum  offici-
nale), native  of  Persia,  &c,  was  brought  hither  from
Circassia,  before  1548.  The  Catalonian  jasmine  came
from  the  East  Indies,  in  1629,  and  the  yellow  Indian
jasmine  in  1656.

JASSY,  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  frequently
occupied  by  the  Russians ;  taken  by  them  in  1 739,
1769,  and  1828.  A  treaty  between  them  and  the
Turks  was  signed  here,  9  Jan.  1792.  Population,
1885,  90,000.

JAVA,  a  large  island  in  the  Eastern  Archi-
pelago, is  said  to  have  been  reached  by  the  Portu-
guese in  151 1,  and  by  the  Dutch  in  1595.  The
latter,  who  now  possess  it,  built  Batavia,  the
capital,  about  1619  ;  see  Batavia.  The  atrocious-
massacre  of  20,000  of  the  unarmed  natives  by  the
Dutch,  sparing  neither  women  nor  children,  to
possess  their  effects,  took  place  in  1740.  The
island  capitulated  to  the  British,  18  Sept.  1811.
The  sultan  was  dethroned  by  the  English,  and  the
hereditary  prince  raised  to  the  throne,  in  June,

1 8 13.  Java  was  restored  to  Holland  by  treaty  in

1814,  and  given  up  in  1816.  The  English  promoted
free  labour  instead  of  forced ;  but  the  Dutch  re-
verted to  the  old  system,  and  in  1830  abolished
free  labour,  introducing  the  "  culture  system,"  by
which  the  government  controls  the  cultivation  of
the  land  and  buys  the  produce  at  its  own  price.  In
Aug.  i860,  the  Swiss  soldiers  here,  aided  by  the
natives,  mutinied,  but  were  soon  reduced,  and  many
suffered  death. The  diminished  prosperity  of  Java


JAWAKIES.


543


JERUSALEM.


led  to  warm  discussions  in  the  Dutch  chamber  in

1866.

The  valuable  "History  of  Java,"  by  sir  T.  Stamford
Raffles  (successful  governor  1811-16),  was  published
1817.

Java  has  a  great  many  volcanoes,  and  has  frequently
been  devastated  by  eruptions  and  earthquakes  ;  those
of  5  Jan.  1699,  31  Oct.  1876,  and  10  June,  1877,  were
very  destructive.

Java  and  neighbouring  isles  desolated  by  a  series  of
violent  eruptions  from  about  two-thirds  of  its  46  vol-
canoes, beginning  with  Krakatoa,  casting  up  immense
quantities  of  lava,  mud,  ashes,  and  fragments  of  rocks,
darkening  the  air  for  about  50  square  miles.  Moun-
tains were  split  up,  some  disappeared,  and  many  new
craters  were  formed.  Rumbling  noises  heard  25  Aug.,
violent  eruptions  of  Krakatoa  26  Aug.  There  was
much  submarine  disturbance,  and  an  immense  "  tidal
wave"  destroyed  Anjer  and  other  places,  27  Aug.
The  lighthouses  in  the  straits  of  Sunda  were  swallowed
up,  and  new  volcanic  peaks  appeared,  rendering  navi-
gation highly  dangerous.  Loss  of  life  estimated  at
35,000,  25-28  Aug.  Great  atmospheric,  oceanic,  and
electrical  disturbances  for  thousands  of  square  miles.
See  under  Sun,  1883.

A  committee  of  the  Koyal  Society  issued  a  report  on  the
eruption  Oct.  1888.

Serious  volcanic  outbreaks  ;  great  destruction ;  about
500  persons  perish,  early  May,  1885.

Insurrection  of  the  natives  at  Anjer  ;  some  Europeans
and  natives  killed  ;  the  revolt  checked  by  the  police
and  settled,  16  July,  1888.

JAWAKIES,  see  India,  1877-8.

JEAN  DE  LUZ,  ST.  (S.  France,  near  the
Pyrenees).  Soult's  strong  position  here  was  taken
by  general  Hill  and  marshal  Beresford,  10  Nov.  1813.

JEDDA,  the  port  of  Mecca,  Arabia.  On  15  June,
1858,  the  fanatic  Mahometans  massacred  twenty-six
of  the  Christian  inhabitants,  among  them  the  Eng-
lish and  French  consuls  and  part  of  their  families ;
but  many  fled  to  the  shipping.  On  the  delay  of
justice,  commodore  Pullen,  with  the  Cyclops,  bom-
barded the  town,  25,  26  July.  On  6  Aug.  eleven  of
the  assassins  were  executed ;  the  ringleaders  after-
wards.

JEDO  or  YEDO  (the  name  was  changed  to
Tokio  about  1869),  the  eastern  capital  of  Japan,  on
the  island  of  Niphon.  Here  was  signed  the  treaty
with  Great  Britain,  26  Aug.  1858 ;  see  Japan.  5000
houses  destroyed  by  fire,  8  Dec.  1873,  and  2,547,
March,  1890.

JEHAD,  see  Jihad.

JELLALABAD,  Afghanistan,  defended  by  sir
Eobert  Sale  from  8  Jan.  to  5  April,  1842,  when  the
siege  was  raised  by  general  G.  Pollock,  who  de-
stroyed the  fortifications.

JE  MAINTIENDRAI,  "I  will  maintain,"
the  motto  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  When  William
III.  came  to  the  throne  of  England,  he  continued
this,  but  added  "the  liberties  of  England  and  the
Protestant  religion,"  at  the  same  time  ordering
that  the  old  motto  of  the  royal  arms,  "  Dieu  et  mon
droit,"  should  be  retained  on  the  great  seal,  1689.

JEMAPPES  (N.W.  Belgium),  the  site  of  the
first  pitched  battle  gained  by  the  French  republicans
(under  Dumouriez),  in  which  40,000  French  troops
drove  out  19,000  Austrians,  who  were  entrenched
in  woods  and  mountains,  defended  by  redoubts  and
many  cannon,  6  Nov.  1792.  The  number  killed  on
each  side  was  reckoned  at  5000.

JENA  and  AUERSTADT  (Central  Germany),
where  two  battles  were  fought,  14  Oct.  1806,  be-
tween the  French  and  Prussians.  The  French  were
commanded  at  Jena  by  Napoleon,  and  at  Aucrstadt
by  Davoust :  the  Prussians  by  prince  Hohenlohe  at
the  former  place,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  at  the


latter.  The  Prussians  were  defeated,  losing  nearly
20?000  killed  and  wounded,  and  nearly  as  many
prisoners,  and  200  field  pieces ;  the  French  lost
14,000  men.  Napoleon  advanced  to  Berlin,  and
issued  the  Berlin  decree  {which  see).

JENKINS'  EAR.  An  ear  of  Robert  Jenkins,,
captain  of  a  merchant-vessel,  Rebecca  Guar  da  Costasv
was  torn  off,  with  many  insults,  by  a  Spaniard  in
1731.  He  appeared  before  parliament  in  1738,  when
the  convention  of  the  Pardo  was  severely  discussed.
Jenkins'  story  was  verified  by  Admiralty  Records-
in  1889.

JENNERIAN  INSTITUTION,  founded;
1803;  see  Vaccination.

JEPHTHAH  delivered  Israel  from  the  Ammo-
nites B.C.  1143,  Judges  xi.  "Jephthah,"  Handel's-
last  oratorio ;  composed  21  Jan. — 30  Aug.  1 751;  per-
formed 26  Feb.  1752.

JERSEY.  The  chief  island  of  the  channel
archipelago  (which  includes  Guernsey,  Sark,  Alder-
ney,  &c),  formerly  held  by  the  Romans  in  the  3rd
and  4th  centuries  after  Christ — Jersey  being  termed
Csesarea.  The  isles  were  captured  by  Rollo,  and;
thus  became  an  appanage  of  the  duchy  of  Nor-
mandy, and  were  united  to  the  crown  of  England
by  his  descendant,  William  the  Conqueror.  The
inhabitants  of  the  Channel  Islands  preferred  to  re-
main (subjects  of  king  John,  at  the  period  of  the
conquest  of  Normandy  by  Philip  Augustus,  and
while  retaining  the  laws,  customs,  and  (until  lately),
the  language  of  their  continental  ancestors,  have
always  remained  firm  in  their  allegiance  to  Eng-
land. Almost  every  war  with  France  has  been
characterised  by  an  attack  on  Jersey,  the  most  for-
midable of  which,  under  the  baron  de  Rullecour,.
was  defeated  by  the  English  garrison  and  Jersey
militia,  commanded  by  major  Pierson,  6  Jan.  1781..
Mr.  J.  Bertrand  Payne,  in  his  "  Armorial  of  Jersey,"
and  his ' '  Gossiping  Guide,' '  has  exhaustively  treated;
the  general  and  family  history  of  the  island.  Jersey
became  a  place  of  refuge  for  MM.  Rouher,  Baroche,
Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  and  other  distinguished  French
imperialists,  Sept.  1870.  Some  of  the  Trappists
and  other  monks  expelled  from  France,  settle  in
Jersey,  1880-1.  Philip  Gosset,  sentenced  to  5  years*
imprisonment  for  fraud  against  the  state  (£27,000) ,
and  a  banking  company,  8  May,  1886.  Governor,
gen.  C.  B.  Ewart,  188*7.  The  population  of  the-
channel  isles  in  1861  was  90,978  ;  in  1871,  90,563  ;
in  1881,  87,702;  1891,92,272.

JERSEY  CITY,  U.S.A.,  population  iS8o„
120,722;  1890,163,003. See  New  Jersey.

JERUSALEM,  called  also  SAXEM,  1913  B.C.
{Gen.  xiv.  18).  Its  king  was  slain  by  Joshua,  145E
B.C.  It  was  taken  by  David,  1048  B.C.,  who  dwelt
in  the  fort,  calling  it  the  city  of  David  ;  see  Jews*
and  Holy  Places. Population  about  1887,  43,000.

The  first  temple  founded  by  Solomon,  1012  b.  c.  ;  and

solemnly  dedicated  on  Friday . . 30  Oct.  1004;
Jerusalem taken by Chosroes  the Persian,  a.d.
614;  retaken  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  628;  by
the  Saracens,  637 ;  and  by  the  Crusaders,  when
70,000  infidels  were  put  to  the  sword ; a  new
kingdom  founded .... 15  July,  1099
The  "  assize  of  Jerusalem,"  a  code  of  laws,  estab-
lished by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  king  . . .  IIOo-
King  Guy  defeated  at  Tiberias,  and  Jerusalem  taken

by  Saladin 2  Oct. 1187-

By  the  Turks,  who  drive  away  the  Saracens,  1217  <fc  1239-
Surrendered  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  by  treaty,  122&

Surrendered  to  the  Crusaders 1243.

Taken  by  Carismians I244_

Taken  from  the  Christians I2gr

Taken  by  the  Turks iSI6.

Held  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte  . Feb.  1799


"JERUSALEM  DELIVERED." 514


JESUS CHRIST.


Jerusalem  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales, &c,

31  March,  1862

Convention  for  the  preservation  of  the  holy  sepul-
chre, signed  on  behalf  of  Russia,  France,  and
Turkey 5  Sept. ,,

Jerusalem  and  the  neighbourhood  surveyed  by  a
party  of  royal  engineers  since . .  Sept. 1864

Visited  by  the  prince  of  Prussia,  4  Nov. ;  by  the
emperor  of  Austria .... 9  Nov.  1869

•Greatly  benefited  by  sir  Moses  Montefiore,  who
visited  it  for  the  seventh  time,  when  aged  90 .  1875

Discovery  of  pavement  attributed  to  Constantine

Nov.  1887

Mr.  Carl  Prosch's  cycloraniic  painting  of  Jerusalem,
a.d.  33,  was  exhibited  in  York-street,  Westminster

Dec.  1890

A  railway  from  Jerusalem  to  Jaffa  constructed  by
a  French  company  ;  opened  . . . 13  Sept.  1892

A  panorama  of  Jerusalem,  &c,  exhibited  in  Vic-
toria-street, Westminster . . .18  April,  1892

CHRISTIAN  KINGS.

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (styled  himself  "  baron  of  the

holy  sepulchre  ") 1099

Baldwin  I •>  1100

Baldwin  II. 1118

FulkofAnjou 1131

Baldwin  III 1144

Amauri  (or  Almeric) 1162

Baldwin  IV 1173

Sibyl,  then  his  son  Baldwin  V.  .... 1185

Guy  de  Lusignan 1186

Henry  of  Champagne 1192

Amauri  de  Lusignan 1197

Jeanne  de  Brienne 1210

Emperor  Frederick  II 1229-39

Protestant  Bishopric  of  Jerusalem  erected  by  treaty
7  Sept.  1841,  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain
an.1  Prussia:
S.  M.  S.  Alexander  consecrated  bishop,  7  Nov. .  1841
Samuel  Gobat,  bishop,  1846  ;  died  11  May . .  1879
Joseph  Barclay,  LL.D.,  consecrated  25  July,  1879;

died '.22  Oct. 1881

'{No  successor  appointed  ;  the  compact  dissolved
June,  1886  ;  formally  announced,  18  Aug.  1887.
An  exclusively  Anglican  bishop  was  proposed  by
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  subscriptions  in-
vited, Feb.  1887.  Dean  G.  F.  P.  Blyth,  April,
1887,  was  appointed  bishop.]
The  Jerusalem,  Cowper's  Court,  Cornhill,  originally
a  coffee-house,  opened  early  in  the  17th  century  ;
burnt  in  the  great  fire  1666,  and  again  in  1748,
last  rebuilt  in  1880.  It  is  supported  by  a  com-
pany and  subscribers,  and  forms  a  rendezvous  for
ship-owners,  brokers,  and  others  closely  con-
nected with  shipping  and  commerce  with  the
Fast,  Australasia  and  the  Cape.

' '  JERUSALEM  DELIVERED,"  the  great
Italian  epic,  by  Tasso,  was  published  in  1 580.

JERVIS'S  ACTS,  11  &  12  Vict.,  cc.  42,  43
(1848),  relate  to  legal  proceedings  against  criminals.

JESTER  is  described  as  "a  witty  and  jocose
person,  kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  of  their
faults,  and  of  those  of  others,  under  the  disguise  of
a  waggish  story."  Several  of  our  kings,  particu-
larly the  Tudors,  kept  jesters.  Kahere,  the
founder  of  St.  Bartholomew's  priory,  West  Smith-
field,  London,  1133,  is  said  to  have  been  a  court
jester  and  minstrel.  There  was  a  jester  at  court  in
the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  but  we  hear
of  no  licensed  jester  afterwards.

JESUITS.  The  society  or  company  of  Jesus,  was
founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  page  to  Ferdinand  V.
of  Spain,  subsequently  an  officer  in  his  army,  and
afterwards  canonised.  Having  been  wounded  in
both  legs  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  1521,  he
devoted  himself  to  theology,  and  renounced  the
military  for  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  He  dedi-
cated his  life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  her  knight ;
made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his
return  laid  the  foundation  of  his  society  at  Paris,


16  Aug. 1534. He  presented  his  institutes, in
^^  to  pope  Paul  III.,  who  made  many  objec-
tions ;  but  Ignatius  adding  to  the  vows  of  chastity,
poverty,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  implicit  sub-
mission to  the  holy  see,  the  institution  was  con-
firmed by  a  bull,  27  Sept.  1540. The  number  of
members  was  not  to  exceed  sixty,  but  that  restric-
tion was  taken  oft'  by  another  bull,  14  March,  1543 ;
and  popes  Julius  III.,  Pius  V.,  and  Gregory  XIII.
granted many  privileges. Loyola  died  31  July,
1556. Francis  Xavier,  and  other  missionaries,  the
first  brethren,  carried  the  order  to  the  extremities
of  the  habitable  globe,  but  it  met  with  great  opposi-
tion in  Europe,  particularly  in  Paris ;  see  Paraguay
and  Jansenists. The  order  still exists in  many
European  states  contrary  to  the  laws.
The  society  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne, Paris,
1554;  expelled  from  France,  1594; re-admitted,
1604 ; but  after  several  decrees  is  totally  sup-
pressed in  France  and  its  property  confiscated .  1764
Ordered  by  parliament  to  be  expelled  from  Eng-
land, 1579,  I58i»  1586,  1602  ;  and  by  the  Catholic

relief  act  in 1829

Expelled  from — Venice,  1607;  Holland,  1708;  Por-
tugal, 1759;  Spain 1767

Abolished  t>y  Clement  XIV.  . . . 21  July,  1773

Restored  by  Pius  VI.  .... 7  Aug. 1814

Father  Pierre  J.  Beckx,  elected  general  1853  ;  active

and  successful ;  retired,  1883  [died  4  March,  1887].

Expelledfrom — Belgium,  1818  ;  Russia,  1820;  Spain,

1820,  1835; France,  1831,1845; Portugal,  1834;

Sardinia,  Austria,  and  other  states,  1848 ;  Italy

and  Sicily i860

The  chief  of  the  order  appeals  to  the  king  of  Sar-
dinia for  redress  of  grievances . . 24  Oct. „
Report  of  the  order ;  total  number  of  Jesuits,  8167 :

in  France,  2422 :  in  1866  ;  12,947  reported Jan.  1892
In  consequence  of  the  activity  of  the  order  on  be-
half of  the  papal  supremacy,  a  bill  for  its  expul-
sion from  Germany  passed  by  the  parliament  at
Berlin  (131-93),  19  June;  promulgated  . 5  July,  1872
The  head  quarters  of  the  order  proposed  to  be  re-
moved from  Rome  to  Malta  ....  Oct.  1873
Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Italy,decreed  25  June ;

carried  into  execution,  20  Oct.  —2  Nov.  . . . ,,
Father  Curci,  orthodox  and  eloquent,  resigned  (vir-
tually expelled)  for  recommending the  pope  to
submit  to  loss  of  temporal  power, Oct.  1877  ;
publishes  "II  Moderno  Dissidio  fra  la  Chiesa  e

l'ltalia." Dec.  1877

Submits  to  the  Pope  in  a  humble  letter  ;  received

into  favour ....  about  16  Oct.  1884

27  Jesuits'  colleges  in  France  ;  848  teachers  .  .  1879
The  order  in  France  dissolved  by  decree,  30  March,  1880
Decree  for  expulsion  of  Jesuits  and  other  orders

from  France,  30  March  ;  carried  out . 30  June, ,,
A  large  gathering  of  Jesuits  of  all  countries  at  Rome;
Father  Anderledy  appointed  Vicar-General  Sept.
1883;  dies ...... .20  Jan.  1892

JESUIT'S  BARK,  called  by  the  Spaniards
fever-wood,  from  the  cinchona  or  chinchona  tree,
discovered,  it  is  said,  by  a  Jesuit,  about  1535  (and
used  by  the  order).  Its  virtues  were  not  generally
known  till  1633,  or  163S,  when  it  cured  of  fever  the
wife  of  the  viceroy  (Chinchona)  at  Peru,  hence
termed  pulvis  comitissce.  It  was  sold  at  one  period
for  its  weight  in  silver,  and  was  introduced  into
France  in  1649 ;  and  is  said  to  have  cured  Louis
XIV.  of  fever  when  he  was  dauphin.  It  came  into
general  use  in  1680,  and  sir  Hans  Sloane  intro-
duced it  here  about  1700.  The  cinchona  plant,
largely  planted  in  the  Neilgherry  hills,  India,  in
1861,  is  said  to  be  thriving  greatly,  and  also  in
Ceylon;  see  Quinine.

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Saviour  of  the

WORLD,  see  Nativity.  For  his  birth  see  Anno
Domini.  The  following  dates  are  given  by  ecclesi-
astical writers: —

Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and  his  first  ministry
(English  Bible) a.d. 27


JEIT  DE PATIME.


545


JEWS.


He  celebrated  the  last  passover,  and  instituted  the
sacrament  on  Thursday  ... 2  April, 33

Was  first  crucified  on  3  April,  at  three  o'clock  in
the  afternoon ;  arose. . . .  5  April, ,,

See  Crucifixion.

Ascended  to  heaven  from  Mount  Olivet 14  May, „

The  Holy  Spirit  descended  on  his  disciples  on  Sun-
day, the  day  of  Pentecost . . .  24  May, ,,

■ffhe  divinity  of  Christ,  denied  by  the  Arians,  was
affirmed  by  the  council  of  Nice .... 325

JEU  DE  PAUME  (the  tennis  court).  The
king  having  closed  the  hall  of  the  assembly  at  Ver-
sailles, the  third  estate  (tiers-etat)  met  here,
and  swore  not  to  dissolve  till  a  constitution  was
established,  20  June,  1789.  (It  is  the  subject  of
a  painting  by  David.)  Commemorated  20  June,
1883.

JEWELLERY  was  received  by  Rebekah  as  a
marriage  gift,  1857  B.C.  {Gen.  xxiv.  53).  Pliny  the
elder  says  he  saw  Lollia  Paulina  (wife  of  Caius
Osesar,  and  afterwards  Caligula)  wearing  ornaments
valued  at  a  sum  equal  to  322,916/.  sterling.  Jewels
were  worn  in  France  by  Agnes  Sorel  in  1434,  and
encouraged  in  England  about  1685.  The  standard
of  gold  for  jewellery,  except  wedding  rings,  was
lowered  by  parliament  in  1854.

JEWEL  ROBBERIES,see  Trials,  187 1, 1873,
and  Dec.  1891.
The countess  of  Dudley's  jewels  (value 15,000/.)

stolen  at  Great  Western  Railway  Station  12  Dec.  1874
Messrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London,

robbed  of  25,000?.  worth  .  .  .25  March,  1876
Duchess of  Cleveland,  at  Battle  Abbey, Sussex,

robbed  of between  5000?. and  10,000/. worth,

early  in  Feb.  1877
Countess  of  Aberdeen's  (value  above  5000/.)  stolen,

Halstead  Place,  Sevenoaks.  Kent . 19  Nov. ,,
Hatton  Garden  Post-Office,  London  ;  gas  suddenly

extinguished  at  5  p.m.,  two  mail  bags  stolen,  one

containing  diamonds,  and  other  jewels,  watahes,

&c. ,  in  registered  letters  ; value  above  15,000/,.

16  Nov.  1881
Lord  Arthur  Hill  Trevor's  house,  Bryn-Kinalet,  near

Chirk, Wales,  robbed  of  jewels  valued  60,000/.

Sunday,  4  Dec. ,,

JEWISH  COLONIZATION  ASSOCI-
ATION, registered  as  a  company  by  the  Board  of
Trade,  Sept.  1891.  Nominal  capital,  2,000,000/.  ;
promoted  by  lord  Rothschild,  sir  Julian  Uroldsmid,
and  other  gentlemen  to  carry  out  baron  Hirsch's
scheme  for  the  emigration  of  distressed  Jews  from
Europe  and  Asia  to  N.  or  S.  America.

First  general  meeting ;  amount  subscribed  39,826/.
(Messrs.  N.  M.  Rothschild,  10,000/.  ;  Messrs.  R.
Raphael,  4,000/.  ;  sir  Julian  Goldsmid,  3,000/.  ;
Messrs.  S.  Montagu,  Mrs.  Nathaniel  Montefiore,
E.  L.  Raphael,  and  Messrs.  Stern,  2,000/.  each),
14  Oct.  1891 ;  89,463/.  received  up  to . 29  Dec.  1891

Negotiations  with  the  Argentine  republic  for  settle-
ments. The  arrangements  placed  under  the  com-
mand of  lieut. -col.  Albert  Goldsmid  . . Dec. ,,

JEWISH  DISABILITIES,  see  under  Jews,
1269- 1867.

JEWISH  EEA  and  Calendar. The  Jews

usually  employi  d  the  era  of  the  Seleucidas  until  the
15th  century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was
adopted.  They  date  from  the  creation,  which  they
consider  to  have  been  3760  years  and  3  month's
before  the  commencement  of  our  era.  To  reduce
Jewish  I  ime  to  ours,  subtract  3761  years.  The  Jewish
year  consists  of  either  twelve  or  thirteen  months,  of
29  or  30  days.  Ths  civil  year  commences  with  the
month  Tisri,  immediately  after  the  new  moon  fol-
lowing the  autumnal  equinox ;  the  ecclesiastical
year  begins  with  Nisan.


Civil  year,  5649.
Tisri

Marchesvan
Chislev  .
Thebet
Sebat


began  6  Sept.  il
6  Oct.
5  Nov.
5  Dec.
3  Jan.  1


Adar . 2  Feb.  ;  Ve-Adar  or  2nd  Adar  *  4  March

Nisan  or  Abib 2  April,

Ijar 2  May,

Sivan 31  May,

Tliammuz 30  June

Ab 29  July,

Elul 28  Aug.

The  Jewish  calendar  is  given  annually  in  the  best
almanacks.

*  Intercalated  every  third  year,  to  supply  the  defi-
ciency of  the  Jewish  year  of  354  days.

JEWS,  successively  called  Hebrews,  Israelites,
and  Jews,  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  with  wrhom
God  made  a  covenant,  1898  B.C.  Gen.  xvii.  See
Jerusalem.  Computed  number  of  Jews  in  the
world  May  1889,  6,300,000  (Europe  5,400,000,
Africa  350,000,  America,  250,000).  The  following
dates  are  generally  those  by  Usher  given  in  the
English  Bible  ;  differing  dates  are  given  by  Hales,
Clinton,  and  other  chronologers.
Call  of  Abram  to  enter  Canaan  . . .B.C. 1921

Isaac  born  to  Abraham 1896

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob 1837

Death  of  Abraham  1822

Joseph  sold' into  Egypt 1729

The  male  children  of  the  Israelites  thrown  into  the

Nile  ;  Moses  born 1571

The  Passover  instituted  ;  the  Israelites  go  out  of

Egypt,  and  cross  the  Red  Sea ....  1491
The  law  promulgated  from  Mount  Sinai . . .  1491

The  Tabernacle  set  up 1490

Death  of  Moses  ;  Joshua  leads  the  Israelites  into

Canaan  and  conquers  it 145 1

The  first  bondage  (Othniel,  judge,  1405)  .  .  .  1413
The  second  bondage  (Ehud,  1325)  .  .  .  .  1343
The  third  bondage  (Deborah  and  Barak,  1285)  . 1305

The  fourth  bondage  (Gideon,  1245)  .  .  .  .  1252
The  fifth  bondage  (Jephthah,  1187)  ....  1206

The  sixth  bondage 1157

Samsoa  slays  the  Philistines 1136

Samuel  governs  as  judge,  about 1120

Samson  pulls  down  the  temple  of  Dagon  . . .1117

Saul  made  king 1095

David  slays  Goliath,  about 1063

Death  of  Saul ;  David  made  king  . . . . 1055

David  besieges  and  takes  Jerusalem,  and  makes  it

his  capital 1048

Solomon  king, 1015  ;  lays  the  foundation  of  the

temple,  1012  ;  which  is  dedicated  . . .  1004

Death  of  Solomon  ;  the  kingdom  divided . . . 975

KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.

Jeroboam  establishes  idolatry 975

Bethel  taken  from  Jeroboam ; 500,000  Israelites

slam 957

Israel  afflicted  with  the  famine  predicted  by  Elijah  906

The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria 901

Elijah  translated  to  heaven 896

Miracles  of  Elisha  the  prophet 895

The  Assyrian  invasion  under  Phul . . . -771

Pekah  besieges  Jerusalem 741

Samaria  taken  by  the  king  of  Assyria  :  the  ten  tribes
are  carried  into  captivity,  and  an  end  is  put  to  the

kingdom  of  Israel .  721

KINGDOM OF  JUDAH.

Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  takes  Jerusalem,  and  pil-
lages the  temple 971

Abijah defeats  the  king  of  Israel,  500,000  men  are
slain  in  battle  ....... 957

Asa  defeats  the  Ethiopians  ;  abolishes  idolatry . 941
Jehoshaphat  orders  the  law  to  be  taught  912;  defeats
the  Ammonites,  <fee. ...... 896

Usurpation  and  death  of  Athaliah . . . . 884

Hazael  desolates  Judah 857

Pekah, king of  Israel, lays siege  to  Jerusalem ;
120,000  of  the  men  of  Judah  are  slain  in  one  day. 741

Hezekiah  abolishes  idolatry 726

N N


JEWS.


546


JEWS.


Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  but  the  destroying  angel
enters  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians,  and  in  one  night
destroys  185,000  of  them 710

Holofernes  said  to  have  been  killed  at  the  siege  of
Bethulia  by  Judith

In  repairing  the  temple,  Hilkiah  discovers  the  book
of  the  law,  and  Josiah  keeps  a  solemn  Passover  .

Nebuchadnezzar  subjugates  Judea ....

He  takes  Jerusalem  after  a  long  siege  . . . .

Jerusalem  fired,  the  temple  burnt,  the  walls  razed
to  the  ground 587

KINGS.

Saul  began  to  reign  .  .  .B.C.  1095
David,  king  of  Judah,  1055  ;  of  all  Israel,  1048
Solomon ,,  .... 1015


656


624
605


PROPHETS.

Samuel.
Nathan.


B.C.

975
958

955
953
93°
029.
925
918
914.
897


857
839
825,

810

784.
775
772.
761
759>
758
742.
73°
726
698
643
641


Kings  of  Judah.
Eehoboam  .
Abijah . . .
Asa .


Jehoshaphat


Jehoram
Ahaziah
Athaliah
Joash  or  Jehoahaz


Kings  of  Israel.
Jeroboam  I.

Nadab  (954) .
Baasha  ,, .
Elah „
Zimri  .
Omri
Ahab  .

Ahaziah
Jehoram  or  Joram


Amaziah


Jehoahaz.
Jehoash  (841)
Jeroboam  II. .


Uzziah  or  Azariah


Jotham  .
Ahaz  .

Hezekiah .
Manasseh.

Anion
Josiah
C  Jehoahaz
\ (Shallum).
( Jehoiakim.
(  Jehoiachin
< (Coniah),
I Zedekiah.


Anarchy
Zeehariah

(  Shallum.

\  Menahem.

Pekahiah.

Pekah.


Hoshea.
[Captivity,  721.]


Ahijah.

Azariah.
Hanani.
Jehu.


Elijah.

Elisha.
Jahaziel.


Jor.ah.
J  Hosea.
(  Amos.

Joel.


f  Isaiah  &
t  Micah.


.  Jeremiah.
.  Zephaniah

.  Habakkuk

.  Daniel.
.  Ezekiel.


BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.

Daniel  prophesies  at  Babylon . . . .  b.  c. 603
Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed-nego,  refusing  to  wor-
ship the  golden  image,  are  cast  into  a  fiery  fur-
nace, but  are  delivered  by  the  angel . . . 587

Obadiah  prophesies „

Daniel  declares  the  meaning  of  the  handwriting
against  Belshazzar  ;  cast  into  the  lion's  den ;  pro-
phesies the  return  from  captivity,  and  the  coming
of  the  Messiah 538

RETURN  FROM CAPTIVITY.

Cyrus,  sovereign  of  all  Asia,  publishes  an  edict  for
the  return  of  the  Jews and  rebuilding  of  the

temple

Haggai  and  Zeehariah  prophets ....
The  second  temple  finished  . . 10  March,

The  Jews  delivered  from  Hainan  by  Esther . .
Ezra, the  priest, arrives  in  Jerusalem  to  reform

abuses

Here  begin  the  70  weeks  of  yeirs  predicted  by
Daniel,  being  490  years  before  the  crucifixion  of

the  Redeemer 457

The  walls  of  Jerusalem  built  by  Nehemiah . . 445

M  alachi  the  prophet 415

[The  Scripture  history  of  the  Jews  ends,  according
to  Eusebius,  in  442  B.C.  ;  and  from  this  time  Jo-
seplms  and  the  Roman  historians  give  the  best
•  account  of  the  Jews.  ]


536


458


Alexander  the  Great  marches  against  Jerusalem  to>
besiege  it,  but,  it  is  said,  on  seeing  Jaddus,  the'
high-priest,  clad  in  his  robes,  he  declares  he  had
seen  such  a  figure  in  Macedonia,  inviting  him  to
Asia,  and  promising  to  deliver  the  Persian  empire
into  his  hands  ;  he  goes  to  the  temple,  and  offers
sacrifices  to  the  God  of  the  Jews  ....  332
Jerusalem  taken  by  Ptolemy  Soter  .  ...  320-
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  said  to  employ  72  Jews  to

translate  the  Scriptures  . about 285.

The  Sadducee  sect  formed . .  . .  25c

Jews  massacred  at  Alexandria  . .  . . 216-

Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  pillages  the  temple,  and

slays  40,000  of  the  inhabitants .  - 17c

Government  of  the  Maccabees  begins  . . . . 166'
Treaty  with  the  Romans  ;  the  first  on  record  with

the  Jews i6r.

Judas Hyrcanus  Aristobulus  assumes  the  title  of

"  king  of  the  Jews  " 107

Alexander  Jannteus  suppresses  a  rebellion  of  Phari-
sees cruelly . . . . . . . .86-

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under

Pompey 63;

The  temple  plundered  by  Crassus .... 54.
Antipater  made intendant of Judfea by  Julius

Csesar 49

Herod,  son  of  Antipater,  marries  Mariamne,  grand-
daughter of  the  high  priest ..... 42-

Invasion  of  the  Parthians 40-

Herod  employs  the  aid  of  the  senate  ;  they  decree

him  to  be  the  king ,,

Jerusalem  taken  by  Herod  and  the  Roman  general

Sosius 37

Herod  kills  Mariamne,  29  ;  rebuilds  the  temple 29-18:

Jesus  Christ  born 4

Pontius  Pilate  is  made  procurator  of  Judea a.d. 26-
John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach . . .  ,,
Christ's  ministry  and  miracles,  27-33  ;  &is  cruci-
fixion and  resurrection 33:

The  Jews  persecuted  for  refusing  to  worship  Cali-
gula 38-

Receive  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship . . . 4E
Claudius  banishes  Jews  from  Rome  . . .50-

Invasion  of  Vespasian 68-

Jews  settle  at  Merida,  Spain 69-

Titus  takes  Jerusalem  ;  the  city  and  temple  sacked

and  burnt,  and  1 ,100,000  of  the  Jews  perish,  8  Sept.  70-
Targum  of  Onkelos  written  about  .  .  .  .  ioo-
Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem  (calling  it  iElia  Capito-

lina),  and  erects  a  temple  to  Jupiter . . . 130-
Rebellion  of  Bar-cochba ; takes Jerusalem 132 ;
killed  in  war  with  Julius  Severus,  135  ;  desola-
tion of  Judea 135-136

More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain  by  the

Romans ,,

Jews  favoured  by  Antoninus  Pius  ;  college  of  Jam-

nia  opened 138

The  Mischna  (see  Talmud)  compiled  by  Rabbi  Judah,

the  prince before 200

The  Jews  favoured  by  Severus,  196  ;  by  Constan-
tine,  310  ;  by  Julian,  363  ;  persecuted  by  Constans 353

Jews  massacred  at  Alexandria 415

The  Babylonian  Talmud  completed  . . about 6oo>
Jerusalem  taken  by  Omar ...... 655

Jews  first  mentioned  in  English  chronicles . . 740'
Formation  of  the  sect  termed  Karaites  (which  see)

by  Anan,  about  754

Jewish  college  founded  at  Cordova . . . . 948

Talmud  translated  into  Arabic 1006

Jews  said  to  be  banished  from  England  by  Canute 1020
Polygamy  in  Christian  countries  prohibited  by  the

Jewish  synod  at  Worms 1030

Jews  return  to  England 1066

[Chiefly  settled  in  London  and  Lincoln.]
The  Jews  massacred  in  London,  on  the  coronation

day  of  Richard  I. ,  at  the  instigation  of  the  priests  1189-
500  Jews  besieged  in  York  castle  by  the  mob,  cut

each  other's  throats  to  avoid  their  fury . .  1190
Jews  of  both  sexes  imprisoned  ;  their  eyes  or  teeth
plucked  out,  and  numbers  inhumanly  butchered,

by  king  John .  1204

The  Rabbi  Moses  Maimonides  died ....,,
700  Jews  are  slain  in  London,  a  Jew  having  forced  a
Christian  to  pay  him  more  than  2s.  per  week  as
interest  on  a  loan  of  20s. (Stoiv.) . . . .  1262
Statute  that  no  Jew  should  enjoy  a  freehold . .  1269
Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interest  compelled  to


JEWS.


547


JEWS.


wear  a  plate  on  his  breast,  signifying  that  he  was
a  usurer,  or  to  quit  the  realm. (Stoiv.) . . .  1274
267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered,  accused  of  clipping
coin .........  1278

All  Jews  (16,511)  banished  from  England. (Rapin.)  1290
Much  pillaged  and  persecuted  in  France  during  the

14th  and  15th  centuries.
A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe  ;  they  are  sus-
pected of  having  poisoned  the  springs,  and  num-
bers are  massacred. (Lenglet.)  . . . .  1348

Several hundred  thousand Jews banished  from

Spain,  Portugal,  and  France . . . 1492-94
Edicts  against  Jews  rescinded  by  pope  Sixtus  V. . 1585

Jews  favoured  in  Holland 1603

After  having  been  banished  England  370  years,  they

are  permitted  to  return  by  Cromwell . . .  1650
Who  grants  a  pension  to  Manasseh  Ben  Israel  .  1655

First  Portuguese  synagogue,  King-street,  Duke's-

place,  erected 1656

Statute  to  compel  them  to  maintain  their  protestant

children  enacted 1702

Jews  acquire  right  to  possess  land  in  England . . 1723
Bill  to  naturalise  the  professors  of  the  Jewish  reli-
gion in Ireland  (where  200  Jews  then  resided)

refused  the  royal  assent 1746

Statute  to  naturalise  them  in  England  passed . . 1753
Bepealed  on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  . . . 1754
The  Jews  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Avignon  are  de-
clared to  be  citizens  of  France 1790

The  synagogue,  Duke's-place,  London,  E.,  conse-
crated 26  March „

The  Jews  in  France  emancipated . . 27  Sept.  1791
Sitting  of  the  great  Sanhedrim  of  Paris  convened  by
the  emperor  Napoleon . . . .18  Sept.  1806

Jews'  hospital,  London,  founded ,,

London  society  for  promoting  Christianity  among

the  Jews  established 1808

Jews'  free  school,  Spitalfields,  London,  established 1817
Alexander  of  Bussia  grants  land  on  the  sea  of  Azoph

to  converted  Jews .... 1  Sept.  1820
The  brothers  Rothschild  made  barons  of  the  Aus-
trian empire 1822

Jews'  orphan  asylum  founded 1831

Mr.  (aft.  sir)  Francis  H. Goldsmid,  the  first  Jew

called  to  the  British  bar 1833

Mr.  David  Salomons  elected  sheriff  of  London  (the
first  Jewish  one)  ;  an  act  passed  to  enable  him  to

act 24  June,  1835

Bill  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  England  lost  on  the
second  reading  by  a  majority  in  the  commons,  228

against  165 17  May,  1836

Moses  Montefiore,  esq. ,  elected  sheriff  of  London,
and  knighted  by  the  queen,  being  the  first  Jew  on
whom  that  honour  has  been  conferred  .  9  Nov.  1837
Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Bussia,  permitting  the  title
of  citizen  of  the  first  class  to  be  held  by  any  Jew
who  renders  himself  worthy  of  it  .  .  .  .  1839
Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek  priest,  a  per-
secution of  the  Jews  began  at  Damascus  (see  Da-
mascus) 1  Feb.  1840

Jewish  mission  to  the  East  under  sir  Moses  Monte-
fiore ,,

Dr.  Nathan  M.  Adlcr  installed  chief  rabbi  of  the

Jews  in  the  empire,  London  .  .  9  July,  1845
Congregation  of  British  Jews  formed  (see  below)  1840-1
Sir  F.  H. Goldsmid  founded  the  Jewish  Infant  school  1841
Sir  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid,  the  first  Jew  made  a

Baronet „

Act  to  relieve  Jews  elected  to  municipal  offices  from

taking  oaths,  &e. ,  9  Vict 1846

Baron  Lionel  de  Bothschild  returned  to  Parliament
for  the  city  of  London  by  a  majority  of  6619  votes  ;
his  opponent,  lord  John  Manners,  polling  only

3104 3  July.  1849

Alderman  Salomons  elected  member  for  Greenwich,

28  June,  1851

Neither  permitted  to.  sit ,,

The  Jews'  Oaths  of  Abjuration  bill  passed  the  house

of  commons 3  July, ,,

Baron Rothschild again  returned  for  the  city  of
London at the general  elections,  July, 1852;
March,  1857  :  July,  1857 :  aua  July>  1865.
Violent  outbreak  against the  Jews  in  Stockholm,

3  Sept.  1852
The  Jewish  Oath  bill  passed  in  commons,  15  April  ;

thrown  out  in  the  lords . . . 29  April,  1853
Alderman  Salomons  the  first  Jewish  lord  mayor  of
London  .  ... 9  Nov.  1855


The  Jewish  Oath  bill  several  times  passed  in  the

commons  and  thrown  out  in  the  lords . . 1854-7
Edgar  Mortara,  a  Jewish  child,  forcibly  taken  from
his  parents  by  order  of  the  archbishop  of  Bologna,
on  the  plea  of  having  been  baptized  when  an  in-
fant  by a Boman Catholic maid-servant

24  June,  1858
Sir  F.  H.  Goldsmid,  the  first  Jew  made  Q.C.  . . ,,
An  act  passed  enabling  Jews  to  sit  in  parliament  by

resolution  of  the  house .... July, , ,
Baron  Lionel  de  Bothschild  takes  his  seat  as  M.P.

for  London  ...  26  July, ,,

To  commemorate  this  event  he  endowed  a  scholar-
ship in  the  City  of  London  School . . . . ,,
The  BYench  government  having  in  vain  urged  Mor-
tara's  restoration  to  his  parents,  sir  Moses  Monte-
fiore proceeds  to  Borne  (but  obtains  no  redress),

22  Dec.

Alderman Salomons elected  M.P.  for  Greenwich

(died  18  July,  1873)  ;  baron  Meyer  de  Bothschild

for  Hythe 15  Feb.  1859

Protest  respecting  the  seizure  of  the  boy  Mortara
signed  at  London  by  the  abp.  of  Canterbury,  and
bishops,  noblemen,  and  gentlemen,  sent  to  the
French  ambassador,  Oct.  ;  and  presented  by  lord

John  Bussell Nov. „

Board  of  guardians  for  the  relief  of  the  Jewish
poor,  one  of  the  grand  institutions  of  the  Jews  in

London,  founded  in ,,

Oppressive  laws  against  the  Jews  in  the  Austrian

empire  annulled 6,  10  Jan.  i860

Act  passed  permitting  Jewish  M.  P.  's  to  omit  from
the  oath  the  words  "  on  the  faith  of  a  Christian,"

6  Aug. ,,
Additional  political  privileges  granted  to  the  Jews

in  Bussia,  26  Jan.  ;  and  in  Poland  .  June  1862
Jews  persecuted  at  Rome  ....  Dec.  1864
Alderman  Benjamin  Samuel  Phillips,  second  Jewish

lord  mayor 9  Nov.  1S65

Persecution  of  Jews  at  Bucharest  reported,  July,  1866
A  synagogue  at  Berlin,  said  to  be  the  largest  and

most  beautiful  in  the  world,  consecrated,  5  Sept. ,,
Jewish  emancipation  bill,  Hungary,  received  royal

assent 29  Dec.  1867

Benjamin  Disraeli,  of  Jewish  extraction,  premierof

England 29  Feb.  1868

Jews'  synagogue  at  Barnsbury ,  London,  N. ,  founded
by  baron  F.  Rothschild,  24  Dec.  1867,  consecrated

29  March,  ,,
Jews  permitted  to  return  to  Spain  .  .  .  Oct.  ,,.
Jewish  congress  at  Pesth  opened  by  the  minister  of

public  worship,  Ebtvbs ...  14  Dec. „

It closes  and  presents  the  new  statutes  to  the

ministers 25  Feb.  1869

Jewish  reform convention  at  Philadelphia,  U.S.,

alterations  in  rituals,  &c. ,  resolved  on . Oct. ,,
Alfred  Davis,  a  Jew,  a  munificent  benefactor  of

education,  Jewish  and  Christian,  died  7  Jan. 1870

New  central  synagogue  in  Great  Portland-st. ,  W.,
founded  by  baron  Rothschild,  18 March,  1869  ;

consecrated 7  April, ,,

"  Hebrew  Literature  Society"  established  in  London

29  June, ,,
Anglo-Jewish  Association  constituted  for  the  moral,
social,  and  intellectual  progress  of  Jews  (in  con-
nection with  the  Universal  Israelitish  Alliance,
in  Paris). First  president,  the  late  Mr.  Jacob

Waley,  M.A 2  July, ,,

The  emperor  of  Brazil attended worship at  the

West  Central  London  synagogue  . . 8  July, ,,
Jews  permitted  to  work  on  Sundays  by  a  Workshops

Act „

Society  formed  at  Birmingham  to  resist  proselytism ,,
A  Jew  made  M.A.  at  Oxford  (after  the  abolition  of

tests) 22  June,  1871

Sir  George  Jessel,  a  Jew,  solicitor-general,  Nov.

187 1  ;  master  of  the  rolls .  . 29  Aug.  1873

Estimated  number  of  Jews  in  Great  Britain,  51,520  ;

in  London,  39,833  1876

New  synagogue  founded  at  Bayswater . 7  June,  1877
Movement  against  the  Jews  in  Berlin,  etc.,  (JmU  u-
hetze);  opposed  by  Mommsen,  Virchow.and  others;
censured  by  the  crown  prince;  debate  in  the  cham-
bers ;  no  vote,  22  Nov. Many  Jews  leave  Berlin,

Dec.  1S80
Anti-Semitic  league  formed  ;  presents  a  petition  to
Bismarck  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  Prussian

Jews 13  April,  1881

N N 2


JEW'S  HAEP.


543


JOCKEY CLUB.


Jews  severely  persecuted  at  Kieff  and  other  places

in  South  Russia  ....  . May,  188

About  60,000  Russian  Jews  request  permission  to

return  to  Spain,  granted  . . . June, ,,

Persecution going on in Prussia, the emperor

interfering  to  stop  it ...  Aug. ,,

Severe  restrictive  edict  against  the  Jews  in  Russia
issued,  but  not  fully  carried  out,  increasing  civil

disabilities May,  et  seq.  188:

Committees  formed  at  Berlin  and  London  to  receive
money  to  help  Jewish  emigration,  April;  108,759^.
received  in  London .... 25  Oct. ,,
New synagogue at Abbey-road, London, N.W.

consecrated 30  July, ,,

The  Jews  violently  attacked  at  Presburg,  Hun-
gary ;  martial  law  proclaimed . . 29  Sept. ,,

Trial  of  Jews  (see  Hungary) 188

Violent  attacks  on  Jews  at  St.  Petersburg,  Pesth,

Zala  Egcrszeg,  &e. . . . July,  Aug. ,,
Death  of  Charlotte,  Baroness  de  Rothschild,  great

benefactress I3  Mar.  188,

Jews  still  persecuted  in  Russia . Aug.  et  seq. ,,
Commission to  enquire into the  condition  and

rights  of  the  Jews Oct. ,,

Sir  Moses  Monteliore  completes  his  100th  year,
celebrated  by  Jews  all  over  the  world  as  a
very  great  benefactor  (27  Oct.  Jewish  Calendar)
25-26  Oct.  1884 ;  died  . . . 28  July,  188  =

The  Jews  enjoy  at  present  full  citizenship  in  Europe
(with  the  exception  of  Portugal,  Roumania,
Russia  and  Spain)  ;  also  in  the  United  States  .  1884
■Sir  Nathaniel  de  Rothschild,  son  of  Lionel,  created
a  peer  ;  takes  his  seat  9  July,  1885  ;  made  lord-
lieut.  of  Buckinghamshire . . .  May,  i83c

Estimated  population  of  the  Jews  in  the  world,

6,377,602 I88c

Exhibition  of  Anglo-Jewish  antiquities  at  the  Roval

Albert  Hall  opened .... 4  April,  1887
Expulsion of Jews from Odessa and Finland

decreed April,  1888

Henry Aaron Isaacs, 3rd Jewish lord mayor

Nov.  188c
Dr. Nathan Adler, chief rabbi, London, dies

21  Jan.  189c

Enforcement  of  the  severe edict  of  May, 1882,

against  the  Jews  in  Russia,  about  2,000,000  said

to  be  ordered,  July  ; officially  contradicted  at

St.  Petersburg,  6  Aug.  ;  many  Jews  expelled  from

Russia Dec.

At  a  great  meeting  in  the  Guildhall,  London,  an
appeal  to  the  Czar  to  mitigate  the  laws  against
the  Jews  agreed  to  (see  under  London,  Feb.  1891)

10  Dec. ,,
The  reported  scheme  of  baron  Hirsch  to  purchase
land  in  America,  or  elsewhere, to  receive  the
banished  Jews,  pronounced  premature. 12  May,  1891
Dr. Hermann  Adler  chosen  chief  rabbi  by  dele-
gates 4  June „

Expulsion of Jews from S. Russia ordered

about  29  May ,,
Relaxation  of  the  persecution  ;  enforcement  of  the
decree of expulsion  from St. Petersburg  ad-
journed about  18  July „

3,000  acres  of  land  at  Hulberton,  Cumberland
county,  New  Jersey,  purchased  by  Mr.  Leon
Lait,  a  Russian,  for  a  Hebrew  colony

.  about  20  July ,,

lhe  Jewish  Colonization  Association, which  see,

founded about  11  Sept. „

Anti-Jewish  riots  at  Starodoub  and  other  districts
in  Russia,  about  30  deaths  ;  order  restored  by
the  military,  170  arrests  .  .  n  Oct.  et  seq.  ,,
Reformed  or  British  Jews.  In  1840  and  1841  a
congregation  was  formed  by  certain  families  of
Spanish  and  German  Jews,  for  uniting  two  sec-
tions of  the  community,  and  for  simplifying  the
ritual  observances.  Their  West  London  Syna-
gogue in  Burton-street,  opened  1  Jan  1842  ■  re-
moved to  Margaret-street,  Regent-street,  1840-
succeeded  by  a  magnificent  synagogue,  in  Upper
Berkeley-street,  consecrated  .  .22  Sept 1870

The  Reformed  Jews  recognise  the  authority  of  the
Old  Testament  or  written  law  only,  and  reject
the  oral  law  embodied  in  the  Talmud,  which  is
accepted  by  the  Orthodox  or  Rabbinical  Jews.

JEW'S HAEP (probably  Jaws' harp), an
ancient  instrument. Charles  Eulenstein  produced


remarkable  effects  with  Jew's  harps  at  the  Royal
Institution,  London,  15  Feb.  1828.

JEYNES  or  JAINS,  a  sect  of  Buddhists,  in
India,  dating  from  the  gth  century.  They  do  not
recognise  a  creator,  but  believe  matter  to  be  eternal,
and  ref  1  ain  from  destroying  life,  considering  animals
to  be  sacred.

Their  discipline  is  very  strict ;  a  trial  for  defama-
tion of  character  by  a  libel,  accusing  certain
members  of  breaking  the  laws  of  caste,  lasted  34
days  at  Moorshedabad,  and  cost  above  100,000
rupees. The  verdict  was  for  the defendants

March,  1891

JEYPOOE,  one  of  the  four  principal  Rajpoot
states  of  India,  tributary  to  the  British.  The
new  capital,  Jeypoor,  termed  the  Paris  of  India,
was  built  in  the  last  century.  The  Maharajah,
friendly  to  the  British,  by  whom  he  was  supported,
died  in  Sept.  1880 ;  he  nominated  a  successor,  in-
stalled 30  Sept.  1880.

JEZEEELITES,  New  and  Latter  House  of
Israel,  was  founded  by  James  Jershom  Jezreel
(James  White),  who  died  1885.  They  assert  that
the  Gospel  is  sufficient,  for  the  salvation  of  the  soul,
but  for  the  salvation  of  the  body  the  Law  must  be
added. Head  quarters,  Gillingham,  Kent.

JIHAD,  or  religious  warfare  against  unbelievers,
although  inculcated  in  the  Mohammedan  law,  was
prohibited  by  the  Sheeahs,  and  only  permitted  by
the  Sonnites  in  some  cases ;  certainly  not  with,
any  nation  with  whom  they  had  made  a  treaty  of
peaae.  The  Jihad  was  preached  by  fanatics  in  India
in  187 1,  and  prohibited  by  government.
A  jihad  against  the  Russians  was  announced  by  the

sheikh-ul-Islam,  at  Constantinople,  about  28  May,  1877
A  jihad  against  the  British  in  Afghanistan,  pro-
posed by  Shere  Ali . .  . . Oct.  1878
A jihad against  the British  was  proclaimed  by
Arabi  Pasha .... about  24  July,  1882
See  Egypt.

JINGO  PAETY,  a  name  given  (in  1878)  to
persons  who  preferred  war  with  Russia  to  submis-
sion to  her  aggressive  policy.  A  popular  song  said—
"  We  don't  want  to  fight,  but,  by  jingo  if  we  do,

We've  got  the  ships,  we've  got  the  men,  and  we've  got
the  money  too."
"  By  jingo  "  occurs  in  Jarvis's  "  Don  Quixote,"  and  the

"  Vicar  of  Wakefield."

JOAN  OF  AEC,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  born  at
Domremy,  imagined  that  she  had  a  divine  com-
mission to  expel  the  English,  who  under  the  earl  of
Salisbury  were  besieging  Orleans.  Charles  VII.
entrusted  her  with  the  command  of  some  French
troops,  and  she  raised  the  siege,  and  entered  Orleans
with  supplies,  29  April,  1429 ;  and  the  English,
who  were  before  the  place  from  12  Oct.  preceding,
abandoned  the  enterprise  8  May  following.  She
captured  several  towns  in  the  possession  of  the
English,  whom  she  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Patay,
18  June,  1429.  She  was  wounded  several  times
herself,  but  never  shed  any  blood  with  her  own
hand.  She  was  taken  at  the  siege  of  Compiegne,
25  May,  1430  ;  and,  after  a  trial,  burnt  for  a  witch,
at  Rouen,  30  May,  1431.  A  statue  of  Joan  of  Are,
the  work  of  the  late  princess  Marie  of  France,  was
inaugurated  at  Orleans,  13  Sept.  185 1,  and  the  i
435th  anniversary  of  the  deliverance  of  the  city
was  celebrated  there  on  14  May,  1865.  The  anni-
versary of  her  death  celebrated,  30  May,  1878.  See
Tat  ay.  Her  statue  at  Beaurevoir  unveiled  9  Aug.,  I,
at  Domremy  26  Aug.  1891.

JOCKEY  CLUB. SeeHaces.


JOHANNESBURG.


549


JOURNALS.


JOHANNESBURG,  see  Transvaal,  1887  et
seq.

JOHN  BULL,  a  nickname  given  to  English-
men, is  said  to  be  derived  from  Dr.  Arbutlmot's
satire  "John  Bull,"  published  1712. — Brewer.
"John  Bull,"  a  coined}',  by  George  Colman  the
younger,  was  performed  1805.  The  "John  Bull,"
a  Tory  newspaper,  supported  by  Theodore  Hook,
was  first  published  1820.  Its  publication  ceased  in
1S92.

"JOHN  COMPANY,"  a  name  formerly
given  to  the  East  India  Company,  was  sometimes
given  to  the  South  Africa  Company,  1891.  See
Zambesi.

JOHN  DOE  and  Richard  Roe,  names

well  known,  as  standing  pledges  for  the  prosecution
of  suits.  In  early  times  real  and  substantial  per-
sons were  required  to  pledge  themselves  to  answer
to  the  crown  for  an  amercement  or  fine  set  upon
the  plaintiff,  for  raising  a  false  accusation,  if  he
brought  an  action  without  cause,  or  failed  in  it;
and  in  1285,  13  Edw  I.  sheriffs  and  bailiffs  were,
before  they  made  deliverance  of  the  distress,  to  re-
ceive pledges  for  pursuing  the  suit,  and  for  the
return  of  the  property,  if  return  were  awarded.
But  this  becoming  a  matter  of  form,  the  fictitious
names  of  Doe  and  Roe  were  used  until  the  form  was
declared  to  be  no  longer  necessary  by  the  Common
Law  Procedure  Act,  1852.

JOHN  O' GROAT'S  HOUSE,  an  ancient
house  formerly  situated  on  Duncan's  Bay  Head,
the  most  northerly  point  of  Great  Britain,  deriving
its  name  from  John  of  Groat,  or  Groot,  and  his
brothers,  originally  from  Holland,  said  to  have  set-
tled here  about  1489.

The  house  was  of  an  octagon  shape,  being  one  room,  with
eight  windows  and  eight  doors,  to  admit  eight  mem-
bers of  the  family,  the  heads  of  different  branches  of  it,
to  prevent  their  quarrels  for  precedence  at  table.  Each
came  in  by  this  contrivance  at  his  own  door,  and  sat
at  an  octagon  table,  at  which,  of  course,  there  was  no
chief  place  or  head.

JOHN, ST.,  see Newfoundland, Cambridge,

New  Brunswick  and  Oxford.

St.  John's  Night,  or  Midsummer  eve,  23  June  :  bonfires
are  still  made  in  Ireland,  and  in  some  parts  of  Eng-
land, and  thought  to  be  the  relic  of  a  pagan  custom —
resembling  the  Phoenician  worship  of  Baal.

JOHN,  ST.,  Knights  of,  see  Malta.

The  Knights  of  St.  John  (Johanniter  Hitter),  a  Luthe-
ran order  of  high  rank,  formed  by  Frederick  Wil-
liam III.  of  Prussia,  23  May,  1812,  and  reorganised  15
Oct.  1852.  These  knights  co-operated  with  the  knights
of  St.  John  of  Malta  and  various  other  bodies  in
rendering  energetic  assistance  to  the  wounded  during
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  in  1870-1  ;  the  chief  office
being  at  the  ancient  gate  of  the  priory  of  St.  John,
Clerkenwell,  London,  E.C.  ;  the  duke  of  Manchester
being  a  prior  of  the  order.

The  Russian  and  English  orders  claim  connection  with
the  original  institution  at  Malta  as  two  of  its  langues.

T  e  St.  John  Ambulance  Association,  founded  and  estab-
lished by  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1877  :
its  objects  are — 1.  The  dissemination  of  instruction
in  "  first  aid,"  i.e.,  the  preliminary  treatment  of  the
sick  and  injured  pending  the  doctor's  arrival ;  2,
lectures  to  women  on  home  nursing  and  hygiene  ;
3,  the  deposit  in  appropriate  localities  of  material
(such  as  stretchers,  hampers,  splints,  bandages,  &c.)
for  use  in  case  of  accident;  4,  the  development  of
ambulance  corps  for  the  transport  of  the  sick  and
injured.  Upwards  of  250  administrative  "centres"
and  some  thousands  of  "detached  classes  "  have  been
formed  in  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  India,  the
Colonies,  and  elsewhere  abroad,  and  over  100,000
certificates  of  proficiency  have  been  awarded.  Sir
Edmund  A.  H.  Lechmere,  bart.,  M.P.,  chairman  ;
John  Parley,  esq., honorary  director  of  stores  and


manager  of  transport  department ;  major  sir  Herbert
C.  Perrott,  bart.,  chief  secretary.  The  prince  of
Wales  installed  at  St.  John's  Gate  as  Grand  Prior  of
the  Order  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in
England  recently  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter,
18  July,  1888.

JOHN'S  GATE,  ST.  (St.  John's  Square,
Clerkenwell,  London),  a  tine  vestige  of  monastic
building,  was  the  gate  of  the  priory  of  St.  John  of
Jerusalem  (suppressed  in  1540),  and  was  the  place
where  the  Gentleman' s  Magazine  was  first  pub-
lished, 6  March,  1731.  The  house  was  often  visited
by  Dr.  Johnson,  Uarrick,  and  their  friends.  The
gate  was  purchased  for  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of
St.  John,  by  Sir  Edmund  A.  H.  Lechmere,  Bt.,
secretary  of  the  English  league.  The  first  meeting
held  here  24  June,  1874.
The  prince  of  Wales  installed  here  as  Grand  Prior  of

the  Order  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in

England, recently incorporated by royal charter,

18  July,  1888.

JOHNSON'S  CLUB,  see  Literary  Club.

JOHNSTOWN  INUNDATION,  see  under
Pennsylvania,  1889.

JOHORE.  A  state  and  town  in  the  Malay
Peninsula.  The  sultan  received  by  the  queen,  at
Windsor,  21  Feb.  1891.  During  his  visit,  some
territorial  arrangements  were  made.  He  left
England  15  Maich,  1891.

JOINT  STOCK  COMPANIES  (good  and
bad)  have  been  very  numerous  during  the  present
century  (especially  in  1825,  1846,  1866,  and  1872).
Many  acts  have  been  passed  for  their  regulation ;
the  most  important  in  1844,  1855,  1857  and  1858.
An  important  act  for  the  incorporation,  regulation,
and  winding-up  of  trading  companies  and  other
associations  passed  in  1862,  was  amended  in  1867  ~r
see  Companies,  and  Limited  Liability.  1544  new-
companies  were  registered  in  the  year  1881-2.

JONATHAN,  BROTHER.  This  national
name  for  America  is  attributed  to  "Washington's
reliance  for  advice  and  support  on  Jonathan  Trum-
bull, governor  of  Connecticut,  whom  he  termed
"the  first  of  patriots."  (Trumbull  died  9  Aug.
1785). — Breicer.

JORDAN,  a  river  of  Palestine,  crossed  by
the  Israelites  B.C.  1451,  when  they  entered
Canaan.  A  plan  for  forming  a  canal  from  the
Mediterranean  to  the  gulf  of  Akabah  was  discussed
at  the  British  A?sociation  Sept.  1883.

JOSHUA,  successor  of  Moses,  led  the  Israelites
into  Canaan.  B.C.  1451.  (See  Bible.)  Handel's-
14th  oratorio  "Joshua"  was  finished  19  Aug.  •
1747  ;  produced  9  March,  1748.  It  contained  "  See
the  Conquering  Hero  comes,"  afterwards  trans-
ferred to  "Judas  Maccabtcus."

JOURNAL  DES  SAVANTS,  see  Reviews.

JOURNALISTS, National Associa-
tion OF,  established  at  Birmingham,  1884.
The  annual meeting  at London was  largely  at-
tended, 18  Dec.  1887  ;  at  Newcastle . Feb.  1888
Institute  of  Journalists,  Loudon,  inauguratedo  Mar.

1889  ;  incorporated  ....  8  Feb.  1890
First  annual  conference  held  at  Birmingham  27  Sept. ,,

JOURNALS,  see  Newspapers.

JOURNALS  of  the  House  of  Commons,

commenced  in  1547,  first  ordered  to  be  printed  in
1752,  when  5000/.  were  allowed  to  Mr.  Hardmge
for  the  execution  of  the  work.  The  journals  of  the
House  of  Peeks  (commencing  1509)  were  ordered
to  be  printed  in  1767.


JOWAKIES.


550 JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL.


JOWAKIES,  see  India,  1877-8.

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  an  island  in  the
Pacific,  named  from  its  discoverer  in  1567.  Alexan-
der Selkirk,  a  native  of  Scotland,  left  on  shore  here
by  his  captain  in  Nov.  1704,  and  lived  alone  till  he
was  discovered  by  captain  Bogers  in  1709.  He  died
lieutenant  of  H.M.S.  Weymouth,  1723.  A  monu-
ment to  his  memory  was  erected  on  the  island  in
1868,  then  colonised  by  Germans.  From  his  nar-
rative De  Foe  is  said  to  have  derived  his  Adventures
of  Robinson  Crusoe,  first  published  in  17 19.  The
present  governor,  Eodt,  a  Swiss  adventurer,  settled
on  the  island  about  1874.

JUAN,  SAN,  a  small  island,  near  Vancouver's
island.  The  possession  of  this  island,  on  account  of  its
commanding  the  straits  between  British  Columbiaand
the  United  States  territories,  led  to  disputes  between
the  two  countries,  owing  to  the  doubtful  interpre-
tation of  the  treaty  of  Washington  respecting  the
boundaries,  12  June,  1846.  See  United  States,  1859
and  i860.  The  matter  (by  the  treaty  of  Washing-
ton, 8  May,  187 1)  was  referred  for  arbitration  to
the  emperor  of  Germany,  who  decided  in  favour
of  the  United  States,  Oct.  1872.  The  isle  was
evacuated  by  the  British  22  Nov.  following.

JUBILEES  (Heb.  yobel,  the  sound  of  a
trumpet).  The  Jews  were  commanded  to  cele-
brate a  jubilee  every  fifty  years,  1491  B.C.
{Lev.  xxv.  8.)  Among  the  Christians  a  jubilee
every  century  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  VIII.
in  the  year  1300.  It  was  ordered  to  be  celebrated
every  fifty  years  by  pope  Clement  VI. ;  and  by
Urban  VI.  every  thirty-third  year ;  and  by  Six-
tus  V.  every  twenty-fifth  year.
National  jubilee  in  England  on  account  of  George

III.  entering  the  50th  year  of  his  reign, 25  Oct. 1809
Jubilee  in  celebration  of  the  general  peace,  and  of
the  centenary  of  the  accession  of  the  Brunswick

family ' 1  Aug.  1814

Shakspcare's  Jubilee,  projected  by  David  Garrick,
was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth-place,
Stratford-on-Avon  . . . . 6,  7,  8,  Sept.  1769
A  Shakspeare  festival  at  Stratford  . . 23  April,  1836
A  Shakspeare  festival  at  Stratford . 23  April,  1E65
The  Scott  centenary  celebrated  (he  was  born  15  Aug.

1771) 9  Aug.  1871

International  musical  jubilee  at  Boston,  U.S.,  (see

Boston) 17  June— 4  July,  1872

•Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee,  1887  (accession  20  June,
1837).  Grand  procession  witnessed  by  many
thousands ;  solemn  thanksgiving  service  in
Westminster  Abbey,  in  the  presence  of  the  queen,
the  royal  family,  the  kings  of  Denmark,  Belgium,
Greece  and  Saxony  ;  the  crown  princes  of  Ger-
many, Austria,  Portugal  and  Sweden  ;  the  grand
duke  Sergius  of  Russia,  Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta,
prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  the  maharajah  Holkar
and  many  Indian  princes,  the  queen  of  Hawaii,
also  the  dignitaries  of  the  empire,  and  many
persons  eminent  in  science,  art,  and  literature

21  June,  1887

By  her  majesty's  command,  a  picture  representing

the  scene,  was  painted  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Lockhart,

K.S.A.,  and  by  her  permission  was  exhibited  at

Waterloo  House,  Pall  Mall  (engravings  were  sold

by  Messrs.  Doig  &  Co.)'.

Magnificent  illuminations  throughout  the  metro-
polis ;  two  deaths  recorded^  and  not  many
personal  injuries  ....  21  June,  ,,
Jubilee  beacon  fires  throughout  England  and  Wales,
started  on  the  Malvern  Hills  10  p.m.,  and  seen
from  Cottington  Hill,  Hants  ;  over  80  fires  seen

21  June,  ,,
About  26,000  elementary  school  children  entertained
in  Hyde  Park  at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Lawson  of
the  Daily  Telegraph.  The  queen  presents  a
memorial  cup  to  P'lorence  Dunn,  aged  12,  of  St.
Mary's,  Westminster  ;  the  prince  of  Wales  and
many  of  the  nobility  present  .  .  22  June,  ,,
Grand  fete  in  Pontypool  park,  Monmouthshire,  or-


ganized by  captain  Gus.  Bevan  (who  was  thanked
by  the  queen) ;  about  80,000  persons  present ;
great  Eisteddfod  ;  a  prize  of  200?.  awarded  to
Dowlais  choir ;  fireworks,  &c.  .  .  n  April,  1887
Jubilee  celebrated  in  India  and  all  the  colonies,
and  tin  oughout  the  civilized  world,  June  ;  envoys
from  th  e  pope  (Mon~.  Ruff  o  Scilla),  Japan  and  Siam  , ,
Citizens'  thanksgiving  service  at  St.  Paul's,  after

formal  procession  from  Guildhall  .  23  June,  ,,
The  queen  issues  a  letter  to  the  nation,  expressing
her  profound  gratitude  for  the  very  kind  reception
of  the  vast  multitude  during  her  progress  to  and
return  from  Westminster  Abbey,  and  her  high
admiration for the excellent order  preserved

24  June, ,,
Jubilee  yacht  race  round  the  island  (see  Yachts)

14-27  June, ,,
28,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  at  Bucking-
ham Palace,  2  July ,,

The  queen  lays  foundation-stone  of  the  Imperial

Institute 4  July, ,,

The  queen  reviews  about  60,000  men  at  Aldershot

9  July, „
Grand  naval  review  by  the  queen  (see  Navy  of

England) 23  July, ,,

The  presents  given  to  the  queen  exhibited  at  St.
James's  Palace,  rich,  beautiful,  and  eccentric,

12  Sept. ,,
Medals  presented  to  the  metropolitan  police  for
their conduct during the jubilee celebration

ordeied 3  Sept. ,,

The  queen  expresses  her  thanks  for  jubilee  addresses

from  all  parts  of  the  empire . . 14  Sept. ,,
Great  number  of  addresses  from  municipal  corpo-
rations, scientific  societies, and other bodies

27  June, ,,
East  India  chiefs  received  and  decorated  at  Windsor

30  June, ,,
The  queen  thanks  the  mayors  and  municipal  bodies

for  their  presents  ;  London  Gazette  . . 4  Nov. ,,
Long  official  account  of  the  jubilee  proceedings,

London  Gazette .3  Jan.  1888

Jubilee  offering  of  the  women  of  Great  Britain  and
Ireland  (from  id.  to  il.)  ; 75,000?.  presented  to
the  queen  22  June  ;  her  letter  of  thanks  published
2  July,  1887  ;  sum  increased  to  84,116?.  in  March, „
The queen approved the application  of about
70,000?.  for  the sick  poor, and  the  benefit  of
nurses  and  nursing  institutions. About  10,000?.
was  set  apart  for  a  colossal  statue  of  the  prince
consort,  andabout  4,116?.  fora  personal  ornament
to  be  worn  by  the  queen  ;  reported 20  April, ,,
The  bronze  equestrian  statue,  by  sir  J.  E.  Boehm,
was set  up  near  Virginia  water,  Windsor  great
park,  and  was  uncovered  by  the  queen  . 12  May,  1890
Statue  of  the  queen  by  Sir  J.  E.  Boehm,  subscribed
for  by  the  graduates,  unveiled  by  the  prince  of
Wales  at  the  University  of  London,  Burlington
Gardens  8  May  ;  one  by  L.  J.  Williamson,  at  the
College of Physicians, Thames Embankment
unveiled . . . . . . .24  May,  1889

Picture  of  the  Emperor  William  I.  and  his  family,
painted  by  Anton  von  Werner,  presented  to  the
queen  by  the  Germans  residing  in  England . .

16  May, ,,
Royal  Victoria [Jubilee]  Hospital,  Bournemouth,
cost 8,000?.,  opened by  the prince  of  Wales

16  Jan.  1S90
The  Jubilee  offering  of  the  officers  of  the  British
army. — A  silver  gilt  centre  piece,  representing
the  greatness  of  the  empire,  designed  by  Mr.
Alfred  Gilbert,  R.A.,  presented  to  the  queen  at
Buckingham  j'alace  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge

and  a  deputation 10  May ,,

See  Church  House,  Imperial  Institute,  &  Nurses.

J  UDAH,  see  Jews.

JUDAS  MACCABEUS,  Handel's  12th  ora-
torio, composed  9  July— 11  Aug.  1746;  produced  I
April,  1747. See  Maccabees.

JUDGE  ADVOCATE GENERAL,  and

judge  martial  of  all  the  forces,  an  ancient  office,
held  by  patent  from  the  crown.  He  is  the  legal
adviser  of  the  commander-in-chief  in  military  cases,
and  by  his  authority  all  general  courts  martial  are


JUDGES.


551


JUNKER PARTY.


lield.  An  advocate-general  accompanied  the  army
to  France  in  1625,  and  the  office  was  constituted
soon  after  the  restoration,  lir.  Samuel  Barrowe
was  appointed  1666.

.John  R.  Davison  appointed  Dec.  1870;  died  15  Apr.  1871
-Sir  Robert  Phillimore  (admiralty  judge)  acted  pro-
visionally 1871-3

Acton  S.  Ayrton  ...  21  Aug.  1873 — Feb.  1874
.Stephen  Cave  . . . Feb.  1874 — Nov.  1875

Geo.  A.  F.  Cavendish  Bentinck,  25  Nov.  1875 — May,  18S0
■George  Osborne  Morgan .... May, ,,

William  T.  Marriott June,  1885

-John  Wm.  Mellor 15  Feb.  1886

William  T.  Marriott,  July,  1886-92  ;  knighted  April,  1888

JUDGES  appointed  by  God,  when  the  Israelites
were  in  bondage,  ruled  from  1402  B.C.  till  the  ela-
tion of  Saul  as  king,  1095 ;  see  Jews,  Chancellor*,
Justices,  Circuits,  Lords  Justices,  Vice-  Chancellors,
Privy  Councils,  and  Supreme  Court.
J  udges  punished  for  bribery  and  Thomas  de  Wey-

land  banished 1289

William  de  Thorp  hanged  for  bribery  .  .  .  1351
John  de  Cavendish  beheaded  by  the  Suffolk  rebels,  1381
Tresylian, chief  justice, executed for favouring

despotism,  and  other  judges  condemned  . . . 1388
The  prince  of  Wales  said  to  have  been  committed
by  judge  Gascoigne  for  assaulting  him  on  the

bench 1412

.Sir  Thos. More,  late  lord  chancellor, beheaded,

6  July,  1535
-Judges  threatened  with  impeachment,  and  Berkeley
taken  off  the  bench  and  committed  by  the  com-
mons, on  a  charge  of  treason . .  13  Feb.  1641
Three  judges  inii>eached  for  favouring  the  levying

ship-money 1680

.Judge  Jefferies  committed  by  the  lord  mayor  to  the

Tower,  where  he  died 1689

The  judge's  office  made  tenable  for  life  (during  good
behaviour)  instead  of  during  the  pleasure  of  the

crown  by  13  Wdl.  III.  c.  2 1702

'Their commissions made permanent, notwith-
standing the  demise  of  the  crown  (by  1  Geo III.)  1761
Three  additional  judges  appointed,  one  to  each  law

court,  1784  ;  and  again  in 1830

A  new  judge  took  his  seat  as  vice-chancellor,  5  May,  1813
Two  new  vice-chancellors  appointed  .  .  .  1841
A  third  vice-chancellor  and two new chancery

judges  (styled  lords-justices)  appointed  .  .  .  1851
_4  council  of  judges,  was  by  the  judicature  act  of
1873,  oi-dered  to  be  held  at  least  once  every  year,
011  such  day  as  should  be  fixed  by  the  lord  chan-
cellor and  lord  chief  justice,  to  consider  the
operation  of  the  act,  and  such  councils  were  held
17,  21,  23  June,  1892.  In  their  report  issued  6
Aug. ,  they  propose  many  important  legal  reforms,
ffn  the  case  <sf  Mr.  Buckley,  attorney-general  of
New  Zealand,  v.  Mr.  Worley  B.  Edwards,  a  puisne
judge,  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council
decided  that  the  appointment  of  a  judge  is  not
valid  unless  the  payment  of  his  salary  is  pre-
viously secured  by  statute . . .21  May, ,,

JUDICATURE,  see  law;  Supreme  Court.
JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  of  the  Privy

COUNCIL,  see  Privy  Council.

JUDICIAL  SEPARATION  of  married  per-
sons may  now  be  decreed  by  the  Divorce  Court,
■established  by  act  of  parliament  in  1857.  The
^persons  separated  may  not  marry  again.

JUGGERNAUT,  correctly  Jagannath,  or
•"  Lord  of  the  World,"  one  of  the  incarnations  of
Krishna,  is  an  idol  formed  of  an  irregular  pyramidal
hlack  stone,  with  two  rich  diamonds  to  represent
•eyes;  the  nose  and  mouth  are  painted  vermilion.
The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god  is  stated
at  1,200,000  annually.  Formerly  some  were  crushed
Tby  the  wheels  of  the  car  (so  lately  as  Aug.  1864)  ;  a
great  many  never  returned,  and,  to  the  distance  of
ififty  miles,  the  way  was  strewed  with  human  bones.
The  temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  about  Soo


years.  The  state  allowance  to  the  temple  was  sus-
pended by  the  Indian  government  in  June,  1851.
The  festival  was  kept,  June,  1872.  Twelve  persons
were  said  to  be  killed  by  accident,  Aug.  1873.  The
festival  of  1878  reported  a  failure.

JUGURTHINE  WAR.  Jugurtha  murdered
his  cousin,  Hiempsal,  king  of  Numidia,  and  usurped
his  throne,  1 18  B.C.  He  gave  Adherbal  a  share  in  the
government,  but  killed  him  in  1 12.  He  then  pro-
voked the  Romans  to  war.  Caecilius  Metellus  was
first  sent  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  bat-
tles; and  Marius  brought  him  in  chains  to  Koine  to
adorn  his  triumph,  106  B.C.,  where  he  was  put  to
death  in  104.  This  war  has  been  celebrated  by
the  pen  of  Sallust.

JULIAN  ERA  and  YEAR,  see  Calendar.
Julian  period  (by  Joseph  Scaliger,  about  1583),  a
term  of  years  produced  by  the  multiplication  of
the  lunar  cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Romau
indiction  15.  It  consists  of  7980  years,  and  began.
4713  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in
computing  time  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  attendant
on  reckoning  any  period  antecedent  to  our  era,  an
advantage  in  common  with  the  mundane  eras  used
at  (different  times.  By  subtracting  4713  from  the
Julian  period,  our  era  is  found ;  if  before  Christ,
subtract  the  Julian  period  from  4714.

JULIERS,  a  Prussian  province;  made  a  duchy
in  1356;  became  the  subject  of  contention  on  the
extinction  of  the  ruling  family  in  1609 ;  was  allotted
to  Neuburg  in  1659  ;  seized  by  the  French  in  1794;
and  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815.

JULY, the  seventh, originally  fifth, Roman
month,  named  by  Marc  Antony  from  Julius  Csesar,
the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  bom  in  it.
The  early  part  of  July, 1888, was  very  cold  ;  many

thunderstorms,  followed  by  destructive  floods  in  the

latter  part. See  Inundations.
July  Revolution. See  France,  1830.

JUNE,  originally  the  fourth,  now  the  sixth
month,  owes  its  name  to  Junius,  which  some  derive
from  Juno,  and  others  from  Juniores,  this  being  the
month  for  the  young,  as  May  was  for  aged  persons.
Ovid,  in  his  Fasti,  introduces  Juno  as  claiming  this
month. "  Glorious  1st  of  June  ;  "  see  Ushant.

JUNG  RIVER,  west  Africa.  Natives  chas-
tised for  outrage  on  Mr.  Laborde,  envoy,  and  others,
by  gen.  ilavelock,  governor  of  Sierra  Leone,  May,
1882.

JUNIUS' S  LETTERS  began  in  the  Public
Advertiser,  21  Jan.  1769.

They  have  been  ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William
Gerard  Hamilton,  commonly  called  Single-speech  Hamil-
ton, John  Wilkes,  Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Ash-
burton),  serjeant  Adair,  the  rev.  J.  Rosenhagen,  John
Roberts,  Charles  Lloyd,  Samuel  Dyer,  general  Lee,  the
duke  of  Portland,  Hugh  Boyd,  lord  George  Saekville.
and  sir  Philip  Francis.  The  last-named  is  generally
considered  to  have  been  the  author.  Junius  said,  "  I
am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish
with  me."  The  work  of  Mr.  Chabot  and  lion.  E.  T.  B.
Twisleton  was  considered  decisive  of  sir  Philip  Francis
being  Junius,  May,  1871.  "Junius  is  as  much  unknown
as  ever."—  Afhencewn,  8  Sept.  1888.
Sale  of  manuscript  papers  of  sir  Philip  Francis,  re-
ported to  be  inconclusive  respecting  "  Junius"

June,  1892

JUNKER  PARTY  {Junker,  German  for
young  noble),  a  term  applied  to  the  aristocratic
party  in  Prussia,  which  came  into  power  under
Otho  von  Bismarek-Sehouhauscu,  appointed  prime


JUNO.


552


JUSTICIAES.


minister,  9  Oct.  1862. Their  political  organ  is  the
Kreuz-Zeitung '.

JUNO,  the  planet  discovered  by  M.  Harding,  of
Lilienthal  near  Bremen,  1  Sept.  1804.  Its  distance
from  the  sun  is  254  millions  of  miles,  and  it  ac-
complishes its  revolution  in  four  years  and  128
days,  at  the  rate  of  nearly  42,000  miles  an  hour.

JUNONIA,  festivals  in  honour  of  Juno  (the
Greek  Hera,  or  Here)  at  Rome,  and  instituted  431  B.C.

JUNTA.  The  Spanish  provincial  juntas  or
councils  declared  against  the  French  in  1808,  aud
incited  the  people  to  insurrection.

JUNTO,  a  name  given  to  the  leaders  of  the
■whig  party  in  the  reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne
(1689-1714.)  ;  the  chiefs  were  admiral  Edward
Russell,  John  Summers,  Charles  Montague,  and
Thomas  Warton.

JUPITER,  known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chaldeans.
The.  discovery  of  the  satellites,  incorrectly  attributed
to  Simon  Mayr  (Marius)  in  1609,  was  made  by
Galileo  on  8  Jan.  1610;  see  Planets.  Jupiter's
moons  were  all  invisible  on  21  Aug.  1867  ;  a  very
rare  occurrence.  A  fifth  satellite  is  said  to  have
been  discovered  by  Mr.  Barnard  at  the  Lick  obser-
vatory, 9  Sept  1892. — Jupiter  Ammon's  temple  in
Lib)  a  was  visited  by  Alexander,  332  B.C.  Cambyses'
army  sent  against  it  perished  miserably,  525  B.C.
The  Greek  Zeus  was  the  Roman  Jupiter,  contracted
from  Diovis  pater,  the  father  of  Heaven.

JURIDICAL  SOCIETY  was  established  in
Feb.  1855,  and  opened  with  an  address  by  sir  R.
Bethell  on  12  May  following.

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into
England  during  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  mention
being  made  of  six  Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon
freemen  appointed  to  try  causes  between  the  English
and  Welsh  men  of  property,  and  made  responsible,
with  their  whole  estates  real  and  personal,  for  false
verdicts.  Lombard.  By  most  authorities  their
institution  is  ascribed  to  Alfred  about  886.  In
Magna  Charta,  juries  are  insisted  on  as  the  great
bulwark  of  the  people's  liberty.  When  either
party  is  an  alien  born,  the  jury  shall  be  one  half
denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens,  stat.  28  Edw.
UL  1353.  By  the  common  law  a  prisoner  upon
indictment  or  appeal  might  challenge  peremptorily
thirty-five,  being  under  three  juries  ;  but  a  lord  ol
parliament,  and  a  peer  of  the  realm,  who  is  to  be
tried  by  his  peers,  cannot  challenge  any  of  his
peers.  An  act  for  the  trial  by  jury  in  civil  cases  in
Scotland  was  passed  in  1815.  An  act  to  consolidate
and  amend  the  laws  relating  to  juries  in  Ireland
was  passed  ^  Will.  IV.  1833.  A  new  act  respecting
juries,  reguiating  their  payment,  &c,  was  passed
9  Aug.  1870.  The  clause  respecting  their  pa}  nient
was  rescinded  by  act  passed  28  Feb.  1871.  Laws
respecting  juries  in  Ireland  amended,  14  Aug,  1871.
New  Juries  bill  brought  in  by  the  attorney-general,
sir  John  Coleridge,  Feb.  1873.  Juries  are  sum-
moned to  assist  the  coroner  in  investigating  the
causes  of  sudden  or  violent  death.— Grand  Juries
(of  not  less  than  12  or  more  than  23  persons),  decide
whether  sufficient  evidence  is  adduced  to  put  the
accused  on  trial.— The  constitution  of  1791  esta-
blished the  trial  by  jury  in  France.— An  imperial
decree  abolished  trial  by  jury  throughout  the  Aus-
trian empire,  15  Jan.  1852.— Trial  by  jury  beg-an
in  Russia,  8  Aug.  1866;  in  Spain,  1889— A  true  bill
for  libel  granted  against  alderman  sir  F.  Truscott  in
his  absence,  who  was  honourably  acquitted,  18  Sept.
1879.


Coercion  or  Juries. — It  is  said  tliat  in  early-
times  the  suitors  used  to  feed  the  jury  empanelled  in
their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common  law  of  denying
sustenance  to  a  jury  after  the  hearing  of  the  evidence.
A  jury  may  he  detained  during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge
if  they  cannot  agree  upon  a  verdict ;  and  may  be  con-
fined without  meat,  drink,  or  fire,  candle  light  excepted,
till  they  are  unanimous.— Some  jurors  have  been  fined
for  having  fruit  in  their  pockets,  when  they  were  with-
drawn to  consider  of  their  verdict,  though  they  did  not
eat  it.  Leon  Dyer,  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury  not  being
able  to  agree,  and  having  been  some  time  under  duress,
forcibly  broke  from  the  court  where  they  were  locked  up,
and  went  home,  9  Oct.  1791.  Phillips.  In  Scotland,.
Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Prance,  juries  decide  by  a  ma-
jority ;  in  France,  since  1831,  a  majority  of  two-thirds  is-
required.

"JUSTE  MILIEU"  (moderation  and  con-
ciliation ti  parties),  according  to  Louis- Philippe  (in
1830),  is  the  only  principle  of  government  which
can  secure  the  welfare  of  France.

JUSTICE  GENERAL,  Lord,  Scotland,  see-
Court  of  Session.

JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE  are  unpaid  local
magistrates,  invested  with  extensive  powers_  in
minor  cases,  but  subject  to  supersession  and  punish-
ment by  the  King's  Bench  for  an  abuse  of  their
authority.  They  were  first  nominated  by  Wil-
liam I.  in  1076.  Stow.  Persons  termed  conserva-
tors of  the  peace  in  each  county  were  appointed  by
I  Edw.  III.  c.  2,  1327 ;  and  their  duties  were
defined  in  1360.  The  form  of  a  commission  of  the
peace  settled  by  the  judges,  23  Eliz.  1580.  Saw-
kins  ;  see  Eyre.

JUSTICES,  LORDS,  were  appointed  by
English  sovereigns  to  govern  during  their  absence  -r
especially  by  William  III.,  George  1.  and  George  II.
(1695-1760).  George  111.  never  left  England.  In
Sept.  1821,  when  George  IV.  went  to  Hanover,
lords  justices  were  appointed,  the  duke  of  York
being  the  first.  No  such  appointment  has  been
made  during  the  present  reign,  it  having  been
decided  by  the  law  authorities  in  1843  to  be  un-
necessary when  the  queen  went  to  France.  Ireland
is  always  ruled  by  lords  justices  when  the  lord-
lieutenant  is  out  of  the  country,  or  his  office  is
vacant.— Two  lords  justices  of  the  court  of  appeal  in
chancery,  having  rank  next  after  the  chief  baron
of  the  exchequer,  were  appointed  from  I  Oct.  1851,
salary  6000I.  For  recent  changes  see  Appeal.
1 85 1.  Sir  James  L.  Knight-Bruce,  resigned  Oct.,  died
7  Nov.  1866.
,,  Robert  lord  Cran worth  (afterwards  lord  chan-
cellor).
1853.  Sir  George  Jas.  Turner,  Jan.,  died,  9  July,  1867.

1866.  Sir  Hugh  M.  Cairns,  29  Oct.,  became  lord-chan-

cellor, 29  Feb.  1868.

1867.  Sir  John  Rolt,  July  ;  resigned  Feb.  1868.

1868.  Sir  Charles  Jasper  Selwyn,  8  Feb.,  died  11  Aug.

1869.

1868.  Sir  William  Page  Wood,  March  ;  lord-chancellor,

2  Nov.

1869.  Sir  George  M.  Giffard,  Dec,  died  13  July,  1870.

1870.  Sir  George  Mellish,  July;  died  15  June,  1877.
1875.  Sir  Richard  Baggallay,  Nov.

Present  Lords  Justices.

1881.  Sir  Nathaniel  Lindley.

1882.  Sir  Charles  S.  C.  Bowen.

1883.  Sir  Edward  Fry,  9  April.
1885.  Sir  Henry  Lopes,  Dec.
1890.  Sir  Edwd.  E.  Kay,  Nov.

1892.  Sir  Archibald  Levin  Smith,  June.

JUSTICIARS.  In  ancient  times  the  kings  oi
England  used  to  hear  and  determine  causes;  but  it
is  declared  by  law  that  if  the  king  cannot  deter-
mine every  controversy,  he,  to  ease  himself,  may
divide  the  labour  among  persons,  men  of  wisdom
and  fearing  God,  and  out  of  such  to  appoint  judges.
The  Saxon  kings of  England  appointed  a  judge


JUSTICIAEY.


553


JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.


after  this  manner,  who  was,  in  fact,  the  king's
deputy.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  the  person
invested  with  that  power  bad  the  style  of  Capitalis
Justiciee,  or  Justiciarius  An g lice.  These  judges
continued  until  the  erection  of  the  courts  of  king's
bench  and  the  common  pleas.  The  first  justiciars
of  Pmgland  were  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  and
"William  Fitz-Osborne,  in  1067;  and  the  last  was
Philip  Basset,  in  1261,  or  Hugh  le  Uespencer,  1263
(Henry  III). Authorities  vary.

JUSTICIAEY, Cotjut OP, see Court of
Justiciary.

m  JUSTINIAN  CODE  compiled  by  a  commis-
sion appointed  by  the  emperor  Justinian  I.  Feb.  528,
wherein  was  written  what  may  be  termed  the
statute  law  (scattered  through  2000  volumes  re-
duced to  fifty).  It  was  promulgated,  April,  529.
To  this  code  Justinian  added  the  Digest  or  Pan-
dects, the  Institutes,  and  Novels,  promulgated
16  Nov.  534.  These  compilations  have  since  been
called,  collectively,  the  bod}-  of  civil  law  {Corpus
Juris  Civilis).

JUTE,  the  fibres  of  two  plants,  the  chonch  and
isbund {Corchorns olitorius and Corchorus  cap-


sularis),  since  1830  extensively  cultivated  in
Bengal  for  making  gunnycloth,  &c.  Jute  has  been
much  manufactured  at  Dundee  as  a  substitute  for
flax,  tow,  &c,  and  in  July,  1862,  assertions  were
made  that  it  could  be  employed  as  a  substitute  lor
cotton.  In  1853,  275,578  cwt.  ;  in  1861,  904,092:
cwt.  ;  in  1871,  3,454,120  cwt. ;  in  1874,4,270,164
cwt.;  in  1875,  3,416,617  cwt.;  in  1877,3,649,877
cwt.;  in  1879,  4,759,363cwt.;  in  1881,  4,928,805  cwt.;;
in  1883,  7.385,028  cwt.  ;  in  1885,  285,674  tons  ;  in
1887,  327,221  tons,  of  undressed  jute  were  im-
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  ;  in  1888,  313,828.
tons  ;  in  1889,  383,453  tons;  in  1890,  369,958  tons.

JUTLAND  (Denmark),  the  home  of  the  Jutes-
who  settled  in  our  southern  counties.  South  Jut-
land was  taken  by  the  allies  in  1 8 1 3,  and  restored
in  1814.

JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.  In  .1838,  an
act  was  passed  for  instituting  a  prison  tor  instruct-
ing and  correcting  juvenile  offenders,  and  the  mili-
tary hospital  at  Parkhurst  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  was
appropriated  for  this  purpose.  An  act  for  their
committal  to  reformatories  was  passed  in  1854.


K.


KAABA.

KAABA,  see  Caaba.

KABYLES,  see  Algiers.

KADSEABZ,  see  Parsees.

KAFFBAEIA, an  extensive  country  in  S.
Africa,  extending  from  the  north  of  Cape  Colony  to


Our  war  with  the  natives  began


ithe  Orange  river,
in  1798.

The  Kaffirs,  headed  by  Mokanna,  a  prophet,  attack
Grahamstown ;  repulsed  with  much  slaughter . 1819

.Again  defeated,  1828,  1831 1834

'The  Kaffirs  rise  ;  sir  Harry  Smith,  the  governor,  pro-
claims martial  law,  and  orders  the  inhabitants
to  rise  en  masse  to  defend  the  frontier 31  Dec.  1850

■•Disastrous  operations  against  the  Kaffirs  in  the
Waterkloeff  follow  ;  colonel  Fordyce  and  several
officers  and  men  of  the  74th  regiment  killed  6  Nov. 1851

'Wreck  of  the  Birkenhead  with  reinforcements  from
England  (see  Birkenhead) ... 26  Feb. 1852

The  hostilities  of  the  Kaffirs  having  assumed  all
the  features  of  regular  warfare,  the  governor-
general,  Cathcart,  attacked  and  defeated  them,

20  Dec. „

'.The  conditions  offered  by  Cathcart  accepted,  and
peace  restored 9  March,  1853

Death  of  Makomo,  an  eminent  chief . n  Sept.  1873

Insurrection  of  Langalibalele,  suppressed ;  see
Natal .  ...  . . . . „

Kreli,  a  Galeka  chief  in  the  Transkei  territory  at-
tacks the  Fingoes  and  their  British  protectors  ;
repulsed  at  Ibeka . . .24  and  29  Sept.  1877

■■Sir  Bartle  Frere,  the  governor  general,  with  officers
and  volunteers  proceeds  to  the  spot ;  Kreli  de-
feated by  commandant  Griffith,  his  kraal  burnt,
9  Oct.  ;  deposed  and  his  lands  annexed . Oct. „

Galekas  defeated  and  expelled  from  their  territories

2  Deo. „

SRise  of  the  Gaikas  under  Sandilli,  an  old  chief
(who  after  education  relapsed  into  barbarism),
about 30  Dec. „

■Getywayo,  king  of  the  Zulus,  troublesome  ;  sir  B.
Frere  requests  help  ;  90th  regiment  and  a  battery
of  artillery  sent  from  England . . . Jan.  1878

British  advance  ;  rebels  defeated,  24,  26  Jan.  ;  at
Quintana,  7  B^eb.,  by  gen.  Thesiger  (about  400
Kaffirs  killed;  Sandilli  escapes,)  18,  19  March;
again  (capt.  Donovan,  lieut.  Ward,  and  capt.
Shawe  killed,)  about  21  March  ;  continued  fight-
ing, sometimes  severe . . . March — May, „

;Sandilli  and  other  chiefs  reported  dead  ;  his  sons  .
captured;  Kaffir  refugees  in  dreadful  condition  June,  „

.Amnesty  proclaimed  to  all  surrendering  rebels,
about 2  July, „

'Thanksgiving  day  for  restoration  of  peace  .  1  Aug. ,,
War  still  lingered  on  the  borders  during  Aug. „

Tini  Macomo  and  Gangubele  condemned  to  death  as
traitors  ;  intercession  for  them  in  London  ;  re-
prieved Sept. „

iFor  the  war,  see  also  Basuio  Land,  T  -ansvaal,  and
Zululand.

KAGOSIMA,  see  Japan,  1863.

KAINAEDJI  (Bulgaria).  Here  a  treaty  was
^signed,  July,  1774,  between  the  Turks  and  Russians,
■which  opened  the  Black  Sea,  and  gave  the  Crimea
to  the  latter.

KALAFAT,  on  the  Danube,  opposite  the
fortress  of  Widden.  This  place  was  fortified  by  the
'Turks  under  Omar  Pacha  when  they  crossed  the
river,  28  Oct.  1853.  In  December,  prince  Gort-
sehakoff;  with  the  Russian  army,  determined  to
storm  their  intrcnchnients.  The  conflict  lasted  frond
31 Dec.  to  9  Jan. 1854,  when  the  Russians  were


KANSAS.

compelled  to  retire.  Among  these  conflicts  one
occurred  at  Citate,  6  Jan.  ;  see  Citate.  Kalafat
was  invented  28  Jan.  and  general  Schilders  attacked
it  vigorously  on  19  April,  without  success,  and  the
blockade  was  raised  21  April.

KALAKH,  ancient  capital  of  middle  Assyria ;
where  many  discoveries  have  been  made  by  Layard
and  others. See  Assyria.

KALEIDOSCOPE,  an  optical  instrument,
which,  by  an  arrangement  of  mirrors,  produces  a
symmetrical  reflection  of  various  transparent  sub-
stances placed  between,  was  invented  by  Dr.  (after-
wards sir  David)  Brewster,  of  Edinburgh;  it  was
suggested  in  [814,  and  perfected  in  1817 ;  see
Debusscope.

KALEVALA,  epic  poem,  see  Finland.

KALENDS,  see  Calends.

KALI  YUGH,  see  Call  Yugh.

KALITSCH  (Poland).  Here  the  Eussians
defeated  the  Swedes,  19  Nov.  1706,  and  here  the
Saxons,  under  the  French  general,  Reynier,  were
beaten  by  the  Russians  under  Winzingerode,
13  Feb.  1813.

KALMAE,  see  Calmar.

KALMUCK,  see  Tartar.

KALUNGA  FOET  (E.  Indies),  attacked  un-
successfully by  the  British  forces,  and  general
Gillespie  killed,  31  Oct.  1814;  and  again  unsuccess-
fully, 25  Nov.  It  was  evacuated  by  the  Nepaulese,
30  Nov.  same  year.

KAMPTULICON,  a  substance  used  for  floor-
ing, patented  by  Elijah  Galloway  in  1843,  and
manufactured  since  1851,  by  Messrs.  Tayler,
Harvey,  and  Co.  It  is  composed  of  India-rubber
and  cork,  combined  by  masticating  machines.

KAMTSCHATKA,  a  peninsula,  E.  coast  of
Asia,  was  discovered  by  Morosco,  a  Cossack  chief,
1690;  taken  possession  of  by  Russia  in  1697;  and
proved  to  be  a  peninsula  by  fiehring  in  1728.  Four
months,  commencing  at  our  midsummer,  may  be
considered  as  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn
here,  the  rest  of  the  year  being  winter.  The
amiable  captain  Clarke,  a  companion  of  captain
Cook,  died  in  sight  of  Kamtschatka,  22  Aug.  1779,
and  was  buried  in  the  town  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul,
in  the  peninsula.

KANDAHAE,  see  Candahar.

KANGABOOS,  animals  indigenous  to  Aus-
tralia (first  seen  by  captain  Cook,  22  June,  1770),
were  bred  at  San  Donato,  the  estate  of  prince
Demidoff,  in  1853,  and  since.

KANSAS,  a  western  state  in  N.  America,
organised  as  a  territory,  30  May,  1854  ;  admitted
into  the  union,  29  Jan.  1861  ;  and  left  open  to
slavery,  contrary  to  the  Missouri  Compromise  ;  see
Slavery  in  America.  During  1855-8  this  state  was
a  scene  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed  through  fruitless
efforts  to  make  it  "a  slave  state. Capital,  Leaven-


KAPUNDA.


555


KENSINGTON.


worth;  population,  1880,  996,096;  1890,  1,427,096;

city>  132,716.

Uniontown  destroyed  by  the  bursting  of  a  dam
caused  by  heavy  rains,  several  lives  lost,  re-
ported 17  June  1889

Destructive  cyclone  at  Wellington  and  other  places
with  loss  of  life 27  May  1892

EAPUNDA,  see  under  Wrecks,  1887.

KARAITES  (or  Readers),  the  protestants  of
Judaism,  a  remnant  of  the  Sadducees,  foinied  iuto
a  sect  by  Anan-ben-David,  in  the  8th  century.  They
profess  adherence  to  the  Scriptures  alone,  and  re-
ject the  Talmud  and  Rabbinical  traditions.  They
still  exist  in  Turkey,  Poland,  the  Crimea,  and  other
parts  of  the  East.  Their  name  is  of  uncertain
•origin.

KARRACK,  see  Garrach.

KARS,  a  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  captured  by
the  Russians  under  Paskiewich,  15  July,  1828,
after  three  days'  conflict.  In  1855  it  was  de-
feuded  by  general  Fenwick  Williams,  with  15,000
men,  and  with  three  months'  provisions  and  three
days'  ammunition,  against  the  Russian  general
Mouravieff,  with  an  army  of  40,000  infantry  and
10,000  cavalry.  The  siege  lasted  from  18  J  une  to
28  Nov.  1855.  The  sufferings  of  the  garrison  were
very  great  from  cholera  and  want  of  food.  The
Russians  made  a  grand  assault  on  29  Sept.  but  were
repulsed  with  the  loss  of  above  6000  men,  and  the
garrison  were  overcome  by  famine  alone.  Sand-
with. Kars  was  restored  to  Turkey,  Aug.  1856.

On  accepting  general  Williams'  proposal  for  surrender-
ing, general  Mouravieff  said: — "General  Williams,  you
have  made  yourself  a  name  in  history ;  and  posterity
will  stand  amazed  at  the  endurance,  the  courage,  and
the  discipline  which  this  siege  has  called  forth  in  the
remains  of  an  army.  Let  us  arrange  a  capitulation  that
will  satisfy  the  demands  of  war,  without  disgracing
humanity."  In  1856  the  general  was  made  a  baronet,
with  the  title  of  sir  William  Fenwick  Williams  of  Kars,
and  granted  a  pension  ;  he  died  26  July,  1883.
The  Russians  besieging  Kars,  compelled  to  retire

by  Mukhtar  Pacha,  .  .  .  about  13  July,  1877
Under  the  grand  duke  Michael  and  Loris  Melikotf,

defeated  2,  4  Oct.  ;  defeat  the  Turks  at  Aladja

Bagh  (which  see) . . . . 14,  15  Oct. „
Kars taken,  after  12  hours'  fighting,  by  surprise

(it  is  said  by  treachery) . . 17,  18  Nov. ,,
{Killed  and  wounded  :  Russian,  about  2500;  Turkish,

5000  ;  with  loss  of  10,000  prisoners,  100  guns,  &c]
Kars  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  Berlin  treaty 13  July,  1878

KASHGARIA,  central  Asia  ;  subdued  by
China;  annexed  by  Keeu  Lung,  1760;  insurrec-
tions subdued,  1826  et  seq.  Mahomed  Yakoob  Beg,
during  an  insurrection  of  the  Tungani,  made  him-
self ruler  of  Kashgaria,  1866,  and  sent  envoys  to
London,  &c,  1867.  He  was  at  length  attacked  by
the  Chinese,  totally  defeated,  and  said  to  have  been
assassinated,  1  May,  1877.  The  capital,  Kashgar,
was  taken,  and  the  country  regained  by  China,
Kov.  ;  and  the  war  closed,  l»ec.  1877.

KASHMIR,  see  Cashmere.

KASSASSIN  (4  battles) ;  see  Egypt,  28  Aug.
and  g  Sept.  1882.

KATHARINE'S  HOSPITAL,  ST., founded
about  1 148,  by  Matilda,  queen  of  Stephen,  and  re-
founded  by  Eleanor,  queeu  of  Henry  III.,  1273.
The  hospital  was  removed  to  Regent's  Park  in  1827,
the  site  having  been  bought  for  163,000/.  by  the
St.  Katharine's  docks  company.  The  brethren  are  in
orders,  and  not  restricted  from  marriage ;  the  sisters
are  unmarried  or  widows.  Aschool,  attached  in  1829,
was  enlarged  in  1849.
Order of  St.  Katharine  for  nurses instituted  by the


queen  ;  annual  payment  50L  for  3  years,  badge

for  life  ;  first  investiture ... 4  June,  1879

KATSBACH  (Prussia) ;  near  this  river  the
Prussian  general  liliicher  defeated  the  French
under  MacDonald  and  Ney,  26  Aug.  1813.  He
received  the  title  of  prince  of  Wahlstatt,  the  name
of  a  neighbouring  village.

KEATING'S  ACT,  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  67  (1855)
relates  to  bills  of  exchange.

KEBLE  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  founded  in
memory  of  the  rev.  John  Keble,  author  of  the
"  Christian  Year,"  born  25  April,  1792,  died
29  March,  1866.  The  first  stone  of  the  building
was  laid  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  25  April,
1868;  the  building  was  dedicated,  23  June,  1870 ;
the  chapel,  the  gift  of  "William  Gibbs,  was  dedicated,
and  the  library  opened,  25  April,  1876.

KEEPER  of  the  King's  Conscience.

The  early  chancellors  were  priests,  and  out  of  their
supposed  moral  control  of  the  king's  mind  grew
the  idea  of  an  equity  court  in  contradistinction  to
the  law  courts.  A  bill  in  chancery  is  a  petition
through  the  lord  chancellor  to  the  king's  conscience
for  remedy  in  matters  for  which  the  king's  common
law  courts  afford  no  redress.  The  keeper  of  the
king's  conscience  is  therefore  now  the  officer  who
presides  in  the  court  of  chancery;  see  Chancellor
and  Lord  Keeper.

KEEPER  (LORD)  of  the  Great  Seal

OF  ENGLAND  differed  only  from  the  lord  chan-
cellor in  that  the  latter  had  letters  patent,  whereas
the  lord  keeper  had  none.  Richard,  a  chaplain,
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  keeper  under  Ranulph,
in  1 1 16.  Foss  says  that  the  distinction  between  the
two  offices  was  made  1232.  The  two  offices  were
made  one  by  5  Eliz.  1563.  Cowell ;  see  Chancellor.
The  office  of  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of
Scotland  was  established  in  1708,  after  the  union.

KELTS,  see  Celts  and  Gauls.

KENILWORTH  CASTLE  (Warwickshire),
was  built  about  1 120,  by  Geoffrey  de  Clinton,  whose
grandson  sold  it  to  Henry  III.  It  was  enlarged
and  fortified  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  to  whom  Henry
gave  it  as  a  marriage  portion  with  his  sister  Eleanor.
Queen  Elizabeth  conferred  it  on  her  favourite,
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester.  His  entertainment  of
the  queen  commenced  19  July,  1575,  and  cost  the
earl  daily  wool.

After  the  battle  of  Evesham  and  defeat  and  death  of
Simon  de  Montfort,  by  Prince  Edward  (afterwards
Edward  I.)  1265,  Monfiort's  younger  son,  Simon,  shut
himself  up  in  Keuilworth  castle,  which  sustained  a  siege
for  six  months  against  the  royal  forces  of  Henry  III.,  to
whom  it  at  length  surrendered.  Upon  this  occasion  was
issued  the  "  Dictum  de  Kenil  worth,"  or  "ban  of  Keuil-
worth," enacting  that  all  who  had  borne  arms  against
the  king  should  pay  him  the  value  of  their  lands  for
periods  varying  from  7  years  to  6  months.

KENNINGTON  COMMON  (Surrey) .  The
Chirtist  demonstration,  10  April,  1848,  took  place
on  the  common.  It  was  directed  to  be  laid  out  as  a
public  pleasure-ground  in  1852.

KENSAL  GREEN,  see  Cemeteries.

KENSINGTON :  the  palace  was  purchased
by  William  III.,  from  lord  chancellor  Finch,  who
made  the  road  through  its  park.  The  gardens  were
improved  by  queens  Mary,  Anne,  and  Caroline,  who
died  here.  Here  died  George,  prince  of  Denmark,
and  George  If. ;  and  here  queen  Victoria  was  born,
24  May,  1819.  Kensington  returns  two  M.P.'s  by
Act  of  18S5.


KENT.


556


KHERSON.


By  permission  of  the  government,  a  military  "band

played  in  Kensington  gardens  on  Sundays, Aug.  1855

Objected  to  ;  discontinued 1856

New  parish  church  erected  by  sir  Gilbert  G.  Scott

was  consecrated 14  May,  1872

New  town-hall  by  ft.  Walker  opened  by  the  duchess

of  Teck 7  Aug.  1880

Free  central  public  library  opened  by  the  princess

Louise 29  Nov.  1889

Population,  1881,  1,63,151;  1891,  166,321.
See  South  Kensington.

KENT,  see  Britain  and  Holy  Maid.  Odo,
bishop  of  Bayeux,  brother  of  William  the  Con-
queror, was  made  earl  of  Kent,  1067;  and  Heniy
Grey  was  made  duke  of  Kent  in  1710 ;  he  died  with-
out male  heirs  in  1740.  Edward,  son  of  George  III.,
was  created  duke  of  Kent  in  1799,  was  father  of
queen  Victoria,  and  died  23  Jan.  1820 ;  see  England.

KENT,  an  Eastlndiaman,  of  1350  tons  burthen,
left  the  Downs,  19  Feb.  1825,  bound  for  Bombay.
In  the  Bay  of  Biscay  she  encountered  a  dreadful
storm,  28  Feb.  On  the  next  day  she  accidentally
took  fire,  and  all  were  in  expectation  of  perish-
ing, either  by  the  tempest  or  the  flames.  The
Cambria,  captain  Cook,  bound  to  Vera  Cruz,  provi-
dentially hove  in  sight,  and  nearly  all  on  board
were  saved. The  Kent  blew  up,  2  March.

.  KENTISH  FIRE,  a  term  given  to  the  con-
tinuous cheering  common  at  the  protestant  meetings
held  in  Kent,  1828  and  1829,  with  the  view  of
preventing  the  passing  of  the  Catholic  Belief
bill. — Kentish  Petition  to  the  house  of  commons,
censuring  its  proceedings,  was  signed  at  Maidstone,
29  April,  1 701. It  gave  much  offence.

KENTISH  TOWN,  N.W.  London,  an  old
manor,  church  property,  originally  formed  part  of
the  great  forest  of  Middlesex.  Since  1855  building
has  very  greatly  increased.

KENTUCKY,  a  western  state  of  N.  America,
admitted  into  the  union  1792.  It  declared  for  strict
neutrality  in  the  conflict  between  the  North  and
South  in  April,  1861,  but  was  invaded  by  the
Southern  troops  in  August.  On  their  refusal  to
retire,  after  much  correspondence,  the  legislature
of  Kentucky  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  the  union,
27  Nov.  1861.  In  the  campaign  that  ensued  sharp
skirmishes  took  place,  and  uii  19  Jan.  1862,  the
confederates  under  Zollicoffer  were  defeated  and
himself  killed  at  Mill  Spring,  and  in  March  no  con-
federate soldiers  remained  in  Kentucky ;  capital,
Frankfort.  Population,  1880,  1,648,690 ;  1890,
1,858,635. See  United  States.

Murderous  ten  years'  feud  or  vendetta  at  Morehead,
Rowan  county,  chiefly  between  Holbrooks  and
Underwoods,  beginning  with  a  charge  of  horse-
stealing against  John  Martin,  sometimes  rising
to  actual  war.  Closed  by  the  sheriff  killing
Craig  Tolliver  and  his  gang . . 22  June,  1887

By  the  fall  of  a  new  bridge  between  Covington  and
Newport,  about  30  workmen  perished 15  June,  1892

KEKBEKAN,  BATTLE  OF,  see  Soudan,  10
Feb.  1885.

KERMADEC  ISLANDS,  north  of  New
Zealand,  annexed  by  the  British  Government,  Mav.
1886.  •"

KEROSELENE,  a  new  ancesthetic,  derived
from  the  distillation  of  coal-tar  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Merrill,
of  Boston,  U.S.,  was  made  known  early  in  r86i.

KERTCH,  formerly  Panticapaeum,  capital  of
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  late  a  flourishing
town  on  the  straits  of  Yenikale,  sea  of  Azof.  It
was  entered  by  the  allies  (English  and  French)
24  May,  1855  ;  the  Prussians  retired  after  destroying


stores, &c. The place was dismantled by  the
allies,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  removed.

KET'S  REBELLION:  a  revolt  in  July,
1549,  instigated  by  William  Ket,  a  tanner,  of
Wymondham,  Norlblk.  He  demanded  the  abolition
of  inclosures  and  the  dismissal  of  evil  counsellors.
The  insurgents  amounted  to  20,000  men,  but  were
quickly  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warwick.  More
than  2000  fell ;  Ket  and  others  were  tried  26  Nov.,
and  hanged  soon  after.

KEW  (Surrey).  The  palace  was  successively
occupied  by  the  Capel  family  and  Mr.  Molyneux  ;
by  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  1 730,  and  George  III.
Queen  Charlotte  died  here,  4  Nov.  1818.  A  new
palace  erected  by  George  III.,  under  the  direction
of  Mr.  Wyatt,  was  pulled  down  in  1827.  The
gardens  contained  a  tine  collection  of  plants,  and
were  decorated  with  ornamental  buildings,  most  of
them  erected  by  sir  William  Chambers,  about  1760.

BOTANIC  GARDENS.

Mr.  Aiton  retired  from  his  office  of  director,  after
fifty  years'  service 1843

Succeeded  by  sir  William  Hooker,  1  April,  1841,  at
whose  recommendation  the  gardens  were  opened
to  the  public  daily.  The  royal  kitchen  and  forcing
gardens  incorporated  with  the  botanic  gardens .  1847

Collections  in  the  museum  of  Economic  Botany
began  with  the  private  collection  of  sir  William
Hooker,  given  by  him  in  . ,,

Under  his  charge  the  gardens  were  greatly  im-
proved, and  magnificent  conservatories  erected.

He  died  12  Aug.  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  his
son,  Dr.  (now  sir  Joseph)  D.  Hooker,  1865,  who
resigned  (succeeded  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Thiselton  Dyer)

30  Nov.  1885

687,972  (great  increase)  visitors  in . . . .  1877

The  Meteorological  Observatory  presented  to  the
British  Association,  1842  ;  purchased  by  J.  P.
Gassiot  for  io,ooo£. ,  and  presented  to  the  Royal
Society 1873

Great  damage  done  to  conservatories  and  plants
by  storm  (cost  about  2000Z.) . . .23  Aug.  1879

Miss  Marianne  North's  present  of  a  collection  of  pic-
tures of  fruit  and  flowers  of  all  nations, painted  by
herself,  and  placed  in  a  building  erected  at  her  ex-
pense, opened  to  the  public . . summer,  1882

[She  died,  Sept.  1890.  Her  "Recollections  of  a
Happy  Life,"  were  published  early  in  1892.]

Gardens  first  opened  at  noon . . .1  April,  1883

The  valuable  bulletins  first  issued ....  1887

KEYS. See  locks.

KHARTOUM,  capital  of  Nubia,  at  tbe  con-
fluence of  the  Blue  and  White  Nile,  built  by  Mo-
hamed  Ali,  1820.  Its  prosperity  was  destroyed  by
the  rapacity  of  the  governors.  Population  in  1877
only  about  15,000.

After  successful  administration  col.  Charles  George
Gordon  compelled  to  leave  Khartoum,  and  re-
turned to  England 1877

In  his  defence  of  Khartoum  against  the  Mahdi  (from
Feb.  1884)  he  was  greatly  aided  by  colonel  John
Donald  Stewart  and  Mr.  Frank  Power,  correspon-
dent of  the  Times  (who  were  both  massacred
during  an  expedition,  Sept.  1884).  He  manifested
much  military  skill,  political  sagacity,  tender
humanity,  and  marvellous  power  in  inducing  his
followers  to  overcome  serious  difficulties  and
patiently  endure  great  sufferings  and  privations.
Khartoum  was  surrendered,  and  Gordon  and  his
faithful  followers  killed,  early  on  26  Jan.  1885.
See  under  •Sowdcwi.

KHEDIVE,  or  Kcdervi,  king  or  lord,  a  title
given  to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  instead  of  vali  or
viceroy,  14  May,  1867.

KHELAT,  see  Beloochistan.

KHERSON,  an  ancient  Dorian  colony  (deriving
its  name  from  Chersonesus,  a  penins  ,ia),  came
under  the  sway  of  the  great  Mithridates  about  120


KHERSON.


007


KILFENORA.


B.C. ;  and  afterwards  under  that  of  Rome,  A.D.30.  It
continued  important,  and  its  possession  was  long
disputed  by  the  Russians  and  Greeks.  Justinian  II.
cruelly  treated  it.  It  was  taken  by  Vladimir,  grand-
duke  of  Russia  in  988,  when  he  and  his  army  received
Christian  baptism,  and  he  married  the  emperor's
sister  Anne,  who  obtained  Kherson  as  her  dowry.
The  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Lithuanians ;  and  the
Turks  found  it  deserted  when  they  took  possession
of  the  Crimea  in  1475.  What  ancient  remains  the
Turks  and  Tartars  had  spared,  the  Russians  con-
veyed away  for  the  construction  of  Sebastopol.

KHERSON,  a  Russian  city  on  the  Dnieper,
founded  1778.  Potemkin,  the  favourite  of  Catherine,
who  died  at  Jassy  in  1791,  is  buried  here,  and  John
Howard,  the  English  philanthropist,  who  died  here,
20  Jan.  1790,  is  buried  about  three  miles  from  the
town,  where  an  obelisk  has  been  erected  to  his
memory,  by  the  czar  Alexander  I.

KHIVA  (formerly  Carasmia),  in  Turlcistan,
A<ia,  succe  sively  formed  part  of  the  territories  of
the  Seleucidas,  Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  and  the
Califate,  till  about  1092,  when  it  was  subjugated  by
the  Seljuk  Tartars,  by  the  Moguls  in  1221,  and  by
Timour  the  Tartar  in  1370,  whose  descendants
ruled  till  151 1,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the
Uzbegs,  a  Turkish  tribe  who  still  inhabit  the
country.  An  expedition  sent  against  it  by  the
emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  in  1839  perished  through
the  rigour  of  the  climate  in  1840.  In  1875,  colonel
F.  A.  Burnaby  reached  Khiva,  after  a  perilous  ride,
when  his  progress  was  stopped  by  Russian  jealousy.
To  obtain  redress  for  many  outrages,  a  Russian

expedition  sent  to  Khiva  ....  Feb.  1873
After  several  defeats  the  town,  Khiva,  surrendered

unconditionally  .... 10  June, ,,

The  khan  fled,  but  returned,  and  became  a  vassal

of  the  czar 5  July, ,.

An  insurrection  against  the  Russians  repressed  and

punished Aug. ,,

Part  of  Khiva  annexed .... 15  Oct.
The  country  disturbed  by  revolts . . . 1873-4

KHOKAND,  a  khanate  in  central  Asia,  sub-
ject to  China about 1760; rebelled and became
tributary  only,  1812. A  rebellion,  which  broke  out
in  Sept.  was  suppressed  Oct.  1874.
War  with  Russia ;  gen.  Kaufraann  defeats  about

30,000  men,  4  Sept.  ;  entered  Khokand  without

resistance,  and  the  khanate  virtually  subdued .

16  Sept.  1875
He  defeats  5000  more .... 21  Sept. „
The  people  expel  the  new  khan . . 21  Oet. ,,
Part  of  Khokand  annexed  by  Russia . . Oct. ,,
The  people  rise  and  massacre  Russian  garrison,

announced 28  Nov. ,,

Rebels  totally  defeated  at  Assake  (chiefs  submit)

30  Jan.  1876
Khokand  formally  annexed  as  Ferghana .  29  Feb. ,,

KHUSCHK-I-NAKHUD,  see  Maiwand.

KHYBER  PASS  (the  principal  northern
entrance  into  Afghanistan  from  India) .  It  is  ten
miles  west  of  Peshawnr,  extending  about  thirty-
three  miles  towards  Jellalabad  ;  lying  between  lofty
slate  cliff's,  varying  from  600  to  1000  feet  in  height;
held  by  Afreedees  and  other  warlike  tribes,  to  whom
Dost  Mahomed  formerly  paid  subsidies,  which
were  discontinued  by  his  son  Shere  Ali,  ameer  of
A  fghanistan.

The  pass  forced  by  col.  Wade,  26  July,  and  gen.
sir  John  Keane  retired  through  it  after  his  vic-
torious campaign 1839

Again  forced  by  general  (aft.  sir  George)  Pollock,
on  his  way  to  chastise  Cabul  for  the  massacres  in
the  previous  winter . . . 5-14  April,  1842
At  Ali  Musjid,  a  fort  in  the  pass,  the  further  ad-
vance of  sir  Neville  Chamberlain  on  a  mission


from  the  viceroy  to  the  ameer  was  forbidden,
with  threats  of  violence . . . 22  Sept.  1878
The  pass  held  by  the  British . . till  March,  1881
The viceroy, the marquis  of Lansdowne, rode
through  the  pass  .... 30  Oct.  1889

See  Afghanistan.

KIDDERMINSTER  (Worcestershire),  re-
nowned for  its  carpet  manufactures,  established
about  1735.  -ft  was  made  a  parliamentary  borough,
again  in  1832.  The  statue  of  Richard  Baxter,  the
nonconformist,  was  unveiled  by  Mrs.  Philpotts,
wife  of  the  bishop  of  Worcester,  28  July,  187? ;  an
address  was  delivered  by  dean  Stanley.  Fierce
rioting  through  carpet  trade  disputes  quelled,  4-8
April,  1884.  Typhoid  fever  prevalent,  Sept.  to
Oct.  1884,  87  deaths.  Population,  1881,  24,270;
1891,  24,803.

KIDNAPPING  ACTS  (1872  and  1875),
passed  to  prevent  and  punish  criminal  outrages
upon  natives  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean ;
see  Slavery,  Queensland,  and  Melanesia.

KIEF  (Kiov  or  Kiow),  chief  town  of  a  province
of  the  same  name  in  European  Russia,  made  a
principality  1137,  annexed  to  Poland  1386,  aud
after  several  changes  was  ceded  to  Russia  1686.
Population  of  the  province,  i88h,  3,026,036.
The  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  was  founded  in  1037,

the  Greek  academy  1588,  and  the  university  in

1834.

KIEL,  chief  town  of  Holstein,  a  seaport,  and  a
member  of  the  Hanseatic  league  in  1300.  The
university  was  founded  in  1665.  By  a  treaty
between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,
signed  here  14  Jan.  1814,  Norway  was  ceded  to
Sweden  ;  see  Norway.  An  extraordinary  assembly
of  the  revolted  provinces,  Schleswig  and  Holstein,
met  here  9  Sept.  1850.  By  the  convention  of
Gastein  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  14  Aug.  1865,
the  former  wras  to  govern  Holstein,  but  Kiel  to  be
held  by  Prussia  as  a  German  federal  port.  This
was  annulled  in  1866  by  the  issue  of  the  war.  Popu-
lation, 1890,  69,214.

Foundation  stone  of  opening  lock  of  the  canal
from  the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea  laid  by  the
emperor 3  June,  1887

KILCULLEN  (Kildare) .  Here  a  large  body
of  the  insurgent  Irish  defeated  the  British  forces
commanded  by  general  Dundas,  23  May,  1798.  The
general  in  a  subsequent  engagement  overthrew  the
rebels  near  Kilcullen-bridge,  when  300  were  slain.

KILDARE  (E.  Ireland).  The  Curragh  or
race-course  here  was  once  a  forest  of  oaks.  Here
was  the  nunnery  of  St.  Bridget,  founded  by  her  in
the  15th  century,  and  here  was  a  building  called  the
fire-house,  where,  it  is  supposed,  the  nuns  kept  the
inextinguishable  fire  which  existed  till  the  re-
formation. The  see  was  one  of  the  earliest  episco-
pal foundations  in  Ireland;  St.  Conlajth,  who
died  519,  the  first  prelate.  The  first  Protestant
bishop  was  Thomas  Lancaster,  in  1550.  The  see  is
valued,  by  an  extent  returned  39  Hen.  VIII.,  at
69/.  lis.  \d.  Irish  per  year.  Kildare  was  united  to
Dublin  in  1846;  see  Dublin.  The  insurrection  in
Kildare,  which  swelled  into  the  rebellion,  com-
menced, 23  May,  1798.  On  that  night,  lieut.  Gilford
of  Dublin  and  a  number  of  other  gentlemen  were
murdered  by  insurgents.  This  rebellion  was  quelled
in  1799. The  Curragh  is  now  a  military  camp.

KILFENORA  (Clare),  a  bishopric,  said  to
have  been  founded  by  St.  Pacinian.  Cardinal
Paparo,  in  1 152,  rendered  it  a  suffragan  see  to
Cashel ;  but  in  1660  it  was  annexed  to  Tuam,  and
to  Killaloe  in  1752.


KILIMA-NJAEO.


55S


KINETOGEAPH.


KILIMA-NJAEO,  a  lofty  volcanic  mountain

in  E.  Equatorial  Africa,  discovered  by  Rebmann  in

1848.

Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  ascended  16,200  feet  from  the
summit  of  Kibo Nov.  1884

Dr.  Hans  Meyer  (unsuccessful  1887  and  1888),  with
Herr  Purtscheller  and  one  native,  climbed  up  the
icy  steeps  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  ridges  of
the  volcanic  crater  about  19,700  feet  high,  which
he  named  "  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Peak,"  after  having
planted  on  it  the  German  flag,  6  Oct.  ;  they  left
the  mountain 30  Oct.  1889

Dr.  Meyer  gave  an  account  of  his  travels  to  the
Royal  Geographical  Society,  London  . 14  April,  1890

Major  von  "Wissmann  establishes  a  fortified  station
at  Kilima-Njaro,  in  charge  of  lieutenant  Witzleben
15  Feb.  1891 ;  Germans  defeated  ;  fort  abandoned
10  June  ;  re-occupied  without  fighting 29  July,  1892

KILKENNY  (S.  E.  Ireland),  an  English
settlement  about  11 70.  The  castle  was  built  1195,
by  Wm.  Marshall,  earl  of  Pembroke.  At  the  par-
liament held  here  by  Lionel  duke  of  Clarence  1367,
the  statute  of  Kilkenny  was  passed.*  After  a  siege
the  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell,  28  March,  1650,
on  honourable  terms.

KILLALA  (Mayo)  was  invaded  by  a  French
force  landing  from  three  frigates,  under  general
Humbert,  22  Aug.  1798.  The  invaders  were  joined
by  the  Irish  insurgents,  and  the  battles  of  Castlebar
and  Colooney  followed  ;  and  the  French  were  de-
feated at  Ballynamuck,  8  Sept.  same  year.

KILLALA  (Sligo),  an  early  see.  The  author
of  the  Tripartite  life  of  St.  Patrick,  says,  "that  in
434  he  came  to  a  pleasant  place  where  the  river
Muadas  (Moy)  empties  itself  into  the  ocean ;  and
on  the  south  banks  of  the  said  river  he  built  a  noble
church  called  Kil-Aladh,  of  which  he  made  one  of
his  disciples,  Muredach,  the  first  bishop."  The  see
of  Achonry  was  united  to  Killala  in  the  1 7th  century ;
and  both  were  united  to  Tuam  in  1839 ;  see
Tuam  and  Bishops.

KILL  ALOE  (Clare),  a  see  supposed  to  have
been  founded  by  St.  Molua,  whose  disciple,  St.
Flannan,  son  to  king  Theodoric,  consecrated  at
Home  by  John  IV.  in  639,  was  also  bishop.  At  the
close  of  the  12th  century,  Roscrea  was  annexed  to
Killaloe,  and  Kilfenora  has  been  held  with  it.
Clonfert  and  Kilmacduach  were  added  in  1836.

KILLIECKANKIE  (a  defile  in  Perthshire).
Here  the  forces  of  "William  III.  commanded  by
geueral  Mackay  were  defeated  by  the  adherents  of
James  II.  under  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  viscount
Dundee,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory,  17
or  27  July,  1689.

KILMACDUACH  (Gal way).  This  see  was
held  with  Clonfert,  from  1602.  St.  Coleman  was  its
first  bishop,  in  the  7th  century.  It  was  valued,  29
Eliz.  1586,  at  13?.  6s.  8^.  per  annum.  It  is  united
to  Killaloe.

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL  (Dublin),
the  noble  asylum  of  aged  and  disabled  soldiers  in
Ireland,  built  by  Wren,  was  founded  by  Arthur,
earl  of  Granard,  marshal-general  of  the  army  in
Ireland,  1675 ;  and  the  duke  of  Ormond  perfected
the  plan  in  1679.

*  It  enacted  among  other  things,  "that  the  alliance
of  the  English  by  marriage  with  any  Irish,  the  nurture  of
infantes,  and  gossipred  with  the  Irish,  be  deemed  high
treason."  And  again,  "if  anie  man  of  English  race  use
an  Irish  name,  Irish  apparel],  or  anie  other  guize  or
fashion  of  the  Irish,  his  lands  shall  be  seized,  and  his
"body  imprisoned,  till  he  shall  conform  to  English  modes
and  customs."  Said  never  to  have  been  enforced.  It
abolished  the  Brehon  laws.


The  term  Treaty  of  Kilmainham  was  applied  to  an
alleged  agreement  between  Mr.  Gladstone's  government
and'Mr.  Parnell  and  other  land-leaguers  imprisoned  in
the  Kilmainham  gaol  on  13  Oct.  1881.  The  government
is  said  to  have  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  them  while
there,  May,  1882.

KILMALLOCK  (Limerick).  An  abbey  was
founded  here  by  St.  Mochoallog  or  Molach  about
645,  and  an  abbey  of  Dominicans  was  built  in  the
13th  century.  Ware.  A  charter  was  granted  to
Kilmallock  by  Edward  VI.,  and  another  by  Eliza-
beth in  1584.  The  town  was  invested  by  the  Irish
forces  in  1598,  but  the  siege  was  raised  by  the  earl
of  Ormond.  There  was  much  fighting  here  in  1641
and  1642  ;  see  Fenians,  March,  1867.

KILMOBE  (Armagh),  an  ancient  town,  whose
bishops  were  sometimes  called  Brefinienses,  from
Brefney,  and  sometimes  Triburnenses,  from
Triburna,  a  village;  but  in  1454,  the  bishop  of
Triburna,  by  assent  of  pope  Nicholas  V.,  erected
the  parish  church  of  St.  Fedlemid  into  a  cathedral.
Florence  O'Connacty,  the  first  bishop,  died  in  1231.
Valued,  15  Jas.  I.  with  Ardagh,  at  100I.  per  annum.
The  joint  see  of  Elphin  and  Ardagh  was  united  to
it  in  1841.

KILSTTH  (central  Scotland).  Here  Montrose
defeated  the  Covenanters,  15  Aug.  1645,  and
threatened  Glasgow.

KIMBEBLEY,  see  under  Griqualand.
Kimberley'' s  Act,  see  under  Crime.

KIMMEEIDGE  CLAY:  Rev.  H.  Moule
announced  his  successful  use  of  this  clay  for  fuel
and  gas-making,  March,  1874 ;  practicability
doubted.

KINBUEN,  a  fort,  at  the  confluence  of  the
rivers  Bug  and  Dnieper.  Here  Suwarrow  defeated
the  Turks,  28  June,  1788.  Kinburn  was  taken  by
the  English  and  French,  17  Oct.  1855.  Three
floating  French  batteries,  said  to  be  the  invention
of  the  emperor,  on  the  principle  of  horizontal  shell-
firing,  was  very  effective.  On  the  18th  the
Russians  blew  up  Oczakoff,  a  fort  opposite.

KINDEB-GABTEN  (children's  garden),  a
system  of  education  devised  by  Froebel,  but  prac-
tically carried  out  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ronge,  in
Germany,  in  1849,  and  in  England  in  1851.  The
system,  founded  mainly  on  self-tuition,  and  en-
livened by  toys,  games,  and  singing,  is  set  forth  in
Ronge's  "  Kinder-garten,"  published  in  1858;  and
has  been  partially  adopted  in  English  schools.  The
Frcebel  Society  established  1874.  Annual  meeting
18  Jan.  1884.

KINDEED,  TABLE  OF,  in  the  Book  of  Com-
mon Prayer,  was  set  forth  in  1563,  see  Leviticus,
chap,  xviii.,  B.C.  1490.

KINEMATICS  (Greek  hineo,  I  move),  the
science  of  motion.  Reuleaux's  "  Kinematics  of  Ma-
chinery," translated  by  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy;  pub-
lished, June,  1876.  "  Kinematism  "  is  a  method  of
treating  certain  diseases  by  movement.  Prof.
Rankine's  ."  Machinery  and  Millwork  "  first  ap-
peared, 1809;  new  ed.  1876;  see  Motion.

KINETOGEAPH,  a  machine  invented  by
Mr.  Thomas  A.  Edison,  combining  electricity  with
photography,  by  means  of  which  the  movements  of
the  actors  in  a  scene  at  the  theatre  (accompanied  by
their  voices  and  the  music)  are  reproduced  upon  a
screen.  The  kinetograph  was  described  by  Mr.
Edison  at  New  Tork  28  May,  and  in  the  Times,
29  May,  1 89 1.


KING.


559


KING'S BENCH PRISON.


KING : German  Konig,  equivalent  in  mean-
ing to  the  Latin  Rex,  Scythian  Reis,  Spanish  Ret/,
Italian  Re,  French  Roy :  Hebrew  Rosch. Rex  is
thought  to  be  connected  with  the  Hindu  rajah,  de-
rived from  the  Sanscrit  ragan,  the  root  of  which  is
arg, argami, to  possess. Rex  therefore  means
possessor. Nimrod  was the  first  founder of a
kingdom, about  2245 B.C. The  "manner  of  the
king"  is set  forth  in I Samuel  viii., 11 12  B.C.
Saul  was  the  first  king  of  Israel,  1095  B.C. Most
of  the  Grecian  states  were  originally  governed  by
kings ;  and  kings  were  the  first  rulers  in  Rome.
King  of  England. — The  style  was  used  by  Egbert,
828  ;  but  the  title  Rex  gentis  Anglorum,  king  of
the  English  nation,  existed  during  the  Heptarchy ;
see  Britain.
The  plural  phraseology,  we,  its,  our,  was  first  adopted

among  English  kings  by  John ....  1199
Pope  Leo  X.  conferred  the  title  of  "  Defender  of  the

Faith"  on  Hemy  VIII. . . .  11  Oct. 1521

Henry  VIII.  changed  lord  of  Ireland  into  king.  .  1542
The  style  "Great  Britain  "  was  adopted  at  the  union

of  England  and  Scotland,  6  Anne  .  .  .  .  1707
That  of  the  "  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and
Ireland "  at  the  union,  when  the  royal  style  and
title  was  appointed  to  run  thus: — "  Georgius
Tertius,  Dei  Gratia,  Britanniarum  Rex,  Fidei
Defensor,"  "  George  the  Third,  by  the  grace  of
God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and
Ireland,  king,  Defender  of  the  Faith"  (France

being  omitted) 1  Jan.  1801

Hanover  omitted  in  the  queen's  style  21  June,  1837

The  queen  was  proclaimed  in  all  the  important
places  in  India,  as  "Victoria,  by  the  Grace  of
God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain
and  Ireland,  and  the  colonies  and  dependencies
thereof  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and
Australia,  queen,"  <fec.  (see  Empress).  1  Nov. 1858

The  national  assembly  decreed  that  the  title  of
Louis  XVI.  "  king  of  France,"  should  be  changed
to  "king  of  the  French" . . . 16  Oct.  1789
The  royal  title  in  France  abolished ....  1792
Louis  XVIII.  styled  "by  the  grace  of  God  king  of

France  and  Navarre  " 1814

Louis-Philippe  I.  was  invited  to  the  monarchy  under

the  style  of  the  "  king  of  the  French  " .  9  Aug. 1830
The  emperors  of Germany,  in  order  that their
eldest  sons might  be  chosen  their successors
in  their  own  life-time,  politically  obtained  them
the  title  of  "king  of  the  Romans." The  first
emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  IV. . . .  105s
Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III. of  England,  was
induced  to  go  to  Germany,  where  he  disbursed  vast
sums  under  the  promise  of  being  elected  next
emperor  ;  he  was  elected  "  king  of  the  Romans"
(but  failed  in  succeeding  to  the  imperial  crown) 1256
The  title  of  "king  of  France"  assumed,  and  the
French  arms  quartered,  by  Edward  III.,  in  right
of  his  mother,  1340  ;  discontinued  by  Geo.  III. 1802
The style "king of Rome" was revived by

Napoleon  I.  for  his  son,  born . . 20  March,  1811
The  title  "  king  of  Italy"  conferred  on  Victor  Emma-
nuel II.  of  Sardinia  by  Italian  parliament  i7March,  1861

KING-OF-ARMS: three for England,—

Garter,  Clarencieux,  andNorroy  ;  Lyonking-at-arms
for  Scotland,  and  Ulster  for  Ireland.  These  offices
are  very  ancient :  Clarencieux  is  so  named  from
Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  the  sovereign  who
founded  the  order  of  the  Garter ;  see  Garter-.
Lionel  having  by  his  wife  the  honour  of  Clare,  was
made  duke  cf  Clarence;  which  dukedom  afterwards
escheating  to  Edward  IV.,  he  revived  the  office  of
Clarence  king-at-arms.  The  office  of  Bath  king-of-
arms,  created  in  1725,  was  changed  to  Gloucester
king-of-arms,  14  June,  1726.  Ulster  was  substi-
tuted, it  is  said,  in  lieu  of  Ireland  king-of-arms,  by
Edward  VI.,  1553  ;  but  the  monarch  himself  named
it  as  a  new  institution.

KING'S ADVOCATE,  see  Queen's.
KING'S  BENCH, or  Queen's  Bench,

COURT  OF, obtained  its  name from the king-


sometimes  sitting  here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the*
judges,  to  whom  the  judicature  belongs  in  Ms-
absence,  on  a  low  bench  at  his  feet.  This  court  ins
ancient  times  was  called  Curia  Domini  Regis.  The-
court  of  queen's  bench  sat  for  the  last  time,  July,
1875,  (see  Supreme  Court).  Chief  justice  Cockburn
received  the  freedom  of  London,  9  March,  1876 ;
said  to  be  the  first  case  of  the  kind.  The  Queen's-
Bench  Division  of  the  high  court  of  justice  till  i88r
consisted  of  the  chief  justice  of  England  and  four-
judges.  The  chief  justice  of  the  queen's  bench
division  is  now  chief  justice  of  England ;  the  ex-
chequer and  common  pleas  division  were  abolished,
in  1881.


1687.


1709.


1718.
1725-

1733-


1737-
1754-
1756.


CHIEF  JUSTICES IN ENGLAND

1509.  John  Fineux.
1526.  John  Fitz  James.
1539.  Sir  Edward  Montagu.
1546.  Sir  Richard  Lyster.

1552.  Sir  Roger  Cholmely.

1553.  Sir  Thomas  Bromley.

1554.  Sir  William  Portman.
1556.  Sir  Edward  Saunders.
1559.  Sir  Robert  Catlyn.
1573.  Sir  Christopher  Wray.
1591.  Sir  John  Popham.
1607 Sir  Thomas  Fleming.
1613.  Sir  Edward  Coke.
1616.  Sir  Henry  Montagu.
1620.  Sir  James  Ley.
1624.  Sir  Ranulph  Crewe.
1626.  Sir  Nicholas  Hyde.
1631.  Sir  Thomas  Richard-
son.

1635.  Sir John Bramp-

ston.

1643.  Sir  Robert  Heath.

1648.  Henry  Rolle.

1655.  John  Glyn.

1659.  Sir  Rd.  Newdigate.
,,  Robert  Nicholas.

1660.  Sir  Robert  Foster.
1663.  Sir  Robert  Hyde.
1665.  Sir  John  Kelyng.
1671.  Sir  Matthew  Hale.
1676.  Sir Richard Rayns-

ford.

1678.  Sir  William  Scroggs.

1681.  Sir  Francis  Pember-
ton.

1683.  Sir Edmund Saun-
ders.
Sir  George Jefferies,


1832.


1850.


1859.


■ROM HENRY  VIII.

aft.  lord  Jefferies;
and  lord  chanc.

Sir  Edward  Herbert.

Sir  Robert  Wright.

Sir  John  Holt.

Sir  Thomas  Parker.,
aft.  lord  Parker,,
earl  of  Macclesfield^
and  lord  chanc.

Sir  John  Pratt.

Sir  Robert  Raymond.,
aft.  lord  Raymond-
Sir  Philip  Yorke,  aft^
Id.  Hardwicke  and:
lord  chanc.

Sir  William  Lee.

Sir  Dudley  Ryder.

Wm.  Murray,  lord,  aft„
earl  of  Mansfield.

Lloyd,  lord  Kenyon^
9  June.

Sir  Edward  Law,  12-.
April  ;  aft.  lord
Ellenborough.

Sir  Charles  Abbott,.
4  Nov.  ;  aft.  lord
Tenterden.

Sir  Thomas  Denman,  7-
Nov. ;  aft.  lord  Den-
man :  resigned.

John,  lord  Campbell,
March  ;  aft.  lord
chancellor.

Sir  Alexander  Cock-
burn,  June  ;  (died
20  Nov.  1880).

John  Duke,  lord  Cole-
ridge, 26  Nov.


chief  justices  jn  Ireland  (see  Supreme  Court).


1690.  Sir  Richard  Reynell,

6  Dec.

1695.  Sir Richard Pyne,

7  June.

1709.  Allan Brodriek, 24

Dec.
1711.  Sir Richard Cox;  5

July.
1714.  W.  Whitshed,  14  Oct.
1727.  JohnRogerson,  3  Apr.
Thomas Marlay, 29

Dec.
St.  George  Caulfield,

27  Aug.
1760.  Warden Flood, 31

July.
1764.  John  Gore,  24  Aug.  ;

aft,  earl  Annaly.
1784.  John  Scott,  29  April  ;

aft.  earl  of  Clonmel.
1798.  Arthur Wolfe, 13

June  ;  aft.  lord  Kil


1741.


i75i-


Emmet's  insurrec-
tion^ July,  1803);

1803.  William  Dowries,  12:
Sept.  ;  aft.  lord
Dowries.

1822.  Chas.  Kendal  Bushe..
14  February.

1841.  Edward  Pennefather..
10  November.

1846.  Francis  Blackburne^
23  Jan.

1852.  Thos.  Lefroy,  March,

t866.  James  Whiteside,.
July  ;  died  25  Nov.
1876.

1877.  George  Augustus  Chi-
chester May,  9  Feb.

1887.  Sir  Michael  Morris..
Jan.

18S9.  Sir  Peter  O'Brien,
Dec,  made  lord  of
appeal  as  lord
Morris,  Dec.


warden (killed in

KING'S  BENCH  PRISON  (Southwark),.
near  the  site  of  one  of  the  oldest  prisons  of  London,
long  used  for  the  confinement  of  debtors.  Here,  it
is  said,  prince  Henry  (afterwards  Henry  V.)  was
committed  by  Justice  Gascoigne. The  prison  was


KING'S BOOK.


560


KNIGHTS.


burnt  down  by  the  London  rioters,  7  June,  1780;
see  Gordon's  No-Popery  Riots.  It  was  rebuilt  in
1781,  and  contained  about  230  rooms.  Formerly,
the  debtors  were  allowed  to  purchase  the  liberties,
to  enable  them  to  have  houses  or  lodgings  without
the  walls,  or  to  purchase  day-rules,  to  go  out  of
the  prison  under  certain  regulations.  The  rules
included  iSt.  George's  Fields,  &c.  A  consequence
of  the  bankruptcy  act,  1861,  was  the  release  of
many  insolvent  debtors ;  and  an  act  was  passed
in  1862  "  for  discontinuing  the  queen's  prison
and  removal  of  the  prisoners  to  Whitecross- street
prison."  The  buildings,  used  as  a  military  prison,
were  pulled  clown  and  the  site  sold,  1879-80.

KING'S  BOOK,  or  "Valor  Ecclesiasticus
temp.  Henrici  VIII."  the  return  of  the  commis-
sioners appointed  in  1534  to  value  the  first  fruits
and  tenths  granted  to  the  king.  An  edition  by
John  Bacon  ("Liber  Regis")  was  published  in
1780,  and  it  was  printed  for  the  Record  Commission,
1810-25.

KING'S  BOUNTY,  an  annual  grant  of
IOOO/.  for  the  Maunday  royal  alms  distributed  by
the  lord  high  almoner,  began  early  in  the  reign  of
George  III.  and  continued  till  10  George  IV.  1829.
See  Maunday.

KING'S  COLLEGES,  see  Aberdeen  and
Cambridge.  King's  College,  London,  incorporated
14  Aug.  1829,  and  opened  8  Oct.  1831.  It  was
incorporated  with  the  university  of  London  in  1837.
The  hospital  w;is  founded  in  1839.  The  dining-
hall  and  kitchen  fell  in,  through  drainage,  8  a.m.,
6  Dec.  1869 ;  no  lives  were  lost.  The  council  of  the
■college  issues  an  appeal  to  the  public  for  additional
funds  (50,000/.),  24  Jan.  1891.

KING'S  COUNSEL,  the  first  under  the
degree  of  Serjeant  was  sir  Francis  Bacon,  made
so,  honoris  causa,  without  patent  or  fee,  in  1604,
by  James  I.  The  first  modern  king's  counsel  was
sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord  keeper,  in  1663.

KING'S  COUNTY  (Ireland),  formed  out  of
confiscated  property,  and  so  named  from  Philip,  king
of  Spain,  the  husband  of  queen  Mary  of  England,
in  1556.

KINGS  CROSS  MAEKET, N.  London,

opened  7  Aug.  1868  ;  did  not  succeed.

KINGSDOWN'S  ACT,  24  &  25  Vict.  c.  114
(^1861)  relates  to  wills.

KING'S  EVIL  (scrofula),  formerly  supposed
to  be  cured  by  the  king's  touch;  the  first  being
Edward  the  Confessor,  in  1058.  In  the  reign  of
Charles  II.  92,107  persons  were  touched;  and,  ac-
cording to  Wiseman,  the  king's  physician,  they
were  nearly  all  cured !  Queen  Anne  officially  an-
nounced in  the  London  Gazette,  12  March,  1712,  her
intention  to  touch  publicly.  The  custom  was
dropped  by  George  I.,  1714.

KING' S  SPEECH.  The  first  from  the  throne
is  said  to  have  been  by  Henry  I.,  1107.

KING'S  THEATRE,  see  Opera-house.

KINGSTON,  see  Hull.  -KINGSTON,  Ja-
maica, was  founded  in  1693,  after  the  great  earth-
quake in  1692  which  destroyed  Port  Royal ;  it  was
constituted  a  city,  1802."  An  awful  fire  here
ravaged  a  vast  portion  of  the  town,  and  consumed
500,000/.  of  property,  8  Feb.  1782  ;  another  fire  in
1843;  another  great  fire;  town  nearly  destroyed;
estimated  loss  about  3,000,000/.,  5  deaths  an-
nounced, 11  Dec.  1882.  See  Mansion  House.  The
bishopric  was  established  in  1856;  see  Jamaica.


KINGSTON  .  TRIAL.  The  duchess  of
Kingston  was  arraigned  before  the  lords  in  West-
minster-hall, on  a  charge  of  bigamy,  having
married  first,  captain  Hervey,  afterwards  earl  of
Bristol,  and  next,  during  his  lifetime,  Eveyln
Pierrepont,  duke  of  Kingston,  15-22  April,  1776.
She  was  found  guilty,  but,  on  pleading  the  privilege
of  peerage,  the  punishment  of  burning  in  the  hand
was  remitted,  and  she  was  discharged  on  paying  the
fees.

KINGSTOWN  (Dublin).  The  harbour  here
was  commenced  in  June,  1817.  The  name  was
changed  from  Dunleary  in  compliment  to  George
IV.,  wrho  here  embarked  for  England  at  the  close
of  his  visit  to  Ireland,  3  Sept.  1821.  The  Kings-
town railway  from  Dublin  was  opened  17  Dec.
1834.

KIRBEKAN,  BATTLE  OF,  see  Soudan,  10
Feb.  1885.

KISSING  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian
custom.  Kissing  was  a  mode  of  salutation  among
the  Jews,  1  Samuel  x.  1,  &c.  The  "  kiss  of
charity,"  or  "  holy  kiss,"  commanded  in  the  Scrip-
tures {Romans  xvi.  16,  &c),  was  observed  by  the
early  Christians,  and  is  still  recognised  by  the
Greek  church  and  some  others.  Kissing  the  pope's
foot  (or  the  cross  on  his  slipper)  began  with  Adrian
I.  or  Leo  III.  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century.

KIT-KAT  CLUB,  of  above  thirty  noblemen
and  gentlemen,  instituted  in  1703,  to  promote  the
Protestant  succession.  The  duKe  of  Marlborough,
sir  R.  Walpole,  Addison,  Steele,  and  Dr.  Garth
were  members.  It  took  its  name  from  its  dining  at
the  house  of  Christopher  Kat,  a  pastry-cook  in
King-street,  Westminster.

KITT'S,  see  Christopher's,  St.

KLADDERADATSCH,  the  German
"  Punch,"  first  published  in  Berlin,  by  Albert
Hoffmann,  the  proprietor,  originally  a  bookseller's
assistant.  He  amassed  a  fortune,  and  died  10  Aug.
1880,  aged  62.

KNEELING.  The  knee  was  ordered  to  be
bent  at  the  name  of  Jesus  (see  Philippians  ii.  10),
about  the  year  1275,  by  the  order  of  the  pope.  The
ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling  to  his  lord  is  said  to
have  begun  in  the  8th  century.

KNIGHTS.  The  word  knight  is  derived  from
the  Saxon  Cniht,  a  servant  {i.e.,  servant  to  the
king,  &c).  The  institution  of  the  Roman  knights
{Equites  or  horsemen,  from  equus,  a  horse),  is
ascribed  to  Romulus,  about  750  B.C.,  when  the
curiae  elected  300.  Knighthood  was  conferred  in
England  by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  after  confession
and  consecration  of  the  sword,  during  the  Saxon
heptarchy.  The  first  knight  made  by  the  sovereign
with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athelstane,  by  Alfred,
a.d.  900.  Spelman.  The  custom  of  ecclesiastics
conferring  the  honour  of  knighthood  was  sup-
pressed in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in
1 100.  Ash-mole' s  Institutes.  Salmon.  On  the
decline  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  all  Europe
being  reduced  to  a  state  of  anarchy,  the  proprietor
of  every  manor  became  a  petty  sovereign  ;  his
mansion  was  fortified  by  a  moat,  and  defended  by  a
guard,  and  called  a  castle.  Excursions  were  made
by  one  petty  lord  against  another,  and  the  women
and  treasure  were  carried  oft' by  the  conqueror  At
length  the  owners  of  rich  fiefs  associated  to  repress
these  marauders,  to  make  property  secure,  and  to
protect  the  ladies ;  binding  themselves  to  these
duties  by  a  solemn  vow,  and  the  sanction  of  a
religious  ceremony. Cervantes'  "  Don  Quixote,"  a


KNIGHTS.  561

satire  on  knight-errantry,  was  published  in  i6oq  ■
see  Banneret,  Chivalry,  Tournaments,  Rolu  Sepul-
chre, John,  and  Michael.


PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY
ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.*

African  star,  Congo  state  .
Albert  the  Bear,  Anlialt
Albert,  Saxony  .
Alcantara,  instituted  about .
Alexander  Nevskoi,  St.,  Russia
Amaranta,  Sweden  {female)
Andrew,  St.,  Russia  .


1156
1722
1645


1191
*73i
1360
161S


1162


Andrew, St.  .Scotland  (see  Thistle)  ' . '7S7/1540'
Angehc  Knights,  Greece .  7  7 „°'

Anne,  St.,  Holstein,  now  Russia  "

Anuonciada,  Savoy,  about

Annunciada,  Mantua .

Anthony,  St. ,  Hainault  " '

Anthony,  St.,  Bavaria  .
Avis,  Portugal,  about
Bannerets. See  Bannerets.

ttsSrltd399-. *"**&"**)  ■ • • TO

Bee,  France  {female)  I213

Bento  d  Avis,  St. ,  Portugal'  ' ' 'I7?3

Black  Eagle,  Prussia . Il62

Blaise,  St.,  Armenia,  12th  century  ' ' I?01

Blood  of  Christ,  Mantua  .  ,0

Bridget,  St.,  Sweden .  l6°8

Broomflowers,  Prance  ' ' ' '  I3

Brotherly  (or  Neighbourly)  Love,  Austria  (  female-) '  t™r
Ca  atrava,  Castile,  instituted  by  Sancho  III  '  ' 7  8

Catherine,  St.,  Palestine

Catherine,  St. ,  Russia  {female)

Charles,  St.,  Wurtemberg

Charles  X^stVe™^  6o™^™)>  ^ain  Ip

Chase,  Wurtemberg  .  l8lr

Christ,  Livonia I7°2

Christ,  Portugal  and  Rome  '  ' '  I2°3

•  1317
• • 1558

•  1783


KNIGHTS.

Francis  Joseph,  Austria

Frederick,  Wurtemberg

Friesland  (or  Crown  Royal),  France

Garter  {which  see),  England .

Generosity,  Brandenburg

Genet,  France

George,  St.,  and  the  Reunion,  Naples  '

George,  St.,  Angelic  Knights .

George,  St. ,  Austria


.  1849

. .  1830

.  802

•  ■  1349
.  1685

•  .  726
1800  and  18 19

.  1191

Gtione:BSt''1)7f'"5el'  °f  the  Maculate 'Conce7p:  '494


rter)


1729


1158
1063
1714
1759


George,  St.,  England  (see  Garie,

George,  St.,  Genoa  / ■ . . .  1349

*472

1839

1818

1492

1769

1317

.  1200

1190

1522


about


George,  St. ,  Hanover

George,  St. ,  Ionian  Isles .

George,  St. ,  Rome

George,  St. ,  Russia .

George,  St. ,  Spain

George,  St.,  Venice .

Gerion,  St.,  Germany .

Glaive,  Sweden  .

Glory,  Turkey .

Golden  Angel  (afterwards  St.  George),

Golden  Falcon,  Japan  (which  see) .

Good  *&  inst^te4  at  Bruges  by  Philip  the 9
tiood,  Austria  and  Spam  ,„,,„

Golden  Lion,  Hesse  Cassel  ' ' •  IO  Jan-  ^29

Golden  Lion,  Nassau,  and  Holland  ' ' ' lilt

Golden  Shield  and  Thistle,  France .  ' '  „£

Golden  Spur,  by  Pius  IV  "  37°

Golden  Stole,  Venice,  before' '  ' '  I5S9

Gregory,  St.,  Rome
Guelphie,  Hanover
Henry,  St. ,  Saxony
Henry  the  Lion,  Brunswick


737
1831
1815
1736


1618
1660


1217
1822


Christian  Charity,  France
Cincinnati,  America  (soon  dissolved)
Compostello  (see  St.  James)
Conception  of  the  Virgin

Concord,  Prussia

Constantine,  St., Constantinople,  'about  313  •  by
tonNeapTes.SaaC'  "9°;  Parma>  ^99 ;  since  removed
Crescent,  Naples,  1268. Revived
Crescent,  Turkey  ■ . . .

Cross  of  Christ .  '  * ' " ■ lBo

Cross  of  the  South,  Brazil
Crown  of  Italy
Crown  of  India  (female)
Crown  of  Oak,  Netherlands
Crown,  Prussia .
Crown  Royal,  France  (Fries/and)'
Crown,  Wurtemberg

Dw!ioKffi^ the  widow  Louisa  Eli-

Denis,  St.,  France . .

Distinguished  service,  British  army'
Dog  and  Cock,  France

Dove  of  Castile  . .

Dragon,  Hungary  .  '

Dragon  Overthrown,  German

Eagle  (see  Black,  Mexican,  Red',  White)
Ear  of  Corn  and  Ermine,  Brittany,  about
Elephant,  Denmark  (about  1  iQO),'  by  Christian  I '
Elizabeth,  St.,  Portugal  and  Brazil  (female)  '

Elizabeth  Theresa,  Austria  (female)  ' ' '

Empire  of  India . .

Esprit,  St.,  France .

Ferdinand,  St.,  Naples .

Ferdinand,  St.,  Spain .  ■ . .

Fidelity,  Baden  .

Fidelity,  Denmark .

Fools,  Cleves . .

Francis  I.,  Two  Sicilies


31  Dee.  1877


802
1818

1671

1709
1267
1886
500
r379
J439
1418

1442
1462
1801
r75o
1877
!579


1715
J732
1380
1829

andEtb!ar?<e?,and  C2rriCte^d  from  Edmondson,  CarlislT
do  htfnl £lmana<*  de  Gotha  ;  " the  earlv  dates  are

iStS^-SSMg wcre  iustitutcd  ■"•*■ *£


Hermengilde,  St.,  Spain  '  ' ' ' J*

Hohenzollern,  Prussia  ' ' " T

Holy  Ghost,  France .  '

Holy  Sepulchre  (which  see) '  ' T  ' '

Holy  Vial  (St.  Remi),  France  ' '  IO"'

Malta"61'8  (WMCh  See)'  IO";  0f  Rhodes, '1308';  of

HcS)StB'aSany  (by  the  dUke  °f  Juliers  '"*  '
Imtiaz  (Turkey) .  ' • • •  *

Iron  Cross,  Prussia N<m  »

Iron  Crown,  Lombardy,  1805;  revived ' '
linn  Helmet,  Hesse  Cassel  ' ' '

Isabella,  St.,  Spam,  1804;  Portugal  ( female) '
Isabella  the  Catholic,  Spain  female) .

James,  St.,  Holland  '  • • . .

James,  St.,  Portugal

JaaTdPoSrtugaflthe  SW°rd' Santiago, 'II75: Spain
Januarius,  St. ,  Naples  .  '  "

Jerusalem  (see  Malta)

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted  by  John  XXII  ' *"*"

1320. Reformed  as  Jesus  and  Mary,  by  Paul  V  ''  l6,e

Joachim,  St.,  Germany  ' ^  v-  ' l0l5

John  of  Aeon,  St. ,  after '  • ■ . . 1755

JSt  a^SSE* St  .(see  ^*)-'^ ■  ?3

Joseph,  St.,  Tuscany

Julian  of  Alcantara,  St

Katherine  St.,  England  (female  nurses)

Knot,  Najiles . .  '

La  CaJza,  Venice,  about

Lamb  of  God,  Sweden

Lazarus,  St.,  France,  before
of  St.  Maurice,  Savoy

Legion  of  Honour,  France

Leopold,  Austria .

Leopold,  Belgium

Lily  of  Aragon

Lily  of  Navarre,  about  '

Lion,  Holland

Lion  (see  Sun) .

Lion  of  Ziihringen,  Baden' .

Lioness,  Naples,  about  • • . . 1S12

Loretto,  Lady  of .  '  '  J399

Louis,  Bavaria .  X5S7

Louis,  Hesse  Darmstadt '  '  l827

Louis,  St.,  France  l8°7

Louisa,  Prussia  (female) '  '. '  ■  l693

Malta  (see  Hospitallers).  l8l4

Maria  de  Merced,  St.,  Spain

Maria  Louisa,  Spain  (female) '  I2liJ

Maria  Theresa,  Austria  I792

J757

O  0


1814
1851

1579
1496

499


1816
1814
1801
1815
1290
1310

"77
1738


181


1154:  united  with  that


1156
1879
1352
737

1564


1572
1802


1410

1043
1815


KNIGHTS.


582


KOLA.


Mark,  St. ,  Venice,  about  828. Renewed . . .  1562

Martyrs,  Palestine 1014

Maurice,  St.,  Savoy 1434

Maximilian  Joseph,  Bavaria 1806

Medjidie,  Turkey 1852

Merit,  Bavaria 1808,  1866

Merit,  Belgium 1867

Merit,  Hesse  Cassel . - ... . . .  1769

Merit,  Oldenburg 1838

Merit,  Prussia . . .... . . .  1740

Merit,  Saxony 1815

Merit,  Wiirtemberg 1859

Merit,  Military,  Baden .  1807

Mexican  Eagle . . 1865

Michael,  St. ,  Bavaria 1693

Michael,  St.,  France 1469

Michael,  St.,  Germany . . . . . .1618

Michael  and  George,  Sts. ,  1818 ;  re-organised,  March,  1869

Montjoie,  Jerusalem,  before 1180

Neighbourly  Love,  Austria  (female) .... 1708
Nicholas,  St.  (Argonauts  of),  Naples . . . . 1382

Noble  Passion,  Saxony 1704

Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain 722

Olaf,  St.,  Sweden 1847

Osmanie,  Turkey  ........ 1861

Our  Lady  of  Montesa 1316

Our  Lady  of  the  Conception  of  Villa  Vigosa . .1818

Our  Lady  of  the  Lily,  Navarre 1043

Palatine  Lion 1768

Palm  and  Alligator,  Africa,  granted  to  Gov.  Camp-
bell in 1837

Passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  France .... 1384

Patrick,  St. ,  Ireland 1783

Paul,  St.,  Rome 1540

Pedro  I. ,  Brazil T826

Peter,  Frederick  Lewis,  Oldenburg  . . . 1838

Peter,  St.,  Rome 1530

Philip,  Hesse  Darmstadt 1840

Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV 1559

Pius  IX. ,  Rome 1847

Polar  Star,  Sweden. Revived 1748

Porcupine,  France .......... 1393

Reale,  Naples,  about 1399

Red  Eagle,  Prussia,  1705,  1712,  1734. Revived . 1792

Redeemer  (or  Saviour),  Greece 1833

Remi,  St.  (or  Holy  Vial),  about .... 499

Rosary,  Spain 1212

Rose,  Brazil 1829

Round  Table,  England,  by  Alfred  (see  Garter),  516  or 528
Royal  Red  Cross  (female) . . .23  April,  1883

Rue  Crown,  Saxony 1807

Rupert,  St.,  Germany 1701

Saviour,  Aragon 1118

Saviour,  or  Redeemer,  Greece 1833

Saviour  of  the  World,  Sweden 1561

Savoy,  Italy 1815

Scale,  Castile,  about 1316

Scarf,  Castile,  1330. Revived 1700

Sepulchre,  Holy,  Palestine . .  ....  1099

Seraphim,  Sweden 1260  or  1265

Ship  and  Crescent,  France 1 269

Slaves  of  Virtue,  Germany  (female)  . • . . .  1662

Stanislas,  St. .  Poland . 1765

Star,  France 1022

Star,  Sicily 1351

Star  of  India,  British 1861

Star  of  the  Cross  (female),  Austria . . . . 1668

Star  of  the  North,  Sweden 1748

Stephen,  St. ,  Hungary 1764

Stephen,  St.,  Tuscany 1561

Sun  and  Lion,  Persia 1808

Swan,  Flanders,  about 500

Swan,  Prussia  (female) ..... 1440,  1843

Sword  (or  Silence),  Cyprus, 1195

Sword,  Sweden,  1525. Revived 1748

Templars  (see  Templars) 11 19

Teste  Morte  (Death's  Head),  Wiirtemberg  (female)  .  1652
Teutonic, Austria, about  1190; abolished, 1809;

1522;  re-organised 1840,  1865

Thistle  of  Bourbon 1370

Thistle,  Scotland,  809. Revived  . . 1540,  1687

Thomas  of  Aeon,  St. ,  after ...  . 1377

Toison  d'Or  (Golden  Fleece) 1429

Tower  and  Sword,  Portugal,  1459. Revived . . 1808
Tusin,  or  Hungarian  Knights,  about . . . 1562

Two  Sicilies 1808

Vasa,  Sweden 1772

Vigilance,  or  White  Falcon,  Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732


Virgin  Mary,  Italy . 1233

Virgin  of  Mount  Carmel,  France 1607

Wends,  Mecklenburg 1864

White  Cross,  Tuscany 1814

White  Eagle,  Poland,  about  1325. Revived . .  1705

White  Falcon,  Saxe-Weimar 1732

Wilhelm,  Holland 1815

Wing  of  St.  Michael,  Portugal n  72

Wladimir,  St.,  Russia 1782

Female  Knights.  It  is  said  that  the  first  were,  the
women  who  preserved  Tortosafrom  the  Moors  in  1149,
by  their  stout  resistance.  Large  immunities  were
granted  to  the  women  and  their  descendants.  Several
female  orders  appear  in  the  preceding  list.  Ladies
have^een  admitted  to  several  male  orders.
Knights  of  Glyn  and  Kerry  in  Ireland.  The  heads
of  two  branches  of  the  family  of  Fitzgerald,  who  still
enjoy  the  distinctions  bestowed  on  their  ancestors  by
sovereigns  in  the  13th  century.  The  19th  knight  of
Kerry  died  6th  Aug.  1880.
Knights  of  the  Shire,  or  of  Parliament  ;  summoned
by  the  king's  writ  and  chosen  by  the  freeholders,  first
summoned  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  in  1258,  and  in  a
more  formal  manner,  20  Jan.  1265.  There  are  writs
extant  as  far  back  as  11  Edward  I.,  1283.  The  knights
are  still  girded  with  a  sword  when  elected,  as  the  writ
prescribes.
Knights  of  Labour.  A  large  secret  trade  union  in  the
United  States,  said  to  have  been  originated  by  a  man
named  Stevens  in  Philadelphia  in  1869,  for  protection
of  workmen  against  capitalists.  They  were  ener-
getic in  the  promotion  of  railway  and  other  strikes,
especially  in  Missouri  in  March,  1886.  Head  quarters
at  Philadelphia,  May,  1886.  The  society  is  condemned
by  the  pope.  Decline  of  the  order  reported  Aug.  1888  ;
active  in  Aug.  1890.

KNIVES. In  England, Hallamshire (the

country  round  Sheffield)  has  been  renowned  for  its
cutlery  for  five  centuries;  Chaucer  speaks  of  the
"  Sheffield  thwytel."  Stow  says  that  Richard
Mathews  on  the  Fleet-bridge  was  the  first  English-
man who  made  fine  knives,  &c. ;  and  that  he  ob-
tained a  prohibition  of  foreign  ones,  1563.  Clasp
or  spring  knives  became  common  about  1650 ;  com-
ing originally  from  Flanders. — Knife -cleaning  ma-
chines were  patented  by  Mr.  George  Kent  in  1844
and  1852 ;  others  have  been  invented,  by  Masters,
Price,  &c. ;  see  Forks.

KNOW-NOTHINGS,  a  society  which  arose
in  1853,  in  the  United  States  of  N.  America.  Their
principles  wrere  embodied  in  the  following  proposi-
tions (at  New  York,  1855).  They  possessed  several
newspapers  and  had  much  political  influence  : —

1.  The  Americans  shall  rule  America.

2.  The  Union  of  these  States.

3.  No  North,  no  South,  no  East,  no  West.

4.  The  United  States  of  America — as  they  are — one  and

inseparable.

5.  No  sectarian-  interferences  in  our  legislation  or  in  the

administration  of  American  law.

6.  Hostility  to  the  assumption  of  the  pope,  through  the

bishops,  &c,  in  a  republic  sanctified  by  Protestant
blood.

7.  Thorough  reform  in  the  naturalisation  laws.

8.  Free  and  liberal  educational  institutions  for  all  sects

and  classes,  with  the  Bible,  God's  holy  word,  as  a

universal  text-book.

A.  society  was  formed  in  1855  in  opposition  to  the  above,

called  Know-Somethings. Both  bodies  were  absorbed

into  the  two  parties,  Democrats  and  Republicans,  at

the  presidential  election  in  Nov.  1856.

KNUTSFORD,  Cheshire.  The  foundation
stone  of  St.  Paul's  college  for  the  northern  counties
here  was  laid,  24  Sept.  1873.

KOH-I-NOOR,  or  "  Mountain  of  Light,"  the
East  India  diamond;  see  Diamonds.

KOLA,  a  West  African  nut,  from  which  is  ob-
tained, by  grinding,  a  stimulating  and  sustaining-
drug,  much  used  by  the  natives  in  long  journeys,
enabling  them  to  endure  thirst  and  hunger.


KOLIN.


563


KEOUMIES.


KOLIN"  or  KOLLIN  (Bohemia).  Here  the
Austrian  general  Daun  gained  a  signal  victory  over
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  18  June,  1757.  In
commemoration,  the  military  order  of  Maria  Theresa
was  instituted  by  the  empress-queen.

KOLN,  see  Cologne.

KOMOEN  or  COMORO  (Hungary),  an  ancient
fortress  town,  often  taken  and  retaken  during  the
wars  with  Turkey.  Near  it  the  Hungarians,  under
sjen.  Klapka,  defeated  the  Austrians,  II  July,  1849,
hut  surrendered  the  town  1  Oct.

KONIEH  (formerly  Iconium) .  Here  the
Turkish  army  was  defeated  by  the  pasha  of  Egypt,
.after  a  long  sanguinary  fight,  21  Dec.  1832.  The
.grand  vizier  was  taken  prisoner.

KONIGGBATZ  (Bohemia).  Near  here  was
fought  the  decisive  battle  between  the  Austrians
-commanded  by  marshal  Benedek,  and  the  Prussians
■commanded  by  their  king  William  I.,  3  July,  1866.
Prince  Frederick  Charles  halted  at  Kammeniz  on
Monday,  2  July,  his  troops  commenced  their  march
;at  midnight,  and  the  first  shot  was  fired  about  7-30
;a.m.  3  July.  The  attack  began  at  Sadowa  (after
which  the  battle  is  also  named)  about  10  o'clock,
and  a  desperate  struggle  ensued,  the  result  ap-
pearing uncertain,  till  the  army  of  the  crown  prince
■of  Prussia  arrived  about  i2-30.  "When  Chlum,
which  had  been  taken  and  lost  seven  times  by  the
Prussians,  was  taken  for  the  eighth  time,  the  fate
■of  the  day  was  decided ;  and  the  retreat  of  the  Aus-
trians, at  first  orderly,  became  a  hasty  disastrous
flight.  About  400,000  men  were  engaged  in  this
•battle,  one  of  the  greatest  in  modern  times.  The
Austrians  are  said  to  have  lost  174  guns,  about  40,000
killed  and  wounded,  and  20,000  prisoners.  The
Prussians  lost  about  io,OOOmen.  The  victory  gave
the  supremacy  in  Germany  to  Prussia,  unity  to
North  Germany,  and  Venetia  to  Italy  ;  and  led  to
the  legislative  independence  of  Hungary.

KONIGSBEEG,  the  capital  of  east  Prussia,
was  founded  by  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1255,  and
•became  the  residence  of  the  grand  master  in  1457.
It  joined  the  Hanseatic  league  in  1365.  It  was
-ceded  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  in  1657,  and
here  Frederick  III.  was  crowned  the  first  king  of
Prussia  in  1701.  It  was  held  by  the  Russians
3758-64,  and  by  the  French  in  1807.  Here  king
William  I.  and  his  queen  were  crowned,  18  Oct.,
«86i.  Population,  in  1885,  151,151;  1890,  161,528.

KONIGSTEIN  TUN  (Nassau,  Germany),
most  capacious,  was  built  by  Frederick  Augustus,
king  of  Poland,  in  1725.  It  was  made  to  hold
233,667  gallons  of  wine ;  and  on  the  top,  which  was
railed  in,  was  accommodation  for  twenty  persons  to
regale  themselves.  The  famous  tun  of  St.  Bernard's
was  said  to  hold  800  tons ;  see  Heidelberg  Tun.

KOOKAS,  a  warlike  reforming  sect  in  N.  W.
India,  founded  by  Baluk  Ram  about  1845,  and  after
his  death,  about  1855,  headed  by  Ram  Singh,  who
preached  the  restoration  of  the  old  Sikh  religion,
which  venerated  cattle  and  punished  their  slaugh-
terer. After  several  outrages  against  the  Mahome-
tans, an  outbreak  of  the  Kookas  took  place  near
Loodiana,  which  was  vigorously  suppressed,  15
Jan.  1872,  by  commissioner  Cowan,  who  ordered
49  prisoners  to  be  blown  from  cannon,  17  Jan.
Several  others  were  tried  and  executed  by  com-
missioner Forsyth  soon  after.  For  this  severity
Mr.  Cowan  was  ordered  to  be  dismissed,  and  Mr.
Forsyth  removed  to  another  station,  April,  1872.
The  Kooka  leaders  claim  800,000  followers ;  but
the  probable  number  is  about  one-tenth.


KORAN  or  Alcoran  (Al  Kuran),  the

sacred  book  of  the  Mahometans,  was  written  about
610,  by  Mahomet  (who  asserted  that  it  had  been
revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel  in  twenty-
three  years),  and  published  by  Abu-bekr  about  635.
Its  general  aim  was  to  unite  the  professors  of  idolatry
and  the  Jews  and  Christians  in  the  worship  of  one
God  (whose  unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),
under  certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obe-
dience to  Mahomet  as  the  prophet.  The  leading  ar-
ticle of  faith  preached  is  compounded  of  an  eternal
truth  and  a  necessary  fiction,  namely,  that  there  is
only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet  is  the  apostle  of  God.
Gibbon.  The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in
1143;  into  French,  1647;  into  English  by  Sale,
1734;  and  into  other  European  languages,  1763
et  seq.  It  is  a  rhapsody  of  6000  verses,  divided
into  114  sections;  see  Mahometanism,  &c.

KOBEISH,  an  Arab  tribe  which  had  the  charge
of  the  Caaba,  or  shrine  of  the  sacred  stone  of  Mecca,
and  strenuously  opposed  the  pretensions  of  Maho-
met. It  was  defeated  by  him  and  his  adherents,
623-30.

KOSSOVA,  see  Cossova.

KOSZTA  AFF  ALB.  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hunga-
rian refugee,  when  in  the  United  States  in  1850,
declared  his  intention  of  becoming  an  American
citizen,  and  went  through  the  preliminary  forms.
In  1853  he  visited  Smyrna,  and  on  21  June  was
seized  by  a  boat's  crew  of  the  Austrian  brig  Huzzar.
By  direction  of  the  American  minister  at  Constan-
tinople, captain  Ingraham,  of  the  American  sloop  St.
Louis,  demanded  his  release  ;  but  having  heard  that
the  prisoner  was  to  be  clandestinely  transported
to  Trieste,  he  demanded  his  surrender  by  a  certain
time,  and  prepared  to  attack  the  Austrian  vessel  on
2  July;  Koszta  was  then  given  up.  On  1  Aug., the
Austrian  government  protested  against  these  pro-
ceedings in  a  circular  addressed  to  the  European
courts,  but  eventually  a  compromise  was  effected,
and  Koszta  returned  to  the  United  States.

KOYUNJIK,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Nineveh
(ivhich  see).

KEAAL,  a  Dutch  name  for  a  South  African
village. See  Zululand.

KEAKATOA,  see  Java,  1883.

KEAO.  A  hairy  female  Burmese  child  exhi-
bited at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  Jan.  1883 ;
thought  incorrectly  by  some  to  be  a  specimen  of
the  missing  link  between  man  and  the  anthropoid
apes.

KEASNOI  (central  Russia).  Here  the  French
defeated  the  Russians,  15  Aug.  1812 ;  and  here  they
were  themselves  defeated  after  a  series  of  conflicts,
14-18  Nov.  following.

KEEASOTE,  see  Creasote.

KBEMLIN,  a  palace  at  Moscow,  built  by  De-
metri,  grand-duke  of  Russia,  about  1376.  It  was
burnt  down  in  Sept.  1812,  and  rebuilt  in  1816  ;
partl3r  burnt  about  23  Jul}',  1879.

KBIEGSPIEL,  see  War  Game.

KEOMSCHBODEB  GAS,  a  new  hydro-
carbon (air  saturated  with  petroleum  spirit),  was
tried  in  May,  1873,  at  Great  Marlow,  for  street
lighting,  and  reported  successful.  The  gas  was
said  to  be  cheap  and  quickly  generated,  the  com-
bustion giving  a  brilliant  white  smokeless  light.

KEOUMIES,  see  Tunis.

o  o  2


KEITPP.


564


KYELE SOCIETY.


KETJPP'S  CAST  STEEL  Factory,  Essen,
Bhenish  Prussia,  established  1810.  About  10,500
men  employed,  exclusive  of  about  5000  miners  and
others  (1876).

KEYPTOGEAPH,  see  Cryptograph.

KIT  KUX  KLAN,  the  name  of  a  secret  society
in  the  southern  states  of  the  Union,  principally  in
Tennessee  in  North  America,  bitterly  opposed  to  the
ruling  men.  Early  in  1868,  this  society  issued  lists
of  proscribed  persons,  who,  if  they  did  not  quit  the
country  after  warning,  becameliable  to  assassination.
General  Grant  endeavoured  to  suppress  this  society
in  April.  Its  repression  by  the  militia  in  Arkansas
was  ordered,  Nov.  1868,  and  it  became  the  subject
of  legislation  at  Washington,  June,  1871.

KULD JA,  a  revolted  province  of  China ;  was
seized  by  Bussia  in  1871,  and  restored  by  treaty
in  1879.

KULTUE-KAMPF,  the  conflict  in  Prussia
respecting  worship,  see  Prussia,  1873,  et  seq.

KUNNEESDOEF,  Battle  of,  see  Own-

nersdorf.

KTJNOBITZA,  in  the  Balkan.  Here  John
Hunniades,  the  Hungarian,  defeated  the  Turks,  24
Dec.  1443.

KUEDISTAIST,  Western Asia (the ancient


Assyria),  subject  partly  to  Turkey  and  Persia.
In  Oct.  1880,  the  Kurds,  savage  tribes,  nominal
Mahometans,  invaded  and  ravaged  Persia,  andi
were  subdued  after  fierce  conflicts  with  then-  chief,
Obeid-ullah,  a  Turkish  sheikh,  Nov.  Dec.  1880,
In  1 88 1  he  went  to  Constantinople  and  was  well  re-
ceived, but  kept  in  a  kind  of  honourable  restraint,
Sept  1881.  In  Sept.  1882  he  escaped  to  Kurdistan
and  incited  the  Kurds  to  revolt  against  Persia ;
captured  by  the  Turks ;  rescued  by  his  son,  Nov.
1882  ;  said  to  have  died  at  Mecca  in  1883.

KUEEACHEE,  a  flourishing  port  in  N.  W„
India,  capital  of  Sind,  was  taken  by  the  British,  3
Feb.  1839.

KUSHK-I-NAKHTJD,  see  Maiwand.

KUSTEIN"  or  CUSTREST  (Prussia),  a  fortified
town,  besieged  and  burnt  by  the  Eussians,  22  Aug,
1758 ;  taken  by  the  French  in  1806 ;  given  up,  1814.

KYELE  SOCIETY  (named  after  John  Kyrle,
who  died  1724,  extolled  by  Pope  as  the  Man  of
Eoss),  started  by  Misses  Miranda  and  Octavia  Hill
in  1875,  and  founded  in  1877  by  prince  Leopold,
princess  Louise,  the  duke  of  Westminster,  and
others,  with  the  object  of  "bringing  beauty  home
to  the  people,"  by  means  of  decorative  art,  gar-
dening, music,  &c.  First  public  meeting  held
27  Jan.  1881.


L.


s. d.


LADOCEA.


L.


d.  see  Coin.


LABARUM,  see  Standards.

LABORATORY-  The  Royal  Institution  labo-
ratory, the  first  of  any  importance  in  London,  was
established  in  1800,  and  rebuilt,  1872.  In  it  were
made  the  discoveries  of  Davy,  Faraday,  Tyndall,
and  Frankland  ;  see  Royal  Institution.  The  Royal
Laboratory,  Woolwich  Arsenal,  was  re-organised  in

LABOUR  COMMISSION.  The  relations
between  capital  and  labour  having  been  greatly
disturbed  in  recent  years,  especially  since  1888,
leading  to  many  strikes,  the  government  were  in-
duced to  appoint  a  royal  commission  "  to  inquire
into  the  relations  between  employers  and  employed,
and  to  report  whether  legislation  can  with  advan-
tage be  directed  to  remedy  any  evils  that  may  be
disclosed,"  &c.

Among  the  persons  nominated,  10  April,  1891,  were
the  following  :  the  marquis  of  Hartington  (duke
of  Devonshire,  21  Dee.  1891)  chairman,  the  earl  of
Derby,  sir  M.  Hicks-Beach,  Mr.  Mundella,  Mr.
Courtnev,  Mr.  Jesse  Collings,  Mr.  Burt,  sir  F.
Pollock,"  Mr.  Tom  Mann,  Mr.  Plimsoll,  with
several  chairmen  of  public  companies  and  em-
ployers of  labour.  Secretaries,  Mr.  John  Burnett
and  Mr.  Geoffrey  Drage.  Miss  Orme,  Miss  Abra-
hams, Miss  Collett  and  Miss  Irwin  were  appointed
lady  sub-commissioners  ....  March  1892
First  meeting,  the  marquis  of  Hartington  in  the

chair 1  May  1891

The  first  report  laid  before  parliament . 1  April  1892

LABOUR  QUESTION.  The  relations  be-
tween capital  and  labour  have  been  much  discussed
in  recent  years.  See  Germany,  1889-90 ;  Berlin,
Strikes, Trades Union, Shipping, Gas Light,

Working-men, (Labour Day), I May, 1890-2,

United  States,  1  Sept.  1890-2.

LABOURERS, Statute of, regulating

wH&es,  enacted  1349,  1357.  A  conference  of  philan-
thropists on  the  condition  of  agricultural  labourers
was  held  at  Willis's  rooms,  Westminster,  28  March,
1868.  La.bouj.ung  Classes  Dwelling  House  Acts,
passed,  1855,  and  May,  1866.  Labourers'  (Ire-
land) Act  passed  1886.  See  Agriculture,  Artisans,
and  Working-men.

A  labourers'  league  was  established  to  assist  the
labourers  in  the  exercise  of  the  rights  given
them  by  the  Local  Government  Act . May,  1888

LABRADOR  (North  America),  discovered  by
Sebastian  Cabot,  1497 ;  visited  by  Corte  Real  in
1500  ;  made  a  Moravian  missionary  station  in  1771.
Much  distress  through  famine  reported  Sept.  1884.

LABUAN,  an  Asiatic  island,  N.  W.  Borneo;
ceded  to  the  British  in  1846,  and  given  up  to  sir
James  Brooke  in  1848.  The  bishopric  was  founded
1855.  Governor,  John  Pope  Hennessy,  1867,  sir  II.
E.  Bulwer,  1871  ;  Herbert  Taylor  "Usher,  1875;
Chas.  Cameron  Lees,  1879;  P. "Leys,  1884;  Van-
deleur  Creagh  Nov.  1889.  Labuan  was  given  up
to  the  North  Borneo  company  in  1889.  Successful
progress  reported  Nov.  1890;  see  Borneo.

LABURNUM?  Cytisus  laburnum,  called  also
the  golden  chain,  was  brought  to  these  countries
from  Hungary,  Austria,  &c,  about  IS7°- Ashe.


LABYRINTHS.  Four  are  mentioned:  the
first,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Doedaius,  in  the
island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210
B.C. ;  the  second,  of  Arsinoe,  in  Egypt,  in  the  isle
of  Mosris,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that  place,  about
665  B.C.;  the  third,  at  Lemnos,  remarkable  for  its
sumptuous  pillars,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  sta-
lactite grotto ;  and  the  fourth,  at  Clusium,  in  Italy,
erected  by  Porsenna,  king  of  Etruria,  about  520  B.C.
Pliny.  The  labyrinth  of  Woodstock  is  connected
with  the  story  of  Fair  Rosamond ;  see  Rosamond.
The  Maze  at  Hampton  Court  was  formed  by
William  III.  in  the  17th  century.

LACE  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  the  14th
century  in  France  and  Flanders.  Its  importation
into  England  was  prohibited  in  1483  ;  but  it  was  used
in  the  court  costume  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Dresden,
Valenciennes,  Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have  long  been
famous  for  their  fine  lace.  An  ounce  weight  of
Flanders  thread  has  been  frequently  sold  for  four
pounds  in  London ;  and  its  value,  when  manufac-
tured, has  been  increased  to  forty  pounds,  ten  times
the  price  of  standard  gold.  A  framework  knitter  of
Nottingham,  named  Hammond,  is  said  to  have  in-
vented a  mode  of  applying  his  stocking-frame  to  the
manufacture  of  lace  from  studying  the  lace  on  his
wife's  cap,  about  1768.  Macculloch.  So  many
improvements  have  been  made  in  this  manufacture,
particularly  by  Heathcote  (1809,  1817,  &c),  Morley
and  Leaver  (181 1,  &c.),  that  a  piece  of  lace  which
about  1809  cost  17^.  may  now  be  had  for  js.  (1853).
Ure.  The  process  of  "gassing"  by  which  cotton
lace  is  said  to  be  made  equal  to  fine  linen  lace,  was
invented  by  Samuel  Hall  of  Basford,  near  Notting-
ham. He  died  in  Nov.  1862.  Seguin's  "La  Den-
telle ;  Histoire,"  &c,  published,  1874.  Dish  lace
exhibition  at  the  Mansion  House,  London,  25  June-
7  July,  1883.  Scheme  for  encouraging  the  Irish
lace  manufacture  supported  by  the  government,
^ne,  1884.  Mrs.  Bury  Palliser's  "History  of
j_  .ce,"  3rd  edition,  1875.

LACED.ZEMON  or  LACONIA  (Tzakonia),  see
Sparta.

LA  CROSSE.  A  game  of  ball,  with  running,
among  the  Red  Indians  of  Canada  ;  adopted  succes-
sively by  the  French  and  English  settlers,  and
transmitted  to  the  United  States  and  to  the  United
Kingdom.  Its  rules  were  systematised  by  Dr.  Beers
in  i860. Many  clubs  have  been  formed.

_  LACTEALS  (absorbent  vessels  connected  with
digestion),  were  discovered  in  a  dog  by  Jasper
Asellius  of  Cremona,  1622,  and  their  termination  in
the  thoracic  duct  by  Pecquet,  165 1 ;  see  Lymphatics.

LADIES'  COLLEGES,  see  under  GlRTON
College.

LADIES'  NATIONAL  AID  ASSOCIA-
TION, formed  to  contribute  to  the  relief  of  the
sick  and  wounded  in  the  Soudan  and  Egypt.  Ori-
ginated by  the  duchesses  of  Buccleuch,  St.  Albans,
and  Marlborough,  the  marchioness  of  Salisbury  and
others,  Feb.  1885. Sec  Aid.

LADOCEA,  in  Arcadia.  Here  Clcoraenes  III.
king  of  Spai  ta,  defeated  the  Achaean  league,  226  B.C.


LADEONE ISLES.


566


LAMMAS-DAT.


LADEONE  ISLES  (N.  Pacific),  belonging  to
Spain,  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1520.  lie  first
touched  at  the  island  of  Guam.  The  natives  having
stolen  some  of  his  goods,  he  named  the  islands  the
Ladrones,  or  Thieves.  In  the  17th  century  they
obtained  the  name  of  Marianna  islands  from  the
queen  of  Spain.

LADY.  The  masters  and  mistresses  of  manor-
houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  bread  to  the  poor
weekly  ;  and  were  therefore  called  Lafords  and  Lef-
days — signifying  bread  givers  (from  hlaf,  a  loaf)  :
hence  Lords  and  Ladies.  Wedgewood  considers  this
fanciful,  and  derives  the  words  from  the  Anglo-
Saxon,  laford,  lord,  and  hlcefdig,  lady. — Lady  day
(March  25),  a  festival  instituted  about  350,  according
to  some  authorities,  and  not  before  the  7th  century
according  to  others  ;  see  Annunciation^.  The  year,
which  previously  began  on  this  day,  was  ordered  to
begin  on  Jan.  i,in  France  in  1564;  and  in  Scotland,
by  proclamation,  on  17  Dec.  1599;  but  not  in  Eng-
land till  3  Sept.  1752,  when  the  style  was  altered.

LADY-BIEDS.  About  18th  August,  1869,
great  flights  of  these  insects  alighted  on  the  S.L.
coasts  of  England,  and  arrived  as  far  as  London;  a
similar  event  occuired  in  1867.

LAFFELDT,  Holland.  Here  marshal  Saxe
defeated  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  2  July,
1747-

LAGOS,  in  the  Bight  of  Benin  (Africa),  was
assaulted  and  taken  by  the  boats  of  a  British  squa-
dron, under  commodore  Bruce,  26,  27  Dec.  1851.  This
affair  arose  out  of  breaches  of  a  treaty  for  the  sup-
pression of  the  slave-trade.  In  1861,  the  place  was
ceded  to  the  British  government,  and  created  a  set-
tlement:  Henry  Stanhope  Freeman,  first  governor,
see  Gold  Coast  Colony.
Governor, sir Cornelius A. Moloney in 1SS9 ;

Gilbert  T.  Carter  in Feb.  1891

Treaty  with  the  king  of  Jebu  securing  freedom  of

roads,  signed  at  Lagos  by  delegates  .  21  Jan.  1892
The  Jebus  and  Egbas  threaten  Lagos  and  the  Gold

Coast;  trade  suspended,  about  21  April ;  this  is

checked  by  the  arrival  of  troops under capts.

Bayly  and  Larrymore,  major  Madden  and col.

Scott April  1892

The  Jebus  repulsed  in  their  attack  on  Col.  Scott's

expedition  and  their  villages  taken 12  May  et  se.q. ,,
Total  defeat  of  the  Jebus,  surrender  of  the  king,

Jebu  Ode  occupied,  army  dispersed .  May  17-20 ,,
The,  road  for  traders  opened,  tranquillity  restored

27  May ,,

LAGOS  BAY  (Portugal).  Here  was  fought  a
battle  between  admiral  Boscawen  and  the  French
admiral  De  la  Clue,  who  lost  both  his  legs  in  the
engagement,  and  died  next  day,  17,  18  Aug.  1759.
The  Centaur  and  Modcste  were  taken,  and  the  Re-
doubtable and  Ocean  run  on  shore  and  burnt :  the
scattered  remains  of  the  French  fleet  got  into  Cadiz.

LAHOGUE  (correctly Hague)  (N.W.France),
Battle  of,  19  May,  1692,  when  the  English  and
Dutch  fleets  under  admirals  Russell  and  Booke,  de-
feated the  French  fleet  commanded  by  admiral  Tour-
ville.  The  English  burnt  thirteen  of  the  enemy's
ships,  and  destroyed  eight  more,  thus  preventing  a
descent  upon  England.

LAHORE  (N.  W.  India),  was  taken  by  Baber
about  1520,  and  was  long  the  capital  of  the  Mongol
empire.  It  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Sikhs  in  1798.
It  was  occupied  by  sir  Hugh  Gough,  22  Feb.  1846,
who  in  March  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace.  See
Durbar.  Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  18  Jan.  1876,
and  of  his  son  prince  Albert  Victor,  who  laid  the
foundation  stone  of  the  "Jubilee  Museum  and
Technical  Institute  of  the  Punjab,"  2-5  Feb.  1890.
Population  in  1891,  176,120.


LAING'S  NEK,  see  Transvaal,  1881.

LAKE  DWELLINGS  contain  relics  of  the
stone,  iron,  and  brass  ages.  Herodotus  (about  450
B.C.)  described  the  Pseonians  as  living  on  platforms
in  Lake  Prasias.  In  1855,  Dr.  Keller  discovered
the  remains  of  lake  habitations  whichhadbeen  sup-
ported on  piles  in  several  Swiss  lakes  ages  ago;  His
book  was  published  in  England  in  1866.  Similar
relics  discovered  in  lake  Constance,  March,  1882  ;
they  have  also  been  discovered  in  Britain  and
various  parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  South  America;
they  are  now  considered  to  be  evidence  of  a  stage  in
human  progress.  The  artificial  fortified  islands-
termed  "Crannoges"  discovered  in  some  Irish  lakes
are  attributed  to  the  9th  and  10th  Centuries.  They
have  been  frequently  used  as  places  of  refuge.
Artificial  lake,  see  under  Liverpool,  1881  et  seq.

LAKE  POETS,  a  term  applied  to  Wordsworth
(1770-1850),  Coleridge  (1772-1834),  and  Southey
(1774-1843),  from  their  residence  in  the  neighbour-
hood of  the  lakes  of  Westmoreland.

LAKE  EEGILLUS  (Italy),  where,  tradition
states,  the  Romans  defeated  the  Latin  auxiliaries  of
the  expelled  Tarquins,  about  498  B.C.

LAKES  CHAMPLAIN,  ERIE,  aot>  ON-
TAEIO  were  the  scenes  of  many  actions  between
the  British  and  Americans  in  the  war  of  indepen-
dence (about  1776  and  1777),  and  in  the  war  of
1813-14.

LAMAISM,  the  religion  of  Mongolia  and  Thibet;
(dating  about  1357),  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Buddhism
{which  see) .

LAMBETH,  parish,  N.  E.  Surrey,  became  the
seat  of  the  abps.  of  Canterbury,  1 197.  Lambeth
returned  two  members  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,
and  four  by  act  of  1885.  Population,  188 1, 253,699  ;
1891,  279,202.

Lambeth  Palace.  A  considerable  portion  was
built  in  the  13th  century,  by  Hubert  Walter,
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  tower  of  the
church  was  erected  about  1375;  and  other  parts  of
the  edifice  in  the  15th  century.  Simon  of  Sudbury,
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  killed  here  by  the
followers  of  Wat  Tyler,  who  attacked  the  palace,
burnt  the  furniture  and  books,  and  destroyed  the
registers  and  public  papers,  14  June,  1381.  The
domestic  portion  of  the  palace  was  greatly  enlarged
for  archbishop  Howley  (who  died  1848),  by  Mr.
Blore,  at  an  expense  of  52,000/.  The  palace  was-
reopened  after  restoration,  Oct.  1873  ;  see  Canter-
bury, Articles.  For  Lambeth  Conference  see  Pan-
Anglican  Synods.  Lambeth  bridge  was  freed  from
toil  24  May,  1879.

Lambeth  degrees  are  those  conferred  by  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury  by  virtue  of  25  Henry  YIIL,  c.  21.,  1533-4.

LAMIAN  WAE,  323  b.c.  (excited  by  Demos-
thenes, the  orator),  between  Athens  a«d  her  allies-
and  Antipater,  governor  of  Macedon.  Antipater
fled  to  Lamia,  in  Thessaly,  and  was  there  besieged.
He  escaped  thence  and  defeated  his  adversaries  at
Cranon,  322  B.C.

LAMMAS-DAY,  the  1st  of  August,  one  of  our
four  cross  quarter-days  of  the  year.  Whitsuntide
was  the  first,  Lammas  the  second,  Martinmas  the
third,  and  Candlemas  the  last ;  and  such  partition
of  the  year  was  once  equally  common  with  the  pre-
sent divisions  of  Ladyday,  Midsummer,  Michaelmas,
and  Christmas.  Some  rents  are  yet  payable  at  each
of  these  quarterly  days  in  England,  and  very  gene-
rally in  Scotland.  Lammas  probably  comes  from
the  Saxon  hlainni(essc,  loaf  mass,  because  formerly
upon  that  day  our  ancestors  offered  bread  made  of


LAMPETEE COLLEGE.


567


LAND.


newwheat.  Anciently,  those  tenants  that  held  lands
of  the  cathedral  church  of  York  were  by  tenure  to
bring1  a  lamb  alive  into  church  at  high  mass.

LAMPETEE  COLLEGE  (Cardiganshire),
was  founded  by  bishop  Burgess  in  1822,  and
incorporated  1828.  Henry  James  Prince,  founder
of  the  Agapemone  {which  see),  was  one  of  the
revivalist  Lampeter  brotherhood,  instituted  among
the  students  here  about  1836.

LAMPS.  The  earthen  lamp  of  Epicfetus  the
philosopher  sold  after  his  death  for  3000  drachmas.
Lamps  with  horn  sides  said  to  be  the  invention  of
Alfred.  London  streets  were  first  lighted  with  oil-
lamps  in  1681,  and  with  gas-lamps  iu  1814.  A
lamp  "constructed  to  produce  neither  smoke  nor
smell,  and  to  give  considerably  more  light  than  any
lamp  hitherto  known,"  was  patented  by  M.  Ainie
Argand  in  1 784,  and  was  brought  into  general  use
in  England  early  in  the  present  century.  On  his
principle  are  founded  the  lamps  invented  by  Carcel
about  1803,  and  since  1825,  the  moderator  lamps  of
Levavasseur,  Hadrot,  and  Neuburger.  See  Safety
Lamp.  Paraffin  oil  and  naphtha  spirit  are  now
much  used  in  lamps.  The  Water  Safety  Lamp  in-
vented by  Mr.  Devoll,  was  tried  and  approved
2  June,  1S90.  The  flame  is  extinguished  by  the
water  if  the  lamp  is  overturned.

LANAEK  (W.  Scotland),  was  aRoman  station,
and  made  a  royal  burgh  1103.

LANCASHIEE  was  created  a  county  palatine
by  Edward  III.  for  his  son  John  of  Gaunt,  who  had
married  the  daughter  of  Henry  first  duke  of  Lan-
caster, in  1359,  and  succeeded  him  in  1362.  The
court  of  the  duchy  chamber  of  Lancaster  was
instituted  in  1376.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.
in  1399  the  duchy  merged  into  the  crown.  Net
revenue  to  the  queen  in  1888,  50,000/.  ;  total
receipts,  86,284/.  For  chancellors,  fee  Grey,  and
other  administrations. See  Cotton.

LANCASTEE,  supposed  to  have  been  the
Ad  Alaunam  of  the  Romans.  Lancaster  was
granted  by  William  I.  or  IT.  to  Roger  de  Poitou,
who  erected  a  castle  upon  its  hill.  It  was  taken
by  the  Jacobites,  Nov.  1715  and  Nov.  1745.  It  was
disfranchised  for  bribery  by  the  Reform  act  of
1867.  The  public  park,  value  about  23,000/.,  was
presented  by  Mr.  Jas.  Williamson,  of  Ry lands,  21
Nov.  1 88 1."  The  Storey  Institute  (technical),
founded  by  sir  Thomas  Storey  by  a  gift  of  20,000/.
in  memory  of  the  queen's  jubilee  in  1887  when  he
was  mayor,  opened  by  the  marquis  of  Hartington,
23  Oct.  1891.  Population,  18S1,  24,239;  1891
31-038.

LANCASTEEIAN  SCHOOLS,,  based  on  a
system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual  instruction,
devised  by  Joseph  Lancaster  about  1796,  were  not
much  patronised  till  about  1808.  The  system  led
to  the  formation  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School
society,  in  1805,  whose  schools  are  unsectarian,  and
use  the  Bible  as  the  only  means  of  religious  instruc-
tion. Lancaster  was  accidentally  killed  at  New
York  in  1838.

LANCASTEIANS,  see  Roses.

LANCEES,  see  Regiments.

LANCET,  a  weekly  medical  journal,  established
and  edited  by  Thomas  Wakley,  surgeon  (after-
wards coroner  for  Middlesex  and  M.P.for  Finsbury),
first  published  3  Oct.  1823.  An  injunction  obtained
by  Mr.  Abernethy  %gainst  the  publication  of  his
lectures  in  the  "Lancet,"  was  dissolved  by  the  lord
chancellor  in 1825. Mr.  Wakley  died  16  May,


1862.  The  proprietors  of  the  "Lancet"  have  at
various  times  employed  medical  men  as  commis-
sioners of  enquiry.  The  reports  of  the  Analytical
Sanitary  Commission  of  the  "  Lancet"  in  1851-54,
were  published  by  Dr.  A.  H.  Hassall,  as  "  Food  and
its  Adulterations,"  in  1855.  The  "Lancet"  com-
missioners (three  physicians)  enquired  into  the
state  of  workhouse  infirmaries  in  London,  1865,  and
in  the  country,  1867.

LAND  is  said  to  have  been  let  generally  in
England  for  is.  per  acre,  36  Hen.  VIII.  1544.  The
whole  rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  0,000,000/.
in  1600  ;  about  14,000,000/.  in  1688.  In  1798  Mr.
Pitt  proposed  his  income  tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  an
estimate  of  100  millions,  taking  the  rent  of  land  at
50  millions,  that  of  houses  at  10  million*,  and  the
profits  of  trade  at  40  millions  ;  but  in  his  estimate
were  exempted  much  land,  and  the  inferior  class  of
houses.  The  rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  was
estimated  at  59,500,000/.  in  1851.  An  act  for  ren-
dering the  transfer  of  land  more  easy  was  pas-ed  in
1862  ;  see  Agriculture,  Domesday,  old  and  new.
A  species  of  Land-tax  was  exacted  in  England  in  the
10th  century,  which  produced  82,000?.  (see  Banc-
gelt)  in 1018

Land  Banks  were  proposed  by  Yarranton  in . . 1648
The  Land-tax  grew  out  of  a  subsidy  scheme  of  4s.  in
the  pound  (which  produced  500,000?.  in  1692),  im-
posed 1699

Ministers  were  left  in  a  minority  in  the  house  of
commons  on  the  land  tax  bill  in  1767;  it  being
the  first  instance  of  the  kind  on  a  money  but
since  the  revolution.  Its  rate  varied  in  different
years  from  is.  to  4.S.  in  the  pound
Mr.  Pitt  made  the  tax  perpetual  at  4s.  in  the  pound,
but  introduced  his  plan  for  its  redemption,

2  April,  1798
The tax in  1810  produced 1,418,337?.  ; in 1820,
1,338,420?. ;  in  1830,  1,423,618?. ;  in  1840, 1,298,622?. ;
in  1852,  1,151,613?.  ; in year  1872-3,  1,108,225?.
in 1875-6, 1,090,177?.; 1880, 1,047,000?.;  1885,
1,065,000?.  ; 1891,  1,030,000?. From  the  revolu-
tion to  the  year  1800,  the  land-tax  had  yielded
227,000,000?.
Land-tax  and  house-duty  (to  31  March), in  1873,
2,440,000?.  ; 1876,  2,496,000?.  ;  1877,  2,532,000/.  ;
1878,  2,670,000?.  ;  1879,  1,075,511?.  (land  tax  only).
Land  Allotments. Lord  Braybrooke's successful
experiment  in  Essex,  of  allotting  small  portions
of  land  to  poor  families,  to  assist  them  and  relieve

the  parish  poor-rates 18 19

[The  little  colony  was  first  called  Pauper  Gardens,
but  afterwards  Nexv  Village,  and  it  is  calculated
that  200?.  per  annum  were  saved  to  the  parish.]
Landed  Estates  Court,  established  to  "facilitate  the
sale  and  transfer  of  land  in  Ireland  "  (see  Encum-
bered Estates  Act) 1858

The  Land  Registry  office  for  transfer  of  land  opened
in  1862  ;  reported  to  be  a  failure  by  a  commission,

March,  1870
Land Tenure Reform League held its first

meeting,  John  Stuart  Mill  in  the  chair, 15  May,  1871
Bill  to  facilitate  sale  and  transfer  of  land  by  means
of  registration  brought  in  by  lord  chancellor  Sel-
borne,  29  April,  1873  ;  by  lord  chancellor  Cairns,

26  March,  1S74
The  transfer  of  land  in  Scotland  facilitated  by  the

conveyancing  act  passed  . . .7  Aug. ,,

Agricultural  holding  act  and  land  transfer  act  for

England  passed 13  Aug.  1875

4  bills  respecting  land  introduced  by  lord  chancellor

Cairns 23  Feb. 1880

Owners  of  Land  in  England  and  Wales  (exclusive  of
the  metropolis),  of  less  than  one  acre,  703,289;
one  acre  and  more,  269,547.  Estimated  value,
124,000,000?.  ;  tithes — estimated,  5,000,000?.

Settled  Land  Act  passed 1882

[Tenants  for  life  acquire  power  to  sell  or  lease  and

use  the  proceeds.]
A  new  land  commission  unites  in  one  body  the  En-
closure, Copyhold,  and  Tithes  commissions . . ,,
New  Agricultural  Holdings  Act  passed . . .  1883
Nationalization  of  the  land  advocated  by  the  Trade


LAND CREDIT COMPANY.


568


LANGUAGE.


Union  Congress,  1882  ;  negatived  by  the  same  at
Nottingham  (90-34) .... 14  Sept.  1883
The National Land Company founded by the
dukes  of  Argyll  and  Westminster,  the  earl  of
Ripon,  and  others,  for  the  object  of  buying  land
to  be  sold  in  small  portions  to  be  farmed,  24  April,  1885
Purchase  of  land  (Ireland)  act  passed, 14  Aug. ■
1885  ; said  to  have  worked well ; another  act
passed,  see  Ireland .... 24  Dec.  1888
Allotments  and  small  holdings  association  founded
to  carry  out  the  allotments  act  of  1882,  1883-4  >
second  annual  meeting . . . 11  Jan.  1886
The  political  cry  "Three  acres  and  a  cow"  much
used  during  the  elections  of  Nov.-Dec.  1885  (said
to  have  originated  in  a  handbill  printed  at  Bir-
mingham), and  to  have  been  acted  upon  by  lord
Tollemache  in  regard  to  his  labourers. He  died
9  Dec.  1890,  aged  85.  ,,

Free  land  league  formed,  supported  by  Mr.  Arthur
Arnold  and  others  ; it  proposes  nationalization
of  the  land  and  changes  in  tenure  and  transfer 1885-6
Irish  land  commission  ;  earl  Cowper,  lord  Miltown,
sir  J.  Caird  and  others,  announced  21  Sept.  1886  ;

report  presented 24  Feb.  1887

Land,  transfer  bill  (England)  read  second  time  in

the  lords,  25  April,  1887  [dropped].
New  Irish  land  bill  passed ... 23  Aug. ,,
Allotments  in  England  and  Wales,  643,315  existing  in  1886
Allotments act enabling sanitary  authorities  to
acquire  land,  make arrangements,  &c, passed

16  Sept.  1887
Welsh  land  league  formed  (see  under  Wales) .  „
Large  reduction  of  rents  ordered  by  the  land  com-
mission 27  Oct. ,,

Lord  Ashbourne's  purchase  of  land  act  passed  (see
Ireland)  14  Aug.  1885  ;  another  act  passed  24
Dec.  1888 ;  great  success  reported  Nov.  1889.
Land  had  been  sold  amounting  in  value  to
3,792,532^.  up  to  . . . -31  Dec.  1888

The  lord  chancellor's  land  transfer  bill  dropped

5  July  1889

New  allotment  act  passed 1890

New  purchase  of  land  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  A.  J.
Balfour  (see  Ireland),  24  March,  1890 ;  dropped,
14  July,  1890 ;  re-introduced  in  two  parts,  27  Nov.;
2nd  reading,  3  Dec.  1890  ;  passed  .  .  5  Aug.  1891
[This  act  provides  further  funds  for  the  purchase  of
land  in  Ireland,  and  makes  permanent  the  Land
Commission,  it  also  creates  a  Congested  Districts
Board.]

LAND  CREDIT  COMPANY  (for Silesia),
established  by  Frederick  the  Great ;  see  Credits
Fonder  s,  1763.

LAND  LAW  ACT,  see  Irish  Land  Law  Act.

LANDEN  or  NeERWINDEN  (Belgium).
Near  here  the  French  under  marshal  Luxembourg
defeated  the  allies,  commanded  by  William  III.  of
England,  chiefly  through  the  cowardice  of  the
Butch,  19  July  (N.S.  29),  1693.  The  duke  of  Ber-
wick, illegitimate  son  of  James  II.,  fighting  on  the
side  of  France,  was  taken  prisoner.

LANDGEAVE  (from  land  and  graf,  a
count),  a  German  title,  which  commenced  in  1130
with  Louis  III.  of  Thuringia,  and  became  the  title
of  the  house  of  Hesse  about  1263.

LAND  LEAGUE,  see  under  Leagues  and
Ireland,  1879.

LANDLORD,  see  Sent  and  Ireland,  1887,  et
seq.

LANDLORD  AND  TENANT  ACT  (Ire-
laud),  passed  I  Aug.  1870.

LAND  NATIONALIZATION  SO-
CIETY, formed  at  Westminster  16  Jan.  1882.  The
object  has  been  warmly  advocated  by  Mr.  Henry
George  in  his  "Progress  and  Poverty,"  published
Feb.  1881,  and  since.  He  condemns  compensation.
He  met  about  2,000  men  at  the  Royal  Exchange,
London,  17  Jan.  1885.


LANDSHUT  (Silesia),  where  the  Prussians
were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  under  marshal
Laudohn,  23  June,  1760.

LANDSLIPS. Landslips  are  due  to  decay  of

the rocks  or  excessive saturation  of  the  soil  by

rain.

Rossberg  mountain  behind  the  Rigi  slipped  down,
burying  villages  and  hamlets  with  above  800  in-
habitants 1806

Lyme  Regis,  Dorset,  a  strip  of  chalk  cliff  three-
fourths  of  a  mile  long,  between  100  and  150  feet
high,  undermined  by  rain,  slid  forward  on  the
beach,  carrying  fields,  houses,  and  trees

24 — 27  Dec.  1839

Naini  or  Nynee  Tal,  a  sanitary  hill-station  in  the
Himalayas,  India,  was  destroyed  by  the  descent
of  the  mountain  ;  about  30  valuable  British  lives
(including  major  Martin  Morphy,  col.  Fred.  Sher-
wood Taylor,  and  capts.  F.  T.  Goodeve,  H.  S.  F.
Haynes,  and  A.  Balderston)  and  200  natives
perished 18  Sept.  1880

Near  Northwich,  Cheshire,  salt  works  stopped

- 6  Dec.  et  seq. ,,

Elm,  Glarus  Canton;  fall  of  about 30 houses;  above
150  persons  perished  . . . .11  Sept.  1881
See  Quebec,  1889.

LANDWEHR  (German,  land-defence).'  A
force  so  named  was  raised  in  Austria  in  1805,  and  in
Prussia  in  1813,  against  the  French.  This  force,
the  militia  of  Germany,  especially  of  Prussia,
was  very  effective  in  the  war  with  Austria  in  1866,
and  in  that  with  France  in  1870.  No  ranks  in  life
are  exempt  from  this  service,  and  many  persons  in
foreign  countries  returned  to  serve  in  1870.

LANGD  ALES  ACT,  Lord,  7  Will.  IV.  &
I  Vict.  c.  26  (1837),  relates  to  copyholds,  &c.

LANGENSALZA  (N.  Germany).  Here  the
Hanoverian  army  on  its  way  to  join  the  Bavarians
was  attacked  by  the  Prussians,  who  were  defeated
with  the  loss  of  about  a  thousand  killed  and
wounded,  and  012  prisoners,  27  June,  1866.  The
victory  was  of  little  avail,  for  the  Hanoverians
were  soon  surrounded  by  Falckenstein,  and  com-
pelled to  capitulate  on  honourable  terms  on  29
June.

LANGOBARDI,  see  Lombards.

LANGSIDE  (S.  Scotland),  where  the  forces
of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the  earl  of  Murray,  de-
feated the  army  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  13  May,
1568.  Mary  fled  to  England  and  crossed  the  Solway
Frith,  landing  at  Workington,  in  Cumberland,  16
May.  Soon  afterwards  she  was  imprisoned  by
Elizabeth.

LANGUAGE  must  either  have  been  revealed
originally  from  heaven,  or  the  fruit  of  human
invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by
Horace,  Lucretius,  Cicero,  and  most  of  the  Greek
and  Roman  writers ;  the  former  by  the  Jews  and
Christians,  and  many  modern  philosophers.  Some
suppose  Hebrew  to  have  been  the  language  spoken
by  Adam ;  others  say  that  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,
and  Arabic  are  only  dialects  of  the  original  tongue.
"  And  the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language  and  of
one  speech,"  Genesis  xi.  1.*  George  I.  in  1724,  and
George  II.  in  1736,  appointed  regius  professors  of
modern  languages  and  of  history  to  each  of  the
universities  of  England.

*  Eminent  Linguists. — Anas  Montanus,  editor  of  the
Antwerp  Polygiott  Bible  (1527-98) ;  sir  Win.  Jones
(1746-94) ;  Cardinal  Giuseppe  Mezzofanti  (1774-1849)  is
said  to  have  known  114  languages  or  dialects,  and  50
well ;  and  Niebuhr  (1776-1831)  knew  20  languages  in
1807,  and  more  afterwards  ;  Hans  Cononvonder  Gabe-
lentz  knew  many  languages  critically  :  he  died  3  Sept.
1874,  aged  nearly  67.


LANGUE D'OC.


569


LATEEAN.


The  original  European  languages  were  thirteen,  viz.  :
Greek,  Latin,  German,  Selavonian,  spoken  in  the  east;
"Welsh  ;  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain  ;  Irish  ;  Albanian,
in  the  mountains  of  Epirus  ;  Tartarian ;  the  old
Illyriau  ;  the  Jazygian,  remaining  yet  in  Liburnia  ;  the
Chaucin,  in  the  north  of  Hungary  ;  and  the  Finnic,  in
east  Friesland.

From  the  Latin  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  and
Portuguese.

The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect  of  the  Tartarian.

From  the  Teutonic  sprang  the  present  German,  Danish,
Swedish,  Norwegian,  English,  Scotch,  &c.

There  are  3424  known  languages,  or  rather  dialects,  in
the  world.  Of  these,  937  are  Asiatic  ;  587  European  ;
276  African ;  and  1624  American  languages  and  dialects.
Adelung.

In  1861  and  1862  professor  Max  Miiller  lectured  on  the
"Science  of  Language"  at  the  Eoyal  Institution,
London. He  divides  languages  into  three  families  : —

I.  Aryan  (in  Sanskrit,  noble).

Southern  Division.  India  (Prakrit,  and  Pali  ;  Sanskrit ;
dialects  of  India  ;  Gipsy).

Iranic  (Parsi  ;  Armenian,  &c).

Northern  Division.  Celtic  (Cymric :  Cornish,  Welsh,
Manx,  Gaelic,  Breton,  &c. ).

Italic  (Oscan  ;  Latin  ;  Umbrian  ; — Italian,  Spanish,  Por-
tuguese, French,  &c).

Illyric  (Albanian).

Hellenic  (Greek,  and  its  dialects).

Wendic  (Lettic  :  Old  Prussian ;  Slavonic  dialects, —
Bohemian,  Russian,  Polish,  Lithuanian,  &c).

Teutonic  (High  German  :  Modern  German  ;  Low  German  :
Gothic ;  Anglo-Saxon  ;  Dutch ;  Frisian  ;  English.
Scandinavian:  Old  Norse,  Danish,  Swedish,  Nor-
wegian, Icelandic).

II.  Semitic  :  Southern.  Arabic  (including  Ethiopia
and  Amharic).  Middle.  Hebraic  (Hebrew,  Samaritan,
Phoenician  inscriptions).  Northern.  Aramaic  (Chaldee,
Syriac,  Cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Babylon  and
Nineveh).

• III.  Turanian  (from  Tura,  swiftness).

Northern  Division.  Tungusic  (Chinese,  &c.)  ;  Mongolic  ;
Turkic  ;  Samoyedic,  and  Finnic.

Southern  Division.  Taic  (Siamese,  &e.)  ;  (Himalayas);
Malayic  (Polynesia,  &c);  Gangetic  ;  Lonitic  (Bur-
mese, &c);  Munda  ;  Tamulic.

LANGUE  D'OC,  see  Troubadours.

LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France),

formed  part  of  the  Roman  Gallia  Narbonensis  ;  was
named  Gothia,  as  having  been  held  by  the  Visi-
goths 409,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Saracens,  in
turn  driven  out  by  Charles  Martel  in  the  8th  cen-
tury. In  the  dark  ages  the  country  was  named
Septimania  (probably  from  its  containing  seven
important  towns)  :  afterwards  Languedoc  (from  its
dialect,  see  Troubadours),  about  1270,  when  an-
nexed to  the  monarchy.  It  suffered  during  the
persecutions  of  the  Albigenses  and  Huguenots.

LANSDOWN,  near  Bath  (Somersetshire).
The  parliamentary  army  under  sir  Wiu.  Waller  was
here  defeated,  5  July,  1643.

LANTERNS  of  scraped  horn  were  invented  in
England,  it  is  said,  by  Alfred  ;  and  it  is  supposed
that  horn  was  used  for  window  lights  also,  as  glass
was  not  generally  known,  872-901.  Stow.  London
was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns  with  glass  sides,
I4I5-

LANTHANUM,  a  rare  metal  discovered  in
the  oxide  of  cerium,  by  Mosander  in  1839.

LAOCOON,  an  exquisite  work  of  Grecian  art,
in  marble,  modelled  by  Agesander,  Athenodorus,
and  Polydorus,  all  of  Rhodes,  and  other  eminent
statuaries  (about  A.D.  70)  ;  it  repi'esents  the  death
of  the  Trojan  hero,  Laocoon,  priest  of  Neptune,
and  his  two  sons,  as  described  by  Virgil.  sEncis,
ii.  200.  It  was  discovered  in  1506  in  the  Sette
Salle  near  Rome,  and  purchased  by  pope  Julius  II.
It  is  now  in  the  Vatican.


LAODICEA,  see  Seven  Churches.

LAON  (N.  France).  A  succession  of  actions
between  the  allies  (chiefly  the  Prussians)  and  the
French,  was  fought  under  the  walls  of  the  town,
which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter  with  great
loss,  9-10  March,  1814.  Laon  surrendered  to  the
Germans  9  Sept.  1870.  As  the  last  man  of  the
garde  mobile  left  the  citadel,  a  French  soldier,  in
contravention  of  the  capitulation,  blew  up  the
powder  magazine,  causing  great  destruction  to  the
town  and  fortress.  The  grand-duke  V\  illiam  of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin  was  bruised,  and  95  German
riflemen  and  300  French  gardes  mobiles  were  killed
or  wounded  ;  general  Theremin  Du  Hame,  the  com-
mander, was  wounded.  The  French  attributed  the
explosion  to  accident.

LA  PEEOUSE'S  VOYAGE.  In  1785  La
Perouse  sailed  from  France  for  the  Pacific,  with
the  Boussole  and  Astrolabe  under  his  command,
and  was  last  heard  of  from  Botany  Bay,  in  March,
1788.  Several  expeditions  were  subsequently  de-
spatched in  search  of  Perouse ;  but  no  certain  in-
formation was  obtained  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the
East  India  ship  Research,  ascertained  that  the
French  ships  had  been  cast  away  on  the  New
Hebrides,  authenticated  by  articles  which  he
brought  to  Calcutta,  9  April,  1828.

LAPLAND  or  SAMELAND  (N.  Europe),
nominally  subject  to  Norway  in  the  13th  century,
and  now  to  Sweden  and  Russia.  Several  Lap-
landers were  exhibited  at  the  Westminster  Aqua-
rium, Nov.  1877.

LA  PLATA,  the  capital  of  the  Argentine
province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which  see,  was  founded
in  1882.  Population  in  1888,  65,000.  See  Wrecks,
1874.

LAECENY,  French,  larcen ;  Latin,  latro-
cinium  ;  see  Theft.

LAEENTALIA,  see  Laicrentalia.

LAEGS  (Ayrshire,  S.  Scotland).  Here  the
great  expedition  of  Haco  of  Norway  was  finally
defeated  by  Alexander  III.  after  a  succession  of
skirmishes,  3  Oct.  1263.

LA  EOTHIEEE  (France).  Here  the  French,
commanded  by  Napoleon,  defeated  the  Prussian
and  Russian  armies,  with  great  loss,  after  a  despe-
rate engagement,  I  Feb.  1814.  This  was  one  of
Napoleon's  last  victories.

LAEYNGOSCOPE,  an  instrument  consist-
ing of  a  concave  mirror,  by  which  light  is  thrown
upon  a  small  plane  mirror  placed  in  the  pos-
terior part  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  By  its
means  the  vocal  chords"  of  the  interior  of  the
larynx,  &c.,  are  exhibited,  and  have  been  photo-
graphed. It  was  invented  by  Mr.  Manuel  Garcia,
and  reported  to  the  Roval  Society  24  May,  1855.
One  constructed  by  Dr.  Turck  was  greatly  modified,
in  1857,  by  Dr.  Czermak,  who  exhibited  its  suc-
cessful action  in  London  in  1862.  A  similar  appa-
ratus is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  Mr.  John
Avery,  a  surgeon  in  London,  in  1846.  The  Biitish
Laryngolo^ical  and  Rhinulogical  Association  was
founded  in  1888.

LA  SALETTE,  see  Pilgrimarjcs.

LATEEAN,  a  church  at  Rome,  dedicated  to
St.  John,  "the  mother  of  all  the  churches,"  was
originally  a  palace  of  the  Laterani,  a  Roman  family,
and  was  given  to  the  bishops  of  Rome  by  Constan-
tine,  and  inhabited  by  them  till  their  removal  to
the  Vatican  in  1377.  '  Eleven  councils  have  been
held  there.


LATHE.


570


LAUEEL.


LATHE.  The  invention  is  ascribed  to  Talus,
a  grandson  of  Daedalus,  about  1240  B.C.  Pliny
ascribes  it  to  Theodore  of  Samos,  about  600  B.C.
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  recent
times.

LATHOM- HOUSE  (Lancashire),  was
heroically  defended  for  three  months  against  the
parliamentarians,  by  Charlotte,  countess  of  Derby.
She  was  relieved  by  prince  llupert,  27  May,  1644.
The  house  was,  however,  surrendered  4  Dec.  1645,
and  dismantled.

LATIN  KINGDOM,  Empire,  &c,  see  la-
tium, Eastern  Empire  1204,  and  Jerusalem.

LATIN  LANGUAGE  (founded  on  the  Oscan,
Etruscan,  and  Greek),  one  of  the  original  languages
of  Europe,  and  from  which  sprang  the  Italian,
Erench,  and  Spanish ;  see  Latium.  A  large  por-
tion of  our  language  is  derived  from  the  Latin.
It  ceased  to  be  spoken  in  Italy  about  581  ;  and  was
first  taught  in  England  by  Adelmus,  brother  of
Ina,  in  the  7th  century.  The  use  of  Latin  in  law
deeds  in  England  gave  way  to  the  common  tongue
about  1000;  was  revived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. ;
and  again  was  replaced  by  English  in  the  reign  of
Henry  III.  It  was  finally  discontinued  in  religious
worship  in  1558,  and  in  conveyancing  and  in  courts
of  law  in  1731  (by  4  Geo.  If.  c.  25).  A  corrupt
Latin  is  still  spoken  in  Roumelia.  The  foreign  pro-
nunciation of  Latin  (a,  ah;  e,  a;  i,  e,  &c.)  was
adopted  in  English  universities  and  many  schools
about  1875-6. For  "Latin  name,"  see  Latium.

PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS.

Died  I
Plautus . . B.C.  184 Lnean .
Ennius  . . . 169  |  Seneca

Terence  . (flourished)  166  ,  Pliny  the  Elder


Cato  the  Elder

Lucilius

Lucretius  . . .

Julius  Caesar

Cicero . . . .

Catullus

Sallust . . . .

Vitravius (flourished)

Propertius . . .

Virgil ....

Tibullus  ....

Horace

Celsus  (flourished)  a.d.

Livy ....

Ovid ....

Paterculus .

Persius . . . .


Died

•  65

•  65
79
So


149  '■  Quintilian  (flourished)
103  !  Valerius  Flaccus  ,,  .  81
52  Pliny  the  Younger  ,,  .  100
44  Statius .  .  (about)  100
43  Tacitus  .  (flourished)  100
40  Silius  Italicus  .  .  101
34  Martial  .  (flourished)  104
27  Suetonius  .  (about)  120
26  Juvenal  .  .  .  .  128
19  Aulus  Genius
18  (flourished)  169

" Apuleius  . . .  174

Ammianus  Marcellinus  390
Claud  ian  .  .  .  .  408
Maerobius  .  .  .  415
Boetliius  .  .  .  .  524
62


(See  Fathers  of  the  Church.)
LATIN  UNION  (Monetary),  that  of  France,
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland,  to  maintain  the
use  of  the  same  coinage,  from  1865  et  seq.  ;  le-con-
stituted  in  1885 ;  arranged  to  be  continued  from
year  to  year,  autumn  1889;  renewed  till  <;i  Dec.
1893,  Oct.  1891.

LATITAT,  an  ancient  writ,  directing  the
sheriff  to  apprehend  persons  to  be  brought  be 'ore
the  king's  bench  court,  had  its  name  irom  its  being
supposed  that  the  person  was  lying  1  id,  and  could
not  be  found  in  the  county  to  be  taken  by  bill.
The  writ  was  abolished  by  the  Uniformity  of  Pro-
cess act,  23  May,  1832.

LATITUDE.  First  determined  by  Hippar-
chus  of  Nice,  about  162  B.C.  It  is  the"  extent  of
the  earth  or  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equa-
tor to  either  pole.  Mauperfuis,  in  1737,  in  latitude
66-20  measured  a  degree  of  latitude,  and  made  it
69-493  miles.  Swanberg,  in  1803,  made  it  69-292.
At  the  equator,  in  1744,  four  astronomers  made  it
68-732;  andLambton,  in  latitude  12,  made  it  68-743.


Mudge,  in  England,  made  it  69-148.  Cassini,  in
France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it  69-12  ;  and  Biot,
68-769  ;  while  a  recent  measurement  in  Spain  makes
it  but  68-63— less  than  at  the  equator,  and  contra-
dicts all  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  an  oblate
spheroid  (which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Ber-
nouilli,  Euler,  and  others),  instead  of  a  prolate
spheroid  ;  see  Longitude.

LATITUDINAEIANS,  a  name  given  to
certain  theologians  who  endeavoured  to  reconcile
the  church  and  nonconformists  in  the  17th  cen-
tury, such  as  Hales,  Chillingworth,  Tillotson,  and
Burnet.

LATIUM,  now  CAMPANIA  (Daly),  the  coun-
try of  the  Latini  and  their  mythical  king,  Latinus,
popular  date,  1240  B.C.  Laurentum  was  the  capi-
tal of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latinus,  Lavi-
nium  in  that  of  JEneas,  and  Alba  in  that  of  Asca-
nius ;  see  Italy,  and  Rome.

The  Latms  ally  with  Rome  .  .  .  (about)  b.  c.  520
Join  Porsenna  to  restore  Tarquin  II.  508

Defeated  by  Romans  near  Lake  Regillus  .  498  or  496
League  with  the Romans,  463 ; desert  them  in

trouble,  388  ; union  restored .... 359
Defeated  in  war ;  (before  the  great  victory, near
monut  Vesuvius,  the  consul,  P.  Decius  Mus,  de-
voted himself  to  death,  340),  339  ;  subdued  and

incorporated  with  Rome 338

Obtain  Roman  citizenship 90.

The  "Latin  n:ime"  in  the  3rd  century,  B.C.,  in-
cluded the  colonies  in '  Italy  founded  by  the
Romans  in  their  conquered  territories,  as  well  as
those  founded  by  the  Latins.

LA  TEAPPE,  see  Trappists.

LATTEE-DAT  SAINTS,  see  Mormonites.

LAUDANUM,  see  Opium.

LAUDEEDALE  EAELDOM,  Ac.  (dated
from  1590).  Major  Frederick  Henry  Mainland's
claim  to  it  established  before  the  House  of  Lords,
22  July,  1885. A  romantic  story.

LAUENBUEG,  a  duchy,  N.  Germany ;  was
conquered  from  the  "Wends  by  Henry  the  Lion  of
Saxony,  about  1152;  ceded  to  Hanover,  1689;  in-
corporated with  the  French  empire,  1810  ;  ceded  to
Denmark,  1815  ;  annexed  by  Prussia,  14  Aug.  1865  ;
possession  taken  15  Sept.  following; see  Gastein.

LAUFACH,  Bavaria  (S.  W,  Germany),  was
taken  by  the  Prussians  under  "Wrangel,  on  13  July,
1866,  after  a  sharp  action,  in  which  the  Hessians
were  defeated,  the  Prussian  needle  gun  being  very-
efficacious.

LAUNCESTON,  Cornwall.  The  granite
church  was  erected  in  151 1  ;  the  new  town-hall
in  1887.  Population,  1881,  3,808;  1891,  4,345.
LAUNCESTON,  Tasmania,  was  founded  1804  ;  in-
corporated 1858  ;  made  a  city  1889.  Population,
1881,  12,753.

LAUNDEY,  London  and  Provincial  Steam
Laundry,  Batte'Sca,  erected  by  a  company;  opened
in  1880; and  others  since.

LAUEEATE,  see  Poet  Laureate.

LAUEEL  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  god  of  poetry ;
and  from  the  earliest  times  the  posts,  and  generals
of  armies,  when  victors,  were  crowned  with  laurel.
Petrarch  was  crowned  with  laurel,  8  April,  1341. —
The  Prunus  laurocerasus  was  brought  to  Britain
from  the  Levant,  before  1629;  the  Portugal  laurel,
Prunus  lusitanica,  before  1648 ;  the  royal  bay,
Laurus  indica,  from  Madeira,  1665;  the  "Alexan-
drian laurel,  Ruxcus  raccmosus,  from  Spain,  before
1713;  the  glaucous  laurel,  Laurus  aggregata,  from
China,  1806  or  1 82 1.


LATTRENTALIA.


571


LAW.


LAITRENTALIA  were  festivals  celebrated  at
Rome  in  honour  of  Acca  Laurentia,  or  Larentia,
said  to  have  been  either  the  nurse  of  Romulus  and
Remus,  or  a  rich  dissolute  woman,  who  bequeathed
her  property  to  the  Roman  people.  The  festival
commenced  about  621  B.C.,  and  was  held  on  the
last  da}'  of  April  and  the  23rd  of  December.

LAUEIUM  MINES,  see  Greece,  1872.

LAURUSTTNUS,  Viburnum  Tinus,  an  ever-
green shrub,  was  brought  to  England  from  the
south  of  Europe,  before  1596.

LAUSANNE,  capital  of  the  canton  of  Vaud,
Switzerland,  originally  a  Roman  station.  The
cathedral  was  consecrated  in  1275,  and  the  univer-
sity founded  1535.  Here  Gibbon  completed  his
"Decline  and  Fail,"  27  June,  1787.  The  Inter-
national Workmen's  congress  assembled  here  Sept.
1867. Population,  188S,  33,340.

LA  VALETTA,  see  Malta.

LAVALETTE'S  ESCAPE.  Count  Lava-
lette,  for  joining  the  emperor  Napoleon  on  his
return  in  1815,  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped
from  prison  in  the  clothes  of  bis  wife,  20  Dec.  1815.
Sir  Robert  Wilson,  Mr.  Michael  Bruce,  and  captain
J.  H.  Hutchinson,  aiding  the  escape,  were  sen-
tenced to  three  months'  imprisonment  in  the
French  capital,  24  April,  1816.  Lavalette  was  per-
mitted to  return  to  France  in  1820,  and  died  in
retirement  in  1830.

LA  YENDEE  (W.  France).  The  French
royalists  of  La  Vendee  took  arms  in  March,  1793,
and  were  successful  in  a  number  of  hard-fought
battles  with  the  republicans,  between  12  July,
1793,  and  1  Jan.  1794,  when  they  experienced  a
severe  reverse.  Their  leader,  Henri  comte  de  La-
rochejaquelin,  was  killed,  4  March,  1794.  A  short
peace  was  made  at  La  Jaunay,  17  Feb.  1795.  The
war  was  terminated  by  gen.  Hoche  in  179b,  and  a
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Luc_on,  17  Jan.  1800  ;
see  Chouans-

LAVENDER,  Lavandula  spica,  brought  from
the  south  of  Europe,  before  1568.

LAW,  see  Canons,  Codes,  Common  Laiv,  Civil
Law,  Crime,  Digest,  Supreme  Court.  1  he  Jewish
law  was  given  by  God,  and  promulgated  by  Moses,
1491  B.C.

The  laws  attributed  to  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom
of  Argos  were  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for
the  Athenians,  623  B.C.  ;  whose  code  was  super-
seded by  that  of  Solon,  594  B.C.
The  Spartan  laws  of  Lyeurgus  were  made  about
844  B.C.  ;  they  remained  in  full  force  for  about
700  years,  and  formed  a  race  totally  different  from
all  others  living  in  civilised  society.
The  Roman  laws  of  Servius  Tullius  566  B.C.  were
amended  by  the  Twelve  Tables  published  in  449
B.C.,  and  remained  in  force  till  Justinian,  nearly
a  thousand  years.

BRITISH LAWS.

The  British  laws  of  earliest  date  were  translated

into  the  Saxon  in a.d. 590

Saxon  laws  of  Ina  published  about . . . . 690
Alfred's  code  of  laws,  the  foundation  of  the  common

law  of  England,  is  said  to  have  been  arranged

about  886
Edward  the  Confessor  collected  the  laws  .  1050-1065
Stephen's  charter  of  general  liberties  .  .  .  1136
Henry  II. 's  confirmation  of  it  .  .  1154  and  1175
The  maritime  laws  of  Richard  I.  (see  Olerori)  .  .  1195
Magna  Charta,  by  king  John,  1215  ;  confirmed  by

Henry  III.  1216  et  seq.  (see  Magna  Charta,  and

Forests  Charter).
Lord Mansfield;  lord chief  justice  of  the  king's

bench, declared,  "That  no  fiction  of  law  shall


ever  so  far  prevail  against  the  real  truth  of  the
fact,  as  to prevent the  execution  of  justice,"

21  May,  1784.
Many  legal  technicalities  were  got  rid  of  by  14  &  15
Vict.  c.  100. The  act  for  the  improvement  of  the
administration  of  criminal  justice,  passed  7  Aug.  1851

LAWYERS.

Pleaders  of  the  bar,  or  barristers,  are  said  to  have
been  first  appointed  by  Edward  1 129:?

"  No  man  of  the  law  "  to  sit  in  parliament,  by  stat.
of  46  Edward  III.  and  6  Hen.  IV.  ...  1372:

This  prohibition  was  declared  to  be  invalid  by  Coke
and  unconstitutional  by  Blackstone;  attention  was
drawn  to  it  in  July,  1871 ;  and  the  statutes  were
repealed 187E

Serjeants,  the  highest  members  of  the  bar,  were  alone
permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of  common  pleas.
The  first  king's  counsel  under  the  degree  of  Ser-
jeant was  sir  Francis  Bacon,  in ... . 1604.

Law  Association  charity  for  widows  founded  in .  1817

Incorporated  Law  Society  of  solicitors  formed  in
1823  ;  plan  enlarged,  1825  :  a  charter  obtained,
1831  ;  renewed,  1845  ;  new  charter,  1872.  The
building  in  Chancery-lane,  from  the  designs  of
Vulliamy,  was  commenced  in 1829.

Juridical  Society  established  in ...  1855,

Law  Times,  established .... 8  April,  1843.

Law  Journal Jan.  1866.

The  establishment  of  a  legal  university  strongly
advocated  by  the  lord  chancellor  and  others,  Jan. 1871

The  council  of  legal  education  put  forth  a  scheme
involving  many  changes,  Nov.  1872 ;  another
scheme,  Dec.  1891.

Legal  Practitioners'  Society,  established .  Nov.  1873.
See  Barrister,  Counsel.

LAW REFORM.

Law  Amendment  Society,  founded  in  1843.  It  holds-
meetings  during  the  session  of  parliament,  and  pub-
lishes a  journal  and  reports.  Its  first  chairman  was
lord  Brougham,  who  introduced  the  subject  of  Law
Reform  by  a  most  eloquent  speech  in  the  house  of
commons,  on  7  Feb.  1828.  Many  acts  for  Law  Reform
have  been  passed  since,  and  vigorous  measures  pro-
posed.

Royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the  operation  and  con-
stitution of  the  English  courts  of  law,  &c,  issued  18
Sept.  1867.

The  Judicature  Commission  (appointed  1867)  recom-
mended the  consolidation  of  all  the  superior  courts,
into  one  supreme  court  divided  into  chambers,  April,.
1869. It  issued  its  fifth  and  last  report,  Sept.  1874.

The  High  Court  of  Justice  Bill  introduced  into  the  house
of  lords,  18  March,  1870,  was  dropped  near  the  end  of
the  session.

Royal  Commission  on  the  administrative  departments  of
Courts  of  Justice  (Lord  Lisgar  and  others)  appointed,.

4  Oct.,  1873.

Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Bill  introduced  by  lord,
chancellor  Selborne  for  establishing  a  High  Court  of '
Justice,  and  a  High  Court  of  Appeal  13  Feb.,  passedi

5  Aug.  1873.

Its  operation  deferred  from  2  Nov...  1874  to  1  Nov., 187s

The  abolition  of  the  house  of  lords  as  an  Appeal
Court  rescinded 1875,

Commission  on  Legal  Procedure ;  report,  recom-
mending simplifying  changes,  published 8  Oct. 1881

New  rules  issued July,  1883,

International  commission  on  judicial  reform  recom-
mends the  establishment  of  an  international
tribunal  for  dealing  with  foreigners,  except  in

capital  cases May,  1884).

See  Supreme  Court  for  details.

Law-Courts.— Commissioners  appointed  in  1859  reported.
in  favour  of  the  concentration  of  the  law-courts  in.
London,  on  a  site  near  Carey-street,  Chancery-lane,
about  7  acres,  on  which  stood  about  400  houses.
The  estimated  expense  was  about  1,500,000^.,  which  it.
was  recommended  to  take  from  the  accumulated
Chancery  fund,  termed  "  Suitors'  fund."  Acts  of  par-
liament to  carry  out  the  plan  were  passed  in  1S65  and
1866.

Competitive  designs  were  invited,  and  after  much  dis-
cussion (public  and  professional),  Mr.  Street's  design,
was  selected,  30  May,  1868;  much  attacked,  but  ap-
proved by  the  commission,  Aug.  1S70;  contracts  signed
17  Feb.  1874,  and  the  works  were  begun  immediately
by  Bull  and  Son,  to  be  finished  in  1881.


LAW'S  BUBBLE.


572


LEAD,  BLACK.


There  were  to  be  18  courts,  varying  in  size;  a  central  hall,
231  feet  long,  48  feet  wide,  30  feet  high  ;  principal
entrance  in  the  Strand. .

Offices  in  Eastern  Block  occupied  21  April,  1879.

Buildings  completed,  Oct.  1882.

Opened  by  the  queen,  4  Dec.  1882.

All  the  buildings  constitute  by  statute  the  Palace  of
Justice.

The  Courts  occupied  Hilary  sittings,  11  Jan.  1883.

Law  Reports  :  A  new  and  more  economical  plan  of
preparing  and  publishing  law  reports  was  finally
adopted  by  a  committee  of  barristers  on  11  March,  1865
(see  Year-books).

Law  Terms,  see  Terms,  abolished  by  Supreme  Court  of
Judicature  Act,  5  Aug.  1873.

International  Law,  see  Neutral  Powers  and  International
Law.

Expenditure  for  law  and  justice  from  the  public  purse  ex-
clusive of  county  rates,  in  the  year  1865-6,  2,344,540?.

Courts  of  J" 'Mice :  salaries,  &e.,  one  year  (to  31  March,
1877),  631,791?.

LAW  S  BUBBLE .  John  Law,  of  Edinburgh
(born  1681),  was  made  comptroller-general  of  the
finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme
lor  establishing  a  bank,  and  an  East  India  and  a
Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of  which  the
national  debt  of  France  was  to  be  paid  off.  See
Mississippi.  He  first  offered  his  plan  to  Victor
Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia,  who  told  him  he  was
not  powerful  enough  to  ruin  himself.  The  French
ministry  accepted  it;  and  in  1716,  he  opened  a
bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the  protection  of  the
duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  France,  and  the  de-
luded rich  subscribed  for  shares  both  in  the  bank
and  the  companies.  In  1718  Law's  was  declared
a  royal  bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of
twenty-fold  the  original  value  ;  so  that,  in  1719,
they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times  the  amount
of  all  the  current  specie  in  France.  In  1720  this
fabric  of  false  credit  fell  to  the  ground,  spreading
ruin  throughout  the  country.  Law  died  in  poverty
at  Venice  in  1729. — Tne  South  Sea  Bubble  in  Eng-
land occurred  in  1720;  see  South  Sea.

LAWN  TENNIS,  see  Tennis.

LAYAMON'S  BBUT,  or  Chronicle  of  Britain,
a  poetical  semi-Saxon  paraphrase  of  the  Brut  of
Wace,  made  between  1 100  and  1230,  was  published
with  a  literal  translation  by  sir  Frederick  Madden,
in  1847.

LAYBACH  (near  Trieste,  in  Illyria).  A  con-
gress met  here  in  Jan.  1821,  and  was  attended  by
the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and
Naples.  It  broke  up  in  May,  after  having  issued
two  circulars,  stating  it  to  be  their  resolution  to
occupy  Naples  with  Austrian  troops,  and  put  down
popular  insurrections.

LAYEE'S  CONSPIRACY.  Christopher
Layer,  a  barrister,  conspired  with  other  persons  to
seize  George  I.,  the  prince  of  Wales,  loi-d  Cadogan,
and  the  principal  officers  of  state,  to  seize  the  tower,
to  plunder  the  bank,  and  bring  in  the  Pretender.
Layer  was  hanged,  17  May,  1723.  He  was  hanged
for  enlisting  soldiers  for  the  Pretender.  Bishop
Atterbury  was  accused  of  complicity  and  attainted,
but  permitted  to  quit  the  country.

LAY BROTHERHOOD of  St.  Paul,

for  the  diocese  of  London,  was  formed  by  the
bishop  of  Marlborough,  with,  the  sanction  of  the
hishop  of  London  in  1891.

LAY  HELPERS,  to  hold  a  position  between
the  clergy  and  laity,  proposed  by  the  archbishop  of
Canterbury,  and  others,  Oct.  1881.  The  association
of  Lay  Helpers  for  London  began  in  1865.

LAYMEN,  HOUSE  OF,  composed  of  102
members elected in the dioceses, as a purely


consultative  body  to  assist  the  Convocation  of  the
clergy,  its  main  object  being  the  promotion  of
church  reform.  It  first  met  with  Convocation  at
"Westminster,  16  Feb.  1886.  Lord  Selborne,  chair-
man ;  Mr.  G.  A.  Spottiswoode,  vice-chairman.
They  met  in  the  Church  house,  12  Feb.  1890.

LAZARISTS  (the  Priests  of  the  Mission),  a
congregation  devoted  to  education,  founded  by  St.
Vincent  de  Paul,  1625,  were  so  named  from  their
first  establishment  in  a  house  which  once  belonged
to  the  military  order  of  St.  Lazarus.  They  are  also
called  Vincentines.

LAZARO,  ST.  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  king  of
Sardinia  and  the  Imperialists  defeated  the  French
and  Spaniards  after  a  long  and  severe  conflict,  4
June,  1746.

LAZISTAN,  a  Turkish  province  in  the  pacha-
lik  of  Trebizond,  on  the  Black  sea.  Batoum,  its
seaport,  was  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,
13  July,  1878.  The  inhabitants  at  first  resisted  the
change,  but  submitted  on  persuasion,  many  emi-
grating.

LAZZARITES,  see  Italy,  1878.

LAZZARON1  (from  lazzdro,  Spanish  for  a
pauper  or  leper),  a  term  applied  by  the  Spanish
viceroys  to  the  degraded  beings  in  Naples,  half-
clothed  and  houseless.  No  man  was  born  a  lazza.ro ;
and  he  who  turned  to  a  trade  ceased  to  be  one.  The
viceroy  permitted  the  lazzaroni  to  elect  a  chief  with
whom  he  conferred  respecting  the  imposts  on  the
goods  brought  to  the  markets.  In  1647,  Masaniello
held  the  office,  and  made  an  insurrection;  see
Naples.  In  1793,  Ferdinand  IV.  enrolled  several
thousands  of  lazzaroni  as  pikemen  (spontoceers),
who  generally  favoured  the  court  party ;  on  15
May,  1848,  they  were  permitted,  on  the  king's
behalf,  to  commit  fearful  ravages  on  the  ill-fated
city. —  Colletta.

LEAD  is  found  in  various  countries,  and  is
abundant  in  various  parts  of  Britain,  and  in  some
places  richly  mixed  with  silver  ore.  The  famous
Clydesdale  mines  were  discovered  in  1513.  Pattin-
son's  valuable  method  for  extracting  the  silver  was
made  known  in  1829.  The  lead-mines  of  Cumber-
land and  Derbyshire  yield  about  15,000  tons  per
annum.  British  mines  produced  65,529  tons  of
lead  in  1855  ;  69,266  in  1857,  67,181  in  1865;  73,420
in  1870;  58,777  in  1875;  58,667  in  1876;  51,6351
1879  ;  50,328  in  1882  ;  40,075  in  1884  ;  37,896  in
1887;  in  1888,  37,578; 1889,35,604;  1890,  33,590.

Leaden  pipes  for  the  conveyance  of  water  were
brought  into  use  in 1236

In  1859,  23*690  tons  of  pig  and  sheet  lead  were
imported,  and  18,414  tons  exported ;  in  1866,  36,946
tons  imported  ;  27,383  tons  exported  ;  in  1875,
79,825  tons  imported,  35,398  tons  exported  ;  in
1883,  101,715  tons  imported,  39,315  tons  exported;
in  1887,  114,493  tons  imported,  44,301  tons  ex-
ported ;  in  1888,  132,880  tons  imported,  48,616
tons  exported  ;  in  1889,  145,203  tons  imported,
52,040  tons  exported  ;  in  1890,  158,649  tons  im-
ported, 55,557  tons  exported.

By  an  explosion  caused  through  ignited  gas  at  the
Mill  Close  lead  mine,  Derbyshire,  five  men  were
killed,  3  Nov.  1887.  Explosions  in  lead  mines
are  very  rare.

The  deadly  manufacture  of  white  lead  greatly
ameliorated  by  the  sublimation  process  invented
in  America  and  adopted  by  John  Hall  &  Sons  of
Bristol  in 1886

Professor  Mac  Ivor's  new  process  was  reported
cheap,  quick  and  safe  ;  works,  Claphain,
London,  S.W July,  1.890

LEAD,  BLACK,  see  Graphite.


LEADENHALL  MAEKET.


573


LECTIONAEY.


LEADENHALL  MAEKET,  London,
founded  by  sir  Richard  Whittington,  in  1408,  and
presented  to  the  city.  A  granary  was  added  by  Simon
Eyre,  1419.  The  demolition  of  the  old  market
began  in  Sept.  1880;  first  stone  of  new  one  laid  28
June ;  opened  by  the  lord  mayor,  15  Dec.  1881 ;
cost  47,5001?.

LEADVILLE.  A  high  mining  district  in
Colorado ;  highly  successful  results  of  excavations
for  the  precious  metals,  1878  et  seq.

LEAGUES.  Four  kings  combined  to  make
war  against  five,  about  1913  B.C.  {Gen.  xiv.)  The
kings  of  Canaan  combined  against  the  invasion
of  the  Israelites,  145 1  B.C.  The  more  emi-
nent Greek  leagues  were  the  iEtolian,  powerful
about  320  B.C.,  which  lasted  till  189  B.C.,  and  the
Achasan,  revived  280  B.C.,  which  was  broken  up  by
the  conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans,  146  B.C.
The  fall  of  these  leagues  was  hastened  by  dissension.

Hanseatic  league 1140

Lombard  leagues  against  the  emperors  (see  Lom-

bardy) 1167  and  1226

Caddee  league  (which  see)  about  1396  et  seq.
League  of  the  Public  Good  was  formed  in  Dec.  1464,
by  the  dukes  of  Calabria,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon,
and  other  princes  against  Louis  XL  of  France,
under  pretext  of  reforming  abuses  ;  an  indecisive
battle  was  fought  at  Montnleri,  16  July ;  and  a

treaty  was  signed 25  Oct.  1465

League  of  Cambray  against  Venice .... 1508
Holy League (the popie, Venice, &c), against

Louis  XII 1510

League  of  Smalcald 1530

League  of  the  Beggars  (Gueux)  ;  the  protestants  so
called  (though  Roman  Catholics  joined  the  league)
to  oppose  the  institution  of  the  Inquisition  in

Flanders 1566

The  Holy  League,  to  prevent  the  accession  of
Henry  IV.  of  France,  who  was  then  of  the  re-
formed religion,  was  formed  at  Peronne  and  lasted
till  Henry  embraced  Romanism . . . 1576-93
League  of  Wurtzburg,  by  Catholics  ;  of  Halle,  by

Protestants 1610

League  against  the  emperor 1626

Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in  Scotland,  against
the episcopal government  of  the  Church  (see

Covenant) 1638

League  of  Augsburg  against  France  . . . . 1686
League  of  St.  Sebastian  instituted  to  promote  the
restoration  of  his temporal dominions  to  the
pope, about  1870 ;  held  9th  annual  meeting  in

London 20  Jan.  1879

League  in  aid  of  Christians  in  Turkey  formed ;  earl

of  Shaftesbury,  chairman,  .  .  -27  July,  1876
National  Irish  Land  League  ostensibly  formed  to
buy  up  farms  for  the  tenants  ;  supported  by  Mr.
Parnell  and  others,  1879 ;  its  enforcement  of
stringent  rules  against  landlords  and  loyal  tenants
created  a  reign  of  terror ;  led  to  legislation. See

Ireland 1 880-1

Charged  with  complicity  and  outrages  ;  dissolved

by  government 20  Oct.  1881

New  Irish  National  league  formed (see Ireland,
1882  et  seq.)  (Organ  United  Ireland,  1886).  17  Oct.  1882
See  Home  Rule,  1890,  and  National  Federation.
Free  land  league,  see  Land.

Seventh  annual  convention  of  the  Irish  national
league  of  Great  Britain  met  at  Cardiff,  29  Oct.
1887,  at  Birmingham,  29  Sept.  1888  ;  Manchester,
Sept.  1889  ;  Edinburgh,  27  Sept.  1890  ;  London,

12  Dec.  1891
Several  other  leagues  formed  to  obtain  home  rule

1879  ^  se1-
"  National  Land  League  of  Great  Britain  "  formed  ;
Mr.  Justin  McCarthy,  president,  26  March  ;  met
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  29  Aug.  1881,  and  at  other
places  since.
National  league  for  the  unification  and  consolidation
of  the  empire,  met  at  Westminster  ;  strongly  op-
posed to  unfair  free  trade . .  8  Sept.  et  seq. „

LEAP-YEAE  or  Bissextile, originated

with  the  astronomers  of  Julius  Cajsar,  45  B.C.  They
fixed the  solar  year  at  365  days,  6  hours,  compris-


ing, as  they  thought,  the  period  from  one  vernal
equinox  to  another ;  the  six  hours  were  set  aside,,
and  at  the  end  of  four  years,  forming  a  day,  the
fourth  year  was  made  to  consist  of  366  days.  The
day  thus  added  was  called  intercalary,  and  was-
placed  a  day  before  the  24th  of  February,  the  sixth
of  the  calends,  which  was  reckoned  tivice,  hence
called  bissextile  or  twice  sixth.  This  added  day
with  us  is  Feb.  29th  ;  see  Calendar.  This  arrange-
ment makes  the  year  nearly  three  minutes  longer
than  the  astronomical  year:  to  obviate  this,  1700
and  1800  were  not,  and  1900  will  not  be  leap-years,
but  2000  will  be  one;  see  Calendar  and  Year.

LEABNING  and  the Arts flourished

among  the  Greeks,  under  Pisistratus,  537  B.C.,
and  especially  under  Pericles,  444  b.c  ;  and  with
the  Romans  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian
era,  under  Augustus.  The  Greek  refugees  caused
their  revival  in  Italy, particularly  after  the  taking  of
Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453,  and  the  inven-
tion of  printing  shortly  before,— the  period  of  the  Re-
naissance. Leo  X.  and  his  family  (the Medici)  greatly
promoted  learning  in  Italy,  in  the  16th  century  ;
when  literature  revived  in  France,  Germany,  and
England ;  see  Literature,  and  authors  under  Greek,
Latin,  English,  and  other  languages.

LEASE  (from  the  French  Earner,  to  let),  a  kind
of  conveyance  invented  by  Serjeant  Moore,  soon
after  the  statute  of  uses,  27  Henry  VIII.  1535.
Acts  relating  to  leases  were  passed  in  1856  and
1858. Forged  Leases  ease,  see  Trials,  Jan.  1878.

LEATHEE  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt
and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of  manufactured  hides
were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c,  by  all  ancient
nations.  The  Gordian  knot  was  made  of  leather
thongs,  330  B.C.  A  leather  cannon  was  proved  at
Edinburgh,  fired  three  times,  and  found  to  answer,
23  Oct.  1778.  Phillips.  The  duty  on  leather  im-
posed 1697,  produced  annually  in  England^
450,000^.  and  in  Ireland  about  "50,000^.  It  was
abolished,  29  May,  1830.  Many  bankruptcies  were
declared  in  the  leather  trade,  in  the  autumn  of  i860
in  England.  In  the  case  of  Lawrence,  Mortimore,
and  Co.,  enormous  fraudulent  dealings  in  bills  were
disclosed.  A  plan  for  making  artificial  leather  out
of  cuttings,  &c,  was  made  known  in  i860. —
Leather  cloth  (invented  by  Messrs.  J.  R.  &  C.  P.
Crockett,  of  Newark,  U.S.,  and  patented  in  1849)  is
unbleached  cotton  coated  with  a  mixture  of  boiled
linseed  oil  and  turpentine,  and  coloured.  The  Lea-
ther-cloth company,  London,  successors  to  Messrs.
Crockett,  was  established,  1859.  An  exhibition  of
leather  manufactures  at  Northampton  in  1873  i  at
the  Agricultural  Hall,  London,  1^-23  Sept.  1880;
26  Sept.  1881  ;  and  15  Sept.  1882.

LEBANON  {white  mountain),  the  mountain
range  between  Syria  and  North  Palestine,  assigned
to  Israel,  but  never  conquered,  and  long  attached
to  Syria.  Special  ordinance  for  preservation  of  the
ancient  cedar  forest,  Sept.  1881.  The  governor-
general  since  1861  has  been  appointed  by  Turkey,
subject  to  the  assent  of  the  great  powers.  Governors,
1873,  Rustem  Pasha ;  1883,  Wassa  Pasha,  died  29
June,  1892  ;  successor  Nauum  Effendi  ;  see  Asms-
sins,  Druses,  Ifarouites,  and  Syria.

LECH,  a  river,  S.  Germany,  near  which  at  re
village  named  Rain  the  cruel  "imperialist  general
Tilly  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes,  under  Gustavus
Adolphus,  5  April,  1632,  and  died  of  his  wounds.

LECTION AEY,  the  name  given  to  the  Ang-
lican table  of  scripture  lessons ;  see  Common
Prayer.


LECTURES.


574


LEGION OP HONOUR.


LECTURES.  Those  on  Physic  were  instituted
by  Dr.  Thomas  Linacre,  of  the  College  of  Physicians
.(foumded  by  Henry  VIII.)  about  1502.  Clinical
lectures,  at  the  bed-side  of  the  patients  in  hospitals
;are  said  to  have  been  given  (by  Dr.  John  Ruther-
ford) in  Edinburgh,  about  1748;  in  Dublin,  about
2785;  in  London,  by  sir  B.  C.  Brodie  (1813-17).
.Mr.  G.  Macilwain,  about  1824,  gave  surgical  clin-
ical lectures  in  connection  with  a  dispensary.
'The  political  lectures  of  Thelwall,  commenced  in
■Jan.  1795,  were  interdicted  by  an  act  of  parliament.
In  the  autumn  of  1857  and  since,  many  distinguished
noblemen  and  gentlemen  lectured  at  mechanics'
institutes.  An  act  passed  in  1835  prohibited  the
publication  of  lectures  without  the  consent  of  the
lecturers.  See  Gresham  College,  Boyle' s  Lectures,
Royal  and  London  Institutions,  Trials,  1887,  &c.

LEEDS  (Yorkshire),  the  Saxon  Loidis,  once  a
Roman  station,  received  a  charter  in  1627.  See
^Population.

Leeds  bridge  built 1327

Shenfleld's  grammar  school  founded  .  .  .  .  1552
Coloured  Cloth  hall  built  1758  ;  White  Cloth  hall  .  1775
Literary  and  Philosophical  society  established  .  1820
Enfranchised  by  the  Reform  act  (2  members)  .  .  1832
Magnificent  new  town-hall  opened  by  the  queen,

the  mayor,  Peter  Fairbairn,  knighted  7  Sept.  1858
Musical  festivals  begun  . . . 7-10  Sept. ,,

.British  Association  met  here . . . Sept. „
•Great  Reform  meeting  ;  Mr.  Bright  there 8  Oct.  1866
An  additional  M.  P.  given  to  Leeds  by  Reform  act,

15  Aug. 1867
Exhibition  of  art  treasures,  opened  by  the  prince

of  Wales,  19  May,  closed  .  .31  Oct. 1868

Soundhay-park  inaugurated  as  a  public  park  by
prince  Arthur,  and  new  exchange  founded,

19,  20  Sept.  1872
•Church  congress  met .... 8-11  Oct. ,,
New  bridge  opened  .... 9  July,  1873

Musical  festival 14-17  Oct.  1874

Yorkshire  college  of  science  opened  26  Oct.  1874  ;
new buildings  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales

15  July,  1885
"Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures
opened  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  . . 13  May,  1875

Theatre  Royal  burnt 28  May, „

New  exchange  opened . . . .31  Aug. ,,
Yorkshire  college  for  science  formally  opened  by

the  duke  of  Devonshire .... 6  Oct. ,,
-•Great  amphitheatre  burnt ;  loss,  about  30,000?.

2  March,  1876

Musical  festival 19-22  Sept.  1877

New  municipal  offices  and  public  free  library  opened

17  April,  1884
Leeds  returns  five  M.P's  by  act  passed  25  June,  1885
Fine  art  gallery  and  museum  cost  io,oooZ.  opened

3  Oct.  1888
•Col.  J.  T.  North  presents Kirkstall  Abbey  and

grounds  to  the  corporation . . . Jan.  1889
Sir  Edward  Baines,  chief  proprietor  of  the  Leeds
Mercury,  M.P.  for  Leeds  1859-74  ;  knighted  1880,
liberal  nonconformist ;  died,  aged  89 2  March,  1890
Strike  of  gas-stokers  ;  the  town  in  darkness  ;  above
15,000  rioters  attacking  the  gasworks,  repulsed
after  fighting ; many  persons  severely  injured,
police  re-inforced  from  neighbouring  towns,  and
by  the  military,  30  June ;  strike  ends  by  con-
cession to  strikers .... 3  July, ,,
Meeting  of  British  association . . .2  Sept. „
At  a  church  bazaar,  Oldfield,  Wortley,  11  out  of  15
children  dressed in  cotton  wool,  with  Chinese
lanterns,  perished  through  fire . 31  Dec.  et  seq. „
The  dispute  between  the  corporation  and  the  gas-
stokers  amicably  settled ... 26  Feb. ,,
Great  fire  in  the  stores  under  the  railway  arches  ;
estimated  loss,  about  200,000?. . . 13  Jan.  1892

LEEK,  the  Welsh  emblem,  worn  on  St.  David's
day,  I  March.  The  custom  is  traditionally  as-
signed to  a  command  from  Dewi  or  David,  after-
wards archbishop  of  St.  David's,  in  519.  The
Britons  are  said  to  have  worn  a  leek  in  their  caps
when  Cadwallader  defeated  the  Saxons,  540.


LEESBURG  HEIGHTS,  see  Ball's  Bluff.

LEEWARD  ISLES,  West  Indies :  Antigua,
Barbuda,  Montserrat,  St.  Christopher's,  Nevis,
Anguilla,  Virgin  Isles,  and  Dominica  {which  see).
An  act  for  their  federation  passed  21  Aug.  1871.
Governor-general  of  the  British  Isles,  col.  Stephen
John  Hill,  1863;  sirB.  C.  C.  Pine,  1869;  sir  H.
Turner  Irving,  1873  ;  Iron.  Ceo.  Berkeley,  1874;  sir
J.  H.  Glover,  Dec.  1881  ;  sir  Chas.  Cameron  Lees,
1883  ;  Viscount  Gormanston,  Aug.  1885  ;  sir  Charles
Bullen  Hugh  Mitchell,  Dec.  1887.  ;  Mr.  W.  F.  H.
Smith,  Nov.  1888.  Total  population  of  the  isles  in
1891,  125,379-

LEGACIES.  In  1780  receipts  for  legacies
were  subjected  to  a  stamp  duty,  and  in  1796  the
legacy  duty  was  imposed.  The  impost  was  increased
several  times  subsequently,  particularly  in  1805,
1808,  and  1845.  In  1853  the  legacy  duty  was
extended  to  landed  or  real  property.  Further
changes  were  made  in  188 1 ;  see  Succession  Duty
Act,  and  Wills.  John  Camden  Neild,  an  eccentric
miser,  died  30  Aug.  1852,  bequeathing  about  250,000/.
to  the  queen.  Received  for  legacy  and  succession
duties  in  year  1870-1,  2,963,372/.  ;  1875-6,
3,548,956/.;  1876-7,3,675,802/.;  1880-1,2,827,377/.;
i83i-2,  2,814,145/.;  18S7-8,  2,814,560/.  Legacy
duty  1888-9,  2,830,378/. ;  1889-90,  2,723,886/. ;
1890-1,  2,626,016/. See  Succession.

LEGAL  PRACTITIONERS'  SOCIETY,

for  reforming  abuses,  &c,  established  Nov.  1873.

LEGATES  (legaius).  Roman  ambassadors;
and  also  governors  of  the  provinces  into  which
Augustus  divided  the  empire,  27  B.C.  Legates  are
also  ambassadors  from  the  pope.  The  legate's
court  in  England,  erected  in  1 5 16  by  cardinal
Wolsey,  to  prove  wills,  and  for  the  trial  of  offences
against  the  spiritual  laws,  was  soon  discontinued.

LEGATIONS  were  the  twenty  administrative
divisions  in  the  states  of  the  church,  governed  by
legates.  The3r  rebelled  in  1859-60,  and  are  now
included  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  see  Rome.

LEGHORN,  Livorno,  Tuscany,  a  mere  village
in  the  15th  century,  owes  its  prosperity  to  the
Medici  family.  It  suffered  dreadfully  by  an
earthquake  in  1 741 ;  and  was  entered  by  the  French
army,  27  July,  1796,  but  the  British  property  had
been  removed.  It  was  held  by  the  French  1796-9
and  retaken,  1800.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked
by  the  British  and  Italian  forces  in  Dec.  1813.
The  Austrians  took  this  city  from  the  insurgents,
12,  13  May,  1849,  and  quelled  a  slight  insurrection,
July  6,  1857.  In  June,  1857,  above  60  persons
were  killed  at  the  theatre,  through  an  alarm  of  fire  ;
see  Tuscany. Population,  1890,  104,960.

LEGION,  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman
armies,  said  to  have  been  formed  by  Romulus,  when
it  consisted  of  3000  foot  and  300  horse,  about  720  B.C.
When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy,  216  B.C.,  the  legion
consisted  of  5200  soldiers ;  and  under  Marius,  in
88  B.C.,  it  was  6200  soldiers  besides  700  horse.
There  were  ten,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen,
legions  kept  at  Rome.  Augustus  had  a  standing
army  of  45  legions,  together  with  25,000  horse  and
37,000  lignt-armed  troops,  about  5  B.C.;  and  the
peace  establishment  of  Adrian  was  thirty  of  these
formidable  brigades.  A  legion  was  divided  into  ten
cohorts,  and  every  cohort  into  six  centuries,  with  a
vexillum,  or  standard,  guarded  by  ten  men.  The
peace  of  Britain  was  protected  by  three  legions.
See  Thundering  Legion.

LEGION  OF  HONOUR,  a  French  order
embracing  the  army,  civil  officers,  and  other  indi-


LEGITIMISTS.


LEMUKES.


viduals  distinguished  for  services  to  the  state ;
instituted  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  when  first  consul,
19  May,  1S02,  to  replace  the  old  suppressed  orders  of
knighthood,  &e.  The  order  was  confirmed  by  Louis
XVIII.  in  18 15,  and  its  constitution  modified  in
1816  and  1851.  The  honour  was  conferred  on  many
British  subjects  who  distinguished  themselves  in
the  Russian  war,  1854-6,  and  in  the  Paris  exhibitions
of  1855,  1867,  1878  and  1889.  The  palace  and  offices
were  burnt  by  the  communalists,  23  May,  1871.  The
Legion  comprised  upwards  of  54,000  members  in
1887.  The  alleged  traffic  in  decorations  caused
much  excitement  in  the  autumn  of  1887.  See
France.

LEGITIMISTS,  a  term  (since  1814)  applied
to  those  who  support  the  claims  of  the  elder  branch
of  the  Bourbon  family  to  the  throne  of  France,
whose  representative,  Henry,  due  de  Bordeaux,  called
comte  de  Chambord,  born  29  Sept.  i820,died  24  Aug.
1883.  They  held  a  congress  at  Lucerne  on  24-29
June,  1S62,  and  agreed  to  continue  a  pacific  policy.
The  party  was  active  in  Feb.  1871-5.  Their  efforts  to
recover  power  have  proved  ineffectual ;  see  France.

LEGNAGO,  a  fortress  on  the  Adige,  N.  Italy,
one  of  the  Quadrilateral.  It  was  captured  by  the
French  in  1796;  but  reverted  to  the  Austrians  in
1815.  It  was  surrendered  to  the  Italians  in  Oct.
1866.

LEGNANO,  Lombardy".  Here  the  emperor
Frederick  Barbarossa  was  defeated  by  the  Milanese
and  their  allies,  29  May,  1 1 76,  and  the  treaty  of  Con-
stance ensued  in  1 183.

LEICESTER  (central  England),  a  bishopric
for  a  short  time  in  the  8th  century,  returned  two
members  to  parUameut  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.
Here  Richard  III.  was  buried,  25  Aug.  1485 ;  and
here  cardinal  TTolsey  died,  29  Nov.  1530.  During
the  civil  war,  Leicester  was  taken  by  Charles  I.  31
May,  and  by  Fairfax,  17  June,  1645.  The  stocking
manufacture  was  introduced  in  1680.  New  town-
hall  opened,  8  Aug.  1876.  New  Abbey  park  opened
by  the  prince  of  Wales,  29  May,  1882.  Population,
1881,  122,376;  1891,  142,051.
Riot  occasioned  by  a  strike,  quelled  by  the  police,

1 1-12  Feb. ;  end  of  strike  .  .  .  19  Feb.  1S86
William  Gray  Lowe,  merchant,  found  dead by  a

revolver  shot  in  a  Midland  railway  carriage  here,

21  Aug. ,,
Great  opposition  to  vaccination  1883  etseq.  ;  sanitary

precautions  strictly  enforced,  see  Vaccination  T887
Messrs. Bradshaw  &  Payne's  shoe  factory  burnt,

loss  above  15,000? 29  Oct.  1889

LEICESTER  SQUARE,  London.  See
Globe.  The  square,  after  remaining  some  time  in  a
disreputable  state,  was  renovated  by  Mr.  Albert
Grant,  who  bought  up  the  enclosure,  and  presented
it  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  2  July,
1874.

LEIGHLIN  (W.  Carlow),  a  see  founded  by
St.  Laserian,  about  628.  Burchard,  the  Norwegian,
the  son  of  Garmond,  founded  or  endowed  the  priory
of  St.  Stephen  of  Leighlin.  Bishop  Doran,  appointed
in  1523,  was  murdered  by  his  archdeacon,  Maurice
Cavenagh,  who  was  hanged  on  the  spot  where  the
crime  was  committed.  Beatson.  In  1600  Leighlin
was  united  to  Ferns ;  the  combined  see  united  to
Ossory  in  1835  ;  see  Ferns  and  Bishops.

LEININGEN  (or  Linange),  a  principality
partly  in  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Hesse,  mediatised  in
1806.  The  present  prince  Ernest,  born  9  Nov.  1830,
a  captain  in  the  British  navy,  is  the  son  of  prince
Charles,  the  half-brother  of  queen  Victoria.  Feodore,
dowager  princess  of  Hohenlohe  Langcnburg, the


queen's  half-sister,  died  23  Sept.  187^,  aged  nearly
65.  Her  son,  count  Gleichen,  afterwards  prince
Victor  of  Hohenlohe,  born  1833,  died  31  Dec.  1891.
He  entered  the  British  navy  in  Sept.  1848,  and  was
long  in  active  service,  especially  in  the  Crimean
war.  He  was  also  an  eminent  sculptor.  The  first
husband  of  the  duchess  of  Kent,  prince  Enrich  of
Leiningen,  died  4  July,  1814.

LEINSTER,  a  kingdom  in  1167,  now  one  of
the  four  provinces  of  Ireland.  The  abduction  of
Devorgilla,  wife  of  O'Ruarc,  a  lord  of  Connaught,
by  Dermot  king  of  Leinster  in  1152,  is  asserted  to
have  led  to  the  landing  of  the  English  and  the
subsequent  conquest.  The  province  of  Leinster  gave
the  title  of  duke  to  Schomberg's  son  in  1690.  The
title  became  extinct  in  1719,  and  was  conferred  on
the  family  of  Fitzgerald  in  1766.

LEIPSIC  (Saxony),  an  ancient  city,  famous
for  its  university  (founded  1409)  and  its  fair  (1458).
At  Breitenfeld,  near  here,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king
of  Sweden,  defeated  the  Imperialists,  under  Tilly,
7  Sept.  1631  ;  and  the  Imperialists  were  again
defeated  here  by  the  Swedes,  under  Torstensen,  23
Oct.  1642.  Here  took  place,  on  16,  18, 19  Oct.  1813,
'■'■the  battle  of  the  nations,"  between  the  French
army  and  its  allies,  commanded  by  Napoleon
(160,000),  and  the  Austrian,  Russian,  and  Prussian
armies  (240,000  strong).  The  French  were  beaten
chiefly  owing  to  17  Saxon  battalions,  their  allies,
turning  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement.
80,000  men  perished  on  the  field,  of  whom  more
than  40,000  were  French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  of
artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  was
followed  by  the  capture  of  Leipsic,  of  the  rear
guard  of  the  French  army,  and  of  the  king  of  Saxony
and  his  family.  The  50th  anniversary  was  cele-
brated 18  Oct.  1863.  The  Leipsic  book  fair  began
1545.  The  new  Supreme  Court  for  all  Germany,
opened  here  1  Sept.  1879.  Population  in  1885,
170,340;  in  1890,  353,272.

LEITH,  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  was  burnt  by
the  earl  of  Hertford  in  1544.  It  was  fortified  by  the
French  partisans  of  queen  Mary  in  1560,  and
surrendered  to  the  English.  The  "Agreement  of
Leith"  between  the  superintendents  and  ministers
was  made,  Jan.  1572.  The  docks  were  begun
1720.  Leith  was  made  a  burgh  in  1833.  Popu-
lation, 1891,  69,696.

LEITHA,  a  river  dividing  the  Austrian  terri-
tories ;  see  ^Austria.

LEITH  HILL,  near  Dorking,  Surrey,  said  to
have  been  a  Roman  station,  and  has  a  view  of
eleven  counties,  being  about  1000  feet  above  the
sea  level.  The  lofty  tower  on  its  summit  was
erected  in  1766  by  Mr.  Richard  Hull  the  then  owner
of  Leith  Hill  Place,  he  died  18  Jan.  1772  and  was
buried  within  the  tower.

LELEGES,  a  Pelasgic  tribe  which  inhabited
Laconia  about  1490  B.C.,  and  after  many  contests
merged  into  the  Hellenes  ,  see  Hellas.

LE  MANS,  a  French  city,  department  of  the
Sarthe.  Here  the  retreating  French  general  Chanzy
was  overtaken  and  defeated  by  the  Germans  under
prince  Frederick  Charles  and  the  grand-duke  of
Mecklenburg,  after  some  conflicts  :  10,  II  Jan.  1871.
Le  Mans  was  entered  12  Jan.  In  six  days'  fighting
about  22,000  French  made  prisoners.

LEMURES-  The  ancients  supposed  that  the
soul,  after  death,  wandered  over  the  world,  and
disturbed  the  peace  of  the  living.  The  happy
spirits were called Lares  familiares, and the


LENNIE  MUTINY.


576


LEVELS.


unhappy,  Lemures.  The  Roman  festival,  Lemu-
ralia,  kept  on  9,  11,  13  May,  is  mythically  said  to
have  been  instituted  by  Romulus  about  747  B.C.,
to  propitiate  the  spirit  of  the  slaughtered  Remus.

LENNIE  MUTINY. See  Mutinies,  1875.

LENT  (from  the  Saxon,  lencten,  spring).  The
forty  days'  fast  observed  in  the  Greek,  Roman  catho-
lic, English,  andotherchurchesfromAsh-Wednesday
to  Easter-day.  The  commencement  of  Lent  varied,
hut  in  the  8th  or  9th  century  Ash  Wednesday
became  the  first  day.  Lent  was  first  observed  in
England  by  command  of  Ercombert,  king  of  Kent,
in  640  or  641.  Baker's  Chron.  Flesh  was  prohibited
during  Lent;  but  Henry  VIII.  permitted  the  use  of
white  meats  by  a  proclamation  in  1543,  which  con-
tinued in  force  until,  by  proclamation  of  James  I.,
in  1619  and  1625,  and  by  Charles  I.,  in  1627  and
163 1,  flesh  was  again  wholly  forbidden;  see  Ash-
JJ  edncsday,  Quadragesima.

LEON,  KINGDOM  OF,  see  under  Spain.

LEONAEDS'  ACTS,  Lord  St.,  22  &  23
Vict.  c.  35  ;  23  &  24  Vict.  c.  38  (1859-60),  relate  to
legal  proceedings.

LEONINE  CITY  (Cittd  Leonina  or  Sorgo),
formerly  a  suburb,  now  included  in  the  city  of
Rome,  was  founded  by  Leo  IV.,  pope  847-55,  and
named  Leopolis.  It  comprehends  the  castle  of  St.
Angelo,  the  hospital  of  San  Spirito,  the  Vatican
palace  and  gardens,  and  St.  Peter's.  Its  possession
-was  allotted  to  pope  Pius  IX.  when  the  Italian  royal
troops  entered  Rome,  20  Sept.  1870.  About  1500
inhabitants  of  the  Leonine  city  voted  for  union  with
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  2  Oct.  1870.

LEONINES,  hexameter  and  pentameter  verses,
rhyming  at  the  middle  and  the  end,  are  said  to  have
been  first  made  by  Leoninus,  a  canon,  about  the
middle  of  the  12th  century,  or  by  pope  Leo  II.
about  682.

LEOPOLD'S,  PEINCE,  ANNUITY
ACT  (passed  7  Aug.  1874),  provided  for  him
15,000/.  a  year,  from  7  April,  1874,  when  he  came
of  age.

LEPANTO  (near  Corinth),  Battle  of,  7  Oct-
1571:  when  the  combined  fleets  of  Spain,  Venice,
Genoa,  Malta,  and  Pius  V.,  commanded  by  don
John  of  Austria,  defeated  the  whole  maritime  force
of  the  Turks,and  completely  checked  their  progress.
LEPROSY,  a  skin  disease  described  in  Leviticus
xiii.  (b.c.  1490),  which  prevailed  in  ancient  times
throughout  Asia.  It  has  now  almost  disappeared
from  Europe.  It  chiefly  affected  the  lower  classes,
yet  occasionally  proved  fatal  to  the  very  highest
personages.  Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland  died  of  leprosy
in  1329.  A  hospital  for  lepers  was  founded  at
Granada,  by  queen  Isabella  of  Castile,  about  1504,
and  a  large  number  of  leper  houses  were  founded  in
Britain.  Dr.  Edmondson  met  with  u  case  in  Edin-
burgh in  1809.

The  great  increase  of  leprosy  in  the  Sandwich  Islands
compelled  the  government  tn  isolate  the  lepers,  and
large  numbers  were  transported  to  Molokai,  where
they  endured  much  suffering.  Since  1873  Father
Joseph  Damien  (de  Venster),  R.  C.  Belgian  mission-
ary, devoted  his  whole  life  most  successfully  to  their
general  relief,  and  finally  died  of  their  disease,  aged  49,
10  April,  1889.  Other  missionaries,  male  and  female,
are  continuing  his  labours.
The  Father  Damien  Memorial  Fund ',  under  the  auspices
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  was  founded  about  18  June,
1889  ;  and  on  29  June  it  was  determined  to  set  up  a
memorial  statue  of  Father  Damien  at  Kalawao,  and  to
establish  a  fund  for  the  medical  treatment  of  the
disease  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  for  the  promotion
of  the  study  of  it  at  home  and  abroad  especially  n
India


Sir  Henry  B.  Loch  founds  a  hospital  at  Robben

island,  Cape  Colony ... .8  April,  1890
National  Leprosy  Fund  ;  subscription  dinner  at  the
Hotel  Metropole,  the  prince  of  Wales  in  the  chair,

13  Jan. ,,
The  Albert  Victor leprosy  hospital  at  Calcutta

founded Jan. ,,

The  lion,  sir  Dinshaw  Manockjee  Petit  presents
100,000  rupees  to  found  a  leper  hospital  at  Bombay,
announced . . . .  . 7  Feb. ,,

The  British  leprosy  commission  arrived  at  Calcutta,

Nov.  ,,
LEEIDA,  the  ancient  Ilerda,  E.  Spain,  founded
by  the  Carthaginians.  Near  it  Julius  Ctesar  de-
feated Pompey's  lieutenants,  49  B.C.  It  was  made
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Aragon,  1 149.  It  was
captured  for  Philip  V.  by  the  French  under  theduke
of  Orleans,  I30ct.  I707,and  bySuchet,i3  May,i8iO.

LESSONS,  see  Common  Prayer.

LETTEES,  see  Alphabet,  Anonymous,  Belles
Lettres,  Copying  Machine,  Epistles,  Literature,
Marque,  and  Privateers.

LETTEES  DE  CACHET,  sealed  letters
issued  by  the  kings  of  France  since  about  1670,  by
virtue  of  which  those  persons  against  whom  they
were  directed  were  thrown  into  prison  or  exiled.
The  National  Assembly  decreed  their  abolition,  1
Nov.  1789.

LETTUCE,  introduced  into  England  from
Flanders  about  1520.  It  is  said  that  when  queen
Catherine  wished  for  a  salad,  she  bad  to  send  to
Holland  or  Flanders  for  lettuce.

LEUCTEA,  in  Bceotia,  N.  Greece,  where  the
Thebans  under  Epaminondas  defeated  the  superior
force  of  Cleombrotus,  king  of  Sparta,  8  July,  371  B.C.
4000  Spartans,  with  their  king,  were  slain.  rIhe
Spartans  gradually  lost  their  preponderance  in
Greece.

LEUDES,  from  the  German,  Leute,  people.
Native  feudal  vassals,  faithful  to  the  German  and
French  sovereigns  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries.

LEUTHEN  (S.  Prussia)  ;  see  Lissa.

LEVANT  (the  East),  a  term  applied  to  Greece,
Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  &c.  Levant  companies,  in
London,  were  established  in  1581,  1593,  and  1605.

LEVELLEES,  a  fanatical  party  in  Germany,
headed  by  Muncer  and  Storck  in  the  16th  century,
who  taught  that  all  distinctions  of  rank  were  usurpa-
tions on  the  rights  of  mankind.  At  the  head  of
40,000  men,  Muncer  commanded  the  sovereign
princes  of  Germany  and  the  magistrates  of  cities  to
resign  their  authority ;  and  on  his  march  his  followers
ravaged  the  country.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse  at
length  defeated  him  at  Frankenhausen,  15  May,
1525  ;  7000  of  the  enthusiasts  fell  in  the  battle,  and
the  rest  fled ;  their  leader  was  taken  and  beheaded
at  Mulhausen.  The  English  "  Levellers,"  powerful
in  parliament  in  1647,  were  put  down  by  Cromwell
in  1649,  and  then  leader  Lilburn  imprisoned.  At
the  period  of  the  French  revolution  some  Levellers
appeared  in  England.  A  "  Loyal  Association"  was
formed  against  them  by  John  Reeves,  Nov.  1792.

LEVELS.  The  great  Level  of  the  Fens  is  a
low-lying  district  of  about  2000  square  miles,  in
Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire,  Cambridgeshire,  and
Norfolk,  said  to  have  been  overflown  by  the  sea
during  an  earthquake,  368.  It  was  long  after  ware's
an  inland  sea  in  winter,  and  a  noxious  swamp  in
summer,  and  wasgraduallydrained — by  the  Romans,
the  Saxons,  and  especially  by  the  monks  during  the
reigns  of  the  Plantagenet  kings.  One  of  the  first
works  on  a  large  scale  was  carried  out  by  Morton,
bishop  of  Ely,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. A  general


LEVEBIAN MUSEUM.


577


LIBEEALS.


drainage  act  was  passed  by  the  advice  of  lord  Burgh-
ley,  in  1601,  but  little  work  was  done  till  the  reign
of  James  I.,  who,  in  1621,  invited  over  the  great
Dutch  engineer,  Cornelius  Vermuyden,  to  assist  in
the  general  drainage  of  the  country.  After  complet-
ing several  great  works,  Vermuyden  agreed  (in  1629)
to  drain  the  "  Great  Level."  He  was  at  first
prevented  from  proceeding  with  his  undertaking
through  a  popular  cutcry  against  foreigners ;  but
eventually,  aided  by  Francis,  earl  of  Bedford,  in
spite  of  the  great  opposition  of  the  people,  for  whose
benefit  he  was  labouring,  he  declared  his  great  work
complete  in  1652.  lie  also  reclaimed  much  valuable
land  at  Axholme,  in  Lincolnshire,  1626-30,  and
many  Dutch  and  French  protestants  settled  here
about  1634;  and  a  few  of  their  descendants  still
remain. — 'there  are  the  Middle,  Bedford,  South,
and  North  Levels.

The  drainage  of  the  Great  Level employed the
talents  of  Rennie  (about  1807),  and  of  Telford
(1822),  and  of  other  eminent  engineers.
The  Middle  Level  commission  cut  through  certain

barrier  banks,  and  replaced  them  by  other  works 1844
These  were  reported  unsound  in  March,  and  the
outfall  sluice  at  St.  Germains,  near  King's  Lynn,

gave  way 4  May,  1862

High  tides  ensuing,  about  6000  acres  of  fertile  land
were  inundated,  causing  a  loss  of  about  25,000?.
After  unwearied,  and,  for  a  while,  unsuccessful
efforts,  a  new  coffer  dam  was  constructed  under
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Hawkshaw,  which  was

reported  sound July, „

Another  inundation,  begun  through  the  bursting
of  a  marshland  sluice,  near  Lynn,  was  checked

4  Oct. „
New  outfall  sluice  opened ... 26  Nov.  1877

LEVEEIAN  MUSEUM,  formed  by  sir  Ash-
ton  Lever,  exhibited  to  the  public  at  Leicester-
house,  London  ;  it  was  offered  to  the  public,  in
1785,  by  the  chance  of  a  guinea  lottery,  and  won  by
Mr.  Parkinson,  in  1785,  who  sold  it  by  auction,  in
lots,  May-July,  1806.

LEVIATHAN",  see  Steam  Navigation.

LEWES  (Sussex),  where  Henry  III.,  king  of
England,  was  defeated  by  Montfort,earl  c'  Leicester,
and  the  barons,  14  May,  1264.  Blaa,M.  The
king,  his  brother  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans,  and
his  son  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  were  taken
prisoners.  One  division  of  Montfort's  army,  a  body
of  Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of
prince  Edward,  who,  pursuing  the  fugitives  too  far,
caused  the  battle  to  be  lost;  see  Evesham.  Popu-
lation, 1881,  11,199;  1891,  10,997.

LEXICON,  see  Dictionaries.

LEXINGTON"  (Massachusetts),  Battle  of,  at
the  beginning  of  the  war  of  independence.  The
British  obtained  the  advantage,  and  destroyed  the
stores  of  the  revolted  colonists,  but  lost  in  the  battle
273  men,  killed  and  wounded,  19  April,  1775.  The
Hostilities  thus  commenced  continued  to  1783. —
Lexington,  a  town  in  Missouri,  U.S.,  fortified  by
the  Federals,  was  attacked  by  the  confederate  general
Price,  on  29  Aug.,  and  after  a  gallant  resistance  by
colonel  Mulligan,  surrendered  on  21  Sept.  1861.

LEYDEN  (Holland),  Lugdunum  Batavorum,
important  in  the  13th  century.  Between  31  Oct.
1573,  and30ct.  1574,  when  it  was  relieved,  itendured
two  sieges  by  the  armies  of  Spain,  during  which  6000
of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence.  In
commemoration  the  university  was  founded,  1575.
In  l6q9  two-thirds  of  the  population  perished  by  a
ievcr,  which,  it  was  said,  was  aggravated  by  its
improper  treatment  by  professor  De  la  Boo.  The
university  was  almost  destroyed  by  a  vessel  laden
with  10,000  lbs.  weight  of  gunpowder  blowing  up,


and  demolishing  a  large  part  of  the  town,  and  killing
numbers  of  people,  12  Jan.  1807.  The  Leyden  jar
was  invented  about  1745,  by  Kleist,  -Muschenbroek,
and  others ;  see  Electricity.  Population,  1890,
43-510.

The  third  centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the  univer-
sity celebrated  joyfully .... 8  Feb.  1875

LIBEL.  By  the  Roman  laws  of  the  Twelve
Tables,  libels  which  affected  the  reputation  of  another
were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  British  law,
whatever  renders  a  man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man
in  the  opinion  and  esteem  of  the  world,  is  deemed  a
libel.  "  The  greater  the  truth  the  greater  the  libel,"
the  well  known  law  maxim  of  a  high  authority,  is
now  disputed;  see  Trials,  1788,  1790,  1792,  1803,
1808  et  seq.,  1863,  1882  ;  and  (note)  Patents  and
Times.

Dispersing  slanderous  libels  made  felony  .  .  1545
Win.  Prynne,  a  puritan  lawyer,  fined  5000Z.,  placed
in  the  pillory,  where  his  ears  were  cut  off,  and
imprisoned,  for  writing  "  Histriomastix,"  a  con-
demnation of  stage  plays  :  which  was  considered
to  be  a  libel  on  the  queen,  who  favoured  them,
1633  ;  he  was  tried  and  further  punished  for  his

satirical  writings  in 1637

Fox's  libel  bill,  which  enlarged  the  discretionary
power  of  juries  in  cases  of  libel,  thrown  out  by  the

lords  in  1791  ;  passed  in 1792

Blasphemous  and  seditious  libels, on  the  second

offence,  made  punishable  with  transportation  .  1819.
An  action  for  libel  was  brought  in  the  court  of
King's  Bench  by  a  bookseller  named  Stockdale,
against  Messrs.  Hansard,  the  printers  to  the  house
of  commons  ;  this  action  related  to  an  opinion
expressed  in  a  parliamentary  report  of  a  book
published  by  Stockdale,  7  Nov.  1836.  Lord  Den-
man,  in  giving  judgment,  said  he  was  not  aware
that  the  authority  of  the  house  of  commons  could
justify  the  publication  of  a  libel—  an  opinion
which  led  to  some  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the
house,  and  to  other  actions  by  Stockdale  .  1837-39
Verdicts  were  given  in  his  favour,  and  in  Nov.  1839,
the  sheriffs  took  possession  of  Hansard's  premises.
This  caused  much  excitement  in  parliament,  and
they  were  ordered  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the
house  of  commons,  and  were  formally  committed
to  the  custody  of  the  serjeant-at-arms,  21  Jan.,
but  immediately  discharged  :  the  conflict  was
maintained  by  the  law  officers  and  the  commons

till May,  1840

A law  was passed giving  summary  protection  to
persons  employed  by  parliament  in  the  publication
of  its  reports  and  papers . . .14  April, „
The  severity  of  the  law  in  respect  to  newspapers

relaxed  by  lord  Campbell's  act,  6  <fc  7  Vict.  c.  96  .  1843-
A  bill  relieving  newspapers  from  actions  for  libel  in
reporting  speeches  at  lawful  public  meetings,  read
third time in  the commons, Aug. 1867, but
dropped  ;  read  2nd  time  1  April;  and  withdrawn,

1  July,  1868
Wason  v.  Walter  ("  Times") ;  parliamentary  reports

and  fair  comments,  declared  no  libel . 25  Nov. ,,
Newspaper  Libel  Act  passed . .  27  Aug. 1S81

New  Libel  Law  passed .... 24  Dec.  1888

LIBEEALS,  a  name  given  to  the  more  ad-
vanced Whigs  and  reformers  since  1828.  The  party
held  office  under  Earl  Grey,  Viscount  Melbourne,
Earl  Russell,  Viscount  Palinerston,  and  Mr.  W.  E.
Gladstone.  See  Administrations.
The  Liberal,  a  paper  begun  by  Byron,  Shelley  and

Leigh  Hunt,  4  numbers  only  published  .  .  1822
New  city  liberal  club  ;  earl  Granville,  president  ;

organised May,  1874

New  liberal  club  for  west  end,  founded .  June, „
A  new  liberal  cry  proposed  "Free  church,  schools,

and  land "  (Mr.  Chamberlain)  .  .  autumn.  ,.
Mr.  Gladstone  resigned  the  leadership  of  the  party
in  the  commons,  13  Jan.  ;  his  successor,  the
marquis  of  Hartington  .  .  .  13  Jan.  1875
Associations  composed  of  elected  delegates  to  or-
ganise liberal  voters,  have  been  formed  in  Bir-
mingham, Southward,  Bradford,  and  other  bo-
roughs 1876  (t  M  7

V P


LIBEEATION  OF  EELIGION.


578


LIBEAEIES.


Mr.  W.  E.  Forster  refused  to  submit  to  the  dicta-
tion of  the  committee  of  the  Bradford  associa-
tion in  respect  to  his  voting  .  .  .  Aug.  1878
See  Caucus.
National  Liberal  Federation :  constituted  at  Bir-
mingham, 31  May,  1877  ;  first  annual  meeting  (at
Leeds),  22  Jan.  1879.  At  the  meeting  at  Notting-
ham, 18  Oct.  1887,  Mr.  Gladstone  severely  con-
demned the  government  Irish  policy  and  action  ;
also  at  Birmingham  . 5  Nov.  1888

Again  at  Manchester .... 3  Dec.  1889

At  Liverpood 18  March,  1890

At  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (which  see) . . 1  Oct 1891
Great  liberal  conference  at  Leeds . . 17  Oct. 1883
National  liberal  club,  Westminster,  founded  Nov.
1882  ;  inaugural  banquet,  2  May,  1883  ;  founda-
tion of  house  at  Whitehall  laid  by  Mr.  Gladstone,

4  Nov.  1S84
The  liberal  majority in  1885, 82  (exclusive  of  86

Parnellites)
Many  secessions  (lord  Hartington,  lord  Selborne,
earl  Derby,  Mr.  John  Bright,  Mr.  GSschen,  Mr.
Chamberlain,  sir  John  Lubbock,  sir  H.  James,
and  others)  against  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  policv
(termed  unionist  or  dissentient  liberals,  the  old
liberal  party  have  since  been  named  Gladstonians)
Jan.-May  ;  at  a  conference  they  resolve  to  sup-
port the  Salisbury  government  .  .  7  Dec.  1886
Inaugural  meeting  of  the  London  Liberal  and  Radical

Union 11  Jan.  1887

"Round  Table"  conference  at  sir  Wm.  Harcourt's,
for re-union of unionists and Gladstonians ;
reported  unsuccessful . . 13  Jan.  e.t  seq. ,,
The Liberal Unionist, a new review  published

30  March, „
Lord  Hartington  and  a  great  many  liberal  unionists

retire  from  the  National  Liberal  Club  .  .  Dec.  1888
'The  National  Radical  Union  becomes  the  National

Liberal  (see  Radical)  .  .  .  .24  April,  1889
The  Women's  Liberal  Confederation  (Gladstonian)

consists  of  33,500  members . . . May, ,,
A  great  Liberal  Unionist  banquet  at  the  Crystal
palace,  in  honour  of  the  marquis  of  Hartington,

13  May,  1890
National  Liberal  Unionist  conference  at  Manchester ;
sir  Henry  James  chairman,  the  marquis  of  Hart-
ington and  the  duke  of  Argyll  present 10  Nov.  1891

LIBEEATIQN  OF  EELIGTON  from
State  Patronage  and  Control.  Society

for,  was  established  by  eminent  political  dissenters,
May,  1844.  16th  triennial  conference  opened,
3  May,  1892.

"  LIBEEATOE,"  a  name  popularly  given  to
Mr.  Daniel  O'Connell,  for  his  successful  exertions
relating  to  Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  com-
pleted by  Parliament  in  1829.  "  Liberator  "  was
the  name  of  an  American  anti-slavery  journal
founded  by  Wm.  Lloyd  Garrison,  Jan.  1831,  and
edited  by  him  till  i856.  He  was  aided  by  Mr.
John  G.  Whittier.

LIBEEIA,  the  republic  of  freed  and  indigenous
negroes  on  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea,  West  Africa,
was  founded  in  1822  by  the  American  Colonisation
Society,  which  was  established  by  Henry  Clay  in
1816  :  capital,  Monrovia.  The  independence  of  Li-
beria was  proclaimed,  24  Aug.  1847  ;  recognised  by
Europe  in  1848,  by  America,  in  1862.  Presidents:
J.  J.  Roberts,  an  able  statesman,  1847;  Daniel  B.
Warner,  elected  1864;  James  Spriggs  Payne,  in-
stalled 6  Jan.  1868 ;  E.  J.  Roy,  president,  Jan.
1870,  was  deposed,  Oct.  187 1  ;  escaped  from  prison;
drowned,  Feb.  1872.  J.  J.  Roberts  re-elected  Jan.
1872  and  1874 !  died  215  Feb. ;  J.  Spriggs  Payne,
elected  3  June,  1876;  A.  W.  Gardner,  1878;  A.  J.
Russell,  1883 ;  H.  R.  W.  Johnson,  7  Jan.  1884.
Population,  about  20,000  civilized  Africans,  above
100,000  natives.

The  territories  largely  increased  by  annexations,
1847  et  seq.,  and  by  the  adhesion  of  Maryland,  a
negro  republic  (founded  1821-54) • • • •  1857


The president  Roberts,  visits the  exhibition  in
London ......... 1862

War  with  the  aborigines  at  Cape  Palmas;  fighting,  17  Sept.
Liberia  successful . . . . . .  Oct.  1875

Peace  concluded March,  1876

Kingdom of Medina {which see) annexed ; an-
nounced Feb.  1880

LIBEETINES  (signifying  freedmenand  their
sons),  was  a  sect  headed  by  Quintin  and  Corin,
about  1525,  who  held  monstrous  opinions.

LIBEETY,  see  Press  and  Trees.  A  colossal
statue  of  Liberty,  150  feet  high  by  M.  Bartholdi,
French  sculptor,  presented  to  the  United  States  of
N.  America,  was  set  up  at  New  York  Harbour  and
was  publicly  dedicated  28  Oct.  1886.

LIBEETY  AWT)  PEOPEETY  DE-
FENCE LEAGUE,  formed  by  lords  Elcho
(since  earl  of  Wemyss),  B  ram  well,  and  others,  to
obviate  the  effects  of  legislation  since  1871-  First
meeting  5  July;  first  general  meeting  29  Nov.  1882.
The  league  has  many  affiliated  societies.  At  the
general  meeting  on  1  July,  1886,  M.  Leon  Say  was
president.

LIBEAEIES-*  Accadimor  Chaldean  libraries
are  said  to  have  been  formed  1700  B.C.  The  remains
of  those  formed  by  Assyrian  monarchs  (744  et  seq.)
at  Nineveh,  &c,  consisting  of  tablets  of  baked  clay,
were  discovered  by  Botta,  Layard,  and  others,  1843
et  seq.;  see  Nineveh. Diodorus  Siculus  describes  a
library  in  the  tomb  of  Osymandyas,  king  of  Egypt.
A  public  library  was  founded  at  Athens  by  Pisis-
tratus,  about  540  B.C. Another  was  founded  by
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  B.C.  It  was  partially  de-
stroyed when  Julius  Caesar  set  fire  to  Alexandria  47
B.C. 400,000  valuable  books  in MS. are  said  to
have  been  lost  by  this  catastrophe. Blair,
The  first  private  library  was  Aristotle's.  Strabo.  B.C. 334
The  first  library  at  Rome  brought  from  Macedonia 167
According  to  Plutarch,  the  library  at  Pergamos  con-
tained 200,000  books. It  came  into  the  posses-
sion of  the  Romans  at  the  death  of  Attalus  III.,
who  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Roman  people 133
The  library  of Appellicon, sent to Rome  from

Athens,  by  Sylla 86

Library  founded  at  Constantinople  by  Constantine,  a.d.

about 355
An  Alexandrian  library,  said  to  have  been  burnt  by

the  caliph  Omer  1 640

Library  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  begun,  by  gifts  from

Petrarch,  1352  ;  enlarged  by  cardinal  Bessarion  .  1468
Matthias Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary,  collected  a

library  of  nearly  500,000  volumes  at  Buda  ;  died  . 1490
The  first  public  library  in  Italy  founded  at  Florence
by  Niccolo  Niccoli,  one  of  the  great  restorers  of
learning. At  his  death  he  left  his  library  to  the
public,  1436. Cosmo  de'  Medici  enriched  it  with
the  invaluable  Greek  and  Hebrew  MSS. about  1560
The  Vatican Library  at  Rome,  founded  by  pope
Nicholas  V.  in  1447,  and  improved  by  Sixtus  V.,  1588
(contained about 150,000 volumes  and 40,000
MSS.,  1868).
Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  founded  by  Frederick

III.  in  1440,  and  by  Maximilian.  1 1500

Royal  Library  of  Paris,  founded  by  John  1350,  en-
larged by  Charles  V.,  1364  ;  said  to  contain  815,000
volumes  and  84,000  MSS.  in  i860  ;  1,700,000  vols
in  1876.  A  new  reading-room  has  been  built.
Royal  Libraries  founded  at  Copenhagen  by  Christian
III.  about  1533  :  at  Stockholm,  by  Gustavus  Vasa,
about  1540  :  at  Munich,  by  Albert  III.  .  about  1550
Escurial  at  Madrid,  commenced  with  the  foundation

of  the  palace,  by  Philip  II 1557

Harvard  University  Library  (see  Harvard),  Massa-
chusetts, U.S.,  founded  1632,  endowed  . .  1638
Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg  (principally  the
spoils  of  Poland),  founded .... 1714

*  A  Conference  of  British  and  foreign  librarians  met  at
the  London  Institution,  2  Oct.  1877.  It  founded  the
Library  Association  of  the  United  Kingdom.


LIBEAEY ASSOCIATION.


579


LICHFIELD.


Astor  Free  Publie  Library,  New  York,  founded  by
John  Jacob  Astor,  by  gift  of  80,000?.,  1839;  he
died  in  1848,  and  the  library  has  since  been
warmly  supported  by  his  wealthy  son,  Wm.
JBlackhouse  Astor  (died  1875),  and  his  grandson,
John  Jacob  Astor  (died  1890).

LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Ilichard  de  Bury,  chancellor  and  high  treasurer  of
England,  purchased  thirty  or  forty  volumes  of  the
abbot  of  St.  Alban's  for  fifty  pounds'  weight  of
silver 1341

University  Library,  St.  Andrews,  founded . . 141 1

Glasgow  University  Library,  founded  about . . 1473

Lambeth  palace  Library  founded  by  abp.  Bancroft,

about  1610

Sion  College  Library,  founded 1630

Royal  Society  Library,  founded 1667

Harleian  Library  (which  see)  begun ....  1705

University  Library,  Cambridge,  founded  1475  ;  Geo.
I.  gave  6000  guineas  to  purchase  Dr.  Moore's  col-
lection 1715

Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  founded  1598  ;  opened
8  Nov.  1602. See  Bodleian.

Cottonian  Library,  founded  by  Sir  Robert  Cotton
about  1588  ;  appropriated  to  the  public,  1701  ;
partly  destroyed  by  fire,  1731 ;  removed  to  the
British  Museum  (which  see) 1753

Dr.  Daniel  Williams's  Public  Library.  He  died,
1716  ;  bequeathed  his  library  and  money  for  a
building,  which  was  opened  at  49,  Redcross-street,
City,  in  1729  ;  it  was  successively  removed  to
Queen's-square,  Bloomsbury,  1864,  and  to  Graf-
ton-street  East,  and  opened . . . Sept.  1873

Radcliffe  Library  at  Oxford,  founded  by  the  will  of
Dr.  Radcliffe,  1714 ;  opened 1749

The  Libraries  of  the  Royal  Institution  (founded
1803),  the  London  Institution  (1805),  and  the
1  loyal  College  of  Surgeons  (1786),  have  classified
catalogues.

Library  of  the  University  of  Dublin  (1601),  and  the
A  Ivocates'  Library  in  Edinburgh  (1680),  are  ex-
tensive and  valuable.

Library  of  East  India  Company,  founded  . .  1800

Itojul  Libraries  in  England:  that  of  Edward  IV.,
mentioned  1480,  increased  in  the  reigns  of  Edw.
VI.  and  James  I.  ;  much  enlarged  by  Richard
Bentley,  while  librarian,  1 694-1 735  ;  added  to  the
British  Museum  by  Geo.  II.,  1759  ;  rich  library  of
Geo.  III.,  presented  to  the  nation,  1823  ;  deposited
in  the  British  Museum 1829

In  1609  the  Stationers'  Company  agreed  to  give  a
copy  of  every  book  published,  to  the  Bodleian
Library,  Oxford.  By  14  Charles  II.  c.  33  (1662),
three  copies  were  required  to  be  given  to  certain
public  libraries  ;  by  8  Anne,  c.  19(1709),  the  num-
ber was  increased  to  nine  ;  by  41  Geo.  III.  c.  107,
to  eleven ;  which  number  was  reduced  to  rive  by
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  110(1835):  the  British  Museum,
the  Bodleian,  Oxford,  the  Public  Library,  Cam-
bridge, the  Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh,  and
Trinity  College,  Dublin.

Free  Libraries  successfully  established,  since  1850,
at  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Salford,  &c.  Many
others  formed  under  acts  passed  in 1845,  1850  &  1856

On  5  Nov.  1855,  a  proposal  to  establish  a  Free  Li-
brary in  the  city  of  London  was  negatived,  and
in  1857  that  in  Marylebone  was  closed  for  want  of
support,  but  was  re-opened  1  May,  1890.

The  new  city  library,  Guildhall  (free)  was  opened

S  Nov. 1872

Metropolitan Free Library Association formed,

4  April,  1879

The  great  library  collected  by  Charles  Spencer,  3rd
earl  of  Sunderland,  the  property  of  the  duke  of
Marlborough,  partly  sold  by  auction  (under  the
Blenheim  Settled  Estates  Act  of  1880) 1-12  Dec.  1881

Library  of  sir  Francis  Drake  and  family  sold,  Mar.  1883

United  Hamilton  and  Beckford  libraries  sold  for
86,444? 1883-4

The  Syston  Park  library  (sir  John  Hay  ford  Thorold)
including  a  Mazarin  bible,  early  printed  classics,
&C.,  sold  for  about  28,000?. . . 12-20  Dec.  1884

The  library  of  Michael  Wodhull,  collected  in  the
last  century,  realized  by  10  days' sale  11,973?.  4s-  6d.

21  Jan.  1886

133  free  libraries  established  up  to .  .  1887


Lord  Aylesford's  library  sold  for 10,754?.  ; nine

days'  sale 20  March,  1888

See  Circulating  Library.

LIBEAEY  ASSOCIATION  of  the
UNITED  KINGDOM,  founded  at  a  conference  of
librarians  at  the  London  Institution,  2  Oct.  1877.
It  met  at  Oxford,  1-3  Oct.  1878  ;  at  Manchester,  23
Sept.  1879;  Ldinburgh,  5  Oct.  1880;  London,  1881  ;
Cambridge,  5  Sept.  1882;  Liverpool,  11  Sept.  1883;
Lublin,  30  Sept.  1884 ;  Plymouth,  15  Sept.  1885  ;
London,  28  Sept.  1886;  Birmingham,  20  Sept.
1887  ;  Glasgw,  4  Sept.  1888  ;  London  (Gray's  Inn),
2  Oct.  1889;  Reading,  16  Sept.  1890 ;  Nottingham,
16  Sept.  1891 ;  Paris,  12  Sept.  1892.

LIBEO  D'OEO  (Book  of  Gold).  The  title  o
an  ancient  register  of  24  ruling  Venetian  families
before  813;  and  also  of  another  book,  dated  150(5,
recording  the  genealogies  of  the  noble  houses  who
ruled  Venice  till  the  fall  of  the  republic  in  1797.

LIBYA,  Greek  name  for  all  Africa,  but  specially
for  the  interior  as  distinguished  from  the  north;  it
is  mentioned  by  Homer  and  described  by  Herodotus.
It  was  temporarily  subdued  by  (Jambyses,  king  of
Persia,  about  525  B.C.  The  country  was  explored
for  trade  purposes  by  Ptolemy  II.,  III.,  and  IV.,
kings  of  Egypt.

LICENCES.  This  mode  of  levying  money  was
introduced  by  Richard  I.  about  1 190  ;  but  was  then
confined  to  such  of  the  nobility  as  desired  to  enter
the  lists  at  tournaments.

Games  and  gaming-houses  licensed  in  London . 1620

Licence  system  for  excisable  articles  enforced  in
various  reigns,  from  the  12th  Charles  II.

Lottery  office-keepers  to  take  out  licences,  and  pay
50?.  for  each.  This  reduced  the  number  from  400
to  51 Aug.

General  licensing  act,  9  Geo.  IV.  e.  61 .

Licences  for  public-houses  granted  in  1551,  and  for
refreshment-houses,  with  wine  licences . . .

In  the  case  of  Sharp  v.  Wakefield,  thehouse  of  lords,
on  appeal,  decided  that  the  licensing  justices  have
the  power  of  refusing  to  renew  a  licence  to
publicans,  when  they  think  fit . 20  March,

The  licensing  system  was  applied  to  India  as  a  kind
of  income-tax,  1859  :  ceased  in ...

Licences  for  the  sale  of  tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  and
pepper  were  abolished  and  other  licences  modified
by  acts  passed  in x8

Licensing  Reform  Agitation . . . .18

Acts  for  licensing  plays  and  playhouses  by  the  lord
chamberlain,  were  passed  in  1736  (10  Geo.  II.
c.  28)  ;  and  in  1843  (6  &  7  Vict.  c.  68) ;  and  for
music  and  dancing  in  public-houses,  in  1752  (25
Geo.  II.  c.  36).

New  licensing  act,  regulating  the  sale  of  intoxicating
liquors  ;  very  much  opposed  ;  passed  and  came
into  operation . . ."  . .10  Aug.  1872

Another  licensing  act  passed . . .30  July, 1S74

The  licensing  clauses  of  the  local  taxation  bill
(much  opposed),  dropped  by  the  government,

24  June,  1850

Licences  issued  :  1877,  21,729;  1881,  29,085.
See  Press.

LICHFIELD  (Staffordshire).  The  see  of
Mercia  (at  Lichfield)  was  founded  about  656;  re-
moved to  Chester,  1075  i  to  Coventry,  1102.  Inii2i
Robert  Peche  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lichfield
and  Coventry.  By  an  order  in  council,  Jan.  1837,
the  archdeaconry  of  Coventry  was  added  to  the  see
of  Worcester,  andDr.  Samuel  Butler  became  bishop
of  Lichfield.  This  see  has  given  three  saints  to  the
Romish  church  ;  and  to  the  British  nation  one  lord
chancellor  and  three  lord  treasurers.  It  is  valued
in  the  king's  books  at  559^.  18s.  2d.  Present  income,
4200/.  Population,  1881,  8,349;  IS9I>  7,864.
Lichfield  cathedral  was  first  built  about  656  ;  the  pre-
sent structure  was  founded  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  the

F  p  2


1660


1778
1828

IS60


70-71


LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT. 580


LIFE-BOAT.


37th  bishop,  in  1148.  Walter  de  Langton  (bishop  in
1296),  built  the  chape]  of  St.  Mary,  now  taken  into  the
choir,  and  under  bishop  Heyworth  (1420)  the  cathedral
was  perfected.  The  building  was  despoiled  at  the
Reformation,  and  was  scandalously  injured  in  the  par-
liamentary war  (when  its  monuments,  its  fine  sculp-
tures, and  beautifully  painted  windows,  were  demo-
lished). It  was  repaired  at  the  restoration,  1660;  in
1788  ;  and  by  Gilbert  G.  Scott,  1860-63  and  l8S4-
In  Lichfield  castle,  king  Richard  II.  kept  his  Christmas
festival,  1397,  when  200  tuns  of  wine  and  2000  oxen
were  consumed.  A  charter  was  granted  to  Lichfield,
constituting  it  a  city,  by  Edward  VI.,  1549.  It  was
absorbed  into  the  county  in  1885.

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD  AND COVENTRY.

1781.  James,  earl  of  Cornwallis,  died  1824.
1824.  Hon.  Henry  Ryder,  died  31  March,  1836.

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD.

1836.  Samuel  Butler,  died  4  Dec.  1839.

1839.  James  Bowstead,  died  n  Oct.  1843.

1843.  John  Lonsdale,  died  19  Oct.  1867.

1867.  Geo. Aug. Selwyn,  late  bishop  of  New  Zealand,

died  11  April,  1878.
1878.  William  Dalrymple  Maclagan,  consecrated  24  June,

translated  to  York,  May,  1891.
1891.  Hon.  Augustus  Legge,  June.

LICHFIELD  HOUSE  COMPACT,  said
to  have  been  made  between  the  Whig  government
and  Daniel  O'Connell  in  1835  at  Liehfield-house,
13,  St.  James's-square.

LICINIAN  LAWS.  In  375  b.c,  C.  Licinius
Stolo  and  L.  Sextius,  tribunes  of  the  people,  pro-
mulgated various  rogationes  or  laws  to  weaken  the
power  of  the  patricians  and  benefit  the  plebeians  :
one  was  to  relieve  the  plebeians  from  their  debts  ;
another  enacted  that  no  person  should  possess  more
than  500  jugera  of  the  public  land,  or  more  than
100  head  of  large  cattle,  or  500  of  small,  in  the
Roman  states;  and  the  third,  that  one  of  the  con-
suls should  be  a  plebeian.  After  much  opposition
these  were  carried,  and  L.  Sextius  became  the  first
plebeian  consul,  366.  Another  law,  56  B.C.,  of  this
name,  imposed  a  severe  penalty  on  party  clubs,  or
societies  assembled  for  election  purposes;  and
another,  about  103  B.C.  (brought  forward  by  P.
Licinius  Crassus),  limited  the  expenses  of  the  table.

LICK  OBSEKV ATOPY,  see  under  Obser-
vatory.

LIEBENAU  (Bohemia).  Here  -was  fought
the  first  action  of  the  seven  weeks'  war,  26  June,
1866;  when  the  Austrians  were  compelled  to
retreat  by  the  Prussians  under  general  Von  Horn.

LIECHTENSTEIN,  a  principality,  _S.  Ger-
many. Population,  in  1880,  9124.  Constitutional
charter,  26  Sept.  1862.  Prince  John  II.,  born  5
Oct.  1840,  succeeded  his  father  Alois- Joseph,  12
Nov.  1858.

LIEGrE  (Belgium),  a  bishopric,  under  the  Ger-
man empire,  from  the  8th  century  till  1795.  Liege
frequently  revolted  against  its  prince-bishops.
After  a  severe  contest,  the  citizens  were  beaten  at
Brusthem,  28  Oct.  1467,  and  Liege  taken  by  Charles
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  treated  them  with
gi-eat  severity.  In  1482  Liege  fell  into  the  power
of  De  la  Marck,  the  Boar  of  Ardennes,  who  killed
the  bishop,  Louis  of  Bourbon,  and  was  himself
defeated  and  killed.  liege  was  taken  by  the  duke
of  Marlborough,  23  Oct.  1702;  and  by  the  French
and  others,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it
was  annexed  to  France.  It  was  incorporated  with
the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  with  Belgium  in  1830.
Iron-works  were  established  at  Liege  in  the  16th
century,  and  have  been  greatly  enlarged  by  the
Cockerills  in  the  19th,  see  Seraing.  An  inter-
national volunteer  shooting  contest  held  here,  Sept.


1869.  The  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  met  here  18-
Aug.  1873.  Dynamite  explosions  ;  the  church  of
St.  Martin  much  injured,  1,2  May;  nine  anarchists-
convicted  ;  sentences,  penal  servitude,  one,  25
years  ;  two,  20  years ;  four,  15  years ;  one,  10  years;
one,  3  years  ;  trial,  18-26  July,  1892.  Population?
in  1890,  149,789.

LIEGNITZ,  see  Ffaffendorf.

LIEUTENANTS,  Lord,  for  counties,  were
instituted  in  England,  3  Edw.  VI.,  1549,  and  in
Ireland  in  1 83 1.  Their  military  jurisdiction  abo-
lished by  Army  Regulation  Act,  10*71.  For  the  lords-
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  see  Ireland.

LIFE  ASSURANCE  COMPANIES  ACTP

passed  9  Aug.  1870,  requires  the  companies  to  pub-
lish annual  returns  of  receipts,  expenditure,  &c.

LIFE-BOAT,  &c,  see  Wrecks.

Patent  granted  to  Mr.  Lionel  Lukin  for  a  life-boat .  1785;

A  reward,  offered  by  a  committee  in  South  Shields
for  a  life-boat,  1788,  obtained  by  Mr.  Henry  Great-
head,  of  that  town  (he  received  1200Z.  from  parlia-
ment), 1789  ;  it  first  put  to  sea . . 30  Jan.  1790

Another  life  boat  was  invented  by  William  Would-
have.  His  name  was  inscribed  on  a  memorial
erected  in  honour  of  Henry  Greathead  on  the
pier  at  South  Shields,  uncovered . 25  June,  18901

31  life-boats  built,  and  300  lives  saved  up  to . . 1804

The  duke  of  Northumberland  offered  a  reward  of
105Z.  for  a  life-boat,  1850  ;  obtained  by  Mr.  James
Beeching,  of  Yarmouth 1851

The  tubular  life-boat  of  Mr.  H.  Richardson,  the
Challenger,  patented  in  Jan.  ;  a  cruise  was  made
by  him  from  Liverpool  to  London  in  it . .1852

The  National  Life-boat  Institution,  founded  in  1824 ;
its  journal  first  published,  1852.  In  1856  it  received
a  bequest  of  io,oooZ.  from  Hamilton  Fitzgerald,
esq.,  and  of  39,000?,.  from  Mr.  Wm.  Birks  Rhodes,
"the  Hounslow  miser,"  in  1878.

185  life-boats  in  the  United  Kingdom,  1865  ;  284,  1884  ;
293,  1888  ;  303,  1891.

Lives  saved  by  the  Institution's  life-boats,  £c,  1824-91,
36,179  :—

1877
1878
1879


1824  .

.  124

1834  .

214

1844  •

•  193

1854

355

1864  .

.  698

1874

743

187s  ■

.  921

1876

.  600

1048

1885

555

616

1886  .

.  761

8S5

1887  .

572

697

1888  .

.  617

1121

1889  .

627

884

1890  .

■  555

955

1891  .

736

792

Hans  Busk  Life-ship  Institute  founded . Oct.  1869

The  American  Life-raft,  composed  of  cylinders
lashed  together,  sailed  from  New  York,  4  June,
1867,  navigated  by  three  men,  capt  John  Mikes
and  Messrs.  Miller  and  Mullane,  and  arrived  at
Southampton,  25  July  following.

Life-Preserver,  the  ax>paratus  of  capt.  Manby
(brought  into  use  in  Feb.  1808),  effects  a  com-
munication with  the  distressed  vessel  by  a  rope,
thrown  by  a  shot  from  a  mortar,  with  a  line
attached  to  it.  For  the  night,  a  night-ball  is
provided  with  a  hollow  ease  of  thick  pasteboard,
and  a.  fuse  and  quick  match,  and  charged  with
fifty  balls,  and  a  sufficiency  of  powder  to  inflame
them.  The  fuse  is  so  graduated  that  the  shell
shall  explode  at  the  height  of  300  yards.  The
balls  spread  a  brilliant  light  for  nearly  a  minute,
and  give  a  clear  view  of  every  surrounding  object.
In  20  years,  58  vessels  and  410  of  their  crews  and
passengers  had  been  saved.  Capt.  Manby  died
18  Nov.  1854,  aged  89. See  Rockets.

The  Boat-Lowering  Apparatus,  in  consequence
of  many  being  lost  when  boats  wei'e  lowered  from
the  Amazon  in  1852,  invented  by  Mr.  Charles
Clifford,  of  London,  in  1856,  has  been  much  ap-
proved of,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  in  the
royal  navy.

Capt.  Kynaston's  hooks  were  approved  by  admiral
sir  Baldwin  Walker  in  1862,  and  by  a,  committee
on  the  subject  in  1872.

Exhibition  of  life-boats,  life-rafts,  &c,  at  the
London  Tavern  opened  15  April,  1873.


LIFE-GUAEDS.


581


LIGHTHOUSE.


Hicks'  Life-raft,  reported  good  on  trial  in  East  India
docks i  Oct.  1874

iCapt.  Boyton's  Life  preserving  dress  (of  india-rubber)
with  means  for  signalling  at  sea,  tried  by  him  on
the  Thames  successfully,  23  Jan.  and  6  March,
.at  Cowes,  before  the  queen,  while  in  the  water
lie  fired  rockets,  caught  fish,  &c. ,  5  April ;  nearly
■crossed  the  channel  from  Dover  (paddled  two
miles  an  hour) ;  stopped  by  the  French  pilot

April,  1875

Captain  Boyton  crossed  the  Channel  from  Grisnez
to  the  South  Foreland  in  235  hours  . 28-2(5  May, ,,

Christie's  Life-saving  raft  tried  on  the  Thames,
could  not  be  sunk .... 17  March, ,,

Edmund  Thompson's  Life-raft,  partially  successful  off
Poplar 22  April, ,,

Boyton  race  on  the  Thames  by  six  young  men,  three
prizes  awarded  by  the  duchess  of  Teck  . 10  Aug. ,,

Rev.  E.  L.  Berthon's  Collapsible  Life-boat  taken  out  by
the  Essequibo,  and  proved  to  be  successful Sept. 1882

Gold  medal  given  to  vice-admiral  Ward,  chief  inspec-
tor of  life-boats  for  32  years  . . .  Aug.  1883

Much  assistance  rendered  by  life-boats  during  a
severe  gale . . 14-16  Oct.  and  8,  9  Dec.  1886

The  Mexico  wrecked  near  Southport ;  the  Lytham
lifeboat  saves  12  lives  ;  the  Southport  and  St.
Anne's  lifeboats  capsized  without  righting  them-
selves ;  27  of  the  crews  perish . . 9  Dec. ,,

Adequate  subscriptions  for  their  wives  and  families
and  nucleus  of  a  permanent  fund  formed Dec. ,,

'The  Storm  King  patent  life-boat  30  feet  long,  with
its  inventor,  capt.  Joergensen  and  a  man  named
Nelsen,  left  London  12  Sept.  1889,  encountered
heavy  gales  ;  arrived  at  Cape  Town . 2  March,  1890

Death  of  Joaquin  Lopez,  boatman,  aged  92,  who
had  saved  many  lives  from  drowning  and  received
foreign  honours ..... 22  Dec.  1890

The  queen  presents  the  Albert  medal  to  Laurence
Hennessy,  seaman,  for  having  saved  the  lives  of
31  men  during  ship-wrecks . . .18  Feb.  1892

The  Duke,  of  Northumberland,  a  new  fast  steel
steam  life-boat, with  15  water tightcompartments,
designed  by  Messrs.  R.  and  H.  Green,  to  be
stationed  at  Harwich,  tried  on  the  Thames  near
Black  wall,  24  July,  and  since  brought  into  service,  1890

About  714  lives  saved  by  lifeboats,  during  the  great
gale 6,  7  Nov. „

LIFE  GUARDS,  see  Guards. .

LIFE  INSURANCE,  see  Insurance  and  An-
tiuities.

LIFE-PEERAGES.  A  bill  for  creating  them
was  read  a  second  time  in  the  lords,  27  April,  1869.
hut  afterwards  rejected.  Two  peers  for  life  created
to  act  as  appeal  judges,  5  Oct.  1876. See  Lords.

LIFE,  PRESERVATION  OF.  See  Sani-
tation.

LIFE-SHIPS.  To  promote  the  construction
and  use  of  ihese  the  Hans  Busk  Life-Ship  Institute
was  founded,  Oct.  1869.  The  life-ship,  Peronelle,
was  launched  at  Southampton,  25  Aug.  1873.

LIGHT.  The  law  of  refraction  discovered  by
Snellius,  about  1624.  The  motion  and  velocity  of
light  discovered  by  Reaumur,  and  after  him  by
Gaesini,  and  calculated  by  "Rcemer  (1676)  and
Bradley  (1720).  Its  velocity  ascertained  to  beabout
190,006,000  of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes,  or  nearly
200,000  miles  in  a  second,  which  is  a  million  of
times  swifter  than  the  velocity  of  a  cannon  ball,
about  1667.  The  light  of  the  sun  takes  tight
minutes  and  eight  seconds  for  its  transmission
through  space  to  the  earth.  See  Emission  Tliconj.
The  undulatory  theory  of  light,  its  polarisation,  and
its  chemical  action,  have  all  been  made  known  in  the
present  century  by  Dr.Thos.  Young,  Weber,  Fresnel,
Malus,  Arago,"  Riot,  Brewster,  Wheatstone,  Hitter,
Niepce,  Daguerre,  Talbot,  Stokes,  Tyndall,  Ray-
leigh,  Dewar,  Crookes,  &c. ;  see  Optics,  Plioto-
graphi/,  Calorescence,  Fluorescence.


Velocity of Light. Direct  determination  by  the
toothed-wheel  method by  Fizeau agreed  with

the  astronomical  result 1849

Foucault,  with  the  revolving  mirror,  gave  298,000

kilometres  in  a  second  of  mean  time  .  .  .  1865
Comu's improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave

3c 0,400  kilometres  in  a  second  of  mean  time  . . 1874
Professor  Simon  Neva  nib,  of  Washington,  with
his  "  photc  tachometer  "  (completed  in  May,  1880)
gave  299,860  kilometres  in  a  second  of  mean  time,  1886
Mr.  Wm. Crookes, F.B.S., considered  that  he  had
demonstrated  the  mechanical  action  of  light  by  experi-
ments with  delicate  balances  in  the  highest  piocurable
vacuum,  and  calculated  the  foice  of  the  sun's  rays  upon
the earth  to  be  2.3 tons  to  the square  mile, 1873-6.
His  apparatus  was  termed  Badicmeter  {which  see). After
much  investigation,  Mr.  Crookes  admitted  that  the  ac-
tion was  not  clue  to  radiation,  but  to  difference  of  heat-
absorption  and  the  reaction  of  residual  air.

Mr.  Crookes  at  the  Boyal  Society  announces  experi-
ments respecting  an  ultra-gaseous  state  of  matter,  sup-
porting 1he  emission  theory ... 5  Dec.  1878
Dr.  C.  Wm.  Siemens  reported  to  the  Royal  Society
that  the  electric  light  acts  on  vegetation  like
solar  light 4  Dec.  1880

LIGHT  BRIGADE. Ste  Balalclava.

LIGHTHOUSE,  called  Pharos  (now  phare,
French;  faro,  Italian),  from  one  erected  at  Pharos,
(which  see)  near  Alexandria,  Egypt,  550  feet  high,
said  to  ha\e  been  visible  forty-two  miles,  about  283
B.C.  There  was  one  at  Messina,  at  Ehodes,  &c.
The  light  was  obtained  by  fires.  A  coal-fire  light
was  exhibited  at  Tynemouth  castle,  Northumber-
land, about  1638.  The  first  true  lighthouse  erected
in  England  was  the  Eddystone  lighthouse  (which
see)  in  1758-60.  Lights  were  exhibited  in  various
places  by  the  corporation  of  the  Trinity-house  early
in  the  16th  century.  2814  lighthouses  in  the  world
(1867).

BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES.

The  lighthouse  (40  years  old,  height  80  feet,  weight  300
tons)  on  the  pier  at  Sunderland,  Durham,  was  moved
forward  500  feet  without  stopping  the  illumination,
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  John  Murray,
October,  1841.

The  Commissioners  on  Lights,  &c.  (1861),  report  171
shorelights  in  England,  113  in  Scotland,  and  73  in
Ireland  (total,  357) ;  and  47  floating-lights.

6  lighthouses  building,  April,  1867.

The  French  have  224  iighthouses  on  shore.

The  source  of  light  in  our  lighthouses  is  principally
oil  ;  but  in  harbour  lights  gas  has  been  successfully
used.  Glass  reflectors  were  used  in  1780,  and  copper
ones  in  1807.  A  common  coal-fire  light  was  discon-
tinued at  St.  Bees  so  recently  as  1822.  Fresnel's
Dioptric  system  (which  see),  devised  about  1819,  was
adopted  forthe  first  time  in  England  by  Messrs.Wilkins,
at  the  direction  of  the  corporation  of  the  Trinity-house,
1  July,  1836.

The  most  brilliant  artificial  light  ever  produced— derived
from  magneto-electricity  by  a  machine  devised  by
professor  Holmes— was  first  employed  at  the  South
Foreland  lighthouse,  near  Dover,  on  8  Dec.  1858  ;  and
at  Dengeness  (or  Dungeness)  in  1S62.  Mr.  Holmes'
arrangement,  and  a  similar  one  constructed  by  M.
Serin,  were  shown  at  the  International  exhibition,
London,  in  1862.

Mr.  H.  Wilde's  apparatus  for  producing  a  most  powerful
magneto-electric  light,  on  trial  in  northern  light-
houses, Oct.  1866.

Lime-light  (which  see)  employed  at  the  S.  Foreland  light-
house in  1861.

Gas  light  tried  successfully  at  Howth  Bailey  lighthouse,
Dublin  Bay,  Julv,  1869.

Mr.  Wighaiu's  triform  light :  glass  belt  round  the  gas-
light, prisms  below  the  belt,  and  prisms  forming  a
cupola  :  tried  near  Dublin  ;  approved  by  Dr.  Tyndall,
July,  1873.

C.  Wm.  Siemens'  magneto-electric  light  used  at  tho
Lizards,  29  March,  1878.

The  cost  of  erecting  the  three  great  British  lighthouses
—viz.,  the  Skerry-Vore  (west  coast),  158  feet  high,
83,126?.  ;  the  Bishop  Bock,  Scilly  Isles,  145  feet  high,


LIGHTING UP.


582


LIMITATIONS.


36,559?..  ;  and  the  Bell  Rock,  Scotland,  117  feet  high,
61,331?,

Return  to  inquiries  respecting  officials,  their  duties,
salaries,  &c.  issued  early  in  Dec.  1883.

Important  experiments  at  South  Foreland  on  electricity,
gas,  and  oil  as  illuminants,  June,  1884.  Report
adopted  by  Trinity  House  :  electric  light  brightest,
but  most  expensive  ;  gas  and  oil  nearly  equal ;  oil  re-
commended for  practical  purposes ;  electricity  for
special  use  on  headlands,  &c,  about  25  Aug.  1885.

Royal  commission  respecting  telegraph  communication
between  lighthouses  met,  18  June,  1892.

LIGHTING  UP  (Towns,  &c),  see  London,
1684,  1694; ®as  and  Electric  Light.

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS  were  first
set  up  for  the  protection  of  buildings  by  Franklin
shortly  after  1752,  when  he  brought  down  electricity
from  a  thunder-cloud.  Richmann,  of  St.  Peters-
burg, was  killed  while  repeating  these  experiments,
Aug.  1752.  The  first  conductor  in  England  was  set
up  at  Payne's  Hill,  by  Dr.  Watson,'  In  1766  one
was  placed  on  the  tower  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,
which  has  since  escaped  injury,  although  frequently
injured  by  lightning  previously.  A  powder  maga-
zine at  Glogau,  in  Silesia,  was  saved  by  a  conductor
in  1782  ;  and,  from  the  want  of  one,  a  quantity  of
gunpowder  was  ignite  1  at  Brescia  in  1767.  and  above
3000  persons  perished.  In  1762,  Dr.  Watson
recommended  conductors  to  be  used  in  the  navy ;
and  they  were  employed  for  a  short  time,  but  soon
fell  into  disuse  from  want  of  skill  and  attention.
Mr.  (afterwards  sir  William)  Snow  Han  is  devoted
his  attention  to  the  subject  from  1820  to  1854,  and
published  a  work,  in  1843,  detailing  his  experiments.
In  1830,  above  thirty  ships  were  fitted  up  with  his
conductors,  and  in  1842  his  plans  were  adopted,  and
his  conductors  are  now  manufactured  in  the  royal
dockyards.  In  1854  parliament  granted  him
5000/.

LIGNY  (near  Fleurus,  Belgium),  where  Napo-
leon defeated  the  Prussian  army  under  Blucher,
16  June,  1815;  see  Waterloo.

LIGUORIANS,  or  Redemptorists,  a
Roman  catholic  order,  established  in  1732  by  Alfonso
de  Liguori,  approved  by  pope  Benedict  XIV.,  1749.

LIGURIANS,  a  Celtic  tribe,  N.  Italy,  invaded
the  Roman  territory,  and  were  defeated  238  B.C.
They  were  not  subjugated  till  172  B.C. — The  Ltgu-
bian  Republic,  founded  in  May,  1797,  on  the  ruin
of  Genoa,  was  incorporated  with  Prance  in  1805,
and  then  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy.

LILAC  TREE,  Syringa.  The  Persian  lilac
from  Persia  was  cultivated  in  England  about  1638;
the  common  lilac  by  Mr.  John  Gerard  about  1597.

LILLE,  see  Lisle.

LILLI-BURLERO,  part  of  the  refrain  of  a
popular  song  ridiculing  the  Irish  pnpists,  1688.
The  words  are  attributed  to  lord  Wharton,  the
music  to  Henry  Purcell.

LILY,  a  native  of  Persia,  Syria,  and  Italy,  was
brought  to  England  before  1460;  the  martagon
from  Germany,  1596.

LLLYBiEUM,  a  strong  maritime  fortress  of
Sicily,  besieged  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  276 B.C..
and  relieved  by  the  Carthaginians  275  b.c.  It  was
taken  by  the  Romans,  241  B.C.,  after  a  siege  of
nine,  years,  which  led  to  the  end  of  the  second
Punic  war.

LIMA  (Peru).  In  1534,  Pizarro,  marching
through  Peru,  was  struck  with  the  beauty  of  the
valley  of  Itimac,  and  there  he  founded  this  city,  and
gave  it  the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,  or  city  of


the  kings,  1535.  Here  he  was  assassinated,  26  June,
1541.  Awful  earthquakes  occurred  here,  1586,  1630,
1687,  and  28  Oct.  1746.  In  1854-5,  thousands
perished  by  yellow  fever.  Mr.  Sullivan,  the  British
consul,  was  assassinated  at  Lima,  II  Aug.  1857;  see
Peru,  1872,  1881-3. Population,  1876,  101,488.

LIMBURG  (Netherlands),  a  duchy  in  the  10th
century ;  acquired  by  the  dukes  of  Brabant  about
1288 ;  added  to  Burgundy  about  1429 ;  passed  to
the  house  of  Austria  in  1477 ;  became  one  of  the
United  Provinces,  1609;  conquered  and  annexed  to
the  French  republic,  1795;  restored  to  the  Nether-
lands, 1814;  divided  between  Holland  and  Belgium,
1830;  completely  separated  from  the  German  con-
federation by  treaty,  11  May,  1867.

LIME  or  LINDEN"  TREE,  probably  introduced
in  the  16th  century.  The  limes  in  St.  James's
park  are  said  to  have  been  planted  at  the  suggestion
of  Evelyn,  who  recommended  multiplying  odorifer-
ous trees,  in  his  "  Fumifugium  "  (1661).  A  lime-
tree  planted  in  Switzerland  in  1410,  existed  in
1720,  the  trunk  being  thirty-six  feet  in  circum-
ference.

LIME-LIGHT,  produced  by  the  combustion
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  or  carburetted  hydrogen  on
a  surface  of  lime.  This  light  evolves  little  heat  and
does  not  vitiate  the  air.  It  is  also  called  Drummond
Light,  after  its  inventor,  lieut.  Thomas  Drummond,
who  successfully  produced  it  as  a  first-class  light  in
1826,  and  employed  it  on  the  ordnance  survey.  It
is  said  to  have  been  seen  at  a  distance  of  112  miles.
It  was  tried  at  the  South  Foreland  lighthouse  in
[861.  ,  Lieut.  Drummond  was  born,  1797,  died
T5  April,  1840.  To  him  is  attributed  the  maxim
that  "  property  has  its  duties  as  well  as  its  rights."

LIMERICK,  anciently  Lumneach  (S.  W.  Ire-
land). About  550,  St.  Munchin  is  said  to  have
founded  a  bishopric  and  built  a  church  here,  which
latter  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in  853.  Donald
O'Brien,  king  of  Limerick,  founded  the  cathedral
about  1200.  Limerick  obtained  its  charter  in  1 195,
when  John  Stafford  was  made  first  provost;  and  its
first  mayor  was  Adam  Servant,  in  1 198.  It  was
taken  by  Ireton  after  six  months'  siege  in  1650.  In
Aug.  1690  it  was  invested  by  the  English  and
Dutch,  and  surrendered  on  most  honourable  terms,
3  Oct.  1691.*  An  awful  explosion  of  218  barrels  of
gunpowder  greatly  shattered  the  town,  killing  IOO
persons,  1  Feb.  1694.  Another  explosion  of  gun-
powder here  killed  many  persons,  2  Jan.  1837.
Awful  and  destructive  tempest,  6-7  Jan.  1839.  A
new  graving-dock  was  opened  by  the  lord-lieutenant,
earl  Spencer,  13  May,  1873.  Population,  1881,
38,555; 1891,37,072.

LIMITATIONS,  Statute  of,  21  James  I.

c.  16,  1623.  By  it  actions  for  trespass  or  debt,  or
simple  contract,  must  be  commenced  within  six
years  after  the  cause  of  action,  and  actions  for
assault,  menace,  or  imprisonment  within  four  years.
The  Real  Actions  Limitation  act,  1874,  fame  into
operation  i  Jan.  1879.

*  By  the  treaty  it  was  agreed  that  all  arms,  property
and  estates  should  be  restored  ;  all  attainders  annulled,
and  all  outlawries  reversed  ;  and  that  no  oath  but  that
of  allegiance  should  be  required  of  high  or  low  ;  the  free-
dom of  the  Catholic  religion  was  secured  ;  relief  from
pecuniary  claims  incurred  by  hostilities  was  guaranteed  ;
permission  to  leave  the  kingdom  was  extended  to  all  who
desired  it  ;  and  a  general  pardon  proclaimed  to  all  then
in  arms.  Burns.  This  treaty  was  annulled  by  the  Irish
parliament,  1695.  Limerick  is  still  called  "the  city  of
the  broken  treaty."


LIMITED LIABILITY.


583


LINN^EAN SYSTEM.


LIMITED  LIABILITY.  An  act  for  limit-
ing the  liability  of  joint  stock  companies,  18  &  19
Vict.  c.  133  (passed  1855),  was  several  times
amended  1856-7-8.  On  31  May,  1864,  "3830  joint
stock  companies  had  been  formed  and  registered  on
the  limited  liability  principle,  and  938  had  ceased
to  exist."  Much  calamity  in  1866  was  occasioned
by  the  abuse  of  the  system.  The  Companies  act  of
1862  was  ameuded  in  1867.  1241  registered  in  1874 ;
1,791  registered  in  1886;  total  1862-86,  25,042.
The  principle  adopted  by  some  joint  stock  banks
in  1879-80. See  under  Banks.

LIMOGES  AFFAIR,  see  France,  Dec.  1877.

LIMOURS  MURDERS,  N.-central  France.
Several  barbarous  murders,  especially  of  aged
people,  took  place  here,  Jan.,  Sept.,  Nov.,  1873,
and  Jan.  1874;  several  persons  denounced,  proved
innocence.  In  June,  1874,  one  Foirier  confessed  to
similar  murders  at  Nogent  and  other  places,  in
Nov.  1873  and  Jan.  1874.  Executed  at  Chartres,
29  Sept.  1874.

LINCELLES  (N.  France),  where  the  allied
English  and  Dutch  armies  defeated  the  French,
18  Aug.  1793.  General  Lake  commanded  three
battalions  of  foot  guards.

LINCOLN,  the  Roman  Lindum  Colonia,  and
at  the  period  of  the  conquest  rich  and  populous.  It
was  taken  several  times  by  Saxons  and  Dane*.  The
castle  was  built  by  "William  I.  in  1086.  Without
Newport-gate  upon  Lincoln  plain  was  fought  the
battle  between  the  partisans  of  the  empress  Maud,
commanded  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the  army
of  Stephen,  in  which  the  king  was  defeated  and
taken  prisoner,  2  Feb.  1141.  I  ouis,  dauphin  of
France,  invited  over  by  the  discontented  barons  in
the  last  year  of  king  John's  reign,  was  acknowledged
by  them  as  king  of  England  here ;  but  the  nobility,
summoned  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke  to  Gloucester
to  crown  Henry  III.,  marched  against  Louis  and
the  barons,  and  defeated  them  in  a  most  sanguinary
fight  (called  the  Fair  of  Lincoln),  20  May,  1217;
and  Louis  withdrew.  Population,  1881,  37?3r3  j
1891.  41,491.

LINCOLN,  Bishopric  of. Sidnacester  or

Lindisse  and  Dorchester,  two  distinct  sees  in  Mercia,
were  united  about  1078,  and  the  see  was  removed
to  Lincoln  by  bishop  Remigius  de  Feschamp,  who
built  a  cathedral  (1086),  afterwards  destroyed  by
fire,  but  rebuilt  by  bishop  Alexander  (1127)  and
bishop  Hugh  of  Burgundy.  The  diocese  is  very
large,  although  the  dioceses  of  Ely  (1109),  Oxford,
and  Peterborough  (1541)  were  formed  from  it,  and
were  further  enlarged  in  1837.  The  see  was  valued
at  the  dissolution  of  monasteries  at  2065?.  per
annum ;  and  after  many  of  its  manors  had  been
seized  upon,  it  was  rated  in, the  king's  books  at
894/.  10s.  id.  Present  income,  4500^.  It  has  given
three  saints  to  the  church  of  Koine,  and  to  the  civil
state  of  England  six  lord  chancellors.  The  great
bell  of  the  cathedral,  called  Great  Tom  of  Lincoln,
weighs  four  tons  eight  pounds.

RECENT  BISHOPS.

1787.  George  Pretyman  (afterwards  Tomlinc),  translated
to  Winchester,  1820.

1820.  Hon.  George  Pelham,  died  1  Feb.  1827.

1827.  John  Kaye,  died  19  Feb.  1852.

1852.  John  Jackson,  translated  to  London,  1869..

1869.  Christopher  Wordsworth,  consecrated  24  Feb.  ;  re-
signs Dee.  1884  ;  died  21  March,  1885.

1885.  Edward  King,  Feb.  For  his  trial  lor  ritualistic
practices,  see  under  Canterbury.

LINCOLN'S-INN  (London),  derives  its  name
from  Henry  de  Lacy,  carl  of  Lincoln,  who  erected  a
mansion  on  this  spot  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,


which  had  been  the  bishop  of  Chichester's  palace.
It  became  an  inn  of  court,  1310.  The  gardens  of
Lincoln' s-inn-fields  were  laid  out  bjT  Inigo  Jones,
about  1620,  and  erroneously  said  to  occupy  the  same
space  as  the  largest  pyramid  of  Egypt,  which  is
764  feet  square  ;  Lmcoln's-inn  square  being  821  feet
by  625  feet  6  inches.  "William  lord  Russell  was
beheaded  in  Lincoln' s-inn-fields,  21  July,  1683.
The  square  (formed  in  1618)  was  enclosed  with  iron
railings  about  1737.  The  new  hall  and  other  build-
ings were  opened,  30  Oct.  1845,  and  the  square
planted.  The  theatre  in  Lincoln's-inn-fields  was
built  in  1695;  rebuilt  in  1714 ;  made  a  barrack  in
1756,  and  pulled  down  in  1848.

LINCOLN  TOWER,  Westminster  Bridge
Road,  was  erected  by  the  united  subscriptions  of
Britons  and  Americans,  as  a  memorial  of  the  aboli-
tion of  slavery,  and  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  president.
The  foundation-stone  was  laid  by  general  Sdienk,
then  American  minister  here,  9  July,  1874;  and  the
head  stone  was  placed  by  the  Rev.  Newman  Hall,
minister  of  Surrey  chapel,  28  Sept.  1875.  The
tower,  which  is  220  feet  high,  co-t  about  ~OOOl.
The  church,  named  Christ  church  (to  r<  place-
Surrey  chapel),  and  schools  adjoining  (cost  about
60,000?.),  were  dedicated,  4  July,  et  scq.  187G.  '1  he
rev.  Rowland  Hill's  body  was  removed  from  Surrey
chapel  and  placed  here,  14  April,  1881.

LINDISFARNE,  or  Holy  Island,  on  tie

coast  of  Northumberland,  became  a  bishop's  see,
635.  It  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  under  Kegnar
Lodbrok  in  793,  and  the  monastery  destroyed  by
them  in  875.  The  see  was  then  removed  to  Chest  er-
le-street,  and  to  Durham  in  995  (or  990).

LINEN. Pharaoh  ai-rayed  Joseph  in  vestures
of  tine  linen,  1716  B.C. {Gen.  xli.  42.)
First  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish  weavers,

under  the  protection  of  Henry  III. . . .  1253
A  company  of  linen  weavers  established  in  London  1368
The  art  of  staining  linen  known . . . about  1579,
A  colony  of  Scots  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  other
Presbyterians  who fled  from  persecution  in  suc-
ceeding reigns,  planted  themselves  in  the  north-
east part  of  Ireland,  and  there  established  the
linen manufacture, which was liberally en-
couraged by  the  lord  deputy  Wentworth  in  16^4  ;

by  William  III 1698

Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread,  and  yarn,  from  Ireland,

permitted  to  be  exported  duty  free  . . . . 1696
Irish  linen  board  established  in  1711  ;  the  Linen-
hall,  Dublin,  opened  1728  ;  the  board  abolished  .  1828
A  board  of  trustees  to  superintend  the  Scotch  linen

manufacture  established 1727

Duty  on  linen  taken  off i860

Dunfermline  in  Fifeshire,  Dundee  in  Forfarshire,
and  IBarnsley  in  Yorkshire  are  chief  seats  of  our
linen  manufacture.

LINGAM,  an  ancient  Hindoo  god  (much
worshipped  by  women),  who  had  many  temples  in
Delhi,  before  the  Mahometan  conquest.  One  of
his  idols  set  in  gold,  diamonds,  and  other  precious
stones,  was  sold  bv  Messrs.  Phillips  of  Bond  Street,
London,  for  2,450?.,  5  Dec.  1888.

LINLITHGOW  -  BRIDGE  (near  Edin-
burgh), near  which  the  forces  of  the  earl  of  Angus,
who  held  James  V.  in  their  power,  defeated  the
forces  of  the  earl  of  Lennox,  who,  after  receiving
promise  of  quarter,  was  killed  by  sir  James  Hamil-
ton, 1526.  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  born  in  the
palace  of  Linlithgow,  8  Dec.  1542,  James  V.,  her
father,  dying  of  a  broken  heart,  14  Dec  ,  in  conse-
quence of  his  defeat  by  the  English  at  Solway
Moss,  25  Nov.  previous.

LINNiEAN"  SYSTEM  of  botany,  arranged
bv Linne or Linnnms, a Swede, 1725-30. He


LINOTYPE.


584


LITERARY  CONGRESS.


classed  the  plants  according  to  the  number  and
situation  of  the  sexual  parts,  and  made  the  flower
and  fruit  the  test  of  his  various  genera.  Linnreus
lived  from  1707  to  1778.  His  library  and  herbarium
were  purchased  by  sir  James  E.  (then  Dr.)  Smith,
and  given  to  the  Linnean  Society  in  London,  which
was  instituted  in  1788,  and  incorporated  26  March,
1802  ;  at  Milan,  about  20  Sept.  1892.
The  centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the  Linnean  Society
celebrated  ;  gold  medals  were  presented  to  sir  Joseph
Hooker,  and  sir  Bichard  Owen,  24  May,  1888.

LINOTYPE. See  under  Printing.

LION  AND UNICORN,  the former  English,
the  latter  Scottish,  became  the  supporters  of  the
royal  arms  on  the  accession  of  James  I.  in  1603.
The  lions  in  Trafalgar-square,  designed  by  sir  Edwin
Landseer,  were  uncovered,  31  Jan.  1867.
Lion. True  lions  belong  to  the  old  world  exclu-
sively. They existed  in Europe, Egypt, and
Palestine,  but  have  long  disappeared  from  those
countries  ;  their  present  country  being  Africa. A
lion  named  Pompey  died  in  the  Tower  of  London
in  1760,  after  70  years'  confinement.
Mr.  Gordon  dimming,  the  lion-slayer,  published

his  "Sporting  Adventures  in  South  Africa "  in . 1850
Van  Amburgh  was  very  successful  in  taming  lions  ;
hut  many  have  perished  through  rashness. The
Lion-queen  was  killed  at Chatham, 1850 ;  and
Massarti  (John  McCarthy)  was  killed  by  a  lion,

3  Jan.  1872
lion  Sermon  preached  annually  on  16  Oct.  at  St.
Katherine  Cree  church,  London,  in  memory of
the  escape  of  sir  John  Gayer  from  a  lion  in  Arabia

16  Oct.  1630
LIPPATJ,  see  Hussites.

LIPPE,  a  constitutional  principality  (N.W.
Germany).  Population,  1885,  123,212;  1890,
12,814.  Prince  Leopold,  born  1  Sept.  1821;  suc-
ceeded his  father,  Leopold,  1  Jan.  185 1 ;  died  8  Dec.
1875 — his  brother  Waldemar,  born  18  .April,  1824,
succeeded.  Lippe  became  a  member  of  the  North
German  confederation,  18  Aug.  1866.

LIPPSTADT,  see  Liitzen.

LIQUEFACTION. See  Gases  and  Cold.

LISBON  (Olisippo,  and  Felicitas  Julia,  of  the
ancients)  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  about  716,  and
became  important  under  the  Moorish  kings,  from
whom  it  was  captured  by  Alfonso  I.  of  Portugal  in
1 147.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by
Emanuel,  1506.  Lisbon  has  suffered  much  by
earthquakes,  ai-.d  was  almost  destroyed  by  one,
I  Nov.  1755;  see  Earthquakes.  The  court  fled  to
the  Brazils,  10  Nov.  1807,  and  on  30  Nov.  the
French,  under  Junot,  entered  Lisbon,'  and  held  it
until  the  battle  of  Vimeira,  in  which  they  were
defeated  by  the  British,  under  sir  Arthur  Weilesley,
21  Aug.  1808.  A  military  insurrection  at  Lisbon,
21  Aug.  1831,  was  soon  suppressed,  and  manv  sol-
diers were  executed  ;  see  Portugal.  Population  in
1885,  243.010.

A  pleasure  boat  on  the  Tagus  upset,  about  6a
drowned 2<5  MaV)  lS

Lisbon  Steam  Tramway  Company,  favoured  by  duke
of  Saldanha,  ambassador  in  London  ;  company
promoted  by  baron  Albert  Grant  and  others';
tramway  could  not  be  made ;  see  Trials . July,'  1876

Great  fire  at  the  dockyard,  estimated  loss  ioo,oooL',

17-18  Dec.  1883

Great  excitement  through  the  British  ultimatum


respecting  East  Africa  (see  Portugal)


Jan.  1890


LISLE  (now  Lille),  N.  France,  has  a  strong
citadel  by  Vauban.  It  was  besieged  by  the  duke
of  Marlborough  and  the  allies  ;  and,  though  deemed


impregnable,  was  taken  after  a  thiee  months'  siege
in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,
in  1713,  in  consideration  of  the  demolition  of  the
fortifications  of  Dunkirk.  Lisle  sustained  a  severe
bombardment  from  the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged
to  raise  the  siege,  7  Oct.  1792.  Population,  1886,
188,272;  1891,  200,935.

The  French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of
Science  met  here 20  Aug.  1874

LISMORE  (S  Ireland.)  St.  Cartbagh.  first
bishop,  636,  says  :  "  Lismore  is  a  famous  and  holy
city,  of  which  neailv  one-half  is  an  asylum  where
no  woman  dare  enter."  The  castle  (built  by  king
John  when  earl  cf  Moreton,  1 185,)  burnt  in  1645,
was  rebuilt  with  great  magnificence  by  the  duke  of
Devonshire.  The  cathedral,  built  636,  was  re-
paired by  Cormac,  s on  of  Muretus,  king  of  Muns-
ter,  about  1130.  The  bishopric  was  united  to  that
of  Waterford,  about  1363;  and  both  to  Cashel  in
1839.

LISSA  (or  Leuthcn,  Silesia). Here  the  king
of  Prussia  vanquished Charles  of  Lorraine  ; COOO
Austrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757.  —  Lissa, in
Poland,  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  .Russian  army  in
the  campaign  of  1707. —  Lissa. an island  in the
Adriatic. Near  here  the  Italian  fleet,  commanded  by
Persano,  was  defeated  with  severe  loss  by  the  Aus-
trian fleet,  commanded  by  Tegethoff,  20  July,  1S66.
The  Italians  had  23  vessels,  11  of  which  were  iron-
clads, and  the  Austrians  had  23  vessels,  7  only
being  ironclads.
Persano,  when  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  quitted  his
ship,  the  lie  d'ltalia,  and  hoisted  his  flag  on  the
Affondatore. His  ironclads did  not  keex>  well
together.
During  the  action,  the  ironclad  Palestro  took  fire
and  exploded,  and  all  on  board  perished  (except
19  out  of  200  men),  exclaiming,  Viva  il  Re!  Viva
Italia!  The  Re  d'ltalia  was  surrounded  and  sunk
by  the  Austrians. The  Re  di  Portobello  disabled
the  Austrian  line-of-battle  ship  Kaiser,  and  com-
pelled her  to  run  ashore. Both  parties  soon  after
retired  from  the  conflict,  which  had  lasted  four
hours.
Admiral  Persano  was tried for  misconduct and
dismissed  the  service  (see  Italy) . 15  April,  1867
Battle  off  Lissa.
Capt.  Win.  Hoste  in  the  Amphion,  with  two  other
frigates  ; the  Active, Capt.  J.  A. Gordon  ; the
Cerberus, Capt. H. Whitby ; and the Volage,
22-gun  ship,  Capt.  P.  Hornby,  defeated  a  Franco-
Venetian squadron which attacked him ; he
captured  two  vessels,  the  Corona  and  Bellona;
he  was  badly  wounded . . . 13  March,  181 1

LITANIES  (Greeklitaneia,  supplication),  were
first  used  in  processions,  it  is  said,  about  469  ;  others
say  about  400.  Litanies  to  the  Virgin  Mary  were
first  introduced  by  pope  Gregory  I.  about  59^.
The  first  English  litany  was  commanded  to  be  used
in  the  Reformed  churches  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1544.

LITERARY  CLUB  (at  first  called  "  The
Club"  and  "Johnson's  Club"),  founded  by  Dr.
Johnson  and  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  1764.  Haw-
kins, Topbam  Beauclerk,  Goldsmith,  Burke,  and
Bennet  Langton,  were  among  the  first  members.
The  opinion  formed  of  a  new  work  by  the  club  was
speedily  known  all  over  London,  and  had  great  in-
fluence. The  club  still  exists.  Mr.  W.  E.  Glad-
stone and  other  eminent  men  are  members.  Hallani,
Maeaulay,  the  marquis  of  Lai^downe,  and  bishop
Blomfield  were  members;  Dr.  Milman,  dean  of  St.
Paul's,  was  in  the  chair  at  the  centenary  dinner,  on
7  June,  1864

LITERARY  AND  ARTISTIC  CON-
GRESS, International,  met  at  Paris  (Victor  Hugo,
president), 17  June;  and  founded  "International


LITERARY FUND.


585


LIVERPOOL.


Literary  Association,"  28  June,  1878  ;  met  in  Lon-
don, 9-14  June,  1879;  at  Lisbon,  20  Sept.  1S80;  at
Vienna,  20-29  Sept.  18S1;  at  Berne,  10  Sept.  1883;
at  Brussels,  27  Sept.  1884  ;  at  Berne,  7  Sept.  1885  ;
at  Madrid,  8  Oct.  1887  ;  at  Venice,  19  Sept.  1888  ;
at  Paris,  20  June,  1889;  at  Berne,  5  Oct.  1889;
in  London,  4  Oct.  1890;  at  Neufchatel,  26  Sept.
1891  ;  at  Milan,  about  20  Sept.  1892.
LITERARY  FUND,  Royal,  was  founded

in  1790.  to  relieve  literary  men  of  all  nations,  by
JJavid  Williams,*  the  Mend  of  Benjamin  Franklin,
and  incorporated  in  1818.  The  kingof  the  Belgians
presided  at  the  annual  dinner,  8  May,  1872;  the
prince  of  Wales  at  the  centenary  dinner,  14  May,
1890. The  permanent  fund  in  1892  was  12  737;.

LITERARY  PROPERTY,  SOCIETIES,

&c.',  see  Authors,  Copyright,  Societies,  &c.

"Literary  Production  Committee  "  of  authors  ;  proposed
formation,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  a  good  price
for  their  works,  July,  187S.

LITERATURE,  see  letters,  English,  Trench,
German,  Greek,  Italian,  Lectin,  and  Spanish
Language;  comprehends  eloquence,  poetr}',  history,
language,  and  their  subdivisions.

LITHIUM,  the  lightest  metal  known  (specific
gravity  059 :  atomic  weight  7)  is  obtained  from  an
alkaline  substance  termed  lithia  ;  discovered  by  M.
Arf\ved:-on,.a  Swede,  in  1817.

LITHOFRACTEUR,  or  "  STOira-BitEAK-
Elt,"  an  explosive  material,  a  modification  of  dyna-
mite (composed  of  gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine,  with
the  constituents  of  gunpowder,  and  other  sub-
stances), invented  by  professor  Engels  of  Cologne,
and  made  by  Krebs,  in  1869.  It  was  occasionally
used  by  the  Germans  in  the  war  1870-1,  and  was
tried  and  well  reported  of  for  power  and  safety  at
Kant  BJawy  quanies,  near  Shrewsbur}',  9,  10  May,
1871,  and  again  on  20  Feb.  1872,  before  the  govern-
ment explosive  committee,  with  similar  results.

LITHOGRAPHY  (drawing  on  stone).  The
invention  is  ascribed  to  Alois  Sennefelder,  about
1796  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  art  was  announced
in  Germany,  and  was  known  as  polyautography.  It
became  partially  known  in  England  in  1801,  etseq.,
but  its  general  introduction  is  referred  to  Mr.
Ackermann,  of  London,  about  1817.  Sennefelder
died  in  1841.  Improvements  have  been  made  by
Engelmann  and  many  others;  see  Printing  in
Colours.

LITHOSCOPE.  An  instrument  for  distin-
guishing precious  stones,  invented  by  sir  David
Brewster  ;  described  by  him  Jan.  1864.

LITHOTOMY.  The  surgical  operation  of
cutting  for  the  stone,  it  is  said,  was  performed  bjr
Ammonius,  about  240  b.c.  The  ''small apparatus,"
so  called  from  the  few  instruments  used  in  the
operation,  was  practised  by  Cehus,  about  a.d.  17.
The  "  high  apparatus  "  waspraeti-ed  (on  a  criminal
at  Paris)  by  Colot,  1475 ;  by Franco,  on  a  child,

*  Floyer  Sydenham,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar,  of
Wadliam  college,  Oxford,  and  translator  of  some  of  the
works  of  Plato,  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  for
a  trifling  debt  due  for  his  frugal  meals,  and  there,  in
178s,  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  want  and  misery,  when
nearly  eighty  years  of  age.  The  sympathy  excited  gave
rise  to  this  institution,  since  well  supported.  Williams
was  in  early  life  a  dissenting  minister,  and  wrote  on
education.  He  was  consulted  by  the  early  revolutionary
party  in  France  as  to  the  form  of  a  constitution  for  that
country  ;  he,  Dr.  Priestley,  sir  James  Mackintosh,  and
other  distinguished  Englishmen,  having  been  previously
declared  French  citizens. He  died  29  June,  1816.


about  1566 ;  and  in  England,  by  Dr.  Douglass,
about  1519.  The  "lateral  operation,"  invented  by
Franco,  much  performed  in  Paris  by  Freie  Jacques,
in  1697,  has  been  greatly  improved.  The  "great
apparatus"  was  invented  bv  John  de  Komauis,  and
described  by  his  pupil  Maiianus  Sanctus,  1524.

LITHOTRITY  (or  bruising  the  stone). The
apparatus  produced  by  M.  Leroy  d'Etiolhs  in  1S22
has  since  been  improved.
Prizes  of  6000  and  10,000  francs  were  awarded  M.  Jean

Civiale  for  his  method  of  operation,  1827  &  1829.

LITHUANIA,  formerly  a  grand-duchy,  N.  E.
of  Prussia.  'Ihe  natives  (belonging  to  the  Slavonic
race)  long  maintained  their  independence  against
the  Russians  and  Poles,  hi  1386,  their  grand-duke
Jagellon  became  king  of  Poland  and  was  baptized  :
Lithuania  was  not  incorporated  with  Poland  till
1501,  when  another  duke  Casimir,  became  king  of
that  country.  The  countries  were  formally  united
in  1569.  The  larger  part  of  Lithuania  now  belongs
to  Russia,  the  remainder  to  Prussia.

LITURGIES (from  the  Greek  leitos,  public,
and  ergon,  work). The  Greek  and  Roman  liturgies
are  very  ancient,  having  been  committed  to  writing
about  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.  The  Romish  church
recognises  four:  the  Roman  or  Gregorian,  the  Am-
brosian,  the  Uallican,  and  the  Spanish  or  Mosarabic.
The  Greek  church  has  two  principal  liturgies  :  St.
Chrysostom's  and  St.  Basil's,  and  several  smaller
ones. Parts  of  these  liturgies  are  attributed  to  the
Apostles,  to  St.  Ignatius,  250,  to  St.  Ambrose  (died
397),  and  to  St.  Jerome  (died  420).
The  present  English  Liturgy  was  first  composed,
and  was  approved  and  confirmed  by  parliament,
in  1547-8. The  offices  for  morning  and  evening
prayer  were  then  put  into  nearly  the  same  form
in  which  we  now  have  them,  and  published  1549
and  1552.
At  the  solicitation  of  Calvin  and  others,  the  liturgy

was  reviewed  and  altered 1551

It was  first  read  in  Ireland,  in  the  English  lan-
guage, in  1550,  and  in  Scotland,  where  it  occa-
sioned a  tumult,  in  1637,  and  was  withdrawn . 1638
The  liturgy  was  revised by  Whitehead, formerly
chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,
Grindall,  Cox,  and  Pilkington, dean  May, and
secretary  Smith.
John  Knox  is  said  to  have  used  a  liturgy  for  several
years. The  rev.  Robert  Lee,  of  Edinburgh,  intro-
duced a  form  of  prayer  in  public  worship,  but
gave  it  up  when  ordered  to  discontinue  it  in  May,
1859 ;  he  soon  after  resumed  it,  and  the  discussion
on  the  subject  ceased  only  at  his  death,  14  March,  1868
See  Common  Prayer.

LIYERIES  OF  THE  CITY  OF  LON-
DON.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  custom  of  the
retainers  of  the  lord  mayor  and  sheriffs  wearing
clothes  of  the  form  and  colour  displaced  by  those
functionaries.  Liveries  were  regulated  bv  statute
in  1392,  and  frequently  since.  The  nobility  gave
liveries  to  their  retainers. See  Companies.

LIVERPOOL  (W.  Lancashire),  is  supposed  to
be  noticed  in  Domesday-book  under  the  name  Esme-
dnne,  or  Smedune*  Soon  after  the  conquest,
William  granted  that  part  of  the  country  situated
between  the  rivers  Mersey  and  Ribble  to  Roger  of
Poitiers,  who,  according  to  Camden,  built  a  castle
here,  about  the  year  1089. It  afterwards  was  held


*  In  other  ancient  records  its  appellations  arc  Litherpul
a.nd  Lyrpul,  signifying  probably  in  the  ancient  dialect,  the
lower  pool ;  though  some  have  deduced  its  etymology
from  a  pool  frequented  by  an  aquatic  fowl,  called  the
■'  Liver,"  or  from  a  sea-weed  of  that  name  ;  and  others,
from  its  having  belonged  to  a  family  of  the  name  of
Lever,  whose  antiquity  is  not  sufficiently  established  to
justify  their  conclusion.


LIVERPOOL.


586


LIVERPOOL.


by  the  earls  of  Chester  and  dukes  of  Lancaster.
Liverpool  is  the  second  city  of  the  Empire.  The
income  of  the  estates  of  the  Corporation  13?.  in
1672,  now  about  12,500,000/.  (1888),  from  renewal
fines,  &c.  Changes  in  the  leases,  &c,  proposed  by
the  Corporation  postponed,  Jan.  1888.  See  under
Population.
Liverpool  made  a  free  borough  by  Henry  III.  .  1225

Made  an  independent  port 1338

Liverpool  "  a  paved  town  "  (Leland) . . . . 1559
"  The  people of  her  majesty's decayed  town of
Liverpool  "  petition  Elizabeth  to  be  relieved  from

a  subsidy . . 1571

Separated  from  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  .  .  :  1628
Town  rated  for  ship-money  in  only  26?.  by  Charles  I.  1634
Besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  26  June,  1644

Made  a  separate  parish 1698

The  old  dock  constructed,  1699  ;  the  first  ship,  the
Marlborough,  entered  ... . . 8  June,  1700

Blue-coat  hospital  founded 1709

The  town  vigorously  opposes  the  Young  Pretender 1745

Town- hall  commenced 1749

Infirmary  established  „

Seamen's  hospital  founded 1752

Salthouse  dock  opened 1753

Liverpool  library  founded 1757

A  most  destructive  fire 1762

House  of  industry  founded 1770

Theatre  licensed,  1771  ;  opened .... 1772
Liverpool  equips,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war
against  France,  120  privateers,  carrying  1986  guns,

and  8754  seamen 177S

First  musical  festival 1784

King's  dock  constructed 1785

[The  Queen's  dock  was  also  constructed  about  the
same  time.  ]

Memorable  storm  raged 1789

The  exchange  burnt 1795

The  town-hall  destroyed  by  fire ,

The  Athenaeum  opened .... 1  Jan.  1799

Union  news-room  erected 1800

The  Lyceum  erected 1802

Awful  fire  ;  loss  exceeded  1,000,000?. .  14  Sept. ,,

Corn  exchange  opened .... 4  Aug. 1808

Royal  Exchange  completed 1809

Statue  of  George  III.  commenced . . 25  Oct. ,,
Fall  of  St.  Nicholas' tower,  28  killed .  n  Feb. 1810

Royal  Institution  founded 1814

Wellington-rooms  built 1815

Royal  Institution  opened  by  Mr.  Rosooe  . 2  Nov.  1818

American  seamen's  hospital 1820

Prince's  dock  opened  .  .  .  .19  July,  1821
St.  John's  market-place  ....  Feb.  1822
Royal  Institution  incorporated  . . .  ,,

Marine  Humane  Society  formed 1823

New  house  of  industry  erected 1824

Liver  theatre  opened 1825

Old  dock  closed . 1826

Foundation  of  new  custom-house  laid  .  12  Aug. 1828

Blackrock  lighthouse  built,  and  light  first  shown,

1  March,  1830
Lunatic asylum founded, 1792  ; new buildings

erected ,,

Clarence  dock  completed .... Sept. ,,
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  opened*  15  Sept. „

Zoological  gardens  opened 1833

Great  tire  ; 300,000?.  property  destroyed . 1  Jan. ,,
Lock  hospital  and  Waterloo  dock  opened . . 1834
Victoria  and  Trafalgar  docks  opened .  8  Sept.  1836

British  Association  meet  here,  1st  time .  Sept. 1837

Mechanics'  institute  opened ,,

New  fish-market  opened .... 8  Feb. ,,

Apothecaries'  company  formed „

Liverpool  and  Birmingham  (Grand  Junction)  rail-
way opened 4  July, „

Railway  to  London  (now  the  North-Western)  opened
its  entire  length I?  Sept.  1838

*  The  first  grand  work  of  the  kind,  about  31  miles  long
The  first  shaft  was  commenced  in  Oct.  1826,  and  the  ex-
cavation of  the  tunnel,  one  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  Jan.
1827  ;  the  tunnel  was  completed  in  Sept.  1828,  and  opened
30  July,  1829.  At  the  opening  of  the  railroad,  the  duke
of  Wellington  and  other  illustrious  persons  were  present ;
and  Mr.  Huskisson  who  alighted  during  a  stoppage  of
the  engines,  was  knocked  down  by  one  of  them,  which
went  over  his  thigh  and  caused  his  death,  15  Sept.  1830.


Statistical  society  and  Polytechnic  society  founded

The  Liverpool  steamer,  of  461-horse  power,  sails  for
New  York . . .  " . . .28  Oct.

Awful  storm  raged 6  Jan.

Foundation  of  the  collegiate  institution  laid  by  lord
Stanley

Liverpool  Philharmonic  society  founded . . .

Foundation  of  St.  George's  hall  and  courts  laid  . .

Immense  fire  ;  property  worth  more  than  half-a-
million  sterling  destroyed  ... 25  Sept.

Mr.  Huskisson 's  statue  erected  . . .  Oct.

Procession  of  Orangemen  ; fatal  riot . 14  July,

The  queen  visits  Liverpool ... 9  Oct.

British  Association  meet  here,  2nd  time . Sept.

St.  George's  hall  opened . . . .18  Sept.

Bread  riots  (150,000  persons  out  of  employ  through
the  frost) 19  Feb.

Great  landing  stage  for  large  steamers  opened,  1  Sept.

Many  commercial  failures .  . Sept.  to  Nov.

Association  for  Social  Science  meets ■ . Oct.

Sailors' home  (cost  30,000?.)  burnt . . 29  April,

Free  library,  &c. ,  founded  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)
W.  Brown,  M.  P.  for  S.  Lancashire,  15  April,  1857  '>
free  library,  &c.  opened . . . .11  Oct.

Free  Museum  opened 17  Oct.

Brownlow  Hill  church  and  workhouse  school  burnt,
and  23  lives  lost  (20  children) . . 8  Sept.

Explosion  of  nj  tons  of  gunpowder  in  the  Lottie
Sleigh,  in  the  Mersey,  great  damage . 16  Jan.

Death  of  sir  Wm.  Brown,  a  great  benefactor  to  Liver-
pool 3  March,

Additional  M.P. (now  3)  by  Reform  act,  15  Aug.

Royal  bank  of  Liverpool  stopped . . 21  Oct.

Greek  steamer  (Bu.biilina)  in  the  Mersey  exploded  ;
about  19  lives  lost ....  29  Nov.

Reverdy  Johnson,  the  United  States'  minister
warmly  received 22  Oct.

A  Greek  church  consecrated  by  the  Greek  arch-
bishop of  Syra 16  Jan.

Panic  through  false  alarm  of  fire  at  St.  Joseph's
Cathplic  chapel,  15  lives  lost . . 23  Jan.

Stanley  park,  100  acres  (cost  42,000?.)  opened  7  May,

Stanley  hospital ;  foundation  laid  by  the  earl  of
Derby 6  June,

British  Association  meets  here  third  time 14  Sept.

Equestrian  statue  of  the  queen  unveiled 3  Nov.

Seamen's  Orphan  Institution  founded . 11  Sept.

Sefton  park  opened  by  prince  Arthur . 20  May,

Great  landing-stage  burnt;  loss  abt.  150,000?.  28  July,

Duke  of  Edinburgh  lays  foundation  of  the  Art
Gallery,  29  Sept.  ;  and  opens  the  Seamen's
Orphanage 30  Sept.

About  325,000?.  bequeathed  to  charities  by  R.  L.
Jones,  a  timber  merchant .... Jan.

Visit  of  M.  Michel  Chevalier,  free-trader 21  April,

Statue  of  Wm.  Rathbone,  eminent  merchant,  un-
veiled 1  Jan.

Rotunda  theatre  burnt .... 9  July,

Walker  Art  Gallery  (gift  of  the  mayor.  Andrew
Walker),  cost  above  30,000?.,  opened  by  the  earl
of  Derby 6  Sept.

Bishoprics  Act,  permitting  the  erection  of  a  see  at
Liverpool,  passed . . . . 16  Aug.

Panic  through  false  alarm  of  fire  at  Colosseum
theatre  ;  37  persons  crushed  to  death 11  Oct.

Strike  of  dock  labourers  and  sailors  ;  riots  sup-
pressed, 7  Feb.  ;  strike  ends . about  25  Feb.

Mysterious  disappearance  of  Miss  Edwards,  3  Sept.  ;
found  in  London . . ... .21  Oct.

Bishopric  established . . . -24  March,

Liverpool  nominated  a  city . . . April,

Foundation  of  University  college ;  about  88,000?.
subscribed Oct.

New  water  works  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Vyrnwy,
25  miles  from  Oswestry,  begun,  14  July,  1881  ;
inaugurated  by  the  duke  of  Connaught  starting  a
fountain  at  Liverpool  .  .  .  .14  July,
[Lake  4  miles  long  formed,  A  mile  to  200  yds.  wide,
Llanwddyn  village  covered,  68  miles  of  aque-
ducts, tunnels,  pipes,  &c.  The  undertaking  was
projected  in  1879  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon,  aided
by  Mr.  C.  Hawksley  and  Mr.  J.  Bateman,  and
carried  out  by  Mr.  Deacon  as  chief  engineer.]

Discovery  of  infernal  machines  in  steamers  Malta
and  Bavarian  announced . . .24  July,

Plot  to  blow  up  the  town-hall  discovered  ;  bag  of
explosives  found  at  door  ;  2  Fenians  apprehended
10  June  ;  convicted,  sentenced  to  penal  servitude,


1839


1851


1855
1857


1S64


1872


1875
1877


1S7S
1879


LIVEEPOOL.


587


LOANS.


James McGrath for life ; James  McKnivett,

15  years . .  ....  2  Aug.  1881

Dock  space  in  1810,  26  acres  forships,  704,000  tons  ;

in  1857,  209  acres,  tonnage,  4,320,000.
New  Langton  dock  opened  by  the  prince  and  prin-
cess of  Wales,  and  named  Alexandra. .  8  Oct. ,,
University  College  inaugurated  by  the  earl  of  Derby,

14  Jan.  1882
New  court-house  founded . . .1  June, „
Home  for  ancient  mariners  opened  by  the  duke  of

Edinburgh 16  Dec. ,,

Lancelot's  hay  warehouse  burnt (damage about

100,000?.) 21  April,  1883

Mersey  tunnel,  opened  (see  under  Tunnels)  13  Feb.  1885
Liverpool  returns  nine  M.P.'s  by  act  passed  25  June, ,,
International  Exhibition  of  Navigation,  Commerce,

&c. ; proposed by  alderman David Radcliffe ;

adopted  by  the  earl  of  Derby ;  60,000?.  subscribed  ;

site  granted  by  the  corporation  1885  ;  opened  by

the queen  ; alderman Radcliffe, the mayor,

knighted 1 1 May ;  the queen leaves 13 May  ;

2,468,098  visitors  ;  reported receipts 131,032?.  ;

expenditure  150,167?.  ;  closed  .  .  '  8  Nov.  1886
Riots  ;  socialist,  orangemen,  &c.  . 19  Sept. ,,

Messrs.  Lewis's  premises  with  a  clock-tower  burnt ;

estimated  loss  250,000?. ...  24  Dec. ,,

Royal  Jubilee  Exhibition  opened  by  the  princess

Louise 16  May,  1887

First  meeting  of  the  National  Association  for  the

Advancement  of  Art .  .  .  .  3-7  Dec.  1888
Strike  of  sailors  and  firemen  end  of  May ;  ended

12  July,  1889
Frequent  dock  strikes,  met  by  a  supply  of  men

Feb.,  March,  1890
About  20,000  men on  strike,  reported  7  March  ;

soldiers  from  Preston  arrive,  18  March  ;  dispute

settled 31  March, ,,

The  duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondale  opens  the  new

Royal  Infirmary 29  Oct. ,,

Mr.  George  Holt  presents  10,000?.  to  endow  a  chair

of  physiology  in  University  College  .  3  June,  1891
Naval  exhibition  opened  by  lord  George  Hamilton,

1  Feb.  1892
Great  cotton  fire  at  Bramley  Moor  Dock  ;  estimated

loss,  about  100,000' 15  Feb. ,,

Mr.  John  Hartnup  killed  by  falling  from  the  top  of

the  Liverpool  observatory,  Birkenhead,  of  which

lie  was  director 21  April, ,,

LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTBATION.

Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval

(II  May,  1812),  the  earl  of  Liverpool  became  first

minister.* His  administration  terminated  when  he

was  attacked  by  apoplexy,  17  Feb.  1827,  and  Mr.

Canning  succeeded  as  prime  minister,  10  April.

Earl  of  Liverpool,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Earl  of  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.

Earl  of  Harrowby,  lord  president  of  the  council.

Earl  of  Westmorland,  ?orf?  privy  seal.

N.  Vansittart,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (succeeded  by

F.  J.  Robinson,  1823).

Viscount  Sidmouth,  home  secretary  (succeeded  by  Robert

Peel,  1822).
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. marquis  of  Londonderry,

foreign  secretary  (succeeded  by  George  Canning,  1822).
Earl  Bathurst,  colonial  secretary.
Viscount  Melville,  first  lord  of  admiralty.
Earl  of  Buckinghamshire,  board  oj  control  (succeeded  by

G.  Canning,  18 16  ;  C.  Bathurst,  1820  ;  C.  Wynne,  1822.
Charles  Bathurst  (1813),  chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster

(succeeded  by  N.  Vansittart,  lord  Bexley,  1823).

Wellesley  Pole,  afterwards  lord  Maryborough,  1815,
master  of  the  mint.

F.  J.  Robinson,  1818  ;  W.  Huskisson,  1823, hoard  of  trade.

Earl  of  Mulgrave,  ordnance  (succeeded  by  duke  of  Wel-
lington, 1819).

LIVEEPOOL  BisnorRic  established  by
order  of  the  privy  council,  24  March,  1880;  St".
Peter's  church  to  be  the  cathedral;  first  bishop,
John  Charles  Ryle,  D.D.


*  Robert  Jenkinson,  born  7  Jan.  1770,  entered  the  house
of  commons  under  Mr.  Pitt ;  opposed  the  abolition  of  t lie
slave  trade  in  1702;  became  lord  Hawkesmiry  in  1796;
became  foreign  minister  under  Mr.  Addington,  in  1801  ;
succeeded  his  father  as  earl  of  Liverpool  hi  iSoS  ;  died  4
Dec.  1828.


LIVINGSTONE,  see  under  Africa,  1856  et
seq.

LIVONIA,  a  Russian  province  on  the  Baltic
sea,  first  visited  by  some  Bremen  merchants  about
1 158.  It  has  belonged  successively  to  Denmark,
Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia.  It  was  finally  ceded
to  Peter  the  Great  in  1721.  Population  in  1886,
1,239,728.

LIVEET  D'OUVEIEE,  a  species  of  work-
man's passport,  introduced  into  France  by  Turgot
about  1781 ;  abolished  23  March,  1869.

LLANDAFF  (S.  Wales).  The  first  known
bishop  was  St.  Dubritius,  said  to  have  died  in  612.
The  see  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  154^.  14-s.  id.
per  annum. Present  income  4200^.

RECENT  BISHOPS.

1782.  Richard  Watson  ;  died  4  July,  1816.

1816.  Herbert  Marsh;  trans,  to  Peterborough,  1819.

1819.  Win.  Van  Mildert ;  translated  to  Durham,  1826.

1826.  Charles Richard Sumner ; translated to Win-

chester, 1827.

1827.  Edward  Copleston  ;  died  14  Oct.  1849.
1849.  Alfred  Ollivant,  died  16  Dec.  1882.

1883.  Richard  Lewis,  consecrated  25  April,  1883.

LLEEENA,  see  Villa  Franca.

LLOYD'S  (London),  at  the  Royal  Exchange-
about  1692.  A  cotfee-house,  kept  by  Edwd.  Lloyd,
Abchurch-lane,  became  a  place  of  meeting  of  mer-
chants. After  several  removals  it  was  established
finally  at  the  Royal  Exchange  in  1774,  and  re-
mained there  till  the  fire  in  1838,  when  it  was
removed  till  the  present  building  was  completed  in
1844.  Here  resort  eminent  merchants  and  ship-
owners, and  here  are  effected  insurances  on  ships  and
merchandise.  A  Register  of  ships  began  about
1764;  and  the  terms  A.  1,  &c.  were  used  about
1775.  Two  societies  (underwriters  and  merchants)
were  united,  and  one  register  issued,  Oct.  1834.
Jubilee  celebrated,  31  Oct.  1884.  Lloyd's  is  sup-
ported by  subscribers  who  now  pay  annually  5/.  5s.,
formerly  4/.  4s.  The  books  kept  here  contain  an
account  of  the  arrival  and  sailing  of  vessels,  and
are  remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of
maritime  affairs.  Many  new  signalling  stations.
established,  1882-3.  First  annual  issue  of  the
"  Univei-sal  Shipping  Register,"  published  here,
May,  1886.  In  1803,  the  subscribers  instituted;
the  Patriotic  Fund  {which  sec).  The  Austrian
Lloyd's,  an  association  for  general,  commercial,
and  industrial  purposes,  was  founded  at  Trieste,  by
Baron  Bruck,  in  1833.  It  has  established  regular
communication  between  Trieste  and  the  Levant,
by  means  of  a  fleet  of  steamers  carrying  the  mails,
and  publishes  a  journal.

LOADSTONE,  see  Magnetism.

LOAN  EXHIBITIONS,  see  Exhibitions,.
National  Portraits,  Scientific  Apparatus,  eye.

LOANO,  Piedmont  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  Aus-
trians  and  Sardinians  were  defeated  by  the  French,
under  Massena,  23.  24  Nov.  1795.

LOANS  for  t.;e  puMic  service  were  raised  by
Wolsey  in  1522  and  1525.  In  1559  Elizabeth
borrowed  200,000^.  of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  en-
able her  to  reform  her  own  coin,  and  sir  Thomas
Gresham  and  the  city  of  London  joined  in  ihe-
securitv.  Rnpin.  The  amount  of  some  of  the
English  and  other  loans,  during  memorable  periods,
viz. :  —

Seven  years' war  .  .  1755  to  1763  .£52,100,000
American  war  .  .  .  1776(01784  .  75,500,000
French  revolutionary  war .  170.1  tn  1802  .  168.500,000
War  against  Bonaparte . 1803  to  1S14 . 206,300,000


LOAN SOCIETIES.


588


LOCKS.


z  loans,  1813 . . . 21,000,000?.  and  £22,000,000

War  against  Russia . . 1855  to  1856 . 16,000,000

For  deficiency  in  revenue  1856 . 10,000,000

[Both  taken  by  the  Rothschilds  alone.]

By  Bast  India  Company . . 1858 . 8,000,000

A  subscription  loan  (18,000,000?.)  to  carry  on  the  war,
against  France,  filled  up  in  London  in  15  hours  and
20  minutes  (see  Loyalty  Loans),  5  Dec.  1796.

French  loan  on  9  July,  1855,  on  account  of  the  war  with
Russia.  The  French  legislature  passed  a  bill  for  raising
by  loan  750  million  francs  (30,000,000?.  sterling).  On
the  30th  the  total  subscribed  in  France  amounted  to
3.652,591,985  francs  (about  146,103,679?.),  nearly  five
times  the  amount  required  ;  2,533,888,450  francs  were
from  Paris  ;  from  the  departments,  1,118,703,535  francs.
The  number  of  subscribers  was  316.864.  No  less  than
231,920,155  francs  were  made  up  by  subscription  of  50
francs  and  under.  About  600  millions  came  from  foreign
countries.  The  English  subscription  of  150,000.000
francs  was  returned,  as  double  the  amount  required
had  been  proffered.

The  French  government  raised  a  loan  of  20,000,000?.  for
the  Italian  war  from  its  own  people  without  difficulty,
May,  1859.

A  Turkish  loan,  in  1854,  at  7^  per  cent.,  recommended
by  lord  Palmerston  ;  a  loan  of  5,000,000?. ,  at  4  per
cent.,  on  the  security  of  England  and  France,  was
taken  up  by  Rothschild  in  Aug.  1855,  and  was  well
received  :  the  stock  rose  to  a  small  premium.

French  loan  for  17,600,000?.  announced  29  Jan.  1868.

French  loan  2,000,000,000  francs  for  80,000,000?.  :  nearly
twice  the  amount  subscribed  in  Prance  alone,  28  June,
3871  ;  another  loan,  of  (120,000,000?.  at  6\  per  cent.)
'for  speedy  payment  of  the  indemnity  and  evacuation
of  the  provinces  held  by  the  Germans  ;  announced  26
July,  1872  ;  above  twice  the  amount  subscribed.  See
France.

Foreign  Loans  Committee:  appointed  to  inquire  con-
cerning certain  loans  to  Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  and
Paraguay,  in  their  report  comment  on  the  exaggerated
statements  respecting  the  revenues  and  resources  of
the  states  in  the  prospectuses,  the  efforts  of  the  con-
tractors to  make  fictitious  markets  ;  the  proceedings
■on  the  stock  exchange  to  maintain  their  prestige  ;  the
.-secrecy  adopted  in  the  proceedings  ;  "  the  best  secu-
rity against  the  recurrence  of  such  evils  will  be  found,
not  so  much  in  legislative  enactments  as  in  the  en-
lightenment of  the  public  as  to  their  real  nature  and
origin,  thus  rendering  it  more  difficult  for  unscrupulous
persons  to  carry  out  schemes  ....  which  have  ended
in  so  much  discredit  and  disaster,"  July,  1S75.

LOAN  SOCIETIES.  The  laws  relating  to
them  were  amended  by  the  act  3  &  4  Vict.  c.  no  ;
passed  Aug.  1840.

LOBSTERS  and  CEABS-  The  size  at  which
they  are  to  be  sold  is  regulated  by  the  Fisheries
act,  1877.

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  ACT,  passed  in
1858,  was  amended  in  1861.  Scotch  1  >cal  govern-
ment bill  introduced  by  the  krd  advocate,  J.  P.  B.
Eobertson,  8  April,  passed  26  Aug.  1889.
Mr.  Ritchie's  Local  Government  Bill  (England  &  Wales)
read  first  time  19  March  ;  second  time  nem.  con.  20
April ;  royal  assent  13  Aug.  1888  ;  51  &  52  Vict.  c.  41.

I.  Establishes  County  Councils  in  every  adminis-
trative county  as  defined  by  the  act.  Council  to
•consist  of  councillors  and  aldermen,  with  a  chair-
man ;  electors  to  be  parliamentary  voters,  and  male
and  female  ratepayers.

II.  61  boroughs  constituted  county  boroughs  ;  the
metropolis  constituted  the  county  of  London,  super-
seding the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works.

III.  Boundaries.

IV.  Finance.

V.  Supplemental.

VI.  Transitory  provisions  ;  first  election  (for  three
years)  in  Jan.,  and  duties  entered  on  1  April,  1889.

Local Government  (Boundaries) Act. See under

Boundary  Acts,  1887.
Local  Government  (Electors)  Act  passed  16  May

i838. •
Irish  Local  Government  Bill  introduced  by  Mr.  A.  J.

Balfour  (due  provision  made  for  the  rights  of  minorities)

read first  time  18  Feb.  ; second reading  (339-247),

24.  May  ;  withdrawn,  13  June,  1892.


LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  BOARD  (anew
department  of  the  government,  comprising  the
supervision  of  the  public  health,  and  local  govern-
ment together  with  the  powers  and  duties  of  the
Poor  Law  board,  including  education,  police,
highways,  &c),  was  established  in  pursuance  of
an  act  passed  14  Aug.  1871.  First  president,  Mr.
James  Stansfeld,  appointed  president  of  the  poor
law  board,  March,  1871.  Mr.  (aft.  sir  John)  Lam-
bert, C.B.,  first  secretary,  appointed  Sept.  1871.  See
Gladstone  and  other  Administrations.  See  London,
15  March,  1883.

LOCAL  LOANS  ACT,  passed  13  Aug.  1875,
By  the  National  Debt  and  Local  Loans  Act  passed
12  July,  1887,  the  local  loans  stock  was  created.
In  May,  1891,  the  local  indebtedness  was  stated  to  be
about  195,400,0001.,  which  is  still  increasing,  being  the
result  of  expenditure  by  local  authorities  on  important
public  works,  frequently  reproductive,  and  also  sani-
tary improvements. The  debtors  include  nearly  all
the  great  towns  in  the  kingdom.

"  LOCAL  OPTION,"  see  Permissive  Bill.

LOCAL  PARLIAMENTS.  The  first  of
these  mimic  parliaments  was  opened  in  Liverpool,
about  1864;  a  conference  of  about  150  delegates
from  146  of  these  assemblies,  with  20,000  members,
in  Great  Britain,  met  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  20-23
May,  1883.

LOCAL  RATES  in  England,  come  from  26
sources.  »

Local  self-government  is  a  chaos  of  authorities,  of  rates,

and  areas. 67.  /.  Ooschen.

See  Probate  Duty,  1888.
The  Lonion  Ratepayers'  Defence League  formed  (the

duke  of  Westminster  president)  18  Nov.  1891.

LOCHLEVEN  CASTLE  (Kinross),  built  on
an  isle  in  Loch  Leven,  it  is  said  by  the  Picts,  was
the  royal  residence  of  Alexander  III.  and  his  queen
when  taken  from  it  to  Stirling.  It  was  besieged
by  the  English  in  1301,  and  in  1334.  Patrick
Graham,  first  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  im-
prisoned for  attempting  to  reform  the  church,  died
here  about  1*478.  The  earl  of  Northumberland  was
confined  in  it,  1569.  It  was  the  place  of  queen
Mary's  imprisonment  in  1567,  and  of  her  escape  on
Sunday,  2  May,  1568.

LOCKE'S  ACT,  23  &  24  Vict.  c.  127  (i860),
relates  to  legal  proceedings.

LOCKE  KING'S  ACTS;  17  &  18  Vict,
c.  113  (1854),  and  30  &  31  Vict.  c.  69  (1867),  relate
to  mortgages.

LOCK  HOSPITAL,  established  1747;  the
asylum,  1787.

LOCK-OUTS,  see  Strikes.

LOCKS,  early  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,
Romans,  and  the  Chinese. Denon  Iras  engraved  an
Egyptian  lock  of  wood. Du  Cange  mentions  locks
and  padlocks  as  early  as  1381.
Barron's  locks  (on  the many-tumbler principle) were

patented  in  1778; Bramali's,  in  1788; and  Chubb's

"  detector"  locks  in  1818.
Mr. E. Beckett Denison (now  lord Grimthorpe) in-
vented a  lock  asserted  to  be  secure  against  picking,  in

1852.
New  locks  have  been  produced  by  Messrs. Day  and

Newell, Yale, Andrews, and others,  especially in

America.
Mr.  Hobbs,  an  American,  exhibited  his  own locks in

the  Crystal  palace,  in  1851,  and  showed  great  skill  in

picking  others.
A  "  Key  Bureau  " to  aid  in  the  recovery  of  lost  keys

(charge  is.  per  annum)  established  in  Loudon  in  1885.


LOCOMOTIVES.


589


LOMBARD MERCHANTS.


Chubb's "panic  door  lock"  for  easy  opening  of  doors

in  theatres  announced  Oct.  1887.
Mr.  F.  J.  Biggs's  tubular  lock,  said  to  be  cheaper  and
[_  better  than  mortice  locks,  manufactured  by  a  syndi-
cate in  London,  May,  1890.

LOCOMOTIVES,  see  Railways. The  use  of

steani  locomotives  on  ordinary  roads  is  regulated  by
acts  passed  in  1861,  1865,  and  1878.

LOCRIANS,  an  ancient  people  of  Northern
Greece.  They  resisted  Philip  of  Macedon,  were
aided  by  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  and  defeated
by  him  at  Chaeronea,  6  or  7  Aug.  338  B.C.

LOCUSTS,  one  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  1491
B.C.  {Exod.  x.)  The  ravages  of  locusts  in  Cyprus
have  been  greatly  checked  by  the  skill  and  energy
of  Mr.  Richard  Matteiand  Mr.  Samuel  Brown,  1881
et  seq.  A  swarm  of  locusts  settled  upon  the  ground
about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables;  great
numbers  fell  in  the  streets  ;  they  resembled  grass-
hoppers, but  were  three  times  the  size,  and  their
colours  more  variegated,  4  Aug.  1748.  They  in-
fested Germany  in  1749,  Poland  in  1750,  S.  Africa
1797,  1877,  and  Warsaw  in  June,  1816.  They  are
said  to  have  been  seen  in  London  in  1857.  Russia
was  infested  by  them  in  July,  i860;  Algeria,
severely,in  1866,  1874,  1889,  and  1891-2  ;  Sardinia
in  1868;  and  Minnesota,  U.S.,  1873-74;  S.  Russia,
June,  1884;  Cjprus,  1884  ;  N.  India,  June,  July,
1891 ;  Morocco,  Dec.  1891,  June,  1892.

LODGERS  paying  10I.  a  year  for  a  whole  year
for  apartments  without  furniture,  acquired  the
suffrage,  by  Reform  act  passed  15  Aug.  1867.  Act
to  protect  their  goods  from  distraint,  passed  16  Aug.
187 1.  The  lodger  franchise  much  increased  by
the  Parliamentary  and  Municipal  Registration  act
of  1878  ;  and  by  the  new  Reform  Rill,  6  Dee.  1884.

The  assembled  judges  decide  that  with  a  non-resident
landlord  the  lodger  is  a  householder;  with  a  resident
landlord  he  must  qualify  as  a  compound  householder.

LODGING-HOUSES.  An  act  placing  com-
mon lodging-houses  under  the  watch  of  the  police
was  passed  in  1851.  In  that  year  a  model  lodging-
house  erected  by  prince  Albert  appeared  at  the  Great
Exhibition.  Since  then,  blocks  of  lodging-houses
for  the  poor  have  been  erected  by  Baroness  Burdett-
Coutts  and  others.  Mr.  Peabody's  donation  of
12  March,  1862,  has  been  appropriated  for  a  similar
purpose ;  see  Peabody.  On  19  Nov.  1863,  the  city
of  London  voted  20,000^.  and  a  piece  of  land  in
Victoria-street  (now  Farringdon-road)  for  the  pur-
pose. See  London,  1845.

LODI  (N.  Italy).  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  com-
manding the  French  army,  totally  defeated  the
Austrians,  under  Beaulieu,  after  a  bloody  engage-
ment, at  the  bridge  of  Lodi,  10  May,  1796.  The
republican  flag  floated  in  Milan  a  few  days  after.
Monument  to  Victor  Emmanuel  inaugurated,  16
Sept.  1883.

LOGARITHMS,  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of
numbers  one  to  another,  were  invented  by  John
Napier,  baron  of  Merchiston,  who  published  his
canon,  or  table,  in  1614.  The  invention  was  com-
pleted by  Mr.  Henry  Briggs,  at  Oxford,  who  pub-
lished tables,  1616-18.  The  method  of  computing
by  means  of  marked  pieces  of  ivory  was  discovered
about  the  same  time,  and  hence  called  Napier's
bones.

"  The  Construction  of  Logarithms,"  1619,  by  John
Napier,  baron  of  Merchiston,  translated  with  notes,
and  a  catalogue  of  Napier's  works  by  Win.  Rae  Mac-
donald,  published  in  1889.


LOGIC,  "  the  science  of  reasoning." Eminent
works on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, Novum
Organon ; Locke  on  the  Understanding ; and  the-
modern  treatises  on  Logic,  by  archbishop  Whately,
sir  "William  Hamilton,  and  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill!
Earl  Stanhope's  Demonstrator,  or  Logical  Machine,  in-
vented in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  was  de-
scribed by  rev.  Robert  Harley  to  the  British  Associa-
tion, 19  Aug.  1878.
In  his  "Principles  of  Science,"  1874,  Mr.  Win.  Stanley
Jevons  describes his "Logical  Abecedarium " and
"  Logical  Slate."
G.  Boole  on  "  Laws  of  Thought,"  1854.
J.  Venn's  "Symbolic  Logic,"  July,  1881.

.  LOGIERIAN  SYSTEM  of  musical  educa-
tion, commenced  by  J.  B.  Logier,  in  Jan.  1815,  and
introduced  into  the  chief  towns  of  the  United  King-
dom, Prussia,  &c. He  died  in  1846.

LOG-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  about  1570  ^
first  mentioned  by  Bourne  in  1577.  It  is  divided,
into  spaces  of  50  feet,  and  the  way  which  the  shij>
makes  is  measured  by  a  half-minute  sand-glass,
which  bears  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  an  hour
that  50  feet  bear  to  a  mile  :  the  line  used  in  the-
royal  navy  is  48  feet.

LOGOGRAPH,  apparatus  invented  by  Mr.  W.
H.  Barlow,  about  1874,  to  give  graphic  representa-
tion of  the  vibratory  motions  of  the  air-waves  of
speech,  somewhat  resembling  a  telegraphic  mes-
sage.

LOGOGRAPHIC  PRINTING,  in  which
the  commoner  words  were  cast  in  one  mass,  was
patented  by  Henry  Johnson  and  Mr.  Walter  of  the
Times  in  1 783.  Anderson' s  "  History  of  Commerce,"1
vol.  iv.  was  printed  by  these  types  in  1789.

LOGRONO,  see  JSfafara.

LOI  DES  SUSPECTS,  enacted  by  the
French  convention,  17  Sept.  1793,  during  the  reign
of  terror,  filled  the  prisons  of  Paris.  The  Public-
Safety  bill,  of  a  similar  character,  was  passed,
18  Feb.  1858,  shortly  after  Orsini's  attempt  on  the-
life  of  the  emperor,  Napoleon  III.

LOLLARDS  (by  some  derived  from  the  German
lollen,  to  sing  in  a  low  tone,  by  others  derived  from
the  English  verb  to  loll  or  lounge)  the  name  given
to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  catholic  religion-
in  England,  the  followers  of  Wykliffe.  The  sect  is
also  said  to  have  been  founded  in  13 15  by  Walter
Lollard,  who  was  burnt  for  heresy  at  Cologne  in
1322.  The  Lollards  are  said  to  have  devoted  them-
selves to  acts  of  mercy.  The  first  Lollard  martyr
in  England  was  William  Sawtree,  parish  priest  of
St.  Osith,  London,  12  Feb.  1401,  when  the  Lollards
were  proscribed  by  parliament,  and  numbers  of
them  were  burnt  alive.  Sir  John  Cobham,  lord
Oldcastle,  a  follower  of  Wykliffe,  was  accused  of
treason  and  condemned,  Sept.  1413.  Ho  escaped  to.
Wales,  where  he  was  captured,  and  brought  to
London  and  burnt,  25  Dec.  1418.  Lollards' "tower,
part  of  the  bishop's  prison,  was  near  St.  Paul's,  not
Lambeth  palace. Dr.  Maitland.

LOMBARDISTS,  disciples  of  Peter  Lombard,
the  schoolman,  bishop  of  Paris,  author  of  the  "  Book
of  Sentences,"  who  died  in  1164.

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS,  in  England,

were  understood  to  be  composed  of  natives  of  pome-
one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence,
or  Venice.  Anderson.  Lombard  usurers  were  sent
to  England  by  pope  Gregory  IX.  to  lend  money  to-
convents,  communities,  and  private  persons  who-
were  not  able  to  pay  down  the  tenths  which  were
collected  throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigour
that  year,  13  Hen.  III.  1299. They  had  off  ces  in


LOMBAEDY.


590


LONDON.


the  street  named  after  them  to  this  day.  Their
usurious  transactions  caused  their  expulsion  from
the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.

LOMBAEDY  (N.  Italy)  derived  its  name
from  the  Longobardi,  a  German  tribe  from  Branden-
burg, said  (doubtfully)  to  have  been  invited  into
Italy  bv  Justinian  to  serve  against  the  Goths.
Their  chief,  Alboin,  established  a  kingdom  which
lasted  from  568  to  774.  The  last  king,  Desiderius,
was  dethroned  by  Charlemagne.  (For  a  list  of
the  Lombard  kings,  see  Italy.)  About  the  end  ot
the  9th  century  the  chief  towns  of  Lombardy  forti-
fied themselves,  and  became  republics.  The  first
Lombard  league,  consisting  of  Milan,  Venice,
Pavia,  Modena,  &c,  was  formed  to  restrain  the
power  of  the  German  emperors,  in  1167.  On  29
May,  1 1 76,  they  defeated  the  emperor  Frederick
Barbarossa  at  Legnano,  and  eventually  compelled
him  to  sign  the  peace  of  Constance  in  1183.  In
1226  another  league  was  formed  against  Frede-
rick II.,  which  was  also  successful.  After  this,
pelty  tyrants  rose  in  most  of  the  cities,  and  foreign
influence  quickly  followed.  The  Guelf  and  Ghibel-
line  factions  greatly  distracted  Lombardy;  and
from  the  15th  century  to  the  present  time,  it  has
been  contended  for  by  the  German  and  French
sovereigns.  The  house  of  Austria  obtained  it  in
1748,  and  held  it  till  1797,  when  it  was  conquered
by  the  French,  who  incorporated  it  with  the  Cisal-
pine republic,  and  in  1805  with  the  kingdom  of
Italv.  On  the  breaking  up  of  the  French  empire
in  1815.  the  Lombardo- Venetian  Kingdom  was
established  by  the  allied  sovereigns  and  given  to
Austria,  who  had  lost  her  Flemish  possessions.
Lombardy  and  Venice  revolted,  and  joined  the  king
of  Sardinia  in  March,  1848;  but  they  did  not  sup-
port him  well,  and  were  again  subjected  to  Austria
after  his  defeat  at  No  vara,  23  March,  1849.  An
amnesty  for  political  offences  was  granted  in  1856
Great  jealousy  of  Sardinia  was  felt  by  Austria  aftei
1849.  In  1857  diplomatic  relations  were  suspended;
and  in  April,  1859,  war  broke  out;  the  Austrians
crossing  the  Ticino  and  entering  Piedmont.  The
French  emperor  declared  war  against  Austria,  and
immediately  sent  troops  into  Italy.  The  Austrians
were  defeated  at  Montebello,  20  May  ;  Palestro,  30,
31  May  ;  Magenta,  4  June  ;  and  Solferino,  24  June.
By  the  peace  of  Villafranca  (11  July),  the  largest
part  of  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  Louis  Napoleon,  who
transferred  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  It  now  forms
part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy,  to  which  Venetia
was  also  surrendered  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,
3  Oct.  1867. Population  1890,  3,906,958.

LONATO  (Brescia,  N.  Italy).  Here  Napoleon
Bonaparte  defeated  Wurmser  and  the  Austrians,  3
Aug.  1796.

LONDON,  the  capital  of  1he  British  empire.
The  earliest  history  is  traditional.  The  Celtic  name
is  said  to  have  been  Lyn-din,  lake-fort ;  Tacitus  in
the  first  century,  calls  it  Londinium ;  and  describes
it  as  a  flourishing  trading  city ;  it  was  afterwards
called  Augusta,  an  appellation  frequently  given  to
great  cities ;  several  other  forms  of  the  name  appear
in  documents,  such  as  Lundenbyrig,  Lundonia,  and
London-wic.  In  i860,  London  and  the  suburbs
were  estimated  to  cover  121  square  miles  (11  miles
each  way,  being  three  times  as  large  as  in  1800  ;  in
1880  122  square  miles.  The  population  of  the
"city"  in  1801,156,859;  in  1811,120,909;  ini82i,
125,434;  in  1831,  125,574;  in  1.841,  125,008;  in
1 85 1,  122,440;  1111861,  112,063;  in  1871,74,897;  in
1881,  50,652.  Day  census,  25-30  April,  201,061 ;
1891,  5  April,  37,694  (day  census,  27  April,  301,384).
For  London  and  suburbs,  1801  et  seq.  see  table  in


article  Population  (5  April,  1891,  4,231,431).
Eevenue  of  corporation,  1862,  437,341/.;  1875,
655,391/.:  expenditure,  592,244/. ;  in  1877,  revenue,
634,734/.:  expenditure,  667,812/.  Annual  rate-
able value  (metropolitan  district)  April,  1881,
27,405,488/. ;  the  "  city,"  3,537,561/.  Jan.  1888,
34,340.596/.  The  "  port"  of  London  extends  from
London  Bridge  to  the  Norih  Foreland.  Tonnage
entering  and  leaving  the  port,  1871,  7,600,000;
1885,  12,000,000  (dues  paid  over  41,000/.).  London
returns  2  instead  of  4  members  to  parliament  by  Act
of  1885.  See  Docks,  Mayors,  Metropolitan  Boardof
Works,  London  County  Council,  and  Treaties.

The  town  appears  to  have  prospered  under  British,
Roman,  and  Saxon  rules,  and  to  have  been  much
indebted  to  Alfred  and  his  successors,  but  suffered
greatly  by  the  Danes ;  it  was  not  attacked  by  Wil-
liam I.,  by  whom  the  citizens  were  conciliated,  and  its
corporate  government  was  recognized  by  his  son
Henry  I.  The  city  receh  ed  many  favours  from  the
Plantagenet  kings,  but  frequently  resisted  their
exactions.  London  is  governed  by  the  lord  mayor,
the  court  of  aldermen,  the  common  council,  and  other
offices.  London  was  not  included  in  the  municipal
corporations  Act,  1835.  The  London  county  council
was  constituted  by  the  local  government  Act  passed
in  18S8.
London  (metropolitan  district),  contains  6612  miles
of  streets  ;  528,794  inhabited  houses  ;  population,

4,025,659 June,  1873

Income  of  the  city  estates,  538, 6$il. . . . ,,
Aulus  Plautius  invades  Britain  and  erects  a  fort

on  the  Thames 41  or  43

Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  defeats  the  Romans
and  burns  London  ;  she  is  defeated  by  Suetonius

and  dies  by  suicide 61

London  held'  by  the  rebel  emperors,  Carausius  and

Allectus 286

Conjectured  date  of  the  building  of  the  wall .  350-369
800  vessels  said  to  be  employed  hi  the  port  of  Lon-
don for  the  export  of  corn 359

St.  Paul's  church  founded  by  Ethelbert,  about . 597
London  termed  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  the  East

Saxons

Mellitus,  first  bishop  (soon  expelled) .

A  plague  ravages  London 644

Great  fire  which  nearly  consumed  the  city  .
London  pillaged  by  the  Banes,  839;  these  expelled

Alfred  repairs  and  strengthens  London .
Easterlings  settle  in  London  before  .

Another  great  fire

Tower  built  by  William  I.  ....

First  charter  granted  to  the  city  by  the  same  king'  1079

Another  great  fire,  St.  Paul's  burnt .

606  houses  thrown  down  by  a  tempest

Important  Charter  granted  by  Henry  I.  .

St.  Bartholomew's  priory  founded  by  Rahere,  about ,,

London-bridge  built,  1014  ;  burnt  with  part  of  the

city 1 136

Charter  granted  by  Henry  II n  54

Old  London-bridge  begun 11 76

Henry  Fitz-Ailwin,  the  first  mayor  (served  twenty-
four  years)  see  below,  1889 . . . 1189  or  1191

Massacre  of  Jews ,,

First  stone  bridge  finished 1209

Charter  of  king  John ;  mayor  and  common  council

to  be  elected  annually 1214

Foreign  merchants  invited,  settle  here . 1199-1220

Charter  of  Henry  III 1233

Watch  in  London,  38  Henry  III 1253

Privileges  granted  to  the  Hanse  merchants  (which
see) 1259


*  It  is  still  preserved  in  the  city  archives.  This
charter  is  written  in  beautiful  Saxon  characters,  on  a
slip  of  parchment  six  inches  long,  and  one  broad,  and  is
in  English  as  follows: — "William  the  king  greeteth
William  the  bishop,  and  Gosfrith  the  portreeve,  and  all
the  burgesses  within  London,  French  and  English,
friendly.  And  I  acquaint  you,  that  I  will  that  ye  be  all
there  law-worthy  as  ye  were  in  king  Edward's  days.  And
I  will  that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir,  after  his  father's
days.  And  I  will  not  suffer  that  any  man  do  you  any
wrong. God  preserve  you."


LONDON.


591


LONDON.


The  liberties  and  privileges  of  the  city  maintained

and  enlarged  by  Walter  Harvey,  mayor . .  1272
Tax  called  murage,  to  keep  the  walls  and  ditches  in
repair ....... about  1282

Henry  le  Waleys  and  5  others  first  M.  P.' s  for  London  1284
Water  brought  from  Tyburn  to  West  Cheap  .  .  1285
Expulsion  of  the  Jews  by  Edward  I.  (16,511)  .  .  1290
The  manor  of  South wark  conveyed  to  the  citizens  1327

Charter  granted  by  Edward  III 1328

Terrible  pestilence, in which 50,000  (?) citizens
perish  *........ 1348

London  sends  4  members  to  parliament  . . .  1355
William  of  Walworth  lord  mayor  . . . . 1380

Wat  Tyler's  rebellion  (see  Tyler) ....  1381

Aldermen  elected  for  life 1394

Great  plague,  30,000  (?)  died 1406

City  first  lighted  at  night  by  lanterns  .  .  .  .  1415
Guildhall  commenced  1411,  finished  .  .  .  1416
Whittington  thrice  lord  mayor,  viz.,  1397,  1406,  1419
Jack  Cade's  rebellion  ;  see  Cade  ....  1450
First  civic  procession  on  the  water  ;  sir  John  Nor-
man lord  mayor 1453

Falconbridge  attempts  the  city . . . .1471

Printing-press  set  up  by  Caxton ,,

Sweating  sickness  rages 1485

Fleet  diteli  navigable .  1502

St.  Paul's  school  founded  by  dean  Colet  .  .  1509

The  fatal  sweat,  Sudor  A nglicus 1517

Evil  May-day  {which  see) ,,

Streets  first  paved  (Viner's  Slat.)  . . . .  1533

"  Bills  of  Mortality  "  ordered  to  be  kept . . .  1538

Dissolution  of  religious  houses 1539

St.  Bartholomew's  monastery  changed  to  an  hospital , ,
Forty  taverns  and  public  houses  allowed  in  the

city,  and  three  in  Westminster,  act  7  Edw.  VI.  .  1553
Christ's  hospital  founded  by  king  Edw.  VI. .  ,,

Russian  trading  company  established  . . . . „

Coaches  introduced  about 1563

Royal  Exchange  built  (sen  Exchange)  . . . .  1566
New buildings in  London  forbidden  "where  no
former  hath  been  known  to  have  been,"  to  pre-
vent the  increasing  sizet 1580

Thames  water  conveyed  into  the  city  by  leaden

pipes 1580-94

Stow  publishes  his  survey 1598

Nearly  all  London  yet  built  of  wood  .  .  .  1600
30,578  persons  said  to  perish  by  the  plague  .  .  1603
Thomas  Sutton  founds  Charterhouse  school,  &c.  .  1611
New  river  water  brought  to  London  .  .  .  .1613
Principal  streets! paved . . . . . . 1616

Hackney  coaches  first  plied 1625

A  great  plague „

Building  of  the  western  parishes,  St.  Giles's,  <fec.

begun . . . .  1640

The  city  held  for  the  parliament ....  1642

London  fortified 1643

Jews  allowed  to  return  to  London  by  Cromwell  .  1650
Banking  begun  by  Francis  Child  .  .  about  1660
Royal  Society  of  London  chartered . . . . 1662

The  great  plague  (see  Plagues) 1665

"  Oxford"  afterwards  "  London  Gazette "  published

7  Nov. ,,
Great  fire  of  London  (see  Fires) . .  2-6  Sept.  1666

*  This  terrible  pestilence  broke  out  in  India,  and
spreading  itself  westward  through  every  country  on  the
globe,  reached  England.  Its  ravages  in  London  were
so  great,  that  the  common  cemeteries  were  not  sufficient
for  the  interment  of  the  dead  ;  and  various  pieces  of
ground  without  the  walls  were  assigned  for  burial-places.
Amongst  these  was  the  waste  land  now  forming  the
precincts  of  the  Charter-house,  where  upwards  of  50,000
bodies  were  then  deposited.  Tins  disorder  did  not  sub-
side till  1357. Leigh.

t  This  proclamation  or  decree  was  dated  from  None-
such, 7  July,  1580,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  erect  new
buildings  where  none  had  before  existed  in  the  memory
of  man.  The  extension  of  the  metropolis  was  deemed
calculated  to  encourage  the  increase  of  the  plague  ;
create  a  trouble  in  governing  such  multitudes  ;  a  dearth
of  victuals  ;  multiplying  of  beggars,  and  inability  to
relieve  them  ;  an  increase  of  artisans  more  than  could
live  together ;  impoverishing  other  cities  for  lack  of
inhabitants.  The  decree  stated  that  lack  of  air,  lack  of
room  to  walk  and  shoot,  &c. ,  arose  out  of  too  crowded  a
city.  A  proclamation  to  the  same  effect  was  also  issued
by  James  1.


Act  for  a  "new  model  of  building "  in  the  city  .  1666
Monument  erected  by  Wren  (see  Monument)  .  1671-7

St.  Paul's  founded .... 21  June,  1675

A  London  directory  published 1679

Charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  ....  16S0

Penny  post  established 1683

London  partly  lit  at  night  by  Edward Heming's

patent 1684-5

Settlement  of  French  protestants  ....  1685
Charter  declared  forfeited,  1682  ;  but  restored . . 1689

Bank  of  England  established 1694

St.  Paul's  opened 2  Dec. 1697

Awful  storm ....  26  Nov.-i  Dec.  1703

Sacheverel's  sermon  and  mob  (see  Riots)  .  .  .  1709
Act  for  the  erection  of  fifty  new  churches  .  .  1711
South  Sea  bubble  commenced,  1710  ;  exploded  (see

South  Sea,  Company) i-j2o

Chelsea  water  works  formed 1722

Bank  of  England  built 1732-4

Glass  lamps  in  the  street  .  .  between  1694  &  1736
Fleet  ditch  covered,  and  Fleet  market  opened  .  1737
"  Great  Frost,"  25  Dec.  1739  to  8  Feb.  . . . 1740

London  Hospital  instituted ,,

New  Mansion-house  founded,  1739  ;  completed  . . 1753

British  Museum  established ,,

Society  of  Arts  established ,,

The  New  road,  1755-6  ;  City  road  projected  about 1760

Eight  gates  removed 1760-1

Shop  signs  removed 1762

Westminster  paving-act  passed ....,,
Blackfriars-bridge  opened ...  19  Nov. 1769

The  lord  mayor  (Brass  Crosby)  committed  to  the

Tower  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  a  breach  of

privilege 27  March,  1771

Lord  George  Gordon's  No-popery  mob  (see  Gordon's

mob) June,  1780

Thanksgiving  of  George  III.  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral

23  April,  1789
Building  of  Camden  town,  begun  .  .  .  .  1791
London  docks  opened .... 20  Jan. 1799

London  Institution  founded 1805

Lord  Nelson's  funeral .... 9  Jan. 1806

Gas  first  exhibited  in  Pall  Mall 1807

Riots  on  the  committal  of  sir  F.  Burdett  to  the

Tower 6  April,  1810

The  Mint  finished I8n

Regent-street  begun ^13

Civic  banquet  to  the  allied  sovereigns  at  Guildhall,

18  June,  1814

Custom-house  burnt 12  Feb.

The  city  generally  lighted  with  gas  . . .  "

Waterloo-bridge  opened ... 18  June,  1817

New  Custom-house  opened (

Southwark-bridge  opened  ...  24  March,  1S19
The  great  increase  in  building  commences  .  .  .  1820
Bank  of  England  completed  by  sir  John  Soane  .  1821
Tumults  at  queen  Caroline's  funeral . 14  Aug. ,,

Cabs  introduced ^23

London  Mechanics' Institution  founded  . . . ,,

Bubble  companies'  panic ^s

London  University  chartered  .  .  .11  Feb.  1826
27  turnpikes  removed  by  act  of  parliament . .  1827

New  Post-office  completed 1829

Farringdon-market  opened ,

Omnibuses  introduced ,,

New  metropolitan  police  began  . . 29  Sept. ,,

Co  vent-garden  market  rebuilt 1830

Memorable  political  panic,  5  Nov. ;  and  no  lord

mayor's  show g  Nov. „

New  London-bridge  opened  .  .  .  .  i  Aug.  1831
General  Fast  on  account  of  the  cholera  in  England,

6  Feb.  1832
Hungerford-market  opened  ...  3  July,  1833
Houses  of  parliament  burnt .  .  .  .16  Oct.  1834
City  of  London  school  founded  ....,,

The  queen  dines  at  Guildhall  .  .  .9  Nov.  1837
Royal  Exchange  burnt  ....  10  Jan.  1838
Railway opened from London to Birmingham,

17  Sept.  ;  to  Greenwich . . . .  28  Dec. ,,
Penny-postage  begun .... 10  Jan. 1840
Railway  to  Southampton  opened .  n  May,

Wood  pavement  tried ;  fails ....  „

London  library  established 1841

Railway  to  Bristol  opened . . . 30  June, ,,
Blackwall  railway  opened . . . .2  Aug. ,,
Railway  to  Brighton  opened . . .21  Sept. ,,
Thames  Tunnel  opened . . . . 25  March,  1S43
Royal  Exchange  opened  by  the  queen . 28  Oct. 1844


LONDON.


592


LONDON.


Erection  of  baths  and  wash-houses  begins  . . . 1844

Fleet  prison  taken  down ,,

New  building  act  begins  operation . . 1  Jan.  1845

Penny  steamboats  begun ,,

Model  lodging  houses  built ,,

Railway  mania ,,

Twopenny  omnibuses  begun 1846

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see

Chartists) 10  April,  1848

Re-api>earance  of  the  cholera . . . Sept. 1849
Coal  Exchange  opened .... 30  Oct. „
Lord  mayor's  great  banquet  (of  mayors)— (see  Lord

Mayors) 21  March,  1850

Attack  upon  general  Haynau ... 4  Sept. ,,
Great  Exhibition  opened,  1  May  ;  closed,  11  Oct. . 1851
Duke  of  Wellington  dies, 14  Sept.  ;  his  funeral  at
St.  Paul's  (see  Wellington) . .  18  Nov.  1852

Cab-strike 27-29  July,  1853

Visit  of  king  of  Portugal . . . .19  May,  1854
Attack  of  cholera .... Aug.  &  Sept. ,,
Meeting  for  Patriotic  fund .... 2  Nov. ,,
Visit  of  emperor  and  empress  of  the  French  to  the

lord  mayor 19  April,  1855

The  queen  distributes  Crimean  medals  .  18  May,  „
Failure  of  Paul,  Strahan,  &  Co.  (see  Trials)  5  June,  ,,
Metropolitan  Local  Management  act  passed  14  Aug.  ,,
Visit  of  the  king  of  Sardinia . .  30  Nov. ,,

Metropolitan  Board  of  works,  first  meeting  22  Dec. ,,
Peace  proclaimed,  29  April ;  illuminations  and  fire-
works in  the  parks .... 29  May,  1856
Royal  British  Bank  stops  payment  (see  British  Bank)

4  Sept. „
Meetings  of  unemployed  operatives  in  Smithfleld,

Feb.  1857
Many  commercial  failures  ;  Bank  charter  act  sus-
pended 12  Nov. ,,

James  Morison  (originally  a  poor  boy),  who  mainly
introduced  the  system  of  quick  returns  and  small
profits,  dies  exceedingly  rich . .  30  Oct. ,,

Metropolis  divided  into  10  postal  districts 1  Jan.  1858
Great  Eastern  launched  (began  3  Nov.  1857)31  Jan. ,,
Complaints  of  the  state  of  the  Thames  ;  act  for  its

purification  passed . . - . . .2  Aug. ,,
Panic  on  stock  exchange  (40  or  50  failures)  at  re-
ported French  and  Russian  alliance  against  Aus-
tria April,  1859

A  strike  among  the  building  trades,  and  a  lock-out
by  the  masters,  8  Aug.  ;  the  latter  require  the  men
to  sign  a  document,  declaring  that  they  will  not
belong  to  any  society  which  interferes  with  the
freedom  of  the  workman  ;  the  strike  was  dying

out  in Nov. „

Disgraceful  riots  at  the  church  of  St.  George's  in
the  East,  through  the  indiscretion  of  the  Trac-
tarian  clergyman,  the  rev.  Bryan  King,  Sept.  and
Oct.  The  church  (closed  for  a  time)  re-opened  :
fresh  disturbances  on  6,  13,  20  Nov.  ;  the  agita-
tion continued  till  Mr.  King  retired ;  a  coin  promise
was  effected . .  ... 29  July,  i860

Metropolitan  railway  (underground)  commenced  in

spring  of „

Great  distress  through  the  severe  winter ;  thousands

relieved  at  the  police  offices  . Dec.  i860,  &  Jan.  1861
Another  strike  in  the  building  trades  commences,

22  March, ,,
A  street  railway  in  the  metropolis opened  near

Bayswater  (temporary)  . . .23  March, ,,

Great  fire  near  Tooley-street  (see  Fires)  22  June,  ,,
Sale  of  the  East  India  house . .  23  June,  186?

Meeting  to  establish  the  "  City  of  London  College,"

bishop  of  London  in  the  chair . . 2  Oct. ,,
Mr.  George  Peabody,  the  American  merchant,  gives
150,000!.  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  poor
and  needy  of  London ... 12  March,  1862
The  International  Exhibition  opens . 1  May, „
Thames  embankment  bill  passed,  after  much  dis-
cussion Aug. ,,

Fights  in  Hyde-park  between  the  Garibaldians  and

Irish 28  Sept.  <fe  5  Oct. „

Public  meetings  there  prohibited .  9  Oct. ,,

Comtesse  de  Silly  leaves  4000Z.  to  poor  of  London ,.
The  Metropolitan  railway  opened . . 10  Jan. 1863
Pneumatic despatch company  begins  to convey

post-office  bags 21  Feb. ,,

Princess  Alexandra  of Denmark  enters  London,

7  March, ,,
Prince  and  princess f  Wales  present  at  the  city  ball
at  Guildhall .  .... 8  June, „


Appeal  of  the  bishop  of  London  on  account  of  the
spiritual  destitution  of  the  metropolis  (see  Church

of  England) June,  1863

The  common  council  vote  20,000^.  and  a  site  in
Victoria-street,  E.C.  (now  Farringdon-road),  for
a  lodging-house  for  the  poor  . . 19  Nov. ,,

New  street  between  Blackfriars  and  London-bridge

opened 1  Jan.  1864

Charing  Cross  railway  opened  . . .11  Jan. ,,
First  block  of  Peabody's  dwellings  in  Spitalnelds

opened 29  Feb. „

Garibaldi  enters London, n April ;-  receives  the

freedom  of  the  city  ....  21  April,  ,,
Many  turnpikes  in  the  N.  suburbs  abolished,  1  July,  ,,
Great  excitement  through  the  murder  of  Mr.  Briggs

in  a  carriage  of  the  N.  London  railway  .  9  July,  „
The  first  railway  train  enters  the  city  of  London

near  Blackfriars-bridge ...  6  Oct. ,,

North London industrial exhibition, Islington,

opened  by  earl  Russell . . . .17  Oct. ,,
Excitement  through  the  performance  of  the  Daven-
port brothers Oct. -Dec. ,..

Great  bullion  robbery  in  Lombard-street,  3  or  4  Dec. ,,
Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at

Walker's,  the  jewellers,  Cornhill . .  4,  5  Feb.  1865
South  London  industrial  exhibition  opened  by  earl

of  Shaftesbury 1  March, ,,

The  prince  of  Wales  present  at  the  opening  of  the
main  drainage  works, at  the  southern outfall

near  Erith 4  April, ,,,

Prince  of  Wales  opens  the  international  reformatory

exhibition  at  Islington . . .  19  May, ,,
Cattle  puague  breaks  out  in  cow  houses  near  Barns-
bury,  about 27  June, t>

Investigation  into  the  state  of  the  workhouse  in-
firmaries from  several paupers  dying  through

neglect Aug. ,..

Many  turnpikes  in  the  S.  suburbs  abolished,  31  Oct. „
Mr. Peabody  adds  ioo,ooo£.  to  his gift  of 1862,

29  Jan.  1866
City  industrial  exhibition  opened  by  lord  mayor,

6  March, ,,
Horrible  murder  of  Sarah  Millson  in  Cannon-street

(culprit  undiscovered) . . . . n  April, ,.
Black-Friday ;  commercial  panic ;  failure  of  Overend,
Gurney, &  Co.,  Discount  Company  (see  Bank,

11  May) 10  May, „

Agra  and  Masterman's  bank  stops ;  greatexcitement,

6  June, ,,.
Shocking revelations in London  workhouse in-
firmaries June,  et  seq. ,,

Cholera  prevails  in  east  London  (see  Cholera),

July-Sept.  ,,
Riots  in  Hyde-park  .  .  .  .  23,  24  July,  „.
Cannon-street  railway  station  opened  .  1  Sept.  ,y
Lord  mayor  honourably  entertained  at  Brussels  by

the  king  of  the  Belgians  ....  Oct. ,,.

Working  classes  industrial  exhibition  at  Islington

closed 12  Nov. t>

Report  of  committee  at  common  council  recom-
mending enlargement  of  constituency  voting  for
municipal  questions  (from  about  6700  to  15,000)

12  Nov. ,,
Reform  demonstration  by  trades  unions  ;  procession
of  about  25,000  to  Beaufort-house  grounds,  Bromp-

ton 3  Dec. ,,

Estimated population of the "  City " by day,

283,520;  by  night,  about  100,000  .  .  Dec.  „
Severe  frost :  40  lives  lost  by  breaking  in  of  ice  on

ornamental  waters  in  Regent's  park  .  15  Jan.  1867/
"  Icy  night  "  ;  many  accidents  through  fall  of  rain

and  immediate  frost 22  Jar. ,„

London  Street  Reform  Association  organised, Jar. ,,
Great  distress  in  east  London  ;  large  subscriptions  ;
Mansion-house  Metropolitan  Relief  Fund  esta-
blished 26  Jan. ,.

Metropolitan  poor  act  passed . . 29  March, ,r
London  conference  on  Luxembourg  question

7-1 1  May,  ,„
First  stone  laid  of  Holborn  viaduct,  3  June  ;  of  new

meat  market 5  June, ...

The  lord  mayor  entertained  the  viceroy  of  Egypt
11 June ;  the  Belgians, 12  July ; the Sultan,

18  July,  1867
The  Sultan  gives  2500Z. to  the  poor  of  London,

22  July,

Electors  for  M.P.'s  to  have  3  votes  only,  by  Reform

act  passed . p . f 0 • 15  Aug-


LONDON.


593


LONDON.


County  Court  for  the  city  established  by  act  of  par-
liament 20  Aug.  1S67

Edvv.  M'Donnell  shot  by  supposed  Fenian,  28  Sept.,

died 5  Oct. „

'Tailors'  strike,  began  22  April ;  over  .  .  Oct.  ,,
Lord  mayor's  state  coach  not  used  .  .  9  Nov.  ,,
Common Council  undertake  erection  of another

cattle  market  (for  foreign  cattle) . . 6  Dec. ,,
Premeditated  explosion  outside  Clerkenwell  house
of  detention  to  release  Fenians  (7  persons  killed
and  about  50  wounded) . . .  13  Dec. ,,

Much  excitement  through  other  attempted  explo-
sions ;  about  30,000  special  constables  sworn  in,

17-24  De ■:. ,,
Mysterious  disappearance  of  the  rev.  B.  Speke  in

Westminster 8  Jan, 1868

Great  distress  in  the  east  of  London  through  want
of  employment ; meeting  of  employer and  em-
ployed ;  work  offered  to  the  iron  shipwrights  at
lower  wages  declined .... 25  Jan. „
52,974  special  constables  in  the  metropolis  up  to

28  Jan.  ,,
Mr. Speke  (partially  insane)  found  in Cornwall,

24  Feb.  ,,
(East)  London  Museum  Site  act  passed  .  28  Feb.  ,,
The  queen  lays  foundation-stone  of  the  new  St.

Thomas's  hospital  .... 13  May, ,,

Western  approach  street,  Holborn  Valley,  opened,

25  June, ,,
Part  of  the  Albert  (southern)  embankment  of  the

Thames  opened 30  July, ,,

King's  Cross  market  opened  ...  7  Aug.  ,,
Midland  Counties  railway  station  opened  1  Oct.  ,,
Great  meeting  to  relieve  sufferers  by  South  American

earthquake  (n, oool.)  collected  . . .  13  Oct. ,,
New  meat  market,  Smithfield,  inaugurated  by  the

lord  mayor,  24  Nov. ;  opened  to  the  public,!  Dec. ,,
Mr.  Peabody  gives  another  100,000!.  to  the  poor  of

London 5  Dec. ,,

London  Association  for  prevention  of  poverty  and

crime  founded 17  Dec. ,,  .

S.  London  industrial  exhibition  opened 1  March,  1869
Columbia  market,  Bethnal-green,  erected  by  Miss

Burdett-Coutts  ;  opened  by  her . . 28  April, ,,
Statue  of  Mr.  Peabody  uncovered,  prince  of  Wales

present 23  July, „

Inauguration  of  the  Holborn  viaduct  and  the  new

Blackfriars  bridge  by  the  queen  . .  • 6  Nov. ,,
Inauguration  of  the  Victoria  (northern)  Thames  em-
bankment by  the  prince  of  Wales  . . 13  July,  1870
International  workmen's exhibition at  Islington

opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales . . 16  July, ,,
London  ratepayers'  school-board  association  esta-
blished 8  Oct. „

New  city  library  and  museum  founded  near  Guild-
hall 27  Oct. „

London  education  board  elected  .  .  29  Nov.  ,,
Foundation-stone  laid  of  new  general  post-office,

16  Dec.  ,,
Mansion-house Relief Fund  established  for the

French  (24,000!.  raised  in  4  days) .  18  Jan.  1871

A 1 1  dresses  of  the  corporation  presented  .  28  Feb.  ,,
Royal  Albert  hall,  Kensington,  opened  by  the  queen,

29  March, ,,
First  annual  International Exhibition at South
Kensington  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales  (closed

30  Oct.) 1  May, ,,

St.  Thomas's  hospital  opened  by  the  queen,

21  June, ,,
Hampstead  heath  purchased  by  Metropolitan  board

of  works  for  45,000!.  ;  act  passed . 29  June, ,,
The  freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  prince  Arthur,

13  July,  „
Tolls  on  the  Commercial  roads,  London,  E.,  ceased,

5  Aug.  „
Queen  Victoria-street  opened,  4  Nov.  ;  St.  Andrew's

street,  <fec. ,  opened 20  Nov. ,,

New  lieutenancy  appointed,  1  Nov.  . 8  Dec. ,,

National  thanksgiving  for  the  recovery  of  the  prince
of  Wales  ;  the  queen  and  prince  go  to  St.  Paul's.

27  Feb.  1872
Strike  of  building  trades  begun,  1  June  (see  Strikes) ;

lock-out  by  the  masters  begun  . . 19  June, ,,
East  London  Museum  at  Bethnal-grcen  opened  by

the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  . . 24  June, ,,
Murder  of Mrs. Squires  and  daughter  in  Hoxton
(undiscovered) .... noon  10  July, ,,


Failure  of  Gledstanes  and  Co.  (East  India  firm)  for
nearly  2,000,000!.  ;  announced . . 22  Aug 1872

Builders'  strike  aud  lock-out  ends  by  agreement,
about 27  Aug. ,,

Epidemic  smallpox .... July-Sept. ,,

Second  annual  International  Exhibition  opened
1  May ;  closed 19  Oct. ,,

New  City  Library  and  Museum  at  Guildhall  opened
by  the  lord  chancellor  .... 5  Nov. ,,

Brutal  murder  of  Harriet  Buswell,  a  gay  woman,
in  Great  Coram-street  (undiscovered)  25  Dec. ,,

Forgery  on  the  Bank  of  England  to  amount  of
80,000!.  detected March,  1873

Banquet  to  mayors  of  corporate  towns  at  the  Man-
sion-house 26  March, ,,

Victoria-park  visited  by  the  queen ;  she  went
through  Islington  and  returned  through  the  city,

2  April,  „
The  City  temple  (to replace  the  Poultry  chapel)

founded  near  Holborn  Viaduct  .  .  19  May,  ,,
First  Hospital  Sunday  {which  see)  .  .15  June,  ,,
The  Shah  of  Persia  at  a  banquet  at  Guildhall,  20  June,  ,,
The  common council  vote  10,000!.  to  buy  Upton

park,  West  Ham Nov. ,,

Bank-rate,  9  per  cent.,  panic  on  stock  exchange

7  Nov.  ,,
Continued  fog,  much  sickness,  and  many  accidents

8-13  Dec. „
National  training  school  for  music, South Ken-
sington ;  foundation  laid  by  the  duke  of  Edin-
burgh 18  Dec. ,,

Tichborne  case  closed  (see  Trials)  . .  28  Feb.  1874

Duke  and  Duchess  of  Edinburgh  enter  London

12  March, ,,
Fourth  International  Exhibition,  opened 6  April, ,,
City  liberal  club,  earl  Granville,  president,  organ-
ized May, ,,

The  czar  entertained  at  Guildhall  .  .  18  May,  ,,
City  Temple,  Holborn  Viaduct,  opened  .  19  ,,  ,,
Banquet  to  provincial  mayors  at  Mansion-house

3  June,  ,,
Second  Hospital  Sunday  .  .  .  14  June,  ,,
The  czar  presents  1000!.,  to  the  bishop  and  the  lord

mayor  for  the  poor  of  London . . 2  July, ,,

First  Hospital  Saturday  (which  see) . . 17  Oct. ,,

Freedom  given  to  sir  Garnet  J.  Wolseley .  22  Oct. ,.

International  exhibition  closed . . 31  Oct. ,,

Lord  mayor  Stone  and  the  sheriffs  at  the  opening
of  the  new  opera-house,  Paris  . . .5  Jan.  1875

Congregational  Memorial  hall,  Farriugdon-street,
opened 19  Jan. ,,

Arrival  of  Moody  and  Sankey  (see  Revivals),  first
meeting 9  March, ,,

Lord  Elcho's  bill  for  municipal  government  with-
drawn May, ,,

Great  Failures  in  the  iron  trade  . . 31 ,, ,,

Arrival  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar . . 9  June, ,,

Failure  of  Alex.  Collie  &  Co.  led  to  others  (Collie
absconded  9  Aug.) .... June,  July, ,,

British  and  foreign  mayors,  burgomasters,  prefets,
&c. ,  entertained  by  the  lord  mayor  . . 29  July, ,,

Discussion  on  widening  London  Bridge Sept. -Oct. ,,

First  pile  of  steam-ferry  landing-place  from  Wap-
ping  to  Rotherhithe  struck  by  lord-mayor  Stone

11  Oct. ,,

Prince  Leopold  takes  up  his  freedom . . 25  Oct. ,,

Grocers'  company  wing,  London  hospital,  opened
by  the  queen 7  March,  1876

Freedom  of  the  city  given  to  chief-justice  Cockburn
(said  to  be  first  case  of  the  kind) . 9  March, ,,

Banquet  and  ball  to  the  prince  of  Wales  on  his
return  from  India  (11  May) . . . 19  May, ,,

Lord  Elcho's  resolution  for  reforming  the  corpora-
tion and  establishing  a  metropolitan  government
withdrawn  from  the  Commons . . 13  June, „

Stock  exchange  very  dull;  new  3  per  cent,  con-
sols, 974 24  July, ,,

Public  meeting  at  Mansion-house  respecting  atro-
cities in  Bulgaria  (see  Turkey) . . 18  Sept. ,,

"  Great  Eastern-street "  (from  Shoreditch  to  Old-
street),  opened . .  12  Oct. ,,

Visit  of  municipal  officers  of  Paris,  to  inspect  rail-
ways, &c.  ...  30  April— 8  May,  1877

Sir  John  Bennett  thrice  elected  alderman,  rejected
by  court  of  aldermen,  third  time,  16  Oct.  ;  Edgar
Brefiitt  elected  by  court  of  aldermen . 23  Oct. ,,

Temple  Bar  removed  . . . 2 — 14  Jan. 1878

Revival  of  trade  ;  bank  discount  4  per  cent.  1  Aug. „

Q  Q


LONDON.


594


LONDON.


Banquet  to  the  ministers  after  the  treaty  of  Berlin ;
freedom  of  city  given  to  the  earl  of  Beaeonsfield
and  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  .  . 3  Aug.

The  Parochial  Charities  commission  appointed  (the
duke  of  Northumberland,  canon  R.  Gregory,  pre-
bendary Wm.  Rogers,  and  others) . 9  Aug.

Bank  discount  raised  to  5  per  cent. .  12  Aug.

Great  Eastern-street  completed  and  opened Aug.

Foundering  of  the  Princess  Alice  (xvhich  see)  through
collision  with  the  Bywell  Castle  in  Thames  (see
Mansion  House  Fund) .... 3  Sept.

"Waterloo-bridge  opened  toll-free . . 5  Oct.

"  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  for  the  ad-
vancement of  Technical  Education,"  formally
constituted n  Nov.

City  Church  and  Churchyard  Protection  Society
formed Feb.

New-formed  street  between  Shoreditch  and  Bethnal-
green  opened  (it  completes  direct  road  from
Oxford-street  to  Old-ford)  ... 29  March.

Holborn  Town-hall opened by  the  lord  mayor,

18  Bee.

The  king  of  Greece  receives  freedom  of  the  city,

16  June,

Municipality  of  London  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Firth
and  others 25  June,

Explosion  of  gas  main  near  Tottenham-court-road  ;
2  deaths  ;  much  property  destroyed . 5  July,

City  Livery  Companies'  Commission  appointed  (earl
of  Berby,  duke  of  Bedford,  lord  Sherbrooke,  lord
Coleridge,  sir  R.  A.  Cross,  <&c.) . . July,

Topographical  Society  of  London  founded, 28  Oct.

Temple  Bar  Memorial  uncovered  (see  Temple),  8  Nov.

Mansion-house  {which  see)  ;  attempt  to  blow  it  up
detected 16  March,

Elcho  shield  placed  in  Guildhall,  10th  time  29  Oct.

Mr.  W.  Ward  bequeaths  20,000?.,  and  other  property
to  the  Corporation,  announced .  17  Nov.

City  of  London  College  near  Moorgate-st.  ;  founda-
tion laid 31  March,

The  lord  Mayor  takes  freedom  of  the  city  to  the
King  of  the  Netherlands  at  the  Hague  .  20  Sept.

New  city  of  London  schools,  Victoria  Embankment,
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales . .  12  Bee.

Freedom  given  to  lord  Alcester . .  11  April,

City  of  London  Parochial  Charities  act,  46  &  47
Vict.  c.  56,  passed 20  Aug.

Much  excitement  about  the  dwellings  of  "Out-cast
London"  through  Mr.  G.  R.  Sims,  "How  the
poor  live,"  &c Autumn,

Meeting  at  the  Mansion  House  to  raise  50,000?.,  to
aid  the  Beaumont  legacy,  in  establishing  a  great
institution  for  the  instruction  and  recreation-  of
the  people  of  the  East  end . . .14  Bee.

New  street  from  King  William  street  to  the  Tower
opened 25  Jan.

1,000?.  offered  by  government,  and  1,000?.  by
railway  companies,  for  discovery  of  dynamite
conspirators  about  . .  .3  March,

See  Dynamite,  and  Explosions,  1883-4.

Freedom  of  the  city  given  to  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury,
a  life-long  social  philanthropist . .  5  March,

Proposed  settlement  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge
university  men  in  E.  London  to  improve  social
life May,

Remains  of  Roman  architecture,  &c.  discovered
during  excavations  in  Bevis  Marks,  E.C. .  Aug.

The  common  council  meet  in  their  new  chamber  at
Guildhall 2  Oct.

The  common  council  agree  to  the  construction  of  a
low-level  bridge  between  the  Tower  and  Horsely-
down,  with  lifting  sections  for  the  passage  of
ships,  cost  about  750,000?. . . .24  Oct.

Great  meeting  of  unemployed  social  democratic
federation  on  Thames  embankment ;  proceed  to
local  government  board  ;  dissatisfied  and  riotous

16  Feb.

Freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  prince  Albert
Victor  of  Wales 29  June

Tower  bridge  act  passed ... 14  Aug

Meeting  of  citizens  at  Guildhall  ;  sir  John  Lub-
bock's resolution  against  an  Irish  parliament
carried  ...  .  2  April,

Foundation  stone  of  the  Tower  bridge  laid  by  the
prince  of  Wales. . . . . 21  June,

Fire  panic  in  Hebrew  dramatic  club,  Spitalfields,
17  killed 18  Jan.

Parliamentary  committee  to  enquire  into  charges  ot


i879


spending  corporation  funds  to  oppose  municipal
reform  bill  report  the  charge  to  be  partially
sustained  in  getting  up  metropolitan  ratepayers'
protection  association ;  bogus  meetings  and
much  agitation  (19,550?.  spent  in  1882-5),  about
21  May,  1887  ;  charge  declared  not  proved  by
the  common  council .... 9  Feb.  1

The  queen  receives  the  lord  mayor  and  others  with
their  jubilee  address .... 9  May,

The  queen  proceeds  from  Paddington  to  Mile  End
to  open  the  "People's  Palace";  visits  the
Mansion-house ;  the  houses  in  the  route
splendidly  decorated ;  the  line  kept  by  the
military, volunteers, and  police ; no  disorder,

14  May,

Death  of  sir  Horace  Jones,  city  architect,  aged  68,

21  May,

Terrific  storm,  destructive  of  life  and  property
began  5.30  p.m.,  lasting  about  4  hours 17  Aug.

Increased spread of scarlet and other fever

Sept.-Oct.

Torchlight  meeting  of  liberal  and  radical  clubs
at  Rotherhithe,  about  12,000  present  condemning
the  Irish  policy  of  the  government . 24  Oct.

Special  constables  sworn  in  (see  Riots) 17-19  Nov.

Freedom  of  the  city  of  London  conferred  on  the
marquis  of  Hartington . . . 18  April,

The  new  city  of  London  court  opened  by  the  lord
mayor 6  Dec.

The  great  fiee  steam  ferry  between  north  and  south
Woolwich  opened  by  lord  Rosebery 23  March,

The  lord  mayor  Whitehead  visits  the  exhibition  at
Paris,  and  is  honourably  entertained  6  May  «t  seq.

Freedom  of  the  city  given  to  the  marquis  of
Dufferin  (with  banquet) ... 29  May,

Freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  prince  George  of
Wales 1  June,

Strike  of  dock  labourers  (see  Strikes)  . Aug. -Sept.

Ball  at  the  Mansion-house  to  celebrate  the  700th
anniversary  of  the  mayoralty  . -29  Oct.

Grand  lord  mayor's  show  arranged  by  Hon.  Lewis
Wingfield 9  Nov.

Sir  Sydney  H.  Waterlow  presents  a  park  at  South
Hampstead  (see  Waterlow  Park) . .12  Nov.

Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  dies  14  Jan.  ;  grand  mili-
tary funeral,  St.  Paul's . . . .21  Jan.  ]

The  freedom  of  the  city  given  to  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley
(see  Soudan,  1887  et  seg.)  . . -13  May

New  art  gallery  of  the  corporation  opened  by  the
lord  mayor 10  June

Temporary  strikes  of  the  postmen  and  police  (which
see) July

Excavations  near  the  post-office,  St.  Martin's-le-
Grand  ;  discoveries  of  Roman  remains,  the  town
ditch,  &c Sept.

City  and  S.  London  Electric  Railway  opened  by
the  prince  of  Wales ....  4  Nov.

The  Corporation  medal  commemorating  the  founda-
tion of  the  mayorality  in  1189,  completed  by
Messrs.  Kirkwood  of  Edinburgh . . Nov.

Financial  crisis  through  the  serious  difficulties  of
Messrs.  Baring  (liabilities,  21,000,000/.),  who  are
promptly  and  .judiciously  assisted  by  the  Bank  of
England,  William  Lidderdale,  governor,  aided  by
the  Bank  of  France,  and  other  establishments  ;
panic  hardly  averted . . 8-15  Nov.  et  seq.

Baring  Brothers  constituted  a  limited  liability
company,  principally  by  Mr.  T.  C.  Baring  and  the
family ;  registered 24  Nov.

Great  meeting  in  the  Guildhall,  London,  appealing
to  the  czar  on  behalf  of  the  Jews,  10  Bee.  1890  ;
memorial  and  the  lord  mayor's  letter,  returned  to
him,  through  the  foreign  office,  by  the  Russian
ambassador  without  comment . . 7  Feb.  :

The  telephone  system  between  London  and  Paris
inaugurated  (see  Telephone) . . 18  March

Freedom  of  the  city  presented  to  Mr.  William
Lidderdale,  governor  of  the  bank  of  England

6  May

Omnibus  strike  (which  see) . . . 7-13  June,

State  visit  of  the  German  emperor  and  empress  (see
Germany) 10  July

The  prince  of  Naples  dines  with  the  lord  mayor

28  July

The  London  Ratepayers'  Defence  League  formed  at
a  meeting  at  the  Guildhall . . .18  Nov.

Beath  of  Mr.  Benjamin  Scott,  aged  7S,  chamber-


LONDON, BISHOPRIC  OF.


595


LONDON  HOSPITAL.


lain  since  1858,  died,  17  Jan.  ;  succeeded  by  alder-
man Win.  J.  R.  Cotton . . . . 5  Feb. 1892
Sir  Charles  Hall,  Q.O.,  elected  recorder . 8  Feb. „
[See  England; and  the  occurrences  not  noticed
here,  under  their  respective  heads.]

LONDON,  BISHOPRIC  OF,  is  said  tradition-
ally to  have  been  founded  in  tlie  reign  of  Lucius,
about  179.  Restitutus,  bishop,  is  said  to  have
been  present  at  the  council  of  Aries,  314.  Augustin
made  Canterbury  the  metropolitan  see  of  England.
Mellitus  was  first  bishop  in  604 ;  expelled  616 ;
first  successor,  Cedd,  6$6.  The  see  has  given  to  the
church  of  Koine  five  samts,  and  to  the  realm  sixteen
lord  chancellors  and  lord  treasurers ;  it  was  valued
in  the  king's  books,  at  119^.  8s.  $d.  per  annum.
Present  income,  io,OOo£.  In  1845  Hertford  and  part
of  Essex  were  taken  from  the  see  of  London  and
added  to  that  of  Eochester.

HECENT  BISHOPS.

1787.  Beilby  Porteus,  died  14  May,  1809.

iSog.  John  Randolph,  died  28  July,  1813.

1813.  W.  Howley,  trans,  to  Canterbury,  Aug.  1828.

1828.  Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856

(died  5  Aug.  1857).
1856.  Archibald  Campbell  Tait,  translated  to  Canterbury,

Dee.  1868.
1869.  John  Jackson,  from  Lincoln,  elected  14  Jan.  (had

consecrated  84  new  churches,  1869-79),  &izd-  6

Jan.  1885.
1885.  Fred.  Temple,  translated  from  Exeter.

LONDON  BRIDGE.  The  first  bridge  said
to  have  been  built  994,  was  much  injured  by  the
Danes  1008  and  destroyed  by  a  flood  1091.  Another
bridge  erected  by  command  of  William  II.,  was
burnt  in  1136.  The  late  old  bridge  was  com-
menced about  1 1 76,  by  Peter  of  Coleehurch,  and
completed  in  1209,  with  houses  on  each  side,  con-
nected together  by  large  arches  of  timber  which
crossed  the  street.

A  fire  at  the  Southwark  end  brought  crowds  on  the
bridge  ;  the  houses  at  the  north  end  caught  Are
likewise,  and  prevented  their  escape  :  and  up-
wards of  3000  persons  lost  their  lives,  being
either  killed,  burned,  or  drowned  .  .  July,  1212
The  bridge  restored  in  1300,  again  destroyed  by  fire
in  1471  ;  13  Feb.  1632,  and  . . . Sept.  1725

All  the  houses  pulled  down 1756

Waterworks  begun,  1582  ;  destroyed  by  fire  .  .  1774
The  toll  discontinued  ....  27  March,  1782
In  1822  the  corporation  advertised  for  designs  for  a
new  bridge  :  that  by  John  Rennie  was  approved,
and  the  works  were  executed  by  his  sons  John
and  George.  The  first  pile  was  driven  200  feet  to
the  west  of  the  old  bridge,  15  March,  1824  ;  the
first  stone  was  laid  by  the  lord  mayor,  alder-
man Garratt 15  June,  1825

The  bridge  opened  by  William  IV.  and  his  queen,

1  Aug.  1831
The  cost  was  506,000?.

Plans  for  widening  the  bridge  rejected  .  .  .  1875
It  was  computed  that  on  17  March,  1859,  there
passed  over  London-bridge  20,498  vehicles  (of
which  4483  were  cabs  and  4286  omnibuses),  and
167,910  persons  (107,074  on  foot,  and  60,836  in
vehicles).  In  April  1881  in  one  day  (24  hours)
passed  over  78,943  passengers  in  10,733  vehicles.
Attempt  to  explode  S.W.  end,  damage  to  property,
not  life  ;  near  6  p.m.  13  Dec.  1884,  500I.  reward
offered.

LONDON  CONFERENCE,  of  representa-
tives of  the  chief  European  powers  to  reconcile  Aus-
tria, Prussia,  and  Denmark,  met  25  April  to  25  June,
1864,  without  effect. A  conference  in  London  re-
specting the  treaty  of  Paris,  1856,  led  to  a  treaty
signed  13  March,  187 1 ; see  Black  Sea.
Conference  respecting  Egyptian  affairs; earl  Gran-
ville, foreign  secretary,  &c,  H.  C.  E.  Childers,
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  met  the  following
ambassadors  i  Count  Karolyi  (Austria),  M.  Wad-
dington (France), count Minister (Germany),


count  Nigra  (Italy),  count  De  Staal  (Russia),  and
Musurus  Pasha  (Turkey),  28  June,  1884;  ad-
journed without  result  sine  die . .2  Aug.  1884

LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL was

constituted  by  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888,
and  to  it  was  transferred  the  powers,  duties,
property  and  debts,  and  liabilities,  of  the  Metro-
politan Board  of  Works  (which  sec).  The  council
consists  of  118  members,  elected  by  the  ratepayers
of  the  parishes,  and  19  aldermen,  including  a
chairman.  The  old  "city"  retains  most  of  its
ancient  privileges.
The duke  of  Westminster  first lord lieutenant

announced 24  Oct.  1888

First  council  elected ;  the  earl  of  Rosebery, sir
John Lubbock, Mr.  Benjamin  Cohen, and  Mr.
Henry  Clarke  returned  for  the  city  (lady  Sand-
hurst and Miss Cobden elected councillors)

7  Jan.  T889
First provisional meeting, sir John Lubbock
chairman,  31  Jan. ;  19  aldermen  elected,  including
lord Lingen, lord Hobhouse,  and  the  earl  of
Meath,  the  majority  progressive  radicals,  5  Feb. ;
the earl of Rosebery  appointed chairman,  sir
John  Lubbock  vice-chairman  (both  unpaid),  Mr.
J.  F.  Bottomley  Firth  deputy-chairman  (salary
2000/.) 12  Feb.  1889. Mr.  Firth  died  suddenly
about  4  Sept.  ; succeeded  by  Mr. Alfred H.
Haggis  (salary  1000Z.),  7  Nov.  1889  ;  he  died  sud-
denly . . . . . . .24  Nov.  1891

The  council  entered  on  its  duties  by  order  of  the

local  government  board  .  .  .  21  March,  1889
The  queen's  bench  decides  on  appeal  of  lady  Sand-
hurst that  women  are  disqualified  for  election
as  councillors,  16  May,  1889  ;  see  Women  .  1889-90
Sir  John  Lubbock  elected  chairman  to  succeed  the
earl  of  Rosebery  (resigned),  22  July  ;  sir  Thomas
H. Farrar,  vice-chairman, 29  July  ; the three

officers  re-elected 7  Nov.  1890

The  council  was  authorised  to  raise  mo-iey  by  acts

passed  1889-90  ;  another  act  passed  .  .  .  1892
Second  council  elected  (progressives,  83  ',  moderates,
35),  5  March ;  the  earl  of  Rosebery  elected
chairman  ;  Mr.  John  Hutton,  vice-chairman  ;  Mr.
Dickinson,  deputy-chairman,  15  March;  the  earl
of  Rosebery  resigns  22  June  ;  succeeded  by  Mr.
John  Hutton 12  July, ,,

LONDONDERRY  or  Derry  (N.  Ireland),
mentioned  546.  An  abbey  here  was  burned  by  the
Danes  in  783.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the  Lon-
don companies  in  1615.  The  town  was  surprised,
and  sir  George  Powlett,  the  governor,  and  the
entire  garrison  were  put  to  the  sword  by  rebels,  in
1606.  It  was  besieged  by  O'Neill  in  1641.  A  grant
was  made  of  Deny,  with  210,000  acres  of  land,  to
various  companies  in  London,  in  1619,  when  it  took
its  present  name.  The  siege  of  Derry  by  James  II. 's
army  commenced  20  April,  1689.  The  garrison
and  inhabitants  were  driven  to  the  extremity  of
famine;  but  under  the  rev.  George  Walker,  they
defended  it  until  the  siege  was  raised  by  gen.
Kirke,  on  30  July.  James's  army,  under  the  French
general  Rosen,  retired  with  the  loss  of  about  9000
men.  Foyle  College  act  passed,  1874.  A  grand
iron  bridge  over  the  Eoyle,  opened  I  Jan.  1878.
Riots  through  orange  opposition  to  the  mayor  of
Dublin's  visit,  31  Oct.  1883.  Population  1881,
29,162;  1891,32,893.  The  lord  lieutenant,  the  earl
of  Zetland,  opened  the  new  Guildhall,  31  July,  1890.

LONDON DIALECTICAL SOCIETY,

see  Dialectical.

LONDON  GAZETTE,  sec  Newspapers.

LONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel,  in-
stituted Nov.  1740;  for  seamen,  labourers,  &c.
Foundation  of  present  building  laid  by  adin. sir

Peter  Warren,  15  Oct.  1752  ;  had  130  beds  .  .  1760
The  queen  opened  the Grocers'  company's  wing

(raising  number  of  beds  to  790)  .  . 7  March,  1876

Q Q  2


LONDON INSTITUTION.


536


LONDON  WATER  SUPPLY.


LONDON.  INSTITUTION,  "for  the  ad-
vancement of  literature  and  the  diffusion  of  useful
knowledge,"  in  imitation  of  the  Royal  Institution,
was  founded  in  1805  by  sir  Francis  Baring,  bart.,
and  others,  at  8,  Old  Jewry,  Cheapside,  and  incor-
porated 30  April,  1815.  Prof.  Poison,  the  first
librarian,  died  25  Sept.  1808.  The  present  building
in  Finsbury-circus  was  opened  on  21  April,  1819;
the  first  lecture  was  delivered  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Brande,
on  5  May  following.  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove,  Q.C.
(afterwards  justice)  (the  inventor  of  the  Voltaic
battery  which  bears  his  name),  was  the  first  pro-
fessor of  experimental  philosophy,  1840-6.  The
institution  possesses  an  excellent  library,  lecture-
room,  and  laboratory.  Thomas  Baring,  M.P.,  long
president,  died  18  Nov.  1873;  succeeded  by  Dr.
"Warren  de  la  Bue  ;  by  Mr.  Henry  Hucks  tibbs,  2
March,  1886.

LONDON  LIBRARY  (circulating),  at  first
in  Pall-mall,  now  in  St.  James's-square,  was
founded  by  lord  Eliot  and  others,  24  June,  1840,
and  opened  1  May,  1841.  The  latest  catalogues  were
printed  in  1875-88.

LONDON  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY,  es-
tablished 1795.  In  1878  there  were  151  European,
and  543  ordained  native  missionaries :  receipts  in
1887,  105,382/;  1891,  114,293/.

LONDON  MUNICIPAL  BILL,  intro-
duced by  sir  W.  Harcourt,  8  April ;  withdrawn,
10  July,  1884.

The  corporation  of  London  was  to  be  so  extended  as  to
comprehend  the  whole  Metropolitan  area  ;  common
council,  (240  members)  elected  triennally  by  burgesses
of  39  districts,  to  be  sole  governing  body,  and  to  com-
bine functions  of  existing  corporation,  Metropolitan
Board  of  Works,  and  other  local  authorities ;  and  to
elect  annually  a  Lord  Mayor  and  Deputy  Mayor ;  and
to  control  all  local  affairs  except  Poor  Law  Administra-
tion, Education,  and  Police.
Common  council  adopt  a  scheme,  for  creation  of  nine
municipal  corporations  in  addition  to  that  of  London,
5  Nov.  ;  published  in  Times,  6  Nov.  1885.
For  opposition  to  the  London  municipal  bill,  see
London,  21  May,  1887.

LONDON MUNICIPAL REFORM, a

league  was  founded  10  March,  1881,  to  promote
one  representative  municipal  government  for  the
metropolis ;  meetings  were  held  in  Oct.  1881  ;
chairman  of  council,  Mr.  J.  F.  B.  Firth,  M.P.  for
Chelsea. Annual  meetings  are  held.

LONDON  PARKS  AND  WORKS  ACT,

placed  Battersea  Park,  Kennington  Park,  Bethnal
Green  Museum  Gardens,  Chelsea  Embankment,
and  Victoria  Park,  under  the  direction  of  the
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  1887.

LONDON  PHILANTHROPIC  SO-
CIETY was  founded  1841,  to  supply  bread  and
coal  to  the  poor.

LONDON  RAILWAYS,  principal  exten-
sions and  branches  incorporated.
London  and  Blaekwall,  1836  ;  London,  Brighton,  and
South  Coast,  1846 ;  London,  Chatham  and  Dover,
1853  I  London  and  Greenwich  opened  1838  ;  London
and  North-Western  (formed  out  of  the  London  and
Birmingham,  Grand  Junction  and  Manchester  and
Birmingham),  1846  ;  London  and  South- Western  (and
Southampton  till  1839),  opened  1840 ;  acts  consoli-
dated, 1855  ;  Metropolitan,  1854  ;  Metropolitan  Dis-
trict, 1864 ;  Midland,  1844  ;  North  London,  1846
South  Eastern,  1836.

LONDON  SACRED  HARMONIC  SO-
CIETY, formed  after  the  dismissal  of  Mr.  Sur-
man,  conductor  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society
6  March,  1848  ;  gave  last  concert,  22  Dec.  1856.

LONDON  SALVAGE  CORPS,  maintained
by  the  Insurance  Companies,  established  1866.


LONDON  SCHOOL  BOARD,  see  Edu-
cation, 1870,  et  seq.

LONDON  STEAMER,  see  Wrecks,  fee.,  11
Jan.  1866.

LONDON  STONE.  A  stone  said  to  have
been  placed  by  the  Romans  in  Cannon-street,  then
the  centre  of  the  city,  15  B.C.  London  stone  was
known  before  the  time  of  "William  I.  It  was  re-
moved from  the  opposite  side  of  the  way  in  1742  ;
and  again  moved  to  its  present  position  in  the  wall
of  St.  S  with  in' s  church,  1798.  It  was  against  this
stone  that  Jack  Cade  is  traditionally  said  to  have
struck  his  sword,  exclaiming  "Now  is  Mortimer
lord  of  this  city  !  "  1450.

LONDON,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  The  "Lon-
don university  "  was  founded  by  the  exertions  of  lord
Brougham,  Thomas  Campbell,  sir  Isaac  L.  Goldsmid,
and  others;  thedeed  of  settlement  dated  II  Feb.  1826.
The  building  was  commenced  30  April,  1827  (when  the
first  stone  was  laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex)  ;  and
was  opened  by  an  inaugural  lecture  from  professor
Bell,  1  Oct.  1828. On  28  Nov.  1836,  two  charters
were  granted:  by  one  the  "London  university"
was  changed  to  "University  college,"  and  by  the
other  the University of  London  was  established,
with  a  chancellor  and  other  officers. New  charters
were  granted  to  the  latter  on  5  Dec.  1837  and  21
April, 1858. It  has  power  to grant degrees to
students  of  the  universities  of  the  united  kingdom,
and of  many  collegiate establishments; and  to
women,  by  a  supplemental  charter,  1878. Its  offices
were  long  in  Burlington-house,  Piccadilly,  London.
The  university was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform
act  of  1867,  and  Robert  Lowe  was  elected  the  first
M.P.  17  Nov.  1868  ;  succeeded  by  sir  John  Lubbock,
June, 1880. The new  buildings in Burlington-
gardens,  erected  by  Mr.  Pennethorne,  were  inaugu-
rated by  the  queen  11  May,  1870. Chancellors  :  earl
of  Burlington  (aft.  duke  of)  Devonshire,  1836;  earl
Granville, 1856 (died  31 March, 1891) ; earl  of
Derby, April, 1891. University Sail, Gordon-
square,  was  founded  in  1847. University  College,
new  buildings  opened,  Oct. 1880. A  scheme  for
establishing  a  teaching  university  of  London,  with
four  faculties  (arts, laws, science  and medicine)
set  forth  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  by  lord  Reay,  and
others,  15  Dec.  1884,  and  5  Feb.  1885.
The  report  of  the  royal  commission  on  the  subject
appointed  in 1888 — Lord  Selborne, sir George
Stokes,  sir  Wm.  Thomson,  sir  James  Hannen,  Dr.
Ball, and Mr. Welldon — recommends that a
teaching  university  for  London  should be  pro-
vided by  the  improvement  and  extension  of  the
university  of  London .... May,  1889
Another  scheme  propounded  by  the  senate  of  the
university  of  London,  Feb.  ;  not  approved  by  the
colleges,  March ; rejected by  the  convocation

(461-197) 12  May,  1S91

University  college  issues  an  appeal  to  the  public
for  additional  funds (50,000?.)  to enable  it  to

carry  on  its  work 24  Jan. ,,

Royal  commission  to  consider  the  charter  of  the
proposed  teaching  university  in  and  for  London,
nominated  :  earl  Cowper,  chairman,  lord  Reay,
bishop  Barry,  sir  Lyon  Playfair,  Dr.  J.  S.  Burdon
Sanderson,  and  8  others,  25  April  ;  met . 2  June,  1892

LONDON  WATER  SUPPLY.

Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  undertook  to  supply
water  from  the  Chalk,  and  also  from  the  Thames
above  Teddington,  with  two  sets  of  pipes,  for
12,000,000/. ........ 1878

Negotiations  with  the  water  companies  by  Mr.
Smith,  begun  Oct.  1879  ;  annuities  proposed  to
he  given  to  the  companies,  29,734,281/.,  with  ad-
ditional payments  making  in  all  a  capital  payment
of  33,018,836/.,  yearly  interest  to  be  paid  by  the
consumers,  1,240,673/.


LONE  STAR.


597


LONGITUDE.


London  Water  Supply  Commission  (sir  William
Harcourt,  chairman)  appointed  3  June,  reported
recommending  water  supply  to  be  placed  under
control  of  some  responsible  public  body  (or  Water
Trust)  to  be  created ;  non-acceptance  of  Mr.
Smith's  proposal ;  that  the  undertakings  of  exist-
ing companies  be  purchased  upon  fair  and  reason-
able terms,  if  not,  the  endeavour  to  obtain  an
independent  supply,  signed  .  .  .3  Aug.  1880
See  Dobbs'  case,  trials,  30  Nov.  1883.

Metropolitan wacer  bill, checking  the systems  of
the  Companies  rejected  in  the  commons  (197-152)

11  March,  1884

LONE  STAR,  a  secret  society  formed  in  1848,
in  Alabama  and  other  southern  states  of  the  North
American  Union,  for  the  "  extension  of  the  institu-
tions, power,  influence,  and  commerce  of  the
United  States  over  the  whole  of  the  western  hemi-
sphere, and  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific
oceans."  The  first  acquisitions  to  be  made  by  the
order  were  Cuba  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The
knowledge  of  the  existence  of  this  society  reached
England  in  Aug.  1852.

LONG  ISLAND  or  FlATBUSH  (N.  America),
Battle  of,  27  Aug.  1776,  between  the  British  troops
under  sir  William  Howe,  and  the  revolted  Ameri-
cans, who  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  alter  a  well-
fought  action,  losing  2000  men  killed  and  wounded
and  IOOO  prisoner?.

LONGEVITY.  Methuselah  died,  aged  969,
2349  B.C.  (Gen.  v.  27).  Golour  M'Crain  of  the  Isle
of  Jura,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  mythically  said  to
have  kept  180  Christmases  in  his  own  house,  and  died
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  "In  1014  died  Johannes
de  Temporibus,  who  lived  361  years  (!)"  Stow.
Thomas  Parr,  a  labouring  man  of  Shropshire,  was
brought  to  London  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,
and  said  to  be  in  his  153rd  year  and  in  perfect
health.;  he  died  15  Nov.  111  the  same  year.  Henry
Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670,  and  was  buried
in  Bolton  churchyard,  6  Dec.  aged  169  years  (?)  The
researches  of  sir  G.  Uornewall  Lewis,  professor
Owen,  Mr.  Wm.  J.  Thorns  (in  his  "  Human  Longe-
vity," May,  1873)  anu  others,  have  disproved  many
alleged  cases  of  longevity ;  and  few  statements
of  lives  extending  much  beyond  a  century  can  be
relied  on.  There  were  no  records  of  baptism  till
the  16th  century.  In  last  decade  about  800  alleged
centenarians  registered  ;  204  men.  LVaths  of  25
men  and  66  women  aged  above  100  registered  in
1881. See  Abstinence.

Alleged  instances  (most  of  them  evidently  false).
Died.  Aged.

1656.  James  Bowles,  Killingworth . . . . 153

1691.  Lady  Eccleston,  Ireland 143

1759.  James  Sheil,  Irish  yeoman 136

1766.  Colonel  Thomas  Winslow,  Ireland . . . 146

1772.  Mrs.  Clum,  Lichfield 138

1774.  William  Beeby,  Dungarvan  (an ensign  who
served  at  the  battles  of  the  Boyne  and  Augh-

rim) 130

1780.  Robert  Mao  Bride,  Hemes 130

,, Mr.  William  Ellis,  Liverpool ....  130

1785.  Cardinal  de  Solis no

1797.  Charles  Macklin,  actor,  London  . . . . 107

1806.  Mr.  Creeke,  of  Thurlow 125

Catherine  Lopez,  of  Jamaica . . . . 134

1813.  Mrs.  Meighan,  Uonoughmore .... 130

1814.  Mary  Innes,  Isle  of  Skye 127

1816.  Jane  Lewson,  Coldbath-fields,  Clerkcnwell . 116
1840.  Mi's.  Martha  Rorke,  of  Dromore,  county  of

Kildare,  27  Aug 133

1S53.  Mrs. Mary  Power  (aunt  of  Rd.  Lalor  Shiel),

Ursuline  convent,  Cork,  20  March  .  .  .  116
1S58.  James  Nolan,  Knockardrane,  Carlow . . . 116

1874.  Anthony  Beresford  (born  8  Feb.  1772)  died  at

Alstonlield,  3  March,  autlientic . . . 101

1875.  Count  Jean Fred.  Waldeck,  painter ;  born  at

Prague, 16  March,  1766 ; died  at  Paris,  29
April,  1875 109


Died.  Aged.

1875.  Jacob  Wm.  Liming,  at  Morden  college . .  103

1876.  Madame  Hulsenstein,  said  to  have  been  maid

of  honour  to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  . .119
,, Elizabeth  Abbott,  Ipswich,  said  to  be . . 105

1877.  Pleasance,  widow  of  sir  James  E.  Smith,  bo-

tanist, (b.  n  May,  1773  ;  d.  3  Feb.  1877) . 103
,, Eunice  Bagster,  wife  of  Samuel,  Bible  book-
seller, London,  zi  Aug.  .... 100
187S.  Thomas  Budgen,  Spitalfields,  London 4  Aug.  104

1879.  Jane  Hooper,  St.  Pancras,  London  .  .  .  102
,,  Rev.  Canon  Beadon,  Stoneham  .  .  .  .  102
,, Margaret  Crook,  Durham 112

1880.  Sarah  Way,  Bristol  ....  104!
,, Johannette  Polack  (born  Genth)  ; Wiesbaden

101  and  5  months

1881.  Martha  Gardner,  Liverpool,  10  March  104  and  5

months
,,  Fanny  Bailey,  Worthing,  6  April  .  .  .  103^
,,  Annie  Webb,  sister  of  Sir  Joseph  Maxwell,  Aug.  102
,,  Jane  Pinkerton,  of  Lower  Crumpsall,  Man-
chester, (born  10  June,  1774)  died  5  Oct.  .  107
,, Archibald  M' Arthur,  Dunoon,  born  1777  .  104

1882.  James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777

died*  27  Nov.  aged  nearly  105
„ Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born

29  Dec.  1777,  died  Dec.  ....  105

1883.  Betty  Morgan,  Garth  in  Wales,  died  26  Feb.  107
,, Stephen  Lewes,  Southampton,  died  May . .  106

1884.  Rhoda  Dunn,  Hunstanton,  Norfolk  . . 103

1855.  Sir  Moses  Montefiore,  Ramsgate,  died  28  July,  iooj
„ Mrs. Townsend, Faringdon, Berkshire,  died

29  May 102

1856.  Miss  Joanna  Hastings  (aunt  of  G.  W.  Hastings,

M.P.),  Great  Malvern  (born  14  March,  1782),

died  12  March 103-

,, Richard Holmes, Heathfield, Sussex, died

5  May 107

,, Sarah  Marshall,  Nantyglo,  Wales,  died  6  Aug.  .  107
,, W.  Nicholson,  Wenden,  Essex,  died  15  Dec. .  103

1887.  Miss  Jane  Gibson,  Glasgow,  died  Dec.  .  .  102^
,, The  death  of  31  alleged  centenarians  reported

in  1887.

1888.  M.  Dimitrios  Antippa  died  Jan.  . . 115  (?)•

,, Caroline  Heathorne,  died  3  Feb 104;.

„ Pattison  Jolly,  Dublin,  died  5  Feb.  . .  104

,, Thomas  Eggleston,  West  Virginia,  IT.  S.,  died

3  May 111J

1889.  Mrs.  R.  Chapman,  Lewes,  died  March  .  .  105
,,  Eugene  Chevreul,  Paris,  9  April  .  .  .  102
,,  Mrs.  Catherine  Voss,  Shortlands,  died  17  July  104.
,, Madame  Poulaillon, or Roux,  at Toulouse,

died  Nov. 106

1890.  Mr.  Edward  Grubb,  Bristol,  died  about  1  July  109

1891.  Ann  Telford,  at  Maryport,  died  3  March  .  .  in
,, Mrs.  Ann  Starling,  Birmingham,  died  30  Sept.  103

1892.  Magdalen  Ponsa,  at  Vienna,  died  4  Feb.  . .117

EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, r.R.S.

(unautlienticated)
Died.  Buried  at  Aged.

1652.  Dr.  W.  Meade,  Ware,  Herts  ....  148J
1711.  Mrs.  Scrimshaw,  Rosemary-lane  .  .  .  127
1739.  Margaret  Patten,  Christehurch,  Westminster  .  136
1741.  John  Rovin,  Temeswar,  Hungary  .  .  .  172
1757.  Alexander  M'Culloch,  Aberdeen  .  .  .  132
1759.  Donald  Cameron,  Rannach,  Aberdeenshire .  130

1763.  Mrs.  Taylor,  Piccadilly 131

1766.  John  Mount,  Langham,  Dumfries . . . 136

,, John  Hill,  Leadhills,  near  Edinburgh  . . .  130

1771.  Mr.  Whalley,  Rotherhithe  . . . .121

1775.  Widow  Jones,  Campbell 125

1780.  Mr.  Evans,  Spitalfields 139

1784.  Mary  Cameron,  Braemar,  Aberdeen  .  .  .  129
1791.  Archbd.  Cameron,  Keith,  Aberdeenshire  .  .  122
1851.  Jean  Golembeski,  Hotel  de's  Iuvalides,  Paris  . 126

LONGITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus,  at
Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degree  in  the  Canaries,
162  B.C.  Harrison  made  a  time-keeper,  in  a.d.
!759i  which  in  two  voyages  was  found  to  correct
the  longitude  within  the  limits  required  by  the  act
of  parliament  12  Anne,  1714;  and  obtained  the
reward;  see  Harrison's  Timepiece.  The  chrono-
meters of  Arnold,  Eamshaw,  and  Breguet,  are
highly  esteemed.  Chronometers  are  now  received
on  trial  at  Greenwich  Observatory.  The  actrelatin


LONGMANS  MAGAZINE.


598


LOEDS, HOUSE OF.


to  the  discovery  of  the  longitude  at  sea  was  repealed
in  1828.  The  Bureau  des  Longitudes  at  Paris  was
established  in  1795.

LONGMAN'S  MAGAZINE  first  published
(to  replace  "  Frazer's"),  Nov.  1882.

LONGOBARDI,  see  Lombardy.

LONG  PARLIAMENT  met  3  Nov.  1640;
was  forcibly  dissolved  by  Cromwell  20  April,  1653.

LONGWOOD,  in  St.  Helena  (S.  Atlantic
Ocean),  the  residence  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  from
10  Dec.  1815  till  bis  death,  5  May,  1821.

LONGWY  (N.E.  France),  a  frontier  town,
was  taken  by  the  allied  army  of  Austrians  and
Prussians,  23  Aug.  1792,  the  beginning  of  the  great
war.  It  was  again  taken  18  Sept.  18 15.  After  a
bombardment  it  surrendered  to  the  Germans,  25
Jan.  1871.

LOOCHOO  ISLES;  N.  Pacific;  long  nomi-
nally subject  to  Japan  ;  with  a  nearly  independent
king.  Disputes  between  China  and  Japau  respect-
ing them,  1879  ;  the  isles  annexed  by  Japan,  1879.

LOOKING-GLASSES,  see  Mirrors.

LOOM:  was  used  by  the  Egyptians.  Theweaver's
otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought  into  use
in  London  from  Holland,  about  1676.  There  were,  in
1825,  about  250,000  hand-looms  in  Great  Britain,
and  75,000  power-looms,  each  being  equal  to  three
hand-looms,  making  twenty-two  yards  each  per
■day.  The  steam-loom  was  introduced  in  1807  ;  see
Cotton,  Electric-loom,  Jacquard,  Pneumatic-loom.

LOOSHAIS,  a  predatory  nomadic  Indian
tribe,  about  300  miles  east  of  Calcutta.  They  fre-
quently robbed  the  British  tea  plantations,  killing
the  planters  and  carrying  off  their  children.  An
expedition  to  chastise  them  was  successful,  Dec.  187 1 .

LORD,  see  Lady.  "When  printed  in  the  Eng-
glish  Bible  in  small  capitals  Lord  stands  for  Jeho-
vah, the  self-existing  God,  the  name  first  revealed
to  Moses,  1491  B.C.  Exod.  vi.  3.  "When  Lord  is  in
ordinary  type,  it  represesents  A.donai,  lord  or
master.

LORD  ADVOCATE,  CHAMBERLAIN,
CHANCELLOR,  &c.,  see  Advocate,  Chamber-
lain, Chancellor,  &c.

LORD  MAYOR,  see  Mayors.

LORD'S  DAY  ACT,  29  Chas.  II.  c.  7,  see
Sabbath.

LORD'S  SUPPER,  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ
{Matt.  xxvi.  17),  33,  see  Sacrament  and  Transub-
stantiation.

LORDS.*  The  nobility  of  England  date  their
creation  from  1066,  when  William  Fitz-Osborn  is
said  to  have  been  made  earl  of  Hereford  by  Wil-
liam I. ;  and  afterwards  Walter  d'Evreux,  earl  of
Salisbury;  Copsi,  earl  of  Northumberland;  Henry
de  Ferrers,  earl  of  Derby ;  and  Gherbod  (a  Fleming)
earl  of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other  peers  were  made
in  this  sovereign's  reign.  The  first  peer  created  by
patent  was  lord  Beauchamp  of  Holt  Castle,  by
.Richard  II.  in 1387. In  Scotland,  Gilchrist  was


*  Peers  of  England  are  free  from  all  arrests  of  debts,  as
being  the  king's  hereditary  counsellors  ;  therefore  a  x'eer
cannot  be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no  attach-
ment lies  against  his  person  ;  but  execution  may  be  taken
upon  his  lands  and  goods.  For  the  same  reason,  they
are  free  from  all  attendance  at  courts  leet  or  sheriffs'
turns  ;  or,  in  case  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  2'osse
comitates.  He  can  act  as  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  any
s.t  of  the  kingdom. See  Baron,  Earl,  &o.


created  earl  of  Angus  by  Malcolm  III.  1037.  In
Ireland,  sir  John  de  Courcy  was  created  baron  of
Kingsale,  &c,  in  1181;  the  first  peer  after  the
obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by  Henry  II.

LORDS, HOUSE  OF. T^ie  peers  of  England

were  summoned  ad  eoiisulendiim,  to  consult,  in  early
reigns,  and  by  writ,  6  &  7  John,  1205 ;  but  the
earliest  writ  extant  is  49  Hen.  III.  1265.  The
commons  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of
the  nation  until  some  ages  after  the  conquest ;  see
Parliament.  The  house  of  lords  in  eludes  the  spiritual
as  well  as  temporal  peers  of  Great  Britain.  The
bishops  are  supposed  to  hold  certain  ancient  baronies
under  the  kins;,  in  right  whereof  they  have  seats  in
this  house.  Some  of  the  temporal  lords  sit  by  de-
scent, and  some  by  creation :  others  by  election,
since  the  union  with  Scotland  in  1 707,  and  with
Ireland,  1801. — Scotland  elects  16  representative
peers,  and  Ireland,  28  temporal  peers  for  life.  The
house  of  lords  in  Jan.  1892,  consisted  of  6  princes  of
the  blood,  2  archbishops,  20  dukes,  21  marquises,
138  earls,  31  viscounts,  313  barons,  and  24  bishops  ;
in  all,  555.

House  of  lords  at  death  of  Charles  II.  1685 .  176  peers.

,, ,,  Will.  III.  1702 .  192

,, ,,  Anne,  1714 . .  209

„ ,,  Geo.  I. 1727  . .  216

,, ,,  Geo.  II.  1760 . .  229

,, „  Geo.  III.  1820 .  339

,, ,,  Geo.  IV.  1830 . .  396

Will.  IV.  1837 .  456

In  the  18th  Vict.  1855  . . -  . . .  448

,, 24th  Vict,  i860 462

,, 32nd  Vict.  1868 464

,, 39th  Vict.  1876 494

„ 41st  Vict.  1878 501

The  king,  barons,  and  clergy  enact  the  constitutions

of  Clarendon  in 1164

Obtain  Magna  Charta  in 1215

Held  the  government 1264-5

House  of  lords  abolished  by  the  commons,  6  Feb.  1649

,, ,, met  again, . . .25  April, ,,
Unite  with  the  commons  in  making  William  and

Mary  king  and  queen 1689

Reject  the  great  reform  bill,  7  Oct.  1831 ;  pass  it,

4  June,  1832
The  parliament  house  destroyed  by  fire  .  16  Oct.  1834
Take  possession  of  their  new  house .  15  April,  1847

Oppose  successfully  the  creation  of  life  peerages,*

7  Feb.  t8s6
Voting  by  proxy  abolished  by  standing  order,

31  March,  1868
New  regulations  respecting  committees 2  April, ,,
Six  new  peers  were  gazetted . .  17  April, ,,

Bankrupt  peers  not  to  sit  or  vote,  decided  10  Feb.  ;

settled  by  act 13  July,  1871

That  peers  cannot  vote  for  M.  P.  's  affirmed  by  court

of  common  pleas  on  appeal . . .  15  Nov.  1872
Two  peers  for  life  may  be  created  by  her  majesty  as

lords  of  apjieal  in  ordinary,  to  aid  the  house  of

lords  ;  as  a  court  of  ultimate  appeal  (see  Supreme

Court).
Lords  Blackburn  and  Gordon  created  peers  for  life

5  Oct.  1876
Entitled  to  sit  and  vote  in  parliament  while  appeal

judges  ;  first  sitting  ....  21  Nov. ,,

Lord  Rayleigh  (said  to  be)  the  first  peer  elected  a

professor  of  physics  (at  Cambridge)  12  Dec.  1879 ;

Royal  Institution,  London .... 1887
Proposed abolition of the hereditary principle

negatived  (202-166)  in  the  commons,  5  March,

1886 ;  (223-162)  9  March,  1888 ;  (201-160)  17, 18

May,  1889;  (201-139) ...  21  March  1890

*  Peerage  for  life  only,  with  the  title  0  f  lord  Wensleydale
of  Wensleydale,  was  granted  to  baron  sir  James  Parke,
10  Jan.  1856  ;  the  house  of  lords  opposed  his  sitting  and
voting  as  a  peer  for  life,  and  on  25  Jul}7,  1856,  he  was
created  a  peer  in  the  usual  way,  with  the  title  of  lord
Wensleydale  of  Walton.  He  died  in  1868.  A  bill  for
creating  life  peerages  was  read  a  second  time  in  the  lords
27  April,  1869,  but  afterwards  rejected.


LOEDS JUSTICES.


599


LOUEENCO MAEQUES.


Lord  Blackburn  having  resigned,  permitted  to  sit
by  appellate  jurisdiction  act  ....  1887

The  earl  of  Rosebery's  motion  for  a  committee  to
consider  reform  of  the  house  of  lords  rejected
(97-50) 19  March,  1888

Lord  Dunraven's  bill  for  reforming  the  constitution
of  the  house  of  lords  withdrawn  on  the  promise
of  the  government  dealing  with  the  question

26  April, ,,

Marquis  of  Salisbury's  bill  for  creation  of  life  peers
and  exclusion  of  those  whom  he  termed  "black
sheep  "  read  first  time  18  June  ;  second  time  10
July  ;  dropped July, ,,

The  lords  of  appeal  are  peers  for  life  (see  under
Appeals).

LOEDS  JUSTICES,  see  Justices  and  Appeal.

LOEDS  LIEUTENANTS,  see  Lieutenants
and  Ireland.

LOEDS  OF  THE  PALE,  see  Pale.

LOEENZO  MAEQUEZ,  see  Zourenco.

LOEETTO,  near  Ancona,  Italy.  Here  is  the
Casa  Santa,  or  Holy  House,  in  which  it  is  pretended
the  Virgin  Mary  lived  at  Nazareth,  and  said  to  have
been  carried  by  angels  into  Dalmatia  from  Galilee
in  1291,  and  brought  here  a  few  years  after.  The
lady  of  Loretto,  gaudily  dressed,  stands  upon  an
altar  holding  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms,  sur-
rounded with  gold  lamps.  Loretto  was  taken  by  the
French  in  1797;  the  holy  image,  which  had  been
carried  to  France,  was  brought  back  with  pomp,  5
Jan.  1803.

L'OEIENT  (W.  France).  Lord  Bridport  off
this  port  defeated  the  French  fleet,  23  June,  1795.
The  loss  of  the  French  was  severe-  that  of  the
British  inconsiderable.  —  The  French  flag-ship,
L'Okiext,  blew  up  during  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  I
Aug.  1798.  Admiral  Brueys  and  about  900  men
perished.

LOEEAINE  (Lotharingia),  formerly  a  French
now  a  German  province,  became  a  kingdom  under
Lothaire  (son  of  the  emperor  Lothaire  I.)  about
85;  ;  and  was  divided  at  his  death,  in  869,  part  of
it  being  made  a  duchy.  From  the  first  hereditary
duke,  Gerard,  nominated  by  the  emperor  Henry  III.
in  1048,  descended  the  house  of  Lorraine,  repre-
sented now  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  whose  ances-
tor, the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  married  in  1736
Francis  formerly  duke  of  Lorraine,  then  of  Tuscany.
Lorraine,  given  to  the  dethroned  king  of  Poland,
Stanislaus  L,  for  life,  was,  at  his  death  in  1766,
united  to  France ;  see  Nancy.  Lorraine  was  the  seat
of  war  in  Aug.  1870,  and  about  the  fifih  part,  in-
eluding  Metz  and  Thionville,  was  annexed  to
Germany  at  the  peace,  26  Feb.  1871.

LOTS-  Casting  lots,  as  an  appeal  to  God,  was
eacred  among  the  Jews,  Proverbs  xvi.  33.  It  was
employed  in  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,
about  1444  B.C.,  by  Joshua  (xiv.),  and  in  the  elec-
tion of  Matthias  the  apostle,  a.d.  33,  Acts  i. — Lots
for  life  or  death  have  been  frequently  cast.  For  an
instance,  see  Wales,  1649,  note.

LOTTEEIES  are  said  to  have  originated  in
Florence  about  1530,  and  to  have  been  legalised  in
France  in  1539,  and  soon  became  common. They
were  prohibited  by  pope  Benedict  XIII.  (1724-30),
and  sanctioned  by  Clement  XII. (1730-40). See
Art  Union  under  Arts  and  .Paris  (exhibition  1889).
The first mentioned in English history took
place, day  and night, at  the  western door  of
St.  Paul's  cathedral It  contained  40,000  "  lots  "
at  ios.  each  lot,  the  profits  were  for  repairing  the
harbours,  and  the  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate,

11  Jan. -6  May,  1569


A  lottery,  granted  by  the  king,  in  favour  of  the
colony  of  Virginia  (prizes,  pieces  of  plate),  drawn
near  St.  Paul's ... 29  June-20  July,  1612
First  lottery  for  sums  of  money  took  place  in . .  1630
Lotteries established (for more than 130  years

yielded  a  large  annual  revenue  to  the  crown)  .  .  1693
Lotteiy  for  the  British  Museum  ....  1753
Cox's  museum,  containing  many  rare  specimens  of

art,  disposed  of  by  lottery .....  1773
An  act  passed  for  the  sale  of  the  buildings  of  the
Adelphi  by  lottery . . . . 16  June, „

Irish  state  lottery  drawn 178°

Lottery  for  the  Leverian  Museum . . . 1784-5
For  the  Pigott  diamond,  permitted,  Jan.  2,  1801  ;  it
was  afterwards  sold  at  Christie's  auction  for  9500

guineas ■  • 10  May,  1802

For  the  collection  of  pictures  of  alderman  Boydell,

by  act 1804-5

Lotteries  abolished  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  60,  Oct.  ;  the

last  drawn 18  Oct.  1826

Act  passed  declaring  that  the  then  pending  Glasgow

lottery  should  be  the  last 1834

A.11  act  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  50I.  for  adver-
tising lotteries  in  the  newspapers .... 1836
Lotteries  suppressed  in  France . . 1793  an(i  1836
Mr. DethierV  twelfth-cake  lottery, Argyll-rooms,

Hanover-square,  suppressed  .  .  .27  Dec.  i860
Twelve  million  national  lottery  tickets  of  one  franc
each,  sold  at  Paris  to  pay  for  prizes  to  exhibitors,
and  expenses  of  working  men  visitors,  1878;  1st
prize  worth  5,000!.,  2nd,  4,000?.,  3rd  and  4th
2,oooZ. ; total  230,000  rewards. Drawing  began

26  Jan.  1879

LOUDON-HILL,  orDRTJMCLOG;  see  Drum-
clog.

LOUIS-D'OE,  a  French  gold  coin  of  24  francs,
first  struck  bv  Louis  XIII.  in  1640;  it  was  not
legal,  1795-1814;  superseded  by  the  Napoleon,
1810.

LOUISIANA  (N.  America),  one  of  the  United
States ;  discovered  by  Ferdinand  de  Soto,  1541 ;
traversed  by  M.  de  Salle,  1682 ;  settled  by  Louis
XIV.  (from  whom  it  derived  its  name),  about  1698.
It  formed  the  basis  of  Law's  Mississippi  scheme,
1717.  It  was  ceded  to  Spain  when  all  east  of  the
Mississippi  was  given  to  England,  1763.  Capital,
Baton  Kouge;  commercial  capital,  New  Orleans.
Population,  1880,939,946;  1890,  1,118,587.

Restored  to  France 1801

Sold  to  the  Americans,  1803  ;  and  made  a  state .  1812
Gen.  Jackson  defeated  the  British  at  New  Orleans,

8  Jan.  1815
Seceded  from  the  Union  by  ordinance  .  25  Jan.  1861
Adni.  Farragut  takes  New  Orleans  for  the  Federals,

28  April,  1862
ouisiana  restored  to  the  Union ....  1865
The  state  disturbed  by  factions  and  civil  war :  at

Grant  parish  many  negroes  massacred 11  April,  1873
See  jSicw  Orleans  and  Mississippi.

LOUIS,  St.,  commercial  capital  of  the  Missis-
sippi valley.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1764.
Population 'in  1870,  310,864;  1880,350,518;  1890,
451,770. See  Mauritius.

LOUISVILLE,  chief  commercial  town  in
Kentucky,  U.S.,  founded  1773;  named  after  Louis
X\  I.,  France,  1780.  The  town  suffered  greatly  by
a  tornado,  27  March,  1890,  when  about  93  persons
perished;  see  Storms.  Great  fires  and  explosion,
about  25  persons  perished,  8,  9  Dee.  1891.  Popula-
tion, 1880,  123,758;  1890,  161,129.

LOUEDES,  Hautes  Pyrenees,  S.  France,  see
France,  1872- 1875.

LOUEENCO  MAEQUES.  a  Portuguese
settlement,  E. 'coast  of  Africa.  In  May,  1879,  a
treaty  was  agreed  to  permitting  a  railway  to  be
made'  to  the  Transvaal  territory.  Its  ratification
was  opposed  in  the  chambers  at  Lisbon  in  1881,  and
led  to  a  change  of  ministry.  See  Portugal,  1881,
and  Del  agon  Bug.


LOTJVKE.


600


LUGDUNUM.


LOUVRE,  in  Paris,  is  said  to  have  been  a  royal
residence  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert,  628.  It  was  a
prison-tower  constructed  by  Philippe  Augustus  in
1204.  It  afterwards  became  a  library,  and  Charles
VI.  made  it  his  palace  (about  1364).  The  new
buildings,  begun  by  Francis  I.  in  1528,  were  enlarged
and  adorned  by  successive  kings,  particularly  Louis
XIV. — Napoleon  I.  turned  it  into  a  museum,  and
deposited  in  it  the  finest  collection  of  paintings,  sta-
tue^,  and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The
chief  of  those  brought  from  Italy  have  since  been
restored  to  the  rightful  possessors.  The  magnificent
buildings  of  the  new  Louvre,  begun  bj-  .Napoleon  I.
and  completed  by  Napoleon  III.,  were  inaugurated
by  the  latter  in  great  state,  14  Aug.  1857.  The
library  was  destroyed  and  other  buildings  much
injured  by  the  communists,  May,  1871.

LOVE  FEASTS,  see  Agapm.

LOW  COUNTRIES,  the  PaysBas,  now  Hol-
land and  Belgium  (which  see) .

LOWER  EMPIRE.  Some  historians  make
it  begin  with  the  reign  of  Valerian,  253 ;  others
with  that  of  Constantine,  323.

LOWERING BOAT  APPARATUS,  see

Life-boats.

LOW  SUNDAY,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter,
said  to  derive  its  name  from  the  inferiority  of  its
solemnities  to  those  of  Easter  Sunday  ;  see  Easter.

LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC UNION,

see  Ireland,  1886.

LOYALISTS,  a  term  applied  to  the  Royalist
party  during  the  American  war  of  1775-83,  and  to
the  supporters  of  the  Union  in  Ireland  in  1883.

LOYALTY  LOANS  were  raised  during  the
revolutionary  wars.  The  term  was  applied  to  one
opened  in  London  5  Dec.  1796;  in  fifteen  hours  and
twenty  minutes  the  sum  of  eighteen  millions  sterling
was  subscribed  ;  see  National  Association.

LUBBOCK'S  ACT,  Sir  John,  see  Bank  Holi-
days' Act.

LUBECK,  a  city  in  N.  Germany,  one  of  the
four  republics  of  the  German  confederation,  was
built  in  the  I2th  century,  and  was  chief  founder  of
the  Hanseatic  league  about  1240,  which  lasted  till
1630.  Lubeck  was  -declared  a  free  imperial  city
about  1226  ;  but  was  frequently  attacked  by  the
Danes.  The  French  took  it  by  assault,  6  Nr  .
1806,  and  Napoleon  incorporated  it  with  his  emr.rs
in  1810.  On  his  fall  in  1814  it  became  once  more  a
free  imperial  city.  It  joined  the  North  German
confederation  18  Aug.  1866.  Population  in  187 1,
52,158;  in  1880,  63,571;  in  1885,  67,658;  I890,
76,485.

LUCANIANS,  a  warlike  people  of  S.  Italy,
defeated  Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Pandosia,  332  B.C. ;
were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  272 ;  revolted  after
the  battle  of  Cannse,  216;  were  reduced  by  Scipio,
201  ;  again  revolted,  90 ;  admitted  as  Roman  citi-
zens, 88.

LUCCA  (central  Italy),  a  Roman  colony,  177
B.C. ;  a  Lombard  duchy,  a.d.  1327;  a  free  city  about
1370 ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the
Italian  republics.  It  was  united  with  Tuscany,  and
given  as  a  principality  to  Eliza  Bonaparte  by  her
brother  Napoleon  I.,  1805.  Lucca,  as  a  duchy,  was
given  to  Maria  Louisa,  widow  of  Louis,  king  of
Etruria,  in  1814.  It  was  exchanged  by  her  son
Charles-Louis  for  Parma  and  Plaeentia"  in  1847 ;
was  annexed  to  Tuscany,  and  with  it  became  part
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  i860.


LUCERNE  (Switzerland)  became  independent
in  1332,  and  joined  the  confederation.  The  city
Lucerne  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  a  light
(lucerna)  set  up  to  guide  travellers.  It  dates  from
the  8th  century,  and  was  subject  to  the  abbots-
of  Murbach,  who  surrendered  it  to  the  house  of
Hapsburg.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  March,
1798,  and  was  for  a  short  time  capital  of  the  Hel-
vetic republic  ;  which,  as  the  focus  of  insurrection
against  the  French,  was  suppressed  Oct.  1802.  As
a  catholic  canton,  Lucerne  was  very  active  on
behalf  of  education  by  the  Jesuits,  1844  ;  see  Swit-
zerland. Population,  1888 :  canton,  135,360 ;  city,
20,314.

LUCIA,  ST.  (West  Indies),  first  settled  by
the  Knglish,  1639;  expelled  by  the  natives;  settled
by  French  in  1650  ;  taken  by  the  British  severaS
times  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Insurrection  of
the  Fiench  negroes,  April,  1795.  St.  Lucia  was
restor.  d  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1802  ;  but  was
seized  by  England,  1803,  and  confirmed  to  her  in
1814.  Population  in  1871,  31,811  :  710  whites.  In
1880,38,265; 1891,41,713;  see  Windward  Isles.

LUCIFER  MATCHES  .came  into  use  about
1834.  Friction  matches  were  invented  by  Walker
of  Stockton-on-Tees,  1829.  In  March,  1842,  Idr.
R  uben  Partridge  patented  machinery  for  manu-
facturing the  splints.  In  1845,  Schrotter  of
Viem  a  produced  his  amorphous  phosphorus  (by
heating  ordinary  phosphorus  in  a  gas  which  it
cannot  absorb),  by  the  use  of  which  lucifers  are
rendered  less  dangerous,  and  the  manufacture  less
unhealthy.  Phosphoros  (Greek)  and  lucifer  (Latin),
both  signify  light-bearer.

Mr.  Lowe's  proposed  tax  on  lucifers  (with  "  e  luce.
lucellum, "  on  the  box)  was  much  opposed  and  with-
drawn, April,  1871.  For  their  exertions,  a  drinking
fountain  at  Bow  was  inaugurated  as  a  memorial  to
Bryant  and  May,  5  Oct.  1872  The  match  manufacture
was  made  a  monopoly  in  France  in  Oct.  1872,  for
750,000!.

Strike  of  women  and  girls  at  Bryant  and  May's,  assisted
by  socialists,  5-17  July,  1888.

The  Swedish  match  company  formed  in  1888  reported
unsuccessful,  6  March,  1889.

The  manufacture  in  France  became  a  state  mono-
poly 1  Jan.  1890

LUCIGEN,  fl  strong  light  for  open-air  work,
produced  by  apparatus  invented  by  Lyle  and
Hannay.  The  fuel  is  hydro-carbon  oil  and  com-
pressed air.  It  was  tried  at  the  King's  Cross
Station,  Dec.  1885,  and  has  been  employed  on  the
Forth  Bridge  Works.  Exhibited  at  the  Crystal
Palace,  14  Sept.  1887.
Messrs.  F.  Braby  &  Co.  patent a  light  created  by  a

combination  of  heated  oil,  water  and  compressed  air.

The  light  said  to be  equal  to 2,500  candles. It  is

intended to light public works and large areas,

Oct.  1888.

LUCKNOW,  the  capital  of  Oude,  since  1675  ;
see  Oude,  and  India,  1857.  Visit  of  prince  of
Wales,  Jan.  1876.

LUDDITES.  Large  parties  of  men  under  this
designation,  derived  from  Ned  Lud,  an  idiot,  who
once  broke  some  frames  in  a  passion,  commenced
depredations  at  Nottingham,  breaking  frames  and
machinery,  Nov.  181 1.  Skirmish  with  the  military
there,  29  Jan.  1812.  Serious  riots  occurred  again
in  1814;  and  numerous  bodies  of  unemployed  arti-
sans committed  great  excesses  in  1816  e t  seq.  Several
of  thi  se  Luddites  were  tried  and  executed,  1813  and
1818;  see  Derby.

LUGDUNUM.  see  Leyden  and  Lyons.


LUMINOUS  PAINT.


601


LUTHERANISM.


LUMINOUS  PAINT,  invented  by  Mr.  W.
H.  Balmain,  of  University  College,  London ;
patented  by  Ihlee  and  Home,  of  London.

Phosphorescent  materials  ;  lime  and  sulphur  mixed
with  oil  or  water;  clock-faces,  statues,  <fcc.,  painted
with  this  mixture,  exposed  to  light,  remain  luminous
for  some  time.  Besides  domestic  uses,  it  is  applied  to
military  purposes.

LUNAR  SOCIETY,  Birmingham,  about  1780.
The  members,  Joseph  Priestley,  James  Watt,  Eras-
mus Darwin,  Dr.  Withering,  and  others,  met  near
the  full  of  the  moon,  to  discuss  philosophy  and
politics.

LUNATICS. Insanity  (defined  by  sir  fra.
Hamilton  as  "  the  paralysis  of  the  regulating  or
legislating  faculties  of  the  mind  ").
"  The  king  shall  have  the  custody  of  the  lands  of
natural  fools,"  &c,  17  Edw.  II. . . . .  1324

Marriages  with  lunatics  declared  void,  15  Geo.  II.
c.  30 ........ . 1742

Others  were  made  in . ... 1774  and  1828

Act  regarding  criminal  lunatics  passed . Aug. 1840
Lunacy  act,  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  100,  passed . . .  1845
The  numerous  laws  respecting  lunatics were  con-
solidated and  amended  by  16  &  17  Vict.  cc.  70, 96,


97


A  new  lunacy  act  for  Scotland  passed  . . . 18

An  act  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  commissions  of
lunacy  passed  (said  to  be  in  consecpience  of  the
Wyndham  case  ;  see  Trials,  1862) . . . .18
A  parliamentary  committee,  reports  favourably  of

the  present  system  of  custody  of  lunatics . .18
Lunacy  Regulation  act  amended  . . . .  18

A  trial  of  Lunatics  act  passed . . . 25  Aug.  18
A  stringent  Lunacy  bill  introduced  by  lord  chan-
cellor Selborne, 26  March,  1885  ;  re-introduced
by lord  chancellor Herschell, 1 March, 1886 ;
passed  by  the  lords,  1  April,  1887  ;  another  bill
introduced  ;  dropped  .... 10  July,  1888
11,954  lunatics  in  charge  in  Scotland  . . 1  Jan. 1889
Lunacy  acts  amendment  bill  passed  26  Aug.,  1889,

and  a  consolidating  act  in  1890  ;  amended . . 1891
The  Cathcart  case  (see  Trials) . . . July, ,,

TREATMENT OF  THE INSANE.

Till  the  end  of  the  last  century  lunatics  were  treated
with  cruel  severity  ;  see  Conolly  "  On  the  Treat-
ment of  the  Insane,"  1856.

The  insane  were  exhibited  at  Bethlem  as  a  show,
for  id.  or  2d.  till 1770

Enlightened  principles  of  treatment  were  intro-
duced by  Wm.  Tuke,  at  the  Society  of  Friends'
"  Retreat,"  at  York,  and  by  Pinel,  at  theBicetre,
Paris,  with  very  great  success  . . . . 1792

Esquirol  succeeds  Pinel,  and  strongly  recommends
instruction  in  the  management  of  mental  dis-
orders .  1810

Exposure  of  enormous  cruelties  in  the  Bethlem
hospital 1815

This  led  to  gradual  improvements,  and  at  last  to
the  total  abolition  of  mechanical  restraints  at
Lincoln,  1837  '•  and  at  Hanwell  Asylum  (under
the  superintendence  of  Dr.  John  Conolly)  and  at
other  places 1839

Psychological  Journal  first  published  by  Dr.  Forbes
Winslow 1S48

Journal  of  Mental  Science,  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Bucknill .  1852
See  Hospitals.

Lunatics  in  charge  in  England  and  Wales,  1  Jan.  1855.

Private.  Pauper.

Male.  Female.  Male.  Female. Total.

County  Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 13.579

Hospitals . . 895 723  91  94  1,803

Licensed  houses .  1448 1350 1034 1279 5. in


2475 2196 7133


20,493


Lunatics,  Idiots,  and  Persons  of  Unsound  Mind  in
England  and  Wales :
1  Jan.


Registered.

1  Juii.

Registered

36,672

1863 .

43,118

38,058

1864 .

44.795

39.647

1865 •

45.950

41,129

1866

47,648

Jan.

Registered

1867 .

49,086

1868 .

51,000

1869 .

53,i77

1870 .

54,713

1871

56,755

1872

58,640

1S73 •

60,296

1874 ■

02,027

1875 •

63,793

1876 .

64,916

1877 .

66,636

1878 .

68,538

Jan.


ib7g


Registered
71,191

73."3
74,842
76,765
78,528

79.704-
80,156
80,891
82,643.
84,340
86,067
86.795
87,848


Criminal  lunatics  in  charge,  Oct.  1890,  926.

1878.  Male  lunatics,  31,024  ;  female,  37,514  ;  ratio,  27.57
per  10,000.

Ratio  per  1000  to  the  population :  1859,  1.  S6  ;  1865,
e.18  ;  1870,  2.47  ;  1874,  2.62.

Jn  1851,  there  were  in  Ireland  nearly  15,000  lunatics  of
all  classes  ;  in  Scotland  in  1851,  3362  in  charge  ;  in  1855.,
7403  ;  of  which  only  3328  were  under  the  protection  of
the  law.

LUND-HILL,  near  Barnsley,  in  South  York-
shire. While  toe  miners  were  dining  in  the  pit,  19
Feb.  1857,  the  inflammable  gas  took  tire  and
exploded.  About  189  miners  perished.  In  April
and  May  bodies  were  still  being  extricati  d.  There-
had  been  great  laxity  of  discipline  in  the  pit.
7000^.  were  subscribed  for  the  bereaved.

LUNEBURGr,  see  Brunswick.

LUNEVILLE  (France),  PEACE  OF,  con-
cluded between  the  French  republic  and  the  emperor
of  Germany,  confirmed  the  cessions  made  by  the
treaty  of  Campo  Forinio,  stipulated  that  the  Rhine-,,
as  far  as  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form  the-
boundary  of  France,  and  recognised  the  Batavian,
Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  9  Feb.
1801.

LUPERCALIA,  a  yearly  festival  observed  at
Rome  on  15  Feb.  instituted  in  memory  of  Romulus-
and  Remus,  according  to  Plutarch;  but  according:
to  Livy,  brought  by  Evander  into  Italy.  These
fe:ists  are  said  to  have  been  abolished  in  496,  by
pope  Gelasius,  on  account  of  their  great  disorders.

LUSATIA,  a  marquisate  in  N.  Germany,
given  to  John  of  Bohemia,  1319  ;  obtained  by
Matthias  of  Hungary,  1478 ;  ceded  to  Saxony  ia
163c.

LUSHAIS,  see  Chins.

LUSIAD,  the  great  epic  poem  of  the  Portu-
guese, written  in  honour  of  their  discoveries  in
India,  by  Luis  de  Camoens,  and  publis'  ed  by  him
at  Lisbon,  1572.  The  English  translations  are  by
sir  Richard  Fanshawe,  1655;  by  Wm.  Julius  Mickle,
1775;  and  others;  the  latest  and  best  by  J.  J.
Aubertin,  1884.

LUSITANIA,  see  Portugal.

LUSTRUM,  an  ancient  expiatory  sacrifice
made  foi  the  Roman  people,  at  the  end  of  every
five  years,  after  the  census  had  been  taken.  Every
fifth  year  was  called  a  lustrum  ;  and  ten,  fifteen,  or
twenty  years,  were  commonly  expressed  by  two,
three,  or  four  lustra, 'lhe  last  lustrum  took  place,

74  A»-

LUTE,  an  ancient  instrument  of  oriental  origin,
(Arabic,  al'ud) ;  said  to  have  been  brought  to
Mecca,  in  the  6th  century  A.D.,  and  thence  to
Europe.  J.  S.  Bach  and  others  composed  tor  the
"Western  lute  in  the  18th  century.

LUTHERANISM,*  the  form  of  Christianity

*  Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  10  Nov.  1483;
studied  at  Erfurt,  1501  ;  was  professor  of  philosophy  at
Wittenberg,  1508  ;  resisted  the  sale  of  indulgences,  1517  ;
defended  himself  at  Augsburg, 151S  ;  at  Worms,  1520;


LUTINE.


602


LYDDITE.


professed  by  the  majority  of  the  people  of  the  north
of  Germany,  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  The
■doctrines  are  mainly  embodied  in  Luther's  cate-
chisms, in  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  in  the
Formula  Concordia:  of  the  Lutherans,  published  in
1580.  Their  first  university  was  founded  at  Mar-
burg, in  1527,  by  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse.  The
Luther  memorial  at  W  orras  was  unveiled  in  presence
•of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  other  sovereigns,  25
June,  1868.  Fourth  centenary  of  Luiher's  birth
■celebrated  at  Halle,  Eisleben  (where  he  was  born),
Berlin,  and  throughout  Germany ;  also  at  London,
Edinburgh,  Dublin,  and  other  places  in  the  united
kingdom ;  at  Paris,  and  other  places  on  the  con-
tinent, 31  Oct. — 17  Nov.  1883-

LUTINE,  see  Wrecks,  1799.

LUTZEN, or LUTZENGEN (N. Germany).

Here  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  defeated
the  imperif  lists  under  Wallenstein,  16  Nov.  1632,
but  was  himself  killed  ;  and  here  the  French  army,
commanded  by  Napoleon,  defeated  the  combined
armies  of  Bussia  and  Prussia,  commanded  by  general
"Wittgenstein,  2  May,  1813.  The  battles  of  Bautzen
and  Wurschen  immediately  followed  (19-21  May),
both  in  favour  of  Napoleon.  The  allies  were  com-
pelled to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an  armistice  was
agreed  to,  afterwards  prolonged;  but, unfortunately
for  the  French  emperor,  this  did  not  produce
peace.

LUXEMBURG,  a  grand  duchy  held  by  the
king  of  Holland  till  Nov.  1890.  Luxemburg,  the
capital,  once  considered  the  strongest  fortified  city
in  the  world,  has  been  many  times  besieged  and
taken  :  by  the  French  in  984,  1443,  1479,  1542-3 ;
•by  the  Spaniards  in  1544 ;  by  the  French  in  1684;
restored  to  Spain  in  1697  ;  taken  by  the  French  in
1701  ;  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town,  but
ceded  to  the  emperor  at  the  peace  in  1713.  It
withstood  several  sieges  in  the  last  century.  It
surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  siege,  from  Nov.
S794  to  July,  1795  ;  and  was  retaken  by  the  allies
in  May,  1814.  Population  of  the  grand  duchy,
3867,199,958;  1875,  205,158;  1885,  213,283  ;  1890,
211,088;  city,  18,187.

The  grand  duchy  was  annexed  to  the  Netherlands,
still  remaining  a  member  of  the  Germanic  con-
federation, the  capital  having  a  Prussian  garrison  1815
A  portion  given  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium . 1830
After  the  dissolution  of  the  Germanic  confedera-
tion, the  emperor  Napoleon  objected  to  the  Prus-
sian garrison,  and  offered  to  buy  the  grand  duchy
from  the  king  of  Holland . . . March,  1867
Sn  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  Prussia,  a  con-
ference of  representatives  of  the  great  powers  met
in  London,  7-1 1  May,  who  agreed  upon  a  treaty
guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  the  province,  the
retirement  of  the  Prussian  garrison,  and  the  dis-
mantling the  fortress  of  Luxemburg 7-1 1  May, ,,
The  Prussian  soldiers  retired . . . Nov. ,,
The  fortifications  dismantled ....  Aug.  1870
The  people  protest  against  absorption  into  Germany,

21  Oct. „
They  are  accused  of  violating  neutrality,  and  the
abrogation  of  the  treaty  is  mooted  by  Prussia,

early  in  Dec. ,,

The  king  of  Holland,  their  sovereign,  declared  that

he  would  maintain  the  treaty,  15  Dec.  ;  and  the

government  protested  against  the  charge,  19  Dec. ,,

New  treaty  with  Prussia  ;  indemnity  to  be  paid  for

breaches  of  neutrality ;  fortresses  to  be  garrisoned

by  Germans Feb.  1871

Fortifications  transformed  to  civil  purposes . . 1874
The  duke  of  Nassau,  on  the  severe  illness  of  the
king  of  Holland,  assumed  the  regency  of  Luxem-
burg 10  April,  1889

was  excommunicated,  16  June,  1520  ;  began  his  German
bible,  1521  ;  married  Katherine  de  Bora,  1525  ;  published
his  German  bible  complete,  1534  ;  died  18  Feb.  1546.


The  king  recovers  and  resumes  the  government

3  May,  1889

The  duke  reassum.es  the  government  as  regent,
6  Nov.  ;  becomes  grand  duke  on  the  death  of  the
king,  23  Nov.  ;  takes  the  oath  and  opens  the  par-
liament 9  Dec.  1890

Grand  Duke,  1890,  Adolphus  William  Charles,
(titular  duke  of  Nassau),  born  24  July  1817.

LUXOR,  or  El-Uksub,  Egypt,  see  Thebes.

LUXURY.  Lucullus  (died  49  B.C.),  at  Borne,
was  distinguished  for  inordinate  luxury ;  see  Sump-
tuary Lav)s.

LYCEUM  (originally  a  temple  of  Apollo
Lyceus,  or  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus,
son  of  Apollo)  was  a  spot  near  thellissus,  in  Attica,
where  Aristotle  taught  philosophy;  and  as  he
generally  taught  as  he  walked,  his  pupils  were
called  peripatetics,  ualkers-aboiit,  and  his  philoso-
phy that  of  the  Lyceum,  342  B.C.  Stanley ;  see
Theatres.

LYCIA  (Asia  Minor),  subject  successively  to
Croesus  (about  560  B.C.),  to  the  Persians  (546  B.C.),
to  Alexander  the  Great  (333  B.C.),  and  to  his  suc-
cessors the  Seleucidse.  The  Bomans  gave  Lycia  to
the  Rhodians  (188  B.C.).  It  became  nominally  free
under  the  Romans,  and  was  annexed  to  the  empire
by  Claudius.  The  marbles  brought  from  Lycia  by
sir  Charles  Fellows  were  deposited  in  the  British
Museum,  1840-46.

LYCURGUS,  see  Laws.

LYDIA,  or  Mseonia,  an  ancient  kingdom  in
Asia  Minor;  the  early  history  -wholly  mythical.
Of  a  long  dynasty  of  kings,  the  last  was  Croesus,
"the'  richest  of  mankind."  The  coinage  of  gold
and  silver  monejr,  and  other  useful  inveations,  are
ascribed  to  the  Lydians.  ^Esop,  the  Phrygian
fabulist,  Alcman,  the  first  Greek  poet,  Thales  of
Miletus,  Anaximenes,  Xenophanes,  Anacreon  of
Teos,  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  &c.,  flourished  in
Lydia.
Agron,  a  descendant  of  Hercules,  reigns  in  Lydia,

Hand. . about  B.C.  1223

The  kingdom, properly  so called, begins under

Ardys  I. Blair 797

Alyattes  I.  reigns 761

Myrsus  commences  his  rule 747

Reign  of  Candaules  (or  Myrsilus) .... 735
Gyges,  first  of  the  race  Mermnadpe,  kills  Candaules,
marries  his  queen,  usurps  the  throne  about  690,
and  makes  great  conquests . . . about 716
Ardys  II.  reigns,  678  ;  the  Cimbri  besiege  Sardis,

the  capital  of  Lydia 635

The  Milesian  war,  commenced  under  Gyges,  is  con-
tinued by  Sadyattes,  who  reigns . . . . 628

Reign  of  Alyattes  II. 617

Battle  upon  the  river  Halys,  between  the  Lydians
and  Medes,  interrupted  by  an  almost,  total  eclipse
of  the  sun. This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many
years  before  by  Thales  of  Miletus. Blair.

28  May,  B.C. 585
Croesus, son  of  Alyattes,  succeeds  to  the  throne,
and  conquers  Asia  Minor .... 560-50

Croesus, dreading Cyrus, whose  conquests had
reached  to  the borders of  Lydia, crosses the
Halys  to  attack  the  Medes-,  with  420,000  men  and
60,000  horse ........ 548

He  is  defeated,  pursued,  and  besieged  in  his  capital
by  Cyrus,  who  orders  him  to  be  burned  alive ;
the  pile  is  already  on  fire,  when  Croesus  calls
aloud  Solon !  and  Cyrus  hearing  him,  spares  his
life. Lydia made  a  province  of the Persian

empire . 546

Sardis  burnt  by  the  Ionians 499

Lydia  conquered  by  Alexander .... 332
Becomes  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus  . . 283

Conquered  by  the  Turks a.d.  1326

LYDDITE,  the  English  name  for  the  French
Melenite  (which  see).


LYING-IN  HOSPITALS.


603


LYRE.


LYING-IN  HOSPITALS.  The  first,  esta-
blished in  Dublin  by  Dr.  Bartholomew  Mosse,  a
physician,  amid  strong  opposition,  was  opened
March,  1745;  see  Hospitals.

LYMPHATICS  (absorbent  vessels  connected
with  digestion),  discovered  about  1650  by  Rudbek
in  Sweden,  Bartholin  in  Denmark,  and  Jolyffe  in
England.  Asellius  discovered  the  laeteals  in
1622.  In  1654,  Glisson  ascribed  to  these  vessels  the
function  of  absorption ;  and  their  properties  were
studied  by  "Win.  and  John  Hunter,  Monro,  Hew-
son,  and  other  great  anatomists.

LYNCH  LAW,  punishment  inflicted  by  pri-
vate individuals,  independently  of  the  legal  authori-
ties. The  origin  of  the  term  is  doubtful ;  the
practice  has  been  attributed  to  James  Lynch  Fitz-
Stephen,  warden  of  Galway,  about  1526,  to  Lynch,
a  farmer  in  Virginia,  and  to  Lynch,  a  person  sent  to
America  to  suppress  piracy,  1687-8.  "Judge
Lynch''  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  mythical  person.
This  mode  of  administering  justice  still  exists  in
the  outlying  districts  of  the  United  States.  Four
robbers  were  taken  from  prison  and  hanged  by  a
vigilance  committee  at  New  Albany,  on  the  Ohio,
11  Dec.  1868.
Cases  occurred at  Savannah, Georgia,  and near

Bessemer, Alabama, and Como, Mississippi.

Nov.  1890
At  Salina  village,  Boulder  county,  Colorado

2i  Feb.  1891
New  Orleans  (which  sec)  .... 14  March „

See  Washington  State.
Numerous  cases  in 1891-92

.  LYNDHTJRST'S  ACT  (5  & 6  Will.  IV.  c.  54),
introduced  by  lord  Lyndhurst,  rendered  valid  cer-
tain marriages  within  the  forbidden  degrees  (with
•deceased  wife's  sister)  up  to  that  time,  but  prohi-
bited them  for  the  future  ;  passed  31  Aug.  1835.

LYONS  (S.  France),  the  Roman  Lugdunum,
founded  by  M.  Plancus,  43  B.C.  The  city  was  re-
duced to  ashes  in  a  single  night  by  lightning,  a.d.
59,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Nero. It  was


a free city  till  its  union with  France  in  1307.
Population  in  1886,  367,822;  in  1891,  401,930.

Battle  near  Lyons ;  Clodius  Albinus  defeated  and

slain  by  Septimius  Severus . . 19  Feb. 197
Two  general  councils  held  here  (13th  and  14th),

1245,  1274

Silk  manufacture  commenced 1515

Lyons  taken  by  the  republicans  after  70  days'  siege,
9  Oct.  ;  awful  pillage  and  slaughter  follow ;  the
Convention  decreed  the  demolition  of  the  city,

12  Oct. 1793
Capitulated  to  the  Austrians . . .  March,  1814

Entry  of  Napoleon 8  March,  1815

An  insurrection  among  the  artisans,  which  led  to
great  popular  excesses ; quelled  by  an army,

21  N0V.-31  Dec.  1831
Dreadful  riots,  put  down  by  military  .  15  April,  1834
Railway  to  Paris  opened . . .  7  April,  1839

A  dreadful  inundation  at  Lyons  (see  Inundations),

4  Nov.  1840
Another  insurrection  quelled,  with  much  loss  of  life,

15  June,  1849
Grand  banquet  to  Louis  Napoleon . 15  Aug. 1850
A  committee  of  public  safety  appointed  here  and  the
redflagraised soonaftertherevolutionin Paris.  M.
Saigne,  calling  himself  president,  gen.  Cluseret  (ex-
pelled from  Paris),  and  other  extreme  republicans,
defeatedin  their  endeavours  to  depose  M.  Challemel
Lacour,  the  prefect  of  the  Rhone,  who  was  well
supported  by  the  national  guard  ;  gen.  Mazure,
the  military  commander,  accused  of  treacherous
inaction,  was  arrested ... 28  Sept.  1870
Arnaud,  commandant  of  the  national  guard,  mur-
dered by  the  mob,  after  a  mock  trial,  for  resist-
ing them 20  Dec. „

Visited  by  marshal  MacMahon . . . Sept.  1876
Rioting,  see  France Oct.  1882

LYRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Grecian
Hermes  (in  Latin  Mercury),  who,  according  to
Homer,  gave  it  to  Apollo,  the  first  that  played  upon
it  with  method,  and  accompanied  it  with  poetiy.
The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre,  with  three
strings,  is  ascribed  to  the  first  Egyptian  Hermes.
It  is  said  that  Terpander  added  several  strings  to
the  lyre,  making  the  number  seven,  673  B.C.,  and
that  Phrynis,  a  musician  of  Mitylene,  added  two
more,  making  nine,  4^8  B.C.


M.


MACADAMISING.


MACEDON.


MACADAMISING,  a  system  of  road-making
invented  by  Mr.  John  Macadam,  and  published  by
him  in  an  essay,  in  1819,  having  practised  it  in
Ayrshire.  H  e  prescribed  stones  to  be  broken  to  six
ounces  weight,  and  the  use  of  clean  Mints  and  granite
clippings.  Hereceived  10,000^.  from  parliament;  was
appointed  surveyor-general  of  the  metropolitan  roads
in  1827,  and  died  in  1836 ;  see  Roads.

MACAO  (in  Quang-tong,  S.  China)  was  given
to  the  Portuguese  as  a  commercial  station  in  1586
(in  return  for  their  assistance  against  pirates),  sub-
ject to  an  annual  tribute,  which  was  remitted  in  1886.
Here  Camoens  composed  part  of  the  "  Lusiad."  The
abuses  of  the  Coolie  trade  by  the  Portuguese,  led  to
its  abolition  here  by  the  British  and  Chinese  govern-
ments in  1873.

MACARONI.  This  name,  given  to  a  poem  by
Theophilus  Folengo,  1509,  continues  to  designate
trifling  performances,  as  buffoonery,  puns,  ana-
grams, "wit  without  wisdom,  and  humour  without
sense."  His  poem  was  so  called  from  a  nutritious
preparation  of  wheat-flour  in  tubes  and  threads.
These  poems,  in  Italy  and  France,  gave  rise  to
Macaroni  academies,  and  in  England  to  Macaroni
clubs  (about  1 772),  when  everything  ridiculous  in
dress  and  manners  was  called  "  Macaroni."

MACCABEES,  a  name  of  the  As-r.onteans,  who
commenced  their  career  during  the  persecution  of
AntiochusEpiphanes,  167  B.C.  Mattathias,  apriest,
resisted  the  tyranny  ;  and  his  son,  Judas  Maccabams,
defeated  the  Syrians  in  three  battles,  166,  165  B.C. ;
but  fell  in  an  ambush,  161  B.C.  His  brother  Jona-
than made  a  league  with  the  Romans  and  Lace-
daemonians, and  after  an  able  administration  was
treacherously  killed  at  Ptolemais  by  Tryphon,
143  B.C.  His  brother  and  successor,  Simon,  was
also  murdered,  135  B.C.  John  Hyrcanus,  son  of
Simon,  succeeded.  His  son  Judas,  called  also  Aris-
tobulus,  took  the  title  of  king,  107  B.C.  The  history
of  the  Maccabees  is  contained  iu  five  books  of  that
name,  two  of  which  are  included  in  our  Apocrypha.
Four  are  accounted  canonical  by  the  Roman  Catholic
church ;  none  by  Protestant  communions.

The  magnificent  Maccabees  chapel  at  Geneva,  founded
in  1415,  by  the  cardinal  Jean  de  Broguier,  president  of
the  council  of  Constance  and  the  place  of  his  sepulchre.
The  building  much  injured  and  desecrated  at  the  time
of  the  Reformation  was  fimly  renovated  in  1881  and
fitted  up  as  a  museum.

MACCLESFIELD,  Cheshire,  was  incorpor-
ated in  1260,  disenfranchised  in  1885.  The  church
of  St.  Michael  was  founded  by  queen  Eleanor  in
1278 ;  the  grammar-school  in  1502.  Population,
1881,  37,514;  1891,36,009.

MACDONALD  AFFAIR,  see  Prussia,  1861.

MACE,  a  weapon  anciently  used  by  the  cavalry
of  most  nations,  was  originally  a  spiked  club,  hung
at  the  saddle-bow,  and  usually  of  metal.  Maces
■were  also  early  ensigns  of  authority  borne  hefore
officers  of  state,  the  top  being  made  in  the  form  of
anopeu  crown,  and  commonly  of  silver  gilt.  The
lord  chancellor  and  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons
have  maces  borne  before  them.  Edward  III.  granted
to  London  the  privilege  of  having  gold  or  silver


maces  carried  before  the  lord  mayor,  sheriffs,  alder-
men, and  corporation,  1354.  It  was  with  the  mace
usually  carried  before  the  lord  mayor  on  state
o  casions,  that  Walworth,  lord  mayor  of  London,  is
said  to  have  knocked  the  rebel  Wat  Tyler  off  his
horse,  for  rudely  approaching  Richard  II.,  a  cour-
tier afterwards  de?patching  him  with  his  dagger,
15  June,  1 381.  Cromwell,  entering  the  house  of
commons  to  disperse  its  members  and  dissolve  the
parliament,  ordered  one  of  his  soldurs  to  "take
away  that  bauble,"  the  mace,  which  was  done,  and
the  doors  of  the  house  loeked,  20  April,  1653.

MACEDON  (N.  Greece).  The  first  kingdom
is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Caranus,  about  761
B.C.  It  was  successively  under  the  protection  of
Athens,  of  Thebes,  and  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of
Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  by
his  political  wisdom  and  warlike  exploits  made  it  a
powerful  kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  for  his  son's
greatness.
Reigns  of  Caranus,  about  761  ;  Perdiccas  I.,  729;

Argeeus  I. ,  684  ;  Philip  I. ,  640  or  6oq.
Reign  of  Amyntas,  540 ;  of  Alexander  I. . B.C. 500
Macedon  conquered  by  the  Persians,  513;  delivered

by  the  victory  of  Platsea 479

Reign  of  Perdiccas  II 454

Potidsea,  revolting,  433 ;  re-taken  by  the  Athenians 429,
Archelaus,  natural  son  of  Perdiccas,  murders  the
legitimate  heirs ;  seizes  the  throne,  and  improves
the  country.  413 ; murdered  by  a  favourite,  to
whom  he  promised  his  daughter  in  marriage

Pausanias  reigns

Reign  of  Amyntas  II.,  after  killing  Pausanias
The  IUyrians  enter  Macedonia,  expel  Amyntas,  and
make  Argaeus,  brother  of  Pausanias,  king . .
Amyntas  again  recovers  his  kingdom
Reign  of  Alexander  II.,  369;  assassinated  . . .
Reign  of  Perdiccas  III.,  364  ;  killed  in  battle  .
Reign  of  Philip  II.,  and  institution  of  the  Mace-
donian phalanx

He  defeats  the  Athenians  and  Illyrians . . 360,

He  takes  Amphipolis 358

He  conquers  Thrace,  Illyria,  and  Thessaly . 356-352


399
394
393

392

39°
367
360

359


Birth  of  Alexander  III.  the  Great

Close  of  the  first  sacred  war

Illyricum  overrun  by  the  army  of  Philip  .

Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon . . . .

Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  Alexander .

War  against  the  Athenians

Philip  besieged  Byzantium  unsuccessfully

Battle  of  Charonea ;  Philip  victor . . . .

Philip  is  assassinated  by  Pausanias  at  iEgse  during

the celebration of games in honour of his

daughter's  nuptials;  Alexander  III.,  the  Great,

succeeds

The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of  their  armies

against  the  Persians

The  Thebans  revolt ; he levels Thebes to the

ground  ;  the  house  of  Pindar  alone  left
He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his  first  battle  over

Darius  at  the  Granicus ...  22  May,

Sardis  surrenders,  Halicarnassus  taken,  and  cities

in  Asia  Minor  .......

Menmon  ravages  the  Cyclades  ;  Darius  takes  the

held  with  460,000  infantry,  and  100,000  cavalry
Darius  defeated  at  Issus  (which  sec) . . Nov.
Alexander  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  lays  siege  to  Tyre,

which  is  destroyed  after  seven  months
Damascus  is  taken  ;  Gaza  surrenders
Alexander  enters  Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered

Alexandria  founded . . .  ' .
The  Persians  totally  defeated  at  Arbela . 1  Oct.
Alexander  master  of  Asia  ;  enters  Babylon
Sits  on  the  throne  of  Darius  at  Susa


356
346"
344
343.

34i
340
33&


MACEDONIANS.


605


MADAGASCAE.


Parthia,  Media,  &e. ,  overrun  by  him . . b.  c. 329
Thalestris,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  visits  him  . ,,

He  puts  his  friend  Parmenio  to  death,  on  a  charge

of  conspiracy  supposed  to  be  false  ,,

His  expedition  to  India  ;  Porus,  king  of  India,  is
defeated  and  taken  ;  and  the  country  as  far  as  the
Ganges,  is  overrun . . .  . . . 327

Callisthenes is  put  to  the  torture  for  refusing  to

render  divine  homage  to  Alexander  .  .  .  328
Voyage  of  his  admiral  Nearchus  from  the  Indus  to

the  Euphrates 32S-325

Returns  to  Babylon,  324  ;  dies  .... 323

Philip  III.  (Aridseus)  king 323

Alexander's conquests are divided among his
generals, 323 ; his  remains  are  transported  to
Alexandria,  and  buried  by  Ptolemy . . . 322
The  Greeks  defeated  by  Antipater  and  the  Mace-
donians, near  Cranon  (which  see) . . . . ,,
Cassander  reigns,  316  ;  rebuilds  Thebes . . . 315

Seleucus  recovers  Babylon 312

Cassander  kills  Roxana  and  her  son  (the  last  of

Alexander's  family),  and  usurps  the  throne  .  .  311
Battle  of  Ipsus  (which  see) ;  Antigonus  killed  . . 301

New  division  of  the  empire  ,,

Death  of  Cassander  298

Reign  of  Alexander  V.  and  Antipater,  his  sons . „
Demetrius  I. ,  Poliorcetes,  son  of  Antigonus,  murders

Alexander,  and  seizes  the  crown  of  Maeedon  .  294
Achsean  league  formed  against  Maeedon  .  .  281-243
Governments  of  Pyrrhus,  287  ;  Lysimachus,  286  ;

Ptolemy  Ceraunus 281

Irruption  of  the  Gauls  ;  Ptolemy  killed . . . 279

Sosthenes  governs 278

Reign  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  son  of  Demetrius . 277
Pyrrhus  invades  Maeedon,  defeats  Antigonus,  and
is  proclaimed  king ....  . . 273

Pyrrhus  slain ;  Antigonus  restored  . . . 272

Antigonus  takes  Athens 268

The  Gauls  again  invade  Maeedon . . . . „

Revolt  of  the  Parthians 250

Reign  of  Demetrius  II 239

Philip,  his  son,  232  ;  set  aside  by  Antigonus  Doson  229
Philip V.,  220; allies  with  Hannibal,  211; wars

unsuccessfully  against  the  Hhodians  .  .  .  202
Philip  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Cynoscephalas  197
Reign  of  Perseus,  his  son,  178  ;  war  with  Rome  .  171
Perse'us defeated at Pydna ; Maeedon made a.

Roman  province 168

Perseus  and  his  sons  walk  in  chains  before  the
chariot  of  jEmilius  in  his  triumph  for  the  con-
quest of  Maeedon 167

Insurrection  of  Andriscus,  calling  himself  Philip,

son  of  Perseus,  quelled 148

Macedonia  plundered  by  Theodoric  the  Ostro-
goth a.d. 482

Conquered  by  the  Bulgarians 978

Recovered  by  the  emperor  Basil 1001

Formed  into  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Thessalonica,  by

Boniface,  of  Montferrat 1204

After  various  changes,  conquered  by  Amurath  II.,

and  annexed  to  Turkey 1430

A  Macedonian  Society  formed  to  urge  the  execution
of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878)  was  active  in  1885.

MACEDONIANS,  a  semi-Arian  sect,  followers
of  Macedonius,  made  bishop  of  Constantinople
about  341.  His  appointment  was  greatly  opposed
and  led  to  much  bloodshed.  He  was  expelled  by
the  decree  of  a  council  held  360.

MACHIAVELLIAN PEINCIPLES,

tho>e  of  iNicolo  Machiavelli  of  Florence  (born
1469,  died  1527),  in  his  '•  Practice  of  Politics"  and
"The  Prince."  By  some  they  are  styled  "the
most  pernicious  maxims  of  government,  founded  on
the  vilest  policy  ;  "  by  others  as  ''sound  doctrines,
notwithstanding  the  prejudice  erroneously  raised
against  them."  The  author  said  that  if  he  taught
princes  lo  be  tyrants,  he  also  taught  the  people  to
destroy  tyrants.  "The  Prince"  appeared  at  Rome
in  1532,  and  was  translated  into  English  in  1 761.

MACIEJOVICE  (near  Warsaw,  Poland).
Here  the  Poles  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Russians,
and  tneir  general,  Kosciusko,  taken  prisoner,  10
Oct.  1794,  after  a  murdeious  action.  He  strenuously


endeavoured  to  prevent  the  junction  of  the  Russian
and  Austrian  armies.  The  statement  that  he  said
"Finis  Polomte!"  is  contradicted.

MACKENZIE  BASIN,  see  Canada,  1888.

MADAGASCAE (S.  E.  coast  of  Africa), a

large  island  (capital,  Antananarivo),  said  to  have

been  discovered by  Lorenzo  Almeida,  1506. The

people are called Hovas. Population, about

3,500,000  (1884).

Portuguese  settlement,  1548 ;  destroyed  by  the
French  one,  1642,  on  arrival  of  a  French  governor  1669

The  French  attempted  to  settle  at  Antongel-bay  in 1774

Count  Benyowski  supreme  in  the  island,  Oct.  1775  ;
killed  in  an  encounter  with  the  French 23  May,  1786

Their  establishment  at  Fort  Dauphin  fell  into  the
hands  of  the  English  with  Bourbon  and  Mauritius
hi 1810-11

The  settlements  ceded  to  king  Radama,  on  his
giving  up  the  slave  trade  1818

Radama  I.  king  1810,  who  favoured  Europeans  and
encouraged  Christianity,  died ....  1828

A  reactionary  policy  under  his  energetic  queen
Ranavalona,  1828.  The  English  missionaries  who
came  in  1820  obliged  to  depart  . . . .  1835

The  application  of  the  native  laws  to  the  European
settlers  occasioned  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the
town  of  Tamatave,  by  a  united  expedition  from
the  English  at  the  Mauritius,  and  the  French
from  the  isle  of  Bourbon . . . June,  1845

All  amicable  intercourse  ceases,  the  native  Christians
suffer  persecution 1846  et  seq.

The French  defeated  in  an  attack  on  the  island,

19  Oct.  1855

Conspiracy  against  the  queen  frustrated . June,  1857

The  rev.  W.  Ellis  published  accounts  of  his  three
visits  to  the  island,  on  behalf  of  the  London
Missionary  Society,  in  1854-5-6 1S58

The  queen  dies  ;  succeeded  by  her  son  Radama  II.,
a  Christian 23  Aug.  1861

Treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  France  signed,

12  Sept. 1862

Arevolution  ;  the  kingand  his  ministers  assassinated ;
the  queen  Rasoherina  proclaimed  sovereign,  May,  1863

Embassy  from  Madagascar  arrives  at  Southampton,

Feb.  1864

Disputes  with  the  French . . . .  Nov. ,,

Treaty  with  Great  Britain  ;  Christians  to  be  tole-
rated, &c.,  27  June,  1865  ;  ratified . .  5  July,  1866

Rev.  Win.  Ellis's  "  Madagascar  Revisited,"  pub-
lished j  Feb.  1867

The  queen  died  in  March ;  her  cousin,  Ranava'ona  II. ,
succeeded  as  queen,  1  April,  1868  ;  baptized,  Feb.  1869

Dr.  Henry  Rowley  was  consecrated  bishop  of
Madagascar,  Dec.  1872  ;  Dr.  R Kestell-Cornish 1874

African  slavery  prohibited,  1873  !  solemnly June,  1877

Disputes  with  the  French  begin  respecting  land
given  to  Laborde,  a  missionary,  reclaimed  by  the
Hovas  ;  aggressive  insolent  conduct  of  French
consuls,  Cassas,  Meyer,  and  Baudais  . .  1879  et  seq.

The  French  claim  protectorate  of  part  of  N.W.  Ma-
dagascar, by  virtue  of  a  treaty  made  with  rebel
chiefs,  1840- 1  ;  on  appeal,  the  British  government
correspond  with  the  French  ministry  July,  Aug.  1S82

The  queen  Ranavalona  II.  dies  about  13  July;
succeeded  by  her  niece  Ranavalona  III. .  July, ,,

Native  embassy  to  France  objecting  to  French
protectorate,  &c. Oct. ,,

The  French  government  unyielding  Nov.  ;  the
envoys  come  to  London ;  received  by  earl
Granville,  2  Dec,  by  the  queen . .  12  Dec. ,

Friendly  modification  of  the  treaty  of  1868  with
England Feb. 1883

Arrival  of  French  war  vessels  in  Madagascar  23  Feb. ,,

Treaty  with  the  United  States  ratified  about

14  March, ,,

H.M.S.  Dryad  at  Tamatave . . . 14  April, „

Treaty  with  Germany .... 15  May, ,

Admiral  Pierre  bombards  and  seizes  the  custom-
house at  Majunga24  May  ;  Adin.  Pierre  bombards
Tamatave, unresisting  11  June, captures  it.n  June, „

French  ultimatum,  offered  and  rejected, announced

13  June,

Tenoarivo  destroyed;  state  of  siege  at  Tamatave;
adin.  Pierre  orders  the  British  consul,  T.  C.
Pakenhanl  (ill)  to  quit  within  24  hours,  who  dies,


MADDEE.


606


MADEAS.


22  June. Mr.  Shaw,  missionary,  arrested  ; capt.
Johnson  of  the  Dryad  insulted  ;  the  British  go-
vernment demands  explanations  12  July,  satisfac-
tion ordered  to  be  given . . .  Aug.  1883
Adm.  Pierre  reports  repulse  of  two  night-attacks

on  ...  .22  June  and  5  July, ,,

Release  of  Mr.  Shaw  about  . . . .7  Aug. „

Adm.  Pierre  dies 10  Sept. ,,

The  Hovas  retake  French  posts,  except  Majunga

announced 6  Sept ,,

Mr.  Shaw  at  Exeter  Hall,  describes  his  arrest,  false
charges  against  him, cruel  usage  and  abrupt

release 27  Sept. , ,

Great  mortality  among  French  troops . Sept. ,,
1000Z.  awarded  to  Mr.  Shaw,  and  apology  made  to
the  British  government  by  the  French,  announced

about  29  Oct. ,,
Much  British  property  destroyed . . .  Nov. ,,
French  demand  raised,  by  M.  Baudais . .  Jan.  1884
The  French chambers vote to support French

honour  in  Madagascar  (450 — 32)  . .  27  March, ,,
French  attack  on  the  Hova  camp  repulsed  27  June, ,,
Two  blue  books  published  by  the  Hova  government
giving the history  of the  disputes  with  the

French,  1879-84 Aug. „

Desultory warfare and negotiations reported,

French  settlements  in  progress  at  Majunga,  &c. ;

the  Hovas  prepare  for  war ....  Aug. „

The  French  bombard  Mahanoro  . . .22  Sep. ,,

Mr.  T.  Wilkinson,  missionary  and  trader,  expelled

'  from  Antananarivo  for  newspaper  correspondence

Nov.  „
The  Hovas  severely  defeated  .  .  .2  Dec.  ,,
The  French  take  forts  after  sharp  conflict  6-11  Dec.  ,,
Seven  French  ships  of  war  at  Tamatave,  the  Hovas

retreating  inland Jan.  1885

French  chambers  vote  for  maintaining  of  status  quo,

July- Aug. ,,
Unsuccessful French attack  o"n the Malagasy

position  near  Tamatave  ...  10  Sept.  ,,
Another  conflict  (undecisive)  announced  28  Sept.  „
Negociations  for  peace  fail ; French  protectorate

rejected 13  June-17  Aug. „

Treaty  signed  conceding  partial  French  control  on

foreign  affairs  ; 400,000!. as compensation  for  *

local  injuries  &c,  by  the  agency  of  adm.  Miot.  20

Dec. 1885  ;  ratified  by  French  senate 13  March,

M.  Lemyre  de  Villers,  first  French  resident  April, ,,

Tamatave  evacuated  by  the  French,  re-occupied  by

the  natives . .  ... 25  Jan.  1887

Prosperity  of  the  island  reported . . .Oct.  1889
French  protectorate  recognised  by  Great  Britain

S  Aug.  1890
Massacre  of  about  200  complaining  natives,  by  the

governor  of  Belanona,  reported  .  .  9  Jan.  1891
The  governor  and  his  brother  tried  and  executed,

reported 24  March „

Dr.  Catat,  at  Paris,  reports  the  results  of  an
exploring  scientific  expedition  in  Madagascar
sent  out  in  1888,  by  the  government  23  March,  ,,
Insurrection  in  the  Comoro  Islands  (near  Mada-
gascar), ruled  by  Arab  chiefs  under  French  pro-
tection ;  massacres  and  exactions.  Prince  Salim
refuses  to  negotiate  with  Dr.  Ormieres,  the
French  resident,  reported  .  .  .  28  March,  ,,
The  residents  take  refuge  in  the  ships  ;  slaves  hold

the  town  in  Johanna  Island,  reported 3  April, ,,
Murder  of  Dr.  Beziat,  chief  of  the  French  medical
staff,  reported 30  Oct. ,,

MADDEE,  the  root  of  the  Bubia  tinctoria,
highly  valued  for  dyeing  properties.  See  Alizarine.

MADEIEA,  an  island,  N.  W.  coast  of  Africa,
discovered,  it  is  said,  in  1344,  by  Mr.  Macham,  an
English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled  from
France  for  an  illicit  amour.  He  was  driven  here
by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress,  a  French  lady,  dying,
he  made  a  canoe,  and  carried  the  news  of  his  dis-
covery to  Pedro,  king  of  Aragon,  which  occasioned
the  report  that  the  island  was  discovered  by  a
Portuguese,  1345.  It  is  asserted  that  the  Portu-
guese did  not  visit  this  island  until  1419  or  1420,
or  colonise  it  until  1431.  It  was  taken  by  the
British  in  July,  1801 ;  and  again  by  admiral  Hood
and  general  Beresford,  24  Dec.  1807,  and  retained


in  trust  for  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  who  had
emigrated  to  the  Brazils.  It  was  restored  to  the
Portuguese  in  1814.  Since  1852  the  renowned
vintages  here  have  been  almost  totally  ruined  by  the
vine  disease  (oidium) .  Population,  1882,  133,955.
Opposition  of  the  peasantry  to  new  taxation  ;
fighting  with  bloodshed  announced . 16  Jan.  1888

MADIAI  PEESECUTION,  see  Tuscany.

MADEAS  (S.  E.  Hindostan),  called  by  the
natives  Chennapatam,  colonised  by  the  English,
1640.  Population  of  the  province,  1881,  30,812,745 ;
^i,  35,588,850;  of  the  city,  1881,405,848;  1891,
449,950.
Fort  St.  George  built,  1641 ;  made  a  presidency .  1653

Bengal  placed  under  Madras 1658

Calcutta,  hitherto  subordinate  to  Madras,  made  a

presidency 1701

Madras  taken  by  the  French . . 14  Sept.  1746

Restored  to  the  English 1749

Vainly  besieged  by  the  French  under  Lally,  12  Dec-  1758
Hyder  marches  to  Madras  and  obtains  a  favourable

treaty April,  1769

Sir  John  Lindsay  arrives  ....  July,  1770
He  is  succeeded  by  sir  R.  Hartland  Sept. 1771

Lord  Pigot,  governor,  imprisoned  by  his  own  coun-
cil, 24  Aug.  1776  ;  dies  in  confinement, 17  April,  '
1777  ;  his  enemies  convicted  and  fined  1000!.  each,

11  Feb.  1780
Sir  Eyre  Coote  arrives .... 5  Nov. ,,

He  defeats  Hyder 1  July,  1781

Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor  . .  22  June, ,,
The  Madras  government  arrest  gen.  Stuart  for  dis-
obedience, and  send  him  to  England . . June,  1783
Lord  Cornwallis  arrives  here . . .12  Dec.  1790
Sir  C. Oakley succeeds gen. Win.  Meadows  as

governor 1  Aug.  1792

Madras  system  of  education  introduced  (see  Moni-
torial)  1795

Lord  Mornington  (afterwards  the  marquis  Wellesley)
visits  here . . . . . . .  Dec.  1798

General  Harris  with  the  Madras  army  enters  Mysore,
5  March ;  and  arrives  at  Seringapatam,  5  April,
which  is stormed  by  the  British  under  major-
general  Baird,  and  Tippoo  Sahib  killed .  4  May,  1799
Appointment  of  sir  Thomas  Strange,  first  judge  of

Madras  under  the  charter ... 26  Dec. 1800
More  than  1000  houses  in  Madras  burnt  . .  Feb. 1803
The  Madras  army  under  general  Arthur  Wellesley
(afterwards  duke  of  Wellington)  marches  for  Poo-

nah  (see  India) March, ,,

Mutiny  among  the  native  forces  at  Vellore  ; 600

sepoys  killed  ;  200  executed ...  10  July,  1806
Mutiny  of  the  sepoy  troops  at  Madras .  ...  1809
Arrival  of  lord  Minto  at  Madras,  who  publishes  a

general  amnesty .  ... 29  Sept. „

Awful  hurricane,  by  which  the  ships  at  anchor  were
driven  into  the  town  and  seventy  sail  sunk,  many

with  their  crews May,  1813

Madras  attacked  by  the  Pindarees  .  .  .  .1817
Appointment  of  the  rev.  Dr.  Corrie,  first  bishop  of

Madras 14  Feb.  1835

Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,  governor,  Jan.  1859  :  recalled
for  publishing  a  minute  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Jas.
Wilson's  financial  schemes ... 10  May,  i860
[Appointed  financial  secretary  and  a  member  of
the  Indian  council  at  Calcutta,  Oct.  1862.]
His  successor,  sir  H.  Ward,  dies  at  Madras,  2  Aug. ,,
Sir  Wm.  Dennison  appointed  governor,  Nov.  i860  ;

arrives 18  Feb. 1861

Lord  Napier  appointed  governor  .  .  31  Jan.  1866
Arrival  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  .  .  22  March,  1870
Lord  Hobart  appointed  governor,  Feb.  1872 ;  died,  27

April ;  the  duke  of  Buckingham  appointed  May,  1875
Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  . . 13  Dec. ,,

The  Rt. Hon.  W. P.  Adam  appointed  governor,
Aug. 1880  : died  24  May ;  the  Rt. Hon.  M.  E.
Grant  Duff  appointed  governor . . June,  1881
He  reports  "  a  deep  peace  broods  over  the  land,"

natives  advancing  in  civilization  .  .  .  Jan.  1884
The  right  hon.  Robert  Bourke  (created  lord  Conne-

mara)  appointed  governor . . . Aug.  1886
Great  accidental  fire  began  in booths at  a  fair
in the people's park ; great  panic,  about  405
persons  said  to  have  perished . . 31  Dec. ,,


MADEID.


607


MAGDEBUEG.


25  persons  killed  by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder  at  a
village  festival 14  Oct.  1888

A  severe  famine  in  Ganjam,  the  last  crops  having
failed  through  deficiency  of  rain ;  high  prices
and  much  destitution ;  about  15,000  persons
employed  on  relief  works  ;  deaths  from  cholera  ;
about  1,400  weekly  middle  of  May  et  seq.  1889.
Lord  Connemara  visits  the  district . June,  1889

Government  relief  aided  by  native  princes  ;  9,429
persons  employed  on  public  works  ;  865  deaths
from  cholera  in  one  week  ;  reported . 18  June „

Lord  Connemara  reports  improvement  in  the  con-
dition of  Ganjam  ;  employed  on  works,  15,425 ;
deaths  from  cholera  in  a  week,  602  ;  reported

9  July. »

Lord  Connemara  resigns,  much  regretted . Nov.  1890
Beilby  Lawley,  lord  Wenlock,  appointed  governor

about  1  Dec.  1890  ;  arrives  .  .  19  Jan.  1891
A  famine  commissioner  appointed  . 19  Jan.  1892

Tour  of  lord  Wenlock . . . April,  May, ,,
Heavy  rains,  improved  prospects .  May,  June,  July, ,,
Employed on relief works, 15,728, Sept. 1889 ;
19,655,  10  Nov.  1891 ;  29,319,  16  Feb.  1892  ;  64,000,
5  May;  53,000,  22  July  ;  under  9,000 . 3  Sept., „
Works  stopped,  reported  . . . .22  Sept. ,,
[For  other  events,  see  India.]

MADEID  (New  Castile),  mentioned  in  history
as  Majerit,  a  Moorish,  castle.  Population  in  1887,
470,283.

Sacked  by  the  Moors 1190

Fortified  by  Henry  III.  about 1400

Humiliating  treaty  of  Madrid  between  Charles  V.

and  Francis  I. ,  his  prisoner  .  .  .  14  Jan.  1526
Made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court  by  Philip  II. .  1560

The  Escurial  built 1563  et  seq.

Taken  by  lord  Galway . . . -24  June,  1706

The  old  palace  burnt  down 1734

Madrid  taken  by  the  French . . . March,  1808
The  citizens  attempt  to  expel  the  French  ;  defeated

with  much  slaughter . . . .2  May, ,,
Joseph  Bonaparte  enters  Madrid  as  king  of  Spain

(but  soon  retires) 20  July, ,,

Madrid  retaken  by  the  French . . .2  Dec. ,,
Retained  till  it  is  entered  by  Wellington 12  Aug. 1812
Ferdinand  VII.  restored .... 14  May,  1814
Madrid pronounces for provisional government

against  Isabella  II 29  Sept.  1868

English  protestant  church  authorised . 9  Nov. ,,
Madrid  (with  Alcala  de  Henares)  made  a  bishopric

early  in 1885

The  bishop  Martinez  Izquierdo  shot  on  the  steps  of

the  pro-cathedral  by  Cayetano  Galeote,  a  priest

suspended  by  him,  18  April ;  dies  .  19  April,  1886
Destructive  hurricane,  about  32  persons  killed  and

about  320  wounded,  12  May  ;  sufferers  visited  by

the  queen 13  May, ,,

Population,  in  1857,  271,254  ;  in  1870,  332,024 ;  1884,
391,829.

See  Spain,  1840  et  seq.

MADBIGAL,  an  unaccompanied  song  for  three
or  more  voices,  of  which  fine  examples  are  by  Eng-
lish composers.  Madrigals,  invented  in  the  Nether-
lands, were  adopted  in  Italy,  where  fine  specimens
were  produced.  Many  were  published  by  Morley,
1594;  Weelkes,  1597;  Wilbye,  1598;  and  Bennet,
1599.  The  Madrigal  Society  in  London  began  in
1 741.  English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Union  founded
in  185 1.  Kimbault's  " Bibliotheca  Madrigalium "
published  1847.  The  madrigal,  "  Summer  is  i  cumen
in"  is  attributed  to  the  13th  or  14th  century.

MAESTEICHT  (Holland),  the  ancient  Tra-
jectum  ad  Mosam,  the  capital  of  Limburg.  It  re-
volted from  Spain,  and  was  taken  by  the  prince  of
Parma  in  1579,  when  a  dreadful  massacre  took
place.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced  it
after  a  memorable  siege,  and  it  was  confirmed  to
the  Dutch  in  1648  ;  Louis  XIV.  took  it  in  1673  >
William,  prince  of  Orange,  invested  it  in  vain  in
1676 ;  but  in  1678  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch.
In  1748  it  was  besieged  by  the  French,  who  were


permitted  to  take  possession  of  the  city  on  condi-
tion of  its  being  restored  at  the  peace  then  nego-
tiating. In  Feb.  1793,  Maestricht  was  unsuccess-
fully attacked  by  the  French,  but  they  became
masters  of  it,  Nov.  1794.  In  1814  it  was  made  part
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  now
belongs  to  Holland. Population,  1891,  32,225.

MAFIA,  a  secret  terrorist  murderous  society  ire
Sicily,  comprising  all  classes ;  became  prominent
in  i860.  It  is  opposed  to  the  Camorra.  Efforts  for
the  suppression  of  both  were  made  by  the  govern-
ment in  1874-5. See  New  Orleans,  1890.

MAGAZINE,  at  first  a  miscellaneous  periodical
publication.  There  are  now  magazines  devoted  to
nearly  every  department  of  knowledge.  The  fol-
lowing are  the  dates  of  the  first  publication  of  the
principal  magazines,  some  of  Avhich  are  extinct.
In  Jan.  1865,  544  magazines;  in  Jan.  1872,  639-
in  Jan.  1889,  (including  reviews)  1,593  i  ln  Jan-
1892,  1901  were  in  course  of  publication  in  Great
Britain  and  Ireland ;  see  Revieivs  and  Newspapers.


1877


Gentleman's

I73I

Cornhill .

London  . . . .

I732

Macmillan's . . .

Scots  .

1739

Good  Words

Royal . . . .

*759

Quiver . . . .

Court  .

1760

St.  Paul's  .

Gospel . . . .

1768

Nineteenth  Century  .

Lady's

1772

Many  new  ones  pub-

European . . .

1782

lished . . 18

Methodist .

1784

Magazine  of  Art . .

Evangelical . . .

1792

Antiquary .

Monthly

1796

Century . . . .

Philosophical . .

I79S

Harper's

Blackwood's

1817

Longman's . . .

New  Monthly . .

1814

Merry  England .

Fraser's

1830

English  Illustrated .

Metropolitan . . .

1831

Murray's .

Penny.

1832

Seribner's . . .

Tait's . . . .

1833

Strand

Cassell's  Family  Maga

Staler

zme

i853

1860-78
1878


MAGAZINE  EIFLES,  see  under  Fire-
arms.

MAGDALA,  a  very  strong  place  in  Abyssinia;
(which  see).  On  Good  Friday,  10  April,  1868,  the
troops  of  the  emperor  Theodore  attacked  the  first
brigade  of  the  British  army  under  sir  Bobert
Napier,  and  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.
On  the  next  day  all  the  European  prisoners  were
given  up,  but  Theodore  himself  refused  to  sur-
render ;  and  on  Easter  Monday,  13  April,  Magdala
was  stormed,  and  Theodore  himself  killed— it  is-
said  by  his  own  hand. — British  loss,  2  killed  ;  20
wounded :  Abyssinian  loss,  about  500  killed  and
wounded  out  of  about  5000.  Magdala  was  burnt  to
the  ground  by  the  British,  17  April,  1868.

MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes„

communities  of  nuns,  consisting  chiefly  of  penitent
courtesans.  The  order  of  penitents  of  St.  Magdalen
was  founded  1272,  at  Marseilles.  The  convent  of
Naples  was  endowed  by  queen  Sancha,  1324.  That
at  Metz  was  instituted  in  1452.  At  Paris,  1492.
The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed  by  pope
Leo  X.,  in  1515,  and  favoured  by  Clement  YIII.  in
1594.  The  Magdalen  hospital,  London,  was  founded
in  1758,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.  The
asylum  in  Dublin  was  opened  in  June,  1766.

MAGDEBUEG  (Prussia).  The  archbishopric
was  founded  about  967.  The  city  suffered  much
during  the  religious  wars  in  Germany.  It  was
besieged  and  taken  by  the  elector  Maurice,  Nov.
1550,  and  Nov.  1551 ;  blockaded  for  seven  months-
by  the  imperialists,  under  "Wallenstein,  in  1629  ;
and  barbarously  sacked  by  Tilly  on  10  May,  1631.


MAGELLAN.


638


MAGNESIUM.


It  was  given  to  Brandenburg  in  1648 ;  was  taken
by  the  French,  8  Nov.  1806 ;  annexed  to  the  king-
dom  of Westphalia, 9  July, 1807 ; restored to
Prussia, May, 1813. Valuable  fine  art  collection
hurnt  6  April,  1891 Population,  1890,  202,325.
The  Magdeburg  Experiment  is  shown  by  means  of  a  hollow
sphere,  composed  of  two  hemispheres,  fitting  air-tight.
When  the  air  is  exhausted  by  the  ah -pump,  the  hemi-
spheres are  held  together  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmo-
sphere, and  require  great  force  to  separate  them. The
apparatus  was  suggested  by  Otto  von  Guericke,  the
inventor  of  the  air-pump. He  died  in  1686. Brande.

MAGELLAN,  Straits  of  (connecting  the
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans),  was  passed  by  Fer-
nando de  Magelhaens  (Magellan),  a  Portuguese,  on
27  Nov.  1520.  He  gave  the  latter  ocean  its  name
on  account  of  its  calmness.  Magellan  completed
the  first  voyage  round  the  world,  with  a  fleet  of
discovery  fitted  out  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  but
was  killed  in  152 1.  The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here,
■called  Cape  Famine,  because  the  garrison  perished
from  want.

MAGENTA,  a  small  town  in  Lombardy,  near
which  the  French  and  Sardinians  defeated  the
Austrians,  4  June,  1859.  The  emperor  Louis
Napoleon  commanded,  and  he  and  the  king  oi
Sardinia  were  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight.  It  is
said  that  55,000  French  and  Sardinians,  and  75,000
Austrians  were  engaged.  The  former  are  asserted
to  have  lost  4000  killed  and  wounded,  and  the
Austrians  10, coo,  besides  7000  prisoners.  The
French  generals  Fs]  inasse  and  Clerc  were  killed.
The  arrival  of  general  MacMahon  during  a  deadly
struggle  between  the  Austrians  and  the  French,
greatly  contributed  to  the  victory.  The  contest
near  the  bridge  of  Buffalora  was  very  severe.  The
Austrians  fought  well,  but  were  badly  commanded.
The  emperor  and  king  entered  Milan  on  8  June
following;  MacMahon  and  Regnault  d'Angely  were
created  marshals  of  France.  A  monument  erected
here  in  memory  of  the  slain  was  solemnly  inaugu-
rated 4  June,  1872. — The  red  dye,  rosaniline,  ob-
tained by  chemists  from  gas-tar,  is  termed  magenta;
see  Aniline.

MAGI,  an  order  of  priests  and  teachers  among
the  ancient  Modes  and  Persians,  with  much  political
power.  One  of  them  who  on  the  death  of  Oambyses
asserted  that  he  was  Smefdis,  a  son  of  Cyrus,  and
•claimed  the  throne  of  Persia,  was  deposed  by  Darius
Hystaspes,  521  B.C.,  and  a  massacre  of  the  Magi
followed.  '  They  retained  their  religious  position
till  the  later  Roman  empire.  The  constitution  of
the  order  is  traditionally  assigned  to  Zoroaster,  the
'Znrathustra  of  the  Zendavesta,  whose  time  and  very
existence  are  uncertain,  the  6th  century  b.c  being
mentioned.  lie  is  said  to  have  taught  the  know-
ledge of  Ormuzt,  the  supreme  good  principle,  to  the
Magi,  whom  he  classified  as  learners,  masters,  and
perfect  scholars,  the  possessors  of  all  spiritual
power,  and  the  science  of  the  age,  see  Parsees.
The  name  Magi  has  been  applied  to  the  "  wise
men"  of  Mutt,  ii.,  and  the  Parsees  at  Bombay  are
■descendants  of  the  Guebres  or  fire- worshippers.

MAGIC,  see  Alchemy,  Witchcraft,  &c.  The
•invention  of  the  Magic  Lantern  is  ascribed  to
Roger  Bacon,  about  1260,  but  more  correctly  to
Athanasius  Kircher,  who  died  1680.  Sir  David
Salomons, in  a  discourse  at  the  Royal  Institution  on
"  Optical  Projection,"  exhibited  an  arrangement  of
the  magic  lantern,  in  which  by  the  use  of  lenses
•magnifying  up  to  4,500  diameters,  he  stated  that  he
was  enabled  to  magnify  a  postage  stamp  to  the  size
■of  2\  acres,  26  Feb.  1892.  See  Godwin's  "Lives
of  the  Necromancers,"  1834,  and  Ennemoser's
"  History  of  Magic,"  translated  by  W.  Howitt,  1854.


MAGISTEATES,  see  Justices.  Stipendiary
borough  magistrates  may  be  appointed  by  5  &  6
Will.  IV.  c.  76,  1835;  and  by  26  &  27  Vict.  c.  97,
1863.  The  present  arrangement  of  metropolitan
magistrates  (the  chief  sitting  at  Bow-street)  was
made  by  acts  of  parliament  in  1792  and  1839.
Eleven  courts  were  appointed  in  1840.  Their  salaries
raised  from  25  March,  1875.  Henry  Fielding,  the
novelist,  was  acting  magistrate  for  Westminster
and  at  Bow-street.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  half-
brother,  sir-  John  Fielding,  in  1 761 ;  by

Sir  William  Addington 1780

Sir  Richard  Ford 1800

Mr.  Read 1806

Sir  Nathaniel  Conant 1813

Sir  Robert  Baker 1820

Sir  Richard  Birnie 1821

Sir  Frederick  Roe 1823

Mr.  T.  J.  Hall 1839

Sir  Thomas  Henry  (died  suddenly,  16  June,  1876) .  1864
Sir  James  Taylor  Ingham,  July,  1876  ;  died  5  March,

1890  ;  succeeded  by  sir  John  Bridge  about

22  March,  1890
The  new  offices,  Bow-street,  opened . .  4  April  1881

MAGNA  CHAETA.  Its  fundamental  parts
were  derived  from  Saxon  charters,  continued  by
Henry  I.  and  his  successors.  On  20  Nov.  1214,  the
archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  barons  met  at
St.  Edmondsbury.  On  6  J<m.  1215,  they  presented
their  demands  to  king  John,  who  deferred  his
answer.  On  19  May  they  were  censured  by  the
pope.  "On  24  May  they  marched  to  London,  and
the  king  was  compelled  to  yield.  The  charter  was
sealed  by  John  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,
15  June,  1215.  It  was  many  times  confirmed,  by
Henry  III.  and  his  successors.  This  last  king's
grandcharter  was  granted  in  1224,  and  was  assured
by  Edward  I.;  see  Forests.  Ihe  original  MS.
charter  is  lost.  The  finest  MS.  copy,  which  is  at
Lincoln,  was  reproduced  by  photographs  in  the
"National  MSS."  published  by  government,  1865.

MAGNA  GR^ECIA,  the  independent  states
founded  by  Greek  colonists  in  South  Italy,  Sicily,
&c.  Cumse,  in  Campania,  is  said  to  have  been
founded  in  1034  B.C.,  Pandosia  and  Metapontum
in  774  B.C.  These  states  were  ruined  through  siding
with  Hannibal  when  he  invaded  Italy,  216  B.C.
Syracuse  founded  about . .  . .  b.  c. 734

Leontinum  and  Catana 730

Sybaris 721

Crotona ... 710

Tarentum . . 708

Locri  Epizephyrii 673

Lipara 627

Agrigentum 582

Thurium 432

MAGNANO  (N.  Italy).  Here  Scherer  and  a
French  army  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  under
Kray,  5  April,  1799.

MAGNESIA  (Asia  Minor).  Here  Antiochus
the  great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  the
Scipios,  190  B.C. — Magnesia  alba,  the  white  alkaline
earth  used  in  medicine,  was  in  use  in  the  beginning
of  the  1 8th  century.  Its  properties  were  developed
by  Dr.  Black  in  1755.

MAGNESIUM,  a  metal  first  obtained  from
magnesia  by  sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1808,  and  since
produced  in  larger  quantities  by  Bussv,  Deville,
and  especially  by  Mr.  E.  Sonstadt,  in  1862-4.  Its
light  when  burnt  is  very  brilliant,  and  is  so  rich  in
chemical  rays  that  it  may  be  used  in  photography.
Lamps  made  for  burning  magnesium  wire,  were
employed  by  the  excavators  of  the  tunnel  through
Mount  Cenis.  By  its  light  photographs  of  the  in-
terior of  the  Pyramids  were  taken  in  1865. Larkin's


MAGNETISM.


609


MAHOMETANISM.


magnesium  lamp  (in  which  the  metal  is  burnt  in
the  form  of  a  powder)  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal
Institution  on  I  June,  1866,  and  before  the  British
Association  at  Nottingham  in  Aug.  1866.

MAGNETISM.  The  attractive  power  of  the
loadstone  or  magnet  was  early  known,  and  is  re-
ferred to  by  Homer,  Aristotle,  and  Pliny ;  it  was
also  known  to  the  Chinese  and  Arabians.  The
Greeks  are  said  to  have  obtained  the  loadstone  from
Magnesia  in  Asia,  iooob.c.  Roger  Bacon  is  said
to  have  been  acquainted  with  its  property  of  point-
ing to  the  north  (1294).  The  invention  of  the
mariner's  compass  is  a.-cribed  to  Flavio  Gioia,  a
Neapolitan,  about  1310;  but  it  was  known  in  Nor-
way previous  to  1266;  and  is  mentioned  in  a  French
poem,  1 150.  See  under  Electricity.
Robert  Norman,  of  London,  discovered  the  dip  of

the  needle about  1576

Gilbert's  treatise  "De  Magnete,"  published . .  1600
Halley's  theory  of  magnetic  variations  published .  1683
Marcel  observed  that  a  suspended  bar  of  iron  be-
comes temporarily  magnetic  by  position . .  1722
Artificial  magnets  made  by  Dr.  Gowan  Knight . .  1746
The  variation  of  the  compass  was  observed  by  Bond,
about  1668  ;  the  diurnal  variation  by  Graham,
1722  ;  on  which  latter  Canton  made  4000  observa-
tions previous  to 1756

Coulomb  constructed  a  torsion  balance  for  deter-
mining the  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  1786 ;
also investigated  by Michell, Euler, Lambert,

Robison,  and  others 1750-1800

The  deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle  by  the  voltaic

current  was  discovered  by  GErsted . . . 1820
Mr.  Abraham  invents  a  magnetic  guard  for  persons

engaged  in  grinding  cutlery 1821

The  magnetic  effects  of  the  violet  rays  of  light  ex-
hibited by  Morichini,  1814  ;  polarity  of  a  sewing
needle  so  magnetised  shown  by  Mrs.  Somerville  .  1825
Mr.  Christie  proves  that  heat  diminishes  magnetic

force about ,,

Sir  W.  Snow  Harris  invents  various  forms  of  the

compass 1831

Magnetic  north  pole  discovered  by  commander  (aft.
sir)  James Clark  Ross  (during  sir  John  Ross's

second  voyage) 1  June, ,,

Electricity  produced  by  the  rotation  of  a  magnet  by
professor  Faraday,  1831  ;  his  researches  on  the
action  of  the  magnet  on  light,  on  the  magnetic
properties  of  flame,  air,  and  gases  (published
1845),  on  dia-magnetism  (1845),  on  magno-crys-
tallic  action  (1848),  on  atmospheric  magnetism
(1850),  on  the  magnetic  force .  .  .  .  1851-2
Magnetic  observations  established  in  the  British
colonies  under  the  superintendence  of  col.  Edward

Sabine 1840  et  seq.

Prof.  Tyndall  proves  the  existence  of  dia-magnetic

polarity 1856

Mr.  Archibald  Smith  described  the  results  of  his
investigations  respecting  the  deviation  of  the
compass  in  iron  ships  at  the  Royal  Institution,

9  Feb.  1866
Wm.  Robinson  patented  a  method  of  making  wrought
iron  from  cast  iron  by  the  help  of  magnetism,

announced,  July,  1867
Wilde's  magneto-electric machine  exhibited (see

under  Electricity) „

In  the  present  century  our  knowledge  of  the  phe-
nomena of  magnetism  has  also  been  greatly  in-
creased by  the  labours  of  Arago,  Ampere,  Hans-
teen,  Gauss,  Weber,  Poggendorft',  Sabine,  Lamont,
Du  Moncel,  Archibald  Smith,  &c.  (see  Animal
Magnetism).
In  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  is  a  magnet  by
Logeman,  of  Haarlem,  constructed  on  the  princi-
ples of  Dr.  Elias,  which  weighs  100  lb,  and  can
sustain  430  lb.  Hsecker,  of  Nuremberg,  con-
structed a  magnet  weighing  36  grains,  capable  of
sustaining  146  times  its  own  weight.  This  was
exhibited  in  1851,  also  at  the  Royal  Institution.
Sir  E.  Sabine,  eminent  for  life-long  researches  in
magnetism,  died  (aged  94),  26  June,  1883.

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY,  the  discovery
of  professor  Faraday  ;  see  under  Electricity. Mag-


neto-electricity has  been  recently  applied  to  tele-
graphic and  to  lighthouse  purposes.  The  South
Foreland  lighthouse,  near  Dover,  was  illuminated
by  the  magneto-electric  light  in  the  winter  of
1858-9  and  1859-60  (the  light  removed  to  Dungeness
in  1861),  the  Lizards,  by  Dr.  C.  "William  Siemens'
magneto-electric  light,  1878. See  Faradisation.

MAGNOLIA.  Magnolia  glauca  was  brought
here  from  N.  America,  1688.  The  laurel-leaved
Magnolia,  Magnolia  grandiflora,  from  N.  America,
about  1734-  The  dwarf  Magnolia,  Magnolia  pumila,
from  China,  in  1789;  and  (also  from  China),  the
brown  stalked,  1789;  the  purple,  1790;  and  the
slender,  1804.

MAGUIRE,  see  Molly.

MAGYARS,  see  Hungary.

MAHARAJPOOR  (India).  Here  sir  Hugh
Gough  severely  defeated  the  Mahratta  army  of
Gwalior,  29  Dec.  1843.  Lord  Ellenborough  was
present.

MAHDI  (Guided  by  God),  a  name  assumed  by
several  Mahometan  fanatics  claiming  to  be  divinely
sent  reformers  and  liberators.  An  eminent  example
is  found  in  Ibn  Tumert,  the  Almohade  Mahdi  in  the
12th  century.  See  Babysm,  and  for  the  latest  Mahdis
see  Soudan,  1881,  et  seq.  A  Mahdi  has  risen  in
Bokhara,  named  Mahomed  Abdallah  Ben  Oman,
May,  1884. See  Dervishes.

MAHEDPORE,  see  Mehedpore.

MAHOGANY  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to
England  by  Raleigh,  in  1595  ;  but  not  to  have  come
into  general  use  till  1720.

MAHOMETANISM  embodied  in  the  Koran,
includes — the  unity  of  God,  the  immortality  of  the
soul,  predestination,  a  last  judgment,  and  a  sensual
paradise. Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was
revealed  to  him by the angel Gabriel during  a
period  of  twenty-three  years. He  enjoined  on  his
disciples  circumcision,  prayer,  alms,  frequent  ablu-
tion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and
concubinage.

The  Mahometan  year,  1306-7. Months  ;  Jornada  I.,
begins(3  Jan.  1889);  Jornada  II.,  (2  Feb.);  Rajab,
(3  March);  Shaaban,  (2  April) ;  Ramadan,  d  May);
Shawall,  (31  May) ;  Dulkaada,  (29  June);  Dulheg-
gia,  (29  July) — 1307;  Muharram,  (28  Aug.);  Sap-
tiar,  (27  Sept.);  Rabia  I.,  (26  Oct.);  Rabia  II.,
(25  Nov.) ;  Jornada  I.,  (24  Dec).
Mahomet, Mohammed  (the  name  is spielt many
ways),  born  at  Mecca .... 569  or

Announced  himself  as  a  prophet . . .  about

Fled  from  his  enemies  to  Medina  (his  flight  is  called

the  Hegira) . . . . . .15  July,

Overcomes  his  enemies  (the  Koreish,  the  Jews,  &c.)

in  battle 623-5

Defeats  the  Christians  at  Muta 629

Is  acknowledged  as  a  sovereign .... 630
Dies,  it  is  said,  of  slow  poison,  administered  by  a
Jewess  to  test  his  divine  character  .  8  June,

The  Mahometans  are  divided  into  several  sects,  the
two  chief  being  the  Sonnitcs,  or  the  Orthodox
(who  recognised  as  caliph  Abubeker,  the  father-
in-law  of  Mahomet,  in  preference  to  Omar  anil
Ali),  and  the  Shiites  (Sectaries),  or  Fatimites,  the
followers  of  Ali,  who  married  Fatima,  the  pro-
phet's  daughter.
The  former  (also  called  Sunnites)  recognise  the
"Sunua"  (traditions)  sayings  of  Mahomet  (sup-
plementary to  the  Koran)  which  the  Shiites
reject.  Husan  and  other  sons  of  Ali  were  mur-
dered a.d.  680,  and  a  miracle  play  and  a  festival
in  their  honour  are  still  observed.
The  Ottoman  empire  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Son-
nites,  the  sultan  being  considered  the  representa-
tive of  the  caliphs  ;  Persia  has  been  for  centuries
the  stronghold  of  the  Shiites.
The Mahometans termed Saracens, conquered

11  K


57°
611


622


632


MAHRATTAS.


610


MAJUBA HILL.


Arabia,  North  Africa,  and  part  of  Asia,  in  the
7th  century  ;  in  the  8th  they  invaded  Europe,
conquering  Spain,  where  they  founded  the  cali-
fat  of  Cordova,  which  lasted  from  756  to  1031,
when  it  was  broken  up  into  smaller  govern-
ments, the  last  of  which,  the  kingdom  of
Grenada,  endured  till  its  subjugation  by  Ferdi-
nand in  1492  ;  but  the  Moorish  Mahometans  were
not  finally  expelled  from  Spain  till  . . . . 1609

Their  progress  in  France  was  stopped  by  their
defeat  at  Tours  by  Charles  Martel,  in . . . 732

After  a  long  contest,  the  Turks  under  Mahomet  II.
took  Constantinople  ;  he  made  it  his  capital  and
the  chief  seat  of  his  religion 1453

Though  considered  to  be  declining,  Mahometanism
is  calculated  as  including  100  millions  amongst  its
votaries.

Coomroodeen  Tyabjee,  a  Mahometan,  admitted  to
practise  as  an  attorney  in  England,  having  taken
the  oaths  upon  the  Koran . . . Nov.  1858

Budroodeen  Tyabjee,  a  Mahometan,  called  to  the
bar  30  April,  1867

The  first  Mahometan  mosque  in  England  erected  at
Maybury,  Woking,  Surrey,  to  be  completed  by
the  exertions  of  Dr.  G.  W.  Leitner  (not  a  Maho-
metan)  Aug.  1889

The  representation  of  a  play  called  Mahomed  on
the  English  stage,  was  stopped  by  request,  aided
by  the  intervention  of  the  sultan . . Dec.  1890

A  Mahometan  marriage  at  the  Moslem  Institute,
Liverpool,  the  first  in  England . 18  April,  1891

"The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Mohammed,  or,  The
Spirit  of  Islam,"  by  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  m.  a..,  a  judge
in  Bengal,  published  in  1873  and  1891.

MAHEATTAS,  a  people  of  Findostan,  Avho
originally  dwelt  north-west  of  the  Deccan,  which
they  overran  about  1676.  They  endeavoured  to
overcome  the  Mogul,  but  were  restrained  by  the
Afghans.  They  entered  into  alliance  with  the  East
India  company  in  1767,  made  war  against  it  in
1774,  again  made  peace  in  1782,  and  were  finally
subdued  in  1818.  See  India  1803,  et  scq.,  Givalior
and  Indore.

MAID,  see  Holy  Maid,  Elizabeth  Barton,  and
Joan  of  Arc,  maid  of  Orleans.

MAIDA  (Calabria)  where  the  French,  com-
manded by  general  Regnier,  were  signally  defeated
by  the  British  under  major-general  sir  John  Stuart,
4*July,  1806.

MAIDEN,  see  Guillotine.

MAIDS  OF  HONOUR.  Anne,  daughter  of
Francis  II.  duke  of  Brittany,  and  queen  of  Charles
VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  of  France  (1483-98),  had
young  and  beautiful  ladies  about  her  person,  called
maids  of  honour.  The  queen  of  Edward  I.  of
England  is  said  to  have  had  four  maids  of  honour
(1272-1307)  ;  queen  Victoria  has  eight.

MAIDSTONE,  Kent,  a  British  town,  anciently
termed  the  city  of  the  Med  way  (Caer  Meguaid),  a
possession  of  the  archbishops  ofi  Canterbury  in
1086-7.  It  wa?  chartered  by  several  kings,  from
Edward  VL  to  George  II.  The  royalist  Kentish
men  were  here  defeated  by  Faixfax,  1648.  The
archbishop's  palace  was  built  in  1348.  Maidstone,
which  previously  sent  two  members  to  parliament,
since  1885  sends  one.  Population  1881,  29,263  ;
1891,  32,150.

MAIL-COACHES,  for  the  conveyance  of
letters,  were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  by  Mr.  John
Palmer,  of  Bath,  2  Aug.  1784.  They  were  employed
for  other  routes  in  1785,  and  soonbecame  general
in  England.  The  mails  were  first  sent  by  rail  in
1838.

MAILLOTINS  (small  mallets),  a  name  given
to  certain  citizens  of  Paris,  who,  in  March,  1382,
violently  opposed  the  collection  of  new  taxes
imposed  by  the  duke  of  Anjou,  the  regent. They  I


armed  themselves  with  small  iron  mallets  (taken
from  the  arsenal),  and  killed  the  collectors  ;  for
which  they  were  severely  punished  in  Jan.  1383.

MAIMING-  AND  WOUNDING,  see  Coventry
Act.

MAINTENANCE,  see  Barratry.

MAIN  PLOT,  a  name  given  to  a  conspiracy
to  make  Arabella  Stuart  sovereign  of  England  in
place  of  James  I.  in  1603.  Lord  Cobham,  sir
Walter  Raleigh,  and  lord  Grey,  were  condemned
to  death  for  implication  in  it,  but  reprieved  ;  others
were  executed.  Raleigh  was  executed,  29  Oct.
1618.

MAINE,  1,  a  province,  N.W.  of  France,  seized
by  William  I.  of  England  in  1069.  It. acknowledged
prince  Arthur,  1199;  was  taken  from  John  of
England  by  Philip  of  France,  1204  ;  was  recovered
by  Edward  III.  in  1357  ;  but  given  up,  1360.  After
various  changes  it  was  finally  united  to  France  by
Louis  XL  in  1481. — 2.  MAINE  (N.  America),
was  discovered  by  Cabot,  1497  ;  and  colonised  by
the  English  1630  et  seq.  ;  it  became  a  state  of  the
union  in  1820.  Capital  Augusta.  Population,  1880,
648,936;  1890,661,086.  The  boundary  line  between
the  British  and  the  United  States  territories  in
Maine  was  settled  by  the  Ashburton  treaty,  con-
cluded 9  Aug.  1842.  The  Maine  liquor  law,  pro-
hibiting the  manufacture,  sale,  and  use  of  intoxi-
cating drinks,  with  certain  exceptions,  was  enacted
in  185 1.  In  1872,  it  was  officially  reported  to  have
greatfy  decreased  drunkenness  and  rendered  the
trade  disreputable.

MAIWAND,  Afghanistan,  about  50  miles  from
Candahar.  On  27  July,  1880,  gen.  J.  Burrows  marched
from  Kushk-i-Nakhud,  and  attacked  the  army  of
Ayoob  Khan,  about  20,000  men,  entrenched  here  on
the  river  Helmund,  and  after  four  hours'  severe
conflict  was  compelled  to  retreat.  About  300  of  the
British  with  many  officers  fell  (including  lieut.-col.
Galbraith,  major  G.  F.  Blackwood,  captains  Garratt,
McMath,  Cullen,  Roberts,  and  others),  especially
officers  of  the  66th  regiment ;  with  about  700  of  the
native  troops  killed  or  missing.  The  British  com-
manders were  censured.  Ayoob  Khan  did  not
improve  his  victory,  and  was  totally  defeated  by
gen.  sir  F.  Roberts,  1  Sept.  1880. See  Mazra.

MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emperor
and  imperial  family  were  thus  addressed,  and  also
the  popes  and  the  emperors  of  Germany.  The
style  was  given  to  Louis  XI.  of  France  in  1461.
Voltaire.  Upon  Charles  V.  being  chosen  emperor
of  Germany  in  15 19,  the  kings  of  Spain  took  the
style.  Francis  I.  of  France,  at  the  interview  with
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth
of  Gold,  addressed  the  latter  as  Your  Majesty,  1520.
James  I.  used  the  style  "Sacred,"  and  "Most
Excellent  Majesty."

MAJOLICA  WARE,  see  Pottery.

MAJORCA,  see  Balearic  Isles,  and  Minorca.
Majorca  opposed  Philip  V.  of  Spain  in  1714 ;  but
submitted,  14  July,  17 15.  Its  first  railway,  from
Palnia,  capital  of  the  Balearic  isles,  to  Inca,  18
miles,  opened,  24  Feb.  1875.

MAJUBA  HILL  (see  Transvaal) .  On  Satur-
day night,  26  Feb.  1881,  above  600  men  under  sir
George  P.  Colley  marching  from  the  camp  at  Mount
Prospect,  ascended  Majuba  hill  overlooking  Laing's
Nek,  where  the  Boers  were  encamped,  to  surprise
them.  The  attack  of  the  Boers  began  10.30  a.m.  of
the  27th.  Fierce  conflicts  ensued  ;  eventually  over-
whelmed by  numbers  and  deadly  fire,  the  British
were  routed  and  fled. Sir  George  Colley  fell  with


MAKALAKA.


611


MALTA.


his  face  to  the  enemy.  Boer  loss  about  150.  About
350  British  engaged.  Loss :  killed,  3  officers  and
about  82  men;  many  wounded,  122  prisoners,  and
some  missing.

MAKALAKA,  see  Mashona.

MALABAB  (W.  coast  of  Hindostan).  The
Portuguese  established  factories  here  in  1505  ;  the
English  did  the  same  in  1601.

MALACCA,  on  the  Malay  peninsula,  E.  Indies,
svas  made  a  Portuguese  settlement  in  151 1.  The
Dutch  factories  were  established  in  1640.  The
Dutch  government  exchanged  it  for  Bencoolen  in
Sumatra  in  1824,  when  it  was  placed  under  the
Bengal  presidency.  It  is  now  part  of  the  Straits
■Settlements  (which  see).

MALAGA  (S.  Spain),  a  Phoenician  town,  taken
by  the  Arabs,  714 ;  retaken  by  the  Spaniards,  after
a  long  siege,  1487;  see  Naval  Battles,  1704.  An
insurrection  against  the  provisional  government
was  put  down  with  much  slaughter,  31  Dec.  1868.
Population  in  1887, 134,106.

MALAKHOFF,  a  hill  near  Sebastopol,  on
which  was  situated  an  old  tower,  strongly  fortified
by  the  Prussians  during  the  siege  of  1854-55.  Tne
allied  French  and  English  attacked  it  on  17,  18
June,  1855,  and  after  a  conflict  of  forty-eight  hours
were  repulsed  with  severe  loss  ;  that  of  the  English
being  175  killed  and  1126  wounded;  that  of  the
French  3338  killed  and  wounded.  On  8  Sept.  the
French  ag;iin  attacked  the  Malakhoff;  at  eight
o'clock  the  first  mine  was  sprung,  and  at  noon  the
French  flag  floated  over  the  conquered  redoubt ;  see
Sebastopol.  In  the  Malakhoff  and  Redan  were  found
3000  pieces  of  cannon  of  every  calibre,  and  120,000
ibs.  of  gunpowder.

MALA  VITA  (evil  life),  the  name  of  a  secret
society  in  south  Italy  ;  the  highest  of  its  three  grades
is  the  Camorristi ;  see  Gamorra.

MALAY  AECHIPELAGO,  see  Moluccas,
Philippines,  Straits,  &c.

MALDON  (Essex),  built  28  B.C.,  is  supposed
to  have  been  the  first  Roman  colony  in  Britain.
It  was  burnt  by  queen  Boadicea,  and  rebuilt  by  the
Romans;  burnt  by  the  Danes,  a.d.  991,  and  rebuilt
by  the  Saxons.  Maldon  was  incorporated  by  Philip
and  Mary.  Absorbed  into  the  county,  1885.  The
singular  custom  of  Borough- English  is  Kept  up
here,  by  which  the  youngest  son,  and  not  the
eldest,  succeeds  to  the  burgage  tenure  on  his
father's  death  ;  see  Borough- English.

MALEGNANO  or  MelegnANO,  modern
names  of  Marignano  {which  see).

MALICIOUS  DAMAGES.  The  law  re-
specting them  was  consolidated  and  amended  by
24  &  25  Vict.  c.  97.  This  act  protects  works  of  art,
electric  telegraphs,  &c,  1861.

MALINES,  see  Mechlin.

MALLTSTS'  ACT,  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  57,  relating
to  the  powers  of  women  in  regard  to  property,  was
passed  in  1857.

MALMESBUBY,  Wiltshire,  an  old  market-
town.  The  abbey,  founded  about  670,  was  several
times  destroyed  by  the  Dane?  and  restored.  Its
chief  was  made  a  mitred  abbot  by  Edward
III.  Athelstan  was  buried  in  the  abbey.  Thomas
Hobbes,  the  philosopher,  was  born  here,  5  April,
1588.  By  the  act  of  1885,  Malmesbury  was  disen-
franchised and  absorbed  into  the  county.  Popula-
tion, 1881,  3,176;  1891,  2,964.


MALO,  ST.  (N.-W.  France).  This  port,  as  a
great  resort  of  privateers,  sustained  a  tremendous
bombardment  by  the  English  under  admiral  Benbow
in  1693,  and  under  lord  Berkeley  in  July,  1695.  In
June,  1758,  the  British  landed  in  considerable  force
in  Cancalle  bay,  and  went  up  to  the  harbour,
where  they  burnt  upwards  of  a  hundred  ships,  and
did  great  damage  to  the  town,  making  a  number
of  prisoners.  It  is  now  defended  by  a  very  strong
castle,  and  the  harbour  is  very  difficult  of  access.

MALO-JAEOSLAVITZ,  near  Moscow,  cen-
tral Russia :  the  site  of  severe  encounters  between
the  Russians  and  the  retreating  French  army,
24  Oct.  1812.  The  latter  were  victorious,  but  with
great  loss.

MALPLAQUET  (N.  France).  Here  the
allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince
Eugene  defeated  the  French,  commanded  by  mar-
shal Villars,  11  Sept.  1709.  Each  army  consisted
of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers.  There  was  great
slaughter  on  both  sides,  the  allies  losing  18,000
men,  which  loss  was  but  ill  repaid  by  the  capture  of
Mons.

MALT,  barley  prepared  for  brewing  and  distil-
lation. A  duty  was  laid  upon  malt  in  1667  ;  re-
pealed but  reimposed  1697,  et  seq.  Important  acts
for  the  regulation  of  malt  duties  were  passed  in
1830  and  1837.  In  March,  1858,  there  were  6157
licensed  maltsters  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The
duty  on  malt  in  1863  amounted  to  6,273,727/.
In  1864  the  duty  was  remitted  on  malt  used  for
cattle  feeding;  and  in  1865,  an  act  was  passed
allowing  the  excise  duty  to  be  charged  according  to
the  weight  of  the  grain  used.  A  parliamentary
committee  to  consider  repeal  of  malt  tax  was  agreed
to,  14  Ma}r,  1867,  without  success ;  a  motion  to
repeal  the  tax  was  negatived  (244-17),  23  April,
1874.  Tax  abolished,  1880  (when  it  was  2s.  8^d.  a
bushel). It  ceased  1  Oct.  1880.

Revenue  from  the  malt  duties :  in  the  year  ending  31
March,  1850,  5,391,322?.  ;— 1854,  5,418,4182.  ;— 1856,
6,676,849?.; — 1857  (tax  reduced),  5,690,950?.; — 1860,
6,648,881?.;- 1862,  6,208,813?.;  1867,  6,816,385?.;— 1871,
6,978,37^-;— 1872,6,910,366?. ;— 1873,  7,544,175?.;— 1877,
8,040,378?.;— 1878,  7,721,548?.

Malt  made  and  retained  in  the  United  Kingdom  :  in
1825,  36,205,451  bushels ;  in  1835,  42,892,012 ;  in  1847,
35.3°7>8l5;  in  1857,  44,545,649;  in  1861,  46,650,100;  in
1870,  56,775,614  ;  in  1875,  63,015,676.

MALTA  (formerly  Melita),  an  island  in  the
Mediterranean,  held  successively  by  the  Phoeni-
cians, Carthaginians,  and  Romans,  which  last  con-
quered it,  259  B.C.  The  apostle  Paul  was  wrecked
here,  a.d.  02.  (Acts  x'xvii.,  xxviii.)  Malta  was
taken  by  the  Vandals,  534;  by  the  Arabs,  870;  and
by  the  Normans  from  Sicily,  JO90.  With  Sicily  it
became  successively  part  of  the  possessions  of  the
houses  of  Hohenstaufen,  of  Anjou  (1266),  and  of
Aragon  (1260).  In  1530  Charles  V.  gave  it  to  the
Knights  Hospitallers,  who  defended  it  most  cou-
rageously and  successfully,  in  1551  and  1565,  against
the  Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  enter-
prise after  the  loss  of  30,000  men.  The  island  was
taken  by  Bonaparte  in  the  outset  of  his  expedition
to  Egypt,  12  June,  1798.  He  found  in  it  1200
pieces  of  cannon,  200,000  lbs.  of  powder,  two  ships
of  the  line,  a  frigate,  four  galleys,  and  40,000  mus-
kets, besides  an  immense  treasure  collected  bv
superstition  ;  and  4500  Turkish  prisoners,  whom  he
set  at  liberty.  Malta  surrendered  to  the  British
under  Pigot,  5  Sept.  1800.  At  the  peace  of  Amiens
it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored  to  the
knights.  The  British,  however,  retained  possession,
and  the  war  recommenced  between  the  two  nations ;

R  E  2


MALTA.


612


MAN".


but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  island  was
guaranteed  to  Great  Britain.  A  legislative  con-
stitution was  established  in  1849  ;  and  after  various
changes  was  replaced  by  a  more  popular  one  pro-
claimed 22  Dec.  1887.  La  Valetta,  the  capital,
was  founded  in  1557  by  the  grand  master
La  Valetta,  and  completed  and  occupied  by  the
knights,  18  Aug.  157 1.  The  Protestant  college
was  founded  in  1846.  A  grand  new  naval  dry  dock
•was  opened,  May,  187 1.  Governor  of  Malta  and
Gozo,  sir  Patrick  Grant,  March,  1867  ;  sir  C.  T.Van
Straubenzee,  1872  ;  sir  Arthur  Borton,  1878  ;  gen.
sir  John  Lintorn  A.  Simmons,  1884;  lt.-gen.  sir
Henry  D'Oyly  Torrens,  March,  1888,  died  1  Dec.
1889;  lieut'.-gen.  sir  H.  A.  Smyth,  Dec.  1889  —
The  visit  of  prince  of  Wales,  6  April,  1876.  Great
immigration  of  destitute  Europeans  from  Alexandria
(see  Egypt)  middle  June,  1882  ;  about  2200,  6  July,
1882.  '  See  Cholera.  Population  of  Malta  and  ad-
jacent isles  in  1890,  165,662.
Negotiations  respecting  the  Roman  Catholics  and

marriage  laws  concluded  by  sir  J.  L.  Simmons  ;

see  under  Pope,  Leo  XIII.  ... 7  April,  1890
Jubilee  statue  of  the  queen  unveiled,  6  Aug.  1891,

by  lady  Smyth.

MALTA,  KNIGHTS  OF.  A  military  religious
order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jeru-
salem, Knights  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.
Some  merchants  of  Main,  trading  to  the  Levant,
obtained  leave  of  the  caliph  of  Egypt  to  build  a
house  for  those  who  came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusa-
lem, and  whom  they  received  with  zeal  and  charity,
1048.  They  afterwards  founded  a  hospital  for  the
reception  of  pilgrims,  from  whence  they  were  called
Hospitallers  (Latin,  hospes,  a  guest).  The  military
order  was  founded  about  1099;  confirmed  by  the
pope,  1 1 13.  In  1 1 19  the  knights  defeated  the  Turks
at  Antioch.  After  the  Christians  had  lost  their
interest  in  the  East,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the
knights  retired  to  Acre,  which  they  defended
valiantly  in  1290.  John,  king  of  Cyprus,  gave
them  Limisso  in  his  dominions,  where  they  stayed
till  13 10,  in  which  year  they  took  Bhodes,  under
their  grand  master  De  Vallaret,  and  the  next  year
defended  it  under  the  duke  of  Savoy  against  an
army  of  Saracens.  The  story  that  his  successors
have  used  F.  E.  E.  T.  (Fortitudo  ejus  Rhodum
tenuit,  or  his  valour  kept  Bhodes)  for  their  device
is  much  doubted.  From  this  they  were  also  called
knights  of  Rhodes;  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by
Solyman  in  1522,  they  retired  into  Candia,  thence
into  Sicily.  Pope  Adrian  YI.  granted  them  the
city  of  Viterbo  for  their  retreat;  and  in  1530  the
emperor  Charles  V.  gave  them  the  isle  of  Malta.
The  order  was  suppressed  in  England  in  1540;  re-
stored in  1557;  and  again  suppressed  in  1559.  St.
John's  Gate,  Clerkenwell,  a  relic  of  their  possessions,
still  exists.  The  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  declared
himself  grand  master  of  the  order  in  June,  1799.
After  the  death  of  the  grand  master,  Tommasi  di
Contara,  in  1805,  the  order  was  governed  by  a  lieu-
tenant and  a  college  at  Rome,  till  Pope  Leo  XIII.
made  count  Ceschi  a  Santa  Cisce  (lieutenant  since
14  Feb.  1871)  grand  master,  28  March,  1879.  The
knights  sent  a  hospital  establishment  into  Bohemia
during  the  war  in  1866.  which  afforded  great  relief
to  the  wounded  and  sick.

MAMELON,  a  hill,  one  of  the  defences  of
Sebastopol,  was  captured  by  the  French,  7  June,
1855-

MAMELUKES,  originally  Turkish  and  Cir-
cassian slaves,  established  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt  as
a  body-guard,  about  1240.  They  advanced  one  of
their  own  corps  to  the  throne  of  Egypt,  May,  1250,


and  continued  to  do  so  until  it  became  a  Turkish
province,  in  1517,  when  the  beys  took  them  into  pay,
and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  renegades  from
various  countries.  On  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by
Bonaparte,  in  1798,  they  retreated  into  Nubia;-  but,
assisted  by  the  Arnauts,  reconquered  Egypt  from
the  Turkish  government.  In  1804,  Napoleon  em-
bodied some  of  them  in  his  guard.  On  1  Marchi,
1811,  they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the-
Turkish  pacha,  Mehemet  Ali,  and  slain  at  Cairo.

MAMERTINI,  sons  of  Mamers  or  Mars,  were-
Campanian  soldiers  of  Agathocles.  They  seizeds
Messina  in  Sicily,  in  281,  B.C.,  and  when  closely-
besieged  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  Hiero  of  Syra-
cuse, in  264,  they  implored  the  help  of  the  Romansy
which  led  to  the  first  Punic  war.

MAMMOTH,  an  extinct  species  of  elephant.
An  entire  mammoth,  flesh  and  bones,  was  dis-
covered in  Siberia,  in  1799.  Remains  of  this
animal  have  since  been  found  at  Harwich,  in  1803,
and  at  places  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.

MAN,  ANTIQUITY  OF.  In  1836,  M.  Boucher
de  Perthes  found  some  rude  flint  implements,
which  he  believed  to  be  of  human  manufacture,
mingled  with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  in  the  old)
alluvium  near  Abbeville  in  Picardy,  France,  and  also-
in  1847,  near  Amiens.  Similar  flints  have  since  been
found  in  Sicily  by  Dr.  Falconer,  at  Brixham  by
Mr.  Pengelly,  and  lately  in  various  parts  of  the
world.  Hence  many  geologists  infer  that  man  ex-
isted on  the  earth  many  ages  earlier  than  has  beem
hitherto  believed.

Some  burnt  bricks  found  in  the  Nile  are  considered

to  be  20,000  years  old,  and  some  bones  found  in

lacustrine  deposits  in  Florida,  30,000  years  old.

The  "  Engis  skull"  found  by  Schmerling  in  the

valley  of  the  Meuse about  1834

Fossil  human  remains  found  in  extinct  volcanos  of

St.  Denis,  near  Puy  en  Velay  ....  1844
A  human  jaw  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  drift

at  Moulin  Quignon,  near  Abbeville . March,  1863
Sir  Charles  Lyell's  "Antiquity  of  Man"  was  pub-
lished in  1863  (4th  edition,  1873),  and  sir  John
Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  Times,"  1865  (4th ed.  1878)*
The  skeleton  of  a  man  supposed  to  have  been  a  con-
temporary of  the  mammoth  and  cave-bear  was
found  with polished flint implements  by  M.
Riviere  in  the  Cavillin cavern, near Mentone,
26  March,  1872. Mr.  W.  Pengelly  went  to  exa-
mine these  remains.
"  The  Ancient  Stone  Implements,  Weapons,  and  Or-
naments of  Great  Britain,"  by  John  Evans,  F.R.S.,
published,  July,  1872  ;  and  his  "Ancient  Bronze
Implements,  Weapons,  &c."  published. May,  i88e
"  In  our  day  the  quaternary  mail  is  a  fact  univer- j
sally  accepted ;  but  the  tertiary  man  is  a  pro--
blem  under  discussion." — Virchow . . .  1877

MAN,  ISLE  OF,  was  subdued  by  Edwin,  king
of  Northumberland,  about  620  ;  by  Magnus  of  Nor-
way, 1098 ;  by  the  Scots,  1266 ;  occupied  by  Edward
at  thewish  of  the  inhabitants  1290;  recovered  by  the
Scots  in  13 13  ;  but  taken  from  them  by  Montacute,
afterwards  earl  of  Salisbury,  to  whom  Edward  III.
gave  the  title  of  king  of  Man,  in  1343.  It  was
afterwards  subjected  to  the  earl  of  Northumber-
land, on  whose  attainder  Henry  IV.  granted  it  in
fee  to  sir  John  Stanley,  1406.  It  was  taken  from
this  family  by  Elizabeth,  but  was  restored  in  1610
to  the  earl  of  Derby,  through  whom  it  fell  by  in-
heritance to  the  duke  of  Athol,  1735.  He  received
70,000/.  from  parliament  for  all  his  rights  in
1765;  and  the  nation  was  charged  with  the  further
sum  of  132,944/.  for  the  purchase  of  his  remaining
interest  in  the  revenues  of  the  island  in  Jan.  1829.
The  countess  of  Derby  held  the  isle  against  the
parliament  forces  for  a  time  in  165 1. The  new


MANASSAS  JUNCTION.


613


MANCHESTEE.


•queen's  landing  pier  (cost  46,400^.)  inaugurated
•by  the  lieut.  governor,  H.  B.  Loch,  1  July,  1872.
Act  relating  to  the  harbours  and  coasts,  passed  June,
1872  The  first  railway  (from  Douglas  to  Peel)
opened,  1  July,  1873.  Population,  1871,  54,042  ;  in
;88i,  53,558;  1891,  55,598.  Revenue,  1889-90,
63,824^.,  expenditure,  57,947/.  Proposed  reform  of
the  house  of  keys,  Dee.  1886 ;  partly  negatived,
26  Jan.  1887.  .New  Customs  Act  passed  in  1887.
The  Bishopric  is  said  to  have  been  presided  over
by  Amphibalus  about  360.  Some  assert  that  St.
Patrick  was  the  founder  of  the  see,  and  that  Ger-
manus  was  the  first  bishop,  about  447.  It  was
united  to  Sodor  in  1 1 13.  The  bishop  has  no  seat  in
the  house  of  lords;  but  lord  Auckland  (bishop,
1847-54)  sat  by  right  of  his  barony.  Present
income,  2000 1.
The  foundation  stone  of  the  Eiffel  tower  at  Douglas

laid  by  the  earl  of  Lathom  ...  23  Oct.  1890
According  to  custom,  five  bills,  which  had  received
the  royal  assent,  one  for  the  re-distribution  of
seats  in  the  house  of  Keys,  were  promulgated  to
the  legislature,  in  the  open  air,  by  the  lieut.-
governor,  Spencer  Walpole . . 30  March,  1891

RECENT BISHOPS OF  SODOR AND MAN.

E784.  Claudius  Crigan:  died  in  1813.

1813.  George  Murray,  trans,  to  Rochester,  1827.

1828.  William  Ward ;  died  in  1838.

1838.  James  Bowstead,  trans,  to  Lichfield,  Dec.  1839.

1840.  Henry  Pepys,  trans,  to  Worcester,  1841.

1841.  Thos.  Vowler  Short,  trans,  to  St.  Asaph,  1846.

1846.  Walter  Augustus  Shirley  ;  died  in  1847.

1847.  John  Eden  (lord  Auckland),  trans,  to  Bath,  1854.
1854.  Hon.  Horatio  Powys  ;  died  31  May,  1877.

1877.  Rowley  Hill,  consecrated  24  Aug  ;  died.  27  May,

1887.
r887.  John  Wareing  Bardsley ; translated to  Carlisle,

Dec.  1 89 1.
1891.  Norman  D.  J.  Straton,  Dec.
Recent  lieut. -governors  :  H.  B.  Loch,  1863;  Spen-
der Walpole,  1882.

MANASSAS  JUNCTION  (Virginia,  United
S>'ates),  an  important  military  position,  where  the
Alexandria  and  Manassas  Gap  railways  meet,  near
a  creek  named  Bull  Run.  I.  It  was  held  by  the
confederates  in  1861,  when  they  were  attacked  by
the  federal  general  Irwin  McDowell.  He  began
his  march  from  Washington  on  16  July,  and  gained
some  advantage  on  the  18th  at  Centreville.  On
the  21st  was  fought  the^V.s^  battle  of  Bull  Run.
The  federals,  who  began  the  fight,  had  the  advan-
tage till  about  ttiree  o'clock  p.m.,  when  the  con-
federate general  Johnston  brought  up  reinforcements,
which  at  first  the  federals  took  for  their  own  troops.
After  a  brief  resistance,  the  latter  were  seized  with
sudden  panic,  and,  in  spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of
their  officers,  fled,  abandoning  a  large  quantity  of
arms,  ammunition,  and  baggage.  The  confederate
generals  Johnston  and  Beauregard  did  not  think  it
prudent  to  pursue  the  fugitives,  who  did  not  halt
till  they  arrived  at  Washington.  The  federal  army
is  said  to  have  had  481  killed,  ion  wounded,
12 16  missing.  The  loss  of  the  confederates  was  stated
to  be  about  1500. -In  March,  1862,  when  the  army
of  the  Potomac,  under  general  McClellan,  inarched
into  Virginia,  they  found  that  the  confederates  had
quietl)*  retreated  from  the  camp  at  Manassas.  2.  On
30  Aug.  1862,  this  place  was  the  site  of  another  great
battle  between  the  northern  and  southern  armies.
In  August,  general  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  after
compelling  the  federal  general  Tope  to  retreat,  de-
feated him  at  Cedar  mountain  on  the  9th,  turned
his  flank  on  the  22nd,  and  arriving  at  Manassas
repulsed  his  attacks  on  the  29th.  On  the  30th
general  11.  E.  Lee  (who  had  defeated  general
McClellan  and  the  invading  northern  army  before
Richmond,  26  June  to  1  July)  joined  Jackson  with


his  army,  and  Pope  received  reinforcements  from
Washington.  A  desperate  conflict  ensued,  which
ended  in  the  confederates  gaining  a  decisive  victory,
compelling  the  federals  to  a  hasty  retreat  to  Centre-
ville, where  they  were  once  more  routed,  1  Sept.  The
remains  of  their  arm}' took  refuge  behind  the  lines
of  Washington  on  2  Sept.  Pope  was  at  once  super-
seded, and  McClellan  resumed  the  command  to
march  against  the  confederates,  who  had  crossed
the  Potomac  and  entered  Maryland;  see  United
States.

MANCHESTER  (Lancashire),  in  the  time  of
the  Druids,  was  one  of  their  most  principal  stations,
and  had  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  attached  to  its
altar,  in  the  British  language  Meyne,  a  stone.  It
was  one  of  the  seats  of  the  Brigantes,  who  had  a
castle,  or  stronghold,  called  Mancenion,  or  the  place
of  tents,  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Medlock
and  Irwell.  '1  he  site  of  this,  still  called  the
"Castle  Field,"  was,  about  79,  selected  by  the  Ro-
mans as  the  station  of  the  Conors  Prima  Frisiorwn,
and  called  by  them  Mancunium  ;  hence  its  Saxon
name  Manceastre,  from  which  its  modern  appella-
tion is  derived.  Lewis.  See  under  Population.
Mancenion  taken  from  the  Britons  .  .  .  .  488
Captured  by  Edwin  of  Northumbria  . . . 620

The  inhabitants  become  Christians  .  .  about  627
The  town  taken  by  the  Danes,  870  ;  retaken  .  .  92^
The  charter  (Magna  Charta  of  Manchester),  14  May,  1301
"  Manchester  cottons  "  introduced ....  1352

The  church  made  collegiate 1421

Free  grammar-school  founded 1516

Privilege  of  sanctuary  moved  to  Chester  .  about  1541
An  aulnager  (measurer)  stationed  here  .  .  .  1565
Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  takes  the  town  .  .  .  .  1643
The  walls  and  fortifications  razed  ....  1652
Cheetham  college,  or  Blue-coat  hospital,  founded  1653
Tumult  raised  by  "  Syddall,  the  barber,"  afterwards

hanged 171 5

Prince  Charles  Edward,  the  Young  Pretender,
makes  it  his  quarters .... 28  Nov. 1745

Queen's  theatre  first  built 1753

The  Infirmary  instituted,  1752  ;  built  .  .  .  1755
The  inhabitants  discharged  from  their  obligation  to

grind  their  corn  at  Irk-mill 1759

Cotton  goods  first  exported 1760

Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater

canal 1761

Lunatic  asylum  founded 1765

Agricultural  society  instituted 1767

Christian,  king  of  Denmark,  visits  Manchester,  and

puts  up  at  the  Bull-inn 1768

Tue  Queen's  theatre  rebuilt 1775

Subscription  concerts  established  ....  1777
Riots  against  machinery  .  ...  9  Oct.  1779
Manufacture  of  muslin  attempted  here  .  about  1780
Philosophical  society  established  . . . . 1781

New  Bailey  bridge  completed 1785

Queen's  theatre  burnt  down,  19  June,  1789  ;  re-
erected . . 1790

New  Bailey  built „

Assembly-rooms,  Mosley-street,  built  . . . .  1792

Philological  Society  instituted 1803

Fever  hospital  erected,  1805  ;  Theatre-royal . . 1806

The  portico  erected ,

The  weavers'  riot 24  May,  1S08

Exchange  and  Commercial  buildings  erected,  Jan.  1809
Manchester  and  Salford  water-works  established . ,,

Blanketeers' meeting 4  Nov. 1817

Lock-hospital  established 1819

Manchester  reform  meeting  (called  Peterloo)  of  from
60,000  to  100,000  persons,  men,  women,  and  chil-
dren. Mr.  Hunt,  who  took  the  chair,  had  spoken
a  few  words,  when  the  meeting  was  suddenly  as-
sailed by  a  charge  of  cavalry,  assisted  by  a
Cheshire  regiment  of  yeomanry,  the  outlets  being
occupied  by  other  military  detachments.  The
unarmed  multitude  were  driven  upon  each  other  ;
many  were  ridden  over  by  the  horses,  or  cut  down
by  their  riders.  The  deaths  were  n,  men,
women,  and  children,  and  the  wounded  about  600

16  Aug. ,,
New  Brunswick-bridge  built .... 18.20


MANCHESTER.


614


MANCHESTER.


Chamber  of  commerce  established .... 1820

Law  library  founded „

Natural  History  society  projected ....  1S21

New  Quay  company  founded 1822

Deaf  and  Dumb  school  instituted ....  1823

Royal  Institution  formed ,,

Floral  and  Horticultural  society  established . . ,,

Mechanics'  institution  founded 1824

Musical  festival  first  held 1828

At  the  launch  of  a  vessel  which  keeled  and  upset,
upwards of 200 persons  precipitated  into  the

river  ;  51  perished 29  Feb. „

In  a  tumult,  a  factory  burnt,  and  much  machinery

destroyed 3  May,  1829

New  concert-room  established ,

The  races  established 1830

Manchester and Liverpool railway  opened — Mr.

Huskisson  killed  (see  Liverpool) .  15  Sept. „

Manchester  made  a  parliamentary  borough  (2  mem-
bers) by  Reform  act . . . .7  June,  1832

Choral  society  established 11833

Statistical  society  formed  (the  first  in  England),

2  Sept. ,,
Church-rate  refused  .... 3  Sept.  1834

Manchester  incorporated,  by  Municipal  Reform  act  1835
Manchester  and  Leeds  railway  act  passed . . .  1836

Geological  Society  instituted 1838

Charter  of  incorporation . . . .2360!
Manchester  police  act .... 26  Aug. 1839
Great disorders  in  the  midland  counties  among

artisans  :  they  extend  to  this  town . . Aug. 1842
British  Association  meet  here . . .23  June,
Great  free-trade  meetings  held  here  (see  Com  Laws)

14  Nov.  1843
Important meeting held at  the  Athenaeum  (see

Athenceum) 3  Oct.  1844

Great  anti-corn  law  meeting,  at  which  64,984?.  were

subscribed  in  four  hours ... 23  Dee.  1845
The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and  Philip's-park,

opened Aug.  1846

Manchester  made  a  bishopric . .  10  Aug.  184-

Opening  of  Owens  collegiate  institution,  to  which

John  Owens  bequeathed  100,000?.  .  10  March,  1851

The  Queen's  visit  to  Manchester  . . .7  Oct.
Great  meeting  in  the  Free-trade  hall,  to  greet  M.

Kossuth ZI  ]Sf0v.

The  engineers'  strike ... 3  Jam-26  April!  1852
The  Guild  of  Literature  entertained  at  a  banquet  by

the  citizens 3I  Aug.

Opening  of  the  Free  library  . . . . 2  Sept "
Great  Free-trade  banquet ... 2  Nov.
Manchester  declared  to  be  a  city,  and  formally  so

gazetted xg  April,  1853

Great  strike  of  minders  and  piecers  .  .  7  Nov.  1855
Exhibition  of  Art  Treasures  determined  on,  20
•  May,  1856  ;  1115  old  paintings,  689  new  paintings,
969  water-colours,  388  British  portraits,  &c.  col-
lected ;  opened  by  prince  Albert,  5  May  ;  visited
by  the  Queen,  29,  30  June;  visited  by  1,335,915
persons; expenses, 99,500?., receipts, 98,500?.;

closed I?  Oct.  1857

Sir  John Potter,  a  benefactor  to  the  town,  died

-r, ,.■,..  ,.  .  25  Oct. 1858

British  Association  meet  here  (2nd  time),  4  Sept.  1861
Great  county  meeting  ;  130,000?.  subscribed  to  the

Lancashire  Relief  fund  2  Dec 1862

Meeting  of  the  Church  Congress . . 13-15  Oct' 1S63
Great  Reform  meeting  ;  Mr.  Bright  there.  24  Sept.'  1866
Manchester  Education  bill  committee  appointed
Additional  M.P.  granted  by  Reform  act 15  Aug!  1867
Meeting  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool  agricultural

society Au„

Trades'  Unions  commission  opened  ;  evidence  ob- '

tained  of  gross  outrages  . . . 3.2,  Sevt

Two  Fenians,  Kelly  and  Deasy,  forcibly  taken  from '

a police-van, near Manchester, and Brett a

policeman  killed j3  gg,^

23 persons committed for  trial ;  trial,  '29  Oct  -12 "
Nov.  ; five condemned  to  death  for  murder  1
Nov.  ; others  to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould
and  Larkin  executed ...  23  Nov'

Jacob  Bright  elected  M.P.  (Lily  Maxwell, 'a  widow' "

voted  for  him) z6  Nov'

False  alarm  of  fire  at  Lang's  music-hall,  23  killed, '

New  town-hall  founded .... \V00t'  ^
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association  founded,  Sept.'  i860

3,  4  Nov. ,,


National  Education  Union  meet .


Bishop  James  Prince  Lee  died,  24  Dec.  1869  ;  suc-
ceeded by  James  Fraser  .... Jan.  1870
Alexandra- park (provided by the corporation)

opened 6  Aug. ,,

Owens  college  new  buildings  founded .  23  Sept. ,,
Grammar  school : additional  building  opened  by

earl  of  Derby 25  Oct.  1871

Visit  of  Mr. Disraeli; enthusiastically received,

2-5  April,  1872
The  library  at  the  Athenaeum  burnt  .  24  Sept.  1873
Proposal  to  rebuild  the  cathedral  by  subscription,

spring,  1874.
Athenaeum  lecture- rooms  opened  by  lord  chief  just.

Cockburn,  the  marquis  of  Salisbury,  &c. 22  Jan.  1875
Humphry  Nichols,  who  had  given  about  ioojoooL

to  public  charities,  died ... 31  Oct. „
Statue of  Cromwell (by  M.  Noble)  gift  of  Mrs.

Abel  Heywood,  uncovered . . .1 Dec. „
Rev.  Thos.  Middleton  bequeaths  14,000?.  to  Royal

Infirmary May, 1876

Proposal  to  make  Owens  college  a  university,  July, ,,
Death  of  sir  Elkanah  Armitage,  a  great  benefactor

26  Nov. ,,
New  town-hall  opened,  by  Mr.  Abel  Heywood,  the

mayor 13  Sept.  1877

Owens  college  made  the  nucleus  of  Victoria  Univer-
sity (which  see) . .  . July,  1880
New  school  of  art  opened  by  the  earl  of  Derby,

27  April,  1883
Visit  of  the  dukes  of  Edinburgh  and  Albany  12  Dee. „
Formation  of  a  ship  canal  by  junction  of  the  Mersey
and  Irwell ;  Mr.  William's  plan  approved  about

26  Sept.  1882
Fine  art  and  industrial  exhibition  opened  .  20  Oct. „
Fire  at  Messrs.  Wilkinson  and  Hodgkinson's,  about

100,000?.  damage 17  Nov. ,,

New  fine  art  gallery  opened  . . .  31  Aug.  1883

Edmund  Potter,  manufacturer  and  benefactor  of
the  city,  died  aged  81 . . . .26  Oct. ,,

Three  great  meetings  to  support  the  government
and  the  franchise  bill  . . . .  26  July,  1884

Great conservative demonstration, present the
marquis  of  Salisbury,  sir  R.Cross,  lord  Randolph
Churchill,  and  others . . ....  9  Aug. ,,

Manchester  Geographical  Society  established Jan.  1885
Manchester  returns  six  M.  P. 's  by  act  passed  25  June, ,,
Royal  Jubilee  Exhibition  of  manufactures,  science,
and  art  opened  by  the  prince  and  princess  of
Wales,  3  May  ;  closed .... 10  Nov.  1887

[4,765,137  .persons admitted  ; receipts about
250,000?. The  surplus  over  43,000?.  given  to
the  Manchester  Whitworth  Institute,  Dec.
1889.]
Sir  Joseph  Whitworth's  trustees  propose  the  estab-
lishment of  the  Whitworth  Institute  of  Art  and

Industry May,  1888

Prince  Albert  Victor  opens  Birchfield  recreation

grounds  and  lads'  club  ... 20  Oct. ,,

Manchester new  college, transferred to Oxford,

opened .25  Oct.  1889

The  Manchester  Whitworth  Institute  chartered,
Nov.  1889  ;  inaugurated  by  the  marquis  of  Har-
rington 17  July,  1890

The  Queen's  theatre  burnt . . . 17  Aug. „
Messrs. Holland's  cotton mill burnt,  estimated
loss,  120,000?. ..... 17  Aug. ,,

Statue  of  Mr.  John  Bright  unveiled  by  the  earl  of

Derby 10  Oct.  i8gr

Earl  Spencer  installed  chancellor  of  the  Victoria
university 25  May,  1892:

Manchester  ship  canal  act  (with  conditions)  passed
July,  1885  ;  company  formed,  proposed  capital
8,000,000?.  Oct.  1885.  To  hold  property  of  Bridge-
water  Navigation  Company  ;  to  occupy  about
7,500  square  miles.  Contract  for  work  taken  by
Lucas  and  Aird  for  5,750,000?.  July  ;  execution  of
the  scheme  suspended  through  non-subscription
of  capital  announced  24  July,  1886  ;  first  sod  cut
at  Eastham  by  lord  Egerton  of  Tatton  1 1  Nov.
1887  ;  satisfactory  progress  in  the  work  reported,
about  one  third  done .... June,  188a

Mr.  J.  A.  Walker,  the  contractor,  dies  25  Nov.  ;
progress  retarded  by  the  bursting  of  the  Mersey
bank  at  Statham 7  Nov.  1890

Water  of  the  Mersey  first  admitted  into  the  East-
ham  section  of  the  canal,  18,  19  June,  1891.
Collapse  of  part  of  the embankment  near  the


MANCHESTER.


615


MANIPUR.


Eastham  section  ;  new  embankment  quickly  con-
structed, i2  July  ;  the  first  flotilla  of  traffic  from
Ellesmere  port  passed  down  the  ship  canal  into

the  Mersey 16  July,  1891

Through  the  error  of  a  pointsman,  George  Pratt,
aged  16,  a  train  of  carriages  conveying  rock  debris
and  soil  was  precipitated  down  an  embankment
60  feet  deep,  killing  10  men  at  supper  below  ;  6
men  on  the  train  leaped  from  it  and  thus  escaped,

about  1  a.m 18  July, ,,

Amount  expended,  10,359,597^  up  to . 1  Aug. ,,
The  Manchester  Corporation  lent  3,000,000?.,  1891  ;
1,500,000?.  more  required  .... Aug.  1892

MANCHESTER,  Bishopric  of. An  order

in  council  in  Oct.  1838,  declared  that  the  sees  of
St.  Asaph  and  Bangor  should  be  united  on  the  next
vacancy  in  either,  and  that  the  bishopric  of  Man-
chester should  be  immediately  created  within  the
jurisdiction  of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  York;  the
county  of  Lancaster  for  that  purpose  to  be  detached
from  Chester.  By  act  10  Vict.  (1847)  the  sees  of
St.  Asapli  and  Bangor  were  to  exist  undisturbed,
and  that  of  Manchester  was  to  be  created.

BISHOPS.

1847.  James  Prince  Lee  ;  died  24  Dec.  1869.
1870.  James  Fraser,  Jan.  1870  ;  died  22  Oct.  1885.
1886.  James  Moorhouse, D.D. (bishop of  Melbourne,),
Jan.

MANDALAY,  see  Burmah.

MANER.U,  near  Puente  de  la  Reyna  Navarre.
Here  took  place  a  conflict  between  the  republicans,
under  Moriones,  and  the  Carlists,  under  Otto  ;  both
claimed  a  victory  ;  6  Oct.  1873.  The  Carlists  were
considered  to  have  the  advantage.

MANGANESE.  Black  oxide  of  manganese,
long  used  to  decolorise  glass,  and  called  Magnesia
nigra,  was  formerly  included  among  the  ores  of  iron.
Its  distinctive  character  was  proved  by  the  re-
searches of  Pott  (1740),  Kaim  and  Winter!  (1770),
and  Scheele  and  Bergmann  (1774)  >  ^  was  nr8t
eliminated  by  Gahn.  Manganese  combined  with
potassium  is  called  mineral  chameleon,  trom  its
rapid  change  of  colour  under  certain  circumstances.
Forehammer  employed  it  as  a  test  for  the  presence
of  organic  matter  in  water ;  and  Dr.  Angus  Smith,
successfully  applied  this  test  to  air  in  1858.  The
oxide  is  the  important  ingredient  in  Condy's  "dis-
infecting fluid."  Manganese  bronze,  a  new  metal
produced  by  Mr.  P.  M.  Parsons,  inventor  of  white
brass,  1876.  Manganese  steel  produced  by  Messrs.
Pfeil  &  Co.  1887.

MANICA,  a  territory  in  S.  Africa  in  Mashona-
land,  near  Mozambique,  which  on  account  of  its
mines,  the  Portuguese  vainly  endeavoured  to
acquire  in  the  16th  century.  See  Zambesi.
The  territory  was  acknowledged  to  be  under  the  influ-
ence of  Portugal  by  the  convention  of  Aug.  1890.

MANICHEANS,  a  sect  founded  by  Manes,
in  Persia,  about  261.  It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,
and  Africa.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant  Manes
had  been,  left  him  much  wealth,  after  which  he  as-
sumed the  title  of  Apostle,  or  envoy  of  Jesus
Christ,  and  announced  that  he  was  the  paraclete
or  comforter  that  Christ  had  promised  to  send.  He
maintained  two  principles,  the  one  good  he  called
light,  the  other  bad  he  called  darkness.  He  re-
jected the  Old  Testament,  and  composed  a  system  of
doctrine  from  Christianity  and  the  dogmas  of  the
ancient  fire-worshippers.  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,
believed  in  him  at  one  time ;  but  afterwards
banished  him.  He  was  burnt  alive  by  Bahrain  or
Varanes,  king  of  Persia,  in  277.  His  followers
dispersed,  and  several  sects  sprang  from  them.


MANILLA  (built  about  1573),  capital  of  the
Philippine  isles,  a  great  mart  of  Spanish  commerce.
Manilla  was  taken  by  the  English,  6  Oct.  1762,
when  the  archbishop  engaged  to  ransom  it  for  about
a  million  sterling;  never  wholly  paid.  Manilla
has  suffered  greatly  by  earthquakes.  It  is  stated
that  nearly  3000  persons  perished  by  one  in  1645.
In  Sept.  1852,  the  city  was  nearly  destroyed,  and
on  3  July,  1863,  about  a  thousand  lives  were  lost.
The  duke  of  Edinburgh  was  hospitably  entertained
here,  19  Nov.  1869.  See  Earthquakes  1852,  1863,
1880. Destructive  typhoon,  20,  21  Oct.  1882.

MANIPUR  (Manipore),  a  small  native  state,
N.E.  India,  adjoining  Assam  and  Burmah;  popula-
tion, 1881,221,070;  army  about  5,000.
The  state  has  long  been  protected  by  the  British  from
theattacks  of  the  Burmese.  In  1834,  Gumbheer  Singh,
the  restored  rajah,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his
son,  Chandra  Kirti  Sing,  two  years  old.  The  regent,
Nar  Singh,  a  relative,  usurped  the  government,  and
ruled  till  his  death  in  1850,  when  the  young  rajah  was
restored  ;  a  British  resident  being  afterwards  p'a.'ed  in
the  capital,  with  good  effect.  Much  trouble  was  giv(  n
by  rival  members  of  his  family  till  1866 ;  he  died  in
1885  or  1886.  He  left  eight  sons,  who  formed  opposirg
parties.  The  eldest.  Sura  Chandra  Singh,  Lecan.e
maharajah,  and  appionted  his  eldest  brother,  Kula
Chandra  Dhuya  Singh,  jubraj,  or  heir-ap parent,  after-
wards termed  regent,  a  weak,  incapable  man.  In  Sept.
1890,  his  brother,  Takendrajil  Singh,  the  senaputti,  or
commander-in-chief,  dethroned  the  maharajah  and  set
up  the  jubraj  in  his  place.  The  maharajah  retired  to
Calcutta.
On  21  Feb.  1891,  Mr.  James  W.  Quinton,  chief  commis-
sioner of  Assam,  was  directed  to  proceed  with  a
sufficient  force  to  Manipur,  to  recognise  the  regent,
and  to  remove  the  senaputti.  He  entered  Manipur
22  March,  with  470  men  and  officers,  civil  and
military,  and  was  well  received  by  the  regent  and
the  senaputti,  but  could  not  succeed  in  getting
the  latter  to  attend  a  durbar  or  court.  Mr.  Quin-
ton as  an  ultimatum  required  the  surrender  of
the  senaputti,  the  letter  being  taken  by  Mr.  F.  St
C.  Grimwood,  political  agent,  without  any  result,  23
March.  On  the  24th,  colonel  Skene  proceeded  with
250  men  to  arrest  the  senaputti  at  his  house  within
the  fort  inchisure,  of  which  they  obtained  possession
after  a  sharp  struggle,  during  which  lieut.  Bracken-
bury  was  mortally  wounded.  The  senaputti  had
escaped.  About  10  a.m.,  the  Manipuris  opened  fire
on  the  residency  in  front,  and  about  noon  on  the  rear,
and  shelled  it.  About  4  p.m.  the  troops  were  with-
drawn from  the  senaputti's  house,  and  all  the  force
was  posted  in  the  residency,  which  was  seriously
damaged  by  artillery  about  5  p.m.,  and  the  ammuni-
tion began  to  fall  short.  About  7  p.m.  negotiations
were  re-opened  by  letter  from  Mr.  Quinton,  and  the
firing  ceased,  but  the  conditions  offered  by  the  regent
could  not  be  accepted.  Having  been  invited  by  the
senaputti  halfway  between  the  residency  and  the
palace,  Mr.  Quinton  took  with  him  colonel  Skene,
Mr.  F.  St.  C.  Grimwood,  Mr.  H.  Cossins,  an  I  lieut.
Simpson,  unarmed,  and  without  escort.  After  a  long
parley,  the  party  entered  the  fort  and  were  seen  no
more,  and  it  was  afterwards  discovered  that  they
were  all  killed  (beheaded  or  otherwise).  The  tiring
re-commenced  about  midnight.  The  ammunition
having  been  greatly  reduced,  it  was  decided  to  retire
from  the  residency,  and  to  march  across  the  country
to  meet  captain  Cowley's  advancing  party.  This  was
done  about  2  a.m.  on  the  25th,  the  party  taking  with
them  17  wounded,  and  Mrs.  Grimwood,  who  displayed
much  judgment,  courage,  and  humanity.  There  was
no  serious  resistance  during  the  march,  but  a  few
skirmishes  occurred.  About  10  a.m.  they  nut  captain
Cowley's  party,  who  supplied  them  with  food  and
other  assistance.  They  continued  their  march,  ar-
riving, mi  30  March,  atLakhipuron  the Cachar  frontier.
Lieut.  C.  J.  W.  Grant  hearing,  on  27  March,  of  the
disaster  at  Manipur,  volunteered  to  attempt  the  relief
of  the  British  captives,  and  marched  with  So  native
soldiers  from  Tainu  in  Burmah,  28  March;  entrenched
himself  near  Thobal,  31  March;  held  out  against  the
attacks  of  the  Manipuri  army  (about  3,000)  till  7


MANITOBA.


616


MANSION-HOUSE.


April ; and  resisted negotiations judiciously ;

only  i  killed.

[Lieut.  Grant  was  made  major  and  otherwise

honoured.]

About  2,000 Manipuris, entrenched  near  Tamu,

attacked and disperse  1 by  general  Graham's

party,  captain  Drury  being  especially  successful,

25  April ;  three  columns  under  gen.  Graham,  and
others  from  different  directions  converge  at
Manipur,  which  they  find  totally  deserted,  the
regent,  senaputti,  and  other  princes  having  fled,

26  April ;  the  palace  had  been  blown  up  ;  the
heads  of  Mr.  Quinton  and  his  companions  were
found  in  the  enclosure.

Funeral  ceremony  was  held  over  the  exhumed  bodies
of  Mr.  Quinton  and  his  companions,  30  April  ;
general  Collett  was  left  in  command  at  Manipur,
some  of  the  troops  left.  The  Manipuris  returned
to  their  homes,  May ;  the  regent  and  his  minister
were  captured,  8  May,  and  the  senaputti,

about  23  May,  1891

The  regent,  the  senaputti,  and  prince  Angao  Sena,
a  younger  brother,  were  tried  for  rebellion  and
abetting  to  murder,  and  sentenced  to  death  (all
appealed) 9-20  June, ,,

The  sentences  of  death  on  the  senaputti  and  the
Tongal  general,  as  implicated  in  the  murders,
were  confirmed.  The  sentences  on  the  regent
and  his  younger  brother  commuted  to  transporta-
tion for  life  to  the  Andaman  Islands  ;  forfeiture
of  property,  announced  10  Aug.  The  senaputti
and  the  Tongal  general  hanged  at  Manipur,

13  -A-Ug- ,,

It  was  decided  that  Manipur  should  still  be  ruled
by  a  native  prince,  23  Aug. ;  and  Chura  Chand,
.aged  5,  great  grandson  of  Nar  Singh,  was  appointed
rajah,  13  Sept.  ;  dignity  to  be  hereditary,  subject
to  the  government  of  India  ;  an  annual  tribute  to
be  paid  ;  declaration  communicated  .  .  Oct.  „
'The  young  prince  was  invested  with  a  dignity,

29  April,  1892

MANITOBA,  see  Rupert- s  Land  and  Hudson' s
Bay  (N.  America).  Manitoba  was  made  a  part  of
the  confederation  in  1870.  Capital,  Winnipeg.
Population,  1886,  108,640  ;  1891,154,442.  Lieut.-
gov.,  John  C.  Schultz.  A  ienian  attack  on  the
.colony  was  suppressed  by  American  troops  about
12  Oct.  1871.  For  insurrection  in  the  neighbouring
provinces  in  March,  1885,  see  Canada.  For  the
Red  Iliver  Railway  disputes  see  Canada,  Oct.  1888.

MANNHEIM  (S.  Germany),  founded  in  1606,
became  the  court  residence  of  the  palatine  of  the
Rhine  in  17 19  ;  but  his  becoming  elector  of  Bavaria
in  1777  caused  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Munich.
Mannheim  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  com-
mand of  general  Pichegru,  20  Sept.  1795.  On  31
Oct.  the  Austrians  under  general  Wurmser  defeated
the  French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were
fought  with  various  success  in  the  neighbourhood
during  the  wars  of  Napoleon  I.  Kotzebue,the  popu-
lar dramatist,  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim,  by
Sand,  a  student  of  Wurtzburg,  2  April,  1819.  Popu-
lation, 1890,  79  044.

MANOMETER  (Greek,  manos,  thin),  an  in-
strument for  measuring  the  rarity  of  the  atmo-
sphere, gases,  and  vapours.  One  is  said  to  have
been  made  by  Otto  von  Guericke  about  1660,  and
the  "statical  barometer"  of  Robert  Boyle  was
a  simple  manometer.  Various  forms  of  the  appara-
tus were  devised  by  Ramsden  (about  1773),  DV  R°v
(1777),  by  Cazalet  (1789),  and  by  Bourdon  and
others.  A  manometer  was  constructed  for  the  in-
vestigation respecting  the  elasticity  of  steam  con-
ducted by  Prony,  Arago,  Dulong,  and  Girard,  1830.

MANOBS  are  as  ancient  as  the  Saxon  times,
and  imply  a  territorial  district  with  its  jurisdiction,
rights,  and  perquisites.  They  were  formerly  called
baronies,  and  still  are  lordships.  Each  lord  was
empowered  to  hold  a  court  called  the  court-baron


for  redressing  misdemeanors,  and  settling  disputes
between  the  tenants. Cabinet  Lawyer.

MANSFIELD  COLLEGE,  Oxford,  for  the
study  of  Nonconformist  theology  opened  in  tempo-
rary rooms  19  Oct.  1886.  The  new  college  solemnly
opened,  14  Oct.  1889.

MANSION-HOUSE,  London.  The  resi-
dence of  the  lord  mayor.  It  is  situate  at  the  east
end  of  the  Poultry  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stocks-
market.  It  was  built  of  Portland  stone  by  George
Dance  the  elder,  1739-53  >  repaired  and  redecorated,
1867-68 ;  see  Mayor.

Attempt  to  blow  up  part  of  Mansion- House  ;  a  box
of  gunpowder  (40  lbs.)  discovered  in  a  window,
east  side,  about  11  p.m.  16  March,  1881  ;  again,

12  May,  18.82

Visited  by  the  queen,  after  opening  the  People's'

Palace 14  May,  1887

Mansion-House  Funds : —

French  Relief  Fund  for  the  sufferers  by  the  siege
of  Paris,  was  established  at  a  meeting . j8  Jan.  1871

In  four  days  about  24,000?.  had  been  received  ;  up
to  4  March,  113, 599L  ;  finally,  126,609?.  Col.  H.
Stuart  Wortley  and  Mr.  George  Moore  went  to
Paris  on  3  Feb.  with  68  tons  of  provisions,  and
personally  superintended theirdistribution  by  the
clergy,  foreign  consuls,  and  others.  An  official
report  issued  by  the  lord  mayor,  dated  7  Nov.
1871,  showed  a  balance  of  4679?.  in  hand.

Bengal  Relief  Fund,  begun  24  Jan.  1874  ;  prince
of  Wales  became  patron,  24  Feb.  ;  public  meeting,

14  April;  above  55,000?.  subscribed,  19  March;
125,000?.,  27  July,  when  the  fund  was  closed.

Eastern  War  Sufferers'  Fund  ;  9400?.  received
up  to  6  Oct.  1876;  18  Oct.  13,000?.  ;  27  Oct.
14,200?.

Inundations  Relief  Fund  ;  1877,  received,  11  Jan.
3600?.  ;  20  Jan.  8100?.  ;  closed,  14  Feb.,  8792?.

Indian  Famine  Relief  Fund,  1877-8;  announced,

15  Aug.  ;  received  up  to  20  Aug.  12,000?.  ;  11  Sept.
135,000?.;  23  Oct.  415,000?.;  5  Nov.  446,100?.;
(fund  declared  closed  by  request  of  the  duke  of
Buckingham,  governor-general  of  Madras)  ;  since
received,  22  Dec.  493,000?.  ;  15  Jan.  1878,  503,000?.
Wound  up,  515,200?.  received  ; — 506,063?.  sent  to
India 20  May,  187S

"  Eurydice  "  Fund  (see  Wrecks,  24  March,  1878) ;
received  for  families  of  the  men,  5496?.;  trans-
mitted 25  Sept. ,,

"  Princess  Alice  "  Relief  Fund  ;  opened  5  Sept.

1878  ;  received,  21st  Sept.  25,000?.;  1  Oct.  31,400?.
See  Princess  Alice.

Abercarne  Colliery  Explosion  Fund  ;  opened
14  Sept.  1878  ;  received,  21  Sept.  11,500?.;  21  Oct.
29,300?.  :  above  18,000?.  received  in  the  country.

Dinas  Colliery  Explosion  Fund  (for  180  widows
and  children)  ;  opened  in .... Feb.  1879

Hungarian  Floods  Fund  ;  opened  14  March  ;  re-
ceived 18  March,  about  4,200?.  ; May  1,  11,248?. ,,

Zulu  War  Fund  ;  opened,  31  March  ;  received
2  April,  3,400?.  ;  25  April,  10,300?.  . .  ,,

Rowland  Hill  Memorial  proposed  9  Sept.  1879  ;
the  lord  mayor,  Whetham,  announced  that  as
about  100?.  only  had  been  subscribed  ;  the  money
would  be  returned  ;  another  committee  was  then
formed,  and  lord  mayor  Truscott  assumed  charge
of  the  fund, 11  Nov.  ;  6,300?.  received  12  Dec.

1879  ;  about  16,000?.  26  Feb.  1880  ;  17,286?.  5  Jan.  1881
Duchess  of  Marlborough's  Irish  Relief  Fund  ;

opened  on  appeal  by  her  grace,  22  Dec.  1879  ;

about  2,300?. received 29 Dec.  ; total  sent  to

Dublin,  34,164?.  6s.  6d.  ;  fund  closed . 10  Aug.  1880
"  Atalanta  "  Fund  ; to  relieve  sufferers  by  loss  of

the  Atalanta  (which  see) ;  opened . . 15  June, ,,
Truro  Cathedral  Fund  opened  14  July  ;  received,

1,085? 9  Nov. „

Risca  Colliery  Explosion  Fund,  opened  16  July  ;

received  7,317?. 9  Nov. ,,

Naini  Tal  Landslip  Fund  ;  opened  .  22  Oct.  „
Agram  Earthquake  Fund  ;  opened  .  17  Nov.  „
Penygraig  Colliery  Explosion  Fund  ;  opened,

13  Dee. ,,
Chios  or,  Scio  Earthquake  Fund  ;  opened  7  April,  1881


MANSION-HOUSE.


617


MAEBUEG.


Defence  or  Property  in  Ireland  Fund,  ("  to  up-
hold the  rights  of  property  against  organized
combination,  to  defend  and  to  sustain  freedom  of
contract  and  liberty  of  action,'')  begun,  13  Dec;
1881 ;  18,226/.  applied,  balance  of  1,2682.  trans-
ferred to  Irish  Defence  Union . . 18  Dee.

Egyptian  Refugees  Fund:  2,100?.,  30 June,  1882;
2,700?.,  6  July  ;  7,800?.,  n  Aug.  ;  8,000?.,  10  Sept. ;
21, 308? 10  April,

Relief  of  Persecuted  Russian  Jews  Fund,  begun

1  Feb.  1882  ;  46,000/.,  received,  13  Feb.  ;  50,365/.
ao  Feb.  ;  about  72,000/.,  19  May.  Fund  closed
108,759/.,  received  (over  110,000/.  received,  finally
closed  9  July,  1886) 25  Oct.

Fund  for  Emigration  of  the  Unemployed,  es-
tablished 13  April;  unsuccessful,  closed  25  April,

Iceland  Famine  Fund,  formed  29  Aug.  1882  ;
1,500/.  received  6  Sept. ;  2,800/.  14  Sept.  ;  3,700/.

21  Sept.;  5,505/.,  closed  ....  April,
Clay  Cross  Colliery  Explosion  Fund,  about  14

Nov.;  496/.  ios.  61I.  remitted  ;  fund  closed,  26  Jan.
Jamaica  Fire Relief  Fund,  established,  22  Jan.

received  4,400/.  ;  21  Feb.  7,620/. ;  closed,  received

7,850/. . 9  April,

West  Coast  of  Scotland  Fund,  2,200/.  received

3  April ;  3,964/.  12  April ;  4,861/.  8  May; 5,159/.

fund  closed 23  July,

Fund for Sufferers  by North Sea Gale,

(6  March) 12  April,

Ischia  Earthquake  Fund,  opened  14  Aug.  ;  1,200/.

22  Aug.  ;  about  29,000/.  12  Oct.  ;  closed  31  Oct.
Egyptian  Cholera  Fund,  opened  31  Aug.  about

2,731/.  received  ;  closed . . . .9  Nov.

Eastern  Counties  Earthquake  Fund,  begun  26
April,  1884  ;  2,000/.  received,  2  May ;  3,000/.  5  May ;
6,000/.  15  May  ;  9,900/.  10  June  ;  10,413/. 31  July,

Nisero  Fund  (see  Nisero),  established  17  July  ;
405/.  received  from  earl  of  Derby  and  others  ;  600/.
received  from  Rotterdam,  Aug.;  1,237/.  received,
fund  closed 1  Dec.

Neapolitan  Cholera  Fund,  1,000/.  sent  off,  Oct.  1
final  remittance,  323/..  ....  Nov.

Gordon  National  Memorial  Fund,  (see  Gordon
Memorial)  begun  25  Feb.  ;  13,500/.  received  up  to
8  April ;  king  of  Belgium  gives  100/. . 8  April,

Spanish  Cholera  Fund  begun  n  Sept. ;  4191Z.
received  ;  closed 4  Nov.

Unemployed  Relief  Fund,  begun  about  5  Feb.  ;
over  3,300/.  received  ;  76,225/.  26  March  ;  76,819?.
31  March  ;  77,910/.  (1,200/.  collected  in  the  streets
3  April)  7  April;  closed  19  April ;  total  received
78,629/.

St. Paul's  Cathedral  Approach  Fund, begun

about  5  Feb.

Earthquake  Fund  for  sufferers  in  Greece  and
Charleston,  U.S.  7  Sept.  ;  5,000/.  17  Sept.  ;  6,500/.
24  Sept. ;  closed ....  26  Oct.

Colonial  and  Indian  Institute  Fund  proposed  as
a  memorial  of  the  queen's  jubilee  by  the  prince  of
Wales  13  Sept.  1886  ;  27,500/.  received 27  Oct.

Exeter  Theatre  Fire  Relief  Fund  8  Sept.  ;  the
queen  gives  100/.  ;  announced  12  Sept. ;  1,300/.  to

16  Sept.

Prussian  Inundation  Fund,  9  April ;  3,000/.
received 13  April,

Chinese  Famine  Fund  proposed  22  Jan.  ;  5,300?.
received  30  Jan.;  18,250/.  4  March;  21,706/.  26
March  ;  fund  closed,  over  32,654/.  received May,

The  fund  in  aid  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Jubilee
Show  (see  Windsor)  amounted  to  5,516/. 1  Aug.

Pasteur  Institute  Fund  established  (see  Hydro-
phobia), 1  July,  1889  ;  received  from  the  prince  of
Wales  105/.,  the  duke  of  Westminster  200/.,  the
duke  of  Northumberland  100/.,  and  many  others  ;
amount  received,  2,839/ Dec.

Fruit  Culture  Fund  begun  by  the  lord  mayor  ;
the  duke  of  Westminster  gave  50/.,  baroness  Bur-
dett-Coutts  50/.,  and  others . . .14  Oct.

Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  Memorial  Fund.
Received  from  city  companies  and  others  2,000?.,
8  Feb.  1890 ;  total  received,  5,446/. . 10  Nov.

Llanerch  Colliery  Explosion  Fund.  Contri-
butions received,  11  Feb.,  363/.  ;  1  March,  5,000/. ;
7,333/.  remitted 23  May,

Morfa  Colliery  Explosion  Fund,  15  March.
Contributions  received,  22  March,  about  1,300/.  ;

2  June,  2,800/. .......

Lord Strathnairn  (sir  Hugh  Rose)  Memorial


Fund.  Amount  received,  17  June,  1,500?. 2,700?.

6 Nov. Liberal contributions received from

Indian  princes 1890

Salonica Fire Relief Fund, 19 Sept. 3,373?.

received,  7  Nov.  ;  fund  closed . . 8  Nov. ,,
Serpent  Wreck  Relief  Fund  (see  Navy,  10  Nov.

1890,  el  seq.)  started  by  request  about  20  Nov.;

2,750/.  received 8  Jan.  1891

Mauritius  Hurricane  Fund,  opened  30  April,

1892; received  about  1,300/.,  24  May; (closed)

12,083/.  ... 20  Sept.  1892

MANSOUEAH  (Lower  Egypt).  Here  Louis
IX.  was  defeated  by  the  Saracens  and  taken  pri-
soner, 5  April,  1250.  He  gave  Damietta  and  400,000
livres  for  his  ransom.  Mansourah  suffered  much
by  cholera,  summer,  1883.

MANTTNEA  (Arcadia,  Greece).  Here— (1)
Athenians  and  Argives  were  defeated  by  Agis  II.  of
Sparta,  418  B.C.  (2)  And  here  Epaminondas  and
the  Thebans  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Lace-
daemon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia,  362  B.C.
Epaminondas  was  killed  in  the  engagement,  and
Thebes  lost  its  power  among  the  Grecian  states.  The
emperor  Adrian  built  a  temple  at  Mantinea in  honour
of  his  favourite  Alcinoiis.  The  town  was  also  called
Antigonia. Utber  battles  were  fought  near  it.

MANTUA  (N.  Italy),  an  Etruscan  city,  near
which  Virgil  was  born,  70  B.C.  Mantua  was  ruled
by  theGonzagas,  lords  of  Mantua,  from  1328  to  1708,
when  it  was  seized  by  the  emperor  Joseph  I.  It
surrendered  to  the  French,  2  Feb.  1797,  after  a
siege  of  eight  months  ;  retaken  by  the  Austrians
and  Russians,  30  July,  1799,  after  a  short  siege.
After  the  battle  of  Marengo  (14  June,  1800),  the
French  again  obtained  possession  of  it.  It  was  in-
cluded in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  till  1814,  when  it
was  restored  to  the  Austrians,  who  surrendered  it  to
the  Italians,  11  Oct.  1866,  after  the  peace.

MANU,  see  Menu.

MAOEIS,  see  New  Zealand.

MAPLE-TEEE.  The  Acer  rubrum,  or  scarlet
maple,  was  brought  here  from  N.  America,  before
1656.  The  Acer  Negundo,  or  ash-leaved  maple,
before  1688.  From  the  Acer  saccharinum  (intro-
duced here  in  1 735)  the  Americans  make  good  sugar.

MAPS,  see  Charts,  and  Mercator.

MAEANON,  see  Amazon.

MAEATHON  (in  Attica).  Here,  on  28  or  29
Sept  490  B.C.,  the  Greeks,  only  11,000  strong,  de-
feated the  Persian  army  amounting  to  about  1 10,000.
The  former  were  commanded  by  Miltiades,  Aristides,
and  Themistocles.  Among  the  slain  (about  6400)  is
said  to  have  been  Hippias,  who  had  been  expelled
from  A  thens,  and  was  the  instigator  of  the  war.  The
Persian  arniy  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Asia;  see
Greece.
Investigations  in  1890  on  the  presumed  site  of  this  battle

led  to  the  discovery  of  vases,  and  the  probable  grave

of  the  192  Athenians  who  fell.

MAEBLE.  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  of
Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who  sculptured  marble,
and  polished  their  works;  all  statues  previously
being  of  wood,  about  568  B.C.  Pliny.  The  edifices
or  monuments  of  Rome  were  constructed  of,  or  orna-
mented with,  tine  marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra
are  chiefly  of  white  marble.  The  marble  arch,
London,  erected  at  Buckingham  palace,  1830,  was
removed  to  Hyde-park,  March,  1851.

MAEBUEG  (VV.  Germany).  The  cathedral
was  founded,  1231  ;  and  the  first  Protestant  univer-
sity in  1527.  It  suffered  much  during  the  Seven
years'  war,  1753-O0.


MARCH.


618


MARKET.


MARCH,  the  first  month  of  the  Roman  year,
until  Numa  added  January  and  February,  713  B.C.
It  is  said  that  Romulus  gave  to  this  month  the
name  of  his  supposed  father,  Mars;  though  Ovid
observes,  that  the  people  of  Italy  had  the  month  of
March  before  the  time  of  Romulus,  but  placed  it
differently  in  the  calendar.  The  year  commenced
on  the  25th  of  this  month  till  1753;  see  Year.  The
March  of  1845  and  1886  had  much  frost  and  skating.

MAECHES-  The  old  boundaries  between
England  and  Wales,  and  England  and  Scotland.
The  Lords  Marchers  of  the  Welsh  borders  had  vice-
regal authority ;  the  wardens  of  the  Scotch  marches
were  subordinate  officers.  These  powers  were  abol-
ished, 1536,  and  1689.

MARCHFELD  (Austria).  Here  Ottocar  II.
of  Bohemia  was  defeated  and  slain  by  his  rival,  the
emperor  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  26  Aug.  1278 ;  see
Bohemia.

\  MARCIONITES,Mlowersof  Marcion,  a  here-
tic, about  150,  who  preceded  the  Manichees,  and
taught  similar  doctrines. Cave.

MARCOMANNI,  a  people  of  Southern  Ger-
many, expelled  the  Boii  from  Bohemia,  and,  united
with  other  tribes,  invaded  Italy  about  167,  but  were
repelled  by  the  emperors  Antoninus  and  Verus.  They
were  defeated  by  the  legion  called,  from  a  fabled
miracle,  the  Thundering  Legion,  179;  and  finally
driven  beyond  the  Danube  by  Aurelian,  271.

MARENGO  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  French  army,
commanded  by  Bonaparte,  after  crossing  the  Alps
into  Piedmont,  attacked  the  Austrians,  14  June,
1800 ;  his  army  was  retreating,  when  the  arrival  of
general  Dessaix  turned  the  fortunes  of  the  day.  The
slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful.  By  a  treaty
between  the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  Bonaparte,
signed  15  June,  the  latter  obtained  twelve  strong
fortresses,  and  became  master  of  Italy.

MARESCHALS  or  Marshals,  in  France,
were  the  esquires  of  the  king,  and  originally  had
the  command  of  the  vanguard  to  observe  the  enemy
and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its  encampment.
Till  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  in  15 15,  there  were  but
two  marshals,  who  had  500  livres  per  annum  in
war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of  peace.  The  number
was  afterwards  greatly  increased.  Napoleon's  mar-
shals were  renowned  for  skill  and  courage ;  see
Marshal.

MARGARINE,  see  under  Butter.

MARGATE,  Kent,  Royal  sea-ba'hinginfirmary
founded  1792,  enlarged  1882.  The  town-hall  was
erected  in  1820.  Population,  1881,  16,030 ;  1891,
18,419.

MARIAN  PERSECUTION,  see  Protestants.

MARIGNANO  (nowMAlEGNAlfO),  N.  Italy,
near  Milan.  Three  battles  have  been  fought  near
here — I.  Francis  I.  of  France  defeated  the  duke  of
Milan  and  the  Swiss,  13, 14  Sept.  1515  ;  above  20,000
men  were  slain.  This  conflict  has  been  called  the
Battle  of  the  Giants. — 2.  Near  here  was  fought  the
battle  of  Pavia  (which  see),  24  February,  1525. — 3.
After  the  battle  of  Magenta,  4  June,  1859,  the  Aus-
trians entrenched  themselves  at  Malegnano.  The
emperor  sent  marshal  Baraguay  d' Uilliers  with
16,000  men  to  dislodge  them,  which  he  did  with  a
loss  of  about  850  killed  and  wounded,  on  8  June.
The  Austrians  are  said  to  have  lost  1400  killed  and
wounded,  and  900  prisoners,  out  of  18,000  engaged.

MARINE  BIOLOGICAL  ASSOCIA-
TION. See  Biology.


MARINER'S  COMPASS,  see  Compass,  and


MARINES,  soldiers  serving  on  ship-board,
were  first  established  vsith  the  object  of  form-
ing a  nursery  to  man  the  fleet.  An  order  in
council,  dated  16  Oct.  1664,  authorised  1200  sol-
diers to  be  raised  and  formed  into  one  regiment.  In
1684,  the  third  regiment  of  the  line  was  called  the
Marine  Regiment ;  but  the  system  of  having  soldiers
exclusively  for  sea  service  was  not  carried  into  effect
until  1698,  when  two  marine  regiments  were  formed.
More  regiments  were  embodied  in  subsequent  years;
and  in  1 74 1  the  corps  consisted  of  ten  regiments,
each  1000  strong.  In  1759  they  numbered  18,000
men.  In  the  latter  years  of  the  French  war,  ending
in  1815,  they  amounted  to  31,400,  but  there  weie
frequently  more  than  3000  supernumeraries.  The
jollies,  as  they  are  called,  frequently  distinguished
themselves.  The  "Royal  Marine  Forces"  (so
named  1  May,  1802),  now  comprehend  artillery  and
light  infantry.  The  vote  for  1857  was  for  l6,000>
marines,  inclusive  of  1500  artillery.  P-  S.  Nicolas.
Marine  Engineers'  Institution,  founded  in  1872.
Officers  of  the  marines  made  equal  in  rank  with
those  in  the  army  and  navy,  Dec.  1882.

MARINE  SOCIETY  (for  the  maintenance
and  instruction  of  boys  for  the  navy),  was  founded
by  Jonas  Hanway,  1756,  and  incorporated,  1772.  It
instituted  the  first  training  ship  on  the  Thames,
1786.  H.M.S.  Warspite  was  burnt,  without  loss
of  life,  3  Jan.  1876 ;  and  the  boys  were  removed  to
the  Conqueror.

MARINO,  SAN,  a  republic  in  central  Italy.
Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  St.  Marinus,  a  hermit,  who
resided  here  in  the  5th  century.  Its  independence
lost  for  a  short  time,  to  Goesar  Borgia,  1503,  and  to
the  pope,  1739;  was  confirmed  by  pope  Pius  VII.
in  1817.  A  convention  with  Italy,  27  March,  1872.
Population,  in  1 858,  about  8000  ;  in  1869,  7303  ;  in
1874,  7816;  in  1891,  about  8,000.

MARIOLATRY,  worship  of  the  virgin  Mary,
began  in  the  4th  century,  greatly  increased  in  the
10th.

MARIONETTES,  puppet  plays.  The  fan-
toccini, popular  in  Italy  in  the  15th  century;  in
the  18th  in  England,  and  Germany. See  Punch.

MARITIME  EXHIBITION  at  Havre
opened  by  representatives  of  the  government  1  June,
1868  :  (anoihcr  at  Havre,  7  May,  1887)  ;  a  similar
exhibition  was  opened  at  Naples  by  the  prince  of
Piedmont,  17  April,  1871;  at  Paris,  10  July,  1875;
at  Liverpool,  11  May,  1886.

An  International  Maritime  conference,  at  which  23
nations  were  represented  by  50  delegates,  Portu-
gal not  included,  met  at  Washington,  and  were
received  by  Mr.  secretary  Blaine  and  introduced
to  president.  Harrison. Adm. Franklin, U.S.,

elected  president 16  Oct.  1889

Conference  closed 31  Dec. ,,

[Subjects  discussed  by  committees  :  lights,  signal-
ling, rules  of  the  road,  life  saving  systems,  sea-
worthiness, sailors,  routes  at  sea.]
A  government  blue  book  issued  on  the  subject,

Nov.  1890

MARK,  a  silver  coin  of  the  northern  nations,
and  the  name  mark-lubs is  still  retained  in  Denmark.
In  England,  the  mark  means  the  sum  of  13s.  qd.,
and  the  name  is  retained  in  law  courts.

MARKET,  see  Smithjield,  Metropolitan  Cattle
Market,  Leadenhall,  Farringdon,  Columbia,  and
Coveut  Garden  Markets.  New  market  constructed
by Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bishopsgate


MARK'S, ST.


619


MARRIAGE.


street;  opened,  I  July,  1882. Wholesale  fish,  and

poultry  market  opened,  19  Oct.  1882.

Royal  Commission  on  Market  Rights  and Tolls

appointed  in  1888  ;  issued  first  report  March,  1889
The  Market  and  Fairs  act,  1887,  amended  .  .  1891
Final  report  Jan.  1891,  recommending  reforms.

MARK' S,  St.  (Venice) .  The  church  was  erected
between  977  and  1043.

The  restorations  of  the  Palace  of  the  Doges  were
completed  and  exposed  to  view . . Nov.  1889

MARLBOROUGH,  a  town  in  Wiltshire ;  a
royal  manor  mentioned  in  Domesday  book.  King
Henry  III.  passed  the  "  Statutes  of  Malbridge  "  in
the  ancient  castle  in  1267.  Marlborough  returned
two  members  to  parliament  since  Edward  I.  Ab-
sorbed into  the  county,  1885.  The  grammar
school  was  founded  by  Edward VI. — Marlbokough
House,  Pall  Mall,  London,  was  built  by  Wren  for
the  duke  of  Marlborough,  1709-10;  was  bought  for
the  princess  Charlotte  and  prince  Leopold  in  1817  ;
held  by  queen  Adelaide  till  1849,  and  became  the
residence  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  1863.  See  Gems.
Population,  1881,  3,343;  1891,  3,012.

MARLOWE  MEMORIAL,  a  committee  de-
termine to  erect  a  memorial  to  Christopher  Mar-
lowe, the  dramatist  (1564-93),  in  Canterbury,  Dec.
1888.  The  statue  unveiled  by  Mr.  H.  Irving,
16  Sept.  1891.

MAROCCO,  see  Morocco.

MARONLTES,  Christians  in  the  East,  fol-
lowers of  one  Maron  in  the  5th  century ;  they  are
said  to  have  embraced  the  errors  of  the  Jacobites,
Nestorians,  and  Monothelites.  About  1 180  they
numbered  40,000,  living  in  the  neighbourhood  of
mount  Libanus,  and  were  of  service  to  the  Christian
kings  of  Jerusalem.  They  were  reconciled  to  the
church  of  Rome  soon  after.  Eor  an  account  of  the
massacres  of  the  Marouites  in  i860,  see  Druses.

MAROONS,  a  name  given  in  Jamaica  to  run-
away negroes.  When  the  island  was  conquered
from  the  Spaniards,  a  number  of  their  negroes  tied
to  the  hills  and  became  very  troublesome  to  the
colonists.  A  war  of  eight  years'  duration  ensued,
when  the  Maroons  capitulated  on  being  permitted
to  retain  their  free  settlements,  about  1730.  In
1795  they  again  took  arms,  but  were  speedily  put
down  and  many  were  transported. Brande.

MARPHSTGER,  village,  near  Saarbruck.  The
Virgin  and  Satan  said  to  have  been  seen  by  children  ;
and  miracles  wrought,  3  July,  1876.  The  priest,
Neureuter,  acquitted  of  the  charge  of  imposture,
April,  1879.

MAR-PRELATE  TRACTS,  virulently  at-
tacking episcopacy,  were  mostly  written,  it  is
believed,  by  Henry  I'enry,  who  was  cruelly  executed,
29  May,  1593,  for  writing  seditious  words  against  the
queen  (found  about  his  person  when  seized).  The
tracts  appeared  about  1586.  Some  had  very  singular
titles:  such  as  '*  An  Almand  for  a  Parrat,"  "Hay
any  Worke  for  Cooper  ? "  &c.  They  were  collected
and  reprinted  in  1843.

MARQUE,  LETTERS  OF,  see  Privateer.

.MARQUESAS  ISLANDS  (Polynesia)  were
discovered  in  1595  by  Mendana,  who  named  them
after  the  viceroy  of  Peru,  Marquesa  do  Mendocja.

They  were  visited  by  Cook  in  1 774,  and  were  taken
possession  of  by  the  Trench  admiral  Uupetit  Thouars,
I  May,  1842.

MARQUIS,  a  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons
markin-reve,  by  the  Germans  markgrave,  took  its


original  from  mark  or  March,  a  limit  or  bound  (see
Marches);  the  office  being  to  guard  or  govern  the
frontiers  of  a  province.  Marquis  is  next  in  honour
to  a  duke.  The  first  Englishman  on  whom  the  title-
was  conferred  was  the  favourite  of  king  Richard  II.  r
Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  created  marquis  of
Dublin,  and  placed  in  parliament  between  the  dukes
and  earls,  1385.  James  Stewart,  second  son  oi
James  III.  of  Scotland,  was  made  marquis  of  Or-
mond,  in  1476,  without  territories,  afterwards  earl
of  Ross.

MARRIAGE  was  instituted  by  God  {Gen.  ii.)t
and  confirmed  by  Christ  {Mark  x.),  who  performed
a  miracle  at  the  celebration  of  one  {John  ii.).  Ma-
trimonial ceremonies  among  the  Greeks  are  ascribed
to  Cecrops,  king  of  Athens,  1554  B.C.  See  AgeT
Affinity.

Law  favouring  marriage  passed  at  Rome  .  .B.C.  iS
Priests  forbidden  to  marry  after  ordination a.d. 325.

Marriage  in  Lent  forbidden 366-

It  was  forbidden  to  bishops  in  692,  and  to  priests  in
1015  ;  and  these  latter  were  obliged  to  take  the

vow  of  celibacy 1073.

Statute prohibiting marriages between certain

persons  within  prohibited  degrees  25  Hen.  VIII.  1533-4.
The celebration  of  marriage, as a  sacrament,  in
churches  ordained  by  pope  Innocent  III.  about
1199  ;  and  so  affirmed  by  the  council  of  Trent . . 1547
Marriages  solemnised  by  justices  of  the  peace  under

an  act  of  the  commons 1655

A  tax  laid  on  marriages,  viz.  :  marriage  of  a  duke,

50?.  ;  of  a  common  person,  2s.  dd 1695

Irregular  marriages  prohibited  (see  Fleet  Marriages)  1753.

Marriages  again  taxed 1784

New  marriage  act,  1822  ;  partially  repealed  .  .  1823.
Acts  prohibiting  marriages  by  Roman  Catholic
priests  in  Scotland,  or  other  ministers  not  belong-
ing to  the  church  of  Scotland,  repealed  .  .  1834.
The  present  marriage  act  for  England,  authorising
marriages  without  religious  ceremony,  by  regis-
trar's certificate,  or  in  a  dissenting  chapel,  passed
1836  [amended  in  1837  and  1856].

Marriage  Registration  act 1837

Amendment  acts  passed  in  .  .  .  1840  and  1856
A  bill  to  suppress  irregular  marriages  in  Scotland

(see  Gretna)  passed  in ,,

A  court  established  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial
Causes,  which  has  the  power  of  giving  sentence  of
judicial  separation  for  adulter}-,  cruelty,  or  deser-
tion without  cause  for  two  years  and  upward  (see

Divorce) 1857

Act  to  render  the  children  of  certain  marriages
within  forbidden  degrees  {with  deceased  wife's
sister)  legitimate  ;  such  marriages  in  future  pro-
hibited (Lyndhurst's  act,  which  see)  ;  (efforts  made
to  legalise  marriage  with  deceased  wife's  sister

ever  since) 1835,

The  Marriage  Law  Reform  association  instituted  (to
legalise  a  marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister),
15  Jan.  1851.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  passed  the
commons,  2  July  ;  was  rejected  by  the  lords,  23
July,  1858  ;  again  rejected,  1862  :  and  again  by
the  commons,  2  May,  1866  ;  and  30  April,  1870,
rejected  by  the  lords  (77-73)  19  May,  1870  ;  passed
by  commons,  9  March,  rejected  by  the  lords  (97-
71),  27  March,  1871  ;  passed  by  commons  in  1872,
1873  ;  and  rejected  by  the  lords  (49-74),  14  March,
1873;  rejected  by  commons  (171-142),  17  Feb.
1875;  by  the  lords  (101-81);  (the  prince  of  Wales
and  duke  of  Edinburgh  voted  for  it),  6  May,  1S79  '•
(101-90),  25  June,  1S80;  (132-128),  12  June,  1882;
read  second  time  by  commons,  (165-148)  11  June  ;
rejected  by  lords  (145-140)  .  .  .28  June,  1883
Resolution  for  it  adopted  by  the  001111110118(238-127)
6  May,  1884;  rejected  by  the  lords  (149-127)  24
May,  1886;  read  2nd  time  by  commons  (230-182)
18  April,  1888  ;  again  for  Scotland  3  April  :  re-
jected by  the  lords  (147-120)  .  .  9  May,  1889.
Read  2nd'  time  by  the  commons  (222 — 155),  30
April,  1890;  (202—155)  11  Feb.  ;  withdrawn,

17  June,  1891
These  marriages  made  legal  by  the  legislature  at
Melbourne, Nov. 1S72  ; at Sydney, 1875; in
New  Zealand,  1880  ;  Canada ....  1882


MAEEIAGE.


620


MAES.


A  bill  for  the  recognition  in  Great  Britain  of  such
colonial  marriages  was  read  a  2nd  time  in  the
commons,  28  Feb.  1877  ;  (21  majority) 27  Feb.  1878

In  the  case  of  Brook  v.  Brook,  it  was  decided  that
such  a  marriage  celebrated  in  a  foreign  country
was  not  valid 17  April,  1858

This  decision  confirmed  on  appeal  to  the  house  of
lords,  ou 18  March,  t86i

A  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  work-
ing of  the  marriage  laws  of  Scotland,  22  March,
1865,  reported  strongly  in  favour  of  changes  being
made  to  insure  uniformity,  simplicity,  and  cer-
tainty July,  1868

Consular  Marriage  Act,  enabling  acting  British
consuls  abroad  to  solemnize  marriages,  passed

16  July,  1868

The  law  amended  by  act  passed . .  .  1890

Married  Women's  property  act  passed . 9  Aug. 1870

Marriage  Law  of  Ireland  amended  by  an  act  passed
10  Aug.  1870  ;  amended .... July,  1871

Matrimonial  Causes  Act  (which  see),  passed . .  1878

An  act  to  encourage  regular  marriages  in  Scotland  ;
passed 8  Aug. „

Marriage  Act  passed  1886  extends  hour  of  marriage
from  12  to  3  p.m.  in  England  and  Wales.

Marriages  Abroad  act  passed . . 27  June,  1892

Commander  Christopher  Bethell's  marriage  with
Teepoo,  a  JBaralong  woman,  in  Bechuanaland,
according  to  native  rites,  declared  invalid  in
England  ('^Bethell  v.  Hildyard  ") .  15  Feb.  1888

REGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES.


1750

. 40,300

1854

■  159,727

c8oo .

• • 73

228

1855  (Crimean  Wa

')  152,113

1810

. . . 84

473

1856

•  i59>337

E815 .

. . 91

946

1857 •

• 159,097

11820

. 96,883

1858

.  156,070

1825 .

• ■ 98,378

1859 .

.  167,723

1830

. 102

437

i860

. 170,156

1840 .

. 121

083

1861  (Cottonfamine)  163,706

1845

• 143,743

1862

. 164,030

iS48 .

. . . 138

230

1863 .

■ 173-510

E850*

- 152

744

1864

.  180,387

S853 •

. . 164

520

MARRIAGES IN

THl!

UNITED KINGDOM.

England  and  Wales.

Scotland. -

Ireland,  t

K865

• • 185,474

23,527


1866

. 187,776

23,629

30,151

1867

• ■ I79.IS4

22,521

29,796

1868

. 176,962

21,853

27.753

1869

. 176,970

22,083

27,277

1870

. 181,655

23,788

28,835

1871

. . 190,112

23,966

28,060

1872

. 201,267

25,580

27,114

1873

. . 205,615

26,730

26,270

1874

. 202,010

26,247

24,481

1875

. 201,212

25,921

24,037

1876

. 201,874

26,563

26,388

1877

• • 194-352

25,790

24,722

1878

. 190,054

24,333

25,284

1879

. . 182,082

23,462

23>254

1880

• ^^s

24,489

20,363

1881

. . 197,290

25,948

21,826

T882

. 204,405

26,574

22,029

1883

. . 206,384

26,855

21,368

J884

. 204,301

26,061

22,585

1885

• • 197,745

25,256

21,177

1886

196,071

24,469

20,594

1887

. . 200,518

24,876

20,945

1888

203,821

25,305

20,060

1889

. . 213,865

26,318

21,521

1890

223,028

27,441

20,990

iSgi

. . 226,025

27,949

21,421

Royal  Marriage  Act,  12  Geo.  III.  c.  11,  was  passed  in
1772,  in  consequence  of  the  marriage  of  the  duke  of
Gloucester,  the  king's  brother,  with  the  widow  of  the
earl  Waldegrave,  and  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland  with

*  Of  these  marriages,  it  is  stated  in  the  registrar's  re-
turns that  47,570  men  and  70,601  women  could  not  write,
and  that  they  signed  the  marriage  register  with  their
marks. — In  France,  the  marriages  were  208,893  in  1820  ;
243,674  in  1825  ;  and  259,177  in  1830.  As  respects  Paris,
7754  marriages  were,  bachelors  and  maids,  6456 ;  bachelors
and  widows,  368  ;  widowers  and  maids,  708  ;  widowers
and  widows,  222.

t  Approximative,  through  doubtful  returns.


the  widow  of  colonel  Horton  and  daughter  of  lord  Irn-
ham.  [By  this  act,  none  of  the  descendants  of  George  II. ,
unless  of  foreign  birth,  can  marry  under  the  age  of  25,
without  the  consent  of  the  king  ;  at  and  after  that  age,
after  twelve  months'  notice  given  to  the  privy  council,
they  may  contract  such  marriage,  which  shall  be
good  unless  both  houses  of  parliament  disapprove.
The  marriage  of  the  duke  of  Sussex  with  the  lady
Augusta  Murray,  solemnised  in  1793,  was  pronounced
illegal,  1794,  and  the  claims  of  their  son,  sir  Augustus
d'Este,  declared  invalid,  by  the  house  of  lords,  9  July,
1844.  He  married  lady  Cecilia  Underwood  (afterwards
duchess  of  Inverness),  1831.

H.  R.  H.  the  princess  Louise  was  married  to  the  mar-
quis of  Lome  by  the  queen's  consent,  21  March,  1871.

Half  Marriage.  Semi-Matrimonium.  Among  the
Romans  concubinage  was  a  legitimate  union,  not
merely  tolerated  but  authorised.  The  concubine  had
the  name  of  semi-conjux.  Men  might  have  either  a
wife  or  a  concubine,  provided  they  had  not  both  to-
gether. Constantine  the  Great  checked  concubinage,
but  did  not  abolish  it.  This  ancient  custom  of  the
Romans  was  preserved,  not  only  among  the  Lombards,
but  by  the  French  when  they  held  dominion  in  that
country.  Cujas  assures  us  that  the  Gascons  and  other
people  bordering  on  the  Pyrenean  mountains  had  not
relinquished  this  custom  in  his  time,  1590.  The  women
bore  the  name  of  "  wives  of  the  second  order."  He-
nault. See  Morganatic  Marriages.

Double  Marriages.  There  are  some  instances  of  a  hus-
band and  two  wives  (but  they  are  very  rare)  in  countries
where  polygamy  was  interdicted  by  the  state.  The  first
Lacedaemonian  who  had  two  wives  was  Anaxandrides,
the  son  of  Leon,  about  510  B.C.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse
married  two  wives,  viz.  :  Doris,  the  daughter  of  Xenetus,
and  Aristomache,  sister  of  Dion,  398  b.c  It  is  said
that  the  count  Gleichen,  a  German  nobleman,  was  per-
mitted, under  peculiar  circumstances,  by  Gregory  IX. ,
in  a.d.  1237,  to  marry  and  live  with  two  wives.  The
Mormonites  practise  and  encourage  polygamy.

Forced  Marriages.  The  stat.  3  Henry  VII.  (1487)  made
the  principal  and  abettors  in  marriages  with  heiresses,
&c. ,  contrary  to  their  will,  equally  guilty  as  felons.
By  39  Eliz.  (1596)  such  felons  were  denied  the  benefit
of  clergy.  This  offence  was  made  punishable  by  trans-
portation, 1  Geo.  IV.  (1820).  The  remarkable  case  of
Miss  Wharton,  heiress  of  the  house  of  Wharton,  whom
captain  Campbell  married  by  force,  occurred  in  William
III.  's  reign.  Sir  John  Johnston  was  hanged  for  seizing
the  young  lady,  and  the  marriage  was  annulled  by
parliament,  1690. — Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield  was  tried
at  Lancaster,  and  found  guilty  of  the  felonious  abduc-
tion of  Miss  Turner,  24  March,  1827  ;  and  his  marriage
with  her  was  immediately  dissolved  by  act  of  parlia-
ment.

Marriages  by  Sale.  Among  the  Babylonians,  at  a  cer-
tain time  every  year,  the  marriageable  females  were
assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bidder.  This
custom  is  said  to  have  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter
of  Belochos,  about  1433  B.C.

Fleet  Marriages. SeeFleet.

MAEEIED  WOMEN,  see  Wives.

MAEES  MUEDEES,  see  Ratcliffe  Highicay.

MAE'S  INSUEEECTION.  John,  earl  of
Mar,  proclaimed  James  III.  at  Braemar,  Aberdeen-
shire, 6  September,  1715-  He  was  defeated  at
Sherift'muir,  13  Nov.,  and  escaped  from  Montrose
with  the  Pretender,  4  Feb.  1716.

MAES,  a  planet,  next  to  the  earth  in  order  of
distance  from  the  sun;  the  spots  on  its  surface  were
first  observed  by  Fontana,  in  1636.  Two  satellites
were  discovered  by  professor  Asaph  Hall,  at  Wash-
ington, U.S.,  11  Aug.  1877.

M.  Dubois  of  Paris  suggests  that  these  satellites  may
be  planetoids  attracted  by  Mars,  Aethra  and  another  of
these  bodies  having  disappeared  about  the  time  of  the
discovery.
M.  Schiaparelli,  of  Milan,  describes  configurations  like
canals,  1882,  and  M.  Perrotin  since  has  mapped  them
and  asserts  that  Mars  has  an  atmosphere  and  clouds
(1887)
"  They  have  likewise  discovered  two  lesser  stars  or  sa-
tellites which  revolve  about  Mars."  —  Swift,  Gulli-
ver's Travels— Voyage  to  Laputa,  about  1726.


MARSAGLIA.


621


MARTINIQUE.


MARSAGLIA  (Piedmont, N.  Italy). Here

the  imperialists  under  prince  Eugene  and  the  duke
of  Savoy  were  defeated  by  the  French  under  Catinat,
4  Oct.  1693.

MARSEILLAISE  HYMN..  The  words  and
music  are  ascribed  to  Eouget  de  Lille,  or  L'Isle,  a
French  engineer  officer,  who,  it  is  said,  composed  it
by  request,  1792,  to  cheer  the  conscripts  at  Strasburg.
It  derived  its  name  from  a  body  of  troops  from
Marseilles  marching  into  Paris  in  1792  playing  the
tune.  This  account  is  doubted  by  some  (1879).  The
author  was  pensioned  by  Louis  Philippe,  1830,  and
died  in  1836.

MARSEILLES.  The  ancient  Massilia  (S.
France),  a  maritime  city,  founded  by  the  Phocseans
about  000  B.C. ;  an  ally  of  Rome,  218  B.C.  Cicero
styled  it  the  Athens  of  Gaul,  on  account  of  its  excel-
lent schools.  Population,  1881,  360,099 ;  1891,
375.3/8-
Taken  by  Julius  Cassar  after  a  long  siege  . .  b.c. 49

By  Eurie  the  Visigoth a.d. 470

Sacked  by  the  Saracens 839

Marseilles  a  republic 1214

Subjected  to  the  counts  of  Provence . . .  1251

United  to  the  crown  of  France 1482

The  plague  rages 1649

It  carried  off  50,000  of  the  inhabitants. The  bishop
Belsunce  devotedly  exerted  himself  to  relieve  the
sufferers ........  1720-1

Revolutionary  commotions  here  .  .  30  April,  1789
Marseilles  opposes  the  revolutionary  government,

and  is  reduced 23  Aug.  1793

Dissensions  and  conflicts  between  the  French  and

Italians  ;  much  stabbing ;  several  deaths  ;  about

200  arrests,  19,  20  June  ;  city  quiet . 22  June,  1881

Pharo  Chateau and  Park presented  to  the city,

by  the  ex-empress  Eugenie, Dec.  1882  ;  finally

accepted July,  1883

Inauguration of  great  drainage  works;  M.  Frey-
cinet,  the  premier,  and  4  other  ministers  present,

8  Oct.  1891
See  Cholera.

MARSHALS-  Two  were  appointed  in  London
to  clear  the  streets  of  vagrants,  and  to  send  the
sick,  blind,  and  lame  to  asylums  and  hospitals  for
relief,  1567. Northouck.

MARSHALS,  British  Field-. This  rank

■was  first  conferred  upon  John,  duke  of  Argyll,  and
George,  earl  of  Orkney,  by  George  II.  in  1736.  The
duke  of  Cambridge  was  made  field-marshal,  9  Nov.
1862  ;  the  prince  of  Wales,  29  May,  1875  '■>  wrd
Napier  of  Magdala,  I  Jan.  1883,  died  14  Jan.  1890;
sir  Patrick  Grant,  24  June,  1883;  and  lord  William
Paulet,  1886,  see  Mareschal.

MARSHALS op  France, appointed  by

Napoleon  I.  during  his  wars,  1804- 14.
Arrighi,  duke  of  Padua  ;  died  21  March,  1853.
Augereau,  duke  of  Castiglione ;  died  12  June,  1816.
Bernadotte,  prince  of  Ponte Corvo, king of  Sweden,

1818  ;  died  8  March,  1844.
Berthier,  prince  of  Neufchatel  and  Wagram,  killed  or

committed  suicide  at  Bamberg,  1  June,  1815.
Bessieres,  duke  of  Istria;  killed  at  Lutzen,  1  May,  1813.
Brune,  murdered  at  Avignon,  2  Aug.  1815.
Clarke,  H.  J.  W.,  due  de  Feltre  ;  died  28  Oct,  1818.
Clause!,  Bertrand,  comte  de  ;  died  21  April,  1842.
Drouet,  J.  Baptiste,  comte  d'Erlon  ;  died  25  Jan.  1844.
Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmiihl  and  duke  of  Auerstadt ;

died  1  June,  1823.
Duroc,  G.  Christophe  Michel,  due  de  Friuli ;  killed  at

battle  of  Mackersdorff  23  May,  1813.
Gerard,  Etienne  Maurice  ;  died  17  April,  1852.
Gouvion  Saint-Cyr,  Laurent ;  died  17  March,  1830.
Gnmchy,  died  29  May,  1847.
Jourdan,  peer  of  France  ;  died  23  Nov.  1833.
Juncit,  duke  of  Abrantes  ;  suicide,  29  July,  1813.
Iv-llrmiann,  duke  of  Valnry  ;  died  12  Sept,  1820.
Lannes,  duke  of  Montebello.  wounded  at  Aspem  ;  died

31  May,  1809.


Lauriston, Jacque  Alexandre  Bernard Law; died i.j

June,  1828.
Lefebvre,  duke  of  Dantzic  ;  died  14  Sept.  1820.
Maedonald,  duke  of  Tarento  ;  died  24  Sept.  1840.
Maison,  Nicolas  Joseph,  marquis  ;  died  13  Feb.  1840.
Marmont,  duke  of  Ragusa  ;  died  2  March,  1852.
Massena prince  of  Essling  and  duke  of  Rivoli  ;  died  .$

April,  1817.
Molitor,  Gabriel  Jean  Joseph  ;  died  28  July,  1849.
Moncey,  duke  of  Conegliano  ;  died  20  April,  1842.
Mortier,  duke  of  Treviso,  killed  by  Fieschi,  28  July,  1835.
Murat,  king  of  Naples,  executed  13  Oct.  1815.
Ney,  prince  of  Moskwa,  duke  of  Elchingen,  executed!

7  Dec.  1815.
Oudinot,  duke  of  Reggio  ;  died  13  Sept.  1847.
Perignon,  marquis  de  ;  died  25  Dec.  1818.
Poniatowski,  prince  Josef  Anton,  wounded  at  Leipsie,

and  drowned  19  Oct.  1813.
Serrurier,  Jean  Mathieu  Philibert,  comte  ;  died  21  Dec.

1819.
Soult,  duke  of  Dalmatia ;  died  26  Nov.  1851.
Suchet,  duke  of  Albufera ;  died  3  Jan.  1826.
Victor,  duke  of  Belluno  ;  died  1  March,  1841

.  MARSHALSEA  COURT,  having  jurisdic-
tion in  the  royal  palace,  was  very  ancient,  of  high
dignity,  and  coeval  with  the  common  law.  Since
the  decision  of  the  case  of  the  Marshalsea  (see  lord
Coke's  10  Rep.  68)  no  business  has  been  done  in  this
court ;  but  it  was  regularly  opened  and  adjourned
at  the  same  time  with  the  Palace  court,  the  judges-
and  other  officers  being  the  same.  These  courts-
were  removed  from  Southwark  to  Scotland-yard  in
1 801,  were  abolished  by  parliament,  and  discontinued
31  Dec.  1849;  see  Prisons.

MARSI,  a  brave  people  of  Southern  Italy,  who,
after  several  contests,  yielded  to  the  Romans,  about
301  B.C.  During  the  civil  wars  they  and  their
allies  rebelled,  having  demanded  and  been  refused
the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship,  91  B.C.  Aitei
many  successes  and  reverses,  they  sued  for  and
obtained  peace  and  the  rights  they  required,  87  B.C.
The  Marsi  being  Sociioi  the  Romans,  this  was  called
the  Social  war.

MARSTON-MOOR  (near  York).  The  Scots
and  parliamentary  army  were  besieging  York,  when
prince  Rupert,  joined  by  the  marquis  of  Newcastle,
determined  to  raise  the  siege.  Both  sides  drew  up
on  Marston-moor,  on  2  July,  1644,  ar>d  tne  content
was  long  undecided.  Rupert,  commanding  the
right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was  opposed  by  Oliver
Cromwell,  at  the  head  of  troops  disciplined  by  him-
self. Cromwell  was  victorious;  he  drove  his  op-
ponents off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,
returned  to  a  second  engagement  and  a  second  vic-
tory. The  prince's  artillery  was  taken,  and  the
royalists  never  recovered  the  blow.

MARTELLO  TOWERS,  said  to  have  been
erected  by  Charles  V.  on  the  coasts  of  Italy.
Similar  circular  buildings  were  erected  in  the  be-
ginning of  the  present  century,  on  the  southern
coast  of  England,  and  other  parts  of  the  empire,  as
defences  against  invasion.  The  towers  were  said  by
some  to  be  named  from  Cape  Martello,  or  Mortella  hi
Corsica. They  are  now  being  destroyed  as  obsolete.

MARTIAL  LAW,  see  Courts-Martial,  and
Military  Law.

MARTINESTI,  see  Rimnik.

MARTINIQUE  (French  West  Indies),  dis-
covered in  1493  or  1502;  settled  by  France,  1635.
This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  St.  Lucia  and
St.  Vincent,  and  the  Grenadines,  were  taken  by  tin-
British  from  the  French  in  Feb.  1762.  They  were
restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following'
year.  They  were  again  taken,  16  March,  1794";
restored at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in 1802 ; again


MAETINMAS.


622


MASS.


captured  23  Feb.  1809.  A  revolution  in  this  island
in  favoixr  of  Napoleon  was  finally  suppressed  by
the  British,  1  June,  1815,  and  Martinique  reverted
to  its  French  masters.  Severe  earthquakes  occurred
here  in  1767  and  1839.

'Great  destruction  of  life  and  property  was  caused  by  a
cyclone  and  earthquake  about  18  Aug.  1891  ;  estimated
deaths  378,  besides  losses  by  shipwrecks. Estimated

loss  2,000,000^.

MAETINMAS,  11  Nov.,  the  feast  cf  St.
Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  in  the  4th  century,  is
quarter  day  in  parts  of  the  north  of  England
and  in  Scotland.  The  high  sheriffs  of  England  and
Wales  are  nominated  on  the  morrow  of  St.  Martin,
12  Nov.

MAETIN'S  HALL,  ST.  (Long  Acre,  London),
svas  opened  as  a  concert-room  for  Mr.  John  Hullah,
on  11  Feb.  1850 ;  burnt  down  26  Aug.  i860;  rebuilt,
1861 ;  opened  as  the  New  Queen's  Theatre,  by
Mr.  Alfred  Wigan,  24  Oct.  1867.

MAETYES.  Stephen,  the  first  Christian
martyr,  was  stoned,  33.  The  festivals  of  the
martyrs,  of  very  ancient  date,  took  their  rise  about
the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyrdom  about
169.  St.  Alban  is  the  English  protomartyr,  286 ;
see  Persecutions,  Protestants,  and  Diocletian  Era.
The  Martyrs'  Memorial,  Smithfield,  erected  by  the
Protestant  Alliance,  was  inaugurated  II  March,
1870.  The  Martyrs'  memorial  church,  St  John's-
street,  Clerkenwell,  was  consecrated  2  June,  1871.

MAEY-ANNE-  Secret  republican  associa-
tions, especially  in  France.  The  name  was  given  to
the  republic  of  1792,  to  the  guillotine,  and  to  little
statuettes  of  Liberty.

MAETLAND,  named  after  queen  Henrietta
Maria,  one  of  the  first  thirteen  United  States  of
North  America,  was  granted  in  1632  to  lord  Balti-
more, and  settled  by  a  company  of  English
Romanists  in  1634.  It  contains  the  district  of
Colombia,  in  which  Washington  is  situate.  It  con-
tinued in  the  Union  when  the  other  slave  states
.■seceded  in  i860  and  1861.  The  confederate  arnty,
under  general  Lee,  after  their  victory  at  Bull  Run,
30  Aug.  1862,  crossed  the  Potomac  and  entered
"Maryland.  They  were  followed  by  the  federal
army  under  McClellan.  Severe  conflicts  ensued,
especially  on  17  Sept.,  at  Antietam  Creek,  with
great  loss  on  both  sides,  each  claiming  the  victory.
The  confederates  retired  into  Virginia  in  good  order,
and  it  is  said  with  much  booty.  Capital,  Anna-
polis ;  population,  1880,  934,943  ;  1890,  1,042,390.

MAEY-LE-BONE,  a  large  parish,  N.-W.
London.  The  name  is  corrupted  from  St.  Mary  at  the
Bourne,  or  brook,— Tyebourne.  It  was  chiefly  pas-
ture land  in  1 760.  The  manor  was  acquired  by  the
duke  of  Portland  in  1813.  The  hunting-grounds
mow  form  Regent's  park  {which  see).  The  parishes
of  Marylebone,  St.  Pancras,  and  Paddington  were
made  a  parliamentary  borough  in  1832.  By  act  of
1885  Marylebone  alone  returns  two  M.P.'s.  Six
men  killed  by  fall  of  a  new  house  in  Great  Titch-
field  Street,  9  Nov.  1888.  Population,  1881,  154,910;
1891,  142,381.

Hew  higher  gradeand  technical  schools  presented  by  ladies
Howard  de  Walden  and  Ossington  opened  30  July,  1890
Mary-le-bone  gardens — attached  to  the  "Rose  of  Nor-
mandy "—  a  place  of  public  entertainment,  opened  in
the  middle  of  the  17th  century  ;  mentioned  by  Pepys  ;
closed  23  Sept.  1776  ;  a  music  hall  erected  here,  1855.
The  Marylebone  Murder.— Miss  Lucy  Clark,  dressmaker,
aged  49,  living  at  86,  George  St.,  Portman  Sq.,  found
murdered  23  Jan.  1888.


MASANIELLO,  see  Naples,  1647.  Auber's
opera,  "La  Muette  de  Portici"  (1828),  was  pro-
duced in  London  as  ''  Masaniello,"  4  May,  1829.

MASCAT,  see  Muscat.

MASHONA, Makalakaland and Matabele

lands,  territories  in  south  Africa,  ruled  by  Loben-

gula,  who  entered  into  agreement  with  the  British

government,  11  Feb.  1888.

A  deputation  of  two  head  men  from  him,  was  received
by  queen  Victoria,  2  March,  1889,  requesting  pro-
tection against  a  syndicate,  to  which  he  had  incon-
siderately conceded  lands.  The  concession  was
afterwards  legally  withdrawn. See  Zambesi,  1889.

The  Imperial  Mission  conveying  queen  Victoria's  letter
to  Lobengula,  recommending  the  British  South
African  company,  favourably  received  by  him  at
Buluwayo,  the  Matabele  capital,  29  Jan.  1890.

Successful  progress  of  colonization,  reported  May,  1892.

Explorations  of  Mr.  J.  Theodore  Bent ;  he  discovers  at
Zimbabwe,  an  ancient  fortress  (probably  Phoenician),
a  temple  with  ornamented  walls,  monoliths,  specimens
of  good  pottery,  relics  of  gold-mining,  etc.,  June-Aug.
1891.  Mr.  Bent  gave  an  account  of  his  exploration  at
a  meeting  of  the  "Royal  Geographical  Society,  22  Feb.
1892.

MASKS.  Masks  of  painted  papyrus  are  said
to  have  been  occasionally  worn  by  kings  and  priests
of  ancient  Egypt.  Horace  attributes  them  to
iEschylus;  yet  Aristotle  says  the  inventor  and  time
of  their  introduction  were  unknown. —  Modern
masks,  and  muffs,  fans,  and  false  hair  for  the
women ,  were  devised  in  Italy,  and  brought  to  Eng-
land from  France  in  1572. Stow ;  see  Iron  Mask.

MASONIC  INSTITUTIONS,  see-Freema-
sonry.

MASOEAH  (Hebrew,  tradition),  a  collection

of  conjectural  readings  (Keris)  of  the  Hebrew  text

of  the  Old  Testament,  with  critical,  grammatical,

and  exegetical  remarks  by  various  Jewish  doctors,

written  between  the  6th  and  10th  centuries,  who

also  furnished  the  Masoretic  vowel  points.

The first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the

Masorah,  Targums, and comments,  was  printed  by

Bomberg  at  Venice,  1518. The  "  Book  of  the  Masorah,

the  Hedge  of  the  Law,"  was  first  printed  at  Florence,

1750.

MASQUEEADES  were  in  fashion  in  the
court  of  Edward  III.,  1340;  and  in  the  reign  of
Charles  II.  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among
the  citizens.  The  bishops  preached  against  them,
and  made  such  representations  as  occasioned  their
suppression,  9  Geo.  I.  1724.  They  were  revived
and  carried  to  a  shameful  excess  in  violation  of  the
laws,  and  tickets  of  admission  to  a  masquerade  at
Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  subscribed  for  at
twenty-five  guineas  each,  1776.  Mortimer.  At
the  close  of  a  bal  masque,  given  by  Anderson  the
Wizard,  5  March,  1856,  Co  vent-garden  theatre  was
destroyed  by  fire.

MASQUES)  precursors  of  the  opera,  introduced
into  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century;
many  were  written  by  Ben  Jonson ;  one  at  the
Middle  Temple  on  the  marriage  of  princess  Eliza-
beth, Feb.  1613.  Milton's  "Comus"  was  represented
at  Ludlow  castle  in  1634.

MASS,  in  the  Roman  church,  is  the  office  or
prayers  used  at  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist,  in
memory  of  the  passion  of  Christ,  and  to  this  every
part  of  the  service  alludes.  The  general  division
consists  in  high  and  low  ;  the  first  is  that  sung  by
choristers,  and  celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a
deacon  and  sub-deacon ;  low  masses  are  those  in
which  the  prayers  are  rehearsed  without  singing.
Mass  was  first  celebrated  in  Latin  about  394 ;  it  was


MASSACHUSETTS.


623


MASSACEES.


introduced  into  England  in  the  7th  century.  Pro-
stration was  enjoined  at  the  elevation  of  the  host  in
1201.  Dr.  Daniel  Rock,  in  "The  Church  of  our
Fathers  "  (1849),  describes  an  ancient  MS.  of  "  The
Service  of  the  Mass,  called  the  Rite  of  Salisbury,"
compiled  for  that  cathedral,  by  St.  Osmund  and
others,  during  the  12th  century.  The  English
communion  service  was  adopted  in  1549  ;  see  Missal,
and  Ritualism.

MASSACHUSETTS,  the  mother  state  of
New  England,  North  America,  founded  b}T  the
English  puritans  at  Plymouth-rock,  1620.  It
abolished  slavery  1783,  and  adopted  the  constitution
of  the  United  States,  1788.  Capital,  Boston.  Pop-
ulation, 1880,  1,783,085;  1890,  2,238,943.  See
Filgrim  Fathers  and  Boston.

Great  fire  at  Lynn,  a  large  shoe-making  town.  296
buildings  destroyed,  and  about  8,000  persons  destitute,
estimated  loss  5,000,000  dollars,  26  Nov.  1889.

MASSACEES.  The  following  are  among  the
most  remarkable,  probably  exaggerated : —

BEFORE  CHEIST.

Of  all  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily,  397.

2000  Tynans  crucified  and  8000  put  to  the  sword  for  not

surrendering  Tyre  to  Alexander,  331.
Of  2000  Capuans,  friends  of  Hannibal,  by  Gracchus,  211.
A  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones,  near

Aix,  by  Marius,  the  Roman  general,  200,000  being  left

dead  on  the  spot,  102.
The  Romans  throughout  Asia,  women  and  children  not

excepted,  massacred  in  one  clay,  by  order  of  Mithri-

dates,  king  of  Pontus,  88.
A  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massacred  by  Cinna,

Marius,  and  Sertorius,  87.
Again,  under  Sylla  and  Catiline,  his  minister  of  ven-
geance, 82.
At  Perusia,  Octavianus  Cresar  ordered  300  Roman  senators

and  other  x>ersons  of  distinction  to  be  sacrificed  to  the

manes  of  Julius  Caesar,  40.

AFTER CHRIST.

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  1,100,000  Jews  are
said  to  have  been  put  to  the  sword,  70.

The  Jews,  headed  by  one  Andra?,  put  to  death  many
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  and  near  Cyrene,  115.

Cassius,  a  Roman  general,  under  the  emperor  M.
Aurelius,  put  to  death  300,000  of  the  inhabitants  of
Seleucia,  165.

At  Alexandria,  many  thousands  of  citizens  were  mas-
sacred by  order  of  Antoninus,  215.

The  emperor  Probus  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  400,000
of  the  barbarian  invaders  of  Gaul,  277.

Of  the  Gothic  hostages  by  Valens,  378.

Of  Thessaloniea,  when  7000  persons  invited  into  the
circus  were  put  to  the  sword,  by  order  of  Theodosius,
39°-

Of  the  circus  factions  at  Constantinople,  532.

Massacre  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople,  by  order  of
Andronicus,  1184.

Of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  commenced  at  Toulouse,
1208. Thousands  perished  by  the  sword  and  gibbet.

Of  the  French  in  Sicily,  1282  ;  see  Sicilian  Vespers.

At  Paris,  of  the  Armagnacs,  at  the  instance  of  John,
duke  of  Burgundy,  1418.

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  order  of  Chris-
tian II.,  1520.

Of  Protestants  at  Vassy,  1  March,  1562.

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants,  in  France
(see  St.  Bartholomew),  24  Aug.  1572.

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia  by  the  Turks,  when  65,000
were  slain,  1592.

Of  the  pretender  Demetrius,  and  his  Polish  adherents,
at  Moscow,  27  May,  1606.

Of  Protestants  in  the  Valteline,  N.  Italy,  19  July,  1620.

Of  Protestants  at  Thorn,  put  to  death  under  a  pretended
legal  sentence  of  the  chancellor  of  Poland,  for  being
concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  Roman  Catholic
procession,  1724.  All  the  Protestant  powers  in  Europe
interceded  to  have  this  unjust  sentence  revoked,  but
unavailingly.

A.t  Batavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred  by  the  natives,
Oct.  1740,  under  the  pretext  of  an  intended  insurrec-
tion.


At  the  taking  of  Ismail  by  the  Russians,  30,000  old  and
young  were  slain,  Dec.  1790  ;  see  Ismail.

Of  French  Royalists  (see  Septembrizers),  2  Sept.  1792.

Of  Poles,  at  Praga,  1794.

In  St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made  proclamation  for
the  massacre  of  all  the  whites,  29  March,  1804,  and
many  thousands  perished.

Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  massacre  of  the  French,
2  May,  1808.

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo,
1  March,  181 1.

Massacre  of  Protestants  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the
Catholics,  May,  1815.

Massacre  at  Scio,  22  April,  1822  ;  see  Chios.

Of  the  Janissaries  at  Constantinople,  14  June,  1826;  at
Cabul  (see  Afghanistan),  1841.

600  Kabyles  suffocated  in  a  cave  in  Algeria,  18  June,
1845  ;  see  Dahra.

Massacre  of  Christians  at  Aleppo,  16  Oct.  1850.

Of  136  emigrants  at  Mountain  Meadows,  Utah  (said  to
be  by  Mormons  whom  they  had  offended) ;  a  few  chil-
dren spared  ;  18  Sept.  1857.

[Bishops  Ph.  K.  Smith  and  Lee  accused;  Brigham  Young
exonerated,  1875.  Bp.  Lee  sentenced  to  death,  Oct.
1876  ;  shot,  23  March,  1877.]

Of  Maronites,  by  Druses,  in  Lebanon,  June,  i860  ;  and  of
Christians,  by  Mahometans,  at  Damascus,  9-11  July,
i860  ;  see  Druses  and  Damascus.

Of  173  N.-W.  Indians  (including  women  and  children)
(as  a  chastisement  for  murders,  outrages,  and  rob-
beries), by  major  Baker,  of  U.S.  army,  Jan.  1870.

Of  French  missionaries  and  others,  at  Tien-tsin,  22  per-
sons (see  China),  21  June,  1870.

Of  foreigners,  by  the  native  Gauchos  in  the  Tandel  dis-
trict, Buenos  Ayres,  S.  America,  1  Jan.  1872.

Of  about  90  French  colonists  and  others  in  New  Cale-
donia, by  natives,  during  a  revolt,  June,  1878.

Of  about  6  negro  militia-men,  who  had  made  a  patriotic
demonstration  on  4  July,  by  whites,  at  Hamburg,
South  Carolina,  9  July,  1876.

Of  Mehemet  Ali  Pacha,  and  others,  at  Ipek,  near  Scu-
tari, by  Albanians,  6  Sept.  1878.

At  Cabul  (see  Afghanistan),  1879.

Alexandria  (see  Egypt),  n  June,  1882.

Of  Christians  in  Cochin-China  ; 24,000  reported  to  be
massacred,  summer,  1885  ;  and  about  22,000  in  Annam
by  rebels,  July-Dec.  1885.
See  Indians,  Minnesota,  Modoc  Indians,  and  Turkey,

1876.

MASSACRES IN  BRITISH HISTORY.

Of  300  British  nobles,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  by  Hengist,
about  450.

Of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  number  of  1200,  by  Ethel-
frid,  king  of  Bernicia,  607  or  612.

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties  of  England,  in
the  night  of  13  Nov.  1002,  by  order  of  Ethelred  II.  At
London  it  was  most  bloody,  the  churches  being  no
sanctuary.  Amongst  the  rest  was  Gunilda,  sister  of
Swein,  kmg  of  Denmark,  left  in  hostage  for  the  per-
formance of  a  treaty  but  newly  concluded. Baker.

Of  the  Jews,  in  England.  Some  few  pressing  into  West-
minster hall  at  Richard  I.'s  coronation,  were  put  to
death  by  the  people  ;  and  a  false  alarm  being  given
that  the  king  had  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  them,
the  people  in  many  parts  of  England  slew  all  they  met.
In  York  500,  who  had  taken  shelter  in  a  castle,  killed
themselves,  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the
multitude,  1189.

Of  the  Bristol  colonists,  at  Cullcn's  Wood,  Ireland  (see
Cullen's  Wood),  1209.

Of  the  English  factory  at  Amboyna,  in  order  to  dispossess
its  members  of  the  Spice  Islands,  Feb.  1624.

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in  O'Neill's  rebel-
lion, which  began  23  Oct.  164 1 .  Upwards  of  30,000  British
were  killed  in  the  commencement  of  this  rebellion.  Sir
William  Petty.  In  the  first  three  or  four  days  of  it,
forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the  Protestants  were  de-
stroyed. Lord  Clarendon.  Before  the  rebellion  was
entirely  suppressed,  154,000  Protestants  were  massa-
cred. Sir  W.  Temple.

Of  the  Macdonalds  <>f  Glencoe  (see  Glencoe),  13  Feb.  1692.

Of  184  men,  women,  and  children,  chiefly  Protestants,
burnt,  shot,  or  pierced  to  deatli  by  pikes  ;  perpetrated
by  the  insurgent  Irish,  at  the  barn  of  Scullabogue,
Ireland,  in  1798. Musgrave.

Of  Europeans  at  Meerut,  Delhi,  &C,  by  mutineers  of  the
native  Indian  army  (see  India),  May  and  Juno,  1857.


MASSAGET^J.


624


MATHEMATICS.


Of  Europeans  at  Kalangan,  on  the  south  coast  of  Borneo,
i  May,  1859.

Of  the  Europeans  at  Morant  bay,  Jamaica,  by  the  in-
furiated negroes,  n-12  Oct.  1865  ;  see  Jamaica.

Of  lieut.  Holcombe  and  surveying  party  (about  70)  in
Assam  on  Naga  hills  ;  about  24  Feb.  1875.

Of  Mr.  Margary  and  servants  (with  col.  Browne's  expedi-
tion into  Western  China;  at  Manwyne,  by  Chinese,
21  Feb.  1875.

Of  commodore  Goodenough,  of  the  Pearl,  and  2  seamen,
by  natives  of  Santa  Cruz  island,  South  Pacific  ocean  ;
attacked  12  Aug.,  died  20  Aug.  1875.

Of  prof.  Palmer  and  others  ;  see  Egypt,  1882.

Of  gen.  Gordon  ;  see  Khartoum,  1885.

Of  Mr.  Qninton  and  others,  in  Manipur  (which  see),  about
24  March,  1891.

MASSAGETiE,  an  ancient  Scythian  people
(probably  the  ancestors  of  the  Goths),  who  invaded
Asia  about  635.  In  a  conflict  with  them  Cyrus  the
Great  was  killed,  529  b.c.

MASSILIA,  see  Marseilles.

MASSORAH,  see  Masorah.

MASSOWAH,  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea,  subject  to
Egypt.  Certain  commercial  rights  secured  to  Abvs-
sinia  by  treaty  with  England  and  Egypt,  May,  1884.
The  Italian  flag  hoisted  beside  the  Egyptian,  6  Feb.  1885
The  Abyssinians  under  Ras  Aloula  severely  defeat

the  Arabs  at  Kufeit  near  Amadib . 23  Sept. ,,
Government  of  Massowah  assumed  by  the  Italians

2  Dec. „
Abyssinians  attack  Massowah  and  Italian  outposts

but  suffer  loss  and  retire . . 18  Jan.  et  seq.  1887
About 500  Italians proceeding with  supplies  to
Sahati  cut  off  by  Abyssinians  under  Ras  Aloula
at  Dagoli,  near  Massowah . . 25-26  Jan. ,,
Negotiations  with  Ras  Aloula  with  respect  to  release

of  prisoners 11  March, ,,

Skirmishes between  Italians  and Deber  tribe

27-28  March, ,,
Major  Savoiroux  made  a  prisoner,  still  kept  by  the

Abyssinians,  April ;  released  . . Sept. ,,

Proclamation  issued  declaring  that  a  state  of  war
exists  in  Massowah  and  its  dependencies,  with
blockade  of  ports .... 2  May, „
The  chief  Kantibay  submits  to  Italy . 18  Oct. ,,
Declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege . . 10  Nov. ,,
Italy  notifies  to  the  powers  that  it  has  annexed

Massowali July,  1888

Protectorate  proclaimed  at  Zulla  . .  3  Aug. ,,

Severe  defeat  of  Italians  at  Sanganeiti  on  the  borders
through  native  treachery  ;  four  Italian  officers

killed Aug. „

Keren  occupied  and  annexed  by  the  Italians  2  June,  1889
Gen.  Baldissera  occupies  Asmara . . 4  Aug. ,,
About  1,000  dervishes  severely  defeated  after  their
incursion  into  Italian-protected  country ;  captives
and  booty  rescued,  reported . . 29  June,  1890
Gen.  Gandolfi,  new  governor,  announces  the  termi-
nation of  military  rule,  in  the  Italian  possessions
on  the  Red  Sea 1  July ,,

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES,  see  Cere-
monies.

MASTER  and  Servant  Act (amending

the  statute  respecting  them) was  passed  20  Aug.
1867  ;  another  act  repealing  parts  of  preceding  acts
was  passed  26  July,  1889. See  Servants.
Royal  commission  to  examine  into  its  working,
reported  31  July  ;  published  evidence . Oct.  1874

MASTER  of  the  Great  Wardrobe,  an

ancient  office  abolished  in  1 782  ;  duties  transferred
to  the  lord  chamberlain.

MASTER  of  the  Revels,  an  officer  of  the
court.  Solomon  Dayrolle  was  the  last  appointed.
Part  of  the  duties  were  transferred  to  the  licenser  of
plays,  1737.

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS,  an  equity  judge,
derives  his  title  from  having  the  custody  of  all
charters,  patents,  commissions,  deeds,  and  recog-


nizances, entered  upon  rolls  of  parchment ;  his  de-
crees are  appealable  to  the  court  of  chancery.  The
repository  of  public  papers,  called  the  Rolls,  wa<  in
Chancery-lane.  The  rolls  were  formerly  kept  in  a
chapel  founded  for  the  converted  Jews;  but  after
the  Jews  were  expelled  the  kingdom  in  1290  it  was
annexed  for  ever  afterwards  to  the  office  of  the
mastership  of  the  rolls.  Here  were  kept  all  the
records  since  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  king
Richard  III.,  1483;  all  prior  to  that  period  being
kept  in  the  Tower  of  London ;  see  Records.  The
first  recorded  master  of  the  rolls  was  either  John  de
Langton,  appointed  1286,  or  Adam  de  Osgodeby,
appointed  1  Oct.  1295 ;  but  it  is  clear  that  the  office
was  in  existence  long  before.  Hardy.  The  duties
were  define)  in  1833;  the  salary  regulated  in  1837.
Changes  by  the  judicature  act  of  1881.  By  the
supreme  court  of  judicature  act,  the  master  of  the
rolls  was  made  a  judge  of  appeal  only.

RECENT  MASTERS  OF  THE  ROLLS.

Sir  fin,  Grant  appointed  . . . .27  May,  180a

Sir  Thomas  Plumer 6  Jan.  1818

Robert,  lord  Gifford 5  April,  1824

Sir  J.  S.  Copley  (aft.  lord  Lyndhurst)  . 14  Sept. 1826

Sir  John  Leach 3  May,  1827

Sir  C.  Pepys  (aft.  lord  Cottenham)  .  29  Sept.  1834
Henry  Bickersteth  (aft.  lord  Langdale)  .  19  Jan.  1836
Sir  John  (baron  1865)  Romilly  .  .  28  March,  1851
Sir  George  Jessel  (a  Jew), 29  Aug. 1873  ; died,

21  March,  1883
Sir  ffm.  Baliol  Brett  (lord  Esher,  1885) . 3  April, ,,

MASTERS  in  Chancery,  chosen  from  the

equity  bar,  were  first  appointed,  it  is  said,  to  assist
the  ignorance  of  sir  Christopher  Hatton,  lord  chan-
cellor of  England,  in  1587.  The  office  was  abolished
in  1852.  The  offices  of  the  masters  in  the  queen's
bench,  common  pleas,  and  exchequer  divisions  of
the  high  court  of  justice  were  amalgamated  into
one  central  office  in  the  high  court  of  justice  in
1879.

MASTODON,  see  Mammoth.

MATABELE  LAND. See  Mashona.

MATACAO,  a  small  island  near  Sierra  Leone ;
secured  to  the  British  by  treaty,  18  April,  1826.
It  was  occupied  by  the  French,  March,  1879  >  an(*
after  some  discussion  was  left  by  them  June  fol-
lowing.

MATCHES,  see  Lucifers.

MATERIALISM,  the  doctrine  held  by  those
who  maintain  that  the  soul  of  man  is  not  a  spiritual
substance  distinct  from  matter,  but  is  the  result  of  a
particular  organisation  of  matter  in  the  body.  The
term  is  rather  loosely  applied  to  the  system  of
Epicurus,  about  310  B.C. ;  Hobbes,  about  a.d.  1642  ;
Priestley,  about  1772;  and  many  eminent  men  in
the  present  day.  It  is  not  necessarily  identical
with  atheism.

MATERNITY  CHARITY,  ROYAL,  Fins-
bury;  founded  1757.

MATHEMATICS  formerly  signified  all  kinds
of  learning ;  but  the  term  is  now  applied  to  the
sciences  relating  to  numbers  and  quantity  ;  see
Arithmetic.  Among  the  most  eminent  mathe-
maticians were  Euclid,  300  B.C.;  Archimedes,
287  B.C. ;  Descartes,  died  1650  a.d.  ;  Barrow,  died
1677;  Leibnitz,  died  17 16;  sir  Isaac  Newton,  died
1727;  Euler,  died  1783;  Lagrange,  died  1813  ;
Laplace,  died  1827 ;  and  Dr.  Peacock,  died  1858 ;
sir  G.  B.  Airy,  Bartholomew  Price,  J.  J.  Sylvester,
and  I.  Todhunter,  (died  1884,)  are  eminent
mathematicians.  Mary  Somerville,  born  1 790,  au-
thor of  the  "Mechanism  of  the  Heavens,"  died  1873.


MATHURINS.


625


MAYNOOTH COLLEGE.


The  London  Mathematical  Society  was  founded,  16
Jan.  1865  ;  professor  Aug.  De  Morgan,  president.
.John  Thomas  Crossley,  author  of  the  popular  "  Intel-
lectual Calculator,"  died  29  April,  1889,  aged  89.

MATHURINS,  see  under  Trinity.

MATINS.  The  service  or  prayers  first  per-
formed in  the  morning  or  beginning  of  the  day  in
the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  French  Matins
were  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  24  Aug.
1572.  The  Matins  of  Moscow  were  the  massacre  of
prince  Demetrius,  and  the  Poles  his  adherents,  in
the  morning  of  27  May,  1606.

MATRIMONIAL  CAUSES  ACT,  passed

1859.  By  the  act  passed  27  May,  1878,  a  magistrate
may  grant  judicial  separation  with  maintenance  to
a  wife  suffering  from  a  husband's  violent  usage.
The  act  was  amended  in  1884.

MATTER  is  held  to  exist  in  three  states:
gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid.  Mr.  William  Crookes
considers  that  there  is  a  fourth  state,  "radiant
matter,"  subtler  than  any  of  these,  1879-80.  See
Light.

MATTERHORN,  a  part  of  the  main  ridge  of
the  Alps,  about  14,836  feet  high,  S.  Switzerland.
After  various  fruitless  attempts  by  professor  Tyn-
dall  and  other  eminent  climbers,  in  i860,  the  sum-
mit was  reached  on  14  July,  1865,  by  Mr.  Edward
Whymper  and  others.  During  their  descent,  four
of  the  party  were  killed.  Mr.  Hadow  fell;  the
connecting  rope  broke,  and  he  himself,  lord  Francis
Douglas,  the  rev.  Mr.  Hudson,  and  Michael  Croz,
a  guide,  slipped  down,  and  fell  from  a  precipice
nearly  4000  feet  high.  Miss  Walker,  with  her
father,  ascended  the  Matterhorn,  22  Jul}7,  187 1.
Three  gentlemen  ascended  without  a  guide,  21  July,
1876.  Dr.  W.  0.  Moseley,  an  American,  was  killed
here,  14  Aug.  1879.  Three  persons  attempting  the
ascent  perished  12  Sept.  1890.

MAUNDY-THURSDAY  (derived  by  Spel-
man  from  mande,  a  hand-basket,  in  which  the  king
was  accustomed  to  give  alms  to  the  poor ;  by  others
from  dies  mandati,  the  day  on  which  Christ  gave
his  grand  mandate,  that  we  should  love  one  an-
other), the  Thursday  before  Good  Friday.  Wheatly.
On  this  day  it  was  the  custom  of  our  sovereigns  or
their  almoners  to  give  alms,  food,  and  clothing  to  as
many  poor  persons  as  they  were  years  old.  It  was
begun  by  Edward  III.,  when  he  was  fifty  years  of
age,  1363,  and  is  still  continued.

MAUR,  ST.,  see  Benedictions.

MAURITANIA  (N.  Africa),  with  Numidia,
became  a  Roman  province,  33  B.C.  Augustus  created
(30  B.C.)  a  kingdom  formed  of  Mauritania  and  part
of  Getulia,  for  Juba  II.,  a  descendant  of  the  ancient
African  princes.  Suetonius  Paulinus  suppressed  a
revolt  here,  a.d.  42,  when  it  was  made  a  province,
divided  into  parts.  The  country  was  subjugated
by  the  Vandals,  429,  and  Greeks,  533,  and  fell  into
the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  about  680;  see  Morocco,  and
Ifoors.

MAURITIUS,  or  Isle  of  France  (in  the

Indiin  Ocean),  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,
1505  ;  but  the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.
They  called  it  after  prince  Maurice,  their  stock-
holder, but  on  the  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of  Good
Hope,  they  deserted  it ;  and  it  continued  unsettled
until  the  French  landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of
one  of  the  finest  provinces  in  France,  1715-  This
island  was  takrn  by  the  British,  2  Dec.  1810,  and
confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  18 14.
The  bishopric  was  founded  1854. Sir  Henry  Barkly,


govex-nor,  in  1863,  succeeded  by  sir  Arthur  H.
Gordon,  1870;  sir  Arthur  Purves  Phayre,  1874;
sir  George  F.  Bowen,  1878;  sir  J.  Pope  Hennessy,
Dec.  1882;  sir  Charles  Cameron  Lees,  Sept.  1889.
Population  in  1861,  313,462;  in  1875,  344,602  ;  in
1890,  377,986.  In  1866  two  railways  were  in  pro-
gress ;  both  now  opened.  By  an  awful  hurricane,
on  11  March,  1868,  great  damage  was  done  to
shipping  and  buildings,  with  much  loss  of  life.
A  responsible  government  granted  with  a  legislative

assembly July-Sept.  1885

Dissensions  between sir J.  Pope  Hennessy  and
Mr.  Clifford  Lloyd  and  the  council,  April  ;  Mr.
Lloyd  removed  (made  governor  of  the  Seychelles) ;
sir  Hercules Robinson as  royal  commissioner
investigates  the  affairs,  and  suspends  the  governor
from  action,  announced  28  Dec.  1886. Sir  J.  Pope
Hennessy  reinstated  with  admonition  July,  1887  ;
arrives  at  Mauritius .... 22  Dec.  1888
Violent  hurricane,  great  destruction  of  buildings,
shipping  and  crops  ;  one-third  of  port  Louis  de-
stroyed, with  about  600  deaths,  29  April ;  total
number  of  deaths  reported,  1,230 . 14  July,  1892
Relief  committtes  organised  (see  'Mansion  house).
Loan  of  6oo,oooL  to  the  colony  guaranteed  by  the

British  government . . . about  June, ,,
The  queen  50Z.

MAUSOLEUM.  Artemisia  married  her  own
brother,  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  Asia  Minor,
377  B.C.  At  his  death,  353,  it  is  said  she  drank  in
liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned,  and
erected  to  his  memory  at  Halicarnassus  a  monument,
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  (350  B.C.),
termed  Mausoleum.  She  invited  all  the  literary
men  of  her  age,  and  proposed  rewards  to  him  who
composed  the  best  elegiac  panegyric  upon  her  hus-
band. The  prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopompus,  357
B.C.  She  died  352  B.C.  The  statue  of  Mausolus  is
among  the  antiquities  brought  from  Halicarnassus
by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  C.  T.  Newton  in  1857,  and  placed
in  the  British  Museum.  A  mausoleum  for  the  royal
family  of  England  was  founded  by  the  queen  at
Frogmore,  15  March,  1862.

MAUVE  (French  for  malva,  mallow),  a  dye
produced  by  Dr.  Stenhouse  from  lichens  in  1848  ;
now  produced  from  Aniline  {which  see).

MAY,  the  fifth  month  of  the  year,  received  its
name,  some  say,  from  Romulus,  who  gave  it  this
appellation  in  respect  to  the  senators  and  nobles  of
his  city,  who  were  denominated  majores  ;  others
supposed  it  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the  mother  of
Mercury,  to  whom  they  offered  sacrifices  on  the  first
day.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  pi-ocession
to  the  grotto  of  Egeria  on  May -day;  see  Evil
May-day.
Mrs. Elizabeth  Montague  (who died  in 1800)  gave  for

many  years,  on  May-day,  an  entertainment  at her

house  in  Portman-square,  to  the  chimney-sweepers  of

London.
The  annual  festival  of  "  Jack  in  the  Green,"  and  his

companion  sweeps,  has  gradually  ceased,  1816.
See  under  Working  Men,  May  1890,  1S91  and  1892.

MAYENCE,  see  Mentz.

MAY-FLOWER,  see  Pilgrim  Fathers.

"MAY  LAWS,"  see  Prussia,  May,  1S73.

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE  (Ireland),
founded  by  parliament,  1795,  and  endowed  by  a
yearly  grant  voted  for  the  education  of  students
designed  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in
Ireland.  An  act  for  its  government  was  passed  in
1800.  It  contains  about  500  students.  Permanent
endowment  of  this  college  (30,000^.  for  the  enlarge-
ment of  the  buildings  and  26  000/.  annually)  was
granted  by  parliament,  June,  1845.  This  occasioned
much  controversy  in  England,  a  motion  being  made

s  s


MAYO ASSASSINATION.


626


MAYOES, LOED.


for  its  abolition  almost  every  session.  The  college
was  repaired  and  enlarged  in  i860.  By  the  Irish
Church  act,  passed  26  July,  1869,  the  annual  parlia-
mentary grant  was  to  cease  after  1  Jan.  187 1 ;  a
compensation  being  made.  A  synod  held  here,
Sept.  1875,  condemned  mixed  education.  The  build-
ings were  much  injured  by  fire,  31  Oct.  1878  ;  dam-
age estimated  at  10,000^.  The  pictures  and  books
were  saved.

MAYO  ASSASSINATION.  BichardSouth-
well  Bourke,  earl  of  Mayo,  was  born  21  Feb.  1822.
As  lord  Naas  he  was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  in
the  Derby  and  Disraeli  administrations,  1852, 1858-9,
1866-8.  In  Sept.  1868,  he  was  appointed  viceroy
of  India,  and  energetically  fulfilled  the  duties.  He
was  assassinated  at  Port  Blair  in  the  Andaman
islands,  on  a  visit  of  inspection,  by  Shere  Ali,  a
convict,  8  Feb.  1872.  The  Indian  government
granted  an  annual  pension  of  1000/.  to  the  countess,
and  20,000^.  for  the  children ;  and  iooo£.  a  year
was  added  to  lady  Mayo's  pension  by  parliament,
voted  unanimously,  22  July,  1872.

MAYOES  OF  THE  PALACE,  high  officers  in
France,  who  had  great  influence  during  the  later
Merovingian  kings,  termed  " faineants ,"  do-no-
things:— Pepin  the  Old  (or  de  Landen),  622  et  seq.;
Pepin  Heristal,  687-714  ;  Charles  Martel,  despotic,
714-741 ;  Pepin  le  Bref,  741,  who  shut  up  Chil-
deric  III.  in  a  monastery,  and  himself  took  the
kingdom,  752.

MAYOES  of  Corporations. At  the  time

of  the  Norman  conquest,  1066,  the  chief  officer  of
London  was  called  port-grave,  afterwards  softened
into  port-reeve,  from  Saxon  words  signifying  chief
governor  of  a  harbour.  He  was  afterwards  called
provost ;  but  in  Henry  II. 's  reign  the  Norman  title
of  maire  (soon  after  mayor)  was  brought  into  use.
At  first  the  mayor  was  chosen  for  life,  but  after-
wards for  periods  of  irregular  duration ;  now  he  is
chosen  annually,  but  is  eligible  for  re-election.  He
must  be  an  alderman,  and  have  been  sheriff.  His
duties  commence  on  9  Nov.  In  early  times  the
mayor  was  always  an  M.P.  for  the  city  The  prefix
10ED  is  peculiar  to  the  chief  civic  officer  of  London,
Dublin,  Edinburgh,  York,  Dundee,  Glasgow,  and
Belfast.

The  first  mayor  of  London,  Henry  Fitz-Ailwin,
held  office  for  24  years,  appointed  . 1189  or  ngi

Sir  Henry  Piekard,  who  had  been  lord  mayor  of
London  in  1357,  sumptuously  entertained  in  one
day  four  monarchs  :  Edward,  king  of  England ;
John,  king  of  France  ;  the  king  of  Cyprus  ;  and
David,  king  of  Scotland  ;  the  Black  Prince  and
many  of  the  nobility  being  present. Stow. . .  1363

Sir  John  Norman,  lord  mayor,  went  by  water  to  be
sworn  at  Westminster,  and  it  is  said  instituted
lord  mayor's  show 1453

The  more  costly  pageants  of  the  show  laid  aside . 1685

The  lord  mayor  entertained  the  prince  regent  of
England,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  king  of  Prussia,
and  numerous  foreigners  of  high  rank 18  June,  1814

The  lord  mayor,  Famcombe,  gave  a  banquet  to
prince  Albert  and  the  mayors  of  most  of  the
boroughs  of  the  United  Kingdom,  in  further-
ance of  the  project  of  the  great  International
Industrial  Exhibition,  1851 . . 21  March,  1850

The  lord  mayor,  sir  F.  Moon,  entertained  the  em-
peror and  empress  of  the  French . 19  April,  1855

The  lord  mayor,  B.  S.  Phillips,  entertained  the  king
and  queen  of  the  Belgians,  July  ;  entertained  by
them  at  Brussels Oct.  1866

The  lord  mayor  entertained  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,
n  June  ;  the  sultan,  18  July,  1867;  the  shah  of
Persia,  20  June,  1873  ;  the  czar . . 18  May,  1874

Lord  Mayor  Nottage  died  while  in  office  (the  first
since  William  Beckford,  who  died  21  June,  1770),

11  April,  1885


813-14


1808-9.

1809-

1810-

1811-

1812-

1813

1814-

1815-

1816-

1817-

1818-

1819-

1820-

1821-

1822-

1823-

1824-

1825-

1826-

1827-

1828-

1829-

1830-

1832-

1833-

1834-

1835-

1836.

1837


LORD MAYORS OF L0ND0K

1800-1. Sir  William  Staines,  bart.
1801-2. Sir  John  Earner,  bart.

Charles  Price.

John  Perring.

Peter  Perehard.

Sir  James  Shaw.

Sir  William  Leighton,  bart.

John  Ainsley.

Sir  Charles  Flower,  bart.

Thomas  Smith.

11.  Joshua  Jonathan  Smith.

12.  Sir  Claudius  S.  Hunter,  bart.

13.  George  Scholey.
Sir  William  Domville,  bart.

15.  Samuel  Birch.

16.  Matthew  Wood.

17.  Matthew  Wood  again.

18.  Christopher  Smith.

19.  John  Atkins.

20.  George  Brydges.

1.  John  T.  Thorpe.

2.  Christopher  Magnay.
William  Heygate.
Robert  Waithman.
John  Garratt.
William  Venables.
Anthony  Browne.
Matthias  Prime  Lucas
William  Thompson.
John  Crowder.

and  1831-2. Sir  John  Key,  bart.

3.  Sir  Peter  Laurie.

4.  Charles  Farebrother.

5.  Henry  Winchester.

6.  William  Taylor  Copeland.

7.  Thomas  Kelly.
•8. Sir  John  Cowan,  bart.

1838-9. Samuel  Wilson.

40.  Sir  Chapman  Marshall,  bart.
Thomas  Johnson.
John  Pirie.

3.  J.  Humphrey.

4.  Sir  W.  Magnay,  bart.

5.  Michael  Gibbs.

6.  John  Johnson.

7.  Sir  George  Carroll.

8.  John  Kinnersley  Hooper.

9.  Sir  James  Duke,  bart.,  M.P.
50.  Thomas  Farn  combe.

Sir  John  Musgrove.

William  Hunter.

Thomas  Challis,  M.P.

Thomas  Sidney.

Sir  Fras.  G.  Moon,  bart.

David  Salomons,  Jew.

Thomas  Quested  Finnis.

Sir  Robert  W.  Carden  (bart. ,  May,  1887),  (died  20
Jan.  1888).
1858-9. David  W.  Wire.
1859-60.  James  Carter.
1860-1. William  Cubitt,  M.P.
1861-2. William  Cubitt,  again.
1862-3. W.  A.  Rose.
1863-4. Wm.  Lawrence.
1864-5. Warren  S.  Hale.
1865-6. Benj.  Sam.  Phillips,  Jew.
1866-7. Thos.  Gabriel.
1867-8. Wm.  Ferneley  Allen.
1868-9. James  Lawrence.
1869-70.  Robert  Besley.
1870-1. Thomas  Dakin.

2.  Sills  John  Gibbons.

3.  Sir  Sidney  Hedley  Waterlow

4.  Andrew  Lusk,  M.P.

5.  David  Henry  Stone.

6.  Wm.  James  Richmond  Cotton.

7.  Sir  Thomas  White.

8.  Thomas  Scambler  Owden.

9.  Sir  Charles  Whetham.
_  80.  Sir  Francis  Wyatt  Truscott.
0-1. Wm.  McArthur.
1-2. John  Whittaker  Ellis  ;  bart.  May.
2-3. Henry  Edmond  Knight.
3-4. R.  N.  Fowler,  M.P.

4-5. George  Swan  Nottage;  died  11  April,  1885.
5. Sir  R.  N.  Fowler,  bart.  M.P.,  re-elected  14  April
5-6. John  Staples.


1840-

1841

1842

1843

1844

1845

1846

i847

1848

1849

1850-

1851-2

1852-3

£853-4

1854-5

1855-6

1856-7

1857-8


1871
1872-
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878


MAZABIN BIBLE.


627


MECHLIN.


1886-7.  Sir  Reginald  Hanson  (bart.,  May,  1887)

1887-8.  Polvdore  de  Keyser  (Belgian  R.C.)  (knt.  Oct.

1888).

1888-9.  James  Whitehead  (bart.,  Nov.  1889).

1889-90.  Sir  Henry  Aaron  Isaacs,  Jew.

1890-1.  Joseph  Savory  (bart. ,  July,  1891.)

1891-2.  David  Evans  (knt,  July,  1892).

LORD MAYORS OF DCBL1N.

John  le  Decer  was  appointed  first  provost  in  1308  ;
a  gilded  sword  was  granted  to  be  borne  before  the
provost  by  Henry  IV 1407

Thomas  Cusack  appointed  first  mayor . . . 1409

The  collar  of  SS.  and  a  foot  company  granted  by
Charles  II.  to  the  mayors 1660

Sir  Daniel  Bellingham,  the  first  mayor  honoured
with  the  title  of  lord,  by  Charles  II. ,  who  granted
500I.  per  annum,  in  lieu  of  the  company  of  foot  . 1665

The  new  collar  of  SS.  granted  by  William  III.  to  the
mayor,  value  1000Z. ,  the  former  having  been  lost
in  James  II.  's  time .... = ..  1697

MAZAEIN  BIBLE,  see  Printing,  1450-5.

MAZEA  (or  Baba  Wali),  near  Candahar,
Afghanistan.  Here  gen.  sir  Frederick  Sleigh
Roberts  totally  defeated  Sirdar  Mahomed  Ayoob
Khan,  and  captured  his  camp  and  all  his  cannon,
I  Sept.  1880.  Amongst  the  killed  were  colonel  F.
Brownlow,  capt.  St.  John  F.  Frome,  and  capt.  £.
Straton ;  lieut.  Hector  Maclaine  (made  prisoner  27
July)  was  found  recently  murdered.  Ayoob  Khan
with  some  followers  fled  towards  Herat.

MAZUBKA,  a  Polish  dance  of  the  16th  cen-
tury, introduced  into  England  about  1845  i  Chopin's
music  for  the  mazurka  is  much  admired.

MEAL  TUB  PLOT,  against  the  duke  of
York,  afterwards  James  II.,  contrived  by  one
Dangerfield,  who  secreted  a  bundle  of  seditious
letters  in  the  lodgings  of  colonel  Maunsell,  and  then
gave  information  to  the  custom-house  officers  to
search  for  smuggled  goods,  23  Oct.  1679.  After
Dangerfield' s  apprehension,  on  suspicion  of  forging
these  letters,  papers  were  found  concealed  in  a
meal-tub  at  the  house  of  a  woman  with  whom  he
cohabited,  which  contained  the  scheme  to  be  sworn
to,  accusing  the  most  eminent  persons  in  the  Protes-
tant interest,  who  were  against  the  duke  of  York's
succession,  of  treason, — particularly  the  earls  of
Shtiftesbury,  Essex,  and  Halifax.  On  Dangerfield
being  whipped  the  last  time,  as  part  of  his  punish-
ment, 1  June,  1685,  one  of  his  eyes  was  struck  out
by  a  barrister  named  Robert  Francis.  This  caused
his  death,  for  which  his  assailant  was  hanged.

MEASUEES,  see  Weights,  and  Micrometer.
"  Not  men,  but  measures,"  a  phrase  used  in  par-
liament by  Brougham,  2  Nov.  1830.

MEAT,  see  Provisions.

MEAT-BISCUIT,  said  to  have  been  invented
by  Cecil  Borden,  1850. See  Milk.

MEATH  (Ireland).  Many  episcopal  sees  in
Meath  (as  Clonard,  JDuleek,  and  others  of  less  note)
were  fixed  at  Clonard,  before  1151-2,  when  the
division  of  the  bishoprics  in  Ireland  was  made  by
John  Paparo,  then  legate  from  Pope  Eugene  III.
Eugene  was  the  first  styled  bishop  of  Meath,  about
1 1 74.  Meath  was  valued,  30  Henry  YIIL,  at
373^.  12s.  per  annum.

MECCA  (in  Arabia),  the  birth-place  of  Ma-
homet, about  571,  whence  be  was  compelled  to  flee,
15  July,  622  (the  Hegira).  On  one  of  the  neigh-
bouring hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is  asserted  he
retired  to  perform  his  devotions,  and  where  the
greatest  parr  of  the  Koran  was  brought  to  him  by
the  angel  Gabriel,  604.  Mecca,  after  being  vainly
besieged  by  Hosein  for  the  caliph  Yezid,  682,  was


taken  by  Abdelmelek,  692.  In  1803  it  fell  into  the
hands  of  the  Wahabees,  a  Mahometan  sect.  They
were  expelled  by  the  pacha  of  Egypt  in  1818,
who  retired  in  1841.  It  is  said  "that  160,000
pilgrims  visited  Mecca  in  1858,  and  only  50,000
in  1859.  The  grand  shereef  was  assassinated  by  a
fanatic,  21  March,  1880.  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca
still  continues  ;  annual  average,  93,350  (1887).

MECHANICAL  ENGLNEEES'  INSTI-
TUTION. See  under  Engineers,  1847.

MECHANICS.  The  simple  mechanical
powers  have  been  ascribed  to  heathen  deities ;  the
axe,  wedge,  wimble,  &c.,  to  Dsedalus;  see  Steam
Engine,  Motion.

Aristotle  writes  on  mechanics  about  .  .  b.  c.  320
The  properties  of  the  lever,  &c. ,  demonstrated  by

Archimedes,  who  died 212

[He  laid  the  foundations  of  nearly  all  those  inven-
tions, the  further  prosecution  of  which  is  the
boast  of  our  age. -Wallis  (1695).]
The  hand-mill,  or  quern,  was  very  early  in  use  ;  the

Romans  found  one  in  Yorkshire.
Cattle-mills,  moke  jumentarice,  were  also  in  use  by

the  Romans.
The  water-mill  was  probably  invented  in  Asia ;  the
first  that  was  described  was  near  one  of  the

dwellings  of  Mithridates 70

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the

river  Tiber,  at  Rome 50

Pappus  wrote  on  mechanics . . about  a.  d. 350

Floating-mills  on  the  Tiber 536

Tide-mills  were,  many  of  them,  in  use  in  Venice

about  1078
Wind-mills  were  in  very  general  use  in  the  12th

century.
Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use  at  Augsburg  1332
Theory  of  the  inclined  plane  investigated  by  Cardan

about  1540

Work  on  Statics,  by  Stevinus 1586

Galileo's  "  Seienza  Mecanica  " 1634.

Theory  of  falling  bodies,  Galileo ....  1638

Laws  of  percussion,  Huygens,  Wallis,  Wren,  about  1660
Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens ....  1670

Epicycloidal  form  of  the  teeth  of  wheels,  Roemer  . 1675
Percussion  and  animal  mechanics,  Borelli ;  he  died  1679
Application  of  mechanics  to  astronomy,  parallel-
ism of  forces,  laws of  motion,  &c, Newton,
Hooke,  &c. ...... 1666-1700

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  the  analysis,  Dr.

Gregory 1697

Spirit  level  (and  many  other  inventions)  by  Dr.  Hooke

from  1660  to  1702
D'Alembert's  researches  on  dynamics  .  about  1743
Lagrange's  "  Meeanique  Analytique  "  published  .  1788
Laplace's  "  Meeanique  Celeste  "  published  1799-1805
Borgnis'  Dictionnaire  de  Meeanique  appliquee  aux

Arts,  10  vols. 1818-23

Edward  H  Knight's  excellent  "Practical  Dic-
tionary of  Mechanics,"  published  .  .  1877-S4
[Among  the  best  modern  writers  on  the  science  of
mechanics  are  Poncelet,  Whewell,  Barlow,  Mose-
ley,  Delaunay,  Rankine,  Bartholomew  Price,  Ball
and  Willis.]

MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One

was  founded  by  Dr.  Birkbeck  in  London,  and
another  in  Glasgow,  in  1823;  and  soon  after  others
arose  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  They  have
revived  since  1857,  many  noblemen  and  gentlemen
giving  lectures  in  them.

MECHANICS'  MAGAZINE, weekly;  esta-
blished 30  Aug.  1823  ;  was  incorporated  with  a  new
paper  termed  "  Iron,"  Jan.  1873.

MECHLIN  or  MALINES  (Belgium),  re-
nowned for  its  lace  manufacture,  was  founded  iu
the  6th  century;  destroyed  by  the  Normans  in  884;
sacked  by  the  Spaniards,  1572  ;  taken  by  the  prince
of  Orange,  1578,  and  by 'the  English,"  1580;  and
frequently  captured  iu  the  17th  and  18t.l1  centuries,
partaking  in  the  evil  fortunes  of  the  country. A

s  s  2


MECKLENBURG.


623


MEDICINE.


Roman  Catholic  congress  was  held  here  Sept.  1867.
Population  1890,  50,962.

MECKLENBURG  (N.  Germany),  formerly
a  principality  in  Lower  Saxony,  now  independent
as  the  two  grand  duchies  of  Meeklenburg-Sehwerin
(population  in  1885,  575,152;  1890,  578,565)  and
Mecklenburg- Strelitz  (population  in  1885,  98,371  ;
1890,  97,978).  The  house  of  Mecklenburg  claims
to  be  descended  from  Genseric  the  Vandal,  who
ravaged  the  western  empire  in  the  5th  century,
and  died  477.  During  the  Thirty  years'  war  Meck-
lenburg was  conquered  by  Wallenstein,  who  became
its  duke,  1628 ;  it  was  restored  to  its  own  duke,
1630.  After  several  changes  the  government  was
settled  in  1701  as  it  now  exists  in  the  two  branches
of  Schwerin  and  Strelitz.  In  1815  the  dukes  were
made  grand  dukes.  The  dukes  joined  the  new
North  German  confederation  by  treaty,  21  Aug.
1866.


1815.


1815.
1816.


GRAND-DUKES OP MECKLENBURGSCHWERIN.

Frederic-Francis  I. ;  died  7  March,  1842.
Frederic-Francis  II. ;  born  28  Feb. 1823  ;  died  15

April,  1883.
Frederic-Francis  III.  son,  born  19  March,  1851.

GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.

Charles  ;  died  6  Nov.  1816.

George,  born  12  Aug.  1779;  died  6  Sept.  i860.

Frederic  William,  horn  17  Oct.  1819  ;  married  prin-
cess Augusta  of  Cambridge,  28  June,  1843.

Heir:  his  son,  Adolphus-Frederic,  born  22  July,
1848.

The  royal  family  of  England  is  intimately  allied
with  the  house  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  King
George  III.  married  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  the
duke,  in  1761;  their  son,  the  duke  of  Cumber-
land (afterwards  king  of  Hanover)  married
princess  Frederica  Caroline,  a  daughter  of  the
duke,  in  1815.

MEDALS,  see  Numismatics.  The  ancient
medals  resembled  medallions.  Modern  medals
began  about  1453  in  the  15th  century  with  the
works  of  Vittore  Pisano,  of  Verona,  who  died
1456,  and  his  followers.  Charles  I.  author-
ized the  presentation  of  a  badge  or  medal  for
"forlorn  hopes"  soldiers,  May,  1643.  The  house
of  commons  resolved  to  grant  rewards  and  medals
to  the  fleet  whose  officers  (Blake,  Monk,  Penn  and
Lawson)  and  men  gained  a  glorious  victory  over
the  Dutch  fleet,  off  theTexel,  in  1653.  Blake's  medal
of  1653  was  bought  by  his  majesty,  William  IV.  for
150  guineas.  In  1692  an  act  was  passed  for  apply-
ing the  tenth  part  of  the  proceeds  of  prizes  for
medals  and  other  rewards  for  officers,  seamen,  and
marines.  Subsequent  to  Lord  Howe's  victory,
1  June,  1794,  it  was  thought  expedient  to  institute
a  naval  medal.  Medals  were  struck  for  the  victory
of  Waterloo ;  a  general  war  medal  (for  the  war
1793-1814)  was  ordered  in  1847  ;  and  special  medals
were  given  after  the  Caff're  and  Chinese  wars.  Medals
were  presented  by  the  queen  to  persons  distin-
guished in  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  18  May,  1855.
Medals  were  given  to  arctic  voyagers  of  1875-6,  in
1877;  after  Egyptian  war,  1882,  distributed  by  the
queen  at  Windsor,  21  Nov.  1882;  medals  for  the
Soudan  war,  ordered,  2  Sept.  1885  ;  a  Burmah  medal
was  given  for  the  war,  1885-7.  Col.  Eaton  exhi-
bited 1000  medals  in  New  Bond-street,  May,  1880.
See  Victoria  Gross.
Society  of  Medallists  formed  in  the  spring  of  1885  by  the

hon. C. W.  Freniantle,  deputy-master  of  the  Mint,

president,  sir  Frederick  Leighton  and  others.
Jubilee medal designed by sir Frederick Leighton,

P.R.A.,  issued.
A  list  of  military  and  naval  medals  is  given  in  Whitaker's

Almanack  in  1888.
General  Fred.  Brine  possesses  a  fine  collection  of  war

medals  which  he  has  exhibited.


MEDIA, a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire,
revolted,  71 1  B.C. Its  chronology  is  doubtful.
Arbaces,  reputed  founder  of  the  monarchy  about  b.  c.  842

Succeeded  by  eight  kings  (Ctesias),  or  by  four

(Herodotus).
Deioces,  founder  of  Eebatana,  reigns  , . . . 709
Phraortes,  or  Arphaxad,  reigns ;  (he  conquers  Persia,

Armenia,  and  other  countries) .... 656

Warlike  reign  of  Cyaxares 632-594

War  with  the  Lydians  (see  Halys) .... 603

Astyages  reigns 594

Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus,  who  established  the

empire  'of  Persia  (which  see)  .... 560

MEDIAEVAL,  see  Dark  Ages.

MEDICAL  ACT,  see  Medical  Council.

MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION,  British,
founded  in  1832  for  the  promotion  of  medical  science
and  the  maintenance  of  the  honour  of  the  medical
profession.  It  holds  annual  meetings  at  different
places  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  publishes  the
"  British  Medical  Journal"  weekly.

MEDICAL  BENEVOLENT  COLLEGE,

Royal,  (Epsom,)  opened  in  1855  by  the  prince
consort.  It  provides  an  asylum  tor  20  pensioners
male  and  female  ;  and  40  foundation  scholars  (sons
of  medical  men)  are  fed,  clothed,  and  educated.

MEDICAL  CONGRESSES,  International,
have  been  held  at  Paris,  1867;  Florence,  1869;
Vienna,  1873  ;  Brussels,  1875  !  Geneva,  1877  ;
Amsterdam,  1879 ;  the  seventh  was  held  in
London,  2-9  August,  1881 ;  eighth,  Copenhagen,
10  Aug.  1884;  ninth,  Washington,  5-10  Sept.
1887  ;  tenth,  at  Berlin,  4-9  Aug.  1890.

MEDICAL  COUNCIL.  The  Medical  Act,
1858,  "  to  regulate  the  qualifications  of  practi-
tioners in  medicine  and  surgery;"  was  amended
in  i860,  and  an  important  amendment  act,  with-
drawn 25  July,  1884,  passed  1886.  It  esta-
blished "the  General  Council  of  Medical  Edu-
cation and  Registration  of  the  United  King-
dom." The  first  meeting  of  this  council  took
place  on  23  Nov.  1858,  when  sir  B.  C.  Brodie  was
elected  first  president  (who  on  30  Nov.  was  elected
president  of  the  Royal  Society).  He  was  succeeded
by  Mr.  J.  H.  Green  in  June,  i860 ;  by  Dr.  George
Burrows,  Jan.  1864;  by  Dr.  George  Edward  Paget
in  1870;  and  by  Dr.  Henry  Wentworth  Acland  in
1874;  Mr.  John  Marshall  in  1887,  and  by  sir
Richard  Quain,  bart.,  in  1891.  The  first  Medical
Register  was  issued  in  July,  1859.  In  1862  the
council  was  incorporated  by  parliament,  and  autho-
rised to  prepare  and  sell  a  new  Pharmacopoeia,
which  was  published  as  the  "British  Pharmaco-
poeia," in  1864. New  editions  have  appeared  since.

MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,

founded  1773.  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical
Society,  founded  1805.

MEDICI  FAMILY,  the  restorers  of  litera-
ture and  the  fine  arts  in  Italy,  were  chiefs  or
signori  of  the  republic  of  Florence  from  1434,  in
which  year  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  who  had  been
banished  from  the  republic,  was  recalled  and  made
its  chief;  he  ruled  for  thirty  years.  Lorenzo  de'
Medici,  styled  "the  Magnificent,"  and  the  "Father
of  Letters,"  ruled  Florence  from  1469  to  1492.
Giovanni  de'  Medici  (pope  Leo  X.)  was  the  son  of
Lorenzo.  Roscov.  From  1569  to  1737  the  Medici
family  were  hereditary  grand  dukes  of  Tuscany
(which  see).  Cattarina  de'  Medici  became  queen  of
France  in  1547,  and  regent  in  1550.  She  plotted
with  the  duke  of  Alva  to  destroy  the  Protestants
in  1565.

MEDICINE,  see  Physic,  and  Physicians.


MEDINA.


629 MELBOUENE  ADMINISTRATIONS.


MEDINA  (Arabia  Deserta),  famous  for  the
tomb  of  Mahomet,  in  a  large  mosque,  lighted  by
rich  lamps.  Medina  was  called  the  City  of  the
Prophet,  because  here  Mahomet  was  protected  when
he  tied  from  Mecca,  15  July,  622  ;  see  Hegira.
Medina  was  taken  by  the  Wahabees  in  1804 ;  re-
taken by  the  pauha  of  Egypt,  1818.

MEDINA,  Bopora  country,  Africa,  a  kingdom
annexed  to  Liberia  by  consent,  announced  Feb.
1880.  It  is  rich  in  forests  and  African  products,
with  gold,  iron,  and  other  minerals.

MEDINA  DE  ^  EIO  SECO  (Valladolid,
Spain).  Here  Bessieres  defeated  the  Spaniards,
15  July,  1808.

MEDIOLANITM,  see  Milan.

MEDIUM,  see  Spiritualism.

MEDUN,  near  Podgoritza,  European  Turkey.
In  a  ravine  here,  the  Turks,  under  Mahmud
Pacha,  were  severely  defeated  \>y  the  Montenegrins,
14  Aug.  1876.

MEEANEE.  The  Belooehees,  amounting  to
30,000  infantry,  with  15  guns  and  5000  cavalry,
posted  in  a  formidable  position  at  Meeanee,  were
defeated  with  great  loss  on  17  Feb.  1843,  by  lieut.-
gen.  sir  Charles  Napier,  with  2600  men  of  all
arms,

MEEEUT (near  Delhi). Here  the Indian

mutiny  began,  10  May,  1857;  sec  India.

MEG^EEA,  see  Wrecks,  187 1.

MEGALOPOLIS,  a  city  of  Arcadia,  founded
by  the  advice  of  Epaminondas,  371  B.C.,  long  sub-
ject to the Macedonians. Having joined the
Acha?an  League,  234  b  c,  it  was  taken  and  plun-
dered by  Cleomenes  of  Sparta,  222 B.C. It  was
partly  restored  221,  but  gradually  decayed.
During  the  excavations  carried  on  for  the  British  school
of  Archaeology  of  Athens,  many  discoveries  were  made,
including  the  site  of  a  great  theatre,  a  tumulus  with
bones,  ornaments,  etc.,  reported  April,  1890.

MEGAPHONE,  a  form  of  telephone  (wJdch
see),  invented  by  Mr.  T.  A.  Edison,  for  the  use  of
the  deaf;  announced  1878.

MEGAEA,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  was  sub-
dued by  the  Athenians  in  the  8th  century  B.C.
Pericles  suppressed  a  revolt,  445  B.C.  The  Mega-
rians  founded  Byzantium  657  B.C.  Megara  became
a  free  city  307,  and  joined  the  Achasan  League,  242,
and  sent  a  second  colony,  628  B.C.  The  Megarian
(Eristic  or  disputatious)  school  of  philosophy  was
founded  by  Euclid  and  Siilpo,  natives  of  Megara.

MEHADPOEE  or  MAHEDPORE  (W.India).
Here  sir  Thomas  Hislop  and  sir  John  Malcolm
defeated  the  Mahrattas  under  Holkar,  21  Dec.  1817.

MEININGEN  COUET  COMPANY. See

under  Theatres :  Drury-lane.

MEISTEESINGEES,  see  Minnesingers.

MELANESIA,  South-west  Pacific  Isles.  The
rev.  J.  C.  Patteson  (son  of  sir  Juhn),  born  1827,  was
consecrated  missionary  bishop  of  Melanesia.  He
and  the  rev.  J.  Atkin  were  murdered  at  the  isle  of
Santa  Cruz,  one  of  th-  Queen  Charlotte  group,  by  the
natives,  Sept.  1871,  it  is  supposed  in  revenge  for
the  kidnapping  natives  for  slaves  for  Queensland
and  the  Fiji  isles,  a  measure  wbich  the  bishop
himself  strenuously  opposed.

MELAZZO  (W.  Sicily).  Here  Garibaldi,  on
20,  21  July,  i860,  defeated  the  Neapolitans  under
general  Bosoo,  who  lost  about  600  men;  Garibaldi's


loss  being  167.  The  latter  entered  Messina;  and
on  30  July  a  convention  was  signed,  by  which  it
was  settled  that  the  Neapolitan  troops  were  to
quit  Sicily.  They  held  the  citadel  of  Messina  till
13  March,  1861.

MELBOUENE  (Australia)  capital  of  Victoria
{which  see).  It  was  founded  by  J.  P.  Fawkener,
29  Aug.  1835  ;  and  laid  out  as  a  town  by  order  of
sir  R.  Bourke,  in  April,  1837.  The  first  land  sale
took  place  in  June,  and  speculation  continued  till
it  caused  wide-spread  insolvenc3r,  in  1841-2.
Population  in  1851,23,000;  1891,491,378.

Made  a  municipal  corporation,  1842  ;  a  bishopric . 1847
First  legislative  assembly  of  Victoria  meets . . 1852
Gold  found  in  great  abundance  about  80  miles  from
Melbourne  in  the  autumn  of  1851,  and  immense
numbers  of  emigrants  flocked  there  in  conse-
quence, causing  an  enormous  rise  in  the  prices  of

provisions  and  clothing „

The  city  greatly  improved  with  public  buildings,

handsome  shops,  <fcc _ . 1853

The  Victoria  bank,  Ballarat,  broken  open,  and
14,300?.  in  money  and  200  ounces  in  gold  dust
carried  otf  [one  of  the  robbers  was  taken  in  Eng-
land, sent  back  to  Melbourne,  and  there  tried

and  hanged] 8  Oct.  1854

University  founded 1855

Monster  meeting  held  at  Ballarat  respecting  the
collection  of  the  gold  licences,  followed  by  riots,
during  which  the  Southern  Cross  flag  was  raised ;
intervention  of  the  military ;  26  rioters  and  three
soldiers  killed,  and  many  wounded  .  30  Nov.  „
The  mayor  comes  to  London  to  congratulate  the

queen  on  the  marriage  of  the  princess  royal  . 1858

Intercolonial  exhibition  opened  .  .  .25  Oct.  1866
Arrival  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  .  .  23  Nov.  1867
Great  telescope  set  up  at  the  Observatory  early  in  1869
Theatre-royal  burnt  ....  19  March,  187:2
International  exhibition  opened  by  the  marquis  of

Normanby 1  Oct. 1880

Direct  railway  to  Sydney  completed . June,  1883
Centenary  exhibition  to  celebrate  the  foundation  of
New  South  Wales  colony  opened  by  sir  Henry
Brougham  Loch,  the  governor,  1  Aug.  1888-31  Jan.  1889
Great  meeting  to  support  Imperial  Institute  9  May, ,,
Great  fire  in  Collins  street,  3  firemen  killed,  loss
about  200,000?. ..... 13  Sept. ,,

Meeting  of Australian delegates respecting  the

federation  (see  Australasia) . . 6-14  Feb.  1890
Great  strike  of  officers  and  men  employed  in  ship-
ping connected  with the  marine  association,

about  15  Aug. ,,
A  union  of  employers  formed,  4  Sept.  ;  plenty  of

free  labour 11Se.pt. ,,

Gradual  resumption  of  work  ; end  of  the  strikes

announced  at  a  mass  meeting  . . 14  Nov. ,,

The  new  Anglican  cathedral  consecrated 22  Jan.  1891
Destructive  overflow  of  the  Yarra-Yarra  owing  to
heavy  rains  about  n  July,  et  seq. ;  floods  subside  ;
12,000?.  subscribed  for  sufferers . 21  July, ,,
The  Standard  Bank  of. Australia  stops  payment;

temporary  panic 4  Dec. ,,

The  new  great  Western  dock  opened  by  lord  Hope-

toun 22  March,  1892

Melbourne  murder:  Frederick  Bailey  Deeming  (alias
Albert  Oliver  Williams),  tried  for  the  murder  of
Emily  Mather  whom  he  married  at  Liverpool
17  Oct.,  and  brought  to  Australia  15  Dec,  and
murdered  at  Windsor  near  Melbourne  about
25  Dec.  1891 ;  convicted  28  April-2  May ;  executed

23  May,  ,,
[It  was  stated  that  in  Feb.  1881,  he  married
Marie  James,  went  with  her  to  Sydney,  and
was  there  convicted  of  fraud  in  1882  ;  that
he  took  Dinham  Villa,  Rainhill,  near  Widnes,
Lancashire,  England,  23  July,  1891 ;  and
there  murdered  his  wife  and  four  children
about  26,  27  July,  1891 ;  he  was  charged  with
the  murders,  by  the  verdict  of  the  coroner's
jury,  28  March,  1892.]

See  Victoria.

MELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS.

On the retirement of earl  Grey, 9 July, 1834,


MELEGNANO.


630


MENAI STEAIT.


viscount  Melbourne  *  became  first  minister  of  the
crown,  16  July.  When  viscount  Althorp  became
earl  Spencer,  on  his  father's  decease,  Nov.  same
year,  lord  Melbourne  waited  on  the  king  to  receive
his  majesty's  command  as  to  the  appointment  of  a
new  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  when  his  majesty
said  he  considered  the  administration  at  an  end.
Sir  Robert  Peel  succeeded,  but  was  compelled  to  re-
sign in  1835,  and  lord  Melbourne  returned  to  office.
His  administration  finally  terminated,  30  Aug.
1841,  sir  Robert  Peel  again  coming  into  power;  see
Administrations.

first  administration,  July,  1 834 resigned
Nov.  1834.
Viscount  Melbourne,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  lord  president.
Earl  Mulgrave,  privy  seal.
Viscount  Althorp,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Viscount  Duncannon,  viscount  Palmerston,  and  T.  Spring

Rice  (afterwards lord  Monteagle), home,  foreign,  and

colonial  secretaries.
Lord  Auckland,  admiralty.
Mr.  Charles  Grant  (afterwards ord  Glenelg),  and  Mr.  C.

P. Thomson  (afterwards  lord  Sydenham), boards  of

control  and  trade.
Lord  J  ohn  Russell,  paymaster  of  the  forces
Lord  Brougham,  lord  chancellor.
Sir  John  Hobhouse,  Mr.  Elliee,  marquis  of  Conyngliam,

Mr.  Littleton,  &c.

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  April,  1835.

Viscount  Melbourne,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  lord  president.

Viscount  Duncannon,  privy  seal,  and  woods  and  forests

(succeeded  by  earl  of  Clarendon,  Jan.  1840).
T.  Spring  Rice,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (succeeded  by

Francis  T.  Baring,  Aug.  1840).
Lord  John  Russell,  home  secretary  (succeeded  by  marquis

of  Normanby,  Aug.  1839).
Viscount  Palmerston,  foreign  secretary.
Lord  Glenelg,  colonial  secretary  (succeeded  by  marquis

of  Normanby,  Feb.  1839;  lord  John  Russell,  Aug.  1839).
Viscount  Howick,  secretary-at-war  (succeeded  by  T.  B.

Macaulay,  Sept.  1839).
Lord  Auckland,  admiralty  (succeeded  by  earl  of  Minto,

Sept.  1835).
Sir  John  C.  Hobhouse,  board  of  control.
C.  Poulett  Thomson,  board  of  trade  (succeeded  by  Henry

Labouchere,  Aug.  1839).
Lord  Holland,  chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster  (succeeded

by  earl  of  Clarendon,  Oct.  1840).
The  chancellorship  in  commission  ;  sir  C.  Pepys  (after-
wards lord  Cottenham),  became  lord  chancellor,  Jan.

1836.

MELEGNANO,  see  Marignano.

MELENITE,  a  new  explosive  invented  by  M.
Turpin,  a  French  chemist ;  approved  by  the  French
War  Minister,  Dec.  1886.  Several  persons  killed
by  an  explosion  of  this  material  at  Belfort.  The
patent  was  bought  by  Messrs.  Armstrong  &  Co.,  of
Elswick,  named  Lyddite,  and  sold  by  them  to  the
British  Government,  announced  Oct.  1888.
By  an  explosion  of  melenite  at  Bourges  four  work-
men were  killed Io0ct.  1890

ine  mchnite  scandal,  notice by  the  chamber  of
deputies, May, June, 1891. M. Turpin and
captain Tripone sentenced to imprisonment,
exile  and  fines  for  receiving  monev  for  communi-
cations respecting  melinite  to  foreigners,  17  June,  1891
MELFI  (Apulia,  S.  Italy)  was  nearly  destroyed
by  an  earthquake,  14  Aug.  1851  :  about  600  persons
perished.

MELODISTS'  CLUB,  founded  in  182;  by
admirers  of  Uibdin ;  prizes  were  offered.

MELODRAMA,  in  which  dialogue  is  inter-
spersed with  music,  began  in  Germany  in  the  18th

*  Win.  Lamb,  born  in  1779;  became  M.P.  for  West-
minster, 1812  ;  secretary  for  Ireland,  1827 ;  succeeded  his
father  as  viscount  Melbourne,  1828 ;  died,  24  Nov  1848


century,  and  was  introduced  here  by  Thomas  Hol-
croft.

MELOEA  or  MELORIA,  a  small  isle  in  the
Mediterranean,  near  which  the  Pisan  fleet  defeated
the  Genoese,  in  1241,  capturing  many  bishops  going
with  much  treasure  to  a  council.  The  total  destruc-
tion of  the  Pisan  fleet  on  6  Aug.  1284,  by  the
Genoese  near  the  same  place,  after  a  most  sanguinary
conflict,  was  considered  to  be  the  just  punishment
of  their  impiety.

MELOS  (now  Milo),  one  of  the  Cyclades  in  the
iEgean  sea,  early  colonised  by  the  Spartans
During  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Melians
adhered  to  Sparta,  till  the  island  was  captured,
after  seven  months'  siege,  by  the  Athenians,  who
massacred  all  the  men  and  sold  the  women  and
children  as  slaves,  416  B.C.  A  statue  of  Venus,
found  here  in  1820,  was  placed  in  the  Louvre,  1834.

MEMBEES OF PAELIAMENT

(Charges  and  Allegations)  ACT,  passed

13  Aug.,  1888. See  under  Ireland  and  Parnellites.

MEMEL,  an  important  commercial  port  in
Prussia,  built  about  1252  by  the  Livonian  order.
It  was  fortified  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  1404.
It  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  4  Oct.
1854.

^  MEMNONEIUM  or  Bameseion  (Thebes,
Egypt),  the  first  Egyptian  monarch — 4455,  Britgsck,
the  tomb  of  Osymandyas,  according  to  Diodorus,
now  considered  to  be  that  of  Rameses  III.,  about
1200,  Brugsch.

MEMOEIAL  HALL,  see  Independents.

MEMOEY,  see  Mnemonics.

MEMPHIS,  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt  ("of
which  the  very  ruins  are  stupendous"),  is  said  to
have  been  built  by  Menes.  It  included  several
grand  temples  with  the  tombs  of  the  kings.
The  invasion  of  Cambyses,  525  B.C.,  began  the
ruin  of  Memphis,  and  the  founding  of  Alexandria,
332,  completed  it.  It  was  restored  by  Septimius
Severus,A.D.  202.  In  the  7th  century,  under  the
dominion  of  the  Saracens,  it  fell  into  decay. —
Memphis,  Tennessee,  U.  S.,  on  the  Mississippi,  was
taken  from  the  confederates  by  the  federals  after  a
severe  conflict,  6  June,  1862.
The  cyclorama  of  Memphis  as  it  might  have  appeared  at

the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  1491  B.C.

painted  by  Herr  Edmund  Beringer,  was  exhibited  at

Niagara-hall,  Westminster,  Jan.  1892.

"MEN  OF  THE  BEIGN."  by  T.  Humphry

Ward,  published  1885.  "  Celebrities  of  the  Cen-
tury," by  L.  C.  Sanders,  1887.

MEN  OF  THE  TIME,  a  Dictionary  of  Con-
temporaries, first  published  1852  ;  12th  edition,  by
T.  Humphry  Ward,  1887.  13th  edition  "Men
and  Women  of  the  Time,"  edited  by  G.  W.  Moon,
1891. — "  Men  of  Mark,"  printed  photographs,
with  biographical  sketches,  by  Mr.  T.  Cooper,  first
appeared  Jan.  1876.

MENAGEEIE,  see  Zoology,  Tower.
Mr.  Phineas  Taylor  Barnum's  great  menagerie  at  Bridg-
port,  Connecticut,  burnt ;  a  great  many  animals  perish ;
loss  about  140,000?.  20  Nov.  1887.  Mr.  Barnum  stated
to  have  purchased  the  old  Wombwell's  collection  Jan.
1888. See  Barnum.

MENAI  STEAIT  (between  the  Welsh  coast,
and  the  isle  of  Anglesey).  Suetonius  Paulinus,
when  he  invaded  Anglesey,  transported  his  troops
across  this  strait  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  59.  In
crossing  this  strait,  a  ferry-boat  was  lost,  and  fifty


MENDICANT FEIAES.


631


MEECUEY.


persons,  chiefly  Irish,  4  Dec.  1785.  The  road  from
London  to  Holyhead  has  long  been  regarded  as  the
highway  from  the  British  metropolis  to  Dublin;
Mr.  Telford  was  applied  to  by  the  government  to
perfect  this  route  by  the  London  and  Holyhead
mail-coach  road,  which  he  did  by  erecting  beautiful
suspension  bridges  over  the  river  Conway  and  the
Menai  Strait,  commenced  in  July,  1818,  finished  in
July,  1825,  opened  30  Jan.  1826.  The  Britannia
tubular  bridge  over  the  Menai  was  constructed  by
Stephenson  and  Fairbaira  in  1 849-50  ;  see  Ttibular
Bridges.

MENDICANT  FEIAES.  Several  religious
orders  commenced  alms-begging  in  the  13th  century,
in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  They  spread
oyer  Europe,  and  formed  many  communities ;  but
at  length  by  a  general  council,  held  by  Gregory  X.
at  Lyons,  in  1272,  were  reduced  to  four  orders —
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augus-
tuses. The  Capuchins  and  others  branched  off;
see  Franciscans,  &c.

MENDICITY  SOCIETY  (Red  Lion-square,
London),  was  established  in  1818  for  the  suppression
•of  public  begging,  and  other  impositions.  Tickets
received  from  the  society  are  given  by  subscribers
to  beggars,  who  obtain  relief  at  the  society's  house,
if  deserving.  Up  to  1872  the  society  had  caused
above  23,000  vagrants  to  be  convicted  as  impostors.
In  1857,  54,074  meals;  in  i860,  42,912;  in  1865,
•52,137;  in  1872,  26,330;  in  1878,  55,180  were  dis-
tributed. In  1857,  3785 ;  in  1865,  3809 ;  in  1872,
.2192;  and  in  1878,  1700  begging  letters  were  in-
vestigated; in  1891, 1358  ;  1384  cases  were  relieved
an  1887.  See  Poor.  The  society  has  been  much
aided  by  the  action  of  the  Charity  Organization
society ;  established  in  1870.

MENDOZA,  in  the  Argentine  republic,  nearly
•destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  one  of  the  most  awful
recorded,  20  March,  1861  :  above  7000  persons
perished.

MENIPPEE,  see  Satire.

MENNONITES,  four  sects  of  Dutch,  Flemish
and  German  baptists ;  derive  their  name  from  Menno
•Symonis  (1505-61),  formerly  a  catholic  priest,  who
hecame  a  teacher  and  leader  of  the  anabaptists,
about  1537,  and  published  his  "  True  Christian
Belief"  in  1556 ;  subsequently  divisions  and  changes
ensued.  The  Mennonites,  objecting  to  war,  emi-
grated from  Prussia  to  Odessa,  to  escape  military
•■service,  and  went  thence  to  America,  1878.

MENSUEATION.  The  properties  of  conic
sections  were  discovered  by  Archimedes,  to  whom
the  chief  advancement  in  mensuration  may  be
attributed.  He  also  determined  the  ratio  of  spheres,
spheroids,  &c,  about  218  B.C. ;  see  Arithmetic.
The  Mensurator,  a  new  machine  for  the  solution
of  triangles,  was  explained  by  Mr.  W.  Marsham
Adams,  at  the  British  Association  Meeting  at
Brighton,  Aug.  1872.

MENTANA,  (near  Monter  Rotondo,  in  the  old
papal  states).  Here  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,
after  having  intrenched  his  positions  at  Monte
llotondo  and  Mentana  on  their  march  towards
Tivoli,  on  Sunday,  3  Nov.  1867,  were  totally
■defeated  by  the  pontilical  and  French  troops  under
generals  Kanzlar  and  Polhes,  after  a  severe  con-
flict, in  which  general  Failly  said  "  the  Chassepot
aides  did  wonders."  There  were  about  5000  men
on  each  side,  but  the  Garibaldians  were  very  badly
armed.  The  loss  of  the  papal  and  French  troops
was  about  200  killed  and  wounded  ;  that  of  Garibaldi
about  800. Garibaldi  crossed  the  Italian  frontier.


and  was  arrested  at  Correse,  and  eventually  sent  to
Caprera  (about  25  Nov.).  See  Rome.  A  monu-
ment to  the  Garibaldians  who  fell  here  was  inau-
gurated 25  Nov.  1877.

MENTZ  or  MayEjNTCE  (S.W.  Germany),  the
Roman  Moguntiacum,  built  about  13  B.C.  The
archbishopric  was  founded  by  Boniface,  745.  Many
diets  have  been  held  here ;  and  here  John  Faust
established  a  printing  press,  about  1440.  A  festival
in  honour  of  John  Gutenberg  was  celebrated  here
in  1837,  another  June,  1890.  See  Printing.  Mentz
was  given  up  to  the  Prussians,  26  Aug.  1866.
Population  1890,  72,934.

MENU,  INSTITUTES  OF,  the  very  ancient
code  of  India.  Sir  Win.  Jones,  who  translated  them
into  English  (1794),  considers  their  date  should  be
placed  between  Homer  (about  962  B.C.)  and  the
Roman  Twelve  Tables  (about  449  B.C.).

.  MEECANTILE  MAEINE  ACT  was  passed
in  Aug.  1850,  and  amended  Aug.  1851.

MEECATOE'S  CHAETS,  said  to  have  been
constructed  by  Gerard  Mercator  or  Kaufl'mann  and
published  1556,  and  applied  to  navigation  by  Edward
Wright  about  1599.

MEECHANDISE  MAEKS  ACT,  passed
in  1862  to  punish  forgeries  of  trade-marks.  Another
act  passed  in  1887  ;  reported  very  effectual,  1890 ;
amended  1891.

At  an  International  Conference  on  the  subject  of
fraudulent  trade-marks,  held  at  Madrid  7-14  April
1890,  an  important  convention  was  agreed  to.

MEECHANT  ADVENTUEEES'  COM-
PANY, established  by  the  duke  of  Brabant  in
1296,  was  extended  to  England  in  Edward  lll.'s
reign,  and  was  formed  into  a  corporation  in  1564. —
The  Merchant-Taylors,  a  rich  company  of  the
city  of  London,  of  which  many  kings  have  been
members,  were  so  called  after  the  admission  of
Henry  VII.  into  their  company,  1501,  but  were  in-
corporated in  1466.  Their  school  was  founded  in
1 561. Stow.

MEECHANT  SHIPPING  ACT  of  1854
was  amended  by  acts  passed  in  1862, 1867, 1871, 1872,
and  1873.  The  Act  suddenly  passed  13  Aug.  1875,
gave  further  power  to  the  Board  of  Trade  for
stopping  unseaworthy  ships.  Other  Acts  passed
1876,  1880,  1882,  1883,  1889;  see  Courts  of  Survey,
and  Seamen.

Loss  of  life  at  sea  having  groatly  increased,  a  new
bill  brought  in  by  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain,  pre-
sident of  the  Board  of  Trade,  to  prevent  over-
loading, under-manning,  and  over-insurance,  19
May  ;  withdrawn  ....  3  July,  1884
Royal  commission  to  inquire  into  merchant  ship-
ping (earl  of  Aberdeen,  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,
Mr.  J.  Chamberlain,  Mr.  Burt,  Mr.  H.  Green,  Mr.
T.  C.  Baring  and  eight  others),  gazetted  28  Oct.
1884;  last  meeting .... 31  July,  1885

First  report  issued 15  Nov. ,,

Royal  commission  on  loss  of  life  at  sea  appointed

4  March,  1886
Issue  report  recommending  such  alteration  of  law
(if  marine  insurance  as  would  prevent  owners
from  making  profit  by  the  loss  of  their  ships  and
other  changes 27  Aug.  1887

MEECHANTS  were  protected  by  Magna
Charta,  1215,  and  by  many  statutes.  See  Acton
Burnel.  An  attempt  made  by  queen  Anne's  ministry
to  exclude  merchants  from  sitting  in  the  house  of
commons  in  1711,  failed.

MEECIA,  sec  under  Britain.

MEECUEY,  the  planet  nearest  the  sun,  and
the  smallest  known  to  the  ancients.  The  transit
of  Mercury  over  the  sun's  disk,  of  rare  occurrence


MEECY.


632


METAMOEPHISTS.


aud  first  observed  by  Gassendi,  1631,  was  well  ob-
served 5  Nov.  1868;  at  Athens'),  10  May,  1891.  See
Calomel  and  Quicksilver.  The  Greek  god  Hermes
was  the  Roman  Mercury.

MEECY,  ORDER  OF  (in  France),  was  estab-
lished with  the  object  of  accomplishing  the  redemp-
tion of  Christian  captives  among  the  Saracens,  by
John  de  Matha  in  1198.  Henault.  Another  order
was  formed  by  Pierre  Nolasque  in  Spain,  1223.

MEEIDA  (Spain),  a  town  in  Estremadura
(built  by  the  Romans),  was  taken  by  the  French,
Jan.  1811.  Near  this  town,  at  Arroy  dos  Molinos,
the  British  army  under  general  (afterwards  lord)
Hill  defeated  the  French  under  general  Girard,
after  a  severe  engagement,  28  Oct.  181 1.  The
British  took  Merida  from  the  French  in  1812,
general  Hill  leading  the  combined  forces  of  English
and  Spanish  troops.

MEEIDIAN,  see  under  Geodesy.

MEEINO  SHEEP,  imported  into  England
from  Spain,  1788,  are  thought  to  be  descendants  of
English  sheep  taken  to  Spain  as  part  of  the  dowry
of  John  of  Gaunt' s  daughter  Katherine,  1390.

MEEOE,  an  ancient  city  and  country  of
Africa,  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  said  to  have
flourished  under  sacerdotal  government  in  the  time
of  Herodotus,  about  450  B.C.

The  priest-king  Brgainenes  massacred  the  priests  and

became  absolute,  about  300  b.c.
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  capital,  were  discovered  by

Caillaud  between  1819  and  1822.

MEEOVINGIANS,  the  first  race  of  French
kings,  418-752  ;  see  France  and  Mayors.

MEEEIMAC,  see  United  States,  1862.

MEEEY-ANDEEW.  The  name  is  said  to
have  been  first  given  to  Andrew  Borde,  a  physician,
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  who,  on
some  occasions,  on  account  of  his  facetious  manners,
appeared  at  court,  1547.

MEESEY  TUNNEL,  see  Tunnel.

MEETH  YE-T  YDVIL  (Glamorganshire) .
Eiots  commenced  here,  3  June,  1831,  and  continued
for  several  days ;  many  persons  were  killed  and
wounded ;  see  Coal  {Accidents).

MEETON  (Surrey).  At  an  abbey  here,  the
barons  under  Henry  III.,  23  Jan.  1236,  held  a
parliament  which  enacted  the  Provisions  of  Merton,
the  most  ancient  body  of  laws  next  after  Magna
Charta.  They  were  repealed  in  1863  ;  see  Bastards.
The  statute  of  Merton  also  provides  for  the  in-
closm-e  of  common  lands.

MEEV,  or  Meru  (the  ancient  Antiochia  Mar-
giana),  a  town  of  independent  Turkestan,  Central
Asia.  It  flourished  under  the  Seljuk  Turks,  especi-
ally under  Sultan  Alp  Arslan  ;  it  was  sacked  by  the
Monguls  in  1221 ;  it  became  subject  to  Persia  in
1510;  to  the  emir  of  Bokhara  in  1787;  to  the
Turkomans  in  1856,  and  to  Russia  1883-4.  See
Mussia  and  Turkestan.

MESMEEISM.  Frederick  Anthony  Mesmer,
a  German  physician,  of  Merseburg,  published  his
doctrines  in  1766,  contending,  in  a  thesis  on
planetary  influence,  that  the  heavenly  bodies  dif-
fused through  the  universe  a  subtle  fluid  which  acts
on  the  nervous  system  of  animated  beings.  Quitting
Vienna  for  Paris,  in  1778,  he  gained  numerous
proselytes  and  much  money  by  experiments  with
and  without  metallic  plates,  producing  effects  termed
then, "animal  magnetism" now "hypnotism."


A  committee  of  physicians  and  philosophers  investi-
gated his  pretensions,  and  Bailly,  in  a  paper  drawn
up  in  1784,  exposed  the  futility  of  animal  mag-
netism. Mesmerism  excited  attention  again  about
1848,  when  Miss  Harriet  Martincau  and  others-
announced  their  belief  in  it.  In  1859,  the  Mesmeri©
Infirmary  issued  its  tenth  annual  report,  archbishop
Whately  being  president,  and  the  earl  of  Carlisle-
and  Mr.  Monckton  Milnes  (since  lord  Houghton)
among  the  vice-presidents.  See  Animal  Magnetism
and  Hypnotism.

MESSALIANS,  a  sect  professing  to  adhere  to
the  letter  of  the  gospel,  about  310,  refused  to  work,
quoting  this  passage,  "Labour  not  for  the  foocj
that  perisheth."

MESSENIA  (now  Maura-Matra) ,  in  the
Peloponnesus,  an  ancient  kingdom.  It  had  long
s.inguinary  wars  with  Sparta.  It  was  at  first
governed  by  kings ;  after  its  restoration  to  power
in  the  Peloponnesus  it  formed  an  inferior  republic,,
under  the  protection  first  of  the  Thebans,  and  after-
wards of  the  Macedonians.

Tae  first  Messenian  war  began  743  B.C.  ;  was  occa-
sioned by  violence  ottered  to  some  Spartan
women  in  a  temple  of  devotion  common  to  both
nations  ;  the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed  in  his
efforts  to  defend  the  females.  Eventually,  Ithome
was  taken,  and  the  Messenians  became  slaves  to

the  conquerors b.c  724

The  second  war,  to  throw  off  the  Spartan  yoke,  com-
menced about  685,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the

Messenians,  who  fled  to  Sicily 668

The  third  war,  (the  Messenians  emigrate) . 464-455

MESSIAH,  synonymous  with  Christ  "the
anointed,"  foretold  by  JJaniel  ix.  25,  about  538  B.C.
"We  have  found  the  Messias,  which  is,  being  in-
terpreted, the  Christ."  John  i.  41.  "The  Mes-
siah," Handel's  greatest  oratorio,  composed  by
him  in  twenty-three  days  (22  Aug. -14  Sept.  1741),
was  first  performed  at  Lublin,  13  April,  1742,  the
receipts  being  given  by  him  to  the  charities  of  that
city.

MESSINA  (Sicily),  so  named  by  the  Samians,
who  seized  this  city,  then  called  Zancle,  671  B.C.
It  was  seized  by  the  Mamertini  {which  see),  about
281  B.C.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman
empire  ;  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  about  a.d.  829.
Priestley.  Roger  the  Normaii  took  it  from  them  by
surprise,  about  1072.
Revolts  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  is  succoured

by  Peter  of  Aragon 1282

Revolts  in  favour  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  1676  ;

the  Spaniards  punish  it  severely  ....  1678
Almost  ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  eruption  of

Etna 1693

Nearly  depopulated  by  a  plague  ....  1740
Half  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  . . . .  1783

Head-quarters  of  the  British  forces  in  Sicily,  prior  to  1814
An  insurrection  here  subdued  ...  7  Feb.  1848
Garibaldi  enters  Messina  after  his  victory  at  Melazzo

20-21  July,  i860
The  citadel  surrenders  to  Cialdini  .  .  13  March,  1861
Population  i8go,  142,000.

METALS.  Tubal-Cain  is  mentioned  as  an
"  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."
(Gen.  iv.)  The  Phoenieians  had  great  skill  in
working  metals.  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff's  method
of  chemical  analysis  by  means  of  the  spectrurn  has
added  oacsium, rubidium,  thallium,  indium,  gallium,
and  others  to  the  known  metals.  See  Elements,
Mines,  Iron,  and  the  other  metals.  "  Metallurgy,"
published  by  Dr.  John  Percy,  1861-80;  he  died  19
June,  1889.

METAMOEPHISTS  in  the  15th  century
affirmed  that  Christ's  natural  body,  with  which  he
ascended  into  heaven,  was  wholly  deified.


METAPHYSICS.


632


METEORS.


METAPHYSICS,  the  science  of  abstract
reasoning,  or  that  which  contemplates  the  existence
of  things  without  relation  to  matter.  The  term,
literally  denoting  "after  physics,"  originated  from
these  »  ords  having  been  put  at  the  head  of  certain
essays  of  Aristotle,  which  follow  his  treatise  on
Physics.  Mackintosh.  Modern  metaphysics  arose
in  the  15th  century — the  period  when  an  extra-
ordinary impulse  was  given  to  the  study  of  the
human  mind  in  Emope,  commonly  called  the  "  re-
vival of  learning.''  Hobbes,  Cudworth,  S.  T.  Cole-
ridge, Dugald  Stuart,  and  sir  W.  Hamilton,  were
eminent  British  metaphysicians,  and  Descartes,
Pascal,  Kant,  Schilling,  and  Fichte,  foreign  ones.
See  Pliilosophy.

METAURUS,  a  river  in  central  Italy,  where
Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  was  defeated
and  slain,  207  B.C.,  when  marching  with  abundant
reinforcements.  The  Romans  were  led  by  Livius
and  Claudius  Nero,  the  consuls.  The  latter  com-
manded the  head  of  Hasdrubal  to  be  thrown  into
his  brother's  camp. The  victory  saved  Rome.

METEMPSYCHOSIS,  a  doctrine  attributed
to  Pythagoras,  about  528  B.C.,  asserts  the  trans-
migration of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another.
It  is  also  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who  would
eat  no  animal  food  lest  they  should  devour  the
bod}-  into  which  the  soul  of  a  deceased  friend  had
passed.  They  had  also  an  idea  that  so  long  as  the
body  of  the  deceased  was  kept  entire,  the  soul
would  not  transmigrate  ;  and  therefore  embalmed
the  dead. See  Buddhism.

METEOROGRAPH,  an  apparatus  for  the
invention  of  which  father  Secchi  of  Rome  received
a  prize  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition,  July,
1867.  It  is  self-acting,  and  registers  the  various
changes  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  a  dia-
gram.

METEOROLOGY  (from  the  Greek  meteoros,
aerial),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  phenomena
which  have  their  origin  in  the  air,  such  as  rain,
lightning,  meteors,  fogs,  &c.  Bacon,  Boyle,  and
Franklin  wrote  on  the  subject.

Meteorological  Society  of  the  Palatinate,  established
1780.

Meteorological  Society  of  London,  first  met,  15  Oct.
1823.

John  Dalton's  essay  on  meteorology  appeared  in  1793.

Luke  Howard's  work  on  the  clouds  appeared  in  1802,
and  his  "  Barometrographia  "  in  1848. See  Clouds.

Sir  W.  Reed  published  his  work  on  the  "  law  of  storms  "
in  1838.  The  works  of  Daniell  (1845),  Ksemtz  (1845),
Miiller  (1847),  ancl  Buehan  (1867)  are  esteemed.

The  "British"  Meteorological  Society,  established  in
1850,  chartered  in  1866,  became  Royal,  Oct.  1883.  By
the  exertions  of  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  long  the
secretary,  the  apparatus  at  Greenwich  was  erected  ;
and  meteorology  has  appeared  in  the  "  Greenwich
Observations "  since  1848.  See  Balloon — Scientific
Ascents.

The  royal  meteorological  society's  annual  exhibitions
began  in  1880.

Meteorological  observatories  have  been  erected  in  all
parts  of  the  globe.

The  Meteorological  department  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  es-
tablished in  1855,  under  admiral  Fitzroy,  commenced
the  publication  of  reports  in  1857.  The  admiral  pub-
lished his  "Weather-Book"  in  1863.  His  exertions
are  said  to  have  overworked  his  brain  ;  and  on  30
April,  1865,  he  died  by  his  own  hand.  The  Meteoro-
logical office  was  soon  after  placed  under  the  direction
of  Mr.  Robert  H.  Scott.  It  has  issued  apparatus  and
instruction  books  to  captains  of  ships  and  established
observatories  in  many  places  in  the  empire.  It  was
handed  over  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1871,  and  endowed
by  Mr.  J.  P.  Gassiot.

The  Kew  meteorological  observatory  given  to  the  British
Association  in  April, i860. It  was  placed  under  the


Meteorological  council  nominated  by  the  Royal  Society,
but  appointed  by  the  treasury.  R.  H.  Scott,  secretary,
July,  1877.

At  the  recommendation  of  M.  Le  Vernier  and  admiral
Fitzroy,  meteorological  information,  obtained  by  the
telegraph  from  the  principal  places  in  the  United  King-
dom, has  been  transmitted  daily  to  Paris,  and  thence
to  other  parts  of  Europe  since  1  Sept.  i860.

Storm-warnings  first  issued  in  Holland  through  M.
Buys  Ballot,  i860.  His  "law  of  the  winds"  points-
out  the  relation  between  the  direction  of  the  wind,
and  the  atmospheric  pressure.

Storm-warnings  hrst  sent  to  the  coast  by  the  Board  of
Trade,  6  Feb.  ;  and  first  published  31  July,  1861  ;  sus-
pended, 7  Dec.  1866  ;  restoration  proposed,  Nov.  1867  ;
reissued  at  Christmas  1867,  and  have  been  since
continued.

Daily  international  bulletin  of  the  imperial  observatory
at  Paris,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Le  Verrier,  fiist
published  in  MS.  1  Jan.  1858,  first  issued  to  subscribers,
4  Nov.  1863.  (This  was  the  first  chart  with  united
maps.)

"  Daily  weather  charts  "  first  issued  by  the  Meteorological
Office,  1  Oct.  (first  prepared  in  M.S.  3  Sept.  1860)1872;
"  Weekly  Weather  Report"  first  published,  n  Feb.  1878.

International  Meteorological  congress  at  Vienna,  2-16
Sept.  1873  ;  at  Rome  14-22  April,  1879  ;  and  at  Berne,
9-12  Aug.  1880.

"  Weather  Charts  and  Storm  Warnings,"  by  R.  H.  Scott,
published,  1876  et  seq.

Wrecks  diminished  in  consequence,  June  1876-7,  1805  ;
1879-81,  891.

Circular  issued  relating  to  a  new  plan  for  obtaining  in-
formation from  ships  at  sea,  &e.,  14  April,  1882.

Observatory  erected  on  Ben  Nevis  ;  Mr.  R.  T.  Omond
appointed  director,  6  Sept.;  opened  17  Oct.  1883.  New
tower  erected,  1884.

A  French  academy  of  meteorology  organised  a  successful
balloon  ascent,  9  Aug.  1879.

An  observatory  on  Sonnblick  Salzburg  (10,177  feet
high),  opened  about  1  Sept.  1886.

Daily  forecasts  for  midland  counties,  1886,  310.  Absolute
successes  247,  absolute  failures  26  ;  and  partial  or
doubtful  successes  36,  announced  in  Times,  7  Feb.
1887.

Weather  plant  (Abrus  precatorius)  exhibited  by  professor
Nowak  at  Vienna  ;  changes  in  the  weather  said  to  be
foretold  by  alteration  in  the  leaves  attributed  to  electro-
magnetism  in  24  to  48  hours  previously,  Aug. -Sept
1888.  The  plant  is  grown  in  the  Botanical  society's,
gardens,  London.  Many  other  plants  possess  this,
property  (W.  So-werby),  Sept.  1888.  During  the  experi-
ments made  at  the  Jodrell  laboratory,  Kew,  by
Dr.  Oliver  and  Herr  Joseph  Nowack  in  October  1S89,
when  many  weather  changes  occurred,  only  one  fore-
cast was  given  by  the  weather  plant  which  therefore
cannot  be  relied  upon  for  meteorological  purposes.

International  Meteorological  Congress  at  Munich  26  Aug.
et  seq.  1891.

The  13th  annual  exhibition  of  meteorological  apparatus,
London,  opened  15  March  1892.

See  Barometer,  Thermometer,  &c.

METEORS, Luminous, include shooting

stars,  tire-balls,  and  falling  stones  or  aerolites.
They  were  described  by  Halley,  Wallis,  and  others
early  in  the  17th  century.  The  periodicity  of  the
star  showers  about  the  10th  of  August  (termed  in
the  middle  ages  St.  Lawrence's  tears)  was  dis-
covered separately  by  Quetelet,  1836,  and  by  Her-
rick  in  1837.  The  following  are  remarkable  epochs
for  their  annual  return  : —2  Jan.;  29  July;  3  and
9-12  Aug. ;  8-14  Nov. ;  11  Dec.  It.  1\  Greg.  See
August.

The  magnificent  continuous  star-shower  of  14  Nov.  1866,
had  been  predicted  by  professor  Newton  some  time
previously.  A  fine  display  occurred  on  the  night  of
13  Nov.  1868,  in  the  United  States.  A  similar  phenome-
non had  been  witnessed  by  Humboldt  at  Cumana
(S.  A.),  12  Nov.  1799  ;  and  by  Dr.  D.  Olmsted,  at  New-
haven  (U.S.),  13  Nov.  1833.  They  were  well  observed  in
Britain  and  Europe,  27  Nov.  1872  ;  and  in  Southern
and  Western  Europe,  27  Nov.  1885.
AKrolites,  falling-stones,  accompanying  meteors,  are
found  in  our  museums.  They  contain  iron,  nickel,  and
other  minerals.


METHOD.


634 METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION.


Mr.  Norman  Lockyer  announces  his  theory,  based  on
spectrum  experiments  that  all  self-luminous  bodies  in
the  celestial  spaces  are  composed  of  meteorites  or
masses  of  vapour  produced  by  heat  brought  about  by
condensation  of  meteor  swarms  due  to  gravity,  royal
.•society,  17  Nov.  1887.

.METHOD  (Greek,  a  way  of  transit) ,  that  which.
•gives  to  knowledge  its  character.  S.  T.  Coleridge's
(treatise  en  the  science  of  method  is  prefixed  to  the
first  volume  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana."
£845.

'The  most  recent  work  on this subject is Professor
• Stanley  Jevons'  "  Principles  of  Science  :  a  Treatise  on
Logic  and  Scientific  Method,"  1874. "  The  powers  of
mind  concerned  in  creation  of  science  are  discrimina-
tion, detection  of  identity,  and  retention."

METHODISTS,  see  Wesleycms.

METHUEN  TREATY,  a  treaty  for  regulat-
ing the  commei'ee  between  Great  Britain  and  Portu-
gal, made  27  Dec.  1 703,  concluded  by  Paul  Methuen,
<our  ambassador  at  Lisbon.  It  greatly  favoured  the
importation  of  port  wine  into  this  country  by
lowering  the  duty,  to  the  discouragement  of  French
wines. It  was  abrogated  in  1834.

METHYL,  a  colourless  inodorous  gas,  a  com-
pound of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  obtained  in  the
free  state  first  by  Frankland  and  Kolbe  separately,
in  1849.

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act

passed  in  1855  a  mixture  of  spirits  of  wine  with  10
per  cent,  of  its  hulk  of  wood-naphtha,  or  methylic
alcohol,  is  allowed  to  be  made  duty  free  for  use  in
the  arts  and  manufactures,  not  less  than  450  gal-
lons being  made  at  one  time.  In  1861  an  act  was
passed  permitting  the  methylated  spirits  to  be  re-
tailed by  licence. -

METONIC  CYCLE,  a  period  of  19  years,  or
6940  days,  at  the  end  of  which  the  changes  of  the
moon  fall  on  the  same  days ;  see  Calippic  Period,
Golden  Number.

METRIC  SYSTEM.  Before  the  revolution
(there  was  no  uniformity  in  French  weights  and  mea-
sures. On  8  May,  1790,  the  constituent  assembly
•charged  the  Academy  of  Sciences  with,  the  organisa-
tion of  a  better  system.  The  committee  named  for
the  purpose  by  the  academy  included  the  names  of
Bertholiet,  Borda,  Delambre,  Lagrange,  Laplace,
Mecbain,  and  Prony.  Delambre  and  Mechain  were
charged  with  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meri-
dian between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  and  from  their
calculations  the  metre,  which  is  equal  to  a  ten-mil-
lionth part  of  the  distance  between  the  poles  and  the
.equator  (3-2808  English  feet)  was  made  the  unit  of
length  and  the  base  of  the  system  by  law  on  7  April,
1795.  The  system  was  completed  in  1799,  aud  made
by  law  the  only  legal  one  on  2  Nov.  1801.  A  decree
on  12  Feb.  accommodated  the  old  measures  to  the
new  system ;  but  on  4  July,  1837,  it  was  decreed
that  after.  1  Jan.  1840,  the  metric  and  decimal
system  in  its  primitive  simplicity  should  be  used  in
ail  business  transactions.  The  example  of  France
has  been  followed  by  the  greater  part  of  Europe
and  will  probably  in  time  be  adopted  in  the  British'
empire.
Unit of Surface, ceniiare=a, square metre=fi96o

English  yard  (a  square  decametre  or  are— 100  square

metres).
Unit  of  Volume  or  Solidity,  sthre—a,  cubit  metre.
Unit  of  Capacity,  litre=a,  cubic  decimetre  (or  lothofa

metre)=i '76077  English  pint.
Unit  of  Weight,  ?ramme=weight  of  a  cubic  centimetre

(the  100th  part  of  a  metre)  of  distilled  water=o'56438

English  drachm.
Unit  of  Money,  the  franc,  a  piece  of  silver  weighing  5

grammes.


The  multiples  of  these  units  are  expressed  by  Greek
numerals  (deca-,  10  ;  hekato-,  100  ;  kilo-,  1000  ;  myria-,
10,000.  The  divisors  are  expressed  by  Latin  numerals
(deci-,  10  ;  centi-,  100 ;  milli-,  1000).

Sir  John  Wrottesley  brought  the  subject  before
parliament 25  Feb.  1824

A  commission  of  inquiry  appointed  at  the  instance
of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  Spring
Rice  (since  lord  Monteagle) . . . May,  1838

Another  commission  was  appointed  (both  consisted
of  eminent  scientific  men,  and  reported  strongly
in  favour  of  the  change) . . .20  June,  1843

A  committee  of  the  house  of  commons  reported  to
the  same  effect 1  Aug.  1853

Mr.  Gladstone,  admitting  the  advantages  of  the
system,  thought  its  introduction  premature.

Decimal  Association  formed  for  the  purpose  of
obtaining  the  adoption  of  the  system . June,  1854

Another  commission  for  inquiry  was  appointed,
consisting  of  lords  Monteagle  and  Overstone,  and
Mr.  J.  G.  Hubbard,  who  published  a  preliminary
report  (with  evidence),  but  expressed  no  opinion,

Nov. 1855

An  International  Decimal  Association  formed  in . „

The  decimal  currency  adopted  in  Canada 1  Jan.  1858

The  new  weights  and  measures  bill  (an  approxima-
tion to  the  decimal  system)  was  passed . . 1862

An  act  passed  "to  render  permissive  the  use  of  the
metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,"  29  July,  1864
(repealed  by  weights  and  measures  act,  1878).

A  bill  for  the  compulsory  adoption  of  the  metric
system  rejected  by  the  commons  . . 26  July,  1871

Meeting  at  the  Mansion-house,  London,  advocating
its  adoption 17  Jan. 1872

International  Congress  to  promote  the  universal
adoption  of  the  metric  system . . 24  Sept. ,,

International  convention  for  adopting  metric  sys-
tem, signed  at  .Paris,  by  representatives  of
Austria,  Germany,  Russia,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,
Turkey,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Denmark,
United  States  of  America,  Argentine  Republic,
Brazil;  and  Peru,  20  May,  1875,  England . 1884

The  system  (to  come  into  force  in  1889)  adopted  by
Sweden May,  1876

International  congress  on  weights  and  measures
met  at  Paris 4  Sept.  1878

Adoption  of  decimal  system  proposed  in  house  of
commons  by  Mr.  Ashton  W.  Dilke  ;  negatived
(108-28) 29  March,  1881

METRONOME,  to  regulate  time  in  the  per-
formance of  music.  A  metronome  with  double
pendulum,  invented  by  Winkel,  was  adopted  suc-
cessfully by  Maelzel,  and  patented  by  him  in
1816.

METROPOLIS  op  Great  Britain  in-
cludes the  cities  of  London  and  "Westminster,  and
the  boroughs  of  Southwark,  Finsbury,  Maryle-
bone,  Tower- Hamlets,  Hackney,  Lambeth,  and
Chelsea,  in  which  great  changes  were  made  by  the
re-distribution  of  seats  act,  1885.  The  Metropolis
Management  Act,  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  122,  was  passed  in
1855  ;  estimated  gross  value  of  property,  6  April,
1889,  38,462,493/.;  rateable,  31,592,387/.;  see
Loudon.

METROPOLIS  ROADS  ACT  (passed  in
1863)  transferred  the  management  of  certain  roads
north  of  the  Thames  from  the  commissioners  to  the
parishes,  and  abolished  certain  turnpikes  and  toll-
bars.

METROPOLIS  WATER  ACT,  1852,
amended,  187 1.

METROPOLITAN  (from  the  Greek  metro-
polis), a  title  given  at  the  council  of  Nice,  325,  to
certain  bishops  who  had  jurisdiction  over  others  in
a  province.

METROPOLITAN  ASSOCIATION  for
Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  In-
dustrious Classes.  Founded  15  Sept.  1841 ;
incorporated  16  Oct.  1845.

Capital originally 100,000?.  ; increased to 200,000^.


METEOPOLITAN  BOAKD  OF  WOEKS.  635 METEOPOLITAN  STEEETS  ACT.


(1884).  Dividend  not  to  exceed  5  per  cent.  Secretary,
and  chief  originator,  Mr.  Charles  Gatliff;  offices,  118,
Finsbury-circus.  The  late  rt.  hon.  lord  Claud  Hamilton
member  1845-84  ;  chairman  for  13  years.

METEOPOLITAN  BOAED  of  WOEKS

was  established  by  18  &  19  Vict.  c.  120  (1855),*
amended  in  1862.  It  held  its  first  meeting  and
elected  Mr.  (aftds.  sir)  John  Thwaites  as  chairman,
22  Dec.  1855.  The  office  was  in  Spring-gardens.  In
1858,  its  powers  were  extended  in  order  to  effect  the
purification  of  the  Thames  by  constructing  a  new
main  drainage  for  the  metropolis.  The  board  was
authorised  to  raise  a  loan  and  levy  3d.  in  the  pound
on  the  property  in  the  metropolis.  It  was  also
authorised  to  construct  the  Thames  Embankment.
In  1861  the  board  received  nearly  a  million  pounds,
and  expended  900,000/.  ;  see  Sewage,  and  Thames.
Sir  John  Thwaites,  the  chairman,  died  8  Aug.  1870,
aged  55.  Much  discussidn  ensued  respecting  the
appointment  of  his  successor  ;  Mr.  Bruce,  the  home
secretary,  having  intimated  the  probability  of  the
office  being  abolished  by  parliament,  with  other
changes,  II  Aug.  Col.  (aftds.  sir)  James  Mac-
naghten  McGarel  Hogg  (created  baron  Maghera-
raorne,  June,  1887),  a  member  of  the  board,  was
elected  chairman  for  one  year,  18  Nov.  1870 ;
annually  till  1889  (he  died  27  June,  1890).  The
board  was  empowered  to  borrow  money  by  acts
passed  1869-87.  Its  powers  extended  over  117
square  miles,  and  3,266,287  persons  in  1873.  It  was
composed  of  delegates  from  various  local  boards,  &c.
Royal  commission  of  inquiry  into  the  working  of
the  board  appointed  by  parliament,  1888.  Lord
Herschell  chairman ;  charges  against  Messrs.
Robertson,  Goddard,  and  others ;  many  dismissed

June-July,  1888
The commissioners' "  interim " report discloses
cases  of  negligence, inefficiency, irregularities,
errors in judgment, and some evidence of

corruption Nov. „

The  eminent  engineer  of  the  Board,  sir  Joseph
Bazalgette,  appointed  1856;  resigns  Feb.  1889;

he  died 15  March,  1891

The  board  was  abolished  by  the  local  government
act  of  1888,  and  its  powers,  duties,  property,
debts  and  liabilities  transferred  to  the  London
county  council,  beginning  21  April,  1889  ;  carried
into effect by the local government board,

21  March, ,,
The  board  accepted  a  tender  for  the  construction
of  a  tunnel  from  Blackwall  to  Greenwich  for
318,840^. from Messrs. S. Pearson & Sons,

15  March, ,,
Final  report  of  the  commission  issued . 4  May „

METEOPOLITAN  BUILDING  ACTS,
see  Building.

METEOPOLITAN  CATTLE  MAEKET,

inaugurated  by  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation  on
Wednesday,  13  July,  1855,  in  presence  of  the  prince
consort.  It  is  situated  in  Copenhagen-fields,  an
elevated  site  north  of  London,  occupying  an  area  of
about  fifteen  acres,  larger  by  nine  acres  than  Smith-
field,  and  capable  of  containing  30,000  sheep,  6400
bullocks,  1400  calves,  and  900  pigs.  In  the  centre
is  a  circular  building,  let  to  bankers  and  others
having  business  connected  with  graziers  and  cattle-
agents.  Within  and  around  the  market  are  erected
several  large  taverns.  A  place  is  set  apart  for
slaughtering  animals,  with  approved  appliances  for
purposes  of  health,  by  ventilation,  sewerage*,  &c. ;
there  is  also  a  place  for  haystands.  Sales  com-
menced on  Friday,  15  June,  1855. — An  act  for
establishing  a  meat  and  poultry  market  in  Smith-
field  {.which  see)  was  passed  in  i860.

*  "  For  the  management  of  public  works  in  which  the
metropolis  has  a  common  interest."


METEOPOLITAN  COMMONS.  Acts  re-
specting them  passed  1866,  1869,  and  1878.  See
Commons.

METEOPOLITAN  CONVALESCENT
INSTITUTION,  Fire  Brigade,  and
HOUSELESS  POOR.  See  Convalescent,  Fire
Brigade,  and  Houseless  Poor.

METEOPOLITAN  DISTEICT  ASY-
LUM BOAED,  instituted  by  parliament  in  1867,
proceeded  to  erect  hospitals  at  Haverstock-hill,
Caterham,  &c,  1868,  causing  much  discontent  in
several  parishes.  The  asylum  for  idiots  at  Leaves-
den,  near  Watford,  Herts,  inaugurated  27  Sept.
1870.  An  act  respecting  the  board  passed  in  1884.
The  epidemic  of  fevers,  especially  scarlet,  caused

greatly  increased  demand  for  accommodation  for

patients,  well  met Sept. 1887-Jan.  1888. The

spread  of  small-pox  greatly  checked.

METEOPOLITAN DBAINAGE, see

Sewers.

METEOPOLITAN  DEINKING  FOUN-
TAIN and  Cattle  Trough  Association  ;

founded  1859. See  Drinking  Fountains.

METEOPOLITAN MEAT MAEKET,

Smithtield,  erecied  in  accordance  with  an  act  passed
in  i860,  was  inaugurated  by  the  lord  mayor,  James
Lawrence,  24  Nov.  1868,  and  opened  for  business,
I  Dec.

METEOPOLITAN  MUNICIPAL  ASSO-
CIATION met  11  Dec.  1866.

METEOPOLITAN  POLICE  ACTS,  1829
et  seq.,  consolidated  in  1887.

METEOPOLITAN  POLICE  MAGIS-
TRATES, see  Magistrates  and  Police.

METEOPOLITAN  POOE  ACT,  "for  the
establishment  in  the  metropolis  of  asylums  for  the
sick,  insane,  and  other  classes  of  the  poor,"  passed
29  March,  1867;  was  amended  in  1869;  see  Poor.

METEOPOLITAN  EAILWAY  {Under-
ground}, at  first  between  Paddington  and  "Victoria-
street,  near  Holborn.  The  act  for  it  passed  in  1853  ;
the  construction  began  in  the  spring  of  i860 ;  and  it
was  opened  for  traffic,  10  Jan.  1863.  Many  serious
difficulties  were  overcome  with  great  skill  and
energy  by  the  engineer,  John  Fowler,  and  the  con-
tractors, Jay,  Smith,  and  Knight.  In  the  first  six
months  of  1865  there  were  7,462,823  passengers.
It  has  been  continued  and  there  is  now  an  Inner
and  Outer  Circle,  and  it  has  been  supplemented  by
the  Metropolitan  Districts  Railway.

METEOPOLITAN SCHOOL BOAED,

instituted  by  the  Elementary  Education  act,  1870,
was  elected  29  Nov.  1870  (for  three  years).  It  in-
cluded lord  Lawrence,  lord  Sandon,  professor  Hux-
ley, Miss  Garrett,  M.D.,  and  Miss  Davies.  At  its
first  meeting,  15  Dec,  lord  Lawrence  was  elected
chairman,  and  Mr.  C.  Reed,  M.P.,  vice-chairman;
and  it  was  decided  that  the  chairman  should  be
unpaid  at  present.  On  27  Nov.  1873,  30  Nov.  1876,
and  27  Nov.  1879,  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Charles
Reed  was  elected  chairman.  He  died  25  March,
1881,  succeeded  bvMr.  Edwd.  North  Buxton.  Rev.
J.  R.  Diggle,  elected  chairman,  3  Dec.  1885;  re-
elected A  Oee.  1888.  and  3  Dec.  1891.  For  history,
&c.,  see  Education.  1870  etseq.

METEOPOLITAN  STEEETS  ACT

(30  &  31  Vict.  c.  134)  "  for  regulating  the  traffic  in
the  metropolis,  and  for  making  provision  for  the
greater  security of  persons passing through  the


METTRAY.


636


MEXICO.


streets,"  passed  20  Aug.  1867.  A  short,  act,  modi-
fying the  clauses  relating  to  costermongers  and  cabs,
was  passed  7  Dec.  1867.

METTEAY,  see  Reformatory  Schools.

METZ,  a  fortified  city  in  Lorraine,  annexed  to
the  empire  of  Germany,  10  May,  1871.  It  was
the  Roman  JDivodunum  or  Meti,  capital  of  the
Mediomatrici,  a  powerful  Gaulish  tribe,  and  after-
wards of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  or  Metz,  in  the
6th  century.  It  was  made  a  free  imperial  city,  985.
It  was  besieged  by  Charles  VII.  of  France  for  seven
months  in  1444,  and  was  ransomed  for  100,000
florins  ;  was  captured  by  Henry  II.,  10  April,  1552,
and  successfully  defended  by  the  duke  of  Guise
against  the  emperor  Charles  V.  with  an  army  of
100,000  men,  31  Oct.  1552  to  15  Jan.  1553.  Metz
Avas  ceded  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,
24  Oct.  1648,  and  was  fortified  by  Vauban  and  Belle-
isle.  On  28  July,  1870,  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.
arrived  at  Metz  and  assumed  the  chief  command.
After  the  disastrous  defeats  at  Woerth  and  Forbach,
on  6  Aug.  the  whole  French  army  (except  the  corps
of  MacMahon,  De  Failly,  and  Douay)  was  concen-
trated here,  10,  II  Aug.,  and  by  delay  was  hemmed
in  by  the  Germans.  Marshal  Bazaine  assumed  the
chief  command,  8  Aug.  The  emperor  departed  with
the  vanguard,  which  crossed  the  Moselle  early  on
14  Aug. Population,  1890,  60,194.

1.  Battle  of  Pange  or  Courcelles,  gained  by  the

first  army  under  Von  Steinmetz,  after  several
hours'  fighting,  with  great  German  loss,

14  Aug. 1870
Bazaine  was  censured  for  not  advancing  on

15  Aug. „

2.  Battle  of  Vionville  or  Mars-la-Tour,  gained  by

the  2nd  army  under  prince  Frederick  Charles,
after  twelve  hours'  fighting.  By  the  unex-
pected unmasking  of  a  mitrailleuse  battery,
Henry,  prince  of  Reuss,  and  many  German
nobles  were  killed  in  a  few  moments.  The
victory  was  at  first  claimed  by  the  French.
(This  battle,  the  most  sanguinary  in  the  war
hitherto,  included  a  Balaclava  charge  of  a
German  regiment  of  cavalry  upon  a  French
battery,  by  which  it  was  decimated,  but  to
which  the  victory  was  greatly  due.  Twice  as
many  Germans  were  killed  as  at  Koniggratz,
the  killed  and  wounded  being  estimated  at
17,000.  The  French  loss  was  said  to  have
been  equally  great)  .  .  .  16  Aug.  1870
Bazaine  masses  his  troops  for  a  decisive  conflict,

17  Aug. „
3 Battle  of  Rezonville  or  Gravelotte,  gained  by

the  combined  1st  and  2nd  armies,  commanded
by  the  king  in  person,  after  twelve  hours'
fighting.  "  The  most  desperate  struggle  took
place  on  the  slopes  over  Gravelotte,  which
the  Germans  gained  by  nightfall,  after  re-
peated fatal  charges  ;  the  fortune  of  the  day
being  long  in  suspense.  But  the  right  of  the
French  had  been  outflanked,  they  fell  back
fighting  to  the  last,  and  retired  under  cover
of  Metz.  The  French  are  said  to  have  lost
19,000  ;  and  the  Germans,  25,000."  (The  king,
on  the  19th,  had  not  undressed  for  thirty  '
hours.  The  carnage  is  considered  to  have
been  unexampled  ;  a  large  number  of  French
prisoners  were  made  ;  and  enormous  loss  was
experienced  by  the  imperial  guard.  The  Ger-
man army  included  Saxons  and  Hessians),

18  Aug. „
Bazaine  repulsed  in  a  sortie  at  Courcelles,  near  Metz

(he  claimed  a  victory) ...  26  Aug. „

His  whole  army  defeated  by  gen.  Manteuffel  of  the
army  of  prince  Frederick  Charles,  in  a  battle
lasting  from  the  morning  of  31  Aug.  to  noon,

1  Sept. „
Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince
Frederick  Charles  sole  commander  before  Metz,

21  Sept. ,,
Three  vigorous  but  ineffective  sallies,

23,  24,  27  Sept. ,,


About  100,000  soldiers  estimated  in  Metz,  30  Sept. 1870

Great  sortie  ;  the  Germans  surprised  ;  about  40,000
French  engaged  ;  they  are  repulsed  after  a  severe
engagement  from  3  p.m.  till  dark ;  loss  about  2000
French  and  600  Germans ... 7  Oct. „

About  600  oxen  and  500  sheep  captured  during  a
sortie 8  Oct. „

General  Boyer  arrives  at  Versailles  to  treat  for
terms  of  capitulation .... 14  Oct. ,,

Metz  surrenders  with  the  army,  including  marshals
Bazaine,  Canrobert,  and  Le  Bceuf ;  66  generals ;
about  6000  officers  ;  173,000  men,  including  the
imperial  guard ;  400  pieces  of  artillery ;  100
mitrailleuses  ;  and  53  eagles  or  standards,  27  Oct. ,,

The  capitulation  was  signed  at  Frescati  by  generals
Jarras  and  Stiehle  on  behalf  of  the  French  and
German  commanders . . ... 27  Oct. „

General  order  to  the  army  issued  by  marshal  Bazaine,
saying  that  they  were  "conquered  by  famine,"

27  Oct. „

Order  to  the  army  issued  by  prince  Frederick
Charles,  recognising  their  bravery,  great  obedi-
ence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion,

27  Oct. „

The  Germans  enter  Metz ... 29  Oct. ,,

One  cause  of  the  fall  of  Metz  was  the  great  army  it
contained  ;  it  might  have  been  successfully  de-
fended by  20,000  men.

Marshal  Bazaine  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death
for  surrendering  Metz  and  the  army,  6  Oet.-
10  Dec.  ;  punishment  commuted  to  20  years'
imprisonment,  12  Dec.  ;  he  escaped  from  Isle  St.
Marguerite 9  Aug.  1874

The  German  emperor  and  empress  were  well  re-
ceived at  Metz 23  Aug.  1889

See  France.

MEXICO,  anciently  Anahuac,  N.  America,  is
said  to  have  been  conquered  by  the  Aztecs,  who
founded  the  city  of  Mexico  about  1325.  It  was  dis-
covered in  15 1 7,  and  conquered  by  Fernando  Cortez,
1519-21 ;  explored  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,
1799-1804.  It  consL-ts  of  27  confederate  states.  It
is  stated  that  there  have  been  above  260  insurrec-
tions in  Mexico  since  1821.  Population,  1874,
about  9,276,079 ;  10,447,974  in  1882 ;  1890,
",395.712;  the  city,  Mexico,  329,535.

Montezuma  emperor 1503

Cortes  lands,  1519;  captures  the  city  of  Mexico . 1521
Mexico  constituted  a  kingdom. Cortes,  governor . 1522
Mendoza,  first  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  1530;  estab-
lishes a  mint 1535

Unsuccessful  insurrections  of  Miguel  Hidalgo,  1810;

of  Morelos,  1815  ;  of  Mina 1817

Mexico  declared independent by the treaty of

Aquala 23  Aug.  1821

Augustin  Iturbide,  president  of  a  provisionaljunto,
Feb. ;  Mexico  formed  into  an  empire  ;  the  crown
declined  by  Spain ;  Iturbide  made  emperor,  May,  1822
Compelled  to  abdicate  .... 26  March,  1823
Mexican  federal  republic  proclaimed . 4  Oct. ,,
Iturbide  went  to  England  ;  returns  and  endeavours

to  recover  his  dignity ;  shot  . . .19  July,  ^24
Federal  constitution  established  . . . Oct. ,,
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain  April,  1825

Expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  decreed  . March,  1829

Spanish  expedition against Mexico surrendered,

26  Sept. „
Mexican  revolution : the  president  Guerrero de-
posed 23  Dec. ,,

Santa  Anna  president 11  May,  1833

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil,

June,  T830;  by  Spain  ....  28  Dec.  1836
Declaration  of  war  against  France  .  .  30  Nov.  1838
This  war  terminated  ....  9  March,  1839
War  with  the  United  States  .  .  .  4  June,  1845
The  Mexicans  defeated  at  Palo  Alto,  and  at  Mata-

moras 8  May,  1846

Santa  Fe  captured,  22  Aug.  ;  and  Monterey,  24  Sept. „
Battle  of  Buena  Vista ;  the  Mexicans  defeated  by
general  Taylor,  with  great  loss,  after  two  days'

fighting 22  Feb.  1847

The  Americans, under  general  Scott, defeat  the

Mexicans  at  Cerro  Gorda . . .18  April, ,,
The  Mexicans  beaten  in  several  actions; Mexico
taken  by  assault  by  general  Scott . 15  Sept. ,,


MEXICO.


637


MEXICO.


Treaty  of  peace  ratified . . . .19  May,

Political  convulsions ....  Sept.

President  Arista  resigns,  6  Jan. ;  and  Santa  Anna
returns,  Feb. ;  dictator . . . 16  Dec.

He  abdicates ;  Carera  elected  president .  Jan.

Who  also  abdicates ;  succeeded  first  by  Alvarez,
and  afterwards  by  general  Comonfort . Dec.

Property  of  the  clergy  sequestrated . 31  March,

New  constitution  established . . .5  Feb.

Beginning  of  a  reformed  Church  by  Aguilar  and
others

Comonfort  chosen  president . . . July,

Coup  d'etat ;  constitution  annulled  by  the  church
party ;  Comonfort  compelled  to  retire,  1 1  Jan. ;
general  Zuloaga  takes  the  government,  21-26  Jan.

Benito  Juarez  declared  constitutional  president  at
Vera  Cruz 11  Feb.

Civil  war :  several  engagements . Aug.  to  Nov.

General  Miguel  Miramon  nominated  president  at
Mexico  by  the  Junta 6  Jan.

Zuloaga  abdicates 2  Feb.

In  consequence  of  injury  to  British  subjects,  ships
of  war  sent  to  Mexico .... Feb.

Miramon  forces  the  lines  of  the  liberal  generals,
enters  the  capital,  assumes  his  functions  as
governor,  and  governs  without  respect  to  the
laws  of  life  and  property . . .10  April,

Juarez  confiscates  the  church  property 13  July,

Miramon  and  the  clerical  party  defeat  the  liberals
under  Colinia 21  Dec.

He  besieges  Vera  Cruz,  5  March;  bombards  it;
compelled  to  raise  the  siege . . 21  March,

General  Zuloaga  deposes  Miramon,  and  assumes
the  presidency  ....  1  May,

Miramon  arrests  Zuloaga,  9  May ;  the  diplomatic
bodies  suspend  official  relations  with  the  former,

10  May,

Miramon  defeated  by  Degollado . . 10  Aug.

He  governs  Mexico  with  great  tyranny;  seizes
152,000/.  belonging  to  English  bondholders,  Sept.;
the  foreign  ministers  quit  the  city . . Oct.

He  is  defeated  ;  compelled  to  retire ;  Juarez  enters
Mexico,  11  Jan. ;  re-elected  president . . 19  Jan.

Juarez  made  dictator  by  the  congress  . 30  June,

The  Mexican  congress  decides  to  suspend  payments
to  foreigners  for  two  years . .  17  July,

Which  leads  to  the  breaking  off  diplomatic  relations
with  England  and  France  . -27  July,

In  consequence  of  many  gross  outrages  on  foreign-
ers, the  British,  French,  and  Spanish  govern-
ments, after  much  vain  negotiation,  claiming
efficient  protection  of  foreigners,  and  the  payment
of  arrears  due  to  fundholders,  sign  a  convention
engaging  to  combined  hostile  operations  against
Mexico 31  Oct.

The  Mexican  congress  dissolves,  after  conferring
full  powers  on  the  president . -15  Dec.

Spanish  troops  land  at  Vera  Cruz,  8  Dec;  it  sur-
renders 17  Dec.

A  British  naval  and  French  military  expedition
arrives 7,  8  Jan.

The  Mexicans  resist,  and  invest  Vera  Cruz ;  their
taxes  raised  25  per  cent Jan.

Miramon  arrives,  but  is  sent  back  to  Spain  by
the  British  admiral Feb.

Project  of  establishing  a  Mexican  monarchy,  for
archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria,  disapproved  of
by  British  and  Spanish  governments . Feb.

Negotiation  ensues  between  the  Spanish  and  Mexi-
cans ;  convention  between  the  commissaries  of
the  allies  and  the  Mexican  general  Doblado,  at
Soledad 19  Feb.

The  Mexican  general  Marquez  takes  up  arms
against  Juarez ;  and  general  Almonte  joins  the
French  general  Lorencez  ;  Juarez  demands  a  com-
pulsory loan,  and  puts  Mexico  in  a  state  of  siege,

March,

Conference  between  plenipotentiaries  of  the  allies
at  Orizaba;  the  English  and  Spanish  declare  for
peace,  which  is  not  agreed  to  by  the  French,
9 April ; who declare war against Juarez,

16  April,

The  Spanish  and  British  forces  retire ;  the  French
government  sends reinforcements  to Lorencez,

May,

The  French,  induced  by  Marquez,  advance  into
the  interior;  severely  repulsed  by  Zaragoza,  at
Fort  Guadaloupe,  near  Puebla » . 5  May,


1853
1855


1857


1862


Juarez  quits  the  capital  ... 31  May,  1862

The  French  defeat  the  Mexicans  at  Cerro  de  Borgo,
near  Orizaba 13,  14  June, ,,

The  Mexican  liberals  said  to  be  desirous  of  nego-
tiation Aug. „

Gen.  Forey  and  2500  French  soldiers  land 28  Aug. ,,

Letter  from  the  emperor  Napoleon  to  Lorencez
disclaiming  any  intention  of  imposing  a  govern-
ment on  Mexico ;  announced  . . Sept. ,,

Death  of  Zaragoza,  a  great  loss  to  the  Mexicans,

8  Sept. „

Gen.  Forey  deprives  Almonte  of  the  presidency  at
Vera  Cruz,  and  appropriates  the  civil  and  mili-
tary power  to  himself .... Oct. ,,

Ortega  takes  command  of  the  Mexicans  19  Oct. ,,

The  Mexican  congress  assembles,  and  protests
against  the  French  invasion . . . 27  Oct. ,,

The  French  evacuate  Tampico . . 13  Jan. 1863

Forey  marches  towards  Mexico  . . .24  Feb. ,,

Siege  of  Puebla;  bravely  defended,  29  March;
severe  assault,  31  March  to  3  April ;  it  is  sur-
rendered at  discretion  by  Ortega . . 18  May, ,,

Juarez  and  the  republican  government  remove  to
San  Luis  de  Potosi .  . . 31  May, ,,

Mexico  occupied  by  the  French,  under  Bazaine,
5  June ;  Forey  and  his  army  enter,  10  June ;  pro-
visional government ,,

Assembly  of  notables  at  Mexico  decide  on  the  es-
tablishment of  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,
with  a  Roman  Catholic  prince  as  emperor ;  and
otter  the  crown  to  the  archduke  Maximilian  of
Austria  :  a  regency  established  . . 6-10  July, ,,

The  French  re-occupy  Tampico . . 11  Aug. ,,

Marshal  Forey  resigns  his  command  to  Bazaine,
and  returns  to  France . . . .1  Oct. ,,

The  archduke  Maximilian  will  accept  the  crown  if
it  be  the  will  of  the  people . . . 3  Oct. ,,

The  Mexican  general  Comonfort  surprised  and  shot
by  partisans 12  Nov. ,,

Successful  advance  of  the  imperialists ;  Juarez
retires  from  San  Luis  de  Potosi,  18  Dec.  ;  it  is
entered  by  the  imperialists . . . 24  Dec. ,,

The  French  occupy  various  places  Jan.  &  Feb. 1864

The  ex-president,  general  Santa  Anna,  lands  at
Vera  Cruz,  professing  adhesion  to  the  empire,
27  Feb.  ;  dismissed  by  Bazaine . 72  March, ,,

Juarez  enters  Monterey,  which  becomes  the  seat  of
the  republican  government  . . . 3  April, ,,

The  archduke  Maximilian  definitively  accepts  the
crown  from  the  Mexican  deputation  at  Miramar,

10  April, ,,

The  emperor  and  empress  land  at  Vera  Cruz,  29  May ;
enter  the  city  of  Mexico . . . 12  June, ,,

The  emperor  visits  the  interior ;  grants  a  free  press,

Aug. „

The  republicans  defeat  the  imperialists  at  San  Pedro,

27  Dec. ,,

Juarez,  at  Chihuahua,  exhorts  the  Mexicans  to
maintain  their  independence .  1  Jan. 1865

The  emperor  institutes  the  order  of  the  Mexican
eagle ,

Surrender  of  Oaxaca  to  marshal  Bazaine  9  Feb. ,,

A  constitution  promulgated . . .10  April, ,,

Ortega,  at  New  York,  enlists  recruits  for  the  repub-
lican army,  May ;  discountenanced  by  the  U.  S.
government June, ,,

Anniversary  of  Mexican  independence ;  descend-
ants of  Iturbide  made  princesses,  &c. 16  Sept. ,,

The  emperor  proclaims  the  end  of  the  war,  and
martial  law  against  all  armed  bands  of  men  ;
much  indignation  excited ... 2  Oct. ,,

Juarist  generals  taken  prisoners  ;  shot . 16  Oct. ,,

The  American  government  protests  against  the
French  occupation  .... Nov.-Dec. ,,

Presidency  of  Juarez  expires  ;  he  determines  to
continue  to  act, 30  Nov. ;  he  flies  to  Texas, 20  Dec. ,,

Bagdad,  on  the  ltio  Grande,  seized  by  American
Juarists,  4,  5  Jan.  ;  occupied  by  the  American
general  Weitzcl,  5  Jan.  ;  lvis  conduct  disavowed  ;
and  Bagdad  re-occupied  by  imperialists, 20  Jan. 1866

Ministerial  changes . . . March-April, ,,

Emperor  Napoleon  agrees  to  withdraw  all  his  sol-
diers from  Mexico  betwconNov.  iS66and  Nov.  1S67

April, „

Guerilla  warfare  going  on,  numerous  conflicts,  with
varying  success .... March-May, ,,

Matamoras  captured  by  the  liberals,  under  Escobrdo,

23,  24  June, ,,


MEXICO.


638 MICHAEL,  ST.,  AND  GEORGE,  ST.


The  empress  Charlotte  departs  for  Prance,  13  July ;
conspiracy  against  the  government  suppressed,

15-17  July,  1866
Convention  between  Maximilian  and  the  French ;
transfer  of  the  receipts  of  the  customs  to  France,

30  July,  „
Juarez  and  his  party  take  Tampico  .  .  1  Aug. '  „
The  Americans  disallow  Maximilian's  blockade  of

Matamoras 17  Aug. ,,

Dissension  among  the  liberals  ;  three  rival  presi-
dents, Juarez,  Ortega,  and  Santa  Anna,

Sept. -Oct. „
The  empress  solicits  help  from  France,  in vain,

Sept.  ;  she  falls  ill Oct. „

Firm  speech  of  emperor  Maximilian  . .19  Sept. „
Emperor  leaves  Mexico  for  Orizaba ;  giving  autho-
rity to  Bazaine Oct. ,,

The  French  evacuate  several  places  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Imperial  council  at  Orizaba  determine  to  maintain

the  empire 24  Nov. ,,

Death  of  Augustin  Iturbide  .  .  .  11  Dec.  ,,
Maximilian, at the  head  of  the  army,  arrives  at

Queretaro iq  Feb;  1867

Departure  of  the  French,  13  Jan.,  5  Feb.,  14  March,  ,,
Contest  for  supremacy  between  Juarez,  Diaz,  and

Ortega April. ,,

Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by

treachery  ;  Mendez  shot . . . .15  May, „
Emperor  Maximilian, Miramon, and  Mejia,  after

trial,  shot 19  June, ,,

Mexico  city  taken  after  67  days'  siege  ;  republic  re-
established 21  June, ,,

Surrender  of  Vera  Cruz  .  .  .  .  25  June,  ,,
Santa  Anna  captured  ;  detained  a  prisoner  July,  „
Juarez  enters  Mexico  ;  convokes  the  assembly  to

elect  a  president  . . . .14,  15  July, ,,

Marquez  and  others  said  to  be  organising  resistance

to  Juarez Aug. ,,

Numerous  executions  ;  reign  of  terror  Aug.  et  seq.  ,,
PoriirioDiaz  said  to  be  nominated  for  the  presidency, ,,

Sept. „
Santa  Anna  sentenced  to  eight  years'  banishment,

Oct. „
Maximilian's  body  given  up  to  the  Austrian  admiral

Tegethoff 26  Nov. „

Mexican  congress  opened ;  Juarez  acting  as  provi-
sional president;  foreign  consuls  said  to  be  leaving,

8  Dec. „
Juarez  re-elected  president . . .  Dec. ,,
Juarez  inaugurated  as  president . about  25  Dee. ,,
Maximilian's  body  buried  at  Vienna . 18  Jan. 1868
Eebellion  against  Juarez  in  Yucatan  and  other  pro-
vinces Jan. -Feb. „

Hasty  blockade  of  Mazatlan  by  capt. Bridge of
H.M.S. Chanticleer,  for an outrage 20  June  ;
raised  by  admiral  Hastings . . . July, ,,
Treaty  with  United  States  adopted  . .  Dec. ,,

Insurrection  at  Puebla  suppressed . . Feb.  1869
General  Almonte  dies  at  Paris  . . - March, ,,
Encounter  between Mexicans  and United  States
troops  who  had  pursued  some  Indian  depreda-
tors ;  about  40  Americans  killed  ;  reported,

12  April,  1871
Election  for  president ;  Diaz, 1982  votes  ;  Juarez,
1963  ;  Lerdo,  1366  ;  Juarez  retains  the  power,

27  July, „

Insurrections  arise Aug. ,,

Insurrection headed by Negrete, Eiveras, and

others,  suppressed  with  much  slaughter  12  Oct.  ,,
Juarez  re-elected  president  ....  Oct.  ,,
Insurgents under Porflrio  Diaz  twice defeated ;

announced Jan.  1872

Civil  war  going  on  with  varying  success,  April- June,  , ,
Bebels  nearly  subdued  .  .  .  .  1  July,  ,,
Death  of  Benito  Juarez  (aged  about  68)  by  apoplexy

18  July, ,,
The  country  tranquil ;  Diaz  accepts  the  amnesty  ;

announced 14  Aug. ,,

Lerdo  de  Tejado  (of  good  character)  elected  presi-
dent, Oct.  ;  Diaz  submits .... Nov. ,,
Bailway  from  Mexico  city  to  Vera  Cruz  completed  ;

runs 23  Jan.  1873

Customs'  tariffs  liberalised . . . July,  1S74
A  senate  voted  by  the  Congress . . . Aug. ,,
Beligious  orders  suppressed . . . Dec. ,,
Beligious  disturbances  :  Catholic  outrages  on  Pro-
testants Jan.  1875


Insurrection  by  Porflrio  Diaz,  March ;  he  takes  Ma-
tamoras 1  April,  1876

Progress  of  reformed  church  ;  union  with  episcopal
church  of  United  States  proposed . April, ,,

Insurgents  defeated  at  Oaxaca,  29  May  ;  at  Quinre-
taro June, ,,

Death  of  Santa  Anna,  ex-president  . . 20  June, ,,

Diaz  defeats  the  government  troops  at  Tekoar,
12  Nov.  ;  enters  Mexico,  assumes  power  as  provi-
sional president 20  Nov. ,,

President  Lerdo  de  Tejado  retires  ;  Iglesias  takes
arms  as  president  .... Dec. ,,

Diaz  defeats  Iglesias,  who  retreats  ;  Diaz  elected
president,  18  Feb.  ;  proclaimed . .5  May,  1877

Brief  rebellion  ;  about  80  hanged  ;  announced,

28  Dec.  187S

Insurrection  of  Negrete ;  Diaz  marches  against
him ;  becomes  president . . .16  June,  1879

Manuel  Gonzalez  elected,  11  July  ;  succeeds  1  Dec.  1880

About  200  lives  lost  through  precipitation  of  train
on  San  Morelos  railway  into  the  river  near
Cuartla,  through  fall  of  bridge night  of  24  June,  1881

Increase  of  railways  constructed  by  Americans . ,,

British  envoy  re-appointed  (sir  Spencer  St.  John),
June  ;  received 17  July,  1883

Bemains  of  an  ancient  city  discovered  in  Sonora,
near  Magdalena,  including  a  great  pyramid,
rooms  cut  in  a  stony  mountain,  implements,  &c.
and  hieroglyphic  inscriptions . . .  ,,

Diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain  resumed,

announced,  Aug.  1884

Concession  obtained  from  the  Mexican  government
by  Mr.  James  B.  Eades  for  99  years  for  the  con-
struction of  a  railway  for  the  conveyance  of  ships
across  the  isthmus  ;  estimated  cost,  15,000,000?. ;
model  exhibited  at  Long  Acre,  London . Aug. ,,

Biots  in  Mexico  city  on  account  of  conversion  of
English  debt ;  bloodshed . . . 18  Nov. ,,

Porflrio  Diaz  inaugurated  president . . 1  Dec. ,,

Impending  state  insolvency  through  public  works
speculations  ;  funding  debts  and  loan  proposed  ;
much  dissatisfaction .... June,  1885

Insurrection  at  Nuevo  Leon  suppressed,  Dec.  1885  ;
another  insurrection,  Guerro  captured,  insurgents
signally  defeated ;  disturbances  between  the
people  of  El  Paso  and  the  Texans  ;  interference
of  the  United  States  and  Mexican  governments,

July,  1886

Mr.  Cutting,  an  American  journalist  in  Texas,
imprisoned  for  libel ;  the  U.S.  government  inter-
venes, July- Aug.  ;  Mr.  Cutting  released  23  Aug. ,,

Inundations  through  heavy  rains  ;  great  loss  of
life,  especially  at  Leon  and  Silas 17-20  June,  188S

Wreck  of  an  excursion  steamer  on  Lake  Chapala ;
loss  of  50  lives March,  1889

Two  companies  of  soldiers,  while  bathing,  mas-
sacred by  Yaqui  Indians  from  Sonora ;  the
government  send  4,000  men  to  punish  the  In-
dians, announced 12  Oct. ,,

Famine  in  the  agricultural  districts,  government

assistance  given,  reported  ...  10  Dec.  1891
Insurrection  ;  gen.  Lorenzo  Garcia  killed  by  his
troops,  who  join  the  rebels  under  Garza  in  Texas ;
he  captures  45  soldiers  and  kills  4  officers,  re-
ported, 31  Dec.  1891 ;  Garza's  band  dispersed,  re-
ported, 4  Jan.  ;  Dias  re-elected  president  n  July,  1892

EMPERORS.

1822.  Aug.  Augustin  Iturbide,  Feb.  ;  abdicated  23
March,  1823  ;  shot  for  attempting  to  recover  his.
authority,  19  July,  1824.

^864.  Maximilian  (brother  to  the  emperor  of  Austria),
born  6  July,  1832 ;  accepted  the  crown,  ic
April,  1864  ;  married  27  July,  1857,  te  princess
Charlotte,  daughter  of  Leopold  I.,  king  of  the
Belgians ;  adopted  Augustin  Iturbide  as  his
heir,  Sept.  1865  ;  shot  (after  a  trial),  19  June,
1867.
MEZZOTINTO,  see  Engraving.
MHOW  COUKT-MAKTIAL, see  Trials,

Nov.  1863.

MICHAEL,  St.,  and  GEORGE,  St.
This  order  of  knighthood,  founded  for  the  Ionian
Isles  and  Malta,  27  April,  1818,  was  reorganised  in
March, 1869,  in  order  to  admit  servants  of  the


MICHAELMAS.


639


MIDDLESEX.


crown  connected  with  the  colonies.  Among  the
first  of  the  new  knights  were  the  earl  of  Derby,  earl
Eussell,  and  earl  Grey. See  Knights.

MICHAELMAS,  29  Sept.,  the  feast  of  St.
Michael,  the  reputed  guardian  of  the  Eoman
Catholic  church,  under  the  title  of  "St.  Michael
and  All  Angels."  Instituted,  according  to  Butler,
487.

The  custom  of  eating  goose  at  Michaelmas  has  been
erroneously  attributed  to  Queen  Elizabeth's  eating  of
the  bird  at  dinner  on  29  Sept.  1588,  at  the  house  of  sir
Neville  Umfreyville,  at  the  time  she  heard  of  the
destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  The  custom  is  of
much  older  date,  and  is  observed  on  the  continent.
Clavis  Calenduria.

MICHAEL'S  MOUNT,  St.  (Cornwall),  is
considered  by  some  to  be  the  Iktis  of  Diodorus
Siculus,  and  an  ancient  resort  of  the  tin  merchants.
St.  Michael  was  said  to  have  appeared  on  the
mount,  495  or  710;  and  the  place,  thus  reputed
holy,  became  the  seat  of  a  body  of  monks,  who
received  a  charter  from  Edward  the  Confessor,
1044,  and  many  privileges  from  pope  Gregory  YIL,
1079.

MICHIGAN,  a  north-west  state  of  N.  America,
settled  by  the  French,  1670;  admitted  into  the  union,
26  Jan.  1837. Capital,  Lansing. Population,  1880,
1,636,937 ; 1890,  2,093,889.
About  500  persons  perish  and  10,000  made  homeless

by  destructive  forest  fires  on  .  .  5  Sept.  1881
Great  fire  at  Grandhaven,  41  buildings  destroyed,

about  30  Sept.  1889
Explosion  at  Messrs.  Farriwold's  dynamite  factory

at  White  Pigeon,  16  men  killed . . 3  Sept.  1891

MICEOBES,  see  Germ.

MICBOMETEB,  an  astronomical  instrument
used  to  measure  any  small  distances  and  the  minuter
objects  in  the  heavens,  such  as  the  apparent  dia-
meters of  the  planets,  &c,  was  invented  by  Wm.
Gascoigne,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Marston-
moor,  2  July,  1644.  It  was  improved  by  Huyghens
about  1652.  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth  made  a  ma-
chine to  measure  the  millionth  of  an  inch,  about
1858 ;  the  measurement  of  the  30,000th  of  an  inch
is  now  common.

MICEOPHONE  (Greek,  micros,  little;  phone,
sound),  a  name  given  byWheatstone,  in  1827,  to  an
instrument  for  rendering  weak  sounds  audible  by
means  of  solid  rods.  The  name  was  also  given  to
an  arrangement  invented  (in  Dec.  1877)  by  pro-
fessor D.  E.  Hughes  (an  American,  an  inventor
of  the  printing  telegraph),  and  shown  to  the  Eoyal
Society,  9  May,  1878.

An  electric  current  is  established  between  two  mode-
rately conducting  bodies  (such  as  pieces  of  charcoal,
metallised  by  being  plunged  when  heated  into  mer-
cury) resting  slightly  upon  each  other,  mounted  on  a
piece  of  thin  wood.  If  the  contact  is  so  made  that
one  of  the  bodies  may  be  easily  displaced,  minute
sounds  produced  on  the  wood  disturb  the  electric
conductivity  at  the  place  of  contact,  and  may  be  heard
by  the  help  of  the  telephone.  The  sonorous  and
electric  waves  are  thus  rendered  synchronous,  and
become  convertible.  The  tread  of  a  fly  sounds  like
that  of  a  large  quadruped. See  Telephone.

MICBOPHITE,  amicroscopic  plant,  especially
parasitic ;  some  physiologists  consider  bacteria  and
bacilli  to  be  microphites,  1890.

MICEOSCOPES,  said  to  have  been  in-
vented by  Jansen,  in  Holland,  about  1590 ;  by
Galileo,  about  1610;  by  Fontana,  in  Italy,  and
by  Drcbbel,  in  Holland,  about  162 1.  Those
with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period
when  the  law  of  refraction  was  discovered,  about
1624. Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.


Hooke.  In  England  great  improvements  were  made
in  the  microscope  by  Benjamin  Martin  (who  in-
vented and  sold  pocket  microscopes  about  1740),  by
Henry  Baker,  F.ll.S.,  about  1763,  and  still  greater
during  the  present  century  by  Wollaston,  Eoss,
Jackson,  Varley,  Hugh  Powell,  and  others.  Diamond'
microscopes  were  made  by  Andrew  Pritchard  va
1824 ;  and  the  properties  of  "test  objects"  to  prove
the  qualities  of  microscopes,  discovered  by  him  and
Goring  in  1824-40.  A  binocular  microscope  {i.e.,  for
two  eyes),  was  constructed  by  professor  Eiddell  in?
1851,  and  Wenham's  important  improvements  were
made  known  in  1861.  Treatises  on  the  microscope-
by  J.  Quekett  (1848),  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  (1856
et  seq.),  by  Dr.  Lionel  Beale  (1858  et  seq.),  and
Griffith  and  Henfrey's  "  Micrographic  Dictionary"
(1856,  1875,  and  1883),  are  valuable.  The  Micro-
scopical Society  of  London  was  established  20  Dec.
1839,  and  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  1865.  In
1865  Mr.  H.  Sorby  exhibited  his  spectrum  microscope;,
by  which  the  millionth  of  a  grain  of  blood  was
detected.

MICEO-TASIMETEE,  a  new  instrument
invented  by  Mr.  T.  A.  Edison,  in  which  he  has  ap-
plied the  principle  of  the  carbon  microphone  to  the
measurement  of  infinitesimal  pressure  ;  announced
July,  1878.  He  proposes  to  apply  the  principle  to-
delicate  barometers,  thermometers,  hygrometers,,
&c.

MIDDLE AGES,  see  Bark  Ages.

MIDDLE-CLASS  EXAMINATION  and-
SCHOOLS,  see  Education  (1858,  and  1865-8).
Middle-Class Education Corporation, established in

1866,  for  education  of  children  of  clerks  and  others  ia

similar  ranks of  life. Building in Cowper-streetj,

London.

MIDDLE-LEVELS,  see  Levels.

MIDDLESBEOUGH,  N.  Eiding  of  York-
shire, on  the  Tees,  a  coal  port  and  a  chief  seat  of  the
iron  manufacture,  the  first  house  erected  by  George
Chapman,  April,  1830.  New  dock,  and  literary  and
scientific  institution  opened,  Oct.  1875.  Mr.  Henry
W.  F.  Bolckow  and  John  Vaughan,  heads  of  great
iron-works  (Mr.  Bolckow,  the  first  mayor  and  M.P.,
died  18  June,  1878).  The  prosperity  of  the  Cleve-
land district,  which  had  greatly  declined  since  1874,
began  to  revive  in  the  autumn  of  1879.  At  the
jubilee  celebration,  6  Oct.  188 1,  a  bust  of  Mr.
Bolckow  was  unveiled ;  and  one  of  Mr.  Vaughan;
was  unveiled  2  June,  1884.  See  under  Steel.  Popu-
lation, 1861,  18,992;  1881,  55,934;  1891,  75,516.
South  Gare  breakwater,  nearly  i\  miles  long,
begun  in  1864,  opened  by  the  right  hon.  W.  H.
Smith  .  .  .  .-  .  .  .  25  Oct.  188S
A  town  hall  &c.  opened  by  the  prince  and  princess

of  Wales 23  Jan.  1889

Stoppage  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Downey  &  Co.,  iron

manufacturers 28  March,  1892-

Great  distress  in  the  district  through  the  Durham
miners'  strike,  April  etseq.  ;  relieved  by  subscrip-
tions in  London,  &c. . . . May,  June,  1892-

MIDDLESEX,  the  metropolitan  county  of
England,  was  the  seat  of  the  Trinobantes  in  the
Eoman  province,  Flavia  Canadensis,  and  the  Mid-
del-Sexe,  or  Middle  Saxons,  in  the  kingdom  of
East-Sexne,  or  Essex.  Lionel  Cranfield  was  cre-
ated earl  of  Middlesex,  16  Sept.  1622;  succeeded  by
his  sons,  James,  1645-51;  Lionel,  1651-74,  when,
the  title  became  extinct.  Charles  SaVkville  was
made  earl  in  1675 !  and  his  son  became  duke  of
Dorset  in  1720.
Middlesex  returns  forty-eight  M.P's.  by  act  passed

25  June,  1S85
The  Middlesex  county  record  society  was  estab-


MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL.


640


MILITAEY EXHIBITION.


lished  in  1884.  It  has  issued  three  volumes  con-
taining session  rolls  &c.  (1549  e*  seQ  )  Nov.  1888.
The  earl  of  Strafford,  lord  lieutenant,  president  1888

MIDDLESEX  HOSPITAL,  London,
founded,  1745;  incorporated,  1836;  cancer  ward
endowed,  1791.

MEDIAN,  now  Arz  MADIAN,  N.W.  Arabia;
anciently  held  by  the  descendants  of  Midian,  a  son
of  Abraham.  Having  enticed  the  Israelites  to  idol-
atry, they  were  severely  chastised,  1452  B.C.  '  They
invaded  Canaan  about.  1249  B.C.,  and  were  tho-
roughly defeated  by  Gideon.

•Capt.  Richard  F.  Burton  explored  the  ruined  cities  of
Midian  in  1877,  and  found  the  remains  of  ancient
mines,  many  relics,  and  gold.  An  expedition,  equipped
""by  the  khedive  of  Egypt,  and  placed  under  his  com-
mand, started  from  Suez,  10  Dec.  1877,  and  returned
20  April,  1878.  He  brought  home  25  tons  of  geological
specimens,  specimens  of  silver  and  copper  ore,  many
coins  and  other  antiquities,  and  photographs  of  the
remains  of  ruined  cities,  &c.

MIDLAND  INSTITUTE,  Birmingham,

incorporated  1854.

MIDLAND BAIL  WAY  STATION,  St.

Pancras,  N.  London,  possessing  the  largest  known
roof  in  the  world  (245  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  698
feet  long),  was  opened  for  traffic  I  Oct.  1868.  The
engineer  was  Mr.  H.  W.  Barlow.  The  architect  of
the  magnificent  Gothic  hotel  was  sir  G.  Gilbert  Scott.

MIDWIFERY.  Women  were  the  only  practi-
tioners among  the  Hebrews  and  Egyptians.  Hippo-
crates, in  Greece,  460  B.C.,  is  styled  the  father  of
■midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic.  It  advanced
under  Ceisus,  who  flourished  a.d.  37,  and  of  Galen,
•who  lived  131.  In  England  midwifery  became  a
■science  about  the  period  of  the  institution  of  the
college  of  physicians,  10  Hen.  VII.  1518.  Dr.
Harvey  engaged  in  the  practice  of  it,  about  1603  ;
Astruc  affirms  that  madame  de  la  Valliere,  mistress
of  Louis  XIV.,  in  1663,  employed  Julian  Clement,
a  surgeon,  with  great  secrecy.

MILAN,  Mediolanum,  capital  of  the  ancient
Liguria,  now  Lombardy,  is  reputed  to  have  been
%uilt  by  the  Gauls,  about  408  B.C.  The  cathedral
termed  duomo  was  built  about  1385.  Population
1890,  414,551.

■Conquered  by  the  Roman  consul  Marcellus  .  B.C.  222
Seat  of  government  of  the  western  empire  . a.d.  286

■Council  of  Milan 346

St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan 375

Milan  plundered  by  Attila 452

Included  in  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  489  ;  in  the

Lombard  kingdom 569

Becomes  an  independent  republic  ....  1101
The  emperor  Frederic  I.  takes  Milan,  and  appoints

a  p>odesta 1158

It  rebels  ;  is  taken  by  Frederic  and  its  fortifications

destroyed 1162

.Rebuilt  and  fortified 11 69

The  Milanese  defeated  by  the  emp.  Frederic  II.  .  1237
The  Visconti  become  paramount  in  Milan  .  .  .  1277
John  Galeazzo  Visconti  takes  the  title  of  duke  .  1395
Francesco  Sforza,  son-in-law  of  the  last  of  the  Vis-
conti, subdues  Milan  and  becomes  duke  .  .  .  1450
Milan  conquered  by  Louis  XII.  of  France  .  .  1499
'The  French  expelled  by  the  Spaniards  .  .  .  1525
Milan  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Spain  .  .  .  1540
Great  plague alleviated by  the  archbishop  Bor-

romeo 1576

Milan  ceded  to  Austria 1714

Conquered  by  the  French  and  Spaniards  .  .  .  1743
"Reverts  to  Austria,  upon  Naples  and  Sicily  being

ceded  to  Spain 1748

Seized  by  the  French .... 30  June,  1796

Retaken  by  the  Austrian  s 1799

Regained  by  the  French . . . 31  May,  1800
Made  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Napo-
leon Bonaparte  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  here,

26  May,  1805


The  Milan  decree  of  Napoleon  against  all  continental

intercourse  with  England  ...  17  Dec.  1807
Insurrection  against  the  Austrians  ;  flight  of  the

viceroy 18  March,  1848

Surrenders  to  the  Austrians ... 5  Aug. ,,
Treaty  of  peace  between  Austria and Sardinia,

6  Aug.  1849
Another  revolt  promptly  suppressed  and  rigorously

punished 6  Feb.  et  seq.  1853

Milan  visited  by  the  emperor  of  Austria . Nov.  1856
Amnesty  for  political  offences  granted . Dec.  1857
After  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Magenta,  4  June,
Napoleon  III.  and  the  king  of  Sardinia  enter  Milan,

8  June,  1859
Peace of Villafranca ;  a  large  part  of  Lombardy

transferred  to  Sardinia ... 12  July, ,,
Victor-Emmanuel  enters  Milan  as  king . 8  Aug. i860
Reactionary  plots  of  Neapolitan  soldiery  suppressed,

29,  30  April,  1861
The  Victor-Emmanuel  gallery  opened  by  the  king,

15  Sept.  1867
The  arts  exhibition  opened  by  the  king  26  Aug.  1872
Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Germany  .  .  18-23  Oct.  1875
The  Mentana  Memorial  inaugurated  by  Garibaldi,

4  Nov.  1880
National  exhibition,  opened  by  the  king 5  May,  1881
Visit  of  the  emperor  William  II. . . 19  Oct.  1889
See  Italy.

MILBANK  PENITENTIARY,  West-
minster :  The  very  unhealthy  site  was  purchased
of  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  in  1799  for  I2,ooo7.
The  building,  a  modification  of  Jeremy  Bentham's
Panopticon  {which  see),  first  received  convicts  27
June,  1816.

In  consequence  of  many  deaths  during  a  great  epi-
demic the  convicts  were  placed  in  Woolwich  hulks,
1822-3.  On  lf>  June,  1843,  a  committee  reported  the
penitentiary  a  failure.  The  system  was  abolished  in
parliament,  and  the  building  styled  Milbank  prison.

The  buildings  ordered  to  be  pulled  down  and  site  sold,
1888.-

It  was  finally  closed  6  Nov.  1890.

MILETUS,  a  Greek  city  of  Ionia,  Asia  Minor,
founded  about  1043  B.C.  The  Milesians  "defended
themselves  successfully,  623-612  b.c.  During  the
war  with  Persia  it  was  taken,  494,  but  restored,
449.  Here  Paul  delivered  his  celebrated  charge
to  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus,  a.d.  60
{Acts  xx.).

MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the
earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII.,  landed  on
his  way  to  encounter  Richard  III.  whom  he  defeated
at  Bosworth,  1485. The  packets  from  this  port  to
Ireland,  sailing  to  Waterford,  were  established  in
1787. The dock-yard,  established  here  in  1790,
was  removed  to  Pembroke  in  1814. Sham  naval
fights  here  16  Aug.  et  seq.  1886.
Milford  Haven  adopted  as  an  Atlantic  terminus  by
the  Anchor  line  company ;  their  steamer,  the
City  of  Rome,  arrives .... 24  Oct.  1889

MILITARY  ASYLUM,  Royal,  at  Chehea,

"  for  the  children  of  the  soldiers  of  the  regular
army."  The  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  duke  of
York,  19  June,  1801,

MILITARY  EDUCATION,  see  Army,
June,  1868.

MILITARY  EXHIBITION,  Royal,
Chelsea,  president  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  was
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  with  the  princess,
the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  and  other  distinguished
persons,  7  May,  1890;  visited  by  the  queen,  4  July.
The  exhibition  consisted  of  the  industrial  work  of
the  soldiers,  articles  of  military  equipment,  pictures
lent,  and  other  objects  of  interest ;  military  sports,
drills,  &c.  Mr.  Spencer's  strong  war  balloon
ascended  10  May,  et  seq.  The  exhibition  was
intended  to  promote  the  increase  of  soldiers'  insti-
tutes in  towns.


MILITAEY KNIGHTS.


641


MINES.


The  exhibition  closed i  Nov.  1890

The  profits  were  reported  to  be  9,744^.  . 9  May,  i8qi

MILITAEY  KNIGHTS  of  WINDSOE,
see  Poor  Knights  oj  Windsor.

MILITAEY  or  MAETIAL  LAW  is  built
on  no  settled  principle,  but  is  entirely  arbitrary,
and,  in  truth,  no  law ;  but  sometimes  indulged,
rather  than  allowed,  as  law.  Sir  Matthew  Hale.
It  has  been  several  times  proclaimed  in  parts  of
these  kingdoms,  and  in  1798  was  almost  general  in
Ireland,  where  it  was  also  proclaimed  in  1803.

MILITIA,  the  standing  national  force  of  these
realms,  is  traced  to  king  Alfred,  who  made  all  his
subjects  soldiers,  872-901. See  Army  Defence.

Commission  of  array  to  raise  a  militia . . . 1122

Revived  by  Henry  II n76

Again  revived IS57

Said  to  amount  to  160,000  men  .... 1623

The  militia  statutes 1661  to  1663

Supplemental  militia  act  passed .... 1796
Irish  militia  ottered  its  services  in  England,

28  March,  1804
General  militia  act  for  England  and  Scotland,  1802 ;

for  Ireland 1809

Enactment authorising courts-martial to  inflict

imprisonment  instead  of  flogging  passed  .  .  1814
Acts  to  consolidate  the  militia  laws  .  i852*-54,  1882
Militia  embodied on  account  of  the  Russian  war,

1854  ;  on  account  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  1857 ;  and

on  account  of  the  war  in  the  Soudan . 18  Feb.  1885

Militia  reserve  act  passed 1867

Militia  in  1872,  139,018;  1875,  149,330;  1877,  134,500;

in  1884,  82,525 ;  in  1886, 108,196  ;  in  1887, 110,488  ;

1888,  141,593  ;  1890,  113,163.
Militia  (volunteers)  Enlistment  Act,  consolidating

and  amending  the  laws  passed  .  .  n  Aug.  1875
A  committee  on  the  state  of  the  militia  reported,

Feb.  1890,  greatly  increased  efficiency  since  1850.

MILITIA  OF  JESUS,  a  society  of  Roman
Catholic  youth  of  France  and  Italy,  formed  to  sup-
port the  papal  cause  by  moral  agencies,  became
known  in  1877.

MILK. The  type of  food  as containing all
things  needful  for  the  development  of  the  animal
body. A  process  for its  condensation was in-
vented by  Mr.  Gail  Borden,  near  New  York, in
1849,  for  which  he  was  awarded  a  medal  at  the
Great  Exhibition  in  1851,  when  he  erected  factories.
He  invented  meat  biscuit,  1850. The  Anglo-Swiss
condensed  milk  company  was  established  in  1866;
and  since  then  the  Aylesbury  company.
Typhoid  fever  (said  to  be  caused  by  bad  milk,  pre-
vailed) in  London,  Aug.,  Sept.  1873;  about  20  died
of  fever  through  milk,  at  and  near  Eagley,  Lan-
cashire March,  1876

MILKY  WAY  (Galaxy)  in  the  heavens.
Juno  is  said  by  the  Greek  poets  to  have  spilt  her
milk  in  the  heavens  after  suckling  Mercury  or
Hercules.  Democritus  (about  428  B.C.)  taught  that
the  via  lactea  consisted  of  stars,  which  Galileo
(1610-42)  proved  by  the  telescope. See  Stars,  1892.

MILLENAEIANS  (or  Chiliasts)  suppose  that
the  world  will  end  at  the  expiration  of  the  seven
thousandth  year  from  the  creation;  and  that  during
a  thousand  years  (millennium)  Christ  and  the  saints
will  reign  upon  the  earth ;  see  Rev.  xx.  The
doctrine  was  very  generally  inculcated  in  the  2nd

*  This  militia  act  was  consequent  upon  the  then  pre-
vailing opinion  of  the  necessity  of  strengthening  our
national  defences  against  the  possibility  of  French
invasion.  The  act  empowered  her  majesty  to  raise  a
force  not  exceeding  80,000  men,  of  which  number  50,000
were  to  be  raised  in  1852,  and  30,000  in  1855  ;  the  quotas
for  each  county  or  riding  to  be  fixed  by  an  order  in
council.


and  3rd  centuries,  by  Papias,  Justin  Martyr  and
others.

.MILLENAEY  PETITION,  presented  to
king  James  on  his  accession,  1603,  on  behalf  of
nearly  a  thousand  Puritan  ministers  against  the
"human  rites  and  ceremonies  "  of  the  church  of
England.

MILLS.  Moses  forbade  mill-stones  to  be  taken
in  pawn,  because  it  would  be  like  taking  a  man's
life  to  pledge.  Deut.  xxiv.  6.  The  hand-mill  was
in  use  among  the  Britons  previously  to  the  con-
quest by  the  Romans.  The  Romans  introduced  the
water-mill.  Cotton  mills  moved  by  water  were
erected  by  sir  Richard  Arkwright,  at  Cromford,
Derbyshire.  He  died  in  1792.  See  Mechanics.
Mill-work  exhibition  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,
London,  N.  10-18  May,  1881.

MILWAUKEE.  A  town  in  Wisconsin,
North  America,  founded  1835.  The  New  Hall  hotel
was  burnt  4  a.m.  10  Jan.  1883,  when  about  109
persons  perished.  George  Sclieller,  lessee  of  the
bar-room,  arrested  for  arson  about  17  Jan.  1883.
Population,  1890,  204,486.

MINCIO,  a  river  of  Lombardy.  Here  the
Austrians  wei-e  repulsed  by  the  French  under
Brune,  25-27  Dec.  1800;  and  by  Eugene  Beau-
harnais,  8  Feb.  18 14,  near  Valeggio.

MIND-CUEE.  A  sect  termed  Christian
Scientists  in  Boston,  U.S.,  led  by  Mrs.  M.  B.  G.
Eddy,  professed  to  cure  bodily  diseases  by  acting  on
the  mind  through  the  body,  by  staring,  &c,  1885,
et  seq.

MINDEN (Prussia),  Battle  of,  i  Aug.

1759,  between  the  English,  Hessians,  and  Hano-
verians (under  prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick),
and  the  French  (under  marshal  De  Contades),  who
were  beaten  and  driven  to  the  ramparts  of  Minden.
Lord  George  Sackville  (afterwards  lord  George
Germain)  who  commanded  the  British  and  Hano-
verian horse,  for  some  disobedience  of  orders  was
tried  by  a  court-martial  on  his  return  to  England,
found  guilty,  and  dismissed,  22  April,  1760.  He
was  afterwards  restored  to  favour,  and  became
secretary  of  state,  1776.

MINEEALOGY,  the  science  of  minerals,  is
a  branch  of  geology;  see  Geology,  Mines,  and
Crystallography.  It  was  not  mucli  studied  by  the
ancients.  George  Agricola  in  the  16th  century
made  the  first  attempt  to  treat  it  scientifically.

The  study  of  mineralogy  was  advanced  by  Becker,

Kircher,  and  Woodward  in  the  17th  century.
A  British  Mineralogical  Society  established  in . . 1800
Haiiy's  "  Traite  de  Mineralogie  "  appeared  in  . . 1801
Mineralogical  society  of  Great  Britain  held  first

meeting  in  London,  3  Feb.  1876,  and  others  since.
Another society termed itself h, jfc, I, Miller's

symbol  for  the  face  of  a  crystal  ....  1876
James  D. Dana's "System  of Mineralogy,"  5th

edition l883

MINES.  Strabo  and  Tacitus  enumerate  gold
and  silver  as  among  the  products  of  Britain.  The
earliest  instance  of  a  claim  to  a  mine  royal  being
enforced  occurs  47  Hen.  III.  1262.  It  related  to
mines  containing  gold,  together  with  copper,  in
Devonshire.  In  Edward  I.'s  reign,  according  to
Mr.  Ruding,  the  mines  in  Ireland,  which  produced
silver,  were  supposed  to  be  so  rich  that  the  king
directed  a  writ  for  working  them  to  Robert  de
Ufford,  lord  justice,  1276.  The  lend  mines  of  Cardi-
ganshire, from  which  silver  has  ever  since  been  ex-
tracted, were  discovered  by  sir  Hugh  Middleton  in

T  x


MINERVA.


642


MINT.


1871
1872


1873


the  re  ign  of  James  I. ; see  Coal,  and  the  various
metals.

Mining  Journal  established . . .29  Aug.  1835

The  Royal  School  of  Mines,  &e.,  Jermyn-street,
St.  James's,  opened  in  .... Nov. 1851

An  act  for  the  regulation  of  mines  passed  in . .  i860

A  Miners'  Protection  Association  proposed  by  Mr.
William  Gumey  and  others  in . . March,  1862

Value  of  the  total  mineral  produce  of  the  United
Kingdom  estimated  at  29,155, 701?.  in  1854;
31,680,581?.  in  1859 ;  41,521,705?.  in  1868  ;
46,094,600?.  in  1870  ;  69,041,158?.  in  1873  ;
63,737, 881?.  in  1879 ;  88,042,457?.  in  1881  ;
64,076,424?.  in  1884  ;  58,653,689?.  in  1887  ;
100,802,657?.  iu  1890.

Miners'  conference,  for  amelioration  of  their  con-
dition, held  at  Merthyr  Tydvil ;  well  conducted  ;
Mr.  Halliday  president .... Oct.

Metalliferous  Mines  Regulation  act  passed 10  Aug.

The  Amalgamated  Association  of  Miners  begun  in
Lancashire  about  1869,  held  a  conference  at  New-
port, 1872 ;  at  Bristol . . . .8  Oct.

Royal  commission  on  mines  (see  under  Coal)  ap-
pointed, Feb.  1879. Report  issued . Nov.  1881

A  miners'  national  conference  on  wages,  &c.  ;  opened
at  Birmingham,  20  April,  1881  ;  at  Manchester,
29  Aug.  1882,  and  frequently  at  other  places.

Miners'  association  of  Northumberland  vote  against
continuance  of  payments  to  their  M.P's,  Messrs.
Burt  and  Fenwick,  19  Sept.  ;  vote  rescinded,
Nov.  1887  ;  further  agitation  on  the  subject ;
again  rescinded April,  1888

National  Miners'  Federation  annual  conferences,
1889  ;  Birmingham,  22  Jan.  et  seq.  1890  ;  Birming-
ham, 7  Jan.  1891  ;  Stoke-on-Trent  . 12  Jan.  1892

International  exhibition  of  mining  and  metallurgy,
Crystal  palace  . . . .28  July — 11  Oct.  1890

Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  meets  at  Nottingham,

24  Sept. „

International  congress  of  miners  at  Jolimont,  Bel-
gium, 20-24  May,  1890 ;  at  Paris,  31  March-4
April,  189 1  ;  at  Westminster  . 7-10  June,  1892

See  Coal  1889  et  seq.

Persons  employed  in  mines  in  the  United  Kingdom
in  1888,  about  592,696;  in  1891,  707,411.

Accidents  in  mines,  see  under  Coal.

MINERVA,  see  Parthenon  and  Athens.

MINGRELIA,  the  ancient  Colchis,  mentioned
in  the  legend  of  "Jason,  the  Argonauts,  and  the
Golden  Fleece."  A  province  of  Asiatic  Eussia,
prince  Nicolas  having  ceded  his  rights  to  the  Czar
in  1867.  In  1887  the  prince  was  spoken  of  as  a
candidate  for  the  Bulgarian  throne.

MINIE  RIFLE,  invented  at  Vincennes,  about
1833,  by  M.  Minie  (born  1810).  From  a  common
soldier  he  raised  himself  to  the  rank  of  chef
d'escadron.  His  rifle,  considered  to  surpass  all
made  previous  to  it,  was  adopted  by  the  French,
and,  with  modifications,  by  the  British,  1852.

MINIMIZERS-  A  name  given  to  certain
writers  who  advocate  the  limitation  of  the  sove-
reign power  of  the  state  as  much  as  possible  to  the
protection  of  life  and  property,  which  is  styled
by  professor  Huxley  "administrative  nihilism."
They  include  "W.  von  Humboldt,  J.  S.  Mill  (in  his
"Essay  on  Liberty "),  and  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer
(in  his  "Political  Institutions"),  1882.

MINIMS  (from  minimi,  the  least),  an  order  of
monks,  founded  by  S.  Francisco  di  Paolo  (1416 —
1507),  in  Calabria,  received  their  name,  as  profes-
sing themselves  inferior  to  the  Minorites  (from
minor,  less)  ;  see  Franciscans.  St.  Francis  died
in  France  in  1  ^07  ;  where  he  had  established  houses
of  his  order.

MINISTER  OF  WAR,  see  War  Minister.
MINISTERS,  see  Administrations.

MINISTERS  in  Scotland:  church  patronage
was  abolished  in  1874.


MINNESINGERS,  lyric  German  poets,  of
the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  who  sang  of  love  and
war  to  entertain  knights  and  barons  of  the  time.
The  Meistersingers,  their  successors,  an  incorporated
fraternity  in  the  14th  century,  composed  satirical
ballads  for  the  amusement  of  the  citizens  and  lower
classes.  Hans  Sachs,  a  shoemaker  (1494-1576),  a
poet  of  the  reformation,  was  for  a  time  their  dean.
His  works  were  published  at  Nuremberg,  1560.
"Owleglass"  and  "  Reynard  the  Fox,"  are  attri-
buted to  the  Meistersingers.

MINNESOTA,  a  western  state  of  N.  America,
was  organised  as  a  territory,  3  March,  1849,  and
admitted  into  the  union  in  1857.  On  17  Aug.  1862,.
the  Sioux  Indians  commenced  a  series  of  outrages-
at  Acton  in  Messier  county,  desolating  the  country
and  massacring  above  500  persons,  of  both  sexes,
and  of  all  ages.  General  Sibley  beat  the  Indians-
in  two  battles  and  rescued  many  captives.  Thirty-
eight  Indians  were  executed  as  assassins.  Capital
St.  Paul.
The  great  Tribune  buildings  at  Minneapolis  were

burnt,  about  20  persons  perished  . . 30  Nov. i88g>
Tornado,  much  destruction  and  loss  of  life  in  St.
Paul and the neighbourhood ; the Sea-King,
steamer,  on  lake  Pekin  upset,  about  100  persons
drowned,  and  many  others  in  small  boats  ;  total

loss  about  250 13  July,  1890?

Destructive  tornado  with  loss  of  life 15,  16  June,  1892:
Population,  1880,  780,773  ;  1890,  1,301,826.

MINORCA  AND  MAJORCA,  the  Balearic
Isles  (which  see).  Port  Mahon  in  Minorca  was-
captured  by  lieutenant-general  Stanhope  and  sir
John  Leake  in  1708,  and  was  ceded  to  the  British
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  It  was  retaken
by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  July,  1756,  and
admiral  Byng  fell  a  victim  to  public  indignation
for  not  relieving  it;  see  Byng.  It  was  restored  to>
the  British  at  the  peace  in  1763;  taken  5  Feb.
1782  ;  again  captured  by  the  British  under  general
Stuart,  without  the  loss  of  a  man,  15  Nov.  1798;
given  up  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  25  March,  1802.

MINORITIES.  In  the  new  reform  bill,
passed  15  Aug.  1867,  provision  was  made  for  the
representation  of  minorities  in  constituencies  with
three  members  by  limiting  each  elector  to  two  votes .
It  was  introduced  as  an  amendment  by  lord  Cairns
in  the  lords,  30  July,  and  accepted  by  the  commons,
Aug.  1867.  The  principle  was  adopted  in  a  new
constitution  by  the  state  of  Illinois,  U.S.,  July,
1870. See  Proportional  Representation.

MINSTER,  or  MONASTERIUM,  a  place  oc-
cupied by  monks ;  see  Westminster  and  York.

MINSTRELS,  originally  pipers  appointed  by
lords  of  manors  to  divert  their  copyholders  while  at
work,  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee  men  or  harpers
of  the  Saxons,  and  continued  till  about  1560.  John
of  Gaunt  erected  a  court  of  minstrels  at  Tutbury  in
1380.  So  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  they
intruded  without  ceremony  into  all  companies,  even
at  the  houses  of  the  nobility ;  but  in  Elizabeth's
reign  they  were  adjudged  rogues  and  vagabonds
(1597)-

MINT.  Athelstan  enacted  regulations  for  the
government  of  the  mint  about  928.  There  were
several  provincial  mints  under  the  control  of  that
of  London.  Henry  I.  is  said  to  have  instituted  a
mint  at  Winchester,  1125.  Stow  says  the  mint  was
kept  by  Italians,  the  English  being  ignorant  of
the  art  of  coming,  7  Edw.  I.  1278.  The  operators
were  formed  into  a  corporation  by  the  charter  of
Icing  Edward  LTL,  in  which  condition  it  consisted
of  the  warden,  master,  comptroller,  assay-master,


MINUET.


643


MISSOUEI.


workers,  coiners,  and  subordinates.  The  first  entry
of  gold  brought  to  the  mint  for  coinage  occurs  in
18  Edw.  III.  1343.  Tin  was  coined  by  Charles  II.
1684;  and  gun-metal  and  pewter  by  his  successor
James  after  his  abdication.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was
wai-den,  1699-1727,  during  which  time  the  debased
coin  was  called  in,  and  new  issued  at  the  loss  of
the  government.  Between  1806  and  1810,  grants
amounting  to  262,000/.  were  made  by  parliament
for  the  erection  of  the  present  mint,  which  was
completed  in  1810;  it  was  injured  by  fire,  31  Oct.
1815.  The  new  constitution  of  the  mint,  founded
on  the  report  of  the  hon.  "Wellesley  Pole,  took
effect  in  1817.  Professor  Thomas  "Graham,  the
master  of  the  mint,  died  16  Sept.  1869.  By  the
Coinage  Act,  passed  4  April,  1870,  the  office  was
combined  with  that  of  the  chancellor  of  the  ex-
chequer, the  duties  being  transferred  to  the  deputy-
master  (Sir  C.  "W.  Fremantle),  k.c.b.,  i  Jan.  1890.
After  reorganization,  the  work  ^as  resumed,  8  Dec.
1882. See  Coin.

MASTERS OF THE MINT.


1817.  "Wellesley  Pole.
1823.  Thomas  Wallace.

1827.  George  Tierney.

1828.  J.  C.  Hemes.
1830.  Lord  Auckland.

1834.  James  Abererombie.

1835.  Alexander  Baring.
,, Henry  Labouchere.


1841.  William E. Glad-
stone.

1845.  Sir  George  Clerk.

1846.  Richard  L.  Sheil.
1850.  Sir  John  F.  Herschel,

F.R.S.

1855.  Thomas Graham,

F.R.S.


MINUET,  a  French  dance,  said  to  have  been
first  danced  by  Louis  XIV.,  1653.

MINUS,  see  Plus.

MIEACLE  PLAYS,  see  under  Drama.

MIEIDITES,  or  MlRDITES,  see  Turkey,
1877.

MIEEOES.  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were
made  of  metal ;  those  of  the  Jewish  women  of
brass.  Mirrors  of  silver  were  introduced  by  Praxi-
teles 4th  century  B.C.  Mirrors  or  looking-glasses
were  made  at  Venice,  a.d.  1300  ;  and  in  England,
at  Lambeth,  near  London,  in  1673.  The  improve-
ments in  manufacturing  plate-glass,  and  that  of
very  large  size,  have  cheapened  looking-glasses  very
much.  Various  methods  of  coating  glass  by  a
solution  of  silver,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  mer-
cury, so  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen,
have  been  made  known  ;  by  M.  Petitjean  in  185 1  ;
by  M.  Cimeg  in  1861,  and  by  Liebig  and  others.

MISCHNA,  see  Talmud.

MISEEEEE  {Psalm  li.)  sung  at  Eome  in  the
"  Tenebrce,"  the  service  in  Holy  or  Passion  "Week,
in  a  peculiarly  effective  manner,  to  old  music.  One
arrangement  is  by  Costanzo  Festa,  dated  1517.

.MISSAL,  or  MASS  BOOK,  the  Eomanist
ritual  compiled  by  pope  Gelasius  1.  492-6  ;  revised
by  Gregory  I.  590-604.  Various  missals  were  in
use  till  the  Koman  missal  was  adopted  by  the  coun-
cil of  Trent,  1545-63.  The  missal  was  super-
seded in  England  by  the  book  of  common  prayer,
1549-

MISSIONAEY  BISHOPS,  see  under
Bishops.

MISSIONS,*  see  Mark  xvi.  15.  Among  the
Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St.  Dominic,  St.

*  Missions,  "a  series  of  sermons,  generally  by  a
'  missioner,'  or  special  preacher,  often  followed  by  con-
fessions and  communions "  (a  species  of  revivalism),
were  authorised  in  the  metropolis  by  the  bishops  of
London,  Winchester,  and  Rochester,  held  1865  and
since.


Francis,  St.  Augustin,  &c,  have  missions  to  the
Levant  and  to  America.  Marco  Polo  is  said  to  have
introduced  missionaries  into  China,  1275.  The
Jesuits  have  missions  to  China  {which  see)  and  to
most  other  parts  of  the  world.  Among  the  Protes-
tants, an  early  undertaking  of  this  kind  was  a
Danish  mission,  planned  by  Frederick  IV.  in  1706.
The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in
foreign  parts  was  established  1701,  and  the  Mora-
vian Brethren  encouraged  missions  about  1732.
The  London  Missionary  Society  held  their  first
meeting,  4  Nov.  1794.  Most  Christian  sects  now
support  missions.  British  Contributions  to  Foreign
Missions;  1871,  855,742/.;  1877,  1,100,793/.  (in
1871-7,  6,977,586/.)

Great  congress  of  protestant  missions  in  London  ;  a
large  number  of  societies  represented  ;  the  earl  of
Aberdeen  president,  9-19  June,  1888.

Commander  Allan  Gardner,  R.  N. ,  who  left  England  in
the  Ocean  Queen  in  Sept.  1850,  on  the  Patagonian  mis-
sion, with  Mr.  Williams,  surgeon,  Mr.  Maidment,
catechist,  and  four  others,  died  on  Picton  Island,  at
the  mouth  of  the  Beagle  Channel,  to  the  south  of
Tierra  del  Fuego,  having  been  starved  to  death  ;  all
his  companions  having  previously  perished,  6  Sept.
1851.

M.  Schoffter,  a  missionary  to  Cochin-China,  was  publicly
executed  at  Son-Tay,  by  order  of  the  grand  mandarin,
for  preaching  Christianity,  such  preaching  being  pro-
hibited by  the  law  of  that  country,  4  May,  1851.

MISSISSIPPI,  a  great  river,  N.  America,
explored  by  De  Soto  about  1541.  Captain  Glazier
discovered  its  source,  1884.  Its  length  is  now  stated
to  be  2,960  miles.  The  Mississippi  trade  was  begun
in  England,  in  Nov.  1716.  Law's  Mississippi  scheme
in  France,  commenced  about  the  same  period,  ex-
ploded in  1720;  at  which  time  the  nominal  capital
is  said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000,000/.  The  ruin
of  thousands  soon  followed. See  Law's  Bubble.

Population,  1880,  1,131,597  ;  1890,  1,289,600.

The  great  Eads  bridge  at  St.  Louis  opened,  4  July,

By  the  explosion  of  the  boiler  of  the  Corona  at
Port  Hudson  on  the  Mississippi,  43  persons
perished 3  Oct.

The  North  American  state,  Mississippi,  was  settled
in  1716  ;  admitted  as  a  state  of  the  union,  1817  ;
seceded  from  it  by  ordinance,  8  Jan.  1861 ;  sub-
mitted, 1865. Capital,  Jackson.

About  85,000  persons  made  homeless  through  floods
in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley early  in  March,

The  Mississippi  valley  suffers  much  by  frequent
inundations  ;  one  was  very  disastrous  in  March,
April,  1890,  when  thousands  of  square  miles  were
immerged,  many  towns  isolated,  and  communi-
cations cutoff.  Louisiana  suffered  much  in  April
following.  150,000  dollars  voted  by  congress  to
relieve  the  sufferers . . . .25  April,

Grenada  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  . . 14  Jan.

The  great  cantilever  bridge  over  the  river,  3  miles
long,  at  Memphis,  joining  Tennessee  and  Arkan-
sas, completed  ;  cost,  600,000?.,  announced

11  April,  1892

Destructive,  floods  ;  about  250  lives  lost,  about  13
April  et  seq. ;  about  1,500  sq.  miles  covered  near
St.  Louis  ;  11  million  dollars  estimated  loss  ;
great  loss  of  life  ;  floods  abating . . 25  May, .,

MISSOLONGHI,  a  town  in  Greece,  taken
from  the  Turks,  1  Nov.  1821,  and  heroically  and
successfully  defended  against  the  Turks  by  Marco
Botzaris,  Oct.  1822—27  Jan.  1823.  It  was  taken  22
April,  1826,  after  a  long  siege.  Here  Lord  Byron
died,  19  April,  1824.  A  statue  of  Byron  was  un-
veiled here,  6  Nov.  1S81,  It  was  surrendered  to  the
Greeks  in  1829.

MISSOUEI,  a  south-western  state  in  N.
America,  was  settled  in  1763,  and  admitted  into  the
union,  10  Aug.  1821. It  decided  on  neutrality  in

T  T  2


1S74


1090
1891


MITCHELSTOWN.


644


MODOC INDIANS.


the  conflict  of  1861,  but  was  invaded  by  both  the
confederate  and  federal  forces  in  June  of  that  year,
and  became  one  of  the  seats  of  war.  Capital,
Jefferson  city;  population,  1880,  2,168,380;  1890,
2,679,184;  see  United  States,  1861  et  seq. — Great
railway  strike  March,  1886.  The  university  library,
Columbia,  burnt,  9  Jan.  1892.— For  the  MISSOURI
COMPROMISE,  see  Slavery  in  America.  The
Missouri  river  is  3,047  miles  long.

MITCHELSTOWN,  Cork,  see  Ireland,  9
Sept.  1887.

MITHEIDATE,  a  medical  preparation  in  the
form  of  an  electuary,  supposed  to  be  an  antidote  to
poison  and  the  oldest  compound  known,  is  said  to
have  been  invented  by  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,
abaut  70  B.C.

MITHRIDATIC  WAR,  caused  by  the  mas-
sacre of  80,000  .Romans,  by  Mithridates  VI. ,  king  of
Pontus,  88  B.C.,  and  remarkable  for  its  duration,
its  many  sanguinary  battles,  and  the  cruelties  of  its
commanders.  Mithridates  having  taken  the  consul
Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through  a  great
part  of  Asia,  crying  out  as  he  rode,  "I  am  Aquilius,
consul  of  the  Romans."  He  is  said  to  have  killed
him  by  causing  melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  his
throat,  in  derision  of  his  avarice,  85  B.C.  Mithri-
dates was  defeated  by  Pompey,  66  B.C.;  and  com-
mitted suicide,  63  B.C.

MITRAILLEUSE,  or  MlTRAILLETJR,  a
machine-gun  in  which  37  or  more  large-bored  rifles
are  combined  with  breech-action,  by  means  of  which
a  shower  of  bullets  may  be  rapidly  projected  by  one
man.  It  was  invented  in  Belgium,  and  adopted  by
the  French  emperor  soon  after  the  Prusso -Austrian
war  in  1866,  and  was  much  used  in  the  Franco-
Prussian  war  in  1870.  Its  peculiar  "  dry,  shrieking,
terrible  sound"  was  described  in  the  bombardment
of  Saarbriick,  2  Aug.  1870.  Modifications  of  the
mitrailleuse  have  been  made  by  Montigny  and
others.  The  Fosbery  mitrailleuse  was  tried  and
approved  at  Shoeburyness,  n  Aug.  1870. — It  is
mentioned  in  Grose's  Military  Antiquities  (1801)
that  in  England,  in  1625,  a  patent  was  granted  to
'William  Drummond  for  a  machine  composed  of  a
number  of  muskets  joined  together,  by  the  help  of
which  two  soldiers  can  oppose  a  hundred,  and
named,  on  account  of  itseffect,  "thunder carriage,"
or  more  usually,  "fire  carriage."  An  English
mitrailleuse,  a  modification  of  the  American  gatling,
containing  50  cartridges,  was  tried  at  Woolwich,  18
Jan.  1872;  fifty  of  them  were  ordered  to  be  made
by  Armstrong.

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  was  worn  by
the  Jewish  high-priest,  1491  B.C.  It  had  on  it  a
goldun  plate  inscribed  "Holiness  to  the  Lord."
Exodus  xxxix.  28.  The  most  ancient  mitre  that
h  is  the  nearest  resemblance  to  the  present  one  is
that  upon  the  seal  of  the  bishop  of  Laon,  in  the  10th
century.  Fosbroke.  Anciently  the  cardinals  wore
mitres,  but  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1245,  they
were  directed  to  wear  hats.

MITYLENE,  or  LESBOS,  iEgean  Sea.  Near
here  the  Greeks  defeated  and  nearly  destroyed  the
Turkish  fleet,  7  Oct.  1824.

MNEMONICS,  artificial  memory,  was  intro-
duced by  Simonides  the  younger,  477  B.C.  Arund.
Marbles.  "Mnemoniea"  was  published  by  John
"Willis  in  1618;  and  the  "  Memoria  Technica"  of
Dr.  Grey  first  appeared  in  1730.  A  system  of
mnemonics  was  announced  in  Germany  in  1806-7.J


MOABITES,  descendants  of  Lot,  a  people
living  to  the  south-east  of  Judaea.  They  were  fre-
quently at  war  with  the  Israelites,  and  were  sub-
dued vvith  divine  help  by  Ehud  about  1336,  by
David  about  1040,  and  by  Jehoshaphat,  895  B.C.,
but  often  harassed  the  Jews  in  the  decay  of  their
monarchy.  The  discovery  of  a  stone  with  inscrip-
tion in  Phoenician  characters,  said  to  relate  to
Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  referred  to  in  2  Kings,  iii.,
was  announced  in  Jan.  1 870,  and  impressions  were
exhibited  soon  after,  causing  much  discussion  among
orientalists,  and  its  authenticity  was  doubted.

MOCKERN  (Prussia).  Here  the  French  army
under  Eugene  Beauharnais  were  defeated  by  the
Prussians  under  Yorck,  5  April,  1813 ;  and  here
Bliicher  defeated  the  French,  16  Oct.  1813.

MODELS.  The  first  were  figures  of  living
persons,  and  Dibutades,  the  Corinthian,  is  the
reputed  inventor  of  those  in  clay.  His  daughter,
being  about  to  be  separated  from  her  lover,  traced
his  profile  by  his  shadow  on  the  wall ;  her  father
filled  up  the  outline  with  clay,  which  he  afterwards
baked,  and  thus  produced  a  figure  of  the  object  of
her  affection,  giving  rise  to  an  art  till  then  unknown,
about  985  B.C.
A  beautiful  model  of  the  new  town  of  Edinburgh,  before

the  building  began,  was  formed  in  wood.
A  model  was  made  of  a  bridge  over  the  Neva,  of  uncom-
mon strength  as  well  as  elegance  ;  and  of  the  moun-
tains of  Switzerland,  by  general  Puffer  (1766-85).
M.  Choffln's  model  of  Paris  also  was  remarkable  for  its

precision.
Fine  models  of  Gibraltar,  Quebec,  and  other  fortified
places,  are  deposited  in  the  Rotunda  at  Woolwich.
See  Waxwork.

MODENA  (formerly  Mutina),  capital  of  the
late  duchy  in  Central  Italy;  was  governed  by  the
house  of  Este,  from  1288  till  1796,  when  the  last
male  of  that  house,  the  reigning  duke  Hercules  III.,
was  expelled  by  the  French.  By  the  treaty  of
Campo  Formio,  the  Modenese  possessions  were
incorporated  with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797,  and
with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1805.  The  archduke
Francis  of  Este,  son  of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  of
Austria,  and  of  Mary,  the  heiress  of  the  last  duke,
was  restored  in  1814.  Modena,  in  accordance  with
the  voting  by  universal  suffrage,  was  annexed  to
Sardinia  on  i8  March,  i860.  Population  of  the
city,  1881,  31,053  ;  of  the  province,  1881,  279,254,
1889,  303,541.

GRAND DUKES.

18 14.  Francis  IV.  An  invasion  of  his  states  by  Murat
was  defeated,  11  April,  1815.  He  was  expelled
by  his  subjects  in  1831,  but  was  restored  by  the
Austrians.

1846.  Francis  V.  (born  1  June,  1819)  succeeded  21  Jan.
His  subjects  rose  against  him  soon  after  the
Italian  war  broke  out,  in  April,  1859.  He  fled
to  Verona,  establishing  a  regency,  11  June  ;
which  was  abolished,  13  June  ;  Farina  was  ap-
pointed dictator,  27  July ;  a  constituent  assembly
was  immediately  elected,  which  offered  the
duchy  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  15  Sept.,  who
incorporated  it  with  his  dominions,  18  March,
i860. Francis  died,  20  Nov.  1875.

MODERADOS.  A  political  party  in  Spain,
long  headed  by  Ramon  Maria  Narvaez,  duke  of
Valencia  (who  died  23  April,  1868),  who  opposed
the  Progresistas  headed  by  Espartero  and  Prim.
The  party  was  reinforced  by  the  favourers  of  Don
Carlos,  after  his  total  defeat  in  1876.

MODOC  INDIANS  (a  few  hundreds),
dwelling  in  lands  south  of  Oregon,  were  removed  to
other  lands  by  the  United  States  government.  Not
obtaining  subsistence,  they  returned  to  their  old
possessions,  and  their  able  leader  captain  Jack  de-


MOESIA.


645


MONDAY CONCERTS.


feated  the  troops  sent  to  expel  them,  17  Jan.  1873.
During  negotiations  for  a  peaceful  settlement,  they
decoyed  the  United  States  commissioners  into  an
ambush  (11  April),  and  massacred  general  Canby
and  about  40  othei  s.  Fighting  took  place,  15,  16
April,  and  the  Indians  retreated  to  almost  impreg-
nable positions.  The  troops  were  fh-ed  on,  and
suffered  much  loss,  27  April.  The  Indians  were
gradually  surrounded.  Jack  and  about  twenty  war-
riors held  out  desperately.  Some  surrendered,  and
he  himself  was  captured,  I  June  ;  tried,  July,  and
executed  3  Oct.  1873.

MCESIA  (now  Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria),
was  finally  subdued  by  Augustus,  29  B.C.  It  was
successfully  invaded  by  the  Goths,  a.d.  250,  who
eventually  settled  here ;  see  Goths.

MOGULS,  see  Tartary.

MOHACZ  (Lower  Hungary).  Here  Louis  king
of  Hungary,  defeated  by  the  lurks  under  Solyman
II.  with  the  loss  of  22,000  men,  was  suffocated  by
the  fall  of  his  horse  in  a  muddy  brook,  29  Aug.  1526.
Here  also  prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  defeated  the
Turks,  12  Aug.  1687.

MOHAMMEDAN,  see  Mahometanism.

MOHAMMERAH,  a  Fersian  town  near  the
Euphrates,  captured,  after  two  hours'  cannonading,
by  sir  James  Outram,  during  the  Persian  war,  26
March,  1857. News  of  the  peace  arrived  4  April.

MOHILEV,  or  MOHILEF  (Russia).  Here
the  Russian  army,  under  prince  Bagration,  was
signally  defeated  by  the  French  under  marshal
Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmiihl,  23  July,  1812.

MOHOCKS,  ruffians,  who  went  about  London
at  night,  wounding  and  disfiguring  the  men,  and
indecently  exposing  the  women.  One  hundred
pounds  were  offered  by  royal  proclamation  in  1712,
for  apprehending  any  one  of  them.  Northouck.
The  "scourers"  of  the  seventeenth  century  resemble

the  Mohocks.

MOHURR UM,  a  Mahometan  festival  in  honour
of  the  prophet's  nephews:  at  its  celebration  in  Bom-
bay, Feb.  1874,  the  Mahometans  fiercely  attacked
the  Parsees,  and  were  quelled  by  the  military.

MOKANNA  (Hakim  ben  Allah),  "The  Veiled,"
prophet,  founder  of  a  sect  in  Khorassan  in  the  eighth
century.  He  pretended  to  be  an  incarnation  of
God,  and  therefore  veiled  his  face,  but  really  to  con-
ceal the  loss  of  an  eye.  He  rebelled  against  the
calif  Almahdi,  was  for  a  tune  successful,  but  was
subdued  in  780,  when  he  and  the  remains  of  his
followers  took  poison.  He  is  the  subject  of  a  poem
by  Thos.  Moore  in  Lalla  Rookh,  181 7.

MOLDAVIA,  see  Danubian  Principalities.

MOLINISTS,  a  Roman  Catholic  sect,  followers
of  Louis  Molina,  a  Jesuit,  born  1535.  He  maintained
the  reconcilability  of  the  doctrines  of  predestination
and  free  will,  1588.

MOLLY  MAGUIRE,  the  name  of  a  secret
society  in  Ireland  in  1843,  and  of  another  society
(originally  Buckshot,  about  1853)  in  mining  dis-
tricts, United  States  {which  sec),  1877.  It  ceased
about  March,  1879.

MOLOKANI,  a  sect  in  "West  Russia,  said  to
date  from  the  16th  century,  who  maintain  primi-
tive Christian  doctrines  and  practices ;  well  de-
scribed by  Mr.  D.  Mackenzie  Wallace  in  his
"  Russia,"  published  1877.

MOLUCCAS,  an  archipelago  in  the  Indian
Ocean  (the  chief  island,  Amboyna),  discovered  by


the  Portuguese,  about  1511,  and  held  by  them.
secretly  until  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  who
claimed  them,  till  1529,  when  Charles  V.  yielded
them  to  John  III.  for  a  large  sum  of  money.  The
Dutch  conquered  them  in  1607,  and  have  held  them
ever  since, — except  from  1810  to  1814,  when  they
were  subject  to  the  English.

MOLWITZ  (in  Prussian  Silesia).  Here  the
Prussians,  commanded  by  Frederick  II.,  obtained  a
great  victory  over  the  Imperialists,  10  April  (0.  S.
30  March),  1741.

MOLYBDENUM,  a  whitish,  brittle,  almost
infusible  metal.  Scheele,  in  1778,  discovered  mo-
lybdic  acid  in  a  mineral  hitherto  confounded  with
graphite.  Hjelm,  1782,  prepared  the  metal  from
molybdic  acid;  and  in  1825  Berzelius  described
most  of  its  chemical  characters. Gmelin.

MOMBASA,  chief  town  of  the  British  East
Africa  territories;  increasing  prosperity  reported,
July,  1890. See  Africa  {British  East).

MONACHISM  (from  the  Greek  memos,
alone).  Catholic  writers  refer  to  the  prophet  Eli-
jah, and  the  Nazarites  mentioned  in  Numbers,  ch.
vi.,  as  early  examples.  The  first  Christian  ascetics
appear  to  be  derived  from  the  Jewish  sect  of  the
Essenes,  whose  life  was  very  austere,  practising
celibacy,  &c.  About  the  time  of  Constantine
(306-22)  numbers  of  these  ascetics  withdrew  into
the  deserts,  and  were  called  hermits,  monks,  and
anchorets  ;*  of  whom  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Pacho-
mius  were  most  celebrated.  Simeon,  the  founder
of  the  Stylitse  (or  pillar  saints),  died  451.  He  is
said  to  have  lived  on  a  pillar  thirty  years.  St.
Benedict,  the  great  reformer  of  western  monachism,
published  his  rules  and  established  his  monastery  at
Monte  Casino,  about  529.  The  Carthusians,  Cister-
cians, &c,  are  varieties  of  Benedictines.  In  964,
by  decree  of  king  Edgar,  all  married  priests  were
ineffectually  ordered  to  be  replaced  by  monks.
Religious  orders  expelled  from  France,  by  decree,
29  March,  1880.  Relieved  of  their  vows  by  the
Pope,  1881. See  Abbeys,  and  Benedictines.

MONACO,  a  principality,  N.  Italy,  held  by
the  Genoese  family  Grimaldi  since  968.  By  treaty
on  2  Feb.  1861,  the  prince  ceded  the  communes  of
Roquebrune  and  Mentone,  the  chief  part  of  his
dominions,  to  France,  for  4,000,000  francs.  The
prince,  Charles  III.,  bom  8  Dec.  1818,  succeeded
his  father  Florestan,  20  June  1856 ;  died  10  Sept.
1889,  was  succeeded  by  Albert,  born  13  Nov.  1848.
A  commercial  convention  between  the  prince  and
France,  signed  9  Nov.  1865,  was  much  discussed  as
tending  towards  the  abolition  of  the  French  naviga-
tion law3.  Petitions  against  Monte  Carlo,  the  great
gaming  establishment,  1880-4. Population, 1888,

r3>304-

MONARCHY.  Historians  reckon  various
grand  monarchies— the  Chaldfflan,  Assyrian,  Baby-
lonian, Median,  Persian,  Grecian,  Parthian,  and
Roman  {which  see).

MONASTERIES,  see  Abbeys.

MONCONTOUR  (near  Poitiers,  France).
Here  the  admiral  Coligny  and  the  French  Protes-
tants were  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  duke  of
Anjou  (afterwards  Henry  III.),  3  Oct.  1569.

MONCRIEFF  SYSTEM,  see  Cannon.

MONDAY  CONCERTS,  see  under  Music.

*  The  anchorites  of  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  anachorets  and  ancho-
rets, or  hermits.  The  former  wore  confined  to  solitary
cells  ;  the  latter  permitted  to  go  where  they  pleased.


MONDOVI.


646


MONTE CASINO.


MONDOVI  (Piedmont).  Here  the  Sardinian
army,  commanded  by  Colli,  was  defeated  by  Napo-
leon Bonaparte,  22  April,  1796.

MONETAEY  CONFEBENCES,  Interna-
tional, opened  at  Paris,  16  Aug.  1878 ;  and  19  April,
1881  ;  Cologne,  11-13  Oct.  1882;  Paris,  21  July,
adjourned,  5  Aug.  1885;  the  union  continued  till
I  Jan.  1887  :  conventions  signed,  6  Nov.,  and  8
Dec.  1885.  A  congress  was  held  at  Paris  II  Sept.
et  seq.,  1889. See  Latin  Union.

MONEY  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  com-
merce in  Genesis  xxiii.,  i860  B.C.,  when  Abraham
purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah.  The
coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians.
Moneta  was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the
Romans,  it  having  been  coined  in  the  temple  of
Juno-Moneta,  269  B.C.  Money  was  made  of  dif-
ferent metals,  and  even  of  leather  and  other  articles,
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  It  was  made
of  pasteboard  by  the  Hollanders  so  late  as  1574.
The  czar  Nicholas  struck  coins  in  platinum.  See
Coin;  Gold;  Copper;  Mint;  Banks,  &c.  For
Money  Orders,  see  Post  Office.

MONEYEES  travelled  with  our  early  kings,
and  coined  money  as  required ;  see  Mint.

MONGOLS,  see  Tartary.

MONITEUE  TJNIVEESEL,  aFrenchnews-
paper,  was  established  in  Paris  by  C.  J.  Panc-
koucke,  5  May,  1789 ;  daily  paper,  24  Nov.  1789 ;
the  organ  of  the  government,  28  Dec.  1799.  It  was
superseded  by  the  Journal  Officiel,  1  Jan.  1869 ;
resumed  its  official  position  about  23  Sept.  1870 ;  and
was  again  superseded  by  the  Journal  Officiel,  Feb.
187 1.  It  became  the  organ  of  MacMahon's  govern-
ment in  1875.

MONITOEIAL  SYSTEM  (in  education),
in  which  pupils  are  employed  as  teachers,  was  used
by  Dr.  Bell  in  the  Orphan  Asylum  at  Madras  in
1795)  an(l  was  a^so  adopted  by  Joseph  Lancaster,
in  London  ;  see  Education.

MONITOE  SHIPS,  see  United  States.  The
American  monitor,  Miantonomah,  arrived  at  Ply-
mouth in  June,  1866,  and  excited  much  attention.

MONK,  see  Monachism.

MONMOUTH,  Monmouthshire,  was  a  Roman
station,  afterwards  a  Saxon  fortress.  The  ancient
castle  rebuilt  by  John,  lord  of  Monmouth,  1257,  be-
came the  property  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  in  it  his
grandson,  Henry  V.,  was  born,  9  Aug.,  1388.  Mon-
mouth was  first  incorporated  in  1550.  Population,
1881,  6,111  ;  1891,  5,470.

MONMOUTH'S  EEBELLION.  James,
duke  of  Monmouth  (born  at  Rotterdam,  9  April,
1649),  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Lucy  Waters,
was  banished  England  for  his  connection  with  the
Rye-house  plot,  in  1683.  He  invaded  England  at
Lyme,  n  June,  1685;  was  proclaimed  king  at
Taunton,  20  June;  was  defeated  at  Sedgmoor,  near
Bridgewater,  6  July ;  and  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,
15  July.

MONOCHOED,  a  box  of  tbin  wood,  with  a
bridge,  over  which  is  stretohed  a  wire  or  chord,  said
to  have  been  invented  by  Pythagoras,  about  600  B.C.

MONOLITH,  Greek  for  single  stone;  see
Obelisk.

MONOPHYSITES,  see  Eutychicms.

MONOPOLIES  were  formerly  so  numerous
in  England  that  parliament  petitioned  against
them, and many  were abolished, about  1601-2.


They  were  further  suppressed  by  21  Jas.  I.,  1624.
Sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchell  were
punished  for  their  abuse  of  monopolies,  1621.  In
1630,  Charles  I.  established  monopolies  of  soap,
salt,  leather,  and  other  common  things,  to  supply  a
revenue  without  the  help  of  parliament.  It  was
decreed  that  none  should  be  in  future  created  by
royal  patent,  16  Chas.  I.  1640.

MONOTHELITES,  heretics  who  affirmed
that  Jesus  Christ  had  but  one  will,  were  favoured
by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  630 ;  they  merged  into
the  Eutychians  {which  see).

MONEOE  DOCTBINE,  a  term  applied  to
the  determination  expressed  by  James  Monroe,
president  of  the  United  States,  in  his  message  to
the  congress,  2  Dec.  1823,  not  to  permit  any  Euro-
pean power  to  interfere  with  the  concerns  of  any
independent  states  of  North  or  South  America.
This  doctrine  was  referred  to  in  1859  and  1865.

MONTANA,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,
north  America,  formed  out  of  Idaho ;  became  a
territory  in  1864,  and  a  state  in  1889.  Capital,
Helena. Population  in  1880,39,159;  1890,132,159.

MONTANISTS,  followers  of  Montanus,  of
Ardaba,  in  Mysia,  about  171,  who  was  reputed  to
have  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  proclaimed  himself
the  Comforter  promised  by  Christ.  He  condemned
second  marriages  as  fornication,  permitted  the  dis-
solution of  marriage,  forbade  avoiding  martyrdom,
and  ordered  a  severe  fast  of  three  lents  ;  he  hanged
himself  with  Maximilla,  one  of  his  female  scholars,
before  the  close  of  the  2nd  century.  Cave.  The
eloquent  father,  Tertullian,  joined  the  sect,  204.

.MONT  BLANC,  in  the  French  Alps,  is  the
highest  mountain  in  Europe,  being  15,781  feet
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  summit  was  first
reached  by  Jacques  Balmat  in  June,  1786,  and
afterwards  by  H.  B.  Saussure,  aided  by  Balmat,
on  2  Aug.  1787.  The  summit  was  attained  by  Dr.
Hamel  (when  three  of  his  guides  perished)  in  1820,
and  by  many  other  persons  before  and  since.  Ac-
counts of  the  ascents  of  Mr.  John  Auldio,  Charles
Fellows  (1827),  and  of  professor  Tyndall  (1857-8)
have  been  published ;  see  Alps.  57  ascents  re-
ported in  1873  ;  64  in  1881.

Herr  Bothe  and  a  guide  killed  by  an  avalanche,

20  Aug.  1891

Erection  of  an  observatory  on  the  summit  pro-
posed ;  work  proceeding,  July ;  stopped  about
28  Aug.  ;  3  deaths.  Favourable  report  by  M.
Janssen  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  2  Nov.  1891.
Preparations  for  a  renewal  of  the  work,  with  pre-
cautions June,  1892

By  the  torrents  consequent  on  the  fall  of  a  glacier,
the  "  Etablissement  des  Bains"  at  St.  Gervais
and  two  villages  were  destroyed,  and  about  130
persons  perished . . . . n,  12  July, ,,

MONT  CENIS,  see  Alps.

MONTEBELLO,  in  Piedmont,  where  Lannes
defeated  the  Austrians,  9  June,  1800,  and  acquired
his  title  of  duke  of  Montebello ;  and  where,  after
a  contest  of  six  hours,  the  French  and  Sardinians
defeated  the  Austrians,  who  lost  about  IOOO
killed  and  wounded,  and  200  prisoners,  20  May,
1859.  The  French  lost  about  670  men,  including
general  Beuret.

MONTE CAELO,  see  Monaco.

MONTE  CASINO  (Central  Italy).  Here
Benedict  formed  his  first  monastery,  529.  After
affording  a  refuge  for  many  eminent  persons,  its
monastic  character  was abolished  by  the  Italian


MONTEM.


647


MONTI DI PIETA.


government  in  1866,  care  being  taken  for  the  pre-
servation of  its  historical  and  literary  monuments.

MONTEM,  see  Eton.

MONTENEGRO,  an  independent  principality
in  European  Turkey,  was  conquered  by  Solyman  II.
in  1526.  It  rebelled  early  in  the  18th  century,  and
established  a  hereditary  hierarchical  government  in
the  family  of  Petrovitsch  Njegosch, — permitted,  but
not  recognised  by  the  Porte.  Its  independence
■was  declared  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July,
1878.  Population,  in  1891,  200,000.  Capital,
Cettinje.

The  nephew  and  successor  of  the  Vladika,  Peter  II.,
declined  to  assume  the  ecclesiastical  function,
and  declared  himself  a  temporal  prince,  with  the
title  of  Daniel  I., 1851 ; and  "began  war  with

Turkey 1852

Montenegro  put  in  a  state  of  blockade . 14  Dec. ,,
Alter  indecisive  encounters,  tranquillity  restored  by
the  influence  of  the  arms  and  negotiations of
Omar  Pacha,  the  general  of  the  Turkish  army  ;  he

left  the  province 25  Feb.  1853

Blockade  raised 10  April, ,,

"War  again  broke  out ;  the  Turks  defeated  at  Gra-

hovo,  June  ;  peace  restored  ....  Nov.  1858
The  country  much  disturbed  through  the  tyrannical
conduct  of  prin.ce  Daniel,  who  was  assassinated

(aged  35) 14  Aug.  i860

Succeeded "by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita,

(married) 8  Nov. ,,

An  insurrection  ia  the  Herzegovina,  favoured  by
the  Montenegrins  ;  the  blockade  of  Montenegro,

4  April,  1 861
Omar  Pacha  invaded  the  province  with  an  army  of

32,000  men  in Aug. ,,

Many  conflicts  with  various  success,  but  latterly  in
favour  of  the  Turks  ;  peace  made,  Turkish  supre-
macy recognised 8-9  Sept. 1862

Murderous  cruarrels  between  Christians  and  Mussul-
men  at  Podgoritza  ;  21  Montenegrins  said  to  be

killed  by  Turks 20  Oct.  1874

Threatened  war  prevented  by  intervention  of  the
great  powers  ;  each  nation  to  punish  culprits

Jan.  1875
.Some  rioters  executed .... 15  May, „
Montenegro  with  difficulty  restrained  from  inter-
vention in  Herzegovina . Autumn  and  "Winter, „
The  prince  declared  war  and  joined  the  Servians

2  July,  1876
.See  Turkey  and  Rtisso-Turlcish  war . . 1876-7-8
Declared  independent  of  Turkey  by  treaty  of  San
Stefano, 3  March  ;  (with new  boundaries,  and
Antivari  for  a  seaport)  by  the  Berlin  treaty

13  July,  1878
Podgoritza  surrendered  by  Turkey  . . 7  Feb.  1879
After  much  resistance  by  the  Albanians,  and  nego-
tiation with  Turkey,  Gussinge  surrendered,  April,  1880
Frontier  disputes  with  Turkey  settled,  Nov.  1882  ;

the  prince  well  received  at  Constantinople,  Sept.  1883
Building  to contain  state  library, museum,  and

theatre,  at  Cettinje  founded  .  .  12  May,  1884
A  constitution  promised .  . . May, „

Temporary  fighting  between Turks and Monte-
negrins at  Cettinje . . . . 3,  4  July,  1886
The  prince  visits  the  czar  at  St.  Petersburg May,  1889
Severe  famine  relieved  by  the  great  exertions  of  the
prince,  Sept.  ; aided  by  Russia, Hungary,  and

Turkey Oct. „

About  11,360  persons  emigrate  to  Servia,  Oct.,  Nov.
1889  ;  famine  continues,  more  emigration  needed,

March,  1890
Oolonel  Bosko  Martinovitch,  cousin  of  the  prince,

murdered  ;  the  assassin  lynched . . 7  July, „
Frequent  Albanian  raids  checked  by  Turks,

July,  Aug. ,,
■Great  distress  through  snow-storms . early  Feb.  1891

PRINCES.

1851.  Daniel,  born  25  May,  1826  ;  assassinated,  13  Aug.

i860.
i860.  Nicolas, or Nikita  (nephew),  born  7  Oct. 1841  ;
married princess Milena, 8 Nov. i860.
Hdr,  Dauilo,  born  29  June,  1871.


MONTENOTTE,  a  village  in  Piedmont,
memorable  as  being  the  site  of  the  first  victory
gained  over  the  Austrians  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,
12  April,  1796.

MONTEEEAU  (near  Paris).  On  the  bridge
of  Montereau,  at  his  meeting  with  the  dauphin,
John  the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  killed  by
Tanneguy  de  Chatel  in  1419.  This  event  led  to
our  Henry  V.  subduing  France,  the  young  duke
Philip  joining  the  English.  Here  the  allied  armies
were  defeated  by  the  French,  commanded  by  Napo-
leon, with  great  loss  in  killed  and  wounded ;  hut
it  was  one  of  his  last  triumphs,  18  Feb.  1814.

MONTEREY  (Mexico),  was  taken  by  general
Taylor  after  a  three  days'  conflict  with  the  Mexi-
cans, 21-23  Sept.  1846.

MONTE-VIDEO  (S.  America),  was  taken  by
storm  by  the  British  forces  under  sir  Samuel  Auch-
rauty,  but  with  the  loss  of  nearly  one-third  of  our
brave  troops,  3  Feb.  1807.  It  was  evacuated  7  July
the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  the  severe  repulse
the  British  met  with  at  Buenos-Ayres  ;  see  Buenos-
Ayr  es.  Monte-Video,  a  subject  of  dispute  between
Brazil  and  Buenos-Ayres,  was  given  up  to  Uruguay,
1828.  For  recent  war,  etc.,  see  Brazil  and  Uruguay.
Fire  at  celebration  service  for  Garibaldi,  about  20
killed,  11  June,  1882.

MONTFERRAT  (Lombardy),  House  of,

celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades,  began
with  Alderan,  who  was  made  marquis  of  Mont-
ferrat,  by  Otho,  about  967.  Conrad  of  Montferrat
became  lord  of  Tyre,  and  reigned  from  1 187  till
1 191,  when  he  was  assassinated.  "William  IV.  died
in  a  cage  at  Alexandria,  having  been  thus  impri-
soned nineteen  months,  1292.  Violante,  daughter
of  John  II.,  married  Andronicus  Pakeologus,  em-
peror of  the  East.  Their  descendants  ruled  in
Italy  amid  perpetual  contests  till  1533,  when  John
George  Paheologus  died  without  issue.  His  estates
passed  after  much  contention  to  Frederic  II.  Gon-
zaga,  marquis  of  Mantua,  in  1536,  and  next  to  the
duke  of  Savoy.

MONTGOMERY,  capital  of  Alabama,  United
States,  founded  181 7.  Here  the  state  convention
passed  the  ordinance  of  secession  from  the  union
on  II  Jan.  1861;  here  the  confederate  congress  met
on  4  Feb.  and  elected  Jefferson  Davis  president,
and  Alexander  Stephens  vice-president,  of  the  con-
federate states  of  North  America;  and  here  they
were  inaugurated  on  18  Feb.  On  21  May  the
congress  adjourned  to  meet  on  20  July  at  Ilich-
mond,  in  Virginia,  that  state  having  joined  the
confederates  and  become  the  seat  of  war.

MONTH  (from  mona,  Anglo-Saxon  moon),  the
twelfth  part  of  the  calendar  year.  See  Year,
Calendar,  January  and  other  months,  French  Revo-
lutionary Calendar  and  Jewish  Era.

Lunar  Month. — The  period  of  one  revolution  of  the
moon  (syuodical) ;  mean  length,  zgd.  12ft.  44m.  2.87s.

Sidereal  Month.—  Time  of  moon's  revolution  from  a  star
to  the  same  again,  271/..  7/1.  43?)!..  11.5s.

Solar  Month.— The  time  the  sun  passes  through  one
sign  of  the  zodiac,  30CZ.  io7t..  29m.  4.1s.

Information  respecting  the  months  of  the  Egyptians,
Jews,  Greeks,  Romans,  Persians,  and  other  nations  will
be  found  in  sir  H.  Nicolas's  "Chronology  of  History."
See  under  Jewish  era  and  Mahomctanism.

MONTI  DI  PIETA,  charitable  institutions
for  advancing  money  on  pledges,  were  first  estab-
lished at  Perugia,  Florence,  Mantua,  and  other
Italian  cities,  1462,  et  scq.  The  Franciscans,  in
149},  began  to  receive  interest,  which  was  per-
mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts  de  Hetd


MONTIEL.


648


MOOLTAN.


established  in  France  1777,  were  suppressed  by  the
Revolution,  but  restored,  1804  ;  regulated  by  law,
185 1 -2  ;  see  Paivnbroking .  '

MONTIEL  (Spain),  Battle  of,  14  March,

1369,  between  Peter  the  Cruel,  king  of  Castile,  and
his  brother  Henry  of  Trastamare,  aided  by  the
French  warrior,  Bertrand  du  Guesclin.  Peter
was  totally  defeated,  and  afterwards  treacherously
slain.
MONTIGNY,  see  under  Firearms.

MONTLHEEY  (Seine -et-Oise,  France),
site  of  an  indecisive  battle  between  Louis  XI.  and  a
party  of  his  nobles,  termed  "  The  League  of  the
Public  Good,"  16  July,  1465.

MONTMARTRE,  HEIGHTS  OF,  near  Paris,
taken  by  Blucher,  30  March,  1814.  They  were
fortified  during  the  communist  insurrection,  March,
1871 ;  and  retaken  by  the  army  of  Versailles,  28
May.

MONTMIRAIL  (Marne,  France).  Here
Napoleon  defeated  the  allies,  11  Feb.  1814.

MONTPELLIER  (S.  France),  built  in  the
8th  century,  prospered  as  the  neighbouring  city
Maguelonne  decreased.  It  was  acquired  by  mar-
riage by  the  king  of  Arragon,  1204  ;  by  the  king  of
Majorca,  1276;  was  ceded  to  France,  1349;  given
to  Charles  the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  in  exchange
for  Mantes,  &c,  1365 ;  sequestered  by  France,
1378.  It  was  seized  by  the  Huguenots  early  in  the
reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  held  by  them  till  Sept.
1622,  when  it  surrendered  after  a  siege,  followed
by  a  treaty  of  peace,  20  Oct.  Sexcentenary  of  the
University  celebrated,  president  Carnot  present,  23
May,  1890.

MONTREAL,  the  second  city  in  Lower
Canada,  founded  by  the  French,  and  named  Ville
Marie,  18  May,  1642.  Population,  1881,  140,747  ;
1891,  216,650.

Surrendered  to  the  English  .  .  .  8  Sept.  1760
Taken  by  the  Americans  ...  12  Nov.  1775
Retaken  by  the  British  .  .  ,  .15  June,  1776
The  church, Jesuits'  college, prison, and many

buildings  burnt  down ...  6  June,  1803

Great  military  affray  . . . .29  Sept. 1833

Bishopric  founded .  1836

Riots  against  the  government  ... 6  Nov. 1837
The  self-styled  "loyalists"  of  Montreal  assault  the
governor-general,  lord  Elgin; enter  the  parlia-
ment-house, drive  out  the  members,  and  set  Are

to  the  building 25  April,  1849

A  bishopric  established

A  destructive  fire 23  Aug. 1850

Another, destroying  1200  houses; the  loss esti-
mated at  a  million  sterling . . .12  July,  1852
At  an  anti-papal  lecture  here  by  Gavazzi,  riots  en-
sued, and  many  lives  were  lost . . 10  June,  1853
The  cathedral  destroyed  by  fire . . 10  Dec. 1856
Victoria  railway  bridge  (which  see)  formally  opened

by  the  prince  of  Wales  .... 25  Aug. i860
Fierce  riots  at  the  attempt  to  bury  Joseph  Guibord,
a  Roman  Catholic,  while  under  censure,  in  the
Roman  Catholic  cemetery  .... Sept.  1875
[He  belonged  to  the  "  InstitutCanadien,"  censured
for  possessing  forbidden  books;  he  died  in  1869;
after  much  litigation,  the  privy  council  judicial
committee  affirmed  his  right  to  burial  against  the
clerical  authorities.]
Riot  at  a  memorial  Romanist  procession  ;  1  man

killed 26  Sept. „

Guibord  buried  with  military  and  police  escort,

16  Nov. ,,

Violent  bread  riots I7  Dec.

Fierce  orange  riots,  with  loss  of  life 12  July  et  seq.  1877
Ice  palace  erected  and  carnival  held . 23  Jan.  1883
Prevalence  of  small  pox  ;  riots  against  compulsory
vaccination  suppressed,  29  Sept.  ;  1,622  deaths  in
October Too,


Great  inundation  through  ice  gorge  of  the  lower
town  ;  about  1,000,000?.  damage  ;  much  privation

17-18  April,  1886

Great  fires  in 1887-8

The  Longue  Pointe  Lunatic  Asylum  burnt,  about

80  persons  perish 6  May,  1890

Visit  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  2  June, „,
Great  fire  at  the  Cote  St.  Antoine  suburb  ;  the  loss ,

about  50,000  dollars  .  .  .  .28  July,  „
Visit  of  the  comte  de  Paris,  banquet  .  25  Oct.  ,,
Great  labour  demonstration  ...  7  Sept.  189E

MONTSERRAT,  a  W.  India  island,  dis-
covered by  Columbus  in  1493,  and  settled  by  the
British  in  1632.  It  has  several  times  been  takert
by  the  French,  but  was  secured  to  the  British  in
1783. Population,  1891, 11,762. See  Leeward  Isles:

MONUMENT  of  LONDON,  built  by  sir
Christopher  Wren,  1671-7.  The  pedestal  is  forty
feet  high,  and  the  edifice  altogether  202  feet,  that
being  the  distance  of  its  base  from  the  spot  where
the  tire  which  it  commemorates  commenced.  It  is
the  loftiest  isolated  column  in  the  world.  Its
erection  cost  about  14,500^.  The  staircase  is  of
black  marble,  consisting  of  345  steps.*  Fall  of
part  of  the  stone  coping,  no  one  injured,  25  Sept.
1888  ;  examined  and  repaired  ;  re-opened  14  Jan.
1889.  Of  the  four  original  inscriptions,  three
were  Latin,  and  the  following  in  English, — cut
in  1681,  obliterated  by  James  II. ;  re-cut  in  the-
reign  of  "William  III.;  and  finally  erased  by  order
of  the  common  council,  26  Jan.  1831.  They  pro-
duced Pope's  indignant  lines  :—

"  Where  London's  column,  pointing  at  the  skies,
Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  the  head,  and  lies."

THIS  PILLAR  WAS  SET  VP  IN  PERPETVAL  REMEMBRANCE
OF  THAT  MOST  DREADFUL  BURNING  OF  THIS  PROTESTANT
CITY,  BEGUN  AND  CARRYED  ON  BY  Ye  TREACHERY  AND-
MALICE  OF  Ye  POPISH  FACTION,  IN  Ye  BEGINNING  OF
SEPTEM.  IN  Y*  YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD  1666,  IN  ORDER  TO  Y«
CARRYING  ON  THEIR  HORRID  PLOT  FOR  EXTIRPATING  Ya
PROTESTANT  RELIGION  AND  OLD  ENGLISH  LIBERTY,  AND
Y=  INTRODUCING  POPERY  AND  SLAVERY.

MONUMENTS,  see  Ancient.  An  act  passed
22  July,  1878,  empowers  the  Metropolitan  board  of
works  to  take  care  of  Cleopatra's  needle,  and  other
monuments.

MONZA,  or  Monsa,  formerly  capital  of  the
kingdom  of  Lombardy,  frequently  besieged.  The
cathedral  was  founded  in  the  sixth  century.  The
iron  crown  of  Italy  (which  see)  was  kept  here  till
1859. See  Italy,  Oct.  1891.

MOODKEE  (India).  Here,  on  18  Dec.
1845,  the  Sikhs  attacked  the  advanced  guard  of
the  British,  commanded  by  general  Gough,  and
were  repulsed  three  miles,  losing  many  men  and
fifteen  pieces  of  cannon.  Sir  Robert  Sale  was
mortally  wounded.  The  battle  preceded  that  of
Ferozeshah  (which  see).

MOOLTAN  (N.  W.  India),  an  ancient  city,
was  stormed  by  RunjeetSing,  1818.  Here  his  son,
Moolraj  Sing,  ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  treacherously
murdered  Mr.  Vans  Agnew  and  lieutenant  Ander-
son, 21  April,  1848.  Several  conflicts  took  place
between  the  British  and  the  Sikhs,  in  which  the
latter  were  beaten,  and  Mooltan  taken  after  a  pro-
tracted siege,  2-22  Jan.  1849.

*  William  Green,  a  weaver,  fell  from  this  monument,
25  June,  1750.  A  man  named  Thomas  Craddock,  a  baker,
precipitated  himself  from  its  summit,  7  July,  1780.  Mr.
Lyon  Levy,  a  Jewish  diamond  merchant,  of  considerable
respectability,  threw  himself  from  it,  18  Jan.  1810;  as
did  more  recently  three  other  persons :  in  consequence
of  which  a  fence  was  placed  round  the  railing  of  the
gallery  in  1839.


MOON.


649


MORGARTEN.


MOON. Opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true

causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales,  640  B.C.

Hipparchus made observations on the moon at

Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius  accounted  for  the

tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon,  and  said  that

the  moon  borrows  her  light  from  the  sun,  79  B.C.

Diog.  Laert.

Maps  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Hevelius,  1647.
Cassini ......... 1680

Beer  and  Madler's  map  published . . . . 1834

Professor  John  Phillips  invited  the  British  Associa-
tion to  make  arrangements  to  obtaiu  a  "syste-
matic representation  of  the  physical  aspect  of  the
moon " 1862

Photographs  of  the  moon  taken  by  Draper  at  New
York,  1840;  by  Bond,  1850;  by  Mr.  Warren  de  la
Rue,  1857  ;  by  Rutherford 1871

Hansen's  "Tables  of  the  Moon,"  calculated  at  the
expense  of  the  British  and  Danish  governments,
published  at  the  cost  of  the  latter . . . 1857

The  British  Association  "  lunar  committee  "  publish
two  sections  of  a  map  of  the  moon,  on  a  scale  of
200  inches  to  her  diameter . . . July,  1867

The  earl  of  Rosse  made  experiments  on  the  radiation
of  heat  from  the  moon 1868-73

Professor  S.  P.  Langley,  of  Washington,  U.S.,  pub-
lished the  results  of  experiments  relative  to  the
temperature  of  the  moon . . . Nov.  1887

Mr.  C.  V.  Boys,  of  South  Kensington,  described  at
the  Royal  Institution  how  he  obtained  evidence
of  the  heat  of  the  moon  by  means  of  his  very
sensitive  thermopile  composed  of  quartz  fila-
ments, according  to  the  anticipations  of  professor
Piazzi  Smyth . . . -17  April  et  seq.  1890

Professor  J.  F.  Julius  Schmidt,  of  Athens,  com-
pleted his  map  of  the  moon  after  34  years'  work  :
diameter  2  metres 1874

Mr.  James  Nasmyth  and  Mr.  J.  Carpenter  published
the  result  of  many  years'  observations,  in  "The
Moon  " 1874  ;  new  edition,  18S5

Mr.  Edmund  Neison  published  "The  Moon  and
the  Conditions  and  Configurations  of  its  Surface"

July,  1876

Professor  Schmidt's  map  published  at  Berlin . .  1878
See  Eclipses.

"MOONLIGHTERS,"  a  name  given  to  the
perpetrators  of  night  outrages  in  18S0.  See  Ireland
1885.

MOORS,  formerly  the  natives  of  Mauritania
{which  see),  but  afterwards  the  name  given  to  the
Numidians  and  others,  and  now  applied  to  the
natives  of  Morocco  and  the  neighbourhood.
They  frequently  rebelled  against  the  Roman
emperors,  and  assisted  Genseric  and  the  Vandals
in  their  invasion  of  Africa,  429.  They  resisted
for  a  time  the  progress  of  the  Saracens  or  Arab
Mahometans,  but  were  overcome  in  707,  and
in  1019  were  by  them  introduced  into  Spain,
where  their  arms  were  long  victorious.  In  1063
they  were  defeated  in  Sicily  by  Roger  Guiscard.
The  Moorish  kingdom  of  Grenada  was  set  up
in  1237,  and  lasted  till  1492,  when  it  fell  before
Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile,  mainly  owing  to  infernal
discord.  The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain
was  decreed  by  Charles  V.,  but  not  fully  carried
into  effect  till  1609,  when  the  bigotry  of  Philip
III.  inflicted  this  great  injury  to  his  country.  About
1 5 1 8  the  Moors  established  the  piratical  states  of
Algiers  and  Tunis  (which  see).  In  the  history  of
Spain,  the  Arabs  and  Moors  must  not  be  con-
founded.

MOPLAHS,  industrious  fanatical  Mahometans
in  Malabar,  E.  Indies,  gave  trouble  by  their  attacks
on  Hindoos  and  the  British,  especially  in  1845  ;  an
outbreak  was  suppressed  about  15  Sept.  1873.

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  the  science  of
ethics,  defined  as  the  knowledge  of  our  duty,  and
the  art  of  being virtuous and happy. Socrates


(about  430  B.C.)  is  regarded  as  the  father  of
ancient,  and  Grotius  (about  1623)  the  father  of
modem  moral  philosophy;  see  Ethics  and  Philo-
sophy.

MORAT  (Switzerland),  where  Charles  the  Bold
of  Burgundy  was  completely  defeated  by  the  Swiss,
22  June,  1476.  A  monument,  constructed  of  the
bones  of  the  vanquished,  was  destroyed  by  the
French  in  1798,  and  a  stone  column  erected.  400th
anniversary  kept,  1876.

MORAVIA,  an  Austrian  province,  occupied  by
the  Slavonians  about  548,  and  conquered  by  the
Avars  and  Bohemians,  who  submitted  to  Charle-
magne. About  1000  it  was  subdued  by  Boleslas  of
Poland,  but  recovered  by  Ulrich  of  Bohemia  iu
1030.  After  various  changes,  Moravia  and  Bohemia
were  amalgamated  into  the  Austrian  dominions  in
1526.  Moravia  was  invaded  by  the  Prussians  in
1866,  and  they  established  their  head  quarters  at
Briinn,  the  capital,  13  July.  The  demand  of  the
Moravians  for  home  rule  was  resisted  Oct,  187 1.
Strike  of  30,000  coal  miners  at  O-trau,  and  rioting
suppressed  by  military,  16,  17  April,  1890.  Popu-
lation in  1890,  2,276,870.

MORAVIANS,  or  United Brethren,

said  to  have  been  part  of  the  Hussites,  who  with-
drew into  Moravia  in  the  15th  century;  but  the
brethren  assert  that  then  sect  was  derived  from  the
Greek  church  in  the  9th  century.  In  1722  they
formed  a  settlement  (called  Ilcrrnhut,  the  watch
of  the  Lord)  on  the  estate  of  count  Zinzendorf.
Their  church  consisted  of  500  persons  in  1727.
They  were  introduced  into  England  by  count  Zin-
zendorf about  1738;  he  died  at  Chelsea  in  June,
1760.  In  1851  they  had  thirty-two  chapels  in  Eng-
land. They  are  zealous  missionaries,  and  founded
settlements  in  foreign  parts,  about  1732.  London
Association  f  unded,  1817.

MORAY  FLOODS,  see  Inundations,  1829.

MORDAUNT,  see  Administrations,  16S9.

MORDEN  COLLEGE  (Blackheath),  alms-
houses for  decayed  merchants,  with  pensions,  esta-
blished by  sir  John  Morden,  1695  ;  opened,  1702.

MOREA,  a  name  given  to  the  Peloponnesus  in
the  13th  century;  see  Greece.

MORETON  BAY  (New  S.  Wales).  The
colony  founded  here  in  1859  has  since  been  named
Queensland  (which  see).

MORGANATIC*  MARRIAGES,  when  the
left  hand  is  given  instead  of  the  right,  between  a
man  of  superior  and  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  in
which  it  is  stipulated  that  the  latter  and  her  chil-
dren shall  not  enjoy  the  rank  or  inherit  the  pos-
sessions of  the  former.  The  children  are  legitimate.
Such  marriages  are  frequently  contracted  in  Ger-
many by  royalty  and  the  higher  nobility.  It  has
been  asserted  that  our  George  I.  was  thus  married
to  the  duchess  of  Kendal ;  the  late  duke  of  Sussex
to  lady  Cecilia  Underwood ;  Frederic  VI.  of  Den-
mark to  the  countess  of  Banner,  7  Aug.  1850 ;  and
several  Austrian  princes,  recently.

MORGARTEN  (Switzerland).  1300  Swiss  en-
gaged 20,000  Austrians,  commanded  by  the  duke
Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated,  15  Nov.
1315,  upon  the  heights  of  Morgarten,  overlooking
the  defile  through  which  the  enemy  was  to  enter
their  territory  from  Zug.

*  Said  to  be  derived  from  Morgengabe,  the  gift  of
a  husband  of  a  limited  part  of  his  property  to  such  a
bride  on  the  morning  after  the  marriage.


MOEICE DANCE.


650


MOEOCCO.


MOEICE  DANCE,  an  ancient  dance  pecu-
liar to  some  of  the  country  parts  of  England,  and,  it
is  said,  also  to  Scotland  :  it  was  performed  before
James  I.  in  Herefordshire.

MOEIEE  INCIDENT,  see  Prussia,  1889.

MOEISONIANS,  followers  of  the  Rev.  James
Morison  of  Kilmarnock,  suspended  for  heterodoxy,
1841.

MOELEY  HALL  and  Welbeck  Institute,
Ttegent  Street,  London,  for  the  Young  Women's
Christian  Association,  opened  by  princess  Christian,

22  NOV.  1886.

MOEMONS  (calling  themselves  the  Church
of  Jesus  Christ  of  the  Latter-day  Saints).
This  sect  derives  its  origin  from  Joseph  Smith,
■called  the  Prophet,  who  announced  in  1823,  at
Palmyra,  New  York,  that  he  had  had  a  vision  of
the  angel  Moroni.  In  1827  he  said  that  be  found
the  book  of  Mormon,  written  on  gold  plates  in
Egyptian  characters.  This  book  is  said  to  have
been  written  about  1812,  by  a  clergyman  named
Solomon  Spaulding  (or  by  Martin  Harris,  who  died
.'Sept.  1875),  as  a  religious  romance  in  imitation  of
the  scripture  style.  It  was  translated  and  published
in  America  in  1830,  in  England  in  1841.  It  fell
into  the  hands  of  Eigdon  and  Smith,  who  deter-
mined to  palm  it  off  as  a  new  revelation.  The
Mormons  command  the  payment  of  tithes,  permit
polygamy,  encourage  labour,  and  believe  in  their
leaders  working  miracles.  Missionaries  are  propa-
gating these  doctrines  in  Europe  with  more  success
than  would  be  expected.

'The  Mormonites  organise  a  church  at  Kirkland,
Ohio . .  1830

They  found  Zion,  in  Jackson  county,  Missouri 1831-2

From  1833  to  1839  the  sect  endured  much  perse-
cution, and,  driven  from  place  to  place,  was  com-
pelled to  travel  westwards  ;  till  the  city  Nauvoo
on.  the  Mississippi  was  laid  out  and  a  temple
was  built 1 840-1

Joseph  and  his  brother  Hyram,  when  in  prison  on  a
charge  of  treason,  shot  by  an  infuriated  mob,  and
Brigham  Young  chosen  seer  . . June,  1844

Much  harassed  by  their  neighbours  ;  departure  from
Nauvoo  determined  on 1845

The  Great  Salt  Lake  chosen  "for  an  everlasting
abode,"  and  taken  possession  of . . 24  July,  1847

The  valley  surveyed  by  order  of  the  United  States
government 1849

The  provisional  government  abolished  and  the  Utah-
territory  recognised  by  the  United  States  ;  Brig-
ham  Young  appointed  the  first  governor ;  and  the
university  of  Deseret  was  founded . . 1849-50

'The  population,  11,354 1851

The  crops  at  the  Utah  settlement  said  to  be  de-
stroyed by  locusts  .... Aug.  1855

The  United  States  judge  at  Utah  resigned  from
inability  to  discharge  his  functions,  in  conse-
quence of  the  violent  and  treasonable  conduct  of
the  Mormons,  and  their  leader,  Brigham  Young 1857

A  conference  of  Mormon  elders,  &c,  was  held  in
London  ;  offensive  speeches  made  and  songs  sung
advocating  polygamy . . . . 1  Sept. ,,

The  United  States  government  sent  an  army  to
Utah  :  a  compromise  was  entered  into,  and  peace
was  established  by  governor  Cummmgs  in June,  1858

A  Mormonite  meeting  at  Southampton . 18  Feb.  1861

A  French  Mormonite  priest  preached  at  Paris  in  Oct.  1862

"Latter-day  Saints' "  meetings  held  in  London . 1S65

Utah  settlement  visited  by  Hepworth  Dixon  :  he
stated  that  it  contained  200,000  persons,  and  an
army  of  20,000  rifles.  ("  New  America,"  published
in  1867) 1866

Reported  schisms  :  through  increasing  opposition
to  polygamy June,  1867

Synod  held  in  Store-street,  London  (London  con-
ference said  to  include  11 72  members) 5  April,  1868

650  new  Mormonites  sailed  from  Liverpool  for  Utah,

6  June, ,,


Bill  depriving  polygamists  of  civic  rights  passed
U  S.  house  of  representatives . . March,  1870

Brigham  Young  ordered  to  be  tried  for  bigamy,
flies  ;  Hawkins,  a  Mormonite  elder,  sentenced  to
three  years' imprisonment  for  adultery,  end  of  Oct.  1871

Brigham  Young  surrenders  for  trial,  2  Jan. ;  pro-
ceedings annulled  by  the  supreme  court  about  May,  1872

Brigham  Young  resigns  temporal  powers, 10  April,  1873

The  Mormonite  conferences  at  the  Holborn  Amphi-
theatre 25  May, ,,

Nineteen  missionaries  for  Britain  arrive  at  Liverpool

12  Nov. ,,

Brigham  Young  again  indicted  for  polygamy,  about

15  Oct.  1874

Adjudged  to  support  one  of  his  wives  while  she  sues
for  divorce,  March  ;  imprisoned  in  his  own  house,
for  non-compliance,  Nov.  ;  discharged . Dec.  1875

Bp.  J.  D.  Lee  shot  for  his  share  in  Mountain  Mea-
dows massacre,  (Brigham  Young  suspected,)  (see
Massacres) 23  March,  1877

Death  of  Brigham  Young,  aged  76 . 29  Aug. ,,

John  Taylor,  chief  of  12  apostles,  became  presi-
dent oi'  the  church Sept. ,,

Conference  in  London  opened . . 30  Sept. „

Orson  Pratt,  a  leader  and  eolleague  of  Joseph
Smith,  died Nov.  1881

Six  meeting-houses  in  London,  March,  1882 ;  esti-
mated 85,000  English  converts . . . 1837-82

Polygamy  in  the  United  States  abolished  by  Act
passed 23  March,  1882

Great  meeting  at  Salt  Lake  ;  57  missionaries  sent
out 6  Oct.  1883

Senator  Edmund's  bill  for  suppression  of  the  Mor-
mon church  passed  by  the  U.S. senate  (38-7)

9  Jan.  1886

Meeting  of  Mormon  elders  and  missionaries  at  St.
George's  Hall,  Langham-place,  London 12  Oct. ,,

John  Taylor  died 25  July,  1887

Decree  for  the  suppression  of  the  church  ;  appealed
against ...  ... Oct.  1888

A  new  temple  erected  in  Salt  Lake  City,  capable  of
holding  14,000  persons,  the  granite  walls  20  ft.
thick  at  the  base,  taper  upwards  to  6  ft.

reported  Aug.  1889

Many  Mormons  disenfranchised  for  taking  an
illegal  oath  ;  the  "Gentiles  '  obtain  majority  in
elections Feb.  1890

President  Woodruff  and  a  conference  of  elders  put
forth  a  profession  of  faith,  recognizing  the  Bible
and  the  Book  of  Mormon  as  the  Word  of  God,
gifts  of  tongues,  &c,  and  renouncing  polygamy,
about  25  Sept. ;  adopted  by  the  church  at  a  great
meeting 6  Oct. ,,

144,352  Mormons  in  the  United  States,  N.  A.  ;
census  of  1890.  Mr.  Joseph  Smith,  jun.,  son  of
the  founder  of  Mormonism,  heads  a  party  op-
posed to  polygamy  (about  30,000  members)  Aug.  1891

New  settlement  on  land  granted  by  the  Mexican
government  in  N.  Mexico  :  arrangements  made
by  Mr.  John  Young,  son  of  Brigham  Young ;  a
large  number  of  Mormons  ready  to  start  from
Utah,  reported June,  1892

MOENING  POST,  fashionable  daily  paper,
favourable  to  the  Whigs  and  High  Church  party,
first  appeared,  2  Nov.  1772.  Conservative,  1874.
Price  reduced  to  id.,  27  June,  1881.

MOEOCCO,  or  MAROCCO,  an  empire  in  North
Africa,  formerly  Mauritania  (which  see).  In  105 1
it  was  subdued  for  the  Fatimite  caliphs  by  the
Almoravides,  who  eventually  extended  their  do-
minion into  Spain.  These  Avere  succeeded  by  the
Almohades  (1121),  the  Melinites  (1270),  and  in
1516  by  the  Scherifs,  pretended  descendants  of
Mahomet,  the  now  reigning  dynasty.  The  Moors
have  had  frequent  wars  with  the  "Spaniards  and
Portuguese,  due  to  piracy.  Population,  i8qi,  about
8,000,000 ;  Fez,  the  capital,  140,  to  150,000.

Invasion  of  Sebastian  of  Portugal,  who  perishes
with  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Alcazar 4  Aug.  1578

Tangiers  (which  see)  acquired  by  England,  1662 ;
given  up 1683

The  Moors  attack  the  French  in  Algeria  at  the


MOEPHIA.


651


MOSCOW.


instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de
Joinville  bombards  Tangiers,  6  Aug. ,  and  Mogadcr

16  Aug. 1844

Marshal  Bugeaud  defeats  the  Moors  at  the  river
Isly,  and  acquires  the  title  of  duke . 14  Aug. ,,

Peace  between  France  and  Morocco . 10  Sept. ,,

The  Spaniards,  who  possess  several  places  on  the
coast  of  Morocco  (Ceuta,  Penon  de  Velez,  <fcc),
having  suffered  much  annoyance  by  Moorish
pirates,  declare  war .... 22  Oct. 1859

Negotiations  fruitless :  the  Spanish  government
increasing  their  demands  as  the  sultan  yielded  ;
the  English  government  interfered  in  vain.  For
the  war,  see  Spain 1859-60

A  Moorish  ambassador  (the  first  since  the  time  of
Charles  II.)  in  London.  (He  gave  200L  to  the
lord  mayor  for  the  London  charities) June-Aug. i860

The  British  government  gave  a  guarantee  for  a  loan
of  426,000^.  to  the  sultan  to  meet  his  engagements
with  Spain 24  Oct.  1861

Insurrection  of  a  pretender,  Elkadin  ben  Abder-
ahman,  suppressed Dec.  1873

Prince  Sidi  Shereef  visits  Britain . . Aug. 1877

The  grand  sherif  of  Wazan  marries  an  English  wife  ;
liberates  his  slaves,  &c. ;  persecuted,  becomes  a
French  subject Jan.  1884

The  rebel  tribes  of  Benin  Guild  district  defeated
after  a  severe  engagement  . . 25  June,  1888

The  sultan's  visit  to  Tangier  delayed . Sept. ,,

An  exploring  expedition  under  Mr.  Joseph  Thomson
and  Mr.  Harold  Crichton  Browne  aided  by  the
Koyal  and  Geographical societies, spring  and

summer, ,,

Disputes  among  the  foreign  consuls  ;  abuse  of  their
powers  and  consequent  Moorish  resistance,

autumn, ,,

The  sultan  visits  Tetuan  after  long  absence,  5  Sept. ;
Tangier 22  Sept. 1889

Dispute  with  Spain  respecting  the  seizure  of  a
Spanish  coasting  vessel,  Miguel  Texesa,  settled  by
due  reparation  .... about  29  Sept. ,,

Affray  between  Moors  and  the  Spanish  cavalry  of
the  fortress  Melilla,  several  killed,  20  July ;
peace  restored 25  July,  1890

The  sultan  defeats  rebel  tribes,  and  beheads  80
prisoners,  reported  20  Aug.  ;  further  defeats  of
the  rebels  reported . . . .26  Sept. ,,

The  Moorish  government  agrees  to  pay  50,000^.  as
indemnity  for  murder  of  persons  connected  with
a  Bi'itish  factory  at  Cape  Juby  in  1889 . Feb.  1891

Sir  William  Kirby  Green,  the  able  British  minister
to  Morocco,  died  25  Feb.  ;  succeeded  by  sir
Charles  Euan  Smith,  from  Zanzibar . . . „

Hostility  of  the  Kabyles  and  other  tribes  to  the
governor ;  two  British  war-vessels  arrive  off
Tangier,  about  5  Jan.  ;  3  foreign  vessels  arrive,

about  13  Jan.  1892

Tranquillity  restored  by  the  sultan  dismissing  the
governor,  and  appointing  a  successor . 22  Jan. „

Sir  C.  Euan  Smith  received  by  the  sultan  at  Fez,

14  May, „

A  new  commercial  treaty  considered . . May, „

Rebellion  in  Angera June, „


1822.  Muley  Abderahman.

1859.  Sidi  Muley  Mohammed,  Sept.,  died  Sept.  1873.

1873.  Muley  Hassan  (son),  proclaimed  25  Sept.

MOEPHIA,  an  alkaloid,  discovered  in  opium
by  Serturner,  in  1803.

MOEPHOLOGY  (Greek,  morphe,  form),  the
science  of  fomi  and  structure,  as  distinguished  from
physiology,  studied  in  the  19th  century,  by  Goethe,
Gegenbaur,  Haeckel,  and  others.

MOEEILL  TAEIFF,  see  United  States,  1861.

MOEEIS  DANCE,  see  Morice.

MOETALITY  TABLES  have  been  fre-
quent lv  compiled.  The  Northampton  tables  (for
x735-fo),  by  Dr.  Price;  the  Carlisle  tables  (for
1780-S7),  by  Dr.  Hailsham;  see  Annuities  awl  Bills
of  Mortality.

MOETAEA  ABDUCTION",  see  Jews,  1858.


MOETAES,  a  short  gun  with  a  large  bore,  and
close  chamber,  for  throwing  bombs;  said  to  have
been  used  at  Naples  in  1435,  and  first  made  in
England  in  1543.  The  mortar  left  by  Soult  at
Cadiz  in  Spain  was  fixed  in  St.  James's-park  in
Aug.  1816.  On  19  Oct.  1857,  a  colossal  mortar,
constructed  by  Mr.  Robert  Mallet,  was  tried  at
"Woolwich;  with  a  charge  of  70  lbs.  it  threw  a
shell  weighing  2550  lbs.  lh  mile  horizontally,  and
about  f  mile  iu  height.

MOETELLA  TOWEES,  see  Martello.

MOETIMEE'S  CEOSS  (Herefordshire).
The  earl  of  Pembroke  and  the  Lancastrians  were
here  severely  defeated  by  the  young  duke  of  York,
afterwards  Edward  IV.,  2  Feb.  1461.  He  assumed
the  throne  as  Edward  IV.  in  March  following.

MOETMAIN  ACTS  (mort  main,  dead  hand).
When  the  survey  of  all  the  land  in  England  was
made  by  William  I.,  1085-6,  the  whole  was  found
to  amount  to  62,215  knights'  fees,  of  which  the
church  then  possessed  28,015,  to  which  additions
were  afterwards  made,  till  the  7th  of  Edward  I.,
1279,  when  the  statute  of  mortmain  was  passed,
from  a  fear  that  the  estates  of  the  church  might
grow  too  bulky.  By  this  act  it  was  made  unlawful
to  give  any  estates  to  the  church  without  the  king's
leave ;  and  this  act,  by  a  supplemental  provision,
was  made  to  reach  all  lay-fraternities,  or  corpora-
tions, in  the  15th  of  Richard  II.,  1391.  Mortmain
being  such  a  state  of  possession  as  makes  property
inalienable,  it  is  said  to  be  in  a  dead  hand.  Several
statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject;  legacies
hy  mortmain  were  especially  restricted  by  the  9th
Geo.  II.,  c.  36  (1736).  Law  consolidated  and
amended  1888  ;  1891.

MOSAIC  WOEK  (the  Roman  opus  tessella-
tum),  is  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  is  probably  referred
to  in  Esther,  ch.  i.  6,  about  519  b.c.  It  had
attained  to  great  excellence  in  Greece,  in  the  time
of  Alexander  and  his  successors,  when  Sosos  of
Pergamus,  the  most  renowned  Mosaic  artist  of
antiquity,  flourished.  He  acquired  great  fame  by
his  accurate  representation  of  an  "  unswept  floor
after  a  feast."  The  Romans  also  excelled  in  Mosaic
work,  as  evidenced  by  the  innumerable  specimens
preserved.  Byzantine  Mosaics  date  from  the  4th
century  after  Christ.  The  art  was  revived  in  Italy
by  Tafi,  Gaddi,  Cimabue,  and  Giotto,  who  designed
Mosaics,  and  introduced  a  higher  style  in  the  13th
century.  In  the  16th  century  Titian  and  Veronese
also  designed  subjects  for  this  art.  The  practice  of
copying  paintings  in  Mosaics  came  into  vogue  in
the  1 7th  century  ;  and  there  is  now  a  workshop  in
the  Vatican  where  chemical  science  is  employed  in
the  production  of  colours,  and  where  20,000  different
tints  are  kept.  In  1861,  Dr.  Salviati  of  Venice  had
established  his  manufacture  of  "Enamel-mosaics,"
and  in  July,  1864,  he  fixed  a  large  enamel  Mosaic
picture  in  one  of  the  spandrils  under  the  dome  of
St.  Paul's  cathedral,  London.  He  has  since
executed  commissions  for  the  queen  and  other
persons. He  died  Feb.  1890,  aged  74.

MOSANDEIUM. See  Philippium.

MOSCOW,  the  ancient  capital  of  Russia,  was
founded,  it  is  said,  by  Dolgorouki,  about  1147.  The
occupation  of  the  south  of  Russia  by  the  Mongols,
in  1235,  led  to  Moscow  becoming  the  capital,  and
beginning  with  Jaroslav  II.,  1238,  its  princes
became  the  reigning  dynasty.  It  is  regarded  as  a
holy  city  by  the  Russians.  Population,  1S86  :
province,  2,204,930;  city,  1885,  753,469.


MOSKIRCH.


652


MOZAMBIQUE.


Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  built,  1326 ;  of  the

Transfiguration 1328

The  Kremlin  founded 1367

Moscow  plundered  by  Timour 1382

By  the  Tartars 145 1,  1477

Massacre  of  Demetrius  and  his  Polish  adherents,

the  "Matins  of  Moscow" . . . 27  May,  1606
Moscow  ravaged  by  Ladislas  of  Poland  in . .1611

The  university  founded 1705

Entered  by  Napoleon  I.  and  the  French,  14  Sept.  ;
the  governor,  Rostopchin,  is  said,  doubtfully,  to
have  ordered  it  to  be  set  on  fire  (11,840  houses
burnt,  besides  palaces  and  churches) . 15  Sept. 18 12
The  French  evacuate  Moscow . . . Oct. ,,
Railway  to  St.  Petersburg  opened .  . . 185 1

Industrial  exhibition 16  July,  1865

Very  great  tire,  about  50  houses  burnt . 18  June,  1876
Zvartofsky's  weaving-works  burnt ;  about  24  per-
sons perish 8  March,  1880

Exhibition  of  Russian  arts  and  manufactures,

summer,  1882

St. Saviour's  cathedral  (erected  to  commemorate

the  retreat  of  the  French  in  1812),  founded  by

Nicholas  I.,  27  July,  1838;  consecrated 7  June,  1883

The  French  exhibition  of  arts  and  manufactures

solemnly  opened, 11  May;  \isited  by  the  czar

and  czarina 30  May,  1891

Admiral  Gervais  and  the  officers  of  the  French
fleet  enthusiastically  received . . 7  Aug. ,,

MOSKIRCH (Baden). Here  the  Austriaus
were  defeated  by  Moreau  and  the  French,  5  May,


MOSKWA  or  Borodino,  Battle  of;  see

Borodino.

MOSQUE,  a  Mahometan  house  of  pra\  er.  Fine
examples  exist  in  Spain,  India,  and  other  countries.
The  dome  and  porticos  are  leading  features.  After
the  c.iptiire  of  Constantinople  in  1453  by  Mahomet
II.,  the  church  of  St.  Sophia- was  transformed  into
a  mosque,  see  Sophia,  St.  A  mosque  was  erected
in  England  in  1889  ;  see  under  Mahometanism.

MOSQUITO  COAST  (Central  America).
The  Indians  inhabiting  this  coast  were  long  under
the  protection  of  the  British,  who  held  Belize  and  a
group  of  islands  in  the  bay  of  Honduras.  The
jealousy  of  the  United  States  long  existed  on  this
subject.  In  April,  1850,  the  two  governments
covenanted  not  "to  occupy,  or  fortify,  or  colonise,
or  assume,  or  exercise  any  dominion  over  any  part
of  Central  America."  In  1855  the  United  States
charged  the  British  government  with  an  infraction
of  the  treaty ;  on  which  the  latter  agreed  to  cede
the  disputed  territory  to  the  republic  of  Honduras,
with  some  reservation.*  The  matter  was  finally
settled  in  1859.

MOSS-TROOPERS,  desperate  plunderers,
and  lawless  soldiers,  secreting  themselves  in  the
mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland.  Many  severe
laws  were  enacted  against  them,  but  they  were  not
extirpated  till  the  18th  century.

MOTETTS,  short  pieces  of  church  music,  some
of  which  are  dated  about  the  end  of  the  13th  cen-
tury. Good  motetts  were  written  between  1430
and  1480;  and  very  fine  ones  in  the  16th  and  17th
centuries.  The  "Motett  Society,"  for  the  publi-
cation of  these  works,  was  founded  in  1847,  by
¥111 .  Dyce.

MOTION.  On  13  Nov.  1873,  professor  Sylvester
described to  the  London  Mathematical Society a

*  St.  Juan  del  Norte  (Greytown)  was  held  by  the  British
on  behalf  of  the  Mosquitoes  till  the  American  adventurers,
under  col.  Kinney,  took  possession  of  it  in  Sept.  1855.
He  joined  Walker  ;  and  on  10  Feb.  1856,  their  associate,
Rivas,  the  president,  claimed  and  annexed  the  Mosquito
territory  to  Nicaragua.


machine  for  converting  spherical  into  rectilinear,
and  other  motions,  and  lor  producing  perfectly
parallel  motion,  the  discovery  of  M.  Peaucellier,  a
French  engineer  officer,  about  1867.  See  Kine-
matics.

MOTTOES,  ROYAL.  Bieu  et  mon  Droit,
first  used  by  Richard  I.,  1198.  Ich  clien.  "  I  serve,"
adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle
of  Cressy,  1346.  Honi  soit  qui  mat  y  pense,  the
motto  of  the  Garter,  1349.  Je  maintiendrai,  "I
will  maintain,"  adopted  by  William  III.,  to  which
he  added,  in  1688,  "  the  liberties  of  England  and
the  Protestant  religion."  Semper  eadem,  was
assumed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  1558,  and  adopted  by
queen  Anne,  1702. See  them  severally.

MOUNTAIN  MEADOWS,  see  Massacres.

MOUNTAIN  PARTY,  see  Clubs,  French.

MOUNT  EVEREST,  29,002  feet  high,  the
highest  point  in  the  Himalayas  and  as  yet  known
in  the  world,  was  named  after  the  late  sir  George
Everest,  superintendent  of  the  trigonometrical  sur-
vey of  India  in  Dec.  1843,  by  his  successor,  col.
Andrew  Waugh.

MOUNTS,  see  Bernard,  Calvary,  Etna,  Hecla,
Olivet,  and  Vesuvius.

MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  The  Israel-
ites neither  washed  nor  anointed  themselves  during
the  time  of  mourning,  which  for  a  friend  lasted
seven  days ;  upon  extraordinary  occasions  a  month
or  more.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  fasted.  "White
was  used  in  mourning  for  the  imperial  family  at
Constantinople,  323.  The  ordinary  colour  for
mourning  in  Europe  is  black ;  in  China,  white ;
in  Turkey,  violet;  in  Ethiopia,  brown;  it  was
white  in  Spain  until  1498.  Anne  of  Brittany,  the
queen  of  two  successive  kings  of  France,  mourned
in  black,  instead  of  the  then  practice  of  wearing
white,  on  the  death  of  her  first  husband,  Charles
VIII.,  7  April,  1498. Henault.

MOUSQUETAIRES  or  Musketeers,
horse-soldiers  under  the  old  French  regime,  raised
by  Louis  XIII.,  1622.  This  corps  was  considered
a  military  school  for  the  French  nobility.  It  was
disbanded  in  1646,  but  was  restored  in  1657.  A
second  company  was  created  in  1660,  and  formed
cai-dinal  Mazarin's  guard.  Henault.  The  Mousque-
taires  were  abolished  in  1775.

MOZAMBIQUE,  chief  of  the  Portuguese
territories,  E.  Africa,  was  visited  by  Vasco  da
Gama,  1498 ;  conquered  by  the  Portuguese  under
Tristan  da  Cunha  and  Albuquerque,  1506 ;  a
settlement  was  established,  1508.  Capital,  Mozam-
bique, on  an  islet.

Great  rising  of  the  natives  against  the  Portuguese,  who
are  said  to  have  been  severely  defeated  23  Oct.  ;  the
rebellion  quelled  Dec. 1886 ; temporary  revival  2-4
March,  1887.
Territorial  disputes  with  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  led  to
war. The  Portuguese  stormed  Tungi  16  Feb." ;  the  war
ended  early  March,  1887. Fresh  insurrection  ;  Bonga
defeated by  the  governor after a severe conflict,
announced  12  Jan.  1889.
A  company  formed  at  Lisbon  for  the  development  of
the  resources  of  Mozambique,  announced  12  Dec.  1889.
For  the  disputes  with  England  respecting  East  Africa,
see  under  Zambesi.
Much  hostility  shown  towards the English at

Quilimane. .  May,  June,  1890

Col.  Joaquim  Jose  Machado  appointed  governor-
general  of  Mozambique  .  .  about  17  June,  ,,
Lieut.  Azevedo  Continho,  in  the  Shire  seizes  the
James  Stevenson,  belonging  to  the  British  African
lakes  company,  at  Chimoro,  and  sends  the  crew
to  Quilimane' for  trial,  reported  31  July;  he  is
censured  by  the  government . . 2  Aug. „


MUCKEE.


653


MUECIA.


Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston,  C.B.,  British  consul  at  Mo-
zambique, nominated  consul-general  for  the
Portuguese  East  Africa  territories,  announced,

Jan.  1891

A  Portuguese  royal  charter  granted  to  a  company
in  Mozambique,  11  Feb.  ;  modified . 30  July, ,,

MUCKEE, {hypocrites), a  German  sect ;  see

Ebelians  and  Brazil,  1874.

MUGGLETONIANS,  so  called  from  Ludo-
wic  Muggletou,  a  tailor,  known  about  1641,  promi-
nent about  1650;  convicted  of  blasphemy,  Jan.
1676 ;  died,  1697.  He  and  John  Reeve  affirmed
that  God  the  Fathei-,  leaving  the  government  of
heaven  to  Elias,  came  down  and  suffered  death  in  a
human  form.  They  asserted  that  they  were  the  two
last  witnesses  of  God  which  should  appear  before
the  end  of  the  world,  Rev.  xi.  3.  This  sect  existed,
1850.

MUHLBEEG,  on  the  Elbe,  Prussia.  Here
the  German  protestants  were  defeated  by  the  em-
peror Charles  V.,  24  April,  1547,  and  John  Frede-
rick, elector  of  Saxony,  was  taken  prisoner.

MtJHLDOEF  (Bavaria).  Near  this  place
Frederick,  duke  of  Austria,  was  defeated  and  taken
prisoner  by  Louis  of  Bavaria,  28  Sept.  1322.

MTJLBEEEY-TEEES.  The  alleged  first
planted  in  England  are  in  the  gardens  of  Sion-
house.  Shakspeare  is  said  to  have  planted  a
mulberry-tree  with  his  own  hands  at  Stratford-
upon-Avon;  and  Garrick,  Macklin,  and  others  were
entertained  under  it  in  1742.  Shakspeare' s  house
was  afterwards  sold  to  a  clergyman  of  the  name  of
Gastrel,  who  cut  down  the  mulberry-tree  for  fuel,
1765.  A  silversmith  purchased  the  whole,  and
manufactured  it  into  memorials.

MULE,  a  spinning  machine  invented  in  1779,
by  Samuel  Crompton,  born  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,
in  1753;  named,  from  Crompton's  residence,  Hall-
in-the-ivood-ivheel ;  and  muslin-wheel,  from  its
giving  birth  to  the  British  muslin  and  cambric
manufacture  ;  and  mule,  from  its  combining  the
advantages  of  Hargreave's  spinning  jenny,  and
Ark wright's  adaptation.  It  is  stated  that  Crompton
at  the  time  knew  nothing  of  the  latter.  He  did  not
patent  his  invention,  but  gave  it  up  in  1 780.  It
produced  yarn  treble  the  fineness  and  very  much
softer  than  any  ever  before  produced  in  England.
Parliament  voted  him  5000^.  in  1812,  now  considered
a  most  inadequate  compensation.  Mr.  Koberts  in-
vented the  self-acting  mule  in  1825.

MULHAUSEN  (in  Alsace-Lorraine),  an  im-
perial city,  under  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg  ;  joined  the
Swiss  confederation  in  1515  ;  annexed  to  France  in
1798;  conquered  and  annexed  to  Germany,  1870-1.
The  calico  manufacture  was  introduced  in  1746.
Population,  1890,  76,968.

MUMMIES  (from  the  Coptic  mum,  bitumen,
gum,  resin) ;  see  Embalming .  The  mummies  in  the
British  Museum,  with  other  Egyptian  antiquities,
were  placed  there  about  1803  and  since.  Mr.  Alex.
Gordon,  in  1737,  published  an  essay  on  three
Egyptian  mummies,  one  of  which  was  brought  to
England  in  1722  by  capt.  Wm.  Lethieullier ;  two
others  came  in  1734,  one  of  which  was  retained
by  Dr.  Mead,  the  other  was  given  to  the  College
of  Physicians.  In  1834,  Mr.  T.  J.  Pettigrew  pub-
lished a  "History  of  Egyptian  Mummies."  The
discovery  of  about  39  mummies  of  kings,  priests,
and  other  eminent  persons  in  sarcophagi  at  Renneh,
near  Thebes,  Upper  Egypt,  was  announced  in  Aug.
1881,  supposed  to  be  of  the  21st  dynasty,  about
1 100  B.C.


The  mummies  of  Rameses  II.  (Sesostris)  and  III.  were
uncovered  by  MM.  Gaston  Maspero  and  B.  Brugsch  in
the  presence  of  the  khedive  of  Egypt  and  others  1
June,  1886.

A  mummy,  dated  about  800  B.C.,  unrolled  by  Mr.
E.  A.  Wallis  Budge  at  University  college,  Lon-
don 18  Dec.  1889

Discovery  of  a  large  burial  place  of  mummified
cats,  sacred  animals,  in  central  Egypt,  sold  as
manure  ;  28  tons  brought  to  Liverpool . Feb.  1890

Discovery  by  M.  Grebaut,  director-general  of  the
excavations,  of  a  vast  tomb  of  the  high  priests  of
Amen,  on  the  Libian  mountains  west  of  Thebes,
near  De'ir-el-Bahari,  containing  many  sarcophagi,
some  dating  from  the  nth  dynasty,  statuettes,
papyri,  votive  offerings,  &c.  Three  galleries
opened,  one  empty  ;  the  others  contained  152
mummies  intact,  149  of  the  21st  dynasty,  about
1,100  B.C.,  and  2  of  the  19th,  the  whole  conveyed
in  barges  to  Cairo Feb.  1891

The  high  priests  of  Amen,  at  Thebes,  were  a  line  of
powerful  prelates,  beginning  under  the  kings  of
the  12th  dynasty,  between  3,000  and  2,000  B.C.

MUNCHENGEATZ  (Bohemia)  was  taken  by
the  Prussians  under  prince  Frederick  Charles,  after
a  severe  action,  28  June,  1866.  The  Austrians  lost
about  300  killed  and  1000  prisoners,  and  the  prince
gained  about  12  miles  of  country.

MUNDA  (now  Monda,  S.  Spain).  Here  Cneius
Scipio  defeated  the  Carthaginians,  B.C.  216;  and
here  Julius  Caesar  defeated  the  sons  of  Pompey,  17
March,  45,  after  a  severe  conflict.

MUNDANE  EEAS.  That  of  Alexandria
fixed  the  creation  at  5502  B.C.  This  computation
continued  till  a.d.  284,  Alex,  era,  5786;  but  in
a.d.  285  ten  years  were  subtracted,  and  5787  be-
came 5777.  This  coincided  with  the  Muudane  era
of  Antioch  (which  dated  the  creation  5492  B.C.).
Nicolas.

MUNICH,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  said  to  have
been  founded  by  duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  962,  on
a  site  previously  occupied  by  monks  {Miincheri).  It
was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  in
1632;  by  the  Austrians,  in  1 704,  1 741,  and  1743  ;
and  by  the  French  under  Moreau,  2  July,  1800.  It
abounds  in  schools,  institutions,  and  manufactories.
The  university  was  founded  by  king  Louis  in  1826.
A  Bavarian  art-exhibition  was  opened  here  by
prince  Adalbert,  20  July,  1869.  A  congress  of"  Old
Catholics"  {which  see)  met  here,  23  Sept.  1871.
International  exhibition  opened,  19  July,  1879.
International  art  exhibition  opened  1  July,  1883 ;
others,  1  June,  1888,  and  1892.  Centenary  of  King
Louis  I.,  30-31  July,  1888.  Visit  of  the  emperor
William  II.,  7  Sept.  1891.  Population,  Dec.  1871,
169,693;  1880,230,023;  1885,261,981;  1890,348,317.

MUNICIPAL  COEPOEATIONS,  &c;  see

Corporations.

MUNSTEE  (W.  Prussia).  The  bishopric,  said
to  have  been  founded  by  Charlemagne,  780,  was
secularised  in  1802  ;  seized  by  the  French,  1806 ;
part  of  the  duchy  of  Berg,  1809;  annexed  to  France,
1810;  ceded  to  Prussia,  1815.  The  Anabaptists,
under  John  of  Leyden,  the  king  of  Minister,  held
the  city  in  1534-5.  Here  were  signed  the  prelimi-
naries of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  {which  see),
or  Munster,  Jan.  1647;  definitively  signed  24  Oct.
1648.  Population,  1890,  49,344. — Munster,  the
southern  province  of  Ireland,  an  ancient  kingdom.
See  Ireland,  1014.  In  1568  a  commission  was
issued  for  its  government  by  a  president  and  coun-
cil, and  new  colonies  were  founded  in  1588.

MUEADAL,  see  Toloso.

MUECIA,  a  province,  formerly  a  kingdom,
N.  E.  Spain,  was  subdued  by  the  Moors,  713;  by


MUEDEE.


654


MUSIC.


Ferdinand  of  Castile,  1240; and  divided  between

Castile and  Arragon, 1305. Population, 1887  :

province,  491,436  ;  city,  98,538.

Murcia,  the  capital,  was  sacked  by  the  French  under
Sebastiani,  23  April,  1810.  It  was  inundated  by  the
Segura,  after  a  violent  storm,  15-17  Oct.,  1879,  when
about  1000  persons  perished.

MUEDEE,  the  highest  offence  against  the  law
of  God.  {Genesis  ix.  6,  2348  B.C.)  A  court  of
Ephetse  was  established  by  Demopboon  of  Athens
for  the  trial  of  murder,  11 79  B.C.  The  Persians  did
not  punish  the  first  offence.  In  England,  dming
a  period  of  the  heptarchy,  murder  was  punished
by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VIII. 's  time  the
crime  was  compounded  for  in  Wales.  Murderers
were  allowed  benefit  of  clergy  in  1503.  Aggravated
murder,  or  petit  treason  (a  distinction  now  abo-
lished), happened  in  three  ways:  by  a  servant
killing  his  master,  a  wife  her  husband,  and  an
ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  stat.  25  Edw.  III.
1350.  The  enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are
very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  commission  has  been
rarely  pardoned  by  our  sovereigns.  The  act  whereby
the  murderer  should  be  executed  on  the  day  next
but  one  after  his  conviction,  was  repealed,  1836;
see  Assassinations,  Executions,  Trials;  also  Lon-
don, 1872,  Bravo,  Burton,  Euston,  Ratcliffe,  Road,
Richmond,  Harley  Street,  Whitechapel,  Poisoning ;
Railways,  1864  and  1881 ;  Slough,  Melbourne.

Murders  in  England  and  Wales  (from  Coroners'  In-
quests) : —


*857


. .  270
. .  246


1873


226

1874  ..  223

272

1875  ••  200

255

1876  ..  207

261

1877  ..  199

265

1878  ..  176

222

1879  ..  153

226

1880  . .  157

257

l88l  ..  193'

223

(101  females)

176

177

192


MUEET  (S.  France).  Here  the  Albigenses,
under  the  count  of  Thoulouse,  were  defeated  by
Simon  de  Montfort,  and  their  ally  Peter  of  Arragon
killed,  12  Sept.  12 13.

MUEFEEESBOEOUGH  (Tennessee,  N.
America)  was  the  site  of  fierce  conflicts  between
the  federals  under  Rosencrans  and  the  confederates
under  Bragg,  from  31  Dec.  1862  to  3  Jan.  1863,  when
Bragg  retired  with  great  loss.  This  struggle  is
called  also  the  battle  of  Stone  River.

MURIATIC  ACID,  see  Alkalies.

MUEBAY'S  HANDBOOKS  FOE  TBA-

VELLERS.  The  parent  of  the  series,  a"  Handbook
for  Travellers  on  the  Continent,"  which  appeared  in
1836,  was  the  work  of  Mr.  John  Murray  the
publisher.  Handbooks  for  France,  Switzerland,
South  Germany,  &c,  soon  followed ;  one  for  Algeria
appeared  in  Oct.  1873 >  one  f°r  Japan  in  1884.
Handbooks  for  all  1he  counties  in  England  except
four,  had  appeared  1892.
Murray's  Magazine  first  published  by  John  Murray,  of

50,  Albemarle  Street,  London,  W.,  Jan.  1887.
Mr.  John  Murray,  aged  nearly  84,  died  2  April,  1892.

MUSCAT,  or  MASCAT,  an  Arab  state  on  the
gulf  of  Oman, was  conquered  by  the  Portuguese
under  Albuquerque  in  1507,  but  recovered  by  the
Arabs  in  1648.
Ahmad  bin  Sa'id  repelled  a  Persian  invasion  and

founded  present  dynasty 1741

Sa'id,  his  son,  succeeded 1775

Sa'id  bin  Sultan,  his  son 1803

Treaty  with  the  British 1839

At  his  death  his  territories  divided  ;  after  a  con-
flict, his  son  Sa'id  Thuwainy  obtained  Oman ;  and
Majid,  Zanzibar  (which  see) 1856


Syud  Redin  compelled  to  fly,  and  a  chief,  Azan  bin
Gheo,  seized  the  government . . .  Oct.  1868

The  imaum  endeavoured  to  regain  his  authority,

Aug.  1870

The  city  was  taken  by  Sa'id  Toorkee,  and  the  chief
killed about  30  Jan. 1871

Sa'id  Abdool  Aseer  said  to  be  deposed  by  his  bro-
ther, Sa'id  Toorkee,  end  of  Dec.  1875

Rebellion  against  the  sultan . . . June,  1882

The  city  of  Muscat  besieged  by  the  sultan's  brother,
whose  camp  is  shelled  by  the  British  ship  Philo-
mel ;  siege  raised,  announced . .  29-31  Oct.  1883

Rebels  defeated  and  dispersed,  announced 5  Nov. ,,

Five  Arab  horses  presented  by  the  sultan  received
by  the  queen  at  Windsor . . .18  Nov.  1886

Death  of  the  sultan .... 6  June,  1S88

MUSEUM,  oi-iginally  a  quarter  of  the  palace
of  Alexandria,  like  the  Prytaneum  of  Athens,  where
eminent  learned  men  were  maintained  by  the  pub-
lic. The  foundation  is  attributed  to  Ptolemy
Philadelphus,  who  here  placed  his  library  about  280
B.C.  Besides  the  British  Museum,  Soane's  Museum,
and  the  Museum  of  Geology  (which  see),  there  are
very  many  others  in  London.  The  opening  of
public  museums  and  galleries  on  Sunday  was  long
advocated  in  parliament:  negatived  by  271  to  68,
19  May,  1874.  Urban  authorities  authorised  to
provide  museums  and  gymnasiums,  by  act  passed
3  July,  1891.

MUSIC* "Jubal,  the  father  of  all  such  as
handle  the  harp  and  the  organ" (3875  B.C.  Gen.
iii.  21). The flute,  and  harmony, or  concord  in
music,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Hyagnis,
1506  B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal  choruses  of
men  are  first  mentioned  556  B.C. Dufresnoy. See
Organ,  and  other  musical  instruments. Prior  to
1600, the chief  music in England was  masses,
ballads,  and  madrigals, but  dramatic  music  was
much  cultivated  from  that  time. About  the  end  of
James  I. 's  reign,  a  music  professorship  was  founded
in  the  university  of  Oxford  by  Dr.  Wm.  Hychin ;
and  the  year  1710  was  distinguished  by  the  arrival
in  England  of  George  Frederick  Handel. Mozart
came  to  England  in  1763  ;  Joseph  Haydn  in  1791  ;
and  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  in  1825.
Dictionaries  of  Music,  Rousseau's,  published  1767  ;
in "  Encyclopedie Methodique," 1791  ; Fetis,
"Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens,"  1835-44,
and 1860-65. The  publication  of  the  excellent
"  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,"  edited  by
Mr. (aft. Sir)  George  Orove,  begun  Jan. 1878,

was  completed  in 1890

Monthly  Musical  Record  published,  1871  et  seq.
Musical  Notes,  &c.  See  Gamut  The  first  six  are  said
to  have  been  invented  by  Guy  Aretino,  a  Benedictine
monk  of  Arezzo,  about  1025.  Blair.  The  notes  at
present  used  were  perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint
was  brought  to  perfection  by  Palestrina  about  1555.
Gafforio  of  Lodi  read  lectures  on  musical  composition
in  the  15th  century,  and  they  effected  great  improve-
ment in  the  science.  The  Italian  style  of  composition
was  introduced  into  these  countries  about  1616.
The  Musical  Pitch  was  settled  in  France  in  1859.  The
middle  A  to  be  870  simple  or  435  double  vibrations  in  a
second  ;  but  through  error  of  measurement  the  fork
made  gave  (A)  439  double  vibrations  (C,  522).  At  a
meeting  on  the  subject,  held  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  on
23  Nov.  i860,  the  concert  pitch  of  C  was  recommended
to  be  528  vibrations  in  a  second  ;  but  the  fork  made  by
Mr.  J.  H.  Griesbaeh  gives  539!  vibrations.  Mr.  Hullah
adopted  512  vibrations.
A  lower  pitch  was  adopted  at  concerts  in  London  in  Jan.
1869. 528  vibrations  for  C  adopted  for  performances

*  Pythagoras  (about  555  B.C.)  maintained  that  the
motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful
sounds,  inaudible  to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  "the
music  of  the  spheres. "  St.  Cecilia,  said  to  have  enticed
an  angel  from  the  celestial  regions  by  her  melody,  is
termed  the  patroness  of  music.  She  died  in  the  second
century.


MUSIC.


655


MUSIC.


at  the  international  exhibition  of  1872,  at  a  meeting,
20  Jan.  1872.

[Handel's  tuning-fork,  1740,  was  495  ;  the  Philharmonic
Society's,  1813-43,  was  515.]

Mr.  A.  J.  Ellis's  elaborate  "  History  of  Mus'cal  Pitch  "
is  published  in  "  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,"  5
March,  1880,  and  separately.

Sir  G.  Macfarren  and  a  meeting  agree  to  French  normal
diapason,  20  June  ;  agreed  to  by  international  con-
ference at  Vienna,  about  17  Nov.  1885.

Musical  Festivals  in  England.  Dr.  Bysse,  chancellor
of  Hereford,  about  1724,  proposed  to  the  members  of
the  choirs,  a  collection  at  the  cathedral  door  after
morning  service,  when  forty  guineas  were  collected
and  appropriated  to  charitable  riurposes.  It  was  then
agreed  to  hold  festivals  at  Hereford,  Gloucester,  and
Worcester,  in  rotation  annually.  Until  the  year  1753,
the  festival  lasted  only  two  days  ;  it  was  then  ex-
tended at  Hereford  to  three  evenings  ;  and  at  Glouces-
ter, in  1757,  to  three  mornings,  for  the  purpose  of  in-
troducing Handel's  "Messiah,"  which  was  warmly
received,  and  has  been  performed  annually  ever  since.
Musical  festivals  on  a  great  scale  are  now  annually  held
at  various  cathedrals  in  England ;  see  Handel  and
Crystal  Palace.

"Sons  of  the  Clergy"  annual  musical  performances  at  St.
Paul's  began  1709.

Musical  Festivals.  Several  were  held  on  the  conti-
nent in  the  18th  century ;  for  Haydn  at  Vienna,  1808,
1811;  others  at  Erfurt  1811,  Cologne  1821,  and  fre-
quently since.

Study  of  music  greatly  increased  by  the  efforts  and
teaching  of  John  Hullah  since  1840  et  seq.

The  Tonic  sol-fa  system,  in  which  the  letters  d,  r,  m,  /,  s,
I,  t,  (fordo,  re,  mi,  fa,  so,  la,  ££,  or  si)  are  used  instead  of
notes,  was  invented  by  Miss  Glover,  of  Norwich,  and
improved  by  rev.  John  Curwen,  about  1841  ;  he  died
t88o.

The  Tonic  Sol-fa  Association  founded  1853  ;  the  college
established  1862  ;  jubilee  celebrated  at  St.  Paul's,  7
July  ;  Crystal  Palace,  18  July,  1891.

Musical  Institutions.  The  Ancient  Academy  of  Music
was  instituted  in  1710.  It  originated  with  numerous
eminent  performers  and  gentlemen  wishing  to  promote
the  study  of  vocal  harmony.

Madrigal  Society  was  established  in  1741,  and  other  musi-
cal societies  followed.

"  Ancient  concerts  "  began,  1776  ;  ceased,  1848.

Royal  Society  of  Music  arose  from  the  principal  nobility
and  gentry  uniting  to  promote  the  performance  of
operas  composed  by  Handel,  1785.

Philharmonic  Society's  concerts  began  in  1813.

Royal  Academy  of  Music,  established  1822  {which  see).

Melodists'  Club,  1825.

New  Philharmonic  Society  established  1852.

Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  Exeter  hall,  established  1831.
Sooth  performance,  13  Dec.  1867  ;  performances  at  St.
James's  Hall,  1880-1.  It  ceased  to  exist  in  1882 ;
final  concert,  28  April  (Handel's  "Solomon").  The
new  society  gave  its  first  concert,  23  Feb.  1883.

British  Orchestral  Society,  1872.

Catch  Club  formed,  1761 ;  centenary  kept,  July,  1861.

Glee  Club  formed,  1787.

Musical  Union,  founded  by  John  Ella,  1844  ;  he  died  2
Oct.  1888.

Harmonic  Union  (for  performances  of  ancient  and
modern  music),  1852-4.

Musical  Society  of  London,  established  1858.

"  Popular  Monday  Concerts "  at  St.  James's  Hall,
founded  by  Thos.  Chappell,  commenced  with  a  "  Men-
delssohn night,"  14  Feb.  1859  ;  1000th  concert,  4  April,
1887.

London  Academy  of  Music  founded  in  1S60.

Cfficilian  Society,  London,  founded  by  Z.  W.  Vincent  and
others  in  1785  ;  ceased  in  1861.

"  Musical  Education  Committee  "  of  the  Society  of  Arts,
London,  with  the  prince  of  Wales  as  chairman,  held  its
first  meeting  22  May,  1865.  Its  first  report,  dated  27
June,  1866,  recommended  the  reconstitution  of  the
Royal  Academy.

National  Training  School  for  Music;  building  near  the
Albert-hall,  founded  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,
18  Dec.  1873  ;  opened  by  him  17  May,  1876  ;  first  public
concert,  23  June,  1879.  Premises  given  up  to  the
prince  of  Wales  as  Chairman  of  the  proposed  National
College  of  Music,  6  April,  1882.

Guildhall  School  of  Music  founded  1880  (see  under
Guildhall).


Royal  College  of  Music,  Kensington  ;  establishment  pro-
posed at  a  meeting  at  Marlborough-house,  the  prince-
of  Wales  in  the  chair,  Aug.  1878,  and  23  and  28  Feb.
1882.  Charter  granted  ;  prince  of  Wales,  president ;.
sir  George  Grove,  director  ;  21  April,  1883  ;  opened  by
the  prince  of  Wales,  7  May ;  reported  successful ;.
first  annual  meeting  28  May,  1884.

Mr.  Samson  Fox,  civil  engineer  of  Leeds,  presented.
30,000?.  (increased  to  45,000?.,  18  May,  1889),  for  the-
erection  of  buildings ;  personally  accepted  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  Jan.  1888,  who  laid  the  foundation  of"
new  buildings,  8  July,  1890.

"  Musical  Association  for  the  Investigation  and  Discus-
sion of  subjects  connected  with  the  Art  and  Science?
of  Music,"  founded  16  April,  1874,  by  Messrs.  Spottis-
woode,  Wheatstone,  Tyndall,  G.  A.  Macfarren,  J.
Hullah,  Sedley  Taylor,  Stone,  Pole,  Chappell,  Barnby^
and  others. Publishes  its  "  Proceedings."

Henry  Leslie's  musical  choir  formed  about  1855  ;  dis-
solved 1880;  re-organised,  Mr.  Randegger  conductor,,
July,  1882.

Church  Choral  Society,  London,  incorporated  as  Trinity
College,  1875.

National  Opera-house,  N.  Thames  embankment,  first  brick
laid  by  Mile.  Tietjens,  7  Sept. ;  first  stone  by  the  duke-
of  Edinburgh,  16  Dec.  1875.

The  Wagner  Society  in  London  gave  concerts  to  intro-
duce R.  Wagner's  so-called  "Music  of  the  Future"
(the  due  combination  of  music  and  poetry),  Feb.  1873.

Wagner's  Lohengrin,  performed  at  Covent-garden,  8  May,,
at  Drury-lane,  13  June,  1875.  Tannha/user  performed  air
Covent-garden,  29  April,  1876.

Three  series  of  performances  of  Wagner's  "  Ring  des
Nibelungen,"  in  four  parts  (Rhcingolcl,  WaVcure,  Sieg-
fried, and  Gotterdammerung),  at  Bayreuth,  in
presence  of  the  emperors  of  Germany  and  Brazil,  th&
king  of  Bavaria,  and  many  other  sovereigns  and.
princes,  13  Aug.,  et  seq.,  1876  ;  at  Berlin,  May,  1881.  la
London,  5  May,  et  seq.  1882.

Wagner  Festival,  Royal  Albert  Hall,  London  (Wagner-
present),  7 — 19  May,  1877.

Richard  Wagner  died  at  Venice,  13  Feb.  1883.

National  Society  of  Professional  Musicians  founded  irt
1882.

A  fine  collection  of  musical  instruments  at  the  Inven-
tions Exhibition,  South  Kensington,  opened  4  May
1885.

Josef  Hofnian,  aged  about  10,  plays  brilliantly  at  St.
James's  Hall  long  classical  pieces  from  memory,,
summer  and  autumn  ;  goes  to  America,  where  his
performances  are  stopped  by  a  philanthropist,  1887.

Otto  Hegner,  aged  11,  plays  in  London,  March,  1888.

Copyright  of  musical  compositions,  restricting  their
unauthorized  performance,  passed  5  July,  1888.

Musical  Chamties.  Royal  Society  of  Musicians,  estab-
lished 1738  ;  incorporated  1790.

Royal  Society  of  Female  Musicians,  established  1839  ?
these  two  combined,  1866.

Choir  Benevolent  Fund,  1851.

Sacred  Harmonic  Benevolent  Fund,  1855.

EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS.

Born  Die&

Tallis .  1529  1585.

Palestrina 1524  159+

T.  Morley. . . ....  1550  1604.

Orlando  Gibbons 1583  1624.

H.  Lawes . .  1600  1662

Dully 1633  1672:

Purcell 1658  1695

J.  Seb.  Bach* 1685  1750-

G.  F.  Handel 1684  1759

T.  A.  Arne i7IO  1778

C.  Gluck 1714  1787

W.  A.  Mozart 1756  1791

Joseph  Haydn 1732  1809.

C.  Dibdin 1748  1814.

S.  Webbe 1740  1817

J.  W.  Callcott 1766  1821

C.  Weber 1786  182&

F.  Schubert 1797  1828

L.  Beethoven 1770  1827

M.  Cherubini 1760  1842

F.  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  ....  1809  1S4S

F.  Chopin 1810  1849;

H.  Bishop 1787  1855

*  He  had  eleven  sons  musicians  ;  four  distinguished.


MUSICAL GLASSES.


656


MYCENAE.


Bom Died

Jt.  Schumann 1810 1856

L.  Spohr 1783 l859

J.  E.  Halevy 1799 1862

J.  Meyerbeer ■  1794 1864

J.  Rossini ...  ...  1792 1868

L.  H.  Berlioz 1803 1869

M.  W.  Balfe 1808 1870

D.  T.  Auber 1784 1871

W.  Sterndale  Bennett .  ... 1816 1875

J.  Raff 1822 1882

R.  Wagner .......  1813 1883

M.  Costa 1810 1884

Julius  Benedict 1804 1885

F.  Liszt 1811 1886

G.  A.  Maefarren 1813 1887

Alfred  Cellier 1844 1891

G.  Verdi 1814

R.  Franz 1815

C.  F.  Gounod 1818

A.  Rubinstein 1830

J.  Brahms 1833

J.  Stainer 1840

P.  A.  Dvorak 1841

E.  H.  Greig 1841

A.  Sullivan . ._ 1844

A.  C.  Mackenzie 1847

O.  V.  Stanford 1852

F.  H.  Cowen 1852

MUSICAL  GLASSES,  see  under  Harmonic,
and  Copophone.

MUSIC  HALLS.  In  1878,  347  of  these  were
licensed  in  London  :  first  class,  3  ;  second  class,  6 ;
(third  class,  13  ;  fourth  class,  53  ;  &c.

MUSKETS,  see  Firearms.

MUSKETEY  SCHOOLS  at  Hythe  and
Fleetwood  were  established  in  1854  under  major-
general  C.  C.  Hay.  He  resigned  in  1867.  The
•school  at  Fleetwood  was  closed  the  same  year.

MUSLIN,  a  fine  cotton  cloth,  so  called,  it  is
said,  from  having  a  downy  nap  on  its  surface,  re-
sembling moss  (French,  mousse) ;  according  to
others,  because  it  was  first  brought  from  Moussol,
In  India.  M  uslins  were  first  worn  in  England  in
1670.  Anderson.  By  means  of  the  Mule  {which
see),  British  much  superseded  India  muslins.

MUTA  (Syria).  Here  Mahomet  and  his  fol-
lowers defeated  the  Christians  in  his  first  conflict
with  them,  629.

MUTE.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute,  when
being  arraigned  for  treason  or  felony,  he  either
makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  pur-
pose. Until  1 741,  persons  refusing  to  plead  were
subjected  to  torture  by  pressure.
Walter  Calverly,  esq. ,  of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire,  having

murdered  two  of  his  children,  and  stabbed  his  wife  in

a  fit  of  jealousy,  being  arraigned  for  his  crime  at  York

assizes,  stood  mute,  and  was thereupon  pressed  to

death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed  upon

his  breast,  5  Aug.  1605. Stow.
Major  Strangeway  suffered  death  in  a  similar  manner

at  Newgate  for  the  murder  of  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.

Fussell,  1657.
Judgment  was  awarded  against  mutes,  as  if  they  were

convicted  or  had  confessed,  by  12  Geo.  III.  1772.
A  man  refusing  to  plead  was  condemned  and  executed  at

the  Old  Bailey  on  a  charge  of  murder,  1778,  and  another

on  a  charge  of  burglary  at  Wells,  1792.
An  act  passed  by  which  the  court  is  directed  to  enter  a

plea  of  "  not  guilty  "  when  the  prisoner  will  not  plead,

1827.

MUTINA  (now  Modena),  N.  Italy.  Here
Mark  Antony,  after  defeating  the  consul  Pansa,  was
himself  beaten  with  great  loss  by  Hirtius  the  other
consul,  and  fled  to  Gaul,  27  April,  43  B.C.

MUTINIES,  BRITISH.  The  mutiny  through-
out the  fleet  at  Portsmouth  for  an  advance  of  wages,


April,  1797.  It  subsided  on  a  promise  from  the
A  dmiralty,  which  not  being  quickly  fulfilled,  occa-
sioned a  second  mutiny  on  board  the  London  man-
of-war  ;  admiral  Colpoys,  and  his  captain,  were  put
into  confinement  for  ordering  the  marines  to  fire,
whereby  some  lives  were  lost.  The  mutiny  sub-
sided 10  May,  1797,  when  an  act  was  passed  to  raise
the  wages,  and  the  king  pardoned  the  mutineers.

Mutiny  of  the  Bounty,  28  April,  1789  ;  see  Bounty.

Mutiny  at  the  Nore,  which  blocked  up  the  trade  of  the
Thames,  broke  out  on  27  May,  1797,  and  subsided  13
June,  1797,  when  the  principal  mutineers  were  put  in
irons,  and  several  executed  (including  the  ringleader,
who  had  assumed  the  name  of  rear-admiral  Richard
Parker),  30  June,  at  Sheerness.

Mutiny  of  the  Danae  frigate  ;  the  crew  carried  the  ship
into  Brest  harbour,  27  March,  1800.

Mutiny  on  board  admiral  Mitchell's  fleet  at  Bantry  Bay,
Dec.  1801,  and  January  following  (see  Bantry  Bay).

Mutiny  at  Malta,  began  4  April,  1807,  and  ended  on  the
12th,  when  the  mutineers  (chiefly  Greeks  and  Corsi-
cans)  blew  themselves  up  by  setting  fire  to  a  large
magazine,  consisting  of  between  400  and  500  barrels  of
gunpowder.

Mutiny  on  the  Flowery  Land;  bound  from  London  to
Singapore ;  John  Lyons  and  six  foreign  sailors  mur-
dered the  captain  and  others,  10  Sept.  1863  ;  a  sailor
named  Tiffin  separated  from  the  rest,  gave  information,
and  seven  were  tried  and  five  executed,  14-22  Feb.
1864.

Mutiny  on  the  Jefferson  Borden,  U.  S.  schooner ;  two
mates  murdered  ;  put  down  by  the  captain,  20  April ;
vessel  arrived  at  Gravesend.  May  ;  2  men  condemned
at  Boston,  U.  S.,  1  Oct.,  1875.

Mutiny  on  the  Lennie,  British  ship,  bound  for  America,
captain  and  two  mates  murdered  by  foreign  seamen,
31  Oct.  1875.  Van  Hoydek,  steward,  managed  to  get
the  vessel  to  the  Isle  of  Rhe  ;  n  men  seized  and  con-
veyed to  London,  tried,  4  convicted,  4  May ;  executed,
23  May,  1876.

Mutiny  on  the  Caswell,  Glasgow  barque,  eapt.  G.  Best :
4  Jan.,  on  way  home  from  Valparaiso  ;  captain  and
3  men  killed  ;  mutineers  overcome  by  others,  some
killed;  vessel  brought  to  Queens'town,  13  May;
Christos  Baumbos  sentenced  to  death.  31  July  ;  exe-
cuted at  Cork,  25  Aug.  1876.  Giuseppe  Pistoria  exe-
cuted at  Cork,  25  Aug.  1879.

Mutiny  in  19th  Hussars,  Curragh  camp,  Dublin  ;  through
discontent  with  officers  on  account  of  extra  duty,  8
Sept. ;  75  arrested  ;  court  martial ;  sentenced  to  penal
servitude,  2  for  5  years,  2  for  6  years,  1  for  7  years,  1
for  8  years,  14  Nov.  1877.

Mutiny  on  board  the  Frank  N.  Thayer,  U.S.  ship,  700
miles  from  St.  Helena ;  two  coolies  from  Manila
wound  the  captain,  cause  panic,  kill  six  men,  imprison
others,  set  fire  to  the  ship  ;  overpowered  ;  leap  over-
board 2-3  Jan.  ;  the  captain  and  crew  in  boats  reach
St.  Helena  10  Jan.  1886.

For  Indian  Mutinies,  see  Madras,  t8o6,  and  India,  1857.

MUTINY  ACT  (1  &  2  Will,  and  Mary,  c.  5),
for  the  discipline,  regulation,  and  payment  of  the
army,  &c,  was  passed  12  April,  1689,  and  has  since
been  re-enacted  annually.

A  parliamentary  commission  reported  in  favour  of  con-
solidating and  simplifying  military  law,  by  combining
the  mutiny  act  and  articles  of  war  in  a  new  act  to  be
passed  annually,  &c,  July,  1878,  called  the  Army
(Annual)  Act. See  under  Army,  1879  and  1881.

MYCALE  (Ionia,  Asia  Minor),  BATTLE  OF,
fought  between  the  Greeks  (under  Leotychides,  the
king  of  Sparta,  and  Xantippus  the  Athenian)  and
the  Persians,  22  Sept.  479  B.C. ;  the  day  on  which
Mardonius  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Plata?a  by
Pausanias.  The  Persians  (about  100,000  men),
who  had  just  returned  from  the  unsuccessful  expe-
dition of  Xerxes  in  Greece,  were  completely  de-
feated, thousands  of  them  slaughtered,  and  their
camp  burnt.  The  Greeks  sailed  back  to  Samos
with  an  immense  booty.

MYCENZE,  a  division  of  the  kingdom  of
Argivcs,  in  the  Peloponnesus. It  stood  about  fifty


MYL^.


657


MYTHOLOGY.


stadia  from  Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion
of  the  Heraclidse. Early  history  mythical.

Perseus  removes  from  Argos,  and  founds  Mycenae,

B.C.  1431,  1313,  or  1282

Reign  of  Eurystheus . . . 1289,1274,01-1258

[Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  is  placed  the  story  of
the  labours  surmounted  by  Hercules.]

iEgisthus  assassinates  Atreus  ;  Agamemnon  suc-
ceeds to  the  throne  ;  becomes  king  of  Sicyon,
Corinth,  and  perhaps  of  Argos 1201

He  is  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Grecian  forces
going  to  the  Trojan  war . . . about  1 193

iEgisthus,  in  the  absence  of  Agamemnon,  lives  in
adultery  with  the  queen  Clytemnestra.  On  the
return  of  the  king  they  assassinate  him  ;  and
iEgisthus  mounts  the  throne . . .  1183

Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon,  kills  his  mother  and
her  paramour 11 76

Orestes  dies  of  the  bite  of  a  serpent. . . . 1106

The  Achaians  are  expelled ,,

Invasion  of  the  HeraclidEe,  and  the  conquerors
divide  the  dominions 1103

Mycenae  destroyed  by  the  Argives . . . .  1468

Discoveries  on  the  supposed  site  of  Mycenae  made
by  Dr.  Sehliemann  :  reported  March,  1874-Sept.  1876

Visited  by  the  emperor  of  Brazil . . 15  Oct. ,,

Discovery  of  tombs  of  Agamemnon,  and  others,
and  many  treasures  ;  announced  by  Dr.  Sehlie-
mann 28  Nov. ,,

Dr.  Sehliemann  reports  his  discoveries  to  the  So-
ciety of  Antiquaries,  London,  22  March  ;  pub-
lishes his  "  Mycenae  " .... Dec. 1877

Renewed  excavations  with  discoveries  by  Dr.
Sehliemann Sept.  1888

Dr.  Sehliemann  died  at  Naples  . . .26  Dec.  1890

MYLJ1,  a  bay  of  Sicily,  where  the  Komans,
under  their  consul  Duilius,  gained  their  first  naval
victory  over  the  Carthaginians,  and  took  fifty  of
their  ships,  260  B.C.  Here  also  Agrippa  defeated
the  fleet  of  Sextus  Pompeius,  36  B.C.

MYOGRAPHION,  an  apparatus  for  deter-
mining the  velocity  of  the  nervous  current,  invented
by  H.  Helmholtz  in  1850,  and  since  improved  by
Du  Bois  Reyinond  and  others.

MYSORE  (S.  India),  was  made  a  flourishing
kingdom  by  Hyder  Ali,  who  dethroned  the  reign-
ing sovereign  in  1761,  and  by  his  son,  Tippoo
Sahib,  who  considerably  harassed  the  English.
Tippoo  was  chastised  by  them  in  1792,  and  on
4  May,  1799,  his  capital,  Seringapatam,  was  taken
by  assault,  and  himself  slain.  The  English  esta-
blished a  prince  of  the  old  royal  family  as  maharajah
of  part  of  Mysore  in  1799;  being  without  an  heir
he  was  permitted  to  adopt  a  child  of  four  years  of
age,  in  Aug.  1867 ;  who  succeeded  him  at  his
death,  27  Mar.  1868,  and  assumed  the  government
in  May,  1881.  Tippoo's  last  surviving  son,  Gholam
Mahomet,  a  British  pensioner,  died  at  Calcutta,  1 1
Aug.  1872.  Anew  maharajah  assumed  the  govern-
ment about  13  Oct.  1889.  Population,  in  1881,
4,186,188  ;  in  1891,  4,859,760.

MYSTERIES,  derived  from  the  Greek  muste-
rion,  a  mystery  or  revealed  secret. The  Sacred


mysteries  is  a  term  applied  to  the  doctrines  of
Christianity,  called  the  "  mystery  of  godliness,"
1  Tim.  iii.  16,  as  opposed  to  the  "  mystery  of
iniquity,"  2  Thess.  ii.  7.  The  Holy  Eucharist  is
also  termed  the  sacred  mysteries.  The  Profane  mys-
teries were  the  secret  ceremonies  performed  by  a  se-
lect few  in  honour  of  some  deity.  Prom  the  Egyptian
mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris  sprang  those  of  Bacchus
and  Ceres  among  the  Greeks.  The  Eleusinian  mys-
teries were  introduced  at  Athens  by  Eumolpus,  1356
b.c. — Mystery  Plays;  see  Drama.

MYSTICS,  a  name  given  to  those  theologians
who,  in  addition  to  the  obvious  meaning  of  the
Holy  Scriptures,  assert  that  there  are  interpreta-
tions to  be  discovered  by  means  of  an  emanation  of
the  Divine  "Wisdom,  by  which  the  soul  is  enlight-
ened and  purified;  for  which  purpose  they  advocate
seclusion  for  contemplation  and  asceticism.
Mysticism  taught  at  Alexandria  by  Clemens,  Pantaenus,
Origen,  and  others,  who  mingled  Christianity  and
Platonism,  2nd  and  3rd  centuries.
Much  promoted  by  the  works  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius

("The  Mystic  Theology,"  &c),  6th  century.
Introduced  into  the  Western  empire,  9th  century.
Eminent  Mediaeval  mystics  (opposed  by  the  schoolmen),
Master  Eckhart  (1251-1329); John  Tauler  of  Stras-
burg,  where  he  acted  heroically  during  the  plague,
termed  the  "black  death"  (1290-1361); Henry  Suso
(1300-65). They  aimed at  a  more  spiritual  religion
than  Romanism  ; but  their  followers  were  charged
with  immorality,  pantheism,  communism,  and  main-
taining private  inspiration.
Jacob  Bohme  or  Behmen,  the  German  mystic,  published
his "Aurora" (an  alleged divine revelation) 1612;
died,  18  Nov.  1624.
For  modern  mystics, see Quakers,  Quietists,  Hutchin-
sonians  and  Swederiborgians.

MYTHOLOGY  (Greek  mytho*,  fable),  the
traditions  respecting  the  gods  and  early  history  of
any  people.  For  the  Egyptian  mythology,  see
Egypt.

Greek  Gods.  Roman.

ST"  !*"»*■»'  £|p™te»f

Zeus Jupiter  (Diovis-pater).

Plouton  (Aides,  Hades) . . .  Pluto.

Poseidon Neptune.

Here  or  Hera Juno.

Demeter Ceres.

Hestia Vesta.

Persephone Proserpine.

Dionysius Bacchus.

Jupiter's  Children.

Apollon Apollo.

Ares Mars.

Hermes Mercury.

Hephaistos Vulcan.

Athena  or  Athene Minerva.

Aphrodite Venus.

Artemis Diana.

The  chief  Hindu  gods  are  Brahma  the  creator,  Vishnu,
the  preserver,  and  Siva  the  destroyer,  but  there  have-
been  many  changes  in  the  Hindu  Pantheon.


N.


NAAS.

NAAS  (E.  Ireland).  Here  a  desperate  engage-
ment took  place  between  a  body  of  royal  forces  and
the  insurgent  Irish,  24  May,  1798,  during  the  re-
bellion. The  latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of
300  killed  and  many  wounded.

NABONASSAB,  ERA  OF,  received  its  name
from  the  prince  of  Babylon,  under  whose  reign
astronomical  studies  were  much  advanced  in
Chaldsea.  The  years  contain  365  days  each,  with-
out intercalation.  The  first  day  of  the  era  was
"Wednesday  (said,  in  mistake,  to  be  Thursday,  in
L' Art  de  Verifier  les  Bates),  26  Feb.  747  B.C. —
3967,  Julian  period.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on
which  the  year  of  Nabonassar  begins,  subtract  the
year,  if  before  Christ,  from  748;  if  after  Christ,
add  to  it  747.

NACHOD  (Bohemia).  At  this  place  the
Prussians,  under  their  crown  prince,  defeated
the  Austrians,  after  a  severe  conflict,  27  June,  1866.
The  Prussian  Uhlans  vanquished  the  Austrian
cavalry.

NACOLEA  (Phrygia).  Near  here  the  usurper
Procopius  was  defeated,  and  soon  afterwards  slain
by  the  emperor  Valens,  366.

NAFELS  (Switzerland).  Here  an  Austrian
army  was  defeated  by  a  small  body  of  Swiss,  1388.

NAGA HILLS MASSACEE,  see  India,

1875-

NAG'S  HEAD  STOEY.  Matthew  Parker-
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  Lam-
beth, 17  Dec.  1559,  by  bishops  Barlow,  Coverdale,
Scory,  and  Hodgkins.  For  forty-five  years  after,  the
Eomish  writers  asserted  that  Parker  and  others  had
heen  ordained  in  an  abnormal  fashion  by  Scory  at
the  Nag's  Head  Tavern,  Cheapside.  This  fiction
was  refuted  by  Burnet,  and  is  rejected  by  Eoman
Catholic  authorities,  such  as  Lingard.

NAHUM,  FESTIVAL  OF.  Nahum,  the  seventh
■of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  about  713  B.C.;  the
festival  is  kept  by  the  Eastern  church  on  1  December.

NAINI  TAL,  see  Landslips,  18  Sept.  1880.

NAISSUS  (Mcesia).  The  Goths  were  defeated
■near  here  with  great  slaughter  by  the  emperor
Claudius  II.,  269.

NAJABA  or  NAVARRETE  (N.  Spain).  At
Logroiio,  near  these  places,  Edward  the  Black
Prince  defeated  Henry  de  Trastamara,  and  re-
established Peter  the  Cruel  on  the  throne  of
Castile,  3  April,  1367.

NAMES.  Adam  and  Eve  named  then-  sons.
Gen.  iv.  25,  26.  A  Roman  citizen  had  generally
three  names ;  pramomen,  denoting  the  individual ;
nomen,  the  gens  or  clan  ;  cognomen,  the  branch  of
the  clan  :  sometimes  he  had  the  agnomen  {e.  g.,
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus).  The  popes
change  their  names  on  their  exaltation  to  the
pontificate,  "a  custom  introduced  by  pope  Sergius,
whose  name  till  then  was  Swine-snout,"  687.
Platina.  Onuphrius  (followed  by  most  of  the  mo-
dern authorities),  refers  it  to  John  XII.,  956;
stating  that  it  was  done  in  imitation  of  SS.  Peter
and  Paul,  who  were  first  called  Simon  and  Saul.
In  France  the  name  given  at  baptism  was  some-


NAPLES.

times  changed.  The  two  sons  of  Henry  II.  of
France  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules ;
at  their  confirmation  these  names  were  changed  to
Henry  and  Francis.  Monks  and  nuns,  at  their
entrance  into  monasteries,  assume  new  names.  See
Surnames.  Miss  Yonge's  "History  of  Christian
Names,"  published  1863  (new  edition  1884).  M.  A.
Lower's  "  Patronymica  Britannica,"  i860.

NAMUE,  in  Belgium,  was  made  a  county  in
932  ;  taken  by  the  French,  1  July,  1692  ;  by  Wil-
liam of  England,  4  Aug.  1695;  ceded  to  the  house
of  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  and  garrisoned
by  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town  of  the  United  Pro-
vinces in  1715.  The  city  of  Nam ur  was  ceded  to
Austria,  17 13;  taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  but
was  restored  in  1749.  In  1782,  the  emperor  Joseph
expelled  the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792  it  was  again
taken  by  the  French,  who  were  compelled  to
evacuate  it  in  1793;  regained  1794;  delivered  up
to  the  allies,  1814;  assigned  to  Belgium,  1831.  It
was  a  site  of  a  severe  conflict  in  June,  1815,  between
the  Prussians  and  the  French  under  Grouchy,  when
retreating  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. Population,

1890,  29,794.

NANCY  (N.E.France),  an  ancient  city,  capital
of  Lorraine,  in  the  13th  century.  After  taking
Nancy,  29  Nov.  1475,  and  losing  it,  5  Oct.  1476,
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  was  defeated  beneath
its  walls,  and  slain  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine  and
the  Swiss,  5  Jan.  1477 ;  see  Lorraine.  Nancy  was
embellished  by  Stanislas,  ex-king  of  Poland,  who
resided  and  died  here  Feb.  1766.  It  was  captured
by  Bliicher,  Jan.  1814,  and  on  the  retreat  of  Mac-
Mahon's  army,  and  expecting  the  German  army,
surrendered  to  four  Uhlans,  12  Aug.  1870.  It  was
restored  at  the  peace.

Grand  fetes  ;  visits  of  president  Carnot  and  the  grand
duke  Constantine  of  Russia,  5-7  June,  1892.

NANKIN,  said  to  have  been  made  the  central
capital  of  China,  420.  It  was  the  court  of  the
Ming  dynasty  from  1369  till  Yung-lo  removed  it  to
Pekin  in  1410.  On  4  Aug.  1842,  the  British  ships
arrived  at  Nankin,  and  peace  was  made.  The  rebel
Tae-pings  took  it  on  19,  20  March,  1853.  It  was
recaptured  by  the  Imperialists,  19  July,  1864,  and
found  to  be  in  a  very  desolate'  condition.  Esti-
mated population,  1,000,000.

NANTES  (AV.  France),  formerly  capital  of  the
Namnetes.  The  edict  in  favour  of  the  Protestants
issued  here  by  Henry  IV.,  13  April,  1598,  was  re-
voked by  Louis  XIV.,  22  Oct.  1685  (bicentenary  cele-
bration, 22  Oct.  1885).  Awful  cruelties  were  com-
mitted here  by  the  republican  Carrier,  Oct.-Nov.
1793  ;  see  Browning.  Population  in  1886,  127,482  ;

1891,  121,054.

NAPHTHA,  a  clear  combustible  rock  oil,
known  to  the  Greeks,  called  "  oil  of  Media,"  and
thought  to  have  been  an  ingredient  in  the  Greek
fire  {which  see).

NAPIEES  BONES,  see  Logarithms.

NAPLES,  formerly  the  continental  division
and  seat  of  government  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two
Sicilies,  began  with  a  Greek  colony  named  Parthe-
nope (about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards


NAPLES.


659


NAPLES.


divided  into  Palseopolis  (the  old)  and  Neapolis  (the
new  city) ;  from  the  latter  the  present  name  is
derived.  The  colon)'  was  conquered  by  the  Romans
in  the  Sanmite  war,  326  B.C.  Naples,  after  resisting
the  power  of  the  Lombards,  Franks,  and  Germans,
was  subjugated  by  the  Normans  under  Roger  Guis-
•card,  king  of  Sicily,  a. d.  1 131.  Few  countries  have
had  so  many  political  changes,  and  cruel  and  des-
potic rulers,  or  suffered  so  much  by  convulsions  of
nature,  such  as  earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  &c.
The  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  Italy  is  styled  prince
of  Naples.  In  1856,  the  population  of  the  kingdom
of  Naples  was  6,086,030,  of  Sicily  2,231,020;  total,
9,117,050.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  revived  king-
dom of  Italy.  Population  of  the  province  in  1889,
1,060,032;  of  the  city  in  1890,  530,872.
Naples  conquered  by  Theodoric  the  Goth . . 493

The  city  retaken  by  Belisarius 536

Taken  again  by  Totila . . . . . . 543

Ketaken  by  Narses 552

.Becomes  a  duchy  nominally  subject  to  the  Eastern

empire 568  or 572

Duchy  of  Naples  greatly  extended . . . . 593
Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman,  made  duke  of  Apulia,

founds  the  kingdom  of  Naples .... 1059
Naples conquered, and  the  kingdom  of  the  Two

Sicilies  founded  by  Roger  Guiscard  II. . . . 1131
The  imperial  house  of  Hohenstaufen  (see  Germany)

obtains  the  kingdom  by  marriage,  and  rules  1194-1266
The  pope  appoints  Charles  of  Anjou,  king,  who  de-
feats the  regent  Manfred  (son  of  Frederick  II.  of
Germany)  at  Benevento  (Manfred  slain)  26  Feb.  1266
Charles  defeats  Conradin  (t)ie  last  of  the  Hohen-
staufens  who  had  come  to  Naples  by  invitation  of
fthe  Ghibellines),  at  Tagliacozzo,  23  Aug.  :  Con-

(radin  beheaded 29  Oct. 1268

The  massacre  called  the  Sicilian  vespers  (which  see)

30  March,  1282
Andrew  of  Hungary,  husband  of  Joanna  I.  murdered

18  Sept.  1345
His  brother  Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  invades  Naples  1349
ijueen  Joanna  put  to  death  .  .  .22  May,  1382
Alphonso  V.  of  Arragon  (called  the  Wise  and  Mag-
nanimous), on  the  death  of  Joanna  II.  seizesNaples  1435
Naples  conquered  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France  .  .  1494
And  by  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  of

Spain,  who  divide  it 1501

Expulsion  of  the  French 1504

Naples  and  Sicily  united  to  Spain  .  .  .  .  ,,
Insurrection  of  Masaniello,  occasioned  by  the  extor-
tions of  the  Spanish  viceroys.  An  impost  was
claimed  on  a  basket  of  figs,  and  refused  by  the
owner,  with  whom  the  populace  took  part,  headed
by  Masaniello  (Thomas  Aniello),  a  fisherman  ;
rthey  obtained  the  command  of  Naples,  many  of
the  nobles  were  slain  and  their  palaces  burnt,  and
the  viceroy  was  compelled  to  abolish  the  taxes
and  to  restore  the  privileges  granted  by  Charles

V.  to  the  city June,  1647

Masaniello,  intoxicated  by  his  success,  was  slain  by

his  own  followers 16  July, ,,

Another  insurrection  suppressed  by  don  John  of

Austria Oct. ,,

Henry  II.  duke  of  Guise,  lands,  and  is  proclaimed
king,  but  in  a  few  days  is  taken  prisoner  by  the

Spaniards April,  1648

Naples  conquered  by  prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  for

the  emperor 1706

Discovery  of  Herculaneum  (which  see) . . .1711
The  Spaniards  by  the  victory  at  Bitonto  (26  May)
having  made  themselves  masters  of  both  king-
doms, Charles  (of  Bourbon),  son  of  the  king  of
Spain,  ascends  the  throne,  with  the  ancient  title

of  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies 1734

Order  of  St.  Januarius  instituted .... 1738
Charles,  becoming  king  of  Spain,  vacates  the  throne
in  favour  of  his  third  son,  Ferdinand,  agreeably  to

treaty 1759

Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  ....  3  Nov.  1767
Dreadful  earthquake  in  Calabria  .  .  .5  Feb.  1783
Enrolment  of  the  Lazzaroni  (which  sec)  as  pikemen

or  spontoneers 1793

The  king  flees  on  the  approach  of  the  French  repub-
licans, who  establish  the  Parthenopcan  republic,

14  Jan.  1799


Nelson  appears  ;  Naples  retaken  ;  the  restored  king

rules  tyrannically . . .  . June,  1799

Prince  Caracciolo  tried  and  executed  by  order  of

Nelson 29  June, ,,

The  Neapolitans  occupy  Rome . . 30  Sept. ,,
Dreadful  earthquake  ;  thousands  perish  . 26  July,  1805
Treaty of  neutrality  between  France  and  Naples

ratified 9  Oct. ,,

Ferdinand,  through  perfidy,  is  compelled  to  nee  to
Sicily,  23  Jan.  ;  the  French  enter  Naples,  and  Jo-
seph Bonaparte  made  king ....  Feb.  1806
The  French  defeated  at  Maida . . .4  July ,,
Joseph  Bonaparte,  after  beginning  many  reforms,

abdicates  for  the  crown  of  Spain  . .  June,  1808

Joachim  Murat  made  king  (rules  well)  15  July, ,,

His  first  quarrel  with  Napoleon ....  1811
His  alliance  with  Austria .... Jan.  1814
Death  of  queen  Caroline .... 7  Sept. ,,
Joachim  declares  war  against  Austria  . 15  March,  1815
Defeated  at  Tolentino .... 3  May, ,,
He  retires  to  France,  22  May,  and  Corsica  :  he  madly
attempts  the  recovery  of  his  throne  by  landing  at
Pizzo :  seized,  tried,  and  shot . . 13  Oct. ,,
Ferdinand,  re-established,  soon  returns  to  tyrannical

measures June, ,,

A  plague  rages  in  Naples,  Nov.  1815  to  June . . 1816
Establishment  of  the  society  of  the  Carbonari . . 1819
Successful  insurrection  of  the  Carbonari  under  gen.
Pepe  ;  the  king  compelled  to  swear  solemnly  to  a

new  constitution 13  July,  1820

The  Austrians  invade  the  kingdom,  at  the  king's

instigation  ;  general  Pepe  defeated . 7  March,  1821
Fall  of  the  constitutional  government .  23  March, ,,
Death  of  Ferdinand  (reigned  66  years)  . 4  Jan.  1825

[In  30  years,  100,000  Neapolitans  perished  by  various

kinds  of  death.]
Insurrection  of  the  Carbonari  suppressed . Aug. 1828
Accession  of  Ferdinand  II. ,  Boniba  (as  faithless  and

tyrannical  as  his  predecessors) . . 8  Nov.  1830
Dispute  with  England  respecting  the  sulphur  trade,

1838 ;  settled May,  1840

Attilio  and  Emilio  Bandiero,  with  eighteen  others,
attempting  an  insurrection  in  Calabria,  are  shot

17  Jan.  1844

[The  statement  that  lord  Aberdeen  had  given  notice

of  this  attempt  was  contradicted  by  his  lordship.]

Prospect  of  an  insurrection  in  Naples  ; the  king

grants  a  new  constitution  with  liberal  ministry,

29  Jan. 1848
Great  fighting  in  Naples  ;  the  liberals  and  the  na-
tional guard  almost  annihilated by  the royal
troops,  aided  by  the  lazzaroni . . 15  May, ,,
A  martial  anarchy  prevails  ;  the  chiefs  of  the  liberal

party  arrested  in Dec. 1849

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and  others,  after a
mock  trial,  are  condemned,  and  consigned  to  hor-
rible dungeons  for  life .... June,  1850
After  remonstrances  with  the  king  on  his  tyrannical
government  (May),  the  English  and  French  am-
bassadors are  withdrawn ... 28  Oct.  1856
Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  by  Milano  8  Dec. ,,
The Cagliari,  a  Sardinian  mail  steamboat  plying
between  Genoa  and  Tunis,  sailed  from  the  former
port  on  25  June,  1857,  with  thirty-three  passen-
gers, who,  after  a  few  hours'  sail,  took  forcible
possession  of  the  vessel,  and  compelled  the  two
English  engineers  (Watt  and  Park)  to  steer  to

Ponza 25  June,  1857

[Here  they  landed,  released  some  prisoners  there,
took  them  on  board,  and  sailed  to  Sapri,  where
they  again  landed,  and  restored  the  vessel  to  its
commander  and  crew.  The  latter  steered  imme-
diately for  Naples  ;  but  on  the  way  the  vessel  was
boarded  by  a  Neapolitan  cruiser,  and  all  the  crew
were  landed  and  consigned  to  dungeons,  where
they  remained  for  nine  months  waiting  for  trial,
suffering  great  privations  and  insidts.  This  caused
great  excitement  in  England :  and  after  much
negotiation,  the  crew  were  released,  the  vessel
given  up  to  the  British  government,  and  3000?.
given  as  a  compensation  to  the  sufferers.]
Italian  refugees,  under  count  Pisaccane,  land  in
Calabria,  are  defeated,  and  their  leader  killed,

27  June-2  July, „
Dreadful  earthquake  in  the  Apennines . 16  Dec.
Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders  . 27  Dec.  185S
Poerio  and  sixty-six  companions  released  and  sent  to
N.  America,  Jau.  ;  on  their  way,  they  seize  the

u  u  2


NAPLES.


660


NAPLES.


vessel, sail  to  Cork,  7  March ;  and  proceed  to
London 18  March,

Death  of  Ferdinand  II.,  after  dreadful  sufferings,

22  May,

Diplomatic  relations  resumed  with  England  and
France June,

A  subscription  for  Poerio  and  his  companions  in
England  amounted  to  io.oool . .  July,

Insubordination  among  the  Swiss  troops  at  Nar>les,
many  shot,  July  7  ;  major  Latour  sent  to  Naples
by  the  Swiss  confederation . . .16  July,

Army  increased  ;  defences  strengthened . Oct.

Many  political  imprisonments  ;  the  foreign  ambas-
sadors collectively  address  a  note  to  the  king
stating  the  necessity  for  reform  in  his  states,  26
March  ;  the  count  of  Syracuse  recommends  re-
form and  alliance  with  England . . April,

Garibaldi  lands  in  Sicily,  11  May  ;  defeats  the  Nea-
politan army  at  Calataflmi . . . 15  May,

Revolutionary  committee  at  Naples .  15  June,

Francis  II.  proclaims  an  amnesty  ;  promises  a  liberal
ministry  ;  adopts  a  tricolor  flag,  &c.  26  June,

Baron  Bremer,  French  ambassador,  wounded  in  his
carriage  by  the  mob . . . .27  June,

A  liberal  ministry  formed  ;  destruction  of  the  com-
missariat of  the  police  in  12  districts  ;  state  of
siege  proclaimed  at  Naples  ;  the  queen-mother
flees  to  Gaeta 28  June,

Garibaldi  defeats  Neapolitans  at  Melazzo,  20  July  ;
enters  Messina,  21  July  ;  the  Neapolitans  agree  to
evacuate  Sicily 30  July,

The  king  of  Sardinia  in  vain  negotiates  with  Francis
II.  for  alliance July,

Francis  II.  proclaims  the  re-establishment  of  the
constitution  of  1848,  2  July ;  the  army  proclaim
count  de  Trani  king . . . .10  July,

Garibaldi  lands  at  Melito,  18  Aug.  ;  takes  Reggio,

21  Aug.

Defection  in  army  and  navy  ;  Francis  II.  retires  to
Gaeta,  6  Sept.  ;  Garibaldi  enters  Naples  without
troops 7  Sept.

Garibaldi  assumes  the  dictatorship,  8  Sept.  ;  gives
up  the  Neapolitan  fleet  to  the  Sardinian  admiral
Persano,  11  Sept.  ;  expels  the  Jesuits  ;  establishes
trial  by  jury  ;  releases  political  prisoners Sept.


He  repulses  the  Neapolitans  at  Cajazzo,  19  Sept.  ;
defeats  them  at  the  Volturno . . .1  Oct. i860.

The  king  of  Sardinia  enters  the  kingdom  of  Naples,
and  takes  command  of  his  army,  which  combines
with  Garibaldi's n  Oct. ,,.

Naples  unsettled  through  intrigues . . Oct. ,r

Cialdini  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Isernia,  17  Oct.  ;
at  Venafro 18  Oct. ,,

The  plebiscite  at  Naples,  <fcc.  ;  almost  unanimous
vote  for  annexation  to  Piedmont  (1,303,064  to
10,312) . 21  Oct. ,r

Garibaldi  meets  Victor-Emmanuel,  and  salutes  him
as  king  of  Italy 26  Oct. ,r

The  first  English  Protestant  church  built  on  ground
given  by  Garibaldi ;  consecrated . 11  March,  1865

Cholera  raged  at  Naples ....  autumn,  1866

Great  eruption  of  Vesuvius  began  . 12  Nov. 1867

Land-slip  at  Naples  ;  20  persons  engulfed 28  Jan. 1868

Victor-Emmanuel,  prince  of  Naples  (son  of  prince
Humbert),  born  at  Naples . . .11  Nov.  1869

Maritime  exhibition  opened  a.t  Naples . 17  April,  1871

Great  marine  biological  laboratory  organised  by  Dr.
Dohrn 1872

Manzo  and  his  band  of  brigands,  (said  to  be  the  last)
destroyed  by  soldiers . . . .20  Aug.  1873

National  exhibition  of  the  fine  arts  opened  at  Naples
by  the  king 8  April,  1877

Death  of  Sisto  Riario  Sforza,  cardinal  archbishop,
a  proposed  successor  to  the  pope  . 6  Oct. ,,

Antonio  Scialoia,  statesman  and  financier,  died,
aged  61 about  17  Oct. ,,

Revival  of  brigandage,  chiefly  in  the  south,  July,  Aug.  1878

Asiatic  cholera  rages  in  Naples  and  Spezzia  (see
Cholera).  The  king  energetic  in  relieving  the
sufferers,  7-14  Sept.  ;  disease  dying  out .  6  Oct.  1884,

Naples  visited  by  the  king  Humbert  and  the  em-
peror William  II 16  Oct.  1888

The  king  inaugurates  new  sanitary  works 15  June,  1889

Trial  of  the  two  dukes  of  Vilarosa  for  the  murder
of  lieut.  Leone,  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  their
sister,  30  Dec.  1888  ;  one  brother  acquitted,  the
other'  sentenced  to  5  years'  imprisonment ;  much

indignation 22  Dec.  i8gr

[General  history  under  Italy.}


1131.  Roger  I.  (of  Sicily,  1130)  Norman.

1154.  William  I.  the  Bad  ;  son.

1 166.  William  II.  the  Good  ;  son.

1 189.  Tancred,  natural  son  of  Roger.

1 194.  William  III.  son,  succeeded  by  Constance,  married

to  Henry  VI.  of  Germany.

1197.  Frederick  II.  of  Germany  '  {Hohenstaufen).


SOVEREIGNS OF  NAPLES AND  SICILY.


1250.  Conrad  ;  son.

1254.  Conradin,  son  ;  but  his  uncle,

1258.  Manfred,  natural  son  of  Frederick  II.,  seizes  the

government ;  killed  at  Benevento,  in  1266.
1 266.  Chas.  of  A  njou,  brother  of  St.  Louis,  king  of  Franca

[Conradin  beheaded,  29  Oct.  1268.]
1282.  Insurrection  in  Sicily.


1282.
1285.
1309.
1343'


1385-
1386.
1414.


1458.
1494.
*495-


i5°3-
1516.
1556.
1598.


NAPLES.

Charles  I.  of  Anjou.

Charles  II.  ;  son.

Robert  the  Wise  ;  brother.

Joanna  (reigns  with  her  husband,  Andrew  of  Hun-
gary), 1343-45  :  with  Louis  of  Tarento,  1349-62  ;
Joanna  put  to  death  (22  May,  1382)  by

Charles  III.,  grandson  of  Charles  II.  :  he  becomes
king  of  Hungary  ;  assassinated  there,  1386.

Louis  I.,  titular,  crowned.

Louis  II. ,  son  of  Louis  I.

Ladislas  of  Hungary.

Joanna  II.,  sister,  dies  in  1435,  and  bequeaths  her
dominions  to  Regniev  of  Anjou.  They  are  ac-
quired by

Naples.  {Separation  ofNarih

Ferdinand  I.
Alphonso  II.  abdicates.
Ferdinand  II.
Frederic  II.  expelled  by  the  French,  1501.


{Separation  of  the  Kingdoms  in  1282.)  rtcily.

1282.  Peter  I.  (III.  of  Arragon.)
1285.  James  I.  (II.  of  Arragon.)
1295.  Frederick  II.
1337.  Peter  II.
1342.  Louis.
1355.  Frederick  III.
1376.  Maria  and  Martin  (her  husband).
1402.  Martin  I.

1409.  Martin  II.

1410.  Ferdinand  I.
1416.  Alphonso  I.


1435. Alphonso  I.  thus  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily.

and  Sicily  in  1458.)  sicily.

1458.  John  of  Arragon.

1479.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain.


Ferdinand  III.  (king  of  Spain)
Charles  I.  (V.  of  Germany).
Philip  I.  (II.  of  Spain).
Philip  II.  (III.  of  Spain).

NAPLES.

Charles  III.  of  Austria.


1735.  Charles  IV.  (III.  of  Spain).


The  Crowns  United.

1621.  Philip  III.  (IV.  of  Spain).
1665.  Charles  II.  (of  Spain).
1700.  Philip  IV.  (V.  of  Spain),  Bourbons.
1707.  Charles  III.  of  Austria.
{Separation  in  1713.)  sicily.

I  1 71 3.  Victor  Amadeus of  Savoy  (exchanged  Sicily  for
Sardinia,  1720.)
The  Two  Sicilies.
{Part  of  the  empire  of  Germany,  1720-34.)

I  1759.  Ferdinand  IV.  fled  from  Naples  to  Sicily,  x8o6.


NAPOLEON  CODE.


661  NATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL  HALL


NAPLES.

1806.  Joseph  Napoleon  Bonaparte.
z8o8.  Joachim  Murat,  shot  13  Oct.  1815.


(Separation  in  1806.)

I  1806-15.  Ferdinand  IV.

The  Two  Sicilies.


E815.  Ferdinand  I.,  formerly  Ferdinand  IV.,  of  Naples

and  Sicily.
1825.  Francis  I.
1830.  Ferdinand  II.,  Nov.  8  (termed  king  Bomba).


1859.  Francis  II.,  22  May;  bom  16  Jan.  1836;  last  King
of  Naples  ;  deposed ;  fled  6  Sept.  i860.

1861.  Victor-Emmanuel  II.  of  Sardinia,  as  King  of  Italy,
March ;  (see  Italy,  end).


NAPOLEON  CODE,  see  Codes.

NAPOLEON  MEMORIAL  :  subscriptions
from  the  Royal  family  and  the  three  services  for  a
statue  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon  (killed  in  Zulu-
land,  1  June,  1879),  were  closed  about  15  July,
S879.  The  statue  was  placed  in  St.  George's
ichapel,  Windsor,  May,  1881  ;  placing  it  in  West-
minster Abbey  having  been  much  opposed.

NARBONNE  (S.  E.  France),  the  Roman
Narbo  Martius,  founded  1 18  B.C.,  made  capital  of  a
Visigothic  kingdom,  462  ;  captured  by  the  Saracens,
720;  re-taken  by  Pepin  le  Bref,  759.  Gaston  de
Foix,  the  last  vicomte  (killed  at  Ravenna,  11  April,
1512),  resigned  it  to  the  king  in  exchange  for  the
duchy  of  Nemours.  Many  councils  held  here,  589-
1374-

NARCEINE AND NaRCOTINE, alkaloids
obtained  from  Opium  {which  nee). Narceine  was
discovei-ed  by  Pelletier  in  1832  ;  and  narcotine  by
Derosne  in  1803.
Crystallized  narceine  was  stated  by  M.  Laborde  at  Paris

to  be  an  innocuous  anaesthetic,  June  1890

NARVA  (Esthonia,  Russia).  Here  Peter  the
Great  of  Kussia  was  totally  defeated  by  Charles  XII.
of  Sweden,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year,  30  Nov.
1700.  The  army  of  Peter  is  said  to  have  amounted
to  60,000,  some  Swedes  affirm  100,000  men,  while
the  Swedes  were  about  20,000.  Charles  attacked
the  enemy  in  bis  intrenchments,  and  slew  18,000;
30,000  surrendered.  He  had  several  horses  shot
under  him.  He  said,  "These  people  seem  dis-
posed to  give  me  exercise."  Narva  was  taken  by
Peter  in  1704.

NASEBY  (Northamptonshire),  the  site  of  a
decisive  victory  over  Charles  I.  by  the  parliament
army  under  Fairfax  and  Cromwell.  The  main
body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by  lord
Astley  ;  prince  Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Mar-
maduke  Langdale  the  left,  and  the  king  himself
headed  the  body  of  reserve.  The  king  fled,  losing
his  cannon,  baggage,  and  nearly  5000  prisoners,
14  June,  1645.

NASHVILLE  (Tennessee,  N.  America)  was
occupied  by  the  confederates  in  1861,  and  taken
by  the  federals,  23  Feb.  1862.  Near  here  the  con-
federates under  Hood  were  defeated  by  the  federals
under  Thomas,  14-16  Dec.  1864.  Population,  1890,
76,168.

NASSAU,  a  German  duchy,  made  a  county  by
the  emperor  Frederic  I.  about  1180,  for  Wolfram,  a
descendant  of  Conrad  I.  of  Germany;  from  whom
are  descended  the  royal  house  of  Orange  now
reigning  in  Holland  (see  Orange,  and  Holland),
and  the  present  duke  of  Nassau.  Wiesbaden  was
made  the  capital  in  1839.  On  25  April,  i860,  the
Nassau  chamber  strongly  opposed  the  conclusion  of
a  concordat  with  the  pope,  and  claimed  liberty  of
faith  and  conscience.  The  duke  adopted  the  Aus-
trian motion  at  the  German  diet,  14  June,  and  after
the  war  the  duchy  wax  annexed  to  Prussia  by  decree,
20  Sept.,  and  possession  taken,  8  Oct.  1866.  Popu-
lation of  the  duchy  in  1865,  468,311.
1788.  Count  Frederic  William  made  duke  in  1806.
1014.  William-George,  20  Aug.


1839.  Adolphus-William-Charles,  born  24  July,  1817 ;
assumed  the  regency  of  Luxemburg  10  April,  1889,
became  grand  duke  on  the  decease  of  the  king
of  Holland,  23  Nov.  1890. See  Luxemburg.

NATAL  (Cape  of  Good  Hope). Vasco  de  Gama

landed  here  on  25  Dec.  1497,  and  heuce  named  it

Terra  Natalis.

The  Dutch  attempted  to  colonise  it  about  . . .  1721

The  Zulu  power  established  about  ....  1812

Lieut.  Farewell,  with  some  emigrants,  settled . 1823

Capt.  Allen  Gardiner's  treaty  with  the  Zulus,

6  May,  1835

Dutch  republic,  Natalia,  set  up  ;  put  down  by  the
British 12  May,  1842

Natal  annexed  to  the  British  possessions  . 8  Aug. 1843

Made  a  bishopric  (Dr  John  Wm.  Colenso,  bishop),
1853 ;  and  an  independent  colony  . . .  1856

Attempts  to  depose  bishop  Colenso  for  unsound
doctrine  having  failed,  the  rev.  W.  R.  Macrorie
was  sent  out  as  bp.  of  Maritzburg,  to  act  with
the  clergy  opposed  to  their  bishop .  Dec.  1868

See  Church  of  England,  1863-8.

A  bishop  of  Zululand  appointed  . . . .  1871

Alleged  insurrection  of  Caffres  under  Langalibalele,
quickly  suppressed . . .  Nov. -Dec.  1873

He  and  others  were  tried,  it  was  said  illegally,  and
punished  with  imprisonment ;  he  is  sent  to  Bob-
ben  island 4  Aug.  1874

Bishop  Colenso  came  to  England  to  advocate  his
ease ,,

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  sent  as  temporary  governor,
Feb.  ;  Langalibalele  released,  and  placed  under
surveillance  out  of  the  colony  ;  sir  Garnet  re-
turns Aug.  1875

Succeeded  by  Mr.  Walter  J.  Sendall,  appointed,

Nov.  1881

Great  dissatisfaction  in  the  colony  at  this  appoint-  -
ment Nov. ,,

Death  of  bishop  Colenso . . .  20  June,  1883

Governors  of  Natal :  Robt.  Wm.  Keate,  1867  ;  An-
thony Musgrave,  1873 ;  sir  Benj.  C.  C.  Pine,  1874 ;
Sir  H.  Ernest  Bulwer,  Sept.  1878  ;  sir  Garnet
Wolseley,  May,  1879  ;  sir  George  Pomeroy  Colley,
May,  1880;  killed  at  the  battle  of  Majuba  Hill,

27  Feb. 1881

Sir  Henry  E.  G.  Bulwer  nominated  governor,  Dec.
i38i ;  sir  A  E.  Havelock,  Nov.  1885  ;  sir  Charle?
B.  H.  Mitchell Aug.  1889

The  legislative  council  offers  to  undertake  the
administration  of  Zululand  at  the  cost  of  the
colony  to  check  the  encroaching  Boers  about  22
Oct.  ;  sanction  refused  by  the  British  government
announced 27  Oct.  1886

Slight  military  mutiny  ;  two  men  killed  in  its
suppression  at  Fort  Napier  . .  7  Aug.  1887

The  council  vote  for  a  free  and  responsible  govern-
ment 26  June,  1890

At  Pietermaritzburg  (the  capital)  a  statue  of  the
queen  by  sir  E.  Boelnn  was  unveiled  by  sir
Charles  Mitchell 8  July, ,,

The  bill  for  a  new  constitution  voted . 3  Feb 1891

Parliament  opened 30  April, ,,

Constitutional  bill  passed,  parliament  prorogued,

8  Aug. ,,

Confirmation  by  the  British  government  deferred,

Dec. „

Conference  of  two  Natal  delegates,  sir  John  Robin-
son and  Mr.  Sutton,  with  lord  Knutsford May,  1892

Railway  to  Orange  Free  State  opened . 13  July, ,,

Population,  326,957  (20,490  whites),  1876  ;  in  1886,
442,697;  in  1891,  543,913. See  Zululand.

NATIONAL  ANTHEM,  see  God  save  the
King.

NATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL  HALL,
see  under  Agriculture.


NATIONAL ASSEMBLY.


662


NATIONAL  DEBT.


NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY,  French.
Upon  the  proposition  of  the  abbe  Sieye«,  the  states-
general  of  France  constituted  themselves  the  Na-
tional Assembly,  17  June,  1789.  On  the  20th  the
hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by  order  of  the
king ;  upon  which  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers  Etat
repaired  to  the  Jeu  de  Paume,  or  Tennis-court,  and
swore  not  to  dissolve  until  they  had  digested  a
constitution  for  France.  On  the  22nd  they  met  at
the  church  at  St.  Louis.  This  assembly  abolished
the  state  religion,  annulled  monastic  vows,  divided
France  in*;o  departments,  sold  the  national  do-
mains, (  st  iblished .  a  national  bank,  issued  as-
signats,  and  dissolved  itself  21  Sept.  1792;  see
National  Convention.  In  1848  the  legislature  was
again  termed  the  National  Assembly.  It  met
4  May,  and  a  new  constitution  was  proclaimed,  12
Nov.  Anew  constitution  was  once  more  proclaimed
hy  Louis  Napoleon  in  Jan.  1852,  after  dissolving
the  National  Assembly,  2  Dec.  1851.  The  present
French  National  Assembly  was  elected  8  Feb.,  and
met  12  Feb.  1871;  new  constitution  adopted,  25
Feb.  1875 ;  see  France.

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY,  German,  see
Germany,  1848.

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  .One  was
formed  in  1584,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to
protect  queen  Elizabeth  from  assassination,  in  con-
sequence of  the  discovery  of  various  plots.  Another
was  proposed  in  the  house  of  commons,  in  Feb.

1696,  by  sir  Rowland  Gwjn,  for  the  defence  of  the
person  and  government  of  William  III.  soon  after
the  discovery  of  the  assassination  plot  {which  see).
The  members  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  and  the
majority  of  the  mule  population,  joined  it  imme-
diately ;  all  persons  holding  office  under  govern-
ment were  required  to  be  members;  see  Aid  to  Sick
and  Wounded,  Artillery,  Arts,  Colonies,  Em-
ployers, Farmers,  Social  Science,  and  Volunteers
for  other  national  associations.

NATIONAL  BENEVOLENT  INSTI-
TUTION, established  1812,  incorporated  1859.
Pensions  are  granted  to  decayed  gentry,  and  to
professional  people,  teachers,  and  others  in  reduced
circumstances.

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  of  France,
constituted  in  the  hall  of  the  Tuileries  17  Sept.  and
formally  opened  21  Sept.  1792,  when  M.  Gregoire,
at  the  head  of  the  National  Assembly,  announced
that  that  assembly  had  ceased  its  functions.  It  was
then  decreed,  ''  That  the  citizens  named  by  the
French  people  to  form  the  National  Convention,
being  met  to  the  number  of  371,  after  having  verified
their  powers,  declare  that  the  National  Convention
is  constituted."  This  convention  continued  until
a  new  constitution  was  organised,  and  the  Execu-
tive Directory  was  installed  at  the  Little  Luxem-
bourg, 1  Nov.  1795  i  see  Directory.  The  Chartists
(which  see)  in  England  formed  a  National  Conven-
tion in  1839.

NATIONAL  DEBT.  The  first  mention  of
parliamentary  security  for  a  debt  of  the  nation
occurs  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  The  present
national  debt  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  in
the  reign  of  William  III.,  1689. It  amounted,  in

1697,  to  about  five  millions  sterling,  and  was  then
thought  to  be  of  alarming  magnitude.  The  sole
cause  of  the  increase  has  been  war.  By  an  act
passed  31  May,  1867,  the  conversion  of  24,000,000^.
of  the  debt  into  terminable  annuities  was  pro-
vided for.  The  law  is  consolidated  by  the  national
debt  act,  passed  9  Aug.  1870;  amended  by  acts
passed  1875,  1882, 1884,  1886 and 1887. By  the


national  debt  act,  passed  Aug.  1883,  70,241,908^.
were  immediately  converted,  and  173,300,000^.
would  be  cancelled  in  20  years.  See  Sinking  Fund*
and  Local  Loans.


1689.  William  III,

1702.  Anne  .

1714.  George  I.

1763.  George  III.  (end  of  Seven

nearly .
1786.  After  American  war
1793.  Beginning  of  French  war
1802.  Close  of  French  war
18 17.  English  and  Irish  Exchequers

dated
1830.  Total  amount
1840.  Ditto
1850.  Ditto

1854.  Ditto
(31  March)

1855.  Ditto

1856.  Ditto

1857.  Funded  debt
Unfunded  .

1858.  Funded  debt
Unfunded  .

1859.  Funded  debt
Unfunded  .

i860.  Funded  debt

Unfunded  .
(31  March)
i85i.  Funded  debt

Unfunded

1862.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1863.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1864.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1865.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1866.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1867.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1868.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1869.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1870.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1 871.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1872.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1873.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1874.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1875.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1876.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1877.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1878.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1879.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1880.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1881.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1882.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1883.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1884.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1885.  Funded  debt
Unfunded

1886.  Funded  debt
Unfunded


war)


consoli


Debt.

£664,263
16,394,702:
54>  i45,363

138,865,430
249,851,628
244,440,306

572,0<DO,OOQ'

848,282,477
840,184,022
789,578,72(>
787,029,162
775,041,272

7°3r375,i°9<
807,981,788
780,119,722
27,989,000

779>225,495
25,911,500,

786,801,154
18,277,400.

785,962,000
16,228,300.

785,119,609,

16,689,000,

784,252,338

16,517,900

783,306,739.

16,495,400

777,429,224

13,136,000

775,768,295

10,742,500

773,313,229

8,187,700

769,541,004

7,956,800

741,190,328

7,911,100

740,418,032

8,896,100

741,514,681

6,761,500

732>°43>27°

6,091,000
731,756,962

5,155,100
727,374,082

4,829,100
723,514,005

4,479,600
714,797,715

5,239,00a
7!3, 657,5i?
*n,  401,800
712,621,355
*i3,943,8oo
7:50,843,007/
*20,6o3,ooo

7°9,43°> 593
25,870,100
710,476,355

27,344,9oo

709,078,526

22,077,500

709>498,547'

18,007,700
712,698,994

14,185,400
640,631,095

14,110,600
640,181,896

14,033,100
638,849,694

17,602, Soo,


*  Including  Suez  Canal  Bonds,  1876,  4,000,000/.  ;.  1877,
3,990,000/. ;  1878,  3,929,200/.


NATIONAL  DEFENCE.


663


NATIONAL  GUARD.


1887.  Funded  debt ..... £637,637,640
Unfunded 17,517,900

1888.  Funded  debt 609,740,743

Unfunded 17,385,100

1889.  Funded  debt 607,057,811

Unfunded 16,093,322

1890.  Funded  debt 585,959,852

Unfunded 32,252,305

1891.  Funded  debt 579,472,082

Unfunded 36,140,079

[Exclusive  of  terminable  annuities,  estimated,  1867,

27,521, 513?.;  1872,  55,749,070?.  ;  1876,  51,911,227?.  ;
1878,  46,335.589^]

The  National  Debt  and  Local  Loans  Act  passed  12  July,
1887,  see  Local  Loans.

Mr.  Matthew  O'Reilly  Dease,  formerly  M.P.  for  Louth,
bequeaths  about  40,000?.  towards  extinguishing  the
national  debt ;  he  died  17  Aug.  1887.

The  National  Debt  Redemption  Act  with  suitable  pro-
visions was  passed;  royal  assent,  11  April,  1889.

Sir  Stafford  Northcote's  act  provides  the  annual  charge
of  28,000,000?.  ;  the  surplus  to  be  devoted  to  the  re-
duction of  the  debt — 1876.

The  annual  interest  in  1850  was  23,862,257?. ;  and  the
total  interest,  including  annuities,  amounted  to
27,699,740?.  On  1  Jan.  1851,  the  total  unredeemed
debt  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  769,272,562?.,
the  charge  on  which  for  interest  and  management  was
27,620,449?.  The  total  charge  on  the  debt  for  interest
and  management,  1872,  26,839,601?.  Mr.  Childers'  plan
for  reducing  national  debt  by  terminable  annuities,
commencing  1885,  April,  1883;  National  Debt  Conver-
sion of  Stock  act  read  2nd  time  (117-34),  6  June;  passed
3  July,  18S4  ;  accepted,  17  Oct.  1884, 18,666,000?.  for  2J
per  cent.  ;  4,451,000?.  for  2J  per  cent.,  by  government,
nearly  12,000,000?.  Annual  charge  reduced  by
2,000,000?.,  April,  1887.  Reduced  to  25,000,000?.  by
new  act  passed,  royal  assent,  31  May,  1889.

Mr.  Goschen's  National  Debt  Conversion  Act ;  read  2nd
time  without  division  16  March ;  royal  assent  27  March,
1888.

[3  per  cent,  stock  reduced  to  2?  till  5  April,  1903,  and
afterwards  to  2^,  new  stock  not  redeemable  till
5  April,  1923.]

National  debt  redemption  act  passed  11  April,  1889.

ESTIMATED  FOREIGN  NATIONAL  DEBTS, 1884.

£90,000,000

Io6,000,000

85,000,000

21,000,000

29,000

11,000

NATIONAL DEFENCE, see Colonial

Defences  Commission,  under  Colonies,  1879.

Resolutions  voted  in  the  commons  for  supporting
arrangements  with  the  colonies  in  providing  ships,
&c,  850,000?.  ;  and  for  defence  of  various  ports  and
coaling  stations,  2,600,000?.  15  May,  1888.

National  Defence  Act  passed  13  Aug.  i833  ;  another
act  passed  31  May,  1889  ;  see  Navy,  1889.

NATIONAL  DRAMATIC ACADEMY

was  proposed  by  professor  H.  Morley  and  others  in
1879.

NATIONAL  FEDERATION  (Irish)  esta-
blished in  opposition  to  Mr.  Parnell,  by  Mr.  Justin
M'Carthy  and  other  M.P.'s,  supported  by  the  It.  C.
bishops  and  clergy;  inaugural  meeting  at  Dublin,
10  March,  1891.  Its  organ  is  the  National  Press,
first  published,  7  March,  1891.  See  Ireland,  March,
1892.

NATIONAL  GALLERY,  London,  began
with  the  purchase,  by  the  British  government,  of

the  Angerstein  collection  of  38  pictures,  for  57,000/.,
in  1824.  The  first  exhibition  of  them  took  place  in
Pall-mall,  on  10  May,  1824.  Sir  G.  Beaumont
(1826),  Mr.  Holwell  Carr  (1831),  and  many  other
gentlemen,  as  well  as  the  British  Institution,  con-
tributed many  fine  pictures;  and  the  collection  has
been  since  greatly  augmented  by  gifts  and  pur-
chases. The  present  edifice  in  Trafalgar-square,
designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and


France

£786,000,000

Holland

Italy

.  406,500,000

Portugal  .

Russia

.  578,000,000

Belgium

Austria

.  346,000,000

Greece

Spain

(1881)  512,000,000

Roumania

Turkey

(1881)  106,000,000

Denmark  .

opened  9  April,  1838.  In  July,  1857,  a  commission
appointed  to  consider  the  propriety  of  removing  the
pictures  reported  in  favour  of  their  remaining  in
their  present  locality ;  and  in  i860,  15,000/.  were
voted  to  be  expended  in  adapting  the  central  part
of  the  building  to  exhibition  purposes.  On  11  May,
1861,  the  National  Gallery  was  reopened  after
having  been  closed  eight  months,  during  which
time  great  improvements  were  made  in  the  internal
arrangements.  On  19  June,  1865,  the  house  of
commons  voted  20,000/.  to  buy  land  to  enlarge  the
building,  and  an  act  for  this  purpose  was  passed
15  July,  1866.  Visitors  in  1866,  775,901;  in  1871,
911,658;  in  1883,  849,604;  sum  voted  for  year
1867-8,  15,895/.,  for  1876,  20,098/.  Legacy  from
Francis  Win.  Clarke,  about  24,000/.,  fell  in  1880;
1880,  pictures  1040.

Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  director,  1850;  sir  Fred.  AY.  Burton,

1864.
A  parliamentary  return  gives  a  list  of  pictures  presented
to  or  purchased  for  the  National  Gallery — 284  pre-
sented, 256  bequeathed,  and  313  purchased.  The  cost
of  the  313  purchases,  which  has  been  spread  over  45
years,  has  been  254,527?.  Up  to  1871,  337,195?.  had
been  expended.  The  Peel  collection  (70  pictures),
bought  for  75,000?.,  spring,  1S71.  Two  pictures  of  the
Blenheim  Collection  were  bought  for  83,520?.,  March,
1885  (Raphael's  "Ansidei  Madonna"  70,000?.).  The
"Congress  of  Munster,"  a  master-piece  of  Terburg
(valued  at  7280?.  in  1868),  presented  by  sir  Richard
Wallace,  Oct.  1871.
Mr.  AYynn  Ellis  (a  silk  merchant,  born  July,  1780;  died
27  Nov.  1875)  bequeathed  about  800  pictures  to  the
National  Gallery  on  certain  conditions.  Re-opened  ;
new  galleries  erected  by  E.  Barry :  pictures  re-arranged,
Aug.,  1876.
About  1030  oil  paintings  in  the  gallery  .  March,  1882
Mr.  Henry  Tate  presents  57  modern  pictures  (value  nearly
90,000?.)  announced  8  March  ;  declined  by  the  govern-
ment for  want  of  space  ;  he  proposes  the  establish-
ment of  a  National  gallery  especially  for  British  Art,
17  June,  1890.
The  government  proposes  placing  his  pictures  in  galleries

at  South  Kensington  26  June,  1890.
Three  of  the  earl  of  Radnor's  pictures  purchased  for  the
gallery  for  55,000?.  (Holbein's  "Ambassadors,"  and  two
portraits  by  Velasquez  and  Moroni),  reported  July,  1890.
[The  government  gave  25,000?.,  lord  Rothschild,  sir
Edward  Guinness  (since  lord  Iveagh)  and  Mr.  Charles
Cotes,  each  io,oooJ.l
Mr.  William  Agnew  offers  to  present  10,000?.  towards  the
erection  of  a  special  National  gallery  of  British  art,
near  Kensington  palace,  21  July,  1890.
An  anonymous  donor  (Mr.  Henry  Tate)  through  Mr.
Humphry  Ward,  offers  to  the  government  So.ooo?.  for
the erection  of  a  National  gallery  of  British  Art,
12  March ;  accepted  by  Mr.  Goschen,  19  March,  1891.
Mr.  Tate,  not  approving  of  the  site  proposed  by  the
government,  withdraws  his  offer,  3  March,  1892.

NATIONAL GUARD of  France  was

instituted  by  the  Committee  of  Safety  at  Paris  on
13  July,  1789  (the  day  before  the  destruction  of  the
Bastile),  to  maintain  order  and  defend  the  public
liberty.  Its  first  colours  were  blue  and  red,  to
which  white  was  added,  when  its  formation  was
approved  by  the  king.  Its  action  was  soon  para-
lysed by  the  revolution,  and  it  ceased  altogether
under  the  consulate  and  empire.  It  was  revived
by  Napoleon  in  1814,  and  maintained  by  Louis
XVII!.,  but  was  broken  up  by  Charles  X.,  after  a
tumultuous  review  in  1827.  It  was  revived  in  1830,
and  helped  to  place  Louis  Philippe  on  the  throne.
In  1848  its  reconstitution  and  its  enlargement  from
80,000  to  100,000  men  led  to  the  frightful  conflict  of
June,  1848.  Its  constitution  was  entirely  changed
in  Jan.  1852,  when  it  was  subjected  entirely  to  the
control  of  the  government.  Formerly  it  had  many
privileges,  such  as  choosing  its  own  officers,  &c.
In  consequence  of  the  defection  of  part  of  the
National  Guard  and  the  incompetency  of  the  rest


NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. 664


NATUEAL SELECTION.


during  the  outbreak  in  Paris  in  1871,  its  gradual
abolition  was  decreed  by  the  national  assembly  at
Versailles  (488-154),  24  Aug.  1871.  The  peaceful
disarmament  began  in  September.  National  Guards
have  been  established  in  Spain,  Naples,  and  other
countries,  during  the  present  century.

NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY,

founded  in  1873  for  the  collection  and  diffusion  of
sanitary  knowledge,  by  lectures  and  otherwise.

NATIONALISTS.  See  Ireland  {Young),
Home  Rule,  Farnellites,  and  Separatists.

NATIONALITY ;  a  word  much  used  since
1848.  In  Poland,  Hungary,  Italy,  and  Germany,
the  strugglefor  nationality  has  been  long  and  severe.
In  1866  agitationfor  t  his  pi'irjciple  began  in  Bohemia,
Slavonia,  and  other  parts  of  the  Austrian  empire.
The  nationality  of  Ireland  is  the  alleged  basis  of
the  Fenian  agitation  ;  see  Ireland,  1870,  and  Home
Government.

NATIONALIZATION,  &c.  See  under  Land.

NATIONAL  LEAGUES,  see  Leagues,  and

Ireland,  1882,  et  seq.

NATIONAL  LIBERAL  FEDERATION,

see  under  Liberals.

NATIONAL  OPERA  HOUSE,  N.  Thames
Embankment ;  Mr.  M  apleson,  proprietor ;  Mr.  F.  H.
Fowler,  architect;  Mr.  Wm.  Webster,  contractor.
First  brick  laid  by  Mile.  Tietjens,  7  Sept.;  first
stone  laid  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  16  Dec.  1875.
Failure  of  the  scheme  reported,  Nov.  1877.  Mate-
rials sold,  24  June  1880,  et  seq. ;  estimated  loss  by  the
scheme  about  100,000^. ;  the  building  was  pulled
down,  May,  1888.

NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  EXHIBI-
TIONS proposed  by  the  earl  of  Derby,  earl  Gran-
ville, and  others,  at  a  meeting  in  London,  13  July,
1865.  They  were  held  in  what  had  been  the  re-
freshment room  of  the  Exhibition  of  1862,  at  South
Kensington.  The  1st  was  opened  16  April ;  closed
18  Aug.  1866:  2nd,  opened  3  May;  closed  31  Aug.
1867  :  3rd,  opened  13  April ;  closed  22  Aug.  1868.

NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  was
determined  on  in  Feb.  1857,  in  pursuance  of  votes
from  both  houses  of  parliament.  The  sum  of  2000<?.
was  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  portraits  of
persons  eminent  in  British  history.  Donations  are
received  under  certain  restrictions.  The  gallery,
Gt.  Georere-street,  Westminster,  was  opened  15  Jan.
1859.  .  Director,  &c,  George  Scharf,  c.b.  The
collection  was  removed  to  South  Kensington  Dec.
1869,  and  re-opened  28  March,  1870.  The  pictures
removed  to  Bethnal  Green  museum  for  safety  after
the  fire  at  the  Indian  museum,  June,  1885.  A
-valuable  collection  of  National  Portraits  appeared
at  the  Manchester  Fxhibition  in  1857.

The  marquis  of  Salisbury  at  the  Royal  Academy  dinner,
stated  that  the  government  had  received  an  anonymous
offer  to  erect  a  building  for  the  National  Portrait
Gallery,  if  a  site  were  provided,  4  May,  i88q.

Mr.  W.  H.  Alexander  having  given  100,000?.,  the
north  extremity  of  the  National  Gallery  chosen  for  the
site  of  the  new  building,  July  ;  bill  passed  26  July,  1889.

National  Portrait,  Gallery  for  Scotland.  — 3o,ooo;."offered
by  a  gentleman  to  form  a  collection  and  erect  a  building
1883-4.  The  building  at  Edinburgh  was  opened  by  the
marquis  of  Lothian,  15  July,  i88q.

NATIONAL  REFORM  UNION,  see  under

Jtfform  Association.


NATIONAL  REVIEW,  Conservative,  first
appeared  March,  1883.

NATIONAL  SCHOOLS,  see  Education,  and
Music,  1873.

NATIONAL  SOCIETY  for  promoting  the
Education  of  the  Poor  in  the  principles  of  the  esta-
blished church  of  England,  founded  1811,  incorpo-
rated 1817.  In  1883  there  were  2,385,374  children,
and  28,000,000^.  have  been  expended.  Training
colleges:  St.  Mark's,  Chelsea,  Whitelands,  and
Battersea.

NATIONAL  TESTIMONIALS  (subscribed
for)  were  presented  to  Kowland  Hill  (for  his  exer-
tions in  obtaining  the  penny  postage),  17  June,
1846;  and  to  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  (for  her
beneficent  exertions  for  the  sufferers  during  the
Crimean  war),  29  Nov.  1855.

NATIONAL  THRIFT  SOCIETY,  formed
at  Oxford  in  1878.  Meetings  have  been  held  at  the
Mansion  House,  London,  1880,  et  seq.  The  erection
of  a  Thrift-hall  proposed,  31  Dec.  1887.

.  NATIONAL  TRADE  SOCIETY  formed
in  June,  1871,  to  watch  over  and  secure  the  interests
of  traders,  and  promote  amendments  in  the  law
affecting  commercial  interests.  President,  rt.  lion.
W.  H.  Smith,  M.P.  Civil  Service  trading,  the  in-
come tax,  and  international  exhibitions  have  been
considered  by  the  committee.

NATIONAL TRAINING  SCHOOL  for

Music,  South  Kensington,  founded  by  the  duke  of
Edinburgh,  18  Dec.  1873;  opened  by  him,  17  May,
1876. .

NATIONAL  UNION  was  formed  in  1868  to
combine  a  number  of  associations  supporting  the
Conservative  party.  Lecturers  were  employed  and
pamphlets  circulated.  The  party  was  termed  Na-
tionalists in  Aug.  1871.  lord  handolph  Churchill
was  chairman  in  1884.  Conference  at  Aberdeen,
16  Oct.  1884.  The  twentieth  annual  conference
held  at  Oxford,  22  Nov.  1887,  and  at  other  places
since.

NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION,

see  United  States,  1866,  and  Dec.  1890.

NATIONAL  VIGILANCE  ASSOCIA-
TION, for  the  promotion  of  social  purity,  and  the
protection  of  women  and  children,  founded  by  Dr.
G.  Bidding  (bishop  of  Southwell),  Mr.  Samuel
Morley  and  others,  March,  1886.
Annual  meetings  are  held,  latest  4  Nov.  1891.

NATIONAL  WORKSHOPS,  see  Ateliers
Nalionaux.

NATIVITY.  There  are  three  festivals  in  the
Boman  and  Greek  churches,  under  this  name.  The
Nativity  of  Christ,  also  observed  by  the  Protestants,
on  25  Dec.  (see  Christmas)  ;  the  Nativity  of  the
Virgin  Mary,  not  observed  by  the  Protestants  at  all.
Pope  Sergius  I.,  about  690,  established  the  latter,
but  it  was  not  generally  received  in  France  and
Germany  till  about  iooo  ;  nor  by  the  eastern  Chris-
tians tiil  the  12th  century.  The  festival  of  the
nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  24  June,  Midsum-
mer-day, is  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  488.

NATURAL  HISTORY  was  studied  by  Solo-
mon, 1014  B.C.  (1  Kings  iv.  33)  ;  Aristotle  (384-322
B.C.);  by  Theophrastus  (394-297  B.C.);  and  by  Pliny
(23-79  a.d.)  ;  see  Botany,  Zoology,  &c.

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  see  Philo-
sophy.

NATURAL  SELECTION,  see  Species.


NATURALISATION.


665


NAVAL  BATTLES.


NATURALISATION  is  defined  to  be  "the
making  a  foreigner  or  alien  a  denizen  or  freeman  of
any  kingdom  or  citjr,  and  so  becoming,  as  it  were,
both  a  subject  and  a  native  of  a  king  or  country
that  by  nature  he  did  not  belong  to."  The  first  act
of  naturalisation  passed  in  1437  ;  and  various  similar
enactments  were  made  in  most  of  the  reigns  from
that  time;  several  of  tbem  special  acts  relating  to
individuals.  An  act  for  the  naturalisation  of  the
Jews  passed  May,  1753,  but  was  repealed  in  1754,
on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in  England  ;  see
Jews,  for  the  privileges  since  granted  them.  The
act  for  the  naturalisation  of  prince  Albert  passed
3  Vict.,  7  Feb.  1840.  A  committee  to  inquire  into
the  naturalisation  laws,  appointed  May,  1868,  earl
of  Clarendon  chairman,  met  25  Oct.  1868;  reported
about  Feb.  1869  ;  and  new  acts  for  this  purpose  were
passed  12  May,  1870,  and  25  July,  1872.  In  1870
there  were  about  9500  Americans  in  England,  and
about  2,500,000  British  subjects  in  the  United  States
of  America.  By  the  new  act  the  latter  were  enabled
to  renounce  their  allegiance;  and  by  the  conven-
tion signed  3  Feb.  1871,  the  nationality  of  British
subjects  was  made  dependent  on  choice  and  not  on
birth.

NATUEALISM,  a  realistic  style  in  literature,
mainly  introduced  by  Balzac,  1829,  et  seq.
Edmond  and  Jules  de  Goncourt  published  "  Medical  and

Physiological  Novels,"  1846,  et  seq.
Emile  Zola,  in  his  "  Rougon-Macquart "  series,  1871,  et
seq.,  portrayed  deformed  and  diseased  rather  than  true
nature.  A  dramatised  form  of  his  "Assommoir,"  en-
titled "  Drink,"  was  much  performed  in  London  in
1870.

NATURE, a weekly illustrated journal of
science,  first appeared  4 Nov. 1869; editor,  Mr.
Joseph  Norman  Lockyer,  F.BS.
The  French  publication,  La  Nature,  appeared  in  1892.

NATURE  PRINTING.  This  process  con-
sists in  impressing  objects,  such  as  plants,  mosses,
feathers,  &c,  into  plates  of  metal,  causing  these
objects,  as  it  were,  to  engrave  themselves ;  and
afterwards  taking  casts  or  copies  fit  for  printing
from.  Kniphoft'of  Erfurt,  between  1728  and  1757,
produced  his  Herbarium  vivum  by  pressing  the  plants
themselves  (previously  inked)  on  paper ;  the  im-
pressions being  afterwards  coloured  by  hand.  In
1S33,  Peter  Kyhl,  of  Copenhagen,  made  use  of  steel
rollers  and  lead  plates.  In  1842  Mr.  Taylor  printed
lace.  In  1847  Mr.  Twining  printed  ferns,  grasses,-
and  plants ;  and  in  the  same  year  Dr.  Branson  sug-
gested the  application  of  electrotyping  to  the  im-
pressions. In  1849,  professor  Leydolt,  of  Vienna,
by  the  able  assistance  of  Mr.  Andrew  Worring,  ob-
tained impressions  of  agates  and  fossils.  The  first
practical  application  of  this  process  is  in  Von
Heufler's  work  on  the  Mosses  of  Arpasch,  in  Tran-
sylvania; the  second  (the  first  in  this  country)  in
"  The  Ferns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  edited
by  Dr.  Lindley,  the  illustrations  to  which  were  pre-
pared under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Henry
Bradbury  in  1855-56,  who  also  in  1859-60  printed
"The  British  Sea-weeds,"  edited  by  W.  G.  John-
stone and  Alex.  Croall.  The  process  was  applied  to
butterflies  by  Joseph  Merrin  of  Gloucester,  in  1864.

NATURFORSCHER  GESELL-
SCHAFT,  see  German  Union.

NAUCRATIS,  see  under  Egypt  Exploration
Fund.

NAUTICAL  ALMANAC,  first  published  in

1767,  edited  by  Dr.  Neville  Maskelyne,  astronomer
royal;  the  new  and  improved  series  began  in  1834.
Dr.  John  Kussell  Hind,  for  many  years  superin-
tendent, was  succeeded  by  Mr.  A.  M.  W.  Downing,
Jan.  1892.


NAUVOO,  Illinois,  N.  America,  a  city  of  the
M.ormom.tes,(ichich see) ;  founded  1840;  left  1848.

NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  ADMINI-
STRATION, Royal  Commission  appointed  con-
sisting of  Lord  Harrington,  Lord  R.  Chun-hill,
Lord  Revelstoke,  Mr.  Campbell  Bannerman,  Mr.
Ismay,  General  Brackenbury,  Admiral  Sir  F.
Richards,  Sir  R.  Temple,  and  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  7
June,  1888.
First  report,  containing  various  recommendations  with

evidence,  issued  20  March,  1890.
Mr.  E.  Stanhope,  the  war  secretary,  reports  the  proposal
for  the  establishment  of  a  council  within  the  cabinet,
for  naval  and  military  affairs,  to  decide  on  questions
between  the  two  departments,  also  to  establish  a  war
office  council  and  a  promotion  board,  3  July,  1890.

NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  OFFICERS'
ASSOCIATION,  instituted  to  provide  employ-
ment for  retired  officers,  proposed  spring  1885.

NAVAL  ARCHITECTS'  INSTITU-
TION was  established  in  Jan.  i860.  Annual
sessions  are  held.

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  A  scientific
committee  of  fifteen  appointed  to  consider  the  pre-
sent state  of  naval  architecture,  and  the  require-
ments of  naval  warfare  ;  6  naval  officers,  9  scientific
men  ;  lord  Dufferin  chairman  ;  about  19  Dec.  1870.
A  royal  school  of  naval  architecture,  established  at
South  Kensington  in  1864,  merged  into  the  Royal
Naval  College,  Greenwich.
M.  Raoul  Pictet,  of  Geneva,  announced  his  discovery  of

a  new  kind  of  keel  to  glide  over  water,  Aug.  1881.

NAVAL  ARTILLERY  VOLUNTEER
FORCE,  ROYAL,  established  by  act  passed  5  Aug.

1873-

On  March  22,  1889,  a  proposal  to  utilise  these  volunteers
who  are  stationed  at  various  ports,  was  made  in  the
house  of  lords.

NAVAL  ASYLUM,  Royal,  begun  at  Pad-
dington  in  1801,  was  transferred  to  Greenwich  in
1807.  The  interior  of  the  central  portion  of  the
building  was  commenced  in  1613  by  Anne,  queen  of
James  I.,  and  completed  in  1635  by  queen  Henrietta-
Maria,  whose  arms  still  adorn  the  ceiling  of  the
room  in  which  her  son  Charles  II.  was  born,  1630.

NAVAL  BATTLES.  The  first  sea-fight  on
record  is  that  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcy-
reans,  665  B.C.  The  following  are  among  the  most
celebrated  naval  engagements :  for  the  details  of
which  see  separate  articles.

B.C.

Battle  of  Salamis  (Greek  victory)  . .  20  Oct. 480

Battle  of  Eurymedon  (ditto) 469

Battle  of  Cyzicus  ;  the  Lacedemonian  fleet  taken  by

Alcibiades,  the  Athenian 410

Battle  of  Arginusas 4°6

Battle  of  iEgospotamos  (Spartans  victors)  . . . 405
The  Persian  fleet,  under  Conon,  defeats  the  Spartan,
at  Cnidos ;  Pisander, the Athenian admiral,  is
killed  ;  and  the  maritime  power  of  the  Lacede-
monians destroyed .  .... 394
Battle  of  Mylse  (Romans  defeat  Carthaginians) . . 260
The  Roman  fleet,  off  Trepanum,  destroyed  by  the

Carthaginians 249

The  Carthaginian  fleet  destroyed  by  the  consul  Lu-

tatius 241

Battle  of  Aetium 31

The  emperor  Claudius  II.  defeats  the  Goths,  and

sinks  2000  of  their  ships .... a.d. 269
Battle  of  Lepanto  (Turks  defeated) . . 7  Oct. 1571
Bay  of  Gibraltar;  Dutch  and  Spaniards  (a  bloody
conflict  and  decisive  victory,  giving  for  a  time  the
superiority  to  the  Dutch) . . . 25  April,  1607
The  Austrians  defeat  the  Italians  a1  Lissa(see  TAssa)

20  July,  186c

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH IllSToKY.
[Ilallain  considers  that  the  naval  glory  of  Kngland
can first  be  traced "  in  a  continuous  track  of
light"  from  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth.]


NAVAL  BATTLES.


666


NAVAL  BATTLES.


Alfred  with  10  galleys,  defeated  300  sail  of  Danish
pirates  011  the  Dorset  and  Hampshire  coast.  Asser's
Life  of  Alfred 897

Edward  III.  defeats  the  French  near  Slays  24  June,  1340

Off  Winehelsea ;  Edward  III.  defeated  the  Spanish
fleet  of  40  large  ships,  and  captured  26 29  Aug.  1350

The  English  and  Flemings  ;  the  latter  signally  de-
feated 1371

Earl  of  Arundel  defeats  a  Flemish  fleet  of  100  sail,
and  captures  80 ...  24  March,  1387

Near  Milford  Haven  ;  the  English  take  8,  and  de-
stroy 15  French  ships 1405

Off  Harfleur  ;  the  duke  of  Bedford  takes  or  destroys
nearly  500  French  ships  . . -15  Aug.  1416

In  the  Downs  ;  a  Spanish  and  Genoese  fleet  cap-
tured by  the  earl  of  Warwick  . . . . 1459

Bay  of  Biscay  ; English  and  French, indecisive,

10  Aug. 15 12

Sir  Edward  Howard  attacks  the  French  under  Prior
John;  repulsed  and  killed . . .  25  April,  151 3

The  Spanish  Armada  destroyed . . 19  July,  1588

Dover  straits  ;  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp  de-
feated by  admiral  Blake  28  Sept.  The  Dutch
surprise  the  English  in  the  Downs,  80  sail  engag-
ing 40  English,  several  of  which  are  taken  or
destroyed,  28  Nov.  ;  the  Dutch  admiral  sails  in
triumph  through  the  channel,  with  a  broom  at  his
mast-head,  to  denote  that  he  had  swept  the  English
from  the  seas . . . . .29  Nov. 1652

The  English  gain  a  victory  over  the  Dutch  fleet  off
Portsmouth,  taking  and  destroying  11  men-of-war
and  30  merchantmen.  Van  Tromp  was  the  Dutch,
and  Blake  the  English  admiral .  18-20  Feb. 1653

Again,  off  the  North  Foreland.  The  Dutch  and
English  fleets  consisted  of  near  100  men-of-war
each.  Van  Tromp  commanded  the  Dutch  ;  Blake,
Monk,  and  Deane,  the  English.  Six  Dutch  ships
taken  ;  11  sunk,  and  the  rest  ran  into  Calais  roads

2  June, ,,
Again,  on  the  coast  of  Holland  ;  the  Dutch  lose  30

men-of-war,  and  admiral  Tromp  was  killed  (the
seventh  and  last  battle) . . .31  July, „

At  Cadiz,  when  two  galleons,  worth  2,000,000  pieces
of  eight,  were  taken  by  Blake . . . Sept. 1656

Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and  burnt  in  the  harbour
of  Santa  Cruz  by  Blake  . . . .20  April,  1657

English  and  French  :  130  of  the  Bordeaux  fleet  de-
stroyed by  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.)

4  Dec. 1664

The  duke  of  York  defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Har-
wich ;  Opdam,  the  Dutch  admiral,  blown  up,  with
all  his  crew ;  18  capital  ships  taken,  14  destroyed

3  June,  1665
The  earl  of  Sandwich  took  12  men-of-war  and  2  India

ships 4  Sept. ,,

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and  English  fleets  for
four  days.  The  English  lose  9,  and  the  Dutch  15
ships 1-4  June,  1666

Decisive  engagement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,
the  English  gain  a  glorious  victory.  The  Dutch
lose  24  men-of-war,  4  admirals  killed,  and  4000
seamen 25,  26  July, ,,

The  Dutch  admiral  de  Buyter  sails  up  the  Thames
and  destroys  some  ships . . . n  June,  1667

Twelve  Algerine  ships  of  war  destroyed  by  sir  Ed-
ward Spragg . . . . . 10  May,  1671

Battle  of  Southwold  bay  (see  Solebay)  28  May,  1672

Coast  of  Holland  ;  by  prince  Rupert,  28  May,  4
June,  and  n  Aug.,  sir  E.  Spragg  killed  ;  d'Etrees
and  Ruyter  defeated 1673

Off  Beachy  Head  ;  the  English  and  Dutch  defeated
by  the  French  under  Tourville . .  30  June,  1690

Who  is  defeated  by  them  near  Cape  LaHogue,i9  Mav>  l692

Off  St.  Vincent ;  the  English  and  Dutch  squadrons,
under  admiral  Rooke,  defeated  by  the  French,

16  June,  1693

Off  Carthagena,  between  admiral  Benbow  and  the
French  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  Du  Casse.
Fought io  Aug. 1702

The  other  ships  of  the  squadron  falling  astern,  left
Benbow  alone  to  maintain  the  battle.  A  chain-
shot  shattered  his  leg,  yet  he  would  not  he
removed  from  the  quarter-deck,  but  continued
lighting  till  the  morning,  when  the  French
sheered  off.  He  died  in  Oct.  following,  of  his
wounds,  at  Jamaica,  where,  soon  after  his  arrival,
he  received  a  letter  from  the  French  admiral,  of
which  the  following  is  a  translation  : —


"Carthagena,  22  Aug.  1702.
"Sir, — I  had  little  hopes,  on  Monday  last,  but
to  have  supped  in  your  cabin  ;  yet  it  pleased  God
to  order  it  otherwise.  I  am  thankful  for  it.  As
for  those  cowardly  captains  who  deserted  you,
hang  them  up,  for  by  G — d  they  deserve  it.

"Du  Casse."

Captains  Kirby  and  Wade  were  shot  on  their  arrival
at  Plymouth,  having  been  previously  tried  by  a
court-martial.

Sir  George  Rooke  defeats  the  French  fleet  off  Vigo
{which  see)  .  . . . . .12  Oct. 1702

Off  Malaga ;  bloody  engagement  between  the  French,
under  the  count  of  Thoulouse,  and  the  English,
under  sir  George  Rooke . . -13  Aug. 1704

At  Gibraltar ;  French  lose  5  men-of-war . 5  Nov. ,,

In  the  Mediterranean,  admiral  Leake  took  60  French
vessels,  laden  with  provisions  . . .22  May,  1708

Spanish  fleet  of  29  sail  totally  defeated  by  sir  George
Byng,  in  the  Faro  of  Messina . . 31  July,  1718

Bloody  battle  off  Toulon  ;  Matthews  and  Lestoek
against  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain.  Here
brave  captain  Cornewallfell  with  42  men,  including
officers  ;  and  the  victory  was  lost  by  a  misunder-
standing between  the  English  admirals 11  Feb.  1743-4

Off  Cape  Finisterre  ;  the  French  fleet  of  38  sail  taken
by  admiral  Anson 3  May,  1747

Off  Finisterre  ;  when  admiral  Hawke  took  7  men-of-
war  of  the  French 14  Oct. ,,

Off  Newfoundland  ;  when  admiral  Boseawen  took  2
men-of-war 10  June,  1755

Off  Cape  Frangoise  ;  7  ships  defeated  by  3  English,

21  Oct. 1757

Admiral  Pocock  defeats  the  French  fleet  iri  the  East
Indies,  in  two  actions,  1758,  and  again . . . 1759

Admiral  Boseawen  defeats  the  French  under  De  la
Clue,  off  Cape  Lagos .... 18  Aug. ,,

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French  fleet,  com-
manded by  Conflans,  in  Quiberon  Bay,  and  thus
prevents  a  projected  invasion  of  England  (see
Quiberon  Bay) 20  Nov. „

Keppel  took  3  French  frigates,  and  a  fleet  of  mer-
chantmen 9  Oct. 1762

On  Lake  Champlain  the  provincial  force  totally  de-
stroyed by  admiral  Howe . . .11  Oct.  1776

Capt.  Sam.  Marshall,  of  "  the  saucy.4refli.wsa,"  32  guns
(part  of  Keppel's  fleet),  summoned  La  Belle  Poule
to  surrender  off  Ushant,  and  fired  across  her  bow  ;
after  two  hours'  conflict,  the  French  made  sail  and
escaped ..... 16  or  17  June,  1778

Off  Ushant ;  a  drawn  battle  between  Keppel  and
d'Orvilliers 27  July, ,,

In  New  England  ;  the  American  fleet  totally  de-
stroyed 30  July,  1779

Near  Cape  St.  Vincent ;  admiral  Rodney  defeated  a
Spanish  fleet  under  admiral  don  Langara  (see
Rodney) . . 16  Jan. 1780

At  St.  Jago  ;  Mons.  Suffrein  defeated  by  commodore
Johnstone 16  April,  1781

Dogger-bank,  between  admiral  Parker  and  the  Dutch
admiral  Zoutman  :  400  killed  on  each  side,  5  Aug. ,,

Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French  going  to  at-
tack Jamaica  ;  took  5  ships  of  the  line,  and  sent
the  French  admiral,  Comte  de  Grasse,  prisoner
to  England 12  April,  1782

The  British  totally  defeated  the  fleets  of  France  and
Spain  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar . . 13  Sept. ,,

East  Indies  :  a  series  of  actions  between  sir  Edward
Hughes  and  Suffren,  viz.  :  17  Feb.  1782,  the
French  had  11  ships  to  9  ;  12  April  they  had  18
ships  to  u,  yet  were  completely  beaten.  Again,
6  July,  off  Trincomalee,  they  had  15  to  12,  and
were  again  beaten  with  loss  of  1000  killed,  3
Sept.  1782  ;  again 20  June,  1783

Lord  Howe  defeated  the  French  off  Ushant,  took  6
ships  of  war,  and  sunk  one . . .1  June,  1794

Sir  Edward  Pellew  took  15  sail ;  burnt  7,  out  of  a
fleet  of  35  sail  of  transports  . . .8  March,  1795

French  fleet  defeated,  and  2  ships  of  war  taken  by
admiral  Hotham. Fought . . 14  March, ,,

Admiral  Cornwallis  took  8  transports,  convoyed  by
3  French  men-of-war. Fought . . 7  June, ,,

Eleven  Dutch  East  Indiainen  taken  by  the  Sceptre,
man-of-war,  and  some  armed  British  Indiamen  in
company 19  June, ,,

L'Orient :  the  French  fleet  defeated  by  lord  Brid-
port,  and  3  ships  of  the  line  taken  ;  see  L'Orient,

23  June, „


NAVAL BATTLES.


667


NAVAL BATTLES.


Dutch  fleet,  under  admiral  Lucas,  in  Saldanha  Bay,
surrenders  to  sir  George  Keith  Elphiustone  (see
Saldanha  Bay) 17  Aug.  1796

Victory  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  (which  see) . 14  Feb. 1797

Unsuccessful  attempt  on  Santa  Cruz ;  admiral
Nelson  loses  his  right  arm . . .24  July, ,,

Victory  of  Camperdown  (which  see) . 11  Oct. ,,

Of  the  Nile  (ivhieh  see) 1  Aug. 1798

Off  the  coast  of  Ireland  ;  a  French  fleet  of  9  sail,
full  of  troops,  as  succours  to  the  Irish,  engaged
by  sir  John  Borlase  Warren,  and  5  taken,  12  Oct. ,,

The  Texel  fleet  of  12  ships  and  13  Indiamen  surren-
ders to  admiral  Mitchell ... 30  Aug.  1799

Capture  of  the  Cerbere  (which  see) . .  29  July,  1800

Copenhagen  bombarded  (see  Copenhagen),  2  April,  1801

Gibraltar  bay ;  engagement  between  the  French
and  British  fleets  ;  the  Hannibal,  of  74  guns,  lost,

6  July,  1801

Off  Cadiz ;  sir  James  Saumarez  obtains  a  victory
over  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  ;  1  ship  cap-
tured. Fought 12  July, ,.

Sir  Robert  Calder,  with  15  sail,  takes  2  ships  (both
Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of  the  French  and  Spanish
fleets,  off  Ferrol  (Calder  censured)  . 22  July,  1805

Victory  off  Trafalgar  (which  see) . . 21  Oct. „

Sir  R.  Strachan,  with  4  sail  of  British,  captures  4
French  ships,  off  Cape  Ortega! . . 4  Nov. „

In  the  West  Indies  ;  the  French  defeated  by  sir  T.
Duckworth  ;  3  sail  of  the  line  taken,  2  driven  on
shore 6  Feb. 1806

Sir  John  Borlase  Warren  captures  2  French  ships,

13  March, „

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage  of  the
Dardanelles  (see  article  Dardanelles) . 19  Feb.  1807

Copenhagen  fleet  captured . . . .8  Sept. ,,

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the  Tagus,  sur-
renders to  the  British  .... 3  Sept. 1808

Aix  or  Basque  Roads  ;  4  sail  of  the  line,  &c,  de-
stroyed by  lord  Gammer . . . n-12  April,  1809

Two  Russian  flotillas  of  numerous  vessels  taken  or
destroyed  by  sir  J.  Saumarez . . .  July, ,,

French  ships  of  the  line  driven  on  shore  by  lord
Collingwood  (two  of  them  burnt  by  the  French
next  day) 25  Oct. „

Bay  of  Rosas,  where  lieut.  Tailour,  by  direction  of
captain  Hallowell,  takes  or  destroys  11  war  and
other  vessels  (see  Rosas  Bay) ... 1  Nov. ,,

Basseterre  ;  La  Loire  and  La  Seine,  French  frigates,
destroyed  by  sir  A.  Cochrane . . .18  Dec. ,,

The  Spartan  frigate  gallantly  engages  a  large  French
force  in  the  bay  of  Naples ... 3  May,  18 10

Action  between  the  Tribune,  captain  Reynolds,  and
4  Danish  brigs. Fought  . . . .12  May, ,,

Isle  of  Rlie ;  17  vessels  taken  or  destroyed  by  the
Armide  and  Cadmus . . . -17  July, ,,

Captain  Barrett,  in  the  merchant  vessel  Cumber-
land, with  26  men,  defeats  four  privateers  and
takes  170  prisoners .... 16  Jan. 1811

Twenty-two  vessels  from  Otranto  taken  by  the
Cerberus  and  Active. ....  22  Feb. „

Off  Lissa  (which  see);  brilliant  victory  gained  over
a  Franco-Venetian  squadron  byeapt.  Win.  Hoste.

13  March, ,,

Amazon  French  frigate  destroyed  off  Cape  Barfleur

25  March, ,,

Sagone  Bay  ;  2  French  store-ships  burnt  by  captain
Barrie's  ships 1  May, ,,

The  British  sloop  Little  Belt,  and  American  ship
President:  their  rencontre . .  16  May, ,,

Off  Madagascar ; 3  British  frigates  under  captain


Schomberg,  engage  3  French  larger-sized,  with
troops  on  board,  and  capture  2 . .20  May,

The  Thames  and  Cephalus  capture  36  French  vessels

July,

The  Naiad  frigate  attacked  in  presence  of  Bonaparte
by  7  armed  praams  ;  they  were  gallantly  repulsed

21  Sept.

French  frigates  Pauline  and  Pomone  captured  by  the
British  frigates  Alceste,  Active,  and  Unite  29  Nov.

Rivoli,  84  guns,  taken  by  Victorious,  74, 21  Feb.

L'Orient :  2  French  frigates,  &c,  destroyed  by  the
Northumberland,  capt.  Hotham  . 22  May,

Guerriere,  British  frigate,  46  small  guns,  captured
by  the  American  ship  Constitution,  54  guns  (an
unequal  contest) 19  Aug.

British  brig  Frolic  captured  by  the  American  sloop
Wasp 18  Oct.

British  frigate  Macedonian  taken  by  the  American
ship  United  States,  large  class . . 25  Oct.

British  frigate  Java  taken  by  the  American  ship
Constitution,  large  class . . . .29  Dec.

British  frigate  Amelia  loses  46  men  killed  aud  95
wounded,  engaging  a  French  frigate . 7  Feb.

British  sloop  Peacock  captured  by  the  American
ship  Hornet ;  she  was  eo  disabled  that  she  sunk
with  part  of  her  crew  ... 25  Feb.

American  frigate  Chesapeake  taken  by  the  Shannon,
captain  Broke  (see  Chesapeake) . . 1  June,

American  ships  Growler  and  Eagle  taken  by  British
gun -boats 3  June,

American  sloop  Argus  taken  by  the  British  sloop
Pelican 14  Aug.

French  frigate  La  Trave,  44  guns,  taken  by  the
Andromache,  of  38  guns  . . . 23  Oct.

French  frigate  Ceres  taken  by  the  British  ship
Tagus 6  Jan.

French  frigates  Alcmene  and  Iphigenia  taken  by  the
VeneroMe 16  Jan.

French  frigate Terpsichore  taken  by  the  Majestic

3  Feb.

French  ship  Clorinde  taken  by  the  Dryad  and
Achates,  after  an  action  with  the  Eurotas,  25  Feb.

French  frigate  L'Etoile  captured  by  the  Hebrus,

27  March,

American  frigate  Essex  captured  by  the  Plimbe  and
Cherub 29  March,

British  sloop  Avon  sunk  by  the  American  sloop
Wasp 8  Sept.

Lake  Cham  plain  :  the  British  squadron  captured  by
the  American,  after  a  severe  conflict, n  Sept.

American  ship  President  cajitured  by  the  Endymion

15  Jan.

Algiers  bombarded  by  lord  Exmouth  ;  see  Algiers

27  Aug.

Navarino  (which  see) 20  Oct.

Action  between  the  British  ships  Volage  and
Hyacinth  and  29  Chinese  war-junks,  which  were
defeated 3  Nov.

Bombardment  and  fall  of  Acre.  The  British
squadron  under  admiral  Stopford  achieved  this
triumph  with  trifling  loss,  while  the  Egyptians
lost  2000  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000  prisoners
(see  Syria) 3  Nov.

Lagos  attacked  and  taken  by  commodore  Bruce,
with  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  Penelope,  Blood-
hound, Sampson,  and  Teazer,  war-steamers,  and
the  Philomel  brig  of  war . . 26-27  Dec.

[For  naval  actions  which  cannot  be  called  regular
battles,  see  China,  Japan,  and  Egypt,  1882.]


1816
1827

1839


1840-


1851


SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROY]:!) BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN:


Iii  the  French  War,  ending  1802.

In  the  French  V

far,  ending  18

[4.

Force.

■i

c

1

0

Q

■a

'3

ci
DO

1  ?,

Total

Spanish.
Danish.

Russian.

'C

Total.

45

25

II

2

83

7°

27 23

4

0

124

Fifties ....

2

1

O

0

3

7

0 1

0

1

9

Frigates

133

31

20

7

191

77

36 24

6

5

148

Total ....

161

32

55

16

264

188

64

16

7

13

2S8

341 1 89

86

25

541

342

127

64

'7

19

569

NAVAL COLLEGE.


NAVY.


NAVAL  COLLEGE,  Eoyal,  established
at  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  opened  I  Feb.  1873.

NAVAL  DEFENCE  ACTS,  see  Colonies,
1865  and  1887  and  Navy  of  England,  1889.

NAVAL  EXHIBITION,  Eoyal,  Chelsea
embankment,  was  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,
2  May  ;  visited  by  the  Queen,  7  May  ;  by  the  Ger-
man emperor,  10  July  ;  by  the  prince  of  Naples,  28
July;  closed  24  Oct.  1891.

Sir  William  Dowell  was  chairman  of  the  executive  com-
mittee.
The  exhibition  consisted  of  nine  galleries,  named  Nelson,
Benbow,  &c,  containing  relics,  pictures,  ordnance,
ancient  and  modern,  models  of  the  Victory,  light-
houses, &c.,  and  an  arctic  panorama.  There  was  also
a  lake  for  nautical  evolutions.
Total  number  of  persons  admitted  2,351,683  ;  receipts,
IS5.447?-  >  by  the  surplus  profit,  47,010^,  the  Royal
Naval  Fund  was  founded,  29  June,  1892.

NAVAL  KNIGHTS of Windsor, see

Poor  Knights.

NAVAL  EESEEVE,  EEVIEWS,
SALUTE,  AND  VOLCJNTEEES,  see  under
Nary.

Naval  volunteer  home  defence  association,  formed  in
1885  ;  decided  in  May,  1889,  to  break  up  in  June
following.

NAVAEINO  (S.  W.  Greece),  settled  by  the
Arabs  6th  century ;  taken  by  the  Turks,  1500 ;  by
Venetians,  1686;  by  Turks,  1718 ;  by  Greeks,  1821 ;
by  Turks,  1825.  Near  here,  on  20  Oct.  1827,  the
combined  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,
under  command  of  admiral  Codrington,  nearly
destroyed  the  Turkish  and  Egj'ptian  fleet.  More
than  thirty  ships,  many  of  them  four-deckers,  were
blown  up  or  burnt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks  themselves,
to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  their
enemies.  This  destruction  of  the  Turkish  naval
power  was  characterised  by  the  duke  of  "Wellington
as  an  "  untoward  event."  The  port  is  also  called
Navarine.

NAVAEEE,  now  a  province  of  Spain,  formed
a  part  of  the  Roman  dominions,  and  was  conquered
from  the  Saracens  by  Charlemagne,  778.  His
descendants  appointed  governors,  one  of  whom,
Garcias  Ximenes,  took  the  title  of  king  in  857.  In
1076,  king  Sancho  IV.  was  poisoned,  and  Sancho
Ramorez  of  Aragon  seized  Navarre.  In  1134,
Navarre  became  again  independent  under  Garcias
JEtamorez  IV.  In  1234,  Thibault,  count  of  Cham-
pagne, nephew  of  Sancho  VII.,  became  sovereign  of
Navarre ;  and  in  1284,  by  the  marriage  of  the
heiress  Jane  with  Philip  IV.  le  Bel,  Navarre  was
'united  to  France.

SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE.

1274.  Jane  I.  and  (1284)  Philip-le-Bel  of  France.

1305.  Louis  X.  Hutin  of  France.

1316.  Philip  V.  the  Long,  of  France.

1322.  Charles  I.  the  Fair,  IV.  of  France.

1328.  Jane  II. (daughter  of  Jane  I.),  and  her  husband

Philip  d'Evreux.
1349.  Charles  II. ,  the  Bad.
3387.  Charles  III.,  the  Noble.
1425.  Blanche,  his  daughter,  and  her  husband,  John  of

Aragon.
1441.  John  II.,  alone,  who  became  king  of  Aragon,  in

1458. He  endeavoured  to  obtaiu  the  crown  of

Castile  also.
J1479.  Eleanor  de  Foix,  his  daughter.

,, Francis  Phoebus  de  Foix,  her  son.
1483.  Catherine (his sister)  and her husband John

d'Albret. Ferdinand  of  Aragon  conquers  and

annexes  all  Navarre  south  of  the  Pyrenees,  1512


Lower  Navarre  (in  France).
1516.  Henry  d'Albret.
1555.  Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de

Bourbon,  who  died  1562.
1572.  Henry  III.  who  became  in  1589  king  of  France,  to

which  Lower  Navarre  was  formally  united  in

1609.

NAVIES,  see  Fleets.

NAVIGATION  began  with  the  Egyptians  and
Phoenicians.  The  first  laws  of  navigation  originated
with  the  Rhodians.  The  first  account  we  have  of
any  considerable  voyage  is  that  of  the  Phoenicians
sailing  round  Africa.

Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass  used  about  .  1420
Variation  of  the  compass  observed  by  Columbus  .  1492
That  the  oblique  rhomb  lines  are  spiral,  discovered

by  Nonius 1537

First  treatise  on  navigation 1545

The  log  first  mentioned  by  Bourne . . . -1577

Merca tor's  chart 1599

Davis's  quadrant,  orbackstaff,  for  measuring  angles,

about 1600

Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by

Gunter 1620

Middle  latitude  sailing  introduced  ....  1623
Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood . . . . 1631

Hedley's  quadrant 1731

Harrison's  time-keeper  used  ..... 1764

Nautical  Almanac  first  published  ....  1767
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the  compass  .  1820
Quarterly  Journal  of  Naval  Science,  edited  by  E.  J.

Reed,  published April,  1872-5

See  Compass,  Latitude,  Longitude,  Steam,  &c.

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  A  code  of  maritime
laws  is  attributed  to  Richard  I.  of  England,  said
to  have  been  decreed  at  the  isle  of  Oleron,
1194,  and  further  enactments  were  made  by
Richard  II.  in  1381. — In  Oct.  1651,  the  parliament
passed  an  act  entitled  "Goods  from  foreign  parts,
by  whom  to  be  imported,"  the  principles  of  which
were  affirmed  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  18,  "an  act  for
the  encouraging  and  increasing  of  shipping  and
navigation"  (1660).  The  latter  act  restricts  the
importation  and  exportation  of  goods  from  or  to
Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  to  English  ships,  of  which
the  masters  and  three-fourths  of  the  mariners  are
to  be  English.  '1  his  was  followed  by  many  acts
of  similar  tenor ;  which  were  consolidated  by  3  &  4
Will.  IV.  c.  54  (1833).  These  acts  were  in  the
whole  or  in  part  repealed  by  the  act  "  to  amend  the
laws  in  force  for  the  encouragement  of  British
shipping  and  navigation"  (passed  12  &  13  Vict.  c.
29,  26  June,  1849,  after  much  opposition),  and
which  came  into  operation  1  Jan.  1850.  The  steam
navigation  act  passed  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  79,  1851,
came  into  operation  I  Jan.  1852.  The  act  regulating
the  navigation  of  the  river  Thames  was  passed  in
1786.— In  Feb.  1865  the  emperor  recommended  the
modification  of  the  French  navigation  laws ;  in  Feb.
1872,  new  restrictions  were  laid  upon  foreign  ships,
chiefly  affecting  British.

NAVIGATOES  (or  Navvies).  These  helpers
in  the  construction  of  railways  probably  derived
their  name  (about  1830)  from  formerly  making  the
inland  navigation  in  Lincolnshire,  &c,  and  are
doubtfully  said  to  be  descendants  of  the  original
Dutch  canal  labourers.  Navvy  Mission  Society
(new)  met  at  Lambeth  palace,  7  May,  1880.  A
"steam  navvy"  suitable  for  working  in  sand,
gravel,  or  heavy  clay,  made  by  Messrs.  Ruston,
Proctor,  &  Co.,  of  Lincoln,  1878.

NAVY  OF  ENGLAND,  "  whereon,  under  the
good  providence  of  God,  the  wealth,  safety,  and
strength  of  the  kingdom  chiefly  depends,"  Act  for
the  government  of  the  Nary, bee  Naval  Battles.


NAVY.


669


NAVY


A  fleet  of  galleys  built  by  Alfred .... 897

The  number  of  galleys  greatly  increased  under
Edgar,  who  claimed  to  be  lord  of  the  ocean  sur-
rounding Britain about 965

A  formidable  fleet  equipped  by  the  contribution  of
every  town  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.
when  it  rendezvoused  at  Sandwich,  to  be  ready  to
oppose  the  Danes 1007

A  fleet  collected  by  Edward  the  Confessor  to  resist
the  Norwegians,  1042 ;  and  by  Harold  to  resist
the  Normans 1066

Richard  I.  collected  a  fleet  and  enacted  naval  laws
about 1191

[The  Cinque  ports  and  maritime  towns  frequently
furnished  fleets  commanded  by  the  king  or  his
officers.  ]

Edward  III. 's  fleet  defeat  the  French  at  the  battle
of  Sluys,  24  June, 1340; and  the  Spanish  off

"Winchelsea 29  Aug. 1350

■  Henry  V.  made  efforts  to  increase  the  navy . 1415-1422

Henry  VII.  built  the  Royal  Harry  ;  considered  to  be
the  beginning  of  the  Royal  Navy . . . . 1488

The  Trinity  house  established  and  the  Navy  office
appointed  (see  Admiralty  and  Trinity  house) . 1512

[The  navy  then  consisted  of  Great  Harry,  1200  tons,
two  ships,  of  800  tons,  and  six  or  seven  smaller.]

James  I.  and  Charles  I.  improve  the  navy.  The
Sovereign  of  the  Seas  launched 1637

Frigates  said  to  have  been  first  built . . . 1649

James  II.  systematises  sea-signals  and  improves  the
navy 1685-8


Years.

Ships.

Tons.

Men.

Navy  Estimates.

1546

58

12.455

8,546

no  account.

1558

27

7,110

3.565

no  account.

1578

24

10,506

6,700

no  account.

1603

42

i7.°55

8,346

no  account.

1658

157

57,000

21,910

no  account.

1688

173

101,892

42,000

no  account.

1702

272

159,020

40,000

1,056,915?.

1760

412

321,134

70,000

3,227,143

1793

498

433.226

45,000

5,525,331

1800

767

668, 744

135,000

12,422,837

1808

869

892,800

143,800

17,496,047

1814

901

966,000

146,000

18,786,509

Reign  of  George  III. ;  dimensions  of  ships  in-
creased ;  copper  sheathing  adopted  for  ships  of
every  class  ;  establishments  of  naval  stores  pro-
vided at  all  dockyards  and  naval  stations  ;  and
various  improvements  made  in  shipbuilding 1760-

GreatBritainhadgoi ships;  i77of theline,ini8i4;  621
ships,  some  of  140  guns  each,  and  down  to  survey-
ing vessels  of  two  guns  only ;  148  sail  employed
on  foreign  and  home  service

The  screw  propeller  introduced  in  the  Royal  Navy,

The  total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  commission,
183 1  Jan.

The  Navy  consisted  of  339  sailing  and  161  steam
vessels

Naval  Coast  Volunteers'  act  passed . . Aug.

Of  315  sailing  vessels,  97  screw  steamers,  and  114
paddle  steamers April,

Review  of  the  Baltic  fleet  at  Spithead  by  the  Queen,
10  March,  1854,  and  23  April,

Of  271  sailing  vessels,  carrying  9594  guns,  and  258
steam  vessels,  carrying  6582  guns  ;  together  573
vessels,  carrying  16,176  guns  ;  also  155  gun-
boats, and  in  vessels  on  harbour  service,  July,

Proclamation  for  manning  the  navy  . .  30  April,

Naval  Reserve  Force  authorised . . . Aug.

Flogging  not  to  be  inflicted  on  first-class  seamen
except  after  a  trial Dec.

Great  excitement  respecting  the  French  Govern-
ment building  the  plated  frigate  Gloire  (see
Navy  of  France)

The  Warrior,  our  first  iron-plated  steam  frigate,
the  largestvesseltheninthe  world  except  the  Great
Eastern  (see  Steam),  length,  380  ft.  breadth,  58  ft.  ;
iron-plate,  4^  inches  thick;  6170  tons  burthen;
cost  about  400,000?.  ;  launched  [censured  in  1864],

29  Dec.

A  royal  commission  recommends  the  abolition  of
the  board  of  admiralty,  and  the  appointment  of  a
minister  of  the  navy  department . . March,


1830


1850
1853

1854

1856


1859


Lord  Clarence  Paget,  secretary  of  admiralty,  states
that  England  has  67  steam  ships  of  the  line  ;
while  France  has  37,  Russia  9,  Spain  3,  and  Italy  1

11  April,

New  act  for  the  government  of  the  navy  (the  Naval
Discipline  act)  passes  ....  6  Aug.

Four  iron-plated  vessels  (400  ft.  long  ;  59J  ft.  wide  ;
and  cost  about  600,000/.  each)  building  . Dec.

Cupola  or  Turret  ships.  Capt.  Cowper  Coles'  mode
of  constructing  iron-plated  vessels,  with  a  cupola
or  turret  for  firing  from,  the  other  parts  of  the
vessel  being  nearly  submerged,  made  known  in,
1855,  and  recommended  to  the  admiralty  in  1861  ;
adopted  by  Ericson  in  the  Monitor,  1862  ;  pro-
posed to  be  adopted  by  the  British  government,

Six  different  kinds  of  plated  vessels  said  to  be  con-
structing ;  E.  J.  Reed  authorised  to  build  the
Enterprise  as  a  specimen  of  an  iron-plated  sea-
going vessel April,

Royal  Oak,  iron-clad  steamer,  launched  at  Chatham,

10  Sept.

Twin  or  double  screws  for  vessels  of  light  draught
introduced

Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  appointed  chief  constructor  of  the
Royal  Navy Jan.

Navy  consists  of  1014  vessels  of  all  classes  ;  85  line-
of-battle  ships  ;  69  frigates  ;  30  screw  corvettes,

Jan.

Steam  ram  Valiant  launched . . .14  Oct.

Minotaur  iron-steamer  launched . . 12  Dec.

Royal  School  of  Naval  Architecture,  South  Kensing-
ton, established

The  turret-ship  Sovereign,  constructed  on  Coles'
principle,  put  out  of  commission,  and  placed
among  reserved  ships  ;  this  blamed  by  some,  Oct.

Naval  models  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  col-
lected early  in  the  present  century  by  sir  Robert
Sejipings,  removed  to  South  Kensington  Museum,

Dec.

29  iron-clad  vessels  building  "  to  be  ready  for  sea
this  year " March,

Bellerophon,  iron-clad,  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  ;  and  the
Lord  Warden,  iron-clad,  launched . .  May,

A  British  fleet  entertained  at  Cherbourg,  Brest,  &c. ,
15  Aug.,  &c.  ;  and  a  French  fleet  at  Portsmouth,

29-31  Aug.

Royal  Navy  "  consists  of  735  vessels  and  steam-
ships of  all  classes  "  (30  iron-clads  ready  for  sea),
(see  under  Cannon)  .... July,

New  Naval  Discipline  act,  passed . . .  Aug.

Difficult  launch  of  the  Northumberland  iron-clad,
17  March,  et  seq.  ;  effected . . .17  April,

Experimental  cruise  of  the  iron-clad  fleet  in  stormy
weather  ;  general  performance  satisfactory  (Times)

Sept.  -Nov.

Acts  for  protection  of  naval  stores  passed,  1867  and

150  wooden  ships  of  all  classes  sold .

[Of  these  were  7  line-of  battle  ships  and  6  frigates,
cost  above  1,000,000?.,  sold  for  87,543?.]

Hercules,  12,  armour-plated  ship,  1200  horse-power,
floated  at  Chatham 10  Feb.

The  Monarch,  our  first  armour-clad  turret  ship,
launched  at  Chatham .... 25  May,

47  armoured  vessels  afloat,  with  598  guns ;  66
efficient  unarmoured  vessels  ;  and  a  large  number
of  vessels  of  the  old  type,  constitute  the  navy,

April,

Satisfactory  trial  trip  of  the  Navy  Reserve  squadron ,

July,

Explosion  of  the  boiler  of  the  Thistle  gun-boat,  011
trial  trip  ;  10  killed 3  Nov.

Devastation,  iron  turret  ship,  first  rivet  of  her  keel
clinched  by  Mr.  Childers,  the  first  lord,  at  Ports-
mouth  12  Nov.

Resignation  of  Mr. E. J.  Reed,  chief  constructor,

July.

Ad  in.  sir  T.  M.  C.  Symonds  reports  on  the  Monarch
and  Captain  turret  ships  (the  latter  said  to  be  over-
masted and  unfit  to  cruise  under  sail  alone) Aug.

H.M.S.  iron-clad  frigate  Triumph  launched  at
Jarrow 27  Sept

The  Captain  founders  near  Finisterre  about
12. 15  a.m 7  Sept.

472  lives  were  lost,  including  the  captain.  Ilugli
Burgoyne,  Captain  Cowper  rules,  (lie  designer  of
the  ship,  Mr.  Childers  (a  son  of  the  first  lord),
and  other  officers,  the  (■lite  of  the  service  ;  iS  men
of  the crew  were saved. "  She capsized in a


1865


859-67


1S70


NAVY.


670


NAVY.


heavy  squall  shortly  after  midnight,  and  went
•down  in  three  minutes." — Gunner's  report.  Her
destruction  was  attributed  to  too  low  free-board,
heavy  top- weight,  masts,  and  hurricane  deck.
She  cost  440,000?.  She  was  built  by  Messrs.
Laird  at  Birkenhead.
A  court-martial  for  the  nominal  trial  of  James  May,
the  gunner,  and  17  other  survivors,  was  held  27
Sept.  to  4  Oct.  ;  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  and  other  emi-
nent authorities  were  examined  ;  the  verdict  was,
that  the  loss  of  the  ship  was  due  to  instability
from  faulty  construction :  "  a  grave  departure
from  her  original  design  having  been  committed  "

8  Oct. 1870
Iteport  on  the  Monarch  that  her  reserve  of  energy

to  prevent  upsetting  by  a  squall,  is  16  to  1  of
that  of  the  Captain. — Times . . .  10  Nov. ,,

Navy. — 55  armoured  vessels  afloat ;  9  constructing  ;
effective  force  afloat,  354  vessels  ;  and  a  large
number  of  others 1871

Megcera  troopship  lost  near  Amsterdam  island  (see
Wrecks) 16  June, ,,

The  Aginoourt,  capt.  Hamilton  Beamish,  6621  tons,
struck  on  the  Pearl  Rock  near  Gibraltar,  1 1  a.,  m.
11  July  ;  got  off  by  great  skill  and  management
by  the  Hercules,  capt.  lord  Guildford . 4  July, ,,

I  After  trial,  admirals  Wellesley  and  Wilmot  ordered
to  strike  flags  ;  capts.  Beamish  and  Well  super-
seded ;  others  censured ;  lord  Guildford  com-
mended, Aug.  1S71.]

Turret  vessels  of  the  Monitor  type  designed  by  E.
J.  Reed,  launched  :  the  Glatton,  6  March  ;  Devas-
tation, 12  July ;  Cyclops ... 18  July, ,,

ZN"ew  rules  respecting  promotions,  &c,  published

9  Feb.  1872
The  Thunderer,  ocean-going  turret  ship,  launched

at  Pembroke ..... 25  March, „

Lord  Clyde,  iron-clad,  stranded  off  Pantellaria,  15
March ;  capt.  Bythesea  and  staff-commander
"May  dismissed  the  service  . . . . May, ,,

A  trial-trip  of  the  Devastation  reported  successful,

iS  April,  1873

Navy. — 23  great  iron-clads  ;  27  smaller . Aug. ,,

*'  We  now  carry  35-ton  guns  on  board  ships  in  tur-
rets protected  by  14-inch  plates"  (Times)  28  Aug. „

Hoyal  Naval  Artillery  Volunteer  force  established
by  act  passed 5  Aug , ,

H.M.S.  Alexandra  launched  at  Chatham  . 7  April,  1875

H.M.S.  Vanguard,  double-screw  iron  clad  (cost
350,000!.),  sunk  by  collision  with  the  Iron  Duke
•during  a  fog  off  the  Wicklow  coast ;  crew  (about
400)  saved  ;  50  m.  past  noon . . .1  Sept. , ,

Court-Martial  on  capt.  Dawkins  ;  assigned  as  causes :
1.  That  the  squadron  (under  admiral  Tarleton),  of
which  the  Vanguard  was  one,  was  going  at  too
great  a  speed  for  a  fog ;  2.  That  captain  Dawkins
liad  left  the  deck  before  an  ordered  evolution  was
performed ;  3.  That  the  speed  of  the  Vanguard
had  been  injudiciously  reduced ;  4,  5,  6.  The  in-
creased speed  of  the  Iron  Duke,  her  improper
siavigation,  and  want  of  signals  ;  captain  Dawkins
reprimanded  and  dismissed  ;  others  reprimanded,

29  Sept. ,,

The  Admiralty  Minute  considered  the  speed  of  the
squadron  no  cause  of  the  accident ;  censured  part
of  admiral  Tarleton's  evidence  on  responsibility
of  officers  ;  and  removed  lieutenant  Evans  of  the
Iron  Duke  from  his  command . . . 12  Oct. „

Iron  Duke  nearly  lost  through  a  valve  left  open,

28  Nov. „

The  Monarch,  iron-clad,  injured  by  collision  with
Norwegian  ship  Halden  in  the  Channel 28  Nov. ,,

The  Inflexible,  with  18-inch  armour  and  four  81-ton
guns,  moveable  by  hydraulic  power,  launched  by
princess  Louise  at  Portsmouth . .  27  April,  1876

The  Temiraire,  smaller  iron-clad,  launched  at  Chat-
ham 9  May» »

The  Thunderer  (see  1872  above) :  explosion  of  a
boiler  through  sticking  of  safety  valves  ;  45  deaths
ensued  ;  about  50  injured  ;  during  a  trial  trip  in
Stoke's  Bay,  near  Portsmouth  ;  14  July ;  inquest
begun  27  July  ;  (about  5,000?.  subscribed  for  the
sufferers,) ;  verdict,  accidental  deaths .  30  Aug. ,,

.BaccTwnife,  unarm oured  war-ship,  launched,  19  Oct. „

Launched  at  Glasgow,  Nelson,  iron-clad . 4  Nov. ,,
,,  ,,  Northampton . 18  Nov. ,,

Euryalus,  unarmoured  corvette,  launched  at  Chat-
ham .31  Jan t877


Commission of inquiry  respecting  the  Inflexible,

appointed  about .... 14  July,  1877
4  new  ironclads  bought ....  March,  1878
Dreadnought,  iron-clad  ; 10,886  tons  ;  engines,  8000
horse-power  ;  four  38-ton  guns,  &c.  ;  most  power-
ful fighting  ship  in  the  world  ;  constructed  . ,,
Eurydice,  H.M.S.  frigate  ;  training  ship,  foundered
in  a  gale  off  Dunose,  Isle  of  Wight ;  about  300
perished  with  capt.  Hare,  24  March  ;  with  much
skill  and  labour  raised  and  taken  to  Portsmouth
1  Sept.,  ordered  to  be  broken  up . . Sept. ,,
The  Thunderer  (see  1876),  a  38-ton  gun  explodes
while  practising, near Ismid, in the Sea of
Marmora,  Turkey  ;  2  officers  and  8  men  killed,
and  between  30  and  40  wounded  . . 2  Jan.  1879
On  investigation  the  cause  assigned  was  that  the
gun  was  charged  and  missed  fire  ;  re-charged  and
both  charges  were  fired,  when  it  exploded Feb. „
Agamemnon,  iron-clad  turret  ship  ;  8492  tons  ;  en-
gines, 6000 horse-power; four 38-ton guns  ;
launched  at  Chatham ... 17  Sept. ,,
Collision  of  the  Achilles  and  Alexandra,  off  Larnaca,
Mediterranean  ;  boats  injured,  &c. . 2  Oct. „

Sham  naval  attack  on  Portsmouth  ;  defended  by
torpedoes,  &c 16  Oct. „

Thunderer  gun  experiments  at  Woolwich  (confirm
decision  of  investigation  committee  of  Feb.  1879),

9  Dee.  1879—3  FeD-  l88°

Atalanta  training  ship  lost  in  gale  (see  Atalanta),

12—16  Feb. ,,

Great  naval  demonstration  at  Portsmouth  ;  attack
on  forts  ;  electric  light  used  at  night . 10  Aug. ,,

Doterel,  6  guns  ;  capt.  Richard  Evans  ;  destroyed
by  explosion  (attributed  to  formation  of  coal  gas,
3  Sept.)  in  Straits  of  Magellan  ;  out  of  150  about
143  persons  perished  26  April,  1881

Polyphemus,  huge  double-screw  steam  armour-
plated  ram  and  torpedo  boat ;  launched  at  Chatham
(designed  by  sir  G.  Sartorius) . . 15  June, „

Launch  of  Canada  corvette  at  Portsmouth,  26  Aug. ;
of  Conqueror,  steel-clad  turret  ship,  at  Chatham

8  Sept. ,,

Triumph,  explosion  of  xerotine  siccative  (a  patent
drier  for  paint)  near  Coquimbo,  coast  of  Chili,
23  Nov.  ;  3  men  killed,  7  wounded  . . Jan.  1882

Ajax,  new  armoured  turret-ship,  moved  from  Chat-
ham 20  Feb. ,,

Two  very  large  armour-plated  war-ships  launched  ;
Edinburgh,  at  Pembroke,  18  March  ;  Colossus,  at
Portsmouth 21  March, ,,

The  Phoenix  lost  off  Prince  Edward's  island,  12  Sept. ;
commander  Greenfell  dismissed . . 1  Dec. „

The  Collingwood,  of  "British  Admiral  class,"
launched  at  Pembroke ... 22  Nov. ,,

Naval  Intelligence  Committee  formed . .  Dec. ,,

The  duke  of  Edinburgh  appointed  to  command  the
Channel  fleet .... about  26  Nov.  1883

Collision  of  the  Defence  and  Valiant  in  Bantry  Bay,
18  July;  capt.  Edwin  John  Pollard,  of  the  De-
fence, tried  and  dismissed  from  his  ship  for
inefficiency 30  July,  1884

Wasp,  gun  boat  (comm.  Nicholls),  wrecked  off  Tory
island  (attributed  to  bad  navigation) ;  about  52
perish 22  Sept. ,,

Rodney,  great  iron-clad,  launched  by  the  duchess  of
Edinburgh,  at  Chatham .... 8  Oct. ,,

Navy  Discipline  act  amended „

Great  Britain  has  46  iron-clads . . . Dec. ,,

Large  and  important  additions  to  the  navy  autho-
rised Feb.  1885

Launch  of  Mersey, '  'protected  corvette, "  at  Chatham,

31  March, ,,

Benbow,  ironclad  battleship,  launched  at  Blackwall,

15  June, „

Sham  battle  near  Bantry  Bay,  30  June  ;  attempted
attack  on  Greenock . . . . 14  July, ,,

Icarus,  warship,  launched  at  Devonport 27  July, „

Severn,  fast  sailing  steel  corvette  launched  at
Chatham 29  Sept. ,,

Hero,  steel  built,  armour-plated,  turreted  ram,
launched  at  Chatham  .... 27  Oct. „

Swallow,  largest  gun  vessel  launched  at  Sheerness, ,,

27  Oct. ,,

Camperdown,  great  ironclad  war  ship  launched  at
Portsmouth  ...  . .24  Nov. „

The  duke  of  Edinburgh  takes  command  of  the
Mediterranean  fleet .... 22  Feb.  1886


NAVY.

Anson,  twin-screw  armour-plated  barbette  ship,
launched  at  Pembroke  dockyard . 17  Feb.  1

H.M.S.  Collingwood,  at  Portsmouth,  43  ton  gun
burst ;  no  casualty,  4  May  ;  stated  to  be  due  to
defective  metal 6  Sept.

Sham  naval  fights  at  Milford  Haven  16  Aug.  et  seq.

H.M.S.  Orlando,  first  of  the  new  class  of  belted
cruisers,  launched  at  Jarrow  on  Tyne . 23  Aug.

The  Undaunted,  another  belted  cruiser,  launched
at  Jarrow  on  Tyne .... 25  Nov.

Narcissus,  new  belted  cruiser,  launched at  Hull,

15  Dec.

The  naval  intelligence  department  formed  as  a
committee, 10  April, 1884 ; as a department,

1  Feb.  1

Report  of  commission  on  admiralty  contracts
censures  system  and  recommends  changes,  about

10  March,

Serpent,  large  torpedo  cruiser  launched  at  Devon-
port  10  March,

Victoria  (first  called  Renown),  armour  clad  war-
ship, launched at Elswick yard, Newcastle,

9  April,
Sans  Pareil,  ironclad  war-ship,  launched  at  Black-
wall 9  May,

Serious  collision  between  Ajax  and  Devastation  on
their  way  to  Spithead ... 18  July,

Grand  jubilee  naval  review  by  the  queen  at  Spit-
head  ;  135  vessels,  20, 200  men  and  about  500  guns,

23  July,

Naval  manceuvres  and  torpedo  experiments  on  the
coast Aug.

Trafalgar,  great  steel  twin-screw  turret  ram ;  11,940
tons,  345  feet  long,  73  feet  broad,  launched  at
Portsmouth 20  Sept.

Nile,  ironclad,  heaviest  yet  launched  in  England  ;
12,000  tons,  345  feet  long,  73  feet  broad  ;  launched
at  Pembroke  dock .... 27  March,

H.M.S.  Magicienne,  twin-screw  swift  cruiser,
launched  at  Go  van . . . . 12  May,

H.M.S.  Medea,  twin-screw,  second  class  cruiser,
launched  at  Chatham  .... 9  June,

H.M.S.  Marathon,  cruiser,  launched  by  princess
Beatrice  in  the  Clyde  .... 23  Aug.

Naval  manoeuvres,  sham  capture  of  Liverpool  and
other  ports Aug.

Lord  George  Hamilton,  first  lord,  at  Glasgow,  gives
a  favourable  account  of  the  state  of  the  navy

10  Oct.
Navy  afloat:  62 armoured  vessels; 29  protected

and  partially  protected  ;  282  unprotected  ;  total,
373  ships;  tonnage, 679,144;  cost, 35,635,719/.

1  Jan.
Lord  George  Hamilton  proposes  resolutions  for  the
construction  and  equipment  of  70  ships,  includ-
ing 10  battle  ships,  (8  first  and  2  second  class)
anil  42  cruisers,  18  torpedo  boats  &c,  to  be  com-
pleted in  4^  years,  cost  21,500,000?.  (10,000,000?.
from  the  consolidated  fund  in  seven  years;
11,500,000?. from five years'  navy estimates),

7  March,
The  Northbrook  programme  of  1885  reported  nearly

complete 7  March,

Lord  George  Hamilton's  resolutions  adopted  by

the  commons 2-4  April,

Sir  A.  Hoskins  succeeds  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  in
command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  6  April,

The  Sultan,  ironclad,  run  ashore  on  a  rock  at
Comino  channel,  Maltese  group,  6  March  ;
abandoned ;  the  crew  saved  ;  after  strenuous
attempts  to  save  her,  the  vessel  sank,  14  March  ;
trial ;  captain  Rice  reprimanded  for  sailing  too

close  to  shore 8  April,

[The  admiralty  appointed  a  court  to  enquire  into
all the  circumstances,  29,  30  May,  when  the
duke  of Edinburgh, who had directed the
salvage  operations,  was  examined  ;  the  court
reported  its  approbation  of  the  steps  taken  for
the  recovery  of  the  vessel] . . 15  June,
The  Sultan  was raised 20  Aug.,  sailed  to Malta
26  Aug.  ;  at  Spithead . . . .23  Dec.
II.. M.S. Vulcan,  swift  cruiser,  launched  at  Ports-
mouth 13  June,

Naval  defence  act  passed,  royal  assent 31  May,
Tlir  fleet  assembled  for  the  autumn  manoeuvres  in-
spected  by  the emperor  William II. (and his
brother  prince  Henry),  the  prince  of  Wales,  and
members  of  both  houses  of  parliament. The  dis-


671


NAVY.


play  consisted  of  20  battle  ships  (9  first  class,  9
second  class  and  2  third  class),  38  first  class
torpedo  boats  and  other  vessels,  in  all  106  vessels
(the  queen  inspected  the  fleet  later  in  the  day),

5  Aug.  18S
The  naval  manoeuvres  begin  ;  sham  declaration  of
war,  15  Aug.  ;  English  fleet  commanded  by  adm.
Tryon,  Achill  or  foreign  fleet  by  adm.  Baird  ;
enemies'  country,  Ireland ;  Dublin,  Belfast,
Waterford  captured  by  Tryon  ;  Edinburgh  cap-
tured, Aberdeen,  Sunderland  and  other  towns
bombarded  by  Baird,  invasion  repelled

22-29  Aug. ,,
Barham,  steel-plated cruiser,  launched  at  Ports-
mouth n  Sept. ,,

Lilly  gunboat  struck  on  a  rock,  off  Point  Armour,
Labrador  coast,  and  sank,  7  lives  lost ;  heroic
conduct  of  the  crew,  i6Sept. ;  commander  Russell
and  lieut.  Sharp  censured  and  dismissed  4  Oct.  ,,
Blake,  protected  cruiser,  the  largest  yet  constructed,
length  375  ft.,  breadth  65  ft.,  launched  at  Chat-
ham 23  Nov. ,,

Gossamer  and Gleaner, gun  vessels, launched  at

Sheerness 9  Jan.  189

Barracouta,  cruiser  (launched  April,  1889),  trial
trip  off  Margate  ;  explosion ;  Henry  Ovendina  and
James  Gould  killed,  8  severely  injured,  7  Feb.  ;
inquest,  10  Feb.  ;  verdict,  accidental  death  ;
engineer  censured  . . . .10  April, ,,

Latona,  war  cruiser,  launched  at  Barrow 22  May, ,,
Pallas,  second  class  cruiser,  the  first  of  a  set  con-
structed under  the  Naval  Defence  act,  launched

at  Portsmouth 30  June, ,,

Blenheim,  large cruiser,  launched at Blackwall

5  July,  >>
Naval  manceuvres ;  defensive  fleet  under  adm.
sir  George  Tryon  ;  enemy's  fleet  under  adm.  sir
Michael  Culme-Seymour  ;  kept  the  seas  but  could
not  be  met  with  ;  there  was  much  practice  and
many  evolutions  but  no  conflict  .  9-18  Aug.  ,,
Launch  of  Melampus,  steel  protected  cruiser,  at

Barrow 2  Aug. ,,

Andromache,  cruiser,  launched  at  Chatham,  14  Aug.  ,,
Serpent,  torpedo-cruiser,  started  from  Plymouth
8  Nov.  ;  during  a  gale  struck  on  a  rock  at  Penta
del  Buey  on  the  coast  of  Camariiias,  5  miles  N.  of
cape  Villano.  Commander  Harry  L.  Ross,  lieuts.
Guy  A.  J.  Greville  and  Torquil  Macleod,  Mr.
James  W.  Dixon,  paymaster,  and  169  others  were
drowned ;  three  seamen,  Edwin  Burton,  Frederick
Joseph  Gould  and  Oney  Luxton  were  the  only
survivors  ....  10-30  p.m.  10  Nov.  „
The  bodies  were  honourably  buried  as  they  were
washed  ashore. Court  martial  verdict,  error  in

navigation 16,  17  Dec. ,,

A  national  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  families  suffer-
ing by  the  wreck,  was  started  at  Devonport  by
the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  18  Nov.  ;  the  duke  gave
100?.,  the  duchess  50?.,  the  queen  50?.,  the  prince
of  Wales  25?.,  see  Mansion  House  Fund  and
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Families  Association.
Total  sum  collected  13,580?.,  reported  .  15  Nov.  189:
Edgar,  first  class  cruiser,  launched  at  Devonport

24  Nov.  189c
Pique,  second  class  twin-screw  cruiser ;  launched  at

Howdon-on-Tyne .... 13  Dec. ,,
Earnest appeal on  behalf  of the rank  and file
(warrant  officers,  &c),  for  a  system  of  promofion  ;

circulated about  17  Jan. 1S9:

The  queen,  in  the  presence  of  her  three  sons  and  a
large  company  at  Portsmouth,  names  and
launches  the  Boyal  Arthur,  first  class  protected
cruiser  ;  and  also  names,  and  causes  the  floating
out  of  dock  of  the  Royal  Sovereign,  the  largest
battleship  in  the  Royal  Navy  (length  380  feet
bread tli  75  feet);  all  very  successful  .  26  Feb.  ,
The  Empress  of  India,  great  ironclad,  14,150  tons,
380  feet  long,  75  feet  broad,  with  7  Whitehead
torpedoes,  launched  at  Pembroke  docks  by  the
duchess  of  Connaught .  .  .  .  7  May,  ,,
Cordelia,  cruiser  ;  2  lieuts.  and  4  men  killed  by  the
explosion  of  a  gun  while  practising  in  the  Pacific

ocean 29  June, ,

Naval  manoeuvres  under  admirals  Seymour  and
Jones,  tactical  operations  of  all  kinds

1^  July-3  Aug.
Endymion, armoured  cruiser, launched  at  Hull,


NAVY.


672


NEBULAE HYPOTHESIS.


and named by  the  marchioness  of  Salisbury,

22  July,  1 89 1

Hood,  great  turret  ship,  length  380  ft.,  breadth
75  ft.,  launched  at  Chatham,  and  named  by  Lady
Hood 30  July, ,,

Victoria,  flagship,  runs  aground  near  Platea,
W.  Greece,  29  Jan.  ;  refloated,  little  injured,
5  Feb.  et  seq.  ;  arrived  at  Malta  for  repairs,
12  Feb. ;  capt.  Bourke  reprimanded  for  negligence
by  a  court  martial .... 25  Feb.  1892

Grafton,  swift  cruiser,  launched  at  the  Thames
Ironworks  Dockyard .... 30  Jan. ,,

Repulse,  great  turret  ship,  length  380  ft.  ;  breadth
75  feet ;  launched  at  Pembroke,  27  Feb.  ;  the
Ramilies,  a  similar  vessel,  was  launched  on  the
Clyde 1  March, ,,

Gibraltar,  first  class  protected  cruiser,  launched  at
Govan,  near  Glasgow ... 27  April, „

Jason,  torpedo  gunboat,  launched  at  Barrow-in-
Furness  14  May, ,,

Resolution,  first  class  battleship,  launched  at
Jarrow-on-Tyne 28  May, „

Annual  Expenditure  of  the  British  Navy. — 1850,
6,942,3976  ;— 1854,  6,640,5966  1  —  1855  (to  31  March,
Russian  war),  14,490,1056  ; — 1856,  19,654,5856  ; — 1859,
9,215,487?.  ; — 1861, 13,331,668/.  ; — 1862, 12,598,042/.  ;

—  1863,  11,370,5886  ;  —  1864,  10,821,5966  ;  —  1865,
10,898,2536  ; — 1866,  10,259,7886  ; — 1867,  10,676,1016  ; —
1868, 11,168,9496  ; — 1869,  11,366,5456  ; — 1870,  9,757,2906  ;
— 1871,  9,456,6416  ;— 1872, 9,900,4866  ;— 1873, 9,543,0006  ;

—  1874,  10,279,9006  ;  —  1875,  10,680,4046  ;  —  1876,
10,285,1946  ; — 1877,  11,288,8726  ; — 1878,  11,053,9016  ; —
1879,  10,586,8946  ;  —  1880,  10,492,9356  ;  —  1881,
10,725,9196; — 1882,  10,483,9016; — 1883,  10,899,5006; —
1884-5,  11,645,711/-  ;  1885-6,  .  12,694,9006  ;  1886-7,
12,993,1006  ;  1887-8,  12,476,8006  ;  1888-9,  13,082,8006  ;
1889-90,  13,685,4006  ;  1890-1,  14,557,8566  ;  1891-2,
14,215,1006  ;  1892-3,  14,240,2006

Naval  Salute  to  the  British  Flag  began  in  Alfred's
reign,  and  though  sometimes  disputed,  may  be  said  to
have  been  continued  ever  since.  The  Dutch  agreed  to
strike  to  the  English  colours  in  the  British  seas,  in
1673.  The  honour  of  the  flag  salute  at  sea  was  also
formally  assented  to  by  France  in  1704,  although  it
had  been  long  previously  exacted  by  England  ;  see
Flag  and  Salutes  at  Sea.

Naval  Uniforms.  The  first  notice  of  the  establishment
of  a  uniform  in  the  British  naval  service,  which  we
have  met  with,  occurs  in  the  Jacobite's  Journal  of  5
March,  1748,  under  the  head  of  "  Domestic  News,"  in
these  terms  : — ' '  An  order  is  said  to  be  issued,  re-
quiring all  his  majesty's  sea-officers,  from  the  admiral
down  to  the  midshipman,  to  wear  a  uniformity  of
clothing,  for  which  purpose  pattern  coats  for  dress
suits  and  frocks  for  each  rank  of  officers  are  lodged  at
the  Navy-office,  and  at  the  several  dockyards  for  their
inspection."  This  is  corroborated  by  the  Gazette  of  13
July,  1757,  when  the  first  alteration  in  the  uniform
took  place,  and  in  which  a  reference  is  made  to  the
order  of  1748,  alluded  to  in  the  journal  above  men-
tioned, and  which  in  fact  is  the  year  when  a  naval  uni-
form was  first  established.  James  I.  had  indeed
granted,  by  warrant  of  6  April,  1609,  to  six  of  his
principal  masters  of  the  navy,  "liverie  coats  of  fine
red  cloth. "  The  warrant  is  stated  to  have  been  drawn
verbatim  from  one  signed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  but
which  had  not  been  acted  upon  by  reason  of  her  death.
This  curious  document  is  in  the  British  Museum  ;  but
king  James's  limited  red  livery  is  supposed  to  have
been  soon  discontinued. — Quarterly  Review.

Navy  Pay  Office,  organised  in  1644,  was  abolished  in
1836,  when  the  army  and  navy  pay  departments  were
consolidated  in  the  Paymaster  General's  office.

Navy  List  was  first  officially  compiled  by  John  Finlai-
son,  the  celebrated  actuary,  and  published  monthly  in
1814  ;  now  quarterly.

Naval  Reviews.  The  queen  reviewed  the  fleet  at  Spit-
head,  near  Portsmouth,  n  Aug.  1853;  again,  March, 1854,
before  it  sailed  to  the  Baltic,  at  the  commencement  of
the  Russian  war  ;  and  again,  at  Portsmouth,  on  the
conclusion  of  peace,  in  the  presence  of  the  parliament,
&c.  The  fleet  extended  in  an  unbroken  line  of  5  miles,
and  consisted  of  upwards  of  300  men-of-war,  carry-
ing 3800  guns,  and  manned  by  40,000  seamen.  There
were  about  100,000  spectators,  23  April,  1856.

A  grand  naval  review  (15  great  wooden  ships,  15  iron-
plated,  16  gun- vessels  and  boats),  was  held  at  Spithead
(the  queen,  the  sultan,  and  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  pre-


sent), 17  July,  1867  ;  another  at  Spithead  before  the
shah  of  Persia,  23  June,  1873  :  another  at  Spithead
by  the  queen,  (10  broadside  ships,  8  turret  ships,  &c.,)
3  Aug.  1878  ;  another  at  Portsmouth,  the  queen  and
colonial  visitors  present  (at  the  expense  of  the  officers),
23  July,  1886.

Grand  unexampled  naval  review  (jubilee)  by  the  queen
at  Spithead,  23  July,  1887  ;  135  vessels  of  all  kinds,
including  26  ironclads,  20,200  officers  and  men  ;  one
man  died  through  the  bursting  of  a  saluting  gun.

Naval  Volunteers  (or  Reserve).  By  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  73
(1853),  the  admiralty  were  empowered  to  raise  a  body
of  sea-faring  men  to  be  called  the  "  Naval  Coast  Volun-
teers," no  to  exceed  10,000,  for  the  defence  of  the
coast,  and  for  actual  service  if  required.  In  1859,
acts  were  passed  to  enable  the  admiralty  to  raise
a  number  of  men,  not  exceeding  30,000,  as  a  re-
serve force  of  seamen,  to  be  called  the  "  Royal  Naval
Volunteers."  In  November  following,  the  admiralty
issued  a  statement  of  the  "qualifications,  advantages,
and  obligations  "  of  this  reserve.  The  enrolment  com-
menced on  1  Jan.  i860.  The  engagement  is  for  five
years,  and  the  volunteers  are  entitled  to  a  pension
when  incapacitated  after  the  expiration  of  the  term.
At  the  prospect  of  war  with  the  United  States  in  Dec.
1861,  a  great  number  of  seamen  at  Hartlepool,  Dundee.
London,  Aberdeen,  &c. ,  offered  their  services.

First  enrolled  body  of  Royal  Naval  Volunteers  inspected,
about  18  Jan.  1873.

NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in
history,  728,  when,  like  that  of  England  at  an  early
period,  it  consisted  of  galleys ;  in  this  year  the
French  defeated  the  Frisian  fleet.  The  French
fleet  was  almost  annihilated  by  Edward  III.  at  the
battle  of  Sluys,  24  June,  1340.  It  was  considerably,
improved  under  Louis  XIV.  at  the  instance  of  his
minister  Colbert,  about  1697.  The  French  navy  was
in  its  splendour  about  1781  ;  became  greatly  reduo-.'d
in  the  wars  with  England ;  see  Naval  Battles.  Ifc
was  greatly  increased  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.,
and  in  1859  consisted  of  51  ships  of  the  line  (14
sailing  vessels  and  37  steamers),  and  39S  other
vessels,  in  all  449;  including  vessels  building,  con-
verting, or  ordered  to  be  built.  The  new  French
iron-clad  frigate  Gloire,  constructed  by  M.  Dupuy
de  Lome,  launched  in  i860,  was  generally  considered
as  successful.  The  Solferino  and  Magenta  were
launched  in  June,  1861 ;  other  iron  vessels  since.
The  Magenta  was  destroyed  by  fire,  6killed,  31  Aug.
1875.  The  Devastation,  a  great  iron-clad,  launched
at  Lorient,  19  Aug.  1879.  France  had  22  battle-
ships, II  armoured  vessels  for  coast  defence,
besides  gun  boats,  cruisers  and  torpedo  boats ;  in
all  256  vessels  in  1888.  The  Supreme  ISavy
Council  was  created  by  decree,  6  Dec.  1889.  See
under  Fleets.

NAZAEENE,  a  name  given  to  Jesus  Christ,
and  his  disciples ;  but  afterwards  to  a  sect  who  re-
jected the  doctrine  of  Christ's  divinity  in  the  first
century.  A  sect  named  Nazarenes,  resembling  the
Society  of  Friends  in  Britain,  became  prominent  in
Hungary  in  the  autumn  of  1867.

NEAPOLIS,  see  Naples.

NEBEASKA,  a  N.W.  territory  of  North
America  (part  of  Louisiana),  was  organised  30  May,
1854.  Capital,  Lincoln  ;  Omaha  city,  very  im-
portant. Bradshaw  destroyed  by  a  tornado,  3  June,
1890. Population,  1880,  452,402  ;  1890,  1,058,910.

NEBULAE  HYPOTHESIS,  put  forth
by  sir  Wm.  Herschel,  181 1,  supposes  that  the  uni-
verse was  formed  out  of  shapeless  masses  of  nebulas
or  clusters  of  small  stars.  It  has  not  been  generally
received.  In  Oct.  i860,  Mr.  Lassell  strictly
scrutinised  the  dumb-bell  nebula,  and  stated  that
the  brightest  parts  did  not  appear  to  be  stars.  In
1865, Mr. Wm. Huggins  reported that he  had


NECROMANCERS.


673


NERVES.


analysed  certain  nebulae  by  their  spectra,  and  be-
lieved them  to  be  entirely  gaseous.

For  Mr.  Norman  Lockyer's  theory  see  under  Meteors,
17  Nov.  1887.

NECROMANCERS,  see  Magic.

NECTARINE,  the  Amijgdalus  Persica,  ori-
ginally came  from  Persia  about  1562.  Previously,
presents  of  nectarines  were  frequently  sent  to  the
court  of  England  from  the  Netherlands;  and
Catherine,  queen  of  Henry  YIIL,  distributed  thein
among  her  friends.

NEEDLES.  "The  making  of  Spanish  needles
was  first  taught  in  England  by  Elias  Crowse,  a
German,  about  the  eighth  year  of  queeu  Elizabeth,
and  in  queen  Mary's  time  there  was  a  negro  made
dne  Spanish  needles  in  Cheapside,  but  would  never
teach  his  art  to  any." — Stoiv.  The  manufacture
was  greatly  improved  at  "Whitechapel,  London ;
Kedditch,  in  Gloucestershire,  and  Hathersage,  in
Derbyshire.  An  exhibition  of  ancient  needlework
was  formed  at  South  Kensington  Museum  in  1873.

NEEDLE-GUN  (Zundnadelgewehr),  a  musket

invented  by  J.  N.  Dreyse  of  Soemnierda,  about  1827,
and  made  a  breech-loader  in  1836,  which  was
adopted  by  the  Prussian  general  Manteuffel  about
1846.  It  was  found  to  be  a  most  effective  weapon
in  the  war  with  Denmark  in  1864,  and  in  that  with
Austria  in  1S66.  The  ignition  of  the  charge  is  pro-
duced by  a  fine  steel  rod  or  needle  being  pressed
through  the  cartridge.  The  principle  is  claimed
for  James  "Whitley,  of  Dublin,  1823 ;  Abraham
Mosar,  1831 ;  and"  John  Hanson,  of  Huddersfield,
S843.

NEERWINDEN,  see  Landen.

NEGRO  TRADE,  see  Slavery.

NEGUS  (wine  and  water),  said  to  be  named
after  col.  Francis  Negus,  about  1 7 14.  The  sove-
reign of  Abyssinia  is  termed  negus.

NELSON'S  VICTORIES,  &c,  see  separate

articles.

Horatio  Nelson,  born  at  Bunihani  Thorpe,  Norfolk

29  Sept. 1758

Sailed  with  captain  Phipps  to  the  North  Pole  . 1773

Distinguished  himself  in  the  West  Indies . . . 1780

Lost  an  eye  at  the  reduction  of  Calvi,  Corsica  . 1794

Captured  Elba 9  Aug. 1796

With  Jervis,  at  the  victory  off  St.  Vincent,  14  Feb.  ;
knighted  and  made  rear-admiral  . 20  Feb. 1797

Lost  his  right  arm  at  the  unsuccessful  attack  on
Santa  Cruz 25-26  July, ,,

Gained  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  1  Aug. ;  created  baron
Nelson  of  the  Nile .... 6  Nov.  1798

Attacks  Copenhagen,  2  April ;  created  viscount,  22
May ;  attacks  Boulogne  flotilla,  and  destroys
several  ships 15  Aug.  1801

Appointed  to  chief  command  in  the  Mediterranean,

20  May,  1803

Pursues  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  March  to
Aug.  ;  returns  to  England,  Aug.  ;  re-appears  at
Cadiz,  and  defeats  the  fleets  in  Trafalgar  Bay,
where  he  is  killed 21  Oct. 1805

I  be  Victory  man-of-war  arrived  off  Portsmouth  with
his  remains 4  Dec. ,,

The  body  lay  in  state  in  the  Painted  Hall,  at  Green-
wich, 5  Jan.  ;  removed  to  the  Admiralty,  8  Jan.  ;
funeral  took  place 9  Jan. 1806

The  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.),  the
duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.),  and
other  royal  dukes  ;  almost  all  the  peers  of  England,
and  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation  of  London,
with  thousands  of  military  and  naval  officers  and
distinguished  men,  followed  the  funeral  car  to  St.
Paul's  :  the  military  amounted  to  near  10,000,
independent  of  volunteers.

Kelson  Column, Trafalgar-square, London, completed,
and  statue  placed  on  it  (see  Statues)  4  Nov. 1843


NEMEAN  GAMES,  celebrated  at  Nemea,
in  Achaia,  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  the  Ar-
gives,  in  honour  of  Archemorus,  who  died  by  the
bite  of  a  serpent ;  and  revived  by  Hercules*  who
slew  the  Nemean  lion.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded
with  a  crown  of  olives,  afterwards  of  green  parsley.
They  were  celebrated  every  third  year,  or,  accord-
ing to  others,  on  the  first  and  third  year  of  every
Olympiad. — Herodotus.  They  were  revived  by  the
emperor  Julian,  a.d.  362,  but  ceased  in  396.

NEO-PLATONISM  or  New  Platonism,

see  Philosophy.

NEPAUL  (N.  India)  was  conquered  by  the
Ghoorkas,  1768,  who  made  treaties  with  the  British,
I79i_and  1801  ;  but  frequently  made  incursions;
and  in  consequence  war  with  them  commenced  1  Nov.
1814 ;  terminated  27  April,  1815.  A  treaty  of  peace
was  signed  between  the  parties,  2  Dec.  1815.  "War
was  renewed  through  an  infraction  of  the  treaty  by
the  Nepaulese,  Jan.  1816;  and  after  several  con-
tests, unfavourable  to  the  Nepaulese,  the  former
treaty  was  ratified,  15  March,  1816.  An  extra-
ordinary embassy  from  the  king  of  Nepaul  to  the
queen  of  Great  Britain  arrived  in  England,  landing
at  Southampton,  25  May,  and  remained  till  Aug.
l8tjO ;  it  consisted  of  the  Nepaulese  prince,  Jung
Banadoor,  and  his  suite,  to  whom  manyr  honours
were  paid.  He  supported  the  English  during  the
Indian  mutiny  in  1857.  The  prince  of  Wales  was
honourably  received  in  Nepaul,  12  Eeb.  1876.
War  with  Thibet  on  account  of  robbed  merchants

May,  id84

Thibet  submits June, ,,

Revolution  :  the  prime  minister  and  son  murdered  ;

22  Nov.  1885
New  ministry  constituted  :  the  maharajah,  Pirthibi

Bir  Bikrmn  Sah  (born  7  Aug.  1875).
Another  revolution  imminent,  Dec.  1887  ; proves

unsuccessful Jan.  1S88

Gen.  lord  Roberts'  visit  to  Nepaul,  very  satisfactory

April,  1892

NEPHALIA,  sacrifices  of  sobriety  among  the
Greeks,  when  they  offered  mead  instead  of  wine  to
the  sun  and  moon,  to  the  nymphs,  to  Aurora,  and
to  Venus ;  and  burnt  any  wood  but  that  of  the  vine,
fig-tree,  and  mulberry-tree,  esteemed  symbols  of
drunkenness,  613  B.C.

NEPHOSCOPE  (nephos,  Greek,  a  cloud).  An
apparatus  for  measuring  the  velocity  of  clouds,  in-
vented by  Karl  Braun,  and  reported  to  the  Academy
of  Sciences,  Paris,  27  July,  1868.

NEPTUNE,  a  primary  planet,  first  observed
on  23  Sept.  1846,  by  Dr.  Galle  at  Berlin,  in  conse-
quence of  a  letter  from  M.  Le  Verrier,  who  had
conjectured  from  the  anomalous  movements  of
Uranus  that  a  distant  planet  might  exist  nearly  in
the  position  where  Neptune  is  situated.  Calcula-
tions to  the  same  effect  had  been  previously  made
by  Mr.  J.  Couch  Adams,  of  Cambridge  ;  but  unfor-
tunate delays  occurred  in  their  publication,  and
also  of  professor  Challis's  consequent  discovery  of
the  planet.  The  Royal  Society  of  London  awarded
its  gold  medal  to  both  astronomers  as  equals  in  the
theoretical  discovery.  A  satellite  of  Neptune  was
discovered  by  Mr.  Lassell  on  10  Oct.  following.
Neptune  is  said  to  have  been  seen  by  Lalandc,  and
thought  to  be  a  fixed  star.  The  Greek  god  Poseidon
became  the  Roman  Neptune.  Trof.  J.  C.  Adams
died  21  Jan.  1892.

NEPTUNIUM,  a  new  metal  discovered  in  tan-
talite,  from  Connecticut,  by  11.  Herrmann  in  1877;
not  generally  admitted  by  chemists.

NERVES-  Our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and
functions  of  the  nervous  system  has  been  greatly


NERVIL


674


NEW BRUNSWICK/


enlarged  by  the  researches  and  experiments  of  phy-
siologists during  the  present  century.  Sir  Charles
Bell  announced  his  discovery  of  the  distinction
between  the  nerves  of  motion  and  sensation,  1810.
He  published  papers  on  the  nervous  system,
1821. See  Craniology.

NERVII,  a  warlike  tribe  in  Belgic  Gaul,  were
defeated  in  a  severe  battle  by  Julius  Caesar  57,  and
subdued  53  B.C.

NERWINDEN,  see  Landen.

NESBIT,  seeMsbet.

NESTORIANS, the  followers  of  Nestorius,
bishop  of  Constantinople  (428-431),  who  is  repre-
sented as  a  heretic. He  was  opposed  by  Eutyches ;
see  Eutychians.
.  He  rejected  the  error  of  those  who  said  Christ  was
a  mere  man,  as  Ebion,  Paul  of  Samosata  Photinus.
2.  He  maintained  that  the Word  was  united  to  the
humanity  in  Christ  Jesus,  and  that  this  union  was
most  intimate  and  strict. 3.  He  held  that  these  two
natures  made  one  Christ,  one  Son,  one  Person  ;  only
made  up  of  two  natures. 4.  And  this  one  Person  may
have  either  divine  or  human  properties  attributed  to
Him.
Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the
sacrament  with  leavened  bread  and  in  both  kinds,
permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  use  neither  con-
firmation nor  auricular  confession. — DuPin.
A  Nestorian  priest  and  deacon  were  in  London  in  July,
1862.

NETHERLANDS.  William  Frederick,
prince  of  Orange,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the
Netherlands  16  March,  1815,  and  his  successors,
kings  of  Holland,  retain  the  title.  See  Flanders,
Holland,  and  Belgium.

NETLEY  HOSPITAL,  near  Southampton,
for  invalid  soldiers.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid
by  the  queen,  19  May,  1856.

NEUFCHATEL,  a  canton  in  Switzerland,
formerly  a  lordship,  afterwards  a  principality.  The
first  known  lord  was  Ulric  de  Fenis,  about  1032,
whose  descendants  ruled  till  1373,  after  which  hy
marriages  it  frequently  changed  governors.  On  the
death  of  the  duchesse  de  Nemours,  the  last  of  the
Longuevilles,  in  1 707,  there  were  many  claimants ;
among  them  our  William  III.  He  and  the  allies
however  gave  it  to  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia  with  the
title  of  prince.  In  1806  the  principality  was  ceded
to  France,  and  Napoleon  bestowed  it  on  his  general
Berthier,  who  held  it  till  18 14,  when  it  fell  to  the
disposal  of  the  allies.  They  restored  the  king  of
Prussia  with  the  title  of  prince  with  certain  rights
and  privileges;  but  constituted  it  a  part  of  the
Swiss  confederation.  Population,  1888:  canton,
108,153;  city,  16,261.

After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  1831,  the  inhabit-
ants repudiated  their  allegiance  to  Prussia,  and
proclaimed  Neufchatel  a  free  and  independent
member  of  the  Swiss  confederation  .  .  .  1848
The  king  of  Prussia  protested  against  this  ;  and  a
protocol  was  signed  between  England,  France,  and
Austria,  recognising  his  claims  . . . .  1852

Some  of  his  adherents,  headed  by  the  count  de  Pour-
tales,  broke  out  into  insurrection  against  the  re-
publican authorities,  who,  however,  quickly  sub-
dued and  imprisoned  them,  with  the  intention  of
bringing  them  to  trial  ....  Sept.  1856
"War  threatened  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  great
energy  and  determination  manifested  by  the  Swiss.
On  the  intervention  of  the  English  and  French
governments,  a  treaty  was  signed  by  which  the
king  of  Prussia  virtually  renounced  his  claims,  on
receiving  a  pecuniary  compensation,  which  he
eventually  gave  up.  He  retains  the  title  of  prince
of  Neufchatel,  without  any  political  rights

11  June,  1857
The  prisoners  of  Sept.  1856  were  released  withouttrial

18  Jan. ,.


NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY OF

LONDON,  formed  to  promote  the  study  of  nerves^
from  a  psychological,  physiological,  anatomical,
and  pathological  point  of  view,  1887.  First
president  Dr.  Samuel  Wilks,  F.R.S.

NEUSTRIA  or  WEST  FkANCE,  a  kingdom
allotted  to  Clotaire  by  his  father  Clovis,  at  his
death  in  511.  His  descendant,  Charlemagne,  be-
came sole  king  of  France  in  771.  It  was  conquered
by  the  Northmen  and  hence  named  Normandy
(which  see) .

NEUTRALITY  LAWS.  A  commission,  in
a  report  issued  in  May,  1868,  recommended  changes.
An  act  to  make  better  provision  for  the  preservation
of  neutrality  was  passed  9  Aug.  1870.  John  P.
McDiarmid  apprehended,  for  breach  of  neutrality
laws,  at  Bow-street,  28  Oct.  1870.

NEUTRAL  POWERS.  By  the  treaty  of
Paris,  signed  by  the  representatives  of  Great
Britain,  Fiance,  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  Turkey,,
and  Sardinia,  on  16  April,  1856,  it  was  determined
that  privateering  should  be  abolished;  that
neutrals  might  carry  an  enemy's  goods  not  con-
traband of  war  ;  that  neutral  goods  not  contraband
were  free  even  under  an  enemy's  flag  ;  and  that
blockades  to  be  binding  must  be  effective.  The  pre-
sident of  the  United  States  acceded  to  these  provi-
sions in  1861. See  International  Law.

NEVADA,  a  western  territory  of  the  United
States  of  N.  America,  organised  2  March,  1861  ;,
admitted  a  state,  31  Oct.  1864.  Capital,  Carson
city.  Virginia  city  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  26
Oct.  1875;  several  lives  were  lost ;  property  about
2,000,000  dols. ;  10,000  persons  rendered  homeless,
Population  of  Nevada,  1880,  62,266;  1890,  45,761.

NEVILLE'S  CROSS  or  Durham,  Battle

OF,  between  the  Scots  under  king  David  Bruce  and
the  English  it  is  said  (probably  incorrectly)  under
Philippa.  consort  of  Edward  III.,  and  lord  Percy,.
12  or  17  Oct.  1346.  More  than  15,000  of  the  Scots-
were  slain,  and  their  king  taken  prisoner.

NEVIS  (W.  Indies),  an  island  discovered  by
Columbus,  planted  by  the  English  in  1628  ;  takers
by  the  French,  14  Feb.  1782  ;  restored  to  the  Eng-
lish in  1783.  The  capital  is  Charleston.  See  Lee-
ivard  Isles.

NEWARK  (Nottinghamshire).  The  church
was  erected  by  Henry  IV.  Here,  in  the  midst  of
troubles,  died  king  John,  19  Oct.  1216;  here  the-
royal  army  under  prince  Rupert  repulsed  the  army
of  the  parliament,  besieging  the  town,  21  March,.
1644;  and  here,  5  May,  1646,  Charles  I.,  after  his
defeat  at  Naseby,  put  himself  into  the  hands  of  the-
Scotch  army,  who  afterwards  gave  him  up  to  his
enemies.  Newark  was  first  incorporated  by  Ed-
ward VI.,  and  afterwards  by  Charles  II.  Absorbed
into  the  county,  1885.  Population,  1881,  14,018;
1891,  14,457.

NEWARK,  a  town  in  New  Jersey,  U.S.A.,.
settled  in  1666,  and  chartered  in  1836.  Population
in  1890,  181,830.

NEW  BRUNSWICK  was  taken  from  Nova
Scotia,  and  received  its  name  as  a  separate  colon y
in  1785.  It  was  united  with  Canada  for  legislative
purposes  by  an  act  passed  29  March,  1867.  Popu-
lation of  New  Brunswick  in  1865,  272,780  ;  in  1881,
321,233;  1891,  321,294.  Capital  Frederickton.
Lieut. -governor,  Lemuel  A.  Wilmot,  1868  ;  Samuel
Leonard  Tilley,  1874;  Robert  Duncan  Wilmot,  1880;
sir  Samuel  L.  Tilley,  1886.

Great  fire  at  St.  John,  20-22  June,  1877  ;  destruction  of
12  churches,  25  public  buildings  ;  thousands  houseless  ;


NEWBURY.


675 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION.


about  20  killed,  loss  about  3,000,000/. Subscriptions

in  Britain.
Very  destructive  forest  fires  on  both  sides  of  the  St.

Lawrence,  10  June  et  seg.  1891.
The  St.  Lawrence  lumber  mills  burnt,  24  Sept.  1891.

NEWBURY  (Berkshire).  Near  here  were
fought  two  desperate  battles — (1.)  20  Sept.  1643;
between  the  army  of  Charles  I.  and  that  of  the
parliament  under  Essex  ;  it  terminated  somewhat
favourably  for  tbe  king.  Among  the  slain  was
the  amiable  Lucius  Cary,  viscount  Falkland,
deeply  regretted.  (2.)  A  second  battle  of  dubious
result  was  fought  between  the  royalists  and  the
parliamentarians  under  Waller,  27  Oct.  1644.  Popu-
lation, 1881,  14,018;  1891,  14,457.
A memorial  to  lord  Falkland  and  his  companions,  at

Newbury,  was  inaugurated  by  the  earl  of  Carnarvon,  9

Sept.,  1878.

NEW  CALEDONIA  (Pacific  Ocean),  dis-
covered by  Cook  on  4  Sept.  1774,  was  seized  by  the
French,  20  Sept.  1853,  and  colonised.  The  French
government  in  Dec.  1864,  redressed  the  outrages
committed  upon  the  British  missionaries  at  a  station
established  here  in  1854.
In  the  latter  part  of  June,  1878,  some  of  the  native

tribes  revolted,  burnt  some  of  the  towns  and  villages,

and  killed  about  90  of  the  European  colonists,  men.

women,  children,  and  servants,  including  col.  Gally-

Passebose,  the  military  commandant  of  the  island.

The  insurrectionwas  not  subdued  till  the  end  of  the  year.
Now  used  as  a  French  penal  settlement ;  said  to  be  very

disorderly,  1884. See  Recidivists.

NEWCASTLE-TJPON-TYNE  (Northumber-
land), the  Roman  Pons  iElia,  the  first  coal  port  in
the  world,*  and  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the
north  of  England.  The  coal-mines  were  discovered
here  about  1234.  The  first  charter  granted  to  the
townsmen  for  digging  coal  was  by  Henry  III.  in
1239. See  Po2)idation.

The  castle  built  by  Kobert  Courthose,  son  of  Wil-
liam I. 1080

Taken  by  William  II. 1095

St.  Nicholas  church  built,  about  1091 ;  burnt  in  1216  ;
restored  by  Edward  I.,  to  whom  John  Baliol  did

homage  here,  1292  ;  rebuilt 1359

Newcastle  surrenders  to  the  Scotch  ....  1640
Who  here  gave  up  Charles  I.  to  the  parliament

30  Jau.  1647

Occupied  by  general  Wade  in 1745

Antiquarian  Society  established .... 1813
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  founded  1793  ;

liberally  endowed  by  Robert  Stephenson  . . 1858-g
T.  Bewick,  the  wood-engraver,  dies  .... 1828
The  magnificent  market  erected  by  Richd.  Grainger,
who  greatly  improved  the  town . . . .1835

British  Association  met  here 1838

High  level  bridge  erected  by  Robert  Stephenson  ;

and  grand  central  station  built  .  .  .  1846-50
1538  persons  die  of  cholera  .  31  Aug.  to  26  Oct.  1853
Great  fire  through  the  explosion  at  Gateshead  (which

see) 5,  6  Oct.  1854

Great  distress  through  failure  of  Northumberland
Joint-Stock  Bank ......  Nov. 1857

Richard  Grainger  dies,  aged  63 . . .  4  July,  1861
Enthusiastic  leception  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,

7-9  Oct. 1862
British  Association  met  here,  second  time 26  Aug.  1863
Great  fire  at  Brown's  flour  mills,  <fec,  near  the  new
level  bridge,  which  is  injured  ;  about  70,000/.  loss

24  June,  1866
The  Central  Exchange  destroyed  by  fire 11  Aug.  1867
Mr.  Mawson,  the  sheriff,  and  Mr.  Bryson,  the  town
surveyor,  and  others,  killed,  while  attempting  to


*  In  1306  the  use  of  coal  for  fuel  was  prohibited  in
London,  by  royal  proclamation,  chiefly  because  it  injured
the  sale  of  wood  for  fuel,  great  quantities  of  which  were
then  growing  about  the  city ;  but  this  interdiction  did
not  long  continue,  and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having
been  dug  and  exported  from  this  place  for  more  than  500
years.


bury  some  nitro-glycerine  in  the  town-moor,  to

get  rid  of  it 18  Dec. 1867

Strike  of  about  9000  engineers,  for  day's  work  of

nine  hours  ;  begun  about  16  May,  1871

College  of  Physical  Science  in  connection  with  the

Durham  University,  opened . . . Oct. ,,
Engineers'  strike  closed :  terms,  nine  hours  a  day,
to  begin  on  1  Jan.  1872 ;  men  to  work  overtime
when needed ; wages  to  remain  the  same ; ar-
ranged by  Mr.  R.  B.  Philipson  and  Mr.  Joseph

Cowen 6  Oct. „

Elswick  estate purchased  by  a committee  for  a

public  park,  announced  .... Aug.  1873
New  R.  C.  church  built  by  the  Dominicans,  opened

10  Sept. ,,
New  swing-bridge  over  the  Tyne  (2S1 feet  long ;
weight,  1450  tons,  lifted  by  a  hydraulic  crane)  ;
begun  1868  ;  completed . . . June,  1876
Bishoprics  act ;  permitting  the  erection  of  a  see  at

Newcastle,  passed .... 16  Aug. 1878
Technical  college  for  north  of  England  inaugurated

24  Sept.  1880
Centenary  of  birth  of  George  Stephenson  celebrated

9  June,  1881
Newcastle  constituted a  city; charter received

S  July,  1882
Public  library  opened  13  Sept. 1880; the new

building  was  opened  . 1 Sept. ,,

Sanitary  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  congress

meet  here 26  Sept.

Parks  given  by  sir  William  Armstrong  ; addition

Feb.  1883
Visit  of  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  and  family ;
enthusiastic  reception  ; opening  of  Armstrong
park, natural history museum, free library,
Albert  Edward  dock,  <fcc.  . . 20,  21  Aug.  1884

Great  distress  through  want  of  employment Oct. ,,
Royal  mining,  engineering, and industrial  exhi-
bition opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  11  May  ;
2,002,273  admissions  ;  reported  successful ;  closed

29  Oct.  1887
Royal  agricultural  society's  show  opened  11  July;

visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales  and  sons 12  July, ,,
Newcastle  and  Durham  college  of  physical  science  :
foundation  stone  laid by sir  Wm. Armstrong
(after lord), 15 June, 1887 ; opened by the

princess  Louise 5  Nov. 1S88

Third  meeting  of  the  British  Association 11  Sept.  1889
The  new  college  of  medicine  (founded  by  the  duke
of  Northumberland  in  1887)  opened  by  the  mayor

2  Oct. „
Mr.  John Fleming  bequeaths  above 100,000/. to
local  charities  (Fleming  Memorial  Hospital  for
sick  children,  &c),  announced . . Feb. 89
Death of  Mr. John Clayton,  aged 98  ; 45  years

town  clerk  (estate  sworn  at  728,746/.) .  14  July, ,,
Threatened  strike of persons employed  on  the
North-Eastern  railway,  averted  by  concessions  .

about  20  Dec.  ,
Newcastle  programme,  proposed  at  the  meeting  of
the  National  Liberal  Federation  (by  Mr.  Glad-
stone). Re-constitution  of  the  house  of  lords  ;
one  man,  one  vote ;  shorter  parliaments ;  paid
members  ;  settlement  of  the  Irish  question  ;  land

laws,  &c 1  Oct.  et  tea.  189

Great  strike  of  the  engineers  on  the  Tyne  and  Wear

respecting  overtime,  2  Nov.,  ended  . .  7  Nov. ,,
Strike  and  lock-out  of  ship-building  engineers,  and
plumbers,  on  the  Tyne,  due  to  internal  disputes,
about  30  Jan. ; about  20,000  out  of  work, 12
March  ;  arbitration  accepted  ;  work  resumed

27  April,  1892
The  rev.  Dr.  John  Collingwood  Bruce,  historian  of

"  The  Roman  wall  "  dies,  aged  86  . .5  April ,,
End  of  the  Durham  miners'  strike,  see  Coal .

11  March- 1  June, ,,

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE,  Bishopric

OF,  founded  by  Order  in  Council  17  May,  1882.

BISHOP.

1882.  Ernest  Roland  Wilberforce  consecrated  at  Durham,
25  July,  1882.

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION,

formed  April,  1754;  resigned  Nov.  1756;  when
the  duke  of  Devonshire  became  first  lord  of  the
treasury.

x  x  2


NEWCASTLE.


676


NEWFOUNDLAND.


Thomas  Holies  Pelham,  duke  of  Newcastle,  first  lord  of
the  treasury.

Henry  Bilson  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Earl  of  Holdernesse  and  sir  Thomas  Robinson  (after-
wards lord  Grantham),  secretaries  of  state.  The  latter
succeeded  by  Henry  Fox  (afterwards  lord  Holland).

Lord  Anson,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.

Earl  Granville,  lord  president.

Lord  Gower  (succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough
1755),  lord  privy  seal.

Earl  of  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor.

Duke  of  Grafton,  earl  of  Halifax,  George  Grenville,  <&c.

NEWCASTLE  AND PITT  ADMINIS-
TRATION (see  Chatham  Administration) ,  formed
June,  1757- After  various  changes  it  resigned  May,
1762  ;  lord  Bute  coming  into  power.
Thomas  Holies  Pelliam,  duke  of  Newcastle,  first  lord  of

the  treasury.
William  Pitt  (afterwards  lord  Chatham),  secretary  of  state

for  the  northern  department,  and  leader  of  the  house  of

commons.
Earl  of  Holdernesse,  secretary  of  state  for  the  southern

department.
Earl  Granville,  lord  president.
Earl  Temple,  privy  seal.
H.  B.  Legge,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Duke  of  Devonshire,  lord  chamberlain.
Duke  of  Rutland,  lord  steward.
Lord  Anson,  admiralty.
Duke  of Marlborough (succeeded  by  lord Ligonier),

ordnance.
Sir  Robert  Henley,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal.
Henry  Fox,  George  Grenville,  viscount  Barrington,  lord

Halifax,  James  Grenville,  &c.

NEW  CHUECH,  see  Swedenborgians.

NEW  COLLEGE  (St.  John's  Wood,  London),
erected  by  the  Independent  dissenters  for  the  edu-
cation of  their  ministers,  1850-1,  was  formed  by
the  union  of  Homerton,  Highbury,  and  Coward
colleges. See  Oxford.

NEW  DEPARTURE  DEMOCRATS,  see

United  States,  1871.

NEW  ENGLAND  (N.  America).  The  first
settlement  made  in  1607,  was  named  New  England
by  captain  Smith,  in  1614.  A  band  of  102  Puri-
tans, now  termed  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  (with  28
women)  arrived  here  in  the  Hay  Flower,  and
founded  the  settlement  on  Plymouth  Eock,  25  Dec.
1620,  which  was  named  New  Plymouth.  This  was
the  nucleus  of  Massachusetts,  from  whence  were
gradually  developed  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,
Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island.  In  1643  these
settlements  formed  the  first  American  confederation,
a  defensive  union,  with  a  constitution  based  on  the
Mosaic  law,  governed  by  a  religious  aristocracy,
which  lasted  till  1693.  "Maine  was  made  an  inde-
pendent state  in  1820.

NEW  FOREST  (Hampshire),  was  made
("afforested")  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1079-85.
It  is  said  that  the  whole  country,  for  thirty  miles
in  compass,_was  laid  waste.  William  Rufus  was
killed  in  this  forest  by  an  arrow  shot  by  Walter
Tyrrel,  that  accidentally  glanced  against  a  tree,
2  Aug.  1 100,  the  site  of  which  is  now  pointed  out
by  a  triangular  stone.  The  New  Forest  Deer
Removal  act  was  passed  14  &  15  Vict.  c.  76,  7  Aug.
185 1.  Agitation  for  the  preservation  of  this  forest,
autumn,  1870.  In  accordance  with  an  act  passed
in  1877,  the  forest  is  now  managed  by  a  court  of
Verderers  as  a  public  pleasure  ground,  and  cattle
farm. See  Forests.

NEWFOUNDLAND  (N.  America),  discov-
ered by  John  Cabot,  who  called  it  Prima
Vista,  24  June,  1497.  It  was  formally  taken  pos-
session of  by  sir  Humphry  Gilbert,  1583.  In  the
reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advan-


tage of  the  English  in  the  fishery.  In  1577  there
were  100  fishing  vessels  from  Spain,  50  from  Portugal,
150  from  France,  and  only  15,  but  of  larger  size,
from  England. — Hakluyt.  But  the  English  fishery
in  some  years  afterwards  (1625)  had  increased  so
much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire  alone  employed
150  ships,  which  sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,
and  Italjr.  The  sovereignty  of  England  was  recog-
nised in  1 7 13,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  certain
rights  on  the  "  French  shores  "  being  reserved  for
France.  Newfoundland  obtained  the  privilege  of
a  colonial  legislature  in  1832;  and  the  bishopric
was  established  in  1839.  Population,  1884,
197,335.  Appalling  fire  at  St.  John's,  a  great
portion  of  the  town  destroyed,  the  loss  estimated  at
1,000,000/.  sterling,  9  June,  1846.  On  14  Jan.
1857,  a  convention  was  concluded  between  the
English  and  French  governments,  confirming  cer-
tain French  privileges  of  fishery  in  exchange  for
others.  The  English  colonists  were  dissatisfied
with  this  convention.  Newfoundland  refused
union  with  the  dominion  of  Canada,  March,  1869  ;
a  railway  from  St.  John's  to  St.  George's  bay,
proposed  by  the  colonial  government  Aug.  1878.
Capital,  St.  John's;  population,  1884,  31,142.
Governor,  col.  sir  Stephen  J.  Hill,  1870 ;  sir  John
H.  Glover,  Jan.  1876.  Maxse  died  Sept.  1883  ;  sir
John  Hawley  Glover,  Dec.  1883;  died  30  Sept.
1885;  sir  G.  Wm.  des  Voeux,  Feb.  1886;  sir  J.
Terence  N.  O'Brien,  Nov.  1888.  See  Canada,  Nov.
1877.

Fishery  Dispute.  At  Fortune  bay,  U.S.,  fishers
fixed  nets  on  Sunday,  13  Jan.  1878  ;  this  being
contrary  to  local  regulations,  they  were  forcibly
removed  ;  controversj'  ensued  ;  Mr.  Evarts  on
part  of  U.  S  government  sent  despatch,  24  Aug.  ;
correspondence,  Sept.  Oct.  ;  the  marquis  of  Salis-
bury refused  compensation  ;  but  earl  Granville
granted  it ;  is,oooZ.  were  awarded  by  arbitration

28  May,  1881

The  French  tri-colour  flag  set  up  at  Cumberland
Stage, near St. John's,  by  a  French  captain,

9  Sept.  1882

Conflicts  between  the  Orangemen  and  Romanists
at  Harbour  Grace  ;  several  killed . 26  Dec.  1883

Continued  disputes  through  the  British  lobster  fac-
tories on  the  French  shore 1890

The  people  dissatisfied  with  the  new  arrangements
begun  after  1  July,  1889,  termed  modus  vivendi.
A  great  meeting  at  St.  John's .  26  March, ,,

Sir  James  Winter,  ex-attorney-general,  and  other
delegates,  arrive  in  London . . .13  May, „

Address  to  the  queen  voted  by  the  Newfoundland
legislature 14  May, „

A  French  war  vessel  requests  the  stoppage  of
British  fishing  in  St.  George's  bay ;  indignation
meeting  at  St.  John's . .  reported  24  May, ,,

The  parliament  votes  an  address  to  the  queen  and
is  prorogued n  June, ,,

Fight  between  Newfoundlanders  and  French
fishermen  respecting  lobsters,  at  Port-au-Port,
with  clubs,  &c.  ;  the  latter  beaten

about  19  June, ,,

Capt.  Sir  Baldwin  Walker  of  the  Emerald,  stops
Mr.  Baird's  lobster  factory  at  Sandy  Point,  about
26  June  ;  Mr.  Baird  sues  for  damages . July, ,,

French  war  vessel  at  Port-au-Port  drives  off  30
British  fishing  vessels . . . .23  June, ,,

Sir  William  Whiteway,  premier,  and  Mr.  Harvey,
delegates  in  London,  3  July,  e.t  seq.  ;  the  colonists
claim  extinction  of  French  rights,  about  5  Aug.  ;
Sir  W.  Whiteway  returns  to  Newfoundland

12  Nov.  et  seq. ,,

The  modus  vivendi  enforced  by  the  Emerald  and
the  Forward  gunboat . . . Sept.  el  seq. „

Joseph  Girardin,  capt.  of  the  French  schooner
Minegard,  arrested  for  illegal  acts  ;  imprisoned
till  fines  were  paid  ;  rescued  from  prison,  regains
his  ship,  puts  off  to  sea  ;  the  ship  runs  aground,
and  is  again  seized ..... Oct. ,,

Great  storm,  destruction  of  shipping,  buildings,  &c.

reported  8  Dec. ,,


NEW  FEANCE.


677


NEW  GUINEA.


Action  of  Mr.  Baird  against  sir  Baldwin  Walker  in
the  supreme  court  concluded  ;  judgment  reserved

10  Feb.  1891

Verdict  for  Mr.  Baird,  18  March  ;  appeal  to  the
privy  council,  March,  1891  ;  dismissed 4  Aug.  1892

Arbitration  accepted  by  the  British  and  French
governments,  the  modus  vivendi  to  continue,
agreement  signed  in  London,  11  March,  at  Paris,
13  March,  and  reported  at  St.  John's 13  March, ,,

Bdl  brought  into  the  house  of  lords  to  enforce  the
modus  vivendi,  early  April ;  read  second  time

27  April,  1891

Sir  William  Whiteway,  and  4  other  delegates
appear  at  the  house  of  lords,  and  make  a  state-
ment 23  April, ,,

The  house  of  assembly  adopts  a  petition  to  the
queen,  to  ratily  their  convention  with  the  United
States 8  April, ,,

The  British  fishermen  of  Fortune's  bay,  rise  against
the  sale  of  bait  to  others,  about  22  April ;  stock-
ade raised,  and  bait  seized . about  28  April ,,

After  some  negotiation,  the  modus  vivendi  coercion
act  (to  last  till  1893)  is  passed  by  both  branches
of  the  Newfoundland  legislature . 26  May, ,,

(The  coercion  bill  in  the  British  house  of  commons
was  withdrawn  May).

The  French  enforce  the  modus  vivendi;  difficulties .

reported  18  June, ,,

Sixty  British  lobster  factories  closed  by  order
under  the  modus  vivendi  . . reported  7  July, ,,

The  Canadian  government  protests  against  the  re-
strictions on  the  supply  of  herrings  as  bait  for
the  fisheries  and  threatens  reprisals,  about  28
Nov.  ;  and  imposes  import  duties  on  fish 8  Dec. „

A  sudden  blizzard  off  the  coast  drove  out  220  fish-
ing boats,  27  men  perished  by  frost,  &c. 27  Feb.  1892

The  modus  vivendi,  respecting  lobsters,  renewed
by  the  British  and  French  governments 4  April ,,

The"  French  shore  bill  supported  by  the  British
government,  for  constituting  a  judicial  commis-
sion court  to  settle  the  disputes  submitted  to  the
house  of  assembly,  30  April ;  rejected  14  May  ;  a
joint  committee  on  the  subject  appointed .

19  May, ,,

The  dispute  with  Canada  settled  ;  return  to  the
status  of  1889 . . . announced  21  May, ,,

The  French  fishermen  break  the  modus  vivendi  by
destroying  300  British  lobster  traps

about  13  June, ,,

NEW  FEANCE,  see  Canada.

"NEW"  GALLEEY,  Regent  Street,  W.,
erected  by  seceders  from  the  subscribers  to  the
Grosvenor  Gallery  (which  see),  opened 9  May,  1888.
In  this  building  were  held  the  Tudor,  Stuart,
Guelph,  and  Victorian  exhibitions,  which  see.  A
picture  exhibition  was  opened  25  April,  1892.

NEWGATE,  LONDON.  The  prison  derives  its
name  from  the  gate,  to  which  was  attached  a  small
prison,  gradually  enlarged.  One  was  erected  in  1086
by  the  bishop  of  London.  It  was  used  as  a  prison
for  persons  of  rank  as  early  as  1218  ;  but  was  rebuilt
about  two  centuries  afterwards  by  the  executors  of
sir  ltichard  Whittington,  whose  statue  with  a  cat
stood  in  the  niclie  till  the  time  of  its  demolition
by  the  great  fire  of  London,  in  1666.  It  was  then
reconstructed;  but  becoming  an  accumulation  of
misery  and  inconvenience,  was  pulled  down  and
rebuilt  between  1778  and  1780.  During  the  riots
in  1780,  the  interior  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but
shortly  afterwards  restored.  In  1857  the  interior
was  pulled  down  to  be  re-erected  on  a  plan  adapted
to  the  reformatory  system.  Newgate  was  disused
as  an  ordinary  prison,  31  Dec.  1881.  Major  Arthur
Griffiths'  "  Chronicles  of  Newgate,"  published  Jan.
1884.  See  Old  Bailey.  Newgate  market,  es-
tablished in  1681,  was  ordered  to  be  abolished  by
an  act  passed  in  1861,  which  took  effect  when  the
meat  and  poultry  market  in  Smithfield  was  opened,
I  Dec.  1868.

NEW  GEENADA  (S.  America),  discovered
by  Ujeda  in  1499,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in


1536.  It  formed  part  of  the  new  republic  of  Bo-
gota, established  in  1811;  and,  combined  with
Caracas,  formed  the  republic  of  Colombia,  17  Dec.
1819;  see  Colontbia.

President  M.  Ospina  entered  on  office  1  April,  1857

After  several  reunions  and  dissolutions,  the  republic
of  New  Grenada  merged  into  the  Grenadine  Con-
federation, which  includes Bolivar, Antioquia,
Panama,  and  other  small  states . 15  June,  1858
Struggles  between  the  conservatives,  partisans  of

the  old  government,  and  the  liberals  .  .  Jan.  1861
General  Mosquera  (liberal)  deposes Ospina; and

seizes  the  government . . . 18  July, ,,
A  congress  of  the  states  determine  on  union,  under
the  name  of  the  United States  of Colombia,

20  Sept. ,,
Arnoleda,  chief  of  the  conservatives,  assassinated

(succeeded  by  Cassal)  .  .  .  .  1  Nov.  1862
New  constitution  established  .  .  .8  May,  1863
Mosquera  invites  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  to  join

the  confederation Aug. ,,

Ecuador  declines — war  ensues  . . .20  Nov. ,,
The  troops  of  Ecuador  defeated,  6  Dec. ;  peace  en-
sues, and  Ecuador  remains  independent 30  Dec ,,
Coup  d'etat  of  Mosquera,  who  declares  himself  dic-
tator 11  March,  1866

Mosquera  deposed  by  Santos  Acosta,  who  becomes

provisional  president  ...  23  May,  1867

Mosquera,  the  ex-president,  exiled  . . 1  Nov. ,,
General  Santas  Gutierrez  Vergara,  the  president,
"  deposed  and  imprisoned,  and  general  Ponce  made
provisional  president. Ponce  compelled  to  ab-
dicate; succeeded by  Correoso, 29  Aug., who
defeated  his  opponents ... 12  Nov. i%6&
The  republic  now  named  Colombia  {which  see).

NEW  GUINEA  or  Papua,  a  large  island,.
Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  after
tbeir  settlement  of  the  Moluccas  between  151 1  and
1530.  It  was  visited  by  Saavedra,  a  Spaniard,  in
1528.  It  is  said  to  have  been  named  New  Guinea
by  Ortiz  de  Retes,  a  Portuguese,  1549.  Torres-
Straits,  which  divide  New  Guinea  and  Australia,,
were  discovered  by  Torres,  a  Spaniard,  in  1606.
It  was  frequently  visited  by  the  Dutch  in  the
17th  century.  They  established  a  colony  and
erected  a  fortress,  named  Dubus,  on  the  S.W.
coast,  in  1828,  which  was  unsuccessful ;  and  re-
moved in  1835.  A  lofty  range  of  mountains  was
named  after  capt.  Owen  Stanley,  who  first  saw  them
from  his  vessel  on  sea  about  1849.

On  9  Oct.  the  New  Guinea  Colonizing  Association  pro
posed  to  lord  Carnarvon,  the  colonial  secretary,  to
send  to  New  Guinea  an  expedition  of  200  men  with  50
officers,  in  a  ship  of  1200  tons  burden ;  he  declined
to  sanction  it,  and  referred  to  dangers,  30  Oct.  1875  ;
part  of  the  island  annexed  by  the  Queensland  govern-
ment, announced  April,  1883,  with  the  approval  of  all
Australia  ;  this  act  declared  by  the  British  government
to  be  "  null  in  point  of  law,  and  not  to  be  admitted  in
point  of  policy,"  2  July,  1883  ;  signified  by  lord  Derby's
dispatch,  also  recommending  a  confederation  of
Australian  states,  11  July,  1883.

Mr.  Maclvor's  proposed  expedition  to  New  Guinea  pro-
hibited by  lord  Derby,  Oct.  1883.

Inter-colonial  conference  at  Sydney  recommend  annexa-
tion, 6  Dec.  1883.

Protectorate  of  the  southern  part  and  adjacent  islands
under  a  high  commissioner  determined  on,  Aug.  1884  ;
to  be  supported  by  the  Australian  colonics ;
Major-Gen.  Peter  H.  Scratchlcy  appointed,  Oct.  1884  ;
protectorate  proclaimed  in  New  Guinea,. 6  Nov.

German  flag  hoisted  on  northern  part  and  adjacent
islands ;  Australian  colonies  protest,  Dec.  1884.

The  German  colony  named  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land,
March,  1885.

Agreement  between  England  and  Germany  announced,
19  June,  1885.

Exploring  expedition  of  geographical  society  of  Austral-
asia under  captain  Evorill,  in  New  Guinea,  Sept.  1885.

Death  of  sir  Peter  Henry  Scratchley  announced,  3  Dec.
1885.

Bill  regulating  the  government  passed  by  legislature  o."
Queensland,  4  Nov.  1887.


NEW HAMPSHIEE.


678


NEW OELEANS.


New  Guinea  constituted  an  independent  colony  by
letters  patent,  30  Oct.  18S8.  Seat  of  government,
port  Moresby  ;  administrator,  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  W.  Mac-
gregor.

Sir  Win.  Macgregor  explores  the  Owen  Stanley
range  of  mountains  and  names  one  Victoria
(13,121  feet  high),  another  Albert  Edward  (12,500
feet),  40  miles  inland  from  Port  Moresby, .

May,  June,  1889

Sir  Wm.  Macgregor  lands  at  Demara  with  22  men
to  search  for  murderers  ;  repulses  an  attack  of
250  natives  and  burns  a  village . . . .

announced  15  Oct. „

Murder  of  Mr.  J.  Hedley  and  the  crew  of  the  cutter
Isabel  (while  pearl  fishing) . reported  1  Oct.  1890

Massacre  of  40  villagers  by  the  Tugaree  tribe .

reported  9  Jan.  1891

The  British  colony  reported  prosperous . Jan.  1892

NEW  HAMPSHIEE,  one  of  the  early  united
states  of  N.  America,  was  settled  in  1623,  placed
under  Massachusetts,  1641 ;  separated,  1679.  Capital,
Concord.  Population,  1880,  346,991 ;  1890,  376,530.

NEW  HAEMONY,  see  Harmonists.

NEW  HEBEIDES  (S.  Pacific  Ocean),  dis-
covered by  Quiros,  who  believing  them  to  be  a
continent  named  them  Tierra  Australia  del  Espiritu
Santo,  in  1606.  Bougainville  in  1768  found  them
to  be  islands ;  and  in  1774  Cook  gave  them  their
present  name.  On  appeal,  the  British  government
promise  protection  to  the  natives  against  kid-
napping, &c.  7  Feb.  1883.
In  1878  the  British  and  French  governments  agreed  not

to  occupy  these  islands,  but  French  aggressions  have

been  protested  against  by  the  Australian  colonies,

1887.
French vessels land troops here to protect their

countrymen,  1  June,  1886.
Land  dispute  between  French  Hebrides  company  and

native  christian  mission,  reported  15  Sept.  1886.
Sir  William  Stawell  appointed  lieut-governor  Jan.  1887.
Convention  signed  at  Paris  ;  the  French  troops  to  be

withdrawn,  24  Oct.  1887  ;  effected  15  March,  1888.

NEW  HOLLAND,  see  Australia,  New  South
Wales,  &c.

NEW  IEELAND,  an  island  in  the  Pacific
ocean,  lat.  20  3'  S.  long.  1520  E.,  200  miles  long,  25
miles  average  width.  An  attempt  of  the  French
marquis  de  Bays  to  colonise  this  island  was  re-
ported a  disastrous  failure  in  August,  1880,  and
May,  1881.  The  island  is  now  named  New  Meck-
lenburg.

NEW  JEESEY,  one  of  the  early  United  States
of  N.  America,  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  from  New
York,  1620;  and  by  Swedes  in  1627.  Capital,
Trenton.  Population,  1880,  1,131,116;  1890,
1.444,933-
The  S.  half  of  Seabright  with  fine  buildings  burnt,

17  June  (see  Jews) 1891

NEW JEEUSALEM CHUECH, see

Swcdenborgians.

NEW  LANAEK  (W.  Scotland).  A  manu-
facturing village  founded  by  David  Dale,  1783.
Here  his  son-in-law,  Bobert  Owen,  endeavoured  to
establish  socialism  in  1801 ;  and  here  the  first  in-
fant school  was  set  up,  1815.

"  NEW  LEAENING,"  a  term  applied  to  the
revival  of  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Greek  and
Latin  classics,  in  their  original  tongues  in  the  15th
and  16th  centuries,  which  conduced  greatly  to  the
Reformation. See  Humanism.

NEWMAEKET  (Cambridgeshire),  renowned
for  its  horse-races.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  1227;
and  probably  derived  its  name  from  the  market
then  recently  established.  James  I.  erected  a  hunt-
ing seat  here,  called  the  king's  house, to  which


Charles  I.  was  taken  as  a  prisoner  in  1647,  when
the  parliament  army  was  quartered  in  the  neigh-
bouring village  of  Kennet.  Charles  II..  who  was  fond
of  racing,  built  a  stand-house  for  the  sake  of  the
diversion,  about  1667,*  and  from  that  period  races
have  been  annual  to  the  present  time ;  and  many
extraordinary  races  have  been  run ;  see  Races.
Population,  1881,  5,093  ;  1891,  6,213.

NEW  MEXICO  (N.  America),  ceded  to  the
United  States  in  1848,  and  organised  as  a  territory,
9  Sept.  1850 ;  admitted  as  a  state  by  the  house  of
representatives,  1892.  Capital,  Santa  Fe.  Popula-
tion, 1880,  119,565 ; 1890,153,593.

NEWNHAM  COLLEGE,  see  Girton.

NEW  OELEANS,  capital  of  Louisiana,  N.
America  (which  see),  founded  in  1 717,  under  the  re-
genc3'  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In  1788,  seven-eighths
of  the  city  were  destroyed  by  fire.  The  British  attacked
New  Orleans  in  Dec.  1814,  and  were  repulsed  with
great  loss  by  the  Americans  under  general  Jackson,
8  Jan.  1815. New  Orleans  was  surrendered  to  the
Federals  in  April,  1862. The  strong  feeling  of  the
inhabitants  in  favour of the Confederates and
against  the  Federals  induced  general  B.  Butler  to
rule  them  with  military  rigour,  occasionally  degene-
rating into brutal  tyranny, especially towards
females,  May  to  October,  1862. He  was  replaced  by
general  Banks, 16  Dec. 1862. Sanguinary  riots;
due  to  agitators,  begun  30  July,  1866,  only  sup-
pressed by  martial  law ; about  40  persons,  white
and  coloured,  were  killed,  and  about  160  wounded,
similar  riots  occurred,  24  Oct.  1868,  and  often  since.
Population  in  1880,216,090;  in  1890,  158,019.
New  Orleans. — John  McEnery  elected  governor  of  Louis-
iana by  the  southern  whites,  4  Nov.  1872  ;  but  W.  P.
Kellogg, elected by  the coloured people  and  their
white  friends,  was  recognised  by  the  Federal  govern-
ment. To  defend  themselves against tyranny,  the
southerns  formed  the  "white  league,"  and  collected
arms,  which  they  refused  to  surrender  on  demand  on
15  Sept.  1874. They  deposed  Kellogg  at  New  Orleans
after  some  resistance,  and established McEnery  as
governor,  but  submitted  to  the  president's  proclama-
tion ;  and  Kellogg  was  restored  18  Sept.
The  government  troops  eject  members  from  the

legislative  assembly  as  unduly  elected 4  Jan.  1875
After  much  discussion,  a  peaceful  uomxiromise  April ,,
Much  trouble,  2  governors  at  one  time,  Jan.  ;  dis-
putes settled  in  favour  of  Democrats  by  president
Hayes  ;  prospect  of  peace . . 25  April,  1877
"  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  "  Expo-
sition .... 16  Dec.  1884 — 30  May,  1885
Another  exposition  opened ... 10  Nov.  1885
Mississippi  steamer,  J.  M.  White,  burnt,  30  lives

lost . .  ... about  14  Dec.  1888

Mr.  David  Hennessy,  chief  of  the  police,  assassinated
by  a  party  of  the  Sicilian  vendetta  society
named MaAa, which see, 15 Oct. ; 17 men

arrested 19,  20  Oct.  1890

The  committee  of  safety,  aided  by  the  Italian
government,  determine  to  clear  the  city  from
secret  societies  ;  meeting  held.  .  .  27  Oct.  ,,
Indictment  of  17  Sicilians  for  the  murder  of  Mr.
Hennessy,  22  Nov.  1890 ;  9  tried  ;  6  acquitted  ;  no
verdict  on  3,  13  March,  1891;  the  mob,  invited
by  Mr.  Parkerson,  lawyer,  and  other  citizens,
break  into  th«  gaol,  and  shoo  I  or  hang  11
prisoners  (2  not  American  citizens).  .  14  March,  1891
Strong  protest  of  the  Italian  government  15  March, ,,

*  During  the  races,  on  22  March,  1683,  Newmarketwas
nearly  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  which  occasioned
the  hasty  departure  of  the  company  then  assembled,
including  the  king,  the  queen,  the  duke  of  York,  the
royal  attendants,  and  many  of  the  nobility  ;  and  to  this
disaster  historians  have  ascribed  the  failure  of  the  Bye
house  plot,  the  object  of  which  was  said  to  be  the  assas-
sination of  the  king  and  his  brother  on  the  road  from
Newmarket  to  London,  if  the  period  of  their  journey  had
not  been  thus  anticipated;  see  Rye  House  Plot.


NEW  PHILOSOPHY.


679


NEW SOUTH WALES.


Secretary  Blaine  writes  to  Mr.  Nicholls,  governor
of  Louisiana,  expressing  the  president's  regret  at
the  citizens'  disparagement  of  the  law ;  Baron  di
Fava,  the  Italian  minister,  recalled  by  his  govern-
ment 31  March,  1891

Correspondence  between  the  Governments March,

April, ,,

The  United  States  government  pays  to  the  Italian,
25,000  dollars  for  the  benefit  of  the  heirs  of  the
lynched  Italians  ;  diplomatic  relations  resumed  .

about  14  April,  1892

NEW  PHILOSOPHY,  a  term  applied  in

the  17th.  century  to  that  of  Bacon  {which  see).
NEW  PLYMOUTH,  see  New  England.
NEWPOET  (Monmouthshire) . Chartered  by

Edward  IILand  James  I. Population,  1881,  38,469  ;

1891,  54,695.

Chartist  Riots.— About  10,000  chartists  {which  see),
from  the  neighbouring  mines,  armed  with  guns,  pikes,
&c. ,  arrived  at  Newport,  4  Nov.  1839.  They  divided
themselves  into  two  bodies — one,  under  the  command
of  Mr.  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  proceeded  down
the  principal  street ;  whilst  the  other,  headed  by  his
son,  took  the  direction  of  Stow-hill.  They  met  in
front  of  the  Westgate  hotel,  where  the  magistrates
■were  assembled  with  about  30  soldiers  of  the  45th
regiment,  and  several  special  constables.  The  rioters
"broke  the  windows  and  fired  on  the  inmates,  by  which
the  mayor,  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Thomas)  Phillips,  and
■several  other  persons,  were  wounded.  The  soldiers
returned  the  fire,  and  dispersed  the  mob,  which  fled,
leaving  about  20  dead,  and  others  wounded.  A  detach-
ment of  the  10th  royal  hussars  arrived  from  Bristol,
and  the  town  became  tranquil.

Frost  was  apprehended  on  the  following  day,  together
with  his  printer,  and  other  influential  persons
among  the  chartists.  He  and  others  were  tried
and  sentenced  to  death  (afterwards  commuted  to
transportation)  Jan.  1840

An  amnesty  was  granted  them,  3  May,  and  they
returned  to  England .... Sept.  1856

Frost  died,  aged  96 .... 29  July,  1877

JExplosion  on  the  Tancarville  petroleum  steamer  in
the  dry  dock  ;  five  men  killed,  many  injured

11  May,  1 89 1

NEW  RIVER,  for  the  supply  of  London  with
'water,  was  begun  1609,  and  finished  in  1613,  when
the  projector,  Hugh  Myddelton,  a  London  gold-
smith, was  knighted  by  James  I. — Strype.  This
artificial  river,  which  rises  in  Hertfordshire, *  and
which,  with  its  windings,  then  forty- eight  miles
long,  was  brought  to  London,  and  opened  29  Sept.
1613.  So  little  was  the  benefit  of  it  understood,  that
for  above  thirty  years  the  seventy-two  shares
(equally  divided  into  King's  and  Adventurers'),
netted  only  5/.  apiece.  Charles  I.  sold  his  shares  to
Myddelton's  representatives  for  an  annuity  of  500/.
Each  of  these  shares  was  sold  originally  for  100/.  A
part  of  a  share  sold  at  the  rate  of  94,050/.  the  share,
I  Nov.  1876;  part  of  a  king's  share  at  rate  of  90,000/. ;
of  an  adventurer's  share  at  rate  of  93,200/.,  15  May,
1878 ;  king's  share,  rate  88,200/.  ;  adventurer's,
■91,000/.,  Oct.  1878;  king's  share,  rate  91,010/.;
adventurer's,  94,500/.,  Nov.  1880;  king's  share
rate,  85,800/.  ;  adventurer's,  85,200/.  Nov.  1887.
An  entire  freehold  adventurer's  share  of  the  com-
pany was  sold  by  auction  for  122,800^.  to  the
Prudential  Assurance  Company  .  .  17  July,  1889
The  annual  income  of  the  company  from  land  and

water  was  stated  to  be  511,356'.  in  1888

An  entire  "  King's  Share  "  sold  for  95,100?.  21  May,  1890

NEAV  ROAD,  N.  London  (now  Pentonville,

Euston,  and  Marylebone  roads)  was  cut  through

verdant  meadows,  1756-7,  after  much  opposition.

NEW  ROSS  (Wexford),  S.  E.  Ireland. Here

*  Myddelton  turned  the  first  sod  atChadwell,  a  spring
5-ising  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  near  Ware,  19  April,  1609  ;  the
•water  issued  out  of  a  deep  hole,  and  combined  with
another  spring,  A mwell :  forming  a  river  about  20  feet
wide :  he  died  poor,  10  Df  <;.  1631.


general  Johnston  totally  defeated  the  rebels  under
Beauchamp  D.  Bagenal  Harvey,  4  June,  1798.

(NEW)  RUGBY,  Tennessee,  United  States,  N.
America,  a  colony  of  British  farmers  and  others,
founded  on  English  principles  by  Mr.  Thomas
Hughes,  Q.C.,  formerly  M.P.,  author  of  "  Tom
Brown's  Schooldays,"  &c;  inaugurated  5  Oct.  1880.
Keported  failure  of  crops  and  prevalence  of  fever,
Aug.  1881.  Said  to  be  not  quite  a  failure  by  ener-
getic persons,  13  Oct.  1881 ;  more  favourable  re-
ports, Sept.  1883.

NEWRY  (N.  Ireland).  In  the  rebellion  of
1641,  Newry  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous  condition  ;  it
was  surprised  by  sir  Con.  Magenis,  but  was  retaken
by  lord  Conway.  After  the  Bestoration  the  town
was  rebuilt.  It  was  burnt  by  the  duke  of  Berwick
when  fleeing  from  Schoniberg  and  the  English
army,  and  only  the  castle  and  a  few  houses  escaped,
1689.

NEWS-LETTERS.  News- writers  in  the
reign  of  Charles  II.  collected  from  the  coffee-houses
information,  which  was  printed  weekly  and  sent
into  the  country.  The  London  Gazette,  then  the
only  authorised  newspaper,  contained  little  more
than  proclamations  and  advertisements.

NEW  MODEL,  see  Council  of  Officers.

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  the  principal
colony  of  Australia  on  the  eastern  coast  was  explored
and  taken  possession  of  and  named  by  captain  Cook
in  1770.  At  his  recommendation  a  convict  colony
was  first  formed  here.  Captain  Arthur  Phillip,  the
first  governor,  arrived  at  Botany  Bay  with  800  con-
victs, 20  Jan.  1788;  but  he  subsequently  preferred
Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  head  of
Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible  situation  for  the
capital.  A  new  constitution  was  granted  in  1855
(18  &  19  Vict.  c.54).  The  Intercolonial  Exhibition
was  opened  at  Sydney,  by  the  governor-general  lord
Belmore,  30  Aug.  1870.  It  consisted  of  two  depart-
ments, agricultural  and  non- agricultural,  A  con-
ference of  delegates  from  the  Australian  colonies
met  at  Sydney  in  Jan.  1873,  to' deliberate  on  a  cus-
toms' union,  postal  and  railway  arrangements,  &c.
The  ministry  introduced  a  free  trade  budget  near  the
end  of  the  year.  Industrial  exhibition  opened  by
the  governor,  11  April,  1874.  Population,  (1856),
269,722;  (1862),  367,495  ;  (1866),  411,388;  (1871),
519,163;  ( 1 881),  750,006;  (1891),  1,134,207.  Im-
ports 6,597,053/.  in  1859;  20,960,157/.  in  1883;
18,806,236/.  in  1887  ;  22,954,015/.  in  1890 ;  the  ex  •
ports  to  4,768,049/.  in  1859,  to  19,886,018/.  in  1883,
to  18,496,917/.  in  1887,  to  13,266,222/.  in  1890.  1887
revenue,  8,582,811/,;  1888,  8,963,000/.;  1889-90,
8,519,159/.;  expenditure,  11,077,964/.;  1889-90,
9,811,251/.  Governor,  sir  John  Youna:,  i860  ;  earl
of  Belmore,  1867;  sir  Hercules  Robinson,  April,
1872 ;  lord  Loftus,  1879;  lord  Carrington,  1885  ;
the  earl  of  Jersey,  1890.  See  Australia  and  Sydney.
The  bishopric  of  Australia  was  formed  in  1836 ;  New
Zealand  was  detached  in  1841,  and  Tasmania  in
1842  ;  the  diocese  of  Australia  was  again  divided
in  1847,  the  sees  of  Sydney,  Newcastle,  Adelaide
and  Melbourne  being  formed  ;  the  diocese  of
Perth  was  formed  1857 ;  Goulburn,  1863  ;  Bathurst,
1869 ;  Grafton  and  Armidale,  1869 ;  Ballarat,  1875  ;
North  Queensland,  1878  ;  Riverina  .  .  .  .  1883
Town  of  Jerilderie  seized  and  robbed  by  the  Victo-
rian thieves,  "  Kelly  gang"  .  8-10  Feb.  1879
International  Exhibition  opened  by  Lord  A.  Loftus,

17  Sept. „
Building  burnt  down .... 22  Sept.  1882
The  Wolverene  was  presented  as  a  gift  from  the
British  government  to  the  government  of  New
South  Wales . .  •  16  Jan. ,,

Henry  Partes,  originally  farm  labourer,  premier
1S72-5,  1877,  1378-83.


NEWSPAPEES.


680


NEWSPAPEES.


New  parliament ;  resignation  of  ministry ;  Mr.
Alex.  Stuart  forms  a  new  cabinet . . 3  Jan.  1883

The  legislature  rejects  the  federal  scheme  by  1  vote

about  1  Nov.  1884

Military  contingent  ordered  to  be  sent  to  the
Soudan ;  3o,oooi.  subscribed  for  the  Patriotic
Fund, at  Sydney, 23  Feb.;  amount  raised  to  45,000^.
3  March  ;  contingent  starts,  3  March  ;  arrives  at
Suakim . . . 29-30  March  ;  left  May,  1885

Kesignation  of  ministry  ;  new  one  formed  by  sir
John  Robertson,  17  Dec.  1885  ;  coalition  formed
by  sir  J.  Robertson  and  sir  Patrick  Jennings,

25  Feb.  1886

Explosion at Bulli colliery; 85 men perish,

23  March,  1887

Proposal  to  change  the  name  of  the  colony  to

Australia 23  Nov. ,,

Reward  of  25,000?.  offered  by  government  for  the
extermination  of  rabbits  introduced  from  Europe.
— M.  Pasteur  suggests  the  introduction  of  rabbits
inoculated  with  microbes  ;  professor  "Watson  of
Adelaide  proposes  a  similar  method,  1887  ;  [re-
ported unsuccessful,  1889-90.]
Sir  Henry  Parkes  premier  ....  1887-8
Centenary  of  the  landing  of  captain  A.  Phillip  at

Sydney 24  Jan-  et  s-1-  l883

Severe  Chinese  restriction  bill  (against  the  treaties
of  Nankin  and Pekin)  passed  by  the  assembly

16-17  May, ,,
Conference  of  Australasian  ministers  on  the  Chinese

question 12  June,  1888

Hon.  G.  R.  Dibbs  forms  a  new  ministry,  15  Jan.  ;
defeated  17  Jan.  ;  dissolution  of  parliament ;
elections,  2  Feb.  1889  ;  sir  Henry  Parkes  forms  a

ministry 14  March,  1889

Great  storm  on  the  coast  near  Sydney  with  much

loss  of  life  and  property . . 25  May  et  seq. „
Bill  for  the  payment  of  legislature  finally  passed .

20  Sept. ,,
The  town  of  Bourke  temporarily  submerged  by  the
rising  of  the  Upper  Darling  river,  through  heavy
rain  ;  much  property  damaged,  no  loss  of  life .

18-20  April,  1890
New  parliament  opened . . . 29  April, „
For  the  great  strikes,  see  Sydney  . . . Aug. ,,
Death  of  Sir  John  Robertson,  eminent  statesman,
aged  75,  premier  1860-63, 1868-70,  1875-77,  1885-6

announced  8  May,  1891
Parliament  dissolved  .... 7  June, ,,

Elections ;  48  ministerialists,  s6opposition,  31  labour

candidates  and  others . . . .30  June, ,,
Parliament  opened 15  July;  Mr. Dibbs'  vote  of
want  of  confidence  in  sir  Henry  Parkes  negatived

(80  to  57) 23  July, „

The  earl  of  Jersey's  proclamation  strictly  forbid-
ding all  interference  with  free  labour .  23  July, „
Settlement  of  the  shearers'  strike ....

announced  11  Aug. ,,
Resignation  of  sir  H.  Parkes  and  his  ministry  on
account  of  the  introduction  of  a  bill  limiting  the
hours  of  labour  to  8  in  coal-mines . .  19  Oct. ,,
New  ministry  formed  by  Hon.  G.  R.  Dibbs  23  Oct. „
The  Eight  hours  bill  passed . . . 1  Dec. ,,
The  new  tariff  bill  voted  by  the  legislative  assem-
bly by  50  votes  against  3,  19  Dec.  1891 ;  assent

given, 2  March,  1892

Great  difficulty  with  the  unemployed . April, ,,
Railway  accident  near  Bathurst,  9  persons  killed  .

27  April, ,,
Seven  months'  drought  relieved  by  heavy  rain

26  May, ,,
The  hon.  G.  R.  Dibbs,  premier,  arrives  in  London,
8  June  ;  knighted,  23  July  ;  returned . 12  Sept. „

NEWSPAPEE  PEOVINCIAL  SO-
CIETY, established  in  1836,  became  the  News-
paper Society  in  1889  ;  see  Press  Association.

NEWSPAPEES.  The  Roman  Acta  Biurna
were  issued,  it  is  said,  691  B.C.  In  modern  times,  a
Gazetta,  which  derived  its  name  from  its  price,  a
small  coin,  was  published  in  Venice  (about  1536).
The  Gazette  cle  France,  now  existing,  first  appeared
in  April,  1631,  edited  by  Renaudot,  a  physician.  It
■was  patronised  by  the  king,  Louis  XIII.,  who  wrote
one  article  for  it,  and  by  Richelieu. The  first  real


newspaper  published  in  England*  was  established,
by  sir  Roger  L' Estrange,  in  1663;  it  was  entitled
the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  continued  nearly
three  years,  when  it  ceased,  on  the  appearance  of
the  Gazette.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  1622,
appeared  the  London  Weekly  Courant ;  and  in  the
year  1643  (the  period  of  the  civil  war)  were
printed  a  variety  of  publications,  certainly  in  no
respect  entitled  to  the  name  of  newspapers  See-
Fourth  Estate.  The  following  are  the  titles  of  some
of  them : —

England's  Memorable  Accidents.
The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer.
The  Diurnal  of  Certain  Passages  in  Parliament.
The  Mercurius  Aulicus.
The  Scotch  Intelligencer.
The  Parliament's  Scout.

The  Parliament's  Scout's  Discovery,  or  certain  Informa-
tion.
The  Mercurius  Civicus,  or  London's  Intelligencer.
The  Country's  Complaint,  &c.
The  Weekly  Accounts.
Mercurius  Britannicus.

A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette,-^  published  22  Aug.
1642.  The  London  Gazette  of  the  existing  series,  pub-
lished first  at  Oxford,  the  Court  being  there  on  account
of  the  plague,  7  Nov.  1665,  and  afterwards  at  London,
5  Feb.  1666.  A  valuable  index  (1830-1883)  compiled!
by  Alex.  Pulling  for  council  of  law  reporting,  pub-
lished Nov.  1885.
Printing  of  newspapers  and  pamphlets  prohibited, 31

Chas.  I.  1680. Salmon's  Chron.
The  regular  newspapers  commenced  on  the  abolition  of

the  censorship  of  the  press,  in  1695.
Daily  Courant  said  to  have  been  first  published  in  1702-

The  stamp  duty  imposed 1711

Sunday  Newspapers  began  with  The  British  Gazette  and
Sunday  Monitor,  26  March,  1780  ;  followed  by  the  Ob-
server, 1791  ;  Bell's  Messenger,  1796  ;  Weekly  Dispatch,
1 801,  &e. London  ed.  of  New  York  Herald,  1889.
A  penny  charged  for  every  sheet,  and  a  halfpenny

for  every  half  sheet 1724

The  duty  made  id.  or  4L  is.  8d.  the  1000  . . . 1761
The  duty  raised  to  ij<£  in  1776  ;  to  id.  in  1789  ;  to

2M.  in  1794  ;  to  3J&  in  1797  ;  to  \d.  in  .  .  .  1815
Reduced  to  id.,  and  \d.  for  a  supplement  in  .  .  1836
Abolished, the compulsory  stamp  being  retained

only  for  postal  purposes 1855

This  also  ceased 30  Sept. 1870

Newspapers  first  sent  with  a  \d.  stamp  affixed  to
the  cover 1  Oct. „

NUMBER OF  STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS.

1S20  . . .  24,862,186

1825  . . .  26,950,693

1830  . . .  30,158,74a

1S35  . . .  32,874,652

1840  . . .  49,033,384.

1843  • • •  56.433.97X

851,  there  were  150  London*
newspapers,  in  which  appeared  891,650  advertisements ;
222  English  provincial  newspapers,  having  875,631  ad-
vertisements.

In  Scotland,  same  year,  there  were  no  newspapers,  having:
249,141  advertisements.

In  Ireland,  there  were  102  newspapers,  having  236,128
advertisements.

In  that  year  the  number  of  stamps  issued  was— in  Eng-
land, 65,741,271  at  id.,  and  11,684,423  supplement
stamps  at  hi.  ;  in  Scotland,  7,643,045  stamps  at  id.,  and


1753  •

• 7.4H.757

1760

• • 9.404.790

1774  •

. 12,300,000

1790

. . 14,035,639

1800 .

. 16,084,905

1810

. .  20,172,837

In  the

year

ending  5  Jan.

*  Some  copies  of  a  publication  are  in  existence  called
The  English  Mercur .</,  professing  to  come  out  under  the
authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in  1588,  the  period  of  the
Spanish  Armada.  The  researches  of  Mr.  T.  Watts,  of
the  British  Museum,  proved  these  to  be  forgeries,
executed  about  1766.  The  full  title  of  No.  50  is  "  The
English  Merenrie,  published  by  authoritie,  for  the  pre-
vention of  false  reports,  imprinted  by  Christopher  Bar-
ker, her  highness's  printer,  No.  50."  It  describes  the
Spanish  Armada,  giving  "  A  journall  of  what  passed  since
the  21st  of  this  month,  between  her  majestie's  fleet  and
that  of  Spayne,  transmitted  by  the  Lord  Highe  Admiral,
to  the  Lordes  of  council."

t  On  22  May,  1787,  a  London  Gazette  Extraordinary  was
forged,  with  a  view  of  affecting  the  funds.


NEWSPAPERS.


681


NEWSPAPERS.


241,264  at  Jd  ;  in  Ireland,  6,302,728  stamps  at  id,  and
43,358  at  Jet

Reduction  of  newspaper  duty  from  4CI.  to  id  took  effect
on  15  Sept.  1836.

The  distinctive  die  came  into  use  1  Jan.  1837.

Duty  on  advertisements  abolished,  1853.

By  the  act  passed  15  June,  1855  (18  &  19  Vict.  c.  27),  the
stamp  on  newspapers,  as  such,  was  totally  abolished,
and  to  be  employed  henceforth  only  for  postal  pur-
poses. Many  new  papers  were  then  started,  which
were  but  of  short  duration.

In  1857,  71  million  newspapers  passed  through  the  post-
office.  In  Jan.  i860,  1060  newspapers  ;  in  Jan.  1862,
1165  newspapers  ;  and  in  Jan.  1868,  1404  newspapers
were  published  in  the  United  Kingdom.

On  1  Oct.  1861,  when  the  paper  duty  came  off,  the  Times,
Daily  News,  and  Morning  Post  reduced  their  price  to
3d  each  copy  unstamped.

"Penny  a  Week  Country  Daily  Newspaper,"  single  copy
%d.  ;  No.  1.  25  June,  1873.

Petit  Journal,  Jd  daily,  established  by  Marioni,  1861 ;
circulation  about  840,000.

Sell's  "Dictionary  of  the  World's  Press"  for  1887
consists  of  1,200  pages  ;  increased  considerably,  1892  ;
published  annually.

Newspaper  libel  and  registration  act  passed  1881.

Law  of  libel  relating  to  newspapers  amended  1888.

Mitchell's  annual  newspaper  press  directory  first  pub-
lished, 1846.

Estimated  newspapers  in  the  world,  41,000,  Aug.  1890.

For  copyright  in  newspaper  articles,  see  Trials,  June,
1892

IRISH NEWSPAPERS.

The  first  was  the  Dublin  Neivs-Letter,  byJosephKay,  1685;
Pue's  Occurrences,  1700  or  1703.  Faulkner's  Journal  was
established  by  George  Faulkner,  "  a  man  celebrated  for
the  goodness  of  his  heart  and  the  weakness  of  his
head,"  1728.  The  oldest  of  the  existing  Dublin  news-
papers is  the  Freeman's  Journal,  founded  as  the  Public
Register,  by  the  patriot  Dr.  Lucas,  about  1763.  The
Limerick  Chronicle,  the  oldest  of  the  provincial  prints,
1766.

PROVINCIAL  NEWSPAPERS.

Norwich  Postman,  1706.  Worcester  Postman,  1709.  Neio-
castle-on-Tyne  Courant,  1711.

FOREIGN  NEWSPAPERS.

Gazette  de  Ve'nise,  early  in  17th  century.

Gazette  cU France  (now  publishing),  1631.

Journal  de  Paris,  alleged  first  French  daily  paper,  1  Jan.

1777-
Galiqnani's  Weekly  Messenger,  Paris,  begun  1814.
Chinese  newspaper  published  in  London  . . 1876

Arabic  newspaper  ,,  ,,  . . ,,

The  first  newspaper  set  up  in  Germany,  1715.
The  first  published  in  America,  the  Boston  Neivs-Jetter,  in

1704  ;  the  first  at  Philadelphia  in  1719  ;  and  the  first  in

Holland  in  1732.
"America,  whose  population  is  23  millions  and  a  half,

supports  800  newspapers  (50  of  these  publishing  daily),

and  their  annual  circulation  is stated  at  64,000,000.

In  Paris  there  exists 169  journals,  literary, scientific,

religious  and  political." — Westminster  Review,  1830.


REGISTERED  NEWS-
PAPERS.

London  daily
London  weekly .
London  generally
Eng.  prov.  . . .

Irish

Scotch  .  .  .  .
British  isles  .  .


1850.  1865.  1872.  i£


166  209 23


222
102

no
14


75°
132
140

14


9°3
i34
134
17


320
950
138
152
19


18S1  1885.  1852.

17 20 27
— 318  340

378  40s  461

1087  1202  1302
154  161  146
181  184  206

24


Total newspapers in  the  United Kingdom,  Jan.  1892,
2255-

ESTABLISHMENT  OF THE PRINCIPAL  LONDON  NEWSPAPERS

{Mitchell)  DAILY  (1892).

Lloyd's  List  (with  Shipping  and  Mercantile  Gazette)  1726

Public  Ledger  (commercial) 1759

Morning  Chronicle  (liberal),  1770 ;  extinct . .  1862

Morning  Herald  (conservative),  1780,  extinct  31  Dec.  1869

Morning  Post  (whig,  latterly  conservative)  . . .  1772

Times  (independent) 1  Jan.  1788

Bun  (liberal)  extinct 1792

Morning  Advertiser  (liberal) . . . 8  Feb.  1794


Globe  (whig  :  1866  conservative)  evening . . .  1803;

Standard  (conservative)  even.  (morn.  29  June,  1857)  1827

Shipping  and  Mercantile  Gazette . . 4  Jan.  1836

Daily  News  (liberal) 21  Jan.  1846.

Daily  Chronicle  and  Clerkenwell  News  (liberal) .  1855

Daily  Telegraph*  (liberal,  latterly  conserv.),  29  June,  ,,

Sporting  Life  (and  Bell's  Life  in  London) . . .  1859

Morning  Star  (liberal),  1856  ;  extinct . . Oct.  1869
Pall  Mall  Gazette  (independent),  even.  (morn.  Jan.-

April,  1870) 1865

Sportsman Aug.  ,,

Glowworm  (liberal),  extinct ,,

Echo  £d  (independent) Dec.  186S

Hour  (conservative)  24  March,  1873;  extinct  n  Aug.  1876

Continental  Times  (neutral) 187&

St.  James's  Gazette  (anti-radical) . . May,  1880-

Financial  News  (independent) 1884

Evening  Post  (independent) 1887-

Financial  Times  (independent) 1888

Star  (radical) ,,

Daily  Graphic  (illustrated) 1890.

Moaning  Leader 1892

PRINCIPAL  SUNDAY,  WEEKLY, ETC.  (1892).


1763
1787
1789
1 791

1796


Lond.  Gazette 7  Nov.  1665
St.  James's  Chronicle
(conser.),  united  with
"  Press
County  Chronicle
Mail ....
Observer  (whig) .
Bell's  Messenger  (lib.

conservative)
Weekly  Dispatch  (lib.)  1801
Examiner  (lib. ,  extinct)

1808-81
Literary Gazette  (ex-
tinct) . . 1817-62
John  Bull  (conserv.)  1820-92
Bell's  Life  in  London
(sporting)  now  with
Sporting  Life  (daily)  1822
Sunday  Times  (lib.  con.) „
Lancet  (medical) .  1823
Mechanic's Magazine
(merged  into  "Iron,"

1873) • •' • .,
Atlas  (liberal)  extinct  . 1826
Medical  Gazette,  1827 ;
Medical  Times  (uni-
ted)i8so(exti)icti&8s)  1828
Athenaeum  (liter,  and

scientific)  .  ,,

Spectator  (liberal) . ,,
Record  (lib.  conserv.)  . ,,
Court  Journal  (neut.)
Mark  Lane  Express
United  Service  Gaz. .
Naval and Military

Gazette  (extinct)
Mining  Journal  .
Railway  Times .
Era  (theatrical) .
Publishers'  Circular  . ,,
Ecclesiastical  Gazette  1838
Medical  Press .  ,,

Tablet  (Rom.  Catholic)  1840
Gardeners'  Chronicle  .  1841
Nonconformist .  ,,

Punch  .  .  .  ,,
Jewish  Chronicle  .  ,,
Pharmaceutical  Journ.  ,,
Illustrated London

News  (liberal)  . 1842

Lloyd's  Weekly  Lon-
don Newsi>aper(rad) ,,
Builder . . . ,,
Inquirer  (lib.) . . ,,
English Churchman
&  St.  James's  Chro-
nicle (High  Church).  1843
News of the World

(liberal) . . . ,,
Law  Times  . . ,,

Economist  (liberal) . ,,


1829
1832
1833


1835
1837


Farmer  (agricultural)  1843.
Allen's Indian Mail
(combined with

Homeward  Mail) .  ,,

Musical  Times . .  1844

Agricultural  Gazette  .  ,,
Guardian  (High  Church)  1846

Educational  Times .  184?
Notes  and  Queries  (lit.

and  antiquarian) .  1849.

Journal  of  Gaslighting  ,,
Journal  of  Society  of

Arts . . .  1852
Press  (conserv.),  united
with "St. James's
Chronicle"  (extinct)  1853;
Field  (country  gentle-
men's) . .  „
Civil  Service  Gazette  .  ,,
British  Medical  Jour-
nal . . .  ,,
Building  News . .  1854
Saturday  Review  (lit.)  1855
Overland  Mail . .  ,,
Engineer . . .  1856
Court  Circular . .  ,,
City  Press  (neutral) .  1857
Homeward  Mail. .  „
Solicitors'  Journal .  ,,
Bookseller  . . .  1858
Photographic  News .  ,,
Chemical  News  . .  1859.
Christian  World .  ,,
Army  and  Navy  Gaz.  i860
National  Reformer .  „
Catholic  Times . .  ,,
Fun  (comic) . .  1861
Queen  (ladies") .  ,,
Church  Review  (ritual.)  ,,
Owl  (satirical)  stopt — ■  1864
English  Mechanic .  1865
Engineering . .  1866
Law  Journal . .  ,,
Land  and  Water  (nat.

hist.) . . .  ,,

Bullionist . . .  ,,

Rock  (Protestant) .  186S

Vanity  Fair . .  ,,

Bazaar . . .  „

Academy  (literary) .  1869.

Architect .  „

Nature  (scientific) .  ,,

Graphic  (illustrated)  .  ,,

Freemason  . . .  „

Journal  of  Education  1870-
Garden . . .1871

British  Mail . .  1872

.Metropolitan .  ,,
lvon(manvfacturesand

I science) . . .  1873

1  Money . . .  1872


144.000  copies  sold  ou  16th  Dec.  1861. The  prince
sort  died  on  the  14th.


NEW  STYLE.


682


NEW  YOEK.


Illustrated Sporting

Knowledge .

and  Dramatic  News

1874

People

-Pictorial  World  .

City  Leader

World

,,

County  Council  Times

-Accountant

t

Pelican  (society)  .

.British  Architect

Law  Gazette

.Sanitary  Reeord

,,

Speaker  (liberal)

Whitehall  Review

1876

Woman  (for  Indies) .

.Bicycling  News  .

,,

Blackand  White  (illus-

Truth ....

1877

trated)

Referee

Anti- Jacobin (conser-

."Statist

1878

vative)

Electrician

,,

Express  (neutral)

■Citizen

Trade  Unionist  .

lady's  Pictorial .

1880

Royal  Newspaper

Pres

s Fund, established

(Chartered  1890.

NEW  STYLE.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  in  order
to  rectify  the  errors  of  the  current  calendar,  pub-
lished a  new  one,  in  which  ten  days  were  omitted —
5  Oct.  1582,  becoming  15  Oct.  The  new  style  was
adopted  in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Denmark,  Holland,
Flanders,  Portugal,  in  1582,  in  Germany  in  1584,
■in  Switzerland  in  1583  and  1584,  in  Hungary  in
1  £87  ;  and  in  Great  Britain  in  175 1.  In  1752
-eleven  days  were  leit  out  of  the  calendar — 3  Sept.
being  reckoned  as.  14  Sept.  The  difference  between
the  old  and  new  style  up  to  1699  was  10  dajs ;  after
1700,  II  days;  after  1800,  12  days.  In"  Bussia,
•Greece,  and  throughout  the  East,  the  old  style  is
still  retained.  The  czar,  Alexander  II.,  was  born
on  the  17th  April,  1818,  old  style,  29  April,  new
style ;  see  Calendar.

NEW  TESTAMENT,  see  Bible.

NEWTONIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  the  doc-
trines respecting  gravitation,  &c,  taught  by  sir
Isaac  Newton  in  bis  "  Principia,"  published  in
1687;  see  Gravitation.  He  was  born  25  Dec,  1642;
hecame  master  of  the  mint,  1699;  president  of  the
Eoyal  Society,  1703  ;  and  died  20  March,  1727.  A
statue  of  him  in  marble  by  Eoubiliae  was  set  up  at
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  14  July,  1755,  and  one
in  bronze  by  Theed,  at  Grantham,  21  Sept.  1858,
when  lord  Brougham  delivered  a  discourse  on  the
life  and  works  of  Newton.  The  latter  statue  cost
1600L,  a  sum  obtained  by  public  subscription.

NEWTOWNBARRY  RIOT  (S.E.  Ireland).
At  a  seizure  of  stock  for  tithes,  a  conflict  ensued
here  between  the  yeomanry  and  the  people,  when
thirty-five  persons  were  killed  or  wounded,  18  June,
1831.  The  jury  at  the  inquest  were  unable  to  agree
on  a  verdict.

NEWTOWN-BUTLER  (N.  Ireland).  On
30  July,  1689,  the  Enniskilleners  under  Gustavus
Hamilton  thoroughly  defeated  the  adherents  of
James  II.  commanded  by  general  Maccarty,  taking
him  prisoner  with  his  artillery,  arms,  and  baggage.

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY,  &c. The  beginning
of  the  Jewish  year  was  changed  and  the  passover
instituted,  1491  B.C. A  feast  is  said  to  have  been
instituted  by  Numa,  and  dedicated  to  Janus  (who
presided  over  the  new  year),  1  Jan.  713  B.C.
On  this  clay  the  Romans  sacrificed  to  Janus  a  cake  of
now  sifted  meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine  ;  and  all
the  mechanics  began  something  of  their  art  of  trade  ;
the  men  of  letters  did  the  same,  as  to  books,  poems,
&c.  ;  and  the  consuls,  though  chosen  before,  took  the
•chair  and  entered  upon  their  office  this  day. Nonius
Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts
.among the Romans  to Titus  Tatius, king of the
iSabines, who  having  considered  as  a  good  omen  a
present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated
to  Strenia,  the  goddess  of  strength,  which  he  received
on  the  first  day  of  the  new  year,  authorised  the  cus-
tom afterwards,  and  gave  these,  gifts  the name of
.Sirens,  747  B.C.


NEW  YORK,  the  "empire  state"  of  the
United  States  of  N.  America,  is  said  to  have  been
discovered  by  Verrazano,  a  Florentine  in  the  French
service,  about  1524,  and  rediscovered  by  Hudson,
an  Englishman  in  the  Dutch  service,  in  1609,  and
settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1614,  the  city  being  named
Manhattan  and  New  Amsterdam ;  but  the  English
under  colonel  Nichols  dispossessed  them  and  the
Swedes,  27  Aug.  1664,  and  changed  its  name,
the  king,  Charles  II.,  having  given  the  territory  to
his  brother,  the  duke  of  York.  Population  of  the
city,  in  i860,  805,651 ;  in  1870,  942,292  ;  in  1880,
1,206,299;  in  ^90,  1,515,301;  of  the  state  in  1880,
5,082,871;  in  1890,  5,997,853;  of  Albany,  the  state
capita],  in  1880,90,758;  in  1890,  94,923  ;  of  Brook-
lyn, in  1880,  566,663  ;  in  1890, 806,343 ;  of  Buffalo,
in  1880,  155,134;  in  1890,  255,664.
The  city  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of

Breda 24  Aug.  1667

Taken  by  the  Dutch,  and  named  New  Orange,  1673 ;

surrendered 1674

The  city  a  principal  point  of  the  struggle  for  inde-
pendence. It  surrendered  to  the  British  forces
under  general  Howe .... 15  Sept.  1776
The  city  was  evacuated  by  the  British;  "Evacua-
tion day  "  made  one  of  rejoicing  ever  since,  25  Nov.  1783
Academy  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  botanical  garden,

established  in 1804

Fire  here  ;  674  buildings  destroyed,  and  property

valued  at  nearly  20,000,000  dollars .  16  Dec. 1835

Astor  library  founded  by  John  Jacob  Astor  I.  ;  see

under  Libraries 1S39

Fire  ;  302  houses  burnt . . . .19  July,  1845
The  Park  theatre  destroyed  by  fire .  16  Dec.  1848

Serious  riot  (several  lives  lost)  at  the  theatre,
originating  in  a  dispute  between  Mr.  Macready
(English)  and  Mr. Forrest  (American), actors,

10  May,  1849
New  York  Times  first  appeared . . 18  Sept. 185 1
The  Crystal  Palace, containing  an  exhibition  of
goods  from  all  nations,  was  opened  in  the  presence
of  the  president  of  the  United  States  and  many
other  dignitaries .... 14  July,  1853
New  York  suffered  severely  by  large  commercial
failures,  and  ' '  hunger  demonstrations  "  took  place

during  the  panic Nov.  1857

The  Crystal  Palace  destroyed  by  fire . . 5  Oct.  1858
A  magnificent  cathedral  erected ....  1859
Great  fire  ;  about  50  lives  lost . . .2  Feb.  i860
During  the civil  war  of  1861  New  York  strongly
supported  the  government  of  president  Lincoln
(republican,  or  abolitionist) ;  but  during  1862  a
reaction  gradually  took  place,  and  the  opposition
(democrat)  candidates  for  congress  were  elected

by  large  majorities Nov.  1862

Fierce  riots  against  conscription ; many  persons

killed  and  much  property  destroyed 13-17  July,  1863
Barnum's  museum  burnt;  great  loss,  13  July,  1865  ;

again 2  March,  1868

Great  loss  and  panic  through James Fisk and

others  (the  Erie  Ring)  buying  up  gold,  22-26  Sept. 1869
Riot  through  an  Orange  procession ;  about  30  killed,

12  July,  1871

Disclosure  of  great  corruption  in  the  municipal

government  (termed "Tammany  frauds,"  from

the  council  meeting  in  Tammany  hall)  ;  public

meeting  to  obtain  prompt  redress . 4  Sept. „

The  Tammany  party  excluded  from  office  by  the

elections Nov. „

Demonstrations of the  International Society of

Workmen  repressed Dec. „

James  Fisk,  the  railway  and  financial  speculator,
assassinated  by  Edw.  Stokes,  through  jealousy ,

dies 7  Jan. 1872

Collapse  of  the  Erie  railway  ring,  ruled  by  Fisk  and

Jay Gould  ; new directors elected (including

generals  Dix  and  M'Clellan) . . March, ,,

Much  inconvenience  by  the  horse  disease . Oct. ,,

Legal  proceedings  against  Gould  suspended  ; he

agrees  to  give  up  to  the  company  9,000,000  dollars,

Dec. ,,
Stokes  convicted  of  murder ; 6  Jan.  ; new  trial,

sentenced  to  imprisonment  . . . .  30  Oct.  1873
Barnum's museum again  burnt ; menagerie de-
stroyed ;  reported Jan. „


NEW YOEK.


6S3


NEW  ZEALAND.


Financial  excitement  through  the  stoppage  of  Jay,
Cooke,  &  Co.  about  .  18  Sept.  1873

The  hon.  Wm.  M.  Tweed,  of  the  Tammany  Ring,
convicted of embezzlement (sentenced to 12
years'  imprisonment)  19  Nov. Tweed  permitted ,,
to  visit  his  own  house,  escapes . . 4  Dee. „

Death  of  W.  B.  Astor,  very  rich  merchant 24  Nov.  1875

Great  lire,  with  loss  of  life,  30  buildings  destroyed

8  Feb.  1876

Death  of  Alex.  T.  Stewart,  very  rich  merchant

10  April, ,,

Tweed  arrested  at  Vigo .... 8  Sept. ,,

Some  of  the  rocks  named  "  Hell  Gate,"  blown  up  to
improve  entrance  into  the  harbour . 24  Sept. „

"Commodore"  Vanderbilt,  a  "railway  king"  and
great  capitalist died  Jan.  1877

Tweed  discloses  the  system  of  the  "  Tammany
frauds,"  incriminating  many  persons  Sept. „

Abp.  Bayley  dies 3  Oct. ,,

Great  fire  at  Greenfield's  confectionery  works,  &c,
50  to  60  persons  perished . about  20  Dec. ,,

Elevated  street-railways  in  progress . . . 1877-8

Tweed  dies  in  gaol 12  April,  1878

International  exhibition  here  (in  1883)  proposed .  1880

Fall  of  O'Kelly,  the  "  boss  "  of  New  York ;  once
very  influential Dec. ,,

Abbey-park  theatre  burnt . . . .30  Oct. 1882

Peter  Cooper,  philanthropist,  founder  of  the  Cooper
Institute,  died  aged  92  ... 4  April,  1883

Bridge  from  New  York  to  Brooklyn,  5989  feet  long
(constructed  by  the  skill  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.
Washington  Rcebling),  begun  3  Jan  1870;  opened
24  May  ;  12  persons  killed  in  a  panic 30  May, ,,

New  Metropolitan  opera-house  opened . 22  Oct. ,,

Centenary  of  "  Evacuation  day  "  celebrated  26  Nov. „

The  Standard  theatre  burnt  . . .  14  Dec. „

Severe  panic  in  the  stock-market,  Wall-street,
checked 12-14  May,  1884

Attempt  to  kill  capt.  Phelan,  9  Jan. ;  to  kill
O'Donovan  Rossa  (see  Fenians) . . 2  Feb.  1885

Great  ironworkers  strike  ;  compromise 1-16  June, „

General  Grant's  funeral  (see  United  States) 8  Aug. ,,

About  nine  acres  of  rock  (Flood  rock)  in  Hell  Gate
channel  exploded  by  dynamite . . 10  Oct. ,,

Great  strike  on  S.W.  railway,  early  March,  1886  ;
men  submit .... about  31  March,  1886

Mr.  Abram  Hewitt  elected  mayor  in  opposition  to
Mr.  Henry  George .... 3  Nov. ,,

Alderman  McQuade  for  bribery,  &c,  sentenced  to
seven  years' imprisonment  and  fine . 20  Dec. ,,

Rev.  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  popular  preacher,  &c,  of
Plymouth church, Brooklyn, dies, aged 73,

8  March,  1887

Destructive  blizzard,  see  Storm . 11-13  March,  1888

Messrs.  Fairbank's  lard  refinery  works  and  other
establishments  on  the  river  side,  about  half  a
mile  in  extent,  burnt ;  two  persons  killed,  others
missing  ;  loss  about  S3, 000, 000  . 19,  20  April,  1889

Grand  Washington  celebration,  see  United  States,

29-30  April,  1  May, ,,

John  Jacob  Astor,  wealthy  benefactor  to  charities,
died 22  Feb.  1890

Western  Union  Telegraph  building  destroyed  by
explosion  and  fire  ;  great  loss . .  18  July, ,,

Great  fire  in  central  New  York  ;  estimated  loss
1,000,000  dollars . . . . .  30  July, ,,

Strike  of  servants  of  the  New  York  central  railway,
promoted  by  the  Knights  of  labour,  8  Aug. ;  de-
feated, 11  Aug.  ;  fresh  strike. . . 15  Aug. ,,

Temporary  financial  panic  connected  with  the
crisis  in  London ....  about  15  Nov. ,,

Many  commercial  failures,  about  10  Dec.  ;  confi-
dence restored  12  Dec. ,,

Clinton  state  prison  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  3  Jan.  1891

Great  snow-storm  ;  electric  light,  telegraph,  and
telephone  communication  stopped  . 24,  25  Jan. „

By  a  lire  in  Park-place  above  60  persons  perish

22  Aug. ,,

A  man  enters  the  office  of  Mr.  Russel  Sage,  de-
mands money,  and  causes  a  great  explosion  by
dynamite  by  which  he  himself  and  4  others  are.
killed 4  Dec. ,,

The  Hotel  Royal,  Sixth-avenue,  burnt ;  many
perish 7  Feb.  1892

Mr.  William  Astor  died . . . .  25  April, „

Oswego  lumber  district  nearly  destroyed  by  fire . ,,
about  21  May ,,
See  under  United  States.


NEW  ZEALAND  (in  the  Pacific  Ocean),
discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  The  country  re-
mained unknown,  and  was  supposed  to  be  part  of  a
southern  continent,  till  1769-70,  when  it  was  cir-
cumnavigated by  captain  Cook.  In  1773,  he
planted  several  spots  of  ground  on  this  island  with
European  garden  seeds;  and  in  1777,  he  found
some  fine  potatoes.  European  population  in  i860,
84,294;  Dec.  1865,  190,607;  1874,  310,895,  natives,
46,016;  in  1881,489,933;  1887, 603,34.0 Europeans,
and  4196  natives;  1891,  626,830.  1859,  imports,
1,551,030/.;  exports, "  551,484/.  ;  1874,  imports,
6,464,687/.;  exports,  5,610,371/.  ;  1887,  imports,
6,245,515/.;  exports,  6,865,169/.;  1890,  imports,
6,260,525/.;  exports,  9,811,720/.  1887-8,  revenue,
3,521,490/.;  expenditure,  4,082,634/.;  1890-91,
revenue,  4,208,029/.  ;  expenditure,  4,081,566/.
Public  debt,  1888,  38,758,437/. ;  1891,  38,830,350/.

The  right  of  Great  Britain  to  New  Zealand  recog-
nised at  the  peace  in 1814

No  constitutional  authority  placed  over  it  until  a

resident  subordinate  to  New  South  Wales  .  .  1833
New Zealand company established ;  Wellington

founded 1839

Capt.  Hobson,  the  first  governor,  landed,  29  Jan.  ;
treaty  of  Waitangi  signed,  by  which  the  chiefs
cede  a  large  amount  of  land  5  Feb. 1840

New  Zealand  an  independent  colony  and  a  bishop's

see April,  1841

Capt.  (aft.  adm.)Fitzroy,  governor,  Dec.  1843  to  Nov.  1845

Sir  George  Grey,  governor 1846

A  charter,  founded  upon  an  act  passed  in  1846,
creating  powers  municipal,  legislative,  and  ad-
ministrative 29  Dec.  1847

This  charter  was  not  acted  on  ;  a  legislative  council

opened  by  the  governor  . . . .20  Dec.  1848
Foundation  of  Auckland, 1840  ;  Nelson  and  Tara-
naki  (or  New  Plymouth),  1841  ;  Otago,  1848  ;  Can-
terbury 1850

New  Zealand  company  relinquish  charter .  ,,

New  constitution  granted 1852

Settlement of  Canterbury,  south  island,  founded

(capital  Christchurch) 1850-3

Col.  Wynyard,  governor . . Jan.  1854  to  Sept. 1855

Governor  Browne Oct. ,,

An  earthquake ;  not  much  damage  done, 23  Jan. ,,

Constitution  modified 1857

New  bishoprics  established :  Christ  Church,  1856  ;

Nelson  and  Wellington,  1858  ;  Waiapu  . .  1859

Insurrection  of  the  natives  (Maoris)  under  a  chief
named  William  Kmg(Wirrimu  Kingi),  arising  out
of  disputes  respecting  the  sale  of  land ;  the  bishop
Selwyn  and  others  consider  the  natives  unjustly

treated March,  i860

Indecisive  actions  between  the  militia  and  volun-
teers and  the  Maoris . . . 14-28  March, ,,
War  breaks  out  at  Taranaki ;  the  British  repulsed

with  loss 30  June, ,,

Great  excitement  in  Australia  ;  troops  sent  to  New

Zealand,  under  gen.  Pratt,  land  .  .  3  Aug.  ,,
Indecisive  actions  .  .  10,  19  Sept. ,  9,  12  Oct.  ,,
Gen.  Pratt  defeats  the  Maoris  at  Mahoetahi,  and

destroys  their  fortified  places . . 6  Nov. ,,
New  Zealaud  colonists  in  England  justify  the  con-
duct of  the  governor  . . . . 22  Nov. ,,
The  Maoris  defeated,  29  Dec.  i860;  23  Jan.,  24  Feb.

16-18  March,  1861
The  war  ends  :  surrender  of  natives . 19  March, ,,
Sir  George  Grey  re-appointed  governor . June, ,,
Gold  discovered  at  Otago,  &c. . . .  June, „
A  native  sovereignty  proclaimed  ;  5000  British  sol-
diers in  the  island July, ,,

Loyalty  of  the  natives  increasing . . May,  1862
The  Maori  chiefs  sign  a  poetical  address  of  condo-
lence to  the  queen  on  the  death  of  the  prince  con-
sort ;  received Nov. ,,

Natives  attack  a  military  escort  and  kill  8  persons,

4  .May,  1S63
Waikato  tribe  driven  from  a  fort . . 17  July, ,,
War  spreads  ;  natives  construct  rifle  pits . Aug. ,,
Proposed  confiscation  of  Waikato  lands  . .  Sept. ,,
Gen.  Cameron  severely  defeats  the  Maoris  at Ran-
gariri 20  Nov. ,,


NEW  ZEALAND.


6ii


NEY'S EXECUTION.


Continued  success  of  gen.  Cameron  ;  capitulation  of

the  Maori  king 9  Dec. 1863

British  attack  on  Galepa  (the  gate  pah)  repulsed

with  loss  of  officers  and  men . . 29  April,  1864
Loan  of  1,000,000?.  to  New  Zealand  ;  guaranteed  by

parliament July, ,,

Several  tribes  submit ... . . . Aug. „

Maori  prisoners  escape  and  form  the  nucleus  of  a
new  insurrection . . . . - .  Sept. ,,

Sir  George  Grey  issues  proposals  of  peace,  25  Oct. ;
the  Aborigines  Protection  Society  send  religious,
moral,  and  political  advice  to  the  Maoris  (con-
sidered injudicious)  .... Nov. ,,

Change  of  ministry  and  policy  ;  seat  of  government
to  be  removed  from  Auckland  to  Wellington  on

Cook's  Strait 24  Nov. „

Maoris'  attack  on  Cameron  severely  defeated,  25

Jan.  ;  again 25  Feb.  1865

Outbreak  of  the  Pai  Mariri  or  Hau-hau  heresy,  a
compound  of  Judaism  and  paganism,  amongst
the  Maoris  ;  the  rev.  C.  S.  Volkner  murdered  and
many  outrages  committed,  2  March ;  proclamation
of  governor  sir  George  Grey  against  it;  it  is  checked
by  the  agency  of  a  friendly  native  chief  We-tako,

April, „
William  Thompson,  an  eminent  chief,  surrenders

on  behalf  of  the  Maori  king . . 25  May, „
New  Zealand  still  unsettled . . . July, ,,
The Hau-haus  beaten in  several  conflicts,  Aug.  ;
the  governor  proclaims  peace,  2  Sept.  ;  British
troops  about  to  leave . . . .15  Sept. ,,
The  Maoris  treacherously  kill  the  envoys  of  peace  ;
resignation  of  the  Weld  ministry  ;  one  formed  by

Mr.  Stafford Oct. „

Bishopric  of  Dunedin,  Otago,  founded . .  ,,

General  Chute  subdues  the  Hau-haus  . . Jan. 1866
Progress  of  peace  measures . . . April, ,,
Murderers  of  Mr.  Volkner  executed .  17  May, ,,

Governor  announces  cessation  of  the  war,  3  July,  „
Death  of  Wm.  Thompson,  the  Maori  chief,  28  Dec.  ,,
Sir  George F. Bowen appointed  to  succeed  sir

George  Grey  ;  gazetted ... 19  Nov. 1867
Act  relating  to  the  government  of  New  Zealand

passed  in  the  British  parliament  .... 1868
Geo.  Samuel  Evans  (an  eminent  colonist,  i838-9)dies -

23  Sept. ,,

Te  Kooti,  a  chief,  and  about  150  Maori  convicts,

escape  from  Chatham island  to  the  mainland,

4  July ;  they  repulse  troops  sent  against  them,

7  Sept.  ;  massacre  the  whites  at  Poverty  Bay,

10  Nov. ,,
Te  Kooti  and  the  rebels  defeated  by  col.  Whitmore ;

130  Maoris  killed 5  Jan.  1869

Massacre  of  settlers  at  Taranaki . . 12  Feb. ,,
Change  of  ministry  :  hon.  Mr.  Fox's  proposal  to
pay for  British  troops  declined  by  the  home

government Sept. „

Te  Kooti,  thrice  defeated  by  the  colonists  and  friendly

natives,  a  fugitive Oct. „

Despatch  from  earl  Granville, insisting on the
withdrawal  of  the  British  troops  (18th  regiment)
causes  much  dissatisfaction  ... 7  Oct. ,,
Friendly  interview  between  Mr. McLean  and  the

Maori  king's  minister . . . .8  Nov. ,,
Increased demand for  the  New  Zealand  fibrous

plant,  Phormium  tenax 1869-70

Departure  of  the  last  British  troops . .  22  Jan. 1870
Te Kooti,  refusing  to  surrender  at  discretion,  24

Jan. ,  narrowly  escapes  . . . . 5  Feb. ,,
Te  Kooti's  party  attacked  and  dispersed  ;his  speedy

capture  anticipated  ....  31  July, ,,
The  duke  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  Galatea,  at  Welling-
ton 27  Aug. „

Increase  of  prosperity  reported  ;  loan  of  4,000,000?,.

proposed Aug. „

Political  union  of  the  islands  effected  .  .  Aug.  ,,
Murder  of  Mr.  Todd,  surveyor,  by  Maoris,  28  Dec.  „
Te  Kooti  reported  as  living  by  plunder  ;  acting  as  a

fanatical  potentate Nov.  1871

Friendly  meeting  of  Mr.  McLean  with  Wirrimu
Kingi  and  other  chiefs,  who  submit  to  the  British

government March,  1872

Mr.  Stafford's  ministry  resigns,  succeeded  by  one

under  Mr.  Waterhouse  (the  Fox  party)  about  Oct. ,,
Sir  James  Fergusson  appointed  governor, March,  1873
The  marquis  of  Normanby  governor . . Nov.  1874
The  Maori  king  submits  to  the  British  government

Feb.  1875


The colony  reported highly prosperous by sir

Julius  Vogel,  ex-premier . . .31  Oct. 1877
Sir  Hercules  G.  R.  Robinson,  governor  . Dee.  1878

Disputes with the Maoris  ; they  expel British
settlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki ; and

plough  the  land 25  May,  1879

The  settlers  recover  their  land  by  force 22  June, „
Great  influence  of  Erueti,  now  Te  Whiti,  a  fanati-
cal Christian  Maori,  aged  45  ;  he  supports  Maori
claims,  but  checks  bloodshed . . . . ,,
Sir  George  Grey,  too  energetic  liberal  premier,  com-
pelled to  resign';  succeeded  by  Hon.  John  Hall,

Oct. „
Sir  Arthur  Hamilton  Gordon  appointed  governor .  1880
Apprehended  outbreak  at  Parihaka  under  the  Maori

chief,  Te  Whiti;  volunteers  coming  forward  3iOct.  1881
Te  Whiti  arrested  for  sedition announced  6  Nov. ,,
He  counsels  passive  resistance  . . 8  Nov. ,,

124  arrests .... announced  17  Nov. ,,
Difficulty  peaceably  settled . announced  3  Dec. ,,
Resignation  of  the  Hall  ministry .  about  10  April  1882
Public  debt,  31,400,000?,. ... 31  March, „
Sir  William  Jervoise,  governor  . . .  ,,

Several  Maori  chiefs  in  London  ;  received  by  the

prince  of  Wales,  17  Aug.  ;  sail  for  home 7  Sept. ,,
Release  of  Te  Whiti,  John,  and  others  8  March,  1883

Mahuki  and  20  others  sentenced  to  imprisonment

for  outrages ....  about  7  May, ,,

Communication  between  New  Zealand  and  the
Thames  by  steamers ;  time  reduced  to  40  days
(14,000  carcases  of  sheep  brought)  .  .  Dec.  ,,
Tawhaio,  the  Maori  king,  arrives  in  London,  2
June  ;  visits  theatres,  &c,  and  receives  visitors  ;
received  by  the  earl  of  Derby ;  appeals  for  redress,
referring  to  the  treaty  of  Waitangi  (1840),  22  July  ;
sails  from  Gravesend  ...  20  Aug.  1884

Mr.  H.  A.  Atkinson  forms  a  ministry, 28  Aug.  ;

resigns  30  Aug ,,

Lieut.  Bryce,  colonial  native  minister,  v.  G.  W.
Rusden,  for  gross  libel  in  "  History  of  New
Zealand,"  charging  him  with  cruelty  &c.  to  the
Maoris  ;  damages  awarded,  5,000?.  12  March,  1886
Destructive  volcanic  eruption  of  Tarawera  moun-
tain ;  about  60  miles  of  beautiful  fertile  country
desolated  by  showers  of  lava,  hot  cinders,  and.
mud ;  about  100  persons  killed ;  Wairoa  de-
stroyed 9,  10  June, ,,

The  Maori  king  reconciled,  sits  in  the  legislative

council May, „

Maori  incursions  on  European  lands  . . July, ,,
Ministry  resign 30  Sept.  ; Mr. H. A. Atkinson

forms  a  ministry 9  Oct.  1887

The  earl  of  Onslow,  governor . .  Nov.  188S

The  debate  on  the  Representation  bill  to  increase

the  number  of  country  members  of  parliament  at

Wellington  lasted  76  hours,  adjourned  27  July  ;

amicable  arrangement  between  town  and  country

parties 29  July,  1889

International  exhibition  at  Dunedin  opened

about  26  Nov. ,,
Rev. A. B. Suter, bishop  of Nelson, declared

primate Dec. „

A  shipping  strike  begun  at  Wellington  5  Sept.,

ended 31  Oct.  1890.

Resignation  of  ministry  ;  new  cabinet  under  hon.

J.  Ballance 24  Jan.  1891

First  visit  to  the  Uriwera  country,  North  Island  ;
the  earl  of  Onslow  well  received  by  the  Maoris,
reported  April ;  he  resigns . . . Nov. ,,
Women  authorized  to  serve  in  parliament  and  to
vote,  at  elections,  4  Sept. ;  the  bill  rejected  by
the  legislative  council ... 10  Sept. „
The  earl  of  Glasgow  appointed  governor .  :Feb.  1892
Sir  George  Grey's  80th  birthday  enthusiastically

celebrated .... about  14  April. ,,
Tawhaio,  the  2nd  Maori  king,  accepts  a  pension,

May, ,,
Buckley  v.  Edwards,  see  under  Judges . 21  May, ,,
Two  Americans,  Messrs.  Witham  and  Webster's  old
claim  for  compensation  for  seizure  of  land,  pur-
chased from  native  chiefs  ;  the  senate  of  U.S.A.
recommend  arbitration ... 26  May, ,,
Arrival  of  the  earl  of  Glasgow  . . . 7  June, ,,

NEY'S  EXECUTION.  Ney,  duke  of  El-
chingen,  prince  of  the  Moskwa,  and  one  of  the  most
valiant  of  the  marshals  of  France, was  shot  as  a


NEZIB.


685


NICARAGUA.


traitor,  7  Dec.  1815. On  7  Dec. 1853,  his  statue
was  erected  on  the  spot  where  he  fell.

After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  I.,  5  April,  18 14,  Ney
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  Louis  XVIII.
On  Napoleon's  return  to  Prance  from  Elba,  he  inarched
against  him  ;  but  his  troops  deserting,  he  regarded  the
cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  lost,  and  opened  the  invader's
way  to  Paris,  March,  1815.  Ney  led  the  attack  of  the
French  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  in  the  midst  of
the  slain,  his  clothes  pierced  with  bullet-holes,  five
horses  having  been  shot  under  him  ;  night  and  defeat
obliged  him  to  flee.  Though  included  in  the  decree  of
24  July,  1815,  which  guaranteed  the  safety  of  all
Frenchmen,  he  was  sought  out,  and  on  5  Aug.  taken
at  the  castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  and  brought  to  trial
before  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  4  Dec.  The  12th  article
of  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  fixing  a  general  amnesty,
was  quoted  in  his  favour  in  vain.

NEZIB,  Syria.  Here  Ibrahim  and  the
Egyptians  defeated  the  Turks,  24  June,  1839.

NIAGARA  (N.  America) .  At  the  head  of  this
river,  on  the  western  shore,  is  Fort  Erie,  which  was
taken  by  the  English,  24  July,  1759.  It  was
abandoned  in  the  war  with  the  United  States,  27
May,  1813,  but  was  retaken,  19  Dec.  following.  A
suspension  bridge  of  a  single  span  of  820  feet  over
the  Niagara,  connecting  the  railways  of  Canada
and  New  York,  was  opened  in  March,  1855.  It  is
elevated  18  feet  on  the  Canadian,  and  28  feet  on  the
American  side.

About  eighteen  miles  below  Fort  Erie  are  the  remarkable
falls.  The  river  is  here  740  yards  wide  ;  the  half-mile
immediately  above  the  cataracts  is  a  rapid,  in  which
the  water  falls  58  feet ;  it  is  then  thrown,  with  aston-
ishing grandeur,  down  a  stupendous  precipice  of  150
feet  perpendicular,  in  three  distinct  and  collateral
sheets  ;  and,  in  a  rapid  that  extends  to  the  distance  of
nine  miles  below,  falls  nearly  as  much  more.  The  river
then  flows  in  a  deep  channel  till  it  enters  lake  Ontario,
at  Fort  Niagara.

The  falls  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  Sept.  i860.

Blondin  crossed  the  falls  on  a  tight  rope,  17  Aug.  1859.

Professor  Tyndall  visited  the  falls,  Nov.,  1872,  and  lec-
tured on  them  at  the  Royal  Institution,  4  April,  1873.

Company  formed  to  utilize  its  water  power  mechani-
cally, 1877.

Capt.  Matt  Webb  drowned  while  attempting  to  swim
across  the  whirlpool  rapids,  24  July,  1883.

Niagara  international  park  purchased  by  the  U.S.  govern-
ment, opened  15  July,  1885.

Mr.  Carlisle  D.  Graham,  an  Englishman,  passed  through
the  rapids  safely  in  a  barrel  shaped  like  a  buoy,  seven
feet  long,  n  July,  1886;  again,  15  June,  1887.

Wm.  J.  Kendall  in  a  cork  vest  swims  tlu'ough  the
rapids,  22  Aug.  1886.

The  huge  upper  table  rock  fell,  due  to  weight  of
accumulated  ice,  13  Jan.  1887.

Mr.  Hollingshead's  grand  "  cyclorama "  of  Niagara,
London,  opened  12  March,  1888,  closed  29  Nov.  1890.

Mr.  Carlisle  D.  Graham  after  long  preparation  said  to
have  "  shot  Niagara  (rapids)  in  a  barrel"  25  Aug.  1889

Mr.  Dixon  crosses  Niagara  river  below  the  falls  on  a
wire  rope,  6  Sept.  1890.

An  international  commission  (president,  sir  Win.  Thom-
son, afterwards  lord  Kelvin)  was  appointed  to  consider
the  best  method  for  utilizing  125,000  horse-power,  of
the  force  of  the  Niagara  falls,  which  is  computed  to  be
about  4,500,000  horse-power.  Prizes  were  given  by  the
Cataract  company  to  the  authors  of  various  projects
9  Feb.  1 89 1.

In  the  Times  of  8  June,  1892,  professor  George  Forbes,
who  was  engaged  in  the  undertaking,  reported  that
the  engineering  works  were  nearly  completed,  and
that  the  electrical  arrangements  by  which  the  vast
force  was  to  be  transmitted,  were  begun.

The  force  is  to  be  used  in  factories,  in  lighting  Niagara
Falls  city,  and  in  working  railways,  probably  in  1893.

NIBELUNGE  NOTorNlBELUNGEN-LlED,
a  popular  German  epic  of  the  12th  century,  com-
posed of  various  ancient  mythical  poems,  termed
6agas ;  which  according  to  the  poet  Wm.  Morris,


should  be to our race  what  Homer  was  to the
Greeks.

The  first  critical  edition,  by  K.  Lachmann,  appeared  1826
and  1846.  The  best  translation  in  modern  German,  by
Simrock,  1827;  a  useful  edition,  with  translation  and
glossary,  by  L.  Braunfels,  1846  ;  in  English,  by  W.  N.
Lettsoin,  2nd  ed.  1874.

Richard  Wagner's  musical  dramas,  "The  Ring  of  the
Nibelungen,"  are  based  on  this  poem  :  the  persons  in-
clude the  great  Northern  gods  and  goddesses,  the  giants,
the  dwarfs,  and  the  daughters  of  the  Rhine  (see  under
Music).

NIC.EA,  see  Nice.

NICARAGUA,  a  state  in  Central  America
{which  see).  The  present  constitution  was  estab-
lished 19  Aug.  1858.  At  the  commencement  of  1855
it  was  greatly  disturbed  by  two  political  parties :
that  of  the  president,  Chamorro,  who  held  Granada,
the  capital,  and  that  of  the  democratic  chief,
Castellon,"  who  held  Leon.  The  latter  invited
Walker,  the  filibuster,  to  his  assistance,  who  in  a
short  time  became  sole  dictator  of  the  state.*  By
the  united  efforts  of  the  confederated  states  the
filibusters  were  all  expelled  in  May,  1857.  On
1  May,  1858,  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  appealed  to
the  great  European  powers  for  protection.  Nicaragua
railway,  a  transit  route  between  the  Pacific  and
Atlantic,  proposed,  and  company  formed  Nov.  1866.
President  T.  Martinez  elected,  1859  and  1863 ;
Fernando  Guzman,  elected  1  March,  1867;  Vicente
Quadra  elected  1  Feb.  1871 ;  Pedro  Joaquin  Cha-
morro, 1  Feb.  1875  ;  Joaquin  Zavala,  1  March,
1879  J Dr. Adam Cardenas,  Jan. 1883 ; Seflor

*  William  Walker  was  born  at  Tennessee,  in  the
United  States,  where  he  became  successively  doctor,
lawyer,  and  journalist,  and  afterwards  gold-seeker  in
California,  whence  he  was  invited  to  Nicaragua  by
Castellon,  with  the  promise  of  52,000  acres  of  land,  ou
condition  of  bringing  with  him  a  band  of  adventurers  to
sustain  the  revolutionary  cause.  Walker  accepted  the
terms,  and  on  28  June  landed  at  Realejo  with  68  men.
He  increased  his  forces  at  Leon,  aud  soon  after  attacked
the  town  of  Rivas,  where  he  was  repulsed  with  loss.
He  then  joined  col.  Kinney,  who  had  occupied  and
governed  Grey  Town,  6  Sept.  On  13  Oct.  Walker  cap-
tured Grenada  by  surprise  when  in  a  defenceless  state,
shot  Mayorga,  one  of  the  ministers,  and  established  a
rule  of  terror.  By  intervention  of  the  American  consul
he  made  peace  with  the  general  of  the  state  army,  Corral,
but  shot  him  on  7  Nov. ,  on  finding  him  corresponding
with  fugitives  at  Costa  Rica.  Walker  at  first  was  only
general-in-chief ;  but  on  Rivas,  whom  he  had  made
president,  deserting  him,  he  became  sole  dictator.  On
14  May,  1856,  his  envoy  Vijil  was  recognised  by  the
president  of  the  United  States,  whence  also  he  obtained
reinforcements  during  his  retention  of  power.  Costa  Rica
declared  war  against  him,  28  Feb.  1856  ;  the  other  states
of  central  America  soon  followed  the  example,  and  a
sanguinary  struggle  ensued,  lasting  till  May,  1857.  On
25  Nov.  1856,  Walker  totally  burnt  Grenada,  being  unable
to  defend  it,  and  removed  the  seat  of  government  to
Rivas.  This  place  he  surrendered  to  gen.  Mora  on  1  May,
1857,  on  the  intervention  of  capt.  Davis,  of  the  St.  Mary's,
U.S.  Himself,  his  staff,  and  260  men,  were  conveyed  in
that  vessel  to  New  Orleans,  where  they  were  received  witli
great  enthusiasm.  On  25  Nov.,  1857,  he  again  invaded
Nicaragua,  landing  at  Punta  Arenas  with  400  men  ;  but
on  8  Dec.  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  capt.  Paulding,
U.S.,  and  was  conveyed  to  New  York.  He  escaped
punishment  by  nolle  prosequi  (2  June,  1858):  but  capt.
Paulding  was  tried  for  exceeding  orders,  aud  blamed —
yet  excused  by  president  Buchanan.  On  5  Aug.  1S60,
Walker  landed  near  Truxillo,  Honduras,  and  took  the
fort  on  the  6th.  On  the  7th  he  proclaimed  that  he  made
war  on  the  government,  not  on  the  people  of  Honduras.
On  being  summoned  to  surrender  his  booty  by  capt.
Salmon,  R.N. ,  of  the  Icarus,  he  refused,  and  fled.  He
was  pursued,  caught,  given  up  to  the  Honduras  govern-
ment, tried,  and  shot  (12  Sept.).  His  followers  were
dismissed.  Grey  Town  was  surrendered  to  Nicaragua  in
i860.


NICE.


686


NIGHTINGALE FUND.


Carazo,  16  Dec.  1886.  Don  Benjamin  Guera,  1889  ?
Senor  Bobert  Sacasa,  1889.  Population  in  1888,
282,845.

Louis  Napoleon,  afterwards  emperor,  proposed  the
making  a  ship  canal  by  the  lake  Nicaragua  from  the
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  between  1842-4  ;  the  govern-
ment of  Nicaragua  proposed  it  in  1846  ;  colonel  ChiMs
made  a  survey  in  1851 ;  a  company  was  chartered  for
85  years,  and  conventions  were  signed,  but  the  capi-
talists declined  their  support.
The  scheme  was  revived  in  Feb.  1875. See  Panama  ;  and

Loans.
Treaty  by  which  the  United  States  may  construct  a
canal  (Menseall's  plan)  from  San  Juan  (Grey  Town)
on  the  Caribbean  sea  to  Brito,  on  the  Pacific,  with
equal  powers  ;  contrary  to  the  Bulwer  Clayton  treaty,
which  see,  about  16  Dec.  1884 ;  rejected  by  the  United
States  legislature,  30  Jan.  188=;.
The  senate  and  house  pass  the  Nicaragua  canal  bill,  !

7  Feb.  1889.
The  construction  of  a  breakwater  at  Grey  Town  begun

June,  1889.
Death  of  sig.  Carazo ;  Dr.  Sacaza  elected  president :  re-
ported 2  Aug.  1889  ;  re-elected  about  9  Oct.  1890.
Tue  construction  of  the  Nicaragua  canal  begun  22  Oct.
1889 ;  the  bill  for  it,  abandoned  by  the  U.S.A.  senate,
27  Feb.  1891.
Insurrection  in  Granada  suppressed  with  bloodshed  (the
leaders  exiled),  23  Aug.  1891.

NICE  or  Ntc.t.a,  a  town  in  Bithynia,  Asia
Minor,  N.  TV.  Antigonus  gave  it  the  name  Anti-
goneia,  which  Lysimachus  changed  to  Nicaea,  the
name  of  his  wife.  It  became  the  residence  of  the
kings  of  Bithynia  about  208  B.C.  At  the  battle  of
ISTice,  a.d.  194,  the  emperor  Severus  defeated  his
rival,  Pescennius  Niger,  who  was  again  defeated  at
Issus,  and  soon  after  taken  prisoner  and  put  to
death.  The  first  general  council  was  held  here  19
June  to  25  Aug.  325,  which  adopted  the  Nicexe
Creed  and  condemned  the  Arians.  It  was  attended
by  318  bishops  from  divers  parts,  who  settled  both
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and.  the  time  for  observing
Easter.  An  addition  was  made  to  the  creed,  381 ;
was  rejected,  431.  See  Filioque.  When  the  Cru-
saders took  Constantinople,  and  established  a  Latin
empire  there  in  1204,  the  Greek  emperors  removed
to  Nice  and  reigned  there  till  1261,  when  they  re-
turned to  Constantinople ;  see  Eastern  Empire.
Nice  was  taken  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  in  1330.

NICE  (S.  E.  France)  was  the  seat  of  a  colony
from  Massilia,  now  Marseilles,  and  formed  part  of  the
Soman  empire.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  subject
to  Genoa,  and  suffered  from  the  frequent  wars,
being  taken  and  re-taken  by  the  imperialists  and
French.  It  was  taken  by  the  Austrians  under
Melas,  1800;  seized  and  annexed  to  France  1792;
restored  to  Sardinia  in  1814.  Nice  was  again
annexed  to  France  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  24
March,  i860;  the  people  having  voted  nearly
unanimously  for  this  change  by  universal  suffrage.
The  French  troops  entered  1  April,  and  definite
possession  was  taken  14  June  following.  Garibaldi,
a  native,  vehemently  protested  against  this  annexa-
tion.
Fire  at  the  opera  house,  and  panic,  about  70  killed,

23  March,  1881
International  exhibition  ....  6  Jan.  1884
About  90  acres  of  forest  destroyed  by  fire  ;  three  persons

perish  ...."...  27  Feb.  1891
Statue  of  Garibaldi  unveiled . . . 4  Oct. ,.

NICIAS,  PEACE  OF,  between  Athens  and
Sparta  for  50  years,  421  B.C.,  negotiated  by  that
unfortunate  Athenian  general,  who  with  his  col-
league, Demosthenes,  was  put  to  death  after  the
disastrous  termination  of  the  expedition  against
Syracuse,  413  B.C.

NICKEL,  a  white,  ductile,  malleable,  magnetic
metal,  employed in  the  manufacture  of  German


silver. Cronstedt  in  1 75 1  discovered  nickel  in  the
mineral  copper-nickel. Nickel  ordered  to  be  sub-
stituted for  bronze  coinage  in  France,  1882.
The  nickel  heat  engine  of  professor  Stefan  of  Vienna  in
1885,  consisted  of  plates  of  nickel  fixed  on  a wheel
which  rotated  when  the  metal  was  heated,  in  the
presence  of  a  magnet. Similar  machines  have  been
constructed  by  E.  Berliner,  1885,  Edison, 1887,  and
F.  J.  Smith,  1892.

NICOBAE  ISLES,  Indian  Ocean,  S.  of  Bay

of  Bengal,  given  up  by  Denmark  and  occupied  by
Great  Britain  to  suppress  piracy ;  announced  June,
1869.

..  NICOLAITANES,  a  sect  mentioned  in  Rev.
ii.  6,  15,  said  to  have  sprung  from  Nicolas,  one  of
the  first  seven  deacons  {Acts  vi.),  and  to  have
advocated  a  community  of  wives,  and  to  have  denied
the  divinity  of  Christ.

NICOaLEDIA,  the  metropolis  of  Bithynia,  Asia
Minor,  N.  AY.,  founded  by  king  Nieomedes  I.,  264
B.C.,  on  the  remains  of  Astacus ;  destroyed  by  an
earthquake,  a.d.  1 15;  and  restored  by  the  emperor
Adrian,  124.  The  Eoman  emperors  frequently
resided  here  during  their  eastern  wars.  Here
Diocletian  resigned  the  purple,  305 ;  and  Constan-
tine  died  at  his  villa  in  its  neighbourhood,  337.  It
surrendered  to  the  Seljukian  Turks,  1078  ;  and  to
Orehan  and  the  Ottoman  Turks  in  1338.

NICOPOLIS,  on  the  Danube,  Bulgaria,
founded  by  Trajan.  Here  was  fought  a  battle  be-
tween the  allied  Christian  powers  under  Sigis-
mund,  king  of  Hungary,  afterwards  emperor,  and
the  Turks  under  Bajazet;  said  to  have  been  the
first  battle  between  the  Turks  and  Christians ;  the
latter  were  defeated,  losing  20,000  slain,  and  as
many  wounded  and  prisoners,  28  Sept.  1396.  Ni-
copolis  was  taken  by  the  Eussians  after  a  severe
conflict  (2  pashas,  about  6000  men,  2  monitors,
and  40  guns  were  captured),  15,  16  July,  1877.

NLELLO-WORK,  believed  to  have  been  pro-
duced by  rubbing  a  mixture  of  silver,  lead,  copper,
sulphur,  and  borax  into  engravings  on  silver,  &c,
an  art  known  to  the  ancients,  was  practised  in  the
middle  ages,  and  said  to  have  given  to  Maso
Finiguerra  the  idea  of  engraving  upon  copper,  about
1460.

NIE MEN,  or  AlEiiEL,  a  river  flowing  into  the
Baltic,  and  separating  Prussia  from  Eussia.  On  a  raft
on  this  river  the  emperor  Napoleon  met  Alexander
of  Eussia,  22  June  1807,  and  made  peace  with  him
and  Prussia.  He  crossed  the  Niemen  to  invade
Eussia,  24  June,  1812,  and  re-crossed  with  the
remains  of  his  army,  28  Dec.  Near  it  the  Poles
defeated  the  Eussians  27  May,  1831.

NIGEE.  A  great  river  of  N."W.  Africa.  British
settlements  at  the  mouth  established  since  1841.
Niger  expedition,  see  Africa,  1841.  British  protec-
torate with  free  trade  affirmed  by  the  West  African
Conference  at  Berlin,  Dec.  1884 ;  confirmed  June,
1885.

The  National  African  company  incorporated  in  1882  ;
chartered  as  the  Royal  Niger  company  in  1886.
Complaints  against  the  company  made  by  Germans  in
Africa,  Nov.  ;  were  rebutted  by  the  company,
Dec.  1889.
The  company  reported  prospering,  29  July,  1890.
Samuel  Adjai  Crowther,  a  native  African,  first  bishop  of
the  Niger  territory,  rescued  when  a  child  from  a  slave-
ship  by  the  British,  and  taken  to  Sierra  Leone  1822  ;
baptised  and  educated  ;  became  a  missionary  ;  con-
secrated at  Canterbury  cathedral,  1864;  died  31  Dec,
1891.

NIGHTINGALE  FUND.  On  21  Oct.  1854,
Miss Florence Nightingale  left  England  with a


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NIRVANA.


638


NON-CONFORMISTS.


NIRVANA,  see  Buddhism.

NISBET  or  NESBIT  (Northumberland).  Here
.a  battle  was  fought  between  the  English  and
Scotch  armies,  the  latter  greatly  disproportioned  in
strength  to  the  former.  Several  thousands  of  the
Scots  were  slain  upon  the  field  and  in  the  pursuit,
7  May,  1402.

NISERO. See  Acheen.

NISI  PRIITS  ("unless  before"),  words  in  a
writ  summoning  a  person  to  be  tried  at  Westmin-
ster, unless  the  judges  should  come  to  hold  their
assizes  in  the  place  where  he  is.  Judges  sit  in
Middlesex  by  virtue  of  18  Eliz.  c.  12  (1576).

NISMES  (Nimes),  S.  France,  was  the  flourish-
ing Roman  colony,  Nemausus.  Its  noble  amphi-
theatre was  injured  by  the  English  in  141 7.  The
Inhabitants  embraced  Protestantism,  and  suffered
much  persecution  in  consequence,  and  Nismes  has
frequently  been  the  scene  of  religious  and  political
■contests.  The  treaty  termed  the  Pacification  of
Nismes  (14  July,  1629)  gave  religious  toleration  for
a  time  to  the  Huguenots.

NITRE,  see  Saltpetre.

NITRIC  ACID,  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and
oxygen,  formerly  called  aqua  fortis,  is  said  to  have
been  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  Kaymond
Lully,  an  alchemist,  about  1287;  but  we  are  in-
debted to  Cavendish,  Priestley,  and  Lavoisier  for
our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties.  H.
■Cavendish  demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid
in  1785.  Nitrous  acid  was  discovered  by  Scheele
about  1774.  Nitrous  gas  was  accidentally  dis-
covered by  Dr.  Hales.  Nitrous  oxide  gas  (laugh-
ing gas)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley  in  1776.
The  use  of  this  gas  as  an  anaesthetic,  recommended
by  H.  Davey  in  1800,  was  begun  in  America  (by
Mr.  "Wells,  a  dentist),  1844;  in  Paris,  1866;  in
London,  31  March,  1868,  ingenious  apparatus
iiaving  been  invented  for  its  application.

NITROGEN  or  AZOTE  (from  the  Greek  a,  no,
and  zao  or  zo,  I  live),  an  irrespirable  elementary
gas,  and  an  important  element  in-  food,  discovered
by  Rutherford  about  1 772.  Before  1777,  Scheele
separated  the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  the  nitrogen,
and  almost  simultaneously  with  Lavoisier  dis-
covered that  the  atmosphere  is  a  mixture  of  these
two  gases.  Nitrogen  combined  with  hydrogen
forms  the  volatile  alkali  ammonia,  so  freely  given
■off  by  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  bodies.

NITRO-GLYCERINE  (also  called  Nitro-
jLETJM),  an  intensely  explosive  amber-like  fluid,
discovered  by  Sobrero  in  1847,  is  produced  by  add-
ing glycerine  (in  successive  small  quantities)  to  a
mixture  of  one  part  of  nitric  acid,  and  two  parts
of  sulphuric  acid.  Alfred  Nobel,  a  Swede,  first
attempted  its  application  as  an  explosive  agent,  in
1864.  It  has  caused  several  most  disastrous  acci-
dents, with  great  loss  of  life.  In  attempting  to
bury  some  nitro-glycerine  in  the  town  moor  at
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  17  Dec.  1867,  an  explosion
took  place,  and  seven  persons  lost  their  lives,  in-
cluding Mr.  Mawson,  the  sheriff,  and  Mr.  Bryson,
town  surveyor ;  see  Dynamite.  Mr.  Alfred  Nobel's
nitro-glyccrinc  manufactory,  near  Stockholm,  blown
up;  15  persons  killed,  many  injured,  10  June,
1868.  An  act  prohibiting  its  importation  for  a  time,
and  regulating  its  transmission,  was  passed  in  1869,
and  repealed  by  the  Explosives  Act  of  1875.  Secret
manufacture  discovered,  see  Birmingham,  1883.

NIZAM,  see  Hyderabad.


NOBILITY.  The  Goths,  after  they  had  seized
a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes  with  titles
of  honour,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  common
people.  The  right  of  peerage  seems  to  have  been
at  first  territorial.  Patents  to  persons  having  no
estate  were  first  granted  by  Philip  the  Fair  of
France,  1095.  George  Neville,  duke  of  Bedford
(son  of  John,  marquis  of  Montague),  ennobled  in
1470,  was  degraded  from  the  peerage  by  parliament,
on  account  of  his  utter  want  of  property,  19  Edw.
IV.,  1478.  Noblemen's  privileges  were  restrained
in  June,  1773 ;  see  Lords,  and  the  various  orders  of
the  nobility.

In  1845  a  statistical  writer  said  that  there  were  500,000
nobles  in  Russia,  239,000  in  Austria ;  in  Spain  (in
1780),  470,000 ;  in  France  (before  1790)  360,000  (of
whom  4,120  were  of  the  ancienne  noblesse);  in  the
United  Kingdom,  1,631  with  transmissible  titles  (dukes
to  baronets).

NOBILITY  OE  FRANCE  preceded  that  of
England.  On  18  June,  1790,  the  National  Assembly
decreed  that  hereditary  nobility  could  not  exist  in
a  free  state ;  that  the  titles  of  dukes,  counts,
marquises,  knights,  barons,  excellencies,  abbots,
and  others,  be  abolished ;  that  all  citizens  take
their  family  names ;  liveries  and  armorial  bearings
also  to  be  abolished.  The  records  of  the  nobility,
600  volumes,  were  burnt  at  the  foot  of  the  statue
of  Louis  XIV.,  25  June,  1792.  A  new  nobility  was
created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  I.,  1808.  The
hereditary  peerage  was  abolished  27  Dec.  1831  ;  re-
instituted  by  Napoleon  III.,  1852.

NOBLE,  an  English  gold  coin  (value  6s.  8d.),
first  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  1343  or
1344,  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  excel-
lency of  the  metal  of  which  it  was  composed.

NOCTURNE,  a  name  given  by  John  Field
(who  died  1837)  to  anew  and  very  pleasing  musical
composition.  He  was  followed  very  successfully
by  Chopin,  who  died,  1849.  The  term  was  adopted
by  Mr.  Whistler,  the  artist,  for  his  night  pieces,
in  which  he  began  with  line,  form,  and  colour,
1877-8.

"NOLUMUS  LEGES  ANGLIC  MU-
TARI,"  see  Bastards,  and  Merton.

NOMINALISTS  (or  Concepttjalists),^

scholastic  sect,  opposed  to  the  Realists,  maintain
that  general  ideas  have  no  existence  outside  our
minds,  and  only  exist  by  the  names  we  give  them.
The  founder  of  the  sect,  Jean  Boscellin,  a  canon
of  Compiegne,  was  condemned  by  a  council  at
Soissons,  1092,  but  the  controversy  was  revived  in
the  12th  century.  Among  the  Nominalists  are
reckoned  Abelard,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (partially),
Occam,  Hobbes,  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Dugald
Stewart.  The  Bealists  assert  that  general  ideas
are  real  things  with  positive  existence.

NON-CONFORMISTS.  The  Protestants  in
England  are  divided  into  conformists  and  non-
conformists, or,  churchmen  and  dissenters.  The
first  place  of  meeting  of  the  latter,  in  England,
was  established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London,
20  Nov.  1  ^72.  The  name  of  non-conformists  was
taken  by  the  Puritans  when  the  Act  of  Uniformity
came  into  operation  on  24  Aug.  1662  (termed
"  Black  Bartholomew's  day  ") ,  when  2000  ministers
of  the  established  religion  resigned,  not  choosing  to
conform  to  the  statute  passed  "  for  the  uniformity
of  public  prajrers  and  administration  of  the  sacra-
ments;" see  Puritans,  and  Dissenters.  The  laws
against  them  were  relaxed  by  the  Toleration  act,
24 May, 1689.  —  The  Nonconformist newspaper


NONES.


6S9


NORTHAMPTON.


(edited by  Mr.  Edward Miall, aft. M.P.) first

appeared  14  April,  1841. He  died  29  April,  1881.

The  non-conformists  presented  to  Mr.  Miall  10,000
guineas  for  his  exertions  on  behalf  of  religious
equality ...  . . 18  July,  1873

Meeting  of  bishops  and  dissenting  ministers  at
Lambeth  palace,  to  consider  the  alleged  progress
of  irreligious  thought . . . .24  July,  1876

Mansfield  college,  Oxford,  for  Nonconformists,
opened 1886

NONES,  in  the  Roman  calendar,  were  the  fifth
day  of  each  month,  excepting  March,  May,  July,
and  October,  when  the  nones  fell  on  the  seventh
day.

NON-JURORS  considered  James  II.  to  have
been  unjustly  deposed,  and  refused  to  swear  alle-
giance to  William  III.  in  1689.  Among  them  were
Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  Ken,  bishop
of  Bath  and  Wells,  and  the  bishops  of  Ely,  Glou-
cester, Norwich,  and  Peterborough,  and  many  of
the  clergy,  who  were  deprived  1  Feb.  1691.  Non-
jurors were  subjected  to  double  taxation,  and
obliged  to  register  their  estates,  May,  1723.  They
formed  a  separate  communion,  which  existed  till
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.

NON  NOBIS,  DOMINE  !  ("  Not  unto  us,
0  Lord!"  &c,  Psalm  cxv.  1),  a  musical  canon,
sung  as  a  grace  at  public  feasts,  was  composed  by
W.  Birde  in  1618.

NON-RESISTANCE  OATH  (containing  a
declaration  that  it  is  unlawful  to  take  arms  against
the  king  upon  any  pretence  whatever),  enforced  by
the  Corporation  act,  1661,  was  repealed  in  17 19.

NOOTKA  SOUND  (Vancouver's  Island),
discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778,  and  settled  by
the  British  in  1786,  when  a  few  British  merchants
in  the  East  Indies  formed  a  settlement  to  supply
the  Chinese  market  with  furs ;  but  the  Spaniards
in  1789  captured  two  English  vessels  and  took  pos-
session of  the  settlement.  The  British  ministry
demanded  reparation,  and  the  affair  was  amicably
terminated  by  a  convention,  and  a  free  commerce
was  confirmed  to  England  in  1790.

"  NO-POPERY  RIOTS,"  see  Gordon.  The
cry  was  revived  against  the  Catholic  emancipation
bill,  1829.

NORDLINGEN  (Bavaria).  Here  the  Swedes
under  count  Horn  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians,
27  Aug.  1634;  and  the  Austrians  and  allies  by
Turenne  in  1645.

NORE  MUTINY,  see  Mutinies.

NORFOLK  ISLAND  (Pacific  Ocean),  dis-
covered in  1774,  by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it
uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settlement  was
made  by  a  detachment  from  Port  Jackson  under
governor  Phillip,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay,  on  the
south  side  of  the  island.  This  was  at  one  time  the
severest  penal  colony  of  Great  Britain.  The  island
was  abandoned  in  1809,  but  re-occupied  as  a  penal
settlement  in  1825.  The  descendants  of  the  muti-
neers of  the  Bounty  were  removed  to  it  in  June,
1856,  from  I'itcairn's  Island  {which  sec).

NORICUM,  see  Austria.

NORMAL  SCHOOLS  (from  norma,  a  rule).
One  for  the  instruction  of  teachers,  established  at
Paris  by  a  law,  30  Oct.  1794,  opened  20  Jan.  1795,
under  the  direction  of  La  Place,  La  Harpe,  Haiiy,
and  other  eminent  men,  was  soon  closed.  Another,
established  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  was  closed  in  1822.
The  plan  was  revived  in  1826,  and  has  been  de-
veloped in  England  and  other  countries.  See
Science  and  Art.


NORMANDY  (N.  France),  part  of  Neustria,
a  kingdom  founded  by  Clovis  in  511  for  his  son
Clotaire,  which,  after  various  changes,  was  united
to  France  by  Charles  the  Bald  in  837.  From  the
beginning  of  the  9th  century  it  was  continually
devastated  by  the  Scandinavians,  termed  North-
men or  Normans,  to  purchase  repose  from  whose
irruptions  Charles  the  Simple  of  France  ceded  the
duchy  to  their  leader  Rollo,  905.  Polio,  the  first
duke,  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France,  and
several  of  his  successors  after  him,  until  William
the  seventh  duke,  acquired  England,  in  1066.  It
remained  a  province  of  England  till  the  reign  of
king  '  John,  1204,  when  it  was  conquered  by
Philip  Augustus  and  reunited  to  France.  It
was  re-conquered  by  Henry  V.,  1418,  and  held  by
England  partially  till  1450.  The  English  still  pos-
sess the  islands  on  the  coast,  of  which  Jersey  and
Guernsey  are  the  principal.

DUICES.

912.  Rollo  (or  Raoul),  baptized  as  Robert.
927.  William  I.  Longsword.
943.  Richard  I.  the  Fearless.
996.  Richard  II.  the  Good.

1027.  Richard  III.

1028.  Robert  I.  the  DeviL

1035.  William  II.  (I.  of  England).

1087.  Robert  II.,  Courthose  (his  son),  after  a  contest  de-
spoiled by  his  brother.
1 106.  Henry  I.  (king  of  England).
1135.  Stephen  (king  of  England-).
1 144.  Matilda  and  Geoffrey  Plantagenet.
1151.  Henry  II.  (king  of  England  in  1154).
1 189.  Richard  IV.  (I.  of  England).
1190-1204.  Arthur  and  John  of  England.

NORTH  ADMINISTRATION,  formed  by

lord  North,  Jan.  1770,  who  resigned  March, 1782.

(Lord  North  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Whigs  ;

which  led  to  the  short-lived  Coalition  ministry,  1783.

He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Guildford  in  1790,

and  died  in  1792;  see  Coalition.)

Frederick,  lord  North,  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  chan-
cellor of  the  exchequer.

Earl  Gower,  lord  president.

Earl  of  Halifax,  privy  seal.

Earl  of  Roehford,  lord  Weymouth  (succeeded  by  lord
Sandwich)  and  earl  of  Hillsborough,  secretaries  of  state.

Sir  Edward  Hawke,  admiralty.

Marquis  of  Granby,  ordnance.

Sir  Gilbert  Elliot, 'lord  Hertford,  duke  of  Ancaster,  lord
Carteret,  &c.

NORTHALLERTON  (Yorkshire).  Near
here  was  fought  the  "battle  of  the  Standard,"
where  the  English  totally  defeated  the  Scotch
armies,  22  Aug.  1138.  The  archbishop  of  York
brought  forth  a  consecrated  standard  on  a  carriage
at  the  moment  when  they  were  hotly  pressed  by  the
invaders,  headed  by  king  David.

NORTH  AMERICA,  see  America,  United
States,  Indians,  Canada,  &c.

NORTH  AMERICAN  REVIEW  began
at  Boston,  U.S.,  in  1815,  as  a  rival  of  the  Edin-
burgh and  Quarterly  Reviews.  It  was  published  at
first  every  second  month;  in  1818,  quarterly;  in
1879,  monthly,  at  New  York.

NORTHAMPTON  was  burnt  by  the  Danes
in  IOIO.  Here  Henry  III.  proposed  to  found  a
university  in  1260,  and  held  a  parliament  in  126').
On  10  July,  14O0,  a  conflict  took  place  between  the
duke  of  York  and  Henry  VI.  of  England,  in  whieli
the  king  was  defeated,  and  made  prisouer  (the
second  time)  after  a  sanguinary  fight  which  took
place  in  the  meadows  below  the  town.  Northamp-
ton was  ravaged  by  the  plague  in  1637.  It  was
seized  and  fortified  by  the  parliamentary  forces  in
1642. A  fire nearly  destroyed  the  town, 3  Sept.

Y Y


NORTH BRITON.


690


N.-E.  AND  -W.  PASSAGES.


1675.  Eiots  here  because  Mr.  C.  Bradlaugh  was
not  elected  M.P.,  6  Oct.  1874,  were  suppressed  by
the  military.  Population,  1881,  51,881 ;  1891,
61,016.

NORTH  BRITON,  a  newspaper,  first  pub-
lished 29  May,  1762,  supported  by  John  Wilkes,
M.P.  for  Aylesbury,  and  a  London  alderman,  and
very  bitter  against  the  earl  of  Bute's  administra-
tion, accusing  him  of  unduly  favouring  the  Scotch.
InNo.  45  (termed  "Wilkes's  number"),  the  king  was
charged  with  uttering  falsehood  in  his  speech  •

published 23  April,  1763

"  General  warrant "  issued  by  lord  Halifax  against

the  authors,  printers,  and  publishers 26  April, „
Wilkes  and  others  arrested  and  committed  to  the

Tower,  and  his  house  searched . .  30  April, ,,
Brought  by  writ  of  habeas  corpus  before  chief-jus-
tice Pratt,  and  discharged, his  arrest  being  re-
garded as  illegal 6  May, „

300I.  damages  granted  to  a  printer  for  false  impri-
sonment 6  July, ,,

No. 45  declared  to  be  "a  scandalous  and  seditious
libel "  by  parliament,  and  ordered  to  be  burnt  by

the  hangman 15  Nov. ,,

Riot  at  the  burning  in  Cheapside  . 3  Dec. ,,

"  General  warrants"  declared  illegal  by  chief-justice
Pratt ; 1000Z. damages awarded to  Wilkes for
seizure  of.  his  papers .... 6  Dec. ,,
4000J. damages  obtained  by  Wilkes  in  an  action

against  lord  Halifax  ....  10  Nov.  1769
Wilkes  elected  lord  mayor,  8  Oct.  ;  elected  fifth  time

M.P.  for  Middlesex Oct. 1774

Allowed  to  take  his  seat  ....  Jan.  1775
Elected  chamberlain  of  London,  1779;  died,  26  Nov.  1797

NORTHBROOKCLUB.  Originated  in  1879
to  promote  comfort  and  social  intercourse  for  young
Indians  of  good  families  under  education  in  Eng-
land. New  premises  in  Whitehall  Gardens  were
inaugurated  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  21  May,  1883.
Lord  Northbrook  was  an  active  promoter  of  the
undertaking.

NORTH  CAROLINA,  NORTH  GER-
MAN, see  Carolina,  German.

NORTH-EAST  and  -WEST  PASSAGES.

The  attempt  to  discover  a  north-west  passage  was
made  by  a  Portuguese  named  Corte  Beal,  about
1500.  In  1585,  a  company  was  formed  in  London
called  the  "Fellowship  for  the  discovery  of  the
North-West  Passage."  From  1743  to  1818  parlia-
ment offered  20,000^.  for  this  discovery.  In  1818
the  reward  was  modified  by  proposing  that  5000^.
should  be  paid  when  either  no°,  120°,  or  130°  W.
long,  should  be  passed  ;  one  of  which  payments  was
made  to  sir  E.  Parry.  For  their  labours  in  the
voyages  enumerated  in  the  list  below,  Parry,
Franklin,  Ross,  Back,  Richardson,  M'Clure,  Nares,
and  McClintock  were  knighted.

Sebastian  Cabot's  voyages  to  the  arctic  regions,  1498,  1517
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  and  Richard  Chancellor's
expedition  to  find  a  north-east  passage  to  China,
in  the  Edward  Bonaventura,  BonaEsperanza,  and
Bona  Conftdentia,  sailed  from  the  Thames.  20  May,  1553
Richard  Chancellor,  in  the  Edward,  reached  Arch-
angel and  Moscow ; the rest perished off  the

coast  of  Lapland,  about 1554

Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  attempt  to  find  a  N.W.  pas-
sage to  China 1576

Capt.  Davis's  expeditions  to  find  a  N.W.  passage,

1585,  1586,  1587
Barentz's  Dutch  expeditions  (by  N.E.)  .  .  1594-5
Waymouth  and  Knight's  expedition  .  .  .  .  1602
Hudson's  voyages  (see  Hudson's  Bay)  .  .  1607-10
Sir  Thomas  Button's . . . . . . . 1612

Baffin's  (see  Baffin's  Bay) 1616

Foxe's  expedition 1631

[A  number  of  enterprises,  undertaken  by  various

countries,  followed.]
Behring's  voyages .... 1728,  1729,  1741
Middleton's  expedition 1742


Moore's  and  Smith's  . . . . . . .  1746

Hearne's  land  expedition 1769

Captain  Phipps,  afterwards  lord  Mulgrave,  his  ex-
pedition ■ .  1773

Capt.  Cook,  in  the  Resolution  and  Discovery July,  1776

Mackenzie's  expedition 1789

Captain  Duncan's  voyage 1790

The  Discovery,  captain  Vancouver,  returned  from  a
voyage  of  survey  and  discovery  on  the  north-west

coast  of  America Sept.  1795

Lieut.  Kotzebue's  expedition ....  Oct.  1815
Captain  Ross  and  lieut. Parry  in  the  Isabella  and

Alexander 1818

Captain  Buchan's  and  lieut.  Franklin's  expedition

in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent ,,

Franklin's  second  expedition 1819-22

Lieuts.  Parry  and  Liddon,  in  the  Hecla  and  Griper,

4  May,  1819
They  return  to  Leith  ....  3  Nov.  1820
Capts.  Parry  and  Lyon  in  Fury  and  Hecla,  8  May,  1821-23
Parry's  third  expedition  with  the  Hecla  .  8  May,  1824
Capts.  Franklin*  and  Lyon,  after  having  attempted
a  land  expedition, again  sail  from  Liverpool,

16  Feb. 1825
Capt. Parry*  again  in  the  Hecla,  sails  from  Dept-
ford,  and  reaches  a  spot  435  miles  from  the  North
Pole,  22  June  ;  returns  ... 6  Oct. 1827

Capt.  Ross*  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  return  from  his
Arctic  expedition,  after  an  absence  of  four  years,
and  when  all  hope  of  his  return  had  been  nearly

abandoned  t 18  Oct.  1833

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived  at  Liver-
pool from  their  perilous  Arctic  land  expedition
(1833),  after  having  visited  the  Great  Fish  River
and  examined  its  course  to  the  Polar  Seas  8  Sept.  1835
Capt.  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in  command  of  his
majesty's  ship  Terror,  on  an  exploring  adventure

to  Wager  River 21  June,  1836

[The  Geographical  Society  awarded  the  king's  annual

premium  to  capt.  Back  for  his  polar  discoveries

and  enterprise,  Dec.  1835.]

Sir  John  Franklin,  and  capts.  Crozier  and  Fitzjames,

in  the  ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  leave  England,

(see  Franklin) 24  May,  1845

[The  north-west  passage  was  discovered  by  sir
John  Franklin  and  his  companions,  who  sailed
down  Peel  and  Victoria  Straits,  since  named
Franklin  Straits.  On  the  monument  in  Waterloo-
place  is  inscribed — "  To  Franklin  and  his  brave
companions,  who  sacrificed  their  lives  in  completing
the  discovery  of  the  north-west  yMssage,  a.d.  1847-8."
Lady  Franklin  received  a  medal  from  the  Royal
Geographical  Society.]
Commanders  Collinson  and  M'Clure,  in  the  Enter-
prise and  Investigator,  sailed  eastward  in  search  of
sir  John  Franklin  J  .20  Jan. 1850


*  Sir  John  Franklin  died  11  June,  1847  (see  Franklin)  ;
sir  E.  Parry  died  8  July,  1855,  aged  65  ;  and  sir  John
Ross  died  30  Aug.  1856,  aged  80.

t  In  1830  he  discovered  Boothia  Felix  :  on  1  June,  1831,
his  nephew,  com.  James  Clark  Ross,  discovered  the
north  magnetic  pole,  in  70°  5'  17"  N.  lat.,  and  960  46'  45"
W.  long.

%  Capt.  M'Clure  sailed  in  the  Investigator  in  company
with  com.  Collinson  in  the  Enterprise  in  search  of  sir
John  Franklin,  20  Jan.  1850.  On  6  Sept.  he  discovered
high  land,  which  he  named  Baring's  land ;  on  the  9th,
other  land,  which  he  named  after  prince  Albert ;  on  the
30th  the  ship  was  frozen  in.  Entertaining  a  strong  con-
viction that  the  waters  in  which  the  Investigator  then  lay
communicated  with  Barrow's  straits,  he  set  out  on  21
Oct. ,  with  a  few  men  in  his  sledge,  to  test  his  views.  On
26  Oct.  he  reached  Point  Russell  (73°  31'  N.  lat.,  114°  14'
W.  long.),  where  from  an  elevation  of  600  feet  he  saw
Parry  or  Melville  Sound  beneath  them.  The  strait  con-
necting the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  he  named  after
the  prince  of  Wales.  The  Investigator  was  the  first  ship
which  traversed  the  Polar  sea  from  Behring's  straits  to
Behring  island.  Intelligence  of  this  discovery  was  brought
to  England  by  com.  Inglefield,  and  the  Admiralty  chart
was  published  14  Oct.  1853.  Capt.  M'Clure  returned  to
England,  Sept.  1854.  In  1855,  5000?.  were  paid  to  capt.
(afterwards  sir  Robert)  M'Clure,  and  5000Z.  were  distri-
buted among  the  officers  and  crew.  On  30  Jan.  1855.  the
Admiralty  notified  that  the  Arctic  medal  would  be  given
to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  expeditions  from  1818  to  1855.


N.-E.  AND  -W.  PASSAGES.


691 NORTH- WESTERN  RAILWAY.


A  north-west  passage  discovered  by  capt.  M'Clure,

26  Oct.  1850
A  German  arctic  expedition  (the  Germania  and  the
Hansa)  sailed,  15  June ;  arrived  at  Pendulum  bay,
■Greenland,  18  July,  1869  ;  the  vessels  parted ;  the
1Germania  arrived  at  Bremen,  11  Sept.  1870;  the
Hansa  was  frozen  and  sank,  Oct.  1869  ;  the  crew
escaped  with  provisions,  and  reached  Copenhagen

1  Sept.  1870
A  Norwegian  arctic  expedition  sailed  in  the  spring 1872
A  Swedish  expedition  under  professor  Nordensk-
jold,  sailed  from  Tromso,  21  July,  1872 ;  unsuc-
cessful ;  returned  summer 1873

•Capt.  Hall  sailed  from  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  ship
Polaris,  29  June,  1871  ;  frozen  in,  Sept.  ;  died,
8  Nov. After  much  suffering,  the  crew  reached

Newfoundland 9  May, ,,

Mr.  B.  Leigh  Smith  sailed  to  lat.  81°  24',  and  dis-
covered land  to  the  N.E.  of  Spitzbergen,  1871  ;  in
other  voyages  he  discovered  under-currents  of
warm  water  flowing  into  the  polar  basin  ;  he  re-
lieved the  Swedish  expedition  .  .  .  1872-73
An  Austro-Hungarian  expedition  in  the  Admiral
Tegethoff,  and  the  Isbbrjnen,  under  Weyprecht
and  Payer,  sailed  from  Tromso,  in  Norway,  14
July,  1872  ;  the  ships  parted  company,  and  the
Tegethoff  sailed  northward  and  discovered  Franz-
Joseph  Land,  31  Aug.  1873  ;  frozen  in,  abandoned
ship,  May,  1874 ;  reached  Vardoe,  Norway,  by
sledges,  3  Sept.  ;  arrived  at  Vienna  .  25  Sept.  1874
Mr.  Disraeli  consents  to  a  new  British  arctic  expe-
dition, 17  Nov.  1874  ;  38,620^.  voted  for  the  ex-
pedition 5  March,  1875

Capt.  G.  S.  Nares,  of  the  Challenger,  appointed  to
command  the  Alert,  and  capt.  H.  P.  Stephenson
to  command  the  Discovery.
Telegram  from  the  queen  to  capt.  Nares  before
starting  :  "I  earnestly  wisli  you  and  your  gallant
companions  every  success,  and  I  trust  that  you
may  safely  accomplish  the  important  duty  you
have  so  bravely  undertaken."
£11  the  reply,  "  Her  majesty  may  depend  on  all

doing  their  duty."
The  ships  sailed  from  Portsmouth  29  May,  1875  ;

despatches  received  from  Disco  (all  well)  15  July,  1875
Alert  (on  return)  arrived  at  Valentia,  27  Oct.  ;  tlie
Discovery  at  Queenstown, 29 Oct, ; at  Ports-
mouth 2  Nov. 1876

Results.  Sledges  reached  830  20'  26",  12  May,  1876  ;
passage  to  the  pole  declared  to  be  impracticable  ;
no  signs  of  open  polar  sea ;  ships  wintered,  820  87'
lat.  ;  sun  absent  142  days  ;  no  Esquimaux  be-
yond 8i°  52'.
Out  of  120  persons  4deaths  (1  frost  bitten,  3  scurvy) ;
greatest  cold,  72°  —  zero  ;  extremist  N.  point
reached  by  Markham  named  Cape  Colombia.
Cost  of  the  expedition,  120,000?.

The  "  Voyage  "  published  by  Capt.  Nares . .1878
Expedition  of  capt.  Allen  Young  in  the  Pandora
(aided  by  lady  Franklin),  sailed  25  June  ;  returned
19  Oct.  1875;  sailed  again,  2  June;  returned3i  Oct.  1876
Dutch  expedition  sailed  from  Holland . April,  1878
Mr.  James  Gordon  Bennett's  expedition  ;  lieut.  de

Long  sailed  in  yacht  Jeannette  .  .  8  July,  1879
Dutch  exploring  expedition  in  Willem  Barents,
sailed  for  Arctic  Ocean,  6  May  ;  successful ;  re-
turned to  Hammerfest,  Norway  .  .  24  Sept.  ,,
Another  expedition  in  Vega,  under  prof.  Nordensk-
jold,  started  4  July,  1878  ;  at  Port  Dickson  on  the
Yenisei,  6  Aug.  ;  at  the  mouth  of  Lena,  27  Aug.  ;
at  Yakutsk,  22  Sept.  ;  imprisoned  in  ice  near
Tschuetshe  settlement,  28  Sept.  1878 — 18  July,
1879  ;  passed  East  Cape,  Behring's  strait ;  entered
St. Lawrence  Bay, in  Pacific  Ocean,  20  July ;

readied  Yokohama 2  Sept. ,,

The  North-East  Passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the
Pacific  is  thus  accomplished  ;  chiefly  at  the  ex-
pense of  Mr.  Oscar  Dickson,  a  merchant  of  Go-
thenburg 1878-9

Mr.  ]j.  Leigh  Smith's  successful  expedition  in  his
yacht  Eira  from  and  to  Peterhead,  22  June —

12  Oct.  1880
Another  expedition  by  him  in  the  Eira,  14  June  ;

Eira  seen  in  Straits  of  Nova  Zembla  . 8  July,  1881
[The  Eira  injured  by  ice  ;  at  Cape  Flora  sank  in
deep  water, 21 Aug. ; stores  saved, tent and
house  erected  ;  the  party  live  on  seals,  walrus,
&c.  during  winter,  1881-2  ;  return  voyage  began


(boats  hauled,  &c),  21  June ;  fell  in  with  a  Dutch
vessel,  Willem  Barents,  and  soon  after  with  the
Hope,  near  Matotchkin  Straits,  Nova  Zembla,
3  Aug.  ;  sail  for  home,  6  Aug.  ;  arrive  at  Aber-
deen, 2o  Aug.]
Search  for  him  proposed  ;  government  to  give
5000Z. Geographical  Society  1000Z.  ; other  sums

offered March,  1882

The Hope  (Capt.  Sir  Allen  Young)  sails  in  search

of  the  Eira 22  June, ,,

Expedition  in  the  Jeannette,  which  is  crushed  by
ice,  23  June  ;  two  boats  with  crew  received  by
Russians  at  mouth  of  the  Lena  ;  one  boat  missing,
Dec.  1881  ;  bodies  of  capt.  de  Long  and  others
found  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  23  March,  1882  ;
conveyed  to  Philadelphia,  and  buried  23  Feb.  1884
German  arctic  expedition,  Germania  sailed,  summer,

returned 23  Oct.  1882

British  circumpolar  expedition  started . 11  May, „
Arrived  at  Fort  Rae,  30  Aug.  ;  good  news 1  Dec. „
Austrian  Polar  expedition,  Polar  started  2  April,
1882  ;  returned  to  Drontheim  n  Aug.  ;  to  Vienua

22  Aug.  1883
The  British  government  presents  the  Alert  to  aid
the  expedition,  under  commander  Winfield  S.
Schley,  in  search  for  the  party  under  lieut.
Greeley,  25  persons  (which  started  for  the  Polar
seas  in  the  summer  of  1881),  Feb.  1884 ;  the
search  expedition  starts,  10  May,  1884 ;  5000?.
reward  offered  by  U.  S.  government  for  discovery
of  lieut.  Greeley  and  party  . . . May,  1S84

Lieut.  Greeley's  party  reached  Cape  Sabine,  Smith's
Sound,  83  deg.  N.  lat.  ;  17  persons  starved  to
death  ;  1  drowned,  6  survivors  found  by  com.
Schley  with  the  Thetis,  22  June  ;  arrive  at  St.
John's,  Newfoundland,  17  July  ;  at  Portsmouth,

New  Hampshire 1  Aug. ,,

[The Alert  returned to  the  British government

with  thanks,  Feb.  1885.]
Colonel  Gilder's  expedition  starts  from  Winnipeg
2  Oct.  1886  ;  returns  ... 3  March,  1887

(Charts  of  the  latest  discoveries  are  published  in
Petermann's  "  Mittheilungen  der  Geographie.")

NORTHMEN or  NORSEMEN, see  Scandi-
navia, and  Normandy.

NORTH  SEA,  or  German  Ocean,  a  canal

connecting  the  sea  with  Amsterdam;  opened  by  the
king  of  Holland,  1  Nov.  1876.  For  the  canal  con-
necting the  North  sea  with  the  Baltic,  see  Baltic,
1887-91.

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE,  W.

LONDON.  A  fine  new  street  opened  18  March.
1876.

NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE,

STRAND,  LONDON,  built  on  the  site  of  a  hospital,
dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  by  Henry  Howard, earl  of
Northampton,  was  finished  1605; named Suffolk
House  by  his  nephew,  Thomas,  earl  of  Suffolk  ;  and
afterwards  named  Northumberland  House  from  his
descendant,  Elizabeth,  marrying  Algernon,  earl  of
Northumberland,  by  whom  it  was  partially  rebuilt.
The house was  purchased by  the Metropolitan
Board  of  Works  ; 497,000?. being  paid for it,
June. The  lion (set  up  1749) taken down, 3
July,  to  be  put  up  at  Sion-house  ;  and  the  house
sold  for building materials  and pulled down
during  the  autumn iSy±

NORTHUMBRIA,  a  Saxon  kingdom,  founded
by  Ida,  547  ;  see  under  Britain.

NORTH WESTERN PROVINCES of

India,  separated  from  13eng.il  in  1835  (Cude  was
annexed  in  1856),  and  all  were  placed  under  ono
lieut.-governorin  1877.  Capital,  Allahabad.  Popu-
lation in  1881,  44,107,869.  Lieut-governors,  Hon.
sir  Alfred  Conryns  Lyall,  1882  ;  sir  Auckland  Colvin,
autumn  1887.  Chief  -  commissioner,  A.  Patrick
MacDonnell,  Nov.  1890.

NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY.

LONDON  AND,  constituted  by  the  amalgamation  of

Y Y 2


NOEWAY.


692


NOEWICH.


the  London  and  Birmingham  Grand  Junction,  and
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railways,  in  1847.
Sir  Richard  Moon  (director,  1848,  chairman,  1862,
on  resigning,  20  Feb.  1891,  reported  the  capital,
Dec.  1890,  to  be  about  110,077,934/.,  proprietors
34,000,  persons  employed,  about  60,000,  mileage,
1,900. See  Crewe.

NOEWA  Y,  until  the  7  th  century,  was  governed
by  petty  rulers.  About  630,  Olaf  Iratelia,  of  the
race  of  Odin  termed  Ynglings  or  youths,  expelled
from  Sweden,  established  a  colony  in  Vermeland,
the  nucleus  of  a  monarchy,  founded  by  his  de-
scendant, Halfdan  III.  the  Black,  a  great  warrior
and  legislator,  whose  memory  was  long  revered.
Population,  1887, 1,925,000;  1891,1,988,997.

Olaf  Trsetelia,  630  ;  slain  by  his  subjects  .  .  .640
Halfdan. I.,  640  ;  Eystein  I.,  700  ;  Halfdan  II.,  730  ;

Gudrod,  784  ;  Olaf  Geirstade  and  Halfdan  III.  .  824
Halfdan  recovers  his  inheritance  from  his  brother,
whom  he  subdues,  together  with  the  neighbour-
ing chiefs,  840 ;  accidentally  drowned  .  .  .  863
The  chiefs  regain  their  power  during  the  youth  of
his  son,  Harold  Harfager,  or  fair-haired,  who  vows
neither  to  cut  nor  comb  his  hair  till  he  recovers

his  dominion 865

He  defeats  his  enemies  at  Hafsfiord,  872  ;  dies  .  .  934
Eric  I.  (the  bloody  axe),  his  son,  a  tyrant,  expelled,

and  succeeded  by
Hako  (the  Good).  940  ;  he  endeavours  in  vain  to

establish  Christianity  ;  dies 963

Harold  II.,  Graafeld,  son  of  Eric,  succeeds  .  .  .  ,,
Killed  in  battle  with  Harold  of  Denmark  . . 977

Hako  Jarl,  made  governor  of  several  provinces  ;  be-
comes king,  977  ;  his  licentiousness  leads  to  his
ruin;  deposed  by  Olaf  I.,  Trygvasson ;  and  slain

by  his  slave 995

Olaf  I. ,  99s  ;  establishes  Christianity  by  force  and

cruelty 998

Defeated  and  slain,  during  an  expedition  against
Pomerania,  by  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden,
who  divide  Norway  between  them . . . . 1000
Olaf  II.,  the  Saint  (his  son),  lands  in  Norway  . .  1012
Defeats  his  enemies  and  becomes  king . . .  1015
Fiercely  zealous  in  the  diffusion  of  Christianity 1018-21
Successful  invasion  of  Canute,  who  becomes  king  1028-9
Olaf  expelled  ;  returns  and  is  killed  in  battle  . . 1030
Sweyn,  at  the  death  of  Canute,  succeeds  as  king  of
Norway,  but  is  expelled  in  favour  of  Magnus  I.,

bastard  son  of  Olaf  II 1035

Magnus  becomes  king  of  Denmark,  1036  ;  dies .  1047
Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway . . . . ,,
Invades  England  ;  defeated  and  slain  by  Harold  II.

at  Stamford -bridge 25  Sept.  1066

Olaf  III.  and  Magnus  II.  (sons),  kings,  25  Sept.  1066 ;

Olaf  alone  (pacific) 1069-1093

Olaf  III.  founds  Bergen 1070

Magnus  III.  (Barefoot),  son  of  Olaf  .  .  .  .  1093
Invades  the  Orkneys  and  Scotland ....  1096

Killed  in  Ireland 1103

Sigurd  I.,  Eystein  II.,  and  Olaf  IV.  (sons) . . ,,
Sigurd  visits  the  Holy  Land  as  a  warrior  pilgrim  1 107-10
Becomes  sole  king,  1122  ;  dies . ....  1130

Magnus  IV.  (his  son)  and  Harold  IV. . . . ,,

Magnus  dethroned . .  . . . . 11 34

Harold  IV.  murdered  ;  succeeded  by  his  sons,  Sigurd

II.,  &c.  ;  civil  war  rages 1136

Nicolas  Breakspear  (afterwards  pope  Adrian  IV.),
the  papal  legate,  arrives,  reconciles  the  brothers,
and  founds  the  archbishopric  of  Drontheim . .1152
Numerous  competitors  for  the  crown  ;  civil  war  ;
Inge  I.,  Eystein  III.,  Hako  III.,  Magnus  V. .  1136-62

Magnus  V.  alone 1162

Bise  of  Swerro,  an  able  adventurer,  who  becomes

king  ;  Magnus  defeated  ;  drowned  .  .  .  1186
Swerro  rules  vigorously  ;  dies  .  .  ...  1202
Hako,  his  son,  king,  1202  ;  Guthrum,  1204  ;  Inge  II.  1205

Hako  IV. ,  bastard  son  of  Swerro 1207

Unsuccessfully  invades  Scotland,  where  he  dies  .  1263
Magnus  VI.,  his  son  (the  legislator),  dies  . .  1280

Eric  II.,  the  priest-hater,  marries  Margaret  of  Scot-
land ;  their  daughter,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  be-
comes heiress  to  the  crown  of  Scotland . . . 1286
Hako  V.,  his  brother,  king .... 1299-1319


Decline  of  Norwegian  prosperity.

Magnus  VII.  (III.  of  Sweden),  king . . . 1319-43

Hako  VI 1343-80

Olaf  V  of  Norway  (II.  of  Denmark) . . . 1380-87
Norway  united  with  Denmark  and  Sweden  under

Margaret 1389

At  an  assembly  at  Calmar  the  three states  are

formally  united 1397

Sweden  and  Norway  separated  from  Denmark,  144S ;
re-united .........  145©

Denmark  and  Norway  separated  from  Sweden .  1523
Christiania, the  modern  capital, built  by  Chris-
tian IV 1624

Norway  given  to Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel ;
Pomerania  and  Bugen  annexed  to  Denmark 14
Jan.  .........  1814

The  Norwegians  declare  their  independence,  17  May,  ,,
The  Swedish  troops  enter  Norway  .  .  16  July,  ,.,.
Charles  Frederic,  duke  of  Holstein,  elected  king  of

Norway  ;  abdicates 10  Oct. ,T

Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden  proclaimed  king  by  the
National  Diet  (Storthing)  assembled  at  Christiania;
he  accepted  the  constitution  which  declares  Nor-
way a  free,  independent,  indivisible,  and  inalien-
able state,  united  to  Sweden  . . 4  Nov. ,,

Nobility  abolished 182H

The  national  order  of  St.  Olaf  instituted  by  king

Oscar  1 1847

Millennial  festival  of  the  establishment  of  the  king-
dom, kept 18  July,  1872

The  king  Oscar  II. crowned  at  Drontheim,

17  July,  1873
Statue  of  Charles  John  XIV.  unveiled  at  Christiania

7  Sept.  1875
Christian Selmer  succeeds  Fk.  Stang as prime

minister 1881

Disputes  between  the  Storthings  and  the  crown

respecting  constitutional  changes . . . . ,,
Elections  ; liberal  majority  claiming Norwegian

constitutional  rights  ;  many  republicans  Oct.  1882
Liberal  leaders,  Sorens  Jaabcek  (violent),  Mr.  Sver-

drup  (moderate)  .  .  .  ~  .  .  .  Jan.  1883
Opening  of  the  Storthing,  firm  resistance  of  the

crown  ministers Feb. „

Who  are  threatened  with  impeachment,  9  March  ;

which  is  adopted 23  April, ,r

Exhibition  of  art  and  industry  opened  at  Chris-
tiania June, ,,

Impeachment  of  the  minister,  Christian  Selmer,
and  his  10  colleagues,  for  advising  the  king  to
veto  the  bill  for  ministerial  responsibility .  ,r

Trial  of  Selmer  began  . . . .22  Oct. ,t

Selmer  found  guilty  by  the  supreme  council  of
Norway ;  sentenced  to  dismission  from  public
service,  and  payment  of  expenses  of  prosecution,

27  Feb.  1884
M.  Selmer  resigns  his  post,  the  king  accedes,  but

maintains  his  power  of  veto . . 12  March, ,,
Trial and conviction of M. Kjerulf and other

ministers  .... 20  March — 1  April, „
The  crown  prince  of  Sweden  appointed  viceroy  of

Norway 19  March, „

New  ministry  formed  (councillor  Schweigaard  and

M.  Carl  Lovenskjold,  and  others) . 3  April, „
Besigns, 6  June ; M. Johan Sverdrup  forms  a

liberal  ministry 26  June, „

Besignation  of  the  Sverdrup  ministry,  2  July  ;  suc-
ceeded by  Emil  Stang . . . •. 12  July,  1889
Death  of  Christian  A.  Selmer  . . about  9  Sept.
Visit  of  the  German  emperor  at  Christiania,  grand

reception 1  July  ei  seq.  1890

Besignation  of  the  Stang  ministry,  in  consequence
of  a  vote  in  the  parliament  demanding  greater
independence  for  Norway  in  political  policy,  tend-
ing to  separation  from  Sweden . . 23  Feb.  1891
M. Steen, the liberal leader, forms a cabinet

5  March, ,,
Norway desires autonomy in foreign affairs ;
opposed by Sweden, Feb.  ; adopted by the
Storthing . . . . . . 10  June,  1892

See  Denmark  and  Sweden.

NOEWICH  (Norfolk),  mentioned  in  history  in
the  Saxon  Chronicle  at  the  period  when  Sweyn,
king  of  Denmark,  destroyed  it  by  fire,  1004.  See
Population.


NORWICH.


693


NOVARA.


Artisans  from  the  Low  Countries  establish  here  the
.manufacture  of  baizes,  &c,  aboiit . . . . 1132

Cathedral  first  erected  in  1088,  by  bishop  Herbert
Losinga  ;  completed  by  bishop  Middleton,  about  1280

A  great  plague 1348

Church  of  the  Blackfriars,  now  St.  Andrew's-hall,
erected 1415

Norwich  nearly  consumed  by  Are .... 1505

Public  library  instituted 1784

John  Stratford  executed  for  poisoning  John  Burgess
by  arsenic 17  Aug.  1829

Norwich  new  eanal  and  harbour  were  opened,

3  June,  1 83 1

Church  congress  met  . . . .3-7  Oct. 1865

The  musical  festival  was  attended  by  the  prince  of
Wales 31  Oct. 1866

Norwich  and  Norfolk  Industrial  exhibition  opened
in  St.  Andrew's-hall ....  Aug.  1867

British  Association  met  here . . 20-26  Aug. 1868

Norfolk  and  Norwich  Naturalists'  Society  founded  1869

Mutilated  remains  of  a  human  body  discovered  near
Norwich,  21-25  June,  1851  ;  William  Sherward,  a
publican  of  the  place,  confessed  on  1  Jan.  1869,
that  they  were  the  remains  of  his  wife  murdered  by
him  ;  he  recanted,  but  was  tried  and  condemned,
and  executed 20  April, „

Norwich  Crown  bank  stopped ;  much  distress  oc-
casioned ;  sir  Bobert  H.  J.  Harvey,  the  chief
partner,  commits  suicide  :  died .  19  July,  1870

Election  commission  ;  much  corruption  disclosed

Aug.-Sept.  1875

Writ  for  election  of  M.P.  suspended  till  dissolution
of  parliament,  by  act  passed . . 15  Aug. 1876

National  fisheries  exhibition  (opened  by  the  prince
of  Wales) 18-30  April,  1881

The  castle,  long  used  as  a  prison,  proposed  to  be
.transformed  into  a  museum,  &c 1888

NORWICH,  Bishopric  op,  originally  East

Anglia  ;  die  first  bishop  was  Felix,  a  Burgundian,
eent  to  convert  the  East  Anglians  about  630.  The
gee  was  divided  into  two  distinct  bishoprics — Elm-
ham,  in  Norfolk,  and  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk,  about
673.  Both  sees  suffered  extremely  from  the  Danish
invasions,  insomuch  that  after  the  death  of  St.
Humbert,  they  lay  vacant  for  a  hundred  years.  At
last  the  see  of  Elmham  was  revived,  and  Dunwich
was  united  to  it;  but  Arfastus  removed  the  seat  to
Thetford,  where  it.  continued  till  Herbert  Losinga
removed  it  to  Norwich,  1094.  This  see  has  given  to
the  church  of  Rome  two  saints  ;  and  to  the  nation
five  lord  chancellors.  It  was  valued  in  the  king's
books  at  899/.  18s.  "jhd.  per  annum.  Present  income,
4500/. ;  see  Bishoprics.

RECENT  BISHOPS OF  NORWICH.

1790.  George  Home  ;  died  17  Jan.  1792.

1792.  Charles  Manners  Sutton  ;  translated  to  Canterbury,

1  Feb.  1805.
1805.  Henry  Bathurst ;  died  5  April, 1837. He  was  a

strenuous supporter  of  catholic emancipation,

and  for  a  long  time  the  only  liberal  bishop)  in  the

house  of  peers.
C837.  Edward  Stanley  ;  died  6  Sept.  1849.
1849.  Samuel  Hinds  ;  resigned  1857.
1857.  Hon.  John  T.  Pelham,  May.

NOTABLES,  French  assemblies  of  nobles,
bishops,  knights,  and  lawyers.  An  assembly  of  the
notables  was  convened  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  20  Aug.
1560,  and  by  other  statesmen.  Calonne,  the  minister
of  Louis  XVI.,  summoned  one  which  met  on  22
Feb.  1787,  on  account  of  the  deranged  state  of  the
king's  finances,  and  again  in  1788,  when  he  opened
his  plan :  but  as  any  reform  militated  too  much
against  private  interest  to  be  adopted,  Calonne  was
dismissed,  and  soon  after  retired  to  England.  Louis
having  lost  his  confidential  minister,  De  Vergennes,
by  death,  called  De  Brienne,  an  ecclesiastic,  to  his
■councils.  The  notables  were  re-assembled  on  6
Nov.  1788.  In  the  end,  the  states-general  were
convoked  5  Dec. ;  and  from  this  assembly  sprang
the  national  assembly  {which  see). The  notables


were  dismissed  by  the  king,  12  Dec.  1788. — The
Spanish  notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon
(conformably  with  a  decree  issued  by  him  command-
ing their  attendance),  at  Bayonne,  25  May,  1808.

NOTARIES  PUBLIC,  said  to  have  been
appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the  Christian
church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives
of  the  martyrs  in  the  1st  century. — Du  Fresno)/.
This  office  was  afterwards  changed  to  a  legal  em-
ployment, to  attest  deeds  and  writings,  so  as  to  esta-
blish their  authenticity  in  any  other  country.  A
statute  to  regulate  public  notaries  was  passed  in
1801,  and  statutes  on  the  subject  have  been  enacted
since.

"NOTES  AND  QUERIES,"  a  medium  of
intercommunication  for  literary  men  and  general
readers,  founded  and  edited  by  W.  J.  Thorns  ;  first
published  on  3  Nov.  1849 ;  bought  by  sir  C.  W.
Dilke,  about  Aug.  1872.

NOTRE  DAME,  the  cathedral  at  Paris,  was
founded  in  1163,  completed  1257.  It  narrowly  es-
caped destruction  by  the  communists,  May,  187 1.
It  has  been  beautifully  and  judiciously  restored,  at
a  cost  of  about  250,000/.,  under  the  superintendence
of  Viollet-le-Duc,  1866,  et  seq.

NOTTINGHAM  (Saxon,  Snotingaham) .  The
castle  here  was  defended  by  the  Danes  against
king  Alfred,  and  his  brother  Ethelred,  who  retook
it,  868.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  I.  1068 ;  and
ultimately  became  a  strong  fortress.  See  Popu-
lation.

Burnt  in  the  civil  wars  .  .  .  1140,1153,1173
Parliaments  held . .  1194,  1337,  1386,  1394,  1397

Here  Charles  I.  raised  his  standard  . 6  May,  1642

The  riots  at  Nottingham,  in  which  the  rioters  broke

frames,  &c.  .  .  .  14  Nov.  1811  to  Jan.  1812
Much  similar  mischief .  ... April,  1814

The  Watch  and  Ward  act  was  enforced  .  2  Dec.  1816
Nottingham  castle  was  burnt  by  rioters  duriug  the

Beform  excitement  ....  10  Oct.  1831
Fierce  election  riots  with  "lambs"  and  others  took

place  in July,  1865

The  British  Association  met  . . 22  Aug. 1866

Suffragan  bishop— Henry  Mackenzie,  D.D.  .  .  1870
The  church  congress  met ....  Oct. 1871

A  gentleman  gives  io,oooL  to  educate  the  working

classes Jan.  1875

University  college  buildings  founded  27  Sept.  1877

Midland Counties  Art museum opened by the

prince  of  Wales,  3  July,  1878  ;  Mr.  Henry  Lam-

min  bequeaths  to  it  paintings,  &c.  value  4,000?.

Aug.  1890
University  free  public  library  and  free natural

history  museum  opened  by  prince  Leopold,  duke

of  Albany 30  June,  1881

50th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  Mechanics

Institution  celebrated  ;  duke  of  St.  Albans  in  the

chair  .  .  .  .  •  •  1  Nov.  et  seq.  1887
The  Boyal  Agricultural  Society  meet  here,  very

successful 9July.  l8SS

New  guildhall  opened  by  the  mayor . 27  Sept.. „
Settlement  by  conciliation  of  a  great  strike  in  the

lace  trade 9  Sel)t:-  l889

Wilhelm E. H.  Arnemann,  dentist,  sentenced  to

20  years'  penal  servitude  for  shooting  judge  Bris-

towe at the railway station (19 Nov. 1889)

8  March,  1890
Adcock's  factory  burnt, estimated  loss,  40,000?.

5  June,  1891

NOVARA  (N.  W.  Italy).  Near  this  town  the
Austrian  marshal  Radetzky  totally  defeated  the.
king  Charles  Albert  and  the  Sardinian  army,  23
March,  1849.  The  contest  began  at  10  a.m.  and
lasted  till  late  in  the  evening;  the  Austnans  lost
396  killed,  and  had  about  1850  wounded  ;  the  Sar-
dinians lost  between  3000  and  4000men,  27  cannons,
and  3000  prisoners.  The  king  soon  after  abdicated
in  favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel.


NOVA SCOTIA.


694


NUNNERY.


NOVA  SCOTIA  (N.  America),  was  discovered
by  Cabot,  1497 ;  visited  by  Verntzzani,  1524,  and
named  Acadia  ;  settled  in  1622,  by  tbe  Scotch  under
sir  "William  Alexander,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of
England,  from  whom  it  received  the  name  of  Nova
Scotia.  Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more  than
once  changed  proprietors,  and  was  not  confirmed  to
England  till  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  It  was
taken  in  1745  an^  U58;  Dut  was  aSain  confirmed
to  England  in  1763.  Nova  Scotia  was  divided
into  two  provinces  in  1784,  and  was  erected  into  a
bishopric  in  Aug.  1787.  King's  College,  Windsor,
was  founded  in  1788;  see  Baronets.  Gold  was
found  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1861.  By  an  act  passed
29  March,  1867,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick
were  united  with  Canada  for  legislative  purposes.
On  the  agitation  for  secession  Mr.  John  Bright  pre-
sented a  petition  in  the  commons  15  May;  his
motion  for  a  royal  commission  of  inquiry  negatived
16  June,  1868.  The  agitation  soon  subsided.  Lieut. -
governor,  sir  Charles  H.  Doyle,  1867;  Joseph  Howe
died  soon  after  his  appointment,  1  June,  1873  5
Adams  George  Archibald,  1873 ;  Matthew  Henry
Eichey,  1883;  A.  W.  McLelan,  1888  (died  26  June,
1890)  ;  M.  B.  Daly,  1890.  Capital,  Halifax.  Popu-
lation, in  1881,  440,572  ;  1891,  450,523.
The  gaol  and  other  buildings  at  Picton  were  burnt

by  the  act  of  a  prisoner,  who  perished,  about

8  Nov.  ;  estimated  loss,  10,000/ 1890

The  "  Princess,"  a  block  of  buildings  at  Yarmouth,

burnt,  loss  about  10,000/. . reported  29  Dec. ,,
Explosion  at  Sp.-ingliill  coal  mines; 122 deaths,

21  Feb.  ;  subscriptions  in  England  for  sufferers  ;

the  queen  gives  30/.  . . .  ." March,  1891

Construction  of  the  Chignecto  ship  railway  stopped,

after  the  expenditure  of  3,500,000/.  ; 1,500,000/.

more  required Dec. ,,

NOVATIANS,  a  sect  which  denied  restoration
to  the  church  to  those  who  had  relapsed  during  per-
secution, began  with  Novatian,  a  Boman  presbyter,
in  250  ;  see  Cathari.

NOVELS  (Novella?) ,  a  part  of  Justinian's  Code,
published  535. See  Romances.

NOVEMBER  [novem,  nine),  anciently  the
ninth  month  of  the  year.  When  Numa  added
January  and  February,  in  713  B.C.,  it  became  the
eleventh  as  now.  The  Boman  senators  wished  to
name  this  month  in  which  Tiberius  was  born,  by
his  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius  Cresar,  and  Augus-
tus; but  the  emperor  refused,  saying,  "  What  will
you  do,  conscript  fathers,  if  you  have  thirteen
Csesars  ? "

NOVEMBER  METEORS,  see  Meteors.

NOVGOROD  (Central  Bussia),  made  the  seat
of  his  government  by  Buric,  a  Varangian  chief,  in
862,  is  held  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  Bussian
empire.  In  memory  of  the  event  the  czar  inaugu-
rated a  national  monument  at  Novgorod,  on  20
Sept.  1862.  Novgorod  became  a  republic  about
1 150.  Visited  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh,  20-27
Aug,  1875.  Population,  1886:  province,  1,231,539;
city,  66,585.

NO VI  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  French,  com-
manded by  Joubert.  were  defeated  by  the  Bussians
under  Suwarrow,  with  immense  loss,  15  Aug.  1799.
Among  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,
and  other  distinguished  officers.

NOVI  BAZAR,  see  Herzegovina.

NOVUM  ORGANON,  the  great  work  of  lord
Bacon,  containing  his  system  of  philosophy,  was
published  1620.

NOXIOUS VAPOURS,  see  Alkalies  and

Chemical  Works.


NOYADES,  see  Browning.

NUBIA,  the  ancient  ^Ethiopia  supra  2Egyptumr
said  to  have  been  the  seat  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Meroe,.
received  its  name  from  a  tribe  named  Nubes  or
Nubates.  The  Christian  kingdom,  with  Dongola,.
the  capital,  lasted  till  the  14th  century,  when  it
was  broken  up  into  Mahometan  principalities.  Ifc
is  now  subject  to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  having  been
conquered  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1822.

NUCLEUS  THEORY  m  Chemistry,  see

Compound  Radicles.

NUISANCES  REMOVAL  ACT;  passed
1848;  amended  1849;  see  Sanitary  Legislation.

NUITS.  A  small  fortified  town,  near  Dijon,  in
Burgundy,  N.E.  France,  chartered  in  1212 ;  fre-
quently captured  and  ravaged,  specially  in  1569,.
1576,  and  1636.  It  was  taken  by  the  Badenese-
under  Von  Werder,  18  Dec.  1870,  after  five  hours'"
conflict,  in  which  above  1000  French  are  said  to-
have  been  killed  and  wounded,  and  700  prisoners-
taken.  The  German  loss  was  also  heavy.  A  depot
of  arms  and  ammunition  was  gained  by  the  victors.

NUMANTINE  WAR.  The  war  between  the
Romans  and  the  Celtiberians  (Celts  who  possessed
the  country  near  the  Iber,  now  the  Ebro)  began T
143  B.C.,  on  account  of  tbe  latter  having  given
refuge  to  their  allies  the  Sigidians,  who  had  been
defeated  by  the  Bomans.  Numantia,  an  unpro-
tected city,  withstood  a  long  siege,  in  which  the-
army  of  Scipio  Africanus,  60,000  men,  was  opposed
by  no  more  than  4000  men  able  to  bear  arms.  The
Numantines  fed  upon  horse-flesh,  and  their  own
dead,  and  then  drew  lots  to  kill  one  another.  At
length  they  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  destroyed
themselves,  so  that  not  one  remained  to  adorn  the-
triumph  of  the  conqueror,  133  B.C.

NUMIDIA  (N.  Africa),  tbe  seat  of  the  war  of
the  Romans  with  Jugurtha,  which  began  in  B.C.,
and  ended  with  his  subjugation  and  captivity,  106.
The  last  king,  Juba,  joined  Cato  and  was  killed  at
the  battle  of  Thapsus,  46  B.C.,  when  Numidia  be-
came a  Roman  province ;  see  Mauritania.

NUMISMATICS,,  the  science  of  coins  and
medals,  an  important  adjunct  to  the  study  of  history.
In  this  country  Evelyn  (1697),  Addison  (1726),  and!
Pinkerton  (1789),  published  works  on  medals.  Pel-
lerin's  ''  Eecueil  des  Medailles,"  9  vols.  4to  (1762).
Buding's  Annals  is  the  great  work  on  British
coinage  (new  edition,  1840). — The  Numismatie
Society  in  London  was  founded  by  Dr.  John  Lee  in
1836.  It  publishes  the  Numismatie  Chronicle. —
Mr.  Yonge  Akerman's  Numismatic  Manual  (1840}
is  a  useful  introduction  to  the  science.  Foreign
works  are  numerous.

NUNCIO,  an  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Borne  tc-
catholic  states.  The  pope  deputed  a  nuncio  to  the
Irish  rebels  in  1645.  The  arrival  in  London  of  a
nuncio,  and  his  admission  to  an  audience  by
James  II.,  July,  1687,  is  stated  to  have  hastened
the  Bevolution.

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have
been  that  to  which  the  sister  of  St.  Anthony  retired
at  the  close  of  the  3rd  century.  The  fir.-t  founded
in  France,  near  Poictiers,  by  St.  Marcellina,  sister
to  St.  Martin,  360. — Bit  Fresnoy.  The  first  in
England  was  at  Folkestone,  in  Kent,  by  Eadbald,
or  Edbald,  king  of  Kent,  630. — Bugdale;  "see  Abbeys
and  Monachism.  The  nuns  were  expelled  from
their  convents  in  Germany,  in  July,  1785  ;  in
France,  in  Jan.  1790.  In  Feb.  1861,  monastic
establishments  were  abolished in Naples, com-


NUREMBERG.


695


NYSTADT.


pensation  being  made  to  the  inmates.  For  me-
morable instances  of  the  fortitude  of  nuns,  see
Acre,  and  Coldingham.

NUREMBERG-,  a  free  imperial  German  city
in  1219.  In  1522,  the  diet  here  demanded  ecclesi-
astical reforms  and  a  general  council,  and  in  1532
secured  religious  liberty  to  the  Protestants.  It  was
annexed  to  Bavaria  in  1805.  Albert  Diirer  was
born  here  in  1471. Population,  1890,  142,403.

NURSES, their qualifications have been
greatly  raised  during  this  century  by  the  influence
of Florence Nightingale and the viscountess
Strangford,  who  died  24  March,  1887 ;  both  ladies
rendered  eminent  services  to  the  sick  and  wounded
in  the  Eusso-Turkish  wars. Institution  of  Nurs-
ing Sisters  founded 1840,  and  many  others  since.
See  Nightingale  Fund  and  John,  St.
Mr.  Henry  C.  Burdett  in  Oct.  1887  proposed  a  scheme
for  the  establishment  of  the  National  Pension  Fund
Royal  1890,  for  nurses  and  hospital  officials. In  Jan.
1888  Messrs.  Gibbs,  Hambro,  J.S.  Morgan  and  Roth-
schild presented  20,000?.  towards  its  foundation  ;  in-
corporated Feb.  1888.
Certificates  of  membership  of  the  fund  presented  by  the
princess  of  'Wales  at  Marlborough  House,  4  July,  1890,


to  about  650  nurses,  who  represented  the  first  1  000

investors  in  the  fund.
The  family  of  the  late  Junius S. Morgan  presented

7>73*?-  15s.  5(1.  to  the  fund  named  after  him,  18  Dec,

1890. Total  amount  of  the  fund,  io.oooZ.
A  second  1,000  nurses  received  at  Marlborough  House,

25  July,  1891.
70,000?.  of  the  Women's  Jubilee  Offering  was  devoted  to

the  benefit  of  nurses  and  nursing  institutions  for  the

sick  poor  by  direction  of  the  queen,  1887. See  under

Jubilee.
British  Nurses'  Association,  founded 1887,  Royal  1891,

princess  Christian,  president.

NYASSALAND,  the  region  S/W.  and  N.W.

of  Lake  Nyassa,  E.  Africa,  occupied  by  the  African
Lakes  company  of  Glasgow  since  its  foundation  in
1878.  It  contains  missionary  stations  at  Blantyre
and  Bandawe.  Active  measures  are  taken  to  sup-
press the  slave  trade.  See  Africa,  British
Central.

NYNEE  TAL,  see  Landslips,  18  Sept.  1880.

NYSTADT,  S.W.  Finland.  By  a  treaty,
signed  here  30  Aug.  1721,  Sweden  ceded  Livouia,
Esthonia,  and  other  territories  to  Russia.


0.


OAK.

OAK,  styled  the  monarch  of  the  woods,  and  an
emblem  of  strength,  virtue,  constancy,  and  long
life.  That  produced  in  England  is  considered  to  be
the  best  calculated  for  ship-building.  In  June,  403,
the  "Synod  of  the  oak,"  was  held  at  Chalcedon.
The  constellation  Eobur  Caroli,  the  oak  of  Charles,
was  named  by  Dr.  Halley  in  1676,  in  memory  of
the  oak  in  which  Charles  II.  saved  himself  from
his  pursuers,  after  the  battle  of  Worcester,  3  Sept.
165 1 ;  see  Boscobel,  and  Races.
The  evergreen  oak,  Quercus  Ilex,  brought  from  the

south  of  Europe  before 1581

The scarlet oak,  Quercus  coccinea,  brought  from

North  America  before 1691

The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prinus,  from

North  America  before 1730

The  Turkey  Oak,  Quercus  Cerris,  from  the  south  of

Europe I735

The  agaric  of  the  oak  was  known  as  a  styptic  in  .  1750
Heme's  oak,  Windsor  Park,  mentioned  in  Shaks-
peare's  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  "  finally  de-
stroyed by  the  wind  ....  31  Aug.  1863
Existing  Oaks,  1879.  Cowthorpe,  Yorkshire  ;  girth
at  the  ground,  55  feet  6  inches.  Newland,  Glou-
cester (mentioned  in  Domesday  Book),  46  feet.

OATES'S  PLOT.  Titus  Oates,  at  one  time
chaplain  of  a  ship  of  war,  was  dismissed  for  im-
moral conduct,  and  became  a  lecturer  in  London.
In  conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  he  invented  a  plot
against  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  he  asserted  had
conspired  to  assassinate  Charles  IL,  and  extirpate
the  Protestant  religion.  He  made  it  known  12  Aug.
1678,  and  in  consequence  about  eighteen  Eoman
Catholics  were  accused,  and  upon  false  testimony
convicted  and  executed ;  among  them  the  aged
viscount  Stafford,  29  Dec.  1680.  Oates  was  after-
wards tried  for  perjury  (in  the  reign  of  James  II.),
and  being  found  guilty,  was  fined,  put  in  the
pillory,  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  May,  1685.
Pardoned  on  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,
and  a  pension  of  $1.  a  week  granted  to  him,  1689.

OATHS  were  taken  by  Abraham,  B.C.  1892
{Gen.  xxi.  24),  and  authorised  (b.c.  1491)  Exod.
xxii.  1 1 .  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial
proceedings  was  introduced  by  the  Saxons  into
England,  600.— Rapin.  That  administered  to  a
judge  was  settled  1344.

Icelandic  Oath.  "  Name  I  to  witness  that  I  take  oath
by  the  ring,  law-oath,  so  help  me  Freyand  Niordh,
and  almighty  Thor,  as  I  shall  this  suit  follow  or
defend,  or  witness  bear,  or  verdict  or  doom,  as  I
wit  rightest  and  soothe  stand  most  lawfully,"  &c.
„ _  about 925

Of  Supremacy,  first  administered  to  British  sub-
jects, and  ratified  by  parliament,  26  Hen.  VIII.

(Stmv's  Chron.) !--,-

Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so  early  as  528*;
and  the  words  "So  help  me  God  aud  all  saints,"

concluded  an  oath  until I550

The  ancient  oath  of  allegiance,  which  contained  a
promise  ' '  to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the  king  and  his
heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to  bear  of  life  and  limb
and  terrene  honour ;  and  not  to  know  or  hear  of  any
ill  or  damage  intended  him  without  defending
him  therefrom,"  was  modified  by  James  I.,  a
declaration  against  the  pope's  authority  being
added  1603  :  it  was  again  altered  . . .  ^89

The  affirmation  of  a  Quaker  was  made  equivalent  to
an  oath,  by  statute,  in  1696,  ct  seq.


OBELISK.

Op  Abjukation,  being  an  obligation  to  maintain
the  government  of  king,  lords,  and  commons,
the  church  of  England,  and  toleration  of  Protes-
tant dissenters,  and  abjuring  all  Roman  Catholic
pretenders  to  the  crown,  13  Will.  III. . . .  1701

The  Test  and  Corporation  oaths  modified  by  stat.
9  Geo.  IV.  (see  Tests) 1828

Act  abolishing  oaths  in  the  customs  and  excise  de-
partments, and  in  certain  other  cases,  and  substi-
tuting declarations  in  lieu  thereof,  1  &  2  Will.  IV. 1831

Affirmation,  instead  of  oath,  was  permitted  to
Quakers  and  other  dissenters  by  acts  passed  in
1833,  1837,  1838,  and  1863  (see  Affirmation).

In  1858  and  i860,  Jews  elected  M.P.  were  relieved
from  part  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  (see  Jews).

By  24  &  25  Vict.  c.  66,  a  solemn  declaration  may  be
substituted  for  an  oath  by  persons  conscientiously
objecting  to  be  sworn  in  criminal  prosecutions . 1861

A  bill  for  modifying  the  oath  taken  by  Roman
Catholics  (passed  by  the  commons),  was  rejected
by  the  lords 26  June,  1865

The  oath  to  be  taken  by  members  of  parliament
was  modified  by  an  act  passed  . . 30  April,  1866

New  oath  of  allegiance  provided  by  the  31st  and
32nd  Vict.  c.  72  (1868),  to  be  taken  by  the  mem-
bers of  the  new  parliament : — "  I  do  swear  that  I
will  be  faithful  and  bear  true  allegiance  to  her
majesty  queen  Victoria,  her  heirs  and  successors,
according  to  law,  so  help  me  God. "

Bracllaugh  Case,  see  Parliament,  1880.

New  parliamentary  oaths  bill  brought  in ;  dis-
charged 5  July,  1881

Affirmations  ordered  to  be  accepted  for  oaths  in
France,  2  Feb.  ;  in  Spain  . . . April,  1883

Mr.  Bradlaugh's  Oaths  Bill,  substituting  an  affirma-
tion for  an  oath,  in  all  cases  when  required  ;
royal  assent 24  Dec.  1888

OBELISK (Greek  obelos,  a spit,  monoHt/ws,
a  single  stone) . The  Egyptian  symbol  of  the  su-
preme God. The  first  mentioned  in  history  was
that  of  Rameses  II.,  king  of  Egypt,  about  1322  B.C.
The  Arabians  called  them  Pharaoh's  needles,  and
the  Egyptian  priests  the  fingers  of  the  sun.  Several
were  erected at  Koine; one  was  erected  by  the
emperor  Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martius,  on  the
pavement  of which  was  a  horizontal dial that
marked  the  hour,  about  14  B.C. Of  the  obelisks
brought  to  Rome  by  the  emperors, several  have
been  restored  and  setup  by  various  popes. One  was
excavated  and  set  up  in  the  piazza  of  St.  John
Lateran,  Rome,  by  Sixtus  V.  1588.
Egyptian  Obelisks. — 42  are  known,  some  broken  : 12  at
Rome  ;  1,  from  Luxor,  set  up  in  the  Place  de  la  Con-
corde, Paris,  Oct.  1836 ;  5  in  England  (2  British  mu-
seum ;  1  Alnwick ;  1  Soughton  hall ;  1  on  Thames  em-
bankment).
The  obelisks  improperly  named  Cleopatra's  Needles  were
erected  by  Thothmes  III.  at  On  (Heliopolis),  about  160c
b.c. One  was  removed  to  Alexandria  by  Augustus,
about 23  b.c. After  being  long  imbedded  in  the  shore,
it  was  acquired  for  Great  Britain  by  sir  Ralph  Aber-
croniby,  in  1801 ;  but  not  removed. It  was  ottered  to
the  British  government  by  Mehemet  Ali,  and  again  by
the  Khedive,  15  March,  1877.
Mr. James  Erasmus Wilson  (knt.  Nov. 1881)  having
offered  to  pay  all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the
engineer,  undertook  to  convey  it  to  England. The
vessel,  Cleopatra,  containing  it  sailed  with  the  Olga
21 Sept. During  a  violent  gale, the  vessels  were
separated, 14-15  Oct.  ;  six  lives  were  lost  in  a  fruit-
less attempt  to  recover  it. The  Cleopatra,  which  was
abandoned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt.
Carter),  and  towed  to  Ferrol,  whence  it  was  towed  by
the  Anglia,  and  arrived  in  Loudon,  20  Jan.  1878.


OBLIVION.


697


ODESSA.


The  salvage  awarded  was  2000?.,  6  April,  1878.

After  much  discussion,  the  Thames  embankment  (be-
tween Charing  cross  and  Waterloo  bridges)  was  selected
for  its  site ;  where,  by  much  engineering  skill,  it  was
placed,  12  Sept.  1878.

The  obelisk  weighs  186  tons,  7  cwt.,  2  stones,  11  ft>.
Height,  from  base  to  point,  68  feet  5^  inches.

It  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  metropolitan  board
of  works  by  act  passed  22  July,  1878.

Sir  J.  Erasmus  Wilson  died  8  Aug.  1884.

In  London  are  three  English  obelisks  :  first  in  Fleet-
street,  at  the  top  of  Bridge-street,  erected  to  John
Wilkes,  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1775  (see  North
Briton) ;  and  immediately  opposite  to  it  at  the  south
end  of  Farringdon-street,  stands  another  of  granite  to
the  memory  of  Robert  Waithman,  lord  mayor  in  1824,
erected  25  June,  1833  >  the  third  at  the  south  end  of
the  Blackfriars-road  marks  the  distance  of  one  mile
and  a  fraction  from  Fleet-street.

The  Washington  Obelisk,  at  Washington,  TJ.  S.,  555  feet
high,  inaugurated,  21  Feb.  1885

OBLIVION.  In  1660  was  passed  an  act  of
"  free  general  pardon,  indemnity,  and  oblivion  for
all  treasons  and  state  offences"  committed  between
I  Jan.  1637,  and  24  June,  1660.  The  regicides  and
certain  Irish  popish  priests  were  excepted.  A  similar
act  was  passed  20  May,  1690. See  Amnesty.

OBSERVANCE, Fathers  of  the (or

OBSERVANTS),  a  name  given  to  certain  members
of  the  Franciscan  order,  about  1363,  who  volun-
tarily undertook  the  observance  of  their  rule  in  its
pristine  rigour.  This  reformation  was  after  a  time
enforced  by  the  pope.

OBSERVATORIES,  Astronomical.  The

first  is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  top  of  the
temple  of  Belus  at  Babylon  about  2247  B.C.  The
first  in  authentic  history  was  at  Alexandria,  about
300  B.C.,  erected  by  Ptolemy  Soter.  "  Observatory,
a  monthly  review  of  astronomy,"  first  appeared  in
1877.  Observatories  of  early  date  probably  existed
in  .Egypt,  China,  and  India.
First  modern  meridional  instrument  by  Copernicus  1540

First  observatory  at  Cassel 1561

Tycho  Brahe's,  at  Uranienburg  .... 1576

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen . . . . 1657

Royal  (French) 1667

Royal  observatory  at  Greenwich  {which  see) . . 1675

Observatory  at  Nuremberg 1678

At  Utrecht 1690

Berlin,  erected  under  Leibnitz's  direction . .1711

At  Bologna 1714

At  St.  Petersburg 1725

At  Pekin,  about 1750

Oxford,  Dr.  Radcliffe 1772

Calton  Hill,  Edinburgh 1776

Dublin,  Dr.  Andrews 1783

Armagh,  Primate  Robinson 1793*

Cambridge,  England 1824

Pulkowa,  Russia 1839

Cambridge,  U.S. 1840

Washington,  U.S 1842

Liverpool,  England 1844

Ben  Nevis,  Scotland 1883

Lick  Observatory,  on  a  peak  of  Mount  Hamilton,
California,  U.S.  (4,200  feet  above  sea-level),  en-
dowed by  James  Lick  of  San  Francisco  (who  died
1  Oct.  1876);  erected  ....  1888  ct  seq.
The  pope's  new  observatory  erected  in  the  Vatican,
completed Jan. 1890

OBSERVER,  Sunday  paper  (liberal),  esta-
blished 1 791.

OC  (for  hoc,  yes);  oil,  now  out,  "yes."  See
French  Language.

O  C  A  N  A  (central  Spain),  near  which  the
Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the  French,  commanded
by  Mortier  and  Soult,  19  Nov.  1809.

OCCULT  SCIENCES  (from  occultm,  con-
ealed)  ;  see  Astrology,  Alchemy,  Magic,  &c.


OCEANA,  an  imaginary  republic,  described  in
a  book  written  by  James  Harrington,  dedicated  to
Oliver  Cromwell,  and  published  in  1656.

OCEAN  MONARCH,  an  American  emi-
grant ship,  left  Liverpool,  bound  for  Boston,
24  Aug.  1848,  having  nearly  400  persons  on  board.
When  within  six  miles  of  Great  Orme's  head,  Car-
narvonshire, N.  Wales,  she  took  fire,  and  in  a  few
hours  was  burnt  to  the  water's  edge,  and  178  persons
perished.

The  Brazilian  steam-frigate,  Alfonzo,  happened  to  be  out
on  a  trial  trip  at  the  time,  with  the  prince  and  princess
de-Joinville  and  the  duke  and  duchess  d'Aumale  on
board,  who  witnessed  the  catastrophe,  and  aided  in
rescuing  and  comforting  the  sufferers.  The  crews  and
passengers  of  the  Alfonzo  and  the  yacht  Queen  of  the
Ocean  saved  156  persons,  and  62  others  escaped  by
various  means.

OCTARCHY,  see  Britain.

OCTOBER,  the  eighth  month  in  the  year  of
Romulus,  as  its  name  imports,  and  the  tenth  in  the
year  of  Numa,  713  B.C.  October  still  retained  its
first  name,  although  the  senate  ordered  it  to  be
called  Fanstinus,  in  honour  of  Faustina,  wife  of
Antoninus  the  emperor;  and  Commodus  called  it
Invictus,  and  Domitianus.  October  was  sacred  to
Mars.

October  Club.  A  party  of  country  gentlemen  in  the
house  of  commons,  about  1710,  which  professed  high
church  principles,  and  favoured  Bolingbroke  and  the
Jacobite  cause.

OCTROIS  (from  the  low  Latin  auctorium,
authority),  a  term  applied  to  concessions  from
sovereigns,  and  to  the  taxes  levied  at  the  gates  of
towns  in  France  on  articles  of  food  before  entering
the  city.  These  octrois,  of  ancient  origin,  were
suppressed  in  1791 ;  re-established,  1797,  and  re-
organised in  1816,  1842,  and  1852.  In  1859,  the
octrois  of  Paris  produced  above  54  million  francs.
The  Belgian  government  became  very  popular  in
July,  i860,  by  abolishing  the  Octrois.  The  Coal
and  Wine  dues  of  London  were  of  this  nature.

ODDFELLOWS,  Unity  of,  the  name  of  a
large  friendly  society,  originally  of  a  convivial
character,  which  took  its  present  name  in  1812.  It
has  numerous  branches,  but  its  headquarters  are
in  Manchester.  In  1886,  there  were  617,587  mem-
bers; in  1892,  695.687  members,  income,  1,361,314/.;
capital,  7,630,228/.  Reported  capital  6,806,73b/.  31
Dec.  1887.

ODD  VOLUMES,  SETTE  OF. A  literary

society  established  in  London;  dined  at  Freen^ oils'
Tavern,  London,  Jan.  1884.  The  society  prints  for
private  distribution,  small  out-of-the-way  works.

ODES  are  very  ancient ;  amongst  the  Greeks
they  were  extempore  compositions  sung  in  honour
of  the  gods.  Anacreon's  odes  were  composed  about
532;  Pindar's,  498  to  446;  and  Horace's  from  24
to  13,  all  B.C.  Anciently  odes  were  divided  into
strophe,  antistrophe,  aud  epode;  see  Foets  Lau-
reate.

ODESSA,  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  built  by
the  empress  Catharine  of  Russia,  1 784-1792,  after
the  peace  of  Jassy.  In  18 17  it  was  made  a  free
port,  since  when  its  prosperity  has  rapidly  in-
creased. It  was  partially  bombarded  by  the  British,
21  April,  1854,  in  consequence  of  the  Russian
batteries  having  fired  on  a  flag  of  truce,  6  April.
On  12  May  the  English  frigate  Tiger  stranded
here,  and  was  destroyed  by  Russian  artillery.  The
captain,  Giffard,  and'  many  of  his  crew  were  killed,
and  the  rest  made  prisoners.  Population,  1885,
240,000.


ODOMETER.


698


OLD  BAILEY.


ODOMETER  (from  the  Greek  hodos,  way,  and
metron,  measure),  see  Pedometer.

ODONTOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  odontes,
teeth),  the  science  of  the  teeth,  may  be  said  to
have  really  begun  with  the  researches  of  professor
Richard  Owen,  who  in  1839  made  the  first  definite
announcement  of  the  organic  connection  between
the  vascular  and  vital  soft  parts  of  the  frame  and
the  hard  substance  of  a  tooth.  His  comprehensive
work,  "Odontography"  (illustrated  with  beautiful
plates),  was  published  1840-45.  The  Odontological
Society  was  established  1856.

ODRYSiE,  a  people  of  Thrace.  Their  king
Teres  retained  his  independence  of  the  Persians,
508  B.C.  Sitalces,  his  son,  enlarged  his  dominions,
and  in  429,  aided  Amyntas  against  Perdiccas  II.,  of
Macedon,  with  an  army  of  150,000  men.  Sitalces,
killed  in  battle  with  the  Triballi,  424,  was  suc-
ceeded by  Seuthes,  who  reigned  prosperously;
Cotys,  another  king  (382-353),  disputed  the  pos-
session of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  with  Athens.
After  9  or  10  years'  warfare,  Philip  II.  of  Macedon
reduced  the  Odrysse  to  tributaries,  and  founded
Philippopolis  and  other  colonies,  343.  The  Romans,
after  their  conquest  of  Macedon,  favoured  the
Odrysa?,  and  in  42  their  king  Sadales  bequeathed
his  territories  to  the  Romans.  The  Odrysse,  tur-
bulent subjects,  and  often  chastised,  were  finally
incorporated  into  the  empire  by  Vespasian,  about
a.d.  70.

ODYL,  the  name  given  in  1845  by  baron  von
Keichenbach  to  a  so-called  new  "imponderable,  or
influence,"  said  to  be  developed  by  magnets,  crys-
tals, the  human  body,  heat,  electricity,  chemical
action,  and  the  whole  material  universe.  The
odylic  force  is  said  to  give  rise  to  luminous  pheno-
mena, visible  to  certain  sensitive  persons  only.
The  baron's  "  Researches  on  Magnetism,  &c,  inrela-
tion  to  the  Vital  Force,"  translated  by  Dr.  Gregory,
were  published  in  1850.  Emanuel  Swedenborg
(died  1772)  described  similar  phenomena.

OECUMENICAL  BISHOP  (from  the  Greek
cikoumene,  the  habitable,  globe  understood),  "  uni-
versal bishop ;"  a  title  assumed  by  John,  bishop  of
Constantinople,  587.

CENOPHYTA  (Boeotia,  N.  Greece).  Here
Myronides  and  the  Athenians  severely  defeated  the
Boeotians,  456  B.C.

OFEN,  see  Buda.

OFFA'S  DYKE,  the  intrenchment  from  the
"Wye  to  the  Dee,  made  by  OfFa,  king  of  Mercia,  to
defend  his  country  from  the  incursions  of  the
Welsh,  779.

OFFICIAL  SECRETS  ACT,  passed  26
Aug.  1889,  punishes  disclosures  as  a  misdemeanour.

OGULNIAN  LAW,  carried  by  the  tribunes  Q.
and  Cn.  Ogulnius,  increased  the  number  of  the
pontiff's  and  augurs,  and  made  plebeians  eligible  to
those  offices,  B.C.  300.

OGYGES,  see  Deluge.

OHIO,  a  western  state  of  North  America,
settled  by  the  French  in  1673,  was  ceded  to  the
British  with  Canada,  in  1763  ;  extensively  settled
in  1788,  and  admitted  into  the  Union,  29  Nov.  1802.
Capital,  Columbus ;  see  Storms,  1890.  Explosion
of  16  tons  of  gunpowder  at  King's  powder  mills,  20
miles  from  Cincinnati,  20  persons  killed,  15  July,
1890.  Population,  1880,  3,198,062;  1890,3,672,316.

OHM'S  LAAV,  for  determining  the  quantity
of  the  electro-motive  force  of  the  voltaic  battery,


was  published  in  1827.  It  is  in  conformity  with
the  discovery  that  the  earth  may  be  employed  as
a  conductor,  thus  saving  the  return  wire  in  electric
telegraphy.

OIL  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as
the  epoch  of  Abraham,  about  1921  B.C. It  was  the
custom  of  the  Jews  to  anoint  with  oil  persons  ap-
pointed to  high  offices,  as  the  priests  and  kings,
Psalm exxxiii.  2;  I  Sain.  x.  1 ;  xvi.  13. The  fact
that  oil,  if  passed  through  red-hot  iron  pipes,  will
be  resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known
to  chemists; and  after  the  process  of  lighting  by
coal-gas  was  made apparent,  Messrs.  Taylor  and
Martineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil-
gas  on  a large  scale, 1815. — Oil Springs  ; see
Petroleum. Oil  Frescos;  see  under  Painting.
To  supply  oil  to  calm  the  waves,  pipes  were  laid
down  in  the  port  of  Aberdeen  ;  experiments  with
Mr.  Shield's  apparatus,  26  Sept.  ;  successful  ex-
periments reported .... 4  Dec.  1882
Scotch  fishing  vessels  provided  with  oil  tanks,  Nov.  1885
Mr.  Shield's  plans  successful  at  Folkestone  harbour,

Jan.  1884
Capt.  Chetwind  reports  oil  to  be  ineffectual  in  re-
gard to  breakers  and  surf . . . Oct. „
Mr.  Gordon's  oil-shells  shot  out  at  Montrose  said
to  calm  the  sea 6  April,  1885

OIL  PAINTING,  see  Painting.  The  Insti-
tute of  Painters  in  Oil  Colours  established ;  first
President  Mr.  J.  H.  Linton ;  94  members  elected,
Feb. ;  first  exhibition  opened  17  Dec.  1883.

OIL  RIVERS,  a  territory  on  the  W.  coast  of
Africa,  between  Cameroons  and  Lagos,  adjoining
the  territories  of  the  Royal  Niger  company,  see
Niger.  It  contains  six  main  rivers,  which  derive
their  general  name  from  palm  oil,  the  chief  product,
with  a  population  reported  above  12,000,000.

The  country  was  visited  first  by  missionaries  early
in  the  19th  century,  and  afterwards  by  traders,
who  by  peaceful  means,  have  gradually  established
plantations  and  nearly  40  factories  in  the  interior.
The  region  was  placed  under  British  protection,
with  a  consul,  in  1884.  The  traders  formed  them-
selves into  an  association,  Feb.  1890;  major  sir
Claude  MacDonald  appointed  commissioner,  with
consular  jurisdiction Nov.  1890

OKLAHOMA  ("beautf  ,1  land"),  a  part  of
the  ''Indian  Territory"  situated  between  Texas,
Kansas,  and  Arkansas,  partly  inhabited  by  Indians.
The  western  part  of  the  territory  was  ceded  to  the
United  States  in  1866.  It  has  been  surveyed  and
divided  into  85  townships. See  United  States,  1889.

Great  distress  caused  through  the  destruction  of
the  promising  crops  by  a  hot  wind  (15  June) ;
about  30,000  destitute  persons,  government  relief
promised Dec.  1890

Towns  :  Guthrie,  Oklahoma,  Kingfisher,  and  others.

Additional  lands  opened,  Sept.  1891.  Population,
1890,  61,834.

OLBERS,  the  asteroid,  now  termed  Pallas,  dis-
covered by  M.  Olbers,  in  1802.

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS  COURT,  is
held  for  the  trial  of  criminals,  and  its  jurisdiction
comprehends  the  county  of  Middlesex  as  well  as
the  city  of  London. It  is  held  eight  times  in  the
year  by  the  royal  commi-sion  of  01/er  and  terminer.
The  judges  are,  the  lord  mayor,  those  aldermen
who  have  passed  the  chair,  the  recorder  and  the
common-serjeant,  who are  attended  by  both  the
sheriff's,  and  one  or  more  of  the  national  judges.
The  court-house  was  built  in  1773,  and  enlarged
in  1808;  see  Central  Criminal  Court.
During  some  trials  in  the  old  court,  the  lord  mayor,
one  alderman,  two  judges,  the  greater  part  of  the
jury,  and  numbers  of  spectators,  caught  the  gaol
distemper,  and  died ....  May,  1750


OLD BELIEVEES.


699


OLYMPIADS.


This  disease  was  fatal  to  several  . . . . 1772

Twenty-eight  persons  killed  at  the  execution  of  Mr.
Steele's  murderers  at  the  Old  Bailey  .  23  Feb.  1807
OLD  BELIEVEES,  a  Russian  sect,  said  to
number  about  12,000,000,  originated  in  a  revolt
against  the  cruelties  of  the  patriarch  Nicon,
whom  they  named  Anti-Christ,  1654.  They  profess
to  adhere  to  the  old  reading  of  the  Sclayonian
sacred  books,  which  have  been  superseded  by  the
present  Russian  church.  The  czar  Alexander  II.
granted  liberty  of  worship  to  the  sect  in  1879.

OLD  CATHOLICS,  the  name  assumed
in  Germany  by  the  members  of  the  Roman
Catholic  church  opposed  to  the  dogma  of  papal
infallibility,  headed  by  professor  Dollinger  of
Munich  (see  Councils,  18  July,  1870).  After
three  days'  conference  at  Munich,  Sept.  1871,  they
decided  to  set  up  independent  worship,  first  meet-
ing in  a  church  given  them  by  the  town  council  of
Munich.  The  abbe  Michaud  began  a  similar
movement  in  Paris  in  Feb.  1872.  Dr.  Dollinger
preached  in  favour  of  union  with  the  church  of
England,  March,  1872.  Pere  Hyacinthe  (Charles
Loyson),  president  of  the  party  at  Rome,  issued  a
programme,  respecting  the  Vatican  decrees,  recog-
nising ecclesiastical  authorities,  demanding  reform,
yet  opposing  schism,  about  5  May,  1872.  The  bishops
of  Lincoln  (Wordsworth)  and  Ely  (Browne)  and  the
dean  of  Westminster  (Dr.  Stanley),  by  invitation
attended  the  conference  at  Cologne,  and  delivered
addresses,  20-22  Sept.  1872.  The  Old  Catholics
elected  their  first  bishop,  Dr.  Joseph  Reinkens,
I  June,  1873,  who  was  recognised  by  the  emperor
and  other  powers.
Congress  of  old  Catholics  held  at  Constance,  18  Sept.

1873  ;  at  Freiburg 6  Sept. 1874

First synod held in Germany  at Bonn, opened

27  May, ,,
Dr.  Dollinger  received  delegates  from  eastern  and
western  churches  at  Bonn,  with  a  view  for  union
with  the  old  Catholics  ;  and  after  much  discussion
certain preliminaries were agreed on ; much
result  was  not  expected ... 14  Sept. „
First  old  Catholic  church  in  Berlin  opened 30  Nov. ,.
In Prussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about

8,000,000  Romanists) 1875

Congress  at  Bonn  :  bishop  of  Winchester,  canon
Liddon,  and  several  oriental  clergy  present,  12
Aug.  ; agreement  respecting  the  Jilioque  clause

16  Aug.  ,,
Circular  put  forth  by  the  old  Catholics  at  Bonn  ask-
ing for  a  church  tor  their  worship  ;  (they  declare
opposition  to  the  Vatican  decrees  of  18  July,  1870;
they  do  not  secede  from  the  Catholic  church,
but  desire  Catholicism  free  from  debasing  doc-
trines ;  repudiate  infallibility  and  supremacy  of
the  pope  ;  sanction  reading  of  the  Bible,  and
divine  worship  in  the  vulgar  tongue ;  and  mar-
riage of  priests) Dec. „

Congress  at  Bonn  ;  strong  opposition  to  celibacy  of

clergy  ;  question  deferred,  early  in  . . June,  1876
Congress  at  Mentz  opens . . . 28  Sept.  1877
Meeting  at  Berne  : bishop  C'otterill  of  Edinburgh
and  M.  Hyacinthe  Loyson  there,  17  Aug.  1879  ;
at  Geneva,  23  May,  1880  ; at  Baden-Baden  19-21
Sept. 1880;  at  Vienna, .... 8  Sept.  1886
Visits  of  the  bishops  of  Lichfield  (W.  D.  Maclagan)
and  Salisbury  (J. Wordsworth), conferences  at
Bonn, &c,  in  Switzerland,  and  at  Vienna  Oct.
1887  ;  at  Cologne,  12  Sept.  1890  ;  at  Lucerne,

12  Sept.  1892
[The  doctrines  of  the  Old  Catholics  closely  resem-
ble those  of  the  church  of  England.]
The  progress  of  the  Italian  catholic  church  opposed

to  the  papacy,  reported .... Feb.  1888
Dr. Dollinger's ninetieth'  birthday celebrated  at
Munich,  28  Feb.  1889  ;  he  died . .  10  Jan.  1890

OLDENBUBG-,  a  grand  duchy  in  North  Ger-
many, was  annexed  to  Denmark  in  1448;  in  1773,
Christian  VII.  ceded  the  country  to  Russia  in  ex-
change for llolstein  Gottorp,  and  soon  after  the


present  dignity  was  established.  The  duke  joined
the  North  German  confederation,  18  Aug.  1866,
and  obtained  a  slight  increase  of  territory  from
Holstein,  27  Sept.  following.  Population  in  1864,
301,812;  in  187 1,  314,591;  in  1880,  337,478  ;  1890,
354-968.

DUKES.

1773.  Frederick  Augustus.

1785.  Peter  Frederick.  The  duchy  was  seized  by  Napo-
leon, and  annexed  to  his  empire  in  1811  ;  but
restored  in  18 14.

GRAND-DUKES.

1829.  May  21. Augustus.
1853.  Feb.  27. Peter,  son  ;  born  8  July,  1827.
Heir  :  Augustus,  son  ;  born  16  Nov.  1852.

OLDHAM,  Lancashire,  a  village  in  1760,  was
incorporated  in  1849,  and  has  sent  two  members  to-
p  irliament  since  1832,  when  William  Cobbett  was-
elected  one  of  the  members.  It  has  extensive-
cotton  manufactories.  The  hand-ome  town-hall
was  built  in  1841,  and  enlarged  in  1879.  Popula-
tion, 1881,  111,343;  I891.  I3M63-

OLD MAN of the Mountain, see-

Assassins.
OLD  STYLE,  see  New  Style.

OLEFIANT  GAS,  a  combination  of  hydrogen
and  carbon,  which  burns  with  much  brilliancy.
In  1862,  Berthelot  formed  it  artificially  by  means-
of  alcohol.

OLEBON,  see  Navigation  Laws.

OLIVES  are  named  in  the  earliest  accounts  of
Egypt  and  Greece.  They  were  first  planted  in  Italy
about  562  B.C.  The  olive  has  been  cultivated  in
England  since  1648  a.d.;  the  Cape  olive  since  1730.

OLMITTZ,  the  ancient  capital  of  Moravia.
Here  the  emperor  Ferdinand  abdicated,  on  behalf
of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph,  2  Dec.  1848;  and
here  the  latter  promulgated  a  new  constitution,.
4  March,  1849.  A  conference  was  held  here,  29  Nov.
1850,  under  the  czar  Nicholas,  when  the  difficulties
between  Austria  and  Prussia  respecting  the  affairs
of  Hesse-Cassel  were  arranged.

OLTENITZA.  A  Turkish  force  having  crossed
the  Danube,  under  Omar  Pacha,  established  them-
selves at  Oltenitza,  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  attacks
of  the  Russians,  who  were  repulsed  with  loss,  2  and
3  Nov.  1853.  On  the  4th  a  desperate  attempt  tc-
dislodge  the  Turks  by  general  Danueberg  with  9000
men,  was  defeated  with  great  loss.

OLYMPIA,  "West  Kensington,  opened  27  Dec.
1886.  See  under  Agriculture,  and  Irish  Exhibition,
First  great  horse  show  of  English  Horse  Society

opened  here 15  May,  1889.

See  under  Horse.
The  pictures  not  accepted  by  the  Royal  Academy
for exhibition in 1889  were exhibited here

22  June,  et  seq., ,,
See  Barman's  Show.
Olympia  opened  as  a  skating  rink  for  roller  skates

21  April,  189&
Olympia taken  by  Mr. Augustus  Harris and  a

syndicate Feb.  1891

Representations  of  ancient  and  modern  Venice,  con-
structed by  Mr.  Imre  Kiralfy  and  by  Mr.  Wilson
Bennison,  exhibiting  the  scenery,  the  life  of  the
inhabitants,  manufactures  (including  Dr.  Sal-
viati's  glass  manufacture),  100  gondolas,  with
gondoliers,  a  grand  aquatic  carnival,  and  other
entertainments ;  opened . . .26  Dec. ,r

OLYMPIADS,  the  era  of  the  Greeks,  dating
from  1  July,  776  B.C.,  the  year  in  which  Corcebus
was  successful  at  the  Olympic  games.  This  era
was  reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years,  each  period
being  called  an  Olympiad,  and  in  milking  a  date
the  year  and  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned. The-


OLYMPIC GAMES.


700


OPEEAS.


computation  of  Olympiads  ceased  with  the  305th,
a.d.  440.

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  so  famous  among  the
Greeks,  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  honour  of
Jupiter  by  the  Idsei  Dactyli,  1453  B.C.,  or  by
Pelops,  1307  B.C.,  revived  by  Iphitus,  884  B.C.,
were  held  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth  year,  on
the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  near  Olympia,  in  the
Peloponnesus,  now  the  Morea,  to  exercise  the  youth
in  five  kinds  of  combats;  the  conquerors  being
highly  honoured.  The  prize  contended  for  was  a
crown  made  of  a  kind  of  wild  olive,  appropriated  to
this  use.  The  festival  was  abolished  by  Theodosius,
a.d.  394.  In  1858  M.  Zappas,  a  wealthy  Pelopon-
nesian,  gave  funds  to  re-establish  these  games,
under  the  auspices  of  the  queen  of  Greece. — Olympic
Theatre,  London,  opened  1806  ;  see  Theatres.

OLYMPIEUM  (near  Peloponnesus)  the  great
temple  of  Jupiter,  erected  by  Libon,  of  Elis,  about
450,  at  the  charge  of  the  Eleans,  after  their  con-
quest of  the  country.  For  this  temple  Phidias
made  the  colossal  statue  of  the  god,  in  gold  and
ivory,  437-433  B.C.

The  German  explorations  by  Messrs.  Hirschfeld  and
Bbttieher,  planned  by  prof.  Ernst  Curtius,  the  his-
torian, began  in  Oct.  1875.  Torsos  and  other  relics
were  found.  Above  904  objects  in  marble,  many  coins,
bronzes,  inscriptions,  &c.,  found,  1875-S.  Explora-
tions closed,  Nov.  1880.

OLYNTHUS,  a  city,  1ST.  Greece.  To  re.-ist  the
predominance  of  Sparta,  it  formed  a  league  with
other  cities,  which  was  subdued  in  war,  382-379  B.C.
It  resisted  Philip  of  Macedon,  350  B.C.,  by  whom
it  was  destroyed,  347.  Demosthenes  delivered  three
orations  on  its  behalf,  349.

OMEN'S,  see  Augury.  Alexander  the  Great
and  Mithridates  the  Great  are  said  to  have  studied
omens.  At  the  birth  of  the  latter,  131  B.C.,  there
were  seen  for  seventy  days  together,  two  splendid
■comets ;  and  this  omen,  we  are  told,  directed  all  the
actions  of  Mithridates  throughout  his  life. — Justin.

OMMIADES,  a  dynasty  of  Mahometan
caliphs,  beginning  with  Moawiyah,  of  whom  four-
teen reigned  in  Arabia,  661--750 ;  and  eighteen  at
Cordova,  in  Spain,  755-1031.  Their  favourite  colour
was  green.

OMNIBUS  (from  omnibus,  Latin  "  for  all").
The  idea  of  such  conveyances  is  ascribed  to  Pascal,
about  1662,  when  similar  carriages  were  started,
but  soon  discontinued.  They  were  revived  in  Paris
about  11  April,  1828;  and  introduced  into  London
by  a  coach  proprietor  n-.imed  Shillibeer.  The  first
omnibus  started  from  Paddington  to  the  Bank  of
England  on  Saturday,  4  July,  1829.  Regulations
were  made  respecting  omnibuses  by  16  &  17  Vict.
e-  33  (x853).  See  Cabriolets  and  Hackney  Coaches.
The  Loudon  Omnibus  Company  was  established  in
Jan.  1856.  The  saloon  omnibuses  ran  in  1857-60.
In  Sept.  1865,  it  was  stated  that  there  were  then
funning  about  620  omnibuses  belonging  to  the
General  Omnibus  Company,  and  450  belonging  to
private  proprietors ;  in  1867,  about  1050  omni-
buses, with  13,000  drivers  and  conductors.— Sir
£,.  Mayne.  In  1873  about  1400  omnibuses  ;  1891,
2,415.  Dividend,  Aug.  1878,  12\  per  cent.  An
omnibus  bill,  one  which  deals  with  many  topics.
The  London  Road  Car  Company  registered  1  Jan.  1883.
The number of omnibuses greatly increased, daily

additions  with  cheap  fares,  some  id.  and  $d.  1889-92.
Strike  of  the  men  employed  by  the  General  Omnibus

and Road  Car  Companies,  claiming  a  twelve  hours'

day,  7  June ;  closed  by  concessions,  13  June,  1891.
The  Workers'  co-operative omnibus  company  formed ;

new  omnibuses  ordered,  30  Dec.  1891.


OMNIMETEE,  a  new  surveying  apparatus
(combining  the  theodolite  and  level,  and  com-
prising a  telescope  and  microscope),  invented  by
Eckhold,  a  German  engineer,  to  supersede  chain
measuring  ;  announced  Sept.  1869.

ONE POUND  NOTES  issued  by  the  Bank

of  England,  4  March,  1797,  withdrawn  for  England,

1823  ;  re-issued  for  a  short  time,  16  Dec.  1825.

Mr. Goschen's proposal  in 1891 to issue  one  pound

notes  to  increase  the  reserve  of  gold at  the  Bank  of

England,  was much  discussed  ; and  at  a  meeting  of

the  London  chamber  of  commerce,  the  consideration

of  the  question  was  deferred  (51  to  14),  21  Jan.  1892.

ONEIDA, collision  with the  Bombay; see

United  States,  1870.

ONTAEIO,  formerly  Canada  West,  or  Upper
Canada;  capital,  Toronto.  Bishopric  founded  1 86 1.
Comber,  30  miles  from  Amherstburg,  destroyed  by
fire,  27  April,  1 89 1.  Population,  1861,1,396,091;
1881,1,923,228;  1891,2,112,989.  Lieut.-governor,
hon.  sir  Alexander  Campbell,  1887.

O.  P.  (old  prices)  EIOT  began  on  the  opening
of  the  new  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London,  by
J.  P.  Kemble,  with  increased  prices  of  admission,
18  Sept.,  and  lasted  till  16  Dec.  1809,  when  the  old
charges  were  restored.  Of  the  play,  Macbeth,  not
one  word  was  heard,  and  great  injury  was  done  to
the  theatre.

OPEN  AIE  MISSION,  founded  1853.  Races,
fairs,  &c,  are  visited  by  preachers.

OPEN  SPACES  ACT  (Metropolitan),  40

&41  Vict.  c.  35  (1877),  authorises  the  Metropolitan
Board  of  Works  and  the  corporation  of  London  to
acquire  open  spaces  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.
Acts  consolidated  in  1887.

OPEEAS.  Adam  de  la  Hal  »?  a  Trouveie,  sur-
named  "  le  Bossn  d' Arras,"  born  in  1240,  is,  as  far
as  has  yet  been  ascertained,  the  composer  of  the
first  comic  opera,  Li  Gieus  (Le  Jeu)  de  Robin  et  de
Marion.  The  Italian  opera  began  with  the  II
Satiro  of  Cavaliere,  and  the  Dafne  of  Rinuccini,
with  music  by  Peri,  about  1590.  Their  Eurydice
was  represented  at  Florence,  1600,  on  the  marriage
of  Marie  de  Medicis  with  Henry  IV.  of  France.
L'  Orfeo,  Favola  in  Musica,  composed  by  Monte-
verde,  was  performed  in  1607,  and  is  supposed  to
have  been  the  first  opera  that  was  ever  published.
About  1669,  the  abbot  Perrin  obtained  a  grant  from
Louis  XIV.  to  set  up  an  opera  in  Paris,  where,  in
1672,  was  acted  Pomona.
Scarlatti  produced  108  operas,  1680  etseq.;  followed

by  Stradella,  Lulli,  and  other  composers.
Pureell  produced  Dido  and  JEneas,  1677 ;  and  many

others.
Handel's  Rinaldowas  performed  at  the  Haymarket ;
he  successfully  broke  through  previous  restric-
tions  24  Feb.  1711

Pepusch's  Beggar's  Opera 1728

C.  W.  Gluck  introduced  a  new  style  with  reforms

in  his  Orfeo  ed  Euridlce 1762

Arne's  Artaxerxes ,,

J.  H.  Hasse  produced  many  operas  chiefly  at  Dres-
den .........  1731-63

N.  Logrosemo  developed  the  opera  buffa  ;  died . 1763
Mozart's  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,  1786  ;  Die  Zauberflote,

1786  ;  II  Giovanni,  1787  ;  La  Clemenza  di  Tito .  1791
Cimarosa's  II  Matrimonio  Segreto,  <&c. . . .  1792

Centenary  of  the  first  performance  of  Mozart's  II
Giovanni  at  Prague  celebrated  in  many  European
theatres,  and at the Crystal Palace, London

29  Oct.  1887
Successful  revival  of  the  Italian  opera

14  May-21  July,  1888

Storace's  Waterman,  <fcc 1788-96

Cherubini's  Lodoislca,  1791 ;  Anacreon  .  .  .  1803
Beethoven's  Fidelio 1805


OPERAS IN ENGLAND.


701


OPORTO.


1807
1816

1823
1826
1828


1829


1876


Shield's  Rosina,  &c 1782

Bishop's  Guy  Mannering,  &e

Spohr's  romantic  opera,  Faust,  1818  ;  Jessonda

Weber's  Der  Freischiitz,  1821  ;  Oberon  . . . .

Auber's  Muette  di  Portici  ;  Masanidlo

Kossini's  II  Tancredi,  1813 ;  Barbieredi  Siviglia  and
Otello,  1816  ;  Gazza  Ladra,  1817  ;  Semiramide,
1823  ;  Guillaume  Tell

Bellini's  La  Somnanibula

Donizetti's  Lucia  di  Lammermor,  1835  ;  Lucrezia
Borgia .........

Verdi's  Oberto,  1839  ;  Rigoletto,  1851  ;  Trovatore  and
Traviata,  1853,  and  others  ;  Otello

Meyerbeer's  Hubert  le  Diable,  1831 ;  Huguenots,  1836 ;
Prophete

Bichard  Wagner,  reformer  of  the  opera,  and  author
of  Tannhduser,  1845  ;  Lohengrin,  1848  ;  and  the
Ring  des  Nibelungen

Gounod's  Faust,  1859  ;  Polyeucte  . . .

Sir  A.  Sullivan's  chief  operas  (librettos  by  W.  S.
Gilbert)  performed  at  the  Savoy,  1881,  et  seq.
H.M.S.  Pinafore,  1878  ;  Pirates  of  Penzance,  1879  ;
Patience,  1881  ;  lolanthe,  1882  ;  Princess  Ida,  1884  ;
The  Mikado,  1885  ;  Ruddygore,  1887  ;  Yeoman  of
the  Guard,  1888.  The  Gondoliers,  7  Dec.  1889,  per-
formed before  the  queen  at  Windsor,  4  March,
1891  ;  Ivarilwe,  see  Royal  English  Opera,  Theatres,
1891  ;  Haddon  Hall  (libretto  by  Sydney  Grundy)

24  Sept. 1892

OPERAS  IN  ENGLAND.  Sir  William  Dave-
nant  introduced  a  species  of  opera  in  London  in
1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera  was  at
York  buildings  in  1692.  The  first  at  Drury  Lane
was  in  1 705.  Handel's  opera,  Badamistus,  was  per-
formed in  1 720,  and  others  by  him  were  frequently
performed  a  few  years  after.  Gay's  Beggar's  Opera,
first  performed  in  1727  at  the  Lincoln's  Inn  theatre.
It  ran  for  sixty- three  successive  nights,  but  so
offended  the  persons  in  power,  that  the  lord
chamberlain  refused  a  licence  for  the  performance
of  a  second  part  of  it  entitled  "  Polly."  By  Gay's
friends'  subscription,  his  profits  on  its  publication
amounted  to  1200/.,  whereas  the  Beggar's  Opera
gained  him  only  400?.  By  the  exertions  of  Carl
Kosa  (Kose)  and  the  company  formed  by  him  since
1875,  performances  of  the  opera  have  been  greatly
promoted  in  England.  The  company  was  joined  by
Mr.  Augustus  Harris  in  April  1889,  and  obtained
the  command  of  Drury  Lane  in  addition  to  Covent
Garden  and  the  Prince  of  Wales's.— Carl  Bosa  died,
aged  46, 30  April,  1889,  much  lamented.  See  Theatres.
The  Opera  Company  liquidating  Jan.  1890  ;  arrange-
ments with  Mr.  A.  Harris  terminating  .  Nov.  1890
The  Royal  English  Opera  House,  Cambridge-circus,
Shaftesbury -avenue,  erected  by  Mr.  D'Oyly  Carte,
opened,  31  Jan.,  1891. See  under  Theatres.

OPERA  COMIQUE,  a  new  theatre,  299,
Strand,  opened  29  Oct.  1870,  by  Mdlle.  Dejazet  and
a  French  company.  The  French  opera  comique
began  1715 ;  destroyed  by  fire,  about  131  persons
perish,  25,  26  May,  1887,  see  Paris.

OPERA-HOUSE,  The  Italian,  or

Queen's,  or (since  1837) Her  Majesty's

THEATRE.  The  original  building  is  generally  sup-
posed to  have  been  constructed  by  sir  JohnVanbrugh,
though  Mr.  Pennant  attributes  it  to  sir  Christopher
Wren.  It  was  built  as  "  the  queen's  (afterwards
changed  to  king's),  theatre  "  opened  9  April,  1705;
and  burnt  down  17  June,  1789.  The  foundation  of
the  new  theatre  was  laid  3  April,  1 790;  and  the
house  was  opened  22  Sept.  1791,  on  an  improved
plan ;  a  new  exterior  was  erected  in  1820,
from  designs  by  Mr.  Nash,  relievo  by  Mr.  Budd,
182 1.  This  theati-e  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire
on  the  night  of  6-7  Dec.  1867.  The  loss  of  the
lessee,  Mr.  Mapleson,  was  about  12,000/.,  and  that
of  Mdlle.  Titiens  was  valued  at  2000/.;  rebuilt,
but  internal  arrangements  not  completed. Moody


and  Sankey's  revival  meetings  were  held  here,  12
April,  31  May,  1875.  The  new  house  was  opened
for  Italian  opera  by  Mr.  Mapleson,  28  Aprii,
1877  i  see  Theatres.  The  house  was  pulled  down
in  1892.  —  The  English  Opera  (or  Lyceum)
was  opened  15  June,  1816.  It  was  entirely  de-
stroyed by  fire  16  Feb.  1830.  The  new  English
Opera-house,  or  Lyceum,  was  erected  from  designs
by  Mr.  S.  Beazley,  and  opened  in  July,  1834;
see  Theatres  and  National  Opera-house.

OPHICLEIDE,  the  keyed  bassoon,  said  to
have  been  invented  by  Frichot,  a  Frenchman,  in
London,  between  1791  and  1800.

OPHTHALMIA,  general  term  for  disease  of

the  eye.

Ophthalmic  hospitals  were  founded  in  London,  1804  am?
1843.  The  Ophthalmological  Society  of  Great  Britain
was  founded  in  1880  mainly  by  sir  W.  Bowman,  the-
first  president.  He  died  29  March,  1892,  having  greatly
advanced  ophthalmic  surgery.

OPHTHALMOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  for
inspecting  the  interior  of  the  eye,  invented  by
professor  H.  Helmholtz,  and  described  by  hira
in  1851.

OPIUM,  the  juice  of  the  white  poppy,  was-
known  to  the  ancients,  its  cultivation  being  men-
tioned by  Homer,  and  its  medicinal  use  by  Hippo-
crates. It  is  largely  cultivated  in  British  India,
and  was  introduced  into  China  by  our  merchants,
which  led  eventually  to  the  war  "of  1839,  the  im-
portation being  forbidden  by  the  Chinese  govern-
ment. The  revenue  derived  from  opium  by  the
Indian  government  in  1862  was  about  7,850,000/.;
in  1874,  8,000,000/. ;  in  1880,  about  10,500,000/.,
but  it  has  since  declined.  Laudanum,  a  preparation,
of  opium  :  was  employed  early  in  the  17th  century.
A  number  of  alkaloids  have  been  discovered  in
opium  :  narcotine  by  Derosne,  and  morphia  by
Serturner,  in  1803.  A  society  for  suppressing  the-
opium  trade  held  meeting  in  London,  17  Jan.  1881,
and  since.

The  Chinese  government  derives  a  large  revenue  from
the  duty  on  imported  opium  which  was  fixed  by  the-
treaty  of  1858.  The  plant  is  now  largely  grown  in
China.
Sir  Joseph  Pease's  resolution  condemning  the  cultiva-
tion of  opium  in  India,  the  traffic  in  'the  drug,  and
the  revenue,  was  adopted  by  the  house  of  commons
(160-130),  10  April,  1891 ;  this  caused  much  excite-
ment in  India.

OPORTO  (W.  Portugal),  the  ancient  Calle,
one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities  in  Europe.
After  being  held  at  various  times  by  the  Goths  and
Moors,  Oporto  was  finally  acquired  by  the  christians
IO92.  Oporto  is  the  mart  of  Portuguese  wine  known
as  "  Port."  A  chartered  company  for  the  regula-
tion of  the  port- wine  trade  was  established  in  1756.
The  French,  under  marshal  Soult,  were  surprised,
here  by  lord  Wellington,  and  defeated  in  an  action,
fought  12  May,  1809.  The  Miguelites  besieged
Oporto,  and  were  repulsed  by  the  Pedroites,  with
considerable  loss,  19  Sept.  1832.  The  Oporto  wine
company  was  abolished  in  1834,  but  re-established
by  a  royal  decree,  7  April,  1838.  An  international
exhibition  was  opened  here  by  the  king,  18  Sept.
1865.  Population,  1878,  105,838  ;  see  Portugal.
The  Baquet  theatre  burnt ;  panic;  about  100  lives'losi  -

20  March,  1888.
Business  paralyzed  by  the  strike  of  masters  and  men
connected  with  the  wine  trade,  through  the  govern-
ment favouring  speculators  for  a  monopolizing  com-
pany ;  riots  quelled  by  the  military  about  30  .May.
et  seq.  1889.
Revolt  of  about  600  of  the  garrison,  led  by  captain
Leitao,  joined  by  citizens  ;  suppressed  by  loyal  troops  ;
the  rebels  fortify  themselves  in  the  Hotel  d<>  Ville;
they  surrender  after  bombardment;  about  50  killed


OPPOETUNISTS.


702


OEANGE FEEE STATE.


and  many  wounded,  31  Jan.  ;  many  persons,  civil  and
military,  arrested,  1-4  Feb.  1891.

Trial  by  courts  martial  of  about  300  soldiers  and  21  civi-
lians, 27  Feb.  etseq.  Sentences:  captain  Leitao,  6  years'
cell  imprisonment,  followed  by  10  years'  transportation ;
other  officers  and  civilians  various  kinds  ancl  terms  of
imprisonment  or  transportation,  the  majority  of  the
soldiers  18  months'  imprisonment.

The  Abbe  of  St.  Nicholas,  acquitted  23  March,  1891.

"The  rebels  all  pardoned  by  the  king  on  his  birthday,
28  Sept.  1891.

"Visit  of  the  king  and  queen,  18  Nov.  1891.

Exhibition  of  National  Manufactures  opened  by  the
king,  22  Nov.,  review  of  troops,  25  Nov.  1891.

■Several  banks  stop  payment  about  18  March,  1892.

OPPOETUNISTS,  a  name  given  to  French
politicians  (especially  the  ultra-liberals,)  who  sus-
pend agitation  for  their  peculiar  opinions  till  a
suitable  opportunity  comes ;  among  them  Gambetta
was  prominent,  1876-82.  See  France.  Opportunism
in  England  is  defined  as  the  modification  of  political
policy  as  the  necessities  of  the  time  dictate,  Oct.
i8gi. See  Trimmer.

OPTICS,  a  science  studied  by  the  Greeks;  and
hy  the  Arabians  about  the  12th  century.  See  Light.
burning  lenses  known  at  Athens  .  .  .  .  b.  c.  424
A  treatise  on  optics  doubtfully  attributed  to  Euclid,

about 300
ffhe  magnifying  power  of  convex  glasses  and  con-
cave mirrors,  ancl  the  prismatic  colours  produced
by  angular  glass,  mentioned  by  Seneca,  about  a.  d. 50
Treatise  on  optics  by  Ptolemy  . . . about 120
Two  of  the  leading  principles  known  to  the  Pla-

tonists 3°°

■•Greatly  improved  by  Alhazen,  who  died  .  .  .  1038
Hints  for  spectacles  and  telescopes,  given  by  Roger

Bacon about  1280

Spectacles  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Salvinus

Armatus,  of  Pisa before  1300

Camera  obscura  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bap-

tista  Porta 1560

'Telescopes  invented  by  Leonard  Digges  about  1571

'  Kepler  publishes  his  "  Dioptrice  " ....  1611
"Telescope  made  by  Jansen  (said  also  to  have  in-
vented the  microscope), about  1609,  and  inde-
pendently, by  Galileo ....  about  1630
"Microscope,  according  to  Huyghens,  invented  by

Drebbel about  1621

Law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snellius  about  1624

.'Inflection  of  light  discovered,  and  the  undulatory

theory  suggested  by  Grimaldi  .  .  .  about  1665
Reflecting  telescope,  Jas.  Gregory,  1663  ;  Newton  .  1666
Motion  and  velocity  of  light  discovered  by  Roemer,

and  after  him  by  Cassini 1667

fits  velocity  demonstrated  to  be 190  millions  of

miles  in  sixteen  minutes.]
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartholinus . .  1669

Cassegrainian  reflector 1672

Newton's  discoveries  in  colours,  &c.  1674

Telescopes  with  a  single  lens  by  Tschirnhausen,

about  1690
Polarisation  of  light  and  undulatory  theory  dis-
covered by  Huyghens about  1692

Structure  of  the  eye  explained  by  Petit  .  about  1700
Aberration  of  light  discovered  by  Bradley  .  -1727
Achromatic  telescope  constructed  by  Mr.  Hall  (but

not  made  public)  in 1733

■Constructed  by  Dollond,  most  likely  without  any

knowledge  of  Hall's  telescope  ....  1757
Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at

Slough 1789

Dr.  T.  Young's  discoveries  (undulatory  theory,  &c.)  1800-3

■Camera  lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston) 1807

Malus  (polarisation  of  light  by  reflection)  about  1808
Fresnel's  researches  on  double  reflection,  &c.  .  .  1817
•Optical  discoveries  of  Wheatstone  .  .  1838  et  seq.
Large  telescope  constructed  by  lord  Rosse  .  .  1845
Arago  (colours  of  polarised  light,  &c).  .  .1811-53
Sir  D.  Brewster,  optical  researches  (see  Kaleidoscope,

Photography)  . • • • ■ ■ 1814-57

The  spectroscope  constructed  and  used  by  Kirch-

hoff  and  Bunsen 1861

Dr.  Tyndall's  Lectures  on  Light  first  illustrated  by
Duboscq's  electric  lamp,  at  the  Royal  Institution,
London ....... ■ 1856


Researches  of  Mr.  Y>Tm.  Spottiswoode  on  polarised
light 1871-8

See  Telescope,  Microscope,  Stereoscope,  Pseudoscope,
Spectrum,  Photography,  Magic,  &c.

OPTIC  NEEVES  are  said  to  have  been  dis-
covered by  N.  Varoli,  a  surgeon  and  physician  of
Bologna,  about  1538.—  Nouv.  JDict.

OPTIMISM  (from  opfimus,  the  best),  the
doctrine  that  everything  which  happens  is  for  the
best,  in  opposition  to  Pessimism  (from  pessvmus,
the  worst).  The  germ  of  optimism  is  to  be  found
in  Plato,  and  in  St.  Augustin,  and  other  fathers;
and  has  been  especially  propounded  by  Malebranche
and  Leibnitz,  and  adopted  by  Pope,  Bolingbroke,
Rousseau,  and  others.  Optimism  as  expressed  in
the  term,  "  the  best  of  all  possible  worlds,"  is  ridi-
culed by  Voltaire  (1694- 1778)  in  his  "  Candide."
The  term  meliorism  (from  mi-lior,  better)  has  been
lately  introduced. See  Pessimism.

"  OPTION,"  a  term  given  at  the  time  to  the
permission  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  Alsace  and
Lorraine  by  the  German  government  to  choose,
before  30  Sept.  1872,  whether  they  would  quit
their  country  or  become  German  subjects.  Great
numbers  emigrated  into  the  French  territories.  The
"  option  "  of  archbishops  respecting  their  claims  on
a  benefice  becoming  void  on  the  creation  or  transla-
tion of  a  bishop,  was  abolished  in  1845.

OEACIjES,  a  term  applied  to  revelations  made
by  God  to  man.  They  were  given  to  the  Jews  at
the  Mercy-seat  in  the  tabernacle ;  see  Exod.  xxv.
18-22.  The  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  Christian
"  oracles,"  Rom.  iii.  2;  r  Pet.  iv.  II.  King  Aha-
ziah  sent  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub  at
Ekron  about  896  B.C.  The  Greeks  consulted  espe-
cially the  oracles  of  Jupiter  and  Apollo  (see  Bodona
and  Delphi);  and  the  Italians  those  of  Faunus,
Fortune,  and  Mars.

OEAN,  Algeria  (N.  Africa),  a  Moorish  city
several  times  captured  by  the  Spaniards ;  defini-
tively occupied  by  the  French  in  1831,  who  have
since  added  docks,  &e.

OEANGE,  a  principality  in  S.E.  France,
formerly  a  lordship  in  the  9th  or  10th  century.
It  has  been  ruled  by  four  houses  successively  :  that
of  Giraud  Adheniar  (to  1 1 74)  ;  of  Baux  (1182  to
1393) ;  of  Chalons  (to  1530) ;  and  of  Nassau  (1530
to  1 7 13) ;  see  Nassau.  Philibert  the  Great,  prince
of  Orange,  the  last  of  the  house  of  Chalons,  having
been  wronged  by  Francis  I.  of  France,  entered  the
service  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he
rendered  great  services  by  his  military  talents.
He  was.  killed  at  the  siege  of  Florence,  3  Aug.  1530.
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew-in-law,  Bene  of
Nassau ;  see  princes  of  Orange  under  Holland.
The  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  Holland  is  styled  the
prince  of  Orange,  although  the  principality  was
ceded  to  France  in  1713. See  Arausio.

OEANGE  FEEE  STATE,  a  republic  in
South  Africa,  founded  by  Boers  from  Cape  Colony
in  1836.  The  British  government  proclaimed  its
authority  over  this  territory,  on  3  Feb.  1848,  but
declared  it  independent,  23  Feb.  1854.  A  consti-
tution proclaimed,  10  April,  1854;  revised,  1866,
and  1879.  The  able  president,  sir  John  Henry
Brand,  first  elected,  1863,  died,  14  July,  188a.
President  Eeitz  elected,  11  Jan.  1889.  Defensive
treaty  with  the  Transvaal,  about  13  March,  ratified
25  May,  1889.  Concession  granted  to  the  Cape
Government  to  construct  a  railway  to  Bloemfontem,
the  capital,  May,  1889;  railway  opened  at  Bloem-
fontein,  17  Dec.  1890. Population,  1885,  133,518.


ORANGEMEN.


703


ORDNANCE SURVEY.


ORANGEMEN.  The  "Battle  of  the  Dia-
mond," 21  Sept.  1795  (see  Diamond),  and  the
treachery  experienced  by  the  Protestants  on  that
occasion,  convinced  them  they  would  become  an
easy  prey  to  the  Eoman  Catholics,  from  their  small
numbers,  unless  they  associated  for  their  defence,  and
consequently  the  Orange  Society  was  formed  in  1 795.
The  first  Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Armagh ;
but  the  name  of  Orangemen  already  existed.  An
Orange  lodge  was  formed  in  Dublin ;  the  members
published  a  declaration  of  their  principles  (the
maintenance  of  church  and  state  under  the  house
of  Brunswick)  in  Jan.  1798.  After  1813  Orange-
ism  declined;  but  revived  again  in  1827,  when
the  duke  of  Cumberland  became  grand-master;
and  it  is  stated  that  in  1836  there  were  145,000
Orangemen  in  England,  and  125,000  in  Ireland.
After  a  parliamentary  inquiry  Orange  clubs  were
broken  up  in  conformity  with  resolutions  of
the  house  of  commons;  but  were  revived  in  1845
— 1889.  In  Oct.  1857,  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ire-
land ordered  that  justices  of  the  peace  should  not
belong  to  Orange  clubs.  The  Orangemen  in  Canada
were  greatly  excited  during  the  visit  of  the  prince
of  Wales  in  Sept.  i860.  Mr.  Wm.  Johnston,  a
grand  master,  convicted  of  violating  the  Party
Processions  Act,  was  elected  M.P.  for  Belfast,  Nov.
1869. See  Belfast.

ORANGES.  The  sweet,  or  China  orange,  was
first  brought  into  Europe  from  China  by  the  Portu-
guese, in  1547  ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  the  identical
tree,  whence  all  the  European  orange-trees  of  this
sort  were  produced,  is  still  preserved  at  Lisbon,  in
the  gardens  of  one  of  its  nobility.  Orange- trees
were  first  brought  to  England,  and  planted,  with
little  success,  in  1595  ;  they  are  said  to  have  been
planted  at  Beddington  park,  near  Croydon,  Surrey.
The  duty  on  imported  oranges  was  repealed  in  i860.

ORATOR  HENLEY.  An  eccentric  English
gentleman  of  some  talents,  in  1726,  opened  his
<l  oratory,"  a  kind  of  chapel,  in  Newport-market,
where  he  gave  lectures  on  theological  topics  on
Sundays,  and  on  other  subjects  on  Wednesdays,
■every  week.  Novelty  procured  him  many  hearers ;
hut  he  was  too  imprudent  to  gain  any  permanent
advantage.  He  removed  his  oratory  to  Clare-market,
and  sank  into  obscurity  previously  to  his  death,  in
I756-

ORATORIANS  (from  the  Latin  orare,  to
pray),  a  regular  order  of  priests  established  by  St.
Philip  Neri,  about  1564,  and  so  called  from  the
oratory  of  St.  Jerome,  at  Borne,  where  they  prayed.
They  had  a  foundation  in  France,  commenced  by
Guillaume  Gibieuf  and  Pierre  de  Berulle  (afterwards
cardinal),  1612,  approved  by  pope  Paul  V.  1613. —
The  rev.  Frederick  Faber  and  others,  as  "Fathers
of  the  Oratory,"  established  themselves  first  in
King  William-street,  Strand,  in  1848,  and  after-
wards at  Brompton.

ORATORIO,  a  kind  of  musical  sacred  drama,
the  subject  of  it  being  generally  taken  from  the
Scriptures.  The  origin  of  our  oratorios  (so  named
from  having  been  first  performed  in  an  oratory),  is
ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri,  about  1550.  The  first
true  oratorio,  Emilio  del  Cavaliere's  "  Rappresenta-
zione,"  was  performed  at  Rome  in  1600.  He  was
followed  by  Giovanni  Carissimi,  Alessandro  Scar-
latti, &c.  The  first  oratorio  in  London  was  per-
formed in  Lincoln' s-inn  theatre  in  Portugal-street,


of  Olives,"  1803;  Spohr's  "  Last  Judgment  "  (pro-


perly "  Things"),  1825  ;  Mendelssohn's  "  St.  Paul "
in  1836,  and  "Elijah"  in  1846;  Costa's  "Eli,"
1865;  "Naaman,"  1864;  S.  Bennett's  "  Woman  of
Samaria,"  1867;  Benedict's  "St.  Peter,"  1870;
Macfarren's  "John  the  Baptist,"  1873;  "Resur-
rection," 1876  ;  and  "Joseph,"  1877  !  Dr.  P.  Amies'
"Hezekiah  "  1878;  professor  Macfarren's  "King-
David,"  180*3.

ORCHIDS,  a  natural  order  of  plants  of  a  very
peculiar  organization,  recently  much  cultivated.
In  1880,  a  great  establishment  for  their  cultivation
was  set  up  at  St.  Albans  by  Mr.  Sander,  "the
orchid  king,"  patronised  by  the  Rothschilds,  who
introduced  him  to  the  queen  at  Waddesdon  Manor,
14  May,  1890.

ORCHOMENUS,  a  small  Greek  state  in
Bceotia,  was  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  367  B.C. ;  re-
stored by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  354 ;  and  given  up
by  him  to  Thebes,  346.

ORDEAL  was  known  among  the  Greeks  and
Jews  (Num.  v.  2).  It  was  introduced  into  England
by  the  Saxons.  A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty
might  choose  whether  he  would  put  himself  for
trial  upon  God  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as
at  this  day,  or  upon  God  only.  The  trial  by  ordeal
was  abolished  in  1218.

ORDER  OF  THE  CORPORATE  RE-
UNION, virtually  a  new  episcopal  church,  said
to  arise  out  of  the  Christian  Unity  Association
(which  see).  It  proposed  to  form  four  stations,
(Canterbury,  York,  Caerleon,  and  St.  Andrews,)  with
rectors  and  provincials ;  announced  1 1  Sept.  1877.

ORDERS,  see  Knighthood.

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL  were  issued  by  the
British  government  7  Jan.  and  11  Nov.  1807,  pro-
hibiting trade  with  the  ports  occupied  by  the
French,  being  reprisals  for  Napoleon's  Berlin  decree
(which  see).  They  greatly  checked  the  progress  of
manufactures  in  this  country,  and  caused  much
distress  till  their  removal  in  1814.

ORDINANCES,  see  Ordonnances,  Self-Deny-
ing Ordinances.

ORDINATION  of  ministers  in  the  Christian
church  began  with  Christ  and  his  apostles ;  see
Mark  iii.  14,  and  Acts  vi.  and  xiv.  23.  In  Eng-
land in  1549  a  new  form  of  ordination  of  ministers
was  ordered  to  be  prepared  by  a  committee  of  six
prelates  and  six  divines.

.  ORDNANCE  OFFICE.  Before  the  inven-
tion of  guns,  this  office  was  supplied  by  officers
under  the  following  names  :  the  bowyer,  the  cross-
bowyer,  the  galeater,  or  purveyor  of  helmets,  the
armourer,  and  the  keeper  of  the  tents.  Henry  VIII.
placed  it  under  the  management  of  a  master-general,
a  lieutenant,  surveyor,  &c.  The  master-general
was  chosen  from  among  the  first  generals  in  the
service  of  the  sovereign.  The  appointment  was
formerly  for  life  ;  but  since  the  restoration,  was
held  durante  bene placito,  and  not  un frequently  by
a  cabinet  minister. — Beat.son.  The  letters  patent
for  this  office  were  revoked  25  May,  1S55,  and  its
duties  vested  in  the  minister  of  war,  lord  Panmure.
The  last  master-general  was  lord  Fitzroy-Somerset,
afterwards  lord  Raglan.  The  revival  of  the  office
recommended  by  the  Ordnance  Commission  (see
under  Army,  1886).

ORDNANCE  SURVEY.  The  trigonome-
trical survey  of  England  was  commenced  by  gen.
Roy,  in  1784,  continued  by  col.  Colby,  and  com-
pleted by  col.  (aft.  sir  Henry)  James  in  1856.  The
publication  of  the  maps  (scale  7  inches  to  a  mile),


OEDONNANCES.


7C4


OEISSA.


comnienced  in  1819,  under  the  direction  of  col.
Mudge,  and  was  completed  in  1862  ;  a  large  part
of  these  maps  have  been  coloured  geologically.
The  survey  of  Ireland  (6  inches  to  a  mile)  has
been  completed  and  published ;  that  of  Scotland,
completed  Nov.  1882.  By  the  survey  act,  passed  12
May,  1870,  the  ordnance  survey  was  transferred  to
the  Board  of  Works,  and  by  an  act  passed  in  1889,
to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  beginning  1  April,  1890.
Directors,  lieut.-gen.  John  Cameron,  succeeded  sir
Henry  James  in  1875,  died  30  June,  1878  ;  col.  A.
C.  Cooke;  col.  R.  H.  Stotherd,  1885.  In  1892,
several  sets  of  maps  were  in  course  of  public  ition  or
preparation.

OEDONNANCES,  the  laws  enacted  by  the
Capetian  kings  of  France  previous  to  1789.  They
began  with  "  in  the  name  of  the  king,"  and  ended
with  "  such  is  our  good  pleasure."  The  first  in
Trench  is  dated  1287  (Philip  IV.)  The  publication
of  these  "  ordonnances,"  ordered  by  Louis  XIV.,
1706,  is  still  in  progress.  The  "  ordonnances  "  of
Charles  X.,  promulgated  26  July,  1830,  led  to  the
revolution.

OEEGON  TEEEITOEY  (N.  America),  is
said  to  have  been  visited  by  Drake  in  1579.  Lieut.
Broughton  took  possession  of  part  of  it  for  Great
Britain  in  1792.  In  I810  a  settlement  named
Astoria,  was  founded  by  a  New  York  Company.
Oregon  was  occupied  by  the  English  in  1814,  but
was  claimed  by  the  United  States  government,  to
whom  the  greater  part  was  ceded,  after  much  nego-
tiation, by  the  treaty  of  12  June,  1846.  Oregon
was  made  a  territory  in  1848,  and  admitted  as  a
state  Feb.  1859.  Capital,  Salem.  Population,
1880,' 174,768;  1890,313,767
By  the  fall  of  a  train  through  a  broken  bridge ;  in

Wascow  county  10  men  were  killed  .  4  Feb.  1890
Disastrous  floods  on  the  Willematte  river,  6  Feb.  ;

much  distress  at  Salem  and  Portland .

about  7  Feb. ,,
The  overland  Pacific  train  wrecked  on  the  long

trestle  bridge  over  lake  Labish,  4  lives  lost  and

many  injured  . . - . . . 12  Nov. ,,

OEGAN,  a  development  of  the  pandean  pipes ;
the  "organ"  in  Gen.  iv.  21  should  be  trans-
lated pipe.  The  invention  is  attributed  to  Ctesi-
bius,  a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  250  B.C. ;  and  to
Archimedes,  about  220  B.  c.  The  organ  was  brought
to  Europe  from  the  Greek  empire,  and  was  applied
to  religious  devotions  in  churches,  about  a.d.  657.

Bellarmine. Organs  were  used  in  the  western

churches  by  pope  Vitalianus,  in  658.— Ammonias.
It  is  affirmed  that  the  oi-gan  was  known  in  France
in  the  time  of  Louis  I.,  815,  when  one  was  con-
structed by  an  Italian  priest.  The  organ  at  Haar-
lem is  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe  ;  it  has  60  stops
and  8000  pipes.  At  Seville  is  one  with  no  stops
and  5300  pipes.  The  organ  at  Amsterdam  has  a
set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human  voices.
Of  the  organs  in  England  that  at  St.  George's  Hall,
Liverpool,  by  Mr.  Willis,  was  the  largest ;  next  in
order  that  at  York  minster,  and  that  in  the  music-
hall,  Birmingham.  In  London,  the  largest  was,
perhaps  that  of  Spitalfields  church ;  and  that  in
Christ  Church  was  nearly  as  extensive.  The  erection
of  the  famous  Temple  organ  was  competed  for  by
Schmidt  and  Harris;  after  long  disputes,  the
auestion  was  referred  to  vote,  and  Mr.  Jefl'eries,
afterwards  chief  justice,  gave  the  casting  vote  in
favour  of  Schmidt  (called  Father  Smith),  about
1682  A  monster  organ  was  erected  in  the  Crystal
Palace,  Sydenham,  in  June,  1857.  The  organ,  by
Willis  at  the  Koj  al  Albert  Hall,  is  now  said  to  be
the  largest  in  the  world ;  187 1.  A  larger  proposed
for a  cathedral in  Long  Island,  North  America,


1880. A  noble  organ (by  Bryceson),  with  many
appliances,  opened  in  the  hall,  Primrose-hill-road,
London,  N.  Jan.  1876.
Barrel  organs  are  said  to  have  been  first  made  early  in

the  1 8th  century. The  finest  was  the  Apollouicon

{which  see).

OEGANIC  SYNTHESIS,  see  Chemistry.

OEIEL  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  founded  in
1326,  by  Adam  de  Brome,  archdeacon  of  Stow,  and
almoner  to  king  Edward  II.  This  college  derives
its  name  from  a  tenement  called  V  Oriole,  on  the
site  of  which  the  building  stands.

OEIENTAL  INSTITUTE,  Woking,  Surrey,
established  by  high  caste  Hindoos,  Mahometans,
and  Sikhs,  for  religious  and  educational  purposes,
about  1884. A  mosque  was  erected  here,  Aug.  1889.

OEIENTALISTS-  The  first  International
Congress  of  these  scholars  was  held  at  Paris,  1  Sept.
1873;  M-  Leon  de  Rosny,  the  founder,  president.
The  second  Congress  met  at  the  Royal  Institution,
in  London,  14-19  Sept.  1874;  Dr.  S.  Birch,
president.  The  third  Congress  met  at  St.  Peters-
burg, 1  Sept.  1876 ;  the  fourth  at  Florence,  Sept.
1878.  The  fifth  met  at  Berlin,  12-17  Sept.  1881,
M.  Dittman,  president.  The  sixth  at  Leyden,  10
Sept.  1883.  The  seventh,  Vienna,  27  Sept.  1886.
Eighth,  Stockholm  (president  king  Oscar  II.),  2-7
Sept.  1889.  Independent,  London,  1-10  Sept.
1891.  Ninth  in  London,  5-12  Sept.  1892.  See
Asiatic  Societies.

Oriental  Studies  ;  Professor  Max  Miiller,  in  the
presence  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  at  the  Royal  In-
stitution, gave  a  discourse  to  inaugurate  the
establishment  of  a  school  for  modern  oriental
studies  by  the  Imperial  Institute,  in  union  with
University  College  and  King's  College,  London

11  Jan. 1890

OEIFLAMME,  see  Auriflamma.

OEIGENISTS  pretended  to  draw  their  opinions
from  the  writings  of  Origen,  who  lived  185-253.
They  maintained  that  Christ  was  the  son  of  God
in  no  other  way  than  by  adoption  and  grace ;  that
souls  were  created  before  the  bodies  ;  that  the  sun,
moon,  stars,  and  the  waters  that  are  under  the
firmament,  have  souls ;  that  the  torments  of  the
damned  shall  have  an  end,  and  that  the  fallen
angels  shall,  after  a  time,  be  restored  to  their  first
condition.  They  were  condemned  by  councils,  and
the  reading  of  Origen' s  work  was  forbidden. — Burke.
These  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  council  of
Constantinople  in  553.

"  OEIGIN  OF  SPECIES,  by  means  of

NATURAL  SELECTION  "  by  Charles  Robert  Dar-
win, F.R.S.,  first  published,  24  Nov.  1859.  He  was
born  12  Feb.  1809,  died  19  April,  1882.  See
Species.

OEION  STEAM-SHIP.  On  18  June,  1850,
this  splendid  vessel,  bound  from  Liverpool  to  Glas-
gow, struck  on  a  sunken  rock,  northward  of  Port-
patrick,  within  a  stone's  throw  of  land,  and  in-
stantly filled.  Of  two  hundred  passengers  more
than  fifty  were  drowned.

OEISSA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  India,  now  a
province  of  N.  W.  Bengal,  conquered  by  Clive
in  1755,  and  nearly  all  acquired  by  the  company  in
1765.  It  suffered  much  by  famine  in  1770,  and
1792-3,  and  more  especially  from  the  end  of  1865
to  Nov.  1866,  when  it  is  said  about  750,000  per-
sons perished.  The  government  and  officials  were
censured  for  neglect  and  want  of  forethought.  It
is  also  said  that  during  a  hurricane  in  Oct.  1836,
22,500  persons  were  drowned.


ORKNEY ISLES.


705


ORPHAN-HOUSES.


ORKNEY  and  SHETLAND  ISLES
(North  of  Scotland),  were  conquered  by  Magnus  III.
of  Norway,  1099,  and  were  ceded  to  James  III.  as
the  dowry  of  his  wife  Margaret,  in  1469.  The
Orkneys  were  the  ancient  Orcades;  united  with
Shetland,  they  now  form  one  of  the  Scotch  coun-
ties. The  bishopric  of  Orkney,  founded  by  St.
Servanus  early  in  the  5th  century,  some  affirm  by
St.  Colm,  ended  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in
■■Scotland,  about  16S9;  see  Bishops  in  Scotland.

ORLEANS  (a  city  in  central  France),  formerly
AureliemiiHi ;  gave  title  to  a  kingdom,  491,  and
.afterwards  to  a  duchy,  usually  held  by  one  of  the
royal  famity.  Attila  the  Hun,  besieging  it,  was
defeated  by  Aetius  and  his  allies,  451.  It  was  be-
sieged by  the  English  under  earls  of  Salisbury  and
'Suffolk,  12  Oct.  1428,  bravely  defended  by  Gaucour
(as  its  fall  would  have  ruined  the  cause  of  Charles
VI.  king  of  France),  and  i-elieved  by  the  heroism
of  Joan  of  Arc,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Maid  of
Orleans,  29  April,  1429,  and  the  siege  was  raised
'3  May;  see  Joan  of  Arc.  (The  439th  anniversary
was  celebrated  10  May,  1868 ;  the  emperor  and
«mpress  being  present.)  During  the  siege  of  Or-
leans, Feb.  1563,  the  duke  of  Guise  was  assas-
sinated.

After  nine  hours'  severe  fighting,  Orleans  captured
by  the  Germans,  under  general  Von  der  Tann.
More  than  4000  prisoners  were  taken.  The  loss
on  both  sides  was  heavy.  About  35,000  on  each
side  were  engaged.  The  city  was  made  to  pay  a
war  contribution  of  60,000?.  .  .  11  Oct.  1870
Von  der  Tann  and  the  Bavarians  defeated  by
generals  DAurelle  de  Paladines  and  Pallieres,
and  Orleans  re-taken.  The  Germans  acknow-
ledged the  loss  of  about  700  men  and  1000  pri-
soners, chiefly  wounded.  The  French  asserted
the  numbers  of  both  to  be  higher,  and  were  much
cheered  with  their  victory.  The  French  loss  was
heavy.  The  chief  conflict  took  place  between
Coulmiers  and  Bacon  or  Baccon  .  9,  10  Nov.  ,,
'.Severe  conflicts  at  Bazoche  and  Chevilly,  near  Or-
leans, between  a  part  of  the  army  of  the  Loire
and  prince  Frederick  Charles  and  the  grand-duke

of  Mecklenburg 2-4  Dec. ,,

A  battle,  during  which  the  suburbs  were  stormed,
and  about  10,000  unwounded  prisoners,  77  guns,
and  four  gunboats  taken.  The  French  retired ;
Orleans  re-taken  by  the  Germans .  5  Dee. ,,

DUKES.

Xouis  contended  for  the  regency  with  John  the  Fearless,
duke  of  Burgundy,  by  whose  instigation  he  was  assas-
sinated in  1407.

Charles  taken  prisoner  at  Agincourt,  1415 ;  released,
1440;  died,  1465.

ouis,  became  Louis  XII.  of  France  in  149S,  when  the
duchy  merged  in  the  crown.

Bourbon  Branch. — Philip,  youngest  son  of  Louis  XIII. ,
born,  1640;  died,  1701.

'Philip  II.,  son,  born,  1673;  regent,  1715;  died,  1723.

Louis,  son,  horn,  1703;  died,  1752.

Louis  Philippe,  son,  born,  1725;  died,  1785.

Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  son,  born,  1747;  orrposed  the
court  in  the  French  revolution ;  took  the  name
Vigalite,  11  Sept.  1792;  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis
XVI.:  was  guillotined,  6  Nov.  1793.

Louis  Philippe,  son,  born,  6  Nov.  1773;  chosen  king  of
tii3  French,  9  Aug.  1830:  abdicated,  24  Feb.  184S;
died,  26  Aug.  1850.  His  queen,  Marie  Amelie,  died,
24  March,  1866  (see  France).

Ferdinand  Philippe,  son,  duke  of  Orleans,  born,  3  Sept.
1810  :  died,  through  a  fall,  13  July,  1842.

Louis  Philippe,  son,  count  of  Paris,  born,  24  Aug.  1838,
married  Maria  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  di.ke  of
Montpi'ii-iier,  30  May,  1864.  Son,  Louis  Philippe,  duke
of  Orl'aus,  born  7  Feb.  1859,  see  France,  Feb.  i?go.

The  demand  of  the  Orleans  princes  to  return  to
France,  19  June,  refused  by  the  legislative  assem-
bly after  discussion .... 2  July, 1870

Their  request  totserve  in  the  army  after  the  fall  of
the  emp  re  declined Sept. „

{The  due  de  Chartres  served  incognito.)


After  discussion,  the  due  d'Aumale  and  the  prince
de  Joinville  permitted  to  take  their  seats  as  mem-
bers of  the  national  assembly . . 19  Dec.  18-0

After  much  discussion,  the  comte  de  Paris  at  a  per- '
sonal  interview  recognized  the  comte  de  Cliam-
bord  as  the  legitimate  head  of  the  Bourbon  family
and  king  of  France . . . . 5  Aug 187a

For  consequent  proceedings  see  France . 1873?^  «-'</

The  bodies  of  king  Louis  Philippe  and  others  of  his
family  removed  from  England  and  buried  in  the
mausoleum  at  Dreux  ... 9  June,  1876

Marriage  of  princess  Marie,  daughter  of  due  de
Chartres,  to  prince  Waldemar  of  Denmark  22  Oct.  1885

Marriage  of  princess  Amelie,  daughter  of  the  comte
de  Paris  to  the  duke  of  Braganza . 22  May,  1886

Expulsion  of  the  Orleans  princes  from  France  (see
France) May-June, .,

For  acts  of  the  comte  de  Paris  see  France,  1873,  et  S«<Z-

The  due  de  Montpensier,  born  1824  (see  Spain,
1846  et  seq.),  died 4  Feb.  1850

ORLEANS,  NEW,  sec  JSfew  Orleans.

ORMULTJM,  a  metrical  version  of  the  Gospels
and  Acts,  in  early  English,  made  by  Orm,  an  ecclesi-
astic, in  the  12th  century,  printed  at  Oxford  in
1852,  from  a  MS.  in  the  Bodleian.

ORNITHOLOGY,  see  Birds.

ORNITHORHYNCHUS,  the  duck-billed
platypus,  or  water-mole,  a  singular  compound  of
the  mammal  and  the  bird,  a  native  of  Australia,
was  first  described  by  Dr.  Shaw,  in  1819.

OROQUIETA,  Navarre,  N.  Spain.  Here  don
Carlos,  calling  himself  king  Carlos  VII.,  grandson
of  don  Carlos,  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  com-
manding about  4000  men,  was  suddenly  attacked
by  general  Moriones  with  about  2000,  and  defeated
after  a  short  conflict,  4  May,  1872.  He  fled,  leav-
ing 757  prisoners  and  38  dead.

ORPHAN-HOUSES.  The  emperor  Trajan
first  formed  establishments  for  this  purpose.  Pliny
relates  in  his  Panegyric  that  he  had  caused  5000  free-
born  children  to  be  sought  out  and  educated,  about
a.d.  105.  Orphan  houses  properly  so  called  arc
mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  laws  of  the  em-
peror Justinian.  At  the  court  of  Byzantium  the
office  of  inspector  of  orphans,  orphanotrophos,  was
so  honourable  that  it  was  held  by  thebrother  of  the
emperor  Michael  IV.  in  the  nth  century;  see
Foundling  Hospitals.

The  Orphanotropheon  at  Halle,  established  by  Au-
gust Franeke 1698-9

The  Orphan  Working  Asylum  for  20  boys  was  esta-
blished at  Hoxton  in  1758. It  is  now  situated  at
Haverstock-hill,  and  contains  350  boys  and  girls.
Asylum  for  Female  Orphans,  Lambeth ; removed

to  Beddington,  near  Croydon;  instituted  '. .  1758
London  Orphan  Asylum  founded,  1S13 ;  removed  to
Clapton,  1S23 ;  new  building  at  Watford,  founded
by  the  prince  of  Wales,  13  J  uly,  1869 ;  opened,

20  July,  1871
British  Orphan  Asylum,  Clapham-rise,  established
1827;  removed  to  Slough,  Bucks;  re-opened,

25  June,  1S63
The  Infant  Orphan  Asylum  at  Wanstead  (1827);
and  the  Asylum  for  Fatherless  Children  (in  1844;
settled  at  Reedham,  Surrey),  established  mainly
through  the  exertions  of  a  congregational  minister,
the  rev.  Andrew  Reed,  D.D.
Orphan-houses,  Ashley-down,  Bristol,  founded  by
George  M  filler,  a  Prussian,  supported  entirely
by  voluntary contributions. (He  began in a
house  in  Bristol,  11  April,  1S36.) 2050  orphans
were  maintained,  1873  ;  reported  prosperous .  1876
Erdington Orphanage  and  Alms-houses,  near  Bir-
mingham, erected  and  endowed  (with  250,000?.)
by  Josiah  Mason,  a  manufacturer  of  Birmingham,

1860-69
Royal  Albert  Orphan  Asylum,  at  Bagshot,  esla-
blished, 1864; additional  buildings  founded  by
the  queen,  29  June,  1867.

z  z


ORPHEONISTS.


706


OTOLOGY.


Alexandra  Orphanage  for  Infants,  Holloway,  1864;
foundation  of  building  laid,  6  July,  1867.

Stockwell  Orphanage,  Clapham-road,  founded  by
Rev.  C.  Spurgeon,  aided  by  legacy  of  Miss  Hill-
yard 1867

Orphans'  Homes  : — Maida-hill,  1873;  West-square,
Southwark ;  and  Gravesend  . . . . ,,

ORPHEONISTS,  see  Crystal  Palace,  i860.

OEPHEUS,  STEAMER,  see  Wrecks,  7  Feb.
1863.

ORRERY,  a  planetary  machine  to  illustrate
and  explain  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,
appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  clepsydra.
Ptolemy  devised  the  circles  and  epicycles  that  dis-
tinguish his  system  about  130.  The  planetary
clock  of  Finee  was  begun  1553.  The  planetarium
of  De  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650.  The  planet-
arium, now  termed  the  Orrery,  it  is  said,  was
constructed  by  Eowley,  after  a  pattern  devised  by
the  clock-maker,  George  Graham,  at  the  expense  of
Charles  Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery,  about  1715.  A  large
"  planetarium"  was  constructed  by  the  rev.  ¥m.
Pearson,  for  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  about
1803.  An  excellent  planetarium,  constructed  in
London  by  signor  N.  Perini,  was  exhibited  in  Dec.
1879.

ORSINI'S  PLOT  against  the  emperor  Napo-
leon III. ;  see  France,  Jan.  1858.

ORTHES  or  OrTHEZ  (S.  France),  once  capital
of  the  principality  of  Beam.  Near  it  the  British
and  Spanish  armies,  commanded  by  Wellington,
defeated  the  French,  under  Soult,  "27  Feb.  18 14.
The  battle  of  Toulouse  soon  followed.

ORTHOPAEDIC  HOSPITALS,  for  the
cure  of  club-foot,  spinal  curvatures,  &c. :  National,
Great  Portland  street,  founded,  1836  ;  Eoyal,  Han-
over-square, 1838;  City,  1851.

OSBORNE  HOUSE  (Isle  of  Wight),  was
purchased  by  the  queen  in  1845,  and  rebuilt  by
Mr.  Cubitt.

_  OSMIUM,  one  of  the  heaviest  known  metals,
discovered  in  platinum  ore  by  Tennant  in  1803.

OSNABURG  (N.  Germany),  made  the  seat  of
a  bishopric,  by  Charlemagne,  near  the  end  of  the
8th  century.  After  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in
1648,  the  bishop  was  a  Roman  Catholic  and  Protes-
tant alternately,  the  latter  being  chosen  from  the
house  of  Brunswick.  Frederick,  duke  of  York,  the
last  bishop,  resigned  in  1803,  when  the  lands  were
annexed  to  Hanover. He  died  5  Jan.  1827.

OSSORY  (S.  E.  Ireland),  BISHOPRIC  OF,
was!  first  planted  at  Saiger,  about  402  ;  translated
to  Aghadoe,  in  Upper  Ossory,  in  10^2;  and  to
Kilkenny  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.
It  was  united  to  Ferns  and  Leighlin  in  1835.

OSTEND  (Belgium).  An  important  sea-port
in  the  nth  century,  was  destroyed  by  the  sea  1334,
rebuilt  and  afterwards  walled  by  Philip  the  Good,
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  1445;  sustained  a  siege  by  the
Spaniards,  from  July,  1601,  to  Sept.  1604,  when  it
honourably  capitulated.  On  the  death  of  Charles
II.  of  Spain,  the  French  seized  Ostend;  but  in
1706,  after  the  battle  of  Ramilies,  it  was  retaken  by
the  allies.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in
1745,  but  restored  in  1748.  In  1756,  the  French
garrisoned  this  town  for  the  empress-queen  Maria
Theresa.  In  1792,  the  French  once  more  took
Ostend,  which  they  evacuated  iu  1793,  but  regained
in  1794.  Tno  English  destroyed  (jie  works  of  the
.Bruges  canal  j  hut;  thp  wind  shifting;  before  they


could  re-embark,  they  surrendered  to  the  French,
19  May,  1798.  The  Ostend  East  India  company,
established  1723,  was  dissolved  1731.  Riotous  at-
tacks on  British  fishermen  landing  fish  quelled
with  bloodshed ;  intervention  of  the  king ;  peace
restored  23-30  Aug.  1887.  Population,  1890,  24,712.

OSTIA,  a  Boman  port,  at  the  mouth  of  the
Tiber,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Ancus  Marlins
about  627  B.C.

OSTRACISM (from the  Greek  ostralcon, a

potsherd  or  shell),  a  mode  of  proscription  at  Athens,
is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  tyrant
Hippias;  others  ascribe  it  to  Cleisthenes,  about  510
B.C.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of  those  whom
they  most  suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they
put  in  an  urn  or  box  and  presented  to  the  senate.
Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest
written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  be  banished
from  his  altar  and  hearth.  6000  votes  were  re-
quired. Aristides,  noted  for  his  justice,  and  Mil-
tiades,  for  his  victories,  were  thus  ostracized.  The
custom  was  abolished  by  ironically  proscribing
Hyperbolus,  a  mean  person,  about  338  B.C.

OSTRICH  (the  struthios  of  the  ancients),  a
native  of  Africa  (see  Job  xxxix.  14).  Ostriches
were  hatched  and  reared  at  San  Donate,  near  Flo-
rence, 1859-60;  and  at  Tresco  abbey,  the  seat  of
Augustus  Smith,  in  the  Scilly  isles,  1866.

.  OSTROGOTHS,  or  Eastern  Goths,  were

distinguished  from  the  Visigoths  (Western  Goths)
about  330.  After  ravaging  eastern  Europe,  Thrace,
&c,  their  great  leader,  Theodoric,  established  a.
kingdom  in  Italy,  which  lasted  from  493  to  553  ;
see  Italy.

OSTROLENKA  (Poland).  Near  here  the-
French  defeated  the  Prussians,  16  Feb.  1807.  In
another  battle  here  between  the  Poles  and  Russians-
the  slaughter  was  immense,  but  the  Poles  remained'
masters  of  the  field,  26  May,  1831.

OTAGO,  see  New  Zealand,  1848,  1861,  1866.

OTAHEITE  or  Tahiti,  an  island  in  the  S..
Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by  Byron  in  1765,  and  visited  '
in  1767  by  captain  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the
Third  Island.  Captain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768"
to  observe  the  transit  of  Yenus ;  sailed  round  the
whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  stayed  three  months;:
he  visited  it  twice  afterwards.  See  Cook.  Omai,  a*
native  of  this  island,  was  brought  to  England  by
Cook,  and  carried  back  in  his  last  voyage.  In
1799,  king  Pomare  ceded  the  district  of  Matavai  to
some  English  missionaries.  Queen  Pomare  was*
compelled  to  put  herself  under  the  protection  of
France,  9  Sept.  1843.  She  retracted,  and  Otaheite
and  the  neighbouring  islands  were  taken  possession
of  by  admiral  Dupetit-Thouars  in  the  name  of  thc-
French  king,  Nov.  1843.  Tne  French  imprisoned
Mr.  Pilchard,  the  English  consul,  5  March,  1844,
bat  the  act  was  censured  in  France.

Queen  Pomare  IV.,  born,  23  Feb.  1813  ;  succeeded  hoi-
brother,  Pomare  III.,  in  Jan.  1827  ;  died  17  Sept.  1877,
having  reigned  50  years.  By  consent  of  her  successor
the  island  was  formally  annexed  to  France,  29  Juner
1880. The  queen  arrived  at  Paris,  27  Feb.  1884.

OTHEOSCOPE  (from  otheb,  I  propel),  ap-
paratus invented  by  Mr.  W.  Crookes,  for  studying
molecular  motion,  the  effects  of  radiation ;  described
by  him,  April,  1877.

OTOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  ear.  A  con-
gress of  Otologists  met  at  Brussels,  Sept.  1S88,


OTTAWA.

OTTAWA  (formerly  BYTOWN),  on  the  river
Ottawa,  was  appointed  to  be  the  capital  of  Canada
by  the  queen  in  August,  1858.  The  executive
council  met  here  22  Nov.  1865,  and  the  Canadian
parliament  was,  for  the  first  time,  opened  here  by
the  governor-general,  lord  Monck,  on  8  June,
1866.  Mr.  Darcy  McGee,  M.P.  for  Montreal  (once
an  Irish  agitator,  but  afterwards  exceedingly  loyal),
was  assassinated  on  his  return  from  parliament,
7  April,  1868.  Fenians  were  suspected,  and  the
town  was  put  in  a  state  of  siege.  Whelan,  con-
victed of  the  murder,  15  Sept.  1868,  was  executed
Feb.  1869.  A  dominion  exhibition  was  opened
here  24  Sept.  1879.  The  duke  and  duchess  of
Connaught  warmly  received  4  June,  1890.  Popula-
tion in  1861,  14,669;  in  1871,  21,545;  in  1881,
27,412;  1891,  estimated  35,000.

OTTEBBUBN  (Northumberland).  In  1388
the  Scotch  besieged  Newcastle  and  were  driven  off
by  Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  son  of  the  earl  of  North-
umberland. Percy  pursued  them  to  Otterburn,
where  a  battle  was  fought  on  10  Aug.,  in  Avhich  the
earl  of  Douglas  was  killed  and  Percy  taken  pri-
soner. On  this  battle  the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  is
founded.

OTTOMAN  EMPIEE,  see  Turkey,  1299.

OXIDE or  OuDH (North  India), formerly a

vice-royalty  held  by  the  vizier  of  the  great  mogul.

About  1760,  it  was  seized  by  the  vizier  Sujah-ud-

Dowlah,  ancestor  of  the  late  king.

Battle  of  Buxar,  where  Sujah  and  his  ally,  Meer
Cossim,  are  totally  defeated,  and  the  British  be-
come virtually  masters  of  Oude . .  23  Oct. 1764

Reign  of  Asoph-ud-Dowlah,  who  cedes  Benares,  &c,
to  the  East  India  Company,  who  place  troops  in
Oude  (see  Chunar) 1775-81

[The  annual  subsidy  to  the  company  in  1787  was
500,000?.  ;  in  1794,  760,000?.  ;  in  1801,  1,352,347?.]

More  territories  ceded  to  the  company . . .  1801

Ghazee-ud-deen  becomes  king,  with  the  consent  of
the  British 1819

Dreadful  misgovernment  of  Nusser-ud-deen  1827-37

[At  his  death,  the  British  resident,  Colonel  Lowe,
promptly  suppresses  an  insurrection.]

Mahomed  AH  governs  well ....  1837-42

But  bis  son  Umjeed  Ali  Shah .... 1842-7

And  grandson,  Waud  Ali  Shah,  exceed  all  their  pre-
decessors in  profligacy ....  1847-56

In  consequence  (by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  1801)
Oude  is  annexed  to  the  British  territories,  by
decree,  proclaimed 7  Feb.  1856

The  queen  and  prince  of  Oude,  &c. ,  arrive  in  Lon-
don to  appeal 20  Aug. „

Oude  joins  the  Indian  mutiny;  ex-king  of  Oude
imprisoned  (on  suspicion) . . .14  June,  1S57

The  queen  dies  at  Paris,  24  Jan. ;  and  the  prince  at

London 26  Feb.  1858

[For  the  war,  see  India,  1857-8.]

Triumphal  entry  of  the  governor-general  into  Luck-
now  ;  the  Talookdars  (landowners)  receive  a  free
grant  of  their  estates . . . . 22  Oct.  1859

Grand  durbar  held  at  Lucknow  by  the  viceroy,  sir
John  Lawrence 12  Nov.  1867

Oude  was  annexed  to  the  N.W.  Provinces  in  . .  1856

OUDENABDE  (Belgium).  Here  the  English
and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince
Eugene  thoroughly  defeated  the  French  besiegers,
ir  July,  1708.

OULAET  (S.E.  Ireland).  Here  5C00  Irish
insurgents  attacked  the  king's  troops,  in  small
numbers,  27  May,  1798.  The  North  Cork  militia,
after  great  feats  of  bravery,  were  cut  to  pieces,  five
men  only  escaping. — Musgrave.

OUNCE  (from  uncia),  the  sixteenth  part  of  the
pound  avoirdupois,  and  twelfth  of  the  pound  troy.
Its  precise  weight  was  fixed  by  Henry  III.,  who


™7  OWHYHEE.

decreed  that  an  English  ounce  should  be  640  dry
grains  of  wheat;  that  twelve  of  these  ounces  should
be  a  pound;  and  that  eight  pounds  should  be  a
gallon  of  wine,  1233.

OUEIQUE  (Portugal),  where  Alfonso,  count
or  duke  of  Portugal,  is  said  to  have  encountered
five  Saracen  kings  and  a  great  army  of  Moors,  25
July,  1 139,  and  signally  defeated  them;  and  then
to  have  been  hailed  the  first  king.  Lisbon,  the
capital,  was  taken,  and  he  soon  after  was  crowned.

OUTLAW,  one  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the
law,  and  out  of  the  sovereign's  protection;  a
punishment  for  such  as  being  called  in  law  do  con-
temptuously refuse  to  appear.  In  the  reign  of
Edward  III.  all  the  judges  agreed  that  none  but  the
sheriff  only  having  lawful  warrant  therefor,  should
put  to_  death  any  man  outlawed. —  Coivel.  Outlawry
in  civil  proceedings  was  abolished  by  42  &  43  Vict,
c.  59,  15  Aug.  1879.

OUZEL  GALLEY  SOCIETY. In  1700,

the  case  of  the  Ouzel  Galley,  a  ship  in  the  port  of
Dublin,  excited  great  legal  perplexity,  and  was
referred  to  an  arbitration  of  merchants,  whose
prompt  decision  was  highly  approved.  This  led  to
the  present  societ}',  founded  in  1705.

OVATION,  an  inferior  triumph  which  the
Romans  allowed  those  generals  of  their  army  whose
victories  were  not  considerable.  Publius  Posthumius
Tubertus  was  the  first  who  was  decreed  an  ovation,
503  b.c.  A  sheep  (ovis)  was  offered  by  the  general
instead  of  a  bull.

OVEELAND MAIL,  see Way  horn. The
overland  mail  travelled  first  through  the Cenis
tunnel  to  Brindisi,  saving  24  hours,  5  Jan.  1872.
Communication  between  the  East  and  West  has  been
greatly  facilitated  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez
Canal, 1869, and the railways between the
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  ;  by  means  of  the
Canadian  Pacific  railway  the China  and  Japan
mails  were  conveyed  from  Yokohama  to  London
in  25  days,  arriving  in  London . . 13  May, 1891

OVEBSEEBS  of  the  poor  for  parishes  were
appointed  in  1601 ;  see  Poor  Laics.

OWENS  COLLEGE,  Manchester,  founded
by  means  of  a  bequest  of  100,000/.  by  John  Owens
merchant,  who  died  in  1846.  A  new  constitution
was  obtained  in  1870,  and  the  duke  of  Devonshire,
president,  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  new  building
23  Sept.  1870;  and  opened  it,  8  Oct.  1873.  Mr.
E.  E.  Langworthy  bequeathed  10,000/.  to  develop
the  chair  of  experimental  physics,  1874.  The
college  proposed  as  a  university, 'July  1876-8.  See
Victoria  University.

OWHYHEE  or  HAWAII, an  island  in  the
N. Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  Dec.  1778,  by  capt.
Cook. On  14  Feb.  1779,  he  here  fell  a  victim  to  a
sudden  resentment  of  the  natives. A  boat  havin°-
been  stolen  by  one  of  the  islanders,  the captain
went  on  shore  to  seize  the  king,  and  keep  him  as  a
hostage  till  the  boat  was  restored. The  people
would  not  submit  to  this  insult,  and  their  resistance
brought  on  hostilities,  and  captain  Cook  and  some
of  his  companions  were  killed. Great  progress  has
been  recently made  in civilisation  here;  and  an
order  of  nobility  and  a  representative  assembly  were
instituted  in  i860. The  population  then  was  about
120,000;  about  60,000  in 1878;  a  railway  opened
in  1878. See  Sandwich  Isles  and  Leprosy.
Eruption  of  the  volcano  Mauna  Loa  ceased,  about  20
miles  of  lava,  8  Feb.  ;  there  have  boon  frequent  out-
breaks of  volcanoes  on the  island  with  occasional
shocks  of  earthquake  ;  earthquake  shocks  5  May,  18S7
et  seq.  ;  167  persons  killed.


OWNERS  OF  LAND.


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.


OWNERS  OF  LAND,  see  Domesday.

OXALIC  ACID,  which  exists  in  several
plants,  especially  in  sorrel,  is  now  abundantly
obtained,  for  use  in  the  arts,  from  sawdust  acted
upon  by  caustic  potash  or  soda,  according  to  Dr.
Dale's  process,  patented  in  1862.

OXFORD,  an  ancient  city,  restored  by  king-
Alfred,  who  resided  here  and  established  a  mint,
&c., about  879. Returns  one M.P. by  Act of
1885. See  Topulation.
Canute  held  a  national  council  here  . . . . 101S

Stormed  by  William  I.  . 1067

Charter  by  Henry  II.,  the  city  granted  to he  bur-
gesses by  John 1199

Henry  III.  holds  the  "  mad  "  parliament  here . . 1258
Bishops  Kidley  and  Latimer  burnt  here,  16  Oct.

1555  ;  and  archbishop  Cranmer . 21  March,  1556
Fatal  (or  Black)  Oxford  Assizes, — when  the  high
sheriff  and  300  other  persons  died  suddenly  of  an

infection  from  the  prisoners 1557

Charles  I.  took  Oxford,  1642,  and  held  a  parliament

here 1644

Taken  by  the  parliament ... 24  June,  1646
Charles  II.  held  parliaments  here . . 1665  &  iCSi

Visit  of  the  allied  sovereigns 1814

British  Association  met  here . . 1832,  1847,  i860
Oxford  Military  College,  Cowley,  opened  .  20  Sept.  3876
New  high  school  opened . . . .15  Sept. 1881
New  theatre  opened  13  Feb.  1886  ;  greatly  injured
by  lire 10,  11  March,  1892

OXFORD ADMINISTRATION,  formed

29  May,  171 1.

Boberfc,  earl  of  Oxford  (previously  right  lion.  Robert
Harley),  lord  treasurer.

Sir  Simon  (afterwards  lord)  Harcourt,  lord  keeper.

John,  duke  of  Normanby  and  Buckingham,  lord  presi-
dent.

John,  bishop  of  Bristol  (aft.  London),  privy  seal.

Henry  St.  John  (afterwards  viscount  Bolingbroke),  and
William,  lord  Dartmouth,  secretaries  of  state.

Bobert  Benson  (afterwards  lord  Bingley),  chancellor  of
tlie  exchequer.

The  duke  of  Shrewsbury  succeeded  lord  Oxford,  receiv-
ing the  lord  treasurer's  staff  on  30  July,  1714,  three
days  before  the  death  of  queen  Anne.  From  the  reign
of  George  I.  the  office  of  lord  treasurer  has  been  exe-
cuted by  commissioners.

OXFORD  BISHOPRIC,  established  by
Henry  Till.,  formed  out  of  Lincoln,  first  placed
at  Osney  in  1542  ;  removed  to  Oxford  cathedral
(formerly  St.  Erideswide,  now  Christ  Church),  1545.
Present  income,  5000/.

RECENT  BISHOPS.

1807.  Charles  Moss  ;  died,  16  Dec.  1S11.

1812.  William  Jackson  ;  died,  2  Dec.  1815.

1815.  Edward  Legge  ;  died,  27  Jan.  1827.

1827.  Charles  Lloyd  ;  died,  31  May,  1829.

1829.  Richard  Bagot  ;  translated  to  Bath,  Nov.  1845.

1845.  Samuel  Wilberforee ; translated to Winchester,

Nov.  1869.
1869.  John  Fielder  Maekarness  ;  resigned  about  21  June,

1SS8  ;  died  16  Sept.  1889.
188S.  William  Stubbs  ;  translated  from  Chester,  July.

OXFORD  DECLARATION,  see  Church  of
England,  1864.

OXFORD  HOUSE',  see  under  University
Teaching.

OXFORD  MARBLES,  seeArundelian.

OXFORD  UNION  SOCIETY,  established
as  a  debating-  club,  in  1823  ;  amongst  its  early
members,  are  or  were  Mr.  Gladstone,  bp.  Wilberforce,
lord  Stanhope,  abp.  Manning,  Sidney  Herbert,  abp.
Tait,  cvc.  It  held  a  jubilee  festival,  22  Oct.  1873,
the  lord  chancellor  Selborne  in  the  chair.

OXFOBD  UNIVERSITY.  Alfred  bunded
''  the  schools"  about  S79.


Charter  granted  by  Henry  III 1248

Charter  of  Edward  III.  1355  ;  of  Henry  VIII. . . i;io

The  university  incorporated  by  Elizabeth . . 1570

Beceives  the  elective  franchise  (to  send  two  mem-
bers to  parliament) 1604

Bodleian  Library  opened,  8  Nov.  1602  ;  building-
completed 161 3

The  botanic  garden,  &c.,  established  by  the  earl  of
Danby 1622

Badcliffe  Library  opened,  13  April,  1749  ;  the
Badeliffc  observatory  completed .... 1786

A  commission  appointed  (31  Aug.  1S50)  to  inquire
into  its  "  state,  studies,  discipline,  and  revenues  ;"
reported 27  April,  1S52

Acts  making  alterations  passed . . . 1854,  1856

University  Museum  opened .... July,  jSCo

Examination  statutes  passed . 1801,  1S07,  1S50,  iSts

Extension  of  the  university  propjosed  at  a  meeting
held 16  Nov.  1865

University  tests  abolished  by  act  passed 16  June,  1871

Boyal  commission  to  inquire  respecting  university
property,  &c,  appointed . . . .  6  Jan.  1P72.

Income  in  1871,  reported  to  be  :  university,
47,589?.  os.  3d,  colleges  and  halls,  366,253?.  16s.  3d.,
total,  413,842?.  16s.  6c? Oct,  1S74

Hebdomadal  board  reported  that  about  100,000?.
was  needed  for  education  in  science . June,  1S75

Lord  Ilehester's  bequest  to  promote  the  study  of
Slavonian  literature,  especially  Polish  ;  first  lec-
tures given May, .,

New  commission  appointed  (lords  Selborne  and
Bedesdale,  Montague  Bernard,  sir  M.  W.  Kidley,
dean  Burgoii,  and  Mr.  Justice  Grove) ;  announced

27  March,  1S76

Oxford  University  Bill  withdrawn  July,  1876  ;  the
Universities  Act  passed  . . . 10  Aug. 1877

The  commission  publish  a  new  scheme  for  profes-
sors, &c,  very  restrictive . . .2  Nov.  18S0

Statute  passed  admitting  women  to  examination

29  April,  1884

Pusey  memorial  house,  containing  Pusey's  library,
&c.,  opened  by  bishop  of  Oxford . . 9  Oct. ,,

4  sets  of  rooms  at  Queen's  College  destroyed  by  fire

11  Dec.  i8S~

Museum  for  gen.  Pitt-Rivers'  collection  of  ancient
weapons,  &e.,  presented  to  the  university,  opened

Feb.  1887

Combination  of  the  municipal  and  academical  civic
powers  in  conformity  with  the  local  government
act  of  1888,  consummated . . .0  Nov.  18E0

Catherine  T.  Kiordon's  attempt  on  the  life  of  Dr.  J.
T.  Bright,  master  of  University  College,  6  Nov.  ;
sentenced  to  6  years' penal  servitude . 15  Nov. 1850

COLLEGES.

University,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  king
Alfred,  872  ;  founded  by  William,  archdeacon  of
Durham,  about 1232

Balliol ;  founded  by  John  Baliol  or  Balliol,  knt.
(father  to  Baliol,  king  of  the  Scots),  and  Deborah,
his  wife 1263

Merton  College,  by  Walter  de  Merton,  bishop  of
Rochester 1264

Hertford  College  1312  (dissolved  in  1S05,  and  a
Hertford  scholarship  appointed)  1805  ;  revived,
and  Magdalen  Hall  incorporated  with  it.  . . 1874

Exeter,  by  V,7 alter  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter .  1314

Oriel  College,  by  king  Edward  II.  ;  Adam  de  Broine.
archdeacon  of  Stowe 1326

Queen's  College,  by  Robert  de  Eglesfield,  clerk,
confessor  to  queen  Pliilippa,  consort  of  Edward
III.  .....  .... 1340

New  College,  by  William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of
Winchester  ;  first  called  St.  Mary  of  Winchester,
founded  1379  ;  occupied  1386  ;  (500th  anniversary
celebrated  14  Oct.  1879).

All  Souls'  College,  by  Henry  Chichely,  archbishop
of  Canterbury 1437

Magdalen,  by  William  of  Waynflete,  bishop  of  Win-
chester 1456

Lincoln  College,  by  Richard  Fleming,  1427 ;  finished
by  Rotherham,  bishop  of  Lincoln . . .  1479

Brazenose,  by  William  Smyth,  bishop  of  Lincoln,
and  sir  Richard  Sutton 1509

Corpus  Christi,  by  Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Win-
chester 1516

Christ  Church,  by  cardinal  Wolsey,  1525  ;  and
afterwards  by  Henry  VIII 1532


OXFOKD.


709


OYSTER.


Trinity,  by  sir  Thomas  Pope,  on  the  basis  of  a  pre-
vious institution,  called  Durham  College . .  1554

.St.  John's,  by  sir  Thomas  Wlryte,  lord  mayor  of
London I55S

Jesus  CoUege,  by  Dr.  Hugh  Price  and  queen  Eliza-
beth 1571

Wadham,  by  Nicholas  Wadham,  and  Dorothy,  his
wife I(5i3

Pembroke,  by  Thomas  Teesdale  and  Richard  Wight-
wick,  clerk 1624

Worcester,  by  sir  Thomas  Coke,  of  Bentley,  in  Wor-
cestershire ;  it  was  originally  called  Gloucester
College i7H

Keble  College  (see  Kebh  College)  ;  first  stone  laid  by
archbishop  of  Canterbury  25  April,  1868  ;  conse-
crated 23  June>  lS7°

Indian  Institute,  founded  1878  or  1879.

Somerville  Hall,  opened,  1879;  Mansfield  College,
for  Nonconformists !886

Manchester  New  College ....  .  1889

Proposed  establishment  of  Honour  School  of  modern
European  languages 3  May,  1887

halls  (not  incorporated).

St.  Edmund's 1269

St.  Mary's 1333

New  Inn  Hall i392

St, Mary  Magdalen  (incorporated  with  Hertford

college  1874) I487

St.  Alban's  (united  with  Merton  College,  1882) . 1547

[Oxford  University  Calendar.]
Fir.4 Professorships  =—  Divinity (Margaret), 1502;

Divinity,  Law,  Medicine,  Hebrew,  Greek,  1540,

&c.

P.SCENT CHANCELLORS.

i"o-->.  William,  baron  Granville.

1S34.  Arthur,  duke  of  Wellington.

1S52.  Edward,  earl  of  Derby  ;  d.  23  Nov.  1S69.

1S69.  Robert,  marquis  of  Salisbury,  elected  12  Nov.

OXFORD,  PROVISIONS  OP,  for  several  poli-
tical reforms;  enacted  by  "  the  mad  parliament,"
June  1258;  several  times  annulled  and  confirmed
during  the  "barons'  war."

OXFORD'S  ACT,  Bisnor  OP,  see  District

C'iii'.rchcs.

OXFORD'S  ASSAULT  on  the  Queen.

Edward  Oxford,  a  youth  who  had  been  a  servant
in  a  public-house,  discharged  two  pdstols  at  queen
Victoria  and  prince  Albert,  as  they  were  proceeding
up  Constitution-hill  in  an  open  phaeton  from
Buckingham  palace,  10  June,  1840.  He  stood
within  a  few  yards  of  the  carriage,  but  neither  her
majesty  nor  the  prince  was  injured.  Oxford  was
tried  at  the  Old  Bailey  (10  July),  and  was  adjudged
to  be  insane,  and  sent  first  to  Bethlehem  hospital,
next  to  Broadmoor  ;  and  set  at  liberty  in  1868,  on
condition  of  going  abroad.

OXFORD  HOUSE,  sec  University
Teaching.

"OXFORD  MOVEMENT,  1833-45,  by
It.  W.  Church,"  late  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  published
10  March,  1891 ;  see  Puseyism  and  Tractarianism.

OXUS  (the  Persian  and  Turkish  Djihoun,
local  name,  Amou  Darya),  a  river  of  Central  Asia  ;
Hiipposed  to  have  changed  its  course  before  1000
a.d.,  and  to  have  resumed  its  ancient  bed  in  1878.

OXYGEX,  a  gas  (named  from  the  Greek  oxus,
sharp,  as  being  generally  found  in  acids),  is  the
most  abundant  of  all  substances,  constituting  about
one-third  of  the  solid  earth,  and  forming  about
nine-tenths  of  water  and  one-fifth  of  the  atmo-
sphere. It  was  first  separated  from  red  oxide  of
mercury  by  Priestley,  I.Aug.  1774,  and  by  Scheele,
who  was  ignorant  of  Priestley's  discovery,  in  1775.
It  is  a  supporter  of  animal  life  (in  respiration),  and
of  combustion.  An  oxygen  gas  company  was
announced  in  Dec.  1864;  its  object  being  the  cheap


manufacture  of  oxygen  for  its  application  to  the
production  of  perfect  combustion  in  lamps,  stoves,
furnaces,  &c.  Oxygen  was  liquefied  by  Eaoul
Pictet  at  Geneva ;  (pressure,  320  atmospheres,
temp.  140  below  zero  cent.)  22  Dec.  1877.  Sec
Ozone.

Professor  Dewar  obtained  2  cubic  centimetres  (TV  of  a
fluid  oz.)  of  liquid  oxygen  by  means  of  liquid  ethylene
(the  illuminating  part  of  coal  gas),  temp.  140°  below
zero  Cent,  (by  Wroblcwski  and  Olszewski's  method)
at  the  Royal  'institution,  London,  in  the  presence  of
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  26  June,  1884.  He
exhibited  for  the  first  time  some  solid  oxygen  in  the
form  of  snow  (temperature -200  cent  — 400  fahr.)  pro-
duced by  placing  liquid  oxygen  in  a  partial  vacuum  at
the  Royal  Institution  27  May,  1886.
Professor  Dewar  exhibited  between  300  to  400  cer.ti-
timetres  liquid  oxygen  at  the  Faraday  Centenary,
26  June,  1801.  The  feeble  magnetism  of  oxygen,
demonstrated  by  Faraday,  was  shown  by  Professor
Dewar  to  be  greatly  increased  when  reduced  to  the
liquid  state  by  a  temperature  of  1800  below  zero  centi-
grade ;  announced  10  Dec.  1S01.  Some  liquid  oxygen
placed  in  the  magnetic  held,  sprang  to  the  poles  and
adhered  to  them  till  evaporated ;  this  was  publicly
exhibited  by  the  professor  at  the  Royal  Institution,
10  June,  1892.  Several  pints  of  liquid  oxygen  and
liquid  air  were  then  produced  in  the  presence  of  the
audience.
A -statue  of  Priestley,  by  F.  J.  Williamson,  at  Birming-
ham, was  unveiled  by  professor  T.  H.  Huxley,  1  Aug.
1874,  the  centenary  of  the  discovery  of  oxygen.  This
was  also  celebrated  at  Northumberland,  Pennsylvania,
where  he  was  buried,  Feb.  1804.  The  following  tele-
gram was  sent  31  July  :  "The  brethren  at  the  grave
to  the  brethren  at  the  home  of  Priestley  send  greet-
ing on  this  centennial  anniversary  of  the  birth  of
chemistry."  .

A  method  of  obtaining  oxygen  from  air,  devised  and
patented  by  M.  Margis,  of  Paris.  The  principle  is  that
of  dialysis,  or  diffusion  under  pressure,  Sept.  i38a.
See  Gas  (liquefaction).

OYER  AND  TERMINER,  a  commission  directed
to  the  judges  of  the  courts,  by  virtue  whereof  they
have  power  to  hear  and  determine  treasons,  felonies,
&c.,  1285.

O  YES !  A  corruption  of  the  French  oyez,  hear
ye !  The  ancient  term  still  used  by  a  public  crier
and  by  the  usher  of  courts  of  justice  to  enjoin
silence  and  attention.

OYSTER  (the  Latin  Ostrea  edulis).  British
oysters  are  celebrated  by  the  Roman  satirist  Juvenal  "
(Sat-  iv.  140)  about  160.  The  robbery  of  oyster-
beds  is  prohibited  by  7  &8Geo.  IV.  c.  29  (1827).
About  15,000  bushels  of  oysters  were  said  to  be  pro-
duced from  the  Essex  beds  alone.  In  1858  M.  Costc
commenced  rearing  oysters  in  great  numbers  on  the
coast  of  Brittany,  and  his  plan  has  been  found  suc-
cessful.
An  act  for  promoting  the  cultivation  of  oysters  in

the  United  Kingdom,  passed  . . Aug.  iS56

One  for  the  preservation  of  oyster  fisheries  3  May,  1S67
Certain  restrictions of  the  Oyster  Fisheries  act,

1862,  removed  by  the  Fisheries  act . . .  1868
The  fisheries  (oyster,  crab,  and  lobster)  act  forbids
the  sale  of  deep-sea  oysters  between  15  June  and  4
August ;  and  the  sale  of  others,  between  14  May
and  4  August ;  passed ...  10  Aug.  1877

Professor  Huxley  at  the  Royal  Institution  asserts
the  uselessness  of  restrictions  and  a  close,  time  for
oysters,  and  the  present  uncertainty  of  culture

11  May. t883
Artificial  breeding  greatly  promoted  by  professor
Brooks  of  Baltimore,  (who  discovered  non-her-
maphrodite) lieutenant  WinslOW, U.S., and M.
Bouchen-Brandely,  announced  . . .  June,  1884
Act  for  the  cultivation  of  oysters  in  Ireland  passed „
Oysters,  about  1830  the  commonest  of  food,  are.  new  be-
coming scarcer  and  scarcer,  although  their  reproduction
is  about a  million  fold. A  committee  recommend
a  close  time  for  dredging,  viz.,  1  May  to  1  Sept.,  deep-


OZOKEEIT.


710


OZONE.


sea  fishing  to  be  restricted,  as  at  present,  from  15  June
to  15  Aug. ;  no  oyster  to  be  sold  under  2j  inches  in  dia-
meter. The  Whitstable  beds  in  1875  are  said  to  have
produced  about  79,564,000  oysters  ;  value  about
55,i4oZ.

American  and  Portuguese  oysters  are  now  largely  im-
ported.

Oysters  successfully  cultivated  at  Arcachon,  near
Bordeaux,  i88g.

OZOKERIT,  a  mineral  hydro-carbon  found  in
Moldavia  and  "Wallachia.  From  it  is  distilled  a
substance  suitable  for  making  candles,  introduced
in  the  autumn  of  1871.

OZONE  (from  the  Greek  ozein,  to  yield  an
odour),  was  discovered  by  Schonbein,  of  Basel,  in
1840,  when  experimenting  with  the  then  newly-
invented  battery  of  sir  "Wm.  Grove,  and  was  recog-
nised by  him  successively  as  a  minute  constituen  t
of  the  oxygen  gas  resulting  from  the  electrolysis  of
water  effected  by  a  current  of  high  tension ;  of  air
or  oxygen  through  which  electric  discharges  have
( aken  place ;  and  of  air  in  which  moist  phosphorus
has  been  undergoing  slow  oxidation.


Marignac  determined  the  action  of  ozone  on  various
substances  to  be  due  to  their  oxidation . .  1845

Ozonometers  constructed 1858

M.  Schonbein  announced  his  discovery  of  another
modification  of  oxygen,  which  he  termed  antozone,
hitherto  found  only  in  the  compound  state  (in
peroxides  of  sodium,  potassium,  &c.)  . .  1859

The  French  Academy  of  Sciences  appointed  a  com-
mittee of  eminent  philosophers  to  inquire  into
the  nature  and  relations  of  ozone .  4  Dec.  1865

Andrews  and  Tait  demonstrated  ozone  to  be  a  con-
densed form  of  oxygen .... i860, „

This  further  established  by  Soret  and  Brodie,  by
quantitative  reactions.  (Odling  suggested  and
Brodie  proved  ozone  to  be  3  parts  of  oxygen  com-
pressed into  the  space  of  2) 1872

Ozone,  generated  by  a  current  produced  by  Wilde's
magneto-electric  machine,  employed  to  bleach
sugar,  by  Edward  Beane's  patent . .  Aug.  1868

Liquefied  by  Hautefeuille  and  Chappuis . Oct.  1880

Other  properties  since  discovered  . . .  1881-4

The  inhalation  of  ozone  recommended  as  a  remedy
for  phthisis  ;  the  institution  at  St.  Raphael  on  the
Mediterranean  opened  for  the  purpose  ;  reported

Dec.  1891


p.


PACIFICATION.


PAINTING.


PACIFICATION,  Edicts of,  the  name

usually  given  to  the  edicts  of  toleration  granted  by

the  French  kings  to  the  protestants ;  see  Ghent.

First  edict,  by  Charles  IX. ,  permitting  the  exercise
of  the  reformed  religion  near  all  the  cities  and
towns  in  the  realm ....  Jan.  1562

The  reformed  worship  permitted  in  the  houses  of
lords  justiciaries,  and  certain  other  persons,  March,  1563

These  edicts  revoked,  and  all  Protestant  ministers
ordered  to  quit  France  in  fifteen  days . . .  1568

Edict,  allowing  lords  and  others  to  have  service  in
their  houses,  and  granting  public  service  in  cer-
tain towns 1570

f_In  Aug.  1572,  the  same  monarch  authorised  the
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  (see  Bartholomew).']

Edict  of  Pacification  by  Henry  III.,  April;  re-
voked, Dec.  1576;  renewed  for  six  years  Oct.  1577

[Several  edicts  were  published  against  the  protes-
tants after  the  six  years  expired.]

Edict  of  Henry  IV.,  renewing  that  of  Oct.  1577 .  1591

Edict  of  Nantes  (which  see),  by  Henry  IV.,  13  April,  1598

Pacification  of  Nismes  (which  see)  . . 14  July,  1629

PACIFIC  ISLANDERS. See  Kidnapping

Acts.

PACIFIC  OCEAN,  the  largest  of  the  five
oceans  of  the  globe.  It  was  first  discovered  in  15 13
by  Vasco  Nunez  do  Balboa,  and  received  its  name
from  Magellan  in  1521.  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  the
first  Englishman  who  sailed  upon  it  in  1577.  See
Magellan;  Steam,  185 1 ;  Wrecks,  1856;  Kidnap-
ping Acts  ;  Panamd.

PACIFIC  RAILWAY,  North  America,  from
Omaha  citjT,  Missouri,  to  Sacramento,  California,
1700  miles,  opened  12  May,  1869.  By  a  collision
near  San  Francisco,  about  15  persons  were  killed,
14  Nov.  1869.  For  new  Pacific  railway  see  Canada,
1881,  et  seq.  By  means  of  this  railway,  the  China
and  Japan  mails  were  conveyed  from  Yokohama  to
London  in  25  days;  received  13  May,  1891.

PADLOCKS  are  said  to  have  been  invented
by  Beecher  at  Nuremberg,  1540,  but  are  mentioned
much  earlier.

PADUA,  the  Roman  Patavium,  in  Venetia,  N.
Italy,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Antenor,  soon
after  the  fall  of  Troy.  It  flourished  under  the
Romans.  Patavian  Latin  was  considered  very
corrupt,  and  is  traced  in  Livy,  a  native  of  Padua.
After  being  an  independent  republic,  and  a  member
of  the  Lombard  league,  Padua  was  ruled  by  the
Carrara  family  from  1318  with  a  short  interruption
till  1405,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  Venetians.
The  university  was  founded  about  1220.  It  was
elosed  through  disturbances,  1 848-50.

PAGANS,  the  heathen,  worshippers  of  idols,
not  agreeing  in  any  set  form  or  points  of  belief.  See
Idols.  C'onstantine's  nephew,  Julian, attempted  their
restoration,  361;  but  Paganism  was  renounced  by
the  Roman  senate  in  388,  and  finally  overthrown
in  the  reign  of  Thcodosius  the  younger,  about  391.

PAI  MARIRE,  a  name  given  to  the  dogmas
of  the  Hau-hau  sect;  see  New  Zealand,  186,5.

PAINS  AND  PENALTIES,  certain  bills
passed  by  the  legislature  to  punish  state  offenders  ;
see  Queen  Caroline.

PAINTING.  This  art  was  practised  in  Egypt
and  Greece  in  very  early  times;  see  under  Arts.


Polygnotus,  said  to  be  the  first  portrait  and  historic
painter,  lived  about b.c. 450

Zeuxis  of  Heraelea  and  Parrhasius  of  Ephesus,  about 400

Apelles about 332

Pausias  of  Sieyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustic,
a  method  of  burning  the  colour's  into  wood  or
ivory about  360-330

Antiphilus,  an  Egyptian,  is  said  to  have  been  the
inventor  of  the  grotesque. Pliny. . .  b.c. 332

The  art  was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Etruria,  by
Quintus  Fabius,  styled  Pictor. Livy. . . . 291

Excellent  pictures  broughtfrom  Corinth  by  Mummius 146

After  the  death  of  Augustus,  not  a  single  painter  of
eminence  appeared  for  several  ages ;  Ludius,  who
was  very  celebrated,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the
last about  a.  d. 14

Painting  on  canvas  seems  to  have  been  known  at
Rome  in  66.  Bede,  the  Saxon  historian,  knew
something  of  the  art,  died 735

Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  Florence,  revived  the  art ;  he
died 1300

John  Van  Eyck,  of  Bruges,  and  his  brother,  Hubert,
are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  school
of  painting  in  oil 1415

Uccello  first  studied  perspective ;  died . . .  1432

Henry  VIII.  patronised  Holbein,  and  invited  Titian
to  his  court about  1523

In  Aug.  i860,  the  sale  of  lord  Northwick's  pictures
occupied  eighteen  days.  It  produced  95,725?.  A
Carlo  Dolci  fetched  2010?.,  and  a  Murillo  1400?.

The  Bicknell  collection,  sold  in  April,  1863,  pro-
duced 25,600?.

Mr.  Win.  Noy  "Wilkins  invented  a  process  of  using
oil  with  mineral  colours  for  frescoes  in  1853  ;  pub-
lished his  "  Durability  in  Art " ....  1875

Gainsborough's  picture  of  Georgiana,  duchess  of
Devonshire,  bought  by  Messrs.  Agnew  for  10,100?.,
stolen  from  their  house  in  Bond-street,  London,

24-25  May,  1S76

Baron  Albert  Grant's  collection  said  to  have  sold
for  106,262?. 28  April, 1877

Mr.  Munro's  Novar  collection,  sold  for  64,975/.
close  of  sale 3  June,  1878

Leigh  Court  collection  (sir  P.  W.  Miles)  sold  for
44,296? 2S  June,  1884

The  collections  of  John  Graham  of  Ayrshire :  ancient
masters  sold  for  69,168?.  12  April,  1886;  modern
masters,  62,297? 3°  April, 18S7

Mr.  Bolckow's  collection  of  about  70  modern
pictures  sold  for  71,378?.  . . .5  May,  1888

Mr.  Wells'  (of  Redleaf)  collection  of  104  pictures

sold  for  77,000? 10  May,  1S90

See  under  Blenheim  and  Hamilton  Palace.

EMINENT  PAINTERS. Bom  OV

School.  Flourished.  Pied.

Guido  da  Siena  . . . .  i2zo

Marghitone  d'Arezzo . .  Florentine  .  12 12  1289

Cimabue Ditto .  . 1240  1300

Giotto Ditto .  . 1276  1336

Simone  Martiuo  (Memmi) .  Italian .  .  1283  1344

Andrea  Orcagna . . .  Ditto  .  .  1329  1389

Hubert  Van  Eyck . .  Flemish  .  1366  1426

J.  Van  Eyck . . . .  Ditto .  .  1366  1441

Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole. .  Italian .  .  13S7  1455

Felippo  Lippi . . . . Ditto  .  .  1412  1469

Domenico  (jhirlandajo . .  Ditto .  .  1449  r49S

Andrea  Mantegna . . .  Ditto  .  .  1431  1506

Giorgione ....  Venetian  . 1477  1511

Sandro  Botticelli . . .  Italian .  . 1437  1515

Giovanni  Bellini . . .  Ditto .  . 1426  1516

Leonardo  da  Vinci . . . Florentine  . 1452  1520

Raphael  d'Urbino . . .  Roman  . 14S3  1520

Pietro  Paolo  Perugino . .  Italian .  .  1446  1524

Albert  Diirer  ....  German  .  1470  1528

Quentin  Matsys . . .  Flemish  .  1460  1529

Andrea  Vannuchi  (del  Santo).  Florentine  .  148S  1530

Correggio Lombardian  1494  1534

Parmegiano ....  Ditto .  . 1503  1540


PAINTING.


fl2


PAL^OLOGI.


Hans  Holbein .

. .  German

Giulio  Romano

.  Roman

Sebastian  del  Piombo

. .  Venetian

Lucas  Cranacb

.  German

Giovanni  Razzi .

.  Siennese

Michael  Angelo  Buonai

otti .  Florentine .

Titian

. .  Venetian

Paul  Veronese

.  Ditto

Tintoretto  .

. .  Ditto .

Annibal  Caracci

.  Lombardian

P.  P.  Kubens

.  Ditto .

Domenichino

. .  Bolognese .

Vandyck

.  Flemish  . .

"Wm.  Dobson  .

.  English

Both  ....

. .  Dutch . .

P.  Potter

.  Ditto .

Spagnoletto .

.  Spanish

Sn}rclers

. .  Flemish

Velasquez

.  Spanish

Zarbaran .

. .  Ditto

N.  Poussin

.  French

Hobbima

.  Flemish

A.  Cuyp .

. .  Dutch.

Samuel  Cooper

.  English

A.  Vander  Velde

. .  Dutch . .

Salvator  Rosa

.  Neapolitan  .

Rembrandt

. .  Dutch . .

Gerard  Douw  .

.  Ditto .

Sir  Peter  Lely .

. .  German

Mieris

.  Dutch.

. .  Ditto

Claude  Lorraine

.  French

. .  Dutch .

Murillo .

.  Spanish

. .  Dutch .

Carlo  Dolci .

.  Florentine

Wouvermans

. .  Dutch  .

Le  Bran  .

.  French .

W.  Vander  Velde .

.  Dutch  .

Watteau

. .  French .

Sir  Godfrey  Kneller

.  German

Sir  J.  Thomhill

. .  English .

Huysum

.  Dutch.

Hogarth

. .  English

Canaletti

.  Venetian

J.  Mortimer

. .  English

R.  Wilson

.  Ditto

Gainsborough .

. .  Ditto .

C.  J.  Vernet .

.  French

Sir  J.  Reynolds  .

. .  English

Romney  .

.  Ditto

George  Morland

. .  Ditto .

Barry .

.  Ditto

George  Stufobs .

. .  Ditto

. .  Ditto .

Paul  Sandby  .

.  Ditto

. .  Ditto .

Copley .

.  ' .  Ditto

West  ....

H.  Raebnrn .

.  Ditto

David

.  French

Lawrence . .

. .  English

Northcote

.  Ditto

Thos.  Stotliard  .

. .  Ditto .

A.  C.  H.  Vernet .

.  French

Peechey

. .  English

Wm.  Hilton .

.  Ditto

Wilkie

Haydon  .

.  Ditto

Etty . . .

.  Ditto

Turner

. .  Ditto .

Martin .

.  Ditto

C.  R.  Leslie

. .  Ditto .

Aug.  Egg

.  Ditto .

Wm.  Mulready  .

. .  Ditto

J.  E.  H.  Vernet

.  French

P.  V.  E.  De  la  Croix  .

. .  Ditto

Wm.  Hunt

.  English

D.  Roberts

. .  Ditto .

Born  or

School.  Flourished.
1495
1492
148S
1472
1479
1474
1477
1532
1512
1568
156s
1577
1581

1599
1575
1610
1600
1625
1617
1589
1579
1599
1598
1594
159°
1611
1606
1609
1638
1615
1606
1613
1617
1635
1636
1600
1610
1618
1624
1616
1620
1619
1610
1633
1684
1648
1676


1697
1739
1714
1727
1714
1723
1734
1763
1 741
1724
1761
1725
1756
1738
1738
1786
1741
1748
1769
1746
I75S
1758
1753
1786
1785
17S6
1788
1787
J775
1789
1794
1816
1786
1789
1798
1790
1796


Died.
1543
1546
1547
1553
i5S4
1564
1576
1588
1594
1609
1625
1640
1641
1641
1642
1646
1650
1654
1655
1656
1657
1660
1662
1665
1666
1670
1672
1672
1672
1673
1674


1694
1707
1721
1723
1732
1749
1764
1768
1779
1782
1788
1789
1792
1802
1804


1815
1820
1823
1825
1825
1830
1831


1839
1839
1841
1846


1S54
1859


1863
1863


Born  or

School.  Flourished.

Died..

W.  F.  Witherington

.  English

1786

1865.

Clarkson  Stanfield

. .  Ditto . .

1798

1867-

P.  Von  Cornelius .

.  German

1787

1867

J.  D.  A.  Ingres  .

. .  French . .

1781

1867

Thos.  Creswick

.  English

i8n

3869

F.  Overbeck

. .  German  . .

1789

1869

D.  Maclise

.  English

181E

1870

Sir  George  Hayter

. .  Ditto . .

1792

1871

Sir  E.  Landseer

.  Ditto .

1802

1873

W.  Kaulbach

. .  German

1805

1374

P.  F.  Poole .

.  English  . .

1806

1879

E.  M.  Ward

. .  Ditto .

18.6

1879

E. W.  Cooke ...

.  Ditto . .

1810

18S0-

Gustave  Dore

. .  French

1832

1883

Johannes  Makart .

.  German

1840

1884

Thos.  Webster .

. .  English

1800

1886

Richd.  Redgrave

.  Ditto  .

1804

1888

Frank  Holl .

. .  Ditto.

1846

1888

Arthur  Stocks .

. .  Ditto . .

1846

1889.

J  olm  R.  Herbert .

.  Ditto  .

1810

1890-

J.  C.  Horsley .

. .  Ditto  .

1817

1890

C.  W.  Cope .

.  Ditto .

1811

1890-

J.  L.  E.  Meissonier .

. .  French  .

1815

1891

Edwiu  Long .

.  English

1839

1S91

Sir  Wm.  F.  Douglas

.  Ditto . .

1829

i8qi.

W.  P.  Frith

. .  Ditto  .

1819

John  Faed

'.  Ditto . .

1820

Fredk.  Goodall  .

. .  Ditto  .

1822

Thomas  Faed

.  Ditto .

1826

H.  S.  Marks

. .  Ditto  .

1829

J.  E.  Millais .

.  Ditto .

1829

F.  Leighton

. .  Ditto  .

1830

Vicat  Cole

.  Ditto .

1833.

G.  D.  Leslie

. .  Ditto  .

1835

E.  J.  Poynter

.  Ditto .

1836

L.  Alma  Tadenia

. .  Dutch

1836

Thos.  S.  Cooper

.  English  .

1803.

Edw.  Armitage.

. .  Ditto  .

1817

Sir  J.  Gilbert.

.  Ditto

1817-

J.  C.  Hook .

.  Ditto .

.  1819

J.  Sant  ' . . .

Ditto .

.  1S20

J.  F.  Watts .

.  Ditto .

.  1820

Carl  Haag  .

Ditto  .

.  182&

Phil  Calderon .

. .  Ditto  .

•  1833.

J.  A.  M.  Whistler  .

.  Ditto

1835

W.  0.  Orchardson.

. .  Ditto  .

•  183S

E.  J.  Poynter

.  Ditto

1836

John  Pettie

. .  Ditto .

•  1839

Marcus  Stone

.  Ditto

.  1 840

Briton  Riviere  .

. .  Ditto .

.  184&

Jas.  D.  Linton

.  Ditto .

.  184a

Eliz.  Thompson, since

lady

Sir  John  Pettie

.  Ditto .

•  l839

Ouless

. .  Ditto  .

.  1848

Hubert  Herkomer .

.  Ditto

.  1849

PAISLEY,  a  borough,  "W.  Scotland,  the  Roman?
Yanduava,  and  grew  out  of  the  priory  of  Passalet,;
founded  1160-4  by  Walter  Stewart,  made  an  abbey
about  1220  ;  burnt  by  the  English  1307,  rebuilt  15th.
century.  Made  a  burgh  of  barony  1488  and  a  Parlia-
mentary borough  1832.  Since  1805  Paisley  silk  and
cotton  shawls  have  been  celebrated.  Visited  by  the-
Queen,  23  Aug.  1888. See  Population.

PALACE COUET, sec Marshalsea, and

Green  Cloth.

PALACE  OF  JUSTICE,  or  Eoyal
COURTS  OF  JUSTICE.  The  names  given  to  the  new
Lawr  Courts,  London. See  Law  Courts  under  Latv.

PALACES,  see  Buckingham,  St.  James's,  Par-
liament, 1834-52,  1885,  Pscurial,  Tuilcrics,  St.
Cloud,  Versailles,  &c.

PAL^EOGEAPHY, ancient writing; see

Diplomatics,  Writing.

PAL2E0L0GI,  a  family  which  reigned  as
emperors  of  the  east  from  1260  to  1453.  George
Palreologus  raised  Alexius  Comnemis  to  ihe  thione
in  108 1,  and  thereby  founded  his  own  family.  An-
drew, tlic  last  Pahtologus,  son  of  Thomas,  ruler  of


PALAEONTOLOGY.


713


PALESTINE.


hie  Morea,  after  the  overthrow  of  Lis  father,  be-
came a  Mahometan  at  Constantinople  about  1533.
A  person  who  called  himself  John  Anthony  Palajo-
logus  Lascaris  died  at  Turin,  Sept.  1874.  His
claims  were  doubted.

PALAEONTOLOGY  (from  the  Greek palaios,
ancient,  and  onta,  beings),  treats  of  the  evidences  of
organic  beings  in  the  earth's  strata.  It  combines
biology  and  geology  {which  see).  Cuvier,  Mantell,
Agassiz,  Owen,  Edward  Forbes,  and  lilainville,  all  of
the  present  century,  may  be  reckoned  as  fathers  of
this  science.  The  Pala:oiitographieal  society,  which
publishes  elaborate  monographs  of  British  organic
remains,  was  founded  in  1847.  The  journal
"  Palaeontographica  "  (German)  began  1851.  Pro-
fessor Owen's  "Palaeontology"  was  published  in
i860.  "Nearly  40,000  species  of  animals  and
plants  have  been  added  to  the  Systema  Naturce  by
pakcontological  research." Huxley. See  Man.

PALaEOPOLIS,  see  Naples.

PALAIS  EOYAL,  Paris,  originally  Palais
Cardinal,  built  for  cardinal  Eichelieu  by  Lemer-
cier,  1620-36,  received  its  present  name  when  occu-
pied by  Louis  XIII.,  to  whom  the  cardinal  gave  it
shortly  before  his  death  in  1642.  Louis  XIV.,  in
1692,  gave  it  to  his  nephew  Philippe,  duke  of  Or-
leans, and  it  became  the  residence  of  his  successors.
It  was  confiscated  by  the  republic  in  1793,  after  the
execution  of  Philippe  Egalite.  Louis  Philippe  re-
sided in  it,  1814-31.  It  suffered  much  injury  at
the  revolution  in  1848.  Under  the  second  empire
it  became  the  residence  of  prince  Jerome  and  his
son  Napoleon.  The  buildings  were  much  injured
by  fire  by  the  communists,  24  May,  1871.

PALATINATE  OP  THE  Eiiine,  one  of  the
seven  ancient  electorates  of  Germany.  It  was  long
united  to  Bavaria,  but  was  separated  in  1294. —
Frederic  V.,  the  elector  palatine  in  1610,  married
in  1613  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I.  of  Eng-
land, and  thus  was  an  ancestor  of  queen  Victoria ;
see  Hanover.  In  1619  he  was  elected  king  of  Bo-
hemia, but  lost  all  by  his  defeat  by  the  Austrians
at  Prague  in  1620.  The  Palatinate  was  horribly
ravaged  by  Tilly  in  1622,  and  by  the  French  in
i  688.  Several  thousands  of  the  ruined  peasantry
were  sent  to  America  by  the  British  government
and  people.  The  elector  palatine,  Charles  Theo-
dore, inherited  Bavaria  in  1778  ;  since  when  the
two  electorates  have  been  united  ;  see  Bavaria.

PALATINE.  "William  the  conqueror  made
his  nephew,  Hugh  De  Abrincis,  count  palatine  of
Chester  with  the  title  of  carl,  about  1070.  Edward
III.  created  the  palatine  of  Lancaster,  1539;  see
Lancaster,  duchy  of.  The  bishopric  of  Durham  also
made  county  palatine.  There  is  also  mention  made
of  the  county  palatine  of  Hexham,  in  33  Henry
VIII.  c.  10,  which  then  belonged  to  the  arcli-
bishop  of  York,  but  by  the  14th  of  Elizabeth
it  was  dissolved,  and  made  cart  of  the  county  of
Northumberland.  The  palatinate  jurisdiction  of
Durham  was  separated  from  the  diocese,  and  vested
in  the  crown,  6  Will.  IV.  c.  19,  21  June,  1836.

PALE,  the  name  given  to  the  part  of  Ireland
colonised  by  the  English — viz.,  parts  of  the  coun-
ties of  Louth,  Lublin,  Meath,  and  Kildare.  Anglo-
Irish  rulers  were  termed  lords  of  the  pale.  Their
arbitrary  exactions  led  to  a  royal  commission  of
inquiry  in  1537.  The  defection  of  the  lords  of  the
pale  in  1641  was  followed  by  a  general  insurrection,
and  the  royal  cause  was  ruined  in  1647.  In  1652
Ireland  was  committed  to  the  rule  of  four  com-
missioners.


PALERMO  (N.W.Sicily),  the  ancient  l'an-
ormus.  It  has  been  held  by  the  Carthaginians,  415
B.C. ;  taken  by  the  Romans,  254  i$.c. ;  by  the  Sara-
cens, A.n.  832  ;  and  by  the  .Normans,  1072.  Here
Uoger  II.  was  crowned  king  of  Sicily,  1130.
Palermo  was  the  scene  of  the  (Sicilian  Vesper*
{ivhich  see),  30  March,  1282.  It  suffered  ircm.
earthquake  in  1726  and  1740.  The  king  Ferdinand
resided  at  Palermo  from  1806  to  1815,  while  Naples
was  ruled  by  Joseph  honaparte and  Joachim  Murat.
It  revolted  against  the  tyranny  of  Ferdinand  II.
12  Jan.  1848.  It  was  attacked  by  general  Filan-
gieri,  29  March,  1849,  an^  surrendered  011  14  May.
It  was  taken  by  Garibaldi,  6  June,  i860.  An  in-
surrection against  the  abolition  of  the  monastic
establishments  broke  out  in  Palermo  on  13  Sept.-
1866,  and  was  suppressed  by  the  royal  troops  with
much  bloodshed;  order  was  restored  by  22  Sept.
Population,  1890,  267,416.

The  Italian  National  Exhibition  at  Palermo  opened
in  the  presence  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family,
by sigrior Chimirri, minister of agriculture

15  Nov.  1 89 1

The  exhibition  included  manufactures,  fine  arts,
Greek  relics,  an  Abyssinian  department,  &c,

New  monument  to  Garibaldi  uncovered  ;  speech  by
sig.  Crispi 27  May,  1892-

PALESTINE,  the  name  given  by  Moses
{Exodus  xv.,  14)  and  oilier  ancient  writers,  to  a
broad  strip  of  land  on  the  easteoa>t  of  the  Mediter-
ranean Sea,  which  originally  included  PJulistia,  but
was  afterwards  limited  to  tue  part  termed,  the  land
of  Cauaan  or  Israel,  Judea,  and  the  Holy  Land :
see  Jews.  After  being  several  times  conquered  by
the  Saracens,  and  retaken  from  the  7th  to  the  iotli
century,  and  after  being  the  scene  of  the  wars  of
the  Crusades  {ivhich  see),  and  other  conflicts,  Pales-
tine was  united  to  the  Ottoman  empire  by  Selim  I.
in  1516. See  Bible  (note),  Holy  Places,  and  Syria.

Palestine  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales,

March  and  April,  1862

"  The  Palestine  exploration  fund  "was  founded  in
London  by  many  eminent  persons  as  a  society
"for  the  investigation  of  the  archaeology,  topo-
graphy, geology,  and  manners  and  customs  of  the
holy  Land ;"  at  the  first  meeting  the  archbishop
of  York  (Dr.  W.  Thomson)  was  in  the  chair

22  June,  1865

By  its  means  captain  (after  sir  Charles)  Wilson  and
a  party  left  England  for  Palestine  in  Nov.  1865  :
they  arrived  at  Damascus,  Dee.  20 ;  and  in  the
following  spring  explored  Jezreel,  Nazareth,  and
many  other  parts  of  the  holy  Land.

Excavations  in  Jerusalem  carried  on  by  capt.  (aft.
sir  Charles)  Warren 1867-1870-

The  Moabite  stone  discovered 186S-

The  systematic  trigonometrical  survey  of  Palestine
carried  on  by  capt.  Stewart,  R.E.,  lieuts.  Cornier
and  Kitchener,  lt.E 1872-7

A  similar  fund  established  at  New  York  . . .1871

The  ordnance  survey  of  Sinai  by  capts.  Wilson  and
Palmer,  published 1S72

The  surveying  party  attacked  by  natives,  rescued
by  soldiers,  after  much  suffering . . 10  July,  1875.

Survey  of  Western  Palestine  completed  ;  announced

Oct.  1877

Publication  of  map  (1  inch  to  the  mile)  in  26  sheets

May,  18S0

Map  and  Memoirs  of  the  Survey  of  Western  Pales-
tine published 1800-1

Survey  of  Eastern  Palestine  begun  by  lieuts.  Conder
and  Kitchener 188  r

The  twenty-first  anniversary  of  the  foundation
celebrated  at  the  Royal  Institution  ;  the  abp.  of
York  in  the  chair ......  22  June,  1S06

"  Twenty-one  years'  work  in  the  Holy  Land,"  pub-
lished June, „

For  captain  Conder's  discovery  of  a  key  to  the
Hittite  inscriptions  see  under  Hittites, 26  Feb.  i88j

Finnan  authorising  excavutions  granted  with  eon-


PALESTEO.


714 PALMEESTON-EUSSELL  ADMIN".


ditions ;  the  committee  appoint  Mr.  Flinders
Petrie,  superintendant,  announced . Feb.  1890

The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Benson)  suc-
ceeds the  archbishop  of  York,  as  president  of  the
fund . April,  1891

An  association  for  the  Colonization  of  Palestine  by
the  Jews  held  an  important  meeting  in  east
London 7  Feb. ,,

PALESTEO  (N.  Italy).  Here  the  Sardinians
■defeated  the  Austrians,  30,  31  May,  1859.

PALIMPSEST  (from  the  Greek,  palm,  again;
and  psao,  I  efface),  parchments  written  on  after
the  previous  writing  had  been  partially  effaced.
Cardinal  Mai,  by  removing  the  second  writing  in-
some  MSS.,  recovered  the  original.  This  was  the
•case  with  Cicero's  "  De  Republica,"  published  by
Mai  in  182 1.  It  had  been  covered  by  a  treatise  of
Lactantius.

PALL,  PALLIUM,  in  the  Eoman  Church  an
ensign  of  dignity  conferred  by  the  pope  upon  arch-
bishops. By  a  decretal  of  pope  Gregory  XI.  (about
1370),  no  archbishop  could  call  a  council,  bless  the
chrism,  consecrate  churches,  ordain  a  clerk,  or  con-
secrate a  bishop,  till  he  had  received  his  pall  from
the  see  of  Borne.  The  pall  was  first  worn  by  an
Irish  archbishop  in  11,52,  when  Gelasius  was  recog-
nised as  primate  of  all  Ireland.

PALLADIUM,  the  statue  of  Pallas,  said  to  have
fallen  from  heaven  near  the  tent  of  Ilus,  as  he  was
building  Ilium,  which  the  oracle  of  Apollo  de-
clared should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  Palla-
dium was  found  within  its  walls.  The  Greeks  are
■said  to  have  obtained  it  by  craft  during  the  Trojan
war,  1 184  B.C. ;  but  some  writers  assert,  another
statue  was  taken,  and  that  the  real  Palladium  was
conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by  iEneas,  1183  B.C.,
and  preserved  by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest
secrecy  in  the  temple  of  Vesta. — Palladium  is  a
rare  metal,  discovered  in  platinum  ore  by  Dr.  "Wol-
laston,  in  1803.

PALLAS,  the  planet,  was  discovered  by  Olbers,
at  Bremen,  28  March,  1802.

PALLISEE'S CHILLED SHOT, see

Cannon.

PALL  MALL,  a  street  near  St.  James's
palace,  London,  is  named  from  a  French  game  at
ball  (pale-mail,  being  a  wooden  mallet),  re-
sembling the  modern  croquet,  having  been  played
there  about  1600,  and  introduced  into  England
about  1660.  Among  eminent  inhabitants  were
Nell  Gwyn  and  Dr.  Thomas  Sydenham.  The
Pall  Mall  Gazette,  a  daily  independent  political
and  literary  journal,  first  appeared  7  Feb.  1865,  and
was  edited  by  Mr.  Frederick  Greenwood  till  1  May,
1880,  when  it  became  a  liberal  paper,  edited  by  Mr.
John  Morley,  who  retired  25  Aug.  1883.  Price  2d.
reduced  to  id.  2  Jan.  1882.

Nos.  6,  7,  8,  9  July,  1885,  contained  Mr.  Stead's  state-
ments respecting  offences  against  young  women  and
children.  Greatly  disproved  on  investigation.  See
Trials,  Oct. -Nov.  1885.

PALMEESTON  ADMINISTEATION.*

The  resignation  of  the  Aberdeen  administration  was


*  Heury  John  Temple  was  born  20  Oct.  1784  ;  was
educated  at  Harrow,  Edinburgh,  and  Cambridge  ;  suc-
ceeded his  father,  viscount  Palmerston,  1802  ;  became
M.P.,  and  a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty,  1807;  wassecre-
tary-at-war,  1809-28,  and  a  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,
Nov.  1830-34,  April,  1835  to  Sept.  1841,  and  July,  1S46
to  Dec.  1851,  and  home  secretary,  Dec.  1852  to  March,
1855,  when  he  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  was
created  lord  warden  of  the  cinque  ports,  31  March,  1861  ;
and  master  of  the  corporation  of  the  Trinity  house,
16  June,  1862. He  sat  for  Tiverton,  1835-65. He  died


announced  1  Feb.  1855,  but  nearly  all  its  members
returned  to  office  soon  after  under  lord  Palmerston,
lord  Derby  and  lord  John  Russell  having  each  iD
vain  endeavoured  to  form  an  administration.  On
22  Feb.  Mr.  Gladstone,  sir  James  Graham,  and  Mr.
Sidney  Herbert  resigned  on  account  of  the  Sebas-
topol  inquiry.  Lord  John  Russell  resigned  13  July.
Lord  Canning  was  appointed  governor-general  of
India,  4  July,  1855.  This  cabinet  resigned  20  Feb.
1858,  in  consequence  of  a  vote  of  censure  upon  it
for  introducing  the  Foreign  Conspiracy  bill,  and  was
succeeded  by  the  Derby  administration  (which  see).

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Henry  viscount  Palmerston.

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Cranworth.

President  of  the  council,  earl  Granville.

Lord  privy  seal,  duke  of  Argyll ;  next,  earl  of  Harrowby  ;

afterwards  the  marquis  of  Clanricarde.
Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, carl of

Clarendon ;  colonial,  Sidney  Herbert  (resigned  Feb.  22) ;

afterwards lord  J. Russell (resigned  July 13); sir

"William  Molesworth  (died  22  Oct.  1855) ;  next  Henry

Labouchere  ;  war,  lord  Panmure.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  W.  E.  Gladstone  (resigned

22  Feb.) ;  next,  sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis.
First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  James  Graham  (resigned

22  Feb.)  ;  next,  sir  diaries  Wood.
Board  of  control, sir  Charles  "Wood ;  next, R. Vernon

Smith.
Public  ivories,  sir  "Win. Molesworth ;  next,  sir  B.  Hall

(appointed  22  July,  1855).
Postmaster-general,  viscount  Canning  (appointed  governor-
general  of  India,  4  July) ;  next,  duke  of  Argyll.
President  of  the  board  of  trade,  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley.
Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  without  office.
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  earl  of  Harrowby  ;

next,  M.  T.  Baines  (appointed  24  Nov.  1855).

PALMEESTON-EUSSELL  ADMINIS-
TEATION.  The  second  Derby  administration
{which  see)  resigned  11  June,  1859.  Earl  Granville
was  requested  by  the  queen  to  form  an  administra-
tion, and  obtained  the  support  of  lord  Palmerston,
but  not  of  lord  John  Russell :  the  two  last  then
agreed  to  form  a  cabinet,  which  came  into  office
18  June,  1859.  On  the  decease  of  lord  Palmerston,
i80ct.  1 865,  earl  Russell  became  premier;  sceM-itsselL

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  Henry  viscount  Palmerston.
Lord  high  chancellor,  John  lord  Campbell  (died  23  June,

1861) ;  succeeded  by  sir  Richard  Bethell,  made  Lord

SVestbury,  who  resigned  4  July,  1865 ;  succeeded  by

lord  Cranworth.
Lord  president  of  the  council,  earl  Granville.
Lord  privy  seal,  duke  of  Argyll.
Secretaries— foreign  affairs,  lord  John  (afterwards earl)

Russell ;  colonies, duke  of  Newcastle  ;  succeeded  by

Edward  Cardwell,  8  April,  1S64;  home,  sir  G.  Cornewall

Lewis  ;  succeeded  by  sir  George  Grey ;  war, Sidney

(afterwards  lord)  Herbert ; succeeded  by  sir  G. C.

Lewis  (died  13  April, 1863), and by  earl  de  Grey

(1  May) ;  India,  sir  Charles  Wood.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  "Win.  Ewart  Gladstone.
First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  duke  of  Somerset.
President  of  the  board  of  trade,  Thos.  Milner  Gibson.

[This  office  was  offered  to  Mr.  R.  Cobden,  and  declined
by  him.]
Secretary  of  state  for  Ireland,  Edward  Cardwell;  succeeded

by  sir  R.  Peel  (not  in  the  cabinet).
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  sir  George  Grey,

bart.  ;  succeeded  by  Edward  Cardwell ;  and  by  earl

Clarendon,  8  April,  1864.
Postmaster-general,  earl  of  Elgin  (proceeded  to  China  in

April,  i860) ;  succeeded  by  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley,

appointed  Sept.  i860.
Poor-law  board,  T.  Milner  Gibson  ;  succeeded  by  Charles

P.  ViUiers  (9  July,  1S60).
Palmerston's  Act  for  abatement  of  smoke  nuisance  (16

&  17  Vict.  c.  128),  20  Aug.  1853.

18  Oct.,  and  was  buried  in  "Westminster  abbey,  27  Oct.
1865.  His  statue  at  Romsey,  by  M.  Noble,  was  un-
covered by  earl  Russell,  21  July,  1868.  Lady  Palmer-
ston died  11  Sept.  1S69,  aged  82.


PALM-SUNDAY.


715


PANAMA.


PALM-SUNDAY.  When  Christ  made  his
entry  into  Jerusalem,  multitudes  of  the  people  who
were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took  branches
of  the  palm-tree,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  -33.
It  is  usual,  in  some  countries,  to  carry  palms  on  the
Sunday  before  Easter,  hence  called  Palm-Sunday.

PALMYBA  (Syria)  was  supposed  to  have  been
the  Tadnior  in  the  wilderness  built  by  Solomon,
but  was  manifestly  Grecian.  The  brilliant  part  of
the  history  of  Palmyra  was  under  Odenatus  and  his
queen  Zenobia.  At  the  death  of  Odenatus,  Zenobia
assumed  the  title  of  queen  of  the  East,  in  267.
Aurelian  defeated  her  at  Emesa,  in  272,  and  made
her  captive,  273,  and  killed  Longinus,  the  philo-
sopher, her  friend.  Palmyra  is  now  inhabited  by  a
few  Arab  families.  The  ruins  were  visited  in  1751,
by  Mr.  Wood,  Avho  published  an  account  of  them
in  1753-

PAMIRS,  a  lofty  mountain  ridge  in  Turkestan,
Central  Asia.

Col.  Gromtchevski's  Russian  exploring  expedition
stopped  by  Afghan  and  British  outposts  in  1889.
Capt.  Yonoff,  with  a  military  force,  excludes  capt.
Younghusband  and  lieut.  Davison,  travellers,  from
the  little  Pamir,  on  the  frontiers  of  Afghanistan,  &c.
The  Russians  afterwards  retire  on  the  advance  of  a
party  of  Goorkhas,  Aug.  1891.  The  Russian  govern-
ment declares  the  action  of  capt.  Yonoff  to  be  illegal,
and  apologises,  Feb.  1892.

PAMPELUNA  (X.  E.  Spain,  taken  by  the
French  on  their  invasion  of  Spain),  was  invested  by
1  he  British,  between  whom  and  the  French  obstinate
conflicts  took  place,  27  and  29  July,  1813.  It  sur-
rendered to  the  British,  31  Oct.  in  that  year.  Popu-
lation, 1887,  26,663.

PAMPHLETS. Their first appearance
amongst  us  is  generally  thought  to  have  been  in
opposition  to  the  church  of  Home. Those  who  were
first  convinced  of  the  reasonableness  of  the  "new
learning,"  as  it  was  then  called,  propagated  their
opinions  in  small  pieces,  cheaply  printed,  and  (what
was  then  of  great  importance)  easily  concealed.
Political  pamphlets  began  in  Edward  VI. 's  time,
and  were  very  numerous  in  the  17th  and  18th  cen-
turies (by  De  Foe,  Swiff,  Steele,  and  others).
Paul  Louis  Courier  wrote  "Simple  Discours"  and  other
pamphlets  against  the  priests and  nobles  after  the
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  1815. His  "Pamphlet
des  Pamphlets,"  defending  the  pamphleteer  (published,
1824),  probably  led  to  his  murder,  10  April,  1825.
Large  collections  are  in  the  libraries  of  the British

Museum  and  the  Royal  and  London  Institutions.
Certain  enactments  respecting  panvphiets  removed  by  an
act  passed  July,  1869.

PANAMA,  the  isthmus  which  joins  the  two
Americas;  see  I)ari,en.  Across  this  a  ship  canal
was  proposed  by  the  Buliver-Clayton  treaty,
19  April,  1850.  A  treaty  for  the  construction  of  a
ship  canal  through  the  isthmus  \>y  the  United
States  was  signed  by  representatives  of  that  govern-
ment and  that  of  Colombia  26  Jan.  1870.  A  railway
was  opened  in  1855.  In  that  year  a  new  state,  New
Granada,  was  divided  into  eight  federal  states,  one
of  which  is  named  Panama.  A  revolution  took
place  in  Panama,  on  9  March,  1865 ;  the  govern-
ment was  deposed,  and  don  Jil  Colunje  became  pre-
sident; succeeded  by  Vincent  Olarte,  I  Oct.  1866.
Panama  is  now  subject  to  Colombia  (which  see).
Aspinwall,  a  town  at  the  extremity  of  the  Panama
railway,  named  after  its  originator,  Mr.  Aspinwall,  a
New  York  merchant,  was  officially  named  Colon  in
I070.  The  government  overthrown  by  Colombian
troops  without  bloodshed,  about  12  Oct.  1875.  Civil
war  between  Dr.  Damaso  Cervera  and  gen.  li.  Ruiz  ;
sharp  fights; the  Morro  beats the  Alajucla, 14


Oct.  1884.  General  Santo  Domingo  Vila  installed
as  president,  8  Jan.  1884.  Rebellion  ;  government
steamer  Ecuadouan  captures  the  rebel  ship  Buacho;
much  slaughter  announced,  24  Dec.  1884.  Insur-
rection in  Panama ;  conflict  with  Colombian  troops ;
about  20  people  killed.  Insurgents  destroy  Aspin-
wall railway  terminus,  &c.  ;  the  United  States
government  intervenes  with  troops,  &c.  to  protect
colonists  and  restore  buildings  ;  rebels  said  to  be
totally  defeated,  16  March-April.  Railway  re-
opened with  protected  trains,  13  April,  i885-
Gen.  Tlirr  and  a  committee  propose  a  canal  Oct.  1876
Lieut.  L.A.B.Wyse's  survey  (1875)  published  autumn  1877
Congress  respecting  a  new  canal  meet  at  Paris  ;  P.

De  Lesseps  president . . . . 1  May,  1879
Seven  schemes  proposed ;  canal  from  Gulf  of  Limon

to  Bay  of  Panama  recommended  (by  74-8)  29  May,  ,,
Scheme  suspended  for  want  of  funds  .  .  .  ,,
Canal  through  Nicaragua  proposed  by  Americans  ;

favoured  by  gen.  Grant  ....  Sept.  „
Lesseps'  scheme opposed  by  the  United States

government March,  1880

Lesseps  at  Liverpool  describes  Iris  plan ;  canal  to

be  46  miles  long 31  May, ,,

Engineers  leave  Paris  to  proceed  to  the  work,  3

Jan.  ;  at  work 24  Feb.  1881

Mr.  Blaine,  the  American  secretary,  issued  a  circu-
lar to  the  European  powers  protesting  against
joint  international  guarantees  of  the  neutrality  of
the  canal,  asserting  that  the  guarantee  of  the
United  States  of  24  July,  1846,  is  sufficient  25  Oct.  ,,
Railway  and  works  partly  destroyed  by  earthquakes

7,  9,  10  Sept. 1882
Colon  and  Aspinwall,  with  consulates,  burnt  by  the

rebels  under  gen.  Aizpurn,  announced 1  April,  1885
United  States  marines  defeat  the  rebels ;  destroy
barricades  and  occupy  Panama^  to  protect  pro-
perty and  railway  transit . about  24  April, ,,
The  Colombian  government  resume  possession  of
Panama  ;  amnesty  granted,  with  exceptions

30  April, ,,
Gen. Aizpurn  arrested  4  May,  1885  ;  martial  law,

about  12  June ;  quiet  restored  . . July, ,,

M.  de  Lesseps  sails  up  about  3  miles . 20  Feb.  1886
Ten  m<;n  killed  by  gunpowder  explosion,  announced

31  March, ,,
M.  de  Lesseps'  proposal  of  a  lottery  loan  opposed

by  the  French  premier,  M.  Tirard . . Jan.  188S
The  lottery  loan  bill  passed by  the  deputies 28
April ;  by  the  senate  5  June ;  progress  of  the
scheme  retarded .... July,  ct  scrj. „
M.  de  Lesseps  asserts  that  the  canal  will  be  opened

in  July,  1890 21  Oct. ,,

The  necessary  amount  of  subscriptions  to  the  loan
not  received  ;  the  company  suspend  payment  14
Dec.  ;  the  government  bill  permitting  the  com-
pany to suspend  payments  for three  months
rejected  by  the  chambers  (256-181) . 15  Dec. ,,
[about  sixty  million  pounds  already  expended]
M.de  Lesseps  resigns  and  proposes  liquidation  15  Dec. ,,
A  great  meeting  of  shareholders  agree  to  the  sus-
pension of  payments  of  coupons  and  annuities
until  the  opening  of  the  canal,  and  the  raising  of
more  capital,  and  profess  continued  confidence  iu

M.  de  Lesseps 27  Dec. ■■>

Report  received  that  perfect  order  remains  at  the

works,  which  are  still  carried  on  . . 8  Jan.  1889
The  United  States  senate  pass  resolutions  against
any  interference  of  foreign  powers  in  regard  to

the  canal 9  Jan. ,,

New  company  for  the  completion  of  the  canal
started  (the  old  'company  dissolved)  .Ian.  ;  suf-
ficient shares  not  taken  up  ;  the  company  goes

into  liquidation Feb. ,,

Gradual  suspension  of  the  works  . . . Feb. „
The  Panama  Canal  Bill  to  promote  the  continuance
of  the  work  passed  by  the  chamber  of  deputies

28  June, ,,
Canal  bill  passed  by  the  French  senate . 11  July, ,,
Report of Inquiry commission states that
900,000,000  francs  will  be  required  to  complete

the  canal 5  May,  1890

Great fire at Colon (formerly Aspinwall), the
Panama  railway  buildings  ami  a  large  part  of  the
town  destroyed . . . . 23.  24  Sept. ,,
Arrangement  between  the  company  and  the  re-


PAN-AMEEICAN CONGRESS.


716


PANTHEON.


public  of  Columbia  ;  the  time  for  the  completion
of  the  canal  extended  by  ten  years  ;  contract
dated 10  Jan.  i8go

After  visitation  of  the  works,  total  collapse  of  the
scheme  reported  ; legal  investigation  proposed

Sept.  1891

Eeport  of  M.  Mcnclrieourt,  the  official  liquidator,
issued  at  Paris Nov. „

PAN-AMEEICAN  CONGEESS-  34  dele-
gates from  the  states  of  North,  South,  and  Central
America,  met  at  Washington  30  Sept.  1889.  Mr.
Secretary  Blaine  was  appointed  president  2  Cct.
They  visit  Chicago  and  other  cities,  Oct.,  meet  at
Washington  18  Nov.  et  seq.  Construction  of  con-
necting railways  proposed  Feb.  1890.  Treaty
adopting  arbitration  agreed  on,  &c.  Banquet  to
president  Harrison  16  April ;  the  delegates  depart
for  home  19  April,  1890.

PAN-ANGLICAN  SYNOD, the popular
name  of  a  conference  of  76  bishops,  British,  colonial,
and  American,  who  met  at  Lambeth-palace,  24-27
Sept. 1867. They  issued  an  address, published
their  resolutions,  of  a  very  general  character, and
formally  closed  their  conference  on  10  Dee.
Another  synod  of  about  100  bishops  met . 2  July,  187S
Grand  closing  service  at  St.  Paul's . 27  July, „
An  encyclical  letter  issued  proposing  an  episcopal
board  of  reference  for  ecclesiastical  questions,  &c,
1878  ;  another  issued  with  practical  moral  recom-
1  nendations,  earnestly  advocating  unity  and  union

with  nonconformists 1888

The  third  conference  of  145  bishops  was  held  at
Lambeth  7-28  July  ;  the  abp.  of  York  preached

at  St.  Paul's 27  July, „

See  under  Presbyterians.

PANDEAN  PIPES  (said  to  be  the  Creek
syrinx,  and  the  ugab  or  organ  of  the  Bible,  Gen.  iv.
21  and  Psalm  cl.),  usually  seven  tubes,  popular  in
Britain  early  in  the  19th  century.  A  "  Pre-
ceptor" for  JDavies'  "new  invented  syrrynx"  was
published  in  1807.

PANDECTS,  a  digest  of  the  civil  law,  made  by
order  of  Justinian,  533.  It  is  stated  that  a  copy  of
these  Pandects  was  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Amalfi,
1 137  ;  removed  from  Pisa  in  1415,  and  preserved  in
the  library  of  the  Medici  at  Florence,  as  the  Pan-
dectce  Florentines.

PANDOSIA  (Bruttium,  S.  Italy).  Here
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  was  defeated  and  slain
by  the  Bruttians,  326  B.C.  Loevinus,  the  Roman
consul,  was  defeated  between  Ileraclea  and  Pando-
sia,  in  Lucania,  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  28OB.C.

PANEAS  or  PANIUS  (Syria).  Here  Antioehus
the  Great  defeated  Scopas,  the  Egyptian  general,
•and  his  Greek  allies,  198  B.C.

PANICS,  COMMERCIAL,  generally  the  result
of  over-speculation;  see  Bubbles,  South  Sea,  Law's.
Through  French  war  :  government  issued  5,000,000?.

exchequer  bills 1703

Through  Irish  rebellion,  &c.  (3  per  cents,  at  44I) . 1797
Through bubble companies, 770  banks  stopped "

winter,  1825-6

Through  railway  mania Oct. 1S47

Through  American  failures . . .  Nov. 1857
Through  fear  of  European  war . . . April,  1859
Through  over-speculation  in  limited  liability  com-
panies May,  1866

Through  Franco-Prussian  war . . to  July,  1870
Through Russian  attack  on  Afghans  at  Penjdeh
(temporary) . ... . . .  9  April,  1S85

War  panics  at  Paris  and  London  . 3-4  Feb.  1887

See  London,  24  Nov.  1890.

PANNONIA,  part  of  Illyria,  now  Hungary,
"Was  finally  subdued  by  Tiberius,  a.d.  7-9.

PANOPTICON  of  So  -Ence  and  Art,  in

Leicester- square,  erected  in  1852-3  lor  a  chartered


company,  by  Mr.  T.  II.  Lewis,  the  architect;  was.
opened  in  1854  for  lectures,  musical  performances,
&c.  It  had  a  very  large  electrical  machine,  battery,,
&c.  The  speculation  did  not  succeed;  the  building
was  sold  in  1857,  and  in  March,  1858,  was  opened  for
concerts  and  horsemanship,  and  called  the  Alhambra
(which  see).

Jeremy  Behtham's  book  "Panopticon,  or  the  Inspection
House,"  an  establishment  in  which  persons  may  be
kex>t  under  inspection,  published  1791 ;  see  Milbarik.

PANOEAMAS,  invented  by  Robert  Barker,
are  bird's  eye  views  painted  round  the  wall  of  a
circular  building.  In  1788  he  exhibited  at  Edin-
burgh a  view  of  that  city,  the  first  picture  of  the
kind.  He  then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in
London  in  1789,  having  adopted  the  name  "  Pano-
rama," and  was  ultimately  enabled  to  build  com-
modious premises  in  Leicester-square  for  that
purpose.  Panoramas  were  exhibited  on  the  conti-
nent by  himself  and  his  associate,  liobt.  Fulton.
M.  Thuyer,  having  bought  the  invention  from
Fulton,  exhibited  panoramas  in  Paris  about  1796.
See  Colosseum.  (Barker  died  in  April,  1806.)  J.  P.
Loutherbourg,  a  painter,  termed  the  panoramist,.
invented  the  "Eidophusikon,"  natural  phenomena,
represented  by  moving  pictures,  exhibited  at  Lisle-
street,  Leicester-square,  3  April,  1781.  "This  was.
certainly  not  a  panorama." P/r.  Rimbault.

PANOEMUS,  see  Palermo.

PANTAGEAPH  (from  the  Greek  panta,  all
things,  and  graphein,  to  write,  and  incorrectly
termed  Pentagraph),  an  instrument  for  copying,,
reducing,  or  enlarging  plans,  &c,  invented  by
Christopher  Scheiner,  about  1603  ;  improved  by  pro-
fessor Wallace,  and  called  "  Eidograph,"  about  1821.

PANTALEON,  a  musical  instrument  (a  drum
with  tuned  strings),  invented  by  Pantaleon  Heben-
streit,  about  1735.

PANTECHNICON,  a  range  of  buildings,  Mot-
combe-strcet,  Knightsbridge,  London,  W.,  erected
by  Seth  Smith,  as  a  receptacle  for  paintings,
jewellery,  furniture,  carriages,  &c.,  1830;  was
destroyed  by  fire  13 — 14  Feb.  1874,  when  much
property  was  lost : re-built,  1874.

PANTHAYS,  Mahometans  in  the  Chinese
province,  Yunan,  became  independent  under  a
sultan,  during  the  Tae-ping  revolt,  1851-64.  After
its  suppression,  the  Panthays,  after  a  severe
struggle,  were  also  subdued.  Their  capital,  Talifoo,
was  captured,  and  its  inhabitants  cruelly  massacred
in  Feb.  1873.  r^ne  Panthays  sent  an  embassy  to*
England  in  1872,  without  effect.  Sultan  Suleiman
committed  suicide.

PANTHEISM,  the  formula  of  which  is
"everything  is  God,  and  God  is  one,"  was  espe-
cially taught  by  Xenophanes,  who  died  500  B.C.
The  doctrine  is  attributed  to  Spinoza,  Kant,  Fichtc,
and  other  modern  philosophers.  Amalric  of  Chartres,
censured  for  holding  the  doctrine,  recanted  13th
century.  He  is  said  to  have  asserted  that  "  all  is-
God,  and  God  is  all."

PANTHEON,  at  Pome,  a  circular  temple
built  by  Agrippa,  the  son-in-law  of  Augustus,
27  B.C.  "  It  had  niches  in  the  wall,  where  the  image
or  representation  of  a  particular  god  was  set  up;  the
gates  brass,  the  beams  covered  with  gilt  brass,  and
the  roof  covered  with  silver.  Pope  Boniface  III.
dedicated  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  all  the  saints,
by  the  name  of  S.  Maria  della  Rotunda,  or  "ad
Martyres,"  a.d.  608.* — The  Pantheon  in  London

>:  Victor  Emmanuel,  first  king  of  united  Italy  was
buried  here,  17  Jan.  1878.


PANTOGEN.


"17


PAPIEE MACHE.


tvas  erected  by  subscription,  and  opened  27  Jan.

1772;  formed  into  an  opera  house ; burned  down

14  Jan.  1792  ;  rebuilt  for  masquerades  in 1795  ;

opened  as  theatre, 1812;  made  a  bazaar  in 1834.

The  bazaar  was  closed  in  1867,  and  the  premises

taken  by  Gilbey  and  Co.,  wine  merchants,  who  lent

the  south  part  for  a  temporary  church.

Pantheon,  Paris,  a  magnificent  building  founded  by
Louis  XV.  in  pursuance  of  a  vow,  dedicated  to  Ste.
Genevieve;  built  by  Soufflot,  1757-90;  named  Pan-
theon, and  decreed  tu  be  a  mausoleum  for  eminent
men,  1791  ;  made  a  church,  1806  ;  named  Ste.  Gene-
vieve, 1821  ;  re-named  Pantheon,  1S31  ;  again  a  church,
Nov.  1852;  again  secularised,  27  May,  1S85  ;  received
the  remains  of  Victor  Hugo,  1  June,  1885.

PANTOGEN,  see  Atomic  Theory.

PANTOMIMES  were  representations  by  ges-
tures and  attitudes  among  the  Greeks,  and  were
introduced  011  the  Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and
JJathyllus,  22  B.C.  Comic  masques  were  introduced
here  from  Italy  about  1700.  The  first  regular
English  pantomime  is  said  to  have  been  "Harle-
quin executed,"  produced  by  John  Rich  at  the  Lin-
«oln's-inn -fields  theatre,  26  Dec.  1 717.  Joseph
Grimaldi  (1779- 1837)  was  a  most  eminent  clow  11.

"PAPAL  AGGRESSION."  In  a  consistory
holden  in  Rome,  30  Sept.  1850,  the  pope  (Pius  IX.)
named  fourteen  new  cardinals,  of  whom  four  only
were  Italians.  Among  them  was  Dr.  Nicholas  Wise-
man, vicar-apostolic  of  the  London  district,  who
was  at  the  same  time  nominated  lord  archbishop  of
"Westminster.
Dr.  Ullathorne  enthroned  as  Roman  Catholic  bishop

of  Birmingham  in  St.  Chad's  cathedral  27  Oct.  1850
A  pastoral  letter  from  Dr.  Wiseman  read  in  all  the
Roman  catholic  chapels  of  his  see  (all  England
parcelled  out  into  Romish  dioceses) .  .  27  Oct.  ,,
The  answer  of  the  bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Blomfield)
to  a  memorial  from  the  protestant  clergy  of  West-
minster, against  a  Romish  hierarchy  in  this
country,  was  followed  by  the  "Durham"  letter
from  lord  John  Russell,  then  chief  minister  of  the
crown,  to  the  bishop  of  Durham,  in  which  he
severely  censured,  not  only  the  papal  aggression,
hut  also  the  proceedings  of  the  tractarian  clergy
of  the  Church  of  England  ...  4  Nov.  ,,
Immediately  from  every  quarter  of  England  ad-
dresses poured  in  to  her  majesty  the  queen,  calling
upon  her  and  the  government  to  resist  the  usurpa-
tion ;  6700  addresses,  it  is  said,  had  been  voted
from  nearly  as  many  influential  meetings  up  to

31  Dec. ,,
Dr.  Eriggs,  created  Roman  catholic  bishop  of  Bever-
ley, was  enthroned  in  St.  George's  chapel  at  York,

13  Feb. 1851
Dr. Browne,  created  bishop  of  Clifton,  and  Dr.
Burgess,  bishop  of  Shrewsbury  :  both  consecrated
in  St.  George's  cathedral,  Southwark 27  July, .,
The  Ecclesiastical  Titles  act, 14  <fc  15  Viet.  c. Co,
prohibited  the  constitution  of  bishops  of  pre-
tended provinces  under  a  penalty  of  100?. Aug. .,
Tt  was  not  acted  upon,  and  was  repealed 24  July,  1871

PAPAL  INFALLIBILITY. This  dogma,

maintained  by  one  party  iu  the  Roman  church,-
tolerated  by  another,  and  utterly  rejected  by  a
third,  was  adopted  and  promulgated  at  the  general
council  at  homo  18  July,  1870,  a  great  many  bishops
having  withdrawn.  The  dogma  was  inculcated  by
the  i'alse  decretals  of  Isidore  and  others,  but  not
adopted  by  the  council  of  Trent ;  seo  Councils  XXI.
Professor  Dollinger,  the  historian,  was  excommuni-
cated at  Munich  for  rejecting  this  dogma,  iS  April,
1S71  :  ha  was  made  a  D.U.L.  at  Oxford  about
16  June  following;  see  Old  Catholic*.  The  doc-
trine was  strenuously  attacked  by  Mr.  W.  E.  1  ilad-
etone,  in  his  pamphlet,  "The  Vatican  Decrees,"
2\Tov.  1874.

PAPAL  STATES,  see  Some,  and  Fopes.


PAPER,  see  Papyrus.  Paper  was  probably
made  in  Egypt,  and  centuries  before  the  Christ i:iii
era.  It  was  made  of  cotton  about  600  a. d.  ;  and  or
rags  about  1300.*  "White  coarse  paper  was  made
by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford,  in
England,  33  Eliz.  1580;  and  here  paper  mills
were  ereeied.  Stoic.  Paper  for  writing  and  print-
ing manufactured  in  England,  and  an  act  passed
to  encourage  it,  2  Will.  III.  1690 ;  betore  this
time  we  paid  for  these  articles  to  France  and
Holland  100,000/.  annually.  The  French  refugees
taught  our  people ;  we  had  made  course  brown
paper  almost  exclusively,  until  they  came  among
us;  wc  made  white  paper  first  in  1690.  Anderson.
Paper-making  by  a  machine  was  suggested  by
Louis  Robert,  who  sold  his  model  to  Didot,  the
great  printer,  who  brought  it  to  England,  and,  con-
jointly with  Fourdrinier,  perfected  the  machinery.
The  latter  obtained  a  patent  for  paper-making  ma-
chinery in  1801 ;  and  for  manufacturing  paper  of
an  indefinite  length  in  1807.  The  machinery  was
improved  by  Bryan  Donkin.  A  sheet  of  paper,
13,800  feet  long,  and  4  feet  wide,  was  made  at
Whitehall-mills,  Derbyshire,  in  1830;  and  one
21,000  feet  long,  and  6  feet  3  inches  wide,  was
made  at  Colyton  in  Devon  in  i860.  Esparto,  a
Spanish  grass,  first  imported  in  1857,  nas  been
largely  employed  in  the  paper  manufacture  s-inec
1864.  In  1866  wood  was  largely  manufactured  into
paper  at  Philadelphia;  and  at  the  Paris  exhibition,
1867,  fine  specimens  cf  wood-paper  were  shown ;  see
Parchment  (note).  The  paper  duty,  imposed  in
169A  (producing,  latterly,  about  1,460,000/.  annu-
ally), after  having  been  the  subject  of  agitation  for
several  years,  was  repealed  in'1861.  Hop-stalks
said  to  be  used  for  paper-making  in  France,  1873.
Paper-mills  in  Great  Britain,  1877,  about  385  (England.

300  ;  Scotland,  65  ;  Ireland,  20) ;  annual  produce  about

360,000  tons  ;  value,  16,090,000/. Great  increase  since

that  time.
Paper-exhibition at Berlin,  Aug. 1878 : contained  not

only  great  varieties  of  paper,  but  a  paper  house,  tables,

chairs,  carpets,  barrels,  boats,  &c.
Paper  pianoforte  exhibited,  soft  tone,  July,  1885.
Bottles  largely  made  of  paper  in  America,  1887.

PAPER-HANGINGS,  &c.  Stamped  paper
for  this  purpose  was  first  made  in  Spam  and  Hol-
land about  1555.  Made  of  velvet  and  floss,  for
hanging  apartments,  about  1620.  The  manufacture
of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved  in  this
country  during  the  present  century.  —  Paper
Bricks  have  been  made  in  America  ;  and  paper
tubing  for  water  and  gas,  made  by  M.  Jaloureau  of
Paris,  was  shown  in  i860.

PAPER-MONEY,  see  .Banana  Greenbacks.

PAPIER  MACHE.  This  manufacture  (of
paper-pulp  combined  with  gum  and  sometimes  with
china  clay)  has  existed  for  above  a  century.  Martin,
a  German  snuff-box  maker,  is  said  to  have  learnt
the  art  from  one  Eefevre  about  1740.  In  1745  it
was  taken  up  by  Baskerville,  the  printer  at  Bir-
mingham, and  soon  spread  over  that  district.
Papier  mache  is  now  largely  employed  in  orna-
menting the  interior  of  buildings, &e. A large

*  Mr.  Joseph  Hunter  (in  the  Archceologia,  xxxvii.)
states  that  the  earliest  paper  which  ue  had  seen  was  a
MS.  account-book,  dated  130-',  probably  of  Bordeaux
manufacture.  He  gives  engravings  of  manufacturers'
marks,  French  and  English,  the  dales  of  which  range
from  1330  to  1431.  He  also  gives  an  extract  from  a  work
by  Bartholus,  a  writer  of  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,
in  which  mention  is  made  of  a  paper  manufactory  in  the
Marches  of  Ancona  At  the  end  of  \\  ynkin  de  Wbrde's
edition  of  Bartholomaus  De  Propri  tatibns  Rernnt,
1494,  its  thin  paper,  made  by  John  Tate  in  England,  is
commended.


PAPIN'S  DIGESTEE.


718


PABDONS.


dome  at  Brussels  ordered  to  be  made  of  it,  Dec.
1881.

PAPIN'S  DIGESTEE  (see  Steam),  invented
about  1 68 1.  Denis  Papin,  a  French  philosopher,
assisted  Boyle  in  his  experiments  about  1678.

PAPISTS,  see  Roman  Catholics.

PAPUA,  see  New  Guinea.

PAPYEUS,  the  reed  from  which  was  made
the  paper  of  Egypt  and  India,  used  for  writings
until  the  discovery  of  parchment,  about  190  B.C.
The  earliest  known  specimens  of  papyri  were  found
in  the  monuments  attributed  to  the  third  dynasty,
3966  B.C.  Many  papyri  were  discovered  at  Hercu-
laneuni  in  1754  ;  and  many  were  collected  by  the
French  in  Egypt,  1798.  A  manuscript  of  the
Antiquities  of  Josephus  on  papyrus,  among  the
treasures  seized  by  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  sent  to
the  National  Library  at  Paris,  was  restored  in  181 5.
Fae-similes  of  the  largest  known  papyrus,  found  in  1855,

behind  Modinet  Habu  on  the  Nile,  and  now  in  the

British  Museum,  were  published  with  translations  by

the  trustees  in  1876.

" PAEABLE,  see  Fable.

PAEACHUTE,  see  Balloons,  1785, 1802,  1837,
1874,  1887.

PAEACLETE  (Greek  for  comforter),  a  name
given  by  Abelard  to  the  convent  which  he  founded
in  Champagne  in  1122,  of  which  Heloise  became
the  first  abbess.

PAEADISE  LOST,  the  great  English  epic
by  John  Milton,  appeared  first  in  ten  books  in  1667;
in  twelve  books  in  1674.

PAEADOX  (Greek,  para,  beyond ;  and  doxa,
opinion),  something  contrary  to  common  opinion.
Professor  De  Morgan's  "Budget  of  Paradoxes"  (of
all  kinds)  was  published  in  1872.  John  Paget's
"  Paradoxes  and  Puzzles,  Historical,  Judicial,  and
Literary,"  published  1874.

PABAFFIN  (fromparum  affinis,  fromitshaving
little  affinity  with  anything),  also  called  photogen,
a  solid  substance,  somewhat  like  spermaceti,  pro-
duced by  distillation  of  coal,  and  first  obtained  by
Reichenbach  in  1830,  and  by  Dr.  Christison  about
the  same  time.  It  was  procured  from  mineral  oil  by
Mr.  James  Young  about  1848  at  Alfreton  in  Derby-
shire. Soon  after  it  was  largely  obtained  from  Bog-
head coal.  It  is  also  obtained'  from  Irish  peat.  It
makes  excellent  candles.  Much  litigation  ensued
through  interference  with  Mr.  Young's  patent-
right.

PAEAGEAPH  BIBLES,  see  under  Bibles.

PAEAGUAY,  a  republic  in  S.  America,  dis-
covered by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  in  1515,  and  by
Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526;  conquered  by  Alvarez
Nunez  in  1535,  and  civilized  by  the  Jesuits,  who
in  1608  commenced  their  missions  there  and  held
it  till  their  expulsion  in  1768.  Paraguay  rose
against  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1811.  In  1814,  Dr.
Jose  G.  R.  Francia  was  elected  dictator ;  he  ruled
vigorously  but  tyrannically ;  he  was  succeeded  on
his  death  in  1840  by  Vibal.  From  1814  to  1844  the
country  was  rigidly  closed  against  foreigners.  The
president,  C.  A.  Lopez,  elected  in  1844,  was  suc-
ceeded by  his  son,  Francis  S.  Lopez,  Sept.  1862
{see  below).  Paraguay  was  recognised  as  an  inde-
pendent state  by  the  Argentine  Confederation,
14  July,  1852,  and  by  Great  Britain  in  1853.
Capital,  Asuncion.  Population  in  1857,  1,337,439;
in  1873,  221,079;  in  1888  (estimated)  270,000.
Hostilities  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil  began  when

a  Brazilian  steamer  was  captured  as  an  intruder

on  the  Paraguay 11  Nov.  1864


1865


1871
1874


1877


1890


Brazil  invaded  in  December

Lopez  invaded  the  territories  of  the  Argentine  re-
public, which  immediately  made  alliance  with
Brazil 14  April,

The  army  of  Lopez  defeated  .... Sept.

The  allies  cax^tured  Uruguyana  and  an  army  of  Para-
guayans ....  . . 18  Sept.

[For  details  of  the  war,  see  Brazil,  1865-9.]

A  provisional  government  installed ;  Lopez  totally
defeated,  proclaimed  an  outlaw .  17  Aug.

Lopez  killed  near  the  Aquidaban . . 1  March,

Peace  signed  with  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  republic,

20  June,

President  Salvador  Jovellanos  elected  for  three
years 12  Dec.

President  Juan  Bautista  Gill . . 25  Nov.

The  president  and  his  brother  assassinated ;  an-
nounced April ;  Higinio  Uriarte,  president

12  April,

President  Candido  Bareiro  (for  4  years) . 25  Nov.

President  gen.  B.  Caballero . . .25  Nov.

President  gen.  Escobar  .... 25  Sept.

President  J.  Gonzalez 1  Oct.

Bevived  prosperity  of  the  country  reported .  Oct.

Bevolutionary  attempt  by  major  Vera  and  others
suppressed  with  bloodshed,  reported . 24  Oct.  1891

PAEALLEL  MOTION,  see  Motion.

PAEASOLS  were  used  by  the  ancient  Egyp-
tians. A  new  form  (said  to  have  been  devised  by  the
duchess  of  Rutland)  came  into  general  use  about  1820.

PAEC  AUX  CEEFS,  a  deer-park  at  Ver-
sailles, near  Paris,  made  by  Louis  XII.,  and  kept
as  such  till  1694,  when  Louis  XIV.  took  the  land
for  building.  The  name  was  given  to  a  house
erected  on  it  by  madame  Pompadour,  popularly  said
to  form  a  seraglio  for  Louis  XV.  in  1755.  It  was
closed  by  madame  Du  Barry  in  1771.

PAECEL  POST  (advised  by  Rowland  Hill  in
1842).  Proposed  in  Parliament  by  Mr.  H.  Fawcett
27  March ;  act  passed,  18  Aug.  1882 ;  came  into
operation  1  Aug.  1883.  Rates,  from  lib.  3d.  to
71b.  is.

Maximum  weight  raised  to  11  lbs.  from  1  May,  1886.
Parcel  Post  extended  to  India,  British  Burmah,  Aden,

Gibraltar,  and  Egypt  1  July,  1885,  and  other  countries

since.
Coldbath  fields  prison  was  converted  into  offices  for  the

Parcel  Post,  1887.

PAECHMENT. Invented  for  writing  books
by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attalus),  of  Pergamus,  the
founder of the  celebrated  library  at Pergamus,
formed  on  the  model  of  the Alexandrian, about
190  B.C. Parchment-books  from  this  time  became
those  most  used,  and  the  most  valuable  as  well  as-
oldest  in  the  world  are  written  on  the skins  of
goats. It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Persians
and  others  are  said  to  have  written  all  their  records
on  skins  long  before  Eumenes'  time.
Parchment  paper  (or  vegetable  parchment)  was  invented
and  patented  in  1857,  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Gaine,  C.E.,  who
discovered,  that  when  paper  is  exposed  to  a  mixture  of
two  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  one  part
of  water  for  no  longer  time  than  is  required  to  draw  it
through  the  fluid,  it  is  immediately  converted  into  a
strong  tough  skin-like  material. It  must  be  instantly
washed  with  water. -Its  great  strength  points out
many  applications  of  this  material,  e.g.,  maps,  schooL
and  account-books,  and  drawing-paper. In  1859  it  ap-
peared that  a  similar  invention  had  been  made  in  Paris
by  Figuier  and  Poumarede  in  1846.

PABDONS.  General  pardons  were  proclaimed
at  coronations  :  first  by  Edward  III.  in  1327.  The
king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a
lege  sues  dignitatis  ;  and  no  other  person  has  power
to  remit  treason  or  felonies,  stat.  27  Hen.  VIII.
1535.  BlacJcstone.  A  pardon  cannot  follow  an
impeachment  of  the  house  of  commons :  stat.
Will.  III.  1700.


PAEGA.


719


PAEIS.


PAEGA,  a  city  in  European  Turkey :  retained
its  civic  independence  under  the  protection  of
Venice  till  1797,  when  that  state  was  conquered  by
the  French.  It  resisted  various  attempts  to  cap-
ture it ;  and  in  1806  was  garrisoned  by  Russians.
It  was  given  up  to  the  French  in  1807;  taken  by
the  English,  22  March,  1814;  surrendered  to  the
Turks,  181 7  ;  and  abandoned  by  above  3000  of  its  in-
habitants, who  retired  to  the  Ionian  Isles,  May,i8ic).

PAEIAN  MAEBLES,  see  Arunclclian
Marbles.

PAEIS  (formerly  Lutetia  Parisiorum),  the
capital  of  France,  situated  on  the  river  Seine,  which
cuts  it  into  two  unequal  parts,  the  strongest  being
towards  the  north,  and  in  which  are  three  isles,
la  ville  (the  city),  the  lie  St.  Louis,  and  the  tie
Louviers.  In  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar,  Lutetia
comprised  the  city  only.  It  was  greatly  improved
by  the  emperor  Julian,  who  made  it  his  residence
while  he  governed  Gaul,  355  to  361.  It  became
successively  the  capital  of  the  kingdoms  of  Paris,
Soissons,  and  Neustria,  and  eventually  of  all  the
kingdom.  Many  ecclesiastical  councils  were  held
at  Paris,  360-1528.  The  representative  of  the  house
of  Orleans  is  styled  count  of  Paris.  Population  of
Paris  in  1856,  1,178,262;  in  1872,  estimated  popula-
tion, 1,851,792;  in  1876,  1,988,806;  in  1881,
2,269,023;  in  1891,  2,423,946;  see  France.

Clovis  makes  Paris  his  residence . . about 508

St.  Denis  founded 613

Hotel  Dieu  hospital  founded  by  bishop Landry

about  656
Paris  ravaged  by  the  Normans  (or  Danes),  845,  855,

861  :  suffered  from  famine  ....  845-940
Gallantly  defended  against  the  Danes  by  the  count

Eudes  and  the  bishop  Goslin 885

University  founded,  about 1200

Rebuilt 1231

Church  of  Notre  Dame  built ....  1160-1270

The  parliament  established 1302

Suffers  by  the  factions  of  the  Armagnaes  and  Bur-

gundians 1411-1418

Taken  by  the  English 1420

Retaken  by  the  French 1436

Pont  Notre  Dame  built 1499

The  Louvre  commenced  (see  Louvre) . . .  1522

Hotel  de  Ville  founded 1533

The  Boulevards  commenced 1536

Fountain  of  the  Innocents  erected  .  .  .  .  1551
The  Tuileries  begun  (see  Twileries)  ....  1564
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's . . 24  Aug.  1572

The  Pont  Neuf  begun 1578

Vainly  besieged  by  Henry  IV 1589-90

Entered  by  him March,  1594

Hospital  of  Invalids 1595

Place  Roy  ale  begun 1604

The  Hotel-Dieu  founded 1606

Jardin  des  Plantes  formed 1610

The  Luxembourg,  by  Mary  de  Medicis . . .  1615

The  Palais-Royal  built 1629

The  Val-de-Grace 1645

Conflicts  of  the  Fronde 1648-53

Royal  palace  at  Versailles  built ;  the  court  removed  '

there 1661-72

The  Academy  of  Sciences  founded .... 1666

The  Observatory  established 1667

Champs  Elysees  planted 1670

Arch  of  St.  Denis  erected 1672

Palais  d'Elysee  Bourbon  built 1718

The  Palace  of  the  Deputies 1722

The  Military  School 1751

The  Pantheon  (which  see)  St.  Genevieve,  founded  .  1764
The  French  revolution  breaks  out ;  the  Bastile  taken,

14  July,  1789

Pont  de  Louis  XIV.  finished 1790

Cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise  consecrated  .  .  .  1804
Pont  des  Invalides,  &c,  erected  ....  1806
Paris  surrenders  to  the  allies . . 30  March,  1814

Paris  lit  with  gas 18^

Revolution  (see  France)  ....  July,  1830
Column  of  July  founded .... 28  July,  1831


Fortifications  of  Paris  (for  which  140,000,000  of
francs  were  voted,  1833)  commenced  15  Dec.  1840;
completed March,  1846

Revolution  (see  France) .... 22  Feb. 1848

Paris  much  improved  by  Louis  Napoleon  (probable
cost  12,800,000?.) 1853-62

Industrial  Exhibition  opened  by  the  emperor  and
empress,  15  May  ;  visited  by  queen  Victoria  and
prince  Albert  (the  first  visit  of  an  English  sovereign
to  Paris  since  1422),  24  Aug.  ;  exhibition  closes,

15  Nov.  1855

Conference  at  Paris  respecting  the  Danubian  Prin-
cipalities {which  see) ;  closes  . . .  Aug.  1858

Bois  de  Boulogne  opened  as  a  garden  of  acclimatisa-
tion . . 6  Oct.  i860-

Remains  of  Napoleon  I.  deposited  in  the  Invalides,

31  March,  1861

A  building  was  erected  for  a  permanent  industrial
exhibition  by  a  company ....  Oct.  1862

The  scheme  failed Feb.  1864-

Boulevard-prince-Eugene  opened  by  the  emperor,

7  Dec.  1863

Decree  for  an  international  exhibition  of  the  pro-
ducts of  agriculture,  industry,  and  the  fine  arts,
at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners appointed,

2T  Feb.  i86.f

Cab  strike,  4  days 1865.

Fine  arts  exhibition  opened . . . 1  May,  1866'

The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  and  other  buildings
restored ,,

International  Exhibition  on  the  Champ  de  Mars
(with  a  new  park,  comprising  more  than  100
acres) ;  the  oblong  building  designed  by  Leplay
(enclosing  35  acres),  1245  feet  wide,  1500  feet  long,
consisting  of  circles  within  circles  ;  the  external
corridor  was  a  belt  of  iron,  85  feet  high  and  115
feet  wide  ;  opened  by  the  emperor  and  empress,

1  April,

It  was  visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  the  kings  of
Greece,  Belgium,  Prussia,  and  Sweden,  the  czar
of  Russia,  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  the  sultan  of
Turkey,  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  other  inferior
potentates May-Nov.

Attempted  assassination  of  the  czar  by  Berezowski,
a  Pole 6  June,

The  czar  and  the  king  of  Prussia  entertained  by
M.  Haussmann,  prefect  of  Paris  (cost  36,000?.),

8  June,

Departure  of  the  czar,  11  June  ;  of  the  king  of
Prussia 14  June,

Distribution  of  prizes  to  exhibitors  by  the  emperor
in  the  presence  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  the  sultan,
<fec. 1  July,

Berezowski  condemned  to  transportation  for  life,

15  July,

Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Austria . 23  Oct. -2  Nov.

Grand  banquet  to  commissioners  of  international
exhibition 26  Oct. ,,.

Exhibition  finally  closed  (instead  of  on  31  Oct.),
Sunday,  3  Nov.,  gross  receipts,  9,830,369  francs.

Abbe  Migne's  great  printing-office  burnt,  loss  about
360,000?- ...... 12  Feb.

M.  Haussmann,  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  reported
the  budget  of  the  city  to  exceed  9,200,000?.  He
resigned Jan.  1870-

For  the  sieges  and  other  recent  events,  see  France
and  Franco-German  War 1870-1

Versailles  becomes  the  seat  of  government,  March,  1871

Grand  Opera-house  burnt  . . 28-29  Oct.  1S73.

Great  explosion  with  loss  of  life  at  Poirier's  chemi-
cal works,  near  Paris  . . . . 19  Nov.  1S74

Grand  new  opera-house  ;  decreed  i860  ;  designed
by  Gamier  ;  opened  in  state  ... 5  Jan.  1S75

Municipal  officers  visit  Loudon,  to  inspect  rail-
ways, &c 30  April,  1877

New  Hotel  Dieu  finished .... Aug. ,,

International  Exhibition  :  site,  two  unequal
parts  divided  by  the  Seine.  The  main  building  in
the  Champ  de  Mars  covers  263,593  square  yards  :
(765  by  360  yards;)  the  Trocadero  (which  sec)
palace  is  a  stone  structure,  with  a  rotunda  sup-
ported by  columns,  crowned  by  a  dome,  Banked
by  two  lofty  towers,  the  exterior  gallery  orna-
mented with  statues.

The  exhibition  was  opened  by  the  president,  mar-
shal MacMahon  ("  in  the  name  of  the  republic")
in  presence  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  the  due
d'Aosta,  and  other  distinguished  persons,  1  May,  187S


PARIS.


720


PARKS.


2",955 persons visited exhibition  (a  fete  day)

IS  Aug.  1878
tGrand  distribution  of medals  by marshal  Mac-
Mahon,  with  speech . . . .21  Oct. ,,

Closed  Sunday 10  Nov. „

Total  admissions,  16,032,725 ;  daily  average,  82,000 ;

gross  receipts,  12,653,746  francs.
International  exhibition  of  applied  science  opened,

24  July,  1879
The  senate  and  assembly  meet  again  at  Paris,  27  Nov. . ,
Electrical  exhibition  and  congress  (see  under  Elic-

iricity) Aug.-Oct.  1881

Statue  of  Alexandre  Dumas,  sen.  by  G.  Dore  ^un-
covered  4  Nov.  1883

International  exhibition  of  manufactures  and  pro-
cesses 23  July— 23  Nov.  1885

■Grand  funeral  of  Victor  Hugo . . 1  June, .,
International  Workmen's  Exhibition  and  Congress

opened 2  June,  1886

Opera  Comique  destroyed  by  fire  ;  panic  ;  about  131
lives  lost  25-26  May  ;  M.  Carvalho,  the  director,
sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment  and  a
fine  of  above  2,oooZ.  ;  and  the  fireman  Andre  to
one  month's  imprisonment  .  .  15  Dec.  1S87
Death  of  Mad.  Boucicault,  a  great  benefactress  of

the  city,  see  Bon  Marehe  ....  Dec.  ,,
Strike  of  navvies,  about  22  July  .  ends  16  Aug.  1888
Socialistic  strikes  of  waiters  and  hairdressers  Aug.  „
Universal  Exhibition  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  &o.
(proposed  in  1884),  opened  by  president  Carnot
(about  209,000  persons  admitted),  6  May  ;
officially  closed,  6  Nov.  1889.  The  greatest  of
all  the  exhibitions  hitherto  held.  The  buildings
were  of  colossal  proportions,  and  with  the  charm-
in<*  gardens,  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of  the
Champs  de  Mars.  The  chief  galleries  were  sur-
mounted by  domes  with,  a  central  one.  Archi-
tect, M.  Dutert ;  engineer,  M.  Contamin,  decora-
tions in  excellent  taste.  The  gigantic  Eiffel  Tower,
985  feet  high,  was  constructed  chiefly  of  iron  by
M.  Eiffel  and  a  company,  it  is  said  after  the
design  of  a  young  engineer  Nonguier.  The  build-
ing was  inaugurated  by  M.  Tirard,  the  premier,  31
March.  The  electric  lighting  by  Messrs.  Davey,
Paxman  and  Co.,  the  Societe  Gramme  of  Paris,

verv  good l8SS

A  grand  nocturnal  fete  arranged  by  M.  Alphand,

manager *  June, „

'Total  paying  visitors  about  22,277,000, 2,723,000

gratuitous ;  402,065  admitted  . . 13  Oct. .,

Receipts,  41,000,000  francs  (i8,oco,ooo  francs  from
the  state ;  7,000,000  francs  from  the  city) ;  ex-
penses 41,000,000 francs;  surplus, 4,000,000 francs

14  Nov.  ,,
Among  the  distinguished  visitors  were  the  prince
and  princess  of  Wales  (9-15  June),  the  shah  of
Persia,  the  king  of  Greece,  the  duke  of  Braganza
(since  king  of  Portugal),  the  dukes  of  Cambridge
and  Edinburgh,  prince  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria,
the  two  sons  of  the  khedive,  and  Milan,  ex-king
of  Servia.
Awards of medals by  international jurors ; to

British  exhibitors,  910,  out  of  1,017.
The  French  honours  granted  to  British  subjects
were  distributed  by  M.  Waddington,  the  French
ambassador, at the Mansion-house, London

25  Jan.  3890
Many  international congresses  on  social, moral,
scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  subjects  met  at
Paris  during  the  exhibition.

The  new  commercial  exchange  was  opened  by
M.  Tirard,  the  premier . . . 24  Sept.  1SS9

Death  of  sir  Richard  Wallace,  benefactor  to  Paris,
son  of  the  marquis  of  Hertford . . 20  July,  1890

Baron  Haussmann,  who,  supported  by  Napoleon  III.
and  aided  by  M.  Alphand,  rebuilt  Paris  (1853,  ct
sect.),  dies,  11  Jan.  1891.  Death  of  M.  Alphand
'  7  Dec.  1891

The  telephone  system  between  London  and  Paris
inaugurated  (see  Telephone) . . 18  March, ,,

IMPORTANT  TREATIES  OF  PARIS.

Between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal ;
cession  of  Canada  to  Great  Britain  by  France,
and  Florida  by  Spain .... 10  Feb. 1763

Between  France  and  Sardinia;  the  latter  ceding
Savoy,  &c 15  May, 1796


Between  France  and  Sweden,  whereby  Swedish
Pomerania  and  the  island  of  Rugen  were  given  up
to  the  Swedes,  who  agreed  to  adopt  the  French
prohibitory  system  against  Great  Britain 6  Jan.  1810

Capitulation  of  Paris :  Napoleon  renounces  the
sovereignty  of  France .... 11  April,  1814

Convention  of  Paris,  between  France  and  the  allied
powers  ;  the  boundaries  of  France  to  be  the  same
as  on  the  1st  of  January,  1792  . . 23  April, „

Peace  of  Paris  ratified  by  France  and  all  the  allies,

14  May, ,,

Convention  of  St.  Cloud,  between  marshal  Davoust,
and  Wellington,  and  Blucher,  for  the  surrender  of

Paris 3  July,  1815

[The  allies  entered  it  on  the  6th.]

Treaty  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,
Russia,  and  Prussia,  styling  Napoleon  the  prisoner
of  those  powers,  and  confiding  his  safeguard  to
England 2  Aug. ,,

Establishing  the  boundaries  of  France,  and  stipu-
lating for  the  occupation  of  certain  fortresses  by
foreign  troops  for  three  years . . 20  Nov. „

Treaty  of  Paris,  confirming  the  treaties  of  Chaumont
and  Vienna,  same  day . . . .20  Nov. ,,

Treaty  of  Paris,  to  fulfil  the  articles  of  the  Congress
of  Vienna 10  June,  1817

Treaty  of  Paris  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  Eng-
laud,  France,  and  Sardinia  (revised  13  March,
1871  ;  see  Russia) .... 30  March,  1856

Declaration  of  Paris,  signed  by  European  powers,
not  by  United  States,  March,  1856 :  1.  Privateer-
ing abolished.  2.  Neutral  flags  to  exempt  an
enemy's  goods  from  capture,  except  contraband
of  war.  3.  Neutral  goods  under  an  enemy's  flag-
not  to  be  seized.  4.  Blockade  to  be  binding  must
be  effective.  This  declaration  was  censured  in
parliament  in  1871.

Treaty  of  Paris  between  England  and  Persia.

4  March,  1857-

Treaty  of  Paris  between  the  European  powers,
Prussia,  and  Switzerland,  respecting  Neufchatel,

26  May, „

Important  commercial  treaty  between  France  and
England 23  Jan. 1S60

Convention  between  France  and  Italy  for  with-
drawal of  French  troops  from  Rome .  15  Sept. 1864

PARISHES.  Their  boundaries  in  England
are  said  to  have  been  fixed  by  Honorius,  archbishop
of  Canterbury,  636,  or  by  Alfred  about  890.  They
were  enlarged,  and  the  number  of  parishes  was
consequently  reduced  in  the  15th  century,  when
there  were  10,000.  Parish  registers  were  com-
menced in  1538.  Acts  were  passed  in  1844  an(*
1856  by  which  new  parishes  may  be  formed  out  of
too  extensive  ones;  acts  amended  in  1869.  The
appointment  of  parish  constables  was  made  un-
necessary by  an  act  passed  Aug.  1872.  See  Regis-
ters, and  Benefices.

PARISIENNE,  LA,  popular  song  byCasimir
Delavigne,  celebrating  the  defeat  of  the  troops  rt
Charles  X.  by  the  Parisians,  1  Aug.  1830;  the
music  (an  old  air)  was  arranged  by  Auber.

PARKES  MUSEUM,  see  Sanitation.

PARKESINE.  A  new  substance,  composed
of  gun-cotton,  obtained  from  various  vegetable
bodies,  and  oil.  It  can  be.  formed  with  the  pro-
perties of  ivory,  tortoiseshell,  wood,  india-rubber,
gutta-percha,  &c.  It  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Alex-
ander Parlces,  of  Birmingham,  and  was  shown  by
him  at  the  Exhibition  in  1862.  In  Dec.  1865,  at
the  Society  of  Arts,  parkesine  was  proved  to  be  an
excellent  electric  insulator,  and  therefore  likely  to
be  suitable  for  telegraphic  purposes.

PARK  LANE  MURDER,  sec  Trials,  1872.

PARKS.  The  Romans  attached  parks  to  their
villas.  Kulvius  Lupinus,  Pompey,  and  Hortcnsius,
among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the
first  great  park  of  which  particular  mention  is  made
was  that  of  Woodstock,  formed  by  Henry  I.,  1125.


PAEK'S TEAVELS.


721


PAELIAMENT.


Queen  Caroline,  consort  of  George  II.,  inquired,  it
is  said,  of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  earl  of
Chatham),  how  much  it  would  cost  to  shut  up  the
parks  as  private  grounds.  He  replied,  "Three
crowns,  your  majesty."  The  design  was  never
afterwards  entertained.  See  Mnsbury,  Southwark,
Green,  Hyde,  James's,  St.,  Regent's,  Victoria,
Alexandra,  Battersea,  West  Sam,  and  People's
Parks,  Clissold,  Waterlow,  and  Yellowstone  Park,
U.S.,  and  London  Parks  Act.

The  Parks  Preservation  Society,  established  by  Mr.
F.  G.  Heath  and  others 1871

The  Parks'  Regulation  act,  passed . 27  June,  1872

By  new  regulations,  Hyde,  Battersea,  Regent's,  and
Victoria  parks  are  the  only  metropolitan  parks  in
which  public  addresses  may  be  given,  under
certain  restrictions Oct. ,,

These  regulations  (much  objected  to  ;  broken,  and
offenders  fined)  were  modified  by  the  home  secre-
tary Feb.  1873

Acts  for  the  establishment  of  public  parks  in  Eng-
land and  Ireland  were  passed,  12  July,  1869;  for
Scotland 18  March,  1878

Parks  railway  bill  (Hyde  Park,  &c.)  rejected  by
commons  committee . . . .20  May,  1884

By  the  London  Parks  and  Works  Act,  the  charge
of  Battersea  park,  Bethnal  Green  museum  and
garden,  Chelsea  embankment  and  Victoria  park
were  transferred  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of
Works 1887

Clissold  park,  Stoke  Newington,  purchased  for  the
public  (price  96,045?.),  10  Jan.  1889.

PAEK'S  TEAVELS.  Mungo  Park  set  sail
on  his  first  voyage  to  Africa,  under  the  patronage  of
the  African  society,  to  trace  the  source  of  the  river
Niger,  22  May,  1795  ;  and  returned  22  Dec.  1797,
after  having  fruitlessly  encountered  great  danger.
He  again  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  his  second
voyage,  30  Jan.  1805,  appointed  to  a  new  expedition
by  government.  It  is  stated  that  his  party  fired
■011  tlie  natives  when  resisted,  and  that  he  was  killed
at  Broussa  on  the  Niger,  Nov.  1805.  His  "Travels
in  Africa"  were  published  in  1799.

PAELIAMENT  (from  the  French  parlement,
discourse)  derives  its  origin  from  the  Saxon  general
assemblies,  called  Wittenagemot.  The  name  was
applied  to  the  assemblies  of  the  state  under  Louis  VII.
of  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,
but  it  is  said  not  to  have  appeared  in  our  law  till  its
mention  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I.,  3  Edw.  I.,
1272  :  and  yet  Coke  declared  in  his  Institutes,  and
6poke  to  the  same  effect,  when  speaker  (1592),  that
tliis  name  was  used  even  in  the  time  of  Edward  the
Confessor,  1041.  The  first  clear  account  we  have  of
the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  a  house  of
commons,  was  in  the  43rd  Hen.  III.  1258,  when  it
was  settled  by  the  statutes  of  Oxford,  that  twelve
persons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons
in  the  three  parliaments,  which,  by  the  sixth  statute,
were  to  be  held  yearly.  Burton's  Annals.  The
general  representation  by  knights,  citizens,  and
burgesses,  took  place  49  Hen.  III.  1265.  Dug  dale' s
Summons  to  Parliament,  edit.  1685 ;  see  Commons
and  Lords.  The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parlia-
ment are  so  transcendent  and  absolute,  that  it  can-
not be  confined,  either  for  causes  or  persons,  within
any  bounds.  It  hath  sovereign  and  uucontrollable
authority  in  making  and  repealing  laws.  It  can
regulate  or  new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown
(as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and
William  III.).  It  can  alter  and  establish  the  re-
ligion of  the  country,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of
Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.
Sir  Edward  Coke* The  ninth  edition  of  May's

*  When  the  royal  assent  is  given  to  a  public  bill,  the
clerk  says  " Le  roi  [or  la  rcine]  le  veut." If  the  bill  be


j'  Practical  Treatise  on  Parliament "  was  published
in  1883  ;  see  Triennial  and  Septennial.  Return  of
the  names  of  members  of  parliament  from  the
earliest  period  to  the  present  time,  ordered  by  the
house  of  commons,  4  May,  1876,  and  9  March,  1877.
Part  I.  (12 13-1702),  published  1879.  See  Reform
and  Local  Parliaments.

First  summons  of  barons  by  writ  directed  to  the
bishop  of  Salisbury,  by  John .... 1205

Parliament  of  Merton 1236

An  assembly  (the  mod  parliament)  . 11  June,  1258

Simon  de  Montford,  earl  of  Leicester,  summons  a

parliament,  including  knights  of  the  shire . .  1264
First  assembly  of  the  commons  as  a  confirmed  repre-
sentation. Dugdale 20  Jan.  1265

First  regular  parliament  (according  to  many  his-
torians), 22  Edw.  1 1294

First  a  deliberative  assembly  ;  it  becomes  a  legisla-
tive power,  whose  assent  is  essential  to  constitute

a  law 130S

The  commons  elect  their  first  speaker,  Peter  De  la

Mare 1377

Parliament  of  only  one  day  (Richard  II.  deposed)

29  Sept.  1399
"  Parliamentum  Indoctum"  at  Coventry  (lawyers  ex-
cluded) 6  Oct. 1404

Members  obliged  to  reside  at  the  places  they  repre-
sented 1413

Forty-shilling  freeholders  only  to  elect  knights  .  .  1430
"  Parliamentum  diabolicum"  at  Coventry  :  attainted

the  Yorkists 1459

Journals  of  the  lords  commenced  .  .  .  .  1509
Acts  of  Parliament  printed  in  1501,  and  consecutively

from ,,

Members  protected  from  arrest  (see  Ferrars) . .  1542
Journals  of  the  commons  begun ....  1547
Francis  Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bedford,  was  the
first  peer's  eldest  son  who  sat  in  the  house  of

commons 1549

The  Addled  Parliament;  remonstrated  with  James  I.
respecting  benevolences  ;  dissolved  by  him  in  auger

5  April,  1614
The  parliament  in  which  were  first  formed  the  Court
and  Country  parties,  1614,  disputes  with  James  I.

June,  1620
Charles  I.  dissolves  parliament,  which  does  not  meet

for  eleven  years 1629

The  Long  Parliament  (which  voted  the  house  of  lords

as  useless)  first  assembled  ... 3  Nov.  1640
The  bishops  excluded  from  voting  on  temporal  mat-
ters ,,

The  Rump  Parliament ;  it  voted  the  trial  of  Charles  I.

Jan. 1649
House  of  peers  abolished .... 6  Feb. ,,
A  peer  sat  as  a  member  of  the  commons  . . . „
Cromwell  roughly  dissolves  the  Long  Parliament

20  April,  1653
A  convention  parliament  (see  Co nveniion)  .  .  .  1660
Roman  catholics  excluded  from  parliament  .  .  1678
The  commons  committed  a  secretary  of  state  to  the

Tower Nov. „

The  speaker  of  the  commons  refused  by  the  king  .  1679
A  convention  parliament  (see  Convention)  .  .  1688
James  II.  convenes  the  Irish  parliament  at  Dublin,

which  attaints  3000  protestauts . . . . 16S9
Act  for  triennial  parliament  (see  Triennial) . .  1694
First  parliament  of  Great  Britain  met .  '  23  Oct.  1707
Members  of  the  house  of  commons  accepting  any
office  of  profit  ordered  to  be  re-elected  by  statute

6  Anne,  cap.  7 „

The  Triennial  act  repealed,  and  Septennial  act  voted

(see  Septennial  Parliament)  .  .  .  7  May,  1716
The  journals  ordered  to  be  printed  ....  1752
Privilege  as  to  freedom  from  arrest  of  the  servants

of  members  relinquished  by  the  commons . .  1770
The  lord  mayor  of  London  (Oliver)  and  alderman
Crosby  committed  to  the  Tower  by  the  commons
in  Wilkes's  affair 1771

a  private  bill,  he  says  "  Soit  fait  comme  il  eat  desiri."  If
the  bill  have  subsidies  for  its  object,  he  says,  Le  roi  [or
la  reine]  remercie  scs  loyaux  sujets,  accepte  leur  bin&volt  nee,
et  aussi  le  veut. "  If  the  king  do  not  think  proper  to  assent
to  the  bill,  the  clerk  says,  "  Le  roi  [or  la  rcinc]  s'avisera,"
which  is  a  mild  way  of  giving  a  refusal.  It  is  singular
that  the  French  language  should  still  be  used.

3 A


PAKLIAMENT.


722


PAELIAMENT.


Reporting  the  debates  permitted  (see  under  Report-
ing) about  1771

Assembly  of  the  first  parliament  of  the  United  King-
dom of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland . 2  Feb. 1S01
Clergymen  prohibited  from  becoming  M.P.s . . ,,
Sir  F.  Burdett  committed  to  the  Tower .  6  April,  1810
Murder  of  Spencer  Perceval,  by  Bellingham,  at  the

house  of  commons .... 11  May,  1S12
Return  for  Clare  county,  Ireland,  of  Mr.  O'Connell,
the  first  Roman  catholic  commoner  elected  since

the  Revolution 5  July,  1S28

The  duke  of  Norfolk  took  his  seat  in  the  lords,  the
first  Roman  catholic  peer  under  the  Relief  bill  (see
Roman  Catholics) .... 28  April,  1829
The  Reformed  Parliament  meet . . 7  Aug.  1832
Joseph  Pease,  the  first  Quaker  admitted  M.P.  on  his

affirmation . . . .  - . . 15  Feb. 1833
Houses  of  Parliament  destroyed  by  fire  . 16  Oct.  1834
New  houses  of  parliament  commenced  * . . .  1840
The  members  of  the  commons'  and  lords'  houses  re-
linquish the  privilege  of  franking  letters  (see

Franking) - . 10  Jan. „

Committal  of  Smith  O'Brien  by  the  commons  for

contempt  (see  Ireland) ... 30  April,  1846
The  peers  took  possession  of  their  house,  that  por-
tion of  the  palace  being  ready . .  15  April,  1847
Reporters  excluded  by  motion  of  John  O'Connell  for

two  hours 18  May,  1849

The  commons  assemble  in  their  new  house 4  Nov.  1852
The  chairman  of  committees  of  the  whole  house  ap-
pointed to  act  as  a  deputy-speaker  of  the  house  of

commons Aug.  1853

The  two  houses  began  to  communicate  by  letter  .  1855
Baron  L.  Rothschild,  the  first  Jew  admitted  26  July,  1858
Court  of  referees  to  examine  private  bills  established  1865
Henry  Fawcett  (blind),  elected  M.  P. .  July, ,,

The  parliamentary  oaths  modified  and  made  uniform

30  April,  1866
Arthur  M.  Kavanagh  (without  arms  and  legs),  elected

Nov. „
Her  Majesty  authorised  to  proclaim  prorogation  of
parliament  during  the  recess,  by  act  passed

12  Aug.  1867
New  Reform  bill  received  royal  assent . 15  Aug. „
Great  dissatisfaction  in  the  commons  at  the  small-
ness  of  their  building  ;  a  committee's  report  (pro-
posing changes  or  a  new  house)  printed . Oct. „
Changes  in  mode  of  dealing  with  private  bills  in

court  of  referees March,  1868

Vote  by  proxy  in  the  house  of  lords  abolished  by

standing  order 31  March, „

Reform  acts  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  Parlia-
mentary Boundaries  act  passed . .  13  July, ,,
Parliamentary  Elections  act  passed . 31  July, ,

Parliament  dissolved n  Nov. „

New  parliament  met .... 10  Dec. ,,
Reporters  excluded  from  the  commons  during  de-
bates  on  the  Contagious  Diseases act,

24  May  and  20  July,  1S70
The  commons  sat  from  2  p.m.  15  July,  to  5.30  a.m.,

16  July, „
Meeting  of  parliament,  in  six  days  after  proclama-
tion, legalised  by  act  passed  ... 9  Aug. „
Death  of  the  earl  of  Onslow,  father  of  the  house  of

lords,  aged  93 24  Oct. „

Mr.  Fawcett  alone  in  the  lobby  (350-1,  on  grant  of
30,000!. to  princess  Louise  on  her  marriage),

16  Feb.  1871
Bankrupt  peers  disqualified  from  sitting  or  voting

in  parliament  by  act  passed . . 13  July, ,,
Mr.  Bonham  Carter  succeeds  Mr.  J. C.  Dodson  as
deputy  speaker  and  chairman  of  committees,

8  April,  1872

*  Termed  the  "  Palace  of  Westminster."  The  first  con-
tract for  the  embankment  of  the  river  was  taken  in  1837,
by  Messrs.  Lee  ;  this  embankment,  faced  with  granite,  is
886  feet  in  length,  and  projected  into  the  river  in  a  line
with  the  inner  side  of  the  third  pier  of  old  Westminster-
bridge.  Sir  Charles  Barry  (born  1795,  died  1S60)  was  the
architect  of  the  sumptuous  pile  of  buildings  raised  since
1840.  The  whole  stands  on  a  bed  of  concrete  twelve  feet
thick  ;  to  the  east  it  has  a  front  of  about  1000  feet,  and
covers  an  area  of  nine  statute  acres.  It  contains  1100
apartments,  100  staircases,  and  two  miles  of  passages  or
corridors.  The  great  Victoria  tower  at  the  south-west
extremity  is  346  feet  in  height,  and  towers  of  less  magni-
tude crown  other  portions  of  the  building.


Mr.  Biggar  and  others  caused  reporters  and  others
to  be  excluded  from  the  debates  in  the  commons-;
much  discussion  ensued ;  Mr.  Disraeli's  resolu-
tion that  strangers  are  not  to  withdraw  without
a  vote  of  the  house  or  order  of  the  speaker,
unanimously  adopted  ... 31  May,  1872:

Only  89,938!.  paid  to  members  (commons)  for  sala-
ries and  pensions,  civil,  naval,  and  military  July, ,,

The  ballot  act  passed .... 18  July „

Mr.  Plimsoll,  greatly  excited,  makes  unparliamen-
tary charges  at  the  proposed  withdrawal  of  the
Merchant  Shipping  Bill,  22  July ;  apologises ;
motion  for  reprimand  withdrawn . 29  July,  1875

The  commons  through  Irish  members  (principally
Messrs.  Parnell,  Biggar,  O'Donnell,  Power,  Gray,
Kirk,  and  Nolan)  sat  from  3.45  p.m.  2  July,  to
7.15  a.m.  3  July;  from  about  4  p.m.  31  July,  to
6.10  p.m 1  Aug.  1877

Temporary  resolution  to  check  obstructiveness  (by
abuse  of  the  power  of  moving  the  adjournment  of
the  house)  passed  (282-32)  . . 27  July, ,,

Major  O'Gorman,  M.P.  for  Waterford,  "named"  by
the  speaker  for  refusing  to  submit  to  his  authority,
6  Aug.  ;  apologises .... 7  Aug. 137&

Much  obstruction  by  home-rule  party,  June,  July  ;
Mr.  Parnell's  virtual  vote  of  censure  of  the
speaker  (for  directing  notes  to  be  taken,  &c.)  lost
(29-421) 11,  12  July,  1875

Breach  of  privilege  ;  Mr.  C.  E.  Grissell  having  stated
that  he  could  influence  the  committee  on  the
"  Tower  high  level  bridge,"  is  examined  by  a
committee ;  he  and  Mr.  John  Sandilands  Ward
convicted,  16  July  ;  Mr.  Grissell  went  abroad ;
order  for  his  apprehension  issued  ;  Mr.  Ward  ap-
peared before  the  house  ;  taken  into  custody,  23
July ;  released,  30  July  ;  Mr.  Grissell  surrenders  ;
sent  to  Newgate,  14  Aug.  ;  released . 15  Aug. ,,

Motion  for  quinquennial  parliaments  negatived,
(110-160) 24  Feb.  1880

Sir  Stafford  Northcote's  resolutions  against  obstruc-
tion, 26  Feb.  ;  adopted  in  the  standing  orders
(160-20) 28  Feb. ,,

Mr.  Grissell  arrested,  and  committed  to  Newgate,
2,  3  March ;  discharged . . .24  March, ,r

Mr.  Charles  Bradlaugh,  M.P.  for  Northampton  (not
believing  in  God)  objects  to  take  oath  of  alle-
giance ;  his  affirmation  refused,  3  May ;  his  offer
to  take  oath  not  permitted . . . 21  May, ,,

A  committee  appointed  ;  recommends  that  he  be
allowed  to  affirm,  16  June  ;  much  discussion  en-
sues ;  resolution  of  Mr.  Labouchere,  M.P.  for
Northampton,  that  Mr.  Bradlaugh  be  permitted
to  affirm,  negatived  (275-230) . . 22  June, •„.

Mr.  Bradlaugh's  claim  to  take  the  oath,  or  affirm,
denied  by  the  house  ;  he  refuses  to  withdraw,  and
is  taken  into  custody,  and  imprisoned  in  the  clock
tower  (vote  326-38),  23  June ;  released  by  vote,

24  June, „

Resolution  moved  by  Mr.  Gladstone  that  affirma-
tion be  accepted  instead  of  an  oath  in  certain
eases  ;  opposed  by  sir  Stafford  Northcote  as  re-
scinding vote  of  22  June ;  resolution  accepted
(303-249)  1,  2  July  ;  Mr.  Bradlaugh  affirms,  is  ad-
mitted, and  votes 2  July, „

See  Trials,  1S81.

The  commons  sat  continuously  21  hours  (devoted
to  Irish  affairs) 26,  27  Aug. ,,

Debate  on  Irish  amendments  to  the  address  :

Mr.  Parnell's  lost  (57-435) • • 6-14  Jan.  1881
Mr.  Justin  McCarthy's  (37-201) . 17-19  Jan. ,,
Mr.  Dawson  (36-274) . . . .20  Jan. ,,
Mr.  O'Kelly  (34-178) .... 20  Jan. ,,

House  of  Commons  on  Irish  protection  bill,  sat
from  4  p.m.  25  Jan.  to  2  p.m.  . . 26  Jan. „

Mr.  Gladstone's  motion  for  urgency  carried  (251-
33)  ......  ,,

On  first  reading  of  Mr.  Forster's  coercion  bill ;  de-
bate summarily  closed  by  Mr.  H.  Brand,  the
speaker  (termed  coup  d'etat) 4  p.m.  31  Jan.  to  9.30
p.m.  :' 2  Feb. „

Thirty-six  Irish  members,  Mr.  Parnell,  Mr.  Justin
McCarthy,  and  others,  suspended  for  the  sitting
for  disorderly  conduct ;  Mr.  Gladstone's  resolu-
tions ;  speaker  invested  with  all  the  powers  of  the
house  to  regulate  business  when  voted  urgent  by
three-fourths  of  the  members  (at  least  200)  (234-
15°)  3  Feb. „


PAELIAMENT.


723


PAELIAMENT.


New  stringent  rules  to  be  enforced  when  business  is

declared  urgent  by  a  minister  of  the  crown  ;  laid

on  table  by  the  speaker .... 9  Feb.

Supplemental  rules, 17 Feb. modified; acted  on

21  Feb.  ;  new  rules  announced  11,  12  March

Mr.  Gladstone's  resolution  for  "urgency,"  with  the

supplies  lost  (212-296) . . . 14  March,

Mr.  Bradlaugh  re-elected  for  Northampton,  9  April,

His  offer  to  take  the  oath  opposed  (208-175) ;  he  is

forcibly  removed,  26  April ;  again  ejected,  10  May,

New  parliamentary  oaths  bill  discharged 5  July,

Mr.  Bradlaugh's attempt  to  enter  the  House  of

Commons,  forcibly  resisted  by  the  police. Mr.

Labouchere's  motion  to  rescind  the  resolution  of

10  May,  18S1,  negatived  (191-7) . .  3  Aug.

Differences  between  the  houses  on  the  land  bill

settled  by  mutual  concessions . .  12-15  A-Ug.

Mr.  Bradlaugh  not  permitted  to  sit ;  government

motion  negatived  (2S6-228) . . .7  Feb.  :
New  rules  of  procedure  including  the  cloture  (the
power of closing  a  debate) and delegation of
business,  proposed  by  Mr.  Gladstone .  13  Feb.
Proposal  for writ for Northampton negatived
(307-18) ; Mr.  Bradlaugh  repeats  oath  and  takes
a  seat  ; withdraws  when  directed  ; 21  Feb.  ex-
pelled (291-83)  ;  new  writ  to  be  issued .  22  Feb.
Michael  Davitt,  convict,  elected  M.P.  forco.  Meatli

22  Feb.

Mr.  Bradlaugh  re-elected  for  Northampton 2  Mar.

Resolution  of  7  Feb.  re-affirmed  (286-228) .  6  Mar.

Mr.  Marriott's  amendment  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  new

rule  negatived  (31S-279) . . .  30-31  Mar.

Discussion  on  the  cloture  deferred . .  1  May,

Commons  ;  sat  2  p.m. -8  p.m.  30  hours, committee

on  prevention  of  crime  bill;  25  Irish  members

suspended  for  wilful  obstruction 30  June  and

1  July,
Mr.  O'Donnell  suspended  for  14  days  (181-33)  3  ^uh\
Difference  between  the  two  houses  ; compromise

(see  Ireland) Aug.

Mr. Bradlaugh  publishes  a  determined  manifesto,

Times 23  Sept.

Parliament  meets  24  Oct.  ;  discussion  on  procedure

resumed 25  Oct

Mr.  Gibbons'  amendment  (the  cloture  to  be  carried
by  two-thirds  instead  of  bare  majority)  negatived

322-238 1-2  Nov.

The  cloture  adopted  (304-260).  .  .  10-11  Nov.
The  new  rules  made  standing  orders  27  Nov.-i  Dec.
Affirmation  bill  introduced  in  the  commons  (184-53)

19-20  Feb.  1
Mi-.  O'Kelly  suspended  for  a  week  for  giving  Mr.

Forster  the  lie 22  Feb.

Grand  committee's first meeting, Mr. Goschen

chairman 9  April,

Affirmation  bill  rejected  by  the  commons  (292-2S9)

3-4  May,

Mr.  Bradlaugh  not  permitted  to  take  the  oath  4  May,

His  exclusion  voted  (232-65) . . .9  July,

Arrested  by  Mr.  Gosset,  the  sergeant-at-arms,  for

attempting  to  enter  the  house,  3  Aug.  ;  brings  an

action  against  the  sergeant,  7  Dec.  ;  verdict  for

defendant 9  Feb.  1

Mr.  Bradlaugh  administers  the  oath  to  himself,  sits,

and  votes  ;  excluded  by  vote  (228-120)11  Feb. ;

re-elected  for  Northampton  (4,032-3664)  19  Feb. ;

vote  for  his  re-exclusion  (226-173) • ■  2I  Feb.

New  Reform  bill introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone

2S  Feb.

Comraons  :  irregular  debate  on  Egyptian  policy ;

supplies  ;  sat  from  12. 20  p.m. '15  March,  to  5.45  a.m.

(Sunday) 16  March,

Queen  v.  Bradlaugh  for  voting  without  taking  the

oath,  Queen's  Bench ....  13  June,

Verdict  for  the  crown ....  30  June,

Conflict  between  the  lords  and  commons,  respecting

the  Franchise  bill,  (see  Reform) . . . .

Explosion  (dynamite)  on  the  stair  above  the  crypt

in  the  house  of  commons  ;  much  damage  done  ;

two police constables,  Wm. Cole and Thos.

Cox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole

picked  up  a  blazing  parcel,  to  carry  it  out  ami

saved  the  building;  he  and  Cox  commended  by

the  queen,  and  rewarded  for  steady  courage.  Cole

received  the  Albert  medal,  in  Westminster  Hall


26  March.]* Westminster  Hall  much  injured  by
another  explosion a few  minute.;  past  2  p.m.

24  Jan. 1883

Mr.  Bradlaugh's  appeal  disallowed  by  the  lords
justices 28  Jan. „

The  new  rules  and  the  cloture  first  applied  ;  Mr.
O'Brien  expelled 24  Feb. ,,

Mr.  Bradlaugh  not  permitted  to  take  the  oath
(263-219) 6  July, .,

Retirement  of  Mr.  Ralph  A.  Gosset ;  knightedaft  ;r
a  long  service  and  ten  years  sergeant-of-arais
(died  27  Nov.)  30  Sept. ;  succeeded  by  H.  D.
Erskine  ,,

Parliament  dissolved 18  Nov. ,,

New  parliament  meets  12  Jan. ;  opened  by  the
queen 21  Jan. 1800

Mr.  Bradlaugh  takes  the  oath,  intervention  stoppe  I
by  the  speaker 13  Jan. ,,

Mr.  Gladstone  introduces  his  bill,  "to  make  better
provision  for  the  future  government  of  Ireland  ; "
the  House  crammed,  occupied  by  members  from
6  a.m 8  April, ,,

Sir  T.  Erskine  May  (author  of  the  "  Practice  of
Parliament,"  1884,  et  scq.)  assistant  clerk  to  the
commons  1856 ;  clerk  1871  ;  retires  15  April
(created  lord  Farnborough  10  May  ;  died  17  May)  ;
succeeded  by  Reginald  Palgrave  . . 1  May, ,,

Death  of  lord  Redesdale,  chairman  of  committees
since  1851,  2  May ;  succeeded  by  the  duke  of
Buckingham  (122  against  103  for  lord  Morley)

10  May, ,,

New  parliament  meets  (see  England) .  5  Aug. ,,

Parliament  prorogued . . . .25  Sept. ,,

New  procedure  rules  with  increased  application  of
the  closure,  &c,  introduced  21  Feb.  ;  first  and
principal  rule  adopted  (222-120) . 16  March,  1887

House  of  commons  sat  above  21  hours  21-22  March, ,,

The  commons  decide  that  an  article  in  the  Times  of
May  2  on  Mr.  Dillon  is  not  a  breach  of  privilege
(Mr.  Dillon  rejects  the  offer  of  a  public  prosecu-
tion) 4,  5  May  ;  Mr.  Gladstone's  motion  for  a
committee  rejected  (317-233) . . 6,  7  May, ,,

Much  obstruction  of  the  opposition  to  the
Criminal  Law  (Amendment)  Ireland  Bill  in  the
commons  ;  many  amendments 28  March,  ct  se-y. ,,

Mr.  T.  Healy  suspended  for  14  days . 29  July, . ,,

Mr.  C.  Graham  and  Mr.  E.  Harrington  suspended
for  speaking  disrespectfully  of  the  house  of  lords

13  Sept. „

New  rules  of  procedure  introduced  ;  rule  1  (limiting
the  sittings  of  the  commons  on  ordinary  days
from  3  p.m.  to  1  a.m.)  passed  24  Feb.  ;  rule  2
(giving  the  power  of  closure  to  a  majority  in  a
house  of  100),  3-8  (for  repressing  disorder  and
waste  of  time)  passed  28  Feb. ;  9-12  passed  29  Feb.  ;
13  (reviving  grand  committees,  &c.) 7  March,  i833

Mr.  C.  A.  V.  Conybeare,  M.P.,  suspended  for  a
month  (or  to  the  end  of  the  session)  for  libelling
the  speaker  in  the  Star  newspaper . 21  July, ,,

Illegal  attempt  by  constable  Jeremiah  Sullivan  to
arrest  Mr.  Sheehy,  M.P.,  in  the  precincts  of  the
House  ;  committee  to  consider  breach  of  privilege
appointed  26  Nov. ;  breach  affinned,  but  no
action 7  Dec. ,,

Dr.  Tanner  suspended  for  insulting  Mr. Balfour

21  Dec. ,,

The  house  of  lords  meets  to  pass  the  Appropriation
Bill,  n.20  p.m 22  Dec. ,,

Parliament  meets,  21  Feb.  ;  prorogued . 30  Aug.  iSVg
Parliament  meets 11  Feb.  1890


*  The  chief  Commissioner  of  the  Metropolitan  Police,
sir  E.  Y.  W.  Henderson,  issued  an  order  stating  that  the
Prime  Minister  directed  the  payment  of  50?.,  each  to  Cole
and  Cox  from  the  Royal  Bounty  Fund,  and  further,  that
the  Home  Secretary  has  approved  of  the  payment  of
120I.  to  Cole  and  70L  to  Cox,  while  sir  James  Ingham
granted  them  the  sum  of  30?.,  each  from  the  Bow-street
Howard  Fund.  Both  were  granted  a  pension  of  7SI.  per
annum  each,  April,  1886.  Cole  and  Cox  were  each  pre-
sented with  a  money  testimonial  from  the  members  of
both  Houses  (108?.  10s.  each  ;  Cole  received  a  gold  watch
and  chain).  They  both  left  the  hospital  at  the  end  of
March,  1885.  On  5  Oct.  1885,  John  Colebrook,  Esq.,
retired  surgeon  of  the  Indian  army,  a  member  of  the
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  presented  to  both
men  a  copy  of  this  book  at  the  institution

3  A  2


PAKLIAMENT.


724


PAELIAMENT.


Mr.  Labouchere  suspended  from  sitting  for  a  week,
for  asserting  his  disbelief  in  lord  Salisbury's
denial  of  connection  with  a  conspiracy  for  de-
feating the  ends  of  justice  in  relation  to  a  recent
trial 28  Feb.  1890

A  select  committee  on  procedure  in  parliament
nominated  (Mr.  Goschen  (chairman),  Mr.  A.  J.
Balfour,  Mr.  J.  Chamberlain,  Mr.  Gladstone,  sir
W.  V.  Harcourt,  lord  Hartington,  and  others),
27  June ;  first  met,  30  June.  Mr.  Balfour's
report not accepted ; some of the members

retire 14  July, „

[The  committee  recommended  various  means
for  saving  the  time  of  parliament  in  passing  bills
from  one  session  to  another,  and  for  shortening
the  sessions,  &c]

The  commons  sat  from  3  p.m.  to  7  a.m.  (obstruction
to  Irish  light  railways  bill) . . 14,  15  Aug. ,,

The  resolution  against  Mr.  Bradlaugh,  22  June,
1880,  ordered  to  be  expunged  from  the  journals
of  the  commons,  27  Jan.  ;  he  died . 30  Jan.  1891

Sir  William  Whiteway,  premier  of  Newfoundland,
with  other  delegates,  appears  at  the  bar  of  the
house  of  lords  ;  he  makes  a  statement  in  defence
of  the  colony's  claims  .... 23  April, ,,

Mr.  Cunninghame  Graham,  M.P.,  expelled  from
Prance  for  seditious  speeches . . 11  May, „

Capt.  Edmund  Hope  Verney  expelled  from  the
house  of  commons,  having  been  sentenced  to  a
year's  imprisonment  for  a  misdemeanour  on  his
own  confession .  ... 12  May, ,,

Mr.  Atkinson,  M.P.,  suspended  for  disrespect  to
the  speaker 27  July, ,,

Parliament  prorogued 5  Aug. „

Mr.  Edward  S.  W.  De  Cobain,  M.P.  for  Belfast ;
fled  from  justice  ;  commanded  to  attend  the
house  on  23  July,  1891 ;  expelled . 26  Feb.  1892

Mr.  George  W.  Hastings,  M.P.  for  E.  Worcester-
shire, sentenced  to  5  years'  penal  servitude  for
fraud  as  a  trustee  (see  Trials),  11  March;  ex-
pelled from  the  house . . .21  March, „

Mr.  Fenwick's  resolution  for  the  payment  of
members  of  parliament  rejected  by  the  commons
(227 — 162)  : .... 25  March, ,,

Mr.  James  F.  Buckley,  Mr.  John  W.  Maclure,  M.P.,
Mr.  William  B.  Hawkins,  anil  Mr.  John  Conacher,
directors  of  the  Cambrian  railway,  were  admon-
ished by  the  speaker,  by  direction  of  the  house
of  commons,  for  a  breach  of  privilege  in  dismiss-
ing Mr.  John  Hood,  a  statiomnaster,  on  account
of  his  evidence  given  to  the  committee  on  the
hours  of  railway  servants . . . 7  April, ,,

Mr.  Cuninghame  Graham  suspended  for  a  week
for  disorderly  conduct .... 4  May, ,,

Parliament  dissolved,  28  June  ;  new  parliament
meets 4  Aug. ,,

NUMBED, AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS,  FROM
27  EDW. I. 1299, TO 37 VICT. 1874.

Edward  1 8  pari,  in 8  yrs'.  reign

Edward  II 15  ,,  20  ,,

Edward  III. . . . .  37  ,,  50  ,,

Richard  II 26  ,,  22  ,,

Henry  IV 10  ,,  14  ,,

Henry  V 11  ,,  • 9  ,,

Henry  VI 22  ,,  39  ,,

Edward  IV. . . . . .  5  ,,  22  „

Richard  III 1  „  2

Henry  VII


Day  of  Meeting.* When  Dissolved


*  Corrected  by  the  blue-book,
land,"  printed  1879.


Parliaments  of  Eng-


Mary

5  Oct,

1553

5  Dec. .

1553

2  April .

1554

5  May .

1554

12  Nov. .

1554

16  Jan.

1555

21  Oct, .

1555

9  Dec. .

,,

20  Jan.

1558

17  Nov. .

1558

Elizabeth . .

23  Jan.

1559

8  May .

1559

11  Jan.

1563

2  Jan.

1567

2  April .

1571

29  May .

1571

8  May .

1572

19  April .

1583

23  Nov. .

1584

14  Sept. .

1585

29  Oct. .

1586

23  March  .

15S7

12  Nov. .

1588

29  March  .

1589

19  Feb. .

1593

10  April .

1593

24  Oct. .

1597

9  Feb. .

1598

27  Oct. .

1 601

19  Dec. .

1601

James  I. .

19  March.

1604

9  Feb. .

1611

5  April.  .

1614

7  June .

1614

16;  23,  30

Jan.

1621

8  Feb. .

1622

12  Feb.

1624

27  March  .

1625

Charles  I.

17  May .

1625

12  Aug. .

,,

6  Feb. .

1626

15  June .

1626

17  March  .

1628

10  March  .

1629

13  April .

1640

5  May .

1640

Long  Parliament

3  Nov.

,,

20  April

1653

Commonwealth

3  Sept. .

1654

22  Jan.

1655

17  Sept, .

1656

4  Feb. .

1658

27  Jan.

1659

22  April .

1659

7  May .

16  March  .

1660

Charles  II.  . .

25  April .

1660

29  Dec.

,,

Pensionary  Pari.

8  May .

1661

24  Jan.

1679

6  March  .

1679

12  July .

,,

Seven Proroga-

tions.

17  Oct. .

1679

18  Jan. .

16S1

James  II. .

21  March

1681

28  March .

1681

(Convention.)

19  May

i68S

2  July .

1687

William  III. .

22  Jan.

1689

6  Feb. .

1690

20  March

1690

11  Oct. .

1695

22  Nov. .

1695

7  July .

1698

24  Aug.

1698

19  Dec.

1700

Anne  .

6  Feb.

1 701

11  Nov. .

1 701

30  Dec.

,,

2  July .

1702

20  Aug.

1702

5  April .

1 7°S

25  Oct,

i7°5

11  April

1708

18  Nov.

1708

28  Sept. .

1710

25  Nov.

1710

8  Aug. .

1713

George  I. . .

11  Nov.

I7I3

15  Jan.

i7!5

21  March

1715

10  March

1722

George  II.

9  Oct,

1722

7  Aug.

1727

28  Jan.

1728

18  April

1734

14  Jan.

1735

28  April

1 741

4  Dec

1741

18  June

!747

10  Nov.

*747

8  April

I754

George  III.  . .

14  Nov.

1754

21  March

1 761

3  Nov.

1761

12  March

1768

10  May

1768

30  Sept.

1774

29  Nov.

!774

1  Sept.

1780

31  Oct.

1780

25  March

1784

18  May

1784

21  June

1790

26  Nov.

1790

20  May

1796

27  Sept.

1796

29  June

1802

16  Nov.

1802

24  Oct.

1806

15  Dec.

1806

29  April

1807

22  June

. 1807

24  Sept.

1812

24  Nov.

. 1812

10  June

1818

George  IV.

14  Jan.

. 1819

29  Feb.

1820

23  April

. 1820

2  June

1826

14  Nov.

. 1826

24  July

1830

William  IV.

26  Oct.

• 1830

22  April

1831

14  June

• 1831

3  Dec.

1832

,

29  June

• 1833

30  Dec.

1834

Victoria .

19  Feb.

• 1S35

17  July

1837

15  Nov.

• 1837

23  June

1841

19  Aug.

. 1841

23  July

1847

iS  Nov.

• 1847

1  July

18^2

4  Nov.

. 1852

21  March

1857

1  April

• 1857

23  April

1S59

31  May

• 1859

6  July

1S65

1  Feb.

. 1866

11  Nov.

1868

10  Dec.

. 1868

26  Jan.

1874

5  March

■ 1874

23  March

1S80

29  April

. 1880

iS  Nov.

.  1885

%

12  Jan.

1886

26  June

.  1886

5  Aug.

1886

28  June

.  1892

4  Aug.

. 1892

PARLIAMENT.


m


PARNELLITES.


PARLIAMENT  of  Ireland,  it  is  said,

began  with  conferences  of  the  English  settlers  on
the  hill  of  Tara,  in  1173.  Writs  for  knights  of  the
shire  were  issued  in  1295.  The  Irish  parliament
met  last  on  2  Aug.  i3oo;  the  bill  for  the  union
having  passed.

PARLIAMENT  of  Scotland  consisted  of

barons,  prelates,  and  abbots,  and  occasionally  of
burgesses.  A  great  national  council  was  held  at
Scone  by  John  Balliol,  9  Feb.  1292  ;  and  by  Robert
Bruce  at  Canibuskenneth,  in  1326.  A  house  of
commons  was  never  formed  in  Scotland.  The  par-
liament of  Scotland  sanctioned  the  act  of  union  on
16  Jan.  1707,  and  met  for  the  last  time  on  22  April,
same  year.

The  parliament  hall,  Edinburgh  castle,  erected  by
James  I.,  in  1434,  was  thoroughly  and  .judiciously
restored  by  M.  Hippolyte  Blanc,  at  the  expense  of
the  late  Mr.  Nelson  and  family.  The  hall  was  re-
opened, Feb.  1891.  The  undertaking  was  greatly  pro-
moted by  the  investigations  of  lords  Napier  and
Ettriek,  major  Gore  Booth,  and  Mr.  R.  Chambers.

PARLIAMENT  OF  Paris  was  instituted  by
rhilip  Augustus  II.,  1 190,  and  was  made  the  chief
court  of  justice  in  France  by  Philip  IV.  ;  at  his
suggestion  it  revoked  a  bull  of  pope  Boniface  VIII.,
1302.  It  was  suppressed  by  Louis  XV.,  1771 ;
restored  by  Louis  XVI.,  1774  ;  demanded  a  meeting
of  the  states-general  in  1787  ;  and  was  suspended  by
the  national  assembly,  3  Nov.  1789;  see  Commune.

PARLIAMENTARY  AND  MUNICI-
PAL REGISTRATION  ACTS  (41  &  42  Vict.
c.  26),  passed  22  July,  1878.

PARMA  (N.  Italy),  founded  by  the  ancient
Etrurians.  It  took  part  Avith  the  Lombard  league
in  the  wars  with  the  German  emperors.  It  was
made  a  duchy  (with  Placentia),  1545.  Population
of  Parma  and  Modena,  1890,  1,034,712.
United  to  Spain  by  Philip  V.'s  marriage  with  Eliza-
beth Farnese 1714

Battle  near Parma ; the confederates, England,
France, and  Spain, against  the  emperor  ; both
armies  claimed  the  victory . . 29  June,  1734
Battle  near  the  Trebbia  ;  the  French  under  Maedon-
ald,  defeated  by  Suwarrow,  with  the  loss  of  10,000
men  and  four  generals .... 19  June,  1799
The  duke  of  Parma  made  king  of  Etruria . Feb. 1801
Parma  united  to  France  :  with  Placentia  and  Guas-
talla  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa,  ex-empress,  by
treaty  of  Fontainebleau  .... 5  April,  1814
Parma  occupied  by  the  Austrians  and  Sardinians  in

the  war  of 1848

The  Sardinians  retire  after  the  battle  of  Novara,

23  March,  1849
The  duke  Charles  II.  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son,

Charles  III.  (died  17  April,  1883) . 14  March, „
Charles  III.  stabbed  by  an  assassin,*  26  March,  dies,

27  March,  1854
Robert  I.,  a  minor(born9  July,  1848);  whose  mother

becomes  regent.
War  in  Italy  ;  the  Parmesans  establish  a  provisional
government ;  the  duchess-regent  retires  to  Switzer-
land 1  May,  1859

Farina  became  dictator ... 18  Aug. ,,
Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted . . . 12  Sept. ,,
Col.  Anviti,  a  former  obnoxious police  minister,
having  rashly  returned,  cruelly  murdered  by  the

mob 5  Oct. ,,

Parma  is  now  part  of  the  province  of  ./Emilia  in  the
kingdom  of  Italy,  to  which  it  was  annexed  by  de-
cree after  a  plebiscite ... 18  March,  i860
Duchess-regent  died 1  Feb. 1864

PARNELLITES,  the  followers  of  Mr.  Charles
Stewart  Parncll,  the  principal  leader  of  the  more


*  Antonio  Carra,  in  revenge  of  a  private  injury,  and
on  behalf  of  the Giovane  Italiane. He  was  acquitted

through  a  Haw  in  the  evidence,  and  died  in Philadelphia
Aug.  1887.


energetic  section  of  the  home-rule  party,  1880  et
seq. He  was  born  28  June,  1846,  elested"  M.P.  for
co. Meath, 1875-80; for  Cork,  1880-91; became
Irish  parliamentary  leader,  with  great  influence,
which  he  lost  greatly,  Nov.  1890  ;  he  died  suddenly
near Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891 ; solemn  funeral at
Dublin,  11  Oct.  1891. See  Home  Rule  and  In-
land, 1879,  et  seq.,  and  below.
The Times  publishes  a  series  of  articles  headed
"Parnellism and Crime,"  7, 10, 14  March,
1887  et  seq.  ; the  third series  published  June,
1887,  related  to  the  Clan-na-gael, based  upon
statements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish
World  (New  York),  and  other  papers. The  Tim  s
published  the  facsimile  of  a  letter  alleged  to  be
signed  by  Mr.  Parnell  (dated  15  May,  1882),  in
which  he  is  made  to  say  "though  I  regret  the
accident  of lord Cavendish's  death, I cannot
refuse  to  admit  that  Burke  got  no  more  than  his
deserts,"  18  April,  1887. This  letter  Mr.  Parnell
in parliament termed  an "  anonymous fabri-
cation" 1  a.m.,  19  April,  1887

Mr.  Frank  Hugh  O'Donnell  v.  Mr.  John  Walter
and  others  (for  libel  in  the  Times,  "  Parnellism
and  Crime"),  damages  claimed  50,000^,  Queen's
Bench  Division,  no  case ;  verdict  for  the  de-
fendants .' 2-5  July,  188

Royal  commission  to  examine  into  the-authenticity
of charges  against certain Irish members  of

parliament 17  Sept. ,,

The  court  of  session,  Edinburgh,  dismisses  Mr.
Parnell's  action  against  the  Times  23  Oct.  1888  and

5  Feb.  1S89
Mr. Parnell  moves for  a  trial  in  the  exchequer

division,  Dublin  (afterwards  stopped) n  Feb. ,,
Mr.  Parnell's  action  against  the  'Times  in  London
deferred  till  Michaelmas  sessions  . .18  June, ,,
Parnellite  Commission.
Sir  James Hannen, president ;  Mr. Justice Day ■
and  Mr.  Justice  A.  L.  Smith,  constituted  by  act
passed  13  Aug.  1888. Preliminary  meeting :  sir
C.  Russell,  Mr.  Asquith,  and  others  counsel  for
Mr. Parnell  and other  M.P.'s  (65); attorney-
general  sir  Richard  Webster, Mr.  W. Graham
and  others, for  the  Times, 17  Sept.  1888  ;  pro-
ceedings begin  22  Oct.  1888. Long  examination
of witnesses  ; examination of Mr. Parnell's
alleged  letters,  14  Feb.  1889  ;  after  the  evidence
and  cross-examination  of  Mr.  Soarnes,  solicitor,
and  Mr.  Macdonald,  manager  of  the  Times,  and
of  Mr.  Houston  from  whom  the  alleged  letters  were
obtained,  Mr. Richard  Pigott, Irish  journalist,
who  had  sold  them  to  Mr.  Houston,  on  cross-
examination by sir Charles Russell, grossly

prevaricated 20-22  Feb. ,,

Mr.  Pigott  fled  to  Paris,  and  his  confession  that  he
forged  some  of  the  alleged  letters,  and  had  given
false  evidence,  was  read  in  the  court,  27  Feb.
(57th  sitting)  ;  the  attorney-general  on  behalf  of
the  Times  accepted  the  confession  and  expressed
deep  regret  for  the  publication  of  the  letters,  27
Feb.,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  Times  28  Feb.  ,,
Suicide  of  Richard  Pigott  at  Madrid,  1 March  ;

buried  there  .  '  .  .  .  .  6  March,  ,,
Long  address  of  sir  C.  Russell  ends  .  12  April,  ,,
Patrick  Malloy  sentenced  to  6  months'  hard  labour

for  perjury  before  the  commission  .  1$  April,  ,,
On  examination  Mr.  Parnell  denies  all  complicity

with  crime ....  30  April-8  May, ,,

Examination  of  archbishop  Walsh  and  other  priests

8  May  et  set/. ,,
91st  to  100th  sitting,  Mr.  T.  Sexton  and  other  M.P.'s

examined  . . .18  June  till  4  July, ,,

101st  sitting  :  Michael  Davitt  examined  .  4  July.  .,
106th  sitting :  Mr.  Houston,  secretary  of  the
"Loyal  and  Patriotic  Union''  (established  in
1885),  states  that  in  1885  he  purchased  the  copj  -
right  of  "Parnellism  Unmasked"  (by  Richard
Pigott).  The  court  refuses  to  accede  to  the  ap-
plication of  sir  C.  Russell  to  inspect  the  books  of
the  "Loyal  and  Patriotic  Union"  .  12  July,  ,,
107th  sitting:  Mr. Parnell  and his friends with

their  counsel  withdraw  from  the  case  . 15  July, .,
112II1 sitting: examination of  the Land League
account  books  and  documents  [important  books
lost]  :  adjournment  to  24  Oct.  25  July, ,,


PAENELLITES.


726


PAETITIQN TEEATIES.


113th  sitting,  24  Oct.  :  speech  by  Mr.  Biggar.
ivlr.  M.  Davitt  began  an  address  which  was
finished 31  Oct.  1889

ii3th  to  128th  sitting  :' Sir  Henry  James'  address
for  the  Times ... 31  Oct. — 22  Nov. „

The  report  of  the  commissioners  was  laid  before
parliament,  13  Feb.  1890.  The  following  is  an
abridgment  of  their  conclusions  : — I.  That  the
respondent  members  o  parliament  collectively
were  not  guilty  of  conspiring  for  the  absolute
independence  of  Ireland  as  a  separate  nation,  but
that  some  of  them  (Messrs.  M.  Harris,  Dillon,
W.  O'Brien,  W.  Redmond,  O'Connor,  J.  Condon,
and  J.  J.  O'Kelly),  together  with  Mr.  Davitt,
established  the  Land  League  mainly  for  that
purpose.  II.  That  the  respondents  [44]  did  con-
spire to  promote  agrarian  agitation,  the  non-pay-
ment of  rents,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  landlords
(styled  the  English  garrison).  III.  That  they  ac-
quitted Mr.  Parnell  and  others  of  the  charge  of
insincerity  in  their  denunciations  of  the  Phoenix
Park  murders,  and  affirmed  the  fac-simile  letter
to  be  a  forgery.  IV.  They  found  that  the  respon-
dents did  disseminate  the  Irish  World  and  other
newspapers,  intending  to  incite  to  sedition  and
other  crimes.  V.  That  the  charges  of  incitement
to  crime,  except  by  intimidation,  and  of  payments
for  that  purpose,  were  not  proved.  VI.  They
found  that  the  respondents  did  not  denounce  the
system  of  intimidation,  though  they  knew  its
effects  ;  and  VII.  That  they  defended  persons
charged  with  agrarian  crime,  and  supported
their  families,  but  it  was  not  proved  that  they
subscribed  for  testimonials  for,  or  were  intimately
associated  with,  notorious  criminals,  or  aided
their  escape  by  payments.  VIII.  That  they
found  that  the  respondents  made  payments  to
compensate  persons  injured  in  the  commission  of
crime.  IX.  That  the  respondents  did  invite  and
obtain  the  assurance  and  co-operation  of  the
Physical  Force  Party  in  America,  including  the
Clan-na-Gael,  and  did  not  repudiate  the  action  of
that  party.

[Certain  allegations  against  Mr.  Parnell  were
declared  not  proved.]
The  report  adopted  with  thanks,  by  the  commons,
after  7  days'  debate,  3-1 1  March;  by  the  lords
(without  a  division),  21  March,  1890.  Mr.  Glad-
stone's amendment  rejected  by  339  to  263.
Parnell  v.  Walter  and  another,  for  libel,  Queen's
bench  division,  justices  Denman  and  Wills ;
damagos  claimed,  ioo,oooL  ;  40s.  paid  into  court,
11 Jan. Verdict  for  the  plaintiff,  by  consent,

5,002'.  damages 3  Feb:  1890

[The  publication  voted  not  a  breach  of  privilege
by  tli3  commons  (260—212),  n  Feb.  189c]

In  consequence  of  the  issue  of  the  divorce  suit,
capt.  O'Shea,  Mrs.  O'Shea  and  Mr.  C.  S.  Parnell,
15-17  Nov.  1890,  Mr.  Parnell  was  requested  by
Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone  and  other  English  liberals,
to  retire  from  the  chairmanship  of  the  Irish  party.
He  declined,  and  issued  a  manifesto  to  the  people
of  Ireland,  giving  an  account  of  private  confer-
ences with  Mr.  Gladstone  and  Mr.  John  Morley,
20  Nov.  The  Irish  R.C.  bishops  demanded  Mr.
Parncll's  retirement,  3  Dec.  After  a  week's
angry  discussion  in  the  commons'  committee-
room  No.  15,  the  Irish  party  divided  ;  Mr.  Justin
M'Carthy,  the  vice-chairman,  was  elected  chair-
man by  44  members  ;  Mr.  Parnell  continuing
chairman  with  26  followers,  6  Dec.  Manifestoes
of  the  two  parties  issued . . 9,  10  Dec.

Collapse  of  negotiations  (chiefly  at  Boulogne)  of '
Mr.  Parnell,  with  Messrs.  ffm.  O'Brien,  Dillon,
Justin  McCarthy,  Sexton,  and  others ;  Mr.  Par-
nell refuses  to  resign  the  leadership,  n  Feb  ■
■counter  manifestoes  issued . 12  Feb.  ei  sea.  189 1

Dispute  between  Mr.  Parnell  and  Mr.  M'Carthy
respecting  the  disposal  of  the  league  funds  (in

_  Paris) Feb.,  March, ,.-

Mr.  Parnell  in  his  campaign  visits  Roscommon,
22  Feb., Drogheda,  and  other  places  1  March,

The  National  Federation  (which  sie)  established  by "

the  Anti-Parnellites . . . .10  March
9  Parncllites,  72  Anti-Parnellites.  elected  M.  P. '

July,  1892


PAEOCHIAL  CHAEITIES  COMMIS-
SION, see  London,  1878,  and  under  Charities,
1883.

PAEEICIDE-  There  was  no  law  against  it
in  Athens  or  Rome,  such  a  crime  not  being  supposed
possible.  About  172  B.C.,  L.  Ostius  having  killed
his  father,  the  Romans  scourged  the  parricide ;
sewed  him  up  in  a  leathern  sack  made  air-tight,
with  a  live  dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and  an  ape,  and  thus
cast  him  into  the  sea.  Miss  Blandy  was  executed
at  Oxford  for  the  murder  of  her  father,  April,  1752 ;
see  Trials,  March,  1890.

PAESEES  or  GuEBRES,  the  followers  of
Zerdusht,  dwelt  in  Persia  till  638,  when,  at  the
battle  of  Kadseah,  their  army  was  decimated  by
the  Arabs,  and  the  monarchy  annihilated  at  the
battle  of  Nahavend  in  641.  Many  submitted  to
the  conquerors,  but  others  fled  to  India,  and  their  de-
scendants still  reside  at  Bombay  (where  they  are
termed  Parsees).  Sir  Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy,  the  3rd
baronet,  was  elected  president  of  the  community
there,  July,  1877.  Mr.  Dadabhai  Naoroji,  a  Par-
sea  merchant,  was  for  several  years  professor  of
Gujerati  at  University  college,  London.  He  was
nominated  as  M.P.  for  the  Holborn  district,  but  not
elected,  1886  ;  elected  6  July,  1892,  for  Central
Finsbury.  "  History  of  the  Parsis,"  by  Dosabhai
Framji  Karaka,  published,  1884.  See  Bombay.  A
Parsee  fire  temple  at  Bombay  was  consecrated,  Nov.
1891.

"PAETANT  POUS  LA  SYEIE,"  popu-
lar French  song;  words  by  comte  Alexandre  de
Laborde;  music  by  Hortense  Beauharnois,  wife  of
Louis  Bonaparte,  king  of  Holland,  about  1809.  The
music  became  very  popular  after  her  son  became
emperor,  in  1852,  as  Napoleon  III.

PAETHENON  (from Greek parthenos,  virgin),
a  temple  at  Athens  dedicated  to  Minerva,  erected
about  442  B.C.  In  it  Phidias  placed  his  renowned
statue  of  that  goddess,  438  B.C.  The  roof  was  de-
stroyed by  the  Venetians  in  16S7.  "The  Parthenon"
published  by  Mr.  James  Fergusson  in  1883.  See
Elgin  Marbles.

PAETHEXOPEAN  EEPUBLIC  was  esta-
blished by  the  French  at  Naples  (anciently  called
Parthenope),  23  Jan.  1799,  and  overthrown  in  June
same  year.

PAETHIA  (Asia).  The  Parthians  were  origi-
nally a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being  exiled,  as
their  name  implies,  from  their  own  country,  settled
near  Hyrcania.  Arsaces  laid  the  foundation  of  an
empire  which  ultimately  extended  over  a  large  part
of  Asia,  250  B.C.  ;  the  Parthians  were  never  wholly
subdued  by  the  Romans.  The  last  king,  Artabanus
V.,  was  killed,  a.d.  226;  and  his  territories  were
annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia  founded  by
Artaxerxes,  who  had  revolted  against  Parthia.

PAETICULAEISTS.  The  name  given  to
those  Germans  who  desire  the  maintenance  of  the
independence  of  the  German  states,  and  oppose
their  absorption  into  the  empire.  M.  Gasser,  one
of  them,  failed  in  an  attempt  to  form  a  ministry  in
Bavaria,  Sept.  1872.

PAETITION  ACT,  relative  to  the  division  of

property  sold  by  direction  of  the  court  of  chancery,
passed  25  June,  16S8.

PAETITION  TEEATIES.  The  first  treaty
between  England  and  Holland  for  regulating  the
Spanish  succession  (declaring  the  elector  of  Bavaria
next  heir,  and  ceding  provinces  to  France)  was
signed.  19  Aug.  1698;  and  the  second  (between
France,  England,  and  Holland,  declaring  the  arch-


PARTNERSHIP.


727


PATENTS.


duke  Charles  presumptive  heir  of  the  Spanish  mon-
archy, Joseph  Ferdinand  having  died  in  1699),  13
March,  1700.  Treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland  ;
the  first  was  a  secret  convention  between  Russia  and
Prussia,  17  Feb.  1772 ;  the  second  between  the
same  powers  and  Austria,  5  Aug.  same  year ;  the
third  was  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  24
Oct.  1795.

PARTNERSHIP.  The  laws  respecting  it
were  amended  in  1863  and  1890;  see  Limited
Liability.

PARTY,  see  Processions.

PASIGRAPHY  (from  Greek,  pan,  for  all)  :
a  system  which  professes  to  teach  people  to  com-
municate with  each  other  by  means  of  numbers
which  convey  the  same  ideas  in  all  languages.  A
society  for  this  purpose  was  established  at  Munich ;
and  the  president,  Anton  Bachmaier,  published  a
■dictionary  and  grammar  for  German,  French,  and
English,  1868 — :/!  ;  4334  mental  conceptions  may
be  thus  communicated.

PASQUINADES.  Small  satirical  poems  ob-
tained this  name  about  1533-

At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Home,  idle
persons  used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  his  sallies,  to  re-
late anecdotes,  and  rail  at  the  passers-by.  After  the
cobbler's  death,  his  name  was  given  to  a  statue  to  which
lampoons  were  affixed.

PASSAROWITZ  TREATY,  concluded  21
July,  17 18,  between  Germany  and  Venice,  and  the
Turks,  by  which  the  house  of  Austria  ceded  certain
■commercial  rights,  and  obtained  from  Turkey  the
Temeswar,  Belgrade,  and  part  of  Bosnia,  Servia,
and  Wallachia. The  Turks  gained  the  Morea.

PASSAU  (Germany),  TREATY  OF,  whereby
religious  freedom  was  established,  was  ratified  be-
tween the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  protestant
princes  of  Germany,  31  July,  1552.  In  1662  the
cathedral  and  great  part  of  Passau  were  consumed
by  fire.

PASSENGERS— by  public  vehicles,  are  pro-
tected by  1  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22  (1831),  1  &  2  Vict.
«.  79  (1838),  and  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  ^  (1853) ;
another  act  was  passed  in  1889.  Mr.  Cleghorn,
under  whom  the  front  seat  on  the  near  side  of  one
of  the  general  omnibus  company's  carriages  had
given  way,  recovered  400^.  damages  against  the
company,  in  a  verdict  by  consent,  in  the  Queen's
Bench,  10  Dec.  1856.  The  Ships'  Passenger  act,
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  119,  passed  in  1855,  was  amended
in  1863  ;  see  Campbell's  Act,  and  under  Railways.

PASSIONISTS,  a  congregation  of  clerks  of
the  holy  cross,  founded  by  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,
who  died  1775,  and  was  canonized  by  the  pope
1867.  A  home  was  set  up  in  England  in  1841,  and
others  since.  The  monastery,  Highgate,  London,
N.,  solemnly  blessed  by  cardinal  Manning,  and
opened,  16  July,  1876.

PASSION  PLAY,  see  Drama.

PASSION-WEEK,  the  name  given  since  the
Reformation  to  the  week  preceding  Easter,  was
formerly  applied  to  the  fortnight.  Archbishop
Laud  says  the  two  weeks  were  so  called  ' '  for  a
thousand  years  together,"  and  refers  to  an  epistle,
by  Ignatius,  in  the  1st  century,  in  which  the  prac-
tice is  said  to  have  been  "observed  by  all."  The
week  preceding  Easter  is  now  by  some  termed
"Holy  Week,"  the  previous  week  "Passion
Week."
Passion-Music:  Gregory  Nazianzen  (a.d.  330-390)  is  said

to  have  tirst  set  forth  the  history  of  the  Passion  in  a

dramatic  form.


Guidetti,  in  1586,  published  music  for  this  subject,
which  has  been  treated  since  by  many  composers.

J.  8.  Bach's  great  "Passion  Musik,"  first  performed  on
Good  Friday,  1729,  has  been  revived  with  great  suc-
cess in  this  country,  beginning  with  that  "according
to  St.  Matthew,"  6  April,  1854.

PASSOVER,  the  most  solemn  festival  of  the
Jews,  instituted  1491  B.C.  (Exodus  xii.)  in  comme-
moration of  their  coming  out  of  Egypt;  because
the  night  before  then  departure,  the  destroying
angel,  who  put  to  death  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyp-
tians, passed  over  the  houses  of  the  Hebrews  with-
out entering  them;  the  door  posts  being  marked
with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal  Lamb  killed  the
evening  before.  The  passover  was  celebrated  in
the  new  temple,  18  April,  515  B.C. Usher.

PASSPORT  SYSTEM  forbids  subjects  to  quit
one  country  or  enter  another  without  the  consent  of
the  sovereign  thereof.  In  1858  the  system  was
somewhat  changed  in  this  country,  and  the  stamp
duty  on  passports  was  reduced  from  5s.  to  6d.
Passports  were  abolished  in  Norway  in  1859  '1  lVL
Sweden  in  i860;  and  (with  regard  to  British  sub-
jects) in  France,  16  Dec.  i860;  in  Italy,  26  Jane,
1862  ;  in  Portugal,  23  Jan.  1863 ;  and  are  falling
into  disuse  in  other  countries.  The  passport  system
was  established  in  the  United  States  on  19  Aug.
1861.  The  passport  system,  revived  in  France  on
account  of  the  war,  I  Aug.  1870,  was  abolished  by
M.  Thiers,  10  April,  1872,  in  compliance  with  the
wish  of  the  British  government.

PASTEUR  INSTITUTE,  Paris,  see  under
Hydrophobia.

PASTEL,  a  roll  of  paste  made  of  different
colours  ground  with  gum  water,  used  as  a  crayon.
Pastel  painting  his  been  recently  much  practised
on  the  continent.  The  Society  of  British  Pastell  Uts,
president  sir  Coutts  Lindsay,  first  exhibited  at  the
Grosvenor  Gallery,  18  Oct.  1890.  Its  members
included  Mr.  Watts,  Mr.  Orchardson  and  other
eminent  artists.

PASTON  LETTERS,  the  correspondence  of  a
Norfolk  family,  1422-83,  giving  a  picture  of
social  life  in  England,  were  edited  by  sir  John
Fenn,  and  published  in  five  volumes,  quarto,  1787-
1823.  Their  authenticity  was  questioned  Sept.
1865,  but  was  satisfactorily  vindicated  by  a  com-
mittee of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  May,  1866.
Part  of  the  MS.  was  soon  after  purchased  by  the
trustees  of  the  British  Museum.  The  publication
of  a  new  edition,  by  James  Gairdner,  with  addi-
tional letters,  1872—5.  The  MS.  of  the  second
series  with  other  letters  was  found  in  1875,  by  Mr.
Frere,  of  Roydon  Hall,  near  Diss,  Norfolk.  The
MS.  of  the  first  series,  long  lost  from  the  Royal
Library,  found  in  the  library  of  col.  Geo.  Tomline
at  Orwell  Park,  who  died  25  Aug.  1S89  ;  announced
April,  1890.
311  MS.  Paston  letters  put  up  for  sale  by  Messrs.

Christie,  London,  bought  in  at  a  high  reserve,

31  July,  t88S

PAT  AY  (France),  where  Joan  of  Arc,  the  nraid
of  Orleans,  was  present,  when  the  earl  of  Biche-
montc  signally  defeated  the  English,  18  June,  1429.
Talbot  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  valiant  Fast. die.
was  forced  to  flee.  In  consequence,  Charles  VII.
of  France  entered  Rheims  in  triumph,  and  was
crowned  17  July,  following  year,  Joan  of  Arc  as-
sisting in  the  ceremony  in  full  armour,  and  holding
the  sword  of  state,  see  Joan  of  Arc.

PATENTS  (hompalco,  I  lie  open),  licences  and
authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patents  are  said  to
have  been  granted  for  titles  of  nobility  in  1344,  by


PATENT MEDICINES.


723


PATEONAGE.


Edwardlll.  They  were  first  granted'for  the  exclu-
sive privilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591.  The  pro-
perty and  right  of  inventors  in  arts  and  manufac-
tures were  secured  by  letters  patent  by  an  act  passed
in  1623.  The  later  laws  regulating  patents  are  very
numerous ;  among  them  are  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  83
(1835),  and  15  &  16  Vict.  c-83  (1852).  By  the  latter
Commissioners  of  Patents  were  appointed,  viz.,
the  lord  chancellor,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the  attor-
ney-general for  England  and  Ireland,  the  lord
advocate,  and  the  solicitors-general  for  England,
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  In  1853,  a  journal  was  pub-
lished under  their  authority,  and  indexes  of  patents,
from  March,  1617,  to  the  present  time.  Specifica-
tions of  patents  may  be  consulted  by  the  public  at
the  Free  Library  and  Eeading-Eoom,  in  Southamp-
ton buildings,  opened  5  March,  1854.  A  museum
containing  models,  portraits,  &c,  was  established
in  1859  at  South  Kensington,  mainly  by  the  exertions
of  Mr.  Bennet  Vfoodcroft.
The  "  Illustrated  Official  Journal "  combining  six  others

published  Jan.  1889,
An  international  congress  for  the  protection  of  patents

met  at  Vienna,  Aug.  1873  ;  at  Paris,  6  March,  1883.
New  patent  bills  introduced  into  parliament  withdrawn,
1875, 1876, 1879;  Mr.  Anderson's  bill  read,  15  June,
1881.
Patent  Design  and  Trade  Marks  Act,  46  &  47  Viet.  c.  57,
passed 25  Aug. 1883,  began  1 Jan. 1884; amended
24  Dec.  1888. It  greatly  relieved  patentees  by  lessen-
ing fees,  &c.
In  1864,  the  alleged  defalcations  of  Mr.  Edmunds,  a  clerk
in  the  patent  office  and  an  official  of  the  house  of  lords,
led  to  his  retirement. He  obtained  a  pension  of  Sool. ,
which  was  taken  from  him  by  a  vote  of  the  house  of
lords  on  9  May,  1865. Much  litigation  ensued. In  an
action  against  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  prime  minister,  and
others,  for  a  libel,  Mr.  Edmunds  was  non-suited,  21-22
June,  1872  ;  and  he  failed  in  actions  against  several
newspapers  for  printing  a  treasury  minute. His  appeal
to  the  house  of  lords  failed  16  June,  1873.
17,110  applications  for  patents  in  1884  ;  16,101  in  1885  ;
17,162  in  1886 ;  18,051  in  1887;  19,103  in  1888;  21,008
in  1889  ;  22,888  in  1891.
Royal  commission  to  enquire  into  the  law  relating  to
letters  patent  appointed  1862  ;  Mr.  Hindmarch's  re-
port issued  1864. In  pursuance  of  recommendations
for  the  formation  of  a  roll  of  patent  agents,  the  Insti-
tute of  Patent  Agents  was  registered  1882,  chartered
1891. It  has  given  much  attention  to  legislation  re-
■ specting  patents.

PATENT  MEDICINES:  received  for  stamps,
year  1883-4,  159,238/.

PATNA  (N.  India).  Near  here  the  English,
under  major  Carnac,  defeated  the  emperor  Shah
Alum  on  15  Jan.  1761.  The  town  was  acquired  by
the  British  by  their  defeat  of  the  sanguinary  Meer
Cassim,  23  Oct.  1764.

PATEIAECHS  (a  name  given  to  Abraham,
Isaac,  Jacob,  and  his  sons).  The  ecclesiastical
historian  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of
Christian  dioceses,  about  440.  It  was  first  con-
ferred on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Home,  Constanti-
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem'.  The
Latin  church  had  no  patriarchs  till  the  6th  century.
The  first  founders  or  heads  of  religious  orders  are
called  patriarchs.

Nectarius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  as  cx-officio  chief  of
the  Eastern  bishops,  was  nominated  patriarch  of  Con-
stantinople at  the  second  general  council  of  Constanti-
nople, 9  July,  381.  This  led  the  way  to  the  schism
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.

PATEICIANS,  the  highest  citizens  or  aristo-
cracy of  Eomc ;  their  authority  began  with  the  city
itself ;  sec  Home.

PATRICK'S  CATHEDEAL,  ST.  (Dublin),
was  founded  in  1190  by  archbishop  Comyn,  on  the


site  of  an  old  church.  The  cathedral  was  dese-
crated in  1546,  and  used  as  a  law  court ;  restored
1553.  After  renovation  by  the  munificence  of  the
late  sir  Benjamin  Lee  Guinness,  it  was  re-opened  24
Feb.  1865.  Several  persons  killed  by  the  falling  of
a  flying  buttress,  14  Sept.  1882. See  Dublin.

PATRICK,  ST.,  KNIGHTS  OE,  an  order  in-
stituted by  king  George  III.,  5  Feb.,  the  statutes-
were  signed  28  Feb.  1783.  The  number,  originally
fifteen,  was  increased  in  1821,  1831,  and  1833,  and
is  now  twenty-two.  The  prince  of  "Wales  was-
installed  as  knight,  18  April,  1868. — St.  Patrick's
Benevolent  Society,  London,  instituted  1784.  It
sprang  from  ihe  Irish  Chaiitable  Society,  founded
in  1704.

PATRIOTIC  ASSOCIATION,  formed  to
aid  in  upholding  the  honour  and  interest  of  the
British  Empire.  A  meeting  was  held  at  St.  James's
Hall,  London,  27  March,  1880.  "England,"  a
weekly  paper,  was  published  same  day.  The  duke
of  Abercorn,  earl  Stanhope,  and  others,  were  sup-
porters.

PATEIOTIC  BEOTHEEHOOD,  see  Ire-
land, 1883.

PATEIOTIC  EUNDS,  established  to  en-
courage  the  army  and  navy  in  times  of  war.

1.  Founded  by  the  subscribers  to  Lloyd's,  "  to  animate

the  efforts  of  our  defenders  by  sea  and  land "  by
providing  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  themselves  when
wounded,  and  of  their  widows  and  orphans,  and  for
granting  pecuniary  rewards  and  badges  of  distinction
for  valour  and  merit,  20  July,  1803  :  24  Aug.  1809,
424, 832?.  had  been  received,  and  331,611?.  expended.
From  1803  to  1826  the  total  sum  received  was
629,823?.  14s.  id.

2.  A  commission  (headed  by  prince  Albert)  was  appointed)

to  raise  and  distribute  a  fund  bearing  this  name,  for
the  relief  of  the  families  of  those  who  might  fall  in
the  Russo-Turkish  war,  June  ;  a  great  meeting  held,
Nov.  1854.

Large  sums  were  collected  from  this  country  and  the
colonies,  amounting  to  1,171,270?.  in  July,  1855  ;  to
1,296,282?.  on  16  Nov.  1855;  finally  to  1,460,861/.  In
Jan.  1874,  1,303,386?.  expended.

200,000?.  appropriated  to  founding  an  asylum  for  300-
orphan  girls  (the  Royal  Victoria  Patriotic  Asylum)
on  Wandsworth  common,  the  first  stone  of  which
was  laid  by  the  queen,  11  July,  1857.

The  royal  family  and  many  of  the  aristocracy  con-
tributed drawings,  sold  for  high  prices,  in  May,  1855.

3.  A  large  fund  contributed  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers

by  the  Indian  mutiny,  Aug.  1857,  434>729'-  collected

up>  to  Nov.  1858. An  act  for  its  administration  was

passed,  12  Aug.  1867,  amended  1886;  see  I nclia,  1857.

The  total  of  the  funds  administered  was  755,102?.,  31

Dec.  1888 ;  764,211/.,  31  Dec.  1890.
The  alleged  mal-administration  of  the  Patriotic  Fund  was
brought  before  the  house  of  commons  by  baron  de
Worms  9  Aug.  1880,  and  in  Jan.  1881.
Liberal  subscriptions  to  the  fund  from  Australia,
on  account  of  the  Soudan  war  ;  about  45,000?.  at

Sydney 2  March,  1885

Patriotic  volunteer  fund  instituted  by  lord  mayor
Whitehead,  see  Volunteers ....  1889

PATEONAGE  OF  LIVINGS  by  Laymen  in
England  is  very  ancient ;  in  Scotland  was  opposed
by  the  books  of  discipline  1560  and  1578,  abolished
1049,  restored  1660.  The  system  led  to  the  dis-
ruption of  the  established  church,  and  the  foundation
of  the  free  church,  18  May,  1843.  The  abolition  of
lay  patronage  was  earnestly  advocated  by  the
authorities  of  the  established  church  in  March,
1870,  and  the  duke  of  Argyll  volunteered  to  resign
his  patronage  in  May.  Of  1 109  livings  319  belonged
to  the  crown,  and  about  600  to  private  persons.  An
act  (37  &  38  Vict.  c.  82)  for  abolishing  patronage
in  Scotland,  brought  in  by  the  duke  of  Eichniond,
18  May,  passed,  7  Aug.  1874.


PAULIANISTS.


■29


PAVAN.


PAULIANISTS  or  PatjlTNIANS,  followers
of  Paul  bishop  of  Samosata,  afterwards  patriarch  of
Aritioch,  260,  who  are  said  to  have  denied  Christ's
divinity  and  the  trinity;  he  was  excommunicated
269  by  a  council  at  Antioch.

PAULICIANS,  a  sect  of  Christian  reformers,
arose  about  652.  Although  they  were  severely
persecuted,  they  spread  over  Asia  Minor,  in  the  9th
century,  and  finally  settled  at  Montford,  in  Italy,
where  they  were  attacked  by  the  bishop  of  Milan
in  1028.  Severe  decrees  against  them  were  made
in  1 163,  and  they  gradually  dispersed;  very
probably  sowing  the  seeds  of  the  great  reformation
of  the  16th  century.

PAUL  JONES,  a  Scotchman,  born  1742  ;  died
at  Paris,  1792.  He  commanded  an  American
privateer  during  the  American  war,  and  made
daring  depredations  on  British  commerce.  He
pillaged  the  house  of  lord  Selkirk,  near  Kirkcud-
bright, and  at  Whitehaven  burnt  shipping  in  the
harbour,  April  1778.  The  Dutch  permitted  Paul
Jones  to  enter  their  ports  with  two  British  ships  of
war  which  he  had  taken,  and  which  the  stadtholder
peremptorily  refused  to  deliver  up,  1779-

PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London).

For  details  of  its  history,  see  Dugdale's  "History
of  St.  Paul's,"  1658  and  1716 ;  Dean  Milman's
"  Annals  of  St.  Paul's,"  1868  ;  and  Mr.  ffm.  Long-
man's "  History  of  the  Three  Cathedrals,  dedicated
to  St.  Paul,"  1873.

The  first  church,  built  011  the  site  of  a  temple  to
Diana,  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  during
the  Diocletian  persecution  (302),  rebuilt  in  the

reign  of  Constantine 223-337

Demolished  by  the  pagan  Saxons,  and  restored  by
Ethelbert  and  Sebert . . .  about  597-610

Injured  by  fire 962

Destroyed  by  the  great  conflagration,  1086,  after
which  Mauritius,  then  bishop  of  London,  com-
menced a  magnificent  edifice  with  the  highest
spire  in  the  world  about  1087 ;  completed  . .  1240

Nearly  destroyed  by  fire 1444

The  spire  burnt 1561

A  commission  granted  to  Laud,  then,  bishop  of

London,  to  restore  the  cathedral .  2  April,  1631

It  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  .  Kept.  1666
Clearing  of  the  ground  began  .  .  .  May,  1674
I'M  rst  stone  of  the  present  edifice  laid  .  21  June,  1675
The  choir  opened  for  divine  worship  . 2  Dec.  1697

The  whole  edifice  completed  under  sir  Christopher

Wren  (except  some  decorations,  finished  1723)  .  1710
[The  total  cost  (including  200  tons'  weight  of  iron

railing)  was  1,511,202/..]
Lord  Nelson  buried . . .  .9  Jan.  1806

Ball  and  cross  restored  by  Mr.  Cockerell  . .  1822

Duke  of  Wellington  buried . . .  18  Nov.  1852
Money  having  been  subscribed  to  adapt  St.  Paul's
for  the  purpose,  evening  services  began,  under
the  dome,  when  above  4000  persons  were  present,

Sunday,  28  Nov. 1858
A  national  guinea  subscription  for  completing  the

interior  ornamentation,  began . .  Feb. 1864

87th  meeting  of  the  charity  school  children  3  June,  1869
Great  meeting  held  at  the  Mansion-house  to  complete
the  interior  of  the  cathedral  according  to  Wren's
design,  13  July ;  34,708?.  collected  by . 4  Nov. 1870
Dr.  Church,  the  new  dean,  gave  1000?. . Nov.  1871
National Thanksgiving  for  the recovery  of  the

prince  of  Wales,  see  Thanksgiving . 27  Feb.  1872
"  Thanksgiving  fund  "  established ....,,
The  ipteen  gave  1000J.,  the  prince  500?.  . Feb. ,,

After  an  interval,  annual  meeting  of  the  children

resumed— [not  held  1878] . .  ' . 9  Oct.  1873
The  iron  railings  (set  up  in  1710)  sold,  and  soon
after  removed  (the  dean  and  chapter  bought  the
enclosed  space  from  the  corporation)  8  Jan. ;  for-
mally opened 26  Jan.  1874

Discussion  respecting  the  ornamentation  :  Mr.
Burges'  plans  censured,  June ;  the  engagement
with  him  rescinded  . Nov. ,,


Meeting  to  endeavour  to  obtain  a  peal  of  bells,  the
lord  mayor,  the  dean,  &c.,  present,  2  Nov.  1875  ;
arrangements  being  made . . . Sept.  1876

Grand  concluding  service  of  Lambeth  episcopal
synod  ;  about  100  bishops  present  .  27  July,  187S

Peal  of  12  beUs  (by  Taylor,  of  Loughborough)  given
by  the  corporation  and  some  of  the  companies,
dedicated  ...... 1  Nov. ,,

The  corporation  authorised  to  deal  with  the  church-
yard as  an  open  space,  187S;  opened  as  a  garden
by  the  lord  mayor .... 22  Sept.  i?79:

Great  Paul  (see  under  Bells)  dedicated . 3  June,  1882:

Professor  Palmer,  capt.  Gill,  and  lieut.  Charrington
buried  in  the  crypt .... 6  April,  1883,

The  mutilated  statue  of  queen  Anne  at  the  west
front  by  Francis  Bird,  1712 ;  replaced  by  a  new
one  by  R.  Belt  and  others  ;  uncovered  by  the
lord  mayor 15  Dec.  1S86

Citizen's  .jubilee  service ... 23  June,  1887

Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  buried . . 21  Jan.  189c*

Memorial  of  Mr.  William  Bede  Dalley,  Australian
statesman  (the  first  colonial  memorial)  unveiled
by  the  earl  of  Rosebery  . . . .  17  July, ,r

"  Reconciliation  service,"  on  account  of  the  dese-
cration of  the  cathedral  by  the>  suicide  of  Edward
Easton  on  28  Sept 13  Oct. ,,

Sir  F.  Edgar  Boehm,  sculptor,  buried  , 20  Dec. ,,
See  Reredos,  1891.

DIMENSIONS.

Length  of  St.  Paul's  from  the  grand  portico  to  east  feet.

end 51a-

Breadth,  north  to  south  portico  . . . . 282;

Exterior  diameter  of  the  dome  .... 145.

Height  from  ground  to  top  of  cross . . . . 404.
[Stated  by  surveyor  to  be  365  feet  from  the  pavement.]
Campaniles,  or  bell  towers,  at  each  corner,  height  . 20S

Breadth  of  western  entrance 189

Circumference  of  dome 420'

Entire  circumference  of  the  building . ...  2292
Diameter  of  ball <5

PAUL'S  CROSS,  ST.  (London),  which  stood
at  the  north  side  of  the  cathedral,  was  a  pulpit
formed  of  wood,  mounted  upon  steps  of  stone,  and
covered  with  lead,  from  which  the  most  eminent
divines  were  appointed  to  preach  every  Sunday  in
the  forenoon.  To  this  place  the  court,  the  mayor,,
the  aldermen,  and  principal  citizens  used  to  resort..
It  was  in  use  as  early  as  1259,  and  was  appropriated
not  only  to  preaching,  but  to  political  and  ecclesias-
tical discourses,  &c.  The  cross  was  demolished  in
1643,  by  order  of  the  parliament.

PAUL'S  SCHOOL,  ST.,  was  endowed  i»
1512  by  John  Colet,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for  153  boys-
"  of  every  nation,  country,  and  class,"  in  memory
of  the  number  of  fishes  taken  by  Peter.  {John  xxi.
II).  The  first  schoolhouse  was  burnt  in  1666;  the
second,  by  Wren,  was  taken  down  in  1824,  and
another  building  erected  by  George  Smith.  William
Lilly  was  the  first  master,  and  his  grammar  is  still
used  by  the  school.  Timbs,  The  claim  of  the  Mercers'
company  to  be  owners  instead  of  trustees  of  Colet' s
estate  was  set  aside  by  the  vice  chancellor,  11
Feb.  1870.  The  school  ordered  to  be  removed  to-
West  Kensington  ;  site  bought,  June,  1878.  New
building  designed  by  Mr.  Waterhousc  opened  by
lord  Selborne,  23  April,  18S4.  The  number  of  scho-
lars has  been  increased.

St.  Paul's  Industrial  School,  Mile  End,  ordered  to
be  closed  by  the  home  secretary  in  consequence  of
serious  charges  against  the  managers  ;  brought
forward  by  Mrs.  Surr,  member  of  the  metropolitan
School  Board,  Nov. ;  she  is  warmly  commended
in  the  home  secretary's  letter,  15  Nov.  ;  who  re-
mitted the  case  to  the  public  prosecutor  .  Nov.  1SS1
Mr.  T.  Scrutton,  manager,  sued  Miss  Helen  Taylor,
and  obtained  1000?.  for  damages;  the  charges  were

withdrawn 30  J  une,  1S82

PAUPEES,  see  Poor.

PA  VAN,  Pavane,  or  Paviu,  was  a  slow  dance
of  the  1 6th  and  17th  centuries,  sometimes  accom-
panied by  singing.


PAVEMENT.


730 PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS.


PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to
have  been  the  first  who  paved  their  towns  with
stones.  The  Komans,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  had
pavement  in  many  of  their  streets ;  the  Appian
way,  a  paved  road,  was  constructed  312  B.C.  In
England  there  were  few  paved  streets  before  Henry
VII.' s  reign.  London  was  first  paved  about  1533.
It  was  paved  with  flagstones  between  1815  and
1825.  "Wood  and  asphalte  paving  were  tried  in
1839,  and  have  been  disused  since  1847  ;  see  Wood
Pavement.  Asphalte  has  been  much  used  since
1869.  Wood  reported  to  be  the  best  for  London,
May,  1876.
•Grano-metallic  stone  laid  down  in  a  plastic  state  in

part  of  the  Strand,  London,  and  in  other  places, 1885

PA  VIA  (N.  Italy),  the  ancient  Ticinum  or
Fapia.  Its  university,  founded  by  Charlemagne,
is  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  Europe.  Pavia  was  built
by  the  Gauls,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Komans,
and  these  in  their  turn  were  expelled  by  the  Goths  :
in  568  it  was  taken 4jy  the  Lombards,  and  became
the  capital  of  their  kingdom.  In  the  12th  century
it  was  erected  into  a  republic,  but  soon  after  was
-subjected  to  Milan  and  followed  its  fortunes.  On
.24  Feb.  1525,  a  battle  was  fought  near  here  between
the  French  and  the  Imperialists,  when  the  former
were  defeated,  and  their  king,  Francis  I.,  after
fighting  with  heroic  valour,  and  killing  seven  men
with  his  own  hand,  was  at  last  obliged  to  surren-
der himself  a  prisoner.  It  was  long  asserted  that
Francis  wrote  to  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  regent
of  the  kingdom  during  his  absence,  saying,  Tout
.est  perdu,  madame,  fors  Vhonneur  (All  is  lost,
madam,  except  honour).  The  words  are  now  said
to  have  been,  L'honneur  et  la  vie  qui  est  saidve.

PAWNBEOKINGr.  The  Roman  emperors
lent  money  upon  land.  The  origin  of  borrowing
.money  by  means  of  pledges  deposited  with  lenders
is  referred  to  Perugia,  in  Italy,  about  1462.  The
institutions  were  termed  monti  dipietd  (ivhich  see).
Soon  afterwards,  it  is  said  that  the  bishop  of
■Winchester  established  a  system  of  lending  on
pledges,  but  without  interest.  The  business  of
pawnbrokers  was  regulated  in  1756,  and  licences
issued  in  1783.  The  rate  of  interest  on  pledges  was
hxed  in  1800.  In  London  there  were,  in  1851,  334
pawnbrokers ;  and  in  England,  exclusively  of
London,  1127  ;  the  number  is  increasing  more  than
in  proportion  to  the  population.  In  i860  an  act
was  passed  enabling  pawnbrokers  to  charge  a  half-
penny for  every  ticket  describing  things  pledged
for  a  sum  under  5.S.  The  acts  relating  to  pawn-
brokers were  amended  in  1856,  1859,  i860.  Pawn-
brokers in  Great  Britain:  1851,  1873;  in  1861,
.2578;  in  1871,  3540.  The  law  was  consolidated  in
the  pawnbrokers'  act  passed  10  Aug.  1872.

PAX,  a  small  tablet,  generally  silver,  termed,
tabula  pacts  or  osculatorium,  kissed  by  the  Poman
Catholic  priests  and  laity;  substituted  for  the
primeval  kiss  of  peace  in  the  early  church.  The
Pax  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  about  the  12th
•century.

PAYMASTEE  GENEEAL.  In  1836  the
army  and  navy  pay  departments  were  consolidated
into  the  paymaster-general' s-office,  sometimes  held
.by  a  cabinet  minister.

PEABODY  FUND.  Mr.  George  Peabody,
an  American  merchant  (born  18  Feb.  1795,  died  4
•  Nov.  1869),  who  had  made  his  fortune  in  London,
gave  on  12  March,  1862,  150,000/.,  on  21  Jan.
1866,  100,000/.,  on  5  Dec.  1868,  100,000/.,  and  by
his  will  directed  his  trustees  to  pay  150,000/. — hi  all


500,000/. — to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  London
poor.

An  autograph  letter,  promising  her  portrait  in
miniature,  was  sent  him  hy  the  queen,  28  March,  1866

[Inscription  on  the  miniature  sent: — "V.  R.  pre-
sented by  the  Queen  to  G.  Peabody,  Esq.,  the
benefactor  of  the  poor  of  London."]

The  first  block  of  buildings  for  working  classes,  termed
"  Peabody  dwellings,"  in  Commercial  street,  Spital-
fields,  was  opened  29  Feb.  1864  ;  and  others  since,  in
Spitalfields,  Islington,  Shadwell,  Westminster,  Chel-
sea, Bermondsey,  &c. ;  they  have  been  found  to  be
self-supporting,  1878.  In  1879,  net  gain,  24,786?.  ;  1885,
23,691?.  ;  1887,  24,902?.  ;  1888,  29,611?.

Mr.  Peabody's  statue,  at  the  east  end  of  the
Eoyal  Exchange,  was  inaugurated  by  the  prince
of  Wales 23  July,  1869

Funeral  service  at  Westminster  abbey . 12  Nov. ,,

Funeral  at  Portland,  U.  S.,  prince  Arthur  present

8  Feb.  1870

He  also  gave  large  sums,  for  educational  purposes,  in.
the  United  States.

39,763?.  expended  on  land  and  buildings  in  1885,  making
the  total  expenditure  1,210,550?.

Net  gains,  rent  and  interest  in  1890,  28,656/.

PEACE. A  temple  was  dedicated  to  peace  by

Vespasian,  75 ;  see  Fire-tvorks,  Treaties,  Justices,

&c. — "Peace  of  Beligion" (between catholics

and  protestants)  was  signed  at  Augsburg,  15  Sept.

1555-

A  Peace  Society,  founded  1816,  for  the  promotion
of  universal  peace  ;  holds  annual  meetings  ;  pro-
posed amalgamation  with  the  International  Arbi-
tration and  Peace  Association  (founded  by  Mr.
Lewis  Appletonin  18S0),  Dec.  1884.  The  associa-
tion divided  in  May,  1886,  when  the  British  arbi-
tration association  was  founded  by  Mr.  Appleton.
A  congress  of  the  friends  of  peace,  from  all  parts  of
the  world,  commenced  its  sittings  at  Paris,  22  Aug.
i84'9-  It  met  in  London  at  Exeter  hall,  30  Oct.
following  ;  and  at  Frankfort,  in  St.  Paul's  church,
22  Aug.  1850  ;  at  Birmingham,  28  Nov.  1850 ;  and
at  Exeter  hall,  22  July,  1851.  A  meeting  was  held
at  Manchester,  27  Jan.  1853  ;  and  at  Edinburgh,

12  Oct.  1853

Mr.  Bright  and  Mr.  Cobden  were  among  the  most
conspicuous  members  of  the  society.  A  deputa-
tion from  the  Peace  Society,  consisting  of  Messrs.
J.  Sturge,  A.  Pease,  and  another  Quaker  friend,
stated  their  views  to  the  emperor  of  Russia  at  St.
Petersburg,  at  an  interview  granted  them  in  Feb.  1854

At  the  stormy  international  arbitration  and  peace
congress  at  Geneva,  Garibaldi  was  present,

9-12  Sept.  1867

A  peace  congress  met  at  Berne . . 24  Sept. 1868

A  t  the  peace  congress  held  at  Lausanne,  the  violence
of  the  Communists  at  Paris  in  May,  was  warmly
reprobated 25  Sept. 1S71

Congress  held  at  Lugano,  23  Sept.  1872  ;  at  the
Hague,  25  Sept.  1873  ;  at  Paris,  6  Sept.  1875  ;  at
Geneva,  Oct.  1877 ;  at  Paris,  25  Sept.  1878;  at
Brussels,  17  Oct.  1S82  ;  at  Berne . 4-9  Aug.  1884

Meeting  at  Crystal  Palace  near  London,  22  July,
1885  ;  another  meeting  16  July,  1886  ;  at  Geneva,
9  Sept.  1887  ;  at  Paris,  23  June,  1889  ;  in  Lon-
don, i4July,i89o  ;  Romen  Nov.  1891 ;  Berne,  Aug.  1892

The  principle  of  arbitration  in  place  of  war  was
adopted  by  the  Pan-American  Congress  at  Wash-
inton  ;  a  treaty  was  signed  for  several  of  the

states 28  April,  1890

Inter-Parliamentary  Conferences,  on  International
Arbitration  (members  of  diiferent  legislatures)  :
first  meeting  at  Paris,  M.  Jules  Simon  president
June,  1889  ;  London,  lord  Herschell  president,
22  July,  i8;o;  Borne  3-7  Nov.  1S91  ;  at  Berne,
Aug.  29,  30,  31,  1892.
The  International  Arbitration  Society  meets  at
Frankfort,  17  Sept.  1890  ;  at  Westminster,  1
July,  1891 ;  again 30  May,  1892

PEACE  PEESEEVATION  ACTS  (Ire-
land) :  one  passed  4  April,  1870,  was  continued  in
1876  to  31  June,  1880. A  new  act  to  last  till  1  June,

1886,  passed  21  March,  1881,  continued  till  31  Dec.

1887,  4  June,  1886. See  Arms  Fills.


PEACHES.


731


PEEL  ADMINISTRATIONS.


PEACHES  are  said  to  have  been  introduced
into  this  country  from  Persia  about  1562.

PEARLS,  mentioned  Job  xxviii.  18.  M.
Beaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  tbat  pearls  are  formed
like  other  stones  in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was
valued  by  Pliny  at  80,000/.  sterling.  One  which
was  brought  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.,  of  the  size  of  a
pigeon's  egg,  was  valued  at  14,400  ducats.  A  pearl
named  the  Incomparable,  spoken  of  by  Be  Boote,
weighed  thirty  carats,  equal  to  five  pennyweights,
and  was  about  the  size  of  a  muscadine  pear.  The
pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier,  as  beiug  in  possession
of  the  emperor  of  Persia,  was  purchased  of  an  Arab
in  1633,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal  to  110,400/.
Value  of  pearls  imported  into  Great  Britain,  1856,
56,162/.  Artificial  mother  of  pearl  is  said  to  Lave
been  made  at  Berne  by  Mr.  K.  Gehmia.

PEASANTS'  WAR,  see  Jacquerie.

PEAT,  see  Bogs.  A  peat  coal  and  charcoal
company,  established  iu  1873,  when  coal  was
4I6'.  a  ton.

"PECULIAR PEOPLE," a small sect
founded  iu  London  by  Wm,  Bridges  and  Jas.  Ban-
yard  ini838;  chief  se  it  Essex.  Two  members,  Thomas
and  Maryanne  Wagstaffe,  were  tried  and  acquitted  of
manslaughter,  29  Jan.  1868. They  had  neglected
g  itting  medical  assistance  for  their  sick  child,  and
depended  on  the  efficac3r  of  their  elders'  prayers  and
anointing  it  with  oil  {James  v.  14). Many  eases  of
healing  by  these  means  are  asserted.  On  8  May,  1872,
a  father  was  convicted  for  neglecting  to  get  medical
advice  for  his  child  who  died  of  small  pox  ;  and  the
sect  agreed  to  modify  their  practice.  Establishments
fur  healing  diseases  by  prayer  exist  in  Germany.
At  another  trial,  Thomas  Hines  was  acquitted,  in  accord-
ance with  the  opinion  of  the  comt ;  Baron  Pigott  held
that  the  case  did  not  amount  to  criminal  neglect  be-
cause the  prisoner  had  not  called  in  a  doctor  to  his
sick  child,  19  Aug.  1874  ;  similar  eases  since  ;  1875-6.
John  Robert  Downes  (for  neglect  respecting  scarlet  fever)
sentenced  to  3  months'  imprisonment 21  Sep>t.  1876.

PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas,  a  citizen  of
Platasa,  went  from  thence  to  Delphi  to  bring  the
sacred  lire. This  he  obtained,  and  returned  with  it
the  same  day  before  sunset,  having  travelled  125
English  miles. No  sooner  had  he  saluted  his  fellow-
citizens,  and  delivered  the  fire,  than  he  fell  dead  at
their  feet. After  the  battle  of  Marathon,  a  soldier
was  sent  from  the  field  to  announce  the  victory  at
Athens. Exhausted  with  fatigue, and bleeding
from  his  wounds,  he  cried  out, "  Bejoice,  we  are
conquerors!"  and  immediately  expired.
Foster  Powel,  the  English  pedestrian,  performed  many
astonishing  journeys  on  foot. His  expedition  from
London  to  York  and  back  again,  in  1788,  is  said  to
have  been  completed  in  140  hours.
Captain  Barclay,  for  a  wager  (on  which  many  thousands
of  pounds  depended),  walked  1000  miles  in  1000  suc-
cessive hours,  each  mile  in  each  hour,  in  forty-two
days  and  nights  (less  8  hours). His  task  was  accom-
plished on  10  July,  1809.
Thomas  Standen,  aged 60, of Salehurst,  walked  noo
miles in  1100  hours  (1 mile in 1 hour), finished,
July,  1811.
Richard  Manks,  a  native  of  Warwickshire,  undertook  (in
imitation  of  captain  Barclay)  to  walk 1000  miles  in
1000  hours  :  the  place  chosen  was  the  Barrack-tavern
cricket  ground,  in  Sheffield  ;  he  commenced  on  Monday,
17  June,  1850,  and  completed  the  1000  miles,  29  July
fullowing,  winning  a  considerable  sum.
On  7  Oct. 1861,  a  12  miles  foot-race  was  held,  when
Levett,  the  champion  of  England,  ran  7  miles  in  37
minutes  27  seconds  ;  Deerfoot,  a  Seneca  Indian,  ran  12
miles  in  65  minutes  5  seconds  ;  and  Mills  ran  10  miles
in  54  minutes  10  seconds  ;  other  races  followed.
On  11  May,  1863,  Deerfoot  was  beaten  by  White,  who
ran  10  miles  in  52  minutes  14  seconds.


Miss  Richards  walked  1000  miles  in  1000  hours

18  May-29  June,  1874

Edward  Payson  Weston  (American),  at  Newark,
U.S.,  walked  500  miles  in  5  days  23  hours  34  rain.

21-26  Dec. ,,

Wm.  Perkins,  at  Lillie  Bridge,  London,  S.W.,
walked  8  miles  in  less  than  one  hour . 20  Sept. 1S7.5

Match  between  AVeston  and  Perkins  at  Agricul-
tural Hall,  London,  N.,  began  9.25  p.m.  8  Feb.
1876  ;  Perkins  walked  50  miles  in  9  h.  37  m.  41  s.,
rested  26  m.,  went  on  for  65  m.,  and  stopped;
Weston  walked  50  miles  in  9  h.  55  m.  52  s. ,  went
on  for  16  h.,  stopped  for  1  h.,  went  on  to  24  h.
(walked  109  miles  758  yards), . . 8-9  Feb.  1S76

Weston  began  to  walk  500  miles  in  6  days  at  Agri-
cultural Hall,'  12.5  a.m.  6  March,  had  walked  450
miles  11  March;  he  walked  m  miles  in  24  con-
secutive hours  at  Manchester . . April, ,,

Bella  St.  Clair  walked  1000  miles  in  950  hours

25  July,  et  seq. „

Weston  engaged  to  walk  505  miles  in  6  days  at
Agricultural  hall,  London,  walked  460 18-23  Dee. ,,

Match  between  Weston  and  O'Leary,  for  1000  gui-
neas ;  won  by  O'Leary,  who  walked  520  miles,
AVeston  510  miles . . . .2-7  April,  187/

Wm.  Gale,  aged  45,  walked  1500  miles  in  1000  con-
secutive hours,  at  Lillie  bridge,  London,  S.W.
26  Aug. -6  Oct.  ;  4000  J-miles  in  4000  consecutive
10  minutes,  at  Agricultural  hall,  Loudon ;  com-
pleted 17  Nov. ,,

Match  of  17  pedestrians  at  Agricultural  hall;
O'Leary  won,  walked  520  miles  18-23  March,  1878

Grand  match  (of  18  competitors)  for  championship
and  500L ,  Agricultural  hall ;  6  days  and  6  nights  ;
won  by  W.  Corkey,  who  walked  521  miles

28  0ct.-2  Nov. ,,

E.  P.  Weston  starts  to  walk  over  England  2000  miles
in  1000  consecutive  hours  (except  on  Sundays),  18
Jan.  ;  fails  by  22J  hours  . . . .28  Feb.  1879

Weston  walked  sscfmiles  at  the  Agricultural  hall,
and  won  sir  John  Astley's  belt . 16-21  June, ,,

Blower  Brown  walked  553  miles  in  6  days  (won  long
distance  championship  of  England,  Astley's  belt,
&c.) 16-21  Feb.  1SS0

Belt,  &e.  won  by  Rowell . . . 1-6  Nov. ,,

Wm.  Gale  attempts  to  walk  2500  miles  in  1000  horns  ;
walks  24055  miles. . 20  Nov.  1880,  to  1  Jan.  1881

Weston  walks  5000  miles  yo.  100  days  (on  teetotal
principles) . . .21  Nov.  1883-15  March,  1S84

Littlewood  wins  sir  John  Astley's  belt  at  Westmin-
ster Aquarium  ;  405  miles  in  six  days . Nov. .,

George  Littlewood  walks  623  miles,  1,320  yards  in
six  days  at  New  York  ;  declared  champion  of  the
world";  concluded  1  Dec.  iSSS

PEDLARS,  see  Hawkers .  The  Pedlars'  act
passed,  Aug.  1871.

PEDOMETER  AND  ODOMETER,  appa-
ratus for  measuring  the  distance  traversed  by  a
walker  or  carriage.

Odometers,  or  road-measurers,  are  said  to  have
been  known  in  the  15th  century  ;  and  improve-
ments in  them  were  made  in  England  by  Butter-
field,  about  1678; and  by  Meynier, in  France

about  1724
Wm.  Grayson's  odometer,  or  road-measurer,  to  be

attached  to  carriages,  was  patented  .  1  Dec.  1S51
Ralph  Gouts'  iicdomcUr  for  indicating  the steps

taken  by  a  walker,  was  patented .  4  Nov. 1799

Wm.  Payne's  pedometer  for  the  waistcoat  pocket,
patented  15  Feb. 1S31

PEEL  ACTS.  Among  the  most  important
were  the  Bank  Acts  of  1S19  and  1844;  the  acts
amending  the  criminal  laws,  1827 ;  dividing
parishes  into  districts,  1843,  and  the  act  repealing
the  corn  laws  in  1846.

PEEL  ADMINISTRATIONS.*  The  first

♦  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  born  5  Feb.  178S  ;  entered  par-
liament in  1809  ;  became  under-secretary  of  the  colonies
in  1811,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  in  1812  ;  M.P.  for
Oxford  in  1818  (when  he  resigned  his  office);  secretary
for  home  department  in  1822  ;  resigned  office  and  re-
appointed in  1827  ; resigned  again  in  1830 ; became


PEELITES.


732


PELEW  ISLANDS.


succeeded  the  Melbourne  administration,  which,
was  broken  up  on  the  retirement  of  lord  Altliorp,
the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  in  Nov.  1834.
Sir  E.  Peel,  then  in  Italy,  was  summoned  home,
the  duke  of  Wellington  holding  the  seals  of  office  in
the  interim.  They  both  resigned  in  April,  1835.
In  May,  1841,  sir  E.  Peel  carried  a  vote  of  want  of
confidence  in  the  Melbourne  cabinet,  but  did  not
take  office ;  and  in  Sept.  of  that  year,  he  became
again  premier.  He  lost  the. support  of  the  conserva-
tive party  by  obtaining  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws,
and  resigned  29  June,  1846.

First  administration  (Dec.  1834).
Sir  Robert  Peel,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor

of  the  exchequer.
Lord  Lyndlmrst,  lord  chancellor.
Earl  of  Rosslyn,  lore!,  president.
Lord  Wharncliffe,  privy  seed.
Henry Goulburn, duke of  "Wellington, and earl of

Aberdeen,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of  state.
Earl  De  Grey,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.
Lord  Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, board  of

control  and  trade.
Sir  Edward  Knatchbull,  paymaster  of  the  forces.
J.  C.  Hemes,  seer -etary-o] -war.
Sir  George  Murray,  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  &c.

SECOND ADMINISTRATION  (Sept. 1841).

Sir  Robert  Peel,  first  minister.

Duke  of  "Wellington  in  the  cabinet  without  office,  aft.
commander-in-chief.

Lord  Lyndlmrst,  lord  chancellor.

Lord  Wharncliffe,  lord  president.

Duke  of  Buckingham,  lord  privy-seal  (succeeded  by  duke
of  Buccleueh).

Sir  James  Graham,  earl  of  Aberdeen,  and  lord  Stanley,
home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries.

Henry  Goulburn,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Earl  of  Haddington,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.

Earl  of  Ripon,  board'  of  trade  (succeeded  by  W.  E.  Glad-
stone).

Lord  Ellenborough,  India  board  (succeeded  by  lord  Fitz-
gerald ;  succeeded  by  earl  of  Ripon).

Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  sir  Edward  Knatchbull,  sir  George
Murray,  &c.

[Terminated  29  June,  1846,  by  sir  Robert's  resigna-
tion.]

PEELITES,  a  name  given  to  gentlemen,  whigs
and  tories,  who  adhered  to  sir  Eobert  Peel,  after
his  defeat  by  the  conservative  party,  on  account  of
his  free-trade  measures  carried  in  1846.  The
principal  were  Henry  Goulburn,  ^Y.  E.  Gladstone,
Sidney  (afterwards  lord)  Herbert,  sir  James  Gra-
ham, Edward  Cardwell,  sir  George  Cleric,  lord  Lin-
coln (afterwards  duke  of  Newcastle),  and  lords
Canning  and  Elgin,  and  others.  Several  of  them
became  members  of  the  Palmerston  and  Aberdeen
administrations  (which  see).

PEEL  PICTURES.  The  family  collection
(70)  were  purchased  for  the  National  Gallery  for
75,000/.  1871.

PEEP-O' -DAY-BOYS,  insurgentsin Ireland,

who  visited  the  houses  of  their  antagonists  at
break  of  day,  in  search  of  arms.  They  first  appeared
4  July,  1784,  and  were  long  the  terror  of  the
country ;  see  Defenders.

PEEEESSES  of  the  United  Kingdom  (in
their  own  right)  :  7  in  1885,  Countess  of  Cromartie
(duchess  of  Sutherland),  baronesses  Berkeley,  Ber-
ners,  Burdett-Coutts,  Le  Despencer,  Willoughby
D'Eresby,  Bolsover.  In  1892,  6:  viscountess  Ham-
premier  in  1834  and  1841  (see  above).  He  was  thrown
from  his  horse  29  June,  and  died  2  July,  1850.  He  greatly
relaxed  the  severity  of  our  criminal  code  in  1827,  et  scq.  ;
established  the  new  police,  and  carried  the  catholic
emancipation  bill  in  1829,  and  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws
in  1846.  Statues  have  been  erected  to  him~at  Salford,
iu  1852  ;  at  Tamworth,  Leeds,  Bury,  and  Manchester,  in
1853  ;  and  in  London  and  Birmingham  in  1855.


bleden  and  baronesses  Berkeley,  Berners,  Bolsover,
Burdett-Coutts  and  Macdonahf  of  Earnsclift'e.

PEEES,  see  lords.

PEGTJ,  a  province  of  Ihe  Burmese  empire,  dis-
covered by  the  Portuguese  in  1520.  Pegu,  the
capital,  was  taken  by  major  Cotton,  with  300  men,
in  June,  1852,  without  loss  ;  and  afterwards
abandoned.  It  was  again  occupied  by  the  Burmese
and  strongly  fortified,  with  a  garrison  of  4000  men.
It  was  recaptured  by  general  Godwin  with  1200
men  and  two  guns,  in  two  hours,  with  the  loss  of
six  killed  and  thirtj'-two  wounded.  The  province
was  annexed  to  our  Indian  possessions,  by  procla-
mation, 20  Dec.  1852,  and  has  since  prospered.  In
Feb.  1862,  it  was  united  with  Arracan  and  Tenas-
serim  as  British  Burmah.

PEIHO,  see  China,  1859,  i860.

PEISHWA,  the  prime  minister  of  the  Mah-
rattas,  seized  the  sovereign  power  and  settled  at
Poonah,  1749. The  title  was  abolished  in  1818.

PEIWAE  PASS  (Kotul),  in  the  Khoorum
valley,  Afghanistan.  Here  general  Koberts,  with
the  72nd  highlanders  and  the  Ghoorkas,  defeated  the
Afghans,  2  Dec.  1878.  Major  Anderson  and  capt.
Kelso  were  killed,  and  about  80  men  were  killed  and
wounded. The  enemy's  loss  was  very  great.

PEKIN,  the  capital  of  China,  was  built  by
Kachilai-Khan,  grandson  of  Genghis- [Chan,  about
1267.  Here  was  held  the  court  of  the  Mongol  or
Yuen  dynasty,  1280  to  1368.  In  1369,  Hung-wu,
of  the  Ming  dynasty,  removed  to  Nankin,  which,
was  the  capital  till  Yung-lo  removed  his  court  to
Pekin  in  1410  ;  and  by  him  and  his  successors  the
city  was  enlarged,  fortified,  and  beautified.  It  was
visited  by  lord  Macartney,  Sept.  1793;  surrendered
to  the  allied  English  and  French  armies,  12  Oct.
i860;  and  evacuated  by  them  5  Nov.,  after  peace
had  been  signed  24  Oct.  It  was  described  as  being  in
a  very  desolate  state,  and  the  inhabitants  scattered
and  indigent.  English  and  French  representatives
were  settled  at  Pekin,  March,  1861.  Preliminary
Peace  with  France  concluded  here,  5  April,  1885.
The  famous  temple  or  Altar  of  Heaven  burnt  18
Sept.  1889. Population,  estimated  1874,  1)648,814.

PELAGIANS,  followers  of  Pelagius,  a  Briton,
appeared  at  Home  about  400. Their  doctrines  were
condemned  by  councils  at  Jerusalem,  Carthage,  and
other  places,  415,530. They  maintained  :  —
1.  That  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  he  had
sinned  or  not  would  certainly  have  died. 2.  That  the
consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his  own
person. 3.  That  new-born  infants are  in  the  same
condition  with  Adam  before  the  fall. 4.  That  the  law
qualified  men  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven, and  was
founded  upon  equal  promises  with  the  Gospel. 5.
That  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead  does  not  fol-
low in  virtue  of  Christ's  resurrection.

PELASGI,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Asia
Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy,  appear  to  have  belonged
to  the  Indo-Germanie  race.  They  were  in  Greece
about  1900  B.C.,  and  in  Italy  about  1600  B.C.  They
have  been  termed  Tyrrheni,  Sicanior  Siculi,  Apuli,
&c.  From  the  Pelasgi  came  the  Dorians,  jEolians,
and  Ionians ;  all  three  being  Hellenes  or  Greeks.
The  Pelasgi  appear  not  to  have  had  the  art  of
writing,  but  have  left  numerous  architectural  re-
mains ;  they  were  probably  a  wealthy,  powerful
and  intelligent  people.

PELEW  ISLANDS  (N.  Pacific  Ocean),  dis-
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  the  17th  century.  The
East  India  Company's  packet  Antelope,  captain
Wilson,  was  wrecked  here  in  1783.  The  king,
Abba  Thullc,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince


PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION.


733


PENNSYLVANIA.


Le  Boo,  his  sou,  to  England,  where  he  arrived
in  1784,  and  died  of  the  small-pox  soon  after.  The
East  India  Company  erected  a  monument  over  his
grave  in  Rotherhithe  churchyard.

PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION. Mr.  H.

Pelham  replaced  the  eaiiof  Wilmington  as  premier,
25  Aug.  1743 ;  see  Wilmington.  Iu  Nov.  1744,
the  following  ministry  was  formed  (termed  "  the
broad  bottom  administration,"  because  it  compre-
hended a  grand  coalition  of  the  parties).  It  was
dissolved  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Pelham,  6  March,
1754-
Henry  Pelham,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of

the  exchequer.
Lord  Hardwieke,  lord  chancellor.
Duke  of  Dorset,  president  of  the  council.
Earl  Gower,  lord  privy  seal.
Duke  of  Newcastle  aud  the  earl  of  Harrington,  secretaries

of  state.
Duke  of  Montagu,  master-general  of  the  ordnance.
Duke  of  Bedford,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.
Duke  of  Grafton,  lord  chamberlain.
Duke  of  Richmond,  master  of  the  horse.
Duke  of  Argyll,  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  Scotland.
Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland.

All  of  the  cabinet.
The  duke  of  Devonshire  and  duke  of  Bolton  were  not  of
the  cabinet.

PELLS  (from  pellis,  skin),  receipts  on  parch-
ment rolls  deposited  in  the  court  of  exchequer.
By  an  act  passed  in  1834,  the  office  of  clerk  of  the
pells  was  abolished,  and  a  comptroller-general
appointed.  "Pell  Records,"  or  "Issues  of  the
Exchequer,"  or  payments  made  out  of  his  revenue
by  James  I.,  were  published  by  the  government  in
1836.

PELOPIUM,  see  Niobium.

PELOPONNESUS  (the  island  of  Pelops),  a
peninsula,  S.  Greece,  termed  Morea  in  the  13th
century,  said  to  have  been  settled  by  Pelops  about
1283  b.c.  Pelopoxnesian  War  continued  for
twenty-seven  years  between  the  Athenians  and  the
people  of  the  Peloponnesus,  with  their  respective
allies,  and  is  the  most  famous  of  the  wars  of  Greece.
It  began  by  an  attempt  of  the  Boeotians  to  surprise
Plattea,  431  B.C.,  on  7  May,  and  ended  404  by  the
taking  of  Athens  by  the  Lacedaemonians.

PELTJSIUM  (now  Tineli),  formerly  Sin,  the
key  of  Egypt.  Here,  in  525  B.C.,  Psammeticus  III.
was  defeated  by  Cambyses,  the  Persian,  Avho  thereby
■obtained  possession  of  the  kingdom.  Pelusium
surrendered  to  Alexander,  333  ;  was  taken  by  the
Persians,  309;  by  Antiochus,  173;  by  Augustus,
30  B.C.  ;  and  after  a  protracted  resistance  by  Am-
rou,  the  Saracen,  a.d.  638.

PEMBROKE  (S.  Wales).  A  county  palatine
till  1536.  The  royal  dockyai'd  at  Milford  was
moved  to  Pembrokein  1814.  Pembroke  College
and  Hall,  see  under  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Popu-
lation, i88r,  14,156;  1891,  14,978.

PENAL  LAWS,  see  Criminal  Laws  and
Roman  Catholics.  Penal  servitude  was  substituted
for  transportation  by  acts  passed  in  1853  and  1857,
and  amended  in  1864.  A  penal  servitude  commis-
sion appointed,  22  Jan.  1878.
First  session  of  the  International  Penal  Law  Union

opened  at  Brussels 7  Aug. 18S9

The  Penal  Servitude  acts,  1853  et  seq.  combined  by

act  passed 5  Aug.  1891

PENANCE,  a  sacrament  in  the  Roman  church,
arose  out  of  the  practice  of  auricular  confession
{which  sec).  The  council  of  Trent,  in  its  14th  ses-
sion (1551),  decreed  that  every  one  is  accursed  who
shall  affirm  that  this  sacrament  was  not  instituted
by  Christ.


PENANG,  or  Pbin-ce  op  Wales's  Island,

was  given  up  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1786,
by  captain  F.  Light,  who  received  it  as  a  marriage
portion  with  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Keddah.
After  several  changes  it  became  one  of  the  Straits
Settlements  {which  see).

PENDULUMS.  The  isochronous  property
of  the  pendulum  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to
clocks  by  Galileo  about  1639,  and  by  Richard  Harris
about  1641.  Christian  Iiuyghens  claimed  this  dis-
covery, 1658.  See  Clocks.  George  Graham  in-
vented the  compensating  pendulum,  1715.  Experi-
ments were  made  to  determine  the  density  of  the
earth  by  pendulums  by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  G.  B.  Airy
(aftds.  astronomer  royal),  and  others,  in  a  mine
in  Cornwall,  in  1826  and  1828 ;  and  at  Horton
Colliery  1854.  In  1851,  M.  Foucault  demonstrated
the  rotation  of  the  earth  by  the  motion  of  a
pendulum.

PENGE  MYSTERY,  Surrey,  see  Trials,
Sept.  1877.

PENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain,
1808-14.
Wellington  computed  that  he  lost  36,000  men  in

this  war — killed, prisoners,  deserters, &c. He

took  great  care  of  his  men  (1836).

PENITENTIARIES.  The  London  Female
Penitentiary,  Pentonville-road,  was  established  in
1807  ;  and  the  British  Penitent  Female  Refuge  at
Cambridge  Heath,  Hackney,  in  1829.  The  Church
Penitentiary  Association,  founded  185 1.  See  Jlill-
bank .

PENITENTS,  see  Magdalcns.  The  Penitents
of  the  name  of  Jesus  in  Spain,  were  a  congregation
of  persons  who  had  led  a  licentious  life,  formed
about  1550.  The  penitents  of  Orvieto  were  formed
into  au  order  of  nuns  about  1662.

PENNSYLVANIA  (N.  America),  the  first
state  in  the  Union  in  regard  to  mineral  wealth.
The  settlement  by  the  Swedes  here  in  1643,
was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1655,  and  acquired
\>y  the  British  in  166L  Pennsylvania  was
granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  duke  of  York,
1664;  and  it  was  sold  to  the  Penn  family,
1681.  [Pennsylvania  was  afterwards  purchased
from  the  Indians  by  the  celebrated  William
Penn  (son  of  admiral  Penn),  who' went  out  from
England  with  a  number  of  colonists ;  from  which,
period  the  settlement  gradually  increased.  Mr.
Penn  granted  a  charter  in  May,  1701,  but  the  emi-
grants from  the  Low  Countries  refused  it,  and
separated  themselves  from  the  pr-ovince  of  Pennsyl-
vania. They  afterwards  had  their  own  assembly,
in  which  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  presided.
This  state  adopted  an  independent  constitution  in
1787,  and  established  the  present  iu  1790.  Capital,
Earrisburg ;  principal  city,  Philadelphia.  It  was
strongly  unionist  during  the  civil  war,  1861-5  ;  see
United  States  of  America,  anclPetroleum.  For  strikes
see  United  States,  1877,  1882.  Population  in  i860,
2,906,370;  in  1880,  4,282,891 ;  1890,5,258,014.
Great  destruction  of  property  and  life  by  a  tornado,

especially  at  Pittsburg  and  Reading,  9  Jan.  i83g.
Several  days'  violent  storms  and  heavy  rain  in  the
Alleghanies,  swelled  the  rivers  awl  caused  the  over-
flow of  the  lakes,  May,  1889.  At  5  p.m.  31  May,  the
South  Fork  reservoir,  a  lake  about  4  miles  square  burst
the  huge  dam,  and  a  mass  of  water  rushed  down  the
South  Fork,  four  miles,  by  the  deep  circuitous  Cone-
maugh  valley  to  its  junction  with  the  Conemaugfa
river,  driving  all  before  it.  For  a  distance  of  about
12  miles  round  Johnstown  the  flood  swept  out  towns
and  villages,  destroying  all  the  bridges,  railways, and,
factories.  South  Fork,  Johnstown,  Cambria  city,
Morrelville,  Sheridan,  and  other  flourishing  towns
were  completely  blotted  out.  A  great  mass  of  floating
wreckage, which  was stopped by  a stone railway


PENNY.


734


PEOPLE.


bridge  at  Johnstown,  took  fire,  above  five  hundred  per-
sons, who  were  hurled  on  the  burning  mass,  perished.
The  most  energetic  measures  were  taken  by  the  govern-
ment, by  several  states  and  by  the  railway  companies
for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers,  and  for  averting  imminent
famine  and pestilence. Bobbers  of the dead and
" living  were  lynched  by  a  vigilance  committee. Troops
were  sent  to  maintain  order,  liberal  subscriptions  were
begun  in  London,  Paris,  and  other  places,  June.
It  is  stated  that  the  dam  had  previously  given  visible
signs  of  its  being  in  a  very  insecure  condition,  and
had  not been  properly  constructed. Several  towns
and  villages  submerged,  June  ;  many  bridges  swept
away  ;  above  150  deaths  reported,
latest  statistics  state  the  result  of  the  Johnstown

disaster  to  be  about  6,000  deaths . .  26  July,  1889
Johnstown  again  inundated  through  heavy  rains .

about  16  Feb.  1891
Panic  in  a  theatre  at  Johnstown,  10  persons  killed,
many  injured . . ... . .10  Dec.  1889

Destructive  storms  with  loss  of  life  at  Pittsburg

and  neighbourhood 8  Feb.  1890

At  Hartford  coal-pit,  Ashley,  "Wyoming  valley,  28
men  were  entombed  and  26  perished  by  a  cave-in

and  explosion 15  May, „

A  cyclone  in  the  Wyoming  valley  and  neighbour-
hood, about  54  killed . . .  about  19  Aug. „
By  an  explosion  in  the  Friek  mine,  ten  miles  from
Mount  Pleasant,  151  out  of  160  men  perished

27  Jan.  1 891
Biotous  strikes  in  the  Pennsylvania  coke  district
much destruction of property,  '  reported 30
March  ;  desperate  fight ;  9  men  killed,  2  April ;
1,000  soldiers  maintaining  order,  3  April ;  rioting
renewed  with  desperate  fights about  22  April, ,,
A  train  containing  75  men  thrown  off  the  line  while
rushing  through  a  burning  forest  near  Conders-
port, Potter county ; 5 men killed, many

injured about  12  May, ,,

After  heavy  rains,  when  the  rivers  had  become  torrents,
early  on  5  June,  a  cloud  burst  over  the  Pittsburg  Oil
regions,  causing  great  inundations.  At  Titusville  the
tanks  of  oil  and  distilled  benzine  were  upset  and  were
ignited  by  lightning  and  the  city  was  fired.  A  flaming
stream,  with  floating  wreckage  carried  all  before  it,  de-
stroying the  bridges.  Explosions  followed,  causing  a
panic,  and  the  people  fled  to  the  hills,  women  and
children  being  trampled  on  during  the  rush.  The  fiery
river  reachedOil  city  18  miles  distant,  and  a  large  part
of  it  was  reduced  to  ashes  or  submerged,  1892.
It  was  reported  that  150  persons  were  either  drowned  or

burnt  at  Titusville,  and  about  200  missing.
The  loss  of  property  at  the  two  cities  was  estimated  at
3,000,000  dollars  ;  large  sums  were  immediately sub-
scribed for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers,  6  June  et  seq.
1892.

PENNY.  The  ancient  silver  penny  was  the
first  silver  coin  struck  in  England,  and  the  only  one
current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  penny  until
the  reign  of  Edward  I.  was  struck  with  a  cross,  so
deeply  indented  that  it  might  be  easily  parted  into
two  for  halfpence,  and  into  four  for  farthings,  and
hence  these  names.  Copper  penny  and  two-penny
pieces  were  coined  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho,
Birmingham,  in  1797,  and  were  accounted  the
finest  of  our  copper  currency ;  see  Coins,  &c. —
Penny-Post  ;  see  Post-Office.  —  The  Penny
Magazine  began  in  1832;  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia
in  1833  (supplements  in  1846  and  1858).  The
Penny  Receipt  stamp  was  appointed  in  1853  (post-
age stamps  authorised  to  be  used  for  receipts  after  I
June,  1881),  and  in  1858  a  penny  stamp  was  directed
to  be  placed  on  bankers'  cheques.— Penny  Banks
(in  1861  about  200)  were  established  about  1850.
They  have  become  numerous,  and  in  1878  were
authorised  toinvesttheir  funds. — PennyEeadings,
for  the  working  classes,  became  general  in  1859.
Carpenter's  "Penny  Readings,"  published  in  1865-7.
The  value  of  the  Roman  penny  (mentioned  Matt.  xx.  2),

or  denarius,  was  estimated  at  jhd.  of  our  money.
Penny  dinners  for  poor  Board  school  children;  organi-
zation proposed  at  Society  of  Arts,  6  Dec.  1884  ;  see
Destitute  Children. A  similar  self-supporting  system
existed  in  the  provinces.


PENRUDEOCK'S  REBELLION  on  be-
half of  Charles  II.  was  suppressed,  and  colonel  John
Penruddock  himself  executed,  16  May,  1655.

PENSIONS. The  crown's  power  of  granting

them,  often  much  abused,  was  materially  checked

by  statute  1  Anne,  c.  1  (1702).

English  pension  list  fixed  at  95,000?. . . .  1781

Irish  pension  list  said  to  amount  to  489^000?. . . . 1793

Provision  made  by  parliament  to  reduce  all  the  pen-
sion lists  of  the  united  kingdom  from  145,000?.  to
a  maximum  of  75,000? 1S30

A  committee  appointed  to  define  the  proper  persons
to  whom  pensions  should  be  granted  :  it  reported
in  favour  of  servants  of  the  crown  and  public,  and
also  of  those  who  "  by  their  useful  discoveries'  in
science  and  attainments  in  literature  and  the  arts,
have  merited  the  gracious  consideration  of  their
sovereign  and  the  gratitude  of  their  country  " . 1S34

The  queen  empowered  to  grant  annually  new  pen-
sions to  the  amount  of  1200?.  .... 1837

The  political  offices  pension  act  passed .  9  Aug. 1S69

The  pensions  commutation  acts  passed . 29  June,

1871  and  1SS2

Death  of  Rev.  Thos.  Thurlow,  nephew  of  the  lord
chancellor,  whereby  pensions  for  abolished
offices,  said  to  amount  to  11,779?.  ceased  26  Sept.  1874.

Report  of  committee  on  such  pensions  published

Sept.  1887

Perpetual  pensions  were  granted  to  the  dukes  of
Grafton,  Richmond,  Marlborough,  and  many
others  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.

By  virtue  of  an  act  passed  in  1873,  various  perpetual
pensions  have  been  terminated  by  agreement  for
compensation 1890

The  Old  Age  Pension  scheme  of  Mr.  Joseph  Cham-
berlain, M.P.,  proposed  the  establishment  of  a
state  pension  fund  to  be  aided  by  annual  parlia-
mentary grants  and  contributions  from  local
rates  and  from  the  annuitants,  was  considered  by
a  committee  of  the  commons,  16  March  ;  adopted .

17  May,  1892

PENTAGEAPH,  see  Pantograph.

PENTAMETER  YERSE  (five  feet),  first
used  about  the  7th  century,  B.C. ;  see  Elegy.

PENTATEUCH,  the  five  hooks  of  Moses,  pro-
bably written  about  1452  B.C. See  Bible.

PENTECOST  signifies  the  fiftieth,  and  is  the
solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  called  also  "  the  feast  of
weeks,"  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty  days,  or  seven
weeks  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover.  1491  B.C.  {Lev .
xxiii.  15 ;  JSxod.  xxxiv.  22) ;  see  Whitsuntide.

PENTLAND  HILLS  (near  Edinburgh).
Here  the  Scotch  presbyterians,  since  called  Came-
ron ians  {which  see),  who  had  risen  against  the  go-
vernment on  account  of  the  establishment  of  episco-
pacy, were  defeated  by  the  royal  troops,  28  Nov.  1666.

PENZANCE,  Cornwall.  The  town  was  burnt
by  the  Spaniards,  July,  1595.  It  was  taken  by
Fairfax  in  1646.  Here  sir  Humphry  Davy  was
born,  17  Dec.  1778,  and  here  was  inaugurated  his
memorial  statue,  17  Oct.  1872.  Population,  1881,
12,409;  1891,  12,448.

PEOPLE. The  duke  of  Norfolk  and  C.  J.  Pox,
at  a  dinner  in  1798,  gave  a  toast  "the  majesty  of
the  people,"  for  which  their  names  were  struck  off
the  list  of  privy  councillors. A  "  people's  petition  "
was  presented  to  parliament  by  Mr.  T.  Duncombe,
and  rejected,  2  May,  1842. "People's  Parks,"
principally through  private  liberality,  have  been
opened  since  1846,  at  Manchester, Halifax, Bir-
mingham, Sheffield,  Dundee,  Bradford,  Hull,  Bath,
Bolton,  Liverpool,  Leeds,  &c.  (which  see).
People's banks, based  on  co-operative principles
have  been  successfully  introduced  into  Germany
and  Italy  by  Dr.  Sehulze-Delitzsch ;  they  begin  with
a  deposit  of  z^d.  and  a  monthly  subscription  of
Sd. In  1387  there  were  2,200  of  these  banks  in


PEOPLE'S PALACE.


735 PERKINS'  METALLIC  TE ACTORS.


Germany  and  in  that  year,  less  than  half  of
them  dealt  with  more  than  50,000,000^  sterling.
Their  introduction  into  Great  Britain  is  warmly
advocated.

People's  Cafe  Company  established  1874,  to  give
the  working  classes  the  advantages  of  club-houses,
opened  their  first  house  in  Upper  Whitecross-
street,  London 16  April,  187s

A  "  People's  Tribute"  to  the  earl  of  Beaconsfield,  a
gold  wreath,  made  by  Hunt  &  Roskell,  by  sub-
scription of  52,800  pennies ;  collected  by  the
agency  of  Mr.  Tracy  Turnerelli.  Its  presentation
was  declined  by  the  earl  .  .  .16  June,  1879
See  Entertainment.

PEOPLE'S  PALACE,  see  Beaumont  Trust.
PEPPER  was  used  by  the  Greeks  ;  licences  to
sell  pepper  abolished,  1869.  Pepper  imported  into
the  United  Kingdom  in  1863,  16,810,467  lbs.  ;  in
1883,  31.37S.589  Its.  ;  in  1887,  29,795,236  lbs. ;  in
1890,  29,691,858  lbs.

PEPSIN,  a  peculiar  organic  substance  found  by
Schwamrn  in  the  gastric  juice,  and  named  by  him
from  pepsis,  digestion.  It  was  experimented  on  by
M.  Blondlot  in  1843,  and  has  since  been  prescribed
as  a  medicine.

PEPYS'  DIARY- Samuel  Pepys  was  born
23  Feb. 1632 ; became  secretary  to  the  admiralty
about  1664;  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  1684;
died  26  May, 1703. His  "Diary,"  as  published,
begins"  1  Jan.  1659-60;  ends  31  May,  1669.
The  MSS. at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  was
deciphered  by  the  Rev.  John  Smith. The  first
edition  (with  a  selection  from  his  correspondence)
by  Richard,  lord  Braybrooke,  appeared  in  1825.
The  publication  of  a  new  edition,  "deciphered
with  additional  notes  by  the  Rev.  Mynors  Bright,"  1 S75-9

PERA,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople,  the  residence
of  the  British  and  other  ambassadors ;  has  frequently
been  destroyed  by  fire;  see  Turkey,  2  Aug.  1831,
and  5  June,  1870.

PERAK,  see  Straits  Settlement.

PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION". It

commenced  on  the  dissolution  of  the  duke  of  Port-
land's, through  his  death,  30  Oct.  1809. Mr.  Per-
ceval was  assassinated  in  the  lobby  of  the  house  of
commons,  by  Bellingham,  n  May,  1812. The  earl
of  Liverpool  succeeded  as  premier.
Spencer Perceval  [born  1762 ; chancellor  of  exchequer,
1807],  first  lord  of  the  treasu  ry,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,
and  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.
Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.
Earl  Camden,  lord  president.
Earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  privy  seal.
Richard  Ryder,  marquis  of  "Wellesley,  and  earl  of  Liver-
pool, home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries.
Lord  Mulgrave,  admiralty.
Mr. Dumas, and  earl  Bathurst,  boards  of  control  and

trade.
Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance.
Viscount  Palmerston,  secretary -at-war,  &c.

PERCUSSION  CAPS,  see  Fire-arms.

'  PERCY FAMILY. William  de  Percy  ob-
tained lands  in  Yorkshire  from  William  the  Con-
queror, and  died  at  Antioch  about  1096.
The  heiress  of  the  last  baron  Percy  married  Josceline
de  Louvaine,  son  of  Godfrey,  duke  of  Brabant,  in

the  reign  of  Henry  II 1154-S9

Henry  de  Percy,  their  descendant,  created  earl  of

Northumberland  in 1377

Many  of  his  descendants  were  slain  during  the  wars

of  the  Roses.
Lady  Elizabeth  Percy,  the  heiress  of  Josceline
Percy,  who  died  1670,  married  Charles,  duke  of
Somerset.
Lady  Elizabeth  Percy,  heiress  of  their  son  Algernon
Seymour,  duke  of  Northumberland,  married  sir
Hugh  Smithson,  created  duke  of  Northumber-
land in 1766


Their  descendant,  duke  Algernon,  died  without
issue,  12  Feb.  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  his
cousin,  George  Percy,  earl  of  Beverley,  who  dii  d
22  Aug.  1867  ;  succeeded  by  George  Algernon,  the
present  duke.

The  Percy  Society,  for  the  publication  of  ancient
ballads,  &c,  named  after  Dr.  Percy,  bishop  of
Dromore  (died  1811),  who  published  ballads,  was
established  in  1840,  published  94  little  volumes,
and  was  dissolved 1852-

Pcrey  Anecdotes,  classified,  compiled  by  J.  C.  Rol
and  Thomas  Byerley,  under  the  names  of  Sholto  and
Reuben  Percy,  1820-3.

PERED (Hungary)-. Here  the Hungarians;

under  Gorgey  were  defeated  by  Wohlgemuth  and
the  Russians,  21  June,  1S49.

PEREKOP,  an  isthmus,  five  miles  broad,
connecting  the  Crimea  with  the  mainland.  It  was
called  by  the  Tartars  Orkapou,  "  gate  of  the  Isth-
mus," which  the  Russians  changed  to  its  present
name,  which  signifies  a  barren  ditch.  The  lines
across  the  isthmus  were  forced  by  the  Russian  mar-
shal Munich,  May,  1736,  and  the  fortress  was  taken.
by  Lacy,  July,  1738.  It  was  again  strongly  fortified
by  the  khan,  but  was  again  taken  by  the  Russians
in  1771,  who  have  since  retained  it.

PERE-LA-CHAISE,  see  Cemeteries.

PERFECTION,  see  Illuminati.
.  PERFUMERY.  In  Exodus  xxx.  (1490  B.C.),
directions  are  given  for  making  the  holy  incense,
Philip  Augustus  of  France  granted  a  charter  to  the
master  perfumers  in  1190.  Perfumes  became  fash-
ionable in  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In
i860  there  were  about  forty  manufacturing  per-
fumers in  London  ;  in  Paris  about  eighty.  ]STo
such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in
1763.  Creech.  A  stamp-tax  was  laid  on  various-
articles  of  perfumery  in  England,  and  the  vendor
was  obliged  to  take  out  a  licence  in  1786.  At  the-
corner  of  Beaufort-buildings,  in  the  Strand,  resided
Lilly,  the  perfumer,  mentioned  in  the  Spectator.

PERG-AMOS,  see  Seven  Churches,  3.

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE,  see  News-
papers, Magazines,  and  Reviews.  "An  Index  to-
Periodical  Literature  to  1  Jan.  1887."  By  W.  F.
Poole. Published  in  two  volumes,i882-8.

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY,  see  Ly-
ceum.

PERIPLUS.  The  voyage  of  Hanno,  the  Car-
thaginian navigator,  probably  in  the  third  century
B.C.  His  account  of  his  travels,  written  in  the-
Punic  language,  was  translated  into  Greek;  an
English  translation,  edited  by  Falconer,  in  London T
1797.

PERJURY.  The  early  Romans  threw  the-
offender  headlong  from  the  Tarpeian  precipice  ;  and
the  Greeks  set  a  mark  of  infamy  upon  him.  After
the  empire  became  Christian,  any  one  who  swore-
falsely  upon  the  Gospels,  was  to  have  his  tongue  cut
out.  The  canons  of  the  primitive  church  enjoined
eleven  years'  penance ;  and  in  some  states  the  false
swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment  he  charged
upon  the  innocent.  In  England  perjury  was  pun-
ished with  the  pillory,  line,  and  imprisonment,
1562.  By  the  Abolition  of  Oaths  bill,  persona
making  a  false  declaration  are  deemed  guilty  of  a
misdemeanor ;  Act  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  cc.  60  and  61,  r>
Sept.  1835.  Perhaps  the  greatest  perjurer  in  mo-
dern times  was  Titus  Oatcs  ;  see  Oates.  A  woman
named  Alice  Grey  was  convicted  of  many  perjuries
in  1856. See  Trials,  1873.

PERKINS'  METALLIC  TRACTORS,  see

Animal  Magnetism.


PEEMANENT COMMITTEES.


m


PEESIA.


PEEMANENT  COMMITTEES. One  was

appointed,  15  Sept.  1871,  by  the  French  national
assembly  to  watch  over  the  proceedings  of  the  go-
vernment during  a  recess.  It  consisted  of  25  per-
sons of  various  parties.  A  similar  committee  of  the
Spanish  cortes,  appointed  22  March,  1873,  was  per-
emptorily dissolved  by  the  government  22  April
following.

PEEMISSIVE  PEOHIBITOEY  BILL

((which  would  give  power  to  two-thirds  of  the  rate-
payers of  a  parish  to  refuse  licences  for  the  sale  of
intoxicating  liquors) ,  advocated  by  the  United  King-
dom Alliance  party,  was  rejected  by  the  house  of
•commons,  8  June,  1864;  12  May,  1869  (193-87)  ;  17
May,  1871  (206-124)  '1  §  Mav>  l°72  (369-15) ;  7  May,
1873  (321-81);  17  June,  1874  (301-75);  16  June,
1875  (371-86)  ;  14  June,  1876  (299-81);  withdrawn,
25  July,  1877  ;  (278-84)  26  June,  1878.  It  is
strongly  advocated  by  sir  "Wilfrid  Lawson,  late
M.P.;  resolution  rejected  (252-164)  II  March,  1879.

Resolution  to  give  local  option  (that  is,  power  to  the
inhabitants  of  any  place  to  stop  licensing  public-
houses)  was  rejected  by  the  commons  (248-134)  5
March,  1880;  but  adopted  (229-203)  18-19  June,  1880;
(196-154)  14  June,  1881  ;  (228-141)  27  April,  1883;  re-
jected 29  April,  1891.

'"Local  Option,"  an  Americanism,  is  said  not  to  work
satisfactorily  in  the  United  States.

PEENAMBUCO,  a  province  of  Brazil,  with  a
city  of  the  same  name,  comprising  Recife  and
other  towns,  founded  in  1530 ;  seized  by  the
British,  and  retained  for  a  month,  1594;  insurrec-
tions here,  1661, 1710,  1817,  1821,  and  1829.  Popu-
lation, 1890,  190,000.

PEEONNE  (N.  France) .  Louis  XL  of  France,
liaving  placed  himself  in  the  power  of  the  duke  of
Burgundy,  here  was  forced  to  sign  a  treaty,  con-
firming those  of  Arras  and  Conflans,  and  recognising
the  duke's  independence  ;  14  Oct.  1468.  The  not-
ables declared  the  treaty  invalid  and  the  duke  a
traitor,  Nov.  1470.

PEEPENDICULAB,  see  Gothic  Archi-
tecture.

PEEPETUAL  EDICTS,  see  Edicts.

PEEPETUAL  MOTION.  For  this  purpose
machines  have  been  constructed  by  the  marquis  of
Worcester  and  many  others,  although  the  impossi-
bility of  attaining  it  was  demonstrated  by  sir  Isaac
.Newton  and  De  la  Hire,  and  affirmed  by  the  academy
of  sciences  at  Paris,  1775.  It  is  still  the  object  of
•experiment  by  half-taught  persons. See  Pensions.

PEEEANZABULOE,  Perran  in  the  sands
•{in  sabulo),  Mid-Cornwall,  named  from  Perran,  the
patron  of  tinners.  The  remains  of  an  ancient
British  oratory  or  church,  resembling  the  arrange-
ment of  protestant  churches,  were  discovered  in  the
■Band  in  1835,  with  other  interesting  relics.

PEESECUTIONS-  Historians  usually  reckon
ten  general  persecutions  of  the  Christians ;  see  Jews,
Heretics,  Inquisition,  Huguenots,  Protestants,  Mas-
sacres, Bartholomew,  St.,  &c.

I.  Under  Nero,  who,  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw
the  odium  upon  the  Christians  ;  multitudes  were
massacred  ;  wrapt  up  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,
and  torn  and  devoured  by  dogs  ;  crucified,  burnt
alive,  &c. 64-68

II.  Under  Domitian 95

III.  Under  Trajan 106

IV.  Under  Marcus  Aurelius 166-177

V.  Under  Septimus  Severus .... 199-204

VI.  Under  Maximus 235-8

VII.  Under  Decius,  more  bloody  than  any  preceding  250-2

VIII.  Under  Valerian 258-60

IX.  Under  Aurelian 275


X.  Under  Diocletian,  who  prohibited  divine  wor-
ship ;  houses  filled  with  Christians  were  set  on
fire,  and  many  of  them  were  bound  together  with
ropes  and  cast  into  the  sea .... 303-13

PEESEPOLIS,  the  ancient  splendid  capital  of
Persia.  Alexander  is  accused  of  settingfire  to  it,  while
intoxicated,  331  B.C. Ruins  of  this  city  still  exist.

PEESIA  or  IRAN,  in  the  Bible  called  Elain,*
W.  Asia.  The  early  history  is  mythical;  see
Media  and  Magi.  Population  of  the  present  king-
dom, about  6,500,000.

Cyrus  revolts  against  the  Medes,  and  becomes  king
of  Persia,  559  ;  overthrows  the  Medo-Babylonian
monarchy,  about  557  ;  conquers  Asia-Minor  about
548  ;  becomes  master  of  the  east,  536 ;  killed  in
a  war  with  the  Massagetse 529

Cambyses,  his  son,  king,  529 ;  conquers  Egypt
{which  see) 525

The  false  Smerdis  killed ;  Darius  Hystaspes  king,
521  ;  conquers  Babylon 517

Conquest  of  Ionia ;  Miletus  destroyed  . . . . 498

Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  600  sail,  with  an  army  of
300,000  soldiers  to  invade  the  Peloponnesus,
which  is  defeated  at  Marathon  (which  see) . . 490

Xerxes  (king,  485) ;  recovers  Egypt,  484 ;  enters
Greece  in  the  spring  at  the  head  of  an  immense
force  ;  battle  of  Thermopylae 480

Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost  200,000  of
his  troops,  and  is  defeated  in  a  naval  engagement
off  Salamis ,,

Persians  defeated  at  Myeale  and  Platsea . 22  Sept. 479

Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  with  a  fleet  of  250  vessels,
takes  several  cities  from  the  Persians,  and  de-
stroys their  navy,  consisting  of  about  340  sail,
near  Cyprus 470

His  victories  at  the  Eurymedon .... 469

Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Artabanus . . 465

Artaxerxes  I.  Longimanus,  king,  465;  marries  Esther, 458

Xerxes  I.  king,  slain  by  Sogdianus,  425  ;  who  is  de-
posed by  Darius  II. ,  Nothus 424

Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon,  king,  405  :  battle  of  Cunaxa,
Cyrus  the  younger  killed 401

Retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks  (see  Retreat) .  ,,

War  with  Greece,  399  ;  invasion  of  Persia . . . 396

Peace  of  Antalcidas  (which  see) .... 387

Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus)  kills  all  his  relations  at  his
accession . . . . . .  . . 359

He  is  killed  by  his  minister  Bagoas,  and  his  son,
Arses,  made  king 338

Bagoas  kills  him  and  sets  up  Darius  III. ,  Oodoma-
nus,  by  whom  he  himself  is  killed . . . . 336

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia  ;  defeats  the  Per-
sians at  the  river  Granicus,  334  ;  near  Issus,  333  ;
at  Arbela 331

Darius  III.  treacherously  killed  by  Bessus  . . . ,,

Alexander  dies  at  Babylon,  323  ;  when  his  empire  was
divided,  Persia  with  Syria  was  allotted  to  Se-
leucus  Nicator,  whose  successors,  the  Seleucida;,
ruled  Persia,  till  it  was  conquered  by  the  Par-
thians,  led  by  Arsaces  I.,  the  founder  of  the
dynasty  of  the  Arsacida?  about  250  ;  his  successors
ruled  till  the  Persian  revolt  ....  a.d.  226.

Artaxerxes  I. founds  the Sassanides  dynasty;  re-  a.d.
stores  kingdom  of  Persia 226

Religion  of  Zoroaster  restored  and  Christianity  per-
secuted 227

Artaxerxes  murdered  ;  succeeded  by  Sapor  I.  ;  Ar-
menia becomes  independent  under  Chosroes . 240

Sapor  conquers  Mesopotamia,  258  ;  repels  the  Ro-
mans and  slays  the  emperor  Valerian . . . 260

Sapor  assassinated  ;  succeeded  by  Hormisdas  I.  ;
who  favours  the  Manichees 272

Varanes  I.  (Baharam)  persecutes  them  and  the
Christians 273

Varanes  II.  defeated  by  the  emperor  Probus  ;  makes
peace 277

Persia  invaded  by  the  emperor  Cams,  who  conquers
Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon 283

Varanes  III.  king,  293  ;  Narses  .... 294

The  emperor  Galerius  conquers  Mesopotamia,  &e.  . 298

Peace  with  Diocletian „

*  Elamite  antiquities  presented  to  the  British  Museum
by  col.  Ross,  1S76.  ,


PERSIA.


737


PERSPECTIVE.


Hormisdas  II.  king 301  or  303

Ormuz  built about 303

Sapor  II.  king,  309  ;  proscribes  Christianity,  326  :
makes  war  successfully  with  Koine  for  the  lost

provinces 337-360

The  emperor  Julian  invades  Persia  ;  slain  near  the
Tigris,  26  June  ;  his  successor  Jovian  purchases
his  retreat  by  surrendering  provinces . . . 363
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366  ;

makes  peace  with  Rome 372

Artaxerxes  II.  king,  380  ;  Sapor  III. . . . 385
Armenia  and  Iberia  independent . . . . 386
Varanes  IV.,  390;  Yezdejird  I.,  404;  conquers  Ar-
menia 412

Varanes  V. ,  420,  persecutes  Christians  ;  conquers
Arabia  Felix,  421  ;  makes  peace  with  the  Eastern

Empire  for  100  years 422

Armenia  again  united  to  Persia .... 428

Wars  with  Huns,  Turks,  &c 430-2

Yezdejird  II.  king,  440  ;  Hormisdas  III.,  457  ;  civil
war,  458-86  ;  Feroze  king,  458  ;  Pallas,  484  ;  Kobad,
486  ;  Jamaspes,  497  ;  Kobad  again . . . 497
His  son,  Chosroes  I.  king  ;  long  wars  with  Justinian

and  his  successors,  with  various  fortune  . . 531-79
Successful  campaigns  of  Belisarius  . . .  541-2

Hormisdas  IV.  continues  the  war ;  degrades  his
general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but  is

eventually  defeated 590

Chosroes  II.  591 ;  renews  the  war  with  success,  603  ;

Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  subdued . . . 614-6
Chosroes  totally  defeated  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,

who  advances  on  Persia 627

Chosroes  put  to  death  by  his  son,  Sirocs,  628  ;  Ar-
taxerxes III.  king,  629  ;  Purandokt,  daughter  of
Chosroes,  reigns,  630  ;  Shenendeh,  her  lover,  631  ;
Arzcmdokt,  her  sister,  631  ;  Kesra,  631  ;  Ferokh-

dad,  632  ;  Yezdejird  III 632

Persia  invaded  by  the  Arabs  ;  the  king  flees,  641  :
is  betrayed  to  them  and  is  put  to  death,  and  his
army  exterminated  ...  . . 642

Persia  becomes  the  seat  of  the  Shiite  or  Fatimite

Mahometans 661

The  Taherite dynasty  established, 813 ; the  Sof-

feride,  872  ;  the  Samanide 902

Persia  subdued  by  Togrul  Beg  and  the  Seljukian
Turks,  1038  ;  who  are  expelled,  1194  ;  subdued  by
Genghis  Khan  and  the  Mongols . . . .  1223

Bagdad  made  the  capital 1345

The  poet  Hatiz  died  about 13S8

Persia  invaded  by  Timour,  1380  ;  ravaged  by  him .  1399

The  poet  Janii  born 1414

Persia  conquered  by  the  Turcomans  1468,  who  are
expelled  by  the  Shiites,  who  establish  the  Sophi

dynasty  under  Ismail  I. 1501

Ispahan  made  the  capital 1590

The  Turks  take  Bagdad  ;  great  massacre  . . 1638

Georgia  revolts  to  Russia 1783

Teheran  made  the  capital 1796

War  with  Russia 18269

Rupture  with  England  through  the  Persians  taking

Herat  {which  see),  25  Oct.  ;  war  declared 1  Nov.  1856
Persians  defeated  ;  Bushire  taken . .  8-10  Dec. ,,
General  Outrani  defeats  the  Persians  at  Kooshab,  8

Feb.  ;  and  at  Mohammerah  . . .26  March,  1857
Peace  ratified  at  Teheran ...  14  April, ,,

Commercial  treaty  with  France,  &c. .  June, ,,

Herat  given  up  by  the  Persians  . . . July, ,,
The  sliah  re-organizes  the  government . 9  Sept. 1858
Railways  in  process  of  formation ....  1865

Electric  telegraph  introduced 1867

Great  sufferings  through  three  years'  drought,  ac-
companied by  fever  and  cholera  ;  about  16,000
persons  perished  at  Ispahan,  &c. . July-Oet.  1871
Collection  in  London  for  relief;  above  13,000/.  sub-
scribed Oct.  1871— Feb.  1872

Concession  to  baron  Julius  de  Renter  to  make  rail-
ways, waterworks,  &c. for  70  years,  with  great

power 25  July, ,,

Prosperity  restored  through  a  good  harvest,  March,  1873
The  shah  starts  to  visit  Europe,  19  April  ;  arrives  at
St.  Petersburg,  22  May  ;  at  Berlin,  31  May  ;  at
Brussels,  16  June  ;  at  London,  18  June  ;  receives
the  garter  at  Windsor,  2c  June  ;  at  Paris,  5  July  ;
at  Turin,  25  July  ;  at  Vienna,  30  July  ;  at  Con-
stantinople, 19  Aug. ;  returned  to  Teheran  23  Sept.  ,,
The  shah  visits  Europe  in  summer ;  returned  to
Teheran 9  Aug.  1878


Rebellious  incursions  of  the  Kurds  suppressed  after
much  bloodshed  (see  Kurdistan) . Oct. — Dec.  1880

Treaty  with  Russia  signed  . . .22  Dec. 1881

The  Russians  attack  the  Shohsovan  tribes  going
into  winter  quarters,  killed  about  80 . Jan. 7886

First  railway  constructed  in  Persia  from  Teheran
to  Shah-Abdul-Azim  opened . . 25  June,  1888

The  river  Karun  decreed  open  to  all  nations  by  the
intervention  of  England . . . 9  Sept. ,,

The  shah  visits  Europe  ;  at  St.  Petersburg,  23-26
May  ;  Berlin,  9  June  ;  Amsterdam,  16  June  ;  Ant-
werp, 22  June  ;  received  by  the  prince  of  Wales
at  Gravesend,  and  sails  to  Westminster,  1  July  ;
at  Windsor,  2  July  ;  at  Guildhall,  London
3  July  ;  visits  Birmingham  and  other  places  7-29
July  ;  Paris,  30  July  ;  Munich,  19  Aug.  ;  Vienna,
23  Aug.  ;  Budapestii,  26  Aug.  ;  returns  to  Tehe-
ran . . , 20  Oct.  1889

Imperial  bank  of  Persia  established  (concession  to
baron  Julius  de  Reuter,  30  Jan.) . .  23  Oct. ,,

Prince  Malcolm  Khan,  long  minister  in  London,
recalled  to  Persia Dec. ,,

Mirza  Mahomet  Ali  Khan,  new  minister  for  Eng-
land, received  by  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  .

4  March,  1890

Great  opposition  of  the  priests  and  people  to  the
monopoly  of  the  Imperial  tobacco  regie  (corpora-
tion), 14  Dec.  ;  the  monopoly  abolished  in  the
interior,  19  Dec.  ;  by  a  proclamation .  27  Dec.  1891

Complete  abolition  of  the  monopoly  demanded,  4
Jan.,  granted  7  Jan.  ;  compensation  to  the  com-
pany to  be  paid April,  1892

The  Russian  government  offer  to  lend  500,000/.  to
pay  the  compensation  to  the  tobacco  corpora-
tion, reported  23  April  ;  the  otter  declined  ;  a
loan  from  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia,  London,
accepted about  16  May, ,,

"Persia  and  the  Persian  Question,"  by  the  lion.
George  N.  Curzon,  M.P.,  published . May, ,,

Sir  H.  D.  Wolff,  British  minister . . .  1889

A.  D.  SHAHS.

1502.  Ismail  or  Ishmael :  conquers  Georgia,  1519.

1523.  Tamasp  or  Tliamas  I.

1576.  Ismail  II.  Meerza.

1577.  Mahommed  Meerza.

1585.  Abbas  I.  the  Great ;  made  a  treaty  with  the  Eng-
lish, 1612  ;  died  in  1628.

1628. Shah  Sophi.

1641. Abbas  II.

1666. Shah  Sophi  II.

1694. Hussein  ;  deposed.

1722. Mahmoud,  chief  of  the  Afghans.

1725. Ashraff  the  Usurper  ;  slain  in  battle.

1730. Tamasp  or  Thamas  II.  ;  recovered  the  throne  of
his  ancestors  from  the  preceding.
[Thamas-Kouli-Khan,  his  general,  obtained  great
successes  in  this  and  the  subsequent  reigns.  ]

1732.  Abbas  III.,  infant  son  of  Tamasp,  under  the  re-
gency of  Kouli-Khan,  who  afterwards  caused
himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  as

1736.  Nadir  Shah  (the  victorious  king) ;  conquers  India,
1739  ;  assassinated  at  Khorassan  by  his  nephew.

1747. Shah  Rokh.

1751. [Interregnum.]

1759. Kureem  Khan.

1779.  Many  competitors  for  the  throne,  and  assassina-
tions till —

1795.  Aga-Mahommed  Khan  obtains  the  power,  and
founds  the  reigning  (Turcoman)  dynasty  ;  assas-
sinated, 1797.

1798.  Futteh  Ali-Shah.

1S34.  Mahonimed-Shah,  grandson  of  Futteh  :  died,  10
Sept.  1848.

1848.  Nasr-ul-Deen,  orNassr-ed-Deen,  son  ;  born  4  April,
1831  ;  the  present  shah  of  Persia  ; said  to  be
an  able  prince  and  friendly  to  Britain  ; visited
Europe,  1873,  1878  and  1889.
ffetr :  son,  Muzafl'cr-ed-Dccn,  born  1S50.

PERSON,  Offences  against- The  statute

laws  respecting  these  were  consolidated  and  amended
in  1861.

PERSPECTIVE  in  drawing  was  observed  by
the  Van  Eycks  (1426-46)  and  treated  scientifically
by  Michael'  Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Albert
Diirer,  early  in  the  16th  century. Guido  Ubuldp


PEETH.


738


PEEU.


published  a  treatise  in  1608 ;  Dubreuil's  treatise
(.the  "  Jesuits'  perspective")  appeared  in  1642,  and
the'  mathematical  theory  was  demonstrated  by
Brook  Taylor  in  1 731.

PEETH  (the  old  capital  of  Scotland) ,  said  to  have
been  founded  by  Agricola,  about  a.d.  70.  It  was
besieged  by  the  Eegent  Robert,  1339.  On  20  Feb.
1437,  James  I.  was  murdered  at  the  Black  Friars'
monastery  here,  by  Robert  Graham  and  the  earl  of
Athol,  for  which  they  suffered  condign  punishment.
Gowrie's  conspiracy  occurred  here,  6  Aug.  1600.
Perth  was  taken  from  the  French  garrison  by  the
reformers,  26  June,  1559.  The  "Articles of  Forth"
relating  to  religious  ceremonies,  were  agreed  to  by
the  General  Assembly  of  Scotland,  25  Aug.  1618.
Perth  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1651  ;  and  by  the
earl  of  Mar  after  the  battle  of  Dunblane,  in  1715.
The  statue  of  the  prince  consort  was  inaugurated  in
the  presence  of  the  queen,  30  Aug.  1864.  Popula-
tion, 1881,  25;25o;  1891,  30,760.

PEETH,  capital  of  western  Australia  {which
see),  founded  1829. Population,  1891,  9,617.

PEEU (S. America), was long  governed  by
incas,  said  to  be  descended  from  Manco  Capac,  who
ruled  in  the  1  ith  century.  Population  1876, 2,6<)9;945.
Capital,  Lima.
Peru  explored  and  conquered  by  Francisco  Pizarro

and  Almagro 1524-33

The  last  inea,  Ataliualpa,  put  to  death  .  29  Aug.  1533
Pizarro  assassinated  at  Lima  .  .  26  June,  1541
Fruitless  insurrection  of  the  Peruvians  under  Tapac

Amaru,  an  inca 17S0

San  Martin  proclaims  the  independence  of  Peru,

28  July,  1S21

War  against  Spain 14  Jan. 1824

Bolivar  made  dictator .  .  .  .  .  Feb.  ,,
Mariano  Prado  president  ...  28  Nov.  „
The  Spaniards  defeated  at  Ayacuelio,  and  freedom

of  Peru  and  Chili  achieved  9  Dee. „

The  new  Peruvian  constitution  signed  by  the  presi-
dent of  the  republic .... 21  March,  1828
War  with  Columbia  ;  treaty  of  peace  28  Feb.  1829

After  a  succession  of  fierce  party  conflicts,  general
Ramon  Castilla becomes president ; firm and

politic 1845

Exportation  of  guano  began ' 1846

His  successor,  Eehenique,  deposed  ;  Castilla  again

president 1S55

New  constitution,  1856  ;  modified  .  .  .  .  i860
Population  (without  Indians)  about  2^-  millions  .  1859
Marshal  San  Ramon  president . .  24  Oct.  1862

General  J.  A.  Pezet  president  ... 3  April,  1863
The  Spanish  admiral  Pinzon  took  possession  of  the
Chincha-isles  (valuable  for  guano)  belonging  to
Peru,  stating  that  he  would  occupy  them  till  the
claims  of  his  government  on  Peru  were  satisfied,

14  April,  1864
American  congress  at  Lima  ;  plenipotentiaries  from
Chili  and  other  states  meet  to  concert  measures
for  defence  against  European  powers . Nov. ,,
Negotiations  followed  by  peace  with  Spain,  28  Jan.  ;

Chincha  islands  restored  ...  .3  Feb.  1865
Revolt  against  president  Pezet,  28 Feb.  ; several

provinces  soon  lost May, ,,

The  insurgents  declare  war  against  Spain  .  Oct.  ,,
They  take  Lima  ;  Pezet  flies,  and  Canseco  becomes

president Nov. ,,

Peru  joins  Chili,  and  declares  war  against  Spain,

Feb.  1866
The  Spanish  admiral  Nunez,  in  his  attempt  to  bom-
bard Callao,  repulsed  and  wounded . 2  May, ,,
The  Spaniards  quit  Peruvian  waters . 10  Slay, ,,
Riots  at  Lima  against  religious  toleration 15  April,  1867
Invasion  of  ex-president  Castilla,  May  ;  dies  of  fever,

30  May, ,,
Mariano-Ignacc  Prado  resigns  dictatorship  ;  made

provisional  president, 15 Feb.  ; proclaimed,

31  Aug. „
Insurrection  against  Prado ;  lie  resigns,  7  Jan.  ;  suc-
ceeded by  gen. La  Puerto. ;  Pezet's  treaty  with
Spain  confirmed 18  Jan.  1868

Col.  J.  Balta  president 1  Aug. „


1873

1874


1876


Several  towns  in  Peru  suffered  by  great  earthquakes
(see  Earthquakes) .... 13-15  Aug. t868

Gold  mines  discovered  at  Huaeho  . . . Oct.  1871

Industrial  exhibition  opened  at  Lima . July,  1872

Military  insurrection  at  Lima  :  Tomas  Gutierrez,
minister  of  war,  makes  himself  dictator,  and  im-
prisons president  Balta . . . . 22  July, ,,

Unsupported  by  the  people,  and  not  recognised  by
diplomatic  representatives,  he  orders  Balta  to  be
shot :  is  himself  compelled  to  fly  ;  caught ;  killed
by  the  people,  and  hanged  to  a  lamp-post ;  col.
Zavallos,  vice-president,  assumes  the  government ;
order  restored  ;  about  200  lives  were  lost  during
the  coup  d'etat . .  . . 26  July, ,,

Manuel  Pardo  elected  president  by  the  people,  as-
sumed office 2  Aug. ,,

Armed  riots  in  Lima  at  the  execution  of  cols.  Ganrio
and  Zevallo;i  as  rebels .... May,

President  Pardo  escapes  assassination . 22  Aug.

Insurrection  under  Pierola ;  he  is  defeated  at
Sorota,  near  Tarata .... 3  Dec.

Talisman  sailed  from  Cardiff  for  South  America  ;
consigned  to  Peruvian  rebels  ;  seized  and  con-
demned as  a  prize,  and  English  sailors  impri-
soned, Nov.  1874-Nov.  1875  ;  report  on  ill-usage,
English  government  promise  inquiry . March,

President,  Mariana  I.  Prado ... 2  Aug. „

Reported  insurrection  of  Nicolas  de  Pierolas,  with
about  6000  men,  endeavouring  to  establish  a
southern  confederacy ....  6-10  Oct. ,,

He  sails  away  with  the  Hnascar  ironclad,  29  May  ;
this  is  attacked  by  adm.  De  Horsey,  with  H.M.S.
Shah  and  Amethyst,  as  piratical,  for  attacking
mail  ships  ;  it  is  compelled  to  go  into  Lima  and
surrender ;  the  Peruvians  resent  British  inter-
ference, and  threaten  reprisals . . June,  1S77

Peruvian  government  issues  a  circular  to  the
powers,  10  June  ;  demands  reparation 25  June, ,,

Sir  John  Holker,  att.-general,  in  house  of  com-
mons, said  that  the  Huascar  had  committed  acts
which  made  her  an  enemy  of  Great  Britain,  and
had  no  belligerent  rights  ;  and  that  De  Horsey
was  justified  in  what  he  did . . 11  Aug. ,,

Pierolas  and  his  adherents  amnestied . Aug. „

Ex-president  Pardo,  president  of  the  senate,  assas-
sinated at  Lima 16  Nov.  1E78

Peru  and  Bolivia  declare  war  against  Chili,  an-
nounced 2  April,  1879

For  the  events  of  the  war,  see  Chili,  1879 — Pi

Sanguinary  revolution  at  Lima  ;  Pierolas  proclaimed

dictator ;  Prado  flees . . 22  Dec.  et  soj. ,,
Lima  occupied  by  the  Chilians . . 17  Jan.  1881
Seiior  F.  G.  Calderon  provisional  president  at  Mag-

dalena March, „

Anarchy  in  Lima March, ,,

Pierolas, near  Lima,  declares  for  continual  war,

April, .,
Pasco,  a  seaport,  burnt  by  Peruvian  soldiery  ;  about

1000  inhabitants  massacred,  announced 20  Feb.  1882
Pierolas  quits  Peru,  announced . . 10  April, „
President  Montero  opposed  to  truce  with  Chili;

disaffection May, .,

President Iglesias formed a  ministry  about 12

Sept.;  he  signs  peace  with  Chili  at  Ancon  20  Oct.  1SS3
Important  territories  surrendered. . . Oct. ,,
Lima  evacuated  by  the  Chilians . . 23  Oct. ,,
Arequipa  surrendered  to  the  Chilians  .  26  Oct. „

Gen.  Iglesias'  government  confirmed  by  elections,

about  29  Jan.  1884
Treaty  with  Chili  ratified  by  the  Notables,  March  ;

partial  evacuation  of  Peruvian  territory May, ,,
Gen.  Caceres  makes  himself  president  in  opposition
to  Iglesias  ;  enters  Lima  with  a  rabble,  and  is
quickly  repulsed .... 27  Aug. .,
Montero  oscillates  between  the  two  parties  ;  civil
war  continues  ; Truxillo  captured  for  Iglesias  ;
severe  fighting  announced . . . 17  Oct. .,
Gradual  submission  to  the  government . Dee ,,
Insurrection ; government troops defeated at

Ayacuelio,  announced . . . .2  May,  18S5
Gen.  Caceres  defeated  by  gen.  Iglesias  at  Huancayo,

about  28  May, ,,
Caceres' army  disbanded,  announced . 26  June, ,,
Renewed heavy lighting  announced,  9  July  ;  re-
ported rebel  victory .... 15  Aug.
Government  troops  gain  a  victory  over  the  forces
of  gen.  Caceres,  16  Oct. ;  at  Jania  about  19  Nov  ;


PERUGIA.


739


PETERSBURG,  ST.


Caeeres  attacks  Lima ;  severe  lighting ;  Iglesias
surrenders  2  Dec.  ;  Dr.  Arenas  elected  president,
3  Dec. ;  Iglesias  and  Caeeres  retire  from  Lima
through  foreign  intervention . . 4  Dec.  1885

Gen.  Caeeres  president .... 3  June,  1886

Col.  Remigio  Morales  Bermudez,  president .

10  Aug.  1890

Revolutionary  attempt  of  Pierolas'  supporters  near
Lima  defeated  ;  about  40  killed . .  2  Dec. ,,

A  new  ministry  formed  by  seuor  Justiniaino  Bor-
gono,  24  Aug.  1891 ;  succeeded  by  sen.  Carlos
Elias about  1  July,  1892

PERUGIA,  a  city  of  central  Italy ;  as  Perousia,
anciently  one  of  the  Etruscan  confederation.  It
allied  itself  with  the  Samnites,  but  was  ruined  by
two  defeats  by  the  Romans,  309  and  295  B.C.  It
was  taken  by  Octavius  Caesar  from  the  adherents
of  Antony  ;  many  of  whom  were  immolated  on  altars
by  their  victor,  41.  Leo  X.  took  Perugia  from  the
rival  families  Oddiand  Baglioni,  in  a.d.  1520.  An
insurrection  here  against  the  pope  was  put  down  by
the  Swiss  with  great  cruelty,  20  June,  1859  Perugia
was  taken  by  the  Sardinian  general  Fanti,  in  Sept.
i860,  when  the  cruel  papal  general  Schmidt  and
1600  men  were  made  prisoners.

PERUKE  or  WlG.  The  ancients  used  false
hair,  but  the  present  peruke  was  first  worn  in  France
and  Italy  about  1620 ;  and  introduced  into  England
about  1660,  and  prevailed  more  or  less  till  about
1810.

It  is  said  that  bishop  Blomfield  (of  London),  in  1830,
obtained  permission  for  the  bishops  to  discontinue
wearing  their  wigs  in  parliament,  of  which  they  gra-
dually availed  themselves.  On  account  of  the  heat,  sir
J.  P.  Wilde,  and  other  judges  and  several  counsel,
appeared  in  court  without  wigs,  22,  23  July,  1868.

PERUVIAN  BARK,  see  Jesuits'  Bark.

PESCHIERA,  a  strong  Austrian  fortress,  on
an  island  in  the  Mincio,  near  the  Lago  di  Garda,
N.  Italy.  It  has  been  frequently  taken  by  siege : —
by  the  French,  1796;  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians,
1799;  by  the  French  again,  1801 ;  given  up  by
them,  1814;  taken  by  the  Sardinians,  May,  1848;
retaken  by  Radetsky,  March,  1849.  The  Sardinians
were  preparing  to  besiege  it  in  July,  1859,  when
peace  was  made.  It  was  given  up  to  the  Italians,
9  Oct.  1866 ;  see  Quadrilateral.

PESSIMISM  (from  pessimus,  the  worst),  the
opposite  doctrine  to  optimism  (which  see).  Mr.
James  Sully's  "  Pessimism,  a  History  and  a  Criti-
cism," was  published  in  1877.  Arthur  Schopen-
hauer (1788-1860),  an  eminent  pessimist,  says,"AU
life  is  effort,  all  effort  is  painful,  the  pains  of  life
must  predominate."

PESTALOZZIAN  SYSTEM  of  education
was  devised  by  John  Henry  Pestalozzi,  bom  at  Zurich
in  Switzerland,  in  1746,  died  17  Feb.  1827.  In  1775
he  turned  his  farm  into  a  school  for  educating  poor
children  in  reading,  writing',  and  working ;  but  he
did  not  succeed.  In  1798  he  established  an  orphan
school  where  he  began  with  the  mutual  instruc-
tion, or  monitorial  system,  since  adopted  by  Lan-
caster; but  his  school  was  soon  after  turned  into
a  hospital  for  the  Austrian  army.  In  1802,  in
conjunction  with  Fellenberg,  he  established  his
school  at  Hofwyl,  which  at  first  was  successful,  but
eventually  declined  through  mismanagement.

PESTH  (Hungary),  built  about  839,  on  the
east  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  Bada,  was  re-
peatedly taken  and  besieged  in  the  wars  of  Hungary,
particularly  with  the  Turks.  The  great  insurrec-
tion broke  out  here,  and  the  minister,  count  Lam-
berg,  was  killed,  28  Sept.  1848.  Buda-Pesth  was
taken  by  the  imperialists,  5  Jan.  1849. The  Hun-


garians afterwards  defeated  the  Austrians,  who  were
obliged  to  evacuate  it  18 April,  same  year ; see
Hungary. Buda-Pesth formally constituted
capital  of  Hungary,  Nov.  1873.
Hungarian  national  exhibition  opened  2  May,  1885.-

PESTILENCE,  see  Blague.

PETALISM  (from  the  Greek petalon,  a  leaf),
a  mode  of  deciding  upon  the  guilt  of  citizens  of
Syracuse,  similar  to  the  Athenian  ostracism,  the
name  being  written  on  a  leaf  (generally  of  an
olive)  instead  of  on  a  shell,  about  460  B.C.  If  guilt
were  established  the  sentence  was  usually  banish-
ment.

PETARD,  or  PeTAR,  an  invention  as-
cribed to  the  Huguenots  in  1579.  Petards  of
metal,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  hat,  were  employed
to  blow  up  gates  or  other  barriers,  and  also  in
countermines  to  break  through  into  the  enemy's
galleries.  Cahors  was  taken  by  Henry  IV.  by
means  of  petards,  in  1 580,  when  it  is  said  they  were
first  used.  "  Hoised  with  his  own  petar."  Shak-
spear e,  Hamlet  iii.  4.

PETER  THE  GREAT'S  WILL,  see  under
Wills.

PETER  THE  WILD  Boy,  a  savage  creature
found  in  the  Harzwald,  electorate  of  Hanover,-
when  George  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting.
He  was  found  walking  on  his  hands  and  feet,
climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel,  and  feeding  on
grass  and  moss,  Nov.  1725.  At  this  time  he  was
supposed  to  be  thirteen  years  old.  He  died,  while
under  the  care  of  an  English  farmer,  Feb.  1785,
unchanged  in  his  habits.

PETERBOROUGH,  anciently  Medesham-
stede  (Northamptonshire) ;  obtained  its  present
name  from  a  king  of  Mercia  founding  an  abbey  and
dedicating  it  to  St.  Peter  about  655.  The  church,
destroyed  by  the  Danes,  was  rebuilt  with  great
beauty.  The  tower  becoming  dangerous,  restora-
tion resolved  on,  Dec.  1882.  Foundation  laid  of
new  building,  7  May,  1884.  Choir  re-opened  n
July,  1889 ;  Cathedral  re-opened,  14  Oct.,  1890.
The  bishopric  was  erected  by  Henry  VIII.,  out  of
the  lands  of  dissolved  monasteries  in  the  diocese  of
Lincoln.  The  first  bishop  was  John  Chambers,  the
last  abbot  of  Peterborough,  1 541.  The  see  was
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  4191?.  19s.  nd.  Pre-
sent income  4500^.  Population,  1881,  21,223;
1891,25,172.
Exhibition  of  relics  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots  opened

19  July,  1887.

RECENT  BISHOPS.

1794.  Spencer  Madan  ;  died,  8  Oct.  1813.

1813.  John  Parsons  ;  died,  12  March,  1819

1819.  Herbert  M  irsh ;  died,  1  May,  1839.

1839.  George  D  ivys  ;  died,  8  April,  1864.

1864.  Francis  Jeune,  May  ;  died  20  Aug.  1868.

1868.  Win Connor  Magee ;  elected  31  Oct.  ;  translate.!

to  York,  1891.
1 89 1.  Mandell  Creighten,  elected  13  March.

PETERLOO,  see  Manchester  Reform  Meeting,
16  Aug.  1819.

PETERSBURG,  ST.,  the  modern  capital  of
Russia,  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  27  May,  1 703.
He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some'wooden
hovels.  In  1710,  the  count  Golovkin  built  the  first
house  of  brick;  and  the  next  year,  the  emperor,
with  his  own  hands,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  house
of  the  same  material.  The  seat  of  empire  was
transferred  from  Moscow  to  this  place  in  1712.
Here,  in  1736,  a  lire  consumed  2000  houses;  and
in  1780,  another  fire  consumed  11,000  houses;  this
last,  fire  was  occasioned  by  lightning. .Again,  hi

3  b  2


PETER'S CHURCH,  ST.


740


PETROLEUM.


June,  1796,  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and
100  vessels  were  destroyed.  The  winter  palace  was
burnt  to  the  ground,  29  Dec.  1837.  The  railway  to
Moscow  was  finished  in  1851  ;  to  Berlin,  opened
5  May,  1862.  On  10  June,  1862,  property  to  the
amount  of  nearly  a  million  sterling  was  destroyed
by  fire.  Population,  1886:  province,  1,660,859;
city,  1885,  861,303.  See  Russia,  1862  et  scq. —
Petersburg,  Virginia,  see  United  States,  1864.
Peace  of  St.  Petersburg,  between  Russia  and
Prussia,  the  former  restoring  all  her  conquests  to

the  latter,  signed 5  May,  1762

Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  partition  of  Poland

(see  article,  Partition  Treaties)  .  .  .5  Aug.  1772
Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg,  led  to  a  coalition  against

France .8  Sept. 1805

Treaty  of  Alliance,  signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  be-
tween Bernadotte,  prince  royal  of  Sweden,  and
the  emperor  Alexander ;  the  former  agreeing  to
join  in  the  campaign  against  France,  in  return  for
which  Sweden  was  to  receive  Norway  24  March,  1812
Grand  new  Alexander  II.  bridge  over  tlie  Neva

opened 12  Oct.  1879

Ship  canal  to  Cronstadt  completed,  Feb. ;  opened

by  the  czar 27  May,  1885

War  memorial  or  glory  monument  uncovered  by  the

czar 26  Oct.  1886

•Semi-centennial  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of
the  British  and  American  chapel  ;  Russian  digni-
taries and  foreign  ambassadors  present  .  18  l)ec.  1890

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ST.  (Rome),  originally
erected  by  Constantine,  306.  About  1450,  pope
Nicholas  V.  commenced  a  new  church.  The  present
magnificent  pile  was  designed  by  Bramante;  the
first  stone  laid  by  pope  Julius  II.  in  1506.  In
1514,  Leo  X.  employed  llaphael  and  two  others  to
superintend  the  building.  Paul  III.  committed  the
work  to  Michael  Angelo,  who  devised  the  dome,  in
the  construction  of  which  30,000  lb.  of  iron  were
used.  The  church  was  consecrated  18  Nov.  1626.
The  front  is  400  feet  broad,  rising  to  a  height  of
180  feet,  and  the  majestic  dome  ascends  from  the
centre  of  the  church  to  a  height  of  324  feet;  the
length  of  the  interior  is  600  feet,  forming  one  of
the  most  spacious  halls  ever  constructed.  The
length  of  the  exterior  is  669  feet;  its  greatest
breadth  within  is  442  feet ;  and  the  entire  height
from  the  ground  432  feet,  Renewal  of  the  leaden
envelope  completed,  July,  1884.

PETER'S  PENCE,  presented  by  Ina,  king
of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at  Home,  for  the
endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  about  725 ;
so  called  because  agreed  to  be  paid  on  Peter  Mass,
I  Aug.  The  tax  was  levied  on  all  families  pos-
sessed of  thirty  pence  yearly  rent  in  land,  out  of
which  they  paid  one  penny.  It  was  confirmed  by
Oft'a,  777,  and  was  afterwards  claimed  by  the  popes
as  a  tribute  from  England,  and  regularly  collected,
till  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII.  1534.  Camden.  A
public  collection  (on  behalf  of  the  pope)  was  for-
bidden in  France  in  i860.

PETERS  WALDEN  (Germany),  CONVEN-
TION OF,  between  Great  Britain  and  Bussia,  by
which  a  firm  and  decisive  alliance  between  those
powers  was  made  against  France,  and  the  course  of
action  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  planned ;
signed  8  July,  1813.  This  alliance  led  to  the  over-
throw of  Bonaparte  in  the  next  year.

PETERWARDEIN  (in  Austria),  was  taken
by  the  Turks,  July,  1526.  Here  prince  Eugene  of
Savoy  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks,  5  Aug.
1716.

PETITIONS.  The  right  of  petitioning  the
crown  and  parliament  for  redress  of  grievances  is  a
fundamental  principle  of  the  constitution. Peti-


tions are  extant  of  the  date  of  Edward  I. In  the-

reign  of  Henry  IV.  petitions  began  to  be  addressed

to  the  house  of  commons  in  considerable  numbers.

In  1837  there  were  presented  to  parliament  10,831

petitions, signed  by  2,905,905  persons; in  1859,.

24,386,  signed  by  2,290,579;  in  1867,  12,744,  signed

by  1,145,216. See  Ab/torrers,  and  Rights.

A  petition  from  Boulogne  for  a  consul  was  brought  in,

but  not  received  by  the  commons . April-May,  1875

Evidence  before  a  committee  of  the  commons  disclosed

systems whereby vast numbers of fictitious and

forged signatures were obtained, rendering the

petitions  for  and against the continuance of the

London  coal  and  wine  dues  utterly  valueless,  May,  1887-

PETO'S  ACT,  13  &  14  Vict.  c.  28  (1850),
renders  more  simple  and  effectual  the  titles  by
which  religious  bodies  hold  property.

PETRA,  the  ancient  Sela,  in  mount  Seir,  near
mount  Hor,  in  the  land  of  Edom.  In  the  4th  cen-
tury B.C.  it  was  held  by  the  Nabathceaus,  who-
successfully  resisted  Antigonus.  About  a.d.  70  it
was  the  residence  of  the  Arab  princes  named
Aretas.  It  wras  conquered  by  Cornelius  Palma,  and
annexed  to  the  empire  under  Trajan,  105,  to  which
period  its  remarkabls  monuments  are  ascribed.  It
was  an  important  station  for  commercial  traffic  with
Rome.  It  has  been  described  by  Burckhardt  and
other  travellers.

PETRARCH  AND  Laura  ;  celebrated  for
the  refined  passion  of  the  former  for  the  latter,
began  in  1327,  and  the  chief  subject  of  his  sonnets.
He  was  born  1 304,  crowned  witli  laurel,  as  a  poet
and  writer,  on  Easter-day,  8  April,  1341 ;  and  died
at  Arqua,  near  Padua,  18  July,  1374.  Laura  died
6  April,  1348.  A  commemoration  of  his  death  at
Avignon  and  other  places,  18  July,  1874.

PETRO-BRUSIANS,  followers  of  Pierre  de
Bruys,  an  early  reformer,  who  was  burnt  at  St.
Gilles,  Languedoc,  as  a  heretic,  in  1130.

PETROLEUM,  rock  oil  or  mineral  oil
similar  to  paraffin,  has  been  found  in  many  parts  of
the  world,  especially  at  Rangoon.  In  1859  and  since,
a  number  of  oil-springs  were  discovered  in  the  bitu-
minous coal  regions  of  N.  W.  Pennsylvania,  now
termed  "  Petrolia,"  and  others  have  been  dis-
covered in  Ohio  and  other  states,  and  also  in  Canada.
Numerous  artesian  wells  were  sunk,  manufactories
erected,  and  an  almost  unlimited  supply  obtained  ;
between  1859^77,  2,802,500,000  gallons;  in  1863,
8,907,365  gallons.  Inconsequence  of  the  importation
of  this  oil  into  this  country,  and  many  accidents
having  taken  place  through  its  inflammability  at
low  temperature,  acts  for  "the  safe  keeping  of  petro-
leum" were  passed,  29  July,  1862;  July,  1868,  Aug.
187 1,  and  1879.  Petroleum  became  an  awful  weapon
in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents  in  Paris,  23-27  May,
1871.  About  fifty  killed  by  explosion  at  a  petroleum
manufactory  near  Rheims,  16  July,  1871.  The  Pe-
troleum Association  test  petroleum,  with  the  view
of  preventing  the  importation  of  that  which  is
dangerous.  Refined  petroleum  imported :  1872,
5,670,674^  gallons;  1877,  33,474,9515  gallons;  1881,
58,371,386  gallons.  Unrefined  and  refined  :  1882,
59,695,982  gallons  ;  1883,  70, 526,996 gallons;  1884,
52,975,789  gallons;  1885,  73,873,641  gallons;  1886,
71,251,736  gallons  ;  1887,  77,390,435  gallons  ;  1888,
94,401,285  gallons;  1889, 102,881,256 gallons;  1890,
105,080,863  gallons.

Petroleum  oil  found  in  Luneberger  Haidee,  Han-
over ;  a  colony  formed  named  Qilheiin  announced

Aug.  iS3i
Petroleum  fire  at  Bristol ;  fire  floated  through  the

drains  into  the  river . . . .30  Nov. ,,
The  great  petroleum  grounds  near  Baku,  a  Russian
town  on  the  Caspian,  long  monopolized,  set  free.


PETROLEUSES.


741


PHER.E.


1872 ;  greatly  developed  by  Ludwig  (died  April
1888),  and  Robert  Nobel,  Swedes,  since  1875 ;
34,000,000  gallons  of  oil  produced  in  1875 ;
Russia  supplied  200,000,000  in  1882 ;  exporta-
tion begun and greatly  increasing . . 1884-91

IBaku  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  fire  worship  by
the  followers  of  Zoroaster.]

Petroleum  largely  discovered  in  Austrian  Galicia, 1S85

Mr.  Edwin  N.  Henwood's  invention  for  use  of
petroleum  for  the  production  of  steam  announced
March,  1886  ;  Spiel's  petroleum  engine  an-
nounced  April,  1886

Petroleum  discovered  in  Egypt  on  the  coast  of  the
Red  Sea,  March,  1886  ;  reported  successful  22  Aug.  1887

Petroleum  found  in  Burmah . . . May, ,,

Destructive  lire  at  the  Markoff  petroleum  fountain
near  Baku 25  July. ,"

Large  quantities  of  natural  gas  now  used  as  fuel  in
ironworks  &c.  in  Pittsburg,  &c. .  1884  et  seq.

Mr.  Penn's  system  of  lighting  by  petroleum  lamps,
was  introduced  at  the  Cuxton  station,  S.E.  Rail-
way Nov.  1890

Mr.  Chenhall's  process  for  solidifying  petroleum  to
form  cheap  steam  fuel  reported  successful  19  Nov.  1891

PETROLEUSES,  a  name  given  to  women
charged  with  throwing  petroleum  on  the  burning
houses  in  Paris  during  the  siege  by  the  govern-
ment, Wiry,  1871.

PETROPAULOVSKI,  a  fortified  town  on
the  east  coast  of  Kamtschatka,  was  attacked  by  an
English  and  French  squadron,  30  Aug.  1854.  They
destroyed  the  batteries,  but  failed  in  taking  some
Russian  frigates,  except  the  Sitka,  a  store-ship
taken  by  the  President,  and  a  schooner  taken  by
the  Pique.  Admiral  Price  was  killed,  it  is  sup-
posed by  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  pistol.
A  party  of  700  sailors  and  marines  landed  to  assault
the  place,  but  fell  into  an  ambuscade;  many  were
killed,  including  captain  Parker  and  M.  Bourasset,
English  and  French  officers.  The  objects  of  the
attack  were  not  attained,  it  is  thought  from
want  of  stores.  After  this  the  Russians  greatly
strengthened  their  defences,  but  on  30  May,  1855,
the  allied  squadron  in  the  Pacific  arriving  here
found  the  place  deserted.  The  fortifications  were
destroyed,  but  the  town  was  spared.  The  Russian
ships  escaped.

PETTY  BAG,  clerk  of  the:  power  was  given  to
the  treasury,  with  consent  of  the  lord  chancellor
and  master  of  the  rolls,  to  abolish  this  office,  by  the
Great  Seal  Offices  Act,  1874.

PEVENSEY  (Sussex),  said  to  be  the  site  of
the  Roman  Anderida,  on  which  a  Norman  castle
was  erected.  Here  William  of  Normandy  landed,
28  or  29  Sept.  1066.  The  duke  of  York,  in  the
.reign  of  Henry  IV.,  was  for  some  time  confined
tvithin  the  walls  of  this  castle;  as  was  also  queen
Joan  of  Navarre,  the  last  wife  of  Henry  IV.,  who,
with  her  confessor,  friar  Randal,  was  accused  of  a
design  to  destroy  Henry  V.,  her  step-son.

PEWS  in  churches.  "  In  a  London  will  we
read  of  sedile  vocation,  pciv"  (a  seat  called  pew),
1453.  Pews  were  censured  by  Latimer  and  Brad-
ford, 1553.  fPaleot.  The  church  of  Geddington
St.  Mary,  Northamptonshire,  long  contained  a  pew
dated  1602.  The  rev.  W.  M.  II.  Church  (vicar
1844-6)  restored  and  re-scated  the  church,  and  pre-
served the  panel  with  the  date  in  the  door  of  the
eurplice  press.  Another  pew  in  the  chancel  was
-dated  1604.

PFAFFENDORF  and  Liegnitz  (Silesia).
Near  these  two  places  was  fought  a  battle  between
the  Imperialists  and  Prussians,  15  Aug.  1760.  The
Austrians  were  defeated  by  Frederick  of  Prussia,
who  thus  prevented  the  junction  of  the  llussian  and
Austrian  armies.


PHALANX,  the  Greek  phalanx  consisted  of
8000  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields  joined,
and  spears  crossing  each  other.  The  battalion
of  Philip  of  Macedon,  called  the  Macedonian  pha-
lanx, was  formed  by  him  about  360  B.C.

PHALANSTERY,  see  Fourierism.

PHALSBOURG  (Pfalzburg,  Palatine  city),  a
strong  town  of  Alsace,  was  founded  in  1570,  by  the
elector  palatine  George  John.  It  was  ceded  to  France
in  i66r,  and  its  fortress  erected  by  Vauban,  1679.
It  checked  the  progress  of  the  victorious  armies  of
the  allies  both  in  1814  and  1815,  and  withstood  the
Germans  from  16  Aug.  to  12  Dec.  1870,  when  it
capitulated  unconditionally.  It  was  retained  at  the
peace  in  Feb.  187 1.

PHARAOH'S  SERPENTS,  a  dangerous
chemical  toy,  composed  of  sulpho- cyanide  of  mer-
cury, appeared  in  Paris  in  the  summer  of  1865.

PHARISEES,  a  sect  among  the  Jews;  so
called  from  pharash,  a  Hebrew  word  for  separated,
because  they  pretended  to  a  greater  degree  of  holiness
than  the  rest  of  the  Jewrs.  Luke  xviii.  9-12.  The
Talmud  enumerates  seven  classes  of  Pharisees.

PHARMACOPOEIA,  a  book  of  directions  for
the  preparation  of  medicine,  published  by  colleges
of  physicians,  the  earliest  in  England  1618.  In
1862  the  General  Medical  Council  were  empowered
to  prepare  and  sell  a  new  pharmacopoeia,  to  super-
sede those  of  the  colleges  of  London,  Edinburgh,
and  Dublin,  which  was  published  in  June,  1864 ;
succeeded  by  a  new  one  in  May,  1867 ;  reprinted,
1890.

PHARMACY :  the  knowledge  of  the  chemical
and  medical  properties  of  drugs  and  other  things
employed  medicinally.  The  Pharmaceutical  Society
of  Great  Britain,  founded  I  June,  1841,  mainly  by
Mr.  Jacob  Bell,  obtained  its  charter  in  1843.  It
publishes  a  weekly  journal. — The  pharmacy  act,
1852,  regulates  the  qualifications  of  pharmaceutical
chemists.  It  was  amended  by  the  pharmacy  act  of
1868  which  required  all  sellers  of  poisons  to  be
registered  after  31  Dec.  1868;  act  amended  in  1869.
Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  passed  .  11  Aug.  1875
Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Ireland  was  instituted

by  the  Irish  Pharmacy  Act,  passed . 11  Aug. ,,
Pharmacy. — An  international  pharmaceutical  con-
gress (with  an  exhibition)  was  opened  in  London

1  Aug.  1 88 1
International  Pharmaceutical  congress  at  Brussels,

31  Aug.  1885

PHAROS,  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  on
which  was  erected  the  celebrated  lighthouse  called
the  tower  of  Pharos,  begun  by  Sostratus  of  Cnidus,
298,  and  completed  by  king  Ptolemy  Philadclphus
about  283  B.C.  On  the  top  fires  were  constantly
kept  to  direct  sailors  in  the  bay. See  Liglithouscs.

PHARSALIA,  a  strong  city  in  Thcssaly,
N.  Greece.  Near  it  Julius  Ciesar  defeated  his  rival
Tompcy,  9  Aug.  48  B.C.,  and  became  virtually
master  of  the  known  world.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,
where  he  was  treacherously  slain,  by  order  of
Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his  body
left  naked  on  the  strand,  till  it  was  burnt  by  his
faithful  freedman,  Philip.

PHENOL,  or  phenic  acid,  names  for  carbolic
acid  {which  see).

PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE,  an  appara-
tus for  investigating  the  movements  of  the  eye-bnll,
invented  by  Douders,  of  Utrecht,  and  announced  in
1870.

PHER^E  (Thcssaly,  N.  Greece),  sec  Thcssalij.


PHIGALIAN  MAEBLES.


742


PHILOSOPHY.


PHIGALIAN  MARBLES,  in  the  British
Museum,  were  purchased  for  it  by  the  prince  regent
in  1815.  They  consist  of  portions  of  the  frieze
taken  from  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurus  at
Phigaleia  in  Arcadia,  and  are  reputed  to  be  works
of  the  earlier  school  of  Phidias,  who  died  432  B.C.
The  bas-reliefs  represent  the  conflicts  of  the  Greeks
and  Amazons,  and  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse.

PHILADELPHIA  (Asia  Minor),  see  Seven
Churches. — Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  w.is
planned  by  "William  Penn  24  Oct.  1682.  The  first
American  congress  assembled  here  in  1774,  an^
promulgated  the  declaration  of  independence  on
4  July,  1776.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Union  till
1800,  when  Washington  was  selected  in  its  place.
The  National  Union  Convention  held  its  first
meeting  here  14  Aug.  1866;  see  United  States.
Population  1880,847,170;  1890,  1,046,964.

Beginning  of  centennial  year  celebrated  witli  great

demonstration 2  Jan.  1876

International  exhibition  opened  by  the  president,

the  emperor  and  empress  of  Brazil  present ;  very

successful ;  about  130,000  persons  present

10  May, ,,
Said  to  be  the  most  extensive  of  all  exhibitions

hitherto  ;  vista  of  three-eighths  of  a  mile  ;  main

building  1900  feet  long  ; 6  other  large  buildings,

and  200  smaller.
Prizes  awarded to  exhibitors  ;  out  of  n,oco,  488

given  to  Great  Britain  . . . .27  Sept. ,,
About  80,000  persons  admitted  by  payment  daily,

Sept.  ;  exhibition  closed . . . 10  Nov. ,,
[Total  admitted,  9,789,392  ; daily  average,  61,568  ;

receipts,  3,813,749  dollars.]
International  congress  respecting  education July, ,,
A  permanent  exhibition  opened  by  president  Hayes

10  May,  1877
Great  storm  :  384  dwellings,  31  churches,  and  many

public  buildings  destroyed ;  8  ships  sunk  ;  esti- •

mated  loss,  2,000,000  dollars  .  .  24  Oct.  1878
Grand  festival  to  honour  gen.  Grant  on  return  from

his  long  tour 17-24  Dec.  1879

Foundation  of  city  celebrated  .  .  24  Oct.  1882
Great  Irish  convention  .  .  .  25-27  April,  1883
Fire  at  lunatic  asylum,  28  perish  .  .  12  Feb!  1885
Celebration  of  the  centenary  of  the  adoption  of  the

federal  constitution  (see  United  States)  15  Sept.  1S87
Mr.  John  Bardsley,  the  defaulting  city  treasurer,

sentenced  to  15  years'  solitary  confinement  and

heavy  fine 2  j„]v,  1891

The  Grand  Central  theatre,  the  Times  offices  and

other  buildings  burnt,  several  persons  perish

27  April,  1892

PHILANTHEOPIC  SOCIETY,  for  the
reformation  of  criminal  boys,  was  established  in
1788,  and  incorporated  in  1806.  It  supports  a  farm-
school  at  Eedhill,  Eeigate,  Surrey ;  see  Reformatory
Schools.

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY  (London),
was  established  in  1813;  first  concert,  8  March.
New  Philharmonic  Society  began  1852.

PHILIPHAUGH,  near  Selkirk,  S.  Scotland,
where  the  marquis  of  Montrose  and  the  royalists
were  defeated  by  David  Leslie  and  the  Scotch
covenanters,  13  Sept.  1645.

PHILIPPI  (Macedonia),  so  named  by  Philip
II.  of  Macedon.  Here  Octavius  Crcsar  and  Marc
Antony,  in  two  battles,  defeated  the  republican
forces  of  Cassius  and  Brutus,  who  both  committed
suicide,  Oct.  42  B.C.  Paul  preached  here,  a.d.  48,
and  wrote  an  epistle  to  the  converts,  64.

PHILIPPICS,  the  term  applied  to  the  orations
of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,
3.S2-341  B.C.,  and  also  to  the  orations  of  Cicero
against  Marc  Antony  (one  of  which,  called  divine
by  Juvenal,  cost  Cicero  his  life),  44-43  B.C.


PHILIPPINE  ISLES  (in  the  Malay  Archi-
pelago), discovered  by  Magellan,  in  March,  1521,
who  here  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish.  They  were
taken  possession  of  in  1.565  by  a  fleet  from  Mexico,
which  first  stopped  at  the  island  of  Zeba,  and  sub-
dued it.  In  1570  a  settlement  was  effected  at  the
mouth  of  the  Manilla  river,  and  Manilla  became
the  capital  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the
Philippines;  see  Manilla  and  Earthquakes.  The
Philippine  commercial  company  was  unsuccessful,
1785.  A  successful  Philippine  exhibition  was
opened  in  Madrid,  autumn  1887.
Rebels  defeated  in  a  fierce  engagement  at  Lanas .

reported  10  Sept.  189X
Mr. John  Foreman's "Philippine  Islands,"  was

published  in  1891.

PHILIPPIUM,  a  metal  of  the  yttrium  series,
found  in  Samarslrite  earth  (in  llussia,  North  Caro-
lina, &c.)  by  M.  Marc  Delafontaine,  by  means  of
the  spectroscope  ;  announced  Oct.  1878.  Also  said
to  have  been  found  by  Mr.  Lawrence  Smith,  and
named  Mosandrium,  July,  1878.

PHILIPPOPOLIS,  capital  of  (Eastern)  Rou-
melia,  which  see. Population,  18S8,  33,032.

PHILISTINES,  a  people  of  Palestine,  con-
quered Israel,  1 156  B.C.,  and  ruled  it  forty  years.
They  were  defeated  by  Samuel,  11 20;  and  by  Saul
and  Jonathan,  1087.  They  again  invaded  Israel
about  1063,  when  David  slew  their  champion,
Goliath.  After  David  became  king  he  thoroughly
subdued  them,  1040.  In  common  with  Syria  their
country  was  subjugated  by  the  llomans,  under
Pompey,  about  63. — In  Germany,  about  1830,
Heine  and  the  liberal  party  applied  the  temi
"Philistines"  to  the  opponents  of  progress,  or  con-
servative party.

In England the term  has  been applied  to  the
opponents  of  "culture "and  refinement,  chiefly  .
among  the  upper  middle  classes  by  Mr.  Matthew
Arnold  and  others  .  ... 1867  ct  seq.

PHILOBIBLION  SOCIETY,  was  insti-
tuted in  1853  by  Mr.  ^-  Monckton  Milnes  (aft.  lord
Houghton),  M.  Sylvain  Van  de  "Weyer,  the  Belgian
minister,  and  others.  It  publishes  volumes  of
"Miscellanies,"  &c.

PHILOLOGY,  the  science  of  language,  much
studied  during  the  present  century.
John  IIonie-Tooke's  "Diversions  of  Parley  "pub-
lished 17S6

Philological  society  of  London  established  18  May,  1842
Lorenz  Diefenbaeh's  "  Lexicon  Comparativum  " 1846-51
32nd  congress  of  German  philologists  met  at  Wies-
baden, professor  Curtius,  president 26-29  Sept.  1877
[See  Language,  Dictionaries,  and  GrammariaiCs.1

PHILOSOPHEE'S  STONE,  see  Alchemy.

PHILOSOPHICAL  LAMP,  constructed
by  Johann  Wolfgang  Ddberciner,  who  applied  in
it  the  property  possessed  by  spongy  platinum  of
causing  the  combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,
discovered  by  him  in  1823.

PHILOSOPHY  (love  of  wisdom),  the  know-
ledge of  the  reason  of  things  (distinguished  from
history,  the  knowledge  of  facts,  and  from  mathema-
tics, the  knowledge  of  the  quantity  of  tilings) — the
hypothesis  or  system  upon  which  natural  effects  are
explained.  Locke.  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the
name  of  philosopher  (such  men  having  been
previously  called  sages)  about  528  B.C.  Philoso-
phers were  expelled  from  Pome,  and  their  schools
suppressed,  by  Domitian,  a.d.  S3.  Philosophy  is
now  divided  into: — 1.  Moral  or  Ethical;  2.  Intel-
lectual ;  3.  Natural  or  Physical.


PHIPPS' EXPEDITION.


743


PHONOGRAPHY.


MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.

Ancient  Schools. — Pythagorean,  about  500  b.  c.  ;  Platonic
(the  academy),  by  Plato,  374  ;  Peripatetic  (the  Lyceum),
by  Aristotle,  334  ;  Sceptic,  by  Pyrrho,  334  ;  Cynic  by
Diogenes,  330;  Epicurean  by  Epicurus,  306;  Stoic,  by
Zmo,  290  ;  Middle  Academy,  by  Arcesilaus,  278  ;  New
Academy,  by  Cameades,  160 ;  New  Platonists  (who
attempted  to  combine  Piatonism  with  Christianity) :
Animonius  Saccas,  died  a.d.  243  ;  Plotinus,  died  about
270";  Porphyry,  died  about  305 ;  Jambliehus,  died
about  333  ;  Julian  the  emperor,  died  363.

Modern  Systems. — Nominal,  Jean  Roscellin,  about
1052  ;  Abelard,  &c.  ;  Rational,  Bacon,  about  1624  ;  Car-
tesian, Descartes,  about  1560:  Reflective  or  Perceptive,
Locke,  1690;  Idealistic,  Berkeley,  1710;  Elective,
Leibnitz,  1710  ;  Common  Sense,  Eeid,  1750-70;  Trans-
cenlent.d,  Kant,  Hamilton,  &c,  1770-1860  ;  Scientific,
Fichte,  1800-14  ;  Absolute  Identity,  Sehellmg,  1800-20  ;
Absolute  Idealism,  Hegel,  1810-30 ;  Utilitarian,  Ben-
tham,  Mill,  &c.  1 790-1873 ;  Positive,  C'omte,  1830;
Realism  and  Evolutionary  Materialism,  prevalent,  Dar-
win, Herbert  Spencer,  &c.  1873.

natural  philosophy.
Greek  and  Latin. — Thales,  about  600  B.C. ;  Pythagoras,
590 ; Aristotle  and Plato,  350 ; Euclid,  300 ; Archi-
medes, 2S7  ;  Hipparchus,  150  ;  Lucretius,  about  100  ;
Julius  0<esar,  50;  Ptolemy,  a.d.  150.
Middle  Ages. — Arabians:  Ben  Musa,  800;  Alhazen,  <fec,
1 100. Herbert,  Decimals,  959. Roger  Bacon, Opus
Majus,  1266.
Inductive  Philosophy :
Copernicus's  system  published ....  1543

Tyeho  Brahc 1546-1601

Gilbert's  researches  in  electricity  and  magnetism 1600

Kepler's  Laws 1609-18

Bacon's  Novum  Organum  1620

Galileo's  Dialogues 1632

Royal  Society  begins  {which  see) . . . .  1645
Otto  Guericke — air  pump  and  electi'ic  machine .  1654

Huyghens  on  pendulums  1658

Newton — Fluxions,  1665  ;  Analysis  of  Light,  1669 ;
Theory  of  Gravitation,  1684 ;  Principia  pub-
lished, 1687  ;  death 1727

Bradley  discovers  aberration „

Euler  on  Perturbation  of  the  Planets . . .  1748
Black  on  Heat .........  1762

Laplace  on  Tides 1775

Lagrange,  Mecanique  Analytlque  . . . .  1788

Galvani  and  Volta's  researches  ....  1791

Laplace,  Mecanique  Celeste. : 1799

CErsted  discovers  electro-magnetism . . . 1819

Faraday,  magneto-electricity 1831

Hers'chell,  Whcwell,  Tyndall,  W.  Thompson  (lord
Kelvin).

[See  Acoustics,  Astronomy,  Optics,  Chemistry,
Electricity,  <fcc.]

PHIPPS*  EXPEDITION.  The  hon.  captain
Pbipps  (afterwards  lord  Mulgrave)  sailed  from
England  in  command  of  the  Sea-Horse  and  Carcase
ships,  to  make  di-coveries,  as  near  as  possible  to
the  North  Pole.  In  August  1773,  he  was  for  nine
(lays  environed  with  barriers  of  ice,  in  the  Frozen
Ocean,  north  of  Spitsbergen,  80°  48'  N.  hit.  A
brisk  wind  in  two  or  three  days  accomplished  their
deliverance.  They  returned  to  England  without
having  made  any  discoveries,  20  Sept.  1773.  Nelson
was  coxswain  to  the  second  in  command.

PHLOGISTON,  a  term  employed  by  Stahl  to
designate  the  matter  or  principle  of  tire;  ''the  in-
flammable principle"  of  bisbop  Watson,  near  the
close  of  the  17th  century.  The  chemical  theory
based  upon  it,  considered  to  have  been  totally
refuted  by  Lavoisier,  1 790,  has  been  recently  re-
vived in  a  modified  form.

PHOCIS,  a  state  in  Northern  Greece.  The
Phocians  seized  Delphi  357  B-C,  and  commenced
the  second  Sacred  War.  They  were  opposed  by
Thebes  and  other  states,  and  were  utterly  subdued
by  Philip  11.  of  Macedon  in  346.

PHOENICIA,  on  the  sea  coast  of  Syria.  The
natives  were  the  most eminent navigators and


traders  of  antiquity ;  their  cities  or  allied  states
being  Tyre,  Sidon,  Berytus,  Tripoli,  Byblos,  and
Ptolemais,  or  Acre.  From  the  19th  to  the  13th
centuries  before  Christ,  they  established  colonies
on  the  shores  or  isles  of  the  Mediterranean — Car-
thage, Hippo,  Utica,  Gades,  and  Panormus,  and  they
are  said  to  have  visited  the  British  Isles.  Phoenicia
was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  537  B.C.;  b}r  Alexander,
332 ;  by  the  llomans,  47 ;  and  after  partaking  of
tiie  fortunes  of  Palestine,  was  added  to  the  Ottoman
empire,  a.d.  1516. See  Sidon  and  Tyre.

PHQ3NIX  CLUBS,  of  a  treasonable  charac-
ter, were  formed  in  Ireland  in  1858.  They  met  at
night  to  drill.  Several  persons  were  arrested  and
tried  in  March,  1859,  at  Tralee  ;  but  the  jury  could
not  agree  on  their  verdict.  Daniel  Sullivan  was
condemned  to  penal  servitude  for  ten  years,  April,
1859.  Eventually  "some  of  the  prisoners  pleaded
guilty,  and  were  discharged  on  being  bound  over  to
keep  the  peace.

PHCENIX  PAEK  MTJKDEKS,  see  Ire-
land, 1882-3.

PHONEIDOSCOPE,  an  instrument  for  ob-
serving the  colour-figures  of  liquid  films  under  the
action  of  sonorous  vibrations,  being  a  visible  de-
monstration of  the  vibratory  and  molecular  motion
of  a  telephone  plate  ;  invented  by  Mr.  Sedley  Tay-
lor, 1877 ;  manufactured  by  S.  C.  Tisley  &  Co.,
London,  1878.

PHONOGRAPH,  a  machine  proposed  to  be
attached  to  pianofortes  and  other  keyed  instru-
ments, by  which  any  music  that  is  played  may  be
written  down  on  blank  paper,  since  it  rules  and
prints  the  notes  simultaneously.  It  was  patented
by  Mr.  Fenby,  13  June,  1863.  The  motive-power
is  electro-magnetism.  Machines  with  a  similar
object  were  projected  by  Mr.  Creed  in  1747;  Mr.
J.  F.  Unger  in  1774  ;  and  by  Mr.  Carreyre  in
1827.

A  new  phonograph  by  Thomas  Elvey  Edison,  elec-
trician of  New  Jersey,  was  announced  Dec.  1877
Linear  indentations  are  made  by  means  of  a  pin  in
a  sheet  of  tinfoil  by  speaking  or  singing  ;  and
from  these  casts  may  be  taken.  When  these  are
rdaced  upon  the  diaphragm  of  a  telephone  con-
nected with  revolving  apparatus,  the  sounds  may
be  reproduced  with  a  weirdlike  effect.  Improved
by  Mr.  Shelford  Bidwell,  1879.  See  Telephone.
A  greatly  improved  instrument  by  Mr.  Edison
adapted  for  postal  communication  announced
21  Nov.  1S37 ; successful  experiments  reported

12  May,  1888
Professor  Graham  Bell's  graplwplwne,  a  modification

of  Edison's  phonograph,  was  announced Nov.  1887
Mr.  Emile  Berliner  (of  Washington)  announced  his
gramophone, a modification of Leon Scott's

plwnautograpli Nov. ,,

The  phonograph  and  graplwplwne  were  both  exhibited

to  the  British  Association  at  Bath .' Sept.  1888
Exhibitions of Mr. Edison's greatly improved
phonograph,  considered perfect  in the  record,
reproduction  and  preservation  of  sounds  of  all
kinds  (wax  is  used  in  place  of  tinfoil)  Nov.  i338  ct  seq.
Mr.  Edison  receives  phonograms  from  the  duke  of

Cambridge,  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  others . Jan.  1889
Mr. Edison  adapts  his phonograph  to  a  "water
motor  as  well  as  electricity . reported  Sept.  1890

PHONOGRAPHY  (from  the  Greek  phone,
sound),  suggested  by  Franklin,  1768.  The  Phonetic
society,  whose  object  was  to  render  our  mode  of
writing  and  printing  more  consonant  to  sound,  was
established,  I  March,  1843 ;  sir  W.  C.  Trevelyan,
president,  and  Mr.  Isaac  Pitman,  secretary,  the
latter  being  the  inventor  of  the  system  which  was
made  known  in  1837.  Among  other  works  pub-
lished by  the  promoters  of  the  system,  was  the
"Phonetic  News,"  in  1S49;  see  Visible  Sj>cech.


PHONOPOEE.


744


PHOTOGEAPHY.


Pickwick  Papers  in  shorthand,  first  of  a  series,
published  by  Mr.  Pitman  i  May,  1883

Messrs.  Pitman  tirst  publish  in  phonography,  the
New  Testament  from  engraved  jjlat.es  . 8  Oct.  1886

Solfa  system  in  shorthand  first  published 5  Feb.  1887

The  book  of  Common  Prayer ;  and  a  National
"  Phonographic  Library "  begun  in . April, ,,

Mr.  Edison's  talking  dolls,  which  utter  about  30
words,  by  means  of  a  concealed  phonograph  and
clockwork,  were  exhibited  at  the  Savoy  Hotel,
Westminster,  25  J?tly ;  Edison's  phonographic
toy  company  announced . . . .July,  1890

PHONOPOEE,  an  arrangement  of  telegraph
Vires  to  facilitate  transmission  of  sound,  by  check-
ing' the  influence  of  adjoining  wires,  the  invention
of  Mr.  C.  Langdon  Davies,  announced,  May,  1886.
See  Telephones.  The  system  was  stated  to  have
worked  successfully  on  the  Sou!h  Eastern  railway
between  London  and  Folkestone,  Feb.  1887,  the
Midland  railway,  and  others,  18S9-92.

PHONOSCOPE,  an  apparatus  for  testing  the
quality  of  musical  strings,  invented  by  M.  Kcenig,
and  exhibited  at  the  International  Exhibition  in
1862.

Mr.  Edmunds'  phonoscope,  exhibited  to  the  British  As-
sociation, Aug.  1878,  is  an  instrument  for  producing
figures  and  light  from  the  vibrations  of  sound.
The  name  phonoscope  is  given  to  apparatus  used
by  M.  M.  G.  Dumeny  in  photographing  the  lips
of  a  speaker  and  so  combining  the  images  thus
produced  that  they  may  be  understood  by  a  deaf-
mute,  June,  1892. See  Photography,  1891.

PHOSPHOE-BEONZE,  an  alloy  of  copper,
tin,  and  phosphorus,  invented  by  Messrs.  Monte-
riore-Levi  and  Kiinzel,  of  Belgium,  in  1867.  It  is
very  hard,  ductile,  and  elastic,  with  a  colour  le-
sembling  gold.

PHOSPHOEESCENCE.  The  property  pos-
sessed by  some  bodies  of  retaining  luminosity  after
exposure  to  light  observed  by  the  ancients  ;  espe-
cially noticed  by  Vincenzo  Cascariolo  (1602),  Boyle,
Canton,  "Wilson,  and  others;  and  specially  studied
by  Edmond  Becquerel,  and  Balmahi.  See  Lumi-
nous Paint.

PHOSPHOEUS  was  discovered  in  1667,  by
Brandt,  of  Hamburg,  who  procured  it  from  urine.
The  discovery  was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunckel,  a
Saxon  chemist,  about  1670,  and  by  the  hon.  It.
Boyle  about  the  same  time.  Nottv.  Diet.  Phos-
phoric acid  is  first  mentioned  in  1743,  but  is  said  to
have  been  known  earlier.  Gahn  pointed  out  its
existence  in  bones  in  1769,  and  Sehcele  devised
a  process  for  extracting  it.  Canton's  phosphorus
is  so  called  from  its  discoverer,  1768.  Phospho-
rettcd  hydrogen  was  discovered  by  Gengembre
in  1812.  The  consumption  of  phosphorus  lias
immensely  increased  since  the  manufacture  of
lucifer  matches.  In  1845,  Schrotter,  of  Vienna,
discovered  allotropic  or  amorphous  phosphorus,
Avhich  ignites  more  slowly  and  is  less  unwholesome
in  working  than  ordinary  phosphorus.

PHOTOGEAPHY.  The  action  of  light  on
chloride  of  silver  was  known  as  early  as  tlie  16th
century.  The  phenomenon  was  studied  by  Seheele
(1777),  Senebier  (1790),  Bitter  and  AVollaston
(1801).  From  the  results  of  these  investigations,
experiments  were  made  by  Thos.  Wedgwood  and
Humphry  Davy,  in  the  Royal  Institution,  London,
which  were  published  in  its  Journal,  1802.  Wedg-
wood may  be  regarded  as  the  first  photographer.
His  paper  was  entitled  "an  account  of  a  method
of  copying  paintings  upon  glass,  and  of  making
profiles  by  the  agency  of  light  upon  nitrate  of
silver."


Further  discoveries  were  made  by  Niepee  in  1814,  and
sir  J.  Herschel  in  1819.

Louis  J.  M.-Daguerre  commenced  his  experiments  in
1824  ;  and  in  1826  joined  Joseph  Nicephore  Niepee,
and  worked  with  him  till  the  death  of  the  latter  in
1833.  The  production  of  Daguerreotype  plates  was
announced  in  Jan.  1839  ;  and  the  French  chamber  of
deputies  granted  a  pension  to  Daguerre  and  to  Nicpee's
son  Isidore.

In  1839  Mr-  Henry  Fox  Talbot  first  published  his  mode
of  multiplying  photographic  impressions  by  producing
a  negative  photograph  (i.  e. ,  with  the  light  and  shades
reversed)  from  which  any  number  of  positive  copies
may  be  obtained.  His  patent  for  producing  the
Taibotype  or  Calctype  (on  paper)  is  dated  Feb.  1841.

In  1851,  Collodion  (which  see)  was  applied  to  photography
by  Mr.  F.  Archer.

Herr  Franz  Veress  of  Klausenburg,  Transylvania,
photographs  colours  on  glass  and  paper ;  speci-
mens are  exhibited  at  the  Photographic  Institute  at
Vienna,  March,  1890.

The  Photographic  Society  of  London  was  established  in
1853.  It  publishes  a  journal.  On  22  Dec.  1852,  774
specimens  of  photography  were  exhibited  at  the  rooms
of  the  Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi.

Carte  de  Visite  portraits  (which  sec)  taken  by  M.  Ferrier
at  Nice,  1857.

In  1861  Mr.  Thompson,  of  Weymouth,  photographed  the
bottom  of  the  sea.

Photography  was  successfully  applied  to  the  transfer  of
works  of  art  to  wood  blocks  by  Mr.  John  Leighton,  in
his  illustrated  edition  of  Lyra  Germanica,  1861.

In  1S61  professor  O.  M.  Rood  suggested  the  application
of  photography  to  the  microscope.

The  tannin  process  introduced  by  major  Russell  about
1861.

The  copyright  of  photographs  is  secured  by  an  act  passed
in  1862.

Dr.  Henry  Wright  photographed  objects  of  surgical  inte-
rest in  Jan.  1863.

The  Wothlytype  process,  in  which  nitrate  of  silver  anil
albumen  are  discarded  and  a  double  salt  of  uranium
and  collodion  substituted,  invented  by  Wothly,  was
announced  in  the  autumn  of  1864.

The  light  of  ignited  magnesium  was  employed  for  photo-
graphs by  Mr.  Brothers,  of  Manchester,  in  the  spring
of  1864.

Mr.  H.  Van  der  Weyde,  an  American  artist,  succeeded  in
making  electric  light  very  effectual  in  photography,
1876-8.

Photographs  of  the  first  page  of  the  Times,  containing
many  French  advertisements  (ij  inch  long  by  1  inch
wide),  sent  to  Paris  from  Bordeaux  by  balloons,  Jan.
1871.

Criminals  ordered  to  be  photographed  (by  the  act  for
prevention  of  crime),  from  2  Nov.  1871.

Composite  portraits  (in  which  sometimes  9  components
were  used)  formed  by  Mr.  Francis  Galton,  by  means
of  photography,  1877.

The  Autotype  process  for  transferring  and  printing  reported
successful,  April,  1873.

Mr.  E.  J.  Muybridge  photographs,  instantaneously,
animals  in  rapid  motion,  1881  et  seq.  See  Zoopraxiscope.

Capt.  Abney  photographs  a  disc  in  rapid  motion  by  the
electric  spark,  17  March,  1882.

Celestial  Photography  began  with  professor  Bond,  the
astronomer,  of  Cambridge,  U.S.,  who  exhibited  a
photograph  of  the  moon  in  1851.  Since  then,  Mr.
Warren  de  la  Rue,  of  London,  has  produced  excellent
photographs  of  the  moon,  and  other  heavenly  bodies,
and  on  18  July,  i860,  photographed  the  solar
eclipse.

By  means  of  the  gelatine  dry  plate,  the  results  of  the
astronomical  work  of  years  is  now  obtained  in  hours.
Delicate  details  are  obtained  not  only  of  comets
nebula;  and  faint  stars,  but  also  of  stars  invisible  by
the  most  powerful  telescopes.  Since  1S76,  Dr.  W.
Huggins  and  Mr.  Andrew  A.  Common  in  England,  and
Mr.  Draper  in  America,  have  been  eminently  success-
ful in  celestial  photography.  About  400  stars  have
been  depicted  in  the  space  of  two  square  inches.

Photography  successfully  applied  to  the  heavens  by
MM.  Paul  and  Prosper  Henry,  1885-6.  Charts  of  the
whole  heavens  expected  in  ten  years.

Decision  by  justice  North  that  a  photographer  has  no
right  to  sell  or  exhibit  photographs  of  private  sitters  ;
"Pollard  and  wife  v.  The  Photographic  Company,
Rochester,"  20  Dec.  1888.


PHOTOMETEE.


745


PHYSIC.


Mr.  A.  A.  Common's  excellent  telescope  specially
adapted  for  photography,  set  up  at  Killing,  near
London spring,  1890

Mr.  W.  B.  Woodbury  s  "Encyclopaedia  of  Photo-
graphy," published 1890  et  SP.q.

M.  Marey's  method  of  photographing  the  motions  of
living  animals  by  his  chrono-photograph  applied
by  M.  G.  Demeny  to  the  movements  of  the  lips  in
speech,  the  results  being  readable  by  deaf-mutes  ;

reported  Aug. 1891

*.'  Photographie  des  Couleurs  par  la  Methode  inter-
ferentielle  de  M.  Lippmann,"by  Aliihonse  Berget,
published June, ,,

M.  Lippmann  announced  his  method  of  photograph-
ing the  spectrum  in  its  natural  colours  by  pro-
ducing iridescence  on  the  film,  March,  1891-May,  1892

Mr.  F.  E.  Ives  at  the  Royal  Institution,  .London,
10,  17  May,  1892,  exhibited  his  patented  method  of
photographing  colours,  by  which  he  produced
colour  prints.

Photoheliograph,  an  apparatus  for  registering  the
position  of  the  sun's  spots  by  means  of  clockwork
and  photography  ;  erected  at  the  suggestion  of  sir
John  Herschel  at  Kew  observatory  about  1857.  It  was
used  by  Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue  to  photograph  the  disc
of  the  sun  during  the  eclipse  of  18  July,  i860.

Photogalvanography,  the  art  of  producing  engravings
by  the  action  of  light  and  electricity,  The  earliest
specimens  were  produced  by  Nicephore  Niepce,  and
presented  by  him  in  1827  to  the  great  botanist,  Robert
.Brown.  Great  advances  have  since  been  made  in  this
Art  by  MM.  Niepce  de  St.  Victor  (who  published  a
treatise  on  it  in  1856),  Vitry,  W.  R.  Grove,  H.  Fox
Talbot,  &c.  In  1852,  Paul  Pretsch  patented  a  process
which  lie  called  "Photogalvanography."

Photoglyphic  Engraving  (a  process  by  which  the  light
actually  etches  a  picture  on  a  plate  that  may  be  and
has  been  printed  from)  was  patented  by  Mr.  Fox
Talbot  in  1858,  and  is  described  and  exemplified  in  the
Photographic  News,  9  and  16  Sept.  1859,  a  specimen
being  given  in  the  latter  number.

Photozincography  (a  process  by  which  photographs
are  transferred  to  zinc  plates  which  may  be  printed
from)  was  devised  by  sir  Henry  James,  chief  of  the  Ord-
nance Survey,  and  made  known  in  i860.  By  it  maps,
charts,  and  engravings  may  be  printed  at  a  small  cost.

Photo-Sculpture  :  M.  Villeme's  employment  of  photo-
graphs in  the  formation  of  sculpture  was  announced  in
1863.

Messrs.  Goupil's  process  of  Photogravure,  rivalling
mezzo-tint,  reported  highly  successful  ;  fine  pictures
reproduced,  Feb.  1884.

PHOTOMETER  (light  measurer) ; one  was
constructed  by  Dr.  W.  Ritchie  in  1825. Many  im-
provements have  been  made recently  in  photo-
metry. See  under  Stars.
Mr.  A.  Vernon  Harcourt's  new  liolophotometer  highly

approved  June,  1888.
Stellar  Photometry,  the  measurement  of  the  light  of  the
stars,  has  been  much  studied  by  astronomers,  especi-
ally by  sir  John  Herschel,  prof.  Argelander,  prof.  C.
Pritchard  and  others.  Mr.  W.  J.  Dibdin,  in  his  "  Guide
to  the  measurement  of  light,"  published  in  1889,  de-
scribes his  application  of  terrestrial  photometry  to
stellar  light.

PHOTOPHONE.  In  this  apparatus,  con-
structed by  professor  Graham  Bell  and  Mr.  Sumner
Tainter  of  Washington,  in  1880,  a  thin  plane
mirror  is  thrown  into  vibration  by  the  voice ;  a
beam  of  light  is  reflected  from  this  mirror  and  re-
ceived at  a  distance  by  a  cell  of  the  metal  selenium;
when,  by  arrangement,  this  is  connected  with  a
telephone,  the  sounds  are  reproduced.

PHOTOSPHERE,  see  Sun,  note.

PHOTOTACHOMETER,  an  instrument  for
measuring  the  velocity  of  light,  invented  by  Pro-
fessor Simon  Newcomb  of  Washington,  1879-80.

PHRENOLOGY,  see  Craniology

PHRYGIA  (now  Karamania),  a  province  in
Asia  Minor,  became  part  of  the  Persian  empire  in


537  rt.c,  and  partook  of  its  changes.  After  their
defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  190
B.C.,  the  Romans  added  Phrygia  to  the  kingdom  of
Pergamus,  which  was  bequeathed  to  them  by
Attalus  III.,  the  last,  king,  133  B.C.

PHYLLOXERA,  see  Vine.

PHYSIC  appears  to  have  been  first  practised
by  the  Egyptian  priests.  Pythagoras  endeavoured
to  explain  the  philosophy  of  disease  and  the  action
of  medicine,  about  529  B.C.  Hippocrates,  the  father
of  medicine,  nourished  about  422  B.C.,  and  Galen,
born  a.d.  131,  wa3  the  oracle  of  medical  science.
About  980  Avicenna,  an  Arab,  wrote  a  system  of
medicine.  Dr.  It.  Quain's  Dictionary  of  Medicine,
published  1882. See  Medical.

The  dogmatic  age  of  medicine  lasted  till  the  Reforma-
tion, when  it  was  attacked  by  Paracelsus  (1493- 1 541),
and  Vesalius  (1514-64).  Since  1800  medical  practice
has  been  completely  transformed  by  physiological
and  chemical  research.
The  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  by  Dr.
Harvey,  furnished  an  entirely  new  system  of  physio-
logical and  pathological  speculation,  1628.  See  Medi-
cal and  Societies.
Physician  to  the  King.— John,  the  king's  chaplain  and
physician  (afterwards  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells),  men-
tioned 1090.
The  earliest  mandate  or  warrant  for  the  attendance  of  a
physician  at  court  is  dated  1454,  and  33  Henry  VI.,  a
reign  fertile  in  the  patronage  which  was  afforded  to
practitioners  in  medicine  ;  but  no  appointment  existed
which  can  justly  be  called  physician  to  the  royal  per-
son. By  this  warrant  the  king,  with  the  consent  of
his  privy  council,  deputed  to  three  physicians  and  two
surgeons  the  regulation  of  his  diet,  and  the  administra-
tion of  such  medicines  and  remedies  as  might  be  suffi-
cient for  his  cure,  without  any  allusion  to  the  previous
existence  or  permanency  of  the  office  which  they  were
authorised  for  a  time  to  fill,  or  to  a  remuneration  for
their  services. — Life  of  Linacre.
Miss  Garrett  (afterwards  Mrs.  Anderson)  licensed  at
Apothecaries'  hall,  London,  to  practise  medicine,  2S
Sept.  1865.
At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical
Society,  3  May,  1869,  it  was  resolved  that  the  "  Royal
Society  of  Medicine  "  (including  the  various  sections)
be  founded  ;  the  resolution  was  affirmed,  22  Feb.  1870  ;
but  in  1871  the  project  dropped.
School  of  Medicine  for  Women  in  London  (council  :
Professors  Burdon-Sanderson  and  Huxley,  Mrs.  Garrett-
Anderson,  M.D.,  Mrs.  Blackwell,  M. D.,  and  others);
opened,  Oct.  1874.
Registration  of  medical  women,  permitted  by  Medical

act,  39  it  40  Vict.  c.  41,  11  Aug.  1876.
The  queen  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Medical  Examination
hall  on  the  Victoria  Embankment,  24  March,  1886.
See  Anatomy.

EMINENT MEDICAL MEN.

Bom  Died

Cornilius  Celsus 14  a.d.

Paulus  iEgineta  flourished  ....  about  630

Averrhocs . . . . . . 12  Dec.  1198

Thomas  Linacre 1460  1524

Paracelsus 1493  1541

Ambrose  Pare,  French  surgeon . . .  1517  1590

William  Harvey 1578  1657

Thomas  Sydenham 1624  1689

Malpighi 1628  1694

Hermann  Boerhaave 1668  1738

R.  Mead 1673  1754

Albert  von  Haller 1708  1777

William  Hunter 1718  1783

John  Hunter 1728  1793

R.  T.  Laennec 1781  1826

John  Abernethy 1764  1831

Astley  Cooper 1768  1841

Sir  James  Voting  Simpson  (introducer  of

anaesthetics) 1S11  1870

Sir  Henry  Holland 1788  1873

Henry  Bence  Jones 1813  1873

Sir  Thomas  Watson 1792  1882

Richard  Quain 1803  1887

Sir  Wm.  W.  Gull 1816  1890

Sir  Jas.  Risdon  Bennett 1809


PHYSIC  GARDENS.


746


PICTS.


Bom
Sir  George  Paget . .  . . .  1809

Sir  Jas.  Paget 18 14

Sir  ffm.  Jenner  . 1815

(Sir  Richard  Qnain 1816

>Sir  Morell  Mackenzie 1837 1892

John  Eric  Erichsen 181S

Sir  Joseph  Fayrer 1824

Sir  Andrew  Clark 1826

Sir  Joseph  Lister 1827

PHYSIC  GARDEN'S.  The  first  cultivated
in  England  was  by  John  Gerard,  surgeon  of
London,  in  1567  ;  that  at  Oxford  was  endowed  by
the  carl  of  Dauby,  in  1652  ;  that  at  Cambridge  was
commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  ;
and  that  at  Chelsea,  originated  by  sir  Hans  Sloane,
was  given  to  the  Apothecaries'  company  in  1721  ;
tli  s  last  was  very  much  admired  by  Linnaeus.

PHYSICAL  SOCIETY,  established  14  Feb.
1874;  Dr.  J.  II.  Gladstone,  first  president.

PHYSICIAN'S,  Royal  College  op,  of

London  (of  England  since  1858),  was  projected  by
Dr.  Lin  acre,  physician  to  Henry  VI1L,  who,
through  his  interest  with  cardinal  Wolsey,  obtained
letters  patent,  constituting  a  corporate  body  of
regular  physicians  in  London,  with  peculiar  privi-
leges, 23  Sept.  1518.  Linacre  was  elected  the  first
president  of  the  college.  Dr.  W.  Harvey  was  a
great  benefactor  to  this  institution,  1653.  He  built
a  library  and  public  hall,  which  lie  granted  for  ever
to  the  college,  with  his  books  and  instruments.
The  college  was  afterwards  held  in  a  building  in
Warwick-lane,  erected  by  sir  C.  Wren,  where  it
continued  till  1825,  when  the  present  elegant  stone
edifice  in  Trafalgar-square  was  erected  from  designs
by  sir  It.  Smirke. — The  College  of  Physician?,
Dublin,  was  founded  by  charter  of  Charles  II.  1667,
and  was  re-incorporated  in  1692.  The  Ro)-al  Col-
lege of  Physicians,  Edinburgh,  29  Nov.  1681.

RECENT  PRESIDENTS OF  ROYAL COLLEGE, LONDON.


Died  j PIACENZA,  see  Placentia.


1862.  Sir  Thomas  Watson.

1867.  Sir  James  Alderson.

1871.  Sir  George  Burrows.

1876.  Sir James Kisdon

Bennett.

1881.  Sir  Win.  Jenner.

1888.  Sir  Andrew  Clark.


1796.  Thomas  Gisbornc.
1804.  Sir  Lucas  Pepys.
1S11.  Sir  Francis  Milman.

1813.  John  Latham.
1820.  Sir  Henry  Halford.

18 14.  John  Ayrton  Paris.
1857.  Thomas  Mayo.

PHYSICS,  see  under  Philosophy.
PHYSIOGNOMY, a  science  which  affirms
that  the  dispositions  of  mankind  may  be  discovered
from  the  features  of  the  face. The  origin of  the
term  is  referred  to  Aristotle;  and  Cicero  was  at-
tached to  the science. It became  a  fashionable
study  from  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century ;  and
in  the  18th  century,  the  essays  of  Le  Cat  and  Per-
nethy  led  to  the  modern  system.
J.  K.  Lavater,  who  endeavoured  to  raise  physiognomy  to
the  rank  of  a  science,  published  his  celebrated  work
"  Physiognomische  Fragmente,"  1775-78,  of  which  an
English  translation  by  Holcroft  was  published  in  1793.
The  subject  was  considered  by  C.  R. Darwin  in  his
work "  Expression of the emotions in Man and
Animals,"  1873,  and  by  Mantegazza  in  his  "  Physiog-
nomy and  Expression,"  1890.

PHYSIOLOGY  is  that  part  of  physics  which
treats  of  the  inner  constitution  of  animals  and
plant*,  and  the  several  functions  and  operations  of
all  their  organs  and  tissues.  The  works  of  Miillcr,
Milne-Edwards,  Huxley,  and  Carpenter  are  much
celebrated,  and  Todd's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Physiology  "
(1836-59)  is  a  library  in  itself.  Physiological
Society,  in  London,  founded  by  Dr.  Burdon-Sander-
so:i  and  others,  early  in  1876;  sec  Anatomy,  Bi-
ology, Morphology,  Poyal  Institution.  Inter-
national congresses  of  physiology :  Basle,  1888 ;
Liege,  Aug.  1892.


PIANETTE,  a  small  upright  piano  introduced
by  Bord  of  Paris  in  1857.

PIANOFORTE.^  The  invention  is  attributed
to  Cristofalli  (or  Cristofori),  an  Italian,  J.  C.
Schroter,  a  German,  and  Marius,  a  Frenchman,
early  in  the  18th  century.  The  strings  are  struck
by  small  hammers,  and  not  by  quills,  as  in  harpsi-
chords. Schroter  is  said  to  have  presented  a  model
of  his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony,  in  1717 ;
and  G.  Silberman  manufactured  pianofortes  with
considerable  success  in  1772.  Pianofortes  were
made  in  London  by  M.  Zumpie,  a  German,  1766,
and  have  been  since  greatly  improved  by  Clementi,
Broadwood,  Collard,  Kirkman,  Erard,  Pleyel,  and
others.

Upright  pianos,  first  made  in  this  country,  were  sug-
gested by  Isaac  Hawkins  in  1800,  and  Thomas  Loud,
in  1802.  Win.  Southwell  patented  "cabinet  pianos"
in  1807  ;  superseded,  from  about  1840,  by  the  cottage,
piccolo,  and  other  pianos.

A  keyed  instrument  at  Modena  was  named  "piano  e
forte,"  1598.

A  "stone  pianoforte,"  formed  of  a  series  of  flints  and
other  stones  of  various  sizes,  collected  in  France  aiul
arranged  by  M.  Baudre,  was  played  on  by  him  at  the
Royal  Institution,  on  16  March,  1866.

The  new  transposing  piano,  invented  by  Mr.  Henry
Schallehn,  was  exhibited  at  the  Savoy  hotel,
Westminster,  10  June,  1890.

The  Janko  pianoforte,  with  a  new  arrangement  of  key-
board, exhibited  in  the  Portman  rooms,  London,  W.,
24  Nov.  et  seq.  1S91,  said  to  possess  many  advantages.

See  Grove's  "  Dictionary  of  Music,"  article  "1'ianoforte."

PICARDY  (N.  France),  was  conquered  by  the
English  in  1346,  and  by  the  duke  of  lmrgundy  in
141 7,  to  whom  it  was  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Arras,
21  Sept.  1435,  and  annexed  to  France  by  Louis  XL,
1463.

PICCADILLY,  a  fine  street,  ^Y.  London ;  the
name,  of  uncertain  origin,  was  Pickadilla  and  Pi-
gudello,  about  1660,  when  a  house  of  entertain-
ment existed  near  the  Haymarkct,  termed  Picka-
dilly  hall,  after  which  buildings  were  gradually
extended  westwards.

PICCOLO,  a  small  piano  introduced  by  Robert
"Wornum  in  1829.

PICENTINES,  a  Sabine  tribe,  subdued  by  the
Romans,  and  their  capital,  Asculum,  taken,  268  rs.c.
They  began  the  Social  war  in  90,  and  were  con-
quered in  89  11. c.

PICHEGRU'S  CONSPIRACY,  sec  Georges,

&c.

PICKETING,  see  Trials,  Aug.  1867.
R.  Read  and  four  other  cabinetmakers  imprisoned

for  picketing . . . . . . May,  1875

PICQUET,  a  game  with  cards,  invented,
it  is  said,  by  Joquemin,  for  the  amusement  of
Charles  VI.  of  France,  then  in  feeble  health,  1390.
Mezeray.

PICTS  (possibly  from  Picti,  painted),  the  name
given  to  the  earliest  known  inhabitants  of  the  cast


*  The  nucleus  of  the  instrument  was  a  little  box  over
which  was  stretched  strings  :  such  was  the  citole,  the
dulcimer,  and  the  psaltery.  The  clavitherium  had  keys  ;
the  clavichord  (about  1500)  had  dampers;  successive
improvements  were  the  virginals  (on  which  queen  Eliza-
beth played),  the  spinet  (about  1700),  and  the  harpsi-
chord (with  two  rows  of  keys),  said  to  have  been  used
in  the  15th  century,  for  which  Bach  and  Handel  com-
posed in  the  17th  century.  A  collection  of  harpsichords
(one  dated  1555)  is  in  the  South  Kensington  museum.
A  double-pianoforte  (with  two  keyboards  reversed),
giving  remarkable  effects  (patented  by  M.  M.  Mengeot),
played  on  at  Coveut-gardeu  theatre,  21  Oct.  1878.


PICTUEES.


747


PILNITZ.


of  Scotland,  by  the  Eomans,  who  made  expeditions
into  the  country,  296  ct  seq. ;  see  Roman  Wall.

PICTUEES,  see  Tainting.

PIEDMONT  (Pedemontiicm,  Latin,  foot  of  the
mountains),  a  region  in  N.  Italy,  formerly  the  seat
of  government  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which
see,  and  Savoy. Population,  1890,  3,234,506.

PIE-POUDEE  COUET,  the  Court  of  Dusty
Foot,  w  hose  jurisdiction  was  established  for  cases
arising  at  fairs  and  markets,  to  do  justice  to  the
buyer  and  seller  immediately  upon  the  spot.  By
stilt.  17  Edw.  IV.,  it  had  cognizance  of  all  disputes
in  the  precincts  of  the  market  to  which  it  might  be-
long, 147;.

PIEE  AND  HABBOUE  ACT,  to  facilitate
the  formation,  management,  and  maintenance  of
piers  and  harbours  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,
was  passed  in  1862.

PIETISTS,  a  Lutheran  sect,  instituted  in
Leipsic,  by  Philip  James  Spener,  a  professor  of
theology,  about  1689,  with  the  view  of  reforming
the  popular  religion.  He  established  "colleges  of
pietists,"  with  preachers  resembling  those  of  the
society  of  friends  and  the  methodists  in  Britain,
about  1760.  A  body  resembling  the  Pietists,  named
Chasidim,  arose  among  the  Jews  in  the  Ukraine,
and  spread  through  Poland  and  European  Turkey.

PIETEO  BABSANTI  Cltjb,  see  Italy,  1878.

PIEZOMETEE  (Greek piezo,  I  compress),  an
appirams  for  measuring  the  compressibility  of
liquids,  invented  by  (Erstcd  (died  185 1)  ;  improved
by  Desprctz  &  Saigey.

PIGEONS  were  employed  as  earners  by  the
ancients,  Hirlius  and  Brutus  corresponded  by
means  of  pigeons  at  the  siege  of  Mouena.  The
pigeons  of  Aleppo  served  as  couriers  at  Alexandretta
and  Bagdad.  Thirty-two  pigeons  liberated  from
London  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning,  22  Nov.  1819 ;
at  noon  one  of  them  arrived  at  Antwerp  ;  a  quarter
of  an  hour  afterwards  a  second  arrived;  the  re-
mainder on  the  following  day.  Phillips.  At  a
pigeon  race,  25  July,  1872,  from  Spalding  to  Lon-
don, the  speed  allowed  was  90  seconds  a  mile  ;  see
Post  Office,  1870.

Tn  a  pigeon  race  from  Dover  to  Plymouth,  some  pigeons
attained  the  velocity  of  1,233  yards,  1,218  yards  and
i,ooS  yards  per  minute  22  July,  1886.  About  300
pigeon-flying  societies  exist  in  France :  the  organization
of  carrier-pigeon  stations  ordered -by  the  minister  for
war,  Jan.  1888.  About  350  similar  societies  exist  in
Germany,  stated  Jan.  1888.

National  Peristeronic  Society  (originating  from  the  Co-
lumbarian  Society,  founded  in  1750),  has  annual  shows.

A  bill  for  prohibiting  shooting  pigeons  rising  from  a
trap,  attended  with  cruelties,  passed  by  the  commons
with  large  majorities,  in  1883  and  1884(195 — 40),  was
rejected  by  the  lords  in  1883  (30 — 17),  and  on  9  May,
18S4  (78—48).

The  London  Columbarian  society  opened  its  15th
annual  exhibition  of  pigeons,  at  the  Westminster
Aquarium,  2  Dec.  1891

PIGMIES,  see  Divarjs.
,  PILCHAED  FISHEEY. Peculiar  to  Lands
End,  Cornwall,  reverts  to  AV.  Ireland,  after  sus-
pension of  two  centuries  (stated  July,  1883).

PILGEIMAGE  OF  GEACE,  a  name  as-
sumed by  religious  insurgents  in  the  north  of  Eng-
land, who  opposed  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries.
The  movement,  which  commenced  in  Lincolnshire
in  Sept.  1536,  was  suppressed  in  Oct. ;  but  soon
after  revived  in  Yorkshire;  and  an  expedition,
bearing  the  foregoing  name,  having  banners  on
which  were  depicted  the  five  wounds  of  Christ,  was


headed  by  Aske,  and  other  gentlemen,  and  joined
by  priests  and  40,000  men  of  York,  Durham,  Lan-
caster, and  other  counties.  They  took  Hull  and
York,  with  smaller  towns.  The  duke  of  Norfolk
marched  against  them,  and  by  making  terms  dis-
persed them.  Early  in  1537  they  again  took
arms  but  were  promptly  suppressed,  and  the  leaders,.
several  abbots,  and  many  others,  were  executed.

PILGEIMAGES  began  with  the  pilgrimage-

of  the  empress  Helena  to  Jerusalem,  326.  They  be-
came very  frequent  at  the  close  of  the  10th  centuiy.
Eobert  II.  of  France  made  several  pilgrimages ;
among  others  one  to  Rome  about  the  year  ioi6r
perhaps  in  1020,  when  he  refused  the  imperial
dignity  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  pilgrimage-
to  Canterbury  is  described  by  Chaucer  in  his  Canter-
bury Tales  about  1383.  The  pilgrimage  of  Maho-
metans to  Mecca,  the  birth-place  of  the  prophet,  ia
commanded  in  the  Koran.  It  still  continues,  and
is  frequently  accompanied  by  great  outbreaks  of
cholera,  which  see.  Pilgrimages  to  shrines  of  the
Virgin  Mary  in  France  revived  in  1873,  and  since,
in  consequence  of  miracles  alleged  to  have  taken
place  at  La  Salette  in  1846  and  at  Lourdes,  11
Feb.  1858  ;  those  of  La  Salette  discredited  by  Pope
Leo  X.,  1879.  See  Sacred  Heart.
100  American  pilgrims  received  by  the  pope  9  June,  1S74
About  100  agricultural  labourers  (locked  out  for
being  unionists)  traversed  England  as  pilgrims,
receiving hospitality and money; beginning

30  June,  et  sc'i. ,,
English  R.C.  pilgrimage  to  shrine  of  St.  Edmund.

archbishop  of  Canterbury,  at  Pontigny Sept. ,,
English  pilgrimage  to  Lourdes  directed  by  the  "Ca-
tholic Union  of  Great  Britain,"  start  proposed ;

given  up Aug.  iSSo

[See  Boulogne]

P1LGEIM  FATHEES,  the  name  given  irt
North  America  to  a  party  of  74  English  puritans
and  28  women,  members  of  John  Bobinson's
church,  who  sailed  in  the  May  Flower  from  Leyden
to  North  America,  and  landed  on  I'lymouth  Kock„
where  they  founded  a  colony,  25  Dec.  1620.

"PILGEIM'S  PEOGEESS  from  this;
World  to  that  which  is  to  Come,"  written

by  John  Bunyan,  in  Bedford  gaol,  where  he  was.
imprisoned  twelve  years,  1660-72.  The  first  part
was  published  in  1678.  A  Hebrew  version  appeared
in  1 85 1  ;  see  Bedford.

PILLAE  SAINTS,  see  Monachism.

PILLOEY,  a  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,
to  render  them  publicly  infamous.  This  punish-
ment was  awarded  against  persons  convicted  of
forgery,  perjury,  libelling,  &c.  In  some  eases  the
head  was  put  through  a  hole,  the  hands  through
two  others,  the  nose  slit,  the  face  branded  with  one
or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  were  cut  oft".
There  is  a  statute  of  the  pillory,  41  Hen.  III.  1256.
Many  persons  died  in  the  pillory  by  being  struck
with  stones  by  the  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs
and  putrid  offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a  punish-
ment except  for  perjury,  1815,  and  totally  abolished
in  1837.  The  last  who  suffered  at  the  Old  Bailey
was  Peter  Jas.  Bossy,  for  perjury,  22  June,  1830.

PILNITZ  (near  Dresden,  Saxony).  The  con-
vention of  Pilnitz  took  place  between  the  emperor
Leopold  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  20  July,  1791.  On
27  /lug.  the  treaty  of  Pilnitz,  or,  as  some  style  it,
the  Partition  treaty,  was  finally  agreed  upon  at
Pavia  by  the  courts' in  concert.  It  was  to  the  effect
"that  the  emperor  should  retake  all  that  Louis XIV.
had  conquered  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and
uniting  these  provinces  to  the Netherlands,  give


PILOT.


748


PITCH.


them  to  his  serene  highness  the  elector  palatine,  to
be  added  to  the  palatinate ;  Bavaria  to  be  added  to
the  Austrian  possessions,"  &c.

PILOT.  The  act  relating  to  pilots,  16  &  17
Vict.  c.  129  (1853),  with  other  acts,  is  embodied  in
the  Merchant  Shipping  act;  see  Trinity- House.

PILPAY,  see  Fables.

PIMLICO,  S.W.  suburb  of  London,  belonging

to  the  Grosvenor  family,  who  have  built  largely

upon  it  since  1830.

On  20  Dec.  1881,  Georgina  Moore,  7I  years  old,  living
with  her  parents  in  Winchester-street,  disappeared  ;
her  body  was  found  by  bargemen  in  the  Medway,  near
Yalding,  30  Jan.  1882.  Esther  Pay,  with  whom  she
was  last  seen,  accused  of  her  murder,  was  acquitted,
29  April,  1882.

Pimlico  poisoning  case. See  Trials,  April,  1886.

PINCHBECK,  an  alloy  of  25  per  cent,  of  zinc,
and  75  copper,  used  for  watch-cases,  &c,  named
after  Mr.  Christopher  Pinchbeck,  a  toyseller  in  Cock-
burn-street,  London,  who  died  March,  1783.

PINE-TREES.  The  stone  pine  (Pinus  Pined),

brought  to  these  countries  before  1548.  The  cluster
pine  (Pintts  Pinaster),  brought  from  the  south  of
Europe  before  1596.  The  Weymouth  pine  {Pintts
Strobus),  from  North  America,  1705.  Frankincense
pine  (Finns  Tceda),  from  North  America,  before
1713. There  are  other  varieties.

PINKIE  (near  Edinburgh),  where  the  English
under  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  protector,  totally  de-
feated the  Scots  under  the  regent  Arrun,  10  Sept.
1547.  There  fell  not  200  of  the  English,  but  above
10,000  of  the  Scots.  Above  1500  were  taken  prisoners.

PINS  have  been  found  in  British  barrows  (Fos-
brolce)  ;  and  are  mentioned  in  a  statute  of  1483.  Brass
pins  were  brought  from  France  in  1540,  and  first
used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard,
queen  of  Henry  YIII.  Pins  were  made  in  England
in  1543.  Stow.  They  were  first  manufactured  by
machinery  in  England  in  1824,  under  a  patent  of
Lemuel  Wellman  Wright,  of  the  United  States.

PIOMBINO,  a  principality,  Italy,  previously
a-uled  by  the  Appiani  family,  v  as  acquit  ed  by  the
Spaniards,  1589.  It  was  ceded  to  France,  1801,
and  given  by  Napoleon  to  his  sister  Elise,  wife  of
prince  Bacciochi,  who  held  it  from  1805  1o  1815,
when  it  was  restored  to  the  Buoncampagni  family,
subject  to  Tuscany.  It  became  part  of  the  kingdom
of  Italy,  i860.

PIPE  ROLL  SOCIETY,  founded  in  1884
for  printing  all  extant  public  records  prior  to  the
year  a.d.  1200.

PIRACY,  Greek  pirati,  was  severely  sup-
pressed by  the  Romans.  Pompey  destroyed  the
Cilician  pirates,  67  B.C. ;  sec  Buccaneers.  Many
acts  of  parliament  have  been  passed  for  the  sup-
pression of  piracy ;  the  latest  in  1837.

PIRAEUS,  the  port  of  Athens,  was  united  to
the  city  by  two  long  walls,  one  erected  by  'Ihemisto-
cles,  and  the  other  by  Pericles,  456  B.C.,  which  were
destroyed  by  Lysander,  404  B.C.  It  was  fortified  by
Conon,  393  B.C.  The  Piraeus  was  able  to  contain
400  Greek  vessels.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French
during  the  Russian  Avar  in  1854.

PIRMASENS  (Bavaria).  Here  Morcau  and
the  French  were  defeated  by  ihe  duke  of  Brunswick
and  the  Prussians,  14  Sept.  1793.

PISA,  an  ancient  city  in  Tuscany,  was  founded
about  six  centuries  before  Christ,  and  was  favoured
by  the  early  Roman  emperors  as  a  flourishing  re-


public. The  citizens  took  an  active  part  in  the
Italian  wars  of  the  middle  ages,  but  became  subject
to  Florence,  after  a  long  siege,  1405-6.  In  1494
Pisa  became  independent  under  the  protection  of
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  but  was  retaken  by  tbe
Florentines  in  1509.  The  university  was  founded
in  1343,  and  revived  by  the  Medici  in  1472  and
1542.  The  rival  popes,  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gre-
gory XII.,  were  deposed  at  a  council  held  at  Pisa  in
1409,  and  Alexander  V.  elected  in  their  room.  The
Campanile  or  leaning  tower  was  built  about  1 154,*
and  the  Campo  Santo  about  the  same  time.

PISCICULTURE,  see  Fisheries.

PISTOLS,  the  smallest  fire-arms,  said  to  have
been  invented  at  Pistoia  in  Italy ;  were  first  used  by
the  cavalry  of  England  about  1544.  Of  late  years
they  have  been  made  with  a  revolving  cylindrical
breech,  in  which  are  formed  several  chambers  for
receiving  cartridges,  and  bringing  them  in  succes-
sion into  a  line  with  the  barrel  ready  for  firing.
The  earliest  model  of  this  kind  of  arm  is  to  be  found
in  the  museum  of  the  United  Service  Institution,
and  is  supposed  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Charles  I.
An  eight-chambered  matchlock  revolver  of  the  16th
century  is  placed  in  the  Royal  Artillery  Museum,
Woolwich.  The  manufacture  of  pistols  by  machinery
was  first  introduced  into  England  from  the  United
States,  America,  in  the  year  1853,  by  col.  Colt,  who  in-
vented the  Colt  revolving  pistol,  1851.  This  system
of  manufacture  induced  the  British  government  to
establish  the  Enfield  armoury,  in  1855  ;  see  Fire-
Arms.

PIT  BROW  WOMEN,  see  Coal,  23  June,
1887.

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,

said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Pitcairn  in  1768,
seen  by  Cook  in  1773,  and  since  colonised  by  ten
mutineers  from  the  ship  Bounty,  captain  Bligh,  in
1789 ;  see  Bounty.

The  mutineers  remained  unknown  to  England  until
discovered  accidentally  in  1814.  A  ship  nearing  the  is-
land was  hailed  by  a  swarthy  youth  in  the  English
language,  when  it  appeared  that  the  mutineers,  soon
after  settling  there,  had  married  some  black  women  from
a  neighbouring  island,  and  had  become  a  well-conducted
community  under  the  care  of  Adams,  the  principal
mutineer.  He  died  in  1829,  when  George  Hunn  Nobbs,
an  Englishman,  who  arrived  a  few  years  before,  became
chief.  In  Aug.  1852  admiral  Moresby  spent  a  few  days
on  the  island.  By  his  means  Nobbs  was  sent  to  England
and  obtained  ordination.  His  death  (aged  86;  an-
nounced Jan.  1885.  As  their  numbers  increased,  the
island  proved  incapable  of  their  support.  The  English
government  removed  them,  with  all  their  property,  in
the  ship  Morayshire,  on  3  May,  1856,  and  landed  them,  after
a  boisterous  passage,  on  Norfolk  Island,  prepared  pre-
viously for  theirreoeption,8  June.  The  government  stocked
Norfolk  Island  with  2000  sheep,  450  head  of  cattle,  and
twenty  horses,  and  gave  them  stores  to  last  twelve
months  ;  their  numbers  were  96  males  and  102  females.

The  island  visited  by  H.M.S.  Peterel  was  found  to  be
prosperous,  Dec.  1875.  Population,  15  Aug.  1879,  93  ;  in
1890,  126.

PITCH,  see  under  Music.


*  The  Campanile  was  erected  to  contain  bells,  and
stands  in  a  square  close  to  the  cathedral.  It  is  built  en-
tirely of  white  marble,  and  is  a  cylinder  of  eight  stories,
each  adorned  with  a  round  of  columns,  rising  one  above
another.  It  inclines  so  far  on  one  side  from  the  perpen  -
dicular,  that  in  dropping  a  plummet  from  the  top,  which
is  188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet  from  th  base.
Some  thought  this  was  done  purposely  by  the  architect ;
others  attributed  it  to  an  accidental  subsidence  of  the
foundation.  From  this  tower  Galileo  made  his  observa-
tion on  gravitation  (about  1635).


PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.


749


PLAGUE.


PITT  ADMINISTRATIONS.*  The  first
administration  was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of  the
Portland  ministry  18  Dec.  1/8?,  and  termi-
nated by  resignation  in  1801.  The  second  was
formed  12  May,  1804;  and  terminated  (after  various
changes)  by  Mr.  Pitt's  death,  23  Jan.  1806.  A
public-  funeral  was  decreed  to  him,  and  40,000^.  to
pay  his  debts.

ADMINISTRATION OF 1 783.

William  Pitt,  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of
the  exchequer.

Earl  Gower,  lord  president.

Duke  of  Rutland,  privy  seal.

Marquis  of  Carmarthen,  and  earl  Temple  (immediately
succeeded  by  lord  Sydney),  secretaries.

Lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor.

Viscount  Howe,  admiralty.

Duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance.

William  Wyndham  Grenville,  Henry  Dundas,  &e.

[Mr.  Pitt  was  joined  by  the  duke  of  Portland,  earl
Spencer,  and  other  leading  whigs  in  1794 ;  he  continued
minister  until  1801.  Many  changes  occurred  in  the
ministry  in  the  long  period  of  seventeen  years.]

ADMINISTRATION OF 1804.

William  Pitt,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.

Duke  of  Portland,  succeeded  by  lord  Sidmouth  (late  Mr.
Addington),  lord  president.

Earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  privy  seal.

Lord  Hawkesbury,  lord  Harrowby  (succeeded  by  lord
Mulgrave),  and  earl  Camden  (succeeded  by  viscount
Castlereagh),  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries.

Viscount  Melville  (succeeded  by  lord  Barham),  admiralty.

Duke  of  Montrose,  Mr.  Dundas,  &c.

PITTSBURG,  the second  city  of  Pennsyl-
vania, founded  on  the  site  of  Fort  Duquesne,  which
see,  in  1759,  and  named  Fort  I'itt,  afterwards  Pitts-
burg, in  honour  of  the  then  British  prime  minister,
"William  Pitt. See  United  States,  July,  1877. The
exhibition  building  burnt,  3  Oct.  1883. Population
in  1880,156,389;  1890,238,617.
Upwards  of  100  persons  perish  by  a  mining  explo-
sion near  here . . . about  11  Nov.  1888.
The  use  of  coal  as  fuel  gradually  superseded  in
Pittsburg  by  inflammable  gas  rising  from  the

ground 1884  et  seq.

Strike  of  about  10,000  railway  men  and  coal-miners

begins  1  Oct.  1891

PITTSBURG  LANDING  (near  Corinth,
Tennessee).  On  Sunday,  6  April,  1862,  a  great
battle  was  fought  between  the  American  federals
under  Grant  and  Prentiss,  and  the  confederates
under  Albert  Sydney  Johnston  and  Beauregard.
The  latter  began  the  attack  and  were  victorious,
but  lost  their  able  general  Johnston.  The  federals
were  reinforced  the  next  day  and  renewed  the  at-
tack ;  the  confederates  maintained  their  ground ;
but  soon  after  retired  in  good  order  to  Corinth.
This  engagement  is  also  named  the  battle  of  Shiloh.

PIT  URINE,  a  new  narcotic,  said  to  have  been
discovered  in  1882  in  Australia.  It  resembles  a
mixture  of  opium  and  tobacco,  and  is  extracted
from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Duboisia  pituri,

PIUS  IV.,  CREED  OF,  see  Confessions.

PLACENTIA  (now  Piacenza),  N.  Italy,
founded  by  the  Komans  about  220  n.c.  It  suffered
in  all  the  convulsions  attending  the  fall  of  the  em-
pire, and  the  wars  of  the  middle  ages.  In  1254  it
fell  under  the  rule  of  the  family  of  the  Scotti.  In
1302  Alberto  Scotto  was  overcome,  and  Placentia

William  Pitt,  second  son  of  the  great  carl  of  Chatham,
was  born  28  March,  1759;  became  M.P.  23  Jan.  1782;
moved  for  a  reform  in  parliament,  7  May,  1782  ;  became
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  July,  1782  ;  died  23  Jan.
1 806.


was  united  to  Milan,  then  ruled  by  the  Visconti.
On  their  extinction  in  1447,  Placentia  revolted,  but
was  taken  by  Sforza  duke  of  Milan,  and  treated
very  cruelly.  In  1513  it  was  given  to  pope  Leo  X.
In  1545,  Paul  III.  gave  it  with  Parma  as  a  duchy  to
his  son  Peter  Louis  Farnese.  The  French  and
Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  and  Sar-
dinians near  Placentia,  16  June,  1746;  see  Parma.

PLACILLA,  Chili,  which  see.  The  site  of  the-
decisive  victory  of  the  congressists  over  president
Balmaceda,  28  Aug.  1891.

PLAGUE.  The  plagues  of  Egypt  (1491  B.C.)
are  described  in  Exodus  ix.,  &c.  The  first  recorded
general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the  world  occurred
767  B.C.  Petavius.  At  Home  a  desolating  plague-
prevailed,  453  b.c.  The  devastating  plague  at
Athens,  which  spread  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  430
B.C.,  is  admirably  described  by  Thucydides.  Another
which  raged  in  the  Greek  islands,  Egypt,  and  Syria,
destroyed  2000  persons  every  day,  187  B.C.  Pliny.
See  Cattle.

At  Rome,  a  most  awful  plague  ;  10,000  persons  perished
daily,  a.d.  80.

Again  ravaged  the  Roman  empire,  167,  169,  189.

Another  in  the  Roman  empire.  For  some  time  5000  per-
sons died  daily  at  Rome  ;  many  towns  entirely  depopu-
lated, 250-265.

In  Britain,  a  plague  swept  away  such  multitudes  that
the  living  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  bury  the  dead,

43°-

A  long-continued  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  558,.
extended  all  over  Asia  and  Africa.

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  inhabitants,
perished,  and  in  Calabria,  Sicily,  and  Greece,  746-749.

In  London,  962.

At  Chichester,  in  England,  an  epidemical  disease  carried
off  34,000  persons,  772. Will.  Malms.

In  Scotland  40,000  persons  perished,  954.

In  London,  great  mortality,  1094  ;  and  Ireland,  1095.

Again,  in  London  ;  it  extended  to  cattle,  fowls,  and  other
domestic  animals,  1111. Holinshed.

In  Ireland  ;  after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry  II.  was
forced  to  quit  the  country,  11 72.

Again,  in  Ireland,  when  a  prodigious  number  perished,
1204.

The  "  Black  Death  "  in  Italy,  1340.

A  plague  raged  throughout  Europe,  causing  extensive?
mortality.  Britain  and  Ireland  suffered  grievously.
In  London  alone  200  persons  were  buried  daily  in  the
Charterhouse-yard,  1348-9.  (That  at  Florence  described
by  Boccaccio.)

In  London  and  Paris  a  dreadful  mortality  prevailed  in
1361-2,  1367,  1369,  and  in  Ireland  in  1370.

A  great  pestilence  in  Ireland  called  the  Fourth,  destroyed
a  great  number  of  the  people,  1383.

30,000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  pestilence  in  Lon-
don, 1407.

Again,  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  famine  ;  great
numbers  died,  1466 ;  and  Dublin  was  wasted  by  a
plague,  1470.

An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471  ;  and  throughout
England,  a  plague  which  destroyed  more  people  than
the  continual  wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding  years,  1478.
Rapin  :  Salmon,

The  Sudor  Anglicus,  or  sweating  sickness,  very  fatal  in
London,  1485. Delaune.

The  plague  in  London  so  dreadful  that  Henry  VII.  and
his  court  removed  to  Calais,  1499-1500. Stow.

The  sweating  sickness  (mortal  in  three  hours),  in  Lon-
don, 1506 ;  and  in  1517.  In  most  of  the  capital  towns
in  England  half  the  inhabitants  died,  and  Oxford  was
depopulated,  9  Henry  VIII. Stoic.

Limerick  was  visited  by  a  plague,  when  many  thousands
perished,  1522.

The  sweating  sickness  again  in  England,  1528  ;  and  in
North  Germany  in  1529  ;  and  for  the  fifth  time  in  Eng-
land, in  1551.

30,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in  London  alone,
1603-1604. It  was  also  fatal  in  Ireland.

200,000  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Constantinople  in
1611.

In  London  a  great  mortality  prevailed,  and  35,417  per-
sons perished,  1625.


PLAIN-SONG.


750


PLANETS.


In  France  a  general  mortality  ;  at  Lyons,  60,000  persons

*Wa-uft>rou<'lit  from  Sardinia  to  Naples :  (being  intro-
^SUo^itl.  soldiers  on  board) .  ra|e
with  such  violence  as  to  carry  off  400,000  ot  the  mnaoi

tTSaSS^VSn*-,  began  Dec.  x664,  which

rWv,\ve cl  till  the  great  conflagration  of  Sept.  1666. _
£to  SUlescdhSd  by  De  Foe  in  his  partially  imagi-

One  ol  tt  mo°st  awful  plagues  that  ever  raged,  prevailed
^S'a^P^S^ich  carried  off  80,000  of

^%t^i£!y-s^r^^a»

^l^a^at^S&in^ensenumbers  we  car-

viP.l  o  f  bv  a  pestilent  disease  in  1804  and  1805.
AgafnaSXi-  an  epidemic  fever  much  resembling

■gBSBSBSSSiR

A^t^tSKeSSv^ugland,  resembling
Afypllus,  -ear  ^don  l^nsJmi^^^. ^  ^

K^"^l>Ei?2fett» seLre. March
rSTinTstracan,  Jam-April,  ,879.


Falcan  (between  Mercury  and  the  Sun),  said  to  be
discovered  by  M.  Lescarbault  a  physician  (not
seen  since),  26  March,  1859  ;  said  to  have  »«8nseen
by  Watson  during  the  solar  eclipse  (doubted  t>>
Peters)  ■ • • •  29>  3°  Jul>>

A  red  star  seen  by  M.  Trouvelot  during  the  solar
eclipse,  most  probably  Vulcan . .  o  Aiaj ,

Minor  Planets  (according  to  Mr.  G.  F  Chambers,
Eoyal  Astronomical  Society,  and  others).

1.  Ceres,  discovered  by  Piazzi  (visible  to  the  naked

2.  Prills,  "discovered  at  Bremen  by  Others  (see
Pallas)  . ■■■■ ■ 28*S


1S78
i333
the


1801

1802


PLAIN-SONG,  see  Chanting.

PT,AN  OF  CAMPAIGN,  see  Ireland  Oct.
tS86  By  this  plan  the  tenant  of  a  farm  was  to  pay
Ms  rent  to  the  National  League  instead  of  to  the
landlord,  and  was  to  be  supported  if  evicted. B

'Guiway,  Oct.  1891.  _  .

PT  ANE  A  true  plane,  so  important  in
mSiTeVy  1  as  been  most  successfully  obtained  by
Sr  JoTeph  WMtworth.  Fine  specimens  were  ex-
libited  atthe  Eoyal  Institution  in  187*

PLANETARIUM,  see  Orrery.

■pt  ATSTRTS Jupiter  was  known  as  a  planet  to

■♦hf  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans,  and  inserted  ma

iV.f  the  heavens,  made  about  600  B.C.,  and  in

s  aid  to  be  in  the  national  library  at  Paris  The
four  satellites  of  Jupiter  discovered  by  Galileo,  7
S  160,  Z  Mars,  Saturn.  We  now  know  nine
T^Jrv  manets  termed  major;  Mercury,  Venus,
^Srit^rs,J-upiter,  Saturn  Uranus,  Nep-
tuneS  Vulcan  (doubtful) ;  and  secondary  or
Sr  situated  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Ju-
,  ter  '  The  numerical  order  differs  in  the  lists  of
T  l^h  Cerman  aud  French  astronomers.  In  the
S?'andSan  lists ,  Aglaia  to  Pandora  are
numbered  47  to  55  ;  Mcle.te  is  ^.
Uranus,  formerly  called  ^*  »  and
Herschel;  discovered  by  W. lieiscne ^  ^^  ^

giuw,  Sidw) • •  Gal'1&(hi  consequence  of  the
Jfep^ie hscove i« 1 by  Ga .1 k  v  M.  gept<


3.  Juiio,  discovered  by  Harding
4 Festo,  discovered  by  Oibers .

5.  ytsircea,  by  K.  C.  HencKe  .

6.  Hebe,  by  the  same  .

7.  Iris,  by  J.  R.  Hind .

8.  Flora,  by  the  same  .
o.  Metis,  by  A.  Graham  .

10.  Hygeia,  by  A.  de  Gaspans .

11.  Parthenojie,  by  the  same .
10.  Fi'ctoria,  by  J.  R.  Hmd  .

13.  Egeria,  by  A.  de.  Gaspans  .

14.  Irene,  by  J.  R.  Hind . .

15.  Eunomia,  by  A.  de  Gaspans

16.  Psyc7ic,  by  the  same

17.  Thetis,  by  R.  Luther . .

18.  Melpomene,  by  J.  R.  Hmd .
in.  Fortuna,  by  the  same
20.  Massilia,  by  A.  de  Gaspans .
21 Lutetia,  by  H.  Goldschmidt . .

22.  Calliope,  by  J.  R.  Hind  .

23.  Thalia,  by  the  same  . _  .

24.  Themis,  by  A.  de  Gaspans  .

25.  Phoccua,  by  M.  Chacornac  .
26 Proserpine,  by  R.  Luther

27.  Euterpe,  by  J.  R.  Hind

28.  Bellona,  by  R.  Luther . .
2n Amphitrite,  by  Mr.  Marth  .

30.  C/raiwa,  by  J.  R.  Hind  .

31.  Euphrosync,  by  James  Ferguson
32 Pomona,  by  H.  Goldschmidt.

33.  Polyhymnia,  by  M.  Chacornac .

34.  Circe,  by  the  same  .
«.  Leucothca,  by  R.  Luther . .
-6 Atalanta,  by  H.  Goldschmidt
37.  Fides,  by  R.  Luther .
-8 Leda,  by  M.  Cliacornac  .
,g.  Lcetitia,  by  the  same  .
40.  Harmonia,  by  R.  Luther  _ .
41 Daphne,  by  H.  Goldschmidt .

42.  Jsis,  by  Norman  Pogson

43.  Ariadne,  by  the  same .

44.  Nysa,  by  H.  Goldschmidt .
45 Eugenia,  bv  the  same

I 46.  Hestia,  by  N.  Pogson . .

47 *Mclcte,  by  H.  Goldschmidt .
1 48.  Aglaia,  by  R.  Luther . .
I 4„-.  Doris,  by  H.  Goldschmidt
I ro Po?es,  by  the  same . . .. •

51 Firoittia,  by  James  Ferguson  .
1 c2 Nemausa,  by  M.  Laurent .

5. Eurojw,  by  H.  Goldschmidt .

54.  Calypso,  by  R.  Luther  . .

A Alexandra,  by  H.  Goldschmidt

56!  Pandora,  by  Mr.  Searle

57.  Mnemosyne,  by  R.  Luther

=8.  Concoj-Jire,  by  the  same  _ .

50.  Daitae,  by  H.  Goldschmidt .

60.  Olympia,  by  M.  Chacornac  .

61 Erato,  by  MM.  Forster  and  Lessmg

62'  £<*o  (orlg.  Titaiua),  by  J..  Ferguson

63 .Ausonia,  by  A.  de  Gaspans .

64.  Angelina,  by  M.  Tempel . • ■„,„„„,,

65.  (We  (orig. Maximihana), by M.  JTenvpel,

66.  Jtfai«,byH.P.Tuttle .  . • S 1  Anvil,

67.  ^ia,  by  N.  Pogson . .  • 17  A ,

68.  MR  toy  R  Luther  .. .  . • *9  AP  , }>
69 Hespcria,  by  M.  Scluaparelh


1  Sept.
29  March,
. 8  Dec.

1  July,
. 13  Aug.

18  Oct.
.  25  April,

12  April,

.  11  May,

13  Sept.

. 2  Nov.

19  May,
.  29  July,
17  March,

17  April,

24  June,

. 22  Aug.

19  Sept.

. 15  Nov.

16  Nov.

. 15  Dec.

.  5  April,

. 6  April,

.  5  May,

8  Nov.

1  March,

.  1  March,

22  July,

. 1  Sept.

.  26  Oct.

. 28  Oct.

6  April,

.  19  April,

19  April,

. 5  Oct.


1807

184s

1847


1850

1851

1852


1853


1854


1855


8  Feb.

31  March,

. 22  Slav,

23  May,

.  15  April,

27  May,

. 28  June,

16  Aug.

. 9  Sept,

15  Sept.

. 19  Sept.

19  Sept.

4  Oct.

.  22  Jan.

6  Feb.

4  April,

. 10  Sept.

10  Sept.

. 22  Sept.

24  March,

9  Sept.
12  Sept.

14  Sept,

15  Sept.

10  Feb.
4  March.


1856


i£57


1858


1859
i860


1S61


*  It  was  believed  at  first  to  be  Daphne,  No  4  aid
hence  was  called  "Pseudo-Daphne,"  when  E.  Schubert
proved It  to  be  a  new  planet.  It  was  not  re-discovered
bv  M  Goldschmidt  till  1  Sept.  1862  when  it  received  its
present  name,  that  of  the  Muse  ot  Meditation.


PLANETS.


751


PLANETS.


83.
84.
85-

86.
87.
88.
89.
go.
91.

Q2.

93-
94.

95-
96.

97-
98.
99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

no.

in.

112.

"3-
114.
US-
116.

117.
11S.
119.

I20.
121.
122.
I23.
124.
125.
I26.
127.
128.
129.
I30.

13I-

332.

133-

134-
135-
136.
137-
138.
139-
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145-
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
«5i-
152-
153-


Pdnopcea,  by  H.  Goldschmidt
Feronia,  by  Peters  and  Safford
Niobc,  by  It.  Luther  .
Clytie,  by  II.  P.  Tuttle  .
Galatea,  by  M.  Tompel
Eurydicc,  by  C.  H.  P.  Peters
Freia,  by  M.  d'Arrest
Frigga,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters .
Diana,  by  R.  Luther
Eurynome,  by  Jas.  C.  Watson
Sappho,  by  N.  Pogson
Terpsichore,  by  M.  Tempel .
Alcmene,  by  R.  Luther
Beatrix,  by  A.  de  Gasparis .
Clio,  by  R.  Luther .
lo,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters .
Semele,  by  P.  Tietjen
Sylvia,  by  N.  Pogson .
Thisbe,  by  C.  H.  P.  Peters
Julia,  by  M.  Stophan .
Antiope,  by  R.  Lutlier
AZgina,  by  Alphonse  Borelly
Undina,  by  C  .  H.  F.  Peters
Minerva,  by  J.  C.  Watson .
Aurora,  by  the  same
Arethusa,  by  It.  Luther
JEgU,  by  M.  Coggia  .
Clotlw,  by  M.  Tempel .
lanthe,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters
Dike,  by  A.  Borelly  . .
Hecate,  by  J.  C.  Watson  .
Helena,  by  the  same
Miriam,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters
Hera,  by  J.  C.  Watson  .
Clymene,  by  the  same
Artemis,  by  J.  C.  Watson
Dionc,  by  J.  C.  Watson .
Camilla,  by  N.  Pogson  .
Hecuba,  by  R.  Luther* .
Felicitas,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters.
Lydia,  by  Alphonse  Borelly
Ate,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters  .
Jphigenia,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters  .
Amalthcea,  by  R.  Luther
Cassandra,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters  .
Thyra,  by  J.  C.  Watson
Sirona  (by  R.  Luther,  14  Sept.)

Peters

Lomia,  by  A.  Borelly .
Peitho,  by  R.  Lutlier . .
Althaea,  by  J.  C.  Watson
Lachesis,  by  A.  Borelly
Hermione,  by  J.  C.  Watson .
Gerda,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters
Brunhilda,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters
Alceste,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters.
Liberatrix,  by  Prosper  Henry
Velleda,  by  Paul  Henry .
Johanna,  by  Prosper  Henry  .
Nemesis,  by  J.  C.  Watson  .
Antigone,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters
Electra,  by  C.  H.  P.  Peters
Vala,  bv  C.  H.  F.  Peters
JEthra,  by  J.  C.  Watson .
Cyrene,  by  J.  C.  Watson
Sophrosyne,  by  R.  Luther  .
Hcrtha,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters .
Austria,  by  J.  Palisa  .
Melibcca,  by  J.  Palisa .
Tolosa,  by  M.  Perrotin
Juewa,  by  J.  C.  Watson.
Suva,  by  J.  Palisa
Lumen,  by  Paul  Henry  .
Polana,  by  J.  Palisa .
Adria,  by  J.  Palisa
Vibilia,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters
Adeona,  by  C.  II.  F.  Peters  .
Lucina,  by  A.  Borelly .
Protogeneia,  by  L.  Schulhof
Gallia,  by  Prosper  Henry
Medusa,  by  M.  Perrotin
Nuwa,  by  J.  C.  Watson  .
Ab iindantia,  by  J.  Palisa  .
AUila,  by  Paul  Henry
Hilda,  by  J.  Palisa


1863
1864

1865

1866

1807


5  May,
29  May,

13  Aug.
7  April,

29  Aug.

22  Sept.

21  Oct.

12  Nov.
15  March,

14  Sept.
2  May,

30  Sept.

27  Nov.
26  April,

25  Aug.
19  Sept.

4  Jan.

16  May,

15  June,
.  6  Aug.

1  Oct.

.  4  Nov.

7  July,

24  Aug.

6  Sept.

23  Nov.

17  Feb.
17  Feb.

, 18  April,

28  May,

11  July,

15  Aug.

22  Aug.
.  7  Sept.

13  Sept.

16  Sept.
10  Oct.

17  Nov.

2  April,
. 9  Oct.

. 19  April,

14  Aug.
. ig  Sept.

12  March,

. 23  July,

.  6  Aug.

>y  0.  H.  F.

. 8  Sept.

12  Sept.
15  March,

3  April,
.  10  April,

12  May,
. 31  July,

31  July,
. 23  Aug.

11  Sept.

5  Nov.
.  5  Nov.

. 25  Nov.

.  5  Feb.

. 17  Feb.

24  May,
.  13  June,

16  Aug.
. 27  Sept.

18  Feb.
18  March, ,,

21  April, ,,

. 19  May, „

10  Oct. ,,

. 13  Oct. „

13  Jan.  1875
. 28  "


1S70
1871

1872


1873


1874


!Ji


23


_an.
Feb.


3  June,
3  June,


8  Jun
10  Jul


y>


7  An.,.
21  Sept.
18  Oct.

1  Nov.

2  Nov,
2  Nov.


*  Atropos  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  R.  Luther,
14  April,  1869. Not  observed  since.


154-
155-
156.
!57-
158.
159-
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.

!67.

168.

169.
170.

171.

172.

173-
174.

175-
176.
177.
178.
179.
1  So.
181.
182.
183.
184.
1S5.
186.
1S7.


190.
191.

192.

J93-
194.

195'


200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.

215-

216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.
=33-
234-
235-
236.

237-
238.

=39-
240.
241.


Bertha,  by  Prosper  Henry . . 4  Nov.  1875

Scylla,  by  J.  Palisa s  Nov.  „
Xanthippe,  by  J.-  Palisa . . . 22  Nov.

Dejanira,  by  A.  Borelly . . 1  Dec.  "

Koronis,  by  V.  Knorre ... 4  Jan.  1876

Aemilia,  by  Paul  Henry . . 26  Jan.  ,,

Unci,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . .20  Feb.  ,,

Athor,  by  J.C.  Watson . . 18  April,  ,,

Laurentia,  by  Prosper  Henry . 21  April,  ,,

Erigone,  by  M.  Perrotin . . 26  April  „

Eva,  by  Paul  Henry . . .12  July,  ,,

Loreley,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 10  Aug.  ,,

Bhodope,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . -17  Aug.  ,,

Urda,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 29  Aug.  ,,

Sibylla,  by  J.  C.  Watson . . 27  Sept.  ,,

y.elia,  by  Prosper  Henry . . 2S  Sept.  ,,

Maria,  or  Myrrha,  by  M.  Perrotin 10  Jan.  1877

Ophelia,  by  Alphonse  Borelly . 13  Jan.  ,,

Baucis,  by  Alphonse  Borelly . . 5  Feb.  ,,

Ino,  by  Alphonse  Borelly . . 2  Aug.  ,,

Phmdra,  by  J.  C.  Watson . . .3  Sept.  „

Andromache,  by  J.  C.  Watson . . 1  Oct.  ,,

Idunna,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 14  Oct.  „

Irma,  by  Paul  Henry  .... 5  Nov.  ,,

Belisana,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 6  Nov.  ,,

Clytcmnestra,  by  J.  -C.  Watson . 12  Nov.  ,,

Garumna,  by  Mv Perrotin. . . 29  Jan.  1878

Eucharis,  by  Cottenot ... 2  Feb.  ,,

Elsa,  by  J.  Palisa .... 7  Feb.  ,,

Istria,  by  J.  Palisa .... 8  Feb.  ,,

Dciopeia,  by  J.  Palisa ... 28  Feb.  ,,

Lunik?,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . 1  March,  ,,

Ccluta,  by  Prosper  Henry . . 6  April,  ,,

Lamberta,  by  Coggia . . . n  April,  ,,

Menippe,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . 18  June,  ,,

Phthia,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters 9  Sept.  ,,

Ismene,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . 22  Sept.  ,,

Kolga,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 30  Sept.  „

Nausikaa,  by  J."  Palisa . . . 17 Feb.  1879

Ambrosia,  by  Coggia ... 28  Feb.  ,,

Procne,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . 21  March,  ,,

Eurykleia,  by  J.  Palisa . . .22  April,  ,,

Philomela,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . .  14  May,  ,,

Arete,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 21  May,  ,,
Ampella,  by  Borellv ... 13  June,

Byblis,  by  C.  H.  F..  Teters . . 9  July,  „

Dynamene,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . 27  July,  ,,

Peneliipe,  by  J.-  Palisa . . . 7  Aug.  „

Chrysei<,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters  . . n  Sept.  ,,

Pompeia,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 25  Sept.  ,,

Callisto,  by  J.  Palisa ... 8  Oct.  ,,

Martha,  by  J.  Palisa  .... 13  Oct.  ,,

Hcrsilio,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters  . . 13  Oct.  ,,

Hedda,  by  J.  Palisa .... 17  Oct.  ,,

Lacrimosa,  by  J.  Palisa  . . . 21  Oct.  ,,

Dido,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters ... 22  Oct.  ,,

Isabella,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 12  Nov.  ,,

Isolda,  by  J.  Palisa  .  .  .  .10  Dec.  „
Medea,  by  J.  Palisa  ...  6  Feb.
Lilcca,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters  .  .  16  Feb!
Aschera,  by  J.  Palisa.  .  .  .  1  March,
CEuone,  by  V.  Knorre .  .  .  .  7  April,
Cleopatra,  by  J.  Palisa  .  .  .  10  April,
Eudora,  by  Coggia  .  .  .  .30  Aug.
Bianca,  by  J.  Palisa  ...  4  Sept.
Thusnelda,  by  J.  Palisa  .  .  .30  Sept.
Stephania,  by  J.  Palisa ... 19  May,

Eos,  by  J.  Palisa 18  Jan.

Isucia,  by  J.  Palisa  .... 9  Feb.  ,,

Bosa,  by' J.  Palisa ... 9  March,  ',,
Oceana,  by  J.  Palisa . . .30  March,
Henrietta,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 19  April,
Weringia,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 19  July,

J'hilosophia,  by  Paul  Henry . .  12  Aug.  ,'
A  git  the,  by  J.  Palisa  . . . .19  Aug.
Adelinda,  by  J/Palisa . . . .  22  Aug. ','

Athavwntis,  by  L.  De  Ball . . 3  Sept.  ,'

Vindobona,  by  J.  Palisa . . 10  Sept.  ,,

Russia,  by  J.  Palisa .... 31  Jan.  1883

Asterope,  by  Borelly . . . n  May,  ,,

Barbara,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters . . 12  Aug.  ,]

Carolina,  by  J.  Palisa ... 28  Nov.  ,,

Honoria,  by  J.  Palisa . . .  26  April,  1S84

Caslestina,  by  J.  Palisa  . . . 27  June,  ,,
Hypatia,  by  V.  Knorre. . . . 1  July, ,,

Adrastea-,  by  J.  Palisa . . . 18  Aug.  ,,

Vanadis,  by  Borelly ... 27  Aug.  ,,
Germania,  by  R.  Luther . . .  12  Sept. ',,


iSCo


1S81
18S2


PLANETS.


752


PLATE.


242.
-243.
244.

245-
246.
247-
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253-
=54-
255-
256.
257-


261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.

273-
274.
275-
276.
277.

278.

279.
280.
281.
282.
283.


290.

291.

292,

293'

294.

295'
296,
297

2j8.


3°4'
3°5'
306.
3°7>


3i4
3i5'
316.
3J7-


324'
32S'

326.
327-
32S.

329.


KriemMM,  by  J.  Palisa  .
Ida,  by  J.  Palisa
Site,  by  J.  Palisa .
Vera,  by  J.  Palisa
Asporind,  by  Borelly
Enkrale,  by  Luther
l.ameia,  bv  J.  Palisa  .
Use,  by  C."  H.  F.  Peters .
Betliita,  by  J.  Palisa  .
Sophia,  by  J.  Palisa
Clementina,  by  Perrotin .
Mathilde,  by  J.  Palisa .
Augusta,  by  J.  Palisa
Oppavia,  by  J.  Palisa .
Walpurga,  by  J.  Palisa
Silesia,  by  J.  Palisa
Tyche,  by  Luther . . .
Aletheia,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters
Huberla,  by  J.  Palisa
Pryw.no,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters
Vcdda,  by  J.  Palisa  .
Dresda,  by  J.  Palisa
Libussa,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters .
Anna,  by  J.  Palisa
Aline,  by  J.  Palisa .
Tirza,  by  Charlois
Adorea,  by  A.  Borelly
Justitia,  by  J.  Palisa .
Anahita,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters .
Penthesilea,  by  V.  Knorre  .
Antonia,  by  Charlois
Atropos,  by  J.  Palisa .
Philagoria,  by  J.  Palisa .
Sapientia,  by  J.  Palisa
Adelheid  by  J.  Palisa
Elvira,  by  Charlois  .
Paulina,  by  J.  Palisa .
Thule,  by  J.  Palisa .
Philia,  by  J.  Palisa
Lvcre'ia,  by  J.  Palisa
Emma,  by  Charlois
Amelia,  by  Charlois

,  by  uharlois .
Kegina,  by  J.  Palisa .
Idea,  by  Charlois  or  J.  Palisa
Nephthys,  by  C.  H.  F.  Peters
Glauke,  by  R.  Luther
Nenetta,  by  M.  Charlois
Bmna,  by  J.  Palisa
Alice,  by  J.  Palisa
Lvdovica,  by  J.  Palisa .
Brasilia,  by  M.  Charlois .
Felicia,  by  M.  Charlois .
Theresa,  by  J.  Palisa .
Phaetusa,  by  M.  Charlois
('axilla,  by  M.  Charlois
Brtptistina,  by  M.  Charlois
Thova,  by  J.  Palisa
Geraldina,  by  Charlois .
Bavaria,  J.  Palisa
( larisa,  by  Charlois  .
Josephine,  by  prof.  Millosevich
C%«,  by  J.  Palisa

,  by  Charlois .
Unitas,  by  prof.  Millosevich .

,'by  M.  Charlois

,  by  Mr.  Borelly  .
Fraternitas,  by  J.  Palisa

,  by  Charlois

,  by  Charlois

,  by  M.  Charlois  .
Chuldaea,  by  J.  Palisa .

,  by  Charlois
Constantia,  by  Palisa .

,  by  Charlois

,  by  Charlois, .

,  by  Charlois

,  by  Charlois .

,  by  J.  Palisa

,  by  J.  Palisa .

,  by  Borelly
Brucia,  by  Dr.  Wolf .
Heidelberga,  by  Dr.  Wolf.

,  by  Dr.  Palisa
llmatar,  by  Dr.  Wolf

,  by  Dr.  Wolf  .

,  by  Dr.  Wolf .

,  by  Dr.  Wolf.


22  S
29
14

6


Sept.  1884

Sept.  „

I.  Oct.  „

. o  Feb.  1885

. 6  March,  ,,

14  March,  ,,

. 5  June,  ,,

16  Aug.  „
. 3  Sept.  „

.  4  Oct.  „

. 27  Oct.  „

12  Nov.  „

31  March,  1886

31  March,  ,,

. 3  April,  ,,

5  April,  ,,
. 4  May,  „

28  June,  ,,

. • 3  Oct.  „

31  Oct.  „

3  Nov.  ,,
. 3  Nov.  „

22  Dec.  ,,

.  27  Feb.  1887

17  May,  ,,
27  May,  ,,

9  June,  „

21  Sept.  ,,

8  Oct.  „

. 16  Oct.  „

4  Feb.  1888
8  March,  ,,

3  April,  „

15  April,  ,,

. 17  April,  ,,

. .  3  May,  „

16  May,  ,,

. 25  Oct.  „

29  Oct.  ,,
. 31  Oct.  „

. 28  Jan.  1889

8  Feb.  „

. 29  May  „

. 3  Aug.  „

3  Aug.  „
.  25  Aug.  „

20  Feb.  1890

10  March,  ,,

, 20  March,  ,,

25  April,  ,,

. 25  April,  ,,

.  20  May,  ,,

15  July,  ,,

.  17  Aug.  ,,

19  Aug.  ,,
. 9  Sept.  ,,

9  Sept.  ,,

. 6  Oct,  „

3  Oct,  „

16  Nov.  ,,

14  Nov.  ,,

.  12  Feb.  1891

. 14  Feb.  ,,

.  16  Feb.  „

.  1  March,  ,,

5  March,  ,,

31  March,  „

6  April,  ,,
. 16  May,  „

11  June, ,,

. 28  Aug.  ,,

30  Aug.  „
. 1  Sept,  „

4  Sept.  ,,
. 8  Sept,  „

11  Sept,  ,,

. 24  Sept.  ,,

. 8  Oct.  ,,

. 12  Oct,  ,,

.15  Oct,  „

27  Nov.  ,,

28  Nov.  ,,

20  Dec.  ,,
25  Feb.  1892

. 4  March,  ,,

18  March,  ,,

19  March,  ,,
19  March,  „


330.  ,  by  Dr.  Palisa . . .19  March,  1892

331.  ,  by  Dr.  Wolf  ... 21  March, ,,,

332.  Columbia,  by  M.  Charlois . .  22  March, ,,

333.  ,  by  M.  Charlois . . .1  April, ,,
[The  later  numbers  are  uncertain.]

PLANIMETEB,,  a  machine  for  measuring  the
area  of  any  figure  by  the  passage  of  a  tracer  round
about  its  perimeter.  Amsler's  planimeter  (in  use
for  several  years)  was  described  at  the  British
Association  meeting  at  Brighton,  Aug.  1872.

PLANING -MACHINE.  One  for  wood  was
constructed  by  Bramah,  about  1802  ;  and  one  fo*
iron  by  Joseph  Clement  in  1825.

PLANTAGENET,*  House  of,  to  which
belonged  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry  II„
1 154,  to  Eichard  III.,  1485 ;  sec  England,  Kings.

PLANTATIONS,  sec  Trade.

PLASSEY,  in  Bengal,  India,  the  site  of  a
battle  fought  between  the  British  under  Clive,  ans}
the  Hindoos  under  Surajah  Dowlah,  23  June,  1757  ;
68,000  men  were  vanquished  by  1000  British  and
about  2000  sepoys.  The  victory  laid  the  foundations
of  our  empire  in  India.

PLASTEE  OF  PARIS.  Gypsum,  sulphate  of
lime,  used  for  moulds,  statuary,  &c,  first  found  at
Montmartre,  near  Paris,  whence  its  name.  The
method  of  taking  likenesses  by  its  use  was  first
discovered  by  Andrea  del  Verrochio,  about  1466.

PLATA, LA,  see  Argentine  Republic.

PLATJEA  (Bceotia,  N.  Greece),  site  of  the-
battle  between  Mardonius,  commander  of  the  army
of  Xerxes  of  Persia,  and  Pausanias,  commander  of
the  Lacedaemonians  and  Athenians,  22  Sept.479n.Cy
the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Myeale.  Of  300,000
Pci-sians  scarce  3000  escaped  with  their  lives.  The*
Grecian  army,  about  110,000,  lost  but  few  men^
The  Greeks  obtained  immense  plunder,  and  were*
henceforth  delivered  from  the  fear  of  Persian  in-
vasions. Platsea,  as  an  ally  of  Athens,  was  destroyed
by  the  Thebans,  372  ;  and  rebuilt  by  Philip  II.  after
his  victory  at  Chferonea,  338.

PLATE.  In  England,  plate,  with  the  excep-
tion of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in  public-houses  by
statute  8  Will.  III.  (1696).  The  celebrated  Plate
act  passed  in  May,  1756.  This  act  was  repealed  in
1780.  The  act  laying  a  stamp-duty  upon  plate-
passed  in  1784;  see  Goldsmiths'  Company.  By
17  &  18  Vict,  c.  96  (1854),  gold  wares  were  allowed
to  be  manufactured  at  a  lower  standard  ;  but  a  later
act  excepted  marriage  rings. — The  art  of  covering
baser  metals  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  either  for
use  or  for  ornament  (plating),  said  to  have  been
invented  by  a  Birmingham  spur-maker,  who  began
with  making  the  branches  of  a  pair  of  spurs  hollow,
and  filling  the  hollow  with  a  slender  rod  of  steel.
He  continued  to  make  the  hollow  larger  and  the  iron;
thicker,  till  at  last  he  merely  coated  the  iron  spur
with  silver ;  see  Electrotype.

Mr.  Wilfred  Joseph  Cripps'  "Old  English  Plate," a  valu-
able work,  containing  the  researches  of  Mr.  O.  Mor-
gan, published,  1878. His  "Old  French  Plate,"  18S0.


*  Fulke  Martel,  earl  of  Anjou,  having  contrived  the
death  of  his  nephew,  the  earl  of  Brittany,  in  order  to»
succeed  to  the  earldom,  Ins  confessor  sent  him,  in  atone-
ment for  the  murder,  to  Jerusalem,  attended  by  only  two-
servants,  one  of  whom  was  to  lead  him  by  a  halter  to  the?
Holy  Sepulchre,  the  other  to  strip  and  whip  him  there,
like  a  common  malefactor.  Broom,  in  French  genet,  in
Latin  genista,  being  the  only  tough,  pliant  shrub  in.
Palestine,  the  noble  criminal  was  smartly  scourged  with,
it,  and  from  this  instrument  of  his  chastisement  he  was-
called  Planta-genisto,  or  Plantagenet;  other  accounts  are:
given. Skinner  and  Meseray.


PLATE-WAYS.


7o3


PLUM.


Duty  on  silver  plate  to  be  reduced  gradually  till  abolished,
from  i  June,  1881  ;  abolished  17  April,  1890.

PLATE-WAYS,  on  ordinary  roads  for  waggons
carrying  goods,  proposed  at  Liverpool  about  1880,
to  supersede  railways  lor  cheapness ;  not  adopted,
Jan.  1883.

PLATFORM,  see  Public  Meetings.

PLATINUM,  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,
except  iridium.  The  name  originated  with  the
Spaniards  on  account  of  its  silvery  colour ;  Plata
signifying  silver.  It  was  found  in  the  auriferous
sand  of  the  river  Pinto,  in  South  America,  and  was
unknown  in  Europe  until  1741,  when  don  Antonio
Ulloa  announced  its  existence  in  the  narrative  of  his
voyage  to  Peru.  Grcig.  In  its  ore  have  been  found
the  metals  palladium,  rhodium,  osmium,  iridium,
and  ruthenium  (which  see).  In  1859,  M.  H.  S'.e.-
Claire  Deville  made  known  a  new  method  of  obtain-
ing platinum  from  its  ore,  in  great  abundance  and
purity;  and  at  the  international  exhibition  of  1862
was  shown  a  mass  worth  3840;.,  weighing  2665  lb.,
of  a  metal  hitherto  considered  infusible,  obtained
by  his  process,  employing  the  oxy-hydrogen  flame.
See  Philosophical  Lamp,
Dode's  process  for  coating  iron  with  platinum  to  prevent

rust,  shown  at  Johnson  <fc  Matthey's,  11  Jan.  1879.

PLATONIC  PHILOSOPHY,  the  most
popular  of  all  systems  (see  Philosophy).  Plato's
dialogues  have  been  termed  "  Philosophy  backed  by
example."  He  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  409  B.C.,
and  died  347.  The  leading  feature  of  his  mind  was
comprehensiveness.

PLATONIC  YEAR,  (he  period  of  time  which
the  equinoxes  take  to  finish  their  revolution,  at  the
eud  of  which  the  stars  and  constellations  have  the
same  place  with  regard  to  the  equinoxes  that  they
had  at  first.  Tycho  Brahe  says  that  this  year  or
period  requires  25,816  common  years  to  complete
it ;  Ricciolus  computes  it  at  25,920 ;  and  Cassini  at
24,800;  at  the  end  of  which  time  some  imagined
that  there  would  be  a  total  and  natural  renovation
of  the  whole  creation.

PLATTSBURG.  A  British  expedition  against
this  place,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  Lake  Champlain,
was  designed  under  general  sir  George  Prevost,  but
was  abandoned  after  the  naval  force  of  England  had
suffered  a  defeat  in  an  engagement  with  the
Americans,  11  Sept.  1814,  when  the  British
squadron  in  Lake  Champlain  was  captured ;  see
United  States.

PLAY-GROUNDS.  In  1858  a  society  was
established  by  the  carl  of  Shaftesbury  and  other
benevolent  persons  to  provide  play-grounds  for  the
recreation  of  adults  and  the  children  of  the  humble
classes.  Ground  was  liberally  ottered  by  the  govern-
ment, and  by  1he  marquis  of  "Westminster  and
others ;  and  in  1859  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed
to  facilitate  grants  of  lands  for  this  purpose,  for
which  part  of  Smithfield  was  to  be  reserved.  The
scheme  was  not  successful.

The  Metropolitan  Public  Garden,  Boulevard,  and  Play-
ground association  formed  by  lord  Brabazon  (aft.  carl
of  Meath)  and  others  in  1882  lias  done  good  service
in  the  east  of  London.
The  London  Playing-fields  Association  founded  ;  very
active  in  obtaining  places,  Feb.  et  seq. 1890-2

PLAYS,  sec  Drama  and  Theatres.

PLEADINGS.  In  the  early  courts  of  judi-
cature in  England,  pleadings  were  made  in  the
Saxon  language;  and  in  Norman- French  from  the
period  of  the  conquest  in  1066  until  1362.  Pleadings
were  ordered  to  be  in  English  by  36  Edward  III.


1362,  and  Cromwell  extended  the  rule  to  all  legal
proceedings  1650.  In  English  law  the  proceedings
are  the  mutual  statements  of  the  plaintiff's  cause
of  action,  and  the  defendant's  ground  of  defence.

PLEBEIANS,  Plebes,  or  Plebs,  the  commons
of  Pome,  as  distinguished  from  the  Patricians ;
see  Pome,  494-366  is.c.

PLEBISCITUM,  a  term  given  to  a  law  passed
by  the  comitia  tribute/,  an  assembly  of  the  Roman
people  in  their  tribes,  first  established  in  491  B.C.
The  term  has  been  recently  revived  in  France  and
Italy,  and  applied  to  Universal  Suffrage  {which  see).

PLETHYSMOGRAPH.  an  apparatus  for
detecting  the  state  of  the  mind  by  observing  the
relations  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  from  the
heart  to  the  brain,  invented  by  M.  Mossol,  of  Turin,
1882.

PLEVNA,  Bulgaria,  27  miles  N.N.W.  of  Nico-
polis ;  near  the  river  Vid ;  the  site  of  very  fierce
conflicts  duiing  the  llusso- Turkish  war,  1877.
Occupied  by  the  Russians,  6  July,  but  retaken  by
Osman  Pacha, 18  July,  and  held  by  him  after
severe  combats,  with  Schildncr-Sehuldner,  19,  20
July;  with  Krudeiur  . . .  29-31  July,  1877

The  Russians  lost  about  2000  killed,  4000  wounded.
The  Russian  attack  was  considered  rash,  like  that
at  Balaclava,  and  a  disastrous  check.
Osman  Pacha  defeated  in  a  desperate  sortie,  about

30  Aug. „
Gen.  Scobeleff  gained  a  great  advantage  by  captu-
ring Lovatz  (or  Lofteha) ... 3  Sept. ,,
Siege  began,  7  Sept.,  with  an  artillery  duel  lasting

to 10  Sept. ,,

Fruitless  sanguinary  conflicts  . 11,  12  Sept. ,,

Chefket  Pacha  carried  in  reinforcements  to  Plevna,

about 22  Sept. ,,

Todlebcn  takes  command  of  the  staff . 28  Sept. „
Plevna  completely  invested  ;  reported  8  Nov. ,,

Russian  attacks  repulsed  .  .  12,  15  Nov.  ,,
Osman  Pacha,  reduced  by  want  of  supplies,  despe-
rately endeavours  to  break  out  at  night,  9  Dec.  ;
surrounded  and  defeated  with  great  slaughter  ;
surrenders  unconditionally  (30,000  prisoners,  128
officers,  100  guns) .... 10  Dec. ,,

PLOTS,  see  Conspiracies,  and  Rebellions.

PLOUGH.  "Thou  shalt  not  plough  with  an
nx  and  au  ass  together."  Beut.  xxii.  10  (1451  B.C.).
The  Roman  plough  is  minutely  described  by  Virgil,
about  31  B.C.  Engines  to  plough  grounds,  whether
inland  or  upland,  were  patented  by  David  Ramsay
aud  Thomas  Wildgoose,  in  1618;  and  many  im-
provements in  ploughs  have  been  patented  since.
The  application  of  steam  power  to  ploughing  was
patented  by  John  Upton  in  1837,  and  by  others  since,
more  especially  by  lord  Willoughby  P/Eresby,  the
marquis  of  Twceddale,  and  the  earl  of  Caithness  ;
see  Steam- Plough.
International  trial  of  ploughs,  <fcc.  at  Haarlem;  prizes

won  by  English  makers  (Howards,  Ransomes, &c),

17-19  Sept.  1879.

PLOUGH  MONDAY,  in  January,  the  first
Monday  after  the  Epiphany.  It  received  the  appel-
lation from  its  having  been  fixed  upon  by  our  fore-
fathers as  the  day  upon  which  they  returned  to  the
duties  of  agriculture  after  enjoying  the  festivities
of  Christmas.  Ashe.  On  Plough  Monday,  too,
the  ploughmen  of  the  north  country  used  to  draw
a  plough  from  door  to  door  and  beg  plough  money
to  drink. Bailey.

On  Plough  Monday,  the  lord  mayor  of  London  holds
annually  at  Guildhall  a  grand  court  of  wardmote,
at  which  the  election  of  the  common  council  and  other
officers  on  St.  Thomas'  day  ,  21  Dec.  is  confirmed.

PLUM. We  have  two  native  plums  ;  our  finer
1  kinds  came  from  Italy  and  Flanders  about 1522.

3  c


PLUMBAGO.


754


POICTIEES.


The  Diospyros  Lotus,  the  date  plum,  was  brought
from  Barbary,  before  1596;  the  Pishamin  plum,
.jpiospyros  virginiana,  from  America,  before  1629.
Formerly  damsons,  apricots,  and  peaches  went  by
this  name,  as  raisins  do  to  this  day.

.  PLUMBAGO,  see  Graphite.

PLURALITIES.  Clergymen  have  been  re-
strained from  holding  move  than  one  benefice  by
several  statutes;  the  first  being  21  Henry  VIII.
1529..  In  1838  an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  the
holding  of  more  than  two  benefices  except  they  were
at  a  distance  less  than  ten  miles ;  and  the  law  on
'this  subject  was  still  further  amended  in  1S50,  1855,
arid  1885,  provisions  being  made  for  the  amalgama-
tion of  neighbouring  benefices. See  .Electors.

PLUBAL  NUMBEE,  see  We.

PLUS  (  +  )  AND  MINUS  (— )•  Professor  De
Morgan  attributes  these  signs  to  either  Christopher
Rudolf,  who  published  a  book  on  algebra  about  1522,
or  Michael  Stifelius,  about  1544.

PLYMOUTH,  a  fortified  seaport  in  Devon-
shire, originally  Sutton,  was  incorporated  as  Ply-
mouth in  1439.  It  was  in  1588  the  rendezvous  of
the  English  fleet  of  120  sail  under  Howard,  Drake,
&c.,  which  pursued  the  Spanish  armada.  The  fine
hotel  and  assembly-rooms  were  burnt  6  Jan.  1863  ;
loss  about  50,000!  The  National  Association  for
Social  Science  met  here,  Sept.  1872.  See  Armada,
1888,  1890,  Breakwater,  and  Population.
Plymouth  dock  constructed,  about  i6S9,named  Devonport
1824,  is  now  a  great  naval  arsenal  extending  nearly
4  miles  along  the  Hamoaze.  It  has  two  M.  P.  's.
The.  new  guildhall  was  opened  by  the  prince  of

Wales 13  Aug.  1874

New  wing  to  British  female  orphan  asylum  (esta-
blished about  1834),  founded  by  the  diike  of  Edin-
burgh 7  Oct. ,,

Art  and  industrial  exhibition  opened  .  23  May,  1881
Tercentenary  of  the  birth of  sir Francis Drake

celebrated,  statue  unveiled . . .14  Feb.  1884
Koyal  Agricultural  shows,  1865 . .  23-27  June,  1890
The  duke  of  Edinburgh  appointed  commander-in-
chief  at  Devonport,  assumes  command . 4  Aug. ,,
Two  fishing-boats,  Sunbeam  and  Alonzo,  sunk  by
firing  from  the  gunboat  Plucky,  one  man  drowned,
30  Oct. Court  martial  ;  lieut.  Sydney  R.  Free-
mantle  acquitted  of  negligence,  24-27  Nov.  Com-
pensation made  to  the  sufferers . . Dec.  1891

PLYMOUTH  BBETHBEN,  a  body  of
Christians  calling  themselves  "the  Brethren,"  first
appeared  at  Plymouth  about  1830.  In  1851  they
had  132  places  of  worship  in  England  and  Wales.
They  object  to  national  churches  as  too  latitudi-
narian,  and  to  other  dissenters  as  too  sectarian.
They  receive  into  communion  all  who  confess  Christ,
and  own  the  Holy  Ghost  as  his  vicar.  Their  doc-
trines agree  with  those  of  most  evangelical  pro-
testant  churches,  but  they  recognise  no  order  of
ministers.  Mr.  Darbj',  regarded  as  their  founder,
afterwards  separated  from  them  with  some  ad-
herents.

PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH  COMPANY,

to  convey  letters  and  parcels  through  tubes  by  means
of  atmospheric  pressure  and  a  vacuum.  The  com-
pany's act  was  passed  13  Aug.  1859,  and  tubes  were
laid  down  in  Threadneedle-street  on  12  Sept.  i860;
and  on  20  Aug.  1861,  successful  experiments  were
performed  at  Battersea.  In  1862  tubes  were  laid
down  from  the  Euston  railway  station  to  the  N.  "W.
post-office  in  Camden-town,  and  on  21  Feb.  1863,
the  conveyance  of  the  mail-bags  began.  In  Oct.
1865,  tubes  had  been  laid  down  between  Euston
railway  and  Holborn;  and  on  7  Nov.  several  persons
travelled  in  them. Engineer,  Mr.  Ilammell. The


company  stopped  through  insufficient  support,  1876.
A  pneumatic  tube  by  Siemens,  employed  to  trans-
mit telegraphic  messages,  began  about  Jan.  1871.

.  PNEUMATIC  LOOM,  in  which  compressed
air  is  the  motive  power,  invented  by  Mr.  Harrison,
was  exhibited  in  London  in  Dec.  1864.  A  company
was  formed  to  bring  it  into  general  use.

PNEUMATICS,  the  science  which  treats  of
the  mechanical  properties  of  air  and  gases;  see  Air,
and  Atmospheric  Railways.

PODESTA  (from  potestas,  power),  an  Italian
governor,  afterwards  a  judge;  one  with  supreme
authority  was  appointed  at  Milan  by  the  emperor
Frederick  I.,  when  he  took  the  city  in  I15S.

PODOLL  (Bohemia),  the  site  of  a  severe  con-
flict between  the  Austrians  and  a  part  of  the  army
of  prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia,  26  June,
i860. The  Prussians  had  the  advantage.

PODOSCAPHE,  see  Canoe.
POET-LAUEEAT. Selden  could  not  trace

the  precise  origin  of  this  office.

Warton,  in  his  History  of  English  Poetry,  states  that  in
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  there  was  a  Versificaior  Regis,
to  whom  an  annual  stiiiend  was  first  paid  of  one  hun-
dred shillings.

ChaUcer,  on  his  return  from  abroad,  assumed  the  title
of  poet-laureat ;  and  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Richard  II.,
1389,  he  obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of  wine.

In  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. ,  John  Kay  was  laure.it ;
.  Andrew  Bernard  was  laureat,  temp.  Henry  VII.  ;  and
John  Skelton,  Temp.  Henry  VIII.

James  I.  in  1615,  granted  to  his  laureat  a  yearly  pension
of  100  marks  ;  and  in  1630,  this  stipend  was  augmented
by  letters  patent  of  Charles  I.  to  100I.  per  annum,  with
an  additional  grant  of  one  tierce  of  Canary  Spanish
wine  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly.
We  believe  that  on  Southey's  appointment  the  tierce  of
Canary  wine  was  commuted  for  27/'.

Laurence  Eusden  commenced  a  series  of  Birth-Day  and
New  Year's  Odes,  which  continued  till  the  death  of
Pye,  in  181 3.

On  the  death  of  Warton  its  abolition  was  recommended
by  Gibbon,  whose  elegant  compliment  on  the  occasion
still  more  forcibly  applied  on  Wordsworth's  death,  in
1850 — "  This  is  the  best  time  for  not  iilling  up  the  office,
when  the  prince  is  a  man  of  virtue,  and  the  poet  just
departed  was  a  man  of  genius. "

POETS-LAUREAT.

Edmund  Spenser,  died  1599.

Samuel  Daniel,  died  1619.

Ben  Jonson  (born  1574),  died  1637.

Sir  William  Davenant,  1637  ;  died  1668.

John  Dryden,  1670  ;  deposed  at  the  revolution,  1688.

Thomas  Shadwell,  1688  ;  died  1692.

Nahum  Tate,  1692  ;  died  1715.

Nicholas  Rowe,  died  1718.

Rev.  Laurence  Eusden,  1718  ;  died  1730.

Colley  Cibber,  1730;  died  1757.

William  Whitehead  (on  the  refusal  of  Gray),  1757  ;  died

1785-
Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Warton  (on  the  refusal  of  Mason),  1785  ;

died  1790.
Henry  James  Pye,  1790:  died  1813.
Dr.  Robert  Southey  (on  the  refusal  of  Scott),  1813  ;  died

21  March,  1843.
William  Wordsworth,  1843  ;  died  23  April,  1850.
Alfred  (aft.  lord)  Tennyson  (born  1809),  installed  1850.

POETEY.  The  song  of  Moses  on  the  deliver-
ance of  the  Israelites,  and  their  passage  through  the
Bed  Sea,  1491  B.C.  (Exodus  xv.).  Ancient  Egyptian
poetry  still  extant.  Orpheus  of  Thrace  was  deemed
the  inventor  of  poetry  amongst  the  Greeks;  see
Epics,  Odes,  Satire,  Comedy,  Tragedy,  Sonnets,
Ballads,  Hymns,  and  Verse.

POICTIEES  (W.  France),  near  which  was
fought  the  battle  between  Edward  the  Black  Prince
and  John,  king  of  France,  in  which  the  English
arms  triumphed, 19  Sept.  1356. The  standard  of


POISONING.


755


POLAND.


France  was  overthrown,  many  of  her  nobility  slain,
and  her  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to
London;  see  Tours,  and  VouyU.

POISONING.  A  number  of  Roman  ladies
formed  a  conspiracy  and  poisoned  their  husbands.
A  female  slave  denounced  170  of  them  to  Fabius
Maximus,  who  ordered  them  to  be  publicly  exe-
cuted, 331  B.C.  It  was  said  that  this  was  the
first  public  knowledge  they  had  of  poisoning  at
Rome.  Poisoning  was  made  petty  treason  in  Eng-
land, and  was  punished  by  boiling  to  death  (of
which  there  are  some  remarkable  instances),  23
Henry  VIII.  153 1 ;  see  Boiling  to  death.  The
frequency  of  eases  of  poisoning  by  means  of  arsenic,
in  England,  caused  the  British  legislature  to  pass
a  law  rendering  the  sale  of  arsenic  difficult  (14
Vict.  c.  13,  6  June,  1851).  Thesale  of  poison  is  now
regulated  by  the  Pharmacy  act  of  1868.  Additional
restrictions  enacted  by  act  passed  in  1885.  The
Poisoned  Grain  Prohibition  Act  was  passed  28
July,  1863.

A  deadly  poison  freely  administered  by  Italians  in  the
seventeenth  century,  was  called  aqua  to/ana,  from  the
name  of  the  woman  Tofania,  who  made  and  sold  it  in
small  flat  vials.  She  carried  on  this  traffic  for  half  a
century,  and  eluded  the  police  ;  but,  on  being  taken,
confessed  that  she  had  been  a  party  in  poisoning  600
people.  Numerous  persons  were  implicated  by  her,
and  many  of  them  were  publicly  executed.  All  Italy
was  thrown  into" a  ferment,  and  many  fled,  and  some
persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction,  were  strangled
in  prison.  It  appeared  to  have  been  chiefly  used  by
married  women  who  were  tired  of  their  husbands.
Four  or  six  drops  were  a  fatal  dose  ;  but  the  effect  was
not  sudden,  and  therefore  not  suspected.  It  was  as
clear  as  water,  but  the  chemists  have  not  agreed  about  its
real  composition.  A  proclamation  of  the  pope  described
it  as  aquafortis  distilled  into  arsenic,  and  others  con-
sidered it  as  a  solution  of  crystallised  arsenic.
Between  1666  and  1676,  the  marchioness  de  Brinvilliers
poisoned  her  father  and  two  brothers  and  many  others.
She  was  executed,  16  July,  1676.
W.  Palmer  was  executed  in  1856,  and  Miss  M.  Smith  tried
in  1857,  for  poisoning  ;  see  'Trials.  Catherine  Wilson,
a  noted  poisoner,  was  executed  on  20  Oct.  1862.
Edward  William  Pritchard,  M.D.,  was  -.executed  at
Glasgow,  28  July,  1865,  for  the  slow  murder  of  his  wife
and  her  mother,  by  antimony.
Nov.  1858,  17  persons  died  at  Bradford  through  eating
sweetmeats  in  which  arsenic  had  been  mixed  by  mis-
take. Mr.  Hodgson,  a  chemist,  was  tried  for  homi-
cide, and  acquitted.
Weltmann,  a  bookbinder  at  Posen,  poisoned  4  wives  and

2  children,  about  1859.
Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton,  was convicted  of
murdering  a  child  by  poisoned  sweetmeats  ;  other  per-
sons barely  escaped  (sentence  remitted  on  the  ground
of  insanity),  16  Jan.  1872.
Mary  Ann  Cotton,  imprisoned  Oct.  1872,  suspected  of
poisoning  16  persons,  principally  children  ;  convicted
of  poisoning  her  child,  7  March  ;  executed  at  Durham,
24  March,  1873.
About  25  wives  convicted of  poisoning  their  husbands
at  Gross  Bedskereh  in  Hungary  ;  Theckla  Popav  was
said  to  be  the  head  of  the  conspiracy,  Aug.  1882.
Catharine  Flanagan  and  Margaret  Higgins  (sisters)  con-
victed of  poisoning  Thomas  Higgins,  to  obtain  insur-
ance money,  9  Feb.  ;  other  charges  not  tried ;  they
confessed,  and  were  executed,  3  March,  1884.
Mad.  Van  Der  Linden  convicted  of  many  poisonings  at

Leyden,  3  May,  1885.
Albert  Pel  poisoned  mother,  wife,  mistress  and  others,
1872,  et  seq.  ;  convicted  at  Paris  13  June  ;  penal  servi-
tude 14  Aug.  1885.
Dr.  Philip  Cross  convicted  at  Cork 'of  poisoning  his  wife
with  arsenic  and  strychnine  17  Dec.  1887 ;  executed
10  Jan.  1888.
Mrs.  Maybrick  charged  with  the  murder  of  her  husband
James  Maybrick  by  poisoning  with  arsenic,  6  June,
1S89;  she  was  tried  before  Mi-. Justice  Stephen  at
Liverpool,  and  convicted  31  July— 7  Aug.;  sentence
of  death  commuted  to penal servitude"  for life,  22
Aug.  1880.


Ten  women  tried  at  Mitrowitz  in  Hungary  for
poisoning  their  husbands  with  arsenic,  30  June  ;
four  sentenced  to  death,  four  to  penal  servitude,
and  two  acquitted 5  July,  ^90

Poisoning  at  a wedding  breakfast  at  Louisville,
U.S.A.  ;  3  persons  died . . . 18  April,  189 1
See  Bravo  case.

POITOU,  an  ancient  province,  "W.  France,  part
of  the  dowry  of  Eleanor,  queen  of  Henry  II.  of
England,  1 151.  It  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Aqui-
taine.

POL  A  (Illyria),  a  very  ancient  city,  where
Augustus  founded  the  colony  Pietas  Julia,  which
flourished  during  the  empire.  Off  Pola,  the  Genoese
fleet,  under  Doria,  defeated  the  Venetians  under
Pisani,  5  or  6  May,  1379,  with  great  loss.

POLAND  (N.  E.  Europe),  part  of  ancient  Sar-
matia.  It  is  said  to  have  become  a  duchy  under
Lcchus  or  Lesko  I.  550;  and  a  kingdom  under
Boleslaus,  about  992.  'the  natives  belong  to  the  great
Sclavonic  family.  The  word  Pole,  from  Poliani,
is  not  older  than  the  10th  century.  Population  of
the  kingdom  of  Poland  (Russian)  in  1857  was
4)789,379  5  iu  lg67,  5,705,607;  1111872,6,528,017;
in  1885,  7,416,958;  in  1890,  8,256,562.
Piastus,  a  peasant,  is  elected  to  the  ducal  dignity,

about 842

[Piastus  is  said  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and
his  reign  to  have  been  so  prosperous  that  suc-
ceeding native  sovereigns  were  called  Piasts.]
Introduction  of  Christianity,  about . . . . 992
Boleslas  II.  murders  St.  Stanislaus,  the  bishop  of
Cracow,  with  his  own  hands,  1079 ;  his  kingdom
laid  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope,  and  his  sub-
jects absolved  of  their  allegiance .... 10S0
He  flies  to  Hungary  for  shelter ;  but  is  refused  it
by  order  of  Gregory  VII., and  at  length  kills

himself  or  dies  in  a  monastery 1081

Tartar  invasion 1241

Premislas  assassinated 1296

Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king  ....  1370

Ladislas  VI.  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Turks  at

Varna 1444

War  against  the  Teutonic  knights  . . . 1410  ;  1447
The  Wallachian  invaders  carry  off  100,000  Poles,
and  sell  them  to  the  Turks  as  slaves . . .  1498

The  Wallachians  defeated 1531

Splendid  reign  of  Sigismund  II 1548

Lithuania  incorporated  with  Poland . . . 1569
Stephen  forms  a  militia  composed  of  Cossacks,  on

whom  he  bestows  the  Ukraine 1575

Poland  conquered  by  the  Swedes  and  Russians,

1654  ei  seC-

Recovered  its  independence 1660

Abdication  of  John  Casimir 1668

Victories  of  John  Sobieski  over  the  Turks  at  Vienna  1683
Many  protestants  killed  after  an  affray  at  Thorn . 1724

Stanislaus  abolishes  torture 1770

An  awful  pestilence  destroys  250,000  persons  . . 1770
Civil  war  so  weakened  the  kingdom  that  it  fell  an

easy  prey  to  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  .  .  1772
The  first  partition  treaty  . . . 17  Feb. ,,

The  public  partition  treaty,  5  Aug. ;  acted  on,  18  Sept. ,,
A  new  constitution  granted  by  the  king  3  May,  1791

The Russians, <fcc, on various pretexts enter

Poland . 1792

Second  partition  treaty  signed 1793

Insurrection  under  Kosciusko . . . March,  1794
After  many  successes  he  is  defeated  by  the  Russians

at  Maciejoviee  and  taken  prisoner .  10  Oct. „

Warsaw  and  Praga  sacked  by  Suwarrow . 9  Nov. ,,
Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia  .  1795

Stanislaus  resigns  his  crown  at  Grodno;  final  par-
tition of  his  kingdom ....  25  Nov. ,,
Kosciusko  set  at  liberty  .... 25  Dec. 1796

He  arrives  in  London 30  May, 1797

The  Poles  enter  the  French  army  and  greatly  help

to  gain  their  victories  ....  1797  etseq.
Stanislaus  dies  at  St.  Petersburg  . .  12  Feb. 1798

Napoleon  I.  enters  Warsaw;  his  army  wintered  in

Poland 1S06-7

The  Poles  neglected  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (which

sec) 7  July,  1807

3  C  2


POLAND.


756


POLAND.


General  diet  at  Warsaw .... June,

The  central  provinces  (the  duchy  at  Warsaw,  be-
tween 1807  and  1813)  made  the  kingdom  of  Poland
under  Alexander  of  Russia . . .30  April,

New  constitution  granted  and  Cracow  declared  to
be  a  free  republic .... 27  Nov.

Polish  diet  opened Sept.

A  revolution  at  Warsaw;  the  army  declare  in
favour  of  the  people .... 29  Nov.

The  diet  declares  the  throne  vacant  . . 25  Jan.

Battle  of  Grochow,  near  Praga;  the  Russians  lose
7000  men ;  the  Poles,  who  keep  the  field,  2000,

19,  20  Feb.

Battle  of  Wawz  (which  see) . . 31  March,

Insurrection  in  Wilna  and  Volhynia . 3  April,

Russians  defeated  at  Zelieho,  6  April ;  Seidleee,  10
April ;  at  Ostrolenka  .... 26  May,

The  Russian  general  Diebitsch  dies  . . 10  June,

Battle  of  Wilna ;  Poles  defeated . . 19  June,

Grandduke  Constantino  dies . . .27  June,

Battle  of  Minsk 14  July,

Warsaw  taken  by  Russians ... 8  Sept.

The  insurrection  suppressed  . . .5  Oct.

Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas,  decreeing
that  the  kingdom  of  Poland  shall  henceforth
form  an  integral  part  of  the  Russian  empire,

26  Feb.

Attempted  revolution  in  Austrian  Poland,"

22-27  Feb.

The  courts  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  revoke
the  treaty  of  1815,  which  constituted  Cracow  a
free  republic,  and  it  is  declared  Austrian  terri-
tory 16  Nov.

[This  annexation  was  protested  against  by  England,
France,  Sweden,  and  Turkey.]

The  kingdom  of  Poland  declared  a  Russian  pro-
vince May,

Great  popular  demonstration  in  commemoration  of
the  battle  of  Cracow  ....  25  Feb.

Six  members  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society
killed  by  the  military .... 27  Feb.

Great  excitement  at  their  funeral ;  many  citizens
put  on  mourning;  an  address  to  the  emperor
Alexander  signed  by  60,000  persons  ;  mild  conduct
of  prince  Gortschakoff,  the  governor 1-7  March,

Mukhanoff,  curator  of  Poland,  who  had  written  a
circular  exciting  the  peasantry  against  their
lords,  quits  Warsaw,  which  is  illuminated  in  con-
sequence 17  March,

The  government  promises  reforms  and  the  re-estab-
lishment of  Poland  as  a  separate  kingdom ;  yet
abolishes  the  Agricultural  Society  . . 7  April,

Great  meeting  in  consequence  ;  which  is  dispersed
by  the  military  (now  32,000  strong) ;  above  100  are

killed  anil  wounded 8  April,

Great  agitation  in  the  rural  districts  ;  the  Russian
officials  quit  Lublin  ;  general  Chruleff  marches

hither April,

80,000  soldiers  in  Poland  ;  reign  of  terror  in  War-
saw May,

Death  of  prince  Gortschakoff,  lieut. -general  of  Po-
land 30  May,

New  administrative  council  appointed . June,
Death  of  prince  Adam  Czartoryski  at  Paris,  aged  91,

IS  July,


1830
1831


1832
1846


1847


*  On  22  Feb.  1846,  an  Austrian  force  under  general
Collin,  which  had  entered  Cracow  on  the  approach  of
armed  bands  of  peasantry,  was  attacked  and  driven  out
of  the  town.  A  provisional  government  was  then  pro-
claimed by  the  insurgents,  and  two  days  afterwards  they
crossed  the  Vistula,  expecting  to  be  joined  by  the  pea-
santry of  Gallicia,  who  were  solicited  by  the  nobles  and
clergy  to  strike  a  blow  in  the  cause  of  liberty.  The
Austrian  government,  in  order  to  prevent  this  junction,
excited  in  the  peasantry  a  suspicion  of  the  motives  of
the  nobles,  and  offered  a  reward  for  every  noble  de-
livered up,  alive  or  dead :  a  general  massacre  of  the
nobility  and  clergy  in  the  circle  of  Tarnow  followed :  the
insurgents  from  Cracow  were  defeated  at  Gdow,  whence
they  retreated  to  Podgorze,  a  suburb  of  Cracow;  here
they  were  attacked  by  general  Collin,  and  driven  into
Cracow  on  the  27th  of  February.  The  forces  of  the  three
powers  then  began  to  concentrate  on  Cracow  ;  the  people
in  the  town  opened  negotiations  with  the  Austrians  about
a  surrender,  and  while  these  were  going  on  a  Russian
corps  entered  the  town  without  resistance,  and  soon
afterwards  the  revolution  was  at  an  end.


Oppressive  regulations  issued  respecting  dress . i86j
Fresh  disturbances  ;  Warsaw  put  in  a  state  of  siege,

Oct. „
Military  arrests  in  churches  in  AVarsaw  ;  they  are

closed  by  the  priests . . . -17  Oct. „
The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw,

23  Oct. „
General  Gerstenzweig,  the  military  governor,  assas-
sinated 25  Oct. ,.

Bialobzeski,  catholic  archbishop  of  Warsaw,  ar-
rested, 19  Nov.  ;  tried  and  condemned  to  death
as  a  rebel  for  closing  the  churches  [he  died  shortly

after] 18  Dec. ,,

The  new  archbishop  Felinski  exhorts  the  Poles  to

submission 15  Feb. 1862

Rigour  of  the  government  relaxed  ;  amnesty  granted

to  89  convicted  political  prisoners . 29  April, „
Attempted  assassination  of  Wielopolski,  a  liberal

Pole,  president  of  the  council . . 7  Aug. „
The  grandduke  Constantine  appointed  governor,  28
May  ;  begins  with  lenient  policy,  but  his  life  is
attempted  by  Jaroszynsky,  3  July,  who  is  executed,

21  Aug. ,,
Count  Zamoyski,  an  eminent  loyal  Pole,  exiled  for
presenting  to  the  government  the  report  of  a
meeting  of  nobles  at  Warsaw,  for  which  he  had

been  asked Sept. „

Telkner,  the  chief  of  the  secret  police,  found  mur-
dered 9  Nov. ,.

Severe  military  conscription  without  notice,  14  Jan.  1863
Insurrection  in  the  night  :  at  Warsaw . 22  Jan. ,,
Many  Russians  murdered  ;  Poland  put  in  a  state  of

siege 24  Jan. „

The  Polish  provisional  government  issues  its  first

proclamation 2  Feb. „

Louis  Mieroslawski  announces  himself  as  head  of
the  Poles,  19  Feb.  ;  his  band  defeated  and  dis-
persed 23  Feb. „

Marian  Langiewicz  declared  dictator  of  Poland,
10  March  ;  after  several  defeats  he  enters  the
Austrian  territory,  is  detected  and  imprisoned,

19  March, „
The  insurrection  becomes  general,  and  is  supported
by the landed proprietors, Feb.  ; successful
guerilla  warfare . . . March  and  April, ,,
The  secret  central  committee  assumes  the  supreme

command March, ,,

The  czar  offers  an  amnesty  to  all  who  lay  down

arms  before  13  May  ;  rejected  . . 12  April, „
European  intervention on behalf of  Poland, 17
April,  &c.  ;  firmly  replied  to  by  the  Czar,

26  April,  &c. „
The  secret  committee  (as  a  provisional  government)
levies  taxes,  3  May,  and  forbids  payment  of  taxes

to  Russia 9  May, „

80,000?.  taken  from  the  Russian  treasury  at  Warsaw
for  the  provisional  government, 12  June; the
Poles  claim  the  Poland  of  1772 . . 26  June, ,,
Fruitless  intervention of  European  powers ; san-
guinary rule  of  Mouravieff  at  Wilna . June, , ,
General  Berg  replaces  the  marquis  de  Wiepolski,  as

lieut. -gen.,  and  governs  with  great  rigour,  7  July  ,„
Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Volhynia  by  the  Poles,
under  Wysocki  and  Horodycki,  1  July  ;  Felinski,
the  R.  C.  archbishop  of  Warsaw,  banished,  July  ;
frequent  conflicts  with  varying  results ;  many
captured  priests  and  nobles  executed  .  .  Aug.  ,„
Lelewel,  a  brave  Pole,  after  several  victories,  killed

in  battle 6  Sept. ,,

Earl Russell  decides  against  armed  intervention,

Aug.  :  negotiation  ceases . . .  Sept. ,,

Gen.  Berg  fired  at  from  the  Zamoyski  hotel,  War-
saw, 19  Sept.  ;  the  hotel  destroyed  . . Sept. „
Many  eminent  Poles  executed,  Oct.  ;  Win. Alger,
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making
grenades  ;  the  hotel  de  ville  fired .  9  Oct. „

Mourning  forbidden  to  be  worn  for  the  Poles  at
AVarsaw, 27  Oct.  ; 41  ladies  arrested  at  night,

3  Nov. ,,
The  Times  correspondent  expelled  from  Warsaw,

27  Nov. ,,
The  abbe  Machiewicz,  a  warlike  priest,  venerated

as  a  martyr,  hanged .... 28  Dec. ,,
Mouravieff  rules  Lithuania  with  great  rigour,  Dee. ,,
Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of
prisoners  captured  by  the  Russians  ;  the  insurrec-
tion gradually  dying  out  . .  Jan.  to  April,  1864


POLAND.


757


POLE STAR.


The  pope  promulgates  an  arrogant  encyclical  letter
to  the  Polish  church  .... 30  July,  1864

Romuald  Traugott,  once  a  Russian  colonel,  head
of  the  Polish  provisional  government,  since  Oct.
1863,  and  five  others,  hanged . . 5  Aug. , ,

Decree  for  reorganising  education  at  Warsaw,
founding  a  university,  &c. . . .  11  Sept. ,,

The  secret  provisional  government,  after  stating
that  50,000  men  had  been  slain,  and  100,000  ex-
iled to  Siberia,  still  calls  on  the  Poles  to  begin  a
"  national  war " 21  Sept. ,,

Many  Roman  Catholic  convents  closed  for  partici-
pating in  the  insurrection . . .  Nov.

Further  measures  for  denationalising  Poland
adopted Dec.

The  ex-dictator  Langiewicz  released  by  the  Aus-
trians  and  sent  to  Switzerland  the  died  May,  1887]

Feb.  1865

The  abbe  Stanislas  Bizoski  and  his  lieutenant,  cap-
tured and  executed .... 23  May, ,,

Estates  of  suspected  sympathisers  with  rebels
ordered  to  be  sold 22  Dec. ,,

Church  property  appropriated  by  the  government ;
the  clergy  to  be  paid  by  the  state . . 9  Jan.  1866

Military  government  ceases,  and  state  of  siege  par-
tially raised 17  Feb.

Count  Goluchowski,  a  Pole,  made  governor  of
Gallicia Oct. „

Insurrection  of  Polish  exiles  in  Siberia,  soon  sup-
pressed, July ;  many  executed . , Nov. ,,

Decree  abolishing  all  political  distinctions  of  Po-
land as  a  kingdom 19  Dec. ,,

Promulgated 5  Jan. 1867

Amnesty  to  political  offenders  proclaimed,  31  May, ,,

Poland  designated  the  "  Vistula  province "  in  a
ukase Jan.  1868

Its  separate  internal  government  abolished,  and
complete  union  with  the  empire  effected,  29  Feb. ,,

The  distinct  financial  departments  of  Poland
abolished April, ,,

The  Polish  language  interdicted  in  public  places,

Conciliatory  policy  towards  the  Poles  in  Russia  and
Austria  proposed March,  1872

•Count  Berg,  the  last  lieutenant-general  for  Poland,
dies 18  Jan.  1873

Polish  language  prohibited  in  courts  of  law  and
public  offices  in  Russian  Poland . . June,  1876

The  Czar  and  Czarina  visit  Warsaw  (great  precau-
tions) 8-27  Sept.  1884

About  34,700  Poles  expelled  from  Prussia  Oct. -Nov.  1885

Movement  for  de-nationalising  Poland  (see  Prussia)

Feb.  1886

Count  Ladislaw  Platu,  active  in  the  revolutions  of
i83oand  1863,  dies  in  Switzerland  (aged  83)23  April,  1889

Conciliatory  measures  towards  Polish  landowners
proposed May, „

The  body  of  Adam  Mickiewiez,  the  great  Polish  poet
(1798-1855),  brought  from  France,  re-interred  at
Cracow 4  July, 1890

■Second  congress  of  Polish  historians  and  arclueolo-
gists  opened  at  Leopol ... 17  July, ,,

Centenary  of  the  Polish  constitution  of  1791,  cele-
brated in  Austrian  Poland . . .3  May,  1891

The  emperor  William  II.  appoints  a  Polish  arch-
bishop of  Posen,  1891,  and  otherwise  favours  the

Poles 1892

See  Cracow,  Warsaw,  and  Russia.

DUKES AND KINGS OF  POLAND.

842.  Piastus,  duke.
861.  Ziemovitus,  his  son.
892.  Lesko  or  Lescus  IV.
913.  Ziemoniislas,  son  of  Lesco.
964.  Miecislas  I.  becomes  Christian.
992.  Boleslas  I.,  surnamed  the  Lion-hearted  ;  obtained
the  title  of  King  from  the  emperor  Otho  III.
Miecislas  II.
1034.  Richense  or  Riehsa,  his  consort,  regent :  driven

from  the  government.
1037.  [Anarchy.]

1041.  Casimir  I.,  her  son,  surnamed  the  Pacific  ;  he  had
retired  to  a  monastery,  but  was  invited  to  the
throne.
1058.  Boleslas  II.,  styled  the  Intrepid.
1081. Ladislas  I.,  called  the  Careless,  dulcc.
no2.  Boleslas  III.,  surnamed  Wry-mouth.
1138.  Ladislas,  son  of  the  preceding,


1 146.  Boleslas  IV.,  the  Curled.

1 1 73.  Miecislas  III.,  the  Old  ;  deposed.

1 1 77.  Casimir  II.,  surnamed  the  Just.

1 194.  Lesko  V.,  the  White  :  abdicated.

1200.  Miecislas  III.  :  restored.

1202.  Ladislas  III.  :  retired.

1206.  Lesko  V.  ;  restored  ; assassinated  : succeeded  by

his  son,  an  infant.
1227.  Boleslas  V.,  surnamed  the  Chaste.
1279.  Lesko  VI. ;  surnamed  the  Black.
1289.  [Horrid  anarchy.]

1295.  Premislas,  styled  king  of  Poland,  governs  wisely  ;

assassinated.

1296.  Ladislas  I.  (IV.),  the  Short :  deposed.

1300.  Weneeslas,  king  of  Bohemia,  abandons  Poland.

1304.  Ladislas  IV.,  the  Short.

1333.  Casimir  III.,  the  Great :  encourages  the  arts,  and
amends  the  law  :  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse.

1370.  Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  elected  Hug.

1382.  Maria  ;  and  1384  Hedwige  (daughters  of  Louis),
ami  her  consort,  Jagcllo,  duke  of  Lithuania,  by
the  style  of  Ladislas  V.

1399.  Ladislas  II.  (V.),  alone  :  annexed  Lithuania.

1434.  Ladislas  III.  (VI.),  son  ;  succeeded  as  king  of  Hun-
gary, 1440.

1445.  [Interregnum.]
,, Casimir  IV.

1492.  John  (Albert)  I. ,  son.

1501.  Alexander,  prince  of  Livonia,  his  brother.

1506.  Sigismund  I.,  brother ;  obtained  the  surname  of
the  Great.

1548.  Sigismund  II.,  Augustus,  son  (last  of  the  Jagellon
dynasty)  ;  a  splendid  reign  :  added  Livonia  to
his  kingdom  :  died  1572. Interregnum.

ELECTED MONARCH'S.

1573.  Henry  de  Valois,  duke  of  Anjou,  brother  to  the
king  of  France  ;  he  afterwards  succeeded  to  the
French  throne.

1575.  Stephen  Bathori,  prince  of  Transylvania  :  estab-
lished the  Cossacks  as  a  militia.

1586.  [Interregnum.]

1587.  Sigismund  III.,  son  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  to  the

exclusion  of  Maximilian  of  Austria,  elected  by
the  nobles.

1632.  Ladislas  IV.  (VII.),  Vasa,  son  of  Sigismund  III.  ;
succeeded  by  his  brother.

1648.  John  II.,  or  Casimir  V.  ;  abdicated  1668,  and  re-
tired to  France,  where  he  died  a  monk,  in  1672.

1668.  [Interregnum.]

1669.  Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski :  in  this  reign  the

Cossacks  join  the  Turks,  and  ravage  Poland.
1674.  John  III., Sobieski ; the  last  independent  king:

illustrious  for  victories  over  the  Cossacks,  Turks.

and  Tartars.
1697.  [Interregnum.]
,, Frederick- Augustus  I.,  son  of  John-George,  electee

of  Saxony ;  and  elector  in  1694  ;  deprived  of  his

crown.
1704.  Stanislas  I.  (Lezinski) :  forced  to  retire  from  his

kingdom  in  1709.
1709.  Frederick-Augustus  I.  again.
1733.  Frederick- Augustus II., son of the r.ieceding

sovereign.

1763.  [Interregnum.]

1764.  Stanislaus  II.  Augustus  Poniatowski,  resigned  his

sovereignty,  25  Nov.  1795  :  died  at  St.  Peters-
burg, astate  prisoner,  12  Feb.  1798.

POLAR  CLOCK.  An  optical  apparatus  in-
vented by  professor  Whcatstone  (about  1849),
whereby  the  hour  of  the  day  is  found  by  means  of
the  polarisation  of  light.

POLAR  CONFERENCES,  INTERNA-
TIONAL, to  organize  setting  up  stations  round
the  polar  area  for  continuous  scientific  inves-
tigation, met  at  Hamburg,  1879;  at  Berne  in  1880;
at  St.  Petersburg,  1-6  Aug.  1881,  and  at  other
places  since.

POLARISATION  OF  LIGHT,  sec  Optics.

POLAR  REGIONS,  sec  North-  West  Passage,
and  South  Pole.

POLE  STAR  or  Polar  Star,  a  star  of  the
second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of  the  con-


POLICE.


758


POLITICAL ECONOMY.


stellation  called  the  Little  Bear .  As  its  nearness  to
the  North  Pole  causes  it  never  to  set  to  those  in  tlie
northern  hemisphere,  it  is  called  the  seaman's
guide.  Two  stars  in  the  constellation  Ursa  Major,
or  Great  Bear,  are  called  pointers  to  the  Polar  star.
The  discovery  of  the  Pole  star  is  ascribed  by  the
Chinese  to  their  emperor,  Hong-ti,  the  grandson
(they  say)  of  Noah,  who  reigned  and  nourished
1970  B.C. Univ.  Hist.

POLICE.  The  London  police  grew  out  of  the
London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  Its  jurisdic-
tion was  extended  27  Eliz.  1585,  and  16  Chas.  I.
1640;  and  the  system  improved  by  various  acts  in
subsequent  reigns. See  Magistrates.

Police  offices : — The  jurisdiction  of  twenty-one  magis-
trates, three  to  preside  in  each  of  the  seven
divisional  offices,  commenced  . . .1  Aug.  1792

The  Thames  police  was  established  in  . .  1798

The  Police  Gazette  (re-modelled  by  Mr.  Howard
Vincent  in  1884)  established 1828

The  London  police,  remodelled  by  Mr.  (afterwards
sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  10  Geo.  IV.  19  June,  com-
menced duty 29  Sept.  1829

The  London  police  improvement  acts  passed  3  Vict.
1839,  4  Viet.  1840,  which  were  amended  by  19  &  20
Vict.  c.  2 1856

In  1857  the  total  expenditure  was  445,212?.  for  the
metropolitan  police,  consisting  of  17  superinten-
dents, 140  inspectors,  630  sergeants,  and  5296
constables.

The  total  efficient  police  force  in  England  and
Wales,  exclusive  of  the  metropolis,  in  Sept.  1859,
was  11,309,  and  in  Sept.  1863,  14,661  (see  Con-
stabulary).

Division  X  was  established  to  attend  the  Interna-
tional Exhibition  in 1862

The  whole  jiolice  and  constabulary  in  England  and
Wales  amounted  to  23,032  men  ;  metropolitan
police,  6590  ;  city  of  London  police,  743 ;  dock-
yard police,  &c,  743 ....  29  Sept.  1863

Metropolitan  police,  7493,  1  Jan.  1866 ;  7548,  i  Jan.
1867  ;  great  increase  proposed  in . . Dec.  1867

Col.  Rowan  and  Richard  Mayne,  commissioners  of
metropolitan  police,  appointed,  1829  ;  Mayne  died

26  Dec.  1868

Colonel  (after  sir  Edmund)  Henderson  appointed
commissioner  in  room  of  sir  R.  Mayne .  Feb.  1869

Resigns  in  consequence  of  the  riots  of  8  Feb.  1886
(sw  Riots),  22  Feb.  1886  ;  succeeded  by  sir  Charles
Warren,  12  March,  i8£6,  who  resigned  8  Nov.  1888  ;
succeeded  by  Mr.  James  Monro,  26  Nov.  1888;
resigns  10  June,  1890;  succeeded  by  sir  Edward
Ridley  C.  Bradford,  20  June,  1890.

The  commissioner  of  the  City  of  London  police,  sir
James  Frazer,  appointed  in  1863,  resigned  about
26  June  ;  succeeded  by  col.  Henry  Smith,  28  July,
1890.

The  ttrst  annual  report  of  the  commissioner  issued,  1870

State :  8883  police  constables  for  a  radius  of  15  miles
from  Charing  Cross  (exclusive  of  the  city  of  Lon-
don), including  3,563,410  inhabitants . Dec.  1869

The  detective  police,  only  15  men  in  June,  1869,  has
been  since  raised  to  266  men  and  a  superinten-
dent, with  good  effect Oct.  1870

State:  9655  of  all  ranks,  Dec.  1871 ;  9958 . Dec.  1874

Large  meetings  of  police  to  agitate  for  an  increase
of  pay 17-24  Oct.  1872

Request  granted ;  meeting  of  some  constables
through  misapprehension . . . 16  Nov. „

Some  constables  prosecuted,  18  Nov. ;  109  dis-
missed ;  65  reduced  in  rank . . 20  Nov. „

Several  policemen  censured  for  misconduct  and
over-zeal,  autumn 1873

Police  Detectives  prosecution,  see  Trials . .  1877

Appointment  of  commission  to  investigate  detec-
tive system  in  metropolitan  police  (sirH.  Sehvyn-
Ibbetson,  lion.  col.  Win.  Fielding,  and  others),
about I3  Aug. „

Pay :  first  class  constable,  30s.  per  week  ;  reserve,
31s.  6d. ;  lirst  class  sergeant,  36s.  ;  second  class,
34«-  1878

Discontent  among  police  respecting  pay  (crime said
to  have  increased  ;  apprehensions  diminished).

Committee  of  inquiry  (sir  M.  W.  Ridley  and  Mr.  J.


B.  Maule)  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  pay  and
organisation,  about .... 8  Aug.  1878

Various  changes  (with  increase  of  pay  in  some
cases)  were  ordered  by  the  home  secretary

end  of  Aug. ,,

20,000  peculiarly  made  whistles,  received  for  distri-
bution among  the  police  ....  March,  1884

Metropolitan  police  13,319  ;  cost  1,059,628?.  in .  1885

Police  arrangements  north  of  Thames  remodelled

1  April,  1886

Report  of  committee  on  the  police,  with  vague
recommendations,  issued . . about  2  Oct. ,,

Police  Disabilities  Removal  Act-enabling  police  to
vote  at  parliamentary  elections  passed 23  May,  1887

Miss.Cass  arrested  in  mistake  by  police-constable
Endacott  in  Regent  St.  about  9.15  p.m.  28  June ;
inquiry  refused  by  home  secretary  July  ;  govern-
ment defeated  in  commons  (153-148)  5  July;
Endacott  acquitted  of  perjury . . 1  Nov. „

Medals  presented  to  the  metropolitan  police  for
their  conduct  during  the  jubilee  celebrations  in
June,  ordered 3  Sept. ,,

A  testimonial  to  the  police  for  their  conduct  at
Trafalgar  Square  (see  under  Riots)  ;  combination
of  two  funds  Nov.  ;  appropriated  to  their  con-
valescent asylum  at  Dover  .... Feb.  1888

Charges  against  the  police  of  levying  black  mail
made  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Caine  and  others  in  July,  i887_ ;
investigated  and  declared  not  proved  by  sir
Charles  Warren,  Times  .... 6  Feb. ,,

Agitation  respecting  pay,  pension,  and  hours

May,  June,  1890

Bow-street  station.  Insubordination;  130  men  for
an  hour  refused  to  go  on  duty,  10  p.m.  ;  some
transferred  to  another  district,  40  dismissed,
5  July ;  rioting  of  dismissed  men  and  roughs
quickly  stopped  by  the  foot-guards,  7  July  ;  per-
fect order  in  tlie  force  reported . .  8  July, ,,

Increase  of  pay  begun .... 17  Dec. ,,

Metropolitan  police,  14,081 ;  cost  1,096,2777.  31  Dec.  1887

Police  of  England  and  Wales,  year  1871-2,  27,999
men,  cost  2,372,888?.  (84?.  15s.  a  man)  ;  1872-3,
28,550  men,  cost  2,567,481?.;  1874-5,  29,460  men,
cost 2, 742,526?. ;  1875-6,  29,719111611, cost2, 849, 073?. ;
187^-7,  3°i°i6  men,  cost  2,902,635?.  (per  man,
96?/.  14s.);  1877-8,  30,673  men,  cost  2,980,592?.
(per  man,  97?.  3s.  51?.)  ;  1878-9,  31,407  men,  cost
3,058,671?.  (per  man,  98?.  10s.  4'i.);  1881-2,  33,173
men,  cost  3,264,337?.  ;  1882-3,  34,488  men,  cost
3*367,678?. ;  1886-7,  36,912  men,  cost  3,711, 933?.  ;
1887-8,  37,296  men,  cost  3,727,942?.  ;  1888-9,37,957
men,  cost  3,734,916?.  ;  1889-90,  39,221  men,  cost
3,846,508.

Police  of  the  United  Kingdom,  1890  :— England  and
Wales,  39,221 ;  Scotland,  4,103  ;  Ireland,  13,921.

POLICIES OF ASSUBANCE ACT,
passed  20  Aug.  1867 ;  see  Insurance.

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  the  science
which  has  for  its  object  the  improvement  of  the
condition  of  mankind,  and  the  promotion  of  civili-
sation, wealth,  and  happiness.  Its  history  in  this
country  may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  sir
"Win.  Petty's  "Treatise  on  Taxes,''  1662,  and
"  Political  Arithmetic,"  1691  ;  Dr.  Adam  Smith's
"Wealth  of  Nations,"  1776.  The  works  of  Mill,
M'Culloch,  and  Fawcett  are  celebrated.  A  pro-
fessorship of  Political  Economy  was  established  at
Oxford  by  Mr.  Henry  Drummond,  M.P.,  1825 ;
and  at  Cambridge,  first  by  Mr.  G.  Pryme,  in  1828 ;
but  regularly  established  by  the  university  in  1863,
Henry  Fawcett  (blind)  being  the  first  professor.
Archbishop  Whately  endowed  a  professorship  at
Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  Isaac  Butt  first  pro-
fessor 1832

The  Political  Economy  Club,  London,  founded  in
1821,  by  Tlios.  Tooke  and  others,  to  propagate
free  trade  principles,  kept  the  hundredth  anni-
versary of  the  publication  of  Smith's  "Wealth  of

Nations  " 31  May,  1876

Mr.  R.  H Inglis Palgrave's "Dictionary  of  Political

Economy,"  published  1891,  et  seq.
Imaginary  systems:  Plato's "Republic;"  he  died  347
B.C. Sir  T.  Mores  "  Utopia" 1548  ; sir  P.  Sidney's
"Arcadia," 1690; James Harrington's "Oceana/


POLITICAL OFFICES.


7-59 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION.


1656  ;  Win. Morris's "News from Nowhere," 1891 ;
and  E.  Bellamy's  "  Looking  Backwards,"  1888.

POLITICAL  OFFICES  PENSIONS
ACT  passed  9  Aug.  1S69.

POLITICAL  UNIONS  were  formed  in  Eng-
land in  1831  to  cany  the  Reform  Bill :  the  most
important  was  that  of  Birmingham.

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as
a  man  well  versed  in  policy,  or  the  well  regulating
and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom ;  a  wise  and
cunning  man.  A  man  of  artifice ;  one  of  deep
contrivance.  Soui/t.  The  term  was  first  used  in
France  about  1569.  A  new  faction  appeared,
known  by  the  name  of  Politicians,  headed  by  the
due  d'Alenc.on  and  the  Montmoreneies,  and
strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  Huguenots  in
1574.  The  duke  was  arrested  and  the  MonUnoren-
cies  sent  to  the  Bastile.

POLKA,  a  dance  snid  to  li'ive  been  invented
between  1830  and  1834  in  Bohemia,  and  to  have
obtained  its  name  in  Prague  in  1835.  It  became
very  popular,  and  was  introduced  into  England
about  1844.

POLL  ACT  passed  in  Ireland  by  the  Junto  of
the  f  ale,  putting  a  price  upon  the  heads  of  certain
Irish ;  the  earl  of  Desmond  being  then  deputy,  5
Edward  IV.  1465.  This  act  long  endured,  see
Ireland,  1465.

POLLENTIA  (Piedmont,  N.  Italy),  the  site
of  a  great  victory  of  Stilicho,  the  Imperial  general,
over  Alaricthc  Goth,  29  March,  403.

POLL-TAX  or  Capitation  Tax,  existed

among  the  ancient  ltomans.  It  was  first  levied  in
England  in  1380;  and  occasioned  the  rebellion  of
Wat  Tyler  (see  Tyler),  1381.  It  was  again  levied
in  1513.  By  the  iSth  Charles  II.  every  subject
was  assessed  by  the  head,  viz.,  a  duke  100L,  a
marquis  Sol.,  a  baronet  30/.,  a  knight  20I.,  an
esquire  lol.,  and  every  single  private  person  I2cl.,
1667.  This  grievous  impost  was  abolished  by
William  III.  16S9.

POLLUTION  OF  RIVERS,  see  Rivers.

POLO,  the  game  of  ball  termed  hockey  played
on  horseback,  became  popular  in  England  in  1872,
having  been  introduced  from  India.  Games  were
played  by  lancers  and  life-guards  at  Woolwich,  16,
19  July.  1872.  A  polo  club  was  formed,  and  inter-
national contests  held ;  at  Brighton  one  opened
3  Aug.  1878.  Polo  is  said  to  have  been  an  old
Russian  game,  mentioned  1492  under  the  name  of
Chugan,  as  brought  from  Persia.

POLOTSK  (Russia).  The  French  under  mar-
shal Oudinot  were  here  defeated  by  the  Russians
under  general  Wittgenstein,  30  and  31  July,  1812;
the  next  day,  the  Russians  were  defeated.  After
several  smaller  actions  with  various  results,  Polotsk
was  stormed  by  the  Russians,  and  retaken  Oct.  1812.

POLTOWA,  see  Fuliowa.

POLYGAMY,  &c.,  was  permitted  among  the
early  nations,  and  now  by  Mahometans.  In  Media,
it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven
wives.  Among  the  Romans,  Mare  Antony  is
mentioned  as  the  first  who  took  two  wives.  The
practice  was  forbidden  by  Areadius,  394.  The
emperor  Charles  V.  punished  polygamy  with  death.
In  England,  by  stat.  1  James  I.  1603,  it  was  made
felony,  with  benefit  of  clergy.  It  was  formerly
punished  with  transportation,  but  now  by  im-
prisonment or  penal  servitude;  see  Marriages.
Polygamy  exists  among  the  Mormons  {which  see).


Abolished  in  the  United  States,  23  March,  1882.—
Polyandry  (where  one  woman  has  several  hus-
bands) is  permitted  in  some  eastern  countries,  the
children  having  equal  rights.

POLYGLOT,  from  two  Greek  words  denoting
"  many  languages,"  is  chiefly  applied  to  editions  of
the  Bible  in  several  languages.
Giustiniani  published  a  polyglot  psalter,  1576.

1.  The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  in  six  vols,  folio,  wa3
printed  at  Alcala  (Complutensis),  in  Spain,  1502-14  ;
the  first  edition  published  in  1522,  at  the  expense  of
the  celebrated  cardinal  Ximenes,  costing  250,000
ducats.  Six  hundred  copies  of  it  were  printed  ;  three
on  vellum.  Count  MacCarthy,  of  Toulouse,  paid  483?.
for  one  of  these  copies  at  the  Pinelli  sale.

2.  The  Polyglot,  printed  *at  Antwerp,  by  Montanus,  8
vols,  folio,  in  1559-69,  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II.  of
Spain.

3.  Printed  at  Paris,  by  Le  Jay,  in  10  vols,  folio,  1628-45.

4.  Edited  by  Bryan  Walton,  in  6  vols,  folio,  1654-7.
Copies  of  all  four  are  in  the  library  of  the  British  and

Foreign  Bible  Society.

5.  Edited  by  Dr.  Samuel  Lee,  published  by  S.  Bagster,'  i
vol.  folio,  183T.

6.  Hexaglot  bible :  begun  by  Henry  Cohn  ;  conr-
pleted  by  the  Rev.  Edwd.  It.  De  Levante  and  others;
6  vols.  4to,  1874.

POLYNESIA,  a  name  recently  given  to  the
isles  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean,  see  Owhyhes,
Otnheite,  Sandwich  Islands,  Fiji  Isles,  &c.  These
islands  have  been  classified  as  Micronesia,  Melanisia,
and  East  Polynesia.  The  Polynesian  society,  Wel-
lington, New  Zealand,  was  founded  in  1892.

POLYPES,  also  named  Hydra;  {many-footed
animals),  on  account  of  their  property  of  repro-
ducing themselves  when  cut  in  pieces,  every  part
soon  becoming  a  perfect  animal ;  first  discovered  by
Leeuwenhoek,  and  described  by  him  in  the  Philo-
sophical Trans.  1703.  The  polypes  are  of  the  order
Zoophytes,  and  are  partly  animal  and  vegetable.

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION,

ROYAL,  Regent-street,  London,  was  erected  by
Thompson  in  1838,  opened  6  Aug.  1839,  ancl
enlarged  in  1848.  it  contained  a  hall  of  manufac-
tures with  machines  worked  by  steam-power,
lecture  theatres,  &c.,  diving-bell,  electric  machine,
&c.  Timbs.  The  institution  did  not  prosper  com-
mercially, and  its  decline  was  hastened  by  the  fall
of  a  staircase  on  3  Jan.  1859,  when  one  person  was
killed  and  many  injured.  The  institution  Avas
closed  in  May,  1859,  but  was  re-opened  by  a  new
company  on  12  Nov.  i860;  see  Ecole  l'olytech-
nique.  Professor  Pepper,  the  director  for  many
years,  resigned  in  1872 ;  returned,  1878.  The
classes  were  formed  into  a  college,  which  was  in-
augurated by  the  carl  of  Shaftesbury,  7  Oct.  1872.
Polytechnic  institution  announced  to  be  closed  on
27  Aug.  1881 ;  affairs  wound  up.  Plant  sold  for
about  2000/.  23  March,  1882.  In  1882  it  was
occupied  by  the  Polytechnic  young  men's  chris-
tian institute,  principally  by  the  instrumentality
of  Mr.  Quintin  Hogg,  for  educational  purposes,  with
about  2000  members.
Prof.  John  Pepper  lectured  hereon  Australia  (from

which  he  had  just  returned)  .  .  .  9  Nov.  18S9
Polytechnic  Institutions  established  in  south
London  promoted  by  the  charity  commissioners
and  liberally  subscribed  for  ....  1888-9
Polytechnic  Institute  or  People's  palace  for  S.W.
London,  Westminster,  Chelsea,  Fulham,  &c,
proposed  and  liberally  supported  by  the  duke  of
Westminster,  president,  earl  Cadogan,  Mr.  H.  C.
Antrobus,  and  others .  .... 1889-90

With  reference  to  the  City  of  London  Parochial
Charities  act  of  iSS^,  the  committee  of  Council
on  Education,  reports  approval  of  schemes  for
the  management  of  the  following  institutions  :—
1,  the  City  Polytechnic,  comprising  the  North


POMEGEANATE TEEE.


760


PONTUS.


ampton  and  Birkbeck  Institutes,  and  the  City  of
London  college  ;  2,  the  Regent-street  Polytech-
nic Institute  ;  3,  the  Battersea  Polytechnic  Insti-
tute ;  4,  the  South-western  Polytechnic  Insti-
tute ;  5,  the  Borough-road  Polytechnic  Institute

April,  1891

Memorial  stone  oftheBatterseaPolytechnic,  the  first
of  the  series  laid  by  the  prince  of  Wales  20  July, ,,

The  Goldsmiths'  Company's  Technical  and  Reerea-
tivelnstituteatNew-eross,  Surrey,  was  opened  by
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  22  July,  1891  ;
see  Goldsmiths'  Company.

Polytechnic  at  Chelsea  ;  foundation  stone  laid  by
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales . 23  July, ,,

See  Beaumont  Trust  and  GoldsrnWis'  Company.

POMEGEANATE  TEEE  (Ftmica  Grana-
tin) was  brought  to  England  from  Spain  before
1584.

POMEEANIA,  a  Prussian  province,  N.  Ger-
many, was  held  by  the  Poles,  980,  and  by  Den-
mark, 1210;  made  an  independent  duchy,  1479;
and  divided  between  Sweden  and  Brandenburg,
1648.  The  Swedish  part,  awarded  to  Denmark  in
1814,  was  given  up  to  Prussia  for  Lauenburg,  1815  ;
see  Denmark  ; Wrecks,  1878.

POMFEET  or  Pc-NTEFRACT  (S.  York).  At
the  castle  (built  10S0),  Richard  II.  was  confined
and  murdered,  10  Feb.  1400.  Some  writers  assert
that  Richard  escaped  and  died  in  Scotland.  In  this
castle  also,  the  earl  Rivers,  lord  Grey,  sir  Thomas
Vaughan,  and  sir  Richard  Haut  or  Hause,  were
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,
then  protector  of  England  (afterwards  Richard  III.)
about  26  June,  1483.  The  castle,  which  had  stood
four  sieges,  was  dismantled  in  1649.  The  first
parliamentary  election  by  ballot  took  place  here,
15  Aug.  1872,  very  quietly.  It  lost  one  of  its  two
members  in  18J5.  Population,  1S81,  8,798;  1891,
9,702.

POMPEII  (S.  Italy),  an  ancient  city  of  Cam-
pania, was  partly  demolished  by  an  earthquake  in
a.d.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  but  was  over-
whelmed by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  accompanied
by  an  earthquake,  on  the  night  of  24  Aug.  79.  The
principal  citizens  were  then  assembled  at  a  theatre
where  public  spectacles  were  exhibited.  The
ashes  buried  the  whole  city  and  covered  the
surrounding  country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen
centuries,  a  countryman,  as  he  was  turning  up  the
ground,  found  a  bronze  figure  ;  and  this  discovery
led  to  further  search,  which  brought  numerous
other  objects  to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was
uncovered.  The  part  first  cleared  was  supposed
to  be  the  main  street,  1750.  The  kings  of  Naples
greatly  aided  in  exploring  Pompeii,  and  the  present
Italian  government  resumed  the  work  in  1863.

A  commemorative  meeting  of  antiquaries  and  philo-
sophers met  at  Pompeii,  25  Sept.  1879.

Further  discoveries  made,  autumn  1882  el  seq.

The  remains  of  a  handsome  five-storied  house  were
uncovered July,  1890

POMPEY'S PILLAE  stands  about  three-
quarters of  a  mile  from  Alexandria,  between  the
city  and  the  lake  Mareotis. The  shaft  is  fluted,
and  the  capital  ornamented  with  palm-leaves  ;  the
whole,  which  is  highly  polished,  composed  of  three
pieces,  and  of  the  Corinthian  order. The  column
measures,  according  to  some,  94  feet ; to  others
141,  and  even  160  feet;  but  of  its  origin,  name,
use,  and  age,  nothing  is  certain.
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  column  has  no  reference
to  Pompey,  to  whom  a  mark  of  honour  was,  neverthe-
less, set  up  somewhere  about  this  part. One  supposes
the.  edifice  was dedicated  to Vespasian,  another  to
Sevcras  ;  and  Mr.  Clarke,  from  a  half-effaced  inscrip-


tion on  the  base,  considered  that  Adrian  is  the
person  honoured  ;  while  many  assert,  from  the  same
inscription,  that  it  is  dedicated  "to  Diocletian
Augustus,  most  adorable  emperor,  tutelar  deity  of
Alexandria. "

PONDICHEEEY  (S.E.  India),  the  capital
of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by  the  French  in
1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in
1693,  restored  1697  ;  besieged  by  the  English,  1748;
taken  by  them,  Jan.  1761 ;  restored,  1763;  again
taken,  Oct.  1778;  restored  in  1783;  taken  23  Aug.
1793,  and  in  1803  ;  restored,  181 5.  Visited  by  the
Viceroy  of  India  (Earl  Dufferin),  Dec.  1886.
Prosperous  state  of  the  colony  reported  Jan.  1889.
Population  in  1890,  283,053.

PONDOLAND,  the  coast  between  Cape  Colony
and  Natal,  S.  Africa,  the  British  protectorate  was
proclaimed  and  notified,  6  Jan.  1885.
Severe  fighting  among  the  natives  reported,  Feb.-
March-April ;  the  chief  Umhlangaro  surrenders
to  the  Cape  authorities .... April,  1891

PONT-A-CHIN,  see  Espierres.

PONT-A-NOYELLES.  .At  this  place,  near
Amiens,  took  place  a  tierce  indecisive  conflict,
lasting  from  n  a.m.  to  6  p.m.,  between  the  Germans
under  Manteuffel  and  the  French  army  of  the  north
under  Faidherbc,  23  Dec.  1870.  Both  sides  claimed
a  victory;  the  French  general  asserted  that  he
remained  master  of'  the  field.

PONTEFEACT,  see  Fomfret.

PONTIFFS  (Latin  Foniijiccs),  the  highest
Roman  sacerdotal  order,  established  by  Numa.  The
college  first  consisted  of  4  patricians,  with  a  chief
(rontifex  Maximus)  ;  to  these  4  plebeians  were
added,  by  the  Ogulnian  law,  300  B.C.  Sylla  in-
creased the  number  to  15  (8  majores,  7  minorcs),
(81),  and  Julius  Caesar  to  16.  T.  Coruncanius,  a
plebeian,  obtained  this  office,  254  li.c.

PONTUS,  in  Asia  Minor,  seems  to  have  been  a
portion  of  Cappadocia,  and  received  its  name  fiom
its  vicinity  to  the  Font  us  Euxinus.  Artabazus  Avas
made  king  of  Pontus  by  Darius  II\  staspes  in
the  4th  century  rs.c.  His  successors  were  mere
satraps  of  the  kings  of  Persia.

Reign  of  Mithridates  I B.C.  383

Ariobarzanes  invades  Pontus 363

Mithridates  II.  recovers  it 336

Mithridates  III.  reigns . . . . . . .  301

Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns 266

Mithridates  IV.  is  besieged  in  his  capital  by  the

Gauls,  &c 252

Mithridates  attacks  Sinope,  and  is  obliged  to  raise

the  siege  by  the  Rhodians 219

Reign  of  Pharnaces,  190  ;  betakes  Sinope,  and  makes

it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom 183

Reign  of  Mithridates  V. . . . . .  157

He  is  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court . . .  123
Mithridates  VI.  sumamed  the  Great,  or  Eupator,

receives  the  diadem  at  12  years  of  age . . .  ,,

Marries  Laodice,  his  own  sister 115

She  attempts  to  poison  him  ;  he  puts  her  and  ac-
complices to  death 112

Mithridates  conquers  Scythia,  Bosphorus,  Colchis,

and  other  countries m

He  enters  Cappadocia 97

His  war  with  Rome 89

Tigranes  ravages  Cappadocia . . . . .86
Mithridates  enters Bithynia, and  makes  himself

master  of  many  Roman  provinces,  and  puts  80,000

Romans  to  death ,,

Archelaus  defeated  by  Sylla,  at  Cluvronea  ;  100,000

Cappadocians  slain . . . . . .  ,,

Victories  and  conquests  of  Mithridates  up  to  this

time 74

The  fleet  of  Mithridates  defeats  that  under  Lucullus

in  two  battles 73

Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus . . .  69


POONAH.


761


POOR.


Mithridates  defeats  Fabius 68

But  is  defeated  by  Ponipey 66

Mithridates  stabs  himself,  and  dies  .... 63

Reign  of  Pharnaces ,,

Cattle  of  Zela  (see  Zela) ; Pharnaces  defeated  by

Caesar 47

Darius  reigns 39

Polemon,  son  of  Zeno,  reigns 36

Poleinon  II.  succeeds  his  father . . . a.d. 33

Jlithridates  VII.  reigns 40

Pontus  afterwards  became  a  Roman  province.
Alexis  Comnenus  founded  a  new  empire  of  the
Greeks  at  Trebisond,  in  this  country,  1204,  which
continued  till  the  Turks  destroyed  it  in  1459.

POONAH,  a  province,  S.W.  India,  formerly
the  seat  of  the  power  of  the  peishwa  of  the
Mahrattas,  1749.  It  was  captured  by  Wellesley
from  Ilolkar,  19  April,  1803,  for  Bajce  ltao,  who
had  claimed  British  protection.  Bajee  resigned  his
office,  3  June,  1818,  for  a  pension.  Visited  by  the
prince  of  "Wales,  13  Nor.  1875.

POOR  CHILDREN'S  AID  SOCIETY,

for  providing  food,  clothing,  &c.,  established  1887.

POOR  KNIGHTS  of  Windsor,  or  Alms

KNIGHTS.  Soon  after  his  institution  of  the  order
of  the  Garter,  Edward  III.  founded  this  charity,  for
the  provision  of  24  (afterwards  26)  poor  persons
eminent  for  military  services.  Edward  IV.  dis-
charged the  college  from  the  support  of  the  alms-
knights,  but  Elizabeth  re-established  the  charity
for  13  knights,  1559.  King  "William  IV.  changed
the  name  to  the  "  Military  Knights  of  Windsor,"
in  consequence  of  their  all  having  held  commissions
in  the  army,  Sept.  1833. — The  "Naval  Knights  of
"Windsor"  are  maintained  on  a  distinct  foundation,
under  the  bequest  of  Samuel  Travers,  1724.  The
corporation  was  established  in  1 798.  An  act  making
lieutenants  and  widowers  eligible  was  passed  in
1867.  Alterations  made  by  act  passed  in  1885.
An  act  to  dissolve  the  corporation  was  pasicd  iu
1892.

POOR.  The  poor  of  England,  till  the  time  of
Henry  VIII. ,  subsisted  as  the  poor  of  Ireland  until
1838,  entirely  upon  private  benevolence.  By  statute
23  Edw.  III.  1349,  it  was  enacted  that  none  should
give  alms  to  a  beggar  able  to  work.  By  the  com-
mon law,  the  poor  were  to  be  sustained  by  "  par-
sons, rectors  of  the  church,  and  parishioners,  so  that
none  should  die  for  default  of  sustenance  ;  "  and  by
15  llich.  II.  impropriators  were  obliged  to  distribute
a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor;  but  no  compulsory  law
was  enacted  till  the  27th  Hen.  VIII.  1535.  The
origin  of  the  present  rooit  law  is  referred  to  the
43rd  of  Elizabeth,  1601,  by  which  overseers  were
appointed  for  parishes.

First  Poor  Law  commission,  E.  Chadwick  assistant  com-
missioner, 1832-3.
New  Poor  Law  Board  appointed  (E.  Chadwick,  sec),

1834  ;  dissolved,  1846.
Additional  workhouses  ordered  to  be  erected,  1819,  1834.
Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ;  * forming

"  Unions,"  &c,  amended  in  1836,  1838,  1846  and  1847.
Poor  Law  (Ireland)  act  passed  1838  ;  amended  1839.
A  Poor  Law  system  established  in  Scotland,  1845.
Poor  Law  (Ireland)  Rate  in  aid  act  passed  in  1849.
In  Scotland,  in  the  year  ending  May,  1851,  the  number
relieved  was  141,870,  at  an  average  cost  of  2/.'  is.  $d.
and  the  expenditure  was  535,943?.

*  "The  principle  of  the  poor  law  of  1834  (now  in
force): — (1)  No  one  shall  be  allowed  to  perish  through
want  of  what  is  necessary  for  sustaining  life  and  health  ;
(2)  every  destitute  parent  is  bound  to  demand  and  obtain
from  the  guardians  what  .is  necessary  for  sustaining  the
health  and  life  of  his  children  ;  neglect  of  this  duty  is
criminal  ;  (3)  it  is  obligatory  on  the  guardians  of  the
poor  to  afford  sufficient  relief  to  all  persons  unable  to
maintain  themselves ;  refusal  an  indictable  Offence."
(F.  Petk.)


In  Ireland,  the  poor's  rate  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  1851,

was  1,101,878!.
Mr.  Henry  Mayhew  publishes  his  "  London  Labour  and
the  London  Poor,"  1851-2.
I  An  agitation  for  the  equalisation  of  poor's  rates  throughout

the  kingdom,  began  in  1857.
1  The  Times  drew  attention  to  the  condition  of  the  house-
less poor  in  London,  which  led  to  measures  for  tlreir
relief,  Dec.  1858.
]  Society  for  relief  of  distress,  St.  James's,  established  i860.
I  Laws  respecting  removal  of  the  poor  amended  in  1861.
j  Union  relief  act  passed  to  enable  certain  unions  to  obtain
temporary  aid  (on account  of  the  distress  in  Lanca-
shire through  suspension  of  cotton  manufactures),  1862.
Metropolitan  houseless  poor  act  (authorising  guardians  to
receive  destitute  persons into  workhouses,  anil  the
metropolitan  board  to reimburse  them)  passed, 29
July,  1864.
S  Annual  report  of  Poor  Law  board  for  1864,  shows  great
decrease  of  pauperism — issued  Sept.  1865.
40  refuges  for  houseless  poor  established  in  London,  1864-5.
,  "  Casual  wards  "  in  London  workhouses  receive  1000  per

night,  Jan.  1865.
!  Union  chargeability  act  passed,  1865.
I  Field-lane Refuge  : new  building  formally  opened  by

earl  of  Shaftesbury,  6  June,  1866.
1  Metropolitan  Poor  act  passed  for  establishment  of  asy-
lums for  the  sick,  insane,  &c. ,  29  March,  1867.
!  Poor  Law  Amendment  act  makes  Poor  Law  board  per-
manent ;  passed,  20  Aug.  1867.
1  Much  excitement  respecting  the  bad  condition  of  London
workhouse  infirmaries,  June,  1866  ;  of  Farnham  work-
house, Oct.  1867.
i  Poor  Law  Amendment  act  passed . 31  July,  1868
j  Divided  Parishes  and  Poor  Law  Amendment  act

passed 15  Aug.  1876

1  Presidents  of tlie  Poor  Law  board:  Gathorne  Hardy,
9  July,  1866  ;  earl  of  Devon,  May,  1867  ;  G.  j.
Gbschen,  9  Dec.  1868  to  March,  1871  ;  see  Local
Government  Board.
;  Minute  of  the  poor  law  board  defining  limits  of
relief,  and  recommending  organisation  of  metro-
politan charitable  institutions,  20  Nov.,  which  is
adopted  by  several  parishes  .  .  .  Dec.  1869
General  order  for  boarding-out  pauper  children,

issued 25  Nov. 1070

Charity  Organisation  Society  (see  Charitable  Relief),

established,  1869  ;  reported  very  successful  Jan.  1878
The  act  for  more  equal  distribution  of  charge  for
relief  of  in-door  poor  (passed  20  June)  came  into

operation 29  Sept. ,,

Circular  of  poor  law  board  respecting  farming  out

pauper  children 25  Nov. ,,

New  regulations  for  casual  poor  published  in  Times

27  Nov. ,,
Poor  rate  assessment  acts  amended  . . .  18S2

Poor  law  conference  act  passed . . iS  June,  1883
Commission  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  poor
appointed ;  abp. of  Canterbury,  earls  Spencer,
Onslow  and  others .... March,  1S8S
New  poor  law  act  passed . . . .30  Aug.  1889
Sir  Edwin  Chadwick,  eminent  poor  law  reformer,

aged  90,  died 5  July, 1890

Housing  of  the  poor,  see  Artisans.
Received,  for  relief  of  the  poor,  in  1869,  in  England
and  Wales,  11,776,153?.  ;  in  Scotland,  892,712/.  ;  in
Ireland,  927,046/.  :  total,  13,595,911/.
Paupers  receiving  relief  1  Jan.  1878  :  England  and
Wales,  742,703  ;  Ireland,  85,530  ;  14  May,  1877,
Scotland,  96,404  ;  total,  924,437  ;  Feb.  1889,
England  and  Wales,  762,853.
Paupers  in  the  metropolis  receiving  relief :— Dec,
1869,  152,557;  Dec,  1870,  about  147,000;  Dec,
1871,  about  124,000;  July,  1872,  104,280;  April,
114,644  ;  Aug.,  104,578;  Oct.,  1873,  97,287  ;  Sept.,
1874,  104,983;  June,  1875,84,598  (indoor  32,661,
out  51.937)'.  D«-.,  1875,  84,782  (indoor  35.673.
out  49,109);  July,  1876,  77,498  (indoor,  33,735,
01^43,763);  Jan.  1877,  82,950;  June,  78,203  (in-
door, 35,903);  8  Dec.  81,986  (indoor,  42,242);  27
March,  1878,  84,753  (indoor,  41,403);  27  July,
76,709  (indoor,  38,043) ;  31  Dec.  83.674  ;  8  Feb.
1879,  94,765  (indoor,  45,095) ;  19  April,  83,075  ;  28
June,  78,680  ;  27  Sept.  79,674  ;  717  vagrants  ;  27
Dec.  92,495.  1880,  last  week,  March,  88,893 :
(indoor,  46,738)  ;  June,  84,137  (vagrants,  931);
Sept.  82,188;  Dec  92,654  (vagrants,  697);  1881,
last week March, 95,767  ;  indoor, 32,012  ;  vag-


POPE.

rants,  780;  June,  86,404  (indoor,  48,293);  1881,
Oct.,  89,740  (indoor,  50,792,  vagrants,  932) ;  Dec.
1st,  93,170  ;  vagrants,  883  ;  1882,  1  April,  92,233
(indoor,  51,480,  vagrants,  788) ;  June,  86,417  (in-
door, 48,363,  vagrants,  643);  Sept.  88,581  (indoor,
50,174,  vagrants,  915);  Dec.  96,687  (indoor,
54,373,  vagrants,  696);  1883,  March,  97,743  (in-
door, 54,836,  vagrants,  497)  ;  June,  85,555  0]i-
door,  49,713,  vagrants,  386);  Sept.  85,849  (indoor,
50,917,  vagrants,  461) ;  1884,  Jan.  94,540  (indoor,
55,965,  vagrants,  471) ;  April,  89,540  (indoor,
54,122,  vagrants,  528) ;  Aug.  85,069  (indoor,
51,849.  vagrants,  482) ;  Dec.  94,041  (indoor,  57,092,
vagrants,  374);  1885,  March,  94,047  (indoor  56,491,
vagrants,  540);  June,  85,555  (indoor,  49,713,  vag-
rants, 592) ;  Sept.  86,119  (indoor,  51,968,  vagrants,
562) ;  26  Dec.  94,902  (indoor,  56,002,  vagrants,
322);  1886,  27  March,  101,982  (indoor,  56,507,
vagrants,  463);  26  June,  87,171  (indoor,  51,570,
vagrants,  454);  25  Sept.  £7,604  (indoor,  52,628,
vagrants,  650);  25  Dee.  98,611  (indoor,  57,520,
vagrants,  475) ;  1887,  26  March,  103,726  (indoor,
58,221,  vagrants,  627) ;  27  Aug.  88,274  (indoor,
53,164,  vagrants,  619) ;  26  Nov.  101,852  (indoor,
59,066,  vagrants,  1,054);  1888,  28  Jan.  108,783
(indoor,  60,883,  vagrants,  1,165);  28  April,  102,617
(indoor,  58,273,  vagrants,  1,151);  28  July,  90,510
(indoor,  52,875,  vagrants,  976)  ;  27  Oct.  96,030
(indoor,  58,070,  vagrants,  1,182);  1889,  26  Jan.
124,734  (indoor,  61,521,  vagrants,  1,119)  J  27  April,


762


POPE.


95,600  (indoor,  58,509,  vagrants,  1,114);  29  June,
88,699  (indoor,  54,460 ;  vagrants,  605) ;  28  Sept.
92,012  (indoor,  56,805;  vagrants,  1,169);  28  Dee.
97,661  (indoor,  60,111;  vagrants,  775);  1890,
5  April,  93,596  (indoor,  58,216;  vagrants,  707);
28  June,  87,600  (indoor,  54,267  ;  vagrants,  765);
27  Sept.  88,147  (indoor,  55,273  ;  vagrants,  1,014) »
27  Doc.  97,128  (indoor,  59,588;  vagrants,  525);
1891,  28  March,  92,395  (indoor,  58,364  ;  vagrants,
748);  27  June,  86,109  (indoor,  53,981  ;  vagrants,
772)  ;  26  Sept.  86,072  (indoor,  54,478  ;  vagrants,
814);  31  Dec.  94,639  (indoor,  60,169;  vagrants,
743);  1S92,  26  March,  92,936  (indoor,  59,612;
vagrants,  771);  26  June,  85,731  (indoor,  54,838;
vagrants,  740).
The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Poor  Law  board
merged  into  the  Local  Government  hoard  by  act
passed  14  Aug.  1871 ;  president,  James  Stansfeld  ;
G.  Sclater-Booth Feb.


A  Poor-law

act  passed  .

15  Aug.  1879

ENGLAND  AND

WALES.

Exjicnde  1.

Poor  rates.

Expended.

Poor  rateSi.

In  1580

. £188,811

In

1820

■  £7>329,594

1680  .

• • 665,562

1830  .

. . 8,111,422

1698 .

819,000

1835 -

• 6,356,345

1760  .

. . 1,556,804

1840  .

. . 5,468,699

1785 •

. 2,184,950

1845

. 5,543,650

1S02  .•

. . 4,952,421

1853 •

. . 6,522,412

1815 •

• 5,418,845

England  &  Wales,  1  Jan.
Scotland  .  about  14  May
Ireland . . 1  Jan.:

Total .


1849.
934,4T9
82,357
620,747

•.  1,637,523


PAUPERS  RECEIVING  RELIEF  (NOT  VAGRANTS).

l875-
Sl5,587


,217


932,400
78,433t
59,541


1,079, 39'
126,187
73,921


Years  ended
Lady-do  y.


1S63


;  (1  Jan.)


1870
1871
1872

1873'
1874
1875
1876
1877
1S7S


i387
i383


i8co


ENGLAND AND  WALES.

Average  number  of  paupers.

Indoor.  Outdoor.

122,613  786,263

■ 121,232  744,214

•  • 113,507  731,126
. 125,866  758,055

. . 132,236  784,906

•  136,907  942,475
. . 133,761  881,217

131,313  820,586

•  • 132,776  783,376

•  137,310  794,236
158,723  876,100
163,071  876,478

. . 165,324  914,067

165,289  916,637

•  • 154,233  823,431

•  i54, 171  736,201
■ • 149,558  679,723

-  I53,711  661,876
148,931  600,662

•  157,191  571>i59
. . 166,875  575,828

-  175,345  625,081
. 189,394  648,636

189,438  613,688

•  • 188,433  '


i"7,593
190,184
194,440
196,853
200,666
198,191
195,04s


608,910
586,717
593,971
6i3,i93
620,436
624,343
611,941
592,497


',070,374
*  1857.


Expendi-
ture.

£5,878,542
5,558,689
5,454,964
5,778,943
6,077,922
6,527,036
6,423,381  ]
6,264,966  '
6,439,517  I
6,959,840
7,498,059
7,673,100
7,644,307  i

7,886,724  ;
8,007,403  [
7,692,169  ;
7,664,957
7,488,481
7,335,858
7,400,034
7,688,650

7,829,819 :

8,015,010

8,102,136

8,232,472

8,353,292

8,402,550

8,491,600

8,296,230

8,176,768

8,440,821

8,366,477

8,434-345


',993


799,296
92,618
115,684


825,509
"3,947!


1889.  ]  1890.  ]  1S91.
810,132787,545  774,905
90,918  88,606
109, 957;  107, 774' 106,972;


1,031,449  1,011,007,903,925


POPE  (from  the  Greek  Pappas  and  Papa,  a
father  or  grandfather),  considered  by  Bomanists  to
be  the  visible  chief'of  the  church,  the  vicar  of  Jesus
Christ,  and  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  Ho  stvles
him  elf  "  servant  of  the  servants  of  God."  The
title  1  ope  was  formerly  given  to  all  bishops.  It
was  first  adopted  by  Hyginus,  139;  and  pope  Boni-
face III.  induced  Phocas,  emperor  of  the  east,  to
confine  it  to  the  prelates  of  Home,  6c6. By  the


79,499  1,002,475  1,007,598
t  1S61.

I  connivance  of  Phocas  also,  the  pope's  supremacy

over  the Christian  church  was established ;  see

Italy,  Reformation,  and  Home,  Modern.

Wilfrid,  abp.  of  York,  expelled  from  his  diocese,
appeals  to  the  pope

Custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  too  introduced . .

Adrian  I.  caused  money  to  be  coined  with  his  name

Sergius  II.  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name  on
his  election,  844 ;  some  contend  that  it  was
Sergius  I.  687,  and  others  John  XII.

Indulgences  for  the  pardon  of  sin  granted  by  pope
Leo  III.  about

John  XVIII.  a  layman,  made  pope ....

The  first  pope  who  kept  an  army,  Leo  IX.  . . .

Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand)  obliges  Henry  IV.,  em-
peror of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days,  in  the
depth  of  winter,  barefooted  at  the  gate  of  the
castle  of  Canossa,  to  implore  his  pardon

The  pope's  authority  fixed  in  England . . .

Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the  pope  intro-
duced (Viner),  19  Stephen . . . . .  1154

Henry  II.  of  England  holds  the  stirrup  for  pope
Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse . . . 1161

Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 's
crown  off  his-  head  while  kneeling,  to  show  his
prerogative  of  making  and  unmaking  kings  . . 1191

John  king  of  England  did  homage  to  the  pope's
legate  for  his  dominions,  and  bound  himself  and
his  successors  to  an  annual  payment  to  the  pope,

15  May,  1213

The  pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom
of  England 1226

The  papal  seat  was  removed  for  seventy  years  to
Avignon  in  France 1308

The  pope's  demands  on  England  refused  by  parlia-
ment 1363

After  the  discovery  of  America,  pope  Alexander  VI.
granted  to  the  Portuguese  all  the  countries  to  the
east,  and  to  the  Spanish  all  the  countries  to  the
west,  of  Cape  Non,  Africa,  they  might  conquer  .

Pope  Leo  X.  published  the  sale  of  general  indul-
gences throughout  Europe

Appeals  to  Rome  from  England  abolished  (Viner)  .  1533;

The  words  "Lord  Pope  "  struck  out  of  all  English
books 154*

Kissing  the  pope's  toe  and  other  ceremonies  abo-
lished by  Clement  XIV. 1773


679
708.
780


956


1024
1054


1077
1079


M93


1517


POPE.


7G3


POPE.


The  pope's  political  influence  greatly  diminished  by

the  French  revolution .... 1789-18 14
His  temporal  power  lost,  see  Rome  . . .Dec. 1870
See  Pius  IX.  under  Popes.

BISHOPS  AND POPES OF  ROME

(the  navies  in  italics  were  antipopes)  :
42.  St. Peter  :  (said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of
Rome,  and  to  have  been  crucified,  head  down-
wards, in  66.)
*  * St. Clement (Clemens  Romanus) ; according  to
Tertullian.

St.  Linus  :*  martyred  ?

St.  Cletus,  or  Anacletus  ?  martyred  ?

St.  Clement  II.  :  abdicated?

St.  Evaristus  :  martyred;  multiplied  churches.

St.  Alexander :  martyred.

St.  Sixtus  I.  :  martyred  ?

St.  Telesphorus  :  martyred.

St.  Hyginus  :  condemns  Gnostics ;  called  himself
pope.

St.  Pius  :  martyred.

St.  Anicetus.

St.  Soterus  :  martyred  under  Marcus  Antoninus.

St.  Eleutherius  :  opposed  the  Valentinians.

St.  Victor  I.  :  martyred  under  Severus.

St.  Zephyrinus  :  claimed  to  be  Peter's  successor.

St.  Calixtus  :  martyred.

[The  chair  vacant.]

St.  Urban  I.  :  beheaded.

St.  Pontianus  :  banished  by  the  emperor  Maximin.

St.  Anterus  :  martyred.

St.  Fabian  :  martyred  under  Decius,  250.

[The  chair  vacant.  ]

St.  Cornelius  :  died.

St.  Lucius:  martyred  252.  Novatianus:  (denied
restoration  to  the  repentant  lapsed).

St.  Stephen  I.  :  martyred  in  the  persecution  of
Valerian.

St.  Sixtus  II.  (his  coadjutor) :  martyred  three  days
before  his  disciple  St.  Laurence,  in  the  persecu-
tion of  Valerian,  258.

[The  chair  vacant]

St.  Diou'ysius  :  opposed  the  heresy  of  Sabellius.

St.  Felix  I.  died  in  prison.

St.  Eutychianus.

St.  Cams  :  a  relative  of  the  emperor  Diocletian.

St.  Marcellinus  :  said  to  have  lapsed  under  a  severe
persecution  ? ;  canonised.

[The  chair  vacant.  ]

St.  Marcellus  :  banished  from  Rome  by  the  emperor
Maxcntius.

St.  Eusebius  :  died  the  same  year.

St.  Miltiades  or  Melchiades :  coadjutor  to  Eusebius.

St.  Silvester :  commencement  of  temporal  power
by  gifts  of  Constantine.

St.  Marcus  :  died  the  next  year.

St.  Julius  I.  :  of  great  piety  and  learning  ;  main-
tained the  cause  of  St.  Athanasius.

Liberius  :  banished.

Felix  II.,  antipope  :  placed  in  the  chair  by  Con-
stans,  during  the  exile  of  Liberius,  on  whose
return  he  was  driven  from  it  with  ignominy.

[The  emperor  would  have  the  two  popes  reign
together  ;  but  the  people  cried  out,  "  One  God,
one  Christ,  and  one  bishop!'']

Liberius  again  :  abdicated.

Felix  became  pope.

Liberius  again  :  martyred  365.

St.  Damasus :  oppose'!  the  Arians :  St.  Jerome,
his  secretary,  corrected  Latin  Bible.

Ursinus  :  expelled  by  Valentinian.

Siricius  :  combated  heretics.

St.  Anastasius  :  proscribed  works  of  Origen.

St.  Innocent  I.  :  condemned  Pelagians.

St.  Zozimus  :  ditto.

St.  Boniface  I.  :  maintained  by  the  emperor  Hono-
rius,  against  liidalius.

St.  Celestine  I.  :  sent  missions  to  Ireland.

Sixtus  III.  :  opposed  Nestorius  and  Eutyches.


66.

73.

91.
100.
109.
119.
127.
139-

142.

157-
168.

177-
193-
202.
219.
222.
223.
230.
235-
236.
250.
251.
252.


258.
259-
269.
275-
2S3.
296.

3°4-


310.
3«-
314-

336-
337-

352-
3SS-


358.

359-
366.

367-
384-
398-
402.
417.
418.

422.
432-


*  St.  Linus  is  frequently  set  down  as  the  immediate
successor  of  St.  Peter ;  but  Tertullian  maintains  that
it  was  St.  Clement.  In  the  first  century  neither  the
dates  nor  order  of  succession  of  bishops  are  reconcilable
by  even  the  best  authorities.  Some  assert  that  there
were  two  or  ti.rje  bishops  of  Rome  at  the  same
time.


483.
492
496.


5*4'
523

526


53°.
533'

535'
53&


537.
555.
560.

573'
574'

57S.


604

606
607
614
617
625.
639
640.

642
649

654

657
672
676


683.
684.


701.
7°5-


715-
73i-


741.
752-


757-
76;.
768.
772.
795-
816.
817.
824.
827.

844.
847.
855-


867.
872.


St.  Leo  I.  the  Great :  zealous  ;  restrained  Alaric

an  able  writer.
St.  Hilary  ;  rich,  liberal.
St.  Simplicius  :  wise,  prudent.
St.  Felix  III. :  opposed  emperor  Zeno  respecting

the  Henoticon.
St.  Gelasius  :  opposed  heresy  ;  fixed,  the  canon  o£

Scriptures  ;  compiled  the  mass.
St.  Anastasius  II.  :  congratulated  Clovis.
Symmachus  :  zealous  against  the  Henoticon.
Laurentius ;  antipope.  .
Hormisdas  :  opposed  Eutychians.
John  I.  :  sent  to  Constantinople  by  Theodoric  ;

tolerant.
Felix  IV. :  introduced  extreme  unction  as  a  sacra-
ment.
Boniface  II. — Dioscorus.
John  II.  :  called  Mercurius.
Agapetus  :  converted  Justinian.
St. Silverius  :  son  of  pope Hormisdas,  who  had

been  married  ;  the  empress  Theodora  procured

his  banishment  into Lycia  (where  he  died  oT

hunger),  and  made  Vigilius  pope.
Vigilius  :  banished,  but  restored.
Pelagius  I.  :  an  ecclesiastical  reformer.
John  III.  :  great  ornainenter  of  churches.
[The  see  vacant.]
Benedict  I.,  surnamed  Bonosus.
Pelagius  II.  ;  died  of  the  plague.
St.  Gregory  the  Great :  revised  the  liturgy ;  sent

Augustin  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons.
Sabinianus : said to have introduced church

bells.
or  607.  Boniface  III.  :  died  in  a  few  months,
or  608.  Boniface  IV.
or  615.  St.  Deusdedit
or  618.  Boniface  V.

Honorius  I.  :  interested  in  British  churches.
[The  see  vacant.]
Severinus : ~v

, >condemned  Monothelites.

liberal,
favoured  education  in  England.


John  IV.  :
Theodorus  I.
Martin  I.  :
Eugenius  I.  :
Vitaliamis  :


Adeodatus,  the  gift  of  God.

Domnus  I.  :  ornamented  churches.

St.  Agathon  :  tribute  to  the  emperor  ceased.

St.  Leo  II.  :  instituted  holy  water;  favoured
music.

[The  see  vacant.  ]

Benedict  II.

John  V.  :  learned  and  moderate.

Conon. — Theodore  and  Pascal.

Sergius  :  "  governed  wisely."

John  VI.  :  redeemed  captives  ;  firm  and  wise.

John  VII.  :  moderate.

Sisinnius  :  died  20  days  after  election.

Constantine :  wise  and  gentle  ;  visited  Constanti-
nople.

St.  Gregory  II.  :  sent  Boniface  to  convert  Ger-
mans.

Gregory  III.  :  independent- ;  first  sent  nuncios  to-
foreign  power.3.

St.  Zaeharias,  a  Greek.

Stephen  II.  elected  :  died  before  consecration.

Stephen  II.  or  III.  :  temporal  power  of  the  church
of  Rome  commenced.

Paul  I.  :  moderate  and  pious.

Constantine  TheophylacUis :  killed  by  Lombards.

Stephen  III.  or  IV.  :  literary.

Adrian  I.  :  sanctioned  images.

Leo  III.  :  crowned  Charlemagne,  800.

Stephen  IV.  or  V.

Pascal  I.  :  ascetic,  anil  built  churches.

Eugenius  II.  :  "father  of  the  afflicted."-  Zosimus.

Valentinus.

Gregory  IV.  ;  pious  and  learned.

Sergius  II.

Leo  IV.  :  defeated  the  Saracens.

Pope  Joan's  election  fabulous  (which  sec).

Benedict  III. — A  imstnsi  us.

Nicholas  I.,  the  Great:  conversion  of  Bulgarians.

Adrian  II.  :  eminent  for  sanctity.

John  VIII.  :  crowned  3  emperors.

Marinus  or  Martin  II.  :  condemned  Photius.

Adrian  III.  :  ditto.


POPE.


764


POPE.


885.  Stephen  V.  or  VI.  :  very  charitable.
S91.  Formosus  :  political. — Sergius.

596.  Boniface  VI.  :  deposed.

597.  Stephen  VI.  or  VII.  :  vicious ;  dishonoured  the  corpse

of  pope  Formosus  ;  strangled  by  the  people.

,, Romanus.— Se/'jrtMS.
©98.  Theodoras  II.  :  governed  22  days.

„ John  IX.
900. Benedict  IV.  :  "  a  great  pope."

903.  Leo  V.  :  expelled :  died  in  prison.
,, Christopher.

[Several  popes  made  by  the  infamous  Marozia.]

904.  Sergius  III.  :  disgraced  by  his  vices.
911.  Anastasius  III.

913.  Landonius,  or  Lando.

914.  John  X.  :  stifled  by  Guy,  duke  of  Tuscany.

928.  Leo  VI.  :  considered  an  intruder.

929.  Stephen  VII.  or  VIII.

931.  John  XI. :  son  of  Marozia  ;  imprisoned  in  the  castle

of  St.  Angelo,  where  he  died.
■936.  Leo  VII.  :  great  for  zeal  and  piety.
939.  Stephen  VIII.  or  IX.  :  "  of  ferocious  character. "
942.  Marinus  II.  or  Martin  III.  :  charitable.
946.  Agapetus  II.  :  of  holy  life  ;  moderate.
556.  John  XII.,  the  infamous  :  deposed  for  adultery  and

cruelty  ;  and  murdered.
563.  Leo  VIII. :  an  honour  to  the  chair
964.  Benedict  V.  :  chosen  on  the  death  of  John  XII.,

but  opposed  by  Leo  VIII.,  who  was  supported

by  the  emperor  Otho  :  died  at  Hamburg.
565.  John  XIII. ,  elected  by  the  authority  of  the  emperor

against  the  popular  will.
■972.  Benedict  VI.  :  murdered  in  prison.
■974.  Domnus  II.  — Boniface  VII.
975.  Benedict  VII.

984.  John  XIV.  :  imprisoned  by  Boniface  VII.
„ John  XV.  :  died  before  consecration.

985.  John  XVI.  :  loved  gain.

996.  Gregory  V. — John  XVII. :  expelled  by  the  emperor,

and  barbarously  used.
999.  Silvester  II.  (Gerbert) :  learned  and  scientific  ;  said
to  have  introduced  the  Arabic  numerals,  and
invented  clocks.
1003.  John  XVII.  :  legitimate  pope,  died  same  year.

,, John  XVIII.  abdicated.
1009.  Sergius  IV.  (original  name  "Bocca  di  Porco,"  Pig's

Snout).
1012.  Benedict  VIII.  :  supported  by  the  emperor  against

— Gregory.
1024.  John  XIX. :  elevated  by  bribery.
1033.  Benedict IX.  ; became pope, by purchase, at

12  years  of  age  ;  expelled  for  vices.
1044.  Sylvester  III. :  3  months.
,, Gregory  VI.  :  deposed. — Sylvester;  and  John  XX.
[The  emperor  very  influential.]

1046.  Clement  II.  died  the  next  year  (Clemens  Romanics

the  first  Clement).

1047.  Benedict  IX.  again  :  again  deposed.

1048.  Damasus  II.  :  died  soon  after.

„ St.  Leo  IX.:  a  reformer  of  simony  and  incontinence.

1054.  [The  throne  vacant  one  year.]

1055.  Victor  II.  :  a  reformer.

1057.  Stephen  IX.  or  X.

1058.  Benedict  X.  ;  expelled.

,, Nicholas  II.  :  increased  the  temporal  power.

1061.  Alexander  II. :  raised  the  papal  power. — Hono-
ring II.

X073.  St.  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand) :  vigorous  reformer  ;
opposed  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  respecting  in-
vestitures ;  and  excommunicated  him,  1076  ;  re-
stored him  at  Canossa,  1077;  died,  in  exile,
1085.

1080.  Clement  III.  (Guibert).

1085.  I  The  throne  vacant  one  year.]

1086.  Victor  III.  (Didier) :  learned.
1088.  Urban  II.  ;  crusades  commenced.

1099.  Pascal  II.  (Ranieri) :  Tuscany  given  to  the  papacy
by  the  countess  Matilda.

1118.  Gelasius  II.  : retired  to a monastery. — Gregory

VIII.

1119.  Calixtus  II.  :  settled  investiture  question,
j  124.  Honorius  II.

1130.  Innocent II.: condemned heresies: held 2nd

Lateran  council. — Anacktus  II.
1 138.  Victor  IV.

1143.  Celestine  II.  :  ruled  5  months.

1 144.  Lucius  II.  :  killed  by  accident  in  a  popular  com-

motion.


1 145.  Eugenius  III.  :  ascetic.

1 153.  Anastasius  IV.

1154.  Adrian  IV., or  Nicholas  Brakespeare, the only

Englishman  elected  pope :  born  at  Abbot's  Lang-
ley,  near  St.  Alban's  ;  Frederick  I.  prostrated
himself  before  him,  kissed  his  foot,  held  his
stirrup,  and  led  the  white  palfrey  on  which  he
rode.

1 159.  Alexander  III.:  learned;  canonised  Thomas  a
Becket ;  resisted  Frederick  I.  ;  11 59,  Victor  V.  ;
1164,  Pascal  III.;  1168,  Calistus  III.  ;  1178,  Inno-
cent III.

1181.  Lucius  III. — The  cardinals  acquire  power.

1 185.  Urban  III.  :  opposed  Frederick  I.

1 187.  Gregory  VIII.  :  ruled  only  2  months.
,, Clement  III.  :  proclaimed  3rd  crusade.

1 191.  Celestine  III.

1 198.  Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti) :  endeavoured  to  free
Rome  from  foreign  influence  ;  excommunicated
John  of  England  ;  pireached  crusade  against  the
Albigenses,  1204.

1216.  Honorius  III.  :  learned  and  pious.

1227.  Gregory  IX.  :  preached  a  new  crusade  ;  collected
decretals.

1241.  Celestine  IV.  :  died  18  days  after  his  election.
[The  throne  vacant  1  year  and  7  months.]

1243.  Innocent  IV.  :  opposed  Frederick  II.  :  gave  the  red
hat  to  cardinals.

1254.  Alexander  IV. :  established  inquisition  in  France.

1261.  Urban  IV.  :  instituted  feast  of  "  Corpus  Christi."

1265.  Clement  IV.,  an  enlightened  Frenchman,  pre-
viously legate  to  England  ;  discouraged  the
crusacles.

1268.  [The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  9  months.]

1271.  Gregory  X.  :  held  a  council  at  Lyons  to  reconcile
the  churches  of  the  east  and  west.

1276.  Innocent  V.  :  died  shortly  after.

,, Adrian  V.  :  legate  to  England  in  1254  ;  died  36  days

after  election.
„ Vicedominus  :  died  the  next  day.
„ John  XX.  or  XXI.  :  died  in  8  months.

1277.  Nicholas  III.  :  died  in  1280.

1281.  Martin  IV.,  French  :  supported  Charles  of  Anjou.

1285.  Honorius  IV.  :  supported  the  French.

1288.  Nicholas IV.  : endeavoured to stir up a new

crusade.
1292.  [The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  3  months.]
1294.  St.  Celestine  V.  :  ascetic  ;  resigned.
,, Boniface  VIII.: proclaimed  that  "God  had set

him  over  kings  and  kingdoms  :  "  imprisoned  his

predecessor  ;  quarrelled  with  Philip  of  France  ;

laid  France  and  Denmark  under  interdict.

1303.  Benedict  XI.  :  a  pious  and  liberal  pontiff:  said  to

have  been  poisoned.

1304.  [The  throne  vacant  11  months.]

1305.  Clement V. (Bcrtrand de Got) : governed by

Philip  of  France  ;  removed  the  papal  seat  from

Rome  to  Avignon,  1309.
1314.  [The  throne  vacant  2  years  and  4  months.]
13 16.  John  XXII.

1334.  Benedict  XII.  (Nicholas  V.  at  Rome.]
1342.  Clement  VI.  :  learned.
1352.  Innocent  VI.  :  favoured  Rienzi.
1362.  Urban  V.  :  charitable  ;  a  patron  of  learning.
1370.  Gregory  XI.  :  protector  of  learning  ;  restored  the

papal chair  to Rome ; proscribed  Wicklifle's

doctrines.

Schism — 1378-1447.
1378.  Urban  VI.  :  so  severe  and  cruel  that  the  cardinals
chose  Robert  of  Geneva,  as
„ Clement  VII.
T389.  Boniface  IX.

1394.  Benedict  (called  XIII.)  at  Avignon.
1404.  Innocent  VII.  :  died  in  1406.
1406.  Gregory  XII.  Angelo  Corario.

1409.  Alexander  V.  :  died,  supposed  by  poison.

1410.  John  XXIII.  :  deposed.
1417.  Martin  V.  Otho  Colomia.
1424.  Clement  VIII.  :  resigned  1429.

1431.  Eugenius  IV.  Gabriel  Condolmera  :  deposed  by  the
council  of  Basil,  and  Amadeus  of  Savoy  chosen
as  Felix  V.,  in  1439,  who  resigned  1449.

1447.  Nicholas  V.  :  learned  ;  proposed  crusade  against
Turks.

1455.  Calixtus  HI.  Alfonso  Borgia  :  courageous.

1458 Pius  II.  jEneas  Silvius  Piccolomini :  learned.

1464.  Paul  II.  Pietro  Barbo  :  preached  a  crusade.


POPE.


765  POPE.


1471.  Sixtus  IV.  :  tried  to  rouse  Europe  against  the
Turks.

1484.  Innocent  VIII.

1492.  Alexander  VI.  Roderic  Borgia  :  poisoned  at  a  feast
by  drinking  of  a  bowl  lie  had  prepared  for
another.

1503.  Pius  III.  Francisco  Piccolomini :  21  days  pope.
,, Julius  II.  Julian  della  Rovere  :  martial ;  began  St.
Peter's.

1513.  Leo  X.  Giovanni  de'  Medici :  his  grant  of  indul-
gences for  crime  led  to  the  Reformation  ;  patron
of  learning  and  art.

1522.  Adrian  VI.  :  just,  learned,  frugal.

1523.  Clement  VII.  Giulio  de'  Medici :  refused  to  divorce

Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  denounced  the  marriage
of  Henry  VIII.  with  Anne  Boleyn.

1534.  Paul  III.  Alexander  Farnese :  approved  the  Jesuits.

1550.  Julius  III.  Giovanni  M.  Giocchi.

1555.  Mareellus  II.  :  died  soon  after  his  election.
,, Paul  IV.  John  Peter  Caraffa. He  would  not  ac-
knowledge Elizabeth  queen  of  England  ;  insti-
tuted "  the  Index"  (which  sec),  and  leagued  with
France  against  Spain.

1559.  Pius  IV.  Cardinal  de'  Medici:  founded  Vatican
press.

1566.  St.  Pius  V.  Michael  Ghisleri  :  pious  ;  energetic.

1572.  Gregory  XIII.  Buoncampagno  :  great  civilian  and
canonist :  reformed  the  calendar.

1585.  Sixtus  V.  Felix  Peretti :  an  able  governor  ;  excom.
Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.  of  France.

1590.  Urban  VII.  ;  died  12  days  after  election.
Gregory  XIV.  Nicholas  Sfrondrate.

1591.  Innocent  IX.  :  died  in  two  months.

1592.  Clement  VIII. Hippolito  Aldobrandini : learned

and  just :  published  the  Vulgate.

1605.  Leo  XI.  :  died  same  month.
., Paul  V.  Camille  Borghese  ;  quarrelled  with  Venice.

1621.  Gregory  XV.  Alexander  Ludovisio  :  founded  the
Propaganda.

1623.  Urban  VIII.  Maffei  Barberini :  condemned  Jan-
senism.

16  (.4.  Innocent  X.  John  Baptist  Panfili :  ditto.

1655.  Alexander  VII.  Fabio  Chigi :  favoured  literature.

1667.  Clement  IX. Giulio  Rispogliosi  :  governed  wisely.

1670.  Clement  X.  Emilio  Altieri.

1676.  Innocent  XI.  Odescalchi :  condemned  Gallicanism
and  Quietism.

1639.  Alexander  VIII.  Ottoboni,  6  Oct. ;  helped  Leopold
against  Turks.

1691.  Innocent  XII.  Antonio  Pignatelli :  12  July;  con-
demned Fenelon.

1700.  Clement  XI.  John  Francis  Albani :  23  Nov.  ;  issued
the  bull  Unigenitus.

1721  Innocent  XIII.  Michael  Angelo  Conti :  the  eighth
of  his  family ;  8  May  ;  pensioned  Jas.  Ed.
Stuart.

1724.  Benedict  XIII.  Orsini :  29  May;  favoured  J.  E.
Stuart.

1730.  Clement  XII.  Orsini :  12  July;  restored  San  Marino
(republic).

1740.  Benedict  XIV.  Lambcrtini :  17  Aug.;  learned,
amiable.

1758.  Clement  XIII.  Chas.  Rezzonico  :  Avignon  lost.

1769.  Clement  XIV.  Ganganelli :  19  May ;  suppressed  the
Jesuits.

1775.  Pius  VI.  Angelo  Braschi,  Feb.  15:  dethroned  by
Bonaparte  ;  expelled  from  Rome,  and  deposed  in
Feb.  1798  ;  died  at  Valence,  29  Aug.  1799.

iSoo.  Plus  VII.  Barnabo  Chiaramonte ;  elected  13  March  ;
agrees  to  a  concordat  with  France,  15  July,  1801 ;
crowns  Napoleon,  2  Dec.  1804  ;  excommunicates
him,  10  June,  1809  ;  imprisoned,  6  July,  1809;
restored  in  1814;  died,  20  Aug.  1823.  (He  re-
stored the  Jesuits,  1S14.)

1823.  Leo  XII.  Annibale  della  Genga,  28  Sept.

1829. Pius  VIII.  Francis  Xavier  Castiglioni,  31  March.

1831.  Gregory  XVI.  Mauro  Capellari,  2  Feb.  :  died,  1  June,
1846.

1846.  Pius  IX.  Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-Ferretti  (born  13
May,  1792):  elected,  16  June.  See  Rome,  1846-71.

1848.  His  diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain  au-
thorised by  parliament.
[Act  repealed,  1875.]

1860-65.  His  powers  in  France  greatly  checked.

1869.  The  "  Late  Sentential,"  regarding  excommunica-

tion and  limiting  absolution,  signed,  12  Oct.  ;
issued,  Dec.

1870.  TIic  pope  opens  a  general  council  (3  Dec. 1869),


which  propounds  the  doctrine  of  papal  infalli-
bility and  list  of  anathemas  (see  Councils),  Feb.  ;
deprived  of  the  remains  of  his  temporal  power
(see  Rome),  Dec.

1871.  Visited  by  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  27

March  ;  celebrates  a  jubilee  (25th  anniversary
of  election),  16  June;  nominates  14  Italian  pre-
lates, 24  Nov.

1872.  Perforins  no  Easter  solemnities  31  March ;  in  hi*

allocution  complains  of  the  persecution  of  the
church  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Spain,  Dec.  23.

1873.  Letter  from  the  pope  to  the  emperor  of  Germany

complaining  of  his  persecuting  the  bishops,  ami
asserting  his  authority  over  all  baptized  per-
sons, 7  Aug. ;  the  emperor  replies  in  justifica-
tion, and  asserts  that  there  is  no  mediator  be-
tween God  and  man  but  Jesus  Christ,  3  Sept. ;  en-
cyclical letter  of  the  pope  on  wrongs  of  the  church,
21  Nov. ;  he  appoints  12  new  cardinals,  22  Dec-

1874.  The  papal  nuncio  expelled  from  Switzerland  ;  pro-

tests by  letter,  1 7  Jan.  ;  a  bull  (said  to  be  forged),
altering  mode  of  electing  a  pope,  &c,  dated  28
May,  1873;  appears,  Jan.;  3,600/.  (from  poor
girls  in  Great  Britain)  presented  to  the  pope  by
lady  Herbert  of  Lea,  9  April ;  the  pope  receive*
100  American  pilgrims,  9  June  ;  the  English  un-
official secretary  of  legation  at  the  papal  court
withdrawn;  leaves,  n  Nov.;  in  his  allocution,
the  pope  exhorts  the  faithful  to  patience,  and
forbids  priests  meddling  with  politics,  21  Dec.

1875.  The  pope  re-appears  at  St.  Peter's,  after  four  years-

seclusion,  9  Feb. ;  he  dedicates  the  universa
church  to  "the  sacred  heart,"  16  June;  his
nuncio  issues  a  circular  against  religious  tolera-
tion in  Spain,  Sept. ;  allocution  :  new  cardinals,
announced,  17  Sept.

1876.  Announces  an  exhibition  of  sacred  objects  at  the-

Vatican  (in  celebration  of  his  jubilee)  on  21  May,
1877,  Aug.  ;  perforins  a  requiem  for  the  souls  of
his  enemies,  2  Nov.  ;  death  of  his  cardinal-secre-
tary, Antonelli,  6  Nov.  ;  succeeded  by  Simeoni,.
about  15  Nov.

1877.  Creates  n  new  cardinals,  and  issues  a  warm  allo-

cution against  the  Italian  government,  12  March  ;
and  circular  to  foreign  powers,  on  account  of  the-
bill  to  repress  clerical  abuses,  21  March;  creates.

3  cardinals,  22  June ;  2  cardinals,  &c,  28  Dee.
Died  7  Feb.  1878.

1878.  Leo  XIII.  Gioacehino  Pecci  (born  2  March,  1810);

elected,  20  Feb.  1878.
Reduces  his  guards  :  holds  a  consistory,  with  an
allocution;  revives  R.  C.  hierarchy  in  Scotland,

4  March.

Publishes  encyclical  endorsing  policy  of  prede-
cessor, but  moderate,  25  April.

Makes  his  secretary  of  state  cardinal  Franchi,  5
March  ;  cardinal  Nina,  Aug.

Issues  an  encyclical  letter  condemning  commun-
ism, socialism,  and  nihilism,  as  results  of  the
Reformation  ;  dated  28  Dec.

1879.  Appoints  10  cardinals  (including  J.  H.  Newman),

12  May.

Issues  encyclical  against  modern  false,  philosophy  ;
recommends  Thomas  Aquinas,  early  in  Aug.

1880.  Issues  encyclical  on  marriage,  as  a  sacrament,  ami

against  divorce  ;  published  18  Feb.
Delivers  an  allocution  censuring  the  government

of  Belgium  (which  see),  and  praising  the  bishops,

20  Aug.
Cardinal  Nina,  secretary,  resigns  for  bad  health,

13  Oct.;  cardinal  Jacobini  successor,  17  Nov.  ;
he  resigned  Dec.  1886  (died  28  Feb.  1S87).

1881.  Proclaims an  extra jubilee for the distressed

Church,  15  May,

Issues  an  encyclical  letter,  asserting  that  all
government  is  of  divine  origin,  and  that  wars
are  consequences  of  the  Reformation,  July.

Canonizes  De  Rossi  and  three  others,  8  Dee.

1882.  Encyclical  letter  against  heresy, socialism, &c. ,

read  in  London  Churches,  5  Nov.

1883.  Circular  to  Irish  bishops  enjoining  abstinence  from

disaffection  to  the  government,  11  May.

Letter  to  president  Grevy  censuring  the  re-
publican warfare  against  religion,  23  June.

Courteous,  firm  answer  delivered,  8  Aug.

L?tter  from  the  Pope  defending  the  papacy,  and
recommending  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  history,
Sept,


POPE.


766


POPULATION.


The  Pope  addresses  20,000  pilgrims  in  St.  Peter's,
and  recognises  Italian  unity,  7  Oct.

Visited  by  the  crown  prince  of  Germany,  18  Dec.
1884..  Encyclical  letter  to  French  bishops,  commending
early  French  devotion  to  religion,  and  exhorting
the  bishops  to  re-double  their  vigilance  in  regard
to  heresy  and  infidelity,  11  Feb.

In  a  letter  to  cardinal  Jacobin!  he  offers  40,000?.
to  erect  an  hospital  for  cholera  at  Rome  which
he  would  visit,  10  Sept.

Allocution, 8 cardinals and many bishops
created,  10  Nov.
11885.  The  Pope's  messenger,  father  Giulianelli,  well  re-
ceived by  the  emperor  of  China,  April.

Letter  from  the  pope  to  the  emperor  of  China,  1
Feb.  ;  reply  agreeing  to  receive  a  papal  agent  to
protect  R.C.  missionaries,  July.

Encyclical  letter  condemning  liberalism,  &c.  6  Nov.
E887.  Monsignor  Rampolla  becomes  pontifical  secretary
of  state,  March.

Allocution  23  May.

Letter  from  the  pope  asserting  his  territorial
rights,  15  June.

The  pope's  jubilee  (on  being  ordained  priest  31
Dec.  1837).

The  duke  of  Norfolk,  envoy  extraordinary  from
queen  Victoria,  appointed,  Dec. ;  received  by  the
pope  17  Dec.  ;  a  massive  basin  and  ewer  of  gold
presented  to  the  pope,  25  Dec.
a888.  The  pope's  grand  jubilee ;  masses  at  St.  Peter's :
present48  cardinals,  238  archbishops  and  bishops,
and  about  30,000  persons,  1  and  5  Jan.

The  pope's  speech  demanding  the  independence  of
the  church,  3  Jan.

The  pope  condemns  the  plan  of  campaign  and  boy-
cotting on  moral  grounds,  announced  27  April.

The  emperor  William  II.  visits  the  pope  12  Oct.

Address  of  English  R.C.  bishops  to  the  pope  pro-
testing against  Italian  repressive  legislation
respecting  his  temporal  power,  10  Nov.
1889.  The  pope  receives  French  pilgrims,  20  Oct. — Nov.
1850.  The  pope's  encyclical  letter  on  the  moral  duties  of
Catholics  now  much  neglected,  issued,  6  Jan.  ;
published,  16  Jan.

Negotiations  respecting  the  Roman  Catholics  in
Malta,  between  the  British  government  and  the
liope,  carried  on  by  sir  John  Liutoni  Simmons,
concluded  ;  he  leaves  Rome,  7  April.
1891.  Encyclical  concerning  socialism  and  the  Labour
question  issued  about  16  May.


1892.  Encyclical  to  the  French  bishops  enjoining  on  all
good  Catholics  entire  submission  to  the  govern-
ment of  the  republic,  16  Feb. ;  obedience  enforced
by  a  brief,  dated  3  May.

POPE,  A-,  poet  (1688— 1744).  His  bi-centenary
was  celebrated  by  an  exhibition  of  books,  pictures,
and  other  relics,  and  a  lecture  by  professor  II.
Morley  at  Twickenham  Town  Hall,  31  July,  1888.

POPE  JOAN.  It  is  falsely  asserted  that,  in
the  9th  century,  a  female  named"  Joan,  having  con-
ceived a  passion  for  Felda,  a  young  monk,  in  order
to  be  admitted  into  his  monastery  assumed  the
male  habit,  and  that  on  the  death  of  her  lover  she
entered  upon  the  duties  of  professor,  and,  being
very  learned,  was  elected  pope,  when  1  eo  IV.  died,
in  855.  Other  scandalous  particulars  follow, ;  "yet,
until  the  reformation,  the  tale  was  repeated  "and
believed  without  offence." Gibbon.

POPISH  PLOTS,  see  Gunpowder  Plot  and
Oates's  Plot.

POPLAE  TEEES.  The  Tacamahac  poplar
(Populus  Balsamifera)  was  brought  hither  from
North  America  before  1692.  The  Lombardy  poplar
from  Italy  about  1758.

POPLIN  (or  Tabinet),  an  elegant  rich  fabric
composed  of  silk  and  worsted,  introduced  by  the
Huguenot  refugees  from  France  about  1693 ;  first
manufactured  in  Dublin.  Irish  poplins  are  still
deservedly  esteemed.

POPULAE  CONCEPTS,  see  under  Music.

POPULATION".  The  population  of  the
world  was  estimated  in  1869  at  1,228,000,000;
(at-  Washington,  1874),  1,391,032,000;  1882,
1,433,887,500;  1890,  1,468,000,000  "( Havenstein)  ;
1891,  1,480,000,000  (Behm  and  Wagner).  For  the
Population  of  Countries,  see  the  table  (after  the
Preface)  facing  page  1 .


Europe

Asia .

Africa

America

Australia

Polynesia


275,806,741 .

755,000,000 .

200,000,000 .

67,896,041 .

1,445,000 1

1,500,000  j


312,39^,480
831,000,000
205,219,500
86,116,000

4,411,300


357,379:°oo
825,954,000
163.953,000
121,713,000
3,230,000
7,420,000


ESTIMATED  POPULATION  OF  ENGLAND  AND  WALES.


1377
1483
1696
z  700


Population.

.  5,240,000

. .  5,565,000

.  5,796,000

.  6,064,000

Estimated  population  of  Ireland  in  1652,  850,000;  in  1712,  2,099,094;  in  1754,  2,372,634

POPULATION  OF  GREAT BRITAIN  AND IRELAND  BY CENSUS.

(The  earlier  returns  given  below  are  approximate,  and  have  been  corrected  in  subsequent  Reports.)


Population,

.  2,092,978

1710

.  4,689,000

1720

.  5,250,000

1730

■  5,475.ooo

1740

1750

1760

1770


Population.
.  6,467,000
.  6,736,000
.  7,428,000
• 7,953.ooo


Population.

1790 . . .  8, 67;, 000

Estimated population of

Scotland in 1751,

1,255,663.

in  1805,  5,395,456.


Division,

1801.

1811.

1S21.

1831.

1841.

1851.

16,854,142

1,060,626

2,870,784

142,916

1861.

1871.

England  . . .
Wales  ....
Scotland . . .
Army,  Navy,  &c.

Total  .  .  .
Ireland  .  .  .
Islands  in  Bri- )

tish  seas .  j"

8,33i,434

541.546

1,599,068

470,598

9,551,888
611,788

1,805,688
640, 500

11,261,437

717,438

2,093,456

319,30°

13,089,338

805,236

2,365,807

277,017

16,537,398
7>784,934

14,995,138

916,619

2,620,184

312,493

18,949,130

i,in,795

3,061.251

162,021

21,487,688

I,2l6,i20

3,358,613

207,198

10,942,646

12,609,864
5.937,856

1:4,391,631
8,175,124

18,844,434
8,175,124-

20,936,468

6,515,794

143,126

23,284,197

5,764,543

143,779

26,269,910

5,402,759

144,430

27,595,388

29,192,419

3I,8l7,I0S

Division.

Year.

Males.

Females.

Inhabited  Houses.

England  and  Wales  .

1861

9,776,259

10,289,965

3,739,505

,, ,, ,, •

1871

11,058,934

n,653,332

4,259,II7

!, ,,!!••

1881

12,639,902

13,334,537

4,831,519

!, ,, ,, • •

1891

14,050,620

14,950,398

5,460,976

Scotland ....

1861

1,446,982

1,614,269

393,289

1871

1,601,633

1,756,980

419,635

Ireland

1861

2,804,961

2,959,582

905,156

"

1871

2,634,123

2,768,636

960,352

Behm  and  Wagner.


POPULATION.


767


POPULATION.


Abstract  of  the  Census  of  4  April,  1S81,  and  of  5  April,  1S91  :  England  and  Wales,  1881,  25,974,439  ;  1S91,  29,001,018.
Scotland,  1881,  3,734,370 ;  1891,4,033,103.  Ireland,  188 1,  5,159,839;  1891,4,706,162.  [Wales,  1881,  1,360,503;
1891,  1,518,914.]  Channel  Isles,  1881,  87,702;  1891,  92,272;  Isle  of  Man,  1881,  53,558;  1891,  55,598;  total  of
the  United  Kingdom,  1881,  35,246,561  ;  1891,  37,888,153.


According  to  Reports  published  Aug.,  1892:  Scotland,  1881,  3,

1891,  4,704,75c


735,573  ;  1891,  4,025,647. Ireland,  1SS1,  5=174,236  ;


POPULATION' OF  THE PRINCIPAL  TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN.


Towns.

1801.

1811.

1821.

1831.

1S41.

1851.

i86i.t

1S71.T

1881.

1891.

London

and  suburbs  .

864,845

1,009,546

1,225,694

1,474,069

1,873,676

2,362,236*

2,803,034

3,251,804

3,83t,i94

4,23i,43i

Manchester,  &c.

94,876

115,874

161,635

237,832

242,583

404,465

357,979

383,843

462,303

505,303

Glasgow,  &c. .

77.385

100,749

147,043

202,426

274.533

340,653

394,857

477,144

792,728

Liverpool . .

79,722

100,240

131,801

189,244

286,487

375,955

443,938

493,346

552,508

5i7,95i

Edinburgh,  &c.

82,560

102,987

138,235

162,403

168,182

193,929

168,098

196,500

261,261

Birmingham .

73-670

85,753

106,721

142,251

182,922

232,841

296,076

343,696

400,774

429,171

Leeds,  (fee.  . .

* *

* *

83,796

123,393

152,054

172,270

207,165

259,201

309,119

367,506

Bristol,  &c.

63,645

76,433

S7>779

103,886

122,296

137,328

154,093

182,524

206,874

221,665

Sheffield  .

1  * *

* *

69,479

91,602

111,091

135,310

185,172

239,947

284,508

324,243

Plymouth . .

43,194

56,060

61,212

75,534

80,059

.  102,380

62,599

69,414

73,794

84,179

Portsmouth

43,461

52,769

56,620

63,026

63,032

72,096

91,799

112,954

127,989

159,255

Norwich  .

36,832

37,256

50,288

61,116

72,344

68,195

74,891

80,390

87,842

100,964

Aberdeen . .

27,608

35,37°

44,796

58,019

63,288

71,945

73,794

88,125

121,905

Newcastle  -

on-Tyne

36,963

36,369

46,948

57,937

70,860

87,784

109,108

128,160

145,359

186,345

Paisley . .

3i,i79

36,722

47,003

57,466

60,487

69,951

47,419

48,257

66,427

Nottingham .

28,861

34,253

40,415

50,680

57,407

71-344

74,693

86,608

186,575

211,984

Hull .

34,964

32,467

41,874

49,461

71,629

84,690

97,661

123,111

86,502

95,422

Dundee . .

26,084

29,616

3o,575

45,355

62,794

77,829

90,425

118,974

155,640

Brighton . .

7-339

12,012

24,429

40,634

46,661

65,573

87,317

103,760

107,546

115,402

Bath

3o,n3

32,214

36,811

38,063

3S,304

54,240

52,528

53,714

51,814

51,843

York . . .

23,692

26,422

29,527

34,46i

38,321

40,359

45,385

50,761

61,789

66,984

Preston .

11,887

17,065

24,575

33, II2

50,131

69,542

82,985

85,428

96,537

107,573

■Cambridge  . .

13,360

13,802

14,142

20,917

24,453

27,815

26,361

34,029

35,363

36,983

•Oxford .

15,124

15,337

16,364

20,432

23,834

27,843

27,560

34,5M

40,872

45,74i

In  1S51,  1,106,558  males,  and  1,255,678  females.  t  1S61  and  1871 :  parliamentary  limits  of  the  boroughs.


[The  returns  for  1S91  are  taken  from  the  Preliminary  Report  of  the  census.]


Dublin,  18S1,


249,602  ;  1891,  254,709.
Waterford,  1891,  21,6


Ireland.
Belfast,  1881,  208,122;  1891,
13. Londonderry,  1891,  32,89


255,896. Cork,  iS
. Limerick,  1801


,124;  1891,  75,070.


POPULATION OF THE CHIEF  CITIES OF THE WORLD.


From  latest  returns  in  "  AlnutiUKh  de  Gotlw,"  etc.


Cities.
Adelaide, .1891 .
Alexandria,  Egypt,
Amsterdam,  1890
Antwerp,  1890 .
Athens,  1889
Baltimore,  U.S.,  18
Barcelona,  1887
Basle,  1888
Belgrade,  1890
Berlin,  1890
Berne,  1888
Bologna,  1890
Bombay,  1891
Bordeaux,  1891
Boston,  U.S.,  1
Bremen,  1890
Breslau,  1890
Brooklyn,  1890
Brussels,  1S90
Buda-Pesth,  1890
Buffalo,  1890
Cadiz,  1887
Cairo,  1883
Calcutta,  1891
Canton,  1890
Chicago,  1890
Christiania,  1891
Cincinnati,  189a
Cleveland,  1890
Cologne,  1890
Constantinople,  188
Copenhagen,  1890
Dresden,  1890
Florence,  1890 .
Fnvnkfort-on-Main,


[88  :


Inhabitants.
133,220
227,064

417,539
227,225
107,846

434,439

272,481

69,809

54,458

1,579,244

46,009

143,607

804.470

238,899

448,477

125,684

335,174
806,343
182,305
506,384
255,664

62,531

368,10s

840,130

about  1,600,000

1,099,850

150,444


261,353
281,273
873,565
375,251
276,085
191,453
179,850


1890


Cities.

Geneva,  1888
Genoa,  1890
Ghent,  1890
Hague,  1890
Hamburg,  1890  .
Hanover,  1890 .
Konigsberg,  1890
Leipsic,  1890
Liege,  1890.
Lille,  1891  .
Lima,  1876
Lisbon,  18S5
Lubcek,  1890
Lyons,  1891
Madras,  1891
Madrid,  1887
Malaga,  i837
Marseilles,  1891  .
Melbourne,  1891
Messina,  1890
Mexico,  1888
Milan,  iSco
Montreal,  1881 .
Moscow,  1885
Munich,  1890
Nankin,  estimated
Nantes,  1891
Naples,  1890
New  Orleans.  1890
New  York,  1890  .
Odessa,  1885
Oporto,  1878
Palermo,  1S90 .
Paris,  &c,  1891  .
Pekin,  1874


Inhabitants.

Cities. I

ihabiiants

71,807

Philadelphia,  1890

1,046,964

206,485

Pittsburg,  i3go  .

238,617

153,740

Prague,  1890

184,109

160,531

Qnebec,  1891

63,090

323,923

Kio  Janeiro,  1S90

500,000

165,499

Rome,  1890

423,217

161,528

Rotterdam,  1890

209,136

353,272

Rouen,  1891

109,541

149,789

San  Francisco,  1890 .

298,997

200,935

Santiago,  18S5

189,332

101,488

Seville,  18S7

143,182

243,010

Smyrna,  1SS5

186,510

63,590

Stockholm,  1890

246,154

403,322

St.  Etienne,  1891

133,443

449,95o

St.  Louis,  1890  .

451,770

470,283

St.  Petersburg,  1S85  .

861,303

134,106

Stuttgart,  1890  .

139,659

375,378

Sydney,  1891

386,400

491,378

Teheran,  estimated .

210,000

142,000

Tien-tsin,  1S87 .

950,000

350,000

Tokio,  1887.

1,552,457

414,551

Toronto,  1S91

181,220

140,747

Toulouse,  1891 .

148,220

753,469

Tunis,  estimated

150,000

348,377

Turin,  1890

320,80s

r, 000,000

Upsal,  1890

21,5"

121,054

Utrecht,  1890

86,116

530,872

Valencia,  1887 .

170,763

242,039

Valparaiso,  1885

104,952

1,515,301

Venice,  1830

158,019

240,000

Vienna,  1890

1,364,548

105,838

Warsaw,  1890

443,426

267,416

Washington,  U.S.,  i3;o

230,392

2,423,946

1,648,814

PORCELAIN.


768


PORTLAND  ISLE.


PORCELAIN,  see  Pottery.

PORPHYROGENITITS,  "bom  in  the  pur-
ple," a  term  applied  to  emperors  of  the  east,  born
while  their  fathers  were  reigning.

PORT  BRETON,  an  isle  near  New  Caledonia,

South  Pacific.

In  1877  the  marquis  Du  Breil  de  Rays  purchased  of  the
king  Maragano  a  quantity  of  land  on  which  to  found
a  colony.  Glowing  prospectuses  were  issued  in
France,  a  company  was  formed,  and,  the  scheme  being
favoured  by  the  legitimists,  a  large  number  of  shares
were  purchased  and  much  money  received.  Other
speculating  companies  were  formed,  and  colonial
government  officers  nominated.  In  spite  of  warning
and  prohibition  several  vessels  sailed  in  1879  with
emigrants  to  meet  with  misery,  disease,  and,  to  a
large  extent,  with  death.  A  few  who  had  been  landed
in  New  Caledonia  got  back  to  France  and  published
an  account  of  their  sufferings.  The  marquis  and  some
of  his  associates  were  brought  to  trial  27  Nov.
1883  ;  he  was  sentenced  to  four  years'  imprisonment
and  a  fine  of  3000  francs  his  associates  to  shorter  im-
prisonment, 2  Jan.  1884;  on  appeal,  sentence  con-
firmed, 14  March,  1S84.

PORTE,  or  Sublime  Porte,  official  name

of  the  court  of  the  sultan  of  Turkey.  Mostasem,
the  last  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs  (1243-58),  fixed  in
the  threshold  of  the  principal  entrance  to  his  palace
at  Bagdad  a  piece  of  the  black  stone  adored  at
Mecca,  and  thus  this  entrance  became  the  "  porte  "
by  eminence,  and  the  title  of  his  court.  The  sul-
tans, successors  of  the  caliphs,  assumed  the  title.
—  Jlou'dlct,

PORTEOL  S  MOB.  Capt.  Porteous,  at  Edin-
burgh, on  15  April,  1736,  commanded  the  guard  at
the  execution  of  Wilson,  a  smuggler,  who  had
saved  the  life  of  a  fellow  criminal,  by  springing
upon  the  soldiers  around  them,  and  by  main  force
keeping  them  back,  while  his  companion  fled.  This
excited  great  commiseration,  and  the  spectators
pelted  the  guard  with  stones.  Fearing  a  rescue,
Porteous  ordered  his  men  to  fire  upon  the  mob,  and
seventeen  persons  were  killed  or  wounded.  He
was  found  guilty  of  murder,  22  June,  1736;  but  the
queen  granted  him  a  reprieve  (the  king  being  then  in
Hanover).  The  people,  at  night,  broke  open  the
prison,  took  out  Porteous,  and  hanged  him  on  a
dyer's  sign-post,  in  the  Grass-market,  7  Sept.  1736.
None  of  the  rioters  were  ever  detected.

PORTER.  Dr.  Ashe  says  that  this  beverage
obtained  its  appellation  on  account  of  its  having
been  drunk  by  porters  in  the  city  of  London,  about
1730.*  The  number  of  licensed  brewers  in  1850,
in  England,  was  2257;  in  Scotland,  154;  and  in
Ireland,  96— total,  2507.  On  17  Oct.  1814,  at  Meux's
brewhouse  two  large  vats  of  porter  burst,  destroy-
ing neighbouring  houses.  Several  lives  were  lost ;
and  the  loss  was  between  8000  and  9000  barrels.

Chief  Brewers.  In  1760.  Barrels.

Calvert  &  Co.  brewed 74.734

Whitbread. . 63,408

Truman 60,140

Sir  William  Calvert .- . 52,785

Gifford  &  Co 41,410


*  The  malt  liquors  previously  in  use  were  ale,  beer,
and  twopenny,  and  it  was  customary  to  call  for  a  pint  or
tankard  of  half-and-half,— i.e.,  half  of  ale,  and  half  of
beer.  In  the  course  of  time  it  also  became  the  practice
to  ask  for  a  pint  of  three-thirds,  meaning  a  third  of  ale,
beer,  and  twopenny.  To  avoid  trouble,  Harwood,  a
brewer,  made  a  liquor  which  partook  of  the  united
flavours  of  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny,  calling  it  entire,  or
entire  butt  beer,  meaning  that  it  was  drawn  entirely
from  one  cask  or  butt.  Being  relished  by  porters  and
other  wo.'king  people,  it  obtained  its  name  of  porter,
and  was  first  retailed  at  the  "  Blue  Last,"  Curtain-road.
—Leigh.


Chief  Brewers.  In  1760.  Barrels.

Lady  Parsons 34>°Q8

Thrale 3°>74°

Huck  &  Co 29,615

Harman 28,017

Meux  &  Co 10,012

In  1815.

Barclay  &  Perkins 337,621

Meux,'Reid,  &  Co 282,104

Truman,  Hanbury,  <fc  Co.  . . . .  272,162

Whitbread  &  Co. 261,018

Henry  Meux  &  Co 229,100

F.  Calvert  &  Co 219,333

Combe,  Delafield,  &  Co 105,081

In  1840.

Barclay,  Perkins,  and  Co 361, 321

Truman,  Hanbury,  &;  Co 263,235

Whitbread  &  Co 218,828.

Keid  and  Co 196,442

Combe,  Delafield,  &  Co 177,542

Felix  Calvert  &  Co 136,387

Sir  Henry  Meux  &  Co "6,547

PORTERAGE  ACT,  regulating  the  charge  for
porterage  of  small  parcels,  passed  1799-

PORT  HAMILTON,  see  Corca.

PORT  JACKSON  (New  South  Wales),  thir-
teen miles  north  of  Botany  Bay,  was  so  named  by
capt.  Cook  in  1 770;  see  Sydney.  Here  the  duke-
of  Edinburgh  was  shot  by  O'Farrell,  a  Fenian,
12  March,  1868,  but  soon  recovered.  The  assassin
was  hanged,  21  April.

PORTLAND  ADMINISTRATIONS.

The  first  was  the  "  Coalition  ministry,"  of  which
William  Henry  Cavendish,  duke  of  Portland,*  as
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  was  the  head.  It  obtained
the  name  of  the  "Coalition"  ministry,  and  in-
cluded, lord  North  with  Mr.  Fox,  formerly  in-
veterate opponents.  Formed  5  April,  1783 ;  dis-
solved by  Mr.  Titt's  coming  into  power,  Dec.  same
year.

FIEST ADMINISTRATION.

Duke  of  Portland,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Viscount  Stormont,  president  of  the  council.

Earl  of  Carlisle,  privy  seal.

Frederick,  lord  North,  and  Charles  James  Fox,  home  and

foreign  secretaries.
Lord  John  Cavendish,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Viscount  Keppel,  admiralty.
Viscount  Townshend,  ordnance.
Lord  Loughborough,  chief  commissioner  of  great  seal.
Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fitz-

patrick,  Richard  B.  Sheridan,  &e.

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807.

Earl  Camden,  lord  president.

Lord  Eldon,  lord  chancellor.

Earl  of  Westmorland,  lord  privy  seal.

Hon.  Spencer  Perceval,  lord  Hawkesbury  (afterwards  earl

of  Liverpool),  Mr.  Canning,  and  viscount  Castlereagh

(afterwards  marquis  of  Londonderry),  home,  foreign,  and!

colonial  secretaries.
Earl  Bathurst  and  Mr. Dundas, boards  of  trade  and

control.
Lord  Mulgrave,  admiralty.
Earl  of  Chatham,  ordnance.

PORTLAND  CEMENT,  first  mentioned  in
a  patent  granted  to  Joseph  Aspden,  a  bricklayer  of
Leeds,  1824.  His  son  made  the  true  cemeut  at
Northfleet.  Its  value  as  a  building  material  was
established  by  Mr.  John  Grant's  tests,  1859-71.
Portland  cement  concrete  was  used  by  Mr.  E.  A.
Bernay  in  1867.

PORTLAND  ISLE  (off  Dorset),  the  English
Gibraltar.  Fortified  before  1142.  Portland  castle-
was  built  by  Henry  VIII.  about  1536.  Off  this
peninsula  a  naval  engagement  commenced  between

*  Bom  1738;  became  lord  chamberlain,  1765;  lord
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1782;  premier,  1783;  home  secre-
tary, 1794;  lord  president,  1801 ;  premier  again,  1807;
died,  1809;  when  Mr.  Spencer  Perceval  became  premier.


PORTLAND.


F69


PORTSMOUTH.


the  English  and  Dutch,  18  Feb.  1653,  which  con-
tinued for  three  days.  The  English  destroyed
eleven  Dutch  men-of-war  and  thirty  merchantmen.
Van  Tromp  was  admiral  of  the  Dutch,  and  Blake  of
the  English. — Here  is  found  the  noted  freestone
used  for  building  our  finest  edifices.  The  Portland
lights  were  erected  17 16  and  in  1789.  The  pier,
with  nearly  half  a  mile  square  of  land,  was  washed
into  the  sea  hi  Feb.  1792.  Prince  Albert  laid  the
first  stone  of  the  Portland  breakwater,  25  July,
1849,  and  the  last  stone  was  laid  by  the  prince  of
Wales,  10  Aug.  1872.  Mr.  James  Rendel,  the  first
chief  engineer,  was  succeeded  on  his  death  in  1856
by  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  John  Coode.  The  breakwater  and
other  harbour  works  cost  1,033,600/.  exclusive  of
convict  labour.  The  Portland  prison  was  established
in  1848.  A  mutiny  among  the  convicts  here  in
Sept.  1858,  was  promptly  suppressed.

PORTLAND  (or  Babbeeixi)  VASE.  This
beautiful  specimen  of  Greek  art  (composed  of  a
glass-like  substance,  with  figures  and  devices  raised
on  it  in  white  enamel ;  height  10  mches  ;  diameter
in  the  broadest  part,  7  ;  with  a  handle  on  each
side)  was  discovered  about  the  middle  of  the  16th
century,  in  a  marble  sarcophagus  in  a  sepulchre  at
a  place  called  Monte  del  Grano,  about  2\  miles
from  Pome.  The  sepulchre  was  supposed  to  have
been  that  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Alexander  Se-
verus  (222-235),  aiw  his  mother  Mammaea,  and  the
vase  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  cinerary  urn  of
one  of  these  royal  personages.  It  was  placed  in  the
palace  of  the  Barberini  family,  at  Rome,  where  it
remained  till  1770,  when  it  was  purchased  by  sir
"William  Hamilton,  from  whose  possession  it  passed
to  that  of  the  duchess  of  Portland,  1787;  at  the
sale  of  her  effects,  it  is  said  to  have  been  bought
by  the  then  duke  of  Portland,  who,  in  1810,  de-
posited it  (on  loan)  hi  the  British  Museum.  On
27  Feb.  1845,  this  vase  was  smashed  to  pieces  with
a  stone  by  a  man  named  "William  Lloyd ;  it  has
been  skilfully  repaired,  and  is  now  shown  to  the
public  in  a  special  room.  Josiah  "Wedgwood  made
a  mould  of  it,  and  took  a  number  of  casts.

PORT  MAHON,  see  Minorca.

PORTO  BELLO  (S.  America),  discovered  by
Columbus,  2  Nov.  1502,  was  taken  by  Morgan  the
Buccaneer  hi  1668  ;  by  the  British  under  admiral
Vernon,  from  the  Spaniards,  21  Nov.  1739,  and  the
fortifications  destroyed.  Before  the  abolition  of  the
trade  by  the  galleons,  in  1748,  it  was  the  great  mart
for  the  rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chili.

PORTO  FERRAJO,  capital  of  Elba  {which
see);  built  and  fortified  by  Cosmo  I.  duke  of
Florence,  in  1548.  The  fortifications  were  not
finished  till  1628,  when  Cosmo  II.  completed  them
with  great  magnificence ;  see  France.

PORTO  NOVO  (S.  India).  Here  sir  Eyre
Coote,  with  about  9500  men  and  55  light  field-
pieces,  skilfully  defeated  Hyder  Ali,  ruler  of  the
Camatic,  with  80,000  men  and  some  heavy  cannon,
I  July,  1 781.  Hyder  lost  about  10,000,  the  British
587  killed  and  wounded.  POETO  NOVO,  W.
Africa,  a  French  settlement  on  the  coast  of  Daho-
mey,  which  sac  (1890  et  scq.).

PORTO  RICO,  a  West  India  island,  belong-
ing to  Spain ;  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493.
Attacks  on  it  by  Drake  and  Hawkins  repulsed,
1595.  Revolt  suppressed,  1823.  Slavery  abolished,
23  March,  1873.

PORT  PHILLIP  (New  S.  Wales),  original
name  of  the  colony  of  Victoria  (xchiclt  sec).


PORTRAIT  GALLERY,  &c,  see  National
Portrait  Gallery,  and  Composite  Portraits.
The,  Society  of  Portrait  Painters  held  its  first  exhi-
bition at  the  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water
Colours  in  Piccadilly,  July  1891.  The  society
includes  the  most  eminent  artists.  Second  exhi-
bition June,  1892

The  formation  of  a  "  Britisli  Museum  of  Portraits  "
(photographs),  was  proposed  by  Mr.  James
Glaisher  in  1864,  and  partly  begun.  The  under-
taking resumed  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  Mr.
Glaisher  and  the  Amateur  Photographic  Associa-
tion, and  a  collection  of  portraits  deposited  in
the  art  department  at  South  Kensington  museum,

July,  i8gt
PORTREEVE  (derived  from  Saxon  words
signifying  the  governor  of  a  port  or  harbour) .  The
chief  magistrate  of  London  was  originally  so  styled  ;
but  Richard  I.  appointed  two  bailiffs  and  afterwards
London  had  mayors. Camden  ;  see  Mayors.

PORT  ROYAL  (N.  America),  capital  of  the
French  colony,  Acadie,  founded  in  1604;  after
having  been  taken  and  restored  several  times,  it  was
filially  acquired  by  the  British  iu  1710,  and  named
Annapolis.

PORT  ROYAL  (Jamaica),  once  a  consider-
able town,  was  destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  1602
and  1692;  laid  in  ashes  by  tire  in  1702;  reduced  to
ruins  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea  in  1722  ;  and
destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in  1774.  After  these
calamities,  the  custom-house  and  public  offices  were
removed  to  Kingston.  Port  Royal  was  again  greatly
damaged  by  fire  in  1 750;  by  another  awful  stomi
111  1784  ;  and  by  a  devastating  fire  in  July,  1815  ;
in  1850  it  suffered  by  cholera.

PORT  ROYAL  DES  Champs  (near  Paris)
was  a  French  Cistercian  convent,  founded  by  Odo,
bishop  of  Paris,  at  the  wish  of  king  Philip  Augus-
tus, 1204.  Having  fallen  into  decay,  it  was  revived
and  reformed  hi  1608  by  Angelica  Amauld.  In
1625  the  increased  community  removed  to  Paris.
The  Port  Royal  des  Champs,' in  1656,  became  the
retreat  of  the  Arnaulds,  Tillemont,  Pascal,  Lance-
lot, and  other  eminent  Jansenists,  who  devoted
themselves  to  education,  and  produced  the  Port
Royal  grammars,  logic,  and  other  works.  This
institution  was  condemned  by  the  pope  iu  1709,
and  the  buildings  were  pulled  down,  and  tombs
desecrated,  by  the  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  1710.
The  Port  Royal  at  Paris  was  suppressed,  with  other
monasteries,  in  1790.

PORTSMOUTH  (Hampshire),  the  most  con-
siderable  haven  for  men-of-war,  and  most  strongly
fortified  place  in  England.  The  dock,  arsenal,  and
storehouses  were  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry
VIII. See  Population.

The  French  under  D'Annebaut  attempted  to  destroy
Portsmouth,  but  were  defeated  by  viscount  Lisle,
in  the  then  finest  war-ship  in  the' world,  the  Great

Harry IS45

Here  George  Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham,  was

assassinated  by  Felton ...  23  Aug.  1628

Admiral  Byng  (see  Byng)  on  a  very  dubious  sen-
tence was  shot  at  Portsmouth . .  14  March,  1757
The  dockyard  was fired,  the loss estimated  at

400,000? '3  July,  1760

Another  lire  occasioned  loss  of  100,000?. 27  July,  1770
[The  French  were  suspected  both  times,  but  there

was  no  actual  proof.]
Fire  caused  by  James  Aitken  (John  the  Painter)

7  Dec.  1776;  executed . . . .  10  March,  1777
Royal  George  {which  see)  sunk . . 29  Aug.  1782
Grand  naval  mock  engagement  and  parade  of  the
fleet,  the  king  being  present,  22  to  25  June,  1773,

and 30  June,  1794

Another  great  fire  occurred  . . . . 7  Dec. 177c
The king of  the French with a fleet  arrives  at
Portsmouth,  sec  France . . . 6  Oct.  iGn.


PORTUGAL.


770


PORTUGAL.


A  great  naval  review  was  held  near  Portsmouth  on

25  April,  1856
Visited  by  a  French  fleet  amid  great  rejoicings,

29  Aug.-i  Sept.  1865
Easter  Monday  volunteer  review,  &c,  very  successful

13  April,  1868
Naval  review  at  Spithead  before  the  shah  of  Persia.

23  June,  1873
Explosion  at  Priddy's  Hard  ;  5  killed . 5  May  18S3

See  Navy  of  England,  1887,  1889,  1890,  1891.
The  emperor  William  II. visited  Portsmouth, 5

Aug.  1889,  and 6  Aug.  1890

The prince  of  Wales opens the new  town-hall

9  Aug. ,,
The  Amphitheatre  music-hall  burnt  (cost,  10,000/.)

25  Dec. „
The  Royal  Arthur  and  the  Eoyal  Sovereign  launched

by  the  queen,  see  Navy  ...  26  Feb.  1891
Visit  of  the  French  fleet,  see  France . 19-26  Aug. „

PORTUGAL,  the  ancient  Lusitania.  The  pre-
sent name  is  derived  from  Porto  Callo,  the  original
appellation  of  Oporto.  After  a  nine  years'  struggle,
under  Yiriathes,  a  brave  able  leader,  the  Lusi-
tanians  submitted  to  the  Roman  arms  about  137  B.C.
Portugal  underwent  the  same  changes  as  Spain  on
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  There  are  in
Portugal  two  universities,  that  of  Coimbra,  founded
in  1308,  and  the  smaller  one  of  Evora,  founded  in
1533.  Lisbon  has  also  its  royal  academy,  and  the
small  town  of  Thomar  has  an  academy  of  sciences ;
but,  in  general,  literature  is  at  a  low  ebb  in
Portugal.  The  poet  Camoens,  called  the  Virgil
of  his  country,  and  author  of  the  Lusiad  (1569),
translated  into  English  by  Mickle,  was  a  native  of
Lisbon.  Population  of  the  kingdom  and  colonies,
3iDec.l863,  8,037,194;  in  1872,  kingdom  011  the  con-
tinent, with  Madeira  and  Azores,  4,390,589;  colonies,
3,258,140 ;  in  1878,  kingdom  and  colonies,  8,031,831 ;
1881,  kingdom,  4,708,178.  Estimated  revenue,
1890-1,  8,817,040/.;  expenditure,  9,574,150?.  The
constitution  granted  in  1826  was  revised  in  1852.
Settlement  of  the  Alains  and  Visigoths  here . . 472

Conquered  by  the  Moors 713

The  kings  of  Asturias  subdue  some  Saracen  chiefs,

and  Alfonso  III.  establishes  bishops  .  .  .  900
The  Moors,  conquered  by  Alfonso  VI.  the  Valiant,  of
Castile,  assisted  by  many  other  princes  and  volun-
teers ;  Henry  of  Besancon  (a  relative  of  the  duke
of  Burgundy  and  king  of  France),  very  eminent ;
Alfonso  bestowed  upon  him  Theresa,  his  natural
daughter,  and  Portugal  as  her  marriage  portion,
which  he  was  to  hold  of  him  as  count  .  .  .  1095
Alfonso  Henriquez  defeats  live  Moorish  kings,  and

proclaimed  king ;  see  Owrique . . 25  July,  1139
Assisted  by  a  fleet  of  Crusaders  on  their  way  to  the
Holy  Land,  he  takes  Lisbon  from  the  Moors,

25  Oct.  1 147
Part  of  Algarve  taken  from  the  Moors  by  Sancho  I.  1189
Reign  of  Dionysius  I.  or  Denis,  father  of  his  coun-
try, who  builds  44  cities  or  towns  in  Portugal  .  1279
University  of  Coimbra  founded  ....  1308
Military  orders  of  Christ  and  St.  James  instituted,

1279  and  1325

Iiies  de  Castro  murdered 1355

John  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  carries  his  arms  into

Africa 1415

Maritime  discoveries 1419-30

Madeira  and  the  Canaries  seized ....  1420

Code  of  laws  digested 1425

Lisbon  made  the  capital .... about  1433
Prince  Henry,  the  navigator,  dies ....  1460
Passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good
Hope  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Gama  . 20  Nov.  1497

Discovery  of  the  Brazils 1499

Brazil  discovered  by  Cabral  ....  April,  1500
Camoens,  author  of  the  Lusiad,  born . about  1520

The  Inquisition  established 1526

University  of  Evora  founded  . . .  1451  or  1533

African  expedition ; king  Sebastian  defeated  and

slain  in  the  battle  of  Alcazar  .  .  .  4  Aug.  1578
The  kingdom  seized  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  .  .  .  1580
The  Dutch  seize  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  India,

1602-20


The  Portuguese  throw  off  the  yoke,  and  place  John,
duke  of  Braganza,  on  the  throne . . Dec.

The  Portuguese  defeat  the  Spaniards  at  Villa  Viciosa,
1665  ;  war  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Lisbon .

Methuen  treaty  {which  see)

The  great  earthquake  destroys  Lisbon . 1  Nov.

Joseph  I.  narrowly  escapes  death  by  assassins

[Some  of  the  first  families  were  tortured  to  death  ;
their  very  names  being  forbidden  to  be  mentioned  ;
the  innocence  of  many  was  soon  afterwards  made
manifest ;  the  Jesuits  were  also  expelled.]

Joseph,  having  no  son,  obtains  a  dispensation  from
the  pope  to  enable  his  daughter  and  brother  to
intermarry,  which  took  place . . 6  June,

The  Spaniards  and  French  invade  Portugal,  which
is  saved  by  the  English  . . .1 762  and

John,  prince  of  Brazil,  marries  his  aunt,  Maria
Francesea

Regency  of  John  (afterwards  king),  owing  to  the
lunacy  of  queen  Maria

War  with  Spain,  3  March  ;  peace . . 6  June,

Treaty  between  France  and  Spain  for  the  partition
of  Portugal,  Oct. ;  French  invasion  ;  Junot  arrives
at  Lisbon,  27  Nov. ;  the  court  sail  for  Brazil,

29  Nov.

Rise  of  the  Portuguese ;  several  times  defeated,
June  and  July ;  arrival  of  Wellington  at  Oporto,
July;  he  defeats  Junot  at  Vimiera,  21  Aug.;  con-
vention of  Cintra  confirmed . . 30  Aug.

Oporto  taken  by  Soult  ... 29  March,

Almeida  taken  by  Massena ... 27  Aug.

Massena  defeated  at  Busaco . .  27  Sept.

Wellington  secures  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras Oct.

Massena  defeated  at  Fuentes  de  Onoro  ;  retreats,

5  May,

The  British  parliament  grants  the  sufferers  by  war
in  Portugal  ioo,ooo£.

Portugal  cedes  Guiana  to  France ....

Union  of  Portugal  and  Brazil

Revolution  begins  in  Oporto ... 29  Aug.

Constitutional  Junta  established  . . 1  Oct.

Return  of  the  court 4  July,

Independence  of  Brazil ;  the  prince  regent  made
emperor;  see  Brazil 12  Oct.

The  king  modifies  the  constitution  . . 5  June,

Disturbances  at  Lisbon ;  Miguel  departs 1-9  May,

Treaty  with  Brazil 29  Aug.

Death  of  John  VI 10  March,

Dom  Pedro  grants  a  constitutional  charter,  and  con-
firms the  regency 26  April,

He  relinquishes  the  throne  in  favour  of  his  daughter,
Donna  Maria  da  Gloria . . . .2  May,

Miguel  takes  oath  of  fealty  at  Vienna .  4  Oct.

Marquis  of  Chaves'  insurrection  at  Lisbon  in  favour
of  Dom  Miguel 6  Oct.

Dom  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betrothed 29  Oct.

Portugal  solicits  the  assistance  of  Great  Britain,
3  Dec.  ;  departure  of  the  first  British  auxiliary
troops  for  Portugal  . . . . .17  Dec.

Bank  of  Lisbon  stops  payment . . 7  Dec.

Dom  Miguel  made  regent ;  he  arrives  in  London,  30
Dec.  1827;  takes  the  oath  at  Lisbon  22  Feb.

The  British  armament  quits  Portugal,  28  April;
foreign  ministers  withdraw ... 3  May,

Sir  John  Doyle,  a  partisan  of  Donna  Maria,  arrested,

13  June,

Dom  Miguel  assumes  the  title  of  king  .  4  July,

He  dissolves  the  three  estates . . .12  July,

His  troops  take  Madeira ... 24  Aug.

Release  of  sir  John  Doyle  .... 7  Sept.

The  queen  Donna  Maria  arrives  in  London 6  Oct.

Miguel's  expedition  against  Tcrccira  defeated,

11  Aug.

Duke  of  Palmella  appointed  regent . March,

Dom  Pedro  arrives  in  England  . . .16  June,

Insurrection  in  Portugal  in  favour  of  the  queen ;
more  than  300  lives  lost . . . 21  Aug.

Dom  Pedro's  expedition  sail  from  Belle-isle,  9  Feb. ;
at  Terceira  proclaims  himself  regent,  2  April ;
takes  Oporto S  July,

The  Miguelites  attack  Oporto  and  are  defeated
with  considerable  loss  on  both  sides  19  Sept.

Mount  Cavello  taken .... 9  April,

Admiral  Napier  takes  Dom  Miguel's  squadron  oil'
Cape  St.  Vincent 5  July,

Lisbon  evacuated  by  the  duke  of  Cadaval;  the
queen  proclaimed,  24  July ;  enters  Lisbon,

22  Se2it.


1640

166S
1703
1755
1758


17C0
!763
1777


1S14
1815
1820


1024
1825
1826


1827
1S2S


1S29
1830
1S31


!832
1833


POETUGAL.


771


POETUGAL.


After  various  conflicts  Dom  Miguel  capitulates  to
the  Pedroites,  and  Santarem  surrenders,  26  May ;
Dom  Miguel  embarks  at  Evora  for  Genoa,  31  May,  1834
Massacres  take  place  at  Lisbon . . .9  June, ,,
The  Cortes  declare  the  queen  of  age . 15  Sept. ,,

Dom  Pedro  dies 24  Sept. ,,

Oporto  wine  company  abolished . . .  ,,

Prince  Augustus  (duke  of  Leuchtenberg)  prince  con-
sort; married,  1  Dec.  1834;  dies  .  28  March,  1835
The  queen  marries  Ferdinand  of  Saxe  Coburg,

9  April,  1836
Revolution  at  Lisbon .... 9  Aug. ,,
Another  outbreak  there . . . .8  Nov. „
The  duke  of  Terceira  attempts  to restore Dom

Pedro's  charter 18  Aug. 1837

He  and  Saldanha  fail,  and  embark  for  England,

18  Sept. ,,
Oporto  wine  company  re-established . 7  April,  1838
The  northern  province  in  a  state  of  insurrection

about  this  time 20  April,  1846

The  duke  of  Palmella  resigns . . .31  Oct. „
Action  at  Evora,  the  queen's  troops  defeat  the  in-
surgent forces 31  Oct. ,,

British  squadron  under  admiral  Parker  arrives  in
the  Tagus,  at  the  queen's  request . 31  Oct. ,,

Palmella  banished 26  Nov. ,,

Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomnnn  at

Torres  Vedras 22  Dec. ,

The  insurgents  enter  Oporto . . .7  Jan. 1847
London conference  :  England,  Prance,  and Spain
determine  to  assist  the  queen  of  Portugal  to  ter-
minate the  civil  war . . . .21  May, ,,
Submission  of  Sa.  da  Bandeira . .  11  June, ,,
A  Spanish  force  enters  Oporto,  and  the  Junto  capi-
tulates 26  June, „

An  American  squadron  in  the  Tagus  to  enforce

claims  against  the  Portuguese  .  22  June,  1850

Military  insurrection,  headed  by  the  duke  of  Sal-
danha, who,  being  outstripped  in  his  march  on
Santarem  by  the  king  of  Portugal,  flees  northward

10  April,  1851
Oporto  declares  for  the  duke,  who  had  left  the  city
for  Vigo  to  embark  for  England  ;  but  is  called
back  by  the  insurgents . . .24  April, ,,
Saldanha's  entry  into  Oporto . .  29  April. ,,

The conde  de  Thomar,  prime  minister, resigns  ;

arrives  in  England  ....  16  May,  ,,
Saldanha,  prime  minister  .  .  .  .23  May,  ,,
Dom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of

Lowenstein-Rosenberg ... 24  Sept. ,,
Revision  of  the  charter  by  the  Cortes  sanctioned  by
the  queen ;  the  prince  royal  takes  the  oath  to

the  constitution 18  July,  1852

Conversion  of  the  public  debt . . 18  Dec. ,,
Death  of  the  queen  Maria  II. . . . 15  Nov. 1853
King-consort  recognised  as  regent  . 19  Dec. ,,

The  young  king  visits  England  . . . June,  1854
The  slaves  on  royal  domains  freed . 30  Dec. ,,
The  king  visits  France .... May,  1855
Inauguration  of  the  king . . . 16  Sept. ,,
Resignation  of  Saldanha  ministry . . 5  June,  1856
First  Portuguese  railway  (from  Lisbon  to  Santarem)

opened 26  Oct. ,,

Fever  rages  in  Lisbon  ; the  king  very  active  in

relieving  the  sufferers . . Oct.  and  Nov.  1857
The  French  emigrant  ship  for  negroes,  Charles-et-

Georges,  seized ..... 29  Nov. ,,
Anger  of  the  French  government ; its  ultimatum
sent,  13  Oct.  ;  and  ships  of  war  to  the  Tagus;  the
vessel  restored  (see  Charles-et-Georges) . 25  Oct.  1858
Death  of the  duke of Terceira,  prime  minister,
April  26 ;  succeeded  by  the  senhor  Aguiar,  May  2,

who  resigns 2  July,  i860

Death  of  the  king, Pedro  V.  ;  succeeded  by  his

brother  the  duke  of  Oporto . . .  n  Nov.  1861
Death  of  John,  the  king's  brother  . . 29  Dec. ,,
The  law  of  succession  altered  in  favour  of  the  king's

sisters 3  Jan. 1862

The  due  de  Louie  becomes  minister . 21  Feb. ,,
The  king  married  to  Princess  Maria  Pia  of  Savoy  by

proxy,  at  Lisbon 6  Oct. ,,

Elections  :  majority  for  the  government .  Nov. ,,
Birth  of  Dom  Carlos,  heir  to  the  throne  . 28  Sept. 1863

Ministerial  changes Jan. 1864

Death  of  the celebrated statesman  the  duke  of

Palmella 2  April, ,,

Free-trade  measures  introduced  . . .1  June, ,,
Frontier  treaty  with  Spain  concluded . 29  Sept. ,,


1SC9


1S69
1S70


1S74
1875
1876


U.S.  vessels  Niagara  and  Sacramento  in  the  Tagus
fired  on,  through  suspicion  of  their  sailin<'  after
the  confederate  vessel  Stonewall,  27  March  •  the
difficulty  with  the  U.S.  government  arranged.

The  premier, De  Louie, resigns  ; marquis  Sa  da  *"  $

Bandeira  forms  a  ministry . . 17  April
Constitutional  privileges  granted  to  the  colonies' '

am ■ -u  May'  »

Another  prince  born  . . . .31  July,

New  ministry  formed  ;  Aguiar  premier .  4  Sept! ,','
The  international  exhibition  at  Oporto  opened  by

the  king 18  Sept, „

The  king  visits  England  and  France  .  .  Dec.
General  Prim  enters  Portugal,  20  Jan.  ;  ordered  to

■ depart 17  Feb. iS''6

Death  of  Dom  Miguel,  the  ex-king  . . 14  Nov.
The  king  and  queen  of  Spain  visit  Lisbon n  Dec. "
King  and  queen  at  the  Paris  exhibition,  July-Aug. 1807
New  ministry  under  count  d'Avila . 5  Jan. i3C8

under  Sa  da  Bandeira . . .  21  July,

under  the  duke  de  Saldanha  . . 7  Jafi!

under  the  duke  de  Louie  . . u  Aug!

Violent  opposition of  Saldanha  ;  ordered  back  to

Paris  as  ambassador  there  ;  he  resigns  Dec.

Cortes  dissolved jan.

Saldanha  heads  a  military  insurrection  ;  seizes  the

royal  palace  ;  forms  a  new  ministry  .  19  May,  „
Neutrality  in  the  French  war  proclaimed  .  July,  „
Manifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and

Oporto  . .  .... 2  Aug. „

The  French  republic  recognized  .  .  .  Sept.
New  ministry  under  the  bishop  of  Vizeu,  30  Oct,
New  ministry  under  the  marquis  d'Avila,  30  Jan.  ;

under  Fontes  Pereira  de  Mello  . 13  Sept.'  1S71

Great  fire  at  Lisbon I3  June,  1S72

Conspiracy  against  the  government ;  officers  in  tin''

army  arrested .... about  26  Aug.
Death  of  Joaquim  A.  Aguiar,  statesman  (see  i860,

1865) 26  May,

The  duke  of  Coiinbra  visits  England  .  .  Aug.
The  prince  of  Wales  at  Lisbon  .  .  .  1  May,
Financial  crisis: banks  of  Oporto and Portugal

suspend  payment ;  confidence  soon  returns,  about

19-24  Aus;. .,
Death  of  the  duke  de  Saldanha  (buried  in  state  at

Lisbon) 2I  Nov. ,,

Marquis  D'Avila  forms  a  new  ministry 5  March, 1S77
Resigns  after  vote  of  censure  ;  new  ministry  formed

under  Fontes  Pereira  de  Mel!  i . . 29  Jan.  1S7S
Ministry  resigns,  30  May,  new  one  formed  by  sen!

A.  J.  Braamcamp .... 1  July 1S77
Great  demonstration in  honour  of  Camoens and

Vasco  da  Gama  at  Lisbon . . . June,  18S0
Discussion in  the  chambers  respecting  treaty  with

Great  Britain,respecting  Loureneo  Marques  (wh  ich
see),  E.  Coast  of  Africa;  ministry  resigns;  suc-
ceeded by  sen.  Sampayo  , . . 21-26  March,  1SS1
Elections;  majority  in  favour  of  ministry 21  Aug.
The  kings  of  Portugal  and  Spain  open  a  new  rail-
way between  Lisbon  and  Madrid  . . 8  Oct. ,,
Visit  of  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain 10  Jan.  et  seq.  1SC2
National art exhibition at Lisbon opened

about  15  April, ,,
Reform bill introduced abolishing hereditary

peerage end  of  Fell. i"3;

The  king  and  queen  visit  Madrid  .  .  22  May,
Ministry  reconstructed  by  Pontes  Pereira  de  Mello

20  Oct. ,,
Circular  affirming  Portuguese  rights  over  the  Congo

issued  Oct, ,,
The  crown  prince  returned  from  a  visit  to  England

21  Dec. ,,
Government  bill  fur  reform  of  constitution  adopted

by  the  deputies 8  Feb.  1884

Mr.  John  Dixon's  claims  on  the  Guimaraes  railway
company  for  compensation  for  their  taking  the.
Minlio  railway,  constructed  by  him;  complaint
of  judicial  delays ;  British  intervention ;  discussed

May, „
Death of the  king consort Ferdinand  aged 69,

15  Dec  18S5
The  de  Mello  ministry  resigns,  succeeded  by  that  of

senhor  Jose  de  Castro  ... 19  Feb. 1886

The  king  visits  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  and  the

continent  (warmly  received) Aug.-Scpt. 1886 ;

returns  f.o  Lisbon . . .  .26  Sept. ,,

Strike  and  riots  at  Oporto  (irt  Ich  see),  about  30  May,  1S39

3  I)  2


POETUGAL.


772


POETUGAL.


Dispute  respecting  the  Delagoa  railway  (which  see)

June,  et  seq.  i

The  wine  trade  much  disturbed  by  bounties  to
wine-growers  ;  granted  by  the  chamber,  12  June,

Death  of  king  Luis  I.,  19  Oct. ;  funeral . 26  Oct.

British  remonstrances  on  Portuguese  encroach-
ments in  East  Africa  (see  Zambesi) .  Nov.,  Dec.

The  king  Carlos  inaugurated  ... 28  Dec.

The  king  opens  the  cortes  with  a  Ann  temperate
speech  respecting  B.  Africa  ... 2  Jan.  1

Telegrams  :  lord  Salisbury  demands  the  immediate
recall  of  the  Portuguese  forces  from  places  in
Africa under British protection or influence

S  Jan.

Sen.  Barros  Gomes  accedes,  under  conditions ;
delays,  6 — 8  Jan.  Ultimatum  from  lord  Salisbury
requiring  immediate  submission,  threatening  sus-
pension of  diplomatic  relations  ;  the  council  of
state  accede  to  all  the  British  demands,  under
protest 11,  12  Jan.

Excitement  in  Lisbon  and  the  provinces  against
the  British,  promptly  suppressed ;  about  63
arrests,  13 — 16  Jan.  ;  the  De  Castro  ministry
resigns ;  sen.  Serpa  Pimental  forms  a  cabinet ;
sen.  Hintze  Ribeiro,  foreign  minister . 14  Jan.

Sen.  Serpa  Pimental  informs  the  chamber  that  he
submits  to  England,  who  has  might  while
Portugal  has  right . . . . 15  Jan.

The  Blue-book  containing  correspondence  between
lord  Salisbury  and  sen.  Barros  Gomes,  22  June,
1387  to  20  Jan.,  1890,  published  . . 12  Feb.

Capt.  Neves  Perreira  resigns,  about . 18  Jan.

Manifesto  of  the  republican  party,  about  .  19  Jan.

The  cortes  dissolved .... 20  Jan.

National  defence  fund  started,  23  Jan. ;  55,000/.
received  up  to  4  March  (nearly  33,000?.  subscribed
by  the  king  and  royal  family),  about  .  n  March,

Dearees  respecting  public  meetings,  liberty-  of  the
press,  judicial  reforms,  &c,  issued . 7  April,

The  new  cortes  opened  by  the  king ;  friendly
relations  with  Great  Britain,  reported  .  19  April,

Major  Serpa  Pinto  arrives  at  Lisbon,  20  April ;
made  one  of  the  king's  adjutants . 27  April,

Anglo  -  Portuguese  agreement  respecting  Africa,
settled  in  London 20  Aug.

Resignation  of  sen.  Serpa  Pimental  ministry,  1 7  Sept.

Gen .  Chrysostomo  d' Abreue-Sousa  forms  a  ministry,
13  Oct.,  opposed  to  the  proposed  convention;
cortes  closed 15  Oct.

A  modus  vivendi  agreed  on  for  six  months  ;  the
agreement  of  20  Aug.  withdrawn  ;  the  status  quo
ante  maintained,  10  Nov.  ;  signed . 14  Nov.

East  Africa  :  Capt.  Paiva  and  the  Bihe  expedition
resisted  on  the  river  Caquiema  ;  fighting  with
the  natives,  with  great  loss  . . . 1  Nov.

Celebration  of  the  250th  anniversary  of  the  re-
establishment  of  the  monarchy . . 1  Dec.

For  the  disputes  with  the  S.  Africa  company
respecting  the  Manica  company,  see  under
Zambesi  ..... Sept. — Dec.

Military  expedition  fo.  the  defence  of  Manica,  sails
from  Lisbon . . . 15  Jan.  and  12  Feb.

Arrival  of  col.  Paiva  d'Andrade,  complaining  of  the
conduct  of  the  British  in  Manica  (see  Zambesi,

Nov.  1890) 19  Jan.

Military  revolt  at  Oporto  (which  see) . 31  Jan.
The  Malange  steamer,  with  700  men,  arrives  at

Zanzibar 9  Feb.

The  cortes  opened .... 4  March,

The  Countess  of  Carnarvon,  steamer,  seized  by  the

Portuguese,  see  under  Zambesi . . March,

Loan  of  10,000,000?.  on  the  tobacco  monopoly  voted

19  March,

The  cortes  closed . . . . 20  March,

Ministerial  crisis  ends,  no  change . . 17  April,

Financial  crisis ;  heavy  fall  in  the  funds,  through

increase  of  the  national  debt  and  great  depression

of  trade  ;  run  upon  the  banks  met  by  large  coinage

of  silver,  about  .... 8  May,  et  seq.

Decree  authorising  the  suspension  of  payments  by

the  banks  ;  the  Bank  of  Portugal  suspends  cash

payments  for  60  days . . . . 11  May,

Treaty  extending  the  modus  vivendi  for  one  month,

signed 14  May,

Financial  improvement  reported . .  14  May,

New  ministry  formed  by  senhor  Joao  Chrysostomo,

president  and  war  general . . . 21  May,


New  Anglo-Portuguese  convention  signed  (after-
wards ratified) 11  June,  1891

Monetary  crisis  ;  sovereigns  sold  at  a  high  price  ;
traffic  in  silver  coin . . "  20  July — 20  A.ug. „

Meeting  of  the  cortes  ;  the  king  states  that  the
treaty  of  June  with  England  is  being  duly
executed 2  Jan.  1892

Expiration  of  the  treaty  of  Goa  (which  see)  .  14  Jan. ,,

New  cabinet  formed  by  sen.  Jose  Dias  Ferreira

15  Jan. ,t

The  minister  of  finance  reports  great  deficiency  in
the  revenue  and  great  increase  of  debt,  and  pro-
poses large  reductions  in  the  expenditure  and
increase  of  taxation  ;  accepted  by  the  king,  who
proposes  to  largely  reduce  his  civil  list,  and  by
the  cortes .... 20  Jan. — 23  Feb. ,r

Violent  cyclone  at  Lisbon,  much  damage ;  esti-
mated loss,  45,000?.,  19  Feb.  Great  loss  of  life
(105)  and  property  on  the  coast  by  a  violent  gale

27  Feb.  and  6  March, ,,

Revolts  against  the  expedition  to  lake  Nyassa  in
E.  Africa,  reported  . . 3  March,  et  seq. ,r

The  cortes  closed  by  the  king . . 2  April, ,,

Ministry  reconstituted  by  sen.  Ferreira .  27  May, ,r

Decree  reducing  the  temporary  payments  to  foreign
bondholders  then  due  to  one-third  the  amount ;
protest  of  the  bondholders . . 14  June, ,r

SOVEREIGNS  OF PORTUGAL.

1095.  Henry,  count  or  earl  of  Portugal.

1112.  Alfonso,  his  son,  and  Theresa.

1128.  Alfonso,  count  of  Portugal,  alone.

1139.  Alfonso  I.  declared  king,  having  obtained  a  signal
victory  over  a  prodigious  army  of  Moors  on  the
plains  of  Ourique.

1 185.  Sancho  I.,  son  of  Alfonso.

1212.  Alfonso  II.,  surnamed  Crassus,  or  the  Fat.

1223.  Sancho  II.,  or  the  Idle  :  deposed.

1248.  Alfonso  III.

1279.  Denis  or  Dionysius,  the  father  of  his  country.

1325.  Alfonso  IV. ,  the  Brave.

1357.  Peter,  the  Severe.

1367.  Ferdinand  I.,  son.

1385.  John  I.,  the  Bastard  and  the  Great ;  natural
brother ;  married  Pliilippa,  daughter  of  John  of
Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.

1433.  Edward  or  Duarte.

1438.  Alfonso  V.,  the  African.

1481.  John  II.,  the  Great  and  the  Perfect.

1495.  Emmanuel,  the  Fortunate  ;  cousin.

1521.  John  III.,  son  ;  admitted  the  Inquisition,  1536,
and  the  Jesuits,  1540.

1557.  Sebastian  ;  drowned  after  the  great  battle  of  Alea-
zarquivir,  in  Africa,  4  Aug.  1578.

1578.  Henry,  the  cardinal,  son  of  Emmanuel ;  great  uncle.

1580.  Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Emmanuel ;  de-
posed by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  united  Portu-
gal to  his  other  dominions.


1580.
1598.
1621.
1640.


1656.
16S3.


Philip  II. )
Philip  III.  Hvi:


1792.
1S16.


1826.


1826.
1828.


Philip  III.  }■  kings  of  Spain.

Philip  IV.  )

John  IV.,  duke  of  Braganza  ;  dispossessed  the-
Spaniards  in  a  bloodless  revolution,  and  was
proclaimed  king,  Dec.  1.

Alfonso  VI.  ;  deposed  in  1667,  and  his  brother
Peter  made  regent.

Peter  II. ,  brother.

John  V.,  son.

Joseph  Emmanuel ;  son.  The  daughter  and  suc-
cessor of  this  prince  married  his  brother,  by
dispensation  from  the  pope,  and  they  ascended
the  throne,  as

Maria  I.  and  Peter  III.  jointly.

Maria  I.  alone  :  this  princess  afterwards  falls  into  a
state  of  melancholy  and  derangement ;  dies,  1816.

Regency — John,  son  (afterwards  king) ;  declared
regent,  1791.

John  VI.,  previously  regent.  He  had  withdrawn
in  1807,  owing  to  the  French  invasion  of  Portu-
gal, to  his  Brazilian  dominions  ;  but  the  discon-
tent of  his  subjects  obliged  him  to  return  in  1821  ;
died  in  1826.

Peter  IV.  (Dom  Pedro),  son  ;  making  his  election
of  the  empire  of  Brazil,  abdicated  the  throne  of
Portugal  in  favour  of

Maria  II.  (da  Gloria) ;  daughter  ;  seven  years  of  age.

Dom  Miguel,  brother  to  Peter  IV,  usurped  the


POET  VICTORIA.


773


POST-OFFICE.


crown,  which  he  retained,  amid  civil  conten-
tions, until  1833.
1833.  Maria  II.  restored  ;  declared  in  Sept.  1834  to  be  of
age  ;  married  Augustus,  duke  of  Leuchtenberg,

1835  ;  2nd,  Ferdinand  of  Saxe  Cobnrg,  9  April,

1836  (who  died,  15  Dec.  1885) ;  died,  15  Nov.
1853.

1853.  Peter  V.  (Doni  Pedro),  son  ;  born  16  Sept. 1837  ;

died,  11  Nov.  1861.
1861.  Luis  I.,  brother  ;  born  31  Oct.  1838  ;  married  Maria

Pia, daughter  of  Victor Emmanuel,  king  of

Italy  (born  16  Oct.  1847),  6  Oct.  1862  ;  a  judicious

reformer;  died,  19  Oct.  1889.
1889.  Dom  Carlos  (son),  born  28 Sept. 1863 ;  married

Marie  Amelie,  daughter  of  the  comte  de  Paris,

22  May,  1886.
Heir  :  Louis  Philippe,  born  21  March,  1887.

POET  VICTORIA,  on  the  Medway,  Kent,  a
new  port  for  London,  established  by  the  South
Eastern  Railway  Company;  communications  opened,
Sept.  1884.

POSEN,  a  Polish  province,  annexed  to  Prussia
1772  and  1793;  made  part  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,
1807;  restored  to  Prussia,  1815.  An  insurrection
here  quelled,  May,  1848.

About  2,000  Austrian  Poles  expelled  Oct.-Nov.  1835.
Prince Bismarck's plan for  Germanizing  Posen,  see

Prussia,  Feb.  1886.

POSITIVE  PHILOSOPHY  set  forth  by

Auguste  Comte,  an  eminent  mathematician,  born
about  1795;  died  at  Paris,  1852.  M.  P.  Emile
Littre,  the  great  French  philologist,  ardently  em-
braced the  system,  and  published  "De  la  Philo-
sophic Positive,"  in  1845.

Comte's  "Cours  de  Philosophic  Positive,"  published
1830-42 ;  "  Systeme  de  Politique  Positive,  ou  Traite
de  Sociologie,  instituant  la  Religion  de  l'Humanite
(l'amour  pour  principe,  l'ordre  pour  base,  et  le  pro-
gres  pour  but),"  1851-4.
Jt  professes  to  base  itself  wholly  on  positive  facts  or
observed  phenomena,  and  rejects  all  metaphysical
conceptions,  which  it  considers  negatives,  haying
nothing  real  or  true  in  them  ;  and  dispenses  with  the
science  of  mind.  It  sets  aside  theology  and  meta-
physics as  two  merely  preliminary  stages  in  life  ;  and
abandons  all  search  after  causes  and  essences  of
things,  and  restricts  itself  to  the  observation  and
classification  of  phenomena  and  the  discovery  of  their
laws.  Comte  asserted  that  Europe  had  now  arrived
at  the  third  stage  of  its  progress.
Positivism  does  not  recognise  the  supernatural  or  the

future  state.
The  Society  of  Positivists  in  London  meet  in  Newton-
hall,  in  Fleur-de-Lys-court,  near  Gough-square,  on
Sunday  evenings,  when  discourses  on  philosophy,
morality,  science,  politics,  <fcc,  are  delivered.  Their
professed  object  is  to  promote  the  perfection  of  man
toy  means  of  education  in  its  widest  sense,  aiming  at
the  attaining  of  universal  brotherhood  independently
of  all  professed  religious  sects ;  concerts  are  occa-
sionally given;  Frederick  Harrison,  president  (Pull
Mall  Gazette,  29  Nov.  1883).
''  The  Church  of  Humanity "  is  a  modified  form  of
positivism,  described  by  Mr.  Richard  Congreve  (Pull
Mall  Gazette,  17  Jan.  1884).

POSSIBILISTS.  A  section  of  the  liberal
party  in  Spain;  aiming  at  reforms:  Sen.  Castelar,
a  chief,  Oct.  1883.

The  name  is  also  given  to  the  workmen's  party  in  Paris,
who  aim  at  effecting  social  reforms  by  legal  methods  ;
they  are  said  to  have  prevented  a  revolutionary  out-
break of  the  violent  Blanquists,  or  Autonomists,  at
the  presidential  election,  3  Dec.  1887.

POSTAL  UNION.  General,  was  esta-
blished by  the  Treaty  of  Berne,  signed  9  Oct.  1874,
and  took  effect  from  1  July,  1875.  From  time  to
time  conferences  have  been  held  at  Berne,  Jan.
1876;  Paris,  1878  and  1880;  Lisbon,  1885.  At
the  congress  at  Vienna,  20  May — 4  July,  1S91,  the
British  Australasian  colonies  were  added  to  the
union.


POSTING.  Post-chaises  were  invented  by  the
French,  and,  according  to  Grainger,  were  intro-
duced into  this  country  by  Mr.  "William  Tell,  son  of
the  writer  on  husbandry.  Posting  was  fixed  by
statute  of  Edward  VI.  at  one  penny  per  mile,  1548.
By  a  statute,  re-establishing  the  post-office,  none
but  the  postmaster  or  his  deputies  could  furnish
post-horses  for  travellers,  1660.  The  post-horse
duty  was  imposed  in  1 779.  Post-horse  duty  yielded,
in  1852,  in  England,  128,501^.,  and  in  Scotland,
16,933^.

POSTS,  said  to  have  originated  in  the  regular
couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who  erected  pot-
houses throughout  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  about
550  B.C.  Augustus  was  the  first  who  introduced
this  institution  among  the  Romans,  31  B.C.  This  was
imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  a.d.  800. — Ashe.
Louis  XI.  first  established  post-houses  in  France
owing  to  his  eagerness  for  news,  and  they  were  the
first  institution  of  this  nature  in  Europe,  1470. —
Ilenaidt.  An  international  commission  respecting
postal  arrangements  met  at  Paris,  1 1  May,  and  broke
up  9  June,  1863.

POST-OFFICE  of  England.  In  England,

in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  1481,  riders  on  post-
horses  went  stages  of  the  distance  of  twenty  miles
from  each  other,  in  order  to  procure  the  king  the
earliest  intelligence  of  the  events  that  passed  in  the
course  of  the  war  that  had  arisen  with  the  Scots.—
Gale.  Richard  III.  improved  the  system  of  couriers
in  1483.  In  1543  similar  arrangements  existed  in
England. — Sadler's  Letters.  Post  communications
between  London  and  most  towns  of  England,  Scot  •
land,  and  Ireland,  existed  in  1635.  —Stri/pe.
The  first  chief  postmaster  of  England,  sir  Thomas

Randolph,  appointed  by  queen  Elizabeth  .  .  15S1
James  I.  appointed  Matthew  de  l'Equester  as
foreign  postmaster,  1619  ;  and  Chas.  I.  appointed
"William  Frizell  and  Thomas  Witherings  .  .  .  1632
A  proclamation  of  Chas.  I.,  "whereas  to  this  time
there  hath  been  no  certain  intercourse  between
the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  king
now  commands  his  postmaster  of  England  for
foreign  parts  to  settle  a  running  post  or  two  to
run  night  and  day  between  Edinburgh  and  Lon-
don, to  go  thither  and  come  back  again  in  six

days" 1631

The  king  commanded  his  "postmaster  of  England
for  foreign  parts,"  to  open  a  regular  communica-
tion by  running  posts  between  the  metropolis
and  Edinburgh,  West  Chester,  Holyhead,  Ireland,
Plymouth,  Exeter,  &c  (Rates  of  postage — 1  letter
carried  under  80  miles  2d.  ;  under  140  miles,  41/.  ;
above  that  distance  in  England,  6d.  ;  to  any  part
of  Scotland,  8&).
An  enlarged  office  erected  by  the  parliament  in
1643  ;  and  one  more  considerable  in  1657,  with  a
view  "  to  benefit  commerce,  convey  the  public
dispatches,  and  as  the  best  means  to  discover  and
prevent  many  dangerous  wicked  designs  against
the  commonwealth  by  the  inspection  of  the  cor-
respondence " 1C57

The Post-office as at present constituted was

founded  12  Chas.  II 27  Dec. 1660

Farmed  to  John  Mauley,  1653  ;  to  Daniel  O'Neil .  1663
Penny  Post  first  set  up  in  London  and  its  suburbs

by  a  Mr.  Robert  Murray,  upholsterer  .  .  .  1681
He  assigned  his  interest  in  the  undertaking  to  Jlr.
Dockwra,  a  merchant,  1683  ;  but  on  a  trial  at  the
King's  Bench  bar  it  was  adjudged  to  belong  1o
the  duke  of  York,  as  a  branch  of  the  general  pose,
and  was  thereupon  afterwards  annexed  to  the

revenue  of  the  crown ifijo

This  institution  considerably  improved  and  made  a

twopenny  post,  July,  1704.  etscq.
Cross  posts  established  by  Ralph  Allen  .  .  .  1720
Between  1730  and  1740,  the  p  »st  was  only  trans-
mitted three  days  a  week  between  Edinburgh  an  I
London  :  and  the  metropolis,  on  one  oc  •■■usioii,
sent  a  single  letter,  which  was  for  an  Edinburgh
banker,  named  Ramsay.


POST-OFFICE.


774


POST-OFFICE.


A  penny  post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin . . .  1774

The  mails  conveyed  by  coaches  ;  the  first  mail  left
London  for  Bristol  (see  Mail  Coaches)  . 2  Aug. ,,

The  mails  first  conveyed  by  railway,  1830;  by  the
overland  route  to  India 1835

Post-office  acts  consolidated ... 12  July,  1837

Early  in  1837,  Mr.  Rowland  Hill  broached  his  plan
of  penny  postage,  which  was  adopted  after  a  full
investigation  by  a  committee  of  the  house  of
commons 1839

The  new  postage  law,  by  which  the  uniform  rate  of
4(1.  per  letter  was  tried  as  an  experiment,  came
into  operation ......  5  Dec. ,,

The  uniform  rate  of  id.  per  letter  of  half  an  ounce
weight,  &c,  commenced . . . 10  Jan.  1840

Stamped  postage  covers  came  into  use .  6  May, ,,

Adhesive  stamps  invented  by  Mr.  James  Chalmers
of  Dundee,  1834  ;  they  came  into  use,  superseding
Mulready's  allegorical  envelope  (of  1  May,  1840) 1841

Reduction  in  postage. — to  be  id.  instead  of  zd.  for
every  ounce  above  the  first  . . . April,  1865

Book-Post. — A  treasury  warrant  issued,  providing
for  the  carriage  by  post  of  books,  pamphlets,  &c,
under  certain  restrictions — 4  oz.  for  id. ;  8  oz.  for
id. ,  &c. 5  June,  1855

Altered  to  under  2  oz.,  M. ;  every  additional  2  oz.,
or  part  of  2  oz. ,  %d. ;  begun ... 7  Oct.  1870

A  Money-order  Office,  set  up  in  1792,  was  little  used
on  account  of  the  expense,  till  1840.  In  1839,
188,291  money  orders  were  issued  for  313,1247.;  in
1861,  7,580,455  orders  for  14,616,3487.;  in  1865,
orders  were  issued  for  17,829,290/.;  in  1870,  for
19.993.987Z-

The  Postal  ( Snide  first  appeared  in  1856 ;  in  which  year
London  and  the  vicinity  were  divided  into  districts
for  postal  purposes ;  viz. ,  East,  AVest,  &c.  The
postmaster-general  has  issuedAnnualReports  since  1854

Postmaster  empowered  to  purchase  the  electric
telegraphs  by  act  passed  31  July,  1868 ;  work
begun 5  Feb.  1869

Post-office  money  order  system  applied  to  France
by  virtue  of  a  convention  signed . .  5  Aug.  1870

Halfpenny  stamped  cards  issued  to  the  public,  iOct. „

By  the  post-office  act  (passed  9  Aug.  1870)  the
newspaper  stamp  for  posting  was  abolished;  re-
gistered newspapers  and  pamphlets  or  patterns
under  2  oz.  to  be  sent  for  M.  on  and  after 1  Oct.  1870

l'ostage  lowered :  Letters  sent  at  the  rate  of  id.  for
1  oz.,  i^d.  for  2  oz.,  &c,  from . . 5  Oct.  1871

Short  strike  of  telegraph  clerks  at  Manchester,
Liverpool,  and  Dublin .... Dec. ,,

Pigeon  post  between  London  and  Tours  during  the
siege  of  Paris  (48  day  mails  and  1186  night  mails
sent) . . . .18  Nov.  1870 — 28  Jan. ,,

Post-office  scandal,  money  spent  from  other  funds  on
telegraph  service  without  authority  of  parliament;
censured  by  commons  . . .  29  July,  1873

Payment  for  registered  letters  reduced  from  ^d.  to
2d.  ;  charge  for  money  orders  raised  ;  new  postal
wrappers  issued 1  Jan.  1878

Telegraph  acts  consolidated  and  amended  by  41  &
42  Viet.  c.  76 16  Aug. ,,

Messrs.  Warren  de  la  Rue  &  Co.'s  tender  for  supply
of  postage-stamps  accepted  . . . 17  June,  1879

New  postage  stamps  issued  . . .6  Jan.  1880

Pet  in- ned  letters,  &c:  1867,  3,618,838;  year  1878-9,
'4,286,648  ;  1883-4,  5>732.310  .  1890-1,  5,750,527.

New  system  of  receiving  small  sums  for  savings-
banks  by  stamps  tried  in  some  counties  ;  gene-
rally adopted „

New  rates  for  money  orders  from  is. . . 1  Jan.  1881

International postal congresses met  at  Paris, 7

April, 1878 ; and  9 Oct.  1880 ; at  Lisbon,  16

March,  1885  ;  (agreement  signed  21  March).

Postage  Stamps  for  id.  authorised  to  be  used  for

receipts  after 1  June ; and  for  telegrams  after

1  Nov. „
Reduction  of  6rf.  for  480  Id.  newspaper  wrappers

1  Jan.  1882
Reply  post-cards authorized, 16  March ; issued

2  Oct, ,,
Late  letters  received  in  the  sorting  carriage  of  mail

trains  at  stations  on  and  after . . 1  Nov. ,,
Parcel  post  comes  into  operation  . . 1  Aug.  1883

Post-office  protection  act  passed . . 14  Aug.  1884
Postal  orders  (like  bankers'  cheques)  largely  used

(since  1880) 1885


Special  postal  trains  established  ;  letters  received

later  and  delivered  earlier  ;  beginning 1  July,  1885
Private  posting  boxes  in  London  sanctioned  April,  1886
After  negotiation  conveyance  of  American  mails
transferred  from  the  Cunard and  White  Star
companies  to  Inman,  North  German  Lloyd  and
others  till  28 Feb. 1887, Dec. 1886  ;  amicable

settlement Feb.  1887

New  sets  of  postage  stamps  issued  ;  the  penny

stamp  unchanged 1  Jan. ,,

"  London  Postmen's  Rest,"  Dover,  established  by

lord  Wolverton,  late  postmaster . . Feb. ,,
Rented  night  letter-boxes  authorised  after 1  Aug.  188S
The  government  authorised  to  purchase  the  sub-
marine electric  telegraph  with  France 21  May,  1889
Post  cards  to  be  sold  10  for  6d.  or  s|d.  1  July, ,,

Payment  of  money,  10?.,  at  post-offices  by  tele-
graph authorised  after  2  Sept.,  Aug.  1889 ;  autho-
rised for  il.  to  10/.  from  1  March  ;  announced

about  18  Feb.  1890-
Meeting  of  postmen's  union  in  Hyde  park  to  dis-
cuss grievances 20  Oct.  1889

Jubilee  of  the  establishment  of  the  penny  post

celebrated 10 — 15  Jan.  1890.

Uniform  colonial  and  India  postage  (2  J(7,),  long  advo-
cated by  Mr.  J.  Henniker  Heaton,  M.P.,  adopted
by  the  government  ....  17  April,  ,,
Grand  conversazione  given  by  the  lord  mayor  at
the  Guildhall ;  present,  the  prince  of  Wales,
Mr.  Raikes,  the  postmaster-general,  and  other
officers,  16  May.  There  was  an  interesting  exhi-
bition of  objects  connected  with  the  postal  service

16—19  May,  ,T
Exhibition  of  the  Philatelic  society's  collection  of
postage  stamps  of  all  nations,  at  the  Portman
rooms,  Baker-street,  W.,  opened  by  the  duke  of
Edinburgh,  a  zealous  collector  .  .  19  May,  ,„
Jubilee  fete  for  the  Roland  Hill  benevolent  fund  at
South  Kensington  museum  ;  the  queen  patron,
the  duke  of  Edinburgh  president.  Exhibition  of
old  and  new  postal  operations  and  telegraphic
communications  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the
colonies,  and  the  United  States,  &c.  Messrs.  De
la  Rue's  artistic  Jubilee  envelope,  of  which  only
a  limited  number  were  printed,  was  sold  for  is.

each 2  July, ,,

Agitation  among  the  London  postmen  respecting

pay,  pension,  and  hours . . May — July, ,,
Mass  meeting  of  the  postmen's  union 7,  8  July, ,,
About  100  postmen  at  the  parcel  post  depot  at
Clerken well  dismissed  for  attacking  and  expelling
about  70  non-unionists,  10  July  ;  about  130  men
dismissed  for  insubordination  in  other  districts

about  10  July, ,,

[435,  out  of  6,000,  dismissed  up  to  12  July,  1890.]

New  general  post-office,  north,  near  St.  Martin's-le-

Grand  ;  memorial  stone  laid  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Raikes,

postmaster-general .... 20  Nov. ,,

Uniform  colonial  and  India  postage  reduced  to  2UI.

for  5  oz.,  begins  1  Jan.  1891  ;  to  foreign  countries,

1  July,  1S92
About  240  clerks  in  the  Savings-bank  department
suspended  for  refusing  to  work  overtime,  2  Jan. ;
reinstated  after  apology  ...  8  Jan.  1891
"  The  Boy  Messengers  "  and  "  District  Messengers  "
companies,  for  the  quicker  conveyance  of  single
letters  for  short  distances,  stopped  by  the  post-
office  as  illegal March, ,,

The  post-office  express  delivery  service,  for  the
quicker  delivery  of  letters  and  parcels,  by  boy
messengers,  begins,  25  March  ;  at  Edinburgh,
Dublin,  and  other  places,  26  March,  et  seq.  ;  ex-
tended to  the  whole  United  Kingdom . 1  Aug. ,,

[The  actions against the companies  in  the

queen's  bench  division  stopped  by  arrangement,

the companies  submit,  and  agree  to  take  out

licences  from  the  post-office,  14  April,  1891.]

Automatic stamp distributors attached to the

postal  pillars,  began  ... 29  April, „

International  postal  union  congress,  meeting  at
Vienna ;  sir  A.  Blackwood  present ;  various
changes  made  to  promote free  communication

20  May — 4  July, ,,
Various  improvements  in  the  postal  service  begun

1  Jan.  and  1  June,  1892
Post-office  acts  passed  .  5  Aug.  1891,  and  27  June, „


POST-OFFICE.


775


POST-OFFICE.


NUMBER  OF  LETTERS,  &C. ,  DELIVERED  IN  THE  UNITED KINGDOM.

i?39  (including  6,563,024  franks) . . 82,470,596  I  1851-5  (average) 410,000,000

1840  ......... 168,768,344  I  1861-5 „  ...... 648,000,000

1351 ........ 360,651,187  1866-70 ,,  ...... 800,000,000

Scotland,  36,512,649. Ireland,  35,982,782.  Scotland,  76,000,000. Ireland,  60,000,000.


1

Net  Rev

snue.

Letters.

Post  Cards.

Books,

Circulars,

<fcc.

News-
papers.

Money
Orders.

Telegrams.

Postage  &
Money
Orders.

Tele-
grams.

1871  .

867,000,000

—

—

£22,573,547

12,473,796

£1,289,754

£303,457

: 1872  .

885,000,000

76,000,000

114,000,000

109,000,000

25,019,683

i5,535,78o

1,523,976

159,835

1873  .

1874  •

1875  .

907,000,000

964,253,300

. 1,008,392,100

72,000,000
79,000,000
87,116,300

129,000,000
141,967,100
158,666,600

113,016,500
117,032,900
121,049,400

26,802,264
27,507,672
27,688,255

17,821,530

i9>253>12°
20,973,535

1.555,361
1,836,387
1,894,141

ii4,975!
115,676
245,116

1876  .
1877-8

. 1,018,955,200
• 1,057,732,3°°

92,935,700
102,237,300

173,724,900
189,300,600

125,065,900
128,558,000

28,749,512
29>I53>452

21,720,143
22,171,867

1,947,066
2,056,692

189,317
169,428

1878-9

1879-80

1880-1

1882-3

1883-4

. 1,097,372,800
• i,I27,997,500
. 1,165,166,900
. 1,280,636,200
. 1,322,086,900

111,445,700
114,458,400
122,884,000
144,016,000
153,586,100

197,070,500
213,963,000
240,356,200
288,206,400
294,594>5oo

i3°>895,3oo
130,518,400
i33,796,ioo
140,602,600
142,702,300

27,303,093
26,371,020
26,003,582
27,597,883
27,629,879

24,459,775
26,547,137
29,411,982
32,092,026
32,843,120

2,434,374
2,497,687
2,597,768
2,755,562
2,610,026

257,500
341,006
368,815
235,859'
51,255

1887-8

. 1,512,200,000

188,800,000

389,500,000

152,300,000

26,334,126

53,403,425

2,771,517

31,247

1888-9

• 1,558,100,000

201,400,000

412,000,000

151,900,000

26,618,052

57,765,347

3,039,874

124,952

1889-90
1890-91

. 1,650,100,000
. 1,705,800,000

217,100,000
229,700,000

441,900,000
481,200,000

1 59, 300,000
161,000,000

27,165,905
27,867,887

62,403,399
66,409,211

3,208,511
3,163,989

145,794
i5o,33S

REVENUE  OF  THE  POST-OFFICE.


1643.

It  yielded  .

£5,000

1835.

U.  Kingdom^,  353,340

1653.

Farmed

10,000

1839.

Ditto

2,522,495

1663.

Farmed

21,500

1840.

New  1

ate .

471,000

1674.

Farmed  for

43,000

'845.

Netrevenue

761,982

168=;.

It  yielded  .

65,000

1850.

Ditto

803,898

1707.

Ditto . .

111,461

1855.

Ditto

1,137,220

1714.

Ditto

145,227

1859.

Ditto

1,150,960

1723.

Ditto . .

201,805

i860.

Ditto

1,102,479

1744.

Ditto . .

235,492

1861.

Ditto

1,161,985

1764.

Ditto . .

432,048

1862.

Ditto

1,236,941

1790.

Ditto . .

480,074

1863.

Ditto1

1,037,404

1S00.

Ditto . .

745,313

1864.

Ditto

1,153,261

1805.

Gt.  Britain

1,424,994

1865

Ditto

1,482,522

1 8 10.

Ditto . .

1,709,065

1866.

Ditto

1,397,986

1815.

Ditto . .

1,755,898

1867.

Ditto

1,421,364

1820.

U.  Kingdom

2,402,697

1868.

Ditto

1,416,922

1825.

Ditto . .

2,255,239

1869.

Ditto

1,305,348

1830.

Ditto . .

2,3°Ir432

1870.

Ditto

1,493,610

■;  After  payment  for  foreign  and  colonial  mails.

POST-OFFICES.

The  General  Post-office  of  London  was  originally
established  in  Cloak-lane,  near  Dowgate-hill,  whence
it  was  removed  to  the  Black  Swan,  in  Bishopsgate-
street.  After  the  great  lire  of  1666  it  was  removed  to
the  Two  Black  Pillars,  in  Brydges-street,  Covent-
garden,  and  afterwards  (about  1690)  to  sir  Robert
Viner's  mansion  in  Lombard-street.  It  was  transferred
to  the  building  in  St.  Martin's-le-Grand,  erected  on  the
site  of  an  ancient  college,  from  designs  by  R.  Smirke,
23  Sept.  1829.  Foundation  of  a  new  general  post-office
laid  16  Dec.  1870  ;  occupied  1873.

The  new  post-office  of  Dublin  opened,  6  Jan.  1818.

The  foundation  of  a  new  post-office  at  Edinburgh  was
laid  by  the  prince  consort  in  Oct.  iS6i.

Public  receptacles  for  letters  before  1840,  4,028  ;  in  1865,
16,246;  in  1876,  24,171;  in  1877,  25,082;  Jan.  1879,
25,767  ;  in  1884,  31,700  ;  18S8,  36,750;  1891,  40,643.

In  i860,  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom,  11,412  post-
offiees;  1862,  11,316  ;  1875,  13,226  ;  1877,  13,447  ;  Jan.
1879,  13,881  ;  1884,  15,951  ;  1888,  17,587  ;  1S91,  18,806.

Head  ojji&s:  1870,  844;  1875,  886;  Jan.  1879,  9°5  ;  ^84,
921.

The  street  Letter-boxes  were  erected  in  March,  1855.  The
first  one  was  placed  at  the  corner  of  Fleet-street  and
Favringdon-street.  There  were  in  i860,  1,958  ;  in  1875,
10,186;  Jan.  1879,  11,880;  1891,  21,837.

Staff  employed:  1862,  25,285;  in  1872,  28,959;  1874,
43,982;  1875,  44,644  ;  1879,  45,947;  1888,  56,460;  1891,
63,868.

Post-office  Savings-banks  established  by  parliament
1861  (began  Sept.  16);  interest  2I-  per  cent.;  govern-
ment responsible  to  depositors.  The  number  of  these
banks  and  the  amount  of  deposits  received  on  31  March,
i362,  were—


3wiiks.

Deposits.

1795

. £668,879  10 2

129 .

28,392 2  10

299

10,237 9 8

300 .

. 26,064  18 8

9

1,679  *5 0

England .
Wales  .
Scotland .
Ireland
The  Islands


2532  £735,253  16 4

London  district ....  267,329  13 8

1866.  Computed  total  amount  of  capital  held  by  these
banks  in  the  United  Kingdom,  8,121,175?.

Dec.  1870,  1,183,153  depositors  in  United  Kingdom  ;  total
sum  held,  15,099,104?.;  10  Dec.  1871,  total  sum,
17,303,815?.  ;  31  Dec.  1874,  23,157,469?.  18s.  iod.  ;
31  Dec. 1877,  29,713,529?.;  31  Dec.  1878,  30,946,962?.
in  1883,  6,297,378  depositors ;  total  sum  held,
43,294,949?. ;  31  Dec.  1887,  6,916,327  ;  total  sum
held,  53,974,065?. ;  31  Dec.  1890,  7,634,807?.  ;
8,776,566  depositors.

postmasters.

The  number  of  postmasters  (2)  reduced  to  1,  1822.

The  offices  of  postmaster-general  of  England  and  of  Ire-
land united  in  one  person,  1831.

Act  passed  permitting  postmaster  to  sit  in  house  of
commons,  July,  1866.

1 323.  Thomas,  earl  of  Chichester.

1826.  Lord  Frederick  Montague.

1S27.  William  duke  of  Manchester.

1830.  Charles  duke  of  Richmond.

1834.  Francis  marquis  of  Conyngham

1835.  William  lord  Maryborough.
1835.  Francis  marquis  of  Conyngham.

,,  Thomas  earl  of  Lichfield.

1841.  William  viscount  Lowther.

1846.  Edward  earl  of  St.  Germans.

„  Ulick  marquis  of  Clanricarde.

1852.  Charles  Philip  earl  of  Hardwicke.

1853.  Charles  John  earl  Canning.
1855.  George  duke  of  Argyll.
1358.  Charles  lord  Colchester.
1859.  James  earl  of  Elgin.

i860.  Edward  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley.
1866.  James  duke  of  Montrose  (July).
1868.  Spencer  marquis  of  Hartingtou  (Dec).
1871.  Win.  Monsell  (Jan.).

1873.  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair(i8  Nov.).

1874.  Lord  John  Manners  (21  Feb.).

1883.  Henry  Fawcett  (3  May)  ;  died  6  Nov.  1884.

1884.  Geo.  Shaw-Lefevre  (18  Nov.).

1885.  Lord  John  Manners  (a^yTune).

1886.  George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton (abou

6  Feb.).
,, Henry  Cecil  Raikes,  26  July  I  died,  24  Aug.  1891.

1891.  Sir  James  Fergusson,  about  21  Sept.

1892.  Arnold  Morley,  iS  Aug.


POST-OFFICE ACT.


776


POTTERY  AND PORCELAIN.


CHIEF  SECRETARIES.

1797.  Francis  Freeling.

1836.  Win.  L.  Maberley.

1854.  Rowland  Hill  (sec.  to  postmaster-general,  30  Nov.
1846);  received  national  testimonial,  17  June,
1846;  resigned  29  Feb.  1864;  made  K.C.B.  i860,
with  a  grant  of  2o,ooo2.  and  2000J.  pension  ;  died
27  Aug. ;  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  4  Sept.
1879  (see  Rowland  Hill  Memorial).

1864.  John  Tilley  (March).

1880.  Sir  Stevenson  Arthur  Blackwood.

POST-OFFICE  ACT,  passed  14  June,  1875,
consolidates  previous  acts  (1840.  et  seg.),  and
enacts  some  new  regulations.  The  Tost- office
(Parcels)  act  was  passed  18  Aug.  18S2.

POST-OFFICE  DIRECTORY  for  London,
published  by  Kelly  &  Co.,  since  1800.  County
directories  and  trade  now  published.

POST-OFFICE  Money-Orders  Acts,
11  &  12  Vict.  c.  88  (1848),  43  &  44  Yict.  c.  33  (1880).

POSTMAN  AND  TUBMAN,  ancient  offices
in  the  court  of  exchequer  held  by  barristers  with
certain  privileges.

POTASSIUM,  a  remarkable  metal,  discovered
by  Humphry  Davy,  who  first  succeeded  in  sepa-
rating it  from  its  oxide,  potash,  by  means  of  a
po  werf  ul  voltaic  battery,  in  th  e  laboratory  of  tiic  Hoy al
Institution,  London,  about  19  Oct.  1807 ;  and  also
the  metals  Sodium  from  soda,  Calcium  from  lime,
&c.  The  alkalies  and  earths  had  been  previously
regarded  as  simple  substances.  Potassium  ignites
on  contact  with  moisture.

POTATOES,  natives  of  Chili  and  Peru,  gene-
rally considered  to  have  been  brought  to  England
from  Santa  Fe,  in  America,  by  sir  John  Hawkins,
1565.  Others  ascribe  their  introduction  to  sir  Francis
Drake,  in  1586;  their  general  introduction,  1592.
Their  first  culture  in  Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter
Raleigh,  who  had  large  estates  in  that  country,
about  Youghal,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  It  is  said
that  potatoes  were  not  known  in  Flanders  until
1620.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from
America  by  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Car-
dington,  near  Bedford,  1765  ;  and  its  culture  be-
came general  soon  after.  The  failure  of  the  potato
crop  in  Ireland,  several  years,  especially  in  1846,
caused  famine,  to  which  succeeded  pestilent  disease
of  which  multitudes  died  ;  among  them  many  priests
and  physicians.  Parliament  voted  ten  millions
sterling;  and  several  countries  of  Europe,  and  the
United  States  of  America,  forwarded  provisions  and
other  succours;  see  Ireland.  In  1868  it  was  reported
that  in  England  and  Wales  500,000  acres,  and  in
Ireland  1,000,000  acres,  were  under  cultivation  for
potatoes.  Potato  disease  prevailed  greatly  in  Eng-
land, autumn  of  1872.  In  consequence  the  value  of
potatoes  imported  in  1872  was  1,054,240/.;  in  1871,
only  225,732/.  ;  in  1877,  7,964,84.0  cwt.,  value,
2,348,749/.;  in  1883, 5,149,509 cwt., value  1,585,260/.;
in  1887,  2,763,357  cwt. ;  in  i883,  2,383,807  cwt.  ;
in  1889,  1,864,426  cwt  ;  in  1890,  1,940,100  cwt.
Temporary  alarm  respecting  the  American  Colorado
beetle  or  bug,  autumn,  1876.  Acres  cultivated  for
potatoes  in  Great  Britain  in  1867,  492,217;  1S71,
627,691;  1877,  512,471;  18S3,  543>4555  in  1887,
559,652;  in  1890,529,661.
[Mr.  W.  Carruthers  considers  that  the  disease,  did  not

appear  in  Britain before  1844; Mr. Thiselton-Byer

thinks  that  it  did.]
International  potato exhibition, Crystal Palace, 17-18

Sept.  1879  ;  another  7-8  Oct.  1885.
Rain  and  want  of  sunshine  greatly  injured  the  crops  in

1879.
Report  of  a  select  committee  on  the  failure  of  the  potato

crop,  Aug.  1880.


7th  potato  show  (the  1st,  1874)  at  the  Crystal  Palace,
very  good,  23  Sept.  1880 ;  8th  exhibition,  20  Sept.  1882.

Solanum  maglia  successfully  cultivated  in  wet  land  by
Mr.  A.  Sutton  of  Reading,  1884.

Tercentenary  of  the  introduction  of  the  potato  into
England  celebrated  at  Westminster  ;  exhibition  and
conference,  about  500  varieties  exhibited,  1-4  Dee.  1886.

Failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Cork,  &c,  see  Ireland,
1890.

The  bouillie  Bordelaise  treatment  of  the  disease  by  dres-
sings of  salts  of  copper  recommended  by  Dr.  Girard
(1890),  was  tried  by  Messrs.  Sutton,  of  Reading,  with
doutful  results,  June,  et  sen.  1391.  Favourable  results
reported  by  some  persons.

POTID.ZEA,  a  town  in  Macedonia,  a  tributary
of  Athens,  against  which  it  revolted  432  B.C.',  but
submitted  in  429.  It  was  taken  from  the  Athe-
nians after  three  years' siege,  by  Philip  II.  of  Mace-
don  in  356  B.C.

POTOMAC,  see  United  States,  Aug.  1861.

POTOSI  (Peru).  Silver  mines  here  were  dis-
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  1545 ;  they  are  in  a
mountain  in  the  form  of  a  sugar-loaf.

POTSDAM  (near  Berlin),  the  Versailles  of
Prussia.  It  was  made  an  arsenal  in  1721.  Here  is
situated  the  palace  of  Sans  Souci  (built,  1660-73),
embellished  by  Frederick  II.,  and  occupied  by  Na-
poleon I.  in  Oct.  1806;  and  the  new  palace,  erected
by  Frederick  the  Great,  1763-9,  was  the  residence
of  the  emperor  Frederick  III.,  when  prince
Frederick  "William  of  Prussia  and  his  wife  the
princess  royaJ  of  England,  married  25  Jan.  1858.
Population,  1890,  54,161.

POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN.  The  manu-
facture of  earthenware (the  ceramic  art)  existed
among  the  Jews  as  an  honourable  occupation  (see
1  Chron.  iv.  23),  and  the  power  of  the  potter  over
the  clay  as  a  symbol  of  the  power  of  God  is  de-
scribed by  Jeremiah,  605  B.C.  (ch.  xviii.) Earth-
enware was  made  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Assy-
rians, Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Bomans.
The  Majolica,  Raffaelle,  or  Umbrian  ware  of  the  15th
century  was  probably  introduced  into  Italy  from
the Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and  other
artists  made  designs  for  this  ware.
Pottery  manufactured  at  Beauvais,  in  France,  in

the  12th  century.
Enamelled  pottery  made  at  St.  Cloud . .  about  168S
Luca  della  Robbia  (born  about 1410)  applied  tin
enamel  to  terra-cotta. Fayencc  ware  was  made
in  France  by  Bernard  Palissy  (died,  1589)  and  his
family.
Porcelain,  formed  of  earth  kaolin,  was  made  in
China  in  the  2nd  century  after  Christ. Chinese
porcelain  is  mentioned  in  histories  of  the  16th  cen-
tury, when  it  was  introduced  into  England,  and
eagerly  sought  after.
Porcelain  made  at  Bow,  near  London,  early  in  the

iSth  century,  and  at  Chelsea,  before . . . 169S
Birch's  "History  of  Ancient  Pottery"  (1858);  Mar-
ryat's  "History  of  Pottery  and  Porcelain,  Medi-
aeval and Modern" (1857); and Brongniart's
"Arts  Ceramiques,"  are  valuable  works.
The  first  European  porcelain  was  made  at  Dresden
by  Bottcher ...  ...  about  1700

[The  manufacture  was  fostered  by  the  king  Augus-
tus II.]
The  Capo  di  Monte  factory  at  Naples  established .  1736
Thomas  Frye  painted  porcelain,  1749  ;  and  Dr.  Wall

established  the  manufacture  at  Worcester . . 1750
The St. Cloud China manufactory removed to

Sevres 1736

Josiah  Wedgwood's  patent  ware  was  first  made  .  1702
The  Royal  Porcelain  manufactory,  at  Copenhagen,
started  in  1775,  was  soon  after  taken  up  by  the
State  and  carried  on  till  1867,  when  it  reverted
into  private  hands.  In  1882  it  was  purchased  by
the  Ahuninia  company  of  Copenhagen.
The  British  manufacture  greatly  improved  by  Her-
bert Minton,  who  died 1858


POTWALLOPEES.


777


PEAGUE.


The  duty  on  earthenware  taken  off  . . . .  i860

Lord  Dudley's  collection  of  china  sold  for  40,856?.

21  May,  1886

Great  improvements  in  form  and  colour  in  deco-
rative stoneware,  &c,  were  made  in  Messrs.
Doulton's  Lambeth  pottery  works,  1871,  etseq.,
in  connection  with  the  Lambeth  School  of  Art.
Lambeth  faience  was  introduced  in  1S73.  Sir
Henry  Doulton  was  knighted  in . . . .  1887

The  potter's  wheel  has  greatly  superseded  moulding
as  producing  more  original  work . ...  1S88

The  sale  of  the  collection  of  oriental  porcelain,  &c,
of  the  late  Mr.  Wells,  of  Redleaf,  realized
i2,8nZ.  12s.  6d.  . . . . 13,  14  May,  1890

Great  lock-out  in  the  pottery  district,  Staffordshire,
respecting  wages,  5  May  ;  settled  by  compromise

about  19  May,  1892

POTWALLOPEES  (or  boilers).  Before  the
passing  of  the  reform  act  of  1832,  persons  who  had
boiled  a  pot  for  six  months  claimed  ihe  right  to  vote
for  the  election  of  members  of  Parliament.

POULTEY.  An  exhibition  of  poultry  was  held
in  London,  Jan.  1853,  when  nearly  IOOO  cocks  were
exhibited  ;  and  similar  exhibitions  have  been  held
at  the  Crystal  palace  since.

POULTEY  COMPTEE  (London)  was  one
of  the  most  noted  of  the  old  city  prisons.  The
compter  of  Wood-street  belonged  to  the  sheriff  of
London,  and  was  made  a  prison-house  in  I'W.
This  latter  and  Broad-street  compter  were  re-built
in  1667.  The  Giltspur-street  prison,  built  to  supply
the  place  of  the  old  city  compters,  was  pulled  down
in  1855.  The  Poultry  chapel  was  erected  on  the  site
of  the  Poultry  compter,  in  1819. — Leigh.

POUND,  from  the  Latin  Pond  us.  The  value
of  the  Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  known,  though
some  suppose  it  was  equivalent  to  an  Attic  mina,  or
2,1.  4s.  yd.  The  pound  sterling  was  in  Saxon  times,
about  671,  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was
its  twentieth  part;  consequently  the  latter  was  three
times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present. — Tcacham.  Our
avoirdupois  pound  weight  came  from  the  French,
and  contains  sixteen  ounces;  it  is  in  proportion
to  our  troy  weight  as  seventeen  to  fourteen ;  see
under  Standard.

POWDEEING  THE  HAIE,  see  Hair.

POWEE-LOOMS,  see  Zooms,  and  Cotton.

POYNINGS'  LAW,  named  after  sir  Edward
Foynings,  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  at  the  time  of  its
passing,  at  Drogheda,  13  Sept.  1494.  By  thislawr  all
legislation  in  the  Irish  parliament  was  confined  to
matters  first  approved  of  by  the  king  and  the  English
council.  The  act  was  repealed,  together  with  the
English  Declaratory  act  of  the  6th  of  Geo.  I.  and
other  obnoxious  Irish  statutes,  April,  1782.

PEJ3MONSTEATENSIAN  OEDEE,  or

WHITE  CANONS,  founded  in  1120  by  Norbert,  a
monk,  at  Pre  Montre,  near  Laon.  Its  first  house
in  England  was  founded  by  Peter  de  Gousla  or
Gousel,  at  Newsham,  in  Lincolnshire,  1143 —
Tanner ;  according  to  others  in  1146.  The  order
spread  widely  through  England  soon  after.  The
house  at  Newsham  was  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  and
St.  Martial. — Lewis.

PE^EMUNIEE,  Law  of. This  law  (which

obtained  its  name  from  the  first  two  words  "  Pree-
moneri,"  or  "  Prconuniri  facias,"  "Cause  to  be
forewarned,"  which  is  applied  to  any  offence  in  the
way  of  contempt  of  the  sovereign  or  his  govern-
ment) derived  its  origin  from  the  aggressive  power
of  the  pope  in  England.  The  offence  introduced  a
foreign  power  into  the  land,  and  created  an
impcrium  in  imperio. The  first  statute  of  Praemu-


nire was  enacted  35  Edward  I.  1306. — Coke.  The
pope  bestowed  most  of  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  &c.,
before  they  were  void,  upon  favourites,  on  pretence
of  providing  the  church  with  better  qualified  suc-
cessors before  the  vacancies  occurred.  To  put  a
stop  to  these  encroachments,  Edward  III.  enacted
a  statute  in  1353.  The  statute  commonly  referred
to  as  the  statute  of  Praemunire  is  the  16th  of
Richard  II.  1392.  Several  similar  enactments
followed.  The  assertion  that  parliament  is  indepen-
dent of  the  sovereign  was  declared  a  praemunire,  1661 .

PEJETOEIAN  GUAEDS,  instituted  by  the
emperor  Augustus  (13  B.C.)  ;  their  numbers  en-
larged by  Tiberius,  Vitellius,  and  then-  successors.
At  first  supporters  of  the  imperial  tyrants,  they
eventually  became  their  masters,  actually  putting
up  the  diadem  for  sale  (as  in  March,  193  A.B.,
when  it  was  bought  by  Didius  Julianus).  They
committed  many  atrocities,  and  were  finally  dis-
banded by  Constanthie  in  312.

PE2ETOES,  Roman  magistrates,  afterwards
termed  consuls  {which  sec),  were  elected  at  the
establishment  of  the  republic,  509  B.C.  In  366
the  prcetor  urbanus  was  appointed  for  the  city,  and
the  prcetor  peregrinus  for  foreigners,  246  B.C.  Two
praetors  were  appointed  for  the  provinces,  227,  and
two  more,  197.  Sylla,  the  dictator,  added  two,  and
Julius  Ccesar  increased  the  number  to  10,  which
afterwards  became  16.  After  this,  their  number
fluctuated,  being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12 ;  till,  in
the  decline  of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased,
and  their  numbers  were  reduced  to  three.

PEAGA,  a  suburb  of  "Warsaw,  where  a  bloody
battle  was  fought,  4  Nov.  1794  ;  30,000  Poles  were
killed  by  the  Russian  general  Suwarrow.  Xear
here,  on  25  Feb.  1831,  the  Poles,  commanded  by
Skrznecki,  defeated  the  Russians,  under  general
Giemsar,  who  lost  4000  killed  and  wounde  1,  6000
prisoners,  and  12  pieces  of  cannon.

PEAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance

relating  to  church  and  state  affairs.  The  ordinances

of  the  kings  of  France  are  thus  called ;  in  one  the

rights  of  the  Gallican  church  were  asserted  against

the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in  the  choice  of  bishops,

by  Charles  VII.  in  1438. The  Pragmatic  Sanction

for  settling  the  empire  of  Germany  in  the  house  of

Austria,  1439. The  emperor  Charles  VI.  published

the  Pragmatic  Sanction, whereby, in  default of

male  issue,  his  daughters  should  succeed  in  prefer-

I  ence  to  the daughters  of  his  brother  Joseph  I.,

19  April,  171 3  ;  and  he  settled  his  dominions  on

I  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  in  conformity  thereto,

I  1723. She  succeeded  in  Oct.  1740;  but  it  gave  rise

I  to  a  war,  in  which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe

I  were  engaged,  and  which  lasted  till  1748.

PEAGUE,  the  capital  of  Bohemia  {which  sec).

j  The  old  city  was  founded  about  759  ;  the  new  city

!  rebuilt  in 1348  by  the  emperor  Chaiics  IV.,  who

made  it  his  capital  and  erected  a  university.  Prague

has suffered much by war. Population, 18S0,

162,323;  1890,  184,109.

Victory  of  the  Hussites  under  Ziska . 14  July,  1420
Frederick,  the  king,  totally  defeated  by  the  Aus-

trians  near  Prague  .... 8  Nov. 1620

Prague  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1648,  and  by  the

French  in  1741  ;  they  left  it 1742

Taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia  ;  obliged  to  abandon  it,  1744
Great  battle  oj  Pragite  (the  Austrian s  defeated  by
prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  ami  their  whole  camp
taken  ;  their  commander, general Braun,  mor-
tally wounded, and the Prussian marshal

Schwerin  killed) 6  May,  1757

Insurrection  in  Prague  ;  soon  suppressed . June,  1S4S


PEAGUEEIE.


778


PEEEOGATIYE EOYAL.


A  treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  Prussia  signed
at  Prague  (by  its  articles  Austria  consented  to
tlie  breaking  up  of  the  Germanic  confederation,
and  to  Prussia's  annexing  Hanover,  Hesse  Cassel,
Nassau,  and  Frankfort ;  and  gave  up  Holstein,
and  her  political  influence  in  North  Germany),
and  North  Schleswig  to  Denmark  if  the  people
vote  for  it ;  (the  last  not  carried  out)  23  Aug.  1866 ;
abrogated  .  .... Feb.  1879

Riots  of  Czech  and  German  students ;  Marshal
Krausc  appointed  governor  about . 10  July,  1881

45  socialists  sentenced  to  imprisonment  . .  Dec.  1882

Destructive  floods  ;  the  ancient  bridge  over  the
Moldau  greatly  injured,  1 — 5  Sept.,  by  the  col-
lapse of  a  wall  of  the  bridge  ;  40  labourers  were
cast  into  the  river  and  23  drowned . 13  Oct.  1890

Bohemian  Industrial  exhibition  opened,  15  May  ;
closed .  18  Oct.  1891

Visit  of  the  emperor,  warmly  received . 26  Sept. ,,

Serious  Czech  rioting  suppressed  by  the,  police,
after  fighting 28  March,  1892

PEAGUEEIE,  WAR  OF  (so  named  from
Prague,  then  celebrated  for  its  civil  disorders)  ;
the  revolt  of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XL,
against  his  father  Charles  VII.,  aided  by  Alexander,
the  bastard  of  Bourbon,  and  other  nobles.  It  was
soon  que. led  ;  Louis  was  exiled,  and  Alexander  put
to  death  by  drowning,  July,  1440.

PEATEIAL  INSUBBECTIOX  at  Paris.

On  1,  2,  3  Prairial,  year  3  (20,  21,  22  May,  1795),
the  faubourgs  rose  against  the  directory,  and  were
quelled  by  the  military.

PEAISE  -  GOD  -  BAEEBONES'  PAE-
LIAMENT,  see  Barebones.

PEASLLN"  MUEDEE.  The  duchessc  de
Choiscul-Praslin  was  murdered  by  her  husband,
the  due  de  Praslin.  at  his  own  house,  in  Paris,  17
Aug.  1847.  She  was  the  only  daughter  of  the
celebrated  marshal  Sebastiani,  the  mother  of  nine
children,  and  in  her  forty-first  year.  Circum-
stances were  so  managed  by  him  as  to  give  it  the
appearance  of  being  the  act  of  another.  During
the  arrangements  lor  the  trial,  the  duke  took
poison.

PEAYEE-BOOK,  see  Common  Prayer.  The
Prayer-!  o)k  and  llomily  Society,  London,  was
founded  in  18 12.

Praye:--book  Revision  Society,  established  1854,  for  pro-
moting a  revision  of  the  book  of  common  prayer,  and
such  liturgical  reforms  in  the  church  of  England  as
will  strengthen  its  Protestant  and  scriptural  character.

PEAYEES.  "Then  began  men  to  call  upon
the  name  of  the  Lord  "  {Gen.  iv.  26),  3875  B.C.  The
mode  of  praying  with  the  face  to  the  east  was
instituted  by  pope  lionil'ace  II.  a.d.  532.  Prayers
for  the  dead,  first  introduced  into  the  Christian
church  about  190,  arc  advocated  by  some  ministers
of  the  English  church.  Prayers  addressed  to
the  Virgin  Mary  and  to  the  saints  are  said  to  have
been  introduced  by  pope  Gregory,  593.  See
Liturgies.

PEEBENDAEY  a  clergyman  attached  to  a
cathedral  or  collegiate  church,  who  receives  an
income  termed  prebenda  for  officiating  at  stated
times.  The  office  slightly  differs  from  that  of  a
canon.

PEECEDENCE  was  established  in  very  early-
ages,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  of  Justinian.  In
England  the  order  of  precedency  was  regulated
chiefly  by  two  statutes,  31  Hen.  VIII.  1539,  and  1
Geo.  I.  1714.

PEECEPTOES,  COLLEGE  OF,  Blooms-
bury,  London,  established  in  1846,  and  incorporated
by  royal  charter  28 March, 1849,  for  promoting


sound  learning,  especially  among  the  middle  classes,
by  the  instruction  of  teachers,  and  by  the  exami-
nation of  pupils  at  stated  times.

New  building  in  Bloomsbury  Square  opened  by  the  prince
of  Wales,  30  March,  1887.

PEEDESTINATION  {Eplm.  i.).  The  doc-
trine concerning  this  is  defined  in  the  seventeenth
article  of  the  Church  of  England  {Ephes.  i.  and
Romans  ix.).  It  was  maintained  by  St.  Augustin,
and  opposed  by  Pelagius,  in  the  early  part  of  the
5th  century.  In  later  times  it  has  been  maintained
by  the  Augustinians,  Jansenists,  the  church  of
Scotland,  and  many  dissenters  (termed  Calvinistic),
and  opposed  by  the  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  and  dis-
senters (termed  Armitiian),  especially^  by  the  Wes-
leyan  methodists.

PEEHISTOEIC  AECH^EOLOGY  began
in  Sweden,  and  first  systematised  by  Mr.  Nillson.
Daniel  "Wilson's  "  Archaeology  and  Pre-historic
Annals  of  Scotland,"  published  1851.  An  inter-
national congress  for  treating  prehistoiical  subjects
met  at  Neuchatel  in  1866,  and  at  Paris  in  1867.  At
the  third  meeting  at  Norwich,  Aug.  1868,  it  assumed
the  name  of  "  International  Congress  for  Prehistoric
Archaeology,"  and  published  its  transactions  in  1869.
A  meeting  was  held  at  Stockholm  7-14  Aug.  1874.
See  Barrows,  3fa»^  and  Ancient  Monuments.
Sir  John  Lubbock  divides  prehistoric  arclueology  into

four  great  epochs  :  1.  The  Drift  or  Palaeolithic  or  old

stone  age  ;  2.  The  Neolithic  or  polished  stone  age  ;  3.

The  Bronze  age  ;  4.  The  Iron  age,  when  bronze  was

superseded.  — (1880.)

PEE-EAPHAELITE  SCHOOL,  a  name
given  about  1850,  to  J.  E.  Millais,  Win.  Holman
Hunt,  D.  G.  Rossetti,  and  other  artists,  who  opposed
the  routine  conventionality  of  academic  teaching,
and  resolved  to  study  nature  as  it  appeared  to
them,  and  not  as  it  appeared  in  the  antique.  Eor
a  short  time  they  published  "  The  Germ,  or  Art  and
Poetry,"  beginning  in  1850.  Their  works  have
been  much  criticised,  but  their  influence  has  been
beneficial.  Their  principles  are  much  advocated
by  the  great  art-critic,  John  Euskin.

PEEEOGATIYE  COUET,  in  which  for-
merly all  wills  were  proved,  and  all  administrations
taken,  which  belonged  to  the  archbishop  of  Canter-
bury by  his  prerogative,  a  judge  being  appointed  by
him  to  decide  disputes.*  Appeals  from  this  court,
previously  to  the  pope,  were  commanded  to  be
made  to  the  king  in  chancery,  1533  ;  to  the  privy
council  in  1830-2.  This  court  was  abolished,  and
the  Probate  Court  established  in  1857.  Sir  John
Dodson,  the  last  judge,  died  in  1858.

PEEEOGATIYE,  EOYAL.  In  England
the  sovereign  is  the  supreme  magistrate,  and  it  is  a
maxim  that  he  can  do  no  wrong.  He  is  the  head
of  the  established  church,  of  the  army  and  navy,
and  the  fountain  of  office,  honour,  and  privilege,
but  is  subject  to  the  laws,  unless  exempted  by
name.  The  royal  prerogatives  were  greatly  exceeded
by  several  despotic  sovereigns,  such  as  Elizabeth,
James  I.,  and  Charles  I.  Elizabeth  used  the  phrase
"  We,  of  our  Royal  prerogative,  which  we  will  net-
have  argued  or  brought  in  question"  (1^91).
James  I.  told  his  parliament  "that  as  it  was  blas-
phemy to  question  what  the  Almighty  could  do
of  His  power,  so  it  was  sedition  to  inquire  what  a


*  The  records  date  from  1383  ;  but  the  testamentary
.jurisdiction  from  that  year  to  1433  was  exercised  by  the
court  of  arches.  Then  abp.  Stafford  transferred  it  to  a
new  court ;  president,  the  commissary  of  the  prerogative
court  of  Canterbury.  There  was  also  a  prerogative
court  of  the  archbishop  of  York.


PBESBUBG.


779


PEESTON.


king  could  do  by  virtue  of  his  prerogative."
These  extreme  doctrines  were  nullified  by  the
revolution  of  1688,  and  the  exercise  of  the  preroga-
tive is  now  virtually  subject  to  parliament ;  see
Lords.

PBESBUBG,  the  ancient  capital  of  Hungary,
where  the  diets  were  held  and  the  kings  crowned.
On  26  Dec.  1805,  a  treaty  was  signed  between
France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  ancient  states  of
Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy;  the  principality  of
Eichstadt,  part  of  the  bishopric  of  Passau,  the  city
of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions  of
Austria  in  Suabia,  in  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau,  were
transferred  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  and  the  duke
of  Wiirteniberg,  who,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Baden,
were  then  created  kings  by  Napoleon.  The  inde-
pendence of  the  Helvetic  republic  was  also  stipu-
lated. A  new  iron  and  stone  railway  and  passenger
bridge  over  the  Danube  was  inaugurated  by  the
emperor,  30  Dec.  1890. Population,  1890,  52,444.

PBESBYTEEIANS  are  so  called  from  their
maintaining  that  the  government  of  the  church
appointed  in  the  New  Testament  was  by  presby-
teries, or  association  of  ministers  and  ruling  ciders,
equal  in  power,  office,  and  in  order. "  The  elders
((jrreek,  presbyteros) I exhort,  who  am  also  an
eldei  (sympresbyteros)." 1  Peter  v. 1. Presby-
terianism  was  accepted  by  parliament  in  place  of
episcopacy  in  England  in  1648,  but  set  aside  at  the
restoration  in 1660. It  became the  established
form  of  church  government  in  Scotland  in  1696.
Its  tenets  were  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith
said  to  have  been  composed  by  John  Knox,  in  1560,
which  was  approved  by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,
1567,  and  finally  settled  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish
senate,  1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of
union  with  England  in  1 707. The  first  Presby-
terian meeting-house  in  England  was  established
at  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  20  Nov.  1572.
A  pan-presbyterian  congress  held  in  London.  Repre-
sentatives of  about  fifty  bodies,  British,  Ame-
rican, and  foreign,  agreed  to  form  an  "Alliance  of
Presbyterian  churehes  "  . . . 19-22  July,  1875
The  presbyterian  church  of  England  re-constituted
at  Liverpool  (in  union  with  the  United  Presbyte-
rian Church  of  Scotland) . . .13  June,  1876
A  pan-presbyterian  congress,  held  at  Edinburgh,
began  3  July, 1877; at  Philadelphia, U.S.A.,

23  Sept 1S80
The delegates to the pan-presbyterian council
assemble  at  Exeter  Hall  . . .4  July,  1888

See  Chwch  of  Scotland,  Camerouians,  Burghers,
Relief,  Glasites,  Free  Church,  &c.

PEESCOTT  (Upper  Canada).  On  17  Nov.
1838,  the  Canadian  rebels  were  attacked  by  the
llritish  under  major  Young,  and  (on  the  18th)  by
lieut. -colonel  Dundas,  who  dispersed  the  insurgents,
several  of  whom  were  killed,  and  many  taken  pri-
soners, and  the  remainder  surrendered.  The  troops
also  suffered  considerably.

PEESEEVED  MEAT  see  Provisions.

PBESIDENT,  see  Court  of  Session,  Privy
Council;  United  Stales,  1789;  France,  1848,1871;
Wrecks,  1841.—  PRESIDENT  OE  THE  COUNCIL,
LORD,  the  fourth  great  officer  of  state,  is  appointed
under  the  great  seal,  durante  bcneplacito,  and,  by  his
office,  is  to  attend  the  sovereign's  royal  person,  and
to  manage  the  debates  in  council,  to  propose  matters
from  the  sovereign  at  the  council-table,  and  to
report  to  his  majesty  the  resolutions  taken  there-
upon .

PEESS  ASSOCIATION  (a  company  "limi-
ted") was  established  by  the  newspaper  proprie-
tors of  Loudon  and  the  provinces,  at  a  meeting  at


Manchester,  29  June,  1868,  to  make  arrangements
to  enable  them  to  avail  themselves  of  the  increased
facilities  for  the  speed}'  transmission  of  news
afforded  by  the  post  office,  in  consequence  of  the
purchase  of  the  rights  of  all  the  telegraph  com-
panies, authorised  by  the  Telegraph  Act  of  1868.
The  organisation  of  the  association  was  completed'
at  a  meeting  in  London,  3  March,  1869.  The  Pro-
vincial Newspaper  Society,  out  of  which  it  sprang,
was  founded  in  1836,  and  became  the  Newspaper
Society  in  1889.  Since  1868  the  number  of  good
daily  provincial  newspapers,  containing  the  latest
news  of  the  world,  has  very  greatly  increased.

PEESS,  Liberty  oe  the. The  imprimatur

"let  it  be  printed"  was  much  used  on  the  title-
pages  of  books  printed  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven-
teenth centuries.  The  liberty  of  the  press  was
severely  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master-
printers  in  London  and  Westminster  limited  by  the
Star  Chamber,  13  Charles  L,  July  1,  1637.  John
Milton  published  his  noble  work,  "  Areopagitica ;
or,  a  Speech  for  the  Liberty  of  Unlicensed!
Printing,"  1644.  Sec  Fourth  Estate.
"Disorders  in  printing"  were  repressed  by  the

parliament  in  1643  and  1649,  and  by  Charles  II.  .  1662
The  censorship  of  the  press  (by  a  licence  established

in  1655  and  1693)  abandoned 1695

The  toast,  "The  liberty  of  the  press  ;  it  is  like  the
air  we  breathe — if  we  have  it  not  we  die,"  was
first  given  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  tavern,  at  a

Whig  dinner 1795

Presses  licensed,  and  the  printer's  name  required  to
be  placed  on  both  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a

book July,  1799

The  severity  of  the  restrictions  on  the  French  press
relaxed  by  M.  Persigny,  minister  of  the  interior,

but  soon  restored Dec.  i860

The  liberty  of  the  press  in  the  United  States  greatly

checked  during  the  civil  war . . .  1861-1865
Certain  restrictions  on  printers  in  the  United  King-
dom removed  by  act  passed  . . . July,  1869
Bill  greatly  freeing  the  press  in  Prance  introduced

into  the  chamber  .... 24  Jan.  1881

Press  (newspaper),  a  revolutionary  journal,  pub-
lished in  Dublin :  commenced  in  Oct.  1797 ;
Arthur  O'Connor,  Mr.  Emmett,  the  barrister
(whose  brother  was  executed  in  1803),  and  other
conspicuous  men,  contributors  to  it  ;  it  inflamed
the  public  mind  in  Ireland  on  the  eve  of  the
rebellion  in  1798.  The  paper  was  suppressed  by
a  military  force ....  6  March,  1798

-  PEESS-GANG  for  the  royal  navy  was  regu-
lated by  statute,  1378,  and  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  1835;
the  compulsory  service  is  limited  to  five  years,  see
Impressment.

PRESSING  TO  DEATH,  see  Mute.

PEESTON  (Lancashire).  Near  here  Cromwell
totalty  defeated  the  royalists  under  sir  Marmaduke
Langdale,  17  Aug.  1648.  Preston  was  taken  in
1715  by  the  Scotch  insurgents,  under  Forster,  who
proclaimed  king  James  VII.  They  were  defeated
in  a  battle  on  12,  13  Nov.  by  generals  Willes  and
Carpenter,  who  with  the  royal  army  invested
Preston  on  all  sides.  The  Scots  laid  down  their
arms,  and  their  nobles  and  leaders  were  secured ;
some  were  shot  as  deserters,  and  others  sent  to
London  pinioned  and  bound  together,  to  intimidate
their  party.— The  stoppage  of  the  cotton  manu-
facture in  1861  and  1862,  through  the  civil  war  in
America,  occasioned  great  suffering  in  Preston.  See
Population.

"  The  Preston  guild  Merchant  festival,"  said  to  have
been  instituted  in  Saxon  times,  recorded  as  be-
ginning 1328,  and  to  have  been  kept  once  in  20
years  regularly  since  1562,  was  duly  celebrated  in

Sept.  1862,  and  Sept. 1882
A  fine  art  and  industrial  exhibition  here  opened

2i  Sept.  1865


PRESTON-PANS.


780


PRIMROSE LEAGUE.


The  new  town  hall  opened,  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge

3  Oct.  1867

Statue  of  the  late  earl  of  Derby  publicly  inaugurated

3  June,  1873

Preston  strikes. — In  1853,  a  great  number  of  strikes
took  place  among  the  workmen  in  the  north  of
England.  Those  at  Preston  struck  for  an  increase

J  of  10  per  cent,  on  their  wages.  On  15  Oct.  the
masters,  in  consequence,  closed  forty-nine  mills,
and  20,000  persons  were  thrown  out  of  employ-
ment, who  were  mostly  maintained  for  a  long
time  by  subscriptions  from  their  fellows.  In  the
week  ending  17  Dec.  14,972  were  relieved,  a*  the
cost  of  2820Z.  8s.  The  committee  of  workmen
addressed  lord  Palmerston,  15  Nov.,  who  gave
them  his  advice 24  Dec.  1853

After  many  attempts  at  reconciliation,  the  strike
closed  for  want  of  funds . . . 1  May,  1854

Another  strike  was  closed  in  May,  1869

The  executors  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Harris,  a  solicitor,
awarded  70,0002.  for  a  free  library,  museum,  <fcc. ,
Sept.  1879  ;  of  which  the  foundation  was  laid  by
the  earl  of  Lathom  .... 5  Sept.  18S2

The  foundation  of  the  Lancashire  county  hall  laid
by  the  earl  of  Derby  ... 14  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Rich.  Newsham  bequeaths  his  pictures  and  art
treasures,  worth about  70,000/. to Preston

announced  Dec.  1883

PRESTON-PANS,  near  Edinburgh,  the  scene
of  a  battle  between  the  Young  Pretender,  prince
Charles  Stuart,  and  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the
royal  army  under  sir  John  Cope,  21  Sept.  1745.
The  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  500  men,
and  fled.

PRETENDERS.  A  name  given  to  the  son
and  grandsons  of  James  II.  of  England.

The Old Pretender, James Francis Edward

Stuart,  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  born  10  June,

1688,  was  acknowledged  by  Louis  XIV.  as  James

III.  of  England,  in  1701

Proclaimed,  and  his  standard  set  up,  at  Braemar

and  Castletown,  in  Scotland . . 3  Sept.  1715
Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from
France,  to  encourage  the  rebellion  that  the  earl
of  Mar  and  his  other  adherents  had  prompted,

25  Dec. „
This  rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed,  the
Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from  whence  he
proceeded  to  Gravelines) . ... 4  Feb. 1716

Died  at  Rome 50  Dec. 1765

The Young Pretender, Charles Edward, was

born  in 1720

Landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king

25  July,  1745
Gained  the  battle  of  Preston-pans,  21  Sept.  1745,

and  of  Falkirk 17  Jan.  1746

Defeated  at  Culloden,  and  sought  safety  by  flight,

16  April,  ,,
He  continued  wandering  among  the  wilds  of  Scot-
land for  nearly  six  months  ;  and  as  30,000?.  were
offered  for  taking  him,  he  was  constantly  pursued
by  the  British  troops,  often  hemmed  round  by
his  enemies,  but  still  rescued  by  some  lucky
accident,  and  at  length  escaped  from  the  isle  of
Uist  to  Morlaix  in  Sept.  He  died  .  31  Jan.  1788
His  natural  daughter  assumed  the  title  of  duchess

of  Albany;  died  in 1789

His  brother, the  cardinal  York, calling  himself
Henry  IX.  of  England,  born  March,  1725;  died

at  Rome  in Aug.  1807

His  alleged  grandson,  Charles  Edward  Stuart  cohite

d'Albanie,  died 24  Dec.  1880

See  France,  Louis  XVII.  ;  and  Impostors,  1606.

PREVENTION  OF  CRIME  ACTS,  n
Aug.  1871,  15  Aug.  1879,  and  12  July,  1882.  See
Ireland,  May,  1882,  1887  et  acq.

PREVENTIVE  t  MEDICINE.  The  dis-
coveries of  Pasteur,  Koch,  and  others,  relative  to
the  propagation  of  disease  by  minute  germs  (see
Germ  Theory),  led  to  the  gradual  formation  of  a
British  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine  by  a  com-
mittee of  eminent  physiologists  and  medical  men.


Sir  Joseph  lister  was  proposed  as  the  first  president,
and  Cambridge  as  the  site  of  the  Institute,  Dec.  1890.
PRICES,  see  Com,  Bread,  and  Provisions.
Mr.  T.  Tooke,  in  1838,  published  a  "History  of
Prices  from  1793  to  1856."  He  was  latterly  aided
by  Mr.  W.  Newmarch.  "  History  of  Agriculture
and  Prices"  (1259-1702).  By  Mr.  J.  E.  T.  Rogers;
six  volumes  published  1866-87;  he  died  13  Oct.  1890.

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  On  the  6th  Dec.  1648,
colonel  Pride,  with  two  regiments,  surrounded  the
house  of  parliament,  and  seizing  in  the  passage
forty-one  members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  sent
them  to  a  low  room,  then  called  hell.  Above  160
other  members  were  excluded,  and  none  admitted
but  the  most  furious  of  the  Independents.  The
privileged  members  were  named  the  Rump  parlia-
ment, which  was  dismissed  by  Cromwell,  20  April,
I653-

PRIENE,one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  Ionian
league  in  Asia  Minor.  The  temple  of  Minerva
Polias,  founded  here  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and
the  work  of  Pythios,  was  excavated  by  Mr.  11.  P.
Pullan,  for  the  Dilettanti  Society,  in  1868-9.

PRIEST  (derived  from  prcsbyteros,  elder),  in
the  English  church  the  minister  who  presides  over
the  public  wrorship.  In  Gen.  xiv.  18,  Melchizedek
king  of  Salem  is  termed  "priest  of  the  most  high
God."  (1913  B.C. ;  see  Hebrews  vii.)  The  Greek
hicreus,  like  the  Jewish  priest,  had  a  sacrificial
character,  which  idea  of  the  priesthood  is  still
maintained  by  the  Romanists  and  those  who  favour
their  views.  Among  the  Jews,  the  priests  assumed
their  office  at  the  age  of  thirty  years.  The  dignity
of  high  or  chief  priest  was  fixed  in  Aaron's  family,
1491  B.C.  After  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  civil
government  and  the  crown  were  superadded  to  the
high  priesthood ;  it  was  the  peculiar  privilege  of
the  high  priest,  that  he  could  be  prosecuted  in  no
court  but  that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The
heathens  had  their  arch-fiamen  or  high  piiest,
resembling  the  Christian  archbishop.  For  "  Priest
in  Absolution,"  see  Soli/  Cross.

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Bomisli
book  of  devotions,  and  formerly  set  forth  or  pub-
lished by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children
should  publicly  learn  or  read  in  schools,  containing
prayers  and  portions  of  the  scripture.  Primers  were
printed  1535,  1539-  Hemy  VIII.  issued  a  prayer-
book  called  a  "primer"  in  1545.  The  three  were
published  by  Dr.  Burton  in  1834.

PRIMITIVE  CULTURE,  see  Civilisation.

PRIMOGENITURE,  Right  of.  A  usage
brought  down  from  the  earliest  times.  The  first-
born in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a  superiority  over
his  brethren,  and  in  the  absence  of  his  father  was
priest  to  the  family.  In  some  parts  of  England,
by  the  ancient  customs  of  gavel-kind  and  borough-
English,  primogeniture  was  superseded.  It  came
in  with  the  feudal  law,  3  Will.  I.  1068.  The
rights  of  primogeniture  abolished  in  France,  1 790.

PRIMROSE  LEAGUE,  formed  in  1SS4  in
memory  of  the  late  lord  Beaconsfkld  (with  whom
the  primrose  is  said  to  have  been  a  favourite  flower)
and  in  support  of  conservative  principles,  he  died
19  April,  1881,  and  the  anniversary  of  that  day  is
termed  "Primrose  Day,"  when  the  flower  is  gene-
rally  worn by his  admirers. The marquis of
Salisbury  became  grand  master.
The  league,  which  began  with  under  a  thousand
members, was declared to  consist  of 810,228
knights, dames, and associates, with 1,992
"  habitations,"  on .... 20  May,  1389


PEINCE OF THE PEACE.


781


PEINTING.


The  lengtCe  issues  great  number  of  political  leaflets
and  songs. "  Habitations  "  have  been  established
in  Scotland  and  Ireland.
Number  of  members  reported,  1,002,097 . April,  1891
Great meeting in Covent Garden theatre, the
martinis  of  Salisbury  in  the  chair . 6  May,  1892

PEINCE  OF  THE  PEACE,  a  title  conferred
on  Manuel  Godoy  by  Charles  TV.  of  Spain,  for
concluding  the  Treaty  of  Basic.

PEINCE EDWABD ISLAND (North

America),  was  discovered  by  Cabot,  in  1497 ;  was
finally  taken  from  the  French  by  the  British,  in
1758 ;"  united  with  Cape  Breton  as  a  colony  in  1763  ;
but  separated  in  1768.  Population  1881,  108,894,
1891,  109,088.  Capital,  Chaiiottetown.  Lieut-
governors:  W.  F.  Bobinson,  Aug.  1870;  sir  Bobert
Hodgson,  1874;  hon.  Thomas  Heath  Haviland,  1879;
hon.  A.  A.  Macdonald,  1884;  J.  S.  Carvell,  1889.

PEINCE  OF  WALES'S  ISLAND,  see
Benanrj.

PEINCE  EUPEET'S  LAND,  sec  Rupert's
Land,  and  Hudson's  Bay.

PEINCESS  ALICE,  an  iron  saloon  steamer,
belonging  to  the  London  steamboat  company,  while
carrying,  it  is  supposed,  above  900  persons,  princi-
pally women  and  children,  on  their  return  from
Sheerness,  was  immediately  sunk  by  collision  with
the  Bywell  Castle,  a  large  iron  screw  steamer,  about
7.40  p.m.  on  Tuesday,  3  Sept.  1878,  in  the  Thames,  |
in  (Jallion's  reach,  about  a  mile  below  Woolwich  j
arsenal. Alout  200  persons  were saved, hut  of  I
these  about  16  died  afterwards. About  640  bodies  j
were  recovered  and  buried  ;  many  at  Woolwich.
The  Princess  Alice  was  251  tons  gross  ;  219ft.  4111.  long;
eoft.  2  in.  broad;  8  ft.  4  in.  deep. Engines,  140  horse
power,  by  Caird,  of  Glasgow. Capt.  Win.  Grinstead
(lost),  with  (it  is  said)  6  sailors,  2  engineers,  3  firemen,
6  stewards,  and  5  boys.
The  Bywell  Castle,  1376  tons  gross;  254ft. 3 in.  long;
32  ft.  1  in.  broad  ;  19  ft.  6  in.  deep. Engines,  120  horse
power. Owners, Hall  Brothers,  London. Captain
Thomas  Harrison.
Mansion  House  Belief  Fund  opened,  5  Sept. The  queen
sent 105?.  ;  subscriptions  came from royal family  ;
38,246/.  2.?.  6<1  received;  final  meeting,  30  Dec.  1878.
Board of  Trade Inquiry. — Result :  Officers  of  Bywell
Castle  and  Princess  Alice  not  considered  responsible  for
the  accident,  but  some  were  censured  for  carelessness,
28  Oct. The  Princess  Alice  considered  to  be  equal  to  her
load;  inquiry  concluded, 31 Oct. Decision:  "that
the  cause  of  the  casualty  was  the  breach  of  Rule  29
of the Thames Conservancy Regulations, by the
Princess  Alice  not  porting  her  helm  when  she  came
end  on  to  the  Byu'cll  Castle,  a  vessel  coming  in  the
opposite  direction." Report  dated  6  Nov.  1878.
Coroner's  Inquest. — Verdict :  "  Bywell  Castle  did  not  take
necessary  precautions  in  time,  of  easing,  &c.  ;  Princess
Alice  contributed  to  the  collision  by  not  stopping  her
engines  and  going  astern,  -&c."  ;  14  Nov.  1878.
An  action  for  damage  against  owners  of  Bywell  Castle,  in
Admiralty  division  began  27  Nov.  ;  decision  that  both
vessels  were to blame, n  Dec. 1878  ;  decision  on
appeal  that  the  Princess  Alice  was  solely  to  blame,  15
July,  1879.

PEINCESS'S THEATEE,  see  under

Theatres.

PEINCETON,  New  Jersey,  N.  America.
Here  Washington  defeated  the  British,  3  Jan.  1777.

PEINTED  GOODS,  see  Calico.

PEINTEES'  PENSION  SOCIETY,  (now
termed  "Printers'  Corporation"),  founded  1827;
chartered,  1865;  almshouses  instituted,  1841  ;
orphan  schools  have  been  set  up.

PEINTING.  Block  printing  is  said  to  have
been  invented  by  the  Chinese  about  593  a.t>.,
movable  types  made in the  10th  century. The


honour  of  first  printing  with  single  types  in  Europe

has  been  appropriated  to  Mentz,  Sti  asburg,  Haarlem,

Venice,  Koine,  Florence,  Basle,  and  Augsburg  ;  but

the  names  of  the  three  first  only  are  entitled  to

attention ;  see  JPress.

Adrian  Junius  awards  the  honour  of  the  invention
to  Laurenzes  John  Koster,  of  Haarlem,  "  who^
printed  with  blocks,  a  book  of  images  and  letters,
Speculum  Huinance  Salvationis,  ami  compounded
an  ink  more  viscous  and  tenacious  than  common
ink,  which  blotted,  about  1438."

[The  leaves  of  this  book,  being  printed  on  one  side
only,  were  afterwards  pasted  together.]

[In  1859,  Mr.  Samuel  Leigh  Sotheby  issued  an
elaborate  work  compiled  by  his  father  and  him-
self, entitled  " Principia  Typographica,"  con-
taining fac-similes,  &c,  of  the  block-books  of  the
15th  century;  and  Mr.  J.  Russell  Smith  published:
a  fac-simile  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum,  a  very  early
block-book.]

John  Fust  established  a  printing-office  at  Mentz,
and  printed  the  Tractatus  Petri  Hispani . .  1442-

John  Gutenberg  invented  cut  metal  types,  and
used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition  of  the
Latin  bible  (termed  the  Mazarin,  from  the  dis-
covery of  a  copy  in  the  cardinal's  library)  at


Mentz


1450-55


[At  the  sale  of  the  Perkins  library,  6  June,  1873,  a  *
copy  of  this  bible  on  vellum  sold  for  3400?. ,  one  on
paper  sold  for  2690?. ;  a  copy  belonging  to  sir  John
Tliorold,  of  Syston-park,  sold  for"  3900?..  13  Dee.
1884  ;  a  copy  belonging  to  the  earl  of  Crawford
sold  for  2,650?.,  15  June,  1887;  lord  Hopetoun's
copy  sold  for  2,oooL,  25  Feb.  1889.]

Book  of  Psalms,  by  Fust  andSchosffer . 14  Aug.  1457

Sir  John  Thorold's  copy  on  vellum  sold  for  4950?.
[formerly  sold  for  136?.]  19  Dec.  1884.

The  Durandi  Rationale,  first  work  printed  with  cast
metal  types I+59,

[Printing  was  introduced  into  Oxford,  about  this
time. Collier. Denied  by  Dibdin.]

A Livy  printed. Du  Fresnoy 146a

The  first  Latin  bible  with  a  date  completed  at
Mentz  by  Fust  and  Sehceffer 1463

Mentz  taken  and  plundered,  and  the  art  of  printing
in  the  general  ruin,  is  spread  to  other  towns "'.  * *

The  types  were  uniformly  Gothic,  or  old  German
(whence  our  old  English  or  Black  Letter),  until .  1465

Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first  used,  same
year

Cicero  de  Officiis  ru-inted  by  Fust  at  Mentz  .

Roman  characters,  first  at  Rome .  . ".  i±6t

A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  arch-
bishop of  Canterbury's  palace  (the  fact  disputed),
bearing  the  date  "Oxford,  anno  1468."

Lactantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near
Rome,  1465 ;  Livy  by  the  same ....  1469,

William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London,  set  up  the
first  press  at  Westminster 1470

[To  the  west  of  the  Sanctuary  in  Westminster
Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry,
where  the  first  printing  press  in  England  was
erected  in  1471,  by  William  Caxton,  encouraged
by  the  learned  Thomas  Miling,  then  abbot.]

He  printed  Willyam  Caxton' s  Secuyel  of  the  Hysioryes
of  Troy,  by  Raoul  le  Feure. Phillips . . .

His  early  pieces  were,  A  Treatise  on  the  Game  of
Chessc  and  Tully's  Otfccs  (see  below). Dibdin .  1474

JEsop's  Fables,  printed  by  Caxton,  is  supposed  to  be
the  first  book  with  its  leaves  numbered . .  1484

Aldus  cast  the  Greek  Alphabet,  and  a  Greek  book
printed  ap.  Aldi 1476

He  introduces  the  Italics * *

The  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew I.g2

German  Bible  at  Nuremberg I4s~

Homer,  in  folio,  beautifully  done  at  Florence,
eclipsing  all  former  printing,  by  Demetrius . '.  14S3

Caxton  prints  the  Boke  of  Eueydos  . . .  1490

Aldus  Manutius  begins  printing  at  Venice  . . .  1494


Printing  used  in  Scotland


1507


The  first  edition  of  the  whole  bible  was,  strictly
speaking,  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  of  cardinal
Ximenes  (see  Polyglot) I5I7

The  Liturgy,  the  first  book  printed  in  Ireland,  by
Humphrey  Powell 1550

Printing  in  Irish  characters  introduced  by  Nicholas
Walsh,  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick's . . .  1571


PRINTING.


782


PRINTING.


The  first  newspaper  said  to  be  printed  in  England

(see  Nevjspapers) 'S88

First  patent  granted  for  printing . . . .1591
First  printing  press  improved  by  William  Blaeu,  at

Amsterdam . . . •■,■,;■ i6qi
First  printing  in  America,  in  New  England,  when
the Freeman's Oath and an almanack were
printed . . . • A  • ■  . , • - ■ ■ T°39
•"  Bav  Psalm-book"  printed  at  Cambridge,  Mass. .  1640
First bible, printed  in  Ireland  was at Belfast.

Hardy's  Tour  . . ■ ■ • • ■  I7°4

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon. Plulhps ■  172°
.Stereotype  printing  practised  by  William  Ged,  ot

Edinburgh about  1730

[Specimen  at  Royal  Institution,  London.]
The  present  mode  of  stereotype  invented  by  Mr.

Tilloch aljout  J779

[Stereotype  printing  was  in  use  in  Holland  111  the

bust  century. Phillips.']
Logographie  printing  in  which  words  cast ,  i 11  one
piece  were  employed:  patented  by  H.  Johnson
and  Mr.  Walter  of  the  Times;  (soon  disused) . 1783
Machine-printing (which sec)  first suggested by

Nicholson . . • • • •■  ■ i  I79°

The  Stanhope  press  invented  about  1800  ;  111  general

nse o  r

Albion  press  introduced . . ■ • - •  -1810
The  roller,  which  was  a  suggestion  of  Nicholson,

introduced . . ■ ''

Cowper's  and  Applegath's  rollers . . . .  1817
Columbian  press  of  Clymer  patented • • . • >>
Printing  for  the  blind  (by  raised  characters)  begins 1827
Anastatic  Printing,  in  which  written or  printed
matter  is  transferred  upon  zinc  plates,  was  inven-
ted by  Baldermus  of  Berlin  about  1841,  and  made
known  in  London  ; lectured  on  by  Faraday in
!8d<;  •  and  improved  by  Strickland  and  Delamotte

in "' 1  ' V  lS4S

","A  similar  process  was  invented  by  Mr.  Cocks  of

Falmouth  in  1836.]
Printing-types  electro-faced  with  copper  about  1850

Engraved  copper-plate  electro-faced  with  iron  and

nickel  .  .  •  •  •  ■  ■  ,  ■  "  l858
Tupe-camposing  Machines.—  By  James1!  oung  s  several
'  numbers  of  the  "Family  Herald  "were  set  up,
ben-inning  17  Dec.  1842  ;  Hatterslcy's  appeared  at
the  Exhibition  of  1862;  Hart's  was  shown  at  the
meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Cambridge

6  Oct. 1862
W H Mitchel's  composing  machine  was  tried  at
Messrs. Spottiswoode's, 1861  ; these machines
were  said  to  be  in  use  in  America  in . Jan. 1863
Kastenbein's  composing  and  distributing  machines
(in  use  at  the  Times  office)  shown  at  the  Inter-
national exhibition  . . ■ • • •  1872
The  "Clowes"  type-composing  machine  (Hookers
patent)  in  which  electro-magnets  arc  employed,
was  shown  at  the  Caxton  celebration  exhibition,
South  Kensington . . ... July,  1877
Ito  000  types  per  hour  may  be  set  up  in  page  form.]
Alexander  Mackie's  type-composing  machine  in  use
' at  his  office  in  Warrington,  and  at  Messrs.  Clay's,
London,  in  1871. It  was  said  to  be  able  to  set  up
4  columns  of  the  Times  in  an  hour.
j  jjiotBue.— An  American  composingand  distributing
'machine,  in  which  type  matrices  are  employed
instead  of  type. The  manipulator  brings  letters,
points and  spaces  together  in  one  line  of  the
■'alley  this  is  passed  into  a  casting-box,  and  a
solid'  line  of  type  is  produced  in  stereo  metal ;
this  is  repeated  till  the  galley  is  full. The  New
York  Herald  has used  about  40  machines. In
July,  1889,  it  was  freely  shown  in  London,  for
the  purpose  of  forming  a  company.  _
Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria
printing-office  in  Great  Coram-street,  London,  in
which female compositors  are employed: the
"Englishwoman's  Journal"  printed  there  Aug.
1861  -appointed  printer  and  publisher  in  ordinary
to  her  Majesty . • • • • Ju,ne>  l862
Mr William  Blades,  learned  printer,  printed  fac-
s'imilies  of  several  of  Caxton's  works,  1858,  et  seq.
"Life  of  Caxton,"  1861-3,  and  1877;  and  other
valuable  works  connected  with  printing;  bom,

!824  ;  died 27  April,  1890

Sec  Printing  Machine,  Stereotype,  and  Nature  Printing.]


Titles  of  the  earliest  Books  of  Caxton  and
Wynkvn  de  Worde.

The  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse.  Translated  out
of  the  Frenche  and  emprynted  by  me  William  Caxton.
Fynysshid  the  last  day  of  Marvhe  the  yer  of  our  Lord  Ood
a  thousand  foure  hondred  and  Ixxiiij.

[A  fac-simile  of  this  book  was  printed  by  Mr.  Vincent
Figgins  in  1859.]

The  Dictes  and  Wise  Sayings  of  the  Philosophers,
is  stated  to  be  the  first  book  printed  by  Caxton  in
England,  1477.  (Fac-simile  published  by  Elliot  Stock,
1877.)

The  Boke  of  Tulle  of  Olde  Age  Emprynted  by  me
simple  persone  William  Caxton  into  Englysshe  as  the
playsir  solace  and  reverence  of  men  growing  in  to  old  age
the  xij  day  of  August  the  yere  of  our  Lord  M.  cccc.  Ixxxj.
Herbert.

The  Polycronycon  conteyning  the  Berynges  and  Dedes
of  many  Tymes  in  eyght  Pokes.  Imprinted  by  William
Caxton  after  having  someivhat  clutunged  the  rude  and  olde
Englysshe,  that  is  to  wete  [to  wit]  certayu  Words  which
in'these  Dayes  be  neither  vsyd  nc  imderstanden.  Ended
the  second  day  of  Juyll  at  Westmest/re  the  assy  yerc  of  the
Pegnc  of  Kynge  Edward  the  fourth,  and  of  the  Jncarna-
cion  of  oure  Lord  a  Thousand  four  hondred  four- Score
and  tweyne  [1482]. Dibdin's  Typ.  Ant.

The  Cronicles  of  Englond  Empnted  by  me  Wyllyam
Caxton  thabbcy  of  Westmynstre  by  londonthe  v  day  of
Juyn the yere of thincamacion of our lord god

M.  CCCC.  LXXX.

Polycronycon.  Ended  the  thyrtenth  daye  of  Apryll  the
tenth  yere  of  the  reyne  of  hinge  Harry  the  seuenth  And
of  the  Jncarnacyon  of  our  lord  mcccclxxxxv.  Empryn-
ted by  Wynkyn  The  worde  at  Wesmestre.
The  Hylle  of  Perfection  emprynted  at  the  instance  of
the  reverend  relygyous  fader  Tho.  Prior  of  the  hous  of
St.  Ann,  the  order  of  the  charterouse  Accomplysshe[dL]
they  fynysshe[d]  att  Westniynstcr  the  uiii  day  of  Jancuer
and  ere  of  our  lord  Thousandc  cccc.  lxxxxvii.  And  in
the  xii  yere  of  kynge  Henry  the  vii  by  me  wynkyn  de
worde.  Ames,  Herbert,  Dibdin.
The  Descripcyon  of  Englonde  Walys  Scotland  and
Irlond  speaking  of  the  Noblesse  and  Worthyncsse  of  the
same  Fynysshed  and  emprynted  in  Flete  strete  in  the  syne
of  the  Sonne  by  me  Wynkyn  de  Worde  the  yere  of  our
lord  a  m  ceccc  and  ij.  mensis  Mayiis  [mense  Maiij.
Dibdin's  Typ.  Ant.
The  Festyvall  or  Sermons  on  sondays  and  holidais  taken
out  of  the  golden  legend  enprynted  at  london  in  Flete-strete
at  y"  sygne  of  y  Sonne  by  wynkyn  de  worde.  In  the
yere  of  our  Lord  st.ccccc.vin.  And  ended  the  :d  daye
of  Maye.  Ames.
The  lord's  prayer  [As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483. 1
Father  our  that  art  in  heavens,  hallowed  be  thy  name:
thy  kingdome  come  to  us ;  thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  is
in  heaven:  our  every  day  bread  give  us  to  day;  ami
forgive  us  oure  trespasses,  as  we  forgive  them  that  trespass
against  us ;  and  lead  us  not  in  to  temptation,  but  deliver
us  from  all  evil  sin,  amen.  Lewis's  Life  of  Caxton.
A  Placard.  [As  printed  by  William  Caxton.]  7/  it
plcse  ony  man  spiritual  or  temperel  to  bye  ony  pies  <f  two
or  three  comemoracios  of  Salisburi  me*  enprynted  after
the  forme  of  this  preset  lettre  whiche  ben  vel  and  truly
correct,  late  him  come  to  westmonester  in  to  the  almoncstye
at  the  reed  pale  [red  pale]  and  he  shall  have  them  good
» there. Dibdin's  Typ.  Ant.

Caxton  Celebration  of  400th  anniversary  of  discovery
of  printing  :  First  meeting  at  Westminster  abbey ;  dean
Stanley  in  chair ;  Messrs.  Spottiswoode,  Rivington,
Clowes,  and  others  present,  17  Feb.  1877.
Exhibition  (at  South  Kensington)  of  early  printed  books,
bibles,  and  engravings  ;  printing,  paper-making,  ste-
reotyping, electrotyping,  in  operation  ;  opened  by  Jlr.
W.  E.  Gladstone,  30  June  ;  closed  1  Sept.  1877.
1116?.  profit  given  to  the  Printers'  Pension  Corporation,

30  July,  1878.
The  catalogue  contains  valuable  information.
Printing-machines. — William  Nicholson,  editor  of  the
Philosophical  Journal,  first  projected  (1700-1),  but  Mr.
Kdnig  first  contrived  and  constructed  a  working
printing  machine,  which  began  with  producing  the
Times  of  2S  Nov.  1S14,  a  memorable  day  in  the  annals
of  typography.

*  Romish  Service-books,  used  at  Salisbury,  by  the
devout  called  Pies  (Pica,  Latin),  as  is  supposed  from
the  different  colour  of  the  text  and  rubric.  Our  printing-
type  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  printers.-— II  heathy.


PRIORIES.


rS3


PRISONS.


In  1818,  Mr.  E.  Cowper  patented  improvements. t

Konig's  machine  printed  1800  an  hour  on  one  side ;
Cowper's  improvements  increased  this  number  to
4200.  This  was  raised  to  15,000,  by  Mr.  Applegath's
machine,  winch  printed  the  Times.

Hoe's  American  machine,  introduced  into  London  1858,
prints  20,000  an  hour.

Jflarinoni's  machine  at  Paris  said  to  print  36,000  an  hour ;
Dee.  1868.

Walter  press,  invented  for  the  rimes  by  J.  C.  Macdonald
and  Mr.  Calverley,  between  1862-9,  Points  about  17,000
an  hour  perfected  ;  1872.

American  Campbell  press  said  to  print  50,000  sheets  per-
fected in  an  hour,  Feb.  1876.

Ingram  web  rotary  machine,  invented  by  Mr.  W.  J.  In-
gram, M. P.,  for  printing  illustrated  papers  ;  lirst  used
to  print  Illustrated  London  Xews,  4  Oct.  1877.

Printing  in  Colours  was  first  commenced  by  the
employment  of  several  blocks,  to  imitate  the  initial
letters  in  MSS.  (for  instance,  the  Mentz  Psalter  of
Fust,  1455,  which  has  a  letter  in  three  colours).
Imitations  of  chiaroscuro  soon  followed  ("Repose  in
Egypt,"  engraving  on  wood  after  Louis  Cranach,  in
1519,  in  Germany ;  others  by  Ugo  da  Carpi,  in  Italy,
1518).

J.  B.  Jackson  (1720-54)  attempted,  without  success,  to
imitate  water-colour  drawings,  and  to  print  paper-
hangings.

About  1783,  John  Skippe,  an  amateur,  printed  some
chiaroscuros.

In  1S19-22,  Mr.  William  Savage  produced  Lis  remarkable
work,  "Hints  on  Colour  Printing,"  illustrated  by
imitations  of  chiaroscuro,  and  of  coloured  drawings,
giving  details  of  the  processes  employed.

In  1836.  Mr.  George  Baxter  produced  beautiful  specimens
of  Picture-Printing,  and  took  out  a  patent,  which
expired  in  1855.  In  some  of  the  illustrations  to  the
"Pictorial  Album"  (1S36),  he  employed  twenty  dif-
ferent blocks.

8t  has  been  applied  to  Lithography  (hence  Chromo-
lithography).

In  1849,  Mr.  G.  C.  Leighton  produced  imitations  of
water-colour  drawings,  by  means  of  modifications  and
improvements  of  Savage's  processes.  In  1S51  he  com-
menced colour-printing  by  machinery,  and  has  since
.availed  himself  of  aqua-tinted  plates,  and  also  of  elec-
trotyped  silver  and  copper  surfaces  to  obtain  purity  of
colour  as  well  as  durability.

The  large  coloured  prints  of  the  Illustrated  London  News
were  lirst  issued  in  Dec.  1S56.

Mr.  E.  Meyerstein  explained  his  process  of  printing
many  colours  at  one  impression  (stenochromy),  So-
ciety of  Arts,  13  Dec.  1S76.

Printing  surfaces.  Vulcanised  india-rubber  was  first  em-
ployed fortius  purpose  by  Mr.  John  Leighton,  F.S.A.,
about  1862,  and  patented  in  the  name  of  Alfred  Leigh-
ton, 1864.  The  application  is  much  used  for  hand-
stamps  for  books,  &e.

Printing  Exhibition  (of  specimens,  apparatus,  mate-
rials, stationery,  and  machinery),  at  Agricultural  Hall,
London,  include  5-17  July,  1880  ;  14  July  et  seq.  1881  ;
and  30  July  et  se /.  1883.

International  exhibition  of  printing  at  Stationers'  hall,
London,  opened  by  the  lord  mayor,  14  Oct.  1889.

PRIORIES,  at  first  dependent  on  the  great
abbeys,  are  mentioned  in  722  in  England ;  see
Abbeys,  and  Monasteries.  Alien  priories  were  seized
by  the  king  (Edward  I.)  in  1285,  and  in  succeed-
ing reigns  on  the  breaking  out  of  war  with  France  ;
but  were  usually  restored  on  the  conclusion  of
peace.  These  priories  were  dissolved,  and  their
estates  vested  in  the  crown,  3  Henry  V.  1414.  —
My  titer's  Fcederti.

PRISCILLIANISTS,  disciples  of  Priscillian.

•a  Spanish  bishop  who  propagated  doctrines  alleged
to  contain  Gnosticism  and  Manicheism,  372.  When
condemned  he  appealed  from  the  pope  to  the
■emperor,  but  was  beheaded  at  Treves,  385.

t  In  1817  was  published  Blumenbaeh's  Physiology
by  Elliotson,  the  first  book  printed  by  machinery.  The.
machine  employed  was  Kdnig's,  one  which  printed  both
tKides  in  one  operation  at  the  rate  of  900  sheets  an  hour
•(1816).


PRISONERS OF  WAR,  among  the  ancient
nations,  when  spared,  were  usually  enslaved. About
the 13th  century,  civilized  nations  began t>  ex-
change their  prisoners.
The Spanish, French, and American  prisoners  of

war  in  England  were  12,000  in  number,  30  Sept.  1779
The  number  exchanged  by  cartel  with  Frame,  from

the  commencement  of  the  then  war,  was  44,000

June,  17S1
The  English  prisoners  in  France  estimated  at  6000,

and  the  French  in  England  27,000  .  .  Sept.  1798
The  English  in  France  amounted  to  10,300,  and  the

French,  &c,  iu  England  to  47,600,  in  .  .  .  1S11
Great  numbers  made  by  the  Germans  in  the  war 1S70-1

PRISONERS'  COUNSEL  ACT,  6  &  7
"Will.  IV.  c.  114  (1836),  allows  counsel  to  persons
tried  for  felony  ;  hitherto  prohibited.

PRISONS  of  England  and  "Wales. Annual
cost:  1867-8,482,414/. ; 1869-70,501,348/.;  1880-1,
421,686/.; 1881-2,375,548/.; 18S3-4, 334,674/.;
1887-8,  340,483/. ;  1890-1,  326,551/.
England  and  Wales;  in  prisons,  March,  1882,  18,392;  1S83,

16.913;  in  18S7,  15,457;  March,  1890,  14,558.

PRISONS  OF  London,  see  Fleet,  King's
Bench,  Xeicgate,  Poultry,  Glerkemvell.

Horsemonger-lane.  gaol  was  built  in  1791  ;  closed,

1878  ;  opened  as  a  playground  .  .  5  May,  1S84
The state  of  prisons  greatly  improved  after  the

exertions  of  Howard.* Cold-Bath  Fields  prison

was  built  on  his  suggestion,  1794  ;  converted  int  1

offices  for  the  parcels  post  ....  1SS7-91
The  atrocities  of  governor  Aris  in  this  prison  were

exposed  in  parliament  .  .  .  .12  July,  1S00
Sheriffs' fund society for assisting discharged

prisoners  established  by  aldermen  C.  Smith  and

sir  R.  Phillipps 1S07

Whitecross-street  prison  for  debtors  erected  .  1S13-15
Milbank  prison  (see  Milbank)  received  convicts  as  a

penitentiary 27  June,  1816

Borough compter  mean  and  confined  till  visited

by  a  parliamentary  committee  in  .  .  .  .  1S17
Savoy  prison,  for  the  confinement  of  deserters  from

the  Guards,  formerly  situated  in  the  Strand,  was

pulled  down  to  make  room  for  Waterloo-bridge  .  1819
New  Bridewell  prison  was  erected  as  a  substitute

for  the  City  Bridewell,  Blaekfriars,  in  .  . 1S29

Tothill  Fields  Bridewell,  built  in  161S,  rebuilt  .  1S36
The  old  Marshalsea  prison,  Southwark,  built  in  the

13th  century,  taken  down ^42

Pentonville  Model  prison  completed . . . .,
Milbank  penitentiary  reported  a  failure  ; changed

to  au  ordinary  prison ,5:^,

Middlesex  House  of  Detention,  Clerkenwell,  erected

in 1S47

City  prison,  Holloway,  opened  .  .  6  Feb.  1S52
Royal  Discharged  Prisoners'  Aid  society  established  1858
Act  passed  for  abolishing  Queen's  Bench  prison  .  1S62
Prison  Ministers' act  passed ....  iS;.;

Acts  to  consolidate  and  amend  the  law  relating  to

prisons,  passed  .  .  .5  July,  1865  ;  Aug.  1866
Howard  Association  (whicli  see)  instituted  . .

A  National Prison Association was organized in

New  York ^69  or  1S70

Milbank  made  a  military  prison ....,,
International  prison  congress  met  at the Middle

Temple,  London 3  juiV)  ^72

Prison Discipline Society,  by the philanthropic

labours  of  sir  T.  F.  Buxton,  M.P.,  was  instituted

in  1815,  and  held  its  first  public  meeting  in  iS.-o.

Its objects  were  the  amelioration of  gaols, flic

classification  and  employment of  die  'prisoners,

and  the  prevention  of  crime.
Whitecross-street  prison  ;  ordered  to  be  pulled  down

and  materials  sold .... n  Oct. 1S70

*  John  Howard  was  born  2  Sept.  1726;  made  sheriff
Of  Bedford,  1773;  investigated  into  the  state  of  English
prisons,  1773-5;  and  gave  evidence  thereon  before'  the
house  of  commons,  which  led  to  amen  lments  by  law,
1774  ;  he  visited  prisons  all  over  the  continent,  and  died
at  Kherson,  20  Jan.  1790.  Centenary  celebrated  2>  Jan.
1890.


PEIVATE  BILLS.


784


PEOBATE COUET.


A  prisons  bill  brought  forward,  i  June  ;  withdrawn

31  July,  1876

The  Prison  Acts,  for  England,  Ireland,  and  Scot-
land, passed  12  July  and  14  Aug.  1877.  They  trans-
fer management  of  prisons,  after  1  April,  1878, .

.-  from  local  authorities  to  the  home  secretary ;
provide  for  re-distribution  and  reduction  of
number  of  prisons,  &c.

Other  gaols  closed 1878

An  international  Prison  Congress  met  at  Stockholm

20-24  Aug. , ,

Prisoners'  aid  societies,  prison  charities  act  passed

18  Aug.  1882

Discharged  prisoners' aid  societies  are  now  attached
to  all  prisons.  The  "  metropolitan"  society  was
established 1864

A  receiving  house  for  discharged  prisoners  was
opened  by  gen.  Booth  at  30,  Argyle-square,  W.C.

30  Jan.  1 89 1

The  committee  appointed  to  inquire  respecting
prison  rules,  reported  in  favour  of  their  continu-
ance in  regard  to  dress  and  hair-cutting,  for
sanitary,  disciplinary  and  general  reasons  .  June,  1889

Int'irnational  congress  respecting  prisons  at  St.
Tetersburg,  550  delegates  ;  president,  prince  of
Oldenburg .... 19  June,  et  seq.  1890

fA  continuation  of  the  "  Commission  Peniten-
tiaire  Internationale,"  founded  in  1872,  which  has
met  in  London,  Rome,  and  Stockholm.]

PEIVATE  BILLS,  see  Acts  of  Parliament.

PBIVATEEB,  a  ship  belonging  to  private
individuals,  sailing  with  a  licence  (termed  a  Letter
of  Marque),  granted  by  a  government  in  time  of
war,  to  seize  and  plunder  the  ships  of  the  enemy.
The  practice,  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  Ed-
ward I.  against  the  Portuguese  in  1295,  was  gene-
ra! during  the  war  between  Spain  and  the  Nether-
lands in  the  17th  century,  and  during  the  last
French  war.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  the
great  sovereigns  of  Europe  by  treaty,  30  March,
1856.  The  United  States  government  refused  to
agree  unless  the  right  of  blockade  was  also  given  up.
The  British  government  declined  this,  asserting
"  that  the  system  of  commercial  blockade  was
essential  to  its  naval  supremacy."  On  17  April,
1861,  Jefferson  Davis,  president  of  the  southern
confederacy,  announced  his  intention  of  issuing
letters  of  marque,  and  on  the  19th  president  Lin-
coln proclaimed  that  all  southern  privateers  should
he  treated  as  pirates.  This  decree  was  not  carried
out:  see  United  States.  All  the  great  powers  for-
b  ide  privateering  during  the  American  civil  war
{which  see).  By  the  treaty  of  "Washington  priva-
teering was  prohibited.

PBIVILEGED  PLACES,  see  Asylums.

PEIVY  COUNCIL.  A  council  said  to  have
been  instituted  by  Alfred,  895.  The  number  of  the
council  was  about  twelve  when  it  discharged  the
functions  of  state,  now  confined  to  the  members  of
the  cabinet ;  but  it  had  become  of  unwieldy  amount
before  1679,  in  which  year  it  was  remodelled  upon
sir  William  Temple's  plan,  and  reduced  to  thirty
members:  Anthony  Ashley,  earl  of  Shaftesbury,
being  president.  The  number  is  now  unlimited.
To  attempt  the  life  of  a  privy  councillor  in  the
execution  of  his  office  was  made  capital,  occasioned
by  (juiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter
was  examining  him  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  9
Anne,  1711.
'  The  Proceedings  and  Ordinances  of  the  Privy  Council

of  England from 10 Richard  II.  to 33  Hen.  VIII. ,

edited  by  sir  H.  Nicolas,  7  vols,"  were  published  by

the  record  commissioners,  1834-7.
The  "Acts  of  the  Privy  Council,"  edited  by  Mr.  J.  R.

Dasent,  beginning  with  1542,  Vols.  I.— IV.,  issued  in

1890  2.
Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council.— In  lieu  of

the  Court  of  Delegates,  for  appeals  from  the  lord  chan-


cellors of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  in  cases  of
lunacy — from  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  Courts
of  England,  and  the  Vice-Admiralty  courts  abroad — •
from  the  Warden  of  the  Stannaries,  the  courts  of  the
Isle  of  Man,  and  other  islands,  and  the  Colonial  courts,
&c., — fixed  by  statute  3  &  4  Will.  IV..  c.  41,  1833  ;
amended  by  other  acts  in  1844,  1851,  1852.

Judges. — The  lord  president,  lord  chancellor,  master  of
the  rolls,  vice-chancellor,  lords  justices  in  appeal,  lord
chief  justice  of  the  queen's  bench  and  common  pleas,
lord  chief  baron,  judges  of  the  courts  of  bankruptcy,
probate,  and  admiralty,  and  others  appointed  by  the
queen.  In  consequence  of  the  increase  of  business,
and  consequent  delay,  the  queen  was  empowered  to»
appoint  four  new  judicial  members  of  the  committee,
by  34  &  35  Vict.  c.  91  (21  Aug.  1871).  The  attorney-
general,  sir  R.  Collier,  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Common
Pleas,  7  Nov.,  and  a  member  of  the  judicial  committee
22  Nov.  1871.

These  proceedings  were  considered  contrary  to  the  spirit
of  the  act  by  several  judges  and  the  legal  profession
generally.  A  vote  of  censure  on  the  Gladstone  ministry
was  negatived  in  the  house  of  lords  (89-87),  15  Feb.  ;
in  the  commons  (268-241),  19  Feb.  1872.

Other  changes  were  made  by  an  act  passed  in  1876.

PEIVY  SEAL,  THE  Lord,  the  fifth  great
officer  of  state,  has  the  custody  of  the  privy  seal,
which  he  must  not  put  to  any  grant,  without  good
warrant  under  the  king's  signet.  This  seal  is  used
by  the  king  to  all  charters,  grants,  and  pardons,
signed  by  him  before  they  come  to  the  great  seal.
Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  held  this  office
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  previously  to  1523^
when  Cuthbert  Tunstall,  bishop  of  London,  was-
appointed.  The  privy  seal  has  been  on  some
occasions  in  commission. — Beatson.  See  under
Liverpool,  Canning,  Wellington,  and  succeeding-
Administrations.  Present  lord,  George  Henry
Cadogan  earl  Cadogan  appointed  26  July,  1886.

PRIZE-FIGHTING,  see  Boxing.

PEIZE  MONEY,  arising  from  captures  made-
from  the  enemy,  was  decreed  by  government  to  be-
divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  and  distributed  by
order  of  ranks,  17  April,  1793.  The  distribution  of
army  prize-money  is  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in
1832.  Naval  prize-money  is  nowregulated  by  royal
proclamation;  the  last,  19  May,  1866.

PEOBABILITY,  Theory  of  (termed  by

Butler,  "the  guide  of  life"  ;  by  Laplace,  "good
sense  reduced  to  calculation"),  was  originated  by
Pascal,  and  taken  up  by  Fermat,  in  their  corre-
spondence in  1654.

Its  object  is  "the  determination  of  the  number  of  ways
in  which  an  event  may  happen  or  fail,  in  order  that
we  may  judge  whether  the  chances  of  its  happening  or
failing  are  greater."—  Jevons.
It  has  been  treated  upon  by  the  most  eminent  mathema-
ticians, viz. ,  the  Bernouillis,  De  Moivre,  D'Alembert,
Enter,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  and  Gjuetelet.
Isaac  Todhunter's  copious  "History  of  Probability,"'
published  1S65.

PEOBATE  COUET,  established  in  Aug.  1857
by  20  &21  Vict.  c.  77,  which  abolished  all  powers-
exercised  by  the  ecclesiastical  courts  in  the  granting
of  probates  of  wills,  &c. ;  see  Prerogative  Court.
The  first  judge  appointed,  5  Jan.  1858,  was  sir
Cresswell  Cresswell,  who  took  his  seat  on  12  Jan..
On  his  death,  sir  James  P.  "Wilde  (aft.  lord  Pen-
zance) was  appointed  judge,  28  Aug.  1863  ;  see  Su-
preme Court.  The  president  of  the  probate,  divorce,,
and  admiralty  division,  sir  James  Hannen  (1872),
succeeded  by  sir  Charles  P.  Butt,  Jan.  1891  (died
2;  May,  1892) ;  sir  Francis  Henry  Jeune;  30  May,
1892.  By  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873,  tnc  probate,,
divorce,  and  admiralty  courts  were  constituted  the
5th  division  of  the  Supreme  Court.  A  probate  and
matrimonial  division  of  the  high  court  of  justice  of


PEOCEDUEE  EULES.


785


PROTECTIONISTS.


Ireland  was  established  by  Judicature  act,  1877;
present  judge,  Robert  Richard  Warren  (1889).  Pro-
bate is  the  exhibiting  and  proving  a  will  before  the
proper  authority.  The  probate  registry  is  now  at
Somerset  House  (1889).
Probate  duties  transferred  to  relieve  local  taxation  by

Local  Government  Act,  1888— amount  received  1887-8,

4,596,620?.

PEOCEDUEE  EULES,  see  under  Parlia-
ment 1882  and  1888,  189O.

PEOCESSIONS  ACT,  13  Vict.  c.  2,  passed
12  March,  1S50,  prohibited  party  processions,  with
banners,  &c.  It  was  repealed  in  1872.  Processions
of  workmen  and  others,  for  demonstrations  in  Hyde
Park,  prohibited  in  the  great  thoroughfares  of
London,  by  the  police,  31  May,  1S90.

PEOCLAMATIONS,  Eoyal,  "  have  only
a  binding  force  when  grounded  upon  and  to  enforce
the  laws  of  the  realm." — Coke.  Henry  VIII.,  in
1539,  declared  that  they  were  as  valid  as  acts  of
parliament. This  was  annulled,  1547.

The  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  has  power  by  procla-
mation to  place  districts  under  the  provisions  of  the
Criminal  Law  Procedure  Acts,  1881  and  1887,  which
districts  are  then  said  to  be  proclaimed.

PEOCONSUL,  a  Roman  consul,  whose  tenure
of  office  was  extended  beyond  his  legal  term.  Q.
Publilius  was  the  first  proconsul  appointed  during
the  war  with  Parthenope,  327  ji.e.  The  name  was
afterwards  given  to  governors  of  provinces.

PEOCTOE  (from  procurator),  an  office  in
ecclesiastical  courts,  corresponding  to,  that  of  an
attorney  or  solicitor  in  courts  of  common  law.  It
was  abolished  by  the  Judicature  act,  1873.  The
persons  chosen  to  represent  the  clergy  in  convoca-
tion are  termed  proctors.  The  university  proctors
enforce  discipline.

PEOFILES.  The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,
was  that  of  Antigonus,  who,  having  but  one  eye,  his
likeness  was  so  taken,  330  B.C. — Ashe.  "  Until  the
end  of  the  3rd  century,  I  have  not  seen  a  Roman
emperor  with  a  full  face ;  they  were  always  painted
or  appeared  in  profile,  which  gives  us  the  View  of  a
head  in  a  very  majestic  manner." — Addison.

PEOGEESISTAS,  a  political  party  in  Spain,
headed  by  Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,  and  latterly
by  general  Prim.  Since  1865  they  adopted  a  policy
of  inaction  in  public  affairs;  by  uniting  with  the
unionists  and  republicans  in  Sept.  1868,  the  govern-
ment were  overthrown,  see  Spain.
A  pai-ty  in  Servia  and  also  in  Portugal  are  termed  Pro-
gressists, and  in  England  a  radical  party  is  termed
Progressives,  1888  et  seq.

"PEOGEESS AND POVEETY," see

Zand  Nationalization.

PEOGEESSIONIST  THEOEY  supposes
that  the  existing  species  of  animals  and  plants  were
not  originally  created,  but  were  gradually  developed
from  one  simple  form  ;  see  Species.

■  PEOM1SSOEY  NOTES  were  regulated  and
allowed  to  be  made  assignable  in  1705.  First  taxed
by  a  stamp  in  1782  ;  the  tax  was  increased  in  1804,
and  again  in  1808,  and  subsequently;  see  Pills  oj
Exchange.

"  PEO  NIHILO,"  a  pamphlet,  said  to  be  by
count  Henry  Arnim,  attacking  count  Bismarck ;
published  Nov.  1875.  He  was  prosecuted  for  it  in
1876 ;  see  Prussia.

PEONUNCIAMENTO,  a  revolution  (in
Spain  or  South America)  effected  by a military


leader;  in  France,  termed  a  coup  d'etat.  See
France  and  Spain.

PEOPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio

DE  (congregation  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith  of
the  Romish  church),  was  constituted  at  Rome  by
Gregory  XV.  in  1622  ;  the  college  in  1627.

PROPAGATION  of  the  Gospel  Society

received  its  charter,  16  June,  1701.  Its  sphere  is
generally  limited  to  the  British  colonies.  General
income  in  1867,  114,1546/.;  in  1879,  145,240/.;  in
1884,  109,572/. ;  in  1891,  116,520/.

PEOPEETY.  The  assessments  on  real
property,  under  the  property  tax  of  1815,  were
51,898,423/. ;  of  which  Middlesex  was  5,595,537/. ;
Lancashire,  3,087,774/. ;  and  Yorkshire,  4,700,000/. ;
Wales,  2,153,801/.  Estimated  wealth  of  the  country
(1878),  8,500,000,000/.  See  Income  Tax,  Capital.

PEOPHESYING.  About  1570  the  puritanical
part  of  the  clergy,  particularly  at  Northampton,
held  meetings  (termed  prophesyings)  for  prayer  and
exposition  of  the  scriptures.  These  were  forbidden
by  queen  Elizabeth,  7  May,  1577,  and  immediately
ceased.

The  Prophecy  Investigation  society,  formed  about  1840,
held  a  special  meeting  at  the  Mansion-house,  London,
30  April,  1891.

PEOPHETS,  see  under  Jews.

PEOPOETIONAL  EEPEE-
S  E  N  T  A  T  I O  N.  The  scheme  propounded  by
Mr.  Thomas  Hare  in  1857,  in  a  pamphlet  on  "  Rep-
resentation," and  perfected  in  his  "Treatise  on  the
Election  of  Representatives,"  published  in  1859,
which  was  well  received  by  Mr.  J.  Stuart  Mill.
A  society  to  introduce  this  principle  was  formed  in
Feb.  1884.  It  included  sir  John  Lubbock  (presi-
dent), Mr.  Leonard  H.  Courtney,  and  many  other
M.P's.

It  proposed  that  "in  all  cases  where  au  elector  is
entitled  to  one  vote  only,  to  enable  the  elector  to
nominate  more  than  one*  candidate  to  whom,  under
certain  circumstances,  that  vote  might  be  transferred
in  the  manner  indicated  bj  the  elector."  Negatived  by
the  commons,  134—31,  3  March,  1885.

PEOEOGATION  op  Parliament. By  an

act  passed  12  Aug.  1867,  her  majesty  was  enabled
to  issue  a  proclamation  for  the  prorogation  of  par-
liament during  the  recess.

PEOSECUTOE.  By  the  Prosecution  of  Of-
fences Act,  42  &43  Vict.  c.  22  (3  July,  1879),  the
appointment  of  a  director  of  public  prosecutions
with  assistants  was  enacted,  somewhat  resembling
officers  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  It  came  into  ope-
ration 1  Jan.  1880.  John  Blossett  Maule,  appointed
director  of  public  prosecutions,  Dec.  1879;  succeeded
by  sir  Augustus  Stephenson,  1884.
A  committee  reported  the  plan  to  be  a  failure,  and

recommended  changes,  June  ;  act  amended,  1884.
A  public  prosecutor,  "iirocureur  du  roi,"  in  France,  is
mentioned  in  the  14th  century ;  replaced  by  "accusa-
teur  publique"  (elected),  1791 ;  by "  commissaire  na-
tional," 1793;  "procurer"  restored  by  Napoleon  I.

PEOTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PEO-
PEETY ACT  (for  part  of  Ireland),  passed  16
June,  1871 ;  another,  3  March,  1881. See  Ireland.

PEOTECTIONISTS,  that  section  of  the  con-
servative party  which  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn
laws,  and  which  separated  from  sir  Robert  Peel  in
1846.  The  name  was  derived  from  a  "  Society  for
the  Protection  of  Agriculture,"  of  which  the  duke
of  Richmond  was  chairman,  and  which  had  been
established  to  counteract  the  efforts  of  the  Anti-Corn
Law  League,  17  Feb.  1844. Lord  George  Bentinck

3  E


PROTECTORATES.


786


PROVISIONS.


was  the  head  of  the  party  from  1846  till  his  death,
21  Sept.  1848. The  Derby  administration  not  pro-
posing the  restoration  of  the  corn-laws,  the  above
society  was  dissolved,  7  Feb.  1853. — The  protection
of  native  manufactures  has  been  maintained  in  the
United  States  since  1868,  and  in  France,  Germany,
Italy,  and  other  countries. See  France,  March,
1887. See  United  States,  Oct.  1890.
The  revival  of  protection negatived  by  the  liouse  of
commons  without a division, 14  May, i386. The
national  association  for  the  preservation  of  agriculture
and  other-  industries  held  a  meeting  in  London,  S  Dec.
1887.
See  Fair  Trade  and  Free  Trade.

PROTECTORATES  in  England.  That
of  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  19  Oct.  12 16,  ended  by  his
death,  1218.  Of  Humphry,  duke  of  Gloucester,
began  31  Aug.  1422;  he  was  seized  11  Feb.  1447,
and  found  dead  a  few  days  after.  Of  Richard,  duke
of  Gloucester,  began  May,  1483,  and  ended  by  his
assuming  the  royal  dignity,  26  June  the  same  year.
Of  Somerset  began  28  Jan.  1547,  and  ended  by  his
resignation  in  1549.  Of  Oliver  Cromwell  began  16
Dec.  1653,  and  ended  by  his  death,  3  Sept.  1658.
Of  Richard  Cromwell  began  3  Sept.  1658,  and  ended
by  his  resignation,  25  May,  1659  ;  see  England.

PROTEIN,  from  the  Greek  (protcion,  princi-
pal) ;  a  chemical  term  introduced  by  Mulder  about
1844,  for  the  basis  of  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein.

PROTESTANT  REFORMATION  SO-
CIETY, established  1820 ;  it  employs  mission-
aries and  readers.

PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charles  V.
called  a  diet  at  Spires  in  1529,  to  request  aid  from
the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise
means  for  allaying  the  religious  disputes  which
then  raged  owing  to  Luther's  opposition  to  the
Roman  catholic  clergy.  Against  a  decree  of  this
diet,  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome,
six  Lutheran  princes,  with  the  deputies  of  thirteen
imperial  towns,  formally  and  solemnly  protested,  19
April,  1529.  Hence  the  term  protestants  was  given
to  the  followers  of  Luther ;  it  afterwards  included
Calvinists,  and  other  sects  separated  from  the  see  of
Rome.  The  six  protesting  princes  were :  John,
elector  of  Saxony ;  George,  margrave  of  Branden-
burg ;  Ernest  and  Francis,  tne  dukes  of  Lunenburg;
the  landgrave  of  Hesse ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt ;
these  were  joined  by  the  citizens  of  Strasburg,
Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Constance,  Heilbron,  and  seven
other  cities ;  see  Luther  anism,  Calvinism,  Hugue-
nots, Germany,  Church  of  England,  &c.
Protestants  persecuted  in  Scotland  and  Germany  .  1546
Edward  VI.  established  Protestantism  in  England  .  1548
Mary  re-establishes  Romanism,  and  persecutes  the

Protestants  :  above  300  put  to  deatli . . 1553-8
Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  bishop  of
Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  16  Oct. 1555  ;
and  Cranmer,  abp.  of  Canterbury . 21  March,  1556
[During  three  years  of  Mary's  reign,  277  persons  were
brought  to  the  stake  ;  besides  those  punished  by
imprisonment,  fines,  and  confiscations. Among
those  who  suffered  by  fire  were 5  bishops,  21
clergymen,  8  lay  gentlemen,  84  tradesmen,  100
husbandmen,  servants,  and  labourers,  55  women,
and  4  children. The  principal  agents  of  the  queen '
were  the  bishops  Gardiner  and  Bonner.]
Elizabeth  restores  Protestantism  . . . .  1558

Protestant  settlements  formed  in  Ulster,  N.  Ireland

1608-11
The  Protestant  union  of  princes  in  Germany,  4  May,

1608;  met  last May,  1621

Thirty  years'  war  between  Romanists  and  Protestants

in  Germany 1618-48

Protestants  persecuted  at  Thorn,  in  Poland . . 1724
Protestant  Association  (see  Gordon's  "  No-Popery"
Mob) ■, 1780


A  society  for  planting  communities  of  the  poorer
Protestants  on  tracts  of  land,  particularly  in  the
northern  counties  of  Ireland,  established  in  Dub-
lin in Dec.  1829

(London)  Protestant  Society,  established  1827  ;  Pro-
testant Association,  1835  ;  Protestant  Alliance .  1849

Protestant  Conservative  Society  established  9  Dee.  1831

Protestant  Alliance  formed  at  Armagh . 7  Nov. 1845

Pan-protestant  conference  held  at  Worms  (about
1000  delegates) 31  MaJ%  l869

Meeting  of  a  general  synod  of  the  Reformed  Church
of  France  (M.  Guizot  present),  to  propose  return
to  early  doctrine  and  discipline  held  at  Paris,
7  June  ;  the  "liberal  party"  attack  the  doctrines
of  the  authority  of  the  Bible,  the  divinity  and
resurrection  of  Christ,  &c.  ;  an  orthodox  confes-
sion is  carried  amid  strong  opposition  (61-45)

20  June,  1872

Protestant  churchmen's  alliance  formed,  see  Church
of  England 25  Feb.  1S90

Death  of  M.  Edmond  de  Pressense,  eminent  free
church  pastor,  at  Paris,  aged  67 . 8  April,  1891

National  Protestant  congress  meets  at  Brighton

13  Oct. ,,

PROTOPLASM,  the  material  of  the  minute
ultimate  particles  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  tis-
sues, formerly  termed  sarcode  ;  by  Von  Mohl,  proto-
plasm (1884),  "the  physical  basis  of  life,"  by  Huxley
(1868).  The  protamcoba,  the  lowest  form  of  life,  i*
a  structureless  mass  of  protoplasm ;  the  amoeba,  a
similar  mass,  contains  a  nucleus.  Protoplasm  is
composed  of  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia.

PROTYLE,  see  Elements.

PROVENCE  (the  Roman  Provincia),  S.  E.
France,  was  made  a  kingdom  by  the  emperor  Lo-
thaire  for  his  son  Charles.  It  afterwards  became
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries  as  a  feudal  fief,  and
was  re-united  to  the  German  empire  in  1032  by
Conrad  II.  On  the  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens  it
was  acquired  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  married  the
heiress  of  the  count  in  1245,  and  became  king  of
Naples,  in  1268  ;  and  was  held  by  his  successors
till  its  annexation  to  France  by  Charles  VIII.  in
1487.

PROVERBS.  The  book  of  Proverbs  by  Solo-
mon is  dated  about  1000  B.C.  The  latter  part  was
collected  by  order  of  Hezekiah,  about  700  P...C.
Ray's  collection  of  English  proverbs  appeared  in
1672,  and  Bonn's  general  collection  in  1857.  Martin
F.  Tupper's  "Proverbial  Philosophy"  first  appeared
in  1839.  Alfred  Henderson's  "Latin  Proverbs,"
1869.  A  society  for  the  Revision  of  Proverbs
existed  in  1886.

PROVIDENCE,  capital  of  Rhode  Island,  U.S.
{which  see),  1636. Population,  1890,  132,146.

PROVIDENT  KNOWLEDGE  SOCIETY

established  in  1872,  to  forward  the  post-office  finan-
cial schemes ;  by  establishing  penny  banks,  sending
out  lecturers,  and  publishing  papers  for  the  promo-
tion of  thrift  among  the  lower  classes.  It  held  its
first  annual  meeting,  9  May,  1873,  the  earl  of  Derby
in  the  chair.

PROVISIONS  OF  OXFORD,  see  Oxford.

PROVISIONS— Remarkable State-
ments CONCERNING THEM. The  high  value
of  money  at  the  time  must  be  borne  in  mind.
Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  act  passed  11  Aug. 1875  (see

Adulteration).
Wheat  for  food  for  100  men  for  one  day  worth  only  one
shilling,  and  a  sheep  fourpenee,  Henry  I.  about  1130.
The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence  per  quart  for  red,
and  eightpenee  for  white,  that  the  sellers  might  be
enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John,  1200. — Burton's  Annals.
When  wheat  was  at  6s.  per  quarter,  the  farthing  loaf  was
to  be  equal  in  weight  to  twenty-four  ounces  (made  of
the  whole  grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white.  When
wheat  was  is.  6d.  per  quarter,  the  farthing  white  loaf


PROVISOES.


787


PEUSSIA.


was  to  weigh  sixty-four  ounces,  and  the  whole  grain
(the  same  as  standard  now)  ninety-six,  by  the  first
assize,  1202.- — Mat.  Paris.

A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280.—  Dufresnoy.

Wheat  is.  per  quarter,  14  Edw.  I.,  1286.— Stow.

The  price  of  provisions  fixed  by  the  common  council  of
London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three  half-pence  ;  a
partridge,  or  two  woodcocks,  three  half-pence  ;  a  fat
lamb,  sixpence  from  Christmas  to  Shrovetide,  the  rest
of  the  year  fourpence,  2q  Edw.  I.,  1299.— Stow.

Price  of  provisions  fixed  by  parliament:  at  the  rate  of
2I.  8s.  of  our  money  for  a  fat  ox,  if  fed  with  corn,  3Z.  12s. ;
a  shorn  sheep,  5s.  ;  two  dozen  of  eggs,  3d  ;  other
articles  nearly  the  same  as  fixed  by  the  common  council
above  recited,  7  Edw.  II.,  1313.— ito/.  Pari.

Wine  the  best  sold  for  20s.  per  tun,  10  Rich.  II.,  1387.

Wheat  being  at  is.  id  the  bushel  m  1390,  this  was  deemed
so  high  a  price  that  it  is  called  a  dearth  of  com  by  the
historians  of  that  era.

Beef  and  pork  settled  at  a  halfpenny  the  pound,  and  veal
three  farthings,  by  act  of  parliament,  24  Hen.  VIII.,
1533.  — A  nderso  n.

Document  from  a  "Book  of  the  Joint  Diet,  Dinner  and
Supper,  and  the  charge  thereof,  for  Cranmcr,  Latimer,  and
Ridley,"  kept  by  the  bailiffs  of  Oxford,  while  they  were
in  their  custody : —

I  Oct.  1554. DINNER.

Bread  and  Ale . . . .£002
Oysters -  ...001

Butter 002

Eggs ...  ...002

Lyng ....  .008

A  piece  of  fresh  salmon - . . o

Wine o

Cheese  and  pears . . . . o


o  10
° 3


The  three  dinners . 026

Milk  sold,  three  pints  ale-measure  for  one  halfpenny,  2

Eliz.  1560. Stow's  Chronicle.
Liebig's  discovery  of  his  "Extractum  Carnis,"  extract  of

meat,  announced  1847.
Since  the  autumn  of  1865,  meat,  milk,  and  butter  greatly

increased  in  price  owing  to  the  cattle-plague,  &c.
The  "Food  Committee"  of  Society  of  Arts  first  met  21

Dec.  1866.
Meat  very  dear  in  England,  1868-73. Introduction  of

Australian  preserved  meat  by  Mr.  John  McCall  in  1865  ;

imported  in  1866,  91  cwt.  ;  in  1871,  237,160  cwt. Meat

imported  herein  1863,  3283 cwt. ;  in  1877,  599,181  cwt.
Carcases  frozen  by  Harrison's  method ; cargo  sent  to

England  from  Melbourne,  Australia,  23  July  ;  arrived,

18  Oct.  ;  proved  a  failure,  2  Nov.  1873.
Good  preserved  American  meat  sold  in  London,  27  Dec.

1875. Great  influx  of  meat  preserved  by  cold,  1877.
Bell  &  Coleman's  patent  refrigerators  reported  successful

in  preserving  meat,  (fee,  Aug.  Sept.  1878.
Meat  to the amount  of  about 2,500,000?. imported

annually,  1885.
Fresh  meat  brought  from  Australia,  Feb.  1880.
5,000  frozen  sheep  arrived  from  New  Zealand,  2%  May,

1882. •
Mr.  Coleman  explained  his  process  at  the  Royal  Institu-
tion,  London,  and  showed  that  by  these  machines

atmospheric  air  could  be  cooled  down  to  80° below

zero  Fahrenheit,  whereby  the  vitality  of  microphytes

was  completely  destroyed,  29  May,  1885.
Refrigerator  railway  car  conveyed  fresh  herrings  from

Wick  to  London,  15  Aug.  1883.
io,oooZ.  worth  of  fresh  meat  imported  from  Libau,  Russia,

during  July,  1883.
The  Elderslic  with  25,000  frozen  sheep  from  New  Zealand,

arrives  in  London,  Dec.  1884.
Refrigerating  barges  for  the  distribution  of  imported

frozen  provisions,  and  constructed  by  the  Pulsometer

Engineering  company,  announced  Jan.  1890.
A  new  system  of  refrigeration  by  cold  air,  published  by

the British and Foreign Refrigerating company,

London. The  system  is  mechanical  and  single,  Dec.

1890.  •
For  the  price  of  Bread  since  1735,  see  Bread.
See  Milk,  Cattle.

PROVISOES,  Statutes  of,  beginning  25

Edward  III.,  1 351-2,  prohibited  the  pope  from  ap-
pointing aliens  and  others  to  benefices  before  they
were  vacant


PEOVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in

Italy,  formed  to  aid  in  acquiring  Rome  and  Venice,
elected  Garibaldi  as  their  chief,  10  March,  1862.
They  were  tolerated  by  Eicasoli,  and  warned  to  be
moderate  by  Kattazzi.

PEOVOST,  the  chief  municipal  magistrate  of
a  city  or  burgh  in  Scotland,  corresponding  to  the
English  mayor.  The  provosts  of  Edinburgh,
Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Perth,  and  in  1892  Dundee,  are
styled  "  lord  provosts."

PEOXIES.  Voting  by  proxy,  an  ancient  privi-
lege of  the  house  of  peers,  was  very  frequently
abused.  _  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  when  the  duke
of  Buckingham  sometimes  brought  20  proxies  in  his
pocket,  it  was  ordered  that  no  peer  should  bring
more  than  two  proxies.  From  1830  to  1867,  both
inclusive,  proxies  were  only  called  73  times.  In
conformity  with  the  recommendation  of  a  committee,
a  new  "  standing  order"  was  adopted,  31  Marc-]],
1868,  by  which  it  was  ordered  "That  the  practice  of
calling  for  proxies  on  a  division  shall  he  discon-
tinued."

PEUD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from

prudens  homo,&  prudent  man),  trade  tribunals  in
France,  composed  of  masters  and  workmen,  were
constituted  to  arbitrate  on  trade  disputes  in  1806.
Similar  bodies  with  this  name  existed  as  far  back  as
1452  at  Marseilles,  and  at  Lyons  in  1464.

PEUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  pos-
sessed by  the  Venedi.  They  were  conquered  by  the
Borussi,  who  inhabited  the  Bipha:au  mountains ;
and  from  these  the  country  was  called  Borussia.
The  Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  fol-
lowers of  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  latterly  with
the  Poles.  The  constitution,  established  31  Jan.
1850,  was  modified  30  April,  1851 ;  21  May,  5  June,
1852  ;  7  and  24  May,  1853;  10  June,  1854;  30  May,
1855  >  and  r5  May,  1857.  Population,  withLauen-
bu'rg  (annexed  14  Aug.  1865),  19,304,843;  with
Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort,
Dec.  1867,  24,039,543 ;  1875,  25>742>204 !  tSSo?
27,279,111;  1885,^46,855,704;  1890,  29,959,388.
1891-2,  budget  estimates,  revenue,  79,580,650/. ;
expenditure,  79,580,650/.  President  of  the  ministr>jt
&c,  prince  Bismarck,  Sept.  1862.  See  bclotc,  1890,
1892.

St.  Adalbert  arrives  in  Prussia  to  preach  Chris-
tianity, and  is  slain about 997

Boleslas  of  Poland  revenges  his  death  by  dreadful

ravages 1018

The Prussians resist the Poles, and renounce

Christianity about  1061

Berlin  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Netherlands,  in

the  reign  of  Albert  the  Bear 1163

The  Teutonic  knights  returning  from  the  holy  wars,
undertake  the  conquest  and  conversion  of  Prus-
sia 1225

Thorn  founded  by  them 1231

Prussia  subjugated  by  the  Teutonic  knights  .  .  1283;
Konigsberg,  lately  built,  made  the  capital  .  .  1286
Largely  re-peopled  by  German colonists i2-i3th

century.
Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg  (the  founder  of  the
reigning  family)  obtains  by  purchase  from  Sigis-
mund,  emperor  of  Germany,  the  margraviate  of

Brandenburg 141 5

Casimir  IV.  of  Poland  assists  the  natives  against

the  oppression  of  the  Teutonic  knights . . 1446
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand  master  of  the  Teutoni  c
order,  seizes  its  territories,  renounces  the  Roman
catholic  religion,  embraces  Lutheranism,  and  is
acknowledged  duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held  as

a  fief  of  Poland 1525

Successful  rebellion  against  the  knights  consum-
mated by  the  treaty  of  Thorn ....  1466
University  of  Konigsberg  founded  by  duke  Albert,  1544,
John  Sigismond  created  elector  of  Brandenburg  and

duke  of  Prussia i6o8>

3  e  2


PRUSSIA.


PRUSSIA.


The  principality  of  Halberstadt  and  the  bishopric
of  Mindeu  transferred  to  the  house  of  Branden-
burg 1648

Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia  as  an  inde-
pendent  state,  under  Frederick "William, sur-

naraed  the  Great  Elector 1657

Order  of  Concord  instituted  by  Christian  Ernest,
elector  of  Brandenburg  and  duke  of  Prussia,  to
commemorate  the  part  he  had  taken  in  restoring

X>eace  to  Europe 1660

Frederick  III.  in  an  assembly  of  the  states,  puts  a
crown  upon  his  own  head  and  upon  the  head  of
his  consort ;  is  proclaimed  king  of  Prussia  by  the
name  of  Frederick  I.,  and  institutes  the  Order  of

the  Black  Eagle 18  Jan.  1701

Gueldres  taken  from  the  Dutch ....  1702
Frederick  I.  seizes  Neufchatel  or  Ncunburg,  and

purchases  Tecklenburg 1707

The  principality  of  Meurs  added  to  Prussia . .  1712
Frederick  II.  the  Great,  king,  who  made  the  Prus-
sian monarchy  rank  among  the  first  powers  of

Europe 174°

Breslau  ceded  to  Prussia 1741

Silesia,  Glatz,  &c,  ceded 1742

' 'Seven years'  war"  (see Battles) . . . 1756-63
Frederick  II.  victor  at  Prague,  6  May  ;  defeated  at

Kolin,  18  June  ;  victor  at  Rosbach . 5 Nov.  1757
Gen. Lacy,  with  an  Austrian  and  Russian  army,
marches  to  Berlin  ;  the  city  is  laid  under  contri-
bution, &c.  ;  magazines  destroyed . . Oct.  1760
Peace  of  Hubertsburg  (ends  "seven  years' war");

Silesia  gained  by  Prussia  .  .  .  15  Feb.  1763
Prussia  shares  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland .  .  1772
Frederick  the  Great  dies  ...  17  Aug.  1786
Frederick  William  II.  invades  France  .  .  .  .  1792
Joins  the  coalition  against  France  .  .  .  .  1793
The  Prussians  seize  Hanover  .  .  1801  and  1806
Prussia  joins  the  allies  of  England  against  France,

6  Oct. „
Fatal  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt  . . 14  Oct. „

[Nearly  all  the  monarchy  subdued.]
Berlin  decree  promulgated ... 20  Nov. ,,
Peace  of  Tilsit  (which  sec) .... 9  July,  1807
Formation  of  the  Tugendband  (which  see),  a  patriotic
society  (promoted  by  Von  Stein)  ....,,

Convention  of  Berlin 5  Nov.  1808

Schaunliorst  secretly  restores  the  army  by  the  sys-
tem of  reserves ;  forming  a  nation  of  soldiers 1809-13
The  people  rise  to  expel  the  French  from  Germany
at  the  king's  appeal,  and  form  the  "landwehr"  or

militia 17  March,  1813

Treaty  of  Paris 11  April,  1814

The  king  visits  England  .... 6  June, „
Ministry  of  education  established . . . .  1817
Congress  of  Carlsbad . '  . . . 1  Aug.  1819
Bliicher  dies  in  Silesia,  aged  77 . .  12  Sept. ,,

fFrom  this  time  Prussia  pursued  a  peaceful  and  un-
disturbed policy  until  1848.]
Government  disputes with  R. C. clergy begin,
through  ultramontanism  of  the  Radziwill  family

since  1830 1840

Serious  attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the  king,  by  an
assassin  named  Tesch,  who  fired  two  shots  at  him

26  July,  1S44
Insurrection  in  Berlin . . . .18  March,  1848
Berlin  declared  in  a  state  of  siege . . 12  Nov. ,,
The  constituent  assembly  meets  in  Brandenburg

castle 29  Nov. „

This  assembly  dissolved  ;  the  king  issues  a  new

constitution 5  Dec. „

The  German  National  Assembly  elect  the  king  of
Prussia  "hereditary  emperor  of  the  Germans"

28  March,  1849
The  king  declines  the  imperial  crown . 29  April, „
The  kingdom  put  under  martial  law  . .  10  May, ,',
The  Prussians  enter  Carlsruhe . . 23  June, ,,
Armistice  between  Prussia  and  Denmark  .  10  July' ,',
Bavaria  declared  for  an  imperial  constitution  with
the  king  of  Prussia  at  its  head . . 8  Sept.
Treaty  between  Prussia  and  Austria . 30  Sept. "
Austria  protests  against  the  alliance  of  Prussia  with
the  minor  states  of  Germany  . . . 12  Nov.
Prince  Charles  Anthony  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,

minister,  resigns 6  Dec. „

New  constitution,  31  Jan.  ;  the  king  takes  the  oath

required  by  it 6  Feb.  1850

Hanover  withdraws  from the Prussian alliance,

25  Feb. ,,


Treaty  signed  at  Munich  between  Austria,  Bavaria,
Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg  to  maintain  the  German
union 27  Feb.  1850

■Wurtemberg  denounces  the  insidious  ambition  of
the  king  of  Prussia,  and  announces  a  league  be-
tween AVurtemberg,  Bavaria,  aud  Saxony,  under
the  sanction  of  Austria  . . .  15  March, ,,

Attempt  to  assassinate  the  king . . 22  May, „

Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws  from  the  Prussian
league 30  June, ,,

Treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and  Denmark,

2  July, ,,

A  congress  of  deputies  from  the  states  included  in
the  Prussian  Zollverein  opened  at  Cassel

12  July, ,,

Prussia  refuses  to  join  the  restricted  diet  of  Frank-
fort 25  Aug. ,„

The  Prussian  government  addresses  a  despatch
to  the  cabinet  of  Vienna,  declaring  its  resolve
to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel,

21  Sept. ,,

Count  Brandenburg,  prime  minister,  dies,  6  Nov. ,t

Decree,  calling  out  the  whole  Prussian  army,
223,000  infantry,  38,000  cavalry,  and  29,000  artil-
lery, with  10S0  field-pieces  ...  7  Nov. ,,

The  Prussian  troops  in  Hesse  occupy  the  military
road  in  that  electorate .... 9  Nov. ,,

The  Prussian  forces  withdraw  from  the  grand
duchy  of  Baden 14  Nov. ,,

General  Radowitz,  late  foreign  minister,  visits
queen  Victoria  at  Windsor . . .26  Nov. ,,

Convention  of  Olmutz  for  the  pacification  of  Ger-
many 29  Nov. ,.

The  Prussian  troops  commence  their  retreat  from
Hesse-Cassel 5  Dec. ,,

Prince  Schwartzenberg  visits  the  king .  28  Dec. „

The  king  celebrates  the  150th  anniversary  of  the
Prussian  monarchy 18  Jan.  185s

The  king  visits  the  czar  of  Russia . . 18  May, ,,

Statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  Rauch,  inaugu-
rated at  Berlin 27  May, ,

The  king  and  czar  leave  Warsaw  for  Olmutz  to  meet
the  emperor  of  Austria  . . . . 31  May, ,,

The  king  revives  the  council  of  state  as  it  existed
before  the  revolution  of  1848  . . .12  Jan.  1852;

A  Prussian  industrial  exhibition  opened  at  Berlin,

28  May, „

Prussia  repudiates  a  customs'  union  with  Austria,

7  June, ,,

But  agrees  to  a  commercial  treaty  . . 19  Feb.  1853.

Democratic  plot  at  Berlin  detected . . April, ,,

Death  of  Radowitz  . .... 25  Dec. ,,

Vacillation  of  the  government  upon  the  Eastern
question March  and  April,  1854

Agrees  to  a  protocol  for  preservation  of  the  integrity
of  Turkey,  which  is  signed  at  Vienna . 7  April, ,,

Declares  neutrality  in  the  war 6  Sept.  and  Oct. ,,

Excluded  from  the  conferences  at  Vienna . Feb.  1855,

Disputes  with  Switzerland  (see  Neufchatel)

Nov.  1856,  to  May,  1857

Alarming  illness  of  the  king,  the  prince  of  Prussia
appointed  regent 23  Oct. ,,

Chevalier  Bunsen  ennobled . . . Jan.  1858

Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  married  to  the
princess  royal  of  England . . . 25  Jan. „

Queen  Victoria  visits  them  at  Potsdam  . 10  Aug. ,,.

Prince  of  Prussia  permanent  regent  . . 7  Oct. ,r

Resignation  of  Manteuffel  ministry  ;  succeeded  by
that  of  prince  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  (liberal):
the  elections  end  in  favour  of  the  new  government

Nov. ,r

Prince  Frederick  William,  son  of  the  princess  royal
of  England,  born 27  Jan.  1859.

Italian  war — Prussia  declares  its  neutrality,  but
arms  to  protect  Germany . May  and  June, ,,.

The  regent  announces  that  "  the  Prussian  army
will  be  in  future  the  Prussian  nation  in  arms,"

12  Jan.  1S60

The  regent  and  several  German  sovereigns  meet
the  emperor  of  the  French  at  Baden  (see  Baden),

15-17  June, ,,

Baron  Bunsen  dies  (aged  70) ... 27  Nov. ,,

Disclosures  respecting  the  oppressive  system  of
Prussian  police  ;  Stieber,  the  director,  prosecuted
and  censured,  but.  not  punished . . Nov. „

Death  of  Frederick  William  IV.  Accession  of  Wil-
liam I. 2  Jan 186s

Meeting  of  the  chambers  :  on  the  motion  for  the


PRUSSIA.


789


PRUSSIA.


address,  M.  von  Vincke  carries  an  amendment  in
favour  of  Italian  Unity  and  "a  firm  alliance  with
England " 6  Feb.

On  12  Sept.  i860,  capt.  Macdonald  was  committed
to  prison  at  Bonn,  for  resisting  the  railway  autho-
rities there  ;  the  English  residents  appealed  and
were  censured  ;  a  correspondence  ensued  between
the  Pi'ussian  government  and  the  British  foreign
secretary ;  and  strong  language  was  littered  in
the  house  of  commons,  26  April,  and  in  the  Prus-
sian chambers 6  May,

The  Macdonald  affair  settled  by  a  firm  yet  concilia-
tory despatch  from  the  Baron  von  Schleinitz,

May,

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  by  Becker,  a
JLeipsie  student,  14  July  ;  who  is  sentenced  to  20
years'  imprisonment .... 23  Sept.

The  king  meets  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Compiegne

6-8  Oct.

The  king  and  queen  crowned  at  Konigsberg;  he
declares  that  he  will  reign  by  the  "Grace  of
God" 18  Oct.

Bill  for  making  the  ministry  responsible,  passed

6  March,

The  chamber  of  representatives  oppose  the  govern-
ment in  regard  to  the  length  of  military  service,  6
March ;  and  resolve  on  discussing  the  items  of
the  budget ;  the  ministry  resigns  ;  the  king  will
not  accept  the  resignation,  but  dissolves  the
chambers - .  ... n  March,

The  ministry  (liberal)  resigns,  and  a  reactionary
cabinet  formed  under  Van  der  Heydt,  18  March-

12  April,

Elections  go  against  the  government ;  only  one
minister  elected May,

Parliament  opens ;  ministers  appeal  to  the  patriotism
of  the  members 19  May,

Severe  discussion  on  military  expenditure ;  the
chamber  reduces  the  vote  for  the  maintenance  of
the  army  from  200,000  to  135,000  men  n-16  Sept.

Van  der  Heydt  resigns ;  succeeded  as  premier
by  the  count  Bismarck  Schonhausen,  23  Sept.  ;
who  informs  the  chamber  that  the  budget  is
deferred  till  1863 ;  the  chamber  protests  against
this  as  unconstitutional . . .30  Sept.

The  chamber  of  peers  passes  the  budget  without
the  amendments  of  the  chamber  of  representa-
tives ;  which  (by  237  against  2)  resolves  that  the
act  is  contrary  to  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  con-
stitution 11  Oct.

The  king  closes  the  session  (65th)  saying,  "  The
budget  for  the  year  1862,  as  decreed  by  the  cham-
ber of  representatives,  having  been  rejected  by
the  chamber  of  peers  on  the  ground  of  in-
sufficiency, the  government  is  under  the  necessity
of  controlling  the  public  affairs  outside  the  con-
stitution" 13  Oct.

Agitation  in  favour  of  the  constitution  proceeding  ;
passive  resistance  adopted  ;  several  liberal  papers
suppressed Nov.

The  chambers  reassemble  ;  unconciliatory  address
from  the  king,  14  Jan.  ;  bold  reply  of  the  depu-
ties ;  adopted 23  Jan.

They  recommend  neutrality in the Polish war

28  Feb.

Violent  dissension  between  the  deputies  and  the
ministry May

The  chamber  of  deputies  address  the  king  on  their
relation  with  the  ministry,  and  the  state  of  the
country,  22  May  ;  the  king  replies,  that  his  minis-
ters possess  his  confidence,  and  adjourns  the
session 27  May,

The  king  resolves  to  govern  without  a  parliament  .

The  press  severely  restricted,  1  June  :  the  crown
prince  in  a  speech  disavows  participation  in  the
recent  acts  of  the  ministry,  5  June  ;  and  censures
them  in  a  letter  to  the  king,  6  July  ;  reconciled  to
the  king 8  Sept.

The liberal members feted in the provinces

18,  19  July,

The  chamber  of  deputies  dissolved,  2  Sept.  ;  a
liberal  majority  re-elected .... Oct.

A  motion  in  favour  of  maintaining  the  rights  of
the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  carried  2
Dec.  ;  but  the  chamber  obstinately  refused  its
assent  to  it  or  to  defray  the  expenses  of  war,  Dec.

Chambers  dissolved Jan.

[For  the  events  of  the  war,  sec  Denmark.]


1862


1863


Preliminaries  for  peace  with  Denmark . 1  Aug. 18C4

Peace  with  Denmark  signed  . . .30  Oct. ,,

The  opening  of  the  chambers,  14  Jan.  ;  revival  of
the  constitutional  agitation  for  control  over  the
army  budget 16  Jan. 1865

International  exhibition  at  Cologne  opened  by  the
crown  prince 2  June, „

The  deputies  having  rejected  the  budget,  the  bills
for  reorganizing  the  army  and  increasing  the  fleet,
and  meeting  the  expense  of  the  war  with  Denmark,
the  chamber  is  prorogued  ;  the  government  will
rule  without  it 17  June, ,,

The  king  at  Carlsbad  issues  a  despotic  decree  ap-
propriating and  disposing  of  the  revenue,  5  July, ,,

A  political  dinner  of  the  liberal  deputies  prohibited
at  Cologne,  and  forcibly  prevented  at  Oberlahn-
stein,  in  Nassau  .... 24  July, ,,

Convention  of  Gastein  (see  Gastein),  signed  14  Aug. ,,

Navigation  treaty  with  Great  Britain  concluded,

16  Aug. ,,

The  king  takes  possession  of  Lauehburg,  purchased
from  Austria  with  his  own  money . 15  Sept. ,,

Bismarck  visits  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Biarritz,

Nov. ,,

The  chambers  opened  with  a  supercilious  speech
from  M.  Bismarck  . . . .15  Jan. 1866

The  opposing  chamber  prorogued .  22  Feb. ,,

Decree  asserting  Prussian  jurisdiction  overHolstein,

11  March, ,,

Prussian  circular  calling  on  German  states  to  decide
whether  they  will  support  Austria  or  Prussia
(they  profess  neutrality) . .  24  March, ,,

Prussia  prepares  for  war ... 27  March, ,,

Treaty  between  Prussia  and  Italy,  said  to  have  been
concluded 27  March, „

The  French  government  professes  neutrality,  April, ,,

Austria  demands  the  demobilisation  of  the  Prussian
army,  7  April ;  Bismarck  proposes  a  German
parliament 9  April, „

Great  meeting  at  Berlin  in  favour  of  peace,  15  April, ,,

Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails,

7  May, „

Recriminatory  correspondence  between  Mensdortf
(Austrian)  and  Bismarck,  calling  for  disarmament,

April,  May, „

Alliance  with  Italy May, „

The  Prussians  enter  Holstein  ; Austrians  retire,

7  Ju»c, »

Meeting  of  the  Federal  diet  at  Frankfort;  the
demobilisation  of  the  Prussian  army  proposed  by
Austria  ;  voted  for  by  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,
Hesse  -  Cassel,  Nassau,  and  others  ;  Prussia
declares  the  Germanic  confederation  to  be  dis-
solved 14  June, „

Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  appointed  to  command
the  Federal  army June, „

The  Prussians  declare  war  against  Hanover  and
Saxony 15  June, „

Justificatory  manifestoes  issued  by  Austria  and
Prussia 17  June, ,,

Prussia  declares  war  ;  royal  manifesto  to  the  people

18  June, ,,

The  Prussians  occupy  Hanover  and  Hesse-Cassel,
Saxony  and  Nassau .... 16-20  June, ,,

The  Austrian  northern  army  enters  Silesia,  18  June ;
joined  by  the  Saxons  about . . . 19  June, ,,

Nearly  all  the  northern  states  join  Prussia  about

23  June, „

Prince  Frederick  Charles  and  the  first  army,  and
the  army  of  the  Elbe  enter  Bohemia,  23  June ;
victorious  in  severe  engagements  at  Liebenan,
Tiiruau,  and  Podoll,  26  June  ;  Hiihnewasser,  27
Juue  ;  Miinchengratz,  28  June  ;  Gitschin,  29  June, ,,

The  crown  prince  and  the  second  army  (of  Silesia)
enter  Bohemia,  22  June  ;  repulsed  at  Trautenau,
27  June  ;  victorious  at  Soor  and  Trautenau,  28
June ;  Koniginhof  . . . .29  June, ,,

The  left  column  of  the  crown  prince's  army  defeat
the  Austrians  at  Nachod,  27  June  ;  Skalicz,  28
June :  Sehweinschadel . . . 29  Juno ,,

Fruitless  victory  of  the  Hanoverians  at  Langensalza,
27June;  they  capitulate  to  the  Prussians, 29  June, ,

Communications  opened  between  the  two  armies,

30  June, ,,

The  command  assumed  by  the  king  . . 1  .Inly, ,,

Battle  of  Koniggratz,  or  Sadowa  ;  total  defeat  of
the  Austrians  under  Benedek . . .3  July


PEUSSIA.


790


PEUSSIA.


Benedek superseded  by  tlie  archduke  Albreeht,

8  July,

Campaign  of  the  army  under  Vogel  von  Falken-
stein  against  the  army  of  the  confederation,
under  princes  Charles  of  Bavaria  and  Alexander
of  Hesse  ;  Prussian  victories  at  Wiesenthal  and
Dermbach,  4  July ;  Hammelburg  and  Kissingen,

10  July,

Advance  of  the  united  armies  under  the  king ;
cavalry  skirmish  at  Saar  ;  Austrians  retire,

10  July,

Prince  Frederick  Charles  enters  Briinn,  capital  of
Moravia 12  July,

Campaign  on  the  Maine:  Prussian  victories  at
Laufach,  13  July,  and  Aschatfenburg 14  July,

The  members  of  the  German  diet  retire  from  Frank-
fort to  Augsburg 13  July,

Austrians  defeated  at  Tobitschau  . . 15  July,

Frankfort  occupied  by  Falkenstein . .16  July,

Severe  fight  at  Blumenau  stopped  by  the  news  of  an
armistice 22  July,

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg,

26  July,

The  Prussians  occupy  Wiesbaden,  18  July  ;  vic-
torious at  Tauberbischofsheim,  Hochhausen,  Wer-
bacli,  24  July  ;  Neubrimn,  Helmstadt,  Gerscheim,
25  July  ;  "VViirzburg,  28  July  ;  armistice  granted,

30  July,

The  army  reviewed  by  the  king  fifteen  miles  from
Vienna,  31  July  ;  begin  their  return  home,

1  Aug.

Franconia  occupied  by  the  Prussian  army  of  reserve,
under  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
23  July-i  Aug.  ;  armistices  granted  1-3  Aug.

The  diet  at  Augsburg  recognised  the  dissolution  of
the  Germanic  confederation  ... 4  Aug.

Bohemia  and  Moravia  cleared  by  . .  18  Aug.

The  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Prague . 23  Aug.

Meeting  of  special  committee  of  the  chamber  of  de-
puties ;  cost  of  the  war  stated,  88,000,000  dollars,

29  Aug.

Peace  with  Wiirtemburg  concluded,  13  Aug.  ;  with
Baden,  17  Aug.  ;  with  Bavaria,  22  Aug.  ;  with
Hesse-Darmstadt  (ceding  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-
Homburg,  <fec.) 3  Sept.

Formation  of  the  North  German  confederation  (see
Germany) Aug.

Indemnity  bill  for  the  ministry  passed .  8  Sept.

Entry  of  the  army  into  Berlin  ;  enthusiastic  reception,

20  Sept.

Decree  for  the  annexation  of  Hanover,  Electoral
Hesse,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort  . . 20  Sept.

Possession  taken  of  Hanover,  6  Oct.  ;  of  Hesse,

■  Nassau,  and  Frankfort  .... 8  Oct.
Treaty  of  peace  with  Saxony . . .  21  Oct.
Electoral  law  for  new  German  parliament  promul-
gated at  Berlin 23  Oct.

Prussian  chambers  reassemble . . .12  Nov.
Schleswig  and  Holstein  incorporated  with  Prussia

■  by  decree  ;  promulgated ... 24  Jan.

Chambers  closed 9  Feb.

North  German  parliament  meet  at  Berlin,  24  Feb.  ;

adopt  a  federal  constitution  ;  closed . 17  April,

Prussian  chambers  opened  by  the  king 29  April,

They  accept  the  North  German  constitution  (sacri-
ficing Prussian  civil  rights  to  German  unity),

8  May,

Luxembourg  question  settled  by  a  conference  at
London  (see  Luxembourg) . . .7-11  May,

The  king  visits  Paris  ;  leaves  it  . . 14  June,

The  Prussian  chambers  approve  North  German
constitution  ;  closed  by  the  king. . 24  June,

The  new  Prussian  parliament  opened  by  the  king,

15  Nov.

Treaty  with  the  United  States  respecting  naturalisa-
tion of  aliens  signed  at  Berlin . . .22  Feb.

The  parliament  closed .... 29  Feb.

Much  of  the  king  of  Hanover's  property  seques-
trated, on  account  of  his  maintaining  a  Hano-
verian legion,  &c March,

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  visits  Berlin  ;  left,  March,

North  German parliament opened  by  the  king,

23  March,

Count  Bismarck  defeated  in  the  North  German
parliament;  his  bill  withdrawn  . . 22  April,

Kb'ni.g  Willwlm,  a  noble  ironclad,  originally  con-
structed for  the  sultan  by  Mr.  E.  Reed,  the  chief


1867


constructor  of  the  British  admiralty,  bought  by
Prussia,  launched  at  Blackwall . .  25  April,

Customs'  parliament  at  Berlin .  27  April-23  May,

21  Hanoverians  convicted  of  incipient  treason
against  Prussia 20  May,

Count  von  Bismarck's  temporary  retirement  through
ill-health June,

North German parliament closed  by  the king,

20  June,

■Workmen's  congress  at  Berlin,  to  promote  centrali-
sation 26-29  Sept.

Prussian  chamber  opened  with  a  pacific  speech
from  the  king 4  Nov.

Opposition  in  the  chambers  ;  violent  speech  of  the
minister,  Leonhardt 1  Dec.

Bismarck,  recovered,  returns  to  Berlin . 8  Dec.

The  property  of  the  king  of  Hanover  sequestrated
for  his  opposition 15  Feb.

The  parliament  closed  .... 6  March,

The  Prussian  army  exercised  in  manoeuvring  at
Stettin,  Konigsberg,  &c.  in  presence  of  the  king,

Sept.

The  parliament  meet,  6  Oct.  ;  rejects  the  proposal
for  disarmament 21  Oct.

The  crown  prince  visits  Vienna . . .7  Oct.

Prince  Leopold,  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  con-
sents to  become  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Spain,

about  5  July,  1870

In  consequence  of  the  virulent  opposition  of  the
French  government  he,  with  the  king's  consent,
relinquishes  the  candidature . .12  July, ,,

The  French  government  requiring  guarantees  from
the  king  against  the  future,  the  king  repulses
and  declines  to  receive  the  French  minister,
Benedetti,  13  July ;  and  issues  a  circular  to  his
representatives  at  foreign  courts .  15  July, ,,

The emperor of  the French declares for war,

15  July, „

The  North  German  parliament  meet,  and  vote  to
support  Prussia 19  July, ,»

Proclamation  of  the  king,  granting  "amnesty  for
political  offences,"  and  "  accepting  the  battle  for
the  defence  of  the  fatherland,"  31  July  ;  and  to  the
army,  undertaking  the  command  of  the  whole
army 3  Aug. ,„

For  the  events  of  the  war  see  Franco-Prussian  War.

Order  of  the  "Iron  Cross"  (distributed  in  the  war
of  18 13)  revived  ;  given  to  the  crown  prince  for
his  victory  at  Wissembourg  on . . .4  Aug.

Prussian  bishops  protest  against  infallibility  of  the
pope end  of  Aug.

Great  rejoicing  at  Berlin,  <fec,  at  the  surrender  of
the  emperor  Napoleon ... 3  Sept.

Munich,  Stuttgardt,  and  other  southern  cities,  de-
mand union  with  North  Germany  . 6  Sept.

M.  Jacoby  arrested  at  Konigsberg  by  Von  Falcken-
stein  for  speaking  against  the  annexation  of  Alsace
and  Lorraine .... early  in  Sept.

Restriction  on  democratic  meetings  rescinded  by
gen.  Von  Falckenstein  .... 7  Oct.

Herr  Twesten,  the  liberal  opponent  of  government
in  the  chamber,  dies  . . . .14  Oct.

Jacoby  and  other  liberals  released  by  royal  decree
(Jacoby  died  7  March,  1877)  . about  26  Oct.

Election  of  new  parliament,  Nov.  ;  opened  with
speech  promising  internal  reforms,  14  Dec.  ;  aris-
tocratic address  from  the  peers  congratulating
the  king  as  nominated  emperor  (see  Germany),

21  Dec. ,,

The  king  proclaimed  emperor  of  Germany  at  Ver-
sailles 18  Jan.  1871

The  Prussian  parliament  closed  . . .17  Feb. ,,

The  emperor  arrives  at  Berlin . . .  17  March, ,,

The  new  imperial  diet  opened  at  Berlin 21  March, ,,

Bismarck  created  a  prince  ... 22  March, ,,

The  czar  arrives  at  Berlin . . . 8  June, ,,

Triumphal  entry  of  the  German  army  into  Berlin  ;
inauguration  of  the  statue  of  Frederick  William
III 16  June, „

The  bishop  of  Ermeland  excommunicates  Dr.  Woll-
ner  for  denying  the  pope's  infallibility,  5  July  ;
similar acts disapproved by  the  government,

July, „

The  imperial  prince  and  princess  arrive  in  London,

6  July, ,,

Convocation  of  the  evangelical  church  at  Berlin,

2  Aug. ,,.

Meeting  of  the  parliament . . . 27  Nov. ,,


PRUSSIA.


791


PRUSSIA.


Von  Miihler,  minister  of  public  instruction,  ultra-
conservative,  forced  to  resign  . . .17  Jan.  1872

Clerical  interference  with  schools  opposed  in  the
parliament 8-10  Feb. „

Meeting  of  German  princes  at  Berlin  on  the  em-
peror's birthday .... 22  March, „

The  new  "national  conservative  party"  formed,

about  May, ,,

Law  for  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  published 5  July, ,,

Memorial  to  Von  Stein,  the  statesman  (see  1807),
at  Nassau,  inaugurated . . . 9  July, ,,

Government  disputes  with  the  R.  C.  clergy  sup-
porting papal  infallibility ;  the  bishop  of  Ercne-
land's  salary  ordered  to  be  suspended,  from  1  Oct. „

The  government  defeated  in  the  house  of  peers  on
the  district  administrations  bill  (145 — 18)  (the  bill
would  deprive  the  peers  of  power  in  the  provinces
by  granting  representatives  to  the  peasants  in  the
local  assemblies) 31  Oct. ,,

The  parliamentary  session  closed,  1  Nov.  ;  re-
opened, government  firm ... 12  Nov. ,,

24  new  peers  created 2  Dec. „

The  principle  of  the  reform  bill  jiassed  by  the  peers
(114—87) 7  Dec. ,,

Bismarck  resigns  the  presidency  ;  continues  the
foreign  department ;  announced . . 18  Dec. ,,

Count  Roon  to  be  chairman  of  the  ministry Dec. ,,

Great  financial  prosperity ;  surplus  revenue  said  to
be  187,000,000  thalers  (3s.  each) . . . . ,,

Declaration  of  the  E.  C.  archbishops  of  Cologne
and  Posen  against  prox>osed  legislation  on  church
affairs Feb.  1873

Subjection  of  the  church  to  the  state  affirmed  by
the  legislature '. . . .  12  March, ,,

Laws  introduced  by  M.  Falk,  minister  of  public
worship,  establishing  aroyal  tribunal  of  ecclesias-
tical affairs,  in  opposition  to  the  authority  of  the
pope,  9  Jan. ;  passed  .  . . .11  May, „

The  emperor  recognises  the  "  old  Catholic  "  bishop,
Reinkens,  about Aug. „

Letter  from  the  pope  to  the  emperor  complaining  of
the  ecclesiastical  prosecutions,  and  asserting  his
authority  over  all  baptized  persons,  7  Aug.  ;  the
emperor  replies  justifying  them,  and  asserting
that  there  is  no  mediator  between  God  and  man
but  Jesus  Christ 3  Sept. ,,

Parliament  dissolved,  11  Oct.  ;  new  parliament
elected Nov. ,,

The  emperor  visits  Vienna . . . 17  Oct. ,,

Archbishop  Ledochowski  of  Posen  fined  for  threat-
ening to  excommunicate  a  professor  ;  and  arch-
bishop Melchers  fined  for  instituting  priests  with-
out government  permission . . . Oct. ,,

The  pope  (by  letter)  encourages  archbishop  Ledo-
chowski to  resist 3  Nov. ,,

Parliament  opened :  (votes  for  government,  432  ;
opposition,  121) 12  Nov. ,,

Government  defeated  in  attempt  to  restrict  the
press ; the  ultramontanes join  the opposition

3  Dec. „

A  new  oath  of  implicit  obedience  to  the  state  pro-
posed for  the  clergy  ;  the  civil  marriage  bill  passed

Dec. „

Several  bishops  fined  for  disobedience  to  the  law

Dec. „

Archbishop  Ledochowski  imprisoned,  3  Feb.  ;  de-
prived 15  April,  1874

Serious  illness of Bismarck, March  ;  recovering

June, „

New  ecclesiastical  laws,  restraining  authority  of
bishops,  with  punishment  for  disobedience,  pro-
mulgated May, „

Van  der  Ileydt,  statesman  (see  1862)  dies 14  June, ,,

Martin,  bishop  of  Paderborn  lesists  the  ecclesias-
tical laws to  July, ,,

Bismarck  wounded  by  Kullmann,  a  fanatical  cooper,
near  Kissingen 13  July, ,,

Catholic  associations  in  Berlin  closed . 21  July, ,,

Bishop  of  Paderborn,  summoned  to  resign,  refuses,
7  Sept. ;  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  sedition

21  Sept. „
Launch  of  the  iron-clad  Fried/rich  der  Grosse  at  Kiel,

in  the  presence  of  the  emperor .  20  Sept. ,,

Arrest  of  count  Harry  Arnim  and  confinement  in
Berlin  for  refusing  to  give  up  documents  sent  to
him  as  ambassador,  4  Oct.  ;  for  illness  released
on  bail,  28  Oct.  ;  again  arrested . . 12  Nov. „
Kullmann  sentenced  to  14  years'  imprisonment  30  Oct.  „


Government  defeated  in  parliament  on  a  bank-note
bill 16  Nov. 1874

Ultramontanes  attack  Bismarck  in  parliament  ;  he
replies 4  Dec. ,,

Bismarck's  proffered  resignation  not  accepted

17,  18  Dec. ,,

Arnim's  trial,  9  Dec.  ;  convicted  of  making  away
with  ecclesio-political  documents  ;  acquitted  of
other  charges ;  sentence,  3  months'  imprisonment

19  Dec. ,,

Catholic  bishops  and  priests  imprisoned  for  infrac-
tion of  ecclesiastical  laws . . . Jan.  1875

Deprivation  of  the  bishop  of  Paderborn  5  Jan. ,,

Parliament  opened 16  Jan. ,,

Civil  marriage  adopted  by  the  parliament 25  Jan. „

Encyclical  of  the  pope  to  the  bishops  encouraging
firmness,  protested  against  by  the  R.  C.  deputies
of  parliament 5  Feb. ,,

Exportation  of  horses  prohibited . . 4  March, ,,

Clerical  control  over  parish  funds  taken  away  ;  bill
for  depriving  the  R.  C.  clergy  of  state  aid  brought
in 16  March, ,,

Alarm  of  war  with  France  arises . . April, ,,

Prussian  bishops  at  Fulda  appeal  to  the  emperor
against  ecclesiastical  legislation,  2  April ;  rebuked
for  not  submitting  to  the  law  . . .  9  April, ,,

Visit  of  the  czar  to  Berlin ;  war  panic  in  Europe,
10 — 13  May  ;  diplomatic  intervention  of  Great
Britain  leads  to  assurances  of  peace  about  24  May, ,,

Bismarck  abolishes  the  semi-oflicial  press

about  26  May, ,,

King  and  queen  of  Sweden  arrive  at  Berlin 28  May, „

George  von  Vincke,  an  eminent  constitutional  states-
man, dies June, ,,

Count  Arnim's  new  trial,  15  June  ;  verdict,  confirm-
ing sentence 20  Oct. „

Partial  submission  of  the  bishops  :  announced

Aug. ,,

Launch  of  the  Wilhchn,  iron-clad . . 17  Sept. „

Fdrster,  prince-bishop  of  Breslau,  sentenced  to  de-
privation 6  Oct. ,.

The  emperor  warmly  received  by  the  king  of  Italy
at  Milan  (prince  Bismarck  too  ill  to  go) 18-23  Oct. ,,

Statue  of  Von  Stein  (see  1807  above)  inaugurated
by  the  crown  prince .... 26  Oct. ,,

German  parliament  opened  by  the  emperor ;  firm
and  pacific  speech  read . . . .  27  Oct. „

Letter  from  count  Arnim  rebutting  accusations  in
the  rimes  of 19  Nov- >>

He  is  to  be  prosecuted  for  treason  in  a  pamphlet
entitled  "  Pro  Nihilo,"  published  at  Zurich  Nov. ,,

Prussian  diet  opened 16  Jan.  1876

Asserted  deficiency  in  revenue  of  about  2,500,000?.

about  25  Jan. ,,

Archbishop  Ledochowski  released  from  prison  (pro-
ceeds to  Rome) 3  Feb. ,,

The  empress  visits  England  . .  3  May- June, ,,

Parliament  dissolved,  14  Oct.  ;  liberal  majority  in
new  parliament 27  Oct. ,,

The  emperor  celebrates  his  70th  military  anniversary,
1  Jan.  ;  eightieth  anniversary  birthday 22  Jan.  1S77

Chambers  opened 12  Jan. „

Berlin  Conference  on  Eastern  question  (emperor  of
Eussia,  prince  Gortsehakoff,  and  count  Andrassy).
See  Berlin 11,  12  May, „

Prince  Bismarck's  resignation  not  accepted  ;  he
retires  temporarily  for  his  health . . April, ,,

Count  Eulenburg's  policy  as  minister  of  interior  dis-
l>leases  prince  Bismarck  ;  the  count's  resignation
not  accepted  :  he  is  granted  six  months'  absence,

Sept „

Parliament  opened  ;  loan  for  military  purposes  pro-
posed 21  Oct. ,,

Resolutions  against  government  defeated  in  parlia-
ment through  promised  administrative  changes,

27  Oct.  „
Prince  Bismarck  resumes  his  active  duties  as  chief
of  ministry,  15  Feb.  :  in  the  German  parliament,
asserts  strict  neutrality  and  non-interference
with  Russia  in  the  Eastern  question  .  19  Feb.  1878
Ministerial  crisis  :  resignation  of  Camphausen,
finance  minister .... 6  March, ,,

Ministry  unsettled May, ,

Hudel  (called  Lehman),  a  socialist,  fires  at  the  cm

peror  and  misses,  at  Berlin . . . 11  May, ,,
The  emperor  wounded  by  shots  by  Dr.  Nobiling,  2

June  ;  gradually  recovered  . . June— Sept. ,,
Hbdel  executed  at  Berlin . . .  16  Aug


PEUSSIA.


792


PEUSSIA.


Statue  of  Frederick- William  III.  unveiled  by  the
emperor  at  Cologne  . . . .26  Sept.

Count  Arnim  publishes  "  Quid  faciamus  nos?"  Jan.

Marriage  of  princess  Louise  Margaret  of  Prussia  to
the  duke  of  Connaught . .  13  March,

The  emperor's  golden  wadding  kept . n  June,

New  Parliament  opened  by  the  emperor  (majority
for  Bismarck) 28  Oct.

Letter  from  the  pope  to  Melchers,  abp.  of  Cologne,
recommending  submission  of  names  of  priests  to
the  government,  dated . . . -24  Feb.

Ecclesiastical  laws  (Falk)  amendment  bill,  pro-
moted by  prince  Bismarck ;  much  discussed,
May  ;  passed  (maimed ;  206-202) . 28  June,

Parliament  opened 28  Oct.

Discussion  on  the  social  movement  against  the  Jews
through  jealousy ;  no  vote . . 20-22  Nov.

Anti-Semitic  league  very  active  ;  much  opposed  by
the  prince  imperial  and  others . . . Jan.

The  minister  of  the  interior,  count  Eulenburg,  re-
signs through  offence  of  prince  Bismarck,

about  19  Feb.

Prince  William,  grandson  of  the  emperor  and  of
queen  Victoria.,  married  to  princess  Augusta  Vic-
toria of  Schleswig-Holstein  . . 27  Feb.

Death  of  count  Arnim  at  Nice . . 19  May,

Dr.  Felix  Korum  nominated  bishop  of  Treves,  at
Rome  ;  approved  by  Bismarck .  14  Aug.  et  seq.

Revenue  surplus  announced . . .18  Jan.

Bismarck's  tobacco  bill  rejected  by  his  economic
council 21  March,

Liberals  rather  weakened  by  elections  about  29  Oct.

Prospect  of  reconciliation  with  the  Vatican ;  amend-
ments of  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of  May,  1873,
introduced 5  June,

Bill  passed  ;  diet  closed  ... 2  July,

Revival  of  the  Prussian  Council  of  State,  the  crown
prince  president,  royal  family  members 18  June,

Parliament  opened 15  Jan.

Death  of  prince  Frederick  Charles,  the  "Red
Prince  "  aged  57 . ... . 15  Jan.

Prince  Charles  Anthony  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
dies  aged  73 2  June,

General  Manteuffcl  dies  aged  76 . . 17  June,

Prof.  Graff  acquitted  of  perjury,  9  days  trial,  3  Oct.

Twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  king's  accession
celebrated 3  Jan.

Prince  Bismarck  puts  forth  his  plan  for  Germanizing
Posen  by  purchasing  Polish  estates  to  be  settled
by  Germans  ;  5,ooo,oooZ.  to  be  raised  for  the
purpose,  Feb.  ;  finally  passed . . 7  April,

Bill  for  greatly  amending  the  ecclesiastical  laws
(see May, 1873) passed by the upper house,

13  April,

Political  meetings  without  permission  prohibited
by  decree 14  May,

Convention  signed  between  Prussia  and  the  Vatican
about  1 1  Aug.

The  emperor's  90th  birthday  celebrated  at  Berlin,

22  March,

Prince  Bismarck  introduces  Church  and  State  Bill,
softening  Falck  laws .... March,

Death  of  emperor  William  I. ;  succeeded  by  his
son  Frederick  III 9  March,

Amnesty  for  certain  political  offences  proclaimed,

31  March,

Prince  Bismarck  opposes  the  project  of  a  marriage
between  prince  Alexander  of  Batteuberg  and
princess  Victoria  of  Prussia  ;  favoured  by  the
emperor  and  empress  ;  he  withdraws  his  resigna-
tion and  the  project  deferred . early  April,

Marriage  of  prince  Henry  of  Prussia  and  princess
Irene  of  Hesse,  grandchildren  of  queen  Victoria
of  England 24  May,

Parliamentary quinquennial bill promulgated,

7  June,

Death  of  emperor  Frederick  III ;  succeeded  by  his
son  William  II 15  June,

Publication  in  the  Deutsche  Rundschau  (Oct.)  of
alleged  extracts  from  the  diary  of  the  emperor
Frederick  III.,  when  crown  prince  asserting  that,
it  washe  who  suggested  the  unity  of  Germanyand
the  empire,  with  other  statements ;  said.by  prince,
Bismarck  at  first  to  be  apocryphal  and  after-
wards to  be  notes  falsified  anil  coloured  ;  the
work  ordered  to  be  prosecuted  for  publishing

state  secrets Sept.

[The  books  were  found  locked  up  in  the  house  at


1879


San  Remo  where  the  crown  prince  resided  :  the
diary  contains  details  of  the  war  with  E'rance,
1870-1  :  it  was  stated  that  the  books  were
given  or  shown  by  the  prince  to  baron  von
Roggenbach,  the  Baden  statesman.]

Dr.  Geficken  arrested  at  Hamburg  29  Sept.  1888

A  part  of  the  prince's  diary  published  in  the  Kider
Zeitunfj Sept. ,,

The  Klilnische  Zeitung  16  Dee.  accuses  the  British
ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  (sir  Robert  B.  D.
Morier)  when  charge  d'affaires  at  Darmstadt,  of
giving  information  to  marshal  Bazaine  of  the
movements  of  the  Prussian  army  in  1870.  Sir
Robert  writes  to  count  Herbert  Bismarck  re-
pelling the  charge  (and  sends  a  letter  from  the
marshal  to  himself  to  the  same  effect)  19  Dec.  The
count  refuses  25  Dec.  1888.  Sir  Robert  publishes
the  correspondence  in  the  Times,  4  Jan.;  much
discussion  ensues Jan.  1389

Dr.  Geffcken  acquitted  of  criminal  intents, 7  Jan. ,,

Prince  Bismarck  publishes  the  indictment  and
evidence 16  Jan. ,,

The  king  of  Italy,  his  son,  and  signor  Crispi  at
Berlin  21-26  May, ,,

Death  of  the  empress  Augusta,  7  Jan.  ;  grand
funeral n  Jan.  1S90

The  emperor-king  convokes  the  council  of  state
respecting  the  working-classes,  see  Germany  and
Berlin,  4  Feb. ;  delivers  an  address ;  propositions
considered 14-28  Feb. ,,

Princ.3  Bismarck  resigns  the  offices  of  premier  and
foreign  minister,  18  March  ;  succeeded  by  gen.-
George  von  Caprivi . . about  20  March, ,,

Death  of  count  Moltke.  see  Germany  24  April,  1891

Much  discussion  on  the  primary  education  bill,
which  enacts,  that  in  all  schools  some  form  of
Christianity  should  be  taught,  to  counteract
socialism  ;  read  first  time ... 30  Jan.  1892

Ministerial  crisis  in  relation  to  the  education  bill ;
count  Caprivi  resigns  the  premiership,  but  re-
mains foreign  minister  and  chancellor  of  the
empire 22  March, „

Count Botho von Eulenburg becomes premier

24  March, ,,

The  government  withdraw  the  education  bill,  about

28  March, ,,

Certain  privileges  of  the  nobility  abolished  with

compensation May, ,,

(See  Germany  1871  ct  seq.)

Margraves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings.
margraves  or  electors  of  brandenburg.
1 134.  Albert  I.,  the  Bear,  first  elector  of  Brandenburg.
1 1 70.  Otho  I.
1 184.  Otho  II.
1206.  Albert  II.
1221.  John  I.  and  Otho  III.
1266.  John  II.
1282.  Otho  IV.
1309.  Waldemar.

1319.  Henry  I.  the  Young.

1320.  [Interregnum.]
1323.  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria.
1352.  Louis  II.  the  Roman.
1365.  Otho  V.  the  Sluggard.
1373.  Wenceslas,  of  Luxemburg.
1378.  Sigismund,  of  Luxemburg.
1388.  Jossus,  the  Bearded.
1411.  Sigismund,  again  emperor.

1415.  Frederick  I.  of  Nuremberg  (of  the  house  of  Kohen-

zollern).
1440.  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  Ironside.
1470.  Albert  III.  surnamed  the  German  Achilles.
1476.  John  III.  his  son  ;  as  margrave  ;  styled  the  Cicero

of  Germany.
14S6.  John  III.  as  elector.
1499.  Joachim  I.  son  of  John.
1535.  Joachim  II.  poisoned  by  a  Jew.
1571.  John-George.
1598.  Joachim-Frederick.
1608.  John-Sigismund.

DUKES OF TRUSSIA.

1618.  John-Sigismund.

1619.  George-William.

1640.  Frederick-William,  his  son,  the  "  Great  Elector. "
16S8.  Frederick  III.,  son  of  the  preceding ;  crowned  kino-,
18  Jan.  1 701.


PRUSSIC ACID.


793  PUBLIC  LOAN COMMISSIONERS.


KIXGS  OF  PRUSSIA.

1701.  Frederick  I.  ;  king  ;  died.

1713.  Frederick-William  I.,  son  of  Frederick  I.

1740.  Frederick  II.  (or  Frederick  III.  ;  styled  the  Great),
son  ;  made  Prussia  a  military  power.

1786.  Frederick- William  II.,  nephew  of  the  preceding.

1797.  Frederick-William  III.  (he  had  to  contend  against
the  might  of  Napoleon,  and  after  extraordinary
vicissitudes,  he  aided  England  in  his  overthrow),
died  7  June,  1840.

1840.  Frederick-William  IV.,  son;  born  15  Oct.  1795;
died,  2  Jan.  1861.

1861.  William  I.,  brother  (born,  22  March,  1797)  ;  pro-
claimed emperor  of  Germany  at  Versailles,  iS  Jan.
1871) ;  married  princess  Augusta  of  Saxe-Weimar,
11  June,  1829  ;  golden  wedding  kept,  11  June,
1879  ;  died  9  March,  i883  ;  she  died  7  Jan.  1890.

j888.  Frederick  III.  (William)  son,  "  the  noble  "  ;  born
18  Oct.  1831  ;  (married  Victoria,  princess-royal
of  England,  25  Jan.  1858;;  died  15  June,  1888.
,,  William  II.,  son  ;  born  27  Jan.  1859  (married
princess  Augusta  Victoria  of  Seldeswig-Holstein,
27  Feb.  1881).
Heir:  William;  born  6  May,  1882.

PRUSSIC  ACID  (hydrocyanic  acid),  acci-
dentally discovered  by  Diesbach,  a  German  chemist,
in  1709,  and  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by
Schcele  about  1782.  It  is  colourless,  smells  like
poach  flowers,  freezes  at  50  Fahrenheit,  is  very
volatile,  and  turns  vegetable  blues  into  red.  Simple
■water  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  lauro-cerasus
first  ascertained  to  be  a  most  deadly  poison  by  Dr.
Madden  of  Dublin;  see  Blue.

PRUTH,  a  river  in  Moldavia,  the  boundary  of
Turkey.  Peter  the  great  crossed  the  Pruth,  was
.surrounded  by  the  Turks,  and  lost  much  by  a  con-
vention, June,  1 71 1.  The  Itussians  crossed  it  2
July,  1853,  and  war  ensued.

PRYTANIS,  a  magistrate  of  Corinth,  annually
•elected  from  745  B.C.  till  the  office  was  abolished  by
Cypselus,  a  despot,  655  B.C.

PSALMS OF DAVID were  collected by
Solomon,  IOOO  B.C. ;  others  added,  580  and  515  B.C.
The  Church  of  England  Old  Version  in  metre  by
Sternhold  and  Hopkins  was  published  in  1562  ;  the
New  Version  by  Tate  and  Brady  in  1698.
The  version  of  Francis  Rous,  provost  of  Eton,  first  pub-
lished in  1641,  was  ordered  to  be  used,  by  the  parliament
in  1646. It  is  the  basis  of  the  Scotch  version,  which
appeared  in  1650. The  marquis  of  Lome  published  a
version  in  1877. Many  other  versions  published.

PSEUDONYM  LIBRARY,  a  name  given
to  a  series  of  books  by  eminent  writers  in  which  the
name  of  the  publisher  was  substituted  for  that  of
the  author. The  publication  began  in  1891.

PSEUDOSCOPE  (from  pscudos,  false),  a
name  given  by  professor  Wheatstone  (in  1852)  to
the  stereoscope,  when  employed  to  prouuee  ■'  con-
versions of  relief,"  i.e.,  the  reverse  of  the  stereo-
scope :  a  terrestrial  globe  appears  like  a  hollow
hemisphere.

PSYCHIC FORCE,  see  Spirihialism.

PSYCHOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  soul  and
its  phenomena,  studied  by  Aristotle,  Tlato,  Des-
cartes, Leibnitz,  Locke,  Hume,  James  Mill,  J.  S.
Mill,  Herbeit  Spencer,  sir  Wm.  Hamilton,  Alex.
Bain,  and  others.

Psychological  Society  founded  by  sent.  Cox,  1875-79.
Professor Balfour Stewart, lord Rayleigh, and the

bishops  of  Carlisle  and  Ripon  were  members,  1886.

See  Telepathy.
Society  for  Psychological  Research  founded,  1882.
International congress of Experimental Psychology,

Paris,  1889;  Loudon,  1  Aug.  1892.
Prof.  Wm.  James'  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  1802.

PSYCHROMETER  (h-omps>,chros,  cold),  an
apparatus  for  measuring  the amount of elastic


vapour  in  the  atmosphere  ;  invented  by  Gay  Lussae
(1778-1850),  and  modified  by  Regnault  (about  1848).
An  electric  psychrometer  was  described  by  Edmond
Becquerel,  4  Feb.  1867.

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM.  Claudius  Ptolemy
of  Pelusium,  in  Egypt  (about  A.r>.  140),  supposed
that  the  earth  was  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  uni-
verse, and  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  moved
round  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  system  (long
the  official  doctrine  of  the  church  of  Home)  was  uni-
versally taught  till  that  of  Pythagoras  (500  B.C.)
was  revived  by  Copernicus,  a.d.  1530,  and  demon-
strated by  Kepler  (1619)  and  Newton  (1687).

PUBLICANS,  farmers  of  the  state  revenues
of  Home.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Cannas  they  were
so  wealthy  as  to  be  able  to  advance  large  sums  to
the  government,  payable  at  the  end  of  the  war.  No
magistrate  was  permitted  to  be  a  publican.

PUBLIC  BATHS,  &c,  see  Baths,  Education.

PUBLIC  DEPARTMENTS,  Royal  Com-
mission to  inquire  generally  into  their  state  was
appointed  about  13  Sept.  18S6.  It  consisted  of  sir
M.  "W.  Ridley  (chairman),  lords Brownlow,  Lingen,
Rothschild,  Messrs.  Sclater  Booth,  H.  Fowler,  Ky-
lands,  sir  E.  Guinness,  and  others ;  Mr.  "Walpole
(secretary);  first  report  issued,  Oct.  1887;  second,
Sept.  1888. Important  changes  recommended.

PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENTS ACT,

38  Vict.  c.  21,  passed  14  June  1875,  amends  the  Act
25  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  1752.
PUBLIC  GOOD,  see  Leagues.

PUBLIC  HEALTH  ACTS.  New  act.  con-
solidating all  the  previous  sanitary  and  nuisance
acts,  passed,  11  Aug.  1875;  another  act  passed  in
1883.  Amendment  acts  pa-sed  in  1890,  and  1892.
The  Public  Health  (London)  act,  passed  5  Aug  1891,
made  very  important  changes.  It  came  into  opera-
tion 1  Jan.  1892  ;  it  repealed  16  acts  entirely,  and
partially  19  more,  and  consclidated  their  best  pro-
visions. The  Public  Health  acts,  relating  to  Scot-
land and  Ireland,  were  amended  in  1891.  An  act
relating  to  supply  of  water  passed  4  July,  1878.
See  Health,  Sanitation.

RATE OF DEATHS PER 1,000.

England  in  1660-79,  8°  ;  1840-74,  22J.

General  death  rate  per  1,000  (published  in  the  Registrar-
General's  weekly  report)— 1889,  April,  20-3  ;  June,
17-3  ;  Sept.  17*9  ;  Nov.  18-2  ;  Dec.  21-9.  1890,  15  Jan.
28-1 ;  15  Feb.  25-3  ;  15  March,  23-6  ; 12  April,  co-6  ;

10  May,  19-2  ;  14  June,  17^2  ;  12  July,  177  ;  16  Aug.
2i'o;  13  Sept.  18-6;  11  Oct.  19-8;  15  Nov.  21-1;  13
Dec.  (frost),  2T3 ;  20  Dec.  26-0;  27  Dec.  26-3.  1S91,
3  Jan.  287;  17  Jan.  27-3;  24  Jan.  25-i ;  31  Jan.
(warmer).  22-3  ;  7  Feb.  19-8  ;  14  Feb.  19-9 ;  14  March,
22-i  ;  11  Aprfl,  22-9-,  2  May  (influenza),  26-S ;  16  May,
30-1  ;  13  June,  23-8;  n  July,  i6-8  ;  15  Aug.  iS'S;  19
Sept.  177 ;  17  Oct.  i8-2  ;  14  Nov.  2C6 ;  12  Dec.  19-8.
1892,  16  Jan.  33-0  (influenza);  23  Jan.  35-4  ;  13  Feb.
23'i ;  12  March,  22-9  ;  16  April,  20^9 ;  14  May,  20*4 ;

11  June,  17*9;  16  July,  17-9  ;  20  Aug.  i8"o.

11  June,  1892 — Birmingham,  i9-S  ;  Blackburn,  22^2;
Bradford,  16-9  ;  Brighton,  iS'S  ;  Bristol,  17-0  ;  Derby,
12-5  ;  Hull,  13-2  ;  Leeds,  15-1  ;  Leicester,  14-2  ;  Liver-
pool, 2i*4 ;  London,  i7-s;  Manchester,  237;  Xew-
castle-on-Tyne,  2o-6 ;  Norwich,  13-2  ;  Nottingham,
i2-8;  Plymouth,  177;  Portsmouth,  147;  Sheffield,
16-5.
PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers, and

Sunday.
PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  ACTS,  passed  1855

and  1871; amended  in 1877, 1S87  and  18S9. A

Public  Works  Loans  act  was  passed  1890.
PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS

were  constituted  bv  the  act  passed 13  Aug.  1875.

Other  acts  passed  1879-83.


PUBLIC  MEETINGS.


794


PULLEY.


PUBLIC  MEETINGS,  for  political  purposes,
wore  occasionally  held  in  England  in  the  latter  part
of  the  17th  century,  but  became  very  important  in
tv;e  reign  of  George  III.  The  meetings  in  Devon-
shire in  1763  to  protest  against  the  Cider  Tax,  were
very  effective,  and  set  an  example  speedily  followed,
with,  the  warm  approbation  of  Burke,  Fox,  and
other  statesmen.  These  meetings  were  prohibited
hy  the  Gagging  acts,  which  see,  passed  in  1795  ;  see
Sedition.  In  the  reign  of  George  IV.,  the  right  of
public  meetings  was  fully  assured,  and  they  were
very  effectual  in  relation  to  the  passing  the  Reform
acts,  the  Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws,  and  other  impor-
tant measures.  See  Hyde  Park.  The  place  on
which  the  speakers  stand  is  termed  a  "platform,"
corresponding  to  the  Roman  rostrum,  and  the
French  tribune.  "The  Platform,"  by  Mr.  H.
Jephson,  was  published  in  1792.  The  term  "plat-
form "  is  also  applied  to  a  set  of  political  or  religious
opinions  held  by  a  party  ;  such  as  the  "platform  of
Geneva." Hooker.

PUBLIC  OFFICES  SITE  ACT  (for  the
Admiralty  and  War)  passed  24  July,  1882.

PUBLIC  PROSECUTOR,  see  Prosecutor.

PUBLIC  EECOBDS,  see  Records.

PUBLIC  SAFETY,  Committee  of,  was
established  at  Paris  during  the  French  Revolution
on  6  April,  1 793,  with  absolute  power,  in  conse-
quence of  the  coalition  against  France.  The  severe
government  of  this  committee  is  termed  the  Reign
of  Terror,  which  ended  with  the  execution  of  Robes-
pierre and  his  associates,  28  July,  1794.  A  similar
committee  was  established  at  Paris  by  the  com-
munists, March-May,  1871.

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  ACT,  1S68,  amended
by  acts  passed  1870  and  1872  ;  see  Education.

PUBLIC  STORES.  The  laws  relating  to
their  protection  were  consolidated  and  amended  by
an  act  passed  29  June,  1875.

PUBLIC.  WORKS  ACT,  passed  21  July,
1863,  to  provide  work  for  the  unemployed  persons
in  the  manufacturing  districts  at  the  time  of  the
cotton  famine.  Ii  enabled  corporate  bodies  to  raise
loans,  and  proved  very  successful.  It  was  continued
in  1864-75,  IS86  and  1892. See  under  Local  Loans.

PUBLIC WOE  SHIP REGULATION-
ACT,  37  &  38  Vict.  c.  85,  principally  for  the  re-
pression of  ritualism  in  the  church  of  England,  was
introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  by  the  archbishop
of  Canterbury,  21  .April,  and  after  very  much  dis-
cussion, rcctived  the  royal  assent,  7  Aug.  1874.
By  it  a  new  judge  in  the  provincial  courts  of  Canter-
bury and  York  whs  appointed  :  the  first  being
lord  Penzance  ;  the  act  came  into  operation
_,.  1  July,  1875

First  cause,  the  parish  of  Folkestone  v.  rev.  C.  J.
Ridsdale,  the  vicar,  4  Jan.,  1876  ;  tried  at  Lam-
beth palace  ;  verdict,  for  plaintiffs . .  3  Fell.  1876
Rev.  Arthur  Tooth  of  Hatcham,  and  rev.  T.  Pelham
Dale  of  St.  Vedast's,  London  ;  monition  to  dis-
continue practices ....  18  July,
Kev.  A.  Tooth  disregards  monition  ;  justifies  him- '
self  and  denies  authority  of  court,  21  Dee.  1876  ;
carries  on  ritualistic  services  up  to  14  Jan.  ;  pro-
nounced contumacious  by  lord  Penzance  in  court
of  Arches,  13  Jan.  ;  imprisoned  in  Horselnonger-
lane  gaol  from  22  Jan.  to  17  Feb.  The  church  was
forcibly entered,  and  ho celebrated  holy  com-
munion in  the  censured  form . . M  May,  1877
Proceedings  against  him  quashed  by  the  Queen's
Bench  on  appeal,  because  the  trial  did  not  take
place  in  the  diocese  of  Rochester . 19  Nov.
Sentence  upon  Rev.  T.  P.  Dale  set  aside  through
legal  difficulty;  he  resumes  service .  22  July,
[Again  convicted  and  admonished,  8  Feb.  1879.]


The  Queen's  Bench  division  asseit  the  public  wor-
ship regulation  court  is  a  new  court,  and  not  a
modification  of  the  court  of  Arches . 19  Nov.  1077

Rev.  John  Edwards  of  PresUmry  suspended  for  six
months,  and  Rev.  A.  H.  Mackonochie  warned,

23  March,  1878
j  Rev.  A.  H.  Mackonochie  sentenced  by  court  of
Arches  to  three  years'  suspension  from  benefice
and  otfice,  for  disobedience  to  monition  of  the
court 1  June, „

Enforcement  of  the  sentence  prohibited  by  the
Queen's  Bench 8  Aug. ,,

Rev.  J.  Edwards'  suspension  also  set  aside  . Aug. ,,

Sentence  of  court  of  Arches  against  Mr.Mackonochie
affirmed  by  court  of  Appeal,  28  June  ;  he  is  sen-
tenced to  3  years'  suspension  from  benefice  (from
23  Nov.  1879),  he  protests  ... 15  Nov.  1879

Mr.  Sinclair,  nominated  to  officiate,  retires  ;  Mr.
Mackonochie  officiates  as  usual . . 23  Nov. „

Martin  v.  Mackonochie,  new  trial ;  lord  Penzance
declines  to  decide,  as  the  former  sentence  has  not
been  carried  out 5  June,  1880

Rev.  T.  Pelham  Dale  is  imprisoned  in  Holloway
gaol  for  contempt  of  court . . .30  Oct. ,,

Rev.  Sidney  F.  Green,  rector  of  Miles  Platting,  Man
Chester,  and  Rev.  Rd.  Win.  Enraght,  of  Bor-
desley,  Birmingham,  convicted  20  Nov.  ;  Mr.
Enraght  imprisoned  in  Warwick  gaol 27  Nov. „

Mr.  Dale  applies  to  Queen's  Bench  for  release  on
ground  of  illegal  proceedings  ;  his  detention
affirmed 6-13  Dec ,t

Mr.  Dale  on  appeal  to  house  of  lords  released  till  11
Jan.  1881 ;  Mr.  Enraght  prefers  to  remain

18  Dec. ,t

Mr.  Dale  (and  consequently  Mr.  Enraght)  dis-
charged through  technical  irregularity  respecting
the  writ  by  decision  of  Appeal  court  15  Jan.  i88t

Rev.  A.  H.  Mackonochie's  appeal  to  the  house  of
lords  dismissed  ;  sentence  of  1878  to  take  effect

7  April, ,,,

The  judicial  committee  of  privy  council  grant  him
a  new  trial,  3  Feb.  ;  remit  to  Lord  Penzance  to
decree  suitable  punishment . . .22  Feb.  1882

Rev.  S.  F.  Green  imprisoned  in  Lancaster  Castle
March  1881 ;  released . . . .5  Nov. ,,

Sir  Percival  Heywood,  v.  the  bishop  of  Manchester,
for  refusing  to  institute  Rev.  Mr.  Cowgill,  curate
of  Rev.  S.  F.  Green,  as  his  successor,  10,  12  Dec.
1883 ;  Baron  C.  Pollock  decides  for  the  bishop

21  Jan.  1884

Mr.  Mackonochie  sentenced  to  deprivation  by  court
of  Arches,  21  July,  18S3.  He  resigns  the  benefice
of  St.  Peter's,  London  Docks  31  Dee.  1883.
Died,  aged  62,  by  exposure  to  cold,  having  lost  his
way  near  Kinlochmore,  Scotland about  15  Dec.  T887

Rev.  James  Bell  Cox  suspended  for  ritualistic
practices  after  much  litigation ;  committed  to
Walton  gaol,  by  error  for  contempt  of  court,  5
May  ;  release  ordered  by  writ  of  lutbeits  corjms,
20  May;  this  set  aside  on  appeal,  22  Nov.;  but
affirmed  by  the  house  of  lords . . 5  Aug.  1890

A  trial  of  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  see  under  Canter-
bury.

PUBLISHERS'  CIRCULAR,  first  issued
twice  a  month,  weekly  since  Dec.  1890;  organised
chiefly  by  Mr.  William  Longman  (died  1877),
greatly  assisted  by  Mr.  Sampson  Low,  who  first
published  it,  2  Oct.  1837.

In  1890  the  London  publishing  firm  of  Messrs.  Longman,
which  existed  as  Osinan  and  Longman  in  1726,  pur-
chased the  business  of  Messrs.  Rivington,  which  was
established  by  Mr.  Charles  Rivington  in  1710.

PUDDLING,  making  the  walls  of  canals
water-tight  by  means  of  clay,  was  largely  adopted
by  Brindley  in  constructing  the  Bridgewater  canals,
1761  ct  seq. ;  see  also  under  Lron  Manufacture.

PUEBLA,  see  Mexico,  1863.

PUERTO,  see  Porto.

PUGILISM,  see  Boxing.

PULLEY,  vice,  and  other  mechanical  instru-
ments, are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas
of  Tarcntum,  about  400  B.C.,  or  by  Archimedes,


PULLMAN CARS.


795


PURITANS.


287-212.  la  a  single  movable  pulley  the  power
gained  is  doubled  :  in  a  continued  combination  the
power  is  equal  to  the  number  of  pulleys,  less  one,
doubled.

PULLMAN  CARS,  see  under  Railways.

PULTOWA  (Eussia),  where  Charles  XII.  of
Sweden  was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great
of  Russia,  8  July,  1709.  He  tied  to  Bender,  in
Turkey.

PULTUSK  (Russia),  where  a  battle  was  fought
between  the  Saxons,  under  their  king  Augustus,  and
the  Swedes,  under  Charles  XII.,  in  which  the
former  were  signally  defeated,  1  May,  1703.  Here
also  the  French  under  Napoleon  fought  the  Russian
and  Prussian  armies :  both  sides  claimed  the  victory,
but  it  inclined  in  favour  of  the  French,  26  Dec.
1806.

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria  is  said  to
have  invented  pumps  (with  other  hydraulic  instru-
ments), about  224  B.C.,  although  the  invention  is
ascribed  to  Danaus,  at  Lindus,  1485  B.C.  Pumps
were  in  general  use  in  England,  A.u.  1425.  An  in-
scription on  the  'pump  in  front  of  the  late  Royal
Exchange,  London,  stated  that  the  well  was  sunk
in  1282.  The  air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto
Guericke  in  1654,  and  improved  by  Boyle  in  1657 ;
see  Air  and  Hells.

PUNCH,  the  puppet  show,  borrowed  from  the
Italian  Pulichinello,  is  descended  from  a  character
well  known  in  the  theatres  of  ancient  Rome.  Fos-
hroke.  The  satirical  weekly  publication,  Fundi-,  or
the  London  Charivari,  was  es'ablishcd  by  Henry
Mayhew,  Mark  Lemon,  Douglas  Jcrrold,  Gilbert
a'  Beckett,  and  others :  amongst  its  early  contribu-
te s  were  Win.  M.  Thackeray ;  Prof.  E.  Forbes,  and
other  eminent  writers;  first  published  17  July,  1841.
Mark  Lemon,  the  first  editor,  died  23  May,  1870 ;
2nd,  Shirley  Brooks,  died  23  Feb.  1874;  3ru\  Tom
Taylor,  died  July,  1880;  4th,  Francis  Cowley  Bur-
nand.  Richard  Doyle,  who  designed  the  wrapper,
and  was  a  frequent  contributor,  died  11  Dec.  1883  ;
John  Leech  died  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  du
Maurier.  Mr.  Percival  Leigh,  an  early  and  long-
continued  contributor  to  Punch,  died  24  Oct.  18S9,
aged  77.  Charles  S.  Keene,  artist,  a  contributor
since  1850,  died  4  Jan.  1891.  An  interesting  jubilee
number  of  Punch  was  published  17  July,  1891.  See
Caricatures  and  Charivari.

PUNCTUATION.  The  Hebrew  accents  for
punctuation  are  very  ancient.  The  period  (.)  is  the
most  ancient ;  the  colon  (:)  was  introduced  about
1485  ;  the  comma  (,)  was  first  seen  about  1521,  and
the  semicolon  (;)  about  1570.  In  sir  Philip  Sid-
ney's "Arcadia"  (1587),  they  all  appear,  as  well  as
the  note  of  interrogation  (?),  asterisk  (*),  and
parentheses  ()•

PUNIC  WARS,  see  Carthage,  264-241;  218-
201 ;  149-146  b.c.

PUNISHMENTS,  see  Beheading,  Blinding,
Boiling,  Death,  Browning,  Flogging,  and  Poison-
ing.

PUNJAUB  (N.  W.  Hindostan)  was  traversed  by
Alexander  the  Great,  327  B.C.  ;  by  Tamerlane,
a.d.  1398  ;  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni,  about  1000.  It
was  an  independent  state  under  Runjeet  Singh,
1791-1839.  Our  wars  with  the  Sikhs  began  here,
14  Dec.  1845,  and  were  closed  on  29  March,  1849,
when  the  Punjaub  was  annexed  ;  see  India.  The
Punjaub  has  since  greatly  flourished,  and  on  1  Jan.
I.S50,  was  made  a  distinct  presidency  (to  include  the
Su'ilcj  states  and  the  Delhi  territory)  ;  sec  Durbar.


The  Sirhind  canal  (502  miles)  opened  by  the  vice-
roy, marquis  of  Ripon,  24  Nov.  1882.  Local  self-
government  bill  passed  10  Oct.  1883.  Population  in
1881,  18,843,186;  in  1891,  20,803,000.  Capital
Lahore!

[Plmleep  Singh  (son  of  Runjeet  Singh),  born
1838,  received  a  pension  of  40,000?.  ;  he  resided
m  England  till  1886  when  he  sailed  for  India  ;
in  consequence  of  an  indiscreet  proclamation  to
the  Sikhs  he  was  stopped  at  Aden  about  3  May,
1886.  After  his  release  he  wandered  about
Europe  ;  in  May  1889  he  married  a  European  in
Paris ;  his  manifesto  to  the  Sikhs,  inciting;
them  to  rebellion,  indignantly  rejected  with
strong  censure,  Nov.  1889.  After  severe  illness,
he  expresses  deep  regret  for  his  conduct,  27
July,  and  is  pardoned  by  queen  Victoria,  1  Aug.
1890 ;  received  by  her  at  Grasse,  31  March,
1891.]
Lieut.-governors  :  sir  James  Lyall,  1887  ;  sir  Dennis
Fitzpatrick March,  1892-

PUPPETS  (Italian,  puppi  ;  French,  marion-
nettes),  of  which  the  eyes,  arms,  &c,  were  moved  by
strings,  were  used  by  the  ancients,  and  are  men-
tioned by  Xenophon,  Horace,  and  others.^  Skilful
theatrical  performances  with  puppets  have  been
several  times  exhibited  in  London  (at  the  Ade-
laide gallery,  1852).  A  performance  with  pup-
pets as  large  as  life,  began  at  St.  James's-Lall,.
July,  1872.  M.  Ch.  JIagnin  published  a  "  Histoirc
des  Mario7i)iettes,"  1852.

PURCELL  CLUB,  formed  Aug.  1836;  dis-
solved 1863.

PURCELL  SOCIETY,  founded  21  Feb-
1876,  to  publish  and  perform  the  works  of  Henry
Purcell.

PURCHASE  OF  LAND,  see  under  Zand.

PURCHASE  SYSTEM  in  the  army.  The
payment  of  a  present  or  gratuity  for  a  commission
was  prohibited  by  William  III.,  1693 !  hutin  1702pm--
chase  was  legally  re-organised.  In  1711  the  sale  of
commissions  was  forbidden  without  the  royal  permis-
sion ;  in  1719-20  regulations  were  issued;  and  a
fixed  scale  of  prices  was  adopted  in  consequence  of
a  commission  in  1765.  Large  over-regulation  pay-
ments continued  to  be  paid.  Commissions  of  inquiry
were  held  frequently  since  1858;  and  in  1871  the
system  was  abolished,  with  compensation,  by  royal
warrant,  20  July,  1871,  the  bill  for  the  purpose-
having  been  rejected  by  the  house  of  lords.  For
amounts  paid,  see  under  Army.

PURGATIVES  of  the  mild  species  (aperients),
particularly  cassia,  manna,  and  senna,  are  ascribed
to  Actuarius,  a  Greek  physician,  1245.

PURGATORY,  the_  middle  place  between
heaven  and  hell,  where,  it  is  believed  by  the  Roman
catholics,  the  soul  passes  through  the  tire  of  purifi-
cation before  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  God.  The
doctrine  was  known  about  250  ;  was  introduced  into
the  Roman  church  in  the  5th  century,  and  made  a
religious  dogma  by  Gregory  I.,  590-604.  It  was
first  set  forth  by  a  council  at  Florence,  1439 ;  en-
forced by  the  council  of  Trent,  Dec.  1563 ;  see  In-
dulgences.

PURIFICATION,  after  childbirth,  was  or-
dained by  the  Jewish  law,  1490  B.C.  {Lev.  xii.)  ;  see
Churching.  The  feast  of  the  purification  was  insti-
tuted, 542,  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary's  going  to
the  temple.  {Luke  ii.)  Pope  Scrgius  I.  ordered
the  procession  with  wax  tapers,  whence  Candlemas-
day.

PURITANS,  the  name  first  given,  it  is  said,
about  1564,  to  persons  who  aimed  at  greater  purity


PUELEY.  796


PYX.


of  doctrine,  holiness  of  living,  and  stricter  discipline
than  others.  They  withdrew  from  the  established
church,  professing  to  follow  the  word  of  God  alone,
and  maintaining  that  the  church  retained  many
human  inventions  and  popish  superstitions;  see
Cathari,  Nonconformists,  and  Presbyter ianism.

PUELEY,  see  Diversions.

PUEPLE,  a  mixed  tinge  of  scarlet  and  blue,
discovered  at  Tyre.  It  is  said  that  Hercules  Tyrius
having  observed  his  dog's  lips  to  be  stained,  after
eating  a  shell-fish  named  murex  or  purpura,  was
thereby  led  to  invent  the  dye.  Purple  was  anciently
used  by  the  princes  and  great  men  for  their  gar-
ments^ It  was  restricted  to  the  emperor  by
Justinian  I.  532,  and  porphyrogenitus  attached  to
the  names  of  some  emperors  signifies  "born  to  the
purple."

PURVEYANCE,  an  ancient  prerogative  of
the  sovereigns  of  England  of  purchasing  provisions,
&c,  without  the  consent  of  the  owners,  led  to  much
■oppression.  It  was  regulated  by  Magna  Charta,
121 15,  and  other  statutes,  and  was  only  surrendered
by  Charles  II.  in  1660,  for  a  compensation.

PUSEYISM,  a  name  attached  to  the  views  of
certain  clergymen  and  lay  members  of  the  church
"f  England,  who  proposed  to  restore  the  practice  of
the  church  of  England  to  what  they  believed  to
he  required  by  the  language  of  her  Liturgy  and
Eubrics,  but  which  were  considered  by  their  oppo-
nents to  be  of  a  llomish  tendency.  The  term  was
derived  from  the  name  of  the  professor  of  Hebrew
at  Oxford,  Dr.  Edwd.  Pusey.  The  heads  of  houses  of
the  university  of  Oxford  passed  resolutions  censuring
Dr.  Pusey's  attempts  to  renew  practices  which  are
now  obsolete,  15  March,  1841 ;  and  his  celebrated
sermon  was  condemned  by  the  same  body,  30  May,
1843;  he  died  16  Sept.  1882  ;  see  Tractarians,  and
Mitualism.

PUTNEY,  anciently  Putilei  and  Putenheath,
N.E.  Surrey,  on  the  Thames,  opposite  Fulham.  A
Kiew  granite  bridge,  founded  by  the  prince  of  Wales
(to  replace  the  wooden  one  completed  in  1729),  12
July,  1884. Opened  by  the  prince,  29  May,  1886.

PYDNA  (Macedon),  where  Perseus,  the  last
king  of  Macedon,  was  defeated  and  m;ide  prisoner
by  the  llomans,  commanded  by  JEmiiius  Taulus,  22
June,  168  B.C.

PYEAMLDS  OF  EGYPT,  about  75  in  number,
of  various  sizes,  constructed  for  the  preservation  of
mummies  of  the  kings  and  their  families.
The Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara is conjecturally
assigned  to  Ouenephes  of  the  first  dynasty,  see  Egypt.
Three 'great  pyramids  are  situated  near  Gizeh  on  the
W.  bank  of  the  Nile. The  first  or  greatest,  is  said  to
have  been  erected  as  the  tomb  of  Choofoo,  fourth  dy-
nasty, the  Cheops  of  Herodotus,  dated  by  Brugsch,
3733-3666  B.C. Its  height  is  said  to  have  been  origin-
ally 481 feet, and  its base  774  square feet. The
second  pyramid  is  ascribed  to  Chafra,  or  Chepliren,
3666-3633  b.c. The  third  pyramid  is  said  to have
been  built  by  Menkaura  or  Myeerinus,  3633  B.C.
The  pyramids  have  been  visited  and  described  by  Bel-
zoni,  1815 ;  Vyse,  1836 ;  C.  Piazzi  Smith,  and  others,
see  Etjt/pt  Exploration,  Finxd.
Some  of  the  eleven  pyramids  at  Sakkara  have  been  ex-
plored by  M.  Maspero,  1880  et  seq.
At  the  battles  of  the  Pyramids,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  de-
feated the  Mamelukes,  and  thereby  conquered  Lower
Egypt,  13  and  21  July,  1798.

PYEENEES.  After  the  battle  of  Vittoria
(fought  2 1  June,  18 13),  Napoleon  sent  Soult  to  super-
sede Jourdan,  with  instructions  to  drive  the  allies
across  the  Ebro;  Soult  retreated  in  to  France  with  aloss
of  more  than  20,000  men,  having  been  defeated  by


Wellington  in  a  series  of  engagements  from  25  July
to  2  Aug.  One  at  the  Pyrenees  on  28  July.  A
railway  through  the  Pyrenees  (from  Bilbao  to
Miranda)  was  opened  21  Aug.  1862. — The  Peace
of  the  Pyrenees  was  concluded  between  France
and  Spain,  by  cardinal  Mazarin,  for  the  French
king,  and  don  Louis  de  Haro,  on  the  part  of  Spam,
in  the  island  of  Pheasants,  on  the  Bidassoa.  By
this  treaty  Spain  yielded  Koussillon,  Artois,  and  her
light  to  Alsace ;  and  France  ceded  her  conquests  in
Catalonia,  Italy,  &c,  and  engaged  not  to  assist
Portugal,  7  Nov.  1659.

PYEOLETEE,  a  mechanical  and  chemical
apparatus  for  extinguishing  fires,  especially  in  ships,
invented  by  Dr.  Paton ;  tried  at  Greenhithe,  and
reported  successful,  1  June,  1S75.

PYEOMETEE  (fire-measurer),  an  apparatus
employed  to  ascertain  the  temperature  of  furnaces,
&c,  where  thermometers  cannot  be  employed ;
Muschenbroek's  pyrometer  (a  metallic  bar)  was
described  by  him  in  1731.  Improvements  were
made  by  Ellicott  and  others.  Wedgwood  employed
clay  cylinders,  1782-6.  In  1830  professor  Daniell
received  the  Eumford  medal  for  an  excellent  pyro-
meter made  in  1821.  Mr.  Ericsson's  pyrometer
appeared  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  185 1.  {Enij.
Cyc.)  Mr.  (aft.  sir)  C.  W.  Siemens  employed  electric
resistance  in  his  pyrometers,  exhibited  in  1871.

PYEOPHONE  (Greek,  pur,  tie;  phone,  voice),
a  musical  instrument,  invented  by  M.  Frederic
Kastner,  of  Paris.  It  consists  of  glass  tubes  of
various  lengths ;  the  tones  being  produced  by
what  are  termed  "  singing  flames."  It  is  based
upon  the  "chemical  harmonicon."  Keys  are
attached  for  playing,  as  in  the  piano.  The  inven-
tion was  reported  to  the  French  Academy  of
Sciences,  17  March,  1873;  exhibited  at  Vienna,
same  year ;  and  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  1 7  Feb.
1875. M.  Kastner  died  aged  31,  6  April,  1882.

PYEOXYLIN,  the  chemical  name  of  Gun
Cotton  {which  see) .
PYEEHONISM,  see  Sceptics.

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.

Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  head  of  the  Italic  sect,
flourished  in  the  6th  century  B.C.  He  is  said  to
have  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  or
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another,
forbidden  his  disciples  to  eat  flesh  and  beans,  in-
vented the  multiplication  table,  improved  geometry,
and  taught  the  present  system  of  astronomy.

PYTHIAN  GAMES,  in  honour  of  Apollo,
near  the  temple  of  Delphi ;  asserted  to  have  been
instituted  by  himself,  in  commemoration  of  his
victory  over  the  serpent,  Python.  Also  said  to  have
been  established  by  Agamemnon;  or  Diomedes,  or
Amphictyon,  or  lastly,  by  the  council  of  the
Amphictyons,  1263  B.C. They  lasted  till  394.

PYX,  the  casket  in  which  Catholic  priests  keep
the  consecrated  wafer.  In  the  ancient  chapel  of  the
pyx,  at  Westminster  abbey,  are  deposited  the
standard  pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  under  the  joint
custody  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  and  the  comp-
troller-general. The  "  trial  of  the  pyx"  signifies
the  verification  by  a  jury  of  goldsmiths  of  the
coins  deposited  in  the  pyx  or  chest  by  the  master  of
the  mint;  this  took  place  on  17  July,  1S61,  at  the
exchequer  office,  Old  Palace-yard,  in  the  presence
of  twelve  privy  councillors,  twelve  goldsmiths,  and
others,  and  on  15  Feb.  1870.  This  trialis  said  to  have
been  ordered  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  1154-89;
King  James  was  present  at  one  in  loll.  The  first
annual  trial  of  the  pyx,  appointed  by  the  Coinage
act  of  1870,  took  place  18  July,  1871.


Q.


QUACKERY.


QUAKERS.


QUACKERY,  or  medical  imposture,  is  very-
ancient.  Quack  medicines  were  taxed  in  1783
et  scq.  An  inquest  was  held  en  the  body  of  a
young  lady,  Miss  Cashiu,  whose  physician,  St.
John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  manslaughter,
21  Aug.  1830 ;  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced
to_  pay  a  fine  of  2C.0I.,  30  Oct.  following.  He  was
tried  for  manslaughter  in  the  case  of  Mrs.  Catherine
Lloyd,  and  acquitted,  19  Feb.  183 1.  Dr.  Vries,
"  the  black  doctor,"  a  professed  cancer-curer,  at
Tari-,  was  condemned  to  fifteen  months'  imprison-
ment as  an  impostor  in  Jan.  1S60.

QUADRAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  first  Sun-
day in  Lent  and  40th  day  before  Good  Friday;  see
Lent,  and  Quinquagesima.

QUADRANT,  a  mathematical  instrument  in
the  form  of  a  quarter  of  a  circle.  The  solar  quad-
rant was  introduced  about  290  B.C.  The  Arabian
astronomers  under  the  caliphs,  in  995,  had  a  quad-
rant of  21  feet  8  inches  radius,  and  a  sextant  59  feet
9  inches  radius.  Davis's  quadrant  for  measuring
angles  was  produced  about  1600;  Hadley's  quadrant
about  1 73 1 ;  see  Navigation.

QUADRILATERAL or Quadrangle,

terms  applied  to  four  strong  fortresses  in  N.  Italy,
long  held  by  the  Austrians,  but  surrendered  to  the
Italians,  Oct.  1866; — Peschiera,  on  an  island  in  the
Mincio  ;  Mantua  on  the  Mincio  ;  Verona  and  Leg-
nago,  both  on  the  Adige ;  see  Italy,  Peschiera,  &c.

The  Turkish  Quadrilateral  "was  Slramla,  Varna,  Rustchuk,
and  Silistria,  lost  to  the  sultan  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,
which  established  the  autonomy  of  Bulgaria.

QUADRILLE,  a  dance  (originally  quadrille
de  con  t re  clause,  introduced  into  French  ballets
about  1745),  iJ1  its  present  form  became  popular  in
France  about  1804.  It  was  introduced  into  this
country  about  1808  (Miss  Berry),  and  promoted
by  the  duke  of  Devonshire  and  others,  in  1813.
liaikes.

QUADRIVIUM,  see  Arts.

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  That  be-
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  emperor
(signed  at  London,  22  July,  1718),  on  the  accession
of  the  states  of  Holland,  8  Feb.  17 19,  obtained  its
name.  It  guaranteed  the  succession  of  the  reign-
ing families  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  settled
the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  led  to
war.

^  QUADRUPLE  TREATY,  concluded  in
London  22  April,  1834,  by  the  representatives  of
Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  gua-
ranteed the  possession  of  her  throne  to  Isabella  II.,
the  young  queen  of  Spain.

QUADRUPLEX  TELEGRAPHY,  see

under  Electricity.

QUAESTORS  (seekers) .  Two  qnmslores  parri-
tidii,  public  prosecutors,  in  cases  of  murder  and
other  capital  crimes,  acted  in  Rome  under  the
kings ;  two  quastores  classici,  who  had  the  man-
agement of  the  public  treasure ;  appointed  about
484  B.C.  The  number  of  qurestors  was  raised  from
time  to  time,  as  circumstances  demanded. Ple-


beians were  first  elected  in  409  B.C.  There  were
eight  quaestors  in  265.  Sylla  raised  the  number  to-
twenty ;  Julius  Cajsar  to  forty.

QUAKERS  or  Society  of  Friends,  origin-
ally called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the  truth,
and  afterwards  Friends  (3  John,  14). Justice  Ben-
net,  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the  name  of  Quakers-
in  l650,_ because  George  Fox  (the  founder)  admon-
ished him  and  those  present  to  quake  at  the  word
of  the  Lord. This  sect  was  commenced  in  England
about 1646,  by  George  Fox  (then  aged  22),  who-
was  joined  by  George  Keith,  William  Penn,  and
Robert  Barclay,  of  TJry,  and  others. Fox  rejected
all  religious  ordinances,  explained  away  the  com-
mands relative  to  baptism, &c.  ; discarded  the-
ordinary  names  of  days  and  months,  and  used  thee
and  thou  for  you,  as  more  consonant  with  truth-
He  published  a  book  of  instructions  for  teachers  and
professors,  and  died  13  Jan.  1691. Sir  H.  Nicolas
explains  the  Quaker  calendar  in  his  Chronology  of
History. The  first  meeting-house  in  London  was-
in  "White  Hart-court,  Gracechurch-strcet.
Their  principles  are  contained  in  "  Extracts  of  minutes  "
(from  the  beginning)  published  1782:  revised  1S02
1S61,  and  1883.
The  Quakers  early  suffered  grievous  persecutions. At-
Boston,  U.S.,  where  the  first  Friends  who  arrived  were-
females,  they  (even  females)  were  cruelly  scourged  and
had  their  ears  cut  off;  some  put  to  death.
In  1659  they  stated  in  parliament  that  2000  Friends  had
endured  sufferings  and  imprisonment  in  Newgate :  ami;
164  Friends  offered  themselves  at  this  time,1jy  name
to  government,  to  be  imprisoned  in  lieuo'fa'n  equal
number  in  danger  (from  confinement)  of  death i6sq
Fifty-five  (out  of  120  sentenced)  were  transported to-

America,  by  an  order  of  council,  1664.
The  masters  of  vessels  refusing  to  carry  them  for  some-
months,  an  embargo  was  laid  on  West  India  ships
when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the-
service. The  Friends  would  not  walk  on  board nor
would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  vessel,  and  sol-
diers from  the  Tower  were  employed. In 166= the
vessel  sailed ;  but  it  was  immediately  captured  by  t lie
Dutch,  who  liberated  twenty-eight  of  the  prisoners  in,
Holland,  the  rest  having  died  of  the  plague. Few
reached  America.
First  meeting  of  Quakers  in  Ireland  in  Dublin  in
1658;  and  their  first  meeting-house  there  was
opened  in  Eustace-street . . , _  1602-
The  solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  enacted  to  be
taken  in  all  cases  in  the  courts  below,  wherein
oaths  are  required  from  other  subjects  (see  Affir-
mation) xg  g

William  Penn,  with  a  company  of  Friend's,  colon'-

ised  Philadelphia '  _ 1682-

John  Archdale,  a  Quaker,  elected  M.P.  for  Chipping
Wycombe;  refused  to  take  the  oaths,  and  his
election  was  declared  void . . .  ifi

Quakers  emancipated  their  negro  slaves  .  '  1  Jan'  t7ss
A  schism  in  the  society  was  begun  in  America
about  1827,  by  Elias  Hicks  publishing  his  opinions
denying  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  his  atonement
and  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His
numerous  followers  are  styled  Hicksite  Friends
Joseph  Pease,  a  Quaker,  was  admitted  to  parliament


15  Feb.  1833


on  his  affirmation

The  Quakers  had  in  England"4i3  meeting-houses!.,
1800,  and  372  in lS

At  an  annual  assembly  it  was  agreed  to  recommend
that  mixed  marriages  should  lie  permitted,  and
that  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the.  see!  in  speech
and  costume  should  be  no  longer  insisted  on.

2  Nov.  tSs3-


QUALIFICATION.


793


QUEEN.


An  act  passed  rendering  valid  Quaker  marriages
when  only  one  of  the  persons  is  a  Quaker. May,  i860

Tiie  Quakers  publish  an  address  deprecating  the
continuance  of  the  war .... Jan.  1871

Said  to  be  14,441  Quakers  in  Great  Britain,  May,
1877  ;  about  14,700,  May,  1880  ;  15,381  . May  1885

QUALIFICATION  for  Office  Aboli-
tion ACT,  passed  May,  1866,  rendered  it  unneces-
sary to  make  and  subscribe  certain  declarations.

QUAE  AN  TINE:  the  custom  observed  at
Venice  as  early  as  1 127,  whereby  all  merchants  and
others  comiug  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to
remain  in  the  house  of  St.  Lazarus,  or  the  Lazar-
etto, forty  days  before  they  were  admitted  into  the
city.  Various  southern  cities  have  now  lazarettos ;
that  of  Venice  is  built  in  the  water.  In  the  times
of  plague,  England  and  all  other  nations  oblige
those  that  come  from  the  infected  places  to  perform
quarantine  with  their  ships,  &c,  a  longer  or  shorter
time,  as  may  be  judged  most  safe.  Quarantine  acts
were  passed  in  1753  and  in  1825.  By  order  of  coun-
cil, 10  Nov.  1866,  foreign  cattle  were  made  subject
to  quarantine.

QUAETEE  SESSIONS  were  established,
55  Edw.  III.  1350-1.  The  days  of  sitting  were
appointed,  2  Hen.  V.  1413.  In  1830  it  was  en-
acted that  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace  should  be
held  in  the  first  week  after  II  Oct.,  28  Dec,  31
March,  and  24  June.  Further  regulated,  1S42,  1848,
and  1858.

QUAETEELY  EE VIEW,  the  organ  of  the
Tory  party.  The  publication  was  proposed  to  Mr.
■George  Canning,  and  his  support  solicited  by  Mr.
John  Murray,  the  publisher,  in  a  letter  dated  25
Sept.  1807,  in  opposition  to  the  opinions  of  the
Edinburgh  Jtevieio.  Mr.  Murray  was  ably  assisted
by  Walter  Scott,  Robert  Southey,  John  Gibson
Lockhart  (editor  1825-53),  J.  W.  Croker,  aud  other
•eminent  persons.  The  review  first  appeared  in
Feb.  1809,  under  the  editorship  of  William  Gilford,
the  celebrated  translator  of  "Juvenal."  He  died
31  Dec.  1826.

QUASI  MODO,  a  name  given  to  Low  Sunday
{the  first  Sunday  after  Easter)  from  the  commence-
ment of  a  hymn  sung  on  that  day.

QUATEENIONS,  an  important  mathemati-
cal method  or  calculus,  invented  by  Sir  Win.
Rowan  Hamilton,  about  1843.

It  is  based  upon  the  separation  of  multiplication  from
addition,  and  its  fundamental  idea  is  mental  trans-
ference or  motion  by  what  he  termed  vectors.  He
attributed  to  addition  motion  from  a  point ;  to  mul-
tiplication about  a  point.  Four  numbers  are  generally
involved,  hence  the  name  quaternion.  Hamilton's
"  Lectures  on  Quaternions,"  was  published  1853:  his
"Elements,"  1866.  Other  works  by  professors  Kelland
and  Tait,  published  since.

QUATEE-BEAS  (Belgium).  Here  on  16
June,  1815,  two  days  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo,
a  battle  was  fought  between  the  British  and  allied
army  under  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  the  prince  of
Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the  French
under  marshal  Ney.  The  British:"  ought  with  re-
markable intrepidity,  notwithstanding  their  inferi-
ority in  number,  and  their  fatigue  through  march-
ing all  the  preceding  night.  The  42nd  regiment
(Royal  Highlanders)  suffered  severely  in  pursuit  of
.a  French  division  by  cuirassiers  posted  in  ambush
behind  growing  corn.  The  duke  of  Brunswick  was
killed.

QUEBEC  a  province  of  the  dominion  of
<Canadd, formerly called Lowjr Canada, was


settled  by  the  French  in  the  16th  and  17th  cen-
turies. Quebec  the  capital,  was  founded  by  th  1 11
in  1608.  Population  of  the  province,  iSSi,
1,359,027;  1891,  1,489,062.  Town,  1881^62,446;
1 89 1,  63,090.
Quebec  reduced  by  the  English,  with  all  Canada,  in

1629,  but  restored 1632

Besieged  by  the  English,  but  without  success  . 1711

Conquered  by  them  after  a  battle  memorable  for  the
death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of  victory,
and  of  the  French  general  Montcalm 13  Sept. 1759
Besieged  in  vain  by  the  American  provincials,  under

general  Montgomery,  who  was  slain . 31  Dec. 1775
Bishopric  established  .  . . 1793

Public  and  private stores  and  several  wharfs  de-
stroyed by  lire ;  the  loss  estimated  at  upwards  of

260,000? Sept. 1815

Awful  fire,  1650  houses,  the  dwellings  of  12,000  per-
sons, burnt  to  the  ground . . .28  May,  1845
Another  great  tire,  1365  houses  burnt  . 28  June, ,,
Fire  at  the  theatre,  50  lives  lost . . 12  Jan. 1846
Quebec  made  the  seat  of  government  . 17  April,  1856
Visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales  . . 18-23  Aug.  i860
Great  fire  in  French  quarter ;  2500  houses  and  17
churches  destroyed,  and  nearly  20,000  persons

made  homeless 14  Oct.  1866

Great  tire ;  500  houses  burnt ... 24  May,  1870
Great  fires  at  St. John's — commercial  district ; 9
churches  and  7  hotels  said  to  be  destroyed.

18  June,  1876
Dissensions  between  the  lieut. -governor  Luc  Letel-

lier  de  St.  Just  and  his  ministers  . . . . ,,
600  small  wooden  houses  destroyed  by  fire .  June,  1881
Parliament  buildings  burnt  (incendiary) 19  April,  1883
Dynamite  explosions  destroying new  parliament

buildings  . . . , . . .11  Oct.  1884
Destructive  fire  in  the  citadel ;  the  powder  maga-
zine saved  ;  about  30,000?.  damage .  6-7  July,  1887
A.  Real  Angers  appointed  lieut. -governor  . . ,,

Thunderstorm  with  great  loss  of  life  and  property,

16  Aug.  1888
Fire  in  the  suburb  St.  Sauveur  ;  above  700  houses

destroyed;  great  distress  . . 15-16  May,  1889
Jesuits'  Estate  act  passed,  see  Canada . Aug. ,
Landslip  below  the  citadel, 7 dwellings  fell, 19

Sept.  ;  30  bodies  recovered,  36  missing 21  Sept. ,,
The  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  received  warmly

10  June,  189c
Visit  of  the  Comte  de  Paris,  banquet . 28  Oct. ,,
At  St.  Joseph  de  Levis,  a  railway  train,  crossing
the  bridge,  is  thrown  into  the  river,  about  10  lives

lost 18  Dec. ,,

Destructive  boiler  explosion  at  Hare  Point,  about

30  persons  killed 12  Feb.  1891

The  Hon.  Honore  Mercier,  premier  of  Quebec,  and
Mr.  Joseph  Adolphe  Chapleau,  secretary  of  state,
charged  with  misappropriating  public  money  in  re-
lation to  the  Chaleurs Bay  railway, &c.  ; the
charge  accepted  by  the  Senate . .  14  Sept. ,,
In  consequence  of  the  interim  report  of  the  Royal
Commission  of  inquiry  (three  judges)  appointed
by  lieut. -governor  Real  Angers  (issued  Nov.),  lie
dismisses  the  ministry . . . .16  Dec. ,,
Mr.  C.  B.  de  Boucherville  forms  a  ministry  21  Dec. „
Royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of
the  ministry,  11  Jan.  1892  ;  the  report  censures
several  persons  and  blames  Mr.  Mercier  for  negli-
gence. ...  .17  Feb.  1892
Investigations  respecting  the  Mercier  ministry . ,,

April, „
Xew  parliament  opened  (conservatives  55,  opposi-
tion 17) 27  April, ,,

Trial  of  Mr.  Charles  Langelier  and  Mr.  Ernest  Pa-
caud  for  conspiracy  and  fraud  ;  judgment  re-
served 21  May, ,,

Mr.  Mercier  and  Mr.  Pacaud  committed  for  trial  for
conspiracy  to  defraud  the  province  of  money . ,,

9  June, ,,
(See  Canada  and  Montreal.)

QUEEN  (Saxon,  civen ;  German,  konigin).
In  1554  an  act  was  passed  "  declaring  that  the  regall
power  of  this  realine  is  in  the  queues  majestic
[Mary]  as  fully  and  absolutely  as  ever  it  was  in
any  of  her  moste  noble  progeiiilours  kinges  of  this
realme." The  Hungarians  culled  a  queeu-regnant


QUEEN  ANNE'S BOUNTY.


799


QUEENSLAND.


king;  see  Hungary.  John  Knox's  "Monstrous
ltegiment  of  Women,"  published  1555,  against
Mary  queen  of  Scots,  greatly  offended  Elizabeth  of
England.

QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY,  established
by  her  in  Nov.  1703,  being  the  first  fruits  with  the
tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  of  the  poorer  clergy.
There  were  5597  clerical  livings  under  50^.  per
annum  found  by  the  commissioners  under  the  act  of
Anne  capable  of  augmentation.  Chalmers.  Act  to
consolidate  the  offices  of  first  fruits,  tenths,  and
queen  Anne's  Bounty,  passed  I  Vict.  1838.  Amount
of  the  fund,  1S92,  388,946^.

QUEEN  ANNE'S  FAETHINGS.  .  The
popular  stories  of  the  great  value  of  this  coin  are
fabulous,  although  some  few  of  particular  dates
have  been  purchased  by  persons  at  high  prices.
The  current  farthing,  with  the  broad  brim,  when
in  fine  preservation,  is  worth  \l.  The  common
patterns  of  1 7 13  and  1714  are  worth  \l.  The  two
patterns  with  Britannia  under  a  canopy,  and  Peace
on  a  car,  r  r  k,  are  worth  2I.  2s.  each.  The
pattern  with  Peace  in  a  ear  is  more  valuable  and
rare,  and  worth  5^. Finkerton  (died  1826).

QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL,  &c.

Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth,  second  daughter  of
Charles  William  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Brunswick,
bom  17  May,  1768;  married  to  George,  prince  of

Wales 8  April,  1795

Their  daughter,  princess  Charlotte,  born  7  Jan.  1796
The  "Delicate  Investigation"  (which  sec)  22  May,  1806
Charges  against  her  again  disproved  .  .  .  1813
The  princess  embarks  for  the  continent  .  Aug.  18 14
Becomes  queen,  20  Jan. ; arrives  in  England,

6  June,  1S20
A  secret  committee  in  the  house  of  lords,  appointed
Co  examine  papers  on  charges  of  incontinence,

8  June, ,,
Bill  of  pains  and penalties introduced by  lord

Liverpool 5  July, ,,

The  queen  removes  to  Brandenburg-house 3  Aug. ,,
.Receives  an  address  from  the  married  ladies  of  the

metropolis  (and  many  others  afterwards)  16  Aug. ,,
Her  trial  commences ....  19  Aug. „

Last  debate  on  the  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  when
the  report  was  approved  by  108  against  99 ;  the
numerical  majority  of  nine  being  produced  by  the
votes  of  the  ministers  themselves.  Lord  Liver-
pool moves  that  the  bill  be  reconsidered  that  day

siv  months 10  Nov. 1820

■Great  public  exultation ; illuminations  for three

nights  in  London . . . 10,  n,  12  Nov. ,,
The  queen  goes  to  St.  Paul's  in  state . 29  Nov. ,,
She  protests  against  her  exclusion  from  the  corona-
tion, 19  July ;  taken  ill  at  Drury-lane  theatre,  30
July  ;  dies  at  Hammersmith  ... 7  Aug. 1821
Her  remains  removed  on  their  route  to  Brunswick  ;
an  alarming  riot  occurs ;  two  persons  were  killed
in  an  affray  with  the  guards . .  14  Aug. ,,

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  Ship  of  War,

•a  first-rate  ship  of  the  line,  of  1 10  guns,  the  flag-
chip  of  lord  Keith,  then  commanding  in  chief  in
the  Mediterranean,  was  burnt  by  an  accidental  fire,
•off  the  harbour  of  Leghorn,  and  more  than  700
British  seamen  out  of  a  crew  of  850  perished  by  fire
or  drowning,  17  March,  1800.

QUEEN'S  ADVOCATE,  prosecutes  or  de-
fends on  the  part  of  the  crown  in  all  cases  in  the
■court  of  admiralty.  Sir  R.  J.  Phillimore,  ap-
pointed in  1862,  was  succeeded  by  sir  Travers
Twiss,  Aug.  1867,  who  resigned  in  March,  1872 ;
no  successor  appointed.

QUEENS  BENCH  COURT  and  PRI-
SON, sec  King's  Bench.

QUEEN'S  COLLEGES,  see  Cambridge  and
•Oxford.  Queen's  colleges,  Ireland,  from  their  un-
•eectarian  character  termed  the  "  Godless  Colleges,"


were  instituted  in  1845,  to  afford  education  of  the
highest  order  to  all  religious  denominations.  They
were  placed  at  Belfast,  "Cork,  and  Gal  way;  the  last
was  opened  on  30  Oct.  1849.  —The  "  Queen's  Uni-
versity in  Ireland,"  comprehending  these  colleges,
was  founded  by  patent,  15  Aug.  1850 ;  the  earl  of
Clarendon,  lord  lieutenant,  the  first  chancellor.
These  were  "condemned"  by  the  Propaganda  and
the  pope,  and  by  a  majority  (a  small  one)  of  the
Irish  bishops  hi  a  synol  held  at  Thurles,  in  Sept.
1850.  A  supplemental  charter,  granted  in  June,
1866,  created  much  dissension  when  acted  upon  in
October  following,  and  was  suffered  to  expiie,  31
Jan.  1868;  see  Colleges.

A  government  commission  of  inquiry  into  the  col-
leges was  appointed  about  . . . May,  1876
Dissolution  of  the  Queen's  University  enacted,  ano-
ther to  be  created,  by  42  &  43  Vict.  c.  65,  passed
15  Aug.  1879.

QUEENSLAND,  Moreton  -  bay,  a  Biitish
colony,  comprising  the  whole  of  the  north-eastern
portion  of  Australia ;  was  separated  from  New  South
Wales  and  made  a  distinct  colony,  in  1859,  when
Brisbane,  the  capital,  founded  by  Oxley,  1823,  was
made  a  bishopric.  Chinese  immigrants  are  virtually
excluded.

Sir  George  Fergusson  Bowen,  the  first  governor,
succeeded  by  Mr.  Blackall,  1868  ;  the  marquis  of
Normanby,  1871  ;  Mr.  Wm.  Wellington  Cairns,
1874  ;  sir  Arthur  E.  Kennedy,  Jan.  1877;  sir  An-
thony Musgrave,  March,  1883 ;  died  9  Oct.  1S88 ;  sir
Henry  Arthur  Blake  Nov.  (objected  to  by  the
colony) ;  resigns  about  27  Nov.  ;  sir  Henry
Wylie  Norman  appointed  Nov.  1888 ;  well
received  1  May.  ;  opens  the  parliament  with
speech  noticing  the prosperity of  the  colony

21  May,  1889
Report  of  royal  commission,  25  April,  1885  ;  on
recruiting  in  South  Pacific  Isles  for  labourers  for
sugar  plantations  in  North  Queensland,  discloses
much  deceit  aid  cruelty,  especially  in  the  ship
Hopeful,  capt.  Slnw,  May;  Neil  McNeil,  agent,
and  Williams,  bDatswain,  were  convicted  of
murder  (not  executed)  1884;  404  islanders  sent
home,  announced  .  .  6  June  ;  others  in  July,  1885
North  Queensland  made  a  bishopric  187S  ;  agitation

of  North  Queensland  for  separation  July,  ct  set/.  ,,
Loan  of  1,554,000/.  authorised  .  .  .15  Nov.  1889
Mount  Morgan,  a  grazing  district  of  640  acres,  in
central  Queenslan  1,  bought,  by  Donald  Gordon
for  5s.  an  acre,  was  sold  by  him  to  Messrs.  Morgan
for  1/.  an  acre  :  in  1882  they  discovered  gold,  and
formed  a  partnership  with  Messrs.  Hall  and  others.
The  product  of  gold  enormously  increased,  and
in  1886,  a  new  company  was  formed  with  a  capital
of  1,000,000/.,  which  is  said  to  have  paid  very

large  dividends. Nov. .,

Disastrous  floods,  about  800  miles  of  land  submerged

through  heavy  rains  .  .  announced  5  Jan.  1890
The  cabinet  re-arranged  ;  hon.  B.  D.  Morehead  still

premier announced  6  Jan. ,,

Destructive cyclone ; Cardwell, a small town-
ship, nearly  destroyed . . about  31  March, „
Resignation  of  Mr. Morehead's  ministry, 7  Aug.  ;

succeeded  by  Sir  S.  W.  Griffith's . ' 8  Aug. ,,
Labour  disputes  and  riots  in  central  Queensland,

about  21  March  ;  suppressed  .  .  26  March,  1891
The  Shearers'  Union,  very  active . .  1S90-1

Strike  of  the  shearers  collapses reported  14  June,  1891
Very  large  crop  of  wheat  and  wool reported  8  Dee. ,,
Misunderstanding  between  sir  Thomas  M'llwraith
and  the  Bank  of  England  respecting  a  loan,  Sept.-
Dec,  1891  ;  explanations  given,  March  ;  amicable
settlement ...  . . 3  May,  1892

North  and  Central  Queensland  petition  for  separa-
tion from  tire  colony  ;  the  British  government

recommends  delay May, ,

Revival  of  the  employment  of  Kanaka  labourers,

under  restrictions  ;  bill  passed reported  6  May ,,
The  separation  question  deferred  by  government

Aug. .,
Population  in  1859,  about  23,450;  in  1871,  125,146  ;
in  1875,  about  163,182;  in  1884,  301,577;  in  1891,
393. 7'S.


QUEENS OF ENGLAND.


800


QUIEINUS.


Chief  exports,  wool,  gold,  copper,  tallow,  lire  stock,
cotton,  and  sugar  ;  value  in  1871,  2,560,383?. ;
1883,  5,276,608/..  Imports  in  1887,  5,821,611/.  ;
exports,  6,453,945/.

Revenue  1887,  3,032,463/.  ;  expenditure,  3,350,049/.
i888-g,revenue,  -s,  636,000/. ;  expenditure  3,510,000/.
1889-go,  revenue,  3,260,308/.;  expenditure,
3,745,217/.;  imports,5,o66,7oo/.;  exports,8,554,5i2/.

QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND,  see  under  Eng-
land.
QUEEN'S  THEATRE,  see  Opera  House.
QUEEN'S  TITLE,  see  Royal  Style.

QUEENSTOWN  (Upper  Canada) .  This  town ,
on  the  river  Niagara,  was  taken  in  the  war  with
America  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States,  13  Oct.
18 1 2 ;  but  was  retaken  by  the  British  forces,  who
defeated  the  Americans  with  considerable  loss  in
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  on  the  same-  day.
Queenstown  suffered  severely  in  this  war. — The
Cove  of  Cork  was  named  Queenstown,  3  Aug.  1849.,
by  the  queen  on  her  visit.

QUEEN'S  UNIVERSITY  (see  Queen's  Col-
leges) ,  was  directed  to  be  dissolved  by  42  &  43  Vict.
c.  65  (1879),  and  was  dissolved  by  proclamation,  31
Jan.  1882;  see  University  of  Ireland.

QUEEN VICTORIA Steam Ship.

Wrecked  15  Feb.  1853 ;  see  Wrecks.

QUENTIN,  ST.  (N.  France).  The  duke  of
Savoy,  with  the  army  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  as-
sisted by  the  English,  defeated  the  French  under
the  constable  De  Montmorency,  at  St.  Quentin,  10
Aug.  1557.  In  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  before
the°  engagement,  the  king  built  the  monastery,
palace,  &c,  the  Escurial,  considered  by  the  Span-
iards the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world  ;  see  Escurial.
During  the  Franco-German  war  the  army  of  the  north,
under  Faidherbe,  was  defeated  here  by  the  Ger-
mans after  seven  hours'  fighting,  on  19  Jan.  1871 ;
total  loss  about  15,000  :  the  German  loss  about
3100.

QUERETARO  (Mexico),  was  besieged  and
taken  (through  the  treachery  of  Lopez)  by  the
liberal  general  Escobedo,  15th  May,  1867.  The
emperor  Maximilian  and  his  generals  Miramon  and
Mejia,  were  taken  prisoners,  and,  after  trial  were
shot  19  June  following.

QUERN  or  HANDMILIi,  is  probably  the  im-
plement spoken  of  in  Isaiah  xlvii.  2,  about  712  B.C.
So-called  .Roman  querns  have  been  found  in  York-
shire.

QUESNOY  (N.  France),  was  taken  by  the
Austrians,  II  Sept.  1793,  but  was  recovered  by  the
Fienc'n,  16  Aug.  1794-  It  surrendered  to  prince
Frederick  of  the  Netherlands,  29  June,  1815,  after
the  bittle  of  Waterloo.— It  was  here  that  cannon
were  first  used,  and  called  bombards. He'nault.

QUETTAH,  see  JBcloocJdslan.

QUIBERON  BAY  (W.  France).  A  British
force  landed  here,  Sept.  1746,  but  was  repulsed.  In
the  bay  admiral  Hawkc  gained  a  complete  victory
over  the  French  admiral  Conflans,  and  thus  defeated
the  projected  invasion  of  Great  Britain,  20  Nov.
1759.  Quiberon  was  taken  by  some  French  regi-
ments in  the  pay  of  England,  3  July,  1795  ;  but  on
21  July,  through  treachery,  the  French  republicans,
under  'lloche,  retook  it  by  surprise,  and  many  emi-
grants were  executed.  About  900  of  the  troops,
and  nearly  1500  royalist  inhabitants  who  had  joined
tne  regiments  in  the  pay  of  Great  Britain,  effected
their  embarkation  on  board  the  ships.


QUICKSILVER,  in  its  liquid  state,  mercury.
Its  use  in  refining  silver  was  discovered,  1540.
There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  the  chief  of
which  are  at  Almaden,  in  Spain,  and'atldria,  in
Illyria ;  the  latter,  discovered  by  accident  in  1497,
for  several  years  yielded  1200  tons.  A  mine  was
discovered  at  Ceylon  in  1797;  and  at  New  Almaden
and  other  places  in  California.  Quicksilver  was-
congealed  in  winter  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1759.  It
was  congealed  in  England  by  a  chemical  process,
without  snow  or  ice,  by  Mr.  AValker,  in  1787.  Cor-
rosive sublimate,  a  deadly  poison,  is  a  combination-
of  mercury  and  chlorine ;  see  Calomel.

QUICUNQUE  VULT,  see  Athanasian.
Creed.

QUIETISM,  the  doctrine  of  Miguel  Molmos*
a  Spaniard  (1627-96),  whose  work,  the  "Spiritual
Guide,"  published  in  1675,  wras  the  foundation  of  a,
sect  in  France.  He  held  that  religion  consisted  in
an  internal  silent  meditation  on  the  merits  of
Christ  and  the  mercies  of  God.  Madamede  la.
Mothe-Guyon,  a  quietist,  was  imprisoned  in  the-
Bastile  for  her  visions  and  prophecies,  but  released
through  the  interest  of  Fenelon,  archbishop  of
Cambray,  between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of
Meaux,  arose  a  controversy,  1697.  Quietism  was-
finally  condemned  by  pope  Innocent  XII.  in  1699.

QUILLS  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for
pens  in  553 ;  some  say  not  before  635.

QUINCE,  the  Pyrus  Cydom'a,  brought  to  this
country  from  Austria,  before  1573.  The  Japan
quince,  or  Pyrus  Japonica,  brought  hither  from
Japan,  1796.

QUINDECEMVIRI,  fifteen  men,  chosen  to
keep  the  Sybilline  books.  The  number,  originally
two  (duumviri),  about  520  B.C.,  was  increased  to
ten  in  365  B.C.,  and  afterwards  (probably  by  Sylla)
to  fifteen,  about  82  B.C.  Julius  Caesar  added  one  J
but  the  precedent  was  not  followed.

QUININE  or  QuiNlA,  an  alkaloid  (much
used  in  medicine),  discovered  in  1820  by  Pelletier
and  Caventou.  It  is  a  probable  constituent  of  all
genuine  cinchona  barks,  especially  of  the  3'ellow
bark;  see  Jesuits'  Bark.  Artificial  quinine  wras
prepared  (synthetically)  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Scott,  in
Oct.  i36S- — Quinoidixe,  see  Fluorescence.  John
Eliot  Howard,  promoter  of  the  cultivation  of  cin-
chona in  India,  and  author  of  "  Quinologia  "  (1862)
died  22  Nov.  1883.

QUINQUAGESIMA  SUNDAY.  The  ob-
servation is  said  to  have  been  appointed  by  Gregory
the  Great  (pope,  590-604).  The  first  Sunday  in
Lent  having  been  termed  Quadragesima,  and  the
three  weeks  preceding  having  been  appropriated  to
the  gradual  introduction  of  the  Lent  fast,  the  three
Sundays  of  these  weeks  were  called  by  names  sig-
nificant of  their  position  in  the  calendar:  and
reckoning  by  decades  (tenths),  the  Sunday  pre-
ceding Quadragesima  received  its  present  name,
Quinquagesima,  the  s«cond  Sexagesima,  and  the
third  Septuageslma.

QUINTILIANS,  heretics  in  the  2nd  century,
the  disciples  of  Montanus,  who  took  their  name
from  Quintilia,  a  lad]'  whom  he  had  deceived  by
bis  pretended  sanctity,  and  whom  they  regarded  as
a  prophetess.  They  made  the  eucharist  of  bread
and  cheese,  and  allowed  women  to  be  priests  and
bishops. Pardon.

QUIRINUS,  a  Sabine  god,  whose  name  was
given  to  Romulus  after  his  death.  L.  Papirius
Cursor,  general  in  the  Roman  army,  first  erected  a


QUITO.


801


QUO WARRANTO ACT.


sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Qnirinus,  from  which  time
the  days  began  to  be  divided  into  hours,  293  B.C.
Aspin.  The  sun-dial  was  sometimes  called  the
Quirinus,  from  the  original  place  in  which  it  was
set  up.  Ashe.  The  Sabines  who  became  Eoman
citizens  were  termed  Quirites.

QUITO  (capital  of  the  republic  of  Equator),
founded  in  1534,  was  the  scene  of  the  measure-
ment of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French
and  Spanish  mathematicians,  1736-42.  Forty  thou-
sand persons  perished  by  an  earthquake  which
almost  overwhelmed  the  city  of  Quito,  4  Feb.  1797.
Since  then  violent  shocks,  but  not  so  disastrous,
occurred  ;  till  one,  on  22  March,  1859,  when  about
5000  persons  were  killed;  see  Earthquakes  and
Equator.

QUIXOTE,  see  Bon  Quixote.

QUOITS,  a  game  said  to  have  originated  with
the  Greeks,  and  to  have  been  first  played  at  the
Olympic  games,  by  the  Idsei  Dactyli,  fifty  years
after  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  1453  b.  c.  1'erseus,
the  grandson  of  Acrisius,  by  Danae,  having  inad-
vertently slain  his  grandfather,  when  throwing  a
quoit,  exchanged  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  to  which


he  was  heir,  for  that  of  Tirynthus,  and  founded  the
kingdom  of  Mycenre,  about  1313  B.C.

QUOTATIONS.  Athenseus's  "Deijmosophistce
or  Banquet  of  the  Learned"  (compiled  about  228),
and  Burton's  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy"  (1621),
contain  masses  of  extracts.  Henry  Ainsworth's
"  Communion  of  Saints"  (died  1622),  is  a  mosaic  of
Scripture  quotations.

Maedonnel's "Dictionary  of Quotations," 1796;
Moore's 1831

Riley's  "Dictionary  of  Latin  Quotations,"  with,  a
Selection  of  Greek,  published  by  H.  Bohn . . 1856

Collections  of  English  Quotations  are  now  numerous  :
Friswell's  "  Familiar  Words,"  2nd  ed. . . 1866
Bartlett's  "  Familiar  Quotations  " . . . 1869
Adams'  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Poetical  Quotations  " .  1853
Bohn's  "Dictionary  of  Poetical  Quotations  "  . .  1881

QUO  WARRANTO  ACT,  passed  1280.  By
it  a  writ  may  be  directed  to  any  person  to  inquire
by  what  authority  he  holds  any  office  or  franchise.
Charles  II.  directed  a  writ  against  the  corporation  of
London  in  1683,  and  the  court  of  king's  bench  de-
clared their  charter  forfeited.  The  decision  was
reversed  in  1690.  The  proceedings  have  been  regu-
lated by  various  acts,  1710,  1792,  1837,  1843.


3  F


E.


EABBITS.


EADCLIFFE LIBBABY.


EABBITS,  see  New  South  Wales,  1887.

EABELAIS  CLUB,  to  promote  the  study  of
Rabelais  and  the  illustration  of  his  works; 'lord
Houghton,  sir  W.  Frederick  Pollock  and  his  sons,
Walter  Besant,  and  others ;  first  meeting,  Dec.  1879.
Rabelais  Gallery,  Pall  Mall  Bast,  opened  to  the
press,  13  Oct. ;  at  the  instance  of  the  National
Vigilance  Association,  four  pictures  were  seized
. as  indecent  by  the  police,  3  Nov.  ;  Mr. J. F.
Sutton  and  Mr.  H.  Scarborough,  the  exhibitors,
were  prosecuted  at  Bow  Street,  5  Nov.  ; corn-
mi  ted  for  trial;  21  pictures  ordered  to  be  de-
stroyed, 12  Nov.  ;  Messrs.  Sutton  &  Scarborough
convicted,  18  Dec.  1890  ;  fined  25?.  each ;  the  pic-
tures ordered  to  be  returned  to  France  18  April,  1891

EABIES,  see  Hydrophobia.

EACES,  one  of  the  ancient  games  of  Greece.
Horse-races  were  known  in  England  in  very
early  times.  Fitz-Stephen,  in  the  days  of  Henry
II.,  mentions  the  delight  taken  by  the  citizens
of  London  in  the  diversion.  In  James  I.'s
reign  Croydon  in  the  south,  and  Garterly  in  the
north,  were  celebrated  courses.  Near  York  there
were  races,  and  the  prize  was  a  little  golden  bell,
1607.  Camden.  In  the  end  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,
races  were  performed  at  Hyde  Park.  Charles  II.
patronised  them,  and  instead  of  bells,  gave  a  silver
bowl,  or  cup,  value  100  guineas.  William  III.
added  to  the  plates  (as  did  queen  Anne) ,  and  founded
an  academy  for  riding.

The  first  racing  calendar  is  said  to  have  been  pub-
lished by  John  Cheney I727

Act  for  suppressing  races  by  ponies  and  weak
horses,  19  Geo.  11 I73n

The  most  eminent  races  in  England  are  those  at
Newmarket  {which  see),  established  by  Charles  IT.
1667;  and  at  Epsom,  begun  about  1711 ;  by  Mr.
Parkhurst  (annual  since  1730,  Allen's  Surrey).
[The  earl  of  Derby  began  the  Oaks,  1779;  the
Derby,  1780  (first  won  by  Diomed)].  See  Derby
Day.

At  Ascot,  begun  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  uncle
to  George  III.  ;  mentioned 1727

At  Doncaster,  by  col.  St.  Leger(the  St.  Leger  stakes
were  founded  in  1776,  and  so  named  in  1777) . 1776

At  Goodwood,  begun  by  the  duke  of  Richmond,  in
his  park l8o2

Lord  Stamford,  said  to  have  engaged  Jemmy  Grim-
shaw,  a  light-weight  jockey,  at  a  salary  of  1000Z.
a  year March,  1865

"Tattersall's,"  the  "high-change  of  horse-flesh,"
was  established  by  Richard  Tattersall,  near  Hyde
Park  Corner  (hence  termed  "the  Corner")  in  1766,
for  the  sale  of,  horses.  The  lease  of  the  ground
having  expired,  the  new  premises  at  Brompton
were erected and opened for business on

v  10  April,  1865

The  Jockey  Club,  which  now  chiefly  regulates  races
and  the  betting  connected  with  them,  was  founded
in  1750.  Its  gradually  accumulating  rules  were
modified  in  1828  and  revised  in  . . .  ^57

Alterations  recommended  by  a  committee  appointed
in  April ;  adopted  by  the  club  16  July  following  . 1870

Rules  revised,  Nov.  1876;  reforms  made  . . 1880

Resolved  that  a  shorthand-writer  be  present  at  the
meetings t6  April, 1890

John  Scott,  a  most  eminent  trainer,  died,  aged  77,

Oct.  1871

Betting.  Between  1858  and  1868,  7S,oooZ.  and
115,000?.  have  been  won  upon  a  single  race.
Betting  is  now  much  reprobated  ;  see  Betting.


Gate-meetings :  Races  held  in  fields  by  publicans
and  others  ;  Metropolitan  Race-course  Act  (42  &
43  Vict.  c.  18),  to  check  them,  passed . 3  July,  1879

Tom  Chaloner,  celebrated  jockey,  dies  March,  1886

Fred.  Archer,  very  successful  jockey,  winner  of
2,746  races,  aged  29,  committed  suicide  with  a
revolver  when  in  a  state  of  high  fever  (left  by  will
70,000?.) 8  Nov. ,,

Charles  Wood,  jockey,  v.  Cox,  for  libel  in  Licensed
Victuallers'  Gazette,  charging  Wood  with  pulling
the  head  of  Success  in  two  races  ;  nine  days'
trial  in  queen's  bench  division  ;  verdict  for
plaintiff  damages  one  farthing  and  no  costs
allowed 29  June,  18.8S

Sir  George  Chetwynd  v.  the  earl  of  Durham,  see
Trials 29  June,  1880

Suspected  poisoning  of  the  duke  of  Westminster's
Orme,  to  prevent  his  running  . . 28  April,  1892

RACE-HORSES

Flying  Cliilders,  bred  in  1715  by  the  duke  of  Devon-
shire, was  allowed  by  sportsmen  to  have  been  the  fleetest
horse  that  ever  ran  at  Newmarket,  or  that  was  ever  bred
in  the  world  ;  he  ran  four  miles  in  six  minutes  and  forty-
eight  seconds,  or  at  the  rate  of  35^  miles  an  hour,  carry-
ing nine  stone  two  pounds.  "He  died  in  1741,  aged
26  years.

Eclipse  was  the  fleetest  horse  that  ran  in  England  since
the  time  of  Childers  ;  he  was  never  beaten,  and  died  in
February,  1789,  aged  25  years.  His  heart  weighed  141b.,
winch  accounted  for  his  wonderful  spirit  and  courage.
Christie  White's  Hist,  of  the  Turf.
On  the  accession  of  queen  Victoria,  the  royal  stud

was  sold  for  16,476?..  on  .  .  .  .25  Oct.  1837
The  comtede  la  Grange's  stud  (in  consequence  of  the

war)  was  sold  for  23,730?.  Gladiateur  fetched  5800?.  1870
Middle-park  stud  (property  of  Mr.  Blenkiron,  de-
ceased) sold  for  102,005  guineas  ;  Blair  Athol,  for
i2,oooZ.  (to  the  English  Stud  Company)  ;  4  days'

sale 26  July,  1872

Lieut.  Lubowitz,  Hungarian,  rode  from  Vienna  to
Paris,  on  his  horse  Caradoc,  in  15  days,  winning

a  wager,  arriving 9  Nov.  1874

Death  of  Comte  Frederic  Lagrange,  eminent  French

studmaster 22  Nov.  1883

Lord  Falmouth's  stud  sold  for  36,420  guineas  ;  (Har-
vester 8,600  guineas  ;  Busybody  8,800  guineas)
28  April ;  and  for  75,440  guineas . 30  June,  18S4

BACK,  an  engine  of  torture,  for  extracting  a
confession  from  criminals,  mentioned  by  Demos-
thenes, de  Corona,  B.C.  330,  and  in  later  times  an
instrument  of  the  Inquisition.  Lord  Coke  states
from  tradition  that  the  duke  of  Exeter,  in  the  reign
of  Henry  VI.,  erected  a  rack  of  torture  (thence  called
the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter,  now  seen  in  the
Tower,  1447).  In  the  case  of  Felton,  who  murdered
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  the  judges  of  England
protested  against  the  proposal  of  the  privy  council
to  put  the  assassin  to  the  rack,  as  contrary  to  the
laws,  1628 ;  the  use  of  the  rack  was  abolished  1640.
See  Ravaillac  and  Torture.

EADCLIFFE  Library,  Oxford,  founded

under  the  will  of  Dr.  John  Kadcliffe,  an  eminent
physician.  He  died  1  Nov.  1714,  leaving  40,000^.
to  the  university  of  Oxford  for  the  founding  a
library,  the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  17  May,
1737,  and  the  edifice  was  opened  13  April,  1749. —
The  Kadcliffe  Observatory,  Oxford,  founded  by
the  exertions  of  Dr.  Hornsby,  Savilian  professor  of
astronomy,  about  1771,  was  completed  in  1794.  The
publication  of  the  observations  was  commenced  in
1842,  by  Mr.  Manuel  J.  Johnson,  the  director,  ap-
pointed in  1839.


EADIATION.


803


EAILWAYS.


EADIATION,  see  Seat.

EADICALS  or  "Eadical  Eeformers,"

persons  who  professed  to  aim.  at  procuring  a  thorough
reformation  in  the  government  and  policy  of  Eng-
land, became  prominent  in  1816,  when  Hampden
clubs  were  formed,  of  which  sir  Francis  Burdett,
lord  Cochrane,  major  Cartwright,  and  William
Cobbett  were  prominent  members.  Samuel  Bam-
ford's  "  Life  of  a  Radical,"  published  in  1842,  gives
much  information  ;  he  died  13  April,  1872.  Many
radicals  were  severely  punished,  1817-20.  Win.
Harris's  "  History  of  the  Radical  Party,"  published
early  in  1885. — The  "Radicals"  in  the  United
States  were  the  party  headed  by  Thaddeus  Stevens,
bitterly  opposed  to  the  policy  of  president  Johnson,
as  too  favourable  to  the  subdued  Southern  States.

The  Radical  Programme,  advocated  by  the  rt.  hon.
Joseph  Chamberlain,  widely  circulated,  first
appeared  July,  1885,  in  the  Fortnightly  Review;
it  included  reform  of  the  land  laws,  free  education,
increased  local  government,  reform  in  taxation
and  finance,  improvement  of  condition  of  agri-
cultural labourers  and  of  the  poor,  and  religious
equality  and  dis-establishment  of  national
churches.  Which  tended  to  disorganise  the
liberal  party.

Mr.  C.  C.  Greville  (Journal,  25  Aug.  1837)  describes
"Tory  Radicals."  Some  politicians  were  so
termed  in 1885

The  National  Radical  Union  at  its  fourth  anniver-
sary at  Birmingham,  Mr.  Chamberlain  in  the
chair,  changed  its  name  to  National  Liberal
Union 24  April,  1889

EADICLE,  see  Compound.

EADIOMETEE,  &c.  (termed  a  light-mill),  a
little  instrument  constructed  by  Mr.  Wm.  Crookes,
F.R.S.,  1873-6.  Two  little  disk  arms,  mounted  on  a
pivot  and  placed  in  an  exhausted  glass-bulb,  revolve
when  placed  in  bright  light.  The  motion  was
attributed  to  heat-absorption,  1877;  see  Light.
Radiophone.  By  this  apparatus  professor  Bell,  at  Phila-
delphia, showed  how  a  ray  of  strong  light,  acting  on  a
selenium  cell,  conveyed  sound  500  feet,  Sept.  1884.

EADSTADT,  Austria.  Here  Moreau  and  the
French  defeated  the  Austrians,  5  July,  1796.

EAFFAELLE  WAEE,  see  Pottery.

SAGGED  SCHOOLS,  free  schools  for  out-
cast destitute  ragged  children,  set  up  in  large  towns.
The  instruction  is  based  on  the  scriptures,  and  most
of  the  teachers  are  unpaid.  John  Pounds,  a  cobbler,
of  Portsmouth,  who  died  in  1839,  opened  a  school  of
this  kind  ;  and  one  was  set  up  by  Andrew  Walker,
in  "Devil's  Acre,"  Westminster,  in  1839.  Knight.
They  did  not  receive  their  name  till  1844,  when  the
"  Ragged  school  union"  was  formed,  principally  by
Mr.  S.  Starey  and  Mr.  Wm.  Locke  (afterwards  hon.
secretary).  The  earl  of  Shaftesbury  was  chairman.
In  1856  there  were  150  Ragged  school  institutions.
Sunday  ragged  schools  reported  in  London  in
1867,  226;  in  1878,  177;  day  schools,  in  1867,
204;  in  1878,58;  week  evening  schools,  in  1867,
207,  in  1878,  147.  Ragged  school  buildings  were
exempted  from  rates,  1869.  The  clay  schools  are
being  gradually  superseded  by  those  established  by
the  London  school  board ;  but  the  Sunday  and
night  schools,  mother's  meetings,  &c,  are  still
maintained  in  very  great  efficiency  (r886).  The
union  has  many  affiliated  institutions  (1892).  Dr.
Guthrie,  a  founder  of  ragged  schools  in  Edinburgh,
&c.,  died  24  Feb.  1873.  The  earl  of  Shaftesbury
presided  at  the  40th  anniversary  of  the  Ragged
School  Union,  12  May,  1884. See  Shoe-Black.

EAGMAN  EOLL  (said  to  derive  its  name
from  Ragimunde,  a  papal  legate  in  Scotland)  con-


tains the  records  of  the  homage  and  fealty  to
Edward  I.,  sworn  to  by  the  nobility  and  clergy  of
Scotland  at  Berwick  in  1296.  The  original  was
given  up  to  Robert  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  in  1328,
when  his  son  David  was  contracted  in  marriage  to
the  princess  Joanna  of  England.

EAGUSA,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  on  the  south
confines  of  Dalmatia,  was  taken  by  the  Venetians,
1 171,  but  became  an  independent  republic,  1358.
Tt  suffered  much  \>y  an  earthquake,  1667 ;  was
taken  by  the  French  in  1806,  and  given  up  to
Austria  in  18 14.

EAID  OF  Euthven,  see  Ruthven.

EAILWAY  COMMISSIONEES;  seeRail-
ivays,  1873  and  1880.

EAILWAYS.  Short  roads,  in  and  about  New-
castle, laid  down  by  Mr.  Beaumont,  so  early  as
1602,  are  thus  mentioned  in  1676  : — "The  manner
of  the  carriage  is  by  laying  rails  of  timber  from  the
colliery  to  the  river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel ;
and  bulky  carts  are  made  with  four  rollers  fitting
those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy  that  one
horse  will  draw  down  four  or  five  chaldron  of  coals,
and  is  an  immense  benefit  to  the  coal  merchants."
Roger  North.  They  were  made  of  iron  at  White-
haven, in  1738.  See  Gauges,  Tramroads.  For
electric  railways  see  Electricity.

An  iron  railway  laid  down  near  Sheffield  by  John
Curr  (destroyed  by  the  colliers) . . . .  1776

The  first  considerable  iron  railway  was  laid  down
at  Colebrook  Dale 1786

The  first  iron  railway  sanctioned  lay  parliament  (ex-
cept a  few  undertaken  "by  canal  companies  as
small  branches  to  mines)  was  the  Surrey  iron
railway  (by  horses),  from  the  Thames  at  Wands-
worth to  Croydon 1801

Trevethick  and  Vivian  obtained  a  patent  for  a  high
pressure  locomotive  engine 1802

William  Hedley  of  Wylam  colliery  made  the  first
travelling  engine  (locomotive),  or  substitute  for
animal  power  in  a  colliery 1813

The  first  locomotive  constructed  by  George  Stephen-
son, travelled  at  the  rate  of  6  miles  per  hour .  1814

The  Rocket  travelled  at  the  rate  of  25  and  35  miles
per  hour 1829

(It  obtained  the  prize  of  500?.  offered  by  the  directors
of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  com-
pany for  the  best  locomotive,  Oct.  1829.)

The  Firefly  attained  a  speed  of  20  miles  per  hour . 1834

The  North  Star  moved  with  a  velocity  of  37  miles
per  hour 1839

At  the  present  time  locomotives  have  attained  a
speed  of  70  miles  per  hour.

Stockton  and  Darlington  railway,  constructed  by
Edw.  Pease  and  George  Stephenson,  first  opened
for  passengers  (see  1875-1881,  below)  . 27  Sept.  1825

The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  commenced
in  Oct.  1826,  and  opened  (Wm.  Huskisson,  M.P.,
killed) 15  Sept. 1830

Act  for  transmission  of  mails  by  railways  .  . . 1838

Duty  on  Railways: — hi.  a  mile  for  4  passengers
(2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  120),  1832  ;  5  per.  cent,  on  gross
receipts  (5  &  6  Vict.  c.  59) 1842

Railway  clearing  house  established . . . . ,,

The  examination  of  railway  schemes,  before  their
introduction  into  parliament,  by  the  Board  of
Trade,  was  ordered 1844

7  &  8  Vict.  c.  85,  required  companies  to  run  cheap
trains  every  day,  and  to  permit  erection  of  elec-
tric telegraphs,  and  authorised  government,  after
1  Jan.  1866,  to  buy  existing  railways  with  the
permission  of  parliament ,,

George  Hudson,  a  draper,  mayor  of  York  in  1839,
by  his  successful  management  as  chairman  of
the  Leeds  and  York  railway  and  others,  was  styled
the  "  railway  king  " ,,

An  act  passed  10  Vict,  for  constituting  commis-
sioners of  railways,  who  have  since  been  incor-
porated with  the  Board  of  Trade  . . 28  Aug. 1846

The  Railway  Mania  and  panic  year,  when  272  rail-
way acts  passed . . . . - , . „

3  F  2


EAILWAYS.


804


EAILWAYS.


Act  for  compensating  families  of  persons  killed  by

accidents  (see  Campbell's  Act) .... 1846
George  Stephenson  died  ... 12  Aug.  1848

Act  for  the  better  regulation  of  railways  .  .  .  1854
Bailway  Benevolent'lnstitution,  instituted  May,  1858
Act  to  enable  railway  companies  to  settle  differences

with  other  companies  by  arbitration . . .  1859
Eailway  Clauses  Consolidation  act  passed  . . . 1863
Joint  committee  of  both  houses  of  parliament  ap-
pointed to  report  on  railway  schemes  . 5  Feb.  1864
Murder  of  Mr.  Briggs  in  a  railway  carriage  (see
Trials  1864) 9  July „

(See  Atmospheric  and  Street  Railways.)

Period  of  "  contractors'  lines  " .... 1859-66

London,  Chatham,  and  Dover  company  suspend
payment;  directors  censured  for  their  policy . 1866

Bailway  Companies  Securities  act  passed .  Aug. ,,

A  Welsh  railway  train  (about  to  start)  seized  for
debt 27  Nov. ,,

250  railway  bills  passed,  1865 ;  only  98 ... 1867

Strike  of  350  men  on  London  and  Brighton  line,

25-27  March, „

Strike  of  500  on  North  Eastern  line,  11  April ;  over-
come by  the  company ... 25  April, „

Bailway  commission  report  against  the  government
buying  the  railways,  &c. . . .  May, „

Bailway  acts  amended  by  act  passed . 20  Aug. „

A  climbing  locomotive,  by  means  of  central  rails,
ascended  Mont  Cenis  in  1865.  [The  experiments
were  first  tried  on  the  High  Peak  railway,  Sept.
1863  and  Feb.  1864.]  The  railway  completed  and
traversed  by  a  locomotive  and  two  carriages,  con-
taining Mr.  Fell,  the  inventor  of  the  plan,  and
others ;  an  unexampled  journey  in  regard  to  steep-
ness of  gradients  and  the  elevation  of  the  summit
level,  6700  feet,  21  Aug.  1867.  After  successful
trials  in  May,  the  railway  was  opened 15  June,  1868

Lord  Cairns  (on  appeal)  decides  that  holders  of  de-
bentures are  responsible  as  qualified  proprietors,

28  Jan. „

Capt.  Yolland,  government  inspector,  reports  that
in  his  opinion  electric  communication  between
the  passengers  and  the  railway  servants  on  trains
stopping  only  at  long  intervals  is  necessary  and
practicable March, ,,

Bailway  Regulation  acts  passed . . .  1868,  1871

Conference  of  railway  shareholders  at  Manchester,

14,  15  April,  1868

Southern  Railways  Amalgamation  bill ;  opposed  in
the  lords ;  withdrawn .... June, „

Mont  Cenis  railway  opened  for  traffic . 15  June, „

New  act  to  amend  the  laws  relating  to  railways,
30  &,  31  Viet.  e.  119  ;  (it  orders  smoking  compart-
ments, and  communication  between  passengers
and  railway  servants  in  certain  trains ;  and  pro-
hibits trains  for  prize-fights,  &c.)  passed,  31  July, „

Midland  railway  station,  St.  Pancras  (which  see),
opened 1  Oct. ,,

New  route  to  Liverpool  (by  a  viaduct  over  the  Mer-
sey at  Buncorn),  opened . . . 1  April,  1869

Pacific  railway :  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific ;
opened 12  May, „

"Abandonment  of  Railways  act "  passed n  Aug. „

Railway  Companies  Powers  act  (1864)  and  Con-
struction Facilities  act  (1864)  amended  by  act
passed 20  June,  1870

"Bailway  Association"  established:  (it  consists  of
directors  and  representatives  of  shareholders,  to
watch  legislation,  &c.,) inaugural  dinner,  21  July, „

Under  the  London,  Dover,  and  Chatham  railway
act,  the  arbitrators,  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  and
lord  Cairns,  decide  for  the  amalgamation  of  the
general  undertaking;  extensions  for  award  pub-
lished Aug.  1871

Rigi  Mountain  railway  (up  to  4000  feet  above  sea
level),  opened 23  May, „

Mansion-house  station  of  the  Metropolitan  District
railway  inaugurated x  July, ,,

European  and  North  American  railway  opened  at
Bangor,  Maine tS  Oct. „

Proposed  amalgamation  of  the  Midland  and  Glas-
gow and  South- Western .  . . . .

Amalgamation  of  the  London  and  North-Western
and  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railways,  voted
by  companies 20  Oct. ,,

Forged  telegram  announcing  proposed  amalgama-
tion of  the  Midland  and  Manchester,  Sheffield,


and  Lincolnshire  railways  (led  to  purchase  of
shares,  and  affected  the  market),  about 23  Nov.  1871

George  Hudson,  the  "railway  king,"  died,  aged  71,

14  Dec. „

Strike  of  porters  of  London  and  North-Western
company;  settled . . .  26,  27  July,  1872

Death  of  Thos.  Brassey,  who  made  6600  miles  of
railways,whichcost78,ooo,oooL  (able,  honest, kind)  ,,

Parliamentary  committee  report  in  favour  of  rail-
way amalgamation,  pmblished . . . Aug. ,,

First  railway  in  Japan  opened  . . 12  June, „

One-rail  railway  laid  down  at  Paris  by  M.  Larmen-
jat,  reported  successful  for  short  distances Aug. ,,

Amalgamations  already  accomplished:  London  and
North-Western,  61  branch  lines ;  Great  Northern,
37 ;  Great  Eastern,  27 ;  London  and  Brighton,  22  ;
London  and  South- Western,  22  ;  Midland,  17 . ,,

Bailway  proposed  by  M.  de  Lesseps  from  Orenburg
to  Peshawur  (2500  miles),  to  connect  by  means  of
Bussian  and  East  Indian  railways  Calais  and
Calcutta May,  1873

Bill  for  amalgamation  of  London  and  North- Western
and  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  companies  rejected
by  the  commons  committee . . .23  May, „

New  Regulation  of  Bailways  Act  passed  (commis-
sioners to  be  appointed  to  carry  out  the  Act  of
1854),  21  July;  commissioners:  sir  Frederick
Peel,  Mr.  Price,  and  Mr.  Macnamara  ;  met  first
time it  Nov. ,,

First  railway  in  Persia  begun  at  Besht .  11  Sept. „

Railway  accidents  investigated  by  Capt.  Tyler ;  1871,
171  ;  in  1872,  246  ;  in  the  United  Kingdom  in
1872,  541  railway  servants  killed,  499  injured.

Circular  from  the  Board  of  Trade,  by  Mr.  Chichester
Fortescue,  to  the  railway  companies  respecting
the  increase  of  preventable  accidents  and  un-
punctuality 18  Nov. ,,

The  justificatory  replies  of  sir  Edward  Watkin  for
the  London  and  Brighton  Co.,  and  of  B.  Moon
for  the  L.  and  N.  W.  Co.  ;  from  other  companies

Dec. „

Ten  railway  servants  convicted  of  robbing  the  lug-
gage, severely  sentenced . . . .19  Nov. ,,

120  persons  killed  ;  48  without  their  own  fault ;  in
six  months 1873-4

The  Board  of  Trade's  reply  (by  Mr.  Malcolm)  to
the  railway  companies,  published  about 24  Feb.  1874

The  Pullman  palace  saloon  cars  (American)  intro-
duced on  the  Midland  railway,  21  March ;  opened
to  the  public . . . . . .  1  June, ,.,

Commission  to  inquire  into  causes  of  railway  acci-
dents agreed  to  by  government,  27  April ;  nomi-
nated (duke  of  Buckingham  and  others)  11  June, ,,

Circular  from  sir  C.  Adderley,  recommending  punc-
tuality and  care,  to  avoid  accidents  .  July, ,,

Bailway  Travellers'  Protection  Society  organised  ;
duke  of  Manchester,  president . . 23  July, „

Board  of  Trade  Arbitration  Act  passed . 30  July, „

New  standing  orders  respecting  labourers'  houses
removed  for  making  railways,  passed 30  July, „

Statement  of  railway  servants  :  that  632  were  killed
in  1872,  and  773  killed  in  1873  ;  many  injured ;
[asserted  to  be  less  than  the  truth] . .  Sept. „

Midland  railway  company  announces  change  of
fares  :  first-class  to  ihd.  a  mile  ;  second  class
abolished  ;  no  return  tickets  at  lower  fares ;
began 1  Jan.  1875

Other  companies  announce  reductions  in  fares  Jan. ,,

Persons  employed  on  railways  :  England,  228,958  ;
Scotland,  31,023  ;  Ireland,  14,554  >  total,  274,535  ;
(L.  &  N.  W.  company,  about  40,000) ;  announced

Jan. ,,

House  of  lords  on  appeal  decide  that  railway  com-
panies are  responsible  for  negligence  in  conveying
persons  and  goods,  although  they  disclaim  it  on
tickets 1  June, ,,

Great  trial  of  continuous  railway  brakes  on  Midland
railway,  near  Lowdham ;  Westinghouse  auto-
matic air  pressure  break  considered  the  best  June „'

Extension  of  Metropolitan  railway  to  Great  Eastern

opened,  10  July, „

Bailway  jubilee  at  Darlington  ;  50th  anniversary  of
opening  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  railway  ;
statue  of  Joseph  Pease  unveiled . . 27  Sept. ,,

Dr.  Strousberg,  "  German  railway  king,"  tried  for
fraud,  <fec,  at  Moscow j.876

Metropolitan  extension  to  Aldgate  opened  .  11  Nov. ,,


.


RAILWAYS.


805


RAILWAYS.


Elevated  street  railways  erected in  New York,

U.S.  A 1877-8

First  railway  in  China,  from  Shanghae  to  Oussoon
(11  miles),  constructed  by  Europeans;  at  first
opposed  ;  trial  trip,  16  March  ;  publicly  opened,
30  June,  1876; much  opposed;  stopped;  plant

taken  to  Formosa 1877-8

Folkestone  and  Dover  tunnel  injured  by  rains  ;

fallings  in I2)  I5  jan.  1877

Fusion  of  South-eastern  and  London,  Chatham,  &
Dover  companies,  voted  by  former  . .  18  Jan. ,,

Eailway  accident  commission  report :  recommend
that  the  companies'  responsibilities  be  not
diminished,  &c Feb.

-  Proposed  fusion  of  the  Great  Northern  and  Great
Eastern,  fails  June  ;  of  the  Manchester  and  Shef-
field and  Lincolnshire  with  the  Great  Northern
and  Midland,  fails Nov.

Many  embarrassed  subsidiary  lines  purchased  by
the  French  government  (for  about  n,ooo,oooZ.) . 1878

Great  increase  of  3i-d-elass  passengers,  receipts,
about  7,000,000?.  1869;  about  14, 000,000?. . . 1879

Sudden  strike  of  goods-guards  on  Midland  railway
through  alteration  of  mode  of  payment,  3  Jan.,
foils about  20  Jan. ,,

South-Eastern  railway  company  v.  Eailway  Commis-
sioners (who  had  given  orders  for  enlarging  station
at  Hastings,  &c),  Queen's  Bench  ;  verdict  restrict-
ing powers  of  the  commissioners  (see  above,  1873),
two  judges  against  one ... 13  Jan.  1880

Enlarged  dividends  on  the  principal  lines  for  half-
year  1  Jan.  to  30  June, ,,

Expended  on  railways  in  the  United  Kingdom,  about
720,000,000?.  (since  1829);  gross  annual  receipts
about  62,000,000?.,  net  earnings  about  30,000,000?.
reported Aug. „

Packet  of  dynamite  placed  on  rails  between  Bushey
and  Watford  (L.  <fc  N.  W.  Eailway),  night,  12-13

Sept. ,,

Board  of  Trade  circular  respecting  precautions
against  accidents,  &c.  (accidents  of  10,  11  Aug.
attributed  to  neglect) . . . .20  Sept. ,,

Eailway  rates  select  committee  meet . 10  March,  1881

Siemens'  &  Halske's  electrical  railway  at  Berlin,
i3^  miles  an  hour,  tried  12  May  ;  opened  to  the
public ....  .  X6  May, „

Centenary  of  George  Stephenson's  birth  celebrated
at  Newcastle,  Chesterfield,  the  Crystal  Palace,
London,  and  throughout  the  counties  of  Durham
and  Northumberland . . . .9  June, ,,

Murder  of  Mr.  Fk.  Isaac  Gold  in  a  carriage  on
London  and  Brighton  railway . . 27  June, ,,

[Percy  Lefroy  alias  Mapleton  arrested  on  suspicion,
8  July;  committed  for  trial,  21  July  ;  convicted,
8  Nov.  ;  executed ....  29  Nov.] ,,

Passenger  duty  received,  507,076?.  for  year  1872-3  ;
736,369?.  for  year  1875-6;  728,718?.  for  1876-7;
741,919?.  for  1877-S;  748,506?.  for  1880-1 ;  798,364?.
for 1881-2

International  congress  for  the  unification  of  the
rolling  stock  on  the  railways  at  Berne  opened

16  Oct.  1882

The  committee  on  railway  and  canal  rates  for  the
conveyance  of  persons,  merchandise,  <fec,  defer
their  report,  recommend  re-appointment  of  the
committee,  and  also  the  establishment  of  a  tri-
bunal to  decide  questions  and  enforce  decisions  ;
revision  of  rates,  &c,  early  Aug.  1881 ;  issue
report  with  few  recommendations . 27  July, ,,

A  Pullman  car  burned  near  Hunslet,  Dr.  Arthur
perishes 29  Oct. „

Eailway  passengers'  protection  association  estab-
lished

Caledonian  railway  strike,  traffic  partly  suspended  ;
Glasgow,  &c 15,  16,  17  Jan.  1883

A  compromise  ;  strike  ends  . . .  21  Jan. ,,

Proposed  reduction  of  duty  on  third  class  passengers

April, „

Metropolitan  railway  carried  36,753,321  passengers
in  six  months  without  accident  . „

Association  of  railway  shareholders  established;
meeting  held  in  London . . . .8  Aug. ,,

Existing:  railway  and  canal,  railway  companies,
railway  shareholders,  associations . . . ,,

Another  cheap  trains  act  passed . .  20  Aug. ,,

Northern  Pacific  railway  (2,500  miles)  opened  3  Sept. „

4,000?.  awarded  to  Rev.  Joseph  Lloyd  Brereton,  and
6,500?.  to  gen.  Brereton  for  injuries  caused  by


derangement  of  machinery,  <fcc,  28  July,  1882  ;

25,  26  Feb.

Parks  railway  bill  rejected  by  committee 20  May,

Railway  regulation  bill  making  it  a  permanent
court  of  record,  enlarging  powers,  &c,  read  first
time,  22  May;  dropped . . . .10  July,

M.  Lartigue's  balance  railway,  (single  rail)  re-
ported successful  in  Normandy  . .  June,

Eenewed  agitation  respecting  brakes  ;  the  board  of
trade's  recommendations  neglected

Metropolitan  Inner  Circle  completed ;  opened  1  Oct.

312,047  railway  servants  in  England . .  Oct.

Communication  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway
(Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  to  Port  Moody,  British
Columbia)  18  May  ;  work  completed . 7  Nov.

Death  of  Dr  E.  H.  Gilbert,  inventor  of  the  ele-
vated rail  system  used  in  New  York,  very  poor

Aug.

Eeceipts  of  twelve  leading  companies,  about
25,084,000?.  ..... Jan-June,

Win.  H.  Vanderbilt,  "Eailway  King,  '  dies  suddenly
at  New  York,  aged  64 . . . . 8  Dee.

Lawrie  v.  L.  &  S.  W.  Eailway ;  companies  may
increase  their  fares  on  days  of  extra  traffic  such
as  Ascot  races n  Dec.

459  railway  servants  killed  in

International  railway  congress,  Brussels,  opens  8
Aug.  1885  ;  at  Berne,  July,  1886  ;  and  June,

Mr.  Mundella  introduces  bill  for  constituting  a
new  court  of  record  for  railway  affairs  with  great
powers  ;  read  first  time  n,  12  March  ;  second
time  6  May,  1886  ;  introduced  (modified)  into  the
lords  by  lord  Stanley . . . .1  March,

The  South-Eastern  railway  company's  present  of
1,000?.  to  the  Imperial  Institute  March  ;  declared
to  be  illegal 6  May,

Midland  Eailway  ;  strike  of  2,713  drivers,  firemen,
&c. ;  traffic  continued  5  Aug.  ;  strike  gradually
fails Aug. -Sept.

International railway congress at Rome opens

17  Sept.

Thirty-four  principal  railway  lines  of  the  United
Kingdom  ;  net  divisible  profit  for  ordinary  share-
holders first  six  months,  1886  4,390,517?. ;  1887,
5,357,891?.

15th  annual  congress  of  Amalgamated  society  of
Eailway  Servants  at  Newcastle-ou-Tyne  ;  prudent
discussion  ;  Midland  strike  censured 4-7  Oct.

Trumpets  employed  for  signalling  near  Glasgow,
and  introduced  into  the  greater  lines autumn,

Leinwather,  an  Austrian,  publishes  his  improve-
ments in  portable  railways  for  military  purposes

Dee.

A  railway  between  Listowel  and  Ballybunion,
county  Kerry,  on  the  Lartigue  single-rail  system
opened 27  Feb.

Eailway  and  Canal  Traffic  Bill  passed  14  Aug.

State  purchase  of  the  railways  negatived  by  the
commons  without  a  division . . 4  May,

L.  &  N.  W.  company  run  trains  between  London
and  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  in  9  hours  from
1  June  ;  in  eight  hours  6  Aug  ;  the  Great  Northern
makes  similar  reductions . June  and  Aug.

First  railway  constructed  in  Persia,  from  Teheran  to
Shah-Abdul-Azim,  opened . .  25  June,

Direct  railway  communication  between  Constanti-
nople and  Vienna  completed . . .  Aug.

Central  Asian  railway  from  the  Caspian  to  Samarcand
opened May,

Mr.  Justice  Wills  appointed  president  of  the  railway
commission Dec.

First  regular  railway  in  China,  86  miles,  opened  Nov.

The  new  railway  and  canal  commission  begins  1  Jan.

Eailway  up  Mount  Pilatus,  Switzerland,  inaugu-
rated 4  June,

Bill  for  the  regulation  of  railways  relating  to  the
block  system,  brakes,  &c,  passed  . . Aug.

Great  swing  railway  bridge,  span  140  ft.,  over  the
Dee  declared  open  by  Mrs.  Gladstone . 2  Aug.

[It  gives  a  direct  route  to  the  Manchester,  Sheffield
and  Lincolnshire  Railway  into  Wales,  ami  also  to
the  Great  Northern  and  Midland  systems.]

International  railway  Congress  at  Paris . 14  Sept.

Deatli  of  sir  Daniel  Gooeh,  aged  73,  able  chairman
of  the  Great  Western .... 15  Oct.

Increased  dividends  through  improvement  in  trade

July-Dec.

International  railway  conference  at  Rome 15  Jan.


1890


EAILWAYS.


806


EAILWAYS.


City  and  South  London  Electric  railway  (see
Tunnels) .  . . 4  Nov.  and  18  Dec.  1

Underground  Central  London  Electric  Railway  bill
(from  Uxbridge-road  to  the  Bank),  passed  by  the
commons

Lynton  and  Lynmouth  cliff  railway,  steep  ascent,
worked  by  water,  opened  . .  7  April,

Dispute  between  the  South-Eastern  and  the  London
Chatham  &  Dover  railway  companies,  on  appeal
decided  by  the  house  of  lords  in  favour  of  the
latter  company 5  May,

Board  of  Trade  inquiry  (by  lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh
and  Mr.  Courtenay  Boyle)  as  to  the  rates  of
charges  for  the  carriage  of  goods,  concluded

Jan. -21  May

Tables  of  maximum  rates  issued  . . . July,

Proposed  establishment  of  the  New  Grand  Junction
company  to  unite  the  Manchester,  Sheffield  and
Lincolnshire  railway,  with  the  Metropolitan  and
other  railways,  so  as  to  form  a  new  line  to  the
north,  Oct.  1890  ;  bill  rejected . . . . 1

City  and  South  London  Electric  railway  formally
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  4  Nov.,  to  the
public 18  Dec. 1

First  annual  congress  of  railway  employes  of  all
grades  opened  at  the  Hope  Town -hall,  Bethnal-
green-road 18  Nov.

Strike  of  the  men  employed  in  the  Caledonian,
North  British,  Glasgow  and  S.W.  railways,  for
a  ten  hours'  day,  &e. . 22  Dec.  1890-31  Jan.  1

By  thegreat  exertions  of  Mr.Thompson,  manager
of  the  Caledonian  railway,  and  Mr.  Walker,
manager  of  the  Nortli  British  railway,  the  pas-
senger traffic  was  continued  with  much  difficulty,
but  the  goods  traffic  almost  suspended.  About
9,000  men  were  out  at  one  time.  Rioting  at  Mother-
well, at  the  eviction  of  railway  tenant  strikers,
was  quelled  by  military  and  police,  5  Jan.  et.  seq.
The  strike  ended  by  the  submission  of  the  men,
North  British,  29  Jan.,  Caledonian  31  Jan.

Select  committee  of  the  commons  on  the  working
hours  of  railway  servants,  sir  M.  H.  Beach  chair-
man, meets 10  March  et  seq.

The  Gliding  railway,  which  is  moved  by  hydraulic
power  over  a  thin  layer  of  water  was  exhibited
M.  A.  Barre,  at  the  Crystal  Palace  . 26  March

The  nine  Railway  Rates  and  Charges  bills  passed  .

5  Aug.

Brienzer  Rothhornbahn  railway  on  the  Alps,  the
highest  in  Europe,  opened . . early  Nov.

Receipts  of  12  great  companies,  33,028,558?.  *.

July-Dec.

Mr.  Christopher  Anderson's  (of  Leeds)  invention
for  carrying  off  smoke  and  foul  air  in  underground
railways  by  tubes,  tried  and  reported  successful
at  Neasden,  near  Willesden . . 26  March,  1

Death  of  sir  James  Joseph  Allport,  the  eminent
railway  manager,  especially  of  the  Midland,  aged
81 25  April,

Great  demonstration  of  railway  servants  in  Hyde-
park,  for  shorter  hours  and  increased  wages

15  May,

The  broad  gauge  totally  superseded,  on  the  Great
Western 20-23  May,

Sir  James  Brunlees,  eminent  railway  engineer,
dies,  aged  76  ■ 2  June,

Lancashire,  Derbyshire,  and  East  Coast  (East  and
West)  railway  begun  (incorporated  1891)  7  June,

Railway  traffic  amendment  act,  passed 27  June,

Central  London  railway  act  passed . 28  June,

Manchester,  Sheffield  &  Lincolnshire  railway  (with
extension  to  London) ;  third  reading  in  the  lords
suspended  by  dissolution . . .28  June

RAILWAYS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.

Net
Receipts.

£11,009,519

14.579.254
18,602,582
23,362,618
28,016,272
29.n5,35o
29.731,430
31,890,501
32,255,000
33,206.688


Capital

Miles

Year.

paid-up.

opened.

1851.

£240,897

6,890

1854.

286,068,794

8,054

i860.

348,130,127

10,433

1865.

455,478,143

13,289

1870.

529,908,673

15,537

1875.

630,223,494

16,658

1877.

674,059,°48

17,077

1879.

7!7. 003,469

17,696

1880.

728,316,848

17,933

1881.

745,528,162

18,175

1882.

767,899,57°

18,457

Year.


Capital

Miles

Net

paid-up.

opened.

Receipts.

£784,921,312

18,681

£33,693,708

801,464,367

18,864

33,305,446

815,858,055

19,169

32,767,817

828,344,254

19,332

33,073,706

845,971,654

19,578

33,880,110

864,695,963

19,812

30,851,320

876,595, 166

29,976

33,622,941

897,472,026

20,073

36,760,146

Working  expenses:  1854,9,206,205?. ;  1861,  13,843,337?. ;

1870, 21,715,525?.  ; 1874, 32,612,712?.  ; 1877,

33,857,978?.;  1880,33,601,124?.;  1883,  37,368,562?.;

1887, 37,063,266?.  ; 1888, 37,063,266?.  ; 1889,

40,094,116?.  ;  1890,  43,188,556?.
Number of  passengers  : 1845, 33,791,253 ; 1854,

111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572;  1865,  251,959,862;

1870,331, 701, 801;  1874,478,316, 761;  1877, 549, 541, 325;

1880,603,885,025;  1883,683,718,137;  1887,733,678,531

(not  season-ticket  holders).


Miles  opened.


England  &

Wales  1775
Scotland  225
Ireland . 31


13,215
2,964
2,502


13,825
3,079
2,674


7820  11,622  12,547
1626  !  2,700!  2,864
1423  I  2,1271  2,285

For  1847-9,  ^  was  calculated  that  out  of  4,782,188
travellers  by  railway,  one  person  was  killed,  from
causes  beyond  his  own  control;  for  1856-9,  one
in  8,708,411 ;  1866-8,  one  in  12,941,170.  In  1878,
one  in  7,503,000.  Passengers  killed  from  causes
beyond  their  control :  in  1871,  12  ;  1862-72,  271 ;
1872,  24 ;  1876,  811.

United  Kingdom.

1874,  1424  killed — 211  passengers  (not  their  fault,

86)  ;  788  servants,  425  trespassers  ;  5041  injured.

1876,  1286  killed— 138  (by  own  fault,  101)  passen-
gers ;  61 12  injured,  1883  passengers.

1877,  1175  killed — 126  passengers;  3705  injured,
1283  passengers.

1878,  1112  killed  ;  6507  injured  by  various  causes.

1879,  1032 killed;  160 passengers ;  3513  injured,  1307
passengers.

1882,  1,121  killed;  127  passengers;  4,601  injured,
1,739  passengers;  1884,  11 35  killed;  4100  injured;

1885,  957  killed,  3,467  injured ;
3,539  injured.

1887,  919 killed,  3,590  injured ;
3,826  injured.

1889.  1,076  killed  ;  4,836  injured.

1890.  1,076  killed;  4,721  injured.

1891.  1,168  killed,  5,060  injured.

Railway  servants  killed  :  annual  average  (1872-5)
740;  1880,  reduced  to  483.

Compensation  paid  for  injuries  by  companies.


14,119
3,162
2,792


938  killed,
3,  905  killed,


Passengers
Goods


•  £364,509
231,707


£247,032
197,941


£176,406
169,633


PRINCIPAL  RAILWAYS  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM.

The  railways  are  generally  named  after  their  termini.
Railways.  Date  of  Opening.

Arbroath  and  Forfar .... 3  Jan.  1839

Atmospheric  Railway  (which  see)  . . . .  1840

Bangor  and  Carnarvon ....  July,  1852

Belfast  and  county  of  Down . . . April,  1850

Birmingham  and  Derby . . . .12  Aug.  1839

Birmingham  and  Gloucester . .  17  Dec.  1840

Birmingham,  Wolverhampton,  and  Stour  Valley,

July,  1852

Brighton  and  Chichester  .... 8  June,  1846

Brighton  and  Hastings . . .  27  June,  ,,

Bristol  and  Exeter . .  " . . . 1  May,  1844

Bristol  and  Gloucester .... July,  1845

Caledonian Feb.  1848

Canterbury  and  Whitstable . . . May,  1830

Charing  Cross  Railway,  London,  opened n  Jan.  1864

Cheltenham  and  Swindon . . .12  May,  1845

Chester  and  Birkenhead . . . .22  Sept.  1840

Chester  and  Crewe 1848

City  and  South  London,  opened  4  Nov.  and  18  Dec.  1890

Cockermouth  and  Workington . . 28  April,  1847

Colchester  and  Ipswich . . , .15  June,  1846

Cork  and  Bandon 8  Dec.  1851


EAILWAYS.


807


EAILWAYS.


Railways.  Date  of  Opening .

Cornwall i  May,  1859

Coventry  and  Leamington  .... 2  Dec.  1844

Croydon  and  Epsom .... 17  May,  1847

Devon  and  Somerset 7  Nov.  1873

Dover  and  Deal,  begun ... 29  June,  1878

Dublin  and  Belfast  Junction . . . June,  1852

Dublin  and  Carlow 10  Aug.  1846

Dublin  and  Drogheda . . . .26  May,  1844

Dublin  and  Kingstown .... 17  Dec.  1834

Dundee  and  Newtyle Dec.  1831

Dundee  and  Perth 22  May,  1847

Durham  and  Sunderland ... 28  June,  1839

Eastern  Counties 18  June,  ,,

Eastern  Union  (London  and  Colchester),  29  March,  1843

East  London . . ... 10  April,  1876

Edinburgh  and  Berwick ... 18  June,  1846

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow . . . . 8  Feb.  1842

Ely  and  Peterborough .... Jan.  1847

Exeter  and  Plymouth  (part) ... 29  May,  1846

Glasgow  and  Ayr 19  Sept.  1840

Glasgow  and  Greenock . . . .24  March,  1841

Glasgow,  Garnkirk,  and  Coatbridge . . July,  1845

Gloucester  and  Chepstow ....  Sept.  185 1

Grand  Junction  (Birmingham  to  Newton) . July,  1837

Gravesend  and  Rochester ... 10  Feb.  1845

Great  Northern 1852

Great  Western  to  Maidenhead,  4  June, 1838  :  to

Bristol 30  June,  1841

Hertford  branch  of  Eastern  Counties . 31  Oct.  1843

Highland 186=;


Inner  Circle,  London
Ipswich  and  Bury  St.  Edmunds
Isle  of  Man ....
Kendal  and  Windermere .
Lancaster  and  Carlisle  .
Lancaster  and  Preston
Leeds  and  Bradford
Leeds  and  Derby
Liverpool  and  Birmingham  .
Liverpool  and  Manchester
Liverpool  and  Preston  .
London  and  Birmingham  .
London  and  Blackwall  .
London  and  Brighton.
London  and  Bristol
London  and  Cambridge
London,  Chatham,  and  Dover
London  and  Colchester
London  and  Croydon .
London  and  Dover
London  and  Greenwich
London  and  Richmond
London  and  Southampton .
London  and  Southend
London  and  Warrington


21  July,  1882-4

24  Dec.  1846

1  July,  1873

.  21  April,  1847

16  Dec. 1846

.  30  June,  1840

1  July,  1846

July, 1840

.  4  July,  1837

. 15  Sept. 1830

31  Oct.  1838

. 17  Sept. ,,

.  2  Aug. 1841

. 21  Sept. ,,

30  June, , ,

. 30  July,  1845

29  Sept.  i860

29  March,  1843

I  June,  1839
7  Feb.  1844

26  Dec.  1838
. 27  July,  1846

II  May,  1840


June,  1856
branch of  the Great

Northern Aug.  1850

Lowestoft  branch  ;  Norwich  and  Yarmouth . .  1847

Lynn  and  Ely  „

Manchester  and  Birmingham  ... 10  Aug.  1842

Manchester  and  Leeds  1  March,  1841

Manchester  and  Sheffield  ... 22  Dec.  1845

Metropolitan, London  ; act  obtained, 1853 ;  con-


struction began,  i860 ;  opened
Midland  Counties
Newcastle  and  Berwick
Newcastle  and  Carlisle
Newcastle  and  North  Shields
Newmarket  and  Cambridge
Northampton  and  Peterborough
North  and  South- Western  Junction
North  British ....

North  Eastern July,  1854

Norwich  and  Yarmouth  .  .  .  .  1  May,  1844
Nottingham  to  Grantham  ....  July,  1850
Nottingham  and  Lincoln  ....  3  Aug.  1846
Nottingham  branch  ;  Rugby  and  Derby  .  30  May,  1
Oxford  branch  of  London  and  Bristol
Oxford,  Worcester,  and  Wolverhampton
Penzance  to  Camborne  ...
Rugby  and  Derby ....

Rugby  and  Leamington Feb. 1851

St.  Andrew's July,  1852

St.  Helen's  ;  first  act  passed .....  1830
Salisbury  branch  of  the  London  and  Southampton. 1847

Settle  and  Carlisle 1  May,  1876

Southampton  and  Dorchester . . .1  June, ,,
South  Devon 1850


10  Jan 1863

30  June,  1840

. July,  1847

18  June,  1839

18  June, ,,

. Oct.  1851

. 2  June;  1845

.  Dec.  1852


12  June,  1844
May,  1852
.  Jan. ,,
July,  1840


Railways.  Date  of  Opening.

South  Eastern  (London  and  Dover)  .  .  7  Feb.  1844
South  Eastern  ;  North  Kent  line  ....  1849
Stockton  and  Darlington . . . .27  Sept.  1825

Trent  Valley 26  June,  1847

Ulster Aug.  1839

West  and  East  India  Docks  and  Birmingham  Junc-
tion from  the  Blackwall  railway  to  Camden  Town,

Aug.  1850
Worcester  and  Droitwich  ....  Jan.  1852
York  and  Darlington  (N.  Eastern)  .  .  4  Jan.  1841
York  and  Newcastle  ,,  . . 17  June,  1847

York  and  Normanton  ,,  .  .  .30  June,  1840
York  and  Scarborough  ,,  .  .  .  7  July,  1845
Yarmouth  and  Norwich  1  May,  1844

Alleged  Extent  or  Railways  (in  miles),  1890-1  :—
Austrian  dominions,  16,712  ;  Belgium,  2,830;  Denmark,
1,247;  France,  33,547  kilometres;  Germany,  27,000;
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  20,073 ;  Greece,  374  ;  Hol-
land, 1,705;  India,  16,996;  Italy,  13,163  kilometres;
Norway,  971 ;  Portugal,  1,334  !  Russia,  16,759;  Prussia,
18,058;  Spain  (1889),  6,043;  Sweden,  1,980;  Turkey,
1,512  ;  United  States  of  America,  171,000(1892).

MEMORABLE RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS.*

Very  many  (ivhere  only  2  persons  killed)  are  not  noted ;
in  nearly  all  cases  a  large  number  were  injured.

W.  Huskisson,  M.P.,  killed  at  the  opening  of  the
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway . 15  Sept.  1830

Great  Corby  (Newcastle  and  Carlisle) ;  train  runs
offline;  3  killed 3  Dec.  1830

Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over-
turned ;  3  killed 21  Aug.  1840

Cuckfield  (London  and  Brighton) :  engine  runs  off
line  ;  4  killed 2  Oct. 1841

Sonninghill  cutting,  near  Reading  :  engine  forced
off  line  ;  8  killed  .... 24  Dec. ,,

Versailles  :  carriages  take  fire,  passengers  locked  in;
52  or  53  lives  lost,  including  admiral  D'Urville,

8  May,  1842

Masborough  (Midland Counties)  : collision ; Mr.
Boteler  and  others  killed,  many  injured, 20  Oct.  1845

Stratford  (Eastern  Counties) :  collision  through  great
carelessness  ;  Mr. Hind  killed,  many  mutilated,

18  July,  1846

Pevensey  (Brighton  and  Hastings) :  collision  ;  40
injured 24  Aug. ,,

Clifton  (Manchester  and  Bolton) :  express  runs  off
line  ;  2  killed,  many  injured . . 15  Dec. ,,

Chester  (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs
off  bridge ; 4  killed  ; greater  number  injured,

18  May,  1847

Wolverton (North Western) :  collision ;  7  killed,
many  injured 5  June, ,,

Shrivenham  (Great  Western)  : collision  ;  7  killed,
many  injured 10  May,  1848

Carlisle  (Caledonian)  :  axletree  of  carriage  breaks  ;
5  killed 10  Feb.  1849

Frodsham  Tunnel  (Chester  and  Warrington  Junc-
tion) :  collision  ;  6  killed . . .30  April,  1851

Newmarket  Hill  (Lewes  and  Brighton) :  train  runs
off  line  ;  4  killed 6  June, ,,

Bicester  (Oxfordshire) :  collision  ;  6  killed,  6  Sept. „

Burnley (Great Northern) : collision  ; 4 killed,

12  July,  1852

Dixonfold  (Great  Northern)  :  engine  wheels  broke ;
7  killed 4  March,  1853

Near  Straffan  (Great  Southern  and  Western,  Ire-
land):  collision;  13  killed . . . 5  Oct. ,,

Near  Harling, Norfolk  (Eastern  Counties) :  colli-
sion ;  6  killed 12  Jan.  1854

Croydon  (Brighton  and  Dover) :  collision  ;  3  killed,

24  Aug. ,,

Burlington,  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  :
21  killed 29  Aug. ,,

Reading  (Gt.  Western):  collision ;  5  killed,  12  Sept.  1855

Near  Paris  :  collision;  9  killed . . 9  Oct. ,,

Between  Thoret  and  Moret :  collision  ; 16 killed

23  Oct. „

Campbell  (N.  Pennsylvania) :  collision  ;  above  100
killed 17  July,  1856

Dunkett  (Waterford  and Kilkenny) : collision  ; 7
killed 19  Nov. „

*  On  Dec.  27,  1864,  the  queen  wrote  to  the  directors  of
the  railway  companies  of  London,  requesting  them  "  to
be  as  careful  of  other  passengers  as  of  herself."


RAILWAYS.


808


RAILWAYS.


Kirby  (Liverpool  and  Blackpool) :  collision  ;  200
injured  ;  none  killed ...  27  June,

Lewisliam  (North  Kent):  collision ;  nkilled,  28  June,

Between  Pyle  and  Port  Talbot :  collision  ;  4  killed

14  Oct.

Attleborough,  Warwickshire  (North  Western) :
train  thrown  off  the  line  through  a  cow  crossing
the  rails  ;  3  killed .... 10  May,

Near  Mons,  Belgium :  coke  waggon  on  the  rails  ;
21  killed June,

Chilham  (South  Eastern)  :  either  too  great  speed  or
"broken  axletree  ;  3  killed ... 30  June,

Near  Round  Oak  Station  (Oxford  and  Wolver-
hampton)— excursion  train  :  collision  ;  14  killed,

23  Aug.

Tottenham  (Eastern  Counties) :  engine  wheel
breaks  ;  6  killed 20  Feb.

Helmshore  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire) — excursion
train  :  collision  ;  n  killed ... 4  Sept.

Atherstone  (North  Western)  :  collision  of  mail  and
cattle  trains  ;  n  killed ...  16  Nov.

Near  Wimbledon  :  Dr.  Baly  killed  . . 28  Jan.

Railway  tunnel  falls  in  near  Haddon  Hall,  Derby-
shire ;  5  men  killed 2  July,

Clayton  Tunnel  (London  and  Brighton) :  collision  ;
23  killed,  176  injured .... 25  Aug.

Kentish  Town  (Hampstead  Junction) :  16  killed,
320  injured 2  Sept.

Market  Harborough  :  collision ;  1  killed  and  50
injured 28  Aug.

Near  Winchburgh  (Edinburgh  and  Glasgow)  :  colli-
sion ;  15  killed,  100  wounded . .  13  Oct.

Near  Streatham  (London  and  Brighton) :  explosion
of  boiler  through  attempting  too  great  speed  ;  4
killed  ;  above  30  injured ... 30  May,

Near  Lynn  (Lynn  and  Hunstanton):  carriages  upset
through  bullock  on  the  line  ; 5  killed 3  Aug.

Egham  (South  Western)  :  collision  ;  5  killed,  above
20  injured 7  June,

Canada  :  train  ran  off  a  bridge  at  St.  Hilaire  in
crossing ; about  83  killed, 200  wounded,

29  June

Blackheath  Tunnel :  fast  train  ran  into  a  ballast
train ;  6  killed . . . . .16  Dec.

Near  Rednal  (on  a  branch  of  Great  Western)  :  train
ran  off  insecure  rails  ;  13  killed,  about  40  injured,

7  June,

Near  Staplehurst  (South  Eastern)  :  train  ran  off  in-
secure rails,  &c. ;  10  killed  and  about  50  injured,

9  June,

Near  Colney  Hatch  (Gt.  Northern)  :  collision  with
coal  trucks  :  above  50  persons  injured  . 30  Aug.

Pall  of  a  bridge  at  Sutton  (S.  coast  line):  6  men  killed,

28  April,

Near  Caterham  junction  (London  and  Brighton) :  3
killed,  12  injured .... 30  April,

In  Welwyn  Tunnel  (Great  Northern)  :  a  steam  tube
burst ;  collision  of  three  goods  trains  ;  and  a  great
fire  ;  2  lives  lost . . . . 9,  10  June,

Near  Royston  (Great  Northern)  :  train  ran  off  line  ;
3  lives  lost 2  July,

Brynkir  station  (Carnarvonshire) :  points  said  to
have  been  tampered  with  ;  train  ran  off  line  ;  6
persons  killed 6  Sept.

20  miles  from  Carlisle  (Lancaster  and  Carlisle) :  an
axle  of  carriage  of  goods  train  broke  ;  collision
with  another  goods  train  ;  fire,  and  explosion  of
S  tons  of  gunpowder  ;  2  killed . . 25  Feb.

Between  Bhosawul  and  Khundwah  (Great  Indian
Peninsular) :  train  precipitated  into  a  chasm
made  in  an  embankment  by  a  river  torrent ;  many
lives  lost 26  June,

Walton  Junction,  Warrington  (London  and  North
Western)  :  collision  with  coal  train ;  error  of
pointsman  ;  8  lives  lost . . .29  June,

At  Brayhead,  near  Enniscorthy  (Dublin,  AVicklow,
and  Wexford) :  went  off  the  line  into  a  gorge  ;  2
killed,  many  injured .... 9  Aug.

Between  New  Mills  and  Peak  Forest :  2  collisions'';
5  lives  lost 9  Sept.

French  Great  Northern,  about  14  miles  from  Paris  :
several  killed,  many  wounded . . 27  Oct.

Lake  Shore  railway,  New  York  :  embankment  fell ;
41  persons  burnt  to  death ... 18  Dec.

Carr's  Rock,  on  river  Delaware  ;  Erie  railway :
carriages  precipitated  down  an  embankment;
26  persons  killed,  52  very  seriously  injured,

14  April,


1857


Abergele,  N.  Wales  (London  and  North-Western) :
collision  between  Irish  mail  train  and  luggage
train  ;  barrels  of  petroleum  ignited ;  33  persons
burnt  to  death  (see  Abergele) . . 20  Aug.  1868

Near  Birdingbury  station  (Rugby  and  Leamington):,
carriages  went  over  Draycot  embankment ;  2
persons  killed 1  Oct. ,.

Near  Bull's  Pill,  S.  Wales  (Great  Western) :  mail
train  ran  into  a  cattle  train  ;  1  person  and  much
cattle  killed 6  Nov. ,,

Near  Copenhagen  tunnel,  Holloway  (Great  North-
ern) :  coal  train  ran  off  the  line  ;  2  killed,  18  Jan.  1869

Near  Khandalla,  Bombay  (Great  Indian  Peninsular)
train  ran  off  the  line  ;  about  18  killed 26  Jan. ..

Arch  fell  in  at  Bethnal  Green  (Great  Eastern) :
coal  train  passing  ;  5  killed . . 25  Feb. , ,

Newcross  (London  and  Brighton) :  collision ;  2
killed,  many  injured  ;  loss  to  the  company  by
compensation,  about  70, oool. . . 23  June, ,,

Near  Barnet  (Great  Northern):  collision;  1  man
burnt  to  death 16  Aug. „

Long  Eaton  Junction  (Midland) :  collision ;  7  killed

9  Oct.

Near  Welwyn  (Great  Northern)  :  collision;  3  killed

24  Oct. „

Eureka,  St.  Louis,  Missouri ;  collision ;  19  killed,

12  May,  1870

Near  Newark  (Great  Northern) :  collision ;  a
waggon  of  a  goods  train,  through  the  breaking  of
an  old  axle,  went  off  the  rails  and  met  an  excur-
sion train  ;  19  deaths  ;  1.30  a.m. . 21  June, ,,

Near  Carlisle  :  collision;  skilled  . 10  July, „

Tamworth  (London  and  North  Western) :  Irish
mail  (late),  sent  into  a  siding ;  broke  down  a
buttress  and  ran  into  the  river  Anker  (error  of  a
pointsman);  3  deaths . . 4.7  A.M.  14  Sept. .,,

Plessis  near  Tours  :  collision  ;  between  two  trains  ;
several  killed .... 4  a.m.  20  Sept. ,,

Harrow  (London  and  North-Western) :  collision
with  coal  waggons  ;  7  killed  . . .26  Nov. , ,

Brockley  Whins  (North  Eastern) :  collision  through
mistake  of  Hedley,  a  pointsman  ;  skilled  6  Dec. ,,

Barnsley  (Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire
railway) :  collision  ;  goods  trucks  broke  loose ;
14  killed,  many  injured  .... 12  Dec. ,,

Bell-bar,  near  Hatfield  (Great  Northern)  :  tire  of
wheel  broke  ;  break  and  carriages  overturned ;  8
killed 26  Dec. ,,

Between  Bandoz  and  St.  Nizaire  :  explosion  of  gun
powder  in  casks  ;  60  killed . . . 25  Feb.  1871

Revere  (Boston  and  Portland,  U.S.):  collision;
above  20  killed 26  Aug. ,,

Near  Champigny  (Lyons  Company)  :  a  spring
broke ;  n  killed  . . . . 16  Sept. „

Ferry-hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed?.

16  Oct. „

Antibes  railway  between  Nice  and  Cannes  :  train
thrown  into  the  river  Brague  :  12  said  to  be  killed

24  Jan.  1872

Belleville  (Grand  Trunk  of  Canada)  :  engine  broke
off  the  line  ;  many  burnt,  scalded,  &c.  ;  about
30  killed 22  June, ,,

Connellsville  (Baltimore  and  Pittsburg) :  collision  ;
many  hurt,  3  killed  ....  22  June, ,,

Juvisy  (Orleans  railway) :  express  ran  into  luggage
train  ;  boiler  exploded  ;  5  burnt  to  death  (includ-
ing mother  of  the  duchess  of  Malakoff) 26  June, ,,

Rose-hill  junction  (Newcastle  and  Carlisle) :  colli-
sion ;  4  killed 5  July, ,,

Red-hill  junction  (Great  Western  and  L.  &N.W.),
near  Hertford ;  2  killed ...  29  July, ,,

Clifton  junction  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire):  col-
lision ;  4  killed 3  Aug. ,,

Kirtlebridge,  Dumfries  (Caledonian) :  collision ;
express  train  late  ;  error  of  pointsman ;  12  killed,

2  Oct. „

Kelvedon,  near  Chelmsford  (Great  Eastern)  :  loco-
motive driven  off  the  line  by  a  raised  rail  ;  1
killed,  many  hurt ....  17  Oct. ,,

Near  Woodhouse  junction  (Manchester,  Sheffield,
and  Lincolnshire)  :  collision  ;  two  killed,  18  Oct. ,,

Corry,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.  :  train  broke  through  a
bridge  ;  about  20  killed ... 24  Dec. , ,

Near  Pesth  :  train  run  off  line  ;  21  killed,

about  7  May,  1873

Near  Shrewsbury  (Great  AVestern  and  London  &
N.  W.  Junction) :  axle  of  engine  broke ;  car-
riages driven  off  the  line  ;  4  killed  . . 8  May, ,.


EAILWAYS.


809


EAILWAYS.


Near  Higham,  Derbyshire  (Midland);  engine-tire
broke;  train  ran  off  the  line;  2  killed 21  June,

Wigan  (London  and  North  Western) :  carriages
thrown  off  the  line  ;  sir  John  Anson  and  others
(13  persons)  killed .... 23  Aug.

Keti'ord  Junction  (Great  Northern,  Manchester,  and
Sheffield) :  collision  ;  3  killed . -23  Aug.

Near  Hartlepool  (North  Eastern) :  train  thrown  off
the  line  ;  3  killed 2  Sept.

Peamarsh  crossing,  near  Guildford  (Southwestern) :

.  collision  with  a  bullock ;  train  thrown  off  the

line ;  3  killed . . . . . 9  Sept.

Barkston  Junction,  near  Grantham  (Great  North-
ern) :  2  killed 10  Jan.

Near  Manuel  and  Bo'ness  Junction,  between  Edin-
burgh and  Glasgow  (North  British)  :  collision  of
London  express  with  mineral  train  ;  16  killed

27  Jan.

Euxton  Junction,  between  Preston  and  Wigan  ;  col-
lision through  fog  and  too  great  speed ; 2  killed

20  Feb.

Merthyr-Tydvil  (Great  Western) :  coupling  broke,
causing  collision ;  about  40  seriously  injured  ;

I  death 18  May,

Bargoed  (Rhymney  railway) :  collision ;  train  ran

away  through  brakes  not  acting  ;  2  killed  ;  much

damage 12  Aug.

Thorpe,  near  Norwich  (East  Norfolk)  :  collision ;
two  trains  met  (mistake  of  Cooper  and  Bobson,
telegraph  clerks,  committed  for  trial  for  man-
slaughter) ;  26  deaths  ;  about  50  injured  ;  8.30  p. m.

10  Sept.
[Cost  the  company  above  13,000?.,  Cooper  sen-
tenced to  8  months'  imprisonment,  7  April,  1875.]
Shipton,  near  Oxford  (Great  Western)  ;  tire  of  car-
riage-wheel broke  ;  train  driven  over  an  embank-
ment ;  34  deaths  ensued,  about  70  injured

24  Dec.
[Verdict  of  inqxiiry,  accidental  deaths  ;  16  March,

1875-]

Bothbury,  near  Morpeth  (North  Eastern)  :  train
ran  off  embankment ;  4  killed . . 3  July,

ELildwick,  near  Skipton,  Yorkshire  (Midland):
Scotch  express  ran  into  an  excursion  train ;
7  deaths,  11.30  p.m ...  28  Aug.

Between  Mutford  and  Somerleyton ;  train  ran  off
the  line  ;  3  killed .... 1  Jan.

Near  Odessa  :  train  ran  over  embankment ;  about
68  killed 8  Jan.

Abbot's  Bipton  (Great  Northern),  near  Hunting-
don;  2  collisions;  first,  Scotch  express  with  coal
train  ;  and  second,  with  Leeds  express  from  Lon-
don, whereby  14  deaths ;  including  Mr.  Thos.
Mure,  Scotch  advocate,  a  son  of  Mr.  Noble,  the
sculptor ;  a  son  of  Mr.  Dion  Boucicault,  dramatist ;
brother  and  2  nieces  of  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson ;
during  a  snow  storm  ....  21  Jan.
[Coroner's  inquest :  verdict,  virtually  accidental
deaths  ;  directors  censured  for  not  having  a  sepa-
rate line  for  mineral  traffic,  3  Feb.  1876.]

Near  Long  Ash  ton  (on  Great  Western),  "  Flying
Dutchman "  express  :  about  57  miles  an  hour ;
driver  and  stoker  killed  ;  defective  condition  of
permanent  way 27  July,

Between  Badstock  and  Wellow  ;  about  4  miles  from
Bath  (Somerset  and  Dorset),  single  line  ;  collision
between excursion trains  ; 14 killed  ; about

II  p.m .7  Aug.

[Inquest :  verdict,  manslaughter  against  James

Sleep,  station-master,  12  Sept.  1876.]

Waiiibrechie,  near  Lille  (French  great  northern) :
collision  with  a  conveyance  on  level  crossing,  6
killed 5  Nov.

Alisey  siding,  near  Hitchin  (Great  Northern)  :  col-
lision of  Manchester  express  with  goods  train,  5

killed 23  Dec.

[Verdict  of  inquest :  neglect  of  Thos.  Pepper,
the  driver  (killed),  in  not  observing  the  signal,

r5  Jan.  1877.]

Near  Ashtabula,  U.S.,  Pacific  express  from  New
York  :  a  bridge  over  a  creek  broke  down  during
a  snow  storm,  above  100  perished  by  drowning,
burning,  &c 29  Dec.

Near  Morpeth  (North  Eastern) :  Scotch  express
went  off  the  line;  5  lulled  .  early  25  March,

Near  Billing,  Northamptonshire  (London  and  North
Western)  :  collision,  2  deaths . . 18  Oct.


1S73


1874


1875


Buckstone  Junction,  near  Grantham  (Gt.  Northern):
express  ran  off  the  rails  ;  2  killed . 7  Dec.

Holcombe,  near  Leeds  (Midland):  collision  of  trains ;
2  killed 24  Dec.

Chester :  2  carriages  went  off  rails  ;  1  death  ;  above
30  hurt 8  July,

Newcross  :  collision  between  carriages  of  Brighton
and  S.  Eastern  Cos.  :  several  injured,  7.45  p.m.
(Bank  Holiday) 5  Aug.

Sittingbourne  (London,  Chatham,  &  Dover):  cheap
fast  train,  bringing  home  holyday-makers  ;  run
into luggage trucks ; mistake of  pointsman ;

midday 31  Aug.

[Jacob  Moden  and  Charles  Clarke,  committed
for  trial  for  manslaughter,  3  Sept.  1878.]

Curragheen,  near  Cork  :  engine  uncoupled  ;  ran  off
line  ;  3  killed  and  many  injured . 8  Sept.

Near  Pontypridd  junction  (Rhondda  branch  of  Taff
Vale  line) ;  collision  through  error  of  signals ;
13  killed  ;  about  40  hurt ... 19  Oct.

Talybont  (Brecon  and  Merthyr) ;  engines  uncon-
trolled ;  ran  down  steep  descent ;  4  killed  ;  great
destruction  of  property .... 2  Dec.

Bloomfield,  near  Tipton,  Staffordshire  (London  and
North  Western) ;  collisions  ;  about  30  severely
injured 31  May,

Near  Manniugtree  (Great  Eastern) ;  train  ran  off
line  ;  1  killed  ;  several  injured . . 8  Dec.

Tay  bridge,  Dundee ;  bridge  and  train  blown  into
the  river  ;  about  74  lives  lost . . 28  Dec.

Brickfield  siding,  Burscough  junction  (Lancashire
and  Yorkshire) ;  collision  ;  through  error  of
signalman  ;  8  deaths . .... 15  Jan.

Argenteuil,  near  Paris  ;  collision  ;  7  killed 4  Feb.

Lofthouse,  near  Wakefield  (Great  Northern)  ;  train
runs  off  line  ;  2  deaths ... 20  March,

A  bridge  fell  near  Hereford  (Midland)  ;  1  death

18  June,

Marshall  Meadows,  2  or  3  miles  N.  of  Berwick
(North  British);  "Flying  Scotchman"  engine
ran  off  the  line  ;  carriages  precipitated  down  em-
bankment ;  guard,  driver,  and  fireman  killed ;
much  damage  to  carriages  ;  few  passengers ;  (al-
leged cause,  loose  rails),  about  11  a.m.  10  Aug.

Near  Wennington  Junction,  12  miles  N.  of  Lan-
caster (Midland) ;  train  went  off  the  rails  ;  8
deaths 11  Aug.

Near  Manchester  (Midland) ;  train  went  off  rails  ;
17  injured 2  Sept.

Near  Nine  Elms  station,  Vauxhall  (South  Western)  ;
collision  of  train  with  a  left  engine ;  5  killed  ;  20
injured 11  Sept.

Kibworth  :  Leicestershire  (Midland) ;  Scotch  ex-
press ;  driver  by  mistake  reversed  the  engine  ;
collision  with  advancing  train  ;  several  severely
injured 9  Oct.

Leeds  (Midland) ;  collision ;  2  deaths  ;  many  in-
jured 21  Dec.

Dalston  Junction  (North  London)  ;  collision  ;
through  error  in  signalling  ;  2  deaths  ensued  ;
about  30  hurt 26  Feb.

Mexico  ;  Morelos  railway  ;  through  fall  of  bridge
near  Cuartla  ;  train  precipitated  into  river  San
Antonio  ;  about  200  lives  lost ;  night  of  24  June

Blackburn  (Lancashire  and  Yorkshire);  collision;
S  deaths  ;  about  40  injured .  .  8  Aug.

Bow  Station  (Great  Eastern)  ; collision  ;  2  killed

3  Sept.

Charenton  (Lyons  Railway)  ;  collision  ;  about  20
killed 5  Sept.

Desford,  near  Leicester  (Midland);  collision;  5
killed,  22  Oct.  ;  (Butler,  pointsman,  arrested  for
manslaughter) 6  Nov.

Tayport,  File  (North  British)  ;  collision  with  goods
train ;  4  deaths  . .  . .  25  Nov.

Highbury  Tunnel,  near Canonbury (North  London) ;
collision  of  3  trains;  5  deaths  . .  10  Dee.

Slough  (Great  Western)  ;  express  runs  into  a  goods
train  ;  12  killed 24  Dec.

Between  Middlesbrough  and  Stockton;  explosion
of  locomotive  ;  4  deaths ....  26  Dec.

Hudson  river  railway,  near  New  York  ;  collision
and  lire  ;  8  or  9  killed,  including  senator  Wagner
burned  to  death 13  Jan.

Hornsey  (Great  Northern) ;  collision  ;  fog;  2  deaths

25  Jan.

Near  Old  Ford  Station  ;  collision  of  train  with  broken
up  coal  trucks  ;  6  deaths  . . . .28  Jan.


1877


EAILWAYS.


810


EAILWAYS.


Near  Cork  ;  collision  ;  about  40  injured .  9  July,  1882
Between  Tcherny  and  Bastigeur  (Moscow  Kursk-
line)  ;  8  carrriages  run  oft'  the  rails ;  about  178

killed 13  July,  • ,,

Streatham  Fen  (Great  Eastern)  :  destruction  of  the
express  train,  &c,  by  being  thrown  off  the  line

28  July, „
Hugstetten,  between  Freiburg  and  Colmar,  Baden  ;
excursion train  ran  off the line ; about 70

killed 3  Sept. ,,

Crewe  (London and North  Western) ; collision  ;

many  injured 30  Sept. „

Bromley  (London,  Chatham  and  Dover) ;  fall  of  a

bridge ;  7  killed 24  Nov. ,,

Near  Auchterless  (Macduff  and  Turiff section  of
Great  North  of  Scotland)  ;  train  wrecked  by  fall
of  a  bridge  ;  about  5  killed . . .  27  Nov. ,
Vriog,  near  Barmouth  (Cambrian)  ;  cliff  gave  way,

part  of  train  falls  over  ; 2  killed . .  1  Jan.  188;
Near  the  Eglinton  Street  Station,  Glasgow; col-
lision ;  4  killed .... 19  March, „
Near  Lockerbie  (Caledonian) ;  collisions  ;  8  deaths,

11.30  p.m. 14  May, ,,

Watford  (London  and  North  Western) ;  express  runs

into  empty  carriages  ;  1  death  . .  31  Oct. „

Near  Toronto,  Canada  (Grand  Trunk) ;  collision ;

about  31  killed 2  Jan.  188.

Stepney ; collision ; about 30 persons injured

22  March, „
Between  Breamore  and  Downton  (South  Western)  ;
coupling  broke,  train  falls over  embankment ;
5  killed  and  41  injured . . . .3  June, ,,
Near  Sevenoaks  Station  (South  Eastern);  collision  ;

of  goods  trains  ;  2  killed . . . .7  June, ,,
Bullhouse  Bridge, near Penistone  (Manchester,
Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire) ;  express,  55  miles  an
hour ;  crank-axle  of locomotive  engine  broke,
train  wrecked over an embankment; sharp
curve ;  24  deaths,  afternoon . . .16  July, ,,
Near  Penistone ;  coal  waggon,  by  breaking  of  an
axle,  thrown  into  the  way  of  an  excursion  train  ;
4  deaths,  many  injured . . . .1  Jan.  188
Earl's  Court,  Kensington  (District),  collision ;  one

killed 23  Aug. ,,

Whitland  and  Cardigan  Railway,  train  went  off  the

line  through  fast  driving,  3  lives  lost 25  Aug. „
Finsbury  Park  station,  collision  of  Great  Northern
and  North  London  trains  through  fog ; many
injured  ;  1  death  (March) ... 11  Feb.  i8£
Roccabrunna,  between  Monte  Carlo  and  Mentone
(Riviera)  collision  ;  about  8  killed  ;  many  injured

10  March, ,,
Portadown  (Great  Northern  of  Ireland),  4  killed

30  June, ,,
Collision  near  Niagara  Falls  ;  18  killed 14  Sept. ,,
Near  Woodstock,  Vermont,  U.S.  (Vermont  Central)
Boston  and  Montreal  express  ;  carriages  fall  over
a  bridge  over  the  White  River  (frozen)  and  catch
fire  ;  about  45  lives  lost ... 4  Feb.  i8i
Near  Boston  (Boston  and  Providence)  U.S.  ;  train

broke  through  bridge  ;  32  killed . 14  March, ,,
Ibrox  station  (Glasgow  and  Paisley  joint  line),  4

surfacemen  killed  by  an  accident . 22  March, ,
Collision  at  St.  Thomas's, Ontario  ;  ignition  and
explosion  of  petroleum,  14  killed  and  about  100

injured 16  July, ,

East  of  Chatsworth,  Illinois ;  excursion  to  Niagara  ;
train  overthrown  by  a  burning  bridge  ;  83  killed
and  many  died  afterwards  .  .  .  11  Aug.  ,
Hexthorpe,  near  Doncaster ;  a  Manchester  and
Sheffield  train  runs  into  a  Midland  excursion  train
during  collection  of  tickets  ;  25  deaths  16  Sept ;
Samuel  Taylor  (driver)  and  Robert  Davis  (fireman)
committed'  for  manslaughter  23  Sept.  ;  acquitted  ;
the  directors  and  other  officials  censured  15  Nov.  ,
Hyde  ;  (Manchester,  Sheffield  and  Lincolnshire)  ;
collision  with  a  goods  train  ; 4  women  killed,

midnight 14-15  July,  18

Hampton  Wick  (London  and  South  Western),
collision  with  a  light  engine,  4  persons  killed  near
midnight, officers censured for recklessness

6  Aug.  |
Velars,  between  Blaisy  and  Lyons,  train  went  off
the  rails,  9  persons  killed,  early  .  5  Sept.
Lehigh  Valley  Railway,  collision  between  excursion
trains  above  Pennhaven  ;  about  61  persons  killed
10  Oct.  ;  another  collision  on  the  same  railway,
14  persons  killed 16  Oct.


Landslip  between  Salandra  and  Grassam, Italy  ;
destruction  of  an  excursion  train,  about  22  persons

killed 20  Oct.  1888

Near  Borki  Station  in  S.  Russia,  the  engine  of  the
imperial  train  (with  the  czar)  ran  off  the  line  with
four  carriages  (weak  rails)  ;  21 persons  killed  ;
the  czar  slightly  injured  . . . .29  Oct. ,,
By the  falling  in  of  Abergwynfi  tunnel  of  the
Rhondda  and  Swansea  Bay  railway, 7  persons,
were  killed . .  " . . . . 22  Jan.  188c
Near  Grbnendal,  Brussels  ;  train  crushed  by  col-
lision with  a  bridge,  about  12  lives  lost 3  Feb. ,,
Near  St.  George,  Ontario,  Canada,  by  collapse  of  a

bridge,  11  persons  killed  . . . .27  Feb. „
Penistone  station  (Manchester,  Sheffield  and  Lin-
colnshire), excursion  train  ran  off  the  line,  1  life

lost . 30  March, ,,

Near  Hamilton,  Ontario  (Grand  Trunk),  excursion
train  from  Chicago  to  New  York  ;  carriages  run
off  the  line  and  burnt ;  17  killed  .  28  April,  ,,
Killooney  near  Armagh  (Gt.  Northern  of  Ireland),
collision  between  Sunday  School  excursion  trains;
about  80  deaths ;  400  injured  (officials  charged  with
culpable  negligence)  .  .  .  .12  June,  ,,
Near  Bucharest ;  collision  of  passenger  and  luggage

trains,  about  15  deaths .... 8  July, ,,
NearWildpark  Station,  between  Stuttgart  and  Bob-
lingen,  train  went  down  embankment ;  7  killed  .

1  Oct. „
Longsight, near Manchester (London &  North-
western), collision  of  passenger  and  goods  train,  6

deaths 4  Oct. ,,

Stirling,  California,  collision  between  Burlington
and  Union  Pacific  trains,  about  30  deaths .

16  Oct. „
At  Jams  Run,  West  Virginia,  train  upset  by  spread-
ing rails  ;  10  killed '28  Dec. ,,

Near  Cincinnati,  U.S.A.,  collision  of  express  train

to  New  York  ;  6  persons  killed . .17  Jan.  189
Near  Salem,  U.S.A.,  train  runs  offline  ;  6  killed . ,,

27  Jan. ,,
At  Burninouth,  near  Berwick  (North  British),  colli-
sion ;  3  deaths 25  Jan. „

Carlisle  station  (London  &  North  Western),  Scotch
express  ran  into  engine  approaching  (attributed
to  failure  of  vacuum  or  pneumatic  brake  through
cold),  4  persons  killed,  3  a.m.  .  .  4  March,  ,,
Near  Hamburg,  U.S.A.,  Lake  Shore  railway,  colli-
sion ;  6  killed 5  March ,,

Quincey,  near  Boston,  U.S.A.,  engine  and  cars  left

the  rails  ;  about  20  deaths . . . 20  Aug. ,,
At  Schuylkill  valley,  near  Reading,  U.S.  A.,'collision

of  coal  and  goods  trains  ;  23  deaths  .  20  Sept.  ,,
At  Norton  Fitzwarren,  near  Taunton  (Great
Western),  collision  of  special  express  train  from
Plymouth  and  a  shunted  goods  train  ;  10  passen-
gers (from  the  Cape)  killed  ;  George  Rice,  signal-
man, through  forgetfulness  had  declared  the  line
clear, about  1.30  a.m. 11  Nov. ;  acquitted  of

manslaughter 22  Nov. ,,

Edinburgh,  Georgia  station  (Suburban  railway),
collision  of  passenger  and  goods  trains,  through
neglect  of  signalman ;  many  persons  injured .

11  Nov. „
Primrose-hill  tunnel  (London  &  North-Western),
collision  of  passenger  and  goods  trains ;  guard

killed 13  Nov. ,,

At  Topsin,  near  Salonica,  train  runs  off  the  line;

about  40  retired  soldiers  killed . .  14  Nov. ,.
Wreay,  5  miles  S.  of  Carlisle  (London  and  North-
Western),  express  goods  train  ;  axle  of  a  wagon
broke,  20  wagons  thrown  over  the  embankment

25  feet  high,  2  a.m 3  April,  18

Norwood  Junction  (London  &  Brighton),  express
train  wrecked  by  the  collapse  of  Portland  bridge,
through  defect  in  the  ironwork  ;  about  10  a.m. ;

6  persons  injured 1  May, ,

Moenchenstein,  near  Bale,  Switzerland,  excursion
train  ;  by  the  collapse  of  a  bridge  several  carriages
thrown  into  the  river  Birse  ;  about  70  persons

perish 14  June ,

Ravenna, Ohio, collision  between heavy  freight
train  and  the  Erie  express  for  New  York,  above
25  persons  perish . . " . .3  July, ,
Charleston,  W.  Virginia,  collapse  of  a  trestle  bridge,
part  of  a  train  falls  over,  13  persons  killed  .

4  July ,


EAINBOW.


811


EAPHOE.


St.  Mande,  near  Paris,  collision  of  a  goods  and  an
excursion  train  ;  about  44  killed . 27  July,  1891

Near  Port  Byron,  New  York  ;  collision  ;  11  persons
killed 6  Aug. „

Ponty-pridd  (Taff  Vale)  collision  ;  15  persons  in-
jured 15  Aug. ,,

At  a  junction  between  Miinchenbuchsee  and  Zolli-
kofen,  near  Berne  ;  collision  ;  about  14  deaths .

17  Aug. ,,

Trestle  bridge  over  the  Catawba  river,  N.  Carolina,
train  plunged  into  the  river ;  above  20  deaths .

26  Aug. ,,

Near  Burgos,  Old  Castile,  collision  of  express  and
mixed  trains  ;  25  deaths  (including  Mr.  Maurice
Long,  British  vice-consul  at  Malaga,  and  Mr.  Win.
Cotton) 24  Sept. ,,

Kohlfurt  (between  Breslau  and  Berlin) ;  collision  ;
5  deaths,  midnight 19  Oct. ,,

Near  Nagpur,  Bombay ;  train  went  off  the  line
through  wheel  breaking  ;  n  British  soldiers  and
5  others  killed $  Nov. ,,

Near  Domnino  station  on  the  Kosloff,  &c,  rail-
way, Central  Russia  ;  train  ran  off  the  line  on  a
bridge,  31  persons  killed ... 2^  Nov. ,,

About  70  miles  from  Lahore,  the  N.  W.  railway  of
India  ;  collision ;  about  30  persons  killed .

about  8  Dec. ,,

At  Barnby  (Great  Eastern)  collision  of  Lowestoft
and  Beccles  trains  ;  3  persons  killed .  24  Dec. „

Near  Hastings,  New  York  Central ;  collision  of
Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls,  and  St.  Louis  express
trains;  10  persons  killed  . . . .  24  Dec. ,,

Near  Medill,  Missouri ;  train  falls  in  the  river
through  breaking  down  of  the  bridge ;  7  per-
sons killed 4  May,  1892

On  the  Cottonbelt,  Arkansas,  U.S.A.,  collision,  7
persons  killed  .  ....  20  May, , ,

Birmingham,  collision  between  the  L.  &  N.  W.
express  train  and  a  Midland  train  entering  the
station  at  the  same  time  and  partly  on  the  same
line  ;  2  deaths,  many  injured  27  May,  [T.  E.  Fear,
the  Midland]  driver,  charged  with  man-
slaughter] . . . . - . .8  June, , ,

NearSouth  Carrollton,  Kentucky,  collision,  4 deaths

5  June, ,,

Esholt  junction  near  Leeds  (Midland)  collision  ;  4
deaths 9  June, ,,

Bishopsgate-station  (Great  Eastern)  ;  collision  of
workmen's  trains  from  Walthamstow  and  Enfield,
containing  1,800  persons  ;  4  deaths,  about  40  in-
jured ;  between  6  and  7  a.m.,  14  June  ;  signal-
men censured  by  the  coroner  . . .  17  June ,,

Harrisburg,  U.S.A.,  collision  ;  10  deaths  .  25  June ,,

EAINBOW.  Its  theory  was  developed  by
Kepler  in  161 1,  and  by  Rene  Descartes  in  1629;
see  Spectrum.

EAIN-FALL.  Mr.  G.  J.  Symons  printed  a
table  of  rain-fall  in  Britain  for  140  years,  1726-1865,
in  the  Reports  of  the  British  Association  in  1866 ;
and  another  table  in  1883  for  the  years  1866— 1880.
The  wettest  year  was  1852,  being  38  percent,  above
the  average  ;  but  1872  was  58  per  cent.  He  began
to  publish  his  "Annual  Kainfall  in  the  British
Isles  "  in  1866.  In  1867  he  published,  "  Bain  :
How,  When,  Where,  Why,  it  is  Measured."  It  con-
tains an  attempt  at  a  rainfall  table  of  the  world.
Rainfall  observers  in  Britain  for  the  tables,  168  in  i860  ;

about  2,000  in  1888.
Deficient  rainfall  in  1887  ;  average  yearly  fall  at  Bolton,

Lancashire,  for  56  years  47^7  in.  ;  in  1887,  27^92  in.
August  1891,  the  wettest  in  Britain  for  many  years.
Experiments  for  the  artificial  production  of  rain
by  means  of  explosives  at  El  Paso  in  Texas  .

18,  19  Sept.  1 89 1
Melbourne,  "  the  rain-maker,"  contracts  to  water

N.-W.  Kansas  in  June- Aug.  1892 . . Oct. ,,
Rain-making  experiments  made  in  Madras  presi-
dency Nov. ,,

EALEIGH'S  CONSPIEACY,  termed  the

Main  Plot  {which  see) .

EAMADAN,  the  Mahometan  month  of  fasting,
in  1889  began  2  May.  It  is  followed  by  the
festival  of  Bairam  {which  see).


EAMBOUILLET,  a  royal  chateau,  about  25
miles  from  Paris.  Here  Francis  I.  died  31  March,
1547  ;  and  here  Charles  X.  abdicated,  2  Aug.  1830.
After  being  owned  by  the  count  of  Thoulouse  and  the
due  de  Penthievre,  it  was  bought  by  Louis  XVI.  1 778-

EAMILLIES  (Belgium),  the  site  of  a  brilliant
victory  gained  by  the  English  under  the  duke  of
Marlborough  and  the  allies  over  the  French  com-
manded by  the  elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  marshal
de  Villeroy,  on  "Whitsunday,  23  May  (o.s.  12),  1706.
The  French  were  soon  seized  with  a  panic,  and  a
general  rout  ensued  :  about  4000  of  the  allied  army
were  slain  in  the  engagement.  This  accelerated
the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  &c.

EAMSGATE,  Kent,  a  fishing  village  in  the
17th  century,  became  important  through  commerce
after  1689.  The  erection  of  the  pier  began  in  1750  ;
the  harbour  was  formed  by  George  Smeaton,  1780-
95,  and  the  lighthouse  erected  soon  after.  Popula-
tion, 1881, 22,683 ;  iSgij  24,676.

BANEEAGH  (near  Chelsea),  a  public  garden
for  concerts  and  dancing,  occupying  the  grounds  of
Eanelagh  House  (built  by  Jones,  earl  of  Banelagh,
about  1691),  was  opened  with  a  breakfast,  5  April,
1742.  The  music  for  the  orchestra  was  frequently
composed  by  Dr.  Arne.  The  gardens  were  closed,
and  the  buildings  taken  down,  in  1804.

BANGES  ACT,  1891. See  under  Commons.

BANGOON,  maritime  capital  of  the  Burmese
empire,  built  by  Alompra,  1753,  was  taken  by  sir
A.  Campbell  on  11  May,  1824.  In  Dec.  1826,  it
was  ceded  to  the  Burmese  on  condition  of  the  pay-
ment of  a  sum  of  money,  the  reception  of  a  British
resident  at  Ava,  and  freedom  of  commerce.  Oppres-
sion of  the  British  merchants  led  to  the  second
Burmese  war,  1852.  Bangoon  was  taken  by  storm
by  general  Godwin,  14  April,  and  annexed  to  the
British  dominions  in  December.  An  English
bishopric  founded,  1877.  Destructive  fire  for  two
days  about  18  April,  1884.  Foundation  stone  of
Cathedral  laid  by  lord  DufFerin,  viceroy,  24  Feb.
1886.  Prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  hospitably  re-
ceived, 20  Dec.  1889. See  Burmah.

BANSOME'S  AETIFICIAL  STONE,  the
invention  of  Mr.  Fred.  Ransome,  1848,  is  made  by
dissolving  common  flint  (silica)  in  heated  caustic
alkali,  adding  fine  sand.  The  mixture  is  pressed
into  moulds  and  heated  to  redness.

EANTEES,  a  sect  which  arose  in  1645,  similar
to  the  Seekers,  now  termed  Quakers.  The  name
is  now  applied  to  the  Primitive  Methodists,  separated
from  the  main  body  in  1810 ;  see  Wesleyans.

EAPE  was  punished  with  death  by  the  Jews,
Romans,  and  Goths ;  by  mutilation  and  loss  of
eyes  in  William  I.'s  reign.  This  was  mitigated  by
the  statute  of  Westminster  1,  3  Edw.  I.  1274.
Made  felony  by  stat.  Westminster  2,  T2  Edw.  III.
1338  ;  and  without  benefit  of  clergy,  18  Eliz.  1575.
Rape  made  punishable  by  transportation  in  1841 ;
by  penal  servitude  for  life,  or  a  less  period,  1861.

EAPHIA,  a  port  of  Palestine.  Here  Antiochus
III.  of  Syria  was  defeated  by  Ptolemy  Philopater,
king  of  Egypt,  217  r.c.

EAPHOE,  a  bishopric  in  N.  Ireland.  St.
Columb-kille,  a  man  of  great  virtue  and  learning,
and  of  royal  blood,  founded  a  monastery  in  this
place,  and  it  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  other  holy
men  :  but  it  is  the  received  opinion  that  St.  Eunan
erected  the  church  into  a  cathedral,  and  was  the
first  bishop  of  the  see  in  the  8th  century.  Raphoe
was  united  to  the  bishopric  of  Derry  by  act,  3  <fc  4
Will.  IV.  1833  ;  see  Bishops.


BAPPAHANNOCK.


812


EEBECCA  EIOTS.


BAPPAHANNOCK,  see  Chancdlorsville,  and

Trials,  1865.

BASPBEBEY,  not  named  among  the  fruits
early  introduced  into  this  country  from  the  conti-
nent. The  Virginian  raspberry  (Rubus  occiden-
tal-is) before  1696,  and  the  flowering  raspberry
(Btibus  odoratus),  about  1700,  came  from  North
America.

EASTADT,  Baden.  Here  the  preliminaries  of
a  peace  were  signed,  6  March,  17 14,  by  marshal
Villars  on  the  part  of  the  French  king,  and  by
prince  Eugene  on  the  part  of  the  emperor;  the
German  frontier  was  restored  to  the  terms  of  the
peace  of  Eyswick.— The  CONGRESS  of  BAS-
TADT,  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the
Germanic  powers,  was  commenced  9  Dec.  1797  ;
and  negotiations  were  carried  on  throughout  1798.
The  atrocious  massacre  of  the  French  plenipoten-
tiaries at  Eastadt  by  the  Austrian  regiment  of
Szeltzler  took  place  28  April,  1799.

BATCLIFFE  HIGHWAY  (now St.  George's
street),  East  London.  Mr.  Marr,  a  shopkeeper  here,
with  his  wife,  child,  and  boy,  Avere  brutally  mur-
dered in  a  few  minutes,  7  Dec.  181  r.  In  the
same  neighbourhood,  on  ri  Dec,  Mr.  and  Mrs.
Williamson,  then-  child,  and  servant,  were  also
murdered.  A  man,  named  "Williams,  arrested  on
suspicion,  committed  suicide,  15  Dec.

BATHMINES  (near  Dublin) .  Colonel  Jones,
governor  of  Dublin  castle,  made  a  sally  out,  routed
tbe  marquis  of  Ormond  at  Bathmines,  killed  4000
men,  and  took  2517  prisoners,  with  their  cannon,
baggage,  and  ammunition,  2  Aug.  1649.

EATING  ACT,  37  &  38  Vict.  c.  54,  passed
7  Aug.  1874  '  abolishes  exemptions  from  the  poor
law  act,  43rd  of  Elizabeth ;  and  provides  for  the
rating  of  woods,  mines,  rights  of  fowling,  fishing,  &c.

EATIONALISM,  the  doctrine  of  those  who
reject  a  divine  revelation  and  admit  no  other  means
of  acquiring  knowledge  but  experience  and  reason.
The  leading  writers  are  Eeimarus  of  Hamburg  (died
1768),  Paulus  of  Heidelberg,  Eichhorn,  Eeinhard,
and  Strauss.  W.  Lecky's  "  History  of  nationalism
in  Europe"  appeared,  July,  1865;  and  Dr.  J.
Hurst's,  April,  1867.

BATISBON  (in  Bavaria),  was  made  a  free
imperial  city  about  1200.  Several  diets  have  been
held  here.  A  peace  was  concluded  here  between
France  and  the  emperor  of  Germany,  by  which  was
terminated  the  war  for  the  Mantuan  succession,
signed  13  Oct.  1630.  In  later  times,  it  was  at
Batisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German
princes  seceded  from  the  Germanic  empire,  and
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the
emperor  Napoleon  of  France,  1  Aug.  1806.  Eatis-
bon was  made  an  archbishopric  in  1806 ;  secularised
in  1810 ;  was  ceded  to  Bavaria  in  1815 ;  became
again  an  archbishopric  in  1817.  Population  1S90,
37,567-

BATTENING  (from  ratten,  provincial  for  rat),
the  _  removing  and  hiding  workmen's  tools  as  a
punishment  for  nonpayment  to  trades  unions,  or
opposition  to  them.  Much  "rattening"  was  dis-
closed at  the  commission  of  inquiry  at  Sheffield  in
June  1867  ;  and  at  Manchester  Sept.  following,- ;  see
Sheffield.

EAUCOUX  (Belgium).  Here  marshal  Saxe
and  the  French  army  totally  defeated  the  allies
under  prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  11  Oct.  1746.

EAVAILLAC'S  MUEDEE  of  Henry  IV.  of
France,  14  May,  1610.  The  execution  of  the  assassin


on  27 May  was  accompanied  by  most  elaborate
tortures.

BAVENNA  (on  the  Adriatic),  a  city  of  the
Papal  states,  founded  by  Greek  colonists,  fell  under
the  Eoman  power  about  234  B.C.  It  was  favoured
and  embellished  by  the  emperors,  and  Honorius
made  it  the  capital  of  the  Empire  of  the  West  about
a.d.  404.  In  568  it  became  the  capital  of  an
exarchate.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Lombards  in
752,  and  their  king,  Astolphus,  in  754  surrendered
it  to  Pepin,  king  of  France,  who  gave  it  to  the  pope
Stephen,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  tem-
poral power  of  the  holy  see.  On  the  nth  of  April,
15 12,  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  French,
under  Gaston  de  Foix  (duke  of  Nemours  and
nephew  of  Louis  XII.),  and  the  Spanish  and  Papal
armies.  De  Foix  perished  in  the  moment  of  his
victory,  and  his  death  closed  the  good  fortune  of  the
French  in  Italy.  Eavenna  became  part  of  the  king-
dom, of  Italy  in  i860.

Many  of  the  Accoltellatcri,  a  secret  society  of  as-
sassins (said  to  have  been  formerly  followers  of
Garibaldi),  .who  long  kept  the  city  in  terror,
arrested,  Sept. — Oct.  ;  condemned  to  life  im-
prisonment 12  Dec.  1874

BE,  ISLE  OF  (W.  coast  of  France,  near  Eochelle).
Oyster  beds  planted  here  in  1862  have  flourished.
See  liochelle.

BEADEES,  a  new  order  of  ministrants  in  the
church  of  England,  received  the  assent  of  the
archbishops  and  bishops  in  July,  1866.  They  were
not  to  be  ordained  or  addressed  as  reverend.

BEADING  (Berkshire) .  Here  Alfred  defeated
the  Danes,  871.  The  abbey  was  founded  in  1121
by  Henry  I.  The  last  abbot  was  hanged  in  1539
for  denying  the  king's  supremacy.  The  palace
prison  was  erected  1850.  New  town  hall,  free
library,  &c.  opened  31  May,  1882.  Population,  1881,
48,769 ;  1891,  60,054.

EEAL  ACTIONS  Limitation  Act,  passed

1874,  comes  into  operation  1  Jan.  1879.
BEALISTS,  see  Nominalists.

EEAL PBESENCE, see Transubstantia-

tion.

EEAPING-MACHINES.  One  was  invented
in  this  country  early  in  the  present  century,  but
failed  from  its  intricacies.  At  the  meeting  of  the
British  Association  at  Dundee,  Sept.  1867,  the  rev.
Patrick  Bell  stated  that  he  invented  a  reaping-
machine  in  1826,  which  was  used  in  1827  ;  the
principle  being  that  on  which  the  best  American
machines  are  now  constructed.  On  15  Jan.  1868,
he  was  presented  with  a  valuable  testimonial,  and
1000^.  in  money.  McCormick's  American  machine
was  invented  about  1831,  and  perfected  in  1846;  he
received  a  gold  medalfrom  the  jurors  of  the  Exhibi-
tion of  1851 ;  and  also  at  the  Eoyal  Agricultural
Society's  competition  at  Bristol,  6  Aug.  1878.  The
sheaves  are  bound  by  these  reaping  machines.
About  200  patented ;  few  good.  Hussey's  machine,
also  American,  exhibited  in  1851,  was  highly
commended.
John Ridley, the inventor  of the  reaping machine

largely  used  in  Australia,  died  28  Nov.  1887.

EEASON  was  decreed  to  be  worshipped  as
a  goddess  by  the  French  republicans,  10  Nov.
1793,  and  was  personified  by  an  actress. — Thomas
Paine's  "  Age  of  Reason"  was  published  in  1794-5  ;
Immanuel  Kant's  "  Critique  of  Pure  Eeason,"
("  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft "),  1781.

EEBECCA  EIOTS,  see  Wales,  1843,  1878.


REBELLIONS.


813


RECORDS, PUBLIC.


REBELLIONS or Insurrections in

BRITISH  HISTORY. Details  of  many  are  given
in  separate  articles. See  Conspiracies.

Against  William  the conqueror, in favour  of Edgar

Atlieling,  aided  by  the  Scots  and  Danes,  1069.
By  Odo  of  Bayenx  and  others,  against  William  II.  in

favour  of  his  brother  Robert,  10S8  ;  suppressed,  1090.
In  favour  of  the  empress  Maude,  11 39. Ended,  11 53.
The  rebellion  of  prince  Richard  against  his  father  Henry

II.  11S9.
Of  the  Barons,  April,  1215. Compromised  by  the  grant

of  Magna  Charta,  15  June  following.
Of  the  Barons,  1261-67.
Of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  against  Edward  II.

on  account  of  his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312.

Again,  on  account  of  the  Spencers,  1321.
Of  Walter  the  Tyler, of  Deptford,  vulgarly  called  Wat

Tyler,  occasioned  by  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a  poll-tax

collector  to  his  daughter. He  killed  the  collector  in

his  rage,  and  raised  a  party  to  oppose  the  tax  itself,

1381  ;  see  Tyler.
Ill  Ireland,  when  Roger,  earl  of  March,  the  viceroy  and

heir  presumptive  to  the  crown,  was  slain,  1398.
Of  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  caused  Richard  II.  to

be  deposed,  1399.
Against  king  Henry  IV.  by  a  number  of  confederated

lords,  1402-3.
Against  Henry  V.  by  earl  of  Cambridge  and  other  lords,

1415-

Of  Jack  Cade,  against  Henry  VI.  1450 ;  see  Cade's  Insur-
rection.

In  favour  of  the  house  of  York,  1452,  which  ended  in  the
imprisonment  of  Henry  VI.  and  seating  Edward  IV.  of
York  on  the  throne,  1461.

Under  Warwick  and  Clarence,  1470,  which  ended  with
the  expulsion  of  Edward  IV.  and  the  restoration  of
Henry  VI.  the  same  year.

Under  Edward  IV.  1471,  which  ended  with  the -death  of
Henry  VI.

Of  the  earl  of  Richmond,  against  Richard  III.  1485,  which
ended  with  the  death  of  Richard.

Under  Lambert  Simnel,  i486,  who  pretended  to  be
Richard  III. 's  nephew,  Edward  Plantagenet,  earl  of
Warwick  ;  his  army  was  defeated,  leaders  slain,  and  he
was  discovered  to  be  a  baker's  son  ;  he  was  pardoned,
and  employed  by  the  king  as  a  menial.

Under  Perkin  Warbeck,  1492  ;  defeated  ;  executed  1499.

Under  Thomas  Flammock  and  Michael  Joseph,  in  Corn-
wall, against  taxes  levied  to  pay  the  Scottish  war  ex-
penses. They  marched  towards  London,  and  lord
Audley  took  the  command  at  Wells.  They  were  de-
feated at  Blackheath,  22  June,  and  the  three  leaders
were  executed,  28  June,  1497.

The  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  against  Henry  VIII.  1536-7.

Of  the  English  in  the  West,  to  restore  the  ancient  liturgy,
&e.,  1549  ;  suppressed  same  year.

In  Norfolk,  headed  by  Ket,  the  tanner,  but  soon  sup-
pressed, Aug.  1549.

In  favour  of  lady  Jane  Grey,  against  queen  Mary.  Lady
Jane  was  proclaimed  queen  of  England  on  the  death  of
Edward  VI.  10  July,  1553  ;  but  she  resigned  the  crown
to  Mary  a  few  days  afterwards  :  she  was  beheaded  for
high  treason,  in  the  Tower,  12  Feb.  1554,  aged  17.

Of  sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  son  of  the  poet,  and  others,  against
queen  Mary's  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  &c. ,  fails  ;
he  is  beheaded  n  April,  1554.

Of  the  Roman  catholic  earls  of  Northumberland  and
Westmoreland  against  queen  Elizabeth,  Nov.  and  Dec.
1567.  The  former  fled  to  Scotland,  but  was  given,  up
by  the  regent  Morton  and  executed.

Of  the  Irish  under  the  earl  of  Tyrone,  1599,  suppressed
in  1601.

Under  the  earl  of  Essex,  against  queen  Elizabeth,  1600  ;
it  ended  in  his  death,  1601.

Of  the  Irish  under  Roger  More,  sir  Phelim  O'Neil,  &c,
against  the  English  in  Ireland, 1641-5.

The  "Great  Rebellion,"  1641-60.

Rebellion  of  the  Scots  Covenanters,  1666 ;  soon  put
down.

Under  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  1685  ;  executed  15  July.

Of  the  Scots  in  favour  of  the  Old  Pretender,  1715  ;  quelled
in  1716.

Of  the.  Scots  under  the  Young  Pretender,  1745  ;  suppressed
in  1746  ;  lords  Lovat,  Balmerino,  and  Kilmarnock  be-
headed.

Of  the  Americans  on  account  of  taxation,  1774.  This
rebellion  led  to  the  loss  of  our  chief  North  American


colonies,  and  the  independence  of  the  United  States,
1782.

In  Ireland,  called  the  Great  Rebellion,  when  great  num-
bers took  up  arms,  commenced  24  May,  1798  ;  sup-
pressed next  year.

Again  in  Ireland,  under  Robert  Emmett,  a  gifted  enthu-
siast, 23  July,  1S03,  when  lord  Kihvarden  was  killed
with  several  others  by  the  insurgents.

Canadian  Insurrection  (which  see),  Dec.  1837  to  Nov.  1838.

Of  Chartists  at  Newport  (ivhich  see),  4  Nov.  1839.

Smith  O'Brien's  silly  Irish  rebellion  ;  terminated  in  the
defeat  and  dispersion  of  a  multitude  of  his  deluded
followers  by  sub-inspector  Trant  and  about  sixty  police
constables,  on  Boulagh  common,  Ballingary,  co.  Tip-
perary,  29  July,  1848  ;  see  Ireland.

Sepoy  mutiny  in  India  (see  India),  1857-8.

Of  Fenians  in  Ireland  ;  see  Fenians  and  Ireland,  1865-7.
See  Chili.

RECEIPTS  FOR  MONEY  were  first  taxed  by
a  stamp  duty  in  1783.  The  act  was  amended  in
1784,  1791  et  seq.,  and  receipts  were  taxed  by  a
duty  varying  according  to  the  amount  of  the  money
received,  in  all  transactions.  Stamps  required  on
bills  of  exchange,  notes,  and  receipts  in  Ireland,  by
stat.  35  Geo.  III.  1795 ;  see  Bills  of  Exchange.
The  uniform  stamp  of  one  penny  on  receipts,  for  all
sums  above  2L,  was  enacted  by  16  &  17  Vict.  c.  59
(4  Aug.  1853)  ;  see  Stamps.  Penny  postage-stamps
used  for  receipts  after  1  June,  1881.

RECIDIVISTS,  the  French  term  for  habitual
criminals.  The  proposal  of  the  French  govern-
ment to  transmit  many  of  these  to  New  Caledonia,
with  partial  freedom,  was  opposed  in  France  as
dangerous  to  liberty,  and  very  warmly  protested
against  by  our  Australian  colonies,  especially
Queensland  and  New  South  "Wales,  fearing  their
intrusion  as  dangerous  to  public  security,  1883-4.

French  legislation  resumed;  bill  passed  12 May;
came  into  operation . . . . 1  Dec,  1885

RECIPROCITY  ASSOCIATION,  founded
at  Manchester  Sept.  1869,  in  consequence  of  the
restrictions  on  the  importation  of  British  manu-
factures into  their  territories  imposed  by  foreign
governments.
Reciprocity,  a  form  of  protection,  was  advocated  by  lord

Bateman  and  others  in  1878-9. His  resolution  was

negatived  by  the  lords,  29  April,  1879.

RECIPROCITY  TREATY  between  Great
Britain  and  the  United  States,  regulating  the  rela-
tion between  the  latter  and  Canada,  in  regard  to
trade,  fisheries,  &c,  negotiated  by  lord  Elgin,  and
ratified  2  Aug.  1854.  Its  abrogation,  proposed  by  the
United  States  government  in  1864,  was  effected  17
March,  1866.  Its  renewal  was  desired  in  the  states
in  1867. See  Canada  and  United  States,  1891.

RECITATIVE,  a  species  of  singing  differing
but  little  from  ordinary  speaking,  and  used  for  nar-
ratives in  operas,  is  said  to  have  been  first  employed
at  Rome  by  Emilio  del  Cavalierc,  who  disputed  the
claim  of  Rinuccini  to  the  introduction  of  the  opera,
1600 ;  see  Opera.

RECORD,  Evangelical,  or  Low  Church,  weekly
newspaper,  established  1828.

RECORDER,  the  principal  judicial  officer  of
great  corporations.  The  first  recorder  of  London
was  Jeffrey  de  Norton,  alderman,  1298  ;  right  hon.
Russell  Gurney,  Q.C.,  recorder,  Dec.  1856— Jan.
1878.  Sir  Thomas  Chambers,  Feb.  1878',  died  24
Dec.  1891,  succeeded  by  sir  Charles  Hall,  8  Feb.  1892.
The  salary,  originally  10^.  per  annum,  is  now3000/.

RECORDS,  Public,  in  England,  began

to  be  regularly  preserved  in  1 100,  by  order  of  Henry
I.  The  repositories  which  possessed  materials  the
most  ancient  and  interesting  to  the  historian  were,


EECEEATION.


814


EEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT.


the  Chapter-house  of  Westminster  Abbey,  the  Tower
of  London,  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  the  Queen's  Re-
membrancer's offices  of  the  exchequer.  The  early
records  of  Scotland,  going  from  London,  were  lost
by  shipwreck  in  1298.  In  Ireland,  the  council-
chamber  and  most  of  the  records  were  burned,  1 7 1 1 .
Public  records  Act,  2  Vict.  c.  94  (to  Aug.  1838). —
A  new  Record  Office  has  been  erected  on  the  Rolls
estate,  between  Chancery  and  Fetter  lanes,  to  which
the  records  have  been  gradually  removed.  The
Record  Commissioners  commenced  their  publica-
tions in  1802.  Mr.  F.  Thomas's  valuable  "Hand-
books to  the  Public  Records,"  was  published  in  1853 ;
Mr.  Ewald's  "  Our  Public  Records,"  in  1873.  Acts
relating  to  the  Public  Records  of  Ireland,  passed
1867  and  1875.

EECEEATION,  see  Playground.
The  Recreative  Evening  Schools  Association  for  boys  who

have  left  school,  founded,  under  royal  patronage,  1886.

EECEEATIVE  BELIGIONISTS,  a  name
given  to  an  association  of  gentlemen  for  diffusing  a
knowledge  of  natural  religion  by  the  aid  of  science,
formed  in  Dec.  1866.  In  Jan.  1867  lectures  were
given  on  Sunday  evenings  at  St.  Martin's  Hall,
London,  by  professor  Huxley,  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,
and  others,  sacred  music  being  performed  at  intervals
during  the  evening.  This  was  decided  not  to  be  an
infraction  of  the  Sunday  act,  21  Geo.  III.  c.  49,  in
the  trial,  Baxter  v.  Baxter  Langley,  19  Nov.  1868.
See  Sunday  Lecture  Society.

BECEUITINGr,  see  Army,  31  Oct.  1866.
Recruits:  1878,  28,325;  1879,  25,662;  1880,
25,622;  1881,26,258;  1882,23,802;  1883,33,096
(new  regulations);  1884,  35,653;  1885,  39,97!;
1886,39,409;  1887,  31,225;  1888,  25,153;  1890-1,
(for  the  regular  army),  32,923.

EECUSANTS,  persons  who  refuse_  to  attend
church,  1  Eliz.  c.  2,  1559  ;  dissenters  relieved  from
this  act,  1689;  it  was  repealed,  1844.

EED  AN,  a  field  fortification,  consisting  of  two
faces  meeting  in  a  salient  angle  directed  towards
the  enemy;  see  Russo- Turkish  War,  1855.

EED  CEAG,  deposits  of  fossil  remains  on  the
coast  of  Essex  and  Suffolk,  so  designated  by  Edward
Charlesworth  about  1835.  They  are  much  used  in
the  manure  manufacture.

EED  CEOSS  on  a  white  ground,  the  flag  of
the  Geneva  Convention  {which  see).  Third  inter-
national convention  at  Geneva,  1  Sept.  1884.  The
Russian  Red  Cross  Society,  with  others,  was  very
active  during  the  Servian  war,  July-Aug.  1876.
The  order  of  the  Royal  Red  Cross  for  ladies  who
have  acted  as  nurses  in  war,  &c,  and  others,  in-
stituted by  queen  Victoria,  23  April,  1883.  The
princess  of  Wales  and  other  ladies  nominated,  25
May,  1883 ;  conferred  on  Mrs.  Grimwood  for  her
services  in  the  retreat  of  the  troops  from  Manipur
{which  see),  June,  1891.

EEDE  LECTUEE,  Cambridge ;  sir  Robert
Rede,  chief  justice  of  common  pleas,  in  1524  en-
dowed some  lectureships.  In  18^9  these  were
replaced  by  an  annual  lecture  :  which  has  been
given  bj'  professors  Owen,  Phillips,  Ansted,  Tyndall,
and  other  eminent  persons.

EEDEMPTOBISTS,  see  Liguorians.

BEDHILL,  see  Reformatory  Schools.

EEDISTEIBUTION  OF  SEATS  ACT,
eec  Reform,  1885.

BEDOWA,  a  Bohemian  dance  in  3-4  time,  in-
troduced in  1846  or  1847,  at  Paris,  and  soon  after  in
London.


EED  EIVEE  SETTLEMENTS,  a  name
given  to  part  of  the  Hudson  bay  settlements.

EED  SEA,  the  Mare  Erythraeum  of  the  "
ancients,  between  Arabia  and  Africa,  crossed  by  the
Phoenicians  and  others  in  commerce,  and  by  the
Israelites  in  their  escape  from  Egypt,  1491  B.C.  In
1826  Ehrenberg  discovered  that  the  colour  was  due
to  marine  plants,  the  Trichodesmium  ErythrcRum  ;
see  Suez  and  Soudan. — Red  Sea  Littoral,  Suahin,
&c,  governor-general,  col.  Holled  Smith,  appointed
1888,  resigned  June,  1892.

EEFEEENDUM,  the  name  given  to  an
article  in  the  Swiss  constitution  of  29  May,  1874,
by  which  certain  laws  passed  by  the  Cantonal  and
Federal  legislations  might  be  referred  to  the  people
at  large  by  plebiscite.

EEFLECTOES,  see  Burning-glass.

EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, instituted at
Westminster  to  protect  electors,  20  May,  1835.
National  Reform  Union:  at  the  annual  meeting  at  Man-
chester it  was  said  to  have  411 affiliated  societies,
22  May,  1889.

EEFOEM  BANQUETS,  see  France,  1847.

EEFOEM CLUB, established in 1836, to
succeed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The
building  in Pall  Mall, designed  by sir Charles
Barry,  was  completed  in  1841.
Jubilee  ball;  the  prince  of  Wales  and  son,  and  above

2,000  persons  of  all  parties  present,  15  June,  1887.

EEFOEM  m  Parliament.  Mr.  Pitt's  mo-
tion for  a  reform  in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority
of  20,  7  May,  1782;  of  144,  7  May,  1783  ;  and  of  74,
18  April,  1785  ;  see  Radicals.  The  measure  of  reform
by  earl  Grey's  administration  was  proposed  in  the
house  of  commons  by  lord  John  Russell,  1  March,  183 1.

bill  of  1831.

First  division ;  second  reading  :  for  it,  302  ;  against  it,
301  ;  22  March.

On  motion  for  a  committee,  general  Gascojaie  moved  an
amendment,  "that  the  number  of  representatives  for
England  and  Wales  ought  not  to  be  diminished. ' '  Amend-
ment carried  011  a  division,  299  to  291  ;  19  April.

The  bill  abandoned,  and  parliament  dissolved,  23  April.

A  new  parliament  assembled,  14  June.  Bill  again  intro-
duced, 24  June.

Division  on  second  reading  :  for  it,  367  ;  against  it,  231 —
majority,  136  ;  7  July.

Division  on  third  reading  of  the  bill :  for  it,  345  ;  against
it,  236 — majority,  109  ;  22  Sept.

In  the  Lords  : — first  division,  on  second  reading ;  lord
Wharncliffe  moved,  "  that  the  bill  be  read  that  day  six
months."  For  the  amendment,  199  ;  against  it,  158 —
majority,  forty-one  ;  8  Oct.  [Parliament  prorogued,
20  Oct.  1831.]

act  of  1832.*

Read  in  the  Commons  a,  first  time  without  a  division,  12
Dec.  1831.  Second  reading  ;  division,  viz.  :  for  the  bill,
324  ;  against  it,  162 — majority,  162  ;  17  Dec.  1831.  Third
reading ;  division,  viz.  :  for  the  bill,  355  ;  against  it,
239 — majority  for  it,  116;  23  March,  1832.

In  the  Lords  : — read  a,  first  time  on  motion  of  earl  Grey,
27  March.  Second  reading :  for  the  bill,  184  ;  against
it,  175 — majority,  nine  ;  14  April.  In  the  committee
lord  Lyndhurst  moved,  "  that  the  question  of  enfran-
chisement should  precede  that  of  disfranchisement."
The  division  was  151  and  116 — majorit3r  against  minis-
ters, thirty-five,  7  May.

Resignation  of  ministers,  9  May;  great  public  excitement
ensued,  and  they  were  induced  to  resume  office  on  the
king  granting  them  full  power  to  secure  majorities  by
the  creation  of  new  peers.

*By  this  "Act  to  amend  the  Representation  of  the
People  in  England  and  Wales  "  (2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  45),  56
boroughs  in  England  were  disfranchised  (schedule  A.),  30
were  reduced  to  one  member  only  (B.)  ;  22  new  boroughs
were  created  to  send  two  members  (C),  and  20  to  send
one  member  (D.)  and  other  important  changes  made.


EEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT.


815


EEFOEMATION.


In  the  Lords,  the  bill  was  carried  through  the  committee,
30  May ;  read  a  third  time  :  106  against  22 — majority,
eighty-four  ;  4  June.  Received  the  royal  assent,  7
June,  1832.

The  royal  assent  given  to  the  Scotch  reform  bill,  17  July  ;
and  to  the  Irish  one,  7  Aug.  1832.

ABORTIVE REFORM BILLS.

Lord  John  Russell  introduced  a  new  reform  bill,  13  Feb.
1854,  which  was  withdrawn,  11  April,  1854,  in  conse-
quence of  the  war  with  Russia.

On  28  Feb.  1859,  Mr-  Disraeli  brought  in  a  reform  bill,
which  was  rejected  by  the  commons  on  31  March,  by  a
majority  of  39.  This  led  to  a  dissolution  of  parlia-
ment, and  eventually  to  a  change  of  ministry.

The  new  government  (lords  Palmei'ston  and  J.  Russell)
brought  forward  a  new  bill,  1  March,  i860;  but  with-
drew it,  11  June.  No  reform  bill  was  brought  forward
by  the  government,  1 861-5;  see  Commons.

The  discussion  respecting  parliamentary  reform  was  re-
vived in  the  autumns  of  1864  and  1865.

Mr.  Baines'  reform  bill  was  rejected  by  the  commons,  8
May,  1865.

Mr.  Gladstone  introduced  a.  franchise  bill,  12  March,  1866 ;
after  much  discussion,  it  was  read  a  second  time,  28
April.  A  re-distribution  of  seats  bill  was  introduced,
and  incorporated  with  the  franchise  bill,  7  May  ;  an
amendment  (on  a  clause,  substituting  "  rateable  "  for
"  clear  yearly  value  ")  was  passed,  in  opposition  to  the
government,  19  June  ;  which  led  to  the  resignation  of
the  government,  26  June  ;  and  the  withdrawal  of  the
bill  (see  Adullam),  19  July,  1866.

Numerous  great  reform  meetings  :  London,  Hyde-park
(riotous),  23,  24  July  ;  Agricultural  Hall,  30  July  ;  and
Guildhall,  8  Aug.  ;  Manchester,  24  Sept.  ;  Leeds,  8
Oct.  ;  Glasgow,  16  Oct.  ;  Edinburgh,  17  Nov.  ;  Con-
ference at  Manchester,  ig  Nov.  1866.

Reform  demonstration  of  trades-unions  in  London  ;  pro-
cession of  about  25,000  ;  great  order  observed,  3  Dec. ,
1866.

Procession  of  about  18,000  men  to  Agricultural  Hall,
Islington:  good  order  kept ;  11  Feb.  1867.

Mr.  Disraeli  announced  his  plan  of  proceeding  with  re-
form by  13  resolutions,  n  Feb.  ;  these  withdrawn,  26
Feb.  1867.

"Ten  Minutes'  bill"  introduced  and  withdrawn,  25  Feb.
1867.

[It  comprised  a  61.  franchise  for  boroughs,  and  20I.  for
counties.  Said  by  sir  John  Pakington  to  have  been
agreed  to  in  the  last  ten  minutes  of  a  cabinet  council.]

New  bill  (with  household  suffrage)  introduced  18  March  ;
read  second  time,  27  March,  1867.

The  "Tea-room  meeting"  of  liberals  (Messrs.  Owen  Stan-
ley, Dillwyn,  Grant  Duff,  and  others),  who  agree  to
support  the  bill  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Gladstone's  reso-
lution, which  is  withdrawn,  and  the  bill  goes  into
committee,  8  April ;  Mr.  Gladstone's  amendment  re-
jected by  22  (for  288,  against  310),  12  April,  1867.

Peaceable  reform  meetings  at  Birmingham,  22  April ;
Hyde  Park,  6  May ;  National  Reform  Union '  (first
meeting),  15  May,  1867.

acts  of  1867-8.
The  new  Reform  bill  passed  by  the  commons,  15-16  July  ;
by  the  lords  (with  amendments,  when  lord  Derby  said,
that  it  was  "a  great  experiment,"  and  "a  leap  in  the
dark ")  6  Aug.  ;  received  the  royal  assent,  15  Aug.
1867.*

*  This  act  is  divided  into  three  parts  : —

I.  Franchises.  Boroughs :  All  householders  rated  for
relief  of  the  poor  ;  lodgers,  resident  for  twelve  months,
and  paying  10?.  a  year.  Counties :  Persons  of  property  of
the  clear  annual  value  of  5?.  ;  and  occupiers  of  lands  or
tenements  paying  izl.  a  year.  At  a  contested  election  for
any  county  or  borough  represented  by  three  members,no
person  to  vote  for  more  than  2  candidates  ;  in  London,
to  vote  for  3  only.

Disfranchised:  Totnes  ;  Reigate  ;  jGrcat  Yarmouth;
Lancaster.

II.  Distribution  of  Seats  :  Boroughs  with  less  than
10,000  population,  to  return  one  member  only  (38  in
Schedule  A.).  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  and
Leeds,  to  have  3  members  instead  of  2.

Chelsea  (with  Fulham,  Hammersmith,  and  Kensington)
made  a  borough  :  Merthyr  Tvdvil,  and  Salford,  to  return
two  members  ;  Tower  Hamlets  divided  into  two  boroughs
— Hackney,  and  Tower  Hamlets. (Other  new  boroughs


Scotch  reform  bill  introduced  by  lord  advocate,  17  Feb  ■
passed  13  July,  1868.

Irish  bill  introduced  by  the  earl  of  Mayo,  19  March  ;
passed  13  July,  1868.

The  Reform  league  was  dissolved  13  March,  i860  ■  re-
vived, Oct.  1876.

Bill  for  extending  household  suffrage  to  counties  brought
in  annually  by  Mr.  G.  O.  Trevelyan,  see  Household.
Suffrage.

acts  of  1884-5.

New  bill  for  Representation  of  the  People  of  the  United
Kingdom  extending  household  and  lodger  suffrage  to
comities  uniform  with  boroughs,  adding  about  2,000,000
voters  introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  premier,  28
Feb.,  read  first  time  3  March  ;  lord  John  Manners'
amendment,  declining  to  pass  the  bill  without  know-
ledge of  re-distribution  of  seats,  24  March;  negatived,
(340-210),  bill  read  second  time,  7-8  April ;  third  time,
27  June.  Lords,  first  time,  27  June  :  rejected  by  earl
Cairns's  amendment  (conservatives  led  by  Marquis  of
Salisbury),  (205-146),  8-9  July  ;  earl  of  Wemyss's  com-
promise rejected  (182-132);  earl  Cadogan's  amendment,
(adjournment,  instead  of  prorogation  of  parliament  till
the  autumn),  adopted  17  July.  Commons,  bill  read
first  time,  24  Oct.;  second  time,  (372-232)  7-8  Nov*. ;
third  time,  11  Nov.  Lords  bill  road  first  time,  14  Ni  > v. ;
second  time,  18  Nov.  ;  (compromise  with  the  govern-
ment) ;  third  time,  5  Dec. ;  passed  6  Dec.  1884.

Redistribution  of  Seats  Act ;  commons,  read  first  time,
1  Dec.  ;  second  time,  4  Dec.  1884  ;  third  time  (116-33),
11-12  May, 1885.  Lords,  read  first  time,  12  May;  second
time,  15  May ;  third  time,  12  June  ;  Royal  assent,  25
June,  1885.

Redistribution  of  Seats  Act.— Boroughs  to  cease  as  such
(having  less  than  15,000  inhabitants)  :  England,  80 ;
Scotland,  2 ;  Ireland,  22.  To  be  included  in  their
counties:  Berwick,  Lichfield,  Carrickfergus,  and  Drog-
heda.  Disfranchised  for  corruption :  Macclesfield,  Sand-
wich. To  lose  one  member  (having  less  than  50,000  in-
habitants):  England,  34;  Ireland,  3.  To  have  addi-
tional members  (with  more  than  50,000  inhabitants)  ;
England,  12  ;  Scotland,  3  ;  Ireland,  2.  New  boroughs:
England,  43.  160  seats  obtained  by  disfranchisement
to  be  divided  among  counties  and  boroughs  now  under-
represented.  Certain  boroughs  and  counties  return-
ing more  than  one  member,  formed  into  new  sub-
divisions, returning  one  member.  London  only  to  have
two  members.  Total  number  of  members  to  be  raised
from  652  to  670  ;  England  to  have  6  more,  Scotland  12
more.

Mr.  Stansfeld's  resolution  advocating  the  principle  of
"one  man,  one  vote,"  negatived  in  the  commons
(291 — 189),  3  March,  1891.

EEFOEMATION,  THE.  Efforts  for  Hie
reformation  of  the  church  may  be  traced  to  the
reign  of  Charlemagne,  when  Paulinus,  bishop  of
Aquileia,  emploj'ed  his  voice  and  pen  to  accomplish
it.  The  principal  reformers  were  AVickliffe,  Huss,
Jerome  of  Prague,  Savonarola,  Erasmus,  Luther,
Zuinglius,  Tyndal,  Calvin,  Melanchthon,  Cranmer,
Latimer,  Knox,  and  Browne.  Luther  thus  charac-
terised himself  and  his  fellow  reformers  :  "  Ees  non
Verba — Luther."  "Verba  non  Ees — Erasmus."
"  Ees  et  Verba — Melanchthon."  "Nee  Verba  nee
Ees — Carlstadt .;"  see  Wichliffites,  Protestants,  Cal-
vinists,  Lutherans,  Prcsbi/tcrianism,  &c.  The  eras
of  the  reformation  are  as  follows  : —
In  France  (Albigcnses),  said  to  have  been  a  surviving

gnostic  sect,  not  Christian  reformers . about  1177

In  England  (Wickliffe) 1360

In  Bohemia  (Huns) 1405

In  Italy  (Jerome  Savonarola) 1498

In  France  (by  Farel) before  1512

In  Germany  (Luther) 1517

In  Switzerland  (Zuinglius) 1519

In  Denmark  (Andreas  Bodenstein) ....  1521

in  Schedule  B.) University  of  Loudon  to  return  one
member.

III.  Supplementary  Provisions  :  Registration,  &c.
Boundary  Commissioners  (which  sec).  Parliament  not  to
be  dissolved  on  any  future  demise  of  the  crown.  Mem-
bers holding  offices  of  profit  from  the  crown  not  to  vacate
their  seats  on  acceptance  of  another  office.


BEFOBMATOBY SCHOOLS.


816


BEGGIO.


In  Prussia 1527

In  France  (Calvin) ;  see  Huguenots . . . .  1529

Protestants  first  so  called ,

In  Sweden  (Petri) 1530

In  England  (Henry  VIII.) 1534

I11  Ireland  (Archbishop  George  Browne) . . .  1535
In  England, completed (Cranmer,  Bucer,  Fagius,
<fec),  1547;  annulled  by  Mary,  1553;  restored  by

Elizabeth 1558

In  Scotland  (Knox),  established 1560

In  the  Netherlands,  established .... 1562

BEFOBMATOBY  SCHOOLS,  for  juvenile
delinquents.*  The  Reformatory  School  at  Mettray,
near  Tours  in  France,  was  founded  in  1839  by
M.  de  Metz,  formerly  a  councillor  of  Paris,  warmly
seconded  by  the  vicomte  de  Courcelles,  who  gave
the  estate  on  which  the  establishment  is  placed.
The  one  at  Kedhill,  Surrey,  is  situated  on  land
purchased  in  1849  by  the  Philanthropic  Society,
and  under  the  direction  of  the  rev.  Sydney  Turner.
The  first  stone  of  the  building  was  laid  30  April,
1849,  by  the  prince  consort.  The  inmates  of  these
establishments  are  instructed  in  farm  labour,  and
divided  into  so-called  families.  In  1854 the  Juvenile
Offenders  act  was  passed.  In  1851  and  1853  great
meetings  were  held  on  this  subject ;  and  in  Aug.
1856,  the  first  grand  conference  of  the  National
Reformatory  Union  was  held.  See  Industrial
Schools.

North-West  London  Preventive  and  Reformatory
Institution  in  the  New-road,  established  :  all  kinds

of  trades  taught 1852

Reformatory  and  Refuge  Union  founded  . .  1856

Acts  for  establishing  reformatory  schools  passed,

1857,  1858,  1866,  1868  ;  amended .... 1872
Fifty-one  reformatory  schools  in  England  (and  nine
in  Ireland),  1863  ; 53  reformatory  schools  (with
4,674 boys; 1165 girls), 1872; Reformatory
schools  in  England  and  Wales,  1889-90,  46 ;  in-
dustrial schools,  1889,  134  ;  1890,  141.
An  international  exhibition  of  the  works  of  these
schools  at  the  Agricultural  Hali,  Islington,  near
London,  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales . . .  1865
Mr.  T.  Barwick  Lloyd  Baker,  an  eminent  promoter  of
the  reformatory  system,  died  Dec.  1886.

"BEFOBMED  CHUBCH"  (Calvinistic),
established  in  Holland  and  in  some  parts  of  Ger-
many. For  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in
Scotland,  see  Cameronians,  note.

BEFOBMED  EPISCOPAL  CHUBCH,

founded  in  the  United  States  of  North  America  in

1873  ;  in  this  country  a  secession  from  the  Free

Church  of  England  in  1877.

Dr.  Cummins,  assistant  bishop  of  Kentucky,  after  re-
vising the  prayer-book,  consecrated  C.  E.  Cheney  as
bishop,  14  Dec.  1873  ;  others  since  consecrated  and
churches  formed.

EEFEACTION,  see  Light.

EEFBESHMENT  HOUSES  for  the  sale
of  wine,  &c,  are  licensed  in  pursuance  of  an  act
passed  in  i860,  amended  in  1861 :  a  new  act  passed
in  1864,  1865. See  Licences.

EEFEIGEBATOES,  sec  Provisions.

EEFUGE  FOB  THE  DESTITUTE  (cri-
minal young  females),  Dalston,  London,  E.  ;
instituted  1805,  incorporated  1838.

EEFUGEES'  BENEVOLENT  FUND,

instituted  in  consequence  of  the  Franco-German
war,  at  a  great  meeting  held  at  the  Mansion-house,
London,  21  Oct.  1870.  It  afforded  temporary  relief
to  many  sufferers.

*  It  was  calculated  (about  1S56)  that  there  were  in
London  30,000,  and  in  England  100,000  youths  under
17  leading  a  vagabond  life,  and  that  out  of  15,000  of  those
who  were  committed  for  trial  nearly  half  were  in  custody
for  the  first  time.


BEFUGES,  see  Poor,  1864.  Refuges  for  Desti-
tute boys  and  girls,  established  in  Great  Queen  -
street  in  1852. See  Chichester.

BEGALIA,  see  Crown.

BEGATTA.  A  public  boat  race,  introduced
into  this  country  from  Venice  in  1775  :  and  in  that
year  one  took  place  on  the  Thames.

BEGELATION. See  Ice.

BEGENCY  BILLS.  One  was  passed  1751.
One  was  proposed  to  parliament  in  consequence  of
the  mental  illness  of  George  III.,  and  debated  10
Dec.  1788.  It  was  relinquished  on  his  majesty's
recovery,  26  Feb.  1789.  The  return  of  the  malady
led  to  the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.)
being  sworn  in  before  the  privy  council  as  regent  of
the  kingdom,  5  Feb.  181 1.  The  Regency  Bill  pro-
viding for  the  administration  of  the  government,
should  the  crown  descend  to  the  princess  Victoria
while  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  passed  1  "Will.
IV.,  2g  Dec.  1830.  A  Regency  Bill  appointing
prince  Albert  regent  in  the  event  of  the  demise  of
the  queen,  should  her  next  lineal  successor  be  under
age  ;  passed  4  Aug.  1840.

BEGENTS,  see  Protectorates.

BEGENT'S  CANAL,  "begun  at  Paddington,
where  it  joins  a  cut  to  the  Grand  Junction,  passes
under  Maida-hill,  continues  its  course  by  the  Re-
gent' s  -park  to  Islington,  where  another  subterranean
excavation,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,
was  formed  for  its  passage.  It  then  proceeds  by
Hoxton,  Hackney,  Mile-end,  to  Limehouse,  where
it  joins  the  Thames.  The  whole  length  of  -it  is
nine  miles;  it  comprises  twelve  locks  and  thirty-
seven  bridges.  Begun,  1812 ;  opened  1  Aug.  1820.
Great  explosion  of  gunpowder  (which  see),  2  Oct.
1874.  New  bridge,  near  Gloucester  gate,  Regent's
park,  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  3  Aug.  1878.
Regent's  Canal  and  City  Railway  Co.  act  passed,
1882.

BEGENT'S  PABK,  originally  part  of  the
grounds  belonging  to  a  palace  of  queen  Elizabeth,
near  to  the  north  end  of  Tottenham  court-road,
pulled  down  in  1791.  Since  1600,  the  property  was
let  to  various  persons,  but  the  leases  having  expired
it  reverted  to  the  crown ;  and  in  1814  great  im-
provements were  commenced  under  the  direction  of
Mr.  Nash.  The  park  consists  of  about  450  acres ;
within  it  are  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society
and  the  Royal  Botanical  Society.  During  a  frost
on  15  Jan.  1867,  the  rotten  ice  of  one  of  the  lakes
gave  way,  and  about  200  persons  were  immersed,  of
whom  above  40  perished.  Addition  of  20  acres
made  to  the  public  park,  1883.

Joseph  Rumbold  was  murdered  near  York  Gate,  24  May.
Eight  youths,  George  Gallesly,  17,  William  Elvis,  16,
Francis  Cole,  18,  Peter  Lee,  17,  William  Joseph  Graefe,
17,  William  Henshaw,  16,  Charles  Henry  Govier,  16,
and  Michael  Duling,  15,  all  described  as  labourers,
were  charged  with  the  wilful  murder,  1  Aug.  ;  Gallesly
was  convicted  ;  the  rest  acquitted  of  murder,  2  Aug.  ;
they  pleaded  guilty  to  minor  changes,  and  were  sen-
tenced to  various  terms  of  penal  servitude,  4  Aug.
The  evidence  disclosed  the  existence  of  local  bands  of
young  roughs  carrying  on  internecine  warfare.  Joseph
Rumbold  was  not  the  intended  victim  ;  Gallesly
reprieved,  Aug.  1888.

BEGENT  STBEET,  London,  "W. ;  designed
and  executed  by  John  Nash  ;  authorised  by  act,  53
George  III.  1813.  The  colonnades  of  the  quadrant
were  removed  in  1848.

BEGGIO,  see  Mhcgium.


BEGICIDES.


817


EEIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS.


EEGICIDES,  in  English  history,  are  the  com-
missioners appointed  to  try  king  Charles  I.,  150  in
number;  of  whom  70  acted,  and  59  signed  the
death-warrant,  Jan.  1649.  Of  these  last,  29  were
tried,  and  10  executed :  Harrison,  13  Oct.  ;  Cook
and  Peters,  16  Oct. ;  Scott,  Scroop,  Clement,  and
Jones,  17  Oct. ;  Axtelland  Hacker,  19  Oct.  1660.
They  asserted  themselves  to  be  martyrs.  Others
were  imprisoned. See  -Assassinations.

Foreign  Regicides.
James  I.  of  Scotland,  by  nobles . . 20  Feb.  1437
James  III.  ,,  „  . . 11  June,  1488

Henry  III.  of  France,  by  Clement,  1  Aug.  ;  d.  2  Aug. 1589
Henry  IV.  ,, by  Ravaillac . . 14  May,  1610

Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  by  Ankarstrom,  16  March ;

d.  29  March,  1792
Louis  XVI.  ,, by  convention . 21  Jan.  1793

Paul  of  Russia,  by  nobles . . .24  March,  1801

EEGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT,

passed  28  May,  1875.

EEGIMENTS  OF  Infantry  were  formed  in
France  about  1588  ;  see  Infantry.  The  following
are  the  approximate  dates  of  the  establishment  of
several  British  regiments : —

CAVALRY.

Oxford  Blues  are  erroneously  said  to  have  been
formed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ;  they  derive
their  name  from  their  colonel,  the  earl  of  Oxford,
in 1661

Three  Indian  regiments  (19th,  20th,  and  21st)  added

Aug.  1861

The  Dragoon  Guards,  the  Scots  Greys,  and  the
Royal  Irish  were  formed  about . . . 1683-6

Several  regiments  of  Light  Dragoons  were  armed
with  lances  and  termed  Lancers . . Sept.  1816

infantry  (see  Guards).
1st  Royal  or  Royal  Scots  regiment,  1633  ;  the  old  title

resumed Dec.  1871

Coldstream  Guards,  established  by  Monk,  in  . 1660

3rd  Buffs,  represent  London  train  bands  and  have

special  privileges ,,

2nd  Queen's  Royal 1661

4th  King's  Own 1685

5th  Northumberland  Fusiliers  . . .  ,,

26th  Cameronian 1689

100th  Canadian 1858

101st  to  109th  (Indian)  added . . . Aug.  1861
The  Highland  regiments  are  the  42nd,  71st,  72nd,

78th,  79th,  92nd,  and  93rd.  See  Army  Organization.

EEGISTEES.  The  registering  of  deeds  and
conveyances  disposing  of  real  estates  was  ap-
pointed to  be  effected  in  Yorkshire  and  in  Middlesex,
2  Anne,  1703,  et  seq.  Greater  security  was  thus
given  to  purchasers  and  mortgagees;  and  the  value
of  estates  increased  in  those  counties.  Wills  have
been  for  a  series  of  years  kept  and  registered,  in
London,  at  Doctors'  Commons;  see  Wills.  The
registering  of  shipping  in  the  Thames  was  com-
menced, 1786;  and  throughout  England,  1787;  and
several  acts  and  amendments  of  acts  have  since
followed  for  keeping  and  improving  registers.
The  duties  and  payments  of  the  Lord  Clerk  Register

of  Scotland  and  his  deputy  were  regulated  by  42

6  43  Vict.  c.  44 1879

EEGISTEES,  PAROCHIAL,  were  established
by  Cromwell,  lord  Essex,  by  which  the  dates  of
births,  marriages,  and  burials,  became  ascertain-
able, Sept.  1538.  This  measure  was  opposed
by  the  people,  who  feared  some  new  taxation.  A
stamp-tax  was  laid  on  registers  in  1784.  Laws  for
their  better  regulation  were  enacted  in  1813  et  seq.
The  great  Registration  act  (introduced  by  lord  John
Russell),  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86,  passed  17  Aug.  1836,
see  Bills  of  Mortality,  &c.
A  new  registration  act  for  births  and  deaths,  passed

7  Aug.  1874,  came  into  operation . .iJan.  1875


Births  and  Deaths  Registration  act  for  Ireland
passed 2  Aug. 1880

Major  George  Graham,  the  first  registrar-general
(1838),  was  succeeded  by  sir  Brydges  Powell
Henniker,  appointed .... Jan. ,,

EEGISTEATION  of  Voters  was  enacted

by  the  Reform  act,  passed  7  June,  1832,  and  by
acts  passed  in  1868  and  1885;  see  Revising
Barristers.

New  Parliamentary  and  Municipal  Registration  act
passed 22  July,  1878

EEGIUM  DONUM  (Royal  gift),  an  allowance
from  the  sovereign  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Pres-
byterian ministers  in  Ireland,  commenced  by
Charles  II.  in  1672,  and  revived  by  William  III.  in
1690,  was  commuted  by  the  Irish  Presbyterian
Church  act  passed  June,  187 1.  The  allowance  to
certain  protestant  dissenting  ministers  in  Ireland
was  given  up  by  them  in  1857,  in  deference  to  the
wishes  of  English  dissenters.

EEGULATION  OF  PUBLIC  WOE-
SHIP,  see  Public  Worship.

EEGULATION  of  the  Forces  Act  passed
17  Aug.  1871. See  Army.

EEICHENBACH  (Prussia).  Here  Duroc
was  killed  during  the  conflicts  between  the  French
and  the  allies,  22  May,  1813 ;  see  Bautzen.  Here
was  signed  a  subsidy  treaty  between  Russia,  Prussia,
and  England,  whereby  the  last  engaged  to  provide
means  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  Napoleon  I.
on  certain  conditions,  14,  15  June,  1813.  Austria
joined  the  alliance  soon  after.

EEICHSEATH,  the  representative  council  of
the  empire  of  Austria,  reconstituted  by  decree  5
March;  met  on  31  May,  i860.  In  May,  1861,  the
upper  house  consisted  of  17  spiritual,  55  hereditary,
and  39  peers.  The  lower  house  consisted  of  136
elected  deputies.  No  representatives  came  from
Hungary,  Transylvania,  Venetia,  the  Banat,  Sla-
vonia,  Croatia,  and  Istria.  The  Reichsrath  was
abolished  by  a  rescript,  21  Sept.  1865,  with  the
view  of  restoring  autonomy  to  Hungary  and  other
provinces.  It  again  met  20  May,  1867.  The
Reichstag  of  Germany,  the  imperial  parliament  or
diet,  first  met  at  Berlin,  21  Mar.  1871.

EEIGATE  (Surrey),  sent  two  members  to
parliament  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. ;  lost  one  by
the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  and  was  wholly  disfran-
chised for  corruption  by  that  of  1867.  Population,
1881,18,662;  1891,22,646.

EEIGN  OF  TEEEOE.  Maximilien  Robes-
pierre headed  the  populace  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,
in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of  the  king,
17  July,  1 791.  He  was  triumphant  in  1793,  and
numbers  of  eminent  men  and  citizens  were  sacrificed
during  his  sanguinary  administration.  Billaud
Varennes  denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in
the  tribune,  27  July,  1794.  The  next  day  he
suffered  death,  with  many  of  his  companions;
see  France.  This  has  been  termed  the  Med  Terror.
The  reaction  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,
1815,  disgraced  by  many  atrocious  acts  of  wanton
cruelty,  has  been  termed  the  White  Terror.  The
Jesuits  were  then  conspicuous  in  the  destruction
of  their  adversaries.

EEIGNS  OF  SOVEEEIGNS.  The  average
duration,  according  to  Newton,  is  19  years  each;
according  to  Hales  22^  years ;  that  of  the  sovereigns
of  England  being  23 1  years,  and  that  of  the  popes,.
7^  years.  Pius  IX.  was  the  first  pope  who  reigned
above  25  years,  1846-78.


EELICS.


818


REPORTING.


RELICS,  the  trade  in  these  became  general  in
the  7th  century,  fragments  of  bones,  &c.  being
brought  from  Jerusalem.  The  sale  of  relics  was
prohibited  by  pope  Innocent  III.  1 198,  without
effect.

EELIEF  CHURCH,  a  secession  from  the
church  of  Scotland,  founded  by  Thomas  Gillespie,
who  was  deposed  from  his  ministry  for  opposing  the
doctrine  of  passive  obedience  to  the  law  of  the
church  of  Scotland  respecting  the  settlement  of
ministers,  23  May,  1752.  The  church  was  consti-
tuted as  the  "presbytery  of  relief,"  22  Oct.  1761.
The  Eelief  and  Secession  churches  were  united  as
the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  13  May,  1847.

EELIEF  OF  DISTRESS  (Ireland)
ACT,  43  &  44  Vict.  c.  14,  passed  2  Aug.  1880.  See
Ireland,  Pec.  1890.

RELIGION  (from  religo,  I  bind  again,  in  the
sense  of  a  vow  or  oath)  comprehends  a  belief  in  the
being  and  perfections  of  God,  and  obedience  to  his
commandments. The  Jewish  religion  is  set  forth  in
the  Old,  and  the  Christian  religion  in  the  New,  Testa-
ment. Departure  from  these  scriptures  has  been
the  origin  of'  all  corrupt  forms  of  religion,  as  foretold
in  them. Buddhism  differs  from  this. See  Maho-
metanism,  and  other  religions  and  sects  under  their
names. The  population  of  the  globe  with  reference
to  religious  worship,  is  given  by  Balbi  (who  assumed
the total population to be 1,050,000,000), and
Dieterici  (who  assumed  it  to  be  1,288,000,000),  as
follows :

Balbi  (1836).  Dieterici  (1859)
Jews ...... 4,500,000 5,000,000

Christians .... 225,000,000 335,000,000

Roman  Catholics . . .  160,000,000 170,000,000
Mahometans .... 155,000,000 160,000,000

Idolaters,  <&c.  not  professing  the
Jewish,  Christian,  or  Mahome-
tan worship ....  665,500,000 800,000,000

Estimate  in  1869  :  1,375,000,000.

Roman  Catholics 195,460,200

Protestants 100,385,000

Eastern  church 81,478,000

Buddhists 360,000,000

Other  Asiatic  religions .... 260,000,000

Pagans 200,000,000

Mahometans 165,000,000

Jews ........ 7,000,000

In  Europe  (estimated)  1869  (Almanack  cle  Gotha.)

Roman  Catholics 144,000,000

Protestants 68,500,000

Greek  Church 68,000,000

Jews . 4,400,000

Mahometans 6,642,000

RELIGION"  OF  HUMANITY,  see  Posi-
tive Philosophy  and  Secularism.

RELIGIOUS  TRACT  SOCIETY,  founded
1799;  receipts  (1887),  including  sales,  &c,  203,446^.

REMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT,

see  Sunday.

REMONSTRANCE,  The  Grand,  drawn

up  by  the  house  of  commons,  and  presented  to  king
Charles  I.,  I  Dec.  1641.  It  consisted  of  206  articles,
dwelt  bitterly  on  all  the  king's  illegal  and  oppres-
sive acts,  and  was  printed  by  order  of  the  house.

REMONSTRANTS,  see  Arminians.

RENAISSANCE,  aterm  applied  to  the  revival
of  the  classic  style  of  art  in  the  15th  and  16th  cen-
turies, under  the  patronage  of  tbe  Medici  and
others ;  see  Painters,  and  Sculptors.


RENDSBURG  (Holstein),  was  taken  by  the
imperialists  in  1627  ;  by  the  Swedes  in  1643  ;  and  by
the  Prussians  and  confederate  troops  in  1848.  The
first  diet  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  met  here  3
April,  1848.  It  was  re-occupied  by  the  Danes  in
1852,  and  taken  by  the  Prussians  after  a  serious
conflict,  21  July,  1864.

EENNES  (capital  of  Brittany,  N.  W.  France).
Here  was  established  by  Henry  II.,  in  1553,  the
parliament  so  celebrated  for  its  independence,
especially  in  its  struggle  with  the  court,  1788-89.
On  20  May,  1788,  it  declared  infamous  every  one
who  should  take  part  in  the  cour  pleniere  then  pro-
posed, but  afterwards  suppressed.

EENTS  said  to  have  been  first  made  payable  in
money,  instead  of  in  kind,  about  1 135.  Numerous
statutes  have  been  enacted  in  various  reigns  to
define  the  relations  and  regulate  the  dealings
between  landlord  and  tenant.  8  &  9  Vict.  c.  106
(1845)  regulates  leases.  By  the  act  8  Anne,  1709,
no  goods  are  removable  from  tenements  under  an
execution  until  the  rent  shall  have  been  paid  to  the
landlord  by  the  sheriff,  1 709.  The  rental  of  England,
including  land,  houses,  and  mines,  was  6,000,000^.
about  the  year  1600,  and  twelve  years'  purchase  the
value  of  land.  About  1690,  the  rental  amounted  to
14,000,000^.,  and  the  land  was  worth  eighteen
years'  purchase.  Pavenant  on  the  Revenues,  The
rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  estimated
in  the  present  century  at  127,000,000^.;  Great  anti-
rent  agitation  in  Ireland,  1879,  et  seq. ;  see  Land
and  Ireland,  &c.

EEPEAL  of  the  Union,  Ireland. An

Irish  association  was  formed  with  this  object  under
the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  in  1829.  See  Some
Rule  and  Ireland.

A  proclamation  of  the  lord  lieutenant  prohibited  the
meetings  of  a  society  "  leagued  for  the  purpose  of
procuring  a  repeal  of  the  union,  under  the  name
of  the  Irish  Society  for  Legal  and  Legislative
Relief,  or  the  Anti-Union  Society  " . 18  Oct.  1830

The  commons,  by  a  majority  of  484,  reject  Mr.
O'Connell's  motion  for  repeal  . 27  April,  1834

A  new  association  in  1841,  1842,  and  1843  became
more  violent.  Assemblies  of  the  lower  classes
of  the  people  were  held  in  the  last-named  year,
in  various  parts  of  Ireland,  some  of  them
amounting  to  1 50, 000  persons,  and  called ' '  monster
meetings."

A  great  meeting  at  Trim,  16  March  ;  other  meetings
were  held  at  Mullingar,  Cork,  and  Longford,
on  14,  21,  and  28  May,  respectively  ;  atDrogheda,
Kilkenny,  Mallow,  and  Dundalk,  on  5,  8,  11,  and
29  June  ;  at  Donnybrook  and  Baltinglass,  3  and
20  July  ;  at  Tara,  15  Aug.  ;  at  Loughrea,  Clifton,
and  Lismore,  10,  17,  and  24  Sept. ;  and  at
Mullaghmast 1  Oct.  1843

A  meeting  to  be  held  at  Clontarf,  on  8  Oct.  was
prevented  by  government ;  and  Mr.  O'Connell  and
his  chief  associates  were  brought  to  trial  for
political  conspiracy,  15  Jan.  1844  :  bsA  convicted
12  Feb.  ;  but  the  sentence  was  reversed  by  the
house  of  lords,  4  Sept.  ;  see  Trials.

The  association  for  the  repeal  of  the  union  con-
tinued for  some  time  under  the  direction  of  Mr.
John  O'Connell,  but  was  little  regarded.

The  total  "repeal  rent"  is  said  to  have  amounted
to  134,379?.

A  fruitless  attempt  was  made  in  Dublin  to  revive
repeal  agitation 4  Dec.  i860

EEPLENISHEE,  see  Electricity  {FrhctionaT) .

REPORTING.  The  publication  of  the  debate
in  parliament  is  forbidden  as  a  breach  of  privilege
but  was  virtually  conceded,  after  a  severe  struggle,


REPRESENTATION.


819


RETREAT.


in  1 77 1.*  Reporters'  galleries  were  erected  in  the
houses  of  parliament  after  the  fire  of  1834.  To  the
unfettered  liberty  of  reporting  we  doubtless  owe
much  of  our  freedom  and  good  government;  see
under  Law.  By  the  verdict  for  the  defendant  in
the  case  of  Wason  v.  The  Times  (for  libel)  reports
of  parliamentary  debates  were  decided  to  be  privi-
leged, Nov.  1868.  For  the  attempted  exclusion  of
reporters,  see  Parliament,  1875.  A  commons  com-
mittee on  reporting  recommend  continuance  of
Hansard's  debates  with  improvement,  May,  1879-

The  publication  of  Hansard's  parliamentary  debates
began  1803  and  closed  in  1888  ;  the  publication
of  tlie  debates  was  taken  up  by  Messrs.  Macrae,
Curtice  &  Co.,  Feb.  1889  ;  and  continued  by  the
Hansard  Publishing  Union,  limited,  1889;  the
Union  ordered  to  be  wound  up,  13  May.  See
Trials,  1892.

Mr.  Thomas  Curson  Hansard,  formerly  editor  of
the  "debates,"  aged  78,  dies . . 12  Nov.  1891

Government  contract  with  Reuter's  Telegram  com-
pany for  printing  and  publishing  reports  of  par-
liamentary debates,  <fec,  21  Dec.  1891 ;  published

26  Feb.  1892

REPRESENTATION  of the People

ACT  FOE  ENGLAND,  passed  15  Aug. 1867  ;  for

Ireland  and  Scotland, 13  July, 1868 ;  a  new  act

passed,  6  Dec.  1884. See  Reform.

The  Representative,  a  daily  Tory  paper,  was  started
by  Mr.  John  Murray,  the  bookseller,  in  opposition
to  the  Times,  in  1826.  Although  he  was  assisted
by  Mr.  Benjamin  Disraeli  and  other  eminent  per-
sons, the  project  was  unsuccessful ;  the  first
number  appeared  25  Jan.,  the  last . 29  July,  1826

"  REPTILE  BUREAUCRACY,"  term  ap-
plied in  Germany  to  certain  journalists  writing  for
government  pay,  1871,  et  seq.

REPUBLICANS,  see  Democrats.  The  name
adopted  by  the  Northern  party  in  the  United  States,
N.A.,  opposed  to  the  democrats  in  the  South.  Sir
Charles  Dilke,  M.P.  professed  himself  a  republican
at  public  meetings  and  was  much  applauded,  Nov.
1 87 1;  but  at  some  places  his  appearance  led  to  riotous
proceedings.  His  motion  for  returns  respecting  the
expenditure  of  the  civil  list  by  the  queen  was  nega-
tived in  the  house  of  commons  (2 — 276),  19  March,
1872.  A  national  republican  conference  of  delegates
was  held  at  Sheffield,  1  Dec.  1872,  when  a  national
flag  was  adopted.

REPUBLICS,  see  Athens,  Home,  Genoa,
Venice,  France  (1792,  1848,  1870),  Spain  (1873),
Brazil  (1889),  and  America.

REQUESTS,  COURTS  of;  see  Conscience.

REQUIEM,  a  solemn  mass,  sung  for  the
dead,  so  called  from  the  introit  "  Requiem
iEteniam,"  &c.  Palestrina's  Requiem  was  printed
at  Rome,  1591 ;  Vittoria's  at  Madrid,  1605 ;  Mo-
zart's last  work  was  a  requiem,  1791.

REREDOS,  the  screen  or  decorated  portion  of

the  wall  behind  the  altar  in  a  church.

A  highly  sculptured  reredos,  designed  by  sir  G.  G.
Scott,  was  erected  in  Exeter  cathedral,  by  sub-
scription 1873

*  Very  inaccurate  reports  of  parliamentary  debates
were  inserted  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  and  other
periodicals  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Miller,
printer  of  the  London  Evening  Mail,  was  arrested  in  the
city  of  London,  by  order  of  the  house  of  commons,  for
publishing  the  debates,  but  was  discharged  by  the  lord
mayor,  who  for  doing  this  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  where
lie  remained  until  the  end  of  the  session.  No  opposition
was  made  to  the  publication  of  the  debates  in  the  next
session,  1777.


Prebendary  Philpotts,  the  chancellor,  and  others
who  objected,  brought  their  objections  before  the
bishop's  visitation  court,  on  7  Jan.  ;  it  was  decided
that  the  bishop  had  jurisdiction  in  the  matter,
and  he  ordered  the  reredos  to  be  removed,  15
April,  1874.  Dean  Boyd  appealed  to  the  court  of
arches,  and  sir  R.  Phillimore  reversed  the  pre-
vious decision 6  Aug.  1874

Prebendary  Philpotts  appealed  to  the  judicial  com-
mittee of  the  privy  council,  who  decided  that  the
reredos  should  remain  ... 24  Feb.  1875

The  magnificent  reredos  set  up  in  St.  Paul's
Cathedral,  London,  was  protested  against  as
idolatrous  by  some  of  the  London  clergy,  April,
1888.  An  action  against  the  dean  having  been
stopped  by  the  bishop,  the  queen's  bench  divi-
sion ordered  the  bishop  to  withdraw  his  veto
upon  the  prosecution,  1  June,  1889.  After  further
litigation,  the  house  of  lords  sustained  the
bishop's  veto 20  July  1891

RESERVE  FORCES.  In  the  summer  of  1859,
acts  were  passed  to  provide  for  the  establishment
of  a  military  reserve  force  of  men  Avho  have  been  in
her  majesty's  service  (not  to  exceed  20,000),  and  a
volunteer  reserve  force  of  seamen  not  to  exceed
30,000.  These  acts  were  consolidated  and  amended
in  1867  and  1882.  The  reserve  forces  called  out  by
proclamation,  on  account  of  possible  war  with  Russia,
2  April,  1878.  About  35,000  good  soldiers  appeared,
and  were  commended.  They  were  disbanded  31
Aug.  1878.  Again  called  out  on  account  of  war  in
Egypt,  25  July,  1882,  and  prospect  of  war  with
Russia,  27  March,  1885.  Average  of  army  reserve:
1888,  55,068  ;  1890,  56,082.

RESOLUTE,  ship,  see  Franklin  Search,
1854.

RESONATOR,  a  small  apparatus,  placed  in
the  mouth  to  strengthen  and  increase  the  volume  of
the  voice  in  singing,  invented  by  signor  Alberto
Bach,  who  exhibited  its  effects  at  the  Royal
Academy  of  Music,  29  June,  1880.

RESPIRATORS,  see  Charcoal  and  Fireman.

RESTITUTION  BILL,  of  Mr.  Jesse  Col-
lings,  proposes  the  surrender  of  lands  illegally
taken  from  commons,  to  be  given  to  small  culti-
vators, to  become  peasant  proprietors,  Jan.  1885.

RESTORATION,  The,  of  king  Charles  II.
to  the  crown  of  England,  after  an  interregnum  of
eleven  years  and  four  months,  between  30  Jan.  1649,
when  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  and  29  May,  1660,
when  Charles  II.  entered  London  amidst  the  accla-
mations of  the  people.  The  annual  form  of  prayer,
with  thanksgiving,  then  appointed,  was  ordered
to  be  disused  by  22  Vict.  c.  2,  25  March,  1849.
See  France,  1814,  1815.

RETREAT of the Ten Thousand

GREEKS,  who  had  joined  the  army  of  the  younger
Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother,  Artaxerxes
Mnemon.  The  Greeks  were  victors,  but  Cyrus  was
defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  401  B.C.
Artaxerxes  having  enticed  the  Gi-eck  leaders  into
his  power  and  killed  them,  Xenophon  was  called  to
the  command  of  his  countrymen.  Under  continual
alarms  from  sudden  attacks,  he  led  them  across
rapid  rivers,  through  vast  deserts,  over  the  tops  of
mi  'intains,  till  he  reached  the  sea.  The  Greeks  re-
turned home  after  a  march  of  1 155  parasangs  or
leagues  (3465  miles),  which  was  performed  in  215
days,  after  the  absence  of  fifteen  months.  TMs
retreat  has  been  immortalised  by  the  account  given
by  its  conductor,  in  his  "Anabasis  Cyri"  (Expedi-
tion of  Cyrus).

3  g  2


EEUNION.


820


EEVIEWS.

Gross

Gross

Expenditure,

Revenue.

exclusive  of
Fortifications.

1859,  31  March,  gross

£65,477,284

£64,663,883

i860.

72,089,669

69,502,289

1863 ....

70,603,561

69,302,008

1864  ....

70,208,964

67,056,286

!86S ....

7°.3i3>437

66,462,207

1866  ....

67,812,292

f'S^'i^Sl

1867 ....

69,434,568

66,780,396

1868  ....

69,600,219

71,236,242

1869 ....

72,591,991

72,069,961

1870  ....

75,454,252

68,864,752

1871 ....

69,945,220

69,548,539

1872  ....

74,708,314

71,490,020

1873 ....

76,608,770

70,714,448

1874.

77»335.657

76,466,510

1875 ....

75,434.252

74,328,040

1876.

77,131,693

76,621,773

1877 .

78,565,036

78,125,227

1878  ....

79,763,298

82,403,495

1879 ....

83,115,972

85,407,789

1880.

81,265,055

84.105,754

1881 ....

84,041,288

83,107,924

1882.

85,822,282

85,472,556

1883 ....

89,004,456

88,906,278

1884.

87,205,184

86,999,564

1885 ....

88,043,660

89,092,883

Vote of Credit, 27

April,  1885 . .

11,000,000

1886  s

89,581,301

92,223,844

1887 ....

90,772,758

89,996,752

18S8  ....

89,802,254

87,423,645

1889 ....

88,472,812

87,683,830

1890  ....

89,304,316

86,083,314

1891 ....

89,489,112

87,732,855

1892  ....

90,995,000

89,928,000

1893 . . .

90,477,000
(estimated.)

90,253,000

EEUNION,  see  Order.

EEUSS-GEEIZ  and  EETJSS-SCHLEIZ,

two  principalities  in  central  Germany,  with  a  united
population  of  166,502  in  1885  ;  in  1890,  182,565.
The  reigning  family  sprang  from  Ekbert,  count  of
Osterode,  in  the  10th  century.  The  princely  dignity
was  conferred  by  the  emperor  Sigismond  in  1426.

1859.  Henry  XXII. ,  prince  of  Reuss-Greiz,  8  Nov. ;  bom
28  March,  1846.

EEVELATION,  see  Apocalypse.

EEVENUE  and  Expenditure  of  Eng-
land. The  revenue  collectedforthecivillist,audfor
all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary
as  extraordinary,  was  1,200,000?.  per  annum,  in
1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  In
1690  it  was  raised  to  6,000,000?.,  every  branch  of  the
revenue  being  anticipated ;  this  was  the  origin  of
the  funds  and  the  national  debt,  2  "William  and
Mary.  Salmon.  The  revenue  laws  were  amended
in  1861.  Previously  to  1854  there  had  been  an
average  surplus  of  2,500,000?.  since  1849.  In  con-
sequence of  the  Russian  war  the  deficiency  in  1854
was  3,209,059?.;  in  1855,  21,141,183?.;  in  1856,
10,104,412?.  In  1857  there  vt&sa,  surplus  of  $6, 097 1. ;
in  1858,  of  1,127,657?.;  in  1859,  a  deficiency  of
2,019,584?.

PUBLIC  REVENUE.

William  I.  estimated £400,000

William  Rufus 350,000

Henry  1 300,000

Stephen 250,000

Henry  II . . . 200,000

Richard  1 150,000

John 100,000

Henry  III 80,000

Edward  I. 150,000

Edward  II 100,000

Edward  III 154,000

Richard  II 130,000

Henry  IV. 100,000

Henry  V 76,643

Henry  VI 64,976

Edward  IV * * *

Edward  V 100,000

Richard  III 130,000

Henry  VII 400,000

Henry  VIII . 800,000

Edward  VI 400,000

Mary 450,000

Elizabeth . . . 500,000

James  I.  600,000

Charles  I. 895,819

Commonwealth . 1,517,247

Charles  II 1,400,000

James  II 2,001,855

William  III 3,895,205

Anne  (at  the  Union) 5,691,803

George  1 6,762,643

George  II 8,522,540

George  III.,  1788 15,572,971

,, 1800,  about ... . 38,000,000
United  Kingdom,  1820 .... 65,599,570

George  IV. ,  1825 62,871,300

William  IV.,  1830 SSHS1^1?

„,  J ...  1835 50,494,732

Victoria,  1845,  net 53.060,354

,, 1850 52,810,680

l853 54,430,344


Revenue.

Expenditure.

1855,  net  .

1856 ....

1857-

1858 ....

£63,364,605
68,008,623
66,056,055
61,812,525

£65,692,962

88,428,345
75,588,667
68,128,859

*  Revised  in  relation  to  army,  navy,  and  India.

The  weekly  instead  of  the  quarterly  publication  of  the
public  revenue  and  expenditure  was  begun  by  Mr.  Robert
Lowe,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  16  Feb.  1870.

By  an  act  passed  31  July,  1868,  revenue  officers  are  per-
mitted to  vote  for  the  election  of  members  of  parliament.

Above  100  statutes  relating  to  inland  revenue  fell  into
disuse  1  Jan.  1871.

The  revenue  friendly  societies,  and  national  debt  act,
45  &  46  Vict.,  c.  72,  passed  18  Aug.  1882.  New  revenue
act  passed,  1884.

EEVEEEND,  an  honorary  appellation  given
to  the  clergy,  since  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.

In  Tamworth  parish  register  the  minister  is  first
styled  "reverend,"  in  1657,  occasionally  after-
wards ;  but  regularly  so  after  1727.  It  first  ap-
pears in  the  registry  of  All  Hallows,  Barking . 1732

The  prefix  on  a  family  tombstone  was  refused
to  Mr.  Keet,  a  Wesleyan  preacher,  by  the  bishop
of  Lincoln,  but  given  by  the  archbishop  of  Can-
terbury  ...  1874

On  trial,  Mr.  Walter  G.  F.  Phillimore,  the  chancellor
of  Lincoln,  decided  against  Mr.  Keet,  who  gave
notice  of  appeal,  3  June.  Sir  R.  Phillimore  gave
a  similar  decision  in  the  court  of  arches,  31  July,  1875

On  appeal  to  the  privy  council  these  decisions  were
reversed.  It  was  decided  that  there  is  no  law  or
usage  restricting  the  epithet  to  ministers  of  the
Church  of  England  ;  it  is  merely  laudatory.

21  Jan.  1876

EEVIEWS.  The  Journal  des  Scavans,  pub-
lished on  5  Jan.  1665,  by  Denis  de  Salo,  under  the
name  of  Hedouville,  was  the  parent  of  critical
journals.  It  was  soon  imitated  throughout  Europe,
and  was  itself  translated  into  various  languages.  It
is  still  published.  George  III.  spoke  of  this  publi-
cation to  Dr.  Johnson,  in  the  private  interview  with
which  he  was  honoured  by  his  majesty,  in  the
library  of  the  queen's  house,  in  Feb.  1767.  Boswell.
The  Bibliotheque  Anglaise  came  out  in  1716-27.


EEVISEES.


821


RHETORIC.


For  Military  Reviews,  see  Aldershot,  Army  and
Volunteers. For  Naval  Reviews,  see  Navy.


Monthly  Review

Critical

Anti-Jacobin  .

Edinburgh  .

Quarterly

Eclectic

North  American

Retrospective .

Westminster  .

Athenaeum . .

Dublin

North  British

British  Quarterly

National


1749
1756


1813
1815


1844
1855


Saturday .
Fortnightly .
Contemporary .
Academy
Church  Quarterly
Nineteenth  Century
National  Keview . 1883
Law  Quarterly . .  1885
English  Historical  Re-
view. . . .  1886
Universal  Review 1888-90
"  New  Review  " . .  i88g
Paternoster  Review
Albemarle  Review


1855
1865


1875
1877


1890


REVISERS,  see  under  Bible.

REVISING-  BARRISTERS'  COURTS,  to

examine  the  lists  of  voters  for  members  of  parlia-
ment, were  instituted  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832.

REVISION,  see  under  Bible.  Advocates  of
the  revision  of  the  French  constitution,  chiefly
Bonapartists  or  Jeroinists,  termed  Revisionists,
Feb.  1884.

REVIVALS  on  the  subject  of  religion  arose  in
the  United  States  in  1857.  In  the  autumn  of  1859,
they  began  in  Scotland,  the  north  of  Ireland  (par-
ticularly Belfast),  and  England.  Many  meetings
were  held  for  prayers  and  preaching  throughout  the
week,  as  well  as  on  Sundays.  The  "  twelve  clays'
wission,"  a  series  of  revival  services,  took  place  in
many  London  churches  during  advent,  1869.

Mr.  Moody,  preacher,  and  Mr.  Sankey,  singer,  Ame-
rican Revivalists,  visited  many  towns  in  the  United
Kingdom,  1874-5.  Their  meetings  in  London  began
at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  9  March,  about  15,000  pre-
sent; at  the  Queen's  theatre,  Haymarket,  12  April-
31  May ;  farewell  meeting,  12  July,  1875.  Moody  and
Sankey  again  in  London,  6  Oct.  1881  ;  3  Nov.  1883-
23  June  1884. See  Salvation  Army.

REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, see

French  Revolution,  and  Calendar.

REVOLUTIONARY  TRIBUNAL,  esta-
blished at  Paris,  Aug.  1792.

Up  to  27  July,  1794,  when  Robespierre  was  deposed,  it
had  put  to  death  2774  persons,  including  queen  Marie
Antoinette,  the  princess  Elizabeth,  and  a  large  number
of  nobility  and  gentry,  male  and  female.  The  oldest
victim  was  counsellor  Dupin,  aged  97  ;  the  youngest,
Charles  Dubost,  aged  14.  From  27  July  to  15  Dec.
1794,  only  Robespierre  and  his  accomplices  (about
100)  suffered  by  it.

REVOLUTIONS :—

The  Assyrian  empire  destroyed,  and  that  of  the
Medes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,

536


The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruction
of  the  Persian,  by  the  defeat  of  Darius  Codoma-

nus,  by  Alexander  the  Great 331

The  Roman  empire  established  on  the  ruins  of  the

republic  by  J  ulius  Osesar 47

The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  begun  under

Charlemagne a.d. 800

In  Portugal 1640

In  England 1649  and  1688

In  Russia 1730  and  1762

In  North  America 1775

In  Venice 1797

In  Sweden 1772  and  1809

In  Holland,  1795  ;  counter-revolution . . . 1813
In  Poland ....  1704,  1795,  and  1S30

In  the  Netherlands ,,

In  Brunswick ,,

In  Brazil 1831

In  Hungary 1848

In  Rome 1798  and  1848

In  France . . 1789,  1830,  1848,  1851,  1870,  and  1871

In  Italy 1859  and  i860

In  United  States 1860-5


In  Danubiau  principalities 1866

In  Papal  States,  suppressed ....  Oct.  1867

In  Spain Sept.  1868  and  Dec.  1874

In  Brazil 15  Nov.  1889

In  Chili Jan. — Sept.  1891

[See  the  countries  respectively.]
Among  the  results  of  the  Revolution  of  1688  in  Great
Britain,  were  the  toleration  act,  the  establishment  of
the  presbyterian  kirk  of  Scotland,  the  power  of  grant-
ing supplies  limited  to  the  house  of  commons,  the
purification  of  the  administration  of  justice,  and  un-
licensed printing.

REVOLVERS,  see  Pistols.

REVUE DES DEUX MONDES,.  the

French  literary  and  historical  periodical  published
on  the  1st  and  15th  of  each  month,  first  appeared  in
1831.  It  includes  among  its  contributors  the  most
eminent  writers  in  France.

REYNARD  THE  FOX,  "Reineke
FuCHS,''  a  satirical  epic  in  low  German,  in  which
beasts  are  actors  and  speakers,  was  first  printed  as
Reineke  Vos,  at  Lubeck  in  1498,  and  professes  to  be
written  by  Hinreck  van  Alkmer.  It  has  been  fre-
quently translated.  Goethe's  version  in  High  (or
literary)  German  hexameters  appeared  in  1794.
Jacob  Grimm  has  shown  that  the  subject-matter  of
this  "  Thier-sage"  or  "beast-fable"  is  very  ancient,
many  incidents  being  found  in  Pilpay  and  other
oriental  writers.  The  early  French  had  a  "  Roman
de  Renart,"  and  "  Renart  le  Nouvel."  A  poem,
entitled  "  der  Reinaert,"  in  Flemish,  was  known  in
the  nth  century;  Caxton's  translation  in  English
prose  was  printed  1481;  a  poetic  English  translation
of  Goethe's  version,  by  T.  J.  Arnold,  appeared  in
1855-

REZONVILLE,  Battle  of,  18  Aug.  1870,
see  Aletz.

RHiETIA  (or  R^ETIA),  an  ancient  Alpine
country,  comprising  the  modern  Grisons,  Tyrol,
and  part  of  Lombardy,  inhabited  by  a  wild  rapa-
cious people,  after  a  long  struggle  was  conquered
by  Drusus  and  Tiberius,  B.C.  15.

RHE,  Isle  OF,  see  Re  and  Rochelle.

RHEA,  see  China  Grass.

RHEGIUM  (now  Reggio),  S.  Italy,  a  Greek
colony,  flourished  in  the  5th  century,  B.C.  It  was
held  by  the  Campanian  legion,  281-271,  afterwards
severely  punished  for  its  rebellion.  Reggio  was
taken  by  Garibaldi,  Aug.  i860.

RHEIMS  (N.  France).  The  principal  church
here,  built  before  406,  rebuilt  in  the  12th  century,
is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St.  Remy,  the
archbishop,  is  preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a
magnificent  shrine.  The  kings  of  France  were
crowned  at  Rheims ;  probably  because  Clovis,  the
founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  when  converted
from  paganism,  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  in
496.  Several  ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held
here.  The  city  was  taken  and  retaken  several
times  in  the  last  months  of  the  French  war,  1814.
University  founded  by  cardinal  Lorraine,  1547,
suppressed  about  1790.  Strike  of  the  workmen  of
Mr.  Jonathan  tiolden,  mill  owner,  a  great  benefactor
to  the  town,  May,  1890. Population,  1891,  104,186.

RHEOMETER,  see  under  Electricity.

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  accents
were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  200
B.C.  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at  Rome  by
Photius  Gallus,  about  87  b.c  He  taught  Cicero,
who  said  "  We  are  first  to  consider  what  is  to  be


RHINE.


822


RICHMOND.


said  ;  secondly,  how  ;  thirdly,  in  what  words  ;  and
lastly,  how  it  is  to  he  ornamented."  A  regius  pro-
fessor of  rhetoric  was  appointed  in  Edinburgh,
20  April,  1762,  when  Dr.  Blair  became  first  pro-
fessor.

RHINE  (Latin,  Rlienus  ;  German,  Rhein ;
French,  Rhin),  a  river,  about  760  miles  long,  rising
in  Switzerland,  receiving  the  Moselle,  Main,Meuse,
Neckar,  and  other  rivers,  terminating  in  many
arms  in  Holland,  and  falling  into  the  German
ocean.  On  its  banks  are  Constance,  Basel,  Stras-
bourg, Spires,  Mannheim,  Cologne,  Dusseldorf,
Utrecht,  and  Leyden.  The  possession  of  the  banks
of  the  Rhine  has  been  the  cause  of  many  wars,  and
it  has  been  crossed  by  the  French  above  twenty
times  in  a  century.  In  the  beginning  of  the  revo-
lutionary war,  Custine  invaded  Germany  by  crossing
it  in  1792;  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  iu  1815,
France  retained  the  left  bank,  but  lost  it  at  the  close
of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  1 870-1  (which  see).
A  navigation  treaty  with  other  powers  was  signed  by
France,  17  Oct.  1868.  A  central  committee  for  the
navigation  exists,  formed  by  members  for  Alsace,
Lorraine,  Baden,  Bavaria,  Hesse,  Holland,  and
Prussia.  Very  great  damage  (about  4,000,000^.)
and  loss  of  life,  caused  by  the  rising  of  the  river
through  excessive  rain,  end  of  November  and  De-
cember, 1882  ;  relieved  by  government  grants.
Becker's  German  song  "  They  shall  not  have  it,  the  free
German  Rhine ; "  and  Alfred  de  Musset's  reply,  in
French,  "We  have  had  it,  your  German  Rhine,"  ap-
peared in  1841.  Max  Schneckenburger,  author  of  "The
"Watch  on  the  Rhine,"  died  1851.  All  were  popular
during  the  war,  1870-71.

RHODE  ISLAND  (N.  America),  settled  by
Roger  Williams  about  1636,  was  taken  in  the  war
of  independence  by  the  British,  8  Dec.  1776;  but
was  evacuated  by  them,  25  Oct.  1779.  Capitals,
Providence  and  Newport.  Population  in  1880,
276,531;  1890,345,506;  see  United  States.

RHODES,  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Asia
Minor,  is  said  to  have  been  peopled  from  Crete,  as
early  as  916  B.C.  The  Rhodians  were  great  navi-
gators, and  institutors  of  a  maritime  code  after-
wards adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  city  was  built
about  408  and  nourished  300-200 B.C. ;  see  Colossus.
Rhodes,  long  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  was  taken  by
the  emperor  Vespasian,  a.d.  71.  It  was  held  by  the
Knights  Hospitallers  from  1309  to  1522,  when  it
was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  who  still  retain  it.
The  knights  retired  to  Malta  {which  see).  Rhodes
suffered  severely  by  an  earthquake  on  22  April,
1863.

RHODIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in  pla-
tinum ore,  by  Dr.  Wollaston  in  1804.  It  has  been
used  for  the  points  of  metallic  pens.

RHODOPE  MOUNTAINS  (Turkish,  Des-

poto  Dagh),  a  plateau  in  Roumelia.

In  these  about  150,000  Mahometans  took  refuge
during  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  on  the  approach  of
the  Russians  in  Dec.  1877,  and  Jan.  1878  ;  and  re-
sisted the  invaders.  The  Russians  were  accused
of  killing  and  outraging  thousands  of  men, women,
and  children.  A  European  commission  of  inquiry  ;
met  21  July  ;  closed,  26  Aug.  ;  confirmed  the'
statements,  but  issued  no  united  report;  some
members  seceded _  jg-g

The  insurgents  asserted  that  they  were  not  resisting
the  sultan  himself,  but  maladministration.  They
are  governed  by  an  English  chief,  col.  St.  Clair,
who  receives  the  taxes,  &c,  and  is  styled  "com-
mander-in-chief of  the  national  army  of  the
Rhodope" Sept. „

About  40,000  destitute  ;  reported . . 18  Jan.  1870

The  insurrection  gradually  subsided.


RHUBARB.  This  plant  was  first  cultivated
for  its  stalks  to  be  used  as  food  by  Mr.  Myall,  of
Deptford,  about  1820,  and  soon  after  came  into
general  use.

RHUDDLAN,  statute  of,  see  Wales,  1283.

RIALTO,  BRIDGE  OP  THE,  at  Venice  (men-
tioned by  Shakspeare  in  his  " Merchant  of  Venice"),
built  about  1590,  consists  of  a  marble  arch  across
the  Grand  Canal,  90  feet  wide  and  24  feet  high.

RIBBONISM,  a  term  given  to  the  principles
of  a  secret  society  in  Ireland,  organised  about  1820,
to  retaliate  on  landlords  any  injuries  done  to  their
tenants.  To  the  ribbonmen  are  attributed  many
of  the  agrarian  murders,  1858-71-79.  An  act  was
passed  to  repress  them,  16  June,  1871.

RICE,  the Oryza  sativa  of  botanists,  in  the
husk  termed paddy ; largely grown  in  intertro-
pical regions,  occupying  the  same  place  as  wheat
in  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe. It  was  conveyed
to  South  Carolina  near  the  end  of  the  17th  century,
and  its  cultivation  greatly  increased.
The  duty  on  foreign,  rice,  15s.,  on  colonial  rice,  is.  per
cwt.,  was  reduced  by  sir  Robert  Peel  in  1842  to  6s.  3d.
and  6£,d.  respectively.  Further  reductions  were  made
in  1846,  and  in  i860  the  duty  was  totally  abolished.
Imported  into  Britain  :  1846,  770,604  cwt.;  1856,  3,724,695
cwt. ;  1866,  2,309,494  cwt. ;  1856,  3,700,124  cwt.  ;  1866,
2,276,792  cwt. :  1877,  6,6i7,739cwt. ;  1879, 6,857,330  cwt.  >
1881, 8,500,062 cwt.  ; 1883, 7,747,725 cwt.  ; 1885,
5,588,650  cwt. ; 1887,  5,019,512  cwt. ;  1889,  6,585,779
cwt. ;  1890,  5.957;555  cwt.

RICHMOND  (Surrey),  anciently  called  Sheen,
which  in  the  Saxon  tongue  signifies  resplendent.
Here  stood  a  palace  in  which  Edward  I.  and  II.
resided,  and  Edward  III.  died,  1377.  Here  also
died  Anne,  queen  of  Richard  II.,  1394.  The  palace
was  repaired  by  Henry  V.,  who  founded  three  re-
ligious houses  near  it.  In  1497  it  was  destroyed  by
fire;  but  Henry  VII.  rebuilt  it,  and  commanded
that  the  village  should  be  called  Richmond,  he
having  borne  the  title  of  earl  of  Richmond  (York-
shire) before  he  obtained  the  crown :  and  here  he
died  in  1509.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  prisoner  in
this  palace  for  a  short  time  during  the  reign  of  her
sister.  When  she  became  queen  it  was  one  of  her
favourite  places  of  residence ;  and  here  she  died
24  March,  1603.  It  was  afterwards  the  residence  of
Henry,  prince  of  Wales.  The  beautiful  park  and
gardens  were  enclosed  by  Charles  I.  The  obser-
vatory was  built  by  sir  W.  Chambers  in  1769.  In
Richmond,  Thomson  "sang  the  Seasons  and  their
change;"  and  died  27  Aug.  1748.
The  Star  and  Garter  tavern  burnt ;  W.  Lever,  the

manager,  perished  ....  12  Jan.  1870
Mrs.  Julia  Martha  Thomas  was  murdered  at  Rich-
mond, her  body  cut  up,  put  in  bags  and  cast  into
river  Thames,  by  Katherine  Webster,  aged  30,
about  2  March  ;  John  Church,  a  publican,  arrested
on  suspicion,  discharged  17  April ;  Webster  com-
mitted for  trial,  16  May  ;  convicted,  8  July  ;  con-
fessed ;  executed  at  Wandsworth . 29  July,  1879

Richmond  incorporated 1890

Municipal  buildings  :  foundation-stone  laid  by  the

mayor,  sir  J.  Whittaker  Ellis,  M.P.  .  31  Oct.  1S91
Population,  1881,  19,066 ;  1891,  22,684.

RICHMOND  (Virginia,  U.S.)  became  the
capital  of  the  southern  confederate  states.  The
congress  adjourned  from  Montgomery,  Alabama,  to
Richmond,  where  it  met  20  July,  1861.  After  a
siege  of  1452  days  and  many  desperate  battles,  Rich-
mond was  evacuated  by  the  confederates,  2,3  April,
1865;  see  United  States.  By  the  fall  of  the  flooring
in  the  state  capital  building,  about  60  persons  were
killed.  27  April,  1870.  A  statue  of  "  Stonewall  "
Jackson  (subscribed  for  by  Englishmen) ,  was  un-


EIDING.


823


EIOTS.


veiled  here  in  presence  of  his  wife  aud  child,  26
Oct.  1875.  A  statue  of  gen.  Eobt.  Lee  at  -Richmond,
was  unveiled  29  May,  1890.  Population  1880,
63,600;  1890,  81,388.

ELDING,  see  Races.

Leon,  a  Mexican,  rode  100  miles,  consecutively,
in  4  hours  57  minutes,  using  6  "  Mustang  horses,"
15  July,  1876 ;  505  miles  in  49  h.  51^  min.

S-10  Feb.  1877

EIFLE  COEPS,  see  Volunteers,  aud  Fire-
arms. Rifle  Brigade  formed,  1800.  International
rifle  meeting,  Washington,  began,  26  Sept.  1876.
Another  at  Creedmoor,  near  New  York,  began  14
Sept.  ;  the  British  victors,  1882.  For  Rifle  Ranges,
see  Commons.

EIGHTS,  Bell  OF.  To  the  Petition  of
Rights,  preferred  17  March,  1627-8,  Charles  I.
answered,  "  I  will  that  right  be  done  according  to
the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm."  Both  houses
addressed  the  king  for  a  fuller  answer  to  their
petition  of  rights,  whereupon  he  gave  them  an
answer  less  evasive,  "  Soit  droit  fait  comme  il  est
desire,"  7  June,  1628.  The  petition  thus  became  a
statute  13  Car.  1.  c.  I.  An  important  declaration
was  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  England  to
the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange  on  13  Feb.  1689,
in  an  act  "  declaring  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the
subject,  and  settling  the  succession  of  the  crown."
The  Bill  of  Rights,  virtually  the  same  as  the  de-
clai-ation,  was  passed  by  parliament.  It  totally
abolished  the  dispensing  power  of  the  crown,  Oct.
1689. See  Claim  of  Right.

EIG-VEDA. See  Yedas.

EIMNIK  (near  Martinesti,  Wallachia).  Here
the  Austrians  and  Russians  under  prince  Coburg
and  gen.  Suwarrow,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the
Turks,  22  Sept.  1789.

EINDEEPEST,  German  for  cattle  plague
{which  see).

EING  DES  NIBELUNGEN,  see  Nihe-
lange  Not.

BINGS  anciently  had  a  seal  or  signet  engraved
on  them,  to  seal  writings,  and  they  are  so  used  to
this  day.  In  Genesis  xli.  42,  it  is  said  that  Pharaoh
gave  Joseph  his  ring.  Rings  are  now  put  upon
women's  fourth  finger  at  marriage;  but  the  Jews
used  them  at  the  espousal  or  contract  before  mar-
riage. Wedding-rings  are  to  be  of  standard  gold  by
statute,  1855.

EINK  (from  the  Gaelic  rian,  or  Saxon  hrinc,  a
course) ,  a  term  used  in  the  Scotch  game,  "  curling."
The  Belgravia  skating  rink, London, S.W., was

opened  to  the  public  ....  2  Aug.  1875
Others  since  at  Brighton  and  other  places.  Skates
with  rollers  (said  to  have  been  introduced  in  a
scene  of  Meyerbeer  s  "Prophete,"  at  Paris,  16
April,  1849),  are  used.  Mr.  Plimpton,  an  Ame-
rican, patented  roller-skates  in  1865  ;  his  right
was  affirmed  on  a  trial  for  infringement.  28  Jan.  1876
See  Glaciarium.

EIO  DE  JANEIEO  (S.  America),  discovered
by  JDe  Sousa,  1  Jan.  1531  ;  see  Brazil,  1889.  In
1807  it  was  made  capital  of  the  empire  of  Brazil.
Population  of  the  city,  1885,357,332;  1890,  500,000.

EIOTS.  The  riotous  assembling  of  twelve  or
more  persons,  and  their  not  dispersing  upon  pro-
clamation, was  first  made  high  treason  by  a  statute
enacted  2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  1548-9.  The  present  Riot
Act  was  passed  I  Geo.  I.  17 14.

Riots  against  Jews  in  London 1189

Some  riotous  citizens of  London  demolished the


convent  belonging  to  Westminster  abbey  ;  the
ringleader  was  hanged,  and  the  rest  had  their
hands  and  feet  cut  off,  6  Hen.  Ill

Goldsmiths'  and  Tailors'  companies  fought  in  the
streets  of  London  ;  several  killed  ;  the  sheriffs
quelled  it ;  and  thirteen  hanged ....

A  riot  at  Norwich  ;  the  rioters  burnt  the  cathedral
and  monastery  ;  the  king  went  thither,  and  saw
the  ringleaders  executed

Riot  of  Evil  May-day  (which  see) ....

Dr.  Lamb  killed  by  the  mob  . . . June,

A  riot  on  pretence  of  pulling  down  houses  of  ill-
fame  ;  several  of  the  ringleaders  hanged  . . .

Another,  at  Guildhall,  at  the  election  of  sheriffs  ;
several  considerable  persons,  who  seized  the  lord
mayor,  were  concerned

At  Edinburgh  and  Dumfries,  on  accoimt  of  the
Union

In  London,  on  account  of  Dr.  Henry  Sacheverel,  for
preaching  two  sermons  (one  5  Nov.  1709),  voted
by  the  house  of  commons  to  be  scandalous  and
seditious  ;  several  dissenting  meeting-houses  were
broken  open  and  destroyed . . . Feb.

Riot  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  mobs,  called  Ormond
and  Newcastle  mobs . . . -29  May,

The  Mug-hoitse  riot,  in  Salisbury-court,  between  the
Whigs  and  Tories  ;  the  riot  quelled  by  the  guards  ;
five  rioters  hanged .... 24  July,

Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers,  on  account  of  employing
workmen  come  over  from  Ireland  ;  quelled  by  the
military,  but  many  lives  lost  ....

Porteous  riot  at  Edinburgh  (see  Porteous) 7  Sept.

The  nailers  in  Worcestershire  march  to  Birming-
ham, and  make  terms  with  iron  merchants  there

Of  the  Spitalfield  weavers  ;  the  duke  of  Bedford
narrowly  escaped  death  ;  lives  lost  . . May,

A  mob  in  St.  George's-fields,  to  see  Mr.  Wilkes  in
the  King's  Bench  prison  ;  the  military  aid  indis-
creetly called  for  by  the  justices  of  the  peace,  and
several  innocent  persons,  particularly  young  Allen,
fired  upon,  and  killed  .... 10  May,

Gordon's  "  No  Popery  "  riots . 10  May,  2-9  June,

At  Birmingham,  on  account  of  commemorating  the
Freneh  revolution,  when  several  houses  were
destroyed 14  July,

In  various  parts  of  Scotland,  on  account  of  the
militia  act,  when  several  were  killed . Aug.

At  Maidstone,  at  the  trial  of  Arthur  O'Connor  and
others,  22  May,  1798  ;  the  earl  of  Thanet,  Mr.
Ferguson,  and  others,  were  active  in  endeavouring
to  rescue  O'Connor,  for  which  they  were  tried  and
convicted 25  April,

At  Liverpool,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between  a
party  of  dragoons  and  a  press-gang . 27  June,

O.  P.  riot  (which  see)  at  Co  vent-garden  . . Sept.

In  Piccadilly,  in  consequence  of  the  house  of  com-
mons committing  sir  Francis  Burdett  to  the
Tower 6  April,

Machinery  destroyed  by  rioters  at  Nottingham  from
Nov.  1 81 1  to  Jan.

In  various  parts  of  the  north  of  England,  by  the
Luddites,  during 181 1  and

At  Sheffield,  during  which  800  muskets  belonging
to  the  local  militia  were  destroyed . 14  April,

At  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  on  account  of  the
celebrated  Dog  of  Moiitargis,  several  nights,  Dec.

Alarming  riots  at  Westminster,  on  account  of  Corn
bill  ;  lasted  several  days . . .  March,

At  the  depot  at  Dartmoor,  in  quelling  which  seven
American  prisoners  of  war  were  killed,  and  thirty-
five  wounded April,

Popular  meetings  at  Spa-fields,  when  the  shops  of
the  gunsmiths  were  attacked  for  arms.  Mr.  Piatt
shot  in  that  of  Mr.  Beekwith,  on  Snow-hill  (Wat-
son tried  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted,  June,
1817) ........  2  Dec.

In  St.  James's  park,  on  the  prince-regent  going  to
the  house  of  lords  ;  it  was  said  that  an  air-gun
was  fired  at  him 28  Jan.

At  Manchester,  at  a  popular  meeting . 3  March,

Affray  at  Manchester,  called  the  "  Field  of  Peterloo"
(see  Manchester  reform  meeting) . . 16  Aug.

At  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin,  of  several  nights'
duration

Riot  at  Paisley  and  Glasgow  ;  many  houses  plun-
dered 16  Sept.

At  Edinburgh,  on  the  acquittal  of  queen  Caroline,

19  Nov


1271
1517
1628


16S2
1707

1710

1715

1716

1736

1737
1765

1768
1780

1791
1797


1812
1S14
1S15


RIOTS.


824


EIPON.


In  London,  at  the  funeral  of  the  queen  14  Aug.  1821

At  Knightsbridge,  between  the  military  and  the
populace,  on  the  funeral  of  Honey  and  Francis,
(killed  14  Aug.) 26  Aug. „

At  the  theatre  in  Dublin  ;  the  riot  called  the  "  Bottle
conspiracy,"  against  the  marquis  Wellesley,  lord-
lieutenant 14  Dec.  1822

Riot  at  Ballybay  ;  Lawless  arrested . .  9  Oct.  1828

Riot  at  Limerick  ;  the  provision-warehouses  plun-
dered and  mischief  done ... 15  June,  1830

Fatal  affrays  at  Castlepollard,  23  May ;  and  Newtown-
barry  (which  see) 18  June,  1831

Alarming  riots  at  Mertlryr-Tydvil  among  the  iron-
workers ;  several  fired  upon  by  the  military,  killed
and  wounded 3  June, ,,

Riot  at  the  Forest  of  Dean  (see  Dean) . 8  June, ,,

Nottingham  castle  burnt  by  rioters . .  10  Oct. ,,

Reform  riots  at  Bristol  (see  Bristol) . . 29  Oct. ,,

Affray  at  Castleshock,  county  Kilkenny,  when  a
number  of  police,  attacked  by  the  populace,  were,
with  their  commander,  Mr.  Gibins,  killed,

14  Dec. ,,

Riot  at  Boughton,  near  Canterbury,  produced  by
persons  called  Thomites,  headed  by  a  fanatic,
Thorn,  or  Courtenay,  who,  with  others,  was  killed
(see  Thomites) 28-31  May,  1838

Great  riots  throughout  the  country,  occasioned  by
the  chartists  (which see);  Llanidloes,  Montgomery-
shire, 30  April,  suppressed  by  military,  4  May  ;
a  proclamation 12  Dec. ,,

Riots  in  Birmingham  ;  much  mischief . July,  1839

Chartist  riot  at  Newport  (which  see) . 4  Nov. ,,

Meditated  chartist  outbreak  at  Sheffield,  with  most
destructive  objects,  providentially  discovered,
and  many  persons  arrested . . . n  Jan. 1840

Rebecca  riots  against  turnpikes  in  Wales . . . 1843

Chartist  demonstration  (see  Cluirtists)  10  April,  1848

Fatal  affray  at  Dolly's  Brae,  near  Castlewellan,  in
Ireland,  between  the  Orangemen  and  the  Roman
catholics  ;  several  of  the  latter  lost  their  lives,
and  some  of  their  houses  were  ransaeked  and
burnt 12  July,  1849

Serious  riots  at  Yarmouth,  through  a  dispute  be-
tween the  shipowners  and  the  seamen 23  Feb. 1851

Riots  occasioned  by  a  procession  of  Orangemen  at
Liverpool,  and  several  lives  lost . . 14  July, ,,

Riot  at  Stockport,  Cheshire  ;  two  catholic  chapels
destroyed  and  houses  burnt . . 29  June,  1852

Fierce  religious  riots  at  Belfast,  in  Ireland,  occur,

14  July, ,,

Fatal  election  riot  at  Six-mile-bridge,  in  the  county
of  Clare,  in  Ireland  ;  five  persons  shot  dead  by
the  military 22  July, ,,

Riots  at  Wigan,  among  the  coal-miners,  suppressed
by  the  military  without  loss  of  life .  28  Oct. 1853

Bread  riots  at  Liverpool .... 19  Feb. 1855

Riots  at  Hyde-park,  about  Sunday  bill,  July,  1855  ;
about  dearness  of  bread . . 14,  21,  28  Oct. .,

Riots  at  Belfast  through  the  open-air  preaching  of
the  rev.  Hugh  Hanna . . .6,  13,  20  Sept. 1857

Religious  riots  at  St.  George's-in-the-East,  London,
on  Sundays  in ...  Sept.  and  Nov. 1859

Break-out  of  the  convicts  at  Chatham,  suppressed
by  the  military .  ... n  Feb. 1861

Violent  riots  at  Belfast  begin,  through  an  Orange
demonstration I7  Sept.  1862

Fierce  rioting  (caused  by  the  Irish  against  the
favourers  of  Garibaldi)  at  Hyde-park,  London,  28
Sept.  and  5  Oct.  ;  and  at  Birkenhead,  Cheshire,

8  and  15  Oct. 1862

Rioting  at  Staleybridge  (on  account  of  the  mode  of
relief  to  the  unemployed  cotton-workers),  princi-
pally Irish  ;  put  down  by  the  military,  21  March,  1863

Fierce  conflicts  between  Romanists  and'  Protestants
at  Belfast ;  9  persons  killed,  and  about  150  injured

io-27  Aug. 1864

Reform  riots  in  Hyde-park,  London  ;  much  damage,
and  many  hurt 23)  24  July'  1866

Anti-popery  riots  at  Birmingham,  through  the  lec-
turing of  Murphy  :  much  damage  done  to  houses,

17,  18  June,  1867

Col.  Kelly  and  Dcasy  committed  for  trial  as  Fenians  ;

rescued  from  the  prisoners'  van  ;  Brett,  a  police

sergeant,  shot  dead . . . . 2s  Sept.

At  Wigan  ;  colliers  on  strike . . end  of  April,  1S68

Fierce  riots  against  a  colliery  manager  at  Mold,

Flintshire,  put  down  by  the  military ;  4  deaths,

2  June,  1869


Violent  rioting  at  a  colliery  at  Thorncliffe,  near
Sheffield  ;  quelled  by  intervention  of  lord  Wharn-
cliffe  and  others 21  Jan. 1870

Rioting  at  Armathwaite,  near  Carlisle,  between
English  and  Irish  navvies . . 15,  16  Oct. ,,

Violent  riots  at  Belfast ...  19,  20  Aug.  1872

Riots  at  Northampton,  because  Mr.  C.  Bradlaugh  was
not  elected  M.  P.  ;  suppressed  by  military  6  Oct.  1874

At  Blackburn,  Burnley,  Accrington,  Preston,  and
other  places,  through  cotton  strike  and  lock-out ;
several  mills  and  houses  destroyed  ;  riots  quelled
by  the  military . . . . 14,  15  May,  1878

At  Camborne,  Cornwall,  against  the  Irish ;  a
Romanist  church  destroyed . .  17-18  April,  1882

At  Wrexham,  of  coal  miners . . .  19  April, „

Westminster  colliery .... 19  April, ,,

In  Skye,  cottars  against  rent about  19  April-Sept. ,,

At  Tredegar,  Monmouthshire,  Salvationists  at-
tacked by  Irish  roughs,  retaliate  with  great
violence ;  Irish  quarter  sacked,  8,  9  July ;  1
Irishman  died ;  600  destitute  Irish  landed  at
Queenstown,  14  July ;  6  rioters  sentenced  to
3  months'  imprisonment ... 2  Aug. „

In  Dublin,  through  resignation  of  police,  suppressed
by  the  military 1  Sept. ,,

At  Kidderminster 4-8  April,  1884

Peaceable  mass  meeting  of  the  unemployed  in
Trafalgar-square,  joined  by  the  social  democrats
with  red  flag  led  by  Hyndman,  Burns,  and
Champion,  who,  unchecked  for  about  two  hours
(4  to  6  p.m.),  from  Pall  Mall  to  Oxford-street  and
neighbourhood,  smash  windows,  ransack  shops,
attack  and  rob  private  carriages :  finally  dis-
persed :  police  organisation  inefficient  (except  by
superintendent  Cuthbert) ;  estimated  damage
n,oooL,  8  Feb. ;  other  meetings;  rioting  checked
9,  10  Feb.  ;  rioters  sentenced  to  various  terms
of  imprisonment March,  1886

Riots  at  Leicester  occasioned  by  a  strike  ;  de-
struction of  factories,  &c. ;  partially  checked  by
the police, n, 12 Feb. ; rioting continued

13-16  Feb. ,,

Riots  Damages  Act  passed .,

Destructive  riot  of  coal-miners  at  Plas-Power
colliery  near  Wrexham . . ,  . 30  Sept. „

Violent  riots  of  Lanarkshire  miners  at  Hamilton,
Airdrie,  &c.  ;  74  men  arrested . 8-10  Feb.  1887

Riot  at  Lillie  Bridge,  West  Brompton  ;  structures
destroyed  and  burnt  by  a  crowd  (about  5,000)
disappointed  at  the  non-performance  of  a  race
and  their  money  not  returned . . 19  Sept. ,,

Riotous  assemblage  of  the  unemployed  in  Trafalgar-
square  dispersed  17  Oct.  ;  meeting  at  Hyde  Park
dispersed  by  the  police  after  severe  conflict,
18  Oct.  ;  again  dispersed  19  Oct. ;  meeting  in
Trafalgar-square,  about  2,000  went  to  Westminster
Abbey  ;  disorderly,  23  Oct.  ;  quiet  meetings  24-27
Oct.  and  since ;  arrests  for  seditious  language,  &c,
4-8  Nov. ;  meetings  in  Trafalgar-square  prohibited,
8  and  18  Nov.  ;  processions  of  disorderly  mob
dispersed,  and  meetings  in  Trafalgar-square
prevented  by  mounted  and  foot  police  aided  by
the  1st  life  guards  ;  several  severe  conflicts  with
men  using  iron  bars  and  knives  ;  many  seriously
injured, chiefly  police;  Mr.  Cuninghame  Graham,
M.P.,  a  magistrate,  and  Mr.  John  Burns  and
many  others  arrested  ;  moderate  conduct  of  the
police  ;  sir  C.  Warren's  arrangements  thoroughly
successful,  Sunday,  13  Nov. ;  many  sentenced  to
penal  servitude 14  Nov. ,,

Funeral  procession  of  Alfred  Linnell,  a  law  writer,
accidentally  killed  in  a  crowd  in  Northumberland-
avenue  on  Sunday,  20  Nov.,  from  Soho  to  Bow
cemetery  :  Messrs.  Cuninghame  Graham,  M.P.,
Win.  Morris  the  poet,  and  others  present ;  order
was  only  maintained  by  a  large  body  of  police

18  Dec.  1887

Much  rioting  connected  with  strikes  . . .  1890-92

See  Strikes, 1881 ; Ireland ; Crofters, 1887-8 ;  Belfast,
Southampton,  and  Cardiff.

BJPON  (Yorkshire),  an  ancient  town.  About
661  an  abbey  cell  was  built  here  by  Eata.  Ripon
was  made  a  bishopric  by  archbishop  Wilfred,  in
690,  but  did  not  endure  so.  It  suffered  much  by
the  ravages  of  the  Danes,  the  Normans  (1069),  anil
the  Scots  (13 19  and  1323). The  present  see  was


RITCHIE'S ACT.


825


ROCHDALE.


erected  5  Oct.  1836,  out  of  the  archdeaconry  of  York
in  the  West  Riding.  Income  4,200^.  The  cathedral
was  restored  by  sir  G.  G.  Scott :  the  choir  was  re-
opened 27  Jan.  1869.  The  thousandth  anniversary
of  its  incorporation  was  celebrated  25-27  Aug.  1886.
Population,  1881,7,390;  1891,7,512.


1836.  Charles  Thos.  Longley,  trans,  to  Durham,  1856.
1856.  Robert  Bickersteth,  died  15  April,  1884.
1884.  Win.  Boyd  Carpenter,  May.

RITCHIE'S  ACT,  see  under  Local  Govern-
ment.

RITUALISTS,  a  name  given  in  1866  to  a
party  in  the  church  of  England,  formerly  termed
Puseyites,  for  endeavouring  to  give  a  more  im-
posing character  to  public  worship,  by  the  use  of
coloured  vestments,  lighted  caudles,  incense,  &c.,
professing  to  go  back  to  the  practices  of  the  church
in  the  time  of  Edward  VI.  An  exhibition  of  these
things  was  held  during  the  church  congress  at  York
in  Oct.  1866,  but  was  not  officially  connected  with
it.  The  practices  of  the  ritualists  (said  by  Mr.
Disraeli  to  be  symbolical  of  doctrines  they  were
botind  to  renounce),  were  censured  in  several
episcopal  charges  in  Dec.  1866;  in  two  reports
of  the  ritualistic  commission,  19  Aug.  1867,  and
April,  1868,  and  by  the  judicial  committee  of
the  privy  council  on  appeal,  23  Dec.  1868.  See
Church  of  England  and  Trials,  1867-9.  At  a  gene-
ral convocation  of  the  American  episcopal  church  at
Philadelphia,  27,  28  Oct.  1868,  after  a  warm  dis-
cussion on  ritualism,  the  discussion  was  adjourned.
It  was  renewed  at  the  convocation  10  Oct.  1874,
and  the  ritualists  were  decidedly  beaten  by  the
evangelical  party,  a  stringent  canon  on  ceremonies
being  passed  27  Oct.  The  "  Public  Worship  Regu-
lation Act"  was  passed  7  Aug.  1874,  f°r  the  re-
pression of  ritualism  in  England.  See  Public
Worship.

RIVERS  COMMISSIONS,  first  appointed,
1865,  Messrs.  R.  Rawlinson,  J.  T.  Harrison,  and
Professor  Way ;  second,  1868  ;  sir  Wm.  Denison,
Mr.  J.  Chalmers  Morton,  and  Professor  Frankland.

Published  six  blue  books 1874

Association  for  preserving  the  rivers  of  Scotland,

formed Jan.  1875

The  Pollution  of  Rivers  Act  passed . .15  Aug.  1876

RIVOLI  (near  Verona,  N.  Italy).  Near  here
the  Austrians  defeated  the  French,  17  Nov.  1796;
and  were  defeated  by  Bonaparte  14,  15  Jan.  1797.
Massena  was  made  duke  of  Rivoli  for  his  share  in
the  actions.

ROAD  CLUB,  established  in  the  autumn  of
1874  ™  London,  by  gentlemen  interested  in  the
revival  of  coaching.

ROAD  MURDER.  On  the  night  of  29-30
June,  i860,  Francis  Savile  Kent,  four  years  old,
was  murdered,  and  his  body  hid  in  a  garden
water-closet  at  Road.  His  sister  Constance  Kent
(aged  sixteen),  and  the  nurse  Elizabeth  Gough
(the  first  suspected),  were  discharged  for  want
of  evidence.  The  coroner  was  severely  blamed
for  charging  the  jury  improperly,  but  the  court  of
queen's  bench,  in  Jan.  1861,  refused  to  issue  a  writ
for  a  new  inquiry.  Constance  Kent,  on  25  April,
1865,  before  sir  Thomas  Henry  at  Bow-street,  and
at  her  trial  at  Salisbury,  on  21  July  following,  con-
fessed herself  to  be  guilty  of  the  murder.  Her
punishment  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for
life.  Let  out  on  ticket-of-leave,  18  July,  1885.
Road  is  near  Frome,  Somerset.

ROADS,  see  Roman  Roads. The  first  general


repair  of  the  highways  of  this  country  was  directed
about  1285.  Acts  were  passed  for  the  purpose  in
1524  and  1555,  followed  by  others  in  Elizabeth's
and  succeeding  reigns.  Roads  through  the  High-
lands of  Scotland  were  begun  by  general  Wade  in
1726.  Loudon  M Adam's  roads  were  introduced
about  1818.  Wooden  pavements  were  tried  with
partial  success  in  the  streets  of  London  :  at  White-
hall in  1839,  and  in  other  streets  in  1840  ;  asphalte
pavement  soon  after.  An  act  "  for  the  better  man-
agement of  the  highways"  was  passed  in  1862
after  much  opposition;  another,  16  Aug.  1878;
also  regulated  the  use  of  locomotives  on  roads.
Steam  road-rollers  were  tried  in  1867;  used  in
London  18  March,  1868:  see  Macadamising,  Tolls,
and  Wooden  Pavements.

ROAD  STEAMERS.  Mr.  R.  W.  Thomson,
of  Edinburgh,  in  1868,  by  adding  india-rubber  to
the  tires  of  the  wheels  of  locomotives  is  considered
to  have  solved  the  question  of  steam  traction  on
common  roads.  Road  steamers  have  been  success-
fully employed  in  Edinburgh  andLeith  for  drawing
heavy  waggons  up  inclined  planes,  and  are  adapt-
able to  any  draught  work.  They  were  tried  at
Woolwich,  I  Oct.  1870,  and  reported  successful  by
eminent  authorities ;  and  tbeirapplicationto  plough-
ing by  lord  Dunmore  was  exhibited  1  Feb.  1871.

ROANOAKE,  an  island  off  N.  Carolina,  U.S.,
discovered  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  1584,  and  settled
by  him,  1585,  without  success.  Other  settlers  also
failed.

ROASTING  ALIVE.  An  early  instance  is
that  of  Bocchoris,  king  of  Egypt,  by  order  of  Saba-
con  of  Ethiopia,  737  B.C.  Lenglet.  Sir  John  Old-
castle,  lord  Cobham,  was  thus  put  to  death  in  1418,
and  Michael  Servetus  for  heresy  at  Geneva,  27  Oct.
1553 ;  see  Burning  Alive,  and  Martyrs.

ROBBERS  were  punished  with  death  by
Edmund  I.'s  laws,  which  directed  that  the  eldest
-robber  should  be  hanged.  Remarkable  robbers  in
England  were  Robin  Hood,  1 189  (see  Robin  Hood),
and  Claud  Du  Val,  "executed  at  Tyburn,"  says  an
historian  quaintly,  "to  the  great  grief  of  the
women,"  Jan.  1670.  In  Ireland,  the  famous  Mac-
Cabe  was  hanged  at  Naas,  19  Aug.  1691.  Gallop-
ing Hogan,  the  rapparee,  flourished  at  this  period.
Freney,  the  celebrated  highwayman,  surrendered
himself,  10  May,  1749.  The  accomplished  Barring-
ton  was  transported,  22  Sept.  1790. See  Trials.

ROBIN  HOOD,  captain  of  a  band  of  robbers,
in  Sherwood  forest,  Nottinghamshire ;  traditionally
reported  to  have  been  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  dis-
graced and  banished  the  court  by  Richard  1.  at  his
accession  (1189).  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John  and
their  band  are  said  to  have  continued  their  depre-
dations till  1247,  when  Robin  died.  Stow.  Lord
Tennyson's  drama,  "The  Foresters;  Robin  Hood
and  Maid  Marian,"  first  represented  at  New  York
on  account  of  the  American  copyright  law,  end  of
March,  1892.

"  ROBINSON  CRUSOE,"  by  Daniel  De
Foe;  the  first  part  appeared  in  1719.  See  Juan
Fernandez.  Three  old  ladies,  Mary  Ann,  Jane
Amelia,  and  Sarah  Frances  De  Foe,  lineally  de-
scended from  De  Foe,  pensioned  by  the  queen,
May,  1877.

ROBURITE,  a  new  German  explosive  invented
by  Dr.  Carl  Roth,  reported  1888.

ROCHDALE,  Lancashire.  A  charter  was
obtained  for  a  market  by  Edmuud  de  Lacy,  1241,


EOCHEFOET.


826


EOHILCUND.


and  the  grammar  school  was  founded  1564.  Koch-
dale  canal  was  opened  1804.  The  new  town  was
commenced  in  1865.  Eocbdale  first  sent  a  member
to  parliament  in  1832.  The  woollen  manufacture
was  carried  on  in  the  16th  century.  The  first
cotton  mill  was  erected  in  170=;.  Population,  1881,
68,866;  1891,  71,458.

EOCHEFOET  (W.  France),  a  seaport  on  the
Charente.  The  port  was  made  by  Louis  XIV.  in
1666.  In  Aix-roads  or  Basque-roads,  near  iioche-
fort,  capt.  lord  Cochrane  attacked  the  French  fleet
and  destroyed  four  ships,  11-12  April,  1809.  Near
Eochefort,  the  emperor  Napoleon  surrendered  him-
self to  capt.  Maitland  of  the  Bellerophon,  15  July,
1815.

EOCHELLE  (W.  France),  a  seaport  on  the
Atlantic,  belonging  to  the  English  for  some  time,
but  finally  surrendered  to  the  French  leader,  i)u
Guesclin,  in  1372.  As  a  stronghold  of  the  Calvinist
party,  it  was  vainly  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Anjou
in  1573  j  and  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  thirteen
months  by  cardinal  .Richelieu  in  1628.  The  duke
of  Buckingham  was  sent  with  a  fleet  and  army  to
relieve  it;  but  the  citizens  declined  to  admit  him.
He  attacked  the  isle  of  She,  near  Eochelle,  and
failed,  22  July,  1627.  He  was  repulsed  8  Nov.  fol-
lowing. A  conspiracy  here  in  1822  caused  loss  of
life  to  sergeant  Bories  and  others.
The new harbour  opened by  president Carnot

19  Aug.  1890

EOCHESTEE,  in  Kent,  the  Eoman  Duro-
brivce.  The  bishopric,  founded  by  Augustin,  604,
is  the  next  in  age  to  Canterbury.  The  first  cathe-
dral was  erected  by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent.  St.
Justus  was  bishop  in  604.  Alterations  were  made
in  the  diocese  in  1845.  Eochester  is  valued  in  the
king's  books  at  358^.  3s.  2\d.  per  annum.  Present
income  3,000^.  The  cathedral  re-opened  after
repairs  of  the  choir,  n  June,  1875.  The  old  castle
and  grounds  were  purchased  for  the  public  by  the
Corporation,  1883.  The  "  ten  churches  fund,"
begun  by  the  bishop,  1884.  Population,  1881,
21,307  ;  1891,  26,309.

RECENT  BISHOPS.

1793.  Samuel  Horseley,  trans,  to  St.  Asaph's,  1802.

1802.  Thomas  Dampier,  translated  to  Ely,  1808.

1809.  Walter  King,  died  22  Feb.  1827.

1827.  Hugh  Percy,  translated  to  Carlisle,  27  Oct.

1827.  George  Murray,  died  16  Feb.  i860.

i860.  Joseph  Cotton  Wigram,  died  6  April,  1867.

1867.  Thos.  Legh  Claughton,  translated  to  St.  Albans.

1877.  Anthony  Wilson  Thorold,  consecrated,  25  July  ;

translated  to  Winchester,  1890.
1890.  Randall  Thomas  Davidson,  D.D.,  Nov.

EOCKETS,  destructive  war  implements,  were
invented  by  sir  William  Congreve  about  1803.  The
carcase-rockets  were  first  used  at  Boulogne,  8  Oet.<
1806,  when  they  set  the  town  on  fire,  their  powers
being  previously  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of
Mr.  Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.
Improved  rockets  were  made  by  Hales  in  1846.
Boxer's  life-saving  rope-carrying  rocket,  for  com-
municating with  stranded  vessels,  described  in  1878.
See  Wrecks,  March,  1892.

EOCKINGHAM  ADMINISTRATIONS.

Ihe  first  succeeded  the  administration  of  Mr.  Geo,
Grenville ;  the  second  succeeded  that  of  lord  North.

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,  13  July,  1765  to  30  July,  1766.

Charles,  marquis  of  Rockingham,*7i?-s«  lord  of  the  trea-
sury.

*  Charles  Watson  Wentworth,  marquis  of  Rockingham,
was  born  13  May,  1730  ;  succeeded  his  father  as  marquis,
1750.  He  died  without  issue,  1  July,  1732  ;  and  his
estates  passed  to  his  nephew,  earl  Fitzwilliam.


William  Dowdeswell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Earl  of  Winchilsea  and  Nottingham,  lord  president.

Duke  of  Newcastle,  privy  seal.

Earl  of  Northington,  lord,  chancellor.

Duke  of  Portland,  lord  chamberlain.

Duke  of  Rutland,  master  of  the  horse.

Lord  Talbot,  lord  steward.

Henry  Seymour  Conway  and  the  duke  of  Grafton,  secre-
taries of  state.

Lord  Egmont,  admiralty.

Marquis  of  Granby,  ordnoAice.

Viscount  Barrington,  secretary-at-ivar.

Viscount  Howe,  treasurer  of  the  navy.

Charles  Townshend,  paymaster  of  the  forces.

Earl  of  Dartmouth,  first  lord  of  trade.

Lords  Bessborough  and  Grantham,  lord  John  Cavendish,
Thomas  Townshend,  &c.

See  Chatham  administration.

second  administration,  March  to  i  July,  1782,  when  the

marquis  died.
Marquis  of  Rockingham,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.
Lord  John  Cavendish;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.
Lord  Camden,  president  of  the  council.
Duke  of  Grafton,  privy  seal.
Lord  Thurlow,  lord  choAicellor.

William,  earl  of  Shelburne  and  Charles  James  Fox,  secre-
taries of  state.
Augustus  viscount  Keppel,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.
Duke  of  Richmond,  master-general  of  the  ordnance.
Thomas  Townshend,  secretary  -at-war.
Isaac  Barre,  Edmund  Burke,  John  Dunning,  <fcc.

EOCEOY  (N.  France).  Here,  19  May,  1643,
the  Spaniards  were  totally  defeated  by  the  French,
commanded  by  the  great  Conde.

EODNEY'S  VICTOEIES.  Admiral  Eodney
fought,  near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  Spanish  admiral,
Don  Langara,  whom  he  defeated  and  made  prisoner,
capturing  six  of  his  ships,  one  of  which  blew  up,
16, 17  Jan.  1780.  On  12  April,  1782,  he  encountered
the  French  fleet  in  the  West  Indies,  commanded  by
the  count  de  Grasse,  took  five  ships  of  the  line,  and
sent  the  French  admiral  prisoner  to  England :
Rodney  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  June,  1782.

EOGATION  WEEK.  Eogation  Sunday,  the
Sunday  before  Ascension-day,  received  its  title  from
the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  following  it,
called  Eogation  days,  derived  from  the  Latin  rogare,
to  beseech.  Extraordinary  prayers  and  supplica-
tions for  these  three  days  are  said  to  have  been
appointed  in  the  third  century,  as  a  preparation  for
the  devout  observance  of  our  Saviour's  ascension  on
the  next  day  succeeding  to  them,  denominated
Holy  Thursday  or  Ascension-day.  The  whole  week
in  which  these  days  happen  is  styled  Eogation
week ;  and  in  some  parts  it  is  still  known  by  the
other  names  of  Crop  week,  Grass  week,  and  Pro-
cession week.  The  perambulations  of  parishes  have
usually  been  made  in  this  week.

EOHAN,  an  illustrious  family,  descended  from
the  ancient  sovereigns  of  Brittany.  Henri  de
Eohan,  son-in-law  of  the  great  Sully,  after  the
death  of  Henry  IV.  (14  May,  1610),  became  head  of
the  Protestant  party,  and  sustained  three  wars
against  Louis  XIII.  He  eventually  entered  the
service  of  the  duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  and  died  of
wounds  received  in  battle  in  1638.  Of  this  family
was  the  cardinal  de  Eohan ;  see  Diamond  Neck-
lace,

EOHILCUND,  a  tract  of  country,  N.E.India,
was  conquered  by  the  Bohillas,  an  Afghan  tribe,
who  settled  here  about  1747.  After  aiding  the
sovereign  of  Oude  to  overcome  the  Mahrattas,  they
were  treated  with  much  treachery  by  him,  and
neaidy  exterminated.  Rohilcund  was  ceded  to  the
British  in  1801.  After  the  great  mutiny,  Eohilcund
was  tranquillised  in  July,  1858.


ROLLER SKATES.


827


EOMAN  CATHOLICS.


ROLLER  SKATES,  see  Rink.

ROLLING-MILLS,  in  the  metal  manufac-
tories, were  in  use  here  in  the  17th  century,  and  in
1 784  Mr.  Cort  patented  his  improvements.

ROLLS,  see  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  Records.

ROLLS'  CHAPEL  (London),  founded  by
Henry  III.,  about  1233,  for  receiving  Jewish  rabbis
converted  to  Christianity.  On  the  banishment  of
the  Jews  in  1290  the  buildings  now  called  the  Eolls,
and  the  chapel,  were  annexed  by  patent  to  the
office  of  the  keeper  or  master  of  the  rolls  of  chan-
cery, from  which  circumstance  they  took  their
name.  A  number  of  public  records  from  the  time
of  Richard  III.,  kept  in  presses  in  this  chapel,  have
been  removed  to  the  Record  Office  {which  see) .  The
Rolls  chapel  was  pulled  down  in  July,  1892.

ROLT'S  ACT,  25  &  26  Vict.  c.  42  (1862),

relates  to  the  Chancery  Court.

ROMAGNA,  a  province  of  the  papal  states,
comprised  in  the  legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,
Fori!  and  Ravenna.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Lom-
bards ;  but  taken  from  them  by  Pepin,  and  given  to
the  pope,  753.  Csesar  Borgia  held  it  as  a  duchy  in
1501,  but  lost  it  in  1503.  In  1859  the  Romagna
threw  off  the  temporal  authority  of  the  pope,  and
declared  itself  subject  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  who
accepted  it  in  March,  i860.  It  now  forms  part  of
the  province  of  Emilia,  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.
Population,  1890,  1,218,392. See  Rome.

ROMAINVILLE  and  Belleville,  heights

near  Paris,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Mortier,  and
Mannont  were  defeated  by  the  allies  after  a
vigorous  resistance,  30  March,  18 14.  The  next  day
Paris  capitulated.

ROMAN CATHOLICS, Romanists and
Papists. Their  religion  was  the  established  one
in  Britain  till  the  Reformation. Since  then  many
laws  were  made  against  them,  which  have  been  re-
pealed ; see Rome, Religion,  Leagues,  Maynooth.
Among other  disabilities, Roman Catholics  were
excluded  from  corporate  offices,  1667  ;  from  parlia-
ment, 1691 ;  forbidden  to  many  protestants,  1708;
to  possess  arms,  1695,  &c. The  church  of  the  Ora-
tory opened  at  South  Kensington,  25  April,  1884.
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England  and  Wales,  1878  ;
H.  E.  Manning,  archbishop  of  Westminster,  metro-
politan, 1865 ; cardinal, 1875. 12 bishops
(Beverley,  Birmingham,  Clifton,  Hexham,  Liver-
pool, Newport, Northampton, Nottingham,
Plymouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, Southward).
Scotland, hierarchy revived, 4 March, 1878.
Ireland, 4 archbishops (metropolitan, Paul
Cullen,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  1850  ;  of  Dublin,
1852) ; 24  bishops. England, 17  bishops,  2,380
priests;  Scotland,  6  bishops,  341  priests  (1888).
Roman Catholics  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,
5,640,891 ;  in  Europe,  146,335,603  ;  Asia,  9,234,000;
Africa,  2,656,000;  America,  51,033,790;  Australia
and  Polynesia,  672,000 ;  in  the  world,  estimated

nearly  210,000,000 1891

Bishop  Fisher,  sir  Thomas  More,  and  others,  exe-
cuted for  denying  the  king's  supremacy  . . .  1535
Catholics  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  the  king

by  Paul  III.  1535  ;  by  Pius  V 1570

They  rebel  in 1549  and  1569

The  Gunpowder  Plot  (whicli  sec) 1605

They  suffer  by  Oates's  fictitious  popish  plot  .  .  1678
They  are  excluded  from  the  throne  .  .  .  .  1689
They  suffer  by  the  Gordon  riots . .  June,  1780

Various  disabilities  removed  in  .  .  1780  and  1791
Mr.  Pitt  proposes  measures  for  their  relief,  which

he  gives  up 1801-4

Roman  Catholic  Association  organised  in  Ireland,
with  the  object  of  removing  the  political  and  civil
disabilities  of  Roman  catholics,  "Catholic
rents  "  subscribed 1823  et  seq.


Bills  in  their  favour  frequently  brought  in  without
effect  from 1813  to  182S

An  act  of  parliament  passed  for  the  suppression  of
the  Catholic  Association  (it  had  voted  its  own
dissolution,  12  Feb.) .... 5  March,  1829

The  duke  of  Wellington  and  sir  Robert  Peel  carry
the  Catholic  emancipation  bill  (10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7)
in  the  commons,  30  March  ;  in  the  lords,  10  April;
received  the  royal  assent  . . . 13  April, ,,

The  duke  of  Norfolk  and  lords  Dormer  and  Clifford,
the  first  Roman  catholic  peers,  take  their  seats,

28  April, .,

The  first  English  R.  C.  member  returned,  the  earl
of  Surrey,  for  Horsham  .... 4  May, ,,

Mr.  O'Connell  elected  for  Clare,  1828,  takes  his  seat
(first  Roman  catholic  M. P.  since  T689) . Aug. ,,

Mr.  Alexander  Raphael,  the  first  Roman  catholic
sheriff  of  London .... 28  Sept.  1834

Sir  Michael  O'Loghlen,  thefirst  Roman  catholic  judge
(as  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland),appointed,  30  Oct.  1836

St.  George's  cathedral,  Southwark,  erected  by  A.
W.  Pugin  ;  founded 1840

Tablet  newspaper  established „

Mr.  O'Connell  elected  first  Roman  catholic  lord
mayor  of  Dublin 1841

"  Catholic  Poor  School  Committee  "  established .  1847

The  "Papal  Aggression"  {which  see);  cardinal
Nicholas  Wiseman  appointed  archbishop  of  West-
minster 3°  SePt-  1850

Roman  catholic  university,  Dublin,  originated  5  May,  1851

Universe  newspaper  established .... i860

Agitation  in  favour  of  the  pope .... 1860-2

Missionary  college  founded  at  Drumcondra,  Ire-
land - . .20  July,  1862

Roman  catholic  chaplains  permitted  for  gaols,  by
Prison  Ministers  act July,  1863

Serjeant  Wm.  Shee  made  a  justice  of  the  Queen's
Bench,  the  first  Roman  catholic  judge  since  the
Reformation  [died  19  Feb.  1868] . . 15  Dec. „

Death  of  cardinal  Wiseman,  aged  63  ;  7th  English
cardinal  since  the  Reformation  . .  15  Feb. 1865

Henry  Manning  (formerly  an  archdeacon  in  the  Eng-
lish church)  consecrated  archbishop  of  West-
minster 8  June, ,,

Conference  of  Roman  catholic  bishops  at  Dublin  ;
publish  resolutions  declining  state  help  (in  accor-
dance with  the  papal  injunctions,  1801  and  1805),
and  condemning  mixed  education  and  secret
societies 17  Oct.  1867

In  Great  Britain  1639  Roman  catholic  priests  ;  1283
chapels  and  churches  ;  227  convents  for  women
(principally  educational) ;  21  colleges  and  large
schools Dec. „

A  proposal  of  the  Derby  government  to  endow  a
catholic  university  for  Ireland,  Oct.  1867,  failed
through  the  catholic  bishops  claiming  the  entire
practical  control .... 31  March,  1868

Mr.  Justice  Thomas  (aft.  lord)  O'Hagan,  appointed
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  is  the  first  Roman
catholic  who  has  held  that  office  since  the  revolu-
tion of  1688-9 Dec. ,,

Catholic  truth  society  by  Dr.  Vaughan,  established

about ,,

Catholic  union  of  Great  Britain,  president  the  duke
of  Norfolk,  constituted 1871

A  Roman  catholic  made  M.A.  at  Oxford,  after  the
abolition  of  the  test .... 22  June, ,,

The  catholics  opposing  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli-
bility term  themselves  "  old  catholics " {which  see) ,,

The  Ecclesiastical  Titles  act  (see  Papal  Aggression)
repealed 24  July, ,,

Pastoral  issued  by  the  R.  C.  bishops  in  Ireland
claiming  endowment  for  colleges,  &c.  under  their
sole  control Oct. ,,

"  Catholic  Education  Crisis  Fund  "  established . ,,

Two  R.  C.  bishops  consecrated  at  Salford 28  Oct. 1872

"  Catholic  Union,"  Dublin,  re-organised  to  obtain
education  under  ecclesiastical  control,  about

4  Dec.  1873

A  catholic  union  in  Dublin  formed ...  ,,

Roman  Catholic  university  senate  meet . 21  May,  1874

Archbishop  Manning  made  a  cardinal . . .  1S75

Catholic  Congress  at  Venice  met  . . 12  June, ,,

The  marquis  of  Ripon  becomes  a  Roman  Catholic

7  Sept. ,,

Roman  Catholic  university  college,  Kensington ;
monsignor  Capel,  principal ;  opened . 15  Oct. ,,

Several  English  clergymen  secede  to  Rome  . Oct. ,,


ROMAN  LAW.


828


EOME.


New  Catholic  club  opened  in  London  by  the  duke
of  Norfolk,  lords  Denbigh  and  Petre,  and  others

27  Nov. 1875

Mr.  Gladstone's  pamphlet,  "  The  Vatican  Decrees  "
occasions  declarations  respecting  papal  infalli-
bility, from  abp.  Manning,  monsig.  Capel,  the
Catholic  Union  and  others  for  it ;  from  lords  Acton,
Camoys,  and  sir  George  Bowyer,  against  it,  Nov. ,,

E.  C.  hierarchy  re-established  in  Scotland,  by  pope
Leo  XIII 4  March,  1878

For  the  dissension  between  Church  and  State  re-
specting the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility,  see
Prussia  and  Germany.

Church  in  low  state  in  Germany,  3  dioceses  (of  12)
occupied:  200  parishes  without  priests;  1500
priests  expelled,  reported  . . . April,  1879

Lord  Petre,  a  R.  C.  priest,  takes  his  seat  in  the  house
of  lords 3  Nov.  1884

Catholic  congresses  :  Madrid,  president,  archbishop
of  Saragossa,  25  April  et  seq.  ;  at  Vienna,  the  high
clergy  and  nobility  present,  29  April,  1889  ;  Ma-
lines 8  Sept.  1891

Centenary  of  the  establishment  of  the  first  R.  C.
diocese  in  the  United  States  celebrated  at  Balti-
more, 10  Nov.  et  seq. ;  cardinal  Gibbons  dedicates
the new Catholic university at Washington

13  Nov.  1889

Rev.  J.  H.  Newman,  Anglican,  professed  Romanism,
Oct.  1845  ;  made  cardinal,  12  May,  1879  ;  died,
aged  89 n  Aug.  1890

New  Spanish  church,  Manchester-square,  London,
W.,  opened 29  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Gladstone's  bill  to  enable  a  Roman  Catholic  to
be  lord  chancellor  of  England  or  lord  lieutenant
of  Ireland,  rejected  by  the  commons  (256—223)

4  Feb.  1 89 1

Death  of  cardinal  Manning,  aged  83,  14  Jan.  ;
solemn  funeral  .service  at  the  Brompton  oratory ;
buried  at  the  R.  C. cemetery  at  Kensal  Green

21  Jan.  1892

Dr.  Herbert  Vaughan,  bishop  of  Salford,  appointed
archbishop  of  Westminster  by  the  pope  ;  con-
firmed, 3  April ;  enthroned  ... 8  May, „

ROMAN  LAW,  see  Codes;  Roman  Litera-
ture, see  Latin.

ROMAN  ROADS in  ENGLAND. Our

historians  maintain,  but  are  mistaken,  that  there
were  but  four  of  these  roads.  Camden.  "  The
Romans,"  says  Isidore,  "made  roads  almost  all
over  the  world,  to  have  their  marches  in  a  straight
line,  and  to  employ  the  people  ;"  and  criminals  were
frequently  condemned  to  work  at  such  roads,  as  we
learn  from  Suetonius,  in  his  life  of  Caligula.  They
were  commenced  and  completed  at  various  periods,
between  the  2nd  and  4th  centuries,  and  the  Roman
soldiery  were  employed  in  making  them,  that  inac-
tivity might  not  give  them  an  opportunity  to  raise
disturbances. Bede.

1st,  Watling-street,  so  named  from  Vitellianus,  who  is

supposed  to  have  directed  it,  the  Britons  calling  him

in  their  language Guetalin  (from  Kent  to  Cardigan

Bay).

2nd, Iknield,  or  Ikenild-street, from  its beginning

among  the  Iceni  (from  St.  David's  to  Tynemouth).
3rd,  Fosse,  or  Fosse  Way,  probably  from  its  having
been  defended  by  a  fosse  on  both  sides  (from  Cornwall
to  Lincoln).
4th,  Ermin-street,  from  Irmunsul,  a  German  word,
meaning  Mercury,  whom  our  German  ancestors  wor-
shipped under  that  name  (from  St.  David's  to  South-
ampton).

ROMAN  WALLS-  One  was  erected  by
Agncola  (79  to  85)  to  defend  Britain  from  the  in-
cursions of  the  Picts  and  Scots ;  the  first  wall  ex-
tended from  the  Tyne  to  the  Sol  way  frith  (80  miles) ;
the  second  from  the  frith  of  Forth,  near  Edinburgh'
to  the  frith  of  Clyde,  near  Dumbarton  (36  miles)!
The  former  was  renewed  and  strengthened  by  the
emperor  Adrian  (121),  and  by  Septimus  Severus
(208).  It  commenced  at  Bowness,  near  Carlisle,
and  ended  at  Wallsend  near  Newcastle.  It  had
battlements  and  towers  to  contain  soldiers. The


more  northern  wall  was  renewed  by  Lollius  Urbicus,
in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  about  140.  Many
remains  of  these  walls  still  exist,  particularly  of  the
southern  one;  Dr.  J.  C.  Bruce' s  '■'•Roman  Wall,"
published  1853-1868.

ROMANCE,  originally  a  composition  in  the
Romance  or  Provencal  idiom.  The  term  in  the
middle  ages  was  extended  to  narrative  poetry  in
general.  Heliodorus,  a  bishop  of  Tricca,  in  Thessaly,
about  398,  was  the  author  of  JEthiopica  (relating  to
the  loves  of  1'heagenes  and  Charicleia),  the  first  work
in  this  species  of  writing.  The  first  part  of  the
"Roman  de  la  Rose"  was  written  by  Guillaume  de
Lories  (1226-70) ;  the  second,  a  separate  poem,  by
Jean  de  Meung  (1285-1314),  the  Decameron  of  Boc-
caccio was  published,  1358;  Don  Quixote,  by  Cer-
vantes, 1605;  GilBlas,  by  Le  Sage,  1715.  Dunlop's
"  History  of  Fiction,"  published  1814.  See  English
Authors  ; "Reynard  the  Fox."

ROME.  The  foundation  of  the  city,  by
Romulus,  was  laid  on  the  20th  April,*  according  to
Varro,  in  the  year  3961  of  the  Julian  period  (753
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  in  the  fourth
year  of  the  sixth  Olympiad.  Other  dates  given  :
Cato,  751;  Polybius,  750;  Fabius  Pictor,  747;
Cincius,  728  B.C.).  The  Romans  conquered  nearly
the  whole  of  the  then  known  world.  In  the  time
of  Julius  Caesar,  the  empire  was  bounded  by  the
Euphrates,  Taurus,  and  Armenia  on  the  east ;  by
Ethiopia  on  the  south;  by  the  Danube  on  the
north ;  and  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west.  Numerous
ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held  at  Rome,  from
197  to  1869-70.  Population,  1872,  about  240,000 ;
1877,  250,000;  1881,  300,467;  1890,  423,217.
Chielly  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  John  Henry
Parker  of  Oxford,  the  Roman  exploration  fund  was
established,  for  the  preservation  of  ancient  archi-
tectural remains.  His  "Archaeology  of  Rome"  (with
many  photographs)  published,  1874-8.  Professor
J.  H.  Middleton's  works  on  "Ancient  Rome,"  pub-
lished 1885,  1888,  and  1892.  The  Italian  govern-
ment votes  1200I.  a  year  for  a  similar  purpose.
The  early  history  of  Rome  is  legendary,  and  the
dates  purely  conjectural.  It  has  been  greatly  eluci-
dated by  the  researches  of  B.  Or.  Niebuhr,  whose
Roman  history  was  published  181 1,  and  1827-30.
Foundation  of  the  city  by  Romulus  .  .  .  b.  c.  753
The  Romans  seize  on  the  Sabine  women  at  a  public

spectacle,  and  detain  them  for  wives . . . 750
Rome  taken  by  the  Sabines  ;  the  Sabines  incor-
porated with  the  Romans  as  one  nation . . 747
Romulus  said  to  have  been  murdered  by  senators  . 716
Numa  Pompilius  elected  king,  715  ;  institutes  the

priesthood,  the  augurs  and  vestals . . . 710
The  Romans  and  the  Albans  contesting  for supe-
riority,  agreed to choose three champions  on
each  part  to  decide  it. The  three  Horatii,  Roman
knights,  overcame  the  three  Curiatli,  Albans,  and

united  Alba  to  Rome about 667

War  with  the  Fidenates  ;  the  city  of  Alba  destroyed  665
Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  built . about 627

The  capitol  founded 615

The  first  census  of  the  Roman  state  taken  . . . 566
Political  institutions  of  Servius  Tullius . . . 550
Tarquinius  II.  and  his  family  expelled  for  tyranny
and  licentiousness,  royalty  abolished  :  the  Patri-
cians establish  an  aristocratical  commonwealth  . 509

*  In  its  original  state,  Rome  was  but  a  small  castle  on
the  summit  of  mount  Palatine  ;  and  the  founder,  to  give
his  followers  the  appearance  of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian
horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a  standard  as  a  common
asylum  for  criminals,  debtors,  or  murderers,  who  fled
from  their  native  country  to  avoid  the  punishment  which
attended  them.  From  such  an  assemblage  a  numerous
body  was  soon  collected,  and  before  the  death  of  the
founder,  the  Romans  had  covered  with  their  habitations
the  Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine,  and  Esquiline  hills,
with  Mounts  Coelius  and  Quirinalis.


EOME.


829


EOME.


Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first B.C.
praetors  or  consuls  ;  first  alliance  of  the  Romans

with  Carthage 509

The  capitol  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus . . 507

First  dictator  Titus  Lartius 501

The  Latins  and  the  Tarquins  declare  war  against

the  republic,  501  ;  defeated  at  lake  Regillus . 496
Secession  of  the  Plebeians  to  the  sacred  mount ;

establishment  of  tribunes  of  the  Plebeians . . 494
First  agrarian  law  passed  by  Spurius  Cassius ;  he

is  put  to  death  by  Patricians .... 486-5
Wars  with  the  iEquians  and  Yolscians  ;  exploits
and  exile  of  Coriolanus  ;  he  besieges  Rome,  but
retires  at  the  intercession  of  his  mother  and  wife

about 491
Victory  of  Cincinnatus  over  the  iEquians  by  strata-
gem, liberating  the  Roman  army  . . . 458
Destructive  pestilences . . 472,  466,  463  and  451
Wars  with  Veii  and  the  Etruscans,  indecisive,  475,
465 ;  slaughter of the patriotic  Fabii (which

see) 477

The Aventine mount allotted solely to the

plebeians 456

The  appointment  and  fall  of  the  Decemvirs  (which
see),  451 — 448.  The  Decemvirs  were  tried,  Appius
Claudius  and Spurius Oppius died in  prison,

others  were  banished 448

The  Canuleian  law  passed,  permitting  marriages  be-
tween Patricians  and  Plebeians . . . . 445

Military  tribunes  first  created 444

Office  of  censor  instituted 443

The  Veientes  defeated,  and  their  king  Tolumnius

slain 437

Great  defeat  of  the  Sabines 447

Spurius  Mcelius,  a  benefactor  during  famine,  ju-
dicially murdered  by  the  patricians . . . 436

War  with  the  Etruscans 434

JEqui  and  Volsci  defeated  by  Tubertus,  dictator . 428

Two  more  quajstors  appointed 421

Another  dreadful  famine  at  Rome . . . . 411
Three  qusestors  are  chosen  from  the  Plebeians  for

the  first  time 409

Veii  taken  by  Camillus  after  ten  years'  siege . . 396

Banishment  of  Camillus 391

Great  victory  of  the  Gauls  near  the  Allia,  16  July  ;
they  sack  Rome,  which  is  deserted,  but  are  re-
pulsed in  an  attack  on  the  Capitol,  which  they
blockade ; they accept  a heavy  ransom,  and

retire 390

Proposed  removal  of  the  state,  to  Veii,  rejected . 389
[Rome  gradually  rebuilt  amid  great  distress  and

wars  with  neighbouring  states.]
M.  Manlius,  liberal  to  poor  debtors,  is  executed  as

a  traitor 384

Passing  of  the  Licinian  laws  (which  see) ;  by
them,  one  consul  is  to  be  a  plebeian  (much  re-
sisted) 365

Marcus  Curtius  leaps  into  the  gulf  which  had  opened

in  the  forum 362

The  Gauls  defeated  in  Italy 360

Treaty  with  Carthage  to  repress  Greek  piracy . . 348
War  with  the  Etruscans,  ended  by  a  truce ',  war

with  the  Latins  ;  league  renewed . . . 365-342
First  Samnite  war,  indecisive . . . . 343-340
Mutiny  in  the  army  in  Campania,  and  rise  of  the
commons  in  Rome  ;  peace  restored  by  conces-
sions and  the  general  abolition  of  the debts
caused  by  the  Gaulish  invasion .... 341
The  Publilian  law  passed,  equalising  the  plebeians

with  the  patricians  in  political  rights  . . . 339
The  second  Samnite  war,  a  severe  struggle,  326,  ct
seq.  ;  the  Roman  army,  entrapped  in  the  Cordine
Forks  (which  see),  321  ;  victories  of  L.  Papirius
Cursor ;  the  Samnites  and  their  allies  compelled

to  submit 304

War  with  Etruria,  311  ;  victories  of  Q.  Fabius
Maximus  at  the  Yadimonian  lake,  &c. ;  the
Etrurians  and  Umbrians  submit  ....  309
Appius  Claudius  Csecus,  Censor,  favours  the  lower
classes  ;  with  the  public  money  makes  the  road
from  Rome  to  Capua,  termed  the  "  Appian  way,"
and  erects  the  first  aqueduct  ....  312-308
Conquest  of  the  TEquians,  Marsians,  &c. . . 304-302

Third  Samnite  war '300

Coalition  of  the  Samnites,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls
(not  continuous)  against  Rome  ;  nire  campaigns,
with  many  conflicts  and  alternate  invasions  ;
great Roman  victory  at  Sentinum  (which  see),


295 ; the Samnites subdued after desperate B.C.
struggles, 294-291  ; their general, C. Pontius,

put  to  death  at  Rome 2ao

Conquest  of  the  Sabines  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus '. ,,
Great  distress  of  the  Plebeians,  through  war,  pesti-
lence and  famine 300,  et  sen.

Secession  of  the  people  to  the  Janiculum ; tlie

Hortensian  laws  (which  see)  passed . . . 286
Census:  262,322  Roman  citizens .... 293

Seven  new  temples  erected,  with  statues  by  Greek
artists ........ 302-292

The  Etruscans  defeated  at  the  Vadimonian  lake . 283

The  Tarentines  form  a  coalition  against  Rome,  and

invite  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to  join  them,  281  ;

he  defeats  the  Romans  at  Pandos'ia,  280  ;  and  at

Asculum,  279  ;  defeated  by  them  at  Beneventum 275

Subjugation  of  Tarentum,  Samnium,  Bruttium  and

their  allies,  272-265  ;  Rome  supreme  in  Italy  .  265
First  Punic  war  (see  Carthage) . . . 264-241

First  Roman  fleet  built 260

Temple  of  Janus  closed 235

Corsica  and  Sardinia  annexed ....  238  ct  seq.

Invasion  of  the  Gauls  ;  beaten  by  the  consuls  . . 225

Second  Punic  war,  218-201  ;  Rome  saved  by  the

adhesion  of  18  colonies,  by  the  free-will  offerings

of  gold,  silver  and  money  by  the  senate  and

people,  and  by  the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal  at  the

Metaurus  (see  Carthage) 207

Syracuse  taken  by  Marcellus 212

The  Macedonian  wars  with  Philip  begin,  213  and

200 ;  his  defeat  at  Cynoscephalse  .  .  .  .  197
Death  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder  ....  185
Third  Macedonian  war  begins  171  ;  Perseus  beaten

at  Pydna  ;  Macedon  annexed 16S

First  public  library  erected  at  Rome  .  .  .  167
Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from

Rome i(5j

Third  Punic  war  begins i49

Corinth  and  Carthage  destroyed  by  the  Romans  (see

Corinth  and  Carthage) 146

Celtiberian  and  Numantine  war  in  Spain  .  .  153-133
Attalus  III.  of  Pergamos  bequeaths  his  kingdom

and  riches  to  the  Romans 133

The  Servile  war  in  Sicily ....  . 132

Two  Plebeian  consuls  chosen „

Agrarian  disturbances  :  Gracchus  slain . . . 121

The  Jugurthine  war 112-106

The  Mithridatic  war  (v>hich  see)  ....  108-63
The  Ambrones  defeated  by  Marius .... ioz

The  Social  war 90-88

Rome  besieged  by four armies (viz.  : those  of

Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  Sertorius)  and  taken  87

Sylla  defeats  Marius  :  becomes  dictator ;  sanguinary

proscriptions,  82  :  abdicates 79-

Bithynia  bequeathed  to  the  Romans  by  king  Nico-

medes 74

Revolt  of  Spartacus  and  the  slaves  . . . .73-71

Syria  conquered  by  Pompey 65

The  Catiline  conspiracy  suppressed  by  Cicero  .  .  63
The  first  triumvirate  :  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  60
Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul,  58  ;  in  Britain  .  •  •  55
Crassus  killed  by  the  Parthians  .  .  .  -53
Gaul  conquered  and  made  a  province  .  .  .  .  51
War  between  Csesar  and  Pompey  ....  50
Pompey  defeated  at  Pharsalia  (which  sec)  .  .  .  48
Csesar  defeats  Pharnaces  at  Zela  ;  and  writes  home

"Veni,  vidi,  vici " 47

Cato  kills  himself  at  Utiea  ;  Csesar  dictator  for  ten

years 46

Csesar  killed  in  the  senate-house  .  .  15  March,  44
Second  triumvirate  :  Octavius,  Antony,  and  Lepidus  43
Cicero  killed,  proscribed  by  Antony . . .  ,,

Battle  of  Philippi  ;  Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated . 42
Lepidus  ejected  from  the  triumvirate,  36  ;  war  be-
tween Octavius  and  Antony,  32  ;  Antony  defeated

totally  at  Actium 2  Sept. 31

Octavius  emperor,  as  Augustus  Cccsar ... 27
The  empire  now  at  peace  with  all  the  world  ;  the
temple  of  Janus  shut ;  Jesus  Christ  born. (See

Jews) 4  April, 5

Varus  defeated  by  Hermann  and  the  Germans a.d. 9

Ovid  banished  to  Tomi

Death  of  Ovid  and  Livy 18

Tiberius  retires  to  Caprea  ;  tyranny  of  Sejanus . 26
A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the  emperor  and
censor,  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  are stated  to
amount  to  6,944,000.— [It  is  now  considered  that


ROME.


830


EOME.


the  population  of  Rome  within  the  walls  was  a. v.

under  a  million.] 48

Caractaeus  brought  in  chains  to  Rome ...  50

St.  Paul  arrives  in  bonds  at  Rome . . . .  62
Nero  burns  Rome  to  the  ground,  and  charges  the

crime  upon  the  Christians 64

Seneca,  Lucan,  &c. ,  put  to  death ....  65

Peter  and  Paul  said  to  be  put  to  death . . .  67

Jerusalem  levelled  to  the  ground  by  Titus 8  Sept.  70

Coliseum  founded  by  Vespasian 75

The  Dacian  war  begins  (continues  15  years) . .  86
Pliny,  junior,  proconsul  in  Bithynia,  sends  Trajan

his  celebrated  account  of  the  Christians  . . .  102
Trajan's  expedition  into  the  East  against  the  Par-
tisans, &e.  ;  subdues  Dacia 106

Trajan's  column  erected  at  Rome 114

Adrian  resides  in  Britain,  and  builds  the  wall . .  121

The  capitol  destroyed  by  lightning . . . .  188
Byzantium  taken  ;  its  walls  razed . . . .196

The  Goths  are  paid  tribute 222

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other
Northern  nations  attack  the  empire.]

Pompey's  amphitheatre  burnt 248

Invasion  of  the  Goths 250

Pestilence  throughout  the  empire ....  252
Great  victory  over  the  Goths  obtained  by  Clau-
dius II.  ;  300,000  slain 269

Dacia  relinquished  to  the  Goths . . . .270

Palmyra  conquered,  and  Longinus  put  to  death .  273

The  era  of  Martyrs,  or  of  Diocletian . ...  284

The  Pranks  settle  in  Gaul. Freret ....  287

Constantius  dies  at  York 306

Four  emperors  reign  at  one  time ....  308
Constantine  the  Great,  it  is  said,  in  consequence  of
a  vision,  places  the  cross  on  his  banners, and

begins  to  favour  the  Christians . . . .  312
Constantine  defeats  Licinius,  at  Chrysopolis,  and

reigns  alone 18  Sept.  323

He  tolerates  the  Christian  faith ,,

Puts  his  son  Crispus  to  death 324

Constantine  convokes  the  first  general  council  of

Christians  at  Nice 325

The  seat  of  empire  removed  from  Rome  to  Byzan-
tium, 321 ;  dedicated  by  Constantine . . .  330
Constantine orders the heathen temples to be

destroyed ,

Revolt  of  300,000  Sarmatian  slaves  suppressed .  334

Death  of  Constantine,  soon  after  being  baptized .  337

The  army  under  Julian  proclaims  him  emperor .  360
Julian,  who  had  been  educated  for  the  priesthood,
and  had  frequently  officiated,  abjures  Christianity,
and  re-opens  the  heathen  temples,  becoming  the

pagan  pontiff . ...  361
Julian killed in battle  in  Persia ; Christianity

restored  by  Jovian 363

The  empire  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western  by
Valentinian  and  Valens,  brothers  :  the  former  has

the  Western  portion,  or  Rome 364

(See  Western  and  Eastern  Empires  ;  and  Italy.)

Rome  placed  under  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna .  404

Taken  by  Alaric 24  Aug.  410

Taken  and  pillaged  by  Genseric . . 15  July,  455

Odoacer  takes  Rome,  and  becomes  king  of  Italy .  476

Rome  recovered  for  Justinian  by  Belisarius . .  536
Retaken  by  Totila  the  Goth, 546 ;  recovered  by

Belisarius,  547  :  seized  by  Totila  ....  540
Recovered  by  Narses,  and  annexed  to  the  eastern

empire  ;  and  the  senate  abolished . . . .  553

Rome  at  her  lowest  state  .... about  600

Rome  independent  under  the  popes . . about  72S
Pepin  of  France  compels  Astolphus,  king  of  the
Lombards,  to  cede  Ravenna  and  other  places  to

the  Holy  Church 755

Confirmed  and  added  to  by  Charlemagne . .  774
Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  by  the

pope  at  Rome 25  Dec.  800

Rome  taken  by  Arnulf  and  the  Germans  . . .  896

Otho  I.  crowned  at  Rome .... 2  Feb.  962
The  emperor  Henry  IV.  takes  Rome . March,  1084
Arnold  of  Brescia,  endeavouring  to  reform  church
and  state  and  to  establish  a  senate,  is  put  to

death  as  a  heretic 11 55

The  pope  removes  to  Avignon 1309

Nicola  di  Rienzi,  tribune  of  the  people,  establishes
a  republic,  20  May;  is  compelled  to  abdicate,

15  Dec.  1347
Returns  ;made  senator,  1  Aug.;  assassinated,  8  Oct.  1354
Papal  court  returns  to  Rome 1377


Rise  of  the  families,  Colonna,  Orsini,  &c.  about  1377
Julius  II.  conquers the  Romagna, Bologna, and

Perugia 1503-13

The  city  greatly  embellished  by  pope  Leo  X.  1513-21

It  is  captured  by  the  constable  de  Bourbon,  who  is

slain 6  May,  1527

Ferrara  annexed 1597

St.  Peter's  dedicated .... 18  Nov.  1626
Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits .... 16  Aug.  1773
Harassed  by  the French, German, and  Spanish
factions . from  the  16th  to  the  18th  century.
The  French  invasion  ;  the  Legations  incorporated

with  the  Cisalpine  republic 1796

The  French  proclaim  the  Roman  republic,  20  March,  1798
Recovered  for  the  pope  by  the  Neapolitans,  Nov.  1799
Retaken  by  the  French,  1800 ;  restored  to  Pius  VII.

July,  1 801
Annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and

declared  second  city  of  the  empire . May,  1808
Restored  to  the  pope,  who  returns .  23  Jan.  1814

He  re-establishes  the  Inquisition  and  the  Jesuits,

7  Aug. „
The  papal  government  endeavour  to  annul  all  inno-
vations, and  thus  provoke  much  opposition  ;  the
Carbonari  increase  in  numbers  . . .1815-17

Political  assassinations  in  the  Romagna  . . .1817
The  "  Young  Italy  "  party  established  by  Joseph
Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at Bologna

suppressed  by  Austrian  aid 1831

Election  of  Pius  IX.  . . . .16  June,  1846

He  proclaims  an  amnesty ;  and  authorises  a  national

guard  and  municipal  institutions . . . . 1847
The Romans desire  to  join  the  king  of  Sardinia
against  the  Austrians  ;  the  pope  hesitates  ;  the
Antonelli  ministry retires ; and the Mamiani

ministry  is  formed 1848

Count  Rossi,  minister  of  justice  of  the  pontifical
government,  assassinated  on  the  staircase  of  the
Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Rome  . .  15  Nov. ,,

Insurrection  at  Rome,  the  populace  demand  a
democratic  ministry  and  the  proclamation  of
Italian  nationality  ;  the  pope  (Pius  IX.)  hesi-
tates, the  Romans  surround  the  palace,  and  a
conflict  ensues.  The  pope  accepts  a  popular
ministry  (Cardinal  Palma,  the  pope's  secretary,
shot  in  this  conflict)  ....  16  Nov.  ,,
A  free  constitution  published  .  .  20  Nov.  ,,
The  pope  escapes  in  disguise  from  Rome  to  Gaeta,

24  Nov. ,,
M.  de  Corcelles  leaves  Paris  for  Rome, a  French
armed expedition to Civita Veechia having
preceded  him,  to  afford  protection  to  the  pope,

27  Nov. ,,
Protest  of  the  pope  against  the  acts  of  the  provi-
sional government .... 28  Nov. ,,
A  constituent  assembly  meets  at  Rome . 5  Feb. 1849
The  Roman  National  Assembly  divests  the  pope
of  all  temporal  power,  and  adopts  the  republican
form  of  government .... 8  Feb. ,,
Mazzini,  Armellini,  and  Safli  appointed  triumvirs

Feb. „
The  pope  appeals  to  the  Catholic  powers,

18  Feb. ,,
Civita  Veechia  occupied  by  the  French  force  under

Marshal  Oudinot  ....  26  April,  „
A  French  force  repulsed  with  loss  .  .  30  April,  ,,
Engagement  between  the  Romans  and  Neapolitans ;

the  former  capture  60  prisoners  and  400  muskets,

5  May, „
The  assembly  refuses  to  receive  the  French  as  allies,

19  May, ,,
The  French  under  marshal  Oudinot  commence  an

attack  on  Rome 3  June, ,,

After  a  brave  resistance,  the  Romans  capitulate  to

the  French  army 30  June, ,,

The  Roman  assembly  dissolved  . . . 4  July, ,,
An  officer  from  Oudinot's  camp  arrives  at  Gaeta,  to
present  the  pope  with  the  keys  of  the  two  gates
of  Rome  by  which  the  French  army  had  entered

the  city 4  July, ,,

The  re-establishment  of  the  pope's  authority  pro-
claimed at  Rome  ....  15  July,  „
Oudinot  issues  a  general  order  stating  that  the
pope  (or  his  representative)  now  re-possesses
the  administration  of  affairs,  but  that  public
security  in  the  pontifical  dominions  still  remains
under  the  special  guarantee  of  the  French  army,

3  Aug. „


EOME.


831


EOME.


The  pope  arrives  at  Portici  on  a  visit  to  the  king  of
Naples 4  Sept. 1849

He  arrives  at  Rome  ;  cardinal  Antonelli  becomes
foreign  minister April,  1850

He  issues  the  bull  establishing  a  Roman  catholic
hierarchy  in  England (see  Papal Aggression),

24  Sept. , ,

Important  concordat  with  Austria . 18  Aug.  1855

The  pope  visits  his  dominions . . May-Sept.  1857

Insunection  in  the  Romagna,  at  Bologna,  and  Ferrara

June,  1859

The  pope  appeals  to  Europe  for  help  against  Sardinia

12  July, ,,

The  Legations  form  a  defensive  alliance  with
Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena . . 20  Aug. ,,

The  queen  of  Spain  engages  to  send  troops  to
Rome,  if  the  French  retire  . . 26  Aug. , ,

The  assembly  at  Bologna  vote  annexation  to  Pied-
mont, 7  Sept.  ;  the  king  engages  to  support  their
cause  before  the  great  powers,  15  Sept.  ;  the  pope
annuls  the  acts  of  the  assembly  at  Bologna  ;  and
announces  the  punishment  due  to  those  who
attack  the  holy  see,  26  Sept.  ;  and  dismisses  the
Sardinian  charge  d'affaires  at  Rome . 1  Oct. ,,

The  Romagna,  Modena,  and  Parma  formed  into  a
province,  to  be  called  iEmilia . . 24  Dec. ,,

The  Sardinian  government  annul  the  Tuscan  and
Lombard  concordats . .  27  Jan. ,  20  March,  i36o

Riots  at  Rome  suppressed  by  the  police  with  great
cruelty 19  March, „

The  pope  excommunicates  all  concerned  in  the
rebellion  in  his  states ... 26  March, ,,

General  Lamoriciere  takes  command  of  the  papal
army,  March  ;  which  is  re-organised,  and  in-
creased by  volunteers  from  Ireland,  &c. . May, ,.

Tuscan  volunteers  enter  the  papal  states  and  are
repulsed 19 Mav. »•

Irish  volunteers  are  severely  treated  for  insubor-
dination ;  many  dismissed . . . July, ,,

The  papal  army  estimated  at  20,000 . . Aug. ,,

Insurrection  in  the  Marches,  8  Sept.  ;  Fossembrcne
subdued  by  the  papal  troops  ;  the  people  appeal
to  the  Sardinian  government,  whose  troops,
under  Cialdini  and  Fanti,  enter  the  Papal  States,

11  Sept. ,,

Fanti  takes  Pesaro,  12  Sept.  ;  and  Perugia,  in-
cluding general  Schmidt  and  1600  prisoners,

14  Sept. ,,

Ancona  besieged  by  sea  and  land . . 17  Sept. „

Severe  allocution  of  the  pope  against  France  and
Sardinia  ;  he  appeals  to  Europe  for  help,  28  Sept. ,,

Cialdini  defeats  Lamoriciere  at  Castel-Fidardo,
18  Sept. ;  and  takes  Ancona . . 29  Sept. ,,

Additional  French  troops  sent  to  Rome . Oct. ,,

The  Marches  vote  for  annexation  to  Sardinia,  Nov. ,,

Subscriptions  raised  for  the  pope  in  various  coun-
tries ;  the  formal  collection  forbidden  in  France
and  Belgium  ;  permitted  in  England  ^ . Nov.  i860

Monastic  establishments  suppressed  in  the  Lega-
tions ;  the  monks  pensioned;  educational  institu-
tions founded Dec. ,,

The  French  emperor  advises  the  pope  to  give  up  his .
revolted  provinces .... 21  Dec. ,,

Publication  of  Rome  et  Us  Eveques,  6  Jan.  ;  and  of
La  France,  Rome  et  Vltalie,  15  Feb.  ;  great  excite-
ment, and  strong  advocacy  of  the  pope's  temporal
government  (attacked  by  prince  Napoleon)  in  the
French  chambers ....  March,  1861

Cavour  claims  Rome  as  capital  of  Italy, 27  March, ,,

Petition  to  the  emperor  Napoleon  to  withdraw
French  troops  from  Rome ... 10  May, ,,

The  emperor  of  France  declines  a  union  with
Austria  and  Spain  for  the  maintenance  of  the
pope's  temporal  power .... June, ,,

Grand  ceremony  at  the  canonization  of  27  Japanese

martyrs  (see  Canonization) . . . 8  June, ,,
The  pope  declares  a  severe  allocution  against  the

Italians 9  June, ,,

Garibaldi  calls  for  volunteers,  taking  as  his  watch-
word, "  Rome  or  death  !  " . . . 19  July,  1862
Railway  between  Rome  and  Naples  completed  ;  its

opening  opposed  by  the  papal  government,  Nov. ,,
Earl  Russell's  offer  to  the  pope  of  a  residence  at

Malta,  25  Oct.  ;  declined . . .11  Nov. ,,
Antonelli's  resignation  of  his  office  not  accepted,

S  March,  1863
Convention between France and  Italy : French
troops  to  quit  Rome  within  two  years, 15  Sept. 1864


Encyclical  letter  of  the  pope,  publishing  a  "sylla-
bus," censuring  80  errors  in  religion,  philosophy,
and  politics  ;  (caused  much  dissatisfaction,  and
was  forbidden  to  be  read  in  churches  in  France
and  other  countries) .... 8  Dec.  1864
Jews  persecuted  at  Rome .... Dec. ,,
Fruitless  negotiations  between  the  pope  and  the
king  of  Italy  (by  Yegezzi) ;  mutual  concessions
proposed . . . .21  April  to  23  June,  1865
Pope's  severe  allocution  against  secret  societies

(Freemasons,  Fenians,  &c.)  .  .  25  Sept.  ,,
Merode,  the  papal  minister  of  war,  dismissed,  20  Oct.  ,,
A  part  of  the  French  troops  leave  the  papal  dominions

Nov. ,,
Rupture  with  Russia . . Dec.  1865 — Jan.  1866
A  Franco-pontifical legion  (1200  men)  formed at

Antibes,  arrives  ;  blessed  by  the  pope,  24  Sept.  ,,
Pope's  severe  allocution  against  Italy  and  Russia,

29  Oct. ,,
The  pope  invites  all  catholic  bishops  to  meet  at
Rome  to  celebrate  the 18th  centenary  of  the
martyrdom  of  Peter  and  Paul . . 8  Dec. ,,
The  pope's  blessing  given  to  French  troops,  6  Dec,
who  all  quit  Rome .... 2-12  Dee. ,,

Rome  tranquil 13  Dec. ,,

Law  prohibiting protestant worship except at

embassies  in  Rome  enforced . . 31  Dee. ,,
Negotiation  with  Italy  fruitless  ;  the  Italian  coun-
cillor, Tonello,  quits  Rome . . . April,  1867
599  bishops  and  thousands  of  priests  present  at  the
pope's  allocution,  26  June  ;  and  canonization  of

25  martyrs 29  June, ,,

The  pope  receives  an  album  and  address  from  100

cities  of  Italy 8  July, ,,

Cholera  in  Rome  ;  death  of  cardinal  Altieri,  while

assisting  the  afflicted . . .  n  Aug. ,,

The pope's allocution censures  the  sacrilegious
audacity  of  the  Sub-alpine  kingdom,  in  confisca-
ting ecclesiastical  property . . .20  Sept. ,,
Garibaldi  arrested  at  Shialunga,  near  the  Roman

frontier 23  Sept. ,,

Irruption  of  Garibaldians  in  Viterbo — conflicts  with
various  results  ;  reported  appeal  of  Antouelli  for
help  from  the  great  powers . . .  Oct. ,,

Zouave  barracks  at  Rome  blown  up,  many  killed,

22  Oct. ,,
Attempt  at  insurrection  in  Rome  suppressed,  22
Oct.  ;  state  of  siege  proclaimed  ;  Garibaldi  within
20  miles  of  Rome,  24  Oct.  ;  takes  Monte  Rotondo

26  Oct.  „
French  brigades  enter  Rome  .  .  .30  Oct.  ,,
Italian  troops  cross  the  frontier,  30  Oct.  ;  occupy

several  posts 1  Nov. ,,

Garibaldians defeated by  the  papal  and  French

troops  at  Mentana  (wh  ieh  sec)  . . . 3  Nov. ,,
Italian  troops  retire  from  the  papal  states Nov. ,,  '
The  Roman  committee  of  insurrection  issue  a  narra-
tive, and  state  that  their  watchword  is  "Try
again  and  do  better " .... Dec. ,,
The  papal  army  increased  to  about  15,000 . Dec. „
The  pope's  short  allocution  (thanking  and  blessing

the  French  government)  ...  19  Dec.  ,,
Nine  cardinals  made ;  Lucien  Bonaparte  one

13  March,  1868
Sudden  death  of  cardinal  Andrea . .  15  May, ,,
The  pope,  in  his  allocution,  censures  the  Austrian

new  civil  marriage  law  ...  22  June,  ,,
Arrangement  respecting  the  papal  debt  made  with

Italy 30  July, ,,

Encyclical  letter  of  the  pope,  summoning  an  oecu-
menical council  at  Rome  on  8  Dec.  1869,  and  in-
viting ministers  of  the  Greek  and  other 'churches

13  Sept.  ,,
The  patriarch  of  the  Greek  church  declined  to  attend

about  3  Oct

Monti  and  Tognetti  (for  complicity  in  the  explosion

of  the  Zouave  barracks,  22  Oct.  1867),  executed

24  Nov. ,,
The  pope  celebrates  a  jubilee . . n  April,  1869
In  his  allocution  he  deplores  the  opposition  to  the

church  in  Austria  and  Spain . . 25  June, ,,
He  declares, in  a  letter  to  archbishop Manning,
that  no  discussions  on  disputed  points  can  take

place  at  the  council 4  Sept. ,,

The  council  opened,  see  Council  XXI. . 8  Dec.
An  exhibition  of  objects  of  Christian  art  opened  by

the  pope 7  Feb.  1870

British  and  American  bishops  protest  against  dis-


SOME.


832


EOME.


cussing  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  in  the
council,  ii  April;  the  discussion  begins 14  May,  iE

Count  Arnim,  on  behalf  of  the  North  German  con-
federation, protests  against  the  dogma . May, ,

Papal  infallibility  adopted  by  the  council  and  pro-
mulgated (533  for ;  2  against ;  many  retire)  ;  the
council  adjourns  to  11  Nov. . . 18  July, ,

Rome  completely  evacuated  by  French  troops  in
consequence  of  the  war  ;  8  mortars  and  15,000
shells  said  to  be  ceded  to  the  pope,  8  Aug.  ;  the
troops  sent  from  Civita  Vecchia . .21  Aug. ,

Conciliatory  letter  from  Victor  Emmanuel  to  the  pope

8  Sept. .

Agitation  in  the  papal  provinces ;  the  Italian
troops  invited  to  enter . . about  10  Sept. ,

The  pope  refuses  terms  offered  him  by  the  king  of
Italy  (sovereignty  of  the  Leonine  city  and  reten-
tion of  his  income) .... 11  Sept. ,

Skirmish  with  papal  Zouaves  ;  several  killed

14  Sept.

The  Italians  occupy  Civita  Vecchia  without  resist-
ance about  15  Sept. .

Gen.  Cadorna  crosses  the  Tiber  at  Casale ;  sends
flags  of  truce  to  gen.  Kanzler,  commander  of  the
Zouaves,  who  refuses  to  surrender  ;  baron  Arnim
in  vain  negotiates  between  them . 17  Sept.

Letter  from  the  pope  to  gen.  Kanzler  directing  that
a  merely  formal  defence  be  made  at  Rome,  and
that  bloodshed  be  avoided . .  19  Sept.

After  a  brief  resistance  from  the  foreign  papal
troops,  stopped  by  order  of  the  pope,  the  Italian
troops  under  Cadorna  make  a  breach  and  enter
Rome  amid  enthusiastic  acclamations  of  the
people 20  Sept.

[Reported  Italian  loss,  about  22  killed,  117
wounded  ;  papal  troops,  55  killed  and  wounded.]

Cardinal  Antonelli  issues  a  diplomatic  protest
against  the  Italian  occupation  of  Rome 21  Sept.

The  papal  troops  surrender  arms  ;  about  8500
foreigners  march  out  with  honours  of  war  ;  they
insult  the  Italians  ;  the  native  troops  retained,

22  Sept.

About  10,000  persons  assemble  in  the  Coliseum,
choose  44  names  for  a  provisional  government
(giunta) 22  Sept.

Protest  of  the  pope 26  Sept.

Castle  of  St.  Angelo  occupied  by  Italian  troops  at

the  pope's  request .... 28  Sept.

Circular letter from the  pope  to  the  cardinals

complaining  of  the  invasion  and  of  his  loss  of

liberty,  and  interference  with  his  private  post  bag

29  Sept.
A  giunta  of  14  (the  duke  Gaetani  chief)  selected  from

the  44  names  chosen  ;  approved  by  Cadorna

30  Sept.
General  Masi  in  command  of  Rome  and  the  pro-
vinces ;  S.P.Q.R  appears  on  the  proclamations

30  Sept.

Plebiscite  :  out  of  167,548  votes,  133,681  for  union
with  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ;  1507  against ;  the
remainder  did  not  vote . . . .2  Oct.

Cardinal  Antonelli  issues a protest ;  published

4  Oct.

The  pope  said  to  have  accepted  50,000  crowns  (his
monthly  civil  list)  from  the  Italian  government

4  Oct.

The  result  of  the  plebiscite  sent  to  the  king,  8  Oct. ,
Rome  and  its  provinces  incorporated  with  the
kingdom  by  royal  decree ... 9  Oct.

General  La  Marmora  enters  Rome  as  viceroy ;
he  proclaims  that  the  pope  shall  be  guaranteed
in  his  sovereign  powers  as  head  of  the  churcl

11  Oct.

The  Roman  provinces  united  into  one  by  decree

19  Oct.

The  pope  issues  an  encyclical  letter  adjourning  the
meeting  of  the  council ... 20  Oct.

Antonelli  protests  against  the  occupation  of  the
Quirinal  by  the  king . . . .10  Nov.

Bill  introduced  into  the  Italian  parliament  respect-
ing the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  to
Rome  in  about  six  months,  and  the  preservation
of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  sovereignty  of  the
p0pe about  12  Dec.

Inundation  of  the  Tiber  ;  great  suffering  of  the
people,  27,  28  Dec.  ;  the  king  gives  200,000  lire ;
visits  Rome  suddenly,  the  city  illuminated

4  a.m.  31  Dec.


Law  guaranteeing  to  the  pope  full  xiersonal  liberty
and  honours,  a  revenue  of  3,225,000  livres  &c,
13  May  ;  rejected  by  the  pope  in  his  allocution

15  May,  1871
2624th  anniversary  of  the  city  kept ;  the  pope  cele-
brates a  jubilee  on  the  25th  anniversary  of  his

election 16  June, ,,

The  Italian  government  remove  to  Rome,  2,  3  July, „
Allocution  of  the  pope, appointing  some  Italian

bishops ;  still  rejecting  guarantees . 27  Oct. ,,  .
Grand  reception  of  the  king . .  21  Nov. ,,

He  opens  the  parliament,  saying,  "The  work  to
which  we  have  consecrated  our  life  is  completed  "

27  Nov. ,,
The  pope  receives  an  address  from  nobles  and  others

27  Nov. ,,
Commission  appointed  to  dredge  the  bed  of  the

Tiber  to  recover  antiquities . . . Dee. ,,
Easter  solemnities  not  performed  by  the  pope

31  March,  1872
The  pope  delivers  an  allocution  complaining  of  per-
secution of  the  church  in  Italy,  Germany,  and

Spain 23  Dec. „

American  Protestant  church  dedicated  to  St.  Paul  ;

founded 25  Jan.  1873

First  Anglican  church  within  the  walls  opened

25  Oct.  1874
Assassination  of  Raffaele  Sonzogno,  a  republican
printer  and  manager  of  "II  Capitale,"  6  Feb.  ;
trial  of  Pio  Frezza,  the  murderer  caught  in  the
act  with  liUciani,  Armati,  and  others,  as  incitors
to  the  crime  ;  convicted  "with  extenuating  cir-
cumstances ; "  penal  servitude  for  life  .  13  Nov.  1875
Re-interment  on  the  Janiculum  hill  of  remains  of
Angelo  Brunetti  (termed  Cieeruaechio)  and  other
unarmed  Italian  patriots  (shot  by  the  Austrians

10  Aug.  1849) 12  Oct.  1879

International  exhibition  of  fine  art,  opened  21  Jan.  1883
The  German  crown  prince  arrives  at  Rome,  17  Dec.  ;

visits  the  pope 18  Dec. „

2,637th anniversary  of the  foundation  of  Rome

21  April,  1884
First  Italian  "  Derby  day  " . . .  24  April, „
A  sale  of  part  of  the  Castellani  collection,  21  days,

about  48,000?.  realized ....  April, „
Dispute  ;  a  cardinal  stopped  from  visiting  a  cholera

hospital  without  quarantine . . .  Oct. ,,
Discoveries  about  the  Temple of  Vesta in the

Forum  by  Prof.  H.  Jordan,  announced April,  1885
Death of prince Torlonia, a great benefactor,

aged  86,  7  Feb.  1886
Statue  of  Giordano  Bruno,  philosopher  (burnt  as  a

heretic  at  Venice,  17  Feb.  1600);  unveiled,  9  June,  1889
Sig.  Aurelio  Saffi,  one  of  the  triumvirs  of  Feb.  1849,

dies  at  Forli,  aged  71  .  .  .  10  April,  1890
Great  explosion  of  the  powder  magazine  at  Fort
Monteverde,  4  persons  killed  and  about  150
wounded ;  the  Vatican  and  several  churches
injured,  and  much  property  destroyed  ;  the
place  visited  by  the  king  to  relieve  the  sufferers

23  April,  1801
"  Labour  day,"  rioting  suppressed  with  bloodshed  ;

4  persons  killed,  many  wounded. . 1  May, ,,
Popular  demonstration  against  foreign  pilgrims  for
supposed  insults  to  the  memory  of  king  Victor
Emanuel ;  3  pilgrims  arrested . . 2-4  Oct. ,,
See  Fopes,  Pius  IX.  et  seq.,  and  Italy.


KINGS OF ROME.

X.  (Dates  conjectural.)

735.  Romulus  ;  murdered  by  the  senators.

[Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  had  removed  to

Rome  in  747,  and  ruled  jointly  with  Romulus

six  years.]
716.  [Interregnum.]
715.  Numa  Pompilius,  son-in-law  of  Tatius  the  Sabine,

elected  ;  died  at  the  age  of  82.
673.  Tullus  Hostilius  ;  murdered  by  his  successor,  by

whom  his  palace  was  set  on  fire  ; his  family

perished  in  the  flames.
640.  Aneus  Martius,  grandson  of  Numa.
616.  Tarquinius  Priscus  ;  son  of  Demaratus,  a  Corinthian

emigrant,  chosen  king.
578.  Servius  Tullius,  a  manumitted  slave  ;  married  the

king's  daughter  ;  and  succeeded  by  the  united

suffrages  of  the  army  and  the  people.


EOME.


833


EOOF.


534.  Tarquinius  Superbus,  grandson  of  Tarquinius  Pris-
eus  ;  assassinates  bis  father-in-law,  and  usurps
the  throne.

510.  [The  rape  of  Lucretia,  by  Sextus,  son  of  Tarquin,
and  consequent  insurrection,  leads  to  the  aboli-
tion of  royalty  and  the  establishment  of  the
consulate.]


510-82.  First  period. From  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  to
the  dictatorship  of  Sylla.
2-27.  Second  period. From  Sylla  to  Augustus.
48.  Caius  Julius  Caesar  ;  perpetual  dictator  ;  assassi-
nated, 15  March,  44  B.C.
31.  Octavianus  Caesar.


27.

A.D.
14.

37-
41.

54-
68.
69.


117.
138.
161.


Augustus  Imperatok,  died  19  Aug.  a.d.  14.

Tiberius  (Claudius  Nero).

Caius  Caligula  :  murdered  by  a  tribune.

Claudius  I.  (Tiberius  Drusus) :  poisoned  by  his  wife

Agrippina,  to  make  way  for
Claudius  Nero ;  deposed ;  kills  himself,  68.
Servius  Sulpicius  Galba ;  slain  by  the  praetorians.
M.  Salvius  Otho  ;  stabbed  himself.
Aulus  Vitellius ;  deposed  by  Vespasian,  and  put  to

death.
Titus  Flavius  Vespasian.
Titus  (Vespasian),  his  son.
Titus  Flavius  Domitian,  brother  of  Titus ;  last  of

the  twelve  Caesars ;  assassinated.
Cocceius  Nerva.
Trajan  M.  Ulpius  (Crinitus).
Adrian  or  Hadrian  (Publius  iElius).
Antoninus  Titus,  surnamed  Pius.
Marcus  Aurelius  (a  philosopher)  and  Lucius  Verus,

his  son-in-law ;  tlie  latter  died  in  169.
180.  Commodus  (L.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  son  of  Marcus

Aurelius  ;  poisoned  by  his  favourite  mistress,

Martia.
193.  Publius -Helvius-Pertinax ;  put  to  death  by  the  prae-
torian band.
[Four  emperors  now  start  up  :  Didianus  Julianus,

at  Rome ;  Pescennius  Niger,  in  Syria  ;  Lucius

Septimius Severus,  in  Pannonia; and  Clodius

Albinus,  in  Britain.]
,, Lucius  Septimius  Severus ;  died  at  York  in  Britain,

in  211 ;  succeeded  by  his  sons,
211.  M.  Aurelius  Caracalla  and  Septimius  Geta. Geta

murdered  by  Caracalla,  212  ;  who  is  slain  by  his

successor

217.  M.  Opilius  Macrinus,  prefect  of  the  guards ;  be-

headed in  a  mutiny.

218.  Heliogabalus  (M.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  a  youth  ;  put

to  death  for  his  enormities.
222.  Alexander  Severus ;  assassinated  by  some  soldiers

corrupted  by  Maximums.
235.  Caius  Julius  Verus  Maximums  ;  assassinated  in  his

tent  before  the  walls  of  Aquileia.

237.  M.  Antonius  Gordianus, and  his son  ; the  latter

having  been  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  par-
tisans of  Maximums,  the  father  strangled  him-
self in  a  fit  of  despair,  at  Carthage,  in  his  80th
year.

238.  Balbiims  and  Pupienus  ;  put  to  death.

,, Gordian  III.,  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian,  in  his

16th  year ;  assassinated  by  the  guards,  at  the

instigation  of  his  successor.
244.  Philip  the  Arabian  ;  assassinated  by  his  own  soldiers  ;

his  son  Philip  was  murdered  at  the  same  time,  in

his  mother's  arms.
249.  Metius Decius  ; he  perished  with  his two sons,

and  their  army, in  an engagement  with  the

Goths.
251.  Gallus  Hostilius,  and  his  son  Volusianus  ;  both  slain

by  the  soldiery.
253.  iEmilianus ;  put  to  death  after  a  reign  of  only  four

months.
,, Valerianus,  and  his son Gallicnus  ;  the  first  was

taken  prisoner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and

flayed  alive.
260.  Gallienus  reigned  alone.

[About  this  time  thirty  pretenders  to  imperial  power

arise  in  different  parts  of  the  empire ;  of  these

Cyriades  is  the  first,  but  he  is  slain.]


=  75-
276.


284.
286.
3°5-

306.


Claudius  II.  (Gallienus  having  been  assassinated  by
the  officers  of  the  guard)  succeeds  ;  dies  of  the
plague.

Quintillus,  his  brother,  elected  at  Rome  by  the  senate
and  troops  ;  Aurelian  by  the  army  in  Illyrieum.
Quintillus,  despairing  of  success  against  his
rival,  who  was  marching  against  him,  opened  his
veins  and  bled  himself  to  death.

Aurelianus ;  assassinated  by  his  soldiers  on  his
march  against  Persia,  in  Jan.  275.

[Interregnum  of  about  nine  months.  ]

Tacitus,  elected  25  Oct. ;  died  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,
13  April,  276.

Floriauus,  his  brother ;  his  title  not  recognised  by
the  senate.

M.  Aurelius  Probus ;  assassinated  by  his  troops  at
Sirmium.

M.  Aurelius  Cams ;  killed  at  Ctesiphon  by  light-
ning ;  succeeded  by  his  sons

Carinus  and  Numerianus ;  both  assassinated,  after
transient  reigns.

Diocletian ;  who  associated  as  his  colleague  in  the
government,

Maximianus  Hercules ;  the  two  emperors  resign  in
favour  of

Constantius  I.  Chlorus  and  Galerius  Maximianus;
the  first  died  at  York,  in  Britain,  in  306,  and  the
troops  saluted  as  emperor  his  son,

Constantine,  afterwards  styled  the  Great ;  whilst
at  Rome  the  piraetorian  band  proclaimed

Maxentius,  son  of  Maximianus  Hercules.  Besides
these  were

Maximianus  Hercules,  who  endeavoured  to  recover
his  abdicated  power.

Flavius  Valerius  Severus,  murdered  by  the  last-
named  pretender ;  and

Flavius  Valerianus  Licinius,  the  brother  in-law  of
Constantine.

[Of  these,  Maximianus  Hercules  was  strangled  in
Gaul,in  310;  Galerius  Maximianus  died  wretchedly
in  311 ;  Maxentius  was  drowned  in  the  Tiber  in
312;  and  Licinius  was  put  to  death  by  order  of
Constantine  in  324.]

Constantine  the  Great  now  reigned  alone ;  died  on
Whitsunday,  22  May,  337.

^Sons  of  Constantine ;  divided
the  empire  between  them ;  the
first  was  slain  in  340,  and  the
second  murdered  in  350,  when
the  third  became  sole  em-
peror.

Julian,  the  Apostate,  so  called  for  abjuring  Chris-
tianity, having  been  educated  for  the  priesthood  ;
mortally  wounded  in  a  battle  with  the  Persians,

363-
Jovian ;  reigned  eight  months ;  found  dead  in  his

bed,  supposed  to  have  died  from  the  fumes  of

charcoal.
Valentinian  and  Valens.
Valens  with  Gratian  and  Valentinian  II.
Theodosius  I.,  &c.
Theodosius  alone.
The  Roman  empire  divided  ; see Eastern  Empire,

Western  Empire,  Popes,  and  Italy.

EOMILLY'S  ACT,  Sir  Samuel,  52  Geo.

III.  c.  IOI  (1812)  relates  to  charities.

EONCESVALLES  (in  the  Pyrenees),  where,
it  is  said,  Charlenmgne's  paladin,  Roland,  or
Orlando,  was  surprised,  defeated  and  slain  by  the
Gascons,  778.  On  25  July,  1813,  marshal  Soult
was  defeated  here  by  tlie  British  entering  France.

EONDO-  A  short  piece  of  music  having  one
prominent  subject  to  which  returns  are  made,  many
composed  by  Beethoven,  Chopin,  and  others.

EOOF.  The  largest  in  the  world  was  said  to  be
that  over  a  riding-school  at  Moscow,  erected  in
1791,  being  235  feet  in  span.  The  roof  of  the
London  station  of  the  Midland  railway,  in  Kuston-
road,  London,  N.W.,  is  240  feet  wide,  6oofee1  long,
12c;  feet  high.  The  extent  of  ground  coveied  is
about  165,000  square  feet.

3  H


C  Constantine  II.

-j  Constans.

(  Constantius  II.


360.


ROPE-MAKING  MACHINE.


834


KOSICETJCIANS.


ROPE-MAKING  MACHINE.  One  was
patented  by  Richard  March  in  1784,  and  by  Edmd.
Cartwright,  in  1 792.  Many  improvements  have  been
made  since.

RORKE'S  DRIFT,  boundary  of  British  terri-
tory of  Natal,  in  South  Africa  and  Zululand.
Behind  extemporised  trenches  a  handful  of  British
soldiers  here  successfuUy  resisted  a  large  Zulu
army,  and  probably  saved  the  colony,  22  Jan.  1879.
See  Zululand.

ROSAMOND'S  BOWER.  Rosamond  was
daughter  of  lord  Clifford,  and  mistress  of  Henry  II.
about  1 154.  A  conspiracy  against  her  was  formed  by
the  queen,  prince  Henry,  and  the  Icing's  other  sons.
Henry  kept  her  in  a  labyrinth  at  Woodstock,  where
his  queen,  Eleanor,  it  is  said,  discovered  her  apart-
ments by  the  clue  of  a  silk  thread,  and  poisoned  her.
She  was  buried  at  Godstow  church,  from  whence
Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  had  her  ashes  removed,
1191.

ROSARY,  see  Beads.
In  a  brief  of  pope  Pius  IX.,  30  Sept.  1852,  it  was  asserted
that  40  repetitions  in  a  rosary  of  40  beads  of  "  Sweet
Heart  of  Mary,  be  my  salvation  ! "  will  obtain  a  large
number  of  days  of  indulgence  for  souls  in  purgatory
(23,300  days  calculated).

ROSAS  (N.  E.  Spain),  Bay  of,  where  a  brilliant
naval  action  was  fought  by  the  boats  of  the  Tiff  re,
Cumberland,  Yolontaire,  Apollo,  Topaze,  Philomel,
Scout,  and  Tuscan,  led  by  lieut.  John  Tailour  (of
the  Tiff  re),  which  ended  in  the  capture  or  destruc-
tion of  eleven  armed  -vessels  in  the  bay,  1  Nov.
1809 ;  for  which  purpose  lord  Collingwood  had
organised  the  expedition  commanded  by  capt.  Hallo-
well.  Rosas  was  gallantly  defended  by  lord  Coch-
rane, 27  Nov. ;  but  surrendered,  4  Dec.  1809.

ROSBACH  (Rosebecque),  Flanders.  Here
Charles  VI.  of  France  beat  the  Flemings,  who  had
revolted  against  their  count,  27  Nov.  1382. — At
Rosbach,  in  Prussia,  a  great  battle  was  fought
between  the  Prussians,  commanded  by  Frederick
the  Great,  and  the  combined  army  of  French  and
Austrians,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with
severe  loss,  5  Nov.  1757.

"  ROSCIUS,  INFANT,"  ¥m.  Henry  West
Betty,  born  13  Sept.  1791.  After  acting  at  Belfast,
16  Aug.  1803,  and  at  other  places,  with  much  ap-
plause, he  appeared  at  Covent-garden,  1  Dec.  1803,
as  Selim,  in  "  Barbarossa,"  and  is  said  to  have
gained  in  his  first  season,  17,210^.
After  several  years'  retirement,  lie  re-appeared,  but

soon  after  left  the  stage,  not  being  successful.

He  retired  on  the  fortune  he  had  amassed,  and

died  Aug. 1874

His  portrait  may  be  seen  at  the  Garriek  club.

ROSE,  see  under  Flowers.  The  rose,  a  symbol
of  silence,  gave  rise  to  the  phrase  sub  rosii,  "  under
the  rose  ; ' '  said,  by  Italian  writers,  to  have  risen
from  the  circumstance  of  the  pope's  presenting
consecrated  roses,  which  were  placed  over  the  con-
fessionals at  Rome,  to  denote  secrecy,  1526.  The
pope  sent  a  golden  rose  to  the  queen  of  Spain,  which
was  given  to  her  with  much  solemnity,  8  Feb.  1868.
A  "national  rose  society"  opened  its  first  annual
(-how,  St.  James's  hall,  4  July,  1877.
The  League  of  the  JRosc,  under  the  patronage  of  the
Comtesse  de  Paris,  formed  to  promote  the  restoration
of  the  monarchy  in  France,  autumn  188S.

ROSE'S  ACT,  33  Geo.  III.  c.  54  (1793)  brought
b  ■uefit  societies  under  the  control  of  government.

ROSES,  WARS  OF  TIIE,  between  the  Lan-
castrians (who  chose  the  red  rose  as  their  emblem)


and  the  Yorkists  (who  chose  the  white  rose),  1455-.

1485. It  is  stated  that  in  the  "Wars  of  the  Rose

there  perished  12  princes  of  the  blood,  200  nobles,

and  100,000  gentry  and  common  people. The  union

of  the  roses  was  effected  in  the  marriage  of  Henry  VII.

with  the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.

i486.

Richard  II.,  who  succeeded  his  grandfather  Edward
III.  in  1377,  was  deposed  and  succeeded  in  1399
by  his  cousin  Henry  IV.  (son  of  John  of  Gaunt,
duke  of  Lancaster,  the  fourth  son  of  Edward  IH.),
in  prejudice  to  the  right  of  Roger  Mortimer
(grandson  of  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  Edward's
third  son),  who  was  declared  presumptive  heir  to
the  throne  in 1385

Roger's  grandson,  Richard  duke  of  York,  first
openly  claimed  the  crown  in 1449

Attempts  at  compromise  failed,  and  the  war  began


1455


The  Lancastrians  were  defeated  at  St.  Alban's ;  the
protector  Somerset  was  slain ;  a  trace  was  made,
and  Richard  was  declared  successor  to  Henry  VI.

23  May,- ,,

The  war  was  renewed,  and  the  Yorkists  defeated  the
Lancastrians  at  Bloreheath . . 23  Sept.  14S9

The  Yorkists  eventually  dispersed,  and  the  duke
was  attainted.

He  defeated  his  opponents  at  Northampton,  took
Henry  prisoner,  and  was  declared  heir  to  the
crown ;  but  fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  "Wake-
field, and  was  put  to  death ... 31  Dec. 1460

His  son  (Edward)  continued  the  struggle ;  was  in-
stalled as  king 4  March,  1461

Defeated  the  Lancastrians  at  Towton .  29  March, „

Was  deposed  by  Warwick,  who  restored  Henry  VI.

Sept. 147c

Edward  defeated  the  Lancastrians  at  Barnet,  14
April,  and  finally  at  Tewkesbury . .  4  May,  1471

The  struggle  ended  with  the  defeat  and  death  of
Richard  III.  at  Bosworth ... 22  Aug.  1485

ROSETTA  (in  Egypt),  taken  by  the  French  in
1798  ;  and  by  the  British  and  Turks,  19  April,  1801.
The  Turks  repulsed  the  British  here,  22  April,  1807.
Near  Rosetta  was  fought  the  battle  of  the  Nile,
I  Aug.  1798;  see  Nile.  Mehemet  Ali  rendered  great
service  to  his  country by constructing  a caDal
between  Rosetta  and  Alexandria.
The  Rosetta  Stone,  discovered  by  the  French  in  1799,  was
brought  from  Rosetta  in  a  French  vessel,  from  whence
it  was  taken  by  Mr.  Wm.  R.  Hamilton,  who  deposited
it  in  the  British  Museum. In  1841,  Mr.  Letronne  pub-
lished the  text  and  a  translation  of  the  Greek  inscrip-
tion. It  is  a  piece  of  black  basalt,  about  3  feet  long
and  2^  feet  wide,  with  an  inscription  in  three  languages,
viz.,  hieroglyphics,  modified  hieroglyphics  (demotic  or
enchorial), and  Greek, setting  forth  the  praises  of
Ptolemy  Epiplianes  (about  196  b.c.). It  was  studied
by  Dr.  T.  Young  and  especially  by  J.  F.  Champollion,
whose  works  were  published  1814-1845. Champollion's
method  was  adopted  by  Rosellini,  and  extended  by
Lepsius,  Bunsen,  Birch,  Brugsch,  and  others. Cham-
pollion discovered  that  the  hieroglyphs  represented
sounds  by  an  initial  letter,  and  after  studying  the
"Ritual  of  the  dead,"  published  a  grammar  and  dic-
tionary.

ROSICRUCIANS,.  a  sect  of  mystical  philo-
sophers who  appeared  in  Germany  in  the  14th
century.  It  is  asserted  that  their  founder  was  a
noble  German  monk  named  Christian  Bosencreutz,
born  1378,  who  travelled  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  Africa,
and  Spain;  returned  to  Germany  and  founded  the
fraternity  of  the  Rosy  Cross,  and  died  aged  102.
The  Fama  F rater  nitidis  and  the  Confessio  Rosece
Crucis,  1615,  the  latter  attributed  to  Johann  Valen-
tin Andreas  and  others,  arc  important  works.
They  swore  fidelity,  promised  secrecy,  and  wrote
hieroglyphieally,  and  affirmed  that  the  ancient
philosophers  of  Egypt,  the  Chaldeans,  Magi  of
Persia,  and  Gynmosophists  of  the  Indies,  taught
the  same  doctrine.

Mr.  Arthur  E.  Waite's  elaborate  work  "  The  Real  History
of  the  Rosicrucians  "  published  in  1887.


EOSS.


835


KOIJMANIA.


EOSS,  Cork  (S.  Ireland) j  a  bishopric  founded,
is  supposed,  by  St.  Fachnan,  in  the  beginning  of
the  6th  century. It  was  united  to  Cork  in  1340 ,
and  Cloyne  to  both,  by  the  Irish  Church  Temporali-
ties act  (1833) ;  see  Bishops  ;  Xew  Boss.

EOSTEUM  (plural  rostra),  a  beak,  the  name
given  to  the  prows  of  ships,  which  were  affixed  to
i he  front  of  the  platform  (hence  termed  rostra),
erected  between  the  comitium  aud  the  forum  iu
Rome,  whence  the  tribunes  addressed  the  people.
The  custom  is  said  to  have  begun  with  the  ships  of
Antium,  taken  during  the  L  ttin  war,  which  ended
33  B-c-

EOTA  CLUB,  a  society  who  met  at  Miles's
Coffee-house  in  New  Palace-yard,  "Westminster,
during  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;
their  plan  was  that  all  the  great  officers  of  state
should  be  chosen  by  ballot:  and  that  a  certain
number  of  members  of  parliament  should  be  changed
annually  by  rotation,  from  whence  they  took  their
title.  Sir  William  Petty  Avas  one  of  the  members
in  1659. Biog.  Brit.

EOTHESAT,  capital  of  the  Isle  of  Bute.  The
ruined  castle,  founded  about  1098,  was  repaired  by
the  marquis  of  Bute,  1871-77".  After  1393,  the
eldest  son  of  the  Scottish  sovereign  was  styled  duke
of  Rothesay.  The  Glenburn  hydropathic  "establish-
ment destroyed  by  fire,  estimated  loss,  45,000?.,  10
July,  1891. Population,  iS3l,  8,329;  1891,  9,034.

EOTHESAY  CASTLE,  see  Wrecks,  1831.

EOTHSCHILD  FAMILY.  Meyer  Am-
schel,  or  Anselm,  was  born  at  .No.  148,  Judengas.se
(Jew-lane),  Frankfort,  in  1743.  In  1772  he  began
business  as  a  money-lender  and  dealer  in  old  coins,
in  the  same  house,  over  which  he  placed  the  sign
of  the  red  shield  (in  German,  Both  Schild).  Hav-
ing had  dealing's  with  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  that
prince  entrusted  him  with  his  treasure  (said  to  have
been  250,000/.)  in  1806,  when  the  French  held  hits
country.  With  this  sum  as  capital,  Anselm  traded
and  made  a  large  fortune,  and  restored  the  250,000/.
to  the  landgrave  in  1815.  At  his  death  his  sons
continued  the  business  as  partners.  His  son,  Na-
than, began  at  Manchester  in  1798,  removed  to
London  in  1803  ;  and  died  immensely  rich,  28  July,
1836.  The  baron,  James,  head  of  the  family,  died
at  Paris,  15  Nov.  r868.

Sir  Nathaniel  de  Rothschild,  son  of  Lionel,  created  a
peer;  takes  his  seat,  9  July,  1S85.

Hannah,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  late  baron  Ainschel
de  Rothschild,  married  to  the  earl  of  Rosebery,  1878,
a, great  benefactress,  dies,  aged  39,  19  Nov.  1890.

EOTTEEDAM,  the  second  city  in  Holland.
Its  importance  dates  from  the  13th  century.  The
commerce  of  Antwerp  was  transferred  to  it  in  1509-
In  1572,  Rotterdam  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by
stratagem,  and  cruelly  treated.  It  suffered  much
from  the  French  revolutionary  wars,  and  from  in-
undations in  1775  and  1825.  Desiderius  Erasmus
was  born  here  in  1467.  The  museum  and  picture-
gallery  of  Rotterdam  were  destroyed  at  the  fire  of
the  Schieland  palace,  16  Feb.  1864.  Strike  of  dock
labourers  about  27  Sept. -14  Oct.  1889.  Population,
1887,193,658; 1890,209,136.

EO  UEjNT  (N.  France),  an  archbishopric,  260,  be-
came the  capital  of  Normandy  in  the  10th  century.
It  was  held  by  the  English  kings  till  1204 ;  and  was
retaken  by  Henry  V.,  19  Jan.  1419.  Joan  of  Arc,
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  was  burnt  here,  30  May,  1431.
It  was  taken  by  Charles  VII.  of  France  in  1449;
and  by  the  dulce  of  Guise  from  the  Huguenots,  Oct.
1562  and  1591. Rouen,  after  slight  conilicts,  4,  5


Dee. 1870, surrendered to general Von Gol
6  Dec. It  was  ordered to  pay  a  contribution  of
17,000,000  francs. Population,  1886,  107,163;  1891,
109,541.

The  theatre,  destroyed  by  fire ;  many  persons  in-
jured, and  13  killed  .... 25  April,  1S76

"  EOTJGH  TEEEOE,"  a  term  given  in  1874
to  the  prevalence  of  brutal  assaults  on  women,
children,  and  unprotected  persons  among  the  lower
classes,  especially  in  Lancashire  and  other  manu-
facturing districts,  for  the  repression  of  which  the
law  appeared  to  be  inadequate.

EOUMANIA, a  kingdom,  the  name  assumed

by  the  Hanubian  principalities  {which  sec) on  23

Dec. i36i,  when  their  union  was  proclaimed at

Bucharest  and  Jassy.  Population  in  1888,  5,376,006.

M.  Catargi,  the  president  of  the  council  of  minis-
ters, assassinated  as  he  was  leaving  the  chamber
of  deputies 20  June,  1862

The  united  chambers  of  the  two  principalities  meet
at  Bucharest 5  Feb. ,,

Coup  d'etat  of  prince  Couza  against  the  aristocrats  ;
a  plebiscite  for  a  new  constitution,  2  May  ;  which
is  adopted 28  May,  1864

Law  passed  enabling  peasants  to  hold  land Aug. ,,

Revolt  at  Bucharest  suppressed,  15  Aug.  ;  amnesty,

11  Sept.,  1865

Revolution  at  Bucharest ;  forced  abdication  of
prince  Couza  ;  and  provisional  government  esta-
blished 22  Feb.,  1866

The  offered  crown  declined  by  the  count  of  Flan-
ders, Feb. ;  prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen  elected  hospodar  by  plebiscite,  20
April ;  enthusiastically  received  at  Bucharest,
22  May  ;  sworn  to  observe  the  constitution

12  July, ,,

Recognised  hereditary  hospodar  by  the  sultan,  and
received  at  Constantinople  . . 24  Oct. ,,

Roumania  unsettled  ;  "  nationality  "  projects,  Nov.  1867

The  legislature  proposes  to  repudiate  the  just  claims
of  the  German  shareholders  in  the  Roumanian
railways  ;  the  prince  assents  reluctantly  ;  Bis-  .
march  appeals  to  the  Porte,  which  declines  to
interfere July- Aug. 1S71

Peace  between  the  prince  and  chambers . Nov. ,,

Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia  inform  Turkey  that
they  claim  the  right  to  conclude  separate  treaties
with  Roumania  ;  the  sultan  objects . Oct.  1874

Convention  with  Russia,  giving  permission  to  cross
Roumania,  signed  16  April  ;  Russians  enter  Mol-
davia 24  April,  1877

The  Senate  vote  a  declaration  of  independence  and
war  with  Turkey  .... 21  May, ,,

The  Roumanians  actively  engaged  before  Plevna.
See  Russo-Tv/rkisTi  War,  1877.

Roumania  declared  independent  by  treaties  of  San
Stefano  (3  March)  and  of  Berlin  (losing  the  part
of  Bessarabia  acquired  in  1S56,  in  exchange  for
the  Dobrudseha) .... 13  July,  1878

Independence  recognised  by  England,  France,  and
Germany . . .  • . . . 20  Feb.  1SS0

The  prince  and  princess  crowned  king  and  queen,

23  May,  1881

Temporary  rupture  with  Austria  respecting  the
Danube,  about 1-27  Dee.

Roumanian  troops  enter  Silistria and  seize  terril  ory,

3  Sept. 1885

Rioton  i  n"'  tmg  af  Bueharesi  suppressed  with  1  >ss
of  life,  25-27  .March  ;  M.  Bratiano  resigns  (I  welve
years  minister) . . . about  27  March,

M.  Bosetti  forms  a  ministry . . 3  April,

Insurrection  in  the  country  (owns  and  agricultural
districts;  increase  reported ;  military  called  out  ;
Bucharest  threatened  ;  revolt  said  to  lie  1  n-
couraged  by  Russian  emissaries  16  April;  de-
crease, 24  April;  the  elections  support  the
government,  Oct.  ;  assembly  u ts  . 13  Nov.

M.  Catargi,  minister,  12  April,  resigns;  succeeded
bygeuMano 16  Nov. 1^89

Proposed  impeachment  of  M.  Jean  Bratiano,  re-
jected  by  the  chamber  (86V-67) . . 12  Feb.  iF?o

Resignation  of  gen. Manos  ministry  . 27  Feb. i£c  1

Gen.  Floresco  forms  a  cabinet m . 5  March, ,',

3  11  2


ROUMELIA.


836


ROYAL ACADEMY.


Prince  Ferdinand,  heir  presumptive,  said  to  be
engaged  to  Mile.  Vacaresco,  maid-of-honour ;
public  disapproval . . . June,  et  seq.  1891

Mile.  Helene  Vacaresco  leaves  the  queen  at  Venice

2  Sept. „

The  king  visits  the  German  emperor  at  Potsdam

28  Oct. „

New  ministry  formed  by  M.  Catargi . . 9  Dec. ,,

Vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  the  ministry  carried
(78—74) 21  Dec. ,,

The  senate  and  chamber  dissolved . 23  Dec. „

Coalition  of  parties  ;  M.  Catargi's  ministry  recon-
structed about  30  Dec. ,,

The  government  supported  by  a  majority  in  the
elections Feb.  1892

Prince  Ferdinand  betrothed  to  the  princess  Marie
of  Edinburgh,  2  June  ;  received  in  London,  21
June  ;  the  king  invited  by  queen  Victoria,  arrives
with  his  brother,  27  June  ;  at  Windsor,  29  June  ;
made  K.G.,  30  June  ;  leaves  England . 4  July, „

PRINCES AND KING OF ROUMANIA.

1859.  Alexander  Couza  ;  abdicated  1866.

1866.  Charles  I.  (of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen)  ;  born
20  April,  1839 ;  elected  20  April,  1866  ;  mar-
ried Elizabeth,  daughter  of  prince  Hermann
von  Wied,  15  Nov.  1869 ;  [scholar,  poetess,
popularly  named  Carmen  Sylva,  and  "Mother
of  her  people,"  visited  Wales,  at  the  Eisteddfod,
Sept.,  received  by  queen  Victoria,  2-4  Oct.  ;
left  England,  7  Oct.  1890],  nominated  kino  26
March,  1881,  and  crowned  with  the  queen,  23
May,  1881.

Heir,  Prince  Ferdinand  (of  Hohenzollern),  nephew;  born
24  Aug.  1865  :  declared  heir,  18  March,  1889 ;  betrothed
to  princess  Marie  of  Edinburgh,  2  June,  1892.

KOUMELIA  or  ROMANIA  (Turkey),  part  of

Thrace  (wh  ich  see) .  The  Rounielian  railway  opened

17  June,  1873. Population,  1880,  815,946;  1888,

960,901.

By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  the  province  of  Eastern
Roumelia  (termed  South  Bulgaria  in  1886)  was
constituted,  to  be  partly  autonomous,  with  a
Christian governor, nominated by  the sultan

13  July,  1878

Sir  H.  D.  Wolff  appointed  H.M.'s  European  com-
missioner for  organisation  of  the  province,

10  Aug. ,,

Russian  prince  Dondoukoff  Khorsakoff  rules  here

July-Nov.  1878

Scheme  for  government  of  the  province  approved
by  the  sultan  and  the  allied  commissioners  Nov. ,,

Russian  evacuation  begins ... 5  May,  1879

Aleko  Pasha  (prince  Alexander  Vogorides,  a  Bul-
garian) installed  as  governor  at  Philippopolis

30  May, ,,

Much  political  disorganisation  reported  Sept. ,,

Tranquillitj7  restored Dec. ,,

Great  prosperity  reported ....  Sept.  1883

M.  Chrestovitch  (Gavril  Pasha)  appointed  governor-
general  by  the  Porte,  about . . .10  May,  1884

Bloodless  revolution  at  Philippopolis  ;  re-union
with  Bulgaria  proclaimed  18  Sept.  ;  prince
Alexander  at  Philippopolis ;  all  Bulgaria  and
Roumelia  arming .... Sept.-Oct.  1885

About  75,000  Roumelians  armed, . .  Nov. ,,

(see  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  for  the  war.)

Turkish  delegates  sent  to  Philippopolis  . 2  Dec. ,,

Prince  Alexander  appointed  governor  for  five  years,
(see  Bulgaria) 5  April,  1886

State  of  siege  at  Philippopolis  on  account  of
brigandage  and  Russian  agency  . . 4  Nov. ,,

Diplomatic  rupture  with  Greece  respecting  the
nationality  of  a  person  who  died  at  Bucharest,

13  Nov.  1887

A  band  of  about  150  Montenegrins  invading
Bourgas  repulsed  with  loss  ... 4  Jan.  1888

Amnesty granted to the insurgent peasantry,

15  Jan.  1889

First  Bulgarian  exhibition  opened  at  Philippo-
polis by  prince  Ferdinand . , .27  Aug.  1892

ROUND- A  sp?cies  of  musical  canon  in  regular
rhythm. Ancient  rounds  for  six  voices  were  com-


posed in  Italy,  and  introduced  into  England  by  the
earl  of  Essex,  about  15 10.  The  first  printed  col-
lection appeared  in  1609.  Warren's  collection  pub-
lished 1763-94.  Round,  Catch,  and  Canon  club
founded  in  1843.

ROUND-HEADS.  In  the  civil  war  which
began  in  1642,  the  adherents  of  Charles  I.  were
called  Cavaliers,  and  the  friends  of  the  parliament
Round-heads.  The  term,  it  is  said,  arose  from  those
persons  who  had  a  round  bowl  or  dish  put  upon
their  heads,  and  their  hair  cut  to  the  edge  of  the
bowl ;  see  Cavaliers.

ROUND  TABLE,  see  under  Garter  and
Liberals,  1887.

ROUND  WAY  DOWN  (near  Devizes,  Wilt-
shire) .  Here  the  royalists  defeated  the  parliamen-
tarians with  great  slaughter,  13  July,  1643.

ROVEREDO  (Austrian  Tyrol)  was  held  by
the  Venetians  from  1416  till  1609,  Avhen  it  was  ac-
quired by  Austria.  It  was  taken  by  Bonaparte  and
the  French,  4  Sept.  1796,  after  a  brilliant  victory.

ROWING,  see  Boat  Ltaces,  Doggett,  and  Uni-
versity.
On  16  Oct.  1873,  Mr.  Reginald  Herbert  undertook  to  row

on  the  Thames, from Maidenhead to  Westminster

bridge  (47  miles  3  furlongs),  in  twelve  hours,  for  1000Z.

He  did  it  in  ioh.  2m.  19  sec.

ROWLAND  HILL  MEMORIAL  FUND.

See  Mansion  House.  Mr.  W.  D.  Keyworth  was
chosen  to  make  a  bust  of  sir  .Rowland  Hill  for
Westminster  abbey,  March,  t88i.  A  benevolent
fund  for  the  widows  and  orphans  of  postmen
established  1882.  A  statue  of  him  at  the  Royal
Exchange  uncovered  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  17
June,  1882.

ROXBURGHE  CLUB  was  instituted  in
1812  by  earl  Spencer,  for  the  republication  of  rare
books,  or  unpublished  MSS.,  in  memory  of  John
duke  of  Eoxburghe.

ROYAL  Agricultural,  Astronomical,
Geographical,  Horticultural,  &c.; see

under  Agriculture,  Astronomy,  Geography,  Horti-
culture, Niger,  &c.

ROYAL  ACADEMY.  A  society  of  artists
met  in  St.  Peter's-court,  St.  Martin's-lane,  about
1739,  which  Hogarth  established  as  the  society  ot
Incorporated  Artists,  who  held  their  first  exhibition
at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi,  21  April,  1760.
From  this  sprang  the  Royal  Academy,  in  con-
sequence of  a  dispute  between  the  directors  and  the
fellows.  On  10  Dec.  1768,  the  institution  of  the
present  Royal  Academy  was  completed  under  the
patronage  of  George  III. ;  and  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,
knighted  on  the  occasion,  was  appointed  its  first
president.  Leigh.  The  first  exhibition  of  the
academicians  (at  Pall-Mall)  was  on  26  April,  1769,
when  136  works  appeared.  In  1771  the  king
granted  them  apartments  in  old  Somerset-house,
and  afterwards,  in  1780,  in  new  Somerset-house,
where  they  remained  till  1838,  when  they  removed
to  the  National  Galler y.  Among  the  professors  have
been  Johnson,  Gibbon,  Goldsmith,  Macaulay,  and
Hallam.  Turner,  the  painter,  gave  funds  to  the
academjr  for  the  award  of  a  medal  triennially  for
landscape-painting,  which  was  awarded  to  Mr.  N.
0.  Lupton  in  1857.  A  commission  of  inquiry  into
the  affairs  of  the  academy,  appointed  in  1862,  re-
commended various  changes  in  July,  1863,  which
were  carried  into  effect.  The  hundredth  anniversary
of  the  foundation  of  the  academy  was  celebrated


EOYAL  ACADEMY.


837


EOYAL  INSTITUTION.


10  Dec.  1868.  The  Royal  Academy  held  its  first
exhibition  in  the  new  building,  3  May,  1869.  The
annual  exhibition  of  pictures  by  the  old  masters,
with  some  British,  began  3  Jan.  1870.  The  money
received  has  been  devoted  to  the  establishment  of
a  professorship  of  chemistry  and  a  laboratory,  &c.
In  1874  the  exhibition  included  many  of  Landseer's
pictures.

Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  sculptor,  died  25  Nov.  1841.  At
the  death  of  his  wife  Jan.  1875,  in  conformity  with
his  will,  about  3000L  a  year  accrued  to  the  Academy
for  the  purchase  of  works  of  art  for  the  nation,  and
other  purposes.
The  court  of  appeal  upholds  Mr.  justice  North's  decision
that  the  works  of  sculpture  purchased  must  be
finished  in  marble  or  bronze,  and  not  models,
4  June,  1889.
The  gallery  containing  the  sculptures  of  John  Gibson,

bequeathed  by  him,  was  opened  free,  27  Nov.  1876.
The  number  of  the  works  of  art  exhibited  in  1789  was
about  620,  in  1889,  2196,  including  sculptures.


1768.
1792.


1820.
1830.
1850.


PRESIDENTS.

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.

Benjamin  West.

James  Wyatt.

Benjamin  West.

Sir  Thomas  Lawrence.

Sir  Martin  A.  Shee.

Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  died  23  Dec.  1S65.

Sir  Edwin  Landseer  elected ;  declines,  24  Jan.

Sir  Francis  Grant,  Feb.  1  ;  died  5  Oct.  1878.

Sir  Frederick  Leighton,  13  Nov.


EOYAL  ACADEMY  of  MUSIC  was  es-
tablished in  1822,  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  lord
Burghersh  (afterwards  earl  of  Westmorland,  who
died  16  Oct.  1859),  and  was  incorporated  by  charter
23  June,  1830.  The  first  concert  took  place  8
l)ec.  1828.  Its  reconstruction  was  proposed  in  1866,
and  since  effected.  Sir  George  Macfarren  prin-
cipal, 1876;  died,  31  Oct.  1887;  succeeded  by  Dr.
A.  C.  Mackenzie,  Feb.  1888.
The academy  unites  with the  Royal  College  of

Music  in  regard  to  local  examinations,  announced

13  Nov.  1889
First meeting for  the purpose  at  Marlborough-

house 29  July,  1890

EOYAL  ADELAIDE,  see  Wrecks,  1850.

EOYAL  ASSENT.  If  the  king  assent  to  a
public  bill,  the  clerk  of  the  parliament  declares  in
Norman  French,  liLe  roy  le  veult,"  the  king  wills
it  so  to  be.  If  the  king  refuses  his  assent,  it  is  in  the
gentle  language  of  "Ze  roy  s'avisera,"  the  king
will  consider  it.  Sale.  By  the  statute  ^  Hen.
VIII.,  1 541,  the  king  may  give  his  assent  by  letters-
patent. Blackstone'  s  Com.

EOYAL  BOUNTY,  a  fund  from  which  sums
are  granted  to  female  relatives  of  officers  killed  or
mortally  wounded  during  service.

EOYAL  CHAETEE,  see  Wrecks,  1859.

EOYAL  COLLEGE,  see  Music,  1878,  and
Science  and  Art,  1890.  EOYAL  ENGLISH
OPERA  HOUSE,  see  under  Theatres.

EOYAL  EXCHANGE  (Cambium  Regis),
London.  The  foundation  of  the  original  edifice  was
laid  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  7  June,  1566,  on  the
site  of  the  ancient  Tun  prison.  Queen  Elizabeth
opened  it  on  23  Jan.  1571,  and  her  herald  named  it
the  lioyal  Exchange.  Ificme.  It  was  totally  de-
stroyed by  the  great  fire,  Sept.  1666.  Charles  II.
laid' the  foundation-stone  of  the  next  edifice,  23  Oct.
1667,  which  was  completed  by  Mr.  Hawkcsniore,  a
pupil  of  sir  Christopher  Wren,  in  about  three
years;  it  was  repaired  and  beautified  in  1769.  This
also  was  burnt,  10  Jan.  1838. The  new  Royal  Ex-


change, erected  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Tite,  was
opened  by  the  queen,  28  Oct.  1844. — The  Royal
Exchange,  Dublin,  commenced  1769,  opened  1779.

EOYAL  GEOEGE,  a  man-of-war  of  108
guns,  lost  off  Spithead.  While  keeled  over  to  repair
a  pipe,  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  washed  the  sea  into
her  ports,  and  she  went  down.  The  rear-admiral
Keinpenfeldt,  the  crew,  many  marines,  women,  and
Jews,  in  all  about  600  persons,  were  drowned,  29
Aug.  1782.  By  the  use  of  the  diving-bell,  the  ship,
embedded  in  the  deep,  was  surveyed  in  May,  1817
et  seq.  Tortious  of  the  vessel  and  its  cargo  werq
brought  up  in  1839-42,  under  the  superintendence
of  sir  Charles  Pasley,  when  gunpowder  was  ignited
by  the  agency  of  electricity.

EOYAL  GEANTS  to  members  of  the  royal

family  -. —

The  queen  on  July  2  applied  to  parliament  for  a
grant  to  prince  Albert  Victor  of  Wales  for  his
maintenance,  and  for  one  to  the  princess  Louise
of  Wales  on  her  proposed  marriage  with  the  earl
of  Fife,  a  select  committee  was  appointed  con-
sisting of  23  members  (including  Mr.  Goschen,
Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  lord  Hartington,  Mr.  J.  Cham-
berlain, Mr.  jGladstone,  Mr.  John  Morley,  Mr.
Labouchere,  Mr.  Burt,  Dr.  Cameron,  Mr.  Parnell,
and  Mr.  Sexton),  8  July,  the  committee  first  met

10  July,  1889

After  several  meetings  at  which  there  was  much
discussion  on  various  propositions,  a  report  was
submitted  to  the  house  of  commons,  who  even-
tually resolved,  after  several  amendments  had
been  rejected,  that  36,000^.,  out  of  the  consoli-
dated fund  should  be  paid  annually  (through
trustees)  to  the  prince  of  Wales  for  the  support
and  maintenance  of  his  family,  the  same  to  con-
tinue till  six  months  after  the  queen's  decease,
29  July,  1889.  An  act  of  parliament  to  this
effect  was  passed . . . . 12  Aug. ,,

EOYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY  (London),
see  Humane  Society.

EOYAL INSTITUTION  of  Great

BRITAIN,  the  earliest  of  the  kind  in  London,  was
founded  9  March,  1799,  by  count  Rumford,  sir
Joseph  Banks,  earls  Spencer  and  Morton,  and  several
other  noblemen  and  gentlemen.  It  received  the
immediate  patronage  of  George  III.,  and  was  in-
corporated 13  Jan.  1800,  by  royal  charter,  as  "  The
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  for  the  diffusing
knowledge,  and  facilitating  the  general  introduc-
tion of  useful  mechanical  inventions  and  improve-
ments, and  for  teaching,  by  courses  of  philosophical
lectures  and  experiments,  the  application  of  science
to  the  common  purposes  of  life."  It  was  enlarged
and  extended  by  an  act  of  parliament  in  1810;  the
original  plan,  as  drawn  up  by  count  Rumford,  in
1799,  having  been  considerably  modified.  The  mem-
bers are  elected  hy  ballot,  and  pay  ten  guineas  on
admission,  and  five  guineas  annually,  or  a  com-
position of  sixty  guineas.  "  The  Royal  Institution,
its  Founder,  and  its  first  Professors,"  by  Dr.  Bence
Jones,  hon.  sec,  published  1871.
The  House  (in  Albemarle-street,  Piccadilly)  was  pur-
chased in  June,  1799,  and  the  present  front  was  added
by  subscription  in  1838.  The  Lecture  theatre  was
erected  in  1803,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  T.
Webster.
The  Laboratory  established  in  1800 ;  was  rebuilt,  with

the  modern  improvements,  1872.
The  Libkary  was  commenced  in  1S03,  by  the  munificent
subscriptions  of  the  proprietors  of  the  institution.
It  now  OS89)  comprises  about  50,000  volumes. Clas-
sified catalogues (by  W. Harris) wove published in
1809  and  1821;  new  ones(byB.  Vincent)in  i857and  1882.
The  Museum  contains  original  philosophical  apparatus
of  Young,  Cavendish,  Davy,  Faraday,  and  Do  la  Rue.
The  first  Lecture  was  delivered  4  March,  1801,  by  Dr


EOYAL  INSTITUTION.


EOYAL  SOCIETY.


Garnett,  he  being  the  first  professor  of  natural  philo-
sophy and  chemistry.

In  Aug.  he  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  so  cele-
brated for  his  researches  in  optics,  resulting  in  the
discovery  of  the  interference  of  light,  and  the  estab-
lishment of  the  theory  of  undulation.  His  "  Lectures
on  Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Mechanical  Arts,"  first
published  in  1807,  are  still  considered  a  text-book  of
physical  science.  His  works  on  antiquarian  literature
(hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  &c.)  are  highly  esteemed.

In  Feb.  1801,  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Humphry)  Davy  was
engaged  as  assistant  lecturer  and  director  of  the  labo-
ratory, and  on  31  May,  1802,  he  was  appointed  pro-
fessor of  chemistry.  His  lectures  were  eminently
successful,  and  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  elec-
tricity have  immortalised  his  name,  and  conferred
honour  on  the  institution.  By  him  the  alkaline  metals
potassium  and  sodium,  were  discovered  in  1807 ;  the
nature  of  chlorine  was  determined  in  1810,  and  the
safety-lamp  invented  in  1815.

William  Thomas  Brande  succeeded  sir  Humphry  Davy  as
professor  of  chemistry  in  1813,  and  held  that  office  till
his  resignation  in- 1852,  since  which  time,  till  his  death
(Feb.  1S66),  he  was  hon.  professor.  From  1S16  to  1850
he  delivered,  in  the  laboratory  of  this  institution,  his
celebrated  chemical  lectures  to  students.

lu  1813  Michael  Faraday  (born  22  Sept.  1791),  on  the
recommendation  of  sir  H.  Davy,  was  engaged  as  as-
sistant in  the  laboratory,  and  in  1825  as  its  director ;
in  1827  he  became  one  of  the  permanent  lecturers  of
the  institution.  In  1820  he  commenced  those  researches
in  electricity  and  magnetism  which  form  an  era  in  tli3
history  of  science.  In  1823-4  lie  discovered  the  con-,
densability  of  chlorine  and  other  gases;  in  1831  he
obtained  electricity  from  the  magnet ;  in  1845  he  ex-
hibited the  two-fold  magnetism  of  matter,  compre-
hending all  known  substances,  the  magnetism  of  gases,
flame,  &c. ;  in  1850  he  published  his  researches  on
atmospheric  magnetism :  died,  25  Aug.  1867.

Jjhil  Tyndall,  F.B.S.,  professor  of  natural  philosophy,
July,  1853,  hon.  professor,  9  May,  1887,  is  eminent  for
his  researches  on  magnetism,  heat,  glaciers,  &c.

L.ord  Rayleigh,  F.B.S.,  professor  of  natural  philosophy,
q  May,  1887  ;  is  eminent  for  his  researches  on  sound,
light,  &c.

l'.dward  Frankland,  F.  B.  S. ,  professor  of  chemistry  1863-8,
is  eminent  for  his  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry.

In  1804,  sir  J.  St.  Aubyn  and  other  gentlemen  proposed
to  form  a  school  of  mines  at  this  institution ;  but  the
plan,  although  warmly  supported  by  the  members,  was
withdrawn  for  want  of  encouragement  by  the  govern-
ment and  by  mining  proprietors.

The  weekly  evening  meetings,  on  the  Fridays,  from
January  to  June,  as  now  arranged,  commenced  in
1826.  Discourses  (of  which  abstracts  are  printed)  are
given  at  these  meetings  by  the  professors  of  the  insti-
tution, and  other  eminent  scientific  men.

Endowments. In  1833,  John  Fuller,  esq.,  of  Rosehill,

-  endowed  two  professorships,  of  chemistry  and  physio-
logy ;  the  former  bestowed  on  Mr.  Faraday  for  life ;
succeeded  by  Dr.  Wm.  Odling,  1868-73 ;  by  Dr.  John
Hall  Gladstone,  1874  ;  by  James  Dewar,  1877.  The
latter  on  Dr.  Eogetfor  three  years,  to  be  filled  up  after-
wards by  triennial  election. — The  Fullerian  professors
of  physiology  have  been  P.  M.  Boget,  B.  E.  Grant  T
B.  Jones,  W.  B.  Carpenter,  W.  W.  Gull,  T.  W.  Jones,
T.  H.  Huxley  (twice),  B.  Owen,  J.  Marshall,  Michael
Foster,  Wm.  Rutherford,  Alfred  II.  Garrod,  and  E.  A.
Schafei  (1878-81),  J.  G.  McKendrick,  1S81-4;  A.  Gamgee,
1884;  G.  J.  Romanes,  1888,  Victor  Horsley,  1S91.— In
1828,  Mrs.  Acton  gave  1000Z.  to  be  invested  for  paying
every  seven  years  100  guineas  for  the  best  essay  on  the
beneficence  of  the  Almighty,  as  illustrative  of  a  de-
partment of  science  ;  which  have  been  awarded — in
1844  to  Mr.  G.  Fownes;  in  1S51  to  Mr.  T.  Wharton
Jones ;  in  185s  no  award  was  made ;  in  1865  to  Mr.
George  Warington ;  in  1S72  to  Rev.  George  Henslow
and  B.  Thompson  Lowne  ;  in  1879,  to  Mr.  G.  S.  Boulger  ;
in  1886,  to  Prof.  (aft.  sir)  G.  G.  Stokes,  Pres.  B.S.

The  "Fund  for  the  Promotion  of  Experimental  Be-
search"  was  founded  on  6  July  ,1863,  by  sir  Henry
Holland,  Professor  Faraday,  sir  R.  I.  Murchisoii,  Dr.
Bence  Jones,  and  others.
The  first  officers  were  sir  Joseph  Banks,  president,  till  the
charter  was  granted,  afterwards  the  earl  of  Winchilsea ;
Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Thomas)  Bernard,  treasurer;  rev.'
Dr,  Samuel  Glasse,  secretary. — Algernon  duke  of
Northumberland,  E.G.,  elected  president,  1S42;  suc-


ceeded by  sir  Henry  Holland,  in  1S65  (died  27  Oct.
l873)  i  by  Algernon  George,  duke  of  Northumberland
E.G.,  1873.  W.  Pole,  esq.,  treasurer,  elected  1849 ;  suc-
ceeded by  Wm.  Spottiswoode,  esq.,  in  1865  ;  by  George
Busk,  esq.,  1873;  by  sir  Henry  Pollock,  esq.,  1886;  by
sir  James  Crichton  Browne,  1889.  The  rev.  John
Barlow,  secretary,  elected  1842  ;  succeeded  by  Henry
Bence  Jones,  M.D.,  i860;  by  Wm.  Spottiswoode,
l873  ;  by  Warren  de  la  Bue,  1879  ;  by  sir  Wm.  Bow-
man, Bart.,  1882;  by  sir  Frederick  Bramwell,  Bart.,
1885.  Librarians:  Vim.  Harris,  1803-23;  S.  Weller
Singer,  1826-35:  Win.  Mason,  1835-48;  Benjamin  Vin-
cent, 1849-89  (hon.  librarian,  1889);  Henry  Young,  1889.
21  eminent  foreign  scientific  men  were  elected  honorary
members,  4  May,  1S91,  in  relation  to  the  Faraday
centenary,  which  see.

EOYAL  MAEEIAGE  ACT,  &c,  see  Mar-
riage Act ;  Royal  Military  and  Naval  Asylums  ;
Navy,  and  Prerogative.

EOYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE,  see  Naval.

EOYAL  SOCIETY  (London).  In  1645
several  learned  men  met  in  London  to  discuss  philo-
sophical questions  and  report  experiments ;  the
Novum  Organon  of  Bacon,  published  in  1620,  hav-
ing given  great  impulse  to  such  pursuits.  Some  of
them  (Drs.  Wilkins,  "Wallis,  &c.),  about  1648-9,
removed  to  Oxford,  and  with  Dr.  (afterwards  bishop)
Seth  Ward,  the  hon.  Robert  Boyle.  Dr.  (afterwards
sir)  W.  Petty,  and  several  doctors  of  divinity  and
ph}'sic,  frequently  assembled  in  the  apartments  of
Dr.  Wilkins,  in  Wadham  college,  Oxford.  They
formed  what  has  been  called  the  Philosophical
Society  of  Oxford,  which  only  lasted  till  1690.  The
members  were,  about  1658,  called  to  various  parts
of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  their  respective  pro-
fessions ;  and  the  majority  coming  to  London,  con-
stantly attended  the  lectures  at  Gresham  college,
and  met  occasionally  till  the  death  of  Oliver  Crom-
well, 3  Sept.  1658  ;  see  Societies.

The  society  was  organised  in  1660,  and  constituted  by
Charles  II.  a  body  politic  and  corporate,  by  the  appella
tion  of  "  The  President,  Council,  and  Fellowship  of  the
Boyal  Society  of  London,  for  improving  Natural  Enow-
ledge,"  22  April,  1662.

Evelyn  records  the  first  anniversary  meeting,  St.  An-
drew's-day,  30  Nov.  1663.

The  Philosophical  Transactions  begin  6  March,  1664-5.

In  1668  Newton  invented  his  reflecting  telescope  (now  in
the  possession  of  the  society),  and  on  28  April,  1686,
presented  to  the  society  the  MS.  of  his  Principia,
which  the  council  ordered  to  be  printed.  This  was
done  under  the  superintendence  and  at  the  expense  of
Halley  the  astronomer,  at  that  time  clerk  to  the
society.

The  society  met  for  some  years  at  Gresham  College,  and
afterwards  at  Arundel  House  (1606),  where  it  came
into  possession  of  a  valuable  library,  presented  by  Mr.
Howard,  grandson  of  its  collector,  the  earl  of  Arundel.
After  various  changes  the  fellows  returned  to  Gresham
College,  where  they  remained  till  their  removal  to
Crane-court,  in  a  house  purchased  by  themselves,
8  Nov.  1710.

The  Bakerian  lecture  was  established  by  Henry  Baker,
1774-

The  first  Copley  medal  was  awarded  to  Stephen  Gray  in
1731 ;  the  royal  medal  to  John  Dalton,  1826  ;  the  Rum-
ford  medal  (instituted  in  1797)  to  count  Rumford  him-
self in  1800.

The  society  remove  to  apartments  granted  them  in  Somer-
set-house, 1780;  to  apartments  in  Burlington-house,
Piccadilly,  1857.

Parliament  votes  annually  4000?.  to  the  Boyal  Society
for  scientific  purposes.

Regulations  made  by  which  only  fifteen  fellows  are  to  be
annually  elected,  who  pay  ten  pounds  on  admission,  and
fourpounds  annually,  ora  composition  of  sixty  pounds,
March,  1S47.  In  consequence,  the  number  of  fellows
was  reduced  from  839  in  1847,  to  626  in  1866  ;  to  567  in
1875  ;  to  552  in  1S77  ;  to  523  in  1888.
The.  entrance  fee  abolished,  and  the  annual  payment  re-
duced to  3/.,  announced,  Nov.  1878.


EOYAL  SOCIETY.


839


RUNES.


The  "Royal  Society  Scientific  Fund"  was  founded  in
imitation  of  the  "Literary  Fund"  in  1859  ;  see  Scien-
tific Fund.
The  Davy  Medal  (which  see)  first  awarded,  Nov.  1877
The  Darwin  medal  (see  Development)  first  awarded,  1S90.

PRESIDENTS.

1660.  Sir  Robert  Moray. |  1772.  Sir  John  Pringle.
Lord  Brouncker.


!663.

1677.  Sir  Joseph  Williamson

1 680.  Sir  Christopher  Wren.

1682.  Sir  John  Hoskyns.

1683.  Sir  Cyril  Wyche.

1684.  Samuel  Pepys,  author

of  Diary.
1686.  John,  earl  of  Carbery.

1689.  Thomas,  earl  of  Pem-

broke.

1690.  Sir  Robert  Southwell.
1695.  Chas.  Montague  (afts.

earl  of  Halifax).
1698.  John,  lord  Somers.
Sir Isaac Newton
(M.P. for Cam-
bridge University,
1688-1705).
Sir  Hans  Sloane.
Martin  Folkes.
George,  earl  of  Mac-
clesfield.
1764.  James,  earl  of  Morton,
1768.  James  Burrow.

,, James  West.
1772.  James  Burrow.


J7°3-


1727.
1741.

'752'


1778.  Sir  Joseph  Banks.

1820.  Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston.
,, Sir  Humphry  Davy.

1827.  Davies  Gilbert.

1830.  Duke  of  Sussex.

1838.  Marquis  of  North-
ampton.

1848.  Earl  of  Rosse.

1854.  Lord  Wrottesley.

1858.  Sir  Benj.  C.  Brodie.

1861.  Maj.-gen.  sir  Edward
Sabine.

1871.  Sir  G.  B.  Airy.

1873.  Dr.,  afterwards  sir,
Joseph  Dalton
Hooker.

1878.  Wm. Spottiswoode,
died  27  June,  1883.

1883.  T.  H.  Huxley,  5  July.

1885.  Sir  George  G.  Stokes,
30  Nov.  (M.P.,
18S7),  Bart.,  1889.

1890.  Sir  William  Thomson,
1  Dec.  (created
Baron  Kelvin,  Feb.
1892.)


EOYAL  SOCIETY  of  Edinburgh,  incor-
porated 29  March,  1783,  arose  out  of  the  Philoso-
phical Society  of  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1739.  It
received  a  second  charter  in  1811.

EOYAL  SOCIETY  of  Literature  was

founded  under  the  auspices  of  king  George  IV.  in
1823,  and  chartered  13  Sept.  1826.

EOYAL  STYLE,  Sec,  see  Style,  Royal,  and
Titles.

EOYAL  UNIVEESITY  of  Ireland,  see

University.

EUBICON,  a  small  river  flowing  into  the
Adriatic  sea,  separated  Cisalpine  Gaul  from  Italy
proper.  Roman  generals  were  forbidden  to  pass
this  river  at  the  head  of  an  army.  Julius  Crcsar
did  so,  Jan.  49  B.C.,  and  thereby  began  a  revolt  and
deadly  civil  war.

EUBLDIUM,  an  alkaline  metal,  discovered  by
Bunsen  by  means  of  the  spectrum  analysis,  and
made  known  in  1861.

EUBEICS,  directions  in  church  offices,  often
printed  in  red.  New  ones  for  the  English  service
agreed  to  by  convocation,  4  July,  1879.

EUBY  MINES  OF  Burmaii,  Tavernier
(middle  of  the  17th  century)  describes  it  as  a  place
where  rubies  and  other  precious  stones  are  largely
obtained,  iu  a  country  difficult  of  access.  Similar
accounts  were  given  by  Father  Giuseppe  d'Amato,
about  1830.  The  largest  stones  were  royal  property.
Mr.  Biedemcyer  had  charge  of  these  and  other
mines  in  1868.  Ecvcnue  about  1855,  from  12,500/.
to  15,000/.  per  annum.  These  mines  are  now
British  property  (sec  under  Burmah,  1885),  and
for  the  use  of  them  a  revenue  is  paid  by  the  Shan
tribes,  1887.  An  agreement  respecting  them
made  between  the  Indian  Government  and  Messrs.
Strceter  &  Co.  of  London,  announced  May,  1887;
suspended  July,  1887.  "Working  licences  issued  to
persons  on  the  spot,  1887.  Lease  for  seven  years
to  the  Strceter  Syndicate  sinned  at  the  India  office,
22  Feb.  18S9;  formation  of  a  company  headed  by
Messrs.  Rothschild,  March  et  seq.,  1889.  Visit  of
sir  Lepel  Uriffin  to  the  mines,  satisfactory  to  the
company,  reported  March,  1S90.


EUEFLES became fashionable about 1520;
and  went  out  about  1790.
EUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was

founded  in  1567  by  Lawrence  Sheriff,  a  London
tradesman ;  its  arrangements  were  affected  by  the
Public  Schools  act  1868.  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold,  the
historian,  entered  on  the  duties  of  head-master  he.'
in  August,  1828,  and  under  him  the  school  greatly-
prospered.  He  died  12  June,  1842.  Ilis  successors
were  Drs.  Tait,  Goulbourn,  Temple,  and  Hayman.
See  Nexv  Rugby.

Dr.  H.  Hayman  was  opposed  by  the  masters  of  the
school,  and  after  much  dissension  and  discussion,  was
dismissed  by  the  trustees,  Dec.  1873,  and  Dr.  Jex
Blake  elected  in  his  room,  Feb.  1874.  Succeeded  by
Rev.  J.  Percival,  Nov.  1886.  Vice-Chancellor  Malius
decided  against  Dr.  Hayman  in  his  attempt  to  set
aside  his  dismissal,  but  expressed  his  own  opinion  011
"the  grievous  hardship  of  Dr.  Hayman's  case,"  21
March,  1874.
Mr. Disraeli,  the premier,  presented Dr. Hayman to

the  living  of  Aldingham,  Lancashire,  April,  1874.
Population  of  Rugby  in  1881,  0,891  ;  1891,  11,262.

BUGEN,  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  has  frequently
changed  masters,  having  been  held  by  the  Danes,
Swedes,  and  Erench.  It  was  transferred  to  Prussia
in  1815.

EUHMKOEFF'S INDUCTION COIL,

see  Induction.

"EULE,  BEITANNIA."  Nearly  all  the
words  are  by  James  Thomson  ;  the  music,  ascribed
to  Dr.  Arne,  is  said  by  Schoelcher  (in  his  life  of
Handel)  to  have  been  taken  from  an  air  in  Handel's
"  Occasional  Oratorio  "  composed  1746,  but  the  song
and  music  were  really  printed  in  Dr.  Arne' s  masque
of  "Alfred,"  1740. Grove.

EULE-OF-THE-EOAD,  see  Seas.

EULING  MACHINES,  used  for  ruling
paper  with  faint  lines,  for  merchants'  account-
books,  &c.  They  were  invented  by  an  ingenious
Dutchman,  resident  in  London,  in  1782,  and  were
subsequently  greatly  improved  by  Woodmason,
Payne,  Brown,  and  others.  They  were  improved
in  Scotland  in  1803.  An  invention  has  lately  ren-
dered account-books  perfect  by  the  numbering  of
the  pages  with  types,  instead  of  the  numbers  being
written  by  a  pen,  so  that  a  page  cannot  be  torn  out
from  them  without  being  discovered.  The  late  Herr
F.  A.  Nobert  devised  a  ruling  machine  in  1845  for
the  production  of  microscopical  test  plates,  durras-
tion  gratings,  and  micrometers,  specimens  of  which
were  exhibited  in  185 1.  The  test  plates  contain
bands  of  lines  in  a  graduated  scries  of  fineness  from
TomT  *°  20000  °f  a  Paris  line.

EUM  (French  rhum),  ardent  spirit  distilled
from  sugar  lees  and  molasses,  deriving  its  peculiar
flavour  from  a  volatile  oil.  Rum  is  principally
made  in  the  West  Indies.  The  duty  (since  1858)  on
colonial  rum  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  is
8s.  2cl.  per  gallon.  The  duty  on  rum  to  be  employed
as  methylated  spirits  was  reduced  in  1863.

Imported.  Gallons.

1881  . . 4,816,887

1882  . . .  7,305,671

1883  . . 5,979,490

1884  . . .  7.376,47^

1885  . . 6,877,581

1886  . . .  5, 100,010

1887  . . 6,362,070
1890  . . .  6,237,77 1

EUMFOED  MEDAL,  see  Royal  Society.
EUMP  PAELIAMENT,  sec  Pride's  Purge.
EUNES. Alphabetic characters,  probably of
rhtenician  origin,  but  popularly  ascribed  to  the  god


Imported.

Gallons.

1848

6,858,981

1851 .

•  4.745.244

1857

• 6,5x5,683

1863 .

•  7-I94,738

1871

7,526,890

1S77 .

•  7.92°.I50

1879

6,946,657

1880  .

.  6,107,661

BUNNY-MEDE.


840


KUSSIA.


Odin,  cut  or  scratched  on  stone  monuments,  wea-
pons, ornaments,  implements,  &c,  which  have  been
hypothetically  dated  from  iooo  B.C.  to  iooo  a.d.  ;
principally  found  in  Scandinavia  and  England,  and
sometimes  in  Western  Europe.  Professor  George
Stephens,  of  Copenhagen,  in  his  "  Old  Northern
Eunic  Monuments  in  Scandinavia  and  England  "
(1866-84),  nas  given  the  results  of  forty  years'
studies.

EUNNY-MEDE  (council-mead),  near  Egham,
Surrey.  Here  king  John  granted  Magna  Charta,
15  June,  1215.

EUPEBT'S  LAND  (N.  America),  or  Bed
Biver  Settlement,  formerly  the  territories  of  the
Hudson's  bay  company,  was  made  a  bishopric  in
1849. See  Hudson's  Bay,  Canada,  and  Manitoba.

EITPTUEE  SOCIETY,  London,  established
1804;  see  Truss.

EUEAL  CONFEBENCES. A  meeling  in
London  of  delegates  from  rural  districts,  organised
in  connection  with  the  National  Liberal  Federation,
claiming  reform,  10  Dec.  1891. Mr.  AY.  E.  Glad-
stone addressed  the  conference,  II  Dec.  1891.
A  congress  of  labourers, &c, organized by  the
Eastern  Counties  Conservative  Associations,  was
held  at  Ely. The  Rt. Hon. Henry Chaplin,

present 29  Jan.  1892

Rural Labourers' League  : Mr. Jesse Collings,
president ;  3rd  annual  meeting,  at  Westminster  ;
the  duke  of  Devonshire  and  Mr.  Joseph  Chamber-
lain, present . .  • . . . 17  Feb. ,,
Rural  conference  at  Leicester  . . .2  April, ,,

BUSKIN  MUSEUM,  see  Sheffield,  1881-90.
Buskin  society  of  London,  formed  for  the  promotion
of  Mr.  Ruskin's  opinions  in  relation  to  art,  in-
augurated at  the  London  Institution  .  21  March,  1890

EUSSELL ADMINISTBATIONS,* see

Balmerston  Administration,  &c.

first  administration  (formed  on  the  resignation  of  sir
Robert  Peel),  July,  1846.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  lord  John  Russell.

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Cottenham  (succeeded  by  lord
Truro).

Lord  president  of  the  council,  marquis  of  Lansdowne.

Privy  seal,  earl  of  Minto.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  (aft.  sir  Charles)  Wood.

Foreign,  home,  and  colonial  secretaries,  viscount  Pal-
merston,  sir  George  Grey,  and  earl  Grey.

Boards  of  control  and  trade,  sir  John  Hobhouse  (aft.  lord
Broughton),  and  earl  of  Clarendon  (succeeded  by  Mr.
Labouchere).

Admiralty,  the  earl  of  Auckland  (succeeded  by  sir
Francis  Thornhill  Baring).

Ditchy  of  Lancaster,  lord  Campbell  (succeeded  by  the  earl
of  Carlisle,  late  viscount  Morpeth).

Secretary  at  war,  Mr.  Fox  Maule.

Postmaster,  marquis  of  Clanricarde.

Paymaster-general,  T.  B.  Macaulay.

Lord  John  Russell  and  his  colleagues  resigned  their
offices,  21  Feb.  1851  ;  but  were  induced  (after  the
failure  of  lord  Stanley's  party  to  form  an  adminis-
tration) to  return  to  power,  3  March  following.

*  Lord  John  Russell,  third  son  of  John,  duke  of
Bedford,  was  born  19  Aug.  1792;  M.P.  for  Tavistock,
1813  ;  for  London,  1841-61  ;  was  paymaster  of  the  forces,
1830-34  ;  secretary  for  home  department,  1835-9  :  f°r  the
colonies,  1839-41  ;  first  minister,  July  1846  to  March
1852 ;  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Dec.  1852  to  Feb.
1853;  president  of  the  council,  June  1854  to  Feb.  1855;
secretary  for  the  colonies,  March  to  Nov.  1855  ;  secretary
for  foreign  affairs,  June  1859  to  Oct-  1865,  when  he  suc-
ceeded lord  Palmerston  as  premier ;  created  a  peer,  as
earl  Russell,  30  July,  1861.  His  motion  for  reform  in
parliament  was  negatived  in  1822  ;  adopted  1  March,
1831  ;  he  introduced  the  registration  bill  and  a  new
marriage  bill  in  1836  ;  introduced  and  withdrew  a  reform
lull,  i860;  died,  28  May,  1878.


second  administration  (or  continuation  of  his  first)»
March,  1851.

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  lord  John  Russell.

President  of  the  council,  marquis  of  Lansdowne.

Lord  privy  seal,  earl  of  Minto.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  sir  Charles  Wood.

Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries,  sir  George  Grey,
viscount  Palmerston  (succeeded  by  earl  Granville,  22
Dec),  and  earl  Grey.

Lord  chancellor,  lord  Truro.

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  sir  Francis  T.  Baring.

Board  of  control,  lord  Broughton.

Board  of  trade,  Mr.  Labouchere.

Secretary  at  war,  Mr.  Fox  Maule  (aft.  lord  Panmure,  and
earl  of  Dalhousie).

Postmaster-general,  marquis  of  Clanricarde.

Paymaster-general,  earl  Granville.

Lord  Seymour,  earl  of  Carlisle,  <fec.

This  ministry  resigned  21  Feb.  1852  ;  see  Derby  Adminis-
tration.

third  administration.  (On  the  decease  of  lord  Pal-
merston, 18  Oct.  1865,  earl  Russell  received  Her
Majesty's  commands  to  reconstruct  the  adminis-
tration.)

First  lord  of  the  treasury,  John,  earl  Russell.

Lord  chancellor,  Robert,  lord  Cranworth.

Postmaster-general,  John,  lord  Stanley  of  Alderley.

President  of  the  poor-law  board,  Chas.  Pelham  Villiers.

Lord  president  of  the  council,  George,  earl  Granville.

Jiord  privy  seed,  George,  duke  of  Argyll.

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Wm.  E.  Gladstone.

Secretaries— foreign  affairs,  George,  earl  of  Clarendon  ;
colonies,  Edward  Cardwell ;  home,  sir  George  Grey ;
war,  George,  earl  de  Grey  and  Ripon,  succeeded  by
Spencer,  marquis  of  Hartington,  Feb.  1866 ;  India,  sir
Charles  Wood,  resigned  (created  viscount  Halifax);
succeeded  by  earl  De  Grey,  Feb.  1866.

First  lord  of  the  admiralty,  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset.

President  of  the  board  of  trade,  Thos.  Milner  Gibson.

Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  George  J.  Gbschen.

Secretary  for  Ireland,  Chichester  Fortescue.

This  ministry  resigned,  26  June,  1866,  in  consequence  of
a  minority  on  19  June  (see  under  Beform,  and  Derby
Administrations).

EUSSELL  INSTITUTION  (Great  Coram-
street,  London),  was  founded  in  1808  by  sir  Samuel
Eomilly,  Erancis  Horner,  Dr.  Mason  Good,  Henry
Hallam,  sir  James  Scarlett  (aft.  lord  Abinger),  and
others.  The  building  comprises  a  library,  news
room,  billiard  room,  &c.

EUSSELL .  TEI AL.  William,  lord  Eussell'a
trial  for  complicity  in  the  Eye-house  plot  was
marked  by  a  most  touching  scene.  When  he  re-
quested to  have  some  one  near  him  to  take  notes  to
help  bis  memory,  he  was  answered,  that  any  of
his  attendants  might  assist  him ;  upon  which  he
said,  "  My  wife  is  here,  and  will  do  it  for  me."
He  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln' s-Inn-Fields,  21  July,
1683.  Lady  Eussell  survived  him  forty  years,
dying  29  Sept.  1 723,  in  her  eighty-seventh  year,
His  attainder  was  reversed,  1  Will.  III.  1689.

EUSSIA,  the  eastern  part  of  ancient  Sarmatia.
The  name  is  generally  derived  from  the  Eoxolani,
a  Slavonic  tribe.  Euric,  a  Varangian  chief,
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  establish  a  govern-
ment, 862.  His  descendants  ruled  amid  many
vicissitudes  till  1598.  The  progress  of  the  Eussian
power  under  Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine  II.  is
unequalled  for  rapidity  in  the  history  of  the  world.
The  established  religion  of  Eussia  is  the  Greek
church,  with  toleration  of  other  sects,  even  Mahome-
tans. By  an  imperial  ukase,  in  1802,  six  universi-
ties were  established,  viz.,  at  St.  Petersburg,
Moscow,  Wilna,  Dorpat  (in  Livonia),  Charcov,  and
Kasan  ;  but  literature  made  little  progress  till  the
present  centuiy,  the  native  publications  being
very  few,  and  the  best  books  being  translations.
The Eussian language, though not devoid of


RUSSIA.


841


EUSSIA.


elegance,  is,  to  a  foreigner,  of  very  difficult  pro-
nunciation :  the  number  of  letters  and  diphthongs  is
forty-two.  The  population  of  the  empire  in  1867,
82,159,630;  in  1872,  about  85,685,9.15;  in  1877
(estimated),  86,952,347;  in  1885,  108,843,192.  By
the  first  itussian  budget  (1862),  the  estimated
revenue  was  34, 500,000^. ;  expenditure,  37,850,000^.
Besides  about  560  cathedrals,  about  35,000  churches
(Greek  church,  which  see).

Russia  invaded  by  the  Huns . . . a.d. 376
Ruric  the  Norman  or  Varangian,  arrives  at  Novgorod
(or  New  City),  and  becomes  grand  duke  [anni-
versary kept  20  Sept.  1862] 862

Oleg  successfully  invades  the  Greek  empire . . 907
Baptism  of  Olga,  widow  of duke  Igor, at  Con-
stantinople, about 955

Vladimir  the  Great  marries  Anne, sister  of  the

emperor  Basil  II.,  and  is  baptized . . - 988
The  Golden  Horde  of  Tartars  conquer  a  large  part

of  Russia  about 1223

The  grand  duke  Jurie  killed  in  battle  .  .  '  .  1237
Alexander  Newski  defeats  the  invading  Danes  .  1241
The  Tartars  establish  the  empire  of  the  khan  of

Kaptschak,  and  exercise  great  influence  in  Russia  1242
He  is  made  grand  duke  of  Russia  by  the  Tartars .  1252

Moscow  made  the  capital 1300

Tartar  war,  ^80  ;  Moscow  burnt 1383

Tamerlane  invades  Russia,  but  retires  .  .  .  1395
Accession  of  Ivan  III.  the  Great— able  and  despotic,

founds  the  present  monarchy 1462

Ivan  introduces  fire-arms  and  cannon  into  Russia  .  1475
Great  invasion  of  the  Tartars ; consternation  of

Ivan 1479

His  general  Svenigorod  annihilates  their  power .  1481

War  with  Poland 1506-23

The  English  "Russian  company"  established  . 1553

Richard  Chancellor  sent  to  open  the  trade  . .  1554

Discovery  of  Siberia ,,

The  royal  body-guard  (the  Strelitz)  established  .  1568
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of

England 1579

Murder  of  Feodor  I. ,  last  of  the  race  of  Ruric,  which

had  governed  Russia  for  700  years . . . .  1598
The imposition  of  Demetrius (see Impostors). —

Matins  of  Moscow  . . . .29  May,  1606

Michael  Fedorovitz,  of  the house  of  Romanoff,

ascends  the  throne 1613

Finland  ceded  to  Sweden 1617

Russian  victories  in  Poland  1654

Subjugation  of  the  Cossacks 1671

Reign  of  Ivan  and  Peter  I.  or  the  Great . . .  1682

Peter  sole  sovereign 1689

He  visits  Holland  and  England,  and  works  in  the

dockyard  at  Deptford 1697

Recalled  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  Strelitz,  which  he
cruelly  revenges  ;  2000  tortured  and  slain  ;  he  be-
heads many  with  his  own  hand ....  1698
The  Russians  begin  their  new  year  from  1  Jan.  (but

retain  the  old  style) 1700

War  with  Sweden  ;  Peter  totally  defeated  by  Charles

XII.  at  Narva 30  Nov. „

Peter  founds  St.  Petersburg  as  a  new  capital,  27  May,  1703

The  Strelitz  abolished 1704

Charles  XII.  totally  defeated  by  Peter  at  Pultowa,

and  flees  to  Turkey 8  July,  1709

14,000  Swedish  prisoners  sent  to  Siberia  ,,

War  with  Turkey  :  Peter  and  his  army  cross  the

Pruth,  and  are  surrounded  by  the  Turks  ;  they

escape  by  the  energy  of  the  empress  Catherine,

who  obtains  a  truce  .... June,  1711

Esthonia, Livonia, and  a  large  part  of  Finland

added  to  the  empire 1715

Peter  visits  Germany,  Holland,  and  France . . ,,

The  Jesuits  expelled 1718

Conspiracy  and  mysterious  death  of  prince  Alexis

7  Jlll>', >j
Peter  II.  (last  of  the  Romanoffs)  deposed,  and  the

crown  given  to  Anne  of  Courland  . . . 1730

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.,  reigns,  in  prejudice

of  Ivan  VI. ,  an  infant,  who  is  imprisoned  for  life 1741
refer  III.  dethroned  and  murdered,  succeeded  by

Catherine  his  wife 1762

Ivan  VI.,  the  rightful  heir,  till  now  immured,  put

to  death i764

Treaty  of  KutschOUC  Kainardji ; independence  of
the  Crimea  and  freedom  of  Black  sea . July,  1774


Rebellion  of  the  Cossacks,  1774  ;  suppressed . . 1775
Successful  invasions  of  the  Crimea . . .  1769-84
Dismemberment  of  Poland  ;  commenced  by  Cathe-
rine (see  Poland),  1772 ;  completed . . .  1795
Catherine  gives  her  subjects  a  new  code  of  laws  ;
abolishes  torture  in  punishing  criminals  ; and

dies J796

Unsuccessful  war  with  Persia „

Russian  treaty  with  Austria  and  England . .  1798
Suwarrow,  with  an  army  joins  the  Austrians,  and

checks  the  French  in  Italy 1799

Mental  derangement  of  Paul, 1800; murdered,

24  March,  1801
Alexander  I.  makes  peace  with  England .  May, , ,
He  joins  the  coalition  against  France .  11  April,  1805
Allies  defeated  at  Austerlitz  . . .  2  Dec. ,,

Treaty  of  Tilsit  with  France  ...  7  July,  1807
Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks,  near  Silistria,

26  Sept.  1809

War  with  France June,  1812

The  Russians  defeated  at  Smolensko,  17  Aug.  ;  and

at  the  Borodino 7  Sept. ,,

Moscow  burnt  by  the  Russians,  14  Sept.  ;  retreat  of

the  French  begins 15  Oct. ,,

Alexander  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Oct.  1813;

entered  Paris March,  1814

He  visits  England June, ,,

Forms  the  Holy  Alliance 1815

The  grand  duke  Constantine  renounces  the  right  of

succession 26  Jan.  1822-

Death  of  Alexander, 1  Dec.  ;  Pestal's  conspiracy
against  Nicholas I.  ;  insurrection  of  troops  at
Moscow  ;  suppressed . . . 26-29  Dec.  1825
Nicholas  crowned  at  Moscow . . .3  Sept.  1826-

War  against  Persia 28  Sept. ,,

Nicholas  visits  England  ;  invested  with  the  order  of

the  Garter . . . .  ' . • 9  Jul3'.  lS27
Peace  between  Russia  and  Persia . . 22  Feb.  182S
War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Porte  declared
(see  Turkey  and  Battles) . . . 26  April, ,,

Peace  of  Adrianople 14  Sept.  1829

The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland  against

Russia  (see  Poland) .... 29  Nov. 1830
Failure  of  the  expedition  against  Khiva .  Jan.  1840

Treaty  of  London  (see  Syria) . . 15  July, ,,
The  emperor  Nicholas  arrives  in  London  . 1  June,  1844
The  grand  duke  Constantine  arrives  at  Portsmouth

in  the  Ingermanland,  of  74  guns .  9  June,  1846

[For  the  participation  of  Russia  in  the  Hungarian

war  of  1848-9,  see  Hungary.]
Russia  demands  the  expulsion  of  the  Hungarian
and  Polish  refugees  from  Turkey  (see  Turkey)

5  Nov.  1849
They  are  sent  to  Konieh,  in  Asia  Minor . Jan.  1850
Conspiracy  against  the  emperor  detected 6  Jan. ,,
Harbour  of  Sebastopol  completed . . Feb. ,,
The  emperor  decrees  seven  men  in  each  thousand
of  the  population  of  Western  Russia  to  be  enrolled
in  the  army,  giving  a  total  increase  of  180,000

soldiers Aug. „

St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  railway  begun  . .  1851

The  czar  visits  Vienna  ....  8  May,  1852
Concentrates  forces  on  frontiers  of  Turkey  .  Feb.  1853
Origin  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  (which  see,  and

Holy  Places) March, ,,

Conference  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and

Austria  at  Olmutz  . . . .24  Sept. ,,

And  king  of  Prussia  at  Warsaw  .  .  .  2  Oct.  ,,
Interview  of  Mr.  J.  Sturge  aud  other  quakers  with

the  czar  to  obtain  peace ....  Feb.  1854
The  northern  provinces  put  iu  a  state  of  siege,

S  March, ,,
The  czar  issues  a  manifesto  to  his  subjects  ;  he  will
combat only for  the faith and Christianity,

23  April, ,,
Death  of  the  czar  Nicholas,  and  accession  of  Alex-
ander II.  ;  no  change  of  policy . .  2  .March,  1855
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at

Nicolaieff) 3  Nov. „

He  visits  his  army  at  Sebastopol  . . 10  Nov. ,,
Death  of  prince  Ivan  Paskiewitsch,  aged  74 1  Feb.  1856
Treaty  of  peace  at  Paris . . . 30  March, ,,
Alexander  Gortschakoll"  foreign  minister  and  chan-
cellor 29  April, ,,

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Poles,  27  May  :  live  poli-
tical offenders,  &c.  ;  Alexander  II.  crowned  at
Moscow 7  Sept.


KUSSIA.


842


KUSSIA.


Manifesto  on  account  of  the  English  and  French
interference  in  the  affairs  of  Naples . 2  Sept.  1856

St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw  railway  begun  by  go-
vernment, 1851 ;  ceded  to  Great  Russian  railway
company  (about  335  miles,  the  half  completed) . ,,

Grand  duke  Constantine  visits  France  and  England,

.April,  1857

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  Napoleon  at  Stutgardt,
25  Sept.  ;  and  the  emperor  of  Austria  at  Weimar,

1  Oct „

Partial  emancipation  of  the  serfs  on  the  imperial
domains  . . . . . . .2  July, 1858

A  Russian  naval  station  established  at  Villa  Franca,
on  the  Mediterranean,  creates  some  political  ex-
citement Aug. ,,

New  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain 12  Jan. 1859

Russia  reproves  the  warlike  movements  of  the  Ger-
man confederation  duringthe  Italian  war,  27  May, ,,

The  czar  protests  against  the  recognition  of  the
sovereignty  of  peoples 13  Feb. 1S60

Fruitless  meetings  of  the  emperors  of  Russia  and
Austria and the  regent  of  Prussia  at  Warsaw

20-25  Oct. ,,

Treaty  with  China  for  enlargement  of  commerce

1  Jan.  1S61

Decree  for  the  total  emancipation  of  the  serfs
(23,000,000)  throughout  the.  empire  in  two  years

-  (19  Feb.) ........ 3  March, „

Demonstrations  and  repression  in  Poland  (which  sec)

Feb. -April, „
Disturbances  in  South  Russia,  caused  by  an  im-
postor asserting  himself  to  be  a  descendant  of

-  Peter III. ; many  peasants shot or flogged

May  and  June, ,,
Inundations  at  Kiev,  Moscow;  615  houses  under

water May, „

Death  of  prince  Michael  Gortschakoff,  governor  of
Poland  ... . . . 14  May, „

Student  riots  at  the  university  of  St.  Petersburg,

which  is  closed,  6-9  Oct. .;  reopened . 24  Oct. ,,
The  nobles  sign  a  petition  for  a  political  constitution

Nov. ,,
Increased  privileges  granted  to  the  Jews .  26  Jan.  1862
Death  of  Nesselrode,  the  chancellor  of  the  empire,

20  March, ,,
Alarming  increase  of  fires  at  St.  Petersburg  and
Moscow  ;  the  government  suppresses  various  edu-
. cational  institutions .... June, ,,

Russia  recognises  the  kingdom  of  Italy 10  July, „
1000th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  Rus-
sian monarchy  at  Novgorod,  celebrated 20  Sept. ,,
Re-organisation  of  the  departments  of  justice  de-
■ creed  ;  juries  to  be  enrployed  in  trials,  &c.  14  Oct. ,,
Trade  tax  bill  introduced,  admitting  foreigners  to
]nerchants'"guilds,  &c. . . . 26  Nov. ,,

Insurrection  in  Poland . . . 22-24  Jan- 1863

[For  events,  see  Poland.]
Termination  of  serfdom  . . . 3  March, ,,

Provincial institutions established throughout

Russia 13  Jan.  1864

Great  victory  over  the  Oubykhs  in  the  Caucasus,  31

March  ;  emigration  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  into

Turkey,  April ;  submission  of  the  A'ibgas  ; the

war  declared  to  be  at  an  end ... 2  June, „

The  cesarevitch  betrothed  to  the  princess  Dagmar

of  Denmark .....  28  Sept- ,,

Serfdom  abolished  in  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces  :

new  judicial  system  promulgated . . Dec. ,,
The  Russian  nobles  request  the  emperor  to  esta-
blish two  houses  of  representatives  [declined]

24  Jan. 1865
New  province,  "  Turkestan,"  in  central  Asia,  created

14  Feb.  „
The  cesarevitch  Nicholas  dies  at  Nice  .  24  April,  ,,
Industrial  exhibition  at  Moscow  closes  .  16  July,  ,,
Censorship  of  the  press  relaxed  ;  law  begins,  13  Sept.  ,,
Rupture with  the  pope, on account  of  Russian

severity  to  Polish  clergy . .  Jan.  and  Feb.  1866
Assembly  of  the  nobility  ;  short,  stormy  session

March, ,,
Inauguration  of.  trial  by  jury  in  Russia .  8  Aug. „
Karakozow  attempts  to  assassinate  the czar, 16
April  ;  after  long  investigation  into  the  origin  of
the  plot,  he  is  executed ... 15  Sept. ,,
War  with  Bokhara  ;  conflicts  with  varying  results  ;

Russians  advance  in  May,  ct  seq. ;  ended .  Nov. ,,
Marriage  of  prince  Alexander,  heir  to  the  crown,  to
princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark . • . • 9  Nov. ,,


Emancipation  of  many  state  serfs  in  Poland,  n  Nov.  1866
Three  decrees  for  abolishing  the  remains  of  Polish

nationality 1  Jan.  1S67

Congress  of  Slavonian  deputies  at  Moscow 5  May, ,,
Russian  America  sold  to  the United  States  for
7,000,000  dollars,  by  treaty,  13  March;  ratified

iS  May,  ,,
Amnesty  in  favour  of  the  Poles  .  .  29  May,  ,,
The  czar  visits  Paris  (which  see)  .  .  .  June,  ,,
Escapes  assassination  by  Berezowski,  a  Pole,

6  June,  ,,
Decree  for  the  use  of  the  Russian  language  in  the

Baltic  provinces 7  July, ,,

A  Romanist  college  to  replace  the  authority  of  the

pope,  established  at  St.  Petersburg . 2  Aug. ,,
The separate  interior  government  in  Poland  sup-
pressed 29  Feb.  1868

Samarcand  taken  by  Kaufmann  .  .  26  May,  ,,
Amnesty  for  political  offences  granted  .  6  June,  ,,
Polish language interdicted  in  public  places  in

Poland July, ,,

The  Government  Messenger,  official  journal,  published

at  St.  Petersburg 13  Jan.  1869

Socialist  secret  conspiracy  among  the  students,
headed  by  Sergius  Netschajew,  detected  ;  the  in-
former assassinated Jan.  1870

Burlingame,  Chinese  envoy,  arrives  .  2  Feb.  ,,
Dies  at  St.  Petersburg  . . . .22  Feb. ,,

Russia  neutral  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  July,  ,,
Said  to  be  arming,  20  Sept.  ;  contradicted  27  Sept.  ,,
Fruitless visit  of  M. Thiers  at  St.  Petersburg  on

behalf  of  the  French  government  .  27  Sept.  ,,
Diplomatic  circular  of  prince  Gortschakoff,  foreign
minister,  repudiating  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of
30  March,  1856,  respecting  the  Black  Sea,  31  Oct.  ;
received  by  earl  Granville,  9  Nov. ,  who  replies,
maintaining  the  force  of  the  treaty  .  10  Nov.  ,,
Vigorous  protest  of  British  and  Austrian  govern-
ments 16  Nov. ,,

Decree  for  forming  military  reserves,  about  16  Nov. ,,
Conciliatory  despatch  from  prince  Gortschakoff  to
earl  Granville,  agreeing  to  a  conference  for  revi-
sion of  the  treaty  of  1856 . . . 20  Nov. ,,
Prussian  government  expresses  surprise  at  Gortscha-
koff s circular, and  proposes  a  conference

about  26  Nov. ,,
Firm  courteous  despatch  from  earl  Granville,  con-
senting to  a  conference  which  shall  "assemble
without  any  foregone  conclusion " . 28  Nov. ,,
The  other  powers  agree  to  a  conference 7  Dec. ,,
Re-organisation  of  the  army  ordered . . Jan.  1871
The  conference  meets  in  London . .17  Jan. ,,
The  Black  Sea  clauses  abrogated  (see  Black  Sea),  by

treaty,  signed 13  March, ,,

Schamyl,  the  Circassian  chief,  dies  about April, ,,
The  grand  duke  Wladimir  visits  England . June, ,,
Military  exercises,  sham  battles  round  St.  Peters-
burg, 30,000  engaged  ;  emperor  present,

15-23  Aug. „
Trial  of  persons  implicated  in  a  socialist  conspiracy
(at  St.  Petersburg) ;  many  condemned  to  impri-
sonment .  Sept. ,,

Electric  telegraph  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Naga-
saki, Japan,  completed .... Nov. ,,

200th  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Peter  the  Great,
30  May,  1672  (o.s.),  solemnly  observed  by  the  court
and  nation . . . . . .11  June,  1S72

Peter  the  Great  ironclad  (incomplete)  launched  at

St.  Petersburg Aug. ,,

Great  Russian  Encyclopaedia  undertaken  by  prof.

Beresina autumn ,,

Reconnoitring  expedition  to  Khiva ;  defeat  of  gen.

Markosoff  announced .... Dec. ,,
Diplomatic  visit  of  count  Schouvaloff  to  London
respecting  this  ;  presented  to  the  queen  ;  Russian
concessions  reported  satisfactory . 13  Jan,  1S73
Expeditions  against  Khiva  start . . March, ,,
The  emperor  of  Germany  warmly  received  at  St.

Petersburg 27  April, ,,

The  Shah  of  Persia  visits  St.  Petersburg  22-31  May,  ,,
Khiva  surrenders,  10  June  ;  a  rebellion  suppressed,  ■

July, „

Jumuden  Turcomans  defeated  at  Tsehandyr

25*  27  July,  ,,
New  treaty  with  Bokhara,  published  .  .  Dec.  ,,
Marriage  of  the  grand  duchess  Marie  with  the  duke  of

Edinburgh 23  Jan. 1874

Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Austria  at  St.  Petersburg,


KUSSIA.  843


RUSSIA.


13  Feb.  ;  the  czar  in  proposing  his  he.ilth,  says,
"111  the  friendship  which  binds  us  and  also  tlie
emperor  William  and  the  queen  Victoria,  I  see  a
most  sure  guarantee  of  peace" . . 15  Feb. 1874
The  czar  visits  England . . . 13-21  May, ,,
Count  Sehouvaloff  succeeds  Bruunow  as  ambas-
.  sador  in  London .... autumn, ,,
New  law  for  organization  of  the  army . .  Sept. .,
Son  born  to  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  and  grand-
duchess  Marie 15  Oct. ,,

Visit  of  the  empress  and  the  cesaievitch  to  England

15  Oct.-24  Nov. ,,
Mitrophania,  mother  abbess,  of  Serpouehow,  Mos-
.  cow,  prosecuted  for  fabricating  commercial  bills  ;
convicted,  and  sentenced  to  14  years'  exile, Nov. ,,
International  telegraphic  conference  at  St.  Peters-
burg; 1 — 19  July,  1375

Expedition  (with  scientific  men)  to  Krasnovodsk,

Central  Asia,  spoken  of ... .  Aug. ,,
War  with  Khokand  (wJiich  see) . 4  Sept. — Oct. ,,
Commercial  panic  through  failure  of  Dr.  Strousberg,
a  German  railway  speculator,  at  Moscow,  Prague,

and  Berlin Nov. ,,

At  a  dinner  of  "  Knights  of  St.  George,"  the  czar
declares  that  the  three  emperors  are  united  to

maintain  peace 8  Dec. „

Baltic  provinces  (formerly  a  provincial  federation
with  a  governor),  incorporated  with  the  empire
under  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  on  the  death
of  the  governor  Bagration . . . 29  Jan. 1376
Khokand,  formally  annexed  (as  Ferghana) 29  Feb. ,,
Prosecution  of-a  sect  "White  Doves"  (Skoptzi)

April, ,,
Warlike  enthusiasm  : .  Russian  volunteers  in  the

Servian  army July-Sept. ,,

Depression  through  Servian  defeats . . Oct. ,,
Pacific  declaration  of  the  czar  to  lord  Aug.  Loftus

2  Nov. ,,

The  czar,  in  an  address  at  Moscow,  says  that  if  suf-

licient  guarantees  are  not  given  by  Turkey,  he

will  act  independently ... 10  Nov. ,,

Dr.  Strousberg  and  others  tried  for  fraud,  &c,  Nov.  ;

he-  is sentenced to banishment from Russia

14  Nov. ,,
Enthusiasm  for  Bulgarians  ;  partial  mobilisation  of

the  army  ordered  .  .  .  about  14  Nov.  ,,
Internal  loan  of  10  million  roubles  .  19  Nov.  ,,
Great  enthusiasm  for  Bulgarians  ;  war  declared,  and

begun 24  April,  1S77

See  Turkey ;  and  Russd-Turhish  War,  1877.
The  czar  warmly  received  at  Moscow,  4  May  ;  and

St.  Petersburg 7  May, ,,

Great  trial  of  Nihilists for  revolutionary  propa-

gandism,  begun  about  ....  31  Oct.  ,,
Russian  loan  of  15,000,000?.  at  5  per  cent,  announced

12  Nov. ,,
The  czar  at  St.  Petersburg ; celebrates  centenary

anniversary  of  birth  of  Alexander  I.  23  Dec. ,,

Ill-feeling  against  Bulgarians . . . Dec. ,,
Nihilist  trial  ended  ;  about  160  sentenced  to  hard

labour  ;  about  90  acquitted, . about  9  Feb.  1878
Treaty  of  peace  with  Turkey  signed  at  San  Stefano  ;

Europe  dissatisfied .... 3  March, ,,
Vera  Zasulitch  (or  Sassulitch),  a  young  woman,  who
acknowledged  firing  at  gen.  Trepotf,  prefect  of  St.
Petersburg  (5  Feb.),  for  severity  to  prisoners,  ac-
quitted by  jury 12  April, ,,

Beported  spread  of  Nihilism  in  Kieff,  Moscow,  &c.

April, „
Public  depression  :  feeling  against  Bulgarians  ;  de-
sire to  get  quit  of  the  Eastern  question

May- June, ,,
Conference  at  Berlin  (whicli  scr)  meets 13"  June;

treaty  signed 13  July, ,,

Cen. Kaufmaim's  advance  on  the  Oxus  to  occupy

Balkh ;  reported Aug. ,,

Nihilists  tried  and  condemned  at  Odessa  ; riots

ensued 5  Aug. ,,

General  disaffection  to  the  government  ;  general  De
Mesentzoff,  chief  of  police,  assassinated  in  the
street  in  St.  Petersburg . . . 16  Aug. ,,
New  5  per  cent,  loan  (300,000,000  roubles)  issued  on

bonds 2g,  30,  31  Aug. ,,

Ukase  decreeing  state  offences  to  be  punished  by

military  law  .... end  of  Aug. ,,

Gen.  Drentelen  made  chief  of  police . . 6  Oct. ,,
Students  at  a  college  in  St.  Petersburg  present  an
address  to  the  cesarevitch  complaining  of  griev-


ances, 11  Dec;  they  are  attacked  and  punished
by  the  police  and  cossacks,  12  Dec;  they  issue  an

address  soon  after Dec.

Prince  Demetrius  Krapotkine,  governor,  assassi-
nated while  returning  from  a  ball  at  Kharkoff,

21  or  22  l-'eli.

Attempted  assassination  of  Drentelen,  25 March  ;  and

of  the  czar  by  Alexander  Solovieff,  a  schoolmaster,

■with  a  revolver 14  April,

The  poll  tax  abolished  by  ukase  . . . April,
Riots  at  Rostoff  on  the  Don  suppressed  by  military,

14  April,
Ukase  establishing  martial  law  in  the  provinces  of
St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Kieff,  Odessa,  and  War-
saw, dated 17  April,

"Land  and  Liberty,"  a  Nihilist  newspaper,  freely

..yet  surreptitiously  circulated . . . April'.

Solovieff  condemned,  7  June  ;  executed . 9  June

Discontent  at  the  small  results  of  the  war . July,

Trials,  convictions,  and  executions  of  Nihilists  at

Kieff  and  Odessa .... May-Aug.

Gen.  Lazareff,  commander  of  expedition  against  the

Tekke  Turkomans,  dies  at  Tehat about  13  Aug.

Gen.  Lomakine  succeeds  in  command ;  severe  battle

at  Geok  Tepe  .or  Dengli  Tepe  ;  Russians  said  to

.  be  victorious,  yet  retreat  with  heavy  loss

28  Aug.  (O.S.),  9  Sept.
Tergukasoff  succeeds  Lomakine  in  command,  25  Sept.
Leon  Mirsky  condemned  to  death  for  attempted
assassination  of  gen.  Drentelen,  chief  of  police

27,  28  Nov.
Count  Sehouvaloff,  ambassador  at  London,  resigns,

27  Nov.
Attempted  assassination  of  the  czar,  by  undermin-
ing railway  train  near  Moscow  ;  none  hurt ;  bag-
gage carriages  destroyed . . . 1  Dec.
The  newspaper  Gofos  suspended  for  6  months,  4  Dec.
Proclamation  of  the  executive  revolutionary  com-
mittee justifying  the  attempted  assassination  on

1  Dec 4  Dec.

Plot  to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace,  St.  Petersburg,

discovered 12  Dec.

"Will  of  the  People"  revolutionary  paper  freely

circulated Nov.  Dec.

Explosion  in  a  guard-room  filled  with  dynamite  and
gun-cotton  under  the  dining-room  of  the  Winter
Palace,  St.  Petersburg  ;  the  czar  and  family  escape
through,  being  a  little  late  for  dinner  ;  11  soldiers
killed  ;  47  wounded;  between  6.0  and  7.0  I'.'m.,

17  Feb.

Hartmann,  owner  of  a  house  near  the  explosion,

arrested  at  Paris .... about  20  Feb.

Panic  at  St.  Petersburg  ;  ukase  issued  ;  appointing

supreme  executive  commission,  gen.  Loris  Meli-

koff,  president,  with  extensive  powers  ; virtual

dictator 24  Feb.

Extradition  of Hartmann  requested  by  Russia  ;

declined March,

Twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  czar's  accession  cele-
brated at  St.  Petersburg  ...  2  March,
Hippolyte  Molodzoff  (Mladetsky,  or  Wladitsky,  or
Mlodecki),  a  converted  Jew,  fires  at  gen.  Loris
Melikoff,  4  March  ;  hanged  .  .  .5  March,
Hartmann  expelled  from  France  ;  goes  to  England  ;
Prince  Orlotf,  ambassador,  quits  France,

about  6  March,
Nihilist  trials  at  St.  Petersburg  :  sentences  In  death
and  imprisonment  (Dr.  Weimar  and  others) ;  com-
muted May,

Death  of  the  empress  after  a  long  illness, 3  June,
21  extreme  Nihilists  convicted  at  Kieff  (capital  sen-
tences remitted) . . . . about  7  Aug.
Ukase  of  24  Feb.  superseded  ;  Melikoff,  who  had
governed  well,  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,
with  charge  of  the  police . . . 18  Aug.
Count  Loris  Melikoff's  scheme  for  administrative
reform  sanctioned  by  the  czar  ;  announced  3  Oct.;
put  into  action . . . . 2;  <  let.  > ' ,
"  liussia,"  new  national  daily  paper,  published  Oct
Great  Nihilist  trial  at  St.  Petersburg  for  assassina-
tions, explosion  at  Winter  Palace.  \c  ;  sentences,
Kviatofski  and  4  others  condemned  to  death:
8  men  and  3  women  to  imprisonment . to  Nov.
Mlat ■.-!  1 11 I  I'll,  ssu  ;koll  It  nig  :1  n V\

Gen.  Skobeleff's  expedition  into  Central  Asia,

s  1  Dec.
Severe  conflicts  with  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  14  Jan.  1
Geok  Tepe  besieged  ;  taken . . . 24  Jan.


EUSSIA.


BUSSIA.


Assassination  of  the  czar  Alexander  II.  "by  explosion
of  a  "bomb  ;  assassin  himself  killed  ;  Risakoff
seized ..... 2  p.m.  13  March,  ]

A  mine  for  explosion  discovered  in  the  middle  of  St.
Petersburg .... about  15  March,

Circular  of  the  new  czar  Alexander  III.  to  foreign
powers  ;  he  will  aim  at  moral  and  material  de-
velopment of  Russia,  and  a  pacific  foreign  policy

16  March,

Manifesto  from  the  Nihilist  executive  committee  to
the  czar  offering  peace,  if  an  amnesty  with  a  legis-
lative assembly  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage,
free  press,  &c,  be  granted  . . 22  March,

Sophie  Peroffskaja,  and  other  Nihilists,  arrested

23  March,

The  czar's  magnificent  funeral  at  St.  Petersburg ;
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  present,  27  March,

A  representative  council  for  St.  Petersburg  elected
about  31  March,

Trial  of  Risakoff,  Sophie  Peroffskaja,  Jelaboff,  Jessie
or  Hessie  Heljmann,  Kibaichick,  and  Michailoff
(four  men  and  two  women),  all  condemned  to
death 8,  9  April,

The  Tekkes  submit ;  maraudings  cease  ;  object  of
Skobeleff's  expedition  accomplished  ;  announced

9  April,

Risakoff  and  others  hanged  ;  Heljmann  {enceinte)
reprieved 15  April,

Treaty  of  peace  with  China  announced . April,

Nihilist  manifesto  styling  the  assassins  "  martyrs,"
&e. 16  April,

Changes  in  ministerial  offices  ;  tendency  to  reduce
autocracy  of  the  czar  announced . about  4  May,

Ukase  supplementary  to  that  of  19  Feb.  1861,  for
emancipating  serfs,  remitting  payments  to  many
peasant  proprietors  ;  announced . early  May,

Reactionary  proclamations  in  favour  of  autocracy
(29  April),  11  May  ;  resignation  of  count  Loris
Melikoff  and  other  liberal  ministers  soon  after,

about  13  May,

General  Ignatieff,  chief  minister,  issues  manifesto,
declaring  for  suppression  of  rebellion,  and  promis-
ing reforms  ;  manifesto  from  Nihilists  offering
peace  if  reforms  be  granted . . 23  May,

The  czar,  closely  guarded,  living  in  close  seclusion ;
continued  policy  of  repression  . . . June,

The  czar  well  received  at  Moscow,  <fcc. ,  30  July ;
the  czar  meets  the  emperor  of  Germany  at  Dantzic
3  Sept.  ;  stringent  decree  respecting  public  order

21  Sept.

Treaty  with  Persia  signed  . . .22  Dec.

Nihilist  trials  at  St.  Petersburg;  10  sentenced  to
death,  28  Feb.  ;  commuted  to  penal  servitude
(except  Suchanoff,  to  be  shot) . . March,

Gen.  Strelnikoff,  public  prosecutor,  assassinated  at
Odessa  by  two  students,  30  March ; executed

3  April,

Retirement  of  the  chancellor  and  foreign  minister,
Gortschakoff  (his  policy  war-like);  succeeded  by
his  assistant  De  Giers . . about  9  April,

Mine  discovered  under  Moscow  cathedral ;  80  work-
men arrested  .... about  15  April,

General  Kaufmann  died,  aged  64 . .16  May,

Decree  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  the  poll  tax
(imposed  by  Peter  the  Great) . beginning  June,

Ignatieff resigns ; succeeded by count Tolstoi
about  12  June,

Death  of  general  Scobeleff,  the  hero  of  Plevna,  aged

39 7  July.

General  Tchernaieff  appointed  to  command  in  Cen-
tral Asia

Successful  exhibition  of  Russian  arts  and  manu-
factures summer,

Revival  of  the  Russian  navy  determined  on .

Tranquillity  restored  ;  great  festivities  through  the
visit  of the  duke  and  duchess  of Edinburgh

Jan.— Feb.

Death  of  prince  Gortschakoff,  aged  85 n  March,

Arrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg

about  20  March,

Trial  of  Nihilists  at  St.  Petersburg:  some  sentenced
to death (remitted), others to  imprisonment

19  April,

The  emperor  and  empress  crowned  with  great  cere-
mony at  Moscow 27  May,

Patriotic  and  pacific  manifesto,  and  amnesty,  27
May ;  and  popular  festival . . 2  June,


Poll  tax  abolished  for  the  poorest,  reduced  for
others  (1  Jan.  1884)  on . . . .8  June,  1

The  czar  and  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Greece
breakfast  with  Mr.  Gladstone  on  board  the  Pem-
broke Castle,  Copenhagen ... 18  Sept.

Reported  discovery  of  a  great  conspiracy  at  St.
Petersburg ;  many  arrests . .  about  27  Sept.

Government  projects  for  re-modelling  the  com-
munes published  Oct.

Grand  funeral  of  Tourgenieff  at  St.  Petersburg  9  Oct.

Foundation  of  memorial  church  at  the  place  where
Alexander  II.  was  assassinated  at  St.  Petersburg
laid  by  the  czar 16  Oct.

63  Nihilists  sentenced  to  Siberia . . 19  Oct.

Lieut.  Sudeikin,  chief  of  secret  police,  and  his
nephew,  M.  Sadovsky,  assassinated  at  St.  Peters-
burg ;  attributed  to  Nihilists  aided  by  Jablonsky,
a  subordinate,  whose  life  he  had  saved

night  of  28-29  Dec.

37  students  at  Moscow  arrested announced  9  Jan.  :

Loyal  address  of  the  nobles  to  the  czar,  advocating
union  of  nobles  and  peasantry  . . .25  Jan.

Surrender  of  Merv  to  Russia,  effected  by  general
Komaroff ....  announced  14  Feb.

Proposals  for  state  loan  not  taken  up,  Nov.  1883  ;
another  loan  at  6  per  cent,  offered  in  open  market
about  3  Dec.  1883  ;  taken  up . . April,

Convention  with  Persia  for  cession  of  Sarakhs
(threatening  to  Afghanistan) reported  6  May,

The  majority  of  the  cesarevitch  (aged  16)  declared

18  May,

Death  of  general  Todleben,  born  1818 . 1  July,

Alleged  dynamite  conspiracy  against  the  czar  at
Warsaw 8  Sept.

Maria  Wassilieona  Kaliouchnaia,  at  Odessa,  sen-
tenced to  20  years'  hard  labour  for  attempt  to
shoot  colonel  Katensky  . . .  about  11  Sept.

The  czar  meets  the  emperois  of  Germany  and
Austria  at  Skiernievice,  near  Warsaw 15,16  Sept.

The  letters  of  "Stepniak"  and  others  expose  the
cruel,  dishonest,  and  unscrupulous  conduct  of
government  officials  in  prohibiting  the  diffusion
of  knowledge  and  literature ;  proposed  united  op-
position of  the  nobility  and  peasantry Sept.-Oct.

The  circulation  of  many  religious  books  prohibited

14  Nihilists  (including  0  officers  and  3  women,  one,
Mary  F.  Figner)  convicted  by  secret  court  martial ;
8  sentenced  to  death  at  St.  Petersburg,  11  Oct.  ;
two  men  executed 18  Oct.

The  Nihilist  journal,  Narodnaia  Volia,  reappears

about  27  Oct.

Sir  Robert  Morier,  British  ambassador  at  St.  Peters-
burg

Great  discontent  among  workmen  and  peasantry  Jan.

Mission  of  M.  Lessar,  engineer-diplomatist  to  London
respecting  central  Asian  boundaries . Feb.

Ship  canal  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Cronstadt  com-
pleted, Feb.  ;  opened . . . .27  May,

Russians  advance  to  about  90  miles  from  Herat,
and  hold  Zulfikar  pass .... Feb.

Three  courses  before  them  :  to  retire ;  to  remain
and  negotiate  ;  to  make  war  . . .1  March,

Arrangement  that  no  further  advance  on  the
"debated  or  debatable  ground"  be  made  by
Russians  or  Afghans  (since  termed  a  "  solemn
covenant") .... 16  or  17  March,

Gen.  Komaroff  attacks  the  Afghans  at  Aktapa,  on
the  river  Kushk,  alleging  provocation  ;  hundreds
of  Afghans  killed,  others  perish  from  exposure,
and  the  rest  retire  from  their  camp  ;  53  Russians
killed  and  wounded,  30  March  ;  his  statements
controverted  by  sir  Peter  Lmnsden,  14  April,

British  government  announce  agreement  to  arbitra-
tion (by  Denmark) .... 4  May  el  seq.

The  Russian  general  Komaroff,  near  the  Kushk  and
Murghab  rivers,  commands  the  Afghans  to
retire  ;  on  their  refusal,  attacks  them  at  Ak-
tapa (or  Aktepe  or  Pul-i-khusti),  near  Penjdeh  ;
defeats  them  with  much  slaughter,  and  captures
artillery  and  stores  ;  many  Afghans  perish  in  the
retreat  through  exposure,  30  March  ;  sir  Peter
Lumsden  reports  the  attack  on  the  Afghans  to
have  been  unprovoked . . about  21  April

The  British  government  prepares  for  war  with
great  energy  ;  strongly  supported  by  the  colonies
and  Indian  princes.

British  government  statement  :  new  agreement
with Russia ; arbitration respecting  fight on


RUSSIA.


S45


RUSSIA.


March  30  accepted  4  May ;  Denmark  accepts
work  of  arbitration  .... May,  1885

Agreement  on  delimitation  settled  by  earl  Gran-
ville and  earl  of  Kimberley,  with  MM.  de  Staal
and  Lessar  ;  approval  reported  . 30  May, ,,

Cordial  meeting  of  the  czar  and  the  emperor  of
Austria  at  Kremsier  in  Moravia . 25,  26  Aug. ,,

The  Afghan  boundary  question  settled 10  Sept. ,,

Discovery  of  plot  against  the  czar ;  arrest  of
military  officers  and  others . . . April,  1886

Tchcsme  ironclad  launched  by  the  czar  at
Sebastopol  (other  vessels  constructing)  18  May, „

Russia  violates  treaty  of  Berlin  by  declaring
Batoum  not  to  be  a  free  port  . . July, „

Honours  and  income  of  the  younger  members  of
the  imperial  family  much  diminished,  announced

July, n

Eussian interference in Bulgaria (which see)

Sept-Dec. ,,
Plot  against  the czar  ; students with  dynamite
and  other  explosives,  detected 13  March ; 200

arrested March,  1S87

Three  plotters  executed  31  March  ;  seven  political
offenders  sentenced  to  death,  the  rest  to  various
terms  of  imprisonment,  1  May ;  more  arrests
about  18  May  ;  five  executed  .  .  16  May,  „
Prince  Nicholas,  the  cesarevitch,  made  chief
Ataman  (Hetman)  of  all  the  Cossacks  at  Novo-

Tcherkask 18  May, „

N.  Katkoff,  journalist  and  politician,  editor  of  the
Moscow  Gazette,  Russophile,  died,  aged  about  69,

1  Aug. ,,
Statement  in  the  Cologne  Gazette  of  the  existence  of
forged  letters  purporting  to  come  from prince
Bismarck  (see  Germany)  .... Nov. ,,
Baron Hirsch's present of 2,000,000?. for the
establishment of primary Jewish schools in
Russia, accepted  by  the  czar  ;  the  money  to  be
paid  into  the  bank  of  England,  trustees,  barons
Rothschild  and Henry  de  Worms, announced
Nov.  ;  said  to  be  premature . . . Dee. ,,
Movement  of  troops  on  the  Galician  border  causes

excitement  in  Berlin  and  Vienna  . Nov. -Dec. ,,
The  Involute  Eusse,  a  government  organ,  declares
that  Russia  desires  peace  but  is  prepared  for  war,

15  Dec.  ,,
The  stringent  restrictions  on  the  studies  of  the
universities  lead  to  much  insubordination  among
the  students,  and  severe  punishment ;  the
universities  of  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  Odessa,
and  many  other  academical  institutions  closed  ;
nearly  all  the  undergraduate  class  in  a  state  of

rebellion Nov.-Dec. ,,

Lord  Randolph  Churchill  visits  Russia  ;  received

by  the  czar 26  Dec. ,,

Reported  conspiracy  ;  many  arrests about  9  Jan.  188:
Reported  surplus  in  the  budget, yet  a loan  asked

for  ;  unsuccessful  at  Paris  and  Berlin  .  Jan.  ,,
Moscow  and  other  universities  re-opened  .  Feb.  ,,
For prince Ferdinand's position (see Bulgaria)

Feb. -March, ,,
The  highest  courts  of  law  decide  against  the  claim
of  prince  Hohenlohe  to  inherit  the  vast  Wittgen-
stein estates in Lithuania,  as  a  foreigner  (in
accordance with  the  Ukase, 14  March, 1887),

March, ,,
Attempted assassination of  the czar by lieut.

Timofeieff  (mad  ?) May, „

Visit  of  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  the  czar  at

Peterhof. 19-23  July. >>

Ninth  centenary  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity

celebrated  at  Kieff  ....  27  July,  „
Central  Asian  (or Transcaspian)  railway opened  ;

promoted  by  general  Anhenkoff  .  .  May,  ,,
Near  Borki  station  in  S.  Russia,  the  engine  of  the
imperial  train  (with  the  czar)  ran  off  the  line  with
four  carriages  (weak  rails);  21  persons  killed,
the  czar  slightly  injured  ...  29  Oct.  ,,
Agreement  for  20,000,000?.  loan  signed  at  St.  Peters-
burg, 18  Nov. ;  chiefly  taken  up  by  the  French

Dec.  „
Th  i  grand  council  disapproves  of  the  administrative
changes  proposed  by  count  Tolstoi  substituting
centralization  for  local  self-government  which,
however,  are  approved  by  the  czar  (1  );  the
Zemstvo,  established  about  1864,  being  virtually
abolished,  Feb.  18


Loau  of  700,000,000  francs  concluded  with  the
Rothschilds  and  other  bankers  for  the  conversion
of  five  per  cent  loans  into  four  per  cent . Feb.  188

Captain  Atchinoff,  with  a  company  of  S.  Cossacks
(145  men  with  muskets  and  guns,  also  priests,
women  and  children),  evading  French  and
Italian  cruisers,  landed  at  Tadjourah,  in  the  bay
of  Obock,  near  the  French  settlement,  on  the
Red  Sea,  on  18  Jan.,  professing  to  combine
missionary  and  commercial  enterprise  in  Abys-
sinia. He  took  possession  of  a  fort  at  Sagallo,  and
hoisted  the  Russian  flag.  After  useless  negotia-
tion,theFrenchadmiralOlry  on  iSFeb.  bombarded
the  fort,  killing  6  Russians  ;  the  party  then  sur-
rendered and  were  eventually  conveyed  to  Russia.
The  French  government  virtually  apologised  for
the  precipitate  conduct  of  the  admiral  Feb. ,.

Alleged  discovery  of  a  dynamite  conspiracy,
especially  in  the  south,  originating  in  Zurich
(discredited) March, ,.

Death  of  count  Tolstoi,  minister  of  the  interior,

7  May. .
Second  four  per  cent  loan  announced,  completing

the  financial  scheme .... 13  May, ,
The  czarewitch,  aged  21,  appointed  to  military  and

political  office 18  May, ,

Marriage  of  the  archduke  Paul  and  the  princess

Alexandra  of  Greece . . . .16  June,  [",
M.  Dournovo,  minister  of  the  interior,  continues

count  Tolstoi's  reactionary  policy . July,  Aug. ,
Marriage  of  the  grand  duke  Peta  with  princess

Militza,  of  Montenegro ... 7  Aug. ,
The  czar  visits  Berlin  . . . 11-13  Oct. .

Great  epidemic  of  influenza  among  all  classes  in

St.  Petersburg,  spread  . . . Nov.,  Dec. ,
Capt. Solotouchine, chief  of  the Moscow  secret
police,  assassinated  by  a  female  Nihilist,  who

commits  suicide n  Jan.  iS

Ukase  for  a  conversion  loan  of  90,000,000  roubles,

taken  up,  especially  in  France  .  .  Feb.  .
Count  Tolstoi's  administrative  changes  carried
into  effect,  together  with  increased  Russilication
of  the  German  provinces  and  Finland  .  Feb.
The  czar  threatened  (by  letter,  signed  Maria
Tshebrikova,  a  popular  writer  on  education,  &c),
for  continuing  to  supxiress  liberty,  5  March  ;  she
is  arrested,  about  10  March  ;  transported  to  the

Caucasus April,

Strong  demonstrations  of  the  students  of  Moscow,
St.  Petersburg,  Kieff,  Charkoff,  and  other  uni-
versities and  schools,  demanding  changes  ;  many
arrests and police supervision, about Feb.,

March,
The czar  releases  about  60  imprisoned  soldiers.
The  man  chosen  to  assassinate  the  czar  by  lot,
commits  suicide,  leaving  a  letter  incriminating
associates  ;  many  arrests,  reported . 31  March,
Inquiry  by  special  commission  ;  some  students  ex-
pelled and  others  set  at  liberty,  at  St.  Peters-
burg, &c, ;  order  restored . . 7  April,
Great fires in  the Ural district, iron  works  at
Ufaleisk and Newjansk, about 1,000 houses
destroyed; about 40 persons perish, about

10  June,

Revival  of  severe  edict  against  the  Jews  (which  see)

reported  July,

The  czar  and  the  German  emperor  inert  at  Nava  ;

military  manoeuvres . . 17  Aug.,  et  seq.

A  monster  literary  protest  against  the  persecution

of  the  Jews  in preparation, headed by  count

Leon Tolstoi; publication forbidden by the

government Nov.

Decree,  for  the  revision  of  all  foreign titles of

nobility about  15  Dec.

Gregory Petrovitch Danilesky, historian and

novelist,  dies 24  Pee.

Trial  of  47  Nihilists . . . about  11  Jan.
Coal-mine  explosion  near  Jusoveja,  about  .)  1  men

killed 17,  1  8  Jan.

Arrest  of  Dedajeff,  charged  with  the  murdtr  of
col.  Sudeikin in 1883 (see above), and other
Nihilists,  at  Kostroma  . . . end  ol  Feb.
New  law  for  the  legitimatising  of  bastards  promul-
gated April,

Rescript  from  the  czar,  placing  thi n >  Siberian

railway  under  the  direction of  the  cesarevitch

ah  hi  .'4  May,


RUSSIA.


846


RUSSIA.


Cloudburst  at  Ekaterinoslav,  great  destruction  of
life  and  property ...  .6  July,

Count  Tolstoi's  administrative  changes  relative  to
the  peasantry  effected  at  St.  Petersburg  and
other  provinces July,

A  French  naval  squadron,  under  admiral  Gervais,
warmly  received  at  Cronstadt,  23  July;  the  czar
visits  the  fleet,  25  July  ;  which  leaves . 4  Aug.

Failure  of  crops  ;  exportation  of  grain  (especially
rye)  forbidden  (from  27  Aug.) ;  relief  works
ordered  and  grants  of  money . about  11  Aug.

The  cesarevitch  returns  to  Moscow  after  a  tour

16  Aug.
|He  visited  Vienna,  6  Nov.  ;  at  Athens,  12
Nov. ;  at  Cairo,  23  Nov.  ;  at  Bombay,  23  Dec.
1890  ;  received  by  the  viceroy  at  Calcutta,  26-2S
Jan.  1891  ;  at  Madras,  6  Feb.  ;  Ceylon,  13  Feb.  ;
Bankok,  Siam,  26  March;  travels  in  China,
Japan,  April,  May  ;  at  Otsu,  in  Japan,  he  is
wounded  by  a  fanatical  officer  in  a  theatre,  n
May,  1891  ;  traverses  Siberia,  June,  July,  1891.]

Great  distress  through  famine  in  certain  districts
of  the  Volga  and  other  places,  about  2  Sept.  et  seq.

New  3  per  cent,  loan  for  500,000,000  francs  (for
railways)  negotiated  in  Paris,  about  17  Sept.  ;
opposed  in  Berlin,  about  2S  Sept.  ;  taken  up  well

Oct.

Ivan  Alexandrovitch  Gontcharoff,  popular  novelist,
aged  80,  dies 27  Sept.

In  order  to  relieve  famine,  the  czar  forbids  all  state
balls  and  festivities  ;  great  economy  adopted  by
all  classes Oct.

Disputes  with  Great  Britain  respecting  the  Pamir
ridge  (which  see) Aug.

The  famine  very  severe  in  the  central  and  eastern


provinces


Oct.


Discovery  of  a  political  conspiracy  at  Moscow,  60
persons  arrested,  reported  ... 12  Nov.

Decree  issued  prohibiting  the  exportation  of  wheat
and  all  its  products .... 22  Nov.

Tour  of  M.  de  Giers  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany

Sept. — Nov.

The  cesarevitch  appointed  president  of  a  committee
to  deal  with  the  effects  or  the  famine  by  means
of  private  charity,  the  ministry,  the  holy  synod,
and  others,  5  Dec.  ;  public  relief  works  estab-
lished Dec-

The  grand  duke  Constantine  (brother  of  the  czar,
Alexander  II.),  learned,  able  and  liberal,  some-
time viceroy  of  Poland,  removed  on  suspicion
of  favouring the Poles, 1886 ; dies,  aged 64

24  Jan.  :

Count  Tolstoi  (the  novelist),  active  reliever  of  the
distressed  people . . . early  March,

Stoppage  of  the  (baron)  Giinzburg  bank  of  St.
Petersburg  and  Paris,  15  March,  et  scq.  ;  liquida-
tion arranged,  reported . 21  March,  ei  seq.

Russian  Jewish  emigrants  prohibited  from  entering
Germany  . . ■ • • ■ 25  March,

Large  supplies  of  Amcucan  wheat,  flour  and  pro-
visions, transmitted  for  the  relief  of  the  famine
by  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia,  in  the  Indiana;
from  Minnesota,  in  the  Missouri,  arrive  atLibau,
Courland,  March,  April;  transmitted  to  the
distressed  districts . . . .4  APril>

Society  of  Friends  famine  fund  :  3S,989f-  received
up  to . • • ■ ■ • • iMay

Meeting  of  the  czar  and  German  emperor  at  Kiel

7  June,

About  125,370,500  roubles  expended  in  relief  of  the
sufferers  by  famine,  Dec.  1891-May,  1892 ;  re-
ported . .... • • • .*3. j™e.

Removal  of  the  restrictions  on  the  exportation  of
grain,  except  rye,  21  June  ;  of  rye  .  23  Aug.
See  article  Cholera  in  the  Addenda.

Sovereigns  oe  Russia.


879.
9*3-
945-
955-
973-
980.
1015.


DUKES OF KIOW Or KIEF.

1  Rnric.
Oleg.
Igor  I.

Olga,  widow  ;  regent.

Swiatoslaw  I.  —victorious.

Jaropalk  I.

Vladimir,  Wladimir,  the  Great.

Swiatopalk.


',{


1018.  Jaraslaw,  or  Jaroslaf  I.

1054.  Isiaslaw  I.

1073 Swiatoslaw  II.

1078.  Wsewolod  I.

1093.  Swiatopalk  II.

1 1 13.  Vladimir  II.

1 1 25.  Mitislaw.

1 1 32.  Jaropalk  II.

1 138.  j  Wiatsclielaw.

1 139.  t  Wsewolod  II.

1 146.  I  Isiaslaw  II.  and  Igor  II.
1153. 1  Rostislaw.

1149.  Jurie  or  George  I.  ;  the  city  of  Moscow  was  built
by  this  duke.

GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR.

Andrew  I.  until  11 75  ;  first  grand-duke.
Michael  I.
Wsewolod  III.

(  Jurie  or  George  II.
18.  (  Constantine.

Jaraslaw  II.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son,
Alexander-Nevski  or  Newski,  the  Saint.
Jaraslaw  III.
Vasali  or  Basil  I.
Dmitri  or  Demetrius  I.
Andrew  II.
Daniel- Alexandrovitz.
Jurie  or  George  III.  ;  deposed.
Michael  III,
Vasali  or  Basil  II.
Jurie  or  George  III :  restored.
Alexander  II.

[The  dates  are  doubtful,  owing  to  the  difficulty
that  occurs  at  every  step  in  early  Russian
annals.]

GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW.

Ivan  or  John  I.

Simeon,  the  proud.

Ivan  or  John  II.

Demetrius  II.  prince  of  Susdal.

Demetrius  III.  Donskoi.

Vasali  or  Basil  III.  Temnoi.

Vasali  or  Basil  IV.

CZARS OF MUSCOVY.

Ivan  (Basilovitz)  or  John  III.  :  took  the  title  of

czar,  1482.
Vasali  or  Basil  V.  obtained  the  title  of  emperor

from  Maximilian  I.
Ivan  IV.  the  terrible  ;  a  tyrant.
Feodor  or  Theodor  I.  ; and  his  son, Demetrius,.

murdered  by  his  successor
Boris-Godonof,  who  usurped  the  throne.
Feodor  II. ,  murdered.
Demetrius,  the  Impostor,  a  young  Polish  monk  'r

pretended  to  be  the  murdered  prince  Demetrius  ;

put  to  death.
Vasali-Chouiski,  or  Zouinski.
Ladislaus  of  Poland  ;  retired  1613.
Michael-Feodorovitz,  of  the  house  of  Romanoff,

descended  from  the  czar  Ivan-Basilovitz.
Alexis,  son  ;  styled  the  father  of  his  country.
Feodor  or  Theodor  II.
J  Ivan  V.  and
\  Peter  I.  brothers  of  the  preceding.

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES.

Peter  I.  the  Great,  alone  ;  took  the  title  of  emperor
22  Oct.  1721  ;  founded  St.  Petersburg.

Catherine  I.  his  widow  ;  at  first  the  wife  of  a.
Swedish  dragoon,  said  to  have  been  killed  on  the
day  of  marriage.

Peter  II.  son  of  Alexis-Petrovitz,  and  grandson  of
Peter  the  Great :  deposed.

Anne,  duchess  of  Courland,  daughter  of  the  czar
Ivan.

Ivan  VI.  an  infant,  grand-nephew  to  Peter  the
Great ;  immured  in  a  dungeon  for  18  years  ;  mur-
dered in  1764.

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  reigned
during  Ivan's  captivity.

Peter  III.  son  of  Anne  and  of  Charles-Frederick,
duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp  :  deposed,  and  died
soon  after,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered.


1157.
1175
1177.
1213.
1217-
1238.
1245.
1263.
1270.
1275.
1281.
1294.
1303-
i3°5-
1320.
i325-
1327-


1328.
1340.
I3S3-
1359-
1362.
1389.
1425.


1533-
15S4.


1605.
1606.


1610.
1613.


1645.
1676,


I725-

1727.
1730.
1740.

1741.
1762.


RUSSIA  COMPANY.


847


RUSSO-TURKISII  WAR.


1762.  Catherine  II.  his  consort :  a  great  sovereign  ;  ex-
tended the  Russian  territories  on  all  sides  ;  died
17  Nov.  1796.

1796.  Paul,  her  son,  murdered,  24  March,  1801.

1801.  Alexander  I.,  son  (who,  after  many  adverse  battles,
and  a  forced  alliance  with  France,  at  length
aided  in  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte),
died  1  Dec.  1825.

1825.  Nicholas  I.  brother  ;  died  2  March,  1855.

1855.  Alexander  II.  son,  born  29  April  1818  ;  married  28
April,  1841,  Mary  princess  of  Hesse  (she  died
3  June,  1880) ;  said  to  have  married  (morganatic),
princess  Dolgorouki,  19  (31)  July  ;  marriage
announced,  Oct.  1880  ;  assassinated  at  St.
Petersburg,  2  p.m.,  13  March,  1881.

i83i.  Alexander  HI.,  born  10  March,  1845  ;  married  Mary
(formerly  Dagmar),  princess  of  Denmark,  9  Nov.
1866.
Heir :  Nicholas,  son,  born  18  May,  1868.

RUSSIA  COMPANY,  sec  Eussla, 1553-4.
See  America.

RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR.* The  Russian

and  French  governments  having  each  taken  a  side
in  the  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin
Churches  as  to  the  exclusive  possession  of  the
Holy  Places  {which  see)  in  Palestine,  the  Porte
advised  the  formation  of  a  mixed  commission,
which  decided  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  and  a
firman  was  promulgated  accordingly,  9  March,
1853  :  to  this  decision  the  French  acceded,  although
dissatisfied.
The  Russians  make  further  claims,  and  prince  Men-

schikoff  (who  arrived  at  Constantinople  28  Feb.

1853), by  various  notes  (between  22  March  and

18  May),  demands  that  a  convention  should  be
signed  by  the  sultan  granting  to  the  czar  such  a
protectorate  over  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey,
as  the  sultan  considered  inimical  to  his  own
authority . . . .22  March-18  May,  1853

Menscliikoffs  ultimatum  rejected;  he  quits  Con-
stantinople 21  May, ,,

The  sultan  issues  a  hatti-scherif  confirming  all
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Greek  Christians,
and  appeals  to  his  allies  .... 6  June, ,,

The  English  and  French  fleets  anchor  in  Besika  Bay

13  June, ,,

The  Russians,  under  gen.  Luders,  cross  the  Pruth
and  enter  Moldavia 2  July, ,,

Circular  of  count  Nesselrodein  justification,  2  July  ;
lord  Clarendon's  reply . . . .16  July, ,,

The  conference  of  representatives  of  England,
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia  meet  at  Vienna,
agree  to  a  note,  31  July;  accepted  by  the  czar,
10 Aug.  ; the sultan requires modifications,

19  Aug.  ;  which  the  czar  rejects. . .7  Sept.  1853
Two  English  and  two  French  ships  enter  the  Darda-
nelles 14  Sept. ,,

The  sultan  (with  consent  of  a  great  national  council)
declares  war  against  Russia . . .5  Oct. ,,

The  Turkish  fortress  at  Issaktocha  fires  011  a  Russian
flotilla  (the  first  act  of  war)  . . . 23  Oct. ,,


*  In  1844,  when  the  czar  was  in  England,  he  conversed
with  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  lord  Aberdeen  (whom
he  find  known  many  years)  respecting  the  dissolution  of
the  Turkish  empire  ;  and  on  his  return  he  embodied  his
views  in  a  memorandum  drawn  up  by  count  Nesselrode,
which  was  transmitted  to  London,  but  kept  secret  till
Mai'Ch,  1854.  In  January  and  February  of  that  year  the
czar  had  several  conversations  on  the  subject  with  the
British  envoy  at  St.  Petersburg,  sir  G.  IT.  Seymour,  in
our  of  which  (Jan.  14)  he  compared  Turkey  to  a  "sick
man"  in  a  state  of  decrepitude,  on  the  point  of  death,
and  made  proposals  to  the  British  government  as  to  the
disposal  of  his  property.  He  stated  frankly  that  he
would  not  permit  the  British  to  establish  themselves  at
Constantinople;  but  said  in  another  conversation,  lie
would  not  object  to  their  possessing  Egypt.  The  pur-
port of  these  conversations  was  conveyed  in  despatches
to  lord  John  Russell,  who  replied  that  the  British  govern-
ment declined  to  make  any  provision  for  the  contingency
of  the  fall  of  Turkey.  The  czar  made  similar  proposals
to  the  French  government  with  the  same  result.


The  Turks  cross  the  Danube  at  Wi  Idin  and  occupy
Kalafat 28  (Jet, -3  Nov.

Russia  declares  war  against  Turkey  . . 1  Nov.

English  and  French  fleets  enter  Bosphorus 2  Nov.

Russians  defeated  at  Olteuitza . . .4  Nov.

Turks  (in  Asia)  defeated  at  Bayandur,  Atskur,  and
Achaltzik 14,  18,  26  Nov.

Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Sinope  . . 30  Nov.

Collective  note  from  the  four  powers  requiring  to
know  on  what  terms  the  Porte  will  negotiate  for
peace 5  Dec.

Contests  at  Kalafat . . 31  Dec.  1853-9  Jfln-

At  the  request  of  the  Porte  (5  Dec),  the  allied  fleets
enter  the  Black  Sea 4  Jan.

Russians  defeated  at  Citate ... 6  Jan.

Reply  of  the  Porte  to  the  note  of  Dec.  5,  containing
four  points  as  bases  of  negotiation:  viz.,  1.  The
promptest  possible  evacuation  of  the  principali-
ties. 2.  Revision  of  the  treaties.  3.  Maintenance
of  religious  privileges  to  the  communities  of  all
confessions.  4.  A  definitive  settlement  of  the
convention  respecting  the  Holy  Places  (dated
31  Dec), — approved  by  the  four  powers 13  Jan.

Vienna  conferences  close ...  16  Jan.

Kalafat  invested  by  the  Russians . 28-31  Jan.

Proposal  in  a  letter  from  the  emperor  of  the  French
to  the  czar  (29  Jan.)  declined . . .9  Feb.

Turkish  flotilla  at  Rustchuk  destroyed  by  the
Russians  under  Schilders . . .15  Feb.

Ultimatum  of  England  and  France  sent  to  St.
Petersburg 27  Feb.

The  czar  "  did  not  judge  it  suitable  to  give  an
answer  " 19  March,

Baltic  fleet  sails,  under  sir  C.  Napier . 11  March,

Treaty between England, France, and Turkey,

12  March,

Russians  under  Gortschakoff  pass  the  Danube  and
occupy  the  Dobr.udseha ;  severe  conflicts;  the
Turks  retire . . . . 23,  24  March,

France  and  England  declare  war  against  Russia,

27,  28  March,

Rupture  between  Turkey  and  Greece 28  March,

Gen.  Canrobert  and  French  troops  arrive  at  Galli-
poli, soon after followed by the English,

31  March,

Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks  at  Karalcai  30  May,

English  vessel  Furious,  with  a  flag  of  truce,  fired  on
at  Odessa 8  April,

Four  powers  sign  a  protocol  at  Vienna  guaranteeing
the  integrity  of  Turkey  and  civil  and  religious
rights  of  her  Christian  subjects . .  10  April,

Russians  defeated  at  Kostelli  by  Mustaplia  Pacha,

10  April,

Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  England
and  France 10  April,

Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia  . .  20  April,

Bombardment  of  Odessa  by  allied  fleet 22  April,

Russians,  under  gen.  Schilders,  assault  Kalafat  ;
repulsed  ;  the  blockade  raised  .  19-21  April,

The  Tiger  steamer  run  aground  near  Odessa,  cap-
tured by  the  Russians .... 12  May,

Russians  defeated  at  Turtukai . . 13  May,

Siege  of  Silistria  begun .... 17  May,

Allied  armies  disembark  at  Varna  . 29  May,

Mouths  of  the  Danube  blockaded  by  allied  fleets,

1  June.

Russians  repulsed  at  Silistria;  Paskiewitsch  and
many  officers  wounded .... 5  June,

Turks  defeated  at  Ozurgheti  (in  Asia) . 16  June

Severe  conflict  before  Silistria;  the  siege  raised,

18-26  June,

Batteries  at  the  Sulina  mouths  destroyed  by  capt.
Parker 26,  27  June,

Captain  Parker  killed ....  8  July,

Russians  defeated  at  Ginrgevo  . . . 7  July,

10,000  French  troops  embark  at  Boulogne  for  the
Baltic 15  July,

Turks  defeated  at  Bayazid  in  Armenia,  29,  30  July  ;
and  near  Ears

Surrender  of  Bomarsund . . .  16  Aug.

[In  July  and  August  the  allied  armies  and  fleets  in
the  east  suffered  severely  from  cholera.  |

The Russians  defeated  by  SChomy] in Georgia,

about \  i':

They  evacuate  the  principalities . Aug...,.  Si  pt.

By  Virtue  of  a  treaty  with  Turkey  (June  14)  the
Austrians,  under  count  Coronini,  enter  Bucharest,

6  Sept.


1853


BUSSO-TUBKISH  WAE.


EUSSO-TUEKISH  WAE.


Allies  sail  from  Varna,  3  Sept.  and  land  at  Old  Fort,
near  Eupatoria*  . . .  . 14  Sept.

Skirmish  at  the  Bulganac  .  .  .  .19  Sept.
Battle  of  the  Alma  (see  Alma)  .  .  20  Sept.
Russians  sink  part  of  their  fleet  at  Sebastopol.

23  Sept.
Allies  occupy  Balaklava  .  .  .  .26  Sept.
Death  of  marshal  St.  Arnaud  .  .  29  S  .
General  Canrobert,  his  successor  .  .  24  Nov.
Siege  of  Sebastopol  commenced— grand  attack
(without  success) ....  17  Oct.

Battle  of  Balaklava- charge  of  the  light  cavalry,

with  severe  loss 25  Oct.

Sortie  from  Sebastopol  repulsed  by  generals  Evans
and  Bosquet . . . . . .  26  Oct.

Russian  attack  at  Inkerman  ;  defeated . 5  Nov.
Miss Nightingale and nurses  arrive  at  Scutari,

6  Nov.

Great  tempest  in  the  Black  Sea,  loss  of  the  Prince

and  store  vessels .... 14-16  Nov.

Treaty  of  alliance  between  England,  France,  Austria,
and  Prussia— a  commission  to  meet  at  Vienna  ;

signed 2  Dec.

Russian  sortie 2°  vee.

Omar  Pacha  arrives  in  the  Crimea  (followed  by  the

Turkish  army  from  Varna) ... 5  Jal1-

Sardinia  joins  England  and  France .  26  Jan.

Great  sufferings  in  the  camp  from  cold  and  sickness,

Jan.  &  Feb.
Russians defeated by  the Turks at Eupatoria,

17  Feb.
Death  of  emperor  Nicholas;  accession  of  Alex-
ander II.  (no  change  of  policy)  .  .  2  March,
Sortie  from  the  Malakhoff  tower  .  .  22  March,
Capture  of  Russian  rifle-pits  .  .  .19  4:Prd>
Arrival  of  Sardinian  contingent  .  .  -8  May,
Resignation  of  gen.  Canrobert,  succeeded  by  gen.

Pelissier l6  ?Jay'

Desperate  night  combats . . • 22-24  May,
Expedition  into  the  sea  of  Azoff  (under  sir  E.  Lyons
and  sir  G. Brown);  destruction  of  Kertch  and
large  amount  of  stores . . 24  May-3  June,
Taganrog  bombarded . . ■ ■  3  June,

Massacre  of  an  English  boat's  crew  with  flag  of  truce

atHango 5  June,

Russians  evacuate  Anapa  . .  5  June,

The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken,

6,  7  June,
Unsuccessful  attack  on  the  Malakhoff  tower  and

Recian iS  June,

Death  of  lard  Raglan ;  succeeded  by  general  Simpson,

28  June,
Russians  invest  Ears  in  Armenia,  defended  by  gen.

Williams J5  July>

Bombardment  of  Sweaborg ... 9  Aug.

Defeat  of  the  Russians  at  the  Tchernaya 16  Aug.

Ambuscade  on  the  glacis  of  the  Malakhoff  taken  ;

Russian  sortie  repulsed . . ■ 18  Aug.

The  French  take  the  Malakhoff  (u-luchsce)  by  assault ;

the  English  assault  the  Redan  without  success ;

the  Russians  retire  from  Sebastopol  to  the  Nortn

Forts  and  the  allies  enter  the  city  ;  the  Russians

destroy  or  sink  the remainder  of their fleet,

8  Sept.  &c.

Tanan  and  Fanagoria  captured  .  .24  Sept.

The  Russians  assaulting  Ears  are  defeated  with

great  loss . • ■ ,  • . ■  n • 29  SeP*:

Russian  cavalry  defeated  (50  killed,  105  prisoners)

at  Eoughil, near Eupatoria, by the French,

29  Sept.

Einburn  taken •.■•••■ I7Q  2°+

Russians  blow  up  Oczakoff  .  .  •  .  18  OCT.
Lar^e  stores  of  corn  destroyed  near  Gheisk,  in  the

sea  of  Azoff  .  .  -  ■  ■  ■  4  Nov.
Defeat  of  the  Russians,  and  passage  of  the  Ingoui

by  the  Turks  under  Omar  Pacha  .  .  6  Nov.
The  czar  visits  his  army  near  Sebastopol  10  Nov.
Sir  Wm Codrington  takes  the  command  in  room  of

gen.  Simpson  .  .  •  ■  .  -.  ■  "4  Nov.
Explosion  of  100,000  lb.  of  powder  in  the  French

sieee-train  at  Inkerman,  with  great  loss  of  life,

°  15  Nov.

Sweden  joins  the  allies  by  a  treaty . 21  Nov.

Capitulation  of  Ears  to  gen. Mouravieff,  after  a

4llant  defence  by  gen.  Williams . . 26  tvov.


854


1S55


*  40,000  men,  a  large  number  of  horses,  and  a  powerful
artillery,  were  landed  in  one  day.  .


Death  of  admiral  Bruat . . . . 27  Nov.  1855
Russian  attack  on  the  French  posts  at  Ba'idar  re-
pulsed 8  Dec. ,,

Proposals  of  peace  from  Austria,  with  the  consent

of  the  allies,  sent  to  St.  Petersburg . 12  Dec. ,,
Centre  dock  at  Sebastopol  blown  up  by  the  English,

2  Jan.  1856
Council  of  war  at  Paris .... 11  Jan. ,,
Protocol  signed  accepting  the  Austrian  propositions

as  a  basis  of  negotiation  for  peace . . 1  Feb. ,,
Destruction  of  Sebastopol  docks . . 1  Feb. ,,
Report  of  Sir  John  M'Neill  and  col. Tulloeh  on
state  of  the  army  before  Sebastopol,  published

5  Feb. „
Peace  conferences  open  at  Paris,  an  armistice  till

31  March  agreed  011 ...  25  Feb. ,,

Suspension  of  hostilities  ....  29  Feb.  ,,
Treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris  .  30  March,  ,,
Proclamation  of  peace  in  the  Crimea,  2  April ;  in

London 29  April, ,,

The  Crimea  evacuated .... 9  July,* ,,

EUSSO-TUEKISH  WAE,  1877.  For  the
insurrections,  Servian  Avar,  and  the  negotiations,
see  Turkey.

The  czar  addresses  the  army  near  Kischeneff,  saying
that "  he  has  done  everything  in  his  power  to  avoid
war,  and  patience  is  exhausted ; "  the  Russian
embassy  quits  Constantinople . . 23  April  1877

War  declared  ;  the  czar's  manifesto  says  that  he
is  compelled,  by  the  haughty  obstinacy  of  the
Porte,  to  proceed  to  more  decisive  acts  ;  a  justifi-
catory circular  to  foreign  poweis  sent  out  by  prince
Gortschakoff  ;  the  Russians  enter  the  Turkish  do-
minions in  Roumania  and  Armenia . 24  April, ,,

The  saltan's  circular  protests  against  the  war,  and
refers  to  his  reforms and  the  treaty  of  Paris

25  April, ,,
[Russian  generals-in-chief  in  Bulgaria,  grand  duke

Nicholas ; in Armenia, grand duke Michael ;
Turkish generals  : Abdul-Kerim in Europe  ;
Mukhtar  Pasha,  in  Asia  Minor.]
Russians  defeated  at  Tchuruk  Sou,  near  Batoum

26  April, ,,
The  Russians,  under  the  grand  duke  Michael  and

Loris  Melikoff,  advance  into  Armenia,  defeat
Turks  and  occupy  Bayazid  (deserted)  29,  30  April, , ,

The  Turks  stop  the  passage  of  the  Danube,  and
blockade  the  Black  Sea ... 3  May, ,,

The  earl  of  Derby  replies  to  the  Russian  circular ;
he  refers  to  the  treaty  of  1856  as  broken  ;  does  not
consider  that  the  war  will  benefit  the  Christians,
and  asserts  that  Russia  has  separated  herself  from
European  concert ;  the  British  government  gives
neither  concurrence  nor  approval to the  war

1  May, „

Ealafat  occupied  by  Roumanians . . 3  May, ,,

Russians  defeated  in  attacking  Batoum . 4  May, ,,

The  Lufti-Djelil,  Turkish  monitor,  with  300  men,
blown  up  near  Ibraila,  or  Braila,  on  the  Danube
(said  to  be  by  Russian  shells) . . 11  May, ,

Much  artillery  firing  down  the  river . .May, ,,

Sulchum  Khaieh,  Russian  fortress  in  the  Caucasus,
captured  by  Turks ....  14  May, ,,

Ardahan,  near  Ears,  Armenia,  stormed  by  Melikoff

17  May, ,,

Insurrection  in  the  Caucasus  supported  by  the
sultan 18  May,  et  seq. ,,

Explosion  of  Turkish  monitor  Dar-Matoin,  by
lieuts.  T.  Daubassoff  and  Sheshlakoff,  with  tor-
pedoes 26  May. ,,

Neutrality  of  the  Suez  Canal  assured  :  correspond-
ence May- June, ,,

Ears  invested  by  Russians ... 3  June, „

*  The  English  lost :  killed  in  action  and  died  of  wounds
about  3500 ;  died  of  cholera,  4244 ;  of  other  diseases
nearly  16,000;  total  loss  nearly  24,000  (including  270
officers) ;  2873  were  disabled.  The  war  added  to  the  ,
national  debt  41,041,000?.  The  French  lost  about  63,500
men  ;  the  Russians  about  half  a  million.  The  army
suffered  greatly  by  sickness  ;  see  Scutari,  Times,  and
Nightingale.  The  remains  of  the  British  soldiers  and
sailors  were  removed  from  Beicos  to  the  Scutari  Crimean
Memorial  cemetery  with  military  honours,  for  which  the
queen  returns  thanks  to  the  sultan,  Feb.  1892.


KUSSO-TUllKISH  WAK.


849


RUSSO-TUItKISH WAR.


The  czar  arrives  at  Plojesto  (Ployesto)  in  Roumania

6  June 1877
Turks  defeated  at  Taliir,  or  Taghir,  Armenia  16  June „
Turks  victors  at  Zewin  D002,  Eshek-Khalian,  Deli-

baba, and other places ; Russians retreating

20  June, „
Turks  successful  in  Montenegro  ;  country  reported

subdued 12-20  June, ,,

Russians  cross  Lower  Danube  by  bridges  at  Galatz
and  Braila  ;  6  hours'  conflict  ensues  ;  Turks  re-
tire, 22  June  ;  Russians  occupy  Matchin,  23  June,
and  Hirsova  . . . . 25,  26  June, ,,

The  grand  duke  Nicholas  crosses  the  Danube  at
Simnitza  by  20S  pontoons,  and  enters  Bulgaria  ;
the  Turks  retire  after  severe  conflicts  ;  289  Rus-
sians said  to  be  killed  .  .  .27  June,  ,,
The  czar  in  his  proclamation  to  Bulgarians  en-
courages Christians and warns Mahometans

28  June, „
The  Simnitza  bridge  destroyed  by  a  storm  or  by

Turks about  30  June, ,,

The  British  fleet  arrives  at  Besika  bay  .  3  July,  ,,
Biela,  Bulgaria,  taken  by  Russians  about  5  July,  ,,
Plevna,  Bulgaria,  occupied  by  Russians  6  July,  „
Tirnova,  ancient  capital  of  Bulgaria,  captured  by

Russians  under  gen.  Gourko  .  .  6,  7  July,  „
Bayazid  re-occupied  by  Turks  .  .  .12  July,  ,,
Russians  compelled  to  retire  from  Kars  by  Mukh-

tar  Pasha 13  July, ,,

The  invasion  of  Armenia  considered  a  failure  July,  ,,
Gourko  crosses  the  Balkans  and  enters  Roumelia,

13  July  ;  (this  movement  censured),  several  skir-
mishes 14,  15,  20  July, ,,

Nicopolis  (Nikopol)  surrenders  (after  severe  con-
flicts, 12-14  July)  i  capture  of  2  pashas,  6000  men,
2  monitors,  and  40  guns . . 15,  16  July, „

The  Turkish  commander  Abdul-Kerim  replaced  by
Mehemet  Ali  (Jules  Detroit,  of  French  extrac-
tion) ;  Russians  retreating . . . July, ,,

Suleiman  Pasha  brought  from  Montenegro  to  the
Schipka  Passes ....  about  21  July, ,,

Aziz  Pasha  (able  and  popular)  killed  in  a  rash
conflict  at  Esirje,  near  Rasgrad  . 26  or  28  July, „

Russians  severely  defeated  ;  Plevna  retaken  by
Osman  Pasha,  19,  20  July  ;  Russians  again  de-
feated . . . . . . 30,  31  July, „

Hostilities  revive  in  Montenegro ;  the  Turkish
fortress  Niksich  besieged  .... July, ,,

The  Roumanian  army  joins  the  Russians 9  Aug. „

Severe  conflicts  between  Russians  and  Suleiman
Pasha ;  the  Turks  eventually  victors :  Eski
Saghra  and  Yeni  Sagra,  July ;  Kezanlik  and
Kalofer,  30  July,  ct  seq. „

Russians  under  Gourko  expelled  from  Roumelia ;
retreat  to  Schipka  passes . . about  11  Aug. „

Russians  in  the  Schipka  Passes  relieved  byRadetzky

21  Aug. ,,

Russians  defeated  at  Kara  Silar,  near  Osman  Bazar,

14  Aug.  ;  in  the  valley  of  the  Lorn,  by  Mehemet
Ali about  22-24  Aug, „

Russians  defeated  by  Mukhtar  Pasha  at  Kurukdara,
or  Kizil  Tepe,  between  Kars  and  Alexandropol

24,  25  Aug. ,,

Desperate  fruitless  attempts  of  Suleiman  Pasha  to
gain  the  Schipka  Pass  held  by  Gourko  and
Radetzky  ;  great  slaughter . . 20-27  Aug. „

Severe  twelve  hours'  battle  in  valley  of  the  Lorn,
near  Szedina  ;  Karahassankoi  taken  and  re-taken
six;  times;  Russians  (under  the  Czarewitch)  retire
in  good  order 30  Aug. „

Prince  Charles  with  Roumanians  crosses  the
Danube about  31  Aug. „

Farther  successes  of  Mehemet  Ali  on  the  Lorn  at
Katzelevo,  Ablava,  &c. . . . 4-6  Sept. ,,

Lovatz  or  Lufteha  (important)  captured  by  Prince
Imeritinsky  and  Russians  after  a  sharp  conflict

3  Sept. „

Niksich  (left  by  Turks)  captured  by  Montenegrinea

7  Sept. ,,
Sanguinary  conflicts  at  Plevna,  greatly  strengthened

by  Osman  Pasha ;  artillery  duel  .  7-10  Sept.  ,,
Fierce  assault  by  Russians  and  Roumanians;  they
gain  the  strong  Gravitza  redoubt  (with  others,
which  are  re-taken) ;  the  czar  present ;  Russian
hiss  about  20,000  ....  ii,  12  Sept.  ,,
Fori  st.  Nicholas  in  Schipka  Pass  taken  by  Sulei-
man Pasha  and  quickly  lost;  much  bloodshed

17  Sept. „


Mehemet  Ali  repulsed  in  his  attack  on  positions  at
Tchercovna,  fifteen  miles  from  Biela . 21  Sept.  1S77

Siege  of  Plevna;  Chetket  Pasha  enters  with  re-
inforcements after  several  skirmishes 22  Sept. ,,

Montenegriue  successes  continued . . Sept. ,,

Battles  of  the  Yagni ;  severe  conflicts  ;  Russians
repulsed  near  Ardahan,  Asia about  27,  30  Sept. ,,

Russian  losses,  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,
47,400  reported  ... up  to  20  Sept. ,,

Mehemet  Ali  retires  to  Kara  Loin about  25  Sept. ,,

Gen.  Todleben  made  chief  of  staff  before  Plevna

28  Sept. ,,

Mehemet  AH  rejdaced  by  Suleiman  Pasha  ;  Raouf
Pasha  sent  to  Schipka  . . . . 2,  3  Oct. „

Battles  near  Kars;  army  of  grandduke  Michael
attacks  Turks  under  Mukhtar  Pasha  ;  severely
defeated 2-4  Oct. ,,

Turkish  monitor  in  the  Danube  exploded  by
torpedoes 8  Oct. ,,

Relief  and  supplies  received  by  Turks  at  Plevna

about  9  Oct. ,,

Battle  of  Alad.ja  Dagh  before  Kars  ;  Russians,  under
grand  duke  Michael,  and  generals  Loris  Melikoff,
Lazareff,  and  Hermann,  totally  defeat  Ahmed
Mukhtar,  taking  10,000  prisoners . 14,  15  Oct. ,,

Gravitza  battery,  near  Plevna,  captured  by  Rou-
manians, is  quickly  re-taken  . . 19-20  Oct. ,,

Suleiman  and  his  army  said  to  be  retreating  from
Kadikoi  to  Rasgrad .... 22  Oct. ,,

Battle  at  Gornij  Dubnik,  near  Plevna  ;  Russians
under  Gourko  said  to  be  victorious ;  losses  about
equal  (2,500) 24  Oct. ,,

Russians  said  to  be  defeated  near  Kara  Ourgan,
Armenia 24  Oct. ,,

Battle  of  Sofia  Road,  near  Plevna  ;  Turkish  position
at  Teliche  captured  . . . .28  Oct. .  „

Mukhtar  Pasha  defeated  by  Heimann  and  Tergu-
kasoff  at  Deve-Boyun,  Armenia,  after  nine  hours'
conflict 4  Nov. ,,

Russians  severely  defeated  at  Azizi,  before  Erzc-
roum,  by  Mukhtar  Pasha ... 9  Nov. „

Change  in  Turkish  generals  :  Suleiman  ordered  to
command  the  army  of  Roumelia,  replaced  by
Azli  Pasha ;  Mehemet  Ali  organises  army  to  re-
lieve Plevna ....  early  in  Nov. ,,

Russian  attack  on  Plevna  repulsed .  12  Nov. ,,

Turks  thrice  repulsed  near  Plevna . 15  Nov. „

Kars  taken  by  storm  ;  the  Russians  climbed  steep
rocks  ;  fierce  conflict  from  8  p.m.  to  8  a.m.  ;  300
guns  and  10,000  prisoners  taken ;  about  5000
Turks  killed  and  wounded  ;  Russian  loss  about
2,500;  the  grand-duke  Michael  present  17-18  Nov. ,,

Russians  said  to  be  severely  repulsed  at  Orchanie,

16  Nov. ,,

Plevna  said  to  be  thoroughly  invested  (30  miles
round,  with  120,000  men) . . .  Nov. ,,

Osman  Pasha,  invited  to  surrender  at  Plevna,  re-
fuses about  16  Nov. ,,

Rahova  on  the  Danube taken by  Roumanians,

21  Nov. ,,

Entrepol  (fortified)  near  Plevna  taken  by  Russians,

24  Nov. ,,

Indecisive  fighting  in  the  valley  of  the  Lorn  between
the  czarewitch  and  Mehemet  Ali ;  Russians  said
to  be  defeated 30  Nov. ,,

Turks  capture  Elena  with  guns  and  prisoners,  after
sharp  conflict 4  Dec. ,,

Skirmishing  on  the  Loin  . . .4-6  Dec. ,,

Osman  Pasha  endeavours  to  break  out  of  Plevna,
about  7  p.m.  9  Dec.  ;  six  hours'  fierce  conflict ;
surrounded  ;  unconditional  surrender ;  said  to  be
30,000  prisoners,  128  officers,  100  guns ;  great
slaughter  on  both  sides . . . 10  Dec. ,,

The  Servians  declare  war  against  Turkey,  12  Dec.  ;
cross  the  frontier  and  capture  villages  15  Dec.  et  seq. „

Turkish  circular  note  to  the  great  powers,  request-
ing mediation,  12  Dec.  ;  merely  acknowledged,
action  declined  .... about  12  Dec. ,,

Montenegrinea  successful ....  Dec. ,,

Suleiman  made  general  of  the  army  of  Roumelia  ;
and  Todleben  of  that  of  Rustchuk,  about  19  Dec. „

Suleiman  retires  on  the  quadrilateral ;  visits  Con-
stantinople ;  armies  concentrating  near  Adria-
nople about  20  Dec. „

Servians  said  to  have  taken  Ak  Palanka  alter  3
hours'  fight 24  Oec. ,,

Erzeroum,  Armenia,  nearly  invested  ;  brave  resist-
ance by  Mukhtar  Pasha . . about  24  Dee. ,,

3  I


RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR.


850


RYSWICK.


Many  Turkish  wounded  prisoners  perish  from  cold
during  removal Dec.

Turkish  steamer  with  875  men,  said  to  be  captured
in  Black  Sea .... about  25  Dec.

Alleged  Russian  losses,  80,435  men  ;  Turkish  much
more,  and  80,000  prisoners . . .  Dec.

Mukhtar  Pasha  recalled  to  Constantinople,  about

29  Dec.

The  sultan  requests  mediation  of  England ;  the
British  government  only  convey  to  Russia  the
sultan's  desire  to  make  peace  ;  Russia  declines
mediation .....  26 — 31  Dec.

Servians  advancing  successfully . end  of  Dec.

Gourko  crosses  the  Balkans  and  advances  on
Sofia ;  Turks  defeated  in  an  engagement,  about

31  Dec.

Col.  Baker  gallantly  protects  the  retreating  Turkish
army,  defeating  the  Russians. . . .1  Jan.

Sofia  taken  by  Russians  after  an  engagement,  3  Jan.

Russians  said  to  be  defeated  near  Erzeroum,  about

5  Jan.

Servians  defeated ;  Kurschumli  reoccupied  by
Turks . - 6,  7  Jan.

Gen.  Radetzky  crosses  the  Balkans;  the  Trojan
pass  taken  about  9  Jan. ;  the  Turkish  army
(about  32,000)  and  cannon  taken  by  Skobeleff  and
Radetzky,  after  conflicts,  8,  9,  10  Jan.  (see  Senova);
Gourko  advances  towards  Adrianople  . 11  Jan.

Nisch  taken  by  the  Servians  ;  Antivari  by  the  Mon-
tenegrines about  10  Jan.

Russians  advance  successfully ;  Turkish  euvoys
proceed  to  treat  for  peace . about  16-18  Jan.

Gourko  advances  toward  Philippopolis ;  totally
defeats  Suleiman  Pasha,  who  retreats  to  the  sea,
losing  many  prisoners  and  much  cannon,

16,  17  Jan.

Adrianople  abandoned ; occupied by  Russians,

19,  20  Jan.

Suleiman  with  remains  of  his  army  at  Karala  on
the  jEgean  transporting  his  troops,  about  21  Jan.

Servians  occupy  nearly  all  Old  Servia . 29  Jan.

Russian  attack  on  Batoum  defeated . .  30  Jan.

After  much  delay,  an  armistice  signed  at  Adrianople,

31  Jan.

Russian  losses  announced  89,879  men . Feb.

Continued  advance  of  Russians  towards  Constanti-
nople ;  great  panic  ;  flight  of  many  Turks  ;  many
deaths  and  great  sufferings . . Jan.,  Feb.

Part  of  Britisli  fleet  ordered  to  Constantinople  to
protect  British  life  and  property,  8  Feb.  ;  enters
Dardanelles  without  permission  of  the  Porte,

13  Feb.

Erzeroum  evacuated  by  Turks  . 17-21  Feb.

Rustchuk  occupied  by  Russians . . 20  Feb.

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  San  Stefano  (see  Stefano),
3  March  ;  ratified  at  St.  Petersburg . 17  March,

The  war  lasted  322  days,  12  April,  1877,  to  3  March,

Long  negotiation  respecting  a  European  congress,

March-May,

Grand  duke  Nicholas  in  Roumelia  replaced  by  gen.
Todleben,  who  assumes  command . 30  April,


1877


Conference  at  Berlin,  meets  13  June  ;  treaty  signed
(see  Berlin),  13  July  ;  ratified . . 3  Aug. 1878

Grand  review  of  about  80,000  Russians  near  Con-
stantinople 17  Aug. ,,

40,000  Russians  have  sailed  for  home . 12  Sept. „

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  with  Turkey  signed  at
Constantinople 8  Feb.  1879

Estimated  cost  of  the  war  to  Russia,  120,000,000?.

RUSTCHUK,  Turkish  town  on  the  Danube,
one  of  the  "  quadrilateral"  fortresses  lost  to  Turkey
with  Bulgaria  by  treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July,  1878.

RUTHENIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in
an  ore  of  platinum  by  M.  Claus,  in  1845.

RUTHERFURD'S  ACT,  Lord  (13  &  14
Vict.  c.  36),  for  simplifying  law  proceedings  in
Scotland,  passed  1 850.

RUTHVEN,  RAID  OF,  a  term  applied  to  the
seizure  of  the  person  of  James  YI.  of  Scotland  by
William  Ruthven,  earl  of  Gowrie,  and  other  nobles,
in  1582,  to  compel  the  king  to  dismiss  his  favourites,
Arran  and  Lennox.  Ostensibly  for  this,  Gowrie
was  judicially  put  to  death  by  his  two  opponents  in
1584.

RUTLAND,  Statute  of,  10  or  12  Edw.  I.

1282  or  1284.

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT,  a  plot  (some  think
pretended)  to  secure  the  succession  of  the  duke  of
Monmouth  to  the  throne  in  preference  to  the  duke
of  York  (afterwards  James  II.),  a  Roman  catholic.
Some  of  the  conspirators  are  said  to  have  projected
the  assassination  of  the  king,  Charles  II.,  and  his
brother.  This  design  is  said  to  have  been  frus-
trated by  the  king's  house  at  Newmarket  acciden-
tally taking  fire,  which  hastened  the  ro)'al  party
away  eight  days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  effect,
22  March,  1683 ;  see  Newmarket.  The  plot  was
discovered  12  June  following.  Lord  William
Russell  on  2 1  July,  and  Algernon  Sidney  on  7  Dec.
following,  suffered  death  for  being  concerned  in  this
conspiracy.  The  name  was  derived  from  the  con-
spirators' place  of  meeting,  the  Rye-house  at  Brox-
bourne,  Hertfordshire.

RYSWICK  (Holland),  where  the  celebrated
peace  was  concluded  between  England,  Eranee,
Spain,  and  Holland,  signed,  by  their  representa-
tives, 20  Sept.,  and  by  the  emperor  of  Germany,  30
Oct.  1697.


s.


SAALFIELD.


SACRAMENT.


SAALFIELD  (Saxony,  N.  Germany).  Here
the  Prussians,  under  prince  Louis  of  Prussia,  were
defeated  and  their  leader  slain  by  the  French  under
Lannes,  10  Oct.  1806.

SAARBRUCK,  the  Roman  Augusti  Muri  or
Sara  pons,  an  open  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the
Saar,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  founded  in  the  tenth
century,  long  subject  to  the  bishops  of  Metz,  after-
wards ruled  by  counts  (about  1237),  and  by  the
house  of  Nassau  about  1380.  It  was  captured  by
the  French  and  retaken  by  the  Germans  1676,
reunited  to  France  1794-1814,  and  ceded  to  Prussia,
1815.  On  2  Aug.  1870,  it  was  bombarded  by  the
French  under  Frossard  (between  1 1  and  1  in  the
daytime),  and  the  Prussians  in  small  force  were
dislodged,  and  the  town  occupied  by  the  French
general  Bataille.  The  mitrailleuses  were  said  to  be
very  effective.  The  emperor  Napoleon,  who  was
present  with  his  son,  said  in  a  telegram  to  the
empress,  "  Louis  has  gone  through  his  baptism  of
fire.  He  has  not  been  in  the  least  startled.  "We
stood  in  the  foremost  rank,  and  the  rifle  balls  were
dropping  at  our  feet,  and  Louis  picked  up  one  that
fell  near  him.  His  bearing  was  such  as  to  draw
tears  from  the  soldiers'  eyes."  On  the  6  Aug.  the
Prussian  generals  Goeben  and  Von  Steinmetz,  with
the  first  army,  recaptured  Saarbruck,  after  a
sanguinary  conflict  at  the  village  of  Spicheren.
The  heights  taken  by  the  French  on  the  2nd  are  in
Germany,  those  taken  by  the  Germans  on  the  6th
are  in  France,  and  both  battles  were  fought  between
Saarbruck  and  the  town  of  Forbaeh,  which  was
captured  and  has  given  a  name  to  the  second  con-
flict. The  loss  was  great  on  both  sides.  The
French  general  Franqois  was  killed,  and  the  2nd
corps  under  Frossard  nearly  destroyed.  The  French
retreated  to  Metz.  They  were  greatly  superior  in
numbers  at  the  beginning  of  the  fight,  but  were
badly  commanded.

SABBATARIANS.  Traces  exist  of  Sabba-
tarii,  or  Sabbathaires,  among  the  sects  of  the  iGth
century  on  the  continent.  Upon  the  publication  of
the  "Rook  of  Sports"  in  1618,  a  violent  contro-
versy arose  among  English  divines  on  two  points :
first,  whether  the  Sabbath  of  the  fourth  command-
ment was  in  force  among  Christians ;  and
secondly,  whether,  and  on  what  ground,  the  first  day
of  the  week  was  entitled  to  be  distinguished  and
observed  as  "  the  Sabbath."  In  1628,  Theophilus
Rraboume,  a  clergyman,  published  the  first  work
in  favour  of  the  Seventh-day  or  Saturday,  as  the
true  Christian  Sabbath.  He  and  several  others
suffered  great  persecution  for  this  opinion ;  but
after  the  restoration  there  were  three  or  four  con-
gregations observing  the  last  day  of  the  week  for
public  worship  in  London,  and  seven  or  eight  in
the  country  parts  of  England.  In  185 1  there  were
three  Sabbatarian  or  Seventh-day  Baptist  congre-
gations in  England ;  but  in  America  (especially
in  the  New  England  states)  they  are  more  nume-
rous.— Joseph  Davis  suffered  imprisonment  in  1670.
He  and  his  son  bequeathed  property  to  maintain
the  sect ;  and  litigation  respecting  its  disposal  wa3
eettled  by  vice-chancellor  Stuart  in  conformity  with
fieir  intentions  in  June,  1870.  Very  few  Sabba-
tarians then  remained.


SABBATH:  ordained  by  God.  Gen.  ii. ;
Exod.  xx.  8;  Isaiah  lviii.  13.  Jews  observe  the
seventh  day  in  commemoration  of  the  creation  of
the  world,  and  of  their  redemption  from  the  bondage
of  the  Egyptians  ;  Christians  observe  the  first  day
of  the  week  in  commemoration  of  the  resurrection
of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  redemption  of
man ;  see  Sunday.

SABBATH  SCHOOLS,  see  Sunday  Schools.

SABBATICAL  YEAR  :  a  Jewish  institution,
1491  n.c.  Exodus  xxiii.  During  every  seventh
year  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tilled ;
and  every  forty-ninth  year  all  debts  were  forgiven,
slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates,  &c,  that  were
before  sold  or  mortgaged,  returned  to  their  original
families,  &c.

SABELLIANISM,  from  Sabcllius  (of  Ptole-
mais  in  Egypt),  who  flourished  in  the  3rd  century,
and  who  taught  that  there  was  but  one-  person  in
the  Godhead,  the  other  persons  of  the  Trinity  being
but  different  names  of  the  same  person.  This
doctrine  was  condemned  at  a  council  at  Rome,  260.

SABINES,  an  ancient  people  of  central
Italy,  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romulus,
took  away  their  daughters  by  force,  having
invited  them  to  some  public  sports  or  shows
on  purpose.  When  the  Sabines  determined  to
revenge  this  affront,  the  women  became  mediators
to  their  fathers  in  behalf  of  then-  husbands,  the
Romans,  and  a  lasting  peace  was  made  between
them,  750  B.C.  The  Sabines,  who  had  supported  the
Samnites  in  their  war  with  Kerne,  were  thoroughly
defeated  by  M.  Curius  Dentutus,  and  their  lands
annexed  290  B.C.,  and  eventually  the  Sabines  were
combined  with  the  Roman  people.  One  of  the
ecclesiastical  provinces  is  still  called  Terra  Sabina  ;
chief  town,  Magliano.

SACCHARINE,  see  Benzoic.

SACCHAROMETER,  an  instrument  for  de-
termining the  amount  of  sugar  in  solutions.
Soleil,  an  optician,  of  Paris,  in  1847  made  use  of
rotary  polarised  light  for  this  purpose  in  a  saceharo-
nieter,  since  improved  by  Duboscq.

SACHEVEREL  RIOTS,  see  Riots,  17 10.

SACKVILLE INCIDENT, see United

States,  Oct.  1888.

SACRAMENT  (from  sacramentum,  an  oath,

obligation,  also  mystery).  The  Christian  sacra-
ments are  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  The
council  of  Trent,  in  1547,  affirmed  the  doctrine  of
the  schoolmen  that  there  are  seven  sacraments  :
baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper,  confirmation,  penance,
holy  orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme  unction.  The
name  was  given  to  the  Lord's  Supper  by  the  Latin
fathers.  The  wine  was  restricted  to  the  clergy  about
the  beginning  of  the  I2th  century.  Communion  in
one  kind  only  was  authoritatively  sanctioned  by  the
council  of  Constance,  15  June,  1415.  Henry  VI I.
of  Germany  was  poisoned  by  a  priest  by  the  conse-
crated wafer,  24  Aug.  1313.  The  sacramental  wine
was  poisoned  by  the  gravedigger  of  the  church  at
Zurich,  by  which  sacrilegious  deed  a number  of

3  1  2


SACRAMENTO.


852


SAGE.


persons  lost  their  lives,  4  Sept.  1776.  In  1614
members  of  both  houses  of  parliament  were  ordered
to  take  the  sacrament,  as  a  guard  against  the  intro-
duction of  Roman  Catholics.  In  1673  the  test  act
was  passed ;  repealed  in  1828  ;  see  Transubstantia-
tion.

"  Society  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament "  (English  church-
men), London,  founded,  i860;  "Confraternity  of  the
Blessed  Sacrament,"  founded  1862  ;'the  two  united,  1867.
Sacramentarians,  followers  of  Zwingli  (1487-1531),
who  differed  from  the  Komanists  and  Lutherans  ill
regard  to  the  sacrament.

SACEAMENTO,  ST.,  a  Portuguese  settle-
ment in  S.  America,  claimed  by  Spain  in  1680,  but
relinquished  in  1713  ;  several  times  seized ;  ceded  in
1777  ;  acquired  by  Brazil  in  1825.

SACEED  BAND,  see  Thebes.

SACEED  BOOKS  of  the  East. The

publication  of  translations  of  the  sacred  books  of  the
religion  of  the  Brahmans,  Buddhists,  and  Moham-
medans, and  of  the  followers  of  Khung-fu-tze  and
Lao-tze,  edited  by  professor  Max  Miiller,  began  in
1879. Thirty  volumes  have  been  published,  1889.

SACEED HAEMONIC  SOCIETY,  see

Mime.

SACEED  HEAET  of  Jesus  ;  a  form  of
devotion  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  England  in
the  seventeenth  century,  and  much  promoted  by
Marguerite  Marie  Alacoque,  an  enthusiastic  French
nun,  who  asserted  that  Christ  had  appeared  to  her,
and  taken  out  her  heart,  placed  it  in  his  own,  glow-
ing in  flame,  and  then  returned  it.  She  died  in  1690.
Her  book  "  Devotion  an  Cceur  de  Jesus,"  published
in  1698,  much  advocated  by  father  Joseph  Gallifet
about 1726 ; and  introduced  into France, by

request 1765

A  pilgrimage  from  England,  specially  blessed  by
the  pope,  and  headed  by  the  duke  of  Norfolk,
went  to  the  shrine  of  Marguerite,  at  Paray-le-
Monial,  and  returned  . . .1-6  Sept.  1873

The  R.C.  diocese  of  Salford  dedicated  to  the  Sacred
Heart,  4  Sept.  1873 :  and  a  church  at  Mont-
martre,  near  Paris,  founded  for  the  same  purpose,

16  June,  1875
The  pope  dedicated  the  universal  church  to  "  the
Sacred  Heart" 15  June, „

SACEED  WARS— I.  Declared  by  the  Am-
phictyons  against  Cirrha,  near  Delphi,  for  robbery
and  outrage  to  the  visitors  to  the  oracle,  595  b.c.
Cirrha  was  razed  to  the  ground,  586. — II.  Between
the  Phocians  and  Delphians  for  the  possession  of
the  temple  at  Delphi,  448, 447.— III.  The  Phocians,
on  being  fined  for  cultivating  the  sacred  lands,
seized  the  temple,  357.  They  were  conquered  by
Philip  of  Macedon,  and  their  cities  depopulated,
346. See  Crusades.

SACEIFICE  was  offered  to  God  by  Abel,  3875
B.C.  Sacrifices  to  the  gods  Avere  introduced,  into
Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  1773  b.c.
Human  sacrifices  seem  to  have  originated  with  the
Chaldeans,  from  whom  the  custom  passed  into  other
Eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to  the  true  God  were
to  cease  with  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  33  a.d.  Heb.
x.  12-14.  Pagan  sacrifices  were  forbidden  by  the
emperor  Constantius  II.  341.

SACEILEGE.  In  1835,  the  punishment  (for-
merly death)  was  made  transportation  for  life.  By
23  &  24  Vict.  c.  96,  s.  50  (1861),  breaking  into  a
place  of  worship  and  stealing  therefrom  was  made
punishable  with  penal  servitude  for  life.

SACEIPOETUS  (Lathing  Italy).  Here
Sylla  defeated  the  younger  Marius  and  Papirius
Carbo  with  great  slaughter,  B.C.  82,  and  became
dictator,  81.


SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans
used  neither  saddles  nor  .stirrups.  Saddles  -were  in
use  in  the  3rd  century,  and  are  mentioned  as  made
of  leather  in  304,  and  were  known  in  Eugland  about
600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  introduced  by
Anne,  queen  of  Richard  II.  in  1388. Stow.

SADDTJCEES,  a  Jewish  sect,  said  to  have
been  founded  by  Sadoc,  a  scholar  of  Antigonus,
about  200  B.C.,  who,  misinterpreting  his  master's
doctrine,  taught  that  there  was  neither  heaven  nor
hell,  angel  nor  spirit ;  that  the  soul  was  mortal,  and
that  there  was  no  resurrection  of  the  body  from  the
dead.  The  Sadducees  rejected  the  oral  law,  main-
tained by  the  Pharisees.  See  Matt.  xxii.  23  ;  Acts
xxiii.  8.

SADLEE'S  WELLS  (N.  London),  so  called
after  Mr.  Sadler,  who  built  an  orchestra  to  entertain
the  invalids  who  used  the  waters  medicinally,  1683.
In  time  the  orchestra  was  enclosed,  and  the  build-
ing became  a  place  for  dramatic  performances.
The  theatre  was  opened  in  1765.  Eighteen
persons  were  trampled  to  death  at  this  theatre,
on  a  false  alarm  of  fire,  18  Oct.  1807  ;  see  under
Theatres.  The  theatre  put  up  to  auction  and  not
sold,  31  Aug.  1875  '■>  and  3°  July,  1878.

SADOWA,  see  Koniggriitz.

SAEES.  A  National  Safe  Company,  London,
opened  vaults  for  storage  of  valuables,  1876.

SAFETY  LAMP. One  was  invented  in  1815
by  sir  Humphry  Davy,  to  prevent  accidents  which
happen  in  coal  and  other  mines. The  safety-lamp
is  founded  on  the  principle  that  flame,  in  passing
through  iron- wire  meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat
as  to  be  incapable  of  igniting  inflammable  gases.
The  father  of  all  safety-lamps  was  Dr.  Reid  Clanny,,
of  Sunderland,  whose  invention  and  improvements
are  authenticated  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society
of  Arts  for  1817 . The  "  Georcly,"  constructed  by
George  Stephenson,  the  engineer,  in  1815,  is  said
to  be  the  safest. A  miner's  electric  light, "by  MM.
Dumas  and  Benoit, was  exhibited  in  Paris  on  8
Sept. 1862. On  14  Aug.  1867,  safety-lamps  were
rigidly  tested  by several mining engineers,  and;
serious  doubts  thrown  upon  their  complete  efficac)'.
Col.  Shakespear's  safety  lamp  (light  extinguished
by  opening)  exhibited  at  Royal  Institution,  &c,
May,  1879. Messrs.  Fleuss  and  Foster's  new  safety
mining  lamp  approved,  Jan.  1884.
Mr.  J.  Wilson-Swan's  electric  safety  lamp,  weighing  6\  lt>
exhibited  at  Aberdeen  meeting  of  British  Association
Sept.  1885.
Mr.  Charles  D.  Aria's  safety  lamp  reported  successful  ;
the  supply  of  mineral  oil  is  isolated  from  the  burner,
i88q.
The  Thornbury  miners'  lamp  tried  at  Aldwarke  Main,
Collieries  by  Mr. C. E. Rhodes, and  subjected  to*
experiments  by  prof.  Dewar  and  sir  Frederick  Abel,
who  declare  that  this  lamp  fulfils  the  conditions  re-
quired by  the  royal  commission  in  1886.  Paraffin  and
other  mineral  oils  may  be  used  in  this  lamp,  reported
Nov.  1889.

SAEFEON  {saffran, French;  sqfrano,  Italian),
the  flower  of  crocus,  was  first  brought  to  England  in
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  by  a  pilgrim,  about  1339,
probably  from  Arabia,  as  the  word  is  from  the-
Arabic  saphar.  Miller.  It  was  cultivated  in  Eng-
land in  1582.

SAGE  (Saugc,  French ;  Salvia,  Latin),  a  whole-
some herb.  Mortimer.  The  Mexican  sage,  Salvia
mexicana,  was  brought  from  Mexico,  1724.  The
blue  African  sage,  Salvia  africana,  and  the  golden
African  sage,  Salvia  aurea,  were  brought  to  Eng-
land from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1731.


SAGUNTUM.


853 SALISBURY  ADMINISTRATIONS.


SAGUNTUM,  or  ZacYjSTTHUS,  now  Mur-
viedro,  in  Valentia,  E.  Spain,  renowned  for  the
dreadful  siege  it  sustained,  219  B.C.  The  citizens,
after  performing  incredible  acts  of  valour  for  eight
months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the  ruins  of  their  city
rather  than  surrender  to  Hannibal.  They  burnt
themselves,  with  their  houses,  and  the  conqueror
became  master  of  a  pile  of  ashes,  218  B.C.

SAHARA,  a  great  sandy  desert,  North  Africa,
south  of  Barbary  States.  A  project  for  making  an
inland  sea  here  was  entertained  in  1883,  and  the
construction  of  a  railway  was  proposed  in  Algeria,
Oct.  1890.  A  large  natural  reservoir  of  water  at
El  Golea  in  the  desert,  was  discovered  early  1891.

SAIGON,  French  colony  in  Cochin  China,
founded  in  i860,  after  a  defeat  of  the  Chinese,  17
Feb.  1859.

SAILORS'  HOME,  in  Well-street,  London
Docks,  established  by  Mr.  George  Green,  1 830 ;
opened,  1835;  enlarged,  1865.  In  one  year  it
admitted  5444  boarders,  who,  besides  home,  had
evening  instruction,  the  use  of  a  savings'  bank,  &c.
The  establishment  is  self-supporting,  aided  by
subscriptions.  Similar  institutions  have  since  been
established.  Sailors'  orphan  girls'  school  and
home,  Hampstead,  established  1829.  Sailors'  and
Firemen's  Union,  see  Shipping.

SAINT.  For  names  with  this  prefix,  see  the
names  themselves  throughout  the  book.  See  Acta
Sanctorum.

SAKYA  MUNI,  see  Buddhism.

SALADO,  a  river,  S.  Spain;  see  Tar  if  a.

SALADS,  are  stated  to  have  been  in  use  in
the  middle  ages ;  lettuces  are  said  to  have  been
introduced  into  England  from  the  Low  Countries,
1520-47.

SALAMANCA  (W.  Spain),  taken  from  the
Saracens  861.  The  university  was  founded  1240,
and  the  cathedral  built  15 13.  Near  here  the  British
and  allies,  commanded  by  lord  Wellington,  totally
defeated  the  French  army  under  marshal  Mamiont,
22  July,  1812.  The  loss  of  the  victors  was  most
severe,  amounting  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,
to  nearly  6000  men.  Marmont  left  in  the  victor's
hands  7141  prisoners,  11  pieces  of  cannon,  6  stands
of  colours,  and  2  eagles.  This  victory  was  followed
by  the  capture  of  Madrid.  Population,  1887,22,199.

SALAMIS  (near  Athens).  In  a  great  sea-fight
here,  20  Oct.  480  B.C.,  Thcmistocles,  the  Greek  com-
mander, with  only  310  sail,  defeated  the  fleet  of
Xerxes,  king  of  Persia;  which  consisted  of  2000
Bail. — Near  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  the  Greeks  defeated
the  Persian  fleet,  449  B.C.;  and  Demetrius  Polior-
cetes  defeated  the  fleet  of  Ptolemy  and  his  allies,

306  B.C.

SAL  A  SSI, a  turbulent  Alpine tribe,  were
thoroughly  subdued  by  Terentius  Varro,  25  B.C.,
and  a  Roman  colony  established  in  their  territories  j
(now  Aosta) .

SALDANHA  BAY,  S.  Atlantic  Ocean;  north-  \
Wind  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Here  on  17  Aug.  ;
1796,  a  Dutch  squadron,  under  admiral  Lucas,  was  (
captured  \>y  vice-admiral  sir  George  Keith  Elphin-
stone,  without  resistance ;  sir  George  was  created  t
lord  Keith.

SALE  OF  FOOD  AND DRUGS  ACT,
passed  II  Aug.  1875;  repeals  all  adulteration  acts,  j
and  makes  new  arrangements.


.  SALENCKEMEN  on  the  Danube.  Here  a
victory  was  gained  by  the  imperialists,  under  prince
Louis  of  Baden,  over  the  Turks,  commanded  by  the
grand  vizier  Mustapha  Kiuprigli,  19  Aug.  1691.

SALERNO  (Salernum,  S.  Italy),  an  ancient
Roman  colon y.  Its  university,  with  a  celebrated
school  of  medicine,  reputed  to  be  the  oldest  in
Europe,  was  founded  by  Robert  Guiscard  the  Nor-
man, who  seized  Salerno  in  1077.  Salerno  suffered
much  in  the  wars  of  the  middle  ages.

SALFORD, near  Manchester. Population,
1881,176,235; 1891,198,136.
An  mcendiary.explosion  at  the  barracks  caused  one

death  ;  Fenians  suspected . . .14  Jan. i£Si

SALIQUE  or  »Salic  Law,  by  which  females
are  excluded  from  inheriting  the  crown  of  France,
is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Pharamond,  424,
and  ratified  in  a  council  of  state  by  Clovis  I.,  the
real  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  in  511.
Henault.  This  law,  introduced  into  Spain  by  the
Bourbons  1700,  was  formally  abolished  by  decree
29  March,  1830 ;  and  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.
his  daughter  succeeded  as  Isabella  II. ,  29  Sept.  1833 ;
see  Spain.  By  this  law  also  Hanover  was  separated
from  England,  when  queen  Victoria  ascended  the
English  throne,  1837.

SALISBURY  (Wilts),  founded  in  the  begin-
ning of  the  13th  century,  on  the  removal  of  the
cathedral  hither  from  Old  Sarum.  National  councils
or  parliaments  were  repeatedly  held  at  Salisbury,
particularly  in  1296,  by  Edward  I. ;  in  1328,  by
Edward  III. ;  and  in  1384.  Henry  Stafford,  duke  of
Buckingham,  was  executed  here  by  order  of  Richard
III.,  in  1483. — On  Salisbury  Plain  is  Stone-
henge  (ichich  see).  This  plain  was  estimated  at
500,000  acres.  On  it  wrere  so  many  cross  roads,  and
so  few  houses  to  take  directions  from,  that  Thomas,
earl  of  Pembroke,  planted  a  tree  at  each  milestone
from  Salisbury  to  Shaftesbury,  for  the  traveller's
guide.  The  autumn  military  manoeuvres  took  place
on  Salisbury  Plain,  Aug.,  Sept.  1872;  see  under
Army. — The  first  seat  of  the  Bishopric  was  at
Sherborne,  St.  Aldhelm  being  prelate,  705.  Her-
man removed  the  seat  to  Old  Sarum.  about  1072;
and  the  see  was  removed  to  Salisbury  by  a  papal
bull,  in  1217.  It  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome
one  saint  and  two  cardinals.  The  building  of  the
cathedral  commenced  28  April,  1220,  and  was  com-
pleted in  1258.  This  edifice  is  reckoned  one  of  our
finest  ecclesiastical  erections.  Its  spire,  the  loftiest
in  the  kingdom,  was  considered  in  danger  in  April,
1864,  and  subscriptions  were  begun  for  its  im-
mediate repair.  The  choir  was  re-opened,  after
restoration  by  sir  G.  G.  Scott,  I  Nov.  1876.  The
bishopric  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  1367/.
iis.&d.  Present  income  5000'.  Population,  180I,
14,792 ;  1891,  15,980.

EECENT BISHOPS.

1797.  John  Fisher,  died  2  July,  1825.

1825.  Thomas  Burgess,  died  io  Feb.  1837.

1837.  Edmund  Denison;  died  6  March,  1S54.

1854.  Walter  Kerr  Hamilton,  died  1869.

1869.  George  Moberly,  elected  9  Sept.,  died  6  July,  1SS5.

1885.  John  Wordsworth,  Aug.

SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS.—

Mr.  Gladstone  resigned  in  consequence  of  a  defeat
in  the  house  of  commons  on  the  Budget  Bill  (j(>4 —
252),  8-9  June,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  marquis
of  Salisbury,  whose  ministry  received  the  seals,  24
June,  1885.

Prime  Minister  and  Foreign  Secretary — Robert Arthur
Talbot  Gascoigne-Cecil,  marquis  of  Salisbury.*

*  He  was  born  3  Feb.  1830;  lord  Cranborne,  on  the

death  of  his  brother,  1865  ;  BUCCOeded  his  father  as  mar-


SALISBUEY  ADMINISTRATIONS. 854


SALT.'


First  lord  of  the  treasury — Sir  Stafford  Northcote  (earl  of

Iddesleigh).
Lord  chancellor— Sir  Hardinge  Giffard  (lord  Halsbury).
Lord  president  of  the  council — Gathorne  Gathorne-Hardy,

viscount  Cranbrook.
Lord  privy  seal— Dudley  Francis  Stuart  Ryder,  earl  of

Harrowby.
Secretaries :  home— Sir  Richard  Assheton  Cross.

the  colonies — Col.  Frederick  Arthur  Stanley.
India — Lord Randolph Henry Spencer-
Churchill.
war— William Henry  Smith; G. Gathorne
Hardy,  viscount  Cranbrook,  about  23  Jan.
1886.
Scotland— Charles  Henry,  duke  of  Richmond,
about  14  Aug.  1885.
First lord of the admiralty — Lord George Francis

Hamilton.
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer— Sir  Michael  Edward  Hicks-
Beach.
Lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland— Henry  H.  M.  Herbert,  earl  of

Carnarvon;  resigned  Jan.  1886.
Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland — Edward  Gibson  (lord  Ash-
bourne).
President  of  board of  trade— Charles Henry  Gordon-
Lennox,  duke  of  Richmond  ;  Edw.  Stanhope,  about  17
Aug.  1885.
Postmaster-general — Lord  John  Manners.
Vice-president  of  the  council — Edward  Stanhope.

The  above  form  the  cabinet.
Chancellor  of  duchy  of  Lancaster — Henry  Chaplin.
President  of  local  government  board — Arthur  J.  Balfour.
Chief secretary  for Ireland — Sir William Hart-Dyke,

resigned  ;  W.  H.  Smith,  about  23  Jan.  1886.
First  commissioner  of  works — David  Robert  Plunket.
Attorney-general — Sir  B.  E.  Webster.
Solicitor-general— -John  E.  Gorst.

liesigncd  27  Jan.,  in  consequence  of  Mr.  Jesse  Collings'
amendment  on  the  address  being  carried  (329-250)
26-27  Jan-  rtSS-

Second  Administration  (26  July,  1886) —
Prime  minister  and  foreign  secretary  (Jan.  1887) — Robert
Arthur  Talbot  Gascoigne-Cecil,  marquis  of  Salisbury.
First  lord  of  the  treasury  and  leader  of  the  commons — -Win.
Henry  Smith,  3  Jan.  1887  ;  died  6  Oct.  1891. Arthur
J.  Balfour,  9  Nov.  1891.
Lord  chancellor — Hardinge  Stanley  Giffard,  lord- Halsbury.
Lord  president  of  the  council — Gathorne  Gathorne-Hardy,

viscount  Cranbrook.
Chancellor of the exchequer — Lord Randolph Henry
Spencer  Churchill ;  resigned  22  Dec. 1886 ;  t  George
Joachim  Goschen,  3  Jan.  1887.
Secretaries:  home — Henry  Matthews  (R.C.).

foreign — Stafford Henry Northcote,  earl of
Iddesleigh  (died  12  Jan.  1887)  ;  marquis  of
Salisbury,  Jan.  1887.
the  colonies — Edward  Stanhope  ; sir  Henry
Thurstan  Holland,  ;  baron  Knutsford,  Feb.
1888  (Jan.  1887).
India — Sir  Richard  Cross  (viscount  Cross).
war — William  Henry  Smith  ;  Edward  Stan-
hope, 6  Jan.  1887.
First  lord  of  the  admiralty — Lord  George  Francis  Hamilton.
Lord  chancellor  of  Ireland — Edward  Gibson,  lord  Ash-
bourne.
Chief  secretary  for  Ireland — Sir  Michael  Edward  Hicks-
Beach  ;  resigns,  but  remains  in  the  cabinet  (retires  Jan.
1 888);  succeeded  by  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  5  March,  1887.
Wm.  L.  Jackson,  9  Nov.  1891.
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster — Lord  John  Manners,

duke  of  Rutland,  4  March,  1888.
President  of  the  board  of  trade— -Sir  Frederick Stanley
(lord Stanley  of  Preston); succeeded by  sir  M.  E
Hicks-Beach,  15  Feb.  1888.
President  of  the  board  of  agriculture,  Henry  Chaplin,  5
Sept.  1889.

The  above  form  the  Cabinet.
Lord  privy  seal — George  Henry  Cadogan  (earl  Cadogan).


qnis  in  1868 ;  M.P.  for  Stamford,  1853-68  ;  secretary  for
India,  July,  1866,  to  March,  1867  ;  and  Feb.  1874  to
April,  1878  :  for  foreign  affairs,  April,  1878,  to  May,
1880  ;  special  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  Nov.  1876  ;
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  i86q.  Manifesto
respecting  the  election  issued,  Times,  28  June,  1892.

t  The  marquis  of  Hartington  and  the  liberal  unionists
declined  to  form  part  of  a  coalition  ministry,  30  Dec.  1886.


Lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  —  Charles  Stewart  Vane
Tempest  Stewart,  marquis  of  Londonderry  :  succeeded
by  Laurence  Dundas,  earl  of  Zetland,  30  May,  1389.

Secretary  for  Scotland — Arthur  J.  Balfour;  succeeded  by
Schomberg  Henry  Kerr,  marquis  of  Lothian,  8  March,
1887.

President  of  local  government  board — C.  T.  Ritchie.

Postmaster-general — Henry  Cecil  Raikes,  died  24  Aug.
T891 ;  sir  James  Fergusson,  about  21  Sept.  1891.

First  commissioner  of  works — David  Robert  Plunket.

Attorney-general — Sir  Richard  Everard  Webster,  Q.C.

Solicitor -general — Sir  Edward  Clarke,  Q.C.

Mesigned  12  Aug.,  in  consequence  of  want  of  confidence;
voted  by  the  commons,  Mr.  Asquith's  amendment
(350-310),  11  Aug.  1892.  For  chief  measures,  see  Educa~
lion ,  Ireland,  Local  Govern/men  t,  Navy,  and  National  Debt.

SALISBURY'S  ACT,  see  Artisans.
SALLEE,  a  port  of  Morocco,  long  a  haunt  for
pirates,  destroyed  by  the  British  in  1632,  and  about
300  captives  released.

SALLENTINI,  allies  of  the  Samnites,  the
only  Italian  tribe  not  subject  to  Kome,  were  over-
come in  war  in  267  and  266  B.C.,  and  Brundisium,
their  port,  taken.

SALMON  FISHEEIES. The  laws  relating
to  them  were  consolidated  and  amended  in  i86r,
and  the  report  of  a commission  of  inquiry  (in-
cluding sir  Wm.  Jardine)  was  published,  in  Feb.
1862. An  act  restricting  the  capture  of  salmon  at
certain  times,  passed  in  1863,  was  amended  in  1869-
1870, and 1873. During the "salmon fence,"
14  Sept. to  1  Feb.,  it  is  unlawful  to  catch  fish  of
the  salmon  kind. A  salmon-fishery  congress  opened
at  South  Kensington,  7  June,  1867. Salmon  eggs
sent  to  New  Zealand,  Jan.  1878.
Salmon  Ova,  packed  in  boxes  with  moss,  charcoal,
and  ice,  to  retard  development — a  plan  suggested
and  proved  practicable  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Moscrop  in
1863 — adopted  successfully  by  Mr. J.  A.  Youl,
who  sent  ova  to  Australia  in  the  "  Norfolk," .  1864
Salmon  disease,  in  rivers,  announced,  1879 ;  commis-
sion of  inquiry  appointed,  Mr.  F.  Buckland  and

others Jan.  i83o

Very  great  increase  in  the  number  of  salmon  caught,  1883
SALONICA,  see  Thcssalonica.
SALT  (chloride  of  sodium,  a  compound  of  the
gas  chlorine  and  the  metal  sodium)  is  procured  from
the  rocks  in  the  earth,  from  salt-springs,  and  from
sea-water.  The  famous  salt-mines  of  Wielitzka,
near  Cracow  in  Poland,  have  been  worked  600
years.  The  salt-works  in  Cheshire,  called  the
wiCHES  (Nantwich,  North wich,  and  Middlewich),
were  of  great  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Saxon
heptarchy.  The  salt-mines  of  Staffordshire  were
discovered  about  1670.  Salt  duties  were  first  ex-
acted in  1702;  they  were  renewed  in  1732;  re-
duced in  1823 ;  and  in  that  year  were  ordered  to
cease  in  1825.  During  the  French  war  the  duty
reached  to  30/.  per  ton.  For  the  salt-tax  in  France
see  Gabelle.  The  government  salt  monopoly  in  India
was  abolished  in  May,  1863,  by  sir  C.  Trevelyan.
Since  1797  salt  has  been  largely  employed  in  the
manufacture  of  chloride  of  lime  or  bleaching
powder  (by  ob tabling  its  chlorine),  and  soap  (by
obtaining  its  soda).  On  this  are  based  the  chemical
works  of  Cheshire,  Lancashire,  and  other  places.
See  under  Alkalies.

Much  distress  in  the  salt  districts  of  Cheshire  through
the  subsidence  of  land,  1887-8.  The  proprietors  of
the  Cheshire  salt  mines  combined  to  form  a  "  trust "  or
syndicate  in  the  autumn  of  1888 ;  central  office,
Northwich  ;  the  trade  being  nearly  ruined  by  great
competition,  first  meeting  27  Sept.  1888.
Great  advance  in  the  price  of  salt  Oct.  1888.
A  "salt  museum"  presented  to  the  town  of  Northwich

by  Mr.  Brunner,  M.P.,  March,  1889.
Salt  exported  from  the  United  Kingdom:  1876,  865,804
tons  ;  1880,  1,051,240  tons ;  1885,  921,869  tons  ;  1890,
726,021  tons.


SALTAIEE.


8-55


"SALVATION ARMY."


SALTAIEE,  see  Alpaca.

SALT  LAKE,  see  Mormon ites.

SALT-PETEE  (from  sal  petrce,  salt  of  the
rock),  or  Nitre,  is  a  compound  of  nitric  acid  and
potash  (nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  potassium),  and
hence  is  called  nitrate  of  potash.  It  is  the  explo-
sive ingredient  in  gunpowder,  many  detonating
powders,  and  Lucifer  matches.  Boyle  in  the  17th
century  demonstrated  that  salt-petre  was  composed
of  aqua  fortis  (nitric  acid)  and  potash;  the  dis-
coveries of  Lavoisier  (1777)  and  Davy  (1807)  showed
its  real  composition .  Its  manufacture  in  England
began  about  1625.  During  the  French  revolu-
tionary war,  the  manufacture  was  greatly  increased
by  the  researches  of  Berthollct.

SALUTE  AT  SEA.  It  is  a  received  maxim  at
sea,  that  he  who  returns  the  salute  always  tires
fewer  guns  than  he  receives,  -which  is  done  even
between  the  ships  of  princes  of  equal  dignity  ;  but
the  Swedes  and  Danes  return  the  compliment  with-
out regarding  how  many  guns  are  fired  to  them.
The  English  claim  the  right  of  being  saluted  first
in  all  places,  as  sovereigns  of  the  seas;  the  Vene-
tians claimed  this  honour  within  their  gulf,  &c.
The  admiralty  issued  a  code  of  rules  for  salutes,
Dec.  1876. See  Flag,  and  Naval  Salute.

SALVADOR,  SAN,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  and
the  first  point  of  land  discovered  in  the  West  Indies
or  America  by  Columbus.  It  was  previously  called
Guanahani,  or  Cat's  Isle,  and  Columbus  (in  ac-
knowledgment to  God  for  his  deliverance)  named  it
San  Salvador  when  he  first  saw  it,  11  Oct.  1492.
The  capital,  San  Salvador,  was  destroyed  by  an
earthquake,  16  April  1854,  and  is  now  abandoned.

SALVADOE,  SAN,  one  of  the  republics  of
Central  America,  with  a  constitution  established
24  Jan.  1859.  Capital,  Libertade.  General  Barrios
elected  president  I  Feb.  i860,  was  compelled  to  flee
in  Oct.  1863  ;  when  Francis  Duerias  became  provi-
sional president  ;  his  formal  election  took  place  April,
1865.  The  ex-president,  Gerard  Barrios,  was  sur-
rendered by  Nicaragua,  tried  and  shot,  Aug.  1865.  A
reattempted  revolution  failed;  Zaldivarfled;  general
Gonzales  president,  1  Feb.  1872  ;  K.  Zaldivar,  May,
1876;  Gen.  Menendez,  June,  1885;  re-elected
1  March  1887  for  four  years.  Population,
1886,  651,130.  The  capital,  San  Salvador,  was
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  19  March,  1873,
about  50  persons  perished.  The  convulsion  began
5  March  and  thus  gave  timely  warning.  A  rebellion
suppressed,  6 — 10  Sept.  1887.
General  Rivas  and  an  insurgent  army  defeated  by
government  troops,  announced  . . 31  Dec.  1889

Insurrection  ended Jan.  1890

Gen.  Menendes  dies  suddenly,  22  June  ;  revolution,
sen.  Carlos  Ezeta  becomes  provisional  president,

25  June  ,,
Guatemala  ami  Honduras  declare  war  against  pre-
sident Ezeta,  several  sanguinary  battles ;  in-
vading troops  defeated,  July  ;  Guatemala  in-
vaded, July  ;  gen.  Rivas  revolts  against  president
E/.eta,  and  is,  aftera  severe  engagement,  defeated
by  gen.  A.  Ezeta,  captured,  and  publicly  shot,

1  Aug.  ,,
Gen.  Ezeta  re-elected  president  .  about  13  Sept.  ,,
Peace  with  Guatemala  signed,  announced |  17  Nov.  ,,
Gen.  Ezeta  continued  as  president  for  four  years,

1  March, 1891
Rebellion  in  the  island  of  Amapala  suppressed,

and  the  leader,  gen.  Bardales,  killed . 6  May, ,,
Violent  earthquake,  great  destruction  of  life  and

property 9  Sept. ,,

About  40  persons  killed  in  the  capital  ;  Comasagua
nearly  destroyed  ;  shocks  still  continue  13  Sept. ,,

"SALVATION  ARMY,"  a  name  assumed
by a body of  persons terming themselves tho


"Christian  Mission"  (formed  by  the  combination
of  seveial  revival  societies  in  1865,  for  the  evan-
gelization of  the  very  lowest  classes.  Mr.  "William
Booth  was  nominated  "general"  of  the  army.
Deeds  constituting  Mr.  Booth  general  superin-
tendent of  the  affairs  of  the  "  Cbristian  Mission"
with  plenary  powers,  and  trustee  of  its  property  and
income,  and"  also  with  power  to  name  his  successor,
were  enrolled  in  Chancery,  Aug.  1878.

A  gieat  "Hosanna"  meeting  to  celebrate  the  formation
of  the  104th  corps  at  Northampton,  was  held  at  the
headquarters  (with  prayers,  addresses,  and  singing),
272,  Whitechapel-road,  30  June,  1879.

Gen.  Booth  set  forth  his  principles  in  the  Contem-
porary Review  for  August,  1882  ;  he  upholds  the
gospel,  opposes  sectarianism,  and  requires  from
his  soldiers  implicit  obedience,  aiming  at  the  re-
formation of  drunkards  and  other  reprobates.*

The  Eagle  Tavern  and  Grecian  Theatre,  City  Road,
London,  purchased;  occupied,  early  12  Aug.;  de-
voted, 14  Sept.  1882  ;■  conditions  of  sale  not  kept,
ordered  to  quit 6  July,  1883

Indian  contingent  (major  Tucker  and  others),  land
at  Bombay  ;  fined  ;  imprisoned  on  non-payment,

28  Sept. „

Their  "invasion"  opposed  by  the  authorities  in
Switzerland,  Jan.  et  seq. ;  severely  opposed,  June;
Miss  Booth  imprisoned  at  Neufehatel,  Sept.;  ac-
quitted, 1  Oct.;  expelled . . .11  Oct. „

Great  fighting  between  Salvation  and  Skeleton
armies  at  Gravesend  [and  other  places] 15  Oct. „

"553  army  brigades  in  the  United  Kingdom;  182
abroad."— (Vert.  Booth .... April,  1884

West-end  centre  building  founded  . . 14  June, ,,

Severe  rioting  at  Worthing  ;  the  army  attacked  by
the  Skeleton  army,  18-20  Aug.;  a  man  wounded
by  a  revolver  fired  by  Mr.  G.  Head,  7  Sept.;
rioting  at  Brighton  .... 7  Sept. ,,

International  congress  in  London 28  May-4  June,  1886

General  Booth  appeals  to  the  army  for  a  subscrip-
tion of  5,000/ 20  Aug. ,,

Another  appeal Dec.  1887

He  reports  "advance  of  the  army  "  throughout  the
world  with  varying  success,  opposition  and  in-
difference ;  about  100,000/.  received  in  . . .  1887

Celebration  of  the  23rd  anniversary  of  the  organiza-
tion of  the  army  at  the  Alexandra  Palace  9  July,  1888

Severe  decree  against  the  army  in  Berne,  2  Sept.  ;
unconstitutional  peisecution,  Aug. -Sept.  1884,
continued 1888-9

The  offices  in  Queen  Victoria  Street,  London,
partly  burnt ...... 3  Dec.  1889

17th  anniversary  kept  at  the  Alexandra  Palace,
3  July,  1882  ;  '25th  at  Crystal  Palace . . .  1890

Death  of  Mrs.  Catherine  Booth,  aged  6t . 4  Oct. ,,

Great  funeral  demonstration  at  Olympia,  13  Oct.  ;
Abnev  Park 14  Oct. ,,

Gen.  Booth  publishes  his  book  "  In  Darkest
England,  and  the  Way  Out,"  to  renovate  the
very  lowest  classes  ("the  submerged  tenth");
he  proposes  the  formation  of  city,  farm,  and  over
the  sea  colonies  (cost  about  1,000,000/.) . Oct. ,,

Great  meetings  of  the  army  at  Exeter  Hall,  43, 171/.
contributed . ... . • i7>  l8  Js*"v- >■

Above  106,000/.  subscribed  or  promised . Dec. „

Great  progress  of  the  army  in  India  and  tin1  colo-
nies reported 13  Nov. ,,

Force  of  the  army  :  0,416  officers,  1,375  corps  at
home,  and  1,499  in  the  colonies,  capital,  750,000/.,
reported Dec. ,,

General  Booth  visits  Copenhagen,  Hamburg,  Ber-
lin, and  other  places  to  inspect  his  army,  Feb.  ;
S.  Africa,  the  East,  and  Australia,  Aug.  ct  so/.
1891 ;  his  welcome  home,  12  days'  festivities,

12  Feb.  et  seq.  1892

Mrs.  David  Bell,  of  Glasgow,  bequeaths  about
58,193/.  and  a  hall  in  Dollar  to  gen.  Booth  in
support  of  his  work,  announced  . . 8  May, 1891

Gen.  Booth  urgently  appeals  for  funds,

about  11  May,  1892

*  The  army  has  officers  of  various  grades;  head-
quarters, 101,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  London  ;  publish-
ing offices,  <vc,  Paternoster  Square  ;  official  gazette,  the
War  Cry,  price  Jd.,  in  various  languages,  of  which
millions  are  sold. The  propngandism  is  very  vigorous.


SALZBACH.


853


SANDEMANIANS.


SALZBACH  (Baden) .  Here  the  French  gene-
ral Turenne  was  killed,  at  the  commencement  of  a
battle,  27  July,  1675.

SALZBUBG,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  was
annexed  to  Austria,  1805;  to  Bavaria,  1809;  to
Austria  again  18 15.  It  was  the  birthplace  of
Mozart,  1756.  The  meetings  of  the  emperors  of
Austria  and  France  here,  18  Aug.  1867,  and  the
emperors  of  Austria  and  Germany,  6  Sept.  1871,
which  caused  some  anxiety,  were  reported  to  be  in
favour  of  peace.  Population,  1890;  province,
173,510;  city,  27,741.

SAMAJ,  or  SOMAJ,  see  Deism.

SAMANIDE  DYNASTY,  began  with  Ismail
Samaui,  who  overcame  the  army  of  the  Safferides,
and  established  himself  in  the  government  of
Persia,  902 ;  his  descendants  ruled  till  999.

SAMABCAND  (in  Tartary)  was  conquered  by
the  Mahometans,  707  ;  by  Genghis  Khan,  1220,  and
by  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  who  ruled  here  in  great
splendour.  Samarcand  was  occupied  by  the  Rus-
sians under  Kaufinairn  26  May,  1868,  after  a  con-
flict on  the  previous  day.  The  garrison  left,  resisted
a  fierce  siege  till  relieved  by  Kaufniann,  13-20  June,
186S.  J  ' J

SAMABITANS.  Samaria  was  built  by  Omri,
925  B.C. ;  and  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom
of  Israel.  On  the  breaking  up  of  that  kingdom
(721  B.C.),  the  conqueror  Shalmaneser  placed  natives
of  other  countries  at  Samaria.  The  descendants  of
these  mixed  races  were  abominable  to  the  Jews,  and
much  more  so  in  consequence  of  the  rival  temple
built  on  Mount  Gerizim  by  Sanballat  the  Samaritan,
332  B.C.,  which  was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus,
130  B.C. ;  see  John  iv.  &  viii.  48,  and  Luke  x.  33.
The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  (of  uncertain  origin)
was  published  in  his  Polyglot  by  Morinus,  1632.

The Samaritan Free  hospital,  Marylebone  ; memorial
stone  laid  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  24  July,  1889.

SAMNITES,  a  warlike  people  of  S.  central
Italy,  who  strenuously  resisted  the  Koman  power,
and  were  not  subjugated  till  after  three  sangui-
nary wars,  from  343  to  290  B.C.  They  afterwards
joined  Pyrrhus,  Hannibal,  and  other  enemies  of
Home,  without  benefit  to  themselves.  Their  brave
leader,  Caius  Pontius,  who  spared  the  Romans  at
Caudium,  320,  having  been  taken  prisoner,  was
basely  put  to  death,  292.  They  did  not  acquire
the  right  of  citizenship  till  88  B.C.  See  Caudine
Forks  and  Rome.

SAMOAN  ISLES  (or  Navigators),  (nine  in-
habited), near  the  Fiji  islands;  christianized  by
rev.  John  Williams,  1830.  King  Malietoa  suc-
ceeded, 8  Nov.  1880.  The  isles  have  a  political  con-
stitution ;  their  parliament  voted  annexation  to
New  Zealand,  March,  1885.  Population  about
35,000.

King  Malietoa  deposed  for  alleged  robbery  and
insult  by  Germans,  and  replaced  by  Tamatese,
the  British  and  French  consuls  protest,  announced

8  Sept.  1887
Insurrection  against  Tamatese,  headed  by  Mataafa

Oct.  1S8S
Victory  of  Mataafa,  after  a  fierce  battle 29  Nov. „
A  party  of  Germans  land,  attacked  by  Mataafa's

forces ;  16  killed  and  the  rest  rescued 18  Dec. ,,
Difficulties  regarding  Samoa  have  arisen  between
the  German, British,  and  United  States  govern-
ments Jan.  1889

The  Germans  declare  war  against  Mataafa  ;  31  Jan. ,,
Prince  Bismarck  yields  to United  States  claims

Feb. „
Cessation  of  hostilities  reported .  5  March, ,,

By  a  great  storm  three  German  and  three  American
war  vessels  were  driven  ashore  at  Apia  on  the


island of Upola and destroyed ; about 50
Americans  and  96 Germans  drowned  ; H.M.S.
Calliope  escaped  by  steaming  out 15,  16  March,  1889
[Capt.  Kane  of  the  Calliope  was  thanked  by  the
admiralty  for  his  skill  and  seamanship.]

Conference  on  Samoan affairs  at  Berlin;  plenipoten-
tiaries :  England,  sir  Edward  Malet ;  Germany,
count  H.  Bismarck ;  United  States,  Mr.  John
Kasson  ;  first  met  29  April ;  closing  conference,
agreement  signed  subject  to  legislative  ratification

14  June, ,,

The  convention  declares  the  Samoan  Isles  to  be
independent  neutral  territory  ;  the  three  powers
to  have  equal  rights  ;  Malietoa  recognized  as
king  ;  a  supreme  court  created,  with  other  pro-
visions.

Mataafa  supports  Malietoa,  who  is  warmly  received,
on  his  return  to  Apia,  11  Aug.  ;  he  resigns  king-
ship to  Mataafa ,,

Mataafa  elected  king,  and  Malietoa  vice-king,  an-
nounced 14  Oct. ,,

Malietoa  re-instated  as  king,  with  the  assent  of
foreign  powers 10  Dec. ,,

Death  of  Tamasese,  reported. . . 28  April,  1891

The  powers  promise  the  king  needed  help  . Aug.  1892

SAMOS,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of  Asia
Minor.  Colonised  by  Ionians  about  1043  B.C.  The
city  was  founded  about  986.  Polycrates,  ruler  of
Samos  (532-22  B.C.),  was  one  of  the  most  able,
fortunate,  and  treacherous  of  the  Greek  tyrants,
and  possessed  a  powerful  fleet.  He  patronised
Pythagoras  (born  here)  and  Anacreon.  Samos  was
taken  by  the  Athenians.  440 ;  and,  with  Greece,
became  subject  to  Rome,  146.  It  was  taken  by  the
Venetians,  a.d.  1125,  who  here  made  velvet  (samet),
and  became  subject  to  the  Turks,  about  1459.  Popu-
lation, 1891,  44,953.

It  was  made  a  principality  by  sultan  Mahmoud  in  1832.
Prince Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb., 1822  ;

appointed  4  March,  1879. Alexander  Karatheodory,

born  20  July,  1833,  appointed  1885.

SAMPFOBD  COITBTENAY  (Devon).
Here  John,  lord  Russell,  defeated  the  Cornish  and
Devonshire  catholic  rebels,  the  middle  of  Aug.  1549.

SAN-  For  names  with  this  prefix,  see  the
names  themselves  throughout  the  book.

SANCTION,  sec  Pragmatic.

SANCTUABIES,  see  Asylums.  Privileged
places  for  the  safety  of  offenders  are  said  to  have
been  granted  by  king  Lucius  to  churches  and  their
precincts.  St.  John's  of  Beverley  was  thus  pri-
vileged in  the  time  of  the  Saxons.  St.  liurian's,
in  Cornwall,  was  privileged  by  Athelstan,  935  ;
Westminster,  by  Edward  the  Confessor;  St.  Mar-
tin's-le-Grand,  1529.  Being  much  abused,  the  pri-
vilege of  sanctuary  wras  limited  \>y  the  pope  in  1503
(at  the  request  of  Henry  VII.),  and  much  reduced
in  1540.  In  Loudon,  persons  were  secure  from
arrest  in  certain  localities  :  these  were  the  Minories,
Salisbury  -  court,  AVhitefriars,  Fulwood's- rents,
Mitre-court,  Baldwin's-gardens,  the  Savoy,  Clink,
Deadman's-place,  Montague-close,  and  the  Mint.
This  security  was  abolished  1697,  but  lasted  in  some
degree  till  the  reign  of  George  II.  (1727).

SANDALS,  sec  Shoes.

SAND-BLAST.  Gen.  B.  C.  Tilghman,  of
Philadelphia,  has  invented  a  method  of  cutting  stone
or  hard  metal  by  a  jet  of  quartz  sand  impelled  by
compressed  air  or  steam.  A  hole  of  1 7  inch  diameter
and  1  h  inch  deep  was  bored  through  a  block  of
corundum,  nearly  as  hard  as  diamond,  in  25
minutes.  The  inven/ion  was  submitted  to  the  Frank-
lin Institute,  Philadelphia,  15  Feb.  1871.  It  may
be  employed  in  the  arts,  for  etching,  &c. ;  for  this
purpose  a  company  was  at  work,  1874.

SANDEMANIANS,  see  Glasiles.


SANDHURST.


857


SANITATION.


SANDHURST, Royal Military

■COLLEGE,  founded,  first  at  High  Wycombe,  in
1799;  removed  to  Great  Marlow  in  1802.  and  to
Sandhurst  in  1812.  It  consists  of  the  staff  college
and  cadets'  college.  Competitive  examination  for
■entrance  into  the  latter  began  in  Feb.  1858.  A  wing
•of  the  college  was  destroyed  by  fire,  21  Jan.  1868.

SANDRINGHAM  HOUSE,  N.  E.  Norfolk,
■was  purchased  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  1861,  re-
built ;  occupied,  1871 ;  much  injured  by  fire,  1  Nov.
1891.  Here  the  duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondale
•died,  14  Jan.  1892.

SANDWICH  (Portits  Rntitpcnsis,  Kent).  It
suffered  by  Danish  invaders  in  851,  993,  and  1014,
but  was  rebuilt  by  Canute,  and  became  prosperous  ;
it  became  chief  of  the  cinque  ports  about  1066.  It
contributed  22  ships  and  504  mariners  to  Edward
III.'s  French  expedition.  It  was  taken  and  plun-
dered by  the  French  under  Breze  in  Aug.  1457.
Flemish  silk  and  woollen  manufactories  were  set-
tled here  by  Elizabeth  in  1561.  Disfranchised
1885. Population,  1881,  2,846;  1891,  2,796.

SANDWICH  ISLANDS  or  Hawaii  Ar-
chipelago, a  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered
by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  In  Owlujhcc  or  Hawaii,  one
of  these  islands,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  sudden  re-
sentment of  the  natives,  14  Feb.  1779.  The  king
and  queen  visited  London  in  1824,  and  died  there
in  July.  These  people  have  made  great  progress  in
civilisation,  and  embraced  Christianity  before  any
missionaries  were  settled  among  them.  Population
in  1884,  80,578;  1890,  89,990.  Numbers  of  native
population  said  to  be  stationar}'.  King  Kamehameha
IV.  married  Miss  Emma  Hooker,  1856.  She  came
to  England  in  1865  ;  landing  at  Southampton,  13
July,  and  visited  our  queen,  9  Sept.  An  English
bishopric  was  established  at  Honolulu  in  1861,
for  which  Dr.  Thomas  Staley  was  consecrated,  J  8
Aug.  1862.

The  king  died ;  Kameliameba  V.  king . Nov.  1863
The  duke  of  Edinburgh  warmly  received  at  Hono-
lulu 21  July,  1869

Bishop  Staley  resigns,  Aug. 1870;  bishop  Alfred

Willis  consecrated 2  Feb. 1872

Kamehameha  V.  died,  unmarried  . 11  Dec. ,,

Win.  C.  Lunalilo  crowned,  8  Jan.  1873  ;  died,  3  Feb.  1874
Reciprocity  treaty  concluded  between  Hawaii  and

the  United  States 1875

David  Kalakaua  (born  16  Nov.  1836),  elected  king,
in  opposition  to  queen  Einnia  12  Feb.  ;  visits  the
president  at  Washington  12  Dec.  1876;  visits
Europe  ;  at  Rome,  1  July  ;  received  by  the  queen
at  Windsor,  12  July,  1881  ;  crowned  .  12  Feb.  1883
Queen  Kapioiani  arrives  at  Liverpool  to  be  present
at  the  royal  jubilee  service  2  June ;  arrives  in

London 8  June,  1887

Revolution  against  a  corrupt  ministry  25  June  ;
the  ministry  deposed  30  June  ;  the  king  powerless
appeals  to  the  foreign  representatives,  who
recommend  the  formation  of  a  new  constitution  ;
the  king  signs  a  new  constitution  7  July  ;  new
ministry  formed ....  10  July, ,,

Mr.  Wilcox,  a  government  military  pupil,  with  100
men,  attempts  the  seizure  of  the  palace  at  Hono-
lulu, 30  July  ;  lighting  ensues,  6  rebels  killed  ;
Wilcox  surrenders  ....  31  July,  1889
Death  of  the  king  David  Kahikaua  at  San  Fran-
cisco, 20  Jan.  ;  succeeded  by  his  sister,  Lilino-
kalani  (who  visited  England  in  1887),  proclaimed

29  Jan. 1891
Political  troubles  :  the  late  king's  ministers  refuse
to  resign,  Feb.  ;  opposition  to  the  queen  ;  Ameri-
can intervention  against  Civil  war  about  4  March, ,,
The  ministry  resigns ;  new  one  formed,  26  Feb.  ;

princess  Kaiulani declared  heirappai'ent,  9  March, ,,
The  queen  nominates  her  privy  council  of  40  mem-
bers,  including  her  husband, Mr.  John  Owen
Dominis,  reported  c8  March;  Mr.  Dominis  died,

27  Aug. ,,


Mr. Robert  Wilcox  heads  a  native  party  against

the  government,  desiring  a  republic  .  Dec.  1891
Conspiracyof  Wilcox  and  others  suppressed,  20  May,  1892
SANGIR  ISLANDS,  a  group  lying  between
the  Philippines  and  Celebes,  subject  to  the  Dutch.
Great  Sangir  has  suffered  much  by  volcanic  erup-
tions. By  one  in  1856  about  2,000  persons  perished,
and  by  others,  7  June  ct  .scq.  1892,  it  was  said  that
nearly  all  the  population,  about  1 2,000,  was  destroyed.
SANHEDRIM.  An  ancient  Jewish  council
of  the  highest  jurisdiction,  of  seventy,  or,  as  some
say,  seventy-three  members,  usually  considered  to
be  that  established  by  Moses,  Num.  xi.  16, — 1490
B.C.  It  was  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  Jesus
Christ,  John  xviii.  31.  A  Jewish  Sanhedrim  was
summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  I.,  23  July,
1806.  A  meeting  of  Jewish  deputies  was  held  18
Sept ,  and  the  Sanhedrim  assembled,  9  March,  [807.
SANITARY  INSTITUTE  of  Great
BRITAIN,  founded  13  July,  1876;  president,  the
duke  of  Northumberland.  Congress  at  Leamington,
1  Oct.  1877;  at  Stafford,  2  Oct.  1878;  at  Croy-
don, 21  Oct.  1879;  at  Exeter,  1880;  opened  a  School
of  Hygiene  in  London  Nov.  1879.  Congress  at
Newcastle,  1882;  at  Glasgow,  27  Sept.  1883:  at
Dublin,  30  Sept.  1884  ;  at  Leicester,  22  Sept.  1885  ;
York,  21  Sept.  1886:  Bolton,  20  Sept.  1887;
Worcester,  24  Sept.  1889  ;  Brighton,  24  Aug.  1890  ;
Portsmouth,  12  Sept.  1892;  incorporated  Aug.  1888.
See  under  Sanitation.

SANITATION,  the  preservation  of  health.
Strict  cleanliness  is  enjoined  in  the  law  of  Moses,  1490
b.c.  Great  attention  hasbeen  paid  to  the  public  health
in  France  since  1802.  Tardieu  published  his  "  Dic-
tionnaire  de  Hygiene,"  1852-54.  Sanitary  com-
missions were  appointed  in  i83Sand  1844.  To  Dr.
Southwood  Smith  is  mainly  attributable  the  honour
of  commencing  the  agitation  on  the  subject  of  public
health  in  England  about  1832  ;  his  "  Philosophy  of
Health"  having  excited  much  attention.  Since
1838  he  has  published  numerous  sanitary  reports,
having  been  much  employed  by  the  government.
Professors  of  hygiene  are  now  appointed.  See
Health,  Public  Health,  and  Hygiene  (Congresses).
Investigations  of  the  Poor  Law  Commissioners  and  con-
sequent disclosures  and  the  reports  of  the  registrar-
general  lead  to  legislation,  1834  et  seq.
Nuisances  Removal  act  passed  (repealed)  .  1845-1860
Baths  and  Washhouses  act  ....  1846-1S47
Public  Health  act  (subsequent  Supplemental  acts).

See  Health,  Board  of 1S48

Common  Lodging  Houses  act  .  .  .  1851-1853
Labouring  Classes  Lodging  Houses  act  .  .  .  1851
Smoke  Nuisance  Abatement  act .... 1853

Diseases  Prevention  act 1855

Public  Health  act  passed „

Metropolitan  Interments  acts  .  .  .  1S50-1855
International  sanitary  conferences  at  Paris,  1851  ;

at  Constantinople 1S60

Labouring  Classes  Dwelling-house  act  passed,  March,  1S66
New  Sanitary  act  (stringent)  passed  Aug. 1866 ;

amended 1S6S,

Public  Health  act  passed  .  .  .  10  Aug.
National  health  society  founded  ....
International  sanitary  congress  at  Vienna,  closed

1  Aug.
Public  Health  act  for  Ireland  passed  .  7  Aug.
Sanitary  Laws  Amendment  act  passed  .  7  Aug.

New  Consolidated  Public  Health  act  passed .
An  international  exhibition  of  objects  relating  to
public  health  and  safety  was  opened  by  the  king
Of  Belgium  at  Brussels,  26  June  ;  a  congress  net

27  Sept.
See  Hygiene.
Parkes  "museum  of  hygiene,"  instituted  1S76,  at
University  college,  London  ;  incorporated  and
removed  to  Margaret-street,  Cavendish-square,
1882;  opened  by  the  duke  of  Albany  .-6  May,  1883 ;
incorporated  with  the  Sanitary  institute  of  Great
Britain Aug,


1870
1872
1873

1874


1S75


1S76


SANITAS.


853


SARAGOSSA.


Sanitary  Assurance  Association,  formed  by  sir  Jo-
seph Fayrer,  Drs.  Andrew  Clark,  Oorfield,  Tyn-
dall,  and  others  ;  constituted  . . .14  Dec.  1880

London  Sanitary  Protection  Association,  founded  by
sir  Wm.  W.  Gull,  professor  Huxley,  and  others .  1881

International  sanitary  exhibition,  royal  Albert  hall,

16  July — 13  Aug. ,,

National  health  society's  exhibition  opened  2  June,  1883

International  health  exhibition,  1884;  proposals
adopted,  Nov.  1883  ;  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cam-
bridge, 8  May  ;  closed,  30  Oct.  ;  conferences  held
about  12  June ;  the  juries  inaugurated  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  17  June;  admitted,  4,153,390;
medals  awarded  (242  gold,  5096  silver,  and  others),
27  Oct.  1884;  estimated  surplus,  19,000?.  . Feb.  1885

International  sanitary  conferences  at  Washington,
1881 ;  at  Rome  .  1S85

.Stated  result  of  fifty  years'  sanitation  saving  of
about  5or>,ooo  lives  ;  death  rate  reduced  from
above  22  to  19  per  thousand . . .  Nov.  1886

The  College  of  State  Medicine  for  the  training  of
persons  officially  employed  in  matters  relating  to
public  health  inaugurated ;  address  by  Mr.
Brudenell  Carter 2  May  1888

Congress  of  Hygiene  met  at  Paris  . . . 4  Aug.  18S9

Sir  Edwin  Chad  wick,  a  great  promoter  of  sanitation,
died,  aged  90 5  July,  1890

International  sanitary  conference  at  Venice,  5  Jan.
et  seq.  ;  convention  respecting  quarantine,  &c,
signed  by  some  of  the  delegates . . 30  Jan.  1892

Sanitary  conference  at  Paris  . . about  24  May, „

SANITAS  (health),  a  new  antiseptic  and  dis-
infectant, invented  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Kingzett,  about

1875-

Having  discovered  that  the  salubrity  of  the  air  surround-
ing certain  trees,  such  as  the  Eucalyptus  globulus  and
pines,  is  due  to  their  volatile  oils  producing  peroxide
of  hydrogen  and  camphoric  acid,  he  devised  a  method
for  procuring  these  re-agents  by  the  decomposition  of
common  turpentine,  and  in  1877  they  were  manufac-
tured and  sold  as  "  Sanitas."

SAN  JUAN  ISLAND,  see  Juan.

SAN  SALVADOE,  see  Salvador.

SANSCULOTTES,  a  term  of  reproach  applied
to  the  leaders  of  the  French  republicans  about  1790,
on  account  of  their  negligence  in  dress,  and  after-
wards assumed  by  them  with  pride.  The  comple-
mentary days  of  their  new  calendar  were  named  by
the  Mountain  party  Sansculottides.

SANSKRIT,  the  language  of  the  Brahmans  of
India,  spoken  at  the  time  of  Solomon,  has  been
much  studied  of  late  years.  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  who
published  a  translation  of  the  poem  Sakuntala,  in
1783,  discovered  that  a  complete  literature  had  been
preserved  in  India,  comprising  sacred  books  (the
Vedas),  history  and  philosophy,  lyric  and  dramatic
poetry.  Texts  and  translations  of  many  works  have
been  published  by  the  aid  of  the  East  India  Com-
pany, the  Oriental  Translation  Fund,  and  private
liberality.  The  professorship  of  Sanskrit  at  Ox-
ford was  founded  by  colonel  Boden.  The  first  pro-
fessor, H.  H.  Wilson,  appointed  in  1832,  translated
part  of  the  Rig-veda  Sanhita,  the  sacred  hymns  of
the  Brahmins,  and  several  poems,  &c.  Professor
Monier  Williams  (elected  i860)  published  an  Eng-
lish and  Sanskrit  dictionary,  1851.  Professor  Max
Mi'tller  published  his  history  of  Sanskrit  Literature
in  1859,  and  has  edited  the  original  text  of  the
Vedas.  Philologists  have  discovered  an  intimate
connection  between  the  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Greek,
Latin,  Teutonic,  Slavonian,  Celtic,  and  Scandi-
navian languages.

SAN STEFANO,  see  Stefano.

SANTA  CEUZ  (Teneriffe,  Canary  Isles).  Here
admiral  Blake,  by  daring  bravery,  entirely  destroyed
sixteen  Spanish  ships,  secured  with  great  nautical
skill,  and  protected  by  the  castle  and  forts  on  the
shore,  20  April, 1657. Clarendon. In  an  unsuc-


cessful attack  made  upon  Santa  Cruz  by  Nelson,
several  officers  and  141  men  were  killed,  and  the
admiral  lost  his  right  arm,  24  July,  1797.*  See-
under  Virgin  Isles.

SANTA  FE  DE  BOGOTA,  see  New  Gra-
nada.

SANTA  HERMANDAD,  see  Sermandad.

SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOSTELLA(N.W.

Spain),  was  sacked  by  the  Moors  in  995,  and  held  by
them  till  it  was  taken  by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1235.
The  order  of  Santiago,  or  St.  James,  was  founded
about  1 1 70  to  protect  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  St.
James  the  Greater  (Acts,  xii.  2),  said  to  be  buried  in
the  cathedral. The  town  was  taken  by  the  French  in
1809,  and  held  till  1814. — Santiago,  the  capital  of
Chili,  S.  America,  founded  by  Yaldivia  in  1541,  has
suffered  much  by  earthquakes,  especially  in 1822
and  1829. Population,  1885,  189,332.
At  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  8  Dec.  1863,
when  the  church  of  the  Campania,  brilliantly  illumi-
nated, was  crowded,  the  combustible  ornaments  took
fire, and above 2,000 persons, principally  women,
perished. On  20  Dec.  the  government  ordered  the
church  to  be  razed  to  the  ground. See  Chili,  1891.

SAPPERS  AND  MINERS,  a  name  given  in
1812  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates
of  the  corps  of  Royal  Engineers. Brande.

SAPPHIC  VERSE,  invented  by  Sappho,  the
lyric  poetess  of  Mitylene.  She  was  equally  cele-
brated for  her  poetry,  beauty,  and  a  hopeless  passion
for  Phaon,  a  youth  of  her  native  country,  on  which
last  account  it  is  said  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea
from  Mount  Leucas,  and  was  drowned,  about  590
B.C.  The  Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid  her  divine
honours,  and  called  her  the  tenth  muse.  Some
consider  the  story  fabulous.

SAPPHIRE,  a  precious  stone  of  an  azure
colour,  and  transparent ;  in  hardness  it  exceeds  the
ruby,  and  is  next  to  the  diamond.  One  was  placed
in  the  Jewish  high  priest's  breast-plate,  1 49 1.
Thamas  Kouli  Khan  is  said  to  have  possessed  a
sapphire  valued  at  300,000/.,  1733.  Artificial  sap-
phires were  made  in  1857  by  M.  Gaudin.  Equal  parts
of  alum  and  sulphate  of  potash  were  heated  in  a
crucible.

SARABAND.  A  stately  dance  invented  by
Sarabanda,  a  dancer  of  Seville,  in  the  16th  century.

SARACENS,  a  name  of  doubtful  origin,  popu-
larly applied  in  the  middle  ages  and  since  to  the
Arabs,  Moors,  and  other  Mahometans  who  conquered
the  East,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  parts  of  Africa,  and  re-
sisted the  Crusaders. See  Mahometanism.

SARAGOSSA  (N.E.  Spain),  anciently  Csesarea
Augusta,  founded  27  B.C.,  was  taken  by  the  Goths-,
470 ;  by  the  Arabs,  712  ;  by  Alfonso  of  Spain,  1 1 18.
Here  Philip  V.  was  defeated  by  the  archduke
Charles,  20  Aug.  1710.  On  17  Dec.  1778,  400  of  the
inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the  theatre.  Sara-
gossa,  after  successfully  resisting  the  French  in
1808,  was  taken  by  them  after  a  most  heroic  defence
by  general  Palafox,  20  Feb.  1809. The  inhabitants,

*  Captain  Fremantle,  the  friend  of  Nelson,  and  his  com-
panion in  most  of  his  brilliant  achievements,  was  also
wounded  in  the  arm  immediately  before  Nelson  had  re-
ceived his  wound  in  the  same  limb.  The  following  note,
addressed  to  the  lady  of  Captain  Fremantle  (who  was  on
board  with  her  husband  at  the  time  he  wrote),  has  been
preserved ,  as  being  the  first  letter  written  by  the  hero  with
his  left  hand: — "  My  dear  Mrs.  Fremantle, — Tell  me
how  Tom  is,  I  hope  he  has  saved  his  arm.  Mine  is  off;
but  thank  God !  I  am  as  well  as  I  hope  he  is.  Ever  yours,
"Horatio  Nelson."


SAEAH SANDS.


859


SAEMATIA.


of  both  sexes,  resisted  until  worn  out  by  fighting,
famine,  and  pestilence. Population,  1887,  92,407.

SAEAH  SANDS,  see  Wrecks,  1857.

SAEAKHS,  see  Russia,  1884.

SAEATOGA  (New  York  State,  N.  America).
Here  general  Burgoyne,  commander  of  a  body  of  the
British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the
Americans  at  Gernianstown,  in  which  he  was  vic-
torious, 3,  4  Oct.,  being  surrounded,  surrendered  all
his  army  (5791  men)  to  the  American  general  Gates,
17  Oct"  1777.  This  was  the  greatest  check  the
British  suffered  in  the  war.

SAEAWAK,  see  Borneo.

SAEDINIA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,
successively  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,
Carthaginians  (about  500  B.C.),  Romans  (238),
Vandals  (a.d.  456),  Saracens  (720-40),  Genoese
(1022),  Pisans  (1165),  Aragoncse  (1352),  and
Spaniards.  From  settlers  belonging  to  these
various  nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive  their
origin.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  acquired
Sardinia  in  1720,  with  the  title  of  king  ;  see  Saroi/.
Population  of  the  Sardinian  dominions  in  1858,
5,194,807;  of  Sardinia  alone,  1887,  723,833.  The
king  of  Sardinia  was  recognised  as  king  of  Italy  by
his  parliament  in  Feb.  1861  ;  see  Italy.
Conquered  by  the  English  naval  forces,  under  sir

J  dim  Leake  and  gen.  Stanhope  . . . .  1708

Ceded  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI 1714

Recovered  by  the  Spaniards . . 22  Aug.  1717
Ce  led  to  the  duke  of  Savoy  with  the  title  of  king,

as  an  equivalent  for  Sicily

Victor  Amadeus  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son . .
Attempting  to  recover  his  throne,  lie  is  taken,  and

1  lias  in  prison  mf

The  court  kept  at  Turin,  till  Piedmont  is  overrun

by  the  French

Charles  Emmanuel  resigns  to  his  brother,  duke  of

Aosta 4  June,  1802

Piedmont  annexed  to  Italy  ...  26  May,  1805

The  king  resides  in  Sardinia .... 1798-1814
Piedmont  restored  to its sovereign,  with  Genoa

added Dec. ,,

King  Charles-Albert  promulgates  a  new  code  . .  1837
Cavour  establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi-

niento  "("  the  Revival") 1847

Tiie  king  grants  a  constitution,  and  openly  espouses

the  cause  of  Italian  regeneration  against  Austria,

23  March,  1848
Defeats  the  Austrians  atGoito;  and  takes  Peschiera

30  May, ,,
Incorporation  of  Lombardy  with  Sardinia 28  June,

and  Venice 4  July, ,,

Sardinian  army  defeated  by  Radetzky . 26  July, ,,
Sardinians  at  Milan  capitulate  to  Radetzky 5  Aug. ,,

Armistice  signed 9  Aug. ,,

Hostilities  resumed 12  March,  1849

Radetzky  defeats  a  division  of  the  Sardinians,  and

occupies  Mortara  ....  21  March,  ,,
Complete  defeat  of  the  Sardinians  by  the  Austrians

at  Novara 23  March, ,,

Charles-Albert abdicates  in favour  of his son,

Victor-Emmanuel  ....  23  March,  ,,
The  Austrians  occupy  Novara,  &c.  .  .  25  March,  ,,
Another  armistice  ....  26  March,  ,,
Death  of  Charles-Albert,  at  Oporto  .  28  July,  ,,
Treaty  of  Milan between Austria  and Sardinia,

.signed  6  Aug. ,,

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes

ecclesiastical  jurisdictions . . . 9  April,  1850
Arrest  of  the  bishop  of  Turin . . . 4  May, ,,
He  is  released  from  the  citadel . . 2  June, ,,
Cavour  minister  of  foreign  affairs .... 1851
Pill for suppression  of  convents  and  support  of

clergy  by  the  state  passed  ,  .  .  2  March,  1855
Convention  with  England  and France signed; a

c.ontingentof  15,000  troops  to  be  supplied  against

Russia 10  April, ,,

1  d.ooo  troops  under  general  La  Marmora  arrive  in

the  Crimea 8  Mar.


1720
1730


1732


■ 1792


Who  distinguish  themselves  in  the  battle  of  the
Tchernaya 16  Aug. 1855

The  king  visits  London,  &c.  . .  30  Nov.  &e. ,,

Important  note  on  Italy  from  count  Cavour  to
England 16  April,  1856

Rupture  with  Austria ;  subsequent  war  (see  A  ustria,
1857,  et  seq.)

Cavour  declares  in  favour  of  free  trade . June,  1857

Prince  Napoleon  Jerome  marries  princess  Clotilde
(see  Italy) 30  Jan. 1859

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Villa  Franca,  n
July  ;  count  Cavour  resigns,  13  July  ;  Rattazzi
administration  formed . . . .19  July, „

The  emperor  Napoleon's  letter  to  Victor-Emmanuel
advocating  the  formation  of  an  Italian  confedera-
tion :  the  latter  declares  it  to  be  impracticable,
and  maintains  his  engagements  with  the  Italians,

20  Oct. ,,
Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Zurich . . Nov. ,,
Garibaldi  retires  into  private  life  . . 17  Nov. ,,
Count  Cavour  returns  to  office  . . . 16  Jan. i86»
The Sardinian  government  refers  the  question  of

annexation  of  Tuscany, &c,  to  the  vote  of  the

people 29  Feb. ,,

Annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  proposed  by  the

French  government ;  the  Sardinian  government

refer  it  to  the  vote  of  the  people . . 25  Feb. ,,
Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  almost  unanimously

by  xEmilia, 14  March  ;  by  Tuscany, 16  March  ;

accepted  by  Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20  March, ,r
Treaty ceding  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France,  signed

24  March,  ,,
Prussia  protests  against  the  Italian  annexations

27  March,  ,,
New  Sardinian  parliament  opens  .  .  2  April,  ,,
Annexation  to  France  almost  unanimously  voted

for  by  Nice,  15  April ;  by  Savoy . 22  April, ,,
The  government  professes  disapproval  of  Garibaldi's

expedition  to  Sicily  (which  see) . .  r8  May, ,,
The  chambers  ratify  treaty  of  cession  of  Savoy  and

Nice 29  May, ,,

The  Sardinian  troops  enter  the  papal  territories

(sec  Italy,  and  Home) . . . .  11  Sept. ,,
Victor-Emmanuel  enters  the  kingdom  of  Naples

15  Oct. ,,
Naples  and  Sicily  vote  for  annexation  to  Sardinia

21  Oct. „
Railway  from  Sassari  to  the  sea  opened 9  April,  1872
Great  storm  ;  at  Quarto,  200  houses,  and  at  Quar-

tuccie,  3  houses  fell,  about  15  people  killed;  at

Pizzi,  10  houses  destroyed  ...  7  Oct.  18S9)
A  destructive  hurricane,  four  bridges  and  many

buildings  destroyed,  12  persons  killed,  reported,

7  Dec.  1890
[For  the  disputes,  and  war  with  Austria,  and  the

events of 1859-61,  see  Austria,  France,  Itovie,

Sicily,  and  Naples.]
[For  later  history  see  Italy.']

kings  or  Sardinia. See  Savoy.
1720.  Vietor-Amadeus  I.  king  (as  duke  II.) ;  resigned,  in

1730,  in  favour  of  his  son  ;  died  in  1732.
Charles-Emmanuel  I.  (III.  of  Savoy),  son.
Vietor-Amadeus  II.,  sou.
Charles-Emmanuel  II.,  sou  ;  resigned  his crown

in  favour  of  his  brother.
Victor-Emmanuel  I.,  brother;  4  June.
[Sardinia  merged  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  of  which

the  emperor  Napoleon was crowned king,  26

May,  1805.]
Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned  in  March,

1821  ;  and  died  in  1824.
Charles-Felix.
Charles- Albert ;  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  25

March,  1849. Died  at  Oporto,  28  July,  1849.
Victor-Emmanuel  II.,  son;  born  14  March, 1820;

died,  9  Jan.  1878.
Humbert,  king  of  Italy  ;  born,  14  March  1844.

See  Italy,  end.

SAEDIS,  see  under  Seven  Churches.

SAEMATIA,  the  ancient  name  for  the  country
in  Asia  and  Europe  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and
the  Vistula,  including  Russia  and  Poland.  The
SarmattB  or  Sauromatse  troubled  the  early  Roman
empire  by  incursions.  After  subduing  the  Scythians.


1730.

1773-
1796.


1821.
1831.


1849,


SAENO.


860


SAVINGS' BANKS.


they  were  subjugated  by  the  Goths,  in  the  3rd  and
4th  centuries.  'I hey  joined  the  Huns  and  other
barbarians  in  invading  Western  Europe  in  the  5th
■century.

SAENO  (S.Italy).  Near  this  river, Teias, king
of  the  Goths,  Avas  defeated  and  slain  by  Justinian's
general  Narses,  March,  553.

SAEUM,  OLD  (Wiltshire),  an  ancient  British
town,  the  origin  of  Salisbury  {which see).  Although
completely  decayed,  it  returned  two  members  to
parliament  till  1832.

SASSANLDES,  descendants  of  Artaxerxes  or
Ardishir,  whose  father,  Babek,  was  the  son  of
Sassan.  He  revolted  against  Artabanus^  the  king
•of  Parthia ;  defeated  him  on  the  plain  of  Hormuz,
226 ;  and  re-established  the  Persian  monarchy.  This
dynasty  was  expelled  by  the  Mahometans,  652  ;


SATAN,  see  Devil  Worship.

SATELLITES,  see  Planets,  Jupiter,  Mars,
■Saturn.

_  SATIEE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduc-
tion of  comedy,  satire  made  its  appearance  at  Pome
in  the  writings  of  Lucilius,  called  the  inventor  of  it,
116  B.C.  Livy.  The  Satires  of  Horace  (35  b.c),
Juvenal  (about  a.d  100),  and  Persius  (about  a.d.
■60),  are  the  most  celebrated  in  ancient  times,  and
those  of  Churchill  (1761)  and  Pope  (1729),  m
modern  times.  Butler's  "Hudibias,"  satirizing
the  presbyterians,  first  appeared  in  1663.  Satire
Menippee,  a  celebrated  satirical  pamphlet,  partly
m  verse  and  partly  in  prose,  attacking  the  policy  of
the  court  of  Spain  and  the  league,  written  in  the
style  of  the  biting  satires  of  the"  cynic  philosopher
Memppus.  The  first  part,  "  Catholieon  d'Espagne,"
by  Leroy,  appeared  in  1593 ;  the  second,  "Abrege
des  Etats  de  la  Ligue,"  by  Gillot,  Pithou,  Papin,
and  Passerat,  appeared  in  1594. Bouillet.

SATEAPIES,  divisions  of  the  Persian  empire,
formed  by  Darius  Hystaspes  about  516  B.C.

SATTAEA  (W.  India)  was  long  a  flourishing
state,  founded  by  Sevajee  about  1646;  subjugated
fcy_  the  Mahrattas  about  1749;  conquered  by  the
British,  1818  ;  ruled  by  a  rajah  under  the  protection
of  the  company.  The  last  rajah  died  without  issue
in  1848 ;  when  the  country  was  annexed.

SATURDAY  (the  last,  or  seventh  dav  of  the
week  ;  the  Jewish  Sabbath;  see  Sabbath),  "it  was
so  called  from  an  idol  worshipped  on  tins  day  by
the  Saxons,  and  according  to  Yerstegan,  was  named
by  them  Saterne's  day.  Pardon.  It  is  more
probably  from  Saturn,  dies  Saturni.  Saturday
Mcview,  an  independent  literary  weekly  journal,
was  first  published,  3  Nov.  1855. See  Hospital.

SATUEN,  the  planet,  ascertained  to  be  about
990  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and  its
diameter  to  be  about  77,230  miles.  One  of  the
eight  satellites  was  discovered  by  Huvghens  (25
March,  1655)  J  four  by  Cassini  (1672-84) ;  two  by
sir  William  Herschel  (1789),  and  one  by  Bond  and
Lassells  (1848) .  The  ring  was  observed'  by  Galileo,
about  1610;  its  annular  form  determined' by  Huy-
ghens,  about  1655 ;  and  discovered  to  be  two-fold
by  Messrs.  Ball,  13  Oct.  1665;  an  inner  ring  was
detected  in  1850  by  Dawes  in  England  (29  Nov.),
and  by  Bond  in  America.

SATUEN  ALIA,  festivals  in  honour  of  Saturn,
father  of  the  gods,  were  instituted  long  before  the
foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the
freedom  and  equality  which  prevailed  on  the  earth
in  his  golden  reign.  Some,  however,  suppose  that
the  Saturnalia  were  first  observed  at  Pome  in  the


reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius  (673-640  B.C.),  after  a
victory  obtained  over  the  Sabines:  whilst  others
suppose  that  Janus  first  instituted  them  in  gratitude
to  Saturn,  from  whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.
Others  assert  that  they  were  first  celebrated  after  a
victory  obtained  over  the  Latins  by  the  dictator
Posthumius,  when  he  dedicated  a  temp'e  to  Saturn,
497  B.C.  During  these  festivals  no  business  was
allowed,  amusements  were  encouraged,  and  dis-
tinctions ceased. Lenglet.

SAVAGE  CLUB,  instituted  by  various
literary  men,  in  1857,  facetiously  terming  them-
selves "savages,"  on  account  of  their  freedom  from
conventionalism.  On  some  occasions  they  gave  a
war-whoop.  Sala.  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone  was  pre-
sent at  the  22nd  anniversary,  14  June,  1879,  and
the  prince  of  Wales  has  been  a  visitor  (1882).

SAVANDEOOG  (Mysore,  S.  India),  a  strong
fortress,  was  captured  by  the  British  without  loss,
21  Dec.  1791.

SAVINGS'  BANKS.  The  first  of  these  was
instituted  at  Berne,  in  Switzerland,  in  1787,  by  the
name  of  caisse  de  domestiques,  being  intended  for
servants  only ;  another  was  set  up  in  Basel,  in  1792,
open  to  all  depositors.  The  rev.  Joseph  Smith,  of
Wendover,  began  a  Benevolent  Institution  in  1799;
and  in  1803 -4,  a  "  charitable  bank"  was  instituted
at  Tottenham  by  Miss  Priseilla  Wakefield.  The  rev.
Henry  Duncan  established  a  parish  bank  at  Ruthwel  I
in  1810.  One  was  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1814.
The  benefit  clubs,  among  artisans,  having  accumu-
lated stocks  of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,
a  plan  was  adopted  to  identify  these  funds  with  the
public  debt  of  the  country,  and  an  extra  rate  of
interest  was  held  out  as  an  inducement ;  hence  were
formed  savings'  banks  to  receive  small  sums,  re-
turnable with  interest  on  demand.
Et.  hon.  Geo.  Rose  developed  the  system,  and  brought  it

under  parliamentary  control,  1S16.
In  1S40  tliere  were  550  banks ;  766,354  depositors ;  amount,

22,060,904?.
Acts  to  consolidate  and  amend  previous  laws  relating  to
savings'  banks  were  passed  in  1828  and  1847 ;  extended
to  Scotland  in  1835  ;  again  consolidated  and  amended
in  1863,  1880  and  1887.
On  20  Nov.  1851,  the  number  of  savings'  banks  in  Great
Britain  and  Ireland  was  574,  besides  above  20,000
friendly  societies  and  charitable  institutions.  The
depositors  (in  the  banks)  were  1,092,581,  while  the
societies  embraced  a  vast  but  unknown  number  of
persons  :  the  amount  of  deposits  was  32,893,511?.
Amount  of  computed  capital  of  savings'  banks  in  the
United  Kingdom : — 1853,  33,362,260?. ;  1S60, 41,258,368?. ;
1870,  37,958,549?. — 1871,  England,  31,413,002?.  ;  Wales,
1,066,543?.  ;  Scotland,  4,119,735?.  ;  Ireland,  2,220,383?.  ;
total,  38,819,663?.  In  1877,  England,  34,750,747?.;
Wales,  1,189,254?.  ;  Scotland,  6,026,802?.  ;  Ireland,
2,271,883?.;  total,  44,238,686?,  In  1883,  England,
34,441,787?.;  Wales,  1,103,201?.;  Scotland,  7,359,586?.;
Ireland,  2,082,549?. ;  total,  44,987,123?.  In  1887,  Eng-
land,35, 595,889/.;  Wales,  915, 171?.;  Scotland, 8^88,354?.;
Ireland,  2,062,808?.  ;  total,  47,262,222?.  In  1890,  Eng-
land, 31,232,451?..  ;  Wales,  852,455?.  ;  Scotland,
9,533,971?.;  Ireland,  2,011,675?.  ;  total,  43,650,552?.

1877. Received  by  Trustees.  Paid.

England . . .^6,590,428 .  . .^7»°31.233

Wales  . . . . 178,260 .  . 224,434

Scotland . . • 2,090,480 .  . . 1,927,283

Ireland  . ... 504,463 •  • 472,185

9.363*631  9>655.i35


1887.
England  .
Wales
Scotland
Ireland


leceived  by  Trustees.

.  £6,871,807  .
. . 122,814

•  2.472.59°  •
• • 409.350

Paid.

•  £7,756,255

183,641

•  2,340,033

428,673

9,876,561


10,708,602


SAVOXA.


861 SAXE-COBURG AND GOTIIA.


England  .
Wales
Scotland
Ireland


Received  hy  Trustees.
.  £6,234,996 .
. . 124,055

. 2,824,391 .
. . 380,965


Paid.

£8,607,201

165,502

2,870,407

483,290


For  Post-Office  Savings'  Battles,  established  in  1861,  see

under  Post  Office.
Savings'  Banks  Investment  acts,  passed  March,  1866,

and  Aug.  1869.
449  old  Savings'  Banks  in  the  United  Kingdom,  1,506,714

accounts,  deposits,  43,797,805?.,  1880.
New  Savings'  Bank  Act,  43  cfc  44  Vict.  c.  36,  passed,  1880,

came  into  effect,  interest  to  depositors  reduced  to

■2.1.  15s.  per  cent.  1  Nov.  1880.
409  savings  banks  in  the  United  Kingdom,  1884. 380  in

1888.
A  new  Savings  Banks  act  was  brought  in  and  withdrawn

in  1390;  passed,  3  July,  1891.

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE FIRST 20,000  DEPOSITORS.

Domestic  servants .  7245

Persons  in  trade,  mechanics,  &c 7473

Labourers  and  porters 672

Miners 1454

Friendly  and  charitable  societies  . . . . 58

Persons  not  classed,  viz.,  widows,  teachers,  sailors,

&e 3098

See  Cardiff.

iSAVONA  (a  manufacturing  town,  N.  Italy,
long  held  by  the  Genoese)  was  captured  by  the  king
of  Sardinia  in  1746;  by  the  French  in  1809,  and
annexed ;  restored  to  Sardinia  at  the  peace.  Pope
Pius  VII.  was  kept  here  by  Napoleon  I.,  1809-12.
Soap  is  said  to  have  been  invented  here,  and  hence
its  French  name  savon.

SAVOY,  the  ancient  Sapaudia  or  Sdbaudia,
formerly  a  province  in  N.  Italy,  east  of  Piedmont.
It  became  a  Roman  province  about  1 18  B.C.  The
Alemanni  seized  it  in  a.d.  395,  and  the  Franks  in
490.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till
about  1048,  when  Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany,
gave  it  to  Humbert,  with  the  title  of  count.  Count
Thomas  acquired  Piedmont  in  the  13th  century.
Amadeus,  count  of  Savoy,  having  entered  his
dominions,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  them  into
a  duchy,  which  he  did  at  Canibray,  19  Feb.  1416.
Victor-Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  obtained  the
kingdom  of  Sicily  from  Spain,  by  a  treaty,  in  1713,
but  afterwards  exchanged  it  with  the  emperor
for  the  island  of  Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,
1720.  The  French  subdued  Savoy  in  1792,  and
made  it  a  department  of  France,  under  the  name  of
Mont  Blanc,  in  1800.  It  was  restored  to  the  king
of  Sardinia  in  1814;  but  with  Nice  annexed  to
France  in  i860,  in  accordance  with  a  vote  by  uni-
versal suffrage,  23  April,  i860.  Savoy  was  visited
by  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the  French  in
August,  i860.  The  annexation  Avas  censured  in
England.

DUKES OF SAVOY.

1391.  Count  Amadeus  VIII.  is  made  duke  in  1416  ;  he  was
named  pope,  as  Felix  V.  He  abdicated  as  duke
of  Savoy,  1439  :  renounced  the  tiara,  1449  ;  died
in  1451.

1439.  Louis.

1465.  Amadeus  IX.

1472.  Pliilibert  I.

1482.  Charles  I.

1489.  Charles  II

1496.  Philip  II.

1497.  Philibert  II.
1504.  Charles  III.

1553.  Emmanuel-Philibcrt.

1580.  Charles-Emmanuel  I.

1630.  Victor-Amadeus  I.

1637.  Francis-Hyacinthe.

1638.  Charles-Emmanuel  II.

1675.  Victor-Amadeus  II. became  king  of  Sicily,  1713
exchanged  for  Sardinia  {which  see)  in  1720.


SAVOY  PALACE  (London),  was  built  by
Peter  of  Savoy,  uncle  of  Eleanor,  queen  of  Henry
III.,  in  1245,  on  land  granted  to  him.  He  gave  it
to  the  fraternity  of  Mountjoy  (Monte  Jo  vis),  from
whom  it  was  purchased  by  queen  Eleanor  for  her
son  Edmund.  Here  resided  John,  lung  of  France,
when  a  prisoner,  1357  ct  seq.  The  Savoy  was  burnt
by  Wat  Tyler  and  his  followers,  1381.  It  was-
restored  as  an  hospital  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  by
Henry  VII.  about  1505.  The  fruitless  Confeuknce
of  bishops  and  eminent  puritans  for  the  revision  of
the  liturgy  was  held  at  the  Savoy,  April-July,  1661.
The  hospital  was  dissolved  in  1 702,  and  the"  build-
ings (then  used  as  a  military  prison)  removed  for
Waterloo-bridge  and  its  approaches,  1817-19.  The
ancient  Chapel  (which  once  possessed  the  privilege  of
sanctuary),  after  several  restorations,  was  destroyed
by  fire,  7  July,  1864,  and  was  rebuilt  at  the  queen's
expense,  and  re-opened  26  Nov.  1865.  The  privi-
lege of  sanctuary,  much  abused,  was  abolished  by
parliament,  1697.  The  rev.  Henry  White,  30  years-
chaplain,  died  7  Oct.  1890.

Savoy  Theatre,  erected  for  Mr  D'Oyly  Carte  by  Mr.  C.
J.  Phipps,  opened  10  Oct. 1881 ;  lit  by  Swan's  incan-
descent electric  light  successfully  (1194  lamps)  ;  1000th
performance  of  "Patience,"  by  Sir  A.  Sullivan,  libretto-
by  W.  G.  Gilbert,  28  Deo.  1881. See  Operas.
A  list  of  the  operas  produced  by  sir  A.  Sullivan  and  Mr.
W.  G.  Gilbert  is  given  in  the  article  Operas. The  <!on-
doliers,  7  Dee.  1889-20  June,  1891  ;  The  JSTavtch  Girl,
30  June,  1891-16  Jan.  1892  ; The  Vicar  0/  Bray  (re-
vived), 28  Jan. -18  June,  1892.
The  Savoy  Hotel  on  the  Thames  Embankment  opened
by  a  company,  6  Aug.  1889  ;  the  directors  include  the-
earl  of  Lathom,  Mr.  R.  D'Oyly  Carte,  and  sir  Arthur
Sullivan.

SAW.  Invented  by  Dasdalus.  Pliny.  Invented
by  Talus.  Apollodorus.  Talus,  it  is  said,  having
found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  employed  it  to  cut
through  a  piece  of  wood,  and  then  formed  an  instru-
ment of  iron  like  it.  Saw-mills  were  erected  in
Madeira  in  1420  ;  at  Breslau  in  1427.  Norway  had
the  first  saw-mill  in  1530.  The  bishop  of  Ely,
ambassador  from  Mary  of  England  to  the  court  of
Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  there,  1555.  The
attempts  to  introduce  saw-mills  in  England  were
violently  opposed,  and  one  erected  by  a  "Dutchman
in  1663  was  forced  to  be  abandoned.  Saw-mills-
were  erected  near  London  about  1770.  The
excellent  saw-machinery  in  Woolwich  dockyard  is
based  upon  the  invention  of  the  elder  Brunei,
1806-13.  The  circular  saw  was  introduced  into-
England  about  1 790.  The  saw-gin  for  separating
cotton  wool  from  the  pod,  invented  by  Eli  Whitney,
an  American,  in  1793,  led  to  the  immense  growth  of
cotton  in  the  southern  states  of  the  Union.  Powis
and  James's  band-saw  was  patented  in  1858.

SAXE-ALTENBUEG  (formerly  Hildburg-
hausen),  a  duchy  in  central  Germany.  The  dukes
are  descended  from  Ernest  the  Pious,  duke  of
Saxony.  Erncst,the  first  duke,  died  in  1715.  The
duke,  Ernest,  bom  16  Sept.  1826 ;  succeeded
his  father,  George,  3  Aug.  1053  ;  he  entered  into-
alliance  with  Prussia,  18  Aug.  1866.  Heir,  brother,
Maurice,  born  24  Oct.  1829. See  page  XII.

SAXE-COBURG  AND  GOTHA  (central
Germany),  capitals  Gotlia  and  Coburg.  The  reigning
family  is  descended  from  John  Ernest  (son  of  Ernest
the  Pious,  duke  of  Saxony),  who  died  in  1729.

DUKES.

1826.  Ernest  I.  duke  of  Saxe-Saalfcld-Onburg  :  born,  2
Jan.  1784;  married  Louisa,  heiress  of  Augustus,
duke  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  became  by  c.mvintioii
duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  12  Nov.  1826  ;  died,
29  Jan.  1844.


SAXE-MEININGEN.


862


SCARLET FEVEE.


[His  brother,  Leopold,  married  the  princess  Char-
lotte of  England,  2  May,  1816  ;  became  king  of
the  Belgians,  12  July,  1831  ;  and  Ferdinand,  the
son  of  his  brother  Ferdinand,  married  Maria  da
Gloria,  queen  of  Portugal,  9  April,  1836.]
1844.  Ernest  II.  son  (brother  of  Albert,  prince  consort  of
Great  Britain) ;  born  21  June,  1818 ;  married
Alexandrina,  duchess  of  Baden,  3  May,  1842  ;  no
issue.  He  entered  into  alliance  with  Prussia,  18
Aug.  1866. Published  Memoirs,  3  vols.  1887-9.

Heir  (presumptive)  :  Prince  Alfred  of  England,
duke  of  Edinburgh  ;  born,  6  Aug.  1844  (in  whose
favour  the  prince  of  Wales  resigned  his  rights,
19  April,  1863.)

SAXE-MEININGEN  (a  duchy  in  central
Germany).  The  dukes  are  descended  from
.Ernest  the  Pious,  duke  of  Saxony.  The  first  duke,
Bernard  (1680),  died  in  1706.  Bernard  (duke,  24
Dec.  1803,  died  3  Dec.  1882),  abdicated  in
favour  of  his  son  George  II.,  20  Sept.  1866,  who
professed  his  adhesion  to  the  Prussian  policy;  he  was
horn,  2  April,  1826.  Heir,  his  son,  Bernard,  horn
1  April,  1851.  By  a  fire  at  Meiningen,  about  3000
persons  became  houseless,  6  Sept.  1874.

SAXE-WEIMAE-  EISENACH  (central
Germany).  The  grand-dukes  are  descended  from
John  Frederic,  the  Protestant  elector  of  Saxony,
who  was  deprived  by  the  emperor  in  1548 ;  see
■Saxony.  The  houses  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe-
Gotha,  Hilburghausen,  and  Saxe-Meiningen  also
sprang  from  him.  They  are  all  termed  the  senior
or  Ernestine  branch  of  the  old  family. — Saxe-
■Weimar  became  a  grand  duchy  in  1815.  The  dukes
have  greatly  favoured  literature  and  their  capital
Weimar  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Germany.

GRAND-DUKES.

1815.  Charles  Augustus.

1828.  Charles  Frederic  ;  died,  8  July,  1853.

-1853.  Charles  Alexander; born, 24 June, 1818. He

entered  into  alliance  with Prussia, 18 Aug.

1866.
Heir:  Charles  Augustus  :  born,  31  July,  1844.

SAXONY,  a  kingdom  in  N.  Germany.  The
Saxons  were  a  fierce  warlike  race,  the  terror  of  the
inhabitants  of  the  later  western  empire,  frequently
attacked  France,  and  conquered  Britain  (which  see).
After  a  long  series  of  sanguinary  conflicts  they  were
•completely  subdued  by  Charlemagne,  who  instituted
many  fiefs  and  bishoprics  in  their  country.  Witi-
kind,  their  great  leader,  who  claimed  descent  from
"Woden,  professed  Christianity  about  785.  From
Iiim  descended  the  first  and  the  present  ruling  family
■of  "Wettin  (the  houses  of  Supplinburg,  Guelf,  and
Ascania  intervened  from  1106  to  1421).  Saxony
became  a  duchy,  880 ;  an  electorate,  1180;  and  a
(kingdom,  1806.  It  was  the  seat  of  war,  1813;  the
king  being  on  the  side  of  Napoleon.  In  the  conflict
of  1866  the  king  took  the  side  of  Austria,  and  the
army  fought  in  the  battle  of  Kcmiggratz,  3  July.
The  Prussians  entered  Saxony  18  June.  Peace
"between  Prussia  and  Saxony  was  signed  21  Oct.
(subjecting  the  Saxon  army  to  Prussia),  and  the
king  returned  to  Dresden,  3  Nov.  Constitution  of
4  Sept.  1831 ;  modified,  1849,  1851,1860,  1861,  1868,
and  1874.  Population,  1861,  2,225,240;  1871,
2,556,244; 1880,2,972,805; 1885,3,182,003;  1890,

■Oc.tocente.nary  of  the  house  of  Wettin  was  celebrated  at
Dresden  with  great  magnificence  15-19  June,  1889  ;  the
many  branches  of  the  royal  family  and  its  connections
were  represented  ;  the  emperor  William  II.,  prince
Alfred  of  Edinburgh  for  England,  and  princes  repre-
senting Portugal  and  Belgium,  and  deputations  from
Austria  and  Bussia  were,  present.  The  festivities
included  church  services,  military  equestrian  per-
formances, historical  pageants  and  a  procession  of
12,000  costumed  characters. The  people presented


about  150,000?.  to  the  king,  for  the  restoration  of  his
palace.


1423'
1428.

1464.
i486.
I525-

1532.


ELECTORS.

Frederic  I.,  first  elector  of  the  house  of  Misnia.
Frederic  II.
[His  sons  Ernest  and  Albert  divide  the  states.  ]


Ernest.  1464.  Albert.

Frederick  III.  1500.  George.

John.  1539-  Henry.

1541.  Maurice.

John  Frederic  ;  deprived  by  the  emperor  Charles
V.  ;  succeeded  by
1548.  Maurice  (of  the  Albertine  line).
1553.  Augustus.
1586.  Christian  I.
1591.  Christian  II.
1611.  John  George  I.
1656.  John  George  II.
1680.  John  George  III.
1 69 1.  John  George  IV.

1694.  Frederic  Augustus  I.,  king  of  Poland,  1697.
1733.  Frederic  Augustus  II.,  king  of  Poland.
1763.  Frederic  Augustus  III.  becomes  king,  1806.

KINGS.

1806.  Frederic  Augustus  I.  ;  increased  his  territories  by

alliance  witli  France,  1806-9  ;  suffered  by  peace

of  1814.
1827.  Anthony  Clement.
1836.  Frederic  Augustus  II.,  nephew  (regent,  1830)  ;  died

9  Aug.  1854.
1854.  John,  brother  (born  12  Dec.  1801)  ;  celebrated  his

golden  wedding  (50  years),  10  Nov.  1872;  died,

29  Oct.  1873.
1873.  Albert ;  born,  23  April,  1828  ; married,  18  June,

1853,  Caroline  of  Wasa.
Heir :  George,  brother  :  born  8  Aug.  1832.

SCANDALUM  MAGNATUM,  a  special
statute  relating  to  any  wrong,  by  words  or  in
writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land,  such
as  peers,  judges,  ministers  of  the  crown,  officers  in
the  state,  and  other  great  public  functionaries,  by
the  circulation  of  the  scandalous  statements,  false
news,  or  horrible  messages,  by  which  any  debate
or  discord  between  them  and  the  commons,  or  any
scandal  to  their  persons,  might  arise.  Chambers.
This  law  was  first  enacted  2  Rich.  II.  1378.

SCANDINAVIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Sweden,
Norway,  and  great  part  of  Denmark  (which  see).
whence  proceeded  the  Northmen  or  Normans,  who
conquered  Normandy  (about  900),  and  eventually
England  (1066).  They  were  also  called  Sea-kings,
or  Vikings.  They  settled  Iceland  and  Greenland,
and,  it  is  thought,  visited  the  northern  regions  of
America,  about  the  9th  century.  A  "  National
Scandinavian  Society "  has  been  formed  at  Stock-
holm; see  Sweden,  Dec.  1864.

SCAEBOEOUGH,  Yorkshire  (anciently
Skardeburge),  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  1066.
Incorporated  by  Henry  II.,  11*81.  The  town  was
made  a  bonding  port  in  1841.  A  new  drive  and
promenade,  a  great  engineering  work,  costing
50,000^.,  opened  by  the  duke  of  Clarence  and  the
archbishop  of  York,  27  June,  1890.  Population,
1881,30,504;  1891,33,776.

SCAELET,  or  kermes  d}-e,  was  known  in  the
East  in  the  earliest  ages;  cochineal  dye,  1518.
Kepler,  a  Fleming,  established  the  first  dye-house
for  scarlet  in  England,  at  Bow,  1643.  1'ne  art  of
dyeing  red  was  improved  by  Brewer,  1667.  BceJc-
mann.

SCAELET  FEVEE,  was  very  prevalent  in
the  metropolis  from  August,  1887,  to  Feb.  1888.
Patients  admitted  into  the  hospitals,  April,  1887 —
March,  1888,  7614.  Arrangements  for  the  crisis
were  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Asylums  Board.
Increase  of  fever in the metropolis ; scarlet  fever,


SCEPTICS.


863


SCIENTIFIC  APPARATUS.


1.426,  8  Aug.;  decreasing  Dec.  1890;  outbreak  of
lever,  June,  1892;  3,006  cases  in  hospitals,  27  June;
-^,428  (3,022  scarlet  fever),  20  Aug.  ;  3,671  (3277  scarlet
fever),  6  Sept.  ;  3,833  (3407  scarlet  fever),  23  Sept.

SCEPTICS,  the  sect  of  philosophers  founded
by  Pyrvho,  about  334  B.C.  He  gave  ten  reasons  for
continual  suspense  of  judgment;  he  doubted  of
everything,  never  made  any  conclusions,  and  when
he  had  carefully  examined  the  subject,  and  inves-
tigated all  its  parts,  he  concluded  by  still  doubting
of  its  evidence.  He  advocated  apathy  and  un-
changeable repose.  These  doctrines  were  held  by
13a vie  (died  1706).

SCEPTEE,  an  emblem  of  royalty  mentioned  in
the  Bible  {Gen.  xlix.  ro,  Psalm  xlv.  6,  Esther
iv.  11,  etc.),  and  in  Homer.  The  sceptre,  origi-
nally a  staff,  was  gradually  ornamented  till  it
assumed  its  present  form.

SCHAFFHATJSEN  (N.  Switzerland),  a  fish-
ing village  in  the  8th  century,  became  an  imperial
city  in  the  13th;  was  subjected  to  Austria,  1330;
independent,  1415 ;  became  a  Swiss  canton,  1501.
Population,  1888;  canton,  37,783 ;  city,  12,315.

SCHAUMBTJRG  LIPPE  (Germany),  was
formed  into  a  county  by  Adolphus,  of  Sondersleben,
1033.  In  1640,  on  the  death  of  count  Otho  IV.,
his  mother,  Elizabeth,  transferred  the  domains  to
Philip  of  Lippe,  from  whom  descended  the  reigning
prince  (the  title  assumed  in  1807).  Adolphus,  born
1  Aug.  1817,  succeeded  his  father,  21  Nov.  i860.
Heir,  son,  George,  born  10  Oct.  1846.  Population
ofthe  principality,  1882,35,753;  1885,37,204;  1890,
39,163-

SCHELDT  TOLLS  were  imposed  by  the
treaty  of  Munster  (or  Westphalia),  1648.  The  tolls
were  abolished  for  a  compensation,  1867.  The  house
of  commons  voted  175,650^.  for  the  British  portion,
on  9  March,  1864.  The  Scheldt  was  declared  free
on  3  Aug.  with  much  rejoicing  at  Antwerp  and
Brussels.

SCHIEHALLIEN,  a  mountain  in  Perthshire,

where  Dr.  Neville  Maskelyne,  the  astronomer-
royal,  made  his  observations  with  a  plumb-line,
24  Oct.  1774,  from  which  Hutton  calculated  that
the  density  of  the  earth  is  five  times  greater  than
water.

SCHIPKA  PASSES,  on  the  Balkans,  Tur-
key. Through  these  the  Bussian  general  Gourlto
entered  Boumelia.  After  his  retreat,  they  were
fortified,  and  desperately,  but  on  the  whole  unsuc-
cessfully, assailed  by  the  Turks  under  Suleiman
Pasha,  with  great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  20-27
Aug.  He  took  and  lost  fort  St.  Nicholas,  17  Sept.
1877.  The  ltussians  re-entered  Roumelia,  Jan.
1878.

SCHISM,  see  Heresy,  and  Popes.

SCHISM  ACT,  13  Anne,  c.  7,  introduced  by
lord  Bolingbroke,  1713  ;  repealed  by  5  Geo.  I.  c.  4,
in  1 719.  By  it  teachers  were  required  to  declare
their  conformity  to  the  established  church.

SCHLESWIG, see  Holstein,  Denmark,  and
Gastrin.
SCHOOL  BOARD,  see  Education.

SCHOOLMEN  or  Scholastic  Philoso-
phy, began  in  the  schools  founded  by  Charlemagne,
■800-14;  all(l  prevailed  in  Europe  from  the  9th  to
the  15th  centuries  ;  see  Doctors.

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  introduced
into  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant
poor  into  lloman  catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.


1687.  Rapin.  Charter  schools  were  instituted  in
Ireland,  1733.  Scully.  In  England  there  were,  in
1847,  13,642  schools  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)
for  the  education  of  the  poor ;  and  the  number  of
children  was  998,431.  The  parochial  and  endowed
schools  of  Scotland  were  (exclusively  of  Sunday
schools)  4836;  and  the  number  of  children,  181,467.
The  schools  in  "Wales  were  841,  and  the  number  of
children,  38,164;  in  Ireland,  13,327  schools,  and
774,000  children.  In  185 1  there  were  2310  schools
in  connection  with  the  Education  Committee
actually  inspected  in  England  and  Scotland.  They
included:  1713  church  of  England  schools  in
England  and  Wales;  282  protestant  dissenting
schools  in  England  and  Wales;  98  Boman  catholic
schools  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  2 1 7  presby terian
schools  in  Scotland,  whereof  91  were  of  the  free
church :  the  whole  affording  accommodation  for
299,425  scholars;  see  Education,  Design,  Ascham,&.c.
For  Schoolboy  Strikes,  see  Strikes,  Oct.  1889.

SCHOOL  SHIPS,  see  Chichester.  Com-
■wall,  off  Purfleet,  established  1859,  accommodates
between  250  and  300  vagrants  (1878).

SCHWARZBURG  (the  seat  of  two  princi-
palities, N.  Germany).  Gunther,  count  of  Schwarz-
burg,  whose  family  dates  from  the  12th  century,  was
elected  emperor  of  Germany  in  1349.  From  the
two  sons  of  count  Gunther,  who  died  1552,  sprang
the  present  rulers.

SCHWARZBURC.-RUDOLSTADT

(a  principality,  1697).
1807.  Albert  (28  June),  born  30  April,  179S  ;  died  26  Nov.

1869.
1869.  George  (born  23  Nov.  1838),  26  Nov.  ;  died  19  Jan.

1890.
1890.  Gonthier,  brother  (born,  21  Aug.  1852).

SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN

(a  principality,  1710).
1835.  Gunther  (19  Aug.),  born  24  Sept.  1S01  ;  abdicated.
1880.  Charles,  sou  (born  7  Aug.  1830),  17  July.

SCHWEIDNITZ,  Prussia,  often  besieged  and
taken  in  the  thirty  years'  and  seven  years'  wars.
Near  it  Frederick  II.  defeated  the  Austrians  under
marshal  Daun,  16  May,  1762.

SCHWEIZ,  a  Swiss  canton,  which  with  Uri
and  Unterwalden  renounced  subjection  to  Austria,
7  Nov.  1307.  The  name  Switzerland,  for  all  the
country,  dates  from  about  1440.

SCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and

other  branches.

Science  and  Art  Department  began  as  the  Normal  School
of  Design,  1  Jan.  1837,  with  a  grant  of  1,500/.  See
under  Design.  The  grant  in  1885-6  was  391,573?.  ;
1888-9,  445!3°3^'»  1891-2;  estimate  530.9S6/.

100,000/.  voted  for  the  purchase  of  a  site  for  new  build-
ing, 25  Feb.  1890.

The  Normal  School  of  Science  and  Royal  School  of
Mines,  were  directed  to  be  called  the  Royal  College  of
Science,  London,  Oct 1890.

Miss  Marshall,  of  Warwick  gardens,  Kensington,  be-
queaths to  the  department  1,000/.  for  a  scholarship
and  scientific  books  and  instruments,  announced
5  May,  1891.

The  36th  report  states  that  in  188S  the  departim  ill  sup.
ported  1,952  schools,  and  6,579  classes  were  examined
in  elementary  science,  with  112,80s  pupils  ;  the  South
Kensington  museum  is  in  the  charge  of  the  depart-
ment.

.  SCIENTIFIC  APPARATUS.  The  Interna-
tional Loan  Exhibition,  at  South  Kensington,  con-
sisting of  about  17,000  objects,  many  of  great
historical  interest,  from  all  countries  except  Ame-
rica, was  opened  (by  the  queen,)  1}  May.  and
closed  30  Dec.  1876.  Conferences  wereheld.  i(j  May
— 2  June,  and  many  free  lectures  given  by  eminent
persons.  Reopened  30  June,  1877.


SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION".


861


SCOTLAND.


SCIENTIFIC  ASSOCIATION,. for  pro-
motion of  research  ;  proposed  at  the  meeting  of  the
American  Association  at  Philadelphia,  Sept.  1884.
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Thompson  promised  liberal  support.

SCIENTIFIC  FRONTIER  (in  reference  to
Afghanistan),  a  term  used  by  Lord  Beaeonsfield,  9
Nov.  1878.

SCIENTIFIC  INDUSTRY,  Society  foe
Promoting,  established  at  Manchester,  in  1873.
It  proposed  setting  up  a  library  and  museum,  the
delivery  of  lectures,  and  the  publication  of  reports.

SCIENTIFIC  EELIEF  FUND.  In  1859,
several  fellows  of  the  ltoyal  Society  (Messrs.
Gassiot,  Wheatstone,  Miller,  Tyndall,  and  others)
commenced  the  collection  of  subscriptions  with  the
view  of  establishing  a  permanent  fund  to  be  ex-
pended in  aiding  necessitous  men  of  science  and
their  families,  in  imitation  of  the  "Literary  Fund."
In  the  spring  of  i860,  3365^  had  been  subscribed  ;
in  Jan.  1865,  5320^.  ;  in  1867,  60K2I.  ;  in  1877,
6428/. ;  and  many  cases  had  been  relieved.

SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES'  HOUSE
COMPANY  proposed  March,  1873.

SCIENTIFIC  SURVEYING  EXPEDI-
TION, see  Deep  Sea.

SCILLY  ISLES  (the  Cassiterides  or  Tin-
islands)  .  They  held  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians ;
and  are  mentioned  by  Strabo.  They  were  con-
quered by  Athelstan,  936  ;  and  given  to  the  monks.
They  were  granted  by  Elizabeth  to  the  Godolphin
family,  by  whom  they  were  fortified;  the  works
were  strengthened  in  1649  by  the  royalists,  from
whom  they  were  taken  by  Blake,  1651.  Mr.  Augus-
tus Smith,  the  owner,  and  termed  the  king  of  these
isles,  after  a  long  paternal  rule,  died  in  Aug.  1872.
Mr.  Dorrien  Smith  was  the  proprietor  in  1892.  The
appointment  of  a  county  council  for  1  April,  1891,
was  ordered  by  the  local  government  board,  June,
1890. Population,  1891,  2,044.

A  British  squadron  under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  were
wrecked  here,  when  returning  from  an  expedition
against  Toulon  ;  he  mistook  rocks  for  land,  and  struck
upon  them.  His  ship,  the  Association,  in  which  were
persons  of  rank,  and  800  brave  men,  went  instant!}'  to
the  bottom.  The  Eagle,  captain  Hancock,  and  the
I'omney  and  Firebrand,  were  also  lost ;  the  rest  of  the
fleet  escaped,  22  Oct.  1707.  Sir  Cloudesley's  body  was
conveyed  to  London,  and  buried  in  Westminster  abbey,
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.

SCINDE,  see  Sinde.

SCIO  MASSACRE,  11  April,  1822,  see  Chios.

SCLAVONIA,  see  Slavonia,

SCONE  (near  Perth).  The  Scotch  coronation
chair  was  brought  from  Scone  to  Westminster  abbey
by  Edward  I.  in  1296.  Here  Charles  II.  was
crowned,  I  Jan.  1651.

SCOPTZI,  see  White  Doves.

SCORE,  MUSICAL,  was  Avritten  by  the  monk
Hucbald,  who  wrote  "Enchiridion  Musicae ; "  he
died  930.  Specimens  written  in  the  13th  century
exist  in  the  British  Museum.

SCOTTISH  -  IRISH CONVENTION,

see  United  States,  May,  1889.

SCOTISTS.  Those  Avho  adopted  the  doctrines
of  John  Duns  Scotus  (who  died  8  Nov.  1308)
on  divine  grace,  freewill,  the  origin  of  the  moral
law,  the  Conception  of  the  Arirgin  Mary,  &c,
strongly  opposed  by  the  Thomists,  disciples  of  St,
Thomas  Aquinas,  who  died  7  March,  1274.


SCOTLAND,  see  Caledonia.  At  the  death  of
queen  Elizabeth,  24  March,  1C03,  James  VI.  of
Scotland,  as  the  most  immediate  heir,  was  called  to
the  throne  of  England,  and  proclaimed  king  of  Great
l'ritain,  24  Oct.  1604. Each  country  had  a  separate

arliament till 1707, when the kingdoms  were

mited ;  see  England  and  Population.

Camelon,  capital  of  the  Picts, taken  by  Kenneth  II.  and
every  living  creature  put  to  the  sword  or  destroyed, 843

The  Norwegians  occupy  Caithness  9th  century.

Scotland  ravaged  by  Athelstan 933

The  feudal  system  established  by  Malcolm  II. . .  1004.

Invaded  by  Canute 1031

Divided  into  baronies 1032

The  Danes  driven  out  of  Scotland ....  1040

Duncan  I.  is  murdered  by  his  kinsman  Macbeth,  by
whom  the  crown  is  seized ,,

Malcolm  III.,  aided  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  de-
feats the  usurper  at  Dunsinane,  1054  ;  Macbeth
killed  by  Macduff 1056  or  1057

The  Saxon-English  language  introduced  into  Scot-
land by  fugitives  from  England  escaping  from  the
Normans 1080

Siege  of  Alnwick  :  Malcolm  III.  killed . . .  1093

Reign  of  David  I.,  a  legislator ....  1124-53,

Scotland  invaded  by  Haeho,  king  of  Norway,  with  160
ships  and  20,000  men  ;  the  invaders  are  defeated  by
Alexander  III.,  who  now  recovers  the  Western  Isles  1263

Death  of  Margaret  of  Norway,  heiress  to  the  throne,

7  Oct.  1290

John  Balliol  and  Robert  Bruce  contend  for  the
throne,  1291 ;  Edward  I.  of  England,  as  umpire,
decides  in  favour  of  John ....  Nov.  1292

John  Balliol,  king  of  Scotland,  appears  to  a  sum-
mons, and  defends  his  own  cause  in  Westminster
hall  against  the  earl  of  Fife 1293

Edward,  wishing  to  annex  Scotland  to  England,
dethrones  John,  ravages  the  country,  destroys
the  muniments  of  Scottish  history,  and  seizes  the
prophetic  stone  (see  Coronation) ....  1296

William  Wallace  defeats  the  English  at  Canibus
Kenneth,  and  expels  them,  1297  ;  is  defeated  at
Falkirk,  22  July,  1298  ;  taken  by  the  English,  and
executed  at  Smithfield . . . -23  Aug.  1305

Robert  Bruce,  crowned,  1306  ;  he  defeats  the  Eng-
lish, 1307  ;  and  takes  Inverness,  1313;  defeats  the
Englisn  at  Bannoekburn ... 24  June,  1314

Edward  Balliol  gains  the  throne  for  a  little  time
by  his  victory  at  Dupplin,  11  Aug.  1332  ;  and
by  the  victory  at  Halidon-hill . . 19  July,  1333

David  II.  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Durham
(and  detained  in  captivity  11  years)  . . . .  1346

Battle  of  Chevy  Chase,  between  Hotspur  Percy  and
earl  Douglas  (see  Olterburn)  ... 10  Aug.  1388

Murder  of  duke  of  Rothesay,  heir  of  Robert  III.,  by
starvation 3  April,  1401

The  Scots  defeated  at  Homildon-hill . 14  Sept.  1402

James  I.  captured  by  the  English  near  Flamborough
head  on  his  passage  to  France  . . 30  March,  1406

St.  Andrews  university  founded  by  bishop  William
Turnbull 1451

University  of  Aberdeen  founded 1494

James  IV.  invades  England,  slain  at  Flodden  Field,
and  his  army  cut  to  pieces ... 9  Sept.  1513

James  V.  banishes  the  Douglases  . . . .  1528;

He  establishes  the  court  of  session  ....  1532

Order  of  St.  Andrew,  or  the  Thistle,  is  revived .  1540

Mary,  the  queen  of  Scots,  born  7  Dec.  ;  succeeds
her  father,  James  V.,  who  dies  . .  14  Dec. ,,

The  regent,  cardinal  Beaton,  persecutes  the  re-
formers, 1539,  1546  ;  he  is  assassinated  at  St.
Andrews 29  May,  1546

The  Scots  defeated  at  Pinkie . .  10  Sept.  1547

Mary  marries  the  dauphin  of  France . April,  1558

The  parliament  abolishes  the  jurisdiction  of  the
pope  in  Scotland .... 24  Aug.  1560

Francis  II.  dies,  leaving  Mary  a  widow . Dec. „

The  Reformation  in  Scotland,  by  John  Knox,  and
others,  during  the  minority  of  Mary,  between  1550& „

Mary,  after  an  absence  of  thirteen  years,  arrives  at
Leith  from  France  .... 21  Aug.  1561

Upon  an  inquisition,  which  was  officially  taken,  by
order  of  queen  Elizabeth,  only  58  Scotsmen  were
found  in  London. Stow. ......  1562

Mary  marries  her  cousin,  Henry  Stuart,  lord  Darn-
ley 29  July,  1565


SCOTLAND.


865


SCOTLAND.


David  Rizzio,  her  confidential  secretary,  murdered
by  Darnley  in  her  presence . . 9  March,  1566

Lord  Darnley  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  in  his  house
(Mary  accused  of  conniving  at  his  death),  10  Feb.  1567

James  Hepburn,  earl  of  Bothwell,  carries  off  the
queen,  who  marries  nim . . . 15  May, ,,

Mary  made  prisoner  at  Carberry  hill  by  her  nobles,

15  June, „
Resigns  her  crown  to  her  infant  son  James  VI.  ;

the  earl  of  Murray  appointed  regent . 22  July, ,,
Mary escapes from  prison, and  collects  a  large
army,  which  is  defeated  by  the  regent  Murray,  at
the  battle  of  Langside,  13  May ;  enters  England,

16  May,  1568
The  regent  Murray  murdered ... 23  Jau.  1570
The  earl  of  Lennox  appointed  regent . 12  July, „
The  earl  of  Lennox  murdered,  4  Sept.  ;  the  earl  of

Mar  chosen  regent Sept. 1571

Death  of  the  reformer  John  Knox .  24  Nov.  1572

[His  funeral  in  Edinburgh  is  attended  by  most  of
the  nobility,  and  by  the  regent  Morton,  who  ex-
claims, "  There  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face
of  man  ! "]
The  university  of  Edinburgh  founded  . . . .  1582
The  Raid  of  Ruthven  (see  Rutliven)  . . .  ,,

Mary  having  taken  refuge  in  England,  16  May,  1568,
is  after  a  long  captivity,  beheaded  at  Fotheringay
castle  (see  Fotheringay) .... 8  Feb.  1587
Gowrie's  conspiracy  fails  5  Aug.  1600

Union  of  the  crown  of  Scotland  with  that  of  Eng-
land by  the  accession  of  James  VI. . 24  March,  1603
James  proclaimed  "king  of  Great  Britain,  France,

and  Ireland  " 24  Oct.  1604

Charles  I.  attempts  in  vain  to  introduce  the  Eng-
lish liturgy  ;  tumult  at  Edinburgh . 23  July,  1637
Solemn  league  and  covenant  subscribed 1  March,  1638

A  Scotch  army  enters  England 1640

Charles  joins  the  Scotch  army,  1646  ;  betrayed  into

the  hands  of  the  Euglish  parliament . 30  Jan.  1647
Marquis  of  Montrose  defeated  at  Philiphaugh,  13

Sept.  1645  ;  executed  at  Edinburgh .  21  May,  1650
Charles  II.  crowned  at  Scone,  1  Jan.  ;  defeated  at

Worcester 22  Aug.  1651

Scotland  united  to  the  English  commonwealth  by

Oliver  Cromwell Sept. ,,

Charles  II.  revives  episcopacy  in  Scotland . .  1661

Argyll  beheaded 27  May, ,,

Scottish  hospital,  London,  incorporated  .  .  .  1665
The  Covenanters  defeated  on  the  Portland  hills  .  1666
Abp.  Sharpe  murdered  near  St.  Andrews,  by  John

Balfour  of  Burley  and  others . . 3  May,  1679
The  Covenanters  defeat  Claverhouse  at  Drumclog

1  June ;  are  routed  at  Bothwell  bridge  22  June, „
Richard  Cameron's  declaration  for  religious  liberty

22  June,  1680
Resolution  of  a  convention  in  favour  of  William  III. ;

re-establishment  of  presbytery . .  14  March,  1689
The  "  claim  of  right "  accepted by  William  and

Mary 11  May, „

Insurrection  of  Claverhouse  :  killed  at  Killiecrankie,

27  Jul)', >»
Massacre  of  the  Macdonalds  at  Glencoe  13  Feb.  1692

Parish  schools  established  by  the  parliament.  .  1697
Legislative  union  of  Scotland  with  England  1  May,  1707
Insurrection  under  the  earl  of  Mar  in  favour  of  the

son  of  James  II.  (see  Pretender) ....  1715
The  rebels  defeated  at  Preston,  12  Nov.  ;  and  at

Dumblane  (or  Sheriffmuir) . . .13  Nov. „
Captain  Porteous  killed  by  a  mob  in  Edinburgh  (see

Porteous) 7  Sept.  1736

Prince  Charles  Edward  proclaimed  at  Perth,  4
Sept.  ;  at  Edinburgh,  16  Sept.  ;  with  the  High-
landers defeats  sir  John  Cope  at  Prcstonpans,  21
Sept.  ;  takes  Carlisle,  15  Nov.  :  arrives  at  Man-
chester, 28  Nov.  ;  at  Derby,  4  Dec.  ;  retreats  to

Glasgow 25  Dec.  1745

Defeats  general  Hawley  at Falkirk, 17  Jan.  ; is

totally  defeated  at  Culloden . . 16  April,  1746
The  Highland  dress  prohibited  by  parliament,  12  Aug. ,,
Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino  executed  for  high

treason  on  Tower-hill  .... 18  Aug. .,
Simon  Fraser,  lord Lovat,  aged 80,  executed  9  April  1747
Heritable  jurisdictions  abolished  by  parliament
Thomson,  the  poet,  dies .... 27  Aug 1748
The  Old  Pretender,  "Chevalier  de  St.  George,"  dies

at  Rome 30  Dee.  176  s

Prince  Charles  Edward  Louis  Casimir,  the  Young
Pretender,  dies  at  Rome  . . . .31  Jan.  1788  I


Death  of  Robert  Burns . . . .21  July,  1796
Scott's  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel "  published  .  1806

Cardinal  Henry  duke  of  York  (last  of  the  Stuarts)

ilies 31  Aug.  1807

The  Court  of  Session  is  formed  into  two  divisions . „
Royal  Caledonian  asylum,  London,  founded . .1813

Scott's  "  Waverley  "  published 1814

The  establishment  of  a  jury  court  under a lord

chief  commissioner 1815

Visit  of  George  IV.  to  Scotland . . . Aug.  1822

Sir  Walter  Scott  dies 21  Sept.  1832

Seven  ministers  of  the  presbytery  of  Strathbogieare
deposed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of
Scotland  for  obeying  the  civil  in  preference  to  the
ecclesiastical  law.  (Their  deposition  was  formally
protested  against  by  the  minority  of  ministers  and
elders,  headed  by  Dr.  Cook)  .  .  .  28  May,  1841
The  General  Assembly  condemn  patronage  as  a
grievance  to  the  cause  of  true  religion  that  ought

to  be  abolished 23  May,  1842

Visit  of  the  queen,  prince  Albert,  and  the  court ;

she  landed  at  Granton  pier  . . . 1-13  Sept. ,,
Secession  of  the  non-intrusion ministers of  the
church  of  Scotland  (about  400)  at  the  General  As-
sembly (see  Free  Church) ... 18  May,  1843

Death  of  Jeffrey 26  Jan.  1850

National  Association for  vindication  of  Scottish

rights  formed Nov.  1853

Act  for  better  government  of  the  universities  passed

Aug.  1858
Salmon  Fisheries  act  passed  .  .  .  July,  1864
The  queen's  visit  to  the  borders,  Kelso,  Melrose,  &c.

21-24  Aug.  1867
Scotch  reform  bill  introduced  into  the  commons,

17  Feb.,  passed 13  July,  1868

Procedure  in  court  of  session  and  justiciary and

other  courts  amended July, ,,

Scotch  Reform  act  passed . . . .13  July, ,,
Land  Registers  and  Titles  to  Land  act  passed  July, ,,
Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  adminis-
tration of  justice Oct. ,,

Municipal  elections  amendment  act  passed,  9  Aug.  1870
Act  to  unite  counties  for  sheriffs'  duties  passed

9  Aug. ,,
Robert  Chambers,  author  and  publisher,  died  aged  69

17  March,  1871
Scott  centenary  celebrated  in  Edinburgh,  <fec.  (Scott

born  15  Aug.  T771) 9  Aug. ,,

Scotch  Education  Act  passed . . 10  Aug.  1872
Return  of  owners  of  land  and  heritages,  1872-3  (a
kind  of  Domesday  book),  published  by  govern-
ment April,  1S74

Patronage in  the  established  church (see 1S42)

abolished  by  act  passed . . . 7  Aug. ,,
Scottish  Church  Disestablishment  Association  :  first

annual  meeting .  ... 8  March,  1875

Visit  of  the  queen  to  Edinburgh  ;  the  Scottish
national  monument,  by  J.  Steell,  to  prince  Albert,

unveiled  by  her 17  Aug.  1876

Romanist  hierarchy  revived  by  the  pope ; arch-
bishopric of  Glasgow,  bishopric  of  Dunkeld,  &c.
4  March  ;  the  Scotch  protestant  bishops  protest

against  this 13  April,  1S78

Public  Parks  Act  passed . . . 18  March, ,,
Marriage  Notice  Act  passed  ...  8  Aug. ,,

Education  Act  amended,  by  act . . 16  Aug. ,,
Visit  of  Mr.  Gladstone  to  Mid-Lothian,  Edinburgh,

Glasgow,  &c,  many  speeches . 24 — 29  Nov.  1879
About  40,000  Scottish  volunteers  reviewed  in  the

Queen's  Park,  Edinburgh,  by  the  queen 25  Aug.  1881
Agitation  respecting  rents  in  Aberdeen,  Banff,  &c.

Sept. -Oct. ,,
Farmers' alliance  founded  at  Aberdeen  by  delegates

IVi  11 11  above  4000  farmers . . . 1  Dee. ,,
Movement  for  home  rule  (which  sec)  begun 4  April,  1882
Old  Scottish  regimental  colours  deposited  in  St.
Giles's  cathedral,  Edinburgh, by  the  duke of

Cambridge 13  Nov.  1883

Death  of  Walter,  duke  of  Buccleuch,  aged  78  ;  mu-
nificent  patron of  public  works,  agriculture,
science,  literature,  and  art . . 15  April, 1884
Agitation  for  the  dis-establishmcnt  of  the  church

(see  Church  of  Scotland) . . . autumn,  1885
Secretary  for  Scotland  Act  passed .  14  Aug. ,,

Charles  Henry,  duke  of  Richmond,  appointed
secretary  Aug.  1885;  succeeded  by  G.  O.  Trevclyau
about  6  Feb. ; by  Arthur  J. Balfour  26  July,

3 K


SCOTLAND.


866


SCOTLAND.


1886; by  Scliomberg  H.,  marquis  of  Lothian

8  March.  1887
Local  government  bill  for  Scotland  introduced  by

J.  P.  B.  Kobertson,  8  April ;  passed . 26  Aug.  1889
Scotch  universities  bill,  giving  more  freedom  to

teaching  and  increasing  state  grant  to  42,000?.  a

year,  passed 30  Aug.

New  national  portrait  gallery  for  Scotland  in  Edin- „

burgh,  opened  by  the  marquis  of  Lothian  15  July, ,,
The  new  universities  commision  and the  special

commission on the Western Highlands and

islands,  meet  in  Edinburgh . . . Jan. 1890
Great  railway  strike,  see  Railways,  22  Dec.  1890 —

31  Jan.  1891
Death  of  lord  justice-general  John  Inglis,  eminent

lawyer,  aged  about  81, 20  Aug.  ;  succeeded  by

rt.  hon.  James  P.  B.  Robertson  about  . 17  Sept. „
Destructive  plague  of  field-mice,  or  voles,  in  some

agricultural  districts,  reported . April — June,  1892
Education  and  Local  Taxation  Relief  act  passed

27  June, ,,
Sir  George  Trevelyan,  secretary  for  Scotland,  1 8  Aug. , ,
See  Edinburgh.

KINGS  OF  SCOTLAND.

BEFORE CHRIST.

[The  early  accounts  of  the  kings  are  in  a  great  measure
fabulous. The  series  of  kings  is  carried  as  far  back  as
Alexander  the  Great.]
330.  Fergus  I.  :  ruled  25  years  ;  lost  in  the  Irish  Sea.

[Fergus,  a  brave  prince,  came  from  Ireland  with  an  army
of  Scots,  and  was  chosen  king.  Having  defeated  the
Britons  and  slain  their  king  Coilus,  the  kingdom  of  the
Scots  was  entailed  upon  his  posterity  for  ever.  He
went  to  Ireland,  and,  having  settled  his  affairs  there,
was  drowned  on  his  return,  launching  from  the  shore,
near  the  harbour,  called  Carrick-Fergxis  to  this  day,
3699  a.m. Anderson.]

AFTER CHRIST.

357.  Eugenius  I.,  son  of  Fincormachus  ;  slain  in  battle
by  Maximus,  the  Roman  general,  and  the  Picts.
***  With  this  battle  ended  the  kingdom  of  the  Scots,
after  having  existed  from  the  coronation  of
Fergus  I. ,  a  period  of  706  years  ;  the  royal  family
fled  to  Denmark.  Boece ;  Buchanan.
[Interregnum  of  27  years.]

404.  Fergus  II.  (I.)  great  grandson  of  Eugenius,  and
40th  king  ;  slain  in  battle  with  the  Romans.

420.  Eugenius  II.  or  Evenus  :  reigned  31  years.

451.  Dongardus  or  Domangard,  brother :  defeated  and
drowned.

457.  Constantine  I. ,  brother  :  assassinated.

479.  Congallus  I.  nephew;  just  and  prudent.

501.  Goranus,  brother ;  murdered.  Boece.  Died  while
Donald  of  Athol  was  conspiring  to  take  his  life.

535.  Eugenius  III.  nephew;  "none  excelled  him  in
justice."

558.  Congallus  II.  brother.

569.  Kinnatellus,  brother ;  resigned  for

570.  Aidanus  or  Aldan,  son  of  Goranus.

605.  Kenneth,  sou  of  Congallus  II.

606.  Eugenius  IV.  son  of  Aidanus.

621.  Ferchard  or  Ferquhard  I.  son ;  confined  for  mis-
deeds to  his  palace,  where  he  laid  violent  hands
upon  himself. Scott.

632.  Donald  IV.  brother ;  drowned  in  Loch  Tay.

646.  Ferchard  II.  son  of  Ferchard  I.  ;  "  most  execrable. "

664.  Malduinus,  son  of  Donald  IV.  ;  strangled  by  his  wife
for  his  supposed  infidelity,  for  which  crime  she
was  immediately  afterwards  burnt.

684.  Eugenius  V.  brother.

688.  Eugenius  VI.  son  of  Ferchard  II.

698.  Amberkeletus,  nephew ;  fell  by  an  arrow  from  an

unknown  hand.

699.  Eugenius  VII. brother; some  ruffians  designing

the  king's  murder,  entered  his  chamber,  and,  he

being  absent,  stabbed  his  queen,  Spontana,  to

death. Scott.
715.  Mordachus,  son  of  Amberkeletus.
730.  Etfinus,  son  of  Eugenius  VII.
761.  Eugenius  VIII.  son  of  Mordachus  ; sensual  and

tyrannous ;  put  to  death  by  his  nobles.
764.  Fergus  III. son  of  Etfinus ;  killed  by  his  jealous

queen,  who  afterwards  stabbed  herself  to  escapie

a  death  of  torture.
767.  Solvathius,  son  of  Eugenius  VIII.


787.  Aehaius :  just  and  wise.

819.  Congallus  III.  ;  a  peaceful  reign.

824.  Dongal  or  Dougal,  son  of  Solvathius  ;  drowned.

831.  Alpine,  son  of  Aehaius ;  beheaded  by  the  Piets.

834.  Kenneth  II.  son ;  sumamed  Mac  Alpine ;  defeated

the  Picts,  slew  their  king,  and  united  them  and

the  Scots  under  one  sceptre,  and  became  the  first

sole  monarch  of  all  Scotland,  843.
854.  Donald  V.  brother :  dethroned ;  committed  suicide.
858.  Constantine  II.  son  of  Kenneth  II.  :  taken  in  battle

by  the.  Danes  and  beheaded.
874.  Eth'  or  Ethus,  surnamed  Lightfoot ;  died  of  grief  in

prison ;  confined  for  sensuality  and  crime.
876.  Gregory  the  Great ;  brave  and  just.
893.  Donald  VI.  son  of  Constantine  II. ;  excellent.
904.  Constantine  III.  son  of  Ethus ;  became  a  monk,  and

resigned  in  favour  of
944.  Malcolm  I.  son  of  Donald  VI.  ;  murdered.
953.  Indulfus  or  Gondulph ;  killed  by  the  Danes  in  an

ambuscade.
961.  Duff  or  Duffus, son  of  Malcolm ; murdered  by

Donald,  the  governor  of  Forres  castle.
965.  Cullen  or  Culenus,  son  of  Indulfus ;  avenged  the

murder  of  his  predecessor ;  assassinated
970.  Kenneth  III. brother  of  Duffus  ; murdered  by

Fenella,  the  lady  of  Fettercairn.

994.  Constantine  IV.  son  of  Cullen :  slain.

995.  Kenneth  IV.  or  Grimus,  the  Grim,  son  of  Duffus ;

routed  and  slain  in  battle  by  Malcolm,  the
rightful  heir  to  the  crown,  who  succeeded.

1003.  -Malcolm  II.  son  of  Kenneth  III.  ;  assassinated  on
his  way  to  Glamis  ;  the  assassins  in  their  flight
crossing  a  frozen  lake  were  drowned.

1033.  Duncan  I.  grandson ;  assassinated  by  his  cousin.

1039.  Macbeth,  usurper;  slain  by  Macduff,  the  thane  of  Fife.

***  Historians  so  differ  up  to  this  reign,  in  the  number
of  the  kings,  the  dates  of  succession,  and  the
circumstances  narrated,  that  no  account  can  be
taken  as  precisely  accurate.

1057.  Malcolm  III.  (Canmore),  eon  of  Duncan;  killed
while  besieging  Alnwick  castle.

1093.  Donald  VII.  (Donald  Bane),  brother;  usurper;  fled

to  the  Hebrides.

1094.  Duncan  II.  natural  son  of  Malcolm  ;  murdered.
,, Donald  VII.  again  ;  deposed.

1098.  Edgar,  son  of  Malcolm  (Henry  I.  of  England
married  his  sister  Maud).

1 107.  Alexander  I.  the  Fierce,  brother.

1 124.  David  I.  brother;  married  Matilda,  daughter  of
Waltheof,  earl  of  Northumberland.

1153.  Malcolm  IV.  grandson.

1165.  William  the  Lion ;  brother.

1214.  Alexander  II.  son;  married  Joan,  daughter  of  John,
king  of  England.

1249.  Alexander  III.  married  Margaret,  daughter  of
Henry  III.  of  England ;  dislocated  his  neck,  when
hunting  near  Kinghorn.

1285.  Margaret,  the  "Maiden  of  Norway,"  grand-daughter
of  Alexander,  "recognised  by  the  states  of  Scot-
land, though  a  female,  an  infant,  and  a  foreigner ; "
died  on  her  passage  to  Scotland.

A  competition  for  the  vacant  throne ;  Edward  I.  of  Eng-
land decides  in  favour  of

1292.  John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his
crown,  and  died  in  exile.
[Interregnum.]

1 306.  Robert  (Bruce)  I.  a  great  prince.

1329.  David  (Bruce)  II.  son;  Edward  Balliol  disputed
the  throne  with  him.

1332.  David  II.  again ;  a  prisoner  in  England,  1346-57
(Edward  Balliol  king,  1332-4.)

1371.  Robert  (Stuart)  II.  nephew;  died  19  April.

1390.  Robert  (John  Stuart)  III.  son ;  died  4  April.

1406.  James  I.  second  son;  imprisoned  18  years  in  Eng-
land ;  set  at  liberty  in  1424 ;  conspired  against,
and  murdered  at  Perth,  21  Feb.

1437.  James  II.  son ;  killed  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh
castle  by  a  cannon  bursting,  3  Aug.

1460.  James  HI.  son  ;  killed  in  a  revolt  of  his  subjects  at
Bannockburn-field,  n  June.

1488.  James  IV.  son  ;  married  Margaret  Tudor,  daughter
of  Henry  VII.  of  England ;  killed  at  the  battle  of
Flodden,  9  Sept.

1513.  James  V.  son ;  succeeded  when  little  more  than  a
year  old  ;  a  sovereign  possessing  many  virtues  ;
died  14  Dec.

1542.  Mary,  daughter;  born,  7  Dec.  1542  succeeded
14  Dec. ;  see  Annals,  above.


SCOTT CENTENARY.


867


SCULPTURE.


1567.  James  VI.  son  ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  ot  England,
and  the  kingdoms  were  united,  1603.
See  England.

SCOTT  CENTENARY,  celebrated  in  London
and  throughout  Scotland,  9  Aug.  1S71.  Sir  Walter
Scott  was  bom  15  Aug.  1771.

SCOTTISH  CORPORATION  (charitable),
established  1665.  The  old  hall,  Crane-court,  Fleet-
street,  built  by  Wren,  burnt  14  Nov.  1877  ;  new  hall
inaugurated  21  July,  1880.

SCOURERS,  see  Mohocks.

SCOURING  of  the  White  Horse,  see

Ash  dozen.

SCREW,  was  known  to  the  Greeks.  The
pumping-screw  of  Archimedes,  or  screw-cylinder
for  raising  water,  invented  about  236  B.C.,  is  still
in  use.  It  is  stated  that  with  the  assistance  of  the
screw,  one  man  can  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much
as  150  men  can  do  without  it. — The  Screw-Pro-
peller  consists  of  two  or  more  twisted  blades,
like  the  vanes  of  a  windmill,  set  on  an  axis,  run-
ning parallel  with  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  and  revolving
beneath  the  water  at  the  stem.  It  is  driven  by
a  steam-engine.  The  principle  was  shown  by
Hooke  in  1681,  and  since  by  Du  Quet,  Bemouilli,
and  others.  Patents  for  propellers  were  taken  out
by  Joseph  Bramah  in  1784;  by  Wm.  Lyttelton  in
1794;  and  by  Edward  Shorter  in  1799.  But  these
led  to  no  useful  result.  In  1836  patents  were  ob-
tained by  Francis  Pettit  Smith  (knighted  July,
187 1  ;  died,  12  Feb.  1874)  and  captain  John  Erics-
son (died,  aged  86,  March,  1889)  ;  and  to  them  the
successful  application  of  the  screw-propeller  must
be  attributed.  The  first  vessels  with  the  screw  were
the  Archimedes,  built  on  the  Thames  in  1838  by
II.  Wimshurst,  and  the  Rattler,  built  in  the  United
States  (1844),  and  tried  in  England  in  1845.
Double  screw-propellers  are  now  employed.  A  new
form  of  screw-propeller  invented  by  col.  W.  H.
Mallory,  of  IT.  S.  A.  army,  was  tried  on  the  Thames
and  reported  successful,  Aug.  1878.

SCRIBLERUS  CLUB,  a  literary  club,
founded  by  Swift  in  1 7 14,  included  amongst  its
members,  Bolingbroke,  Pope,  Gay,  and  Arbuthnot.

SCRIPTURE  KNOWLEDGE  INSTI-
TUTION, Bristol,  was  founded  by  George  Muller,
a  Prussian  (bom  in  1805).  He  came  to  Bristol  as  a
minister  of  the  "Brethren"  in  1832,  and  on  5  March,
1834,  founded  this  institution,  the  objects  of  which
are:  I.  Assistance  of  schools  giving  instruction  on
scriptural  principles;  2.  Circulation  of  the  scrip-
tures; 3.  Assistance  to  missions ;  4.  Circulation  of
tracts ;  5.  Provision  for  destitute  orphans,  see
Orphan-houses.  Without  application,  Mr.  Muller,
since  he  began,  up  to  1868,  had  received  by  volun-
tary contribution,  430,000?.

SCROFULA,  see  Kimfs-evil.

SCRUTIN  (French  for  ballot).  In  scrutin  de
liste  the  voter  writes  on  his  paper  as  many  names
as  there  are  persons  to  be  elected,  for  instance  for
the  whole  department.  In  scrutin  cV '  arrondissement,
the  members  are  elected  separately.  The  adoption
of  one  of  these  modes  was  much  discussed  in  France
in  187?.  The  conservatives  prefer  the  latter,  the
radicals  the  former.  See  France,  Nov.  1875.  The
scrutin  de  liste  was  adopted  in  the  elections  of
1848,  1849,  1871,  and  1875.

II.  B.irdoux's  lull  for  adopting  the  scrutin  dellste  (warmly
advocated  by  M.  Gambetta),  was  passed  by  the  cham-
ber of  deputies  (243-235),  18  May,  i£3i  ;  rejected  by
the  senate  (148-114),  9  June,  1881 ;  again  rejected,  Jan.
1882.


M.  Welbeck  Rousseau's  bill  for  the  scrutin  de  liste  passed
by  the  deputies  (412-99),  24  March,  finally  passed,  8
June,  1885.

The  bill  for  the  restoration  of  the  scrvimd'arrondUsement

passed  by  the  chamber  11 Feb.  and  senate  1? Feb.
1889.
The  scrutin  de  liste  was  adopted  by  the  Italian  chamber,
14  Feb.  1882.

SCULLABOGUE,  see  Massacres,  1798.

SCULPTURE  is  said  to  have  begun  with  the
Egyptians.  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  built  the  taber-
nacle in  the  wilderness,  and  made  all  the  vessels  and
ornaments,  1491  B.C.,  and  then-  skill  is  recorded  as
the  gift  of  God.  Exod.  xxxi.  3.  Dipcenus  and
Scyllls,  statuaries  at  Crete,  established  a  school  at
Sicyon.  Pliny  speaks  of  them  as  being  the  first
who  sculptured  marble  and  polished  it ;  all  statues
before  their  time  being  of  wood,  568  B.C.  Alex-
ander gave  Lysippus  the  sole  right  of  making  his
statues,  326  b.c.  He  left  no  less  than  600  pieces,
some  of  which  were  so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of
Augustus,  that  they  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold.
Sculpture  did  not  flourish  among  the  Romans,  and
in  the  middle  ages  with  some  fine  exceptions,  was
generally  degraded.  With  the  revival  of  painting,
it  revived  also ;  and  Donato  di  Bardi,  bom  at  Flo-
rence, a.d.  1383,  was  the  earliest  professor  among
the  modems.  An  institute  of  sculptors  was  estab-
lished in  1861. See  Royal  Academy  and  Statues.

EMINENT  SCULPTORS.

Pheidou  flourished b.c. 869

Myron 48o

Phidias  (the  greatest) 442

Praxiteles 363

Lysippus 32S

Chares 288

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti . . .a.d.  1474-1564

Benvenuto  Cellini 1500- 15  70

Giovanni  L.  Bernini 1598-1680

Cams  Gabriel  Cibber 1630-1700

Francis  Bird 1667-1731

John  Henry  Danneker 1758-1741

Louis  Roubiliac  (statue  of  sir  I.  Newton) .  died  1762

Peter  Scheemakers 1691-1769

John  M.  Rysbrack 1693-1770

John  Bacon 1740-1799

Thomas  Banks 1735-1805

Joseph  Nollekens 1737-1S23

Antonio  Canova 1757-1822

John  Flaxman 1754-1826

J.  C.  F.  Rossi 1762-1839

Peter  Turnerelli 1774-1S39

William  Pitti 1790-1840

Francis  Chantrey 1781-1841

Albert  Thorwaldsen 1770-1S44

Sir  Richard  Westmacott 1775-1S56

Christian  Raueh 1777-1S57

Thos.  Campbell 1790-1858

M.  Cortes  Wyatt  . 1777-1S62

John  E.  Jones 1806-1862

John  Thomas 1813-1862

Wm.  Behnes 1790- 1864

C.  Kiss 1802-1S65

John  Gibson 17C1-1S66

Edw.  Hodges  Baily 178V1S67

Richd.  Westmacott 1799-1872

Hiram  Powers 1805  1S73

John  Henry  Foley 1818-1874

Alfred  Geo.  Stevens 1817-1S75

Matthew  Noble 1820-1S76

Thos.  Woolner 1825

Sir  Joseph  Edgar  Boehni 1834-1S90

Mary  Thornycroft 1S14

Hamo  Thornycroft 1S52

Alfred  Gilbert 1852

John  Mossman 1816-1S90

William  Thecd 1804-1891

Sir  John  Steel 1807-1891

Prince  Victor  of  Hohcnlohc  (formerly  count
Gleichcn) 1S33-1891

3  K  2


SCUTAGE.


868


SEBASTIAN, ST.


SCUTAGE  or  EsciTAGE.  The  service  of  the
shield  (scutum)  is  either  uncertain  or  certain.
Kscuage  uncertain  is  where  the  tenant  by  Ms  tenure
is  bound  to  follow  his  lord ;  and  is  called  Castleward,
where  the  tenant  is  bound  to  defend  a  castle.
Escuage  certain  is  where  the  tenant  is  set  at  a
certain  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  in  lieu  of  such  un-
certain services.  The  first  tax  levied  in  England  to
pay  an  army,  5  Hen.  II.  1159. Cowel.

SCUTARI,  Asiatic  Turkey,  opposite  Constanti-
nople, of  which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  was  anciently
called  Chrysopolis,  golden  city,  in  consequence,  it
is  said,  of  the  Persians  having  established  a  treasury
here  when  they  attempted  the  conquest  of  Greece.
Near  here  Constantine  finally  defeated  Licinius,  323.
The  hospital  was  occupied  by  the  sick  and  wounded
of  the  Anglo-French  army,  in  1854-5,  whose  suffer-
ings were  much  alleviated  by  the  kind  exertions  of
Miss  Florence  Nightingale  and  a  band  of  nurses
under  her,  aided  by  a  large  fund  of  money  (15,000?.)
subscribed  by  the  public  and  placed  in  the  care  of
the  proprietors  of  the  Times  newspaper  ;  see  Times.
Explosion  of  powder  magazine  by  lightning,  about
150  killed,  8  June,  1883.

SCYTHIA,  situate  in  the  most  northern  parts
of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  boundaries  were  unknown
to  the  ancients.  The  Scythians  made  several  irrup-
tions upon  the  more  southern  provinces  of  Asia,
especially  624  B.C.,  when  they  remained  in  posses-
sion of  Asia  Minor  for  twenty-eight  years,  and  at
different  periods  extended  their  conquests  in  Europe,
penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt ;  see  Tartary.

SEA.  Lieut.  Maury  first  published  his  "  Physi-
cal Geography  of  the  Sea"  in  1854,  and  other  im-
portant works  since ;  he  died  Feb.  1873 ;  see  Deep
Sea.

SEA  BIRDS' PRESERVATION"  ACT,

passed  24  June,  1869.

SEA  FIGHTS see  Naval  Battles.

SEA  FISHERIES,  see  Fisheries,  and
Behring  Straits.

SEAL  FISHERY  ACT,  passed  14  June,  1875.

SEALS  or  SIGNETS.  Engraved  gems  were  used
as  such  by  the  Egyptians,  Jews,  Assyrians,  and
Greeks;  see  Exod.  xxviii.  14.  Ahab's  seal  was
used  by  Jezebel,  899  B.C.  (1  Flings  xxi.  8.)  The
Komans  in  the  time  of  the  Tarquins  (about  600 B.C.)
had  gemmed  rings.  They  sealed  rooms,  granaries,
bags  of  money,  &c.  The  German  emperor,  Frederick
I.  (a.d.  1152)  had  seals  of  gold,  silver,  and  tin.  Im-
pressions of  the  seals  of  Saxon  kings  are  extant ;
and  the  English  great  seal  is  attributed  to  Edward
the  Confessor  (1041-66).  "A  seal  with  armorial
bearings  before  the  nth  century,  is  certainly  false."
Fosbroke.  The  most  ancient  English  seal  with  arms
on  it  is  said  to  be  that  of  Eichard  I.  or  John.  White
and  coloured  waxes  were  used.  Our  present  sealing-
wax,  containing  shellac,  did  not  come  into  general
use  in  Germany  and  England  until  about  1556.
Red  wafers  for  seals  came  into  use  about  1624 ;  but
were  not  used  for  public  seals  till  the  18th  century.
A  seal  acquired  by  the  British  Museum  made  of
black  hematite,  thought  to  be  Hittite,  found  at
Yuzgat  in  Asia  Minor,  announced  Nov.  1886.
iSeal  Society,  for  publication  of  fac-similes  of  an-
cient seals,  was  established  in  1883. — For  Sealed
Letters,  see  Great  Seal  and  Lettres  de  Cachet.

SEAMEN".  In  consequence  of  the  great  loss  of
life  by  wrecks  of  merchant  vessels,  attributed  to  bad
ships  and  overloading,  a  commission  of  inquiry  was
agreed  to  by  parliament  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  S.


Plimsoll  (who  published  "Our  Seamen:  an  Ap-
peal"), 4  March,  1873.  The  duke  of  Edinburgh
was  on  the  commission;  the  duke  of  Somerset,
chairman.  Mr.  Plimsoll  has  been  censured  for
exaggeration.

The  report  issued  in  September  tended  to  justify  the
public  apprehensions,  but  suggested  no  remedy.  The
report  presented  to  parliament,  2  July,  1874,  con-
demned the  present  insurance  system,  and  recom-
mended increased  responsibility  of  owners  and  others,
and  strengthening  the  powers  of  the  Board  of  Trade  for
investigation.
The  Merchant  Shipping  Survey  Bill  was  rejected

(173 — 170) 24  June,  1874

After  much  excitement,  an  Act  was  passed  to  give
further  powers  to  the  Board  of  Trade  to  stop  un-

seaworthy  ships 13  Aug.  1875

Another  Merchant  Shipping  Act  (which  see)  passed

15  Aug.  1876
Strong  circular  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  (Mr.
Chamberlain) ;  deaths  of  the  employed  in  ships
asserted  to  be  1  in  60 ;  in  coal  mines  1  in  315  ;
present  system  stated  to  be  ineffectual  .  Jan.  1S84
First  annual  congress  of  the  National  Seamen's  and
Firemen's  union  held  at  Cardiff  (Mr.  Plimsoll

present) 8  Oct.  1889

See  Shipping.
Seamen's  hospital  society,  see  Dreadnought.

SEAS,  Sovereignty  of  the. The  claim

of  England  to  rule  the  British  seas  is  of  very  ancient
date. Arthur  is  said  to  have  assumed  it,  and  Alfred
afterwards  supported  this  claim. It  was  maintained
by  Selden,  and  measures  were  taken  by  government
in  consequence,  8  Chas.  I.  1633. The  Dutch,  after
the  death  of  Charles  I.,  made  some attempts  to
obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated  by  Blake  and
other  admirals. Russia  and  other powers  of  the
north  armed  to  avoid  search, 1780;  again, 1800;
see  Armed  Neutrality  and  Flag. The  international
rule  of  the  road  at  sea  was  settled  in  1862?; (new
rules  were  issued  in  1879  and  19  Aug.  1884),  yet  near
Great  Britain  alone  there  have  been  13,000  collisions
in  six  years. Mr.  Vm.  Stirling  Lacon  proposed  to
reduce  the  rules  from  749  words  to  144,  for  sim-
plicity and  security. His  form  had  been  nine  times
before  parliament,  1873. Revised  rules  issued  by
the  admiralty  in  a  "  Fleet  Circular,"  Nov.  1885.
The  British  Board  of  Trade  appointed  a  committee,
consisting  of admirals N. Bowden  Smith, sir
Robert Molyneux, sir George S. Nares, and
others,  to  consider  measures  for  the  prevention
of  collisions  at  sea ;  first  meeting . 1  Aug.  1800

SEASONS.  The  four  natural  divisions  of  the
year.

In  the  north  temperate  regions  in  1884  the  spring
quarter  began  20  March,  5  a.m.,  the  summer,  21  June,
1  a.m.,  the  autumn,  22  Sept.  3  p.m.,  the  winter,  21  Dee
10  a.m. See  Lapland  seasons  under  Year.

James  Thomson's  "Seasons"  published:  "Winter,1
1726;  "Summer,"  1727;  "Spring,"  1728;  "Autumn,"  1730.

Haydn's  "Seasons"  first  performed,  1801.

SEATS  BILL,  see  under  Reform,
SEBASTIAN,  ST.  (N.  Spain),  was  taken  by
the  French,  under  the  duke  of  Berwick,  in  1719.
It  was  besieged  by  the  British  and  allied  army  under
"Wellington.  After  a  most  heavy  bombardment,  by
which  the  whole  town  was  laid  nearly  in  ruins,  it
was  stormed  by  general  Graham  (afterwards  lord
Lynedoch),  and  taken  31  Aug.  1813. — On  5  May,
1836,  the  fortified  works,  through  the  centre  of
which  ran  the  high  road  to  Hemani,  were  carried
by  the  English  auxiliary  legion  under  general
Evans,  after  very  hard  fighting.  The  British  naval
squadron,  off  St.  Sebastian,  under  lord  John  Hay,
lent  very  opportune  aid  to  the  victors  in  this  con-
test.— A  vigorous  assault  was  made  on  the  lines  of
general  De  Lacy  Evans,  at  St.  Sebastian,  by  the
Oarlists,  1  Oct.  1836. Both  parties  fought  with


SEBASTOPOL.


869


SEDAN.


bravery.  The  Carlists  were  repulsed,  after  suffer-
ing severely.  The  loss  of  the  Anglo-Spanish  force
was  376  men  and  37  officers,  killed  and  wounded,
General  De  Lacy  Evans  was  slightly  wounded.  See
under  Leagues.  The  queen  regent  of  Spain  meets
queen  Victoria  here,  27  March,  1889.  Population,
1887,  29,047.

SEBASTOPOL  or  Sevastopol,  a  town  and

once  a  naval  arsenal,  at  S.W.  point  of  the  Crimea,
formerly  the  little  village  of  Aktiar.  The  buildings
were  commenced  in  1784,  by  Catherine  II.  after  the
conquest  of  the  country.  The  town  is  built  in  the
shape  of  an  amphitheatre  on  the  rise  of  a  large  hill
flattened  on  its  summit,  according  to  a  plan  laid
down  before  1 794,  which  has  been  since  adhered  to.
The  fortifications  and  harbour  were  constructed  by
an  English  engineer,  colonel  Upton,  and  his  sons,
since  1830.  The  population  in  1834  was  15,000.
This  place  underwent  eleven  months'  siege,  by  the
English  and  French  in  1854  and  1855.  Immediately
after  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  20  Sept.  1854,  the  allied
army  marched  to  Sebastopol,  and  took  up  its  position
on  the  plateau  between  it  and  Balaklava,  and  the
grand  attack  and  bombardment  commenced  17  Oct.
1854,  without  success.*  After  many  sanguinary
encounters  by  day  and  night,  and  repeated  bombard-
ments, a  grand  assault  was  made  on  8  Sept.  1855,
upon  the  Malakhoff  tower  and  the  Redans,  the  most
important  fortifications  to  the  south  of  tbe  town.
The  French  succeeded  in  capturing  and  retaining
the  Malakhoff.  The  attacks  of  the  English  on  the
great  Redan  and  of  the  French  upon  the  little  Redan
were  successful,  but  the  assailants  were  compelled
to  retire  after  a  desperate  struggle  with  great  loss  of
life.  The  French  lost  1646  killed,  of  whom  5  were
generals,  24  superior  and  116  inferior  officers,  45CO
wounded,  and  1400  missing.  The  English  lost  385
hilled  (29  being  commissioned  and  42  non-commis-
sioned officers),  1886  wounded,  and  176  missing.
In  the  night  the  Russians  abandoned  the  southern
and  principal  part  of  the  town  and  fortifications,
after  destroying  as  much  as  possible,  and  crossed
to  the  northern  forts.  They  also  sank  or  burnt  the
remainder  of  their  fleet.  The  allies  found  a  very
great  amount  of  stores  when  they  entered  the  place,
9  Sept.  The  works  were  utterly  destroyed  in  April,
1856,  and  the  town  was  restored  to  the  Russians  in
July;  gen.  Todleben,  the  able  defender,  died  1
Jul}',  1884,  and  was  buried  here;  his  monument
uncovered  28  June,  1890.  See  Russo-  Turkish  War.
l'opulation  of  Sebastopol,  1885,  33,803.

SECEDERS;  SECESSION  CHURCH,
see  Burghers.

SECONDARY  OF  Loxdox,  an  ancient
office,  resembling  that  of  under-sheriff  in  counties.
The  place  was  purchaseable  till  early  in  the  present
century,  when  it  was  bought  up  by  the  corporation.

SECRET  SOCIETIES,  Assassins,  Fenians,
Ribbomsm,  VcJtiuic  Tribunal,  Rosierucians,  Illu-
minati,  Carbonari,  Mary-Aime,  Nihilists.

*  In  consequence  of  the  sufferings  and  disasters  of  the
army  in  the  winter  of  1854-5,  the  Sebastopol  Inquiry
Committee  was  appointed,  and  the  Aberdeen  administra-
tion resigned,  Feb.  1855.  l'he  committee  sat  from
1  March  to  15  May,  lord  Aberdeen  being  the  last  person
examined.  Its  report  was  presented  18  June.  Mr.  Roe-
buck, the  chairman,  moved  on  17  July  that  the  house
should  pass  a  vote  of  severe  reprehension  "n  every  mem
ber  of  the  Aberdeen  administration.  On  19  July  his
motion  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  107  against  it.  In  1855
the  government  sent  sir. John  M'Neill  and  col.  Tullueh
to  inquire  into  the  stair,  of  tin-  armies  in  the  Crimea.
Their  report  was  presented  to  parliament  in  Feb.  1856.
A  commission  was  appointed  to  consider  the  statements
in  the  report  (which  wire  very  unfavourable  to  many
officers),  but  the  substance  of  the  report  was  unshaken.


SECRETARIES  OF  State.  The  earliest
authentic  record  of  a  secretary  of  state  is  in  the
reign  of  Henry  III.,  when  John  Maunsell  is  de-
scribed as  "  Secretarim  Koster,"  1253.  Rymer.
Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  two
secretaries  were  appointed ;  and  upon  the  union
with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third  as  secretary  for
Scotch  affairs;  this  appointment  was  afterwards  laid
aside ;  but  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  the  number
was  again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the  American
department.  In  1782  this  last  was  abolished  by  act
of  Parliament ;  and  the  secretaries  were  appointed
for  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  affairs.  "When  there
were  but  two  secretaries,  one  held  the  portefeuille
of  the  Northern  department,  comprising  the  Low
Countries,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,
Russia,  &c. ;  the  other,  of  the  Southern  department,
including  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spam,  Portu-
gal, and  Turkey ;  the  affairs  of  Ireland  belonging  to
the  elder  secretary;  both  secretaries  then  equally
directed  the  home  affairs.  Beatson.  There  are  now
six  secretaries — home,  foreign,  colonial,  war,  (in
1858)  India,  and(in  1885)  Scotland,  all  in  the  cabinet
Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland  act  passed  14  Aug.
1885,  amended  1887,  explained  1889.  See  Adminis-
trations, and  separate  articles.
The  Institute  of  Secretaries  was  started  at  a  meeting
in  London,  4  July,  1890,  to  collect  information
respecting  the  position,  duties,  and  responsi-
bilities of  secretaries  to  be  applied  for  their
benefit.  First  dinner  ...  24  June,  1892
SECTS,  RELIGIOUS,  see  under  Worship,
and  their  respective  titles.

SECULAR  GAMES  (Ludi  Sceculares),  very
ancient  Roman  games,  celebrated  on  important
occasions.  Horace  wrote  his  "  Carmen  Saeculare "
for  their  celebration  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor
Augustus  (17).  They  took  place  again  in  the  reign
of  Claudius  (47),  of  Lomitian  (88),  and  for  the  last
time,  of  Philip  (248),  believed  to  be  2000  years  after
the  foundation  of  the  city.

SECULARISM,  a  name  given  to  the  prin-
ciples advocated  by  G.  J. and  Austin  Holyoake,
about  1846,  and  since  by  Mr.  Bradlaugh.
Its  central  idea  is  free,  not  lawless  thought,  and  it  con-
siders scepticism  to  he  scrutiny. It  advocates  liberty
of  action  without  injury  to  others. It  is  not  against
Christianity,  but  independent  of  it. Its  standard  is
utilitarian  ;  it  is  the  religion  of  the  present  life  only  ;
teaching  men  to  seek  morality  in  nature,  and  happi-
ness in  duty. Mr.  Austin  Holyoake  and  other  secu-
larists repudiated  atheism  ;  Mr.  Bradlaugh  and  others
profess  it.

SECURITY  fiiom  Violence  Act,  passed

in  1863,  appointed  whipping  as  part  of  the  punish-
ment for  attempts  at  garottiug.

SEDAN,  an  ancient  fortified  city  iu  the  valley
of  the  Meuse,  N.E.  of  France,  the  seat  of  a  princi-
pality long  held  by  Uie  dukes  of  Bouillon.  On  6
July,  1641,  a  victory  was  gained  at  La  Marfee,  near
Sedan,  by  the  count  of  Soissons  and  the  troops  of
Bouillon  and  other  French  princes,  over  the  royal
army  supporting  Richelieu  ;  but  the  count  was  slain
on  23  June,  1642.  The  duke  was  arrested  in  the
midst  of  his  army,  and  was  made  to  cede  Sedan  tc
the  crown.  The  protestant  university  was  abolished
after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  22  Oct.
1685.  Around  this  place  a  series  of  desperate  con-
flicts on  29,  30,  and  31  Aug.  between  the  French
army  of  the  north,  under  marshal MacMahon  (about
150,000  men),  and  the  greater  part  of  the  three
German  armies  under  the  king  and  crown-prince  of
Prussia  and  the  crown-prince  of  Saxony  (about
250,000  men)  was  brought  to  a  close  on  1  Sept.  1870.
The  battle  began  with  attacks  on  the  French  right  and

left  about  5  a.m.,  and  was  very  severe  at  2  p.m. At +


SEDAN CHAIES.


870


SELEUCIDES.


p.m.  tlie  Germans  remained  masters  of  the  field,  and
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  announced  a  complete
victory,  the  chief  part  of  the  French  army  retreating
into  Sedan.

The  emperor  Napoleon  was  present  during  the  battle,
and,  it  is  said,  stood  at  Iges,  near  Sedan,  exposed  for
four  hours  to  the  German  grenades.  The  impossibility
of  further  resistance  was  then  evident.  The  Germans
had  contracted  their  circle  close  round  Sedan  ;  their  for-
midable artillery  held  all  the  heights,  from  which  they
could  at  pleasure  wholly  destroy  the  town  and  the
army,  and  only  2000  men  were  in  a  condition  to
respond  to  their  commander's  call,  and  to  make  a
supreme  effort  to  break  through  the  enemy  with  the
emperor  and  escape  to  Montmedy.

At  first  general  de  Wimpffen  (called  to  the  command
when  MaeMahon  was  wounded)  indignantly  rejected
the  terms  offered  by  the  victor,  and  the  emperor  had
a  fruitless  interview  with  count  Bismarck  to  endeavour
to  mitigate  them.

On  2  Sept.  the  emperor  wrote  in  autograph  to  the  king  of
Prussia,  "  Hon  frere,  n'ayant  pu  mourir  a  la  tete  de
mes  troupes,  je  depose  mon  epee  au  pied  de  votre
inajeste.  Napoleon."  A  capitulation  of  Sedan  and
the  whole  army  therein  was  signed  by  generals  Von
Holtke  and  De  'Wimpffen  at  the  chateau  of  Bellevue,
near  Frenois,  at  11.30  a.m.,  and  at  2  p.m.  an  interview
took  place  between  the  king  and  the  emperor,  who
was  downcast  but  dignified.

The  conflict  was  principally  carried  on  by  the  artillery,
in  which  (according  to  the  emperor)  the  Germans  had
the  advantage,  not  only  in  number  (600  to  500),  but
also  in  weight,  range,  and  precision.  The  carnage  was
awful,  and  the  field  the  next  clay  was  a  mass  of  shat-
tered bones,  torn  flesh,  and  coloured  rags.

About  25,000  French  prisoners  were  taken  in  the  battle,
and  83,000  surrendered  the  next  day,  together  with
70  mitrailleuses,  400  field-pieces,  and  150 fortress  guns.
About  14,000  French  wounded  were  found  lying  in
the  neighbourhood,  and  about  3000  escaped  into
Belgium  and  laid  down  their  arms.  The  great  army
of  the  north  had  ceased  to  exist.  Among  the  killed
was  lieut.-eol. .  Pemberton,  a  correspondent  of  the
Times,  who  had  approached  too  near  the  conflict.

The  French  emperor  and  his  suite  arrived  at  WUhelms-
hohe,  a  castle  near  Cassel  appointed  for  his  residence,
(formerly  inhabited  by  his  uncle  Jerome,  when  king
of  Westphalia),  in  the  evening  of  5  Sept.

On  1  Sept.  the  village  of  Bazeilles  was  stormed  by  the
Bavarians  and  burnt,  it  was  said,  because  the  inhabi-
tants fired  on  the  ambulances  ;  many  women  and
children  perished.  The  French  denied  the  provocation.
The  place  had  been  previously  twice  bombarded  and
stormed  by  the  maddened  combatants.

In  a  letter  dated  12  Hay,  1872,  the  emperor  Napoleon
took  upon  himself  the  whole  responsibility  of  the
surrender  of  Sedan.

SEDAN  CHAIES  (so  called  from  Sedan),
were  first  seen  in  England  in  1581.  One  used  in
the  reign  of  James  I.,  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham,
caused  great  indignation,  and  the  people  exclaimed
that  he  was  employing  his  fellow-creatures  to  do
the  service  of  beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into
London  in  1634,  Avhen  sir  Francis  Duncomb  ob-
tained the  sole  privilege  to  use,  let,  and  hire  a
number  of  such  covered  chairs  for  fourteen  years.
They  came  into  very  general  use  in  1649.

SEDANGS,  a  tribe  dwelling  on  the  borders  of
Annam.  M.  de  Mayrena,  an  ex-officer  of  the
French  navy,  having  made  himself  their  king,  came
to  Paris.  He  was  set  aside,  and  the  Sedangs  were
brought  under  French  protection  by  the  French
resident-general  in  Indo-China ;  reported  Oct.  1889.

SEDGMOOB  (Somersetshire),  where  the  duke
of  Monmouth  (natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Lucy
Walters),  who  had  risen  in  rebellion  on  the  acces-
sion of  James  II.,  was  completely  defeated  by  the
l-oyal  army,  6  July,  168$.  The  duke  was  made  a
prisoner  in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  at  the
bottom  of  a  ditch,  overcome  with  hunger  and
fatigue.  He  was  tried  and  beheaded  on  15  July
following.


SEDITION".  Sedition  acts  were  passed  in  the
reign  of  George  III.  The  proclamation  against
seditious  writings  was  published  May,  1792.  The
celebrated  Sedition  bill  passed  Dec.  1795.  Sedi-
tious societies  were  suppressed  by  act,  June,  1797-
The  Seditious  Meetings  and  Assemblies'  bill  passed
31  March,  1817.  In  Ireland,  during  the  Roman
Catholic  and  Repeal  agitation,  acts  or  proclamations
against  sedition  and  seditious  meetings  were  pub-
lished from  time  to  time  until  1848.

SEEDS.  An  act  was  passed  to  prevent  the
adulteration  of  seeds  (a  common  practice),  II  Aug.
1869 ;  amended  in  1878.

SEEKEES,  see  Quakers.

SEGEDIN,  or  SZEGEDIN,  Hungary.  Here
was  concluded  a  treaty  between  Ladislaus  IV.  and
Amurath  II.,  12  July,  1444.  It  was  treacherously
annulled  at  the  instigation  of  cardinal  Julian,  who
withLadislaus  perished  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Vama,
10  Nov.  1444. See  Varna.

SEICENTO,  see  under  Italian.

SEIDLICE  (Poland) ,  where  a  battle  was  fought
10  April,  1831,  between  the  Poles  and  Russians.
The  Poles  obtained  the  victory  after  a  bloody  con-
flict, taking  4000  prisoners  and  several  pieces  of
cannon ;  but  this  success  was  soon  followed  by  fatal
reverses.

SEISMOMETEE  (from  seismos,  Greek  for
earthquake),  an  apparatus  for  measuring  the  vio-
lence of  the  shocks.  One  is  described  \>y  Sir.  Robert
Mallet  in  his  work  on  earthquakes,  published  iu
1858. Many  described  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing,  1880-8.

SELA,  see  Fetra.

SELBOBNE  SOCIETY,  for  the  preserva-
tion of  birds,  plants,  and  pleasant  places,  originated
in  the  Selborne  league  (afterwards  society)  formed
by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  G.  A.  Musgrave  in  Nov.  1885.  It
has  included  the  plumage  league  since  Jan.  1886,
(see  under  Birds).

SELDEN  SOCIETY,  founded  29  Jan.  1887,
for  the  study  of  English  legal  history,  and  pub-
lication of  ancient  MSS.  and  books,  by  lords
justice  Fry,  Coleridge,  and  Lindley,  and  other
eminent  lawyers.  John  Selden,  legal  antiquary,
born  16  Dec.  1^84,  died  30  Nov.  1654.

'  SELECT-MEN",  the  earliest  officers  of  the
townships  formed  by  the  first  colonists  of  New
England  about  1635.

SELECTION,  Natural,  see  Species.

SELENIUM,  a  grayish-white  elementary  sub-
stance (chemically  resembling  sulphur),  discovered
in  the  stone  riolite  by  Berzelius,  in  181 7.

The  variation  in  its  resistance  to  the  electric  current
when  subjected  to  light  was  observed  by  Mr.
Willoughby  Smith  in  1873,  and  utilised  in  the  photo-
phone  (which  see).  Dr.  C.  Wm.  Siemens  constructed  a
"selenium  eye."

SELEUCIA  (Syria),  made  the  capital  of  the
Syrian  monarchy  by  its  builder,  Seleucus  Nicator,
312  B.C.  On  the  fall  of  the  Seleucidse,  it  became  a
republic,  65  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  Trajan,  a.d.
116;  several  times  given  up  and  retaken;  subju-
gated by  the  Saracens,  and  united  with  Ctesiphon,
636.

SELEUCIDES,  Era  OF  THE,  dates  from
the  reign  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  It  was  used  in  Syria
for  many  years,  and  frequently  by  the  Jews  until
the  15th  century,  and  by  some  Arabians.  Opinions
vary  as  to  its  commencement. To  reduce  it  to  our


SELF-DENYING OEDINANCE. 871


SEPHAEDIaL


era  (supposing  it  to  begin  I  Sept.  312  B.C.),  sub-
tract 311  years  4  months.

SELF-DENYING  OEDINANCE,  which
ordained  that  no  member  of  parliament  should  hold
any  civil  or  military  office  or  command  conferred  by
either  or  both  of  the  houses,  or  by  authority  derived
from  them,  after  much  discussion,  was  passed  3
April,  1645,  by  the  influence  of  Cromwell,  who  thus
removed  the  earl  of  Essex  and  other  Presbyterians
out  of  his  way.  A  somewhat  similar  ordinance  was
adopted  by  the  parliament  at  Melbourne  in  Aus-
tralia, in  1858.  The  name  was  given  to  an  arrange-
ment made  respecting  British  naval  promotions  and
retirements  in  1870.

SELLASIA  (Laconia).  Here  the  Spartans
under  Cleomenes  were  defeated  by  Antigonus  Doson
and  the  Achseans,  221  B.C.

SELSEY,  see  Chichester.

SEMAPHOEE,  see  Telegraphs.

HEMATOLOGY  (Greek  sema,  a  sign),  the
science  of  signs,  a  term  proposed  by  B.  H.  Smart,
who  died  1872.

SEMINAEA  (Naples).  Near  here  Gonsalvo
de  Cordova,  the  great  captain,  was  defeated  by
the  French,  in  1495;  but  defeated  them,  21  April,
I503-

SEMINCAS, see  Simancas.

SEMPACH  (Switzerland).  Here  the  Swiss
gained  a  great  victory  over  Leopold,  duke  of
Austria,  9  July,  1386,  under  Arnold  von  Winckel-
ried ;  the  duke  and  Arnold  were  slain,  and  the
liberty  of  Switzerland  was  established.  The  day
is  still  commemorated. Especially  on  5  July,  1886.

SEMPEE  EADEM  ("Always  the  same"),
one  of  the  mottoes  of  queen  Elizabeth,  was  adopted
by  queen  Mary  and  queen  Anne,  13  Dec.  1702.

SEMPEEINGHAM,  see  Gilbertines.

SENATE  {Senatus). In  the  ancient  republics
the  government  was  divided  between  the  senatus
(from  senis,  old ; in  Greek,  gerousia,  from  germ,
old), an assembly of elders, and the popular
assembly {comitia, Latin; ecclcsia, Greek), the
king  being  merely the executive. The Roman
senate,  said  to  have  originally  been  composed  of
100  members,  was raised  to  300  by  Tarquinius
I'riscus ;  to  about  600  by  Sylla,  about  81  B.C. ;  and
to  900  by  Julius  Caesar. It  was reformed and
reduced  to  600  by  Augustus  ;  and  gradually  lost  its
power  and  dignity  under  the  emperors. The  mere
form  existed  in  the  reign  of  Justinian. A  second
senate,  formed  at  Constantinople  by  Constantine,
retained  its  office  till  the  9th  century. S.P.Q.R.  on
the  Roman  standard  stood  for  "Senatus  Popnlusque
llomanus," "the  Roman  senate  and  people." A
senatus  consultum  was  a  law  enacted  by  the  senate.
The  French  senate  was  created  by  the  constitution  of  the
year  8,  promulgated  24  Dec.  1799,  to  watch  over  the
administration  of  the  laws. The  number  of  senators
was  raised  gradually  from  60  to  137. The  senate  was
replaced  by  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1814  ; re-estab-
lished by  Napoleon  III.  14  Jan.  1852  ;  and  abolished,
sSept.  1870. Its  re-establishment  was  proposed  in  1873.
Establishment  of  a  senate  of  300  voted  ;  225  to  be  elected
for  9  years  by  the  departments  ;  75  (for  life)  by  national
assembly,  22  Feb.  1875.
The  75  elected,  9-21  Dec,  1875.

The  congress  of  13  Aug.  1884,  ordered  the  gradual  abo-
lition of  life  senators  as  vacancies  occurred  ;  new
senators  were  to  be  elected  for  9  years  by  the  depart-
ments ;  enacted,  5  Nov. ;  bill  passed  by  the  deputies
and  senate,  4-9  Dec.  1884. See  France.


SENEFFE  (Belgium).  Near  here  was  fought
a  severe  but  indecisive  battle  between  the  Dntcb,
under  the  prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  our  William
III.),  and  the  French,  led  by  the  great  Conde,  11
Aug.  1674.

SENEGAL, French colonies  on  the  river  of

that  name  in  Senegambia,  "W.  Africa,  settled  about

1626; several times taken  by  the British, but

recovered  by  the  French,  to  whom  they  were  Anally

restored  in  18 14.

The  French  opposed  by  two  powerful  chiefs,  Samori
and  Ahmadoo,  sultan  of  Toucouleurs ;  Samori,
defeated  by  the  French,  makes  a  treaty . .  1885

Very  great  loss  of  life  and  property  by  unexampled
floods ; towns  and  villages wholly  submerged

Aug.,  Sept.  1890

French  war  with  the  natives,  1890 ;  the  chief  Ah-
madoo's  army  defeated  in  sharp  battles ;  the
French,  under  col.  Archinard,  enter  Nioro,  1  Jan.  1891

Ahmadoo  again  defeated  by  col.  Archinard  ;  many
prisoners  taken  ;  Ahmadoo  fled  ;  Nioro  restored
to  the  chiefs,  reported ... 18  Jan. ,,

The  rebel  tribes  defeated,  near  Dienia  ;  600  rebels
killed,  24  Feb.  Dienia  and  Kinian  taken  by
col.  Archinard,  reported . . . March, „

War  with  Samori  renewed ;  he  retires  to  his
southern  territories,  after  much  carnage  and
desolation April — June, „

Intestine  wars  between  the  native  chiefs,  Ahmet-
Saloum  and  Amar-Saloum,  Ahmet-Saloum  victor,

reported  Aug. , ,

Expedition  of  colonel  Humbert  against  Samori  in
French  Soudan,  1  Jan.,  whom  he  defeats,
9,  11  Jan.,  and  takes  two  strongholds,  25  Jan.  ;
fresh  conflicts  ;  capt.  Menard  killed,  reported
6  April  ;  colonel  Humbert  victorious,  14  March  ;
the French repulsed by Samadou, reported

7  May,  1892

SENESCHAL,  a  high  officer  of  the  French
royal  household.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  I.  1059,
the  office  was  esteemed  the  highest  place  of  trust.

SENLAC,  see  Hastings.

SENONES  (see  Gauls),  defeated  by  Camillus,
367  b.c.  They  defeated  Metellus  the  consul  at
Arretium,  284,  but  were  almost  exterminated  by
Dolabella,  283.  They  invaded  Greece  in  279;  were
defeated  by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  278  ;  and  sued  for
peace.

SENOVA,  near  Schipka,  in  the  Balkans.
Here  Suleiman  Pasha  and  the  Turks  were  defeated
by  the  Russian  general  Skobeleff,  9  Jan.  1878.
This  victory  virtually  closed  the  war,  and  opened
the  road  to  Adrianople.  About  26,000  Turks  and
283  officers  were  made  prisoners,  with  40  Krupp
guns.  About  8000  Turks  and  2000  Russians  were
killed  or  wounded.

SENTINTJM  (central  Italy).  The  site  of  a
great  victory  of  the  Romans  under  Fabius  Maxim  US,
over  the  Samnites  and  Gauls,  whose  general,  Gellius
Egnatius,  was  slain,  295  B.C.  P.  Dccius  the  other
consul,  devoted  himself  to  death  during  the  conflict.

SEPAEATISTS,  a  term  applied  to  the  Irish
National  Party,  headed  by  Mr.  Parncll,  about
1883.  In  1884  it  vehemently  attacked  carl  Spenser
and  the  Irish  executive. — The  name  is  also  assumed
by  a  small  Christian  sect  in  Dublin,  and  some
other  places ;  originated  by  John  Walker,  a  clas-
sical scholar,  somewhat  resembling  the  Glasitcs
(Prov.  xviii.  1) ;  he  died  25  Oct.  1833,  aged  66.

SEPHAEDIM,  the  name  given  to  the  descen-
dants of  the  highly  civilised  Jews  of  Spain  and
Portugal,  who  tied  from  the  persecutions  of  the
Inquisition,  1492-1505.  The  Jews  interpret  Sepha-
rad,  in  Obadiak  20,  as  Spain.


SEPOYS.


872


SERVANTS.


SEPOYS  (a  corruption  of  sipdhi,  Persian,  a
soldier),  the  term  applied  to  the  native  troops  in  the
British  Service  in  India.  The  Turkish  cavalry  is
named  Spahis,  a  name  also  given  to  native  cavalry
in  Algeria  in  the  French  service  in  1834.  Under  able
generals  they  greatly  aided  in  establishing  British
rule  in  India.  For  their  mutinies,  see  Vellore,
1806;  Madras,  1809;  and  India,  1857.

SEPTEMBER,  the  seventh  Eoman  month
reckoned  from  March  (from  Septimus,  seventh).  It
became  the  ninth  month  when  January  and
February  were  added  to  the  year  by  Numa ;  731
B.C.  The  Eoman  senate  would  have  given  this
month  the  name  of  Tiberius,  but  the  emperor
opposed  it ;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his  own
name  Germanicus ;  the  senate  under  Antoninus  Pius
gave  it  that  of  Antoninus ;  Commodus  gave  it  his
surname,  Herculeus  ;  and  the  emperor  Tacitus  his
own  name,  Tacitus. — "September  4  government,"
see  France,  Sept.  1870.

SEPTEMBRIZERS.  In  the  French  revolu-
tion a  dreadful  massacre  took  place  in  Paris,  2-5
Sept.  1792.  The  prisons  were  broken  open,  and  the
prisoners  butchered,  among  them  an  ex-bishop,  and
nearly  100  non-juring  priests.  Some  accounts
state  the  number  of  persons  slain  at  1200,  others  at
4000.  The  agents  in  this  slaughter  were  named
Septembrizers.

SEPTENNALISTS,  the  party  in  France  who
support  the  septennate  or  seven  years'  government
of  marshal  MacMahon,  enacted  by  the  assembly,
19,  20  Nov.  1873. See  France,  1874.

Septennate,  in  the  German  constitution,  is  the  stipula-
tion that  every  German  fit  for  the  duty  is  liable  to
serve  for  seven  years  in  the  Imperial  army  4  May,
1871.

SEPTENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS.  Ed-
ward I.  held  but  one  parliament  every  two  years.
In  the  4th  Edward  III.  it  was  enacted,  "that  a
parliament  should  be  holden  every  year  once."
This  continued  to  be  the  statute-law  till  16th
Charles  I.  1641,  when  an  act  was  passed  for  holding
parliaments  once  in  three  years  at  least ;  repealed
in  1664.  The  Triennial  act  was  re-enacted  in  1694.
Triennial  parliaments  thence  continued  till  the
2  Geo.  I.  1716,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  allega-
tion that  "a popish  faction  were  designing  to  renew
the  rebellion  in  this  kingdom,  and  the  report  of  an
invasion  from  abroad,"  it  was  enacted  that  "the
then  parliament  should  continue  for  seven  years."
This  Septennial  act,  entitled  "  an  act  for  enlarging
the  continuance  of  parliaments"  (1715  in  the
statutes,  4to,  given  as  1  Geo.  I.  stat.  2,  c.  38),  was
passed  7  May,  1716;  see  Parliaments.  Several
unsuccessful  motions  have  been  made  for  its  repeal ;
one  in  May,  1837;  again  24  Feb.  1880,  and  8
April,  1892  (188-142).

SEPTIMANIA,  a  Eoman  province,  S.  France ;

see  Languedoc.

SEPTUAGESIMA  SUNDAY;  see  Quad-
ragesima  Sunday,  and  Week.  Septuagesima  is  the
season  between  Epiphany  and  Lent.

SEPTTJAGINT  VERSION  of  the  Bible,

made  from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  277  n.c.  Seventy-
two  translators  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells ;
each  pair  translated  the  whole  ;  and  on  subsequent
comparison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a
word  or  letter.  Justin  Martyr.  St.  Jerome  affirms
that  they  translated  only  the  Pentateuch ;  others
say  they  translated  the  whole.  Ftolemy  Philadel-
phus  gave  the  Jews  about  a  million  sterling  for  a
copy  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  seventy  translators


half  a  million  more  for  the  translation.  Josephns.
Finished  in  seventy-two  days.  Hewlett.  The  above
statements  are  merely  traditional ;  see  Bible,  anJ
Alexandrian  Codex.

SEQUESTRATION  of  Benefices  Act  passed
13  July,  1871.

SERAING,  Belgium,  on  the  Meuse,  near
Liege,  formerly  the  site  of  a  palace  of  the  prince
bishops  of  Liege  ;  now  containing  great  iron  works,
established  in  1817,  by  John  Cockerill,  an  English-
man. His  father,  who  had  works  at  Liege,  died
in  18 1 3.  Nearly  the  whole  town  has  been  built
by  Cockerill.

SERAJEVO,  capital  of  Bosnia  and  Herzego-
vina, with  about  50,000  inhabitants,  was  founded
in  1465,  by  two  nobles.  It  was  taken  by  Mathias,
king  of  Hungary,  in  1480,  and  by  prince  Eugene,  of
Savoy,  in  1698.  In  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of
Berlin,  13  July,  1878,  the  Austrians  entered  Sera-
jevo,  after  a  sharp  conflict  with  the  Bosnians,  and
bombardment  of  the  city,  19  Aug.  1878.  By  a  fire
8,  9  Aug.  1879  above  20,000  persons  were  rendered
homeless.

SERAPHINE,  a  free-reed  musical  instrument,
a  precursor  of  Debaine's  harmonium,  brought  out
by  John  Green  in  London,  1833.

SERAPIS,  TEMPLE  OE  (near  Naples),  was
exhumed  in  1750.  The  remains  of  his  temple  at
Memphis,  termed  Serapeum,  were  discovered  by
Mariette,  1850  et  seq.

SERASKIER,  the  Turkish  minister  of  war.

SERFS,  see  Slavery  (note),  and  Russia,  1861,
1863.  -

SERINGAPATAM  (S.  India),  the  capital  of
Ilyder  Ali,  sovereign  of  Mysore  (which  see).  The
battle  of  Seringapatam,  called  also  the  battle  of
Arikera,  in  which  the  British  defeated  Tippoo  Sahib,
was  fought  15  May,  1 79 1.  The  redoubts  were
stormed,  and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  Corn-
wallis,  6  Feb.  1792.  After  this  capture,  prelimin-
aries of  peace  Avere  signed,  and  Tippoo  agreed  to
cede  one  half  of  Mysore,  and  to  pay  33,000,000  of
rupees  (about  3,300,000/.  sterling)  to  England,  and
to  give  up  to  lord  Cornwallis  his  two  eldest  sons  as
hostages. — In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army,  under
general  Harris,  arrived  before  Seringapatam,  5
April,  1799;  it  was  joined  by  the  Bombay  army  14
April ;  and  the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  by
major-general  Baird,  4  May,  same  year.  In  this
engagement  Tippoo  was  killed. See  Mysore.

SERJEANTS-AT-LAW  are  pleaders  from
among  whom  the  judges  are  ordinarily  chosen,  and
who  are  called  Serjeants  of  the  coif.  The  judges
call  them  brothers  ;  see  Coif.  Their  exclusive  rights
of  addressing  court  of  common  pleas  suspended,
1834;  restored,  1840;  abolished,  1846.  By  the
Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act,  judges  on  their
appointment  need  not  be  made  Serjeants,  1873.  See
Inns  of  Court.

SERPENT,  an  ancient  wind  instrument,
parent  of  the  Cornet  family.  A  "  contra  serpent"
was  shown  in  the  Exhibition,  1851,  made  by  Jor-
dan, of  Liverpool.  The  "  serpentcleid  "  was  pro-
duced by  Beacham  in  Jullien's  orchestra  about  1840.
For  H.M.  cruiser  Serpent,  see  JS^ary,  18S7  and  1890,
and  Mansion  House  Fund.

SERPENTINE,  see  Hyde  Park.

SERVANTS.  An  act  levying  a  duty  on  male
servants  was  passed  in  1777,  which  was  augmented


SERVIA.


873


SERVIA.


in  1781,  et  seq.  A  tax  on  female  servants,  imposed
in  1785,  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on  servants
yielded  in  1830  about  250,000/.  per  annum;  in  1840
the  revenue  from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482/. ;  in  1850
it  produced  about  the  same  sum.  The  licence  duty
for  male  servants  is  now  15s.  each.  It  produced  iu
the  year  1876-7,  167,004/.  ;  1877-8,  154,641/.  ;
1878-9,  146,061/.  ;  1883-4,  139,631/.  ;  1887-8,
136,287/.  The  law  respecting-  servants  was  amended
by  the  Master  and  Servants'  act  passed  in  1867.

SERVIA,  an  independent  kingdom,  south  of
Hungary.  The  Servians  or  Serbs  are  of  Slavonic
origin.  They  embraced  Christianity  about  640.
The  emperor  Manuel  subjugated  them  in  1150;
but  they  recovered  their  independence  in  1 180.
Population  in  1854,  985,000 ;  1873,  r>338'5°5  i
1890,  2,162,759.  Belgrade  is  the  capital  (whiefi  see).
Old  Servia  is  still  subject  to  Turkey.

Stephen  Nemanya,  a  Servian  chief,  founds  the
Racian  dynasty,  under  whom  the  country  pro-
gressed 1159,  etscq.

Stephen  Dusliau  subdues  Bulgaria,  &c.,  and  aims

at  resisting  the  Turks 1336-56

The  Servians,  weakened  by  dissensions,  defeated

by  the  Turks 1371

The  sultan  Amurath  I.  defeated  the  combined
Christian  army  of  Servians,  Hungarians,  Alba-
nians, &e.,  and  was  himself  killed  by  a  wounded
Servian  soldier  in  the  plain  of  Cossova,  or  Kos-

sova 15  June,  1389

Servia,  subdued  by  the  sultan  Mahomet  II.,  is
rigorously  ruled,  1459,  et  seq.  ;  ceded  to  Austria,
1718  ;  regained  by  Turkey .  1739

The  Servians  aid  Austria  by  free  companies . 1788-90
Again  rebel,  and  capture  Belgrade  . •  1806

Kara  George, chosen  leader, 1801  ;  aided  by  the

Russians,  establishes  a  government  .  .  1807-n
The  Turks  break  a  treaty,  and  Kara  George  flees  .  1814
Their  governor  Milosch  rebels  .  .  .  March,  1815
Kara  George  returning,  is  executed  .  .  .  .  1816
Alexander  Milosch I. Obrenovitch  recognised  as

hereditary  prince  by  the  sultan  .  .  15  Aug.  1829
Milosch  becoming  despotic,  made  to  abdicate,  and

a  new  constitution  established  .  13  June,  1839
His  son  and  successor  Milan  soon  dies,  whose  bro-
ther Michael  also  retires  ;  Alexander,  son  of  Kara
George,  chosen  prince  .  .  .  -14  Sept.  1842
Alexander  becoming  unpopular,  made  to  abdicate
by  the  national  party  ;  Alexander  Milosch  re-
elected prince 23  Dec.  1858

Plot against  Milosch frustrated, n July; the

Servian  assembly  meets  . . . 13  July,  i860

Milosch  dies  ;  succeeded  by  his  son  Michael  Obre-
novitch (born  4  Sept.  1825) . . 26  Sept. ,,
Rising  movement  to  render  Servia  independent  of

Turkey March,  1861

Disputes  between  the  Servians  and  the  Turkish
garrison  at  Belgrade,  which  lead  to  bloodshed  :
the  city  bombarded,  15  June  ;  submits  17  June  ;
the  Turkish  pacha  dismissed  , . 19  June,  1862

A  conference  of  the  representatives  of  the  great
powers  at  Constantinople,  Aug.  ;  the  Porte  agrees
to  liberal  concessions  to  the  Servians,  which  their

prince  accepts 7  Oct. ,,

Servians  demand  withdrawal  of  Turkish  garrisons

from  Belgrade  and  other  fortresses  .  5  Oct.  1866
Which  are  evacuated,  March  ; prince  Michael,  at

Constantinople,  thanks  the  sultan  30  March,  1867

Prince  Michael  assassinated  in  Belgrade 10  June,  1868
Milan  IV.  grand-nephew  of  prince  Michael,  chosen
his  successor,  22  June  ;  14  of  the  murderers  were

executed 28  July, ,,

Constitution  affirming  the  hereditary  rights  of  the

Obrenovitch  family 1869

Prince  Karageorgevitch  accused  of  complicity  with
minder;  imprisoned  at  Pesth, Jan.  ;  acquitted,

May,  1S71
The  regents  surrender  the  government  to  prince

Milan  at  Belgrade .... 22  Aug.  1872
Excitement  through  insurrection  in  Herzegovina,
new  ministry  hostile  to  Turkey,  formed,  about
31  Aug.; resign; annonuced, 4 Oct.; peace
ministry  formed 9  Oct.  1875


Ristitch,  premier,  opposed  to  Turkey  . . July,  1876

See  Turkey,  for  the  war  declared . . 1  July, „
Milan  proclaimed  king  by  Tchernayeff  and  the  army
at  Deligrad  ;  not  approved  ... 16  Sept.
Peace  with  Turkey  ratified  . . 4  March,  1877

[Servian  losses  in  the  war,  about  8000  killed,  20,000

wounded.]
Servians  again  declare  war  and  enter  Turkey  (see

Russo-Turkish  war) ... 14,  15  Dec. ,
Sultan  deposes  prince  Milan . . 22  Dee. ,\
Servia  declared  independent,  with  new  frontiers,
by  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  3  March,  and  of  Ber-
lin 13  July,  1878

Execution  of  Markovitch  and  other  rioters

end  of  May, „
Proclamation  of  peace  and  national  independence

at  Belgrade 22  Au^.

The  ministry  re-modelled  by  Ristitch,  about  15  Oct. "
Resignation  of  Ristitch  (virtual  dictator)  announced

25  Oct.  1880
Milan  proclaimed  king  by  the  Assembly

about  6  March,  1S82
[Married  Natalie  Keschko(born  1859),  17  Oct.  1875.]
Escaped  assassination  by  mad.  Markovitch  23  Oct. ,,
Resignation  of  the  Pirochanitz  ministry,  27  Sept. ;

succeeded  by  Nicolas  Christitch . . 3  Oct.  1883
New  military  organization  leads  to  insurrection  in
S.E.  Servia  ;  soon  suppressed . announced

5-10  Nov.  ,,
Insurgents  defeated  .  .  .  about  10  Nov.  ,,
18  members  of  the  Radical  committee  arrested  Nov.  „
General  tranquillity  reported  .  .  .  13  Nov.  ,,
18  rebel  leaders  executed,  about  19  Nov. ;  many

others  reprieved ..... Dec. „
Rebels  enter  Bulgaria  ;  disputes  with  that  country

ensue  ;  prospect  of  war ....  June,  1884
M.  Garachanine,  premier  .... 23  Oct. ,,
Dispute  settled  by  arrangement . about  10  Nov. ,,
Political  dissensions :  Panslavist  agitation  by  M.

Ristitch Sept.  1885

Military  movements consequent upon  the coup

d'itat  in  Roumelia Oct. ,,

Declaration of war  against  Bulgaria  (wliich  see)

13  Nov. .,
Invasion  : success  followed  by  disastrous  retreat

14-24  Nov. ,,
Royal  decree  calling  out  the  army . ix  Feb.  1886
Peace between Servia and Bulgaria signed at
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified by the sultan

13  March,  ,,
M.  Ristitch  fails  to  form  a  new  ministry

about  3  April, „
M.  Garachanine  resigns  ;  succeeded  by  M.  Ristitch
(pro-Russian)  about 13  June, 1887  ;  by  colonel

Gruies T  Jan.  i883

Strong  independent  speech  of  the  king  13  Dec.  1887

New  ministry  under  M.  Nicolas  Christitch

26-27  April,  1888
The  king  demands  a  divorce  from  the  queen  for
disagreements  ;  he  favours  Austria,  she  Russia  ;
she  refused  the  deed  of  terms  offered  ;  she  gi\  es
up  the  crown  prince  and  goes  to  Paris  18  July,  ,,
Queen  Natalie  protests agai  nst  the  divorce  20  Aug.  &
30  Oct.  ;  the  divorce  decreed  by  the  metropolitan
Theodosius,  abp.  of  Belgrade  (authority  question-
able) Oct, ,,

A  royal  commission  recommends  universal  suffrage,
all  electors  eligible  to  the  Skuptsehina,  indepen-
dence of  the  church,  all  religions  free  and  pro-
tected, liberty  of  the  press,  &c  . . 24  Oct. ,,
The  king  proclaims  coming  constitutional  changes

26  Oct. ,,
Elections  of  the  chambers  annulled  by  the  king  as

not  free 2S  Nov. ,,

New  elections  give  majority  to  the  radicals,  headed
by  M.  Ristitch,  against  the  progressists  under  W.
Christitch,  the  minister  .  ".  .  16  Dec.  ,,
Tlir  Skuptsehina  opened  ....  30 Deo.  ,,
The  king  informs  a  deputation  desiring  changes  in
tin'  proposed  constitution  thai  the  deputies  must
accept  it  unaltered;  otherwise  he  will  sei  if
aside  and  rule  absolutely . . .  1  Jan.  1889

The  new  constitution  passed  (494-73)  2  Jan.  ; the

ses  -i"ii  closed 3  Jan. ,,

An  amnesty  proclaimed  for  political  offences  '  Jan. ,,
The  Christitch ministry  resigns; but continues
after  others  fail .... 8  Jan.  etseq. ,,


SERVILE WARS.


874


SEVEN  CHURCHES.


The  formation  of  a  radical  ministry  stopped  by  the
king  on  suspicion  of  conspiracy  . 13  Feb.

Abdication  of  the  king;  his  son  Alexander  pro-
claimed ;  liberal  regency-M.  Ristitch,  gen.  Boli-
markovitch,  and  gen.  Protitch ;  radical  cabinet
headed  by  M.  Taushanovitch . . 6  March,

The  Servians  celebrate  with  mourning  the  quin-
centenary of  the  battle  of  Cossova . 27  June,

The  king  founds  a  monument  in  memory  of  the
slain.  The  king  was  anointed  by  the  metro-
politan Michael  in  the  church  of  JZitcha,  near
Kraljevo 2  July,

Queen  Natalie  arrives  at  Belgrade,  29  Sept.  ;  inter-
view with  her  son .... 13  Oct.

Elections  :  a  great  radical  majority,  1  Oct.  ;  new
parliament  meets  . .  ' . . I3  Oct.

Ministerial  crisis  averted  by  arrangement  between
radicals  and  liberals March,

M.  Patchitch,  Kussophil  radical  leader,  president
of  the  Skuptschina .... 20  March,

Ministry re-constructed ; gen. Gruitch premier,

28  March,

The  Servian  vice-consul  at  Pristina,  M.  Marin-
kovite,  assassinated,  1  July.  The  arrested  assas-
sins confess  and  are  tried ;  the  excessive  de-
mands of  the  Servian  government  refused  by
Turkey  ;  the  affair  arranged . about  28  July,

Elections  :  radicals  113,  liberals  18,  progressists  2

27  Sept.

Queen  Natalie  agitates  to  annul  her  isolation  from
her  son  ;  her  memorandum  (22  Nov.)  to  the
parliament  dismissed  ... 8  Dec.  et  seq.

Gen.  Sava  Gruitch's  cabinet  resigns,  29  Jan. ,  but
remains,  1  Feb.  ;  again  resigns  . . 20  Feb.

M.  Ristitch  writes  to  the  queen,  opposing  her
efforts  to  obtain  political  power  ;  increasing  agi-
tation against  her ... 9  Feb.  et  seq.

M.  Patchitch  forms  a  radical  ministry . 23  Feb.

King  Milan  agrees  to  live  out  of  Servia,  till  his
son's  majority,  on  receipt  of  a  sum  of  money  and
a  pension,  about  14  April ;  he  arrives  at  Vienna

19  April,

Queen  Natalie  requested  by  the  government  to
leave  the  country,  refuses  about  10  May :  at-
tempted expulsion  stopped  by  students  and
people  ;  2  persons  killed  and  several  wounded  by
the  troops,  18  May.  The  queen  forcibly  con-
veyed to  Seriilin  in  Hungary,  early . 19  May,

The  king  starts  for  St.  Petersburg,  22  July  ;  at
Moscow,  29  July  ;  St.  Petersburg,  4  Aug.  ;  at
Vienna,  10  Aug.  ;  received  by  the  emperor  at
Ischl,  11,  12  Aug.  ;  returns  to  Belgrade  .  15  Sept.

King  Milan  resigns  definitely  all  his  military  and
political  rights,  reported ... 18  Nov.

The  ministry  resigns,  3  March ;  re-constituted  under
M.  Patchitch 2  April,


1891


1892


HEREDITARY PRINCES.

1829.  Milosch  (Obrenovitch)  I.,  recognised  by  Turkey,
15  Aug.  1833  ;  abdicates  13  June,  1839.

1S39.  Michael  II.,  son  ;  dies  1840.

1840.  Michael  III.,  brother  ;  abdicates  1842.

1842.  Alexander  (Kara-Georgevitch),  son  of  Kara  George  ;
chosen,  14  Sept.  ;  deposed  23  Dec.  1858  ;  died  3
May,  18S5.

1858.  Milosch  (Obrenovitch),  re-elected,  23  Dec;  dies,
i860.

i860.  Michael  III.,  son  ;  succeeds,  26 Sept. ;  assassinated,
10  June,  1868.

1868.  Milan  (Obrenovitch)  IV.,  grand-nephew,  born,  22
Aug.  1854  ;  married  to  Natalie  Keschko,  17  Oct.
1875  ;  again  proclaimed,  2  July,  186S  ;  he  abdi-
cated 6  March,  1889.

1889.  Alexander,  son,  born  14  Aug.  1876.

SERVILE  WARS  insurrections  of  slaves
against  their  masters.  Two  were  quelled  in  Sicily,
after  much  slaughter,  132,  99  B.C.;  see  Spartans.

SESSION  COURTS  in  England  were  ap-
pointed to  be  held  quarterly  in  1413,  and  the  times
for  holding  them  regulated  in  1831 ;  see  Quarter
Sessions,  and  Court  of  Session.  The  kirk  session  in
Scotland  consists  of  the  minister  and  elders  of  each
parish.  They  superintend  religious  Avorship  and
discipline,  dispense  money  collected  for  the  poor,  &e.


SESTUS,  on  the  Thracian  Chersonesus;  see
Hellespont.  Near  Sestus  was  the  western  end  of
Xerxes'  bridge,  across  the  Hellespont,  480  B.C.
Sestus  was  retaken  from  the  Persians  by  the  Athe-
nians, 478,  and  held  by  them  till  404,  giving  them
the  command  of  the  trade  of  the  Euxine.

SETTLED  ESTATES  ACT-  40  &  41  Vict.

c.  18,  consolidates  and  amends  the  law  relating  to

their  leases,  -  sales,  &c. (passed  28 June, 1877).

Other  acts  passed,  1882,  1884  and  1890.

In  conformity  with  these  acts,  the  earl  of  Radnor
was  authorised  to  sell  pictures  which  were  heir-
looms for  the  National  gallery,  in  1890,  which
see.  An  appeal  was  disallowed  by  the  court,
7  Aug.  1890. — The  marquis  of  Ailesbury,  on
appeal,  was  authorised  to  sell  the  mortgaged
family  mansion,  Savernake  hall  and  estate  12  Dec.
1891  ;  affirmed  by  the  house  of  lords . 9  Aug.  1892

SETTLEMENT,  ACT  OF,  for  securing  the
succession  to  the  British  throne,  to  the  exclusion,
of  Roman  catholics,  was  passed  in  1689.  This  name
is  also  given  to  the  statute  by  which  the  crown,
after  the  death  of  William  III.  and  queen  Anne,
without  issue,  was  limited  to  Sophia,  electress  of
Hanover,  grand-daughter  of  James  I.,  and  her  heirs
being  protestants,  1702.  The  Irish  act  of  settle-
ment, passed  in  1662,  was  repealed  in  1689;  see
Hanover.

SETTLEMENT,  Law  of,  of  the  poor,  the
subject  of  many  statutes  since  1535,  was  somewhat
changed  by  the  poor  law  act  of  1834.

SEVEN  BISHOPS,  see  Bishops,  1688.

SEVEN  BROTHERS,  martyrs  at  Eome,
under  Antoninus ;  their  feast  is  kept  10  July.

SEVEN  CHURCHES  of  ASIA,  to  the.
angels  (ministers)  of  which  the  apostle  John  was
commanded  to  write  the  epistles  contained  in  the
2nd  and  3rd  chapters  of  his  Eevelation,  viz.,  Ephesus,
Smyrna,  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,
and  Laodicea,  96.

1.  Ephesus  (which  see).  Paul  founded  the  church  here,
57.  In  59,  he  was  in  great  danger  from  a  tumult  created
oy  Demetrius ;  to  the  elders  of  this  church  he  delivered
his  warning  address,  60  (Acts  xix.  xx.).  Ephesus  was
in  a  ruinous  state  even  in  the  time  of  Justinian  (527),
and  still  remains  so.

2.  Smyrna.  An  ancient  Greek  city,  claiming  to  be  the
birth-place  of  Homer ;  was  destroyed  by  the  Lydians ;
about  627  B.C.  rebuilt  by  Antigonus  and  Lysimachus.
Its  first  bishop,  Polycarp,  was  martyred  here  about
169.  It  has  been  frequently  captured.  It  was  sacked
by  Tamerlane  in  1402  ;  and  finally  taken  by  the  Turks,
1424.  It  is  now  the  chief  city  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the
seat  of  the  Levant  trade.  Earthquake,  above  2000
perish,  12  May,  1875.  Great  fire  ;  about  700  houses
destroyed,  18  July,  1882. Population,  1885,  186,510.

3.  Pergamos.  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  same  name,
founded  by  Philetferus,  whom  Lysimachus,  one  of
Alexander's  generals,  had  made  governor,  283  B.C.  He
was  succeeded  by  Eumenes  I.,  263 ;  Attains  (who  took
the  title  of  king),  241 ;  Eumenes  II.  (who  collected  a
great  library),  197;  Attalus  II.,  159;  Attalus  III.,  138.
He  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans,  133.  It
revolted,  was  subdued,  and  made  the  Roman  province,
Asia.  Pergamos  is  still  an  important  place,  called
Bergamo.  Parchment  is  said  to  have  been  invented
here.  The  explorations  of  the  ancient  citadel,  insti-
tuted by  the  German  government  in  1878,  resulted  in
the  discovery  of  Greek  marble  statuary,  which  has
been  deposited  in  the  museum  at  Berlin.

4.  Thyatira.  Now  a  mean  town  of  2000  houses,  called
Ak-hissar,  "White  Castle."

5.  Sardis.  Formerly  the  capital  of  Lydia,  the  kingdom
of  Croesus  (560  b.  c. ) ;  taken  by  Cyrus,  548 ;  burnt  by  th  c
Greeks,  499 ;  it  flourished  under  the  Roman  empire  ;
was  taken  by  the  Turks;  and  destroyed  by  Tamerlane
about  1462 ;  it  is  now  a  miserable  village,  named  Sart.

6.  Philadelphia  was  built  by  Attalus  (III.)  Philadelphia,


SEVEN  DAYS'  WAE.


875 SHAFTESBUEY MEMORIALS.


king  of  Pergamos  (159-138  b.  c.)  ;  was  taken  by  Bajazet  I. ,
A.D.  1390.  It  is  now  called  Allah  Shehr,  "The  eity  of
God,"  and  is  a  miserable  town  of  3000  houses.
7.  Laodicea.  In  Phrygia,  near  Lydia ;  has  suffered  much
from  earthquakes.  It  is  now  a  deserted  place,  called
Eske-hissar,  "The  old  castle."

SEVEN  DAYS'  WAE,  see  Army,  1871.

SEVEN  SAGES,  see  Greece,  590  b.c.

SEVEN-SHILLING  PIECES  in  gold  were
authorised  to  be  issued  29  Nov.  1797.

SEVEN  SLEEPEES.  According  to  an  early
legend  seven  youths,  in  251,  commanded  to  worship
a  statue  set  up  in  Ephesus  by  the  emperor  Decius,
refused,  and  tied  to  a  cavern  in  the  mountain,  where
they  were  enclosed,  and  slept,  according  to  Durandus,
for  300  years.  Other  writers  give  shorter  periods,
and  various  accounts  of  the  incidents  which  accom-
panied the  awakening.  A  festival  in  their  honour
is  kept  by  the  Roman  church  on  27  July.

SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAE,  see  Prussia,  1866.

SEVEN  WONDEES,  see  Wonders.

SEVEN  YEAES'  WAE,  the  conflict  main-
tained by  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  against  Austria,
Russia,  and  France,  from  1756  to  1763  ;  see  Battles.
He  gained  Silesia ;  see  Hubertsburg .

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTISTS,  see  article
Sabbatarians,  Adventisls,  &c.

SEVEEN,  see  under  Tunnels.

SEVEENDEOOG,  see  Savandroog.

SEVEEUS'S  WALL,  see  Roman  Walls.

SEVILLE  (S.W.  Spain),  the  Hispalis  of  the
Phoenicians,  and  the  Julia  of  the  Romans,  was  the
capital  until  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court
at  Madrid,  1563.  It  opened  its  gates  to  the  Saracens
in  712,  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Christians  in
1247,  after  an  obstinate  siege.  The  peace  of  Seville
between  England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  also  a
defensive  alliance  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed
9  Nov.  1729.  In  the  peninsular  war,  Seville  sur-
rendered to  the  French,  1  Feb.  1810 ;  and  was  taken
by  assault  by  the  British  and  Spaniards,  after  the
battle  of  Salamanca,  27  Aug.  1812.  It  was  besieged
but  not  taken  by  Espartero,  July,  1843.  Visit  of
Prince  of  Wales,  20  April,  1876.  The  ancient
cathedral  was  much  renovated,  1889-90.  Popula-
tion, 1887,  143,182.

SEVEES,  see  Pottery.

SEWEES,  see  Cloaca  Maxima.  An  act  was
passed  in  1847  enforcing  the  conveyance  of  the
sewage  of  houses  in  London  into  the  public  sewers.
The  commissioners  of  sewers  in  London  were  super-
seded by  the  metropolitan  commissioners  of  sewers,
nominated  by  the  government.  They  abolished  the
large  brick  sewers,  introducing  pipe  drains,  and
turned  the  contents  of  30,000  cesspools  into  the  river
Thames.  The  necessity  for  purifying  the  defiled
river  led  to  the  construction  of  a  new  system  of
drainage,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Metro-
politan Board  of  Works  {which  see).  The  main
drainage  (the  plan  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Bazalgette)  con-
sists of  the  Northern  High-level,  Middle-level,  and
Low-level,  and  Southern  High-level  and  Low-
level.  On  14  March,  1865,  the  works  were  said  to
be  completed,  except  the  low-level  sewer  on  the
north  side,  which  was  waiting  for  the  completion
of  the  Thames  embankment,  &c.  On  4  April,  1865,
the  prince  of  Wales  started  the  engines  which  com-
menced lifting  the  waters  of  the  southern  outfall,  at


Crossness  Poiut,  near  Erith.*  The  main  drainage
works  of  the  metropolis  (82  miles),  were  finally
completed  Aug.  1875.  The  sewage  is  carried  14
miles  down  the  river.  Total  cost,  4,500,000^  See
Carbolic  Acid.

Royal  commission  on  the  Metropolitan  Sewage  discharge
(lord  Bramwell,  sir  John  Coode,  prof.  A.  W.  William-
son and  others),  appointed  22  June,  1882  ;  reports  on
the  great  contamination  of  the  Thames  at  the  outfalls,
and  need  of  change  ;  approves  of  the  combination  of
chemical  precipitation  with  filtration  through  earth,
June  and  Dec.  1884.
Mr.  Win. Webster's method  of  decomposing  London
sewage  by  electricity  set  up  at  Crossness ;  reported
successful  on  inspection,  March,  1889.
Mr. H. Wollheim's process,  the "Amines"  (or
ammonia  compounds),  reported  successful;  ex-
hibited at Wimbledon Sewage farm, Aug.  ;
before  the  lord  mayor  and  others . 18  Sept.  1889

SEWING-MACHINE.  It  is  said  that
Thomas  Saint  patented  one  for  boots  and  shoes  in
1790.  Similar  inventions  are  ascribed  to  Duncan
(1804)  ;  Adams  and  Dodge  (American,  1818)  ;
Thimonnier  (French,  1834);  and  Walter  Himt
(1834).  The  first  really  practical  sewing-machine
was  the  invention  of  Elias  Howe,  an  American
mechanic,  of  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  about
1841,  who  died  at  Brooklyn,  2  Oct.  1867,  aged  47.
It  is  now  known  under  an  improved  form  as
Thomas's  shuttle  machine,  by  whom  it  was  intro-
duced into  England  in  1846.  Many  improvements
have  been  since  made  and  new  machines  invented.

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  see  Quadra-
gesima Sunday,  and  Week.

SEXTANT,  an  instrument  used  like  a  quadrant,
containing  sixty  degrees,  or  the  sixth  part  of  a
circle,  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburg,  in
1550.  The  Arabian  astronomers  are  said  to  have
had  a  sextant  of  fifty-nine  feet  nine  inches  radius,
about  995.

SEYCHELLES  ISLES.  (Indian  Ocean),
settled  by  the  French  about  1 768  ;  captured  by  the
British,  1794;  ceded  to  them,  1815.

SFAXEES,  see  Tunis.

SHADOWING,  a  term  applied  in  Ireland  to

the  practice  of  the  police,  closely  following  persons
suspected  of  boycotting,  or  intimidating  persons
opposed  to  the  National  League,  1889-91.

SHAFTESBUEY S  ACT,.  Lord,  18  &  19
Vict.  c.  86  (1855),  relates  to  religious  worship.

SHAFTESBUEY  MEMOEIALS,  relating
to  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  celebrated  for  his  life-
long exertions  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the
working  classes,  the  poor  and  destitute,  women  and
children.  He  died  I  Oct.  1885,  aged  84.  A  large
sum  was  subscribed  for  two  statues  and  a  national
convalescent  home,  Oct.  1885.  A  statue  uncovered
in  Westminster  Abbey  by  the  baroness  Burdett-
Coutts,  I  Oct.  1888.  A  memorial  fountain  by  Alfred
Gilbert  is  to  be  set  up  in  Piccadilly  circus  (Aug.,
1892). ■

*  The  utilization  of  disinfected  sewage  as  manure  is  now
much  advocated.  Great  success  is  said  1o  have  been
attained  at  Edinburgh,  Carlisle,  Croydon,  and  other
places.  Much  hot  controversy  has  arisen  respect  ing  1  his
disposal  of  the  London  sewage.  On  15  Nov.  1864,  the
Metropolitan  board  accepted  a  contract  for  its  disposal
from  Messrs.  Hope  and  Napier.  Sewage  1  tilisation  acts
were  passed  in  1865  and  1867,  and  the  Metropolitan
Sewage  and  Essex  Reclamation  acts  were  passed  in  June,
1865.  The  sewage  farm,  near  Barking,  Essex,  was  re-
ported to  be  nourishing  in  186!  ■  od  :  rass  and  emu
crops  raised.


SHAFTESBURY  PAEK ESTATE. 876


SHEEP.


SHAFTESBURY  PARK  ESTATE,  near

"Wandsworth,  London,  S.W.,  a  model  village,  and
termed  "  a  workman's  city  ;  "  built  here  for  clerks,
artizans,  and  labourers,  by  a  company,  was  opened
by  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  3  Nov.  1873,  and  18
July,  1874.

SHAKERS,  an  English  sect,  now  chiefly  found
in  America,  arose  in  the  time  of  Charles!.,  and
derived  its  name  from  their  voluntary  convulsion.
It  existed  for  a  short  time  onty,  but  was  revived  by
James  Wardley  in  1747,  and  still  more  by  Ann  Lee
(or  Standless),  expelled  quakers,  about  1757.  The
sect  emigrated  to  America,  May,  1772,  and  settled
near  _  Albany,  New  York,  1774.  They  denounce
marriage  as  sinful,  regard  celibacy  as  holy,  oppose
war,  disown  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and
use  dancing  as  part  of  their  worship.  Marsden.
One  of  their  elders,  Fred.  W.  Evans,  lectured  in
London,  Aug.  1871.

Above  a  hundred  of  them  settled  in  the  New  Forest,
near  Lymington,  Hampshire,  on  property  obtained  for
them  by  a  Miss  Wood  ; not  paying  the  interest  of
a  mortgage  they  were  ejected  in  severe  weather,  and
suffered  much  ; end  of  Dec.  1874. They  are  called
Girlingites,  from  Mrs.  Girling,  a  leader  among  them,
who died 18 Sept. 1886. The community then
gradually  dispersed.
Goods  seized  for  debt,  about  27  July  ;  expelled,  22  Aug. ;
permitted  to  remain  in  the  neighbourhood,  Oct.  1878.
Miss  Wood  was  confined  as  a  lunatic,  27  Feb.  1875.
■20  men  and  40  women  half-starved  in  the  New  Forest ;
will  not  work  for  hire,  Jan.  1884.

SHAKSPEARE'S  PLAYS. WilliamShak-

speare  was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  Warwick-
shire, (23)  April,  1564,  and  died  23  April,  1616.  [An
act  to  incorporate  the  Trustees  and  Guardians  of
Shakspeare's  birthplace  was  passed  26  March,  1891.]
The  first  collected  edition  of  his  works  is  dated  1623
[a  facsimile  of  this  edition  was  published,  1862-5]  ;
the  second,  1632;*  the  third,  1664;  the  fourth,
[685  ;  all  in  folio.  Critical  editions  of  the  text,
edited  by  Alexander  Dyce,  were  published  in  1857
and  1864-6 ;  Boydell's  edition,  with  numerous
plates,  was  published  in  nine  vols.,  folio,  in  1802.
Ayscough's  Index  to  Shakspeare  was  published  in
1790;  Twiss's  Index,  in  1805,  and  Mrs.  Cowden
Clarke's  Concordance,  1847  ;  "  Key  to  Shakspeare,"
1879  >  Shakspeare-Lexicon,  by  Alexander  Schmidt,
I874-5-

Shakspeare's  first  plays  were  probably  produced  about
1590,  and  soon  after  represented,  himself  frequently
taking  a  part  at  the  "Theatre,"  or  the  "Curtain,"
near  Shoreditch,  E.  London,  and  after  1594,  at  the
new  "  Globe"  theatre,  Bankside,  Southwark,  of  which
Shakspeare  himself  was  part  proprietor.  It  was  of  a
horse-shoe  form,  partly  covered  with  thatch.  After  it
was  licensed,  the  thatch  took  fire,  through  the  negligent
discharge  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  and  the  whole  build-
ing was  consumed,  29  June,  1613.  The  house  was
crowded  to  excess,  to  witness  the  play  of  Henry  VIII. ,
but  the  audience  escaped  unhurt.
Shakspeare's  Jubilee,  projected  by  David  Garrick,
was  celebrated  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  6-8  Sept.  1769.
A  similar  festival  was  kept  23  April,  1836.  The  tercen-
tenary of  Shakspeare's  birth  was  celebrated,  with
many  festivities,  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  23-29  April,
1864.
Shakspeare's  House. In  1847,  a  number  of  persons  of

*  In  1849,  Mr.  J.  P.  Collier,  editor  of  an  edition  of
Shakspeare,  purchased  a  copy  of  the  second  folio,  on
which  was  written  in  pencil,  a  number  of  corrections,
supposed  to  have  been  made  soon  after  the  time  of  pub-
lication. At  first  he  thought  little  of  these  marks  ;  but
in  1853  he  was  induced  to  publish  "  Notes  and  Emenda-
tions "  derived  from  this  volume.  Much  controversy
ensued  as  to  the  authenticity  of  these  corrections  ;  and
in  1859  it  was  generally  agreed  that  they  were  of  modern
date,  and  consequently  of  little  value.  Mr.  Collier  died
aged  94,  17  Sept.  1883.


distinction  interested  themselves  for  the  preservation
of  the  house  in  which  Shakspeare  was  born,  then
actually  put  up  for  sale  :  they  held  a  meeting  at  the
Thatchecl-House  tavern,  London,  26  Aug.  in  that  year,
and  took  measures  for  promoting  a  subscription  set  on
foot  by  the  Shakspearian  Club  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  ;
and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  carry  out  their
object.  In  the  eud  Shakspeare's  house  was  sold  at
the  Auction  Mart  in  the  city  of  London,  where  it  was
"  knocked  down  "  to  the  United  Committee  of  London
and  Stratford  for  the  large  sum  of  3000Z.  16  Sept.  1847.
In  1856,  a  learned  oriental  scholar,  John  Shakspeare
(no  relation  of  the  poet),  gave  2500?.  to  purchase  the
adjoining  house,  that  it  might  be  pulled  down,  in
order  to  ensure  the  poet's  house  from  the  risk  of
fire.

Shakspeare  Fund,  established  in  Oct.  1861,  to  pur-
chase Shakspeare's  garden,  birth-place  estate,  and  to
erect  and  endow  a  public  library  and  museum  at
Stratford-upon-Avon.  The  catalogue  of  the  library  and
museum  was  published,  Feb.  1868.

Shakspeare  Memorial  Association  established  1875  ;
eleventh  annual  meeting  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  28
April,  t8S6.  A  monument  surmounted  by  a  statue  of
Shakspeare,  including  statues  of  Shakspearian  charac-
ters, executed  by  lord  Ronald  Gower,  presented  by  him
to  the  association,  set  up  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,
unveiled  by  lady  Hodgson  (the  mayoress)  10  Oct.  1888.

Bronze  statue  of  Shakspeare  (presented  by  Mr.  William
Knighton)  erected  in  the  boulevard  Haussmann,
Paris,  unveiled  14  Oct.  1888.

The  lion.  Ignatius  Donnelly,  an  American,  reports  his
discovery  of  a  cryptogram  of  Francis  Bacon  in  the
text  of  one  of  the  plays  in  the  folio  of  1623,  and
thereon  asserts  his  belief  that  Bacon  was  the  author
of  the  Shakspeare  plays,  autumn  1887.  His  book
entitled  "The  Great  Cryptogram:  Francis  Bacon's
cipher  in  the  so-called  Shakspeare  Plays "  was
published  in  1888.

The  Shakspeare  Library,  at  Birmingham,  was  founded
in  1864,  and  formally  opened,  23  April,  1868  ;  burnt  11
Jan.  1879.

Shakspeare  Forgeries,  see  Ireland.

Shakspeare  Gallery,  see  Boydell.

Shakspeare  Memorial  Theatre,  Stratford  (capable  of
holding  800) ;  foundation  laid  by  lord  Leigh,  23  April,
1877  ;  opened  with  ceremonies,  23  April  1879.

Shakspeare  Society,  issued  20  volumes,  1841-53.

New  Shakspeare  Society  issues  works,  1874,  et  SCQ-

Shakspearian  Show  at  the  Royal  Albert  Hall,  30  May,
1884.

Halliwell-Phillipps  "  Shakspearean  Rarities  "  (por-
traits, personal  relics,  books,  &e.),  offered  for  sale,
Jan.  1890.

SHAMROCK.  It  is  said  that  the  shamrock
used  by  the  Irish  was  adopted  by  Patrick
M' Alpine,  since  called  St.  Patrick,  as  a  simile  of  the
Trinity,  about  432.

SHANGHAI,  or  SHANGHAE  (China),
captured  by  the  British,  19  June,  1842  ;  by  the  Tae-
ping  rebels,  7  Sept.  1853  ;  retaken  by  the  imperial-
ists, 1855.  The  rebels  were  defeated  near  Shanghai
by  the  English  and  French,  allies  of  the  emperor,  1
March,  1862.  Population,  1890,  about  380,000;  see
China.
Visit  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught ;  he

unveils  a  statue  of  sir  H.  Parkes, . 9  April,  1890

SHARPSBURG  (Maryland),  see  Antietam.

SHAWLS,  of  oriental  origin,  were  introduced
into  Paris  after  the  return  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte
from  Egypt,  1801.  The  manufacture  was  intro-
duced by  Barrow  and  Watson,  in  1784,  at  Norwich.
It  began  at  Paisley  and  Edinburgh  about  1805.
Ure.

SHEEP  were  exported  from  England  to  Spam,
and,  the  breed  being  thereby  improved,  produced
the  fine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved  detrimental  to
our  woollen  manufacture,  1467.  Anderson.  Their
exportation  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  fine  and  im  •
prisonment,  1522.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the
United  Kingdom  has  been  variously  stated — by  some


SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS.


877


SHERIFF.


at  43,000,000,  by  others  at  49,000,000,  and  by  more
at  00,000,000,  in  1840.  In  1851  there  were  imported
into  England  201,859  sheep  and  lambs;  in  1858,
184,482;  in  1864,496,243.  See  under  Cattle.  In  Aug.
and  Sept.  1862,  many  sheep  in  Wiltshire  died  of
smallpox  ;  and  on  Sept.  II,  government  declared  for
enforcing  the  act  for  the  prevention  of  contagion.
The  evil  soon  abated.  In  April,  1866,  the  disease
reappeared  and  the  regulations  were  re-issued.
Mortality  amongst  sheep  through  flukes,  &c.,  April,  1880
In  1865,  914,170  sheep  and  lambs  were  imported  ;

in  1868,  341,155  ;  in  1871,  916,799  ;  1874,  758,915  ;

1875,  985,652  ;  1876,  1,041,329 ;  1877,  874,055  ;  1878,

892,125  ; 1879, 944,888  :

935,144  ; 1882,  1,124,391


750,880 ; 1007,  97ij4°4i
677.958; 1890, 358,458.
Britain,  see  under  Cottle.


1S80,  941,121 ,  1881,
1883,  1,116,115  ;  1885,
1888,  956,210 ;  1889,
For  number  in  Great


SHEEPSHANKS*  DONATIONS. On  2

Feb.  1857,  Mr.  John  Sheepshanks,  by  a  deed  of  gift,
presented  to  the  nation  his  valuable  collection  of
paintings  and  drawings,  valued  at  6o,000£.  In  ac-
cordance with  the  donor's  directions,  the  pictures
were  placed  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  The
collection  is  rich  in  the  works  of  Mulready,  Land-
seer,  and  Leslie.  He  died  5  Oct.  1863. — On  2  Dec.
1858,  the  trustees  of  his  brother,  the  late  rev.
Richard  Sheepshanks,  presented  10,000^.  stock  to
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  for  the  promotion  of
the  study  of  astronomy,  meteorology,  and  mag-
netism.

SHEEENESS  (N.  Kent),  a  royal  dockyard,
planned  by  Charles  II.  in  1663,  was  taken  by
the  Dutch,  under  De  lluyter,  9  June,  1667.  Im-
proved since  1815 ;  new  fortifications  still  in  pro-
gress. Population,  1881,  14,286;  1891,  13,281.
The  old  dock  church  burned ;  3  persons  killed,

26  Nov.  1881

SHEFFIELD,  on  the  river  Sheaf,  "West
Riding,  Yorkshire ;  renowned  for  cutlery,  plated
goods,  &c.  Sheffield  thwytles  are  mentioned  by
Chaucer,  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.  Sheffield  in
the  time  of  the  Conqueror  was  obtained  by  Roger  de
Buisli,  and  has  since  been  held  by  the  Lovetots,
Nevils,  Talbots,  and  Howards.  See  Population.
St.  Peter's  church  built  temp.  Henry  I.
Hospital and  almshouses  erected  by  the  earl  of

Malmesbury 1616

Cutlers'  company  incorporated ....  1624
The  castle  (built  in  the  13th  century)  was  taken  by
the  parliamentarians  in  1644,  and  demolished .  1648

Cutlers'  hall  built 1726

Plate  assay  office  established 1773

Made  a  borough  by  the  Reform  act ....  1832

Wesley  college  opened 1838

Sheffield  and  Manchester  railway  opened  .  .  1845
Athenreum  and  Mechanics'  Institution  opened  .  .  1849
John  A. Roebuck (grandson of  Dr.  Roebuck  of

Sheffield),  M.  P.  for  Sheffield . . May,  1849-68
Embankment  of  the  Bradlield  water  reservoir  broke
down,  and  flooded  Sheffield  and  the  country  12  or
14  miles  round  ;  about  250  lives  were  lost ;  many
buildings  and  much  property  destroyed  ;  esti-
mated loss,  327,000/. . . . 11  March,  1864
52,751?.  collected  for  the  sufferers  by . 29  April, ,,
The  Surrey  music  hall  burnt . . 25  March,  1865
House  of  Feamehough,  a  non-unionist  saw-grinder,
blown  up,  attributed  to  unionists  (no  deaths),

8  Oct. 1866
Great excitement  ; meetings  held  ; subscriptions
made ; a Sheffield manufacturers' protection
society  formed  ;  and  rewards  offered,  12  Oct,  &C. 1866
A  commission  (headed  by  Mr.  Overend)  to  enquire

into  trade  outrages  met . . 3  June-8  July,  1867
[Several  murders  and  outrages  (including  the  above)
confessed  to  by  Crookes,  Hallam,  and others,
instigated  and  paid  by  Wm,  Broadhcad,  secretary
to  the  saw-grinders'  union  ;  indemnity  granted.]


A  meeting  of  workmen  expresses  abhorrence,  8  July,  1867
Mr.  Roebuck  loses  his  election  (through  opposing

rattening) Nov.  1868

Great  loss  of  life  and  property  by  storm  of  wind

16  Dee.  1873
Mr.  Roebuck  re-elected  M.P.  .  .  .  Feb.  1874
Five  board  schools  opened  by  the  abp.  of  York,

Mr.  Roebuck,  Mr.  Forster,  and  others, 18  Aug. ,,
Prince  and  princess  of  Wales  open  Firth  park,  the
gift  of  Mark  Filth,  the  mayor;  most  enthusiasti-
cally received 16  Aug.  1875

Public  museum  and  hall  opened . .  6  Sept. ,,
Eighteenth  Church  Congress  held  here, 1-4  Oct. 1878
Great  distress  through  stoppage  of  work, winter,  1878-9
Institution  for  the  blind,  endowed  by  Mr.  Daniel

Holy  ;  opened 24  Sept.  1879

Firth  College,  built  by  Mr.  Mark  Firth,  for  20,000?. ;
endowed  by  the  town  ;  inaugurated  by  prince

Leopold 20  Oct. „

Death  of  Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.  for  Sheffield, 30  Nov. „

Buskin  Museum  of  Art,  &c.  founded  by  Mr.  John

Ruskin,  by  gifts  of  historical  sculpture,  paintings,

books,  &c,  1881  ;  lent  to  the  corporation  for  20

years ;  removed  from  Walkley  to  Meersbrook  hall ;

re-opened April,  1890

New  corn  exchange,  built  by  the  duke  of  Norfolk,

cost  55,000?.,  opened  .... 13  Dec. ,,
Ruskin  Society  formed ....  Feb.  1882

Great  conservative  demonstration  (marquis  of  Salis-
bury and  others) .... 22  July,  1884
Returns  five  M.P's.  by  act  passed . 25  June,  1885
Technical  school  opened . . . . 1  Feb.  i386
Explosion  at  Don  steel  works,  Brightside,  while

casting  a  gun  ;  9  killed  ...  6  Sept.  1887
Severe  epidemic  of  small  pox  March  1887, -April,  1888
The  266th  annual  Cutlers'  feast  .  .  5  Sept.  1889
New  municipal  buildings  founded . . 9  Oct.  1891

SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION,

formed  at  the  death  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,

July,  1782;  terminated  April,  1783;  the  "  Coali-
tion" administration  followed.

The  earl  of  Shelbume*  (afterwards  marquis  of  Lans-
downe),  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

William  Pitt,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Lord  (afterwards  earl)  Camden,  president  of  the  council.

Duke  of  Grafton,  privy  seal.

Thomas,  lord  Grantham,  and  Thomas  Townshend  (after-
wards lord  Sydney),  secretaries.

Viscount  Keppel,  admiralty.

Duke  of  Richmond,  ordnance.

Lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor.

Henry  Dundas,  Isaac  Barre,  sir  George  Yonge,  &c.

SHELLEY  SOCIETY,  founded  by  Dr.  F.
J.  Furnivall,  and  Messrs.  H.  Sweet,  W.  M.  Rossetti,
Todhunter,  and  others,  1885.  In  July,  1892,  it  was
proposed  by  lord  Tennyson  and  others,  to  celebrate
the  centenary  of  the  birth  of  Shelley,  by  establish-
ing a  library  and  museum  at  Horsham,  Sussex,
near  which  place  he  was  bom.  A  mural  tablet
commemorating  his  birth,  4  Aug.,  1792,  and
his  death,  8  July,  1822,  was  set  up  publicly  in  the
parish  church  4  Aug.,  1892.

SHELLS,  see  Bombs.

SHERIFF,  or  shire-reeve,  governor  of  a  shire
or  county.  London  had  its  sheriffs  prior  to
"William  I.'s  reign;  but  some  say  that  sheriffs  were
first  nominated  for  every  county  in  England  by
William  in  1079.  According  to'  other  historians,
Henry  Comhill  and  Richard  Rcyncre  were  the  first
sheriffs  of  London,  1  Rich.  I.,  1189.  The  nomina-
tion of  sheriffs,  according  to  the  present  mode,  took
place  in  1461.  Stow.  Anciently  sheriffs  were
hereditary  in  Scotland,  and  in  some  English  coun-
ties, as  Westmoreland.  The  sheriffs  of  Dublin  (first
called  bailiffs)  were  appointed  in  1308,  and  obtained
the  name  of  sheriff  by  an  incorporation  of  Edward
VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were  fined, and

•  William  Petty,  earl  of  Shelbume,  born  1737  ;  secre-
tary of  state  under  lord  Chatham,  July,  1766;  premier,
1782-3  ;  created  first  marquis  of  Lansdowne,  1784  ;  died,
7  May,  1805.


SHERIFFMUIR.


878


SHIPPING.


eleven  excused  in  one  year,  rather  than  serve  the
office  for  London,  1 734 ;  see  Bailiffs.  The  high
sheriffs  of  the  counties  of  England  and  Wales,  ex-
cept Middlesex  and  Lancaster,  are  nominated  on  the
morrow  of  St.  Martin,  Nov.  12.  This  somewhat
vice-regal  office,  of  Saxon  origin,  has  gradually
lost  much  of  its  importance.
The  sheriffs'  act  passed 1887

SHERIFFMUIR,  see  Dumblane.

SHERIFF'S  FUND,  see  Prisons.

SHETLAND  ISLES,  see  Orkneys.

SHIBBOLETH,  the  word  by  which  the  fol-
lowers of  Jephthah  tested  their  opponents  the
Ephraimites,  on  passing  the  Jordan,  about  1 143
B.C.  Judges  xii.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  any
party  watchword  or  dogma.

SHIITES,  the  Mahometan  sect  predominating
in  Persia ;  see  Mahometanism.

SHILLING.  The  value  of  the  ancient  Saxon
coin  of  this  name  was  fivepence,  but  it  was  reduced
to  fourpence  about  a  century  before  the  conquest.
After  the  conquest  the  French  solidus  of  twelve
pence,  in  use  among  the  Normans,  was  called
shilling.  The  true  English  shilling  was  first  corned,
some  say,  in  small  numbers,  by  Henry  VII.,  1504.
Ending.  A  peculiar  shilling,  value  nine  pence,  but
to  be  current  at  twelve,  was  struck  in  Ireland,
1560  ;  and  a  large  but  very  base  coinage  in  England
for  the  service  of  Ireland,  1598.  Milled  shillings
were  coined  13  Chas.  II.  1662 ;  see  Coins.

SHILOH,  see  Pittsburg.

SHIP -BUILDING,  &c,  according  to  the
Greek  legends,  began  with  the  Egyptians,  and
ancient  drawings  of  their  rude  vessels  are  extant.
The  Greeks,  Phoenecians,  and  Carthaginians  were
skilful  shipbuilders,  and  Solomon's  "navy  of  ships  "
(1  Kings  ix.  26),  was  doubtless!  constructed  by
Tyrians,  992  B.C.  The  ships  of  Tarshish  (probably
in  Spain),  are  mentioned  in  Psalm  xlviii.  7,
Isaiah  ii.  16,  &c.  The  Romans  built  their  first
fleet  of  boats,  by  copying  a  Carthaginian  vessel
wrecked  on  their  coast,  260  B.C.  The  dangers  of
navigation  are  described  in  Psalm  cvii.  23-30,  and
Acts  xxvii.  Strong  vessels  were  constructed  by
the  Norsemen  for  invasion  and  piracy  in  the  5th
century,  a.d.  et  seq.,  and  by  the  Venetians  and  other
Italians,  for  commerce  and  war  in  the  Middle  Ages.
The  first  double-decked  ship  built  in  England  was  of
IOOO  tons  burthen,  by  order  of  Henry  VII.,  was
called  the  Great  Harry,  and  cost  14,000/.  Stow.
Port-holes  and  other  improvements  were  invented
by  Descharges,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the
reign  of  Louis  XII.,  about  1500.  Ship-building
was  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste,  1696.  Iron  and
steel  are  now  greatly  used  in  ship-building.

A  prehistoric  ship  cut  out  of  solid  oak,  48  feet
long,  4  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  2  feet  deep,  was
found  by  the  Brigg  gas  company  while  excavating
near  the  river  Ancholme  in  Lincolnshire,  April,
1885.  Mr.  Justice  Chitty  decided  6  July,  1886,
that  the  ship  was  the  property  of  the  owner  of
the  land,  Mr.  Elwes.

The  France,  a  great  sailing  ship,  was  built  on  the
Clyde  by  Messrs.  Henderson  for  a  Bordeaux  firm  ;
five  masts,  360  feet  long,  48  feet  wide,  bowsprit
50  feet  long  ;  carrying  power  over  6,000  tons

Sept.  1890

Ships,  originally  made  of  wood,  and  latterly  of
iron,  are  now  frequently  made  of  steel.

See  Navy,  Steam,  Carraeh,  &c.


SHIPKA,  see  Schipka.

SHIP-MONEY  was  first  levied  about  1007,  to
form  a  navy  to  oppose  the  Danes.  This  impost,
levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1634-6,  was  much  opposed,
and  led  to  the  revolution.  He  assessed  London  in
seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men;  York-
shire in  two  ships,  of  600  tons  or  12,000/.;  Bristol
in  one  ship  of  100  tons ;  Lancashire  in  one  ship,  of
400  tons.  Among  others,  John  Hampden  refused
to  pay  the  tax  ;  he  was  tried  in  the  Exchequer  in

1636.  The  judges  declared  the  tax  legal,  12  June,

1637.  Ship-money  was  included  in  the  grievances
complained  of  in  1641.  The  five  judges,  who  had
given  an  opinion  in  its  favour,  were  imprisoned.
Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with
prince  Rupert,  at  Chalgrove,  18  June,  and  died
24  June,  1643.

SHIPPING,  British. Shipping  was  first

registered  in  the  river  Thames  in  1786;  and
throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle  of
the  18th  century,  the  shipping  of  England  was  but
half-a-million  of  tons — less  than  London  now.  In
1830,  the  number  of  ships  in  the  British  empire
was  22,785.  The  merchant  shipping  act  of  1854
was  amended  in  1867 ;  see  Merchant  Shipping
Act,  Navy,  and  Navigation  Acts.

Shipwrights'  Company  International  Exhibition,
opened  at  Fishmongers'  Hall,  London,  by  the
duke  of  Edinburgh .... 2  May,  1882

Cluimber  of  Shipping  of  the  United  Kingdom  was
established  in  1878,  mainly  by  H.  J.  Atkinson,
M.P.,  the  first  president.  Meetings  are  held  for
discussing  matters  relative  to  shipping  and  to  dis-
seminate information.  It  holds  annual  meetings  ;
1878,  Hull ;  1879,  Liverpool ;  1880,  London  ;
1881,  Cardiff;  1882,  London;  1883,  Sunderland;
1884,  London ;  1885,  Belfast ;  1886,  London ;
1887,  Newcastle-on-Tyne ;  London  :  1888,  1889,
1890(13  Feb.),  1891  (20  Feb.),  1892  (10  Feb.).  The
chamber  has  an  office  in  London.

The  National  Seamen's  and  Firemen's  Union  estab-
lished 1889

Federation  of  shipowners  of  the  United  Kingdom,
established  to  resist  strikes  and  maintain  free
labour,  Sept.  ;  joined  by  the  London  Association
of  shipowners,  Nov.  1890  ;  and  by  those  of  Liver-
pool Feb.  1S91

Boycotting  of  free  labour  in  the  docks  of  London
stopped  by  the  Shipping  Federation,  Dee.  1890 —

Feb. „

Cardiff :  strike  of  the  shipping  trades  ;  conflicts
between  the  Shipping  Federation  and  the  Sea-
men's Union  ;  the  latter  defeated,  Feb.  ;  rioters
punished  ;  strike  ends ... 14  March,  1831

The  crisis  on  the  Thames  ends ;  work  resumed

March, ,,

The  Shipping  Federation  proposes  a  scheme  for  the
insurance  of  the  lives  of  its  sailors  and  firemen
against  death  by  accident,  about  14  April ;  the
scheme  adopted,  May,  1891 ;  carried  into  effect

1  Jan.  1892

NUMBER  OF  VESSELS REGISTERED IN  THE BRITISH
EMPIRE ON  JAN. I, 1840.

Country.  Vessels.  Tonnage.  Seamen.

England ....  15,830  1,983,522  114,593

Scotland . . . . 3,318  378,194  25,909

Ireland  ....  1,889  169,289  11,288
Guernsey,  Jersey,  and

Man . . . .  633  39.630  4,473

British  Plantations .  6,075  497>798  35,020


Total


27>74S


191, 2S3


The  following  are  the  numbers  of  the  Registered
Sailing  and  Steam  Vessels  (exclusive  of  River
Steamers)  of  the  United  Kingdom,  engaged  in  the
home  and  foreign  trade : —


SHIP-RAILWAY.


879


SHREWSBURY.


1849.

1

1861.

1871.

1877.

i f
1887.

Vessels*

Tonnage.

Vessels  t

Tonnage.  !

Vessels  t

Tonnage.

Vessels  §  Tonnage.

i

Vessels|| Tonnage.

12,694 3,"4,43°
5,029  |  4,009,324

Sailing .
Steamers.

Total .

17,807
414

2,988,021
108,321

19,288
997

3,918,511
441,184

19,650
2,557

4.343,558
1,290,003

17,101
3,218

4,138,149

!, 977,489

18,221

3,096,342

20,285

4.359.695

22,207

5.633.561

20,319

6,115,638

i7,723 7.123,754

1890:  Sailing  vessels,  11,570;  Steamers,  5,855;  men  employed,  236,108.


SHIP-RAILWAY,  see  Railways,  Oct.  1889.

SHIPWRECKS,  see  Wrecks.

SHIRES,  see  Counties  and  under  Horse.

SHIRTS  are  said  to  have  been  first  generally
worn  in  the  west  of  Europe  earl y  in  the  8th century.
Du  Fresnoy.  Woollen  shirts  were  commonly  worn
in  England  until  about  1253,  when  linen,  but  of  a
coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period  from  abroad),
was  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish
artisans. Stow.

SHODDY,  a  kind  of  soft  woollen  goods,  manu-
factured from  old  woollen  rags,  or  the  refuse,  to
which  new  wool  is  added,  is  stated  to  have  been  first
manufactured  about  1813,  at  Batley,  near  Dews-
bur  y,  Yorkshire.

SHOEBLACK  SOCIETY  Brigades  (Blue,
Red,  and  Yellow)  were  established  at  various  times,
especially  in  1851,  by  the  Ragged  School  Union
{which  see),  founded  1844.  In  1855,  108  boys  had
cleaned  544,800  pahs  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  thus
earned  2270/. ;  of  which  1235/.  had  been  paid  to  the
boys,  519^.  to  their  bank,  and  516/.  to  the  society.
The  brigades  earned  4548/.  in  1859;  11,031/.  in
1871;  10,936/.  (in  nine  districts)  in  1886.  There
were  eleven  shoeblack  societies  in  the  metropolis  in
1888.

SHOEBURYNESS  (Essex).  Some  ground
here,  purchased  in  1842  and  1855,  by  an  act  of  par-
liament in  1862  was  set  apart  as  "ranges  for  the  use
and  practice  of  artillery,"  and  a  school  for  gunnery
was  established;  see  Cannon,  note.  Experiments
with  Mr.  Whitworth's  projectiles  on  12  Nov.  1862,
showed  their  great  improvement  in  form  and  mate-
rial. Shells  were  sent  through  5!  inch  plate  and
the  wood-work  behind  it.  It  was  objected,  that
they  might  not  do  this  with  ships  in  motion.  The
National  Volunteer  Artillery  Association  began
their  annual  meetings  here  in  July,  1865.
During  shell  experiments  with  a  new  sensitive  fuse,  col.

Francis  Lyon (the  inventor), col. Fox-Strangways,

capt.  Francis  M.  Goold- Adams,  and  four  others  were

killed,  26  Feb.  1885.

SHOES,  among  the  Jews  were  made  of  leather,
linen,  rush,  or  wood.  Moons  were  worn  as  orna-
ments in  their  shoes  by  Jewish  women.  Isaiah  iii.
18.  Pythagoras  would  have  his  disciples  wear  shoes
made  of  the  bark  of  trees ;  probably  that  they  might
not  wear  what  were  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  as
they  refrained  from  the  use  of  everything  that  had
life.  The  Romans  wore  an  ivory  crescent  on  their
shoes;  and  Caligula  enriched  his  with  precious
stones.  In  England,  about  1462,  the  people  wore
the  beaks  or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long  that  they
encumbered  themselves  in  walking,  and  were  forced


to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees;  the  fine  gentlemen
fastened  theirs  with  chains  of  silver  or  silver  gilt,
and  others  with  laces.  This  was  prohibited,  on  the
forfeiture  of  20s.  and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by  the
clergy,  7  Edw.  IV.  1467 ;  see  Dress.  Shoes,  as  at
present  worn,  were  introduced  about  1633.  The
buckle  was  not  used  till  1668.  Stoiv ;  Mortimer.
The  buckle-makers  petitioned  against  the  use  of
shoe-strings  in  1 791.  A  strike  of  London  shoe-
makers respecting  wages,  April,  1884.

SHOOTING  STARS,  see  under  Meteors.

SHOP  HOURS'  REGULATION  ACT

(Sir  John  Lubbock's),  for  the  protection  of  young
persons,  passed,  1886.  The  Shop  Hours'  bill  passed
1892.

SHOP-TAX  enacted  in  1785;  caused  so  great
a  commotion,  particularly  in  Loudon,  that  it  was
deemed  expedient  to  repeal  it  in  1789.  The  statute
whereby  shoplifting  was  made  a  felony,  without
benefit  of  clergy,  was  passed  10  &  1 1  Will  III.  1699.
This  statute  has  been  some  time  repealed.

SHORE,  JANE,  the  mistress  of  Edward  IV.
and  afterwards  of  lord  Hastings.  She  did  public
penance  in  1483,  and  was  afterwards  confined  in
Ludgate;  but  upon  the  petition  of  Thomas  Hyniore,
who  agreed  to  marry  her,  king  Richard  III.,  in
1484,  restored  her  to  liberty:  and  sir  Thomas  More
mentions  having  seen  her. Harleian  MSS.

SHORT-HAND,  see  Stenography.

' '  SHORT  -  LIVED  "  ADMINISTRA-
TION—that  of  William  Pulteney,  earl  of  Bath,
lord  Carlisle,  lord  Winchilsea,  and  lord  Granville,
existed  from  10  Feb.  to  12  Feb.  1746.

SHOT.  In  early  times  various  missiles  were
shot  from  cannon.  Bolts  are  mentioned  in  1413  ;
and  in  1418  Henry  V.  ordered  Iris  clerk  of  the  ord-
nance to  get  7000  stone  shot  made  at  the  quarries  at
Maidstone.  Since  then  chain,  grape,  and  canister
shot  have  been  invented,  as  well  as  shells ,  all  of
which  are  described  in  Scoffern's  work  on  "  Pro-
jectile Weapons  of  War,  and  Explosive  Compounds,"
1858;  see  Bombs  and  Cannon.  For  Palliser's  chilled
shot,  see  Cannon.

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION.

Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  was  made  lord  trea-
surer, 29  July,  1 7 14,  two  days  before  the  death  of
queen  Anne.  His  patent  was  revoked  soon  after  the
accession  of  George  I.,  29  Oct.  following,  when  the
carl  of  Halifax  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury ;  see
Halifax.  The  office  of  lord  treasurer  has  been  exe-
cuted by  commissioners  ever  since.

SHREWSBURY  (Shropshire),  arose  after  the
ruin  of  the  Roman  town  Uriconium  (see  TFroxcter),


*  Men  employed— sailing  vessels,  144,165 ;  steamers, 8,446;  total,  152,611.

u >>  )>  11 I44>949; ji  27,008; ,,  171,957.

>> i!  i)  >. 141.035; „  58,703; 11  I99.738.

§  >> >>  ..  .. I23.563; .»  72.999'. ..  196,562.

II  » >>  u  J. 81,442 ; ,, 121,101 ; ,,  202,543.


SHEOPSHIEE.


880


SICILY.


and  became  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  kingdom,
having  a  mint  till  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  Here
Eichard  II.  held  a  paiiiament  in  1397. — On  23  July,
1403,  was  fought  a  sanguinary  ia^fe  at  Hateley  field,
near  Shrewsbury,  between  the  army  of  Henry  IV.
and  that  of  the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (surnamed
Hotspur),  son  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who
had  conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Henry  was  seen
in  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  with  his  son,  afterwards
Henry  V.  The  death  of  Hotspur  by  an  unknown
hand  gave  the  victory  to  the  king.  Hume. — Shrews-
bury grammar  school  was  founded  by  Edward  VI.
in  1551,  endowed  by  Elizabeth,  and  opened  1562.
Its  arrangements  were  modified  by  the  public  school
act,  1868.  Population  in  1881,26,481;  1891,26,962.

SHEOPSHIEE  ;  by  battles  in  this  county  the
Britons  were  completely  subjugated,  and  Caractacus,
the  king  of  the  Silures,  became,  through  the
treachery  of  the  queen  of  the  Brigantes,  a  prisoner
to  the  Komans,  about  50.

SHEOVE  TUESDAY,  the  day  before  Ash-
Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  the  Lent  Fast;  see
Carnival.

SIAM,  a  kingdom  in  India,  bordering  on
the  Burmese  empire.  Siam  was  governed  by
two  kings,  one  inferior,  till  Jan.  1887,  when
the  second  king  being  dead,  the  dignity  was
abolished.  Siam  was  re-discovered  by  the
Portuguese  in  1511,  and  a  trade  established,  in
which  the  Dutch  joined  about  1604.  A  Biitish
ship  arrived  about  1613.  In  1683,  a  Cephalonian
Greek,  Constantine  Phaulcon,  became  foreign  min-
ister of  Siam,  and  opened  a  communication  with
France  ;  Louis  XIV.  sent  an  embassj-  in  1685  with
a  view  of  converting  the  king,  without  effect.  After
several  ineffectual  attempts,  sir  John  Bowring  suc-
ceeded in  obtaining  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  com-
merce between  England  and  Siam,  which  was
signed  30  April,  1855,  and  ratified  5  April,  1856.
Two  ambassadors  from  Siam  arrived  in  Oct.  1857,
and  had  an  audience  with  the  queen ;  they  brought
with  them  magnificent  presents,  which  they  de-
livered crawling,  on  16  Nov.  Tbey  visited  Paris
in  June,  1861 .  By  a  treaty  with  France,  the  French
protectorate  over  Cambodia  was  recognised ;  signed
15  July,  ratified  24  Oct.  1867.  The  king  Khoula-
lonkorn,  born  21  Sept.  1853,  nas  reigned  since
1  Oct.  1868;  the  king  was  entertained  at  Calcutta,
7-12  Jan.  1872;  a  political  constitution  was  decreed,
8  May,  1874.  Queen  Victoria  receives  the  order  of
the  White  Elephant  from  the  Siamese  minister  at
Windsor,  2  July,  1880.  Population  of  Siam  (1891)
about  9,000,000.
King :  Khoulalonkorn  (born  21  Sept. 1853) :  succeeded

his  father  Mongkout,  1  Oct.  1868.
Various  changes  and  political  reforms  were  begun  by  the
king,  16  Nov.  1873. On  9  Oct.,  1874,  he  invited  astro-
nomers to  Bangkok  to  view  the  eclipse  of  5  April,  1875.
Death  of  the  able  ex-regent  Somdetch Chau, 19  Jan.

1883.
Telegraphic  communication  with  France  opened,  14  July,

1883.
Gradual  abolition  of  slavery  nearly  completed  Aug.  1886.
Rebellion  in  N.  Siam,  headed  by  Phya  Phraph  Song

Kuam,  Sept.  1889  ;  revived,  May,  1890.
British  boundary  commission  :  complications,  1889-90.
The  king  and  queen  visit  the  Strait  Settlements,  May,

June,  1890.
The  king  turns  the  first  sod  for  the  Bangkok-Pankam
railway  (other  railways  promoted),  announced  16  July,
1891.
Prince  Damrong,  half-brother  of  the  king,  minister  of
education  (on  a  mission),  arrives  at  Paris,  27  Aug.  ;
travels  in  Great  Britain  ;  received  by  the  queen  at
Balmoral,  24  Sept.  ;  arrives  at  Berlin,  6  Nov.  ;
received  by  the  Czar  at  Livadia,  15  Nov.,  ;  by  the
sultan  at  Constantinople,  19  Nov. ;  at  Athens  by  the


king,  28  Nov.  ;  at  Rome  by  the  king,  3  Dee.  ;  by  the
khedive  at  Cairo,  24  Dec.  1891  ;  at  Bombay,  11  Jan.  ;
at  Rangoon,  12  March,  1392.
Siamese  Twins.  Two  persons  born  about  1811,  enjoy-
ing all  the  faculties  and  powers  usually  possessed  by
separate  and  distinct  individuals,  although  united  to-
gether by  a  short  cartilaginous  band  at  the  pit  of  the
stomach.  They  were  named  Chang  and  Eng,  and  were
first  discovered  on  the  banks  of  the  Siam  river  by  an
American,  Mr.  Robert  Hunter,  by  whom  they  were
taken  to  New  York,  where  they  were  exhibited.  Cap-
tain Coffin  brought  them  to  England.  After  having
been  exhibited  for  several  years  in  Britain,  they  went
to  America,  where  they  settled  on  a  farm,  and  mar-
ried two  sisters.  In  1865  they  were  in  North  Carolina
in  declining  health.  Their  exhibition  in  London
began  again  8  Feb.  1869.  Their  death  in  America,
within  two  hours  of  each  other,  took  place  16,  17  Jan.
1874.

SIBEEIA  (N.Asia). In  1580  the  conquest  was
begun  by  the  Cossacks  under  JermakTimofejew.  In
1 7 10  Peter  the  Great  began  to  send  prisoners  thither.
An  insurrection  broke  out  among  th  e  Poles  in  Siberia
in  June,  1866,  and  was  soon  suppressed. Univer-
sity founded,  1886. Population  in  1885,  4,313,680.
Since  1863  efforts  have  been  made  to  open  up  a  sea  route
to  central  Siberia,  especially  by  capt.  Wiggins  and  his
friends,  1874,  et  seq. In  1890  two  vessels  from  London
reached  Karaoul  on  the  Yenessei,  stayed  there  19  days,
and  returned  in  October.
The  construction  of  a  railway  to  Siberia,  in  ten  years,

was  authorised,  Feb.  1890.
A  party  of  about  30  political  exiles,  including  women
and  children,  at  Yakutsk,  N.E.  Siberia,  were  sus-
pected of  mutiny,  very  severely  treated,  and  some
persons  were  killed,  4  April.  The  exiles  were  tried  by
court-martial  in  May,  and  all  were  convicted,  18  June.
Three  men  were  hanged,  20  Aug.  1889.  The  story
printed  in  the  Times,  26  Dec.  1889,  was  at  first  contra-
dicted and  afterwards  said  to  be  exaggerated,  March,
1890.

SIBYLS,  Sibyllae,  women  believed  to  be  in-
spired, who  flourished  in  different  parts  of  the
world.  Plato  speaks  of  one,  others  of  two,  Pliny
of  three,  iElian  of  four,  and  Varro  of  ten.  An  Ery-
threan  sibyl  is  said  to  have  offered  to  Tarquin  II.
nine  books  containing  the  Eoman  destinies,  de-
manding for  them  300  pieces  of  gold.  He  denied
her ;  whereupon  the  sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into
the  fire,  and  asked  the  same  price  for  the  other
six,  which  being  still  denied,  she  burnt  three  more,
and  again  demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that
remained  ,  when  Tarquin  conferring  with  the  pon-
tiffs was  advised  to  buy  them.  Two  magistrates
were  created  to  consult  them  on  all  occasions,  531
B.C. ;  see  Quindecemvirs.

SICILIAN  VESPEES,  the  term  given  to  the
massacre  of  the  French  (who  had  conquered  Sicily,
1266),  commenced  at  Palermo,  30  March,  1282.
On  Easter  Monday  conspirators  assembled  at  Palermo  ;
and  while  the  French  were  engaged  in  festivities,  a
Sicilian  bride  passed  by  with  her  train.  One  Drochet,
a  Frenchman,  used  her  rudely,  under  pretence  of
searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian  stabbed  him
with  his  own  sword ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French
were  instantly  murdered.  The  populace  ran  through
the  city,  crying  out,  "  Let  the  French  die !"  and,  with-
out distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  slaughtered  all  of
that  nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  of  about
8000.  Even  the  churches  proved  no  sanctuary,  and
the  massacre  became  general  throughout  the  island.

SICILY  (anciently  Trinacria,  three-cornered).
The  early  inhabitants  were  the  Sicani,  or  Siculi,  a
people  of  Spain,  andEtruscans,  who  came  from  Italy.
The  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  some  colonies
here  (735-582) ;  see  Syracuse.  In  modern  times
its  government  has  frequently  been  united  with
and  separated  from  that  of  Naples  (ivhich  see) ;  the
two  now  form  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. Popu-


SICILY.  881


SICILY.


lution  of  Sicily  in  1856,2,231,020;  1871,  2,565,323;
1875,  2,698,672  ;  1887,  S*^2,108  ;  l89°>  3,285>472-
Naxos  built,  by  the  Greeks  from  Euboea,  about .  B.C.  735
Syracuse  founded  by  Arcliias  from  Corinth  .  .  734
Leontini  and  other  cities  founded.  .  .  730  et  seq.
Agrigentum  founded  by  a  Dorian  colony,  579  ;  ruled

by  Phalaris  (see  Brazen  Bull),  about . . .563
Gelon,  tyrant  of  Gela,  becomes  supreme  at  Syra-
cuse; the  Carthaginians enter  Sicily  to  found
colonies,  but  are  severely  defeated  by  Gelon,  at

Himera 48°

Gelon  succeeded  by  his  brother  Hiero  .  .  .  478
Syracuse  becomes  predominant  in  Sicily  . . 453

Great  Athenian  expedition  under  Nicias,  315  ;  de-
feated by  the  aid  of  Gylippus,  the  Lacedemonian  413
An  excellent  code  of  laws  established  by  Diodes  .  412
Dionysius  the  elder,  able  and  ambitious,  becomes
captain-general  at  Syracuse,  406  ;  subdues  the
aristocracy,  becomes  tyrant,  and  gradually
supreme  in  Sicily,  405  ;  makes  successful  war
with  the  Italian  Greeks  ;  declares  war  against

Carthage 397

Syracuse  closely  besieged  by  the  Carthaginians ;
their  army  is  crippled  by  a  pestilence  ;  their
fleet  destroyed  by  Dionysius  ,  a  treaty  made . 395
War  renewed,  393  ;  peace  made .... 392
Dionysius  plants  colonies  in  Italy,  387  ;  dies ._ . 367
His dissolute  son, Dionysius II., succeeds  him,
367 ;  receives  Plato  and  other  philosophers ;  he
is  dethroned  by  Dion,  his  banished  relative,  who

becomes  ruler 356

Dion  rules  severely  and becomes  unpopular ;  is

assassinated  by  Calippus 353

Dionysius  II.  (tyrant  at  Socri  10  years)  recovers
his  authority  at  Syracuse,  346  ;  rules  till  his  ex-
pulsion by  Timoleon  with  a  small  Corinthian
army,  and  retires  to  Corinth  .... 343

Timoleon  restores  the  republic,  deposes  the  other
Sicilian  tyrants,  and  becomes  supreme,  3436*865. ;
totally  defeats  the  Carthaginians  at  the  Crimis-
sus,  339  ;  rules  Sicily  till  his  death  .  .  .  .  337
Agathocles  overthrows  the  republic  with  bloodshed,
and  becomes  "autocrat,"  and  afterwards  king,
317  ;  defeated  by  the  Carthaginians  at  the  Himera,
310  ;  he  invades  Africa,  gains  victories  over  the
Carthaginians, but  is compelled to  return to

Sicily  by  revolts,  307  ;  dies 289

Political  dissensions  ;  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirns,
enters  Sicily,  and  defeats  the  Carthaginians,  278 ;

retires 276

Hiero  II.  made  king  of  Syracuse,  270  ;  makes  war

with  the  Romans,  is  defeated,  and  makes  peace  . 263
The  first  Punic  war  begins,  see  Cartilage  . . . 264

Hiero  II.  dies 216

Hieronymus,  his  grandson  succeeds,  216 ;  renounces

the  alliance  with  Rome  ;  and  is  assassinated . 214
The  Roman  consul,  Marcellus,  invades  Sicily,  and
besieges  Syracuse,  which  is  vigorously  defended
by  the  aid  of  Archimedes,  214  ;  it  is  taken,  when

Archimedes  is  slain 212

Sicily  becomes  a  Roman  province  .  .  .  .  210
The  Servile  wars ;  much  slaughter  .  .  135,  134,  132
Tyrannical  government  of  Verres  (for  which  he  was

accused  by  Cicero) 73-71

Sicily  held  by  Sextus  Pompeius,  son  of  the  great
Pompey,  42  ;  defeated ;  expelled,  36  ;  killed . 35

Invaded  by  the  Vandals,  a.d.  440;  by  the  Goths,
493  ;  taken  for  the  Greek  emperors  by  Belisarius, 1

a.d. 536

Conquered  by  the  Saracens  and  held . . . 832-78

Greatly  recovered  by  the  Greek  emperor  by  the  aid
of  Normans 1038

The  Greeks  and  Arabs  driven  out  by  a  Norman
prince,  Roger  I.,  son  of  Tancred,  1058  ;  who  takes
the  title  of  count  of  Sicily .... 1061-1090

Roger  II.,  son  of  the  above-named,  unites  Sicily
with  Naples,  and  is  crowned  king  of  the  Two
Sicilies 1131

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis,  king  of
France,  conquers  Naples  and  Sicily,  deposes  the
Norman  princes,  and  makes  himself  king . . 1266

The  French  massacred  (see  Sicilian  Vesper*) . .  1282

Sicily  seized  by  a  fleet  sent  by  the  kings  of  Aragon ;
Naples  remains  to  the  house  of  Anjou  . . . ,,

Alphonso,  king  of  Aragon,  takes  possession  of
Naples 1435


The  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united  to  the
Spanish  monarchy  under  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 1501

Victor,  duke  of  Savoy,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,
made  king  of  Sicily 1713

Which  he  gives  up  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  and
becomes  king  of  Sardinia 1720

Charles,  son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  becomes  king  of
the  Two  Sicilies 1735

The  throne  of  Spain  becoming  vacant,  Charles,  who
is  heir,  vacates  the  throne  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  in
favour  of  his  third  son  Ferdinand,  agreeably  to
treaty 1759

Dreadful  earthquake  at  Messina,  in  Sicily,  which
destroys  40,000  persons 1783

The  French  conquer  Naples  {which  see);  Ferdinand
IV.  retires  to  Sicily 1806

Political  disturbances 1810

New  constitution  granted,  under  British  auspices  .  1812

The  French  expelled ;  kingdom  of  Two  Sicilies  re-
established ;  Ferdinand  returns  to  Naples ;  abol-
ishes the  constitution 1815

Revolution  at  Palermo  suppressed ....  1820

The  great  towns  in  Sicily  rise  and  demand  the  con-
stitution ;  a  provisional  government  proclaimed

12  Jan.  1848

The  king  nominates  his  brother,  the  count  of  Aquila,
viceroy,  17  Jan.;  promises  a  new  constitution

29  Jan. ,,

The  Sicilian  parliament  decrees  the  exclusion  of  the
Bourbon  family,  13  April;  and  invites  the  duke
of  Genoa  to  the  throne . . . 11  Jul}', ,,

Messina  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  Neapolitans

7  Sept. ,,

Catania  taken  by  assault,  6  April;  Syracuse  sur-
renders 23  April ;  and  Palermo . . 15  May,  1849

Insurrections  suppressed  at  Palermo,  Messina,  and
Catania,  4  April  et  seq. ;  the  rebels  retire  into  the
interior . .  . . 21  April  et  seq.  i860

Garibaldi  and  his  followers  (2200  men)  embark  at
Genoa,  5  May;  and  land  at  Marsala,  n  May;  he
abandons  his  ships  ;  and  assumes  the  dictatorship
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  14  May, ,,

He  defeats  the  royal  troops  at  Calataflmi,  15  May;
storms  Palermo,  27  May  ;  which  is  bombarded  by
the  royal  fleet,  28  May ;  an  armistice  agreed  to

31  May, „

A  provisional  government  formed  at  Palermo,
3  June ;  which  is  evacuated  by  the  Neapolitans

6  June, ,,

Garibaldi  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Melazzo,

20,  21  July, ,,

Convention  signed,  by  which  the  Neapolitans  agree
to  evacuate  Sicily  (retaining  the  citadel  of  Mes-
sina) 3°  July. )»

New  Sicilian  constitution  proclaimed . 3  Aug. ,,

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples)

19  Aug. „

Professor  Saffi  (late  of  Oxford),  a  short  time  dic-
tator Sept. „

The  Sicilians  by  universal  suffrage  vote  for  annexa-
tion to  Sardinia  (432,054  against  667)  21  Oct. ,,

Victor-Emmanuel  visits  Sicily . . .1  Dec. ,,

Citadel  of  Messina  blockaded,  28  Feb. ;  surrenders
to  general  Cialdini  ...  13  March,  1861

King  Victor-Emmanuel  warmlyreceived  at  Messina

May,  1862

Imprudent  speeches  of  Garibaldi  at  Marsala,  19
July ;  he*enters  Catania,  and  establishes  a  pro-
visional government,  19  Aug.;  embarks  for  Italy

24  Aug. „

Sicily  placed  under  blockade;  removed  in  Sept.;
tranquil Oct. ,,

Insurrection  in  Palermo,  attributed  to  the  priests
and  brigands,  16  Sept. ;  suppressed  with  blood-
shed by  Italian  troops . . . 21-26  Sept. 1866

Revival  of  brigandage  and  murder . . Aug. 1872,

Martial  law  established  in  some  places .  Sept.  1874

Aliano,  a  brigand,  tried  at  Potenza,  for  numerous
murders,  and  other  crimes  . . . .  Nov. ,,

Capraro,  great  brigand,  killed  during  capture

about  2  Oct.  1875

Mr.  Forester  Rose  carried  off  by  brigands,  3  Nov.  ;
ransomed  for  about  4000/. . . . Nov.  1876

Leone  and  other  brigands  surrounded  and  shot

1  June,  1877

Five  chief  brigands  surrender ;  abatement  of
brigandage  announced  . . . about  6  Nov. ,,

3  L


SICK CHILDEEN.


SIEGES.


Successful  visit  of  the  king  and  queen ;  arrive  at

Palermo 4  Jan.  1880

Explosion  in sulphur  mine  at  Gessolungo, near

Caltanissetta,  about  30  killed  .  .  12  Nov.  1881
Violent  cyclone  in  Catania,about  27  killed;  200,000^.

damage 7  Oct.  1884

Grand  banquet  to  sig.  Crispi,  Italian  premier,  at

Palermo 14  Oct.  1889

Opening  of the Italian National Exhibition  at

Palermo  (which  see) .... 15  Nov.  1891

SICK  CHILDEEN,  Hospital  pop,  Great

Ormond- street,  London;  established  1851.  The
princess  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation  of  new  build-
ings, 11  July,  1872.  A  branch  has  been  set  up  at
Highgate.

"SICK  MAN,"  an  epithet  applied  to  Turkey,
by  the  czar  Nicholas,  14  Jan.  1854;  see  Jiusso-
Turkish  War,  note.

SICYON,  an  ancient  Grecian  kingdom  in  the
Peloponnesus,  founded,  it  is  said,  about  2080  B.C.
Its  people  took  part  in  the  wars  in  Greece,  usually
supporting  Sparta.  In  252  it  became  a  republic
and  joined  the  Achsean  league  formed  by  Aratus.  It
•was  the  country  of  the  sculptors  Polycletes  (436)
'  and  Lysippus  (328  B.C.).

SIDEEOSTAT  (from  sidus,  Latin  for  a  star),


an  apparatus  constructed  by  M.  Leon  Foucault,
shortly  before  his  death,  11  Feb  1868,  for  observing
the  light  of  the  stars  in  precisely  the  same  way  in
which  the  light  of  the  sun  may  be  studied  in  the
camera  obscura.  It  consists  of  a  mirror  moved  by
clockwork,  and  a  fixed  objective  glass  for  concen-
trating the  rays  into  a  focus.

SIDON  or  ZlDON  (Syria),  a  city  of  Phoenicia,
to  the  north  of  Tyre.  It  was  conquered  by  Cyrus
about  537  B.C. ;  and  surrendered  to  Alexander,  332
B.C. ;  see  Phoenicia.  The  town  was  taken  from  the
pacha  of  Egypt  by  the  troops  of  the  sultan  and  of
his  allies,  assisted  by  some  ships  of  the  British
squadron,  under  commodore  Charles  Napier,  27  Sept.
1840 ;  see  Syria,  and  Turkey.

SIEGES.  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psam -
metichus  the  Powerful,  held  out  for  nineteen  years.
Usher.  It  held  out  for  twenty-nine  years.  Hero-
dotus. This  was  the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the
annals  of  antiquity.  The  siege  of  Troy  was  the
most  celebrated,  and  occupied  ten  j'ears,  1 184  B.C.
Other  ancient  sieges:  Tyre,  572,332;  Syracuse,
396,212;  Saguntum,  219;  Jerusalem,  590;  a.d.  70.
The  following  are  the  most  memorable  sieges  since
the  12th  century ;  for  details  of  many  of  them  see
separate  articles.


Acre,  1192,  1799,  1832,  1840.
Algesiras,  1341.

Algiers,  1681 (Bomb  vessels  first  used
by  a  French  engineer  named  Rcnau);

1816.
Alkmaer,  1573.
Almeida,  27  Aug.  1810.
Amiens,  1597.
Ancona,  1174,  1799,  i860.
Antwerp,  1576,  1583,  1585,  1746,  1832.
Arras,  1640.
Azoff,  1736.

Badajoz,  n  March,  1811 ;  6  April,  1812.
Bagdad,  1258.
Barcelona,  1697,  1714.
Belgrade,  1439,  1456,  1521,  1688,  1717,

1739,  1789.
Belle-Isle,  1761.

Bergen-op-Zoom,  1622,  1747,  1814.
Berwick,  1333,  1481.
Bethune,  17 10.
Bilbao  by  Carlists,  1874.
Bois-le-Duc,  1603,  1794.
Bologna,  1512,  1796,  1799.
Bommel :  the  invention  of  the  covered

way,  1794.
Bonn,  1672,  1689,  1703.
Bouchain,  171 1.
Boulogne,  1544.
Breda,  1625.

Brescia,  1238,  1512,  1849.
Breslau,  1807.
Brisac,  1638,  1704.
Brussels,  1695,  1746.
Bomarsund,  1854.
Buda,  1 54 1,  2  Sept.  1686.
Burgos,  1812,  1813-
Cadiz,  1812.
Calais  1347  (British  historians  affirm

that cannon  were used  at  Cressy,

1346,  and  here  in  1347. First  u,sed

here  in  1388. Rymer's  Fced.),  1558,

1596.
Calvi,  1794.
Candia :  the  largest  cannon  then  known,

in  Europe,  used  here  by  the  Turks,

1667.
Carthagena,  1706-7,  1740,  1873-4.
Chalus,  1199.
Charleroi,  1693.
Charleston,  U.S.,  1864-5.
Chartres,  1568.
Cherbourg,  1758.
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  1810,  1S12.
Colchester,  1648.


Oomorn,  1849.

Compiegne  (Joan  of  Arc),  1430.

Conde,  1676,  1793,  1794-

Coni,  1691,  1744.

Constantinople,  1453.

Copenhagen,  1658,  1801,  1807.

Corfu,  1716.

Courtray,  1646.

Cracow,  1702.

Cremona,  1702.

Dautzic,  1734,  1793,  1807,  1813,  1814.

Delhi,  1857

Douay,  1710.

Dresden,  1756,  1813.

Drogheda,  1649.

Dublin,  1500.

Dunkirk,  1646,  1793

Famagosta,  1571.

Flushing,  15  Aug.  1809.

Frederickshald  :  Charles  XII.  killed,

1718.
Gaeta,  1435,  1734,  1860-1.
Genoa,  1747,  1800.
Gerona,  1809.
Ghent,  1708.
Gibraltar,  1779,  1782-3.
Gliitz,  1742,  1807.
Gottingen,  1760.
Graves,  1674.
Grenada,  1491,  1492.
Groningen,  1594.
Haerleni,  1572,  1573.
Harfleur,  1415.
Heidelberg,  1688.
Herat,  1838.
Humaita,  1868.
Ismail,  1790.
Kars,  1855-
Khartoum,  1884.
Kehl,  1733,  1796.
Landau,  1702  et  seq.,  1792.
Landrecy,  1712,  1794.
Laon,  988,  991.
Leipsic,  1757  et  seq.,  1813.
Leith,  1560.

Lerida,  1647,  1707,  1810.
Leyden,  1574.
Liege,  1408,  1688,  1702.
Lille,  1 70S,  1792.
Limerick,  1651,  1691.
Londonderry,  1689.
Louisbourg,  1758.
Lucknow,  1857.
Luxemburg,  1795.
Lyons,  1793.


Maestricht,  1579,  1673;  Vauban  first
came  into  notice;  1676,  1748.

Magdala,  1868.

Magdeburg,  1631,  1806.

Malaga,  1487.

Malta,  1565,  1798,  1800.

Mantua,  1797,  1799.

Marseilles,  1524.

Menin,  1706.

Mentz,  1689,  1793.

Messina,  1282,  1719,  1848,  1861.

Metz,  1552-3,  1870.

Mons,  1691,  1709,  1792.

Montargis,  1426.

Montauban,  1621.

Montevideo,  Jan.  1807.

Mothe:  the  French,  taught  by  a  Mr.
Midler,  first  practised  the  art  of
throwing  shells,  1634.

Namur,  1692,  1746,  1794.

Naples,  1435,  1504,' 1557,  1792,  1799,
1806.

Newark,  1644-5.

New  Orleans,  1814.

Nice,  1706.

Novogorod,  1478.

Nieuport,  1600.

Olivenza,  1801,  1S11.

Olmutz,  1758.

Orleans,  1428,  1563.

Ostend,  1601,  1798.

Oudenarde,  1706.

Padua,  1509.

Pampeluna,  1813.

Paris,  1420,  1594,  1S70,  1871.

Parma,  1248.

Pavia,  1524,  1655.

Perpignan,  1542,  1642.

Phalsbourg,  T814,  1815,  1870.

Philipsburg,  1644,  1676,  1688,  first  ex-
periment of  firing  artillery  a  ricochet,

i734»  i799-
Plevna,  1877.
Pondicherry,  1748,  1793.
Prague,  1741-1744.
Quebec,  1759-60.
Quesnoy,  1793-1794.
Rheims,  1359.
Rhodes,  1521.
Richmond,  U.S.,  1864-5.
Riga,  1700,  1710.
Rochelle,  1573,  1628.
Rome,  1527,  1798,  1849.
Romorantin ; artillery  first  used  in

sieges  (Voltaire),  1356.


SIENA.


883


SILESIA.


Rouen,  1419,  1449,  1591.

Roxburgh,  1460.

St.  Sebastian,  1813.

Saragossa,  1710,  1808,  1809 ;  the  two
last  dreadful.

Sebastopol,  1854-5.

Schweidnitz :  first  experiment  to  reduce
a  fortress  by  springing  globes  of  com-
pression, 1 757-1 762.

Scio  (see  Greece),  1822.

Seringapatam,  1799.

Seville,  1247-8.

Silistria,  1854.

Smolensko,  1632,  1812.

Soissons,  1870.

St.  Quentin,  1557.

Stralsund  :  the  method  of  throwing  red-


hot  balls  first  practised  with  certainty,

1715-
Strasfourg,  1870.
Tarragona,  181 1.
Temeswar,  1716.
Therouenne,  1513.
Thiouville,  1792.
Thorn,  1703.
Tortosa,  1811.
Toulon,  1707,  1793.
Toulouse,  1217.
Tournay,  1340,  1513,  1583,  1667,  1700

(this  was  the  best  defence  ever  drawn

from  counter  mines),  1792.
Treves,  1635,  1673,  1765.
Tunis,  1270,  1535.
Turin,  1640,  1706.


Valencia,  1705,  1707,  1712.

Valenciennes,  1677,  1793,  1794.

Vanues,  1342.

Venice,  1879.

Venloo,  1702.

Verdun,  1792.

Vieksbuxg,  U.S.,  1863.

Vienna,  1529,  1683.

Wakefield,  1460.

Warsaw,  1831.

Xativa,  1246.

Xeres,  1262.

York,  1644.

Ypres,  1648.

Zurich,  1544.

Zutphen,  15S6.


SIENA  (the  ancient  Sena  Julia),  Italy,  in  the
middle  ages  a  powerful  republic  rivalling  Florence
and  Pisa ;  see  Tuscany.  It  was  incorporated  with
France,  1808-14. Population,  1881,  23,445.

The  Sienese  thoroughly  defeated  the  Florentines  at
Montaperto  in  1260;  placed  themselves  under  the
duke  of  Milan,  1399  ;  were  ruled  by  Pandolfo  Petrueci,
1487-1512  ;  submitted  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1524  ;
■rebelled,  called  in  the  French,  1555  ;  were  defeated
and  given  up  to  Cosimo  de  Medici,  1557  ;  who  annexed
Siena  to  Tuscany.

SIERRA  LEONE  (W.  Africa),  discovered  by
the  Portuguese  navigator,  P.  de  Cintra,  in  1462.
An  attempt  to  form  a  settlement  here  made  by  the
British  government  by  sending  out  from  London
about  400  freed  negroes  and  60  whites,  Dec.  1786,
failed ;  a  second  attempt  by  the  Sierra  Leone  Com-
pany in  1791,  was  not  much  more  successful,  and  in
1807  the  settlement  was  given  up  to  the  crown.
Capital,  Freetown.  The  settlement  was  attacked
by  the  French,  Sept.  1794;  by  the  natives,  Feb.
1802.  Sir  Charles  Macarthy,  governor  of  the
colony,  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Ashantee
chief,  21  Jan.  1824. — 16  &  17  Vict.  c.  16,  relates  to
the  government,  (fee,  of  this  colony.  It  was  made
a  bishopric  in  1852 ;  see  Ashantees  and  West
Africa. Population  in  1891,  74,835.

Robarrie,  the  stronghold  of  the  insurgent  Yonnie
tribe,  captured  by  sir  Francis  De  Winton,  21  Nov.  1887

The  king  was  captured  and  the  rebellion  suppressed

Nov-Dee. , ,

The  Gambia  territory  isolated  and  made  an  inde-
pendent colony 22  Dec.  1888

Largoh,  capital  of  the  chief  Mackiah  captured  by
the  British  under  governor  Hay ;  700  prisoners
liberated  ;  announced ... 14  Feb.  1889

In  accordance  with  an  agreement  with  the  French
government,  10  Aug.  I889,  a  commission  was  ap-
pointed for  the  delimitation  of  the  British  and
French  possessions  in  West  Africa  . . Oct.  1890

The  commissioners  meet .... Dec.  1891

Governors  :  sir  James  Shaw  Hay,  1888  ;  sir  Francis
Fleming 1892

British  expedition  sent  to  punish  aggressions  in
May,  1891  ;  fighting  at  Tambi ;  the  British  re-
treat;  Tambi  taken  and  destroyed . 7  April, ,,

SIGNALS  are  alluded  to  by  Polybius.  Eliza-
beth had  instructions  drawn  up  for  the  admiral
and  general  of  the  expedition  to  Cadiz,  to  be  an-
nounced to  the  fleet  in  a  certain  latitude ;  this  is
said  to  have  been  the  first  set  of  signals  given  to
the  commanders  of  tbe  English  fleet.  A  system
for  the  navy  was  invented  by  the  duke  of  York,
afterwards  James  II.  1665.  Guthrie;  see  1'oij-
signals.
Block  system  of  signalling  on  railways,  introduced  1853

SIGNBOARDS  were  used  by  the  Greeks  and
Romans.  A  "History  of  Signboards,"  by  Jacob
Larwood  and  John  Ilotten,  was  published  in  1866.

SIGNETS,  see  Seals.


SIGN  MANUAL,  ROYAL,  a  stamp,  imitat-
ing the  royal  signature,  employed  when  the  sove-
reign was  so  ill  as  to  be  unable  to  write :  in  tne
case  of  Henry  VIII.  1547  ;  James  I.  1625 ;  and
George  IV.,  29  May,  1830. Rosse.

SIKHS,  originally  a  Hindu  religious  sect  (about
1500)  a  people  of  N.  India,  invaded  the  Mogul
empire,  1703-8;  see  Punjab,  and  India,  1849.

SIKKIM, a  small Himalayan  State,  joining

Tibet,  allied  to  the  Indian  government  since 1814.

By  a  treaty  in  1 861  free  trade  and  passage  through

the  country  were  secured.

The  erection  of  a  fort  by  the  Rajah  under  the
influence  of  Tibetans  in  contravention  of  the
treaty,  led  to  a  military  demonstration  ;  1,000
troops  sent  ostensibly  to  repair  the  road  to
Tibet,  Jan. ;  the  rajah  proving  contumacious,
the  viceroy  intervened  ineffectually,  March ;
about  2,000  men  concentrated  at  Pedong,  March  ;
Lingtu  fort  quickly  captured  ;  flight  of  the
Tibetans,  20  March ;  destruction  of  the  fort
ordered  21  March  ;  slight  skirmishes  with  the
Tibetans,  24  killed,  May ;  col.  Graham  defeats
the  attacking  Tibetans,  who  are  said  to  have
lost  200  men 23  May,  18S8

Troops  ordered  to  return  to  Darjeeling 17  June, ,,

Return  to  Sikkim  on  appearance  of  Tibetan
aggression July, ,,

The  Tibetans  defeated  at  Jelapla  pass  ;  about  400
killed  and  wounded,  25  Sept.  ;  col.  Graham's
advance  suspended  and  the  expedition  recalled,

Sept. ,,

A  Chinese  amban,  or  resident,  at  Lhassa,  arrives
with  a  large  following  at  Calcutta,  n  March.  A
treaty  signed  at  Calcutta,  17  March,  1890 ;  Sik-
kim is  to  be  treated  as  a  British  feudatory  state.

The  rajah  goes  secretly  to  Tibet ;  arrested  in
Nepaul,  April ;  lives  in  retirement . . . 1S92

SILCHESTER,  Hants.  Here  are  the  remains
of  the  Roman  town  Calleva  (built  on  the  site  of  the
British  Caer  Segeint  or  Segont) ;  including  walls  of
excellent  masonry,  a  basilica  and  forum,  private
dwellings,  &c.  Many  discoveries  have  been  made
during  excavations  made  by  the  rev.  Mr.  Joyce,
under  the  patronage  of  the  duke  of  "Wellington,
since  1863.  Coins  of  Claudius  I.  and  later  emperors
have  been  found.

A  systematic  investigation  of  these  remains  was
begun,  23  June,  1890,  under  the  superintendence
of  Mr.  G.  E.  Fox  and  other  fellows  of  the  Society
of  Antiquaries,  London.
Mr.  Laurence  Gomme,  Mr.  Hilton  Price,  gen.  Pitt-
Rivers,  and  Mr.  St.  John  Hope  co-operate  in  the

work Sept.  1890

Many  vases,  tools  and  implements  discovered;
these  remains  constitute  a  veritable  British  and

Roman  Pompeii ,,

Exhibition  of  relics,  models,  &c. . . . Jan.  1891
The  work  was  recommenced . . . April,  1892
The  remains  of  a  presumed  Romano-British  church,
probable  date  4th  century,  discovered  in .  June, ,,

SILESIA,  formerly  a  province  of  Poland,  was
invaded  by  John  of  Bohemia, 1325,  and  ceded  to

3  l  2


SILICON.


SILVEE.


him,  1355-  It  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Hungary,
1478,  and  added  to  the  Austrian  dominion,  1526.  It
was  conquered  and  lost  several  times  during  the
Seven  years'  war  by  Frederick  of  Prussia,  but  was
retained  by  him  at  the  peace  in  1763.  The  emperor
William  was  most  enthusiastically  received  during
his  visit,  Sept.  1875.

Strike  of  about  3,000  miners  in  the  Strau  district ;
order  kept  by  the  military . . 24  Sept.  1890

SILICON  or  SlLICITJM  (from  silex,  flint),  a
non-metallic  element,  nest  to  oxygen  the  most
abundant  substance  in  the  earth,  as  it  enters  into
the  constitution  of  many  earths,  metallic  oxides,
and  a  great  number  of  minerals.  The  mode  of  pro-
curing pure  silicon  was  discovered  by  Berzelius  in
1823.  Gmelin.  See  Water-glass,  and  Hansome's
Stone.

SILISTMA,  a  strong  military  town  in  Bul-
garia, European  Turkey.  It  was  taken  by  the
Russians,  30  June,  1829,  and  held  some  years  by
them  as  a  pledge  for  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  by
the  Porte  ;  but  was  eventually  returned.  In  1854
it  was  again  besieged  by  the  Russians,  30,000  strong,
under  prince  Paskiewitch,  and  many  assaults  were
made.  The  Russian  general  was  compelled  to  re-
tire in  consequence  of  a  dangerous  contusion.  On
2  June,  Mussa  Pacha,  the  brave  and  skilful  com-
mander of  the  garrison,  was  killed.  On  9  June,
the  Russians  stormed  two  forts,  which  were  retaken.
A  grand  assault  took  place  on  13  June,  under  prince
Gortschakoff  and  general  Schilders,  which  was
vigorously  repelled.  On  the  15th,  the  garrison  as-
sumed the  offensive,  crossed  the  river,  defeated  the
Russians,  and  destroyed  the  siege  works.  The  siege
was  thus  raised,  and  the  Russians  commenced  their
retreat  as  Omar  Pacha  was  drawing  near.  The  gar-
rison was  ably  assisted  by  two  British  officers,
capt.  Butler  andlieut.  Nasmyth,  the  former  of  whom,
after  being  wounded,  died  of  exhaustion.  They
were  highly  praised  by  Omar  Pacha  and  lord  Har-
dinge,  and  lieutenant  Nasmyth  was  made  a  major.
Population,  1888,  11,414.

SILK.  "Wrought  silk  was  brought  from  Persia
to  Greece,  325  B.C.  Known  at  Rome  in  Tiberius's
time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate  prohibiting
the  use  of  plate  of  massive  gold,  and  also  forbidding
men  to  debase  themselves  by  wearing  silk,  fit  only
for  women.  Heliogabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of
silk,  a.d.  220.  Silk  was  at  first  of  the  same  value
with  gold,  weight  lor  weight,  and  was  thought  to
grow  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton  on  trees.  Silk-
worms were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the
6th  century.  Charlemagne  sent  Ofl'a,  king  of
Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests,  780.  The
manufacture  was  encouraged  by  Roger,  king  of
Sicily,  at  Palermo,  1146,  when  the  Sicilians  not
only  bred  the  silk- worms,  but  spun  and  wove  the
silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spain,
and  also  into  the  south  of  France,  a  little  before
the  reign  of  Francis  I.  about  1510;  and  Henry  IV.
propagated  mulberry-trees  and  silk-worms  through-
out the  kingdom,  about  1600.  In  England,  silk
mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's  ladies  at  a
ball  at  Kenilworth  castle,  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by
the  English  clergy  in  1534.  Manufactured  in  Eng-
land in  1604 ;  and  broad  silk  wove  from  raw  silk
in  1620.  Brought  to  perfection  by  the  French
refugees  in  London  at  Spitalfields,  1688.  A  silk-
throwing  mill  was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up
at  Derby,  by  sir  Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of
London,  modelled  from  the  original  mill  then  in
the  king  of  Sardinia's  dominions,  about  17 14.  He
obtained  a  patent  in  1718,  and  died  3  Jan.  1739.


Six  new  species  of  silk- worm  were  rearing  in  France,

1861*

The  Silk  association  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  begun,
1886-7  :  fifst  exhibition  St.  James's  square,  London,
S.  W.  (opened  by  the  duchess  of  Teck),  6-21  May,  1890.

Silkwokm  Disease.  In  1853  the  annual  produce  of
sericulture  in  South  France  was  estimated  at  about
4,680,000?.  Soon  after  a  disease  broke  out  in  the
worms,  which  reduced  the  value  of  the  silk  crop  to
about  one-third  that  amount.  In  1858  a  commission
was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  disease,
then  termed  pebrine;  and  M.  Quatrefages,  in  1869,
proved  that  it  is  hereditary,  contagious,  and  infectious.
M.  Filippi  discovered  in  the  blood  of  the  deceased
worms  a  multitude  of  cylindrical  corpuscles,  since
named  panhistophyton,  which  Pasteur,  who  took  up
the  study  in  1865,  has  demonstrated  to  be  parasitica],
and  the  cause  of  the  disease.  He  has  since  devised  a
way  by  which,  it  is  hoped,  the  organic  germs  may  be
got  rid  of,  and  the  disease  extirpated.

SILOTVOE,  a  new  explosive  invented  by  M.
Rouckteshell,  who  asked  50,000^.  for  the  patent,
1887.

SILTTEES,  a  British  tribe,  occupying  the
counties  of  Monmouth  and  Hereford,  was  subdued
by  the  Roman  general  Ostorius  Scapula,  50 ;  see
/Shropshire.  From  this  tribe  is  derived  the  geolo-
gical term  "  Silurian  strata,"  among  the  lowest  of
the  paleozoic  or  primary  series,  from  their  occur-
rence in  the  above-mentioned  counties.  Murchison'  s
"  Siluria  "  was  published  1849.

SILVEE,  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and
is  found  mixed  with  other  ores  in  various  mines  in
Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America
are  far  the  richest.  A  mine  was  discovered  in  the
district  of  La  Paz  in  1660,  which  was  so  rich  that
the  silver  of  it  was  often  cut  out  with  a  chisel.  In
1749,  one  mass  of  silver  weighing  370  lbs.  was  sent
to  Spain.  From  a  mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver
was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Royal  Museum  at  Copen-
hagen, weighing  560  lbs.,  and  worth  i68o£.  In
England  silver-plate  and  vessels  were  first  used  by
Wilfrid,  a  Northumbrian  bishop,  a  lofty  and  am-
bitious man,  709.  Tyrrell.  Silver  knives,  spoons,
and  cups,  were  great  luxuries  in  1300 ;  see  Mirrors.
The  act  of  18 16  restricted  the  use  of  silver  as  legal
tender  to  40s.  In  1855,  561,906  oz.,  in  1857,
532,866  oz.,  in  1865,  724,856  oz.,  in  1870,  784,562
oz. ;  in  1876,  483,422  oz. ;  in  1882,  372,544  oz.  ;
in  1887,  320,345  oz.  ;  in  1888,  321,425  oz.  ;  in
1889,  306,149  oz. ;  in  1890,  291,724  oz..  were  ob-
tained from  mines  in  Britain.  Pattinson's  process
for  obtaining  silver  from  lead  ore  was  introduced  in
1829.  See  Bullion,  Coins,  Goldsmiths,  Mirrors,
Plate,  India,  1876,  United  States,  1878,  1890-2.
Fall  in  price  of  silver  through  introduction  of  gold
coinage  in  Germany,  and  increased  produce  from
South  American  mines  ....  spring,  1876
The  report  of  a  commission  on  the  subject  was

issued  in July, ,,

Another  commission  appointed,  see  under  Currency,

7  Sept.  1886
Pure  silver:  United  States,  N.  A.,  1,000;  England,

925,  alloy  75  ;  Europe,  900,  100  alloy  ;  reported  .  1890
Average  price  in  London,  1845-9,  59^-  anc^  a  fraction
per  oz.  ;  1850-72,  6id.  ;  1871,  6oT\d. ;  1875,  56Jd  ;
1880,  52}.d.  ;  1883,  5oTBstf.  ;  price  49|rf.  7  May,  1885  ;
1886,  46^. ;  1887,  44f&;  1888,  43rsrf.;  1889,  Jan-
March,  42j9sci  ;  7  May,  42^.  ;  22  July,  4?Tc,d. ;
13  Sept.,  42T%(7.  ;  1890:  9  Jan.,  4451?.  ;  3  April,
43|c?. ;  3  July,  47id. ;  4  Sept.,  54§<i. ;  1891 :  1  Jan.,
48Jrf.  ;  2  April,  44ft?-.  ;  11  July,  45§d.  ;  3  Sept.,
45tVc?-  !  1892  :  7  Jan.,  43M  :  1  April,  39J  ;  1  July,
403^. ;  4  Aug.,  39c?.  ;  2  Sept.,  3&§d.


*  In  1858,  M.  Guerin-Meneville  introduced  into  France
a  Chinese  worm  termed  the  Cynthia  Bovibyx,  which  feeds
on  the  Ailanthus  glandulosa,  a  hardy  tree  of  the  oak  kind.
The  cynthia  yields  a  silk-like  substance  termed  Ailantine.
It  was  brought  to  Turin  by  Fantoni  in  1856.


SILVEE  BOOK.


SIX  CLEEKS-


SILVEE  BOOK  (Codex  Argenteus),  see  under
Bible.

SIMANCAS  (Castile,  Spain).  Near  it  Rami-
rez II.  of  Leon,  and  Fernando  of  Castile,  gained  a
great  victory  over  Abderahman,  the  Moorish  king  of
Cordova,  6  Aug.  939.

SIMLA  CASE,  see  India,  1866.

SIMNEL  CONSPIRACY,  see  Rebellions,
i486.

SIMONASAKI,  see  Japan,  1864.

SIMONIANS,  a  sect  named  after  the  founder,
Simon  Magus,  the  first  heretic,  about  41.  A  sect  of
social  reformers  called  St.  Simostians,  after  their
founder,  Claude  H.  comte  de  St.  Simon  (born  1760),
sprang  up  in  France  in  1819,  and  attracted  consider-
able attention;  the  doctrines  were  advocated  in
England,  particularly  by  Dr.  Prati,  who  lectured
upon  them  in  London,  24  Jan.  1834.  St.  Simon
died  in  182 c;,  and  his  follower,  Pere  Enfantin,  died
1  Sept.  1864.

SIMONY  (trading  in  church  offices),  derives  its
name  from  Simon  desiring  to  purchase  the  gift  of
the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  viii.  18,  19).  It  is  forbidden
in  England  by  the  canon  law,  and  by  statute
31  Eliz.  c.  6,  "for  the  avoiding  of  simony  and  cor-
ruption in  presentations,  collations,  and  donations
of  and  to  benefices,"  &c,  1588-9 ;  and  by  statute  of
12  Anne  2,  stat.  12  (1713).  The  rev.  James  John
Merest  was  convicted  of  simony,  26-29  Nov.  1869,
and  deprived.

The  bishop  of  Peterborough  (Dr.  Magee),  moved  for
a  committee  on  the  laws  relating  to  simony  ;  ap-
pointed 21  April,  1874

SIMPLON,  a  mountain  road,  leading  from
Switzerland  into  Italy,  constructed  by  Napoleon  in
1801-7.  It  winds  up  passes,  crosses  cataracts,  and
passes  by  galleries  through  solid  rock,  and  has  eight
principal  bridges.  The  number  of  workmen  em-
ployed at  one  time  varied  from  30,000  to  40,000.

SINAI,  MOUNT.  Here  the  ten  command-
ments were  promulgated,  1491  B.C.  Exod.  xx.
Af  ter  much  investigation  and  discussion  by  many
persons,  Dr.  Beke  stated  that  he  had  discovered  the
true  Sinai,  Feb.  1874.

SINALUNGA  or  AsiNALTTNGA  (near  Siena,
Italy).  Here  Garibaldi,  when  about  to  enter  the
papal  territory,  was  seized  and  conveyed  to  Ales-
sandria, 23  Sept.  1867 ;  see  Italy.

SINDE  (N.  W.  India),  was  traversed  by  the
Greeks  under  Alexander,  about  326  B.C. ;  conquered
by  the  Persian  Mahometans  in  the  8th  century  a.d.  ;
tributary  to  the  Ghaznevide  dynasty  in  the  nth
century;  conquered  by  Nadir  Shah,  1739;  reverted
to  the  empire  of  Delhi  after  his  death,  1747  ;  after
various  changes  of  rulers,  Sinde  was  conquered  by
the  English,  and  annexed,  March,  1843.

SINGAPOEE,  see  Straits  Settlements.

SINGING,  see  Music,  and  Hymns.

SINKAT,  see  under  Soudan,  1884.

SINKING  FUND.  First  projected  by  sir
Robert  Walpole  to  redeem  the  debt  to  the  bank  of
England;  act  passed  in  171O.  The  act  establishing
the  sinking  fund  of  Mr.  Pitt,  devised  by  Dr.  Price,
was  passed  in  March,  1786.  A  then  estimated  sur-
plus of  900,000^.  in  the  revenue  was  augmented  by
new  taxes  to  make  up  the  sum  of  1,000,000/.  which
was  to  be  invariably  applied  to  the  reduction  of  the


national  debt.  The  fallacy  of  the  scheme  was
shown  by  Dr.  Hamilton  in  1813.  In  July,  1828,
the  sinking  fund  was  limited  to  one-fourth  of  the
actual  surplus  of  revenue.

A  new  sinking  fund  was  established  by  Act  passed
2  Aug.  1875.  The  annual  charge  of  the  national  debt
of  the  year  ending  31  March,  1877  to  be  27,700,000?.  ;
subsequent  years  to  be  28,000,000?.

SINOPE,  an  important  Greek  colony  on  the
Euxine,  after  resisting  several  attacks  was  con-
quered by  Mithridates  IV.,  king  of  Pontus,  and
made  his  capital.  It  was  the  birth-place  of
Diogenes,  the  cynic  philosopher.  On  30  Nov.  1853,
a  Turkish  fleet  of  seven  frigates,  three  corvettes,
and  two  smaller  vessels,  was  attacked  by  a  Russian
fleet  of  six  sail  of  the  line,  two  sailing  vessels,  and
three  steamers,  under  admiral  Nachimoff,  and
totally  destroyed,  except  one  vessel,  which  con-
veyed the  tidings  to  Constantinople.  Four  thou-
sand lives  were  lost  by  fire  or  drowning,  and  Osman
Pacha,  the  Turkish  admiral,  died  at  Sebastopol  of
his  wounds.  In  consequence  of  this  act  (considered
treacherous)  the  Anglo-French  fleet  entered  the
Black  Sea,  3  Jan.  1854.

SION  COLLEGE  Am)  Hospital,  situated

on  the  site  of  a  nunnery,  which,  having  fallen  to
decay,  was  purchased  by  William  Elsynge,  a  citizen
and  mercer,  and  converted  into  a  college  and  hos-
pital, called  from  his  name  Elsynge  Spital.  In
1340  he  changed  it  to  an  Austin  priory,  which  was
afterwards  granted  by  Henry  VIII.  to  sir  John
Williams,  master  of  the  jewel-office,  who,  with  sir
Roland  Hay  ward,  inhabited  it  till  its  destruction
by  fire.  In  1623,  Dr.  Thomas  White  having  be-
queathed 3000/.  towards  purchasing  and  building  a
college  and  alms-house  on  the  ancient  site,  his
executors  erected  the  present  college.  It  is  held  by
two  charters  of  incorporation,  6  Chas.  I.  1630  and  16
Chas.  II.  1664.  It  contains  a  valuable  library  (easily
accessible  to  the  public),  and  an  almshouse  for  ten
men  and  ten  women.  New  buildings  erected  on
the  Thames  Embankment ;  memorial  stone  laid  21
April,  1885  ;  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  15
Dec.  1886.

SIEENE,  an  instrument  for  determining  the
velocity  of  aerial  vibrations  corresponding  to  the
different  pitches  of  musical  sounds,  was  invented
by  baron  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  of  Paris  hi  18 19.
The  principle  was  shown  in  an  apparatus  exhibited
by  Robert  Hooke  before  the  Royal  Society,  27  July,
1681.

SISTEEHOODS  in  the  English  church  were
begun  by  Lydia  Priscilki  Sellou  about  1846,  in
Devonshire  ;  she  died,  Nov.  1876.

SISTEES  OF  "CHARITY,  an  order  for  the
service  of  the  sick  poor,  was  founded  by  Vincent  de
Paul,  in  1634.  Their  establishment  in  London
began  in  1834.

SIX  ACTS,  a  term  given  to  certain  acts,  also
named  "  Gagging  Acts,"  60  Geo.  III.  &  I  Geo.  IV.
<,c.  1,  2,  4,  6,  8,  9,  passed  in  1819-1820  to  suppress
seditious  meetings  and  publications.

SIX  AETICLES,  see  Articles.

SIX  CLEEKS,  officers  of  the  court  of  chan-
cery, who  were  anciently  clerici  or  clergy.  They
were  to  conform  to  the  laws  of  celibacy,  and  forfeit
their  places  if  they  married;  but  when  the  consti-
tution of  the  court  began  to  alter,  a  law  was  made
to  permit  them  to  marry;  statute  24  <fc  25  Ben.
VIII.  1 S33-  The  six  clerks  continued  for  many
years  officers  of  the  chancery  court,  and  held  their
olfiics  in  Chancery-lane,  London,  where proceed-


SIXTEEN.


SLAVEEY.


"34
1180

iSSS


1662
1772


ings  by  bill  and  answer  were  transacted  and  filed,
and  certain  patents  issued.  Law  Diet.  The  six
clerks  were  discontinued  by  5  &  6  Vict.  c.  103,  1841.

SIXTEEN  {seize),  a  large  French  political
club,  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  IV.,  sixteen
members  of  which  took  charge  of  the  sixteen
quarters  of  Paris.  They  at  first  supported  the
catholic  league,  and  attempted  to  overthrow  Henry
III.  in  1587,  but  vacillating  in  their  policy,  and
committing  many  crimes,  their  power  was  annihi-
lated by  Mayenne  in  1591,  and  several  of  them
were  executed.

SKALITZ  (Bohemia),  was  stormed  by  the
Prussian  general  Steinmetz,  28  June,  1866;  whereby
the  junction  of  the  divisions  of  the  Prussians  was
greatly  facilitated,

SKATING  (with  blunt  skates)  is  said  to  have
been  practised  in  prehistoric  times  by  northern
nations. See  Rinks.

Mentioned  by  the  Danish  historian  Saxo  Gramma-

ticus about

William Fitz  Stephens  speaks  of  it  in  London,  about

Figures  of  skates  in  Olaus  Magnus's  history,  printed

Blade-skates, probably  introduced from  Holland,

about 1660, were  seen  in  St.  James's-park  by

Evelyn  and  Pepys 1  Dec.

Robert  Jones's  "Art  of  Skating,"  published .
London  Skating  club,  1830  ;  Oxford  club . .  1838
Severe  frost,  much  skating  .... Jan.  1880
International  skating  contest  at  Vienna . Jan.  1882

SKIEENIEVICE,  Poland;  see  Russia,  15, 16

Sept.  1884.

SKINS-  The  raw  skins  of  cattle  were  usually
suspended  on  stakes  and  made  use  of  instead  of
kettles  to  boil  meat,  in  the  north  of  England  and
in  Scotland, 1  Edw.  III.  1327. Leland.

SKUPTSCHINA,  the  Servian  legislative
assembly.

SKYE,  ISLE  OF,  N.W.  Scotland.  See  Crofters.

SLADE  PEOFESSOESHIP  of  Fine
ART,  Cambridge,  established  in  pursuance  of  the
will  of  Felix  Slade,  24  June,  1869,  sir  Matthew
Digby  Wyatt,  the  first  professor,  1869-73  '■>  Sidney
Colvin,  1873-1885;  Mr.  J.  H.  Middleton,  1886.

STANDEE  of  Women,  act  passed  5  Aug.  1891.
SLANG,  see  Dictionaries.

SLATE. Fifteen  persons  were  killed  by  the  fall
of  a  mass  of  rock  and  rubble  at  the  Delaboll  slate
quarries,  Cornwall,  21  April,  1869.
Great strike at lord Penrhyn's slate quarries

Bethesda,  Wales,  in  Sept.-Oct.  ;  end  . .  Nov.  1874

SLAUGHTEE HOUSES ACT  for  the

metropolis,  passed  7  Aug.  1874.

SLAVEEY.  The  traffic  in  men  came  from
Chaldeea  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  all  over  the  East.
In  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  all  prisoners  of
war  were  treated  as  slaves.  The  Lacedamionian
youths,  trained  up  in  the  practice  of  deceiving  and
butchermg  slaves,  were  from  time  to  time  let  loose
upon  them  to  show  their  proficiency ;  and  once,  for
amusement  only,  murdered,  it  is  said,  3000  in  one
night,  see  Helots.  Alexander,  when  he  razed  Thebes
sold  the  whole  people  for  slaves,  335  b.c.  There
were  400,000  slaves  in  Attica,  317  b.c.  In  Eome
slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  a  great
man's  house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  in-
vited to  the  feast.  By  one  of  the  laws  of  the  XII.
Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent  debtors,
and  keep  them  in  their  houses,  till  by  their  services
or  labour  they  had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed.


C.  Pollio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave  him  the  slightest
offence  into  his  fish-ponds,  to  fatten  his  lampreys,
42  B.C.  Caecilius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  41 16
slaves,  12  B.C.  The  first  Janissaries  were  Christian
slaves,  1329.
Slavery  abolished  in  the  French  colonies  by  the

agency  of  M.  Sehoslcher  .....  1848
Serfdom  was  abolished  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia
in  1702  ;  by  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark  in  1766  ;
by  Joseph  II.  emperor  of  Germany,  in  his  heredi-
tary states  in  1781 ;  by  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia  in
the  imperial  domains  in  1842  ;  and  by  his  suc-
cessor, Alexander  II.  throughout  his  empire,
3  March,  1861.
Slavery  ceased  in  the  Dutch  "West  Indies  on  1  July,

1863.
Slavery  abolished  in  Porto  Rico . 23  March,  1873
Immediate  suppression  of  slavery  in  the  colonies

of  St.  Thomas,  &c.  by  Portugal,  announced,  Feb.  1876
Gradual emancipation in Cuba ; bill  passed in
Sp  mish  senate,  24  Dec.  1879 ;  by  deputies,  21  Jan.
promulgated, 18  Feb. 1880  ; total  abolition  by

decree 6  Oct.  1886

Slavery  to  be  abolished  in  Egypt  .  end  of  July,  1881
Abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil  (which  see)  .  .  1867-8S
Slavery  abolished  in  Zanzibar  (which  sec),  Oct.  1889

and  Aug.  1890
Anti-slavery  Conference  at  Brussels:  meeting  of
foreign  plenipotentiaries  and  delegates  from  17
states,  18  Nov.  1889.  Conferences  :  19  Nov.-Dec.
1889  ;  27  Jam-28  May,  1890.  Regulations  for  the
suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  and  rules  relating
to  the  traffic  in  spirit  agreed  to.  After  much
negotiation,  the  general  act  was  ratified  by  all
the  powers  for  immediate  effect . 2  April,  1892

SLAVEEY  IN  ENGLAND-  Laws  respecting
the  sale  of  slaves  were  made  by  Alfred.  The  English
peasantry  were  commonly  sold  for  slaves  in  Saxon
and  Norman  times ;  children  were  sold  in  Bristol
market  like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  sent
to  Ireland  and  to  Scotland.  Under  the  Normans
the  vassals  (termed  villeins,  of  and  pertaining  to
the  vill)  were  devisable  as  chattels  during  the
feudal  times.

Severe  statutes  were  passed  in  the  reign  of  Richard
II.,  1377  and  1385;  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler,
1381,  arose  partly  out  of  the  evils  of  serfdom.
A  statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a  runa-
way, or  any  one  who  lived  idly  for  three  days,
should  be  brought  before  two  justices  of  the
peace,  and  marked  V  with  a  hot  iron  on  the
breast,  and  adjudged  the  slave  of  him  who  bought
him  for  two  years.  He  was  to  take  the  slave  and
give  him  bread,  water,  or  small  drink,  and  refuse
meat,  and  cause  him  to  work  by  beating,  chain-
ing, or  otherwise ;  and,  if  within  that  space,  he
absented  himself  fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked
on  the  forehead  or  cheek,  by  a  hot  iron,  with  an
S,  and  be  his  master's  slave  for  ever;  second  de-
sertion was  made  felony.  It  was  lawful  to  put
a  ring  of  iron  round  his  neck,  arm,  or  leg.  A
child  might  be  put  apprentice,  and,  on  running
away,  become  a  slave  to  his  master  .  .  .  .  1547
Queen Elizabeth ordered her  bondsmen in the

western  counties  to  be  made  free  at  easy  rates  .  1574
Serfdom  was  finally  extinguished  in  1660,  when
tenures  in  capite,  knights'  service,  &c,  were
abolished.
A  slave  named  Somerset,  brought  to  England,
was,  because  of  his  ill  state,  turned  adrift  by
his  master.  By  the  charity  of  Mr.  Granville
Sharp  he  was  restored  to  health,  when  his  mas-
ter again  claimed  him.  A  suit  was  the  con-
sequence, which  established,  by  decision  of  the
Court  of  King's  Bench,  in  favour  of  Somerset,
that  slavery  coidd  not  exist  in  Great  Britain

22  June,  1772
Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the
British  colonies,  and  for  the  promotion  of  in-
dustry among  the  manumitted  slaves,  and  for
compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto  entitled  to
the  services  of  such  slaves  by  the  grant  from
parliament  of  20,000,000^  sterling,  passed

28  Aug.  1833


SLAVERY.


887


SLAVE  TEADE.


Slavery  terminated  in  the  British  possessions  ;
770,280  slaves  became  free  . . . 1  Aug.  1834

Slavery  was  abolished  in  the  East  Indies 1  Aug. 1838

British  and  Foreign  anti-slavery  society  established,  1839

In  1853  John  Anderson,  a  runaway  slave,  killed
Septimus  Digges,  a  planter  of  Missouri,  who  at-
tempted to  arrest  him,  and  escaped  to  Canada.
The  American  government  claimed  him  as  a  mur-
derer. The  Canadian  judges  deciding  that  the
law  required  his  surrender,  Mr.  Edwin  James,
Q.C.  (15  Jan.),  obtained  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus
for  his  appearance  before  the  court  of  queen's
bench.  Anderson  was  discharged  on  technical
grounds 16  Feb.  1861

Circular  from  the  Admiralty  concerning  the  sur-
rendering fugitive  slaves  on  board  British  ships
to  their  owners,  dated  31  July  ;  much  censured
by  the  public,  Sept.,  Oct.  ;  withdrawn  Nov.  1875

A  revised  circular  issued  near  end  of  Dec,  1875 ;
met  with  much  adverse  criticism . . Jan.  1876

Government  commission  appointed  (the  duke  of
Somerset,  chief  justice  Cockburn,  sir  Henry  S.
Maine,  and  others),  Feb.  ;  report  unfavourable  to
the  circulars ;  published . . .13  June, „

New  admiralty  instructions  :  fugitive  slaves  to  be
received  and  not  given  up  ;  action  left  to  captain's
discretion ;  breach  of  international  faith  and
comity  to  be  avoided  ;  issued . . 10  Aug. „

Jubilee  meeting  to  celebrate  the  abolition  of  slavery
in  the  British  colonies  at  Guildhall,  London,  the
prince  of  Wales  in  the  chair . . 1  Aug.  1884

SLAVERY  in  United  States.  .  Before  the

war  of  independence  all  the  states  contained  slaves.
In  1783  the  statement  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of
Rights,  "All  men  are  born  free  and  equal,"  was
declared  in  the  supreme  court  at  Boston  to  bar
slave-holding  in  that  state.  Slaves  in  the  United
States  in  1790,  697,897;  in  1810,  1,191,364;  in
1820,  2,009,031;  in  1850,  3,204,313;  in  i860,
4,002,996. In  1870,  4,889, 193,  free  coloured  persons.

Congress  passes  unanimously  the  celebrated  ordin--
anee  "for  the  government  of  the  territory  to  the
N.  W.  of  the  Ohio,"  which  contained  an  "unaltera-
ble" article,  forbidding  slavery  or  involuntary  servi-
tude in  the  said  state,  13  July,  1787;  after  1800,
several  of  the  states  prayed,  without  effect,  to
be  relieved  from  this  prohibition.

Louisiana  purchased,  which  was  considered  by
many  as  fatal  to  the  constitution  ....  1803

The  enormous  increase  in  the  growth  of  cotton  in
the  southern  states  (see  Cotton)  led  to  a  corre-
sponding increase  in  the  demand  for  slave  labour.
The  Missouri  Compromise  (drawn  up  by  Henry
Clay,  by  which  slavery  was  permitted  in  that
state,  but  was  prohibited  in  all  that  part  of  it  to
the  north  of  36°  30'  N.  lat.),  carried  . Feb.  1820

Contest  between  the  slave-holders  aud  their  oppo-
nents at  the  annexation  of  Texas ;  a  similar
division  to  that  of  Missouri  obtained  25  Dec.  1845

Another  compromise  effected  ;  California  admitted
as  a  free  state :  but  the  Fugitive  Slave  act  passed
{which  see) .  ......  1850

The  Missouri  compromise  was  abrogated  by  the
admission  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas  as  slave-
holding  states ;  civil  war  ensued  (see  Kansas)  .  1854

Dred  Soot's  case  (see  United  States)  .... 1857

John  Brown's  attempt  to  create  a  slave  rebellion  in
Virginia  failed  (see  United  States) . . Nov.  1859

Abraham  Lincoln,  the  anti  -  slavery  candidate,
elected  president  of  the  United  States 4  Nov.  i860

Secession  of  South  Carolina  (see  United  States),  Dec. ,,

Slavery  abolished  in  the  district  of  Colombia

16  April,  1S62

President  Lincoln  proclaims  the  abolition  of
slavery  in  the  southern  states,  if  they  have  not
returned  to  the  union  on  1  Jan.  1863 22  Sept. ,,

The  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States
officially  announced ....  18  Dec. ,,

Mr.  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  a  fervent  champion  for
emancipation,  entertained  at  St.  James's-liall,
London  (he  started  the  Liberator  in  1831,  and
had  suffered  much  for  his  zeal) . .  29  June,  1867

A  negro  judge  present  in  a  court  at  New  Orleans,

18  Sept. „


Negro  equality  with  the  whites  completely  recog-
nised Feb. 1S70

See  United  States,  1860-5.

SLAVE  TRADE.  The  slave  trade  from  Con-
gou and  Angola  was  begun  by  the  Portuguese  in
1481.  The  commerce  in  man  lias  brutalised  a  tract
fifteen  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  forty-
degrees  wide,  or  of  4,000,000  of  square  miles;  and
men  and  women  have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the
Christian  nations  during  the  last  250  years,  and
war  carried  on  to  make  prisoners  for  the  Christian
market.  The  Abbe  Raynal  computed  (1777)  that,  at
the  time  of  his  writing,  9,000,000  of  slaves  had  been
consumed  by  the  Europeans.  The  slave-trade  is
now  approaching  extinction.

In  1768  the  slaves  taken  from  Africa  amounted  to
104,100. In  1786  the  annual  number  was  about  100,000.

In  1807  it  was  shown  by  documents,  produced  by  govern-
ment, that  since  1792  upwards  of  3,500,000  Africa  us
had  been  torn  from  their  country,  and  had  either  per-
ished on  the  passage  or  been  sold  in  the  West  Indies.

Slave  Trade  of  England  :  begun  by  sir  John  Hawkins.
His  first  expedition,  with  the  object  of  procuring
negroes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  conveying  them
for  sale  at  the  West  Indies,  took  place  in  Oct.  1562  ;
see  Guinea,  and  Assiento.

England  employed  130  ships  and  carried  off  42,000  slaves,
1786.

Thos.  Clarkson,  at  a  spot  in  Wadesmill,  Hertford,  de-
votes his  life  to  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  June,
17S5.

The  "Society  for  the  Suppression  of  the  Slave  Trade,"
founded  by  Clarkson,  Wilberforce,  and  Dillwyn,  1787.

Slave-trade  question  debated  in  parliament,  1787.

The  debate  for  its  abolition  ;  two  days,  April,  1791.

Mr.  Wilberforce's  motion  lost  by  a  majority  of  88  to  8?,
3  April,  1798.

The  question  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  Lord
Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox,  then  ministers,  31  March,  1806.

The  trade  abolished  by  parliament,  25  March,  1807.

Thomas  Clarkson,  died,  aged  85,  Sept.  1846.

An  obelisk  as  a  memorial  of  Thos.  Clarkson,  erected  by
Mr.  Arthur  Giles  Puller,  at  Wadesmill,  inaugurated  o
Oct.  1879.

A  statue  unveiled  at  Wisbeaeh,  Cambridge,  n  Nov.  1881.

Foreign  countries  :  the  trade  was  abolished  by  Austria
in  1782  ;  by  the  French  convention  in  1794  ;  by  the
United  States  in  1808.

The  allies  at  Vienna  declared  against  it,  Feb.  1815.

Napoleon,  in  the  hundred  days,  abolished  the  trade,  29
March,  1815.

Treaty  for  its  repression  with  Spain,  1817  ;  with  the
Netherlands,  May,  1818  ;  with  Brazil,  Nov.  1826  ;  pro-
hibition, 1831 ;  not  effected  till  1852.

Its  revival  was  proposed  in  the  congress  of  the  United
States  of  America,  14  Dec.  1856,  and  negatived  by  1S3
votes  to  58.

In  June,  1857,  the  French  government  gave  permission  to
M.  Regis  to  convey  free  negroes  from  Africa  to  Qua  la-
loupe  and  Martiuido,  French  colonies.

This  having  led  to  abuses  and  consequent  troubles  (see
Charles  et  Georges),  was  eventually  given  up  in  Jan.
1859.

It  is  said  that  about  40,000  slaves  were  landed  at  Cuba  in
i860.

A  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  for
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  was  signed  7  April  ;
ratified  20  May.  1862.

The  Spanish  government  denounce  the  slave  trade  as
piracy,  Nov.  1865.

Sir  Samuel  Baker  headed  an  expedition  to  put  down
slave-trading  on  the  Nile  (see  Egypt),  Jan.  1870 ;  reported
to  be  partially  successful,  30  June,  1873.  He  pub-
lished "  Ismailia,"  a  history  of  the  expedition,  1874.
He  estimates  that  at  least  50,000  arc  captured  aud
sold  as  slaves,  Nov.  1874.

A  species  of  slave  trade  has  lately  risen  in  tin1  Ninth
Seas;  the  natives  being  enticed  on  board  certain
British  vessels  and  shipped  to  Queensland,  Australia,
and  ths  l'i.]i  isles  th:  sutj:  -t  wis  brought  Defers  pi  r-
liament  (see  Melanesia),  1S71-2.

The  ship  Carl  (owner,  Dr.  .lames  F.  Murray;  master,
Joseph  Armstrong)  lefi  Melbourne  for  South  Sen  isles  ;
it  anchored  oil'  Malokolo,  Solomon's  and  Bougainville


SLAVONIA.


SMALLPOX.


isles  and  kidnapped  many  natives  as  labourers  for  the
Fiji  isles  ;  while  about  20  miles  from  land,  the  prisoners
rose  and  attempted  to  set  fire  to  the  ship  ;  were  fired
on  ;  about  50  killed  and  20  wounded  were  cast  into  the
sea.  At  Melbourne  Murray  gave  evidence,  and  Arm-
strong was  committed  for  trial,  16  Aug.  ;  the  master
and  mate  sentenced  to  death,  Nov.  1872.

Sir  Bartle  Frere  went  to  Zanzibar  on  a  mission  to  suppress
the  East  African  slave  trade  ;  see  Zanzibar,  1872-3.

An  act  of  parliament  for  consolidating  with  amendments
the  acts  for  carrying  into  effect  treaties  for  the  more
effectual  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  (36  &  37  Viet.
c.  88),  was  passed,  5  Aug.  1873.

Several  African  kings  and  chiefs,  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,
agreed  to  give  up  slave  trade,  at  an  interview  with
governor  Strahan,  3  Nov. 1874.

The  slave-trade  on  the  Gold  Coast  abolished,  by  procla-
mation of  governor  Strahan,  17  Dec.  1874.

Convention  with  Egypt  forbidding  the  traffic,  4  Aug.
1877 ;  col.  Gordon's  efforts  in  the  Soudan  reported  suc-
cessful, 1879.

Slave  trade  prohibited  at  West  African  conference,  7  Jan.
1885.

Slave  trade  in  East  Africa  checked  by  British  cruisers,
1886.

United  action  of  England  and  Germany  and  other
powers  to  check  the  maritime  slave-trade  and  importa-
tion of  arms  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  which  is  to
be  blockaded  for  that  purpose  from  Suakin  to
Zanzibar,  Oct.-Nov.  ;  proclamation  of  the  commence-
ment of  the  blockade,  2  Dec.  1888. See  Zanzibar.

Mr.  Sydney  Buxton's  resolution  for  urgent  suppression
of  the  slave  trade  passed  in  the  house  of  commons,
26  March,  1889.

Slave  trade  reported  nearly  extinct  in  Egypt,  and  few
slaves  there,  May,  1889.

Law  for  the  repression  of  the  slave  trade  published  in
Turkey,  30  Dec.  1889.

Dealing  in  slaves  prohibited  in  Zanzibar,  1  Aug.  1890.

SLAVONIA  or  SCLAVONIA,  a  province  of
Austria,  derives  its  name  from  the  Slaves,  a  Sarma-
tian  people  who  replaced  the  Avars  in  Pannonia
early  in  the  9th  century.  In  864  Cyril  and  Metho-
dius, Greek  missionaries,  preached  here,  and  adapted
the  Greek  alphabet  to  the  Slavonian  language  ;  the
letters  of  which  have  since  been  a  little  altered.
The  country,  after  having  been  held  at  times  by  the
Greeks,  Turks,  and  Hungarians,  and  the  cause  of
sanguinary  conflicts,  was  ceded  finally  to  Hungary
in  1699,  at  the  peace  of  Carlo witz.  Deputies  from
the  Slavonian  provinces  of  Austria  were  entertained
at  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  May,  1867.  The
Croatian-Slavonian  diet,  at  Agram,  was  dissolved,
May,  1867.  It  protested  against  incorporation  with
Hungary.  The  Slavonian  family  of  languages  in-
cludes Eussian,  Polish,  Servian,  Bohemian,  Bul-
garian, Wendic,  Slovak,  and  Polabic.  For  the  war,
see  Turkey,  1875-6.

Estimated  number  of  Slavs  in  Europe  in  1875  :  90,365,633  ;
Russians  and  Ruthenians,  66,129,590;  Serbo-Croats,
5,940,539;  Bulgarians,  5,123,952;  Slovenes,  1,260,000;
Slovaks,2,223,83o;  Czechs,  4,815,154  ;  Poles,  9,492,162.
Lord  Ilchester's  bequest  to  promote  the  study  of  Slavo-
nian literature  at  Oxford;  lectures  first  given,  May,
1876.
Agitation  against  the  Germans  in  Slavonic  provinces  of
Austria,  Aug.  Sept.  1883.

SLEEP,  see  Seven  Sleepers.  M.  Chauffat,
awoke  after  a  nineteen  days'  sleep  at  the  Alexandra
Palace,  28  Nov.  1888;  many  similar  cases  are
reported.  Johann  Latus,  at  Myslowitz,  in  Silesia,
is  said  to  have  slept  four-and-a-half  months,  being
kept  alive  by  imbibing  milk,  reported  31  Jan. ;  he
awoke  about  9  Feb.,  1892.  The  case  was  ascribed
to  catalepsy.

SLESWIG,  see  Holstein.
SLIDING-SCALE,  see  Com  Laws.

SLING.  In  Judges  xx.  16,  is  mentioned  the
skill  of  the  Bcnjamite  slingers  (about  1406  B.C.),
and  with  a  sling  David  slew  Goliath  1063  b.c.  (i


Sam.  xvii.)  The  natives  of  the  Balearic  isles
(Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivii^a)  were  celebrated
slingers,  and  served  as  mercenaries  in  the  Cartha-
ginian and  Roman  armies.  Slings  are  said  to  have
been  used  by  the  Huguenots  at  the  siege  of  San-
cerre,  in  1672,  to  economise  their  powder.

SLOANE'S  MUSEUM,  see  British  Museum.

SLOUGH,  near  Eton,  Bucks,  Mrs.  Ann  Reville,
a  butcher's  wife,  wras  barbarously  murdered  early
in  evening,  11  April,  1881.  Alfred  Payne,  a  lad,
was  tried  and  acquitted,  same  month.

SLOYD  ASSOCIATION  of  Great
Britain  and  Ireland,  its  object  to  promote

the  training  of  the  eye  and  hand;  first  meeting
held  in  London,  the  earl  of  Heath  in  the  chair,
5  Dec.  1888.  The  "Sloyd"  system  is  reported
successful  in  Scandinavia.

SLUYS  (Holland),  near  which  Edward  III.
gained  a  signal  naval  victory  over  the  French.  The
English  had  the  wind  of  the  enemy,  and  the  sun  at
their  backs,  and  began  this  sanguinary  action.  Two
hundred  and  thirty  French  ships  were  taken ;  thou-
sands of  Frenchmen  were  killed,  with  two  of  their
admirals ;  the  loss  of  the  English  was  inconsider-
able :  24  June,  1340.

SMALCALD  (Hesse),  TREATY  OF,  entered
into  between  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the
other  princes  of  Germany  in  favour  of  Protestantism,
31  Dec.  1530;  see  Protestants.  The  emperor,  ap-
prehensive that  the  kings  of  France  and  England
would  join  this  league,  signed  the  treaty  of  Passau,
31  July,  1532,  allowing  liberty  of  conscience.

SMALLPOX,  variola  (diminutive  of  varus,  a
pimple),  a  highly  contagious  disease,  supposed  (0
have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East  by
the  Saracens.  Bhazes,  an  Arabian,  described  it
accurately,  about  900.  From  Europe  it  was  carried
to  America,  soon  after  its  disco  very,  and  raged  there
with  great  severity,  destroying  the  Indians  by  thou-
sands. In  1694,  queen  Mary  of  England  died  of
smallpox,  as  did  in  1711  and  1712  the  emperor  of
Germany,  the  dauphin  and  dauphiness  of  France  and
then-  son,  in  1730  the  emperor  of  Bussia,  in  1741
the  queen  of  Sweden,  and  in  1774  Louis  XV.  of
France.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  middle  of  the  last
century  two  millions  perished  by  it  in  Bussia.  In
London  in  1723  one  out  of  fourteen  deaths  was
caused  by  small  pox,  and  in  France  in  1754  the  rate
was  one  in  ten.  For  the  attempts  to  alleviate  this
scourge,  see  Inoculation,  introduced  into  England
in  1722,  and  Vaccination,  announced  by  Dr.  Jenner
in  1790.  Smallpox  Hospital,  established  1746.
Smallpox  raged  in  parts  of  London,  and
thousands  died,  1870- 1 ;  a  temporary  hospital  was
established  at  Hampstead  {tuhich  see).  The  Anti-
Vaccination  society  has  been  active,  and  many
parents  have  been  fined  for  opposing  the  vaccina-
tion of  their  children,  1870-6.  In  Sept.  and  Oct.
1862,  a  great  many  sheep  died  of  smallpox  in  the
"West  of  England,  till  successful  preventive  measures
were  resorted  to.  Many  cases  in  London,  1876-8  ;
deaths  principally  of  unvaccinated  persons.
Smallpox  prevalent  in  London,  88  deaths  1 — 7  May;  103

deaths  15 — 21  May;  diminishing  July,  1881.
Deaths,  June,  1880 — June,  1881,  1532  deaths,  637  not
vaccinated  ;  in  N.E.  London,  May,  deaths,  about  36  a
week,  June,  1884 ;  deaths  decreasing  reported,  24
July  ;  reappears,  but  subsides,  Dec.  1884.
Severe  epidemic  of  smallpox  at  Sheffield  and  neighbour-
hood, March,  1887  ;  still  prevalent,  Jan.  1888  ;  dis-
appearing, April,  1888.

See  Vaccination.


SMALL  TENEMENTS  ACTS.


889


SNEEZING.


SMALL  TENEMENTS  ACTS  (59  Geo.  III.
c.  12,  1819)  ;  1850  (13  &  14  Vict.  c.  99),  provided
for  owners  paying'  rates  of  nouses  instead  of  the  oc-
cupiers. This  was  annulled  by  the  new  Reform
act,  30  &  31  Vict.  c.  102,  s.  7  (1867).

SMECTYMNUUS,  the  initials  of  certain  non-
conformist writers  against  episcopacy  in  the  seven-
teenth century:  Stephen  Marshall,  Edmund  Cala-
my,  Thomas  Young,  Matthew  Newcomen,  William
Spurstow.  They  were  answered  by  bishop  Hall  in
his  "  Divine  Right  of  Episcopacy,"  1640.

SMITH'S  CHAEITY  (foe  poor  kin).

Alderman  Henry  Smith,  by  will  dated  26  April,
1647, left IOOO/. for relief  of  captives held by
Turkish  pirates,  and  iooctf.  for  his  poor  kinsmen.
The  former  object  having  become  obsolete,  an  act  was
passed  in  1772  to  divert  all  the  property  to  the  poor
kinsmen. In  1868  these  were  412  in  number. The
value  of  the  property  is  now  17,000?.  a  year  (1889).
The master of  the rolls decided in Dec. 1877,
that  the  funds should  be  applied  to general  chari-
table purposes. On  appeal,  the  decision  was  in  favour
of  the  "poor  Smiths,"  12  Feb.  1878.

SMITHFIELD,  WEST,  in  the  heart  of
London,  was  once  a  favourite  walk  of  the  London
citizens,  outside  the  city  walls.  Sir  W.  "Wallace
was  executed  here,  23  Aug.  1305.  On  15  June,
1381,  Wat  Tyler  was  met  by  Richard  II.  at  this
place,  and  was  stabbed  by  Walworth  the  mayor.
Many  tournaments  were  also  held  here.  In  the
reign  of  Mary  (1553-8),  many  persons  perished  by
fire ;  and  Bartholomew  Leggatt,  an  Arian,  was
burnt  here,  18  March,  1612. — Bartholomew  fail-  was
held  here  till  1853.— This  place  is  mentioned  as  the
site  of  a  cattle  market  as  far  back  as  1150.  The
space  devoted  to  this  purpose  was  enlarged  from
about  three  acres  to  four  and  a  half,  and  in  1834  to
six  and  a  quarter.  The  ancient  regulations  were
called  the  "statutes  of  Smithfield."  In  one  day
there  were  sometimes  assembled  4000  beasts  and
30,000  sheep.  The  annual  amount  of  the  sales  was
about  7,000,000^.

Sold  here  226,132  beasts,  1,593,270  sheep  andlambs,
26,356  calves,  33,531  pigs.  (About  160  sales-
men) 1846

The  contracted  space  of  the  market,  the  slaughter-
ing places  adjoining,  and  many  other  nuisances,
gave  ground  to  much  dissatisfaction,  and  after
investigation,  an  act  was  passed  appointing
metropolitan  market  commissioners  with  powers
to  provide  a  new  market,  slaughtering  places,  &c.  ;
and  to  close  the  market  at  Smithfield  .  1  Aug.  1851
Smithfield  was  used  as  a  cattle  market  for  the  last
time  on  n  June  ;  and  the  new  market  in  Copen-
hagen-fields was  opened  on  13  June  (see  Metro-
politan Market) 1855

A  dead-meat  and  poultry  market  ordered  to  be
erected  in  Smithfield,  and  Newgate market  to

cease . . .  1861

A  tender  for  its  erection,  from  designs  by  Horace
Jones,  accepted  from  Messrs.  Browne  and  Robin-
son for  134,460? Nov.  1866

The  market  inaugurated  by  the  lord  mayor  Law-
rence, 24  Nov.  ;  opened  to  the  public . 1  Dec.  1868
New  poultry  market,  inaugurated  by  lord  mayor
Cotton ....... 30  Nov.  1875

New  central  fruit  and  vegetable  market  determined
on . . . . '  . '  . . 14  July,  1879

A  new  poultry  and  provision  market  was  opened  in
Farringdon  road  by  lord  mayor  Isaacs,  n  Dec.
1889  ;  the  new  fruit  and  vegetable  market  opened
by  lord  mayor  Evans . . . 13  June,  1892
The  Smithfield  Club,  to  promote improvements in  Hie
breed  of  cattle,  was  established  17  Dec.  1798  ;  first  pre-
sident, Francis, duke of Bedford  ; first  secretary,
Arthur  Young. The  members  established  an  annual
cattle  show,  held  first  in  Dolphin-yard.  Smithfield,  Dec.
1799  ;  next  in  Barbican,  1805  ;  in  Goswell-street,  1806  ;
removed  to  Baker-street,  1839  ; and  to  the  new  Agri-
cultural hall,  Liverpool-road,  Islington,  1862.


The  show,  suspended  in  Dec.  1866,  on  account  of  the
cattle  plague,  was  partially  resumed  Dec.  1S67  ;  wholly,
Dec.  1868.

Three  of  the  highest  prizes  were  awarded  to  the  queen  ;
110,000  visitors,  10-14  Oec.  1883.

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  "for  the
increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men,"
a  handsome  building  at  Washington,  U.S.,  was
founded  in  1846,  by  means  of  a  legacy  of  above
100,000^.  bequeathed  for  the  purpose  to  "the  United
States  government  by  James  Smithson,  illegitimate
son  of  sir  Hugh  Smith=on,  who  became  duke  of
Northumberland  in  1766.  It  publishes  and  freely
distributes  scientific  memoirs  and  reports.  The
library  was  burnt  on  25  Jan.  1865.  Professor
Joseph  Henry,  the  first  secretary,  died,  13  May,
1878 ;  succeeded  by  Mr.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  died,  19
Aug.  1887  ;  succeeded  by  Professor  S.  P.  Langley.

SMOKE  NUISANCE.  An  act  was  passed  in
1853  to  abate  this  nuisance,  proceeding  from  chim-
ney shafts  and  steamers  above  London  bridge.  In
1856  another  act,  obtained  for  its  further  application
to  steamers  below  London  bridge,  and  to  potteries
and  glass-houses  previously  exempted,  came  into
operation,  1  Jan.  1858;  enactments  have  been  made
for  all  the  kingdom.
Meeting  at  Mansion-house  for  the  abatement  of  smoke  in

London,  7  Jan.  1881.
An  exhibition  of  appliances  for  this  purpose in  the
Royal  Albert  Hall,  opened  30  Nov.  1881 ;  closed  14
Feb.  1882  ;  opened  at  Manchester,  17  March,  1882.
National  Smoke  Abatement  Institution  founded,  and  Mr.
R.  E.  W.  Coles  appointed  smoke  inspector,  autumn,
1882.
Smoke  abatement  fund  opened,  1883.
The  Thompson  smoke  consuming  furnace  tried  success-
fully on  the  Thames,  15  July,  1886.
Messrs.  Ashworth  and  Kneen  patent  a  furnace  which
saves  about  35  per  cent,  of  coal  and  consumes  smoke,
autumn,  1887.
A  bill  to  abate  the  nuisance  was  rejected  by  the  lords,

2  March,  1891.
A  smokeless  fuel,  invented  by  Herr  Koopmann,  was  ex-
hibited before  the  prince  of  Wales  and  others  at
Messrs.  Brewis'  premises,  King's  cross,  London,  N.,
7  April,  1891.  The  fuel  consists  of  coal-dust  incor-
porated with  pitch  and  other  mineral  substances  in
small  proportions.

SMOLENSKO  ( Russia) .  The  French  in  most
sanguinary  engagements  here  were  three  times  re-
pulsed, but  ultimately  succeeded  in  entering  Smo-
lensko,  and  found  the  city,  which  had  been  bom-
barded, burning  and  partly  in  ruins,  16,  17  Aug.
1812.  Barclay  de  Tolly,  the  Russian  commander-
in-chief,  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor
Alexander  because  he  retreated  after  the  battle,  and
Kutusoff  succeeded  to  the  command.

SMUGGLEES-  The  customs  duties,  institu-
ted to  enable  the  king  to  afford  protection  to  trade
against  pirates,  afterwards  became  a  branch  of
public  revenue,  and  gave  rise  to  much  smuggling
The  Smugglers'  act  was  passed  in  1736,  and  its
severity  was  mitigated  in  178 1  and  1784.  A  re-
vision of  these  statutes  took  place  1826  and  1835.
Lieut,  the  lion.  H.  N.  Shore's  "  Smuggling  Days
and  Smuggling  Ways,"  published  1892.

SMYENA,  see  Seven  Churches.

SNEEZING.  The  custom  of  saying  "God
bless  you"  to  the  sneezer  originated,  according  to
Strada,  among  the  ancients,  who,  through  an
opinion  of  the  danger  attending  it,  after  sneezing
made  a  short  prayer  to  the  -mis,  as  "Jupiter,  help
me."  The  custom  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  the
Jewish  rabbis,  and  others,  and  is  found  among
savages.  Polydorc  Vergil  says  it  took  its  rise  at
the  time  of  the  plague,  558,  when  the  infected  fell


SNIDEE GUN.


890


SOCIAL  WAES.


down  dead  sneezing,  though  seemingly  in  good
health.

SNIDEE  GUN,  see  under  Firearms.

SNUFF-TAKING  took  its  rise  in  England
from  the  captures  made  of  vast  quantities  of  snuff
by  sir  George  Kooke's  expedition  to  Vigo  in  1702,
and  the  practice  soon  became  general.  In  1839
there  were  imported  1,622,493  lbs.  of  snuff,  of  which
196,305  lbs.  were  entered  for  home  consumption ;
the  duty  was  88,263/.  ;  see  Tobacco.  In  1853,
2,573,925  lbs.  of  snuff  and  cigars,  in  1861,  2,110,430
lbs. ;  in  1871,  3,852,236  lbs. ;  1877,  3,762,831  lbs.;
1883,  3,121,174  lbs.;  1887,  3,595,071  lbs.  were  im-
ported.

SOANE  MUSEUM,  &c.  No.  13,  Lincoln'  s-inn-
fields,  was  gradually  formed  by  sir  J  ohn  Soane,  the
architect,  who  died  in  1837,  after  making  arrange-
ments for  its  being  open  to  the  public  by  an  act
passed  in  1833.  It  contains  Egyptian  and  other
antiquities,  valuable  paintings,  rare  books,  &c.
150/.  are  distributed  annually  to  distressed  archi-
tects or  their  widows  and  children.
One  of  two  sealed  closets  in  the museum  was

opened 29 Nov. 1886 ; chiefly private legal

documents  discovered.

SOAP  is  a  salt,  a  compound  of  a  fatty  acid  with
an  alkali,  soda  or  potash.  The  Hebrew  borith,
translated  soap,  is  merely  a  general  term  for
cleansing  substances.  Job  ix.  30 ;  Jer.  ii.  22.
Pliny  declares  soap  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Gauls,
though  he  prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap.
Nausicaa  and  her  attendants,  Homer  tells  us,
washed  clothes  by  treading  upon  them  with  their
feet  in  pits  of  water.  Odyssey,  book  vi.  The
Eomans  used  fuller's  earth.  Savon,  the  French
word  for  soap,  is  ascribed  to  its  having  been  manu-
factured at  Savona,  near  Genoa.  The  manufacture
of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before  which
time  it  was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per
pound.  The  duty  upon  soap,  imposed  in  1711,
after  several  reductions  from  3d.  per  pound,  was
totally  repealed  in  1853.  It  then  produced,  accord-
ing to  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr.  Glad-
stone, about  1,126,000/.  annually.  Exported  from
the  United  Kingdom  :  1876,  254,853  cwts. ;  1880,
391,808  cwts.;  1885,  402,112  cwts.;  1890,496,930
cwts.

SOBEAON  (N.W.  India). The  British  army,

35,000  strong,  under  sir  Hugh  (afterwards  viscount)
Gough,  attacked  the  Sikh  force  on  the  Sutlej,  10
.Feb.  1846.  The  enemy  Avas  dislodged  after  a
dreadful  contest,  and  all  their  batteries  taken ;  and
inattempting  the  passage  of  the  river  by  a  floating
bridge  in  their  rear,  the  weight  of  the  masses  that
crowded  upon  it  caused  it  to  break  down,  and
thousands  of  Sikhs  were  lolled,  wounded,  or
drowned. The  British  loss  was  2338  men.

_  SOCIALISM,  which  proposes  the  re-organisa-
tion of  society  for  the  benefit  of  the  community  at
the  expense  of  the  individual,  was  warmly  ad-
vocated in  London,  24  Jan.  1834,  by  Bobert  Owen.
He  had,  beginning  at  New  Lanark,  in  Scotland,
about  1 801,  established  a  settlement  at  New  Har-
mony in  America  in  1824.  He  died  17  Nov.  1858,
aged  90.  The  French  socialists,  termed  Communists,
became  a  powerful  political  body  in  that  country,
were  implicated  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and
made  an  insurrection  at  Paris,  187 1.  See  France,
Germany,  1878  et  seq.,  Positive  Philosophy,  and
Working-men  (who,  in  Great  Britain,  have  received
by  legislation  nearly  all  they  require).


The  Rev.  Charles  Kingsley,  Mr.  Thomas  Hughes, ■
and others, endeavoured to  set  up Christian
Socialism,  about 1855-60

P.  J.  Proudhon,  an  eminent  socialist,  to  whom  is
ascribed  the  saying  "  la  propriete  e'est  le  vol " ;  died

20  Jan.  1865

Communist  manifesto  issued  by  Carl  Marx,  1848 ;
(he  died  14  March,  1883).

Social  democratic  party  organised  by  Ferdinand
Lassalle 1863

International  workmen's  association  formed . .  1864

"  Gotha  programme "  (exalting  labour) . . .  1875

A  grand  congress  of  socialists  met  at  Ghent,  Sept.  1877

Socialism  said  to  be  increasing  in  Germany .  ,,

Stringent  bill  to  repress  it  passed  in  the  parliament ;
socialists  expelled  from  Germany  by  decree,  Nov.
many  papers  suppressed,  Nov.,  Dec,  1878. Ex-
pulsions renewed .... autumn,  1S80
See  Germany,  1890.

Illegal  meeting  of  socialists  permitted  in  Dod-
street,  Limehouse,  London . . 27  Sept.  1885

Social  democratic  federation  holds  meetings  which
tend  to  riots,  see  Puots . . 8  and  21  Feb.  1886

Peaceable  meetings  held  in  Trafalgar-square  29  Aug.

and  21  Nov. „

Their  proposal  for  a  procession  on  9  Nov.  forbidden,

Oct. „

About  the  end  of  1886  they  began  "church  parades"
disturbing  the  service  at  several  churches ;
ineffectually  at  St.  Paul's  cathedral . 27  Feb.  1887

The  general  council  of  the  social  democratic
federation  issues  a  manifesto  exhorting  to  con-
stant organized  agitation  for  adequate  relief
works  &c,  to  be  provided  by  the  government
and  local  authorities  ;  see  Hyde  Park  and  Riots,

13  Nov. ,,

Mr.  William  Morris,  poet,  author  of  the  "  Earthly
Paradise,"  Mr.  H.  M.  Hyndman,  Mr.  H.  H.
Champion,  and  Mr.  John  Burns  became  leaders
of  the  "  socialist  league  "  formed  in  1886.

A  kind  of  state  socialism  instituted  in  Germany  ;
see  under  Working  Men,  1889.

The  attempts  of  the  federation  to  hold  open-air
meetings  at  Chelsea  on  Sunday  evenings,  pre-
vented by  the  police,  Oct.,  Dee.  1891,  and  .  Jan.  1892

.SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  The  National  Asso-
ciation for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science  origin-
ated in  a  meeting  at  lord  Brougham's  in  May,  1857.
Its  object  was  to  promote  improvements  in  the
administration  of  law,  in  education,  in  public
health,  and  in  social  economy.  It  held  annual
meetings,  and  published  its  proceedings.

Mr.  Wm.  Ellis  and  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  began  to

promote  the  study about  1S23

Birmingham,  meeting  opened ... 12  Oct.  1857

Liverpool . . . '. . . . 11  Oct.  1858

Bradford 10  Oct.  1859

Glasgow 24  Sept.  i860

Dublin 14  Aug.  1861

London 6  June,  1862

Edinburgh 7  Oct.  1863

York 22  Sept.  1S64

Sheffield 4  Oct.  1865

Manchester 2  Oct.  1866

Belfast 18  Sept.  1867

Birmingham 30  Sept.  1868

Bristol 29  Sept.  1869

Newcastle-on-Tyne 21  Sept.  1870

Leeds 4  Oct.  1871

Plymouth n  Sept.  .1872

Norwich 1  Oct.  1873

Glasgow 30  Sept.  1874

Brighton 6  Oct.  1875

Liverpool 11  Oct.  1876

Aberdeen 19  Sept.  1877

Cheltenham 23  Oct.  1878

Manchester 1  Oct.  1879

Edinburgh 5  Oct.  1880

Dublin 3  Oct.  1S81

Nottingham 20  Sept.  1882

Huddersfield 3  Oct.  1883

Birmingham  (the  last  congress)  . . . 17  Sept.  1884

SOCIAL  WAES,  see  Athens,  and  Marsi.


SOCIETIES.


891


SOCIETIES.


SOCIETIES  and  Institutions,  LITE-
RARY AND  SCIENTIFIC,  in  Great  Britain.
Further  details  of  many  of  these  will  be  found
under  their  respective  heads.  All  in  the  list  below
are  in  London,  except  otherwise  stated.  An  act
was  passed  n  Aug.  1854,  "to  afford  facilities  for
the  establishment  of  institutions  for  the  promotion
of  literature  and  science,"  by  grants  of  land,  &c. ;
and  for  their  regulation.  The  Koyal  and  London
Institutions  were  exempted  from  the  operation  of
the  act.

The  "Year-Book  of  Scientific  aud  Learned  Societies

first  appeared  in 1884

Royal  Society Charter  1662

Christian  Knowledge  Society 1698

Society  of  Antiquaries  . . . (Charter  1751)  1717

Society  of  Dilettanti 1734

Society  of  Arts .... (Charter  1847)  1753

Medical  Society  of  London 1773

Bath  and  West  of  England  Society  ....  1777

Gaelic  Society  of  London ,,

Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  .  .  1781
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh . (Charter  1783)  1782

Highland  Society 1785

Royal  Irish  Academy '. . . .  Charter  1786

Linnaean  Society  ....  (Charter  1802)  1788
Newcastle  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  .  .  1793
Royal  Institution  (Act  of  parliament,  1810)  Charter  1800

Glasgow  Philosophical  Society 1802

Royal  Horticultural  Society  .  .  (Charter  1809)  1804
Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society

(Charter  1834)  1805

London  Institution „

Geological  Society ....  (Charter  1826)  1807

Russell  Institution 1808

Swedenborg  Society 1810

Liverpool  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society . .  1812

Roxburghe  Club „

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  .  (Charter  182S)  1818
Leeds  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society . . „

Egyptian  Society 1819

Cambridge  Philosophical  Society .  (Charter  1832) ,,

Hunterian  Society ,,

Royal  Astronomical  Society . . (Charter  1831)  1820

Medico-Botanical  Society 1821

Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts „

Hull  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society . . .  1822
Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society ....,,
Sheffield  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society . . ,,
Royal  Society  of  Literature . .  (Charter  1826)  1823
Royal  Asiatic  Society . . . (Charter  1824) ,,

Bannatyne  Club,  Edinburgh

Mechanics'  Institution,  London

Athenaeum  Club

Western  Literary  Institution

Eastern  Literary  Institution

Zoological  Society  .... (Charter  1829)

Incorporated  Law  Society . .  (Charter  1831)  1827

Society  for  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  .

Ashmolean  Society,  Oxford ....

Maitland  Club,  Glasgow ....

Royal  Geographical  Society

Royal  United  Service  Institution (Charter  1

Royal  Dublin  Society

Harveian  Society

British  Association

Marylebone  Literary  Institution
British  Medical  Association

Entomological  Society

Statistical  Society

Westminster  Literary  Institution

Surtees  Society,  Durham

Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects  (Charter  1837)
Leicester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society
Abbotsford  Club,  Edinburgh .
Numismatic  Society ....
Ornithological  Society ....

Electrical  Society

Etching  Club

English  Historical  Society .

Royal  Agricultural  Society  (Charter  1840)

Camden  Society

Microscopical  Society  (Royal,  1866)
Ecclesiological  Society ....
Spalding  Club,  Aberdeen


1824
1825


26


1828


1830
1831


1833
1834


183s

183S-7

1836

1837
1837-8


838-56
1838


Royal  Botanical  Society  of  London  . . . . 1839

Parker  Society 1840-55

Percy  Society  1840-52

Irish  Archaeological  Society,  Dublin . . . .  1840

London  Library „

Shakespeare  Society ,,

Chemical  Society 1341

Pharmaceutical  Society ,,

Wodrow  Society,  Edinburgh .... 1841-7

Philological  Society 1842

j-Elfric  Society 1843-56

Chetham  Society,  Manchester 1843

Spottiswoode  Society,  Edinburgh ....,,
British  Archaeological  Association . . . . ,,

Royal  Archaeological  Institute

Sydenham  Society ,,

Ethnological  Society ,,

Law  Amendment  Society ,,

Handel  Society 1844

Syro-Egyptian  Society , ,

Ray  Society ,,

Caxton  Society 1844-54

Celtic  Society,  Dublin 1845-53

Pathological  Society 1846

Sussex  Archaeological  Society,  Lewes . . . ,,
Cambrian  Archaeological  Association  . . . . ,,

Cavendish  Society ,,

Hakluyt  Society ,

Palaeoutographical  Society 1847

Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers  (Birmingham) . ,,

Institute  of  Actuaries 1848

Arundel  Society ,,

(British, now Royal) Meteorological Society

(Charter  1866)  1S50

Epidemiological  Society ,,

North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,

Newcastle 1851

Photographic  Society 1852

Philobiblon  Society 1853

Juridical  Society 1855

Odontological  Society 1856

Genealogical  Society 1857

National  Association  for  Social  Science . . . ,,

Horological  Institute 1858

Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Fine  Arts . . ,,
Institution  of  Naval  Architects ....  i860

Clinical  Society 1861

Anthropological  Society 1863

Early  English  Text  Society  ;  began  to  publish .  1864

Victoria  Institute 24  May,  1865

London  Mathematical  Society ,,

Aeronautical  Society .... 12  Jan.  1866

Dialectic  Society  . .  * 1867

Chaucer  Society ,,

Holbein  Society 1S68

Royal  Historical  Society ,,

Colonial  Institute  (Royal  Charter,  1882) . . . „

Iron  and  Steel  Institute 1869

Harleian  Society  . . . . , . . . ,,

Amateur  Mechanical  Society ,,

Christian  Evidence  Society 1871

Biblical  Archaeology  Society ,,

Anthropological  Institute  (which  see)  . . . . ,,
Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  Qatc  Society  of

Telegraph  Engineers) . . . . . . ,,

Marine  Engineers'  Institution 1872

Society  for  Organization  of  Academical  Study . ,,
London  Anthropological  Society  (extinct) . 1873-5

Palaeographical  Society 1873

English  Dialectic  Society ....  ,,

(New)  Shakspeare  Society

Physical  Society 1874

Musical  Association ,

Public  Analysts ,,

Psychological  Society 1875

Education  Society ,,

Royal  Aquarium  Society „

Mineralogical  Society 1876

Sanitary  Institute  of  Great  Britain ,

Philosophical  Society  (Birmingham)  . . . . „

[library  Association 1877

Index  Society ,,

Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great  Britain . . . „

Zetetical  Society 1878

Polk-Lore  Society „

Astrological  Society ......  1879

Carlyle  Society

Hellenic  Society ,


SOCIETY  ISLANDS.


SOLFERINO.


Society  for  promoting  Hellenic  Studies . . .  1879

Rabelais  Club .  . .  . .  . .  . ... . . .  ,,

Willoughby  Society ,,

Institute  of  Bankers

Balloon  Society 1880

Aristotelian  Society . „

Wordsworth  Society , ,

Topographical  Society  of  London . . . .  ,,

Ascham  Society ,,

Chemical  Industry  Society 1881

Browning  Society ,,

Society  for  Psychical  Research ....  1882

Wy  cliff e  Society . . . . . . .  ,,

Seal  Society 1883

Marine  Biological  Association 1884

Society  of  Authors . „

Pipe  Roll. Society „

Middlesex  County  Record  Society . . .  , ,

Society  of  Medallists 1885

Bacon  Society „

Selborne  Society „

Shelley,  Society . . . .. ., . .  „

Goethe  Society 1886

Selden  Society 1887

Neurological  Society ,,

Anatomical  Society ,

Gilbert  Club 1889

Ruskin.  Society 1890

British  Artronomical  Society ,,

Japan  Society 1892

SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  Pacific  Ocean,  dis-
covered by  De  Quiros  in  1606;  re-discovered  by
capt.  Wallis,  1767,  who  gave  Otaheite  or  Tahiti
the  name  of  King  George's  Island.  Capt.  Cook,
who  visited  them  in  1769  and  1777,  named  them
Society  Islands  in  honour  of  the  Royal  Society.
See  Otaheite.

SOCINIANS,  persons  who  accept  the  opinions
of  Faustus  Socinus  (died  1562),  and  his  nephew
Lselius  (died  1604),  Siennese  noblemen.  They  held
— 1.  That  the  Eternal  Father  was  the  one  only  God,
and  that  Jesus  Christ  was  no  otherwise  God  than
by  his  superiority  to  all  other  creatures;  2.  That
Christ  was  not  a  mediator ;  3.  That  hell  will  endure
for  a  time,  after  which  the  soul  and  body  will  be
destroyed  ;  4.  That  it  is  unlawful  for  princes  to
make  war.  Hook.  The  Socinians  established  a
church  at  Rakow,  in  Poland,  and  made  proselytes
in  Transylvania,  1563.  They  were  expelled  from
Poland  in  1658.  The  Rakovian  catechism  was
published  in  1574;  see Unitarians.

SOCOTBA  (Dioscoridis  insula),  an  island  in
the  Indian  ocean,  belonging  to  the  imam  of  Muscat,
120  miles  E.  of  cape  Guardafui,  Eastern  Africa.
In  the'  summer  of  1878,  it  was  said  to  have  been
given  up  to  the  British;  formally  annexed,  Nov.
1886.

SODIUM,  a  remarkable  metal,  first  obtained
in  1807  by  sir  Humphry  Davy,  from  soda  (which
was  formerly  confounded  with  potash,  but  proved
to  be  a  distinct  substance  by  Duhamel  in  1736).
This  metal,  like  potassium,  was  obtained  by  the
agency  of  the  electric  battery.  In  consequence  of
Deville's  improved  processes,  sodium  manufac-
tured by  Bell  Brothers,  of  Newcastle,  at  10s.  a  pound
(1868).  It  is  an  important  agent  in  the  modern
production  of  aluminium.  Common  salt  (chloride
of  sodium)  is  a  compound  of  sodium  and  chlorine.
Mr.  H.  Y.  Casther's  (of  New  York)  new  process  for
the  enlarged  production  of  sodium,  and  through
sodium  of  aluminium  and  magnesium,  announced
in  June,  1887.  His  works  were  set  up  at  Oldbury,
near  Birmingham  ;  the  price  of  sodium  in  1889  was
about  4s.  40!.  a  pound.  See  Alkalies  and  Alu-
minium.

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH  (Palestine),  with


their  inhabitants,  were  destroyed  by  fire  from
heaven  1898  B.C.,  Gen.  xix.

SODOR,  said  to  be  derived  from  Sodor-eys,  or
south  isles  (the  iEbrides  or  Hebrides) ,  in  distinc-
tion from  Orkneys,  the  north  isles.  The  southern
or  western  isles  were  made  an  episcopal  diocese  by
Magnus,  king  of  Norway,  1098,  and  joined  to  the
isle  of  Man  about  n  13. See  Man.

SOFIA,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Bulgaria;
founded  by  Justinian  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient
Sardica ;  became  the  capital  of  the  new  principality.
A  palace  and  other  buildings  were  erected,  Aug.
1 88 1.  It  contains  30  mosques  and  10  churches.
Destructive  thunderstorm  with  loss  of  life,  31  May,
1890 ;  see  Bulgaria. Population,  1890,  42,000.

SOFFARIDES  DYNASTY  reigned  in  Per-
sia, 872-902.

SOFTAS,  Mahometan  students  devoted  to  the
Koran  only. See  Turkey,  Majr,  1876.

SOHO BAZAAR AND THEATRE, see

Bazaars  and  Theatres.

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic

Suessiones,  was  subdued  by  Julius  Caesar,  57  B.C.
It  was  held  by  Syagrius,  after  his  father  JEgidius,
till  his  defeat  by  Clovis,  a.d.  486.  Several  councils
have  been  held  at  Soissons  (in  744,  1092,  1122).
Its  academy  was  established  in  1674.  During  the
Franco-Prussian  war,  Soissons,  after  three  weeks'
investment  and  four  days'  bombardment,  surren-
dered to  the  Germans  under  the  grand-duke  of
Mecklenburg,  16  Oct.  1870.  99  officers,  4633  men,
128  guns,  &c,  were  said  to  be  taken.  The  Germans
thus  obtained  a  second  line  of  railway  from  Chalons
to  Paris.

SOLAR  SYSTEM,  nearly  as  now  accepted,
is  said  to  have  been  taught  by  Pythagoras  of  Samos,
about  529  B.C.  He  placed  the  sun  in  the  centre,
and  all  the  planets  moving  in  elliptical  orbits
round  it — a  doctrine  superseded  by  the  Ptolemaic
system  (which  see).  The  system  of  Pythagoras,
revived  by  Copernicus  (1543),  is  called  the  Coper-
nican  system.  Its  truth  was  demonstrated  by  sir
Isaac  Newton  in  1687. See  Planets.

SOLDIERS'  DAUGHTERS'  HOME  was

established  at  Hampstead,  near  London,  in  Aug.
1857,  by  the  surplus  of  the  money  collected  by  the
central  association  in  aid  of  the  wives  and  families
of  soldiers  in  active  service  during  the  Crimean  war,
and  opened  by  the  prince  consort,  18  June,  1858.
It  has  been  much  indebted  to  the  exertions  of  major
Powys.

Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Families  Association  founded  1885
In  Nov.  1890  ct  scq.  it  received  subscriptions  for  the
sufferers  by  the  wreck  of  H.M.S.  Serpent,  see  Navy

Nov.  1890

SOLEBAY  or  Southwold  BAY  (Suffolk),
where  a  fierce  naval  battle  was  fought  between  the
fleets  of  England  and  France  on  one  side,  and  the
Dutch  oh  the  other,  the  former  commanded  by  the
duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  28  May,  1672.
The  English  lost  four  ships,  and  the  Dutch  three ;
but  the  enemy  fled,  and  were  pursued  to  their
coasts.  The  earl  of  Sandwich  was  blown  up,  and
thousands  were  killed  and  wounded.

SOL-FA  SYSTEM,  see  Music.

SOLFERINO  (in  Lombardy),  the  site  of  the
chief  struggle  on  the  great  battle  of  24  June,  1859,
between  the  allied  French  and  Sardinian  army
commanded  by  their  respective  sovereigns,  and  the
Austrians  under  general  Hess ;  the  emperor  being


SOLICITOE.


893


SOMNATH GATES.


present.  The  Austrians,  after  their  defeat  at
Magenta,  gradually  retreated  across  the  Mincio,
and  took  up  a  position  in  the  celebrated  quadrila-
teral, and  were  expected  there  to  await  the  attack.
But  the  advance  of  Garibaldi  on  one  side,  and  of
prince  Napoleon  and  the  Tuscans  on  the  other,  in-
duced them  to  recross  the  Mincio  and  take  the
offensive,  on  23  June.  The  conflict  began  early  on
the  24th,  and  lasted  fifteen  hours.  At  first  the
Austrians  had  the  advantage ;  but  the  successful
attack  of  the  French  on  Cavriana  and  Solferino
changed  the  fortune  of  the  day,  and  the  Austrians,
after  desperate  encounters,  were  compelled  to
retreat.  The  French  attribute  the  victory  to  the
skill  and  bravery  of  their  emperor  and  the  generals
MacMahon  and  Niel ;  the  Austrians,  to  the  destruc-
tion of  their  reserve  by  the  rifled  cannon  of  their
adversaries.  The  Sardinians  maintained  a  fearful
contest  of  fifteen  hours  at  San  Martino,  it  is  said
against  double  their  number.  Loss  of  the  Austrians,
630  officers,  and  19,311  soldiers;  of  the  allies,  8
generals,  936  officers,  and  17,305  soldiers  killed
and  wounded.  This  battle  closed  the  war;  pre-
liminaries of  peace  being  signed  at  Villa  Franca,
12  July.  On  24  June,  1870,  on  the  site  of  the
battle,  three  ossuaries,  containing  the  bones  of
thousands  of  the  slain,  were  consecrated  in  the
presence  of  representatives  of  Austria,  France,  and
Italy.

SOLICITOR,  see  Attorney.  By  the  Supreme
Judicature  Act,  attorneys  in  future  are  to  be  styled
solicitors;  an  act  for  regulating  their  examination
was  passed,  23  July,  1877.

SOLICITOR-GENERAL,  the  legal  officer
next  in  rank,  and  deputy  to  the  attorney-general,
vhoni  he  frequently  succeeds.

839.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde  (afterwards  lord  Truro),  5  Dec.

841.  Sir  William  Follctt  (second  time),  6  Sept.

844.  Sir  Frederick  Thesiger  (since  lord  Chelmsford),  17

April.

845.  Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly,  17  July.

846.  Sir  John  Jervis,  4  July.

,, Sir  David  Dundas,  18  July.

848.  Sir  John  Romilly,  April  4,  aft.  lord  Romilly.

850.  Sir  Alex.  J.  E.  Cockburn,  n  July.

851.  Sir  W.  Page  Wood,  28  March,  aft.  lord  Hatherley.

852.  Sir  Fitzroy  Kelly,  Feb.

„ Sir  Richard  Bethell,  Dec,  aft.  lord  Westbury.

856.  Rt.  Hon.  James  Stuart  Wortley,  Nov.

857.  Sir  Henry  Keating,  May.

858.  Sir  Hugh  M.  Cairns,  26  Feb.,  aft.  earl  Cairns.

859.  Sir  Henry  Keating,  18  June.
„ Sir  William  Atherton,  Dec.

861.  Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  27  June,  aft.  lord  Selborne.
863.  Sir  Robert  Porrett  Collier,  2  Oct.

866.  Sir  William  Bovill,  13  July.

,, Sir  John  Burgess  Karslake,  29  Nov.

867.  Sir  Charles  Jasper  Selwyn,  July.

868.  Sir  Win.  Baliol  Brett,  Feb.  (made  judge,  Sept.)
„ Sir  Richard  Baggallay,  14  Sept.

,,  Sir  John  Duke  Coleridge,  i2Dec,  aft.  Id.  Coleridge.
871.  Sir  George  Jessel,  Nov.

873.  Sir  Henry  James,  26  Sept.

,, Sir  Wm.  Vernon  Harcourt,  Nov.

874.  Sir  Richard  Baggallay,  Feb.
,, Sir  John  Holker,  22  April.

875.  Sir  Hardinge  Stanley  Giffarcl,  25  Nov.,  aft.  lord

Halsbury.
880.  Sir  Farrer  Herschell,  3  May,  aft.  lord  Herschell.

885.  John  E.  Gorst,  June.

886.  Sir  Horace  Davey,  15  Feb.
„ Sir  Edward  Clarke,  26  July.

1892.  John  Rigby,  18  Aug.

SOLICITORS'  ACT,  passed  24  Dec.  1888.

SOLICITORS'  REMUNERATION  ACT,

44  &  45  Vict.  c.  44;  passed  in  1881.

SOLIFIDIANS  (from  solus,  only,  and  fides,
faith)  a  name  given  to  the  Antinomians  {which
see).


SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE,  see  Temple.

SOLWAY  MOSS  (Cumberland,  bordering  on
Scotland).  On  13  Nov.  177 1,  it  swelled,  owing  to
heavy  rains.  Upwai-ds  of  400  acres  rose  to  such  a
height  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  at  last
it  rolled  forward  like  a  torrent  above  a  mile,  sweep-
ing along  with  it  houses,  trees,  &c.  It  covered  600
acres  at  Netherby,  and  destroyed  about  30  small
villages.  Near  Solway  Moss  the  Scots  were  defeated
by  the  English,  25  Nov.  1542.

SOMAJ,  see  Deism.

SOMBRERO  (West  Indies).  On  this  desert
isle,  Bobert  Jeffery,  a  British  man-of-war's  man,
was  put  ashore  by  his  commander,  the  hon.  captain
W.  Lake,  for  having  tapped  a  barrel  of  beer  when
the  ship  was  on  short  allowance.  After  sustaining
life  for  eight  days  on  a  few  limpets  and  rain-water,
he  was  saved  by  an  American  vessel,  13  Dec.  1807  ;
and  returned  to  England.  Sir  Francis  Burdett
advocated  his  cause  in  parliament,  and  he  received
600/.  as  a  compensation  from  captain  Lake,  who  was
tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  dismissed  the  service,
10  Feb.  1810.

SOMERSET-HOUSE  (London),  formerly  a
palace,  founded  on  the  site  of  several  churches
and  other  buildings  levelled  in  1549,  by  the  pro-
tector Somerset,  whose  residence  fell  to  the  crown
after  his  execution,  22  Jan.  1552.  Here  resided  at
times  queen  Elizabeth,  Anne  of  Denmark,  and
Catherine,  queen  of  Charles  II.  Old  Somerset-
house,  a  mixture  of  Grecian  and  Gothic,  was  de-
molished in  1775,  and  the  present  edifice,  from  a
design  by  sir  VVilliam  Chambers,  was  erected  for
public  offices.  The  Boyal  Academy  of  Arts  first
assembled  in  the  apartments  given  to  the  members
by  the  king,  17  Jan.  1771.  The  Koyal  Society
met  here,  1780-1857 ;  and  apartments  here  were
also  held  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  and  the
Geological  Society  ;  all  three  now  at  Burlington
House.  Large  suites  of  government  buildings  were
erected  in  1774.  The  Navy-office,  Pipe-office,
Victualling  and  other  offices,  were  removed  here  in
1788,  and  various  government  departments  since.
The  east  wing  forming  the  King's  College  (see
King's  College)  was  completed  in  1833.  By  an  act
passed  in  1854,  the  offices  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall
were  transferred  to  Pimlico.

CHIEF OFFICES AT

Probate  and  Divorce  Divi-
sion of  high  court  of  jus-
tice and  Registry  Offices.

Appeals  Registry  Office.

Register  of  Births,  Deaths,
and  Marriages.

Exchequer  and  Audit  De-
partment.

Property  and  Income  Tax
Offices.


SOMERSET HOUSE.

Stamp  Offices,  &c.
Excise  and  Tax-Offices.
Legacies and Succession

Duty  Offices.
Inland  Revenue  Offices.
Bank  Returns  Office.
Laboratory  Department.
Solicitors'  Offices.
Coinpanies'Register  Offices,

&c,  &c.

SOMERSET  THE  BLACK,  sec  Slavery  in

England.

SOMERS-TOWN,  a  populous  district  in  St.
Pancras  parish,  N.  London :  named  after  carl
Somcrs,  whose  family  acquired  the  property  about
1695.  The  building  began  about  1786;  ami  many
French  refugees  settled  in  it.  Much  of  the  district
has  been  occupied  by  the  railway  companies.

SOMNATH  GATES,  the  gates  of  an  ancient
Hindoo  temple  at  Guzerat,  which  was  destroyed  by
Mahmoud  ot  Ghuznee  in  1025.  The  priests  wished
to  preserve  the  idol ;  but  Mahmoud  broke  it  to
pieces  and  found  it  filled  with  diamonds,  &0.  He
carried  the  gates  to  Ghuznee.  When  that  city  was
taken  by  general  Nott,  6  Sept. 1842,  lord  Ellen-


SOMOEEOSTEO.


894


SOUDAN.


borough  ordered  the  gates  to  be  restored  after  an
exile  of  800  years,  and  issued  a  proclamation  much
censured  at  the  time.  The  gates  are  made  of
sandal  wood,  and  are  described  and  figured  in  the
Archseologia  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, vol.

XXX.

SOMOEEOSTEO,  see  Spain,  1874.

SONATA  (Italian,  sound-piece),  the  highest
form  of  instrumental  music,  consisting  of  three  or
four  movements,  intending  to  express  diverse  kinds
of  human  feelings.

It  was  developed  from  the  suite,  varied  dance  music
(Tartini,  1624,  aud  others).  The  form  fixed  by  Corelli
(1653-1713),  was  adopted  and  modified  by  Scarlatti,  the
Bachs,  Handel,  Mozart,  Haydn,  and  culminated  in  the
master-pieces  of  Beethoven  (1770-1827).  Fine  sonatas
have  been  composed  by  Dussek,  M.  Clemcnti,  Weber,
Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Wm.  Sterndale
Bennett,  Chopin,  Liszt,  and  Rubenstein.

SONDEEB UND,  see  Switzerland,  1846.

SONNET,  a  poem  in  fourteen  lines,  with
rhymes  adjusted  by  rules,  was  invented,  it  is  said,
by  Guido  d'Arezzo,  about  1024.  The  most  cele-
brated sonnets  are  those  by  Petrarch  (about  1327),
Shakspeare  (1609),  Milton  (about  1650),  and
Wordsworth  (1820).

SONNITES,  the  orthodox  Mahometans  who
now  possess  the  Turkish  empire ;  see  Maho-
metanism.

SONS  OF  THE  CLEEGY,  see  Clergy.
SONTAY,  see  Tonquin,  Dec.  1883.

SONTHALS,  a  tribe  of  Northern  India,
brought  to  Bengal  about  1830,  where  they  pros-
pered, till,  partly  from  the  instigation  of  a  fanatic,
and  partly  from  the  exactions  of  money-lenders,
they  broke  out  into  rebellion  in  July,  1855,  and
committed  fearful  outrages.  They  were  quite  sub-
dued early  in  1856,  and  many  were  removed  to  the
newly- conquered  province  of  Pegu.

SOOLOO,  see  Sulu.

SOPHIA,  ST.  (in  Constantinople).  The  first
church  was  dedicated  to  St.  Sophia  (holy  wisdom)
by  Constantius  II.,  360  ;  this  having  been  destroyed,
tbe  second,  the  present  edifice,  was  founded  by
Justinian,  531,  and  dedicated  537.  Since  tbe
Mahometan  conquest  in  1453,  it  has  been  used  as
an  imperial  mosque.  Its  length  is  269  feet,  and  its
breadth  243  feet.  Six  of  its  pillars  are  of  green
jasper,  from  the  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus ;  and
of  porphyry,  from  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Rome.
Four  minarets  were  added  by  Selim  II.,  who  reigned
in  1566.  The  interior  of  the  dome  is  beautifully
ornamented  with  mosaic  work.

SOPHIA,  see  Sofia.

SOPHISTS,  teachers  of  youth  in  Athens,  who
were  censured  by  Socrates,  and  consequently  were
instrumental  in  causing  his  judicial  murder,  399
B.C.  The  controversy  against  them  was  carried  on
by  Plato  and  Ids  disciples.

SOEBONNE,  a  society  of  ecclesiastics  at
Paris,  founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  in  1252.
The  members  lived  in  common,  and  devoted  them-
selves to  study  and  gratuitous  teaching.  They
soon  attained  a  European  reputation  as  a  faculty  of
theology,  their  judgment  being  frequently  appealed
to,  from  the  14th  to  the  17th  centuries.  The  influ-
ence of  the  Sorbonne  was  declining  when  the  society
was  broken  up  in  1789.  The  buildings  are  now
devoted  to  education.  The  new  Sorbonne  Build-
ings were  opened  on  5  Aug.  1889 ;  this  is  the  virtual


reconstruction  of  the  university  of  Paris.  Gymnastic
education  introduced,  1892.

SOECEEEES  Aim Magicians. A  law

was  enacted  against  then-  seductions,  33  Hen.  VIII.
1541;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was
passed,  5  Eliz.  1563.  The  pretension  to  sorcery
was  made  capital,  1  James  I.  1603  ;  see  Witchcraft.

SOEGHTJM,  see  under  Sugar.

SOUDAN  or  SoiJJAH,  the  title  of  the  lieu-
tenant-generals of  the  caliphs,  which  they  bore  in
their  provinces  and  armies.  The  officers  afterwards
made  themselves  sovereigns.  Saladin,  general  of
the  forces  of  Noureddin,  king  of  Damascus,  was  the
first  that  took  upon  him  this  title  in  Egypt,  1165,
after  having  killed  the  caliph  Caym.

SOUDAN  or  NlGRITIA,  a  region  of  Central

Africa,  partly  subjected  to  the  Khedive  of  Egypt

since  1874, capital  Khartoum. It  was  well  governed,

by  col.  Gordon,  till  1879. See  Egypt.

Insurrection  headed  by  Sheik  Mahomed  Ahmed  of
Dongola,  declaring  himself  to  be  a  prophet
(Mahdi  or  Muhdi,  foretold  by  Moslem  prophets),

July,  1881

Defeated  ;  retires  up  the  Blue  Nile  ;  crosses  White
Nile  with  increased  army . . . winter, ,,

Defeats  the  Egyptians ....  Nov. ,,

Surrounds  and  massacres  6000  Egyptians  under
Yussuf  Pasha,  14  June  ;  occupies  Shala,  July ;
defeated  at  Bara,  19  Aug.  ;  at  Duem,  28  Aug.  ;
repulsed  at  Obeid,  8,  14  Sept.  ;  defeats  the
Egyptians,  15  Sept.-24  Oct.  ;  rebels  defeated  at
Bara, 4 Nov.  ; Col. Stewart at Khartoum,

16  Dec.  1882

The  Mahdi  captures  Bara  and  Obeid,  5  Jan.  ;  he  is
repulsed 23-26  Feb.  1883

Col.  Hicks  pasha  with  an  army  starts  for  the  Kor-
dofan;  arrives  at  Berber,  1  March  ;  totally  defeats
the  Mahdi  with  great  loss  ;  the  enemy  pursued

29  April, ,,

The  Mahdi  defeated  at  Khartoum about  14  May, ,,

The  Sennaar  chiefs  submit ;  announced 25  June, ,,

Hicks  marches  up  the  Nile,  9  Sept.  ;  arrives  at
Duem 20  Sept. ,,

Surprise  and  defeat  of  Egyptian  detachment  at
Tokar,  near  Suakin  ;  about  150  killed,  including
the  brave  and  able  British  consul  . . 6  Nov. ,,

Battle  of  El-Obeid,  or  Kashgal ;  col.  Hicks  decoyed
into  a  defile  ;  about  11,000  men  attacked  by  over-
whelming multitudes,  they  form  squares  and
resist  till  nearly  all  are  killed,  including  col.
Hicks,  col.  Farquhar,  and  other  European
officers,  only  two  said  to  have  escaped  ;  reported
desertion  of  some  of  Hicks'  troops ;  the  Mahdi
gains  cannon  and  much  ammunition 3-5  Nov. ,,

Egyptian  force  concentrated  at  Khartoum  under
col.  Coetlogon Nov. ,,

General  rising  throughout  the  country  ;  the  British
government  sends  gunboats  to  defend  Suakin
and  Red  Sea  ports,  about  23  Nov.  ;  attack  on
Suakin  forts,  26  Nov. — t  Dec.  ;  about  720  Egyp-
tians surrounded  and  682  killed  (asserted)  2  Dec. ,,

V.  Baker  pasha  sent  to  Suakin  with  plenary  powers

about  18  Dec. ,,

Khartoum  garrison  strengthened about  26  Dec. ,,

Osman  Digma,  a  ruined  slave-dealer,  commander
for  the  Mahdi Dee. .,

General  (Chinese)  Gordon  sent  to  the  Soudan  (to
report)  18  Jan.,  starts  19  Jan.  ;  appointed
governor-general  of  the  Soudan  by  the  Khedive

25  Jan.  1884

Sinkat  closely  besieged . . Nov.  1883 — Jan. ,,

Tokar  besieged  by  rebels;  surrenders,  21  Feb.;
Baker  pasha  with  3500  men  defeated  near  Tokar,
loses  about  2250  men  (demoralised),  with  the
remnant  retreats  to  Trinkitat,  4  Feb. ;  received
by  H.M.S.  Ranger,  5,  6  Feb.  ;  reinforcements
ordered  to  be  sent  to  adm.  Hewett  at  Suakin,
6  Feb.  ;  Baker  pasha  recalled ;  remains  ;  Suakin
in  state  of  siege  ;  adm.  Hewett  in  full  command,
7-9  Feb.  ;  desperate  sortie  of  the  garrison,  headed
by  Tewfik  bey,  from  Sinkat,  all  killed  ;  women
and  children  prisoners,  town  taken . 8  Feb. ,,


SOUDAN.


895


SOUDAN.


Reinforcements  sent  to  Suakin . n,  12  Feb.  1

General  Gordon  arrives  at  Berber,  11  Feb.  ;  enthu-
siastically received  as  a  deliverer  at  Khartoum ;
proclaims  the  Mahdi  sultan  of  Kordofan  ;  remis-
sion of  half  the  taxes,  and  non-interference
with  the  slave  trade,  releases  prisoners,  remits
debts 18  Feb.

Restoration  of  the  former  sultanate  of  Darfour
proposed;  Kassala  besieged  by  Osnian  Digma  Feb.

The  Black  troops  at  Suakin  mutiny  and  disperse  ;
announced 25  Feb.

Battle  of  El-Teb,  near  where  Baker  pasha  was
defeated,  4  Feb.  After  fruitless  attempt  at
negotiation,  gen.  Gerald  Graham,  with  about
4000  men  (consisting  of  10th  and  19th  Hussars,
Gordon  Highlanders,  the  Black  Watch,  Lanca-
shire and  Yorkshire  battalions,  and  Marines),  at
11  a.m.,  advanced  on  the  rebels,  about  12,000,
who,  after  a  most  desperate,  heroic  resistance,
were  totally  defeated  with  the  loss  of  about  2000
men,  at  2.30  p.m.  ;  the  British  loss  was  major
M.  M.  Slade,  lieuts.  F.  H.  Probyn,  F.  A.  Free-
man, and  Frank  Koyds,  and  quartermaster  James
Wilkius  and  24  men  killed,  and  142  wounded,

29  Feb.

Tokar surrendered,  and the  rebel  garrison  fled

1  March,

Osman  Digma  at  Tamanieb  ... 3  March,

Several  Arab  sheikhs  come  into  Suakin,  6,  7  March,

Osman  Digma  disregards  gen.  Graham's  proclama-
tion, about  8  March.  Osman  Digma  disdainfully
rejects  British  proposals,  and  proclaims  death  to
infidels about  10  March,

Battle  of  Tamanieb.  The  British  advance  to  capture
Osman  Digma's  camp  at  Tamasi,  near  El-Teb,  7.20
a.m.  ;  the  British  were  massed  in  oblong  squares,
one  square  broken  into  by  a  violent  onslaught  of
hidden  Arabs,  who  creep  under  and  capture  the
Gatling  and  other  guns,  desperate  hand  to  hand
conflict ;  the  British  driven  back  ;  no  panic  ;  col.
Wood  with  700  cavab-y  charges  the  Arabs  in  flank,
and  drives  them  back,  the  infantry  rally  and  re-
cover the  guns,  the  other  square  perfectly  success-
ful; the  camp  taken,  12.30  p.m.  The  British  loss,
killed,  capts.  H.  G.  V.  Ford,  Walker,  and  Aitken ;
lieuts.  Moutresor,  Almack,  and  Houston  Stewart,
and  86  men,  in  wounded,  and  19  missing;  2000
:if  the  enemy  killed  out  of  above  10,000.  The
Black  Watch  and  Naval  Brigade  suffered  much

13  March,

Osman  Digma's  camp  with  stores  captured  on
4  Feb.  ;  burnt .... 14  March,

Gordon  defeats  rebels  and  brings  off  garrison  of
Halfyeh .... about  15  March,

Through  cowardice  and  treachery  Gordon's  troops
(1500)  defeated  by  about  60  rebels  with  great
slaughter 16  March,

Reward  of  5000  dollars  offered  for  capture  of
Osman  Digma,  alive  or  dead,  15  March;  counter-
manded from  home . . . .17  March,

Troops  march  to  Handoub  wells . 18  March,

Friendly  sheikhs  coming  in . . . 20  March,

Hassan  and  Said  pashas,  Turko-Egyptian  generals,
tried  and  shot 23  March,

The  Mahdi  rejects  Gordon's  offers  ;  announced

23  March,

General  Graham  advances  on  Tamanieb  ;  slight
skirmish ;  the  Arabs  flee ;  Osman  Digma's  vil-
lages burnt 27  March,

Three  regiments  -at  Suakin,  embark  for  home,  &c.

29  March,
March  to  Berber  reported  safe  .  29  March,
Gordon  contending  with  the  rebels,  with  varying

success  ;  Kassala  closely  besieged,  announced

30  March,
Khartoum  said  to  be  closely  invested ;  the  rebels

frequently  defeated .... April,

General  Gordon,  col.  Stewart,  and  Mr.  Power,  the

Times correspondent,  the only  British there

8  April,

The  Mahdi  said  to  have  been  twice  defeated  by  the

-  Jagalla  tribes  ;  reported . . . 9  April,

Egyptian  troops  arrive  at  Suakin . .  10  April,

Adm.  Hcwett's  mission  well  received  by  lias  Aloola

about  13  April,

The  Marines  depart . . . about  15  April,

Shendy closely  besieged  ;  51  fugitives  from  it  killed

by  Arabs ;  announced  . . . . 19  April,


Berber  said  to  be  closely  invested . 20  April,

Reported  evacuation  of  Berber;  troops  withdrawn
to  Korosko ;  announced . . .26  April,

The  whole  country  in  insurrection;  Egyptian
troops  joining  the' Mahdi . . . April,

The  government  declining  to  send  help,  Gordon
writes  to  sir  Evelyn  Baring,  "I  shall  hold  on
here  as  long  as  I  can,  and  if  I  can  suppress  the
rebellion,  I  will  do  so.  If  I  cannot,  I  shall
retire  to  the  equator."

Col.  Stewart  and  Mr.  Power  decide  to  remain  with
him May,

Subscriptions  proposed  to  support  Gordon .  May,

Adm.  Hewett  well  received  by  the  king  of  Abys-
sinia at  Adowa  ;  treaty  signed . about  26  May,

Fruitless  attacks  on  Suakin  checked  by  Marines,
27,  28,  31  May,  2,  4,  10  June,

Gordon  said  to  have  been  opposed  by  government
in  all  his  propositions  . . . April,  May,

Highly  successful  sally  from  Khartoum  ;  major
Chermside  made  governor  of  Suakin ;  refugees
from  Korosko  arrive  at  Assouan  ;  reported  rise  of
another  Mahdi 28  May,

The  Mudir  of  Dongola  said  to  have  defeated  the
rebels May,

Advance  of  Egyptian  troops . . . .  May,

Fall  of  Berber  announced  . . . .10  June,

Assouan  fortified . .  . .  June,

Rebels  defeated  at  Debbeh  with  great  loss,

29-30  J  une,

Advance  of  the  Mahdi  said  to  be  checked  by  another
Mahdi;  announced 2  July,

Assouan  occupied  by  the  British  . 12  July,

Additional  troops  sent  to  Alexandria  from  Malta,

July,

Gordon  dominant  and  successful  at  Khartoum  ;  re-
ported 22  July,

Continued  desertion  of  Egyptian  troops,  announced
July ;  Gordon  reports  Khartoum  and  Sennaar
holding  out 2  Aug.

Mudir  of  Dongola  said  to  have  greatly  helped  Gor-
don July,  Aug.

Gen.  Gordon  repulses  severe  attack.  10  Aug.  ;  de-
feats rebels 12  Aug.

Osman  Digma,  near  Suakin,  frequently  defeated,

Aug.

Preparation  for  the  expedition  to  relieve  Khartoum,
gen.  Earle  commander  ;  British  troops  arrive  at
Wady  Haifa 23  Aug.  et  seq.

The  expedition  to  ascend  the  Nile  in  about  800  flat-
bottomed  boats,  navigated  by  Canadian  Indians
(voyageurs) ;  Sarras ....  Sept.  Oct

Defeat  of  the  Mahdi's  troops  by  the  Mudir  of  Don-
gola at  Ambikol 8  Sept.

Gen.  Earle  to  be  at  Wady  Haifa ;  col.  Stewart  and
lord  Airlie  at  Dongola ;  col.  Maurice  at  Assiout

Sept

Another  defeat  of  Mahdi's  troops  reported  15  Sept.

Telegrams  from  Gordon  requiring  assistance Sept.

Friendly  tribes  defeat  rebels,  and  relieve  Suakin,
about  17  Sept.

Victories  of  Gordon  on  24  July  and  30  Aug.,  and
raising  of  the  siege  of  Khartoum  reported,

20  Sept.

British  army  in  Egypt,  13,559 . about  22  Sept.

Lord  John  Hay  arrives  with  the  fleet  at  Alexandria,

24  Sept.

Several  camel  corps  start  from  Woolwich  for  the
Soudan about  25  Sept.

Mr.  Power's  journal  of  the  siege  of  Khartoum,  from
April  to  31  July  published  in  the  Times,  29  Sept.

Lord  Wolseley  arrives  at  Wady  Haifa . 5  Oct.

Shendy  taken 6  Oct.

Col.  J.  D.  Stewart,  with  Mr.  Power  and  M.  Heroin,
and  about  40  men  in  a  steamer,  wrecked  near
Wady  Qarna,  fifth  cataract ;  land  ;  massacred  by
Arabs  offering  guidance  ;  announced  about  6  Oct.

Gordon  defeats  rebels  and  returns  to  Khartoum ;
announced 1  Nov.

I. oi-.l  Wolseley  arrives  at  Dongola . . 3  Nov.

Attacks  on  Suakin  repulsed  . . 3,4  x0V.

Gordon  reports  all  well  at  Khartoum . 4  Nov.

Rebels  often  repulsed Nov.

Above  200  whalers  on  the  Nile  conveying  troops,  &c.

15  Nov.

Two  steamers  disabled  by  rebels  near  Khartoum  ;
announced .  .... 18  Nov.


1884


SOUDAN.


896


SOUDAN.


Lord  Wolseley's  proclamation  to  the  soldiers  and
sailors  issued i  Dee.

Two  hours'  attack  of  the  rebels  on  Snakin  without
effect,  3  Dec. ;  rebels  defeated  with  loss 8  Dec.

Lord  Wolseley  arrives  at  Korti  . . 15  Dec.

Successful  sally  of  the  garrison  of  Kassala,  26  Dec.

Forward  movement  of  the  army . . 28  Dec.

Bapid  marches  of  gen.  sir  Herbert  Stewart  . Dec.

Successful  march  in  the  desert . . . Jan.

Gen.  Earle  proceeding  up  the  Nile,  and  gen.  Stewart
crossing  the  desert  with  troops,  towards  Metam-
meli Jan.

Near  Abu  Klea  wells,  about  120  miles  from  Khar-
toum, gen.  Stewart,  with  1500  men,  defeats  about
10,000  Arabs,  who  retire  after  a  fierce  conflict
■within  the  square,  leaving  about  800  dead.  The
British  lose  9  officers  (col.  Fred.  Gns.  Burnaby,
majors  Atherton,  Carmichael,  and  Gough,  capts.
Law  and  Darley,  lieuts.  Pigott,  Delisle,  and
Wolfe),  and  65  men  killed,  with  85  wounded

17  Jan.

Gen.  Stewart,  marching  towards  Metammeh,  is
severely  wounded  by  hidden  sharpshooters;  12
killed,  including  correspondents  of  the  Morning
Post  and  Standard,  Thos.  St.  Leger  Herbert,  and
John  A.  Cameron;  sir  Charles  Wilson  takes  com-
mand ....  . . 18  Jan.

At  Gubat,  near  Metammeh,  fierce  Arab  onset  on
the  British  square  is  repulsed  with  very  heavy
loss .  19  Jan.

Message  from  gen.  Gordon  received,  dated  29  Dec.  :
"Khartoum  is  all  right;  could  hold  out  for  a
year" about  19  Jan.

Communications  opened  with  Khartoum .  24  Jan.

Gen.  Earle  with  army  marches  to  Handoub  for
Berber 24  Jan.

Successful  skirmishes  of  gen.  Earle . . Jan.

Gen.  Stewart  succeeded  by  sir  Redvers  Buller  Jan.

Surrender  of  Khartoum  ;  Gordon  and  his  faithful
followers  killed ....  early  26  Jan.

Sir  Charles  Wilson  sails  up  the  Nile  . 28  Jan.

Reconnaissances  of  gen.  Fremantle  ;  heavy  Arab
loss,  about  30  Jan. ;  Handoub  captured  and  burnt
by  a  party  which  is  intercepted  by  Arabs,  and
lose  12  men 2  Feb.

The  Italian  flag  hoisted  beside  Egyptian  at  Masso-
wah  {which  see) .  . . 6  Feb.

Sir  Charles  Wilson  and  party,  within  800  yards  of
Khartoum,  fired  upon  ;  retreats ;  his  steamer  is
wrecked  by  treachery  of  Arab  pilots  ;  lands  on  an
island  ;  is  rescued  from  peril  by  the  daring  cour-
age of  lord  Charles  Beresford  in  face  of  batteries;
arrives  at  Korti 9  Feb.

Victory  at  Kirbekan  :  the  Arabs  on  a  ridge,  sur-
rounded by  gen.  Earle's  column  (the  Black
Watch  and  Staffordshire  regiments), many  killed;
gen.  Earle  and  lieut.-cols.  Eyre  and  Coveney,  and
nine  others  killed ;  attack  well  planned  and  gal-
lantly executed ;  gen.  Brackenbury  takes  the
command 10  Feb.

Gen.  Buller  retreats  from  Gubat  to  Abu- Klea  wells,

13-15  Feb.

Death  of  sir  H.  Stewart  at  Gakdul . . 16  Feb.

Railway  between  Suakin  and  Berber  ordered  to  be
constructed Feb.

Near  Abu  Klea,  Arabs  demoralised  by  skilful  feat  of
major  Wardrop,  who  takes  the  heights  after  much
skirmishing ;  Arabs  flee . . . 17  Feb.

Sir  Evelyn  Wood  arrives  at  Gakdul . .17  Feb.

Gen.  Gerald  Graham,  with  Coldstream  and  Grena-
dier Guards  and  others,  start  for  the  Soudan;  fare-
well given  by  the  queen  and  prince  of  Wales,

19-21  Feb.

Osman  Digma  massing  his  forces  near  Suakin,
about  21  Feb.

Rebels'  attack  on  Kassala  garrison  defeated  with
great  loss  ;  announced ... 22  Feb.

Gen.  Brackenbury  \s  column  reaches  Gakdul,  26  Feb.

Gen.  Buller's  column  marches  to  Korti 1  March,

Gen.  Graham's  staff  and  15th  Sikh  regiment  arrive
at  Suakin 4  March,

Successful  sally  from  Kassala  announced 4  March,

The  queen's  address  of  thanks  read  to  the  army  at
Korti  by  lord  Wolseley ... 7  March,

The  17th  Bengal  Infantry  and  the  Royal  Engineers
balloon  corps  arrive  at  Suakin  . 7  March,

Arab  raids  on  Suakin  camp ;  sentries  killed

11  March,


The  bulk of  lord  Wolseley's  army  at  Korti,

12  March,
Gen.  Graham  arrives  at  Suakin  with  5th  Lancers,

12,  13  March,
The  last  of  the  desert  troops  arrive  at  Korti,

16  March,
Gen.  Graham  calls  on  Osman  Digma  to  surrender,  to
avoid  bloodshed  .  .  .  about  16  March,
Battle  of  Hasheen  :  Graham,  with  part  of  his
army,  starts  at  daybreak ;  several  of  Osman
Digma's  positions  on  the  hills  taken  after  con-
flicts :  about  21  British  killed  20  March,

Gen.  McNeil's  brigade  unexpectedly  attacked  by
about  4500  Arabs,  about  6  miles  from  Suakin  ;
they  are  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  (about  1500),
after  a  severe  fight;  British  loss  about  100  killed,
including  lieuts.  Swinton,  Seymour,  and  New-
man, capt.  Romilly  and  others  22  March,

Manifesto  of  the  Mahdi  claiming  the  caliphate  pub-
lished March,

Fever  at  Korti ;  evacuated  by  the  army,

about  23  March,

Arab  attacks  repulsed  by  the  guards 24  March,

Attacks  on  British  convoy  repulsed 24-26  March,

The  last  Egyptian  troops  leave  Suakin 26  March,

Zebehr  Pasha  arrested  at  request  of  lord  Wolseley,
14  March  ;  sent  to  Gibraltar . .  29  March,
[Released  under  conditions,  3  Aug.  1887.]

New  South  Wales  contingent  arrives  at  Suakin

29,  30  March,

Graham  advances  ;  finds  Tamai  deserted  ;  burns  it
and  returns  to  Suakin . . . 2,  3  April,

The  railway  to  Berber  constructing  under  military
protection April,

Handoub  (deserted)  occupied  by  the  British  8  April,

Successful  raid  of  capt.  Briggs,  capturing  prisoners,
cattle,  &c 15  April,

Numerous  night  attacks .... April,

Rebellion  against  the  Mahdi ;  his  troops  said  to  be
defeated  near  Kordofan . . . April,

Lord  Wolseley  arrives  at  Suakin . . 2  May,

Takool  burnt  and  cattle  captured  by  gen.  Graham  ;
organised  force  of  Arabs  dispersed

midnight,  5-6  May,

Proposed  armed  defence  of  line  from  Assouan
to  Wady  Haifa  announced . .  11  May,

General  Graham  with  British  troops,  and  the
Indian  (part)  and  New  South  Wales  contingents,
quit  Suakin .... 17  May  et  seq.

Major-gen.  sir  G.  Greaves  assumes  command  at
Suakin,  18  May;  leaves . . . 15  June,

Handoub  evacuated  by  the  British,  22  May  ;  occu-
pied by  the  Arabs,  many  of  whom  join  Osman
Digma June,

Dongola  evacuated .... 15  June,

Sir.  F.  Stephenson,  commander-in-chief 6  July,

Lord  Wolseley  arrives  in  London . 13  July,

Repulse  of  attack  on  Kassala,  about  3,000  of  the
rebels  killed  ;  the  garrison  capture  much  cattle
in  a  sortie 15,  16  June,

Death  of  the  Madhi  by  small  pox,  reported
June  20,  21,  or  22  ;  said  to  be  succeeded  by  his
kinsman  Khalifa  Abdulla ....  June,

Olivier  Pain  sent  by  the  Irish  in  Paris  to  join  the
Mahdi  at  El  Obeid,  July,  1884;  reported  death,
time  uncertain  ;  Selikovitch,  an  interpreter  dis-
missed by  the  British,  asserts  without  any
evidence  that  Pain  was  executed  by  order  of  col.
Kitchener  in  April,  1885 ;  no  British  inves-
tigation ;  much  excitement  in  Paris  caused  by  M.
Rochefort, Aug. -Sept.

Sennaar  surprised  and  taken . . 16  Aug.

Rebels  defeated  and  stores  captured  near  Suakin,

19  Aug.

Major  Chermside  sent  to  relieve  Kassala  . Aug.

Khalifa  Abdulla  El  Taashi  reported  successor  of
the  Mahdi autumn,

Successful  skirmish  of  the  hussars  and  Egyptians
with  Arabs  near  Giniss ;  fighting  on  the  Nile ;
announced 3  Dec.

Advance  of  rebels  northward  ;  two  battalions  sent
from  Britain .... about  10  Dec.

Attack  of  3,000  Arabs  on  Mograkeh,  near  Kosheh  ;
repulsed 12  Dec.

6,000  Arabs  defeated  at  Giniss,  near  Kosheh,  3J
hours'  fight ;  one  officer  (lieut.  Soltau)  killed  ;  19
Egyptians  killed  and  wounded  ;  about  600  Arabs
killed 30  Dec.


SOUDAN.


897


SOUDAN.


Attack  on  Suakin  repulsed  n  Feb.  1886

Osman  Digmaand  the  rebels  active,  about  2  March, ,,
Rebels  defeated  by  friendly  Arabs  and  the  British,

13  March, „
Sir  C.  Warren  appointed  governor  at  Suakin,  about
16  Jan. ;  [made  commissioner  of  police,  London] ;
gen.  Dixon  left  in  command . . March, ,,
Country  south  of  Wady  Haifa  abandoned  by  the
Egyptians,  announced .... April, „

General  Watson  nominated  governor  of  the  Red

Sea  territories  about  14  April ;  arrives 8  May, ,,
British  evacuation  of  Suakin  completed 16  May, ,,
Fighting  near  Sheik  Barghut ;  victory  of  friendly
Arabs  who  take  prisoners  and  recover  captives,

about  28  May, ,,
Major  Kitchener  succeeds  general  Watson,  Aug. ;
arrives  ....... 7  Sept. ,,

By  judicious  advice  of  gen.  Watson  and  col.
Kitchener,  the  Arabs  combine  to  overthrow
Osmaii  Digma  ;  after  serious  losses  he  quits  his
stronghold  at  Tamai,  which,  with  all  its  military
stores  is  captured,  with  much  slaughter  of  his

followers 7  Oct. ,,

Emin  Bey  (Austrian  physician),  an  associate  of  gen.
Gordon,  holds  Wadelai  as  governor  of  Equatorial
Africa since 1878, with black troops ; news
brought  by  Dr.  Junker .... Nov. ,,
Retreat  of  the  rebels  on  British  advance, 3  Dec. ,,
Expedition  of  Mr.  Henry  Morton  Stanley  on  behalf
of  the  Emin  Pasha  committee  (which  see),  with  a
small armament  with able  volunteer  officers,
starts  from  London . . . .21  Jan.  ''1887
Messengers  from the new  Mahdi with  arrogant
message,  received  and  dismissed  by  the  khedive,

19  April. ,,
Col.  Chermside,  with  the  Egyptians,  defeats the
Dervishes at Sarras, near Wady Haifa, after
stubborn  resistance  ;  about  190  killed, 29  April, ,,
Great  defeat  of  the  Dervishes  announced  about

29  Aug. ,,
Successful  skirmish of  col.  Wodeliouse  with  the

Dervishes 24  Oct. „

Arab  attack  on  Wady Haifa  repulsed, 25 Oct.  ;

reinforcements  sent .... 27  Oct. ,,
Expedition  of  the  lion. Montague Kerr  to  Emin
Pasha's  station  at  Wadelai,  starts  . . Nov. ,,
[He  is  struck  down  by  fever  ;  returns  to  Europe  ;
dies  in  France,  23  April,  1888.]
Osman Digma  defeated with great  loss by  the

friendly  tribes 29  Dec. ,,

Unsuccessful  attacks  on  Suakin Dec.  1887.-3  Jan.  1888

His  camp  at  Handoub  captured  and  his  followers

dispersed  ; they  return  and retake  the  camp  ;

the  friendly  tribes  forced  to  retreat,  col.  Kitchener

and  major  Mc  Mnrdo  wounded . . 17  Jan. ,,

Colonel  Kitchener  leaves  for  Cairo  ;  succeeded  by

col.  Shakspear 19  Jan. ,,

A  band  of  Dervishes  dispersed  after  tierce  conflict

near  Suakin,  col.  Tapp  killed  .  .  4  March,  ,,
Return  of  col.  Kitchener  to  Suakin  .  15  March,  ,,
Affairs  quiet ;  Osman  Digma's  followers  dispersing

April,  ,,
Col.  Kitchener  leaves  for  England  .  26  May,  ,,
Defeat  of  the  Dervishes  near  Wady  Haifa about

20  July, ,,

*  They  embarked  with  a  number  of  natives  at  Zanzi-
bar for  the  west  coast,  25  Feb.,  and  sailed  up  the  river
Congo.  After  undergoing  great  dangers  and  much
suffering  through  famine,  disease  and  native  opposition,
Mr.  Stanley  fell  in  with  Emin  Pasha  on  lake  Nyanza,
29  April,  1888 ;  and  eventually,  with  him  and  the  re-
mains of  his  party,  arrived  at  the  German  station  Boga-
moya,  5  Dec.  1889.  Mr.  Stanley  and  his  officers  arrived
at  Cairo,  14  Jan.  1890;  at  Rome,  n  April;  at  Brussels,
19  April;  in  London,  26  April;  dined  with  the  queen,
6  May;  with  his  companions,  lieut.  Stairs,  surgeon
Thomas  II.  Parke,  cant.  Nelson,  Mr.  A.  M.  Jephson,
and  Mr.  Bonny,  received  the  gold  medals  of  the  Royal
Geographical  Society,  from  the  prince  of  Wales,  5  May.
Besides  other  honours  Mr.  Stanley  was  presented  with
the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London,  13  May  ;  of  Edin-
burgh, 11  June  ;  and  of  Glasgow,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,
Neweastle-on-Tyne,  and  Manchester,  in  June.  His
book,  entitled  "In  darkest  Africa;  or,  the  Quest,
Rescue  and  Retreat  of  Emin,  governor  of  Equatoria,"
was  published,  28  June.  He  married  Miss  Dorotliy
Teimant  at  Westminster  Abbey,  12  July,  1890.


The  Dervishes  severely  defeated  in  an  attack  on

Fort  Khormoussa . . midnight,  27  Aug. iSi
Attempted  raid  of  Osmaii  Digma  checked 12  Sept. ,,
Lt.  col. Holled  Smith  succeeds  col. Kitchener  as
governor-general  and  commandant at Suakin,

13  Sept. ,,
Continued investment  of  Suakin by  Arabs  (Der-
vishes) witli  guns, &c.  ;  severe night  attacks  ;
reinforcements  ordered . . 22  Sept.,  Oct. ,,
German  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Emin  Pasha
organized  ; supported by prince Hohcnlohe
Langenburg  and  other  nobles . . Sept. ,,
A  sharp  attack  on  Suakin  vigorously  repulsed,

30  Oct. „
General  Grenfell  with  reinforcements  arrives  at

Suakin 5  Nov. ,

Defeat  of  the nominal Mahdi by  the sultan of
Wadai's people  ; gen. Grenfell reconnoitres  ;
the  enemy  very  strong ; the  Mahdi  afterwards
captures  Wadai,  and  the  sultan  flees . Nov. ,
More  British  troops  sent  to  Suakin . . Dec. ,
The enemy's redoubts stormed by the black
brigade  under  gen. Grenfell ; great  slaughter,
slight  British  loss  ; total  flight  of  the enemy
with  loss  of  about  400 ;  7.30  a.m. . 20  Dec. ,
General  Grenfell  and  part_of  his  army  leave  Suakin,

4  Jan.  iS
Handoub  abandoned  and  burnt  .  .  11  Feb.  ,
Suakin  declared  open  to  commerce  .  .  20  Feb.  ,
Dr. Carl  Peters,  with  100  soldiers,  &c,  starts  to

relieve  Emin  Pasha . . . .26  Feb. ,
The Dervishes repulsed with loss after their
attack on Haliab, 19 April ;  again repulsed,
29, 30  April ; again  repulsed,  and  an outpost

captured 2  June,

Colonel  Wodeliouse,  with  three  Egyptian  black
battalions,  &c,  defeats  about  3,500  Dervishes  at
Arguin  near  Wady  Haifa  ;  they  lose  about,  500
killed, Egyptian loss about  70 killed and

wounded 2  July,

The  Dervishes repulsed  with  the loss of  about

100  men,  4  July  ;  they  break  up  their  camp,  7

July  ;  which  is  occupied  by  the  British 8  July

Reinforcements  from  Malta  ;  which  is  proclaimed

to  the  natives  by  gen.  Grenfell,  10  July
Reinforcements  sent  from  Malta  to  strengthen  the
garrison  at  Assouan .... July,
Dervish  deserters  come  in  ;  prisoners  sent  to  Cairo  ;
their  loss  estimated  to  be  since  1  July  2,500  killed
and  wounded .... about  14  July,
Gen.  sir  F.  W.  Grenfell  arrives  at  Col.  Wodehouse's
camp  at  Bellana  ;  the  enemy  hold  a  strong  posi-
tion at  Khor ;  their  fighting  force  estimated  at

2,500 15  Jul>*i

The  R.  Irish  Rifles  arrive  at  Assouan . 16  July,
Gen. Grenfell  summons Wad El N'juini to  sur-
render, all  lives  to  be  spared  ;  the  messenger

beaten 17  July,

Wad-el-N'jumi  calls  on  the  Egyptians  to  surrender,
and  threatens  them  with  the  fate  of  gen.  Gordon,

reported 19  July,

A  large  number  of  additional  troops  sent  from  Cairo

20  July,
British  field force at Assouan commanded by
major-gen.  lion.  R.  H.  de  Montmorency,  23  July,
Party of  300  Dervishes  repulsed with  loss ; re-
ported 21  July,

Frequent  skirmishes  ; many  killed  and prisoners

25-31  July,
Dervishes  defeated  with  loss  of  70  men  by  lieut.

D'Aguilar  at  Anabi 31  July,

Battle  of  Toski ;  after  seven  hours'  hard  fighting
about  3,000  Dervishes  are  defeated  by  gen.  sir
Francis  Grenfell.  Wad-el-N'jumi  with  his  prin-
cipal emirs,  and  about  half  his  army  arc  killed,
the  other  half  are.  either  wounded  or  fugitives;
the  repeated  desperate  charges  of  the  Dervishes
are  chiefly  repulsed  by  the  20th  Hussars  and  the
Egyptian  cavalry  who  pursue  them  till  they  are
utterly  routed  and  their  arms  and  standards
captured.  (The  commanders  under  gen.  Grenfell
were  col.  Kitchener  mounted  troops;  col.  Wode-
liouse, infantry  ;  Bundle  artillery,  Irwin  and
Beech,  English  and  Egyptian  cavalry;  Settle,
sen.  staff  offiicer;  the  British  loss  17  killed
(1  English  16  Egyptians) ;  wounded,  131  ;  above
1,000  Dervishes  prisoners  and  wounded;  parts
of  bhe  Shropshire  and  Lancashire  regiments  and

3  M


SOULAGES COLLECTION.


898


SOUTHAMPTON.


the  Royal  Irish  Rifles  were  engaged  3  Aug  ;  gen.
■  Grenfell  arrives  at  Cairo . . . 17  Aug. 1889

The  Egyptian  troops  occupy  Matuka  ;  the  British
ordered  to  return  to  Cairo ... 7  Aug. ,,

Emin  pasha,  after  a  long  illness,  occasioned  by  a
fall  from  a  window  at  Bogamoya,  5  Dec,  closely
attended  by  Dr.  Parke,  arrives  at  Zanzibar,  2
March  ;  accepts  the  offers  of  major  Wissmann,
enters  the  German  service,  and  proceeds  with  a
military  expedition  to  Victoria  Nyanza

31  March  et  seq.  1890
[For  his  connection  with  capt.  Casati,  see  Italy,
14  July,  1890.I

Military  movements  of  the  Mahdi,  reported,  8  May, ,,

Famine  and  great  distress  in  E.  Soudan  through
drought,  partly  relieved  by  government  and
others Jan.— Aug. „

The  Khalifa  Abdulla  reported  supreme  in  the
south July, ,,

Osinan  Digma's  forces  broken  up  by  desertion,
reported Oct. „

Emin  Pasha,  in  good  health  at  Tabora,  Aug.  ;  his
letter  received  at  Brunswick,  about  25  Nov.  ;  he
establishes  German  stations  on  the  shores  of  lake
Victoria  Nyanza,  reported  7  Dec.  ;  recalled  to  the
coast  by  major  von  Wissmann,  the  imperial  com-
missary, reported .... 19  Dee. .,

A  raid  of  the  Dervishes  on  Suakin  ;  they  are  pur-
sued and  debated,  27  Jan.  ;  after  a  sharp  engage-
ment, the  governor-general  takes  possession  of
Haudoub,  28  Jan.  ;  several  Dervish  leaders  cap-
tured, peace  restored  . . . about  4  Feb 1891

Col.  Holled  Smith,  governor-general  of  the  Red  Sea
Littoral,  conducts  an  expedition  of  2,000  Soudanese
and  Egyptian  troops,  aided  by  friendly  Arabs  ;
El  Teb  occupied  and  fortified . . 17  Feb. ,,

Col.  H.  Smith,  with  brigade  of  Egyptian  troops,
advances  at  daybreak  from  El  Teb  against  Tokar,
strongly  held  by  Osman  Digma  with  2,000  Der-
vishes ;  after  a  desperate  fight  of  one  and  a  half
hours,  Tokar  is  occupied  ;  all  the  principal  emirs
and  about  700  Dervishes  killed  ;  Osman  Digma
fled  south  with  30  horsemen.  Our  loss— capt,  Hugh
Lusada  Barrow,  of  South  Lancashire  regiment,
and  15  Egyptian  soldiers  killed  ;  the  Egyptians
fought  bravely  and  steadily  ;  guns,  ammunition
and  other  stores  captured.  After  the  action,  the
troops  advance  4  miles  to  Osman  Digma's  de-
serted camp  at  Afafil,  a  large  village,  where
about  100  Arabs  surrender . . . 19  Feb. „

The  Red  Sea  Littoral  reported  clear  of  rebels  ;  the
sheikhs  solicit  and  obtain  pardon,  general  rejoic-
ing, reported 2o  Feb

Gen.  Grenfell,  col,  Holled  Smith,  with  the  troops', '
&c,  return  to  Suakin,  7  March; an  amnesty
proclaimed  ;  joyfully  received  by  the  sheikhs

8  March, ,,

Capt.  Haekett  Pain  appointed  governor  of  the
Tokar  sub-district  . . . about  8  March,

The  country  reported  quiet  and  prosperous.  5  May, „

Defeat  of  the  Dervishes  by  the  Shilluks  about  the
end  of  Nov. ,  reported  . . . . 17  Dec.

Father  Ohrwa'.der  and  two  R.  C.  sisters,  long
prisoners  in  the  Mahdi's  camp,  Omdurman,  Kar-
toum,  escape,  29  Nov.,  and  arrive  at  Cairo

Rupture  between  Khalifa  Abdulla  and  two  other '
chiefs,  reported 2I  jan l8g„

Incursion  of  about  100  Dervishes  near  Wady  Haifa
led  by  Osman  Azrak . . about  12  May) ,,

SOULAGES  COLLECTION.  About  1827,
M.  Soulages  of  Toulouse,  collected  790  specimens
of  Italian  art  and  workmanship,  &c.  These  were
bought  for  11,000/.  by  73  English  gentlemen,  with
the  view  of  first  exhibiting  them  to  the  public,  and
afterwards  selling  them  to  the  government  (who
gradually  purchased  them  between  1858  and  1861;)
They  formed  part  of  the  "  Art  Treasures  "  exhibited
at  Manchester  in  1857.

SOUND,  see  Acoustics.

SOUND  DUTIES.  Till  the  year  i8c>>  no
merchant  ship  was  allowed  to  pass  'the  Sound  (a
narrow  channel  separating  Zealand  from  Sweden)


without  clearing  at  Elsinore  and  paying  toll.
These  duties  had  their  origin  in  an  agreement
between  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the  llanse  towns
(1348),  by  which  the  former  undertook  to  maintain
lighthouses,  &c,  along  the  Cattegat,  and  the  latter
to  pay  duty  for  the  same.  The  first  treaty  with
England  in  relation  to  this  was  in  1450;  other
countries  followed.  In  1855  the  United  States
determined  to  pay  the  dues  no  more ;  and  in  the
same  year  the  Danish  government  proposed  that
these  dues  should  be  capitalised ;  which  was
eventually  agreed  to,  the  sum  being  30,476,325  rix-
dollars.  In  Aug.  1857,  the  British  government
paid  10,126,855  rix-dollars  (1,125,206/.)  to  the  Danes
as  their  proportion. — The  passage  of  the  Sound  was
effected,  in  defiance  of  strong  fortresses,  by  sir  Hyde
Parker  and  lord  Nelson,  31  March,  1801 ;  see
Baltic  Expedition.

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.  Captain  Ross,  of
H.M.S.  CEdipus,  in  1840,  took  extraordinary
soundings  at  sea.  In  the  latitude  330  S.  and  longi-
tude 9°  W.  about  300  miles  from  the  Cape  of  Good
Hope,  2266  fathoms  were  sounded ;  the  weight
employed  amounted  to  450  lbs.  On  13  July,  1857,
lieut.  Joseph  Dayman,  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,
lat.  51°  9'  N.,  long.  400  2'  W.,  in  sounding,  found
a  bottom  at  2424  fathoms.  The  deepest  sounding
known  (3875  faths.)  was  taken  by  the  Challenger,
capt.  Nares,  24  March,  1873,  in  the  North  Atlantic,
north  of  St.  Thomas's. See  Beep  Sea  Soundings.

SOUTH  AFEICAN  ASSOCIATION,  es-
tablished July,  1881,  to  promote  the  commercial
and  social  interests  of  the  South  African  colonies.

SOUTH  AFEICA  CONFEDERA-
TION :  to  comprise  the  three  British  colonies —
Cape  Town,  Natal,  and  West  Griqua  Land  (1873)
—and  the  two  Dutch  republics,  Orange  Biver  free
state,  and  the  South  Africa  or  Trans- Yaal  republic
(1852).  The  formation  was  proposed  by  the  earl  of
Carnarvon,  colonial  secretary,  in  a  despatch  to  sir
Henry  Barkly,  governor  of  Cape  Town,  4  May,  1875,
and  advocated  by  the  historian,  J.  A.  Eroude,  on  a
visit.  It  was  much  opposed  at  the  Cape.  See
Cape.  A  conference  of  delegates  in  London  was
opened,  5  Aug.  1876.

The  South  Africa  Act  "for  the  union  under  one  govern-
ment of  such  of  the  South  Africa  colonies  and  states
as  may  agree  thereto,"  was  passed  10  Aug.  1877.

SOUTH AFEICAN EXHIBITION,

International, proposed  to be opened  at

Kimberley,  in  Griqualand  West,  Sept.  1892.  Sir
H.  B.  Loch,  president,  hon.  Cecil  Bhodes,  vice-
president.

SOUTH  AFEICA  EEPUBLIC,  name
assumed  by  the  Boers  in  the  Transvaal  (which
see) in 1880-1, and  adopted  by  treaty  in  Feb.


SOUTH  AMEEICA,  see  America.

SOUTHAMPTON,  a  seaport  (S.  England),  a
county  of  itself,  near  the  Boman  Clausentum  and
the  Saxon  Hamtune.  It  frequently  suffered  by
Danish  incursions:  Canute,  when  king,  occasionally
resided  here.  The  charter  was  granted  by  Henry  I.
and  confirmed  by  Bichard  I.  and  John  ;  and  the  free
grammar  school  was  founded  by  Edward  YI.  On
17  July,  1861,  a  monument  to  Dr.  Isaac  Watts,
a  native,  was  uncovered;  and  on  15  Oct.  1862,  the
Hartley  institution  was  opened  by  lord  Pal-
merston.  The  prince  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation
of  the  parish  church  of  St.  Mary,  built  as  a  memo-


SOUTH AUSTRALIA.


899


SOUTHPORT.


rial  of  Samuel  Wilberforce,  bishop  of  Winchester,
12  Aug.  1878;  consecrated  19  June,  1879.  The
British  Association  met  here  1846  and  1882.  Popu-
lation 1881,  60,051 ;  1891,  65,325.

New  deep-water  dock  inaugurated  as  the  Empress
dock,  by  the  queen .... 26  July,  1890

Great  strike  of  dock  labourers,  seamen  and  firemen
begun  ;  trade  paralysed  ;  violent  rioting  ;  conflict
with  the  military,  8,  9  Sept.  ;  gun-boats  sent  for ;
order  restored,  10  Sept.  The  strike,  not  recog-
nized by  London  union,  fails,  n  Sept.  ;  work
resumed,  17  Sept.  The  Union  Steamship  com-
pany import  46  foreign  seamen  from  Hamburg  as
a  check  to  strikes .... 21  Sept. ,,

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA  was  visited  by  capt.
Sturt  in  1830,  and  explored  shortly  after  by  capt.
Parker  and  Mr.  Kent,  the  former  of  whom  was
killed  by  the  natives.  The  boundaries  of  the  pro-
vince were  fixed  by  4  &  5  "Will.  IV.  c.  95  (1834)  ;
and  it  was  occupied  26  Dec.  1836,  by  capt.  Hind-
marsh,  the  first  governor.  It  was  colonised  accord-
ing to  Mr.  E.  Gibbon  "Wakefield's  scheme,  which
was  carried  out  by  the  South  Australian  Colonisa-
tion Association.  The  colony  for  several  years
underwent  severe  trials  through  the  great  influx
of  emigrants,  land-jobbing,  building  speculations,
&c,  which  produced  almost  universal  bankruptcy
in  1839.  In  five  years  after,  the  energy  of  the
colonists had  overcome  their  difficulties,  and  the

frosperity  of  the  colony  appeared  fully  established.
n  1842  the  highly  productive  Eurra  Burra  copper
mines  were  discovered,  and  large  fortunes  were
suddenly  realised;  but  in  185 1  the  discovery  of
gold  in  New  South  "Wales  and  Victoria  almost
paralysed  this  province  by  chawing  oft'  a  large
part  of  the  labouring  population.  Very  little  gold
was  found  in  South  Australia ;  but  a  reaction  took
place  in  favour  of  the  copper  mines  and  agricul-
ture, &c.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold,  little
trade  existed  between  Adelaide  (the  capital  of
South  Australia)  and  Melbourne ;  but  in  1852
gold  was  transmitted  from  the  latter  to  the  former
to  the  amount  of  2,215,167^.  principally  for  bread-
stuffs,  farm  produce,  &c.  The  bishopric  of  Ade-
laide was  founded  in  1847.  Discovery  of  allu-
vial gold  at  Tatulpa,  Waukaringa,  Oct. ;  favour-
able report  Dec.  18S6.  Sir  Dominic  Daly,
appointed  governor  in  Nov.  1861,  died  19  Feb.
1868 ;  succeeded  by  sir  James  Fergusson,  Dec.
1868;  by  Anthony  Musgrave,  Jan  1873;  by  "Wm.
Wellington  Cairns,  Jan.  1877 ;  Sir  W.  F.  D.  Jer-
vois,  June,  1877 ;  sir  W.  Bobinson,  Nov.  1882  ;
the  earl  of  Kintore,  Dec.  1888.  Population  in
1855,85,821;  in  1865,  156,605;  in  1871,  185,626;
in  1877,  225,677;  in  1882,  293,509;  in  1891,
315,048.

fcsee  Adelaide.  1887,  revenue,  2,014,102?. ;  expendi-
ture, 2,145,133?.  Imports,  1887,  5,096,293?.  ;
exports,  5,330,780?.  1890,  revenue,  2,557,772?.  ;
expenditure,  2,579,258?.  1890,  imports,  8,262,673?.;
exports,  8,827,378?.
Resignation  of  the  ministry ;  new  one  formed  by

the  hon.  J.  A.  Cockburn . . 24,  25  June,  1889
He  resigns  ; succeeded  by  hon.  T.  Playford,  re-
ported 18  Aug.  1890

The  earl  of  Kintore  and  party  cross  the  continent
from  Port  Darwin  to  Adelaide  (sec  Australia)

9  April-23  May,  189J
Resignation  of  Mr.  Playford,  17  June;  Mr.  Holder
forms  a  ministry .... 20  June,  1892

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA,  a  fanatic,  born
in  1750,  came  from  Exeter  to  London,  where  her
followers  at  one  period  amounted  to  many  thou-
sands, the  low  and  ignorant  being  her  principal
dupes.  In  1792  she  announced  herself  as  the
woman  spoken  of  in  Revelation,  chap.  xii. ;  and
a  disease  favoured  the  delusion  that  she  would  be


the  mother  of  the  promised  Shiloh.  She  died  27
Dec.  1814.  In  1851  there  existed  in  England  f.  iur
congregations,  professing  to  expect  her  return.
Her  successor,  Mrs.  Peacock,  died  March,  1875,
aged  103G').

SOUTH-EASTERN  RAILWAY,  from
London  to  Folkestone,  opened,  28  June,  1843;  to
Dover,  7  Feb.  1844.

SOUTHERN  CONFEDERATE  STATES,

see  Confederates.

SOUTHERN  CONTINENT.  Tho  Southern
Ocean  was  first  traversed  by  Magellan  in  1520  ;
and  explored  by  Wallis  and  Carteret  in  1766;  unci
by  Cook  in  1773  and  1774.  Of  the  southern  con-
tinent little  more  is  known  than  that  it  is  ice-
bound, and  contains  active  volcanoes.  It  was  dis-
covered in  the  first  instance  by  capt.  John  Biseoe,
on  27  Feb.  1831,  in  lat.  650  57'  S.,  long.  470  20'E.,
extending  east  and  west  200  miles, — this  he  mimed
Enderby  Land,  after  the  gentleman  who  had
equipped  him  for  the  voyage.  Capt.  Biseoe  also
discovered  Graham's  Land  on  15  Feb.  1832,
situated  in  lat.  670  1'  S.,  long.  710  48'  W.  The
Messrs.  Enderby  equipped  three  other  expeditions
in  search  of  the  southern  continent,  the  last  (in
connection  with  some  other  gentlemen)  in  1838,
when  capt.  Balleny  had  command,  who,  on  9  Feb.
1839,  discovered  the  Balleny  Islands,  in  lat.  6}"
S.,  long.  165°  E.,  and  in  March,  1839,  Sahrina
Land,  in  lat.  65°  10'  S.,  long.  n8°30'  E.  In  1840,
a  French  expedition,  under  the  command  of  admiral
D'Urville,  and  an  American  expedition,  under  the
command  of  commodore  Wilkes,  greatly  added  to
our  knowledge  in  respect  to  the  existence  of  a
southern  continent,  and  this  was  again  increased
by  the  expedition  which  sailed  from  England  in
1839,  under  the  command  of  capt.  sir  James
Clark  Boss,  who  discovered  Victoria  Land  in  1 84 1,
and  subsequently  penetrated  as  far  south  as
780  11'.  Antarctic  expedition  proposed  oy  the  Ar-
gentine republic  and  the  Genoese,  Sept.  1881 ;  the
objects  collected  to  be  divided.  Italian  expedition
under  lieut.  Booe,  1881-2.

New  South  Polar  expedition  proposed  by  the
Antarctic  Exploration  committee  at  Melbourne,
supported  by  the  governor  and  others  .  Aug.  1S90
The  sum  required  for  the  expedition  is  15,000  .
Sir  Thomas  Elder  subscribed  5,000?. ,  other  per-
sons 5,000?.  ;  appeal  for  the  other  5,000?.
See  Antarctic  Pole.

SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM,
near  Brompton  old  church  (containing  the  pic-
tures presented  by  Mr.  Vernon,  Mr.  Sheepshanks,
Mrs.  Ellison,  and  those  bequeathed  by  Turner,
the  great  painter,  as  well  as  specimens  of  sculpture
and  art,  educational  collections,  products  of  the
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  &c.),was
opened  on  22  June,  1857.  A  special  exhibition  of
works  of  art,  of  immense  value,  lent  for  the  occasion,
was  opened  here  in  the  summer  of  1862,  and  closed
in  November.  In  July,  1873,  a  testimonial  to  Mr.
(aft.  sir)  Henry  Cole,  C.B.,  was  proposed  for  his
exertions  in  organizing  this  museum,  and  in  pro-
moting its  objects.

Mr. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, be-
queathed his  library  of  books,  MSS.,  paintings,
and  drawings  to  this  museum. He  died  1  Feb. . 1876
Scientific Apparatus  Loan  Exhibition  (which  see)

opened  13  May,  closed .... 30  Dee. ,,
Mr.  John  Jones'  bequeaths  a  collection  of  works  of
art,  &c.  ;  estimated  value,  500,000?.  announced,

Jan. 18S2

SOUTHPORT,  Lancashire,  a  watering  place,
founded  in  1792  on  a  sandy  waste,  has  rapidly  pro-

3  M  2


SOUTH-SEA  BUBBLE.


900


SPAIN.


greased,  now  possessing  an  esplanade  3  miles  long,
and  many  fine  buildings.  It  was  made  a  municipal
borough  in  1867,  and  received  the  British  Associa-
tion 19  Sept.  1883.  Population,  1851,  4,765  ;  1871,
18,085 ;  1891,  43,026.

SOUTH-SEA  BUBBLE  commenced  with
the  establishment  of  the  South-sea  company  in
1 7 10,  which  was  at  first  unwisely  and  afterwards
dishonestly  managed.  It  exploded  in  1720,  ruining
thousands  of  families;  and  the  directors'  estates,
to  the  value  of  2,014,000/.,  were  seized  in  1721  and
sold.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier,  absconded  with
100,000/. ;  but  he  compounded  the  fraud  for
10,000/.  and  returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost
all  the  wealthy  persons  in  the  kingdom  had  become
speculators ;  the  artifices  of  the  directors  having
raised  the  shares,  originally  100/.,  to  the  price  of
1000/.  A  parliamentary  inquiry  toojr_  place  in
Nov.  1720,  and  Aislabie,  chancellor  of  the  exche-
quer, and  several  members  of  parliament  were
expelled  the  house  in  172 1 ;  see  Law's  Bubble.

SOUTHWARK  (S.  London),  was  governed  by
its  own  bailiffs  till  1327.  The  city,  however,  found
great  inconvenience  from  the  number  of  malefac-
tors who  escaped  thither,  in  order  to  be  out  of  the
reach  and  cognizance  of  the  city  magistrates  ;  and
a  grant  was  made  of  Southwark  to  the  city  of
London  by  the  crown,  for  a  small  annuity.  In
Edward  VI. 's  reign  it  was  formed  into  a  cityward,
and  was  named  Bridge  Ward  Without,  1550. —
Southwark  bridge  was  designed  by  John  Bennie,
and  built  by  a  company,  1815-19,  at  an  expense
of  800,000/.  It  consists  of  three  great  cast-iron
arches,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers  and  abut-
ments ;  the  distance  between  the  abutments  is  708
feet;  the  centre  arch  is  240  feet  span,  the  two
others  210  feet  each;  and  the  total  weight  of  iron
5308  tons.  The  bridge  was  freed  from  toll  on  8
Nov.  1864,  the  company  receiving  a  compensation
from  the  city.  An  act  for  the  payment  of  divi-
dends to  shareholders  was  passed  in  1872. — South-
wark park  was  opened,  19  June,  1869.  By  the
Seats  Act  (1885),  Southwark  sends  three  mem-
bers to  parliament.
City  and South  London Electric Railway  (see

Tunnels)  opened  .  .  4  Nov.  and  18  Dec.  1890
The  priory  church  of  St.  Marie  Overie,  dating  from
the  13th  century,  was  leased  from  the  crown  to
the  united  parishes  of  St.  Margaret  and  St.  Mary
Magdalene,  and  became  the  parish  church  as  St.
Saviours  in  1540.  Since  then  many  changes  have
heen  made  ;  Mr.  G.  Gwilt  repaired' the  tower,  the
lady  chapel,  and  the  choir,  1818  et  seq.  The  roof
of  the  nave  was  removed  in  1831,  and  in  1839  re-
placed by  lath  and  plaster.  The  prince  of  Wales
laid  the  memorial  stone  of  a  new  nave,  24  July,
1890,  about  31.000L  subscribed  for  the  work  up  to

17  Feb. „
The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  visit  the  Evelina
hospital ; he  lays  the  foundation  stone  of  the
new  buildings  of  the  R.  S.  London  Ophthalmic
Hospital 24  July, „

SOUTHWELL,  Nottinghamshire,  an  ancient
Saxon  town,  where  a  church  was  founded  by  Pau-
linus,  archbishop  of  York,  627;  made  collegiate
before  the  conquest,  refounded  by  Henry  VIII.,
and  made  a  bishopric  by  Henry  VIII.,  1541 ;  dis-
solved by  Edward  VI.  Collegiate  church  restored
by  Elizabeth,  1586.  Near  here  Charles  I.  surren-
dered himself  to  the  Scotch  army  in  1646.  The
Bishoprics  act,  authorising  the  establishment  of  a
see  at  Southwell,  was  passed,  16  Aug.  1878.  Con-
stituted (to  consist  of  the  counties  of  Derby  and
Nottingham),  2  Feb.  1884.  The  restored  minster
re-opened  as  cathedral,  2  Feb.  1888.

FIRST BISHOP.

Guorge  Ridding,  consecrated  1  May,  1884.


SOUTHWOLD,  seeSolebatj.

SOVEREIGN,  an  ancient  and  modern  British
gold  coin.  In  1489  22J  pieces,  in  value  20s.,  "  to
be  called  the  sovereign,"  were  ordered  to  be  coined
out  of  a  pound  of  gold.  Muding.  In  1542  sove-
reigns were  coined  in  value  20s.,  which  afterwards,
in  1550  and  1552  (4  &  6  Ed.  VI.),  passed  for  24s.
and  30*.  "Sovereigns"  of  the  new  coinage  were
directed  to  pass  for  20s.  1  July,  and  half-sovereigns
for  10s.  10  Oct.  181 7;  see  Coin,  and  Gold.  By  the
Coinage  act,  1870,  the  weight  of  the  sovereign  is
fixed  at  123-27447  grains  troy;  specific  gravity,
17-57;  (916-67,  gold  being  1000)  ;  half-sovereigns,
61-63723  grains.  The  dragon  sovereigns  were  re-
issued in  1871.

SPA-FIELDS (N.  London). Here about
30,000  persons  assembled  to  vote  an  address  from
the  distressed  manufacturers  to  the  prince  regent,
15  Nov.  1816. A  second  meeting,  2  Dec.  following,
terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of
several  gunsmiths  were  attacked  for  arms  by  the
rioters  ;  and  in  the  shop  of  Mr.  Beckwith,  on  Snow-
hill,  Mr.  Piatt  was  wounded,  and  much  injury  was
done  before  the  tumult  was  suppressed. For  this
riot,  Cashman,  a  seaman,  was  hanged,  12  March,
181 7. Watson,  the  ringleader,  escaped  to  America.
Spafidds  Chapel,  a  dome  building,  originally  a  place
of  entertainment  named  the- Pantheon,  erected,
1770,  was  after  several  changes  purchased  by  the
countess  of  Huntingdon  and  used  as  a  place  of
worship  for  her  "  connection,"  (see  iVhitefieldites).
This  chapel  was  pulled  down  in  1887

SPAHIS,  see  Se^ioys.

SPAIN  (the  ancient  Iberia  and  Hispania),  the
S.  W.  peninsula  of  Europe.  The  Phoenicians  and
Carthaginians  successively  planted  colonies  on  the
coasts  which  were  all  conquered  by  the  Eoman's,,
206  B.C.  Population  of  Spain  in  1857,  15,464,078 ;
of  the  colonies,  6,333,887 ;  1883,  total  25,022,880;
in  1887,  17,564,588.  Bevenue  :  1822,  about
6,000,000/.;  1856,  12,722,200/.;  1871,  about
26,000,000/.;  1883-4, 32,095,075/.;  1891,32,222,055/.;
expenditure,  32,456,530/.
The  Carthaginians,  enriched  by  the  mines  of  Spain b.c

(480  b.c.  et  seq.)  form  settlements  .... 360
New  Carthage  (Carthagena)  founded  by  Hasdrubal 242
Hamilcar  extends  their  dominions  in  Spain . 238-233
At  his  death,  Hannibal, his  son,  takes  the  com-
mand, 221  ;  prepares  for  war,  220  ;  takes  Sagim-

tum,  219  ;  crosses  the  Alps,  and  enters  Italy  .  218
The  Romans  carry  the  war  into  Spain  ;  two  Scipios

defeated  and  slain  by  Hasdrubal  .  .  .  .  212
Pub.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  takes  New  Carthage,

210  or  209 ;  drives  the  Carthaginians  out  of  Spain  207
Celtiberian  and  Numantine  war . . .  153-133.

Yiriatlms,  general of  the Celtiberians and  Lusi-

tanians, subdued  all  West  Spain, 145  ;  makes

peace  with  the  consul  Fabius  Servilianus,  142  ;

assassinated  by  order  of  the  Romans  .  .  .  140
Insurrection  of  Sertorius,  78  ;  subdued  by  Pompej',

and  assassinated 72

Julius  Caesar  quells  an  insurrection  in  Spain  . . 67

Pompey  governs  Spain 60-50

Revolt  through  the  rapacity  of  Crassus . .  48-47

Era  of  Spain  :  conquest  by  Augustus  begun,  1  Jan.  3S
The  Vandals,  Alani,  and  Suevi  wrest  Spain  from

the  Romans a.d.  409.

Adolphus  founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  .  .  414.
The  Vandals  pass  over  to  Africa  ....  429.
Theodoric  I.  vanquishes  the  Suevi  .  .  .  .  452
Assassinated  by  his  brother  Euric,  who  becomes

master  of  all  Spain 466

Recared  I.  expels  the  Franks 5S7

He  abjures  Arianism,  and  rules  ably  .  .  till  601
Wamba's  wise  administration  ;  he  prepared  a  fleet

for  defence  against  the  Saracens  .  .  672-677
The  Arabs  invited  into  Spain  against  king  Roderic.  709.
His  defeat  and  death  at  Xeres 711


SPAIN.


901


SPAIN.


Establishment  of  the  Saracens  at  Cordova  . . 711

Victorious  progress  of  Musa  and  Tarik  .  .  712-13
Emirs  rule  at  Cordova  ;  Pelayo,  of  Gothic  blood,

rules  in  Asturias  and  Leon 718

The  Saracens  defeated  at  Tours  by  Charles  Mattel,

732  or  733
Abderahman  the  first  king  at  Cordova . . . 755

Invasion  of  Charlemagne 777~7S

Sancho  Ifiigo,  count  of  Navarre,  ifcc. . . . 873
Saneho  of  Navarre  becomes  king  of  Castile . . 1026
The  kingdom  of  Aragon  commenced  under  Rami-
rez 1 1035

Leon  and  Asturias  united  to  Castile  .  .  .  .  1037
Portugal taken from  the  Saracens  by  Henry  of

Besaneon  (see  Portugal) 1095

The  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the  Christians,
call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors  from  Africa,  who  seize
the  dominions  they  came  to  protect,  and  subdue

the  Saracens 1091  et  seq.

Exploits  of  the  Cid  Rodrigo  ;  dies  .  .  about  1099
Dynasty  of  the  Almoravides  at  Cordova  .  1094-1144
The  Moors  defeated  in  several  battles  by  Alfonso  of

Leon 1 144

Dynasty  of  the  Almohades  at  Cordova  .  1144-1225
Cordova,  Toledo,  Seville,  &c. ,  taken  by  Ferdinand

of  Castile  and  Leon 1233-48

The  kingdom  of  Granada  begun  by  the  Moors,  last

refuge  from  the  power  of  the  Christians  . . . 1238
The  crown  of  Navarre  passes  to  the  royal  family  of

France 1274

200,000  Moors  arrive  to  assist  the  king  of  Granada  .  1327
They  are  defeated  at  Tarifa  by  Alfonso  XL  of  Cas-
tile with  great  slaughter 1340

Reign  of  Pedro  the  Cruel 1350

His  alliance  with  Edward  the.  Black  Prince . . 1363
Defeated  at  Montiel  and  treacherously  slain . .  1369
Ferdinand  II.  of  Aragon  marries  Isabella  of  Castile,
18 Oct. 1469  ;  and  nearly  the  whole  Christian
dominions  of  Spain  are  united  in  one  monarchy  . 1479
Establishment  of  the  Inquisition . . . 1480-4

Persecution  of  the  Jews 1492-8

Granada  taken  after  a  two  years'  siege  ;  and  the
power  of  the  Moors  is  finally  extirpated  by  Ferdi-
nand 1492

Jews  expelled ,,

Columbus  is  sent  from  Spain  to  explore  the  western

ocean 17  April, ,,

Mahometans  persecuted  and  expelled  . . 1499- 1502

Death  of  Columbus 20  May,  1506

Ferdinand  conquers  great  part  of  Navarre  .  .  1512
Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the  throne  of

Spain  ;  Charles  I.  of  Spain 1516

Able administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully

used,  1516;  his  death 1517

Charles  elected  emperor  of  Germany . . . .  1519

Insurrection  in  Castile 1520-21

Philip  of  Spain  marries  Mary  of  England  25  July,  1554
Charles  abdicates  and  retires  from  the  world  . 1556

War  with  France  ;  victory  at  St.  Quentin  10  Aug.  1557
Philip  II.  commences  his  bloody  persecution  of  the

protestants 1561

The  Escurial  begun  building 1563

Revolt  of  the  Moriscoes,  1567  ;  suppressed  .  .  .  1570
Naval  victory  of  Lepanto  over  the  Turks  7  Oct.  1571
Portugal  united  to  Spain  by  conquest  . . . 15S0

The  Spanish  Armada  destroyed  ;  see  Armada.  .  1588
Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moors  (900,000)  .  159S-1610
Ministry  of  the  duke  of  Lerma  . . . . 1598-1613

Ministry  of  Olivarez 1621-43

Philip  IV.  loses  Portugal 1640

Death  of  Charles  II.,  last  of  the  house  of  Austria;
accession  of  Philip  V.  of  the  house  of  Bourbon . 1700

War  of  the  Succession 1702-13

Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English 1704

Siege  of  Barcelona 171 3

Able  government  of  cardinal  Alberoni  ;  he  re-estab-
lished the  authority  of  the  king,  reformed  many
abuses  ;  and  raised  Spain  to  the  rank  of  a  first
power,  1715-20  ;  ordered  to  quit  Spain . . .  1720
paries,  son  of  Philip  V.,  conquers  Naples . .  1735
paries  III.  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  succeeds  to

Jie  crown  of  Spain 1759

w  r  with  England,  1762-3  ;  and  ....  1796
^ '.tie  of  Cape  St.  Vincent . . .  14  Feb. 1797

a iiish  treasure-ships,  valued  at  3,000,000  dollars,
^'^izedbv  the  English ....  Oct, 1804

_,  s£.e  ofTrafalgar  (see  Trafalgar)  .  .  21  (Jet.  1805
liattl  0fGodov  .prince  of  the  peace  .  .  .  .  1806
Sway


The  French  enter  Spain  ;  a  Spanish  army  sent  to

the  Baltic . . .
Conspiracy  of  the  prince  of  Asturias  against  his

father 25  July,

Treaty  of  Fontainebleau .... 27  Oct.

The  French  take  Madrid . . .  March,

The  prince  of  peace  dismissed  . .  18  March,

Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favour  of  Ferdinand,

ig March  ; and  at  Bayonne, in  favour  of  his

"friend  and  ally"  Napoleon,  when  Ferdinand

relinquished  the  crown . . .  1  May,

Revolution : the French massacred at Ma  hid,

2  .May,
The  province  of  Asturias  rises  en  masse  .  3  May,
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne

25  May,
Joseph  Bonaparte  enters  Madrid  as  king  of  Spain,

12  July  ;  retires 29  July,

Battle  of  Vimiera  ;  French  defeated  .  21  Aug.
Supreme  Junta  installed  ....  Sept.
Madrid  taken  by  the  French,  and  Joseph  restored

2  Dec.

Napoleon  enters  Madrid . . . .4  Dec.

The  royal  family  of  Spain  imprisoned  in  the  palace

of  Chambery  in  Savoy .... 5  Dec.

The French  defeated  at  Corunua,  16  Jan.  ;  take

Ferrol, 27  Jan.  ; Saragossa, 21 Feb.  ; Oporto,

29  Feb.  ; Cordova  and Seville,  Nov.  ;  Gerona,

12  Dec.
Ney  takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ...  10  July,
The  Spanish  cortes  meet  .  .  .  .24  Sept.
Wellington  defeats  Masseua  at  Fuentes  de  Onoro,

5  May,

Soult  defeated  at  Albuera ... 16  May,

Constitution  of  the  cortes  (democratic) . 8  May,

Wellington  takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  19  Jan.  ; storms

Badajoz,  6  April ;  defeats  Marmont  at  Salamanca,

22  July,
He  occupies  Madrid,  and  totally  defeats  the  French
at  Vittoria,  21  June  ;  defeats  Soult  in  the  Pyre-
nees, 28  July  ;  takes  St.  Sebastian,  31  Aug.  ;  anil

enters  France 8  Oct.

Ferdinand VII. restored  (constitution  set  aside),

14  May,
Slave  trade  abolished  for  a  compensation
Insurrection  at  Valencia  repressed . . . .
Spanish  revolution  begun  by  Riego  . .  Jan.

Ferdinand  swears  to  the  constitution  of  the  cortes,

8  March,
The  cortes  remove  the  king  to  Seville,  and  thence

to  Cadiz March,

The  French  enter  Spain,  7  April ;  and  invest  Cadiz,

25  June,
Battle  of  the  Trocadero ....  31  Aug.
Despotism  resumed  ;  the  cortes  dissolved  ;  execu-
tions of  liberals Oct.

Riego  put  to  death 7  Nov.

The  French  evacuate  Cadiz  ...  21  Sept.
Cadiz  made  a  free  port  ....  24  I'd  1.
Salique law  abolished, 29 March  ; Carlist and

Christina  parties  formed

Queen  of  Spain  appointed  regent  during  the  king's
indisposition  ;  change  in  the  ministry, 25  Oct.
Don  Carlos  declares  himself  legitimate  successor  to
the  king . . . . . -29  April,
Death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  ;  his  queen  assumes  the.
title  of  governing  queen until Isabella II.,  her
infant  daughter,  attains  her  majority 29  Sept.
Constitution  termed  "Estatuto  Real"  granted  by
advice  of  Martinez  de  la  Rosa .....
The  royalist  volunteers  disarmed  with  some  blood-
shed at  Madrid 27  Oct.

Queen  Christina  marries  Ferdinand  MuJloz  (after-
wards duke  of  Rianzares)  . . .  2S  Hcc.
The quadruple treaty establishes the right of
Isabella  to  the  throne .... 22  April.
Don  Carlos  suddenly  appears  in  Spain. 10  July,
The  peers  vote  his  exclusion . 30  Aug.
Mendizabal,  prime  minister  ;  Mina  and  Espai'toro
commanded the royalists ; the rebel leader.
Zumalacarregui,  killed  near  Bilbao . June,
Sir  De  Lacy  Evans  and  others  raise  a  British  legion

for  the  queen  of  Spain

They  defeat  the  Carlists  at  st.  Sebastian  1  Oct
Espartero  gains  the' battle  of  Bilbao  .  25  Dec.
General  Kvans  takes  Iran ...  17  .May,

Constituent  cortes  proclaimed

Dissolution  of  the  monasteries ....


1S07


1808


1808


1809
1S10


1811

1812


1H13

1814
1817
1819

1820


1S23


1828
1829

1S30

1S32

1S33


1S34


*S35

»836
1837


SPAIN.


902


SPAIN".


The  Carlists  under  Maroto  desert  Don  Carlos  and
conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Bspartero.  at
Vergara 31  Aug.  1839

Don  Carlos  seeks  refuge  in  France .  13  Sept. ,,

Surrender  of  Morello  . . . .28  May,  1840

Cabrera,  the  Carlist  general,  unable  to  maintain  the
war,  enters  France . . . , .7  July, „

The  British  auxiliaries  evacuate  St.  Sebastian  and
Passages 25  Aug. „

Revolutionary  movement  at  Madrid :  the  authorities
triumphant . . . . . .1  Sept.  1840

Dismissal  of  the  ministry,  and  dissolution  of  the
cortes ....... 9  Sept. „

Espartero,  minister,  makes  his  triumphal  entry  into
Madrid 3  Oct. „

The  queen  regent  appoints  anew  ministry,  who  are
nominated  by  Espartero,  5  Oct. ;  she  abdicates
and  leaves  the  kingdom  ;  visits  France  and  Sicily  ;
returns  to  France .... 12  Oct. ,,

Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,  expels  the  papal  nuncio

29  Dec. „

The  Spanish  cortes  declare  Espartero  regent  during
the  queen's  minority ...  12  April,  1841

Queen  Christina's  protest . . . -19  July, ,,

Insurrection  in  favour  of  Christina  commenced  at
Pampeluna  by  general  O'Donnell  and  Concha,

2  Oct. „

Don  Diego  Leon  attacks  the  palace  at  Madrid  ;  his
followers  repulsed,  and  numbers  slain  by  the
queen's  guards,  7  Oct.  ;  he  is  shot  at  Madrid,

15  Oct. ,,

Zurbano  captures  Bilbao . . . 21  Oct. ,,

Jftodil,  constitutional  general,  enters  Vittoria,  21  Oct. ,,

Montes  de  Oca  shot ....  21  Oct. „

General  O'Donnell  takes  refuge  in  the  French  terri-
tory 21  Oct. „

Espartero  decrees  the  suspension  of  queen  Chris-
tina's pension 26  Oct. „

Fueros  of  the  Basque  provinces  abolished 29  Oct. ,,

Borio  and  Gobernado,  implicated  in  the  Christina
plot,  put  to  death  at  Madrid . . 9  Nov. ,,

Espartero  enters  Madrid ... 23  Nov. ,,

General  pardon  of  all  persons  not  yet  tried,  con-
cerned in  the  events  of  October  . . 13  Dec. ,,

The  effective  strength  of  the  army  fixed  at  130,000
men 28  June,  1842

An  insurrection  at  Barcelona  ;  the  national  guard
joins  the  populace,  13  Nov.  ;  battle  in  the  streets
between  the  national  guard  and  the  troops  :  the
latter  lose  500  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  retreat
to  the  citadel . . . . . 15  Nov. ,,

Barcelona  blockaded,  26  Nov.  ;  Espartero  arrives
before  it,  29  Nov.  ;  its  bombardment  and  surren-
der 3,  4  Bee. ,,

The  disturbances  at  Malaga  ... 25  May,  1843

The  revolutionary  junta  is  re-established  at  Barce-
lona u  June, „

[Corunna,  Seville,  Burgos,  Santiago,  and  numerous
other  towns,  shortly  afterwards  "pronounce"
against  the  regent  Espartero.]

Arrival  of  general  Narvaezat  Madrid,  which  surren-
ders 15  July, „

Espartero  bombards  Seville . . .21  July, ,,

The  siege  is  raised 27  July, ,,

[The  revolution  is  completely  successful,  and  Espar-
tero flees  to  Cadiz,  and  embarks  on  board  her
Majesty's  ship  Malabar.]

The  new  government  deprives  Espartero  of  his
titles  and  rank,  16  Aug.  ;  he  arrives  in  London,

23  Aug. „

Reaction  suppressed  at  Madrid . . .  Aug. ,,

Isabella  II.  13  years  old,  is  declared  by  the  cortes  to
lie  of  age  ;  Narvaez  (friend  of  the  queen-mother),
lieutenant-general ....  8  Nov.

The  queen-mother  returns  to  Spain . ' 23  March,  1844

Zurbauo's  insurrection,  12  Nov. 1844  :  l'e  is  shot,

21  Jan.  1845

Don  Carlos  relinquishes  his  right  to  the  crown  in
favour  of  his  son ....  18  May

Reactionary  constitution

England  removed  from  "favoured  nation"  clause
(treaty  of  Utrecht,  17x3)

Narvaez  and  his  ministry  resign,  12  Feb.  ;  return
to  i>ower,  17  March  ;  again  resign . 28  March,  1846

Escape  of  Don  Carlos  from  France  . . 14  Sept. ,,

Marriage  of  the  queen  to  her  cousin,  Don  Francisco
d'Assiz,  duke  of  Cadiz,  and  marriage  also  of  the
infanta  Louisa  to  the  due  de  Montpensier, 10  Oct. „


[The  Spanish  marriages  disturb  the  friendly  rela-
tions of  the  French  and  English  governments.]

Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders .  18  Oct.  1846

Two  shots  fired  at  the  queen  by  an  assassin,  La  Riva,

4  May,  1847

He  suffers  "  death  by  the  cord  " . .23  June, ,,

Espartero  restored . . . » .3  Sept. ,,

Sir  Henry  Lytton  Bulwer,  British  envoy,  ordered
to  quit  Spain  in  48  hours ... 17  May,  1848

Narvaez  dismissed  and  recalled .... 1849.

Diplomatic  relations  with  England  restored,

18  April,  1850.

The  queen  of  Spain  delivered  of  a  male  child,  which
lives  but  ten  minutes ...  12  July, „

The  American  expeditions  under  Lopez  against
Cuba  (see  Cuba,  and  the  United  States)  . 1850,  1853

Resignation  of  Narvaez  .... 10  Jan.

The  infante  don  Henrique  permitted  to  return  to
Spain 2  Feb.

Madrid-Aranjuez  railway  opened . . 9  Feb.

Law  respecting  the  public  debt  (which  has  since
excluded  Spain  from  the  European  money-mar-
kets) 1  Aug.

Death  of  Godoy,  prince  of  the  peace . . 4  Oct.

The  queen  pardons  the  prisoners  taken  in  the
attempt  upon  Cuba . . . . 11  Dec.

Her  majesty  gives  birth  to  a  princess . 20  Dec.

Attempt  made  on  the  life  of  the  queen  ;  she  is
slightly  wounded  by  the  dagger  of  Merino,  a
Franciscan 2  Feb.  1852

Gen.  Castanos,  duke  of  Baylen,  renowned  in  the
French  war,  dies,  aged  95  . . . 23  Sept. ,,

Narvaez  exiled  to  Vienna  ....  Jan.  1853

Ministerial  changes — Lersundi  forms  a  cabinet,
11  April  ;  resigns  :  Sartorius's  cabinet . Sept. ,,

Birth  and  death  of  a  princess ... 5  Jan.  1854

General  O'Donnell,  Concha,  and  others  banished,

17  Jan. „

Disturbances  at  Saragossa,  &c. . . . Feb. ,,

Don  Francisco  (father  of  the  king  consort),  marries
an  "  unfortunate "  woman . . .  March, ,y

Militaryinsurrection,  under  O'Donnell,  near  Madrid,

28  June, ,,

The  movement  headed  by  Espartero  :  Barcelona
and  Madrid  pronounce  against  the  government ;
barricades  in  Madrid . . . 1-17  July, ,,.

Triumph  of  the  insurrection :  resignation  of  the
ministry  ;  the  queen  sends  for  Espartero,  19  July, „

Peace  restored  :  the  degraded  generals  reinstated,
&c.  ;  Espartero  forms  an  administration,  31  July, ,r

The queen mother  impeached  ; she  quits  Spain

28  Aug. ,r

Ministerial  crisis  ;  Espartero  resigns,  but  resumes
office 21-30  Nov. „

New  constitution  of  the  cortes . .  13  Jan.  1855

The  cortes  vote  that  all  power  proceeds  from  the
people  ;  they  permit  liberty  of  belief,  but  not  of
worship Feb. ,,

Don  Carlos  dies 10  March, ,,

Insurrection  of  Valencia . . . .6  April,  1856"

Resignation  of  Espartero  ;  new  cabinet  formed,
headed  by  marshal  O'Donnell  ;  insurrection  in
Madrid,  14  July  ;  O'Donnell  and  the  government
troops  subdue  the  insurgents  ;  the  national
guard  suppressed .... 15-16  July, „

Insurrection  at  Barcelona  and  Saragossa  quelled  by
O'Donnell,  as  dictator . . . 15-23  July, ,T

O'Donnell  compelled  to  resign  ;  Narvaez  becomes
minister 12  Oct. ,,

Amnesty  granted  to  political  offenders . 19  Oct. „

Espartero  resigns  as  senator  ...  1  Feb.  1857

InsuiTection  in  Andalusia  ;  quickly  suppressed  ;
cruel  military  executions  :  98  insurgents  shot  (24
at  Seville) .... June  and  July, „

Ministerial  changes  :  Armero  minister . 26  Oct. ,,

Birth  of  the  prince  royal . . . 28  Nov. „

Isturitz,  minister,  14  Jan.  ;  O'Donnell,  minister,

1  July, „

Cessation  of  state  of  siege  at  Barcelona,  &c.  20  Sept.  1858

Joint  French  and  Spanish  expedition  against  Cochin
China  announced 1  Dec. ,,

War  with  Morocco  {lohich  see) . . Nov. -Dec.  1859,

An  association  for  reforming  the  tariff,  &c.  formed  . ,,

O'Donnell  commands  the  army  in  Africa  ;  indecisive
conflicts  reported  ;  battle  at  Castillejos  ;  a  Spanish
"  Balaklava "  charge .... 1  Jan.  i860

The  Moors  defeated  near  Tetuan,  which  surrenders

4  Feb. „


SPAIN.


903


SPAIN.


An  ineffectual  truce .... 16-23  Feb. i860
The  Moors  defeated  at  Guad-el-ras . 23  March, ,,
Treaty  of  peace  signed ; 400,000,000  reals  to  be
paid  by  Moors,  and  Tetuan  to  be  held  till  paid

26  Mar. ,,
General  Ortega,  governor  of  the  Balearic  Isles,  lands

nearTortosa,  in  Valencia,  with  3000 men,  and  pro-
claims the  comte  de  Montemolin  king,  as  Charles
VI.  ;  his  troops  resist,  and  he  is  compelled  to  flee,
with  the  comte  and  others,  3  April ;  Ortega  shot

19  April,  i860
The  comte  de  Montemolin  and  his  brother  Ferdi-
nand arrested  at  Tortosa,  21  April ;  renounce  their
claim  to  the  throne . . . .23  April, ,,
An  amnesty  proclaimed . . . .2  May, „
Their  brother  Juan  asserts  his  right,  5  June  ;  and
the}',  when  at  Cologne,  annul  their  renunciation,

28  June, ,,
The  emperor  Napoleon's  proposal  to  admit  Spain  as
a  first-class  power  is  opposed  by  England,  and

given  up Aug. ,,

The  comte  de  Montemolin  and  his  wife  die  at  Trieste

14  Jan. 1861
The  annexation  of  St.  Domingo  to  Spain  ratified  ;

slavery  not  to  be  re-established  .  .  19  May,  ,,
Insurrection  at  Loja  suppressed  .  .  .  July,  ,,
The  cpieen  said  to  be  governed  by  the  nun  Patrocvnio

Dec. ,,
Intervention  in  Mexico  (see  Mexico) .  8  Dec. ,,
Much  church  property  in  course  of  sale . April,  1862
Jose  Alhama  and Manuel Matamoras,  protestant
propagandists,  sentenced  to  10  years'  imprison-
ment 14  Oct. ,,

Don  Juan  de  Bourbon  renounces  his  right  to  the

throne 8  Jan.  1863

Resignation  of  the  premier,  marshal  O'DonneU,  26

Feb.  ;  marquis  de  Miraflores  minister 4  March, ,,
Insurrection  in  St.  Domingo  ;  war  ensues  (see  Do-
mingo) 1  Sept. ,,

Empress  of  France  visits  the  queen . . Oct. ,,
Rupture  with  Peru  (which  see) . . .  April,  1864
General  Prim  exiled  for  conspiracy . . 13  Aug. „
Arrazola  ministry,  Jan.  ;  Mon  forms  a  ministry,  i
March  ;  resigns,  13  Sept. ;  Narvaez  forms  a  cabinet

Sept. ,,
Queen  Christina  returns  to  Spain . .  26  Sept. ,,
English  government  recognises  the  insurrection  at
St.  Domingo  ;  Narvaez  advises  abandonment  of
the  contest ;  the  queen  refuses  ;  the  ministry  re-
sign ;  but  resume  oftiee . . . 14-18  Dec. ,,
Peace  with  Peru,  which  has  to  pay  a  heavy  indemnity

27  Jan.  186  =
The  queen  orders  the  sale  of  crown  lands,  giving  up

three-fourths  to  the  nation . .  20  Feb. ,,

Student  riots  at  Madrid  ;  several  persons  killed,

10  April, ,,
[Bravo  Murillo  accused  of  cruelty  on  this  occasion.]
Decree  relinquishing  St.  Domingo . . 5  May, ,,
Suppression  of  a  conspiracy  at  Valencia  to  re-unite

Spain  and  Portugal  ....  10  June, ,,

Resignation  of  Narvaez,  19  June  ;  O'DonneU  forms

a  liberal  cabinet 22  June, „

Kingdom  of  Italy  recognised  by  Spain  26  June, ,,

Father  Claret  dismissed  from  court . .  20  July, „
Dispute  with Chili  ; M. Tavira's settlement  (20

May)  disavowed  by  the  government .  25  July, ,,
Emperor  Napoleon  visits  the  queen  at  St.  Sebas-
tian, 9  Sept.  :  she  visits  him  at  Biarritz,  n  Sept. ,,
Disturbances  at  Saragossa  suppressed . 3  Oct. ,,
Admiral  Pareja,  at  Valparaiso,  insults  the  Chilian
government, 18 Sept.  ;  which declares  war, 25
Sept.  ;  Pareja  declares  a  blockade . . Oct. ,,
The  Chilian  captain  Williams  captures  the  Spanish
vessel  CovadongafPaxeja. commits  suicide)  26  Nov. ,,

Intervention  fruitless Dec. ,,

Claret  returns  to  court . . . .  25  Dec. ,,

New  cortes  elected  ;  the  great  Progresista  party
still  abstains  from  action  in  public  affairs  ;  queen

opens  cortes 27  Dec. ,,

Military  insurrection  at  Aran.juez,  headed  by  gen.
Prim,  3  Jan.  ;  martial  law  in  Madrid,  4  Jan.  ;
Concha  and  Zabala  march  against  rebels,  4  Jan.  ;
&e.  ;  riots  at  Barcelona,  9,  10  Jan.  ;  state  of  siege
in  New  Castile,  Catalonia,  and  Aragon  6-12  Jan.  1866
Prim  enters  Portugal  and  lays  down  arms  ;  the  in-
surrection ends 20  Jan. ,,

Queen  Victoria,,  British  sloop,  seized by  a  guarda-
costa •  .... 15  Jan. ,,


Admiral  Mendez  bombards  Valparaiso,  destroying
much  property,  31  March  ;  he  is  repulsed  at  Callao

with  loss 2  May,  1866

The  queen  declares  the  campaign  in  the  Pacific  ended,

15  June,  ,,
Great  military  revolt  in  favour  of  Prim  at  Madrid  ;
about  1200  men,  headed  by  non-commissioned
officers,  with  cannon,  quelled  summarily  by  mar-
shals O'DonneU  and  Narvaez,  with  much  blood-
shed ;  200  prisoners  shot,  22  June  ;  21  sergeants

shot . 26  June, ,,

Military  revolts  at  Barcelona  and  at  various  other

places 23 -June, „

Resignation  of  O'DonneU  as  minister,  succeeded  by
Narvaez  and  Bravo,  who  adopt  severe  measures

against  the  liberals July, ,,

The  queen  said  to  be  subject  to  the  influence  of
the  "  bleeding  nun,"  Patrocinio,  and  the  priests,

July, „
Freedom  of  the  press  abolished,  and  writers  trans-
ported to  the  colonies;  a  '/reign  of  terror,"

Aug. -Sept. ,,
British screw  steamer Tornado,  com. E.  Collier,
seized  by  Spaniards  (charged  with  aiding  Chili),
and  carried  to  Cadiz .... 21-22  Aug. ,,
33  persons  condemned  to  death,  many  of  whom  had

fled 23  Sept. ,,

Re-establishment  of  tranquillity  declared  at  Madrid

3  Oct.  „
Public  instruction  placed  under  the  clergy  Oct.  ,,
Reform  of  the  municipal  institutions  decreed  on

account  of  revolutionary  proceedings  .  .Oct.  ,,
Crew  of  Tornado  detained as prisoners,  31  Oct.

the  case  referred  to  law .... Nov. ,,
King  and  queen  visit  Lisbon . . . 11  Dec. ,,
Taxes  for  1867  received  in  advance . . Dec. ,,
The  queen  dismissed  the  cortes  (and  imprisoned
many  eminent  deputies  for  petitioning  against  it)

30  Dec. ,,
O'DonneU  and  his  colleagues  residing  in  Paris  Jan.  1867
Decision  in  Tornado  case — the  ship  a  prize  and  the
crew  prisoners  of  war,  18  Dec.  1866  ;  lord  Stanley
protests  against  the  proceedings . . 8  Feb. ,,
Decree  for  making  secret  publication  of  journals

and  pamphlets  penal  ....  16  Fell.  ,,
The  Tonutdo  prisoners  released  .  .  .  Feb.  ,,
State  of  siege  raised  .... 7  March, ,,

Queen  Victoria  sloop  declared  by  Spain  to  have
been  wrongfully  seized and  reparation  tobe  made,

21  April, ,,
Amnesty  to  revolters  of  June  1866 .  25  April, ,,

Son  of  duchess  of  Montpensier  born . 1  May, ,,
Attempted  insurrection  in  different  parts  (attributed
to  Prim)  failed  through  want  of  organisation,

about  15  Aug. ,,
Insurrectionary  movements  reported  in  Catalonia

and  Aragon  ....  July,  Aug. ,,

State  of  siege  proclaimed  ....  17  Aug.  „
Insurrection  suppressed  ;  amnesty  .  .  Sept.  ,,
Death  of  marshal  O'DonneU,  duke'  of  Tetuan  5  Nov. „

Martial  law  annulled 16  Nov. ,,

Parliament  opened  by  the  queen  in  person 27  Dec. ,,
An  armament  bill  adopted  by  the  chamber  of  de-
puties .22  Jan.  iBGS

Proposed  settlement  with  national  creditors  at  20

per  cent,  of  the  debt  ....  Jan.  ,,
General  amnesty  proclaimed  ...  23  Jan.  „
Death  of  marshal  Narvaez,  duke  of  Valencia  (aged  67)

23  April, „
New  ministry  formed  by  Gonzalez  Bravo  Murillo,

24  April, ,,
Marriage  of  princess Isabella, the  queen's  eldest

daughter,  to  the  count  of  Girgenti,  brother  of  ex-
king  of  Naples 13  May, ,,

Law  enacted  abolishing  normal  schools  and  subject-
ing education  to  the  priests . .  2  June, ,,

Ministerial  changes 16  June. „

Duke  and  duchess  of  Montpensier  arrested  and
exiled 6  July, ,,

Marshal  Serrano,  general  Dolce,  and  others  exiled

about  10  July, ,,

Insurrection  begins  in  the  licet.  iS  Sept.  :  joined  by
the  garrison  and  city  of  Cadiz,  tg  Sept.  ;  accepted
by -nearly  all  Spain  .... 19-30  Sept. ,,

Prim  arrives  at  Cadiz,  17  Sept.  ;  announces  a  provi-
sional government .... 10  Sept, ,,

The  ministers  resign,  19,  20  Sept.  ;  Jose  Concha  be-


SPAIN.


904


SPAIN.


comes  president  of  the  council,  22  Sept.  ;  Bravo

Murillo  and  his  colleagues  flee  to  Bayonne  23  Sept.

[Royalist  leaders:  Jose  Concha,  marquis  de  Havana,

Manuel  Concha,  marquis  de  Duero,  at  Madrid ;

the  marquis  de  Pezuela  at  Barcelona ; Eusebio

de  Calonge  in  the  north  ;  Pavia  y  Lacy,  marquis

de  Novaliches  in  Andalusia.]

Novaliches,  the  royalist  general,  defeated  at  Alcolea

by  Serrano,  27  Sept.  ;  surrenders . 28  Sept.

The  queen  flies  to  Bayonne  and  thence  to  Pan,  and

protests 29, 30  Sept.

The  deposition  of  the  queen  declared  at  Madrid,

29  Sept.
A  national  guard  organised . . .30  Sept.
Don  Juan,  son  of  Don  Carlos,  renounces  his  heredi-
tary rights  in  favour  of  his  son,  Carlos, 3  Oct.
Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct.  ; Serrano,  Prim,
and  Olozaga  constitute  a  provisional  government

5  Oct.
Prim  enthusiastically  received  at  Madrid 7  Oct.
The  education  law  of  2  June  annulled  ;  the  Jesuits
and  other  religious  orders  suppressed  ;  the  laws
expelling  the  Jews  abrogated  ;  freedom  of  reli-
gious worship  decreed . about  12,  13  Oct.
All  the  local  juntas  dissolved  by  manifesto  of  the
provisional  government ... 20  Oct.
The provisional government recognised by the
United  States,  13  Oct.  ;  by  England,  France,  and
Prussia,  25  Oct. ;  by  Austria,  Sweden,  and  Belgium
about  31  Oct.
Manifesto  of  the  government  declaring  for  universal
suffrage,  and  free  press  and  education 26  Oct.
Prim  created  a  marshal . . about  6  Nov.
The  queen  arrives  at  Paris ... 6  Nov.
The  joint  electoral  committee  at  Madrid  declare  in
favour  of  a  limited  monarchy . . 14  Nov.
Decree  for  formation  of  a  citizen  force  of  the  Volun-
teers of  Freedom j8  Nov.

Loan  of  20,000,000?.  proposed  by  Figueroa,  minister
of  finance ;  4,000,000?.  said  to  be  undertaken  by
Rothschilds  ; about 2,000,000 subscribed in

Spain about  25  Nov.

Insurrection  against  the  provisional  government
breaks  out  at  Cadiz,  5  Dec.  ;  murderous  conflicts,
6  Dec.  ;  the  city  invested  ;  surrenders  ;  entry  of
general  Caballero  de  Roda,  general  of  the  army  of

Andalusia I2  Dec.

Peaceful  elections  for  constituent  cortes,  19,  20  Dec.

Manifesto  of  the  due  de  Montpensier,  justifying  his

recent  entry  into  Spain . . dated  19  Dec.

Violent insurrection  at Malaga  suppressed  with

much  slaughter 3I  Dec.

Election  of  members  for  the  cortes .  17  Jan.

The  Spanish  envoy  at  Rome  not  received 23  Jan.
Gutierez  de  Castro,  civil  governor  of  Burgos,  mur-
dered in  the  presence  of  priests  while  taking  an
inventory  of  the  artistic  treasures  of  the  cathedral

24  Jan.
Insurrection  in  Cuba  increasing . .  Feb.

Meeting  of the  cortes, n  Feb.  ; Rivero  elected

president I3  Feb.

The  provisional  government  resign  ;  Serrano  re-
appointed head  of the  government  with  same

ministry 25.  26  Feb.

Riots  at  Xeres  on  account  of  conscription,  16  March,
Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid

28  March,
Insurrection  in  Cuba  fomented  by  Americans  April,
61st  anniversary  of  the  Madrid  revolution  and  mas-
sacre of  the  French  (1808)  .  .  .2  May,
The  cortes  vote  for  a  monarchy  (214  to  71),  21  Ma\%
The  new  constitution  promulgated  .  6  June',
Marshal Serrano elected  regent  by  the  cortes 15

June  :  sworn l8  Ju„e>

Is ew  ministry  under  Prim . . about  iS  June
Carlist  risings  in  La  Mancha  and  at  Ciudad  Real'

suppressed July-Aug.

United States'  overtures  respecting  Cuba  'indig-
nantly rejected .... about  18  Sept.
Candidature  ofthe  duke  of  Genoa  discussed  Sept.  Oct.
Republican  risings at  Tarragona, Barcelona,' and
other  places,  suppressed  with  bloodshed,  Sept,  ;
republicans  defeated  near  Reus,  4  Oct.  ;  Sara^-ossa
. cannonaded, 8 Oct.  ; Valencia  surrendered, 16
Oct.;  tranquillity  generally  restored . 20  Oct*
Warm  discussions  respecting  the  election  of  a  kin""
.  Topcte,  minister  of  marine,  resigns . 2  Nov.'
General  Dulce  dies 23  Nov.


1869


Powerful  republican  speech  of  Castelar  in  the  cortes
about  18  Dec.

Resignation  of  Prim  and  the  ministry  on  the  Italian
government  opposing  the  nomination  of  the  duke
of  Genoa  as  king  of  Spain ... 4  Jan.

Prim  resumes  office  with  Topete  and  Rivero  10  Jan.

Majority  in  the  assembly  for  Prim  against  the  com-
bined unionists  and  liberals . . 3  April,

Conscription  riots  at  Barcelona  ;  soon  suppressed

7,  8  April,

The  due  de  Montpensier,  after  great  provocation,
kills  don  Enrique  de  Bourbon,  brother  of  the  ex-
king,  in  a  duel,  12  March  ;  tried,  condemned,  and
fined 12  April,

The  offered  crown  declined  by  Espartero .  May,

Bill  for  gradual  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  colonies
presented  to  the  cortes ... 28  May,

Two  Englishmen  of  Gibraltar  seized  by  brigands  ;
ransomed  for  5200?.  ;  brigands  afterwards  attacked
by  the  Spanish  civil  guard  ;  several  of  them  killed,
and  part  of  the  ransom  recovered . . June,

Rojo  Arias  carries  a  resolution  requiring  an  abso-
lute majority  in  the  cortes  for  any  proposed  sove-
reign (179  out  of  356) ;  this  excludes  all  present
candidates June,

Isabella  II.  abdicates  in  favour  of  her  son  Alfonso,

25  June,

Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  Sigmaringen  nomi-
nated king,  accepted  by  the  regent  and  ministry,
6  July  ;  this  justified  by  the  government  in  a  cir-
cular, 7  July  ;  on  the  strong  opposition  of  France
he  resigns 12  July,

Neutrality  in  the  war  announced . . 27  July,

Renewed  agitation  for  a  republic  about  9  Aug.

Amnesty  for  all  political  offences  since  29  Sept,  1868,
published 10  Aug.

Irruption  of  Carlists  into  Navarre,  27  Aug.  ;  defeated

28  Aug.

The  Basque  provinces  put  into  a  state  of  siege,

28  Aug.

The  French  republic  warmly  recognised . Sept.

Ministerial  crisis 15  Sept.

Claret,  the  ex-queen's  confessor,  dies . . 4  Oct.

Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta(born  30  May,  1845),  accepts
the  candidature  for  the  crown . .  20  Oct.

Elected  by  the  cortes  by  191  votes  :  (63  for  a  repub-
lic ;  27  for  the  due  de  Montpensier) . 16  Nov.

Proclaimed  king 17  Nov.

The  ex-queen,  on  behalf  of  her  son  Alfonso,  protests
against  the  election ... . .  21  Nov.

The  duke  accepts  the  crown  from  a  deputation  of
the  cortes  at  Florence,  and  says  "  that  his  honesty
should  rise  above  the  struggle  of  parties,  and  that
he  had  no  other  object  than  the  peace  and  pros-
perity of  the  nation" .... 4  Dec.

Stormy  session  in  the  cortes  respecting  arrange-
ments for  the  new  king,  19  Dec.  ;  Rivero,  the  pre-
sident, resigns 25  Dec.

Prim  fired  at  and  wounded  in  his  carriage  by  six
men,  who  escaped  ;  great  indignation  at  Madrid,
27  Dec.  ;  Topete  rejoins  the  ministry  ;  vote  of  con-
fidence in  it 28  Dec.

Prim  dies  in  the  evening  (aged  56) ;  the  king  received
by  Topete  at  Cartagena . . .  " 30  Dec.

Funeral  of  Prim 31  Dec.

The  king  enters  Madrid,  visits  the  body  of  Prim,
and  takes  the  oath ....  2  Jan.

New  ministry  under  Serrano ... 5  Jan.

Warm  reception  of  the: queen  at  Madrid 19  March,

New  cortes  opened  ;  the  king's  speech  much  ap-
plauded 3  April,

Del  Castillo  and  other  Alfonsists  recognise  the
king April,

Olozaga  elected  president  of  the  cortes 4  April,

The Tornado  difficulty  settled  (Aug.  Nov. 1866)
compensation  to  be  paid  by  the  Spanish  govern-
ment May,

Ministerial  crisis  through  financial  affairs ;  settled
by  the  king June,

Marshal  Serrano  fails  in  forming  a  cabinet,  23  July  ;
a  ministry  formed  by  Zorrilla . . 24  July,

The  king  visits  the  provinces  ;  warmly  received,
1  Sept.  et  seq. ;  welcomed  by  Espartero  at  Logrofio,

30  Sept,

Cortes  opened,  1  Oct,  ;  Sagasta  elected  president  in
opposition  to  Rivero  (123-113),  3  Oct,  ;  the  Zorrilla
ministry  resigns,  4  Oct.  ;  Malcampo  forms  a
ministry 5  Oct.


iS£9
1S70

1870


SPAIN.  905


SPAIN.


Republican  meeting  at  Madrid ;  strong  resolutions
passed 15  Oct.  1871

Defeat  of  the  ministry  in  the  cortes;  dissolution,

24,  25  Nov. „

Arigulo,  the  finance  minister,  proposes  to  tax  the
foreign  national  creditors  18  per  cent. 27  Nov. ,,

Suicide  of  the  count  of  Girgenti . . 27  Nov. ,,

Ministry  formed  under  Sagasta . . 21  Dec. ,,

Bfspartero,  duke  of  Victory,  made  prince  of  Vergara,

Jan.  1872

Kesignation  of  Sagasta  and  the  ministry  for  a
trifling  defeat ;  refused  by  the  king,  dissolution
of  the  cortes;  much  excitement;  troops  under
arms 25,  26  Jan. ,,

Ministry reconstituted by Sagasta and  Topete,

20  Feb. „

Union  of  the  opposition  against  the  ministry,  who
determine  to  support  the  throne,  about  8  March, ,,

Elections ;  majority  of  about  100  for  ministers  ;
Madrid  elects  for  the  opposition . 4-6  April, ,,

Insurrection  of  Carlists  incited  by  priests  in
Navarre,  Leon,  &c.  ;  manifesto  of  don  Carlos,
duke  of  Madrid ; Diaz  de Eada, his general

about  20  April, ,,

The  new  cortes  opened  ;  the  king  says,  "  I  will  never
impose  myself  on  the  Spanish  people,  but  neither
will  I  allow  myself  to  be  accused  of  deserting  the
'post  which  I  occupy  by  their  will  " .  24  April, ,,

Navarre,  <fcc,  in  state  of  siege . . 23  April, ,,

Marshal  Serrano  enters  Navarre  with  an  army;
don  Carlos,  calling  himself  Carlos  VII.,  crosses
the  frontiers  near  Vera,  and  takes  the  command,
Rada  retiring,  2  May;  totally  defeated  at  Oro-
quieta  (which  sec) 4  May, ,,

The  Carlists  surrender  by  hundreds,  or  disperse,

8,  9,  20,  21  May, ,,

Reported  small  defeats  at  Ouate,  <fce. .  13,  20  May, ,,

Resignation  of  the  Sagasta  ministry  . . 22  May, „

Band  of  Carlists  defeated  near  Gerona,  about  22  May, ,,

New  ministry  (supported  by  Serrano),  adm.  Topete
president 25  May, ,,

Serrano  offers  amnesty  to  Carlists  who  surrender,
25  May;  it  is  accepted,  27  May;  he  is  censured,
but  exonerated  by  the  cortes,  8  June ;  he  assumes
the  presidency  of  the  ministry . . 4  June, ,,

Caiiism  increases ;  the  ministry  propose  martial
law;  the  king  opposes  it;  the  ministry  resign,

12  June, ,,

Ruiz  Zorrilla  (who  had  just  retired  from  political
life)  becomes  president  of  a  new  ministry,  14  June, ,,

Letter  of  the  due  de  Montpensier  advocating  the
rightsof  prince  Alfonso,  17  April ;  published,  June, „

Dissolution  of  the  cortes ... 20  June, ,,

Don  Carlos  calls  on  Catalonia,  Arragon,  and  Valen-
cia, to  rise,  promising  to  restore  their  ancient
liberties 16  July, ,, -

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  and  queen  by
about  15  men  ;  one  assassin  killed,  two  taken ;  a
little  after  midnight  of . . . 18-19  July, ,,

The  king's  popular  visit  to  the  provinces,  travelling
nearly  2000  miles . . .26  July-24  Aug. ,,

Elections  for  the  cortes;  highly  favourable  to  the
Zorrilla  ministry . . . .25  Aug.  et  scq. ,,

The  cortes  opened  by  the  king  with  a  line  speech,

15  Sept. ,,

Republican  rising  at  Fcrrol;  red  flag  displayed;
1500  men  under  Montqjo  and  Bozas,  n  Oct.  ;
town  captured  by  the  captain-general  of  Galicia,

13  Oct. „

The  insurgents  disperse  or  surrender;  about  500
prisoners 17  Oct. ,,

Impeachment  of  the  Sagasta  ministry  for  financial
corruption  proposed  in  the  cortes  ;  much  agitation,

end  of  Oct. ,,

The  country  disturbed  by  Carlists  and  republicans,

Nov. -Dec. „

Gen.  Hidalgo  appointed  to  a  military  command  ;
'the  artillery  officers  resigned  :  punished  . Nov. ,,

Outbreak  in  Madrid  suppressed . . 11  Dec. „

Changes  in  the  ministry  announced . 20  Dec. ,,

Bill  for  abolition  of  slavery  in  Porto  Rico,  for  com-
pensation, brought  into  congress .  24  Dec. ,,

Carlist  bands  defeated  and  several  generals  killed,

Jan. 1873

King  Amadeus'  message  to  the  cortes,  announcing
his  abdication  ;  he  states  that  he  sees  Spain  in  a
continual  struggle,  the  era  of  peace  more  distant  ;
lie  sought  for  remedies  within  the  law,  ami  did


not  find  them  ;  his  efforts  were  sterile.  The  two
chambers  combine  as  the  sovereign  cortes  of
Spain,  and  vote  for  a  republic  (126-32) .  11  Feb. I

Reported  success  of  the  Carlists  ;  agitation  for  the
due  de  Montpensier  among  the  Orlcanists  in
France 12  Feb.

New  ministry  under  Figueras  . . 12  Feb.

King  Amadeus  arrives  at  Lisbon . . 13  Feb.

Irruption  of  Carlists  ;  they  hold  part  of  Catalonia  ;
demonstrations  in  favour  of  a  federal  republic,

22,  23  Feb.

Ministry  reconstituted  ;  Figueras  chief, 24,  25  Fell.

Powerful  circnlarto  European  powers  from  Castelar,
foreign  minister 27  Feb.

Appointment  of  a  permanent  committee  of  the
cortes 22  March,

Great  dissensions  between  the  radicals  and  repub-
licans; fighting  with  Carlists  in  the  provinces,
early  in  March,

Slavery  in  Porto  Rico  abolished . . 23  March,

Proclamation  of  the  government  calling  for  volun-
teers against  the  Carlists . . . 25  March,

Mutinous  spirit  in  the  army . . . April,

The  Carlists  beaten  in  several  encounters;  don
Alfonso  de  Bourbon  re-enters  France 23  April,

The  old  "monarchical  volunteers"  take  possession
of  the  bull-ring  at  Madrid  ;  are  disarmed  and  dis-
persed by  the  government  troops  ;  the  "  perma-
nent committee"  dissolved  by  the  government,
which  assumes  supreme  power  . . 26  April,

Serrano  and  Sagasta  have  left  Spain . 29  April,

More defeats  of the  Carlists; Madrid tranquil,
29,  30  April-4  May,

Elections  for  the  cortes  commence ;  monarchists
abstain  from  voting . . . .10  May,

Mr.  Bradlaugh,  the  English  republican,  entertained
at  Madrid 24  May,

More  Carlist  defeats  reported  ;  their  alleged  cruelties
denied  by  the  Carlist  committee . May,  June,

The  Intransigentes  or  Irreconeilables  (extreme  re-
publicans) very  powerful . . . June,

The  new  cortes  opened ; a  speech  by Figueras,

1  June.

The  federal  republic  voted  by  the  cortes  (210-2)  and
proclaimed,  8  June  ;  Pi  y  Margall,  president  of  a
new  ministry,  rejected  ;  Figueras  and  his  ministry
resume  office 9  June.

Carlists  besieging  Irun .... 7  June,

Ministerial  crisis  renewed,  10  June;  Pi  y  Margall
becomes  minister;  Figueras  quits  Spain,  n  June,

Carlists  defeat  Castaiion  near  Murieta . 26  June,

Cadiz,  Seville,  Malaga,  and  Valencia  very  insub-
ordinate 29  June,

The  Intransigentes  withdraw  from  the  cortes,  1  July,

Defeat  and  death  of  Calvinety  by  Carlists  ;  insur-
rection at  Alcoy,  promoted  by  Internationalists;
the  mayor  and  others  killed,  announced,  n  Julj

Don  Carlos  (as  Carlos  VII.)  enters  Spain,  "  to  save
the  country  " 13  July,

Desperate  fighting  at  Igualada,  Catalonia

17,  iS  July,

Four  prevailing  parties  : — 1.  The  government, hi^hh
democratic;  2.  The  Intransigentes,  or  irreconeil-
ables :  extremely  democratic  ;  3.  The  Interna-
tional, or  communists  ;  4.  The  legitimists,
Carlists.

Murcia  and  Valencia  proclaim  themselves  federal
cantons iS  July,

Pi  y  Margall  compelled  to  resign  ;  Salmeron  forms
a  ministry  opposed  to  the  Intransigentes,  18  July,

Igualada  taken  by  the  Carlists  under  Don  Alfonso,

19  July,

The  government  determine  to  put  down  insurrec-
tion ....... 24  July,

Don  Carlos  enters  Biscay . . . 31  July,

Carlists  hold  chief  of  N.  Spain  . .  Aug.

Insurgents  repulsed  in  their  attack  on  Almeria  ;
beaten  in  tights  at  Seville,  28-30  July  ;  gen.  Pavia
warmly  received 31  July,

Cadiz  surrenders  to  him .... 4  Aug.

Troops  attack  Valencia,  26  July  ;  it  surrenders,

8  Aug.

New  constitution  printed,  27  July;  discussed,  Aug.

[118  Articles ;  includes  separation  of  church  and
state;  free  religious  worship ;  nobility  abolished  :
15  states  in  and  near  peninsula  :  2  in  the  Antilles  ;
cortes  (senate  and  congress)  to  have  legislative
power;  one  deputy  to  50,000  souls;  cortes  to  be


SPAIN.

renewed  in  2  years ;  members  to  be  paid  ;  execu-
tive :  president  and  ministry ;  president  elected
for  4  years.]
Eombardment  of  Malaga  stopped  by  the  British
and  German  admirals . . . . 1  Aug.

Alleged  Carlist  victories  at  Elgueta,  &c. 5-10  Aug.

Reported  total  defeat  of  the  insurgents  at  Chin-
chilla, while  inarching  on  Madrid  . .  10  Aug.
Cartagena,  held  by  Intransigentes,  besieged,  22  Aug.
The  Deerhuund,  English  yacht,  conveying  stores  to
Carlists,  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  11J  miles  off
Biarritz  ;  crew  imprisoned,  and  captain  sent  to
_.  Ferrol 13  Aug.

Capt.'H  erner,  of  German  ship,  Friedrich  Karl,  cap-
tures Aimanza  and  Vittoria,  Spanish  ironclads,
held  by  rebels,  gives  them  up  to  adin.  Yelverton,
who  prepares  for  action  against  Intransigentes,
claiming  them,  and  sends  them  to  Gibraltar  un-
molested r  Sept.

Carlists  aeteat  republicans  at  Arrichulegui,  near
Benteria,  many  killed . . . . 21  Aug.

They  take  Estella  after  a  conflict  at  Dicastillo,

25  Aug.

Castelar  elected  president  of  the  cortes .  26  Aug.

The  ministry  propose  abolition  of  capital  punish-
ment in  the  army,  defeated  in  the  cortes  ;  resign
.  S  Sept.

Castelar  heads  a  ministry ;  proposes  calling  out
150,000  men,  to  end  the  war . . 7,  8  Sept.

Cm-lists  successful ;  yet  do  not  advance  .  5-8  Sept.

Salmeron  elected  president  of  the  cortes 9  Sept.

Castelar  made  virtually  dictator . .  15  Sept.

Ferdinand  Mufloz,  duke  of  Rianzares,  husband  of
queen  Christina,  dies  at  Havre . . 12  Sept.

The  Deerhound  and  crew  given  up  ;  announced

about  18  Sept.

Reported  victories  of  Loma  over  Carlists 18  Sept.

Speech  of  Castelar,  the  cortes  to  be  closed  2  Jan.
1874 18  Sept.

Carlist  attack  on  Tolosa  repulsed  by  Loma,  19  Sept.

The  cortes  prorogued . . . .21  Sept.

The  Carlist  Merendon  killed  andhis  band  dispersed
about  26  Sept.

The  Vittoria  and  Aimanza  given  up  to  the  Spanish
government 26  Sept.

Carlists  in  Navarre  defeated  by  Moriones, 27  Sept.

The  Intransigentes'  ironclads,  Mendez  Nunez  and
Numancia,  bombarding  Alicante,  repulsed

28  Sept.

Combination  of  parties  to  support  Castelar,

about  6  Oct.

Battle  at  Manem,  near  Puenta  de  la  Reyna,  in
Navarre,  between  republicans,  under  Moriones,
and  Carlists,  under  Olio  ;  both  claim  a  victory  ;
advantage  with  Carlists ... 6  Oct.

Carlists  said  to  be  repulsed  at  La  Junquera,  in
Catalonia about  8  Oct.

Battle  of  Escombrera  bay  ;  the  Intransigentes'  ships
attempt  to  break  blockade  of  Cartagena  ;  repulsed
by  admiral  Lobo 11  Oct.

Many  Carlists  escape  into  France . about  Oct.

Lobo  declines  to  fight,  and  retires,  pursued  by  the
Intransigentes,  13  Oct.  ;  justifies  himself  at
Madrid 22  Oct.

Collision  of  the  Intransigentes'  vessels  Nttmancia
and  Fernando  del  Catolico,  the  latter  sunk  and
66  drowned 18  Oct.

Unsuccessful  sortie  at  Cartagena . . 21  Oct.

Tristany,  with  2,500  Carlists,  defeated  by  Salamanca

_ ,  25  Oct.

Death  of  Rios  Rosas,  statesman . . 3  Nov.

The  Murillo  (see  Wrecks,  1873),  captured;  con-
demned to  be  sold  by  the  British  court  of  ad-
miralty N0V.

Indecisive  conflicts  at  Monte  JurreandMonjardin,
victories  claimed  by  Carlists . .  7,  8,  9  Nov.

Cartagena  bombarded . . .26  Nov.  et  sen.

Reported  victory  of  Moriones  near  Tolosa, 7  Dec!

Lopez  Dominguez  becomes  commander  before
Cartagena 13  Bee.

Tetuan,  insurgent  vessel,  at  Cartagena,  blew  u"
(?  purposely) 30  Dec.

ProHiinciamento  :— Meeting  of  the  cortes;  speech
of  Castelar  ;  vote  of  confidence  in  him  lost  by  20  ;
lie  resigns ;  Salmeron  attempts  to  form  a  ministry,
2-3  Jan.  ;  Pavia,  captain  general  of  Madrid,
forcibly  dissolves  the  cortes . . .  '  3  Jan. 1

Marshal  Serrano  made  president  of  a  new  ministry!


906


SPAIN.


including  Topete  ;  the  national  guard  of  Madrid

disarming 4  Jan. 1874

Insurrection  at  Saragossa;  suppressed  with  blood-
shed 4  Jan. ,,

The  new  government  issue  a  moderate  manifesto,

9,  10  Jan.  ,,
Cartagena  captured  by  Lopez  Dominguez,  12  Jan.  „
Insurrection  at  Barcelona  quelled  .  12,  13  Jan. „

Numancia  ironclad,  with  Intransigentes  leaders  and
convicts,  escapes  ;  they  land  at  Mers  el  Kebir,
near  Oran,  on  the  African  coast ;  are  interned
by  the  French 12  Jan. „

Blockade  of  the  coast  of  Spain  announced 31  Jan. ,,

The  Carlists  besiege  Bilbao.  Moriones  defeated  at
Somorrostro 25  Feb.

Marshal  Serrano  resigns  presidency  of  the  ministry,
and  becomes  chief  of  the  executive,  succeeded
by  Zabala ;  Serrano  proceeds  to  Bilbao,

28  Feb.  etseq. ,,

Serrano  assumes  command . . about  8  March, ,,

The  blockade  of  the  coast  (31  Jan.)  raised  2  March, „

Asserted  victory  of  the  Carlists  at  San  Felice,
Burgos 15  March, „

Three  days'  conflict  at  Somorrostro,  near  Bilbao  ;
the  Carlists  defeated,  but  retain  their  positions
(about  2000  killed  and  wounded  on  both  sides)

25,  26,  27  March, „

Armistice  for  three  days ... 28  March, „

General  Manuel  da  Concha,  joins  Serrano  at
Santander  .... about  8  April, „

Great  national  effort  to  relieve  Bilbao ;  union  of
parties  ;  hostilities  resumed . . 20  April, „

After  several  days'  conflict,  Carlists  retreat ;  marshal
Concha  enters  Bilbao,  which  is  much  injured  by
long  bombardment .... 2  May, „

A  battle  at  Prats  de  Llusanes,  indecisive 6  May, „

New  ministry  formed  under  Zabala . .  13  May, ,,

Carlists  repulsed  in severe attack  at Ramales,

about  20  May, ,,

Carlists  defeated  at  Gondesa . about  6  June, ,,

Republicans  repulsed  before  Estella  . 25-27  June, „

Concha- killed  (succeeded  by  Zabala) . 27  June, „

Carlists  accused  of  butchering  prisoners,  June  and

Jul>% „

Alleged  Carlist  victories  at  Pefia  Mura  (or  Plata),
ntar  Abarzuza .... 25-27  June, „

Schmidt,  a  German  correspondent,  shot  as  a  spy  by
Carlists about  28  June, „

German  intervention  for  killing  of  captain  Schmidt
by  Carlists . . . . . . July, ,,

Carlists  hold  Navarre,  Guipuscoa,  Biscay,  and
Alara July, »

The  Carlists  capture  Cuenca  (about  80  miles  from
Madrid)  . .' 13  July, ,,

Don  Carlos's  manifesto  promising  constitutional
government 16  July, „

Massacre  of  86  republican  prisoners  by  Carlists
under  Saballo  at  Valfogona . . 17  Jul y, ,,

All  Spain  placed  under  martial  law  ;  levy  of  125,000
men about  18  July, ,s

Government  circular  to  foreign  courts  respecting
Carlist  atrocities 29  July, ,,

The  government  appeals  to  the  French  government
respecting  French  assistance  to  Carlists  ;  justifi-
catory reply 3  Aug. „

The  British  Mediterranean  squadron  under  admiral
Drummond  sails  from  Malta  for  Barcelona,  4  Aug. „

Don  Carlos  appeals  to  the  chief  powers  not  to  inter-
vene ;  justifies  Dorregaray's  severities,  and  the
execution  of  Schmidt .... 6  Aug. ,,

Moriones'  alleged  defeat  of  Mendiri  and  Carlists  at
Oteiza 12  Aug. ,,

Duty  of  5t7.  a  ton  on  imported  iron  granted  to
Bilbao  for  repairs .... 13  Aug. ,,

Serrano's  government  recognised  by  Great  Britain,
Germany,  France,  and  other  powers  (not  by
Russia) ....  about  14  Aug. ,,

Letter  of  sympathy  and  encouragement  from  the
comte  de  Chambord  to  don  Carlos  . Aug. ,,

185  prisoners  of  war  at  Olot  said  to  be  shot  by
Carlists Aug. „

Puycerda vigorously  besieged  by  Carlists,

Aug.-Sept. ,,

Zabala  resigns ;  ministry  formed  under  Sagasta,

4  Sept. „

Carlists  fire  on  German  gunboats  Nautilus  and
Albatross  near  San  Sebastian;  the  Germans  fire
shells  into  the  town  . . . about  5  Sept. ,,


SPAIN.

Lopez  Dominguez  said  to  hare  defeated  Carlists  five
times,  and  relieved  Puyeerda . about  6  Sejit.

Carlists  fire  on  German  and  Austrian  ambassadors
on  the  road  to  Madrid . . . . C  Sept.

Carlists  defeated  by  Lopez  Pinto  near  Mora, about
9  Sept.;  by  Moriones  at  Barasoam  near  Tafalla,
about  25  Sept.

The  ruthless  Carlist  general  Dorregaray  retires  to
Bayonne  ;  said  to  have  beeu  superseded  by  Men-
dir'i Oct.

Pavia  superseded  by  Jovellar  in  Valencia,

early  in  Oct.

Note  sent  to  French  government  complaining  of
neglect  respecting  the  Carlists  on  the  frontiers,
early  in  Oct.

Carlists  said  to  have  been  defeated  at  Fortuna,  in
Murcia,  11  Oct.;  and  at  Villa  Fortuna, 30  Oct.

Carlists  begin  to  bombard  Irun,  4  Nov.;  repulsed,

10  Nov.

Serrano  commander  of  the  army  in  the  north,  Nov.

Prince  Alfonso  issues  a  manifesto  in  reply  to
address,  declaring  himself  tobe  "a  true  Spaniard,
catholic,  and  liberal " . . . . 1  Dec.

The  army  at  Murviedro  pronounces  in  favour  of
Alfonso  ;  he  is  proclaimed  king  by  gen.  Martinez
Campos,  29  Bee. ;  recognised  by  the  other  armies
and  the  nav.y,  30  Dec;  proclaimed  by  gen.  Primo
da  Rivera  at  Madrid  ;  Antonio  Canovas  del  Cas-
tillo head  of  a  royal  ministry . . 31  Dec.

The  president  marshal  Serrano  withdraws  to  France,

1  Jan.

Proclamation  of  Carlos  against  Alfonso . 6  Jan.

Alfonso  XII.  recognised  throughout  Spain  ;  well
received  at  Barcelona,  9  Jan.  ;  enters  Madrid,

14  Jan.

Orders  of  knighthood  re-established  ;  payments  to
clergy  to  be  renewed Jan.

Increased  barbarities  of  the  Carlists  reported,  Jan.

Alfonso  reviews  30,000  troops  near  Tafalla,  22  Jan.;
issues  proclamation  to  northern  provinces,  pro-
mising amnesty,  and  respect  to  local  rights,22  Jan.

Serrano  returns  to  Madrid .... Feb.

Carlists  surprise  and  defeat  royalists  at  Lucar,

3  Feb.

Carlists  retreat  from  Pampeluna  ;  entered  by  the
king,  6  Feb.  ;  he  exchanges  decorations  with
Espartero  at  Logroilo ... .9  Feb.

Designation  of  generals  Moriones,  Loma,  and
Blanco ;  Concha  sent  for  from  Cuba  . . Feb.

Serrano  received  by  the  king . . .8  March,

Cabrera,  an  old  Carlist  general  (see  1840;  publishes
an  address,  declaring  for  Alfonso  XII.,  11  March,

Several  professors  seized  and  exiled  for  liberal
opinions March,  April,

Eight  prisoners  shot  by  Carlist  general  Mendiri,  in
reprisal 7  April,

Papal  nuncio  received  by  the  king . . 3  May,

Aguirre,  Carlist  general,  joins  the  royalists,

about  9  May,

Jovellar,  commander  of  royal  army, about  7  June,

Martinez  Campos  said  to  have  taken  fortress  of
Miraveti 24  June,

Vigorous  action  of  the  government  troops ;  Carlists
expelled  from  Castile  ;  stringent  measures  or-
dered against  those  who  favour  them . July,

Carlists  defeated  by  Qucsada  and  others 31  July,

Strong  citadel  at  Urgel  surrendered  by  Carlists  to
Campos,  after  a  gallant  defence  ;  the  bishop  and
the  brave  general  Lizarraga  captured, 26  Aug.

New  conscription  ordered,  12  Aug;  reported  suc-
cessful Sept.

Designation  of  "conciliation  ministry,"  n  Sept;
liberal  cabinet  headed  by  gen.  Jovellar, 12  Sept.

The  papal  nuncio  issues  a  circular  against  toleration,
about  13  Sept.

Dorregaray  said  to  be  nominated  to  the  chief  com-
mand ;  declaration  from  don  Carlos  stating  that
his  mission  is  "  to  quell  the  revolution,  and  that
it  will  die" Sept.

Bombardment  of  San  Sebastian,  28  Sept.-2  Oct.  ;
resumed,  n  Oct.

The  government  declare  the  civil  war  at  an  end,
ami  purpose  summoning  the  cortes  to  assist  the
king  in  re-organising  the  country, early  in  Oct.

Reported  defection  of  Mendiri  from  the  Carlists,
and  trial  of  Dorregaray  and  Caballi  for  miscon-
duct ;  and  Carlist  successes . . . Oct.


907


1874


'875


SPAIN.

Reported  interference  of  United  States  respecting
Cuba Oct..  Nov.  1873

Alleged  victories  of  Quesada,  near  Pennacerada,

4,  5.  Nov. „

Correspondence  of  ministry  with  the  pope  respect-
ing ecclesiastical  affairs ....  Nov. ,,

Letter  from  Don  Carlos  to  the  king  proposing  a
truce,  and  offering  help  if  war  occurs  with  the
United  States  (not  answered) . . 9  Nov. ,,

Formation  of  a  new  constitutional  party  under
Sagasta Nov. ,,

New  proclamation  of  don  Carlos  to  encourage  his
supporters 23  Nov. ,,

Serrano  and  Sagasta  greet  the  king  on  his  birthday,

28  Nov. ,,

Ministry  reconstructed  under  Canovas  del  Castillo,

27  Nov. ,,

Cortes  elected,  364  nominal  ministerialists  out  of  406,

Jan.  1876

Cortes  opened  by  the  king ... 15  Feb. ,,

Carlists  defeated  at  Estella,  Vera,  and  Tolosa,  by
Quesada  and  Moriones .... Feb. ,,

The  king  assumes  command  ;  Estella  surrenders  to
Primo  da  Rivera  :  severe  loss . . 18  Feb. ,,

Reported  letter  from  the  pope  recommending  Carlos
to  retire  from  the  contest ... 22  Feb. ,,

Many  Carlists  submit  or  flee  into  France,  24-26  Feb. ,,

Don  Carlos  with  general  Lizarraga  and  five  batta-
lions surrender  to  the  governor  of  Bayonne,  at
St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port,  27  Feb. ;  he  lands  with
some  officers  at  Folkestone,  and  proceeds  to
London 4  March, „

Triumphal  entry  of  Alfonso  XII.  into  Madrid,

20  March, ,,

Draft  of  new  constitution  submitted  to  the  cortes,

28  March, ,,.

The  pope  opposes  moderate  religious  toleration  in
Art.  11  of  the  constitution . . . April, ,r

The  Jews  (expelled  in  1492)  petition  for  re-admission

April, ,r

The  prince  of  Wales  at  Madrid  by  invitation,

25-30  April, ,r

Outbreaks  in  the  Basque  provinces  reported  ;  mar-
tial law about  27  May, ,,

Long  debate  in  the  cortes  ;  confidence  in  ministry
voted  (211-26)  ;  the  constitution  passed;  cortes
adjourns about  21  July, „

Queen  Isabella  received  by  the  king  at  Santander  ;
declares  that  "  her  share  in  public  affairs  is  at  an
end  " 31  July, ,,

Repression  of  public  worship  of  protestants  by
authority Sept. ,,

Ex-queen  Isabella  quietly  received  at  Madrid,  1 3  Oct . , ,

Alleged  federalist  conspiracy  of  Ruiz  Zorrilla  and
Salmeron  ;  about  1  =o  arrests . . . 23  Oct. ,,

State  of  siege  in  Old  Castile  raised . . 1  Feb.  1877

Treaty  favoured  nation  clause  in  regard  to  England
abrogated

Royal  progress  in  the  provinces  ;  the  king  well  re-
ceived March, „

General  amnesty  to  Carlists  and  others  surrender-
ing April, ,,

Meeting  of  the  new  cortes  ;  cheerful  royal  speech,

25  April, ,,

The  cortes  suddenly  closed . . . 11  July, ,,

New  tariff  passed;  customs  duties  raised  in  respect
to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  United States,

17  July, ,,

The  ex-queen,  after  visiting  her  son,  disapproves
of  his  proposed  marriage,  and  associates  with  don
Carlos  in  Paris,  who  is  privately  forbidden  to
remain,  and  goes  to  England  ;  she  is  forbidden  to
return  to  Spain ;  her  pension  stopped,  end  of  Dec. ,,

The  king  married  to  his  cousin  Mercedes,  daughter
of  the  due  de  Montpensier  . . . 23  Jan.  1878

End  of  the  insurrection  in  Cuba  announced,  21  Feb. ,,

Death  of  queen  Mercedes,  deeply  lamented,  26  June, ,,

Budget  receipts,  30,025,208?.,  expendit.  30,127,114?.
announced Aug. ,,

Death  of  the  queen  dowager  Christina . 21  Aug. „

The  king  fired  at  (not  injured)  by  Juan  Oliva  Mon-
casi,  a  member  of  the  international  Society,  aged
23 25  <»ct. „

Moncasi  executed 4  Jan.  187^

Espartero,  duquc  de  Victoria,  dies . . 8  Jan. ,,

Castillo  ministry  (1874)  resigns  ;  marshal  Campos
forms  a  ministry 3  March, ,,

The  cortes  dissolved,  16  March  ;  to  meet, '  1  June, ,,


SPAIN.


908


SPAIN.


Heavy  rains,  14  Oct. ;  consequent  disastrous  inun-
dations in  the  provinces  of  Malaga,  Almeria,
Granada,  Seville,  and  especially  in  Murcia  and
Alicante ;  about  1000  persons  perish ;  about
10,000  houseless .... 15-17  Oct. :

fresh  storms  and  inundations  ;  21  persons  drowned
at  Vera,  in  Almeria . . . . 29,  30  Oct.

The  king  married  to  the  archduchess  Maria  Chris-
tina of  Austria 29  Nov.

Vines  attacked  by  phylloxera  in  Malaga,  &c. Nov.

.Resignation  of  the  Campos  ministry  ;  Canovas  del
Castillo  forms  a  cabinet ... .9  Dec. '

Attempted  assassination  of  the  king  and  queen  by
Francisco  Otero  y  Gonzalez  by  shooting, 30  Dee.

Promulgation  of  law  for  gradually  abolishing
slavery  in  Cuba . . . . . 18  Feb.

Manifesto  from  279  senators  and  deputies  claiming
liberty  of  religion,  the  press,  &c,  and  education,
universal  suffrage,  &c. ... 6  April,

Otero  executed 14  April,

Resignation  of  ministry  ;  Sagasta  forms  a  ministry
(liberal),  8  Feb.  ;  the  chambers  adjourned,  9  Feb.

Calderon  centenary,  Madrid,  begins . 23  May,

Conference  of  advanced  radicals  at  Biarritz  to  or-
ganize the  party 13  June,

Permission  said  to  be  given  to  about  60,000  Rus-
sian Jews  to  come  to  Spain . . . June,

Don  Carlos  expelled  from  France  for  expressing  sym-
pathy with  legitimists  (goes  to  London) 17  July,

Elections  ;  majority  for  the  ministry . . Aug.

The  cortes  opened  by  the  king . . 20  Sept.

Consolidation  of  the  National  debt  (60,000,000?.)
proposed,  Sept.  ;  law  published . 10  Dec.

The  kinginvested  with  the  order  of  theGarter,7  Oct.

The  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal  open  a  new  rail-
way between  Madrid  and  Lisbon  . . 8  Oct.

Great  agitation  against  the  free  trade  policy  of  the
minister  Camacho,  in  Catalonia,  <fcc.  (see  Bar-
celona)

Treaty  with  France  passed  by  the  cortes  (237-65),

22  April,

•Continued  disputes  with  England  respecting  tariff,

Aug.  et  seq.

■"Dynastic  Left,"  a  new  party  formed  by  marshal
Serrano  and  others,  constituted  (dividing  the
liberals) 27  Oct.

Gen.  Maceo  and  Ave  Cuban  insurgent  leaders  sur-
rendered at  Gibraltar  to  the  Spaniards  (they  had
escaped  from  Cadiz,  20  Aug.)  ;  they  petition
■queen  Victoria  to  ask  for  their  release  ;  applica-
tion made  for  inquiry ;  gen.  Baylies,  colonial
secretary  at  Gibraltar,  and  Mr.  Blair,  the  chief
inspector  of  police,  dismissed  for  exceeding  their
authority,  announced .... 4  Dec.

The  "Dynastic  Left"  in  cortes  pronounce  in  favour
of  advanced  liberalism . . . 15  Dec.

Majority  for  government  in  elections  for  councils
general 17  Dec.

Resignation  of  the  ministry  . . .6  Jan.

New  cabinet  formed  by  Sagasta . . 8  Jan.

Socialist  and  anarchist  disturbances  in  Seville,  &c.

Feb.

A  secret  society,  entitled  the  "  Black  Hand  (Mano
Negra),"  reported;  airests,  28  Feb.;  total  sup-
pression reported .... 4  March,

Release  of  two  Cuban  refugees  ; Maceo  retained,

March,

The  king  and  queen  of  Portugal  at  Madrid,  22  May,

Temporary  republican  military  insurrection  at
Badajoz,  said  to  lie  planned  by  Ruiz  Zorrilla,
on  the  approach  of  troops ;  mutineers  enter  Por-
tugal, and  are  disarmed  .  .  4,  5,  6  Aug.
Brief  military  outbreaks  near  Logrofio  and  at  Bar-
'  celona,  8  Aug.  ;  Seo-de-Urgel  . . .9  Aug.

Spain  reported  tranquil  ... 13  Aug.

The  king's  military  tour,  Valencia,  Barcelona,  Sara-
gossa,  &c.  well  received . .  17  Aug.  et  seq.

He  visits  Vienna,  10  Sept. ;  Berlin,  Homberg,  and
Brussels 27  Sept.

The  king  honourably  received  by  president  Grevy,
but  hissed  and  reviled  by  the  Paris  mob  (on
Account  of  his  having  been  made  a  colonel  of
Uhlans  by  the  emperor  William);  behaved  with
dignity  and  courage  .  .  29,  30  Sept.  1  Oct.
Resignation  of  Sagasta  ami  his  ministry  ;  succeeded
by  Posada  Herrera  and  others . 11-13OCL

The  crown  prince  of  Germany  arrives  at  Madrid,

23  Nov.


Amnesty  granted  to  insurgent  soldiers  announced,

27  Nov.

Treaty  for  new  commercial  tariff  signed . 1  Dec.

The  king  opens  the  cortes,  with  speech  promising
important  reforms .... 15  Dec.

Treaty  with  England  condemned  by  the  council  of
state ;  freetraders  indignant . . . Jan.

Government  defeated  in  the  cortes  (221-126)  17  Jan.

Ministry  resigned  ;  Canovas  del  Castillo  (conser-
vative) forms  a  ministry . . . 18  Jan.

Dissolution  of  the  cortes . . . 31  March,

Suspected  military  insurrection  ;  about  25  persons
arrested,  about  17  March ;  7  of  15  condemned  ;
Black  Hand  conspirators  garrotted  at  Xeres,  14
June;  Commander  Fernandez  and  lieut.  Telles
shot  as  rebels . . . . . 28  June,

Fall  of  the  Alcudia  railway  bridge  near  Badajoz,
great  loss  of  life  (said  to  be  90)  ;  believed  to  be
due  to  criminal  work  of  republicans . 26  April,

New  cortes  (three-fourths  conservative)  meets,  20
May ;  business  begun ... 10  June,

Sir  Robert  Morier,  British  envoy,  1881  ;  succeeded
by  sir  Francis  Clare  Ford . . . .

Last  section  of  the  Great  Asturian  railway  opened
by  the  king 15  ^ug-

Indiscreet  speech  of  Sen.  Pidal  Y.  Mon,  minister
of  instruction,  causes  revival  of  agitation  in
favour  of  the  Pope ;  resented  by  Italy  ;  apology
made Aug.  Sept.

Speech  of  professor  Moraytor  against  clericals  ;
university  students  at  Madrid  forbidden  to  attend
his  lectures  by  Sen.  Pidal,  resist :  conflict  with
the  police ;  many  wounded,  20  Nov.  ;  professors
and  students  expelled  from  the  university  ;  many
liberal  newspapers  suspended;  otheruniversities
agitated Nov.

Passive  resistance  of  the  students . 1  Dec.  et  seq;

Much sufferings by Earthquakes, which see,

25-31  Dec.

National subscription proclaimed by  the  king,

3  Jan.

The  king- visits  the  afflicted  districts,  11-23  Jan.  ;
liberal  subscriptions  in  London  . n  Jan.

Protocol  restoring  Great  Britain  to  position  of
most  "favoured  nation"  in  regard  to  commerce
(lost  since  1845);  wine  duties  modified;  signed
at  Madrid,  21  Dec.  1884  ;  gazetted . 6  Feb.

Commercial  treaty  with  England  ratified  by  the
deputies,  11  March  ;  by  the  senate,  28  March  ;
by  the  king 1  April,

Failure  of  the  negotiations  for  the  treaty  announce!  I ,

18  May,

Break  out  of  cholera  in  Valencia  (see  Cholera),  May,

The  ministers  resign  on  account  of  the  kings
intention  to  visit  Valencia ;  he  gives  in ;  they
resume  office . . . . 20,  21  June,

Riots  at  Madrid  through  the  Germans  occupying
Yap,  a  Caroline  isle ;  the  German  •  legation
attacked,  4,  5  Sept.  ;  quiet  restored  6  Sept ;
Spanish  note  of  apology  sent  to  Berlin  about  26
Sept. ;  mediation  of  the  pope  accepted  (see
Caroline  Islands) . . . about  26  Sept.

British  legation  insulted  by  claim  of  taxes,
about  29,  30  Sept.

Attempted  military  insurrection  at  Cartagena,
1  Nov. ;  suppressed . . about  4,  5  Nov.

Death  of  king  Alfonso  XII.,  25  Nov,  ;  resignation
of  Canovas  del  Castillo  ;  ministry  formed  by
senor  Sagasta .... 26,  27  Nov.

Death  of  marshal  Serrano ... 26  Nov.

Amnesty  granted  to  press  and  political  offenders,

10  Dec.

Manifesto  of  the  Spanish  bishops  to  their  dioceses,
declaring  the  distinction  to  be  observed  between
religion  and  politics,  and  the  submission  of  the
church  to  any  lawful  form  of  government,
monarchical  or  republican ... 6  Jan.

50  soldiers  at  Cartagena  mutiny  ;  most  escape
to  a  ship,  10,  n  Jan. ;  general  Fajardo  wounded  ;
dies  27  Jan.  ;  ringleader  of  mutiny  shot,  3  March,

Suspected intrigue  of  Zorilla  and  his  followers,

Jan.

The  duke  of  Seville  sentenced  to  eight  years'
imprisonment,  &c,  for  insulting,  &o.,  the  queen
regent. about  27  Feb.

Assassination  of  the  bishop  of  Madrid  (see  Madrid),

19  April,

The  commercial  treaty  with  England  (till  1892)


1884


1SS5


SPAIN.

again  accepted  by  the  cortes,  May ;  ratified,
24  July;  royal  assent,  29  July;  comes  into
operation 15  Aug.

Destructive  cyclone  at  Madrid  (which  see), 12  May,

Don  Carlos  protests  against  recognition  of  Alphonso
XIII. ...... 20  May,

Revolt  of  300  of  Madrid  garrison  under  brigadier
Villacainpa  ;  unsupported,  quickly  suppressed  ;
three  officers  killed,  19  Sept.  ;  capital  punish-
ment of  insurgents  commuted  . . Oct.

Republican  manifesto  of  the  duke  of  Seville  issued
at  Tarbes about  30  Sept.

Changes  in  M.  Sagasta's  cabinet . . 10  Oct.

Solemn  commemoration  of  the  death  of  king
Alphonso  XII 25,  26  Nov.

Attempted  assassination  by  a  Frenchman  of
marshal  Bazaine .... 18  April,

The  regent  queen  Christina  visits  the  N.  provinces ;
well  received Aug.

The  Philippine  exhibition  at  Madrid  ;  the  queen
distributes  the  prizes  .... 17  Oct.

Opening  of  the  cortes  ;  the  infant  king  enthroned  ;
speech  of  the  queen  regent ;  the  country
prosperous  and  quiet . . . . 1  Dec.

Sir  Francis  Clare  Ford,  British  envoy,  &c,  nomi-
nated ambassador ;  received  by  the  queen
regent ....... 21  Jan.

Rioting  at  the  Rio  Tinto  mines  suppressed  with
bloodshed 4,  S  Feb.

Trial  by  .jury  introduced  by  the  senate  . 27  Feb.

Ruiz  Korrilla's  revolutionary  manifesto  issued,
demanding  a  plebiscite  for  the  form  of  national
government 4  March,

Resignation  of  the  ministry  . . 13  June,

Senor  Sagasta  forms  a  new  ministry . 14  June,

Republican  outbreak  at  Saragossa  against  con-
servatives ;  senor  Canovas  del  Castillo  attacked,
20  Oct. ;  outbreak  at  Seville,  7  Nov.  ;  outbreak
at  Madrid 11  Nov.

Resignation  of  the  ministry,  9  Dec.  ;  reconstituted
by  senor  Sagasta 10  Dec.

Amnesty  to  political  offenders  and  mutinous
soldiers  decreed 23  Jan.

The  queen  regent  meets  queen  Victoria  at  San
Sebastian 27  March,

Long  debate  in  the  chamber,  victory  of  ministers
(227-65) 22  May,

Trial  by  jury  first  put  in  force  (at  Madrid),  29  May,

Parliamentary  deadlock,  the  session  closed  by
the  queen  regent 2  June,

Powerful  speech  by  senor  Sagasta  to  his  supporters,
12  June  ;  the  cortes  reopened . . 14  June,

Victory  of  senor  Sagasta  over  senor  Canovas  del
Castillo  and  the  combined  conservatives  and
dissentient  liberals,  reported . . 14  July,

Dispute  with  Morocco  (which  see)  settled 29  Sept.

The  cortes  opened 29  Oct.

Death  of  sen.  Julian  Gayarre,  a  popular  tenor
singer 2  Jan.

Resignation  of  the  ministry,  3  Jan.  ;  Senor  Sagasta
forms  a  slightly  modified  cabinet . 20  Jan.

Illness  of  the  king,  4  Jan.;  serious,  9  Jan.  ;  con-
valescent. - 16  Jan.

Death  of  the  due  dc  Montpensier,  4  Feb. ;  buried
in  the  Escurial 7  Feb.

The  duke  of  Seville,  who  had  escaped  from  prison
(sec  above,  1886),  pardoned  by  the  queen  regent,

27  Feb.

Strike  of  about  40,000  workmen  in  Barcelona  and
other  parts  of  Catalonia,  chiefly  for  reduction  of
tii it'labour 30  March,

Barcelona  placed  under  martial  law  ;  the  anarchists
ami  soeialists  opposed  by  the  people,  1  May  et
seq.  ;  tranquillity  restored . . 5  May  fl  s«/.

i:  isignation  of  the  Sagasta  ministry . .  3  July,

Sen.  Canovas  de  Castillo  forms  a  coalition  ministry,

5  July  et  seq.

Strikes  of  workmen  in  Catalonia . 15  July  et  seq.

Infanta  Marie  Teresa,  first  class  belted  cruiser
launched  at  Bilbao  by  the  queen  regent 30  Aug.

Choleraic  disease  in  Valencia  and  other  places,
a  bout  2,840  deaths . . . May— Sept.

The  Cortes  dissolved 30  Dec.

Death  of  sen.  Alonzo  Martinez,  eminent  statesman,

14  Jan.

Patrocinio,  the  "bleeding  nun,"  who  had  been
banished  and  returned  1875,  lived  in  retirement,
and  died,  aged  91 28  Jan.


909


SPAIN.


Conservative  majority  at  the  general  election— of
the  deputies  1  Feb.,  of  the  senate . . 15  Feb.

The  Cortes  opened  by  the  queen  regent 2  March,

Republican  disturbances  at  Corunna,  supported  by
the  corporation  ;  its  powers  suspended,  8  Sept.  ;
affair  settled 16  Sept.

Violent  storms,  causing  great  floods,  especially  in
the  province  of  Toledo  ;  all  the  towns  and  villages
on  the  banks  of  the  Ainarguillo,  especially  Con-
suegra,  30  miles  S.E.  of  Toledo,  inundated;
deaths  estimated  at  2,000,  n,  12  Sept.  et  seq.
The  queen  regent  sends  immediate  relief,  and
orders  a  national  subscription . 13  Sept.  et  seq.

Destructive  storm  at  Valencia ;  inundations  at
Almeria  with  loss  of  life  ;  grape  harvest  destroyed,

15  Sept.

Consuegra  nearly  destroyed,  above  1,781  deaths  ;
the  minister  of  public  works  visits  the  place ;
large  subscriptions  for  relief,  16  Sept.  ;  railway
and  telegraphic  communications  greatly  sus-
pended ;  the  staple  crops  in  many  places  almost
annihilated n  Sept.  et  seq.

Spanish  inundation  fund  started  in  London

about  14  Sept.

Above  100,000  persons  homeless  through  floods  of
the  Amarguillo,  Tagus,  Guadalquivir,  and  other
rivers  ;  palaces  and  country  houses  open  to  re-
ceive sufferers,  reported . . .18  Sept.
See  Railway  accidents,  24  Sept.  1891

Reported  government  financial  difficulties ;  the
queen  attends  a  meeting  of  the  cabinet,

about  14  Nov.

Resignation  of  the  ministry,  21  Nov. ;  reconsti-
tuted by  sen.  Canovas  del  Castillo . 22  Nov.

Decree  for  new  loan  of  250,000,000  pesetas,  at  4  per
cent.,  18  Dec.  ;  opened ... 28  Dec.

Anarchist  attack  on  Xeres  suppressed  with  blood-
shed, 9  Jan.  ;  4  rioters  sentenced  to  death,  others
to  imprisonment,  4  Feb.  ;  executed . 10  Feb.

Sir  Henry  Drummond  Wolff  succeeds  sir  Francis
Clare  Ford  as  British  ambassador about  15  Jan.

Rupture  with  France  through  the  new  commercial
tariff 1  Feb.

Anarchist  disturbances  at  Barcelona  ;  evidence  of
plots  at  other  places  ;  the  military  employed,
about  10  Feb.  ;  7  anarchists  arrested  at  Reus,
Catalonia 30  March,

Alleged  discovery  of  a  plot  to  blow  up  the  chamber
of  deputies,  the  palace,  and  other  places  ;  Jean
Marie  Delboche,  a  Frenchman,  and  Manuel
Ferriera,  a  Portuguese,  arrested  with  documents,
4  April  ;  13  anarchists  arrested  at  their  club,  5
April.  Philip  Munoz,  an  anarchist  chief  ar-
rested, 10  April ;  released . . 24  April,

Explosions  or  attempts  at  Barcelona  and  other
places,  arrests  made . . .16  April  et  seq.

A  commercial  modus  Vivendi  with  France  signed
by  the  queen 28  May,


Sovereigns of Spain.


411.
415.


451.
452-
466.
483-
506.
511.
53i-
543-
549-
5.54-
5fi7-
568.

586.
601.
603.
610.
612.
621.

631.


GOTHIC SOVEREIGNS.

Ataulfo ;  murdered  by  his  soldiers.

Sigerico ;  reigned  a  few  days  only.

Valia,  or  Wallia.

Theodoric  I.  ;  killed  in  a  battle,  which  he  gained,

against  Attila.
Thorismund,  or  Torrismund  ;  assassinated.
Theodoric  II.  ;  assassinated  by
Eurie,  the  first  monarch  of  all  Spain.
AlaricII.  ;  killed  in  battle.
Gesalric  ;  his  bastard  son.
Amalric,  or  Amalaric  :  legitimate  son  of  Alaric.
Theudis,  or  Theodat ;  assassinated  by  a  madman.
Theudisela,  or  Theodisele  ;  murdered.
Agila ;  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.
Atanagildo.
Liuva,  or  Levua  I.
Leuvigildo;  assoeiated  on  the  throne  with  Liuva.

in  568 ;  and  sole  king  in  572.
Recaredo  I.

Liuva  II.  ;  assassinated.
Vitericus;  also  murdered.
Gundeniar.

Sisibut,  or  Sisebuth,  or  Sisebert.
Recaredo  II.
Suintila ;  dethroned.
Sisenando.


SPAIN.


910  SPAIN.


636.  Chintella.

640.  Tulga,  or  Tulca.

642.  Cindasuinto ;  died  in  652.

649. Recesuinto ;  associated  ;  in  653  became  sole  king.

672.  Vamba, or  Wamba ; dethroned, and  died in  a
monastery.

680.  Ervigius,  or  Ervigio.

6S7.  Egica,  or  Egiza.

698.  Vitiza,  or  Witiza,  associated  ;  in  701  sole  king.

711.  Eodrigo,  or  Roderic ;  slain  in  battle.
J  Six  independent Suevic  kings reigned 409-469  ; and
Two  Vandalic  kings :  Gnnderie  409-425  ;  his  successor
Genseric  with  his  whole  nation  passed  over  to  Africa.]

Mahometan  Spain.

CORDOVA.

'Emirs.  The  first,  Abdelasis:  the  last,  Yussuf-el-Tehri :

A.D.  714-755.

Kings. The  first,  Abderahman  I. ;  the  last,  Abu  All;
755-1238.

GRANADA.

Kings. The  first,  Mohammed  I.;  the  last,  Abdalla;

1238-1492.

Christian  Spain.

kings  of  asturias  and  leon.

778.  Pelagius,  or  Pelayo; overthrew  the  Moors,  and

checked  their  conquests.
737.  Favila;  killed  in  hunting.
739.  Alfonso  the  Catholic.
757.  Froila;  murdered  his  brother  Samaran,  in  revenge

for  which  he  was  murdered  by  his  brother,  and

successor,
768.  Aurelius  or  Aurelio.
774.  Mauregato,  the  Usurper.
788.  Veremundo  (Bermuda)  I.
791.  Alfonso  II.,  the  Chaste.
S42.  Ramiro  I. :  he  put  70,000  Saracens  to  the  sword  in

one  battle. Rabbe.
•S50.  Ordoiio  II.
866.  Alfonso  III.,  surnamed  the  Great;  relinquished  his

crown  to  his  son,
910.  Garcias.
914.  Ordoiio  II.
923.  Froila  II.

925.  Alfonso  IV.,  the  Monk;  abdicated.
930.  Ramiro  II.,  killed  in  battle.
950.  Ordoiio  III.

955.  Ordono  IV.

956.  Sancho  I. ,  the  Fat ;  poisoned  with  an  apple.
967.  Ramiro  III.

983.  Veremundo  II.  (Bermuda),  the  Gouty.
999.  Alfonso  V.  ;  killed  in  a  siege.
2027.  Veremundo  III.  (Bermuda);  killed.

KINGS OF  NAVARRE.

Sancho  Ifiigo. Count.

Garcia  I. ,  king.

Sancho  Garcias  ;  a  renowned  warrior.

Garcias  II.,  surnamed  the  Trembler.

Sancho  II.,  surnamed  the  Great  (king  of  Castile

through  his  wife).
Garcias  III.
Sancho  III.

Sancho  IV. ,  Ramirez,  king  of  Aragon.
Peter  of  Aragon.
Alfonso  I. ,  of  Aragon.
Garcias  IV. ,  Ramirez.
Sancho  V. ,  surnamed  the  Wise.
Sancho  VI. ,  surnamed  the  Infirm.
Theobald  I. ,  count  of  Champagne.
Theobald  II.
Henry  Crassus.

Joanna;  married  to  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  1285.
Louis  Rutin  of  France.
John  ;  lived  but  a  few  days.
Philip  V. ,  the  Long,  of  France.
Charles  I.,  the  IV.  of  France.
Joanna  II.,  and  Philip,  count  d'Evreux.
Joanna  alone.
Charles  II.,  or  the  Bad.
Charles  III.,  or  the  Noble.
Blanche  and  her  husband  John  II.,  afterwards  king

of  Aragon.
Eleanor.

Francis  Phoebus  de  Foix.
Catherine  and  John  d'Albret.
Navarre  conquered  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and

united  with  Castile.


873-
885.
9°5-
924.
970.

1035.
1054.
1076.
1094.
3104.
i'34-
1 1 50.
1194.
1234.
1253-
1270.
1274.
I3°5-
1316.

J322.
J  328.
1343-
J349-
1387.
I42S-

1479.

1483.

J5I2-


1035-
1065.

1072.
1 109.
1 126.
"57-


1214.
1217.


1295.
1312.
i35°-


1369.

1379'
1390.
1406.
1454
M74


KINGS OF LEON  AND CASTILE.

Ferdinand  the  Great.

Sancho  II.,  the  Strong,  son  of  Ferdinand  ;  Alfonso
in  Leon  and  Asturias,  and  Garcias  in  Galicia.

Alfonso  VI.,  the  Valiant,  king  of  Leon

Uraca  and  Alfonso  VII.

Alfonso  VII.,  Raymond.

Sancho  III. ,  surnamed  the  Beloved.

Alfonso  VIII.,  the  Noble.

[Leon  is separated  from  Castile  under Ferdi-
nand II.,  1157-88.]

Alfonso  IX.,  of  Leon.

Henry  I.

Ferdinand  III.,  the  Saint  and  the  Holy.  By  him
Leon  and  Castile  were  permanently  united.

Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise  (the  Alphonsine  Tables  were
drawn  up  under  his  direction).

Sancho  IV. ,  the  Great  and  the  Brave. '

Ferdinand  IV.

Alfonso  XL

Peter  the  Cruel :  deposed  ;  reinstated  by  Edward
the  Black  Prince  of  England;  slain  by  his
natural  brother  and  successor,

Henry  II. ,  the  Gracious  ;  poisoned  by  a  monk.

John  I.  :  lie  united  Biscay  to  Castile.

Henry  III.,  the  Sickly.

John  II. ,  son  of  Henry.

Henry  IV. ,  the  Impotent.

Isabella,  sister  (had  married  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,
18  Oct.  1469).

1504.  Joanna  (daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella),  and
Philip  I.  of  Austria.  On  her  mother's  death
Joanna  succeeded,  jointly  with  her  husband
Philip  ;  but  Philip  dying  in  1506,  and  Joanna
becoming  imbecile,  her  father  Ferdinand  con-
tinued the  reign ;  and  thus  perpetuated  the
union  of  Castile  with  Aragon.

KINGS OF  ARAGON.

1035.  Ramiro  I.

1065.  Sancho  Ramirez  (IV.  of  Navarre).

1094.  Peter  of  Navarre.

1 104.  Alfonso  I.,  the  Warrior,  king  of  Navarre.

1 134.  Ramiro  II. ,  the  Monk.

1 1 37.  Petronilla,  and  Raymond,  count  of  Barcelona.

1 163.  Alfonso  II.

1 196.  Peter  II.

1213.  James  I.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son,

1276.  Peter  III.  ;  conquered  Sicily  (which  sec)  in  12S2.

1285.  Alfonso  III.,  the  Beneficent.

1291.  James  II.,  surnamed  the  Just.

1327.  Alfonso  IV.

1336.  Peter  IV.,  the  Ceremonious.

1387.  John  I.

1395.  Martin.

1410.  [Interregnum.]

14 1 2.  Ferdinand  the  Just,  king  of  Sicily.

1416.  Alfonso  V.,  the  Wise.

145S.  John  II.,  king  of  Navarre,  brother  of  Alfonso  ;  died
1479.

1479.  Ferdinand  II.,  the  Catholic,  the  next  heir;  by
marriage  with  Isabella  of  Castile  (styled  the
Catholic  kings),  the  kingdoms  were  united.

SPAIN.

1512.  Ferdinand  V.  (of  Castile),  the  Catholic  ;  having
conquered  Granada  and  Navarre,  became  king
of  all  Spain.

1516.  Charles  I.,  grandson,  son  of  Joanna  of  Castile  and
Philip  of  Austria  (emperor  of  Germany,  as  Charles
V.,  in  1 5 19);  resigned  both  crowns,  and  retired
to  a  monastery.

1556.  Philip  II.,  son,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily;  a  merci-
less bigot ;  married  Mary,  queen-regnant  of
England  ;  died  covered  with  ulcers.

1598.  Philip  III.,  son,  drove  the  Moors  from  Granada
and  the  adjacent  provinces.

1621.  Philip  IV,  son  :  wars  with  the  Dutch  and  French  ;
lost  Portugal  in  1640.

1665.  Charles  II.,  son;  last  of  the  Austrian  line;  nomi-
nated, by  will,  as  his  successor

1700.  Philip  V.,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.
of  France:  hence  arose  the  "war  of  the  Succes-
sion," terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in
1713;  resigned.

1724.  Louis  I.,  son  ;  reigned  only  a  few  months.
,, Philip  V.  again.

1746.  Ferdinand  VI.,  the  Wise,  son ;  liberal  and  beneficent.


SPALATO.


911


SPARTA.


1759.  Charles  III. ,  brother,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  which
he  gave  to  his  third  son,  Ferdinand.

1788.  Charles  IV.,  son ;  the  influence  of  Godoy,  prince  of
the  Peace,  reached  to  almost  royal  authority  in
this  reign;  Charles  abdicated  in  favour  of  his
son  in  1808,  and  died  in  1819.

1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  whom  Napoleon  of  France  also
forced  to  resign.
„ Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  ;  forced  to
abdicate.

1813.  Ferdinand  VII.  restored  ;  married  Maria  Christina
of  Naples,  11  Dec.  1829;  died  29  Sept.  1833;
succeeded  by

1833.  Isabella  II.,  daughter  (born,  10  Oct.  1830)  ;  declared
of  age,  8  Nov.  1843  ;  married  her  cousin,  Don
Francis  d'Assisi,  10  Oct.  1846  ;  deposed  30  Sept.
1868 :  separated  from  her  husband,  March,
1870;  and  abdicated,  25  June,  1870,  in  favour  of
her  son,  Alfonso,  prince  of  Asturias  (born,
2S  Nov.  1857).  Visits  queen  Victoria  at  Windsor,
20  May  ;  leaves  England  29  May,  1890.

1S70.  Amndco  I.  (duke  of  Aosta,  son  of  Victor-Emanuel  IT.
king  of  Italy);  born,  30  May,  1845;  married
Maria  Victoria  of  Pozzo  della  Cisterna,  30  May,
1867 ;  accepted  the  crown  offered  him  by  the
cortes,  4  Dec.  1870;  abdicated  11  Feb.  1873;
died  18  Jan.  1890.

Republic  founded,  n  Feb.  1873.  Very  unsettled,
1873-4-

KINGS.

1874.  Alfonso  XII.  son  of  Isabella  II.  (born  28  Nov.
1857);  proclaimed  30  Dec.  1874;  married  1st,
his  cousin  Mercedes,  daughter  of  the  due  de
Montpensier  (born  24  June,  i860),  23  Jan.  1878  ;
she  died  26  June,  1878  ;  2nd,  archduchess  Maria
Christina  of  Austria  (born  21  July,  1858),  29
Nov.  1S79. He  died  25  Nov.  1885.

1885.  Maria  Mercedes  Isabella,  born  n  Sept.  18S0 ; re-

placed by  her  brothel".

1886.  Alphonso  (Leon  &c.)  XIII.,  born  17  May.

CARI.IST LEGITIMIST PRETENDERS.

(See  above  1833  et  seq.)
Carlos  V.,  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  born  29  March,

1788  ;  died,  10  March,  1855.
Carlos  VI.,  his  son  (conde  de  Montemolin),  died  14  Jan.

1861.
Carlos  VII. (son of  don  Juan,  brother  of  Carlos  VI.,

who  renounced  his  right, 8  Jan. 1863) ;  bom,

30  March,  1848  ;  see  above  1873-6.

SPALATO  (Dalmatia),  the  ancient  Spalatuni,
and  Salona.  At  his  palace  here,  Diocletian  spent  Lis
last  nine  years,  and  died  July,  313.  It.  Adam  pub-
lished the "Antiquities  of  Diocletian's  Palace,"

1764.

SPANISH  AMERICA,  ARMADA,  &c,

see  America,  Armada,  and  Eras.

SPANISH  EXHIBITION  of  Arts  and  In-
dustries, Earl's  Court,  West  Brompton,  London,  W.,
chairman,  the  duke of  AVellington,  a  grandee  of
Spain.
The  exhibition,  although  unfinished,  was  informally

opened  with  a  fine  display  of  pictures, 1  June,  1S89
In  July,  1889,  it  included  representations  of  the
Alhambra,  Madrid  market-place,  cosmorama  of  a
journey  through Spain, a Spanish band and
strolling  players,  &c,  closed . . 31  Oct.  1889

SPANISH.  GRANDEES, the  higher

nobility,  at  one  time  almost  equal  to  the  kings  of
Castile  and  Aragon,  and  often  setting  their  autho-
rity at  defiance,  were  restrained  on  the  union  of  the
crowns  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella
in  1474,  who  compelled  several  to  relinquish  the
royal  fortresses  and  domains  which  they  held.
Charles  V.  reduced  the  grandees  to  sixteen  families
(Mcdina-Sidonia,  Albuquerque,  &c),  dividing  them
into  three  classes.

SPANISH  LANGUAGE  (Lengua  Castel-
lana),  is a  dialect  of  Latin  largely  intermingled


with  Arabic,  which  was  the  legal  language  till  the
14th  century.  Spanish  did  not  become  general  fill
the  16th  century.


EMINENT SPANISH AITIIORS.


Born

Died

iS°3

1536

1496

1543

1520

1562

r474

1566

'533

'595

'547

1616

1536

1623

1565

1625

1561

1627

'634

1568

'635

1570

1647

1.S8.S

1648

1601

1682

1610

1686

1 701

1765

1750

1798

1760

1828

1809

1837

1796

1S73

i8!S

1830

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega .

Boscan

Jorge  de  Montemayor  ...
Las  Casas

Ercilla

Cervantes  (author  of  Don  Quixote) .

Mariana

Herrera

Gongora

Alarcon  y  Mendoza

Lope  de  Vega ....

Quevedo ...

Gabriel  Tellez

Calderon

Solis ...

Feyjos

Yriarte

Leandro  F.  Moratin . . .
Jose  de  Larra ....
Manuel  Breton  de  los  Herreros

Jose  Zorilla

Antonio  Canovas  del  Castillo  .

SPANISH  REFORMED  CHURCH,  con-
stituted at  Gibraltar,  25  April,  1868.  By  permission
of  general  Prim  its  missionaries  entered  Spain  soon
after  the  revolution,  in  Sept.  following.

SPANISH  SUCCESSION  and  MAR-
RIAGES, see  Spam,  1700,  and  10  Oct.  1846.

SPARTA,  the  capital  of  Laconia  (Greek,
Laconica),  or  Larediemon,  the  most  considerable
republic  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  rival  of
Athens.  Though  without  walls,  it  resisted  the
attacks  of  its  enemies  by  the  valour  of  its  citizens
for  eight  centuries.  Lclex  is  supposed  to  have
been  the  first  king.  From  Laccdamion  the  fourth
king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spoken  of
as  the  founders  of  the  city,  it  obtained  names.
The  Lacedaemonians  were  a  nation  of  soldiers,
and  cultivated  neither  the  arts,  sciences,  commerce,
nor  agriculture.  The  early  history  is  traditional.  '
Sparta  founded.  Pausanias.  .  .  .  e  c  1400
Tyndarus  marries  Leda :  Helen  born . .  1-S8

Helen  stolen  by  Theseus,  king  of  Athens,  but  re-

covered  by  her  brothers I228

The  princes  of  Greece  demand  Helen  in  marriage';

she  makes  choice  of  Menelaus  of  Mycenaj  .  °  .'  1216
Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  carries  off  Helen  1204

The  Trojan  war x *

After  a  war  often  years,  and  a  disastrous  voyage  of

nearly  eight,  Menelaus  and  Helen  return  to" Sparta  1176
The  kingdom  seized  by  the  Heracluhe  .  .  .not
Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and

Prooles,  by  their  father  Aristodemus  .  .  .  I10o
Rule  of  Lycurgus,  who  establishes  the  senate,  ami

enacts  a  code  of  laws.  EuseUus.  (Mythical)  SS4-S,o
Charilaus  declares  war  against  Polymncstor,  kin"

of  Arcadia ■■..... °
Alcamenes,  known  by  his  apophthegms,  make's  war

upon  the  Messenians ....
Nicander  succeeds  his  father,  Charilaus;  war  with

the  Argives

Theopompus  introduces  the  Ephori,  about ' . !
War  declared  against  the  Messeni  ins,  and  Amphia

taken

The  progeny  of  the  Partheniai,  the  sons  of  Virgins  !

Battle  of  Ithome ;  Messenians  beaten  .

Ithome  taken;  the  Messenians  become  vassals  to

Sparta,  and  the  war  of  nineteen  years  ends  .
Conspiracy  of  the  Parthenke  with the Helots  to

take  Sparta

Tlie  Partheniaj  colonise  Tarentum . . . )
The  Messenians  revolt,  and  league  with  Elis,  Argos]

and  Arcadia,  against  the  Lacedaemonians, [this

war  lasted  fourteen  years.] .....
f'aniian  festivals  instituted


848

S13


743
733


707
706


C75


SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION. 912


SPECIAL CONSTABLES.


The  Messenian's  settle  in  Sicily 669

War  with  the  Argives,  and celebrated  battle  be-
tween 300  select  heroes  of  each  nation . . .  547

"War  with  Athens 505

The  Spartans  resist  the  king  of  Persia . . .  491

The  states  of  Greece  unite  against  the  Persians .  482
Leonida  s,  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans,  withstands
the  Persian  arms  at  the  defile  of  Thermopylae  (see

Thermopylae) 480

Persians  defeated  by  Pausanias,  king  of  Sparta,  at

Platsea 479

He  is  put  to  death  for  treason ;  the  Grecian  armies

choose  an  Athenian  general 472

An  earthquake  at  Sparta  destroys  30,000  persons ;

rebellion  of  the  Helots 466

Sparta  .joins  Macedon  against  Athens  . . . .  454

Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesus  war . . .  431

Plataea  taken  by  the  Spartans 428

The  Spartans,  under  Agis,  enter  Attica,  and  lay

■waste  the  country 426

Agis  (king  427)  gains  a  great  victory  over  the  Argives

and  the  Mantinaeans 418

The  Lacedaemonian  fleet,  under  Mindarus,  defeated

at  Oyzicum,  and  Mindarus  slain . . . .  410
The  Spartans,  defeated  by  land  and  at  sea,  sue  for

peace,  which  is  denied  by  the  Athenians . .  409

Reign  of  Pausanias 408

The  Athenians  defeated  at  iEgospotami  by  Lysander  405

Athens  taken  by  him  ;  end  of  Peloponnesian  war  .  404

Agesilaus  (king  398)  enters  Lydia . . . .  396
The  Athenians,  Thebans,  Argives,  and  Corinthians
enter  into  a  league  against  the  Spartans,  which

begins  the  Corinthian  war 395

Agesilaus  defeats  the  allies  at  Coronea . . .  394
The  Lacedaemonian  fleet,  under  Lysander,  defeated
by  Conon,  the  Athenian  commander,  near  Cnidos;

Lysander  killed  in  an  engagement .  „

Peace  of  Antaleidas 387

The  Thebans  drive  the  Spartans  from  Cadmea .  378
The  Spartans  lose  the  dominion  of  the  seas ;  their

fleet  totally  destroyed  by  Timotheus . . .  376
The  Spartans  defeated  at  Leuctra . . . .  371
Epamiuondas,  heading  50,000  Thebans,  appears  be-
fore Sparta 369

Battle  of  Mantinea ;  the  Thebans  victors 27  June,  362

Philip  of  Macedon- overcomes  Sparta  . . . .  344

Pyrrhus  defeated  before  Sparta ....  294

Agis  IV.  endeavours  to  revive  laws  of  Lycurgus .  244

Leonidas  II.  vacates  the  throne,  and  flies . . .  243

Recalled  :  becomes  sole  sovereign ;  Agis  killed .  241

Reign  of  Cleomenes  III.  the  son  of  Leonidas . .  236

He  re-establishes  most  of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus .  225

Antigonus  defeats  Cleomenes,  and  enters  Sparta .  222

Cleomenes  retires  to  Egypt „

The  Spartans  murder  the  Ephori . . . .  221
Machanidas  ascends  the  throne,  and  abolishes  the

Ephori 210

He  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Philopcemen,  praetor  of

the  Achaean  league 207

Cruel  government  of  Nabis ,,

The  Romans  besiege  Sparta  ;  Nabis  sues  for  peace  197

The  iEtolians  seize  Sparta :  Nabis  assassinated .  192

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  abolished ....  188
Sparta,  under  the  protection  or  rather  subjugation

of  Rome,  retains  its  authority  for  a  short  time .  147

Taken  by  Alarie a.d.  396

Taken  by  Mahomet  II 1460

Burnt  by  Sigismund  Malatesta ....  1463
Rebuilt  at  Misitra ;  it  is  now  called  Sparta,  and  is

part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.
Ancient  buildings  discovered  here  during  excava-
tions by  Dr.  Waldstein . . . March,  1892

SPARTACUS'S  INSURRECTION  .(or
Servile  War).  Spartacus  was  a  noble  Thracian,
who  served  in  an  auxiliary  corps  of  the  Roman
army.  Having  deserted  and  been  apprehended,  he
was  "red  need  to  slavery  and  made  a  gladiator.  With
some  companions  he  made  his  escape,  collected  a
body  of  slaves  and  gladiators,  73  B.C. ;  ravaged
southern  Italy ;  and  defeated  the  Roman  forces
under  the  consuls  sent  against  him.  Knowing  the
impossibility  of  successfully  resisting  the  republic,
he  endeavoured  to  conduct  his  forces  into  Sicily,
but  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Crassus,  71  15. c.


"SPASMODIC  SCHOOL"  of  poetry,  a
name  sarcastically  given  to  Alex.  Smith,  Sydney
Dobell  (died  in  Aug.  1874),  Gerald  Massey,  and
others  (precursors  of  Morris,  Algernon  Swinburne,
and  Eossetti,  sarcastically  termed  the  "  fleshly
school"),  ridiculed  by  professor  Aytovm  in  his-
"  Firmilian,"  published  1854.

SPEAKERS  of  the  House  op  Commons.

Peter  de  Montford,  afterwards  killed  at  the  battle
of  Evesham,  was  the  first  speaker,  45  lien.  III.,
1260 ;  Sir  Thos.  Hungerford  is  said  to  have
been  the  first  named  "  Speaker,"  1372  ;  but
sir  Peter  de  la  Mare  is  supposed  to  have  been  the
first  regular  speaker,  50  £dw.  III.,  1376.  The
king  refused  his  assent  to  the  choice  of  sir
Edward  Seymour,  as  speaker,  6  March,  1678 ;  and
serjeant  William  Gregory  wras  chosen  in  his  room.
Sir  John  Trevor  was  expelled  the  chair  and  the
house  for  taking  a  gratuity  after  the  act  for  the
benefit  of  orphans  had  passed,  12  March,  1694-5  >  a
deputy  speaker  was  appointed  Aug.  1853.

RECENT  SPEAKERS.

1789.  Henry  Addington  (aft.  viscount  Sidmouth),  5  June

1801.  Sir  John  Mitford  (aft.  baron  Redesdale),  15  Feb.

1802.  Charles  Abbot  (aft.  lord  Colchester),  10  Feb.
1817.  Charles  Manners  Sutton  (afterwards  viscount  Can-
terbury), 2  June.

1835.  James  Abercromby  (afterwards  baron  Dunferm-
line), 19  Feb.
1839.  Charles  Shaw  Lefevre  (afterwards  viscount  Evers-

ley),  27  May.
1857.  John  Evelyn  Denison,  30  April  (afterwards  viscount

Ossington).
1872.  Sir  Henry  Wm.Bouverie  Brand  (afterwards  viscount

Hampden),  9  Feb. -25  Feb.  1884.
1884.  Arthur  Wellesley  Peel,  26  Feb.  ;  re-elected,  1892.
The  Speaker,  a  weekly  liberal  (Gladstonian)  newspaper,
edited  by  Mr.  T.  Wemyss  Reid,  first  appeared,  4  Jan.
1890.

SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY, a  name

given  to  an  edition  of  the  Bible  with  a  revised  text
and  a  commentary  by  several  bishops  and  other
theologians  edited  by  F.  C.  Cook.  The  under-
taking originated,  it  is  said,  chiefly  with  Mr.  John
Evelyn  Denison,  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons,
with  the  view  of  opposing  the  interpretations  of  Dr.
Colenso,  and  was  announced  in  Nov.  1863.  The
publication,  begun  in  1871,  was  completed  in  1881-
The  Apocrypha  published  in  1888.

SPEAKING-TRUMPET,  used  by  ships  at
sea.  One  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander,
335  B.C.  One  was  constructed  from  Kircher's  de-
scription by  Saland,  1652  ;  philosophically  explained
and  brought  into  notice  by  Morland,  1670.

SPECIAL  COMMISSION  ACT,  passed  13
Aug.  1888.  A  commission  constituted  to  try
certain  charges  and  allegations  against  certain
members  of  parliament.  See  Parnellites  and
Ireland,  1888.

SPECIAL  CONSTABLES  are  sworn  in  for
the  preservation  of  the  public  peace  when  disturb-
ances are  feared.  The  laws  relative  to  their  ap-
pointment were  amended  in  1831  and  1835.  Louis
Napoleon,  afterwards  emperor,  aided  as  a  special  con-
stable in  London,  10  April,  1848  ;  see  Chartists,  and
London,  Dec.  1867.  Instructions  for  their  organisa-
tion were  issued,  13  Jan.  1868.  On  28  Jan.  52,974
in  the  metropolis,  and  113,674  in  the  United  King-
dom, had  been  sworn  in.  Their  services  were  not
required,  and  they  wrere  honourably  dismissed  by  ais
order  issued  31  March,  1868.
Special constables  were  sworn  in  in  relation  to  the

disturbances  in  Trafalgar  Square  (see  Riots)  17  Nov.

ct  seq.  ;  1,500  held  Trafalgar  Square,  Sunday,  20  Nov.

1887  ;  served  till  18  Jan.  1S88,  and  thanked.'


SPECIES.


913


SPINNING.


SPECIES.  -  Much  controversy  among  natural  -
ists  arose  in  consequence  of  the  publication,  in  1859,
of  Mr.  Charles  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species,"  in
which  he  suggests  that  all  the  various  species  of
animals  were  not  created  at  one  time,  but  have
been  gradually  developed  by  what  he  terms  ' '  natural
selection,"  and  the  struggle  for  life  in  which  the
strong  overcome  the  weak.

'  This  preservation  of  favourable  individual  differences
and  variations,  and  the  destruction  of  those  which  are
injurious,  I  have  called  natural  selection,  or  the  sur-
vival of  the  fittest." — Darwin.

The  idea  was  put  forth  by  Lamarck  in  his  "Philosophic
Zooloaique,"  1809.  Similar  views  appear  in  the
"  Vestiges  of  Creation,"  1844.  Mr.  Darwin  says,  that
he  infers  "  from  analogy  that  probably  all  the
organic  beings  which  have  ever  lived  on  the  earth
have  descended  from  some  one  primordial  form,  into
which  life  was  first  breathed  hy  the  Creator."  See
Development  and  Evolution.

Charles  Darwin  was  born  12  Feb.  1809  ;  and  died  19
April,  1882.

Statue  of  Darwin  by  J.  E.  Boelim,  paid  for  by  universal
subscription,  received  at  the  British  Museum  of
Natural  History  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  uncovered
by  professor  Huxley,  9  June,  1885.

His  Life  and  Letters  edited  by  his  son  Francis  Darwin,
published  Nov.  1887.

Professor  G.  J.  Romanes'  elaborate  work,  "Darwin  and
after  Darwin,"  was  published  in  1892.

SPECIFIC GEAVITIES. See  under

Weights.

SPECTACLES,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  are
generally  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by  Alex-
ander de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy,  about
1285.  According  to  Dr.  Plott,  they  were  invented
by  Boger  Bacon,  about  1280.  Manni  attributes
them  to  Salvino,  who  died  13 1 7.  On  his  tomb  at
Florence  is  the  inscription,  "  Qui  giace  Salvino
degli  Armati,  inventore  degli  occhiali :  Dio  gli  per-
doni  le  peccata"  ("  Here  lies  Salvino  degli  Armati,
inventor  of  spectacles  :  May  God  pardon  his  sins").

SPECTATOE.  The  first  number  of  this  peri-
odical appeared  on  1  March,  171 1;  the  last  was
No.  635,  20  Dec.  1714.  The  papers  by  Addison  have
one  of  the  letters  c  l  1  0  at  the  end.  The  most  of
the  other  papers  are  by  sir  Eichard  Steele,  a  few  by
Hughes,  Budgell,  Eusden,  Miss  Shephard,  and
others. — The  Spectator  newspaper  (philosophical,
whig),  begun  5  July,  1828.

SPECTEUM,  the  term  given  to  the  image  of
the  sun  or  any  other  luminous  body  formed  on  a
wall  or  screen,  by  a  beam  of  light  received  through
a  small  hole  or  slit,  and  refracted  by  a  prism.  The
colours  thus  produced  are  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,
blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  The  phenomena  were  first
explained  by  Newton,  whose  "Optics"  was  pub-
lished in  1704.  Several  of  these  colours  are  con-
sidered to  be  compounds  of  three  primary  ones  :  by
.Mayer  (1775),  red,  yellow,  and  blue ;— by  Dr.  Thos.  !
Young  (1801),  red,  green,  and  violet; — by  Prof,  j
Clerk  Maxwell  (i860),  red,  green,  and  blue.  As
the  colour  of  a  flame  varies  according  to  the  sub-
stance producing  it  or  introduced  into  it,  so  the
spectrum  varies.  This  led  to  the  invention  of  a
method  of  chemical  analysis  by  professors  Bunsen
and  Kirchhoff  (i860),  by  which  they  discovered
two  new  metals,  and  drew  conclusions  as  to
the  nature  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  and  stars,
and  of  the  light  of  the  nebula;,  by  comparing  the
spectrum  with  that  produced  by  flames  into  which
iron,  sodium,  and  other  substances  have  been  intro-
duced. For  the  invisible  rays  of  the  spectrum,  see
Calorcscencc,  Fluorescence,  and  Bolometer.
Fraunhofer's  Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed

several  dark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum ;  in  1815  Joseph


Fraunhofer  not  only  observed  them,  bui  constructed  a
map  of  them,  giving  590  lines  or  dark  bands. By  the

researches  of  Brewster  and  others  the  number  observed
is  now  above  2000.

Mr.  Fox  Talbot  observed  the  orange  line  of  strontium  in
the  spectrum  in  1826;  and  sir  David  Brewster  ob-
served other  lines,  1S33-42-3.  In  1862-3  Mr.  William
Huggins  analysed  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars  and  of
the  nebulse ;  and  in  1865  Dr.  Bence  Jones,  by  means  of
spectrum  analyses,  detected  the  presence  of  minute
quantities  of  metals  in  the  living  body,  introduced  only
a  few  minutes  previously.

A  spectroscopic  society  iu  Italy  published  a  journal  early
in  1872.

H.  Schellen's  "  Spectralanalyse "  published  1870;  new
edition  1883.

SirH.  Roscoe's  "Spectrum  Analysis"  published  1867-85.

Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran's  "  Spectres  Lumineux" . 1874

Oxygen  detected  in  the  solar  spectrum  by  Mr.
Draper ^77

The  experiments  of  professor  Dewar  and  others  have
shown  that  the  spectra  of  various  gases  are  affected  by
temperature  and  pressure  1888-9.

SPECULATIVE  SOCIETY,  Edinburgh
(which  had  included  among  its  members  David
Hume),  celebrated  its  hundredth  anniversary  on
14  Oct.  1863  ;  see  Fhilosophij .

"  SPELLING-BEES,"  meetings  to  test  the
proficiency  in  correct  spelling ;  introduced  into
London  from  the  United  States  of  America ;  the
first  at  Hollo  way,  London,  N.,  in  the  autumn  of
1875.  Geographical,  musical,  and  other  bees
followed,  and  all  soon  ceased.

SPELLING EEFOEM. A resolution  in
favour  of  it  was  adopted  by  the  London  School  Board,
in  1877 ;  a  conference  and  public  meeting  were  held
at  the  Society  of  Arts,  29  May,  1877.
A  Spelling  Reform  Association  formed ;  Dr.  Temple,
bishop  of  Exeter,  Robert  Lowe,  E.  B.  Tylor,  and
Max  Midler  were  among the members, 1879 ;
another  association  formed  in  the  United  States  ;
professor  F.  A.  March,  president,  . . . iS37

Mr.  T.  B.  Sprague's  article  on  a  Marriage  and  Mor-
tality Table,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Institute  of
Actuaries,  is  printed  according  to  phonetic  spelling

July,  1879
SPHEEES..  The  celestial  and  terrestrial
spheres  and  sun-dials  are  said  to  have  been  in-
vented by  Anaximander,  552  B.C. ;  and  the  armil-
lary  sphere  by  Eratosthenes,  about  225  B.C.  The
planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before
212  B.C.  Pythagoras  maintained  that  the  motions
of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful
sounds,  inaudible  to  mortals,  which  he  called  the
music  of  the  spheres.

SPHYGMOGEAPH  (from  the  Greek,  sphyg-
mos,  a  pulsation),  an  instrument  for  investigating
disease,  by  showing  the  state  of  the  pulse,  invented
by  M.  E.  J.  Marey,  of  Faris,  and  described  by  him
in  1863.

SPICES.  Imported  into  Great  Britain:  cinna-
mon and  other  spices,  exclusive  of  pepper  ;  184O,
1,910,584  lbs.  ;  1856,  4.154,167  lbs.  ;  1807,
I2",83i,953  lbs.;  1877,  17,186,572  lbs.;  1879,
19,340,817  lbs.;  1883,  24,  ^44>.S()5  lbs.;  1887,
23>7»3>96o  lbs. ;  1890,  23,508,4^3  Lbs.

SPICHEEEN,  sec  Saarbruck.

SPINET,  a  clavichord  or  keyed  instrument,
used,  in  the  17th  century,  a  modification  of  the
virginals,  which  sec.  Bull,  Gibbous,  Purcell,  and
especially  Uomcnico  Scarlatti  composed  for  this
instrument.

SPINNING  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to
Minerva,  the  goddess  id'  wisdom.  Areas,  king  of
Arcadia,  taught  his  subjerts  the  ail  abuit  1500  H.c.
Tradition  reports  that  Lucretia  with  her  maids  was

3  N


SPIRES.


914 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.


found  spinning,  when  her  husband  Collatinus  paid
a  visit  to  her  from  the  camp,  that  the  wife  of  Tar-
quin  was  an  excellent  spinner,  and  that  a  garment
made  by  her,  worn  by  Servius  Tullius,  was  pre-
served m  the  temple  of  Fortune.  Till  1767,  the
spinning  of  cotton  was  performed  by  the  hand
spinning-wheel,  when  Hargreaves,  an  ingenious
mechanic,  near  Blackburn,  made  a  spinning  jenny,
with  eight  spindles,  and  also  erected  the  first  card-
ing machine,  with  cylinders.  Arkwright's  machine
for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension  of  the  prin-
ciple of  Hargreaves ;  but  he  also  applied  a  large
and  small  roller  to  expand  the  thread,  for  which  he
took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  first  he  worked  his
machinery  by  horses ;  but  in  177 1  he  built  a  mill
on  the  stream  of  the  Derwent,  at  Cromford.  In
1774-9,  Crompton  invented  the  mule  {which  see).

SPIRES  (in  Bavaria).  The  emperors  held
many  diets  at  Spires  since  1 309,  and  it  was  the  seat
of  the  imperial  chamber  till  1689,  when  the  city
was  burned  by  the  French,  and  not  rebuilt  till  after
the  peace  of  Byswick,  in  1697.  The  diet  to  con-
demn the  reformers  was  held  at  Spires,  called  there
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  1529 ;  see  Protestants.

SPIRIT-LEVEL.  The  invention  is  ascribed
to  J.  Melchisedec  Thevenot,  who  died  1692.

SPIRIT-MOTOR,  Mr.  Yarrow  explained  to
the  Institute  of  Naval  Architects  his  method  of  em-
ploying vaporised  spirit  instead  of  steam  in  the
propulsion  of  steam  launches  thus  dispensing  with
the  use  of  a  boiler,  &c,  March,  1888.  Petroleum
is  used  as  fuel.

SPIRITS, see  Distillation. In  all  nations

spirituous  liquors  have  been  considered  as  a  proper

subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support  of  the

state ; see Alcohol, Brandy, Bum,  Methylated

Spirits,  &c.

In  1840  England  made  about  ten  millions  of  gallons  of
spirits,  Scotland  about  seven  millions  of  gallons,  and
Ireland  about  nine  millions  of  gallons.

In  1851  the  number  of  gallons  on  which  duty  was  paid
for  home  consumption  was  23,976,596.  The  total
amount  paid  was  6,017,2182.,  of  which  3,758,186?.  were
paid  by  England,  1,252,297?.  by  Scotland,  and  1,006,735?.
by  Ireland.

The  total  duty  on  home  consumption  paid  in  1853  was
6,760,422?.

In  1858,  9,195,154?.  were  paid  as  duty  on  27,370,934
gallons.

In  1855,  methylated  spirits  of  wine,  for  use  in  the  arts  and
sciences,  were  made  duty  free.

In  1859,  27>657,72i  gallons  of  spirits  were  distilled  in  the
United  Kingdom.  The  uniform  duty  of  8s.  per  gallon
was  paid  on  24,254,403  gallons  for  home  consumption,
producing  9,701,764?.  In  the  year  1865-6  the  tax  pro-
duced about  13,955,000?.,  being  the  largest  sum  then  ever
raised  by  indirect  taxation.  In  1871-2,  16,798,344?.
(customs  and  excise) ;  in  1875-6,  21,295,663? ;  in  1877-8,
20,675,928?. ;  in  1883-4,  18,435,957?.  >  m  1887-8,
17>3I2!55°^  1  m  1888-9,  17,175,797?.  ;  in  1889-90,
18,531,277?.  ;  in  1890-1,  19,263,541?.

In  1861  an  act  was  passed  repealing  wholly  or  in  part
26  previous  acts,  and  embodying  all  regulations  for  the
guidance  of  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  spirits.

In  1870,  about  89,000,000?.  spent  in  spirits;  58,000,000?.
by  working  classes.

Proof  spirits  distilled  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1873,
36,479,648  gallons  (England,  9,531,058  ;  Scotland,
16,421,701;  Ireland,  10,526,889);  in  1874,  35,352,232
gallons  ;  duty  paid,  10s.  a  gallon.

Exported  from  the  United  Kingdom  :  1876,  1,308,456
gallons;  1880,  2,060,193;  1885,  2,760,041;  1889,
3,431,320;  1890,  3,658,658.

Additional  duty  of  6c?.  per  gallon  on  spirits  imposed,  17
April,  1890.

SPIRITS  ACT  (43  &  44  Vict.  c.  24),  passed
26  Aug.  1880,  consolidated  and  amended  the  law
relating  to  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  spirits.


SPIRITUALISM  or  SPIRIT-RAPPING.

Spiritual  manifestations  (so  called)  began,  it  is  said,
in  America  about  1848,  and  attracted  attention  in
this  country  about  1851,  in  the  shape  of  rapping,
table-turning,  &c.  Many  inquisitive  or  credulous
persons  visited  Mr.  Daniel  Dunglas  Hume  or  Home
and  Mr.  Forster,  noted  "spiritual  mediums."  Mr.
Home,  secretary  of  the  Spiritual  Athenaeum,  Sloane-
street,  Chelsea,  published,  in  1863,  "Incidents  of
my  Life,"  in  which  he  states  that  the  only  benefit
he  derived  from  the  "gift"  was  the  convincing
many  unbelievers  of  the  certaintj-  of  a  life  to  come ;
the  Trials,  April,  May,  1868.  The  "Spiritual
Magazine"  began  Jan.  i860;  the  "Spiritualist,"
9  Nov.  1869.  The  London  Dialectical  society  pub-
lished a  report  on  spiritualism  in  Nov.  1871.  Mr.
AY.  Crookes,  in  1871,  investigated  the  phenomena,
and  ascribed  them  to  "psychic  force"  ("Quarterly
Journal  of  Science,"  July  and  Oct.  1871).  Miss
Kate  Fox,  said  to  be  the  earliest  American  medium
(about  1852)  was  married  to  Mr.  H.  D.  Jencken,  in
London,  Dec.  1872.
The  impostures  of  the  Davenport  brothers  exposed  in

1865.
In  1874  Messrs.  Maskelyne  and  Cooke,  and  Dr.  Lynn,
exhibited  tricks  by  which  they  said  they  demonstrated
the  imposture  of  spiritualism.
Spiritualism  discussed  by  a  section  of  the  British  Asso-
ciation at  Glasgow  (supported  by  Messrs.  Wm.  Crookes,
A.  Russel  Wallace,  and  other  eminent  men),  without
result,  12  Sept.  1876.
20  spiritualist  journals  publishing,  1876.
Dr.  Henry  Slade,  a  medium,  and  Geoffrey  Simmons,  his
assistant,  charged  at  Bow-street  by  prof.  E.  Kay  Lan-
kester  and  others, with "unlawfully  using  certain
subtle  and  crafty  means  and  devices  to  deceive";
dealt  with  under  Vagrant  Act ; 2,  10,  20  Oct. ; Sim-
mons discharged,  Slade  sentenced  to  3  months'  im-
prisonment with  hard  labour, 31 Oct. 1876;  appeal
to  sessions ;  sentence  quashed  for  a  technical  error,
29  Jan.  1877.
Win.  Lawrence  sentenced  to  3  months'  imprisonment  for
receiving  money  as  a  "medium,"  16  Jan.  1877.
See  Trials,  1881.

SPITALFIELDS  (East  London),  so  named
from  the  priory  of  St.  Mary  Spittle,  dissolved  1534.
Here  the  French  protestant  refugees  settled  and
established  the  silk  manufacture  in  1685.  In  con-
sequence of  commercial  changes  the  weavers  en-
dured much  distress  about  1829.

SPITHEAD,  a  roadstead  near  the  Spit,  a  sand-
bank between  Portsmouth  and  the  Isle  of  Wight.
See  Naval  Reviews,  under  Navy  of  England.

SPITZBERGrEN, an  archipelago  in the
Arctic  ocean,  discovered  in  1553  by  sir  Hugh  AYil-
loughby,  who  called  it  Greenland,  supposing  it  to
be  a  part  of  the  western  continent. In  1595  it  was
visited  by  Barents  and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,
who  pretended  to  be  the  original  discoverers,  and
called  it  Spitzbergen,  or  sharp  mountains,  from  the
many  sharp pointed  and  rocky  mountains with
which  it  abounds ;  see  Bhipps.
A  scientific  expedition  to  Spitzbergen  organized  by
Herr  Stanglin  of  Stuttgart,  left  Bremen  about  29
July  ;  returned 26  Aug.  189T

SPITZCAP,  see  Majuba.

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  of  the

human  body,  declared  by  most  chemists  to  be  im-
possible, although  many  cases  have  been  recorded.
The  case  of  the  countess  of  Gorlitz,  1847,  disproved
by  confession  of  her  murderer,  March,  1850.

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION. The

origin  of  the  germs  of  infusorial  animalcules  deve-
loped during  putrefaction,  &c,  has  been  warmly
debated  by  naturalists.  Spallanzani  (about  1766),
and  especially  M.  Pasteur  and  others  assert  that  these


SPORTING NEWSPAPERS.


915


STAMP-DUTIES.


germs  are  really  endowed  with  organic  life  existing  in
the  atmosphere.  Needham  (about  1747),  and  espe-
cially M.  Pouchet  and  his  friends  in  our  day,  assert
that  these  germs  are  spontaneously  formed  out  of
organic  molecules. — Pouchet's  "Heterogenic"  ap-
peared in  1859.  Bastian's  "Beginnings  of  Life,"
1872.  The  researches  of  professor  Tyndall,  supporting
Pasteur,  and  opposing  Bastian,  were  published
1876-8.

"Spontaneous  generation"  (also  termed  generatio  cequi-

1 voca  and  epigenesis),  lias  been  still  further  disproved

by  the  laborious  microscopic  investigations  of  the  Rev.

W.  H.  Dallinger,  1875-S. He  found  germs  to  stand  a

much  greater  heat  than  perfect  organisms.

.  SPORTING  NEWSPAPERS  :  Bell's  Life
in  London,  began  1820 ;  Sporting  Life,  16  March,
18159 ;  Sporting  Gazette,  1862 ;  Sporting  Times,
1865  ;  Sportsman,  Aug.  1865  ;  The  Field,  1853  ;
Illustrated  Sporting  and  Dramatic  News,  1874  ;
Keferee,  1877.

SPORTS.  The  first  "  Book  of  Sports,"  under
the  title  of  "  The  King's  Majestie's  Declaration  to
his  Subjects  concerning  Lawful  Sports  to  be  used"
on  Sundays  after  evening  prayers,  was  published  by
king  James  I.,  24  May,  1618.  The  second  "Book
of  Sports,' '  with  a  ratification  by  his  majesty  Charles
I.,  is  dated  18  Oct.  1633.  On  the  publication  of  the
first  "Book  of  Sports,"  there  arose  a  long  and
violent  controversy  among  English  divines  on  certain
points ;  see  Sabbatarians,  Sunday,  &c. — The  book
was  ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  hangman,  and  the
sports  were  suppressed  by  the  parliament.  The
sportsman's  annual  exhibition,  at  the  Agricultural
Hall,  London,  began  in  1882.

SPOTTSYLVANIA  (Virginia),  see  United
States,  May,  1864.

SPRINGFIELD  (Missouri),  near  which  was
fought  the  desperate  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek,  in
which  the  federals  had  the  advantage  over  the  con-
federates, but  lost  their  brave  general,  Nathaniel
Lyon,  10  Aug.  i86r.

SPURS.  Anciently  the  difference  between  the
knight  and  esquire  was,  that  the  knight  wore  gilt
spurs  (eques  auratics),  and  the  esquire  silver  ones.
Two  sorts  of  spurs  seem  to  have  been  in  use  at  the
time  of  the  Conquest,  one  called  a  pryck,  having
only  a  single  point,  the  other  a  number  of  points  of
considerable  size.  Spurs  nearly  of  the  present  kind
eame  into  use  about  1400 ;  see  Plating.

SPURS,  BATTLE  OF.  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng-
land, the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  the  Swiss,  in
1513,  entered  into  an  offensive  alliance  against
France.  Henry  VIII.  landed  at  Calais  in  the
month  of  July,  and  soon  formed  an  army  of  30,000
men.  He  was  joined  by  the  emperor  with  a  good
corps  of  horse  and  some  foot,  the  emperor  as  a  mer-
cenary to  the  king  of  England,  who  allowed  him  a
hundred  ducats  a  day  for  his  table  !  They  invested
Teroiienne  with  an  army  of  50,000  men ;  and  the
due  de  Longueville,  marching  to  its  relief,  was
signally  defeated  on  the  16th  of  August,  at  Guine-
gate.  This  battle  was  called  the  battle  of  Spurs,
because  the  French  used  their  spurs  more  than  they
did  their  swords.  The  English  king  laid  siege  to
Tournay,  which  submitted  in  a  few  days.  Henault.
See  Courtrai,  for  another  "battle  of  spurs."

S.  S.,  sec  Collar.

STABAT  MATER,  a  Latin  hymn,  by  Jaco-
pone,  14th  century,  sung  during  Passion  week  in
Catholic  churches.  Rossini's  music  to  this  hymn
(1842)  is  often  performed.


STADE  DUES.  At  a  castle  near  the  town  of
Stade,  in  Hanover,  certain  dues  on  goods  were
charged  by  the  Hanoverian  government.  The
British  government  settled  these  dues  in  1844.
They  were  resisted  by  the  Americans  in  1855,
and  were  abolished  in  June,  1861.  Great  Britain
paid  i6o,OOo£.  as  her  share  of  the  compensation
(3,000,000?.).

STADTHOLDER,  see  Holland.

.STAFF  COLLEGE  (Sandhurst),  for  pro-
viding an  education  to  qualify  military  officers  for
the  duties  of  the  staff.  The  foundation  stone  was
laid  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge  on  14  Dec.  1859.

STAFFORD,  Staffordshire,  a  Saxon  town.  A
castle  was  erected  here  by  Ethelfleda,  countess  of
Mercia,  913.  A  charter  was  granted  by  king  John,
1207,  and  the  grammar-school  was  rebuilt  and  en-
dowed by  Edward  VI.,  1550.  Population,  1881,
19,977 ;  1891,  20,270.

STAGE  COACHES,  so  called  from  the  stages
or  inns  at  which  the  coaches  stopped  to  refresh
and  change  horses.  Bailey.  The  stage-coach  duty
act  passed  in  1785.  These  coaches  were  made  sub-
ject to  salutary  provisions  for  the  safety  of  passen-
gers, in  1810;  to  mileage  duties,  1815.  The  acts
were  consolidated  in  1832,  and  amended  in  1833  and
1842. See  Mail  Coaches,  &c.

STAGYRITE,  properly  Stagirite,  see  Aris-
totelian.

STAMFORD  BRIDGE  (York).  In  1066
Tostig,  brother  of  Harold  II.,  rebelled  against  his
brother,  and  joined  the  invading  army  of  Harold
Hardrada,  king  of  Norway.  They  defeated  the
northern  earls  and  took  York,  but  were  defeated  at
Stamford-bridge  by  Harold,  25  Sept.,  and  were  both
slain.  The  loss  by  this  victory  no  doubt  led  to  his
defeat  at  Hastings,  14  Oct.  following.  The  claim  of
Mr.  "William  Grey  for  the  earldom  of  Stamford,
was  granted  by  the  house  of  Lords,  3  May,  1892.

STAMP-DUTIES.  By  22  &  23  Charles  II
(1670-1)  duties  were  imposed  on  certain  legal  docu-
ments. In  1694  a  duty  was  imposed  upon  paper,
vellum,  and  parchment.  The  stamp-duty  on  news-
papers was  commenced  in  1711,  and  every  year
added  to  the  list  of  articles  upon  which  stamp-duty
was  made  payable.
Stamp  act,  which  led  to  the  American  war,  passed

22  March,  1765  ;  repealed  in 1766

Stamp  duties  in  Ireland  commenced . . . .  1774
Stamps  on  notes  and  bills  of  exchange  in  . . 1782

The  stamp-duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800,  a

revenue  of  3,126,535?.
Many  alterations  made  in  1853  and  1857. I'1  June,
1855,  the  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  as  such  was
totally  abolished ;  the  stamp  on  them  being  hence-
forth for  postal  purposes.
In  July  and  Aug.  1854,  19, 115,000  newspaper  stamps
were  issued ; in  the  same  months, 1855, only
6,870,000.
Drafts  on  bankers  to  he  stamped  . . . . 1858

Additional  stamp  duties  were  enacted  in  i860  (on
leases,  bills  of  exchange,  dock  warrants,  extracts
from  registers  of  births,  &c.) ;  in  1861  (on  leases,
licences  to  house-agents,  <fec.).
Stamp-duties  reduced  in  1864,  1865.
All  fees  payable  in  the  superior  courts  of  law,  after
31  Dec.  1865,  are  to  be  collected  by  stamps,  by  an
act  passed  in  June,  1865. Also  in  Public  Record

office 1868

144,623,014  inland  revenue  penny  stamps  sold,  be-
sides other  stamps 1869

By  the  Stamp  acts,  10  Aug.  1870,  newspaper  stamps

were  abolished  after  .  .  .  .  1  Oct.  1870
New  stamp  duties  imposed  ;  eame  into  effect  1  Jan.,  \%t\
id.  receipt  and  postage  stamps  used  for  each  other

after 1  June,  ^8^».

3k?


STAND  AED.


916


STAECH.


Stamp-duties  imposed  on  foreign  or  colonial  share

certificates,  bonds,  &c.  by  Customs  Act,  1888.
A  new  consolidating  act  relating  to  stamps  passed,

21  July  18


AMOUNT OP STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM.
.  £6,726,817


£12,348,175
.  11,691,025
. 11,681,431


1845 . .  .  7,7io,oS3

1850  . . .  6,558,332

1855 . .  6,805,605

i860  (to  31  Mar.)  8,040,091  1886  . . .  11,600,614

1865 . . .  9,542,645  1887  . . .  11,780,333

1870 . . .  9,288,553  1888  . . .  13,056,950

1876 . .  11,023,374  1889  . . .  12,270,000

1880 . . .  11,306,914  1890  . . .  13,060,000

i83i . .  11,933,114  1891  . . . 13,460,000
*  Fee  and  patent  stamps  now  omitted.

STAND  AED  for  gold  and  silver  in  England
fixed  by  law,  1300.  Standard  gold  is  22  parts  out
■of  24  of  pure  gold,  the  other  two  parts  or  carats
being  silver  or  copper.  The  standard  of  silver  is
II  oz.  2  dwts.  of  fine  silver  alloyed  with  18  dwts.  of
copper,  or  37  parts  out  of  40  pure  silver,  and  three
parts  copper.  In  1300  these  12  oz.  of  silver  were
coined  into  20  shillings  ;  in  1412  they  were  coined
into  30  shillings;  and  in  1527  into  45  shillings.  In
1545  Henry  VIII.  coined  0  oz.  of  silver  and  6  oz.  of
alloy  into  48  shillings  ;  and  the  next  year  he  coined
4  oz.  of  silver  and  8  oz.  of  alloy  into  the  same  sum.
Elizabeth,  in  1560,  restored  the  old  standard  in
60  shillings;  and  in  1601  in  62  shillings.  The
average  proportions  of  silver  to  gold  at  the  royal
mint  are  153  to  1.  The  standard  of  plate  and  silver
manufactures  was  affirmed,  6  Geo.  I.  1719  et  seq.;
see  Gold,  Goldsmiths,  Silver,  Coinage,  and  Currency.

STAND  AED,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  see  North-
allerton.

STANDAED  MEASUEES.  In  the  reign
of  Edgar  a  law  was  made  to  prevent  frauds  arising
from  the  diversity  of  measures,  and  for  the  esta-
blishment of  a  legal  standard  measure  to  be  used
in  every  part  of  his  dominions.  The  standard
vessels  made  by  order  of  the  king  were  deposited  in
the  city  of  Winchester,  and  hence  originated  the
well-known  term  of  "  Winchester  measure"  of  the
time  of  Henry  VII.  (1487).  The  bushel  so  made
is  still  preserved  in  the  museum  of  that  city.
Henry  I.  also,  to  prevent  frauds  in  the  measure-
ment of  cloth,  ordered  a  standard  yard  of  the  length
of  his  own  arm  to  be  made  and  deposited  at  Win-
chester, with  the  standard  measures  of  king  Edgar.
The  Guildhall  contains  the  standard  measures  of
succeeding  sovereigns.  Camden.  —  The  standard
weights  and  measures  were  settled  by  parliament
in  1824.  The  pound  troy  was  to  be  5760  grains,
and  the  pound  avoirdupois  7000  grains.  The
"Standard  yard  of  1760,"  in  the  custody  of  the
cleric  of  the  house  of  commons,  was  declared  to  be
the  Imperial  Standard  yard  and  the  unit  of  mea-
sures of  extension.  This  standard  having  been
destroyed  by  the  fire  in  1834,  a  new  commission
was  appointed  to  reconstruct  it,  and  researches  for
this  purpose,  in  conformity  with  the  act,  which
directed  the  comparison  of  the  standard  with  a
pendulum  vibrating  seconds  of  time  in  the  latitude
of  London,  were  begun  by  Francis  Baily  (died  in
1844),  continued  by  the  rev.  R.  Sheepshanks  till
his  death  m  1855,  and  completed  by  G.  B.  Airy,
astronomer  royal.  In  1855  was  passed  "  an  act  for
legalising  and  preserving  the  lost  standards  of
weights  and  measures."  The  parliamentary  copies
of  the  standard  pound  and  yard  are  deposited  at
the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich.  The  standard
weights  and  measures  act  was  passed  Aug.  1866.
The  Standard  Commission  published  reports,  1866
■ft  seq.


The  old  standard  yard  and  other  measures  and  weights,
supposed  to  have  been  burnt  at  the  fire  of  the  parlia-
ment houses  in  1834,  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Bull's
agents  in  the  Journal  Office,  where  they  had  been
deposited  and  left  unnoticed,  July,  1891.  The  rud
standards  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth
are  still  in  existence.

"STANDAED,"  conservative  newspaper;
begun,  morning,  1827;  evening,  29  June,  1857.

STAND AEDS,  see  Banners,  Flags,  &c.  The
practice  in  the  army  of  using  a  cross  on  standards
and  shields  is  due  to  the  asserted  miraculous  appear-
ance of  a  cross  to  Constantine,  previously  to  his
battle  with  Maxentius ;  Eusebius  says  that  he  re-
ceived this  statement  from  the  emperor  himself,
312.  The  standard  was  named  Labarum.  For
the  celebrated  French  standard,  see  Auriflamme. —
Standard  of  Mahomet  ;  on  this  ensign  no  infidel
dared  look.  Christians  have  been  massacred  by  the
Turkish  populace  for  looking  on  it. — The  British
Imperial  Standard  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower
of  London,  and  on  Bedford  Tower,  Dublin,  and
displayed  by  the  Foot  Guards,  on  the  union  of  the
kingdoms,  1  Jan.  1801.

STANFOED  COUET,  Worcestershire,  the
ancient  mansion  of  sir  Francis  Winnington,  burnt
5-7  Deo.  1882 ;  valuable  portraits,  books,  MSS.
&c,  destroyed.

STANHOPE ADMINISTEATION was

formed  by  James  (afterwards  earl)  Stanhope  and
the  earl  of  Sunderlaud,  15  April,  1717.  Stanhope
was  premier  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer;  lord
(afterwards  earl)  Cowper,  lord  chancellor;  earl  of
Sunderland  and  Joseph  Addison,  secretaries  of
state,  &c.  In  March,  17 18,  Addison  resigned,  and
the  earl  of  Sunderland  became  premier.

STANHOPE DEMONSTEATOE, see

Logic.

STANLEY,  and  Apkioan  Exhibition.

Patrons,  queen  Victoria  and  the  king  of  the  Bel-
gians; Mr. Joseph  Thomson,  the  traveller,  chief
superintendent,  opened  at  Victoria  Gallery,  Regent
street,  24  March  ;  closed  8  Nov.  1890.
The  exhibition  included  pictures  and  portraits,  African
weapons,  historical  maps,  and  many  interesting  ob-
jects collected  by  Livingstone,  Grant,  Speke,  John-
stone, and  other  travellers.
Stanley  Fund. Mr.  Stanley's  wish  that  the  surplus
of  the  receipts  from  the  exhibition  should  form  a  fund
for  placing  a  steamer  on  the  lake  Victoria  Nyanza
(17 May), agreed  to  at  a  meeting  at the  Mansion
house,  5  June ;  50Z. given  by  the q  een, 16  July ;
2,300?.  received  Oct.  1890.

STANNAEY  COUETS  of  Devon  and  Corn-
wall for  the  administration  of  justice  among  the
tin  miners,  whose  privileges  were  confirmed  by
33  Edw.  I.  1305.  They  were  regulated  by  parlia-
ment in  1641,  and  at  many  times  since.  A  "  Stan-
neries  act"  was  passed  in  1869;  another  act  in  1887.

STAPLE  (literally  that  which  is  fixed).  The
chief  English  staple  commodities  which  were  traded
in  by  privileged  merchants,  and  on  which  customs
were  levied,  were  avooI,  skins,  leather  tin,  lead
and  sometimes  cloth,  butter,  and  cheese ;  certain
towns  were  appointed  for  the  collection  of  the
duties ;  statutes  relating  to  the  staple  were  passed
by  Edward  III.,  Richard  II.,  and  Henry  VI.
Edward  III. 's  "ordinacio  stapularum  "  (ordinance
of  the  staple)  was  enacted  in  1353.

STAECH  is  a  sediment  produced  at  the  bottom
of  vessels  wherein  wheat  has  been  steeped  in  water :
it  is  soft  and  friable,  easily  broken  into  powder,
and  is  used  to  stiffen  and  "clear  linen,  with  blue;
its  powder  is  employed  to  powder  the  hair. The  art


STAE-CHAMBEE.


917


STATUES.


of  starching  linen  was  brought  into  England  by  Mrs.
Dinghein,  a  Flemish  woman,  r  Mary,  1553.  Stotv.
Patents  for  obtaining  starch  from  other  substances
have  been  taken  out :  from  potatoes  by  Samuel
Newton  and  others  in  1707  ;  from  the  horse-chest-
nut by  Win.  Murray  in  1796;  from  rice  by  Thomas
Wickhani  in  1823 ;  from  various  matters  by  Orlando
Jones  in  1839-40.
STAE-CHAMBEE,  Court  of. So  called

haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished  with  stars.  Coke.
This  court  of  justice  was  called  Star-Chamber,  not
from  the  stars  on  its  roof  (which  were  obliterated
even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth),  but  from
the  Starra,  or  Jewish  covenants,  deposited  there  by
order  of  Richard  I.  No  star  was  allowed  to  be
valid  except  found  in  those  repositories,  and  here
they  remained  till-  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  by
Edward  I.  ■  The  court  was  instituted  or  revived,
3  Hen.  VII.  i486,  -for  trials  by  a  committee  of  the
privy  council,  which  was  in  violation  of  Magna
Charta ;  as  it  dealt  with  civil  and  criminal  causes
unfettered  by  the  rules  of  law.  In  Charles  I.'s
reign  it  exercised  its  power  upon  several  bold  inno-
vators, who  gloried  in  their  sufferings,  and  con-
tributed to  render  government  odious  and  con-
temptible. It  was  abolished  in  1640.  There  were
in  this  court  from  26  to  42  judges,  the  lord  chan-
cellor having  the  casting  voice.  The  judicial  com-
mittee of  the  privy  council  is  the  Star-chamber
l'evived  under  another  name.

STAE  OF  -INDIA,  a  new  order  of  knight-
hood for  India,  instituted  by  letters  patent  23  Feb.,
gazetted  25  June,  1861,  and  enlarged  in  1866.  It
comprised  the  sovereign,  the  grand  master,  25
knights  (Europeans  and  natives),  and  extra  or
honorary  knights,  such  as  the  prince  consort,  the
prince  of  Wales,  &c.  The  queen  invested  several
knights  on  1  Nov.  1861.  The  prince  of  Wales  held
a  grand  chapter  at  Calcutta,  1  Jan.  1876.

STAES, THE FIXED. They  were  classed
into constellations {which see),  it  is supposed,
about 1200  B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught
that the sun and the stars were motionless,
and that  the  earth moved round them, about
344  B.C. (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero, and  per-
haps gave  the  first  hint  of  this  system  to  Coper-
nicus). Job,  Hesiod,  and  Homer  mention  several
of  the  constellations. The  Royal  Library  at  Paris
contains  a  Chinese  chart  of the  heavens,  made
about  600  B.C.,  in  which  1460  stars  are  correctly
inserted. The  aberration  of  the  stars  was  discovered
by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727; see  Astronomy,  and  Solar
System. Maps  of  the  stars  were  published  by  the
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  in
1839,  and  a  set  of  Celestial  Maps,  issued  under  the
superintendence  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy,
was  completed  in  1859. See  Photometer.
A  list  of  about  200  stars,  which  vary  in  their  bright-
ness and  sometimes  disappear,  has  been  published
by  Mr.  G.  F.  Chambers  in  his  "  Handbook  on
Astronomy,"  1889-90. A  variable  star,  named
a  Ceti,  or  Mira  Ceti,  observed  by  David  Fabricius
in  Aug.  1596,  disappeared  in  Oct.  following. It
was  observed  again  in  1603  and  1638,  and  since.
Bessel  discovered the annual parallax of star
61  Cygni  (hence  he  calculated  its  distance  from
the  earth  to  be  about  60  billions  of  miles) 12  Feb.  1841
Struve  made  it  40  billions  [supported  by  Briinnow

and  R.  8.  Ball] 1853

The  calculations  of  T.  Henderson  (at  the  Cape)  1832
supported  byD.  Gill  and  others  showed  that  pro-
bably a  Centauri,  is  the  star  nearest  to  the  earth  1883-4
A  new  star  in  Auriga  in  the  Milky  Way  was  dis-
covered at  Greenwich,  by  telescope,  1  Feb.  1892.
It  had  been  photographed  by  prof.  Pickering,  1,
10,  20  Dec.  1891.  It  has  been  named  Nova  Auriga-.
Its  brilliancy  diminished,  May  ;  revived Aug.  1892


STAEVATION  :  Deaths  attributed  to  it  in
the  metropolitan  districts,  1873,  107;  1875,  46;
1879,  80;  1888,  29.  In  London,  1889,  27.  In
England  and  Wales  :  1887,  250 ;  1888,  237.  See
Abstinence.

STATE  MEDICINE,  see  under  Sanitation,
2  May,  1888.

STATE  PAPEE  OFFICE  was  founded  in
1578,  now  merged  into  the  Public  Record  Office.
In  1856  the  British  government  began  the  publica-
tion of  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  invaluable  to
future  historians.

STATES-GENEEAL  of  FEANCE. An

ancient  assembly  of  France,  first  met,  it  is  said,  in
1302  to  consider  the  exactions  of  the  pope.  Pre-
vious to  the  Revolution,  it  had  not  met  since  1614.
The  states  consisted  of  three  orders,  the  clergy,
nobility,  and  commons.  They  were  convened  by
Louis  XVI.,  and  assembled  at  Versailles,  5  May,
1789  (308  ecclesiastics,  285  nobles,  and  621  deputies
or  tiers  e'tat,  third  estate).  A  contest  arose  whether
the  three  orders  should  make  three  distinct  houses,
or  but  one  assembly.  The  commons  insisted  upon
the  latter,  and  assuming  the  title  of  the  National
Assembly,  declared  that  they  were  competent  to
proceed  to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  the
two  other  orders,  if  they  refused  to  join  them.
The  nobility  and  clergy  found  it  expedient  to  con-
cede the  point,  and  they  all  met  in  one  hall ;  see
National  Assembly.-  Centenary,  see  France,  5
May,  1889.

STATES  OF  THE  CHUECH,  see  Tope,  and
Rome.

STATIONEES.  Books  and  papers  were
formerly  sold  only  at  stalls  ;  hence  the  dealers  were
called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of
London  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  existed  long
before  printing  was  invented,  yet  it  was  not  in-
corporated until  3  Philip  &  Mary,  1557.  Their  old
dwelling  was  in  Paternoster-row.

STATISTICS,  the  science  of  the  state,  political
knowledge,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  sir
Wm.  Petty,  who  died  in  1687.  The  term  is  said  to
have  been  invented  by  professor  Achemvall  of
Gottingen  in  1749.  The  first  statistical  society  in
England  was  formed  at  Manchester  in  1833 ;  the
Royal  Statistical  Society  of  London,  which  pub-
lishes a  quarterly  journal,  was  established  15  March,
1834,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring,  arranging,  and
publishing  "  facts  calculated  to  illustrate  the  condi-
tion and  prospects  of  society."  Jubilee  kept,  22,
23,  24  June,  1885 ;  incorporated,  1887.  Similar
societies  have  been  established  on  the  continent.
International  Statistical  Institute  constituted  in
1885,  met  at  Rome,  12-16  April,  1887.  International
Statistical  Congresses  are  now  held  occasionally.
The  1st  at  Brussels,  cliicfly  through  the  agency  of
M.  Quetelet,  in  1853;  2nd  at  Paris,  1855;  3rd  at
Vienna,  1857  ;  4th  at  London,  under  the  presidency
of  the  prince  consort,  16-21  July,  i860;  5th  at
Berlin ;  6th  at  Florence ;  7th  at  the  Hague ;
8th  at  St.  Petersburg,  was  opened  22  Aug.  1872 ;
9th  at  Pesth,  31  Aug.  1876  and  since;  one  at
Vienna  28  Sept.  1891.  The  eminent  statistician.
Dr.  Wm.  Farr,  died  14  April,  1883.  Statistical
Abstracts  have  been  published  annually  by  the
government  for  many  years.  Mr.  M.  G.  Mulhall  8
"  Dictionary  of  Statistics"  published  1891.

STATUES,  see  Sculpture,  &c.  Two  statues  of
Barneses  II.  and  one  of  his  queen  (aboul  13:2  B.C.),
10  feet  high,  discovered  at  Aboukir  by  Danmos
Pasha, Oct. 1891. Phidias, whose statue of


STATUES.


918


STEAM  ENGINE.


Jupiter  passed  for  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,
was  the  greatest  statuary  among  the  ancients,
440  B.C.  He  had  previously  made  a  statue  of
Minerva  at  the  request  of  Pericles,  which  was
placed  in  the  Parthenon.  It  was  made  of  ivory
and  gold,  and  measured  39  feet  in  height.  Acilius
raised  a  golden  statue  to  his  father,  the  first  that
appeared  in  Italy.  Lysippus  invented  the  art  of
taking  likenesses  in  plaster  moulds,  from  which  he
afterwards  cast  models  in  wax,  326  B.C.  Michael
Angelo  was  the  greatest  artist  among  the  modems.
The  first  equestrian  statue  erected  in  Great  Britain
was  that  of  Charles  I.  in  1678.*  By  17  &  18  Vict.
c.  10  (10  July,  1854),  public  statues  were  placed
under  the  control  and  protection  of  the  Board  of
Works.  The  following  are  the  chief  public  statues
in  London: —

Achilles,  Hyde-park,  in  honour  of  the  duke  of  Wel-
lington, by  the  ladies  of  Great  Britain 18  June,  1822
Albert,  prince  consort,  Royal  Exchange,  1850  ;  Hor-
ticultural Society  gardens,  1863;  Hofborn  circus,  1873
Anne,  queen,  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  1712  ;  replaced,  1886

Barry,  sir  Charles,  Westminster 1865

Bedford,  duke  of,  Russell-square  ....  1809
Bentinck,  lord  George,  Cavendish-square  .  after  1848
Burns  t,  Thames  embankment  .  .  26  July,  1884
Byron,  lord,  Hamilton-place,  Hyde-park,  24  May,  1880
Canning,  Geo.,  New  Palace-yard,  Westminster  .  .  1832
Carlyle,  Thos.,  embankment,  Chelsea  .  Oct.  1882
Cartwright,  major,  Burton-crescent . . . .1831

Charles  I. ,  Charing-cross 1678

Charles  II.,  Soho-squaie t  ***

Clyde,  lord,  Waterloo-place 1868

Cobden,  Richard,  Camden-town . . June,  1868
Cumberland,  duke  of,  Cavendish-square  . . .  1770
Derby,  Edward,  earl  of,  Parliament-square . .  1874
Disraeli, Benj., lord Beaconsfield, Parliament-
square 19  April,  1883

Elizabeth,  queen,  St.  Dunstan's,  Fleet-street  .  .  1586
Faraday,  Michael,  Royal  Institution  .  ...  1876
Forster,',W.  E. ,  Victoria  embankment  .  1  Aug.  1890
Fox,  Charles  James,  Bloomsbury-square  .  .  .  1816
Franklin,  sir  John,  Waterloo-place , . . . 1866

George  I. ,  Grosvenor-square 1726

George  III. ,  Somerset-house 1788

George  III. ,  Cockspur-street 1836

Gordon,  gen.  C.  G.,  Trafalgar-square  .  25  Sept.  1888
Havelock,  sir  Henry,  Trafalgar-square  .  .  .  1861
Herbert,  lord,  Pall  Mall  ....  3  June,  1867
Hill,  Rowland,  Royal  Exchange  ....  1882
Howard,  John  ;  first  erected  in  St.  Paul's . . .  1796

James  II.,  Whitehall 1687

Jenner,  Edward,  Trafalgar-square,  1858  ;  removed

to  Kensington-gardens 1864

Lawrence,  lord,  Waterloo-place  (a  new  statue  since)

April,  1885
Macgregor,  sir  James,  Chelsea  hospital  .  .  .  1868
Mill,  John  Stuart,  Thames  Embankment,  26  Jan.  1872
Myddelton,  sir  Hugh,  Islingcon-green  .  .  .  .  1862
Napier,  gen.  sir  Chas.  J.,  Trafalgar-square  .  .  1856
Napier  of  Magdala,  lord,  Waterloo-place,  uncovered

8  July,  1 89 1
Nelson,  lord,  Trafalgar-square,  by  E.  H.  Baily  [the
lions  at  the  base,  designed  by  sir  E.  Landseer,

were  uncovered  31  Jan.  1867] 1843

Outram,  sir  James,  Thames  embankment 17  Aug.  1871
Palmerston,  viscount,  Parliament-street .  29  Jan.  1876
Peabody,  George,  Royal  Exchange ....  1869
Peel,  sir  Robert,  Cheapside,  1855  ;  near  Westminster
abbey,  1868 ;  Parliament-square . . ...  1877

Pitt,  William,  Hanover-square 1831

Prince  of  Wales,  Temple-bar  site 1880


*  This  statue  is  of  brass,  cast  by  Le  Sueur,  in  1633,
at  the  expense  of  the  Howard-Arundel  family.  During
the  civil  war,  the  parliament  sold  it  to  John  River,  a
brazier,  in  Holborn,  with  strict  orders  to  break  it  to
pieces ;  but  he  concealed  it  underground  till  the  Restora-
tion, when  it  was  erected,  in  1678,  on  a  pedestal  executed
by  Grinling  Gibbons.  The  first  equestrian  statue  of
bronze,  founded  at  one  cast,  was  that  of  Louis  XIV.  of
France,  1699 ;  it  was  elevated  about  1724.

t  By  sir  John  Steell,  the  gift  of  Mr.  John  Gordon
Crawford


Queen  Victoria,  Royal  Exchange,  1845  ;  Temple-bar

site 1880

Raikes,  Robert,  Thames  embankment . 3  July, ,,
Richard  Cosur  de  Lion,  near  Westminster  abbey .  i860
Shakespeare,  &c,  Leicester-square  ....  1874
Stephenson,  Robert,  Euston-road,  near  L.  &  N.  W.

station 1871

Tyndale,  Wm.,  Thames  embankment  . . .  1884

Wellington,  duke  of,  Royal  Exchange  .  .  .  1844
Wellington,  duke  of,  arch,  Hyde-park-corner,  1846  ;
equestrian  statue,  height  27  feet,  weight  40  tons,
chiefly  gun  metal  (cannon  taken  by  the  duke)
designed  by  Matthew  Cotes  Wyatt,  set  up  1  Oct.
1846; taken  down, 24  Jan., 1883; set  up  at

Aldershot  camp 1848

Wellington,  duke  of,  new  equestrian  statue  with
figures  of  four  Waterloo  soldiers  at  the  base,  by
sir  J.  E.  Boehm,  facing  Hyde  Park  Corner,  set  up
13  Nov. ;  unveiled  by  the  prince  of  Wales  21  Dec.  1888
AVilliam  III. ,  St.  James's-square ....  1717
William  IV.,  King  William-street . . . .  1845
York,  duke  of,  Waterloo-place 1834

STATUTES,  see  Acts  of  Parliament,  Clarendon,
Merton,  &c.  Statute  Law  Bevision  acts  were  passed
in  1863-1892.  The  subject  was  referred  to  a  joint
committee  of  both  houses,  14  March,  1892.  Statute
Law  Bevision  and  Civil  Procedure  act,  44  &  45  Vict,
c.  59,  passed  27  Aug.  1881.  "Statutes:  Revised
Edition:  (1325-1878),"  in  18  volumes,  published
1870-85.  The  number  of  volumes  since  greatly  re-
duced. Select  commons'  committee  on  the  subject,,
met  17  July,  1891.

STATUTORY  DECLARATIONS.  Bys&
6  "Will.  IV.  c.  62  (1835),  persons  objecting  to  oaths  are-
permitted  to  make  declarations  before  magistrates,

judges,  &c;  commencing:  "I  ,  do  solemnly

and  sincerely  declare  that" — an  indulgence  some-
times abused.

Mr.  Alexander  Chaffers  having  made  a  declaration
against  the  character  of  Lady  Twiss,  wife  of  sir
Travers  Twiss,  was  prosecuted  for  libel.  She  with-
drew during  the  examination,  and  the  prosecution
ceased  :  but  Chaffers  was  severely  censured  by  the
magistrate,  and  by  the  attorney -general  in  parlia-
ment March,  1872-

STEAM  CARRIAGE  (for  ordinary  roads),
invented  by  the  earl  of  Caithness,  was  said  to  be
successful  in  i860.  It  travels  over  rough  roads  at
the  rate  of  8  miles  an  hour,  at  a  cost  of  less  than  \d,
per  mile.  His  lordship  made  a  journey  of  140  miles
in  two  days ;  see  Road  Steamers.

STEAM  ENGINE*  and  NAVIGATION.

Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  his  "  Pneumatics,"  describes
various  methods  of  employing  steam  as  a  power ;
and  to  him  is  ascribed  the  JEolopile,  which,  although
a  toy,  possesses  the  properties  of  the  steam-engine  :
he  flourished  about  284-241  B.C.  Boger  Bacon  ap-
pears to  have  foreseen  the  application  of  steam-
power  ;  see  Railivays,  Locomotives,  Poad  Steamers,
See.

Solomon  de  Caus,  a  French  protestant,  publishes  a
work  which  Arago  on  insufficientgrounds  considers
to  have  contained  the  germs  of  the  steam-engine .  1615
The  marquis  of  Worcester  describes  his  steam-engine
in  his  "  Century  of  Inventions  " . . . .  1663

Papin's  digester  invented 1681-2

Captain  Savery's engine  constructed for raising

water 1698

Papin's  engine  exhibited  to  the  Royal  Society  about  1699
[He  is  said  to  have  made  a  steamboat  which  was

destroyed  by  boatmen  of  the  Weser.  ]
Thomas  Newcomen,  of  Dartmouth,  is  stated  to  have
constructed  "the  first  self-acting  steam-engine  ; "
(used  for  nearly  a  century  without  alteration  or

amendment) 1712

[He  died  in  London  while  endeavouring  to  obtain
a  patent,  1729.]

*  "  The  best  known  mechanical  arrangement  for  con-
verting heat  into  work." A.  Sigg,  1878.


STEAM  ENGINE.


919


STEAM  ENGINE.


First  idea  of  steam  navigation,  set  forth  in  a  patent
obtained  by  Jonathan  Hulls 1736

Watt's  invention  of  performing  condensation  in  a
separate  vessel  from  the  cylinder  ....  1765

His  first  patent,  1769  ;  his  engines  erected  in  manu-
factories, and  his  patent  renewed  by  parliament  .  1775

Thomas  Paine  proposes  steam  navigation  in  America  1778

Engines  made  to  give  a  rotary  motion  . . . . ,,

Watt's  expansion  engine ,,

Double-action  engines  proposed  by  Dr.  Falck  on
Newcomen's  principle 1779

Watt's  double  engine  and  his  first  patent  for  it .  1781

Hornblower's  double-cylinder  engine  . . . . ,,

Claude  ■  comte  de  Jouffroy  constructed  an  engine
which  propelled  a  boat  (pyroscaphe)  on  the  Saone.  1783

Win.  Patrick  Miller  patented  paddle-wheels . .  1787

[He  and  Mr.  Symington  are  said  to  have  constructed
a  small  steamboat  which  travelled  at  about  4  miles
an  hour  soon  after.]

W.  Symington  made  a  passage  on  the  Forth  and
Clyde  canal 1790

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by  Henry
Jackson 1791

First  experiment  with  steam  navigation  on  the
Thames 1801

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine . . . . ,,

Woolfs  double -cylinder  expansion  engine  con-
structed 1804

Manufactories  warmed  by  steam 1806

Fulton's  steamboat  Clermont  on  the  Seine,  9  Aug.
1803 ;  at  New  York,  1806 ;  started  a  steamboat
on  the  river  Hudson,  America 1807

Steam  power  to  convey  coals  on  a  railway  employed
by  Blenkinsop 1811

Comet,  built  by  Henry  Bell,  sailed  on  the  Clyde
[John  Bobertson,  who  made  the  engine,  died
20  Nov.  1868,  aged  86]  . . . 18  Jan. 1812

[The  Comet  sailed  from  Glasgow  to  Greenock  three
times  a  week  ;  fares,  3s.  and  4s.  ;  speed,  -]\  miles
an  hour.]

Steam  applied  to  printing  in  the  Times  office  (see
Printing  machines) 1814

There  were  five  steam-vessels  in  Scotland  (Pari.  Re-
turns) „

First  steam- vessel  on  the  Thames,  brought  by  Mr.
Dodd  from  Glasgow 181 5

First  steamer  built  in  England  (Pari.  Returns) . . ,,

Rising  Sun,  a  steamer  built  by  lord  Cochrane,
crossed  the  Atlantic i3i8

The  Savannah,  aided  by  steam,  of  350  tons,  came
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in  26  days 15  July,  1819

First  steamer  in  Ireland 1820

Steamboats  established  between  Dover  and  Calais
and  London  and  Leith 1821

Steam-gun,  invented  by  Perkins ....  1824

Steam-jet  applied  by  George  Stephenson,  1814  ;  by
Timothy  Hackworth,  about 1825

Captain  Johnson  obtained  10,000?.  for  making  the
first  steam  voyage  to  India,  in  the  Enterprise,
which  sailed  from  Falmouth . . 16  Aug. ,,

The  locomotive  steam-carriages  on  railways  at  Liver-
pool Oct.  1829

The  railway  opened  (see  Liverpool) ....  1830

The  Royal  William,  steamship,  built  at  Quebec  by
Mr.  James  Grondie  in  1830-1,  said  to  have  crossed
the  Atlantic  in  21  days 1833

Capt.  Ericsson's  screw  steamer,  "  Francis  Bogden,"
speed  10  miles  an  hour,  constructed  :  see  Screw-
Propeller 1837

The  Sirius  sailed  from  Queenstown  4  April ;
arrived  at  New  York ... 21  April,  1838

The  Great  Western  sails  from  Bristol  to  New  York,
being  her  first  voyage . . . 8-23  April, ,,

War-steamers  built  in  England ,,

War-steamers  built  at  Birkenhead,  named  the  Ne-
mesis and  Phlegethon,  carrying  each  two  thirty-two
pounders,  sent  by  government  to  China . .  1840

Hall's  method  of  economising  fuel  introduced  about ,,

The  first  Cunard  steamer,  the  Britannia,  sailed  *

4  July, ,,
[Sir  Sam.  Cunard  died  28  April,  1865,  aged  78.]

*  Since  then  many  great  steamers  have  been  wrecked
or  burnt :  viz.,  Governor  Fenner,  19  Feb.,  1841 ;  Presi-
dent, March,  1841  ;  Ocean  Monarch,  Aug.  1848 ;  St.
George,  24  Dec.  1852 ;  George  Canning,  1  Jan.  1855 ;
Pacific,  1856  ;  Austria,  13  Sept.,  1858  ;  Indian,  21  Nov.,
1859;  Hungarian,  Feb., i860; Anglo-Saxon,  27  April,


The  Peninsular  Company  was  formed  in  1837  ;  be-
came the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Naviga-
tion Company  in ... .  .  1840
[They  possessed  53  steamers  and  a  fleet  of  tugs,
Dec.  1866.]
The  Great  Britain  sailed  from  the  Mersey  26 July,  1845
[She  arrived  at  New  York  10  Aug. During  her
second  voyage,  she  ran  aground  in  Duudrum
bay,  Ireland,  22  Sept. 1846. Her  passengers
were  landed  ;  and  she  was  extricated  with
little  injury,  after  long-continued  and  strenu-
ous efforts,  by  I.  Brunei,  jun.  and  Bremner,
27  Aug.  1847.]

The  Collins  steamers  began 1850

In/man  Company :  began  by  Wm.  Inman,  first  vessel
City  of  Glasgow,  1850 ;  the  company  became  the
Liverpool,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia  company,
1857 •  (-'My  °f  Richmond,  sailed  from  Liverpool
6  p.m.  15  July,  arrived  at  New  York  12.30  p.m.

24  July,  1875. (Apparent  time  7  days,  19  hours,  45
minutes;  average  365  miles  a  day,  isknotsanhour.)

The  Pacific  crosses  the  Atlantic  in  9  days,  19  hours,

25  minutes,  arriving  at  Holyhead . 20  May,  1851
Manchester  Steam-  Users  Association  established  about  1855
Steam  packets  leave  Galway  for  America . . .  1853
The  merits  of  an  attacking  vessel  termed  a  steam-
ram,  advocated  by  sir  G.  Sartorius,  discussed 1859-60

Giffard's  valuable  steam-injector  invented about  1859

An  iron-plated  frigate,  La  Gloire,  completed  in
France  (see  Navy,  French) i860

The  Warrior,  an  iron-plated  vessel,  launched  29  Dec. ,,

The  Far  East,  a  vessel  with  two  screws,  launched  at
MUlwall 31  Oct.  1863

A  cigar  ship,  a  steam  yacht,  designed  by  Mr.  Winan,
built  by  Hepworth,  launched  on  the  Thames

19  Feb.  1866

Trial  trip  of  the  Nautilus,  with  a  hydraulic  propeller
worked  by  steam,  Ruthven's  patent ;  no  paddle  or
screw  required 24  March, ,,

Successful  trial  trip  of  the  Water-witch,  a  govern-
ment hydraulic  propeller  iron-clad  gun-vessel
(Ruthven's  patent),  on  the  Thames . 19  Oct. ,,

Mr.  Ruthven  patented  his  system  in  1849,  and  exhibited
his  machinery  at  the  International  Exhibition  in  1851.
His  object  is  to  increase  speed  and  save  fuel.  In  the
Water-witch  a  steam-engine  gives  the  power  of  absorb-
ing and  expelling  the  water,  and  no  screw  or  paddle  is
required. The  water-wheel  is  14^  feet  in  diameter.

Trial  trip  of  H.M.  gun-boat  Thistle;  explosion  of
boiler,  8  killed 3  Nov.  1869

Channel  Steamers :  "  Twin-ship  "  Castalia,  steamer  (two
hulls,  separated  by  26  feet),  290  feet  long  ;  invented  by
capt.  W.  T.  Dicey,  for  the  English  Channel  steam  com-
pany, to  prevent  sea-sickness  when  crossing  the
Channel ;  (really  a  single  ship,  with  the  middle  part  of
her  bottom  raised  out  of  the  water  throughout  her
whole  length) ;  launched,  2  June  ;  tried  in  calm  wea-
ther ;  reported  successful  but  slow,  2  Aug,  1875  ;  suc-
cessful, June,  1876  ;  sold  Nov.  1876.

Bessemer,  saloon  steamer,  designed  by  Mr.  Bessemer  and
E.  J.  Reed ;  built  by  the  Earles  company ;  launched
at  Hull,  24  Sept.  1874;  first  voyage  from  Hull  to
Gravesend,  5  March,  1875  ;  sailed  to  Calais,  10  April,  1875.
[Success  doubtful,  1876.]  Modified  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed  ;
trial  near  Hull,  reported  successful,  26  March,  1877.

Express,  twin  steamer  ;  built  by  A.  Leslie,  of  Newcastle  :
sailed  from  the  Tyne'to  Coquet  Island,  22J  miles,
in  ih.  22m.,  reported  satisfactory,  13  March,  1878.

Folkestone, twin  steamer,  launched  at  Hull,  23  March,  187S.

Pizarro,  steamer  (the  first  built  of  Siemens-Martin  steel  ;
340  feet  long  by  40  feet  broad,  3400  tons,  launched  at
Napier's  yard,  Govan,  near  Glasgow,  5  Aug.  1879.

Livadia,  a  turhot-shaped  steam  yacht  (broad  and  flat),
built  by  Elder  &  Co.  of  Glasgow  for  the  czar  of  Russia,
launched  on  the  Clyde,  7  July,  1880.

Faraday,  steam-ship  (for  laying  electric  cables,
360  feet  long,  52  feet  wide,  36  feet  deep,  5000  tons
register ;  to  carry  6000  tons  dead  weight) ;  next
in  size  to  Great  Eastern ;  built  for  Messrs.
Siemens  by  Messrs.  Mitchell,  at  Newcastle ;
launched  (much  employed,  1881  el  scq.),  17  Feb.
1874  ;  she  laid  cables  from  Nova  Scotia  to  New
York Dec. i83.>

Orient,  steamer,  built  by  Elders  of  Glasgow, for

1863;  City  of  Boston,  Feb.,  1870;  Germania,  21  Dee.
1872;  Atlantic,  April,  1873;  VilU  de  Havre,  22  No\..
1873  ;  Cashmere,  5  July,  1S77  ;  Elen,  15  July,  1877,  &c.


STEAM  .ENGINE.


920


STEAM-PLOUGHS.


Australian  traffic ;  length,  460  feet ;  breadth,
46  feet ;  depth,  37^  feet ;  sailed  from  Greenock
to  West  India  Dock,  London . . 10-12  Sept.  1S79

Servia,  Cunard  royal  mail  steamer,  530  feet  long,
52  feet  broad,  44  feet  depth  ;  gross  tonnage,  8500
tons  ;  s  decks  and  promenade  ;  next  in  size  to
Great  Eastern  ;  launched  in  the  Clyde, 1  March,  1881

Servia,  sailed  from  America  to  Liverpool  (by  long
route)  in  7  days,  8  hours,  15  min.  quickest
passage  hitherto  made ... 26  Jan.  1882

City  of  Rome,  mail  steamer,  length  586  feet,  breadth
52  feet,  left  the  Clyde ... 28  Sept.  1881

Alaska,  Guion  mail  steamer  crossed  the  Atlantic,
6  days,  22  hours ... 31  May-6  June,  1882

The  Guion  steamer  Arizona,  left  Queenstown  at
2.10  p.m.  Sept.  11,  and  reached  Sandy  Hook  at
6.20  p.m.  on  the  18O1,  which,  including  the  dif-
ference in  time,  4  hours,  22  min.,  makes  the
passage  7  days,  8  hours,  12  min.  On  the  return
passage  she  made  the  voyage  in  7  days,  7  hours,
48  min.

The  Guion  steamer  Alaslca  arrived  at  Sandy  Hook  on
Sunday,  in  7  days,  17  min. . . 31  July, „

Black  Star  Line  of  steamers  between  Grimsby  and
America 11882

Victoria,  steamer  (jubilee  of  the  P.  and  O.  company),
built  by  Messrs.  Caird  &  Co.  ;  length  465  feet,
breadth  52  feet,  depth  37  feet;  sailed  from
Greenock  to  Southampton ... 16  July,  1887

Mr.  Thomas  Lishman's  steam  generator  said  to
economize  fuel  without  producing  smoke,  em-
ployed at  Elswick  Works,  Newcastle,  and  other
places

Arcadia  (P.  and  O.  steamer),  arrived  at  Albert
Docks 3:8  May,  1888

Etruria,  Cunard  line,  sailed  from  Roches  Point,  Cork,
to  New  York  in  6  days,  1  hr.,  47  minutes  2  June, „

Parisian,  boat  of  the  Allan  line,  said  to  have
crossed  the  Atlantic  from  land  to  land  in  4  days,
17  hours  and  10  minutes  .... Aug.

City  of  New  York,  length  560  feet,  breadth  63}  feet,
first  voyage  across  Atlantic . . .1  Am;. ,,

Said  to  have  crossed  from  New  York  to  Queenstown
in  5  days,  23  hours,  and  14  minutes  .  17-23  Sept.  1890
See  Navy,  and  Shipping.

LARGE STEAM  VESSELS OF ENGLAND.

Long. Broad.

Great  Western 236  feet 35  feet

Duke  of  Wellington . . . .  240  feet 60  feet

British  Queen 275  feet 61  feet

Great  Britain 322  feet 51  feet

Himalaya 370  feet 43  feet

Persia 3qo  feet 45  feet

Servia S3o  feet 52  feet

Great  Eastern,  for  a short  time

(1857-8)  called  Leviathan  . .  692  feet 83  feet

Horse  Power:  —  Paddles, 1000  ; screw, 1600  :

Weight of ship, 12,000 tons  ; ordinary  light

draught,  12,000  tons  ;  said  to  have  cost  732,000?

She  was  designed  by  Mr.  I.  K.  Brunei  [who  died  15  Sept'.

1859],  and  built  by  Messrs.  Scott  Russell  and  Co.,  at

Millwall ;  launching  lasted  from  3  Nov.  1857,  to  31  Jan

185S.

The  capital  subscribed  having  been  all  expended,  a  new

company  was  formed  to  fit  her  for  sea.
On  7  Sept.  1859,  sne  left  her  moorings  at  Deptford  for
Portland-roads.  On  the  voyage  an  explosion  took  place
(off  Hastings),  through  some  neglect  in  regard  to  the
casing  of  one  of  the  funnels,  when  ten  firemen  were
killed  and  many  persons  seriously  injured.  After  re-
pairs she  sailed  to  Holyhead,  arriving  there  10  Oct  •
she  endured  the  storm  of  25-26  Oct.  well ;  and  pro-
ceeded to  Southampton  for  the  winter,  4  Nov.
She  was  fitted  up  to  convey  5000  persons  from  London
to  Australia,  a  distance  of  22,500  miles,  with  accom-
modation for  800 1st  class  passengers,  2000  2nd  class,  and
1200  3rd  class.  Her  able  captain  (Harrison)  'was
drowned  in  the  Solent  22  Jan.  i860,  deeply  regretted
She  sailed  for  New  York  17  June,  under  command  of
captain  Vine  Hall,  and  arrived  there  28  June.  After
being  exhibited  she  left  New  York  16  Aug.  and  returned
to  England  26  Aug.
Owing  to  a  lawsuit  in  April,  the  ship  came  into  the  hands
of  sheriff's  officers  ;  but  was  released  and  sailed  for  New
York  on  1  May,  1861.  On  12  Sept.  she  suffered  much
loss  through  a  violent  gale.
In  1862  she  performed  several  voyages  to  and  from  New


York  ;  but  in  Aug.  ran  on  a  rock  near  Long  Island  and
injured  her  bottom.

She  was  repaired  and  arrived  at  Liverpool  17  Jan.  1863,
and  sailed  to  New  York  (16-27  May).

She  was  bought  by  Glass,  Elliot,  and  Co.  in  March  or
April,  1864,  and  was  chartered  to  convey  the  Atlantic
telegraph  cable ;  sailed  from  Sheerness  15  July :  and
returned  19  Aug.  1865  ;  see  under  Electric  Telegraph.

She  sailed  for  New  York,  prepared  for  2000  passengers,

26  March,  and  returned  with  191.  She  was  seized  by
the  seamen,  claiming  their  wages,  May,  1867  ;  and  the
case  was  carried  into  Chancery  in  July.

At  the  meeting  of  the  shareholders  10  Feb.  1868,  no  divi-
dend was  declared.

She  conveyed  the  French  Atlantic  telegraph  cable,
successfully  laid Oct.  1869

Arrived  at  Bombay  with  Bombay  and  Suez  cable,

27  Feb.  ;  returned  to  Sheerness  .  .  June,  1870
Sailed  with  the fourth  Atlantic telegraph  cable

8  June  ;  which  was  completely  laid  .  3  July,  1873
Sailed with the fifth Atlantic  telegraph cable :

laid Aug.,  Sept.  1874

Put  up  for  sale  at  30,000?. ;  not  bought  19  Oct.  1881

[John  Scott  Russell  died,  aged  74] . 8  June,  1882
Proposed  to  be  employed  as  a  coal  hulk  in  Gibraltar

Bay April,  1884

Sold  by  auction  to  Mr.  Frederick  de  Mattos  for

26,200?.  for  the  London  traders  (limited)  28  Oct.  1S85
The  ship  reported  in  good  condition . 20  April,  1886

Sold  to  Mr.  Worsley  for  26,000? ,,

In  the  Mersey .... 12  May-12  Oct. ,,
Largely  visited  ;  drink  licence  refused .  April,  1887
Sold  to  Mr.  Craik  for  21,000?.  . . 20  Oct. ,,

In  the  Clyde,  sold  to  Messrs.  Henry  Bath,  metal

brokers,  for  16,500?.  .... Dec. ,,

Messrs.  Henry  Bath  and  Sons  cause  the  vessel  to

be  moved  to  the  Mersey,  where  she  is  beached

25  Aug.  1888
Total  receipts  of  the  sale  at  Liverpool 58,000?.

24  Nov. ,,

STEAM  GUN ;  suggested  by  Wm.  Murdoch,
1803. One  patented  by  Messrs.  Perkins,  in  1824,
was  ineffectual.
In  Oct.  1870,  Mr.  H.  Bessemer  proposed  the  application

of  steam  power  to  artillery.

STEAM  HAMMEE,  invented  by  Mr.  James
Nasmyth  in  1838,  and  patented  by  him  18  June,
1842.  Its  main  feature  is  the  absolutely  direct
manner  by  which  the  elastic  power  of  steam  is
employed  to  lift  up  and  let  fall  the  mass  of  iron
constituting  the  hammer,  which  is  attached  direct
to  the  end  of  a  piston-rod  passing  through  the
bottom  of  an  inverted  steam  cylinder  placed  imme-
diately over  the  anvil.

In  1842,  Mr.  Nasmyth  applied  his  steam-hammer  to
driving  piles,  which  has  importantly  assisted  in  the
execution  of  great  public  works.  Owing  to  its  vast
range  of  power,  forged  iron-work  can  now  by  its  means
be  executed  on  a  scale,  and  for  a  variety  of  purposes,
with  an  ease  and  perfection  not  previously  possible.
Parts  of  gigantic  marine  steam-engines,  anchors,  and
Armstrong  guns,  as  well  as  the  most  minute  details  of
machinery,  as  in  Enfield  rifles,  are  executed  by  the
steam-hammer.
A  steam-hammer,  said  to  be  the  then  largest  in  the
world,  completed  at  Woolwich  :  the  falling  portion
weighs  40  tons,  and  when  used  with  top  steam  (51  tons)
has  the  force  of  91  tons,  April,  1874.  One  at  Schneider's
works,  Creuzot,  France ;  weight  between  75  and  80  tons,
Dec.  1877.
Mr.  Nasmyth,  aged  81,  died  7  May,  1890.  His  Auto-
biography, edited  by  Dr.  S.  Smiles,  was  published  in
1S83.

STEAM-MAN.  A  figure  constructed  to  drag
a  phaeton  received  this  name  in  New  York  in
March,  1868.

STEAM  NAVIGATION,  see  under  Steam.

STEAM-PLOUGHS  were  patented  by  G.
Callaway  and  E.  A.  Purkes,  1849 ;  H.  Cowing,
1850;  and  others.  John  Fowler's  of  1854  is  much
approved.


STEAM-EAM.


921


STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST.


STEAM-EAM  (to  be  used  in  naval  warfare),
was  invented  by  Mr.  James  Nasmyth  in  1836,  and
communicated  to  the  Admiralty  in  1845.  Steam-
rams  built  bj  Mr.  James  Laird  of  Birkenhead  for
the  Confederates  in  N.  America,  were  stopped  and
eventually  bought  by  the  British  government,  1864.

STEAM-WHISTLES  and  STEAM-
TRUMPETS,  used  in  factories  to  summon  or  dismiss
workmen,  prohibited  by  an  act  passed  Aug.  1872.

STEAEINE  (from  stear,  suet),  that  part  of
oils  and  fats  which  is  solid  at  common  temperature.
The  nature  of  these  substances  was  first  made
known  by  Chevreul,  in  1823,  who  showed  that  they
were  compounds  of  peculiar  acids,  with  a  base
termed  glycerine;  of  these  compounds  the  chief  are
stearine,  margarine,  and  elaine ;  see  Candles.

STEEL,  metal,  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,
exists  in  nature,  and  has  been  fabricated  from  the
earliest  times.  It  was  certainly  used  by  the  Egyp-
tians, Assyrians,  and  Greeks.  It  now  largely
replaces  cast  iron  in  ship  building,  &c.
Reaumur  discovered  the  direct  process  of  making
steel  by  immersing  malleable  iron  in  a  bath  of

cast  iron 1722

A  manufactory  for  cast  steel  is  said  to  have  been
set  up  by  Benjamin  Huntsman  at  Handsworth,

near  Sheffield 1740

The  manufacture  of  shear  steel  began  in  Sheffield,

about  1800
German  steel  was  made  at  Newcastle  previously  by

Mr.  Crawley.
The  inventions  of  Mushat  (1800),  Lucas  (1S04),  and
Heath  (1839),  were  important  steps  in  this  manu-
facture ;  see  Engraving.
Reipe  patented  his  "  puddled  steel " . . .  1850
Mr. H.  Bessemer  made  steel  by  passing  cold  air
through  liquid  iron,  1856. By  this  method  20  tons
of  crude  iron  have  been  converted  into  east  steel
in  23  minutes.*
Tungsten  steel  was  made  in  Germany,  1859  ;  and  M.
Fremy  made  steel  by  bringing  red-hot  iron  in  con-
tact with  carbonate  of  ammonia ....  1861
M.  Alfred  Krupp  exhibited  an  ingot  of  steel  weigh-
ing 4500  lbs.  in  1851,  and  one  weighing  20  tons  in  1862
[about  15,000  men  are  employed  at  his  works  at
Essen,  1887]
The  subject  much  investigated  by  M.  Caron,  1861-5  ;
much  attention  was  excited  by  cutlery  made  from
a  metallic  sand,  brought  from  Taranaki  or  New

Plymouth,  in  New  Zealand i860

A  steel  bridge,  in  connection  with  the  exhibition,

constructed  at  Paris  by  M.  Joret  ....  1866
Mr.  John  Heaton  published  his  process . . 1867-8
Dr.  Siemens,  by  means  of  his  "  regenerative  gas
furnaces,"  produced  excellent  steel,  cheaply,  in

large  masses 1876,  el  seq.

Cutlers'  Company,  London,  opened  an  exhibition,

1  May,  1879
Messrs.  Bolckow,  Vaughan  &  Co.  of  Middlesbrough,
by  Thomas  and  Gilchrist's  process,  convert  Cleve-
land iron  ore  into  Bessemer  steel,  by  lining  the
furnace  with  radial  bricks  of  magnesian  limestone
and  adding  cold  basic  material,  phosphorus  being

thereby  removed ,,

The  process  reported  successful . . . Oct.  1880
Mr. J. S. Jeans  published  his important  work,
"  Steel : its History,  Manufacture, Properties,

and  Uses" Feb. ,,

The  Garfield,  a  steel  sailing  ship,  2,220  tons,  292  ft.
length,  24  ft.  9  in.  depth,  41ft.  breadth,  launched

at  Belfast 7  Jan.  1882

Umbria,  Canard  liner,  above  8,000  tons,  520  ft.  long,
57  ft.  3  in.  broad,  41  ft.  deep,  launched  on  the

Clyde Sept.  1884

Mr.  B.  H.  Thwaite,  of  Liverpool,  and  Mr.  A.
Stewart,  of  Bradford,  introduce  an  improved
"rapid"  process  for  the  manufacture  of  steel,

announced  Oct.  1887
See  under  Steam.

*  For  this  invention  he  had  received  by  royalties
1,057,748/.  lip  to  1879;  also  many  foreign  honours;
knighted  June,  1879.


STEEL  PENS-  "Iron  pens"  are  mentioned
by  Chamberlayne  in  1685.  Steel  pens,  made  long
before,  began  to  come  into  use  about  1820,  when  the
first  gross  of  three-slit  pens  was  sold  wholesale  for
7 1.  4s.  In  1830  the  price  was  8s.,  and  in  1832,  6s.
A  better  pen  is  now  sold  for  6d.  a  gross.  Birming-
ham in  1858  produced  about  1000  million  pens  per
annum.  Women  and  children  are  principally  em-
ployed in  the  manufacture.  Perry,  Mitchell,  and
Gillott  are  eminent  makers.  Joseph  Gillott,  origin-
alljT  a  mechanic,  made  a  large  fortune  by  steel-pen
making. He  died  5  Jan.  1872,  aged  72.

STEEL- YAED.  An  ancient  instrument,  the
same  that  is  translated  balance  in  the  Pentateuch.
The  Statcra  Romana,  or  Roman  steel-yard,  is  men-
tioned, in  315  B.C. — The  Steel-yaud  or  Still-
yard  Company,  London  merchants,  who  had  the
steel-yard  in  Thames-street  assigned  to  them  by
Henry  III.,  about  1232,  were  Flemings  and  Ger-
mans, and  the  only  exporters,  for  many  years  after,
of  the  staple  commodities  of  England.  Anderson.
The  company  lost  its  privileges,  finally,  in  1578 ;
and  the  merchants  were  expelled  from  England  in
1597-

STEENKIEK,  see  Enghien.

STEFANO,  SAN,  a  small  village  on  the  sea
of  Marmora,  S.W.  of  Constantinople ;  here  the
grand  duke  Nicholas  established  his  head  quarters,
24  Eeb.  ;  and  here  was  signed  a  treaty  of  peace
with  Turkey,  3  March,  1878,  much  modified  by
the  treaty  of  Berlin,  signed  13  July,  following.
The  Russians  quitted  San  Stefano,  22  Sept.  1878.

It  established  independence  of  Montenegro,  Servia,  and
Roumania ;  constituted  Bulgaria  a  tributary  princi-
pality ;  required  a  heavy  indemnity  from  Turkey  for
Russia,  who  was  to  gain  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea  and
Kars  ;  to  exchange  the  Dobrudscha  for  Bessarabia ;  to
obtain  rights  for  Christians  ;  to  open  the  Bosphoms
and  Dardanelles  in  peace  and  war  ;  &c.

STELLA-LAND,  see  Trans-vaal  and  Bech-
uana-land.

STENOCHEOMT,  see  Printing  in  Colours.

STENOGEAPHY  (from  stenos,  narrow),  the
art  of  short-hand,  said  to  have  been  practised  by
the  ancients.  Its  improvement  is  attributed  to  the
poet  Ennius,  to  Tyro,  Cicero's  freedman,  and  still
more  to  Seneca.  The  Ars  Scribendi  Charactcris,
written  about  1412,  is  the  oldest  system  extant.
Dr.  Timothy  Bright' s  "  Characterie,  or  the  Arte  of
Shorte,  Swifte,  and  Secrete  Writing,"  published  in
1588,  is  the  first  English  work  on  short-hand.
Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman,  published  on
stenography  in  1590;  and  John  Willis  published
his  "Stenographic"  in  1602.  There  are  now
numerous  systems  :  John  Byrom's  (1767),  T.  Gur-


(1881)  ;  J.  M.  Sloan's  (1882). Sec  Phonography.

The  Shorthand  Society  met . . . 1  Nov.  1S81

Sig.  A.  Michela's  stenographic  machine  for  the
graphic  representation  of  phonetic  sounds  (about
200  words  per  minute) ;  like  a  harmonium  with  a
key-hoard,  exhibited  at  the  Turin  exhibition  of
1884,  successfully  adopted  by  the  Italian  Senate.

International  Shorthand  Congress  a1  the  Geological
Museum,  London,  S.W.  (482  systems  noticed)
26  Sept.-i  Oct.  1887;  others  since  ;  Paris,  1S89;
Munich,  1890 ;  Berlin . • ■ 3oSept.  1891

STEPHEN'S  CHAPEL,  ST.  (Westminster},
built  by  kins  Stephen,  about  1135.  It  was  rebuilt
by  Edward  III.  in  1347;  aml  bl  lmu  m:ldc  a  col_


STEPNEY.


922


STIRRUPS.


legiate  church,  to  which  a  clean  and  twelve  secular
priests  were  appointed.  Soon  after  its  surrender  to
Edward  VI.,  about  1548,  it  was  applied  to  the  use  of
Parliament ;  see  Parliament.  It  was  destroyed  by
fire,  16  Oct.  1834.  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  pub-
lished memorials  of  it  about  1810;  and  Mr.  Mac-
kenzie's work  appeared  in  1844.  The  restoration  of
the  beautiful  crypt  was  complete  in  Jan.  1870.

.STEPNEY,  a  parish,  E.  London,  the  Steben-
hide_  of  Domesday  book.  Edward  I.  summoned  a
parliament  here,  1299.  Stepney  suffered  severely
by  the  plague,  1625  and  1665.  Stepney-green  was
restored  and  opened  as  a  park  by  the  Metropolitan
Board  of  "Works,  Aug.  1872.  Population,  1881,
58,543 ;  1891,  57,599-

STEREOCHROMY,  a  mode  of  painting  in
which  water-glass  (an  alkaline  solution  of  flint,
silex)  serves  as  the  connecting  medium  between  the
colour  and  the  substratum.  Its  invention  is  ascribed
to  Von  Fuchs,  who  died  at  Munich  on  5  March,
1856.  Fine  specimens  of  this  art  by  Kaulbach  and
Echter  exist  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin,  and  also  at
Munich.

STEREOMETER,  by  which  is  compassed  the
art  of  taking  the  contents  of  vessels  of  liquids  by
gauging,  invented  about  1350.  Anderson.  M.  Say's
stereometer,  for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of
liquids,  porous  bodies,  and  powders  as  well  as  solids,
was  described  in  1797.

STEREOSCOPE  (from  stereos,  solid,  and
shopein,  to  see),  an  optical  instrument  for  repre-
senting in  apparent  relief  natural  objects,  &c.,  by
uniting  into  one  image  two  plane  representations
of  these  objects  as  seen  by  each  eye  separately.  The
first  stereoscope  by  reflection  was  constructed  and
exhibited  by  professor  Charles  Wheatstone  in  1838,
who  had  announced  its  principle  in  1833.  Since
1854  stereoscopes  have  been  greatly  improved.

STEREOTYPE,  a  cast  from  a  page  of  mov-
able printing-types, so  named by the Parisian
printer,  Didot, 1798. It  is  said  that  stereotyping
was  known  in  1711. It  was  practised  by  fm.  Ged
of  Edinburgh,  about  1730. Some  of  Ged's  plates
are  at  the  Koyal  Institution,  London. A  Mr.  James
attempted  to  introduce  Ged's  process  in  London,
but  failed,  about  1735.*  Nichols. Stereotype  print-
ing was  in  use  in  Holland,  in  the  last  century ;  and
a  quarto  Bible  and  a  Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed
there. Phillips. It  was  i-evived in London  by
Wilson  in  1804. Since  1850  the  durability  of  stereo-
types has  been  greatly  increased  by  electrotyping
them  with  copper  or  silver. Stereotyping  used  for
printing  the  Times,  1856,  et  seq.
In  the  library  of  the  Royal  Institution  is  an  edition  of
Sallust,  with  this  imprint: "Edinburgi, Gulielmus
Ged, ami  faber  Eclinensis,  non  typis  mobilibus,  ut
vulgo  fieri  solet,  seel  tabellis  seu  laminis  fusis,  excude-
bat.  1744." (Printed  at  Edinburgh  by  William  Ged  of
Edinburgh,  goldsmith,  not  with  moveable  types,  as  is
commonly  done,  but  with  cast  tablets  or  plates.)

STERLING  (money).  Ducange  says  (1733),
"  Esterlingus,  sterlingus,  are  English  words  re-
lating to  money,  and  hence  familiar  to  other
nations,  and  applied  to  the  weight,  quality,  and
kind  of  money."  "  Denarius  Anglise,  qui  vocatur
sterlingus,"  stat.  Edw.  I.  (The  penny  of  England,
which  is  called  sterling.)  Camden  derives  the  word
from  easterling  or  esterling,  observing  that  the
money  brought  from  Germany,  in  the  reign  of
Richard  I.,  was  the  most  esteemed  on  account  of
its  purity,  being  called  in  old  deeds  unummieaster-

*  It  was  hotly  opposed  by  the  journeymen  printers.


ling."  Others  derive  the  word  from  the  Easterlings,
the  first  moneyers  in  England.

STETHOSCOPE.  In  1816  Laennec,  of  Paris,
by  rolling  a  quire  of  paper  into  a  kind  of  cylinder,
and  applying  one  end  to  the  patient's  chest  and  the
other  to  his  own  ear,  perceived  the  action  of  the
heart  in  a  much  more  distinct  manner  than  by  the
immediate  application  of  the  ear.  This  led  to  his
inventing  the  stethoscope,  or  "breast-explorer,"
the  principle  of  which,  now  termed  "auscultation,"
was  known  by  Hippocrates  (357  B.C.),  and  by
Robert  Hooke,  1681.

STETTIN  (Pomerania),  an  ancient  city,  for-
merly held  by  the  Sidini  and  Venedes,  was  taken
by  Boleslas  of  Poland  in  1 121.  After  being  con-
quered by  the  Swedes,  Russians,  and  French,  it  was
awarded  to  Prussia  in  1814.  Population,  1890,
116,239.
Visited  by  emperor  William  during  military  manoeuvres,

12  Sept.  1887.

STEWARD  of  England,  Lord  High.

The  first  grand  officer  of  the  crown.  This  office
was  established  prior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the
Confessor,  and  was  formerly  annexed  to  the  lord-
ship of  Hinckley,  Leicestershire,  belonging  to  the
family  of  Montfort,  earls  of  Leicester,  who  were,  in
right  thereof,  lord  high  stewards  of  England ;  but
Simon  de  Montfort,  the  last  earl  of  this  family,
having  raised  a  rebellion  against  his  sovereign,
Henry  III.,  was  attainted,  and  his  estate  forfeited
to  the  king,  who  abolished  the  office,  1265.  It  is
now  revived  only  pro  hue  vice,  at  a  coronation,  or
the  trial  of  a  peer.  The  first  afterwards  appointed
was  Thomas,  second  son  of  Henry  IV.  The  first  for
the  trial  of  a  peer  was  Edward,  earl  of  Devon,  on
the  arraignment  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  in  1400.
The  last  was  lord  Denman  at  the  trial  of  the  earl  of
Cardigan,  16  Feb.  1841.  The  duke  of  Hamilton
was  lord  high  steward  at  the  coronations  of
William  IV.  1831,  and  Victoria,  1838.

STEWARD  of  the  Household,  Lord
(an  ancient  office),  has  the  sole  direction  of  the
king's  house  below-stairs ;  he  has  no  formal  grant
of  his  office,  but  receives  his  charge  from  the
sovereign  in  person,  who,  delivering  to  him  a  white
wand,  the  symbol  of  his  office,  says,  "  Seneschal,
tenez  le  baton  de  notre  maison."  This  officer  has
been  called  lord  steward  since  1540 ;  previously  to
the  31st  of  Henry  VIII.  he  was  styled  grand  master
of  the  household.  His  function  as  a  judge  was
abolished  in  1849.

STEWART,  see  Stuart.

STICKLESTADT  (Norway) .  Here  Olaf  II. ,
aided  by  the  Swedes,  was  defeated  in  his  endeavours
to  recover  his  kingdom  from  Canute,  king  of  Den-
mark, and  slain,  29  July,  1030.  He  was  after-
wards sainted,  on  account  of  his  zeal  for  Christianity.

STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see

Magistrates.

STIRLING  (S.  Scotland).  The  strong  castle
was  taken  by  Edward  I.  of  England,  1304.  Here
James  II.  stabbed  the  earl  of  Douglas,  13  Feb.  1452,
and  here  James  VI.  was  crowned,  24  July,  1567.
Stirling  surrendered  to  Monk,  14  Aug.  1651.  The
statue  of  king  Robert  Bruce  unveiled,  24  Nov.  1877.
A  gigantic  bronze  statue  of  sir  William  Wallace  unveiled

at  the  National  Wallace  Monument  25  June,  1887.
Population,  1881,  16,013 ;  1891,  16,895.

STIRRUPS  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.
Gracchus  fitted  the  highways  with  stones  to  enable


STOCKACH.


923


STOCKS.


the  horsemen  to  mount.  Warriors  had  projections
on  their  spears  for  the  same  purpose.  Stirrups
were  used  in  the  5th  century,  but  were  not  common
even  in  the  12th.

STOCKACH,  a  town  in  Baden,  near  which
the  Austrians,  under  the  archduke  Charles,  de-
feated the  French,  25  March,  1799;  and  Moreau
defeated  Kray,  3  May,  1800.

STOCKHOLM,  capital  of  Sweden  (built  on
Jiolmen,  or  islands),  was fortified  by  Berger  Jarl
about  1254. Here  the  Swedish  nobility  were  mas-
sacred by  Christian II. in 1520 ; see  Sweden.
Population,  1887,  227,964; 1890,  246,154,
Peace  of  Stockholm,  between  the  king  of  Great
Britain  and  the  queen  of  Sweden,  by  which  the
former  acquired  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Ver-
den  as  elector  of  Brunswick . . .20  Nov.  1719
Treaty  of  Stockholm,  between  Sweden  and  Kussia,
in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp,

24  March,  1724
Another  between  England  and  Sweden  .  3  March,  1813
Aud  one  between  England,  France,  and Sweden,

21  Nov.  1855

STOCKINGS  of  silk  are  said  to  have  been  first
worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547.  In  1560  queen
Elizabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  knit  black
silk  stockings,  by  her  silk-woman,  Mrs.  Montague,
and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones  any  more.  Howell.
He  adds,  "  Henry  VIII.  wore  ordinary  cloth  hose,
except  there  came  from  Spain,  by  great  chance,  a
pair  of  silk  stockings ;  for  Spain  very  early  abounded
with  silk."  Edward  VI.  was  presented  with  a  pair
of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  merchant,  sir
Thomas  Gresham ;  and  the  present  was  then  much
taken  notice  of.  Idem.  Others  relate  that  William
Eider,  a  London  apprentice,  seeing  at  the  house  of
an  Italian  merchant  a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings
from  Mantua,  made  a  pair  like  them,  the  first  made
in  England,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of  Pem-
broke, 1564.  Stoiv.  The  art  of  weaving  stockings
in  a  frame  was  invented  in  England  by  the  rev.
Mr.  Lee,  of  Cambridge,  in  1589,  twenty-five  years
after  he  had  leamt  to  knit  them  with  wires  or
needles.  Cotton  stockings  were  first  made  in  1 730  ;
see  Cotton.  Digitated  stockings  (like  gloves),  in-
troduced 1882.

STOCKPOET  (in  Cheshire)  has  become  emi-
nent on  account  of  the  cotton  trade.  Heaton
Norris,  in  Lancashire,  is  united  to  it  by  a  bridge
over  the  river.  Here  the  Manchester  blanketeers
were  dispersed,  11  March,  1817;  and  here  was  a
serious  religious  riot,  when  two  Bonian  catholic
chapels  were  destroyed,  and  the  houses  of  many
Roman  catholics  gutted,  and  their  furniture  and
other  contents  smashed  or  burnt,  29  June,  1852.

STOCKS,  in  which  drunkards  were  placed.
The  last  in  London  was  removed  from  St.  Clement
Danes,  Strand,  4  Aug.  1826.

STOCKS.  The  public  funding  system  originated
in  Venice,  about  1173,  and  was  introduced  into
Florence  in  1340.  The  English  funding  system
may  be  said  to  nave  had  its  rise  in  1690.  See  Panics.

The  Forged  Transfer  of  Stock  Act  was  passed

5  Aug.  1891
"Bulls"  are persons who  buy  stock  and  thus  cause

the  market  to  rise  ;  "Dears"  those  who  sell  and  cause

it  to  fall.
Act  to  prevent  stoch-juhbing  passed  March,  1734  ;

repealed i860

Stockbrokers'  rents  to  the  city  of  London  abolished

1884  ;  came  into  effect  ....  Sept.  1886
The  foundation  of  the  Stock  Exchange,  in  Capel-

court,  the  resilience  of  the  lord  mayor,  sir  Win,

Capel,  in  1504,  was  laid  on  18  May,  1801. It  was

stated  on  the  first  stone  that  the  public  debt  was


then  552,730,924?. Members,  1864,  about  1100;
above  2000  in . . . . . . . .  187S

The  memorable  Stock  Exchange  hoax,  for  which  ad-
miral lord  Cochrane  (afterwards  lord  Duudonald),
Johnstone,  and  others,  were  convicted,  22  Feb.
1814.  Lord  Cochrane  was  in  consequence  expelled
the  house  of  commons.  His  innocence  was  after-
wards proved,  and  he  was  restored  to  his  rank  by
king  William  IV.,  and  to  the  honours  belonging
to  it  by  queen  Victoria.
Stock-exchange  coffee-house  destroyed  by  fire,  nFeb.  1816
Royal  Commission  (lord  Penzance,  justice  Black-
burn, Mr.  Spencer  Walpole,  and  others)  to  ex-
amine into  the  constitution  and  management  of
the  London  stock  exchange,  agreed  to,  20 March,
1877  ;  report  issued  ;  the  majority  recommend
incorporation  and  other  changes  ;  signed  31  July,  1878
The  number  of  stock-holders  in  1840  amounted  to

337,48i.
Three  per  cent,  annuities  created ....  1726

Three  per  cent,  consols  created 1731

Three  per  cent,  reduced 1746

Three  per  cent  annuities,  payable  at  the  South  Sea-
house  1751

Three-and-a-half  per  cent,  annuities  created . .  1758

Long  annuities 1761

Four  per  cent  consols 1762

Five  per  cent,  annuities . . . 1797  and  1802
Five  per  cents,  reduced  to  four ....  1822
Old  four  per  cents,  reduced  to  three-and-a-half  in 1824
Further  reductions  made  in  1825,  1830,  1834,  1841,
and  1844;  the  maximum  being  now  three  per  cent.
Further  reductions  proposed  by  Mr.  Gbsohen  (2$  to
2i  in  15  years  under  specified  conditions)  9  March  ;
new  threes  all  converted  or  paid  off  6  April,  i8S3

Messrs.  Thomas and  Co.,  bankrupts,  for  a  large

amount,  suspected  frauds . . .31  Jan.  1834
Three  per  cents,  convertible  into  2J,  and  2J  per

cent,  by  Act  of  2  Sept.,  1884.
The  local  loans  stock  exchangeable  for  the  three
per  cents,  consols  created  by  the  National  Debt
and  Local  Loans  Act  passed  . . . 12  July,  1887

By  a  return  of  the  average  price  of  the  public  funds
by  the  Commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the
national  debt,  it  appears  that  Consols  (i.  e.,  consoli-
dated annuities,  paying  3  per  cent,  per  annum)
averaged  in  the  year —


1749

. £100

0 0

1815

£58  13 9

1780

. . . 63

13 6

1820

68  12 0

1785

6S

6 6

1825

. 90 0 8

1790

. . 71

2 6

1S30

89  15 7

179s

74

8 6

1840

. 89  17 6

1798

• • 59

10 0

1845

93 2 6

1800

66

3 3

1848

. 86  15 0

1805

. . . 58

14 0

1850

96  10 0

1810

. . 67

16 3

i852(Dec.  ioi?.ios.)99  12 6

The

wice  of  £100  stock  v:

iried

Lll

1853,

from  £101 to

£90!

1882,

average  iooJ  June  iooj

1854,

„ 96 ,,

85?

1883,

„ ioiyst  ;, 100J

1855,

,, 93! >,

86 1

1884,

highest  102J ;  lowest,

1856,

., 96J ,,

87S

31

Dec.  98 J-;;.

1857.

95i „

86J

1S85,

average . . 99J

1858,

98t „

94

1886,

„ ioot;i3May,

1859,

97s .,

89,

(hi

ghest  price recorded)

1861,

,, 94i ,,

89I

10-

i-

1862,

94i >•

9°»

i887;

average  . . .  101  -J

1863,

94 >>

90

NYw  Consols  (:'D

1864,

„ 91? >>

87*

1888,

9  June . . 99!

1865,

873 „

S6V

Average -

1866,

average  88 June  86}

1889,

2  Jan.  99'-; ;  28  June

1867,

93 »

94*

981

1868,

>, 934 1

94§

Average  98.

1869,

., 92J >

925

1S90,

2  Jan.  .  .  07I
5  Feb. . . . 97J

1870,

n 92» ,

92!

„

1871,

92f ,
,. 92i ,

92

,,

6  March . . 97^

1872,

925

,,

10  April . . 98

1873,

.. 9zi .

')  '!

,,

2  May . . 98

1874,

,, 92^ ,

928

,,

5  June  . . . 97.J

1875.

» 93* .

93,

,,

3  July . . 963

1876,

.. 95

94l

,,

7  Aug. . . . 96

1S77,

953 .

94*

,,

4  Sept  .  .  95S
a  Oct  .  .  .  94I
fi  Nov. . . 943

1878,

95,:;  ,

>> 97* ,

955

,,

1879,

97l

,1

1880,

98J ,

98*

„

.  (Baring

1881,

i) 100 >

100J

difficulty) . 93;

STOICS.

9

q6

i8qi

1  Oct.

• 94J

7S*

,,

5  Nov. .

• 94*

97s

„

3  Dec.

• 95,

Q6

1892

7  Jan. .

■ 95s

96*

,,

4  Feb.

• 955

QS#

,,

3  Marcli

• 95l

945

,,

1  April

. 96*

Qb

,,

S  May .

• 97s-

Q6

,,

2  June

. 96*

95

,i

1  July,  4  Aug.

• 97

924


STOEMS.


1090

4  Dec.

i8qi

2  Jan. .

5  Feb.

,,

5  Marcli

,,

2  April

,,

7  May .

,,

4  June

„

2  July .

,,

6  Aug.

„

3  Sept,  .

"During  the  greatest  crisis  ever  developed  in  the
history  of  the  world  the  funds  remain  day  after  day
without  a  fractional  movement." Times,  11  Oct.  1870.

Purchase  of  stock  for  10I.  legalised,  1880.

H.  C.  Burdett's  "Official  Intelligence  of  British,
American,  and  Foreign  Securities,"  published  under  the
sanction  of  the  Stock  Exchange  Committee,.  1882  et  seq.

STOICS,  disciples  of  Zeno,  the  philosopher
(about  29b  B.C.) ;  obtained  the  name  because  they
listened  to  his  instructions  in  a  porch  (Greek,  stoa)
at  Athens.  Zeno  taught,  that  man's  supreme  hap-
piness consisted  in  living  agreeably  to  nature  and
reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  world.
Stanley.

STOKE,  EAST  (near  Newark,  Nottingham-
shire). Near  here,  on  16  June,  1487,  the  adherents
of  Lambert  Simnel,  who  personated  Edward,  earl
of  Warwick,  and  claimed  the  crown,  were  defeated
by  Henry  VII.  John  de  la  Pole,  the  earl  of
Lincoln,  and  most  of  the  leaders,  were  slain.
Simnel  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  king's
household.

STONE.  Stone  buildings  erected  in  England  by
Benedict  Biscop  about  670.  A  stone  bridge  built  at
Bow,  in  the  nth  or  12th  centuries,  is  accounted  the
first ;  but  a  bridge  exists  at  Crowland,  which  is  said
to  have  been  built  in  860 ;  see  Bridges.  The  first
stone  building  in  Ireland  was  probably  a  round
tower ;  see  Building.  Stone  china-ware  was  made
by  Wedgwood  in  1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statues
was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan,  and  introduced
into  England,  1776.  Stone  paper  was  made  in
1776;  see  Ransomets  Artificial  Stone,  and  Lit hotomy.
For  stone  implements,  see  Flints,  and  Piano-forte.
An  orchestra  composed  of  wind  instruments  made  of
terra-cotta  appeared  in  London  in  1874.

STONEHENGE  (on  Salisbury  Plain,  Wilt-
shire) is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  counsel  of
Merlin,  by  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  in  memory  of  460
Britons,  who  were  murdered  by  Hengist  the  Saxon
about  450.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth.  Erected  as  a
sepulchral  monument  of  Ambrosius,  500.  Polydore
Vergil.  An  ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  in  which
the  Druids  officiated.  Dr.  StuJceley.  The  Britons
are  said  to  have  held  annual  meetings  at  Abury  and
Stonehenge,  when  laws  were  made  and  justice
administered.  The  cursus  near  Stonehenge  was
discovered  by  Dr.  Stukeley,  6  Aug.  1723.  The
origin  aud  object  of  these  remains  are  still  very
obscure.  See  AV.  M.  Flinders  Petrie's  "  Stone-
henge :  Plans,  Description,  and  Theories."  1880.
The thorough preservation of Stonehenge strongly

advocated  Aug.  1886.

STONEWALL  BEIGADE,  see  United
States,  1862,  note.

STOEM-WAENINGS,  see  under  Meteor-
ology.

STOEMS, sec Meteorology, Cyclones, and
Waterspouts. The  following  are  recorded  : —
In  London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,

944-
In  several  parts  of  England,  the  sky  being  very  dark,

the  wind  coming  from  the  S.W.  ;  many  churches  were
. destroyed  ;  and  in  London  500  houses  fell,  5  Oct.  1091.


On  the  coast  of  Calais,  when  Hugh  de  Beauvais  and

several  thousand  foreigners,  on  their  voyage  to  assist

king  John  against  the  barons,  perished,  1215- Holiu-

shed.

It  thundered  15  days  successively,  with  tempests  of  rain

and  wind,  1233.
Storm  with  violent  lightnings  ;  one  flash  passed  through
a  chamber  where  Edward  I.  and  his  queen  were  con-
versing, did  them  no  damage,  but  killed  two  of  their
attendants,  1285. Hoveden.
Violent  storm  of  hail  near  Chartres,  in  France,  which
fell  on  the  army  of  Edward  III.  then  on  its  march.
The  hail  was  so  large  that  the  army  and  horses  suffered
very  much,  and  Edward  was obliged  to  conclude  a
peace,  1339. Matt.  Paris.
When  Richard  II.  's  queen  came  from  Bohemia,  on  her
setting  foot  on  shore  an  awful  storm  arose,  and  her
ship  and  a  number  of  others  were  dashed  to  pieces  in
the  harbour,  Jan.  1382. Holinshed.
Richard's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm  with  her  to
the  English  coasts,  in  which  the  king's  baggage  was
lost,  and  many  ships  cast  away,  1396. Holinshed.
Hurricane, throughout Europe, which  did very  con-
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that
Cromwell  died. Mortimer.
Storm  on  east  coast  of  England  :  200  colliers  and  coasters

lost,  with  most  of  their  crews,  1696.
The  "  Great  Storm,"  one  of  the  most  terrible  that  ever
raged  in  England.  The  devastation  on  land  was  im-
mense ;  and  in  the  harbours  and  on  the  coasts  the  loss
in  shipping  and  in  lives  was  still  greater,  26-27  Nov.
1703.  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calcu-
lated at  2,ooo,oooL  sterling.  The  number  of  persons
drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and
lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in  ships  blown  from
their  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought
to  have  been  8000.  Twelve  men-of-war,  with  more  than
1800  men  on  board,  were  lost  within  sight  of  their
own  shore.  Trees  were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  17,000
of  them  in  Kent  alone.  The  Eddystone  light-house
was  destroyed,  and  in  it  the  ingenious  contriver  of  it,
Winstanley,  and  the  persons  who  were  with  him.  The
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  and  his  lady  were  killed  in
bed  in  their  palace  in  Somersetshire.  Multitudes  of
cattle  were  also  lost :  in  one  level  15,000  sheep
were  drowned.
Snow-storm  in  Sweden,  when  7000  Swedes,  it  is  said,
perished  upon  the  mountains,  in  their  march  to  attack
Drontheim,  1719.
One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  vessels  were  cast
away,  a  fleet  of  Indiamen  greatly  damaged,  and  some
ships  lost,  and  30,000  persons  perished,  11  Oct.  1737.
Dreadful  hurricane  at  the  Havannah :  many  public
edifices  and  4048  houses  were  destroyed,  and  1000
inhabitants  perished,  25  Oct.  1768.
Awful  storm  in  the  north  of  England,  in  which  many
vessels  were  destroyed,  and  four  Dublin  packets
foundered,  29  Oct.  1775.
One  at  Surat,  in  the  East  Indies  ;  destroyed  7000  of  the

inhabitants,  22  April,  1782.
One  hundred  and  thirty-one  villages  and  farms  laid  waste

in  France,  1785.
One  general  throughout  Great  Britain  :  several  hundred

sail  of  shipping  destroyed  or  damaged,  6  Oct.  1794.
One  which  did  vast  damage  in  London,  and  throughout

almost  the  whole  of  England,  8  Nov.  1800.
A  tremendous  storm throughout Great Britain and
Ireland,  by  which  immense  damage  was  done,  and
many  ships  wrecked,  16-17  Dec,  1814.
An  awful  gale,  by  which  a  great  number  of  vessels  were
lost,  and  much  damage  was  done  to  the  shipping  in
general  on  the  English  coast,  31  Aug.  1816.
Dreadful  hurricane,  ravaged  the-  Leeward  Islands,  from
the  20th  to  the  22nd  Sept. 1819. At  the  island  of
St.  Thomas  alone,  104  vessels  were  lost.
Great  storm  along  the  coast  from  Durham  to  Cornwall ;

many  vessels  lost,  Nov.  1821.
In  Ireland,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  many
houses  were  thrown  down,  and  vast  numbers  unroofed,
12  Dec.  1822.
Awful  storm  on  the  coast  of  England  :  many  vessels  lost,
and  13  driven  ashore  and  wrecked  in  Plymouth  alone,
12-13  Jan.  182S.
At  Gibraltar,  where  more  than  100  vessels  were  de-
stroyed, 18  Feb.  1828.
Dreadful  storm at the Cape  of  Good Hope, where

immense  property  was  lost,  16  July,  1831.
A  hurricane  visited  London and its neighbourhood,


STOKMS.


92.5


STOEMS.


■which  did  great  damage  to  the  buildings,  but  without

the  destruction  of  human  life,  though  many  serious

accidents  occurred,  28  Oct.  1838.
Awful hurricane  on  west  coast  of England, and in

Ireland. The  storm  raged  through  Cheshire,  Stafford-
shire, and  Warwickshire ; 20  persons  were  killed in

Liverpool,  by  the  falling  of  buildings,  and  100  were

drowned  in  the  neighbourhood ;  the  coasts  and  har-
bours were  covered  with  wrecks,  the  value  of  two  of

the  vessels  lost  being  nearly  half-a-million  sterling.

In  Limerick,  Galway,  Athlone,  and  other  places,  more

than  200  houses  were  blown  down,  and  as  many  more

were  burnt,  the  winds  spreading  the  fires. Dublin

suffered  dreadfully ; London  and  its  neighbourhood

scarcely  sustained  any  damage,  6-7  Jan.  1839.
[The  winter  of  1852-3  (Dec.  and  Jan.)  was  oneof  storms,

many  of  which  were  very  destructive.]
Great  storm  in  the  Black  Sea,  13-16  Nov.  1854,  causing

much  loss  of  life,  shipping,  and  stores  sent  for  the

allied  armies  in  the  Crimea.
Great  storm  on  N.  coast  of  Europe,  &c,  31  Dec.  1854.
Great  storm  on  N.E. coast  of  Scotland  ;  42  fishermen

lost,  23  Nov.  1857.
Dreadful  storm on  the  night  25-26  Oct. ; the  Royal

Charter  totally  lost,  and  many  other  vessels  ;  another

storm,  31  Oct.  and  1  Nov.  1859.
Great  storm  in  the  channel,  causing  much  loss  of  life

and  property,  1  Jan.  i860.
Dreadful  gales,  doing  much  mischief, 26,  27,  28  Feb.  ;

28  May  ;  and  2  June,  i860.
Great  storm  ;  part  of  the  Crystal  Palace  blown  down  ;

Chichester  cathedral  steeple  fell,  20-21  Feb.  1861.
Great  storm  on  British  coasts,  143  wrecks,  28  May,  1861.
Storm  on  the  north-east ;  50  wrecks,  13-14  Nov.  1861.
At  Market  Laverton, &c. ;  much  damage  to  crops  by

hail,  2  Sept.  1862.
Storm  on  British  coasts ;  many  wrecks,  19,  20  Oct.  1862.
There  were  severe  gales,  doing  much  damage,  and  loss  of

life,  19  Jan.  <fcc.  1863 ;  and  14  Jan.  <fec.  1865  (see  under

Wrecks).
Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean,  &c. (see

Calcutta),  5  Oct.  1864.
Hurricane  at  Lisbon,  causes  much  damage,  worst  for

many  years,  13  Dec.  1864.
Severe  gales ;  many  vessels  and  lives  lost  (see  Wrecks),

6-1 1  Jan.  1866;  2-4  Dec.  1867;  22  Jan.  and  31  Jan.  and

1  Feb.  1868:  11-12  Sept.  1869.
Severe storm ; much  damage ; barometer very low,

24  Jan.  1872.
After  several  days'  intense  heat,  violent  storms,  and

deluges  of  rain  in midland  and  southern counties ;

several  persons  killed,  24-26  June,  1872.
Very  stormy  in  July  and  August,  1872.
Violent  gale  ;  much  destruction  (wind,  greatest  velocity

57  miles  an  hour),  8  Dec.  1872.
Awful  storms  in  Scotland,  and  N.  England  ;  loss  of  life,

and  much  damage, 22,  23  July ;  in  Lancashire  and

Yorkshire,  16  Dec.  1873.
Awful  storm,  N. E.  London  ;  several  persons  killed ;

churches  and  buildings  fired  ; railways flooded,  11

July,  1874.
Violent  gales,  with  destruction  of  life  and  property,  21

Oct.  ;  Nov.  29  ;  7,  8,  10,  11  Dec.  1874.
Much  destruction  by  typhoon  at  Macao,  Hong  Kong,  &c,

22  Sept.  1874.
Severe  snowstorms  in  Scotland,  several  lives  lost,  1,  3

Jan.  1875.
Destructive  storms at Buda-Pesth,  about 200  killed,

26  June,  1875.
On  coast  of  Texas  :  Galveston,  and  other  places  much

injured  ;  villages  washed  away  by  the  sea;  great  loss

of  life,  15-18  Sept.  1875.
Severe  snowstorm,  south  England  ; destruction  of  life

and  property  ;  telegraph  wires  broken,  12  March,  1875.
Severe  storms  ;  great  loss  of  shipping,  11-13  Nov.  ; 2,  3,

and  22-24 L>cc- '876,  and  2  Jan.  1877.
Most  violent  gale  ;  great  destruction  of  property  on  land

and  shipping  throughout  England,  with  loss  of  life,

14,  15  Oct.  1877.
Again  ;  much  damage  on  S.E.  coast,  &c,  24,  25  Nov.

1877.
Storm  and  heavy  rain  in  London;  inundations, 10,  11

April,  1878.
Many  thunderstorms, destroying  life  and property  in

England,  Aim.  1878.
At  Kew  and  neighbourhood,  2,  3  Aug.  ;  in  Cheshire  and

Wales,  16,  17  Aug.  1879.


%  lolent  gale  ;  Tay  bridge  {which  see)  blown  down,  28  Dec

1879.
Destructive  tornadoes,  <fcc.,  western  states  North Ame-
rica; great  loss  of  life  and  property,  about  18  April

1880.  *

Many  thunderstorms  in  England,  Julv,  1880.
Severe  storms  in  England,  with  much"  destruction  by  in-
undations, 27,  28  Oct.  1880.
Severe  snowstorm,  or  blizzard  ;  railways  and  other  traffic

largely  stopped ;  great  loss  of  life  at  sea,  17-21  Jan.  1881
Violent  hurricane  in  England:  great  destruction  of  life

and  property  :  houses  thrown  down  or  unroofed  ;  lar<*e

trees  torn  up  by  the  roots  ;  telegraph  wires  and  poles

blown  down;  about  130  wrecks  (105  British),  &c.  14-

19  Oct.  1881.
Many  wrecks  on  south  and  west  coasts  of  England  with

much  loss  of  life,  19-20  Oct.  1881.
Great  destruction  of  life  and  property  by  gales  26  27

Nov.  1881.  ' '

Lighthouse,  Calf  Rock,  in  Bantry  Bay  destroyed,  27  Nov.

1881.
Six  men  left  on  the  rock  got  off,  9  Dec.  1881.
By  a  typhoon  in  Haifong,  &c,  China,  about  300,000  per-
sons perished,  8  Oct.  1881.
Destructive  gales  in  England,  &e. ;  many  wrecks  and  less

of  life  by  sea  and  land,  17-21  Dec.  1881.
Severe  gale  ;  much  destruction  in  England  and  Scotland,

6  Jan. ;  another,  29  April,  1882.
Tornado  in  Iowa,  .fee.,  Grinnell  and  other  towns  nearly

destroyed ;  great  loss  of  life,  about  16  June,  etseq.,  18S2.
Violent  gales  with  damage,  22,  23  Aug.;  24  Oct.  1S82 ;  26,

27,  28  Jan.,  10  Feb.,  6  March,  1883.
Tornadoes  in  southern  states,  U.S.A.,  about  150  killed,

April,  1883.
Violent  gale  in  British  channel,  &c.;  many  wrecks,  1-2

Sept.  1883.
Destructive  gale  on  the  Scotch  and  Irish  coasts,  26  Sept.

1883.
Another  with  great  loss  of  life  and  damage  in  London

and  other  parts  of  Britain,  morning,  12  Dec.  1883.
Violent  S.W.  gales; destruction  of"  life  and  property:

23-24  Jan.  1884  ;  very  severe  ;  many  disasters,  26,  27

Jan.  1884.
Tornadoes  in  southern  states,  U.S.A.  ;  about  600  killed

about  18  Feb.  1884.
Storm  in  Catania,  Sicily  (see  Sicily),  7  Oct.  1884.
Destructive  snowstorms  in  Piedmont  (see  Italy),  16  Jan.

et  seq.  1885.
Heavy  storms  on  the  Labrador  coast,  about  80  craft

wrecked  and  about  300  lives  lost  12-15  Oct.  1885.
Storm  off  Colon,  Panama,  15  vessels  wrecked,  50  lives

lost  2  Dec.  1885.
Heavy snowstorm, N.E. England, &c.  ; locomotion

stopped  1,  2,  3  March,  1886.
Destructive  hurricane  at Madrid, 32 lives lost, 320

wounded  12  May,  1886.
Destructive tornadoes in S. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,

&c,  U.S.A.  12-15  May,  1S86.
Violent  storm  N.E.  France,  much  damage  at  Rheims,

Nancy,  &c.  10  Aug.  1886.
Hurricane at St. Vincent; great loss of life and

property  16  Aug.  1886.
Violent  gale  in  Texas,  &c,  causing  inundation,  above  250

persons  drowned,  12  Oct.  18S6.
Severe  gale  ; very  destructive  on  sea  and land  (see

Wreclx)  15-16  net.  1886.
Destructive gale and storm, especially in S. & W.

England  ;  many  wrecks  and  hiss  of  life  8,  9  Dec.  1886

(see  under  Lift bo  it).
Destructive  snowstorm,  specially  E.  and  S.  England;

many  wrecks  ;  telegraphic  and  railway  communications

stopped  ;  trees  blown  down,  &c,  26-27  Dec.  1886.
Destructive  hurricane  at  Bordeaux  and  8.  Prance  with

los  -  of  life  16  Aug.  1887.

Violenl thunderstorm  in  London  with  destruction  of
property, several persons  lulled,  about 5.30  p.m.;
lasted  about  4  hours  17  Aug.  ;  many  storms  thro
out  the  country.  1;  Air:.  1  ' 7.  1887.

\Y.  gale  ;  destruction  of  life  and  property  in  France,  the
channel,  and  s.  England  30  Oct. ,  another  gale  on  the

W.  coast,  destruction  at  Holyhead,  Liver] 1  and  in

the  Bristol  channel  31  Oct.  1  Nov.  :  another  gale  on
the  S.E.  coast,  s  Nov.  1SS7.

Snowstorm  (blizzard)  in  N.W.  "!'  United  states;  about.
235  persons  perish  and  much  cattle  n-13  Jan.  ;
.' 1  her  iii  New  Jforlt 6  Jan,  1 388.

Cycl in  Illinois.  I  .s.A. ; n  it  destruction  of  life  and

property  ig  Fi  b.  1S88.


STOEMS.


926


STORTHING.


Violent  gale  ;  several  wrecks  and  loss  of  life,  9-1 1  March,

1888.
A  destructive  blizzard  from  the  N.W. desolated  the

eastern coast of United States ; communication

between  New  York, Philadelphia and Boston  sus-
pended ;  many  wrecks ;  great  loss  of  life  (about  400)

and  property  ; food  at  famine  prices n-13  March,

1888.
Town  of  Ninneseah  in  Kansas  destroyed  by  a  gale  27

March,  1888.
Great  storm  and  a  tidal  wave,  much  destruction,  near

Wellington,  New  Zealand  28  March,  1888.
Destructive  hurricane  in  Dacca,  N.E.  India ;  about  69

persons  killed  7  April,  1888.
Great  storm  in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  many  persons  killed

by  lightning  and  fright,  estimated  loss  in  Quebec,

1,500,000  dollars  16  Aug.  1888.
Destructive  cyclone  in  the  West  Indies  (Cuba,  &c),  4

Sept.  1888.
Destructive  gale ; Scotland,  N.  England  and  Ireland  ;

many shipwrecks  ; Forth bridge damaged, 15-16

Nov.  1888.
Severe  storm  on  the  N.  American  E.  coast ;  more  than

50  vessels  wrecked  and  about  45  lives  lost  25  Nov.

1888.
Tornado  in  eastern  states  U.S.,  especially  in  Pennsyl-
vania ;  great  destruction  and  loss  of  life  in  about  200

miles, especially at Pittsburg (14 killed) and at

Beading  (24  killed),  through  collapse  of  a  silk-mill ;

suspension-bridge,  Niagara,  wrecked  9  Jan.  1889.
Destructive  gales  over  Britain  ;  wrecks  and  loss  of  life

2,  3,  8  Feb.  1889.
Violent  hurricane  in  the  Pacific  (see  Samoan  Isles)  15,  16

March,  1889.
Destructive  storm  on  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States

10  May,  1889.
Great  storm  in  South  Germany,  especially  in  Austria,

Bohemia, &c, great  loss of life and  property, 17

May  ;  in  Switzerland  3-4  June,  1889.
Destructive  storm,  Flintshire,  Cheshire  and  Lancashire  ;

heavy  rain  and  large  hail  causing  floods,  crops  much

injured,  buildings  struck  and  fired  2  June,  1889.
Great  storms  over  the  United  Kingdom  ;  wrecks  with

loss  of  life,  21  Aug.  and  5-7  Oct.  1889.
Easterly  gales  on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  wrecks  with  loss

of  life  off  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  &c,  11-12  Sept.

1889.
sg  vessels  wrecked  in  Delaware  Bay,  about  31  lives  lost,

13  Sept.  1889.
Great  storm  in  Sardinia  (which  see),  7  Oct.  1S89.
Destructive  storm  on  the  coast  of  Carolina,  26,  27  Oct.

1889.
Destructive  storms  in  the  Western  States,  U.S.A.,  12

Jan.  ;  in  Canada,  14  Jan.  1890.
Destructive  gale  with  loss  of  life  in  the  Atlantic  and  on

British  coast,  especially  S.  and  S.W.,  high  tides  and

floods,  17-27  Jan.  1890.
Destructive  storm  on  the  continent  from  Paris  to  Vienna,

23,  24  Jan.  1890.
[68  British  wrecks  and  67  lives  lost  in  Jan.  1890.]
Tornadoes  in  the  Ohio  valley,  from  Cincinnati  to  Cairo ;

very  great  destruction  at  Louisville,  where  about  93

persons  perish  ;  many  places  in  Illinois,  Missouri  and

Indiana,  suffer  greatly  ;  total  loss  of  life  about  175,

27  March,  1890.
Cyclone  in  Texas,  much  destruction,  15  persons  killed,

4  May,  1890.
Tornado  in  Lee  county, Illinois, 15  deaths, 20  June,

1890.
Great  cyclone  at  Muscat,  causing  floods,  about  700  per-
sons said  to  have  perished,  reported  9  July,  1890.
Terrible  cyclone  in  Minnesota  (which  see),  July,  1890.
Destructive  cyclone  at  Sloiiim,  Russia,  19  lives  lost,  20

July,  1890.
Cyclone  in  south  Lawrence,  Merrimac  valley, Massa-
chusetts, 100  buildings  destroyed,  9  deaths,  26  July,

1890.
Destructive  storms  in  Austria,  France,  Switzerland  and

in  the  United  States,  August,  1890.
Violent  gale over Great Britain and Ireland, great

destruction  of  life  and  property, especially  at  sea ;

114 lives saved by  lifeboats  ; viscount Cantelupe

drowned  and  his  yacht  wrecked  in  Belfast  Lough,  7

Nov.  1890.
Violent  N.W.  gale  in  the  channel,  several  wrecks  on  the

S.  coast,  23  Nov.  1890.
Violent  gales  throughout  Europe  (see  l7iundations),  23-

25  Nov.  1890.


Gale  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  40  vessels  said  to  be
wrecked,  reported  3  Dec.  ;  much  destruction  of  ship-
ping and  buildings,  Newfoundland,  reported  8  Dec.
1890.

Violent  storms  in  the  N.  Atlantic,  above  60  vessels  lost,
reported,  24  Dec.  1890.

Violent  blizzard  in  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  &c,  U.S.A.,
many  perished,  7  Feb.  et  seq.  1891.

Destructive  cyclone  over  the  Fiji  and  Navigation  Isles,
great  loss  of  life  and  shipping,  12,  13  Feb.  1891.

Another  blizzard  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Illinois  and  Wis-
consin, 8,  9  March,  1891.

Great  snow  storm,  or  blizzard,  throughout  England,
especially  in  the  south  and  west ;  railway  traffic,  post
and  telegraph  greatly  impeded,  in  some  places
totally  stopped ;  many  wrecks  and  loss  of  life  in  the
channel  ;  hurricanes  near  Dover  and  Plymouth ;
wrecks  of  fishing  boats  at  Hastings  and  other  places.
The  Victoria  (capt.  Shirley)  had  a  long  dangerous  pas-
sages from  Dover  to  Calais.  Great  Western  and
South- Western  railways  disorganized ;  14  ships  lost ;
about  60  lives  lost,  9-13  March,  1891.

Destructive  cyclone  in  S.  Dakota,  2  June,  1891.

By  a  cyclone,  the  village  of  Ponikwa  in  Galicia  de-
stroyed and  about  30  persons  killed,  10  June,  1891.

Destructive  storm  in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  other  states,
about  24  June,  1891.

Destructive  storm  and  cloud-burst  in  the  Rhine  pro-
vinces, 26  June  ;  and  over  a  large  part  of  Germany,
chiefly  in  the  Crefeld  district  and  in  Brunswick,  1
July  ;  Salzburg,  9  July,  1891.

Destructive  storm  at  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  with  loss
of  life,  6  July,  1891.

Violent  hurricane  and  rain  in  lower  Austria,  Moravia,
and  Upper  Hungary  ;  the  season's  vintage  destroyed,
5  Aug.  1891.

Cloud-burst  at  Kollmann,  between  Botzen  and  Brixen
(Tyrol),  the  lowlands  flooded,  about  60  deaths,  18
Aug.  1 89 1.

Destructive  storms  and  floods  in  Great  Britain,  espe-
cially on  the  N.W.  coast,  24-26  Aug.  1891.

Destructive  storm  off  Nova  Scotia,  about  20  vessels
wrecked,  with  loss  of  life,  about  9  Sept.  1891.

Great  storm  throughout  S.  Spain  (which  sec),  n-13  Sept.
1891.

Violent  storms  with  loss  of  life  in  midland  and  northern
English  counties,  and  parts  of  Scotland,  20,  21  Sept.
1891.

Violent  cyclone  over  the  British  Isles  ;  much  destruc-
tion of  houses,  shipping,  trees,  &c.  ;  moderate  loss  of
life,  13-15  Oct.  1891.

Severe  storm  on  the  S.  and  W.  coasts  of  England,  and  in
Spain  and  S.  France,  22-24  Oct.  1891.

Destructive  cyclone  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  <fec.,  with  loss
of  life  (see  Andaman  Islands  and  Wrecks),  2  Nov.  1891.

Destructive  gale  in  England,  especially  on  the  S.  and  W.
coasts  ;  many  wrecks,  with  loss  of  life,  off  Sandgate,
Dover,  Folkestone,  St.  Leonards,  Brighton,  &c.  ;
telegraphic  communication  greatly  suspended  10
(night),  11  Nov.  1891.

Great  damage  by  the  gale  at  Boulogne,  Paris,  Havre,
Roubaix,  Rouen,  Bilbao,  Madrid,  and  other  places,
11  Nov.  et  seq.  1891.

Violent  gale  at  Liverpool  and  on  the  Irish  coasts,  with
loss  of  life,  11  Nov.  1891.

Violent  gales  in  the  channel,  causing  wrecks  and  loss  of
life,  7-11  Dec.  1891.

Violent  gales,  causing  wrecks  and  loss  of  life  in  the
English  Channel  and  France,  8,  9  Dec,  over  N.W.
Europe  and  the  British  Isles,  10-13  Dec.  1891.

Violent  blizzard  in  Omaha  and  other  N.W.  states,  U.  S.  A.
26  Dec.  1891.

Destructive  cyclone  in  Georgia,  6  Jan.  1892.

Disastrous  blizzard  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  North
Dakota,  9,  10  March,  1892.

Destructive  tornado  in  the  N.W.  states,  U.S.A.,  above
30  persons  killed,  31  March.  1892.

Disastrous  hurricane  in  Mauritius  (which  see),  29  April,
1892.

Destructive  storms  in  Minnesota,  &c,  and  in  Canada,
with  great  loss  of  life,  15,  16,  June,  1892.

See  United  States  and  Pennsylvania,  1889.

STORTHING,  the  Norwegian  parliament,
said  to  have  been,  first  held  at  Bergen  by  Haco  "V.
in  1223.


STOVES.


927


STEATHCLUYD.


STOVES.  The  ancients  used  stoves  which
concealed  the  fire,  as  the  German  stoves  yet  do.
They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the
middle  of  the  room,  the  roof  being  open.  Apart-
ments were  warmed  by  portable  braziers.  Stoves
on  this  old  principle,  improved,  continue  in  use  in
many  houses  and  public  establishments  in  England,
and  generally  on  the  continent.  Dr.  Franklin  and
count  Eumford  (who  invented  a  stove)  pointed  out
the  waste  of  fuel  in  our  open  fires ;  and  Dr.  Neil
Amott  patented  his  "  improvements  in  the  produc-
tion and  agency  of  heat,"  14  Nov.  182 1.  Dr.  C.
William  Siemens  described  his  smokeless  stove  in
'■'■Nature'"  for  11  Nov.  1880.  See  Chimneys,  and
Cottager' s  Stove.
Mr.  T.  Pridgin  Teale  publishes  his  inventions,  in  which

he revives the principles  of  count  Rumford  with

additions,  1885-6.

STOWMAEKET  EXPLOSION,  see  Gun-
Cotton,  187 1.

STEAIGHT-OUT  DEMOCEATS,  a  party
which  advocated  limiting  the  powers  of  a  govern-
ment to  police  purposes  arose  in  the  United  States
of  America  in  1872,  and  nominated  Charles  O'Connor
for  the  presidency.  A  state  convention  was  con-
voked to  meet  at  Harrisburg,  16  Oct.  1872.

STEAITS  SETTLEMENTS,  including
Malacca,  Penang  or  Prince  of  Wales  island,  and
Singapore,  secured  to  Great  Britain  in  1824,  were
made  a  separate  dependency  in  1853,  and  placed
under  the  governor-general  of  India.  They  were
separated  from  India,  and  constituted  an  indepen-
dent settlement  by  an  act  passed  10  Aug.  1866,
which  took  effect  April,  1867.  Governor,  sir  Harry
St.  George  Ord,  1867  ;  sir  Andrew  Clarke,  1873 ;
sir  William  F.  D.  Jervois,  Oct.  1875  ;  sir  W.  C.  F.
Eobinson,  1877  !  &1  Frederick  A.  Weld,  1880 ;  sir
Cecil  Clementi-Smith,  Aug.  1887.  Population,
1891,  506,577.

Singapore,  the  capital,  founded  by  sir  T.  Stamford
Raffles  in  1819,  who  compiled  the  constitution,
laws,  &c.
Traders  complained  to  Sir  H.  Ord,  governor,  who

said  they  must  submit  to  their  risks . . .  1872
Sir  Andrew  Clarke  made  a  treaty  establishing  Ab-
dullah as sultan in place of  Ismail, and  a
British resident  as his adviser,  with  plenary

powers  at  Perak Jan. 1874

Mr.  J.  W.  Birch,  the  resident,  issues  a  proclama-
tion, 1  Nov.  ;  is  suddenly  attacked  and  killed,

2  Nov.  1875

The  Malays  rise,  and  besiege  the  residency,  which

is  relieved  by  Capt.  Innes,  6  Nov. He  is  killed  in

attacking  a  stockade . . . .15  Nov. ,,

The  Malays  thoroughly  defeated  by  troops  from

Hong  Kong  and  Calcutta,  under  Gen.  Colborne,

7  and  22  Dec.  ,,
Kinti  taken  ;  Ismail  retreats  .  .  .  17  Dec.  ,,
British  power  supreme  at  Perak  .  .  .27  Dec.  ,,
Major  Hawkins  killed  in  an  ambuscade  ;  the  village

burnt 4  Jan.  1876

Ismail  surrenders,  about  21  March;  Birch's  assassin

hanged 20  May, ,,

Great  prosperity  of  the  settlement  reported, Aug.  1884
Secret societies successfully  suppressed by  the

governor,  reported  .... June,  1890

Five  prosperous protected  states  on  the  Malay

peninsula  are  subject  to  the  governor  .  .  .  1891
The  neighbouring  state  of  Pahang  was  much  dis-
turbed by  turbulent  miners  and  others  in  Dec.
1891  at  seq.  Order  only  restored  by  the  help  of
the  British  ....  Dec.  1891— July  1892
Substitution  of  the  British  rale  for  that  of  the
sultan  proposed July, ,,

STEALSUND(Pomerania),  a  strongly  fortified
Hanse-town,  built  about  1230.  It  resisted  a  fierce
siege  by  Wallenstein  in  1628;  was  taken  by  Frede-
rick William,  of  Brandenburg,  in  1678;  restored  to


the  Swedes,  1679  ;  re-captured  by  the  Prussians  and
their  allies,  Dec.  1 7 15.  It  surrendered  to  the  French
under  Brune,  20  Aug.  1807  >  was  awarded  to  Prussia,
1815.

STEAND  (London).  Houses  were  first  built
upon  the  Strand  about  1353,  at  which  period  it  was
the  court  end  of  the  town,  or  formed  the  communi-
cation between  the  two  cities  of  London  aud  West-
minster, being  then  open  to  the  Thames  and  to  the
fields.  Somerset  and  other  palaces  were  erected
1547-1605.— Stow.  The  Strand  bridge  was  com-
menced 11  Oct.  181 1 ;  see  Waterloo  bridge.  The
Strand  improvements  were  commenced  in  1829.
Strand  returns  one  M.P.  by  act  passed  in  1885.
Strand  improvements bill  proposed  by  the  "  London

county  council,"  much  opposed  Dec.  1889  and  Jan.

1890;  the  bill  brought  in,  but  withdrawn,  15  Aug.

1890.

STEANGEES  in  house  of  commons ;  see  Par-
liament, Hay,  1875.

STEASBUEG,  the  Roman  Argcntoratum,  the
capital  of  Alsace.  Here  Julian  defeated  the  Ale-
manni,  357,  who  captured  it,  455.  It  was  annexed
to  Germany,  870.  Louis  XIV.  seized  it  28  Sept.
1681,  and  retained  it  by  the  treaty  of  Kyswick,  1697.
The  citadel  and  fortifications,  which  he  constructed,
have  been  so  much  augmented  that  Strasburg  may
be  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  Europe.
It  was  confirmed  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Ryswiek
in  1697,  but  captured  by  the  Germans,  28  Sept.  1870,
and  retained  at  the  peace,  May,  187 1.  The  cathe-
dral, an  epitome  of  Gothic  art,  was  founded  by
Clovis,  and  reconstructed  by  Pepin  and  Charle-
magne. After  destruction  by  lightning,  1007,  it  was
principally  rebuilt  by  Erwin  de  Steinbach  and  his
son  in  the  14th  century.  The  lofty  tower  was  com-
pleted in  1439.  The  celebrated  astronomical  clock,
after  a  long  stoppage,  was  repaired  by  M.  Schwii-
gue,  and  inaugurated  1  Jan.  1843.  Population,
1890,  123,499.

An  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city  was  made  by
prince  Louis  Napoleon  (afterwards  president  of
the  French  republic,  and  emperor),  aided  by  two
officers  and  some  privates  . .  30  Oct.  1836

It  was  instantly  suppressed  by  their  arrest,  and  the
prince  was  slopped  off  to  America  by  the  French
government.
Strasburg  invested  by  the  Germans,  principally  from

Baden,  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war 10  Aug.  1870
Gen.  von  Werder  assumed  the  command  of  the  be-
siegers, and  the  bombardment  began 14 Aug.,
and  a  vigorous  sally  was  repulsed . 16  Aug. ,,
Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared  that  he
would  not surrender  except upon a heap  of
ashes;  but  after  a  heroic  resistance,  and  when  a
breach  had  been  made  and  an  assault  was  im-
pending, notice  was  given,  and  the  place  surren-
dered at  2 a.m.; at  8  a.m.  17,150  men  and  400
officers  laid  down  their  arms . . 27  Sept. ,,
The  German  loss  was  said  to  be  906  men,  of  whom

43  were  officers 28  Sept. „

The  Germans  entered  Strasburg  on  the  anniversary
of  its  surrender  to  the  French  in  1681  by  a  sur-
prise 30  Sept. ,,

Uhrich  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of

honour Oct ,,

The  invaluable  library  was  destroyed  and  the  cathe-
dral much  injured. About  400  houses  were  de-
stroyed, and  8000  persons  rendered  homeless.
Visit  of  the emperor  of  Germany  well  received  ;

but  "  France  is  still  there  "  .  .  .  19  Sept,  1879
William  II.  very  well  received . . 20  Aug.  1S89

STEATFOED  -  UPON  -  AVON  ( Warwick-
shire), sec  Shakspeare.

STEATHCLUYD,  a  kingdom  formed  by  the
Britons,  who  retired  northward  after  the  Saxon  eon-
quest,  about  560. It  extended  from  the  Clyde  to


STKATHCLYDE CASE.


928


STEIKES.


Cumberland. The  Britons  in  it  submitted  to  Ed-
ward the  Elder,  in  924.
STEATHCLYDE  CASE,  see  Wrecks,  1876.

STBATHFIELD-SAYE,  in  Hampshire,  in
which  is  situate  the  estate  bought  of  lord  Rivers
by  the  nation  for  263,000?.,  and  presented  to  the
duke  of  Wellington,  1817.  An  act  to  provide  a
suitable  residence  for  his  grace  and  Ms  heirs  was
passed  II  July,  18 15.

STEATHMOEE  ESTATES.  Miss  Bowes'
of  Durham,  the  then  richest  heiress  in  Europe'
whose  fortune  was  1,040,000?.,  with  vast  additions
on  her  mother's  death,  and  immense  estates  on  the
demise  of  her  uncle,  married  the  earl  of  Strathmore,
25  Feb.  1766.  Having,  after  the  earl's  death,  mar-
ried Mr.  Stoney,  she  was  forcibly  carried  off  by  him
and  other  armed  men,  10  Nov.  1786.  She  was
brought  up  to  the  King's  Bench  by  habeas  corpus
and  released,  and  he  committed  to  prison,  23  Nov.
The  lady  recovered  her  estates,  which  she  had  as-
signed to  her  husband  under  the  influence  of  terror,
in  May,  1788.

STBATTON-HILL,  Battle  of,  in  Corn-
wall, 16  May,  1643,  between  the  royal  army  under
sir  Ralph  Hopton,  and  the  forces  of  the  parliament
under  the  earl  of  Stamford.  The  victory  was  gained
over  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in
killed  and  wounded.

STEAWBEEEY,  see  Fruits.

STEAWBEEEY-HILL,  Surrey,  the  Gothic
villa  of  Horace  Walpole,  constructed  1750,  at  Twick-
enham, near  London.  In  April  and  May,  1842,  his
collection  of  pictures  and  articles  of  taste  and
virtu  were  sold  by  auction  for  29,615?.  8s.  gd.
The  villa  was  enlarged  by  Mr.  Chichester  For-
tescue,  created  lord  Carlingford,  and  the  countess  of
"Waldegrave,  daughter  of  John  Braham,  the  singer.
She  died  5  July,  1879.  The  place  bought  by  baron
H.  de  Stern,  July,  1883.

STEEET  MUSIC.  An  act  was  passed  in
1864  for  the  better  regulation  of  street  music  in  the
metropolitan  police  districts.

STEEET  BAIL-WAYS,  see  Tramways,

STEELITZ,  the  imperial  guard  of  Russia,
established  by  Ivan  IV.  about  1568.  Becoming  fre-
quently seditious,  it  was  suppressed  by  Peter  the
Great ;  great  numbers  were  put  to  death,  many  by
the  czar's  own  hand,  1698-1704.

STEIKES, see  under Agriculture, Preston,
London,  1859-61 ;  Newcastle,  Trials,  Aug. 1867  ;
Railways,  Shipping  and  Goal,  Cotton,  Bristol,  and
other  seaports  and  towns.
Strikes  in  1888,  504  (249  reported  successful,  332  settled

by  conciliation). In  1889,  1,145  ;  iu  1890,  1,028;  in

1891,  875;  in 1892,  Jan.  63,  Feb.  48,  March  39,  April

65,  May  93,  June  59,  July  35.
The  tailors  of  London  struck  for  increase  of  wages ;

they  yield April,  1834

The  strike  of  the  calico  printers  of  Glasgow . . „
Staffordshire  potters'  strike;  obtained  an  advance

after  much  loss  . . Nov.  1834-March,  183s

The  strike  of  the  amalgamated  engineers  took  place  1852
Strike  of  the  London  cabmen  . . 27-30  July,  1853

Builders' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859

A  strike  among  the  silk-workers  at  Coventry  came

to  an  end 3°  Aug.  i860

An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  up  a  strike  in  the

building  trade  began  .  .  .  -23  March,  1861
A  strike  of  the  puddlers  in  the  iron  trade  occurred

in  the  spring  of  (see  Iron,  and  Railways)  .  .  1S65
Strike  of  London  west-end  tailors  (about 2000),

lasted  .  .22  April-Oct.  1867


Great  strike  of  colliers  near  St.  Helens,  April,  1867 ;
about  40,000  men  on  strike . . . April,  186S

Colliery  strike  at  Thorncliffe,  near  Sheffield ;  dread-
ful riots  and  devastation . . . 21  Jan.  1870

Strike  of  10,000  miners  at  Le  Creuzot,  Burgundy,
the  property  of  M.  Schneider ;  soon  over Jan.  1871

Engineers'  strike  at  Newcastle  (see  Newcastle)

May-Oct. „

Strike  of  builders  employed  by  Messrs.  Brass  and
Jackson  &,  Shaw,  for  a  9  hours'  day,  at  9c?.  an
hour,  1  June ;  after  negotiation  led  to  a  look-out
by  the  masters,  beginning  . . 19  June,  1S72

The  lock-out  of  the  masons  ceased,  the  carpenters
going  on,  q  July  ;  arrangements  were  made,  and
strike  ceased about  27  Aug. „

Strike  of  London  journeymen  bakers,  23  Sept.  -9  Oct. „

Strike  of  firewood  cutters .... Sept. „

Lock-out  of  miners  in  Wales  for  their  excessive
demands  ......  Oct. ,,

Strike  of  London  gas-stokers  (see  Gas) . 2  Dec. ,,

Strike  of  about  60,000  colliers  in  S.  Wales,  refusing
to  submit  to  10  per  cent,  reduction  in  wages,
1  Jan. Strike  ended . . about  25  March,  1873

Powerful  speech  of  earl  Fitzwilliam  to  his  colliers
of  Low  Stubbin  after  a  strike . .  5  June, ,

Strike  of  about  50,000  miners,  South  Wales,  2  Jan. ;
led  to  a  lock-out,  1  Feb.  ;  given  up ;  gradual  re-
turn of  men  to  work  end  of . . . May,

Strike  of  Warwickshire  miners . . May-Aug. „

Strikes  at  Oldham  and  Dundee . July-August „

Strike  of  earl  Fitzwilliam's  colliers  on  account  of
the  compulsory  use  of  safety  lamps  ;  he  closes
his  mines  and  rejects  their  submission . Dec. „

Erith,  strike  of  workmen  of  Eastons  and  Anderson,
engineers,  in  opposition  to  piece-work,  18  Dec. ;
supported  by  amalgamated  engineers,  Dec,  1875  ;
on  trial  for  conspiracy,  the  men  plead  guilty ;  no
sentence  passed 14  July,  1876

Strike  of  1600  miners  against  15  per  cent,  reduction
of  wages,  Bolton .  24  Aug. ,,

"  Operative  Spinners'  Association  "  of  N.  and  N.E.
Lancashire  propose  to  set  aside  the  "  standard
list  of  prices  "  after  1  Nov.  The  masters  there-
upon announced  a  lock-out  of  about  80,000  men
(after  23  Nov.),  26  Oct. The  association  submits

18  Nov. „

Strike  of  Doulton's  bricklayers  respecting  employ-
ment of  others  on  terra-cotta  work  (settled)  Oct. ,,

Great  strike  and  lock-out  of  about  10,000  ship-
wrights, &c,  on  the  Clyde,  May  ;  closed,  Oct.  ;
the  arbitrator,  lord  Moncrieff,  decided  against
the  men Nov.  1877

Northumberland  miners  (about  12,000),  began,  29
May  ;  over  about .... 12  June, „

Great  railway  strike,  see  United  States . July, „

Bolton  cotton  workers'  strike,  about  1  Sept. ;  closed
by  agreement  .  „

Railway  strike  on  Great  Southern  and  Western  line,
Ireland,  about .... 14-22  Sept. ,,

181  strikes,  result  mostly  against  workmen . . ,,

Lock-out  of  about  8000  miners  in  Northumberland,
about  15  Dec.  1877  ;  closed . . . Feb.  1878

Strike  of  masons  of  London  (employed  on  the  law

.  courts,  &c),  demanding  increased  pay  and  less
working  hours,  31  July  ;  some  firms  yield,  about
20  Sept.  ;  Germans  and  others  engaged,  Oct. —
Dee.  1877. Strike  ends  (cost  about  60,000?.)

14  March, „

Strike  and  lock-out  of  cotton  spinners  in  N.  and
N.E.  Lancashire  (about  120,000  men);  masters
required  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  on  wages  ;  be-
gan about  18  April ;  ended  by  the  men  submit-
ting to  arrangements . . about  17  June, ,,

Partial  strike  and  lock-out  of  labourers  in  Kent  and
Sussex Oct.  Dec. ,,

Cotton  strike  at  Oldham,  at  reduction  of  wages  5
per  cent.,  25  Nov.  ;  submission  . . 28  Dec. „

277  strikes  in  the  year

Midland  railway  ;  sudden  strike  of  goods  guards

3-20  Jan.  1879

London  engineers,  18  firms,  against  reduction  of
wages,  begau  about  7  Feb.  ;  closed . 4  Oct. ,,

Durham  coal  miners,  against  reduction  of  wages,
began  5  April ;  stoppage  of  Cleveland  and  other
iron  works  ;  about  70,000  men  unemployed,  April ;
settled  by  arbitration . . about  16  May, ,,

Bristol  builders'  2  months'  strike  ends . 30  July, „

Strike  of  cotton-workers  at  Blackburn,  15  May  et  seq. „


STRIKES.


929


STRONTIUM.


Strike  of  Lancashire  miners  ;  about  40,000  out,  12
Jan.  ;  rioting  with  loss  of  life  near  Bolton,  25-28
Jan.  ;  strike  reported  over  . . 21  Feb.

Strike  in  the  potteries,  70  firms  and  30,000  men,  be-
gun about  25  Nov.

The  men  agree  to  arbitration ... 6  Dec.

Ironworkers'  strike  at  Hox>ton  and  Darlington,

2  Feb.-o  June,

Strike  of  Staffordshire  colliers,  about  8000,  12  May,
ends about  3  Sept.

Great  strike  of  South  Staffordshire  ironworkers  at
reduction  of  wages  ....  about  5  July,

Many  submit,  about  17  July  ;  strike  closed,  24  July,

Cotton  weavers  on  strike,  opposition  to  the  reduction
of  wages,  in  the  N.W.  districts,  about  18,500,  18
Dec.1883;  men  yield  under  conditions,  about  8  Feb.

Strike  in  the  cotton  trade  ;  mass  meeting  at  Burn-
ley reject  the  masters'  terms  . .16  July,

Determined  to  maintain  the  strike  against  reduction
of  wages 24  July,

End  of  Bavnsley  coal  miners'  long  strike 23  Dec.

Strike  of  about  2000  miners  ill  west  Cumberland,

16  March,

Strike  of  about  half  the  colliers  in  S.  and  W.  York-
shire 1  April-May,

Chorley, Lancashire,  about  3,000  cotton  weavers

16  July,
Cotton  weavers  on  strike  at  Oldham  (25,000  out)

against  10  per  cent,  reduction,  20  July,  et  seq. ;

.  compromise  5  per  cent,  accepted  for  three  months

about  16  Oct.

Strike  of  4,700  men  at  Elswick  Iron  Works,  New-
castle ;  ascribed  to  two  managers,  2  Sept.  ;  closed

17  Sept.
Close  of  engineers'  strike  (2-J  years)  at  Sunderland  ;

cost  above  200,000?.  .... Nov.

Strike  of  shipwrights  in  the  Tyne  and  Wear  about
6  Jan. -24  Feb.

Increase  of  strikes  in  France,  Belgium,  Germany,
and  United  States .... March,

Shropshire  ironworks  strike  (twenty  weeks)  ends  ;
masters  yield 14  July,

Northumberland  miners'  strike  about  30  Jan  ;  terms
arranged  at  a  conference,  and  work  resumed,
twelve  weeks ....  23-28  May,

Strike  (wrought  nail  trade)  in  South  Staffordshire
of  about  15,000  operatives . . 12  Sept.

Strike  of  engineers  at  Bolton  respecting  wages,
overtime,  &c.  14  May ;  intimidation  and  boy-
cotting of  men  at  work ;  strike  closes  by  con-
ciliation 27  Oct.

Shoemakers'  strike  at  Northampton  ;  about  20,000
out  3  Dec. ;  closed  by  arbitration,  about  24  Dec.

Strike  of  engineers  at  Blackburn,  21  weeks,  closed
by  compromise .... 12  March,

Strike  of  match-girls  at  Bryant  and  May's  factory
(see  Luclfers) 5  July,

Colliery  strikes  begin  22  Oct. ;  about  30,000  miners
on  strike  in  S.  W.  Yorkshire  and  the  Midland
counties  24  Oct. ;  the  colliers'  demands,  10  per
cent,  increase  generally,  acceded  to,  the  owners
gradually  yield .... 27-31  Oct.

Strike  of  coal  miners  in  Westphalia  (i/7<  ich  see)  May,

Strikes  in  Silesia,  Bohemia  and  Belgium,  May,  June,

Temporary  strikes  of  seamen  and  firemen  in  the
steamers  in  the  ports  of  Glasgow  (ended  27  June),
Leith.  Aberdeen  (ended),  and  Dundee  for  an
advance  of  wages,  end  of  May ;  gradually  col-
lapsing, end  of  June,  et  seq.;  Liverpool  May-July,

Strike  of  the  dock  labourers  of  the  port  of  London,
demanding  not  less  than  4  hours'  engagement,
pay  to  be  raised  from  yl.  to  6cl.  per  hour,  and
redress  of  other  grievances,  15  Aug.  ;  they  are
joined  by  stevedores,  lightermen,  and  nearly
every  class  of  riverside  workers  ;  about  25,000
men  out,  22  Aug. ;  negotiations  of  the  London
ami  India  docks  committee  (for  tin;  directors,
Mr.  C.  M.  Norwood,  Mr.  H.  Morgan,  sec.) ;  with
the  dock  labourers'  strikes  committee  (leaders,
Messrs.  John  Burns,  Benjamin  Tillett,  sec,
Henry  Champion,  and  Tom  Mann),  demands  re-
fused, 27  Aug.  ;  80,000  said  to  be  out,  30  Aug.  ;
dock  directors  reject  the  compromise  proposed
by  shipowners  and  others,  31  Aug.  Close  of  the
strike;  greatly  due  to  the  intervention  of  the
lord  mayor  Whitehead,  cardinal  Manning,  (In'
bishop  of  London,  sir  John  Lubbock,  Mr.  Syd-
ney, and  others  :  terms  of  agreement,  pay  for


IS«2

1883


ordinary  work  raised  from  41?.  to  6d.  per  hour,
8d.  per  hour  overtime,  contract  work  to  i"
changed  to  piece  work,  with  other  concessions,
to  begin  on  4  Nov.,  14  Sept.  ;  work  at  the  docks

resumed 16  Sept.  1889

[During  the  strike  there  were  many  processions
of  labourers  and  sympathisers  through  the
streets.  Great  meetings  woe  held  in  Hyde
park  on  Sundays  25  Aug.,  1,  8,  15  Sept.  There
was  much  picketing;  the  extreme  distress  in
the  east  end  was  relieved  by  liberal  public  sub-
scriptions, and  the  Australian  colonies  gave
about  31,000?.  ;  received  in  December  from
Melbourne,  3,792?.  ;  from  Sydney  720?.,  Dec.
1889.]

Great  strike  of  Jewish  tailors  and  other  operatives
in  East  London,  3  Sept.,  about  10,000  out ;  they
demand  an  increase  of  pay,  and  reduction  of  time
and  labour  to  12  hours  daily  ;  settled  by  com-
promise 2  Oct. „

Ridiculous  strike  of  schoolboys  for  shorter  hours

.,  and  fewer  lessons,  in  Hawick,  Dundee,  Aber-
deen, Glasgow,  Greenock,  Edinburgh,  Cardiff,
Liverpool,  Leeds,  Northampton,  parts  of  London
and  Brighton,  and  other  places  . . . (Jet. ,,

Strike  of  Messrs.  Silvers'  india-rubber  works  at
Silvertown Nov.-Dec. ,,

Many  strikes  and  much  agitation  in  London,  and
throughout  the  country . . Sept.-Dec. ,,

Strike  of  about  1,000  of  the  stokers  and  others  em-
ployed by  the  South  Metropolitan  gas  company,
against  "  the  bonus  "  system  successfully  resisted
by  Mr.  G.  Livesey,  the  secretary,  12  Dec.  1889  ;
the  strike  ends 5  Feb. 1890

Strike  of  about  11,000  bootmakers,  E.  London,

29  March-29  April, „

Strike  of  Kentish  bargemen  and  lock  out  of  brick-
makers,  early  March' ;  closed . about  28  April, ,,

Strike  of  Thames  shipjoiners . 1  March-3  May, ,,

Strike  at  Cardiff  of  the  servants  of  the  Taff  Vale,
Rhymney  and  Barry  railways  dockers  and  others,
respecting  time-working;  the  merchants  and
other  employers,  support  the  railway  companies,
7  Aug.  ;  traffic  suspended,  8  Aug.  ;  great  meet-
ing, sir  E.  Read,  M.P.,  president;  no  result,  9
Aug.  ;  about  50,000  men  out,  10  Aug.  ;  com-
promise effected,  the  strike  ends . 15  A.ug. ,,

Strikes  in  Australia  (see  Melbourne  and  Sydney),

Aug.  et  seq. ,,

Strike  at  Manningham  Mills,  see  Bradford,  1891.

Great  strike  of  colliers  in  Durham,  on  account  of
the  eviction  of  miners  at  Silksworth,  lord  Lon-
donderry's colliery,  20  Feb.  et  seq. ;  strike  ends,

20  March, 1891

Five  weeks'  great  strike  of  cotton-spinners  at
Huddersfield,  closed ... 20  March, ,,

Close  of  the  strike  of  the  Scotch  furnace  men  (21
works) 5  March, ,,

Strike  in  the  building  trades  in  London,  leading
firms;  mass  meeting  in  Hyde  park,  3  May;  re-
ferred to  arbitration,  20  Oct.  ;  award  given  (no
increase  of  pay),  about  19  Nov.  ;  work  resumed,

Nov, ,,

Strikes  in  Belgium,  France,  Austria,  Westphalia,
Great  Britain April,  May, „

Many  strikes  in  London  and-the  provinces,

May  et  seq. „

End  of  11  weeks'  strike  at  Messrs.  Wostinholm,
cutlers,  Sheffield .... 27  June, ,,

Strike  of  tailorsat  Southport,  Liverpool,  July  ;  the
delegates  of  (lie  Master  Tailors'  Association  of
the  Fiule.l  Kingdom  at  Liverpool,  order  a
general  lock-out  throughout  tic  United  King-
dom unless  the  strikers  return  to  work  before
the  29th,  22  July  :  settlement . about  29  July, „

End  of  the  strike  at  Brooks'  cotton  mill,  Olitll
(25  weeks) ....'. 12  Aug. ,,

Strike  of  Durham  coal-miners,  see  under  Con!,

11  March,  1892

End  of  three  months'  strike  of  seamen  and  Bremen
at  Sunderland 13  June, ,,

KTROME  CASE,  see  Trials,  1883.

STRONTIUM.  The  native  carbonate  of
strontia  was  discovered  at  Strontium  in  Argyle-
shire,  in  1 787.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  first  obtained
from  it  the  metal  strontium  in  1808.

?,  o


STRYCHNIA.


930


SUEZ  CANAL.


STRYCHNIA,  a  poisonous  vegetable  alkaloid,
discovered  in  1818  by  Pelletier  and  Caventou  in  tbe
seeds  of  the  strychnos  ignatia  and  nux  vomica,  and
also  in  the  upas  poison.  Half  a  grain  blown  into
the  throat  of  a  rabbit  occasions  death  in  four
minutes  ;  its  operation  is  accompanied  by  lock-jaw.
Much  attention  was  given  to  strychnia  in  1856,
during  the  trial  of  William  Palmer,  who  was  exe-
cuted for  the  murder  of  Cook,  14  June,  1856.

STUART  (properly  Stewakt),  House  or,

see  under  Scotland,  England  ;  and  Pretenders.

A  collection  of  portraits  and  relics  of  the  lioxise  of
Stuart  ras  exhibited  in  the  New  Gallery,  Regent
Street,  autumn,  1888.  The  surplus  receipts  amount-
ing to  about  i,8oo£.  were  judiciously  distributed.

STUCCO  WORK  was  known  to  the  ancients,
and  was  much  prized  by  them,  particularly  by  the
Romans,  who  excelled  in  it.- — Lenglet.  It  was  re-
vived by  D'TJdine,  about  1550 ;  and  in  Italy,  France,
and  England  in  the  18th  century.

STUD  Company,  to  improve  the  breed  of  British
horses,  held  its  first  annual  meeting,  20  Sept.  1873.

STUHM  (W.  Prussia).  Here  Gustavus  Adol-
phus  of  Sweden  defeated  the  Poles,  1628.

STUNDISTS,  a  puritan  sect  in  south  Eussia,
said  to  be  descendants  of  Russian  soldiers  converted
from  the  Greek  church  by  German  missionaries  ;
some  were  cruelly  persecuted  by  the  bigoted  pea-
santry of  Vossnessensk  in  Kherson  in  1879;  thirteen
of  the  ringleaders  were  tried  for  the  crime,  8  Nov.
1879.  Strong  repressive  measures  against  the  sect,
with  persecution,  were  taken  by  the  government,
autumn,  189 1  et  seq.

STURGES  BOURNE'S  ACT,  58  Geo.  III.
c.  69  (18 1 8),  relates  to  parish  vestries.

STUTTGART  (Wtirtemburg),  first  mentioned
in  1229,  was  made  his  residence  by  count  Eberhard,
1320;  enlarged  by  TJlric,  1436;  and  made  capital  of
the  state,  1482.  It  has  been  greatly  adorned  during
the  last  and  present  centuries.  International  rifle
meeting  here,  1  Aug.  1875.  Population,  1885,
125,901 ;  1890,  139,659.

STYLE,  see  New  Style.

STYLE  ROYAL,  see  England,  King,  Majesty,
and  Titles.  The  styles  of  the  English  sovereigns
are  given  in  the  later  editions  of  Nicolas' s  "  Chron-
ology of  History."  The  Royal  Style  and  Titles  Act,
giving  power  to  add  to  the"  queen's  titles  "empress
of  India,"  after  much  opposition  in  the  commons,
received  royal  assent  27  April ;  proclamation  issued
28  April ;  announced  in  India,  by  the  viceroy,  19
Aug.  1876.

STYLITES,  see  Monachism.

STYRIA  (Austria),  part  of  the  ancient  Noricum
and  Pannonia,  was  held  successively  by  the  Romans,
Ostrogoths,  and  Avars.  It  was  conquered  by  Charle-
magne, and  divided  among  his  followers,  styled
counts,  among  whom  the  count  of  Styria,  about
876,  was  the  most  powerful.  The  count  became
margrave  about  1030  ;  and  Ottocar  VI.,  in  1180,  was
made  duke.  At  his  death,  1 192,  Styria  was  annexed
to  the  duchy  of  Austria.  In  1246  it  was  acquired
by  Bela  IV.  of  Hungary  ;  in  1253,  by  Ottocar  II.  of
Bohemia  ;  after  whose  defeat  and  death,  at  March-
feld,  in  1278,  it  reverted  to  Rudolph  of  Austria,  and
was  annexed  to  his  possessions.  Population  1890
1,282,708.

SUAKIN,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Red  Sea  on
an  island  off  its  "W.  coast. See  Soudan,  1883,  et  seq.


Under  the  rule  of  colonel  Kitchener  and  lieut.
Gordon,  R.E.,  Suakin  has  become  a  nearly  impreg-
nable fortress  and  commerce  has  revived,  1888.

SUBMARINE  BOAT,  see  under  Boats.

SUBMARINE  LAMP,  one  invented  by
Siebe  and  Gorman,  has  been  in  use  since  1850,
especially  at  Cherbourg.  Heinke  and  Davis's  lamp
was  exhibited,  1871.

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH,  see  Tele-
graph (under  Electricity).

SUBSCRIPTION  ACT,  see  Clerical  Sub-
scription Act.

SUBSIDIES  to  the  kings  of  England  were-
formerly  granted  in  kind,  particularly  in  wool ;
30,000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  III.  on  account
of  the  war  with  France,  1340. — Anderson.  Subsi-
dies were  raised  upon  the  people  of  England  by
James  I.  1624  ;  but  they  were  included  in  a  bill  for
the  redress  of  grievances,  1639.  Four  subsidies  (the?
last)  were  granted  to  Charles  II.  in  1663.*

SUBWAY,  see  Tunnels.

SUCCESSION  ACTS,  see  Settlement.

SUCCESSION,  War  oe  (1702-1713),  distin-
guished by  the  achievements  of  the  duke  of  Marl-
borough and  the  earl  of  Peterborough,  and  their
unprofitable  results,  arose  on  the  question  whether
an  Austrian  prince  or  a  French  prince  should  suc-
ceed to  the  throne  of  Spain.  The  British  court
opposed  Louis,  and  Marlborough  was  victorious;  but
the  allies  withdrew  one  after  another,  and  the  French
prince  succeeded ;  see  Spain,  and  Utrecht.

SUCCESSION  DUTY  ACT  (16  &  17  Vict,
c.  51),  after  much  discussion,  was  passed  4  Aug..
1 8 S3-  By  this  act  the  legacy  duty  was  extended  to-
real  estate,  and  was  made  payable  on  succession  to
both  landed  and  personal  property.  Received  year
1887-8,830,503/.;  1889,  906,469/.;  1890,1,065,170/.;.
1891,  1,209,227/.  Additional  duties  imposed  by
customs,  ifec.,  acts  of  1888  and  1889.

SUDBURY,  in  Suffolk,  chartered  by  queen,
Mary,  1554,  was  disfranchised  for  bribery  in  1844.

SUEVI,  a  warlike  Gothic  tribe,  which,  with  the-
Alani  and  the  Visigoths,  entered  Spain  about  408,
were  overcome  by  the  latter,  and  absorbed  into  their
kingdom  about  584.

SUEZ  CANAL.  The  caliph  Omar  about  640
opposed  cutting  the  isthmus.  A  plan  for  a  canal
between  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  bay  of
Pelusium  was  brought  forward  by  51.  Ferdinand  de
Lesseps  in  1852.  He  undertook  to  cut  a  canal
through  90  miles  of  sand,  to  run  out  moles  into  the-
Mediterranean ;  to  deepen  the  shallow  waters ;  to
create  ports  to  receive  the  ships  from  India  and
Australia,  and  to  adapt  the  canal  to  irrigation.  The
consent  of  the  Egyptian,  Turkish,  Russian,  French,
and  Austrian  governments  was  gradually  obtained,
but  not  that  of  the  British.  A  company  was  formed
for  the  purpose,  and  the  work  commenced  in  1858
by  Mr.  Daniel  Lange  (knighted  1870).  The  cost
was  estimated  at  8,000,000/.  Engineer,  M.  L.
Monteit.

Mc  Delacour,  a  French  engineer,  after  viewing  the
works  which  were  "  employing  25,000  men  in  the
desert,"  expressed  his  conviction  that  they  would
be  completed  in  four  or  five  years . . 7  Nov.  1862

*  England  granted  subsidies  to  foreign  powers  in  seve-
ral wars,  particularly  in  the  war  against  the  revolutionists
in  France,  and  against  Bonaparte.


SUEZ CANAL.


)31


SUGAR.


The  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  admitted  into  a
narrow  channel  communicating  with  Lake  Tim-
sah Dec.  1862

The  new  town  Timsali  named  Ismaila  4  March, 1863

The  works  visited  by  the  Sultan  and  by  Mr.  Hawk-
shaw ,,

The  company  compelled  by  the  Egyptian  govern-
ment to  give  up  employment  of  compulsory
labour  ;  litigation  ensued ....  Aug. ,,

M.  de  Lesseps  reported  that  a  vessel  containing  30
persons  had  been  tugged  along  the  canal  the
whole  distance  between  the  two  seas . Feb. 1865

Delegates  from  the  British  chambers  of  commerce
visited  the  works,  and  reported  that  the  success
of  the  scheme  was  only  an  affair  of  time  and
money 17  April, „

The  flood  gates  of  the  smaller  Suez  canal  were
opened,  the  fresh  water  of  the  Nile  admitted  ;  a
coal  vessel  passed  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the
Red  Sea 15  Aug. ,,

The  Primo,  80  tons  burden,  passed  through  the
canal  from  the  Mediterranean  into  the  Red  Sea,

17  Feb.  1867

A  loan  raised  in  France ,,

French  and  English  vessels  enter  the  canal Nov. 1868

Mr.  John  Fowler,  the  engineer,  reported  the  canal
as  suitable  for  steamers  and  mail  traffic,  but  not
for  vessels  requiring  tugs . . . .5  Feb. 1869

Water  of  the  Mediterranean  admitted  to  the  salt
lakes 18  March, „

The  works  visited  by  the  prince  and  princess  of
Wales 23  March, ,,

The  canal  successfully  opened  in  the  presence  of  the
emperor  of  Austria,  the  empress  of  the  French,
the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  others . . 17  Nov. ,,

M.  de  Lesseps  etitertained  in  London .  4  July,  1870

Traffic  in  1870-1  doubled 1872-3

Charges  upon  vessels  passing  through  the  canal  in-
creased 50  per  cent.  ;  the  British  appeal  for  a
national  conference April,  1873

International  conference  on  Suez  dues  met  at  Con-
stantinople ;  21  sittings  ;  report  dated  18  Dec.
Proposals  of  the  sultan  accepted  by  European
powers Dec. ,,

M.  de  Lesseps  protests  ;  the  lords  of  the  admiralty
informed  (by  D.  A.  Lange)  that  the  canal  will  be
closed  unless  the  old  dues  are  paid,  22  April ;  he
gives  way  about  .... 26  April,  1874

Col.  Stokes,  after  a  survey,  reported  to  the  earl  of
Derby  that  the  canal  generally  was  in  a  satisfac-
tory state 20  April, ,,

British  government  authorise  Messrs.  Rothschild  to
buy  for  4,080,000?.  the  Khedive's  shares  (176,602
shares  of  20?.,  out  of  400,000)  in  the  canal ;  (5  per
cent,  to  be  paid  till  1  July,  1894,  after  which  divi-
dends will  be  received) .... Nov.  1875

M.  de  Lesseps  in  a  circular  says  he  regards  "as  a
fortunate  circumstance  the  powerful  union  be-
tween English  and  French  capitalists  for  the
purely  industrial  and  necessarily  peaceful  work-
ing of  the  universal  maritime  canal." . 29  Nov. ,,

The  subject  discussed  in  the  commons,  14  Feb. ;
money  (4,080,000?.)  voted,  21  Feb.;  act  passed

15  Aug.  1876

Neutrality  of  the  canal  claimed  by  Great  Britain

May,  June,  1877

Freedom  of  the  canal  secured  by  settlement  of
Egypt 1882-3

Receipts  about  5,000,000  francs,  1870;  60,523,815
francs i832

Second  canal  determined  on  by  British  shipowners  ;
syndicate  appointed .... 10  May,  1883

Arrangements  made  by  the  government  for  the  con-
struction of  the  canal  and  advancement  of  capital,
to  be  virtually  under  control  of  De  Lesseps'  cmii-
pany,  announced,  11  July  :  great  dissatisfaction
and  opposition  in  England,  12  July  ;  the  proposed
convention withdrawn by  the  government,

23  July, ,,

Sir  Stafford  Northcote's  resolution  against  De  Les-
seps' monopoly  negatived  (284-185)  31  July,  „
De  Lesseps  visits  London  ;  agrees  with  the  steam
shipowners  to  enlarge  tin1  present  canal,  or
create  a  new  one,  giving  additional  power  and
influence  in  the  direction  of  the  company,  and  to

reduce  dues,  &c 30  Nov. „

The  agreement  approved  by  the  British  government,


25  Feb.;  the  shareholders  at  Paris  protest  aj

it,  but  ratify  it  (2608-556) . . . 29  May,  1SS3

International  commission  sits  at  Paris  ;  English  and
French  schemes  discussed,  April — May,  1SS5  ;
parts  of  these  schemes  incorporated  in  treaty,
May,  1885  ;  last  sitting  .... 13  June,  1886

The  widening  of  the  present  canal  decided  (in,  after
investigation  by  commission,  Dec.  1884  ;  plans
adopted  by  the  commission  9  Feb.  1835;  arrange-
ments with  the  Egyptian  government  completed

27  Dec. ,,

Convention  signed  at  Paris  for  England  and  France
neutralising  the  canaland  placing  it  under  a  joint
commission  ...... 24  Oct. 1837

Adhesion  of  the  other  powers  announced  July  ;
ratified  by  the  sultan  25  Oct.  ; by  the  powers

29  Oct.  and  22  Dec.  1888

Traffic  passed  through  canal :


Year.

No.  of
Ships.

Gross  Tonnage.

Gross  Receipts.

1870

486

435,9"

£255,488

1871

765

761,467

464,091

1872

1,082

1,439,169

758,659

1873

I.I73

2,085,073

971,882

1874

1,264

2,423,672

1,029,492

1875

*,494

2,940,709

1,204,387

1876

i,4S7

3,072,107

1,229,157

1877

1,663

3,418,950

1,337,617

1878

i,593

3,291,535

1,272,435

1879

i,477

3,236,942

1,214,443

Total I
10  years.  )

12,454

23,105,535

£9>737,65i

1880

2,026

4,344,519

£1,672,836

1881

2,727

5,794,401

2,187,047

1882

3,198

7,122,125

2,536,343

1883

3,307

8,051,307

2,645,506

1884

3,284

8,319,967

2,480,000

1885

3,624

8,985,411

2,601,998

i336

3,100 *

8,183,313

2,241,095

i387

3^37

8,430,043

2,314,494

1888

3,444

9,437,957

2,680,000

1890

3,389

9,749,129

2,679,340

SUFFRAGAN  BISHOPS.  Power  to  ap-
point them  was  given  by  parliament  in  1534  to
Henry  VIII.  as  head  of  the  church;  see  JJLs/top.i
and  Supremacy.

SUGAR*  {Saccharum  officinarum)  is  supposed
to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Jews.  Found  in
the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander,
325  B.C. — Strabo.  An  oriental  nation  in  alliance
with  Pompcy  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as  a  common
beverage. — Lucan.  It  was  prescribed  as  a  medicine
by  Galen,  2nd  century.  Brought  into  Europe  from
Asia,  A. n.  625; — in  large  quantities,  1 150.  Attempted
to  be  cultivated  in  Italy;  not  succeeding,  flic  Portu-
guese and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about
1510.
The  sugar-cane  transported  from Syria  to  Cyprus

about  1148  ;  from  Madeira  about  1420  ;  and  to  the

West  Indies about 1506

It  is  not  known  at  what  date  sugar  was  introduced

*  Sugar,  long  considered  a  neutral  substance,  wil
congeners,  has  ofdate  years  become  the  head  of  a  nume-
rous family,  viz.  :  Cane-sugar  (sucrose,  from  the  sugar-
cane ;  boiled  with  dilute  acids  it  becomes  gl >. l-'i uit-
sugar  (from  many  recenl  fruits);  Grape-sugar  (■

from dried fruits and altered starch): sugar  "I milk  ;

Melitose  (from  eucalyptus,  by  Berthelot  in  1856);  s
(from  the  berries  of  the  mountain  ash,  by  Pelou  1
(from  muscular  tissue.  Scherer) ;  dulcost  (by  Lament);
mannite  (from  manna,  obtained  from  the  fraxinus  ornus,
a  kind  of  ash) ;  qiiercite  (from  acorns);  to  these  have  been
added  mycose,  by  M.  Mitseherlich,  and  mdeestos*  ami
reliulosc,  by  M.  Berthelot.

3  0  2


SUICIDE.


932


SUICIDE.


into  England,  "but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Mr.  Whittaker,  in  the
History  of  Whalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  instance  in  1497

A  manuscript  letter  from  sir  Edward  Wotton  to
lord  Cobham,  dated  Calais,  advertises  him  that
sir  Edward  had  taken  up  for  his  lordship  twenty-
five  sugar-loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  "whiche
is  eighte  pence  a  pounde " . . . 6  March,  1546

Sugar  first  taxed  (by  James  II.) 1685

Duties  on  free  and  slave-grown  sugars  equalized,

Aug.  1846

Duties  reduced  and  regulated  ....  Sept.  1848

Duty  increased  (war) 1855

Reduced,  1857,  1864 ;  modified,  1867  ;  greatly  re-
duced, 1  Aug.  1870  ;  further  reduced,  May,  1873  ;
abolished  from 1  May,  1874

Sugar  industries  committee  recommend  a  protective
duty  on  the  import  of  sugar  from  certain  coun-
tries Aug.  1880

Sugar-refining  was  made  known  to  Europeans  by  a
Venetian,  1503,  and  was  first  practised  in  England
in  1659,  though  some  say  we  had  the  art  a  few
years  earlier.  The  invaluable  vacuum-pan  was
invented  by  Howard,  1812.  Dr.  Scoffern's  pro-
cesses were  patented  in  1848-50,  but  not  adopted
in  Britain.

Sugar  manufactured  from  sorghum  in  United  States
Dec. 1882 ;  success  reported . . March,  1888

Manufacturers  and  colonies  protest  strongly  against
French  and  German  bounties  on  beet  sugar  1882-9

International  Conference  on  Sugar  Bounties,  repre-
sentatives from  Germany,  France,  Austria  and
others,  not  United  States  ;  first  meeting,  baron
H.  de  Worms  chosen  president  24  Nov.  ;  a  pro-
tocol with  a  convention  signed  condemning
bounties  and  recommending  legislation  for  their
abolition ig  Dec.  1887

The  mission  of  baron  de  Worms  to  various  courts
reported  successful Feb.  1888

Final  meeting,  another  protocol  with  convention
signed 12  May, ,,

Finally  signed  for  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Austria-
Hungary,  Italy,  Russia,  Spain,  Belgium,  and  the
Netherlands ,  declined  at  present  by  France,
Denmark  and  Sweden ...  30  Aug. „

International  commission  to  examine  the  laws  to
enforce,  the  convention  meet . . 1  May,  1889

Report  adopted  and  signed  at  the  12th  meeting ;
to be referred to the  respective  legislatures

1  June, ,,

Bill  for  the  adoption  of  the  convention  brought  into
the  commons  May  ;  deferred  by  the  government

17  June, „

A  secret  process  of  refining  sugar  by  electricity  said
to  have  been  invented  by  prof.  Henry  C.  Friend
of  New  York  announced  1885.  He  succeeded  in
organizing  the  New  York  Electric  Sugar  Refining
company  to  carry  out  the  invention  ;  the  scheme
collapsed  and  occasioned  much  loss  in  America
and  England  by  credulous  persons,  the  whole
affair  being  an  imposture 1888

It  caused  a  temporary  panic  in  Liverpool  Jan.  ;
Mrs.  Friend,  then  a  widow,  and  her  daughter
were  arrested  in  Michigan . . . Feb.  1889

William  E.  Howard,  one  of  the  company,  was
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  "grand  larceny  "

21  June, ,,
For  Saccharine,  see  Benzole.

Raw  Sugar  imported  into  United  Kingdom. — 1833,
7,284,290  cwts.  ;  i860,  8,817,277  cwts.  ;  1865,
10,250,524  cwts.  ;  1871,  12,126,508  cwts.  ;  1875,
16,264,711  cwts.;  1877,  16,620,944  cwts.  ;  in  1879,
17.734,223  cwts.;  in  1883,  20,366,627  cwts;  in
1887,  18,010,366  cwts.  ;  in  1890,  15,717,476  cwts.

Refined  Sugar  exported  from  the  United  King-
dom :  1876,  1,192,277  cwts. ;  1880,  965,446  cwts.  ;
1885,  994,353  cwts. ;  1890,  709,416  cwts.
See  Beet-root.

SUICTDE  (from  sui,  self;  ccedere,  to  kill),  the
slayer  of  himself.  The  first  instances  recorded  in
Jewish  history  are  those  of  Samson,  about  1120,
and  Saul,  1055  15-C'  ^ne  Greek  and  Roman  philoso-
phers deemed  it  a  crime,  and  burned  the  offending
hand  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  body.  In  the  reign
of  Tarquin  I.,  the  Roman  soldiers,  thinking  them-


selves disgraced  by  being  ordered  to  make  common
sewers,  destroyed  themselves,  606  B.C.  Cato  com-
mitted suicide,  46  B.C.*  In  the  Roman  catholic
church,  in  the  6th  century  it  was  ordained  that  no
commemoration  should  be  made  in  the  Eucharist
for  such  as  committed  self-murder.  This  ecclesias-
tical law  continued  till  the  Reformation,  when  it
was  admitted  into  the  statute  law  of  England  by  the
authority  of  parliament,  with  the  confiscation  of
land  and  goods.  Till  1823  the  body  of  the  suicide
was  directed  to  be  buried  in  a  cross-road,  and  a
stake  to  be  driven  through  it.  A  new  act,  suppres-
sing the  barbarous  customs,  was  passed  in  1882.  It
is  now  usually  buried  in  consecrated  ground  With-
out a  religious  ceremony.  Thomas  Cooper,  the
eminent  Chartist,  author  of  "  The  Purgatory  of
Suicides,''  an  epic  poem,  published  in  1845,  died,
aged  87,  15  July,  1892.  Dr.  Henry  Morselli  pub-
lished "Suicides:  an  Essay,"  1881.  There  were
7,572  suicides  in  France  in  1887.

MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF  SUICIDE.

Gen.  Pichegru 7  April,  1804

Miss  Champante 15  Aug. ,,

Sellis,  valet  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland . 31  May,  1810
Abraham  Goldsmid,  an  eminent  merchant  . . . „
Williams,  supposed murderer  of  the  Marr  family

and  others 15  Dec.  181 1

Lord  French 9  Dec.  1814

Marshal  Berthier 1  June,  1815

Samuel  Whitbread,  esq 6  July, ,,

Sir  Richard  Croft 13  Feb. ,,

Sir  Samuel  Romilly 2  Nov.  1818

Christophe,  king  of  Hayti ...  8  Oct.  1820

Adm.  sir  George  Campbell  . . . .23  June,  1821

Marquis  of  Londonderry  .... 12  Aug.  1822

Hon.  colonel  Stanhope  .  .  .  .26  Jan.  1825
Mr.  Montgomery  in  Newgate  (see  Prussic  Acid),

4  July,  1828

Miss  Charlotte  Both 3  Jan.  1830

Lord  Greaves 7  Feb. ,,

Colonel  Brereton 13  Jan.  1832

Major  Thompson 13  June, .,

Mr.  Simpson,  the  traveller ... 24  July,  1840

Lord  James  Beresford  .  .  .  .27  April,  1841
Gen.  sir  Rufane  Shaw  Donkin . . .1  May, ,,

The  earl  of  Munster 20  March,  1842

Lord  Congleton 8  June, ,,

Laman  Blanchard 15  Feb.  1845

Colonel  J. Gurwood,  editor  of  "Wellington's  De-
spatches " 25  Dec. ,,

Rear-admiral  Collard  .  .  .  .18  March,  1846
Haydon,  the  eminent  painter . . 22  June, „

Count  Bresson 2  Nov.  1847

Colonel  King,  in  India  .  .  .  .12  July,  1850
Walter  Watts,  lessee  of  Olympic  theatre, 13  July, „

Rev.  Dr.  Rice 20  Jan.  1853

Lieut. -col.  Layard 27  Dec. „

Rev. T. Robinson  (threw  himself  off  Shakspere's

Cliff,  Dover) 16  Aug.  1854

Dr.  Franks,  late  editor  of  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung,

after  killing  his  son 3  Nov.  1855

John  Sadleir,  M.P.  (in  1852,  a  lord  of  the  treasury'),

by  prussic  acid  ;  on  Hampstead  Heath. (He  was

found  to  have  been  guilty  of  enormous  frauds  upon

the  Tipperary  bank",  <fee.) ... 16  Feb.  1856

A. Smart,  a  watchmaker,  threw  himself  from  the

whispering-gallery  in  St.  Paul's . 14  March, ,,
Charles Russell, esq., late chairman of Great

Western  Railway 15  May, „

Hugh  Miller,  geologist,  author  of  The  Old  Red  Sand-
stone (insane,  through  overwork) . . 23  Dec. ,,

*  Three  instances  of  self-destruction  by  fire  :  the  philo-
sopher Empedocles  threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount
Etna  ;  a  Frenchman  threw  himself,  in  1820,  into  the
crater  of  Vesuvius  ;  and  an  Englishman,  who  jumped
into  the  furnace  of  a  forge  about  the  year  181 1.  Plutarch
relates  that  an  unaccountable  passion  for  suicide  seized
the  Milesian  virgins,  from  which  they  could  not  be  pre-
vented by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  friends  ;  but  a
decree  being  issued  that  the  body  of  every  young  maid
who  did  self-murder  should  be  drawn  naked  through  the
streets,  a  stop  was  soon  put  to  the  extraordinary  frenzy.


SUICIDE.


933


SULTAN.


Major-gen.  Stalker,  C.B.,  of  Indian  army  (14  March),
and  commodore  Ethersey,  of  the  Indian  navy.
(Both  through  physical  and  mental  depression
while on  the expedition against Persia : see

Bushire) 17  March,  1857

Major  Warburton,  M.P. for  Harwich, brother  of

Eliot,  lost  in  the  Amazon ... 23  Oct. ,,
Henry  M.  Witt,  a  promising  young  chemist,  at  the

Government  School  of  Mines  .  .  .19  June,  1858
Dr.  Sadleir,  Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,

July, „
Rev.  G.  Martin,  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Exeter,

27  Aug.  i860
Lord  Forth,  son  of  earl  of  Perth  .  .  .  8  Oct.  1861
Win.  G.  Prescott,  banker  .  .  .  .29  April,  1865
Admiral Robert  Fitz-Roy  (see  Neiu  Zealand,  and

Meteorology) 30  April, ,,

Col. Hobbs (connected  with  the  suppression of

Jamaica  outbreak)  on  his  way  to  England,  9  May,  1867
G.  W.  Green,  merchant,  jumped  off  Clifton  Suspen-
sion bridge 11  May, ,,

Dr.  A.  W.  Warder,  murderer  of  Ins  wife,  at  Brighton,

12  July,  „
Thos.  Lee,  threw  himself  from  the  north  tower  of

the  Crystal  palace 18  Feb. 1868

Theodore,  emperor  of  Abyssinia  .  .  13  April,  ,,
Mr.  Stephenson,  bettor  on  races  ;  the  "  leviathan

book-maker " 9  Feb.  1869

G.  H.  Townsend,  historical  scholar . .  25  Feb. ,,

Lord  Cloncurry 3  April, ,,

Sir  Robert  H.  J.  Harvey,  Norwich  banker,  15  July  ;

died 19  July,  1870

M.  Prevost-Paradol,  the  accomplished  French
minister  at  Washington,  formerly  a  correspondent

for  the  Times 19  July, ,,

Mr. Robert  K.  Bowley, 15  years  manager  of  the

Crystal  palace  company ... 25  Aug. „
Dr. Augustus  Matthiessen,  eminent  chemist,  pro-
fessor at  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital . 6  Oct. ,,

Lord  Walsingham 31  Jan. 1871

Sir  James  Shaw  Willes,  justice  of  common  pleas

(overwrought  mind)  .... 2  Oct. 1872

Earl  Delawarr  (insane) .... 22  April,  1873
Rev.  Arthur  Holmes,  dean  of  Clare  College,  Cam-
bridge, a  great  scholar ; (overwrought mind)

17  April,  1875
George  Lord  Lyttelton, eminent  scholar  ; tempo-
rary insanity  ;  18  April ;  died  . . 19  April,  1876
Abdul  Aziz,  sultan  of  Turkey,  deposed  29  May  ;  said
to  have  committed  suicide  (see Turkey,  1881),

4  June,  „
Dr.  Sam.  Butcher.bishop  of  Meath  ;  insane,  29  July,  ,,
Harriet  Mary, dowager  countess  Howe ; insane

through  grief 29  Jan. 1877

Raphael  Brandon,  architect . . .8  Oct. ,,
J.  W.  Stevens,  insane  ;  threw  himself  from  whisper-
ing gallery,  St.  Paul's  ... 10  Jan. „
E.  M.  Ward,  genre  painter ;.  insane  . . 15  Jan.  1879
Isaac  Fletcher,  M.P.,  F.R.S. . . .3  April, ,,
Rev.  W.  Gunson,  able  tutor  of  Christ's  College,

Cambridge  (insane)  ....  30  Sept.  1881
Carl  Engel  (musical  archaeologist)  .  .  18  Nov.  1882
Dr.  William  Whitfield  Edwards,  surgeon  at  Houns-

low 27  Dec. ,,

Count  Wimpffen, Austrian  ambassador  at  Paris,

30  Dec. „
Morris  Simeon  Oppenheim,  barrister  . . 3  Jan.  1883
Joseph  Dimsdale,  Gutter  Lane,  E.C. . 13  Jan. ,,
Sir  John  Savage,  formerly  mayor  of  Belfast,

15  June, ,,
Rev.  Alexr.  Taylor,  preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  n  April,  1884
II.  T.  Edwards,  dean  of  Bangor . . 24  May, „
The  eighth  earl  of  Shaftesbury  (insane)  in  a  cab  in

Regent-street 13  April,  1886

Fred  Archer,  celebrated  jockey  (insane)  8  Nov.  ,,
Louis  II.  king  of  Bavaria  ".  .  .  13  June,  ,,
Nagayori Asana,  Japanese prince, law student

(melancholia)  at  south  Kensington . 24  Dec. ,,
John  K.  Cross,  formerly  M.P.  and  under  secretary

for  India  (1883-5)  ....  20  March,  1887
Dr.  Ridley  of  Tullamorc  gaol  (see  under  Ireland,)

20  July,  1888
Archduke Rodolph, crown prince of Austria,

30  Jan.  1889
Richard  Pigott  (see  Ireland) . . 1  March, ,,
M.  Dcnfert-Rochereau,  manager  of  the Comptoir

d'Escompte  (sen  Frniier) .  .  .  5  March, ,,

Sir  Wm.  Tindal  Robertson M.P. .  6  Oct, „


Sir  Thos.  Sidgreaves  ....  23  Dec.
Professor  Lant  Carpenter  (insane)  .  .  23  Dec.
The  duke  of  Bedford  (insane)  . . 14  Jan.

Charles  Verrall  Willett,  M.D.  (insane)  .  6  March,
Lord  James  E.  Sholto  Douglas  (insane)  5  .May,

Sen.  Jose  M.  Balmaceda,  president  of  Chili  19  Sept.
Georges  E.  J.  M.  Boulanger  (see  France)  30  Sept.
Dr.  Philip  H.  Carpenter,  at  Eton  College  21  Oct,
Arthur  Goring  Thomas,  musical  composer  (insane),

20  March,
Mr. J. H. Ferris, deputy-coroner of Cornwall,

through  grief 26  March,

M.  Henri  Dupeyrier,  African  explorer  .  April,
M.  Anatole  de  la  Forge,  French  author . 6  June,

INQUESTS ON  SUICIDES IN  ENGLAND AND WALES.

Males.


18S9
1800
1891


1802


1856
1853


1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870


1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879


919
909


961


1028
973
985
113S
1165
"35
i°73
1057
1099
1106
1170
1270

1253
1279
1461

145°

1440
1388
*437
1537
iS°4
1663
1672
1720
1603
1610


Females.
395
366
396
363
346
337
359
369
387
37i
408

397
382

391
39S
382

383
407

443
383
43°
480
480
478
502

5°7
482
484
559
555
577
535
544


Total.

1314

1275

1357
1324
1284
1335
J337
1397
1360
1356
1546
1562
1517
1464
1455
1481

*549
1577
1713
1636
1709
1941
1930
1918
1890
1944
2019
1988
2222
2227
2297


SUITORS'  FUND  (in  the  court  of  chancery)
in  1862  amounted  to  1,290,000^.  As  this  money  has
no  specific  owner,  a  proposal  was  made  by  govern-
ment to  apply  it  to  the  building  of  new  law-courts,
payment  of  all  legal  claims  being  guaranteed,  which
was  directed  by  the  "Courts  of  Laws  Fees"  act,
passed  20  Aug.  1867.

SULPHUR  has  been  known  from  the  earliest
times.  Basil  Valentine  mentions  its  production
from  green  vitriol.  Sulphuric  acid  (vitriol),  pro-
duced by  him  from  burning  sulphur,  was  introduced
into  England  about  1720.  Sulphur  has  been  the
object  of  research  of  many  eminent  chemists  during
the  present  century,  and  many  discoveries  have
been  made,  such  as  its  allotropic  condition,  &c.  It
is  the  inflammable  constituent  in  gunpowder,  and  a
deleterious  ingredient  in  coal  gas.  The  sulphur
mines  of  Sicily  have  been  wrought  since  the  16th
century,  but  the  exportation  was  inconsiderable  till
about  '1820 ;  in  1838  the  trade  increased  so  much
that  Great  Britain  alone  imported  38,654  tons.  In
that  year  the  Neapolitan  government  was  induced
to  grant  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  to  a  French
company;  but  a  firm  remonstrance  from  the  British
government  led  to  a  discontinuance  of  this  impolitic
restriction  in  1841, which,  however,  gave  a  great  and
lasting  impetus  to  the  British  sulphur  manufacture.

SULTAN",  or  ruler, a  Turkish  title,  from  the
Arabic,  given  to  Mahometan  rulers  and  especially
to  the  grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.
For the  wreck  of II. M.S. Sultan  (see Navy  of

En  ilo.nd) ....  ...  i33g


SULTT.


934


SUNDAY.


SULU,  Sooloo  or  Soluk  Archipelago,  a  group  of
above  60  islands  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The
Spanish  under  colonel  Arolas,  the  governor,  defeated
the  rebels  at  Maiburg,  and  burnt  the  town,  an-
nounced I  May,  1887.

SUMATRA,  an  island  in  the  Indian  ocean,
called  Java  Minor  by  Marco  Polo,  and  visited  by
Nicolo  di  Conti  prior  to  1449.  Mainly  on  account
of  the  pepper  trade,  the  Dutch  formed  a  settlement
at  Padang  about  1649,  an(i the  British  at  Bencoolen
about  1685.  The  Dutch  possessions  with  Java  were
acquired  by  the  British  in  181 1 ;  but  were  restored
in  1816.  In  1824  the  Dutch  acquired  all  the  British
settlements  in  Sumatra,  in  exchange  for  Malacca
and  some  possessions  in  India.  Restrictions  on
their  progress  in  Sumatra  were  removed  by  treaty
Feb.  1872.  Severe  fighting  between  the  Dutch  and
the  Achinese  natives  with  varying  results,  mostly  in
favour  of  the  Dutch,  April  1873  to  J879-  Dutch
successful  in  war,  peace  announced,  Aug.  1879.
New  -war ;  great  victory  of  the  Dutch,  13  Sept.
1882.  Sumatra  suffered  much  by  the  volcanic
eruptions  and  earthquakes  of  26-27  -A-uo-  J883.  See
Java.

SUMMARY  JURISDICTION  Act,  42  &
43  Vict.  c.  49,  11  Aug.  1879.  ^  amends  the  law
respecting  the  jurisdiction  of  magistrates,  in  regard
to  fines,  imprisonments,  &c.  It  came  into  operation
1  Jan.  1880. Amended  1881  and  1884.

SUMPTUARY  LAWS  restrain  excess  in
dress,  furniture,  eating,  &c.  The  laws  of  Lycurgus
were  severe  against  luxury,  probably  9th century  B.C.
Those  of  Zaleucus  ordained  that  no  sober  woman
should  go  attended  by  more  than  one  maid  in  the
street,  or  wear  gold  or  embroidered  apparel,  450  B.C.
—  Diog.  Laert.  The  Lex  Orchia  among  the  Romans
(181  B.C.)  limited  the  guests  at  feasts,  and  the
number  and  quality  of  the  dishes  at  an  entertain-
ment; and  it  also  enforced  that  during  supper,
which  was  the  chief  meal  among  the  Romans,
fie  doors  of  every  house  should  be  left  open.  The
English  sumptuary  laws,  chiefly  of  the  reigns  of
Edward  III.  and  Henry  VIII.,  were  repealed  in
1856;  see  Dress.

SUN.*  Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one
of  the  twelve  spheres,  about  529  B.C.  The  relative
distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated
geometrically  by  Aristarchus,  who  also  maintained  the
stability  of  the  sun,  about  280  b.  c  Numerous  theories
were  ventured  during  fifteen  centuries,  and  astronomy
lay  neglected  till  about  a.d.  1200,  when  it  was
brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and
Spain.  The  Copernican  system  was  made  known  in
1530;  see  Copernican.  System,  and  Solar  System.
Galileo  and  Newton  maintained  that  the  sun  was  an
igneous  globe.  The  transit  of  Mercury  was  observed
by  Gassendi.  For  recent  discoveries,  see  Eclipses,
Spectrum,  and  Venus.


*  The  estimated  diameter  is  840,000  miles,  and  the  dis-
tance from  the  earth,  till  lately  given  as  95,000,000  miles
nas  been  recently  corrected  to  94,000,000,  by  the  result  of
the  experiments  and  calculations  of  MM  Pizeau  and
Foucault  (1864).  "The  error  corrected  corresponds  to
the  apparent  breadth  of  a  human  hair  at  ioS  feet  or  of  a
sovereign  8  miles  off."— Herschel.  Distance  computed
by  sir  G.  B.  Airy  from  results  of  the  observation  of  tran-
sit of  Venus  (9  Dee.  1874),  93,321,000  miles,  Oct.  1877  •
92,600,000,  June,  187S.  From  the  transit  of  188"  by
professor  Harkuess(an  American),  92,385,000  miles,  Octo-
ber, 18S8.  The  sun  is  now  described  as  consisting  of  a
solid  or  liquid  nucleus,  surrounded  by  a  luminous  en-
velope (photosphere)  over  which  is  a  dense  atmosphere
containing  the  vapours  of  various  metals  and  other  ele-
ments ;  see  Spectrum.


By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  the  spot  which
darkened  the  sun's  disc  in  July  and  August,  1676,
he  established  the  certainty  of  its  motion  round
its  own  axis.

Parallax  of  the  sun,  Dr.  Halley 1702

Solar  spots  were  observed  by  Fabrieius  and  Harriot
in  1610.  A  macula  three  times  the  size  of  the  earth
passed  the  sun's  centre,  21  April,  1766,  and  fre-
quently since.

Dr.  Wilson  observed  the  motion  of  a  spot . .  1769

Herschel  measured  two  spots,  whose  length  together
exceeded  50,000  miles  .... 19  April,  1779

Many  sun  spots  observed .... early  1892

Schwabe  discovered  that  a  cycle  of  changes  (from
maximum  to  minimum  and  minimum  to  maxi-
mum) in  the  number  of  spots  occurs  in  11  years,
confirmed  by  Wolf  and  others . . . 1826-51

Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue  took  two  photographs  at  the
time  of  total  obscuration . . .18  July,  i860

Mr.  James  Nasmyth  discovers  the  lenticular-shaped
objects  011  the  sun  (termed  by  him  "  willow-
leaves,"  by  Stone  "rice-grains ") . . 28  Aug. „

Red  flames,  or  protuberances,  during  an  eclipse  of
the  sun,  observed  by  capt.  Stannyaii,  1706  ;  by
Halley,  1715  ;  by  F.  Baily  (hence  termed  "Baily's
beads,")  1842.

Determined  by  M.  Janssen  to  be  due  to  the  accu-
mulated hydrogen  of  the  photosphere,  at  the  solar
eclipse  (see  Eclipses) .... 18  Aug. 1868

Mouchot  constructed  a  solar  boiler  for  distillation,
&c Oct. i860

Mr.  Ericsson  proposed  condensation  of  the  sun's
rays  and  their  employment  as a motive  power,

Oct. 1868

The  observations  of  the  eclipse  of  22  Dec.  1870  and
12  Dec.  1871  led  to  the  opinion  that  an  unknown
substance  (represented  in  the  spectrum  by  line
1474)  existed  in  the  sun.

"  Solar  physics  "  especially  studied  by  Messrs.  War-
ren de  la  Rue,  Balfour  Stewart,  <fec. . . 1865-6

Apparatus  for  cooking  by  the  condensed  solar  rays
in  the  Paris  exhibition 1878

Solar  eclipse  well  observed  in  the  United  States  ;
the  corona  much  brighter  than  in  1871  ;  29,  30  July, „

M.  Mouchot  at  Algiers,  by  a  mirror,  collected  solar
rays,  and  boiled  water,  drove  an  engine,  &c,
March,  1880 ;  see  under  Heat.

Intensely  red  sunsets  and  after-glow,  and  very  red
sun-rises,  seen  in  England  and  other  parts  of  the
globe,  Nov.  and  Dec.  1883  ;  attributed  by  Dr.
Meldrum,  Dr.  Norman  Lockyer  and  others,  to
the  volcanic  dust  projected  by  the  eruptions  of
Rrakatoa  (see  Java,  Aug.  1883),  Dec.  1883  ;  other
causes,  such  as  cosmic  dust,  were  suggested.
Similar  sunsets  in  the  autumn  . 1884  and  1885

Interesting  photographs  of  the  sun's  corona  exhi-
bited by  Dr.  Huggius  at  the  Royal  Institution^

20  Feb. 18S5

Eclipse  of  19  Aug.  1887  not  well  observed  through
unfavourable  weather,  except  at  Moscow  and
other  places  in  Russia  and  Germany.

SUNCION,  Treaty  OF,  between  general
Urquiza,  director  of  the  Argentine  confederation,
and  G.  A.  Lopez,  president  of  the  republic  of  Para-
guay, recognising  the  independence  of  Paraguay,  14.
July,  1852.

SUNDA  ISLES,  include  Java  and  Sumatra

(which  see) .

_  SUNDAY  was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,
divine  adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun.  Among
Christians  it  is  commonly  called  Dies  Dominica,  or
Lord's  day,  on  account  of  our  Saviour's  appearance
on  that  clay,  after  his  resurrection.  The  first  civil
law  that  was  issued  for  the  observance  of  this  day,
combined  it  with  that  of  the  seventh-day  Sabbath
and  other  festivals  (Easebius,  Life  of  Constantine),
and  it  .was  followed  by  several  imperial  edicts,  in
favour  of  this  day,  which  are  extant  in  the  body  of
Roman  law,  the  earliest  being  that  of  Constantine
the  Great,  dated  7  March,  321.  See  Sabbath,  Sab-
batarians, Sports,  Book  of  &c. — For  Sunday
Letter,  see  Dominical  Letter.


SUNDAY  LECTUEE SOCIETY. 935


SUPREME COUET.


The  council  of  Orleans  prohibited  country  labour . 538

The  Sabbath-day  was  ordained  to  be  kept  holy  in
England,  from  Saturday  at  three  in  the  afternoon
to  Monday  at  break-of-day,  4th  Canon,  Edgar . 960

Act  of  parliament,  levying  one  shilling  on  every
person  absent  from  church  on  Sundays,  3  James  I.  1606

James  I.  authorised  certain  sports  after  divine  ser-
vice on  Sundays  (see  Sports) 1618

Act  restraining  amusements,  1  Charles  I. . . 1625

Act  restraining  the  performance  of  servile  works,
and  the  sale  of  goods  except  milk  at  certain  hours
and  meat  in  public-houses,  and  works  of  necessity
and  charity,  on  forfeiture  of  five  shillings,  29
Charles  II 1676

The  Sunday  act  (of  bishop  Porteus)  21  Geo,  III.
c.  49,  passed 1781

Lord  Robert  Grosvenor  (aft.  lord  Ebury),  in-
troduced a  bill  to  suppress  Sunday  trading.  (It
met  with  much  opposition  and  was  withdrawn),

April-July,  1855

The  Jews  released  from  the  compulsory  observance
of  Sunday began  28  May,  1871

Sunday  act  (1676)  amended . . -17  Aug. „

Opening  of  public  museums  and  galleries  on  Sun-
day often  proposed  in  parliament ;  negatived
(271-68),  19  May,  1874  ;  (229-87)  . 8  June,  1877

"Sunday  Society"  established  6  Aug.  1875,  "to
maintain  and  enhance  the  value  and  importance
of  the  English  Sunday."  Annual  meeting;  Dr.
A.  P.  Stanley,  the  dean  of  Westminster,  pro-
fessors Tyndall  and  Huxley,  &c,  present  12 May, ,,

The  Brighton  Aquarium  Company  fined  for  opening
on  Sunday,  27  April  ;  much  agitation  ;  petitions
to  government  for  and  against,  May  ;  an  act  was
passed  to  enable  the  Home  Secretary  to  remit
the  penalties,  13  Aug.,  1875;  the  company  again
fined 28  April, ,,

Grosvenor  gallery  and  other  collections  opened  on
Sundays,  summer 1878

Act  for  closing  public-houses  in  Ireland  on  Sun-
days, passed 16  Aug. „

Free  libraries  opened  on  Sundays  at  Manchester
and  other  places Sept. ,,

Proposed  opening  of  museums  and  galleries  in  Lon-
don, negatived  in  the  lords  (67-59),  5  May,  1879  ;
(34-41),  22  Feb.  1880 ;  (91-67)  8  May,  1883 ;
assented  to  (76-62) . . . .19  March,  1886

Opening  of  Guildhall  library  on  Sundays,  negatived
by  the  common  council . . . .16  Oct.  1879

"Welsh  Sunday  Closing  Act  passed  . . . .1881

Alexandra  Palace  religious  services  on  Sundays  for
a  time Sept. -Oct. „

Jubilee  memorial  to  the  queen  signed  by  1,132,608
women  of  England,  requesting  the  prohibition  of
the  sale  of intoxicating liquors on Sundays,

given  in 30  Dec.  1887

Protest  of  the  bishops  in  convocation  against
increasing  desecration  of  the  Lord's  day  by  the

upper  classes 2  March,  1888

Closing  of  public  houses  in  England  on Sunday
frequently  negatived  ;  Sunday  closing  bill  read
second  time  in  the  commons  . . 27  March,  1889
Sunday  Rest  League  formed  at  Paris . . . ,,

SUNDAY  LECTUEE  SOCIETYwas

founded  25  Nov.  1869.  It  began  its  proceedings  by
a  lecture  delivered  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  at  St.
George's -hall,  Regent  -  street,  16  Jan.  1870.  Its
success  was  reported  at  the  first  annual  meeting,
7  July,  1870. See  Recreative  Religionists.

SUNDAY  NEWSPAPERS,  see  Newspapers.

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS.  Cardinal  Sr.  Charles
Borromeo  introduced  Sunday  instruction  of  children
at  Milan,  about  1580;  in  the  next  century  his  example
was  followed  in  England  by  the  rev.  Joseph  Allcine;
by  rev.  David  Blair,  at  Brechin,  about  1760  ;  by  the
rev.  Theophilus  Lindsey,  at  Catterick,  Yorkshire,
about  1763;  and  more  especially  organised  by
Robert  llaikes,  an  eminent  printer  of  Gloucester,
conjointly  with  rev.  Thos.  Stock,  1780.  Ludweeli
Hacker  set  up  a  Sabbath  school  at  Ephrata,  Penn-
sylvania, between  1740  and  1747.
Sunday-school  buildings  exempted  from  rates  .  1869

Church  of  England  Sunday-school  Institute  . .  1843


Sunday-school  union  was  founded  in  1802;  it  sup-
ported 4204  schools,  1878  ;  6,162  schools  in  . .  1892

Monument  in  memory  of  twelve  originators  of  Sun-
day-schools, Essex-street,  Strand  (names  in-
scribed, 1st.,  cardinal  Borromeo,  Milan,  1580;
last,  rev.  Thomas  Stock  and  Robert  Raikes,
Gloucester,  1780) ;  inaugurated  by  Henry  Richard,
M.P.,  the  Italian  ambassador,  and  others  26  June,  1880

National  centenary  celebration  of  the  establishment
of  Sunday-schools,  in  London,  <fec,  promoted  by
the  royal  family,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the
lord  mayor,  and  others . 27  June — 3  July, ,,

Grand  reception  of  scholars  at  Lambeth  palace-gar-
dens by  the  archbishop  ;  prince  and  princess  of

Wales,  cfec,  present 3  July, ,,

See  Education,  and  Sabbath  Schools.

SUNDEELAND, seaport, N.E. Durham,
anciently  South  Wearino',  made  a  borough  by  Re-
form Bill, 1832. Returns  two  members (1885).
The  magnificent  bridge  over  the  "Wear,  designed
by Wilson,  236  feet  in  span,  was  built 1 793-6.
Population,  1881,  1 16,542 -,"1891,  130,921.
On  16  June,  1883,  186  children  were  crushed  to  death
against  a  doorway  whilst  rushing  down  from  a  gallery
in  Victoria  Hall  to  obtain  toys  given  away  by  Fay,  a
conjuror,  at  the  close  of  his  performances.
Great  distress  of  the  unemployed,  Sept.  et  seq.  1884.
See  Strikes,  1892.

SUNDEELAND ADMINISTEATION,

formed  in  1718,  arose  out  of  a  modification  of  the

Stanhope  ministry. After  various  changes,  it  was

broken  up  in  1 721.

Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Earl  Cowper,  lord  chancellor.

Earl  Stanhope  and  Mr.  Craggs,  secretaries.

Mr.  Aislabie,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  <fcc.

SUNDEELAND  LIBEAEY,  see  under
Libraries.

SUN  DIALS,  see  Dials.

SUNNITES,  or  SONNITES  (ivhich  see).

SUNSHINE  EECOEDEE,  a  sphere  of
glass  so  disposed  as  to  char  a  marked  piece  of  paper,
by  concentrating  the  sun's  rays.  The  instrument
(invented  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Campbell  in  1857),  in  its
present  form  was  devised  by  prof.  G.  G.  Stokes,
and  made  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Lecky  (1880).  A  more  deli-
cate form  of  instrument  for  recording  photometri-
cally the  duration  and  intensity  of  sunshine  has
been  invented  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Jordan,  1884 ;  much
improved,  April,  1888.

SUPEEANNUATION  ACTS  for  the  Civil
Service  were  passed  in  April,  1859,  Aug.  1866,  Juno,
1892.

SUPPEE,  see  Lord's  Supper.

SUPEEMACY  over  the  church  was  claimed
by  pope  Gclasius  I.  as  bishop  of  Rome,  494.  On
ic  Jan.  1535,  Henry  VIII.  by  virtue  of  the  act  26
Hen.  VIII.  c.  1,  formally  assumed  the  style  of  "on
earth  supreme  head  of  the  church  of  England,"
which  was  retained  by  Edward  VI.,  Mary  I.  (for  a
time),  but  was  refused  by  Elizabeth,  and  has  never
been  revived  by  succeeding  sovereigns.  The
bishop  of  Rochester  (Fisher)  and  the  ex-lord
chancellor  (sir  Thomas  More)  and  many  others
were  beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supre-
macy in  1535;  and  in  1578,  John  Nelson,  a  priest,
and  Thomas  Sherwood,  a  young  layman,  were
executed  at  Tyburn  for  the  same  offence.  The  "  acl
of  Supremacy,"  repealed  by  1  &  2  Phil,  and  Mary,
c.  8  (1554),  was  re-enacted  1  Eliz.  e.  1  (i550)-

SUPEEME  COUET  OF  JUDICATURE

was  constituted  by  the  Judicature  Act  36  &  3;

I  Vict.  c.  66,  passed  5  Aug.  1873,  to  come  into  opera-

I  tion  I  Nov.  1874. In  1874  this  was  deferred  to


SUPEEME COUET.


936


SURINAM.


I  Nov.  1875. The  "  Council  of  Judges  "  appointed

by  this  act  met  to  consider  questions  relating  to  the

reform  of  the  law,  18  Jan.  1892. See  under  Judges.

The  existing  courts  were  to  be  united  into  One
Supreme  Court,  divided  into  the  High  Court  of
Justice  and  the  Court  of  Appeal.  The  High  Court
to  consist  of  the  lord  chancellor,  the  two  lord  chief
justices,  the  vice-chancellors,  and  the  other
judges:  (hereafter  the  court  to  consist  of  21  judges.)

Five  divisions  :  1.  Chancery,  2.  Queen's  Bench,  3.
Common  Pleas,  4.  Exchequer,  and  5.  Probate,
Divorce,  and  Admiralty ;  subject  to  alteration.

The  Court  of  Appeal  to  consist  of  five  ex-officio
judges  (viz. ,  lord  chancellor,  two  lord  chief  jus-
tices, lord  chief  baron,  master  of  the  rolls),  and
such  others  as  may  be  appointed  (§§  20,  21,  22).

Appeals  to  the  house  of  lords  or  the  judicial  com-
mittee of  the  privy  council  to  be  discontinued.

Law  and  equity  to  be  concurrently  administered ;
law  terms  abolished ;  and  sittings  in  vacation  pro-
vided for. See  under  Terms.

The  act  passed  n  Aug.,  1S7S,  suspended  §§  20,  21,
and  55,  converted  the  proposed  court  of  appeal
into  an  intermediate  court  till  1  Nov.,  1876.  (See
below).

The  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  (comprising  the
High  Court  of  Justice,  Chancery  division,  Queen's
Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer  subdivi-
sions, Probate,  Divorce,  and  Admiralty  division
(all  which  see)  began .... 2  Nov.  1875

After  one  term,  it  was  said  in  the  Times,  "  Its  opera-
tion has  tended  to  economise  judicial  power  and
to  prevent  delay  of  justice  " . . 29  Nov. „

By  the  Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act  (1876)  the  house
of  lords  retains  its  powers  as  a  court  of  ultimate
appeal ;  the  court  to  consist  of  the  lord  chancel-
lor, two  lords  of  appeal  (to  be  created  peers  for
life,  with  6000J.  salary)  and  any  peers  who  are  or
have  been  lawyers.  Act  to  come  into  opera-
tion 1  Nov.  1876

The  court  may  sit  during  prorogation  of  parliament.
The  statute  relating  to  the  judicial  committee  of
the  privy  council  and  to  the  intermediate  court
of  appeal  is  amended ,,

By  this  act  also  the  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,
and  Exchequer  divisions  of  the  Supreme  Court
are  converted  into  15  courts  of  first  instance  or
primary  courts.

Additional  judge  for  chancery  division  appointed.

Style  of  ordinary  judges  :— of  the  court  of  appeal  to
be,  "lord  justices  of  the  appeal;"  other  judges,
"justices  of  the  high  court;"  by  act  passed

24  April,  1877

An  amendment  act  (42  <&  43  Vict.  c.  78),  relating  to
offices,  fees,  <fcc,  passed ... 15  Aug.  1879

At  a  meeting  of  the  judges  it  was  resolved  to  recom-
mend the  abolition  of  the  exchequer  and  common
pleas,  and  their  consolidation  into  one,  termed  the
"queen's  bench  division,"  under  the  lord  chief
justice  of  England,  30  Nov.  ;  order  in  council

16  Dec.  1880

Carried  into  effect ;  old  divisions  at  an  end  ;  judi-
cature act  carried  out  for  the  first  time 7  March,  1881

Further  changes  made  by  the  act  44  &  45  Vict.  sec.
68,  passed  27  Aug.  1881,  by  it  the  master  of  the
rolls  was  made  a  judge  of  appeal  only,  and  the
chief  justice  of  England  was  endowed  with  the
powers  of  the  chief  justice  of  common  pleas  and
the  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer.

New  code  of  rules  of  procedure  issued  about  9
July  ;  came  into  force  24  Oct.  18S3.  See  Circuits.
Amendment  act  passed  (combining  other  acts),  14
Aug.  1884; other  acts  passed  14  Aug. 1890,  11

May,  and  5  Aug.  1891

SUPEEME COUET OF JUDICA-
TURE FOE  IEELAND  constituted by  act
passed  14  Aug.  1877. Amended  by  an  act  passed
23  May,  1887,  by  which  the  titles  of  chief  baron  of
the  exchequer  and  chief  justice of  the common
pleas  are  to  be  abolished  at  the  next  vacancies.
Court  of  Appeal  : ex-officio  members,  lord  chancellor,
lord  chief  justice  of  Ireland,  master  of  the  rolls,  lord
chief  justice  of  common  pleas,  and  lord  chief  baron  of
exchequer. Ordinary  m.embcrs,  two  lords  justices  of
appeal.


High  Court  of  Justice  :  Chancery  division,  lord  chan-
cellor, master  of  the  rolls,  vice-chancellor,  and  two
land  judges.

Queen's  Bench  division :  lord  chief  justice,  and  three
judges.

Common  Pleas  division  :  lord  chief  justice,  and  two
judges.

Exchequer  division :  lord  chief  baron,  and  two  judges.

Probate  and  Matrimonial  division :  one  judge.
See  under  Chancery  and  the  other  divisions.

SURAT  (E.  Indies).  Before  the  English  East
India  company  obtained  possession  of  Bombay,  the
presidency  of  their  affairs  on  the  coast  of  Malabar
was  at  Surat;  and  they  had  a  factory  here  estab-
lished under  captain  Best  in  161 1.  The  Great
Mogul  had  here  an  officer  who  was  styled  his  ad-
miral. An  attack  of  the  Mahratta  chief  Sivajee,
on  the  British  factory,  was  defeated  by  sir  George
Oxenden,  1664.  The  English  were  again  attacked
in  1670  and  1702,  and  often  subsequently.  The
East  India  company,  in  1759,  fitted  out  an  arma-
ment, which  dispossessed  the  admiral  of  the  castle  ;
and,  soon  after,  the  possession  of  this  castle  was
confirmed  to  them  by  the  court  of  Delhi.  Surat
was  vested  in  the  British  in  1800  and  1803.  A
fourth  part  of  Surat  was  destroyed  by  fire  6,  7
April,  1889.

SURGEONS.  Barbers  and  surgeons  were  united
in  one  company  in  1540 ;  but  it  was  enacted  that  "  no
person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall
occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter
excepting  only  the  drawing  of  teeth."  In  1745
the  surgeons  and  barbers  of  London  were  made  dis-
tinct corporations.  The  college  of  surgeons  obtained
charters  in  1745,  1800,  and  1843  (when  it  was  styled
the  "  Boyal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England"),  1852,
and  1859.  Since  that  period,  various  legislative  and
other  important  regulations  have  been  adopted  to
promote  then-  utility  and  respectability ;  and  no  per-
son is  legally  entitled  to  practise  as  a  surgeon  in  the
cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  or  within  seven
miles  of  the  form  er,  who  has  not  been  examined  at  this
college.  The  college  in  Lincoln' s-inn-fields  was
re-modelled  in  1836,  and  the  interior  completed  in
1837.  The  premises  were  enlarged  in  1852-3.  The
museum  began  with  the  Hunterian  collection,  1800;
and  the  library  was  founded  in  1801.  Mrs.  Mary
Emily  Dowson,  the  first  lady  surgeon  duly  qualified
to  act,  was  invested  with  the  letters  testimonial  of
the  Irish  college  of  surgeons,  June,  1886.  See  Ana-
tomy, Physic,  and  Medical  Council.
Koyal  college  of  surgeons, Dublin, incorporated

17S6  ;  Edinburgh 1803

SUEGEEY.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Hip-
pocrates that  diseases  were  made  a  separate  study
from  philosophy,  &c,  about  410  B.C.  Hippocrates
mentions  the  ambe,  the  ancient  instrument  with
which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones.  Celsus  flour-
ished about  a.d.  17;  Galen,  170;  Aetius,  TOO;
Paulus  JEgineta,  in  640.  The  Arabians  revived
surgery  about  900;  and  in  the  16th  century  a  new
era  in  the  science  began ;  between  these  periods
surgery  was  confined  to  ignorant  priests  and  bar-
bers. Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  Vesalius,  the
father  of  modern  surgery,  in  1538.  Surgeons  and
doctors  were  exempted  from  bearing  arms  or  serving
on  juries,  15 13,  at  which  period  there  were  only
thirteen  in  London;  see  Physic.

SURGICAL  AID  SOCIETY,  founded
1862 ;  supplies  the  poor  with  instruments,  water-
beds,  &c.

SUEINAM  (Dutch  Guiana),  discovered  by
Columbus,  1498.  The  factories  established  by  the
English  in  1640  were  occupied  by  the  Portuguese,


SURNAMES.


937


SWANSEA.


1643;  by  the  Dutch,  1654;  taken  by  the  British,
1799,  1804;  and  restored  to  the  Dutch,  1802,  1814.

SURNAMES  were  introduced  into  England  by

the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by  the  nobility
about  1 100.  The  old  Normans  used  Fite,  which
signifies  son,  as  Fitz-herbert.  The  Irish  used  0,
for  grandson,  O'Neal,  O'Donnell.  The  Scottish
Highlanders  used  Mac,  as  Macdonald,  son  of  Donald.
The  "Welsh  used  Ap,  as  Ap  Rhys,  the  son  of  Rhys  ;
Ap  Richard.  The  prefix  Ap  eventually  was  combined
with  the  name  of  the  father,  hence  Prys,  Pritchard,
&c.  The  northern  nations  added  the  word  son  to  the
father's  name,  as  "Williamson.  Many  of  the  most
common  surnames,  such  as  Johnson,  Wilson,  Dyson,
Nicholson,  &c,  were  taken  by  Brabanters  and  other
Flemings,  who  were  naturalised  in  the  reign  of
Henry  VI.,  1435.  M.  A.  Lower's  "  Dictionary  of
English  Surnames"  was  published  in  i860.

SURPLICES  were  first  worn  by  the  Jewish
priests,  and  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  in
churches  in  the  fourth  century,  and  encouraged  by
pope  Adrian,  786.  "  Every  minister  saying  public
prayers  shall  wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,"
Canon  58.  The  garb  prescribed  by  stat.  2  Edw.  "VI.
1547  ;  again  1  Eliz.  1558 ;  and  13  &  14  Chas.  II.
1662 ;  see  Ritualism.

SURREY  CHAPEL,  Blackfriars-road,  was
built  for  Calvinistic  dissenters  in  1783;  the  rev.
Rowland  Hill,  their  minister,  who  died  in  1833,
was  buried  in  a  vault  here.  The  congregation
under  the  rev.  Newman  Hall  removed  to  Christ
Church,  in  "Westminster-road,  July,  1876.  See
Lincoln  Toiver.

SURREY  HOUSE  MUSEUM,  Forest
Hill,  containing  the  collections  of  Mr.  F.  Horniman,
cost  about  100,000^.,  presented  by  him  to  the  public,
was  opened  by  sir  Morell  Mackenzie,  24  Dec.  1890.

SURREY ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS

(near  London)  were  established  in  1831,  by  Mr.
Edward  Cross,  who  brought  hither  the  menagerie
formerly  at  Exeter  change.  Various  picture  models
have  been  exhibited  here  since  1837,  viz.,  Vesuvius,
Iceland,  &c,  accompanied  by  fireworks.  In  1856,
a  company  which  had  taken  the  gardens,  erected  a
large  yet  elegant  building  for  concerts  ;  the  archi-
tect being  Mr.  Horace  Jones.  On  19  Oct.  1856,
when  the  hall  contained  about  9000  persons,  attend-
ing to  hear  the  rev.  C.  H.  Spurgeon,  seven  were
killed  and  thirty  seriously  injured,  by  a  false  alarm
of  fire.  It  was  burnt  II  June,  1861 ;  see  Fires.
In  1862  the  hall  was  temporarily  taken  for  the  re-
ception of  the  patients  of  St.  Thomas's  hospital.

SURTEES  SOCIETY  for  publishing  MSS.
relating  to  the  northern  counties,  established  1834  ;
84  volumes  have  been  published,  1889.

SURVEY  ACT,  passed  12  May,  1870.  See
Ordnance  Survey.

SURVEYORS,  INSTITUTION  OF,  Lon-
don, founded  in  1868,  to  promote  the  "knowledgi
which  constitutes  the  profession  of  a  surveyor."
Incorporated  as  "  The  Surveyors'  Institution  "  in
1881.  The  number  of  members,  1,200  in  1886.

SUSA,  or  SnusnAN,  capital  of  Susiana,  a  pro-
vince of  Persia,  was  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great.
331  B.C.

SUSPENDING  POWER,  see  Dispensing
Power.

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES  are  ancient  in
China.  The  Hungerford  (or  Charing-cross)  suspen-
sion bridge,  opened  May  1,  1845,  was  removed  to


Clifton  and  opened  there,  8  Dec.  1864.  Parliament
empowered  the  commissioners  of  woods  to  erect
(among  other  improvements  there)  a  suspension
bridge  at  Battersea,  Sept.  1846 ;  and  many  bridges
of  similar  construction  have  been  erected  in  various-
parts  of  the  kingdom.  Lambeth  and  Westminster
suspension  bridge  was  opened  10  Nov.  1862 ;  sec
Menai  Strait,  Hungerford,  Clifton,  &c.

SUSPENSORY  BILL,  the  name  given  to
"a  bill  to  prevent  for  a  limited  time  [to  I  Aug,
1869]  new  appointments  in  the  church  of  Ireland  ;
and  to  restrain,  for  the  same  period,  in  certain
respects,  the  proceedings  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Com-
missioners for  Ireland."  This  bill  was  introduced
into  the  commons  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  14  May,  and
passed  through  committee,  5  June  ;  rejected  by  the
lords  (192  to  97),  30  June,  3  a.m.,  1868.

SUSSEX,  see  Britain.

SUTLEJ,  a  river  in  N.W.  India,  the  ancient!
Hyphasis  or  Hypana,  on  the  banks  of  which  were-
fought  the  desperate  battles  of  Aliwal,  28  Jan.,  and
Sobraon,  10  Feb.  1846  {which  sec).

SUTTEE,  the  burning  of  widows.  This  cus-
tom began  in  India  from  one  of  the  wives  of
"  Bramah,  the  Son  of  God,"  sacrificing  herself  at
his  death,  that  she  might  attend  him  in  heaven.
Seventeen  widows  have  burnt  themselves  on  the
funeral  pile  of  a  rajah ;  and  in  Bengal  alone,  70a
have  thus  perished  in  a  year.  The  English  govern-
ment, after  long  discouraging  suttees,  by  the  agency
of  lord  William  Bentinck,  formally  abolished  them,
7  Dec.  1829;  but  they  have  since  occasionally  taken
place.  The  wife  of  the  son  of  the  rajah  of  Beygoon-
thus  perished,  June,  1864,  and  several  wives  of  sir
Jung  Bahadoor,  minister  of  Nepaul,  I  March,  1877,
Suttees  still  occur ;  one,  voluntary,  at  Poona,  Nov.
1890.

About  20,000,000  women  in  enforced  widowhood  ;
much  profligacy,  1885.  Legislative  interference
with  the  Hindoo  marriage  laws  declared  by  lord
Dufferin,  viceroy,  to  be  ineffectual  and  un-
necessary ;  moral  influence  progressing  (see
Brahmo  Somaj,  under  Deism)  announced Oct.  1886

SUWANOW,  or  (SUWOROFF),  a  group  of
small  uninhabited  isles  in  the  Pacific,  about  450
miles  NNW.  of  the  Samoan  isles,  annexed  by
Great  Britain,  1889.

SWABIA,  a  province  in  S.  Germany;  was  con-
quered by  Clovis,  and  incorporated  into  the  king-
dom of  the  Franks,  496.  After  various  changes  of
rulers,  it  was  made  a  duchy  by  the  emperor  Conrad
L,  in  912,  for  Erchanger;  according  to  some,  in
916,  for  Burckhardt.  The  duchy  became  hereditary
in  the  house  of  Hohcnstaufcn  in  1080.  Duke
Frederick  III.  became  emperor  of  Rome,  com-
monly styled  of  Germany,  as  Frederick  I.  (usu-
ally styled  Barbarossa,  "  red  beard),  in  1 1 5 2 .
Conradin  his  descendant,  was  defeated  at  the
battle  of  Tagliacozzo  (which  sec),  in  1268,  and
beheaded  shortly  after.  The  breaking  up  of  the
duchy  gave  rise  to  many  of  the  small  German
states;  part  of  Swabia  is  included  in  Wurtemberg
and  Switzerland.  Swabia  was  made  a  circle  of  the
empire  in  13S7  and  1500.  A  league,  composed  of
Swabian  cities  and  states,  about  [254,  was  the  germ
of  the  great  Swabian  league,  formed  for  the  preser-
vation of  the  peace  of  Germany,  under  the  auspices
of  the  emperor  Frederick,  in  1488.

SWAN  RIVER  SETTLEMENT,  see
Western  Australia.

SWANSEA,  Glamorganshire,  an  ancient
Welsh  town  ;  seat  of  the  copper  trade  since 1719.


SWAT.


938


SWEDEN.


New  dock  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  18  Oct.
1881. Population,  1881,  76,430;  1891,  90,423.
The  British  Association  met  here  Aug.  1848,  and  Aug.,

Sept.  1880.
Lewis  L.  Dillwyn,  37  years  M.P.  for  Swansea, died

suddenly,  19  June,  1892.

SWAT,  or  SVAT,  a  river,  N.W.  India.  The
Akhond,  Abdul  Ghafur,  originally  an  austere  Ma-
hometan fanatic,  about  1822,  gradually  obtained
temporal  power  over  the  tribes  in  the  hills  near
Afghanistan,  dying  in  high  reputation,  about  1878.

SWAZILAND,  South  Africa,  a  tract  of  about

8,000 square miles,  nearly surrounded by the

Transvaal territory; population, about 60,000

natives  and  600  whites,  1889.

Great  disorders  through  the  weakness  of  the  king,
Umbandeni ;  influenced  successively  by  opposing
white  factions,  English  and  Boers  ;  the  king  dies,

_,'....  6  Oct.  1889

To  settle  the  government  of  the  country,  sir  Francis
de  Winton  was  appointed  British  commissioner,
sailed  8  Oct.  ;  at  Pretoria,  about  12  Nov.  ;  Boer
commissioners  were  appointed . about  21  Oct. „

Boon,  eldest  son  of  Umbandeni,  elected  king ;
Mr.  Shepstone  appointed  to  take  charge  of  Euro-
pean affairs about  23  Oct. „

Sir  Francis  de  Winton  and  the  Transvaal  commis-
sioners meet  100  head-men  of  the  Swazis  ;  results  :
the  independence  of  the  nation  to  be  preserved  ;
the  accession  of  the  king  recognized  ;  the  queen-
mother  to  be  regent  during  his  minority  ;  Mr.
Shepstone  to  be  adviser  ;  the  commissioners  to
govern  the  whites  during  their  stay,  to  be  suc-
ceeded by  3  delegates ;  a  legal  tribunal  to  be
appointed  to  enquire  respecting  concessions  of
land  to  the  whites . . .  n  Dec.

The  queen-regent  (by  Mr.  Shepstone)  proclaims
submission  to  the  commissioners,  about  16  Dec.  ;
the  commissioners  appoint  3  delegates  (British,
Boer,  and  Swazi)  to  help  the  queen,  pending  the
decision  of  the  British  and  Transvaal  govern-
ments, and  leave Dec.

At  a  conference  with  president  Kriiger  at  Blignauts
Pont,  it  was  agreed  to  defer  the  settlement  for
four  months I2  March,  1890

Independence  of  the  Swazis  re-affirmed  by  a  con-
vention ;  a  joint  administration  over  the  white
settlers  to  be  established  with  other  conditions  ;
signed  by  president  Kriiger ;  reported  4  Aug.  ;
^  ratified  by  the  volksraad. ... 8  Aug. ,,

Col.  Martin,  British  commissioner,  introduced  to
Queen  Victoria x  July,  ^92

SWEABORG,  a  strong  fortress  in  Finland,  the
Gibraltar  of  the  north,  31  miles  south  of  Helsing-
fors;  it  is  situated  on  seven  rocky  islands;  the
fortifications  were  commenced  by  the  Swedes  in  1748,
and  completed  after  Finland  was  united  to  Russia
m  1809.  On  6  Aug.  1855,  the  English  and  French
fleet  anchored  oft'  Sweaborg,  and  bombarded  it  by
mortar  and  gun-boats  from  the  9th  to  the  nth,
causing  the  destruction  of  nearly  all  the  principal
buildings,  including  the  dockyard  and  arsenal.  Few
casualties  and  no  loss  of  life  ensued  in  the  allied
squadron,  but  this  success  was  not  followed  up.

SWEABING  on  the  Gospels,  first  used

about  528,  and  introduced  in  judicial  proceedings
about  600.—  Rapin.  Profane  Swearing  made
punishable  by  fine  ;  a  labourer  or  servant  forfeiting
is.,  others  2s.  for  the  first  offence;  for  the  second
offence,  4.S. ;  the  third  offence,  6s.  ;  6  Will.  Ill
1695 ;  see  Oaths.

SWEATING  SICKNESS,  see  Plague.
Sweating  System,  a  term  applied,  especially  in
the  east  end  of  London,  to  the  practice  carried
on  by  large  tradesmen  of  entrusting  orders  to
middlemen  termed  "sweaters,"  who  employ
men,  women,  and  children  (principally  foreigners)
to  make  up  clothes,  boots,  and  furniture  in  their
own  houses  at  excessively  low  wages  with  many


evil  consequences.  Lord  Dunravens  motion  for
a  select  committee  of  inquiry  was  carried  in  the
lords,  28  Feb.  ;  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  earl  of
Derby,  and  others  appointed  9  March,  1888.
Painfully  distressing  evidence  was  obtained.
The  origin  of  the  evil  is  attributed  to  the  great
competition  in  producing  extreme  cheapness.
The  new  and  foreign  workmen  are  termed
"greeners."  It  is  stated  that  about  5s.  are
sometimes  paid  for  a  week  of  days  of  14  hours,
May.  The  sufferings  of  the  Cradley  Heath  chain-
makers,  nailmakers,  and  others,  were  disclosed
to  the  committee  ....  March,  1889
Anti-sweating  league  formed  in  London.  1  Oct.  ,,
The  fifth  and  final  report  recommends  that  where
legislation  cannot  intervene  capitalists  should
enquire  into  the  way  in  which  their  work  is
carried  on,  with  the  view  of  improvement  5  May,  1S90
Blue  Book  published .... 19  May ,,

SWEDEN  (N.  Europe).  The  ancient  inhabi-
tants were  the  Fins,  now  the  modern  inhabitants  of
Finland,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory  on
the  appearance  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Goths,  who
have  ever  since  been  masters  of  Sweden ;  see
Scandinavia,  and  Norioay,  1891.  The  internal
state  of  this  kingdom  is  little  known  previous
to  the  nth  century.  By  the  union  of  Calmar
in  1397,  Sweden  became  a  province  of  Denmark,
and  was  not  wholly  rescued  from  this  sub-
jection till  152 1,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  recovered
the  kingdom  from  the  Danish  yoke.  He  became
king  in  1523,  and  his  descendants  ruled  till
1809.  The  government  of  Sweden  is  a  limited
monarchy.  The  diet  consists  of  four  orders,  the
nobles,  the  clergy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers,
and  meet  every  three  years.  The  king  is,  as  in
Britain,  the  head  of  the  executive.  There  are  two
universities,  Upsal  and  Lund;  and  Sweden  can
boast,  among  its  great  men,  Linnasus,  Celsius,
Scheele,  Bergman,  Berzelius,  Thorwaldsen,  and
Andersen.  Population  (31  Dec.  1887)  of  Sweden,
4,734,901;  of  Norway  (1875),  1,806,900.  Sweden,
1890,4,784,675.  Norway,  1891,  1,988,997.  Sweden,
1890-91,  4,911,894?.;  Norway,  1891-2,  estimated
revenue,  2,733,333?. ;  expenditure,  2,738,889?.

Odin  said  to  arrive  in  the  north,  and  died .  B.C.

His  son  Skiold  reigns 40

The  Skioldungs  reign  till  Olaf  the  infant  is  baptized,
and  introduces  Christianity  among  his  people,

about  a. d.  1000
Waldeinar  I.  of  Denmark  subdues  Rugen,  and  de-
stroys the  pagan  temples 1168

Stockholm  founded 1260

Magnus  Ladultes establishes a regular form of

government 1279

The  crown  of  Sweden,  which  had  been  hereditary,
is  made  elective  ;  and  Steenchel  Magnus,  sur-
named  Snuek,  or  the  foolish,  king  of  Norway,  is

elected 1319

Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste  .... 1361

Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns 1363

Treaty  or  union  of  Calmar  (which  see),  by  which
Sweden  is  united  to  Denmark  and  Norway,  under

Margaret 1 397

University  of  Upsal  founded 1476

Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  "  the  Nero  of  the  North,"

massacres  the  Swedish  nobility  ....  1520
The  Swedes  delivered  from  the  Danish  yoke  "by  the

valour  of  Gustavus  Vasa 1521

Gustavus  Vasa  raised  to  the  throne  .... 1523
He  introduces  Lutheranism  and  religious  liberty .  1527

Makes  the  crown  hereditary 1544

Gustavus  Adolphus  heads  the  protestant  cause  in

Germany 1628

He  takes  Magdeburg  and  Munich,  1630 ;  slain  at

Lutzeu 16  Nov.  1632

Rugeu  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark . . . 1648
Abdication  of  Christina  . . . 16  June,  1654

Charles  X.  overruns  Poland 1655

Arts  and  sciences  begin  to  flourish . . . .  1660

University  of  Lund  founded 1666

Charles  XII.  "the  Madman  of  the  North,"  begins


SWEDEN.


939


SWEDEN.


his  reign  ;  he  makes  himself  absolute  ;  abolishes
the  senate, 1699 ;  and  defeats  the Russians  at
Narva  .......  30  Nov. 1700

Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Charles  is  defeated  by  the

czar  of  Russia  (see  Pultowa) . . . 8  July,  1709
He  escapes  to  Bender,  where,  after  three  years'  pro-
tection, he  is  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Turks  . _ . 171 3
He  is  restored  ;  and  after  ruinous  wars,  and  fighting
numerous  battles,  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frede-

rickshald 11  Dec.  1718

Queen  Ulrica  abolishes  despotism . . . .1719
Bremen  and  Verden  ceded  to  Hanover  . . Nov. ,,
Royal  Academy  founded  by  Linnaaus . . -1741
Conspiracy  of  counts  of  Brahe  and  Home,  who  are

beheaded 1756

The  Hats  and  Caps  (French  and  Russian  parties),
1738-57  :  put  down  by  Gustavus  HI. . . . 1770

Despotism  re-established 1772

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted ,,

Assassination  of Gustavus  III. by  count Anker-

stroin,  at  a  ball,  16  March  ;  he  expired  29  March,  1792
The  regicide  was scourged with whips of iron
thongs  three successive  days  ; his right  hand
was  cut  off,  then  his  head,  and  his  body  impaled,

18  May, ,,
Gustavus IV. dethroned  and  the  government  as-
sumed by  his uncle the duke of  Sudermania
(Charles  XIII.)  .... 13  March,  1809

Representative  constitution  established  . 7  June, „
Sweden  cedes  Finland  to  Russia . . 17  Sept. ,,
Marshal  Bernadotte,  the  prince  of  Ponte  Corvo  (one
of  Bonaparte's  generals),  chosen  the  crown  prince
of  Sweden ...... 21  Aug. 1810

Gustavus  IV.  arrived  in  London  . . .12  Nov. ,,
Swedish  Pomerauia  seized  by  Napoleon  . 9  Jan. 1812  j
Alliance  with  England  . . .  12  July, ,,

Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against  Napoleon,

13  March,  1S13  j
Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel,

14  Jan.  ;  carried  into  effect . . .  Nov.  1814

Bernadotte  king,  as  Charles  John  XIV. .  5  Feb.  1818

Canals  and  roads  constructed 1822

Treaty  of  navigation  between  Great  Britain  and

Sweden 19  May,  1826

Death  of  Charles  John  ;  his  son  Oscar  I.  king,  8  Mar.  1844
Alliance  with  England  and  France .  21  Nov.  1855

Banishment  decreed  against  catholic  converts  from

Lutheranism Oct.  1857

Demonstration  in  favour  of  Italy  . . 17  Dec. 1859

Increased  religious  toleration . . .  May,  i860

The  king  visits  England  and  France  .  .  Aug.  1861
He  is  warmly  received  in  Denmark  .  17  July,  1862
Treaty  of  commerce  with  Italy,  signed  .  14  June,  ,,
Demonstration  in  favour  of  Poland  .  .  April,  1863
Inauguration  of  free  trade  ....  1  Jan.  1864
Sweden  protests  against  the  occupation  of  Sleswig

by  the  allies 22  Jan. ,,

Excitement  throughout  the  country  ;  March  :  pre-
paration for  war  ;  (no  result)  .  .  .  April,  ,,
Foundation  of  a  "  National  Scandinavian  Society"
at  Stockholm  to  obtain  by  legal  means  a  confede-
ration of  the  three  kingdoms  for  military  and
foreign  affairs,  reserving  independent  interior  ad-
ministration Dec. ,,

New  constitution  passed  by  the  chambers,  4-8  Dec. ,,
Commercial  treaty  with  Fiance  approved . Feb. 1866
Severe  famine  in  North  Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867
Resignation  of  ministers,  9  April ; new ministry

under  M.  Wachtmeister ... 4  June,  1868
Irineess  Louisa  was  married  to  Frederic,  crown-
prince  of  Sweden .... 28  July,  1869
Neutrality  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  was  pro-
claimed 4  Aug. 1870

The  queen  dies 13  March,  1S71

Prince  Oscar  visits  England  ;  lays  foundation  of  a

Scandinavian  church  at  Rotherhithe 27  July, ,,
Re-organization  of  the  army  proposed,  Aug.  ;  nega-
tived Oct. ,,

Death  of  king  Charles  XV.  .  . .  18  Sept.  1872

The  diet  opened  by  king  Oscar  II.  . 20  Jan. 1873

The  king  and  queen  crowned . . . 12  May, ,,
Ministry  under  baron  de  Geer . . n  May,  1875
The  king  and  queen  visit  Copenhagen  and  Berlin  ;

warmly  received .... 26-28  May, ,,
Ministry  under  Dr.  Porssell . . . 19  April,  1880
The  king  with  the  queen  at  Bournemouth  for  his
health May,  i83i


Ministry  of  count  Posse  defeated  on  the  army  bill,

resigns 25  May,  1883

M.  Thyselius  appointed  premier . . 13  June, ,,
The  crown  prince  made  viceroy  of  Norway

19  March,  1884.
M.  O.  R.  Themptander  appointed  premier 16  May, ,,
The  king  visits  Britain,  July,  Aug.  1884  ;  at  Con-
stantinople 9  April,  1885

New  ministry  formed  under  baron  Bildt, 6  Feb. 1888
Prince  Oscar  married  to  Miss  Munck  at  Bourne-
mouth, England  ;  his  mother  present 15  March, ,,
The  king  visits  England  . . . early  June, ,,
Norway  agitates  for  autonomy  in  foreign  affairs  ;
opposed  by  Sweden Feb.  1892

kings  of  sv,'edets  (previously  Kings  of  Upsal).

1001.  Olaf  Sehotkonung,  or  Olif  Schcetkonung  the  Infant.
is  styled  king,  1015.

1026.  Edmund  Colbrenner.

iosi.  Edmund  Slemme.

1056.  Stenkill.

1066.  Halstan.

1090.  Ingo  I.  the  Good.

1112.  Philip.

1 1 18.  Ingo  II.

1 1 29.  Swerker  or  Suercher  I.

H55.  St.  Eric  IX.

1 161.  Charles  VII.  ;  made  prisoner  by  his  successor.

1 167.  Canute,  son  of  Eric  I.

1 199.  Swerker  or  Suercher  II.  ;  killed  in  battle.

1210.  Eric  X.

1216.  John  I.

1222.  Erie  XI.  the  Stammerer.

1250.  Birger  Jarl,  regent.
,, Waldemar  I.

1275.  Magnus  I.  Ladultes.

1290.  Birger  II.

1319.  Magnus  II.  Smtek  ;  dethroned.

1350.  Eric  XII.

1359.  Magnus  restored  ;  deposed  1363.

1363.  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  :  his  tyranny  causes  a  re-
volt of  his  subjects,  who  invite  Margaret  of  Den-
mark to  the  tlu'one.

1389.  Margaret,  queen  of  Sweden  and  Norn-ay  now  also
of  Denmark,  and  Eric  XIII.

1397.  [Union  of  Calmar,  by  which  the  three  kingdoms
are  united  under  one  sovereign.  ]

1412.  Eric  XIII.  governs  alone  ;  deposed.

1440. Christopher  III.

1448.  Charles  VIII.  Canuteson,  king  of  Sweden  ouTy.

1471.  [Interregnum.]  Sten  Sture,  Protector.

1483.  John  II.  (I.  of  Denmark).

1502.  [Interregnum.]

1503.  Swante  Sture,  Protector.
1512.  Sten  Sture,  Protector.

1520.  Christiern,  or  Christian  II.,  of  Denmark,  styled
the  "Nero  ©f  the  North  ;"  deposed  for  his  cruel-
ties.

1523.  Gustavus  I.  Vasa  ;  by  whose  valour  the  Swedes  are
delivered  from  the  Danish  yoke.

1560.  Eric  XIV.,  son  ;  dethroned  and  slain  by

1569.  John  III.,  brother.

1592.  SigisnumdIII.,  king  of  Poland,  son;  disputes  for
the  succession  continued  the  whole  of  this
reign.

1604.  Charles  IX.  brother  of  John  III.

1611.  Gustavus  II.  Adolphus,  the  Great,  son  ;  fell  at  the
battle  of  Lutzen,  16  Nov.  1632.

1632.  [Interregnum.]

1633.  Christina,  daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the

crown  to  her  cousin, 16  June, 1654; died  at

Rome  in  1689.
1654.  Charles  X.  Gustavus,  son  of  John  Casimir,  COUllI

palatine  of  the  Rhine
1660.  Charles  XI. ,  son  ;  thearts  and  sciences  flourished  in

this  reign.
1697.  Charles  XII.,  son  ;  styled  the  "  Alexander, "and  the

"Madman  of  the  North  ;"  killed  at  Fredericks-

hald,  11  Dec.  1718.
1718.  Ulrica  Eleanora,  sister,  and  her  consort, Fr -

rick  I.  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel. Ulrica  rcl.n-

quishes  the  crown,  and  in
1741.  Frederick  reigned  alone.
1751.  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holsteir*  <  cended

from  the  family  of  Vasa.
1771.  Gustavus ill. Adolphus, son  ;  assassinated by

count Ankerstroin  at  a  masked  ball,  16  March;

died  29  March,  1792.


SWEDENB  OEGI ANS .


940


SWITZEBLAND.


1792.  Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus,  son  ;  dethroned,  and  the
government  assumed  by  his  uncle,  the  duke  of
Sudermania.

1809.  Charles  XIII.  duke  of  Sudermania.

[Treaty  of  Kiel  (1814)  by  which  Norway  falls  under
the  sovereignty  of  Sweden.]

1818.  Charles  (John)  XIV.  Bernadotte,  the  French  prince
of  Ponte  Corvo  ;  died  8  March,  1844.

1844.  Oscar  I.,  son  ;  born  4  July,  1799  ;  died  8  July,  1859.

1859.  Charles  XV.,  son  ;  born  3  May,  1826  ;  died  18  Sept.
1872  ;  a  poet ;  brieve  and  impulsive ;  much  be-
loved.

1872.  Oscar  II.,  brother; born  21 Jan. 1829; married
princess  Sophia  of  Nassau,  6  June,  1857.
Heir :  Gustavus,  son,  born  16  June,  1858  ;  married
to  Victoria  of  Baden,  20  Sept.  1881.

SWEDENB  OEGI  ANS, or New  Jerusalem
Church,  are  those  who  adopt  the  theological  teach-
ings of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (born  at  Stockholm,
29  Jan.  1688  ;  died  in  London,  29  March,  1772).
He  claimed  to  have  had  his  spiritual  sight  opened,  and
to  have  been  introduced  into  heaven  and  hell  by  the
Lord  that  he  might  disclose  their  true  nature  and  the
science  of  correspondences  by  which  the  internal  sense
of  Scripture,  which  is  the  Word  as  it  exists  in  the
heavens,  may  be  known  to  men  :  this  he  did  in  the
Arcana  Ccelestia  and  other  works.
His  disciples  first  meet  as  an  organized  body  in  London

in  1788.
There  were  70  churches  in  Great  Britain  in  1879.
Their  belief  is  that  the  sole  deity  is  centred  in  Jesus
Christ,  in  whom  is  a  trinity  of  essentials  ;  that  salva-
tion is  effected  by  faith  and  works  combined  ;  that  as
man's  soul  is  a  spiritual  body  he  will  never  resume  the
material  body  ;  that  the  Last  Judgment  was  effected
in  the  spiritual  world  during  Swedenborg's  lifetime ;
and  that  the  Lord's  Second  Coming  has  taken  place
through  the  revelation  of  a  new  system  of  truth  from
the  inner  sense  of  Scripture.
The  Swedenborg  Society  instituted,  1810.
The  Missionary  and  Tract  Society  of  the  New  Church,

1821.
Centenary  of  the  establishment  of  the  New  Jerusalem
church  celebrated  in  London,  13  Aug.  1883.

SWEET-BAY,  Laurus  nobilis,  was  brought  to
these  realms  from  Italy  before  1548.  Laurus  inclica,
or  Royal  Bay,  was  brought  from  Madeira  in  1665.
The  Sweet-Fern  bush,  Comptonia  asplenifolia,  came
from  America,  1714.  Laurus  aggregata,  or  the
Glaucous  Laurel,  came  from  China  in  1806.

SWIMMING-  Leander  is  said  to  have  swum
across  the  Hellespont,  between  Sestos  and  Abydos,
about  one  mile ;  and  Lord  Byron,  and  lieut.  Eken-
head  did  the  same,  3  May,  1810.  On  24  Aug.,  1872,
Mr.  Johnson,  styled  the  "hero  of  London- bridge,"
and  swimming  champion  of  the  world,  attempted  to
swim  from  Lover  to  Calais,  but  was  prevented  by
cold.  He  was  said  to  have  swum  seven  miles  in
about  sixty-five  minutes.

Public  swimming  bath  on  the  Thames  opened,

6  July,  7875

Capt.  Matt.  Webb  swam  from  Blackwall  to  Graves-
end,  20  miles,  in  4  hours  53  minutes,  3  July  ;  and
from  Dover  to  Calais(22^  miles)  in  23:!  hours,  24-25,
Aug.  1875  ;  drowned  while  attempting  to  cross
the  rapids  of  Niagara . . . 24Ju.lv,  1882

Agnes  Beckwith,  aged  14,  swam  from  London
bridge  to  Greenwich,  5  miles,  in  ill.  8min.i  Sept.  1875

Emily  Parker,  aged  rs,  swam  from  London  bridge
to  Blackwall,  7  miles,  in  1  h.  35  min. . 4  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Cavill  swam  from  Dover  to  Calais  in  12  hours

20,  21  Aug.  1877

Miss  Beckwith  said  to  have  swum  30  continuous
hours 7,  8  May,  1880

Taylor  wins  the  amateur  swimming  championship
of  Great  Britain  at  Birmingham . 19  Aug.  18S2

Davis  Dalton,  an  American  aged  3S,  swam  on  his
back  across  the  Channel,  accompanied  by  a  life-
boat from  Boulogne  to  Folkestone 17-18  Aug.  1890

Boy/on' s  apparatus,  see  under  Life  Boat.


SWING.  Between  1830  and  1833  many  hay-
stacks and  barns  were  fired  in  the  rural  districts  of
England,  and  attributed  to  an  imaginary  person
named  "  Swing."  Many  persons  were  caught  and
punished.  The  probable  cause  was  disputes  between
the  farmers  and  their  deluded  labourers.

SWISS  GUABDS,  Royal,  in  France,  formed
in  1616 ;  massacred  while  defending  the  Tuileries,
10  Aug.  1792;  re-organised  Sept.  1815  ;  defeated
during  the  insurrection,  28  July,  1830 ;  dismissed
by  Charles  X.  Aug.  1830.

S WITHIN' S  DAY,  ST.,  15  July.  St.  S within
lived  in  the  9th  century;  and,  having  been  the
preceptor  to  king  Ethelwulf,  was  made  bishop  of
Winchester  in  852,  and  died  2  July,  862.  The
tradition  states  that  it  rained  forty  days  in  conse-
quence of  the  proposed  removal  of  his  remains  from
the  churchyard  to  the  cathedral.

SWITZEBLAND  was  in  ancient  times  in-
habited by  the  Helvetii,  which  see.  The  country
was  colonised  by  the  Romans  after  Caesar's  victory
over  the  Helvetii  in  their  invasion  of  Gaul,  58  b.c  ,
and  the  people  were  gradually  combined  with  the
Eomans,  and  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  their  empire.
The  canton  Schwt  itz  has  given  name  to  the  whole
confederacy.  —  The  present  national  council  is
elected  every  third  year,  at  the  rate  of  one  mem-
ber for  2000  persons.  The  president  of  the  con-
federation is  elected  annually.  The  revised  federal
constitution  was  voted  19  April,  1874. — Population,
Lee.  i860,  2,507,170;  1870,  2,669,147;  1880,
2,846,102;  June  1888,  2,917,754.  Revenue,  1890,
2,704,850/.  ;  expenditure,  2,667,535/.

"  The  Swiss  Confederation,"  by  sir  F.  O.  Adams
and  C.  D.  Cunningham ;  published  by  Mac-
millan  &  Co 1889

SWISS CONFEDERATION  OF 1815.


Uri,  1307  \  first  con-

Sehweitz  > federa-

Unterwalden ) tion.

Zurich

Berne

Lucerne

Solotlmrn

Basle

Grisons

Aargau

Thurgau


Schaffhausen

Appenzell

St.  Gall

Glaris

Zug

Freiburg

Tessins

Pays  de  Vaud

Valais

Neufchatel

Geneva


Helvetia  ravaged  by  the  Huns

Becomes  subject  to  Germany

Friburg  built  by  Berthold  IV

Berne  built

Tyranny  of  Gesler,  heroism  of  William  Tell,  and  re-
volt (demonstrated  to  be  mythical),  dated .

Confederation  against  Austria ;  declaration  of  Swiss
independence 4  Nov.

The  men  of  Uri,  Unterwalden,  and  Schwytz  made
a  solemn  defensive  league  and  covenant  for  ever
against  the  Austrians  ;  this  is  regarded  as  the
foundation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  1  Aug.
1291  ;  said  to  have  been  confirmed  by  the  leaders,
Werner  Stauffacher  (of  Schwytz),  Walter  Fiirst
(Uri),  and  Arnold  von  Melchthal  (Unterwalden),
determined  to  free  their  country  from  a  foreign
j'oke 17  Nov.

A  malignant  fever  carries  off,  in  the  canton  of  Basle,
1100  persons

Form  of  government  made  perpetual . . . .

Leopold  of  Austria  defeated  at  Morgarten,  15  Nov.

Lucerne  joins  the  confederacy

The  canton  of  Zurich  joins  and  becomes  head  of  the
league .........

Berne,  Glaris,  and  Zug  join

8  cantons  form  a  perpetual  league . . . .

Leopold  II.  of  Austria  defeated  and  slain  at  Sempach,

9  July,

The  Austrians  defeated  at  Nafels,  9  April,  1388  :
make  i>eace


9C9
1032
1179
1191

1306

1307


1314
1315


1350
1351

1386
1389


SWITZERLAND.


941


SWITZERLAND.


The  Grisons  league  (see  Caddee)  .... 1400

Second  league  of  the  Grisons 1424

The  third  league  of  the  Grisons  ....  1436

Battle  of  St.  Jacobs  on  the  Birs,  near  Basle  (1600
Swiss  resist  30,000  French,  and  are  all  killed,  the
enemy  losing  10,000)  ....  26  Aug. 1444

The  Swiss  defeat  Charles  the  Bold  at  Granson,  5

March  ;  and  at  Morat . . . .22  June,  1476
And  aid  the  duke  of  Lorraine  at  Nancj%  where

Charles  is  slain 5  Jan. 1477

Swiss soldiers  first  enter  into  the  pay  of  France,

under  Louis  XI 1480

Fribourg  and  Soleure  join  ;  confederation  formed .  1481
Maximilian  I.  emperor,  acknowledges Swiss  inde-
pendence 1499

Schaffhausen  and  Basle  join  the  union . . .  1501
The  Swiss  invade  Milan  and  defeat  the  French  at

Novara 6  June,  1513

Defeated  by  them  at  Marignano . 13,  14  Sept.  1515
The  Swiss  confederacy  acknowledged  by  France  and

other  powers 1516

The  Reformation  begins  at  Basle  ;  the  bishop  com-
pelled to  retire 1519

The  Reformation  adopted  by  some  cantons  ;  battle
of  Cappel,  Zwingli  killed  and  reformers  defeated,

12  Oct.  1531
The  Grison  leagues  join  the  Swiss  confederacy  as
allies .........  1544

Appenzel  joins  the  other  Cantons . . . . 1597

Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  attempts  Geneva  by  sur-
prise, scales  the  walls,  and  penetrates  the  town,

but  in  the  end  is  defeated 1602

[This  circumstance  gave  rise  to  an  annual  festival

commemorative  of  their  escape  from  tyranny.]
Independence of Switzerland  recognised  by the

treaty  of  Westphalia  (see  Westpludia) . . . 1648
Peace  of  Aargau,  end  of  religious  war . .Aug. 1712
[From  this  period  until  the  French  revolution  the
cantons enjoyed  tranquillity,  disturbed  only  by
the  changes  arising  out  of  their  various  constitu-
tions.]

Alliance  with  France 25  May, 1777

Strife  in  Geneva,  between  the  aristocratic  and  demo-
cratic parties  ;  France  interferes . . . . 1781
1000  fugitive  Genevese  seek  an  asylum  in  Ireland

(see  Geneva) 1782

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France . . . .  1792
Helvetic  confederation  dissolved  ;  its  subjugation

by  France 1798

Helvetian  republic  formed ,

Switzerland  the  seat  of  war .... 1799-1S02
The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  19  ;  the  federal
government  restored  ;  and  a  landamman  appointed

by  France 12  May, ,,

Uri, Schweitz,  and  Uuderwald  separate  from  the

republic 13  July, ,,

Switzerland  joins  France  with  6000  men 24  Aug. 1811
The  allies  entered  Switzerland  in  the  spring  of .  1814
The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  22,  and  the  in-
dependence and neutrality of Switzerland
secured  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  . . . .1815
Revision  of  the  constitution  of  the  cantons . . 1S39
Law  to  make  education  independent  of  the  clergy  . 1830
leads  to  dissensions  between  the  catholics  and

protestants 1840-4

Dispute  about  the  convents  of  Aargau,  1844  ;  to  put
education  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  <fec.  ;  op-
position of  the  protestant  cantons  .  .  .  .  1846
Lucerne,  Uri,  Schweitz,  Unterwalden,  Freiburg,
Zug,  and  Valais  (Roman  catholic  cantons),  form  a
separate  league  (Sonderbuud)  to  support  educa-
tion by  the  Jesuits,  &c „

Insurrection  at  Geneva  against  Jesuit  teaching ;  a
temporary  provisional government  established,

7  Oct.  ,,
The  diet  declares  the  Sonderbund  illegal,  and  dis-
solves it,  20  July  ;  the  seven  cantons  protest,  22
July  ;  the  diet  orders  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,
3  Sept.  ;  communal  assemblies  held  to  resist  it,
26  Sept.;  3,  10  Oct. ;  appeal  to  arms  21  Oct.  1847

The  diet  prepares  to  repress  the  Sonderbund,  4
JNov.  ;  Friburg  surrenders,  14  Nov.;  civil  war;
the  Sonderbund  defeated  by  gen.  II.  Dufour,  near
Lucerne,  23  Nov. ;  end  of  the  Sonderbund  ;  it  sub-
mits to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  secu-
larisation of  monastic  property  .  .  29  Nov.  ,,
New  federal  constitution  .  .  .  .12  Sept.  1848
Dispute  about  Neufchatcl  (which  see)  . . . .  1857


Declaration  of  neutrality  in  the  coming  Italian  war,

14  March,  1859

Mutiny  and  punishment  of  the  Swiss  mercenary
troops  at  Naples  ;  the  confederation  forbid  foreign
enlistment July  and  Aug. ,,

Swiss  government  protests  against  the  annexation
of  Savoy  to  France  . . . .  15  March,  1S60

150  Swiss  attempt  to  enter  Savoy  ;  stopped  by
Genevese  government ... 30  March, ,,

M.  Thorel,  a  Swiss,  obtains  a  prize  at  the  national
shooting  match  at  Wimbledon . .  July, ,,

The  government  forbid  the  Swiss  to  enlist  in  foreign
service  without  permission . . .30  July, ,,

Proposed  European  congress  to  preserve  Swiss
neutrality,  put  off July, „

Glarus  destroyed  by  fire  ...  3  May,  1861

French  troops  occupy  Vallee  des  Dappes,  28  Oct.  ;
the  Swiss  announce  the  violation  of  their  territory,

5  Nov. ,,

Treaty  of  France  settles  the  question  of  the  Vallee
des  Dappes  by  mutual  cession  of  territory  ;  no
military  works  to  be  constructed  on  territory
ceded  ;  signed 8  Dec.  1S62

Serious  election  riots  at  Geneva,  with  bloodshed,
22  Aug.  ;  federal  troops  arrive . . 23  Aug.  1864

Federal  troops  quit  Geneva . . . 11  Jan. 1865

International  Social  Science  Congress  meets  at
Berne 28  Aug. ,,

Revision  of  the  constitution  ; deliberations  begin

23  Oct. „

Nearly  all  the  revised  articles  of  the  federal  consti-
tution rejected  by  the  vote  of  the  Swiss  burgesses

14  Jan.  1866

J.  J.  Stehlen  elected  president  . . 1  July,  1867

Workmen's international congress  at Lausanne,

2-7  Sept. ,,

Meeting  of  the  federal  assembly .  6-25  July,  1S68

Queen  Victoria  visits  Lucerne . . Aug.  Sept. „

International  peace  and  liberty  congress,  at  Geneva,
9-12  Sept.  1867  ;  at  Berne,  22-26  Sept. . . . ,,

Neutrality  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  proclaimed,

July, „

New  constitution  adopted  by  Zurich . 18  April,  1869

The  French  army  under  Clinchant  (84,000),  crosses
the  frontiers  and  is  disarmed . . .1  Feb.  1871

The  French  soldiers  interned  at  Zurich,  and  oppose
German  demonstrations  . . 9-12  Mar. ,,

Extraordinary  session  of  the  federal  assembly  to
revise  the  constitution  ... 6  Nov. ,,

Plebiscite  respecting  a  new  constitution,  re-organ-
izing the  army,  and  promoting  uniform  educa-
tion, <fec.  rejected  by  majority  of  4967  out  of
509,921 ......  12  May,  1872

M.  Favre  engaged  to  construct  a  tunnel  through  St.
Gothard  in  8  years,  for  2.ooo,ooo(.  . . 8  Aug. „

The  papal  nuncio,  Mermillod,  expelled .  16  Jan. 1S73

Revised  federal  constitution  vottd  (321,870  for,
177,800  against) 19  April,  1S74

Swiss  national  catholic  church  constitute/ 1 June, .,

19  Catholic  priests  deprived  for  refusal  to  take
constitutional  oath .... .5  Sept. ,,

International  postal  congress  at  Berne,  15  Sept. ;
protocol  signed  (see  postal  convention) 9  Oct. ,,

Civil  marriage  law  and  registration  adopted  by  uni-
versal suffrage  (212,854 — 204,700)  . . 23  May,  1875

President  of  the  national  council  for  three  years,
J.  Philippin,  elected' .... 6  June,  1S77

Continued  deficit  in  revenue,  announced  16  March,  1S78

Death  of  James  Fazy,  eminent  statesman, 6  Nov. ,,

National  voting  for  St.  Gothard,  railway  and  tunnel
(161,000  majority) 19  Jan.  1S79

Suicide  of  Herr  Anderwert,  the  president  elect,

27  Dec.  18S0

Opening  of  St.  Gothard  railway  from  Milan  to
Lucerne 20,  21  May,  1882

Invasion  of  the  salvation  army  (which  sec),  autumn,
1 884, much  resisted  at  Berne, Geneva,  &c, Jan. et  seq.  1S83

The  watch-tool  making  village,  Vallorbcs,  almost
destroyed  by  lire  . . . . 7  April, ,,

National  exhibition  at  Zurich . 1  May — 27  Dec. ,,

M.  Schenck  elected  president . . . Dec.  1884

Village  Of  Mulligan,  Aargau, destroyed  by  (i  re,  23A  pill,  1885
Fifth  centenary  of  t lie  battle  of  Scmpach  (9  July,

1386)  celebrated 5  July,  1886

Grand  funeral  of  Mr.  Hertenstein,  the  president  al
Berne,  who  died  alter  a  surgical  operation,  30
Nov.;  vice-president  Bernard  Hammer  elected
president 13  Dec.  1C88


SWOEDS.


942


SYNDICATE.


The  German  government  protests  against  the
expulsion  of  its  police  officer,  Wohlgemuth,
from  Switzerland,  May  ;  the  great  powers  pro-
test against  the  asylum  given  to  political
criminals  ;  the  Swiss  propose  new  legal  measures,
June ;  the  Swiss  government  repels  the  charge,
but  prepares  legal  measures  for  redress, June,  1889

The  Swiss  government  in  a  reply  note  to  Berlin,
stands  firm 14  July, ,,

Loan  for  25,000,000  francs,  to  supply  new  arms  for
the  Federal  troops,  subscribed  for  by  Berne
alone reported  23  July, ,,

M.  Ruchonnet  elected  President  for  1890

about  10  Dec. ,,

Destructive  storms  in  the  poorest  districts,  much
distress 18-23  Aug.  1890

Insurrection  at  Ticino,  which  see . 12-14  Sept. ,,

Railway  Accident  near  Bale  ;  by  the  collapse  of  a
bridge  several  carriages  of  an  excursion  train
were  thrown  into  the  river  Birse.  Above  70
persons  perish 14  June,  1891

600th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  Swiss
Confederation  celebrated  in  the  province  of
Schwytz 1-2  Aug. „

Meiringen,  canton  of  Berne,  totally  burnt;  2  deaths,
about  2,000  persons  homeless  . . 25  Oct. ,,

President,  A.  A.  Lachenal . . . 1  June, ,,

Bill  for  giving  effect  to  the  popular  vote  of  July,
affirming  the  right  of  the  people  to  take  the
initiative  in  constitutional  reforms,  considered
by  the  national  council ... 7  Dec. ,,

Dr.  E.  Welti,  president  of  the  confederation,
resigns  in  consequence  of  a  plebiscite  on  6  Dec,
refusing  to  purchase  the  Swiss  railways

reported  8  Dec. „

M.  Walter  Hauser,  president . . .1  Jan.  1892

The  commercial  treaties  with  Germany  and  Austria-
Hungary  adopted  by  the  states  council 28  Jan. ,,

SWORDS-  The  Roman  swords  were  from  20
to  30  inches  long.  The  broadsword  and  scimitar  are
of  modern  adoption.  Damascus  steel  swords  were
most  prized;  the  next  the  sword  of  Ferrara  steel.
The  Scotch  Highlanders,  from  the  artificer  Andrea
di  Ferrara,  called  their  swords  Andrew  Ferraras.
The  large  sword  shown  at  Dumbarton  castle  as
Wallace's  is  asserted  to  be  one  of  Edward  IVth's.
The  broadsword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  Edin-
burgh in  1724.

SYBAEIS,  a  Greek  colony  in  S.  Italy,  founded
about  720  B.C.;  destroyed  by  the  Crotonians  about
5 10  B.  c.  The  people  were  greatly  addicted  to  luxury;
hence  the  term  Sybarite.

Archaeological  investigations  disclosed  evidences
of  the  existence  of  a  great  city  and  civilization
anterior  to  the  Greek  invasion ....  1888

SYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE,

In  Mrs.  Jameson's  "Memoirs  of  Female  Sove-
reigns" we  are  told  that  Mary  queen  of  Scots
brought  over  from  France  a  little  sycamore  tree,
which  she  planted  in  the  garden  at  Holyrood,  and
that  from  this  have  sprung  all  the  beautiful  groves
of  sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Scotland.

SYDNEY,  capital  of  New  South  Wales;
founded  by  governor  Phillip,  on  a  cove  on  Port
Jackson,  26  Jan.  1788,  as  a  British  settlement  for
the  colony  of  convicts  originally  intended  for  Botany
bay.  It  was  named  after  lord  Sydney,  secretary
for  the  colonies.  Population  1891,  386,400.  See
Australia,  New  South  Wales,  Convicts.
A  legislative  council  first  held  .  .  13  July,  1829
Sydney  erected  into  a  bishopric  (afterwards  an  arch-
bishopric) 1836

Lit  with  gas,  the  first  place  so  lit  in  Australia,  May,  1841
ishop  of  Australia  made  bishop  of  Sydney  and

metropolitan 1S47

University  founded 1852

Roman  Catholic  cathedral  burnt,  and  valuable  pro-
perty destroyed ....  29  June,  1865
Visited  by  the  duke  of,Ediuburgh . ,  Feb.  1868


At  Port  Jackson  he  narrowly  escaped  assassination  ;
O'Farrell,  a  Fenian,  who  shot  him  in  the  back  on
12  March,  was  convicted  on  31  March,  and  executed

21  April,  1S68

The  duke  sailed  for  England  4  April,  and  arrived

26  June, ,,

New  cathedral  consecrated . . .30  Nov. ,,

Foundation  of  capt.  Cook's  monument  laid  by  the
duke  of  Edinburgh .... 28  March,  1869

A  conference of delegates  from the Australian
colonies  met  here  for  customs,  postal  and  railway •
purposes,  without  effect ....  Jan. 1S73

Exhibitions  opened  here,  April,  1873,  and  11  April,  1874

Captain  Cook's  statue  uncovered  . . 2  Feb.  1878

International  exhibition  opened  by  the  governor,
lord  A.  Loftus 17  Sept.  1879

Direct  railway  to  Melbourne  completed . June,  1883

Canon  Barry  consecrated  bishop  of  Sydney  and
metropolitan  1  Jan.  1884  ;  resigns, . .  '  Dec.  1888

Meetings  of  loyalists  opposing  the  home  rule
delegates  (Mr.  Dillon,  sir  Thomas  Esmonde,  and
Mr.  Deasy,  M.P.'s) May  18^9

Death  at  Sydney  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Watson  (aged  64)
termed  the  Australian  "  Quartz  Reef  King,"  said
to  have  left  to  his  family  about  30,000,000?.  the
results  of  gold  digging  at  Bendigo,  Victoria,  and
other  places  and  of  railway  and  other  specula-
tions . • about  12  July, ,,

Rev.  canon  William  Saumarez  Smith,  D.D. ,  an-
nounced as  the  new  bishop  and  metropolitan  of
Australia,  9  Aug.  1889,  elected  21  March

arrived  30  Sept.  i£go

Strike  of  men  connected  with  shi  pping,  about
5,000  ;  reported  20  Aug.  ;  rioting  in  Newcastle
checked  by  military .... 27  Aug. ,,

Conference  of  Australian  employers,  9  Sept.  ;
labour  conference  . . . 11-24  Sept. ,,

Great  fire  in  Pitt-street  and  other  streets ;  esti-
mated damage  750,000? 1  Oct. „

Departure  of  lord  Carrington  ;  grand  demonstra-
tion in  his  honour . . . . 1  Nov. ,,

The  strike  practically  closed . . .5  Nov. ,,

Reception. of  the  earl  of  Jersey . . 15  Jan.  1891

Meeting  of  the  National  Australasian  Federation
Convention,  see  Australasia . , 2  March, ,,

Strike  of  5,000  miners  of  Broken  Hill  against  con-
tract labour 4  July,  1892

SYLLABUS  OF  ERRORS  in  modem  times.
80  paragraphs  divided  into  10  chapters,  issued  by
pope  Pius  IX.,  with  an  encyclical  letter,  8  Dec.
1864.  It  condemned  heresy,  modem  philosophj',
and  liberalism  in  politics ;  was  forbidden  to  be  read
in  French  churches,  and  was  generally  opposed,  but
was  adopted  by  the  council  at  Home  1870.

SYMPHONIES.  Short  pieces  of  instru-
mental music  between  songs  in  operas  ;  early  in  the
17th  century.  These  were  gradually  developed  by
the  great  masters,  such  as  Lulli,  into  independent
pieces  ;  of  these  the  symphonies  of  Corelli,  Handel,
Mozart,  Haydn,  and  Beethoven  are  eminent
examples.

SYMPHONION,  an  improved  form  of  the
musical  box  capable  of  performing  many  more
tunes,  invented  by  Mr.  Ellis  Parr,  1887.

SYMPIESOMETER,  a  species  of  barometer
invented  by  Adie  of  Edinburgh  in  1819.

SYNAGOGUE  (literally  an  assembly),  a  con-
gregation of  the  Jews,  and  the  place  where  such
assembly  is  held  for  religious  purposes.  When
these  meetings  were  first  held  is  uncertain ;  some
refer  them  to  the  times  after  the  Babylonish  cap-
tivity. In  Jerusalem  were  480  synagogues.  In
1 85 1  there  were  in  London  10  synagogues,  in
England  and  Wales,  53.  A  magnificent  synagogue
was  consecrated  at  Berlin,  5  Sept.  1866;  see  Jews.

SYNDICATE,  originally  a  body  of  syndics,
officers  of  a  government  or  any  ruling  body  ;  the
term  is  now  frequently  used  as  synonymous  with  a
company  or  body  of  trustees,  1888. See  Trusts.


SYNOD.


943


SYRIA.


SYNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called
by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by  Christian  princes  ;
but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of
his  legates  usually  presiding ;  see  Councils.  The
first  national  synod  held  in  England  was  at  Hert-
ford, 673 ;  the  last  was  held  by  cardinal  Pole  in
1555.  Made  unlawful  to  hold  synods  but  \>y  royal
authority,  2^  Henry  VIII.  1533;  see  Dort,  and
Thurles.

SYNONYM,  a  word  having  the  same  or
nearly  the  same  meaning  as  another,  as  valour,
courage.  Books  of  Greek  and  Latin  synonyms  were
early  compiled.  G.  Crabbe's  dictionary  appeared,
1816;  Dr.  P.  M.  Roget's  excellent  "Thesaurus  of
English  Words  and  Phrases,"  1852.

SYPHILIS,  a  disease  said  to  have  been  intro-
duced into  Europe  at  the  siege  of  Naples,  1495 ;  but
was  probably  known  to  the  ancients.

SYEACITSE,  S.  E.  Sicily,  founded  by  Archias,
734  B.C.  The  city  gradually  included  five  towns,
Ortygia  (an  island,  containing  the  citadel,  or
acropolis),  Achradina,  Tyche,  Neapolis,  andEpipolae.
The  ancient  history  is  given  in  the  article  Sicily.

Syracuse  taken  by  the  Saracens  and  ransomed  669  ;

burnt  by  them 878

Retaken  by  count  Roger,  the  Norman  .  .  .  10S8
Destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  1542,  Jan.  1693 ;  and

nearly  destroyed 6  Aug.  1757

In  the  insurrection,  Syracuse  surrendered  to  the

Neapolitan  trooi>s 8  April,  1849

SYREN,  see  Sirenc.

SYRIA,  a  country  of  ~W.  Asia.  The  capital  was
originally  Damascus ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,
Seleucus  founded  Antioch.

Alliance  of  David  king  of  Israel  and  Hiram  king  of
Syria  ........ B.C.  1049

Syria  conquered  by  David 1040

Liberated  by  Rezin 980

Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  makes  war  on  the  Jews . 898

Benhadad  II.  reigns about 830

Syria  subjugated  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria 740

Syria  conquered  by  Cyrus 537

And  by  Alexander 333

Seleucus  Nicator  enters  Babylon 312

./Era  of  the  Seleucidae  (which  see) . . . . ' ,,
Great  battle  of  Ipsus ;  death  of  Antigonus,  defeated
by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  and  Lysimachus . . . 301

The  city  of  Antioch  founded 299

Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  falling  in  love  with  his
father's  queen,  Stratonice,  he  pines  away  nearly
to  death  ;  but  the  secret  being  discovered,  she  is
divorced  by  the  father,  and  married  by  the  son  .  297
Battle  of  Cyropedium  ;  Lysimachus  slain  by  Seleu-
cus 281

Seleucus  foully  assassinated  by  Ceraunus ; Anti-
ochus I.  king 280

Antiochus  I.  (Soter,  or  Saviour,)  defeats  the  Gauls  .  275
Antiochus II.  surnamed  by  the  Milesians Theos

(God)  king ■ . . 261

Poisoned  by  Laodice 246

Seleucus  II.  (king,  246)  makes  a  treaty  of  alliance

with  Smyrna  and  Magnesia 243

Seleucus  III.  Ceravmus  (or  Thunder),  king . . 226
Antiochus  III.  the  Great  (king,  223),  conquers  Pales-
tine, but  is  totally  defeated  at  Raphia  . .217
Again conquers Palestine, 198; but  gives it to

Ptolemy 193

Enters  Greece, 192 ; defeated  by  the  Romans  at

Thermopylae,  191 ;  and  at  Magnesia . .  190

Makes  peace  with  the  Romans,  giving  up  to  them

Asia  Minor 188

Seleucus  Philopator,  king 187

Antiochus  IV.  king,  who  assumes  the  title  of  Theos-

Epiphanes,  or  the  illustrious  God . . . . 175
He  sends  Apollonius into  Judea ; Jerusalem is
taken  ; the  temple  pillaged  ; 40,000  inhabitants
destroyed,  and  40,000  more  sold  as  slaves . . 168
Antiochus  V.  Eupator  (king,  164),  murdered  by  De-
metrius Soter,  who  seizes  the  throne .  ,


Demetrius  is  defeated  and  slain  by  his  successor
Alexander  Bala,  150;  who  is  also  defeated  and
slain  by  Demetrius  Nicator  ....  B.C.  146
Antiochus  VI.  Sidetes  (son  of  Demetrius  Soter)
rules  during  the  captivity  of  his  brother  Deme-
trius Nicator  (after  slaying  the  usurper  Trypho)  .  137
Antiochus  grants  peace  to  the  Jews,  and  placates
the  Romans, 133;  invades  Parthia,  129; and  is

defeated  and  slain 128

Demetrius  Nicator  restored ,,

Cleopatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son  Seleucus  with

her  own  hand 124

Her  son  Antiochus  VII.  Grypus  (king,  125),  whom
she  attempts  to  poison ; but  he compels his
mother  to  swallow  the  deadly  draught  herself . 123.
Reign  of  Antiochus  VIII.  Cyzicenus  at  Damascus,

and  of  Grypus  at  Antioch m

Seleucus,  king 95

Antiochus  IX.  Ensebes,  king 94

Dethroned  by  Philip 85

Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  acquires  Syria . . 83
Antiochus  X. Asiaticus,  solicits  the aid  of  the

Romans 75

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Lucullus,  69 ;  he  submits  to
Pompey,  who  enters  Syria,  and  dethrones  Anti-
ochus Asiaticus 63

Syria  made  a  Roman  province 63.

Syria  invaded  by  the  Parthians . . .  a.d. 162-

By  the  Persians 256

Violent  earthquakes 341

Invaded  by  the  Saracens,  497,  502,  529  ;  by  the  Per-
sians 607

Conquered  by  the  Saracens 638

Conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Fatimite  caliphs  . . . 970
Revolt  of  the  emirs  of  Damascus ....  1067

The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt 1068

The  crusades  commence  (see  Crusades) . . .  1095
Desolated  by  the  Crusades  (which  see) . 1096-1272

Noureddin  conquers  Syria 11C&

Saladin  dethrones  the  Fatimite  dynasty . . . 1171

The  Tartars  overrun  all  Syria 1259

The  sultans  of  Egypt  expel  the  Crusaders . . .  1291

Syria  overrun  by  Tamerlane 1400

Syria  and  Egypt  conquered  by  the  Turks . .  1516-17
Syria  continued  in  possession  of  the  Turks  till  the
invasion  by  the  French,  1799;  Bonaparte  overruns
the  country,  Gaza  and  Jaffa  taken  March,  1799

Siege  of  Acre  begun  by  the  ^French, 16  March;

raised 20  May, ,,

Bonaparte  returns  to  France  from  Egypt 23  Aug. ,,
Egypt  and  Syria  evacuated  by  the  French  army,

10  Sept.  1801
Mehemet  Ali  attacks  and  captures  Acre,  and  over-
runs the  whole  of  Syria  .  . . .  1S31
Ibrahim  Pacha,  his  son,  defeats  the  army  of  the

grand  signior  at  Konieh ... 21  Dec.  1832
Numerous  battles  and  conflicts  follow  with  various
success ; the  European  powers intervene, and

peace  is  made 6  May,  1833

The  war  renewed,  May;  Ibrahim  defeats  the  Turks

at  Nezib 24  June,  1839

The  Turkish  fleet  deserts  to  Mehemet  Ali,  and  ar-
rives at  Alexandria .... 14  July, ,.
The  five  powers  unite  to  support  the  Porte July, ,,
Death  of  lady  Hester  Stanhope . . 23  June,  1840
Treaty  of  London  (not  signed  by  offended  France),

15  July,  ,,
Capture  of  Sidon  (see  Sirfon)  .  .  .  27  Sept.  ,,
Fall  of  Beyrout  (see  Bcyrovt)  .  .  .  10  Oct.  ,.
Fall  of  Acre  (see  Acre)  ....  3  Nov.  ..
Long  negotiations ; the sultan grants  hereditary

rights  to  Mehemet,  who  gives  up  Syria . Jan. 1841
The Druses  said  to  have  destroyed 151  Christian
villages  and  killed  1000  persons  (see  Drusrs),

29  May  tii  1  July,  i860
The  Mahometans  massacre  Christians  at  Damascus;
about  3300  slain  ;  many  saved  by  Abd-el-Kader,

9  July,  &c. ,,
The  English  and  French  government  intervene;  a
convention  signed  at  Taris;  12,000  men  tobeseni

by  France 3  Aug. ,,

Vigour  of  Fuad  Pacha ;  he  punishes  the  Mahome-
tans implicated  in  the  massacres  at  Damascus
very  severely ;  167  of  all  ranks,  including  the
governor,  executed  .  .  .  20  Aug.,  ct  seq.
4000  French  soldiers,  under  general  Hautpoul,  land
at  Beyrout 22  Aug.


SYEIA.


944


SZEGEDIN.


Lord  Dufferin,  tlie  British  commissioner  in  Syria,
arrives  at  Damascus . . . , 6  Sept.

The  French  and  Turks  advance  against  Lebanon ;
14  emirs  surrendered  ... . .Oct.

Pacification  of  the  country  effected  . Nov.

"The  French  occupation  ceases . .  5  June,

Prince  of  "Wales  visits  Syria . . . April,

Insurrection  of  Joseph  Karam,  Maronite,  in  Le-
banon; suppressed ....  March,

Another  suppressed ;  Karam  flies  to  Algeria,

31  Jan.

Midhat  Pasha  appointed  governor-general  to  in-
augurate reforms,  Nov.  1878  ;  experiences  great
difficulty,  Oct.;  resigns,  hut  continues,

Oct.  1 879- June,


1S67


Hamed  Pasha,  governor  of  Smyrna, and  Midhat
Pasha  change  places Aug.  1080

Midhat  Pasha, charged with  complicity in the
murder  of  the  sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  surrenders
(see  Turkey,  1881) . • • about  17  May,  1881

SYSTON,  see  under  Libraries.

SZEGEDIN  (Hungary),  on  the  Theiss  at  its
junction  with  the  Maros,  the  seat  of  revolutionary
government,  1849.  Kebuilt  under  superintendence
of  Ludwig  Tisza.  Grand  festival,  the  emperor
present,  16  Oct.  1883.  See  Inundations,  1879  and
1887.


T.


TABERNACLE.


TAMMANY  FRAUDS.


TABERNACLE,  the  Holy  Place  of  the  Israel-
ites, till  the  erection  of  Solomon's  temple,  was  con-
structed by  Divine  direction,  1491  B.C.  The  taber-
nacle set'  up  at  Shiloh  by  Joshua,  1444  B.C.  was
replaced  by  the  temple  erected  by  Solomon,  1004
B.C.  The  chapel  erected  for  George  Whitefield  in
Moorfields  in  1741,  being  of  a  temporary  nature,
received  the  name  of  Tabernacle,  which  was  after-
wards given  to  their  chapels  by  the  Calvinistic
Methodists.  Whitefield' s  Tabernacle  in  Totten-
ham-court-road was  erected  in  1756,  and  enlarged
in  1760.  His  lease  expired  in  1828;  the  chapel  was
opened  by  the  Independents  in  1830,  and  taken  down
in  1890.  A  large  metropolitan  tabernacle,  erected
for  the  ministrations  of  Mr.  C.  H.  Spurgeon,  a
Baptist,  near  the  "  Elephant  and  Castle,"  Kenning-
ton-road,  Surrey,  was  opened  on  31  March,  1861.

TABINET,  see  Poplin.

TABLES,  see  Decemvirs.

TABLET,  Roman  Catholic  weekly  paper,  esta-
blished 1840.

TABLE  TURNING.  This  delusion,  which
came  from  America,  and  was  popular  in  1853,  was
attributed  by  Faraday  and  others  to  involuntary
mechanical  action. See  Spirit-Mapping.

TABOR,  in  Bohemia,  was  founded  by  Ziska  in
1420,  and  became  a  chief  seat  of  the  Hussites;  see
Hussites.

TADMOR,  see  Palmyra.

TAEPINGS,  see  China,  1851,  note.

TAFFETY,  an  early  species  of  silken  manu-
facture, more  prized  formerly  than  now,  woven
very  smooth  and  glossy.  It  was  worn  by  our
elder  queens,  and  was  first  made  in  England  by
John  Tyce,  of  Shoreditch,  London,  41  Eliz.  1598.
— Stow's  Chron.

TAGLIACOZZO,  in  the  Abruzzi  mountains,
S.  Italy,  where,  on  23  Aug.  1268,  Charles  of  Anjou,
the  usurping  king  of  Naples,  defeated  and  made
prisoner  the  rightful  monarch,  young  Conradin
(the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  and  grandson  of  the
emperor  Frederick  II.),  who  had  been  invited  into
Italy  by  the  Ghibelline  or  Imperial  party;  their
opponents,  the  Guelfs,  or  papal  party,  supporting
Charles.  Conradin  was  beheaded,  29  Oct.  fol-
lowing.

TAGLIAMENTO,  a  river  in  Lombardy,  N.
Italy,  near  which  the  Austrians,  under  the  arch-
duke Charles,  were  defeated  by  Bonaparte,  16
March,  1797.

TAHERITES,  a  dynasty  of  Fersia,  813-872.
TAHITI- The  French  abbreviated  name  for
Otaheite ;  see  Otaheite.

TAILLEBOURG  (W.  France).  Near  here
Henry  III.  of  England  was  defeated  and  nearly
captured  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  20  July,  1242.

TAKU  FORTS,  China,  taken  by  the  allies,
21  Aug.  i860.

TALAVERA  de  la  Reyxa  (central  Spain),
was  taken  from  the  Mahometans  by  Ordoiio,  Icing
of  Leon,  913.  Here  a  battle  was  fought  27,  28
July,  1809,  between  the  united  British  and  Spanish
armies  under  sir  Arthur  Welleslcy,  and  the  French


army  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and  Sebas-
tiani.  After  a  conflict  on  the  27th,  both  armies
remained  on  the  field  during  the  night,  and  the
French  at  break  of  day  renewed  the  attack,  and
were  again  repulsed  by  the  British  with  great
slaughter.  At  noon  Victor  charged  the  whole
British  line,  was  repulsed  at  all  points,  and  retreated
with  a  heavy  loss.  As  Soult,  Ney,  and  Mortier
were  in  the  rear,  the  British  retired  after  the
victory.

TALBOTYPE,  see  Photography.

"TALISMAN  "  affair,  see  Peru,  1874-6.

TALKING-MACHINE,  see  Automatons.

TALLY  OFFICE  in  the  Exchequer  took  its
name  from  the  French  word  tattler,  to  cut.  A  tally
is  a  piece  of  wood  written  upon  both  sides,  contain-
ing an  acquittance  for  money  received ;  which,
being  cloven  asunder  by  an  officer  of  the  exchequer,
one  part,  called  the  stock,  was  delivered  to  the
person  who  paid,  or  lent,  monev  to  the  government ;
and  the  other  part,  called  the  counter-stock,  or
counter-foil,  remained  in  the  office,  to  be  kept  till
called  for,  and  joined  with  the  stock.  This  manner
of  striking  tallies  is  very  ancient. — Beatson.  The
practice  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  1782.
See  Fjxchequer.  On  16  Oct.  1834,  the  houses  of
parliament  were  burnt  down  by  too  many  of  these
tallies  being  used  in  heating  the  stoves  in  the  house
of  lords.

TALMUD  (from  lamad,  to  teach),  the  compen-
dium of  ancient  Jewish  oral  or  unwritten  law,  as
distinguished  from  the  Pentateuch,  or  written  law ;
its  origin  is  coeval  with  the  return  from  the  Baby-
lonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its compilation in
Hebrew  was  begun  by  the  Scribes,  and  by  their
successors  the  work  was  carried  on  till  220  B.C. It
is  composed  in  prose  and  poetry,  and  contains  two
elements, legal and legendary. The morality
resembles  that of  the New Testament,  and  the
philosophy  is  rather  Platonic  than  Aristotelian.
The  Mischna,  comprising  the  work  of  the  rabbis,  termed
Thanaim, was compiled  by  Jehuda  Hanassi,  in  the
middle  of  the  second  century,  a.d.,  and  forms  the
Jerusalem  Talmud,  written  at  Tiberias,  in  Palestine,
about  230. The  Babylonian  Talmud  contains  also  the
Gemera  or  Ghemara,  the  work  of  the  rabbis  termed
Amorai'm,  criticisms  and  comments  on  the  Mischna.
The  part named Ihdacha, is dogmatic, legal, and
doctrinal ;  the  Agaba,  is  illustrative,  narrative,  and
legendary.
After  being  almost  universally  condemned,  and  the  MSS.
often  burnt,  the  defence  of  the  Talmud  was  undertaken
by  the  German  reformer  Reuchlin,  in  the  16th  century,
and  between  1520  and  1523,  the  "  Talmud  Babyloni-
cum,"  in  12  vols,  fob,  and  the  "Talmud  Hierosolyta-
mun,"  in one  vol. fol.,  were  printed  at  Venice. A
discourse  on  the  Talmud  was  given  at  the  Royal  Insti-
tution, 15  May,  1868,  by  Mr.  Emanuel  Deutsch,  whose
article  in the "Quarterly  Review," Oct. 1867, had
attracted  much  attention.
Vol.  1.  of  the  first  English  translation  of  the  Jerusalem
Talmud  by  Dr.  Moise  Schwab,  appeared  in  1SS5  :  lie
had  published  part  of  a  French  translation.

TAMANIEB,  or  TAMASI,  battle  of,  13
March,  1884  ;  see  Soudan.

TAMATAVE,  sec  Madagascar,  1883.

TAMMANY  FRAUDS,  see  New  York,  1871.

3  p


TANAGEA.


946


TAEIEA.


TANAGEA  (Bceotia).  Here  the  Spartans
defeated  the  Athenians  457  B.C.,  but  were  defeated
by  them  in  456  and  in  426,  when  Agis  II.  headed
the  Spartans  and  Nicias  the  Athenians.

TANCEED'S  CHAEITIES.  Valuable  ex-
hibitions for  students  at  Cambridge  are  maintained
by  Christopher  Tancred's  endowment,  1721;  esta-
blished by  chanceiy,  1757.

TANDY  AEEEST..  James  Napper  Tandy
proposed  a  plan  of  reform  in  1791.  In  the  French
expedition  against  Ireland  he  acted  as  a  general,
Aug.  1798.  After  its  failure  he  fled  to  Hamburg,
and  was  there  delivered  up  to  the  English,  24  Nov.;
for  which  Bonaparte  declared  war  upon  Hamburg,
15  Oct.  1799.  Tandy  was  liberated  after  the  peace
of  Amiens  in  1802.

TANGIEE  (Morocco,  N.  W.  Africa),  besieged
by  prince  Ferdinand  of  Portugal,  who  was  beaten
and  taken  prisoner,  1437.  It  was  conquered  by
Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal  in  1471,  and  given  as  a  dower
to  princess  Catherine,  on  her  marriage  with  Charles
II.  of  England,  1662 ;  who,  in  1683,  caused  the
works  to  be  blown  up,  and  the  place  abandoned.
Tangiers  afterwards  became  a  piratical  station.  See
Morocco.

TANISTEY  (in  Ireland),  the  equal  division  of
lands,  after  the  decease  of  the  owner,  amongst  his
sons,  legitimate  or  illegitimate.  If  one  of  the  sons
dive],  his  son  did  not  inherit,  but  a  new  division  was
made  by  the  tanist  or  chief.  Abolished  1604.
Duvies.

TANJOEE  (W.  India).  About  1678,  Vencajee,
a  Mahratta  chief,  brother  of  tbe  great  Sevajee,
made  himself  rajah.  In  1749  a  British  expedition
endeavoured  to  restore  a  deposed  rajah  without
success ;  the  reigning  prince  bought  them  off  by  the
cession  of  territories.  Much  intervention  ensued.
In  1799  the  company  obtained  possession  of  the
country,  engaging  to  support  the  rajah  with  nominal
authority, The  last  is  said  to  have  died  in  1855.

TANNENBEEG  (E.  Prussia).  Here  Ladis-
laus  V.  Jagellon  of  Poland  defeated  the  Teutonic
knights  with  great  slaughter,  the  grand  master  being
among  the  slain,  15  July,  1410.  The  order  never
recovered  from  this  calamity.

TANNING  leather  with  the  bark  of  trees  was
early  practised.  Great  improvements  have  been
recently  made  in  tanning  by  means  of  chemical
knowledge.

TANTALUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in  an
American  mineral  by  Hatchett,  in  1801,  and  named
by  him  columbiu.ni ;  and  in  a  Swedish  mineral  by
Ekeberg,  who  gave  it  its  present  name.  Wollaston
pointed  out  the  identitjr  of  the  two  metals  in  1809 ;
and  Berzelius  prepared  pure  metallic  tantalum  in
1824.  In  1840  Hose  discovered  that  tantalum  was
really  a  mixture  of  three  metals,  which  he  named
tantalum,  niobium,  and  pelopium. — Gmelin.

TANZIMAT,  see  Turkey,  1839-44.

TAOISM,  oue  of  the  three  religions  of  China.
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Tao,  or  "  Way,"  a
treatise  written  by  Li  Urh,  a  contemporary  of  Con-
fucius in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  The  ""Way"  is
the  quiet,  passionless  discharge  of  all  our  duties,
"  Heaven"  not  being  a  ruler,  but  a  pattern.  Taoism
was  modified  by  the  introduction  of  Buddhism.

TAPESTEY.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed
from  the  Saracens,  and  hence  its  original  workers  in
France  were  called  Sarazinois.  The  invention  of
tapestry  hangings  belongs  [the  date  is  not  men-


tioned] to  the  Netherlands. — Guicciardini.  Manu-
factured in  France  under  Henry  IV.  by  artists
invited  from  Flanders,  1606.  The  art  was  brought
into  England  by  William  Sheldon;  and  the  first
manufactory  of  it  was  established  at  Mortlake  by
sir  Francis  Crane,  17  James  I.  1619. — Salmon.
Under  Louis  XIV.  the  art  of  tapestry  was  much
improved  in  France ;  see  Gobelin  Tapestry.  V  ery
early  instances  of  making  tapestry  are  mentioned  by
the  ancient  poets,  and  also  in  Scripture  ;  so  that  the
Saracens'  manufacture  is  a  revival  of  the  art.  For
the  tapestry  said  to  have  been  wrought  by  Matilda,
queen  of  England,  see  Bayeux  Tapestry.
Tapestry  manufactory  established  at  Windsor  lay  Mr.  H.
Henry,  supported  by  the  royal  family,  and  others  ;  ex-
hibition opened  in  the  town-hall,  6  December,  1878  ;
works  said  to  be  closed,  June,  1892.
Manufacture  revived  by  Messrs.  Trollope  of  London,

1882-3

TAPIE,  the  American  water-hog,  a  pachyder-
matous animal.  The  first  born  in  England  at  Zoo-
logical Gardens,  London,  12  Feb.  1882.

TAE-  The  chemist  Becher  first  proposed  to  make
tar  from  pit-coal ;  the  earl  of  Dundonald's  patent
was  granted  1781.  The  mineral  tar  was  discovered
at  Coalbrookdale,  Shropshire,  1779;  and  in  Scot-
land, Oct.  1792.  Tar-water  was  first  recommended
for  its  medicinal  virtues  by  the  good  Dr.  Berkeley,
bishop  of  Cloyne,  about  1744.  From  benzole,  dis-
covered in  coal-tar,  many  brilliant  dyes  are  now
produced;  see  Benzole.

TAEA,  a  hill  in  Meath,  Ireland,  where  the  early
kings  of  Ireland  were  inaugurated.  Near  here,  on
26  May,  1798,  the  royalist  troops,  400  strong,
defeated  the  insurgent  Irish  (4000  men),  500  killed.
On  15  Aug.  1843,  Daniel  O'Connell  held  a  monster
meeting  here  (250,000  persons  said  to  have  been
assembled) .

TAEBES  (S.  France,  near  the  Pyrenees),
capital  of  Bigorre,  the  property  of  the  English  kings
in  the  middle  ages.  The  French,  under  Soult,
were  forced  from  their  position  at  Tarbes,  with  con-
siderable loss,  by  the  British  army  commanded  by
Wellington,  20  March,  1814. See  Toulouse.

TAEENTUM  (now  Taranto,  S.  Italy),  was
founded  by  the  Greek  Phalantus,  B.C.  708.  The
people  of  Tarentum,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of
Epirus,  supported  a  war  which  had  been  undertaken
B.C.  281  by  the  llomans,  to  avenge. the  insults  the
Tarentines  had  offered  to  their  ships  when  near
their  harbours ;  it  was  terminated  after  ten  years ;
300,000  prisoners  were  taken,  and  Tarentum  became
subject  to  Borne.  Except  the  citadel,  Tarentum
was  captured  by  Hannibal,  212,  but  recovered  by
Fabius,  209  B.C.  Tarentum  has  shared  in  the
revolutions  of  Southern  Italy,  ancl  only  ruins
remain.

TAEGUMS  or  Explanations,  names  given

to  certain  ancient  Chaldee  paraphrases  of  the  Old
Testament.  The  most  remarkable  are  those  df
Onkelos,  Jonathan-ben-Uzziel,  and  Joseph  the  Blind.
The  Targum  of  Onkelos  is  referred  by  some  writers
to  the  first  century  a.d.

TAEIFA  (S.  Spain),  the  ancient  Joza  and  Julia
Traducta,  where  M.uza  landed  when  invading  Spain,
712.  It  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by  Sancho  IV.
of  Castile,  1291  or  1292  ;  and  was  relieved,  when
besieged  by  them,  after  a  great  victory  over  the
kings  of  Morocco  and  Granada,  by  Alfonso  XL  of
Castile  *and  Alfonso  IV.  of  Portugal,  28  or  30  Oct.
1340.  The  conflict  is  called  the  battle  of  Salado,
having  been  fought  on  the  banks  of  that  river.
Tarifa  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1823.


TARIFF.


917


TAY  BRIDGE.


TAEIFF  (said  to  have  been  derived  from
Tarifa,  where  duties  were  formerly  collected),  a
book  of  duties  charged  on  goods  exported  or  imported.
Our  tariff  in  1840  comprised  1042  articles;  the
number  was  reduced  (by  sir  Eobert  Peel)  in  1845
and  1847.  It  comprised  439  articles  in  1857  ;  this
number  was  greatly  reduced  in  i860.  For  Mr.
McKinley's  tariff  bill,  see  United  States,  Oct.  1890.

International  office  for  the  publications  of  all
customs  tariffs,  in  the  five  principal  European
languages  at  Brussels,  begins  the  work  of  transla-
tion, &e 1  April,  1891

What  is  called  "the  war  of  tariffs,"  very  injurious
to  free  trade,  began  in  . . . Oct.  1890

TARPELAJST  ROCK  (Rome),  owed  its  name
to  the  tradition  that  Tarpeia,  daughter  of  Tarpeiu-,
the  keeper  of  the  Roman  citadel,  was  here  crushed  to
death  by  the  shields  cast  on  her  by  the  Sabines,
whom  she  treacherously  admitted,  having  bargained
for  the  gift  of  what  they  wore  on  their  left  arms,
meaning  then-  bracelets ;  about  750  B.C.

TARRAGONA  (N.E.  Spain),  occupied  as  a
naval  station  by  the  British  before  then-  capture  of
Gibraltar  in  1704.  It  was  stormed  and  sacked  by
the  French  under  Suchet,  29  Jan.  1811,  and  the
inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  Population,  1887,
27,225.

TARTAN  or  Highland  Plaid,  the  dress  of

the  Scottish  Highlanders,  said  to  have  been  derived
from  the  ancient  Gauls,  or  Celtag,  the  Galli  non
braccati.

TARTARIC  ACID  is  said  to  have  been  the
first  discovery  of  the  eminent  chemist,  Scheele,
who  procured  it  in  a  separate  state  by  boiling  tar
with  lime,  and  in  decomposing  the  tartrate  of  lime
thus  formed  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  about  1 770.
In  1859  baron  Liebig  formed  tartaric  acid  from
other  sources.

TARTARY  (Asia).  The  Tatars,  or  Tartars,  or
Mongols,  or  Moguls,  were  known  in  antiquity  as
Scythians.  During  the  decline  of  the  Roman
empire,  these  tribes  began  to  seek  more  fertile
regions ;  and  the  first  who  reached  the  frontier  of
Italy  were  the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern
Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this
vast  country  was  the  famous  Genghis  Khan.  His
empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia,  and  all
central  Asia  (1206-27),  became  one  of  the  most
formidable  ever  established  ;  but  it  was  split  into
parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  again
conquered  Persia,  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in
Asia  Minor  (1370-1400),  and  founded  the  Mogul
dynasty  in  India,  which  began  with  Baber  in  1525,
and  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia  till  the
close  of  the  1 8th  century;  see  Golden  Horde.  The
Calmucks,  a  branch  of  the  Tartars,  expelled  from
(Jhina,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  in  1672,
but  returned  in  1771,  and  thousands  perished  on  the
journey.

TASIMETER,  see  Micro-tasimeter.

TASMANIA,  the  name  now  given  to  the
British  settlement  in  Van  Diemcn's  Land  {which
see).

TATTERS  ALL'S,  see  Laces.

TAUNTON  (Somerset),  was  taken  by  Perkin
Warbeck,  Sept.  1497  ;  and  here  lie  was  surrendered
to  Henry  VII.  5  Oct.  following.  The  duke  of
Monmouth  was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton,  20
June,  1685 ;  and  it  was  the  scene  of  the  "  bloody
assize"  held  by  Jeffreys  upon  the  rebels  in  August.
Population,  1881,  16,614; 1891,  18,026.


TAVERNS  may  be  traced  to  the  13th  century.
"In  the  raigne  of  king  Edward  the  Third,  only
three  taverns  were  allowed  in  London :  one  iii
Chepe,  one  in  Walbrok,  and  the  other  in  Lombard-
street." — Spelman.  The  Boar's  Head,  in  East-
cheap,  existed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was
the  rendezvous  of  prince  Henry  and  his  dissolute
companions.  Shakspeare  mentions  it  as  the  resi-
dence of  Mrs.  Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  Falstaffs
merriment. — Shakspeare,  "  Henry  IV."  The  White
Hart,  Bishopsgatc,  established  in  1480,  was  rebuilt
in  1829.  Taverns  were  licensed  in  1752.
Taverns  were  restricted  by  7  Edward  VI.  1552-3,  to  40  in
London,  8  in  York,  4  in  Norwich,  3  in  Westminster,  6
in  Bristol,  3  in  Lincoln,  4  in  Hull,  3  in  Shrewsbury,  4
in  Exeter,  3  in  Salisbury,  4  in  Gloucester,  4  in  Chester,

3  in  Hereford,  3  in  Worcester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in
Canterbury,  3  in  Ipswich,  3  in  Winchester,  3  in  Oxford,

4  in  Cambridge,  3  in  Colchester,  4  in  Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

TAXES  were  levied  by  Solon,  the  Athenian  legis-
lator, about  594  B.C.  The  first  class  of  citizens  paid
an  Attic  talent  of  silver,  about  55?.  of  our  money.
Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  levied  a  land  -tax  by
assessment,  which  was  deemed  so  odious  that  his
subjects  styled  him,  by  way  of  derision,  Darius  the
Trader,  480  B.C. — I)' Eon.  Taxes  in  specie  were
first  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.,  1067,
and  he  raised  them  arbitrarily ;  yet  subsidies  iu
kind,  as  in  wool,  leather,  and  other  products  of  the
country,  continued  till  the  accession  of  Richard  II.,
1377- — Camden;  see  Revenue  and  Income  Tax.
"  Taxes  ox  Knowledge  "  (see  Advertisement
Duty,  Newspaper  Stamp,  and  Paper  Duty) .  For  his
exertions  in  repealing  these,  a  testimonial  was  pre-
sented to  Air.  T.  Milner  Gibson  in  1861.  The  as-
sessed taxes  now  include  land  tax,  house  duty,  and
property  and  income  tax.  The  Taxes  Management
Act,  43  &  44  Vict.  c.  19,  passed  6  Aug.  1880  (see
below).  Mr.  Stephen  Lowell's  "  History  of  Taxa-
tion and  Taxes  in  England,"  published  in  1884.
Receipts  from  general  taxation,  1887-8,  75,660,0:0/.

Assessed  Taxes.  Land  Tux.

1800  . . .  £3,468,131  1800  . . .  £1,307,941

1805  . . . 4,508,752  1805 . . . 1,596,481

1810  . . . 6,233,161  1810  . . . 1,418,337

1815  . . . 6,524,766  j  1815 . . . 1,084,251

1820  . . . 6,311,346  1S20  . . . 1,192,257

1825  . . . 5,176,722  1825 . . . 1,288,393

1830  . . . 5,013,405  1830  . . . 1,189,214

1835 • • • 3.733.997 183s • ■ • 1.203.579
1840 . . . 3,866,467 1840 . . . 1,298,622

Assessed  Taxes. — Gross  Amount.

1851  (to  Jan.  5) £4,365,0.33

1S55  (year  ending  March  31) 3,160,641

i860 ,, ,, .....  3,232,000

1865  ,, ,, 3,292,000

1866  ,, ,, 3,350,000

1S67 ,, ,, . ' . . . . .  3,468,000

1868  ,,  ,, 3,509,000

1869  ,,  ,,...... 3,494,000

1870  ,,  ,,  ..... 4.500,000

1871  (  Land  tax-  and  house  duty  only,  ) 2,725,000

1872  j. see  Licences. j 2,330,000
1873 2,337,000

1874  ........ 2,324,000

1875  . . . . . . . . . 2  440,000

1876 .  2,496,000

1877 2,532,000

1878 2,670,000

1879  . 2,720,000

18S0  2,6/0,000

1883 2,843,154

1884  2,899,223

1886 .........  2,890,000

1888  2,970,000

See  House  Duly  and  Land  Tax.

TAY  BRIDGE  at  Dundee,  above  two  miles

across  the  Tay ;  act  passed  1870,  work  begun  June,

3  r  2


TCHERNAYA.


948


TECHNICAL EDUCATION.


187 1  ;  Mr.  De  Bergue,  first  contractor,  died,  suc-
ceeded by  Messrs.  Hopkins,  Gilke  &  Co.,  of  Middles-
brough. Engineer,  sir  Thomas  Bouch.  It  was
much  injured  by  a  gale,  4  Feb.  1877 ;  completed,
30  Aug. ;  tried,  25  Sept.  1877  ;  opened,  31  May,
1878.  Length,  10,612  feet ;  it  consisted  of  85
spans,  some  above  90  feet  above  water  level ;  cost
said  to  be  350,000'.  Above  20  lives  lost  during  its
construction.

The  bridge  was  partly  destroyed  by  a  gale,  while  a

N.  British  mail-train  was  passing  over  it  ;  a  gap

of  about  3,000  feet  was  made  ;  between  75  and  90

persons  perished  ;  about  7. 15  p.m.  Sunday,  28  Dec.  1879

46  bodies  were  recovered ' . . up  to  27  April,  1880

Liberal  collections  were  made  for  sufferers  by  the

loss  of  relatives.
After  the  Board  of  Trade  inquiry,  Mr.  H.  C.  Rothery,
ill  the  report,  stated  "that  the  bridge  had  been
badly  designed, badly  constructed, and  badly

maintained" 3  July, ,,

Sir  Thomas  Bouch  died .  ... 30  Oct.  1880

Mr.  Barlow's  iilans  for  a  new  bridge  approved,  May,  1881
Plans  for  new  bridge  approved . . . Jan.  1882

Fourteen  piers  erected Dec.  1885

Opened  for  public  traffic . . . .20  June,  1887

TCHERNAYA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea.  On
16  Aug.  1855,  the  lines  of  the  allied  army  at  this
place  were  attacked  by  50,000  Russians  under  prince
Gortschakoff,  who  was  repulsed  with  the  loss  of
3  329  slain,  1658  wounded,  and  600  prisoners.  The
brunt  of  the  attack  was  borne  by  two  French
regiments  under  general  D'Herbillon.  The  loss  of
the  allies  was  about  1200 ;  200  of  these  were  from
the  Sardinian  contingent,  which  behaved  with  great
gallantry,  under  the  command  of  general  La  Mar-
mora. The  Russian  general  Bead,  and  the  Sardinian
general  Montevecchio,  were  killed.  The  object  of
the  attack  was  the  relief  of  Sebastopol,  then  closely
besieged  by  the  English  and  French.

TEA  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Dutch,  1610.

It  is  mentioned  as  having  been  used  in  England  on

very  rare  occasions  prior  to  1657,  and  sold  for  61.

and  even  wl.  the  pound. Price  of  inferior  kinds,

1801,  4s.  2hd.  the  pound;  in 1871,  is. lod. For

Theine,  see  Gafeine.

Samuel Pepys records  his first "  cup of  tea,"

25  Sept.  1660

A  duty  of  8c?.  was  charged  upon  every  gallon  of  tea
made  for  sale  (12  Ch.  II.  c.  13) . . . . „

The  East  India  Company  first  import  it  . .  1669

Brought  into  England  in  1666,  by  lord  Ossory  and
lord  Arlington,  from  Holland :  and  being  admired
by  persons  of  rank,  it  was  imported  from  thence,
and  generally  sold  for  60  shillings  per  pound,  till
our  East  India  Company  took  up  the  trade.  —
Anderson.

Green  tea  began  to  be  used i7i5

Price  of  black  tea  per  lb.  13s.  to  20s.  ;  of  green,  12s.
to  30s 1728

The  duty  imposed  on  tea  in  America,  1767:  this  tax
occasioned  the  destruction  of  17  chests  at  New
York,  and  340  at  Boston,  Dec.  1773,  and  ulti-
mately led  to  the  American  war  (see  Boston).

The  tea-plant  brought  to  England . . about  1768

Tea-dealers  obliged  to  have  sign-boards  fixed  up,
announcing  their  sale  of  tea . . . Aug.  1779

Commutation  act  for  reducing  the  duty  on  tea  from
50  to  12J  per  cent.  ;  taxing  windows  in  lieu,  June,  1784

■'  Millions  of  pounds'  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice,  and
ash-tree  leaves,  are  every  year  mixed  with  Chinese
teas  in  England."— Report  of  the  House  of  Commons,  1818

"The  consumption  of  the  whole  civilised  world,
exclusively  of  England,  is  about  22,000,000  of
pounds,  while  the  annual  consumption  in  Great
Britain  is  30,000,000." — Evidence  in  House  of
Commons . . ^30

Tlte  first  tea-sale  in  London  on  the  abolition  of  the
exclusive  privilege  of  the  East  India  Company
took  place  iu  Mincing-lane .  ■ . .19  Aug.  1834

New  duties  were  charged,  1796 ;  the  duty  was  96  and
100  per  cent.,  made  2S.  id.  per  pound . ...  1836


The  duty  derived  from  the  import  of  tea  in  1850
amounted  to  5,471,461?. ; and  the  amount  was

5,902,433? in  1852

Various  changes  made  in  1854,  1855 . . and  1856
Duty  of  is.  5c?.  per  pound  begun . . April,  1857
Duty  upon  tea  gradually  reduced  from  2s.  2^d.  to
is.  per  pound;  reduced  to  6c?.  per  pound,  1  June,  1865

Licences  to  sell  tea  abolished 1869

Tea  duty  6c?.,  continued 1871

Produced, 3,709,450?. year 1875-6  ; 4,002,210?.

1877-8:4,268,734?.  1883-4:4,613.311?. . .  1887-8
The  duty  reduced  to  4c?.  per  pound . 17  April,  1890

TEA  IMPORTED  INTO  ENGLAND.


1726 .

lb 700,000

1870

.  lb  141,020,767

1766

7,000,000

1871  .

. 169,898,303

1792  .

.  13,185,000

1872

.  184,927,128

1800

•  23,723,000

1873-

. 163,765,269

1805  .

•  24,133,000

1874

. 162,782,810

1810

.  25,414,000

1875-

• 197,505.316

1815 .

.  26,368,000

1876

• • 185,536,371

1820

.  25,662,474

1877:

• 187,515,284

1825  .

.  24,803,668

1878

. .  204,872,899

1830

•  3o.544.404

1879.

. 184,076,472

1835  ■

•  44.360,550

1880

.  206,971,570

1840

.  38,068,555

1881

.  209,801,522

1845  .

•  44,193,433

1882

. .  210,663,133

1850  govt.

retns. 50,512,384

1883

.  222,262,431

1856.

86,200,414

1884

• •  213,877,759

1858 .

• 75.432,535

1885.

.  212,143,820

1861  .

• 96,577,383

1886

.  230,669,292

1864 .

■ 124.359,243

1887.

.  221,841,490

1866.

. 139,610,044

1888

.  222,758,296

1867.

. 128,028,726

1889  .

.  222,147,661

1868 .

• 154,845.863

1890

• •  223,494,511

1869  .

. 139,223,298

The  importation  of  tea  grown  in

India  has  very

greatly

inci

eased.

A  consignment  of  tea  from  the  Gallebodde  Estate,

Ceylon

was

sold  in  London  at

the

rate  of  87s.

per  pound,

13  Jan.  ;  re-sold  for

1 1  os

per  pound,

to  the

United Kingdom  Tea

3ompany,  Jan.  ;

some  tea,  Ceylon,  sold  for  10?.  12s.  6c?

per  pound,

10  March ;

17?.  per  pound,  5  May  ;

25?.  10s.  per

pound

7  May,  1891

TEACHERS,  National  Union  op  Ele-
mentary, established  about  1869,  held  their  23rd
annual  conference,  April  1892.  The  Teachers'
Association  held  their  3rd  annual  conference  at
University  College,  London,  9  Jan.  1878.  The
Teachers'  Guild  held  its  first  public  meeting,  Mr.
Mundella  in  the  chair,  23  Jan.  1884.  Conferences
occasionally  held;  one  at  Manchester,  9-1 1  Sept.
1891.

TEACHING,  see  Apostles  and  University.

"TEARLESS  VICTORY,"  was  won  by
ArchidamusIIL,  king  of  Sparta,  over  the  Arcadians
and  Argives,  without  losing  a  man,  367  B.C.

TEA-ROOM  MEETING  of  members  of  the
house  of  commons,  8  April,  1867.  See  Reform,  1867.

TEB,  Battle  of,  29  Feb.  1884. See  Soudan.

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION,  defined  as
"  science  and  art  applied  to  industry."  Polytechnic
schools  in  Darmstadt  established  1830  ;  in  Hanover
1835  ;  the  trade  association  of  the  grand  duchy  of
Hesse,  1836 ;  Berlin  working  mens'  union,  1843 ;
'Wurtemburg  workmen's  school,  1848  ;  Society  for
promoting  the  interests  of  the  working  classes  at
Amsterdam,  1854.  The  first  real  practical  technical
school  in  England  was  formed  in  the  Chester
Diocesan  Training  College,  by  the  rev.  Arthur
Bigg,  principal,  1839-69.

Conference  of  masters  of  city  companies  at  the
Mansion-house  to  promote  technical  education

5  Nov.  1869
National  university  for  industrial  and  technical

training,  proposed Oct.  1870

City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  for  the  ad-
vancement of  technical  education  formally  con-


TE DEUM.


949


TELEPATHY.


stituted,  ii  Nov.  1878  ;  foundation  laid  by  prince
Leopold 10  May,  1881

Central  Institution  of  City  and  Guilds  Institute,
South  Kensington  ;  foundation  laid  liy  the  prince
of  Wales 18  July, „

A  royal  commission  (Mr.  B.  Samuelson,  prof.  H.  E.
Koscoe  (since  knighted)  and  others)  to  inquire  as
to  technical  instruction  in  foreign  countries  Aug. ,,

Technical  college,  Pinsbury,  opened . 19  Feb.  1883

Technical  schools  (Scotland)  act  passed  . . .  1887

National  association  for  the  promotion  of  technical
education  formed,  lord  Hartington  (since  Duke
of  Devonshire),  president . . . 1  July, ,,

Royal  commission  on  technical  instruction  ap-
pointed (Mr.  Bernhard  Samuelson,  prof.  H.  E.
Koscoe,  and  four  others),  to  inquire  abroad  and
at  home,  5  Aug.  1881  ;  reports  (reassuring  as  to
English  work),  about  17  Feb.  1882,  and  16  May,  1884

Technical  instruction  bill  introduced  in  Parlia-
ment; dropped 10  July,  1888

Great  meeting  at  the  Mansion  House  to  promote
technical  education  in  the  metropolis,  27  March,  1889

The  technical  instruction  act,  authorising  local
authorities  to  supply  aid  for  the  purpose,  passed
30  Aug.  1889 ;  another  act  passed  26  March,  1891.
See  Polytechnic  Institution  and  Whitworth.

TE  DEUM,  a  song  of  praise  used  by  the  Romish
and  English  churches,  beginning  "  Te  Deum  Lau-
damus — "We  praise  thee,  OGod,"  supposed  to  be  the
composition  of  Augustin  and  Ambrose,  about  390.
The  original  music  is  very  ancient.

TEETOTALEE,  a  term  applied  to  an  ab-
stainer from  all  fermented  liquors,  originated  with
Richard  Turner,  an  artisan  of  Preston,  who,  con-
tending for  the  principle  at  a  temperance  meeting
about  Sept.  1833,  asserted  "  that  nothing  but  te-te-
total  will  do."  The  word  was  immediately  adopted.
He  died  27  Oct.  1846.  These  facts  are  taken  from
the  "  Staunch  Teetotaler,"  edited  by  Joseph  Live-
sey,  of  Preston  (an  originator  of  the  movement  in
1832,  he  died,  aged  90,  2  Sept.  1884),  Jan.  1867.
See  Encratites,  Good  Templars,  Temperance,  and
United  Kingdom.

TEFLIS,  see  Tiflis.

TEGYEA,  Bceotia.  Here  Pelopidas  defeated
the  Spartans,  375  B.C.

TEHEEAN  became  capital  of  Persia  about  1795.
Estimated  population,  210,000.

TELEGEAPHS  (from  the  Greek,  tele,  afar,
and  (/rap ho,  I  write).  JEschylus,  in  his  Agamemnon
(B.C.  500),  describes  the  communication  of  intel-
ligence by  burning  torches  as  signals.  Polybius,
the  Greek  historian  (who  died  about  122  B.C.),  calls
the  different  instruments  used  by  the  ancients  for
communicating  information,  pi/rsice,  because  the
signals  were  always  made  by  fire.  In  1663,  a  plan
was  suggested  by  the  marquis  of  "Worcester,  and  a
telegraph  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684.  M.
Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of
telegraphs  about  this  period.  James  II.,  while  duke
of  York,  originated  a  set  of  navy  signals,  which
were  systematised  by  Kempenfeldt  in  1780;  and  a
dictionary  was  compiled  by  sir  Home  Popham.
M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used
by  the  French  in  1792,  and  two  were  erected  over
the  Admiralty-office,  London,  1796.  The  sema-
phore was  erected  there  1816.  The  naval  signals
by  telegraph  enabled  400  previously  concerted  sen-
tences to  be  transmitted  from  snip  to  ship,  by
varying  the  combinations  of  two  revolving  crosses.
Baron  Router's  telegraph  agency  founded  at  Aix  la
Chapelle,  1 85 1.  Acts  relating  to  telegraphs  were
passed  in  1863  and  1866.  The  telegraph  act,  passed
31  July,  1868,  enabled  the  postmaster-general  to
purchase  existing  electric  telegraphs  (not  less  than


I*,  for  a  telegram,  20  words).  Mr.  Scudamore  was
appointed  director,  Jan.  1872.  The  principle  of  a
6d.  telegram  adopted  by  the  commons,  29  March,
1883,  and  enacted  to  come  into  operation  1  Oct.
1883,  deferred;  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Shaw-
Lefevre  30  March  ;  act  passed  14  Aug.  ;  came  into
operation  1  Oct.  1885.  Another  telegraph  act
passed  28  June,  1892.  Great  destruction  of  tele-
graph posts  and  wires  by  gale  and  snowstoi  m ;
London  streets  blocked  by  fallen  wires  26-27  ^>ec.
1886.  The  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  founded
1871;  held  first  general  meeting,  28  Feb.  1872,
Chas.  Wm.  Siemens,  president;  incorporated  188?.
Present  title  "  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers""
(1889).  See  Electric  Telegraph,  under  Electricity,
and  Telegraphs,  under  Post  Office,  1869,  et  seq.
The  Telecjrap hie  Journal  began  15  Nov.  1873.

International  Telegraph  Conferences  (commercial),
have  been  held  at  Brussels,  1858  ;  Paris,  March,
1865  ;  Vienna,  1868  ;  Rome,  1871-2  ;  St.  Peters-
burg, 1  June,  1875  ;  London,  18  June,  1879 ;
Paris,  16  Oct.  1882  ;  Berlin,  10  Aug.-i7  Sept.
1885  ;  Paris  (114  delegates  representing  38  states,
and  23  great  companies) . 15  May-21  June,  1S90

TELEKOlTPHONON,  or  speaking  tele-
graph, consisted  of  piping  of  gutta  percha,
caoutchouc,  glass,  or  earthenware,  with  a  terminal
mouthpiece  of  ivory,  bone,  wood,  or  metal.  It  was
used  for  dockyards  and  lai-ge  establishments.  It
was  described  by  Mr.  Francis  Whishaw  at  the
meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Swansea,
August,  1848.

TEL-EL-KEBIE,  Egypt,  the  site  of  the  en-
trenched camp  of  the  rebel  general,  Arabi  Pasha,
his  force  being  about  17,500  regular  infantry,  2,500
cavalry,  6000  Bedouins  and  other  irregulars,  and  70
guns;  captured  by  the  British  13  Sept.  1882.
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  broke  up  his  camp  at  Ismailia  on  the
night  of  12  Sept.  and  began  his  advance  at  1.30  a.m.,
his  force  being  about  11,000  infantry,  2000  cavalry,  and
40  guns  ;  the  troops  marched  rapidly  in  the  dark,  each
regiment  endeavouring  to  be  first.  At  daybreak  they
arrived  at  the  camp.  The  surprised  Egyptians  filled
the  trenches  and  fought  well  under  cover  ;  but  when
the  British  scaled  the  parapets,  they  at  first  resisted
bravely,  but  afterwards  fled,  being  hotly  pursued  by
the  British  cavalry,  leaving  all  their  guns,  ammimi-
uition,  &c.  in  the  hands  of  the  victors.  Thousands
were  killed  or  made  prisoners.  Arabi  Pasha  fled  to-
wards Cairo.  Among  our  killed  were  majors  Colville,
Underwood,  and  Somervell,  and  lieut.  McNeill.  The
British  general's  masterly  plans  of  the  campaign  were
thus  successfully  carried  out  by  his  efficient  staff  and
gallant  army,  which  included  many  young  soldiers.
The  Irish  and  Highland  regiments  and  the  Guards
being  specially  distinguished.  Arabi  Pasha's  army
was  completely  broken  up,  and  the  British  entered
Cairo  the  next  day,  14  Sept.  British  killed  about  52,
and  380  wounded  ;  Egyptian  killed  and  wounded  about
1500. The  Highlanders  bore  the  brunt  of  the  action.

TELEMETEE,  &C,  an  instrument  for  deter-
mining the  distance  between  a  gun  and  the  object
fired  at.  Lieut,  von  Ehrenbcrg  and  major  Mon-
taudon,  in  Baden,  constructed  a  telemeter  the  size
of  a  watch,  by  which  the  distance  is  determined  and
shown  on  a  dial  by  the  action  of  sound,  1S78-85.
Teletopometer,  another  apparatus  for  ascertaining
the  distance  from  point  to  point,  invented  by  Dr.
Luigi  Cerebotani,  was  announced  in  Sept.  1885  ;
two  telescopes  are  employed.

TELEPATHY,  "the  supersensory  transference

of  thoughts  and  feelings  from  one  mine!  to  another'' :

the  principal  subject  of  "  Phantasms  of  the  Living,"
edited  by  Messrs.  Edmund  (Junicy,  Frederic  Myers,
and  Frank  Podmorc,  and  issued  by  the  society  for
psychical  research  about  30  Oct.  18S6.


TELEPHONE.


950


TELESCOPES.


TELEPHONE  (from  Greek,  tele,  afax,  pJione,
voice,  sound),  a  mime  now  given  to  apparatus  for
transmitting  articulate  and  musical  sounds,  by
means  of  wire,  vibrating  rods,  threads,  or  magneto-
electricity.  See  Electrophone,  in  article  Electricity,
Phonograph,  Microphone,  Phonopore.

Robert  Hooke  conveyed  sounds  to  a  distance  by  dis-
tended wire 1667

Wheatstone  conveyed  the  sounds  of  a  musical-box
from  a  cellar  to  upper  rooms  by  means  of  a  deal
rod  (termed  "Enchanted  Lyre")  . . . 1821

Page  produced  galvanic  musical  tones  by  magnetis-
ing and  demagnetising  an  iron  bar . . . .  1837
The  principle  advanced  by  De  la  Rive . . .  1843
Professor  Pepper  lectured  on  Wheatstone's  tele-
phone before  the  queen  at  the  Polytechnic,  10  May  1S55
Philip  Reis  exhibited  a  partially  articulate  electric

telephone  at  Frankfort . . . .25  April  1861
Cromwell  Varley  produced  a  musical  one,  1870 ;
played  on  at  the  Queen's  theatre, Long  Acre

12  Feb.  1S77
Elisha  Gray  improved  Reis's  telephone,  and  is  said

to  have  anticipated  prof.  Bell's  discovery  .  .  1873
Professor  A.  Graham  Bell's  articulating  telephone
produced  :  (he  employs  a  thin  disk  of  iron  vibrat-
ing in  front  of  a  permanent  magnet,  surrounded
by  a  coil  of  insulated  copper  wire  ;  the  sound
or  voice  causes  the  vibration  of  the  disk,  thereby
generating  a  current  of  electricity  which,  sent
round  a  similar  coil  on  a  distant  magnet,  sets
vibrating  another  disk,  and  thus  the  sound  is  re-
produced ;  sound  is  converted  into  electricity
and  electricity  reconverted  into  sound  ;)  experi-
ments at  Boston  and  Salem,  United  States  (18
miles  apart) ;  speech,  music,  singing,  laughing,
&c,  distinctly  heard  ....  12  Feb.  1877
This  telephone  exhibited  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Preece  before
the  British  Association,  Plymouth,  23  Aug.  1877  ;
before  the queen  at Osborne,  Isle of Wight

14,  15  Jan.  1878
Debates  in  the  House  of  Commons,  reported  by  it

for  Daily  Neius  (unsuccessful) . . 22  Jan. „
Telephone  company  established  . . summer ,,
Edison's  carbon  "loud  speaking"  telephone  ;  con-
versation heard  "between  London  and  Norwich ;
115  miles  of  wire .... n  Nov. ,,
Mr.  Frederick  Allen  Gower  improves  Bell's  tele-
phone ;  shown  at  Royal  Institution,  London

20,  21  March,  1879
Telephone  Exchange  (Edison's system), Lombard-
street  ;  ten  offices  connected  ;  private  conversa-
tion between  two  persons  in  either  a  loud  or  low
tone  carried  on  ;  successfully  tried . 6  Sept. ,,
The  Bell  and  Edison  companies  become  the  United

Telephone  Company  ;  announced . 26  July,  1880
The  telephone  tried  by  lord  Elphinstone  in  his

coalmines  near  Carberry,  Scotland . Sept. „
Telephone communication established between
Liverpool  and  Manchester ;  exchange  of  mes-
sages between  the  mayors ... 9  Nov. ,,
20,000  Gower-Bell  telephones  said  to  have  been

ordered  by  the  post  office  .  .  .  Dee.  „
The  attorney-general  applies  for  injunction  against
the  Telephone  o  impany  and  the  Edison  telephone
company  ;  case  deferred  ;  the  companies  directed
to  keep  accounts,  20  Jan.  1880 ;  decision  that
the  Telephone  company  is  an  infraction  of  the
electric  telegraph  monopoly  bought  by  the  act  of
1868,  20  Dec.  1880  ;  legal  arrangements  with  the

company n  April,  1881

The  postmaster-general  now  grants  licences .  ,,

Professor  Dolbear  of  Tuft's  college,  Massachusetts
announced  a  new  system,  with  improved  tele-
phone receiver  (an  articulating  air  condenser),
different  to  Bell's  and  Edison's  .  .  .  Aug.  ,,
Opera  at  Royal  Comedy  theatre,  Panton  street,
London, heard at Bristol hotel, Burlington

Gardens 21  Dec. ,,

National  Telephone  company  2nd  annual  meeting,
report  gross  revenue  30  June,  1881,  15,050?.  ;
30  June,  1882, 26,996?.  ; dividend 6  per  cent.

announced Aug.  1882

Telephonic  communications  between  Brighton  and

London  established 21  Dec. „

The  system  largely  developed  in  Europe  and
America  in  .  .


United  Telephone  company  v.  Harrison,  Cox,
Walker  <fe  Co.,  for  infringements  of  patents
(Gordon,  Bell  and  Edison) ;  verdict  for  plaintiffs
on  appeal 6  Feb.  1883

Distinct  communication  between  New  York  and
Chicago  1000  miles  (by  steel  wire  coated  with
copper)  reported  24  March, ,,

Sermons  at  churches  and  chapels  transmitted  at
Bradford  " Aug. ,,

The  Post  office  makes  large  concessions  to  the
companies Sept.  1884

Successful  experiments  between  Uxbridge  and
Liverpool  (200  miles) .... 9  July,  1885

Simple  mechanical  telephone  of  Messrs.  A.  A.
Knudson  and  T.  G.  Ellsworth  of  New  York
announced Aug. ,,

Telephonic  communication  between  Brussels  and
Paris  opened  by  means  of  Dr.  Cornelius  Herz's
micro-telephone 2  Feb.  1887

A  telephone  palace  at  Stockholm  with  excellent
arrangements Feb. ,,

Communication  by  telephone  between  Paris  and
Marseilles  opened  .... 6  Aug.  1888

Proposed  ainalgamation  of  the  United  Telephone
Company' with  other  companies  opposed  by  the
postmaster-general  in  regard  to  their  licences
from  government June,  1889

The  Pulsion  telephone,  in  which  sounds  are  com-
municated by  an  ordinary  wire,  without  elec-
tricity, invented  by  Mr.  Lemuel  Mellett,
successfully  used  on  railways  in  America,  1888  ;
tried  with  good  results  on  the  Midland  railway
near  London Dec.  18S9

Mr.  Edison,  said  to  have  invented  a  process  of
combining  jmotography  with  the  telephone,  Feb.  1890

Telephonic  communications  open  between  London,
Birmingham  and  Liverpool,  11  July;  Manchester

30  Sept. ,,

The  telephone  almost  universally  adopted  . 1890-2

Telephone  communication  between  London  and
Paris,  proposed  by  the  French,  and  assented  to
by  the  English  Government;  the  necessary  works
were  completed  by  the  construction  of  the  first
sub-marine  telephonic  cables,  and  their  submerg-
ing by  the  Monarch,  14  March  ;  officially  tested
by  the  engineers,  17  March  ;  the  first  communi-
cations were  from  the  prince  of  Wales  and  presi-
dent Carnot  exchanging  congratulations ;  others
followed  between  Mr.  Raikes,  the  postmaster-
general,  and  M.  Roche,  French  minister  of  com-
merce, and  other  officials,  18  March  ;  opened  to
the  public  (day  and  night)  . . 1  April,  1891

Telephonic  communication  from  London  to  Mar-
seilles and  Brussels,  completed  19  April,  1891  ;
between  Dublin  and  Belfast,  opened . 5  April,  1892

Treasury  minute  to  promote  the  development  of
the  telephone  system  in  the  United  Kingdom,
by  promoting  the  co-operation  of  the  post-office
and  the  telephone  companies,  &c. . 23  May,

The  government  authorised  to  raise  1,000,000?.  to
purchase  the  trunk  lines  of  the  telephone  com-
panies, by  act  passed .... June, ,,

TELEPHOTOGRAPHY,  a  process  for
transmitting  to  a  distance  images  of  objects  by  the
agency  of  electricity  and  selenium,  was  invented  by
Mr.  Shelford.Bidwell,  early  in  188 1.

TELEEADIPHONE,  an  arrangemeut  of
apparatus  in  which  M.  Mercadier  has  adapted  prof.
Graham  Bell's  photophone  to  telegraphy,  announced
Jan.  1882.

TELESCOPES.  Their  principle  was  de-
scribed by  Roger  Bacon  about  1250,  and  Leonard
Digges  (who  died  about  1573)  is  said  to  have
arranged  glasses  so  that  he  could  see  very  distant
objects.

Telescopes  constructed  by  John  Lipperhey  and
Zaeharias  Jansen,  spectacle-makers  of  Middle-
burg,  and  James  Metius  of  Alkmaer  .  .  about  1608
Galileo  (from  a  description  of  the  above)  constructed
telescopes  (May,  1609),  gradually  increasing  in
power,  till  he  discovered  Jupiter's  satellites,  &c,

Jan.  1610
The  telescope  explained  by  Kepler . . . .1611


TELL, WILLIAM.


951


TEMPLARS.


Huyghens  greatly  improved  the  telescope ;  dis-
covered the  ring  and  satellites  of  Saturn,  &e. 1655-6

Telescopes  improved  by  Gregory,  about . . .  1663

Reflecting  telescope  invented  by  Newton  .  1668

Achromatic  telescopes  made  by  Chester  More  Hall,
about  1723  ;  re-invented  by  John  Dollond . . 1758

Sir  Wm.  Herschel  (originally  an  organist  at  Bath)
greatly  improves  telescopes,  and  discovers  the
X>lanet  Uranus  (which  see),  21  March,  1781,  and  a
volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in  1783  ;  he  com-
pletes his  forty-feet  focal  length  telescope  in
1789,  and  he  discovers  two  other  volcanic  moun-
tains ;  he  lays  before  the  Royal  Society  a  cata-
logue of  5000  nebula?  and  clusters  of  stars . . 1802

A  telescope  made  in  London  for  the  observatory  of
Madrid,  which  cost  11,000?.,  in 1802

Telescopes  improved  by  Guinand  and  Fraunhofer,

1805-14

The  great  telescope  taken  down,  and  one  of  twenty-
feet  focal  length  erected  by  sir  John  Herschel
(who  afterwards  took  it  to  the  Cajie  of  Good
Hope,  and  made  with  it  his  observations) . .  1822

The  earl  of  Rosse  erected  at  Parsonstown,  in  Ire-
land, a  telescope  (at  a  cost  exceeding  20,000?.)
6  feet  in  diameter,  and  54  feet  in  length;  it  is
moved  with  ease "1823-45

Mr.  Lassell  constructed  a  telescope  by  which  he
discovered  the  satellite  of  Neptune,  1846 ;  and  the
eight  satellites  of  Saturn 1848

One  of  gigantic  size,  85  feet  in  length  (very  imper-
fect), completed  at  AVandsworth  by  the  rev.  John
Craig 1852

Magnificent  ecpiatorial  telescopes  set  up  at  the
national  observatories  at  Greenwich  and  Paris .  i860

M.  Foucault  exhibits  at  Paris  a  reflecting  telescope,
the  mirror  31  A-  inches  in  diameter ;  the  focal
length  17!  feet 1862

Mr.  R.  S.  Newall's  telescope  (with  object  glass  25
inches  diameter ;  tube  nearly  30  feet),  set  up  at
Gateshead  by  Cookes  of  York 1870

One  at  United  States  Observatory,  'Washington  ;
object-glass,  26  inches  diameter, 33  feet  length.

Mr.  A.  Ainslie  Common's  reflecting  telescope  ;  spe-
culum 37J  inches  diameter  ;  length,  20  feet ;  said
to  be  the  most  powerful  inr  existence ;  Eal-
ing, Middlesex ;  completed . . . Sept.  1879

The  largest  refracting  telescope  yet  made ;  by
Howard  Grubb  at  Dublin  (for  Vienna)  ;  approved
by  the  commissioners . . .16  March,  1S81

A  very  large  refracting  telescope  by  Messrs.  Clark
of  America  was  set  up  in  the  observatory  at
Mount  Hamilton,  California,  named  after  Mr.
Lick  (who  left  money  for  its  foundation) . .1888

TELL,  "WILLIAM.  The  popular  stories  re-
specting him  were  demonstrated  to  be  mythical  by
Professor  Kopp  of  Lucerne,  1872.

TELLERS,  see  under  Exchequer.

TELLURIUM,  a  rare  metal,  in  its  natural
state  containing  small  quantities  of  iron  and  gold,
was  discovered  by  Mailer  of  Reichenstein,  in  1782,
and  named  by  Klaproth.

TELODYNAMIC  TRANSMITTER,  in-
vented by  M.  Him,  is  an  arrangement  of  water-
wheels,  endless  wires,  and  pulleys,  for  conveying
and  using  the  power  of  water-falls  at  a  distance,
and  has  been  much  used  since  1 850.  The  apparatus
was  shown  at  Paris  in  1862.

TELPHERAGE,  an  application  of  electrical
motion,  invented  by  professor  Fleeming  Jenkin,
aided  by  professors  Ayrton  and  Perry,  for  conveying
heavy  goods,  2d.  a  ton  per  mile,  4  miles  an  hour,
shown  at  Millwall,  1884.

A  Telpherage  company  was  formed.  A  Telpher  line
at  the  estate  dl'  lord  Hampden  at  Glynde  near
Lewes,  opened 17  Nov.  1885

TEMESWAR  (Hungary),  capital  of  the  Banat,
often  besieged  by  the  Turks.  On  10  Aug.  1849,
Haynau  totally  defeated  the  Hungarians  besieging
this  town,  and  virtually  ended  the  war.


TEMNOGRAPH,  an  instrument  designed  to
plot  to  any  accurate  scale  a  section  of  the  ground
over  which  it  travels.  It  works  by  ft-ietional
motion  governed  by  two  pendulous  weights.  In-
vented by  A.  M.  Kymer-Jones  in  1879.

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES  originated
with  Mr..  Calhoun,  who,  while  he  was  secretary  of
war  in  America,  in  order  to  counteract  the  habitual
use  of  ardent  spirits  among  the  people,  prohibited
them  altogether  in  the  United  States'  army,  1818.
See  Teetotaler,  and  Permissive  Bill.

The  first  public  temperance  society  in  America  was
projected  in  1825,  and  formed . . 13  Feb.  1826

Many  temperance  societies  immediately  afterwards
formed  in  America,  England,  and  Scotland.

British  and  foreign temperance  society formed,

29  June,  1831

The  "  Rechabites  "  (see  Jer.  xxxv.)  began  . '  about  1838

In  Ireland,  the  rev.  Dr.  Edgar,  of  Belfast,  published
upon  temperance  in  1S29-31 ;  and  Father  Theobald
Mathew,  a  Roman  catholic  clergyman,  affirmed
that  he  had  made  more  than  a  million  of  converts
to  temperance 1841

Father  Mathew  arrived  in  America  in  July,  1849  ;
was  not  so  successful  there  ;  he  died,  aged  66,  8  Dec.
1856  ;  centenary  of  his  birth  celebrated

10  Oct.  et  seq.  1890

In  England,  the  National  temperance  society,
formed 1843

London  temperance  league 185 1

The  United  Kingdom  alliance  for  the  legislative
suppression  of  the  sale  of  intoxicating  licpiors,

1  June,  1853

The  National  Temperance  league,  formed . .  1856

Mr.  J.  B.  Gough  lectures  in  London,  &c.  . . ,,

United  Kingdom  Band  of  Hope  Union  formed,  1855  ;
11,400  societies  with  1,414,900  members . .  1888

The  National  union  for  suppression  of  intemperance
by  means  of  "few  houses,  shorter  hours,  and
better  provisions,"  established  end  of  . . .  1871

Church  of  England  temperance  society  inaugurated
by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  others  at
Lambeth 18  Feb.  1S73

A  Temperance  hospital,  where  no  alcoholic  drinks
are  to  be  given  for  disease,  was  opened . 6  Oct. ,,

British  Women's  temperance  association  inaugu-
rated at  Neweast!e-on-Tyne  . . . April  1876

Mr.  J.  B.  Gough  lectures  in  London,

Sept.  1878  ;  Oct.  1879

London  Temperance  Hospital,  Hampstead-road,
London,  building  (21,000?.  out  of  30,000?.  sub-
scribed) Sept. „

International  exhibition  of  objects  connected  with
temperance  opened  at  the  Agricultural  hall,  Is-
lington 2=  Aug.  1881

The  Green  and  Blue  Ribbon  Armies  of  persons  advo-
cating temperance  were  prominent  in . . .  1802

A  Yellow  Army  of  moderate  drinkers  proposed  (gen.
Hicks) about  Sept, „

National  Temperance  Jubilee  at  the  Crystal  Palace;
above  50,000  present .... 5  Sept. „

International  temperance  conferences :  Brussels,
1880  ;  London  1882  ;  Antwerp ....  1S85

Mr.  J.  B. Gough  dies in Philadelphia,  aged 69,

about  17  Feb.  1S86

British  and  colonial  congress  in  London,  bishop
of  London  president . . . 14-16  July, ,,

"National  Prohibition  Party,"  Mr.  Alex.  Gus-
tafson,  in  the  Christian  Commonwealth,  strongly
urges  the  total  abolition  of  alcohol . April,  1887

TEMPERED  GLASS,  see  Glass.

TEMPLARS.  The  military  order  of  "  soldiers
of  the  Temple,"  to  protect  pilgrims,  was  founded
about  1 1 18  by  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem,
confirmed  by  pope  Honorius  II.,  1128.  The  Tem-
plars were  numerous  in  several  countries,  and  came
to  England  before  1 185.  Their  wealth  having  ex-
cited the  cupidity  of  tlie  French  kings,  the  order
was  suppressed  by  the  council  of  Vienne,  and  part
of  its  revenues  was  bestowed  upon  other  orders  about
I  1312. Numbers  of  the  order  were  tried,  condemned


TEMPLE.


952


TEEMS.


and  burned  alive  or  hanged  in  1308-10,  and  it
suffered  much  persecution  throughout  Europe;  68
knights  were  burnt  at  Paris,  1310.  Pope  Clement
V.  abolished  the  order,  April,  1312.  The  grand
master  Molay  was  burnt  alive  at  Paris,  18  March,
1314.  Their  property  in  England  was  given  to  the
Hospitallers,  and  the'head  of  the  order  in  England
died  in  the  Tower. See  Good  Templars.

TEMPLE  (London),  the  dwelling  of  the
Knights  Templars,  consecrated  by  Heraclius,  patri-
arch of  Jerusalem,  1185,  at  the  suppression  of  the
order,  was  purchased  by  the  professors  of  the
common  law,  and  converted  into  inns,  131 1,  after-
wards called  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple.  Essex
house,  also  a  part  of  the  house  of  the  Templars,
was  called  the  Outer  Temple,  because  it  was
situated  without  Temple-bar.

The  Temple  hall  was  built  in 1572

St.  Mary's,  or  the  Temple  Church,  situated  in  the
Inner  Temple,  is  a  Gothic  stone  building,  erected
by  the  Templars  in  1240,  and  is  remarkable  for  its
circular  vestibule,  and  for  the  tombs  of  the
crusaders,  who  were  buried  here.  The  church
was  recased  with  stone  by  Mr.  Smirke  in . .  1828

The  Middle  Temple  new  library  was  opened  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  31  Oct.  1861 ;  he  becomes  trea-
surer of  the  Middle  Temple . . . Nov.  1886

New  Inner  Temple  hall  opened  by  princess  Louise,

14  May,  1870

Anniversary  of  consecration,  celebrated  by  Mr.  E.
J.  Hopkins 10  Feb.  1885

Temple  bar,  erected  outside  the  gates  ;  ordered  to
be  rebuilt  27  June,  1669 ;  erected  by  sir  C.  Wren ;
completed  March  1672-3;  cost  1397/..  io«. ;  room
above  contained  books  of  Child  and  Co.  for  200
years  ;  reported  dangerous  March,  1868  ;  began
to  sink  30  July  ;  shored  up 1868

Its  removal  voted  by  the  common  council,  27  Sept.
1876 ;  the  removal  began  2  Jan.,  1878  ;  last  stones
removed 13  June, 1879

The  stones,  &c,  given  to  sir  H.  B.  Meux  to  be
erected  at  Theobald's  Park,  near  Cheshunt,  June,
1887;  the  bar  set  up Nov.  1888

The  memorial  to  mark  the  site  (including  statues
of  the  queen  and  prince  of  Wales) ;  cost  about
11,550?. ;  inaugurated  by  prince  Leopold, 8  Nov.  1880

"  Temple"  at  Paris,  formerly  an  asylum  for  debtors,
and  a  prison  during  the  republic,  was  made  the
site  of  a  market  in  1809,  and  rebuilt  in  1864.

The  "  City  Temple,"  a  dissenters' chapel  (minister,
Dr.  Parker),  Holborn  Viaduct,  was  opened,  19  May,  1874

TEMPLES-  The  Egyptians  were  the  first
who  erected  temples  to  the  gods. — Herodotus.  The
first  erected  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  Deucalion.
— Apollonius.

The  temple  of  Jerusalem  built  by  Solomon,  1012B.C.
consecrated  1004 ;  pillaged  by  Shishak,  971 ;  repaired
by  Joasli,  856  ;  profaned  by  Ahaz,  740 ;  restored  by
Hezekiah,  726 ;  pillaged  and  fired  by  Nebuchadnezzar,
588, 587;  rebuilt, 536;  pillaged  by  Antiochus, 170;
rebuilt  by  Herod,  18  ;  destroyed  by  Titus,  a.d.  70.
The  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi, first  a  cottage  with
boughs,  built  of  stone  by  Trophonius,  about  1200  B.C.  ;
burnt  by  the  Pisistratidas,  548  ;  a  new  temple  raised  by
the  family  of  the  AlcniEeonidEe,  about  513.
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  built  seven  times  ;  planned
by Ctesiphon, 544 b.c.  ; fired by Eratostratus or
Herostratus,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  356  b.c.  ;  to  re-
build it  employed  220  years ;  destroyed  by  the  Goths

A.D.  260.

The  temple  of  Piety  was  built  by  Acilius,  on  the  spot
where  once  a  woman  had  fed  with  her  milk  her  aged
father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and  excluded
from  all  aliments.  —  Vol.  Max.

Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  b.c,  is  at  this  day  the  most
perfect  ancient  edifice  in  the  world.

Most  of  the  heathen  temples  were  destroyed  throughout
the  Roman  empire  byConstantine  the  Great  and  Theo-
dosius,  331-392, See  separate  articles.

.  TENANT,  see  Rent. Bills  to  amend  the  posi-
tion of  Irish  tenants  in  relation  to  their  landlords


were  brought  into parliament  by Mr. Sharman
Crawford,  1835,  su'  Joseph  Napier,  1852,  Mr.  Card-
well, i860,  Mr.  Chichester  Fortescue, 1866,  Lord
Naas,  1867. The  Irish  land  bill  settling  the  ques-
tion passed  8  July,  1870. See  Ulster.
The  Tenants'  Defence  Association,  was  formed  in  con-
sequence of  a  declaration by  Mr. Parnell,  and his
party,  at  a  meeting  in  the  house  of  commons,  that  a
new  league  was  necessary  to  defend  the  Irish  tenant
farmers  against  their  landlords,  14  July,  1889. The
tenants  were  invited  to  contribute  to  the  fund,  and
preliminary  meetings  were  held. The  association  was
inaugurated  at  Thurles,  Tipperary,  by  Mr. Sexton,
Mr.  Redmond,  and  other  M.P.'s. 600  delegates  being
present,  28  Oct. 1889. 40,000?.  had  been  subscribed
up  to  30  Jan.  1890. In  April,  1891,  the  scheme  was
reported  unsuccessful.

TENASSEBIM  (N.E.  India),  ceded  by  Bur-
mah  to  the  British,  24  Feb.  1826.

TENEEIFFE  (Canaries,  N.W.  coast  of  Africa).
The  peak  of  Tenerifl'e,  12, 198  feet  above  the  level  of
the  sea,  was  ascended  in  1856  by  professor  C.  Piazzi
Smyth  for  astronomical  observations.  An  earth-
quake in  this  island  destroyed  several  towns  and
many  thousands  of  people  in  1704.  See  Santa  Cruz.
The  governor,  col.  Pedro  Bastanica  was  hanged  for
murder  of  his  mother-in-law,  28  Oct.  1890.

TEN  MINUTES'  BILL,  see  Reform.

TENNESSEE,  a  southern  state  of  North
America,  was  settled  about  1760,  and  admitted  into
the  union  1  June,  1796.  An  ordinance  of  secession
from  the  union  was  passed— it  is  asserted  illegally
—on  6  May,  1861.  On  23  Feb.  1862,  the  federal
general  Nelson  entered  Nashville,  and  in  March,
Andrew  Johnson  (afterwards  the  president  of  the
United' States)  was  made  military  governor  over  a
large  part  of  Tennessee.  In  Sept.  1863,  Bosencrans
expelled  the  confederate  government.  The  repre-
sentatives of  Tennessee  were  re-admitted  to  the
congress,  July,  1866.  Population,  1880,  1,542,359 ;
1890,  1,767,518;  capital,  Nashville.
Riots  at  Knoxville,  through  the  employment  of  con-
victs in  the  mines  ;  about  500  liberated  by  the  mob,
30  Oct.  et  seq.  ;  recaptured,  4  Nov.  1S91.
See  United  States,  1892.

TENNIS-  This  game,  brought  from  France,
became  fashionable  in  England  in  the  reign  of
Charles  II.  1660-85  ;  see  Jeu  de  Fanme.  "Lawn
Tennis"  became  fashionable  in  1877,  replacing
croquet.  Julian  Marshall's  "Annals  of  Tennis"
published  June,  1878.
A  National  Lawn  Tennis  Association  started Jan.  1888

TEN  TABLES,  see  Decemvirs.

TENTERDEN'S  ACT,  Lord,  2  &  3  Will.  IV.
c.  7X>  for  shortening  the  time  of  prescription  in
certain  cases  (such  as  rights  cf  way,  and  use  of
light),  passed  1  Aug.  1832.

TEN THOUSAND,  see  Retreat.

TENTHS,  see  Tithes.

TENUEES,  the  mode  in  which  land  is  held.
Military  tenures  in  England  were  abolished  in
1660, Lyttelton's  book  on  Tenures  is  dated  1481.

TEEBIUM,  a  metal  sometimes  found  with
yttrium  {which  see).

TEECEIEA,  see  Azores.

TEEMS  of  Law  and  Vacations. They

were  instituted  in  England  from  the  Norman  usage,
the  long  vacation  being  suited  to  the  time  of  the
vintage  in  France,  14  Will.  I.  1079. — Glanvitte  de
Leg.  Ai/r/lic.  They  were  gradually  formed. — Spel-
man. The  terms  were  fixed  by  statute  II  Geo.  IV.


TERNOVA.


953


THAMES.


and  i  Will.  IV.  22  July,  1830:  Hilary  Term  to
begin  n  Jan.  and  end  31  Jan.;  Easter,  15  April,
to  end  8  May; Trinity,  22  May,  to  end  12  June  ;
Michaelmas,  2  Nov.  to  end  25  Nov. This  act  was
amended  1  Will.  IV.  15  Nov.  1830. New  law  terms
(now  sittings)  were  appointed  under  the  Supreme
Court  of  Judicature  Act,  passed  5  Aug.  1873.
Michaelmas  sittings :  2  Nov.  to  21  Dec.
Hilary ;  n  Jan.  to  Wednesday  in  Passion  week.
Easter  :  Thursday  in  Easter  week  to  Friday  before  Whit-

Sunday.
Trinity:  Tuesday  after  Whit-Sunday  to  8  Aug.
The  new  legal  vacations  ordered  to  be  as  follows : —
Christmas:  24  Dec.  to  6  Jan.  Easter:  Good  Friday
to  Easter-Tuesday.  Wli  itsv/n :  Saturday  before  Whit-
Sunday  to  Whit-Tuesday.  Long  vacation :  10  Aug.  to
24  Oct.

TERNOVA,  see  Tirnova.

TERRITORIAL  WATERS  JURISDIC-
TION ACT,  passed,  16  Aug.  1878.  It  regulates
the  law  relating  to  the  trial  of  offences  committed
on  the  sea  within  a  certain  distance  of  the  coasts  of
her  majesty's  dominions.

TERROR,  seeHeiynof.

TEST  ACT,  directing  all  officers,  civil  and  mili-
tary, under  government,  to  receive  the  sacrament
according  to  the  forms  of  the  church  of  England,
and  to  take  the  oaths  against  transubstantiation,
&c. ;  enacted  29  March,  1673.  The  Test  and  Cor-
poration acts  were  repealed,  9  May,  1828.  See
University  Tests.

TESTAMENT,  see  Bibles,  and  Wills.

TESTER,  testone,  a  silver  coin  struck  in  France
by  Louis  XII.  15 13  ;  and  also  in  Scotland  in  the
time  of  Francis  II.  and  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,
1559.  It  was  so  called  from  the  head  of  the  king,
stamped  upon  it.  In  England  the  tester  was  of  izd.
value  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  afterwards  of
6d.  (still  called  a  tester) .

TESTRI  (N.  France).  Pepin  d'Heristal,  in-
vited by  malcontents,  here  defeated  and  captured
Thierry  III.,  king  of  Austrasia,  and  established
ldmself  as  duke,  687.

TETTENHALL  (Staffordshire).  It  was  pro-
bably at  this  place,  then  named  Teotenheal,  that
the  Danes  were  defeated  by  the  Saxon  king,  Edward
the  Elder,  6  Aug.  910.

TETUAN  (Morocco)  was  entered  by  the  Span-
iards 6  Feb.  i860,  after  gaining  a  decisive  victory
on  4  Feb.  The  general  O'Donnell,  was  made  a
grandee  of  the  first  class.

TEUTOBERG  FOREST  (theTeutobergiensis
saltus,  Tacitus),  probably  situate  between  Detmold
and  Paderborn,  where  Hermann,  or  Arminius,  and
the  Germans  defeated  the  Romans  under  Varus,
with  very  great  slaughter,  A.D.  9.  Varus  and  many
of  his  officers  preferred  suicide  to  captivity.  This
defeat  was  regarded  at  Rome  as  a  national  calamity,
and  Augustus,  in  agony,  cried,  "  Varus,  give  me
my  legions!"

TEUTONES,  a  people  of  Germany,  who  with
the  Cimbri  made  incursions  upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to
pieces  two  Roman  armies,  113  and  105  B.C.  They
were  at  last  defeated  by  the  consul  Marius  at  Aix,
and  a  great  number  made  prisoners,  102  B.C.  (see
Cimbri),  with  whom  authors  commonly  join  the
Tcutones.  The  appellation  came  to  be  applied  to
the  German  nation  in  general  (hence  Deutsche).

' TEUTONIC  ORDER,  military  blights  estab-
lished in  the  Holy  Land  about  II91,  through  the

humanity  of  the Germans  (Tcutones)  to  the  sick


and  wounded  of  the  Christian  army  in  the  Holy
Land,  under  Guy  of  Lusignan,  before  Acre.  The
order  wras  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Coeles-
tine  III.  On  their  return  to  Germany,  the  knights
were  invited  to  subdue  and  christianise  the  country
now  called  Prussia  and  its  neighbourhood,  which
they  gradually  accomplished.  Their  territories  were
invaded,  and  their  army  was  defeated,  with  great
slaughter,  near  Tannenherg,  in  East  Prussia,  by
Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania,  15  July,  1410,  when  the
grand  master  and  many  of  the  knights  were  slain.
A  large  part  of  their  possessions  was  incorporated
into  Poland  in  1466,  and  into  Brandenburg  about
1521.  In  1525,  the  grand  master  was  made  a
prince  of  the  empire,  and  the  order  much  weakened.
Its  remaining  possessions  were  seized  by  Napoleon  I.
in  1809. See  Prussia,  &c.

TEWKESBURY  (Gloucestershire),  where  Ed-
ward IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Lan-
castrian's, 4  May,  147 1.  Queen  Margaret,  the  consort
of  Henry  VI. ,  was  taken  prisoner  and  her  son  killed.
The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London,
where  king  Henry  expired  soon  after  this  fatal  engage-
ment; being,  as  is  generally  supposed,  murdered
by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III.
The  queen  was  ransomed  in  1475  by  the  French
king,  Louis  XL,  for  50,000  crowns.  Population,
1881,  5,100 ;  1891,  5,269.

The  abbey,  founded  by  Robert  Fitz-Hamon,  cousin  of
William  I.,  completed  and  consecrated  1123  ;  grandly
altered,  14th  century  ;  a  monastery  destroyed  by
Henry  VIII.  ;  the  abbey  spared  ;  restored  by  G.  G.
Scott,  1877-9.

TEXAS  (N.  America)  was  settled  by  the  French,
1687,  who  were  expelled  soon  after.  It  revolted
from  Mexico  in  1835  ;  was  helped  by  the  Americans
in  1836.  Its  independence  was  acknowledged  in
1840.  Its  proposed  annexation  led  to  war  between
Mexico  and  the  United  States.  It  was  admitted
into  the  Union  by  the  latter  in  1845  ;  seceded  from
it  in  1 86 1 ;  submitted  in  1865  ;  re-admitted  to  state
rights,  March,  1870.  The  coast  was  desolated  by  a
great  storm,  15-18  Sept.  1875.  Population  1880,
1,591,749;  1890,  2,235,523;  capital,  Austin.  See
Storms.
Great  fire  at  Galveston,  above  700  residences  burnt,

loss  about  8oo,oooZ 13  Nov.  1SS5

About  1 ,000  Mexicans  entered  Rio  Grande  and  caused

disturbances,  soon  quelled, . . . Sept.  iSSS
Diplomatic  correspondence  respecting  the  conduct
of  Mr.  Lyall,  British  consul  at  Galveston,  in  re-
lation to  an  Englishman  convicted  of  burglary  ;
he  defends  himself Dee. 1S90

TEXEL  (at  the  mouth  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  Hol-
land). Its  vicinity  has  been  the  scene  of  memorable
naval  engagements.  An  engagement  between
the  English  under  Blake,  Dean,  and  Monk,  and
the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp  and  Do  Punter,  in
which  the  latter  were  worsted  and  admiral  Van
Tromp  was  killed,  31  July,  1653.  Again,  in  the
mouth  of  the  Texcl  a  sharp  indecisive  action  took
place  between  the  allied  English  and  French  fleets
under  prince  Rupert  and  comte  d'Estrees,  and  the
Dutch  fleet  under  Do  Ruyter,  11  Aug.  1673.  'J-'10
Dutch  fleet  was  vanquished  by  admiral  Duncan
on  ir  Oct.  1797;  see  Camperdown.  The  Dutch  fleet
of  12  ships  of  war  and  thirteen  Indiamen  surren-
dered to  admiral  Mitchell,  who,  entering  the  Texcl,
possessed  himself  of  them  without  tiring  a  shot,  30
Aug.  1799.

THALLIUM,  a  metal,  occurring  in  the  sulphu-
ric acid  manufacture,  discovered  by  Mr.Wm.Crookes,
by  means  of  the  spectrum  analysis,  March,  iS6i.

THAMES  (London),  the  Roman  Tamesis  or
Tamesa, Saxon Temesc, Temesa, rises in four


THAMES.


954


THANKSGIVINGS.


springs,  at  Ullen  farm,  near  Coates,  Gloucestershire.
The  head  of  the  river  in  "Wiltshire  is  about  170
miles  from  London  bridge,  and  its  Avhole  course
from  source  to  mouth  about  220  miles.  See  London,
London-bridge,  and  Frosts.

The  river  rose  so  high  at  Westminster  that  the
lawyers  were  brought  out  of  the  hall  in  boats  . .  1235

It  rose  to  a  great  height,  1736,  1747,  1762  . .  1791

The  conservation  of  the  Thames  was  given  to  the
mayors  of  London 1489

The  Thames  was  made  navigable  to  Oxford . .  1624

It  ebbed  and  flowed  twice  in  three  hours,  1658  ;
again,  three  times  in  four  hours,  22  March,  1682 ;
again,  twice  in  three  hours  ... 24  Nov.  1777

An  act  of  parliament  gave  the  conservation  of  the
Thames  to  the  corporation  of  London  ;  twelve
conservators  were  to  be  appointed — three  by  the
government 1857

In  consecpienee  of  the  great  contamination  of  the
Thames  by  the  influx  of  the  sewage  of  London,
and  the  bad  odours  emanating  from  it  in  the
summer  of  1858,  an  act  was  passed  empowering
the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  {which  see)  to
undertake  its  purification  by  constructing  new
drainage 1858

The  Thames  Angling  Preservation  Society  (estab-
lished about  1838)  is  revived  in .... 1863

Mr.  Leach,  engineer  of  the  conservators,  reported
that  "the  river  is  dreadfully  mismanaged  from  its
source  to  its  mouth  " . . . .23  July, „

The  Thames  navigation  acts,  appointing  five  more
conservators,  &c,  and  prohibiting  pollution  by
sewage,  &c. ,  passed ....  Aug.  1866

The  powers  of  the  act  extended  up  to  Staines . . 1867

New  bye-laws  to  protect  the  fish  in  the  Upper
Thames  passed  by  the  conservators . 14  June,  1869

Highest  tide  known  for  many  years ;  river  over-
flowed from  Gravesend  to  its  tidal  limit ;  great
damage  and  distress  in  Blackfriars  and  Lambeth  ;
Woolwich  arsenal  flooded  and  suffered ;  river
said  to  have  risen  above  29  feet . 15  Nov.,  1875

The  lord  mayor  and  others  (with  carriages  and
horses)  cross  by  ferry  from  Rotherhithe  to  Wap-
ping i  Nov. „

Thames  SteamFerry  ;  first  pile  of  a  landing-place  at
Wapping  struck  by  Lord  Mayor  Stone,  n  Oct.,
1875  ;  first  steam  ferry  boat,  Jessie  May,
launched 26  Feb.  1876

In  consequence  of  the  wreck  of  the  saloon  steamer
Princess  Alice,  by  collision  with  the  Bywell  Castle,
3  Sept.,  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Board  of
Trade  to  inquire  into  matters  connected  with
safety  of  navigation,  &c,  in  the  river . Sept.  1878

Thames  traffic  committee  of  the  Board  of  Trade
appointed 1879

Floods  on  the  south  side,  through  heavy  rains  and
high  tides,  2,  3,  Jan.  1877  ;  during  severe  frost,

18,  19  Jan.  1881

Very  high  tide,  19  Feb. ;  another,  very  destructive,
Charing  Cross  pier  carried  away . .  28  Oct.  1882

Appointment  of  committee  to  inquire  into  the  acts
for  preserving  the  Thames  for  recreation  agreed
to ...... .  11  March,  1884

Thames  Preservation  Act  passed . .  14  Aug.  1885

Greenwich  great  steam-ferry  formally  opened  13
Feb.  1888 ;  one  between  North  and  South  Wool-
wich' (free)  formally  opened  by  lord  Bosebery

23  March,  1889

Thames  Tunnel.  One  proposed,  1799 ;  shaft
sunk,  1804.  The'present  one  proposed  by  I.  K.
Brunei  to  form  a  communication  between
Rotherhithe  and  Wapping,  1823.  The  bill  re-
ceived the  royal  assent ... 24  June,  1824

The  shaft  was  begun,  and  the  first  brick  laid  by  Mr.
Smith,  2  March  ;  the  excavation  commenced,  1
April ;  the  first  horizontal  excavation  in Dec.  1825

At  a  distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft,  the  first
irruption  took  place . . . .18  May,  1827

The  second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen
perished 12  Jan.  1828

The  tunnel  was  opened  throughout  for  foot-passen-
gers, 25  March,  1843.  [The  length  of  the  tunnel
is  1300  feet ;  its  width  is  35  feet  ;  height,  20  feet ;
clear  width  of  each  archway,  including  foot-path,
about  14  feet ;  thickness  of  earth  between  the
crown  of  the  tunnel  and  the  bed  of  the  river,  about
15  feet.]


The  Thames  Tunnel  Company  was  dissolved  in . 1866
The  tunnel,  transferred  to  the  East  London  railway

company,  was  closed . . . .21  July, ,,
The  Tower  subway,  an  iron  tube  tunnel  beneath  the
Thames, constructed  by  Messrs. Barlow, was
begun  16  Feb.  1869,  and  privately  opened,  April,

1870.  It  was  said  to  have  cost  only  i6,oool.

A  tubular  Thames  tunnel,  chiefly  for  workmen,  be-
tween North  and  South  Woolwich,  begun  23  Aug. ,  1876

Thames  Embankment  :  recommended  by  sir
Christopher  Wren,  1666,  and  by  Win.  Paterson,
founder  of  the  bank  of  England,  about  1694.  The
corporation  embanked  a  mile  in  1767.  It  was
further  recommended  by  Gwynne,  1767  ;  by  sir
Frederick  Eden,  1798  ;  by  sir  Frederick  Trench,
1824;  by  James  Walker;  by  the  duke  of  New-
castle, 1844 :  ancL  by  John  Martin  the  painter,
1856.  In  i860,  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works
recommended  that  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames
should  be  embanked,  whereby  the  bed  of  the
river  would  be  improved;  a  low-level  sewer
could  be  easily  constructed  beneath  a  broad
roadway ;  docks  to  be  constructed  within  the
embankment  wall ;  the  expense  to  be  defrayed  by
the  city  duties  on  coal,  and  by  means  provided  by
government.  The  principle  of  this  recommenda-
tion was  approved  by  parliament,  and  a  committee
was  appointed,  which  sat  for  the  first  time,

30  April,  1861

An  act  for  "  embanking  the  North  side  of  the
Thames  from  Westminster  bridge  to  Blackfriars
bridge,  and  for  making  new  streets  in  and  near
thereto,"  passed  7  Aug.  ;  the  work  begun  in  Nov.  1862

First  stone  of  the  northern  (Victoria)  embank-
ment (designed  by  Mr.  Joseph  W.  Bazalgette)
laid  by  Mr.  Thwaites  near  Whitehall  stairs,
20  July,  1864  ;  the  footway  opened  to  the  public,
30  July,  1868  ;  the  roadway  opened  by  the  prince  -
of  Wales 13  July,  1870

The  proposal  to  build  public  offices  upon  the  re-
claimed land  negatived  by  the  house  of  commons,

July, „

"  Cleopatra's  Needle  "  (see  Obelisk),  set  up  on  the
embankment 12  Sept.  1878

Mr.  J.  W.  Bazalgette  presented  a  report,  with  a
plan  for  embanking  the  South  side  of  the  Thames,
6  Nov. 1862 ; act  for  carrying  it  out  passed,

28  July,  1863

Southern  (Albert)  Embankment.  First  stone  laid  by
Mr.  (aft.  sir  Wm.)  Tite,  28  July,  1866  ;  partially
opened 24  Nov.  1869

Thames  Mystery. See  London,  1873.

Chelsea  (Victoria)  Embankment.  Authorised  by
parliament,  13  July,  1868; commenced  5  Aug. ,

1871,  opened  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  9  May,  1874
Kingston,  Kew,  Hampton  Court,  and  other  bridges

freed  from  the  toll  by  acts  passed  1869  and  1874,

1870-1878
Avenue  theatre  opened  ...  11  March,  1882
The  Thames  at  Windsor  and  other  places  frozen,

end  of  Dec.  1890
Steamboat  service  stopped,  about  26  Dec.  1S90 ;

resumed about  30  Jan.  1891

The  Thames,  from  Westminster  to  London  Bridge,

nearly  closed  by  ice 6  Jan. ,,

Thames  Embankment  tramways  act  passed,

27  June,  1892

THANE,  a  Saxon  title  of  nobility,  abolished  in
England  at  the  conquest,  upon  the  introduction
of  the  feudal  system,  and  in  Scotland  by  king  Mal-
colm III.,  when  the  title  of  earl  was  adopted,  1057.

THANET (Kent) was the first  permanent

settlement  of  the  Saxons,  about  449.  The  Danes

held  a  part  of  it,  853-865,  and  ravaged  it  980,  988
et  seq.

THANKSGIVINGS,  special  national,  were
offered  up  at  St.  Paul's  cathedral  for  the  defeat  of
Spanish  Armada,  queen  Elizabeth  present,  8  Sept.
and  24th  Nov.  1588;  for  Marlborough's  victories,
12  Nov.  1702,  and  7  Sept.  1704;  for  George  III.'s
recovery  from  illness,  23  April,  1789;  for  Duncan's
and  other  naval  victories,  19  Dec.  1797;  and  for
the  recovery  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  27  Feb.  1872.


THAPSUS.


955


THEATRES.


THAPSUS  (N.  Africa).  Near  here  Julius
Cassar  totally  defeated  the  army  of  the  party  which
supported  the  policy  of  Pompey,  Feb.  46  B.C.  The
suicide  of  Cato  followed  soon  after.

THEATINES,  a  religious  order,  the  first  who
assumed  the  title  of  regular  clerks,  founded  by
Caraffa,  bishop  of  Theate,  or  Chieti,  in.  Naples
(afterwards  pope  Paul  IV.),  1524,  to  repress  heresy.
They  first  established  themselves  in  France,  ac-
cording to  Henault,  in  Paris,  1644.  TheTheatines
vainly  endeavoured  to  revive  among  the  clergy  the
poverty  of  the  apostles.

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,
built  by  Philos,  420  B.C.,  is  said  to  have  been  the
first  erected.  Marcellus'  theatre  at  Kome  was
begun  by  Caesar,  and  dedicated  by  Augustus,  12
B.C.  Theatres  were  erected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.
Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Pompeii  were  assembled
at  a  theatre  on  the  night  of  24  Aug.  79,  when  an
eruption  of  Vesuvius  covered  the  city.  Scenes  were
introduced  into  theatres,  painted  by  Balthazar
Sienna,  a.d.  1533. See  Drama,  Plays,  &c.

THEATRES  IN  ENGLAND. The  first  royal
licence  for  a  theatre  in  England  was  in 1574,  to
master  Burbage and  four  others,  servants  of  the
earl  of  Leicester,  to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bank-
side. It  is  stated  the  first  play-house  in  London
was  erected  at  Shoreditch,  and  called  the  "Theatre  "
in  1576,  and  that  the  Curtain  near  it,  was  erected
in  1577. The  Blackfriars  was  built  in  1596. The
other  London  theatres  in  Elizabeth's  reign  were
AVhitefriars,  Rose,  Hope,  Swan,  Bed  Bull,  Cockpit
or  Phoenix,  and several  othei-s. Shakespeare  and
his  fellow  actors  erected  the  Globe  theatre  on  Bank-
side,  about  1594. The  prices  of  admission  are  said
to  have  been — gallery,  2d.  ;  lords'  rooms,  is. ;  see
Drama, Drury  Lane,  and  other  theatres. The
theatres  were  closed  by  parliament,  1642-60.
The  first  play-bill  was  dated  8  April, 1663,  and
issued  from  Drury-laue  ;  it  runs  thus:  "By  his
Majestie  his  company  of  Comedians  at  the  New
Theatre  in  Drury-lane,  will  be  acted  a  comedy
called  the  Humovrous  Lievtenant."  After  detailing
the  characters,  it  concludes  thus  :  "  The  play  will
begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly  " . .  8  April,  1663
Lincoln's-inn  theatre  (the  duke's  theatre)  opened  by
sir  Wm. Davenant's patent, 25 April, 1662 ;

rebuilt 1695

Acts  for  licensing  plays  and  play-houses  (placing
them  under  the  lord  chamberlain)  10  Geo.  II.


c.  28


Act for regulating  theatres  (6  &  7  Vict.  c. 68).

22  Aug.
See  Independent  Theatre,  1891-2.
See  Trials,  1843.

Marionettes  or  Puppets  produced  at  the  Adelaide
Gallery

Several  of  the  theatres  first  opened  on  Sunday
evenings  for  religious  worship,  and  filled .  Jan.

Lord  Chamberlain  warned  managers  against  inde-
cent dances  and  scanty  dresses  28  Jan.  1869  and

21  Dec.

Introduction  of  the  queue,  as  at  French  theatres,
by  Mr.  D'Oyly  Carte,  at  the  Savoy . 29  Dec.

The  employment  of  children  under  ten  years  <>f

age  forbidden  in  theatres  by  the  Home  Secretary

about  s  Dec.

Theatres  in  Great  Britain,  166 ;  in  London,  33,
summer  of

In  London,  Jan.  1876,  45  ;  Jan.  1885,  43  ;  Dec.  1891,

Actors'  Association  (protective)  initiated  at  Man-
chester, constituted  at  the  Lyceum,  London,

16  March,

Parliamentary  committee  on  theatres  and  music-
halls  appointed,  March  ;  recommend  in  their
report  that  the  lord  chamberlain's  control  be
continued 2  June,


1843


1852
i860

1874
1882

18S6
1868


1891


DRURY LANE.

Killigrew's  patent 25  April,  1662

Opened 8  April,  1663

Nell  Gwynn  performed 1666

Theatre  burnt  down  with  60  houses  .  .  Jan.  1672
Rebuilt  by  sir  C.  Wren,  and  opened  26  March,  1674

Cibber,  'Wilkes,  Booth 1712

Garriek's  debut  here 1742

Garrick  and  Lacy's  tenure  (revival  of  Shakspeare)  .  1747
Theatrical  fund  founded  by  Mr.  Garrick,  1766  ;  in-
corporated 1775

Interior  rebuilt  by  Adams  ;  opened . 23  Sept.

Garriek's  farewell 10  June,  177&

Sheridan's  management ,,

Mrs.  Siddons'  debut  as  a  star  .  .  .10  Oct.  1782
Mr.  Kemble's  debut  as  Hamlet  .  .  .30  Sept.  1783.
The  theatre  rebuilt  on  a  large  scale,  and  re-opened,

12  March,  1794
Charles  Kemble's  first  appearance  (as  Malcolm  in

Macbeth) 21  April, ,,

Dowton's  first  appearance  (as  Sheva  in  the  Jev:),

11  Oct.  1796
Hatfield  fired  at  George  III. . . .  11  May,  1800

The  theatre  burnt 24  Feb.  1809

Rebuilt  by  Wyatt,  and  re-opened  with  a  prologue

by  lord  Byron  . .  ... 10  Oct.  1812

Edmund  Kean's  appearance  (as  Shylocl) 26  Jan.  1814

Mr.  Elliston,  lessee 3  Oct.  18 19

Madame  Vestris's  first  appearance  .  19  Feb.  1820
Real  water  introduced  in  the  Cataract  of  the  Ganges,

27  Oct.  1823

Mr.  Price,  lessee July,  1826

Ellen  Tree's  appearance  (as  Violante) . 23  Sept. ,,
Charles  Kean's  appearance  (as  Xorval) . 1  Oct.  1827
Mrs.  Nisbet's  first  appearance  (as  the  Widow  CheerliJ)

9  Oct.  1829
Mr.  Alexander  Lee's  and  captain  Polhill's  manage-
ment 1830

Mr.  Alfred  Bunn,  lessee 1831

Mr.  Forrest's  first  appearance (as  Spartaciis),

17  Oct.  1836

Mr.  Hammond's  management 1839

German  operas  commenced  here . .  15  March,  1841

Mr.  Macready's  management ,,

Mr.  Bunn,  again  lessee 1843

Miss  Clara  Webster  burnt  on  the  stage,  14  Dec. ;

and  died 16  Dec.  1844

Mr.  Anderson's  management 1849

Mr.  Macready's  farewell ...  26  Feb.  1851

Mr.  Bunn,  lessee  and  manager 1852

Mr.  E.  T.  Smith 1853-9

English  opera  (Mr.  Harrison  and  Miss  Pyne)  . .  1858
Italian  opera,  part  of . . ... . •  1859-78

Opened  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Smith . . . .  15  Oct.  i860

Suddenly  closed 20  April,  1861

Mr.  G.  V.  Brooke  appears  (as  Othello) . 27  Oct. ,,
[Drowned  in  the  London:  see  Wrecks,  11  Jan.  1866.]

Mr.  Falconer Dec.  1862-1865

Messrs.  Falconer  and  Chatterton,  managers,  Jan.  1866
Re-opened  with  Halliday's  King  of  Scots,  26  Sept  ,,
Re-opened  with  Antony  and  Cleopatra  .  20  Sept.  1S73
Babe's  posthumous  Talisman  produced  11  June,  1874
Balfe's  statue  uncovered  .  .  .  .25  Sept.  1874
Salvini  as  Othello  1  April ;  as  Hamlet  .  31  May,  1875
Wagner's  Lohengrin  .... 12  June, ,,

Boucicaulfs  new  drama  the  Shaughraun  produced

4  Sept. ,,
Manager  and  lessee,  F.  B.  Chatterton  . . .  1876-78
Re-opened  with  Richard  III.  . . 23  Sept.  1876

Mr.  Wills's  Charles  II 24  Sept.  1877

Theatre  suddenly  closed  ;  strike  of  actors,  &c.

4  Feb.  1S79
Saxe-Meiningen  Court  Company  (Germans),  Julius

Cassar 30  May  et  scq.  1881

Mad.  Ristori  as  Lady  Macbeth  .  .  .  July,  1882
Mr.,  afterwards  sir,  Augustus  Harris,  lessee  and

manager Sept.  1879-92

Carl  Rosa's  Opera  Company  .  .  .  part  of  1883-5
Re-opens  the  House  (Le  Nozze  de  Figaro)  31  May,  1886
Re-i>pnis  wiih  the  TheSpanish  Armada  by  Messrs.

H.  Hamilton  and  A.  Harris  . . 22  Sept. 18S8

The  Royal  Oak  performed . 23  Sept.— 30  Nov.  1889
Jack  and  the  Beanstalk . . . 26  Dec.  et  seq. ,,
Carl  Rosa  company, Mr. Henry I'.nnv,  dnvetm-,

Gounod's  Romeo  and  Juliet,  &c.  5  April  — to  May,  1890
Mr.  Cowen's  new  opera  Thorgrim 22  April  et  seq. ,,

House  closed 7  June, ,,

Re-opened  ;  A  Million  of  Money  . 6  Sept.  ct  seq. ,,


THEATEES.


956


THEATEES.


26  Dec.  1890—4  April,

11  April — 23  May,

.  26  May  et  seq.

23  June — 4  Aug.


Beauty  and  the  Beast

Never  too  Late  to  Mend

Boucicault's  Formosa

Drink

House  closed.

A  Sailor's  Knot,  new  drama  by  Henry  Pettitt,

5  Sept.— 5  Dec.
Special  English  opera  performances  on  Saturdays,
26  Sept. — 17  Oct.
Humpty-Dumpty . . 26  Dec.  1891 — 9  April,  1892
Overflow from Covent Garden, foreign operas,
occasionally . .  13  June — 29  July, ,,

COVENT GARDEN.

The  theatre  opened  by  Rich  ...  7  Dec.  1732
Beef-steak  Society,  founded  by  Rich  and  Lambert .  1735
Theatrical  fund  instituted  1760  ;  incorporated . 1764

Mr.  Harris's  tenure 1767

Lewis's  first  appearance  (as  Belcour)  .  15  Sept.  1773
Miss  Reay  killed  by  Mr.  Hackman,  coming  from

the  house 7  April,  1779

Jack  Johnstone's  first  appearance  in  Irish  characters

3  Oct.  1783
Munden's  appearance  ....  2  Dec.  1790
Fawcett's  first  appearance  (as  Caleb)  .  21  Sept.  1791
G.  P.  Cooke's  appearance  (as  Richard  III.),  31  Oct.  1800
Braham's  appearance .... 9  Dec.  1801

Mr.  Kemble's  management 1802

Appearance of Master  Betty,  the  Infant  Roscius,

1  Dec.  1804
Lewis's last  appearance (as  the  Copper  Captain),

28  May,  180S

Theatre  burnt  down 20  Sept. „

Rebuilt  by  R.  Smirke,  R.A.,  and  re-opened  with

Macbeth ,18  Sept.  1809

The  O.  P.  Riot  (which  see)  .  18  Sept.  to  10  Dec. ,,

Horses  first  introduced  ;  in  Bluebeard  .  18  Feb.  1811
The  farewell  benefit  of  Mrs.  Siddons  (immense  house)

29  June,  1812
Mrs.  Siddons  performed  once  afterwards,  in  June,

1819,  for  Mr.  and  Mrs.  C.  Kemble's  benefit.
Miss  Stephens'  first  appearance  (as  Mandane),

7  Sept.  1813
Miss  Foote's  appearance  here  (as Amanthis),

26  May,  1814
Miss  O'Neill's  appearance  (as  Juliet) . 6  Oct. „
Miss  Kelly  fired  at  by  George  Barnet,  in  the  house,

7  Feb.  1816
Mr. Macready's first  appearance (as Orestes),

16  Sept. „
Mr. J.  P.  Kemble's  farewell  (as  Coriolanus),

23  June,  1817

Henry  Harris's  management 1818

Charles  Kemble's  management  ....  1823

Miss  Fanny  Kemble's  appearance  (as  Juliet),  5  Oct.  1829
Mr.  Fawcett's  farewell  ....  21  May,  1830

Charles  Young's  farewell  . . . .30  May,  1832

Mr.  Macready's  management 1837

Madame  Vestris's  management  ....  1839
Miss  Adelaide Kemble's appearance  (as  Norma),

2  Nov.  1841
Charles  Kemble  again  ....  10  Sept.  1842
Mr.  Laurent's  management  .  .  .  .26  Dec.  1844
Opened  by  F.  Gye  for  Italian  opera  .  6  April,  1847
Destroyed  by  fire  (during  a  bal  masque,  conducted

by  Anderson  the  Wizard)  ... 5  March,  1856
New  theatre  (by  Barry)  opened  by  Mr.  F.  Gye  (Les

Huguenots) 15  May,  1858

English  opera  (Miss  Pyne  and  Mr.  Harrison),  Oct.  1859
All  principal  actors  perform  parts  of  plays  for  the

benefit  of  the  Dramatic  College . 29  March,  i860
Balfe's  L'ianca  brought  out ... 6  Dec. ,,
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)  .... April,  1861

Last  appearance  of  Grisi  .... 3  Aug. ,,
English  opera  (Pyne  and  Harrison) . .  31  Oct. ,,
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye) .... April,  1862
English  opera  (Pyne  and  Harrison) .  25  Aug. ,,

Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye) .... 7  April,  1S63

Gounod's  Faust July, ,,

English  opera  (Pyne  and  Harrison  . . 12  Oct. ,,
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye) .... April,  1864
English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited),

17  Oct.  1864
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Gye)  ...  28  April,  1865
Becomes  the  property  of  a  company, Mr. Gye,

manager Aug. ,,

Reopened  (Mr. Gye)  April,  1866  ; 2  April, 1867  ;

31  March,  1868


Opened  by  Mr.  Mapleson's  company  .  24  Oct.  1868
Opera  season  (Gye  and  Mapleson) .  29  May,  1869

Mr.  Dion  Boucicault  lessee  and  manager 29  Aug.  1872

Italian  opera 1873-8

Mr.  F.  Gye,  many  years  lessee,  died  through  acci-
dent with  gun 5  Dec.  1878

A.  &  S.  Gatti,  managers .... Dec. ,,

Mr.  Lionel  Gye,  lessee 1878-81

"  Royal  English  opera"  under  Mr.  T.  H.  Friend;

short  season 7  Jan.  1884

Sig.  Salvini's  company,  Othello,  &c.  . 28  Feb. ,,

Grand  International  cirque . . 26  Dec.  et  seq. „
William  Holland,  lessee  and  manager  . . . 1884-5
Mr.  Mapleson,  with  Italian  opera June  and  July,  1885
Grand  demonstration  to  Madame  Adelina Patti

25  July, ,,
Revival  of  Italian  opera, signor  Bevignani,  con-
ductor 25  May,  1886

Italian  opera,  opened  under  Mr.  Mapleson  (Verdi's

Traviata  performed) ...  12  March,  1887

Donizetti's  La  Favorita  performed  .  24  May,  ,,
Donizetti's Lucrczia  Borgia performed 14 May ;

successful  season ;  closed  . . 21  July  1888

Italian  opera  season,  Mr.  A.  Harris,  director,

20  May-27  July,  1889
Promenade  concerts,  Mr.  F.  Thomas Sept. — Nov. ,,
Cinderella  and  grand  circus . 26  Dec.  et  seq. ,,
Italian  opera,  Guonod's  laust,  &c.

19  May— 28  July,  1890
Promenade  concerts  (Mr.  F.  Thomas),

9  Aug. — 4  Oct.  ,.,
Italian  opera  (Sig.  Lago)  .  .  18  Oct. — 29  Nov.  ,,
Million  of  Money . .  15  Dec.  1890 — 17  Jan.  1891

Carnival  Balls  .  .  .  3,  17  Feb ;  4,  8  March,  ,,
Lent  oratorios,  Elijah,  &c.  .  14  Feb.—  7  March,  ,,
Italian  opera  (Mr. ,  afterwards  sir,  A.  Harris),  Orfeo,

&c.  .  .  .  "  .  6  April — 27  July,  , ,
Promenade  concerts  .  .  .  12  Sept.— 10  Oct.  -,,
Opera  season :  Romio  et,  Juliette,  &c.  20  Oct. — 20  Nov.  ,,
Carnival  Balls,  30  Dec. 1891 ;  13  Jan.,  10  Feb.,  1

March,  23  March,  20  April,  1892.
Italian  Opera . - . . . . 16  May,  1892
Cavalleria  Rusticana,  by  Mascagni,  and  other  pieces,

16  May, ,,
German  opera,  &c.  ... 8  June — 28  July, ,,

HER  MAJESTY'S THEATRE,  OR ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE.

Opera-house  opened. Pennant. (See  Opera-house).  1705
Madame  Rachel's  appearance . .  10  May,  1841

Mr.  Lumley's  management .  1842

Jenny  Lind's  first  appearance . . .4  May,  1847
Association  formed  for  conducting  financial  affairs

of  the  house 1S52

Jullien's  concerts Oct.  1857

Festive  performances  on  the  marriage  of  the  prin-
cess royal Jan. 1859

Macfarren's  Robin  Hood  brought  out . .  11  Oct.  i860

[Not  opened  in  1861.]
Italian  opera  (Mr.  Mapleson) .... 1862-67
Burnt  down  ;  great  loss . . . .6  Dec.  1867
Rebuilt — its  affairs  in  Chancery .... 1872

Sold  for  31,000! 20  May,  1874

[Lease  to  earl  Dudley,  till  1891.]
Opened  for  Italian  opera  by  Mr.  Mapleson 1877  et  seq.
Carl  Rosa's  company,  Wagner's  operas,  &c.,part  of  1879-80
Carl  Rosa,  Wagner's  Lohengrin . 14  Jan.  et  seq.  1882

Sig.  Rossi  as  Lear 10  June, ,,

Opened  by  M.  Carillon  (Cargill) ;  Gounod's  Faust  ;
performance  stopped  by  strike  of  unpaid  com-
pany, carpenters,  &c. ,  riot . . 6  March,  18S6
Mr.  Mayer,  lessee ;  appearance  of  madame  Sarah
Bernhardt  in  Fedora,  &c. . 26  April,  et  seq. ,,

French  opera 22  Nov. ,,

Promenade  concerts  inaugurated  by  colonel  Maple-
son 20  Aug.  ;  by  Mr.  Van  Biene . . 12  Nov.  1887
Italian  opera  season  begins  (under  Mr.  Mapleson)

1  June,  1889

The  establishment  of  a  company  "Her  Majesty's

Theatre  (limited),"  with  a  capital  of  40,000?.  to

restore the theatre to its original position,

proposed  by  lord  Hay,  Mr.  Henry  J.  Leslie,  and

others June, ,,

Promenade  concerts . . . 17  Aug. — Oct.  1889
Opera  company  (lessees),  Cinderella 26  Dec.  et  seq. ,,
The  house  suddenly  closed  ;  the  company  bank-
rupt 29  Jan.  1890

French plays. Gynmase company, including  S.


THEATEES.


957


THEATEES.


Bernhardt,  2-16  June. Mr.  M.  L.  Mayer,  mana-
ger ..........  1890

House  closed,  12  July,  1890;  pulled  down . .  1892

HAYMARKET.

Built 1702

Opened  by  French  comedians ... 29  Dec.  1720

Fielding's  Mogul  company 1 734-5

A  French  company  prohibited  from  acting  by  the

audience 1738

Mr.  Foote's  patent 1747

The  Bottle-conjuror's  dupery  (see  Bottle  Conjuror),

16  Jan.  1748

The  theatre  rebuilt 1767

Mr.  Column's  tenure 1  Jan.  1777

Miss  Farren's  appearance  here  (afterwards  countess

of  Derby) „

Royal  visit — great  crowd — 16  persons killed  and

many  wounded 3  Feb.  1794

Mr.  Elliston's  debut  here  .  .  .  24  June,  1796
First  appearance  of  Mr.  Mathews  (as  Lingo)  16  May,  1803

Mr.  Morris's  management 1805

Appearance  of  Mr.  Liston  (as  Sheep/ace) .  8  June, „

The  tailors'  riot 15  Aug. ,,

Appearance  of  Mr.  Young  (as  Hamlet)  .  22  June,  1807
Of  Miss  F.  Kelly  (as  Floretta)  .  .  12  June,  1810
Present  theatre  rebuilt  by  Nash;  opened  4  July,  1821
Miss  Paton's  (Mrs.  Wood)  appearance  (as  Susannah),

3  Aug.  1822
Mr.  Webster's  management  ...  12  June,  1837
Mr.  Charles  Kean's  appearance  here  . . . 1839

Mr. Webster's  management  (16  years)  terminated

with  his  farewell  appearance . . 14  March,  1853
First  appearance  of  Our  American  Cousin(sa.id  to  be
by  Tom  Taylor,  and  to  have  been  acted  800  times
in  America),  Mr.  Sothern,  Lord  Du  ndrea ry  (played

496  nights) 11  Nov.  1861

Mr.  Buckstone's  management  .... 1853-76

Mr.  John  S.  Clarke 1878

F.e-opened  ;  pit  removed,  and  other  changes  ;  tem-
porary riot 31  Jan.  1880

Mr.  <fc  Mrs.  Bancroft 1879-85

Grand  closing  performance . . .20  July,  1885
Opened  by  Messrs.  Russell  and  Bashford 26  Sept. ,,
Interior  re-constructed  and  re-opened  by  Mr.  Beer-

bohm  Tree,  lessee .... Sept.  1887-9
A Man's  Shadow  (from  the  French),  by  Mr.  R.

Buchanan . . 12  Sept.  1889 — 29  March,  1890
The  Village  Priest,  by  Mr.  S.  Grundy,  3  April — 12

July;  6  Oct- 6  Nov. „
Beau  Austin,  by  W.  E.  Henley  and  R.  L.  Steven-
son 3  Nov.  el  seq. ,,

Called  Back,  by  Hugh  Conway  and  Comyn  Carr,  10
Nov.,  and  other  pieces  on  different  days,  Nov.,

Dec.  1890 — Jan.  1891
The  Dancing  Girl . . -15  Jan. — 27  June, ,,
House  closed,  27  June  ;  re-opened  with  The  Dancing

Girl 5  Oct.  1891— 15  Jan.  1892

Mr.  Beerbohm  Tree,  lessee  and  manager . Jan. ,,
Hamlet,  with  Peril  occasionally  in  the  afternoon,

21  Jan. — 27  May, ,,
Peril,  with  Hamlet  occasionally  in  the  afternoon,

28  May — 5  July, ,,
Hamlet,  season  terminates  . . . . 6  July, „


LYCECM, FORMERLY ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE.

Built  by  Dr.  Arnold

Winsor  experiments  with  gas-lighting  .

Opened  as  the  Lyceum  in

Appearance  of  Mr.  Wrench  (as  Belcour)  .  7  Oct.
Re-opened  with  an  address  by  Miss  Kelly  15  June,
House  destroyed  by  lire  .  .  .  .  16  Feb.
Rebuilt,  and  re-opened  . ....  14  July,
Equestrian  performances  .  .  .  .16  Jan.
Airs.  Keeley's  management  .  .  .  S  April,
Madame  VestriS  and  Mr.  C.  Mathews'  management,

Oct.  18
Retirement  of  Mr.  C.  Mathews  .  .  .  March,
Appearance  of  Madame  Ristori  .  .  .June,
Taken  by  Mr.  Gye  for  Italian  opera  for  forty  nights,

14  April,
Opened  for  English  opera  by  Miss  Louisa  Pyne  ami

Mr.  Harrison 21  Sipl.

Balfe's  opera,  Rose  of  Castile,  produced  .  .  Oct.
Mr.  G.  Webster  and  Mr.  Falconer,  July,  1858  ;  closed,

April,
Opened  by  Madame  Celeste Nov.  1859,  and  Oct.


794-5
803-4


1816
1830
1834
1844


♦7-56
185s
1856

i357


1859

1S60


The  "Savage  Club"  perform  before  the  queen  and

prince 7  March,  i860

Italian  opera 8  June, 1861

Mr.  Falconer,  manager  (English  comedy) 19  Aug. ,,
Peep  o'Day  brought  out .... 9  Nov. '

Mr.  Fechter 10  Jan.  et  seq. 1863

Japanese  troupe Spring,  1868

Lord  Lytton's  Rightful  Heir  brought  out 3  Oct.
Mr.  H.  Irving  as  Hamlet  (long  run)  . . 31  Oct.  1874
„  Macbeth ...  25  Sept. 1875

,,  Othello .... 14  Feb. 1876

Tennyson's  Queen  Mary  performed  19  April, „

Mr.  H.  L.  Bateiuan,  lessee  and  manager . . 1873-6
Mrs.  Bateman,  ditto  . . . 1876-8

Mr.  H.  Irving,  lessee  and  manager .  Sept.  et  seq.  1878
Re-opens  with  Hamlet .... 30  Dec. ,,
Mr.  Chippendale's  benefit  (68  years  on  the  stage),

24  Feb.  1879
Much  Ado  about  Nothing;  grand  scenery  .  n  Oct.  1882
Miss  M.  Anderson  and  American  actors  .  1  Sept.  1883
Faust,  adapted  by  W.  G.  Wills,  19  Dec.  1885  ;  250th

performance 22  Nov.  1886

Miss  Mary  Anderson,  autumn  season . 10  Sept.  1887
Revival  of  Macbeth  with  new  rendering  by  Mr.

Irving  and  Miss  E.  Terry . . .29  Dec.  1888
His  company  performs  the  Bells  before  the  queen

at  Sandringham 26  April,  1889

Mr.  Mayer  with  Italian  opera  and  French  plays  :

Verdi's Otello, 5  July-27  July ; Madame  Sarah

Bernhardt  in  Lena 9  July, ,,

The  Dead  Heart  revived  ....  9  May,  1890

The  Bells,  Louis  XI.,  Olivia . . . May, ,,
Mr.  Augustin  Daly's  company,  from  New  York,

10  June — 16  Aug.  ,,
Ravenswood,  by  Herman  Merivale  .  20  Sept.  et  seq.  ,,
Much  Ailo About Nothing, Charles  L, Corsican

Brothers,  and  other  pieces . 5  Jan. — 25  March, 1891
Mr.  Augustin  Daly's  company  . 9  Sept. — 13  Nov. ,,
King  Henry  VIII.,  with  Richelieu  occasionally  in

the  afternoon  or  evening  . . 5  Jan. — 30  July,  1892

ADELPHI THEATRE.

Formerly  called  the  Sans  Pareil,  opened  under  the

management  of  Mr.  and  Miss  Scott  . .27  Nov.  1806
Under  Rodwell  and  Jones,  who  gave  it  the  present

name 1820-21

Terry  and  Yates ^25

Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join

(Mathctvs  at  Home) 1828

New  front 11840

Madame  Celeste's  management  . . 30  Sept. 1S44

Rebuilt  and  opened,  with  improved  arrangements,

27  Dec.  1858
Colleen  Bawn  represented . . . 10  Sept. i860

[Immense  run  ;  above  360  nights.]
Miss  Bateman  appears  as  Leah, 1  Oct. 1863,  to

11  June,  1864
Messrs. F. B. Chatterton  and Mr. B. Webster,

lessees 1844-73

Messrs.  Gatti,  lessees  and  managers . . 1873-92
London  Day  by  Day,  by  G.  R.  Sims  and  Mr.  Pettit,

14  Sept.  et  seq.  1889
Green  Bushes  revived  . . . ig  April  et  seq.  1890
The  Bride  of  Love,  by  R.  Buchanan . May  et  seq. „
The  Englich  Rose,  by  G.  R.  Sims  ami  R.  Buchanan,

2  Aug.  1890—2  May,  1891
The  Streets  of  London,  by  D.  Boucicault  7  May  et  seq. „
The  Trumpet  Call,  by  G.  R.  Sims  and  R.  Buchanan,

1  Aug.  1891— 21  April,  1892
The  White  Rose,  by  G.  R.  Sims  and  R.  Buchanan,

2:5  April — 10  June,  ,,
Lights  of  Home,  by  same  authors .  30  July  et  seq. ,,

ST.  James's,  late  prince's.
This  theatre  was  built  by  and  opened  under  the

management  of  Mr.  Braham . . .  14  Dec.  1835
German  operas  performed  here  under  the  manage-
ment of  Mr.  Bunn 1840

Mr.  Mitchell's  tenure ;  performance  of  French  plays,

22  Jan.  1S44

German  plays 1852

Airs.  Seymour's  tenure . . . .22  Oct.  1S54-5

French  plays 1857

Neapolitan  buffo-opera Nov.

Italian  plays 1858

French  operas Jan. 1859

French  plays May, ,,


THEATRES.


958


THEATEES.


English  comedy,  under  Mr.  P.  Cliatterton,  manager,

Oct.  1859

French  plays 28  May,  i860

English  plays ". 12  Aug. ,,

Mr.  Wigan,  manager 1860-2

French  plays  ....  May,  1868,  April,  1869

French  plays 1871-3

The  Iron  Master 17  April,  1884

Messrs.  Hare  &  Kendal,  lessees  and  managers . .1885

Mr.  Rutland  Barrington 1888

Mrs.  Langtry March,  1890

AsYouLilcelt April, ,,

Msther  Sandraz,  by  Sydney  Grundy .  3  May  ct  seq. „
House  closed,  7  June  ;  re-opened  (Mr.  Bouchier,

manager),  Your  Wife  ....  26  Jun3,  ,,
Mr.  Mayer,  French  plays  .  .  27  Oct.  et  seq.  „
Mr. G. Alexander  (from  the  Avenue)  lessee  and

manager 15  May> »

Sunlight  and  Shadow,  100th  time . . 31  Jan.  1891

The  Idler 26  Feb.— 17  July, ,,

Moliere,  new  piece ..... 17  July, ,,
House  closed.

The  Idler  (Moliere  sometimes) . 30  Sept.— 4  Nov. „
Lord  Anerley,  by  Mark  Quinton  and  Henry  Hamil-
ton  7  Nov.— 23  Dee. ,,

Forgiveness,  by  J.  C.  Carr  . 30  Dec.  1891— 10  Feb.  1892
Lady  Windermere's  Fan,  by  Oscar  Wilde,

20  Feb. — 29  July, ,,


princess's  theatre,  oxford  street.
First  opened  for  concerts  .... Sept.
Sold  for  16,400? 9  Sept.


Opened  for  plays  by  Mr.  J.  Maddox

Mr.  Bartley's  farewell  here

Mr. Charles Kean's management,


1850:


26  Dec.

18  Dec.

closed,

29  Aug.

29  Sept.

23  Jujy,

20  March,


1842


1862
>3-66
72-78
1875


Mr.  A.  Harris's  management ;  opened
.Zouave  Crimean  company .
Mr.  Fechter  appears  (as  Hamlet)

Mr.  Harris,  lessee *■

Mr.  Lindus,  manager .... 20  Oct.
Mr.  G.  Vining,  lessee  and  manager . .  May,  18

Mr.  F.  B.  Cliatterton,  lessee 18

Carl  Rosa's  Opera  company

Mr.  "Walter  Gooch,  lessee  and  manager . . 18
Closed  for  rebuilding,  19  May;  rebuilt;  opened  (1st
appearance  of  Edwin  Booth) . . .6  Nov.
G.  R.  Sims'  Lights  0'  London . . . Sept.
Mr.  Wilson  Barrett,  lessee  and  manager  . .  Aug.  1883
Claudian,  by  Herman  and  Wills . . 6  Dec. „
Miss  G.  Hawthorne,  lessee . . . Jan.  1888-9
Mr. Wilson  Barrett  closes his season, going  to

America  for  a  year ....  18  May,  1889

Sole  lessee,  Miss  Grace  Hawthorne  ;  manager,  Mr.

W.  W.  Kelly 1889

Gold  Craze 30  Nov.— 14  Dec. „

Theodora,  by  Sardou .... 5  May,  1890
Mrs.  Langtry,  sole  lessee  and  manageress  . Nov. ,.
Anthony  and  Cleopatra . 18  Nov.  1890— Feb.  1891
Lady  Barter,  by  Mr.  Coghlan  . 28  Feb.— 20  March, ,,

Linda  Grey 8  April, „

House  closed 17  April, „

Manager,  Mr. Sidney  Herberte-Basing ;  Fate  and

Fortune .... 27  July— 28  Aug. „
Revival  of  Arrah-na-Pogue . 29  Aug.— 7  Nov. .,
After  Dark,  by  D.  Boucicault . 9  Nov.— 19  Dec. „
Alone  in  London . . 21  Dec.  1891— 16  Jan.  1892
The  Swiss  Express  (previously  matinee),

18  Jan. — 3  Feb.  ,,
The  Great-Metropolis  .  .  11  Feb.— 9  April,  „
The  Life  we  Live  .  .  .  .  16  April  et  seq.  „
Stratlilogan,  new  piece  .  .  .  9  June  et  seq.  „
House  to  let,  advertised  .  .  .  .22  June,  „
Royal  Divorce,  altered  by  Miss  Grace  Hawthorne

25  July  et  seq „

OLYMPIC, NOW NEW  OLYMPIC.

Erected  by  the  late  Mr.  Astley,  and  opened  with

horsemanship . . . • •  18  Sept.  1806

Here  the  celebrated  Elliston  (1813),  and  afterwards
Madame  Vestris,  had  managements ; the  latter

until t839

Mr.  George  Wild's  tenure 1840

Miss  Davenport's  tenure .... 11  Nov.  1844

Mr.  Watts's  management 1848

The  theatre  destroyed  by  fire . . 29  March,  1849


Rebuilt  and  opened — Mr.  Watts  resumes  his  man-
agement 26  Dec.  1849

Mr.  William  Farren's  management  ....  1850
Lessee  and  manager,  Mr.  A.  Wigan  .  17  Oct.  1853-7
Messrs. Robson  and  Embden's  management,

Aug.  1857-62
Mr.  Horace  Wigan,  manager .... 1S64-68

Lessee,  Mr.  B.  Webster -  1868

Lessee  and  manager,  Miss  Ada  Cavendish  .  .  1873
Mr.  Wills's  Buckingham  produced . . .  Dec.  1875

Mr.  Henry  Neville 1873-78

Mrs.  A.  Conover,  lessee .  ... 1885

Mr.  J.  Pitt-Hardacre 1889

Opened  by  Mr.  Wilson  Barrett;  The  People's  Idol,
and other  pieces,  by  Mr.  Barrett  and Mr. V.

Wednell 4  Dec.  ct  seq.  1890  -

Lights  0'  London 9  Feb.  1891

Hamlet 13-18  April, ,,

The  Acrobat,  or  Belphegor . . . 21  April, ,,
House  closed,  9  May ;  re-opened  by  Mr. Charles

Wilmot;  manager,  Mr.  W.  W.  Kelly . . . ,,
Theodora,  by  Sardou  1  Aug.— 8  Sept. .,

A  Royal  Divorce,  by  W.  G.  Wills  10  Sept. — 19  Dec.  ,,
Oliver  Twist  .  .  .  .  .  21  Dec.  et  seq.  ,,
East  Lynne  ....  2  Feb.— 5  March,  1892
The  Black  Flag  ....  7  March  et  seq.  „
Called  Back  ....  22  March— 2  April,  ,,
Theodora  revived  ....  4  April  et  seq.  ,,
Lessee  and  manager,  Mr.  Edmund  Tearle  ;  Julius
Cesser,  Richard  III.,  Virginias,  Othello,

16  April— 28  May, ,,

Savoy  Theatre,  see  under  Savoy. Opened  10  Oct.  1S81.

STRAND THEATRE.

First  opened — Mr.  Rayncr  and  Mrs.  Waylett  .  .  1S31
Mr.  William  Farren's  management  .  .  .  .  1849
Lessee,  Mr.  F.  Allcroft ;  manager,  Mr.  T.  Payne .  1855

Lessee,  Miss  Swanborough 1858-61

Mr.  Swanborough,  sen Dec.  1862

Mrs. Swanborough, 1865-88 ; she  died  (aged  84)

6  Jan.  1889
Rebuilt ;  re-opened  . . .  .18  Nov.  1882

Mr.  J.  S.  Clarke,  lessee Jan.  1888

Re-opens  ,  Mr.  C.  Wyndham  and  Mr.  Win.  Duke,

managers 6  Feb.  1889

Mr.  Arthur Rousbey's opera company  perform

Figaro 14  March, ,,

Lessee,  J.  S.  Clarke Sept. ,,

Mr.  Willie  Edouin 13  March,  1890

Our  Flats,  645th  and  last  performance . 3  Jan.  1S91
Private  Inquiry,  by  F.  C.  Burnand  7  Jan. — 13  Feb. ,,
Turned  Up  . . .14  Feb.— 18  April, ,,

Our  Daughters . . . .22  April — 9  May, ,,
A  Night's  Frolic .... 1  June  et  seq. ,,

Katti 27  Jun  ■, ,,

The  Late  Lamented  . . . 1  Aug.  1891 — 8  Jan.  1892
The  New  Wing,  by  H.  A.  Kennedy  9  Jan. — 9  April, ,,
Niobe  (All  Smiles),  a  mythological  comedy,  by  H.

and  E.  Paul  ton .... 11  April  et  seq. ,,

ROYAL  ENGLISH  OPERA  HOUSE.

Erected  for  Mr.  SD'Oyly  Carte  by  Mr.  T.  E.  Col-
cutt  in  Cambridge  Circus,  Shaftesbury  Avenue,  a
magnificent  fireproof  building  to  accommodate
2,000  persons,  opened  with  Ivanlwe,  music  by  sir
Arthur  Sullivan,  libretto  by  Mr.  Julian  Sturgis,

31  Jan. — 31  July,  1S91

House  closed 31  July, ,,

The  Basoche,  composer  M.  Andre  Messager ;  libret- .
tist,  M.  Albert  Carre  ;  Ivanhoe  (on  some  inter-
vening days), 3-28  Nov. 1891  ; 5  Dec. 1891 —

16  Jan.  1892
House  closed.

Madame  Sarah  Bernhardt ;  Sardou' s  Cleopatra,  &c.

28  May— 23  July, ,,

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE.

Built  by  Philip  Astley,  and  opened  ....  1773
Destroyed  by  fire,  with  numerous  adjacent  houses,

17  Sept.  1794

Rebuilt 1795

Burnt  again,  with  forty  houses . . 1  Sept.  1803

Duerow's  management 1825

Again  destroyed  by  fire .... 8  June,  1841

Rebuilt  and  re-opened  by  Mr.  Batty  .  17  April,  1S43
Lessee  and  manager,  Mr.  AV.  Cooke  . . . 1855-60


THEATRES.


9.59


THEATRES.


Mr.  W.  Cooke's  farewell  benefit . . .30  Jan.  1S60
A  man  killed  by  a  lion ....  Jan.  1861

Opened  by  Mr.  Batty 6  Dec. ,,

Opened  by  Mr.  Boueicault,  as  the  Theatre  Royal,

Westminster 26  Dec.  1862

Horsemanship  and  opera  (under  Mr.  E.  T.  Smith),

June,  1S65
Sold  by  auction 1S68

SURREY  THEATRE  (FORMERLY  CIRCUS).

[Originally  devoted  to  equestrian  exercises,  under

Mr.  Hughes] 4  Nov.  1782

Opened  for  performances ... 4  Nov.  1783

Destroyed  by  Are 12  Aug. 1805

Mr.  Eliiston's  management 1809

Mr.  Elliston  again 4  June,  1827

Mr.  Davidge's  tenure 1833

Mr. Shepherd  and  Mr. Anderson,  managers,

12  Sept.  1863-5
Destioyed  by  fire, 31  Jan.  ; rebuilt  and  opened,

26  Dec.  1865
Used  for  melodramas,  pantomimes,  &c.  at  low  prices  1889


VICTORIA  (FORMERLY  COBURG).

[The  erection  was  commenced  under  the  patronage
of  the  late  princess  Charlotte  and  the  prince  Leo-
pold of  Saxe-Coburg] 1816

The  house  was  opened iSiS

Messrs.  Egerton  and  Abbott  had  the  management  in  1833

Mr.  Osbaldiston's  tenure 1840

Alarm  of  fire,  sixteen  persons  killed  .  27  Dec.  1858
Now Victoria Hall, used for popular lectures,

concerts,  &c. 1889

Sadler's  wells.

Opened  as  an  orchestra 1683

Present  house  opened 1765

Eighteen persons  trampled  to  deatli  on  a false

alarm  of  fire 15  Oct.  1807

Management  of  Mrs.  Warner  and  Mr.  Phelps,

20  May,  1844-59
Management  of  Mr.  Josephs . . . 25  March, 1861
Re-opened  by  Mr.  Phelps .... 7  Sept. ,,
Lessee,  Miss  C.  Lucette  ... 27  Sept.  1S62

Miss  Marriott,  manager . 5  Sept.  1863 — 20  May,  1864

31iss  C.  Lucette,  for  opera 1865

Miss  Marriott,  legitimate  drama  (with  intervals)  1865-8
Miss  Hazlewood,  Miss  Marriott,  and  others  .  1868-73
Opened  by  Mrs.  Bateman  as  New  Sadler's  Wells,

9  Oct.  1879
Mrs.  Bateman  dies  (Miss  I.  Bateman  succeeds),

r3  Jan.  1881
Opened  by  Miss  Roze  de  Vane  .  .  12  April,  1884
Closed  and  re-opened  occasionally . . .  1887-92


other  theatres.
Queen's  Theatre,  Tottenham-court-road . . .  1828
Garrick  Theatre,  Goodman's-fields .... 1830

City  Theatre,  Norton-Folgate 1837

Miss  Kelly's  Theatre  (since  named  Soho  and  New

Royalty) 1840

Marylebone,  opened 1842

Standard  Theatre,  built  1854  ;  burnt,  21  Oct.  1866  ;

rebuilt 1868

Pavilion  Theatre  burnt .... 23  Feb.  1856
Alhambra,  Leicester-square,  opened,  1858;  burnt,

7  Dec.  1882  ;  and  re-opeued  ... 3  Dec.  18S3

New  Royalty  (Soho) 31  Aug.  1863

Holborn  Theatre  (afterwards  called  the  Mirror,  and

the  Duke's),  opened,  16  Oct. 1866;  burnt,  4  July,  18S0
Roval  Amphitheatre  (for horses, &c), Holborn,

opened 25  May,  1867

New  Bast  London,  opened ... 12  Oct. ,,
"  New  Queen's  Theatre,"  formerly  St.  Martin's  hall,

opened  by  Alfred  Wigan  . . . .24  Oct. ,,
St.  George's  Opera-house, Langham-place,  opened

by  Mr.  German  Reed .... 18  Dec. ,,
The  Globe,  Strand,  opened . . . 28  Nov.  1868
The  Gaiety,  Strand,  opened . . . 21  Dec.
Charing  Cross,  opened . . . .19  June,  1869
Vaudeville,  opened  .... 16  April,  1870

Opera  Comique, 299,  Strand,  opened  (for  Molle.

De.jazet) 29  Oct. ,,

Court  Theatre,  Chelsea,  opened . . 25  Jan.  1871


Royal Alexandra Theatre, Park-street, Camden-

town,  opened,  31  May,  1873  ;  burnt . 10  Sept. iS:i
Criterion,  Regent's  Circus,  Piccadilly,  opened by

Spiers  andPond,  21  March,  1874;  closed,  Feb.

1883;  re-opened 4  Oct. 1C34

National  Opera  House  (which  see),  founded  7  Sept.

ami  16  Dec.  1875
Charing  Cross  re-opened  as  the  "  Folly  "  .  16  Oct.  1876
"Imperial  theatre,"  at  Westminster  Aquarium  .  1878
Holborn  theatre  reopened  as  the  "  Royal  Connaught

theatre " 1  Nov.  1879

Savoy  Theatre  opened  (which  sec)  .  .  10  Oct.  1881
Toole's  Theatre,  formerly  the  Folly,  opened  in  .  1882
Avenue  Theatre,  Thames  Embankment,  opened,

11  March,  1882
Prince's Theatre, Coventry  Street (Mr. Bruce),

opened 18  Jan. 1883

New  Alhambra  Theatre  opened . . 3  Dec. ,,
Empire  Theatre,  formerly  Pandora,  opened  14  April,  1884
Mr.  Terry's  new  theatre,  Strand,  opened 17  Oct.  1887
Grand  Theatre, Islington, opened  4 Aug. 1883 ;

burnt  29  Dec.  1887  ;  rebuilt 18S8

New  Court  Theatre  opened . . .24  Sept.  1888
Shaftesbury  Theatre,  London,  opened  . 20  Oct.  1S88
Lyric  Theatre,  London . . . .17  Dec. ,,
Garrick  Theatre, Charing-cross  Road,  opened  by

Mr.  Hare 24  April,  1889

Trafalgar  Theatre,  St.  Martin's-lane,  opened  10  Sept.  1892

DUBLIN  THEATRES.

Werburg-street,  commenced 1635

Orange-street,  now  Smpck-alley ....  1662

Aungier-street  (Victor) 1723

Ditto,  management  of  Mr.  Hitchcock . . .  1733

Crow-street  Music-hall -  . .  1731

Rainsford-street  Theatre 1732

Smock-alley  Theatre,  rebuilt 1735

Fishamble-street  Music-hall 1741

Capel-street  Theatre 1745

Crow-street,  Theatre  Royal 1758

Peter-street,  Theatre  Royal 1789

Hawkin's-street,  Theatre  Royal ....  1821

Destroyed  by  fire 9  Feb.  1880

Queen's  Theatre,  Brunswick-street ....  1844

EDINBURGH  THEATRES.

Theatre  of  Music 1672

Allan  Ramsay's 1736

The  Caledonian  Theatre 1822

Adelphi  Theatre  burnt  down . .  24  May,  1S53

Royal  Theatre  burnt  down  (several  lives  lost),

13  Jan.  1865,  again  6  Feb.  1875


FIRST  OR LAST  APPEARANCES.

Quin's  first  appearance

Maeklin  at  Lincoln's-inn-fields

Garrick's  at  Goodman's-fields,  as  Richard  HI.,

19  Oct,
Miss  Farren  (afterwards  countess  of  Derby)  first  ap-
pears at  Liverpool  .  .  .  .  "  .  .  .
Garrick's  last  appearance .  .  .  .10  June,
Mrs.  Robinson,  Perdita:  her  last  appearance,  14  Doc
Braham's  first  appearance  at  the  Royalty,  20  April,
Madame  Storace ;  her  first  appearance  in  London,

24  Nov.

Incledon's  first  appearance

Miss  Mellon,  her  first  appearance  as  Lydia  Languish,

31  Jan.
Master  Betty  (Infant  Roscius)  debut  in  London,  en-
thusiastically received  .  .  .  .  1  !><■,'.
Liston's  first  appearance  in  London  .  1  June,
Miss  F.  M.  Kelly's  first  appearance  ....
Romeo  Coates  appears  as  Lothario .  to  April,

.Airs.  Jordan's  last  appearance,  as  Lady  Teazle,

1  June,
Miss  O'Neill,  as  Juliet  ....  6  Oct.
Mr.  Macready's  first  appearance  at  Bath,  as  /;

29  Dec.
Booth's  first  appearance ....  12  Feb.

w.  Farren's  first  appearance

Munden's  last  appearance  ....  May,
Fanny  Kemble's  first  appearance  .  .  5  Oct.
Edmund  Kcau's  last  appearance,  a.s  01

25  March,
Liston's  last  appearance  . .  . 31  May,

Adelaide  Kemble's  first  appearance . . 2  Nov.


1716
I725

1741

r773

1776
1779
17S7

17S9

1790


1807
iSir

1814


1S17
1818
1824
1829

1S33


THEATRES.


960


THEBES.


Jenny  Land's  first  appearance  . . 4  May,  1847

Mrs.  Glover's  farewell  . . . .12  July,  1850

Mr.  Bartley's  farewell .... 18  Dec.  1852

Mr.  W.  Farren's  farewell 1855

Clara  Novello's  farewell  .... 21  Nov.  i860
Adelina  Patti's  first  appearance  at  Covent  Garden,

14  May,  1861

Miss  Bateman  appears  as  Leah  . . . 1  Oct.  1863

Her  farewell  at  H.M.'s  theatre . . .  22  Dec.  1865
Madlle.  Nillson's  first  appearance  at  H.M.'s  theatre

as  VioUtta . . . . . .8  June,  1867

Miss  Kate  Terry's  last  appearance  (Juliet  at  the  New

Adelphi) 31  Aug.  ,,

Madlle.  Kellogg's  debut  at  Drury-lane . 2  Nov.  ,,

Mr.  Bandmann's  debut .... 17  Feb.  1868
Mr.  Paul  Bedford's  farewell  at  New  Queen's  theatre,

16  May,  ,,

Madlle.  Marimon's  debut,  as  Amino, . . 6  May,  1871
Mario's  farewell  in  La  Favorita  at  Italian  opera,

19  July,  ,,

.  Miss  Isabella  Bateman's  debut  .  .  .  12  Sept.  „
Mr. and  Mrs.  Alfred  Wigan's  last  appearance  (at

Drury  Lane) 6  July,  1872

Mr.  H.  Irving  first  appears  as  Hamlet,  31  Oct.  1874,

200th  performance 29  June  1875

Our  Boys  by  H.  J.  Byron, 1st  time  16  Jan.  1875

(at  the  Vaudeville); 1350th, 1 April;  and  last

18  April,  1879

Mr.  Byron's  The  Girls,  1st  performance  19  April,  ,,
Mr.  Sims  Beeves'  farewell  at  the  B.  Albert  Hall,

11  May,  1891

MEMOEAND.A.

David  Garrick  died 1779

Charles  Macklin  died 1797

Mr.  Palmer  died  on  the  stage  at  Liverpool,  2  Aug. 1798

Bannister  retired  from  the  stage 1815

John  P.  Kemble  died 1823

Talma  died  in  Paris 1826

Weber  came  to  London Feb. ,,

The  Brunswick  theatre  fell,  owing  to  the  weight  of

a  newly-ereeted  roof,  and numbers  of  persons

were  wounded  and  some  killed  . .  29  Feb.  1828

Sarah  Siddons  died 1831

Edmund  Kean  died 1833

Charles  Mathews  died . . . .28  June,  1835
Madame  Malibran  died  at  Manchester  . 23  Sept.  1836

Paganini  died 27  May,  1840

Power  lost  in  the  President  steamer,  about  13  March,  1841
Elton  lost  in  the  Pegasus  ...  18  July,  1843
Theatres'  Registry  Act  passed  -.  .  .  22  Aug.  ,,
Madlle.  Mars  died  at  Paris  ...  23  March,  1847
Madame  Catalini  died  at  Paris  .  .  .13  June,  1849
W.  C.  Macready  retired ... 26  April,  1851

Alexander  Lee  died 9  Oct. „

Mrs.  Warner  died 5  Sept.  1854

Charles  Kemble  died  ....  12  Nov.  ,,
John  Braham  died ....  17  Feb.  1856

Madame  Vestris  died  .... 8  Aug. ,,

Madlle.  Rachel  died 4  Jan.  1858

Mrs.  Nisbet  (lady  Boothby)  died  .  .  16  Jan.  ,,
Louis  Lablache  (buffo  singer)  died  .  .  23  Jan.  ,,
John  Pritt  Harley  died  ....  22  Aug.  ,,
Flexmore,  celebrated  clown,  died . .  20  Aug.  i860

Mrs.  Yates  died 30  Oct. ,,

Alfred  Bunn  died 20  Dec. ,,

William  Farren  died 25  Sept.  1861

Mr.  Vandenhoff  died 4  Oct. ,,

M.  Tree  (Mrs.  Bradshaw)  died  ....  Feb.  1862
Subscription  testimonial  (value  2000?.)  i>resented  to

C.  J.  Kean  :  Mr.  Gladstone  in  the  chair,  22  March,  1862
Sheridan  Knowles  died  .... 30  Nov. ,,
Mrs.  Wood  (Miss  Paton)  died . . .21  July,  1864
Mr.  F.  Robson  died .... n  Aug. ,,
Madame  Pasta  died,  aged  66  . .1  April,  1865

Charles  J.  Kean  died ....  23  Jan.  1868

Robert  Keeley  died,  aged  74  . .3  Feb.  1869

Madame  Grisi  died  .... 25  Nov. ,,

Wm.  Brough,  burlesque-writer,  died,  aged 44,  i3Mar.  1870

Paul  Bedford  died 11  Jan. 1871

T.  W.  Robertson,  dramatist,  died  .  .  .3  Feb.  ,,
Lady  Wrixon  Becher  (Miss  O'Neill,  Juliet),  died

29  Oct.  1872
William  C.  Macready  died  ...  27  April,  1873
Wm. Hy. West  Betty  (the Infant  Kosciu-s)  died,

aged  82 Aug.  1874

Charles  James  Mathews  died  . . 24  June,  1878


Alfred  Wigan  died 29  Nov.  1878

Frederick  Gye,  died  (accidentally  shot),  nearly  30

years  lessee  and  manager  of  Royal  Italian  Opera,

Covent  Garden 5  Dec. „

Wm.  H.  Seholield  Payne,  "King  of  Pantomime"

(aged  70),  died 18  Dec. ,,

Mrs.  Wybrow  Rousby  died . . .19  April,  1879
J.  B.  Buckstone  died .... 31  Oct. ,,
Mrs.  Charles  Kean  (Miss  Ellen  Tree),  died  20  Aug.  1880
Countess  of  Essex,  formerly  Miss  Stephens,  died,

22  Feb.  1882
Benjamin  Nottingham  Webster  died . 8  July, ,,
Miss  Francis  M.  Kelly,  aged  92,  died  . . 6  Dec. ,,
Grand  dinner  to  Mr.  H.  Irving . . .4  July,  1883
Miss  Mary  Anderson's  debut . . . 1  Sept. ,,
Sig.  Giuseppe  Mario,  aged  75,  died . .11  Dec. ,,
H.  J.  Byron,  author,  died ... 11  April,  1884
Mr.  Frederick  Balsir  Chatterton,  lessee  of  Drury

Lane,  &c.  died 18  Feb.  1886

Jenny  land  (Madame  Lind  Goldschmidt)  died,  aged

67 2  Nov.  1887

Mrs.  Swanborough  died .... 6  Jan.  1889
Mrs.  Dallas,  known  as  Miss  Glyn,  died,  aged  66

18  May,  ,,
James  Albery,  dramatist,  died  .  about  16  Aug.  „
H.  B.  Farnie,  dramatist,  died  .  .  22  Sept.  ,,
Frederick  Ernes  Clay,  operatic  composer,  died,  ^ !

about  24  Nov. ,,
Westland  Marston,  dramatist,  died . . 6  Jan.  1890
John  Barnett,  operatic  composer,  died,  aged  87,

17  April,  ,,
Dion  Boucicault,  dramatist,  died  .  .  18  Sept.  „
Wm.  Gorman  Wills,  dramatist,  died,  announced,

15  Dec.  1891
Maddison  Morton,  drama tisi,  author  of  "  Box  and

Cox,"  <&c,  died 19  Dec. ,,

THEATEICAL  FUNDS.  The  Theatrical
fund  of  Covent  Garden  was  established  in  1760,
incorporated  1774;  that  of  Drury  Lane  by  Garrick
1766;  incorporated  1775.  They  grant  pensions  to
members  and  their  families.  The  General  Thea-
trical fund  was  established  in  1839,  incorporated
1853-
The  Tliecdrieal  Mission  and  Institute  for  the  benefit  of

theatrical  employed,  started  in 1876. The princess

Christian  inaugurated  for  them  "Macready"  house,

Covent  Garden  30  Nov.  1887.

THEATROPHONE,  a  form  of  the  telephone
specially  adapted  for  hearing  theatrical  perform-
ances at  a  distance.  The  apparatus  of  the  "  com-
pagnie  du  theatrophone  "  of  Paris  was  exhibited  at
the  Savoy  Hotel,  and  by  its  means  the  performance
of  the  "Nautch  Girl"  at  the  Savoy  theatre  was
said  to  be  well  heard,  11  Dec.  1891.

THEBAN  LEGION,  according  to  tradition,
was  composed  of  Christians,  and  submitted  to  martyr-
dom rather  than  attack  their  brethren  during  the
persecution  of  the  emperor  Maximin,  or  sacrifice
to  the  gods,  about  A.D.  286.  Their  leader  Maurice
was  canonised.

THEBES  or  LlTXOR,  in  Upper  Egypt,  called
also  Diospolis,  as  being  sacred  to  Jupiter.  Homer.
Its  foundation  is  mythically  attributed  to  Osiris.  It
is  said  to  have  been  the  magnificent  capital  of
Egypt  about  1600  B.C.,  having  a  circuit  of  about  14
geographical  miles.  It  was  then  the  chief  seat  of
the  worship  of  Amnion,  or  Ammun,  the  Zeus  Amnion
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Jupiter  Ammon  of  the
Eomans,  and  hence  was  called  No  Ammon  by  the
Hebrews.  Thebes  was  ruined  by  Cambyses,  king
of  Persia,  525  B.C.,  and  by  the  foundation  of
Alexandria,  332  B.C.;  it  rebelled  and  was  taken  by
Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  86  B.C.,  and  few  traces  of  it
were  seen  in  the  age  of  Juvenal ;  see  Mcmnoncium.
After  centuries  of  neglect,  its  wonderful  ruins  have
been  greatly  visited  since  the  exploitations  of  Bel-
zoni,  1817. — Thebes,  N.  Greece (the  capital  is


THEFT.


961


THEEMOPYLiE.


mythically  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Cadmus.)
The  legendary  history  of  CEdipus  and  his  family,  cele-
brated by  the  Greek  tragic  poets,  belongs  to  Thebes.
It  became  a  republic  about  1 120  B.C.,  and  flourished
under  Epaminondas  378-362  B.C.  The  "  sacred
band"  formed  by  him,  377  B.C.,  was  revived  in  1877.
Thebes'  seven  gates  are  mentioned  by  Homer.  See
Boeotia  and  Greece.

THEFT  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among
the  Jews ;  by  death  at  Athens,  by  the  laws  of  Draco  ;
see  Draco.  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominally  punished
theft  with  death,  if  above  I2d.  value ;  but  the
criminal  could  redeem  his  life  by  a  ransom.  In  the
9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemption  was
taken  away,  1108.  The  punishment  of  theft  was
very  severe  in  England,  till  mitigated  by  Peel's
acts  9  &  10  Geo.  IV.  1829.  The  laws  respecting
theft  were  consolidated  in  1862.

THEINE,  see  Cafeine.

THEISTS  (Theos,  God),  a  name  given  to  deists
about  1660. — Dean  Martin.  See  Deism,  Unitarians,
and  Voysey.

THELLUSSON' S  WILL,  a  most  singular
document.  Mr.  Peter  Isaac  Thellusson,  a  Gene-
vese  and  an  affluent  merchant  of  London,  left
100,000^.  to  his  widow  and  children ;  and  the  re-
mainder of  his  property,  more  than  600,000/.,  he
left  to  trustees,  to  accumulate  during  the  lives  of
his  three  sons,  and  the  lives  of  their  sons ;  then
the  estates,  directed  to  be  purchased  with  the  pro-
duce of  the  accumulated  fund,  were  to  be  conveyed
to  the  eldest  lineal  male  descendant  of  his  three
sons,  with  the  benefit  of  survivorship.  Should  no
heir  then  exist,  the  whole  was  to  be  applied,  by
the  agency  of  the  sinking  fund,  to  the  discharge  of
the  national  debt.  It  is  said  that  Mr.  Thellusson
held  much  property  in  trust,  and  that  he  desired  a
sufficient  interval  of  time  to  elapse  for  the  appear-
ance of  just  claimants.  He  died  21  July,  1797.
His  will  incurred  much  public  censure,  and  was
contested  by  the  heirs-at-law,  but  finally  estab-
lished by  a  decision  of  the  house  of  lords,  25  June,
1805.  The  last  surviving  grandson  died  in  Feb.
1856.  A  dispute  then  arose  whether  the  eldest  male
descendant  or  the  male  descendant  of  the  eldest
son  should  inherit  the  property.  The  question  was
decided  on  appeal  by  the  house  of  lords  (9  June,
1859),  in  favour  of  the  latter,  lord  Rendlesham
and  Charles  S.  Thellusson  confirming  the  decision
of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  1858.  In  consequence
of  the  legal  expenses  the  property  is  said  not  to  ex-
ceed greatly  its  value  in  the  testator's  lifetime.  On
28  July,  1800,  the  Thellusson  act  was  passed,  re-
straining testators  from  devising  their  property  for
purposes  of  accumulation  for  longer  than  21  years
after  death  ;  any  other  direction  to  be  void.

THEOCEACY,  government  by  God,  existed
among  the  Israelites  till  Saul  was  made  king,  about
1095  B.C.  (Sam.  viii.  7  )

THEODOLITE,  an  instrument  for  measuring
horizontal  angles,  used  in  surveying,  consists  of  a
telescope  and  a  divided  circle.  It  was  probably
first  constructed  in  the  17th  century.  Jesse  Rams-
den,  in  1787,  completed  the  great  theodolite  em-
ployed in  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  England  and
Wales  by  general  Roy.

THEODOSIAN  CODE,  see  Codes.

"THEOLOGIA GEEMANICA,"  or

"  Tcutsche  Theologey  "  (printed  1528;  Latin  and
French  editions,  1558),  a  German  mystical  work,
written  about  the  14th  century.  In  it  the  "good
man,"  disgusted  with  the  corruptions  in  church
and  state,  is  led  to  seek  for  God  in  the  temple  of


the  heart.  Luther  is  said  to  have  placed  the  work
next  to  the  Bible  and  St.  Augustin.

THEOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  Theos,  God),
the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature  and  attributes
of  God,  of  his  relations  to  man,  and  of  the  manner
in  which  they  may  be  discovered.  It  is  generally
divided  into  two  heads.  1.  Inspired,  including  the
Holy  Scriptures,  their  interpretation,  &c.  2.
Natural;  which  lord  Bacon  calls  the  first  part  of
philosophy.  —  Butler's  "Analogy  of  Religion"
(1736)  and  Paley's  "Natural  Theology"  (1802)
are  eminent  books  on  the  latter  subject. — Abelard
(died  1 142)  wrote  "Theologia  Christiania."  The
"  Summa  Totius  Theologise"  by  Thomas  Aquinas
(born  about  1224),  a  standard  Roman  catholic  work,
was  printed  with  commentaries,  &c,  in  1596.

THEOPHILANTHEOPISTS  (lovers  of  God
and  man),  a  sect  formed  in  France  in  1796;  and
headed  by  one  of  the  five  directors,  Lepaux,  in
1797 ;  was  dissolved  in  1802.

THEOSOPHISTS,  followers  of  Paracelsus  in

the  1 6th  century.

The  Theosophical  Society  was  founded  in  America  by
Madame  Blavatsky,  aided  by  colonel  Oleott,  about
1875-6.  Aims  at  universal  brotherhood  and  the  study
of  Eastern  philosophy.  It  has  a  station  in  London,
and  many  branches  in  India  and  other  parts.  Mrs.
Anna  Kingsford,  M.D.,  president,  in  1883,  died  22  Feb-
1888.

Mrs.  Besant's  lecture  on  Theosophy  and  Occultism  at
St.  James's  hall,  London,  9  Oct.  1891,  related  especially
to  "  Esoteric  Buddhism  "  as  described  by  Mr.  Sinnett.

THEEMIDOE  EEVOLTJTION. On  the

9th  Thermidor  of  the  2nd  year  (27  July,  1794),
the  Convention  deposed  Robespierre,  and  on  the
next  day  he  and  twenty-two  of  his  partisans  were
executed.

THEEMO-ELECTEICITY  and  Thermo-
pile, see  under  Electricity,  and  Heat.

THEEMOMETEE. Freezing  point: Fah.

32°;  R.  0° ; ft  0°. Boiling  point:  Fah.  212°,  JR.

8o°,  C.  100°.

Invented  by  Galileo,  before  1597. Libri.

Invented  by  Drebbel  of  Alcmaer,  1609. Boerhaave.

Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609. Fulgentio.

Invented  by  Sanctorio  in  1610. Borelli.

Fahrenheit's  thermometer  invented  about  1726;  Reau
mur's  and  Celsius's  (the  latter  now  termed  centigrade)
soon  after.  [Fahrenheit's  scale  is  usually  employed  in
England,  and  Reaumur's  and'  the  centigrade  on  the
continent.]

The  mode  of  construction  by  substituting  quicksilver  for
spirits  was  invented  some  years  subsequently.  Halley
proposed  it  in  1697.

Mr.  L.  M.  Casella  issued  a  minimum  thermometer  in
Sept.  1861.  It  registers  degrees  of  cold  by  means  of
mercury.

Negretti  and  Zambra's  registering  minimum  thermo-
meters, adapted  for  deep  sea  purposes,  made  known
early  in  1874.

_  THEEMOPHONE,  in  which  sonorous  vibra-
tions are  produced  by  the  expansion  of  heated  bo-
dies connected  with  an  electro-magnet.  The  appa-
ratus was  constructed  by  Theodor  Wiesendanger,
and  described  by  him  in  October,  1878.

THEEMOPYLiE  (Doris,  N.  Greece) .  Leoni-
das,  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans  and  700  Thes-
pians, at  the  defile  of  Thermopylae,  withstood  the
whole  force  of  the  Persians  during  three  days,  7,
8,  9  Aug.  480  B.C.,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Traclunian,
perfidiously  leading  the  enemy  by  a  secret  path
up  the  mountains,  brought  them  to  the  rear  of  the
Greeks,  who,  thus  placed  bet  ween  two  assailants,
perished  gloriously  on  heaps  of  their  slaughtered
foes. One  Greek  only  returned  home,  and  he  was

3  o.


THEEMUM.


962


THIONVILLE.


received  with  reproaches  for  having  fled.*  Here
Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated
by  the  Romans,  191  B.C.

THEEMUM, Thermits, or Therma

(Greece),  a  strong  city,  the  Acropolis  of  iEtolia,  N.
Greece,  was  captured  and  ravaged  by  Philip  V.
of  Macedon,  218  and  206  B.C.,  on  account  of  its
favouring  the  Romans.

THESAUEUS  (treasury),  a  title  given  in  the'
17th  and  18th  centuries  to  large  collections  of  small
works  on  history  and  archaeology.  The  most  cele-
brated are —

"  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Grsecorum,"  lay  J.  Grono-

vius. 13  vol.  fol 1697-1702

"  Thesaurus  Autiquitatum  Ronianoruni,"  by  J.  G.

Greevius. 12  vol.  fol 1694

"  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  et Historicum  Italise,

Sieilise,"  &c. ,  by  G.  Greevius  and  P. Burmannus.

45  vol.  fol.  1725

"  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,"  by  B.  Ugo-

linus. 34  vol.  fol .  1744-69

THESPLE,  a  city  of  Bceotia,  N.  Greece.  700
of  its  citizens  perished  with  Leonidas  at  Thermo-
pylae, Aug.  480  B.C.  It  suffered  through  the  jealousy
of  the  Thebans,  who  destroyed  its  walls  in  372  B.C.

THESSALONICA  (now  Salonica),  a  city  in
Macedonia,  N.  Greece,  originally  Therme,  but  re-
built by  Cassander,  and  said  to  have  been  named
after  his  wife,  Thessalonica,  daughter  of  Philip,
after  315  B.C.  Here  Paul  preached,  53  ;  and  to  the
church  here  he  addressed  two  epistles  in  54.  In
consequence  of  seditions,  a  frightful  massacre  of
the  inhabitants  took  place  in  390,  by  order  of  the
emperor  Theodosius.  Thessalonica  partook  of  the
changes  of  the  Eastern  empire.  Thessalonica  was
taken,  by  the  Saracens,  with  great  slaughter,  30
July,  904;  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily,  15  Aug.  1 185;
and  after  various  changes  was  taken  from  the
Venetians  by  the  Turks  under  Amurath,  1430.
Population,  1885,  159,000.

A  young  Bulgarian  Christian  girl,  said  to  be  an  unwilling
convert  to  Mahometanisrn,  was  rescued  from  the  Turks
and  taken  to  the  American  consul's,  5  May ;  riots  en-
sued on  6  May ;  the  German  and  French  consuls,
Abbott  and  Moulin,  were  murdered ;  the  Western
powers  intervened  ;  reparation  was  ordered  by  the
Sultan ;  several  murderers  were  executed  16  May ;
other  persons  were  imprisoned  ;  and  40,000?.  said  to  be
paid  to  the  families  of  the  victims,  Aug.  1876.
Destructive  fire  ;  10,000  persons  homeless  ;  the  mosque
and  church,  &c,  destroyed  ;  estimated  loss,  800,000?.,
4  Sept.,  see  Mansion  House  Fund,  1890.

THESSALY  (N.  Greece),  the  seat  of  many  of
the  adventures  described  by  the  poets.  The  lirst
king  of  whom  we  have  any  certain  knowledge  was
Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from  whom  his  subjects
were  called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended
to  all  Greeks.  From  Thessaly  came  the  Achaeans,
the  iEtolians,  the  Dorians,  the  Hellenes,  &c.  The
two  most  remarkable  events  in  the  early  history
of  this  country  are  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  1548  B.a,
and  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  1263  B.C.  ;
see  them  severally.  Thessaly  long  aimed  at  neu-
trality in  Grecian  affairs,  but  became  involved
through  its  rulers,  the  tyrants  of  Pherae ; — Lyco-
phron,  about  404  B.C. ;  his  son  Jason,  374,  assassi-
nated 370;  Alexander,  the  most  eminent,  defied
Athens  and  Thebes;  assassinated  359.  Philip  of
Macedon,  after  a  defeat  (353  B.C.),  gamed  a  victory
over  the  tyrants,  352 ;  and  subjugated  the  country
Avholly,  343. The  Romans  gave  a  nominal  freedom

*  The  distich,  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  by  Simonides
their  contemporary,  is  thus  translated  by  Bowles  : —
"  Go,  tell  the  Spartans,  thou  that  passest  by,
That  here,  obedient  to  their  laws,  we  lie."


to  Thessaly  after  their  victory  at  Cynoscephalae,
197.  It  is  now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Greece
by  the  treaty  of  24  May,  signed  2  July,  and  occu-
pied Aug. —  Sept.  1881.  Railway  from  Volo  to
Larissa  opened  by  the  king,  4  May,  1884.  See
Inundations,  1883.

THETFOED  (Norfolk),  said  to  have  been  the
Roman  Sitomagus,  and  an  important  Saxon  town,
was  a  bishopric  from  1075  to  109 1,  when  the  see
was  removed  to  Norwich.  It  was  made  a  suffragan
bishopric  by  H  enry  VIII. ;  the  power  given  him  1 534.
Population,  1881,4,032;  1891,4,247.

THIBET  or  Tibet  (central  Asia),  is  said  to
have  been  a  kingdom  313  B.C.,  conquered  by
Genghis  Khan  1206,  and  gradually  subdued  by  and
annexed  to  China,  1255- 1720.  Buddhism  became
the  dominant  religion  about  905 ;  and  the  Lamas
have  absolute  power  in  religious  and  temporal
affairs.  Thibet  was  visited  by  Marco  Polo,
1278  ;  by  Jesuits  about  1661-2 ;  Bogle  and
Hamilton,  1774;  and  Thomas  Manning,  1810.
An  astronomical  survey  was  carried  on  surrep-
titiously by  two  pundits  of  semi-Thibet  origin,
under  the  superintendence  of  capt.  Montgomerie,
1865-7.  War  with  Nepaul,  May;  peace,  June,
1884.  Hon.  Colman  Macaulay's  expedition  to
Lachen  vallej',  to  promote  commerce  ;  well  received,
announced  30  Nov.  1884.

A  mission  to  Tibet,  including  Mr.  Macaulay  with  scien-
tific assistance,  organised  in  India  ;  scheme  suspended
July,  1886. See  Sikkim.
The  progress  of  the  Russian  exploring  expedition  under

colonel  Pevtsoff  reported,  summer  1890.
Much  geographical  knowledge  has  been  obtained,  and
maps  constructed. The  Chinese  oppose  the  expedi-
tion.
M. Gabriel  Bonvalot, prince  Henry  of Orleans, and
father  Dedeken,  gave  an  illustrated  account  of  their
recent exploration of Thibet, &c, to  the French
Geographical  society,  at  Paris,  31  Jan.  1891.
"Across Thibet,"  by  M.  Bonvalot,  was  published  in

1891.
Capt.  Bower,  Dr.  Thorold  and  party  cross  Thibet,  June,
1891,  and  arrive  at  Simla,  April,  1892.

THIEVES'  ISLAND,  see  Ladrones.

THIEVES'  SYNOD,  at  Ephesus,  349  or  449,
where  the  doctrines  of  Eutyches  respecting  Christ's
incarnation  were  approved,  received  the  name
because  his  opponents  were  silenced  or  excluded.

THIMBLES  are  said  to  have  been  found  at

Herculaneum,  and  long  ago  used  by  the  Chinese.
The  bi-centenary  of  their  invention  in  Europe  by
Nicolas  van  Benschoten  was  celebrated  at  Amster-
dam, Dec.  1884. The art of  making  them was
brought  to  England  by  John  Lofting,  a  mechanic,
from  Holland,  who  set  up  a  workshop  at  Islington,
near  London, and  practised  the  manufacture  in
various  metals  with  profit  and  success,  about  1695.
A  Thimble  League  patronised  by  the  queen  1886  ; the
object  being  to  provide  employment  for  distressed
needlewomen  ;  there  was  a  sale  of  the  work  at  lady
Winchilsea's  house,  23,  Ennismore  Gardens,  24-25  Oct.
1888.

THIONVILLE,  the  ancient  Theodonis  villa,
a  fortified  city  on  the  Moselle,  N.  E.  France.  It
was  the  occasional  residence  of  Charlemagne  and
his  successors,  and  on  the  extinction  of  his  race  it
was  successively  held  by  private  lords,  the  counts
of  Luxemburg,  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  the  house
of  Austria,  and  the  kings  of  Spain.  It  was  taken
by  the  duke  of  Guise,  23  June,  1558,  after  an
obstinate  defence,  and  returned  to  Philip  II.  bj-  the
peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis.  It  successfully  resisted
the  marquis  de  Feuquieres  in  1637,  but  was  taken
after  four  months'  siege  by  the  due  d'Enghien,  10


THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES.


933:


THRACE.


Aug.  1643,  and  remained  with  France.  It  success  -
fulh'  resisted  the  Austrians  in  1 792,  and  the  Prussians
in  1814.  It  was  invested  by  the  Germans  in  Aug.
1870,  and  after  bombardment,  being  in  flames,
surrendered  24  Nov.  following.

THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES,  see  Articles.

THIRTY  TYRANTS,  a  term  applied  to  the
governors  of  Athens,  in  404  B.C.,  who  were  ex-
pelled by  Thrasybulus,  403 ;  and  also  to  the
numerous  aspirants  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Home
during  the  reigns  of  Gallienus  and  Aurelian,  a.d.
259-274.

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  in  Germany,
between  the  catholics  and  protestants.  It  began
in  Bohemia  in  1618,  and  ended  with  the  peace  of
"Westphalia  in  1648.  It  is  renowned  for  the
victories  of  "Wallenstein  and  Gustavus  Adolphus
•of  Sweden,  and  for  its  history  by  Schiller,  published
1790-93. See  Battles,  1618-48.

THISTLE,*  Order  of  the,  Scotland,

founded  by  James  V.  1 540. It  consisted  originally
of  himself, as sovereign,  and  twelve  knights,  in
imitation  of  Christ  and  his  twelve apostles. In
1542,  James  died,  and  the  order  was  discontinued,
•about  the  time  of  the  Reformation. The  order  was
■renewed  by  James  VII.  of  Scotland  and  II.  of  Eng-
land, by  making eight  knights, 29 May, 1687  ;
increased  to  twelve by  queen Anne  in  1703  ;  to
■sixteen  by  George  IV.  in  1827.  The  original  knights
■of  1687  were
•George,  duke  of  Gordon.
•John,  marquis  of  Athol.
James,  earl  of  Arran, afterwards  duke of  Hamilton  ;

killed  in  a  duel,  1712.
Alexander,  earl  of  Moray.
James,  earl  of  Perth  ;  attainted.
Kenneth,  earl  of  Seaforth  ;  attainted.
•George,  earl  of  Dumbarton.
John,  earl  of  Melfort ;  attainted.

THISTLE  WOOD'S CONSPIRACY,  see

'Cato- street  Conspiracy .

THOMAS'S  HOSPITAL,  ST.  (Southwark),
was  founded  as  an  almshouse  by  Richard,  prior  of
Bermondsey,  in  1213,  and  surrendered  to  Henry
VIII.  in  1538.  In  1551  the  mayor  and  citizens  of
London,  having  purchased  of  Edward  VI.  the
■manor  of  Southwark,  including  this  hospital,
•repaired  and  enlarged  it,  and  admitted  into  it  260
poor,  sick,  and  helpless  objects;  upon  which  the
king,  in  1553,  incorporated  it,  together  with  Beth-
lehem, St.  Bartholomew's,  &c.  It  was  rebuilt  in
1693.  In  1862,  the  site  was  sold  to  the  South-
■eastern  railway  company,  and  the  patients  were
removed  to  the  Surrey  music  hall.  The  foundation
stone  of  the  new  hospital,  erected  at  Stangate,  near
the  Surrey  side  of  Westminster-bridge,  was  laid  by
the  queen,  13  May,  1868;  and  the  new  hospital
was  opened  by  her  majesty,  21  June,  1871.
The  appointment  of  a  paid  resident  treasurer,  instead  of

an  honorary  one,  and  other  changes  recommended  by

committees,  were  negatived  by  the  general  committee,

Nov.  1877.
Establishment  of  wards  for  paying-patients,  settled

20  Nov.  1878

*  Some  Scottish  historians  make  the  origin  of  this
•order  very  ancient.  The  abbot  Justinian  says  it  was
instituted  by  Achaius  I.  of  Scotland,  809,  when  that
monarch  made  an  alliance  with  Charlemagne,  and  then
took  for  his  device  the  thistle.  It  is  stated  that  tin'  king
Hungus,  the  Pict,  had  a  dream,  in  which  Si.  Andrew
made  a  midnight  visit,  and  promised  him  a  sure  victory
over  his  foes,  the  Northumbrians  ;  and  that  the  next,
day  St.  Andrew's  Cross  (x)  appeared  in  the  air,  and  the
Northumbrians  were,  defeated.  On  this  story,  it  is
said,  Achaius  framed  the  order  more  than  700  years  be-
fore James  V.


THOMAS,  ST.,  see  Virgin  Isles.

THOMISTS,  see  Scotists.

.  THOMITES  or  TOMITES,  a  body  of  enthu-
siasts who  assembled  at  Boughton,  near  Canter-
bury. An  insane  Cornish  publican  named  John
Nicholls,  called  Thom,  or  Tom,  assumed  the  name
of  sir  W.  Courtenay,  knight  of  Malta  and  king  of
Jerusalem,  came  into  Kent,  was  an  unsuccessful  can-
didate for  parliament,  and  incited  the  rabble  against
the  Poor  Law  act.  On  31  May,  1838,  a  farmer  of
the  neighbourhood,  whose  servant  had  joined  the
crowd  which  attended  Thorn,  sent  a  constable  to
fetch  him  back ;  but  on  his  arrival  on  the  ground
he  was  shot  dead  by  Thom.  The  military  were  then
called  out,  and  lieut.  Bennett  proceeded  to  take  the
murderer  into  custody ;  but  Thom  advanced,  and,
firing  a  pistol,  killed  the  lieutenant  on  the  spot.
One  of  the  soldiers  fired  at  Thom,  and  laid  him  dead
by.  the  side  of  lieut.  Bennett.  The  people  then
attacked  the  military,  who  were  compeUed  to  fire,
and  eight  more  persons  were  killed  before  the  mob
dispersed.

THORACIC  DUCT,  discovered  first  in  a
horse,  by  Eustachius,  about  1563  ;  in  the  human
body,  by  01.  Rudbec,  a  Swedish  anatomist.  Thomas
Barthohne,  of  Copenhagen,  and  Dr.  Joliffe,  of
England,  also  discovered  it  about  1654.  See
Lacteals.

THORINUM,  a  very  rare  metal  (a  heavy  gray
powder),  discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1828.

THORN  (on  the  Vistula,  Poland)  was  founded
by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  123 1.  Here  they
acknowledged  themselves  to  be  vassals  of  Poland  in
1466.  Thom  was  taken  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden
in  1703.  Many  protestants  were  slain  here  (after  a
religious  riot)  at  the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits,  7
Dec.  1724.  Thorn  was  acquired  by  the  Prussians  in
1793;  taken  by  the  French  in  1806;  restored  to
Prussia  at  the  peace  in  1815.  Population,  1890,
27,007.

THOROUGH.  The  name  given  by  Thos.
\Ventworth,  earl  of  Strafford,  to  his  unsuccessful
scheme  for  making  Charles  I.  an  absolute  monarch.
He  was  attainted  and  beheaded,  12  May,  1641.
THORPE,  see  Railway  Accidents,  1874.
THOUGHT  READING.  In  1881  Mr.  \V.
Irving  Bishop  professed  to  be  able  to  read  a  person's
thoughts  by  touching  some  part  of  the  skin.  On
June  1 1  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  G.  J.  Romanes,  pro-
fessor E.  Ray  Lankester,  Mr.  F.  Galton,  and  others  ;
he  was  successful  with  some  persons,  and  failed
with  others  {Xatitre,  No.  608).

In  1883  he  was  challenged  by  Mr.  Labouehere,  M.P.,  to
operate  under  certain  conditions,  at  St.  James's  Hall
on  12  June,  but  virtually  declined  the  tests.  Other
experiments  by  Mr.  Bishop,  3,  4  June,  1884 ;  success
doubted.
Mr.  Bishop  sentenced  to  pay  10,000/.  damages  to  Mr.
Maskelyne  for  libel  in  Truth  (23  July,  1884),  15  Jan.;
appeal  disallowed,  28  Jan.  ;  damages  reduced  to  500?.,
2  July,  1885.  He  died  of  catalepsy  at  New  York,  13
May,  1889.
Experiments  by  Mr.  Stuart  Cumberland  reported  success-
ful on  the  prince  of  Wales  and  others,  19  July,  1884.

THRACE  (now  Eoumelia,  in  Turkey)  derived
its  name  from  Tlirax,  the  son  of  Mars. — Aspin.  The
Thracians  were  a  warlike  people,  and  therefore
Mars  was  said  to  have  been  born  and  to  have  had
his  residence  among  them. — Euripides.  See
Odrysee.
Byzantium,  the  capital,  founded  by  the  Megarians,

about  b.0. 675
Invasion  of  Darius  I. 513; Thrace subdued by

Megabazus 508

3  <a  2


THRASHING-MACHINES.


961


THTJEOT'S INVASION.


Xerxes  marches  against  Greece  through  Thrace,  and

retreats 480

Other  Greek  colonies  established  . . .  450-400

Wars  between  Macedon  and  the  Odrysse  (which  see)

429-343
Philip  II.  acquires  Amphipolis,  358  ;  and  gradually

all  the  Greek  colonies  ....  357-341

Death  of  Alexander  ;  Thrace  allotted  to  Lysima-

chus,  323  ;  who  builds  Lysimachia  .  .  .  309
Lysimachus  defeated  and  slain  by  Seleucus  at  Coru-

pedion 281

Thrace  overrun  by  the  Gauls 279

Lysimachia  and  the  chief  towns  seized  by  the  fleet

of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 247

Recovered  by  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  . . 205-200

Lost  by  him  to  the  Romans - . . . . . 196
Seized  by  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria,  who  is  defeated

at  Magnesia,  190  ;  and  surrenders  Thrace  .  .  188
Perseus  defeated  in  his  attempt  to  regain  Thrace,

171-168
The  Thracian  kings  rule  nominally  under  the  Romans

148  et  seq.
Rebellion  of  Vologaesus  quelled  ....  14
Rhoemetalces  II.  last  king  .  .  .  .  A.D.  38
Thrace  made  a  Roman  province,  about ... 47

Invaded  by  the  Goths  .  ' 255

Settled  by  Sarmatians ■ 334-376

Ravaged  by  Alaric,  395  ;  by  Attila .... 447
Conquered by  the Turks,  who  made  Adrianople

their  capital 1341-53

Constantinople  captured  by  Mahomet  II. , 29  May,  1453

THRASHING-MACHINES.  The  flail  was
the  only  instrument  formerly  in  use  for  thrashing
corn.  The  Eomans  used  a  machine  called  the
trihilum,  a  sledge  loaded  with  stones  or  iron,
drawn  over  the  corn-sheaves  by  horses.  The  first
machine  attempted  in  modern  times  was  invented
by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about  1732  ;
Andrew  Meikle  invented  a  machine  in  1776.  Many
improvements  have  been  since  made,  and  steam
is  employed.  An  act  for  the  prevention  of  accidents
by  these  machines  was  passed  in  1879.

THEASYMENE  or  TRASIMENE  (more
correctly  Trasimenus),  a  lake  (N.  Italy).  A
most  bloody  engagement  took  place  near  the
Trasimene  lake  between  the  Carthaginians  under
Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217
B.C.  No  less  than  15,000  Eomans  were  left  dead
on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000  taken  prisoners ;
or,  according  to  Livy,  6000 ;  or  Polybius,  15,000.
The  loss  of  Hannibal  was  about  1500  men.  About
10,000  Eomans  made  their  escape,  all  covered  with
wounds.  Flaminius  was  killed  during  the  fight.
— Livy;  Polybius.  On  the  same  day,  an  earthquake
occurred,  which  desolated  several  cities  in  Italy.

THEEATENING  LETTEES.  Sending
letters,  whether  anonymously  written,  or  with  a
fictitious  name,  demanding  money,  or  threatening
to  kill  a  person,  or  fire  his  house,  was  made  punish-
able as  a  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  by  the
Black  Act,  in  1722.  Persons  extorting  money  by
threatening  to  accuse  others  of  such  offences  as  are
subjected  to  death,  or  other  infamous  punishments,
were  to  be  adjudged  imprisonment,  whipping,  or
transportation,  by  30  Geo.  II.,  1756,  and  other  acts  ;
the  latest  24  &  25  Vict.  cc.  96,  97  (1861).

THEEE  DENOMINATIONS,  see  Denomi-
nations.

THEEE  CHOIES  (Gloucester,  Worcester,
and  Hereford).  Festivals  held  in  1724,  if  not
earlier,  at  Gloucester,  for  the  performance  of  cathe-
dral music  on  a  grand  scale  for  charitable  purposes
still  continued.

THEEE  F.'S,  see  ¥.

THEEE  ACEES  AND  A  COW,  see  Land,

188;.


THEIFT,  see  under  National.

THEOAT AND EAE DISEASES, a

hospital  for  them  opened  near  Gray's-inn-road,
March,  1874 ;  foundation  of  a  new  building  laid  by
madame  Adelina  Patti,  marchesa  de  Caux,  16  Sept.
1875-

THUGS,  organised  secret  fanatical  murderers
in  India,  who  considered  their  victims  to  be  sacri-
fices to  their  goddess  Kali  or  Bhowain.  The  English
commenced  suppressing  them  about  1810,  but  did
not  succeed  till  about  1830,  when  a  plan  for  the  pur-
pose was  adopted  by  lord  Wm.  Bentinck.

THUMB-SCEEW,  an  instrument  used  in  the
first  stages  of  torture  by  the  Spanish  inquisition..
In  Great  Britain,  rev.  Wm.  Carstares,  a  presbyterian-
minister,  was  the  last  who  suffered  by  it,  before
the  Scotch  privy  council,  to  make  him  divulge
secrets  entrusted  to  him,  which  he  firmly  resisted-
After  the  revolution  in  1688,  the  thumb-screw  was;
presented  to  him  by  the  council.  King  William
expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it  on,  bidding
the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw  ;  but,  at  the  third  turn,,
he  cried  out  "Hold — hold!  doctor:  another  turn
would  make  me  confess  anything."

THTJNDEEEE,  see  Navy  of  England,  1872,.
1876,  1879.

THUNDEEING  LEGION.  During  a  con-
test with  the  invading  Marcomanni,  the  prayers  of
some  Christians  in  a  Eoman  legion  are  said  ta
have  been  followed  by  a  storm  of  thunder,  light-
ning, and  rain,  which  tended  greatly  to  discomfit
the  enemy;  and  hence  the  legion  received  the
name,  174.

THUEII  or  Thurium,  a  Greek  city,  S.  Italy,
founded  after  the  fall  of  Sybaris,  about  443  B.C.
It  suffered  from  the  incursions  of  the  Lucanians,  by
whom  the  Thurians  were  severely  defeated,  390
B.C.  It  became  eventually  a  dependent  ally  of
Eome ;  was  ravaged  by  the  troops  of  Hannibal,
204 ;  was  established  as  a  colony  by  the  Eomans,
194;  and  was  captured  by  Spartacus  in  the  Ser-
vile war,  who  levied  upon  it  heavy  contributions,
72.

THTJEINGIA,  an  early  Gothic  kingdom  in
central  Germany,  was  overrun  by  Attila  and  the
Huns,  451 ;  the  last  king,  Hermanfried,  was
defeated  and  slain  by  Thierry,  king  of  the  Franks,
who  annexed  it  to  Ms  dominions,  530.  It  formed)
two  duchies,  630-717,  and  849-919  ;  a  margraviate,
960-1090;  landgraviate  and  countj',  1 130-1247;
and  was,  after  various  changes  and  many  conflicts,
absorbed  into  Saxony  in  the  15th  century.  In  1815
it  was  surrendered  to  Prussia.

THUELES  (S.  Ireland).  Here  was  held  a
synod  of  the  Eoman  catholic  archbishops,  bishops,
inferior  clergy,  and  religious  orders,  under  the
direction  cf  archbishop  Cullen  the  Eoman  catholic
primate,  22  Aug.  1850.  It  condemned  the  Queen's
Colleges,  and  recommended  the  foundation  of  a
Eoman  catholic  university,  10  Sept.  following.  The
acts  were  forwarded  to  Eome  for  approval  of  the
pope,  Pius  IX.,  and  published,  1  Jan.  1852.

THUEOT'S  INVASION.  Thurot,  an  Irish
commodore  in  the  French  service,  became  a  terror
to  all  the  merchant-ships  of  this  kingdom.  He  had
the  command  of  a  small  armament,  and  landed
1000  men  at  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland,  and  plun-
dered the  town.  He  reached  the  Isle  of  Man,  and
was  overtaken  by  captain  Elliot,  with  three  frigates,
who  engaged  his  little  squadron,  which  was  taken,
and  the  commodore  killed,  28  Feb.  1760. Thurot' s


THURSDAY.


£65


TILES.


strue  name  was  O'Farrell.  His  grandfather  had
followed  the  fortunes  of  James  II. ;  but  his  mother
being  of  a  family  of  some  dignity  in  France,  he
assumed  her  name. — Bums.

THURSDAY,  the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  named
from  Thor,  the  most  valiant  son  of  Odin,  a  deified
hero  worshipped  by  the  northern  nations,  particu-
larly by  the  Scandinavians  and  Celts.  His  autho-
rity was  said  to  extend  over  the  winds,  seasons,
•thunder  and  lightning,  &c.  Thursday  is  in  Latin
dies  Jo  vis,  or  Jupiter's  day.

THYATIRA  (Asia  Minor),  the  place  assigned
for  the  battle  at  which  the  rebel  Procopius  was
defeated  by  the  army  of  the  emperor  Valens,  366.
■See  Seven  Churches.

THYMBRA  (Asia  Minor).  Here  Cyrus  the
Great  defeated  the  confederate  army  aiding  Croesus,
■and  obtained  supremacy  in  Asia,  B.C.  548.

TIARA,  head  ornament  of  the  ancient  Persians.
The  name  is  given  to  the  triple  crown  of  the  pope
(anciently  called  regnum),  indicative  of  his  civil
rank,  as  the  ke3rs  are  of  his  ecclesiastical  jurisdic-
tion. The  right  to  wear  a  crown  is  said  to  have
been  granted  to  the  bishops  of  Home  by  Constantine
the  (ireat,  and  by  Clovis,  founder  of  the  French
monarchy.  Their  ancient  tiara  was  a  high  round
«ap.  Pope  Damasus  II.  first  caused  himself  to  be
•crowned  with  a  tiara,  1048.  "  Boniface  VIII.
encompassed  the  tiara  with  a  crown;  Benedict
XII.  added  a  second;  and  John  XXIII.  a  third."
— Bees.

TIBER,  (central  Italy),  the  river  on  whose
hanks  Home  was  built.  In  the  nourishing  times  of
the  city  the  navigation  of  the  river  was  enormous.
Livy  states  that  the  Tiber  was  frozen  over,  398
B.C.  A  commission  was  appointed  to  dredge  the
bed  of  the  river  near  Rome.  Dec.  1871.  Garibaldi's
.scheme  for  improving  the  river,  making  a  new  port,
&c.,laid  befure  the  Italian  parliament,  25  May,  1875;
works  beguu,  March,  1877.

TIBERIAS,  a  city  in  Palestine,  built  by
Herod  Antipas,  and  named  after  the  emperor
Tiberius,  39.  Near  it  Guy  de  Lusignau,  king  of
Jerusalem,  and  the  crusaders,  were  defeated  by
Saladin,  3,  4  July,  1187;  and  Jerusalem  fell  into
his  hands.

TIBET,  see  Thibet.

TIBUR  (now  Tivoli),  a  Latin  town  more  ancient
than  Rome,  and  frequently  at  war  with  it.  The
Tiburtines  were  defeated  335  B.C.,  and  the  subjec-
tion of  all  Latium  followed  ;  for  which  Furius
Camillus  obtained  a  triumph  and  an  equestrian
statue  in  the  forum.

TICHBORNE  CASE,  see  Trials,  1871-4.
Dr.  Kenealy,  the  claimant's  counsel,  elected  M.P.
for  Stoke,  moves  for  a  royal  commission  to  inquire
into  the  trial ;  rejected,  433  to  3  (Dr.  Kenealy,  Mr.
Whalley,  and  the  0' Gorman)  ;  26  April,  1875.
•See  Englishman.

TICINO  or  TESSIN,  a  Swiss  canton  south  of
the  Alps,  conquered  by  the  Swiss  early  in  the  16th
century;  made  a  separate  canton  in  18 15.  It
suffered  by  internal  disputes  1839  and  1841.  Popu-
lation, 1888,  126,751.

Insurrection  in  Bellinzona  and  Lugano,  the  con-
servative ultramontane  government  overthrown
by  the  liberals,  ami  a  provisional  government
formed. M.  Rossi,  director  of  the  interior,  found

killed. Revision  of  the  constitution demanded,

11  Sept.  Intervention  of  federal  troops.  The
insurrection  suppressed  ;  the  provisional  govern-
ment superseded  by  a  federal  commission,

12-14  Sept. 1890


Change  in  the  constitution  voted  by  the  people,  5
Oct.  ;  the  conservative  government  reinstated,

14  Oct.  1390

Angelo  Castioni,  accused  of  the  murder  of  council-
lor Rossi,  arrested  in  London,  3  Oct.  ;  extradition
demanded  by  Switzerland,  not  granted  by  the
queen's  bench  division  . . . .11 Nov. „

Reconciliation  of  the  parties  effected  . 26  Nov. ,,

Revised  ultramontane  constitution  accepted  liy
popular  vote 8  March,  1891

Trial  of  the  revolters  of  1890,  30  June  ;  acquitted,

14  July, ,,

TICINUS,  a  river,  N.  Italy.  Here  Hannibal
defeated  the  Romans,  218  B.C.

TICKETS  OF  LEAVE,  see  Transportation,
and  Crime.

TICONDEROGA  (N.  America).  The  French
fortress  here  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Aber-
cromby  in  July,  1758;  taken  26  July,  1759.  The
Americans  took  it  10  May,  1775,  but  retired
July,  1777.  The  British  retired  from  it  shortly
after.

TIDES.  Homer  is  the  earliest  profane  author
who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posidonius  of  Apamea
accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the
moon,  about  79  B.C.  ;  and  Caesar  speaks  of  them  in
his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic  war.  The  theory  of
the  tides  was  first  satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler,
1598;  but  the  honour  of  a  complete  explanation  of
them  was  reserved  for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  about
1683  ;  see  Thames.  Sir  Win.  Thomson,  at  the  Royal
Institution,  9  April,  1875,  described  a  valuable
tide-calculating  machine.

TIEN-TSIN,  see  China,  June,  1858-Jan.  1861,
and  1870.

TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  see  under  Missions.

Tierra  del  Fuego  (The  Land  of  Fire) — A  group  of  five
large  islands,  and  many  smaller  ones,  the  extreme
S.W.  of  South  America,  misnamed  by  Magellan  from
the  fires  seen  on  the  coast  1520.  Recent  discoveries
have  shown  that  the  country  is  not  so  inhospitable  and
the  natives  not  so  degraded  as  was  formerly  supposed.

TIERS-ETAT,  see  States- General.

TIFLIS  (Asiatic  Russia),  built  about  469  by
Vakhtang  ;  became  the  capital  of  Georgia.  It  was
taken  by  Genghis  Khan  in  the  12th  century ;  by
Mustapha  Pacha,  1576;  by  the  Persians,  1796;  and
by  the  Russians,  1801,  who  have  made  it  the  capital
of  their  Trans-Caucasian  possessions.  Population
in  1885,  89,551.

By  the  fall  of  a  temporary  bridge  over  the  river
Kura,  during  a  religious  ceremony,  a  number  of
persons  were  drowned  or  crushed  to  death,

18  Jan.  1892
Collision  of  two  petroleum  trains  on  the  Trans-
caucasiau  railway  ;  6  men  burnt  to  death,

21  Jan. ,,

TIGRANO-CERTA,  capital  of  Armenia,
built  by  Tigraries  the  Great,  and  taken  by  Lucullus
and  the  Romans,  after  a  great  victory,  B.C.  69.

TIGRIS,  a  river  forming  the  eastern  boundary
of  Mesopotamia,  celebrated  for  the  cities  founded
on  its  banks:  Nineveh,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and
Iiugdad.  It  was  explored  by  an  English  steamer
in  1838.  Colonel  Chesney,  in  1850,  published  an
account  of  his  survey  in  1836-7.

TILBURY  (Essex).  The  cam])  formed  lure
ill  1588  to  resist  the  Spanish  invasion  was  visited
by  queen  Elizabeth. See  Docks,  1886.

TILES  are  said  to  have  been  lirst  made  iii
England  about  1246.  They  were  taxed  in  1784.
The  number  of  tiles  taxed  in  England  in  1820  \vas


TILSIT.


966


TIMES  NEWSPAPEE.


81,924,626  ;  and  in  1830,  97,318,264. The  tax  was
repealed  in  1833.

TILSIT  (,on  the  Niemen),  on  -which  river,  on  a
raft,  the  emperors  of  France  and  Eussia  met,  25  June,
1807.  By  a  treaty  concluded  between  France  and
Eussia,  signed  7  July,  Napoleon  restored  to  the
Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  territories,  and
Eussia  recognised  the  Confederation  of  the  Ehine,
and  the  elevation  of  Napoleon's  three  brothers,
Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones  of  Naples,
Holland,  and  Westphalia.

TILTS,  see  Tournaments.

TIMBEE-  The  annual  demand  of  timber  for
the  royal  navy,  in  war,  was  60,000  loads,  01-40,000
full-grown  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  which  35  will  stand
on  an  acre ;  in  peace,  32,000  tons,  or  48,000  loads.
A  74  gun  ship  consumed  3000  loads,  or  2000
tons  of  trees,  the  produce  of  57  acres  in  a  century.
— Allnutt.  Iron  is  now  largely  used  in  pre-
ference to  timber.  In  1843  we  imported  1,317,645
loads  of  timber  (cut  and  uncut) ;  in  1857,  2,495,964
loads;  in  1866,  3,638,344  loads  ;  in  1871,  4,497,136
loads;  in  1875,5,092,394  loads;  in  1877,  6,788,789
loads  ;  in  1883,  6,609,942  loads  ;  in  1887,  5,653,791
loads.  In  1866,  we  imported  53,458  tons  of
mahogany;  in  1871,  29,256  tons;  in  1875,80,705
tons;  in  1877,  53,600  tons;  in  1883,  50,158  tons  ;
in  1887,  37,650  tons.  The  duties  on  timber  were
modified  in  1851.

TIMBEE  BENDING.  Apparatus  was  in-
vented for  this  purpose  by  Mr.  T.  Blanchard,  of
Boston,  U.S.,  for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  at
the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855.  A  company  was
formed  for  its  application  in  this  country  in  1856.

TIMBUCTOO  (N.  Africa),  a  city  built  by
Mansa  Suleiman,  a  Mahometan,  about  12 14,
and  frequently  subjugated  by  the  sovereigns  of
Morocco.  Since  1727  it  has  been  partially  inde-
pendent.

TIME.  See  Hour,  Day,  Month,  Year,  Geodesy,
Dials,  Clocks  and  Watches.

TIMES  NEWSPAPEE.  On  1  Jan.  1785,
Mr.  John  Walter  published  the  first  number  of  the
Daily  Universal  Register,  price  2\d.,  printed  on  the
logographic  system  (invented  by  Henry  Johnson,  a
compositor),  in  which  types  containing  syllables
and  words  were  employed  instead  of  single  letters.

On  1  Jan.  1788,  the  paper  was  named  the  Times.

In  1803,  when  Mr.  John  Walter  gave  up  the  paper  to  his
son  John,  the  circulation  was  about  1000  ;  that  of  the
Morning  Post  being  4500.

Mr.  John  Walter  (1)  died  16  Nov.  1812.

Dr.  Stoddart  (satirised  as  Dr.  Slop  by  Moore  the  poet)
became  editor  in  1812,  but  five  years  after  retired  and
set  up  in  opposition  the  New  Times,  an  unprofitable
speculation.  Thomas  Barnes  became  next  editor.  He
died  7  May,  1841,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  assistant
John  Thaddeus  Delane  (son  of  W.  F.  A.  Delane,
financial  manager)  who  retired  in  1877,  and  died  22
Nov.  1879.

On  28  Nov.  1814,  the  Times  was  first  printed  by  steam
power  (the  invention  of  F.  K6nig),  1200  per  hour,
afterwards  increased  to  2000  and  4000.

It  is  asserted  that  the  Times  was  termed  the  "Thunderer  "
in  consequence  of  an  article  by  Edward  Sterling  in
which  are  the  words,  "  We  thundered  forth  articles
on  reform,  &e."  when  Barnes  was  editor.

On  19  Jan.  1829,  the  first  double  number  appeared.

In  July,  1834,  an  attack  of  Mr.  O'C.onnell  in  the  house  of
commons  on  the  correctness  of  the  reports  of  the
debates  in  the  Times  was  signally  defeated.

Shortly  after  began  the  convenient  summary  of  the  de-
bates, written  in  the  first  instance  by* Mr.  Horace
Twiss.

In  1841  the  Times  was  instrumental  in  detecting  and  expos-
ing a  scheme  organised  by  Allan  George  Bogle  and


others,  to  defraud  by  forgery  all  the  influential  bankers
of  Europe.  This  brought  on  the  proprietors  an  action  for
libel  (in  the  case  Bogle  v.  Lawson).  The  jury  found  the
charge  to  be  true,giving  a  verdict  of  onefavthing  damages,
but  the  judges  refused  costs.  Subscriptions  were  set  on.
foot  at  the  Mansion-house  and  in  all  parts  of  Europe  to-
reimburse  the  proprietors  for  the  immense  outlay  in
defending  the  action.  This  they  firmly  declined  ;  and
the  money  was  exjjended  in  establishing  Times  Sclwlar-
ships  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  atChrist's  Hospital,
and  other  schools ;  a  marble  tablet  also, commemorating
the  event,  was  set  up  in  the  Royal  Exchange  and  at  the
Times  office.  These  were  the  greatest  honours  ever-
conceded  to  a  newspaper.

In  Oct.  1845,  the  Times  express  was  for  the  first  time
conveyed  to  India  overland,  by  the  agency  of  lieut.
Waghom.

Of  the  number  of  the  Times  containing  the  life  of  the
duke  of  Wellington  for  19  Nov.  1852,  70,000  were  sold —
the  ordinary  number  being  then  36,000 ;  the  circula-
tion  is  stated  to  vary  from  50,000  to 60,000  (1868).

The  Ti7H.es  (a  slip)  announcing  permission  to  relax  re-
striction of  issue  of  bank-notes,  published  24  Oct.
1847.

Mr.  John  Walter  (2)  died  28  July,  1847  ;  Mr.  Joha
Walter  (3)  born  in  1818.

In  1854,  the  proprietors  sent  Mr.  W.  H.  Russell  as  their
special  correspondent  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the  Crimea ;
in  1857  to  India.

Times  Fund.— On  the  12th  of  Oct.  1854,  sir  Robert  Peel
originated  by  a  letter  in  the  Times  a  subscription  for
the  sick  and"  wounded  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  less
than  a  fortnight  15,000?.  were  sent  to  the  Times  office
to  be  thus  appropriated.  Mr.  MacDonald  was  sent  out
by  the  proprietors  as  special  commissioner  to  adminis-
ter the  fund,  from  which  large  quantities  of  food  and
clothing  were  supplied  to  the  sutt'erers,  with  inestimable
advantage  ;  see  Scutari,  and  Nightingale.

In  Dec.  1858,  the  Ti??tes  drew  attention  to  the  state  of  the
houseless  poor  of  London  ;  and  iu  a  few  days  8000L
were  subscribed  for  their  relief.

In  1851,  13,000,000  copies  were  sold  ;  in  1857,  16,100,000;
in  1859,  16,900,000  ;  in  i860,  16,670,000.

The  Times  of  21  June,  1861,  contained  4076  advertise-
ments (about  1810  it  contained  150  advertisements).

Stereotypes  from  papier-mache  moulds  introduced,
1856  ;  much  improved  i860.

The  "Walter  press  "invented  by  John  Cameron  Mac-
Donald  (aft.  Manager)  &  Joseph  Calverley,  prints  about
15,000  an  hour,  perfected,  1862-71.

A  list  of  the  contents,  inserted  over  the  first  leader,  ap-
peared first,  3  Feb.  1869.

3^  pages  tables  of  metropolitan  charities  appeared
11  Feb.  1869.

Special  train  for  conveying  the  Times,  North-Western
Railway,  began  to  run,  4.55  a.m.,  16  Feb.  1875.

Annual  summaries,  1S51-75,  reprinted,  price  is.  (type
set-up  by  composing-machines).

12,000  perfect  sheets  per  hour  xuinted  by  "  Waltey
Press,"  Jan.  1876.

Weekly  issue,  price  2d.,  began,  5  Jan.  1877.

The  Rapieff  electric  lamp  adopted  in  the  machine-room,
Nov.  1878.

Mr.  Palmer's  "Index  to  the  Times"  begun  1867;  now
printing  for  Tt7;ies  from  1838  and  continuing  1892.

Summary  of  the  Times  published  daily,  |d.  about  26
July,  1883  ;  stopped,  Oct.  1884.

Death  of  Thomas  Chenery,  six  years  editor,  long  cor-
respondent, 11  Feb.;  succeeded  by  G.  E.  Buckle,  Feb.
1884.

The  Times  consisted  of  24  pages  21,  26  Jane,  1861 ;  14
June,  1884  ;  5  times  in  1886  ;  3  times  in  1887  ;  6  times

I  -in  1888  ;  11,  18,  25  May,  1,  22,  29  June,  1889  ;  3,  10,  17
May,  7,  14  June,  1890  ;  30  May,  6,  13,  20,  27  June,
1891 ;  7,  14,  21,  28  May,  4,  11,  18,  25  June,  2  July,  1S92.

Death  of  Chas.  Ross,  aged  84,  63  years  a  parliamentary
reporter  and  30  years  a  chief,  6  Dec.  1884.

Edwin  Murray  (watch  dealer)  v.  Times,  libel  case,  farthing;
'damages,  26-27  Oct.  1886.

Articles  "  Parnellism  and  Crime,"  published  7,  10,  14
March  ;  article  on  Mr.  Dillon,  2  May,  declared  by  the
commons  not  to  be  a  breach  of  privilege,  4-6  May,  1887.

Centenary  of  the  publication  of  the  Times;  special
leader  2  Jan.  1888.

O'Donnell  v.  Walter  and  another  (see  under  ParndlUes)';
verdict  for  the  defendant  2-5  July,  1888.

No.  31,725  (5  April,  1886)  published  as  a  book  at  Leipsic
with  German  notes  by  Dr.  F.  Landmaun,  Oct.  1888;


TIN".


967


TITLES ROYAL.


the  number  for  14  Nov.  1888,  published  as  a  book  at
Paris,  with  French  notes  by  M.  M.  A.  &  G.  Blwall,
Dec.  1889.

For  the  trial  by  the  special  commission  see  under
Pamellites.

"Rev.  lord  Sidney  G.  Osborne  (S.G.O.),  long  a  philan-
thropic writer  to  the  Times,  dies  9  May,  1889.

Death  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Macdonald,  aged  67,  successively
reporter,  writer,  and  manager  (see  above,  1854  et  seq.%
10  Dec.  1889.

Walter  v.  Steinkoppf,  see  Trials,  2  June,  1892.

TIN-  The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for
more  than  1100  years  before  the  Christian  era.
Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin  mines  appear  to  have
been  neglected ;  but  under  the  Normans,  they  pro-
duced considerable  revenues  to  the  earls  of  Corn-
wall, particularly  to  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.
A  charter  and  various  immunities  were  granted
by  Edmund,  earl  Richard's  brother,  who  framed  the
Stannary  Laws  (which  see),  laying  a  duty  on  the
tin.  Edward  III.  confirmed  the  tinners  in  their
privileges,  and  erected  Cornwall  into  a  dukedom,
with  which  he  invested  his  son,  Edward  the  Black
Prince,  1337.  Since  that  time  the  heirs-apparent
to  the  crown  of  England,  if  eldest  sons,  have  en-
joyed it  successively.  Tin  mines  were  discovered
in  Germany,  which  lessened  the  value  of  those  in
England,  till  then  the  only  tin  mines  in  Europe,
1240. — Anderson.  Discovered  in  Barbary,  1640;
in  India,  1740;  in  New  Spain,  1782.  In  1857,
9783  tons;  in  i860,  10,462  tons;  in  1864,  10,108
tons;  in  1865,  10,039  tons;  in  1870,  10,200  tons
in  1874,  9942  tons  ;  in  1876,  8500  tons ;  in  1879,
9532  tons;  1882,  9158  tons;  in  1884,  9,574  tons ;
in  1887,  9,282  tons;  in  1888,  9,241,  in  1889,  8,912,
in  1890,  9,602  tons  of  metallic  tin  were  procured
from  British  mines.  Of  tin  plates  we  exported
in  value,  in  1847,  484,184/. ;  in  1854, 1,075,531/. ;  hi
i860,  1,500,812/.;  in  1864,  1,263,246/.;  in  1866,
1,896,192/.;  in  1871,2,900,625/.;  in  1873,  3,953,042/ ;
in  1877,  3,033,126/.;  in  1879,  3,507,977/.;  in  1883,
4,705,403/.;  in  1887,4,792,854/.;  in  1888,5,546,228/.;
in  1889,  6,030,005/.  ;  in  1890,  6,361,477/.
The  great  tin-plate  manufacture  in  S.  Wales  suffered

greatly  by  the  operation  of  the  McKinley  tariff,  1  July

et  seq.  1891.

TINCHEBEAY  (N.  W.  France),  where  a
battle  was  fought  between  Henry  I.  of  England
and  his  brother  Robert  duke  of  Normandy.  Eng-
land and  Normandy  were  reunited  under  Henry,
at  the  decease  of  William  Rufus,  who  had  already
possessed  himself  of  Normandy  bjr  a  m<  rtgage  from
his  brother  Robert,  at  Ms  setting  out  for  Pales-
tine. Robert,  on  his  return,  recovered  Normandy
by  an  accommodation  with  Henry ;  but  having
afterwards  quarrelled,  Robert  was  defeated  in  the
battle  of  Tinchebray,  28  Sept.  1106,  and  Normandy
was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  England. — Henault.

TIPPERARY,  S.  Ireland,  made  a  county  by
king  John,  1210.

The  shopkeepers  of  the  town  of  Tipperary,  tenants
of  Mr.  Smith  Barry,  accepted  the  plan  of  cam-
paign, paid  no  rent,  and  were  evicted.  New  Tip-
perwry,  built  to  receive  them,  was  inaugurated
by  Mr.  W.  O'Brien,  M.  P.,  and  others 12  April,  1890

Some  of  the  tenants  make  terms  and  return  to
their  homes .... Dec,  1890,  Jan.  1891

Failure  of  New  Tipperary,  the  property  put  up  for
sale,  June ;  buildings  pulled  down . . Aug.  1S92

Mr.  Smith  Barry  warmly  received  by  his  tenants,

16  Sept. ,,

TIPPERMUIR  (near  Perth).  Here  the  mar-
quis of  Montrose  defeated  the  covenanters  under
lord  Klcho,  I  Sept.  1644.

TIRNOVA  on  the  Jantra  a  tributary  of  the

Danube,  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bulgaria.


It  was  occupied  without  resistance  by  general
Gourko,  6,  7  July,  1877,  and  made  the  Russian
head-quarters.

TIRYNS,  an  ancient  city  of  Greece,  S.E.  of
Argos,  with  massive  cyclopoean  remains.  Excava-
tions of  Dr.  Schliemauu  in  1884  led  to  the  discovery
of  what  he  termed  "  the  Prehistoric  Palace  of  the
kings  of  Tiryns."  His  book  on  Tiryns  was
published  in  1886.  As  Byzantine  remains  are  also
found  some  of  his  conclusions  are  disputed  by
eminent  antiquaries.

TITANIUM,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  by  Gregor
in  meuaccanite,  a  Cornish  mineral,  in  1 79 1,  and  in
1794  by  Klaproth.

TITHES  or  TENTHS,  were  commanded  to  be
given  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1490  B.C.  (Lev.  xxvii.
30) .  Abraham  returning  from  Ms  victory  over  the
kings  (Gen.  xiv.),  gave  tithes  of  the  spoil  to
MelcMsedek,  king  of  Salem,  priest  of  the  most
high  God  (1913  B.C.)  For  the  first  800  years  of
the  CMisiian  church  they  were  given  purely  as
alms,  and  were  voluntary. —  Wickliffe.  "  I  will
not  put  the  title  of  the  clergy  to  tithes  upon  any
divine  right,  though  such  a  right  certainly  com-
menced, and  1  believe  as  certainly  ceased,  with  the
Jewish  theocracy." — Bluckstonc.  They  were  estab-
lished M  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  800,  and
abolished  1789.  Tenths  were  confirmed  hi  the
Lateran  councils,  1215.— Rainailda.  The  payment
of  tithes  appears  to  have  been  claimed  by  Augustin,
the  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  to  have  been
allowed  by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  under  the  term
"God's  fee,"  about  600.
The  first  mention  of  them  in  any  English  written  law

is  a constitutional  decree  made  in  a  synod  strongly

enjoining  tithes,  7S6.
Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  gave  unto  the  church  the  tithes  of

all  his  kingdom,  to  expiate  the  death  of  Ethelbert,

king  of  the  East  Angles,  whom  he  had  caused  to  be

basely  murdered,  794.
Tithes  were  first  granted  to  the  English  clergy  in  a  gene-
ral assembly  held  by  Ethelwold,  844. Henry.
In  England,  in  1545,  tithes  were  fixed  at  the  rate  of  2s.  gd.

in  the  pound  on  rent ; since  then,  many  acts  have

been  passed  respecting  them.
The  Tithe  Commutation  act,  passed  13  Aug. 1836. It

was  amended  in  1837,  1840,  1846,  i860,  and  1878.
A  rector  is  entitled  to  all  the  tithes  ;  a  vicar  to  a  small

part  only,  frequently  to  none.
Several  acts  relating  to  tithes  in  Ireland  have  been  passed

in  1832-47,  altering  and  improving  the  tithe  system.
Tithe  redemption  trust  appointed,  1846.
Agitation  against  "  extraordinary  tithes,"  n  Aug.  et  scq.

1881.
An  Anti-Extraordinary  Association  existed  in  1882.
Extraordinary  Tithe  Redemption  Act  passed  1SS6.
Riotous  opposition  to  tithes  in  Wales,  Aug.  ;  anti-tithe

league  formed  Sept.  1886  ;  riots  (see  [Vales)  1887.
Tithe  Bill  brought  in  ;  dropped  Aug.  1887.
Much  agitation  against  tithes  in  Wales,  1889. A  tithes

recovery  bill  withdrawn,  16  Aug.  1880
Royal commission on Tithe Redemption nominated:

lord  Basing  and  others,  30  Jan  ;  met  6  March  et  scq.

1891.
An  act  for  the  recovery  of  tithe  rent  charge  in  England

and  Wales  passed,  26  March,  1891. The  liability  for

the  payment  of  tithes  is  transferred  from  the  tenant

to  t  In'  landowner.

TITHING.  The  number  or  company  of  tm
men  with  their  families  knit  together  in  a  society,
all  of  them  being  bound  to  the  king  for  the  peace-
able and  good  behaviour  of  each  of  their  society;
of  these  com  panics  there  was  one  chief  person,  who,
from  Ms  office,  was  called  (toothiiigman)  tithing-
man  ;  but  now  he  is  nothing  but  a  constable,
formerly  called  the  headborough. Cniccl.

TITLES  ROYAL.  Henry  IV.  had  the  title
of  "Grace"  and "My  liege,"  1399. Henry  VI.,


TITLES TO LAND.


968


TOLENTINO.


"Excellent  Grace,"  14.22.  Edward  IV.,  "Most
High  and  Mighty  Prince,"  1461.  Henry  VII.,
"  Highness,"  1485 ;  Henry  VIII.  the  same  title,
and  sometimes  "  Grace,"  1509  et  seq.  Francis  I.  of
France  addressed  Henry  as  "  Your  Majesty"  at  their
interview  in  1520 ;  see  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.
Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  and  last  king  who  was
styled  "  Dread  Sovereign."  James  I.  coupled  to
"  Majesty  "  the  present  "  Sacred,"  or  "Most  Ex-
cellent Majesty."  "Majesty"  was  the  style  of
the  emperors  of  Germany  ;  the  first  king  to  whom
it  was  given  was  Louis  XL  of  France,  about  1463.

TITLES  TO  LAND  CONSOLIDATION

ACT  (Scotland),  passed  31  July,  1868,  and  amended
in  1869.

TIVOLI,  see  Tibur.

TOBACCO,*  Nicotiana  tabacum,  received  its
name  from  Tabacco,  a  province  of  Yucatan,  New
Spain  ;  some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago,  one  oi
the  Caribbees  ;  others  from  Tobasco,  in  the  Gulf  ol
Florida.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  observed  at  St.
Domingo,  in  Cuba,  1492 ;  and  to  have  been  used
freely  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.
Tobacco  was  either  first  brought  to  England  in
1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins;  or  by  sir  Walter
llaleigh  and  sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1586.  It  was
manufactured  only  for  exportation  for  some  years.
Stoiv's  Clvron.  The  Pied  Bull  inn,  at  Islington,  is
said  to  have  been  the  first  house  in  England  where
tobacco  was  smoked.  In  1584  a  proclamation  was
issued  against  it.  James  I.  published  "  A  Counter-
hlaste  against  Tobacco,"  and  the  star-chamber
ordered  the  duties  to  be  6s.  lod.  per  pound,  1614.
Its  cultivation  was  prohibited  in  England  by
Charles  II.,  1684.  Act  laying  a  duty  on  the  im-
portation was  passed  1684.  The  cultivation  was
allowed  in  Ireland,  1779.  The  tax  was  increased
and  put  under  the  excise,  1789.  Anderson;  Ashe,
Various  statutes  have  passed  relative  to  tobacco.
Act  to  revive  the  act  prohibiting  the  culture  of
tobacco  in  Ireland  passed  2  Will.  IV.,  Aug.  1831.
Act  directing  that  tobacco  grown  in  Ireland  be  pur-
chased in  order  to  its  being  destroyed,  24  March,
1832.  The  quantity  consumed  in  England  in  1791
was  nine  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829
about  fifteen  millions  of  pounds.  We  imported  in
1850,  35,166,358  lbs.,  and  1,557,558  lbs.  manufac-
tured (cigars  and  snuff) ;  in  1855,  36,820,846  lbs.,
and  2,651,544  lbs.  manufactured;  in  1860,48,936,
4.71  lbs.,  and  2,110,430  lbs.  manufactured;  in  1864,
61,042,667  lbs.,  and  6,578,707  lbs.,  manufactured;
in  1866,  54,374,800  lbs.,  and  3,171,906  lbs.  manu-
factured; in  1871,  73,042,305  lbs.,  and  3,852,236
manufactured;  in  1876,  76,814,974  lbs.,  and
3,818,682 lbs.  manufactured;  in  1879,38,861, 220lbs.,
and  3,591,558  lbs.  manufactured;  in  1883,  56,475,199
lbs.,  and  3,121,174  lbs.  manufactured;  in  1887,
72,178,994  lbs.  and  3,595,071  manufactured;  in
1890,  65,729,970  lbs.;  and  3,678,846  lbs.  manu-
factured. The  tobacco  duties  were  modified  in  1863  ;
raised  April,  1878.  2d.  a  lb.  extra  duty  on  cigars
added,  April,  1879.  Net  customs  duties  paid  for
tobacco  and  snuff  in  the  year  1875-6,  7,744,977/.;
1877-8,  8,006,836/. ;  1883-4,  8,991,205/.  ;  1886-7,
9,367,186/.;  1887-8,8,713,944/;  1888-9,8,858,781/.;
1889-90,  9,061,984/.  ; 1890-91,  9,533,888/.

Permission  to  grow  tobacco  in  England  with  conditions
granted  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  April,  1886.

Tobacco  successfully  cultivated  by  Messrs.  James
Carter  and  Co.,  near  Bromley,  Essex,  Sept.  1886  ;  and
by  others  in  1887.

*  British  Anti-Tobacco  Crusade,  originated  by  the  late
Thos.  Reynolds  in  1853.  60,000  of  its  publications  had
been  circulated  gratuitously  in  1S76.


Duty  per  lb  on  unmanufactured  tobacco  reduced  from
3s.  6d.  to  3s.  2d.  ;  cigars  5s.  ;  snuff  3s.  gd.  or  4s.  6d.
1887.

TOBAGO  (West  Indies),  discovered  by  Colum-
bus in  1498;  settled  by  the  Dutch  1642.  Taken  by
the  English,  1672,  retaken,  1674.  In  1748,  it  was
declared  a  neutral  island  ;  but  in  1763  it  was  ceded
to  the  English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French
under  De  Crasse  in  1781,  and  confirmed  to  them
in  1783.  Again  taken  by  the  English,  14  April,
1793,  but  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  6  Oct.
1802.  The  island  was  once  more  taken  by  the
British  under  general  Grinfield,  1  July,  1803,  and
was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  in
[814.  Population  in  1887,  19,937.  Tobago  is  one
of  the  Windward  isles,  which  see.  Tobago  was
united  with  Trinidad  by  parliament  in  1887.
Population  of  Tobago,  1891,  18,353.

TOBITSCHATJ  (Moravia).  In  a  sharp  action
here,  on  15  July,  1866,  the  Austrians  were  defeated
by  the  army  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia  with
the  loss  of  500  killedand  wounded  and  500  prisoners,
and  seventeen  guns.

TOISON  D'OB  or  Golden  Fleece  (which

see) .

TOKAB,  in  the  S  >udan.  Here  Osman  Digma's
forces  were  defeated  by  col.  Holled  Smith,  19  Feb.
1891  ;  see  under  Soudan.

TOKAY,  a  town  in  Upper  Hungary,  celebrated
for  its  wines,  made  here  by  dressers,  brought  from
Italy  by  Bela  IV.,  king,  1235-70.  The  wine  is
principally  used  by  sovereigns,  and  50  bottles  were
presented  to  queen  Victoria  at  her  jubilee,  1887.
The  town,  with  its  six  churches  and  public  buildings,

was  destroyed  by  fire,  26  Aug. 1890. About  4,000

persons  rendered  homeless.

TOKENS,  BANK,  silver  pieces  issued  by  the
Bank  of  England,  of  the  value  of  5s.,  1  Jan.  1798.
The  Spanish  dollar  had  a  small  profile  of  George  III.
stamped  on  the  neck  of  the  Spanish  king.  They
were  raised  to  the  value  of  5.*.  6d.  14  Nov.  1811.
Bank  tokens  were  also  current  in  Ireland,  where
those  issued  by  the  bank  passed  for  6s.  and  lesser
sums  until  1817.  They  were  called  in  on  the  revi-
sion of  the  coinage.  Tradesmen  were  permitted  to
issue  tokens  as  small  coins  from  1648  till  16  Aug.
1672,  when  their  circulation  was  prohibited  by  royal
proclamation.  These  tokens  are  figured  and  de-
scribed in  a  work  by  Wm.  Boyne,  1858.

TOKIO,  the  name  given  to  Jedo,  the  capital  cf
Japan,  about  1869.  Great  fire  ;  5,000  houses  de-
stroyed, and  45  persons  perish,  10  April,  1892.  See
Jedo. Population,  1887,  1,552,457.

TOLBIAC  (now  Zulpich),  near  the  Rhine,
where  Clovis  totally  defeated  the  Allemanni,  496.

TOLEDO,  the  ancient  Toletum  (Central  Spain),
made  capital  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom  by  Athana-
gild,  554  ;  taken  by  the  Saracens,  712.  'loledo  was
taken  after  the  war  begun  1081,  by  Alfonso  I.  of
Castile,  25  May,  1085.  In  1088  the  archbishop  was
made  primate  of  Spain.  The  university  was  founded
in  1499.  Toledo  sword-blades  have  been  famed
since  the  15th  century.  Population,  1887.  20,837.
The alcazar, ancient Moorish palace,  used by the

emperor  Charles  V.,  destroyed  by  tire,  9-10  Jan.  1887.

TOLENTINO  (Italy,  formerly  in  the  Papal
states),  where  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  pope
and  the  French,  19  Feb.  1797.  Here  Joachim  Murat,
having  resumed  arms  against  the  allies,  was  de-
feated by  the  Austrians,  3  May,  1815,  taken  pri-
soner, and  shot.


TOLEKATION ACT.


969


TONQUIN.


TOLERATION  ACT,  passed  in  1689,  to  re-
lieve Protestant  dissenters  from  the  church  of  Eng-
land. Their  liberties  were,  however,  greatly  en-
dangered in  the  latter  days  of  queen  Anne,  who
died  on  the  day  that  the  Schism  bill  was  to  become
a  law,  1  Aug.  17 14.

The  toleration  granted  was  somewhat  limited.  It
exempted  persons  who  took  the  new  oath  of  allegiance
and  supremacy,  and  made  also  a  declaration  against
popery,  from  the  penalties  incurred  by  absenting
themselves  from  church  and  holding  unlawful  conven-
ticles ;  and  it  allowed  the  quakers  to  substitute  an
affirmation  for  an  oath,  but  did  not  relax  the  provi-
sions of  the  Test  act  (which  see).  The  party  spirit  of
the  times  checked  the  king  in  his  liberal  measures.

TOLLS  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the
Stade  on  the  Elbe,  1109.  They  were  first  demanded
by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound,  1341 ;  see
titadc,  and  Sound.  Tollbars  in  England  originated
in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for  every  waggon
that  passed  through  a  certain  manor ;  and  the
first  regular  toll  was  collected  a  few  years  after  for
mending  the  road  in  London  between  St.  Giles's
and  Temple-bar.  Gathered  for  repairing  the  high-
ways of  Holborn-inn-lane  and  Martin' s-h:ne  (now
Aldersgate-street),  1346.  Toll-gate  or  turnpikes
were  set  up  in  1663.  In  1827,  27  turnpikes  near
London  were  removed  by  parliament ;  81  turnpikes
and  toll-bars  ceased  on  the  north  of  London  on
I  July,  1864;  and  61  on  the  south  side,  ceased  on
31  Oct.  1865;  and  many  others  on  the  Essex  and
Middlesex  roads  ceased  on  31  Oct.  1866;  the  re-
mainder on  the  north  of  London  ceased  1  July,  1872.
The  tolls  on  the  Commercial  roads,  London,  E.,
were  abolished  5  Aug.  1871.  The  tolls  on  Waterloo
and  other  metropolitan  bridges  abolished,  1 878-9.
The  high  road  from  Brighton  to  London  free  from
toll,  31  Oct.  1881. See  Wales,  1843  and  1889.

TOLOSA-  On  the  plain  named  las  Navas  de
Tolosa,  near  the  Sierra  Morena,  S.  Spain,  Alfonso,
king  of  Castile,  aided  by  the  kings  of  Arragon  and
Navarre,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Moors,
16  July,  12 12.  This  conflict  is  sometimes  termed
the  battle  of  Muradal.

TONGA  ISLES,  Pacific  Ocean.  The  king,
George  I.,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Germany,  1
Nov.  1876;  with  Great  Britain,  29  Nov.  1879.

TONIC  SOL  FA  SYSTEM. See  Music.

TONK,  Rajpootana,  India.  The  nawab  and  his
minister,  for  a  massacre  of  Hindoo  chiefs,  1  Aug.  1867,
were  deposed  by  the  British.  In  1872  he  demanded
investigation,  and  Ms  ca^e  came  before  parliament
without  any  issue.

TONNAGE.  The  Tonnage  Act  of  1694  esta-
blished the  Bank  of  England  {which  sec).  See
Tunnage.

TONOMETER,  a  delicate  apparatus  (consist-
ing of  52  forks)  for  tuning  musical  instruments,  by
marking  the  number  of  vibrations,  was  invented  by
H.  Soheibler  of  Crefeld,  and  described  in  his  "  Ton-
messer,"  1834.  It  received  little  notice  till  M.
Kcenig  removed  some  of  the  difficulties  opposed  to
its  successful  use,  and  exhibited  it  at  the  Inter-
national Exhibition  of  1862.

TONQUIN,  S.E.  Asia,  the  delta  of  the  river
Songkoi,  a  province  of  Annum,  subject  to  China.
Here  a  French  missionary  bishop,  Melchior,  was
murdered  with  great  barbarity  27  July,  1858:  the
abbe  Neron  was  also  murdered,  3  Nov.  18O0;  see
Annam.

Successful  attack  and  death  of  lieut.  Gamier  . .  1873
Naomdink  captured  by  the  French  announced,

11  April,  1G33


Lin-Yang-  Fu  declares  war  against  French  aggres-
sors, 8  May  ;  a  new  expedition  voted  for  15  May,  1883

Commander  K.  T.  Riviere  (French),  and  32  others
besieged  by  the  Black  Flags*  at  Hanoi ;  capture*  I
and  killed  in  a  sortie .... 20  May, ,,

[He  was  buried  at  the  Madeleine,  Paris,  30  Jan.  1885.]

Gen.  Bouetarrives  7  June;  fortifies  Hanoi  16 June, ,,

China  firmly  opposed  to  French  aggression  ;  Tu
Due,  emperor  of  Annam,  opposed  to  the  French. ,,

Successful  French  sortie  from  Nam  Din  ;  much
slaughter 19  July, „

Proclamation  of  capt.  Morel  Beanlieu  offering  pro-
tection to  the  people,  deserted  by  Annam,  an-
nounced 20  July, ,,

The  Black  Flags  severely  defeated .  7  Aug. ,,

French  advance,  under  gen.  Bouet,  checked  at
Cachao 15  Aug. ,,

Bombardment  and  capture  of  the  Hue  forts,  great
slaughter  of  natives ....  18-20  Aug. ,,

Armistice  granted,  submission  of  the  Annamite
government ;  treaty  signed,  recognising  French
protectorate, ceding  province  of  Bin  Huaui,  &c.

25  Aug. „

The  Black  Flags  defeated  at  Phokhai  by  gen.  Bouet
with  great  loss,  the  French  suffer  severely  1-2  Sept. „

Negotiations  of  Jules  Ferry  and  Mandarin  Tseng  re-
specting the  protectorate  of  Tonquin  .  Sept. „

Disbandment  of  the  Annamite  troops  yellow  flags
opposed  to  the  French  . .  about  15  Sept. ,,

Gen.  Bouet  replaced  by  adm.  Courbet  as  commander
of  the  French  forces . .  announced  20  Sept. ,,

Admiral  Courbet  begins  actual  occupation  of
Tonquin about  3  Nov. „

Ninh-Birih  and  Kuang  Yen  occupied  by  the  French
without  resistance  . . .  announced  4  Nov. „

The  Black  Flags  repulsed  in  a  violent  attack  on  the
French  gun-boat  Carabine  and  on Haidzuong,

17  Nov. ,,

The  Yellow  book  on  Tonquin,  published .  5  Dec. „

The  French  take  forts  on  the  Red  river  opposite
Sontay about  16  Dec. ,,

Sontay  captured,  the  Black  Flags  retire,  alleged
French  loss, about 77 killed, 231 wounded

16,  17  Dec. ,,

Sontay  fortified  and  left  .... Dec. ,,

The  unarmed  native  Tonquinese  suffer  on  all  sides
by  the  war Aug. -Dec. „

Namdinh  attacked  by  pirates,  houses  burnt,  people
killed 1,2  Jan.  1884

Arrival  of  Chinese  troops  to  defend  Hainan  against
the  French about  20  Jan. ,,

Gen.  Millot  (successor  in  command  to  adm.  Courbet)
captures  Bacninh,  after  hard  lighting  Chinese
flee,  25  French  killed ... 12  March, ,,

Gen.  Briere  de  LTsle  captures  citadel  of  Thai-
Nguyen 22  March, ,,

Rainy  season  .... March— Oct. ,,

Honghoa  fired  by  the  Chinese  and  quitted

about  9  April, ,,

Treatv  signed  by  capt.  Fournier  and  Li-hung-
Chang  at  Tientsin  ;  French  protectorate  of  Ton-
quin and  Annam  recognised . . 11  .May, „

The  Chinese  garrison  of  Langson  resist  capt  Du-
genne  anda  French  column  (700), (unauthorised),
advancing  to  occupy  it;  10  killed;  a  violation
of  the  treaty  of  11  May . . . 23  June, ,,

The  French  appeal  to  lvkin  for  indemnity  :  tic
Chinese  deny  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  about
1  July  ;  but  order  the  evacuation  of  Langson  and
other  places,  announced . . . 18  July, ,,

den.  .Millot  resigns,  succeeded  by  gen.  Briere  de
1'Isle 3°Au«- ..

Fighting  resumed Oct. ,,

( Ihinese  regulars,  attacks,  repulsed  with  great  loss  ;
French  sutler  little  (at  Kep) ;  gen.  Negrier  in
command 6-8  Oct. ,,

Victory  of  col.  Donnier,  .great  Chinese  loss  ;  20
French  killed . . . . 10,  11  Oct. „

Chinese  hold  .strong  camps  with  reinforcements;


*  The  Black  Flags originated  with  Li-Hung-Chang,

an  able  leader  of  the  Canton  rebels,  who  about [863  witli
his followers took refuge in Tonquin, where  he  was  at

tirst  tolerated  by  the  emperor  of  Annam,  but  afterwards,
being  strengthened  by  many  adherents, established  an

independent  despotic  government. He  strenuously  op
posed  the  French.


TONSURE.


970


TOEPEDO  SHELLS.


their  attacks  repulsed  at  Tuguen  Quari-hung  with

great  loss 13  Oct.  1884

Fighting  :  the  Black  Flag  defeated about  20  Nov. „
Chinese  pirates said  to  toe  severely  defeated,  an-
nounced Dec. ,,

Gen. Negrier  defeats 12,000  Chinese  E. of  Chu,

announced 6  Jan.  1885

Dong  Song  camp captured  by  the  French  after

severe  conflict 5  Feb. „

Several  forts  captured . . . 10-25  Jan- »
Severe  conflict  with  about  10,000  Chinese,  who  are
compelled to  retreat  12  Feb.;  the  French  flag
placed  on  the  captured  citadel  of  Langson  13  Feb. „
Mutiny  on  the  Bayard on  account  of  deficient
rations,  &c;  12  sailors  shot ;  announced

end  of  Jan. ,,
39  French  killed  and  many  wounded  9-12  Feb. ,,

Chinese  18  days'  siege  of  Thuyen-Quan  raised  after

18  desperate  assaults ... 2  March, ,,
The  Chinese  defeated  by  col.  Duchesne,  4-7  March, ,,
French  attack  Dong-dang,  successful 22  March, ,,
Heavy  Chinese  attack  on  French  positions  ;  gen.
Negrier  wounded,  compelled  to  retreat ;  Lang-
son  evacuated 28  March, ,,

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Pekin  ;  Tonquin

to  be  abandoned  by  the  Chinese,  &c. . 5  April, ,,
Luh  Vinh Phuoc, chief  of  the  Black Flags,  re-
warded for  his  services  by  the  Chinese  govern-
ment April, ,,

The  Chinese  troops  retiring . . .  May, ,,

Reported  massacre  of  christians . . Aug. ,,
The  Black Flag Bands  very  troublesome Oct.  ;

defeated  by  Negrier .... Dec. ,,
Beported  massacre  of  700  christians  ;  and  destruc-
tion of  30  villages Aug.  1886

Renewed  warfare  ;  French  successes . Nov. .,
M.  Paul  Bert,  French  resident,  appointed  21  Jan.  ;

dies  11  Nov.  1886  ;  succeeded  by  M.  Bibourd  Jan.  1887
Much  fighting  ;  insurgents  defeated  by  the  French

Jan. ,,
Col.  Bosc  captured  Muong  losing  9  men 19  April,  1888
Establishment  of  the  civil  native  guard  for  sup-
pression of piracy, and other organizations

reported Sept. „

Renewed  fighting  by  pirates  ; defeated  by  gen.

Borgnis  des  Bordes  with  French  loss  17  Jan.  1889
Surrender  of  Doivan,  chief  of  the  Bac  Ninh  pirates  ;

country  reported  quieter . . .16  March, ,,
French  success  against  the  pirates March,  April,  1890
Pirates  defeated  in  several  engagements,  followed

by  executions,  21  April — 28  July  ;  again 15  Dec.  1891
Sharp  fighting  witli  the  pirates,  who  are  dispersed
with  heavy  loss, reported, 2  July  ; 3  French
officers  and  10  men  killed  in  a  sharp  conflict,

9  July,  1892

TONSURE,  the  clerical  crown,  adopted,  it  is
said,  in  imitation  of  St.  Peter,  or  of  Christ's  crown
of  thorns,  was  disapproved  of  in  the  fourth  century
as  pertaining  only  to  penitents,  and  not  made
essential  till  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  beginning  of  the
sixth  century.

TONTINES,  loans  given  for  life  annuities  with
benefit  of  survivorship,  invented  by  Laurence  Tonti,
a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on  foot  at  Paris
to  reconcile  the  people  to  cardinal  Mazarin's
government,  by  amusing  them  with  the  hope  of
becoming  suddenly  rich,  1653.  Voltaire.  Tonti  died
in  the  Bastile  after  seven  years'  imprisonment.  A
Mr.  Jennings  was  an  original  subscriber  for  a  100/.
share  in  a  tontine  company;  and  being  the  last
survivor  of  the  shareholders,  his  share  produced
him  3000/.  per  annum.  He  died  aged  103  years,
19  June,  1798,  worth  2,115,2447.;  see  Alexandra
Park.

By  the  termination  of  a  tontine  begun  by  M.  Lafarges
in  1791  to  diminish  the  national  debt  the  F'reuch
government  received  1,218,000  francs  Dec.  1888.

TOPLITZ  (Bohemia).  Here  were  signed,  in
1813,  two  treaties  —  one  between  Austria,  Russia,
and  Prussia,  9  Sept. ;  and  one  between  Great  Britain
and  Austria,  3  Oct.


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY  of  Lon-
don was  founded  1879 ;  inaugurated  at  the  Man-
sion-house, 28  Oct.  1880.

TORBANEHILL  MINERAL.  Mr.  Gil-
lespie, of  Torbanehill,  granted  a  lease  of  all  the
coal  in  the  estate  to  Messrs.  Russell.  In  the  course
of  working,  the  lessees  extracted  a  combustible
mineral  of  considerable  value  as  a  source  of  coal-
gas,  and  realised  a  large  profit  in  the  sale  of  it  as.
gas-coal.  The  lessor  then  denied  that  the  mineral
was  coal,  and  disputed  the  right  of  the  lessees  to
work  it.  At  the  trial  in  1853  there  was  a  great
array  of  scientific  men  and  practical  gas  engineers,
and  the  evidence  was  most  conflicting.  One  side
maintained  the  mineral  to  be  coal,  the  other  that
it  was  a  bituminous  schist.  The  judge  set  aside  the
scientific  evidence,  and  the  jury  pronounced  it  to
be  coal.  The  authorities  in  Prussia  have  since
pronounced  it  not  to  be  coal. Percy.

TORDESILLAS  (near  Vail adolid).  Here  was
signed,  7  June,  1494,  a  treaty  modifying  the
boundary  line  which  pcpe  Alexander  VI.  had  as-
signed, in  May,  1493,  in  his  division  of  the  new
world  between  Spain  and  Portugal.

TORGAU  (Saxony,  N.  Germany),  the  site  of  a
battle  between  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  and  the
Austrians,  in  which  the  former  obtained  a  signal
victory;  the  Austrian  general,  count  Daun,  being
wounded,  3  Nov.  1760.  He  had,  in  1757,  obtained
a  great  victory  over  the  Prussian  king.  Torgau
was  taken  by  the  allies  in  18 14 ;  and  given  to
Prussia,  181 5.

TORIES,  a  term  given  to  a  political  party
about  1678  ;  see  Whig.  Dr.  Johnson  defines  a  Tory
as  one  who  adheres  to  the  ancient  constitution  of
the  state,  and  the  apostolical  hierarchy  of  the
Church  of  England.  The  Tories  long  maintained
the  doctrines  of  "divine  hereditary  indefeasible
right,  lineal  succession,  passive  obedience,  prero-
gative," &c.  Bolingbrohe  ;  sea  Conservatives.  For
the  chief  Tory  administrations,  see  Pitt,  Perccval}
Liverpool,  Wellington,  Peel,  Perby,  and  P/israeli.
For  Tory  Democracy  see  Fourth  Party.

TORNADOS. See  Storms.

TORONTO, the capital of Canada West,

now  Ontario,  founded  in  1794  as  York;  it  received

its  present  name  in  1834. It  was  made  a  bishopric

in  1839. Population  1886,  118,403;  1891,181,220.

Opera-house  burnt,  8  Feb.  1883.

Industrial  exhibition  opened  by  marquis  of  Lome,  12
Sept.  1883  ;  another  opened  by  lord  Lansdowne,  6
Sept.  1887.

Dynamite  cartridges  found  under  the  parliament-house;
much  excitement,  30  April,  1884.

The  university,  with  its  hall,  library,  and  museum,
destroyed  by  fire,  14  Feb.  ;  a  committee  was
formed  in  London,  including  the  marquis  of
Salisbury,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  repre-
sentatives of  the  universities,  the  lord  mayor,
and  other  eminent  persons,  to  restore  the
library,  March ;  an  appeal  was  liberally  re-
sponded to,  the  queen  being  among  the  con-
tiibutors;  donations  were  received  from  other
countries .... reported  15  May,  1890

The  duke  and  duchess  of  Connaught  warmly  re-
ceived at  Toronto .... 29  May, ,,

TORPEDO  SHELLS,  a  name  given  to  ex-
plosives placed  under  ships,  an  invention  ascribed
to  David  Bushnell,  an  American,  in  1777-  Efts:  at-
tempt to  destroy  H.M.S.  Cerberus  failed.  The
action  of  Fulton's  torpedoes  was  successful  in
Britain  1 805  ;  but  their  use  was  declined  by  the
government.  Torpedo  sbells  ignited  by  electricity
were successfully employed in the war  in the


TOKQUAY.


971


TOUEAINE.


United  States,  1861-5.  On  4  Oct.  1865,  Messrs.
M'Kay  &  Beardslee  tried  them  at  Chatham  before
the  duke  of  Somerset  and  others.  An  old  vessel,
the  Terpsichore,  was  speedily  sunk.  Torpedoes,
made  by  professor  (aft.  sir  Frederick)  Abel,  of  Wool-
wich, were  tried  in  May,  1866.  A  torpedo  invented
by  Mr.  Wightman  and  an  Austrian,  tried  and  re-
ported successful  at  Sheerness;  an  old  hulk  was  sunk,
8  Oct.  1870.  Torpedoes  to  be  ignited  from  a  dis-
tance by  an  electric  battery  are  now  made  at
Woolwich.  A  Turkish  monitor  in  the  Danube  was
blown  up  by  a  torpedo  (see Susso- Turkish  war,  II.),
26  May,  1877.  Whitehead's  fish  torpedoes,  pro-
jected by  compi-essed  air  from  a  boat ;  very  destruc-
tive if  skilfully  directed  ;  described  Nov.  1884.
The  new  torpedo  boat  Peacemaker  invented  by  prof.

J.  H.  L.  Tuck  announced . . . Aug.  1886
Nordenfelt's  submarine  torpedo  boat  tried  in  South-
ampton Water  (see  under  Boats) . 19,  20  Dec.  1887
Several  severe  accidents  with  torpedo  boats July,  1888
Mr.  A.  Lege's  torpedo,  based  upon  the  principle  of
a  flying  kite,  announced . .  16  March,  1889

See  under  Cannon  1889.
The  powerful  Brennan  Torpedo,  with  the  Watkin
position  finder,  successfully  tried  at  Cliff  End
Port,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Solent  .  5  July,  1890
The  controllable  torpedo  of  Mr.  Scott  Sims  and
Mr.  Edison  tried  at  Portsmouth  and  reported
successful 3,  15  Feb.  1892

TORQUAY, a  seaport  in  Devonshire. The
pier  harbour  was  made  in  1803-7,  and  enlarged  in
1870. Torre  Abbey  was  founded in 1196. The
prince  of  Orange  landed  at  T»rbay,  5  Nov.  1688.
Population,  1881,  24,767  ;  1891,  25,534.
In Kent's  Hole,  a  cavern  near  Torquay,  the  rev. Mr.
MeEnery  discovered  a  quantity  of  bones  of  extinct
and  recent  animals,  1825-9. The  investigations  were
continued  by  Mr.  Godwin- Austen,  1840 ;  by  the  Tor-
quay Natural  History  Society,  and  by  a  committee
of  the  British  Association,  1S65,  by  whom  the  results
were  published. Mr.  William  Pengelly,  of  Torquay,
was  actively  engaged  in  the  researches.
The  princess  Louise  laid  the  memorial  stone  of  the  new

pier  and  harbour  works,  6  May,  1890.
Charter  granted  to  Torquay,  Aug. 1892.

TOEEES  STEAIT,  dividing  Australia  from
Papua  or  New  Guinea,  was  discovered  by  Torres,
a  Spaniard,  in  June,  1606.

TOEEES  VEDEAS  (a  city  of  Portugal).
Near  here  Wellington,  retreating  from  the  French,
took  up  a  strong  position,  called  the  Lines  of  'Torres
Vedras,  10  Oct.  1810.

TOETOLA,  see  Virgin  Isles.

TOETUEE  was  only  permitted  by  the  Romans
in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was  applied  to
heretics  by  the  Roman  catholic  clergy,  and  was
used  in  England  so  late  as  1640  (when  Archer,
who  took  part  in  an  attack  on  Laud's  palace,  was
racked),  and  in  Scotland  until  1690.  The  trial  by
torture  was  abolished  in  Portugal,  1776  ;  in  France,
by  Louis  XVI.,  in  1789;  and  in  Sweden  by  Gus-
tavus  III.,  1786.  General  Picton  was  convicted  of
allowing  Louisa  Calderon  to  be  tortured  in  Trini-
dad, in  accordance  with  the  old  law  of  the  island,
at  his  trials,  21  Feb.  1806,  and  11  June,  1808.

TOSKI,  battle  of,  see  Soudan,  3  Aug.  1889.

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE,  see  Teetotaller.

TOTNES  (Devon):  thought  to  be  the  Roman

Ad  Durium  Ainnem.  It  was  held  by  Judhael  de
Totneis,  who  built  the  castle  about  1085.  It  was
disfranchised  for  gross  corruption  and  briber)-,  by
the  Reform  act,  15  Aug.  1867.

TOUGHENED  GLASS,  see  Glass.

TOUL,  the  Roman  Tulli  Leucorum,  a  fortified
town  on  the  Moselle,  N. E.  France,  one  of  the  most


ancient  in  the  empire.  The  city  and  diocese  ac-
quired great  privileges  from  Charles  the  Simple,
925,  when  it  was  united  with  the  German  empire.
It  was  reunited  with  France,  1552.  The  fortifica-
tions, begun  in  1238,  were  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in,
1700,  according  to  the  plans  of  Vauban.  After  a
vigorous  resistance  to  the  Germans,  commencing
14  Aug.  1870,  Toul  surrendered  with  its  garrison  of
3000  men,  23  Sept.,  when  the  town  was  burning  in,
twenty- three  places.  The  Germans  thus  acquired
an  uninterrupted  railway  communication  to  Paris.

TOULON,  the  ancient  Telo Martius (S.  Fiance) ,
an  important  military  port.  It  was  taken  by  the
constable  of  Bourbon,  1524,  and  by  the  emperor
Charles  V.  in  1536.  In  1707  it  was  bombarded  by
the  allies,  both  b}'  laud  and  sea,  by  which  almost
the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and
several  ships  burned;  but  the  allies  were  at  last
obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  It  surrendered  27  Aug.
1793,  to  the  British  admiral,  lord  Hood,  who  took
possession  both  of  the  town  and  slapping,  in  the
name  of  Louis  XVII.,  under  a  stipulation  to  assist
in  restoring  the  French  constitution  of  1789.  A
conflict  took  place  between  the  English  and  French
forces,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  15  Nov.  1793.
Toulon  was  retaken  by  Bonaparte,  19  Dec,  when
great  cruelties  were  exercised  towards  such  of  the
inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favourable  to
the  British. — A  naval  battle  oft'  this  port  was  fought
II  Feb.  1744,  between  the  English  under  Mathews
and  Lestock,  against  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain:
in  this  engagement  the  brave  captain  Corncwall
fell.  The  victory  was  lost  by  a  misunderstanding
between  the  English  admirals.  Mathews  was  after-
wards dismissed  for  misconduct.  See  Cholera,  1884.
Visit  of  Queen  Victoria . . . 13  April,  1892

TOULOUSE,  the  ancient  TOLOSA  (S.  France),
founded  about  615  B.C.;  was  the  capital  of  the
Visigothic  kings  in  a.d.  419 ;  and  was  taken  by
Clovis  in  508.  The  dukes  of  Aquitaine  reigned
here,  631-761.  A  university  was  established  here,
1229,  and  a  parliament,  1302.  The  inquisition  was
established  here  to  extirpate  heretics,  1229.  The
troubadours,  or  rhetoricians  of  Toulouse,  had  their
origin  about  850,  and  consisted  of  a  fraternity  of
poets,  whose  art  was  extended  throughout  Europe,
and  gave  rise  to  the  Italian  and  French  poetry;
see  Troubadours.  The  allied  British  and  Spanish
army  entered  this  city  on  12  April,  immediately
after  the  Battle  of  Toulouse,  fought  between
the  British  Peninsular  army  under  lord  Welling-
ton, and  the  French  led  by  marshal  Soult,  10  April,
1814.  The  French  were  forced  to  retreat,  after
twelve  hours'  fighting.  Neither  of  the  com-
manders knew  that  Napoleon  bad  abdicated  the
throne  of  France.  Population,  1886,  147,617;
1891,  148,220.

TOULOUSE.  The  county  was  created  out,  of
the  kingdom  of  Aquitaine  by  t  harlemagne,  in  77S.
It  enjoyed  great  prosperity  till  the  dreadful  war  of
the  Albigenses  {which  see),  when  the  count  Ray-
mond VI.  was  expelled,  and  Simon  de  Montfort
became  count. At  bis  death,  in  1218,  Raymond  VII.

obtained  bis  inheritance.  Mis  daughter  Jane  and
her  husband,  Alphonse  (brother  of  Louis  IX.  of
France),  dying  without  issue,  the  county  of  Toulouse
was  united  to  the  French  monarclly  in  1271.  A
large  pint  of  Toulouse  destroyed  by  an  inundation
of  the  Uaronne  ;  St.  Cyprien  like  a  Bepulchre;  23
June,  1875.

TOUEAINE,  the  garden  of  France,  was  con-
quered by  the  Visigoths  aboul  480. It  was  ceded

to  Geoffrey  count  of  Anjou,  1044,  and  thus  became


TOURNAMENTS.


972


TOWTON.


the  property  of  the  Plantagenet  kings  of  England.
It  was  seized  by  Philip  Augustus  in  1203,  and  was
made  a  duchy  by  John,  1360.  It  was  finally  united
to  the  crown  on  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Aniou,
I584.

TOURNAMENTS,  or  JoxiSTS,  were  martial
sports  of  the  ancient  cavaliers.  Tournament  is
derived  from  the  French  word  tonrner,  "  to  turn
round."  Tournaments  were  frequent  about  890;
•and  were  regulated  by  the  emperor  Henry  I.,  about
919.  Tournaments  were  introduced  into  England
early  in  the  12th  century ;  prohibited  by  Henry  II.,
but  revived  by  Richard  I.,  his  son.  Solemn  tourna-
ments were  held  by  Edward  III.,  2s  Sept.  1329,  in
London ;  and  19  Jan.  1344,  at  Wmdsor ;  and  by
Richard  II.  in  Smithfield,  London,  10  Oct.  1319 ;
and  also  by  Henry  VIII.,  in  May  1513.  The
Lateran  council  published  an  article  against  their
^continuance  in  1136.  Henry  II.  of  France,  in  a
tilt  with  the  comte  de  Montgomerie,  had  his  eye
struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused  the  king's
death  in  a  few  days,  29  June,  1559.  Tournaments
were  then  abolished  in  France. — A  magnificent
feast  and  tournament,  under  the  auspices  of  Archi-
bald, earl  of  Eglintoun,  took  place  at  Eglintoun
castle,  29  Aug.  1839,  and  the  following  week :
many  of  the  visitors  (among  whom  was  the  late
emperor  of  the  French)  assumed  the  characters  of
ancient  knights,  lady  Seymour,  aft.  duchess  of
"Somerset,  being  the  "  Queen  of  Beauty."  She  died
14  Dec.  1884.  Among  the  festivities  at  the  marriage
of  prince  Humbert,  at  Turin,  was  a  tournament,
24  April,  1868.  Tournaments  held  at  the  Agricul-
tural hall,  London,  N.  (for  benefit  of  soldiers'
widows,  &c),  21  June  et  seq.  1880  ;  11  June,  1887  ;
id  June,  1888;  20  June,  1889;  18  June,  1890 ;  26
May,  1891 ;  17  May,  1892.  (Amount  received  by
the  chanties  1880-8  about  21,000^.)  jn  Oct.  1883,
these  tournaments  were  organized  as  "Royal
Military  Tournaments"  for  development  of  skill  in
arms  in  the  army.  Tournaments  on  Woolwich
common,  directed  by  col.  Curzon,  21-23  ^uo-  1889.

TOURNAY  (S.  Belgium)  was  very  flourishing
till  it  was  ravaged  by  the  barbarians  in  the  5th
•century.  It  has  sustained  many  sieges.  Taken  by
the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht;  but  the  Dutch  were
allowed  to  place  a  garrison  in  it,  as  one  of  the
harrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under
general  La  Bourdonnaye,  8  Nov.  1792.  Several
'battles  were  fought  near  Tournay  in  May,  1793,
and  May,  1794. Population,  1890,  35,403.

TOURNIQUET  (from  tourner,  to  turn),  an
instrument  for  stopping  the  flow  of  blood  into  a
limb,  by  tightening  the  bandage  employed  in  ampu-
tations, is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Morel  li  at
the  siege  of  Besancon,  1674.  J.  L.  Petit,  in  France,
invented  the  screw  tourniquet  in  1718.

TOURS,  an  ancient  city,  central  France,  near
which  Charles  Martel  gained  a  great  victory  over
the  Saracens,  and  saved  Europe,  10  Oct.  732,  and
from  which  he  acquired  the  name  of  Martel,  signi-
fying hammer.  This  conflict  is  also  called'  the  battle
■of  Poitiers.  When  Paris  was  invested  by  the  Ger-
mans, M.  Cremieux  and  several  of  the  members  of
the  French  government  of  defence  went  to  Tours,
together  with  the  representatives  of  foreign  pftwers,
18  Sept.,  1870.  On  9  Oct.  these  were  joined  by
Gambetta,  minister  of  the  interior,  afterwards  of
war  (who  escaped  from  Paris  by  a  balloon,  7  Oct.).
In  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  the  army  of  the
Loire  near  Orleans,  the  government  removed  to
Bordeaux,  11  Dec.


TOWERS.  That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we
read,  built  in  the  plains  of  Shinar  {Gen.  xi.)  2247
B.C. ;  see  Babel.  Ihe  Tower  of  the  Winds  at
Athens,  built  550  B.C.  The  Tower  of  Pharos  (see
Pharos),  280  B.C.  The  round  towers  in  Ireland
wrere  the  only  structures  of  stone  found  at  the
arrival  of  the  English,  1169,  except  some  buildings
in  the  maritime  towns  founded  by  the  Danes.
These  towers  are  tall  hollow  pillars,  nearly  cylin-
drical, but  narrowing  towards  the  top,  pierced  with
lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  and  covered  with
conical  roofs.  Fifty-six  of  them  still  remain,  from
50  to  130  feet  high ;  see  Pisa.

TOWER  OF  LONDON.  The  tradition  that
Julius  Caesar  founded  a  citadel  here  (about  54  B.C.)
is  veiy  doubtful.  A  royal  palace,  consisting  of  no
more  than  what  is  now  called  the  White  Tower,
which  appears  to  have  been  first  marked  out  by
William  the  Conqueror,  1076,  was  commenced  in
1078,  and  completed  by  his  son,  William  Rufus,
who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it  with  walls  and  a  broad
deep  ditch.  Several  succeeding  princes  made  addi-
tions to  it,  and  king  Edward  III.  built  the  church.
In  1638,  the  old  White  Tower  was  rebuilt;  and
under  king  Charles  II.,  it  was  thoroughly  repaired,
1680-5,  and  a  great  number  of  additional  build-
ings made  to  it.  Here  are  the  Armoury,  Jewel-
office,  and  various  other  divisions  and  buildings  of
peculiar  interest.  Here  took  place  many  executions
of  illustrious  persons,  and  many  murders  (king
Henry  VI.,  147 1 ;  king  Edward  V.  and  his  brother,
1485;  sir  Thomas  Overbury,  1613).  The  armoury
and  280,000  stand  of  arms,  &c.,  were  destroyed  by
fire,  30  Oct.  1841.  The  "New  Buildings"  in  the
Tower  were  completed  in  1850.  See  Blood ;  for
Toicer-Sabicays,  see  Thames.  The  more  recent
constables  of  the  Tower  have  been  the  duke  of  Wel-
lington, lord  Combermere,  and  sir  John  Burgoyne.
Sir  George  Pollock,  constable  Oct.  1871,  died  6
Oct.  1872 ;  sir  Wm.  Gomm,  31  Oct.  1872,  died  15
March,  1875;  su'  Charles  Yorke,  April,  1875,  died
20  Nov.  1880;  sir  W.  Fenwick  Williams,  April,
1881  ;  gen.  sir  R.  J.  Dacres,  Aug.  1881.  died  6  Dec.
1886 ;  lord  Napier  of  Magdala,  Dec.  18S6,  died  14
Jan.  1890;  gen.  sir  Daniel  Lysons,  3  March,  1890.
The  menagerie,  long  here,  was  removed  to  the  Zoological

Gardens,  1831 ;  the  state  papers  were  removed  to  the

Record  Office,  1857.
Opened  free  to  the  public  (Mondays  and  Saturdays')  from

3  April,  1875.
Lanthorne  Tower  rebuilt  and  other  restorations,  1884-5.
The  White  Tower  and  other  parts  greatly  damaged  by  an

explosion of  dynamite ; about 16  visitors  seriously

hurt,  about  2  p.m.  24  Jan. John  Gilbert  Cunningham

and  Harry  Burton  apprehended,  24  Jan.  ;  committed

for  trial,  27  March,  1885. See  Trials.
Tower  Bridge  act  passed,  14  Aug.  1885  ;  foundation  of

the  bridge  laid  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  21  June,  1886.

TOWN  HOLDINGS  in  Great  Britain  and
Ireland.  A  commit' ee  appointed  in  1886-9  (Mr.
Lewis  Fry,  sir  H.  James,  sir  Wm.  Marriott  and
other.--),  to  enquire  into  terms  of  occupation,  faci-
lities for  purchase  by  tenants,  rating,  improvements,
&c.  The  report  issued  13  Juljr,  1889,  was  stated  to
be  a  compromise.

Report  of  the  committee,  dealing  with  questions
relating  to  local  taxation,  the  liability  of  ground
rents,  &c,  published  ... 20  May,  1892

TOWNLEY  MARBLES,  in  the  British
Museum,  were  purchased  in  1805  and  1814.

TOWTON  (Yorkshire),  where  a  sanguinary
battle  was  fought,  29  March,  1461,  between  the
houses  of  York  (Edward  IV.)  and  Lancaster  (Henry
VI.),  to  the  latter  of  whom  it  was  fatal,  and  on
whose  side  more  than  37,000  fell. Edward  issued


TOXOPHILITES.


973


TRAFALGAR.


orders  to  give  no  quarter,  arid  the  most  merciless
slaughter  ensued.  Henry  and  his  queen,  Margaret,
fled  to  Scotland;  and  Edward  IV.  was  settled  on
the  throne.

TOXOPHILITES  (from  toxon,  a  bow,  and
philos,  a  lover),  a  society  established  by  sir  Aston
Lever  in  1781.  The  Toxophilites  formed  a  division
of  the  Artillery  Company  about  1784-1803.  In  1834
they  took  grounds  in  the  inner  circle  of  Regent' s-
park,  and  built  the  archery  lodge.  They  possess  a
very  curious  piece  of  plate,  given  by  Catherine,  queen
of  Charles  II.,  to  be  shot  for  by  the  Finsbury  archers,
of  whom  the  Toxophilites  are  the  representatives.

TOYNBEE  HALL,  see  under  University
Teaching.

TRACT  SOCIETIES.  The  Society  for  Pro-
moting Christian  Knowledge  was  founded  in  1698  ;
the  Religious  Tract  Society,  London,  in  1799;  and
other  similar  societies  since.

TRACT  ARIANISM,  a  term  applied  to  certain
opinions  on  church  matters  propounded  in  the
"  Tracts  for  the  Times,"  of  which  ninety  numbers
were  published,  1833-41.  The  principal  writers
were  the  revs.  Dr.  E.  Pusey,  J.  H.  Newman,
J.  Keble,  J.  Fronde,  and  I.  VVilliams — all  of  the
university  of  Oxford;  see  Puseyism.  The  tracts
(specially  No.  90,  ascribed  to  rev.  J.  H.  Newman)
were  condemned  by  the  authorities  at  Oxford,  15
March,  1841.

TRACTION-ENGINES  were  used  on  com-
mon roads  in  London  in  i860,  but  afterwards  re-
stricted. In  Aug.  1862  one  of  Bray's  traction-
engines  conveved  through  the  city  a  mass  of  iron
which  would  have  required  29  horses ;  see  Road-
steamers,  and  Railways.

TRADE  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  see  Ex-
ports and  Imports.  In  1861  the  value  of  the  two
amounted  to  377,01 7, 522/. ;  in  1871  to  614,590,180^.;
in  1875  to  655,551,900/. ;  in  1877,  to  646,705,702/.  ;
in  1879,  611,775,239/.;  in  1881,  694,105,264/.;  in
1883,  732,328,649/.;  1884,  685,986,152/.;  1885,
642,442,263/.  ;  1886,  618,822,935/.  ;  1887,
643,490,449/.  ;  1888,  686,213,284/.  ;  1889,
743,230,274/.;  1890,748,944,115/.  Bee  Commerce.
Trade  with  the  United  States  doubled  in  value  in  ten

years.  1877,  77,805,000^. ;  1878,  89,070,000?.
Royal  commission  for  enquiry  into  causes  of  depression
of  trade,  31  Aug.  1885.  Earls  of  Iddesleigli  and
Dunraven,  Mr.  G.  Sclater  Booth,  prof.  Bonamy
Price,  and  twenty  others.  First  meeting  7  Oct.
1885 ;  final  report  issued  Feb.  1887.  The  majority
refer  to  over-production,  rise  in  value  of  gold,  and  in
regard  to  agriculture,  fall  of  prices,  as  probable  causes  ;
improved  condition  of  the  working  classes  noted,  Jan.
1887.

TRADE  AND  PLANTATIONS,  Board
OF.  Cromwell  seems  to  have  given  the  first  notions
of  a  board  of  trade:  in  1655  he  appointed  his  soil
Richard,  with  many  lords  of  his  council,  judges,
and  gentlemen,  and  about  twenty  merchants  of
London,  York,  Newcastle,  Yarmouth,  Dover,  &c,
to  meet  and  consider  by  what  means  the  trade  and
navigation  of  the  republic  might  be  best  promoted.
Thomas's  Notes  of  the  Rolls.  Charles  II.,  on  his
restoration,  established  a  council  of  trade  for  keep-
ing a  control  over  the  whole  commerce  of  the
nation,  1660;  he  afterwards  instituted  a  board  of
trade  and  plantations  which  was  remodelled  by
William  III.  This  board  was  abolished  in  1782";
and  a  new  council  for  the  affairs  of  trade  on  its
present  plan  was  appointed,  2  Sept.  1 786.
The  parliamentary  recommendation  in  1880  In  appoint  a

"  minister  of  trade  and  commerce,"  was  dropped by

Mr.  Gladstone  in  March,  1881.


Board  of  trade  journal  of  tariffs  &c.  published is  Sept

1886.

TRADE  CONGRESSES,  see  Working  men.

TRADE  MARKS  REGISTRATION
ACT,  passed  13  Aug.  1875.  Thc  registration  office,
Quality-court,  Chancery-lane  (Mr.  H.  Reader  Lack
registrar),  was  opened  1  Jan.  1876;  a  similar  act
passed  in  the  United  States,  1881.  See  Merchandise
Marks  Act.

TRADES'  MUSEUMS.  The  formation  of
one  was  undertaken  in  1853,  jointly  by  the  com-
missioners of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  the
Society  of  Arts.  The  animal  department  was  opened
17  May,  1855,  when  a  paper  on  the  mutual  rela-
tions of  trade  and  manufactures  was  read  by  pro-
fessor E.  Solly.  The  contents  of  this  museum  were
removed  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  which
was  opened  24  June,  1857.  The  French  "  Con-
servatoire des  Arts  et  Metiers,"  was  established
1795-

TRADES'  UNIONS.  The  steam  engine
makers'  society,  Manchester,  established  in  1824
By  6  Geo.  IV.  e.  129  (1825),  the  combination  laws
were  repealed,  and  other  provisions  made.  As  trades-'
unions  formed  for  maintaining  the  rate  of  wa^es  &c.
are  not  recognised  by  law,  a  commission  (including
lord  Elcho,  Thomas  Hughes,  and  others,  with  sir
Wm.  Erie  as  chairman)  was  appointed  to  inquire  into
their  constitution,  14  Feb.  1867,  and  an  act  to
facilitate  their  proceedings  was  passed  5  April  fol-
lowing. Their  reports  were  issued  during  the  year,
disclosing  the  existence  of  murderous  practices
with  great  intimidation  ;  see  Sheffield,  and  Man-
chester. An  act  to  protect  union 'funds  from  em-
bezzlement was  passed  in  1869.  A  trade  union  act
passed  29  June,  1871,  amended  by  act  passed  30
June,  1876.  To  counteract  the  influence  of  trades'
unions,  the  National  Federation  of  Employers  was
formed  Dec.  1873;  see  Employers,  and  Worhina
men.

io-j  trades  unions  in  England  in  1885.
Trades Union  Congress  opened  at  Liverpool, 18  Jan
1875,  1876  ;  at  Leicester,  17  Sept.  1877  ; at  Bristol'
9  Sept.  1878  ;  at  Edinburgh,  15  Sept. 1879  ; Dublin'"
13  Sept.  1880;  London,  12  Sept.  1881  ;  Manchester 18
Sept. 1882  ; Nottingham  [134  unions,  552,091  mem-
bers], 10  Sept.  1883  ;  Aberdeen,  8  Sept,  18S4  •  South-
port, 7  Sept. 1885; Hull, 6  Sept. 1886; Swansea
5  Sept. 1887 ; Bradford, 3  Sept. 1888 ; Dundee, 2
Sept. 1889; Liverpool, 1 Sept.  1890: Xewcastle-on-
Tyne,  7  Sept.  1891 ;  Glasgow,  5  Sept.  1892.

TRAFALGAR  (Cape  S.  Spain),  off  which  a
great  naval  victory  was  gained  by  the  British,  under
Nelson,  over  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and
Spain,  commanded  by  admiral  Villeneuve  and  two
Spanish  admirals,  21  Oct.  1805.  The  enemy's  force
was  eighteen  French  and  fifteen  Spanish  vessels
all  of  the  line:  that  of  the  British,  twenty-seven
ships.  After  a  protracted  fight,  Villeneuve  "and  the
other  admirals  were  taken,  and  nineteen  of  their
ships  captured,  sunk,  or  destroyed.  Nelson  was
killed,  and  admiral  Collingwood  succeeded  to  the
command.  Nelson's  ship  was  the  Victory  ;  and  bis
last  signal  was,  "England  expects  every  man will

do  his  duty;"  see  Nelson. Trafalgar-square,

London,  begun  1829;  completed  1845.  A.I  passed
in  1844,  declaring  that  the  square  is  Crown  pro-
perty, the  charge  of  it  pi  iced  in  the  hands  of  the
Commissioners  of  Woods  and  Forests  and  under
police  regulations.  In  [851,  the  charge  «as  trans-
ferred tn  the  Commissioners  of  Works.  The  riirhl
of  preventing  public  meetings  in  the  square  by  the-
executive  affirmed  by  the  Commons  (316  224)  2
March,  1888.  Grand  Hotel  opened  by  Lord  Mayor"
29  May,  1880. See  Riots.  J  J '


TRAFFIC.


974


TRANSPORTATION.


TRAFFIC  in  the  metropolis  is  now  regulated
bj  the  Metropolitan  Streets  act,  passed  20  Aug.
1867.

TRAGEDY,  see  Drama.

TRAINING  SCHOOLS,  begun  by  the  Na-
tional Society,  1811.  One  was  founded  at  Battersea  in
1840,  by  sir  J.  Kay  Shuttleworth,  and  Mr.  E.  C.
Tufnell ;  the  latter,  who  was  then  in  the  Poor  Law
Commission,  devoting  a  year's  salary  towards  the
expenses.  Mr.  Mann  stated,  in  1855,  that  there
were  about  forty  of  these  schools  in  different  parts
of  the  country.
Maria  Grey  training  college,  established  1878  ;  extension

fund  started,  1891.
Fiusbury  training  college  established  about  1883.

TRAINING  SHIPS,  see  Marine  Society
and  Chichester.

TRAJAN'S  COLUMN  (hi  Kome),  erected
5:14,  by  the  Eoman  senate  and  people,  to  com-
memorate his  victories,  and  executed  by  Apollo-
•dorus.  It  was  built  in  the  square  called  the  Forum
Trajanum ;  it  is  of  the  Tuscan  order,  and  from
its  base,  exclusive  of  the  statue  and  pedestal,  is
127^  feet  high.

TRAM-ROADS.  The  name  is  probably  de-
rived from  being  made  of  trams  or  bars  of  wood ;  the
statement  that  it  was  derived  from  Mr.  Benjamin
Outram  (the  father  of  sir  James  Outram,  the  Indian
general),  who  improved  the  colliery  railroads  about

1800,  is  very  doubtful.  The  iron  tram-road  from
Croydon  to  Wandsworth  was  completed  on  24  July,

1801.  Street  railways  or  tramways  for  omnibuses
drawn  by  horses,  previously  established  by  Mr.  Train
in  New  York,  were  opened  by  him  at  Birkenhead,
Cheshire,  30  Aug.  i860,  and  at  Bayswater,  London,
23  March,  1861.  (See  Ireland,  1868.)  A  street  rail-
way bill  was  rejected  by  the  house  of  commons  in
April,  1 861.  Several  of  these  railways  existed  for  a
time  in  various  parts  of  the  metropolis  in  1861,  but
were  all  taken  up  in  1862.  An  act  to  facilitate  the
•construction  of  tramways  passed  9  Aug.  1870.  Tram-
ways from  Brixton  to  Kennington,  and  from  White-
•chapel  to  Bow,  were  opened  9  May,  1870 ;  and
•others  since.  Their  introduction  into  the  city  was
much  recommended  but  opposed,  March- May,
1873.  Dividend  of  the  North  Metropolitan  tram-
ways company,  8  per  cent.  Aug.  1876.  The  use  of
steam  locomotives  proposed  :  approved  in  Paris,
July,  1876.

Elevated  street  railways  erected  in  New  York,  1877-8.

233  miles  of  tramways  constructed  in  England  and  Wales,
1870-80.

Steam  cable  tramway  on  Highgate  Hill,  N.  London  (the
first  in  Europe),  opened  29  May,  1884.

Steam  employed  by  the  North  London  Tramways  Com-
pany, 1  April,  1885. See  under  Air.

S80  miles  of  tramways  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1887.
904  miles  in  1888  ;  949  miles  in  1889  ;  neb  receipts,
713, 543Z.,  1889. 948  miles;  811, 943Z.  net  receipts  in
1890.

An  international  tramway  congress  opened  at  Brussels,
5  Sept.  1888.

Mr.  Lineff's  mode  of  traction  on  tramways  by  magneto-
electricity  was  tried  at  Chiswick,  25  June,  1890.  His
patent  has  been  purchased  by  a  syndicate.

Overhead  electric  tramway  opened  at  Leeds,  29  Oct.
1891.

TRANQUEBAR  (East  Indies),  the  Danish
settlement  here,  founded  in  1618,  was  purchased  by
the  English  in  1845.

TRANSCASPIAN  RAILWAY,  see  under
Railways,  1888.

TRANSFIGURATION.  The  change  of
Christ's  appearance  on  Mount  Tabor,  in  the  pre-


sence of  Peter,  James,  and  John,  a.d.  32  {Matt.
xvii.).  The  feast  of  the  Transfiguration,  kept  on
6  Aug.,  was  instituted  in  the  East  before  700,  and
seems  to  have  been  observed  in  the  West  as  early  as
450.  Pope  Calixtus  III.  in  1456  issued  a  bull
making  it  a  "  feast  of  obligation  "  to  be  generally
observed  in  honour  of  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  at
Belgrade  in  that  year.

TRANSFORMATION PRINTS. A

method  of  printing  one  picture  over  another,  the
former  being  easily  effaced,  patented  by  Mr.
Andrew  Beid  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and  others,
1885.

TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD,  see  Blood.

TRANSIT,  see  Mercury  and  Venus.

TRANSLATION  TO  HEAVEN.  The  trans-
lation of  Enoch  to  heaven  at  the  age  of  365  years,
3017  B.C.  The  prophet  Elijah  was  translated  to
heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire,  896  B.C. — The  possibility
of  translation  to  the  abode  of  eternal  life  has  been
maintained  by  some  extravagant  enthusiasts.  The
Irish  house  of  commons  expelled  Mr.  Asgill  from
his  seat,  for  his  book  asserting  the  possibility  of
translation  to  the  other  world  without  death,  1703.

TRANSPADANE  REPUBLIC,  comprising

Lombardy  and  part  of  the  Venetian  territories,  was
established  by  Bonaparte  after  his  victory  at  Lodi,
10  May,  1796.  With  the  Cispadane  republic,  it
merged  into  the  Cisalpine  republic,  Oct.  1797.

TRANSPORTATION,  see  Banishment.
Judges  were  given  the  power  of  sentencing  offenders
to  transportation  "  into  any  of  his  majesty's  domi-
nions in  North  America,"  by  18  Charles  II.  c.  3
(1666),  and  by  4  Geo.  I.  c.  11  (1718).  Transporta-
tion ceased  in  1775,  but  was  revived  in  1786.  The
reception  of  convicts  was  successfully  refused  by  the
Cape  of  Good  Hope  (in  1849)  and  by  the  Australian
colonies  (1864).  Transportation,  even  to  West
Australia,  where  labour  is  wanted,  ceased  after  a
few  years,  through  the  fierce  opposition  of  the
eastern  colonies.  In  consequence  of  the  difficulty
then  experienced  in  transporting  felons,  16  &  17
Vict.  c.  99  was  passed  to  provide  other  punishment,
namely,  penal  servitude,  empowering  her  majesty
to  grant  pardon  to  offenders  under  certain  condi-
tions, and  licences  to  others  to  be  at  large  :  such
licences  being  liable  to  be  revoked  if  necessary ;
and  many  have  been.  These  licences  are  termed
"tickets  of  leave."  The  S3'stem  is  said  to  have
originated  in  Australia  under  the  superintendence
of  captain  Maconochie.  It  was  much  assailed
in  Oct.  and  Nov.  1862,  on  account  of  violent  crimes
being  traced  to  ticket-of-leavers  ;  and  was  modified
by  the  Penal  Servitude  Act,  1864;  and  the  Pre-
vention of  Crimes  Acts,  1871  and  1879.  It  is  now
considered  successful. See  Crime.

John  Eyre,  esq. ,  a  man  of  fortune,  was  sentenced  to
transportation  for  stealing  a  few  quires  of  paper.
— Phillips 1  Nov. 1 771

The  Rev.  Dr.  Hall oran,  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Chester-
field, was  transported  for  forging  a  frank  (iod.
postage) 9  Sept.  1818

The  first  transportation  of  felons  to  Botany  Bay  was
in  May,  1787 ;  where  governor  Phillip  arrived
with  about  800  on  20  Jan.  1788  ;  convicts  were
afterwards  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Norfolk
Island,  &c.

Returning  from  transportation  was  punishable  with
death  until  5  Will.  IV.  c.  67,  Aug.  1834,  when  an
act  was  passed  making  the  offence  punishable  by
transportation  for  life.

A  shipment  of  convicts  to  West  Australia  (which
had  already  received  10,000)  in  1867.


TRANSITBSTANTTATION.


975


TRANSVAAL  EEPUBLIC.


TEANSUBSTANTIATIOiSr,  the  doctrine  of
the  "  real  presence."  That  the  bread  and  wine  in
the  Eucharist  are  changed  into  the  very  flesh  and
blood  of  Christ  by  the  consecration,  was  broached  in
the  da3rs  of  Gregory  III.  (731),  and  accepted  by
Amalarius  and  Radbertus  (about  830),  but  rejected
by  Rabanus  Maurus,  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,
Berengarius,  "Wieliffe,  and  others.  In  the  Lateran
council,  held  at  Rome  by  Innocent  III.,  the  word
"  Transubstantiation "  was  used  to  express  this
doctrine,  which  was  decreed  to  be  incontrovertible  ;
and  all  who  opposed  it  were  condemned  as  heretics.
This  was  confirmed  by  the  council  of  Trent,  18  Jan.
1562.  John  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  other
martyrs  of  the  reformation,  suffered  for  denying
this  dogma,  which  is  renounced  by  the  church  of
England  (28th  article),  and  by  all  protestant  dis-
senters. The  declaration  against  transubstantia-
tion, invocation  of  the  saints,  and  the  sacrifice  of
the  mass,  on  taking  any  civil  office,  was  abolished
by  an  act  passed  25  July,  1867  ;  see  Sacrament.
Luther  maintained  the  doctrine  of  con-substantiation,
viz.,  that  after  consecration  the  body  and  blood  of
Christ  are  substantially  present  in  the  bread  and  wine.
He  was  opposed  by  Bucer,  Carlstadt,  Zwingle,  and
others  (termed  saeramentarians),  who  asserted  that  the
Lord's  supper  is  only  a  commemorative  rite.

TRANSVAAL  REPUBLIC,  named  South
Africa  Republic  in  1883,  founded  bj  Dutch  Boers
(farmers)  in  1848,  after  several  years'  severe  con-
flict with  the  natives.  Its  independence  was  de-
clared 17  Jan.  1852,  S.  J.  P.  Kriiger  elected  presi-
dent 7  May,  1853 ;  and  its  constitution  proclaimed
13  Feb.  1858 ;  capital  Pretoria.  President  for  four
years,  T.  F.  Burgers,  27  May,  1872.  Population
about  38,000  Boers,  5000  English  settlers,  770,000
blacks  (1881).  Total  population  in  1886,  370,848;
in  1890,  119,128.

War  with  the  Kaffirs  begun  ;  Cetywayo,  king;  Seco-
coeni (Siekakuni),  an  eminent  chief . July,  1876
Republican  government  blamed ;  its  troops  defeated ;

Sir  Theophilus  Shepstone  sent  to  mediate  Sept.  ,,
Dutch  boers  assisted  by  the  Amazwasies,  a  warlike

tribe,  who  check  Kaffirs  . . . Sept. ,,

Severe  dispatch  of  the  earl  of  Carnarvon,  censuring

Burgers  for  aggression  on  Kaffirs  .  .  Oct.  ,,
Secoeceni  threatening  Leydenburg  .  .  Nov.  „
Sehliekman,  the  Dutch  general,  killed  in  an  attack

17  Nov. ,,
Sir  T.  Shepstone  well  received  ;  a  desire  expressed

for  federation,  Feb.  ;  opposition  to  it  March,  1877
Anarchy  in  the  Transvaal  ;  annexation  of  the
Transvaal(for  protection)  to  the  British  dominions
proclaimed  by  sir  T.  Shepstone,  12  April ;  he  is
sworn  in  as  administrator  .  .  30  May,  ,,
Conflict  with  Secocoeni  (disapproved) ;  some  volun-
teers killed  17  June,  1878

Sir Win. Owen Lanyon  made governor  of  the

Transvaal March,  1879

Great  opposition  to the British  rule ;  appeased

after  much  discussion  ...  12  April,  ,,
SirG.Wolseleyappointedgoveriiorof  Natal,  &c,  May  ,,
War  with  Seeoeomi  continues  . Aug.  ct  scq. ,,

His  stronghold  captured  by  col.  Baker  Russell
(under  sir  Garnet Wolseley),  with British  and

native  troops 28  Nov. ,,

Secocoeni  surrenders  .... 2  Dec. ,,

The  Transvaal  declared  a  crown  colony  Dec. ,,

'The  Boers  meet  and  claim  independence  ;  Bok,
Kriiger,  and  Preforms  arrested  for  signing  a
document  issued  by  the  Boer  committee

Dec.  1879,  and  Jan.  1880
'The  Boers  seize  Heidelberg,  16  Dec.  ;  establish  the
South  Africa  republic,  Paul  Kriiger  president

17  Dec. ,,
A  party  of  Boers  stop  at  Bronker's  Spruit  about  250
British  troops  of  the  94th  regiment,  who  resist ;
some  killed  or  wounded ;  others  disarmed  and

dismissed 20  Dec. „

Potchefstrom  seized  by  Boers,  who  retire  when
the  place  is  shelled;  col.  Bellairs  besieged  in  it

27  Dec.  ct  seq. „


Capt.  J.  M.  Elliot  said  to  be  treacherously  killed
while  fording  the  Vaal ... 29  Dec.

The  South  Africa  Republic  proclaimed  by  a  trium-
virate ;  Kriiger,  Joubert,  and  Pretorius 30  Dee.

Troops  sent  from  Britain,  (fee.,  Dee.,  1880,  and  Jan.

Sir  George  P.  Colley  (appointed  governor  of  Natal
1880)  takes  command  in  the  war . . Jan.

Gen.  Colley's  attack  on  Laing's  Nek,  a  pass,  re-
pulsed with  heavy  loss  ;  col.  Bonar  Millet  Deane,
majors  Ruscombe  Poole  and  Win.  Hunt  Hin-
geston  killed 28  Jan.

Severe  conflict  on  the  Ingogo  river  ;  the  British  12
hours  under  fire  ;  repulsed  with heavy  loss,

8  Feb.

Sir  Evelyn  Wood  arrives  with  reinforcements  and
joins  gen.  Colley 17  Feb.

The  Orange  Free  State  proclaim  neutrality  and
mediation  . . . . about  22  Feb.

Gen.  Colley  marches  in  the  night  to  Majuba  hill
(which  see)  ;  defeated  and  killed  after  a  desperate
conflict 26-27  Feb.

Gen.  sir  F.  Roberts  sent  to  Africa . . 28  Feb.

Armistice  proposed  by  the  Boers  ;  accepted  for  6-14
March  ;  armistice  extended,  14  March ;  Boers
agree  to  British  terms,  21,  22  March  ;  peace  pro-
claimed ;  the  Boers  disperse ;  gen.  Roberts  recalled

24  March,

Potchefstrom  surrenders  with  honours  of  war,  21
March  ;  given  up  as  occupied  by  mistake April,

Vote  of  censure  on  the  Government  policy  in  the
commons  negatived  (314-205) . 25,  26  July,

Commissioners  to  carry  out  treaty  of  peace  ap-
pointed 5  April,  agree  to  convention  ceding  virtu-
ally all  the  territory  to  "The  Transvaal  State"
on  8  August,  subject  to  suzerainty  of  the  Queen,
and  a  British  resident ;  with  "debt  of  about
420, 867Z. ,  &c.  ;  independence  of  the  Swazies
guaranteed  ;  signed  by  Royal  commissioners  and
Martin  W.  Pretorius  and  Peter  J.  Joubert,
(Stephen  J.  P.  Kriiger  not  present),  3  Aug.  ;
effected s  Aug.

Meeting  of  the  Volksraad,  2 1  Sept. ;  treaty  confirmed ,

25  Oct.

Mr.  G.  Hudson  appointed  first  British  resident,

Nov.

Departure  of  the  British  troops . about  28  Dec.

Fighting  with  the  natives .... Feb.

Secocoeni  killed  by  a  rival  chief  . . . Aug.

War  with  the  insubordinate  chief  Mapoch . Oct.

Renewed  troubles  with  the  natives .  Sept. -Oct.

Fighting  with  the  natives,  who  are  repulsed,  under
their  chief  Mapoch . . .  16-17  Nov.

Again  defeated Jan.

Combination  of  chiefs  against  the  Boers  announced,

March,

Negotiations  for  peace  begun  by  Mapoch  announced,

5  April,

Paul  Kriiger,  president . 9  May,  1883,  and  8  May,

Peace  concluded July,

Transvaal  deputies,  Paul  Kriiger  and  others  re-
ceived by  lord  Derby . . . . 7  Nov,

Definite  proposals  submitted  to  the  government
22  Dec.  ;  amended  boundary  lines  accepted
2  Feb.  :  convention  signed,  the  republic  to  be
styled  the  "South  Africa  Republic"  undfer
British  suzerainty .... 27  Feb

The  convention  adopted  by  the  Transvaal  assembly

S  Aug.

The  filibustering  settlers  of  Goshen  and  Slelhi-lnnd,
break  the  convention  ;  seize  and  annex  Montsioa's
lands  in  Bechuanalaml ;  sanctioned  by  a  pro.
clamation ;  withdrawn on remonstrance,

Sept.',  Oct.

Sir  H.  Robinson's  ultimatum  from  Cape  Town
requiring  protection  of  the  frontiers . about

14  Oct.

Short  war  with  the  natives,  refusing  to  pay  taxes  ;
Mamusa taken;  battle . . . ,  2  Dec!

Johannesburg  founded  through  the  development
of  gold  mining  ;  inhabitants  chiefly  Knglish

Defensive treaty with the Orange Pree

about  1 ;  March,

A  great  commercial  development  of  commerce
since  the  discovery  of  goldflelds,  rapid  growth
of  Johannesburg . . . reported  Sept.

Famine  in  Johannesburg,  relieved  by  government.

about  23  Oct!


1882


1885
1887


TRANSYLVANIA.


976


TREASURER.


Visit  of  president  Kriiger  to  Johannesburg,  resisted

by  a  violent  crowd .... 4  March,  1890
He  signs  the  agreement  for  Swaziland,  about  4  Aug. „
Gen.  Joubert  entertained  in  London  . Dec. ,,

Heavy  rains  and  destructive  floods  ;  Johannesburg

suffers  greatly, .... middle  Jan.  1891
About 100  Boers prevented by  the  police  from
crossing  the  Limpopo . . about  2  July, „

TRANSYLVANIA,  an  Austrian  province,
was  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia  (which  see).  In
1526,  John  Zapoly  rendered  himself  independent  of
the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  by  the  aid  of  the  .Turks.
His  successors  ruled  with  much  difficulty  till  Jan.
1699,  when  the  emperor  Leopold  I.,  by  the  treaty
of  Carlowitz,  finally  incorporated  Transylvania
into  the  Austrian  dominions.  The  Transylvanian
deputies  did  not  take  their  seat  in  the  Austrian
parliament  till  20  Oct.  1863.  A  decree  for  the
convocation  of  the  Transylvanian  diet  was  issued
12  Sept.  1865.  The  inhabitants  are  about  1,100,000
ignorant  Koumans,  1,500,000  Saxon  colonists,  and
550,000  Magyars,  the  last  being  the  ruling  class.
The  union  of  Transylvania  with  Hungary  in  1848,
which  has  caused  much  discontent,  was  ratified  by
the  Transylvanian  diet,  25  Dec.  1866.
Serious  agrarian riots at Foeldvar suppressed with

bloodshed,  27  June,  1888.

PRINCES OF  TRANSYLVANIA.

1526.  John  Zapoly.

1540.  John  Sigismund.

1571.  Stephen  Zapoly  I.  Bathori.

1576.  Christopher  Bathori.

1581.  Sigismund  Bathori.

1602.  Emperor  Rodolph.

' 1605.  Stephen  II.  Bottskai.

1607.  Sigismund  Ragotzski.

1608.  Gabriel  I.  Bathori.

1613.  Gabriel  II.  (Bethlem  Gabor).
1631.  George  I.  Ragotzski.
1648.  George  II.  Ragotzski.
1660.  John  Kemin.
1662.  Michael  I.  Abaffi.
1690-99.  Michael  II.  Abaffi.

TRAPPISTS-  The  first  abbey  of  La  Trappe
in  Normandy  was  founded,  in  1140,  by  Ilotrou,
comte  de  Perche.  The  present  order  of  Trappists
owes  its  origin  to  the  learned  Jean  le  Bouthillier
de  la  Ranee  (editor  of  Anacreon  when  aged  14),
who  renounced  the  world,  and  sold  all  his  property,
giving  the  proceeds  to  the  abbey  of  La  Trappe,  to
which  he  retired  in  1662,  to  live  there  in  great
austerity.  After  several  efforts  he  succeeded  in
reforming  the  monks,  and  in  establishing  a  new
rule,  which  commands  silence,  prayer,  reading,  and
manual  labour,  and  which  forbids  study,  wine,  fish,
&c.  Ranee  was  born  in  1620,  and  died  in  1700.
The  Trappists'  new  building  was  consecrated  in
Aug.  1833.

A  number  of  these  monks,  driven  from  France  in  the
revolution  of  1790,  were  received  by  Mr.  Weld,  of  Lul-
worth,  Dorsetshire,  who  gave  them  some  land  to  culti-
vate and  a  habitation,  where  they  remained  till  1815.
This  order  was  charged  with  rebellion  and  conspiracy
in  France,  and  sixty-four  English  and  Irish  Trappists
were  shipped  by  the  French  government  at  Paimbceuf,
19  Nov.,  and  were  landed  from  the  Hebe,  French
frigate,  at  Cork,  30  Nov.  1831.  They  established  them-
selves at  Mount  Melleray,  county  of  Waterford.

TRASIMENE,  see  Thrasymene.

TRAUTENAU  (Bohemia).  On  27  June,  1866,
the  first  corps  of  the  army  of  the  crown-prince  of
Prussia  seized  Trautenau,  but  was  defeated  and
repulsed  by  the  Austrians  under  Gablenz ;  on  the
28th,  the  'Prussians  defeated  the  Austrians  with
great  loss.

TRAVELLERS'  CLUB  (Pall-mall),  estab-
lished in  1815. A  member  must  have  "travelled


out  of  the  British  islands  to  a  distance  of  at  least
500  miles  from  Loudon,  in  a  direct  line."

TRAVELLING  in  England.  In  1707  it
took  in  summer  one  day,  in  winter  nearly  two  days,
to  travel  from  London  to  Oxford  (55  miles) .  In
181 7  the  journey  was  accomplished  in  six  or  seven
hours.  By  the  Great  Western  Railway  express  (63
miles)  it  is  done  in  1  j  hour.  In  1828,  a  gentleman
travelled  from  Newcastle  to  London  (273  miles)
inside  the  best  coach  in  35  hours,  at  an  expense  of
61.  15s.  3d.  or  6d.  per  mile  (including  dinner,  &c.).
In  1857,  the  charge  of  the  Great  Northern  railway
(275!  miles)  first-class  express  (6  hours)  was
50s.  gd.

TRAWLING. Deep-sea  fishing  with  a  boat
(sometimes  driven  by  steam)  having  a  very  large
net  attached  to  it,  and  thereby  catching  the  fish
which  mostly  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  ;  princi-
pally practised  on  the  N.E.  coast  of  Britain.
Commissions  reported  in  1864  and  since,  that  trawling
was  not  injurious  to  the  supply  of  fish  as  suggested  ;
but  another  commission,  with  scientific  advice,  re-
ported in  Feb.  1885,  that  there  was  some  ground  for
the  fishermen's  complaints.

TREAD-MILL,  an  invention  of  the  Chinese,
to  raise  wrater  for  the  irrigation  of  the  fields.  The
complicated  tread-mill  introduced  into  the  prisons
of  Great  Britain  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  (afterwards
sir  William)  Cubitt,  of  Ipswich.  It  wras  erected  at
Brixton  gaol,  181 7,  and  soon  afterwards  in  other
large  prisons.

TREASON,  see  High  Treason.  Petty
TREASON  (a  term  abolished  in  1828,  defined  by
the  statute  c.f  25  Edw.  III.  1352)  was  a  wife's  mur-
der of  her  husband ;  a  servant  s  murder  of  his  mas-
ter; and  an  ecclesiastical  person's  murder  of  his
prelate  or  other  superior.

TREASON-FELONY.  By  the  Crown  and
Government  Security  Act,  n  Vict.  c.  12  (1848),
certain  treasons  heretofore  punishable  with  death
wrere  mitigated  to  felonies,  and  subjected  to  trans-
portation or  imprisonment.  The  Fenians  in  Ire-
land were  tried  under  this  act  ;  see  Trials*
1865.

TREASURER  of  England,  Lord  High,

the  third  great  officer  of  the  crown,  a  lord  by  virtue
of  his  office,  having  the  custody  of  the  king's  trea-
sure, governing  the  upper  court  of  exchequer,  and
formerly  sitting  judicially  among  the  barons.  The
first  lord  high  treasurer  in  England  was  Odo,  earl
of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  This  great
trust  is  now  confided  to  a  commission,  and  is  vested
in  five  persons,  called  "lords  commissioners  for
executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer,"  and  of
these  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  usually
one  ;  the  first  lord  being  usually  the  premier ;  see
Administrations,  for  a  succession  of  these  officers.
Sir  Stafford  Northcote  (aft.  Earl  of  Iddesleigh)  was
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  not  premier,  24  June,
1885,  as  was  Mr.  W.  H*.  Smith,  26  July,  1886  ;  see
Salisbury  Administrations.  A  third  lord  of  the
treasury  (Mr.  Stansfeld)  was  appointed,  Dec.  1868,
succeeded  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Gladstone,  Dec.  1869.

The  first  of  this  rank  in  Ireland  was  John  de  St.  John,
Henry  III.  1217;  the  last,  William,  duke  of  Devon-
shire, 1766;  vice-treasurers  were  appointed  till  1789;
then  commissioners  till  1816,  when  the  revenues  of
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  united.

The  first  lord  high  treasurer  of  Scotland  was  sir  Walter
Ogilvie,  appointed  by  James  I.  in  1420 ;  the  last,  in
1641,  John,  earl  of  Traquair,  afterwards  commissioners
were  appointed.


TEEASUEER.


977


TREATIES.


TEEASUEEE  OF  THE  Chamber,  for-
merly an  officer  of  great  consideration,  and  always
a  member  of  the  privy  council.  He  discharged  the
ibills  of  all  the  king's  tradesmen,  and  had  his  office
in  Cleveland-row,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  royal
palace.  His  duties  were  transferred  and  the  office
suppressed  at  the  same  time  with  the  offices  of
master  of  the  great  wardrobe  and  cofferer  of  the
household  in  1782. Beatson.

TEEATIES. A  formal  and written treaty


made  in  England  with  any  foreign  nation  was
entered  into  at  Kingston  *  between  Henry  III.
and  the  dauphin  of  France  (then  in  England  and
leagued  with  the  barons),  11  Sept.  12 17.  The  first
commercial  treaty  was  with  Guy,  earl  of  Flanders,
2  Edw.  1274  :  the  second  with  Portugal  and  Spain,
1308.  Anderson.  The  chief  treaties  of  the  nation?
of  Europe  will  be  found  described  in  their  respec-
tive places :  the  following  forms  an  index ;  see
Coalitions,  Commerce,  Leagues,  &c.  Hertslet's
"  Commercial  Treaties,"  16  vol.  1820-85.


Abo,  peace  .  .  7  Aug.  1743
Adriauople,  peace  .  14  Sept.  1829
Aix-la-Chapelle  .  2  May,  1668
Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  .  .  1748
Akermann,  peace  .  4  Sept.  1826
Allahabad  (Baliar,  &c,  ceded  to

E.  I.  Company)  .  .  .  1765
Alt  Radstadt,  peace  24  Sept.  1706
America,  peace  .  .  3  Sept.  1783
Amieus,  peace  . 25  liar. 1802

Ancon  (Chili  and  Peru)  20  Oct.  1883
Anglo-French,  etc.  agreements,

which  see 1890

Anglo-Spanish  convention,

29  July,  1886
Anglo-Turkish  convention,

4  June,  1878
Antwerp,  truce  . . 4  April,  1609
Armed  Neutrality, convention,

16  Dee.  1800
Arras . . . 22  Sept. 1435
Arras  ...... 1482

Augsburg,  league  of  .  .  1686
Austria  with  England,  conven-
tion ;  the  latter  agrees  to
accept  2,500,000?.  as  a  compo-
sition for  claims  on  Austria,
amounting  to  30,000,000?.  ster-
ling 1824

Baden,  peace  . .  Sept.  1714

Bagnalo  (Venice,  Naples,  &c.)  .  1484
Balta  Liinan  .  .  1838  and  1849
Barcelona  (France  and  Spain)  .  1493
Barrier  treaty  .  .  15  Nov.  1715
Barwalde  (France  and  Sweden)  .  1631
Basel,  peace  (France  and  Spain)

22  July,  1795
Bassein  (Great  Britain  and  Mah-

rattas) 1802

Bayonne  ...  5  May,  1808
Belgrade,  peace  .  18  Sept.  1739
Berlin,  peace  .  .  28  June,  1742
Berlin,  decree .  29  Nov. 1806

Berlin  convention  .  5  Nov.  1808
Berlin,  peace  (Prussia  &  Saxony)

21  Oct. 1866
Berlin  treaty  (Russia,  Turkey,

&c)  .  .  .  13  July,  1878
Beyara  ...  31  Aug.  1839
Breda,  peace  .  .  25  July,  1667
Bretigny,  peace .  8  May,  1360

Bucharest,  2S  May,  1812  ;(Serv'ia

and  Bulgaria)  .  .  3  March,  1886
Cambray,  league  .  10  Dee.  1508
'Cambray,  peace  .  .  5  Aug.  1529
Cainpo  Formio  .  17  Oct. 1797

Canton  .  .  .  .29  Aug.  1842
Capua,  convention  .  20  May,  1815
Carlowitz,  peace  .  26  Jan.  1699
Carlsbad,  congress  of  1  Aug.  1819
Ch&teau-Cambresis,  peace.  .  1559
Chaum'ont .  .  .  1  Mar.  1814
Chefoo,  convention  17  Sept.  1876
Chunar,  [ndia  .  .  .  .  1781
Cintra,  convention  .  22  Aug.  1808
ClosttTscveii,  convi'iitiiniS  Sept.  1757
Coalition,  first,  against France

26  June,  1792
Coalition, 'Second  .  22  June,  1799
Coalition,  third .  s  Sept.  1805

Coalition,  fourth  .  6  Oct.  1806
Coalition,  fifth  .  9  April,  1809
Coalition,  sixth  . . 1  March,  1813


Commerce  (Great Britain and

Turkey)  .  .  16  Nov.  1839
Commerce (Great  Britain and

the  Two  Sicilies)  25  June,  1845
Concordat,  with  France,  15  July,  1801

Oonflans 1465

Constantinople,  peace,  16  April,  1712
Constantinople .  8  July,  1833

Constantinople . . 8  May,  1854
Constantinople  (Russia  and  Tur-
key, definitive) . .  8  Feb.  1879
Constantinople  (settling boun-
daries of  Greece)

24  May  and  2  July,  1881
Copenhagen,  peace  27  May,  1660

Copenhagen (composition for
Sound  dues) . 14  March,  1857

Crecy 1544

Dover  .....  1670
Dresden,  peace  .  25  Dec.  1745
Egypt,  viceroy  and  admiral  Cod-

rington,  convention 6  Aug. 1828
Eliot  convention . April,  1835
England,  convention  with  Aus-
tria, Russia,  Prussia,  and  Tur-
key, for  settlement  of  the  East

15  July,  1810
England and United States,

convention  .  .  13  Nov.  1826
Evora  Monte  .  .  26  May,  1834
Family  Compact  .  .  15  Aug.  1761
Fommanah  (Ashantee  war)

13  Feb.  1874
Fontainebleau,  peace  2  Sept.  1679
Fontainebleau  .  .  8  Nov.  1785
Fontainebleau,  concordat  25  Jan.  1813
France  and  England,  convention
respecting  the  slave  trade

29  May,  1845
France and Italy, convention
respecting  the  occupation  of
Rome . . -15  Sept.  1864
Frankfort  (peace  between  Ger-
many and  France) 10  May,  1871
French  commercial  treaty,

23  Jan.  i860
Friedwald  .  .  .5  Oct.  1551
Fuessen,  peace  .  .  23  April,  1745
Gandamak  (with  Afghanistan),

26  May,  1879
Gastein  convention  14  Aug. 1865

Ghent,  pacification  .  8  Nov.  1576
Ghent,  peace  (America)  24  Dec.  18 14
Golden  Bull  ....  1356
Grand  alliance  .  12  May,  1689
Hague  .  .  .21  May,  1659
Hague ...  7  May, 1669

Halle 1610

Hamburg,  peace  .  .  2  May,  1762
Hanover  .  .  .  3  Sept.  17-5
Hanover  and  England  22  July,  1834
Holy  affiance  .  .  26  Sept.  1S15
Hubertsburg,  peace  15  Feb.  1763
Hue  (France  and  Aiinatii)

25  Aug.  1883
"  interim  "  .  .  -15  -May,  1548
[talo-Abyssinian  .  .  <  >ct.  1  1
Japan  and  Great  Britain  26  Aug.  4858
Jaj  's  1  reaty  .  .  tg  Nov.  1 794
Kaynardji,  or  Koutschouc  Kaj  -

nardji  .  .  .21  July,  1774
Kiel  ...  14  Jan.  1814
Laybach,  congress . 6  May,  1S21


League,  holy

Leipsic,  alliance  . . April,

Leoben,  peace . . . .

Lisbon,  peace . ■  '  13  Feb.

London (settlement  of  Greece)
6  July,

London (separating Belgium
from  Holland) . 15  Nov.

London  (convention  respecting
Belgium) . . 19  April,

London  (Turkey  and  Egypt)

15  July,

London  (succession  to  crown  of
Denmark) ....

London  (neutrality  of  Luxem-
burg settled) . 11  May,

Liibeck,  peace . . 22  May,

Luneville,  peace . . 9  Feb.

Madrid,  concord

Methuen  treaty . . . .

Milan  decree . . 17  Dec.

Milan  (Austria  and  Sardinia)

6  Aug.

Minister,  peace . 24  Oct.

Nankin,  peace .  29  Aug.

Nantes,  edict . . 13  April,

Naumberg

Nice


Nimeguen,  peace
Noyon
Nuremberg
Nystadt .
Oliva,  peace .
Paris,  peace  (Paris)
Paris .  •  .

Paris .


10  Aug.
16  Aug.

2  Aug.

30  Aug.

3  May,
10  Feb.

20  June,
15  May.


Paris,  peace  (Sweden)  6  Jan.
Paris  ...  11  April,
Paris  .  .  .  .10  June,
Paris  ....  April,
Paris  (settlement  of  Neufehatel
affair)  .  .  .  26  May,
Partition,  first .  n  Oct.

Partition,  second
Passarowitz,  peace  . 13  .Alar.
Passau . . .12  Aug.
Pekin,  peace,  24  Aug.  i860  ;

.  5  April,

Persia,  peace  .  .  3  Match,
Petersburg,  St.,  peace  5  May,
Petersburg,  St.  .  5  Aug.
Petersburg,  St.  . . 8  Apru,

IYlrisw.il. 1.  i vention S  .July,

Pilnitz,  convention  .  20  July,
Poland,  partition .  25  Nov.

Prag t  ic  s.i  mi  ion .

Pragmatic  sanction  17  April,

Prague,  peace  .  .  30  May.
Prague  (peace  between  Austria
and  Prussia)  .  23  Aug.
Presburg,  peace  .  .  26  lie.-.
Pretoria  (see  Fran  -runt) -.  Aug.

Public  g 1,  league  for  the

Pyrenees,  peace  .  .  7  Nov.
Quadruple  alliance .  \n

Radstadt,  peace  .  6  March,
Radstadt,  congress . 9  I  >ec.

Ratisbon,  peace .  1  ;  1  let.

Ratisbon  . . 1  Aug.

Reicheubach,  t  treaties . June,
Religion,  peace  of
Rhine,  confederation .  1  Aug.
I  Ryswick,  peace .

3 R


1576

1631

1797
1668

1829

1831
1839

1840

1852
867

629

801
526
703
807


554
518
678
5i6
532
721
660
763
784
796
810
814
817
856

8.57
698
700
718
552


857
762
772
80s

8.3
791

795
438
713
635

866
805
S81
i'  1
659
718
7*4
797
630
806
813
555
806
697


TEEBIA.

978

TRIALS.

St.  Cloud,  convention 3  July,

1815

Toplitz

9  Sept.

1813

Vienna  (Austria  &  Great  Britain,

St.  Germains,  peace

1570

Triple  alliance

.  28  Jan.

1668

commercial) . .16  Dec.

1865

St.  Germain-en-Laye

peace

Triple  alliance .

4  Jan.

1717

Vienna  (peace  between  Austria

20  June,

1679

Triple alliance.  (Austria, Ger-

and Italy) . . 3  Oct.

1866

St.  Ildefonzo,  alliance 19  Aug.

1796

many,  and  Italy),

13  March,

Villa  Franca  (prelim.) 12  July,

18591

San  Stefano  (peace  between  Rus-

1887

28  June,

1891

Vossem,  peace . .16  Jan.

1673.

sia  &  Turkey),  see

Berlin

Troppeau,  congress

.  20  Oct.

1820

Warsaw,  alliance .  31  March,

1683

3  March,

1878

Troyes

21  May,

1420

Warsaw . . . .24  Feb.

1768;

Siorod,  peace

1613

Turin (cession of  Savoy and

Washington,  reciprocity  treaty

Sistowa,  peace .

. 4  Aug.

1791

Nice) .

24  March,

i860

between  Great  Britain  and  the

Smalcald,  league .

31  Dec.

1529

Turkmauchay,  peace

22  Feb.

1828

United  States,  respecting  New-

Spain, pacification

.  22  April,

1834

Ulm,  peace

3  July,

1620

foundland  fishery,  commerce,

Spain, convention,

satisfying

Unkiarskelessi

. 8  July,

1833

&c. ... 2  July,

1854

British  claims  .

. 26  June,

1828

Utrecht,  union

22  Jau.

J579

Washington  (settling Alabama

Stettin,  peace

13  Dec.

1570

Utrecht,  peace

11  April,

1713

claims,  &c.) . 8  May,

1871

Stockholm,  peace

. 20  Nov.

1 719

Valencay  .

8  Dec.

1813

Washington  (Fishery  dispute),

Stockholm

24  March,

1724

Verona,  congress.

. 25  Aug.

1822

15  Feb.

1888

Stockholm  .

. 3  March,

1813

Versailles,  peace

20  Jan.

1783

Westminster,  peace . 19  Feb.

1674

Stockholm, treaty

of  (Sweden

Vienna

30  April,

i725

Westminster  (with  Holland)

1716

and  allies)

. 21  Nov.

1856

Vienna,  alliance

16  March,

I73i

Westphalia,  peace . 24  Oct.

1648.

Suncion  .

15  July,

1852

Vienna  peace

. 18  Nov.

1738

Wilna,  treaty  of . . .

15611

Temeswar,  truce

7  Sept.

1664

Vienna,  peace  .

14  Oct.

1809

Wurms,  edict  of

1521

Teschen,  peace

12  May,

1779

Vienna,  convention

28  Sept.

1814

Wurtzburg  league  . . . .

1610

Teusin,  peace

. 18  May,

*S95

Vienna,  25  March ;  3

May;

Zurich,  convention- . 20  May,

1815

Tien-Tsin,  China,  peace  26  June,

9  June,

1815

Zurich (Austria, France, and

1858; . .

11  May,

1884

Vienna  (Austria and

Prussia),

Sardinia) . . 10  Nov.

1859,

Tilsit,  peace

. 7  July,

1807

commercial

. 19  Feb.

1853

Tolentino

.  19  Feb.

1793

Vienna

30  Oct.

1864

TREBIA,  now  Trebbia,  a  river  in  North  Italy,
near  which  Hannibal  defeated  the  Roman  consul
Sempronius,  218  B.C. ;  and  Suvarrow,  after  a
struggle,  defeated  the  French  marshal  Macdonald
and  compelled  him  to  retreat,  17-19  June,  1799.

TREBIZOND,  a  port  of  Asia  Minor  in  the
Black  Sea,  was  colonised  by  the  Greeks,  and  became
subject  to  the  kings  of  Pontus.  It  enjoyed  self-
government  under  the  Soman  empire,  and  when
the  Latins  took  Constantinople  in  1204,  it  became
the  seat  of  an  empire  which  endured  till  1461,
when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Ma-
homet I. Population  in  1885,  45,000.


1204.

Alexis  I.  Comnenus.

1332.

Manuel  IT.

1222.

Andronicus  I.

Basil.

1235-

John  I.

1340.

Irene.

I238.

Manuel  I.,  great  cap-

1341.

Anna.

tain.

I343-

John  III.

I263.

Andronicus  II.

1344-

Michael.

I266.

George.

1349-

Alexis  III.

1280.

John  II.

1390.

Manuel  III.

I285.

Theodora.

1417.

Alexis  IV.

,,

John  II.

1446.

John IV. (Calo-Jo

I297.

Alexis  II.

annes).

133°-

Andronicus  III.

1458-

61.  David.

TRECENTO,  see  Italian.

TREES  in  London.  Many  were  planted  by
John  Evelyn  in  the  Mall,  St.  James's,  &c.  He  re-
commended this  in  his  "  Fumifugium,"  published
1661.  The  planting  of  rows  of  trees  in  suburban
roads  began  in  1875.

Trees  of  Liberty  were  planted  in  Paris  and  other  parts
of  France  during  the  revolutionary  eras,  1790  and
1848.  These  trees  were  cut  down  in  Paris  in'  Jan.
1850,  when  riots  ensued,  put  down  by  the  military.

The  celebrated  tree  Fcvricr,  planted  "in  1789  near  the
National  Library,  Paris,  was  felled  early  in  1884.

TRENT  (the  ancient  Tridentum),  in  the  Tyrol,
belongs  to  Austria.  The  council  held  here  is
reckoned  in  the  Eoman  catholic  church  as  the  18th
general  council.  Its  decisions  have  been  implicitly
received  as  the  standard  of  faith,  morals,  and  disci-
pline in  that  church.  It  first  sat  13  Dec.  1545,
and  continued  (with  interruptions)  under  pope
Paul  III.,  Julius  III.,  and  Pius  IV.  to  4  Dec.  1563  ;
its  last  sitting  (the  25th).  A  jubilee  in  relation  to
this  council  was  celebrated  in  June,  1863.  Trent  was
several  times  taken  during  the  French  war.  Popu-
lation, 1890,  21,653.


At  this  council  was  decreed,  with  anathemas  :  th&
canon  of  scripture  (including  the  apocrypha),  and  the;
church  its  sole  interpreter ;  the  traditions  to  be  equal
with  scripture ;  the  seven  sacraments  (baptism,  con-
firmation, the  Lord's  supper,  penance,  extreme  unction,
orders,  and  matrimony) ;  transubstantiation ;  purgatory  -
indulgences ;  celibacy  of  the  clergy  ;  auricular  confes-
sion, &c.

TRENT  STEAMER,  see  United  States,  Not.-
Dec.  1861.

TREVECCA,  see  Cheshunt.

TREVES,  or  TRIER,  the  Eoman  Treviri,  ir*
Rhenish  Prussia,  Avas  a  prosperous  city  of  the  Gauls
12  B.C.  The  emperor  Gallienus  held  his  court  here
A.D.  255.  The  church  of  St.  Simeon  dates  from  the
4th  century.  Treves  was  made  an  electorate  in  the
14th  century,  and  became  subject  to  the  archbishop
1111585.  Councils  held  here,  385-1423.  The  arch-
bishopric is  said  to  have  been  founded  before  the
7th  century  and  to  be  the  oldest  in  Germany,
After  various  changes,  Treves  was  acquired  by
Prussia,  June  18 15.  In  1844  much  excitement  was
occasioned  by  miracles  said  to  have  been  wrought
by  a  "  Holy  Coat "  in  the  cathedral.  The  coat  was-
exhibited  to  thousands,  Aug.,  Sept.  1891.  Popula-
tion, 1890,  36,162.

"  TRIA  JUNCTA  IN  UNO"  (three  joined
in  one),  the  motto  of  the  knights  of  the  military
order  of  the  Bath,  signifying  "faith,  hope,  and
charity ;"  see  Bath.

TRIAL  AT  BAR,  signifies  by  the  whole  court
or  a  plurality  of  judges.  This  plan  was  adopted  at
Bristol  after  the  riots  in  1832  ;  also  at  O'Connell's
trial,  1844  i  anu  arranged  for  the  trial  of  the
claimant  of  the  Tichborne  estates  for  perjury,  m
April,  1873. See  Juries.

TRIALS.  Regulations  for  conducting  trials
were  made  by  Lothaire  and  Edric,  kings  of  Kent,
about  673  to  680.  Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have
begun  trial  by  jury ;  but  there  is  good  evidence  of
such  trials  before  his  time.  Arrangements  were
made  for  more  speedy  trials  by  "  the  "Winter  As-
sizes Act,''  1876. See  Appeal.

REMARKABLE TRIALS.

King  Charles  I.  :  20  Jan.  ;  condemned . 27  Jan.  1649
Oates's  Popish  Plot:  Edward  Coleman,  convicted,

27  Nov. ;  Wm.  Ireland  and  other  priests 17  Dec.  1678
Bobt.  Green  and  others,  10  Feb.  ;  Thos.  Whit-
bread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; Richard
Langhome,  counsellor,  14  June ;  convicted  . .  1679


TEIALS.

Sir  George  Wakeman,  the  queen's  physician ;  ac-

fr>  quitted *"*. . . , . . 13  July,  1679

Viscount  Stafford  :  convicted . 30  Nov. -7  Dec.  1681

Bye  House  Plot :  convicted  ;  William  lord  Russell,
13  July;  Algernon  Sidney  ... 21  Nov.  1683

The  Seven  Bishops  ;  acquitted . . 29  June,  1688

Captain  Porteous,  for  murder,  seePorteo«s,22  June,  1736

Jenny  Diver,  for  felony,  executed . 18  March,  1740

William  Duell,  executed  for  murder  at  Tyburn,  but
who  came  to  life  when  about  undergoing  dissec-
tion at  Surgeons'  Hall ... 24  Nov. ,,

Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino  for  high  treason

28  July,  1746

Mary  Hamilton,  for  marrying  with  her  own  sex,  14
wives 7  Oct. ,,

Lord  Lovatt,  80  years  of  age,  for  high  treason ;
beheaded 9  March,  1747

Freney,  the  celebrated  Irish  robber,  who  surren-
dered himself 9  July,  1749

Amy  Hutchinson,  burnt  at  Ely,  for  the  murder  of
her  husband 5  Nov.  1750

Miss  Blandy,  the  murder  of  her  father  (hanged)

3  March,  1752

Ann  Williams,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband,
burnt  alive 11  April,  1753

Eugene Aram, for murder  at York ; executed

13  Aug.  1759

Earl  Ferrers,  for  the  murder  of  his  steward  ;  exe-
cuted 16  April,  1760

Mr.  MacNaughten,  at  Strabane,  for  the  murder  of
Miss  Knox 8  Dec.  1761

Ann  Bedingfield,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband;
burnt  alive 6  April,  1763

Mr.  Wilkes,  alderman  of  London,  for  an  obscene
poem  ("  Essay  on  Woman  ") . . 21  Feb.  1764

Murderers  of  captain  Glas,  his  wife,  daughter,
mate,  and  passengers,  on  board  the  ship  Earl  of
Sandwich,  at  sea .... 3  March,  1766

Elizabeth  Brownrigg,  for  the  murder  of  one  of  her
female  apprentices  ;  hanged . . 12  Sept.  1767

Lord  Baltimore,  the  libertine,  and  his  female  accom-
plices, for  rape ....  28  March,  1768

Great  cause  between  the  families  of  Hamilton  and
Douglas 27  Feb.  1769

Great  Valencia  cause  in  the  house  of  peers,  in  Ireland

18  March,  1772

Cause  of  Somerset  the  slave  (see  Slavery) 22  June ,,

Elizabeth  Herring,  for  the  murder  of  her  husband  ;
hanged,  and  afterwards  burnt  at  Tyburn  13  Sept.  1773

Messrs.  Perreau  brothers,  bankers,  forgery  ;  hanged

17  Jan.  1776

Duchess  of  Kingston,  for  marrying  two  husbands  ;
guilty  (see  Kingston) . . . .15  April, ,,

Dr.  Dodd,  for  forging  a  bond  of  4200?.  in  the  name
of  the  earl  of  Chesterfield,  22  Feb.  (see  Forgery  ;)
executed 27  June,  1777

Admiral  Keppel,  by  court-martial ;  honourably  ac-
quitted 11  Feb.  1779

Mr.  Hackman,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Reay,  when
coming  out  of  the  theatre-royal,  Covent-garden

16  April, ,,

Lord  George  Gordon,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  ;
acquitted 5  Feb.  1781

Mr.  Woodfall,  the  celebrated  printer,  for  a  libel  on
lord  Loughborough,  afterwards  lord  chancellor

10  Nov.  1786

Lord  George  Gordon,  for  a  libel  on  the  queen  of
France  ;  guilty 28  Jan.  1788

Mr.  Warren  Hastings  :  a  trial  which  lasted  seven
years  and  three  months  (see  Hastings,  Trial  of),
commenced 13  Feb. ,,

The  printer  of  the  Times  newspaper,  for  libels  on
the  prince  of  Wales,  and  dukes  of  York  and  Cla-
rence ;  fined  200?.  and  imprisoned  one  year,  3  Feb. 1790

Renwiek  Williams,  called  the  Monster,  for  stabbing
women  in  London 8  July, ,,

Barrington,  the  pickpocket,  most  extraordinary
adept  ;  transported . . . .22  Sept. ,,

Thomas  Paine,  political  writer  and  deist,  fur  libels
in  the  Bights  of  Man;  guilty . . .  18  Dec.  1792

Louis  XVI.  of  France  (see  France)  . . . 1792-3

Archibald  Bamilton  Rowan,  for  libel;  imprisoned
and  fined 29  Jan. 1794

Mr.  Purefoy,  for  the  murder  of  colonel  Roper  in  a
duel  :  acquitted 14  Aug. „

Mr.  Robert  Watt  and  Downie,  at  Edinburgh,  for
treason 3  Sept.


979


TEIALS.


Messrs.  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  and  Joyce,
for  high  treason  ;  acquitted . . 29  Oct.  1794

Earl  of  Abingdon,  for  his  libel  on  Mr.  Serman  ;
guilty 6  Dec. ,,

Major  Semple,  alias  Lisle,  for  felony . 18  Feb.  179;

Redhead  Yorke,  at  York,  libel . . .27  Nov. ,,  '

Lord  Westmeath  v.  Bradshaw,  for  crim.  con. ;  dam-
ages, 10,000? 4  March,  1796

Lord  Valentia  v.  Mr.  Gawler,  for  adultery,  damages, ,.
2000? 16  June, ,,

Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  for  libels  on  kingly  government ;
guilty 8  July, „

Sir  Godfrey  Webster  v.  lord  Holland,  for  adultery ;
damages,  6000I 27  Feb.  1797

Parker,  the  mutineer  at  the  Nore,  called  admiral
Parker  (see  Mutinies) . . .  27  June, ,,

Boddington  v.  Boddington,  for  crim.  con.  ;  damages,
10,000?. ....... 5  Sept. ,,

William  Orr  at  Carrickfergus,  for  high  treason  ;
executed 12  Oct. ,,

Mrs.  Phepoe,  alias  Benson,  murderess . 9  Dec. ,,

The  murderers  of  col.  St.  George  and  Mr.  Uniacke,
at  Cork 15  April,  1798

Arthur  O'Conner  and  O'Coigley,  at  Maidstone,  for
treason;  latter  hanged .... 21  May, ,,

Sir  Edward  Crosbie  and  others  for  high  treason  ;
hanged 1  June, ,,

Beauchamp  Bagenal  Harvey,  at  Wexford,  for  high
treason 21  June, ,,

Two  Messrs.  Sheares,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason  ;
executed 12  July, „

Theobald  Woulffe  Tone,  by  court-martial  (he  com-
mitted suicide,  died  on  the  19th) . 10  Nov. ,,

Sir  Harry  Brown  Hayes,  for  carrying  off  Miss  Pike
of  Cork 13  April,  1800

Hatfield,  for  shooting  at  George  HI.  ;  see  Hatfield

26  June, ,,

Mr.  Tighe  of  Westmeath  v.  Jones,  for  crim.  con.  ;
damages,  10,000? 2  Dec. ,,

Mutineers  at  Bantry  Bay,  hanged  ;  see  Bantry  Bay

8  Jan.  1802

Governor  Wall,  for  cruelty  and  murder,  twenty  years
before  (tried  under  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  23)  (see  Goree)

20  Jan. , ,

Crawley,  for  the  murder  of  two  females  in  Peter's-
row,  Dublin 6  March, ,,

Colonel  Despard  and  his  associates,  for  high  treason ;
hanged  on  the  top  of  Horsemonger-lane  gaol  (see
Despard) .7  Feb. 1803

M.  Peltier,  for  libel  on  Bonaparte,  first  consul  of
France,  in  VAmbigue :  guilty . . 21  Feb. ,,

Robert  Aslett,  cashier  at  the  bank  of  England,  for
embezzlement  and  frauds  ;  the  loss  to  the  bank,
320,000?.  ;  found  not  guilty,  on  account  of  the  in-
validity of  the  bills .... 18  July, ,,

Robert  Emmett,  at  Dublin,  for  high  treason  ;  exe-
cuted next  day 19  Sept. ,,

Keenan,  one  of  the  murderers  of  lord  Kilwarden ;
hanged 2  Oct. ,,

Mr.  Smith  for  the  murder  of  the  supposed  Hammer-
smith Ghost 13  Jan.  1S04

Lockhart  and  Laudon  Gordon  for  carrying  off  Mrs.
Lee 6  March.

Rev.  C.  Massy  v.  marquis  of  Headfort,  for  crim.
con.  ;  damages,  10,000?. ... 27  July, „

William  Cooper,  the  Hackney  Monster,  for  offences
against  females 17  April,  1805

General  Pieton,  for  applying  the  torture  to  Louisa
Calderon,  to  extort  confession,  at  Trinidad,  tried
(under  42  Geo.  III.  e.  85)  in  the  court  of  King's
Bench  ;  guilty  [new  trial,  same  verdict,  11  June,
1808] 24  Feb.  1806

Mr.  Patch,  for  the  murder  of  his  partner,  Mr.
Bligh 6  April, „

Lord  .Melville,  impeached  by  the  house  of  com-
mons ;  acquitted .... 12  June, ,,

Hamilton  Rowan,  in  Dublin:  pleaded  the  King's
pardon 1  July, ,,

The  Warrington  gang,  for  unnatural  offences  :
executed S3  Aug.

Palm,  the  bookseller,  by  a  French  military  com-
mission at  Brennau .... 26  Aug. ,,

Judge  Johnson,  lev  a  libel  on  the  earl  of  Bard
wicke  ;  guilty 23  Nov. ,,

Lord  Cloncurryy.  Sir  John  B.  Piers,  for  1
damages,  20.000? ig  Feb.  1807

Holloway  and  Haggerty,  the  murderers of Mr.

3  R  2


TEIALS.


980


TEIALS.


Steele  ;  thirty  persons  were  crushed  to  death  at
their  execution,  at  the  Old  Bailey . 20  Feb. 1807

Sir  Home  Popham,  by  court-martial ;  repri-
manded- 7  March, „

Knight  v.  Dr.  Wolcot,  alias  Peter  Pindar,  for  crim.
con 27  June, ,,

Lieut.  Berry,  of  H.M.S.  Hazard;  for  an  unnatural
offence ....... 2  Oct. „

Lord  Elgin  v.  Ferguson,  for  crim.  con.  ;  damages,
io,oooi.  ...... 22  Dec. ,.

Simmons,  the  murderer  of  the  Boreham  family,  at
Hoddesdon 4  March,  1808

Sir  Arthur  Paget,  for  crim.  con.  with  Lady  Bor-
rington 14  July, ,.

Major  Campbell,  for  killing  Captain  Boyd  in  a  duel ;
hanged . . . .  . . 4  Aug. ,,

Peter  Finnerty  and  others,  for  a  libel  on  the  duke
of  York 9  Nov. „

The  duke  of  York,  by  inquiry  in  the  house  of
commons,  on  charges  preferred  against  him  by
colonel  "VVardle,  from  26  Jan.  to  20  March . . 1809

Wellesley  v.  Lord  Paget,  for  crim.  con.  ;  damages,
20,000? 12  May, „

The  king  v.  Valentine  Jones,  for  breach  of  duty  as
commissary-general .... 26  May, „

Wright  v.  colonel  Wardle,  for  Mrs.  Mary  Ann
Clarke's  furniture . . . . 1  June, „

The  earl  of  Leicester  v.  Morning  Herald,  for  a  libel;
damages  1000Z 29  June, „

"William  Cobbett,  for  a  libel  on  the  German  legion  ;
convicted 9  July, ,,

Hon.  captain  Lake,  for  putting  Robert  Jeffery,  a
British  seaman,  on  shore  at  Sombrero  ;  dismissed
the  service  (see  Sombrero) ... 10  Feb.  1810

Mr.  Perry  for  libels  in  the  Morning  Chronicle ;  ac-
-  quitted 24  Feb. „

The  Vere-street  gang,  for  unnatural  offences;
guilty 20  Sept. , ,

Peter  Finnerty,  for  a  libel  on  lord  Castlereagh  ;

31  Jan. 1811

The  king  v.  Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  for
libels  ;  guilty 22  Feb. ,,

Ensign  Hepburn,  and  White  the  drummer ;  both
were  executed 7  March, ,,

Walter  Cox,  in  Dublin,  for  libels  ;  he  stood  in  the
pillory 12  March, ,,

The  king  v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted

15  June, ,,

Lord  Louth,  in  Dublin ;  sentenced  to  imprison-
ment and  fine,  for  oppressive  conduct  as  a  ma-
gistrate .19  June, ,,

The  Berkeley  cause,  before  the  house  of  peers,
concluded 28  June, ,,

Dr.  Sheridan,  physician,  on  a  charge  of  sedition ;
acquitted 21  Nov. ,,

Gale  Jones,  for  seditious  and  blasphemous  libels  ;
convicted 26  Nov. ,,

William  Cundell  and  John  Smith,  for  high  treason
(see  High  Treason) .... 6  Feb.  1812

Daniel  Isaac  Eaton,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  ;
convicted . . . . . . 6  March, ,,

Bellingham,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval,  prime
minister 15  May, ,,

The  king  v.  Mr.  Lovell,  of  the  Statesman,  for
libel ; guilty . . . .  19  Nov. ,

Messrs.  John  and  Leigh  Hunt,  for  libels  in  the
Examiner;  convicted .... 9  Dec. ,,

Marquis  of Sligo,  for concealing  a sea-deserter

16  Dec. ,,

The  murderers  of  Mr.  Horsfall ;  at  York ;  exe-
cuted 7  Jan.  1813

Mr.  Hugh  Fitzpatrick,  for  publishing  Scully's  His-
tory of  the  Penal  Laws  .... 6  Feb. ,,

The  divorce  cause  against  the  duke  of  Hamilton
for.  adultery 11  April, ,,

Mr.  John  Magee,  in  Dublin,  for  libels  in  the  Even-
ing Post;  guilty '26  July, „

Nicholson,  the  murderer  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bonar  ;
hanged 21  Aug. ,,

Tuite,  murder  of  Mr.  Goulding  ;  executed 7  Oct. „

The  celebrated  Mary  Ann  Clark,  for  a  libel  on  the
right  lion.  Win.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  afterwards  lord
Fitzgerald 7  Feb.  1814

Lord  Cochrane,  Cochrane  Johnstone,  Berenger,
Butt,  and  others,  lor  frauds  in  the  public  funds,
22  Feb.  ;  convicted  (see  Sturls) . 8,  9  June, ,,

Admiral  Bradley,  at  Winchester,  for  frauds  in  ship
letters 18  Aug. „


Colonel  Quentin,  of  the  10th  Hussars,  by  court-
martial  1  Nov.  1814

Sir  John  Henry  Mildmay,  bart.,  for  crim.  con.
with  the  countess  of  Rosebery ;  damages,
i5,oooZ 5  Dec- 11

George  Barnett,  for  shooting  at  Miss  Kelly,  of
Covent  Garden  theatre ... 8  April,  1816

Captain  Hutchinson,  sir  Robert  Wilson,  and  Mr.
Bruce,  in  Paris,  for  aiding  the  escape  of  count
Lavalette  (see  Lavalette) ... 24  April, ,,

"  Captain  Grant,"  the  famous  Irish  robber  at  Mary-
borough 16  Aug. „

Vaughan,  a  police  officer,  Mackay,  and  Browne,  for
conspiracy  to  induce  men  to  commit  felonies  to
obtain  the  reward ;  convicted . . 21  Aug. ,,

Colonel  Stanhope,  by  court-martial,  at  Cambray,
in  France 23  Sept. „

Cashman,  a  seaman,  for  the  Spaflelds  riots  and
outrages  on  Snowhill ;  convicted  and  hanged  (see
Spafields) 20  Jan.  18 17

Count  Maubreuil,  at  Paris,  for  robbing  the  queen
of  Westphalia 2  May, ,,

Mr.  R.  J.  Butt,  for  a  libel  on  lord  chief-justice
Ellenborough 23  May, „

Mr.  Wooler,  for  libels  on  the  government  and
ministers 6  June, „

Thistlewood,  Dr.  Watson,  Hooper,  and  others,  for
treason 9  June, ,,

The  murderers  of  the  Lynch  family  at  Wildgoose-'
lodge,  Ireland 19  July, ,,

Mr.  Roger  O'Connor,  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the
mail ;  acquitted 5  Aug. ,,

Brandreth,  Turner,  and  others,  at  Derby,  for  high
treason 15  Oct. „

Hone,  the  bookseller,  for  parodies ;  three  trials
before  Lord  Ellenborough  :  extemporaneous  and
successful  defence ... 18,  19,  20  Dec. ,,

Mr.  Dick,  for  abduction  and  rape  of  Miss  Crockatt

21  March.  1818

Appeal  of  murder  case ;  Ashford,  the  brother  of  Mary
Ashford,  against  Abraham  Thornton,  accused
of  her  murder  (see  Appeal)  and  acquitted  16  April, ,,

Rev.  Dr.  O'Halloran,  for  forging  a  frank  (see  Trans-
portation) . . ... . . 9  Sept. , ,

Robert  Johnston,  at  Edinburgh  ;  his  dreadful  exe-
cution 30  Dec. ,,

Sir  Manasseh  Lopez,  for  bribery  at  Grampound
(see  Bribery) 18  March,  1819

Mosely,  Woolfe,  and  other  merchants,  for  conspiracy
and  fraud 20  April, ,,

Carlile,  for  the  publication  of  Paine's  Age  of
Reason,  &c. . . . . . . 15  Oct. ,,

John  Scanlan,  at  Limerick,  for  murder  of  Ellen
Hanly 14  March,  1820

Sir  Francis  Burdett,  at  Leicester,  for  a  seditious
libel 23  March, ,,

Henry  Hunt,  and  others,  for  their  conduct  at  the
Manchester  meeting  ;  convicted  (see  Manchester
Reform  Meeting) .... 27  March, ,,

Sir  Charles  Wolseley  and  rev.  Mr.  Harrison,  for
sedition  ;  guilty  .... 10  April, ,,

Thistlewood,  Ings,  Brunt,  Davidson,  and  Tidd,  for
conspiracy  to  murder  the  king's  ministers  ;  com-
menced (see  Cato-street) ... 17  April, ,,

Louvel,  in  France,  for  the  murder  of  the  duke  de
Berri 7  June,

Lord Glerawley  v. John Burn, for crim. con.

18  June, ,,

Major  Cartwright  and  others  at  Warwick,  for  sedi-
tion 3  Aug. ,,

"Little  Waddington,"  for  a  seditious  libel;  ac-
quitted 19  Sept. ,,

Lieutenant-colonel  French,  6th  dragoon  guards,  by
court-martial 19  Sept. „

Caroline,  queen  of  England,  before  the  house  of
lords,  for  adultery,  commenced  16  Aug.  ;  it  ter-
minated (see  Queen  Caroline's  Trial)  . 10  Nov. ,,

The  female  murderers  of  Miss  Thompson,  in
Dublin:  hanged 1  May,  1821

David  Haggart,  an  extraordinary  robber,  and  a  man
of  singularly  eventful  life,  at  Edinburgh,  for  the
murder  of  a  turnkey .... 9  June, ,,

Samuel  D.  Hayward,  the  favourite  man  of  fashion,
for  burglary 8  Oct. „

The  murderers  of  Mrs.  Torrance,  in  Ireland,  con-
victed and  hanged . . . . 17  Dec. ,,

Cussen,  Leahy,  and  others,  for  the  abduction  of
Miss  Gould.  29  July,  1822


TEIALS.


9S1


TRIALS.


Barthelerai,  in  Paris,  for  the  abduction  of  Elizabeth

Florence 23  Sept. 1822

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular  action for deceit

28  Jan.  1823
The  famous  "  Bottle  Conspirators,"  in  Ireland,  by

ex-officio 23  Feb. ,,

The  extraordinary  "earl of Portsmouth's  case"

commenced 18  March, ,,

Probert,  Hunt,  and  Thurtell,  murderers  of  Mr.
Weare ;  Probert  turned  king's  evidence ;  after-
wards hanged  for  horse-stealing  (see  Executions)

5  Jan. 1824

Mr.  Henry  Fauntleroy,  banker  of  London,  for  for-
gery ;  hanged . . . . ». 30  Oct. ,,

Foote  v.  Hayne,  for  breach  of  promise  of  mar-
riage ;  damages,  3000Z. ... 22  Dec.

Mr.  Henry  Savary,  a  banker's  son  at  Bristol,  for
forgery 4  April,  1825

O'Keefe  and  Bourke,  murderers  of  the  Franks
family . 18  Aug. „

The  case  of  Mr.  Wellesley  Pole,  and  the  Misses
Long;  commenced .... 9  Nov. ,,

Captain  Bligh  v.  the  lion.  Win.  Wellesley  Pole,  for
adultery 25  Nov. ,,

Fisher  v.  Stockdale,  for  libel  in Harriette Wilson

20  March,  1826

Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield,  and  others,  for  abduc-
tion of  Miss  Turner ... 24  March,  1827

Rev. Robert  Taylor  for  blasphemy ;  found  guilty

24  Oct. ,,

Richard  Gillan,  for  the  murder  of  Maria  Bagster,
at  Taunton 8  April,  1828

Mr.  Montgomery,  for  forgery ;  he  committed  suicide
in  prison  on  the  morning  appointed  for  his  exe-
cution 4  July, ,,

Brinklett,  for  the  death  of  lord  Mount  Sandford
by  a  kick ...  . . 16  July,

William  Corder,  for  murder  of  Maria  Marten  ;  exe-
cuted ...  . 6  Aug. ,,

Joseph  Hunton,  a  quaker  merchant,  for  forgery  ;
hanged 28  Oct. ,,

Burke,  at  Edinburgh,  for  the  Burking  murders  ;
Hare,  his  accomplice,  became  approver  (see
Burking) 24  Dec. ,,

The  king  v.  Buxton,  and  others,  for  fraudulent
marriage 21  March,  1829

Jonathan  Martin,  for  setting  fire  to  York  minster

31  March, ,,

Stewart  and  his  wife,  noted  murderers,  at  Glasgow ;
hanged 14  July, ,,

Reinbauer,  the  Bavarian  priest,  for  murders  of
women . 4  Aug. , ,

Captain  Dickenson,  by  court-martial,  at  Ports-
mouth ;  acquitted .... 26  Aug. ,,

Mr.  Alexander,  editor  of  the  Morning  Journal,  for
libels  on  the  duke  of  Wellington;  convicted  10  Feb.  1830

Clune,  &c,  at  Eimis,  lor  cutting  out  the  tongues  of
the  Doyles 4  March, ,,

Mr.  Comyn,  for  burning  his  house  in  the  county  of
Clare;  hanged 6  March, ,,

Mr.  Lambrecht,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Clayton  in  a
duel 2  April, „

Captain  Moir,  for  murder  of  William  Malcolm  ;
hanged 30  July, „

Captains  Smith  and  Markham,  for  killing  Mr.
O'Grady  in  a  duel .... 24  Aug. ,,

Captain  Helsham,  for  murder  of  lieut.  Crowther  in
a  duel 8  Oct. ,,

Mr.  St.  John  Long,  for  manslaughter  of  Miss
Cashin  (see  Quacks) .... 30  Oct. „

Polignac,  Peyronnet,  and  others,  ministers  of
France  (see  France) .... 21  Dec. ,,

Carlile,  for  a  seditious  libel,  inciting  to  a  riot ;
guilty 10  Jan. 1831

Mr.  D.  O'Connell,  for  breach  of  proclamation;
pleaded  guilty 12  Pel  1. ,,

St.  John  Long,  for  manslaughter  of  Mrs.  Lloyd  (see
Quacks) 19  Feb. ,,

Major  Dundas,  for  the  seduction  of  Miss  Adams;
damages,  3000/.. ..... 26  May, ,,

Rev  Robert  Taylor  (who  obtained  the  revolting
distinction  of  "  the  Devil's  Chaplain"),  for  reviling
the  Redeemer  :  convicted  . . . 6  July, ,,

Mr.  Cobbett,  for  a  seditious  libel  ;  tin'  jury  could
notagree 7  .July, ,,

Mr.  and  .Mrs.  Deacle  v.  Mr.  Bingham  Baring,  M.P.

14  July, „

John  Any  Bird  Bell,  14  years  of  age,  for  the  murder


of  Richard  Taylor,  aged  13;  hanged  at  Maidstone

1  Aug.

The  great  cause,  earl  of  Kingston  v.  lord  Lorton  ;
commenced g  Nov.

Bishop  and  Williams,  for  murder  of  the  Italian  boy
(see  Burking) 3  Dec.

Earl  of  Mar,  in  Scotland,  for  shooting  at  Mr.
Oldham 17  Dec.

Elizabeth  Cooke,  for  murder  of  Mrs.  Walsh,  by
"Burking" 6  Jan.

Colonel  Brereton,  by  court-martial,  at  Bristol  (see
Bristol) g  Jan.

The  murderers  of  Mr.  Blood,  of  Applevale,  county
of  Clare . . ' . . . . 28  Feb.

William  Duggan,  at  Cork,  for  murder  of  his  wife
and  others 26  March,

Mr.  Hodgson  (son  of  the  celebrated  Miss  Aston)  v.
Greene 26  July,

Mayor  of  Bristol,  for  neglect  of  duty  in  the
Bristol  riots 26  Oct.

Rev. Mr.  Irving,  by  the  Scots  church,  for  heresy

13  March,

Lord  Teynham,  and  Dolan,  a  tailor,  for  swindling ;
guilty 10  May,

Attorney-general  v.  Shore  (lady  Hewley's  charity,
which  is  taken  from  the  Unitarians)  . 23  Dec.

Captain  Wathen,  15th  hussars,  by  court-martial,  at
Cork  ;  honourably  acquitted  ;  his  colonel,  lord
Brudenell, cashiered .... Jan.

Proprietors  of  the  True  Sun,  for  libels;  guilty,  6  Feb.

Mary  Ann  Burdock,  the  celebrated  murderess,
at  Bristol 10  April,

Sir  John  de  Beauvoir,  for  perjury ;  acquitted,  29  May,

Fieschi,  at  Paris,  for  attempting  the  life  of  the
king,  Louis  Philippe,  by  exploding  an  infernal
machine  (see  Fieschi) .... 30  Jan.

Hon.  G.  C.  Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne,  in  court  of
Common  Pleas,  for  crim.  con.  with  the  hon.  Mrs.
Norton  ;  verdict  for  defendant  . . 22  June,

Lord  de  Roos  v.  dimming,  for  defamation,  charg-
ing lord  de  Roos  with  cheating  at  cards  ;  verdict
in  favour  of  Mr.  Cumming  ... 10  Feb.

James  Greenacre  and  Sarah  Gale,  for  the  murder  of
Hannah  Browne ;  Greenacre  convicted  and
hanged ;  Gale  transported . . 10  April,

Bolam,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Millie ;  verdict,  man-
slaughter 30  July,

Rev.  Mr.  Stephens,  at  Chester,  for  inflammatory
language 15  Aug.

John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate,  and  others,  for  high
treason  ;  guilty:  sentence  commuted  to  transpor-
tation (see  Newport) .... 31  Dec.

Benjamin  Courvoisier,  for  murder  of  lord  William
Russell ;  hanged .... 18-20  June,

Gould,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Templeman  ;  transported

22  June,

Edward  Oxford,  attempted  the  life  of  the  queen  ;
adjudged  insane,  and  confined  in  Bethlehem  (see
Oxford) 9,  10  July,

Madame  Lefarge,  in  France,  for  the  murder  of  her
husband  ;  guilty ...  .2  Sept.

Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  for  his  descent  upon  Prance
(see  Fro  nee) 6  Oct.

Captain  J.  W.  Reynolds,  nth  huss.'irs.  by  court-
martial;  guilty  :  the  sentence  excited  great  popu-
lar displeasure  against  his  colonel,  lord  Cardigan

20  Oct.

Lord  Cardigan  before  the  house  of  peers,  capitally
charged  for  wounding  captain  Harvey  Tucket  in

a  duel  ;  acquitted  ....  16  Feb.

The  Wallaces,  brothers,  merchants,  for  having  wil-
fully caused  the  destruction  of  the  ship  Dryad  at
sea,  to  defraud  the  underwriters; transported

1  March,

Josiah  Mister,  for  attempting  the  life  of  Mr.
Mackreth ;  guilty .... 23  March,

Bartholomew  Murray,  at  Chester,  for  the  murder  of
Mrs.  Cook 5  April,

Earl  of  Waldegrave  and  captain  Duff,  tor  an aj  gi  1
vated  ass;mlt  on  a  police  eoustable  ;  guilty  :  judg-
ment, six  months' imprisonment,  and lines  of
200/..  and  20?. 3  May,

Madame  Lefarge  again,  for  robbery  of diamonds

7  A.UK.
The  great  case, Allen Bogle V. Mr. Lawson,  pub-
lisher of  the  Times  newspaper,  for  an alleged
libel,  in  stating  the  plaintitfto  be  connected  with

numerous bank  forgers throughout Europe in


1834


1836


1S37


1S41


TEIALS.


982


TEIALS.


their  schemes  to  defraud  Messrs.  Glyn  and  Com-
pany, bankers  of  London,  by  means  of  fictitious
letters  of  credit :  damages,  one  farthing.  This
exposure,  so  honourable  to  the  Times,  led  to  the
Times  Testimonial . . . . 16  Aug.

Mr.  MacLeod,  at  Utica,  America,  for  taking  part
in  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline,  commenced :
acquitted  after  a  trial  that  lasted  eight  day?,  4  Oct.

Robert  Blakesley,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Burdon,  of
Eastcheap ;  hanged . - . . . 28  Oct.

Mr.  Beaumont  Smith,  for  forgery  of  Exchequer
bills  to  an  immense  amount ;  he  pleaded  guilty,
and  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life  4  Dec.

Sophia  Darbon  v.  Rosser ;  breach  of  promise  of
marriage  ;  damages,  1600J. ... 8  Dec.

Mr.  John  Levick  and  Antonio  Mattei,  principal  and
second  in  the  duel  in  which  lieut.  Adams  was
killed  at  Malta  :  both  acquitted . 10  March,

Vivier,  courier  of  the  Morning  Herald,  at  Boulogne,
for  conveying  the  Indian  mail  through  France,
for  that  journal,  contrary  to  the  French  regula-
tions 13  April,

Daniel  Good,  for  murder  of  Jane  Jones  ;  the  Roe-
hampton  murder  ;  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to
be  hanged 13  May,

John  Francis,  for  attempting  to  assassinate  the
queen  (see  Francis) .... 17  June,

Thomas  Cooper,  for  the  murder  of  Daly,  the  police-
man ;  hanged 4  July,

Nicholas  Suisse,  valet  of  the  late  marquis  of  Hert-
ford, at  the  prosecution  of  that  nobleman's  exe-
cutors, charged  with  enormous  frauds  ;  acquitted

6  July,

M'Gill  and  others,  for  abduction  of  Miss  Crellin  ;
guilty 8  Aug.

Nicholas  Suisse  again,  upon  like  charges,  and  again
acquitted 24  Aug.

Bean,  for  pointing  a  pistol  at  the  queen :  18  months'
imprisonment ..... 25  Aug.

The  rioters  in  the  provinces,  under  a  special  com-
mission, at  Stafford  1  Oct.

The  Cheshire  rioters,  under  a  special  commission,
before  lord  Abinger .... 6  Oct.

The  Lancashire  rioters,  also  under  a  special  com-
mission 10  Oct.

Alice  Lowe,  at  the  prosecution  of  lord  Frankfort ;
acquitted 31  Oct.

Mr:  Howard,  attorney,  v.  sir  William  Gosset,  ser-
jeant-at-arms 5  Dec.

Mr.  Egan,  in  Dublin,  for  the  robbery  of  a  bank
parcel ;  acquitted . . . . 17  Jan.

Rev.  W.  Bailey,  LL.D.,  for  forgery;  guilty  :  trans-
portation for  life 1  Feb.

Mac  Naughten,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Drummond,
secretary  to  sir  Robert  Peel :  acquitted  on  the
ground  of  insanity .... 4  March,

The  Rebeccaites,  at  Cardiff,  under  a  special  com-
mission 27  Oct.

Samuel  Sidney  Smith,  for  forgery  ;  sentenced  to
transportation  for  life ... 29  Nov.

Edward  Dwyer,  for  the  murder  of  his  child  at
Southwark ;  guilty . . . . 1  Dec.

Mr.  Holt,  of  the  Age ;  libel  on  the  duke  of  Bruns-
wick ;  guilty 29  Jan.

Lieut.  Grant,  second  to  lieut.  Munro,  in  his  duel
with  col.  Fawcett ;  acquitted . . 14  Feb.

Fraser  v.  Bagley,  for  crim.  con.  ;  verdict  for  the  de-
fendant 19  Feb.

Lord  William  Paget  v.  earl  of  Cardigan,  for  crim.
con. ;  verdict  for  defendant . . 26  Feb.

Mary  Furley,  for  the  murder  of  her  child  in  an
agony  of  despair .... 16  April,

The  will-forgers,  William  Henry  Barber  (since  de-
clared innocent),  Joshua  Fletcher,  Georgiana
Dorey,  William  Saunders,  and  Susannah  his  wife :
all  found  guilty,  15  April :  sentenced 22  April,

[In  1848  Mr.  Barber  returned  to  England  with  a
free  pardon,  and  an  acknowledgment  of  his  inno-
cence by  his  prosecutors  :  he  was  re-admitted  to
practise  as  an  attorney ;  and  on  the  3rd  of
August,  1859,  ill  conformity  with  the  recom-
mendation of  a  select  committee  of  the  house  of
commons,  the  sum  of  5000J.  was  voted  him  "as
a  national  acknowledgment  of  the  wrong  he  had
suffered  from  an  erroneous  prosecution."]

Crouch,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  ;  found  guilty,
8  May  ;  hanged 27  May,

Messrs. O'Connell,  sen.,  O'Connell, jun.,  Steele,


1843


Ray,  Barrett,  Grey,  Duffy,  and  rev.  Thomas
Tierney,  at  Dublin,  for  political  conspiracy  :  the
trial  commenced  15  Jan.,  and  lasted  twenty-four
days  :  all  the  traversers  were  found  guilty,  12  Feb.
Proceedings  on  motions  for  a  new  trial,  &c,  ex-
tended the  case  into  Easter  term  ;  and  sentence
was  pronounced  upon  all  but  the  clergyman,  on
whom  judgment  was  remitted . . 30  May,  1844

Augustus  Dalmas,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Mac-
farlane  ;  guilty 14  June, ,,

Wm.  Burton  Newenham,  for  the  abduction  of  Miss
Wortham ;  guilty . . . . 17  June, ,,

Bellamy,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife  by  prussic
acid;  acquitted 21  Aug. ,,

John  Tawell,  for  murder  of  Sarah  Hart ;  hanged

13,  14  March,  1845

Thomas  Henry  Hocker,  for  murder  of  James  De-
larue 11  April, ,,

Joseph  Connor,  for  murder  of  Mary  Brothers,  16  May, , ,

The  Spanish  pirates,  for  murder  of  ten  Englishmen
at  sea  ....... 26  July, ,,

Rev.  Dr.  Wetherall,  for  crim.  con.  with  Mrs.  Cooke,
his  own  daughter . . . . 16  Aug. ,,

Captain  Johnson,  of  the  ship  Tory,  for  the  murder
of  several  of  his  crew .... 5  Feb.  1846

Miss  M.  A.  Smith  v.  earl  Ferrers ;  breach  of  pro-
mise of  marriage 18  Feb. ,,

Lieut.  Hawkey,  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Seton,  in  a
duel ;  acquitted . . . . . 16  July, ,,

Richard  Dunn,  for  perjury  and  attempted  fraud  on
Miss  A.  Burdett  Coutts . . .  27  Feb.  1847

Mitchell,  the  Irish  confederate ;  transported  for  14
years  (see  Ireland) .... 26  May,  1848

Wm.  Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  and  other  confede-
rates, sentenced  to  death  ;  the  sentence  after-
wards commuted  to  transportation  (pardoned  in
1856) 9  Oct. „

Bloomfield  Rush,  for  murder  of  Messrs.  Jermy,  at
Norwich ;  hanged .... 29  March,  1849

Gorham  v.  the  bishop  of  Exeter;  ecclesiastical
case ;  judgment  given  in  the  court  of  Arches
against  the  plaintiff .... 2  Aug. „

[The  bishop  had  refused  to^institute  the  rev.  Mr.
Gorham  into  the  living  of  Brampton-Speke,  in
Devonshire,  alleging  want  of  orthodoxy  in  the
plaintiff,  who  denied  that  spiritual  regeneration
was  conferred  by  baptism  ;  the  court  held  that
the  charge  against  the  plaintiff  of  holding  false
doctrine  was  proved,  and  that  the  bishop  was
justified  in  his  refusal.  Mr.  Gorham  appealed  to
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,
which  pronounced  its  opinion  (8  March,  1850)
that  "  the  doctrine  held  by  Mr.  Gorham  was  not
contrary  or  repugnant  to  the  declared  doctrine  of
the  church  of  England,  and  that  Mr.  Gorham
ought  not,  by  reason  of  the  doctrine  held  by  him,
to  have  been  refused  admission  to  the  vicarage  of
Brampton-Speke."  This  decision  led  to  subse-
quent proceedings  in  the  three  courts  of  law,  suc-
cessively, for  a  rule  to  show  cause  why  a  prohi-
bition should  not  issue,  directed  to  the  judge  of
the  Arches  court,  and  to  the  archbishop  of  Can-
terbury, against  giving  effect  to  the  judgment  of
her  majesty  in  council.  The  rule  was  refused  in
each  court,  and  in  the  end  Mr.  Gorham  was  insti-
tuted into  the  vicarage  in  question,  7  Aug.  1850.]

Manning  and  his  wife,  for  murder  of  O'Connor ;
guilty :  death 27  Oct. „

Walter  Watts,  lessee  of  the  Olympic  theatre,  for
forgery,  &c 10  May,  1850

Robert  Pate,  a  retired  lieutenant,  for  an  assault  on
the  queen n  July, „

The  Sloanes,  man  and  wife,  for  starving  their  ser-
vant, Jane  Wilbred .... 5  Feb.  1851

The  Board  of  Customs  v.  the  London  Dock  Com-
pany, on  a  charge  of  defrauding  the  revenue  of
duties  ;  a  trial  of  11  days  ended  in  a  virtual  ac-
quittal 18  Feb. „

Sarah  Chesham,  for  murder  of  husband,  by  poison ;
she  had  murdered  several  of  her  children  and
others  by  the  same  means ;  hanged  . 6  March, ,,

Thomas  Drory,  for  the  murder  of  Jael  Denny:
hanged 7  March, „

Doyle  v.  Wright,  concerning  the  personal  custody
of  Miss  Augusta  Talbot,  a  Roman  catholic  ward,
of  chancery,  before  the  lord  chancellor :  pro-
tracted case 22  March, „


TEIALS.  983


TRIALS.


The  murderers  of  the  rev.  George  Edward  Holiest,

of  Frimley,  Surrey ;  guilty . . 31  March,  1851
Achilli  v. Newman, for  libel ; tried before  lord
chief  justice  Campbell  in  the  Queen's Bench  :
verdict  for  the  plaintiff,  Nov.  1851 ; . 31  Jan. 1852
Miller  v.  aid.  Salomons,  M.P.,  for  voting  as  a  mem-
ber without  having  taken  the  required  oath  ;  ver-
dict against  the  defendant . . 19  April, „
The  case  "  Bishop  of  London  v.  the  rev.  Mr.  Glad-
stone :"  judgment  of  the  Arches  court  against

the  defendant 10  June, ,,

Lord  Frankfort,  for  scandalous and defamatory

libels  ;  guilty 3  Dec. ,,

Richard  Bourke  Kirwan,  for  the  murder  of  his  wife ;

guilty 10  Dec. „

Eliot  Bower,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Saville  Morton,  at

Paris  ;  acquitted 28  Dec. „

Henry  Horler,  for  murder  of  his  wife ;  hanged  at

the  Old  Bailey 15  Jan.  1853

James  Barbour,  for  murder  of  Robinson ;  hanged

at  York 15  Jan. ,,

George  Sparkes  and  James  Hitchcock,  for  the  mur-
der of William Blackmore at  Exeter ; guilty

19  March, ,,
Five  Frenchmen  (principal  and  seconds)  for  the
murder  of  a  sixth  Frenchman  in  a  duel  at  Egham  ;
verdict,  manslaughter ... 21  March, ,,
Moore  and  Walsh,  for  the  murder  of  John  Black-
burn, at  Stafford ;  hanged . . 21  March, ,,
Saunders,  for  murder  of  Mr. Toler ; hanged  at

Chelmsford 30  March, ,,

The  Stackpole  family,  four  in  number ;  two  of  them
females,  and  wives  to  the  others,  for  the  murder
of  their  relative,  also  a  Stackpole ; hanged  at

Ennis 28  April, ,,

Case  of  Holy  Cross  Hospital,  Winchester,  decided

against  rev.  earl  of  Guildford  . 1  Aug. ,,

Smyth  v.  Smyth,  ended  in  the  plaintiff  being  com-
mitted on  a  charge  of  forging  the  will  on  which
he  grounded  his  claim . . 8,  9,  10  Aug. ,,
The  Braintree  case  respecting  liability  to  church-
rates,  decided  by  the  house  of  lords,  against  the

rate 12  Aug. ,,

Case  of  Lumley  v.  Gye,  respecting  Madlle.  Wagner  ;

decided 22  Feb.  1854

Mr.  Jeremiah  Smith,  mayor  of  Rye,  convicted  of

perjury 2  March, ,,

Duchess  of  Manchester's  will  case . . April, ,,
Mr.  Garden,  for  abduction  of  Miss  E.  Arbuthnot,
and  assault  upon  John  Sniithwick  ; convicted

28,  29  July, ,,
Mary  Anne  Brough,  for  murdering  her  six  children;

not  guilty  (insanity) .... 9  Aug. ,,
Case  of  Pierce  Somerset  Butler  v.  viscount  Mount-
garret  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  who  thus  came  into
a  peerage,  defendant  being  proved  illegitimate

Aug. „
Courts-martial  on  lieuts. Perry  and  Greer; sen-
tences reversed  by  lord  Hardinge 29  July-Aug. ,,
Courts-martial  on  sir  E. Belcher,  captain  McClure,
&C,  for  abandoning  their  ships in the  Arctic

regions ;  acquitted Oct. ,,

Emanuel  Barthelemy,  for  murder  of  Charles  Col-
lard  and  Mr.  Moore  (executed) . . 4  Jan.  1855
Handcock  v.  Delaeour,  otherwise  De  Burgh  (cruelty
to Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord

Clanricarde) ;  compromised ,,

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside)

3-10  April, ,,
Luigi  Baranelli,  for  murder  of  Joseph  Latham  (or

Lambert);  (executed  30  April)  . 12  April, ,,

Charles  King,  a  great  thief-trainer ; transported

13  April, ,,
Wm.  Austin  (governor),  for  cruelties  in  Birming-
ham gaol ;  acquitted .... 3  Aug. ,,
Sir  John  Dean  Paul,  William  Strahan,  and  Robert
M.  Bates, bankers, for  disposing  of  their  cus-
tomers' securities  (to  the  amount  of  113,625!.):

convicted 27  Oct. ,,

Joseph  Wooler,  on  charge  of  poisoning  his  wife;

acquitted 7  Nov. ,,

Westerton  v.  Liddell  (on  decorations,  &c,  in
church  in  Knightsbridge  ;  decision  against  them)

5  !>'•• „
[Decided again  by  privy  council,  partly  for  both
parties  ;  each to  pay  his own  costs,  21  March,
1857-]


Celestina Sommers, for murder of  her child ;

convicted  (but  reprieved)  . . . 6  March,  1856
Wm.  Palmer,  for  murder  of  J.  P.  Cook  by  poison

14-27  May, „
[He  was  executed  at  Stafford  on  14  June,  in  the  pre-
sence of  50,000  persons. If  he had  been  ac-
quitted, he  would  have  been  tried  for  the  murder
of  his  wife  and  brother.  ]
Wm.  Dove,  for  murder  of  his  wife  (executed  9  Aug.)

iq  July, ,,

Ditcher  v.  archdeacon  Denison,  respecting  the  doc-
trine of  the  eucharist ;  defendant  deprived,  ami
appeal  disallowed  [verdict  set  aside  by  privy
council] 22  Oct. ,,

W.  S.  Hardwicke  and  H.  Attwell ;  convicted  of
forgery 31  Oct. ,,

Wm.  Robson,  for  frauds  of  Crystal  Palace  Com-
pany (to  the  amount  of  about  28,000!.) ;  trans-
ported for  twenty  years . . . 1  Nov. ,,

Earl  of  Lucan  v.  Daily  News,  for  libel ;  verdict  for
defendant 3  Dec. „

Pearce,  Burgess,  and  Tester; see  Gold  Robbery,

14  Jan. 1857

Leopold  Redpath,  for  forgeries  (to  the  amount  of
150,000!.)  upon  Great  Northern  Railway  Com-
pany :  transported  for  life ■ . . 16  Jan. „

Jem  Saward,  a  barrister  (called  the  Penman),  Wm.
Anderson,  and  others,  convicted  of  extensive
forgery  of  bankers' cheques . . 5  March, ,,

Miss  Madeline  Smith,  on  charge  of  poisoning
Emile  L'Angelier, at Glasgow ; not proven

30  June-9  July, ,,

Thos.  Fuller  Bacon,  for  poisoning  his  mother,  con-
victed 25  July, ,,

[He  was  acquitted  on  a  charge  of  murdering  two
children,  13,  14  May,  same  year.  His  wife  con-
fessed the  murder,  but  appeared  to  be  insane.]

James  Spollen,  on  charge  of  murder  of  Mr.  Little,
near  Dublin ;  acquitted  . . .  7-1 1  Aug. ,,

W.  Attwell  and  others,  convicted  of  stealing  the
countess  of  Ellesmere's  jewels  (value  15,000!.)
from  the  top  of  a  cab .... 15  Dec. , ,

Strevens  v.  Campion,  for  slander,  in  charging  the
plaintiff  with  complicity  in  the  murder  of  his
aunt,  Mrs.  Kelly ;  damages  6>l.  . .  31  Dec. ,,

The  directors  of  the  British  Bank,  Humphry  Brown,
Edw.  Esdaile,  H.  D.  Macleod,  alderman  R.  H.
Kennedy,  W.  D.  Owen,  James  Stapleton,  and
Hugh  Innes  Cameron,for  fraud  (see  under  Banks) ;
convicted 13-27  Feb. 185S

Rev.  S.  Smith  and  his  wife,  for  murderous  assault
on  John  Leech ;  convicted . . 6-7  April, ,,

Edw.  Auchmuty  Glover,  M.P.,  for  false  declaration
of  qualification  of  M.P 9  April, ,,

Simon  Bernard,  as  accessory  to  the  conspiracy
against  the  life  of  the  emperor  Napoleon ;  acquitted

12-17  April, „

The  earldom  of  Shrewsbury  case ;  earl  Talbot's  claim
allowed 1  June, ,,

James  Seal,  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Guppy ;  con-
victed (and  executed) . . . .23  July, ,,

The  Berkeley  peerage  case,  see  Berkeley 23  July, ,,

Patience  Swynfen  v.  F.  H.  Swynfen ;  a  will  case;
the  will  affirmed 27  July, ,,

[The  plaintiff  was  Patience  Swynfen,  widow  of  Henry
John  Swynfen,  son  of  the  testator,  Samuel  Swyn-
fen. Her  husband  died  15  June,  1854,  and  his
father  on  16  July,  following,  having  made  a  will
19  days  before  his  death,  devising  the  Swynfen
estate  (worth  about  60,000!.)  to  his  son's  wife,
but  leaving  a  large  amount  of  personal  estate  un-
disposed of.  The  defendant,  F.  11.  Swynfen,  son
of  the  testator's  eldest  half-brother,  claimed  the
estate  as  heir-at-law  on  the  ground  of  t lie  testator's
insanity.  The  issue  was  brought  to  trial  in  March,
1856;  but  proceedings  were  stayed  by  Mrs.  Swyn-
fen's  counsel,  sir  F.  Thesiger,  entering  into  an
agreement  with  the  opposite  counsel,  sir  Alex-
ander Cockburn,  without  her  consent,  and  in  de-
fiance of  her  instructions.  Alter  various  pro-
(•ecilings,  tin1  court  of  chancery  ordered  a  new
trial.  She  gained  her  cause,  mainly  through  the
energy  of  her  counsel.  Mr.  Chas.  R.  Kennedy,  to
whom  she  had  promised  to  pay  20,000!.  for  his
extraordinary  services.  Mrs.  Swynfen,  however,
married  a  Mr.  Broun,  and  repudiated  Mr.  Ken-
nedy's claim.  The  latter,  in  an  action  against
her,"  obtained  a  verdict  in  his  favour  on  29  March,


TEIALS.


984


TEIALS.


1862,  which  was.  on  appeal,  finally  reversed  in
Feb.  1864.  Mrs.  Swynfen  was  non-suited  in  an
action  brought  against  her  counsel  (afterwards
lord  Chelmsford  and  lord  chancellor),  in  Jul}',
1859,  an(1  June,  i860.]

Lemon  Oliver,  a  stockbroker,  convicted  of  exten-
sive frauds 10  Nov.

Marchmont  v.  Marchmont ;  a  disgraceful  divorce
case,  begun 30  Nov.

W.  H.  Guernsey,  for  stealing  Ionian  despatches
from  the  Colonial  Office ;  acquitted  .  15  Dee.

Evans  v.  Evans  and  Rose,  divorce  case .  Dec.

Lieut. -col.  Dickson  v.  earl  of  Wilton,  for  libel ;  ver-
dict for  the  plaintiff ....  14  Feb.

Black  v.  Elliott,  850  sheep  poisoned  by  a  sheep-
wash  sold  by  defendant ;  damages  1400L 23  Feb.

Wagner,  Bateman,  and  others,  a  gang  of  bank
forgers ;  convicted 13  May,

Earl  of  Shrewsbury  v.  Hope  Scott,  and  others ;  the
earl  gains  the  Shrewsbury  estates .  3  June,

Thellusson  will  case  decided  (see  Thellusson)  9  June,

T.  R.  Marshall,  E.  A.  Mortimer,  and  H.  S.  Eicke,
convicted  of  illegal  sale  of  army  commissions,

29  June,

Thomas  Smethurst,  a  surgeon,  for  the  murder  by
poison  of  Isabella  Bankes,  whom  he  had  married
during  his  wife's  lifetime  ;  convicted 15-19  Aug.

[He  was  reprieved  on  the  ground  of  insufficient  evi-
dence ;  but  was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  bigamy,
16  Nov.  1859.  On  11  Nov.  1862,  he  proved  Miss
Bankes's  will,  and  obtained  her  property.]

Oakley  v.  the  Moulvie  Ooddeen,  "ambassador  of
the  king  of  Oude."  Verdict  for  the  defendant,
who  seems  to  have  fallen  among  bill-sharpers,

17  Dec.

David  Hughes,  an  attorney,  convicted  of  gross
frauds  upon  his  clients .... Jan.

George  Pullinger,  cashier  of  the  Union  Bank  of
London,  sentenced  to  20  years'  imprisoment  for
fraud,  see  Banks,  foot-note . . 15  May,

Eugenia  Plummer,  aged  n  years,  convicted  of  per-
jury against  rev.  Mr.  Hatch . . .14  May,

Mr.  W.  H.  Leatham,  M.P.,  convicted  of  bribery  at
Wakefield 19  July,

Thomas  Hopley,  a  schoolmaster,  convicted  of  man-
slaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by  flogging,

23  July,

Nottidge  v.  Prince  (see  Agapemone) . 25  July,

Rev.  J.  Bonwell,  of  Stepney,  degraded  for  immorality,

29  Aug.

James  Mullens,  convicted  for  the  murder  of  Mrs.
Elmsley ;  by  endeavouring  to  inculpate  one  Ems,
he  led  to  his  own  conviction . .  25  Oct.

Miss  Shedden-  v.  Patrick.  (The  plaintiff  ably
pleaded  her  own  cause  when  the  case  was  opened ;
her  object,  to  prove  the  legitimacy  of  her  father,
was  not  attained) . . . .9  Nov.  et  seq.

Hooper  v.  Ward  ;  disgraceful  profligacy  of  a  magis-
trate; verdict  for  plaintiff  . . . 19,  20  Dec.

Constance  Kent  inquiry ;  trial  refused,  see  Road
Murder Jan.

Thelwall  v.  hon.  Major  Yelverton.  The  plaintiff
sued  for  expenses  incurred  by  defendant's  wife ;
the  major  denied  the  validity  of  his  marriage
with  Miss  Longworth,  having  since  married  the
widow  of  professor  Edward  Forbes,  the  eminent
naturalist.  The  court  in  Dublin  supported  the
first  marriage . . .21  Feb.  to  4  March,

[Miss  Longworth  endeavoured  to  establish  her.
marriage.  On  appeal,  the  Scotch  court  annulled
the  marriage,  July,  1862,  and  this  judgment  was
affirmed  by  the  house  of  lords,  28  July,  1864,  and
again  finally,  30  July,  1S67.  An  attempt  to  set
aside  the  judgment  of  the  house  of  lords  rejected
by  the  court  of  session,  29  Oct.  1868.]

Brook  v.  Brook;  see  Marriage  with  Wife's  Sister.
The  house  of  lords  on  appeal  decided  against  the
validity  of  such  marriages,  even  when  celebrated
in  a  foreign  country ... 18  March,

Reade  v.  Lacy ;  the  dramatising  a  novel  restrained,

17  April,
Beamish  v.  Beamish ;  the  lords  on  appeal  decide
that  a  clergyman  cannot  perform  the  ceremony  of
marriage  for  himself  .  .  .  .22  April,
Emperor  of  Austria  v.  Day;  verdict  for  plaintiff.
The  defendant  had  printed  100  millions  florin
notes  on  the  bank  of  Hungary,  for  Louis
Kossuth.  The  notes  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed


^59


within  one month,  6  May judgment affirmed

12  June,

Cardross  case.  John  MacMillan,  a  free-church
minister,  was  expelled  for  drunkenness  and  mis-
conduct, May,  1858.  The  Glasgow  synod  and
the  general  assembly  of  the  free  church  affirmed
the  sentence.  He  appealed  to  the  court  of
session,  which  set  aside  the  decree  (which  in-
volved temporalities),  asserting  that  the  assembly
had  only  spiritual  authority . . . July,

W.  B.  Turnbull  v.  Bird,  secretary  of  protestant
alliance ;  libel ;  verdict  for  defendant 8-10  July,

J.  C.  Charlesworth,  M.P.,  convicted  of  bribery  at
the  Wakefield  election . . . .20  July,

Baron  de  Viclil ;  convicted  of  wounding  his  son ;  the
latter  refused  to  give  evidence  against  his  father,

23  Aug.

Vincent  Collucci :  convicted  of  obtaining  money  on
false  pretences,  from  Miss  F.  Johnstone 23  Oct.

John  Curran,  a  Dublin  cabman ;  convicted  of  a
violent  assault  on  Miss  Jolly,  who  heroically  de-
fended herself 25-30  Oct.

Patrick  McCaffery;  shot  col.  Crofton  and  capt.
Hanham,  at  Preston ;  convicted . . 13  Dec.

Inquiry  into  sanity  of  Wm.  Fred.  Wyndham  (on
behalf  of  his  relatives),  with  a  view  of  annulling
an  injudicious  marriage;  trial  lasted  34  days :  140
witnesses  examined ;  verdict  sane  mind  (see
Lunacy) . . .16  Dec.  1861,  and  30  Jan.

[Each  party  adjudged  to  pay  its  own  costs,  March,
1862.]

Capt.  Robertson,  by  court-martial ;  convicted  of
submitting  to  ungentlemanly  conduct  from  his
brother officers : — 30 days' inquiry : ended,

24  March,

[The  court  was  much  blamed  by  the  public  and  the
sentence  was  annulled.]

Mrs.  A.  C.  Vyse  for  poisoning  her  two  children  ;
acquitted  as  insane ....  9  July,

Roupell  v.  Waite;  during  the  trial,  W.  Roupell,
M.P. ,  a  witness,  confessed  himself  guilty  of
forging  a  will,  and  other  frauds . iS,  19  Aug.

Jessie  McLachlan;  convicted  for  the  murder  of
Jessie  Macpherson,  at  Glasgow ;  she  confessed  to
being  accessory  after  the  murder,  which  she  im-
puted to  Mr.  Fleming,  a  gentleman  80  or  90  years

old 17-20  Sept.

[She  was  respited  27  Oct.  1862.]

Wm.  Roupell,  M.P.,  for  forgery;  convicted  on  his
own  confession  (released  Sept.  1876) . 24  Sept.

Catherine  Wilson,  convicted  of  poisoning  Mrs.
Soames  in  1856 25-27  Sept.

27  indictments  and  24  convictions  for  savage  per-
sonal outrages  in  the  streets  of  the  metropolis
during  the  month Nov.

Wm.  Digby  Seymour,  M.P. ,  v.  Butterworth;  libel;
verdict  for  plaintiff,  damages  40s. . .  3  Dec.

Hall  v.  Semple;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  who  had  been
consigned  to  a  lunatic  asylum  through  his  wife's
getting  the  defendant  to  sign  a  certificate  of  lunacy
with  culpable  negligence ;  damages  150 J. 10  Dec.

George  Buncher,  Wm.  Burnett,  Riehd.  Brewer,  and
James  Griffiths,  for  forging  bank-notes,  printed
on  paper  stolen  from  the  paper-mill  at  Laver-
stoke;  convicted 7-12  Jan.

Clare  v.  The  Queen ;  petition  of  right  for  infringe-
ment of  a  patent ;  verdict  for  defendant 2-6  Feb.

Rev.  John  Campbell  v.  Spottiswoode  (as  printer  of
ulihel  m  Saturday  Review):  verdict  for  plaintiff,

27  Feb.

Queen  on  appeal  of  earl  of  Cardigan  v.  col.  Calthorpe
for  libel,  charging  the  earl  with  deserting  his
men  at  Balaclava,  25  Oct.  1855 ;  verdict  for  de-
fendant (who, however, admitted his error),

9,  10  June,

Attorney-general  v.  Sillim  and  others,  for  having
built  the  Alexandra  for  the  Confederates,  against
the Enlistment act; verdict for defendants,

25  June,

[Decision  finally  affirmed  on  appeal  to  the  house  of
lords,  6  April,  1864.]

Col.  Lothian  Dickson  v.  viscount  Combermere,  earl
of  Wilton,  and  gen.  Peel,  for  conspiracy  to  expel
him  from  the  army;  verdict  for  defendants,

27  June,  et  seq.

Morrison  (Zadkiel)  v.  sir  Edward  Belcher;  libel;
verdict,  20s.  damages  .... 29  June,


1S63


TEIALS.


985


TEIALS.


Richard  Roupell  v.  Haws  :  arising  out  of  Roupell
forgeries;  no  verdict . . . 16-24  July,  z^3

Woolley  v.  Pole,  for  San  Fire  Office;  verdict  for
plaintiff,  awarding  him  his  claim  for  29,000?.  for
his  insurance  of  (Jampden-house ;  burnt  23  March,
1862 29  Aug. „

George  Victor  Townley,  for  murder  of  Miss  Good-
man, through  jealousy ;  convicted  . . 12  Dec. „

[He  escaped  execution  through  a  certificate  of  in-
sanity, too  hastily  signed :  and  committed  suicide
in  prison,  12  Feb.  1865.]

Lieut. -col.  Crawley,  by  court-martial  at  Aldershot,
for  alleged  oppression  and  cruelty  to  sergeant-
major  John  Lilley,  in  consequence  of  a  court-
martial  at  Mhow,  in  India ;  honourably  acquitted,

17  N0V.-23  Dec. „

Franz  Miiller,  for  murder  of  Mr.  Briggs  in  a  railway
carriage,  9  July ;  convicted . . 27-29  Oct.  1864

Gedney  v.  Smith,  a  supposititious  child  detected
and  deprived  of  much  property . . 10  Nov. ,,

E.  K.  Kohl,  for  murder  of  Theodore  Fuhrkop;  con-
victed  11,  12  Jan.  1865

Queen  v.  Win.  Rumble,  for  infringement  of  Foreign
Enlistment  act,  in  equipping  the  Rappahannock
for the Confederate government ; acquitted,

4  Feb. ,,

"Woodgate  v.  Ridout  (for  Morning  Post),  for  libel
respecting  the  great  will  case  of  the  earl  of  Bg-
mont  v.  Darell ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  1000?. ,  10  Feb. ,,

Bishop  Colenso's  appeal  to  privy  council  against
decision  of  bishop  of  Capetown,  deposing  him,
which  is  annulled .... 21  March, ,,

Roberts,  Jeft'ery,  Casely,  and  others,  for  jewel  rob-
beries in  London ;  convicted . . 13  April, ,,

J.  W.  Terry  and  Thos.  Burch,  for  misdemeanor
in  connection  with  the  Unity  Bank;  acquitted,

April, ,,

Edw.  'Wm.  Pritchard,  M.D.,  for  murder  of  his  wife
and  her  mother,  by  poisoning;  guilty 3-7  July, ,,

Charlotte  Winsor,  a  child-murderer,  convicted  on
the  evidence  of  an  accomplice . . July, ,,

[On  account  of  legal  irregularities  in  her  trial,  her
execution  was  long  deferred,  and  her  sentence  was
.commuted  to  life-imprisonment,  23  May,  1866.]

Constance  Kent  tried  (see  Road  Murder) 21  July, ,,

Trials  of  Fenians  for  treason-felony ;  Thos.  Clarke
Luby,  convicted  and  sentenced  to  20  years'  penal
servitude,  28  Nov.-i  Dee.  ;  O'Leary  and  others
convicted ;  O'Donovan  Rossa  (previously  con-
victed) sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  13  Dec. ;
others  convicted  at  Cork .... Dec. „

Stephen  Forwood  (or  Ernest  Southey),  for  murder
of  his  wife  and  children  :  guilty . 20-21  Dec. ,,

Other  Fenians  convicted  at  Dublin  (see  Fenians),

Jan.  1866

Breadalbane  peerage  :  succession  decided  in  favour
of  Campbell  of  Glenfalloch. . .  26  Jan. ,,

Ryves  and  Ryves  v.  the  attorney-general ;  an  en-
deavour to  prove  the  marriage  of  king  George  III.
with  Hannah  Wilmot,  and  that  of  his  brother
Henry,  duke  of  Cumberland,  with  Olive  Wilmot;
the  jury  decided  that  the  claim  was  not  made  out,
and'  that  Olive  Serres,  the  alleged  mother  of  Mrs.
Ryves,  was  not  the  legitimate  daughter  of  the
duke  of  Cumberland,  and  that  the  82  documents
brought  in  evidence  were  forged  (Mrs.  Ryves  died
7  Dec.  1871) 13  June, „

Banda  and  Kirwee  prize  case  (Indian  mutiny);
court  of  admiralty  decide  that  700,000?.  are  to  be
divided  between  the  soldiers  commanded  by
generals  Whitelocke,  Rose,  Roberts,  and  others,

30  June, „

Bishop  Colenso  v.  Gladstone  and  others,  trustees  of
colonial  bishopric  fund  (fur  withholding  his
stipend);  vewlict  for  plaintiff,  with  costs 6  Nov. ,,

Hunter  v.  Sharpe  (Pall  Mall  Gazette),  for  libel
(charging  him  with  quackery);  one  farthing
damages  gained  by  plaintiff  .  . 1  Dec. ,,

James  F.  Wilkinson,  manager  of  joint  stock  discount

company,  convicted  of  fraud . getseq.J&n.  1867
[Liberated  with  free  pardon,  after investigation,

July,  1868]
Bryants.  Foot;  decision  against  prescriptive  right

of  a  rector  to  claim  a  marriage-fee  . 23  Jan. ,,

C.  W.  Lee  Webb,  Lionel  Holdsworth,  and  others,

convicted  of  fraud  (scuttling  a  ship,  and  claiming

insurance) ...... 4  Feb. ,,


C.  Anderson,  a  Swede  ;  convicted  of  murdering  a
mulatto,  from  superstition . . 12  April.

Breadalbane  peerage ;  Wm.  J.  Campbell  declared
heir,  on  appeal  to  house  of  lords . 16  July,

Smith  v.  Tebbitt  and  others  ;  a  will  ease,  disposing
of  upwards  of  400,000'. ;  verdict  for  defendants,
annulling  the  will  of  Ann  Thwaites,  who  is  de-
clared of  unsound  mind,  after  a  long  trial,  in
April  and  May;  judgment  given  . 6  Aug.

Oakes  v.  Turquand,  and  others  ;  appeal  case,  house
of  lords;  decision  affirming  liability  of  share-
holders of  the  company  of  Overend,  Gurney,  and
Co.  (limited) 15  Aug.

Geo.  Druitt,  M.  Lawrence,  and  John  Anderson,
leaders  of  the  operative  tailors'  association,  con-
victed of  a  misdemeanor  (organising  the  system
of  "picketing,"  or  watching  men  on  strike  ;  and
intimidating  non-unionists ;  which  began  24
April,  1867) 21  Aug.

13  tailors  convicted  of  "  picketing"  . 22  Aug.

Fenian  trials  at  Manchester,  Allen,  &c.  (see
Fenians) 30  Oct-12  Nov.

Frederick  Baker  convicted  of  brutal  murder  of  a
child 6  Dec.

Mr.  Rigby  Wason  v.  Walter  (for  publication  of  an
alleged  libel  in  the  Times ;  viz. ,  a  correct  report
of  a  debate  in  the  house  of  lords,  <fec.) ;  verdict
for  defendant,  settling  that  such  a  report  is
privileged 18-20  Dec.

[Verdict  affirmed  again,  25  Nov.  1868.  Mr.  Wa-
son died  July,  1875.]

Martin  v.  Mackonoehie  (for  ritualistic  practices)  ;
before  dean  of  arches,  4  Dec.  1867,  and  14  days  ;
recommenced;  closed . . .  18  Jan.

Flamank  v.  Simpson  ;  similar  case  ;  begun  5  Feb.  ;
verdict  condemning  elevation  of  sacrament,  use
of  incense,  and  mixture  of  water  with  the  wine  in
the  communion  service  . .  28  March,

Crossley  v.  Elsworthy  for  fraudulent  misrepresen-
tation ;  verdict  for plaintiff, damages 35,000?.

18  Feb.

Trial  of  Fenians  for  Clerkenwell  outrage  (see
Fenians),  begun  20  April ;  all  acquitted  except
Michael  Barrett  ....  20-27  April,

Richard  Burke  (alias  Geo.  Berry,  &c),  Theobald
Casey,  and  Henry  Shaw  (alias  Mullady),  Fenians,
for  treason  felony,  at  Old  Bailey ;  Burke  and
Shaw  convicted,  Casey  acquitted  28-30  April,

Mornington  v.  Wellesley,  and  Wellesley  r.  Morning-
ton,  a  29  years'  suit  in  chancery,  decided  (costs
above  30,000?.) ;  22,000?.  awarded  to  the  countess
of  Mornington 7  May,

Lyon  v.  Home  (the  spiritual  medium).  The  plain-
tiff, a  widow,  sought  to  recover  60,000?.  stock,
given  to  Home  at  the  alleged  command  of  her
deceased  husband's  spirit,  between  Oct.  1866  and
Feb.  1867;  suit  instituted  15  June,  1867;  trial,
21  April  to  1  May,  1868;  verdict  given  for
plaintiff,  by  the  vice-chancellor,  sir  G.  M.  Giffard,

22  May,
[The  judge,  in  concluding,  said,  regarding
spiritualism,  that  "the  system,  as  presented
by  the  evidence,  is  mischievous  nonsense  ;
well  calculated  on  the  one  hand  to  delude
the  vain,  the  weak,  the  foolish,  and  the
superstitious  ;  and  on  the  other  to  assist  the
projects  of  the  needy,  and  the  adventurer."]

Esmonde will case, Dublin  ; Lady Esmonde

bequeathed  property  to  support  protestantism  in

Ireland,  by  endowing  a  college,  &e.  :  will  disputed

by  her  family  ;  no  verdic.1  by  jury  3-13  June,

[New  trial;  will  affirmed,  Aug.  1S69.]

Thomas  Edgeley,  convicted  of  fraud  against  Leeds
Banking  Company . . .  n-i^June.

Risk  Allah  v.  Whitehurst  (for  Daily  Telegraph):
libel  case;  damages  for  plaintiff,  960?.,  19  June,

Attorney-general  v.  Dakin :  appeal  case;  decision
that  privilege  of  exemption from execution  of

legal  process  does  nut  extend  to  li.unpton  Court
palace . . . . . .  20  J  une,

Madame  Sarah  Rachel  Leverson  convicted  of  con-
spiracy 25  Sept

[Writ  of  error :  new  trial  refused,  11  May,  1869.]

Chornford  v.  Lingo:  female  suffrage  declared  illegal

7.;  Nov.

Baxter  v.  Langley;  Sunday  evening  lectures
declared  not  illegal ....  19  Nov,


1867


TEIALS.


986


TRIALS.


Martin  v.  Mackonochie : see  Church  of  England,

23  Dec.  18
Phillips v. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see

Jamaica  20  Jan.  18

Saurin  v.  Star  and  another  (convent  ease ;  a  sister
sued  her  mother  superior,  for  ill-usage  and  ex-
pulsion); verdict for plaintiff, damages 500J.

3-26  Feb. ,
[Case  compromised,  April, 1870.]

James  Thos.  Gambier,  admiralty  clerk,  and  Wm.
Bumble,  engineer,  convicted  of  fraud  and  seeking
bribes  from  contractors  . . .9  April, ,

•Cooper  v.  Gordon  :  verdict  for  plaintiff ;  the  vice-
chancellor  decides  that  the  majority  of  a  congre-
gation of  dissenters  may  dismiss  their  minister
for  any  cause 28  May, ,

Major  Frederick  Beswick,  constable  of  Birkenhead,
convicted  of  forgery . . . .10  June, ,

Farrer  (president  of  the  Amalgamated  Carpenters'
Society)  v.  Close  (the  secretary),  for  misappro-
priation of  money.  In  1867  the  justices  dismissed
the  charge  because  the  society  had  illegal  rules.
At  the  trial  at  the  Queen's  bench  the  court  was
equally  divided,  and  no  verdict  given . 3  July, ,

STanny  F.  M.  Oliver  convicted  of  murder  of  her
husband 20  July, ,

Lyons  v.  Rev.  N.  Thomas  and  others,  for  abduction
of  Esther  Lyons,  a  Jewish  girl,  a  proselyte  ;
damages  50? 31  July, ,

Frederick  Hinson  convicted  of  murder  of  his  para-
mour,  Maria  Death, and Wm. Douglas Boyd

24  Nov. ,
Stev. James  John  Merest, convicted  of  simony ;

deprived 26-29  Nov. ,

Martin  v.  Mackonochie  :  before  judicial  committee
of  privy  council ,  defendant  censured  for  evading
verdict,  and  condemned  in  costs . .  4  Dec. ,

Mrs.  Kelly  v.  Rev.  J.  Kelly  ;  judicial  separation  for
ill  usage  (not  violence)  decreed . . 7  Dec. ,

Messrs.  Gurney  and  others,  for  conspiring  to  de-
fraud ;  acquitted .... 13-23  Dec. ,

Smith  v.  Earl  Brownlow :  after  long  litigation  de-
cision against  the  enclosure  of  the  common  at
Berkhampstead  by  lord  of  the  manor  14  Jan.  18

James  Clifford,  a  retired  artilleryman,  convicted  of
"  sweating"  sovereigns  by  the  voltaic  battery,

1  Feb. ,.

Jacob  Spinass,  a  Swiss,  convicted  of  murder  of
Cecilia  Aldridge,  an  unfortunate . .  3  March, ,

Dr.  Kinglake  convicted  of  bribery  on  behalf  of  his
brother  at  Bridgewater . . .26  March, ,.

Wicklow  peerage  case :  claim  for  an  infant  declared
to  be  unfounded  by  House  of  Lords  (remarkable
evidence) 31  March, ,,

Demetrius  Pappa,  a  bank  manager,  sentenced  to
S  years'  penal  servitude  for  embezzlement,  6  May, ,.

Sir  Charles  Mordaunt  v.  lady  Mordaunt,  and  others,
for  divorce:  preliminary  trial  of  her  sanity  (de-
clared insane  on  30  April,  1869),  16-25  Feb.  1870;
appeal,  27  April,  1870;  judgment  affirmed  2  June, ,.

Bishop  Goss  (R.C.)  v.  Hill  and  Whittaker:  will
case;  Mr.  Moreton's  will,  bequeathing  the  chief
of  his  property  to  the  bishop,  set  aside 16  June, „

Phillips  v.  Eyre,  for  imprisonment  during  Jamaica
rebellion  ;  verdict  for  defendant . . 23  June, ,,

Chelsea  Murders :  Walter  Miller  convicted  of  murder
of  Rev.  Elias  Huelin  and  Anne  Boss,  his  house-
keeper (8  or  9  May,  1870) . . .13,  14  July, ,,

Michael  Davitt  and  John  Wilson,  treason  felony ;
see  Fenians 18  July, ,.

John  Jones  or  Owen,  convicted  of  murder  of  Ema-
nuel Marshall  and  family  (7  persons,  early  22  May,
1870),  at  Denham,  near  Uxbridge . 22  July, ,

Shepherd  v.  Bennett  (Arches) ;  decision  that  defen-
dant had  retracted  heresy;  appeal  to  privy  council,

23  July, ,

Margaret  Waters  convicted  of  murder  of  John
Cowen,  infant;  her  sister  and  accomplice,  Sarah
Ellis,  was  convicted  of  fraud,  22  Sept.  (baby
farming  case ;  see  Infanticide) . 21-23  Sept. ,

Bev.  C.  Voysey  v.  Noble:  appeal  to  privy  council
judicial  committee  against  condemnation  for
heresy 10  Nov. ,

Ebdy  v.  McGowan :  verdict  against  an  architect  for
refusing  to  give  up  the  plans  of  a  building  he  was
aboiit  to  erect 16  Nov. ,

Catcli  v.  Sliaen: for  libel  on  master  of  Lambeth


workhouse;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  600I.  damages;
execution  stayed ....  15  Dec.  1870

Diamond  Robbery :  London  and  Ryder's  man  made
insensible  and  robbed  of  diamonds,  12  Jan.;  Mar-
tha Torpey  acquitted,  1  March ; ,  James  Torpey
pleaded  guilty  (sentenced  to  8  years'  penal  servi-
tude) 1  May,  1871

E.  Boulton,  L.  C.  Hurt,  F.  W.  Park,  and  others
(frequently  dressed  as  women)  tried  for  a  conspi-
racy; acquitted  . . . : 9-15  May, ,,

Tichborne  v.  Lushington :  the  plaintiff  declared
himself  to  be  sir  Roger  Charles  Tichborne,  sup-
posed to  have  been  lost  at  sea;  and  claimed  the
baronetcy  and  estates,  worth  about  24,000^.
a  year.

Roger  Charles  Tichborne,  son  of  sir  James,  born  . 1829

Educated  in  France  till . . . . about  1843

Entered  the  army 1849

Proposed  marriage  to  his  cousin  Kate  Doughty;
declined Jan.  1852

Sailed  from  Havre  for  Valparaiso  (March),  and  ar-
rived there 19  June,  1853

Sailed  from  Rio  Janeiro  in  the  Bella,  which  foun-
dered at  sea 20  April,  1854

[A  Chancery  suit  was  instituted,  and  his  death  legally
proved.]

His  mother  advertised  for  her  son . 19  May,  1865

The  claimant  (found  by  Gibbes  and  Cubitt  in  Aus-
tralia) asserted  that  he  and  eight  of  the  crew  were
saved  from  the  wreck  of  the  Bella;  that  he  went
to  Australia,  and  lived  there,  roughly,  13  years
under  the  name  of  Castro;  married  as  Castro,
Jan.;  as  Tichborne 3  July,  1866

He  set  up  his  claim ;  and  was  accepted  by  the  dow-
ager lady  Tichborne  as  her  son  at  Paris . Jan.  1867

[No  others  of  the  family  accepted  him ;  but  sir
Clifford  Constable  and  some  brother  officers  did.]*

His  claim  was  resisted  on  behalf  of  sir  Henry  (a
minor),  son  of  sir  Alfred  Tichborne;  and  after
chancery  proceedings  (begun  March,  1867)  a  trial
began  in  the  court  of  common  pleas  before  chief
justice  Bovill 11  May,  1871

The  claimant  was  examined  22  days ;  the  trial  ad- •
journed  on  40th  day,  7  July;  resumed,  7  Nov.;
case  for  claimant  closed ...  21  Dec. „

Trial  resumed,  15  Jan.;  the  attorney-general,  sir  J.
D.  Coleridge,  spoke  26  days ;  on  4  March  the
jury  expressed  themselves  satisfied  that  the  claim-
ant was  not  sir  Roger ;  on  the  103rd  day  he  was
declared  nonsuited . . . . .6  March,  1872

The  law  proceedings  are  said  to  have  cost  the  estate  ,
nearly  92,0002.

He  was  lodged  in  Newgate  to  be  tried  for  perjury,
7  March;  indicted  as  Thos.  Castro,  otherwise
Arthur  Orton,  for  perjury  and  forgery 9  April, ,,

The  court  of  queen's  bench  decide  that  he  may  be
admitted  to  bail,  23  April;  released  . 26  April, ,,

The  trial  of  the  claimant  for  perjury  and  forgery
begun  before  chief  justice  Cockburn,  and  justices
Mellor  and  Lush  at  bar  23  April ;  case  for  the
prosecution  closed,  10  July :  resumed  (for  defence)

21  July, ,,

Lady  Doughty,  mother  of  sir  Henry  Tichborne,  dies

13  Dec. ,,

[Up  to  27  June  (47th  day  of  the  trial),  out  of  150
witnesses  above  100  had  sworn  that  the  claimant
was  not  Tichborne ;  and  about  40  that  he  was
Arthur  Orton.]

The  claimant  forbidden  to  attend  public  meetings,

19  Sept.  1873

Case  for  the  defence  closed  on  124th  day,  27  Oct.,
adjourned  from  31  Oct.  to  17  Nov.,  then  to
27  Nov.  ;  rebutting  evidence  heard,  27,  28  Nov. „

Dr.  Kenealy's  summing-up,  f  2  Dec-14  Jan.  1874  ;
Mr.  Hawkins's  reply  ... 15  Jan. -28  Jan.  1874

[Mr.  Whalley,  M.P.,  fined  for  contempt  of  court,
250Z.,  23  Jan.]

The chief-justice's summing-up, 29  Jan. -28  Feb. „

Verdict :  that  the  claimant  did  falsely  swear, — that
he  was  Roger  Charles  Tichborne,  that  he  se-
duced Catherine  N.  E.  Doughty  in  1851,  and  that


*  Mr.  Guildford  Onslow,  who  spent  about  15,000?.,  iu
supporting  the  claimant,  died  20  Aug.  1882.
t  See  Englishman.


TEIALS.


987


TRIALS.


he  was  not  Arthur  Orton  ;  *  sentence, 14  years'
imprisonment  with  hard  labour . . 28  Feb.  1874
[Longest  trial  known  in  England.]
New  trial  refused  by  the  judges  . . 29  April, ,,
On  appeal,  sentence  affirmed  by  the  house  of  lords,
10,  11  March,  1881;  released  on  ticket  of  leave

20  Oct.  1884
Eltham  Murder: E.  W.  Pook  for  murder  of  Jane

Maria  Clousen ;  acquitted  . . 12-15  July,  ^l1

Hannah  Newington,  or  Flora  Davey;  convicted  of
manslaughter  of  Frederick  Moon;  she  was  his
mistress,  and  excited  by  insult . . 15  July, „

Capt.  H.  Hamilton  Beamish  and  others  tried  for
stranding  the  Agincourt  (see  Navy),  26  July  ;  re-
primanded by  the  court ... 8  Aug. ,,

Robert  Kelly :  for  murder  of  Talbot  (a  police-con-
stable and  informer  against  Fenians)  on  night  of
12  July;  acquitted  (extraordinary  verdict)

30  Oct.-io  Nov. ,,

Peek  v.  Gurney  and  others  (Overendand  Co.)  plain-
tiffs claim  for  loss  incurred  through  misrepresen-
tations in  the  company's  prospectus ;  disallowed
by  master  of  rolls  on  account  of  his  neglecting  to
verify  the  prospectus  and  his  too  late  claim;
costs  refused  to  defendants . . .6  Nov. ,,

Mr.Pigott  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  illegal
comments  on  a  trial,  in  the  Irishman  . 13  Nov. ,,

Kev.  John  Selby  Watson,  eminent  scholar,  killed
his  wife  in  a  fit  of  passion,  8  Oct. ;  convicted  and
imprisoned  for  life  .... 10-12  Jan.  1872

Christiana  Edmunds ;  convicted  of  poisoning  at
Brighton ;  she  purchased  chocolate  creams,  and
returned  poisoned  ones  to  the  confectioner,  and
thus  caused  death  to  one  child  and  nearly  killed
other  persons ;  reprieved  as  insane 15,16  Jan. ,,

The  Queen  v.  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury :  for  not
repaying  expenses  for  prosecutions  to  the  county
of  Lancaster;  mandamus  refused  . . 29  Jan. ,,

Park-lane  Murder:  Margaret  Dixblancs,  a  Belgian
emigrant,  murdered  her  mistress,  madanie  Riel,
on  Sunday,  7  April;  escaped;  taken  at  Paris;
confessed  to  killing  her  mistress  in  a  quarrel;
convicted,  but  recommended  to  mercy,  11-14
June ;  sentence  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for
life 21  June, ,,

Ellen  Kettel :  charged  with  poisoning  her  husband's
first  wife  in  order  to  marry  him ;  acquitted,

24,  25  Oct. ,,

Chelsea  Tragedy:  Hermann  Nagel  and  Paul  May,
young  Prussians,  came  to  London  to  avoid  con-
scription ;  their  money  being  spent,  they  agreed
to  commit  suicide;  after  wounding  May,  Nagel
shot  himself  dead,  21  Aug.;  May  recovered,  and
was  indicted  for  murder,  tried,  and  acquitted,

21  Nov. ,,
[He  was  convicted  and  punished  for  forgery  at

Berlin,  Feb.  1873.]

Baker  v.  Loader :  widow,  to  whom  107,000?.  had
been  bequeathed;  in  ten  years  is  reduced  to
poverty  by  imposition;  she  sues  the  widow  of
her  friend  Loader  and  solicitors;  verdict  of  vice-
chancellor  Malins,  ordering  deeds  to  Loader  to
be  cancelled;  the  solicitor  to  pay  his  own  costs,

20  Nov. ,,

Mr.  Hepworth  Dixon  v.  Smith  (Pall-Mall  Gazette),
for  libel ;  damages,  one  farthing . 26-29  Nov. ..

Mr.  Guildford  Onslow  and  Mr.  G.  H.  Whalley,
M.P.'s,  fined  for  contempt  of  court  in  speeches
respecting  the  Tichboriie  case,  20  Jan. ;  Mr.
Skipworth,  barrister,  for  same  offence,  condemned
to  three  months'  imprisonment  and  fined;  the
claimant  made  to  give  securities  for  xoool.,  fur  a
similar  offence . .  . . 29  Jan.  1873

Parke  v.  Harvey  Lewis,  sir  Joseph  McKenna,  and
others:  for  misuse  of  a  company's  funds  while
directors;  jodays'trial;  verdictforplaintiff^oJan. ,,

Omagh  Murder:  (of  Mr.  Glass,  29  June,  1871);
sub-inspector  Montgomery  tried ;  12  days;  strong
evidence;  jury  not  agreed  . . . 19  March, ,,

Broughton  v.  Knight:  will  of  Mr.  Knight  set  aside
on  account  of  unsound  mind  . 31  March, ,,

Andrews  v.  Salt:  decision  by  lord-chancellor  that  a
child  shall  be  educated  as  a  protestant  by  grand-
mother, not  by  Roman  catholic  uncle;  confirmed
on  appeal 6  May, ,,

*  Charles Orton declared the claimant to be his
brother  Arthur,  at  the  Globe  office,  10  March,  1874.


Rev.  O'Keeffe  v.  Cardinal  Cullen  (for  libel,  and
virtually  suspending  him  from  his  office) ;  consi-
deration of  demurrer;  judges  (at  Dublin)  divided
in  opinions  ;  three  decide  that  the  papal  ordi-
nance on  which  the  cardinal  relied  was  prohi-
bited by  the  statutes  of  Elizabeth ;  demurrer  set
aside,  7  May;  the  trial  begun  12  May;  verdict  for
plaintiff;  the  jury  gave  one  farthing  damages,

27  May,

[Mr.  O'Keeffe  submitted  to  the  cardinal,  May,  1876.]
Sub-inspector  Montgomery,  at  his  third  trial  for
the brutal murder  of  Mr. Glass,  at  Newton-
Stewart,  Ireland,  on  8  June,  1871  ;  convicted  and
confessed,  28  July  [executed,  Aug.  26]

Great  jewellery  frauds ;  Michael  and  Rebecca
Goldsmid  convicted  . . . .8  July,

Farrell  v.  Gordons  ;  much  property  left  to  R.  C.
Church  ;  will  affirmed .... 9  July,

Todd  v.  Lyne  (father  Ignatius) ;  son  of  the  plaintiff
rescued  from  convent  (where  he  had  taken  vows)
by  chancery 25  July,

Bank  Forgery  :  Austin  Biron  Bidwell,  George  Mac-
donnell,  George  Bidwell,  and  Edwin  Noyes,
Americans,  forged  bills  for  discounting  at  the
Bank  of  England,  West-Branch,  and  obtained
102,217?.  ;  detected  through  not  dating  one  bill;
convicted  ;  penal  servitude  for  life  [their  plot  to
escape  by  bribing  the  warders  failed] 18-26  Aug.

Rev.  John  Berrington  (after  30  years'  swindling)
sentenced  to  15  years'  penal  servitude 22  Aug.

Cheltenham  Chronicle  fined  150?.  for  commenting  on
trial  of  the  Tichborne  claimant . . 23  Sept.

Marshal  Bazaine  ;  see  France ... 6  Oct.

Gilbert  v.  Enoch  (for  Pall  Mall  Gazette)  for  libel  in
critique  on  "  The  Wicked  World,"  a  play  ;  verdict
for  defendant  (both  regarded  harmless) 27  Nov.

Capt.  Charles  S.  Maunsell  sentenced  to  a  month's
imprisonment  with  hard  labour  for  assaulting
the  duke  of  Cambridge  on  6  Jan.  .  4  Feb.

Miss  Fairland  gave  her  fortune  to  St.  Mary's  Domi-
nican convent,  Belfast ;  her  trustees  oppose  the
transfer ;  the  master  of  the  rolls  affirms  the  gift,

24  Feb.

Dr.  Hayman  v.  the  governing  body  of  Rugby
school ;  judgment  for  the  defendants  . 21  March,

JeanLuie  (Lindgren)  and  "capt." Brown  convicted
of  perjury  in  the  Tichborne  case  (7  years  and
5  years'  penal  servitude) . . . 9,  10  April,

Mordaunt  case  (see  1870),  divorce  court ;  3  judges
hold  that  insanity  is  no  bar  to  suit  for  divorce  ;
2  judges  hold  that  it  is  .... 15  May,

Callan,  M.P.,  v.  O'Reilly  Dease ;  for  libel  (termed
"  wilful  and  malicious  "  by  ch. -just.  Whiteside),
Dublin  ;  damages  one  farthing  .  2  July,

E.  Welby  Pugin,  convicted  of  libel  against  J.  R.
Herbert,  R.A.,  23  Sept. ;  not  sentenced,  24  Sept.,

Epping  forest  case  ;  decision  against  the  enclosures
of  the  lords  of  the  manors  as  illegal ;  see  Commons,

10  Nov.

Frederick  v.  Attorney-General :  col.  Charles  Edward
Frederick  declared'  heir  to  baronetcy ;  the  validity
of  the  marriage  of  his  grandi>arents  affirmed  in
divorce  court 18  Dec.

Rubery  v.  baron  Albert  Grant  and  M.  B.  Sampson
(long  city  editor  of  the  IVmcs)  for  libel  ;  the  article
in  Times,  18,  20  Nov.  and  20  Dec.  1872,  charged
Rubery  with  connection  with  a  fraud  in  a  certain
diamond  mine  in  Colorado  ;  10  days'  trial ;  Grant
cleared  ;  Sampson  fined  500/. . . .18  Jan.

[By  these  articles  the  public  were  protected  from  a
bad  scheme.]

Alleged  False  Prospechts  Case  :  (Canadian  Oil-Works
Corporation),  Charlton  v.  sir  John  Hay,  Mr.  East-
wick,  and  others  grossly  deceived  ;  17  days'  trial ;
jury  divided  ;  discharged  ;  no  verdict 24  Feb.

[Oil-wells  in  Ontario,  Canada,  property  of  Prince's
company  got  up  to  buy  them,  by  Longbottom  ;
scheme  not  accepted  in  the  city;  taken  up  at
west-end:  sir  John  Hay,  Mr.  M'Cullagh  Torrens,
Mr.  Eastwick,  and  others  induced  to  become
directors  ;  wells  bought;  company  collapsed.]

Philpotts  r.  Boyd:  see  Rere&os :  settled  by  judicial
committeeofprivycounr.il . . . 24  Feb.

Mordaunt  v.  Mordaunt  and  viscount  Cole,  (see
above,  May,  1874);  divorce  granted 11  March,

Terry  r.  Brighton  Aquarium  Company,  for  opening
on  Sundays  ;  verdict ;  penalty  200?.,  (see  Sunday),

27  April,


1S74


1875


TEIALS.


TRIALS.


Jackson  v.  Grand  Junction  Canal  Company,  (see
Gunpowder  Explosion,  2  Oct.  1874) ;  company  ad-
judged responsible  for  damages .  14  May,

Keith  Johnston  v.  Proprietors  of  Athencenm,  for
libel  in  criticism  of  an  atlas ;  Edinburgh ;
damages,  1275L  :  24  March,  new  trial ;  damages
reduced  to  100J 16  June,

John  Neave,  Arthur  Keen  (or  Murrell)  and  Annie
Bolwell,  convicted  of  coining  and  uttering  false
coin  at  railway  stations . . . 12,  13  July,

Jenkins  v.  Rev.  Flavel  Cook  (for  excluding  him
from  the  communion  for  heresy  (denying  per-
sonality of  Satan  and  eternal  punishment) ;  ver-
dict for  defendant  in  Court  of  Arches) .  16  July,

Col.  Valentine  Baker  sentenced  to  tine  of  500Z.,  and
12  months' imprisonment  for  indecently  assaulting
Miss  Dickenson  in  a  railway  carriage  2  Aug.

Mrs.  Gladstone  v.  capt.  Gladstone  (long  case  con-
cluded) ;  divorce  granted  . . . .6  Aug.

Win.  Thompson  Hunt  convicted  of  manslaughter
for  administering  strychnia  to  Mrs.  Hudson  (who
died)  and  others,  as  a  remedy  for  intoxication ;
5  years'  penal  servitude  . . . .25  Sept.

Wm.  Talley,  a  solicitor,  for  dissuading  a  person
bound  over  to  prosecute  from  fulfilling  his  en-
gagement ; sentence 1  year's  imprisonment

25  Sept.

Sugden  and  others  v.  St.  Leonards,  will  case  (lord
St.  Leonards'  will  missing  ;  many  codicils  left) ;
verdict  for  plaintiffs,  affirming  the  lost  will  on
his  daughter's,  Miss  Sugden's,  recollection  of  its

provisions 17-26  Nov.

[Verdict  affirmed  on  appeal,  14  March,  1876.]

Whitechapel  Murder  (which  see).

Henry  Wainwright  for  murder  of  Harriet  Lane,  and
his  brother  Thomas  as  accessory  before  and  after
the  fact ;  before  chief  justice  Coekburn  (nine
days) ;  Henry  sentenced  to  death  ;  Thomas,  as
accessory  after  fact,  to  7  years'  penal  servitude
22  Nov. -1  Dec.

Smith  v.  Union  Bank  of  London  (see  Drafts) ;  ver-
dict for  defendants . .  . ,  29  Nov.

Rev.  H.  Keet  v.  Rev.  G.  E.  Smith  (see  Reverend) ;

• appeal  to  privy  council ; verdict  for  the  plaintiff

21  Jan.

Persons  representing  the  parish  of  Folkestone  v.
Rev.  C.  J.  Ridsdale,  vicar  (for  ritualistic  prac-
tices) ;  verdict  for  plaintiffs  ;  the  vicar  to  be  ad-
monished and  pay  costs  . . . 3  Feb.

Jenkins  v.  Rev.  F.  S.  Cook,  appeal  from  the  dean  of
Arches  to  the  privy  council  judicial  committee  ;
verdict  for  plaintiff; (Rev. F.  Cook  resigned)

16  Feb.

Eupion  Gas  Company  (1874)  <  Queen  v.  Aspinall  and
others,  directors,  for  fraud  ;  long  trial ;  verdict,
Aspinall-  and  another  convicted  of  improperly
obtaining  settlement  of  quotation  on  Stock  Ex-
change ;  acquitted  of  charge  of  fraud  . 17  Feb.

[The  lord  chief  justice  declared  the  company  to  be
"a  fiction  and  a  sham  from  beginning  to  end ;  "
sentence,  Joseph  Aspinall  and  Charles  Knocker,
12  months'  imprisonment,  John  Saunders  Muir
and  William  Whyte,  2  months'  imprisonment,  1
July,  1876.]

W.K.  Vance  and  Ellen  Snce,  conspiracy  to  murder
(ostensibly  herself) ;  singular  case  ;  sentenced  to
imprisonment ....  .1  June,

Robert  Buchanan,  the  poet,  v.  P.  A.  Taylor,  M.  P. ,
proprietor  of  Examiner,  libels  in  papers  27  Nov.
and  1  Dec.  (letter  said  to  be  by  Mr.  A.  Swinburne,
the  poet) ;  damages,  150?.  1  July,

Twycross  (representing  many  others)  v.  baron
Albert  Grant  and  others,  to  recover  money  paid
for  shares  in  Lisbon  tramway  company,  promoted
by  defendant  and  others  ;  long  trial ;  able  speech
of  Grant ;  verdict,  700L  damages  .  13  July,
[Judgment  affirmed  on  appeal,  2  June,  1877.]'

Buckhurst  peerage,  claimed  by  earl  Delawarr  and  by
his  brother,  Mortimer  Sackville  West ;  house  of
lords  decide  in  favour  of  the  earl . 18  July,

Blackburn  Murder ;  Wm.  Fish  convicted  of  murder
and  violation  of  Emily  Mary  Holland,  aged  7  (28
March);  pleaded  temporary  insanity  . 28  July,

Richard  Banner  Oakley,  manager  of  Co-operative
Credit  Bank,  convicted  of  obtaining  money  by
false  pretences  ;  much  credulity  in  victims ;  5
years'  penal  servitude ....  9-12  Aug.

Will  Frauds :  Charles  Howard  (count  von  Howard,


1875


&c),  sentenced  to  5  years'  penal  servitude  for  ob-
taining 380?.  from  John  Harvey,  for  a  pretended
will,  (other  cases) .... 26  Oct.

Frederick  Henry  Vane  v.  sir  Henry  Ralph  Va.ne
(his  nephew) ;  verdict  for  defendant,  maintain-
ing his  father's  legitimacy  ;  chancery  division

25  Nov.

Lewis  v.  Higgins,  for  alleged  slander  in  speech  as
counsel ;  verdict  for  defendant,  affirming  privi-
lege of  counsel . . . . . 4  Dec.

Coe  (stage  manager,  Haymarket,  dismissed  as  ac-
cused of  receiving  payments  from  actors  engaged)
v.  Sothern  and  Buckstone  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff ;
damages,  1035! i3"Dec.

Lord  Longford  v.  Wellington  Purdon ;  will  giving
property  to  the  plaintiff's  young  son  set  aside  ;
the  testator,  Cooke,  having  been  underthe  undue
influence  of  Rev.  Wm.  Lyster  (plaintiff  not
blamed)  ;  25  days'  trial .... Feb.

Lynall  Thomas  v.  the  Queen  (petition  of  right) ;
for  patent  of  cannon,  <fcc. ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,
with  damages ....  io  March,

Great  Turf  Frauds  :  forgery  of  cheques  for  io,oooi.,
&c.  ;  about  13,000?.  obtained ;  five  sentenced  to
penal  servitude  ;  Henry  Benson,  15  years  ;  Wm.
and  Fred.  Kerr  and  Chas.  Bate,  10  years  ;  Ed-
win Murray,  accessory,  18  months 12 — 23  April,

Cresswell  and  others  v.  Walrond  ;  will  of  Bethell
Walrond  set  aside  by  arrangement  (he  had  be-
queathed his  property  to  strangers  and  dogs,  had
been  cruel  to  his  children,  decorated  his  bed
with  skulls  and  hearse  plumes,  &c.) 13  June,

Queen  v.  Charles  Bradlaugh  and  Annie  Besant,  for
publication  of  "Fruits  of  Philosophy,"  by  Dr.
Knowlton,  which' they  defended,  on  grounds  of
humanity,  in  long  speeches  ;  verdict,  the  book
calculated  to  deprave,  but  not  intended,  18 — 21
June  ;  sentence  (through  the  defendants  not  sub-
mitting to  the  court),  6  mouths'  imprisonment,
■200I.  fine  for  both,  28  Jane  ;  appeal,  on  ground
of  legal  informality,  disallowed  by  queen's  bench

16  Nov.

Nathaniel  Drnseovitch,  John  Meiklejolm,  andWm.
Palmer,  police  inspectors,  and  Edward  Froggatt,
solicitor,  charged  with  conspiracy  to  defeat  the
ends  of  justice  in  respect  to  turf  frauds  (see  above,
12 — 23  April);  examination  began,  12  July;
Froggatt  committed,  6  Sept. ;  chief  inspector
Clarke  arrested,  8  Sept.;  28  days' examination ;
committed,  22  Sept.  ;  trial  began,  24  Oct.  ;  all
convicted  except  Clarke  ;  sentence,  2  years'  im-
prisonment with  hard  labour . . 20  Nov.

Wm.  Swindlehurst,  secretary,  and  Dr.  John  Baxter
Langley,  director  of  Artisans'  Dwelling  Com-
pany, and  Edward  Saffery,  convicted  of  defraud-
ing shareholders  of  about  24,312;.;  officers  sen-
tenced to  18  months',  Saffery  12  months'  impri-
sonment 23  —26  Oct.

Thos.  Hyslop  (aged  19)  and  John  Denham  (aged  18)
convicted  of  high  way  robbery  at  Blaekheath  23  Oct.

Penge  Case :  Louis  A.  E.  Staunton,  Patrick  L.
Staunton  his  brother,  and  Eliz.  Ann,  his  wife,
and  her  sister,  Alice  Rhodes,  mistress  of  Louis  ;
tried  for  murder  by  starvation  of  Harriet,  wife  of
Louis  (a  woman  of  weak  intellect,  married  for
her  property,  and  soon  deserted),  19  Sept.  ;  all
convicted,  26  Sept.;  respited,  13  Oct.;  Alice
Rhodes  pardoned  ;  the  others  sentenced  to  penal
servitude  for  life  ;  announced . . 30  Oct.

Coote  (solicitor)  v.  Kenealy ;  for  payments  ;  ver-
dict for  plaintiff  ..... 14  Nov.

Forged  Leases:  Frederick  Dimsdale,  solicitor,  Chas.
Burrell  Moore,  clerk,  and  others ;  forged  leases,
and  borrowed  money  on  them  (above  300,000/.);
many  lenders  did  not  appear ;  pleaded  guilty  ;
sentence,  Dimsdale,  penal  servitude  for  life ;
Moore,  7  years  ;  others  less  .  \6,  17  Jan.

Rev.  H.  J.  Dodwell  fired  at  the  master  of  the.  rolls,
sir  George  Jessel,  22  Feb.;  acquitted  as  insane

15  March,

Madame  Rachel  (Levison,  or  Leverson),  convicted
of  misdemeanour;  obtained  money  and  jewels
from  Mrs.  Pearce,  for  "beautifying;"  5  years'
penal  servitude  . . . 10,  11  April,

Eugene  Marie  Chantrelle,  Frenchman,  convicted  of
murder  of  wife,  at  Edinburgh ;  much  cruelty
disclosed 10  May,

Will case, Dublin ; Christopher  Neville Bagot,


1876


1877


TEIALS.

made  a  fortune  in  Australia  ;  made  will,  disin-
heriting his  son  as  illegitimate  ;  died,  23  May,
1877 ;  trial,  23  days  ;  painful  disclosures ;  the
will  set  aside  (se-  below,  1879) . . 20  May,  18;

Harrington  v.  Victoria  Graving  Dock  Company  ;
he  claimed  remainder  of  commission  for  obtain-
ing an  order  from  Great  Eastern  railway  com-
pany ;  nonsuited ;  such  commissions  declared
illegal  by  queen's  bench ... 4  June, ,.

Jas.  T.  Northcott,  Geo.  Thompson,  Thos.  G.  Wood
(of  the  Albion  Life  Insurance  company) ;  sen-
tenced to  5  years'  penal  servitude  for  conspiracy,
and  obtaining  money  on  false  pretences  ;  subor-
dinates sentenced  to  less  imprisonment 8  June, ,,

Charles  Marvin,  copying-clerk  of  foreign  office,  ex-
amined for  copy  of  an  Anglo-Russian  agreement
published  in  Globe,  14  June,  27  June  ;  discharged

16  July, „

Taylor  v.  Gwyn ;  claim  for  Jermy  estates  (see
jenny  murders  by  Rush,  Trials,  1849) ;  claim
denied  ;  trial  set  aside  by  statute  of  limitations

5  Aug. ,,

In  re  Agar  Ellis ;  the  husband's  promise  before
marriage  that  his  children  should  be  brought  up
Romanists,  permitted  to  be  withdrawn  by  chan-
cery 6  Aug. „

The  Board  of  "Works  v.  rev.  F.  G.  Lee,  of  All  Saints,
Lambeth  ;  queen's  bench  division  decide  that  the
incumbent  of  a  church  is  not  its  owner,  and
therefore  not  responsible  for  keeping  it  in  repair,

11  Nov. ,,

Annie  Louisa  lady  Gooch  (with  Ann  Walker) ;  she
tried  to  pass  a  child  as  her  own  and  her  husband's,
committed  for  trial  30  Nov.,  indictment  ignored,

11  Dec. ,,

Paul  and  others  v.  Summerhayes  ;  appeal ;  sentence
against  plaintiffs  affirmed  (foxhunters  may  not
trespass),  queen's  bench  . . . .16  Nov. ,,

Queen  v.  Bandmann  (for  assault  on  Mrs.  Rousby),
not  guilty  . .  . 19-20  Nov. ,,

Henry  Sturt  Marshall,  asst.  sec.  of  curates'  augmen-
tation fund,  convicted  of  embezzling  about  7,000^. ;
confessed 24  Oct. ,

Whistler  v.  Ruskin,  for  libellous  criticism  in  "Fors
Clavigera,"  one  farthing  damages  . 25,  26  Nov. ,

Hill  and  others  v.  managers  of  Metropolitan  Asylums
District  11  (days),  verdict,  that  Hampstead  small-
pox hospital  was  a  nuisance  (verdict  affirmed  on
appeal,  28  Jan.  1879) . .-  .29  Nov. ,.

Mr.  Wybrow  Robertson  (manager  of  Westminster
Aquarium)  v.  Labouchere,  for  libel  in  Truth,
27  Nov.,  verdict  for  defendant . . 20  Dec. ,,

Muir  and  others  ;  court  of  session,  decides  that  trus-
tees who  have  invested  in  the  "City  of  Glasgow
bank,"  are  responsible  [affirmed  on  appeal  to  house
of  lords,  7  April,  1879] . . . 20  Dec. ,

Stephen  Gambrill  for  murder  of  Mr.  Arthur  Gillow
(on  5  Dec.  when  defending  agricultural  ma-
chinery), at  Wednesborough,  near  Sandwich,  Kent,
convicted 14-15  Jan.  i£

Long  firm  forgeries,  Kettle  and  others  convicted,
sentenced  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment,

16-17  Jan. ,

City  of  Glasgow  Bank  directors  and  managers  (see
under  Banks,  note)  convicted . 20  Jan. -1  Feb. ,

Charles  Peace  (or  John  Ward),  committed  many
burglaries  in  skilful  manner,  convicted  of  at-
tempting life  of  policeman,  19  Nov. ;  convicted  of
murder  of  Arthur  Dyson,  at  Bannercross  near
Sheffield,  29  Nov.  1876 . . . .4  Feb. ,

[He  jumped  from  a  moving  railway  train  near  Shef-
field, and  was  nearly  killed,  22  Jail.  ;  confessed  to
murders,  &c. ;  exonerated  William  Habron,  con-
victed as  an  accomplice  in  a  murder  (therefore
released,  18  March);  executed  at  Leeds,  25  Feb.] ,

Dr.  .Julius  r.  Bishop  of  Oxford  (for  noi  prosecuting
rev.  T.  T.  Carter  of  C'lewer  for  ritualistic  prac-
tices), queen's  bench,  (verdicl  lor  plaintiff,  set
aside  on  appeal,  jo  May,  Mr.  Carter  resigned  ?.\

March,  1880)  ..'... 8  March, ,

Kentish  /'"»•»  murder,  Thomas  ferryman  convicted
of  murder  of  his  mother . .  2  April, ,

Queen  v.  Booker  &  Wyman  (for  libel  in  Truth,
against  Mr.  Lambri),  verdict  against  Wyman  ;  long
trial 30  April, ,

Duke  of  Norfolk  v.  Arhuthnot,  claiming  ownership


989


TEIALS.


of  Fitz-alan  chapel  in  Arundel  church,  verdict  for
plaintiff,  common  pleas ... 17  May,  1879
[Decision  affirmed  on  appeal,  7  June,  1880.]

Bagot  will  case,  appeal,  new  trial  ordered 5  June, ,,
Shepherd  v.  Francis  (for  libel  in  a  review  in  the

"  Athenseum "),  damages,  1 50I.  .  .  16  June,  ,,
The  Queen  v.  sir  Charles  Reed  ;  the  queen's  bench
decide  that  the  metropolitan  school  board  have
power  to  borrow  money  .  .  -27  June,  ,,
Sturla  v.  Freccia  :  Antonio  Mangini,  born  1735,  con-
sul here  about  1771,  died  1803  ;  his  daughter
married  Aquila  Brown,  1792  ;  after  8  years
contest  established  her  disputed  legitimacy,
1811  :  died  intestate  in  London,  aged  93,  1871,  her
property,  after  a  trial,  awarded  to  the  Freccia
family,  1876.  the  claim  of  Madame  Sturla  set
aside  by  vice-chancellor  . . .24  June. ,,

Richmond  murder  ,Katherine  Webster,  convicted  of
murder  of  Mrs.  Julia  Martha  Thomas  (see  Rich-
mond) 8  July, ,,

Edmund  Galley  convicted  of  murder,  by  error,
and  transported  ;  declared  innocent  by  the  house
of  commons 25  July, ,,

Euston-square  mystery,  Hannah  Dobbs,  for  murder
of  Matilda  Hacker,  acquitted  . .  23  July, ,,

The  mutilated  remains  of  Matilda  Hacker,  eccentric,
about  50  years  old,  were  found  in  a  coal-cellar,
No.  4,  Euston-square.  Hannah  Dobbs  was  maid-
servant there.  She  published  her  autobiography
in  which  she  attacked  her  former  master,  Sewerin
Bastendorff,  who,  after  bringing  an  action  for
libel,  was  convicted  of  perjury . . Dec. ,,

(He  was  awarded  by  consent  500J.  damages  for  the
libel), 27  Jan.  1881

Rev.  Christopher  Newman  Hall  v.  Mrs.  Hall,  and
Mr.  Richardson,  long  trial,  divorce  granted,  8  Aug. ,,

Jonathan  Gaydon  (or  Geyden),  for  murder  of  Miss
Mary  White  at  Chingford,  21  June,  1857,  confessed,
retracted,  convicted  (reprieved) . . 24  Oct. ,,

Adolphus  Rosenberg,  for  libel  against  Mrs.  Langtry
and  Mrs.  West,  in  Town  Talk,  convicted,  18
months'  imprisonment . . .25,  27,  Oct. ,,

Tranmere  baby-farming  ccrse(near  Birkenhead),  John
and  Catherine  Barns,  convicted  of  manslaughter  ;
(they  received  illegitimate  infants  with  premiums
of3o?.,&c.) 28,  29  Oct.  1879

Dr.  Arthur  H.  Nowell  v.  George  Williams  (for  plac-
ing him  in  a  lunatic  asylum),  verdict  for  the  de-
fendant, medical  men  censured  bythejury,  13  Nov. ,,

Phillips,  surgeon,  v.  S.  W.  railway  company,  for
injury,  awarded  7000L  by  justice  Field;  new
trial,  awarded  i6,oooZ.  by  lord  ch.  justice  Cole-
ridge, common  pleas,  new  trial  refused 6  Dec.

Smee^.  Smee  and  corporation  of  Brighton,  will  set
aside,  Brighton  loses  a  free  library  bequeathed,

5  Dec. „

Hilliard  v.  Rose  &  Todd,  will  affirmed,  singular  case,

12  Dec. ,,

Edward  Froggatt  (see  above,  20  Nov.  1877),  sen-
tenced to  7  years'  penal  servitude  for  fraudulent
conversion  of  trust  property  (8000?.) . 17  Dec. ,,

James  Lewis  Paine  and  Fanny  Matthews,  for  mur-
der of  Miss  Annie  Maclean,  aged  34,  daughter  of
col.  Maclean,  C.B.,  a  deformed  lady  of  property,
by  starving,  administering  spirits,  and  ill-usage,
committed  15  Dec;  Fanny  .Matthews  acquitted
16  Feb.  Paine  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for
life . . . .  . . 24  Feb. 1SS0

Railway  commissioners,  powers  limited  (see  Rail-
ways, 1880) 13  .Ian. ,,

Martin  v.  Mackonochie,  new  action  for  deprivation,
first  movement,  see  Public  Worship . 17  Jan. ,,

Alexander  Schosser  attempted  to  kill  priests  in  the
Italian  chapel,  Hatton-garden,  to  Jan.,  tried,  scu-
tei .1  io  imprisonment  for  life . 10,  11  Peh. .,

Win.  Henry  Waller,  forger  by  chemicals,  &c,  sen-
tenced to  20  years' penal  servitude .  23  March, ,,

Dr.  Caleb  Charles  whitefoord  sentenced  to  2
months'  imprisonment  and  line  of  50/.  for  forging
letter  to  stop  execution  of  Charles  Shurety,

24  March,

Great  West  of  England  bank  directors  (.lei,, me
Murchand  others),  for  publishing  false  balance-
sheets,  acquitted . . .  28  April — 5  May, ,,

Lambri  <■.  Labouchere,  for  libel  in  Frui  .  verdici
for  defendant 15  May, ,,

Tiehbornt  case,  writ  of  error  before  court  of  appeal,
granted  1 3  Jan.,  sentence  affirmed .  24,  25  June, ,,


TRIALS.


990


TRIALS.


Northern  Counties  Insurance  Company,  James  E.
Crabtree,  manager,  Geo.  Edw.  Nesbitt,  ac-
countant, and  four  directors,  sentenced  to  impri-
sonment for  making  and  circulating  false  accounts,

22  July,  i

Pleasanee  Louisa  Ingle,  nurse  at  Guy's  hospital,
convicted  of  manslaughter  (she  putting  Louisa
Morgan,  a  patient,  into"  a  cold  bath  and  leaving
her),  3  months'  imprisonment . . g  Aug.

Henry  Perry,  for  robbing  Clarence  Lewis  in  a  Ken-
sington railway  carriage,  and  attempting  to  throw
him  out  of  the  carriage,  &c.  ;  whipping  and  20
years'  penal  servitude . . . 15  Sept.

Thomas  Wheeler  for  murder  of  Edward  Anstee  at
Marshall's  Wick  farm,  near  St.  Alban's,  22  Aug.
convicted 6,  8  Nov.

Sergeant  Wm.  Marshman  (by  court-martial),  for
alleged  fraudulent  marking  at  the  volunteer  rifle
meetings  at  Wimbledon,  1S78,  1879,  1880,  ac-
quitted .  13  Aug. — 16  Sept.

George  Pavey  convicted  of  murder  of  Ada  Shepherd,
aged  ten  (Acton  murder),  and  Wm.  Herbert,  con-
victed of  murder  of  Jane  Messenger  in  Finsbury
park 24  Nov.

Mr.  P.  Callan,  M.P.,  convicted  of  libel  against  Mr.
A.  M.  Sullivan,  M.P.  (fine  50I.) . . 30  Nov.

Debenham  &  Preebody  v.  Mellon,  appeal,  house  of
lords  decide  that  a  husband  is  not  responsible
for  wife's  debts  if  he  allow  her  sufficient  means,

27  Nov.

Attorney-general  v.  Edison  Telephone  company,  29
Nov.  etseq.,  verdict  against  company,  establish-
ing monopoly  bought  by  Government 20  Dec.

Trial  of  Charles  Stewart  Parnell,  Thomas  Sexton,
Timothy  Daniel  Sullivan,  John  Dillon,  Joseph
Gillis  Biggar,  all  M.P.'s,  Thomas  Brennan,  Pat-
rick Egan  and  Michael  O'Sullivan,  secretary,
treasurer,  and  assist,  secretary  of  the  land  league,
Michael  Boyton,  Patrick  Joseph  Gordon,  Matthew
Harris,  John  W.  Mally,  John  W.  Walsh,  and
P.  J.  Sheridan,  indicted  for  conspiracy  to  prevent
tenants  paying  rent,  <fec.  Queen's  Bench,  Dublin  ;
lord  chief  justice  May  retires,  as  having  been
alleged  to  have  given  an  opinion  on  the  case
previously ; trial  began  28  Dec. 1880,  jury  dis-

„  agreeing  were  discharged . . -25  Jan.

Jones  and  others  (trustees)  v.  rev.  John  Turner
Stannard,  nonconformist  minister,  and  others,  to
dismiss  him  for  doctrine  contrary  to  trust  deed  ;
verdict  for  plaintiffs,  chancery  division 1  Feb.

Mary  Annie  Wilmot,  nurse,  attempt  to  poison  Mrs.
Booth  (whose  son  and  daughter  had  died  under
doubtful  circumstances),  at  Sheffield,  strong
case,  acquitted 16  Feb.

Hampstead  small-pox  hospital  case  (see  above,
1878-9),  on  appeal,  to  the  house  of  lords,  preced-
ing judgments  reversed . . .7  March,

Dysart  peerage  legitimacy  case,  Wm.  John  Manners
claims  by  an  English  marriage  of  lord  Hunting-
tower,  Albert  Edwin  Tollemache  by  a  Scotch  mar-
riage, -which  is  declared  not  proved,  house  of
lords  (painful  details) ... 7  March,

Clarke  v.  Bradlaugh,  suit  for  penalty  of  500L  for
sitting  and  voting  as  M.P.  without  taking  the
oath,  on  July  2,  1880;  verdict  for  plaintiff ;  ap-
peal, sentence  confirmed* . . 30,  31  March,

Edward  Levi  Lawson  v.  Labouchere,  M.P.  for  libels
in  Truth,  seven  days'  trial,  jury  disagree,  no
verdict 28  March,

Spiritualist  case,  Susan  Wills  Fletcher  (wife  of  a
spiritualist  doctor  in  America,  who  was  concerned
in  the  case),  convicted  of  obtaining  by  false  pre-
tences about  io,oooi.  (in  jewellery,  &c),  of  Mrs.
Hart-Davies,  long  trial,  twelve  months'  imprison-
ment with  hard  labour  . . .12  April,

Johann  Most,  convicted  of  libel  against  Alexander
II.  of  Bussia,  and  incitement  to  murder  in  the
Freiheit  for  19  March,  25  May;  sentence
affirmed  on  appeal,  18  June  ;  16  months'  impri-
sonment with  hard  labovu- . . 29  June,

Saunders  v.  Richardson,  5  judges  decide  that  pa-
rents must  either  pay  board-school  fees  for  child


*  Verdict  affirmed  (see  Barratry),  22  July  ;  Bradlaugh
appeals,  12 — 14  Nov.  ;  new  trial  granted,  2',  3  Dec.  1881 ;
appeal  allowed  by  lords  justices,  22— 24  Feb. ;  sentence
confirmed,  30  March,  1882 ;  sentence  reversed  by  the
lords,  9  April,  1883.


beforehand  or  apply  for  pecuniary  help  ;  coming
without  fee  considered  non-attendance 27  June,  18S

Bend  Or  libel,  Barrow  v.  "Morning  Post,"  for  accu-
sation of  doctoring  the  horse,  verdict  for  plain-
tiff, damages  1750? 27,  28  June, ,,

Big  Ben  libel,  Stainbank  (for  Mears)  v.  sir  E.  C.
Beckett,  27  June,  verdict  for  plaintiff,  200I.  da-
mages 5  July, „

Percy  Lefroy  alias  Mapleton  committed  for  trial
for  murder  of  Mr.  Fk.  I.  Gold  on  the  London  and
Brighton  railway  (27  June),  21  July ;  convicted,  8
Nov.;  confessed;  executed-. . . 29  Nov. ,,

Notting  Hill  Fire,  William  Nash  and  Maria  Wright,
for  murder  of  Elizabeth  Jane  Clark  and  others  by
fire,  30  May;  he  sentenced  to  death  (reprieved),
she  acquitted 3,  4  Aug. „

Ledru  Rolin  Reynolds,  adventurer,  with  many
aliases,  convicted  of  remarkable  frauds  connected
with  the  silver  mine  company,  two  years'  penal
servitude 15  Sept ,,

Mabel  Wilberforce,  an  adventuress,  convicted  of
gross  perjury  in  action  against  Mr.  Philip  ;  nine
months' penal  servitude . . . 24  Oct. ,,

Kate  Dover,  for  murder  of  Chas.  Skinner,  artist,
at  Sheffield,  convicted  of  manslaughter  . 7  Feb.  18S

Dr.  G.  H.  Lamson,  for  murder  of  Percy  M.  John
(see  Wimbledon) ;  convicted,  8 — 14  March  ;  exe-
cuted 28  April ,t

Roderick  Maclean,  for  shooting  at  the  queen,  ac-
quitted as  insane .... 19  April, „

Esther  Pay,  for  murder  of  Georgiana  Moore  (see
Pimlico),  acquitted . . . 27 — 29  April, ,,

Albert  Young,  for  threatening  to  shoot  at  the
queen,  10  years'  penal  servitude . 26  May, ,y

Mr.  Thomas  Scrutton  v.  Miss  Helen  Taylor,  a  libel
concerning  St.  Paul's  industrial  school ;  damages
zoool.  . . . . . . .30  June, ,,

Sir  Henry  Tyler,  M.P.,  v.  Wm.  Jas.  Ramsey,  Geo.
Wm.  Foote,  and  Edwd.  Wm.  Whittle,  also  Chas.
Bradlaugh,  for  blasphemous  libel  in  the  Free-
thinker (lord  mayor,  1 1  July),  committed  for  trial,

21  July, ,,

Next  of  Kin  Fraud,  J.  E.  Rogers,  A.  Mc.Kenzie,  J.
H. .  Shakspear,  and  W.  Evans  sentenced  to  im-
prisonment 21  July, „

Thomas  Walsh,  for  treason-felony  (see  Fenians),  7
years'  penal  servitude . . . 7 — 9  Aug. ,,

John  Saunders,  desperate  ruffian,  convicted  of  bur-
glary and  attempt  to  murder  at  Stamford-hill ;
penal  servitude  for  life ... 19  Oct. ,,

Charles  Soutar,  for  stealing  the  body  of  the  earl  of
Crawford  ;  Edinburgh  ;  5  years'  penal  servitude,

23,  24  Oct. „

Wm.  Meager  Bartlet,  a  manager  of  mines,  con-
victed of  murder  of  illegitimate  child,  Exeter,

27  Oct. „

Charles  Brookshaw,  for  threatening  to  kill  the
prince of Wales, 10 years' penal servitude,

21  Nov. ,,
St.  Luke's  Mystery,  Franz  Felix  Stum,  convicted  of

forgery  of  signature  of  Urban  Napoleon  Stanger,
baker,  who  had  disappeared ;  10  years'  penal
servitude n  Dec. ,,

Plumstead  Murder,  Louisa  Jane  Taylor,  convicted
of  poisoning  Mary  Ann  Tregillis,  aged  81,  15  Dec. „

Maxwell  Heron,  commander  of  H.M.S.  Clyde,  at
Aberdeen  sentenced  by  court-martial  to  dismissal
for  embezzlement  and  misconduct . 21  Dec. „

Richard  Claude  Belt  (sculptor)  v.  Charles  Lawes
(sculptor),  for  libel  in  Vanity  Fair,  20  Aug.  1881,
et  seq. ;  (charges  of  fraudulent  imposture,  &c.,)
before  Baron  Huddleston,  Exchequer  division,
21  June,  et  seq.,  14  Nov.,  et  seq.  ;  verdict  on  43rd
day  for  plaintiff,  damages  5000Z.  . 28  Dec. ,:

Goodacre  v.  Watson,  to  restrain  deposition  of  pes-
tilential refuse  on  building  ground,  as  a  nuisance
at Fulham  ; injunction granted with costs,

22  Feb.  18;
Bethell  v.  Sir  Percy  Shelley,  for  infringement  of

the  Theatre  act,  verdict  for  defendant,  is.  damages

23  Feb. ,,
G.  W.  Foote,  editor,  W.  J.  Ramsey,  printer,  and

H.  A.  Kemp,  publisher,  sentenced  to  imprison-
ment for  blasphemous  libels  in  the  Freethinker,

5  Mar. „
Clarke  v.  Bradlaugh,  verdict  for  defendant  on  ap-
peal to  lords  (see  above,  March,  1881) 9  April, „


TEIALS.

C.  Bradlaugh,  for  blasphemy  in  the  Freethinker,
10  April,  acquitted . . . .14  April,  :

Bradlaugh  v.  Newdegate,  for  supporting  an  action
by  a  common  informer,  verdict  for  plaintiff  with
costs 23  April,

Phoenix  park  murders  (sec  under  Ireland)  . April,

May,

Belt  v.  Lawes  :  appeal  for  new  trial,  24 May — 9  June,

Dynamite  Plot  (see  Birmingham,  England,  and
London,  1883),  Thomas  Gallagher,  Henry  Wilson,
John  Curtin,  and  Alfred  Whitehead,  for  treason-
felony,  sentenced  to  .penal  servitude  for  life ;
William  Ansburgh  and  Bernard  Gallagher,  ac-
quitted 11 — 14  June,

Strome  Ferry  Case,  Ten  men  were  sentenced  to
four  months'  imprisonment  for  violently  stopping
the  transmission  of  fish  by  Highland  railway  on
Sunday,  3  June 23  July,

Dynamite  conspiracy,  Timothy  Featherstone,  and
three  other  Fenians, convicted at Liverpool,

7—9  Aug.

Wm.  Gouldstone  convicted  of  murder  of  his  five
children  at  Walthamstow  (on  8  Aug.),  14  Sept.  ;
respited  as  insane .... 3  Oct.

Bournemouth  case.  Mrs.  Miller,  the  Joy  breach  of
promise ;  conflicting  evidence ;  damages  for
plaintiff,  2350Z 15  Nov.

French  Date  Coffee  Co.,  Bel  lairs  v.  Haymen  and
others,  promoters  ;  misleading  prospectus,  ver-
dict for  plaintiff 22  Nov.

London  and  River  Plate  Bank  robbery, George  Warden
pleads  guilty  to  robbery  of  securities  (about
116,000?.),  26  Nov.,  and  John  Davis  Watters  con-
victed of  receiving  the  same  ;  both  sentenced  to
12  years'  penal  servitude . . -27  Nov.

Dobbs  v.  Grand  Junction  water  works  co.  ;  on  ap-
peal the  house  of  lords  decides  that  houses  are  to
be  rated  for  water  on  the  rated,  not  the  gross
value 30  Nov.

Patrick  O'Donnell,  convicted  of  murder  of  James
Carey, the informer (see Ireland), 30 Nov.,

1  Dec.

Priestman  v.  Thomas:  Whalley  will  case;  incredi-
ble incidents  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff;  a  forged  will  ;
fraudulent  compromise,  proposed  by  defendant  ;
15  days'  trial 4  Dec.

Central  News  v.  Judy,  for  libel  respecting  telegrams,
verdict  for  defendant . . . .13  Dec.

Belt  v.  Lawes,  again  ;  the  judges  decide  for  a  new
trial  unless  Mr.  Belt  accepts  500^.  instead  of
5,oooL  ;  Belt  accepts,  defendant  objects,  21  Dec.

Wm.  Wolff  and  Edwd.  Bondurand,  for  plot  to  blow
up  German  embassy,  arrested  in  Westminster,
22  Nov.  1883  ;  jury  disagree,  14 — 19  Jan.  ;
prisoners  discharged . . . .28  Jan.  :

Bradlaugh  v.  Gosset ;  verdict  for  defendant  (see
Parliament) 9  Feb.

Attorney-general  v.  Birkbeck,  for  contravention  of
the  Bank  act  of 1844 ;  verdict  for  the  crown,

9  Feb.

Liverpool  poisoning  case,  Catherine  Flanagan  and
Margaret  Higgins,  convicted  of  the  murder  of
Thomas  Higgins ;  other  charges,  16  Feb.  ;  exe-
cuted 3  March,

Belt  v.  Lawes,  appeal  before  Master  of  the  Rolls
and  others,  3  March,  sentence  of  the  other  court
affirmed  with  costs  ... 17  March,

London  Financial  Association  v.  Kelk  and  others  ;
case  dismissed  (see  Alexandra  park) 8  March,

Earl  v.  countess  of  Euston,  divorce  sought  on
ground  that  she  had  a  husband  living  when  she
married  ;  as  it  was  proved  that  this  man  had  a
wife  living  when  he  married  her,  and  that  thus
she  was  free,  divorce  was  refused  . 4  April,

Parks-place  Club  declared  by  the  Queen's  Bench  to
be  a  gaming-house ;  Mr.  Jenks,  the  proprietor
and  others  fined .... 24  June,

Mrs.  Weldon  v.  Dr.  Semple,  for  signing  certificate
of  lunacy ;  ten  days  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  1000/.
damages 28  July,

Daley  and  Egan,  Aug.  1884  (see  Dynamite)  . May,

Thomas  Henry  Orrock,  convicted  of  murder  of  po-
liceman Cole  (on  1  Dec.  1882) ;  remarkable  evi-
dence 19,  20  Sept.

Ticliliorne  Claimant  (see  above,  1871 — 4)  released  on
ticket-of-leave 20  Oct.

Mignonette  Case  (see  Wrecks) .  . 6  Nov


991


TEIALS.


Miss  Finney  v.  viscount  Garmoyle  ;  breach  of  pro-
mise of  marriage  ;  a  verdict  by  consent  for  io,oooL

20  Nov.

Defence  society  for  innocent  prisoners;  Morley
Jervis  sentenced  to  2  years'  penal  servitude,
Vernon  Garland  15  months'  and  Charles  Kemp
•  9  months',  for  fraud  ... 21  Nov.

Adams  v.  Hon.  B.  Coleridge,  for  libel  in  a  letter  to
Miss  M.  Coleridge  ;  verdict  of  jury  for  plaintiff,
3,ooo£.  ;  verdict  by  judge  Manisty  for  defendant,
the  letter  being  privileged . . 21,  22  Nov.

Whalley  Will  Case  (see  Dee.  1883),  Charles  Thomas
and  Thomas  William  Nash,  convicted  of  forgery,
15  years'  penal  servitude,  Edward  Gunnell  ac-
quitted . , . . . 24  Nov.— 2  Dec.

Mrs.  Weldon  v.  Dr.  Forbes  Winslow,  for  treating

her  asa  lunatic,  500I.  awarded  to  plaintiff,  4th  trial,

25 — 29  Nov.

Eliz.  Gibbons,  for  murder  of  husband ;  she  asserted
his  suicide,  18-19  Dec..;  life imprisonment,3i Dec.

Mr.  Edmund  Yates  sentenced  to  4  months'  im-
prisonment, for  libel  against  the  earl  of  Lonsdale
(in  The  World),  July,  1883- April,  1884;  appeal  dis-
allowed 16  Jan.

Mr.  Irving  Bishop  fined,  io,oooZ.  for  libel  (reduced
to  500L  on  appeal)  (see  Thought  Reading)  15  Jan.

John  Lee,  footman,  convicted  of  murder  of  Miss
Emma  A.  W.  Keyse,  his  mistress  (at  Babbicombe,
near  Torquay,  15  Nov.),  2-4  Feb.  ;  when  about  to
be  hanged  at  Exeter,  the  drop  failed  three  times,
and  Lee  was  removed  and  reprieved  . 23  Feb.

The  earl  of  Durham's  petition  for  annulling  his  mar-
riage, on  account  of  his  wife's  alleged  insanity
at  the  time  of  their  union  dismissed  with  costs
by sir James Hannen, after 8 days' trial,

10  March,

Mrs.  Georgina  Weldon  sentenced  to  6  months'  im-
prisonment for  libel  on  M.  Jules  Prudence  Ri-
viere 30  March,

James  Lee,  convicted  of  murder  of  Inspector  Sim-
mons at  Romford  (25  Jan.)  . . 28  April

John  Gilbert  Cunningham  and  Harry  Burton  con-
victed of  treason-felony  (see  under  Tower),  and
for  complicity  with  criminal  explosions  (25  Feb.
et  seq.) ;  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life,

11-18  May,

Weldon  v.  Gounod  for  libel ;  io,oooL  awarded  7  May,

Eugene  Loraine,  engraver,  an  accomplished
swindler,  and  chief  of  a  seminary  of  crime,
convicted of attempted fraud by forgery,

22  May,

Benj.  Wai'burton's  will ;  Warburton  v.  Childs,
Hobson  &  Moss  ;  testator  declared  insane  and
intestate ;  legacies  lost  by  Royal  Society  and
others  ;  seven  days'  trial  ... 23  June,

Mrs.  Lotinga  v.  Commercial  Union  Insurance  Co.
Policy  of  her  husband  Isaac  for  2,oooL  estab-
lished ;  conflicting  evidence  respecting  his  death
and  temperance  (14  days'  trial)  . . 2  July,

James  Malcolm  (otherwise  capt.  Macdonald)  for
bigamy  (gross  case),  Emma  Dash,  at  Brighton,  4
April ;  doubtful  identity  ;  jury  disagree  25  Sept. ;
second  trial,  16  Oct.;  convicted,  seven  years'
penal  servitude 24  Oct.

W.  T.  Stead,  editor  of  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  (2)
Sampson  Jacques  (assistant)  (3),  Bramwell  Booth,
of  Salvation  Army,  (4)  Rebecca  Jarrett,  and  (5)
Louise  Mourey,  connection  with  abduction  of
Eliza  Armstrong,  under  16,  and  indecent  assault:
(1)  three  months'  imprisonment,  (2)  one  month,
(3)  acquitted,  (4)  six  months',  (5),  six  months'
with  hard  labour . . . 23  Oct.-io  Nov.

Mrs.  Weldon  r.  sir  Henry  De  Bathe  fur  slander,
19  Nov. ;  1,000?.  damages  awarded . 23  Nov.

Anthony  Benjamin  Rudge,  James  Baker,  and
John  Martin  convicted  for  burglary  at  Xetherby
Hall,  Cumberland,  28  Oct.,  and  murder  of  police
constable  Byrnes  at  Plumpton,  29  Oct.  (captured
by  railway  servants) . . .  18-20  Jan. 1

JohnMagee,  photographer,  sentenced  toseven  years'
penal  servitude  for  threatening  the  prince  of
Wales 15  Jan.

Richard  Belt,  sculptor,  sentenced  to  twelve
months'  imprisonment  with  hard  labour  for
fraudulent  sale  of  jewellery  i"  sir  Win.  Abdj  ;
his  brother  Walter  acquitted . . 15  March,

John  Burns,  limn  Byde  Champion,  Henry
Mayers  llyndiiian,  and  John  Edward  Williams


TEIALS.


992


TEIALS.


for  seditious  words ; acquitted but  censured,

6-10  April,  18

Mrs.  Adelaide  Bartlett  tried  for  the  murder  of  her
husband  by  chloroform ;  (Rev.  George  Dyson
charged  as  an  accessory  before  the  fact  discharged,
12  April );  Mrs.  Bartlett  acquitted 12-17  April, >

Dr.  Lyell,  for  heirs-at-law,  v.  Kennedy,  agent  for
Anne  Duncan,  intestate ;  long  litigation  re-
specting property  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff,  22  June, ,

Crawford  v.  Crawford  ;  divorce  of  Mrs.  Crawford,
decreed,  12  Feb.  ;  confirmed ;  serious  charges
against  sir  Charles  Dilke,  denied  by  him  but
accepted  by  jury .... 23  July, ,

Diamond  robbery  with  violence  to  Mr.  Julius
Tabak,  the  owner,  25  March ;  conviction  and
sentences :  Adolphe  Weiner,  instigator,  seven
years'  penal  servitude ;  James  Palmer,  perpe-
trator ten  years'";  accomplices,  Leon  Weiner,
Daniel  Jacoby,  and  Samuel  Scandland,  each  five

years, 1-4  Nov. ,

[Principal  witness,  Toussaint  or  Denuncis,  who
was  sentenced  to  15  years'  penal  servitude  in
June  for  his  joint  action  with  Palmer,  who
escaped  when  Toussaint  was  taken.]

Mary  Lena  Sebright  (formerly  Scott)  v.  Arthur
Sebright ;  a  merely  formal  marriage  contract
entered  into  by  the  terrorised  plaintiff  annulled,

16  Nov. ,

Adams  v.  lord  Coleridge  and  his  son,  the  lion.  B.
Coleridge,  for  libel  in  letters  sent  to  an  arbitrator
(lord  Monkswell),  wrongly  delivered  ;  verdict
for  defendants  with  costs . . 17-25  Nov. ,.

Lord  and  lady  Colin  Campbell  divorce,  double
suit  (previous  judicial  separation ;  numerous
charges  on  both  sides  not  proved) ;  suits  for
divorce  dismissed  ... 27  N0V.-20  Dec. ,

Miss  Allcard  v.  Miss  Skinner  (superior  of  the
"Sisters  of  the  Poor",  an  Anglican  convent,
Kev.  Henry  Nihill,  director),  to  recover  property
given  as  under  undue  influence  ;  verdict  for
defendant,  31  Jan.  ;  appeal  rejected  . 9  July,  18:

Thomas  William  Carroll  convicted  for  atromous
murder  of  Lydia  Green,  at  8,  Baches  -  street,
Hoxton,  5  Feb.  ... 30  March-2  April, ,.

Mr.  Dillon  and  other  M.P's.  for  conspiracy ;  jury
disagree  (see  Ireland) . . . i4_24  Feb- >.

Col.  Sandoval  sentenced  to  one  month's  imprison-
ment and  fined  500Z.  for  fitting  out  vessel
against  Venezuela .... 21  March, ,

Mr-  James  Davis,  proprietor  of  the  Bat,  convicted
for  libel  against  Mr.  Robert  Peck  ;  three  months'
imprisonment,  and  fine  of  500?. . 30  March, ,,

Mr.  Edward  St.  John  Brenon  v.  Messrs.  Kidgway,
publishers  of  the  "Black  Pamphlet"  (relating
to  Irish  republican  brotherhood  &c.) ;  500Z.
awarded  as  damages .... 3  May, ,.

Professor  Caird  v.  Syme  (a  bookseller) ;  after
differing  decisions  of  the  courts,  the  house  of
lords,  on  appeal,  decides  against  the  publication
of  university  lectures  without  the  consent  of  the
lecturers 13  June, ,,

Beyfus  v.  Jonas  and  others,  charge  of  fraudulent
conspiracy ;  thirteen  days'  trial ;  verdict  for
plaintiff,  40s.  damages  5  July, .1

Samuel  Taylor,  driver,  and  Robert  Davis,  fireman,
tried  for  manslaughter  (see  Railway  Accidents,
Doncaster) 14  Oct. „

Police  constable  Endacott  acquitted  of  perjury
(see  under  Police) ... 31  Oct.-i  Nov. „

Joyce  (the  marquis's  agent)  v.  the  marquis  of
Clanricarde,  for  libel  in  a  letter ;  verdict  for
plaintiff ;  damages  2,500?.  . . 6,  7  Dec. ,,

Long  firm  fraud ;  thirteen  men  convicted ;  sentenced
to  various  terms  of  imprisonment . 21  Dec. ,,

Cuninghame  Graham,  M.P.,  and  John  Burns
tried  for  assaulting  police,  &c,  on  13  Nov.  1887
(see  Riots) ;  convicted  of  taking  part  in  an
unlawful  assembly ;  six  weeks'  imprisonment
without  hard  labour . . . 16-18  Jan.  i8i

Dynamite  conspiracy  (see  under  Dynamite),  Thomas
Callan  and  Michael  Harkins  sentenced  to  fifteen
years'  penal  servitude .... 3  Feb. „

Slater  v.  Slater  ;  a  chancery  forgery  case ;  the
court  defrauded  of  about  4,000?.,  the  property  of
Miss  Rose  Maud  Maxwell,  by  the  forgeries  of
William  Bowdeu,  a  solicitor's  clerk  :  the  money
ordered  to  be  paid  to  her  by  the  court  of
chancery ;  Bowden  in  Nebraska  ;  John  Francis


Lidiard,  a  solicitor,  his  friend,  ordered  to  repay

the  money  to  the  court ... 4  Feb.  1888

Marquis  of  Abergavenny  v.  bishop  of  Llandaff,
after  much  litigation,  verdict  for  the  bishop  who
had  refused  to  induct  the  Rev.-  Robert  W.  Gosse
into  a  living,  being  ignorant  of  the  Welsh
language 22  Feb. ,,

Major  Borrowes  fined  400?.  and  costs  for  assaulting
his brother-in-law, lord Howard de Walden,

10  March, ,,

Major  Templer  honourably  acquitted  of  charge  of
divulging  secret  information  concerning  military
ballooning,  &c. ..... g  April. „

Mr.  Samuel  Peters  t>.  Mr.  C.  Bradlaugh,  M.P., for  libel
respecting  cheques  given  him  by  lord  Salisbury
and  others  for  the  relief  of  the  unemployed  ;
300?.  awarded  to  the  plaintiff  . . 18  April, ,,

Warne  &  Co.  v.  Seebohm  (see  Copyright), 10  May, ,,

Hutt  and  another  v.  The  governors  of  Haileybury
college  (see  under  Haileybury)  . . 19  June, ,,

Wood  v.  Cox  (see  under  Races) . . 29  June, „

O'JJonnell  v.  Walter  and  another  (for  libel  in  the
Times)  ;  verdict  for  the  defendants  (see  under
Parnellites) 2-5  July, ,,

Trials  respecting  electric  light  patents  (see  under
Electricity) 1886-8

George  and  Kelynge  Greenway,  bankers,  of
Warwick  and  Leamington,  sentenced  to  imprison-
ment, &c,  for  frauds. . . . 31  July,  1888

Trial  of  Regent's  Park  murderer  (see  Regent's  Park),

July,  ,,
R.  P.  B.  Frost  and  his  presumed  wife,  Annie
Frost  (clever  and  fascinating),  who  as  Mrs  Gordon
Bailie  and  other  names,  had  carried  on  a  long
series  of  frauds  at  home  and  abroad  by  means  of
fictitious  cheques,  convicted  of  cheating  trades-
men of  goods  and  money  ;  he  sentenced  to  eigh-
teen months'  imprisonment,  with  hard  labour,  she
to  five  years'  penal  servitude  .  .  .24  Oct.  ,,
Anthony  Isidor  Glika  sentenced  to  ten  years'  penal
servitude  for  defrauding  his  employers,  Messrs.
Vagliano  Bros.,  and  the  Bank  of  England,  of
71,500?.,  27  June, -7  July  ;  in  a  subsequent  trial
trial  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  adjudged  the
bank  to  bear  the  loss  .  "  .  .  .  2  Nov.  ,,
[Sentence  confirmed  by  court  of  appeal,  21  May,
1889  ;  reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  5  March

!89i.]

Mrs.  Weldon  v.  M.  Riviere  and  others  ;  verdict  for
defendants 15  Nov. ,,

Charles  Richardson  and  Edgell,  who  had'  con-
fessed to  burglary  at  Edliugham  vicarage,  near
Alnwick,  on  7  Feb.  1879 ;  sentenced  to  five  years'

penal  servitude 24  Nov. ,,

[Michael  Brannagham  and  Peter  Murphy,  who
had  been  wrongfully  convicted  for  this  crime,
and  attempt  to  murder,  had  been  sentenced  to
rienal  servitude  for  life,  April,  1879  ;  each
received  800Z.  as  compensation,  Dec.  1888  ;  the
police  were  acquittecl  of  perjury,  and  doubts
were  thrown  on  the  confession  of  Richardson
and  Edgell,  Feb.  1889.]

Lyster,  Burdett,  and  Clarke  convicted  of  burglary
and  attempt  to  murder  Mr.  George  Atkin  at
Muswell  Hill ;  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for
life 7  March, ,,

Mrs.  Sophia  Irwin  v.  Pall  Mall  Gazette  for  libel ;
damages  awarded,  1,000?. ... 4  April,  1889

Sir  George  Chetwynd  v.  the  earl  of  Durham,  for
libels  relating  to  racing  transactions,  the  damages
claimed,  20,000?.  After  some  litigation  and
much  discussion,  the  case  was  referred  to  the
arbitration  of  the  stewards  of  the  jockey
club,  Mr.  Jas.  Lowther,  M.P.,  the  earl  of  March,
and  prince  Soltikoff ;  they  awarded  sir  George
Chetwynd  \d.  damages,  each  person  to  pay  his

own  costs 29  June, ,,

[Sir  George  Chetwynd,  who  was  exonerated  from
the  graver,  but  censured  for  the  lighter  charges,
quitted  the  club,  5  July,  1S89.]

W.  O'Brien,  M.P.,  v.  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  for
libel  in  a  speech  at  Watford,  10  March  ;  charging
him  with inciting to crime in a speech at
Ballyneale  near  Clonmel,  30  Sept.  1888  ;  damages
claimed, 10,000?.;  trial  at  Manchester; verdict
for  defendant . . . . . .20  July, ,,

[New  trial  refused  by  the  queen's  bench,  21  Dec.
1889  ;  appeal  disallowed,  8  May,  1890.]


TEIALS.


993


TRIALS.


Mrs.  Florence  Elizabeth  Maybriek  charged  with
.poisoning  her  husband,  James  Maybriek,  at
Aigburth,  by  arsenic,  tried  at  Liverpool  by  Mr.
justice  Stephen  ;  convicted  21  July-7  Aug.  ;
sentence  of  death  commuted  to  penal  servitude
for  life 22  Aug.

Rweedore  trials,  see  Ireland . . . Oct.

John  Watson  Laurie  (at  Edinburgh)  convicted  of
the  murder  of  Edwin  Robert  Rose,  his  fellow
traveller,  in  the  Island  of  Arran  (on  15  July),
8,  9  Nov.  1889  ;  respited  as  of  unsound  mind,
28  Nov.  ;  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life

about  1  Dec.

itev.  Percy  G.  Benson,  vicar  of  Hoo,  Kent,  sus-
pended from  duty  for  one  year  for  excluding
Mrs.  Swayne  from  the  communion,  for  schism,
25  Oct.  ;  directed  by  the  bishop  of  Rochester  to
receive  her,  yields 29  Nov.

Mr.  Herbert  J.  Gladstone  v.  Colonel  George  B.
Malleson,  for  libel  in  Allahabad  Morning  Post,
damages  awarded  1,000?. ... 16  Jan.  :

Mr.  Ernest  Parke,  sentenced  to  one  year's  imprison-
ment for  libel  against  the  earl  of  Euston  in  the
North  London  Press  . . . .16  Jan.

Trial  of  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  see  under  Canter-
bury 4  Feb.

<Crewe  murder  ;  Richard  and  George  Davies,  youths,
aged  19  and  16,  convicted  of  the  murder  of  their
father,  Richard  Davies,  a  clothier,  on  25  Jan.
while  riding  home  in  a  pony  chaise,  20,  21
March  ;  Richard  executed,  George  reprieved
(penal  servitude  for  life) ... 8  April,

Miss  Florence  Jennie  Day  !'.  Mr.  Morris  Roberts,
for  breacli  of  promise  of  marriage,  Birmingham  ;
damages  awarded,  2,500?. . . 26  March,

Miss  Emily  Mary  Hairs  v.  sir  George  Elliot,  M.P.
(aged  75),  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage  ;
damages  claimed  5,000?.  ;  jury  disagree,  18  April,

Lord  Dunlo  (son  ol  the  earl  of  Clancarty)  v.  lady
Punlo  and  Mr.  T.  E.  Wertheimer,  six  days'  trial ;
divorce  refused 30  July,

Miss  Gladys  Knowles  v.  Mr.  Leslie  Duncan,  pro-
prietor and  editor  of  the  Matrimonial  News,  for
breach  of  promise  of  marriage ;  damages  awarded,
10,000?.  ...... 11,  12  Aug.

Heginald  John  Birchall  convicted  of  the  murder  of
Mr.  F.  J.  Benwell,  see  Canada,  29  Sept.  ;  exe-
cuted 14  Nov.

Capt.  O'Shea's  suit  against  his  wife,  Mrs.  C.
O'Shea,  and  Mr.  C.  S.  Parnell,  M.P.  ;  divorce
•granted 15-17  Nov.

Catherine  Theresa  Riordan  sentenced  to  six  years'
penal  servitude  for  attempting  to  kill  Dr.  James
Frank  Bright,  master  of  University  College,
■Oxford  (6  Nov.) .  - . . . .15  Nov.

Mr.  R.  Buchanan  v.  Mrs.  Langtry,  respecting  a  non-
accepted  play  ;  damages  awarded,  150?. 21  Nov.

.Mary  Eleanor  Wheeler  (otherwise  Pearcey)  con-
victed of  the  murder  of  Mrs.  Phoebe  Hogg  and

infant 1-3  Dec.

[Mrs.  Wheeler  had  been  connected  with  her
victim's  husband,  Frank  S.  Hogg,  before  their
marriage  ;  she  invited  Mrs.  Hogg  to  her  rooms
•at  No.  2,  Priory-street,  Kentish-town,  and  there
murdered  her;  she  then  in  a  perambulator  con-
veyed (lie  body  of  the  mother  to  near  Crossfield-
road,  Hampstead,  and  that  of  the  child  to  a  field
near  Finchley-road,  24  Oct.  1890;  her  motive  ap-
pears td  have  been. jealousy,  executed  23 Dec.  1890.]

Bellamy  v.  Wells,  proprietor  of  the  Pelican  Club,
Gerrard-street,  Soho,  to  restrain  a  nuisance  by
noise  caused  by  boxing  matches,  concerts,  &c.  ;
justice  Romer,  in  the  chancery  division,  forbids
the  assembling  of  crowds  and  calling  cabs  be-
tween midnight  and  7  a.m. . . . 6  Dec.

Thomas  Macdonald,  convicted  on  his  own  confes-
sion of  the  murder  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Ann  Holt,
at  Belmont,  near  Bolton . . . i2Dec.

Mr.  Harry  II.  Marks  (editor  of  the  Financial  News)
V.  Mr.  George  Washington  Butterheld,  for  libel
respecting  gold  mines  ;  verdict,  not  guilty  ;
libel  proved,  but  publication  justified 8-17  Dec.

Wnbir  Alfred  [Iargan,  tried  for  murder,  convicted
of  manslaughter,  for  killing  two  roughs  in  King
land, London, N.E., in alleged self-defence
sentenced by  Mr.  justice Charles to  20  years
penal  servitude,  8  Sept.;  commuted  to  12  months'

17  Dec.


Charles  Lyddon,  acquitted  of  the  murder  of  his
half  brother,  William  Reeks-Lyddon,  of  Faver-
sham,  who  had  been  much  ill-used 18-21  March,

Clitheroe  case  (see  under  Wives)

Baccarat  ease  ;  sir  William  Gordon-Cumming  v.
Mr.  and  Mis.  Lycett  Green  and  others,  for
slander,  charging  him  with  cheating  in  the  game
of  baccarat,  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Arthur  Wilson,
Tranby  Croft,  near  Doncaster,  Sept.  1890 ;  counsel
for  plaintilf,  sir  Edward  Clarke  ;  sol.  gen.  for  the
defendants,  sir  Charles  Russell,  and  others ;
queen's  bench  division,  lord  Coleridge  ;  evidence
was  given  by  the  prince  of  Wales  ;  verdict  for
the  defendants  ....  1-9  June,
Coombs  v.  Barber  and  others,  in  relation  to  the
Great  Eastern  Steamship  company  ;  queen's
bench  division  ;  the  case  stopped  ;  Mr.  Barber
exculpated  from  criminal  charges  .  26  June,
The  Cathcart  case  ;  after  17  days'  investigation,
Mrs.  Cathcart  is  declared  to  be  of  sound  mind
by  Mr.  Bulwer,  a  master  in  lunacy,  and  a  special
jury,  and  ordered  to  be  released  from  custody

23  July,
Berkeley  Peerage  case,  ivhich  see  ;  decision  31  July,
Mr.  Francis  Du  Bedat,  president  of  the  Dublin
Stock  Exchange,  pleads  guilty  to  charges  of
fraud  relating  to  bankruptcy  and  breaches  of
trust ;  sentence,  one  year's  imprisonment  with
hard  labour,  and  seven  years'  penal  servitude

20  Oct.
The rev. James C. Clutterbuck, D.C.L.,  an  in-
spector of  workhouse  schools,  convicted  of  ob-
taining money  on  false  pretences,  on  his  own
ci  mfession ;  sentenced  to  4  years'  penal  servitude ;

Wells 21  Nov.

The  petition  of  Mabel  Edith,  countess  Russell,  to
the  divorce  court,  for  judicial  separation  from
earl Russell,  on  account  of  cruelty,  dismissed

with  costs 1-4  Dec.

Pinnock  v.  Chapman  &;  Hall,  for  libel  in "  West
African Stories," by major  A. B.  Ellis  ; 200?.
damages  awarded .... 7-9  Dec.
Miss  Ethel  Florence Elliot  (afterwards  Mrs. Os-
borne) v.  major  and  Mrs.  Hargreaves,  for  slander
in  charging  her  with  stealing  jewels  while  their
guest  at  Torquay,  9-18  Feb.  ;  verdict  by  consent
for  the  defendants . . . 15-22  Dec.
[It  was  proved  that  Miss  Elliot  sold  the  jewels
to  Messrs.  Spinks,  in  Gracechurch  street,  for
550?..,  19  Feb.  ;  that  she  cashed  the  cheque  at
the  bank  of  Messrs.  Glyn,  Mills  &  Co.,  receiv-
ing gold,  23  Feb.  ;  that  through  Messrs.  Benja-
min, of  Conduit  street,  W.,  she  changed  gold
for  bank  notes,  at  the  National  and  provincial
bank,  in  St.  James's  square,  early  in  March  ;
and  that  she  endorsed  one  of  these  notes  for
50?.,  and  paid  it  to  Messrs.  Maple,  which  note
was  passed  into  the  Bank  of  England. Infor-
mation  was  given  to  the  judge,  Mr.  Justice
Denman,  and  the  trial  was  suspended,  19  Dec.
It  was  admitted  by  all  the  parties  concerned
that  capt. Osborne,  the  plaintiff's  husband,
had  acted  throughout  as  an  honourable  and
chivalrous  gentleman. Mrs.  Osborne,  at  her
trial  for  larceny  and  perjury,  was  sentenced  to
0  months'  imprisonment,  with  some  hard  la-
bour, 9  March ;  released  in  the  summer,  [892.
The  jewels  were  sold  by  auction  tor  major  1  lar-
greaves  for  1,076?.,  29  March,  1892.]
Mr.  Alexander  Jacob,  a  jeweller  of  Simla,  charged
at  Calcutta  by  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad  of  cri-
minally misappropriating 23 lakhs of rupees
(above 100,0000)  deposited by  his highness as
earnest  money  for  the  purchase  of  the  gem  known
as  the  "imperial  diamond,"  after  a  long  trial,

was  acquitted 22  Dec.

Nettlefold  (limited),  Birmingham  screw-makers  v,
Reynolds,  an  American  agent,  for  alleged  in-
fringement of  patent ;  14  days' trial ;  veroicl  for
defendant  with  costs  ....  22  Jan.
Mr.  GeorgeVW.  Hastings,  M.P.,  misappropriating
to  himself,  a  trustee,  about  20,000?.,  the  property
of  the  children  of  major  John  Brown,  pleaded
guilty  ;  sentenced  to  5  years'  penal  servitude,

1 1  March,
Maitland Francis Morland,  .1  law  tutor  at Cam-
bridge, not connected with the university,
charged with sending threatening letters lo

3  s


1892


TRIBUNES.


994


TRINIDAD.


extort  money,  pleaded  guilty  ;  sentenced  to  10
years'  penal  servitude . . . n  March,  1892

Miss  Mary  E.  T.  Knox  v.  canon  Hayman,  D.D.,  and
co-directors  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Colonization
corporation  ;  verdict  for  plaintiff ;  to  be  repaid
258?.,  the  amount  claimed . . . 25  March, „

Concha,  pauper,  v.  Concha  and  wife ;  a  series  of
intricate  suits  respecting  property,  which  com-
menced in  1858,  closed  by  the  house  of  lords
varying  the  decision  of  the  court  of  appeal,

28  March, ,,

Frederick  Charles,  Victor  Cailes,  John  Westley,
William  Ditchfield,  Joseph  Thomas  Deakin,  and
Jean  Battolla,  anarchists,  tried  for  unlawfully
possessing  explosive  substances  (with  evil  inten-
tions) at  Walsall,  1  Nov.  1891—7  Jan.  ;  Charles,
Battolla, and  Cailes,  at  Stafford,  sentenced  to

10  years'  penal  servitude, Deakin  to  5  years'
penal  serviiude,  Westley  and  Ditchfield  acquitted,

30  March — 4  April, ,,
Hansard  Publishing  Union, sir Henry  and  Mr.
Joseph M. Isaacs, Mr. Charles Dollman, Mr.
Horatio  Bottomley,  directors,  charged  with  de-
frauding the  company  and  applicants  for  shares  ;

11  days'  examination  ;  committed  for  trial,

6  April, ,,
Mr. Lane Fox  v.  ■  Kensington  Electric Lighting
company  for  infringement  of  patent ;  verdict  for
defendants  with  costs . . -30  March, „
Mrs.  Montagu  sentenced  at  Dublin  to  one  year's
imprisonment  for cruel manslaughter of her
daughter,  aged  3  years ... 4  April. ,,
David John Nicoll, journalist, sentenced  to  18
months'  imprisonment, with  hard labour, for
inciting  persons  to  murder  Mr.  H.  Matthews,  the
home  secretary,  and  others,  by  writing  in  the
Commonweal,  condemning  the  punishment  of  the
Walsall  anarchists  (Jan.) ... 6  May, „
Walter  (the  Times)  v.  Steinkoppf  (the  St.  James's
Gazette),  to  restrain  the  copying  of  articles  ;  ver-
dict for  plaintiff  with  some  of  the  costs,

13,  17  May  ;  2  June, ,,
Buckley  v.  Edwards,  see  under  Judges . 21  May, ,,
Mr.  Henry  de  Vere  Vane's  claim  to  the  ancient
barony  of  Barnard  in  Durham,  vacant  by  the
death  of  the  duke  of  Cleveland,  granted  by  the

house  of  lords 30  May, ,,

Mrs.  Carlill  v.  the  Carbolic  Smoke  Ball  company,
claiming  100I.,  which  the  company  had  engaged
to  give  to  any  person  who  had  tried  the  smoke
ball  as  a  preventive  of  influenza  without  suc-
cess (by  advertisement,  13  Nov.  1891) ;  verdict

for  plaintiff 4  July, ,,

Mr.  Bottems,  contractor  v.  corporation  of  York  ;
the  court  of  appeal  decides  (against  the  plaintiff)
that  the  terms  of  a  ruinous  contract  must  be

fulfilled 16  July, „

See  Executions.

TRIBUNES  of  the  People  {TribuniPlebis),
magistrates  of  Home,  first  chosen  from  among  the
commons  to  represent  them,  494  B.C.,  when  the
people,  after  a  quarrel  with  the  senators,  had  retired
to  Mons  Sacer.  The  first  two  tribunes  were  C.
Licinius  and  L.  Albums;  but  their  number  was
soon  after  raised  to  five,  and  37  years  after  to  ten,
which  number  remained  fixed.  The  office  was
annual,  and  as  the  first  had  been  created  on  the  4th
of  the  ides  of  December,  that  day  was  chosen  for
the  election.  In  a.d.  1347,  Nicolo  di  Eienzi
assumed  absolute  power  in  Rome  as  tribune  of  the
people,  and  reformed  many  abuses  ;  but  committing
extravagances,  he  lost  his  popularity  and  was  com-
pelled to  abdicate.  He  returned  to  Rome  and  was
assassinated,  8  Sept.  1354.

TRICHURIASIS,  a  fatal  disease,  occasioned
hy  eating  raw  or  underdone  pork  containing  a
minute  worm  named  Trichina  spiralis.  Professor
Owen  discovered  these  worms  in  cysts,  in  human
muscle,  in  1832.  The  trichinae  are  thoroughly
destroyed  by  proper  cooking.  The  disease  excited
much  attention  in  1865,  and  was  the  subject  of  a
lecture  by  Dr.  Thudichum  at  the  Society  of  Arts  on
18  April,' 1866.


TRICOLOR  FLAG  (red,  white,  and  blue,
white  representing  the  ancient  monarchy ;  red  and
blue,  Paris)  invented  by  La  Payette,  adopted  by
Prance,  1789.

TRICOTEUSES  (knitters),  a  name  given  ta
a  number  of  Prench  republican  females,  who  zeal-
ously attended  political  meetings  and  executions  irs
1792,  knitting  at  intervals.

TRIDENTINE,  see  Trent,  and  Catechism.

TRIENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS-  On  15
Feb.  1641,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  the  meet-
ing of  a  parliament  at  least  once  in  three  years.
This  law  was  broken  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and
was  repealed  in  1664.  Another  triennial  bill,  passed
in  1694,  was  repealed  by  the  Septennial  act,  1716  -f
see  Parliaments,  and  Septennial  Parliaments.

TRIESTE,  an  Austrian  port  on  the  Adriatic,
declared  a  free  port  by  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,
1719,  confirmed  by  Maria  Theresa  in  1750.  It  was
held  by  the  Prench  in  1797  and  1805.  Since  the
establishment  of  the  overland  mail  to  India,  it  has-
risen  to  great  commercial  importance.  After
various  changes  of  rulers  it  was  restored  to  Austria
U11814;  see  Lloyd's,  note.  The  emperor  and  em-
press were  warmly  received  here  mid.  Sept.  1882,
Population  of  city  and  territory  in  1890,  157,466.
Cordial  reception  of  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  and
the  Mediterranean  fleet ... 15  Sept.  1887

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, see

Ordnance.

TRIMMER,  a  term  applied  to  George  Savile,
earl  of  Halifax,  and  others  who  held  similar
political  opinions,  midway  between  those  of  the
extreme  Whigs  and  Tories,  about  the  latter  part  of
the  17th  century.  He  assumed  the  title  as  an
honour,  asserting  that  it  could  be  rightly  given  to>
the  British  constitution  and  church.  Macaulay
says  that  Halifax  was  a  trimmer  on  principle,  and
not  a  renegade.  He  died  in  1695.  See  Opportunists.

TRINACRIA,  a  name  of  Sicily.  The  title
"King  of  Trinacria,"  was  temporarily  assumed  by
Frederick  II.  (1302),  and  Frederick  III.  (1373).

TRINCOMALEE  (Ceylon),  was  taken  from
the  Dutch,  by  the  English,  in  1782  ;  it  was  retaken
by  the  French  the  same  year ;  but  was  restored  to
the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1783.  It  surrendered  to
the  British,  under  colonel  Stewart,  26  Aug.  1795,
and  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the  peace  of
Amiens,  in  1802  ;  see  Ceylon.  Of  a  series  of  actions
off  Trmcomalee  between  sir  Edward  Hughes  and
the  Prench  admiral  Suffren,  one  was  fought  i8>
Feb.  1782,  the  enemy  having  eleven  ships  to  nine  ;
on  12  April  following,  they  had  eighteen  ships  to
eleven,  and  on  6  July,  same  year,  they  had  fifteen
ships  to  twelve.  In  all  these  conflicts  the  French
were  defeated.

TRINIDAD,  an  island  in  the  "West  Indies-,
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  was  taken  from  the
Spaniards  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595;  by  .the
French  from  the  English  in  ,  1676.  Taken  by  the
British,  with  four  ships  of  the  line,  and  a  military
force  under  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  to
whom  the  island  capitulated,  18  Feb.  1797;  they
captured  twro,  and  burnt  three  Spanish  ships  of  war
in  the  harbour.  This  possession  was  confirmed  to
England  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  in-
surrection of  the  negroes  occurred  4^  Jan.  1832.
Population  in  1861,  84,438;  in  1881,  153,128;
in  1891,  196,172.  Governor,  Hon.  Arthur  H.
Gordon,  1866;  James  R.  Longden,  1870;  sir  H.  T.
Irving,  1874;  sir  Sandford  Preeling,  1880;  sir  Win.
Robinson,  Aug.  1885 ;  sir  Frederick  Napier  Broome,


TRINITY.


995


TRIUMVIRATES.


July, 1891. Trinidad united with Tobago  by

parliament  in  18S7.

Port  of  Spain  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  28  Jan.  et  seq.  1884

The  Indian  coolies  at  San  Fernando  forbidden  to
go  in  festival  procession  to  cast  their  taboots
(small  shrines)  on  the  last  day  of  Mohurram,  dis-
obey, and  are  fired  upon  by  the  police  and
soldiers  ;  12  killed,  and  many  wounded 30  Oct. „

This  course  was  justified,  after  due  investigation,
by  sir  Henry  Norman,  governor  of  Jamaica  ;  blue
book  published  .... 14  April,  1885

TRINITY  and  Trinitarians.  Theopbilus,
bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  2nd  cen-
tury, was  the  first  who  used  the  term  Trinity,  to
express  the  three  sacred  persons  in  the  Godhead.
His  "Defence  of  Christianity"  was  edited  by
Gesner,  at  Zurich,  in  1546.  Tratkins.  An  order  of
the  Trinity,  termed  Mathurins,  was  founded  about
1 198  by  John  de  Matha  and  Felix  de  Valois.  _  See
Crutched  Friars.  The  Trinity  fraternity,  origin-
ally of  fifteen  persons,  was  instituted  at  Kome  by
St.  Philip  Neri,  in  1548.  The  act  to  exempt  from
penalties  persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity
(such  as  Unitarians  and  Swedenborgians)  passed  in
1813. Trinitarian  Bible  Society  founded,  1831.

TRINITY  COLLEGES,  see  Cambridge,
Oxford,  Dublin,  Glenahnond,  &c.  Trinity  College,
Dublin,  called  the  University :  grant  of  the
Augustine  monastery  of  All  Saints  within  the
suburbs  for  erecting  this  college,  conferred  by  queen
Elizabeth,  1591.  First  stone  laid  by  Thomas  Smith,
mayor  of  Dublin,  1  Jan.  1593.  New  charter,  1637.
Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers,  1689.  Bums.  The
principal  or  west  front  erected,  1759-  Library
erected,  1732.  This  college  grants  degrees  upon
examination  without  residence.  The  Koman
Catholics  desire  exemption  from  mixed  education
and  special  privileges.  Great  changes  were  pro-
posed by  the  Irish  University  bill,  which  was
brought  into  parliament  Feb.  1873,  but  withdrawn.
Eeligious  tests  were  abolished  in  the  same  year.
A  proposal  to  establish  a  Roman  catholic  college

within the university was negatived by the

senate  (74-7) 18  May,  1874

The  church  choral  society  incorporated  as  Trinity

College,  London .... ...  1875

TRINITY  HOUSE,  London,  founded  by

sir  Thomas  Spert,  1512,  as  an  "association  for
piloting  ships,"  was  incorporated  in  1 5 14,  and  re-
incorporated in  1604,  1660,  and  1685.  The  present
Trinity  House  was  erected  in  1795.  By  their  charter
the  brethren  of  the  Trinity  House  have  the  power
of  examining,  licensing,  and  regulating  pilots,  and
of  erecting  beacons  and  lighthouses,  and  of  placing
buoys  in  the  channels  and  rivers.  Spert,  the  first
master,  died  8  Sept.  1541.— Trinity  Houses,
originally  guilds  or  fraternities,  founded  at  Dept-
ford,  Hull,  and  Newcastle,  were  incorporated  by
Henry  YUL,  1536-41.

RECENT MASTERS.

William  Pitt 1790

Pari  Spencer 1806

Duke  of  Portland 1807

Earl  Camden 1809

Earl  of  Liverpool 1815

Marquis  Camden 1828

Duke  of  Clarence 1829

Marquis  Camden 183 1

Duke  of  Wellington 1836

The  Prince  Consort 1852

Viscount  Palmerston  ....  16  June,  1862
Luke  of  Edinburgh .... 15  March,  1866

TRINITY  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday  following
"Whitsunday.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was
instituted  "by  pope  Gregory  IV.  in  828,  on  his
ascending  the  papal  chair,  and  is  observed  by  the


Latin  and  protestant  churches  on  the  Sunday  next
following  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  of  which,
originally,  it  was  merely  an  octave.  The  observance
of  the  festival  was  first  enjoined  in  the  council  of
Aries,  1260.  It  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the
present  day  by  pope  John  XXI.  in  1334.

TRINOBANTES,  a  British  tribe  which  occu-
pied Middlesex  and  Essex,  and  joined  in  opposing
the  invasion  of  Julius  Ca3sar,  54  B.C.  ,  but  soon
submitted.  They  joined  Boadicea  and  were  defeated
by  Suetonius  PauLinus  near  London,  a.d.  61.

TRIPARTITE  TREATY,  name  given  to
treaty  of  Paris,  1856.

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE  was  ratified  between
the  States-General  and  England  against  France,  for
the  protection  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  ;  Sweden
afterwards  joining  the  league,  it  was  known  as  the
Triple  Alliance,  23  Jan.  1668. — Another  Triple
Alliance  was  that  between  England,  Holland,  and
France  against  Spain,  Jan.  1717. — Another  between
Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  Austria,  28  Sept.  1795.
Another  between  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  said
to  have  been  proposed  June,  1882,  and  adopted
1883,  and  signed  13  March,  1887  :  to  expire  1892 ;
renewed  for  six  years,  28  June,  1891.  The  alliance
was  strengthened  by  commercial  treaties,  ratified
Dec.  1891.

TRIPOLI  (three  cities).  I.,  in  Syria,  com-
prised three  quarters  built  by  the  Tyrians,  Sidonians,
and  Arabians;  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders  1 109,
and  made  a  county  for  Raymond  of  Toulouse.  It
was  conquered  by  the  Egyptians  in  1832  ;  restored
to  the  Porte  1835  ;  surrendered  to  the  British  1841.
II.,  a  Turkish  province,  N.  Africa,  comprised  the
cities  Sabrata,  ffia  (the  present  Tripoli,  the  capital),
and  Leptis  (the  ancient  Tripolitana),  after  having
been  held  by  Greeks,  Romans,  Vandals,  and  Sara-
cens, was  conquered  and  annexed  by  the  Turks
1551.  Hamet  Bey,  pacha  in  1741,  made  himself
independent,  and  the  government  remained  in  his
family  till  1835,  when  Tripoli  was  restored  to  nomi-
nal subjugation  to  the  sultan.  Population  (1884)
about  1,000,000.  Panic  through  fear  of  insurrec-
tion about  20  July,  1882.  In  conflicts  with  the
troops,  about  160  natives  were  killed,  reported  19
Dec.  1891.

TRIPOLITZA  (Greece),  was  stormed  by  the
Greeks,  who  committed  dreadful  cruelties,  5  Oct.
1821 ;  retaken  by  the  Egyptians,  30  June,  1825 ;
given  up  to  the  Greeks,  1828.

TRIREMES,  galleys  with  three  banks  of  oars,
are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the  Corinthians,
784  or  700  B.C.

TRISTAN  D'ACUNHA,  a  small  island  in
the  S.  Atlantic,  inhabited  by  about  80  persons.
Before  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  island
prospered,  through  the  visits  of  ships,  now  very
rare ;  tbe  duke  of  Edinburgh  was  there  in  1867,  and
showed  great  kindness  to  the  people.

TRIUMPHS  were  granted  by  the  Roman  senate
to  generals  of  armies  after  they  had  won  great  vic-
tories. They  were  received  into  the  city  with  great
magnificence  and  public  acclamations.  There  were
tlio  great,  called  the  Triumph;  and  the  less,  the
Ovation;  see  Ovation.

TRIUMVIRATES,  Roman.  In  Go  n.c,
Julius  Csesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  formed  a  coali-
tion to  rule  the  state.  This  lasted  ton  years,  and
the  civil  war  ensued.  The  second  triumvirate,  43
B.C.,  was  formed  by  Octavius  Csesar,  Mark  Antony,
and  Lepidus,  through  whom  the  Romans  totally  lost

3  s  2


TEIVIUM.


996


TEUEO.


their  liberty.  Lepidus  was  expelled  in  36  ;  Antony
was  subdued  in  31,  and  Octavius  made  himself
absolute ;  see  Borne.  In  Feb.  1849,  a  triumvirate
was  appointed  at  Bome,  consisting  of  Joseph  Maz-
zini,  Armellini,  and  Saffi,  which  resigned  on  1  July,
1849,  when  the  city  was  taken  by  the  French.

TEIVIUM,  see  Arts.

TEOCADEEO,  Paris,  a  mount  on  the  right
bank  of  the  Seine,  so  named  in  memory  of  a  fort
near  Cadiz,  captured  by  the  French  while  sup-
pressing the  insurrection  in  1823.  On  this  ground
was  erected  the  palace  of  the  "  Trocadero,"  in  con-
nection with  the  international  exhibition  of  1878  ;
see  Paris.

TEOPPATJ,  CONGRESS  OP,  in  Austrian
Silesia.  The  emperors  Francis  of  Austria  and
Alexander  of  Bussia  met  at  Troppau,  20  Oct.  1820.
The  congress  between  them  and  the  king  of
Prussia,  against  Naples,  took  place  10  Nov.  ;  and
the  conference  was  transferred  to  Laybach,  as  nearer
to  Ital3T,  17  Dec.  1820;  see  Laybach.

TEOUBADOUES  and  Trotjveres  (from
troubar,  trouver,  to  find  or  invent),  the  poets  of  the
middle  ages  (from  the  nth  to  the  15th  century).
The  former  flourished  in  the  south  of  France  and
north  of  Spain,  and  used  the  Langue  d'oc  (that  is,
oc  for  oui,  yes)  ;  the  latter  flourished  in  the  north  of
France,  and  used  the  Langue  d'oil  (that  is,  oil  for
oui).  The  Troubadours  produced  romances,  but
excelled  chiefly  in  lyric  poetry  ;  the  Trouveres  ex-
celled in  romances,  several  of  which  are  extant ;  as,
the  Brut  d'Angleterre,  and  the  Ron,  by  Wace;  the
"  Eomance  of  the  Eose,"  by  Guillaume  de  Lorris
and  Jean  de  Meung.  The  Troubadours  were  usually
accompanied  by  Jongleurs,  who  sang  then-  masters'
verses,  with  the  accompaniment  of  the  guitar.
Histories  of  these  French  poets,  and  specimens  of
their  works,  have  been  published  in  France.  These
poets,  although  frequently  very  licentious,  tended
to  promote  civilisation  during  those  warlike  times.

TEOY  (or  Troja),  the  common  name  of  ILIUM,
capital  of  the  Troas,  Asia  Minor ;  see  Homer.  Its
history  mythical.

Teucer  succeeds  his  father I5o2

Dardanus  succeeds  ;  builds  Dardania . . .  1480

Reign  of  Eriehthonius I4+9

Reign  of  Tros ;  from  whom  the  people  are  called

Trojans,  and  the  city  Troas 1374

Ilus,  his  son,  reigns  ;  the  city  called  Ilium  . . . 1314

Reign  of  Laomedon I26o

Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia. Hesione  delivered

from  the  sea  monster.  Blair ;  Usher  .  .  .  1225
War  of  Hercules  and  Laomedon ....  1224

Reign  of  Priam  or  Podaroes

Rape  of  Helen,  by  Alexander  Paris,  son  of  Priam,
20  years  before  the  sacking  of  Troy. Homer's

Iliad,  book  xxiv. I204

Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the  Greeks  to

recover  Helen Ilg3

Troy  taken  and  burnt  in  the  night  of  tile  nth  of J
June,  i.e.,  23rd  of  the  month  Thargelion. Parian
Marbles. 408  years  before  the  first  Olympiad.
Apolloilorus,  Hales,  and  Clinton,  1183  ;  others  . . 1184
Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone  dates  the  war . . 1^16-1307
iEneas  arrives  in  Italy. Lenglet. . .  .. ^33

LSome  time  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  a  new
city  was  built  with  the  same  name,  about  thirty
stadia  distant  from  the  old  site.  It  was  favoured
by  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expedition
but  never  rose  to  much  importance,  an. I  in  the
age  of  Strabo  was  nearly  in  ruins.  Priestley.  ]
Dr.  II.  Schliemann, during  his  excavations  at  Hissar-
lik  in  the  Troad,  discovered  the  remains  of  a  very
ancient  city with temples, which he  named

"Novum  Ilium" a.d.  1872-3

He  published  'Troy  and  its  Remains  (trans  by  Ur  P
Smith) !  1875


His  Trojan  antiquities  arranged  at  South  Kensing-
ton Museum,  for  exhibition . . . Dec.  1877

Dr.  Schliemann  resumes  excavations  at  Hissarlik  ;
discovers  Trojan  houses  and  many  antiquities,  a
dagger, earrings, bracelets, '  idols, shells, &c,

30  Sept. -1  Dec.  1878

Again  with  professor  Virchow  and  M. Burnouf,  1
March  ;  makes  fresh  discoveries  described  in  letter
5  June, 1879 ;  desists  investigation  ; published
his  book  Ilios,  1880,  and  Troja ....  1883
See  Mycence,  26  Dec.  1890.

TEOY  WEIGHT.  The  Eomans  introduced
their  ounce,  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  into  Britain.
The  present  ounce  was  brought  from  Grand  Cairo
into  Europe,  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  1095,
and  was  first  adopted  at  Troyes,  a  city  of  France,
whence  the  name.  It  is  used  to  weigh  gold,  silver,
and  precious  stones.  The  Troy  weight,  Scots,  was
established  by  James  VI.  (our  James  I.)  in  1618 ;
see  Standard.

TEOYES  (Central  France),  where  a  treaty  was
concluded  between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy,
whereby  it  was  stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should
marry  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  be  ap-
pointed regent  of  France,  and,  after  the  death  of
Charles,  should  inherit  the  crown,  21  May,  1420.
Troyes  was  taken  by  the  allied  armies,  7  Feb.  ;  re-
taken by  Napoleon,  23  Feb. ;  and  again  taken  by
the  allies,  4  March,  18 14.

TEUCE  OF  GOD  {Br era  or  Treuga  Dei),  a
term  given  to  a  cessation  of  the  private  feuds  and
conflicts  so  general  during  the  middle  ages  all  over
Europe,  said  to  have  been  strongly  advocated  by  the
bishop  of  Aquitaine,  in  1032.  The  clergy  strenu-
ously exerted  their  influence  for  the  purpose.  A
synod  at  Eoussillon,  1027,  decreed  that  none  should
attack  his  enemy  between  Saturday  evening  (at
nones)  and  Monday  morning  (at  the  hour  of  prime).
Similar  regulations  were  adopted  in  England,  1042
(sometimes  Friday  and  Wednesday  being  chosen  for
the  time).  The  truce  of  God  was  confirmed  by
many  councils  of  the  church,  especially  the  Lateran
Council,  in  1179.

TEITCK  SYSTEM  of  paying  workmen's
wages  in  goods  (sold  at  "  tommy  shops")  instead
of  money,  was  prohibited  by  parliament  in  1831.
By  the  Truck  act  a  commission  to  inquire  into  its
alleged  prevalence  was  appointed  ;  act  passed  10
Aug.  1870;  amended  1887.

TEUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians
ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trumpet  to  the  Tyr-
rhenians, and  others  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  in
use  in  the  time  of  Homer.  First  torches,  then
shells  of  fish,  sounded  like  trumpets,  were  the
signals  in  primitive  wars.  Batter.  The  Jewish
feast  of  trumpets  was  appointed  1490  B.C.  (Lev.
xxiii.  24).  Otfa,  king  of  Mercia,  is  said  to  have
had  trumpets  sounded  before  him  when  travelling,
about  a.d.  790.  The  speaking  trumpet  is  said  to
have  been  used  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  335  B.C. ;
improved  by  Kirc'her  in  a.d.  1652  ;  by  Salland,  1654 ;
and  philosophically  explained  by  Morland,  1671.
Trumpet  blasts  employed  for  railway  signalling  in

Scotland .  1887

TEUMPET-FLOWEE,  Bignonia  radicans,
was  brought  hither  from  North  America,  about
1640.  The  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  Lonicera  semper-
virens,  came  from  North  America  in  1656.  The
Bignonia  cavensis  was  brought  to  England  from  the
Cape  in  1823.  The  Large  -  flowered  Trumpet-
flower,  or  Bignonia  grandiflora,  was  brought  from
China  in  1800.

TEUEO,  W.  Cornwall.  The  town  was  founded
by  Eichard  de  Lucy,  chief  justice  of  England  in


TRUSS.


997


TUBULAR  BRIDGES.


the  1 2th  century,  and  chartered  by  Keginald,  earl
of  Cornwall,  illegitimate  son  of  Henry  I. An  act
to  provide  for  the  foundation  of  a  bishopric  of  Truro
passed  n  Aug1.  1876,  and  money  sufficient  for  its
endowment  having  been  subscribed,  the  see  was
constituted  by  order  in  council,  9  Dec.  same  year.
Act  amended  in  1887.  Truro  was  made  a  city,  Aug.
1877  i  absorbed  into  the  county,  1885. Population,
1881,  10,619;  I§91)  II)I3I-
Foundation  of  new  cathedral  (St.  Mary's)  laid  by
the  prince  of  Wales,  20  May,  1880 ;  it  includes
part  of  the  old  parish  church  ;  the  eastern  part
erected, consecrated and opened for public
worship  in  the  presence  of  the  prince  of  Wales
and  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  3  Nov.  1887  ;
architect,  Mr.  Pearson  ;  the  first  cathedral  erected
since  St.  Paul's,  London.

See  Mansion,  House  Fund.

Bisnors.

1877.  Edward  White Benson, consecrated,  25 April  ;

trans,  to  Canterbury,  Dec.  1882.
1883.  George  Howard  Wilkinson,  consecrated 25  April  ;

resigned  1891.
1891.  John  Gott,  D.D.,  June.

TRUSS.  A  transverse  spring-truss  for  ruptures
was  patented  by  Robert  Brand  in  1771,  and  by
many  other  persons  since.  The  National  Truss
Society  to  assist  indigent  persons,  was  established
in  1786  ;  and  many  similar  societies  since.

TRUSTEES,  see  Fraudulent.

Trustees'  act  passed,  1888,  and  Trust  Funds'  act .  1889
The  Trustees'  Appointment  act  (1850  to  1899),

25  July,  1890
The  Trustees'  and  Executors'  Association  initiated,

Aug.  1 89 1

TRUSTS  and  COMBINES. Terms  applied  in
the  United  States  to  the  union  of  manufacturers
and  traders  as  corporate  bodies  for  the  purpose  of
creating and maintaining strict  monopolies and
thereby  controlling  the  output  and  the  prices  of
goods  of  all  kinds  and  the  wages  of  workmen,  a
S3rstem  injurious  to  all  classes  of  society.
In  the autumn of  1888, legislation  for  the  re-
pression of the  evil  was urgently  demanded.
There  is  a  petroleum  trust,  a  cotton  trust,  a
steel  rail  trust  &c.  (see  Corner). The  proprietors
of  the  salt  mines  in  Cheshire  combined  to  form  a
"trust"  in  the  autumn  of  1888. Similar  trusts
have  been  projected  and  opposed.

TSAR,  see  Czar.

TUAM  (W.  Ireland).  St.  Jarlath,  the  son  ot
Loga,  who  lived  about  501,  is  looked  upon  as  the
first  founder  of  the  cathedral  of  Tuam,  though  the
abbey  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  487.  The
church  was  anciently  called  Tuaim-da-Gualand.
In  1 151,  Kdan  O'Hoisin  was  the  first  archbishop,  at
least  the  first  who  received  the  pall,  for  some  of  his
predecessors  are  sometimes  called  bishops  of  Con-
naught,  and  sometimes  archbishops,  by  Irish  his-
torians. The  see  of  Mayo  was  annexed  to  Tuam  in
1559.  Tuam  is  valued  in  the  king's  books,  by  an
extent  returned  anno  28  Fliz.,  at  50^.  sterling  per
annum.  Beatson.  It  ceased  to  be  archiepiscopal,
conformably  with  the  statute  3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  1833;
and  is  now  a  bishopric  only,  to  which  Killala  and
Achonry,  a  joint  see,  has  been  added  ;  see  Arch-
bishops. New  protestant  cathedral  of  St.  Mary,
consecrated  by  the  bishop,  the  Hon.  Dr.  Charles
15.  Bernard,  9  Oct.  1878.

TUBERCULOSIS,  a  disease  caused  by  the
development  of  tubercles,  small  masses  of  diseased
matter  in  the  lungs  (phthisis  or  consumption),  in
the  face  and  other  parts  (lupus).

Br.  Robert  Koch,  of  Berlin,  announced,  in  1882,
that in: had discovered a minute organism,


named  baccillus  tuberculosis,  to  whose  action
he  attributed  the  diseases.  In  the  autumn
of  1890,  he  reported  his  invention  of  a  lymph
(see  below,  15  Jan.  1S91),  by  the  injection  of
which  into  the  system,  as  in  vaccination,  he
hoped  to  cure  the  diseases.  In  Berlin  he  made
many  experiments  on  tuberculosed  guinea-pigs
and  human  beings,  with  some  success  in  respect
to  lupus,  but  not  to  phthisis.  Dr.  Koch  was
much  honoured  by  the  emperor,  and  was  aided
by  the  state.  Dr.  Koch's  full  account  of  his
method  was  published  in  the  British  Medical
Journal,  London,  15  Nov.,  and  other  papers.
Medical  men  flocked  to  Berlin  from  all  parts  of
the  world,  to  obtain  the  lymph.  Exaggerated
cases  of  successful  application  were  published,
and  it  soon  appeared  that  time  was  required  to
test  the  efficacy  of  the  remedy.  Much  discus-
sion ensued.  Dr.  Koch,  on  15  Jan.  1891,  published
the  statement  that  his  lymph,  named  tubercu-
line,  was  a  glycerine  extract  from  the  pure  culti-
vation of  the  tubercle  bacilli.  Boyal  commis-
sion on  tuberculosis  (Dr.  Koch's  method,  &c),
actively  inquiring  at  home  and  abroad  Dec.  1890  et  seq.

Professor  Badenheuer,  of  Cologne,  asserted  that
out  of  100  surgical  cases  no  perfect  cure  had
been  effected  by  the  lymph  . . end  of  Jan.  1891

Prof.  Virchow,  Berlin,  in  regard  to  21  cases  of  in-
jection of  the  lymph,  reported  unfavourable  re-
sults Jan. ,,

Drs.  Bertin,  Picq,  and  Bernheim  proposed  the  cure
of  tuberculosis  by  the  transfusion  of  goat's  blood,

Jan.,  Feb. ,,

Dr.  Lannelongue  at  Paris,  proposed  a  new  remedy,
which  he  explained  and  illustrated  to  the  mem-
bers of  the  second  congress  for  the  study  of
tuberculosis 27  July, ,,

Dr.  Koch  appointed  director  of  the  Institute  for
Infectious  Diseases  at  Berlin . . July, ,,

He  acknowledges  the  failure  of  his  remedy,  and
proposes an  improvement by the  addition  of

alcohol 22  Oct. ,,

See  Ozone,  1891.

TUBINGEN  SCHOOL  of  rationalistic
criticism  was  founded  by  professor  F.  C.  Baur  about
1835.

TUBMAN,  see  Postman.

TUBULAR  BRIDGES. The  Britannia  Tu-
bular Suspension  Bridge,  then  the  most  wonderful
enterprise  in  engineering  in  the  world,  was con-
structed, 1846-50  (Mr.  K.  Stephenson  and  Mr,  Fair-
bairn, engineers),  about  a  mile  southward  of  the
Menai  Strait  Suspension  Bridge.*
On  the  Britannia  rock,  near  the  centre  of  the  Menai
Strait,  the  surface  of  which  is  about  ten  feet
above  low  water  level,  is  built  a  tower  two  hun-
dred feet  above  high  water  (commenced  building,
May,  1846),  and  on  which  rest  two  lines  of  tubes
or  hollow  girders  strong  enough to  bear  their
weight  and  laden  trains  in addition, the  ends
resting  on  the  abutments  on  each  shore  ;  each
tube  being  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in
length. The  height  of  .the  tube  within  is  thirty
feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing t<>
twenty-three  feet  at  the  abutments. The  lifting
of  these tubes to their places was a most
gigantic  operation, successfully  performed,

27  June,  1849
The  first  locomotive  passed  through  .  March,  1850
The  Conway  tubular  bridge,  a  miniature  copy  of

■  *  The  Britannia  tubular  bridge  was  intended  to  supply
the  place  of  one  of  the  finest  bridges  in  the  kingdom;
and  the  railway,  of  which  (lie  tubular  bridge  tonus  a
part,  is  in  like  manner  a  substitute  tor  one  of  the  (inesl

mail-coach  roads  ever  constructed.  The  road  from
London  to  Holyhead  has  been  long  regarded  as  the
highway  from  the  British  metropolis  to  Dublin  ;  and  the
laic  Mr.  Telford  was  applied  to  by  the  government  t<>
perfect  this  route  by  I  lie  London  and  Holyhead  mail-
coach  road,  which  lie  did  \>\  erecting  a  beautiful  suspen-
sion bridge  over  the  river  Conwaj  and  over  the  Menai
Strati  ;  commenced  in  July,  iSiS.  and  finished  in  July,
1825.


TUDELA.


998


TUNIS.


the  Britannia  (principal  engineers, Mr. Robt.
Stephenson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn)  erected . . 1846-8
At  Chepstow,  a  railway  tubular  bridge . . . 1852
A  bridge  or  viaduct  on  tne  tubular  principle  (called
the  Albert  viaduct)  over  the  river  Tamar  at  Ply-
mouth, opened  by  the  prince  consort . 2  May,  1859
See  Victoria  Railway  Bridge  and  Tay  Bridge.

TUDELA  (N.  Spain).  Near  here  marshal
Lannes  totally  defeated  the  Spaniards,  23  Nov.
1808 ;  see  Ebro.

TUDOE  SOVEREIGNS ;  see  England,  1485-
1603.

Tudor  Exhibition,  New  Gallery,  Regent  street ;
patron,  the  queen ;  committee,  the  prince  of
Wales,  and  other  eminent  persons.  The  collec-
tion included  portraits  and  miniatures  by  Hol-
bein and  others,  armour  and  weapons,  personal
relics,  plate,  bibles,  prayerbooks,  Shakespeare's
and  other  books.  Opened  1  Jan.  1890,  and  con-
tinued several  months.  A  similar  exhibition
was  opened  at  the  British  Museum  about  22  Jan.  1890

TUESDAY,  in  Latin  Dies  Martis,  the  day  of
Mars,  the  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from
Tuisto,  Tiiv,  or  Tuesco,  a  Saxon  deity,  worshipped
on  this  day.  Tuisto  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus ;  see
Week  Days.

TUGENDBUND  ("league  of  Virtue"),
formed  in  Prussia  soon  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,
June,  1807,  ostensibly  for  relieving  the  sufferers  by
the  late  wars,  and  for  the  revival  of  morality  and
patriotism.  Its  head-quarters  were  at  Konigsberg.
It  excited  the  jealousy  of  Napoleon,  who  demanded
its  suppression  in  1809.  It  was  dissolved  at  the
peace  in  1815.

TUILEEIES  (Paris),  the  imperial  palace  of
Prance,  commenced  by  Catherine  de  Medicis,  after
the  plans  of  Philibert  del'Orme,  1564;  continued
by  Henry  IV. ;  and  finished  by  Louis  XIV.  This
palace  was  stormed  by  the  mob,  10  Aug.  1792;
and  ransacked  in  the  revolutions  of  July,  1830,  and
Feb.  1848.  Louis  Napoleon  made  it  his  residence
in  1 85 1,  and  greatly  renovated  it.  The  restoration
of  the  Tuileries  (much  injured  by  fire  by  the  com-
munists, May  187 1)  was  determined  on,  Oct.  1872  ;
not  proceeded  with.  The  ruins  were  sold  for
32,200^.  to  M.  Picard,  4  Dec.  1882.

TULCHAN  BISHOPS;  a  mere  nominal
episcopacy  set  up  in  Scotland  by  the  regent  Morton,
who,  with  other  nobles,  absorbed  the  larger  por-
tion of  the  revenue,  1572-3.  Tulehan  was  a  stuffed
calf's  skin  set  before  a  cow  to  facilitate  milking.

TULIPS,  indigenous  in  the  east  of  Europe,  came
to  England  from  Vienna  about  1578.  It  is  recorded
in  the  register  of  Alkmaer  in  Holland,  that  in  1639,
120  tulips,  with  the  onsets,  sold  for  90,000  florins  :
and  that  one,  called  the  Viceroy,  sold  for  4203
guilders!  The  States  stopped  this  ruinous  traffic.
The  tulip  tree,  Liriodmclrontulipifera,  was  brought
to  England  from  America,  about  1663.

TUNBRIDGE  WELLS  (Kent).  The  springs
were  discovered,  it  is  stated,  by  Dudley,  lord  North,
who,  when  very  ill,  was  restored  to  health  by  the
use  of  the  waters,  1606.  The  wells  were  visited  by
the  queens  of  Charles  I.  and  II.,  and  by  queen
Anne,  and  soon  became  fashionable.  Population,
1881,24,119;  1891,27,895.
The town was incorporated by royal charter

early  in . ^89

TUNGSTEN  (also  called  wolfram  and  schee-
lium),  a  hard  whitish  brittle  metal.  From  tungstate
of  lead,  Scheele  in  1781  obtained  tungstic  acid,
whence  the  brothers  De  Luyart  in  1786  obtained
the  metal.  In  1859  it  was  employed  in  making  a
new  kind  of  steel.'


TUNIS  (N.  Africa)  stands  nearly  on  the  site  of
Carthage.  Tunis  was  besieged  by  Louis  IX.,  of
France,  who  died  near  it  25  Aug.  1270.  It  remained
under  African  kings  till  taken  by  Barbarossa,  for
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  1531.  Barbarossa  was
expelled  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  when  10,000
Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  June,  1535-
The  country  was  recovered  by  the  Turks  under
Selim  II.  1575.  The  bey  of  Tunis  was  first  appointed
in  1574;  Tunis  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  on  the
bey  refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives,
1655.  The  Hussein  dynasty  was  founded  1705.  In
July,  1856,  the  bey  agreed  to  make  constitutional
reforms.  He  died  22  Sept.  1859  ;  and  his  brother
and  successor  Mohamed-es-Sadok  took  the  oath  of
fidelity  to  the  constitution.  He  died,  and  was  suc-
ceeded by  his  brother  Sidi  Ali,  28  Oct.  1882.  Tunis
is  now  under  French  protection.
Insurrection,  18  April ;  ships  of  war  sent  to  protect

Europeans May,  1864

Tunis  decreed  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  Turkish

empire 25  Oct.  1871

A  dispute  with  France  settled  by  submission  of  the

bey Jan.  1879

The  bey,  embarrassed  by  debt  (s,ooo,oooL),  places  his

finances  in  hands  of  an  international  commission  1880
Disputes  between  France  and  Italy  respecting  rail-
way concessions Aug. ,,

Dispute  between  a  British  subject  here  and  a  French
company  respecting  purchase  of  the  Enfida  estate,
decision  left  to  the  legal  tribunals  .  .  Feb.  1881
Dispute  with  France  ;  predatory  incursions  of  the
Kroumirs,  nomadic  shepherd  tribes,  on  Algerian
territory,  March :  the  bey  appeals  to  Turkey,  1 1
April ;  and  the  Great  Powers,  27  April :  military
expedition  sent  from  France ;  lands  in  Tabarka,
bombards  fortress,  and  occupies  Bizerta,  30  April,  ,,
The  Kroumirs  said  to  be  enclosed  by  the  French ;

the  bey's  army  retreats . . . early  May, „
Alleged  battle  with  the  Kroumirs .  about  2  May, ,,
The  French  approach  Tunis,  alleging  the  object  to
be  to  restrain  warlike  tribes  and  protect  their

frontier 11  May, „

Treaty  with  France  signed ;  it  assures  to  France  the
right  to  occupy  the  positions  which  the  French
military  authorities  might  deem  necessary  for  the
maintenance  of  order  and  the  security  of  the  fron-
tier and  the  coast,  and  to  send  a  resident  minister
to  the  capital.  The  French  government  guaran-
tees to  the  bey  the  security  of  his  person,  his
states,  and  his  dynasty,  and  the  maintenance  of
existing  treaties  with  the  European  powers ;  while
the  bey  undertakes  not  to  conclude  any  interna-
tional convention  without  a  previous  understand-
ing with  the  French  government,  and  to  prevent
the  introduction  of  arms  into  Algeria  through
Tunis.  The  financial  system  of  the  regency  to  be
regulated  by  France  in  concert  with  the  bey,

12  May, „
Reported  conflict  between  the  French  under  gen.
Breart  and  the  Arabs ;  the  French  enter  Mater,

18  May, ,,
The  Sultan  of  Turkey  protests  againstthe  treaty,  May, ,,
M.  Seguin,  a  news  correspondent,  murdered  at  Beja
-  by  a  fanatic  (who  is  executed) . . 28  May, ,,
M.  Brangard,  inspector  of  telegraphs,  and  assistants,

murdered  by  Arabs,  near  Oran  . about  5  June, ,,
M.  Roustan,  the  consul,  appointed  French  resident
minister  (said  to  be  virtual  ruler,  replacing  bey),
French  army  returning  home . . June, ,,
Mustapha  Ben  Ismail,  the  bey's  chief  minister,  re-
ceived by  president  Grevy,  at  Paris  . 21  June, „
Insurrection  at  Sfax,  revolt  of  great  chief  Ali  Ben

Khalifa,  announced  ....  30  June,  ,,
Europeans  attacked,  nearly  all  flee  to  ships,  alleged

massacres 31  July, „

Sfax  bombarded  by  the  French, 5  July, et  seq.  ;

captured  after  severe  conflict  .  .  16  July,  ,,
Arabs  revolting  ;  anarchy  reported  .  20  July,  ,,
Enrida  case; decision  against the English, Mr.

Levy Aug. ,,

Collapse  of  bey's  authority . .  about  15  Aug. ,,
Asserted  conflict  at  Hammamet,  the French  re-
pulsed about  3 1  Aug. ;  the  French  retreating  about

8  Sept. ,,


TUNNAGE.


999


TURIN.


Arrival  of  2,000  French  troops  at  Goletta 9  Sept.  1881
(General Saisattier  with troops  at  Zaghouan  sur-
rounded by  Arabs  ....  about  13  Sept. ,,
58,000  men  sent  to  Tunis  announced  .  26  Sept. ,,

Alleged  defeat  of  the  bey's  troops  under  Ali  Bey ;

4  hours'  conflict  ....  about  25  Sept.  ,,
Ali  Bey's  army  surrounded  .  about  4  Oct.  etseq.  ,,
Union  of the  French  and  Ali  Bey's  army,  about

8  Oct.  „
Tunis  occupied  by  the  French  .  .  .10  Oct.  ,,
Gen.  Sabattier  defeats  the  Arabs  ;  six  hours'  con-
flict ;  800  killed,  French  loss  slight  .  .  13  Oct.  ,,
Continued  fighting  ....  about  22  Oct.  „
The  French  under  Gen. Etienne enter  Kairwan,

without  resistance 26  Oct. „

The  French  treaty  with  the  bey  (11  May)  confirmed

by  the  chambers 9  Nov. ,,

Alleged  defeat of  Arabs, near Gerid, by  Gen.

Logerot about  16  Nov. ,,

Gen.  Saussier  reports  his  capture  of  a  large  rebel

convoy about  17  Nov. „

The  insurrection  virtually suppressed ; army  of

occupation  to  be  20,000  .  announced  29  Nov.  ,,
M.  Levy  (see  Aug.  1 881)  expelled  .  about  14  Dec.  ,,
M.  Roustan  in  Paris  ;  M.  H.  Rochfort  acquitted  of

bitter  libel  against  M.  Roustan  .  .  15  Dec.  ,,
M.  Roustan  returns  . . .  about  29  Dee. ,,

Transferred  to  Washington  . . about  23  Feb.  1882
Victory  of  insurgents . . .  about  1  April, ,,
Enflda  case  amicably  settled . . . May, ,,
Treaty with France (taking over debt about

5,000,000?.)  draft July, ,,

Renewed  Arab  incursions . .  about  3  Oct. ,,

French  courts  of  law  established  ;  foreign  consular

jurisdictions  abolished  (capitulations)  1  Jan.  1884

French  residents,  1891,  about  10,000.

TUNNAGrE  AND  POUNDAGE  were  ancient
■duties  levied  on  every  tun  of  wine  and  pound  of
•other  goods,  imported  or  exported,  and  were  the
•origin  of  our  "customs."  They  commenced  in
England  about  1346,  and  were  granted  to  the  kings
for  life,  beginning  with  Edward  IV.  Charles  I.
gave  great  offence  by  levying  them  on  his  own
authority,  1628.  They  were  granted  to  Charles  II.
for  his  lifetime,  24  June,  1660.  By  the  act  27
Geo.  III.  c.  13,  these  and  other  duties  were  repealed,
1787,  and  a  new  arrangement  of  excise  and  customs
was  introduced.

TUNNELS,  for  drainage,  are  ancient.  The
earliest  tunnel  for  internal  navigation  was  executed
fey  M.  Riguet,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  at  Bezieres
in  France.  The  first  in  England  was  by  Mr.
Brin dley,  on  the  duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal,
near  Manchester,  about  1766.  Project  of  the
Gravescnd  tunnel,  1800— the  report  upon  it,  1801.
The  Thames  Tunnel  was  projected  by  Mr.  Brunei
in  1823,  and  opened  for  foot  passengers,  25  March,
1843 ;  see  Thames  Tunnel.  Innumerable  tunnels
have  been  made  for  railways.  The  railway  tunnel
at  Liverpool  was  completed  in  the  middle  of  1829,
lit  up  with  gas,  and  exhibited  once  a  week.  On  the
London  and  Birmingham  railway  there  are  eight
tunnels  (the  Primrose-hill,  Watford,  Kilsby,  &c),
their  total  length  being  7336  yards.  Smiles.  It
was  computed  by  Mr.  Fowler,  that  there  were  80
miles  of  tunnels  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1S65,
which  cost  about  6,500,000/.,  at  the  average  of  45/.
a  yard; see  Alps  [Mont  Cenis,  etc.]  and  Thames.

Tunnel  between  Dover  and  Calais,  suggested  by  M.
Mathieu about  1802

Tunnel  for  a  railway  beneath  the  channel  from
Dover  to  Calais,  proposed  by  Messrs.  J.  K.  Bate-
man  and  J.  Revy  .... 30  Aug. 1869

M.  Thome  de  Gamond,  after  many  years'  study,  ex-
hibited his  plans  in  Paris,  1867;  his  scheme  re-
vived in  France,  July,  1871  and  Nov.  1873  ;  a
convention  in  its  favour  was  signed  for  France

by  M. Michel  Chevalier,  .tan., 1S75  I  engii rs,

sir  John  Hawkshaw  and  M.  LavaUy  :  monopoly
for  30  years  granted;  chairman  for  English  com-


pany, lord Richard  Grosvenor ; plan  of  boring
through  20  miles  chalk  by  Mr.  D.  Brunton.

M.  ThonnS  de  Gamond  died .... Feb.,  1876

Boring  at  Sangatte,  near  Calais,  begun  25  Feb.  ;  200
feet  deep 3  June, ,,

Memorandum  of  basis  of  proposed  treaty  between
England  and  France  issued . . . Aug. ,,

Other  plans  have  been  proposed  by  G.  Remington,
P.  J.  Bishop,  A.  Austin,  &c.

The  French  government's  concession  for  prelimi-
nary works  granted  in  1875,  renewed  for  3  years

from  2  Aug.  1880

Experimental  boring  going  on,  April,  1881  ;  800
metres  from  the  coast .... May,  1883

Meeting  of  Channel  Tunnel  Company  2  Feb. ;  of
submarine  Continental  railway  company 3  Feb.  1882

Channel  Tunnel  near  Dover ;  about  1  mile  exca-
vated ;  visited by  Mr. Gladstone and others

11  March, ,,

The  Channel  Tunnel  disapproved  of  by  sir  G.
Wolseley,  and  other  officers,  British  and  foreign

March,  at  seq. ,,

The  works  stopped  by  government  about  1  May  ;
by  order  of  Mr.  Justice  Kay . . .  6  July, ,,

Two  channel  tunnel  bills  discharged  in  the  commons

16  Aug. ,,

Report  of  a  commission  on  the  channel  tunnel  (sir
A.  Alison,  chairman)  unfavourable  on  political
grounds  issued 11  Oct. ,,

The  question  referred  to  a  committee  of  lords  and
commons  4,  6  April,  which  meets  24  April ;  decide
against  the  tunnel  (6-4)  . .  about  10  July,  1883

The  company  resolutely  determine  to  wait  17  Aug. ,,

Bill  rejected  by  the  commons  (222-84)  J4  May,  1884;
(281-99) 12  May,  1885

Boring  of  the  channel  tunnel  still  continued,  2  Feb.  1887

The  channel  tunnel  bill  again  rejected  by  the
commons  (153-107) .... 3  Aug. ,,

Sir  E.  Watkin's  bill  for  experimental  works
opposed  by  the  government  and  rejected  in  the
commons  (307-165),  27  June,  1888  ;  again  rejected.
(234-153) 5  June,  1890

Mersey  tunnel,  between  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,
one  mile  long,  projected  i860,  execution  fre-
quently suspended, boring  renewed  by  the  energy
of  major  Samuel  Isaac,  1880,  boring  completed
under  his  superintendence,  17  Jan.  1884  (he  died,
22  Nov.  1886) ;  tunnel  opened,  13  Feb.  1S85  ;  first
passenger  train  run  through,  22  Dec.  1S85 ;
formally  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  20  Jan.  1886

The  Severn  tunnel  near  Bristol,  constructed  by  W.
C.  Richardson,  for  the  Gt.  Western  company's
railway  begun,  March,  1873  ;  official  train  passed
through,  5  Sept.  1885  ;  opened  for  traffic,  1  Sept.,
for  passengers 1  Dec. ,,

"  Joseph  II.  mining  adit,"  Schemnitz,  begun  1782,
after  many  delays,  finished,  16,538  metres  long,

5  Sept.  1S78

Arlberg  tunnel,  Austria,  10,270  metres  long  ;  begun
June,  1880;  completed,  and  train  passed  through,

13  Nov. 1883

Two  tunnels  for  the  City  and  South  London  Elec-
tric Railway,  from  the  Monument  to  Stockwell,
completed,  March  ;  the  railway  opened  by  the
prince  of  Wales,  4  Nov.  ;  to  the  public 18'  Dec.  1890

The  construction  of  a  tunnel  under  the  Irish  Chan-
nel recommended  by  sir  Roper  Lethbridgc  at  the
Society  of  Arts .' . . . . n  Feb.  1891

TUKAN,  see  Turkestan.

TURCKHEIM,  see  Tiirkheim.

TURIN,  the  ancient  Augusta  Taurinorum  in
Piedmont,  capital  of  the  Sardinian  .States,  and  of
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  till  1864,  when  it  was  super-
seded by  Florence.  Its  importance  dates  from  the
permanent  union  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  in  1416.
The  French  besieged  this  city ;  but  prince  Eugene
defeated  their  army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise
the  siege,  7  Sept.  1706.  In  [798,  the  French
republican  arm}-  took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all
the Strong places  and  arsenals  of Piedmont, and

obliged  the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the

island of Sardinia. In 1 7')'), the French were
driven  out  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians;  but  the


TURKESTAN.


1000


TURKEY.


city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered  to  the  French,
June  1800.  In  May  1814,  it  was  restored  to  the
king  of  Sardinia;  see  Italy,  1864.  Here  prince  Hum-
bert was  married  to  his  cousin  Margherita  amidst
great  rejoicing,  22  April,  1868.  The  monument  to
Cavour  was  inaugurated,  8  Nov.  1873.  An  exhibition
opened  by  the  king,  25  April,  1880.  See  Treaties,
and  Italy,  1884. Population,  1890,  320,808.

TURKESTAN,  called  by  the  Persians  Turan,
Independent  Tartary,  the  original  country  of  the
Turks,  in  Central  Asia,  was  reached  by  Alexander,
331  B.C.  The  Eussians  are  gradually  encror.ching
on  this  country ;  on  14  Feb.  1865,  a  new  province,
Turkestan,  was  created  by  decree,  and  gen.  Kauff-
mann  made  governor,  26  July,  1867;  died  16  May,
1882.  The  rule  of  the  czar  accepted  by  the  chief
tribes  at  Merv,  {which  see),  announced  8  Feb.  1884.

TURKEY.  The  Turks  were  originally  a
tribe  of  Tartars;  but,  by  incorporation  with  the
peoples  they  have  conquered,  have  becomea-mixed
race.  About  760,  they  obtained  possession  of  a
part  of  Armenia,  called  from  them  Turcomania.
They  gradually  extended  their  power ;  but  in  the
13th  century,  being  harassed  by  other  Tartar  tribes,
they  returned  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Turkish  empire
till  1878  comprehended  the  almost  independent
principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  Servia,
and  Montenegro,  the  hereditary  vice-royalty  of
Egypt,  and  Tunis.  The  Turkish  quadrilateral  for-
tresses were  Shumla,  Varna,  Silistria,  and  Bust-
chuck.  The  population  of  the  empire  was  estimated
in  1887  at  32,978,100.  (Immediate  Possessions,
21, 633, OOO, tributariesand  protect  orates,  1 1, 345, 100);
in  Europe,  8,987,000;  Asia,  16,174,100;  Africa,
7,817,000.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (13  July,  1878)
Turkey  is  said  to  have

Square Inhabi- Moham-
Miles. tants. medans.
Ceded  to  Bouinania . . 5,93s 246,000 142,000
., Servia . . . 4,326 264,000 75,000
,, Montenegro . . 1,549 40,000 9,000
,, Austria  . . .  15  2,000 —

,, Greece  (?)  . . . 5,300 750,000 40,000
To  be  occupied  and  adminis-
tered by  Austria . . 28,125 1,061,000 513,000
Formed  into  the  Principality

of  Bulgaria  .  ...  24,404  1,773,000  681,500
Included  in Eastern Bou-

melia. .... 13,646 746,000 265,000

If  we  exclude  the  provinces  "  indefinitely  "  to  be
occupied  by  Austria,  Bulgaria,  and  Eastern  Boume-
lia,  there  remain  to  Turkey  in  Europe  only  74>79°
square  miles,  with  4,779,000  inhabitants,  of  whom
2,521,500  are  Mohammedans.  In  Armenia  Eussia
takes  10,000  square  miles,  with  about  350,000  in-
habitants. Cyprus,  entrusted  to  the  keeping  of
England,  has  an  area  of  3,584  square  miles,  and
186,173  inhabitants  in  1881.  Thessaly  ceded  to
Greece  by  convention,  24  May;  treaty  signed,
2  July,  1 88 1.
Alp  Arslan  and  the  Turks  conquer  Armenia  and

Georgia 1065-8

Asia  Minor  conquered,  1074-84 ;  Jerusalem  taken .  1076
Soliman  Shah  drowned  in  the  Euphrates,  while  on
the  march  ;  his  son  Ertoghul,  granted  territories

near  Angora,  dies 1288

Othman,  his  son,  emir  of  the  sultan  of  Iconium,
founded  the  Ottoman  empire  at  Prusa,  Bithynia,

by  policy  and  conquest,  in 1299

Organisation  of  Janissaries  by  Orcan  about  .  .  1330
Nic«a  conquered,  1330  ;  and  the  Morea  .  .  .  1346
The  Turks  enter  Thrace,  and  take  Adrianople  .  1361
Amurath  I.  remodels  the  Janissaries  .  .  .  .  1362
Bajazet  I.  overruns  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire

1389  et  seq.
He  defeats Sigismund of  Hungary  at Nioopolis

28  Sept.  1396


He  besieges  Constantinople  ;  but  is  interrupted  by
the  approach  of  Tamerlane  (or  Timour),  by  whom
he  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  at  An cyra,  28  July,  1402

Macedonia  annexed i43P-

Ladislas  of  Hungary  defeated  and  slain  at  Varna

by  Amurath 10  Nov.  1444;

Amurath  defeats  John  Huniades  at  Kossova Oct.  1448
The  Turks,  invading  Hungary,  repelled  by  Huni-
ades I4S°

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  under  Mahomet
II., which ends the Eastern  Boman  empire,

29  May,  1453
Belgrade  relieved  by  Huniades'  victory  over  the

Turks July,  1456

Greece  subjected  to  the  Turks  (see  Greece) . 1458-60.
The  Turks  take  Otranto,  diffusing  terror  through-
out Europe 1480

Selim  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Janissaries ;

murders  his  father,  brothers,  &c 1512

He  takes  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago . . . 151-4

He  overruns  Syria  iSiS

Gains  Egypt  by  defeat  of  Mamelukes  .  .  Aug.  1516
Solyman  takes  Belgrade,  Aug. 1521 ; and  Bhodes,

Dec.  1532
Defeats  Hungarians  at  Mohatz . . 29  Aug.  15Z6

Repulsed  before  Vienna Oct.  1529

Peace  with  Austria 1533,

Cyprus  taken  from  the  Venetians . . Aug. 157.1
Great  battle  of  Lepanto  (which  see) . . 7  Oct. ,,
Treaty  of  commerce  with  England . . . .  157,9
Turks  driven  out  of  Persia  by  Shah  Abbas . . 1585

Great  fire  in  Constantinople 1606

War  with  the  Cossacks,  who  take  Azof  .  .  .  1637
The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians  and. take  the  city  of

Bagdad 1638

Candia  (Crete)  taken  from  Venice,  after  a  25  years'

siege . .  1669

Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.  but  relieved  by

John  of  Poland 12  Sept.  16&3

Peace  of  Carlovitz 26  Jan.  1699

Mustapha  II.  deposed  by  Janissaries  .  .  .  .  1703
The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks  ....  1715
The  Turks  defeated  at  Peterwardein  .  .  .  .  1716
They  lose  Belgrade  ;  and  their  power  declines .  1717

Peace  of  Eri van  (with  Persia) 1732

Belgrade  taken  from  Austria;  and  Bussia  relin-
quishes Azof I739

The  Turks  defeated  at  Kars 1745

Insurrection  of  Wahabees 174a

Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel  of  Seio  ;  the  Russian

fleet  defeats  the  Turkish 1770

The  Crimea  ceded  to  Russia ....  Jan.  1784
Disastrous  war  with  Russia  and  Austria,  the  Turks
lose  more  than  200,000  men . . .  1787-91

Cession  of  Oczacow 1791

War  with  the  French,  who  invade  Egypt . . .  1798
Insurrection  of  Mamelukes  at  Cairo  ....  1S03
War  against  Russia  and  England . . 7  Jan.  180?
Passage  and  repassage  of  the  Dardanelles  effected
by  the  British  fleet,  but  with  great  loss  ;  seeDar-

danelles 19  Feb. ,r

Murder  of  Hali  Aga 25  May, „.

The  Janissaries massacre  the newly disciplined

troops i8o3

The  Russians  defeated  at  Silistria .... 180a;

Treaty  of  Bucharest  (which  see) . .  28  May,  1S12

A  caravan,  consisting  of  2000  souls,  returning  from
Mecca,  destroyed  by  a  pestilential  wind  in  the
deserts  of  Arabia  ;  20  saved  . . 9  Aug. ,,

Subjugation  of  the  AValiabees  (which  see) . 181S-29.
Ali Pacha  of  Janina,  in  Greece,  declares  himself
independent ........ 1820

Insurrection  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 6  March,  182s
Persecution of  Christians, 6 March ; the  Greek
patriarch  put  to  death  at  Constantinople,

23  April, ,,
[For  the  events  in  connection  with  the  independ-
ence of  Greece,  see  Greece.]
Horrible  massacre  at  Seio  (see  Chios) . 23  April,  1822
Sea-fight  near  Mitylene  ;  Turks  defeated . 6  Oct.  1824,
New  Mahometan  army  organised . . 29  May,  1826
Insurrection  of  the  Janissaries  at  Constantinople  ;

they  are  suppressed  and  massacred, 14-16  June, ,,
6000  houses  burnt  at  Constantinople. . 30  Aug. ,,
Battle  of  Navarino  ; the  Turkish  fleet  destroyed
by  the  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Bussia  (see
Navarino) 20  Oct.  1823


TUEKEY.


1001


TUEKEY.


Banishment  of  132  French, 120 English,  and  85
Russian  settlers  from  the  empire .  5  Jan'. 1828

War  with  Russia 26  April, ,,

The  czar  Nicholas  takes  the  field  .  .  20  May,  ,,
Capitulation  of  Brahilow  ....  19  June,  ,,
Surrender  of  Anapa  ....  23  June,  ,,
Eminences  of  Shumla  taken  by  Russians,  20  July,  ,,
The  czar  arrives  before  Varna . .  5  Aug. ,,

Battle  of  Aklialzic 24  Aug. ,,

Fortress  of  Bajazet  taken  ...  9  Sept.  ,,
The  sultan  proceeds  to  the  camp  with  the  sacred

standard 26  Sept. ,,

Dardanelles  blockaded 1  Oct. ,,

Surrender  of  Varna 11  Oct. ,,

Russians  retreat  from  Shumla . .  16  Oct. ,,

Surrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to  the  French,

30  Oct.  ,,
Siege  of  Silistria  raised  by  Russians  .  10  Not.  ,,
Victory  of  the  Russians  at  Kuleftscha,  near  Shumla

11  June,  1829
Battle  near  Erzeroum .... 2  July, ,,
Adriauople  is  entered  by  the  Russians,  20  Aug.  ;

armistice  agreed  on  . . -29  Aug. ,,

Treaty  of  peace  at  Adrianople  .  .  14  Sept.  ,,
Fire  at  Constantinople ;  extinguished  by  the  men

of  H.M.S.  Blonde ....  22  Jan.  1830

The  porte  acknowledges  the  independence  of  Greece

25  April,  ,,
Treaty  with  America  ....  7  May,  „
Great  fire  at  Pera ; British embassy  destroyed,

2  Aug. 1831
New  military  "  order  of  glory  "  (Nischan)  founded

19- Aug.  ,,
St. Jean  d'Acre  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of

Mehemet  Ali 2  July,  1832

He defeats  the  army of  the  sultan  at  Konieh,

21  Dec. „
Ibrahim  Pacha  marches  within  eighty  leagues  of
Constantinople, and  the  sultan  asks  the  aid  of
Russia ....... Jan. 1833

The  Russians  enter  Constantinople  .  3  April,  ,,
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive,

8  July, „
Office  of  grand  vizier  abolished . .  30  March,  1838
Treaty  of  commerce  with  England,  concluded  by

lord  Ponsonby,  ratified ... 16  Aug. ,,
[For the events  of 1839  and  1840  in  relation  to

Syria  ;  see  Syria.]
Haiti  Sherif  promulgated  decreeing  many  reforms,
termed  the  Tanzimat  (regulations)  3  Nov.  1839  ;
again,  at  Rhodes  6  Jan.  1840;  again  1844.
Christians  admitted  to  office  in  Turkey . June,  1849
The  Turkish  government  refuses  to  surrender  the
Hungarian  and  Polish  refugees  on  the  joint  de-
mand of  Russia  and  Austria . . 16  Sept. ,,
[The  porte  (countenanced  by  England)  firmly  resists

this  demand.]
Russia suspends  .intercourse with the Porte,

12  Nov.  ,,
The  British  fleet,  under  sir  W.  Parker,  anchors  in

Besika  bay 13  Nov. „

Diplomatic  relations  between  Russia  and  the  porte
resumed,  31  Dec.  ;  the  latter  sending  the  refugees

to  Konieh Jan. 1850

Turkish  Croatia  in  a  state  of  rebellion . . Jan. 1851
Treaty  with France respecting the Holy  Places

(which  see) 13  Feb.  1852

Imperial  order  of  Medjidie  founded . . Aug. ,,
Prince Menschikoff  repairs to  Constantinople  as
Russian negotiator, 28 Feb.  ; lus peremptory

demands  rejected 19  April,  1853

Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the
ultimatum being rejected, Meuschikolf quits

Constantinople 21  May, ,,

Hatti-slieriff  issued,  confirming  the  rights  of the

Greek  Christians 6  June, ,,

Russian  manifesto  against  Turkey  .  .  26  June,  ,,
Russian  army  crosses  the  1'ruth  . . 2  July, ,,

Grand  national  council — war  to  be  declared  if  the

principalities  are  not  evacuated . . 26  Sept. ,,
War  declared  against  Russia . . .5  Oct. ,,

[See  Russo-Turkish  War.]
Commencement  of  national  debt  (see  Tjoans,  1854)  .  1854
Insurrection  in  Epirus  and  Albania,  favoured  by
the  Greek  government  at  Athens— Hellenic  em-
pire proclaimed 27  Jan. „

Volunteers  from  Athens  join  it  .  .  14  March,  ,,
Rupture  between  Greece  and  Turkey 28  March, „


[Several  conflicts  ensue  with  varied  success.]
Osman  Pacha  storms  Peta,  the  central  point  of  the

insurrection 25  April,  1854

English  and  French  governments,  after  many
remonstrances,  send  troops,  which  arrive  at  the
Pirreus  ;  the  king  of  Greece  submits,  and  pro-
mises strict  neutrality :  the  Greek  volunteers
are  recalled  ....  25  and  26  May,  ,,
Abdi  Pacha  and  Fuad  Effendi  take  the  intrenched
camp  at  Kolampaka,  and  the  insurrection  shortly

after  ceases 18  June, ,T

Reschid  Pacha, having  retired  (3  June),  resumes

his  office 1  July, ,,

Convention  between  Turkey  and  Austria 14  June, ,,.
The  Russians  retire  from  the  principalities,  which
are  thereupon  occupied  by  the  Austrians,  Sept. ,,

Turkish  loans Aug.  185s

[See  Loans  1854-5]
Firman  authorising  free  exercise  of  religion  18  Feb. 185.6
Peace  with  Russia  by  treaty  of  Paris . 30  March, ,,
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Austria  guarantee  integ-
rity of  Turkish  empire . . .  15  April, ,,
Austrians  quit  the  principalities . . March,  1857
Misunderstanding among the allied powers  re-
specting Moldavian  elections,  which  are  annulled,

July, „
Death  of  Reschid  Pacha .... 7  Jan.  185)8
Massacre  of  Christians  at  Jedda  (which  see),

15  June, ,,
Lord  Stratford  de  Redeliffe, many  years English
ambassador  at  Constantinople,  returned  to  Eng-
land,  Jan.  ;  he  is  succeeded  by  sir  H.  Lytton
Bulwer;  accredited .... 12  July, „
Indecisive conflicts  in  Montenegro between  the

natives  and  the  Turks  ....  July,  ,T
Turkish  financial  reforms  begun . .  Aug. ,,

The  first  Turkish  railway  opened  (from  Aidan  to

Smyrna) 19  Sept. ,,.

Base  coinage  called  in  ;  a  fictitious  Turkish  coinage

begun  at  Birmingham  suppressed . • Oct. ,,
The allied powers determine the Montenegrine
boundaries ...  ... 8  Nov. ,,

Prince  Alexander  Cousa  elected  hospodar  of  both

Moldavia  and  Wallachia . . 5  and  7  Feb. 1859
[The  porte  at  first  objects,  but  afterwards  accedes

to  the  double  election.]
Electric  telegraph  completed  between  Aden  and

Suez May, ,„

Great  fire  at  Constantinople ;  1000  houses  destroyed

10-14  Sept. ,,
Conspiracy  against  the  sultan,  17  Sept.;  his  brother
implicated  ;  several  condemned  to  die  ;  reprieved,

Sept.  and  Oct. „
Great  agitation  for  financial  reform . . Oct. „
Alleged  ill  treatment  of  Christians  in  Turkey  ;  pro-
posed intervention  of  the  great  powers,  5  May  ;
the  Turkish  government  promises  investigation
and  redress, 30  May ;  all  the  powers satisfied

except  Russia June,  i860

War  between  the  Druses  and  Maronites  in  Lebanon ;

massacres  (see  Druses)  ....  June,  ,,
Massacre  of  Christians  at  Damascus  (see  Damascus,

and  Syria) 9-1 1  July, ,,

Convention  on  behalf  of  the  Great  Powers  at  Paris  ;
armed intervention of the French agreed to,

2  Aug. ,,
Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000?.

24  Feb.  i86j
Christians  revolt  in  the  Herzegovina,  aided  by  the

Montenegrins March, ,,

Great  need of  financial reform  :  the British  am-
bassador, sir  H. Lytton Bulwer, proposes a

scheme April, ,,

Discussion respecting  the  French  occupation  of

Syria;  it  ceases 5  June, ,,

Death  of  the  sultan,  Abdul-Medjid ;  accession  of

Abdul-Aziz,  his  brother  .  .  .  25  June,  ,,
Economical reforms begun; Fuad Pacha made

president  of  the  council  ....  July,  ,r
The  late  sultan's  jewels  sold  in  London  .  Aug.  ,,
imperial  order  of  knighthood  (<  ismaneh)  to  include

civil  as  well  as  military persons,  founded,  Sept. ,,
imperial  guard  reorganised . . . Oct.
Fuad  Pacha  made  grand  vizier . . 22  Nov. ,,
Hi'  puis  forth  a  budget  ;  treaties  hi'  commerce  with

Sweden,  Spain,  &c.  .... March,  iS6a

A  Turkish  loan  (8,000,000/.)  taken up  in  London,

May, „


TUEKEY.


1002


TUEKEY.


Secularisation  of  the  property  of  the  mosques,
(value  about  3,000,000!)  said  to  be  determined,  on,

Oct.  1S62
insurgents  in  the  Herzegovina  submit ;  peace  made

with  Montenegro .... 23  Sept. ,,
Dispute  with  Servia  (which  see)  settled . 7  Oct. ,,
.Ministerial  crisis  through  the  sultan's  attempt  at
reaction; Fuad  Pacha  and others  resign, but

resume  office 7  Jan.  1863

A  new  bank  established  ....  28  Jan.  ,,
Fuad  Pacha  becomes  seraskier . .  12  Feb. ,,

The  sultan  visits  Egypt  .  .  .  7-17  April,  ,,
Fuad  Pacha  made  grand  vizier  .  .  1  June,  ,,
Exhibition  of  the  produce  of  the  empire  opened  in

March ;  closed 26  July, ,,

<Great  immigration  of  the  Caucasian  tribes April'  1864
Financial  reforms  ;  conversion  and  verification  of

the  Turkish  debt .  Aug.  1865

Cholera  rages  at  Constantinople,  nearly  50,000
deaths,  Aug.  ;  cholera  subsides,  Sept.  ;  great  fire
there,  about  2500  buildings  (mosques,  dwellings,

&c.)  destroyed 6  Sept. 1865

Fuad  Pacha  proposes  confiscation  of  the  property
of  the  mosques :  opposition  of  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam

21  Sept.  „
Lord  Lyons,  ambassador  at  Constantinople  .  Oct.  ,,
Kevolt of the  Maronites under  Joseph Karam,

30  Dec.  ,,
The grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by

Mehemet  Buehdi  .... 5  June,  1866

Revolution  in  Bucharest (see Danubian,  princi-
palities).
Insurrection  in  Candia  (which  see) . . Aug. .,
International  conference  respecting  cholera  at  Con-
stantinople . . . . 13  Feb. -26  Sept. ,,
European  Turkey  very  unsettled . . Jan.  1867
Maronite  revolt,  under  Joseph  Karam,  suppressed  ;

his  flight,  Jan.  ;  Turks  leave  . . 28  March, ,,
Ministerial  changes  : Ali  Pacha becomes  grand-
vizier ;  Fuad  Pacha,  foreign  minister  11  Feb. ,,
The  recommendation  of  the  European  powers  to
the  sultan  to  give  up  Candia  finally  declined

31  Mar.  ,,
Omar  Pacha,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Turkish

army April, „

Destruction  of  the  dockyards  in  the  Golden  Horn  by
fire 2  April, ,,

The  sultan,  with  his  son  and  nephew,  visits  Paris,
1-12  July;  arrives  at  Buckingham  Palace,
London,  12  July;  entertained  by  the  queen  at
Windsor,  13  July;  by  the  lord  mayor,  18  July;
at  a  ball  at  New  India  House,  19  July;  gives
2500Z.  to  the  poor  of  London,  22  July ;  sails  from
Dover,  23  July  ;  at  Vienna,  27  July-i  Aug.  ;  re-
turns to  Constantinople . . . 7  Aug.

The  Sultan  declines  the  proposition  of  Russia,  for
the  suspension  of  hostilities  in  Crete,  and  an  in-
ternational commission ... 4  Sept.

Ministerial  crisis;  Fuad  Pacha  resigns,  but  re-
sumes his  office Jan.  1868

Meeting  of  the  new  council  of  state  (including
Jews  and  Christians),  with  legislative,  but  not
executive,  functions .... 18  May,

Arrival  of  prince  Napoleon  Jerome  at  Constanti-
nople 26  June, „

Arrests  on  account  of  a  supposed  plot  against  the
sultan 3o  Sept. „

Dispute  with  Greece  for  intervention  in  the  Cretan
insurrection  ;  see  Oreece  .... Dee

Fuad  Pacha  dies Feb!  i860

The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales's  visit April, „

Memorial  of  the  porte  to  the  European  powers  de-
siring the  abolition  of  the  consular  jurisdictions
termed  "capitulations" . . . June

The  khedive  or  viceroy  of  Egj^pt  censured  for
assuming  sovereign  powers  encroaching  on  those
of  the  sultan AU<T

System  of  compulsory  education  promulgated,  Oct "

Arrival  of  the  empress  of  the  French  at  Constanti- '
nollle 15  Oct. „

Inauguration  of  the  Suez  canal . . 17  Nov.

The  khedive  submits  to  the  sultan . . Dec.' "

Modification  of  the  "capitulations" . April,  1870

Great  fire  at  Pera  ;  British  embassy  and  about  7900
houses  destroyed  ;  great  loss  of  life . 5  June,

Another  fire  at  Constantinople  :  about  1500  houses
bui'ut 11  July, „


Change  in  the  cabinet ; Mustapha Fazyl,  finance

minister 14  Aug.  1870

Reported  treaty  between  Turkey  and  Greece  to  re-
sist European  aggression  in  the  East . 21  Oct. „
Russia  repudiates  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1856, 31  Oct. ,,
A  note  delivered  to  the  porte  (see  Russia),  15  Nov. „
The  sultan  agrees  to.  a  conference  on  the  Black  Sea

question  alone about  3  Dec. ,,

Mustapha Fazyl,  replaced by  Mehemet Ruchdi

about  15  Jan.  1871
The  Black  Sea  question  settled  by  the  conference

at  London  (see  Russia) . . . 13  March, ,,
Omar  Pacha,  general,  dies ... 18  April, ,,
Insurrection  in  Yemen,  subdued . . May, ,,
Great  fires  at  Constantinople  . . 7  June, „

Aali  Pacha,  grand  vizier,  an  able  statesman,  dies

6  Sept. „
Mahmoud  Pacha,  grand  vizier  . . . Sept. „
Tunis  made  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  by  de-
cree ....... 23  Oct. ,,

Political  reforms  inaugurated  by  the  new  ministry

Nov.  1871
Important  speech  of  the  sultan  to  his  council  re-
specting the  finances  .... 16  May,  1872

Mahmoud  Pacha,  grand  vizier,  having  made
enemies  through  dismissing  foreign  employes,  &c,
is dismissed and replaced by  Miclhat  Pacha,

about  30  July, „
Midhat  Pacha,  who  favoured  Austria,  dismissed  ;

replaced  by  Mehemet  Ruchdi . . . 19  Oct. ,,
Essad Pacha, grand  vizier, 15 Feb.; Mehemet

Ruchdi  again April,  1873

The  Roumelian  railway  connecting  Constantinople,

Adrianople,  &c,  opened ... 17  June, ,,
The  sultan's  jewels,  &e.  (valued  at  8,ooo,oooL)  ex-
hibited at  Vienna Aug. ,,

The shah  of Persia  arrives at Constantinople

19  Aug. ,,
Inability  to  raise  a  loan :  the  sultan  gives  up  a  large

sum;  great  financial  reforms  proposed . Oct. ,,
Turkish  aggressions  on  South  Arabia  checked  by

Great  Britain Nov. „

Great  improvements  in  the  army ;  formation  of  re-
serves ...........

Hussein  Avni,  pacha  ;  made  grand  vizier . Feb.  1874
Improved  financial  arrangements  reported April, ,,
The  sultan  ill ; he  recognises  his  nephew  Murad

as  successor about  5  Oct. ,,

Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia  inform  Turkey  that
they  consider  they  have  the  right  to  conclude
separate  treaties  with  Roumania . .  20  Oct. „
Mesondive  or  Mesoucliye,  Turkish  ironclad,  launched

at  Blackwall 28  Oct. „

Turkish  debt  3,000,000/..  in  1854  ;  180,000,000?.  . „
Budget :  estimated  receipts,  21,711,764?. ;  expendi-
ture, 26,299,178?. June,  1875

Insurrection  in  Herzegovina  (■which  see)  ;  great  ex-
citement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro

July- Aug. ,,
Mahmoud  Pacha  made  grand  vizier,  with  a  strong

ministry,  about 25  Aug. ,,

Decree  (in  consequence  of  the  deficit  of  5,000,000?.
in  the  budget)  that  for  5  years  half  the  interest  on
the  debt  be  paid  in  cash  and  half  in  5  per  cent.

bonds 6  Oct. ,,

Circular  note  remitting  taxes  and  promising  eco-
nomical and  commercial  reform,  7  Oct. ;  another
stating  object  of  the  government  to  stop  onerous
loans,  develop  the  resources  of  the  empire,  &c,

20  Oct.  „
Remonstrances  of  British  and  Russian  ambassadors
with  the  government  respecting  expenditure  and
treatment  of  Christian  subjects  .  Sept. -Nov.  „
Raschid  Pasha  new  foreign  minister  .  .  Nov.  ,,
Midhat  Pasha,  reformer,  resigns  .  .  4  Dec.  „
Firman issued ; ordering  great  reforms, equality

of  rights  to  Christians,  &c. . . . Dec. „
Note  of  Andrassy, Austrian  minister,  respecting
reforms,  30  Dec.  ;  adopted  by  Germany  and  Russia,
Jan.;  by  Great Britain, 18 Jan.  ; transmitted
to  the  porte,  about  7  Feb.,  agreed  to . 10  Feb.  1876
Payment  of  April  dividends  deferred  to  July

April  11  ,,
Insurrection  in  Bulgaria,  promoted  by  foreign
agitators,  1,  2  May  ;  quickly  suppressed  by  troops
sent  7  May  ;  about  65  villages  burnt  by  the  Bashi-
bazouks,  and  other  Turkish  troops  ;  several  towns
destroyed;  about  15,000 persons  killed  ;  atrocious


TUEKEY.


1003


TUEKEY.


cruelties  to  women  and  children  ;  a  few  Turks
killed  by  Bulgarians  in  self-defence  (report  by
Mr.  Schuyler,  see  belovj)  ....  May,  1876
Riots  at  Constantinople  ;  the  softas,  fanatical  stu-
dents, and  others,  demand  reforms ;  their  cry,
"Turkey  for  the  Turks;"  ministerial  changes;
Mahmoud  Pacha,  the  grand  vizier,  replaced  by
Mehemet  Ruchdi ;  Europeans  much  alarmed

10  May  et  seq.  ,,
British  fleet  arrives  in  Besika  Bay  .  .  26  May,  ,,
Meeting  at  Berlin  of  ministers  of  Austria,  Germany,
and  Russia  ;  they  agree  to  a  note  to  Turkey,  re-
quiring an  armistice  of  two  months,  and  other
measures,  n,  12  May;  the  note  accepted  by
France  and  Italy,  not  by  Great  Britain,  19  May ;
not  presented  through  the  revolution . 30  May, ,,

The  grand  vizier  Mehemet  Ruchdi,  Hussein  Avni,
and  Midhat  Pacha,  request  the  sultan  to  give  up
some  of  his  treasure  to  save  the  nation  from
ruin  ;  he  refuses  and  is  deposed,  29  May  ;  his
nephew  proclaimed  as  Murad  V.  ;  joyfully  ac-
cepted by  the  people,  and  recognised  by  the
western  powers  . . 30  May,  et  seq. , ,

Manifesto  recognising  the  danger  of  the  empire
through  misgovermnent,  and  promising  amend-
ment 2  June, „

Abdul-Aziz  recognises  Murad  ;  said  to  have  com-
mitted suicide  by  cutting  arteries  in  the  arm ;
said  to  be  insane  ;  (decided,  by  trial,  to  have  been
murdered  ;  .see  below,  June,  1881) . 4  June, ,,

Assassination  of  Hussein  Avni,  the  war  minister,
Raschid  Pacha,  the  foreign  minister,  and  others,
by  Hassan,  a  disgraced  Circassian  officer,  15  June,
who  is  hanged 17  June, „

Declaration  of  war  by  Servia,  1  July  ;  by  Monte-
negro 2  July, ,,

Tchernayeff  and  Servians  enter  Turkey  ;  battle  at
Saitschar  or  Zaicar  ;  Turks  said  to  have  the  advan-
tage .3  July, ,,

Severe  conflict  of  Turks  with  Servians  at  Yavor,
near  Novi  Bazar,  6  July ;  with  Montenegrins  at
Nevesinje 27  July, ,,

League  in  aid  of  Turkish  Christians  formed  in  Lon-
don 27  July, ,,

Mukhtar  Pacha  defeated  by  prince  Nikita  at  Urba
or  Urbitza  in  Herzegovina  . . 28  July, ,,

Issue  of  paper  money  announced . . 28  July, ,,

Several  clays'  conflict ;  the  Turks  enter  Servia,  and
capture  Gurgosavatz  ;  Servians  retreat 7  Aug. ,,

Turkish  barbarities  in  Bulgaria  reported  by  Daily
News'  correspondent,  substantiated  by  report  of
Mr.  Schuyler,  the  American  commissioner  from
Constantinople,  dated . . . .10  Aug. ,,

Asserted  victory  of  prince  Nikita  at  Medun,  near
Kutchi,  about 14  Aug. „

Advance  of  the  Turks  under  Abdul-Kerim  Pacha
upon  Alexinatz  ;  severe  fighting,  9  Aug.

19-30  Aug,

Servia  invites  the  mediation  of  the  guaranteeing
powers,  about 24  Aug. „

Murad  V.  deposed  on  account  of  bad  health  ;  his
brother  Abdul-Hamid  II.  proclaimed 31  Aug. ,,

The  great  powers  propose  an  immediate  armistice,
the  restoration  of  the  status  quo  ante  helium,  pay-
ment of  an  indemnity  by  Servia,  &c.  ;  memoran-
dum presented 3,  4  Sept. ,,

Servians  said  to  be  severely  beaten  before  Alexinatz
1,  2  Sept.  ;  continued  indecisive  fighting . . ,,

Armistice  till  25  Sept.  agreed  to  about . 17  Sept. ,,

Prince  Milan  proclaimed  king  by  the  army  at  Deli-
grad ;  disapproved .... 16  Sept. ,,

Report  of  Mr.  Baring,  the  British  commissioner  in
Bulgaria,  published . . . .19  Sept. ,,

[It  establishes  the  facts  "that  a  ferocious  Mussul-
man soldiery,  in  revenge  for  a  feeble  and  abortive
insurrection,  were  let  loose  on  the  inhabitants  of  a
large  province;  that  the  population  were  bar-
barously massacred,  men,  women,  and  children
included  ;  and  that  during  the  storm  of  savage
fury  crimes  of  all  descriptions  and  outrages  un-
mentionable were  perpetrated  on  the  inhabi-
tants."— Times.]

Firm  incisive  despatch  from  Lord  Derby  to  Sir  H.
Elliot,  referring  to  Mr.  Baring's  report,  proposing
longer  armistice,  &c 21  Sept. ,,

The  porte  receives  the  propositions  of  the  six  great
.  powers 26  Sept. „


Lord  Derby  informs  the  deputation  from  the  city
of  London  that,  in  regard  to  the  Eastern  question,
the  government  is  labouring  for  local  self-govern-
ment for  the  Turkish  provinces  in  Europe,  equal
treatment  of  Mahometans  and  Christians,  better
administration  for  both,  security  for  life  and  pro-
perty, and  effectual  guarantees  against  repetition
of  outrages 27  Sept.

Servia  rejects  the  renewal  of  the  armistice  ;  Tcher-
nayeff'and  army  dominant; fighting renewed,

26,  27  Sept.

Servian  attacks  on  the  Turks  near  Alexinatz  severely
repulsed 28,  29  Sept.

In  reply  to  the  great  powers  the  porte  declines  an
armistice,  opposes  administrative  autonomy  to
the  provinces  as  impracticable,  proposes  a  senate,
and  guarantees  incisive  reforms . . 2  Oct.

Mukhtar  Pacha  said  to  defeat  Montenegrines.  7  Oct.

Montenegrine  victory  at  Danilograd  . 13  Oct.

Turkey's  proposal  of  an  armistice  for  6  months,
10  Oct.  ;  declined  by  Russia,  who  proposes  4  to
6  weeks,  longer  being  injurious  to  commerce,
&c 14  Oct.

Continued  fighting,  generally  unfavourable  to  Ser-
vians 15-19  Oct.

Alexinatz  bombarded .... 16-19  Oct.

Medun  surrenders  to  Montenegrines . 20  Oct.

Krevet  taken  by  Turks  . . . .  21  Oct.

Result  of  fighting  very  favourable  to  Turks  19-24  0  ct.

Alleged  conspiracy  at  Constantinople  against  the
reform  ministry  ;  many  arrests . about  23  Oct.

Important  Turkish  successes  iu  the  valley  of  the
Morava 19-24  Oct.

Servians  and  Russians  defeated ;  armies  under
Tchernayeff  and  Horvaritch  divided,  19-24  Oct. ;
Djunis  taken  by  Turks  ;  Deligrad  untenable  ;
severe  Russian  loss  . . . .29  Oct.

Neutral  despatch  of  lord  Derby . dated  30  Oct.

Alexinatz  captured  by  Turks  ;  Russian  ultimatum
given,  demanding  6  weeks'  armistice  within  48
hours dated  31  Oct.

Armistice  for  two  months  signed  . .  1  Nov.

Deligrad  captured  by  Turks,  now  virtually  masters
of  Servia 1  Nov.

Pacific  declaration  of  the  czar  to  lord  Aug.  Loftus,

2  Nov.

Deligrad  evacuated  by  Turks  ;  farewell  address  of
Tchernayeff  to  officers,  exhorting  to  constancy,

4  Nov.

Czar's  speech  at  Moscow  ;  he  will  act  independently
if  guarantees  are  not  obtained . . 10  Nov.

Marquis  of  Salisbury  appointed  special  ambassador
for  conference  at  Constantinople  ;  he  arrives  at
Paris,  18  Nov. ;  Berlin,  20  Nov.  ;  Vienna,  24  Nov.;
Rome,  29  Nov.  ;  Constantinople . .  5  Dec.

Alleged  abortive  conspiracy  to  restore  Murad,  about

8  Dec.

Preliminary  meetings  of  conference  of  representa-
tives of  six  great  powers  begin  (Great  Britain,
Russia,  Austria,  Germany, France,  and Italy),

12  Dec.

Ruchdi  Pacha,  grand  vizier,  replaced  by  Midhat
Pacha,  a  reformer ... .19  Dec.

Armistice  extended  to  Feb.  1877 . . Dec.

New  political  constitution  proclaimed :  (chief
provisions  :  indivisibility  of  the  empire  ;  the  sultan
supreme;  individual-liberty;  freedom  of  all  creeds,
•of  the  press,  and  of  education  ;  equal  legal  taxa-
tion ;  a  senate  and  two  chambers  ;  general  elec-
tions by  ballot  every  fourth  year ;  irremovable
judges,  &c.) 23  Dec.

Opening  of  the  conference ... 23  Dec.

Financial  decree  of  6  Oct.  1875,  abrogated,  27  Dec.

Armistice  extended  to  1  March . . 28  Dec.

The  great  national  council  of  Turkey  rejects  the
propositions  of  the  conference,  18  Jan.;  it  closes,
20  Jan.  ; chief ambassadors leave soon after

22  Jan.

Negotiations  for  peace  opened  with  Servia  and  Mon-
tenegro about  26  Jan.

Midhat  Pacha,  the  grand  vizier,  dismissed  and
banished  ;  succeeded  by  Edhem  Pacha  (educated
at  Paris) ;  reforms  to  go  on . . . 5  Feb.

Gortschakoff's  circular  to  great  powers,  inquiring
what  they  intend  to  do,  signed  19  Jan.  ;  pub-
lished about  7  Feb.

Protocols  of  the  conference  published  in  Times,  &c.

early  in  Feb.


1S77


TUEZEY.


1004


TUKKEY.


In  Turkey  "  there  is  no  aristocracy,  no  governing
class  ;  no  organised  democracy ;  no  representa-
tive government," (marquis  of  Salisbury) 20  Feb.

Peace  with  Servia  signed . . .1  March,

First  Turkish  parliament  opened  :  30  senators,  90
deputies  ;  speech  from  the  sultan  read,  19  March,

Gen.  Ignatieff  visits  Berlin,  Paris,  London,  Vienna,
&c March,

Protocol  signed  for  six  powers  :  principles — to  wait
for  Turkish  reforms  and  watch  ;  conditional  dis-
armament in  Russia  and  Turkey  (voidable  under
certain  conditions) . . . . 31  March,

Protocol  rejected  by  Turkey,  12  April ;  justificatory
circular  sent  to  the  powers  ;  Mr.  Layard  sent  as
temporary  ambassador  to  Turkey . . April,

Insurrection  of  Mirdites  or  Miridites,  April ;  armis-
tice with  Montenegro  not  renewed . 13  April,

Arrival  of  Mr.  Layard  as  ambassador,  at  Constanti-
nople ;  he  affirms  the  neutrality  of  Great  Britain,
about  24  April,

War  declared  by  Russia  (see  Russo-TurJcish  war,
1877) 24  April,

Riotous  manifestation  by  the  softas,  soon  subsides,

24  May,

A  jihad  or  holy  war  against  Russia  propounded  by
the  sheikh-ul-islam . . . about  28  May,

Suleiman  Pacha  successful  in  Montenegro  ;  relieves
Nicksies,  besieged ... . May,  et  seq.

Miridite  h  aders  captured .... June,

The  parliament  closed  without  a  speech  . 28  June,

Safvet  Pacha,  foreign  minister,  replaced  by  Aarifi
Pacha about  18  July,

Other  ministerial  changes .... July,

Protests  against  alleged  Russian  atrocities,  July,

—Aug.

Bosnian  revolt  reported  to  be  ended .  Aug.

Proclamation  for  increase  of  army  by  150,000 —
Christians  and  others  to  serve , . .26  Nov.

Reported  intrigues  at  Constantinople  by  peace  and
war  parties Nov.

The  sultan  issues  a  rather  vague  proclamation  of
amnesty  to  Bulgaria . . about  27  Nov.

Surrender  of  Plevna,  10  Dec.  ;  circular  note  to  the
great  powers  requesting  mediation  . .  12  Bee.

Parliament  opened  ;  the  sultan's  speech  censures
the  war,  and  praises  his  generals  and  soldiers,

13  Bee.

The  ministry  censured,  resigns  ;  still  holds  office  ;
Suleiman  dismissed ; crisis  at Constantinople,

5,  6,  7  Jan.

Hamed  Pacha,  grand  vizier . . . 11  Jan.

New  ministry  under  Ahmed  Nefik  ;  grand  viziership
abolished 4,  5  Feb.

British  fleet  enter  the  Bardanelles  without  permis-
sion of  the  sultan .... 13  Feb.

The  parliament  dissolved  by  the  sultan . 14  Feb.

Insurrection  in  Crete,  Thessaly,  Epirus,  &c.  (see
Greece) Feb.,  March,

Treaty  of  peace  with  Russia  signed  at  San  Stefano
(see  Stejano),  3  March  ;  ratified  at  St.  Petersburg,

17  March,

Osman  Pacha  honourably  received  by  the  sultan,

24  March,

Grand-duke  Nicholas  and  the  sultan  exchange  visits
at  Constantinople . . . .26  March,

Ahmed  Nefik  replaced  by  Sadyk  as  prime  minister,
about  18  April,

Insurrection  near  Rhodope,  in  Roumelia,  against
Russians  going  on  ;  see  Ehodope . . April,

Insurrection  (said  doubtfully  to  be  in  favour  of  the
ex-sultan  Murad)  in  Constantinople,  suppressed  ;
Ali  Suavi,  a  softa  and  fanatical  reformer,  with
others,  killed 20  May,

Public  offices,  &c,  at  Constantinople  destroyed  by
fire  ;  attributed  to  incendiaries .  22  May,

Office  of  grand  vizier  revived  for  Mehemet  Ruehdi,
May  ;  soon  replaced  by  Safvet . .  29  May,

Secret  agreement  between  the  marquis  of  Salisbury
and  count  Scliouvaloff,  Russian  ambassador,

30  May,

Secret  British  convention  with  Turkey  (defensive
alliance) :  if  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  Russia  ac-
quires Kars,  Ardahan,  or  Batoum,  Great  Britain
is  to  join  the  sultan  in  arms  in  defending  his
dominions,  he  engaging  to  reform  his  government ;
Cyprus  to  be  held  by  Great  Britain  till  Russia
returns  its  acquisitions . . . 4  June,

Cyprus  ceded  to  Great  Britain  . . 3  July,


1877


Berlin  conference  meets,  13  June  ;  treaty,  signed
(see  Berlin) 13  July,

A  conspiracy  against  the  sultan  suppressed,  about

10  July,

A  ministerial  crisis  ends  ;  the  vizier  Safvet  Pacha's
policy  approved  by  the  sultan,  who  gives  him  a
present ;  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Berlin  an-
nounced 4  Aug.

Trial  of  Suleiman  Pacha  for  misconduct  during  the
war  begun ...... Aug.

The  Turks  said  to  be  grossly  ill-treated  in  Bulgaria,
and  other  surrendered  places . . . Aug.

Safvet  Pacha's  circular  to  foreign  powers  refusing
to  recognise  Greek  proposal  for  annexation  of
Candia,  Thessaly,  &c 8  Aug.

Murder  of  Mehemet  Ali  Pacha  at  Ipek,  near  Scutari,
by  Albanian  rioters ....  6  Sept.

Alleged  conspiracies  on  behalf  of  the  ex-sultan
Murad  ;  instigated  by  the  ulemas,  about  10  Sept.

Albanian  leader  with  40,000  men  said  to  be  ruling
from  Janina  to  Montenegro . . . 12  Sept.

German  circular  to  the  powers  on  Turkish  delays
in  carrying  out  the  Berlin  treaty .  middle  Sept.

The  sultan  accepts  the  reforms  proposed  by  the
British  government ;  announced . 24  Oct.

Insurrectionary  movements  in  Macedonia  Oct.

Midhat  Pacha  appointed  governor-general  of  Syria,
to  inaugurate  reforms . . about  11  Nov.

Suleiman  Pacha  sentenced  to  degradation  and  im-
prisonment, 2  Dec.  ;  absolved  the  sultan 4  Dec.

New  ministry ;  Kheredine  Pacha  (grand  vizier) ;
Caratheodori,  and  others ... 4  Dec.

Macedonian  insurrection  ended  . . .3  Jan.

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia,  signed

8  Feb.

British  fleet  leaves  the  sea  of  Marmora  March,

Definitive  treaty  with  Austria,  published 26  May,

Mahmoud  Nedem,  old  statesman,  returns  to  Con-
stantinople on  invitation  ... 30  June,

Kheredine,  Caratheodori,  and  others  compelled  to
resign  through  opposition  of  the  assembly  of
Ulemas  (their  policy  said  to  be  against  the
Khoran) ;  succeeded  by  Aarifi  Pacha

28,  29  July,

The  Russians  evacuate  Turkey . July,  Aug.

New  ministry  under  Said  Pacha  . . 18,  19  Oct.

Pressure  for  reforms  put  upon  the  government  by
the  British  ;  admiral  Hornby  and  the  fleet  enter
Turkish  waters  ;  quit . . early  in  Nov.

Baker  Pacha  appointed  inspector-general  of  gen-
darmerie in  Asia  Minor . announced  18  Nov.

Great  financial  depression  . . Nov.  Bee.

Official  relations  with  Great  Britain  temporarily
suspended  on  account  of  the  Imprisonment  of  Dr.
Koller,  a  German  missionary,  and  Ahmed  Tewfik,
who  assisted  him  in  translations  31  Dec.

Successful  intervention  of  sir  A.  H.  Layard

1-10  Jan.

Note  of  Savas  Pacha  to  the  Powers  acknowledging
corruptions  in  judicial  affairs  and  promising  effi-
cient reforms  (in  Times) ... 30  Jan.

Col.  and  Mrs.  Synge  (distributors  of  relief  to  Mus-
sulmans) captured  by  Greek  brigands,  near  Salo-
nica,  about  19  Feb.  ;  released  for  io,ooo£.

about  24  March,

Mr.  Goschen  sent  as  temporary  ambassador ;
arrives  at  Constantinople  . . . 28  May,

New  ministry  under  Kadri  Pacha about  8  June,

Identic  note  from  European  powers,  11  June;
given  in ...... 12  June,

Osman  Pacha,  war  minister,  dismissed

about  10  July,

Naval  demonstration  by  the  European  powers  at
Dulcigno,  suggested  by  earl  Granville  Jnly,

Collective  note  of  the  Berlin  conference  presented

15  July,

Madame  Skobeleff,  mother  of  the  Russian  general,
robbed  and  murdered  near  Philippopolis  by
Ouzalis,  a  Russian . . . . 18  July,

Midhat  Pacha,  governor  of  Syria,  and  Hamed
Pacha  of  Smyrna  exchange  offices  . . Aug.

Collective  note  from  the  powers  urging  cession  of
Dulcigno,  <fec,  to  Montenegro,  and  proposing  to
aid  the  prince  in  taking  possession . 3  Aug.

The  ministry  modified  under  Said  Pacha,  premier

12  Sept.

A  final  note  from  the  powers  respecting  cession  of
Dulcigno  to  Montenegro,  delivered  15  Sept.


1879


TURKEY.


1005


TURKEY.


Admiral  Beauchamp  Seymour,  commander  of  com-
bined fleet  at  Ragusa,  sent  to  make  a  demonstra-
tion near  Dulcigno . . ... 20  Sept.
The sultan refuses  to surrender Dulcigno ;  the
French  decline  to  partake  in  attack  on  the  town,
about  27  Sept.
Note  from  the  sultan  limiting  his  concessions  and
resisting  coercion ;  presented . . 3  Oct.
Immediate cession of Dulcigno  ordered  by the
sultan,  about  23  Oct.  ;  effected  . . 26  Nov.
The  combined  fleet  disperses ... 4  Dec.
Note  from  the  sultan  to  the  powers  respecting  the

Greeks  arming 14  Dec.

Circular  from  the  powers  recommending  arbitra-
tion,  24 Dec. 1880 ;  declined by Turkey and

Greece early  in  Jan

Circular  from  Turkey  proposing  conference  at  Con-
stantinople  &c. . . . about  15  Jan.
Notes  from  the  powers  presented . .21  Feb.
Conference  at  Constantinople  ;  agreement  between
Turkey  and  the  powers  ;  proposals  referred  to

Athens 30  March,

Mr.  Henry  Suter,  engaged  in  mines,  seized  by
brigands  at  Cassandra,  in  Salonica,  about  8  April,
Rebellion  in  Albania  (which  see)  suppressed  May,
Midhat  Pacha's  palace  surrounded  by  soldiers  ;  he
escapes  and  appeals  to  the  powers  .  17  May,
The sultan jsrotests  against  French  invasion  of

Tunis  (which  sec) May,

Midhat  surrenders,  claiming  a  fair  trial

about  17  May,
Turkey  protests  against  the  Tunis  treaty  of  12  May

May,
Mr.  Suter's  release  for  15,000?.  ransom  announced

23  May,

Convention  between  Turkey  and  Greece  arranged  at

Constantinople  settling  frontiers ;  Thessaly  ceded

by  Turkey 24  May,

Mr.  Goschen  leaves  Constantinople  ;  his  mission
successful ;  succeeded  by  lord  Dufferiu,  26  May  ;
who  arrives  at  Constantinople,  .  15  June,
Trial  of  Midhat  Pacha  and  others  for  murder  of  the
late  sultan  Abdul-Aziz  ;  convicted  ;  Mustapha
Fahri  Bey  and  Had. j  Mehmed  actual  assassins  ;
others,  Mahmoud  and  Nouzi  Pachas,  the  sultan's
brothers-in-law,  Midhat  Pacha,  and  others  ac-
complices 27,  28  June,

Sentence  ;  death  to  all  except  two  subordinates  to

imprisonment 29  June,

Turco-Greek  convention  ceding  Thessaly  to  Greece,

signed  at  Constantinople ... 2  July,

The  trial  of  Midhat  and  others  said  to  be  a  mockery ;

punishment  commuted  to  exile  on  intercession

of  the  British  Government ;  announced 31  July,

The  captors  of  Mr.  Suter  taken  in  Greece,  about

15  Aug.
Turkish  mission  at  Cairo  ....  7-18  Oct.
Continued  negotiations  at  Constantinople  respect-
ing national  debt ....  Oct.  et  seq.
The  German  vessel  Vulcan  laden  with dynamite
(said  to  belong  to  Russia)  cargo  unshipped  near

Constantinople about  8  Oct.

Decree  signed  for  a  satisfactory  settlement  of  the

national  debt  28  Dec.

Capt.  Selby,  R.N. , wounded  by  Albanians  at  Artaki,

announced  16  Feb.  ;  died ... 20  Feb. :

Mehemet  Ruchdi  Pasha  dies . . .26  March,

Russian-war  indemnity  convention  ratified 6  May,

The  minister  Said  Pasha  dismissed,  succeeded  by

Abdurrahman  Pasha,  about  2  May ;  who  resigns

7  July.

Said  Pasha  reinstated . . .  about  8  July,

Sultan  protests  against  bombardment  of  forts  at
Alexandria  (see  Egypt) . .  about  n  July,

Protracting  negotiations  respecting  a  military  con-
vention ;  agreed  to 29  Aug.

Alleged  conspiracy  of  Fuad  Pasha  and  others  to
dethrone  the  sultan . . . about  28  Nov.

Sai  I  Pasha  dismissed  ; Circassian  guard  dismissed

29  Nov.

Frontier  disputes  with  Montenegro . .  Nov.

Said  Pasha  restored  with  honours,  made  grand
Vizier  3  Dec. Fuad  Pasha  restored  to  favour

7  Dec.

Excitement  of  the  sultan  through  dread  of  assas-
sination about  13  Dec.

Fight  among  the  sultan's  body  guard,  (Albanians
ami  Negroes)  about  30  killed  or  wounded 17  Jan.  1


Turkish  note  to  the  powers  against  British  Egypt-

tian  circular about  23  Jan.

Difficulties  with  the  Greek  church  respecting  poli-
tical reforms ;  resignation  of  the  (Ecumenical
Patriarch  Yoachim  1L.  ;  not  accepted  ;  concilia-
tion proposed . . . .29  Dec. -3  Jan.

Resignation  maintained . . . .9  Jan.

Amicable  settlement  of  dispute,  announced April,

The  Imperial  prince  and  princess  of  Austria  hospi-
tably entertained  by  the  sultan  . .  April,

Death  of  Midhat  Pasha,  great  statesman  and  re-
former in  exile,  aged  62 ...  May,

Circular  to  the  six  great  powers  announcing  the
stoppage  of  the  post  offices  in  Constantinople,
20  July,  resisted  ;  the  Turkish  arrangements  fail,
and  are  withdrawn Aug.

Sir  Edward  Thornton  appointed  to  succeed  lord
Dufferin Sept.

Greek  patriarch  elected . . . . 13  Oct.

Mutiny  of  troops  at  Monastir,  for  want  of  pay  and
clothing  ;  settled  by  concession .  about  21  Nov.

Petitions  to  the  sultan  from  Macedonia,  respecting
Turkish  atrocities  signed  . . . .12  Oct.

Hassan  Fehmy  Pasha  sent  to  London  to  confer  on
the  Egyptian  question;  his  proposals  not  re-
ceived, end  of Jan.

Turkey  protests  against  Italian  occupation  of  Mas-
sowah  on  the  Red  Sea . . about  23  Feb.

New  tariff  with  England  signed . . 9  July,

Sir  H.  D.  Wolff  arrives  at  Constantinople  on  a
mission  respecting  Egypt,  22  Aug.  ;  wellreceived
by  the  Sultan 29  Aug.

Revolution  in  Roumelia  (which  see),  18  Sept ;
firm  Turkish  note  to  the  powers  about  22  Sept.

Said  Pasha,  grand  vizier,  and  other  ministers
dismissed  ;  succeeded  by  Kiamil  Pasha,  24  Sept.

Conference  of  ambassadors,  4  Oct. ;  the  ambassadors
present  a  collective  note  condemning  the  revolu-
tion in  Roumelia  as  breaking  the  treaty  of  Berlin,

14  Oct.

Decree  for  Turkish  commission  to  go  with  sir
H.  D.  Wolff  to  Cairo,  about  12  Oct.  ;  convention
signed 24  Oct.

Turkey  asks  assistance  of  the  powers  to  settle  the
Roumelian  affair ig  Oct.

Conference  of  ambassadors  at  Constantinople,
5  Nov. ;  collective  declaration  for  maintenance
of  status  quo  ante,  about  7  Nov. ;  division  of
opinion  as  to  enforcement . . . n  Nov.

Rustem  Pasha  succeeds  Musurus  Pasha  (1856-85)
as  ambassador  in  London . . . Nov.

The  Sultan  ratifies  the  treaty  between  Bulgaria
and  Servia 13  March,

Sir  Edward  Thornton,  British  ambassador,  received
by  the  Sultan n  March,

Hobart  Pasha, Turkish  admiral, dies, aged 64,

19  June,

Sir  William  White  appointed  British  ambassador,
Oct.  ;  received 2  Nov.

Four  English  gentlemen  captured  near  Smyrna  by
brigands  who  demand  3,000?.  ransom,  24  Sept.  ;
released  by  payment  of  a  ransom  of  750?.  26  *<-},\ .

Reported  deficit  of  i,ooo,oooL  in  the  budgel  ;
increase  of  brigandage .... Nov.

After  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Mevlud,  the
Sultan  delivers  an.  optimist  speech  to  the
officials  on  the  state  of  the  empire . 27  Nov.

Direct  railway  communication  between  London
and  Constantinople  via  Dover  and  Calais  in  j
hours  ;  first  train  from  Vienna . 12-14  Aug.

The  government  contracts  a  loan  for  1,350,000?.
from  the  "German  "  bank  ;  consequent  ."rupture
with  the  Ottoman  bank,  its  usual  financial  agent,

Oct.

80,000  men  of  the  reserve  called  out  . . Aug.

The  ottoman  bank,  sir  Edgar  Vincent,  director,
lends  the  sultan  150,000?.,  reported . 28  Oct.

Trial  ofMoussa  Hey,  see  Armenia 2;  Nov.  et  seq.

The  German  emperor  and  empress  warmly  received
l>y  the  sultan  at  Constantinople,  z  Nov. ;  a
review,  <Sic 3-6  Nov.

Five  new  war  vessels  launched  at  Constantinople,

30  Jan.

New  5  percent,  conversion  loan  al  03,  successfully
effected  by  the  grand  vizier,  aided  by  sir  Edgar
Vincent ;  agreement  signed  . . 30  April,

The  Russian  government  demands  payment  Of  the


18S5


1SC6


1S87


iSSS


TURKEY.


1006


TURRET SHIPS.


arrears  of  the  Eusso-Turkish  war  indemnity,

about  15  May,  1890

Troubles  in  Old  Servia  by  bands  of  Arnauts  ;  severe
fight,  with  much  slaughter . . . June, ,,

Turkey  defers  payment  of  indemnity  till  Nov.,
Kussia  demands  immediate  payment ;  note  sent,

about  18  June, ,,

British  cotton  and  woollen  yarn-spinning  factory
opened  at  Constantinople  .... 22  June, ,,

For  Armenian  troubles  see  Armenia,  1889-90.

The  government  frigate  Ertogrul  founders  on  the
S.  coast  of  Japan,  during  a  gale  ;  out  of  653,  584
persons  perish,  including  vice-admiral  Osman
Pasha 18  Sept. „

Sir  "Edgar  Vincent  thanked  by  the  leading  mer-
chants of  Constantinople,  for  his  services  to
them 12  Jan.  1891

Arnaut  revolt  in  Old  Servia;  the  government
buildings  in  Drenitza  burnt,  reported,

about  4  Feb. ,,

Death  of  Musurus  pasha,  diplomatist,  aged  84  ;  33
years  ambassador  in  London . . 12  Feb. ,,

The  Arnauts  again  attack  the  Christians  in  Old
Servia,  who  bravely  resist,  but  are  defeated  with
loss about  14  May, „

Eailway  train  at  Tcherkesskeni,  near  Constanti-
nople, attacked  by  brigands  ;  two  persons  killed ;
five  carried  off  for  ransom,  1  June  ;  active  mea-
sures taken  by  the  porte,  June ;  captives  liberated,

4-8  June, „

M.  Eugene  de  Raymond,  sub-manager  of  a  vineyard
company  captured  by  brigands  at  Ormoudja,  7
Aug.  ;  ransomed  by  the  sultan  . . 12  Aug. ,,

Dismissal  of  Kiamil  pasha,  president  of  ministry
or  grand  vizier  (appointed  1890)  by  the  sultan,
3  Sept.  1891  ;  succeeded  by  Djevad  pasha.

Sir  William  A.  White,  the  able  British  ambassador,
dies  at  Berlin,  while  on  a  visit,  28  Dec.  1891  ;
succeeded  by  the  right  lion,  sir  Francis  Clare
Ford about  8  Jan.  1892

Payment  of  the  war  indemnity  resumed,  reported,

27  Jan. ,,

Sir  Francis  Clare  Ford  arrives  at  Constantinople,
26  Feb.  ;  received  by  the  sultan . 8  March, „
See  Candia,  Egypt,  Greece,  Montenegro,  and  Servia.

TURKISH SULTANS.

1299.  Othman,  Osman,  or  Ottoman,  founded  the  empire,

retained  the  title  emir,  but  ruled  despotically.
1326.  Orchan,  son,  took  the  title  "  sultan."
1360.  Amurath  (or  Murad),  I.  ;  stabbed  by  a  soldier,  of

which  wound  he  died.
1389.  Bajazet  I.,  Ilderim,  son; defeated  by  Tamerlane,

and  died  imprisoned.
1403.  Solyman,  son  :  dethroned  by  his  brother.
1410.  Musa-Chelebi :  strangled.
1413.  Mahomet  I.,  son  of  Bajazet.
1421.  Amurath  II. ,  son.

1451.  Mahomet  II.,  son  :  took  Constantinople,  1453.
1481.  Bajazet  II.,  son.
1512.  Selim  I.,  son.

1520.  Solyman  I.  or  II.,  the  Magnificent,  son.
1566.  Selim  II.,  son.
1574.  Amurath  III. ,  son  :  killed  his  five  brothers ;  their

mother,  in  grief,  stabbed  herself.
1595.  Mahomet III.,  son: strangled  all  his  brothers,

and  drowned  his  father's  wives.
1603.  Alimed  (or  Achmet)  I.,  son.

1617.  Mustapha  I.,  brother  :  deposed  by  the  Janissaries

and  imprisoned.

1618.  Osman  II.,  nephew  ;  strangled  by  Janissaries.

1622.  Mustapha  I. again  : again  deposed,  sent  to  the

Seven  Towers,  and  strangled.

1623.  Amurath  IV. ,  brother  of  Osman  II.

1640.  Ibrahim,  brother  :  strangled  by  the  Janissaries.

1648.  Mahomet  IV,  son  :  deposed  by

1687.  Solyman  II.  or  III.,  brother.

1691.  Ahmed  (or  Achmet)  II.,  son  of  Ibrahim,  nephew.

1695.  Mustapha  II.,  eldest  son  of  Mahomet  IV. :  de-
posed.

1703.  Ahmed  (or  Achmet)  III.,  brother:  deposed,  and
died  in  prison  in  1736.

1730.  Mahmud  I.  (or  Mahomet  V.),  son  of  Mustapha  II.

1754.  Osman  III.,  brother.

1757.  Mustapha  III.,  brother.

1774.  Abdul-Ahmed  or  Hamid  I.  (or  Achmet  IV.)
brother.


1789.  Selim  III.,  son  of  Mustapha  III.  ;  deposed  by  the
Janissaries.

1807.  Mustapha  IV., son  of Abdul- Ahmed; deposed,

and,  with  the  late  sultan  Selim,  murdered.

1808.  Mahmud  II.,  or  Mahomet  VI.,  brother.

1839.  Abdul-Medjid  (son),  2  July  (born  23  April,  1823)  ;

died  25  June,  1861.
1861.  Abdul-Aziz,  brother,  born  9  Feb.  1830,  deposed  29

May  ;  alleged  suicide  4  June,  1876  (see  1881).
1876,  Amurath  V.  (Murad)  son  of  Abdul-Medjid, born
21  Sept.  1840 ;  proclaimed  30  May  ;  deposed  for
bad  health,  31  Aug.
„ Abdul-Hamid  II.,  brother,  31  Aug.  born  21  Sept.,
1842.
["  He  is  not  a  tyrant ;  he  is  not  dissolute  ;  he  is
not  a  bigot  or  corrupt." — Lord  Beaconsfield,  27
July,  1878.]
Son:  Mehemed  Selim,  born  n  Jan.  1870.

TURKEY  TRADE,  commenced  in  the  year
1550.  The  Turkey  or  Levant  Company  of  London
was  instituted  by  charter  of  Elizabeth,  in  1579.

TURKEYS and Guinea  Fowls, first

brought  to  England  about  1523,  and  to  France  in
1570.  Turkeys  are  nathses  of  America,  and  were
consequently  unknown  to  the  ancients.

TURKHEIM  (E.  France).  Here  the  elector
of  Brandenburg  and  the  Imperialists  were  defeated
by  the  French  under  Turenne,  5  Jan.  1675.

TURKISH  BATHS,  see  Baths.

.  TURKISH  COMPASSIONATE  FUND,

instituted  by  the  Daily  Telegraph,  and  supported
by  lady  Burdett-Coutts,  the  abp.  of  Canterbury,  and
others,  to  relieve  sufferers  by  the  war,  Aug.  1877.

TURKOMANS,  see  White  Sheep,  and  Tur-
kestan.

TURNER'S  ACT,  13  &  14  Vict.  c.  35  (1850),

relates  to  the  court  of  chancery.

TURNER'S  LEGACIES.  Joseph  M.  W.
Turner,  a  great  landscape  painter,  was  born  in  April,
1775,  and  died  19  Dec.  1851.  He  bequeathed  to  the
nation  all  the  pictures  and  drawings  collected  by
him  and  deposited  at  his  residence,  47,  Queen  Anne-
street,  London,  on  condition  that  a  suitable  gallery
should  be  erected  for  them  within  ten  years ;  and
directed  his  funded  property  to  be  expended  in
founding  an  asylum  at  Twickenham  for  decayed
artists.  The  will  was  disputed  by  his  relatives,  but
a  compromise  was  made.  The  oil-paintings  (100  in
number)  and  the  drawings  (1400)  were  obtained  by
the  nation,  and  the  engravings  and  some  other  pro-
perty were  transferred  to  the  next  of  kin.  The
drawings  were  cleaned  and  mounted  under  the
careful  superintendence  of  Mr.  Buskin,  and  the
pictures  were  sent  to  Marlborough-house  for  ex-
hibition. In  1861,  many  of  the  pictures  were  re-
moved from  the  South  Kensington  Museum  to  the
National  Gallery,  others  in  1869.  The  sketches,
plates,  &c,  of  Turner's  Liber  Studiorum,  were
sold  for  about  20,000^.  28  March,  1873.

TURNING,  see  Lathe.  In  our  dockyards,
blocks  and  other  materials  for  our  ships  of  war  are
now  produced  by  an  almost  instantaneous  process,
from  rough  pieces  of  oak,  by  the  machinery  of  Mr.
(afterwards  sir  Mark  Isambard)  Brunei  (died  1849) ;
see  Blocks.

TURNPIKES,  see  Tolls.

TURPENTINE  TREE,  Pistacia  TereMnthus,
came  from  Barbary,  before  1656.  Spirits  of  turpen-
tine were  first  applied,  with  success,  to  the  rot  in
sheep ;  one-third  of  the  spirit  diluted  with  two-thirds
water,  1772.

TURRET  SHIPS,  see  Navy  of  England.


TUSCAN OEDEE.


1007


TYLEE'S INSUEEECTION.


TUSCAN  OEDEE  of  Architecture,  a

debased Doric, used  in  Tuscany  for  buildings  in
which  strength  is  chiefly  required. JFotton.

TUSCANY,  formerly  a  grand  duchy  in  Central

Italy, the  northern  part  of the  ancient  Etruria

(which  see) . It  formed  part  of  the  Lombard  king-

dom,  after  the  conquest  of  which  by  Charlemagne,

774,  it  was  made  a  marquisate  for  Boniface  about

820. His  descendant,  the  great  countess  Matilda,

bequeathed  the  southern  part  of  her  domains  to  the

pope (1115). In  the  northern  part  (then  called

Tuscia),  the  cities,  Florence,  Pisa,  Sienna,  Lucca,  &c,

gradually  became  flourishing  republics. Florence

became the chief  under  the government of  the

Medici  family ; see  Florence. The  duchy  in  that

family  began  in 1531 ;  and  the grand-duchy  in

1569. After  the  extinction  of  the  Medicis  in  1737,

Tuscany  was  given  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (1738)

to Francis, duke of  Lorraine (married  to  Maria

Theresa  of  Austria  in  1736),  who  had  ceded  his

hereditary  estates  to  France. Population  in  1882,

2,226,265, Population,  1890,  2,274,191.

The  French  enter  Florence . . 28  March,  1799

The  grand-duke  is  dispossessed,  and  his  dominions

given  to  Louis  duke  of  Parma  (of  the  royal  house

of  Spain),  with  the  title  of  king  of  Etruria  .  1801

Tuscany  incorporated  with  the  French  empire .  1807

The  grand-duchy  given  to  Eliza,  sister  of  Xapoleon  1808

Ferdinand  III.  restored 1814

Lucca  united  to  Tuscany 1847

Leopold  II.  grants  a  free  constitution . 15  Feb.  1848
Insurrection  at  Florence  ;  republic  proclaimed ;  the

grand-duke  flies 11  Feb.  1849

He  is  restored  by  the  Austrians . . July,  1850
Rigorous imprisonment  of the  Madiai,  husband
and  wife,  converts  to  protestantism,  for  reading

the  Bible May,  1852

The  earls  of  Shaftesbury  and  Roden  and  others  in

vain  intercede  for  them  at  Florence  .  Oct.  ,,
They  are released  after the  intervention  of  the

British  government  ....  March,  1853
[An  annuity  was  provided  for  them  by  subscription.]
The  Tuscan  army  demand  alliance  with  the  Sar-
dinians ;  the  grand-duke  refuses,  and  departs  to
Bologna  ;  the  king  of  Sardinia  is  proclaimed  dic-
tator, and  a provisional government formed

27  April,  1859
The  king  assumes  the  command  of  the  army,  but

declines  the  dictatorship  ...  30  April,  „
The  Sardinian  commissary  Buoncompagni  invested

with  the  powers  of  government  .  n  May,  „
Prince  Napoleon  arrives  at  Leghorn,  addresses  the

Tuscans,  and  erects  his  standard  .  23  May,  „
The grand-duke  Leopold  II. abdicates  in  favour

of  his  son  Ferdinand  ...  21  July,  ,,
Tuscan  constituent  assembly  meets  .  n  Aug.  „
It  declares  against  the  house  of Lorraine, and

votes  for  annexation  to  Sardinia . . Sept. ,,
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy-Carignan  elected  governor-
general  of  central  Italy  ;  he  declines  :  but  recom-
mends Buoncompagni,  Nov.  ;  who  is  accepted  by

the  Tuscans 8  Dec. „

Annexation  to  Sardinia  voted  by  universal  suffrage,

11,  12 March;  decreed . . . 22  March,  i860
Prince  Eugene  appointed  governor . 26  March, ,,
Florence  made  the  capital  of  Italy,  by  decree  pub-
lished ....... 11  Dec.  1864

(See  Italy,  and  Florence.)

SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY.

DUKES.

1531.  Alexander  I.
1537.  Cosmo  I.

GRAND-DUKES.

1569.  Cosmo  I.,  Medici.

1574.  Francis  I.

1587.  Ferdinand  I.

1608.  Cosmo  II.

1621. Ferdinand  II.

1670.  Cosmo  III.  (visited  England,  and  wrote  an  ac-
count of  his  travels).

1723,  John  Gaston  (last  of  the  Medici).

1737.  Francis  II.  (duke  of  Lorraine),  became  emperor  of
Germany  in  1745.


1765.  Leopold  I.  (emperor  in  1790).
1790.  Ferdinand III.  (second  son  of  Leopold  I )  •  ex-
pelled by  the  French  in  1800.

KINGS OF ETRURIA.

1801.  Louis  I.,  duke  of  Parma.
1803.  Louis  II.

GRAND-DUCHESS.

1808-14.  Eliza  Bonaparte  (married  to  Bacciochi,  made-
prince  of  Lucca).

GRAND-DUKES.

1814.  Ferdinand  III.  restored.

1824.  Leopold  II.,  18  June  (born  3  Oct.  1797;  abdicated,.
21  July,  1859),  'lied  29  Jan.  1870.

1859.  Ferdinand  IV.,  21  July  (born  10  June,  1835);  pro-
tested against the  annexation of his grand5
duchy,  26  March,  i860;  died  29  July,  1891.
Son  :  Leopold  Ferdinand,  born  2  Dee.  1868.

TUSCULUM  (now  Frascati),  a  city  of  Latiura
(b.  Italy).  The  Tusculans  supported  Tarquinius-
buperbus  against  the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were
totally  defeated,  498  B.C.  The  Tusculans,  on  ac-
count of  their  friendship  with  Rome,  suffered  much
from  the  other  Latins,  who  took  their  city,  374,  but
were  severely  chastised  for  it.  Here  Cicero  during-
his  retirement  wrote  his  "Tusculanas  Disputationes,'^
about  46  B.C.

TWELFTH-DAY,  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany,
or  manifestation  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles,  6  Jan.  =
see  Epiphany.

TWELVE  TABLES,  see  Decemviri.

TWINS,  joined  together,  have  been  bom  fre-
quently, but  seldom  lived  long.  Helen-Judith,
joined  Hungarian  twins,  were  bora  in  1715,  and
died  in  1723.  Millie-Christine,  negro  twins,  born
m  North  Carolina  in  1851,  were  wholly  distinct  in
the  upper  part  of  the  body,  but  one  in  the  lower
part  of  the  spinal  column  and  pelvis  ;  the  four  legs,
obeying  nerves  from  a  common  centre.  They  san*-
and  danced  well,  and  were  named  the  "  Two-headed.
Nightingale."  The  will,  understanding,  and  con-
science were  distinct.  Exhibited  in  London  IT
Feb.  1885. See  Siamese  Twins.

TWIN-SHIP,  see  under  Steam.

"TWOPENNY  TEASH,"  a  term  given  to
W.  Cobbett's  Weekly  Political  Register,  after  2  Not.

1816,  when  he  reduced  the  price  from  12k/.  to  2d.
the  sale  greatly  increased.

TYBURN  (W.  London),  at  the  west  end  of
Oxford-road  (now  street),  the  chief  place  in  London
for  the  execution  of  malefactors  till  1783.  Pennant
(who  died  1798)  remembered  Oxford-street  as  "a
deep,  hollow  road,  and  full  of  sloughs,  with  here  and
there  a  ragged  house,  the  lurking-place  of  cut-
throats."

In  conformity  with  an  act  passed  in  1697,  a  so-called
"  Tyburn  ticket "  was  given  to  the  prosecutor  of  a  cri-
minal executed  at  Tyburn. The  ticket  gave  exemption
from  serving  on  juries  and  parochial  offices. The  ac
was  repealed  in  1818.

"TYBUBNIA"  (aN.W.  suburb  of  London),.
was  built  between  1839  and  1850,  on  the  green
fields  and  nursery  grounds  in  Paddington  belonging;
to  the  see  of  London.

TYLEE'S  INSUEEECTION,  in  opposition
to  the  poll-tax  imposed  on  all  persons  above  15,.
q  Nov.  1380.  One  of  the  collectors,  acting  with  in-
decent rudeness  to  "Wat  Tyler's  daughter,  was  struck
dead  by  the  father,  June,  1381.  His  neighbours-
took  arms,  and  in  a  short  time  almost  the  whole  of
the  population  of  the  southern  and  eastern  1  ounties
rose,  extorting  freedom  from  their  Lords,  and  plun-
dering. On  12  June,  1381,  they  gathered  upon
Blackheath  to  the  number  of  100,000  men,  and  on


TYNDALE MEMORIAL.


1003


TYEEHENL


14  June  murdered  Simon  of  Sudbury,  archbishop  of
Canterbury,  and  sir  Eobert  H  ales,  the  royal  trea-
surer. The  king,  Eichard  II.,  invited  Tyler  to  a
parley,  which  took  place  on  the  15th  at  Smithfield,
■where  the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a  menacing
manner,  now  and  again  lifting  up  his  sword.  On
this  the  mayor,  Walworth,  stunned  Tyler  with  a
blow  of  his  mace,  and  one  of  the  king's  knights
named  Cavendish,  dispatched  him.  Eichard  tem-
porised with  the  multitude  by  promising  a  charter,
and  thus  led  them  out  of  the  city,  when  sir  E.
Knollys  and  a  band  of  knights  attacked  and  dis-
persed them  with  much  slaughter.  The  insurrection
in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  was  subdued  by  the  bishop
of  Norwich,  and  1500  of  the  rebels  were  executed.

TYNDALE  MEMOEIAL.  A  statue  of
William  Tyndale,  protestant  martyr,  translator  of
the  new  testament,  published  1525,  was  set  up  on
the  Thames  Embankment  in  1883.  Sculptor,  Mr.
J.  E.  Boehm.

TYNEMOUTH,  Northumberland.  Here  are
remains  of  a  monastery  built  by  king  Edwin,  625  ;
destroyed  by  the  Danes ;  rebuilt  by  king  Egfrid,
671-85;  often  ravaged  by  Danes,  795-993;  re-
founded  and  made  a  castle,  by  Eob.  de  Mowbray,
1090;  plundered  by  Scots,  13 16  and  1389;  fortified
for  Charles  I.,  1642;  taken  by  Scots,  1644;  finally
ruined,  1665;  and  made  a  depot,  1783.  The  cha-
pel has  been  restored.  Tynemouth  was  made  a
borough,  returning  one  member  to  parliament,
1832.  An  aquarium,  winter-garden,  &c,  was
©pened,  27  Aug.  1878.  Eopulation,  1881,44,118;
1891,  46,267.

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see

under  Printing,  1842-72.

TYPE-FOUNDING,  see  under  Printing,
1452,  1720.

TYPE-WEITEES-  M.  Foucault  sent  to  the
Paris  exhibition  of  1855,  a  writing-machine  for  the
blind ;  and  several  were  invented  by  Wheatstone.
After  successive  improvements,  Messrs.  Eemington,
in  America,  in  1873,  contracted  to  construct  25,000.
The  speed  is  said  to  have  been  raised  to  seventy-
five  words  a  minute.

The  action  of  the  type-writer  somewhat  resembles  that
of  a  pianoforte.  Pressure  upon  a  key  marked  with  a
letter  raises  a  hammer  with  a  type-cut  letter,  which
presses  upon  paper  ;  provision  is  made  for  inking  the
type,  shifting,  &c.
The  Hall  type- writer  exhibited  in  London,  1883.
Mr.  E.  Peacock's  new compact  and  expeditious  type

writer  exhibited  in  April,  1885.
T. G. and  H. Daw's type-writer  for reporters  com-
mended May,  1885.
Hammond  type- writer  1886.

The  "Simplex"  type-writer  (cost  about  io.s.  6d.)  intro-
duced into  London  by  a  company  April,  1887.
A  speed  contest  with  the  Remington  type-writer  at  St.
James's  Hall ;  several  prizes  awarded  by  the  proprie-
tors Messrs.  Wyckott'&  Co.  Jan.  1889.
The  Bar-lock  type-writer  exhibited  by  Messrs.  Richard-
son &  Co.,  in  London,  14  Dec.  et  seq.,  1889.


TYEANT.  In  early  Greek  history,  the  term
was  applied  to  any  man  who  governed  with  irre-
sponsible power.  Solon  objected  to  the  term,  and
chose  the  name  Archon  (ruler),  594  B.C.  The
earliest  tyrants  were  those  at  Sicyon,  beginning
with  Cleisthenes,  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  Tyranny
declined  in  Greece  about  490  B.C.,  and  revived  after
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  404  B.C.;  see
Thirty  Tyrants.

TYEE  (Phoenicia),  a  great  city,  said  to  have
been  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built
1257  (about  2267,  Hales)  B.C.  It  was  besieged  by
the  Assyrians,  who  retired  from  before  it,  after  a
siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  B.C.  Taken  by
Nebuchadnezzar,  572  B.C.,  and  the  city  demolished,
when  the  Tyrians  removed  to  an  opposite  island,
and  built  a  new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken
by  Alexander  ■with  much  difficulty,  after  a  siege  of
seven  months,  Jul)r,  332  B.C.  He  joined  the  island
to  the  continent  by  a  mole.  Strabo.  Tyre  was
captured  by  the  Crusaders,  7  July,  1124;  by  the
French,  3  April,  1799;  and  by  the  allied  fleet,
during  the  war  against  Mehemet  Ali,  1841.

TYEE,  ERA  OF,  began  on  19  Oct.  125  B.C.,
with  the  month  of  Hyperberetseus.  The  months
were  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era,
and  the  year  is  similar  to  the  Julian  year.  To
reduce  this  era  to  ours,  subtract  124;  and  if  the
given  year  be  less  than  125,  deduct  it  from  125,  and
the  remainder  will  be  the  year  before  Christ.

TYEOL,  the  eastern  part  of  ancient  Ehastia,
now  a  province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  was  ceded  to
the  house  of  Hapsburg  in  1363  by  Margaret,  the
heiress  of  the  last  count.  It  became  an  appanage
of  the  younger  (or  Tyrol)  branch  of  the  imperial
house,  which  came  to  the  throne  in  the  person  of
Maximilian  IE,  in  1618.  The  French  conquered
the  Tyrol  in  1805,  and  united  it  to  Bavaria ;  but  in
1809  an  insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by  Andrew
Hofer,  an  innkeeper,  who  drove  the  Bavarians  out
of  the  Tyrol,  thoroughly  defeated  some  French  de-
tachments, but  laid  down  his  arms  at  the  treaty  of
Vienna.  He  was  subsequently  accused  of  corre-
sponding with  the  Austrians,  captured  and  sent  to
Mantua,  and  there  shot  by  order  of  the  French
government,  20  Feb.  1810.  The  Austrian  emperor
ennobled  his  family  in  1819,  and  erected  his  statue
in  Innsbruck  in  1834.  The  Tyrolese  riflemen  were
very  effective  in  the  Italian  war  in  1859.  The
Arlberg  tunnel  railway  from  Innsbruck  to  Bregenz
inaugurated  by  the  emperor  20  Sept.  1884.  Popu-
lation in  1890,  812,696.

TYEONE  (near  Ulster,  N.  Ireland),  formerly
the  territories  of  the  O'Neills,  and  the  seat  of  the
insurrection  in  1641.

TYEEHENI,  included  the  ancient  Etruscans,
and  other  tribes,  said  to  have  come  from  Lydia,  Asia
Minor.


u.


UBIQUITARIANS.


ULTRAMONTANISTS.


UBIQUITARIANS  or  Ubiquarians,  .  a
small  German  sect,  originated  by  John  Brentius
about  1560,  who  asserted  that  the  body  of  Christ
was  present  everywhere  (ubique).

UGANDA.  A  kingdom  in  Equatorial  Africa,
near  the  head  of  tbe  Nile  ;  capital,  Meugo.

Missionaries  sent  out  by  the  Church  Missionary-
society July,  1877

French  R.  C.  missionaries  arrive 1879

The  king  Mtesa,  friendly  to  Grant,  Stanley,  and

other  travellers  and  missionaries,  dies  . 10  Oct. 1884
His son M'wanga,  jealous  and suspicious, kills
bishop  Hannington, for advancing by  a  new

route about  29  Oct.  1885

Persecutions  well  endured ;  native  Christians  killed,

June  et  seq.  1886
Eevolution  with  bloodshed,  Sept.  1888 ;  M'wanga
deposed  and  replaced  by  his  brother  Kawewa
(Oct.),  whose  attempts  to  revive  his  father's
policy  are  frustrated  by  the  Arab  slave-dealers  ;
much  persecution  ensues ;  the  Europeans  flee  and
their  settlements  are  destroyed  Nov.  1888.  King
Kawewa  resists  the  Arabs,  and  is  expelled,  they
set  up  his  brother  Kalema  ;  civil  war  .  Nov.  1888
M'wanga  defeated  in  an  attempt  to  recover  his
crown  ;  Kalema  burns  his  own  relatives,  reported,

2  Sept.  1889
M'wanga  severely  defeats  the  Arabs,  4  Oct.  ;  takes
Rubaga, 5 Oct.,  and  re-establishes  his  power  ;
Kalema  a  fugitive .... 11  Oct. ,,
M'wanga  professes  himself  a Christian, and ap-
points Catholic  officials,  reported . 5  March,  1890
He  places Uganda under the influence  of the
British  East  African  company,  by  treaty  with
Mr.  Jackson,  reported  . . . .30  April, ,,
M'wanga  driven  from  the  capital  by  Kalema  ;  re-
tires with  the  missionaries  to  Sesse  island,  re-
ported 9  May, ,,

Final  defeat  of  Arabs  by  M'wanga,  who  regains  all

his  kingdom,  reported ... 15  June, ,,
Uganda  placed  within  the  sphere  of  British  in-
fluence by  the  Anglo-German  treaty . 1  July, ,,
Capt.  F.  D.  Lugard  and  capt.  W.  H.  Williams  lent
by  the  British  war-office  to  assist  the  company  ;

they  arrive 31  Dec. ,,

They  strenuously  endeavour  to  maintain  peace
between  the  French  Catholics  and  British  Pro-
testant missionaries  and  their  converts ;  they
hold  Kampala,  a  fortified  station  near  Mengo,
having  been  reinforced  by  Selim  bey,  with  a  part
of  the  Soudanese  garrison,  formerly  under  Eniiu
Pasha  at  Wadelai  ;  capt.  Bugard  constructs  and
garrisons  several  forts  in  the  country  Jan.  et  seq.  1891
Revival  of  religious  feuds  and  outrages  ;  a  Pro-
testant murdered  in  the  street,  20  Jan.  ;  capt.
Lugard  demands  redress,  the  king  refuses  it,  and
threatens  him  and  his  party ;  fruitless  negotia-
tions ;  other  murders  of  Protestants  ;  the  Catho-
lics arm  and  attack  Kampala,  and  are  repulsed
with  severe  loss  by  capt.  Williams,  who  is  com-
pelled to  use  Maxim  guns,  24  Jan. ;  the  Catholic
houses  wrecked;  bishop  Uirth  and  the  priests
taken  to  Kampala,  24  Jan.  ;  the  king,  with  300
of  the  Catholic  party,  flees  to  the  isle  of  Bureu-
guge,  where  he  is  joined  by  the  bishop;  the  isle
is  token  by  capt.  Williams,  with  bloodshed  ;  the
king  and  bishop  flee  to  Sesse  .  .  -3°  Jan.  1892
[Reported  in  capt.  Lugard's  letter  of  11  Feb.,
received  15  July.].
Letters  received  from  bishop  Hirth  by  the  French
government,  accusing  the  British  of  outrages,
and  claiming  compensation;  on  appeal,  the
British  government  promises  investigation,

June,  July, ,,


The  king  rejoins  the  Protestants;  order  restored  at
Mengo,  about  30  March  ;  the  company  predomi-
nant, reported 27  July,  1892

UHLANS,  the  German  lancers,  very  effective
in  the  war  in  1870.

UKRAINE  (Polish  for  a  frontier),  a  vast
fertile  plain  in  Russia,  ceded  to  the  Cossacks  by
Poland  in  1672,  and  obtained  by  Russia  in  1682.
The  country  was  divided,  Poland  having  the  west
side  of  the  Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  The
whole  country  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the  treaty
of  partition  in  1795.

ULM,  in  Wiirtemberg,  S.  Germany,  where  a
peace  was  signed,  3  July,  1620,  by  which  Frede-
rick V.  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from  it
previously).  Ulm  was  taken  by  the  French  in
1796.  After  a  battle  between  the  French  and
Austrians,  in  which  the  latter,  under  general  Mack,
were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss  by  marshal  Ney,
Ulm  surrendered  with  28,000  men,  the  iiower  of  the
Austrian  army,  17-20  Oct.  1805.  The  cathedral  was
built  1377-1494;  the  spire,  530  feet  high,  said  to  be
the  loftiest  in  the  world,  was  completed  31  May,
1890,  with  great  rejoicings.  Population,  1890,
36,201.
ULPHILAS'S  BIBLE,  see  under  Bible.
ULSTER,  the  N.  division  of  Ireland.  After
the  death  of  Strong-bow,  11 76,  John  de  Courcy  was
made  earl  of  Ulster;  Hugh  de  Lacy  was  earl,  1243  ;
and  Walter  de  Burgh,  1264;  whose  descendant,
Elizabeth,  married  Lionel,  son  of  Edward  III.,
1352.  He  thus  became  earl  of  Ulster.  In  161 1,
the  British  colonisation  of  the  forfeited  lands
(termed  the  Ulster  settlements  or  plantations)
began,  much  land  being  granted  to  the  corpora-
tion of  London ;  see  Irish  Society.  The  consequent
rebellion  of  the  Irish  chieftains,  Roger  More,  Phelim
O'Neale,  McGuire,  earl  of  Inniskillen,  and  others,
broke  out  on  23  Oct.  1641  (see  Ireland).— Ulster
King  of  Arms  appointed  for  Ireland,  I553-— By  the
ancient  "Ulster  tenant-right,"  the  outgoing  tenant
of  a  farm  received  from  his  successor  a  sum  of  money
for  the  privilege  of  occupancy.  A  modified  form
of  this  right  was  adopted  in  the  Irish  land  act,
passed  8  July,  1870.

The  Ulster  Convention,  proposed  8  April,  met  a1
Belfast  17  June,  1892,  in  a  large  pavilion  erected  for
the  purpose.  12,000  delegates  of  various  classes  and
opinions,  from  all  parts  of  the  province,  with  many
other  persons,  were  present,  the  duke  of  Abercorn
being  in  the  chair.  The  proceedings,  which  were  of  a
grave,  earnest  character,  began  with  a  prayer  and  the
singing  of  part  of  Psalm  XLVI.  Five  resolutions  for
firmly  maintaining  the  Union  of  Great  Britain  and
Ireland  in  opposition  to  the  scheme  for  Home  Rule
were  passed  unanimously.
Ulster  Convention  League  formed  (2,000?.  subscribed),
2  Aug.  1892.

ULTRAMONTANISTS  (from  ultra  monies,
beyond  the  mountains),  a  term  originally  applied  in
France  to  those  who  upheld  the  extreme  authority
of  the  pope  in  opposition  to  the  freedom  of  the
Gallican  church,  which  had  been  secured  by  various
hulls,  and  especially  by  the  concordat  of  15  July,
1801.  Ultramontanists  now  are  those  who  main-
tain the  official  infallibility  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.

3  T


ULUNDI.


1010


UNION OF ENGLAND.


ULUNDI,  Zululand,  South  Africa.  On  4  July,
1879,  the  Zulus,  commanded  by  their  king,  Cety-
wayo,  who  had  refused  the  conditions  of  peace,  were
totally  defeated  near  here  by  lord  Chelmsford,  after
a  severe  conflict.  Capt.  Wyatt-Edgell,  17  Lancers,
and  9  men  were  killed,  and  about  53  wounded.  The
British  were  attacked  in  the  open  country  by  the
Zulus,  who  enveloped  our  hollow  square  and  charged
on  all  sides  up  to  within  60  yards,  when  they  broke
and  fled  under  the  heavy  fire.  They  were  pursued
and  routed  by  cavalry.  About  23,000  Zulus  engaged,
1,500  killed.  The  British  showed  much  firmness
and  the  Zulus  displayed  great  courage.  The  royal
kraal  at  Ulundi  and  other  military  kraals  were  burnt.

UMBRELLA,  described  in  early  dictionaries
as  "a  portable  pent-house  to  carry  in  a  person's
hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."
Umbrellas  appear  in  the  carvings  at  Persepolis.
Niebuhr  saw  a  gi*eat  Arabian  prince  returning  from
a  mosque,  he  and  each  of  his  family  having  a  large
umbrella  carried  by  his  side.  Old  chinaware  shows
the  Chinese  shaded  by  umbrellas.  Tt  is  said  that
the  first  person  who  generally  used  an  umbrella  in
the  streets  of  London  was  the  benevolent  Jonas
Hanway,  who  died  in  1786.

John  Macdonald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life,  in-
forms us  that  he  had  "a  fine  silk  umbrella,  which  he
brought  from  Spain ;  but  he  could  not  with  any  comfort
to  himself  use  it,  the  people  calling  out,  '  Frenchman  !
why  don't  you  get  a  coach  ? '  "  The  hackney-coachmen
and  chairmen  were  clamorous  against  their  rival.  The
footman  says  he  "  persisted  for  three  months,  till  they
took  no  farther  notice  of  this  novelty.  Foreigners
began  to  use  theirs ;  and  then  the  English."  1778.
Mr.  Samuel  Fox,  inventor  of  the  hollow-steel  paragon
frame,  strong,  light,  and  elastic,  having  made  a  great
fortune,  especially  at  Lille  in  France,  died  25  Feb.  1887.
In  1885  Mr.  Gladstone's  political  programme  was  termed
his  umbrella,  by  lord  Rosebery.

UNCLAIMED  MONEY,  &c,  a  pamphlet
with  this  title,  by  Mr.  Edward  Preston,  was  pub-
lished in  1883,  describes  six  classes  and  recommends
legislation  to  facilitate  publication  for  the  benefit
of  claimants.
1. — Dividends  on  government,  East  India  and  Colonial

stocks  (government  stocks  4  Jan.  1887,  537,815?.).
2. — Dividends  of  companies,  surplus  assets in  bank-
ruptcy, &c.
3. — Army  and  navy  prize-money.
4. — Funds  in  chancery  (28  Feb.  1886,  77,677,581?.).
5. — Intestates' estates  in  the  United  Kingdom,  India,

and  the  colonies.
6. — Deposits  in  banks  (including  plate,  jewellery,  &c.).
Mr.  Sidney  H.  Preston  published  similar  returns  in  the
Times,  22  Aug.  1890.

"UNCLE  TOM'S  CABIN,"  a  story  by
Mrs.  H.  Beecher-Stowe,  published  in  portions  in  a
newspaper  in  1850;  complete  in  March,  1852;  set-
ting forth  the  evils  of  negro  slavery.  The  sale  was
enormous,  and  the  translations  numerous,  and  it
greatly  contributed  to  emancipation.  The  Bev.
Josiah  Uenson,  the  original  "Uncle  Tom,"  was
received  by  the  queen  at  Buckingham  palace,
2  March,  1877,  and  was  much  benefited  by  his  visit
to  Britain  ;  he  died  May,  1883,  aged  93.

UNCTION,  EXTREME,  see  Anointing.

UNDULATORY  THEORY  of  Light,

supposes  a  progressive  wave-like  motion  between
the  eye  and  the  luminous  body  seen.  It  is  said  to
have  been  suggested  by  Francisco  Grirnaldi  about
1665,  and  was  propounded  by  Bobert  Hooke  and
Huyghens,  about  1672  ;  opposed  by  Newton ;  but
confirmed  by  Thomas  Young  by  experiments  in
1801,  and  is  now  generally  adopted.  "Die  Wellen-
lehre  auf  Experimente  gegriindet,"  by  Ernst  and
Wilhelm  Weber,  published  in  1825  ;  see  Emission,
and  Light.


UNEMPLOYED,  see  under  Riots, 1886-7,

and  Mansion  House  Funds,  1886.

A  plan  for  providing  work  proposed  by  the  bishops  of
London,  Rochester  and  Bedford,  cardinal  Manning,  Mr.
Spurgeon  and  Mr.  Reaney  Nov.  1886.  A  conference
of  poor-law  guardians  at  Exeter  Hall  declare  that
there  is  no  exceptional  distress  in  the  country  8  Dec.
1886.

Disorderly  demonstrations  of  so-called  unemployed  in
London  early  Oct.  1887  ;  conference  at  Memorial  Hall,
lord  Herschel  in  the  chair  5  Dec.  1887.

Deputation  (not  unanimous)  to  lord  Salisbury  recom-
mending public  works,  inquiry,  and  registration,
state-aided  emigration  and  repression  of  alien  pauper
immigrants  1  Feb.  1888.

Lord  mayor  de  Keyser,  aided  by  the  earl  of  Meath  and
rev.  Harry  Jones,  puts  forth  a  scheme  for  employ
ment  of  the  London  poor  in  making  open  spaces
gardens  and  recreation  grounds  with  due  stipulations
(20,000?.  wanted)  Times  22  Dec.  1887.

The  Gardens  and  Pleasure  Grounds  Fund  started  (see
under  Mansion  House)  about  24  Dec.  1887.

The  scheme  in  action  reported  partially  successful  Aug.
1888.

Meeting  of  the  unemployed  at  Tower  hill,  led  by  Mr.
Power  (after  an  attempt  at  the  Royal  Exchange),  4
Oct.  1890.

Attempt  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  Power  arrested,  11
Oct.  1890.

Meetings  at  Tower  hill  renewed,  8  April,  1892.

UNIFORMITARIANS,  see  Continuity.

UNIFORMITY  ACTS.  That  of  2  &  3  Ed-
ward VI.,  15  Jan.  1549,  ordained  that  the  order  of
divine  worship,  drawn  up  by  Cranmer  and  others,
"  with  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  should  be  the
only  one  used  after  20  May.  The  penalties  for
refusing  to  use  it  were  fine  and  imprisonment.
This  act  was  confirmed  in  1552;  repealed  by  Mary,
1554;  and  re-enacted  by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  The
act  of  Uniformity,  14  Charles  II.  c.  4,  was  passed  in
1662.  It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matters  of  religion,
and  obliged  all  clergy  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty-
nine  articles,  and  use  the  same  form  of  worship,
and  same  book  of  common  prayer.  Its  enforcement
on  24  Aug.  1662,  termed  Black  Bartholomew's  day,
caused,  it  is  said,  upwards  of  2000  ministers  to  quit
the  church  of  England.  This  day  was  commemo-
rated by  dissenters  in  1862.  The  Act  of  Uniformity
Amendment  act,  whereby  shortened  services  were
authorised,  and  other  changes  made,  was  passed  18
July,  1872.  The  Uniformity  of  Process  act,  which
made  many  law  changes,  was  passed  23  May,  1832.

UNIFORMS.  Military  uniforms  were  first
used  in  Erance,  "in  a  regular  manner  "  by
Louis  XIV.  about  1668.  In  England  the  uniform
was  soon  afterwards  adopted  in  the  military  service,
but  with  little  analogy  to  the  modern  dress.  See
under  Navy.

UNIGENITUS,  see  Bull.
UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS- At the

British  Association,  15  Sept.  1859,  MM.  Vcrsmann
and  Oppenheim  announced  their  discovery  that
fabrics  steeped  in  solutions  of  tungstate  of  soda,  or
sulphate  or  phosphate  of  ammonia,  burn  without
flame.

UNION  CHAPEL,  see  under  Islington.

UNION  OF  CALMAR,  1397;  of  Utrecht,  1579-

UNION  of  England  and  Scotland  by

the  accession  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  1.
of  England,  24  March,  1603.  The  legislative  union
of  the  two  kingdoms  (as  Great  Britain)  was  at-
tempted, but  failed  in  1604  and  1670  ;  in  the  reign
of  Anne,  commissioners  were  appointed,  the  articles
discussed,  and,  notwithstanding  a  great  opposition
made  by  the  Tories,  every  article  in  the  union  was
approved  by  a  great  majority,  first  in  the  house  of


UNION OF GEEAT BRITAIN. 1011


UNITED SERVICE.


commons,  and  afterwards  by  the  peers,  22  July,
1706 ;  was  ratified  by  the  Scottish  parliament,  16
Jan.  1707,  and  became  law,  1  May,  same  year.

UNION  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland

■effected,  2  July,  1800.

Proposed  in  the  Irish  parliament . . 22  Jan.  1799

Rejected  by  the  commons  of  Ireland,  the  votes
being  105  for,  to  106  against  the  union,  24  Jan. ,,

Passed 7  June,  1800

The  English  house  of  commons  on  the  same  question
divided,  140,  141,  and  149  for  the  union ;  against
it,  15,  25,  and  28  respectively . . .  ,,

Lord  Castlereagh  detailed  his  plan  of  the  union,  in
the  Irish  house  of  lords,  founded  on  the  resolu-
tions of  the  British  parliament  thereon 5  Feb.  1800

Votes  of  the  commons  agreeing  to  it,  161  against
115,  T7  Eeb.  ;  and  again,  152  against  108 21  Feb. ,,

The  houses  of  lords  and  commons  wait  on  the  lord
lieutenant  with  the  articles  of  union,  27  March, ,,

The  act  passed  in  the  Irish  parliament,  13  June,  and
in  the  British  parliament ... 2  July, ,,

The  imperial  united  standard  first  displayed  at
the  tower  of  London,  and  upon  Bedford  Tower,
Dublin  Castle,  on  the  act  of  legislative  union  be-
coming an  operative  law  . 1  Jan.  i8ot

5?or  attempts  to  dissolve  this  union,  see  Repeal,
Ireland 1886

National  Union  Club,  Albemarle  Street,  London,
established 18  Jan.  1887

UNION  JACK.  The  original  flag  of  England
was  the  banner  of  St.  George,  i.e.,  white  with  a  red
>cross,  which,  12  April,  1606  (three  years  after
James  I.  ascended  the  throne)  was  incorporated  with
the  banner  of  Scotland,  i.e.,  blue  with  a  white
■diagonal  cross.  This  combination  obtained  the  name
■of  "  Union  Jack,"  in  allusion  to  the  union  with
Scotland,  and  the  word  Jack  is  considered  a  corrup-
tion of  the  word  Jacobus,  Jacques,  or  James.  This
arrangement  continued  until  the  union  with  Ire-
land, 1  Jan.  1801,  when  the  banner  of  St.  Patrick,
i.e.,  white  with  a  diagonal  red  cross,  was  amalga-
mated with  it,  and  forms  the  present  Union  flag.

UNION  CHAEGEABILITY  ACT,  pro-
viding for  the  better  distribution  of  the  charge  for
relieving  the  poor  in  unions,  was  passed  in  June,
18615.  One  object  of  the  act  is  the  improvement  of
the  dwellings  of  agricultural  labourers.

UNION  BELIEF  ACT,  passed  in  1862,  con-
tinued in  1863,  to  enable  boards  of  guardians  of
■certain  unions  to  obtain  temporary  aid  to  meet  the
extraordinary  expenditure  for  relief  occasioned  by
the  distress  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  districts.

UNION  REPEAL  ASSOCIATION,  Ire-
land, see  Repeal  of  the  Union.

UNIONIST LIBERALS,  opposed  to  Mr.
Gladstone,  see  Liberals,  1886,  et  seq.
Irish  Unionist  Alliance  formed  in  Dublin  . April,  1891
Liberal  Unionist  Association,  3rd  anuual  meeting

of  the  council  at  Westminster . . 16  Feb.  1892

UNIONISTS.  A  Spanish  political  party,  long
headed  by  marshal  Serrano.  In  1869  they  advocated
the  election  of  the  due  de  Montpensier  as  king.  See
Progresistas  and  Spain.

UNIONS,  see  Poor,  and  Trades.

UNION  GENERALE,  see  France,  Dec.  1882.

UNIT,  a  gold  coin,  value  20s. ,  issued  by  James  I.
in  1604.

UNITARIANS,  termed  Socinians  fromLoclius
Socinus,  who  founded  a  sect  in  Italy  about  1546.
They  profess  to  believe  in  and  worship  one  only
self-existent  God,  in  opposition  to  those  who  wor-
ship the  Trinity  in  unity.  They  consider  Christ  to
have  been  a  mere  man  ;  and  do  not  admit  the  need
of  an  atonement  or  of  the  complete  inspiration  of  the


Scriptures.  Michael  Servetus  printed  a  tract  in  dis-
paragement of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In  1553,
proceeding  to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin  in-
duced the  magistrates  to  arrest  him  on  a  charge  of
blasphemy  and  heresy.  Servetus,  refusing  to  re-
tract his  opinions,  was  condemned  to  the  flames,
which  sentence  was  carried  into  execution,  27  May,
1553.  Servetus  is  numbered  among  those  anato-
mists who  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  before  Harvey  estab-
lished that  doctrine.  Matthew  Hamont  was  burnt
at  Norwich  for  asserting  Christ  not  to  be  the  Son
of  God,  I  June,  1579.  The  Unitarians  were  nume-
rous in  Transylvania  in  the  17th  century  ;  they
came  to  England  about  1700,  and  many  of  the
original  English  presbyterian  churches  became
Unitarians  about  1730.  They  were  not  included  in
the  Toleration  act  till  1813.  There  were  229  con-
gregations in  England  in  1851.  Their  tenets  re-
semble those  of  the  Arians  and  Socinians  (which  see).
The  Unitarian  marriage  bill  was  passed,  June,  1827.
la  Dec.  1833,  by  a  decision  of  the  vice-chancellors
the  Unitarians  (as  such)  lost  the  possession  of  lady
Hewley's  charity;  the  decision  was  affirmed  on  ap-
peal in  1842.  British  and  Foreign  Unitarian
Association  founded,  to  promote  Unitarianism,
1825;  meeting  in  London,  64th  anniversary  kept
in  London,  12  June,  1889.  There  were  320  Unitarian
churches  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  Feb.  1884.

UNITED  BRETHREN,  e ee  Moravians.

UNITED  EMPIRE  TRADE  LEAGUE,

formed  for  the  advancement  of  British  Industry
throughout  the  world,  by  abandoning  free  trade
doctrines,  and  substituting  a  differential  tariff  for
colonial  produce.  This  scheme  which  was  originated
by  Mr.  Hofrneyr,  was  opposed  by  sir  Thomas  Farrer
and  others  in  London,  March  1891.  First  annual
report  by  col.  Howard  Vincent.  There  are  5,120
members  April,  1892.

UNITED  IRISHMEN,  a  political  society
founded  in  1791,  was  at  first  loyal,  but  afterwards
met  secretly,  to  establish  a  republic,  became  active
in  1795.  Theobald  Wolf  Tone,  the  founder,  was
captured  by  sir  John  "Warren  in  the  Hoche,  one  of
six  frigates  destined  to  support  the  rebellion,  in  Oct.
1798.  He  anticipated  his  punishment  by  suicide  in
prison  Nov.  1798.
United  Ireland  newspaper  first  published  July  i88r.

See  under  Ireland.

UNITED  KINGDOM.  England  and  Wales
were  united  in  1283  ;  Scotland  to  both  in  1707  ;  and
the  British  realm  was  named  the  United  Kingdom
on  the  union  of  Ireland,  1  Jan.  1801  ;  see  Union
and  article  Population— The  United  Kingdom
Alliance,  for  the  total  suppression  of  liquor  traffic,
was  founded,  1  June,  1853.  See  Permissive  Bill.
The  subscribed  manifesto  of  this  alliance  occupied
a  page  of  the  Times,  11  Dec.  1871.  United
Kingdom  Beneficent  Association,  founded  1863,
grants  annuities  to  poor  persons  of  a  better  class.

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,

in  Scotland,  was  formed  13  May,  1847,  see
Burghers,  and  Relief  Church.

UNITED  PROVINCES  (Holland,  Zealand,
Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen,  Ovcryssell,  and
Guelderland),  the  deputies  of  which  mot  at  Utrecht,
23  Jan.  1579,  and  signed  a  treaty  l'nr  their  mutual
defence ;  sec  Holland.

UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION,

ROYAL,  Whitehall,  London,  was  established  in
183 1. its museum contains many remarkable

3  t  2


UNITED  STATES.


1012


UNITED  STATES.


military  and  naval  relics.  The  lectures  given  are
reported  in  its  journal,  which  first  appeared  in  1857.
The  Institution  first  met  in  the  Whitehall  Chapel
Koyal,  which  see  7  March,  189 1.

The  United  Service  Gazette  first  published  9  Feb.  1833.

UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA  were
so  styled  by  the  congress  of  the  revolted  British
provinces,  9  Sept.  1776.  Their  flag  was  declared
to  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternately  red  and  white
and  thirteen  stars  in  a  blue  field,  corresponding  with
the  then  number  of  states  of  the  union,  20  June,
1777.  There  are  now  44  states.  The  government
of  the  United  States  is  a  pure  democracy.  Each
of  the  states  has  a  separate  and  independent  legis-
lature for  the  administration  of  its  local  affairs,  but
all  are  ruled  in  matters  of  imperial  policy  by  two
houses  of  legislature,  the  senate,  elected  for  six
years,  and  the  house  of  representatives  (356
members  in  1891)  elected  for  two  years,  to  which
delegates  are  sent  from  the  different  members  of  the
confederacy.  The  president  of  the  United  States  is
elected  every  fourth  year  by  the  free  voice  of  the
people.  He  and  his  ministers  have  no  seat  in  the
legislative  assemblies.  His  veto  may  be  nullified
by  the  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  house.  The  election
of  Abraham  Lincoln  as  president  on  4  Nov.  i860,
was  followed  by  the  secession  of  eleven  slaveholding
states,  and  led  to  the  great  civil  war,  1861-5 ;  see
Confederates,  and  below.

The  thirteen  states  of  the  union  at  the  declaration  of
independence  in  1776;  the  italics  indicate  the  then
slaveholding  states  ;  those  with  a  *  prefixed  seceded
from  the  federal  government  in  i860  and  1861,  and
were  subdued  in  186=;.


New  Hampshire.
Massachusetts.
Kliode  Island.
Connecticut.


New  York.
New  Jersey.
Pennsylvania.
Delaware.


Maryland.  *South  Carolina.

^'Virginia,  j ^Georgia.

*North  Carolina.  | See  separate  articles.

The  following  have  been  added  : —

Vermont  (from  New  York) i7or

^Tennessee  (from  North  Carolina)  . . . .  1796

Kentucky  (from  Virginia) 1792-:

Columbia  district  (under  the  immediate  government
of  congress)  contains Washington, the  seat  of

government 1790-r

Ohio  (created) 1802.-

^'Louisiana  (bought  from  France  in  1803) . . .  1812

Indiana  (created) 1816

* Mississippi  (from  Georgia) 1817-

Illinois  (created) 1818

*  Alabama  (from  Georgia) ......  1819

Maine  (from  Massachusetts) 1820-

Missouri  (from  Louisiana 1821

*Arlcansas 183&

Michigan 1837

^Florida  (ceded  by  Spain,  1820) ;  made  a  state .  1845

*Texas ,,

Iowa 1846'

Wisconsin 1848

California 1850

New  Mexico  (territory) 1850

Minnesota  (territory,  1849)  >  state . . . .  1857-
Oregon  (territory,  1850);  state  ....  1859

Kansas  (territory,  1854) ;  state 1861:

Utah  (territory) 1850

Washington  (territory  1853)  ;  state . . . .  1889
Nevada  (territory,  1S61) ;  state ....  1864

Colorado  (territory  1861) ;  state 1876'

Dakota  (territory  1861)  ;  north  and  south  state .  1889

Arizona  (territory) 1863:

Idaho  (territory  1863) ;  state 1890-

West  Virginia  (from  Virginia)  ;  sta'e . . . .  1863.
Montana  (territory  1864) ;  state ....  1889

Nebraska  (territory  1854)  ;  state 1867

Wyoming  (territory  1868) ;  state ....  1890

Alaska  (territory) 1868.

Electoral  College  in  1872,  366  members  ;  40  for  New-
England,  95  for  the  southern  States,  12  for  the  Pacific
States,  84  for  the  middle  States,  and  135  for  the-,
western  States.


1776
1800
1810


1,191,364
2,009,050


Total.
2,614,300
5.3°9,756
7,239,903
12,858,670


Population. See  Slavery  in  America.

Slaves.  Total.

1840 •  17,069,453

l85° •  • 3,204,313 . 23,191,876

1860 • • 3>952,8oi .  31,445,980


Slaves.  Total.

no  slaves .  38,558,371.
...  5°>497>°57
. 62,622,250.


The  Census  of  1880  thus  classifies  the  population :  Males,
25,518,820 ;  females.  24,636,963.  Native  born,  43,475,840 ;
foreign  born,  6,679,043.  Whites,  43,402,970  ;  coloured,
6,580,793.  The  remaining  339,098  are  composed  of
Indians  not  in  tribal  relations  and  under  Government
care,  Chinese,  and  other  Asiatics.  The  Chinese  are  esti-
mated at  105,613.

The  senate  is  composed  of  2  members  for  each  state,
elected  for  6  years.  The  representatives  in  congress
were  formerly  elected  for  2  years  in  the  ratio  of  1  in
93,423  persons  (five  slaves  were  counted  as  three  per-
sons); but  this  system  ended  with  the  abolition  of
slavery.  In  1872  the  number  of  representatives  was
raised  from  233  to  283,  to  commence  3  March,  1873.


evenue. —

Dollars.

Total  receipts,

year

ending  30  June,  1855,

65,003,930

ditto

ditto

1859.

53,405,071

ditto

ditto

1863,

8S8,o82,i28

ditto

ditto

1866,

1,273,960,215

ditto

ditto

1875,

284,020,771

ditto

ditto

1877,

269,000,586

ditto

ditto

1880,

333,526,610

ditto

ditto

1884,

348,519,869

ditto

ditto

1888,

379,266,072

ditto

ditto

1889,

388,591,675

ditto

ditto

1891,

392,612,447

xpenditurt —

Year  ending  30

June

,  1855 .

56,365,393

ditto

1859 .

66,346,226

ditto

1863

714,709,996

ditto

1 866

1,141,072,666

ditto

1875 •

274,623,392

ditto

1877 .

238,660,008

Year  ending  30  June,  1880
ditto  1884

ditto  1888

ditto  1889

ditto  1 891

Public  Debt-


267,642,957
244,126,244
267,924,801
300,064,795
355,372,684


June,  1867,  2,515,615,936  dollars.
June,  1871,  2,292,030,835  dollars.
June,  1875,  2,237,813,048  dollars.
June,  1876,  2,176,947,758  dollars.
June,  1880,  2,120,415,370  dollars.
June,  1884,  1,830,528,923  dollars.
Dec.  1888,  1,690,975,251  dollars.
June,  1891,  1,610,620,103  dollars.


ear  ending
30  June.
1872

1875

1877
1880

VALUE  OF  IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

£114,502,161
106,600,905 .
90,261,510 .
133,590>66o .

£112,361,676
109,013,805.
117,933,898
164,789,270

1884
1888
1891

133,539,538 •

■ $723,957,H4 •

844,916,196 .

144,992,970

$683,862,104

872,270,283

Army. — That  which  achieved  independence  was  dis-
banded at  the  end  of  the  war.  In  1789,  a  war  depart-
ment was  established,  and  in  1790  the  army  consisted1
of  1216  men  for  the  Indian  frontier.  In  1808,  the
militia  was  newly  equipped.  When  war  with  Great
Britain  was  declared  on  iS  June,  1812,  35,000  men  were
voted ;  and  this  army  was  disbanded  at  the  peace  in
1815.  Armies  were  voted  for  the  wars  in  1833  and
1835,  afterwards  disbanded.


UNITED  STATES


1013


UNITED  STATES.


In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72

vessels  (2290  guns).
In  i860,  the  United  States  Militia  were  3,070,987. Fleet,

92  vessels  (of  all  kinds);  in  Oct.  1862, 256  vessels  of  war.
Federal  Army,  29  July, 1861,  estimated  at  660,971. In
Dee.  1862.  nearly  1,000,000  men. In  April,  1865,  about
1,500,000,  at  the  end  of  the  war,  when  the  reduction
"began  at  once. Number  of  soldiers  in  1867,  54,890;  in
July,  1871,  32,135;  1875,  27,525  men;  in  1883,  25,478
men  ;  in  1888,  26,270  men  ;  in  1891,  26,073  men.
Fleet,  ill  July,  1867,  261  vessels  of  all  kinds,  2218  guns  ;
Jan.  1871, 179  vessels,  1440  guns  ;  1875,  155  vessels,  1203
guns;  1S84,  92  vessels ;  1888,  66  vessels;  1891,69  vessels.
In  1890  and  1891,  the  congress  authorised  the  construc-
tion ol  three  battleships,  two  protected  cruisers,  and
one  torpedo  cruiser,  and  one  torpedo  boat. The  Texas
battleship  was  launched,  28  June,  1892.
Railways,  miles  :  1839,  23  ;  1861,  31,286  ; 1873,  73,533  ;

in  1S84,  121,532  ;  in  1888,  150,710;  in  1891,  171,000.
Act  of  the  British  parliament,  imposing  new  heavy

duties  on  imports  ....  11  March,  1764
Obnoxious  stamp-act  passed  .  .  22  March,  1765
First  American  congress  held  at  New  York,  June;

the  stamp-act  resisted ....  1  Nov. ,,
Stamp-act  repealed .... 18  March,  1766
British  act,  levying  duties  on  tea,  paper,  painted

glass,  <fcc 14  June,  1767

Gen.  Gage  sent  to  Boston  ....  Oct.  1768

840  chests of  tea  destroyed  by  the  populace  at

Boston,  and  17  chests  at  New  York  .  18  Dec. 1773

Boston  port  bill  (port  rights  annulled) 25  March,  1774
Deputies from  the  states meet  at Philadelphia,

5  Sept. ;  Declaration  of  Rights  issued  4  Nov. ,,

First  action  between  the  British  and  Americans,  at

Lexington  ;  British  retreat . . .  19  April,  177.5
Act  of  perpetual  union  between  the  states 20  May, ,,
George  Washington  appointed  commander-in-chief,
May; battle of Bunker's-hill, the Americans
retire  after  a  severe  conflict . . 17  June, ,,
America declared "free, sovereign, and inde-
pendent " 4  July,  1776

General  Howe  takes  Long  Island,  27  Aug.  ;  new
York,  15  Sept. ;  victor  at  White  Plains,  20  Oct. ;

takes  Rhode  Island 8  Dec. ,,

The  Hessians  surrender  to  Washington  25  Dec. ,,

La  Fayette and other French  officers join the

Americans 1777

Washington  defeated  at  Brandy  wine  .  11  Sept.  ,,
Lord  Cornwallis  takes  Philadelphia  .  .  Sept.  ,,
Burgoyue  victor  at  Germantown,  3,  4,  Oct. ;  sur-
rounded; capitulates  at  Saratoga  .  .  17  Oct.  ,,
A  federal  government  adopted  by  congress  15  Nov.  ,,
The  states  recognised  by  France . . 16  Dec. ,,

Alliance  with  France 6  Feb.  1778

The  king's  troops  quit  Philadelphia  . . June, ,,
Americans  defeated  at  Brier's  Creek . 3  March,  1779
Charleston  surrenders  to  the  British. . 13  May,  1780
Cornwallis  defeats  Gates  at  Camden .  16  Aug. ,,

Major  Andre  hanged  as  a  spy  ...  2  Oct.  ,,
Andre  (born  175 1)  was  an  adjutant-general  in  the
British  army,  and  was  taken  in  disguise  on  his
return  from  a  secret  expedition  to  the  traitorous
American  general  Arnold,  23  Sept.  1780.  He  was
sentenced  to  execution  as  a  spy  by  a  court  of
general  Washington's  officers  at  Tappan,  New
York,  and  suffered  death,  2  Oct.  following.  His
remains  were  removed  to  England  in  a  sarco-
phagus, 10  Aug.  1821,  and  interred  in  Westminster
abbey.  Impartial  judges  justify  the  severity  of
this  punishment.]
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  at  Boston

founded ,,

The  federal  government  accepted  by  all  the  states,

1  March;  congress  assembles  .  .  2  March,  1781
Cornwallis  defeats  Green  at  Guildford, 15  March  ;

Arnold  defeats  the  Americans  at  Eutaw 8  Sept. ,,
Surrender  of  lord  Cornwallis  and  his  whole  army  of
7000  men  to  generals  Washington  and  Rocham-

beau,  at  Yorktown 19  Oct. ,,

Arrival  of  sir  Guy  Carleton  to  treat  for  peace,  5  May  ;
provisional  articles  signed  at  Paris  by  commis-
sioners 30  Nov. 1782

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Paris,  3  Sept.

1783;  ratified  by  congress  .  .  .  4  Jan.  1784
Samuel  Seabury  consecrated  bishop  of  the  episcopal

church  in  America  at  Aberdeen . .  14  Nov. ,,
John  Adams,  first  Am  erica  11  ambassador's  first  in-
terview with  the  king  of  England  . . 1  June,  1785


The  cotton  plant  introduced  into  Georgia . .  1786
New  constitution  signed  by  a  convention  of  states,

17  Sept. 1787

The  same  ratified 23  May,  1788

The  quakers  of  Philadelphia  emancipate  their  slaves,

1  Jan. ,,
New  government  organised,  4  March  ;  George  Wash-
ington, 1st  president,  6  April ; present depart-
ments of  state  established . . .  27  July, 1789

An  act  protecting  native  industry  passed . . ,,
Death  of  Benjamin  Franklin  . . . 17  April,  1790
Bank  instituted  ;  capital,  10,000,000  dollars,  7  June,  1791
City  of  Washington  chosen  the  capital  of  the  states,

8  July,  1792
Eli  Whitney's  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  gives  an
immense impetus  to  the  growth  of  American

cotton 1793

Re-election of  general  Washington  as  president,

4  March,  1793  ;  resigns  .  .  .  17  Sept.  1796
John  Adams,  2nd  president  .  .  .  4  March,  1797
Washington  dies  ;  universal  sorrow  .  14  Dec.  1799
The  seat  of  government  removed  to  Washington  .  1800
Thomas  Jefferson,  3rd  president  .  .  .4  March,  1801
Louisiana  purchased  from  the  French  .  30  April,  1803
Discussion  between  England  and  America  respect-
ing the  rights  of  neutrals 1807

American  ports  closed  to  the  British,  July ;  trade

suspended 9  Dec.  1807

Importation  of  slaves  abolished . . .1  Jan.  i8c8
James  Madison,  <\th  president . .  4  March,  1809

"War with Great Britain (New England States

opposed  to  it,  threatened  to  secede)  . 18  June,  1812
Action  between  the  American  ship  Constitution,  and
the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  an  unequal  contest,

19  Aug. ,,

Fort  Detroit  taken 21  Aug. ,,

The British sloop  Frolic  taken  by  the  American
sloop  Wasp,  18  Oct.  ;  the  privateer  Defiance  also

captured  by  the  Wasp ,

The  ship United  States  of  54  guns,  great  calibre
(commodore  Decatur),  captures  the  British  frigate
Macedonia . . . . . . 25  Oct. ,,

Battles  of  Frenchtown  (which  see) . . 12-24  Jan.  1813
The  Hornet  captures  the  British  sloop  of  war  Peacock

25  Feb.  ,,
Fort  Erie  and  Fort  George  abandoned  by  the  British,

27  May,  ,,
The  American  frigate  Chesapeake  captured  by  the

Shannon  frigate,  captain  Broke . . 1  June, „
At Burlington Heights,  Americans  defeated,

6  June,  ,,
H.M.  sloop  Pelican  takes  the  sloop  Argus  14  Aug.  ,,
Buffalo  town  burnt  by  the  British  .  .  Dec.  ,,
American  frigate  Essex  taken  by  the  Phoibe  and

Cherub 29  March,  1814

The  British  defeat  the  Americans  in  a  severe  conflict,

2  July, ,,
[Several  engagements  with  various  success  followed.]
The  British,  under  Ross,  defeat  the  Americans  at

Bladeusburg ;  the  city  of  Washington  taken  and
public  edifices  burnt  ....  24  Aug. ,,

The  British  sloop  of  war  A  von  sunk  by  the  American

sloop  Wasp 8  Sept. ,,

The  British  squadron  on  Lake  Champlain  captured,

11  Sept.  ,,
Attack  on  Baltimore  by  the  British;  general  Ross

killed . . . .' . . - 12  Sept. ,,
Treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  signed  at  Ghent,

24  Dee. ,,
The  British  repulsed  at  New  Orleans . 8  Jan. 1815
The  British  ship  Endymion  captures  the  President,

15  Jan. „
The  Ghent  treaty  ratified  .... 17  Feb. ,,
James  Monroe,  5th  president . . . 4  March,  1817
Treaty  with  Canada  respecting  fisheries  . . .  1818
Centre  foundation  of  the  capitol  of  Washington  laid,

24  Aug. „
The  "Missouri  Compromise"  of  Henry  Clay,  re-
garding slavery,  passed ....  Feb. 1820
Spain  cedes  Florida  to  the  American  States  24  <><•!. ,,
The  States  acknowledge  the  independence  of  South

America 8  March,  1822

Treaty  with  Columbia .... 3  Oct.  1824
John  Quincey  Adams,  6th president . 4  March,  1825
Death  of  the  two  ex-presidents,  Adams  and  Jeffer-
son, on  the  50th  anniversary  of  the  independence
of  the  American  States . . . .  4  July,  1826


UNITED  STATES.


1014


UNITED  STATES.


Convention  with  Great  Britain  concerning  indemni-
ties for  war  1812-14 13  Nov.  1826

American  Tariff  Bill  imposing  heavy  duties  on
British  goods,  termed  the ' '  tariff  of  abominations  "

13  May,  1828
General  Jackson,  yth  president  .  .  .4  March,  1829
Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  Ottoman

Porte 7  May,  1830

Ports  re-opened  to  British  commerce  .  5  Oct.  ,,
Pirst  railway  made . . . . . .  ,,

New  tariff  laws 14  July,  1832

Commercial  panic ,,

Great  fire  at  New  York,  674  houses  and  many  public
edifices  burnt ;  loss  estimated  at  20,000,000  dol-
lars 16  Dec.  1835

National  debt  paid  off 1836

Martin  Van  Buren,  8th  president . .  4  March,  1837
In the Canadian insurrection,  many  Americans

assist  the  insurgents  . . .  Oct.  to  Dec. „

The  American  steamboat  Caroline  is  attacked  and
burnt  by  the  British,  near  Schlosser,  to  the  east
of  the  Niagara, on  the  territory  of  the  United

States 29  Dec. „

Proclamation  of  the  president against  American

citizens  aiding  the  Canadians  ... 5  Jan.  1838
The  Great  Western  steam-ship  first  sails  from  Bristol

to  New  York 8-15  April, „

American  banks  suspend  cash  payments  .  Oct.  1839

Alex.  MacLeod,  charged with  aiding in the  de-
struction of  the  Caroline;  true  bill  found  against
him  for  murder  and  arson . . . .  6  Feb.  1841
The  United  States  Lank  again  suspends  payment,

7  Feb. „
Gen.  W.  H.  Harrison,  gth  president . . 4  March, ,,

Died 4  April, ,,

Mr.  Fox,  British  minister,  demands  the  release  of

Mr.  MacLeod 12  March, ,,

John  Tyler,  10th  president  ....  April,  ,,
The  case  of  MacLeod  removed  to  supreme  court  at

New  York 6  May, „

A  party  of  British  volunteers  from  Canada  carry  off

col.  Grogan 9  Sept. „

Designation  of  all  the  United  States  ministers,  with

the  exception  of  Mr.  Webster  . . . n  Sept. „
President's  proclamation  against  lawless  attempts  of
American  citizens  to  invade  British  possessions,
and  to  suppress  secret  lodges,  clubs,  and  associa-
tions 25  Sept. „

Grogan  restored  to  the  Americans  .  .  4  Occ.  ,,
Trial  of  MacLeod  at  Utica,  4  Oct.  ;  acquitted,  12  Oct.  „
Colossal  statue  of  Washington  placed  in  the  capitol

at  Washington 1  Dec. „

Affair  of  the  Creole ;  dispute  with  England Dec. „
[This  American  vessel  was  on  her  voyage_to  New
Orleans  with  a  cargo  of  slaves  :  they  mutinied, v
murdered  the  owner,  wounded  the  captain,  and
compelled  the  crew  to  take  the  ship  to  Nassau,
New  Providence,  where  the  governor,  considering
them  passengers,  allowed  them,  against  the  pro-
test of  the  American  consul,  to  go  at  liberty.  ]
Announcement  of  lord  Ashburton's  mission  to  the

United  States 1  Jan.  1842

Arrest  of  Hogan,  implicated  in  the  Caroline  affair,

2  Feb. ,,
Lord  Ashlrarton  arrives  at  New  York . 1  April, ,,
Washington  treaty,  defining  the  boundaries  between
the  United  States  and  the  British  American  pos-
sessions, and  for  suppressing  the  slave  trade,  and
giving  up  fugitive  criminals  ;  signed  at  AVashing-
ton,  by  lord  Ashburton  and  Mr.  Webster,  9  Aug. „
The  tariff  bill  is  passed  ' . . ... 30  Aug.
Lord  Ashburton  leaves  the  United  States  . 5  Sept! "
Death  of  Dr.  Channing ....  2  Oct.

James  Knox  Polk,  nth  president  . .  4  March,  1845

War  declared  against  the  United  States  by  Mexico,'
on  account  of  the  proposed  annexation  of  Texas,

4  June, „
[Several  actions  are  fought  between  the  belligerents,

adverse  to  Mexico.]
Besolution  of  the  senate  and  house  of  representa-
tives  for terminating the  joint occupancy  of

Oregon 20  April,  1846

Annexation  of  New  Mexico  to  the  United  States,

after  a  protracted  war . . . .23  Aug.

Mexicans  defeated  by  Taylor  at  Falo  Alto,  8,  9  May, ,','

Treaty  fixing  the  north-west  boundary  of  the  U.S.

at  the  49th  parallel  of  latitude,  and  giving  the


British  possession  of  Vancouver's  island,  the  free
navigation  of  the  Columbia  river,  &c,  signed

12  June,  1846

Treaty  with  Columbia  guaranteeing  neutrality  of
the  isthmus  of  Panama ,,

The  Mexicans  defeated  by  general  Taylor,  at  Bueno
Vista 22,  23  Feb.  1847

Vera  Cruz  taken  by  storm,  29  March  ;  the  Mexicans
everywhere  worsted.  Great  battle  of  Sierra  Gorda ;
the  Mexicans  signally  defeated  by  general  Scott,

18  April, ,,

Treaty  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  rati-
fied 19  May,  184a

Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  12th  president . 4  March,  1849

Biot  at  the  theatre,  New  York,  occasioned  by  the
dispute  between  Mr.  Forrest  and  Mr.  Macready,

10  May, ,,

Proclamation  of  the  president  against  the  maraud-
ing expedition  to  Cuba . . . .11  Aug. ;>

[Lopez,  a  Spanish  adventurer,  landed  600  men  at
Cuba ;  after  a  short  but  obstinate  struggle  they
took  the  town  of  Cardenas  ;  and  soon  after  had  a
land  engagement  with  some  Spanish  soldiers,  in
which  many  of  them  were  killed  or  taken  pri-
soners ;  the  others  embarked  with  Lopez  in  the
Creole  steamer,  and  thus  escaped  from  a  Spanish
war  steamer,  the  Pizarro,  May,  1850.]

The  French  ambassador  dismissed  from  Washington,

14  Sept. ,,

Treaty  with  England  for  a  transit  way  across  Pana-
ma (see  Bulwer),  19  April ;  ratified . 4  July,  1850

President  Zachary  Taylor  dies  ;  death  of  M.  Cal-
houn 31  March, ,,

Millard  Fill  in  ore,  13th  president. . . March, ,y

California  admitted  a  state . . . 15  Aug. ,,

Fugitive  slave  bill  passed  .... Aug. ,,

President  Fillmore  issues  a  second  proclamation
against  the  promoters  of  a  second  expedition  to
Cuba,  and  the  ship  Cleopatra,  freighted  with
military  stores  destined  for  that  island,  is  seized,

25  April,  1853

Census  of  the  United  States  taken,  the  population
ascertained  to  amount  to  23,347,884,  in  the  whole
union 16  June, ,,

Henry  Clay,  American  statesman,  dies .  29  June, „

Failure  of  the  second  expedition  against  Cuba  by
Lopez  and  his  followers  ;  they  are  all  defeated  and
taken  :  51  are  shot  by  the  Cuban  authorities,
Lopez  is  garotted,  and  the  rest  are  sent  prisoners
to  Spain,  where,  after  some  negotiation,  they  are
mercifully  set  at  liberty  (see  Cuba) Aug.-Sept. ,„

J.  F.  Cooper,  American  novelist  dies . 14  Sept. „

The  president  issues  a  proclamation  against  the
sympathisers  with  the  revolutionary  movement
in  Mexico . . . . . .22  Oct. ,,

Part  of  the  capitol  of  Washington,  and  the  whole  of
the  library  of  the  United  States  congress,  de-
stroyed by  fire 24  Dec. „.

M.  Kossuth  the  Hungarian  chief,  arrives  at  Wash-
ington, on  the  invitation  of  the  United  States
legislature 30  Dec. ,,

Publication  of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  by  Mrs.
Stowe 20  March,  1852

The  dispute  with  England  relating  to  the  Fisheries
occurs  about  this  time  ;  Mr  Webster's  note  upon
the  subject ...... 14  July, ,,

Lone  Star  Society  (see  Lone  Star). . . Aug. ,r

The  United  States  Ship  Crescent  City  boarded  at
Havannah,  and  not  allowed  to  land  her  mails  or
passengers 3  Oct. ,,

Death  of  the  eminent  statesman  Daniel  Webster  in
his  70th  year 24  Oct. „

Expedition  to  Japan ,,

Address  to  the  women  of  America  on  slavery,
adopted  by  the  duchess  of  Sutherland  and  other
ladies  (signed  afterwards  by  576,000  English-
women) 26  Nov. ,,

Gen.  Franklin  Pierce,  14th  president . 4  March,  1853

Affair  of  Koszta  at  Smyrna  (see  Koszta) 21  June, ,,

Crystal  palace  opens  at  New  York . .14  July, ,,

Duel  between  M.  Soule  (American  minister  at
Madrid)  and  M.  Turgot ... 18  Dec. „

Great  fire  at  New  York—  Great  RepxMic  clipper  de-
stroyed 26  Dec. „

Astor  Library,  New  York,  opened  . .  9  Jan.  1854
William  Walker  proclaims  the  republic  of  Sonora
divided  into  two  states— Sonora  and  Lower  Cali-
fornia 18  Jan. ,,


UNITED  STATES.


1015


UNITED  STATES.


American  steamer  Black  Warrior  seized  at  Cuba.

28  Feb.
The  Spanish  government  remitted  the  flue,  but  con-
sidered the  seizure  legal  .... April,
Commercial  treaty  concluded  between  Japan  and
United  States by  commodore  Perry  (sent  there

for  the  purpose) 23  March,

Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and

United  States  (respecting  Newfoundland  fishery,

international  trade,  &c.)  concluded . 7  June

Captain  Hollins  in  American  sloop  Cyanc,  bombards

San  Juan  de  Nicaragua . . . 13  July,

Negotiation  for  the  annexation  of  the  Sandwich

Islands Oct.

Dreadful  election  riots  in  Kansas,  March  and  April,
Indian  war  :  they  are  defeated  .  25,  29  April,
Dispute  with  British  government  on  enlistment  (see

Foreign  Legion) July

Gen.  Harney  gains  a  victory  over  the  Sioux  Indians,

3  Sept.
Senator Charles Sumner savagely  assaulted by
senator  Preston  Brooks  in  the  senate-house  for
speaking  against  slavery ... 2  May,
Mr.  Crampton,  British  envoy,  dismissed, 28  May,
John  C.  Fremont  nominated  the  "Republican"  can-
didate for  the  presidency . . .17  June,
Battle  in  Kansas  ;  the  slavers  (under  Capt.  Reid)
defeat  Brown  and  the  abolitionists . 30  Aug.
James  Buchanan,  elected  15th  president . 4  Nov.
The  Resolute  presented  to  queen  Victoria  (see  Frank-
lin) 12  Dec.

Lord  Napier  appointed  British envoy  to United
States  (16  Jan.)  ;  warmly  received  18  March,

Central  American  question  settled  . . March,
Judgment  given  in  the  "  Dred  Scott"  case  in  the
supreme  court. (He  was  claimed  as  a  slave  in  a
free  state :  2  judges  declared  for  his  freedom,  5
against  it,  which causes great dissatisfaction
throughout  the  free  states) . . .  March,
Disorganised  state  of  Utah  ;  troops  march  to  sup-
port new  governor . . .  May  and  June,
Riots  in  Washington  against  Irish  electors  ;  and  in
New  York  on  account  of  changes  in  the  police

arrangements June,

Insurrection  in  Kansas  quelled  . . July,

Commercial  panic  in  New  York  .  .  .  Aug.
Outrage  at  Staaten  Island  ;  quarantine  house  burnt,

V  Sept.
The  import  duties  of  the  protective  tariffs  reduced

from  23  to  15  per  cent

Dispute  respecting  right  of  search,  settled May,

Tranquility  restored  in  Utah . . . June,

Great  rejoicing  at  the  completion  of  the  Atlantic

telegraph  (see  Electric  Telegraph) . . Aug.

A  massacre  of  emigrants  at  Mountain  Meadows,

Utah  (Mormons  suspected) . . .18  Sept.

Lieut.  Moffat  seizes  the  American  slave  ship  Echo

and  takes  her  to  Charleston . . . Sept.

Death  of  W.  H.  Prescott,  the  historian . 28  Jan.

Daniel  Sickles,  a  government  official,  killed  Philip

Barton  Key,  for  adultery  with  his  wife  ;  acquitted

of  murder .  • 26  Feb.

The  American  commodore  Tatnall  assists  the  Eng-
lish at  the  Chinese  engagement  on  the  rivei-Peiho,
saying,  "  Blood  is  thicker  than  water,"  25  June,
Gen.  Ward,  the  United  States  envoy,  goes  to  Pekin,
but  does  not  see  the  emperor  .  .  .  July,
Gen.  Harney  sends  troops  to  San  Juan  Island,  near
Vancouver's  Island,  "  to  protect  the  American
settlers;"  moderation  of  the  British,  who  have  a
naval  force  at  hand  ;  governor  Douglas  also  sends

troops 27  July,

Insurrection  at  Harper's  Ferry  .  .  .16  Oct.
[John  Brown,  called  captain  Brown  and  old  Brown,
was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  violent  conflicts  in
Kansas,  during  the  agitation  respecting  the  ques-
tion of  its  becoming  a  slave  state.  He  was  a
monomaniac  on  the  slavery  question,  and  con-
tended that  all  means  for  annihilating  slavery  were
justifiable.  He  gathered  together  a  band  of  despe-
rate characters,  who  so  much  annoyed  Missouri
and  other  slave  states,  that  a  reward  was  offered
for  his  head.  He  had  arranged  for  the  successful
issue  of  the  insurrection  above  mentioned,  so  far
as  to  devise  a  provisional  government  and  a  new
constitution.  On  16  Oct.  he  and  his  band,  aided
by  a  mob,  seized  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  a
town  on  the  borders  oi  Virginia  and  Maryland,


1855


1856


1857


stopped  the  railway  trains,  and  cut  the  telegraph
wires  ;  a  conflict  with  the  military  ensued,  when
many  of  the  insurgents  were  killed.  Temporary
panic  in  southern  states.]

Gen.  Harney  superseded  by  Gen.  Scott  at  San  Juan,
who  makes  conciliatory  overtures  ;  accepted  by
governor  Douglas Nov.

Death  of  Washington  Irving . . .28  Nov.

John  Brown  captured  and  tried  ;  executed 2  Dec.

Great  agitation  in  the  congress,  Nov.  1859 ;  no
speaker  elected  till 1  Feb.

President  Buchanan  protests  against  a  proposed  in-
quiry into  his  acts .... 28  March,

Companions  of  John  Brown  executed . March,

The  national  republican  convention  meet  at
Chicago  ;  Abraham  Lincoln  chosen  as  candidate
for  the  presidency . . . . 16  May,

Japanese  embassy  received  by  the  president  at
Washington 17  May,

Fresh  disputes  at  San  Juan,  through  gen.  Harney,
who  is  recalled May,

William  Goodrich  (Peter  Parley)  dies . May,

The  national  democratic  convention  meet  at  Balti-
more ;  a  large  number  of  delegates  secede ;  the
remainder  nominate  Stephen  Douglas  as  presi-
dent ;  the  seceders  nominate  John  Breckinridge,

18  June,

The  Great  Eastern  arrives  at  New  York 23  June,

The  prince  of  Wales  arrives  at  Detroit  in  the  United
States,  20  Sept.  ;  visits  Washington,  3  Oct.  ;
Philadelphia,  9  Oct.  :  New  York,  11  Oct.  ;  Bos-
ton, 17  Oct ;  embarks  at  Portland . 20  Oct.

Abraham  Lincoln,  the  republican  candidate,  elected
16th  president  (see  Southern  Confederacy),  6  Nov.

[303  electors  are  appointed  to  vote  for  a  president ,
152  to  be  a  majority.  The  numbers  were,  for  A.
Lincoln,  180 ;  John  C.  Breckinridge,  72 ;  John
Bell,  39;  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  12.]

Intense  excitement  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,
and  in  other  southern  states  . . .  Nov.

South  Carolina  secedes  from  the  union .  20  Dec.

Major  Anderson,  of  United  States  army,  occupies
Fort  Sumter  in  Carolina . . . .26  Dec.

Delegates  from  South  Carolina  not  received  by  the
president 30  Dec.

Vacillating  policy  of  president  Buchanan  ;  the  secre-
taries Cass,  Cobb,  Floyd,  and  Thompson  resign,
Dec.  1860-Jan.

New  York  and  other  northern  states  protest  against
the  secession ;  a  general  fast  proclaimed  ;  observed
on 4  Jan.

Vicksburg,  Mississippi,  fortified  . . .12  Jan.

Kansas  admitted  a  state .... 21  Jan.

Secession  (by  convention)  of  Mississippi,  8  Jan. ;
Alabama,  Florida,  n  Jan.  ;  Georgia,  19  Jan.  ;
Louisiana, 26 Jan. Texas (by legislature),

1  Feb.

Jefferson  Davis,  elected  by  the  six  seceding  states,
8  Feb. ;  is  inaugurated  president  of  the  "southern
confederacy,"  at  Montgomery,  Alabama, 18  Feb.

New  (Morrill)  tariff  bill  passed  (nearly  prohibits
commerce  with  England) . . .2  March,

President  Davis  prepares  for  war  (100,000  men  to
be  raised) March,

Abm.  Lincoln,  inaugurated  president  at  Washing-
ton, says,  "the  central  idea  of  secession  is  the
essence  of  anarchy  " ....  4  March,

Southern  commissioners  not  received  by  the  presi-
dent at  Washington .... 12  March,

Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  in  a  letter  to  president  Lin-
coln, sets  before  him  four  courses:  either,  I.,  to
surrender  to  slavery  half  the  territory  acquired  or
to  be  acquired  ;  11., to  blockade  all  revolted  ports;
III.,  to  say  to  seceding  states,  "  Wayward  sisters,
go  in  peace  ! "  or  IV.,  to  conquer  the  south,  which
would  require  300,000  men  and  afterwards  a  resi-
dent army  [the  letter  became  public  Oct.  1862]

March,
(Statement  denied  in  1S74.)
Great  excitement at the operation of the new
Morrill  tariff,  which  begins . . .1  April,

The  war  begins  :  Major  Anderson  refuses  to  surren-
der Port  Sumter,  Charleston,  when  summoned,  n
April;  it  is  taken  by  the  secessionists,  alter  a
bloodless  conflict '. . . . 13  April,

President  Lincoln  summons  the congress  to  meet

on  4  July;  issues  a  proclamation,  calling  on  the


1859


UNITED  STATES.


1016


UNITED  STATES.


states  to  furnish  a  contingent  of  75,000  men,  &c.

15  April,  ]

Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and
other  states  zealously  respond,  with  vigorous
preparations  for  war  ;  Kentucky,  North  Carolina,
Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri,  decidedly  re-
fuse, asserting  the  proposed  coercion  to  be  wicked,
illegal,  and  unconstitutional . .  April,

The  mob  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  attack  some
Massachusetts  regiments  on  their  way  to  Wash-
ington ; several  persons  killed  in  the  conflict,

19  April,

President  Davis  issues  letters  of  marque,  17  April ;
president  Lincoln  proclaims  the  blockade  of  the
ports  of  seceding  states . . .19  April,

U.S.  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Perry,  Virginia,  tired  by
command,  and  15,000  stand  of  arms  destroyed,
18  April;  9  ships  of  war  and  naval  stores  in  the
navy  yard,  Norfolk,  Va. ,  burnt  to  prevent  them
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  southern  confede-
rates, who  occupy  the  place . . 21  April,

Virginia  (except  West  Virginia)  secedes  by  ordi-
nance (the  8th  state) . ■ . . 25  April,

Lincoln  calls  for  42,034  volunteers  for  three  years,
3  May,  and  informs  foreign  powers  of  his  inten-
tion to  maintain  the  union  by  war . 4  May,

The  confederates  under  Beauregard  and  Johnston,
in  Virginia,  threaten  Washington,  defended  by
the  federals  under  generals  Winfield  Scott  and
George  McClellan May,

The  British  queen  commands  her  subjects  to  be
neutral  in  the  ensuing  war . . .13  May,

The  federals  enter  Virginia  ;  Beauregard  calls  on
the  Virginians  to  rise  and  expel  them 1  June,

Formal  secession  of  Arkansas,  6  May  ;  North  Caro-
lina,  20  May;  Tennessee  (9  th, 10th,  and nth),

8  June,

Several  British  vessels  seized  while  endeavouring  to
break  the  blockade ;  the  southern  privateer
Savannah  captured ....  June,

Neutrality  announced  by  the  French  emperor  10  Jun  e,

Fast-day  in  confederate  states . . 13  June,

Missouri. — Gen.  Lyon  raises  a  federal  army,  and
defeats  the  state  troops,  17  June  ;  the  federals
successful  at  Carthage,  5  July ;  Fremont  takes
command  in  West  Missouri,  26  July  ;  federals
victorious  at  Athens,  5  Aug.  ;  at  Wilson's  Creek
(gen.  Lyon  killed),  10  Aug.  ;  Fremont  proclaims
martial  law,  and  freedom  to  slaves  or  rebels,  31
Aug.  ;  Lexington  surrenders  to  confederates,  20
Sept.  ;  Fremont  blamed,  retires ;  succeeded  by
Hunter 2  Nov.

Virginia.  —Federals  defeated  at  Big  Bethell,  10
June  ;  occupy  Harper's  Ferry,  evacuated  by  the
confederates,  16  June  ;  col.  Pegrim  and  600  con-
federates surrender  at  Beverley .  13  July,

[Very  many  skirmishes,  with  various  results.]

McClellan  defeats  confederates  at  Rich  Mountain,
n  July;  Paterson  permits  the  junction  of  the
confederates  under  Johnston  and  Beauregard
near  Manassas,  15  July ;  who  are  repulsed  at
Blackburn's  Ford,  near  Centreville . 18  July,

Battle  of  Bull  Run  {which  see)  or  Manassas,  Vir-
ginia; the  federals,  seized  with  panic,  flee  in
utter  disorder 21  July,

Meeting  of  U.  S.  Congress,  4  July  ;  a  loan  of  250
million  dollars  authorised . . .17  July,

Meeting  of  confederate  congress  at  Richmond,
Virginia 20  July,

Passport  system  introduced  into  the  northern
states,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  greatly  re-
stricted Auc.

The  charges  in  the  Morrill  tariff  greatly  raised';
the  confederates  prohibit  exportation  of  cotton
except  by  southern  ports . . . Aug.

Battle  of  Springfield  or  Wilson's  Creek;  confede-
rates  defeated 10  Au<t.

McClellan  assumes  command  of  the  army  of  the
Potomac  . . 20  Aug.

Federal  gen.  Butler  takes  Fort  Hatteras,  N.  Carolina
(700  prisoners  and  1000  stand  of  arms),  29  Aug.

Fast-day  in  federal  states ... 26  Sept.

Garibaldi  declines  command  in  the  federal  army,

Sept.

Battle  of  Ball's  Bluff;  federals  defeated  and  gen.
Baker  killed,  near  Leesburg,  Virginia  ;  hundreds
drowned 21  Oct.


The  federals  and  confederates  enter  Kentucky ;
the  governor  protests;  many  skirmishes, Sept.  -Dec.  :

Resignation  of  lieut.-gen.  Scott,  31  Oct.  ;  George
Mc.Clellf.n  made  commander-in-chief  of  the
federal  army t  Nov.

Thr>  federal  general  Sherman  takes  Port  Royal  forts,
S.  Carolina 7,  8  Nov.

Capt.  Wilkes,  of  federal  war  steamer  San  Jacinto,
boards  the  Royal  British  mail  packet  Trent,
and  carries  off  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  con-
federate commissioners,  and  their  secretaries,  8
Nov.,  and  conveys  them  to  Boston . 19  Nov.

Great  rejoicings  in  the  northern  states  at  the
capture  of  Mason  and  Slidell . . . Nov.

McClellan  reviews  70,000  men  . . .20  Nov.

Capt.  Pegram,  of  confederate  steamer  Nashville,
burns  the  federal  ship  Harvey  Birch,  19  Nov. ,  and
brings  the  crew  on  to  Southampton  . 21  Nov.

A  secession  ordinance  passed  by  a  party  in  Mis-
souri, 2  Nov.  ;  the  same  in  Kentucky  . 30  Nov.

Dissensions  increase  between  the  republicans  (abo-
litionists) and  the  democrats  in  New  York,  &c.

Nov.

Jefferson  Davis  elected  president  of  confederate
states  for  six  years .... 30  Nov.

President  Lincoln  states  that  the  federal  armies
comprise  660,971  men . . . .2  Dec.

Meeting  of  congress,  which  votes  thanks  to  capt.
Wilkes,  2  Dec.  ;  the  foreign  envoys  at  Washington
protest  against  his  act  .... 3  Dee.

The  federals  commence  sinking  hulks  filled  with
stones  to  block  up  Charleston  harbour  (S.  Caro-
lina) [much  indignation  in  England]  21  Dec.

Banks  at  New  York,  &c,  suspend  cash  payments,

30  Dec.

A  firm  despatch  from  the  British  government
arrives,  18  Dec.  1861 ;  Mason,  &c,  surrendered,
sail  for  Europe 1  Jan.  :

Phelps'  fruitless  expedition  to  Ship  Island,  Missis-
sippi Sound . . . .3  Dec.  1861-Jan.

Confederate  general  Zollicoffer  defeated  by  Thomas
and  slain  at  Mill  Springs  or  Somerset,  Kentucky,

19  Jan.

'Tennessee. — The  federals  (Grant)  take  Fort  Henry,
6  Feb.  ;  Fort  Donnelson,  with  15,000  prisoners,
16  Feb.  ;  and  Nashville ... 23  Feb.

Confederates  defeated  at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas,
6,  7,  8  March,

Confederate  iron-plated  ship  Merrimac  destroys
federal  vessels  Cumberland  and  Congress  in  Hamp-
ton roads,  8  March  ;  is  repulsed  by  federal  iron-
clad floating  battery  Monitor . . 9  March,

McClellan  and  his  army  (100,000)  cross  the  Potomac
and  find  the  confederate  camp  at  Bull  Run
evacuated 10  March,

McClellan  resigns  general  command,  and  assumes
that  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  only  ;  Fremont
that  of  the  Mountain  department ;  and  Halleck
that  of  the  Mississippi . . . n  March,

Burnside's  expedition  sails,  11  Jan.  ;  takes  Roanoke,
N.  Carolina,  7,  8  Feb.  ;  Newbern . 14  March,

Capt.  Wilson  (British)  boldly  rescues  his  vessel,
Emily  St.  Pierre,  a  merchantman,  from  the  federals

21  March,

[She  was  sailing  from  Calcutta  to  New  Brunswick,
and  while  attempting  to  inquire  whether  a  block-
ade existed,  was  captured  off  Charleston  bar  by  a
federal  ship  of  war.  Her  captain,  and  his  cook
and  steward,  were  permitted  to  remain  on  board
on  her  voyage  to  Philadelphia.  On  21  March,
Wilson  with  his  two  associates  succeeded,  by
stratagem  and  courage,  in  recovering  the  com-
mand of  the  vessel,  overcoming  two  U.S.  officers
and  13  sailors,  and  brought  her  into  Liverpool.
The  owners  of  the  ship  gave  him  2000  guineas,
and  the  Liveipool  merchants  presented  him  with
a  magnificent  testimonial  of  their  admiration  of
his  gallantry.  The  British  government  refused
to  restore  the  vessel  when  claimed  by  the
Americans.]

Confederates  defeated  at  Winchester 23  March,

General  Burnside  occupies  Beaufort  and  Fort  Macon

1  April,

Slavery  abolished  in  district  of  Columbia, 4  April,

McCleilan  advances  into  Virginia,  with  the  view  of
taking  Richmond  ;  he  besieges  Yorktown,  held
by  30,000  confederates ... 5  April,


UNITED  STATES.


1017


UNITED  STATES.


Correspondents  of  English  newspapers  excluded
from  federal  array 5  April,  18

Great  battles  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing,  near
Corinth,  Tennessee  ;  confederates  victorious,  but
lose  their  able  gen.  Albert  Johnston;  they  retire

6,  7  April, ,

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United
States  for  the  suppression of  the  slave  trade,

7  April, ,

Federals  take  Fort  Pulaska  on  the  Savannah,  n
April ;  and  New  Orleans . . 25-28  April, ,

Yorktown  evacuated  by  confederates .  3  May, .

The  Seward-Lyous  treaty  between  Great  Britain
and  the  United  States,  for  suppression  of  the
slave  trade,  signed  7  April ;  ratified .  20  May, ,

Confederates  repulsed  at  Williamsburg,  5  May ;  their
naval  depot  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  surrenders,  10
May  ;  they  burn  the  Merrimac . . 11  May, .

Commodore  Farragut  with  a  flotilla  ascends  the
Mississippi May, ,

Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  taken  by  federals  . May, .

Stonewall  Jackson  defeats  Banks  at  Winchester,

18  May, ,

McClellan  takes  Hanover  court-house . 27  May,

Skirmishes  in  Virginia  ;  success  varying . May, ,

Severe  battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  before  Richmond
(indecisive) . . . .31  May,  1  June, .

Beauregard  and  the  confederates  retreat  from
Corinth,  Tennessee,  30  May  ;  pursued  byHalleek
and  the  federals June, ,

Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi,  taken . 6  June, ,

Federals  defeated  near  Charleston . .  16  June, ,

Federal  forces  under  Fremont,  Banks,  and
McDowell,  placed  under  Pope ;  Fremont  resigns,

27  June, ,

Federals  suffer  through  several  severe  engagements
in  Virginia 25-30  June, ,

General  Butler  excites  great  indignation  by  his
military  rigour  at  New  Orleans May  and  June, ,

Seven  days'  conflict  on  the  Chickahominy  before
Richmond ;  the  confederate  gen.  Lee  compels
McClellan  to  abandon  the  siege  and  retreat  17
miles,  taking  up  a  position  at  Harrison's  Land-
ing, on  James's  river . . 25  June-i  July,

The  tariff  still  further  raised  .... July,

Many  conflicts  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  Ten-
nessee, through  confederate  guerilla  parties.

June  and  July,

Lincoln  visits  and  encourages  the  army  of  McClellan,
and  calls  for  300,000  volunteers . . July,

Lincoln's  assent  to  a  bill  confiscating  the  property
and  emancipating  the  slaves  of  all  rebels  in  arms
after  60  days 17  July,

Halleck  supersedes  McClellan  as  commander-in-chief

26  July,

Slow  volunteering  ;  many  emigrations  to  Canada
and  Europe  ;  habeas  corpus  suspended  ;  the  pre-
sident ordains  a  draft  if  the  volunteers  are  not
ready  by  15  Aug July,

Public  debt  of  United  States  estimated  at
1,222,000,000  dollars . . . . 1  July,

Pope  takes  command  in  Virginia  . . 14  July,

Lincoln's  proclamation  of  confiscation  of  property
of  rebels 26  July,

Fierce  attack  of  Breckenridge  (confederates)  on
Baton  Rouge ;  the  federals  soon  after  retire,  5  Aug.

Pope's  troops  ravage  Virginia  ;  Banks,  his  subordi-
nate, defeated  at  Cedar  Mountain  by  gen.  Thos.
"  Stonewall "  Jackson . . . .9  Aug.

[According  to  some  accounts  he  obtained  the  name
by  premising  Beauregard,  at  the  battle  of  Bull
Run,  that  his  brigade  should  stand  like  a  "  stone
wall ;  "  others  say  that  Beauregard  gave  the  name
himself.]

McClellan  retreats  from  Harrison's  Landing  (said
to  have  lost  70,000  men,  killed,  wounded,  prison-
ers, and  deserters) .... 16  Aug.

The  federals  surprised,  and  Pope  loses  his  baggage,

25  Aug.
Jackson  turns  the  flank  of  Pope's  army,  and  attacks
him  at  Grovcton,  29  Aug.  ;  and  when  reinforced
by  Lee,  defeats  him  and  McDowell  ;it  Bull  Run,
30  Aug. ;  Pope  retreats  to  Centreville  1  Sept.
The  remains  of  Pope's  armj  Bee  behind  the  lines
of  Washington,  2  Sept  ;  he  is  removed  to  tin'
north-west  to  act  against  tin'  Indian  insurrection

3  Sept.


McDowell  superseded  ;  charged  with  treachery,  he
claims  a  trial Sept.  1

McClellan  appointed  commander-in-chief,  saves
Washington,  and  marches  against  the  confede-
rates under  Lee,  who  have  crossed  the  Potomac
and  entered  Maryland . . . 5,  6  Sept.

Severe  conflicts  at  South  Mountain  Gap  (or  Middle-
town),  14-16  Sept.  ;  confederates,  after  a  great
fight  near  Antietam  Creek  and  Sharpsburg  road,
retreat 17  Sept.

Harper's  Ferry  surrendered  to  Jackson,  15  Sept.  ;
he  crosses  Potomac  and  joins  Lee's  army  17  Sept.

Federal  cause  declining  in  the-  west ;  they  lose
Lexington,  Aug.  ;  and  Munsfordville 17  Sept.

Thanksgiving-day  in  southern  states,  18  Sept.

Rosen craus  defeats  the  confederates  at  Iuka  19  Sept.

Confederates  re-enter  Virginia  laden  with stores

22  Sept.

Lincoln  proclaims  freedom  to  the  slaves  in  the  con-
federate states,  on  1  Jan.  1S63,  if  the  states  have
not  returned  to  the  union  . . 22  Sept.

Secret  convention  of  16  governors  of  states  at
Altoona,  Pennsylvania,  approve  Lincoln's  policy

24  Sept.

Draught  of  40,000  men  ordered  in  New  York  state
by  12  Oct Sept.

Lincoln  suspends  habeas  corpus' writ,  and  authorises
severe  measures  agaiiistdisloyalpersonS25-27Sept.

Desperate  but  indecisive  conflicts  near  Corinth.
Tennessee,  3-5  Oct. ;  and  at  Perrysville,  Kentucky

8,  9  Oct.

Confederate  gen.  Stuart  crosses  Upper  Potomac,
and  enters  Pennsylvania  ;  enters  Chambersburg
and  other  places,  carrying  off  horses,  ammunition,
<fec.  ;  rides  round  the  federal  army,  and  returns  to
his  camp 10,  13  Oct.

Gold  at  29  premium  at  New  Tork . . Oct.

Great  democratic  meeting  at  New  York,  condemning
the  president's  policy . . . .12  Oct.

At  New  Orleans  Butler  compels  all  persons  who
refuse  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  send  in
their  names  and  register  their  property  to  the
provost  marshal  .... 12  Oct.

McClellau's  head-quarters  at  Harper's  Ferry  17  Oct.

Raid  of  confederate  gen.  Morgan  in  Kentucky  ;  he
carries  off  80  federal  waggons  of  ammunition,  &c

iS  Oct.

Ten  confederate  prisoners  at  Palmyra  shot  by  order
of  gen.  McNeil  in  consequence  of  the  disappear-
ance of  Abraham Allsman  . .18  Oct.

Rosen  crans  supersedes  Buell  in  the  west 30  Oct.

Elections  for  next  congress  ;  great  majority  for  the
democratic  (opposition)  candidates  in  New  York
and  several  other  states . . . .4  Nov.

McClellan,  while  advancing  towards  Richmond,
is  superseded  by  gen.  Burnside,  5  Nov.,  who
advances  towards  Richmond  . . 7  Nov.

M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  on  behalf  of  the  French
government,  proposes  joint  mediation  in  the
American  conflict  to  Great  Britain  and  Russia,
30  Oct.  ;  declined  by  Gortschakoff,  8  Nov.  ;  by
earl  Russell 13 Nov.

The  confederate  steamer  Alabama,  capt.  Semmes,
captures  many  U.S.  vessels,  and  excites  much
alarm  at  New  York . . .  Oct. -Dec.

President  Davis  threatens  reprisals  if  general
McNeil  is  not  surrendered  (see  18  Oct.) 17  Nov.

Burnside  summons  Fredericksburg  to  surrender;
confederate  gen.  Lee  with  about  80,000  men  near

22  Nov.

100,000  federal  soldiers  on  the  sick  list  . Nov.

Great  honour  shown  to  .McClellan;  he  is  proposed
as  the  next  president .... Nov.

The  federal  government  orders  release  of  disaffected
persons  in  prisons  . . . .25  Nov.

Annual  session  of  U.S.  congress;  the  president
recommends  compensated  emancipation  of  all
slaves  in  t lie  loyal  states  before  the  year  1 900  1  Dec.

Battle  of  Fredericksburg  {which  see);  Burnside
crosses  the  Rappahannock,  10  Doc.  ;  bombards
FredericksDurg,  11  Dee.;  a  series  of  desperate
attacks  on  the  confederates;  Burnside  totally
defeated,  13  Dec.  ; recrosses  the  river 13  Dec.

Engagements  in  Tennessee  with  varying  results.  Pee.
Discovery  of  frauds  in  the  U.S. urmy financial
accounts;  public  dissatisfaction  with  the  govern-
ment ;  secretaries  Chase  and  Seward  resign,  but
resume  office Dec.


UNITED  STATES.


1018


UNITED STATES.


Homestead  and  Pre-emption  act  (relating  to  settle-
ment of  free  land)  passed

Battles  near  Murfreesboro',  or  Stone  River,  between
Rosenerans  and  the  federals  and  Braxton  Bragg
and  the  confederates  :  begin  29  Dec.  ;  severe  but
indecisive,  31  Dec.  ;  battle  continued,  1  Jan.  ;
Bragg  defeated,  retreats  ... 2  Jan.

['•  There  have  been  about  2000  battles  and  skirmishes
since  the  commencement  of  the  war. " — American
Almanack.']

President  Lincoln  proclaims  the  freedom  of  slaves
in  the  rebel  states,  except  in  parts  held  by  the
U.  S.  army 2  Jan.

Burnside  superseded  by  Joseph  Hooker  in  com-
mand of  army  of  the  Potomac . .  26  Jan.

The  French  government's  offer  of  mediation,  9  Jan.
declined 6  Feb.

The  George  Griswold,  a  vessel  containing  provisions
and  other  relief  for  the  distressed  cotton  workers
in  Lancashire,  arrives  ...  9  Feb.

A  conscription  bill  (for  men  between  18  and  45)
passed 25  Feb.

The  congress  authorises  the  suspension  of  the
habeas  corpus  act,  3  March ;  and  establishes  a
National  Academy of Sciences  at  Washington

4  March,

Confederate  loan  for  3,000,000?.  well  taken  up  in
Europe March,

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  attacked  by  monitors
and  gunboats ; the Keokuk, a  monitor, sunk

7  April,

Battle  of  Chancellorsville  {which  see) ;  the  federals
under  Hooker  cross  the  Rappahannock,  28  April ;
defeated  (gen.  Stonewall  Jackson  is  mortally
wounded),  2-4  May ;  Hooker  recrosses  the  Rappa-
hannock 5  May,

Stonewall  Jackson  dies  ... 10  May,

Grant's  successful  campaign  in  Tennessee ;  he  defeats
the  confederates  under  Joseph  Johnston  at
Jackson,  14  May ;  and  under  Pemberton  at
Champion  Hills,  16  May  ;  and  invests  Vicksburg,
Mississippi,  which  is  strongly  fortified,  18  May,
a  dreadful  assault  on  it  repelled . . 22  May,

Great  peace  meeting  at  Norfolk  . 5  June,

Confederate  invasion  under  Lee  ;  invade  Maryland

and Pennsylvania, and take various towns

14  June,  el  seq.

The  federal  gen.  Hooker  superseded  by  George
H.  Meade 27  June,

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of

'  Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates

evacuate  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 1-3  July,

Vicksburg  bombarded,  3  July ;  surrendered  by
Pemberton  to  Grant  and  Porter .  4  July,

Port  Hudson,  a  confederate  fortress  on  the
Mississippi,  surrenders  ... 8  July,

Fierce  riots  at  New  York  against  the  conscription  ;
many  negroes  murdered,  and  much  property
destroyed 13-16  July,

The  Sioux  defeated,  7  Aug.  ;  gen.  Pope  reports  that
the  Indian  war  is  ended .... Aug.

New  York  rioters  tried  and  convicted,  12  Aug.  ;
conscription  going  on  peaceably . .21  Aug.

Siege  of  Charleston  ;  defended  by  Beauregard  -
attacks  with  varied,  success,  July ;  Fort  Sumter
bombarded  and  destroyed  (and  so-called  Greek
fire  employed) ; attacks  on  the  ruins  repulsed

21,  22  Aug.

Knoxville  occupied  by  Burnside . . 10  Sept.

A  Russian  squadron  warmly  received  at  New  York
Sept.  and  Oct.

Battles  of  Chickamauga,  Tennessee ;  Rosenerans
defeated  by  Bragg  . . . . 19,  20  Sept.

Mason,  the  confederate  commissioner  in  England,
protests  against  the  mode  of  his  reception,  and
quits 22  Sept.

Confederates  defeated  at  Blue-Springs,  Tennessee

10  Oct.

Lincoln  calls  for  300,000  volunteers  . 17  Oct.

Rosenerans'  command  of  the.  federal  army  in  Tennes-
see superseded  by  Grant,  and  Thomas,  and
Sherman 19  Oct.

The  steam  rams  FA.  Tnusson  and  El  Monassir,  built
by  Mr.  Laird  at  Birkenhead,  and  suspected  to  be
for  the  confederates,  are  placed  under  charge  of  a
government  vessel  in  the  Mersey .  31  Oct.

British  consuls  dismissed  from  southern  states  Oct.


1862


1863


Meade  captures  a  part  of  Lee's  army  on  the  N.  side
of  the  Rappahannock . . . .7  Nov.  3

The  chief  justices  Lowrie,  Woodward,  and  Thomp-
son declare  that  the  Conscription  act  is  uncon-
stitutional 12  Nov.

Longstreet  defeats  Burnside,  and  compels  him  to
retire  into  Knoxville  . . . 14-17  Nov.

Sherman  and  Thomas  defeat  Bragg  at  Chattanooga

23,  24  Nov.

Longstreet's  attack  on Knoxville, defended by

Burnside, fails, and he  retreats  into  Virginia

29  Nov.  and  1  Dec.

The  confederate  general  Bragg  superseded  by
Hardee 2  Dec.

Lincoln's  message  to  congress  warlike  ;  he  proffers
amnesty  to  all  except  heads  of  governments,  &c,
4  Dec.  ;  Davis's  message,  firm,  but  acknow-
ledging reverses 7  Dec.

Gen.  Joseph  Johnston  takes  command  of  the  con-
federate army  in  Georgia ...  27  Dec.

President  Lincoln  orders  a  draft  of  500,000  men  in
3  years 1  Feb.

Federal  expedition  into  Florida.;  defeated  at
Olustee 20  Feb.

Failure  of  attack  of  Kilpatrick  and  Dahlgren  on
Richmond .... 27  Feb. -4  March,

Ulysses  Grant  made  commander-in-chief,  succeeding
Halleck - 12  March,

Confederate  raids  into  the  Western  states March,

Sherman's  expedition  against  Mobile,  2  March,
defeated  by  Kirby-Smith ... 5  April,

James  E.  Stuart,  the  celebrated  confederate  cavalry
officer,  killed 11  May,

Campaign  in  Virginia ;  the  army  of  the  Potomac
crosses  the  Rapidan  ;  advance  of  Lee  (now  sup-
ported by  Longstreet),  2  May ;  severe  battle  in  the
"Wilderness"  (near  Chancellorsville),  indecisive,
5,  6  May;  battle  of  Spottsylvania ;  the  federals
remain  on  the  field  ;  much  carnage 10-12  May,

Sherman  (in  Georgia)  beats  the  confederates  at
Resacca,  14  May,  and  at  Dallas .  28  May,

Fugitive  slave  act  repealed  by  the  house  of  represen-
tatives ' 13  June,

After  a  succession  of  attacks  on  both  sides,  Grant
compels  Lee  to  retire  gradually,  and  by  a  flank
movement  marches  to  the  other  side  of  Richmond,
and  faces  Petersburg,  15  June ;  where,  having
taken  the  first  intrenehments  after  desperate
assaults,  he  is  repulsed  with  considerable  loss

18  June,

The  confederate  steamer  Alabama  (capt.  Semmes)
attacked  and  sunk  by  the  U.  S.  corvette  Kearsage
(capt.  Winslow)  near  Cherbourg,  France,  19  June,

Mr.  Chase,  secretary  to  the  U.S.  treasury,  resigns;
succeeded  by  Mr.  Fessenden  . . July,

Part  of  Lee's  army  invades  Maryland,  1  July ;
defeats  Wallace  near  Monocracy  river,  9  July  ;
threatens  Baltimore  and  Washington,  and  retreats

12,  13  July,

Sherman's  3  battles  at  Atlanta  (Georgia),  20,  22  July  ;
victory  remains  with  the  federals . 28  July,

Confederates  again  invade  Maryland  and  Pennsyl-
vania, and  destroy  Chambersburg  . 30  July,

Grant  orders  the  explosion  of  a  mine  at  Petersburg,
whereby  250  confederates  are  killed ;  but  the
assault  following  is  repulsed  with  great  slaughter

30  July,

The  Tallahassee  confederate  steamer(built  in  London)
destroys  many  U.S.  merchantmen July,  Aug.

Severe  conflicts  in  the  Shenandoah  valley :  the
federals  victors Aug.

The  confederate  flotilla  near  Mobile  destroyed  by
Farragut,  5  Aug.  ;  Fort  Gaines  taken  8  Aug.

McClellan  nominated  for  the.  presidency  by  the
"  Democratic"  Chicago  convention  1  Sept.

Sherman  occupies  Atlanta  ;  the  confederate  general
Hood  retires 1  Sept.

Sherman orders  the  depopulation of  Atlanta,

7  Sept.

McClellan  declares  for  maintaining  the  union ;  the
democratic  party  divided  . . 13  Sept.

Sheridan  (federal)  defeats  Early  at  Winchester,  in
the  Shenandoah  valley,  but  with  very  great  loss

19  Sept.

Longstreet  replaces  Early  in  the  command  of  the
confederates Oct.

Longstreet  defeats  the  federals  at Cedar  Creek  ;


UNITED  STATES


1019


UNITED  STATES.


Sheridan  arrives,  rallies  his  troops,  and  defeats
the  confederates  . . . .  19  Oct.

St.  Alban's  Maid. — Between  20  :and  30  armed  men
enter  St.  Alban's,  Vermont ;  rob  the  bank  and
carry  off  horses  and  stores ;  fire  on  and  kill
several  persons,  and  flee  to  Canada,  19  Oct.  ;
where  13  of  them  are  arrested . . 21  Oct.

Lincoln  re-elected  president ;  McClellan  resigns  his
command  in  U.S.  army ...  8  Nov.

Sherman  destroys  Atlanta  and  begins  his  march
through  Georgia  to  Savannah . .13  Nov.

Hood's  attack  on  Thomas  (federal),  at  Franklin,
repulsed  with  severe  loss . . -30  Nov.

Lincoln's  message  to  congress  considered  "bold"

6  Dec.

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  discharged  by  Judge
Coursol ;  general  Dix  issues  an  intemperate  order
for reprisals (disannulled by the president)

14  Dec.

Hood  defeated  by  Thomas  (federal)  near  Nashville

14-16  Dec.

Sherman  storms  fort  M'Allister,  13  Dec. ;  enters
Savannah 21  Dec.

Wilmington  bombarded ;  the  attack  of  general
Butler  and  admiral  Porter  repulsed 24,  25  Dec.

The  St.  Alban's  raiders  recaptured  and  committed
for  trial 27  Dec.  et  seq.

The  federal  congress  abolishes  slavery  in  the  United
States 1  Feb.

Fruitless  meeting  of  president  Lincoln  and  secretary
Seward  with  the  confederate  secretary  Stephens,
and  2  commissioners  to  treat  for  peace  at  Fort
Monroe 2,  3  Feb.

The  Canadian  government  surrenders  Burley,  a
raider,  to  the  federals  ; . . 3  Feb.

Lee  takes  the  general  command  of  the  confederate
armies ; he  recommends  enlistment  of  negroes

18  Feb.

Wilmington  captured  by  Schofield  ;  Charleston
evacuated  by  the  confederates  ;  retreat  of  Beaure-
gard 22  Feb.

The  confederate  congress  decree  the  arming  of  the
slaves 22  Feb.

Abraham  Lincobi  and  Andrew  Johnson  inaugurated
as  president  and  vice-president . .  4  March,

A  new  stringent  tariff  comes  into  operation,

1  April,
Three  clays'  sanguinary  conflict  at  Five  Forks,  be-
gan 31  March;  Sheridan  turns  Lee's  front,  and
totally  defeats  him,  1  April ;  Lee  retreats,

2  April,
Richmond  and  Petersburg  evacuated  by  the  con-
federates and  occupied  by  Grant . 2,  3  April,

Sheridan  overtakes  and  defeats  Lee  at  Sailor's
Creek,  6  April ;  Lee  surrenders  with  the  army  of
Northern  Virginia  to  Grant,  at  Appomatox  court-
house 9  April,

Mobile  evacuated  by  the  confederates  12  April,

The  Union  flag  replaced  at  Fort  Sumter,  Charleston,

14  April,
President Lincoln shot at Ford's Theatre,

Washington,  about  n  o'clock,  p.m.,  14  April,
by  Wilkes  Booth,  who  escapes ;  Mr.  Seward,  the
foreign  secretary,  and  his  son,  wounded  in  his
own  house  by  an  assassin  about  the  same  time  ;
Lincoln  dies  at  7.30  a.m.,  15  April;  Andrew
Johnson,  vice-president,  sxvom  in  as  i-jth president,

15  April,
The  convention  between Sherman  and  Johnston

(favourable  to  confederates),  17  April,  disavowed
by  the  government,  21  April ;  Johnston  surren-
ders on  same  terms  as  Lee . . 26  April,

Wilkes  Booth  shot,  and  his  accomplice  Han-old
captured,  in  a  farmhouse . .  26  April,

The  confederate  general  Dick  Taylor  (near  Mobile)
surrenders 4  May,

President  Jefferson  Davis  captured  at  Irwinsville,
Georgia;  imprisoned .... 10 May,

The  confederate  general  Kirby  Smith,  in  Texas,
surrenders ;  end  of  the  war . . 26  May,

President  Johnson  proclaims  the  opening  of  the
southern  ports,  22  May;  and  an  amnesty  with
certain  exemptions . . . . 29  May

Solemn  fast  observed  for  death  of  president  Lincoln,

1  June,

The  armies  on  both  sides  rapidly  disbanding;  fierce
riots  at  New  York  between  whites  and  negroes,

June,


1S64


1865


[Registered  loss  of  the  Federals  359,496  ;  of  which

officers  9,584.]

Galveston, Texas, the  last  seaport held  by  the

south,  surrendered  by  Kirby-Smith . 5  June,

The  British  and  French  governments  rescind  their

recognition  of  the  confederates  as  belligerents,

2,  6  June,
President  Johnson,  uniting  with  the  democrats,
and  acting  leniently  towards  the  south ;  reorgan-
isation of  the  state  governments  .  .  June,
Close  of  the  long  trial  of  the  assassination  conspira-
tors, 29  June;  execution  of  Payne,  Atzerott,
Harrold  or  Herold,  and  Mrs.  Suratt  7  July,

The  president  declines  recognition  of  the  emperor

of  Mexico 18  July,

All  southern  prisoners  of  war  to  be  released  on
parole  on  taking  oath  of  allegiance . 29  July,
Federal  debt  declared 2,757,253,275  dollars,

31  July,

The  confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain

Waddell)  captures  and destroys many federal

vessels  (about  30) Aug.

Pacific  policy  of  president  Johnson;  he  declares
himself  opposed  to  centralisation  and  in  favour
of  state  rights ;  and  is  bitterly  opposed  by  the

radicals Sept.

Correspondence  between  earl  Russell  and  Mr.
Adams  (U.S.  minister,  London)  respecting  the
Alabama,  confederate  privateer;  proposal  of  a
commission  to  whom  claims  for  reparation  shall
be  referred  ....  7  April-18  Sept.
Alex.  Stephens  and  other  southern  officials  par-
doned 11  Oct.

Great  meeting  of  Fenians  at  Philadelphia ;  the  Irish

republic  proclaimed . . . 16-24  Oct.

Much public  discussion  respecting equal negro

suffrage July-Oct.

The  national  debt  stated  to  be  6oo,ooo,ooo7. Oct.
General  Robert  Lee  becomes  president  of  Wash-
ington College,  Virginia  ... 2  Oct.
Several  southern  states  pass  ordinances  annulling
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing
confederate  debt ....  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.
National  thanksgiving  for  the  peace .  2  Nov.
Captain  Waddell  arrives  at  Liverpool,  6  Nov. ;  sur-
renders the  Shenandoah  to  the  British  govern-
ment, stating  that  he  had  not  heard  of  the  end  of
the  war  till  2  Aug.  ; he  and  his  crew  paroled,
8  Nov. ;  the  vessel  given  up  to  the  American

consul 9  Nov.

Capt.  Wirz,  after  long  military  trial,  executed  for
cruelty  to  the  federal  prisoners  at  Andersonsville,

10  Nov.
A  negro  convention  at  Charleston,  appeals  for  jus-
tice and  generosity  . . . -25  Nov.
Ex-president  Buchanan  publishes  his  justification,

Nov.
Habeas  corpus  act  restored  in  N.  states  1  Dec.

Close  of  correspondence  between  the  British  and
U.S. governments respecting depredations of
Alabama,  Shenandoah,  &c. The  earl  of  Clarendon
maintains  that  "  no  armed  vessel  departed  during
the  war  from  a  British  port,  to  cruise  against  the
commerce  of  the  United  States  " . .  2  Dec.
Congress  and  government  protest  against  the  French
intervention  in  Mexico,  Nov. ; . 6,  16  Dec.
Opening of  39th congress; president Johnson's
message  conciliatory  and  linn  (herequires  from
the  southern  states — repeal  of  their  act  of  seces-
sion, abolition  of  slavery,  and  repudiation  of
confederate,  debt) ...  .4  Dee.

The  radical  party,  opposed  to  the  president,  and  to
clemency  to  the  south,  predominate  in  the  con-
gress, and  move  violent  resolutions  against  resto-
ration of  southern  states  to  the  union  .  Dec.
Estimated  federal debt, 600,000,0001.  ; revenue,
80,000,000?. ...... Dec.

85  members  for  the  southern  states  excluded  from
congress;  the  conservative  party  support  the
president  in  his  endeavours  to  reconstruct  the
union;  the  radicals  violently  oppose  his  policy,
requiring  the  south  to  undergo  previously  a
severe  probation;  the  president  has  restored
state  government  to  all  the  southern  states  ex-
cept Texas  anil  Florida  ...  2  Dec.
Thi',  radicals  demand  lor  the  negroes,  personal,
civil,  and  political  rights,  equal  to  those  of  the


UNITED STATES.


1020


UNITED STATES.


whites;  the  president  proposes  gradual  enfran-
chisement, in  separate  states . .  Feb.  iE

The  president  vetoes  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  bill,
.21  Feb.;  and  the  bill  for  the  civil  rights  of  the
blacks 27  March, ,

'The  president  fiercely  opposed  by  the  radicals ;  the
conservatives  and  democrats  unite  to  support
him March, ,

He  proclaims  the  rebellion  at  an  end . 3  April, ,

The  Civil  Rights  bill  passed  in  spite  of  the  veto,

9  April, ,

The  veto  on  the  admission  of  Colorado  as  a  state,
15  May;  set  aside . . ' . . . May, ,

Fenian  raids  in  Canada . . 31  May-7  June, ,

The  radical  reconstruction  clause  termed  the  "  con-
stitutional amendment"  (granting  negro  suffrage
to  be  enforced  by  the  different  states ;  the  whites
and  the  blacks  to  be  equal  in  the  sight  of  the
law,  &c),  passed  by  the  senate . 13  June, ,.

Death  of  general  Winfield  Scott,  aged  80,  29  May ;
and  of  Lewis  Cass,  aged  83 . . . 17  June, ,,

Continued  dissension  between  the  president  and
the  congress July, ,,

The  representatives  of  Tennessee  re-admitted  to
the  congress  (10  states  still  excluded) . July, ,,

The  Atlantic  telegraph  completed  (see  Electric
"Telegraph) 27  July, „

The  congress  adjourns  .... 28  July, ,.

Great  meeting  at  Philadelphia  of  the  National
Union  Convention,  consisting  of  delegates  (the
.moderate  men  of  all  the  parties,  in  every  state,
north  and  south,  now  termed  the  conservative
party),  whose  object  is  to  establish  the  national
union,  restore  the  south  to  its  rights,  and  vindi-
cate the  president's  policy  .  .  14  Aug.  ,,
Tour  of  the  president ;  he  visits  Philadelphia,  New
York,  Chicago,  <fcc. ;  he  is  very  enthusiastically
received ;  and  speaks  warmly,  and  often  injudi-
ciously .... 28  Aug.-i8  Sept. „

Elections  for  congress  go  in  favour  of  the  republi-
cans Oct. ,,

JThey  demand  that  three-fifths  of  the  blacks  in  the
■south  shall  be  entitled  to  vote ;  that  where  negro
•suffrage  is  not  established,  only  whites  shall
count ;  and  that  all  persons  who  have  taken  any
part  in  the  rebellion  shall  be  disqualified  to
vote.]

Death  of  Martin  Van  Buren,  ex-president  Oct. ,.

Trial  of  Jefferson  Davis  deferred  till  spring Oct. ,.

Elections  in  all  the  states  except  Delaware  and
Maryland  in  favour  of  the  radicals  (about  2,200,000
to  1,800,000) ;  two  coloured  deputies  elected  in
Massachusetts Oct.-Nov. ,.

Government  policy  declared  to  be  "dead  " Nov. ,'.

Meeting  of  congress;  president's  message;  he  de-
clares that  he  adheres  to  his  policy . 3  Dec. ,,

Bills  to  provide  territorial  governments  in  southern
states ;  and  restriction  of  president's  appointing
powers  proposed 3  Dec. ,.

The  president  charged  with  being  "  silent  and  mo-
tionless;"  congress  absorbs  all  the  power Dee. ,.

A  bill  admitting  negroes  to  the  suffrage  in  district
of  Columbia  passed .... 13  Dec. ,

Veto  of  president  set  aside .... Jan.  18

Supreme  court  decides  that  congress  has  not  power
to  appoint  military  tribunals . . . Jan. ,

Impeachment  of  president  by  a  judicial  committee
agreed  to 7  Jan. ,,

Division  among  the  radicals ;  Stevens  successfully
opposed  by  Ashley ....  29  Jan. ,

Debt  of  the  United  States  reported  2,543,000,000
dollars z  Feb. ,

Nebraska  admitted  as  the  37th  state,  over  presi-
dent's veto 9  Feb.

Bill  for  establishing  military  government  in  the
southern  states,  divided  into  five  districts,  dis-
cussed I3-IS  Feb. ,

Modified  and  passed,  20  Feb. ;  vetoed  by  the  presi-
dent 28  Feb. ,

Mr.  Peabody  gives  1,000,000  dollars  to  promote
education  in  the  south  ....  Feb. ,

40th  congress  opened .... 4  March, ,

Supplementary  reconstruction  bill  for  the  south
passed 20  March, ,

Tenure  of  Office  act  passed . . .  March, ,

Russian  America  purchased  for  7,000,000  dollars ;
treaty  ratified  by  the  senate  . . .9  April, ,


"Protection"  rife:  taxation  on  British  manufac-
tures 80  per  cent. ;  much  smuggling ;  public  debt
not  diminishing;  many  strikes  amongst  opera-
tives April,

Jefferson  Davis  released  on  bail,  13  May;  pro-
ceeded to  New  York,  and  thence  to  Canada,

20  May,

Supplementary  reconstruction  bill  adopted  over
the  president's  veto . . . .15  July,

Long  trial  of  John  H.  Suratt,  for  complicity  in
assassination  of  president  Lincoln;  jury  not
agreed  on  verdict  (discharged,  6  Nov.  1868),

10  Aug.

Insubordination  of  gen.  Sheridan,  favoured  by
Edw.  Stanton,  secretary  of  war,  who  refuses  to
resign  at  the  requisition  of  the  president,  5  Aug.;
suspended;  succeeded  by  gen.  Grant 12  Aug.

General  amnesty  proclaimed  by  the  president,

9  Sept.

Removal  of  gen.  Sheridan  from  the  government  of
Louisiana,  and  of  Sickles  from  N.  Carolina,  for
insubordination  to  the  president  Aug. -Sept.

National  cemetery  at  Antietam  (which  see)  dedi-
cated in  presence  of  the  president . 17  Sept.

Sir  Fred.  Bruce,  British  ambassador,  died  at  Boston,

9  Sept.

Russian  America  ceded . . . .8  Oct.

Jefferson  Davis's  trial  adjourned . . 26  Nov.

Elections  in  the  south  give  supremacy  to  the  ne-
groes; in  the  north,  great  majorities  for  the
democrats Oct.-Nov.

President's  message,  maintaining  his  principles  on
reconstruction 3  Dec.

Revenue  of  the  states  fallen  off;  public  debt  about
520,000,000^. ......  Dec.

Proposed  impeachment  of  the  president  negatived
in  congress  (108  to  57) . . . .8  Dec.

Treaty  for  purchase  of  Danish  West  Indies  (St.
Thomas  and  St.  John),  for  7,500,000  dollars,
signed Dec.

Great  general  storm  of  snow  and  sleet;  many
perish ;  many  wrecks . . .11-15  Dec.

President  Johnson  censured ;  and  gen.  Sheridan
thanked  by  house  of  representatives  (see  Aug.
1867) 4  Jan.

General  Grant  replaced  by  Stanton  (by  the  senate),

14,  15  Jan.

The  house  of  representatives  declare  that  there  is
no  valid  government  in  the  south ;  and  transfer
the  jurisdiction  from  president  Johnson  to  Grant,
as  general  of  the  army . . .  21  Jan.

Great  commercial  depression ;  Mr.  "Wells,  the  revenue
commissioner,  recommends  "  peace,  retrench-
ment, and  reform"  ....  Jan.

The  inland  cotton  tax  repealed . about  1  Feb.

Edward  Thornton,  new  British  ambassador,  and
Charles  Dickens  received  by  the  president  7  Feb.

Angry  correspondence  between  the  president  and
gen.  Grant  .... 28  Jan. -14  Feb.

President  Johnson  orders  dismissal  of  Stanton,
and  appoints  gen.  Thomas  secretary  of  war,  21
Feb.:  declared  illegal  by  the  senate  .  22  Feb.

The  impeachment  of  the  president  voted  by  house
of  representatives  (126  to  47),  24  Feb.;  reported
at  the  bar  of  the  senate  by  Thaddeus  Stevens  and
Bingham 25  Feb.

Nine  articles  of  impeachment  (for  issuing  order  for
removal  of  E.  M.  Stanton  from  war-office,  and
following  proceedings)  adopted  by  representa-
tives (127  to  47) 2  March,

Bill  of  impeachment  of  Johnson  sent  up  to  the
senate  by  the  house  of  representatives, 4  March,

Judicious  speech  of  lord  Stanley  in  the  British
house  of  commons  on  the  Alabama  claims,

6  March,

Trial  of  president  Johnson  comes  before  the  senate,

23  March,

Impeachment  opened  by  gen.  Butler 30  March,

Mr.  Dickens  sails  from  New  York,  after  most  affec-
tionate parting 22  April,

National  republican  convention  at  Chicago ;  an-
nounce their  "platform";  approving  the  con-
gress reconstruction  policy;  severely  condemning
president  Johnson  ;  denouncing  repudiation  of
the  debt;  declaring  for  protection  of  naturalised
citizens,  &c,  20  May;  and  proposing  general
Ulysses  Grant  as  the  next  president,  and  Mr.
Colfax  as  vice-president ... 21  May,


1867


UNITED  STATES.


1021


UNITED  STATES.


The  senate  reject  the  nth  article  of  the  impeach-
ment 16  May,

Reject  2nd  and  3rd  articles  ;  and  adjourn  sine  die;
intense  excitement  among  republicans, 26  May,

Mr.  Stanton  resigns,  27  May  ;  succeeded  by  gen.
Schofield 30  May,

Death  of  the  ex-president  James  Buchanan,  1  June,

Chinese  embassy  received  by  the  president,  5  June,

Bill  for  re-admitting  North  and  South  Carolina,
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alabama,  to
representation  in  congress,  passed  by  the  senate,

11  June,

Mr.  Reverdy  Johnson  nominated  ambassador  to
Great  Britain 12  June,

Arkansas  re-admitted  over the president's  veto,

20  June,

The  democratic  convention  nominate  Horatio  Sey-
mour for  president,  and  Francis  P.  Blair  for  vice-
president  4 — 7  July,

General  amnesty  (with  exceptions)  issued 4  July,

Wyoming  territory  organised  ... 22  July,

Act  for  protection  of  naturalised  citizens  abroad
passed 27  July,

Thaddeus  Stevens  dies .... 12  Aug.

Total  debt  declared,  2,641,002,572  dollars . 1  Nov.

General  Ulysses  Grant,  elected  18th  president 3  Nor.

General  Sheridan's  victory  over  insurgent  Indians  ;
a  village  burnt 27  Nov.

Any  repudiation  of  debt  renounced  by  the  house  of
representatives  (154  to  6)  . .14  -Dec.

General  pardon  issued  . . . .25  Dec.

Cornell  university  {which  see)  founded

Convention  respecting  Alabama  claims  signed  by
lord  Clarendon  and  Mr.  Reverdy  Johnson,  14  Jan.

Prosecution  of  Jefferson  Davis  dropped ;  a  nolle
prosequi  entered 6  Feb.

Indian  war  reported  over ....  Feb.

Alabama  treaty  rejected  by  committee  of  senate,

18  Feb.

Suffrage  bill,  abolishing  all  distinctions  of  race,
colour,  and  property,  passed . .  21  Feb.

General  Schenk's  bill,  declaring  that  all  national
obligations  shall  be  paid  in  coin,  passed  3  March,

Adjournment  of  40th  congress  ;  meeting  of  41st
congress  ;  gen.  Grant  assumes  office .  4  March,

Schenk's  bill  for  cash  payments  passed  by  senate,

15  March,

Convention  respecting  Alabama  claim  rejected  by
the  senate 13  April,

John  Lothrop  Motley  appointed  minister  at  London,

April,

Naturalisation  treaty  with  Great  Britain  ratified  by
senate 15  April",

Great  peace  jubilee  held  at  Boston  ;  colossal  con-
cert (10,371  voices,  1094  instruments,  with  anvils,
bells,  &c.)  began . . . .  15  June,

"Wm.  Pitt  Fessenden,  financier,  died . 8  Sept.

Steam-boat,  Stonewall,  burnt  on  the  Mississippi ;
about  200  persons  perish  . . -27  Oct.

Free-trade  agitation  prevalent . .  Oct. — Dec.

A  dm.  Charles  Stewart,  "  old  iron-side,"  aged  92,  died

6  Nov.

Correspondence  respecting  Alabama  claims,  &c,
between  lord  Clarendon  and  Mr.  Hamilton  Fish
(June— Oct.  1869),  published  . . .  Dec.

Renewal  of  the  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada  re-
jected by  congress ....  13  Dec.

U.  S.  corvette  Uneida  sunk  by  collision  with  British
P.  &  O.  steamer  Bombay;  112  lives  lost,  24  Jan.

[Capt.  Eyre,  of  the  Bombay,  severely  censured  for
not  waiting  to  give  succour.  ]

Darien  canal  scheme  approved  by  congress,  Jan.  ;
treaty  signed 26  Jan.

Virginia  (15  Jan.)  and  Mississippi  re-admitted  to
congress 3  Feb.

Prince  Arthur  presented  to  president  Grant,  24
Jan. ;  attended  Mr.  Peabody's  funeral . 8  Feb.

Bill  for  purchase  of  St.  Thomas's  isle  rejected  by
senate 23  March,

Texas  (15  Mar.)  and  Georgia  re-admitted  to  congress,

20  April,

By  amendments  of  the  constitution,  negroes  ad-
mitted to  equal  rights  with  whites . April,

The  tariff  bill  opposed  by  freetraders . . May,

Non-recognition  of  Cuba  affirmed . . June,

Lincoln  state  (out  of  New  Mexico) constituted,

June,


1870


Strong  opposition  to  Chinese  immigration  ;  citizen-
ship refused  by  the  senate . . . 4  July,  1870
Admiral  J.  A.  Dahlgren  died . . 12  or  13  July, ,,
Session  of  congress  closed . . .  15  July, ,,

J. L. Motley,  minister  to  Great  Britain,  recalled',

July, ,,.

New  tariff  bill  passed  (new  rates  take  effect,  1  Jan.
1871) ,T

Admiral  David  Farragut  died,  aged  70 . 14  Aug. ,,.

Strict  neutrality  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  pro-
claimed Aug.

Senator  Oliver  P.  Morton  accepts  the  embassy  to
Great  Britain 23  Sept.

Great  loss  of  life  and  property  through  floods  in
Virginia  and  Maryland,  end  of . Sept. -2  Oct. ,,.

Total  public  debt,  the  principal  and  interest,
2,346,913,652  dollars T  Oct. „

Great  reduction  of  the  heavy  internal  taxation
begins T  Oct. ,,

Movement  against  the  Mormons  on  account  of  their
polygamy x  Oct. „

Meeting  of  the  southern  convention  at  Cincinnati
for  political  and  commercial  affairs . 4  Oct.

General  Robert  Lee  dies,  aged  62  . .  12  Oct.

President Grant issues a proclamation against '
Fenianism,  and  attacks  on  Cuba . . 13  Oct.

Mr.  Morton  declines  the  embassy  to  Britain  for
party  reasons .... about  25  Oct. ,„

The  republican  majority  in  the  congress  greatly
reduced  by  the  "fall"  election  (the  first  in  which
all  races  are  duly  represented) . .  Nov.

Gen.  Cox,  secretary  of  interior,  dismissed  ;  quarrel
between  him  and  the  president  . . Nov.

Total  debt,  2,334,308,494  dollars . . 1  Dec. '',

Annual  message  of  the  president :  he  regrets
failure  of  proposal  for  annexing  St.  Domingo;
and  of  the  non-settlement  of  the  Alabama  claims  ;
and  complains  of  Canadian  aggression . 5  Dec'

Population:  33,581,680  whites  ;  4,879,323  coloured;
Indians,  25,733;  Chinese,  63,196  ;  Japanese,  55;
total,  38,549,987 Bee. „

Mr.  Motley  terms  his  recall  "an  outrage" 7  Dec.

Gen.  Robert  Scheuck  appointed  minister  in  Lon-
don ;  accepts 21  Dec.

New  tariff  in  operation 1  Jan!  1871

George  Ticknor,  historian,  dies  . . .26  Jan!

Statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in  the  capitol  at  Wash-
ington, unveiled 25  Jan.

42nd  congress  meets  (senate,  47  republicans ;  15
democrats) March

Proclamation  against  the  Ku  Klux  in  N.  Carolina' '
. .  5  March, ,„

Commission  to  settle  disputes  with  Great  Britain
respecting  the  Alabama,  &c,  fishery  question,  and
the  San  Juan  affair:  for  the  British,  the  earl  de
Grey  (since  marquis  of  Ripon),  sir  Stafford  North-
cote,  and  others  ;  for  the  Americans,  secretary
Fish,  gen.  Schenck,  and  others;  announced  10
Feb.  ;  meet  at  Washington,  27  Feb.  ;  sign  treaty,
agreeing  to  arbitration  at  Geneva,  &c.  (see  Ala-
bama,  and  San  Juan),  8  May  ;  ratified,  26  May,

General  Schenck  warmly  received  at  Liverpool,

3  June,

An  American  fleet,  accompanied  by  English  and
French  and  German  ships,  arrives  at  Corea  t.i
conclude  a  treaty  for  protection  of  mariners  ;  on
attempting  to  explore  the  island  the  Europeans
are  assailed  from  masked  batteries;  the  Corean
forts  are  then  attacked  and  destroyed  ;  and  nego-
tiations renewed >  June

Formation  of  the  "  new  departure  "  democrat  party '
advocating  perfect  freedom  of  all  males  irrespec-
tive of  race  and  colour,  full  political  restoration
of  the  southern  states,  and  free  trade  ;  about  July

Chicago  destroyed  by  are; great  exertions  to  re'- '
lieve  the  sufferers  ;  see  Chicago;  about  2000  lives
lost  by  tires  in  N.  W.  forests  . . .  8-n  Oct

Col.  Hodge,  paymaster  of  the  regular  army,  conl '
fesses  great  defalcations  since  10  Sept.  1864;  con-
demned to  long  imprisonment . . . Nov

Europeanand  North  American  railway  opened  at
Bangor,  Maine,  by  lord  Lisgar  and  gen.  Grant.

Dispute  between  the  U.S.  foreign  minister,  llaniil- '
ton  Fish,  and  the Russian  envoy Katakazy  (for
undue  interference);  Katakazy  dismissed 'Nov.

Grand duke Alexis  of  Russia  warmly  received  at '
New  York.  • 18  Nov. ..


UNITED  STATES.


1022


UNITED  STATES.


Congress  opened  ;  president  in  his  message  refers  to

peace  abroad  and  prosperity  at  home .  4  Dec.  1871
Formal  meeting  of  the  Alabama  arbitration  commis-
sion at  Geneva  (adjourned  to  15  June) . 18  Dec. „

Gen.  Halleck  died Jan.  1872

General  amnesty  bill  passed . . .16  Jan. ,,

American  case  under  the  treaty  of  Washington ;
claims  indirect  damages  by  Alabama  and  other
vessels  ;  much  excitement  in  England . Jan. ,,

Despatch  from  the  British  minister  sent  2  Feb.  ;
reply  received  (not  divulged  to  parliament),  14
March  ;  further  correspondence  (see  Alabama),

March,  April, ,,

^Formation  of  Yellowstone  National  Park  (which  see)
authorised  by  congress .... March, ,,

Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune,
nominated  president  by  many  republicans,

4  May, „

New  tariff,  reduced  duties  to  begin  from  1  Aug.  ;
passed 4  June, „

-General  Grant  nominated  for  re-election  as  president
by  the  republicans  at  Pennsylvania . 6  June, ,,

■Continued  negotiations  respecting  the  Alabama
affair,  May  ;  nothing  settled  ;  congress  adjourns
to  December 10  June, „

Dispute  with  Spain  respecting  unjust  imprison-
ment of  Dr.  Howard,  an  American  citizen,  in
Cuba  since  13  Dec.  1870 ;  settled  ;  Dr.  Howard
released . June, „

{Formation  of  straight-out  democrat party,  about

June, ,,

Great  international  musical  peace  jubilee  at  Boston,

17  June — 4  July, ,,

Coalition  between  the  democrats  and  the  liberal
republicans at Baltimore to support  Greeley,

10  July, ,,

Trial  of  Edward  S.  Stokes  for  murder  of  James
Pisk  of  the  Erie Ring  (see  New York, 1872),

iS  Juty. »

(United  States  squadron  at  Southampton,  England,
visited  by  the  prince  of  Wales . . 13  Aug. ,,

Judge  Barnard  convicted  of  corruption,  and  removed
from  office  and  disqualified . . .19  Aug. ,,

The  "straight-out  democrats"  nominate  Charles
O'Connor  for  president .... Sept. ,,

Announcement  of  the  award  of  the  Geneva  arbitra-
tion on  the  Alabama,  &c.  (about  3,229,166?.)  Sept. ,,

Wm,  Henry  Seward,  statesman,  died . 10  Oct. „

The  emperor  of  Germany,  arbitrator  in  the  San
Juan  difficulty,  awards  the  island  to  the  United
States  . .  .  23  Oct. ,,

Total  debt  of  the  States,  2,276,828,101  dollars,  1  Nov. ,,

Gen.  Grant  re-elected  president  (by  300  electoral
votes ;  68  for  Greeley) .... 5  Nov. , ,

Death  of  Horace  Greeley,  aged  61  . 29  Nov. ,,

•Sergeant  William  Bates  walked  from  Gretna  Green
to  London,  carrying  the  American  flag ;  warmly
received  everywhere  (the  feat  originated  in  a
wager) ;  arrived  29  Nov. ;  rode  through  London  to
Guildhall. ....... 30  Nov. ,,

<5en.  Grant  in  his  message  says  that  the  results  of
the  arbitration  leave  Great  Britain  and  the  United
States  without  a  shadow  upon  their  friendly  rela-
tions . . , 2  Dec. ,,

Modoc  Indians,"  near  Oregon,  defeat  troops  sent  to
expel  them 17  Jan.  1873

Visit  of  professor  Tyndall ;  he  lectures  in  Boston,
Philadelphia,  Washington,  New  York,  <fec. ,

Sept.  1872— Feb. „

Vice-president  Colfax  accused  of  perjury  Feb. „

Civil  war  in  Louisiana, fighting  at  New  Orleans,

Feb. „

The  congress  opened,  great  Credit  Mobilier  scandal,
members  accused  of  bribery . .  March, ,,

Death  of  chief  justice  Chase  . . . .  7  May, ,,

General  Canby  and  others  massacred  (see  Modocs),
11  April;  capt.  Jack  and  others  captured;  end
of  the  war 1  June ,,

Hiram  Powers,  sculptor  of  "the  Greek  Slave,"
died  at  Florence 27  June, „

Steamer  Wawasscl  takes  fire  on  the  Potomac  ;  about
70  perish 8  Aug. ,,

Cash  payments  (in  silver)  resumed . . 28  Oct. „

Great  excitement  through  the  execution  of  Ameri-
cans taken  in  the  Virginius  (see  Cuba) , Nov. ,,

Public  debt  (less  money  in  treasury)  2,141,833,476
dollars  (about  4s.  gold' per  dollar) . 1  Nov. ,,

President  Grant's  message  :  (calm) . , 2  Dec. „


Great  deficiency  in  the  revenue  (about  17,000,000?.)

announced Dec.  1873

Alex.  H.  Stephens,  the  great  confederate  leader,  re-
turns to  political  life  and  the  legislature Dec. ,,
Women's  whisky-war  in  S.  Ohio  :  endeavour  to  sup-
press the  liquor  traffic  by  prayers,  singing,  &c. ,
opposite  the  shops,  Feb.  :  in  New  York 27  Feb.  1874
Ex-president  Fillmore  died  ... 8  March, „
Charles  Sumner,  senator,  died . .  n  March, „

Women's  whisky-war  resisted  ;  subsides March,

April, „
President  Grant's  veto  of  the  currency  bill  for  creat-
ing inconvertible  paper  money,  advocated  by  the

Butler  party 22  April, ,,

Total  debt,  2,285,786,818-89  dollars  . 1  Aug. „•

Fierce  white  and  black  riots  at  Austin,  Mississippi,
quelled  by  the  military  (after  loss  of  15  lives)

12  Aug.  „
Great  excitement  respecting  the  Beecher-Tilton
scandal ;  the  rev.  H.  Beecher,  a  great  preacher,
accused  of  adultery  with  Mrs.  Tilton,  July ;  ac-
quitted by  a  committee  of  his  church  .  27  Aug.  ,,
Pennsylvania  Republican  Convention  choose  go-
vernor John  F.  Hartranft  for  next  president

Aug. ,,
Insurrection  of  negroes  at  Trenton,  Tennessee  ;  sup-
pressed ;  leaders  hanged ....  Aug. ,,
Centenary  of  the  meeting  of  delegates  at  Philadel-
phia celebrated Sept. „

Insurrection  of  whites  at  New  Orleans  against  R.
D. Kellogg,  the  governor  of  Louisiana, whom
they  depose,  15  Sept.  ;  they  submit  to  the  presi-
dent ;  and  Kellogg  is  restored . .18  Sept. ,,
Great  fire  at  Fall  River  cotton  mills,  Mass. ,  about

60  lives  lost 19  Sept. ,,

Reported  massacre  of  whites  by  Indians  in  N.W.

provinces Oct. „

The  Republic,  new  government  paper,  started 4  Oct. ,,
Lincoln  monument,  Springfield, Illinois, inaugu-
rated 15  Oct. „

Triennial  convention  of  the  episcopal  church ;  canon

passed  against  ritualism ... 27  Oct. ,,
Majority  for  democratic  party  in  elections  for  con-
gress reported 4  Nov. ,,

President  Grant's  message,  moderate' . 7  Dec. ,,
The  senate  passes  a  bill  for  the  resumption  of  cash

payment,  1  Jan.,  1879 .... Dec. „
Disturbances  in  New  Orleans  :  government  troops
eject  conservative  members  from  the  legislative
assembly  as  unduly  elected  ... 4  Jan.  1875
New  York,  Boston,  a.nd  other  cities  protest ;  the

president's  excuse  in  his  message . . Jan. ,,
Senate  rejects  new  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada

4  Feb.  „
Colorado  and  New  Mexico  to  be  made  states  Feb.  ,,
Civil  rights  (of  negroes)  bill  passed  . .  Feb. ,,

The  44th  congress  comes  into  office,  4  March  ;  (to

meet  on  6  Dec.) ,,

Centenary  of  battle  of  Lexington  celebrated

19  April, ,,
Centenary  of  battle  of  Bunker's  hill  celebrated

June,  ,,
Trial  of  Tilton  v.  Beecher  ends  :  jury  disagreeing,

discharged . .  ... 2  July, ,,

Andrew  Johnson,  ex-president,  dies . 31  July, „
Democratic  conventions  of  New  York  declare  in
favour  of  hard  money  and  resumption  of  cash

payments 16  Sept. ,,

John  McCloskey,  R.  C.  archbishop  of  New  York,
made  the  first  North  American  cardinal,  received
in  his  church  at  Rome  ....  30  Sept.  ,,
President  Grant,  in  addressing  the  Tennessee  army
in  Iowa,  protests  against  Roman  catholic  aggres-
sion 30  Sept. ,,

Democratic  inflationists  defeated  at  elections  for

governor  in  Ohio  and  Iowa . about  12  Oct. ,,
Virginia  city  destroyed  by  fire  (see  Nevada) 26  Oct. ,,
State  official  elections  give  large  majority  for  repub-
licans about  2  Nov. p„

President  Grant's  message  ;  alludes  to  attacks  on
and  defends  unsectarian  education ;  notices  un-
satisfactory state  of  Cuba,  and  hints  at  ultimate

intervention  7  Dec. ,,

Centennial  year  begun  with  great  demonstrations

at  Philadelphia,  &c 1  Jan. 1S76

General  Babcock,  secretary  to  president,  acquitted
of  complicity  in "  Whisky  frauds  ; "  (resigned)

24  Feb. „


UNITED  STATES.


1023


UNITED  STATES.


Mr.  Belknap,  secretary  at  war,  accused  of  selling
official  places ;  resigns  ;  impeached  by  congress

2  March,  1876

General  Schenck,  minister  in  London,  charged  with
complicity  in  "  Emma  Mine  frauds  ; "  resigns  and
proceeds  to  America  ;  R.  H.  Dana,  appointed  in
his  room  (opposed) ;  John  Walsh  appointed  next;
John  Walsh  comes . . . March,  et  seq. „

Salary  of  next  president  proposed  to  be  reduced

from  50,000  to  25,000  dollars . . March, „
Increased  opposition  to  Chinese  immigration, March, ,,

Dana's  appointment  as  minister  to  Britain  rejected
by  the  senate .... about  5  April, ,,

Lincoln  monument,  Washington ;  (erected  by  co-
loured people) ;  unveiled . . .14  April, ,,

Other  scandals  in  government  offices  reported  April, ,,

The  president  vetoes  the  bill  for  reduction  of  presi-
dent's salary 19  April, ,,

Issue  of  silver  coin  for  small  notes  . . .  May, ,,

Dispute  with  Great  Britain  respecting  the  extradi-
tion of  Winslow,  an  American  forger  March-May, ,,

Mr.  Pierrepoint,  attorney-general,  nominated  minis-
ter for  London 5  May, ,,

International  exhibition  opened  (see  Philadelphia)

10  May, ,,

Political  conferences  at  Philadelphia  urge  reforms

May, ,,

Governor  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  nominated
president,  and  Wm.  A.  Wheeler  vice-pi-esident,  by
the  republican  convention,  Cincinnati x6  June, „

The  arrangements  for  surrendering  fugitive  crimi-
nals in  the  treaty  of  1842  nullified  by  the  release
of  Winslow  and  Brent  (see  Extradition)  . June, ,,

General  Custer  and  his  army  attack  the  Sioux  In-
dians, fall  into  an  ambuscade,  and  are  nearly  all
killed 25  June, ,,

Mr.  Tilden  nominated  president  by  the  democratic
convention,  St.  Louis ... 29  June, ,,

Centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the  republic  4  July, ,,

Massacre  of  negro  militiamen  by  whites  at  Ham-
burg, S.  Carolina,  9  July ;  53  whites  indicted  for
murder Aug. ,,

Mr.  Belknap's  case  in  the  senate :  35  vote  him
guilty  of  official  corruption ; 25  not ;  acquittal

1  Aug. „

Death  of  gen.  Braxton  Bragg . . . Sept. ,,

The  president's  proclamation  against  unlawful  com-
binations (of  whites)  in  S.  Carolina . 17  Oct. „

He  declines  to  receive  a  centennial  address  from
Irish  home-rulers Oct. ,,

Election  of  electors  for  the  president . 7  Nov. ,,

International  Exhibition at Philadelphia closed

10  Nov. „

President  Grant's  message ;  he  declares  the  elec-
toral system  to  have  failed  ... 5  Dec. ,,

Election  for  president  by  delegates  ;  Mr.  Tilden,
184 ;  Mr.  Hayes,  185  ;  (some  votes  challenged)

6  Dec. „

End  of  dispute  with  the  British  Government  an-
nounced (see  Extradition)  .... Dec. ,,

Electoral  tribunal  (to  settle  the  election  for  presi-
dent) chosen  in  congress  . . .30  Jan.  1877

President  in  his  message  urges  a  speedy  return  to
cash  payments 3  Feb. ,,

Mr.  R.  B.  Hayes'  election  confirmed  ;  Mr.  Wm.  A.
Wheeler,  vice-president,  2  March ;  sworn,  4  March ;
inaugurated  ;  in  his  message  he  professes  impar-
tial devotion  to  the  public  good,  5  March  ;  and
forms  an  impartial  ministry . . . March, ,,

Gen.  Grant  visits  Britain. . . 28  May  et  seq. ,,

"  Molly  Maguire,"  murderous  terrorist  rioters  in
Peunsylvanian  coal-fields ;  subdued ;  several
executed June, ,,

Strike  of  railway  servants  on  Baltimore  and  Ohio
railway  through  reduced  pay;  violent  riots  in
West  Virginia  ;  reign  of  terror  ;  successful  resis-
tance to  the  military  ;  many  killed  and  wounded
at  Pittsburg;  held  by  rioters;  sheriff  killed ;
cannon  used 16-22  July,

Strike  extending  to  New  York  railways  (not  in  New
England) 24  July,

Mob  (many  foreign  communists)  beaten  by  military
at  Chicago  (15  killed,  about  100  wounded),  26  July,

Gen.  Sheridan  sent  to  Pittsburg,  22  July  ;  damage
about  8,000,000?.  ; tranquillity restored about

4  Aug.

Death  of  Brigliam  Young ... 29  Aug.


General  movement  for  the  rights  of  labour  during
the  year. ^77

President  Hayes  warmly  received  in  the  south,  Sept. ,,

Formation  of  a  Cuban  league  on  behalf  of  insur-
gents, announced Sept. „

Opposition  to  the  president  in  Ohio,  and  other
states;  in  elections  .... Oct. ,,

The  new  congress  opened  (democratic  majority  in
the  house  of  representatives ;  gaining  in  the
senate)  ;  Sam.  J.  Randall,  democrat,  re-elected
speaker 15  Oct. „

Many  suspicious  failures  of  commercial  companies
and  others Sept.,  Oct. ,,

Reduction  of  the  federal  army  from  25,000  to  20,000
voted  by  congress,  refused  by  senate Oct.,  Nov. ,,

Anti-resumption  bill  passed  by  house  of  represen-
tatives 23  Nov. „

President  Hayes'  message ;  recommends  resumption
of  cash  payments  on  r  Jan.  1879  ;  pacification  of
the  south  ;  good  treatment  of  the  negroes,  3  Dec. ,,

The  government  defeated  in  the  senate  by  Conkling
and  party  ;  opposing  civil  service  reform,  cash
payments,  &c 12  Dec. „

Bland's  "  silver  bill,"  making  silver  the  standard
instead  of  gold;  (injurious  to  fundholders,  &c.,)
passed  by  senate,  veto  of  the  president,  (specie
payments  in  silver  to  be  resumed  1  Jan.  1879 ;)
dollar  412^  grains  said  to  be  8  percent,  less  value
than  gold 16  Feb.  1878

Committee  appointed  to  investigate  charges  of  cor-
ruption against  boards  returning  delegates  to
elect  the  president June, ,,

Gen.  Butler  secedes  from  the  republicans,  and
joins  a  new  "National  party"  connected  with
Kearney,  a  violent  agitator  from  California ;
(they  are  popularly  termed  "Greenbackers,"  as
contending  for  soft  money,  and  opposing  return  to
cash  payments) .... Aug.  et  seq. „

Desire  expressed  for  a  new  reciprocity  treaty  with
Canada Aug. ,,

American  association  meet  at  St.  Louis . 21  Aug. ,,

Many  deaths  by  yellow  fever  in  southern  states

Aug.,  Sept.,  Oct. „

Autumn  elections  (mostly  on  5  Nov.) . . . ,.

46th  congress  elected ;  149  democrats,  130  repub-
licans, 10  greenbackers .... Nov. ,

President's  address  to  congress  expresses  gratitude
"  for  countless  blessings  " . . .. 2  Dec. „

Gold  at  par  (1st  time  since  1862)  . .  iS  Dec. „

Resumption  of  cash  payments  ;  no  great  demand

2  Jan.  1879

Death  of  Caleb  Ciishing,  U.S.  minister  at  Madrid  ;
aged  about  79 n  Jan. „

Meeting  of  46th  congress . . . 4  March, ,,

Great  emigration  of  negroes  from  the  southern  to
the  western  states . . . March,  April, ,,

30,000,000?.  5  per  cents  converted  into  4  per  cents
at  par April, ,,

Mr.  John  Walsh,  minister  in  London,  resigns,  July  ;
leaves  England  [succeeded  by  James  Russell
Lowell  the  poet] 19  Aug.

"  Knights  of  Labour,"  a  secret  society  for  protec-
tion and  advancement  of  workmen,  active  in  the
middle  states  ....  . .

Largest  grain  crops  for  many  years . autumn, „

Public  debt,  2,027,202,452-dollars . . 1  Oct. ,,

Elections  specially  favour  republicans  . . Oct. ,,

Much  distress  of  freed  negroes  in  Kansas,  &c.  1  Jan 18S0

The  republican  convention  at  Chicago  choose  gen.
Garfield  and  Mr.  Arthur  as  president  and  vice-
president,  9  June  ;  the  democratic  convention  at
Cincinnati  choose  gen.  Winfield  Scott  Hancock
and  Wm.  H.  English  ... 24  June, „

Gen.  Garfield  sets  forth  his  proposed  policy  in  a
letter  ;  says,  "  We  legislate  for  the  people  of  the
United  States,  not  for  the  whole  worli  1 ; "  proposes
a  check  for  Chinese  immigration,  <fcc.  . 12  July, ,,

97,000  office  holders  said  to  be  liable  to  change  Aug. .,

Public  debt  reduced  to  1,915,594,813  dollars 1  Oct. ,,

Gen. Garfield elected president;  Mr. Chester A.

Arthur  vice-president  (313-156) . . 2  Nov. „

Treaty  with  China 17  Nov. .,

Dispute  between  the  president  and  senator  Conk-
ling respecting  appointment  of  collector  of  cus
toms  at  New  York ;  Conkling  resigns . May,  iSSr
Assassination of president Garfield hy Charles
Jules  Guiteau,  a  lawyer  of  Chicago,  at  railway


UNITED  STATES.


1024


UNITED  STATES.


station,  Washington ;  two  pistol  shots ;  ball  enters
the  body 2  July,  :

Destructive  forest  iires  in  Michigan  ;  about  500
persons  perish  ;  10,000  homeless  . . 5  Sept.

General  Garfield,  after  much  suffering,  died  19  Sept.

Queen  Victoria's  message  to  Mrs.  Garfield  :  "  Words
cannot  express  the  deep  sympathy  I  feel  with
you  at  this  terrible  moment.  May  God  support
and  comfort  you,  as  He  alone  can  "  . 20  Sept.

After  lying  in  state  at  Washington  the  general  is
buried  at  Cleveland,  in  Ohio  . . 23  Sept.

Court  mourning  in  Great  Britain . 21—28  Sept.

334,000  dollars  collected  for  Mrs.  Garfield  up  to

30  Sept.

Centenary  of  the  capture  of  Yorktown  celebrated
(English  flag  saluted) . . 16  Sept.  et  seq.

Mr.  Blaine's  letter  to  the  European  powers  asserting
the  treaty  respecting  neutrality  at  Panama  in
1846  to  be  sufficient,  and  protesting  against  then-
interference 25  Oct.

The  lion.  Sackville  West,  the  new  British  minister,
warmly  received  at  Washington . .  4  Nov.

Guiteau's  trial  begins .... 14  Nov.

Meeting  of  Congress 5  -Dec.

Mr.  Frelinghuysen  succeeds  Mr.  Blaine  as  foreign
minister 12  Dec.

Guiteau  in  the  prison  van  shot  at  by  Wm.  Jones  ;
his  head  grazed, 19  Nov.  1881 ;  verdict,  guilty

25  Jan.  :

Chinese  immigration  suspended  for  20  years  ;  bill
passed  by  senate  about  10  March;  vetoed  by
representatives,  March  ;  by  the  president  about

4  April,

Bill  abolishing  polygamy  passed . 23  March,

Great  floods  in  the  west  (see  Mississippi) March,

United  States  constitution  translated  into  Chinese
by  Tsai  Sih  Yung,  completed . ....

Representatives  pass  immigration  bill  excluding
Chinese  i'or  ten  years ....  17  April,

Great  strike  of  iron-workers  (about  150,000)  in
Pennsylvania  begun  1  June  ;  going  on 13  July,

MeetinCT  of  masters  at  Pittsburg  to  organise  resist-
ance 7  J™e,

Guiteau  executed 3°  June,

The  Chinese  exclusion  act  .comes  into  operation

4  Aug.

Act  imposing  a  tax  of  2s.  per  head  (opposed  by
o-overnment)  comes  into  operation . . Aug.

One  of  only  two  copies  of  a  life  of  general  Garfield
presented  to  queen  Victoria ;  the  other  to  Mrs.
Garfield . . • ■ . • • • ■ ■

End  of  the  iron-workers  strike . about  12  Sept.

Robert  E.  Lee  steamer  burned  on  the  Mississippi ;
about  20  deaths . . ■ • • 29  Sept.

Elections  greatly  in  favour of the Democrats

7  Nov.

Death  of  Thurlow  Weed,  politician  and  journalist,
aged  about  85 . . . • • 22  Nov.

Meeting  of  Congress  ;  president  s  address  ;  com-
ments on  financial  prosperity  ;  recommends  re-
duction of  taxation  and  tariif . . 4  Dec.

Civil  service  reform  bill  adopted by  the  senate

27  Dec.

Immigration,  1881,  about  719,000  ;  735,000  in

Presidential  succession  bill  passed . . 9  Jan.

National  debt,  net,  1,607,543,676  dollars 1  Jan.

The  marquis  of  Lome  visits  Washington .  26  Jan.

Reduction  in  internal  revenue  and  revision  of  the

tariff  by  the  senate  and  congress  . .  3  March,

Last  sitting  of  the  congress  ... 4  March,

Great  East  River  bridge,  connecting  New  York  and
Brooklyn,  opened 24  May,

Great  strike  of  telegraph  clerks  in  various  states
July,  ends  about  15  Aug.

Visit  of  chief  justice  Coleridge  ;  very  warmly  re-
ceived Sept.— Oct

Gen.  Sheridan  succeeds  gen.  Sherman  in  command
of  the  United  States  army ... 31  Oct.

Autumn  elections  ;  favour  republicans . Nov.

The  new  congress  meets .... 3  Dec.

Death  of  Wendell  Phillips,  energetic  abolitionist,
ar,e(i  ?2 4  Fe,)-

Excitement  concerning  the  wreck  of  the  Daniel
Steinmann  (see  Wrecks) ;  investigation 8  April

Financial  embarrassment  of  gen.  Grant  through
endeavouring  to  support  his  sou  [relieved  by
government,  1885]  . . • • • May,

Mr.  James  G.  Blaine  and  gen.  Logan  nominated


republican  candidates  for  the  presidency  and
vice-presidency  at  Chicago,  6  June  ;  great  dis-
satisfaction thereat June,  :

Meetings  at  New  York,  and  other  cities, about

21  June,

Colossal  statue  of  Liberty,  by  Bartholdi,  the  gift  of
the  French  to  the  United  States,  delivered  at
Paris  by  M.  Jules  Ferry,  4  July  [received  at  New
York,  19  June,  1885].

Mr.  Grover  Cleveland,  governor  of  New  York,  and
Mr.  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  nominated  democrat
candidates  for  the  presidency  and  vice-presidency
at  Chicago 11,  12  July,

Gen.  Butler  offers  himself  as  people's  candidate

19  Aug.

Great  strike  of  miners  in  Hocking  valley,  Ohio,  on
account  of  foreigners  ;  rioting  . 1  Sept.  et  seq.

Governor  Cleveland,  president,  and  Mr.  Hendricks,
vice-president,  elected  (defeat  of  the  republicans)

4  Nov.

Roman  Catholic  plenary  council  at  Baltimore
(about  70  archbishops  and  bishops)  opened  9  Nov.

Cattle-men's  convention  at  St.  Louis  (see  under
Cattle) 18 — 22  Nov.

About  56,000,000  acres  appropriated  by  the  Home-
stead act  of  1862,  up  to  1880  ;  announced Jan.  :

Public  indignation  at  the  criminal  explosions  in
London  ;  stringent  dynamite  bill  introduced  in
the  senate  by  government  . . .26  Jan.

Public debt, 1,409,128,325 dollars, announced

2  Feb.

The  Chinese  expelled  from  California  ;  indemnity
to  be  claimed  by  their  government ;  announced

Feb.

Memorial  obelisk  of  George  Washington,  555  feet
high,  at  Washington,  inaugurated . 21  Feb.

President  Cleveland  installed  amid  great  acclama-
tions 4  March,

A  new  ministry  ;  secretary  of  state,  Thomas  F.
Bayard 4  March,

Mr.  Edward  J.  Phelps  appointed  U.S.  minister  in
London,  March;  arrives  at  Southampton  16  May,

Currency  crisis  ;  the  banks  oppose  the  Bland  Act,
and  the  compulsory  coinage  of  silver . July,

Death  of  gen.  Grant,  23  July  ;  he  lies  in  state  at
New  York,  5,  6,  7  Aug. ;  funeral  procession  6
miles  long  includes  the  family,  president  Cleve-
land, government  officials,  gen.  Hancock,  and
others  of  U.S.  army  ;  gen.  Jolmson  (confederate),
soldiers,  marines,  &c.  ;  about  400  carriages  ;  starts
at  9  a.m.  ;  arrival  at  the  temporary  tomb  in
Riverside  Park  on  the  Hudson  5  p.m.  8  Aug.

Murderous  attacks  on  the  Chinese  workmen  at
Rock  Springs  in  Wyoming  territory  29  Aug.  ;
quelled  by  government . . about  3  Sept.

Violent  action  against  Chinese  capitalists  and  work-
men in  Washington  territory ;  proclamation  for
its  suppression  by  the  president .  9  Nov.

Death  of  gen.  G.  B.  McClellan,  com. -in-chief  Nov.
1861,  aged  59 28  Oct.

Death  of  T.  A.  Hendricks,  vice-president  U.S.,
aged  66 25  Nov.

Gen.  Sherman  elected  vice-president . 7  Dec.

Wm.  H.  Vanderbilt,  aged  64,  "railway  king,"  dies
suddenly  at  New  York  ;  said  to  be  worth  about
50  million  pounds 8  Dec.

Meeting  of  congress ....  8  Dec.

Much  money  subscribed  for  promoting  Irish  Home
Rule 18

Great  ovation  of  Jefferson  Davis  through  the
Southern  States April,

German  socialist  agitation,  eight  hours'  movement ;
riots  at  Chicago  ;  dynamite  employed  ;  mob  dis-
persed by  police  after  fighting,  4  May  ;  riots  at
Milwaukee  5  May;  10  killed,  115  wounded;  25
arrests,  about  6  May  ;  Herr  Most  (anarchist)
arrested  at  New  York,  12  May  ;  convicted  of  in-
citing to  riot,  May  ;  sentenced  to  fine  and  im-
prisonment 2  June,

Gradual  cessation  of  strikes  in  different  states

about  24  May,

Chinese  Indemnity  Bill  passed  . . June,

Large  subscriptions  to  the  Parnellite  fund  for
elections,  &c June,  et  seq.

The  president  promotes  civil  service  reform  ;
political  action  of  officials  checked . July,

Election  tour  of  Mr.  James  G.  Blaine  in  Pennsyl-
vania, &c;  strongly  advocating  Protection  16  Oct.


UNITED STATES.


1025


UNITED STATES.


Bartholin  Statue  of  Liberty,  150  feet  liigh,  set  up  at
the  harbour  of  New  York,  305  feet  above  the  sea
level,  on  Bedloe  Island,  publicly  dedicated  by  the

president 28  Oct.  1886

Alien's  Landlord's  Bill  (almost  limiting  holding  of
land and mines in "territories" to citizens)

passed 2  Aug. ,,

Ex-president  Arthur  dies . . . .18  Nov. „

Great  increase  of  speculation  in  railway  stocks  and
trade Nov-Dec. ,,

Mr.  Henry  George  (see  under  Land)  propagates  his
doctrines  of  Land  Nationalisation  ;  much  opposed

1886-7

Edmunds'  Canadian  Fisheries  Bill  passed  senate
(46-1) 24  Jan.  1887

Fisheries  Retaliation  Bill  passed  . . 3  March, „

American  Exhibition  (ichich  see)  opened  in  London

9  May, „

Seven  socialists  sentenced  to  death  for  murders
during  riots  at  Chicago,  May,  20  Aug.  1886 ;
ordered  for  execution .... 14  Sept. ,,

Centenary  of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  con-
stitution celebrated  at  Philadelphia  ;  five  miles
procession  illustrating  the  progress  of  trade  and
industry  ;  fall  of  a  great  stand,  many  spectators
injured,  15  Sept.  ;  review  of  the  army  by  the
president,  &c 17  Sept. ,,

After  great  efforts  for  remission  of  sentence  four  of
the  Chicago  anarchists  executed  (two  sentenced
to  life  imprisonment,  one  committed  suicide)

it  Nov. ,,

Mr.  Barnum's  menagerie  at  Bridgport,  Connecticut,
burnt  (see  Menagerie) .... 10  Nov. ,,

Mr.  J.  Chamberlain  warmly  received  at  New  York  ;
grand  dinner  at  the  chamber  of  commerce,  15  Nov. ,,

President  Cleveland's  message  strongly  urges  fiscal
reform,  large  reduction  of  protective  duties  and
other  taxation  ;  surplus  income  1886-7  above
11,000,000?.  (annually increasing) 6 Dec;  approved
by  the  Democrats, opposed  by  the  Republicans,  Dec. , ,

Naturalization  of  British  emigrants  increasing ;
strongly  advocated  by  the  British  American
newspaper  to  neutralize  Irish  influence  (see
George,  St.) autumn ,,

The  Knights  of  Labour  order  strikes  of  colliers  and
railway  men  ;  total  on  strike  about  50,000,  end
of  Dec.  ;  end  of  railway  strike  repoi-ted 28  Dec. ,,

Snowstorm  in  the  N.W.  states  ;  about  235  persons
perish  and  many  cattle . . .  11-13  Jan.  i88i

Reform  club  at  New  York  to  support  tariff  reform  ;
first  banquet 21  Jan. „

Treaty  respecting  fisheries  signed  at  Washington
(see  Fisheries) 15  Feb. ,,

Destructive  blizzard  (see  Storms) . 11-13  March, ,,

Deadlock  in  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the
Direct  Tax  Bill ;  ended ... 13  April, „

Mr.  James  G.  Blaine  announces  positively  his  re-
tirement from  his  candidature  for  the  presidency

17  May, „

Mr.  Cleveland  nominated  by  acclamation  for  re-
election as  president  by  the  Democratic  conven-
tion at  St.  Louis,  6  June  ;  gen.  Benjamin  Harrison
(born  20  Aug.  1833)  nominated  candidate  by  the
Republican  convention  at  Chicago . 25  June, ,,

Lock-out  of  about  100,000  ironworkers  near  New
York 30  June, ,,

President  Cleveland  at  New  York  declares  vigor-
ously for  reduced  import  duties  and  fiscal  reform

5  J"iy, ,,

American  Tariff  Bill  passed  lower  House 21  July, ,,

Death  of  gen.  Philip  Henry  Sheridan,  commander-
in-chief  of  the  army,  aged  57,  5  Aug.  ;  succeeded
by  gen.  John  M.  Schofield . . . 14  Aug. ,,

Treaty  with  China  to  prohibit  Chinese  immigvat  inn
for  20  years  14  March  ;  bill  passed . 20  Aug. ,,

The  senate  refuses  to  ratify  the  fisheries  treaty

21  Aug. ,,

The  president  in  a  message  censures  this,  but
declares  for  a  policy  of  retaliation  against  Canada

23  Aug. ,,

Retaliation  Bill  passed  by  the  House . 8  !S<]>1 . ,,

Agitation  against  "Trusts  and  Combines"  (which
see) autumn, ,,

Chinese  Exclusion  Bill  approved  by  president
Cleveland Oct. „

Chinese  Exclusion  Act  vigorously  carried  out  a1
Ban  Francisco  and  at  other  places middle  Oct. ,,

Lord  Sackville, British  minister  at  Washington,


dismissed  by  president  Cleveland  for  conver-
sations with  a  reporter,  and  for  writing  a  private
"reply  to  an  alleged  "  naturalised  Englishman  in
California  respecting  the  presidential  election  30
Oct.  ;  lord  Sackville  admitted  indiscretion  but  -
repudiated  other  charges  .  .  .26  Oct.  li
Gen.  Benjamin  Harrison  elected  president,  Mr.
Levi  P.  Morton,  vice-president ;  great  defeat  of
the  Democrats  (233-168) ...  5  Nov.

Resolution  introduced  into  the  House  proposing
negotiations  for  the  annexation  of  Canada  13  Dec.

Tlie  American  Commonwealth,  by  professor  James

Bryce,  M.P.,  an  elaborate  work  published .
Destructive  tornado in the Eastern states  (see
Storms) 9  Jan.  1!

Bill  introduced  in  the  House  for  stringent  repres-
sion of  immigration,  especially  labourers  and
criminals ig  Jan.

New  Tariff  Bill  passed  by  the  senate . 22  Jan.

The  Anglo-American  Extradition  Treaty  rejected
by  the  senate  (38-15) . .  . .1  Feb.

The  senate  and  house  pass  the  Nicaragua  Canal
Bill 7  Feb.

Explosion  at  Park  Central  Hotel  in  Hartford,  U.S.  ;
about  40  persons  killed  . . . .18  Feb.

Gen.  Harrison  assumes  office  ;  his  cabinet  formed  ;
Mr.  Blaine,  secretary  of  state . . 4  March,

Demonstrations  and  subscriptions  in  honour  of  Mr.
Parnell  at  Philadelphia  and  other  places  (see
Ireland) March,

Storm  at  Samoa  ;  three  American  war-vessels  with
loss  of  4  officers  and  46 men  (see, Samoa)  16  March,

Oklahoma  (irhich  see)  reserved  lands  (virgin  soil)
near  Kansas,  Arkansas,  and  Texas  proclaimed
open  to  settlers  ;  thousands  of  farmers  and  others
with  their  goods,  cattle,  &c. ,  migrate  thither  ;
riotous  proceedings  with  bloodshed  precede  and
attend  the  entering  .... 22  April,

Sir  Julian  Pauncefote  becomes  British  minister  at
Washington,  Feb.  ;  arrives . . 23  April,

Guthrie  and  two  other  towns  founded 23  April,

Order  maintained  by  the  military  and  lynch  law
24  April  et  seq.

Many  unsuccessful  settlers  return,  reported  April,

Celebration  at  New  York  of  the  centenary  of  gen.

Washington's inauguration as first president

29  April-i  May,

Naval  procession  ;  300  vessels  sail  round  the  har-
bour 29  April ;  military  procession  (65,000  men)
30  April ,  civic  and  industrial  procession 1  May,

A  convention  met  at  Columbia,  Tennessee,  and
organized  an  American-Scottish-Irish  Association
to  perpetuate  race  memories  and  history 8  Slay,

Cyclone  from  Maryland  to  Connecticut,  much
damage 10  May,

Mr.  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  son  of  Abraham,  appointed
minister  to  Great  Britain,  March  ;  arrives  in
London 22  May,

Dr.  Patrick  Henry  Cronin,  Irish  dynamite  nation-
alist (expelled  from  the  Clan-na-Gael,  and  de-
nounced as  a  spy  by  Alex.  Sullivan  and  the
leaders,  termed  the  "  Triangle,"  and  condemned
to  death  by  them  for  accusing  them  of  embezzling
funds  allotted  for  dynamiting  in  England,  Feb.)
4  May  ;  found  murdered  at  Lake  View,  Chicago
22  May ;  several  men  arrested . 29  May  et  seq.

The  coroner's  jury  declare  the  murder  to  be  the
result  of  a  conspiracy  of  which  Alexander  Sulli-
van, P.  O'Sullivan,  Daniel  Coughlin  and  Frank
Woodruff  (connected  with  the  Clan-na-Gael)
were  the  principals.  Alex.  Sullivan  and  others
arrested  12  June ;  Alexander  Sullivan  released
on  high  bail 15  . 1 mie,

Martin  Burke  arrested  at  Winnipeg,  Canada,
indicted  about  20  June.  The  grand  jury  at
Chicago  after  16  days'  investigation,  presents  an
indictment  against  Martin  Burke,  John  F.  Beggs,
Daniel  Coughlin,  Patrick  O'Sullivan,  Frank
Woodruff,  Patrick  Cooney,  and  John  Kunz,  with
others  unknown,  ofconspiracy  and  of  f  he  murder
of  Patrick  Henry  Cronin  .  .  .  29.111111',
[The  conspiracy  is  said  to  have  originated  in  camp
20  of  the  Clan-na-Gael.  |

About  6,000  persons  perish  by  bhe  overflow  of  the
dam  of  a  lake  in  Conemaugli  valley  (see  I',  nnsul-
vania)  . . . , . . . 31  May,

Destructive  Hoods  in  the  eastern  states ;  s  persons
drowned at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and 13

3  V


UNITED STATES.


1026


UNITED STATES.


at Corning, New York ; estimated loss at
Washington,  1,000,000  dollars  ;  floods  subsiding

end  of  May,  and  1,  2  June,  1889

Message  of  sympathy  from  queen  Victoria  to  the
president 8  June, „

Visit  of  American,  civil,  mechanical,  mining  and
electrical  engineers ;  well  received  in  London,  &c. ;

early  June, ,,

Death  of  Simon  Cameron,  aged  go,  war  secretary
during  the  civil  war  .... 26  June, ,,

Great  public  meeting  at  Chicago  impeaching  the
Clan-na-Gael  as  "an  association  of  assassins,"
»  "  existing  under  the  protection  of  the  United
States,  usurping  the  highest  acts  of  government,
in  that  it  decrees  death,  exacts  fealty,  and  levies
war." 2  July, ,,

A  meeting  of  Irish- Americans  at  Chicago  propose  the
formation  of  an  "Irish-American  Republican  As-
sociation," to  be  settled  in  Lower  California  5  July, ,,

Inundation  in  Mohawk  Valley,  New  York ;  14
persons  drowned  at  Johnstown  . . 9  July, ,,

Martin  Burke  (otherwise  Frank  Williams)  at
Winnepeg  ordered  for  extradition  10  July  ;  given
up 3  Aug. „

The  British  sealer,  Black  Diamond,  seized  by  the
U.  S.  revenue  cutter  Iiush  (captain  Shepard),  in
Behring  sea  (see  Behring  Straits) . 30  July, ,,

Reception  at  Liverpool  of  50  representatives  of
American  industries  (on  a  tour  of  trade  observa-
tion in  Europe) 1  Aug. ,,

The  national  monument  at  New  Plymouth,  Mas-
sachusetts, commemorating  the  landing  of  the
"  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  (ivhich  see)  dedicated 1  Aug. ,,

The  Sioux  and  the  Chippewa  Indians  sell  a  large
part  of  their  reservations,  which  are  to  be  opened
for  settlement Aug. ,,

David  Terry,  formerly  a  judge,  shot  dead  at  La-
thorp,  California,  by  Marshal  Nagle,  for  striking
judge  Field  in  revenge ... 14  Aug. „
[Nagle  was  exonerated,  17  Sept.]

Destructive  storm  on  the  east  coast  (see  Storms),

11,  13  Sept. ,,

Pan-Anglican  Congress  (which  see),  meeting  of  dele-
gates at  Washington  .... 30  Sept. „

Maritime  conference  (which  see)  at  Washington,

16  Oct. „

Fine  evolutionary  fleet  (4  vessels)  sails  from  New
York  for  the  Mediterranean  under  rear-admiral
Walker 10  Nov. ,,

President  Harrison's  message,  moderate  and  pacific,

3  Dec. ,,

Death  of  Mr.  Jefferson  Davis,  aged  81,  late  presi-
dent of  the  Confederate  States,  6  Dec.  ;  solemnly
buried  at  New  Orleans ... n  Dec. ,,

The  new  Anglo- American  extradition  treaty  ratified
by  the  senate 18  Feb.  1890

Mr.  Blaine  and  sir  J.  Pauncefote  agree  to  refer  the
Behring  sea  affair  to  arbitration,  reported,

25  Feb. ,,

Inundations  in  the  west  through  excessive  rains,
destructive  snowstorms  on  the  east  coast,

end  of  Feb. ,,

A  national  convention  of  the  delegates  of  the
coloured  citizens  of  the  U.  S.,  at  Washington,
issues  an  address 7  Feb.  ,,

Cronin  trials.  The  case  called  on  26  Aug.  1889  ;
1, 11S  talesmen  were  examined  before  a  jury  of  12
could  be  obtained  (a  plot  to  corrupt  the  jury
having  been  discovered,  4  persons  pleaded  guilty,
one  convicted,  Feb.  1890) ... 23  Oct.  1889

The  trial  began  at  Chicago  before  judge  M'Connell :
Mr.  Longenecker,  state  attorney,  counsel  for  the
prosecution,  Mr.  Forrest  for  the  defence,  24  Oct.  ;
the  jury  acquitted  John  F.  Beggs  ;  found  Daniel
Cougldin,  Patrick  O'Sullivan,  and  Martin  Burke
guilty  of  murder,  and  sentenced  them  to  im-
prisonment for  life  ;  John  Kunze,  as  accessory,
to  3  years'  imprisonment  .  •  .  16  Dec.  „
[Frank  Woodruff  discharged,  April,  1890.]

A  new  trial  granted  to  John  Kunze,  the  other
sentences  confirmed .... 14  Jan.  1890

"World's  Fair "  ordered  to  be  in  1893 . March. ,,

Bills  introduced  for  greatly  raising  the  minimum
of  the  coinage  of  silver,  fixed  by  the  Bland  act  of
1878  ;  bills  dropped  through  disagreement,  re-
ported 19  April, ,,

The  World's  Fair  bill  passed  ;  signed  by  the  presi-
dent • " s .  •  2 . 25  April, ,,


Congress  votes  150,000  dollars  for  relief  of  sufferers
by  the  Mississippi  floods  ;  sent  to  the  president,

23  April,  :

Naval  Supply  bill  passed  by  the  senate ;  three
battleships  to  be  built . . . .27  May,

The  president  proclaims  the  Behring  sea  closed  to
unlicensed  seal-fishing . . -25  March.

The  president  approves  of  the  new  silver  bill  passed
to  enlarge  the  currency ... 14  July,

John  C.  Fremont,  scientist,  explorer,  statesman,
&c,  dies,  aged  77 . . . - . 13  July,

The  British  sealing  schooners,  George  R.  White  and
Ariel,  seized  in  Behring  seas  reported .  31  July,

Silver  purchase  circular  issued  by  the  secretary  of
the  treasury,  offering  to  sell  silver  bullion  in  lots,
not  under  10,000  ozs.,  to  mints,  on  and  after  13
Aug 1  Aug.

Strikes  of  workmen,  railway  men,  &(?:,  in  New
York,  Chicago,  &c Aug.

Labour  day,  orderly  demonstration  in  New  York,
Chicago,  and  other  cities . . .1  Sept.

Mr.  McKinley's  tariff  bill,  highly  protectionist,  to
encourage  home  manufactures,  after  long  discus-
sion and  opposition  from  the  democrats,  passed
by  the  congress,  30  Sept.  ;  approved  by  the  pre-
sident, 1  Oct.  ;  comes  into  operation  .  6  Oct.
[The  bill  greatly  affected  Great  Britain,  Canada.
France,  Austria,  and  other  states  ;  the  act  in-
cludes a  policy  of  retaliation  and  reciprocity.]

The  count  of  Paris  arrives  at  New  York,  3  Oct.  ;
at  Philadelphia,  6  Oct.  ;  at  Washinston,  7  Oct.  ;
Richmond,  9  Oct.  ;  New  York,  17  Oct.  ;  leaves
for  Canada 21  Oct.

Elections  for  the  52nd  congress  ;  great  majority  for
the  democrats" .... 4  Nov.  et  seq.

For  Indian  rising,  see  Indians . Nov.  et  seq.

The  president's  message  to  congress,  defending  the
McKinley  tariff,  &c 1  Dec.

Convention  at  Ocala,  Florida,  to  organize  a  new
political  party  to  be  named  the  National  Union
party,  to  include  the  Farmers'  Alliance,  the
Knights  of  Labour  and  similar  bodies,  early  Dec.

A  free-  silver  coinage  bill  hastily  passed  by  the
senate ....... 15  Jan.

Great  distress  in  the  west  attributed  to  the  McKin-
ley act Jan.

Death  of  George  Bancroft,  historian  and  diplo-
matist, aged  go 17  Jan.

Destructive  snowstorm  on  the  Atlantic  coast,
starting  from  Alabama  (see  Neio  Yor k)  24,  25  Jan.

Death  of  admiral  David  Dixon  Porter,  eminent  com-
mander in  the  civil  war,  aged  76 . 13  Feb.

Gen.  Wm.  Tecumseh  Sherman,  commander-in-chief
(1869-84)  dies,  aged  nearly  71,  14  Feb.  ;  funeral
ceremony  at  New  York  ;  present,  president
Harrison  and  state  officials,  chief  army  officers
with  about  10,000  troops,  19  Feb. ;  burial  at  St.
Louis,  Missouri . . . . ■ . 21  Feb.

Mr.  Charles  Foster  appointed  secretary  of  the
treasury 21  Feb.

The  senate's  free  coinage  bill  defeated  by  the  house,
22  Feb.  ;  end  of  the  great  speculation  in  Wall-
street,  New  York,  termed  the  "silver  pool,"  or
syndicate 24  Feb.

Gen.  Joseph  Johnston,  confederate,  aged  87,  dies,

21  March,

President  Harrison's  tour  to  the  Pacific  coast ;
visiting  the  S.  and  W.  states . April,  May,

The  Farmers'  Alliance  form  a  "third  party"  to
oppose  the  republicans  and  democrats,

end  of  May,

Mr.  John  Bardsley,  city  treasurer  of  Philadelphia,
sentenced  to  15  years'  solitary  confinement,  and
heavy  fine,  for  defalcations  . . 2  July,

Threatened  revolt  of  the  Indians  (which  see),

12  July,

James  Russell  Lowell,  statesman  and  popular
writer,  dies,  aged  72 . . . . 12  Aug.

Dispute  with  Chili  (which  see) . . . Oct.

Fight  between  supporters  of  the  Earmers'  Alliance
and  their  opponents,  5  deaths  at  Bucksport,
Arkansas 28  Oct.

Destructive  storm  over  the  city  of  Washington,
and  a  waterspout,  much  damage  done  at  Balti-
more, and  along  the  coast  ... 23  Nov.

Meeting  of  the  52nd  congress  ;  republican  majority
reduced ;  president  Harrison's  message  . 9  Dec.


UNITED STATES.


1027


TTNTVEKSITIES.


A  new  "reciprocity  "  party  formed,  headed  by  Mr.

Blaine,  about  80,000  members . . 9  Jan.

The  arbitration  treaty  respecting  the  Behring  seas

signed  at  Washington,  (see  Behring  Straits)  29  Feb.

Death  of  Walter  Whitman,  national  poet,  author  of

"  Leaves  of  Grass,"  aged  72 . . 26  March,

Destructive  tornado  in  the  N.W.  states  ;  about  30

persons  killed 3  April,

The  difficulty  with  the  Italian  government  closed

(see  New  Orleans) .... 14  April,

Above  450,000,000  of  silver  dollars  in  the  treasury

vaults,  reported .... 25  April,

'The  corner  stone  of  general  Grant's  monument  in

Biverside-park, New York, laid by  president

Harrision 27  April,

'The  invitation  to  an  international  conference  on  the
silver  question,  accepted  by  Great  Britain  and
other  powers .... May,  June,
'The  National  Bi-metallic  League  formed  in  Wash-
ington May,

Resignation  of  Mr.  Blaine  as  secretary,  4  June ;
succeeded  by  Mr.  John  W.  Foster . 29  June,
President  Harrison  nominated  for  re-election  by
the  republican  convention  at  Minneapolis,  Mr.
Whitelaw  Reid  as  vice-president . . 10  June,
Mr.  Grover  Cleveland  (president  1885)  nominated
for  election  as  president  at  Chicago,  Mr.  Adlai
E.  Stevenson  as  vice-president . 23  June,
The  Texas,  battleship,  launched  at  Norfolk,  Vir-
ginia 28  June,

The "Prohibition" (temperance) Convention at
Cincinnati nominates gen. John Bidwell for

president 1  July,

'.Senator  W.  M.  Stewart's  Free  Silver  bill  passed  the
senate,  1  July  ;  rejected  by  the  house  .  13  July,
The  "People's  Party"  convention  at  Omaha,
nominates  gen.  James  B.  Weavei  for  president,
and  gen.  J.  G.  Field  for  vice-president  .  5  July,
(Great  heat  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the
United  States,  about  23  July ;  many  deaths  ;
99°-io2°,  28  July  ;  the  hottest  day  for  21  years,
29  July ;  traffic  impeded  by  death  of  horses,  29
July  ;  1070,  223  deaths  at  New  York,  29  July  ;  90
deaths,  30  July  ;  296  deaths,  31  July  ;  cooler,

31  July,
'The  congress  adjourns  till  Dec.  1892  .  6  Aug.
'The  Marbleheeul,  warship,  launched  at  Boston

1 1  Aug.
sGreat  strike  on  several  railways  in  New  York  State,
13  Aug. ;  severe  conflicts  between  strikers  and
non-strikers  ;  about  150  cars  burnt,  14,  15  Aug.  ;
the  Buffalo  railway  guarded  by  troops ;  traffic
suspended  ;  troops  massed  ;  more  strikes,  with
conflicts  like  civil  war,  17  Aug.  et  seq.  ;  traffic
resumed  under  military  protection,  18,  19  Aug.  ;
end  of  strike  reported  .  .  .  .  24  Aug.
Rising  of  miners  in  Tracy  City,  Tennessee,  against
the  employment  of  convicts  in  state  labour,
13  Aug.  ;  convicts  attacked  and  expelled  and
their  stockades  demolished  ;  fighting  between
the  convict  guard  and  the  strikers  ;  the  strikers
victors  at  Coal  Creek  ;  much  slaughter  ;  progress
of  troops  on  the  line  temporarily  stopped  ;  the
miners  surrender  to  gen.  Carries  after  severe
fighting  ;  order  restored  at  Coal  Creek

18,  19  Aug.
Western  Reserve,  steamer,  wrecked  on  Lake  Supe-
rior ;  26  lives  lost .... 30  Aug.
Hattie,  U.S.  fishing  schooner,  seized  by  the  Cana-
dian cruiser  Curlew,  while  unlawfully  fishing  in
the  Bay  of  Fundy . . . reported  6  Sept.
Death  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  eminent  poet,
and  opponent  of  slavery,  aged  84 . .7  Sept.
Cholera panic  on Long Island,  New York  ; the
landing  on  Fire  Island  of  passengers  from  foreign


Aberdeen  founded
Abo,  Finland
Adelaide,  Australia .
Andrews,  St. ,  Scotland  .
Angers,  chiefly  law
Anjou,  1349;  enlarged  .
Athens

Barcelona,  revived.
Basle,  Switzerland

Berlin 1810

Berne 1834

Besangon,  Burgundy . . .  1676


1494
1640
1876
1411
1364


1460


Bologna,  Italy

Bonn

Bordeaux


Bourges 146.

Breslau

Bruges,  French  Flanders . .

Brussels

Caen,  Normandy,  1436;  revived  .
Cambridge,  12II1  century.
Cambridge,  New  England,  pro-
jected .
Christiania 181 1


vessels  violently  resisted  by  au  armed  mob,
causing  much  distress  ;  the  landing  only  effected
by  governor  Flower  and  the  military,  11-13  Sept.  1892

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF  AMERICA.

1789  &  1793.  General  George  Washington,  elected  first

president. 6  April.
1797.  John  Adams. 4  March.
1801  &  1805.  Thomas  Jefferson. 4  March.
1809  &  1813.  James  Madison. 4  March.
1817  &  1821.  James  Monroe. 4  March.
1825.  John  Quincy  Adams. 4  March.
1829  &  1833.  General  Andrew  Jackson. 4  March.
1837.  Martin  Van  Buren. 4  March.
1841.  General  William  Henry  Harrison. 4  March. Died

4  April,  succeeded  by
1841.  John  Tyler  (formerly  vice-president).
1845.  James  Knox  Polk. 4  March.

1849.  General  Zachary  Taylor. 4  March. Died  9  July,

1850,  succeeded  by  the  vice-president,

1850.  Millard  Fillmore.

1853.  General  Franklin  Pierce. 4  March.
1857.  James  Buchanan. 4  March.

1861  &,  1865.  Abraham  Lincoln. 4  March. Shot  14  April;
died  15  April,  1865;  succeeded  by  vice-president,
1865.  Andrew  Johnson. 15  April.
1869  &  1873.  Ulysses  S.  Grant. 4  March.
1877.  Rutherford  Birchard  Hayes. 4  March.
1881.  Gen.  James  Abram  Garfield. 4  March.

,, Gen.  Chester  A.  Arthur. 19  Sept.
1885.  Grover  Cleveland. 4  March.

1889.  Gen. Benjamin  Harrison. 4  March  (grandson  of
the  president  of  1841).

UNIVEESALISTS,  who  believe  in  the  final
salvation  of  all  men.  This  doctrine,  declared  in  the
Talmud,  and  ascribed  to  Origen,  about  230,  was
advocated  by  other  early  fathers,  but  opposed  by
St.  Augustin,  about  420 ;  and  condemned  by  the  5th
general  council  at  Constantinople,  May,  June,  553.
It  was  received  by  the  Unitarians  in  the  17th  cen-
tury, and  avowed  by  numerous  clergymen  of  the
church  of  England.  James  Kelly,  who  published
his  "  Union"  in  1760,  founded  the  sect  of  Univer-
salists  in  Britain ;  and  John  Murray,  in  America,
about  1770.  The  sect  barely  exists  in  Britain,  but
flourishes  in  America.

UNIVEESAL  EEVIEW,  edited  by  Mr.
Harry  Quilter,  devoted  to  fine  art,  literature,  &c,
first  published  15  May,  1888.  Publication  ceased
Dec.  1890.

UNIVEESAL  SUFFEAGE  (Plebiscitum),
one  of  the  six  points  of  the  charter  (see  Chartists),
was  adopted  by  the  French  in  their  constitution  of
1 791 ;  and  used  in  the  election  of  their  president  in

1851.  and  of  their  emperor  in  1852 ;  and  by  the
Italian  States  in  voting  for  annexation  to  Sardinia
in  i860,  1861,  1866,  and  1870.

UNIVEESAL  TIME,  see  under  Bay.

UNIVEESITIES.  The  most  ancient  in
Europe  are  said  to  be  those  of  Bologna,  Oxford,
Cambridge,  Paris,  and  Salamanca.  In  old  Aberdeen
was  a  monastery,  in  which  youths  were;instructcd  in
theology,  the  canon  law,  and  the  school  philosophy,
at  least' 200  years  before  the  university  and  King's
College  were  founded ;  see  Degrees.  The  following
dates  arc  generally  given,  many  traditional :

.  1116 Cologne,  in  Germany,  refounded  1385

1784,  1818 Compostella,  Spain . . .  1517

Coimbra,  Portugal . . . .  1279

Copenhagen ....  1476

1702 Cordova,  Spain . . . .  968

1665 Corfu 1823

1834 Cracow,  Poland,  700;  revived .  1364

1S03 Dijon,  France 1722

Dillingen,  Swabia . . .  1565

I  )oli.',  Burgundy . . . .  I422

1630 Dorpat 1633


• I472


Douay,  French  Flanders

3  U  2


UNIVEESITIES.


1028


URANIUM.


London  University  (which  see) .

Louvaine,  Flanders,  926;  en-
larged

Lyons,  France . . 830,

Madrid . •_ .

Mantua

Marlmrg .  . •

Mechlin,  Flanders  . . .

Melbourne,  Victoria .

Mentz

Milan

Montpellier . _ .

Moscow,  1754;  again . . .

Munich

Munster

Nancy

Nantes

Naples

Orange

Orleans,  France  .

Oxford  (see  Oxford) . . .

Paderbor.i  . . . .

Padua,  Italy  . . . .

Palenza,  1209;  removed  to  Sala-
manca

Palermo

Paris,  792 ;  renovated .

Parma . . . . .  . .

Pau

Pavia,  1360;  enlarged . . .

Perpignan

Perugia,  Italy . . . .

Petersburg,  St.,  1747;  again

Pisa,  1343;  enlarged  .

Poitiers

Prague


Dresden,  Saxony  .  .  .  1694
Dublin  (see  Trinity  College)  .  .1591
Dublin  College  (catholic) . .  1851

Durham 1831

Edinburgh, founded  by  James  VI.  1581
Erfurt,  Thuringia;  enlarged .  1390

Erlangen 1743

Evora,  Portugal  .  .  .  .  1533
Florence,  Italy,  enlarged.  .  .  1439
Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . .  1506

Franeker 1585

Fribourg,  Germany . . . 1460

Geneva 1368

Ghent 1816

Glasgow 1450

Gottingen 1735

Granada,  Spain  .- ■. . . 1537

Gripswald 1547

Groningen,  Friesland  .  .  .  1614
Halle,  Saxony . . . . 1694

Harvard,  U.S 1C38

Heidelberg 1386

Helmstadt 1575

Ingolstadt,  Bavaria . . . 1593

Irish  new 1879

Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia  .  .  1547
Kiel,  Holstein  ....  1665
King's  College, London  (wliich

see) . . . . . .  1829

■  Konigsberg,  Prussia . . .  1544
Leipsic,  Saxony . . . .  1409

Leyden,  Holland . . .  157s
Liege .... . .  1816

Lima,  in  Peru ....  1614

Lisbon,  1290;  removed  to  Coim-

bra 1391

UNIVEESITIES  OF  OXFOED  AND
CAMBBIDGE.  .Royal  commission  appointed  to
inquire  into  their  income  and  property,  in  1872  ;
reported  in  Oct.  1874,  that  the  united  income  for
1871,  was  754,405/.  5*.  ihd.;  see  Cambridge  and
Oxford.  The  Universities  Act  passed,  10  Aug.
1877,  appoints  commissioners  with  power  to  make
statutes  and  other  provisions.

UNIVEESITY  BOAT-EACE.  The  contest
between  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,
at  first  near  Oxford,  afterwards  on  the  river  Thames,
began  10  June,  1829,  and  has  been  annual  since
1856.  In  1864,  after  20  contests,  the  opposing
parties  were  equal;  but  on  8  April,  1865,  24  March,
1866,  13  April,  1867,  4  April,  1868,  and  17  March,
1869,  Oxford  won;  the  last  time  being  the  9th  in.
succession.  Cambridge  won,  6  April,  1870,  1  April,
1871, 23  March,  1872,  29  March,  1873,  and  28  March,
1874.  Oxford  won,  March  20,  1875;  Cambridge
won,  8  April,  1876.  Dead  heat ;  neither  won,  24
March,  1877 ;  Oxford  won,  13  April,  1878 ;  Cam-
bridge won,  5  April,  1879 ;  Oxford  won  on  Monday,
22  March,  1880;  Friday,  8  April,  1881 ;  Saturday,  1
April,  1882;  and  Thursday,  15  March,  1883;  Cam-
bridge, Monday,  7  April,  1884 ;  Oxford,  Saturday,
28  March,  1885 ;  Cambridge,  Saturday,  3  April,
1886;  26  March,  1887  ;  24  March,  1888;  30  March,
1889.  (E.  T.  Campbell  killed  at  Cambridge,  24
Feb.  1888)  ;  Oxford,  26  March,  1890,  21  March,
1891,  9  March,  1892.  In  the  international  boat-race
between  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Harvard,
Massachusetts,  U.S.,  Oxford  won,  27  Aug.  1869.
The  Oxford  crew  rowed  from  Dover  to  Calais  in  4J

hours 25  July,  1885

UNIVEESITY  COLLEGE  (London),  see
London  University,  and  Oxford.

UNIVEESITY  EDUCATION  (Ireland)
Act,  42  &  43  Vict.  c.  85,  passed  15  Aug.  1879.  It
provides  for  the  dissolution  of  the  "  Queen's  Univer-
sity,'" and  the  foundation  of  the  "  Royal  University
of  Ireland"  the  charter  of  which  was  signed  by  the
queen,  19  April,  1880.


1S26

1426
1300
1836
1625
1527
1440
1855
1477
1565


1826
1492


1224
1365
1305
879
i592
1228

1249
1447
1200
1482
1722
1599
1349
1307
1819
1552
1431


Queen's  University  (Ireland) .  .  1850.
Rheims,  1 145;  enlarged . .  1548

Rome 1245;

Rostock,  Mecklenburg . .  1419

Salamanca 1239*

Salerno J233

Salzburg 1623-,

Saragossa,  Aragon . . .  1474

Seville i5°4!

Sienna 1380

Siguenza,  Spain  .  ...  1517
Sorbonne,  France . . .  1253

Strasbourg 1538:'

Stutirardt 1775

Sydney,  N.  S.  W. . . .  1852

Toledo,  Spain 1499'

Toulouse 1229

Treves,  Germany  .  .  .  .  1473
Tubingen,  Wiirtemberg . ,  1477"

Turin 1405

Upsal,  Sweden  ....  147&
Utrecht,  Holland  .  .  .  .  1634
Valence,  Dauphine . . .  1454-

Valeucia 1209

Valladolid  .... 1346

Venice 1592'

Victoria,  N.  England . . .  1880

Vienna 1363

Wales 1883.-

Wittenburg 1502

Wurtzburg H0?

Wilna 1803

Zurich 1832.


UNIVEESITY  ELECTIONS,  see  Dodson's.

Act.

UNIVEESITY  TEACHING,  Society  for
its  Extension  formed  in  London  about  1875,  and
supported  by  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  London  uni-
versities ;  great  meeting  for  its  support  at  the
Mansion-house,  19  Feb.  1879.  Courses  of  lectures,
given  in  various  parts  of  London,  Oct.  1879.

Proposed  establishment  of  a  settlement  in  east
London,  by  university  men  of  Oxford  and  Cam-
bridge, to  improve  social  intellectual  condition
May,  1884  ;  at  Toynbee  Hall,  Whitechapel,  volun-
teer lectures  on  science,  art,  &c.  given  ;  also
instruction  in  music,  athletic  sports  &c.  ;  and  a
social  club  formed.

Oxford  House,  at  Betlmal  Green  ;  a  kind  of  club  for
social  intellectual  improvement,  and  for  the  ex-
tension of  university  teaching,  opened  by  the
archbishop  of  Canterbury  . . . 18  Feb.  188S"

The  new  buildings,  founded  30  Nov.  1891,  were
opened  by  the  duke  of  Connaught . 23  June,  1892:

UNIVEESITY  TESTS  (Keligious).  A  bill
for  their  abolition  was  rejected  by  the  lords,  19  July,
1869,  and  14  July,  1870;  passed,  and  received  royal
assent,  16  June,  187 1.  A  similar  act  for  Trinity
College,  Dublin,  was  passed  in  May,  1873.  In>
April,  1878,  on  trial  it  was  affirmed,  that  an  endow-
ment with  a  religious  test  at  Hertford  college,
Oxford,  was  valid.

UNKNOWN TONGUES, see I>
note.

UNLEAENED  PAELIAMENT,  see  Par-
liament, 1404.

UNSEAWOETHY  SHIPS  COMMIS-
SION, see  Seamen  and  Merchant  Shipping  Act.

UPSAL  (Sweden).  The  Swedish  rulers  were
kings  of  Upsal  till  1001.  The  university  was
founded  in  1476,  by  Sten  Sture,  the  "protector,"
and  opened  21  Sept.  1477.  Celebration  of  founda-
tion of  university,  Sept.  1877.

UEANIUM,  a  brittle  grey  metal  discovered  by
Klaproth  in  1 789,  in  the  mineral  pitch-blende. It


UKANUS.


1029


UTICA.


"has  lately  been  employed  in  the  manufacture  of
glass  for  certain  philosophical  purposes.
The  discovery  of  a  new  lode  in  the  Union  mine,
Grainpound Road, Cornwall, Sept. 1889, and
improvements  in  treating  the  ore,  have  greatly
•cheapened  the  metal .... Feb.  1890

URANUS,  a  planet  with  eight  satellites,  was  dis-
covered by  William  Herschel,  13  March,  1781,  first
called  Georgium  Sidus,  after  George  III.;  next
Herschel;  and,  finally,  Uranus.  It  is  about  twice
.as  distant  from  the  sun  as  the  planet  Saturn.  The
anniversary  of  its  first  revolution  (in  84  years
7  days)  since  its  discovery,  was  celebrated  on
20  March,  1865.  Its  perturbations  led  to  the  dis-
covery of  Neptune,  in  1846.  Uranus  has  8  satel-
lites ;  6  discovered  by  Herschel,  2  in  1787,  2  in
1790,  2  in  1794;  and  '1  by  Lassell,  and  1  by  Struve,
in  1847.

URBANISTS,  see  Clementines,  and  Glare.

URBINO1  the  ancient  Urbinum  Hortense,
central  Italy,  capital  of  a  duchy  created  for
Malatesta,  1474.  It  was  treacherously  seized  by
Csesar  Borgia,  1502  ;  captured  by  Julius  II.,  1503  ;
.and  given  to  Borgia,  1504;  given  to  Lorenzo  de'
Medici  by  Leo  X.  1516;  after  many  vicissitudes  re-
covered by  the  duke  Francesco,  1522;  on  the  duke's
resignation  annexed  to  the  papal  states,  1631 ;  an-
nexed to  Italy,  i860.

URGENCY,  see  Parliament,  1881.

UMCONIUM,  see  Wroxeter.

URIM  AND  THUMMIM,  Light  and
PERFECTION  {Exodus  xxviii.  30),  words  con-
nected with  the  breastplate  worn  by  the  high  priest
when  he  enteredinto  the  holy  place,  with  the  view
•of  obtaining  an  answer  from  God  (1490  B.C.).

URSULINE  NUNS  (so  called  from  St-
Ursula),  founded  originally  by  St.  Angela-  of
Brescia),  about  1537.  Several  communities  existed
'In  England;  and  some  still  exist  in  Ireland.

URUGUAY,  Banda  Oriental,  a  republic

in  South  America,  formerly  part  of  the  vice-royalty
•of  Buenos  Ayres ;  declared  its  independence,  25  Aug.
1825;  recognised  4  Oct.  1828;  constitution  pro-
claimed 18  July.  1S30.  Capital,  Montevideo.
Population  in  1886  (estimated)  632,250.
The  president  of  the  executive,  G. A. Pereyra,

elected  in  1856  ;  succeeded  by  B.  P.  Berro . .  i860
Civil  war  broke  out  in  consequence  of  the  invasion
of the ex-president, general  Venancio Flores,

26  June,  1863
'The vice-president Aguirre became president,

1  March,  1864
He  refused  to  modify  his  ministry  according  to  the
desire  of  general  Flores,  who  marched  towards

the  capital June, ,,

Flores  became  provisional  president. .  Feb.  1865

F.  A.  Vidal  elected  president . . 1  March,  1866
During  an  Insurrection  of  the  Blanco  party  (headed
by  Berro),  at  Montevideo,  general  Flores  was
•assassinated;  the  troops  remained  faithful;  in-
surrection  soon suppressed, and Berro shot,

19  Feb.  1SG8
Gen.  Lorenzo  Battle  elected  president . 1  March, ,,
Blanco  insurrection  repressed,  July,  1871;  ended,

Jan.  1872
Revolution  at  Montevideo  ; Ellazio's  government
overthrown;  Pedro  Varela  provisional  president,

about 15  Jan.  1875

Col.  L.  Latorre  president . . .11  March,  1876
Br.  F.  A.  Vidal,  president,  died, 17  March  1880  ;

gen.  Maximo  Santas,  president  .  1  March,  1882
Insurrection by  general Arredondo, 29 March  ;

reported  defeat  of  government  troops,  30  March,  1886
Flight  of  general  Arredondo  to  Brazil,  March-April, „
Insurgents  completely  defeated . . 2  April, ,,


Resignation  of  general  Santas,  18  Nov.  ;  general
Maximo  Tajes  as  president . . . 18  Nov.  1886

Dr.  Herrera  Y  Obes . . . .  1  March,  1890

State  financial  difficulties  ;  run  on  the  banks  for
gold  ;  paper  currency  authorised,  not  accepted,

8-19  July, ,,

Conversion  of  the  state  debt  and  reduction  of
interest  proposed  by  the  government,  accepted
by  the  creditors  in  London . . .31  Aug.  1891

Attempted  revolution  at  Montevideo  by  the  Blanco
party  suppressed  with  bloodshed ;  martial  law
set  up 11  Oct. ,,

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY,

see  Diffusion.

USES,  Statute  of, 27  Hen.  VLTI.  c.  10

(1535-6)  ;  see  Charitable  Uses.

USHANT,  an  island  near  Brest,  N."W.  France,

near  which  two  naval  battles  were  fought  between

the  British  and  French  fleets.

(1.)  On  27  July,  1778,  after  an  indecisive  action  of  three
hours,  the  French,  under  cover  of  the  night,  withdrew
into  the  harbour  of  Brest.  Admiral  Keppel  com-
manded the  English  fleet ;  the  count  d'Orvilliers  the
French.  The  failure  of  a  complete  victory  was  attri-
buted to  admiral  sir  Hugh  Palliser's  non-compliance
with  the  admiral's  signals.  Palliser  preferred  articles
of  accusation  against  his  commander,  who  was  tried
and  acquitted,  and  the  charge  against  him  declared  to
be  "  malicious  and  ill-founded."

(2.)  Lord  Howe  with  25  ships  signally  defeated  the
French  fleet  (26  ships,  under  Villaret-Joyeuse),  taking
six  ships  of  the  line,  and  sinking  one  (the  Vengeur*),
1  June,  1794.  While  the  two  fleets  were  engaged  in
this  action,  a  large  fleet  of  merchantmen,  on  the
safety  of  which  the  French  nation  depended  for  its
means  of  prosecuting  the  war,  got  safely  into  Brest
harbour,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  enemy  to  claim
the  laurels  of  the  day,  notwithstanding  their  loss  in
ships,  and  in  killed  and  wounded,  which  was  very
great.  The  day  was  long  termed  in  England  the
"glorious  first  of  June."

USURY  from  a  stranger  was  permitted  to  the
Jews,  but  forbidden  from  their  brethren,  1491  B.C.
{Exod.  xxii.  25.,  Eeut.  xxiii.  13.)  This  law  was
enforced  by  Nehemiah,  445  B.C.  (Neh.  v.)  Usury
was  prohibited  by  the  English  parliament,  1341.
Until  the  15th  century,  no  Christians  were  allowed
to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  the
only  usurers,  and  therefore  often  banished  and  per-
secuted; see  Jeivs.  By  the  37th  of  Henry  VIII.
the  rate  of  interest  was  fixed  at  10  per  cent.,  1545.
This  statute  was  repealed  by  Edward  VI.,  but  re-
enacted  13  Eliz.  1570.  For  later  legislation,  see
Interest.

UTAH,  a  western  territory  of  North  America,
was  organised  9  Sept.  1850;  the  capital.  Salt  Lake
Cit}T,  became  the  chief  seat  of  the  Mormonites
{which  see).  Population  in  1880,  143,963;  1890,
207,905;  Salt  Lake  city,  1890,44,843.

UTICA  (N.  Africa),  an  ancient  Tyrian  colony,
an  ally  of  Carthage,  named  in  the  treat}-  with  the
Romans  348  B.C.  Here  Cato  the  younger,  after  the
defeat  of  the  partisans  of  Pompey  at  Thapsus,  com-
mitted suicide,  46  B.C.  Utica  nourished  greatly
after  the  fall  of  Carthage,  and  was  made  a  Roman
city  by  Augustus  mi  account  of  its  favouring  Julius
Csesar.  It  suffered  by  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals,
439 ;  and  of  the  Saracens,  about  700.

Various  French  histories,  on  the  authority  of  the
French  demagogue  Barrere,  state  that  the  English  had
36  ships  of  the"  line,  and  the  French  only  26,  and  that
the  crew  ni'  the  Vengew  sang  the  Marseillaist  while  the
ship  sank,  displaying  the  tricolor  Bag.  All  this  was
denied  in  1802,  ami  disproved  by  rear-admiral  Griffith  in
Nov.  iS;3. The Vengmr  surrendered to the British,

who  excited themselves  to  Save  the dew. The French

statement  was  accepted  by  Alison, andat  first  byCarlyle,
but  afterwards  contradicted  by  both.


UTILITAEIANISM.


1030


UXBELDGE.


UTILITAEIANISM,  termed  the  "greatest
happiness  principle,"  the  philosophy  -which  pro-
poses the  attainment  of  the  greatest  happiness  of
the  greatest  number ;  a  doctrine  ascribed  to  Priestley
by  Bentham.  The  doctrine  is  found  in  the  writ-
ings of  Locke,  Hartley,  Hume,  and  Paley;  but
was  chiefly  propounded  by  Jeremy  Bentham  in  his
"Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and
Legislation,"  1780-89,  by  John  Stuart  Mill,  who
died  9  May,  1873,  an<l  by  sir  Edwin  Chadwick,
who  died  5  July,  1890.  Mill  founded  a  small
"utilitarian  society,"  in  1822.  He  took  the  name
from  an  expression  in  Gait's  "Annals  of  the  Parish."

UTOPIA,  the  name  given  by  sir  Thomas  More
to  an  imaginary  isle,  representing  the  "best  state
of  a  public  weale,"  described  in  a  book  written  in
Latin,  published  1548.  The  work  is  considered  to
be  an  ironical  satire  on  the  state  of  Europe  at  the
time,  Utopia  signifying  "  Nowhere."  An  English
translation  was  published  in  1551.  For  the  loss  of
the  Utopia,  emigrant  steamer,  see  Wrecks,  17
March,  1891.

UTEAQUISTS,  see  Calixtins.

UTEECHT  (the  Roman  Trajectum  adShenum)
became  the  seat  of  an  independent  bishopric  about  I


691;.  The  last  prelate,  Henry  of  Bavaria;,  weary  off
his  turbulent  subjects,  sold  his  temporal  govern-
ment to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1528.  The-
union  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  began  here
(see  United  Provinces)  ;  signed  23  Jan.  1579  ;  300th
anniversary  celebrated  23  Jan.  1879.  The  treaty  of
Utrecht,  which  terminated  the  wars  of  queen  Anne,
was  signed  by  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain  and
France,  and  all  the  other  allies,  except  the  ministers.
of  the  empire,  11  April,  1713.  This  treaty  secured
the  Protestant  succession  in  England,  the  separation
of  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns,  the  destruction  off
the  works  of  Dunkirk,  the  enlargement  of  the
British  colonies  and  plantations  in  America,  and  a
full  satisfaction  for  the  claims  of  the  allies.  Utrecht
surrendered  to  the  Prussians,  9  May,  1787;  was
acquired  by  the  French,  18  Jan.  1795,  and  restored-
at  the  peace,  1814.  Population,  1887,  81,398  ;  1890,
86,n6.

UXBEIDGE  (W.  Middlesex).  On  30  Jan..
1645,  commissioners  met  here  to  discuss  terms  off
peace  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament ;  they
separated  without  effect,  22  Feb.  The  latter  re-
quired absolute  control  of  the  army  and  navy,  the-
abolition  of  the  episcopacy,  liturgy,  &c,  Ux  bridge
murder,  see  Trials,  Dec.  1884.


V.


VACATIONS.


VALENTINE'S  DAY.


VACATIONS,  see  Terms.
VACCINATION  (from  Variola  Vaccina,  the
cow-pox),  discovered  by  Dr.  Edward  Jenner.  He
"was  born  in  1/49,  aiw  educated  for  the  medical
profession,  partially  under  John  Hunter.  Having
heard  that  milkmaids  who  had  had  the  cow-pox
never  took  the  small-pox,  he,  about  1780,  conceived
the  idea  of  vaccination.  He  made  the  first  experi-
ment by  transferring  to  a  healthy  child  on  14  May,
1 796,  the  pus  from  the  pustule  of  a  milkmaid  who
had  caught  the  cow-pox  from  the  cows.  He  an-
nounced his  success  in  a  memoir  published  1798,
and  vaccination,  begun  21  Jan.  1799,  soon  became
general,  after  much  opposition.  For  this  Dr.  Jenner
received  io,OOOl.  from  parliament,  2  June,  1802,  and
20,000^.  in  1807.  The  first  national  institution  for
vaccination,  the  Royal  Jennerian  Institution,  was
founded  19  Jan.  1803.  The  emperor  Napoleon
valued  Dr.  Jenner  so  highly,  that  he  liberated  Dr.
Wickham,  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner's  re-
quest, and  subsequently  whole  families  of  English,
making  it  a  point  to  refuse  him  nothing  that  he
asked.  Vaccination,  although  much  opposed,  was
practised  throughout  all  Europe  previously  to  1816.
Dr.  Jenner  died  suddenly,  26  Jan.  1823.
Royal  Jennerian  and  London  Vaccine  Institution,

founded 1802

The  Vaccination  act,  3  <fe  4  Vict,  passed . 23  July,  1840
Mr.  John  Badcoek,  of  Brighton,  began  to  inoculate
cows  with  small-pox  to  produce  new  lymph  for

vaccination about ,,

An  important  blue-book,  entitled  "  Papers  on  the
History  and  Practice  of  Vaccination,"  edited  by
Mr.  John  Simon,  was  published  by  the  board  of

health  in 1857

A  statue,  subscribed  for  by  all  nations,  was  erected

to  Jenner's  memory  in  Trafalgar-square  30  April,  1858
It  was  removed  to  Kensington  in  ....  1862
Vaccination  was  made  compulsory  in  England  in

1853,  and  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  .  .  .  .  1863
A  statue  was  erected  by  the  French  at  Boulogne,

and  inaugurated 11  Sept. 1865

These  laws  were  consolidated  and  amended  by
30  &  31  Vict.  c.  84,  12  Aug.  1867  (see  Small-pox
and  Inoculation),  and  amended  in.  .  .  .  1871
Much  opposition  to  vaccination ;  an  anti-vaccina-
tion society  formed,  1870-71 ;  a  parliamentary
commission  appointed  . . . 13  Feb. ,,

A  government  bill  respecting  punishment  for  com-
pulsory vaccination  dropped  . . . Aug.  1880
Vaccination  direct  from  the  cow  or  calf  advocated

and  practised  in  Brussels,  &c. . . 1879  et  seq.
Successful  vaccination  of  68,900  sheep  by  M.  Pas-
teur of  Paris .... up  to  1  Oct.  1881
The Grocer's  company  of  London offer  prize of
1000Z.  for  a  plan  for  propagating  vaccine  conta-
gium  apart  from  the  animal  body . 30  May,  1883
Great  anti-vaccination  demonstration  at  Leicester

(many  persons  had  been  fined) . .  23  March,  1885
Loudon  society  for  abolition  of  compulsory  vaccina-
tion, held  7th  annual  meeting . . n  May,  1887
Estimated  : 750,000  infants  vaccinated  annually  ;

50  die  of  disease  in  consequence  ;  stated Oct. ,,
Royal  commission  of  inquiry  appointed 29  May,  1889
Interim  report  issued May,  1892

VACUUM,  is  produced  by  reducing  the  pres-
sure of  the  atmosphere,  whereby  its  power  of  ab-
sorbing moisture  is  greatly  increased,  this  power
has  been  utilised  by  M.  Emil  Passburg,  of  Breslau,
in  his  drying  apparatus  which  has  been  success-
fully employed  for  drying  grains  by  Messrs.
Guinness,  of  Dublin  since  the  spring  of  1888.


VADIMONIS  LACUS,  theVadimonian  lake,
Umbria,  central  Italy,  near  which  the  Etruscans
were  totally  defeated  in  two  severe  engagements  by
the  Roman  consuls :  r,  by  Fabius  Maximus,  309  B.C. ;
2,  by  Cornelius  Dolabella,  283.

VAGRANTS.  By  law,  after  being  whipped,  a
vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return  to  the  place
where  he  was  born,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three
years,  1530.  A  vagrant  a  second  time  convicted
was  to  lose  the  upper  part  of  the  gristle  of  his  right
ear,  1535  ;  a  third  time  convicted,  death.  A  vaga-
bond to  be  branded  with  a  V,  and  be  a  slave  for
two  years,  1547.  If  he  absconded  and  was  caught,
he  was  to  be  branded  with  S,  and  be  a  slave
for  life.  Vagrants  were  punished  by  whipping,
gaoling,  boring  the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second
offence,  1572.  The  milder  statutes  were  those  of
17  Geo.  II.;  32,  35,  and  59  Geo.  III.  The  present
Vagrant  Act  (5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83)  was  passed  in  1824.
There  were  about  33,000  tramps  in  England  and
Wales  in  1865.  For  vagrants  in  London,  see  under
Foor.

VALDENSES,  see  Waldenses.

VALENCAY,  a  chateau  near  Chateauroux,
central  France,  where  Napoleon  I.  imprisoned
Ferdinand  of  Spain  from  1808  to  1813.  His  king-
dom was  restored  to  Ferdinand  by  a  treaty  signed
8  Dec.  1813.

VALENCIA  (E.  Spain),  the  Valentia  Edeta-
norum  of  the  Romans,  became  the  capital  of  a
Moorish  kingdom,  1000 ;  annexed  to  Aragon  1238.
Its  university,  founded,  it  is  said,  in  the  13th
century,  was  revived  in  the  15th.  Valencia  was
taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in  1705,  but
submitted  to  the  Bourbons  after  the  unfortunate
battle  of  Almanza,  in  1 707.  It  resisted  the  attempts
made  on  it  by  marshal  Moncey,  but  was  talc  en  from
the  Spaniards  with  a  garrison  of  more  than  16,000
men,  and  immense  stores,  by  the  French  under
Suchet,  9  Jan.  1812.  Population  of  the  city,  1887,
170,763.

VALENCIENNES  (N.  France).  This  city
(the  Roman  Valentiame),  after  many  changes,  was
taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1677,  and  annexed  1678.
It  was  besieged  from  23  May  to  28  July,  1793,  when
the  French  garrison  surrendered  to  the  allies  under
the  duke  of  York.  It  was  retaken,  together  with
Conde,  by  the  French,  27-30  Aug.  1794  ;  on  capitu-
lation, the  garrison  and  1 100  emigrants  were  made
prisoners,  with  immense  stores.

VALENTIA,  a  Roman  province,  including  the
country  between  the  walls  of  Severus  and  Adrian,
was  reconquered  from  the  Picts  and  Scots  by  Theo-
dosius,  and  named  after  Valentinian  I.  the  reigning
emperor,  368.

VALENTINE'S  DAY  (14  Feb.).  Valentine
is  said  to  have  been  a  bishop,  who  suffered  martyr-
dom under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome  ;  others  say  under
Aurelian,  in  271.  618,000  letters  passed  through
the  post-office  on  14^  Feb.  1856.  ^30,300  was  the
estimated  number  ot  valentines  delivered  in  1864;
in  1870,  1, S45i7S5-  T"c  origin  of  the  ancient
custom  of  "choosing  a  valentine"  has  been  much
controverted ;  see  Post.


VALENTINIANS.


1032


VARANGIANS.


VALENTINIANS,  followers  of  Valentine,  a
priest,  who,  on  being  disappointed  of  a  bishopric,
forsook  the  Christian  faith,  declaring  there  were
thirty  gods  and  goddesses,  fifteen  of  each  sex,  which
he  called  Clones,  or  Ages.  He  taught  in  the  2nd
century,  and  published  a  gospel  and  psalms  :  his
followers  added  other  errors,

VALLADOLID  (Spain),  the  Roman  Pintia
and  the  Moorish  Belad  Walid :  was  recovered  for
the  Christians  by  Ordono  II.,  the  first  king  of  Leon,
914-23.  It  became  capital  of  Castile  in  the  15th
century.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  Jan.  1808  ;
and  captured  by  the  English,  4  June,  1813.  Here
died  Christopher  Columbus,  20  May,  1506.'  Popula-
tion, 1887,  62,012.

.VALLOMBROSA  (Central  Italy).  A  Bene-
dictine abbey  was  founded  here  by  John  Gualbert,
about  1038.  The  monks  were  termed  Vallam-
brosians.

VALMY  (N.E.  France).  Here  the  French,
commanded  by  Kellennann,  defeated  the  Prussians,
commanded  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  20  Sept.
1792.  The  victory  was  of  immense  moral  advan-
tage to  the  republicans ;  and  Kellermann  was  made
duke  of  Valmy  in  1808.

VALOIS,  a  county  (N.  France)  given  by
Philip  III.  to  his  younger  son  Charles,  whose  son
Philip  became  king  as  Philip  IV.  hi  1328;  see
France.

VALOR  ECCLESIASTICUS,  a  report  of
the  annual  value  of  church  property,  made  by  order
in  1534.  was  published  by  the  Record  Commission
in  1810-34

VALPARAISO,  principal  port  of  Chili,  South
America,  was  bombarded  by  the  Spanish  admiral
Mendez  Nunez,  on  31  March,  1866,  when  much
property  was  destroyed.  It  suffered  by  earthquakes
m  1822,  1829,  and  1851.  Population,  1885,  104,9152
See  Chili,  1891.

VALTELLINE  (N.  Italy),  a  district,  near  the
Rhaetian  Alps,  seized  by  the  Grison  league,  1512,
and  ceded  to  it,  1530.  At  the  instigation  of  Spain,
the  catholics  rose  and  massacred  the  protestants,
19-21  July,  1620.  After  much  contention  between
the  French  and  Austrians,  the  neutrality  of  the
Valtelline  was  assured  in  1639.  It  was  annexed  to
the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1797;  to  Italy,  1807;  to
Austria,  1814;  to  Italy,  i860.

VALUATION  OF  PROPERTY  ACT,
to  provide  for  the  uniform  assessment  of  rateable
property  in  the  metropolis,  was  passed  9  Aug.  1869.

VALVASOR  (or  "Vavasor").  Camden
holds  that  the  "  Vavasor"  was  next  below  a  baron.
Du  Cange  maintains  that  there  were  two  sorts  of
vavasors :  the  greater,  who  held  of  the  king,  such
as  barons  and  counts  ;  and  the  lesser,  called  "  val-
vasini,"  who  held  of  the  former,  such  as  vassals
holding  land  under  a  nobleman  himself  a  vassal
Valvasors  are  mentioned  in  the  Domesday  book,  10S6.
.VANADIUM  (from  Vanadis,  the  Scandina-
vian Venus),  metal  discovered  by  Sefstrom,  in  18^0
combined  with  iron  ore.  A  similar  metal,  dis-
covered m  lead  ore  by  Del  Rio  in  1801,  and  named
Mrythronium,  was  proved  by  "Wohler  to  be  Vana-
dium. Vanadium  was  discovered  in  the  copper-
bearing  beds  in  Cheshire,  in  1865,  by  Mr.  (aft.  Sir)
H.  E.  Roscoe,  by  whom  its  peculiarities  were  further
studied,  and  published  in  1867-8.  It  is  useful  in
photography  and  dyeing.

VANCOUVER'S  ISLAND,  North  Pacific
ocean,  near  the  mam  land.  Settlements  were  made
here  by  the  English  in  1781,  which  were  seized  by


the  Spaniards  in  1789,  but  restored.  By  a  treaty
between  the  British  government  and  that  of  the
United  States  in  1846,  this  island  was  secured  to
the  former  It  has  become  of  much  greater  im-
portance since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  neigh-
bouring main  land  in  1858,  and  the  consequent
establishment  of  the  colony  of  British  Columbia
(which  see) .  Victoria^  the  capital,  wasfoundedin  1857.
The  island  was  united  with  British  Columbia  by
act  passed  in  Aug.  1866;  and  on  24  May,  1868,
Victoria  was  declared  the  capital.  Lord  Dufferin,
governor-general  of  Canada,  was  warmly  received
here,  15  Aug.  1876.  See  Juan,  San.  Chinese
immigrants  are  virtually  excluded  by  a  poll-tax,
1878.
Vancouver  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  about  15  June ;

again 6  July,  1886

Wellington  colliery  explosion  ;  76  lives  lost,  Jan.  1888

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Van-
couver served  as  a  midshipman  under  captain  Cook,
and  was  appointed  to  command  during  a  voyage
of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  any
navigable  communication  between  the  North  Pacific
and  North  Atlantic  oceans.  He  sailed  7  Jan.  1791,
and  returned  24  Sept.  1795.  He  compiled  an  ac-
count of  this  voyage  of  survey  of  the  north-west
coast  of  America,  and  died  in  1798.

VANDALS,  a  Germanic  race,  attacked  the
Roman  empire  in  the  3rd  century,  and  began  to
ravage  Germany  and  Gaul,  406-14  ;  then  kingdom
in  Spain  was  founded  in  411  ;  under  Genseric  they
invaded  and  conquered  the  Roman  territories  in
Africa,  429,  and  took  Carthage,  Oct.  439.  They
were  subdued  by  Belisarius  in  534.  They  were
driven  out  by  the  Saracen  Moors.  The  dukes  of
Mecklenburg  style  themselves  princes  of  the
Vandals.

VANDAL  KINGS  IN  AFRICA.

429.  Genseric  (see  Meckleti-  496.  Thrasimund.

burg).  523.  Hilderic.

477.  Hunneric,  his  son.  531.  Gelimer.
484.  Gundamund.

.  VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND  (called  Tasmania
since  1853),  was  discovered  by  Abel  Jansen  Tasman,
24  Nov.  1642,  and  named  after  the  governor  of  the
Dutch  East  Indies.

Population,  1857,  81,492  ;  1865,  95,201  (only  four
remained  of  the  aborigines) ;  1870,  99,328  ;  1880,
114,762;  1891,  146,667.  Revenue,  1887-8,
594,976!.  ;  expenditure,  668, 759!.  ;  imports,  1887,
1,449,371?.  ;  exports,  1,596,817?.  1890:  Revenue,
753)3°5Z-  ;  expenditure,  718,604?.  Imports,
1,897,512?.  ;  exports,  1,486,992?.
Visited  by  Purneaux,  1773;  Cook  .  .  .  .  1777
Proved  to  be  an  island  by  Flinders,  who  explored

Bass's  Straits 1799

Taken  possession  of  by  lieut.  Bower . . . . 1803
Arrival  of  col.  Collins,  the  first  governor,  with  con-
victs ;  Hobart  Town  founded ....  1804
Bishopric  of  Tasmania  established . . . .  1842

Transportation  abolished 1853

Col.  Tlios.  Gore  Brown,  governor  .  .  .  .  1862
Visited  by  the  duke  of  Edinburgh  .  .  7-18  Jan.  1868
Charles  Ducane,  governor  ....  Aug.  1868
Fred.  Aloysius  Weld,  governor  ....  1874

Gen.  sir  John  Henry  Lefroy,  governor  . 21  Aug 1880
Sir  George  C.  Stratum,  governor . . Dec.  1881
Discovery  of  gold  at  Mount  Lyell . . July,  1886
Sir  Robert  G.  Hamilton,  governor . . Nov. ,,
Silver-field  discovered  in  the  Zeehan  country  about
1885 or  1886; about  200  mining  companies  es-
tablished ;  the  town  Zeehan  established  ;  about
6,000  people  settled  in  the  district . . 1889-91
The  Tasmanian  exhibition,  Lanneeston  ; the  fine
arts  section  opened  by  sir  Robert  Hamilton,  25
Nov.  1891 ;  exhibition  closed  . . 22  March,  1892

VANGUARD,  see  Wrecks,  1875.

VARANGIANS, or VARAGIANS, a

name given to northern pirates, who invaded


VAEENNES.


1033


YEII.


Flanders,  about  813  ;  France,  about  840;  Italy,
852.  Their  leader,  Euric,  invited  by  the  Novgo-
rodians  to  help  them,  founded  the  Eussian  mon-
archy, 862.

VABENNES,  a  town  in  N.E.  France,  is  cele-
brated for  the  arrest  of  Louis  XVI.,  his  queen,
sister,  and  two  children.  They  fled  from  the
Tuileries  on  21  June,  1791  ;  were  taken  here  the
nest  day,  and  conducted  back  to  Paris,  mainly
through  Drouet,  the  postmaster,  who,  at  an  inter-
mediate town,  recognised  the  king.

VARNA,  a  fortified  seaport  in  Bulgaria,  for-
merly European  Turkey.  A  great  battle  was  fought
near  this  place,  10  Nov.  1444,  between  the  Turks
under  Amurath  II.  and  the  Hungarians  under  their
king  Ladislaus  and  John  Hunniades.  The  latter
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter :  the  king  was
killed,  and  Hunniades  made  prisoner,  who  had
opposed  the  Christians  breaking  the  truce  for  ten
years,  recently  made  at  Szegedin.  The  emperor
Nicholas  of  Russia  arrived  before  Varna,  the  head-
quarters of  his  army,  then  besieging  the  place,
5  Aug.  1828.  The  Turkish  garrison  made  a  vigorous
attack  on  the  besiegers,  7  Aug.;  and  another^ on
the  2 1st,  but  were  repulsed.  Varna  surrendered,
after  a  sanguinary  conflict,  to  the  Russian  anus,
II  Oct.  1828.  It  was  restored  at  the  peace  in  1829;
its  fortifications  were  dismantled,  but  have  since
been  restored.  The  allied  armies  disembarked  at
Varna,  29  May,  1854,  and  sailed  for  the  Crimea,
3  Sept.  They  suffered  severely  from  cholera.  In
conformity  with  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  Varna  was
evacuated  by  the  Turks,  and  occupied  by  Bussians,
autumn,  1878. Population,  1888,  25,256.

VASSALAGE,  see  Feudal  Laivs,  and  Slavery.

VASSAE  COLLEGE  (on  the  east  bank  of
the  Hudson,  United  States),  for  the  higher  education
of  women,  was  founded  by  Matthew  Vassar  in  1861.

VASSY  (N.E.  France).  The  massacre  of  the
protestants  at  tins  place  by  the  duke  of  Guise  on
I  March,  1562,  led  to  desolating  civil  wars.

VATICAN  (Rome),  the  ancient  Mons  Vati-
canus,  a  hill  of  Rome.  The  commencement  of  the
palace  is  ascribed  to  Constantine,  Liberius,  and
Symmaehus,  and  also  to  pope  Eugenius  III.,
1 146.  It  became  the  residence  of  the  pope  at
his  return  from  Avignon,  1377-  The  palace  is
said  to  contain  7000  rooms,  rich  in  works  of  art,
ancient  and  modern.  The  library,  founded  by  pope
Nicholas  V.,  1448,  is  exceedingly  rich  in  printed
books  and  MSS. —  Tistolesi's  description  of  the
Vatican,  with  numerous  plates,  was  published
1829-38. — The  phrase  "Thunders  of  the  Vatican"
■was  first  used  by  Voltaire,  1748.  —  The  ancient
Vatican  Codex  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  in
Greek  was  published  at  Rome  in  1857.  For
"  Vatican  Decrees,"  see  Councils.  See  Observatories.

VAUD,  a  Swiss  canton,  after  having  been  suc-
cessfully held  by  the  Franks,  the  kings  of  Burgundy,
emperors  of  Germany,  dukes  of  Zahringen,  and
dukes  of  Savoy,  was  conquered  by  the  Bernese,  Jan.
1536,  and  annexed,  1554.  Vaud,  made  independent
in  1798,  joined  the  confederation  in  I S 1 5 .  A  new
constitution  was  obtained  in  1830,  after  agitation.

VATTDOIS,  see  Waldenses.

VAUXHALL  BEIDGE,  constructed  of  iron
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Walker,  at  an  expense  of
150,000/.  (to  be  defrayed  by  a  toll).  The  first  stone
•was  laid  0  May,  l8ll,  by  prince  Cliarles,  eldest  son
of  the  duke  of  Brunswick  ;  and  the  bridge  was
opened  on  4  June,  1816 ;  freed  from  toll,  24  May,
i§79-


VAUXHALL  GAEDENS  (London),  were
so  denominated  from  the  manor  of  Vauxhall,  Falkes-
hall,  Fox-hall,  or  Faukeshall,  said  to  have  been  the
property  of  Fulke  de  Breaute  about  1282.  The
premises  were  the  property  of  Jane  Vaux  in  161 5,
and  the  mansion-house  was  then  called  Stockden's.
From  her  it  passed  through  various  hands,  till  it
became  the  property  of  Mr.  Tyers  in  1732.  _  The
New  Spring  Gardens  at  Vauxhall  are  mentioned
by  John  Evelyn  in  his  diary  2  July,  1661,  Tepys
29  May,  1662/Wycherley  1672,  and  in  the  Spectator
171 1,  as  a  place  of  great  resort.  The  gardens  were
opened  for  a  "ridotto  al  fresco"  7  June,  1732,  by
Jonathan  Tyers.  The  greatest  season  was  in  1823,
when  133,279  persons  visited  the  gardens,  and  the
receipts  were  29,590/.  The  number  on  the  then
supposed  last  night,  5  Sept.  1839,  was  1089  persons.
Vauxhall  was  sold  by  auction,  9  Sept.  1841,  for
20,200/.,  and  again  26  Aug.  1859.  The  last  per-
formances at  Vauxhall  took  place  on  25  July,  1859.
The  ground  has  been  sold  for  building  purposes.
Six  persons  killed  and  many  injured  by  fall  of  stack
of  wood  at  Buckley's  saw-mills,  25  Feb.  1880.
Vauxhall  park  (formerly  the  lawn,  &c,  including
the  residence  of  Mr.  H.  Fawcett,  M.P.,  pur-
chased for  45,000?.)  opened  by  the  prince  of
"Wales 7  Jul j',  1890

VAVASOE,  see  Yahasor.

VEDAS,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  in
Sanskrit,  were  probably  written  about  IOOO  B.C.
Veda  means  knowledge.  These  books  comprise
hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgical  formula?.  The  edition
by  professor  Max  Miiller,  printed  under  the  patron-
age of  the  East  India  Company,  appeared  in  1849-
74.  Four  volumes  of  a  translation  by  H.  H.
Wilson  appeared  in  1850-67.
Vol. V. &  VI.,  edited  "by  professor  Cowell  & W.  F.

Webster,  completing  the  work,  appeared  in  1889.
In  1887  the  Maharajah  of  Vizianagram  proposed  to  bear

the  expense  of  a  new  edition  of  the  text,  edited  by

professor  Max  Miiller. Two  vols, of  this edition,

printed  at  Oxford,  appeared  in  1890.

VEGETABLES  for  the  table  were  brought
from  Flanders  about  1520  ;  see  Gardening.

VEGETAEIAN  SOCIETY,  founded  1847,
whose  members  restrict  themselves  to  a  vegetable
diet,  held  their  fifteenth  anniversary  in  London,  4
Sept.  1862.
Meetings  held  at  Manchester,  14  Oct. 1874,  and  other

places  since.
"  Fraternia," a settlement  of vegetarians,  existed in

California  in  1880. International  Congress  in  London,

11  Sept.  1890.

VEHMIC  TEIBUNALS  :  Vekmgerichte,
Fehmgerichte,  or  Femgerichte,  secret  tribunals  estab-
lished in  Westphalia  to'  maintain  religion  and  the
public  peace,  had  their  origin  in  the  time  of  Charle-
magne,  and  rose  to  importance  in  1182,  when
Westphalia  became  subject  to  the  archbishop  of
Cologne.  Persons  of  the  most  exalted  rank  were
subjected  to  their  decisions,  being  frequently  seized,
tried,  and  executed.  The  emperors  endeavoured  to
suppress  them,  but  did  not  succeed  till  the  16th
century.  Their  last  court,  it  is  said,  was  held  in
1568.  Sir  W.  Scott  has  described  them  in  "Anne
u[  (ieiersteiu."  A  remnant  of  these  tribunals  was
abolished  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  king  of  Westphalia,
in  1811.

VEIL  an  independent  Etruscan  city  near  Rome.
There  were  frequent  wars  between  Veii  and  Rome,
fur  above  three  centuries;  see  Fabii.  Veii  was
taken  by  the  dictator  Camillus,  it  is  .-aid,  alter  a
siege  of  ten  years,  396  B.C.  When  Rome  was  des-
troyed by  the  Gauls  in  390,  the  Romans,  who  had


VELLOEE.


1034


VENEZUELA.


fled  to  Veii,  desired  to  remain  there,  and  make  it
their  capital,  but  were  dissuaded  from  it  by  the
entreaties  of  Camillus,  and  Veii  was  abandoned.  It
was  restored  by  the  Emperor  Augustus,  but  had
fallen  into  decay,  at  the  time  of  Hadrian.

VELLOEE  (S.E.  India)  became  the  residence
of  the  family  of  the  dethroned  sultan  of  Mysore,  and
was  strongly  garrisoned  by  English  troops,  1799.
The  revolt  of  the  sepoys,  in  which  the  family  of  the
late  Tippoo  took  an  active  part,  took  place  10  July,
1806.  The  insurgents  were  subdued  by  colonel  Gil-
lespie, and  mostly  put  to  the  sword;  about  800
sepoys  were  killed.

VELOCIPEDES.  A  machine  of  this  kind  was
invented  by  Blanchard  the  aeronaut,  and  described
in  the  Journal  de  Paris,  27  July,  1779;  and  one
was  invented  by  Nicephore  Niepce  in  1818.  The
"  dandy  -horse  "  or  "  Draisena,  a  machine  called  a
velocipede,"  was  patented  for  the  Baron  von  Drais,
in  Paris  and  London  in  1818,  and  described  in
"Ackermann's  Bepository,"  Feb.  1819.  These
machines  came  again  into  use  in  1861  ;  and  since
1867  have  been  very  common  under  various  forms,
termed  bicycles  and  tricycles ;  the  chief  inventor  of
which,  James  Starley,  an  ingenious  mechanic  of
Albourne,  Sussex,  was  buried  at  Coventry,  June,
1881.  The  popular  "  Otto  "  bicycle,  first  patented
in  1881,  much  improved  since.  Velocipede  races
took  place  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  26  May,  1869,  and
frequently  since.  Mr.  John  Mayall  and  two  friends
travelled  to  Brighton  on  velocipedes,  17  Feb.  1869.

Mr.  Stanton  went  from  London  to  Bath,  106  miles,
on  a  bicycle,  in  8  h.  28  min. . . 17  Aug.  1874

Similar  feats  since  performed.  Ordinary  speed
with  bicycles  8  (now  10)  miles  an  hour  ;  with  tri-
cycles 10  miles  may  be  attained. — Field. Oct. „

A  gentleman  said  to  have  travelled  1000  miles  in
Ireland  and  Wales ;  expenses  25L  .  „

Bicycle  clubs  formed  in  London,  &c 1875

Above  1500  velocipedes  at  a  meeting  at  Hampton
Court 26  May,  1877

Middlesex  magistrates  decide  that  a  bicycle  is  a
carriage,  and  fine  a  rider  for  damage . 31  July,  1878

John  Rankin  went  from  Kilmarnock  to  London
and  back  to  Glasgow,  with  stoppages  (112  miles
one  day)  .... 23  July-10  Aug. „

The  Bicycle  Union,  the  National  Cyclists'  Union,

!~  and  the  Cyclists'  Touring  club  founded . . ,,

Six  days'  contest,  Agricultural  Hall,  London,  Mr.
George  Waller  won  prize-belt  (100L)  and  105Z.,
rode  1172  miles,  28  April — 3  May.  Mr.  Waller
again  won,  rode  1404  miles  (6  days  of  18  hours),

1 — 6  Sept.  1879

Ivan  Zmertych,  Hungarian,  travelled  on  his  veloci-
pede from  Ostend  to  Pesth  (about  1200  miles),

10 — 30  June,  1880

Mr.  Alfred  Nixon,  hon.  sec.  London  tricycle  club,
on  '  Premier '  tricycle  from  John  o'  Groat's  to
Land's  End  in  13  days,  23  hours,  55  minutes,
16-30  Aug.  1882 ;  Mr.  E.  Oxborrow  did  the
reverse  in  a  week,  1-8  June,  1885  ;  Mr.  H.  R.
Goodwin,  on  a  bicycle,  did  the  double  journey,

1-16  Juue,  1885

F.  J.  Lees,  of  Sheffield,  covers  20  miles  within  an
hour  with  a  bicycle . . . .18  Aug.  1883

Switzerland crossed by bicycles  and  tricycles

Aug. — Sept. ,,

17th  annual  exhibition  of  bicycles,  &c,  at  the
Floral  Hall,  Covent  Garden . . .4  Feb.  1884

Mr.  Alfred  Nixon  went  from  London  to  Edinburgh
on  a  tricycle  in  three  days . .28 — 31  Aug. ,,

Crypto-dynamic  gearing  invented  by  Mr.  W.  T.
Shaw 1885

Annual  congress  of  cyclists  held  at  Colchester,

2  June,  1886

The  cycling  championship  of  Europe  gained  by
Mr. E. Hall of Gainsborough at Berlin,

16  Aug. ,,

Mr.  Thomas  Stevens,  on  a  bicycle,  travelled  11,700
miles  through  America,  across  Europe  to  Asia,

April,  1884, -Jan.  1887


Messrs.  Wilkins'  bicycle  for  travelling  rough  roads
and  up  hills  exhibited  at  Hanwell,  Middlesex,

8  Sept.  1887

The  Rev.  Hugh  Callan,  of  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,
travelled  to  Jerusalem,  through  Euroxse  and  Asia
Minor,  and  back  on  a  bicycle . . autumn,  188S

The  use  of  bicycles,  &c. ,  regulated  by  local  govern-
ment act  of  1888,  part  I.,  sect.  84.

The  13th  annual  show  of  the  Stanley  Cycle  Club
(at  the  Crystal  Palace),  1,500  cycles  exhibited,

about  25  Jan.  1890

1,036  cyclists  observed  on  the  Brighton  Road,

Good  Friday,  April,  1892

Under  the  heading,  "  tyranny  of  the  road,"  a  great
many  letters  complaining  of  the  danger  caused
by  the  excessive  speed  of  cyclists,  appeared  in
the  Times April — July, ,,

Speed  and  length  of  rides  much  increased . 1889-92

VELVET.  The  manufacture,  long  confined  to
Genoa,  Lucca,  and  other  places  in  Italy,  was  carried
to  France,  and  thence  to  England,  about  1685.
Velvet  is  mentioned  by  Joinville  in  1272  ;  and  our
king  Bichard  II.,  in  his  will,  directed  Ms  body  to  be
clothed  "in  velveto,"  1399.  Jerome  Lanyer  in
London  patented  his  "  velvet  paper  "  in  1634.

VENAISSIN  COMTAT,  or  Comtat  (S.
France) ,  after  various  changes,  was  ceded  to  pope
Gregory  X.  1274;  and  retained  by  his  successors
till  1 791,  when,  with  Avignon,  it  was  re-united  to
France.

VENDEE,  see  La  Vendee.

VENDEMIAIEE,  12,  13,  14  (3,  4,  5  Oct.),
1795,  Barras  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  suppress  a
royalist  revolt  against  the  convention.

VENDOME  COLUMN  (132  feet  2  inches
high),,  erected  in  the  Place  Vendome,  Paris,  by
Napoleon  I.  in  1806,  to  commemorate  his  successful
campaign  in  Germany  in  1805.  On  its  side  were
bas-reliefs  by  Launay.  It  was  pulled  down  by  the
communists  "in  the  name  of  international  frater-
nity," 16  May,  1871  ;  restored  by  the  national
assembly,  31  Aug.  1874  ;  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  on
the  top,  replaced  28  Dec.  1875.

VENETI,  maritime  Gauls  inhabiting  Armorica,

N.W.  France.  They  rose  against  the  Bomans  57
B.C.,  and  were  quelled  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  defeated
their  fleet,  56,  and  cruelly  exterminated  an  active
commercial  race.

VENETIA,  see  Venice.

VENEZUELA,  the  seat  of  a  South  American
republic.  "When  the  Spaniards  landed  here  in  1499,
they  observed  some  huts  built  upon  piles,  in  an
Indian  village  named  Cora,  in  order  to  raise  them
above  the  stagnated  water  that  covered  the  plain ;
and  this  induced  them  to  give  it  the  name  of  Vene-
zuela, or  Little  Venice.  This  state  in  July,  1814,
declared  in  congressional  assembly  the  sovereignty
of  its  people,  which  was  recognised  in  18 18.  It
formed  part  of  the  republic  of  Columbia  till  it
separated  from  the  federal  union,  Nov.  1829.  The
population  in  1881,  2,075,245  ;  in  1891,  2,323,527  ;
capital,  Caracas.

Its  independence  was  recognized  by  Spain  .  .  1845
General  D.  T.  Monagas  was  elected  president  .  .  1855
A  new  constitution  promulgated  .  .  .  Dec.  1858
Revolution  ;  Jose  Castro  became  president,  March,

1858 ; compelled  to  resign in Aug. 1859 ;  and

Dr.  Pedro  Gual  assumed  the  government  .  Aug.  1859
General  Jose  Paez  elected  president  .  .  8  Sept.  180s
He resigned ; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded,

17  June,  1863
General  Febres Cordero  protested,  and  set  up  a

rival  government  at  Porto-Cabello . . Oct. ,,
Marshal  J. C. Falcon  proclaimed  president,

18  March,  1865


VENGEUE STOEY.


1035


VENICE.


A  revolution  in  Caracas ; president  Falcon  fled,

22 — 26  June,  1865

The  president  Monagas  dies,  18  Nov. ,  and  Pulgar
becomes  provisional  president . . . Dec. ,,

Caracas  captured  by  general  Guzman  Blanco,  after
three  days'  conflict  .  .27  April,  1870

He  is  made  president,  virtually  dictator 13  July, ,,

A  rebel  general,  Salazar,  tried  and  shot  about  i7JVIay,  1872

Blanco  re-elected  president . . .20  Feb. 1873

Severity  towards  the  church  for  opposition  to  civil
marriages  ;  bishop  of  Merida  expelled . Jul}',  1874

Renunciation  of  papal  authority  announced Sept.  1876

Gen.  F.  L.  Alcantara  president,  elected . 27  Feb. 1877

Gen.  A.  Guzman  Blanco,  president,  elected . .  1879

Dispute  respecting  territories  containing  gold
mines ;  diplomatic  relations  broken  off  with
Great  Britain Feb.  1888

Dr. J. Pablo Rojas Paul, president, elected

29  June, ,,

The  dictatorship  of  Don  G.  Blanco  (envoy  at
Paris)  set  aside  by  the  congress, about  10  June,  1889

Senor  Palazio  elected  president,  20  Feb.  1890  ;  in-
surrection against  him  as  a  dictator,  headed  by
gen.  Crespo,  with  about  8,000  men,  March ;
guerilla  warfare  in  the  provinces,  reports  un-
certain, April,  1892 ;  the  government  troops
massed  at  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello 22  April,  1892

Junction  of  gen.  Crespo's  forces  with  those  of  gen.
Mora 27  Aprd,

The  government  general,  Juan  Quevedo,  killed  by
the  people  at  Los  Teques . . .18  April,

Valencia  besieged  by  the  insurgents  ;  sorties  de-
feated about  6  May,

Outbreaks  in  Caracas  against  the  president,  about
12  May  ;  his  troops  join  the  insurgents  in  Bolivia,
after  several  conflicts .... May,

Gen.  Crespo's  army  increased  by  desertions  from
the  president's  army,  near  Caracas,  reported,

12  June,

Several  conflicts  ;  president  Palacio  resigns,  ami
leaves  the  country ;  sen.  Villegas  provisional
president,  reported .... 19  June,

Geu. Crespo  defeats  the  government  troops  and
advances  towards  Caracas,  reported  .  11-14  Aug.
(See  Columbia;  Trials  21  March  1887.)

"VENGEUE STOEY,"  see  Ushant,  note.

VENT,  VIDI,  VICT— "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  con-
quered ;"  see  Zela.

VENICE  (K.  Italy).  The  province  of  Venetia,
held  by  the  Veneti,  of  uncertain  origin,  was  invaded
by  the  Gauls  about  350  B.C.  The  Veneti  made  an
alliance  with  the  Romans,  215  B.C.,  who  founded
Aquileia,  181,  and  gradually  acquired  the  whole
country.  Under  the  empire,  Venetia  included
Padua,  Verona,  and  other  important  places.  Popu-
lation of  the  city  of  Venice  in  1857,  118,173;  in
1881,  129,445;  iQ  1890,  158,019;  of  the  province
Venetia,  1890,  2,985,036.  New  line  of  steamers  for
the  east  started  from  Venice  by  the  Peninsular  and
Oriental  Company,  July,  1872.

Venice, founded by families  from  Aquileia and

Padua  fleeing  from  Attila  .  .  .  about  a. d.  452
First  doge  (or  duke)  chosen,  Anafesto  Paululio . . 697

Bishopric  founded 733

The  doge  Orso  slain  ;  an  annual  magistrate  (maestro

dfmiliti,  master  of  the  militia)  appointed  .  .  737
Diodato,  son  of  Orso,  made  doge  .  .  .  -742
Two  doges  reign  : Maurizio  Galbaio,  and  his  son

Giovanni 777

The  Rialto  made  the  seat  of  government  . .811

Venice  becomes  independent  of  the  eastern  empire,
and  acquires  the  maritime  cities  of  Dalmatia  and

Istria  .  997

Its  navy  and  commerce  increase . . . iooc-noo
The  Venetians  aid  at  the  capture  of  Tyre  and ac-
quire the  third  part,  1124;  and  ravage  the  Greek

archipelago 1125

Bank  of  Venice  established 1157

Ceremony  of  wedding  the  Adriatic  instituted,  about  11 77
Zara  captured  by  the  Venetians . . 24  Nov. 1202
The  Venetians  aid  tlie  crusaders  with  men,  horses,
and  ships 1202


Crete  purchased 1204;

Venice  helps  in  the  Latin  conquest  of  Constanti-
nople, and  obtains  power  in  the  East . . 1204-5;

The  four  bronze  horses  by  Lysippus,  brought  from
Constantinople,  ijlaced  at  St.  Mark's  by  the  doge
Pietro  Ziani,  who  died 1229.

The  Venetians  defeat  the  Genoese  near  Negropont,  1263.

War  with  Genoa i20^

The  Venetian  fleet  severely  defeated  by  the  Genoese
in  the  Adriatic,  8  Sept.  1298 ;  peace  between
them 1299.

Louis  of  Hungary  defeated  at  Zara . .  1  July,  1346

Severe  contest  with  Genoa .... 1350-81

The  doge  Marino  Faliero,  to  avenge  an  insult,  con-
spires against  the  republic  ;  beheaded 17  April  1355,

The  Venetians  lose  Istria  and  Dalmatia . . . 1358.

War  with  the  Genoese,  who  defeat  the  Venetians  at
Pola,  and  advance  against  Venice,  which  is  vigor-
ously defended 1377

The  Genoese  fleet  is  captured  at  Chiozza  . . . 1380.

And  peace  concluded 1381

Venice  flourishes  under  Antonio  Vernieri . 1382-1400

War  with  Padua ;  conquest  of  Padua  and  Verona .  1404.

War  against  Milan  ;  conquest  of  Brescia  1425  ;  of
Bergamo i42&

The  city  surfers  from  the  plague ....  1447

War  against  Milan,  1430  ;  conquest  of  Ravenna  . .  1454,

War  with  the  Turks  ;  Venice  loses  many  of  its
eastern  possessions 1461-77

The  Venetians  take  Athens,  1466  ;  and  Cyprus . . 1475

Venice  excommunicated,  1483  ;  joins  league  against
Naples,  1493  ;  helps  to  overcome  Charles  VIII.  of
France 149s

Injured  by  the  discovery  of  America  (1492),  and  the
passage  to  the  Indies I497

The  Venetians  nearly  ruined  by  the  league  of  Cain-
bray  formed  against  them 1508-

They  assist  in  defeating  the  Turks  at  Lepanto,  7  Oct. 1571

The  Turks  retake  Cyprus ,,

Destructive  fire  at  Venice *577

The  Rialto  bridge  and  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco
erected about  159a-

Paul  V.'s  interdict  on  Venice  (1606)  contemptuously
disregarded 1607

Naval  victories  over  the  Turks  ;  at  Scio,  1651  ;  and
in  the  Dardanelles 1655

The  Turks  take  Candia,  after  24  years'  siege . . 1669.

Venice  recovers  part  of  the  Morea,  1683-99  •  loses  it,

1715-39

Venice  occupied  by  Bonaparte,  who,  by  the  treaty
of  Campo  Formio,  gives  part  of  its  territory  to
Austria,  and  annexes  the  rest  to  the  Cisalpine  re-
public 1797

The  whole  of  Venice  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of
Italy  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg . . 26  Dec.  1805

All  Venice  transferred  to  the  empire  of  Austria . 181 4

Venice  declared  a  free  port  . . . .24  Jan.  1830.

Insurrection  begins  22  March,  1848  ;  the  city,  de-
fended by  Daniel  Manin,  surrenders  to  the  Aus-
trians  after  a  long  siege  ... 22  Aug. 1849.

[During  the  Italian  war  in  1859,  the  country  was
much  disorganised,  and  many  persons  emigrated
in  1860-1.]

Venetian  deputies  will  not  attend  the  Austrian  par-
liament at  Vienna May,  1861

Venetia  surrendered  to  France  for  Italy  (by  the
treaty  of  Vienna,  signed'  3  Oct.),  and  transferred
to  Italy 17  Oct.  1866.

Plebiscitum  :  651,758  votes  for  annexation  to  Italy  ;
69  against 22  Oct. ,,

Result  reported  by  Venetian  deputies,  and  the  iron
crown  given  to  the  king  at  Turin  .  4  Nov. ,,

He  enters  Venice 7  Nov. ,,

Master-piece  of  Titian  ("Death  of  Peter  Martyr")
destroyed  at  the  burning  of  a  chapel . 15  Aug.  1867

The  remains  of  Daniel  Manin  (brought  from  Paris)
buried  in  St.  Mark's .... 33  March,  186&

His  statue  unveiled . . . .22  March,  1875.

The  emperor  of  Austria  and  king  of  li:ily  at  Venice

5-7  April, „

The  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Vict  or  Emmanuel  11.
by  Ferrari  unveiled  in  the  presence  of  the  king  and
queen  of  Italy ;  great  festivities . . 1  May,  1887

Art  exhibition  opened  by  the  king . 2  May, ,,

The  restoration  of  the  palace  of  the  Doges  wis  com-
pleted, and  the  building  exposed  I"  view  in  Nov.  1889

Launch  of  the  ironclad  Sicilia,  the  royal  family
present 6  July,  1891


VENLOO.


1036


VERONA.


¥


^Representations  of  Venice  at  the  Olympia,  London
(which  see),  opened 26  Dec.  1891

.[Venice  has  had  122  doges  ;  Anafesto,  697,  to  JLuigi
Manin,  1797.]  /

VENLOO  (Holland),  surrendered  to  the  allies,
•under  Marlborough,  23  Sept.  1702 ;  and  to  the
French,  under  Pichegru,  26  Oct.  1794.

VENNER'S  INSURRECTION,  see  Ana-
■baptists,  1661.

VENTILATORS  were  invented  by  the  rev.
Dr.  Hales,  and  described  -to  the  Eoyal  Society  of
London,  May,  1741 ;  and  the  ventilator  for  the  use
of  ships  was  announced  by  Mr.  Triewald,  in  Novem-
ber, same  year.  The  marquis  of  Chabannes'  plan
for  warming  and  ventilating  theatres  and  houses  for
.■audiences  was  applied  to  those  of  London about

1819.  The  systems  of  Dr.  Eeid  (about  1834)  and
■others  followed,  with  much  controversy.  Dr.
Arnott's  work  on  this  subject  was  published'in  1838.
A  commission  on  warming  and  ventilation  issued  a
oreport  in  1859.

JSTew  air  machine  in  the  house  of  commons  started

S  June,  1874

Mr.  Tobin's  plan,  a  horizontal  tube  from  without
communicating  with  vertical  tube  inside ;  suc-
cessful at  Leeds  ;  described  (in  Times,)  12  April,  1875

HVIr.  D.  G.  Hoey's  system  was  exhibited  at  Messrs.
Barclay's  bank,  Lombard-street,  London,  and
reported  successful Jan.  1891

VENTRILOQUISM  (speakingfrom  the  belly) ,
is  evidently  described  in  Isaiah  xxix.  4  (about  712
B.C.).  Among  eminent  ventriloquists  were  baron
Mengen  and  M.  Saint  Gille,  about  1772  (whose  ex-
)eriments  were  examined  by  a  commission  of  the
Trench  Academy) ;  Thomas  King  (about  1 716)  ;
Charles  Mathews  (1824)  ;  and  M.  Alexandre
.(1822),

VENUS,  the  Roman  goddess  of  love  and  beauty
<the  Greek  Aphrodite).  The  transit  of  the  planet
Venus  over  the  sun  was  predicted  by  Kepler,  but
not  observed.  The  first  transit  observed,  was  by
the  rev.  Jeremiah  Horrox,  or  Horrocks,  and  his
friend,  Wm.  Crabtree,  on  24  Nov.  1639,  as  pre-
dicted by  Horrox  in  1633.  The  astronomer-royal
Maskelyne  observed  her  transit  at  St.  Helena,
•6  June,  1 761.  Capt.  Cook  made  his  first  voyage
in  the  Endeavour,  to  Otaheite,  to  observe  a  transit
of  Venus,  3  June,  1769;  see  Cook's  Voyages.  The
diurnal  rotation  of  Venus  was  discovered  by  Cassini
in  1667.  See  Sun,  note.  Statues :  Venus
tie  Medicis,  found  near  Tivoli  and  removed  to
France,  1680;  the  Venus  found  at  INlilo  or  Melos,

1820,  placed  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  1834.
-Halley  suggested  the  observation  of  the  transit  as

a.  means  of  estimating  the  distance  of  the  earth
from  the  sun,  and  devised  a  method  for  this  pur-
ple 1716

Another  method  was  invented  by  Delisle  about  .  1743
Both  plans  were  used  in ...  Dec.  1874

Expeditions  for  the  accurate  observation  of  the
phenomena,  on  8  Dec.  astronomical  day ;  ordi-
nary day,  9  Dec.  1874,  were  sent  to  different  parts
of  the  globe  by  all  the  great  powers,  and  favour-
able results  have  been  reported  .  .  .  1875-6
The  transit,  on  6  Dec.  1882,  was  observed  at  Bath,
Penzance,  Cork,  Cape  Town,  Washington,  Mel-
bourne, and  many  other  places.  The  next  transits
will  take  place  8  June,  2004,  and  6  June,  2012.

VERA  CRUZ  (Mexico),  built  about.  1600;  was
taken  by  the  Americans  in  1847,  and  by  the  allies
•on  17  Dec.  1861,  during  the  intervention ;  retaken
by  the  liberals,  under  Juarez,  27  June,  1867.

VERCELLI,  the  ancient  Vercellse,  Piedmont,
near  which  Marius  defeated  the  Cimbri,  101  B.C.  It
was  the  seat  of  a  republic  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen-


turies. It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  1630;
French,  1704;  and  allies,  1706;  and  afterwards
partook  of  the  fortunes  of  Piedmont.

VERDEN  (Hanover).  Here  Charlemagne
massacred  about  4500  Saxons,  who  had  rebelled  and
relapsed  into  idolatry,  782.

VERDUN  (the  ancient  Verodunum),  a  first-
class  fortress  on  the  Meuse,  N.E.  France,  made  a
magazine  for  his  legions  by  Julius  Cassar.  It  was
acquired  by  the  Franks  in  the  sixth  century,  and
formed  part  of  the  dominions  of  Lothaire  by  the
treaty  of  Verdun,  843,  when  the  empire  was  divided
between  the  sons  of  Louis  I.  It  was  taken  and
annexed  to  the  empire  by  Otho  I.  about  939.  It
surrendered  to  France  in  1552  ;  and  was  formally
ceded  in  1648.  It  was  taken  and  held  by  the  Prus-
sians 43  days,  Sept. — Oct.  1792.  Gen.  Beaurepaire,
the  commandant,  committed  suicide  before  the  sur-
render, and  14  ladies  were  executed  on  28  May,
1794,  for  going  to  the  king  of  Prussia  to  solicit  his
clemency  for  the  town.  Verdun  surrendered  to  the
Germans  8  Nov.  1870,  after  a  brave  defence;  two
vigorous  sallies  being  made  28  Oct.  Above  4000
men  were  captured,  with  a  large  number  of  arms
and  ammunition.  It  was  the  last  place  held  by
the  Germans;  and  was  given  up  15,  16  Sept.  1873,
and  the  troops  retired.

VERGARA,  N.  SPAIN.  Here  the  Carlist
general,  Maroto,  made  a  treaty,  termed  "  The  paci-
fication of  Vergara,"  with  Espartero,  31  Aug.  1839.
The  monument  to  celebrate  it  was  destroyed  by  the
Carlists  in  Aug.  1873.

VERMANDOIS  (N.  France),  a  county  given
by  Charlemagne  to  his  second  son  Pepin,  whose
family  held  it  till  the  nth  century;  in  1156  it
came,  by  marriage,  to  the  counts  of  Flanders ;  and
in  1 185  it  was  seized  by  Philip  II.,  and  incorporated
with  the  monarchy  in  12 15.

VERMONT,  a  northern  state  in  North  America,
was  settled  by  the  French,  1724-31 ;  and  ceded  to
Great  Britain  in  1763.  It  was  freed  from  the  autho-
rity of  New  York,  and  admitted  as  a  state  of  the
union  in  1791.  Population  1880,  332,286;  1890,"
332,422  ;  capital,  Montpelier.

VERNEUIL  (N.W.  France),  the  site  of  a
battle  fought  17  Aug,  1424,  between  the  Burgundians
and  English  under  the  regent  duke  of  Bedford,  and
the  French,  assisted  by  the  Scots,  commanded  by
the  count  de  Narbonne,  the  earls  of  Douglas  and
Buchan,  &c.  The  French  at  first  were  successful ;
but  some  Lombard  auxiliaries,  who  had  taken  the
English  camp,  commenced  pillaging.  Two  thousand
English  archers  came  then  fresh  to  the  attack  ;  and
the  French  and  Scots'  were  totally  defeated,  and
their  leaders  killed.

VERNON  GALLERY.  _  The  inadequate
manner  in  which  modern  British  art  was  repre-
sented in  the  National  Gallery  was  somewhat
remedied  in  1847  by  the  munificent  present  to  the
nation,  by  Mr.  Bobert  Vernon,  of  a  collection  of  157
pictures,  all  but  two  being  by  first-rate  British
artists.  They  were  first  exhibited  at  Mr.  Vernon's
house  in  Pall-mall,  next  in  the  vaults  beneath  the
National  Gallery,  afterwards  at  Marlborough  House,
and  are  now  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  In
1857,  Mr.  John  Sheepshanks  followed  Mr.  Vernon's
example  ;  see  Sheepshanks'  Donations.

VERONA  (N.  Italy)  was  founded  by  the  Gauls
or  Etruscaus;  see  Campus  Saudius.  The  amphi-
theatre was  built  by  Titus,  a.d.  82.  Verona  has
been  the  site  of  many  contiicts. It  was  taken  by


VEESAILLES.


1037


VESUVIUS.


Constantine3i2  ;  and  on  27  Sept.  489  Theodoric  de-
feated Odoacer,  king  of  Italy.  Verona  was  taken
by  Charlemagne  774.  About  1260  Mastino  della
Scala  was  elected  podesta,  and  his  descendants  (the
Scaligeri)  ruled,  till  subdued  by  the  Visconti,  dukes
of  Milan,  1387.  Verona  was  conquered  by  the
Venetians  1405,  and  held  by  them  with  some  inter-
missions till  its  capture  by  the  French  general  Mas-
sena,  3  June,  1796.  Near  to  it  Charles  Albert  of
Sardinia  defeated  the  Austrians  6  May,  1848.
Verona  is  one  of  the  four  strong  Austrian  fortresses
termed  the  Quadrangle,  or  Quadrilateral  {which  see),
and  here  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  on  12  July,
1859,  in  an  order  of  the  day,  announced  to  his  army
that  he  must  yield  to  circumstances  unfavourable  to
his  policy,  and  thanked  his  people  and  army  for
their  support.  It  was  surrendered  to  the  Italian
government,  16  Oct.  1866;  and  the  king  was  re-
ceived by  70,000  persons  in  the  amphitheatre,  18
Nov.  1866.  Above  50,000  coins  of  Gallienus  and
other  emperors,  chiefly  bronze,  discovered  near
Verona,  Jan.  1877. Population,  1881,  60,768.

VEESAILLES  (near  Paris)  was  a  small  vil-
lage, in  a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit ;  where  Louis
XIII.  built  a  hunting-seat  about  1632.  Louis  XIV.
between  1661  and  1687  enlarged  it  into  a  magnificent
palace,  which  became  the  usual  residence  of  the
kings  of  France.  By  the  treaty  between  Great
Britain  and  the  revolted  colonies  of  British  North
America,  signed  at  Paris,  the  latter  power  was  ad-
mitted to  be  a  sovereign  and  independent  state,  3
Sept.  1783.  On  the  same  day  a  treaty  was  signed
at  Versailles  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and
Spain,  by  which  Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  other
possessions  in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  France,  and
Trincomalee  restored  to  the  Dutch.  Here  was  held
the  military  festival  of  the  royal  guards  1  Oct.
1789,  which  was  followed  (on  the  5th  and  6th)  by
the  attack  of  the  mob,  who  massacred  the  guards
and  brought  the  king  back  to  Paris.  Versailles
became  the  residence  of  Louis-Philippe  in  1830.
The  historical  gallery  was  opened  in  1837.  Ver-
sailles, with  the  troops  there,  surrendered  to  the
Germans  19  Sept.  1870,  and  the  crown  prince  of
Prussia  entered  the  next  day ;  and  on  26  Sept.  he
awarded  the  iron  cross  to  above  30  soldiers  at  the
foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  The  palace  was
converted  into  an  hospital.  The  royal  head-quarters
were  removed  here  from  Ferrieres  5  Oct.  After  the
peace,  Versailles  became  the  seat  of  the  French
government  (see  France)  March,  1871.  Eemoved
to  Paris  27  Nov.  1879.  The  congress  for  the  revi-
sion of  the  constitution  met  here  4 — 13  Aug.  1884.
See  France,  1889.

VERSE,  see  Poetry,  Hexameter,  Elegy,  Iambic,
&c.  Surrey's  translation  of  part  of  Virgil's  JEneid
into  blank  verse  is  the  first  English  composition  of
the  kind,  omitting  tragedy,  extant  in  the  English
language  (published  in  1547).  The  verse  previously
used  in  our  grave  compositions  was  the  stanza  of
eight  lines,  the  Ottawa  rima  (as  adopted  with  the
addition  of  one  line  by  Spenser  in  his  Faery
Qiicene),  who  probably  borrowed  it  from  Ariosto  and
Tasso.  Boccaccio  introduced  it  into  Italy  in  his
Teseide,  having  copied  it  from  the  old  French  chan-
sons. Trissino  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  intro-
ducer of  blank  verse  among  the  modems,  about
1508. Vossius.

VEEULAM,  see  Alton's,  St.

VEEVINS  (N.  France).  Here  was  concluded
the  peace  between  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  Henry
IV.  of  France,  with  mutual  concessions,  2  May,
1598.


VESEEONCE  (S.E.  France),  near  Vienne.
Here  Gondemar,  king  of  the  Burgundians,  defeated.
and  killed  Clodomir,  king  of  Orleans,  and  revenged
the  murder  of  his  brother  Sigismond  and  his  family,
524.  This  conflict  is  called  also  the  battle  of
Voiron.

VESPEES,  see  Sicilian  Vespers.  In  the  house
of  the  French  ambassador  at  Blackfriars,  in  Lon-
don, a  Jesuit  was  preaching  to  upwards  of  three'
hundred  persons  in  an  upper  room,  the  floor  of  which
gave  way  with  the  weight,  when  the  whole  congre-
gation was  precipitated  to  the  street,  and  tin-
preacher  and  more  than  a  hundred  of  his  auditory,
chiefly  persons  of  rank,  were  killed.  This  catas-
trophe, termed  the  Fatal  Vespers,  occurred  26  Oct,
1623. Stow.

VESTA.  The  planet  Vesta  (the  ninth)  was  dis-
covered by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bremen,  on  29  March,
1807.  She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magni-
tude.

VESTALS,  virgin  priestesses,  took  care  of  the
perpetual  fire  consecrated  to  Vesta.  The  mother  of
Romulus  was  a  vestal.  Nunia  is  said  to  have  ap-
pointed four,  710  B.C.,  and  Tarquin  added  two,
Minutia  was  buried  alive  for  breaking  her  virgin
vow,  337  B.C.;  Sextilia,  273  B.C.;  and  Cornelia
Maximiliana,  a.d.  92.  It  is  said  that  only  eighteen,
vestals  had  beeu  condemned  since  the  time  of  Numa.
The  order  was  abolished  by  Theodosius,  389.

"VESTIGES  of  the  Natural  History

OF  CREATION,"  a  work  which  upholds  the  doctrine
of  progressive  development  as  a  hypothetic  history
of  organic  creation,  ascribed  to  Robert  Chambers,
and  other  persons,  first  appeared  in  1844,  and  occa-
sioned much  controversy. See  Origin  of  Species.

VESUVIUS,  MOTTCTT,  S.  Italy.  Near  it,  the
Latin  confederacy  were  totally  defeated  by  the
Romans,  whose  general,  P.  DeciusMus,  had  devoted
himself  to  death,  340  B.C.  By  an  eruption  of  Mount
Vesuvius,  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneuni
{which  see)  were  overwhelmed  24  Aug.  79  a.d.,  and
more  than  200,000  persons  perished,  among  them
Pliny  the  naturalist.  Numerous  other  disastrous
eruptions  have  occurred.  Torre  del  Greco,  with
4000  persons,  was  destroyed,  17  Dec.  1631.  There
was  a  dreadful  eruption  took  place  suddenly,  24
Nov.  1759,  and  another  8  Aug.  1767.  The  violent
burst  in  1767  was  the  34th  from  the  time  of  Titus.
One  in  June,  1 794,  was  most  destructive  :  the  lava
flowed  over  5000  acres  of  rich  'vineyards  and  culti-
vated land,  and  Torre  del  Greco  was  a  second  time
burned ;  the  top  of  the  mountain  fell  in,  and  the
crater  is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.
A  great  eruption  in  Oct.  1822,  and  others  in  Miv,
1855,  May  and  June,  1858,  caused  great  destruction.
A  series  of  violent  eruptions  causing  much  damage-
occurred  in  Dec.  1861,  and  in  Feb.  1865.  Torre
del  Greco  was  again  destroyed  in  Dec.  1861.
Another  eruption  began  12  Nov.  1867,  and  con-
tinued increasing  in  grandeur  and  danger,  March,
1868.  The  phenomena  were  observed  by  professors
Tyndall  and  Miller,  sir  John  Lubbock^  and  other
scientific  men,  in  April,  1868.  A  great  eruption
began  8  Oct.  1868,  and  continued,  causing  much
destruction,  19,  20  Nov.  A  severe  eruption  began
23  April  and  ended  about  3  May,  1872;  above  60
lives  were  lost.  The  mountain  was  disturbed  in
1876;  and  another  eruption  began  about  20  Sept.
1878  ;  lava  was  spouted  to  the  height  of  300  foot ;
an  eruption  began  ir  June,  1879;  an  intermittent
eruption  2  May,  1885.  A  new  crater  formed  8
June;  continued  flowing  of  lava,  n  June;  ceases
16  June,  renewed  ;  a  Brazilian  tourist  fell  into  the


VETEBLNABY COLLEGES.


1038


VICTOEIA.


crater,  July,  1891.  Increasing  eruptions,  9  June
et  seq.;  active,  13  Sept.  1892.  Professor  John
Phillips'  "Vesuvius"  was  published  1869.

YETEBINABY  COLLEGES.  The  Eoyal
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  at  Bed  Lion  Square
London,  which  alone  grants  diplomas,  was  char-
tered in  1844.  The  Veterinary  Surgeons  act,  44
&  45  Vict.  sec.  62 ;  passed  27  Aug.  1881,  deals  only
with  this  college.  The  Royal  Veterinary  College
at  Camden  Town,  London,  N.W.,  was  founded  in
1791.  Centenary  festival,  the  duke  of  Cambridge
in  the  ehair,  the  prince  of  Wales  present,  19  Oct.
1891-  There  are  veterinary  colleges  in  Edinburgh
•and.  Glasgow.

VICE,  an  instrument  of  which  Archytas  of
Tarentum,  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  is  said  to  have
Ibeen  the  inventor,  along  with  the  pulley  and  other
implements,  420  B.C.  Society  for  the  Suppression
of  Vice,  established  1802.

VICE-ADMIKALTYCOTJKTS  ACT,  1863,
was  extended  and  amended  in  1867.

VICE-CHANCELLOB of ENGLAND,

an  equity  judge,  appointed  by  parliament,  first  took
his  seat  5  May,  1813.  A  new  court  was  erected  for
him  about  1816  contiguous  to  Lincoln' s-inn-hall.
Two  additional  vice-chancellors  were  appointed
under  act  5  Vict.  c.  5,  5  Oct.  1 841.  The  office  of  vice-
chancellor  of  England  ceased  in  August,  1850,  and
a  third  vice-chancellor  was  appointed  in  1851,  when
two  more  equity  judges,  styled  lords  justices,  were


VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND.

3813.  Sir  Thomas  Plumer,  13  April.

z8i8.  Sir  John  Leach,  13  Jam

3827.  Sir  Anthony  Hart,  4  May.

2827-50.  Sir  Lancelot  Shadwell,  1  Nov. the  last.


=852.
S853.


2871.
3866.


e873


VICE-CHANCELLORS.

Sir  John  Stuart,  sat  last,  27  March,  1871.

Sir  "Wm.  Page  Wood, made  a  justice  of appeal,

1868  ;  lord  chancellor,  Dec.  1868.
Sir  Geo.  Markham  Giflard,  died  1870.
Sir  "Wm.  M.  James,  Jan.  ;  made  a  lord  justice  of

appeal,  June,  1870.
Sir  John  Wickens,  April ;  died,  23  Oct.  1873.
Sir  Riehard  Malms,  resigned  1881;  died  15  Jan.1882.
Sir  James  Bacon,  the  last1}

of  the  vice-chancellors, nQW  included  m  the

resigned  10  Nov.  1886. V chancery  divjsion.
Sir  Charles Hall,  Nov.  ;  J

died  12  Dec.  1883.  )


VICENZA  (the  ancient  Vicentia,  N.  Italy)  was
the  seat  of  a  republic  in  the  12th  century.  It
greatly  suffered  by  the  ravages  of  Alaric,  401,  and
Attila,  452.  Having  joined  the  Lombard  league,  it
was  sacked  by  Frederic  II.  1236.  After  many
changes  it  was  subjected  to  Venice,  and  with  it  fell
under  the  French  domination,  1796 ;  and  was  given
to  Austria  in  1814.  Having  revolted,  it  was  re-
taken by  Radetzky,  11  June,  1848.  It  was  annexed
to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  Oct.  1866.

VICE-PBESLDENT  of  the  Board  of
TRADE.  This  office  was  abolished  in  1867,  and  a
secretary  with  a  seat  in  parliament  substituted.

"VTCKSBUBG,  see  United  States,  1863.

YICTOBIA, formerly PORT PHILLIP,

'(Australia),  situated  between  New  South  "Wales  and
South  Australia. In  1798,  Bass,  in  his  whale-boat
expedition,  visited  Western  Port,  one  of  its  harbours  ;
and  in  1802  Flinders  sailed  into  Port  Phillip  Bay.
Population  of  the  colony  in  1836,  224  ; in 1841,

11,738;  in  1846,  32.879  :  in  l85i.  77.345  ;  31  Dec.

1852,  about  200,000;  in  March  1857  there  were


258,116  males  and  145,403  females  ;  in  all  403,519.
In  1859,  in  all  517,366 ;  in  1861,  540,322  ;  Dec.
1865,  626,639  ;  in  1871,  729,654  ;  1877,  849,021  ;
in  1881,  858,582 ;  1891,  1,140,411.  1886-7,  re-
venue, 6,733,867?.  ;  expenditure,  6,665,863?.  ^e_
venue,  1888-9,8,674,000;.;  expenditure,  8, 172,000?.;
imports,  18,530,5752.  ;  exports,  11,795,321?.
1889-90,  revenue,  8,519,159?.  ;  expenditure,
9,811,251?.  ;  imports,  22,954,015?.  ;  exports,
13,266,222?.
Colonel  Collins  lands  with  a  party  of  convicts  with
the  intention  of  founding  a  settlement  at  Port
Phillip,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Van  Diemen's

Land 1804

Messrs.  Hume  and  Hovell,  two  stock-owners  from
New  South  Wales,  explore  part  of  the  country,
but  do  not  discover  its  great  advantages  .  .  1824
Mr.  Edward  Henty  (of  a  Sussex  family),  comes
from  Tasmania  with  cattle,  sheep,  shepherds,  &c,
and  settles  in  Portland  Bay ;  his  brothers,
Stephen  George  and  John,  follow  soon  . . 1832

Mr.  John  Batman  enters  between  the  heads  of
Port  Phillip,  and  purchases  a  large  tract  of  land
from  the  aborigines  for  a  few  gewgaws  and
blankets  :  he  shortly  after,  with  fifteen  associates
from  Hobarton,  took  possession  of  600,000  acres
in  the  present  Geelong  country  .  .  May,  1835
The  Launceston  associates  and  Mr.  John  Paseoe
Falkner  ascend  the  Tarra-Tarra  (or  everflowing)
river,  and  encamp  on  the  site  of  Melbourne  .  ,,
The  colonists  (450  in  number)  possess  140,000
sheep,  2500  cattle,  and  150  horses  ;  sir  R.  Bourke,
governor  of  New  South  Wales,  visits  the  colony,
determines  the  sites  of  towns,  and  causes  the
land  to  be  surveyed  and  resold,  setting  aside
many  contending  claims ;  he  appoints  captain
Lonsdale  chief-magistrate  (see  Melbourne) . .  1837

The  colony  named  Victoria 1839

Mr.  C.  J. Latrobe  appointed  lieutenant-governor

under  sir  G.  Gipps ,,

Its  prosperity  brings  great  numbers  to  it,  and  in-
duces much  speculation  and  consequent  em-
barrassment and  insolvency  ....  1841-2
The  province  declared  independent  of  New  South
Wales  ;  a  reward  of  200?.  offered  for  the  discovery
of  gold  in  Victoria,  which  was  soon  after  found,
near  Melbourne,  and  was  profitably  worked  Aug.  1851
7000  persons  were  at  Ballarat,  Oct. ;  10,000  round

Mount  Alexander Nov. ,,

From  30  Sept.  to  31  Dec. 1851,  30,311  ounces of
gold  were  obtained  from  Ballarat ;  and  from  29
Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount
Alexander — total  124,835  ounces
The  production  was  still  very  great ....  1859
Immense  immigration  to  Melbourne  (see  Melbourne)  1852
Sir  Charles  Hotham,  governor  . . . June,  1854
A  representative  constitution  granted  . . .  1855

Sir  Henry  Barkly  appointed  governor  .  .  .  1856
The  parliament  was  opened  ...  26  Nov.  1857
Four  administrations  had  been  formed  in  .  1857-1860
Exhibition  of  the  products  of  the  colony  opened  by

the  governor 1  Oct.  1861

Sir  Charles Darling appointed governor, May :

arrives 10  Sept.  1863

Great  opposition  to  reception  of  convicts  in  any
part  of  Australia  ;  a  ship  containing  them  sent

back Oct.  1864

Important  land  act  passed  . . 22  March.  1865

The  assembly  passes  the  new  government  tariff,
Jan.,  which  is  rejected  by  the  legislative  council;
the  governor  raises  money  for  the  public  service

irregularly July, ,,

The  crisis  still  continues  ;  appeal  to  the  queen  pro-
posed Oct. ,,

Parliament  prorogued  .... Dec. ,,

Sir  Charles  Darling  recalled  ...  26  Feb.  1866
Ministerial  difficulties : Mr. M'Culloch  becomes

premier April, ,,

The  assembly  votes  20,000?.  to  lady  Darling ; sir

Charles  departs May, ,,

New  governor, sir  John  H. T. Manners  Sutton,

(viscount  Canterbury  in  1869)  arrived 13  Aug. „
Intercolonial  Exhibition  opened . . 25  Oct. ,,
Vote  of  20,000?.  to  lady  Darling  rejected  by  legisla-
tive council 20  Aug.  1867

Ministerial  crisis  ;  dispute  continues  between  the

assembly  and  the  council . . . Oct. ,,
Duke  of  Edinburgh  arrives ;  great  rejoicings  23  Nov. ,,


VICTOEIA.


1039


VICTOEIA NYANZA.


An  address presented to him by  Mr. Edward

Henty,  the  first  settler,  and  others . . . 1867
Parliament  dissolved .... 30  Dee. „
New  parliament ; ministry resigned  because  the
governor  objected  to  insertion of  the  Darling
grant  in  the  appropriation  bill . 12  March,  1868
First  woollen  and  paper  manufactories  established

May, ,,
The  M'Culloch  ministry  arrange  the  Darling  affair

July, „
The  M'Pherson  ministry  announced  . . Oct. 1869
Mr. M'Culloch  forms  a ministry including Mr.

M'Pherson,  April ;  is  knighted . . May,  1870
Mr.  M'Culloch  resigns  ... 14  June, ,,

The  federation  of  the  Australian  colonies,  proposed
by  Mr.  Gavan  Duffy  in  1857,  revived  by  him  and
discussed  in  the  legislative  assembly . June, ,,
Industrial  Museum  at  Melbourne,  opened 8  Sept. ,,

Mr.  Duffy  minister July,  1871

He  resigns  on  a  vote  against  him  . . 29  May,  1872
Mr.  Francis  forms  a  ministry . . . June, ,,
Payment  (300?.  a  year)  to  M.  P.'s  begins  .  . „
Sir  George  Ferguson  Bowen  succeeds  viscount  Can-
terbury Feb.  1873

Ministerial  crisis  :  Mr.  Kerford  premier ;  Mr.  Ser-
vice's budget;  expenditure,  4,500,000?.  ;  deficit,
about  340,000?.  ;  he  proposes  a  moderate  free-
trade  policy  ;  reduction  of  taxation  and  a  loan  ;
rejected  by  the  parliament ;  Mr.  Kerford  resigns,
as  sir  Win.  Stowell,  the  acting  governor,  would

not  dissolve Aug.  1875

Mr.  Graham  Berry,  premier  ;  would  continue  pro-
tection and  tax  the  richer  colonists  heavily  (a
financial  coup  d'etat)  ;  defeated  ;  resigns Oct. ,,
Sir  James  M'Culloch  forms  a  coalition  ministry,
Oct.  ; proposing tax on income, land, and

realised  property Nov. „

Passes  his  income-tax  bill  with  a  majority  of  3

announced  June,  1876
Dispute  of  government  with  Messrs.  Stevensons,
respecting  their  alleged  undervaluing  goods  for
payment  of  duties  ;  their  letters  opened

March- June, „
Elections  ;  triumph  of  protectionists  ; sir  James
M'Culloch  resigns ; Mr. Berry  again premier,
May  ;  a  land-tax  enacted .... Oct.  1877
Legislative  council  rejects  Mr.  Berry's  appropria-
tions, defence,  and  exhibition  bills,  end  of  Oct. ,,
County  court  and  other  judges  dismissed  by  the
couneil ; sir  G.  Bowen,  the  governor,  supports

the  niinistry Jan.  1878

The  lower  house  overrules  the  council ;  orders
public  creditors  to  be  paid  on  its  sole  vote,  about

13  Feb. „
Berry  ministry  and  the  lower  house  predominant

March- Aug. ,,
The  marquis  of  Normanby  appointed  governor,  Feb.  1879
Mr.  Berry's  fruitless  visit  to  England . . Feb. ,,
He  introduces  a  reform  bill,  Sept. ;  which  is  with-
drawn Dec. ,,

Parliament  dissolved  about  9  Feb.;  elections  give
majority  against  Mr.  Berry,  28  Feb. ;  his  cabinet
resign,  2  March ;  new  ministry  under  Mr.  James

Service 3  March,  1880

Mr.  Service's  reform  bill  rejected,  24  June  ;  dissolu-
tion of  the  assembly,  29  June  ;  the  ministry  re-
signs 14  July, „

Mr.  Berry  forms  a  cabinet . . .28  July, „
Ned  Kelly  and  some  of  his  gang  of  bush-rangers
after committing  many  murders  and robberies
(since autumn  of 1878)  captiu-ed  and  sent  to

Melbourne 27,  28  June, ,,

International  exhibition  at  Melbourne,  open  1  Oct. „

Kelly  hanged 11  Nov. „

Vote  of  confidence  in  Mr.  Berry  in  parliament  lost ;

sir  Brien  O'Loghlen  forms  a  niinistry . July,  1881
The marquis of Normanby  resigns,  March  ; sir

Henry  Brougham  Loch  succeeds . . April,  18S4
Mr.  Service,  premier,  promotes  a  confederation  bill

about  30  June ,,
Chinese  immigrants  are  now  virtually  excluded. 1885
Prosperity  budgets; surplus 392,000?., 22 July,

1885  ;  837,415? 24  July,  1888

New  ministry  under  lion.  Duncan  Gillies,  formed

18  Feb.  1886
Naval defence act passed with royal assent,

24,  25  Nov.  1887


Prevalence  of  strikes  among  workmen  and  oppo-
sition to  Chinese  immigration  . . autumn,  1888

Parliament  opened  by  Mr.  W.  C.  F.  Robinson,
acting  governor.

(Continued  three  years  prosperity  reported),  4  June,  1889

The  earl  of  Hopetoun  appointed  governor  aboui

22  July, „

The  government  submits  to  the  protectionists  ;
the  import  duties  increased,  and  new  ones  im-
posed about  13  Sept. ,,

The  irrigation  works  of  Messrs.  Chaffey,  Bros.,  an
American  firm  on  the  Murray  river,  reported  suc-
cessful ;  sir  Henry  Parkes  protests,  claiming
both  sides  of  the  river  for  New  South  Wales,

about  13  Sept. ,,

Large  subscriptions  for  the  dock  labourers  of
London  subscribed,  22,000?.  up  to  . . Oct. „

The  new  tariff  bill  passed  by  the  council,  under
protest about  31  Oct. „

The  protectionist  budget  passed . . 5  Nov. ,,

Departure  of  sir  Henry  B.  Loch,  much  honoured
(diamond  tiara  presented  to  lady  Loch  by  the
ladies  of  Victoria) .... 15  Nov. ,,

Arrival  of  the  earl  and  countess  of  Hopetoun,

28  Nov. „

Irrigation  conference  at  Melbourne  (25  trusts  estab-
lished, 280,000?.  advanced  by  the  state),

25  March  et  seq.  1890

Mr.  D.  Gillies'  prosperous  budget . . 1  Aug. ,,

His  ministry  defeated  by  a  majority  of  20,  30  Oct. ;
Mr.  James  Munro  foims  a  niinistry . 4  Nov. ,,

Failure  of  the  British  Bank  of  Australia  at  Mel-
bourne (established  April,  1888),  reported  lia-
bilities, 640,440?.  .... 14  Sept. 1891

The  loan  bill  for  6,000,000?.  passed . . 30  Oct. ,,

Brief  monetary  crisis  at  Melbourne  . early  Dec. ,,

Resignation  of  Mr.  James  Munro  ;  new  ministry  ;

. lion.  William  Shiels,  premier . . 3  Feb.  1892

Distress  through  want  of  work  ;  relief  works
ordered 4  Feb. „

Parliament  dissolved,  7  April ;  new  parliament
supports  the  ministry ;  the  labour  party  de-
feated, 20  April  et  seq.  :  parliament  opened,

11  May, ,,
VICTORIA, on  Vancouver's  island,  founded

1857  ;  declared  capital  of  British  Columbia,  which

see.
VICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver's

Island,  Docks,  Thames  1870,  Wrecks  1852,  British

Columbia.
VICTORIA,  a  British  colony  in  Anibas  bay,  on

the  West  African  coast,  originally  a  Baptist  mis-
sionary settlement,  annexed  19  July,  1884.

Ceremoniously  transferred  to  Germany  by  consul
Hewett  and  annexed  to  Cameroons 28  March,  1887

VICTORIA  CROSS,  a  new  order  of  merit,
instituted  to  reward  the  gallantry  of  persons  of  all
ranks  in  the'  army  and  navy,  5  Feb.  1856.  It  is  a
Maltese  cross  made  of  Russian  cannon  from  Sebas-
topol.  The  queen  conferred  the  honour  on  62
persons  (of  both  services)  on  Friday,  26  June,  1857;
and  on  many  of  the  Indian  army,  2  Aug.  1858.
Victoria  and  Albert  Order  of  Knighthood  for  ladies,
India,  instituted  10  Feb.  1862.

VICTORIA EMBANKMENT, &c, see

under  Thames.

VICTORIA  INSTITUTE,  or  Philosophi-
cal Society  of  Great  Britain,  established

22  June,  1865;  its  primary  object  being  the  attempt
to  reconcile  apparent  discrepancies  between  Chris-
tianity and  science.

VICTORIA  NYANZA,  a  lake  in  E.  Central
Africa,  300  miles  long,  90  miles  broad,  discovered
by  capt.  John  H.  Speke  in  1858,  and  explored  by
him  and  capt.  J.  A.  Grant  in  1862  ;  circumnavigated
by  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley  in  1875.  Col.  J.  H.  Speke
was  accidentally  killed  by  his  own  sun,  15  Sept.
1864.  Col.  J.  A.  Grant  died  ri  Feb.  1892.
Albert  Nyaxza, 140  miles  long,  and  40  miles  broad,

situated  So  miles  N.W. of  Victoria  Nyanza. It  was


VICTOEIA PAEK.


1040


VIENNA.


discovered  by  capts.  Speke  and  Grant,  1862,  and
visited  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Samuel  White  Baker  in
1864  (see  Nile  and  Africa).
Albert  Edward  Nyanza  was  discovered  by  Mi.  H.  M.
Stanley  in  1887,  and  named  in  1889.  These  lakes  are
'  considered  to  be  reservoirs  from  which  the  Nile  flows.

VICTOEIA  PAEK  (E.  London),  was  origi-
nated by  an  act  passed  in  184 1,  which  enabled  her
majesty's  commissioners  of  woods  and  forests  to
purchase  certain  lands  for  a  royal  park,  with  the
sum  of  72,000;.  raised  by  the  same  act,  by  the  sale
of  York-house  to  the  duke  of  Sutherland.  The
act  described  the  land  to  be  so  purchased,  contain-
ing 290  acres,  situate  in  the  parishes  of  St.  John,
Hackney;  St.  Matthew,  Bethnal-green ;  and  St.
Mary,  Stratford-le-bow.  The  park  was  completed
and  opened  to  the  public  in  1845.  Lady  (then  Miss)
Burdett-Coutts  presented  a  handsome  drinking
fountain,  and  was  present  at  its  inauguration,  28
June,  1862.  The  park  was  visited  by  the  queen,
2  April,  1873  5  and  ™  memol7  0I  ner  reception,  she
presented  a  clock  and  peal  of  bells  to  St.  Mark's
church; recognition  service,  21 May, 1874. See

VICTOEIA  EAILWAY  BRIDGE  (tubu-
lar), over  the  St.  Lawrence,  Montreal,  erected  by
Mr.  James  Hodges,  under  the  superintendence  of
Mr  Robert  Stephenson  and  Mr.  A.  M.  Ross,
engineers,  was  begun  24  May,  1854,  and  formally
opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  25  Aug.  i860.  It
forms  part  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  which  con-
nects Canada  and  the  seaboard  states  of  North
America.  The  length  is  about  sixty  yards  less  than
two  English  miles,  and  about  7  J  times  longer  than
Waterloo  bridge,  and  ten  times  longer  than  new
Chelsea  bridge  ;  the  height  sixty  feet  between  the
summer  level  of  the  river  and  the  under  surface  of
the  central  tube.  It  is  supported  by  24  piers.  The
cost  was  1,700,000/.  On  5  Jan.  1855,  while  con-
structing, the  bridge  was  much  injured  by  floating
ice,  but  the  stonework  remained  firm.

VICTOEIA  EEGTA,  the  magnificent  water-
lily  brought  to  this  country  from  Guiana  by  sir
Robert  Schomburgk,  in  1838,  and  named  after  the
queen.  Fine  specimens  are  at  the  Botanic  Gardens
at  Kew,  Regent's  Park,  &c.  It  was  grown  in  the
open  air  in  1855,  by  Messrs.  Weeks,  of  Chelsea.

VICTOEIA  STEAMEE  ;  sunk ;  see  Wrecks,
24  May,  1881.
VICTORIAN  EXHIBITION,  illustrating

the  reign  of  queen  Victoria  from  1837  to  1887,  was
opened  in  the  New  Gallery,  Regent  street,  2  Dec.
1891,  and  closed  2  April,  1892.  The  queen  was
patron,  and  the  prince  of  Wales  was  active  in  the
management.  It  succeeded  the  Tudor,  Stuart,  and
Guelph  exhibitions,  which  see.

The  Victorian  exhibition  illustrated  events  in  the  life  of

the  royal  family,  and  the  progress  of  the  nation  in

politics, philanthropy, literature, science, art, and

manufactures,  by  means  of  portraits,  pictures,  statues,

relics,  books,  models,  costumes,  &c.

VICTOEIA  UNIVERSITY  constituted;  is

to  consist  of  Owen's  college,  Manchester,  and  others ;

the  charter  was  granted  in  April ;  the  first  council

met,  14  July,  1880.

VICTOEY,  Man-of-War,  of  ioo  guns,  the
finest  first-rate  ship  in  the  navy  of  England,  was
lost  in  a  violent  tempest  near  the  race  of  Alderney,
and  its  admiral,  sir  John  Balchcn,  and  100  gentle-
men's sons,  and  the  whole  crew,  consisting  of  1000
men,  perished,  8  October,  1744.— The  Victory,  the
flag-ship  of  Nelson,  at  the  "battle  of  Trafalgar,  21
Oct.  1805,  is  kept  in  fine  preservation  at  Ports-
mouth.


VICTUALLEES,  an  ancient  trade  in  Eng-
land. The  Vintners'  company  of  London  was
founded  1437  ;  their  hall  rebuilt  in  1823.

None  shall  sell  less  than  one  full  quart  of  the  best
beer  or  ale  for  id.  and  two  quarts  of  the  smaller
sort  for  id.  . .  1603

The  power  of  licensing  public-houses  was  granted

to  sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchel  .  1621
The  number  in  England  then  was  about  13,000 . ,,
In  Great  Britain  about  76,000  public-houses . .  1790
England, 59,335  ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland,

14,080  ;  total,  88,496  in 1850

In  England  and  Wales,  23,028  in . . . . 1889
Public-houses  allowed  to  be  opened  on  Sundays

from  1  o'clock  till  3,  and  from  5  till  iip.m . 1828
The  prescribed  time  enlarged . ' . . . . 185s
127,352  licences  were  issued  for  the  sale  of  beer,
cider,  and  perry  in  the  United  Kingdom,  produc-
ing a  revenue  of  304,688?.  ; and  -93,936  licences
for  the  sale  of  spirits  :  revenue  560,557?. . .  1858
Licensed  Victuallers'  School  established  . . .  1803
Licensed  Victuallers'  Asylum  established 22  Feb.  1827
Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom

99.46S 1872

Between  100,000,000?.  and  150,000,000?.  said  to  be
invested  in  the  liquor  trade.  The  licensed  vic-
tuallers actively  opposed  Mr.  Bruce's  licensing
bill,  which  was  withdrawn  .  .  summer  of  1871
New  licensing  act,  regulating  hours  of  opening  and
shutting,  &c,  passed  and  came  into  execution

10  Aug. 1872
[It  caused  much  irritation,  and  was  said  to  have  conduced

to  the  fall  of  the  Gladstone  ministry,  1874.]
Public-houses  in  Ireland  closed  on  Sundays,  by  act

passed 16  Aug. 1878

Payment  for  licenses  raised . . . June,  1880

VICTUALLING  OFFICE  (London),  for
managing  the  victualling  of  the  royal  navy,  was
instituted  Dec.  1663.  The  number  of  commis-
sioners was  five,  afterwards  seven,  and  then  reduced
to  six.  The  various  departments  on  Tower-hill,  St,
Katherine's,  and  Rotherhithe,  were  removed  to
Deptford  in  Aug.  1785,  and  the  office  to  Somerset-
house,  1783.  In  1832  the  office  of  commissioners
was  abolished,  and  the  victualling-office  made  one
of  five  departments  under  the  lords  of  the  ad-
miralty.

VIENNA  (the  Roman  Tindobona),  was  capital
of  the  margraviate  of  Austria,  984  ;  virtual  capital
of  the  German  empire,  1273  ;  since  1806,  capital  of
the  Austrian  dominions  only.  Population  in  1857,
476,222;  1872,  901,000;  1880,  1,103,857;  1890,
1,364,548  ;  see  Austria.

Vienna  made  an  imperial  city 1156

Walled  and  enlarged with  the  ransom paid  for

Richard  I.  of  England,  40,000? 1194

Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnifi-
cent, with  an  army  of  300,000  men  ;  but  he  was
forced  to  raise  the  siege  with  the  loss  of  70,000  of

his  best  troops 1525*

Besieged  by  the  Turks July,  1683

The  siege  raised  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,

who  defeats  the  Turkish  army  of  100,000,  12  Sept. ,,
Vienna  taken  by  the  French  under  prince  Murat,
14  Nov.  1805,  evacuated ... 12  Jan.  1806

Captured  by  Napoleon  1 13  May,  1S09

Restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace . 14  Oct. ,,
Congress  of  sovereigns  at  Vienna . . Nov.  1S14
Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  founded . . .  1846
The  revolt  in  Hungary  induces  an  insurrection  in
Vienna ...... 13  March,  1848

The  emperor  retires,  17  May  ;  returns . Aug. ,,
A  second  insurrection : Count  Latour, the war
minister,  is  murdered .... 6  Oct. „

The  emperor  again  takes  flight . . .7  Oct. ,,
Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and

Jellachich,  28  Oct.  ;  its  capitulation  . 30  Oct. ,,
Conferences  respecting  the  Russo-Turkish  war  held
at  Vienna* 1853-5

*  A  conference  of  the  four  great  powers,  England,
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  was  held  24  July,  when  a


VIENNA.


1041


VIENNE.


The  fortifications  demolished,  and  the  city  enlarged
and  beautified 1857-8

"The  imperial  parliament  (Reichsrath)  assembles
here 31  May,  i860

The  Prussians  encamp  near  Vienna  ;  state  of  siege
proclaimed July,  1866

Visited  by  the  sultan .... 27  July,  1867

New  palace  of  the  fine  arts  founded  by  the  emperor

about  18  Sept. 1868

'The  great  international  exhibition  opened  by  the
emperor ;  the  prince  of  Wales  and  many  digni-
taries present 1  May,  1873

■.{The  enormous  building  with  annexes  was  designed
by  Mr.  Scott  Russell,  most  ably  supported  by  the
Austrian  engineers  ;  the  grand  central  rotunda,
312  feet  in  diameter,  with  lofty  dome,  is  an
•exaggerated  Pantheon,  suspended  on  iron  girders
in  place  of  masonry,  and  dwarfs  St.  Peter's  at
Rome.  ]

•Great  financial  failures  ;  affect  all  Europe, 9  May, „

Visit  of  the  czar,  1-7  June ;  of  the  shah  of  Persia,

30  July, „

Prizes  to  exhibitors  presented  by  the  archduke
Albert 18  Aug. ,,

Visit  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy,  17-22
Sept.  ;  of  the  emperor  of  Germany . 17-23  Oct. ,,

Waterworks  inaugurated  by  the  emperor 24  Oct. ,,

The  exhibition  closed .... 2  Nov. ,,

New  bed  of  the  Danube  inaugurated . 30  May,  1876

•Johann  Zich  throws  a  stone  at  Russian  ambassador

19  Jan.  1882

International  art  exhibition  opened . 1  April, „

The  Ring  theatre  destroyed  by  fire,  caused  by  the
fall  of  a  large  spirit  lamp,  447  persons
perished  out  of  about  2000,  8  Dec.  1881 ;  [accusa-
tions of  culpable  negligence]  ;  imprisonment
decreed 16  May, „

Tfciot  of  shoemakers  and  others  suppressed  by  mili-
tary 7—8  Nov. ,,

international exhibition of graphic art, &c.

15  Sept.— 1  Nov.  1883

Electric  exhibition . . .16  Aug. — 3  Nov. „

Bi-centenary  of  the  siege  raised  by  John  Sobieski,
king  of  Poland,  celebrated . . . 12  Sept. ,,

The  imperial  parliament  meets  in  its  new  grand
house  early  in Dec. ,,

Much  disaffection,  see  Austria  . . .  Jan.  1884

Awful  storm ; destruction of life  and property

10  Dec. ,,

-Joseph  Pircher,  a  gilder,  secretly  climbs  up  the
steeple  of  St.  Stephen's  cathedral  and  places  a
banner  on  the  cross  (432  German  feet  high)  and
descends  safely . . . . 17,  18  Aug.  1886

Anarchist  conspiracy  to  burn  Vienna  on  the  nights
of  3,  4  Oct.  ;  detected  ;  premises  in  the  suburbs
fired,  27  Sept.  ;  17  men  arrested  and  houses
searched,  bombs,  &c.  discovered  and  police
disguises  ;  announced  .... 10  Oct. „

'Great  international  hygienic  congress  opened  by
,  crown  prince  Rudolph ... 26  Sept. ,,

International  art  exhibition  opened . 3  March,  1888

Grand  monument  of  the  empress  queen  Maria
Theresa  inaugurated  in  the  presence  of  the
emperor  and  empress  ... 13  May, ,,

.note  was  agreed  on  and  transmitted  for  acceptance  to  St.
Petersburg  and  Constantinople,  31  July.  This  note  was
.accepted  by  the  czar,  10  Aug.,  but  the  sultan  required
modifications,  which  were  rejected  by  Russia,  7  Sept.
The  sultan's  note  (31  Dec.)  contained  four  points  : —
t.  The  promptest  possible  evacuation  of  the  princi-
palities. 2.  Revision  of  the  treaties.  3.  Maintenance
•of  religious  privileges  to  the  communities  of  all  con-
fessions. 4.  A  definite  settlement  of  the  convention  re-
.specting  the  holy  places.  It  was  approved  by  the  four
powers,  and  the  conferences  closed  on  16  Jan.  1854. — A
new  conference  of  plenipotentiaries,  from  Great  Britain
'(lord  John  Russell),  France  (M.  Dronyn  de  l'Huys),
Austria  (count  Buol),  Turkey  (Arif  Effendi),  and  Russia
(count  Gortsehakoff),  took  place,  March,  1854.  Two
points,  the  protectorate  of  the  principalities  and  the  free
navigation  of  the  Danube,  were  agreed  to  ;  but  the  pro-
posals of  the  powers  as  to  the  reduction  of  the  Russian
power  in  the  Black  Sea  were  rejected  by  the  czar,  and  the
■conference  closed,  5  June,  1854.  The  E11.14li.sl1  and  French
envoys'  assent  to  the  Austrian  propositions  was  not  ap-
proved of  by  their  governments,  and  they  both  resigned
their  official  positions.


National  industrial  exhibition  opened  in  honour  of
the  40th  year  of  the  emperor's  reign,  14  May  ;
closed 31  Oct.  1888

Grand  funeral  of  Beethoven  on  the  removal  of  his
remains  from  Wahring  cemetery  to  the  central
cemetery  at  Simmerung ... 22  June, ,,

Goldsmith's  exhibition  opened . . 22  April,  1889

Strike  of  tram-car  men,  anti-semitic  rioting  sup-
pressed by the military ; close of strike,

20-24  April, „

The  grand  Natural  History  museum  opened  by  the
emperor 10  Aug. „

Strike  of  about  15,000  masons  for  increased  pay,*

31  March,  1890

General  agitation,  with  intimidation,  of  workmen,

April, ,,

Riots  suppressed  by  military . 8  April  et  seq. ,,

The  great  enlargement  of  the  city  by  the  incorpora-
tion of  the  suburbs  ordered,  Dec.  1890,  com-
pleted Dec.  1891

Frank  Schneider  and  Rosalie  his  wife,  sentenced  to
death  for  the  cruel  murder  of  several  servant
maids,  whom  they  decoyed  into  a  wood  near
Vienna  June  et  seq.,  16-29  Jan.  ;  he  is  executed
(she  is  imprisoned  for  life) . . 17  March,  1892

International  musical  and  dramatic  exhibition,
president,  arch-duke  Charles  Louis,  opened  by
the  emperor 7  May, ,,

Visit  of  prince  Bismarck,  19-23  June  ;  marriage  of
his  son  Herbert 21  June, „

TREATIES OF  VIENNA.

i.  The  treaty  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  the
king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to  each
other  such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they
were  respectively  possessed  of ;  and  by  a  private  treaty
the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a  force  to  procure  the
restoration  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  use  means
for  placing  the  Pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great
Britain.  Spain  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.
30  April,  1725.

2.  Treaty  of  alliance  between  the  emperor  of  Germany,
Charles  VI.,  George  II.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  and
the  states  of  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanc-
tion was  guaranteed,  and  the  disputes  as  to  the
Spanish  succession  terminated.  (Spain  acceded  to
the  treaty  on  the  22nd  of  July.)  Signed  16  March,
1731-

3.  Treaty  of  peace  between  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  of
Germany  and  the  king  of  France,  Louis  XV. ,  by  which
the  latter  power  agreed  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic
Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France.  Signed
18  Nov.  1738  ;  see  Pragmatic  Sanction.

4.  Treaty  between  Napoleon  I.  of  France  and  Francis
(II.  of  Germany)  I.  of  Austria,  by  which  Austria  ceded
to  France  the  Tyrol.  Dalmatia,  and  other  territories,
which  were  shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united
to  France  under  the  title  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and
engaged  to  adhere  to  the  prohibitory  system  adopted
towards  England  by  France  and  Russia.  14  Oct.
1809.

5.  Treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia,  and
Prussia,  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they  had
acted  by  the  treaty  of  Chaumont,  1  Mar.  1814.  Signed
25  March,  1815.

6.  Treaty  between  the  king  of  the  Netherlands  on  the
one  part,  and  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and
Prussia  on  the  other,  agreeing  to  the  enlargement  of
the  Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the  sovereignty  in
the  house  of  Orange. 31  May,  1815.

7.  Treaty  by  which  Denmark  ceded  Swedish  Pomerania
and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for  Lauenburg.
4  June,  1815.

8.  Commercial  treaty  for  twelve  years  between  Austria
and  Prussia. Signed  at  Vienna,  19  Feb.  1853.

9.  Treaty  for  the  maintenance  of  Turkey,  by  the  repre-
sentatives of  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria,  and
Russia. Signed  9  April,  1854.

10.  Treaty  between  Austria  and  Prussia  and  Denmark,
by  which  Denmark  reded  the  duchies. 30  Oct,  1S64.

11.  Treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  Italy  ;  Yenetia
given  up  to  Italy. 3  Oct.  1866.

VIENNE,  the  ancient  Vienna  Allobrogum
(S.E.  France).  Here  the  emperor  Valentinian  II.
was  put  to  death  by  Arbogastes,  15  May,  302,  and  a
short reaction  in favour of paganism followed.

3  x


VIGILANCE ASSOCIATION.


1042


VINE.


Vienne  was  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  in
432  and  879,  and  sometimes  gave  its  name  to  the
kingdom.  A  general  council  was  held  here  in
131 1.  Vienne  was  annexed  to  the  French  monarchy,
1448.

VIGILANCE  ASSOCIATION,  see  under
National.

VIGILANCE  Murder  Association,  see

Ireland,  1883.

VIGO  (N.  W.  Spain)  was  attacked  and  burned
hy  the  English,  under  Drake  and  Norris  in  1589.
Sir  George  Rooke,  with  the  combined  English  and
Dutch  fleets,  attacked  the  French  fleet  and  the
Spanish  galleons  in  the  port  of  Vigo,  when  several
men-of-war  and  galleons  were  taken,  and  many
destroyed,  and  abundance  of  plate  and  other
valuable  effects  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,
12  Oct.  1702.  Vigo  was  taken  by  lord  Cobham
in  1 7 19,  but  relinquished  after  raising  contribu-
tions. It  was  again  taken  by  the  British,  27  March,
1809.

VIKINGS.  Scandinavian  chiefs,  Swedes,
Danes,  and  Norsemen,  who  in  the  4th  century
migrated — eastward,  to  the  countries  beyond  the
Baltic ;  westward  and  southward,  chiefly  to  the
British  isles.

Mr.  Paul  B.  Du  Chaillu,  in  his  "Viking  Age,"
describes  the  Vikings  as  the  ancestors  of  "the
English-speaking-Nations  "... Oct.  1889

VILLA  FEANCA.  Near  here,  and  Llerena,
Spain,  the  British  cavalry,  under  sir  Stapleton
Cotton,  defeated  the  French  cavalry  under  marshal

Soult,  11  April,  1812. — Villa  Franca,  a  small

port  on  the  Mediterranean,  near  Genoa,  was  bought
for  a  steam-packet  station  by  a  Russian  company,
about  Aug.  1858,  which  caused  some  political
excitement. — At  VlLLA  FRANCA,  in  Lombardy,
the  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  met,  on  1 1  July,
1859  (after  the  battle  of  Solferino),  and  on  12  July
signed  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  the  basis  of  the
treaty  of  Zurich (which  see) .

VILLA  VICIOSA.  1.  in  Portugal.  Here
the  Portuguese,  under  the  French  general  Schom-
berg,  defeated  the  Spaniards,  1665.  2.  in  Castile,
Spain.  Here  the  struggle  for  the  Spanish  crown
was  decided  in  favour  of  Philip  V.  by  Vendome's
"victory  over  Staremberg  and  the  Austrians,  10  Dec.
1710.

VILLAIN,  or  Villein,  see  Slavery  in
England.

VILLE  DE  HAVEE,  French  Atlantic  mail
steamer, 5,100  tons, sailed from New  York for
Havre,  15  Nov.  1873 ;  was  run  into  by  a  Glasgow
clipper,  Lochearn,  about  2  a.m..  22  Nov.,  and  sank
in  twelve  minutes ;  226  out  of  313  persons  perished.
The  crew  of  the  Lochearn  rescued  87,  who  were
conveyed  to  Cardiff  by  the  American  vessel  Tri-
Mountain,  capt.  Urquhart,  arriving  there 1  Dec.  1873
The  Lochearn,  beginning  to  sink,  28  Nov.,  was  aban-
doned by  her  crew,  who  were  rescued  by  the
British  Queen,  and  brought  to  Plymouth 7  Dec. ,,
On  judicial  examination,"the  Lochearn  was  exone-
rated in  England,  but  censured  in  Prance Jan.  1874

VILLETA  (Paraguay,  South  America).  Here
Lopez  and  the  Paraguayans  were  totally  defeated
by  the  Brazilians  and  their  allies,  11  Dec.  1868.
Lopez  and  200  men  fled ;  3000  prisoners  were  made ;
and.  the  war  was  considered  to  be  ended.

VIMIEEA  (in  Portugal),  where  the  British
and  Spanish  forces,  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,
defeated  the  French,  under  marshal  Junot,  duke  of


Abrantes,  21  Aug.  1808.  The  attack,  made  with
great  bravery,  was  gallantly  repulsed ;  it  was
repeated  by  Kellermann  at  the  head  of  the  French
reserve,  which  was  also  repulsed.  The  French,
charged  with  the  bayonet,  withdrew  on  all  points-
in  confusion,  leaving  many  prisoners.

VINCENNES,  a  strong  castle  near  Paris;  »
residence  of  the  French  kings  from  the  12th  to  the
14th  centuries.  Henry  V.  of  England  died  at  the
Bois  de  Vincennes,  31  Aug.  1422.  At  the  fosse  of
the  castle,  Louis  due  d'  Enghien  was  shot  by  order
of  Napoleon,  after  a  hasty  trial,  early  on  the  morn-
ing of  22  March,  1804.

VINCENT, Cape St. (S.  W.  Portugal).

See  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  Rodney's  Victories.

VINCENT,  ST.  (West  Indies),  long  a  neutral
island ;  but  at  the  peace  of  1763,  the  French  agreed
that  the  right  to  it  should  be  vested  in  the  English.
The  latter  soon  after  engaged  in  a  war  against  the
Caribs,  on  the  windward  side  of  the  island,  who-
were  obliged  to  consent  to  a  peace,  by  which  they
ceded  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  British  crown.  In
1779  the  Caribs  greatly  contributed  to  the  reduction:
of  this  island  by  the  French,  who,  however,  restored
it  in  1783.  In  1795  the  French  landed  some-
troops,  and  again  instigated  the  Caribs  to  an  insur-
rection, which  was  not  subdued  for  several  months.
The  great  eruption  of  the  Souffriere  mountain,  after
the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  occurred  in  1812.
Population  in  1861,  31,755;  in  1881,  40,548;  itt
1891,  41,054  ;  see  Windward  Isles.
Great  destruction  of  life  and  property  by  a
hurricane 16  Aug.  1886:

VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  ST.,  Charitable

SOCIETY,  founded  in  1833,  in  France,  by  twelve
young  men.  It  extends  its  extremely  beneficial
operations  into  Biitain.  Its  power  excited  the
jealousy  of  the  French  government,  which  sup-
pressed its  central  committee  of  Paris,  in  Oct.  1861.
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  born,  1576;  established'
the  congregation  of  Lazarists,  or  Vincentines,  1625;
Sisters  of  Charity,  1634  ;  a  foundling  hospital,  1648,.
He  died  1660.

VINCY,  N.  France.  Here  Charles  Martel
defeated  the  Neustrians,  21  May,  717,  and  acquired!
their  country.

VINE. The  vine  was  planted  by  Noah,  2347-
B.c. Gen.  ix.  20. A  colony  of  vine-dressers  from
Phocea, in Ionia, settled at  Marseilles,  and  in-
structed the  South  Gauls  in  tillage,  vine-dressing,.
and commerce,  about  600  B.C. Some  think  that
vines  are  aborigines  of  Languedoc,  Provence,  and
Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  spontaneously  on  the
Mediterranean  shores  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.
The  vine  was  carried  into  Champagne,  and  part  of
Germany,  by  the  emperor  Probus,  about  a.d.  279.
The  vine  and  sugar-cane  were  planted  in  Madeira
in  1420. In  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace
is  an  old  and  celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any
known  vine  in  Europe ;  see Grapes, and Wine.
The  Tokay  vines  were  planted  in  1350.
Vine  Disease. In  the  spring  of  1845,  Mr.  E. Tucker,  of
Margate, observed a  fungus  (since named Oiclium
Tuckeri)  on  grapes  in  the  hot-houses  of  Mr. Slater,  of
Margate. It  is  a  whitish  mildew,  and  totally  destroys
the  fruit.
The  spores  of  this  o'i&iwm  were  found  in  the  vineries  at
Versailles  in  1847. The  disease  soon  reached  the  trel-
lised  vines,  and  in  1850  many  lost  all  their  produce.
In  1852,  it  spread  over  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Syria,  and
in  Zante  and  Cephalonia  attacked  the  currants,  reduc-
ing the  crop  to  one-twelfth  of  the  usual  amount.
Through  its  ravages,  the  wine  manufacture  in  Madeira
ceased  for  several  years.


VINEGAR.


1043


VISIGOTHS.


Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrest  the  progress  of
this  disease,  but  without  much  effect.  Sulphur  dust  is
the  most  efficacious  remedy.

The  disease  had  much  abated  in  France,  Portugal,  and
Madeira,  in  1863.  In  1862  Californian  vines  were
introduced  into  the  two  latter.

New  malady  (microscopic  insect,  phylloxera  vastatrix).
in  S.  France,  observed 1865

Remedy,  sulphuret  of  carbon,  recommended  by
M.  Dumas Aug.  1873

Not  successful ;  great  destruction  ;  12,000?.  offered
for  a  remedy July,  1876

Phylloxera  prevalent  in  Malaga  and  France;  reported
July,  Aug.  1878  ;  Portugal,  Italy,  Spain  ;  Sept.-
Nov. 1879  ;  appears  in  Victoria,  Australia, Nov.  1880

Phylloxera  congress  at  Bordeaux . 10 — 15  Oct.  1881

The  phylloxera  is  said  to  be  exterminated  in  Swit-
zerland by  fire Nov.  1882

Phylloxera  ravaging  vines  on  the  Douro  ;  conse-
quent emigrations  to  Brazil  ... 7  Feb.  1884

Disappearance  of  the  phylloxera  in  W.  France
through  the  experimental  researches  of  M.  Pas-
teur :  prosperous  vintages  reported . . 1883-91

VINEGAR.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds,
which  they  used  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers
were  accustomed  to  take  it  in  their  marches.  The
Bible  represents  Boaz,  a  rich  citizen  of  Bethlehem,
as  providing  vinegar  for  his  reapers  (1312  B.C.),  a
custom  still  prevalent  in  Spam  and  Italy.

VINEGAR-HILL  (near  Enniscorthy,  in
"Wexford,  S.  E.  Ireland).  Here  the  Irish  rebels,
headed  by  father  John,  a  priest,  encamped  and  com-
mitted many  outrages  on  the  surrounding  country.
They  were  gradually  surrounded  by  the  British
troops,  commanded  by  Lake,  21  June,  1798,  and
after  a  fierce  struggle,  with  much  slaughter,  totally
dispersed.

VINTNERS,  see  Victuallers.

VIOL  AND  VIOLIN.  The  lyre  of  the  Greeks
became  our  harp,  and  the  viol  of  the  middle  ages
became  the  violin.  The  violin  is  mentioned  as  early
as  1200,  in  the  legendary  life  of  St.  Christopher.  It
was  introduced  into  England,  some  say,  by  Charles
II.  Straduarius  (or  Stradivarius)  of  Cremona,  was
a  renowned  violin-maker  (1700  to  1722).  The
eminent  violinist  Paganini  visited  England,  1831  ;
died  at  Nice,  27  May,  1840.

VIRGINALS;  an  early  keyed  instrument  of
the  kind  termed  clavichords ;  used  in  the  16th  and
17th  centuries;  played  on  by  queen  Elizabeth  and
Mary  queen  of  Scots.  According  to  Johnson,  it
owed  its  name  to  young  women  being  the  usual
.performers.  Tallis,  Morley,  Purcell,  Gihbons,  and
Bull  composed  for  this  instrument.

VIRGINIA,  see  Home,  449  b.c.

VIRGINIA,  the  first  British  settlement  in
North  America,  was  discovered  by  John  Cabot  in
1497,  and  was  taken  possession  of  for  Raleigh,  and
named  after  the  virgin-queen  Elizabeth,  13  July,
1584.  Vain  attempts  were  made  to  settle  it  in  1585.
Two  expeditions  were  formed  by  patent  in  1606,  and
others  in  1610.  In  1626  it  reverted  to  the  crown ;
and  a  more  permanent  colony  was  established  soon
afterwards.  George  Washington  was  delegate  for
Virginia  in  the  congress  of  1774.  Eastern  Virginia
seceded  from  the  Union,  25  April,  1861,  but  "Western
Virginia  declared  for  the  Union,  13  Feb.  and  elected
a  governor,  20  Feb.  1861 ;  became  a  state  1863.
Virginia  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  war.  The  state  was
readmitted  to  the  congress,  Jan. -Feb.  1870;  see
United  Slates,  and  Richmond.  Population  in  1880,
1,512,565;  1890,  1,655,980;  capital,  Richmond.
Western  Virginia,  population,  1880,  618,457  ;  1890,
762,794;  capital,  Wheeling.

VIRGINIA  CITY,  see  Nevada.


VIRGIN  ISLANDS  (West  Indies),  an  eastern
group  discovered  by  Columbus,  (1494)  :  Virgin
Gorda,  Tortola,  Anegada,  &c,  and  the  Danish  Isles,
St.  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz,  and  St.  John.  Population
of  the  British  possessions  in  1891,  was  4,639.  See
Leeivard  Isles.
Tortola  settled  by  Dutch  buccaneers  about  1648  ;

expelled  by  the  English  (who  have  held  it  since) 1666
St. Thomas  settled  by  Danes  1672, and St. John
a  few  years  after; held  by  the  British 1801-2  ;
1807-15 ;  proposed  sale  to  the  United  States  for
1,500,500?. to  be  made  a "territory." Danish
proclamation,  25  Oct. 1867 ; purchase  declined
by  U.  S.  senate ... 23  March,  May,  1870
By  a  dreadful  hurricane  off  St.  Thomas,  the  Royal
Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely
wrecked ;  the  Conway  and  Derwent,  and  above  50
other  vessels,  driven  ashore  ;  about  1000  persons
said  to  have  perished . . . .29  Oct.  1867
Much  suffering  was  occasioned  in  Tortola  ;  houses
blown  down  or  unroofed,  <fec.  (a  report  reached
London  that  the  isle  was  submerged).
Earthquake  at  St.  Thomas's  and  other  isles  ;  much

damage  ;  few  lives  lost  ....  Nov.  , ,
Santa  Cruz.  A  negro  insurrection,  in  which  M.  Fon-
taine, a  planter,  was  killed  ;  Fredrikstadt  and  36
out  of  50  sugar  plantations  were  burnt,  and  about
3000  whites  rendered  homeless.  During  the  sup-
pression by  col.  Garde,  the  governor,  about  200
negroes  were  killed . . . .1-5  Oct.  1878

VIRGINIUS,  American  blockade-runner,  see
Cuba,  1873.

VIRGIN  MARY.  The  Assumption  of  the
Virgin  is  a  festival  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,
in  honour  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of  Mary  into
heaven,  according  to  their  belief,  15  Aug.  a.d.  45.
The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin  is  a  feast  celebrated
21  Nov.,  said  to  have  been  instituted  among  the
Greeks  in  the  nth  century ;  its  institution  in  the
West  is  ascribed  to  pope  Gregory  XL  1372  ;  see
Annunciation,  and  Conception,  Immaculate.

VIRTUE,  League  OF,  see  Tugcndbund.

VISCONTI,  the  name  of  a  noble  Italian
family,  which  ruled  in  Milan  from  about  1277  to
1447 ;  the  heiress  of  the  family  was  married  to
Francesco  Sforza,  who  became  duke  1450.

VISCOUNT  (Vice  Conies),  anciently  the  name
of  the  deputy  of  an  earl.  The  first  viscount  in
England  created  by  patent  was  John,  lord  Beaumont,
whom  Henry  VI.  created  viscount  Beaumont,  giving
him  precedence  above  all  barons,  10  Feb.  1440.
Ashmole.  This  title  is  of  older  date  in  Ireland  and
France.  John  Barry,  lord  Barry,  was  made  vis-
count Buttevant,'  in  Ireland,  9  Rich.  II.  1385.
Beatson.

VISIBLE  SPEECH,  a  term  applied  by  Mr.
Alex.  Melville  Bell  to  his  "Universal  Self-Inter-
preting Physiological  Alphabet,"  comprising  thirty
symbols  representing  the  conformations  of  the
mouth  when  uttering  sounds.  He  stated  that  about
fifty  differeut  types  would  be  required  to  print  all
known  languages  with  these  symbols.  He  ex-
pounded his  system  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,
14  March,  1866;  and  published  a  book  in  1867.

VISIGOTHS,  separated  from  the  Ostrogoths
about  330 ;  see  Goths.  The  emperor  Valcns,  about
369,  admitted  them  into  the  Roman  territories  upon
the  condition  of  their  serving  when  wanted  in  the
Roman  armies;  and  Thcodosius  the  Greal  permitted
them  to  form  distinct  corps  commanded  by  theirown
officers.  In  400,  under  Alaric,  they  invaded  Italy,
and  in  410  took  Rome.  They  founded  their  king-
dom of  Toulouse,  414;  conquered  the  Alani,  ami
extended  their  rule  in(<>  Spain,  41  1  ;  expelled  the
Romans  in  468;  and  finally  were  themselves  con-

3x2


VISITATIONS.


1044


VOLSCI.


quered  by  the  Saracens  under  Muza,  in  711,  when
their  last  king,  Roderic,  was  defeated  and  slain  ;  see
Spain  for  a  list  of  the  Visigothic  kings.  Their  rule
in  France  ended  with  their  defeat  by  Clovis  at
Vougle,  in  507.

VISITATIONS,  see  Heralds.

VITAL  FORCE,  defined  by  Humboldt  "  as  an
unknown  cause  preventing  the  elements  from  obey-
ing their  primitive  affinities."  This  theory  is  now
opposed  by  many  physiologists,  and  animal  motion
is  attributed  to  muscular  and  nervous  irritability,
illustrated  by  the  researches  of  Galvani,  Humboldt,
sir  Charles  Bell,  Marshall  Hall,  and  others.  The
subject  has  been  much  discussed  recently  by  Huxley
and  other  eminent  physiologists.

VITI  ISLES,  see  Fiji.

VITTOEIA  (N.  Spain),  the  site  of  a  victory
obtained  by  Wellington  over  the  French  army  com-
manded by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  king  of  Spain,  and
marshal  Jourdan,  21  June,  1813.  The  hostile  armies
were  nearly  equal,  from  70,000  to  75,000  each.
After  a  long  and  fearful  battle,  the  French  were
driven,  towards  evening,  through  the  town  of  Vit-
toria,  and  in  then-  retreat  were  thrown  into  irre-
trievable confusion.  The  British  loss  was  22  officers
and  479  men  killed;  167  officers  and  2640  men
wounded.  Marshal  Jourdan  lost  151  pieces  of  can-
non, 451  waggons  of  ammunition,  all  his  baggage,
provisions,  cattle,  and  treasure,  with  his  baton  as  a
marshal  of  France.  Continuing  the  pursuit  on  the
25th,  "Wellington  took  Jourdan' s  only  remaining
gun. Population,  1887,  27,660.

VIVARIUM,  see  Aquavivarium.

VIVISECTION-  Physiological  experiments
upon  living  animals  having  much  increased,  the
societies  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals  in
Dresden  and  Paris  in  1859  requested  the  opinion  of
a  committee  of  eminent  scientific  men  on  the  merits
of  the  knowledge  thus  acquired.  Their  judgment
was  not  unanimous.  The  London  society  took  up
the  question  in  i860 ;  and  printed  a  pamphlet  by
Mr.  G.  Macilwain  against  vivisection.  In  Aug.
1862  an  international  conference  to  discuss  the
question  was  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham.
The  subject  was  discussed  in  1866,  and  a  prize
awarded  by  the  London  society.  Sir  Charles  Bell's
opinion  of  vivisection  was,  that  it  either  obscured
the  subject  it  was  meant  to  illustrate,  or  misled  men
into  practical  errors  of  the  most  serious  character.
Opposition  to  vivisection  continued,  1892.
Discussion  revived  in  consequence  of  the  prosecu-
tion of  Dr.  Schiff  in  Florence,  who  justified  vivi-
section when  chloroform  or  any  other  anaesthetic

is  used , . . 1873-6

Kival  societies :  1.  Society  for  the  abolition  of
vivisection,  1875  ;  2.  International  Association  for
total  suppression  of  vivisection  ....  1876
Commission  (viscount  Cardwell,  professor  Huxley
and  others)  to  inquire  into  the  practice,  appointed
23  June,  1875  ;  report  signed,  8  Jan.  ;  published,
March,  1876;  a  bill  to  regulate  vivisection  (cruelty
to  animals  act)  brought  into  parliament ;  strongly
opposed  by  the  medical  profession  in  general,
June,  July  ;  passed,  15  Aug.  1876.  Vivisectors
are  to  have  a  licence  or  certificate.
Resolution  in  favour  of  vivisection  passed  by  the

International  Medical  Congress,  London 9  Aug. 1881
The  prosecution  of  prof.  Ferrier  (who  had  experi-
mented on  the  brains  of  monkeys  under  anaes-
thetics) and  others  failed  . . . .  '  Nov. ,,
Dr.  Koch,  of  Berlin,  demonstrates  that  tubercular
disease  can  be  propagated  by  organisms  termed

bacilli 1882

Mr.  R.  T.  Reid's  bill  to  prohibit  vivisection,  talked

out 4  April,  1883

Report  for  1883  :  Great  Britain,  44  licences ;  535


experiments ;  Ireland,  8  licences  :  34  experiments ;
anaesthetics  employed  when  required.
441  experiments  in  Great  Britain  in  ...  1884

Report  for  1886  and  1887  :  Great  Britain  64
licences.  In  1888  55  licences  and  1,069  experi-
ments.
Instructed  by  Dr.  Ferrier's  vivisection  experiments,
Dr.  Hughes  Bennett  localized  in  a  man's  brain  a
tumour, which was removed by Mr. Godlee

25  Nov.  1884

VIZIANAGRAM,  a  town  in  Madras  presi-
dency, formerly  a  kingdom,  among  the  last  bul-
warks against  the  Mahomedan  invasion,  and  a
refuge  for  Hindoo  learning.  The  sovereigns  date
from  the  14th  century. See  Vedas.

VIZIER,  GRAND,  an  officer  of  the  Ottoman
Porte,  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Amu-
rath  I.,  about  1386.  The  office  was  abolished  in
1838  ;  but  since  been  frequently  revived  and  sup-
pressed ;  see  Turkey.

VLADIMIR  (central  Eussia),  a  city  founded  in
the  1 2th  century,  and  the  capital  of  a  grand  duchy
from  1 157  to  about  1328.

VOCALION,  a  new  musical  instrument  in
which  tones  are  produced  from  strings  made  to
vibrate  by  currents  of  air,  the  joint  invention  of  Mr.
James  Baillie  Hamilton  and  Mr.  John  Farmer
assisted  by  Mr.  Hermann  Smith,  described  and
illustrated  by  Mr.  Hamilton  at  the  Royal  Institu-
tion, 21  May,  1875,  an(l  tried  successfully  at
Harrow,  23  March,  1882,  and  soon  after  at  West-
minster Abbey  ;  and  at  other  places.

VOIRON,  see  Veseronce.

VOLAPIIK  (from  '  world '  and '  speak ') ,  univer-
sal commercial  language  invented  by  M.  Schleyer,
who  taught  it  in  Paris  in  Feb.  1886.  The  Philological
Society  of  London  advocated  its  use  in  diplomacy
and  science,  in  1887.  The  roots  chiefly  borrowed
from  Romanic,  Germanic,  and  especially  English
languages  shortened.  There  is  a  Volapiik  Academy
at  Munich,  and  about  500,000  people  are  using  or
learning  it.
Mr. C. E. Sprague's handbook of Volapiik

published Jan.  1888

Volapiik reported successful and spreading in

Europe  and  America ,,

Mr. P.  Hoinix  publishes  his "Anglo  Franca  "  in

opposition  to  Volapiik  . . . March,  1889

VOLCANOES.  In  different  parts  of  the  earth
there  are  above  200  volcanoes  which  have  been
active  in  modern  times  ;  see  Etna,  Vesuvius,  New
Zealand,  Owhyhee,  and  Iceland.  In  Mexico,  a  plain
was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thousand
feet  in  height  by  the  burning  lava  from  a  volcano,
in  1759.  A  volcano  in  the  isle  of  Ferro  broke  out
13  Sept.  1777,  which  threw  out  an  immense  quantity
of  red  water,  that  discoloured  the  sea  for  several
leagues.  A  new  volcano  appeared  in  one  of  the
Azore  islands,  1  May,  1808.

VOLHYNIA,  a  Polish  province,  annexed  to
Russia  1793.

VOLSCI,  an  ancient  Latin  people,  frequently  at
war  with  the  Romans.  From  their  capital,  Corioli,
Caius  Martius  (who  defeated  them  about  490  B.C.)
derived  his  name  Coriolanus.  The  story  of  his
banishment  by  his  ungrateful  countrymen ;  of  his
revenge  on  them  by  bringing  the  Volsci  to  the  gates
of  Rome,  yet  afterwards  sparing  the  city  at  the
entreaties  of  his  mother,  Volumnia  (487  B.C.),  is
considered  by  many  as  a  poetical  legend.  The
Volsci  and  their  allies  were  totally  defeated  at
Sutrium  by  the  consul  Valerius  Corvus  (346),  and
incorporated  with  the  Roman  people  about  338.


VOLSINIL


1045


VOLUNTEEKS.


VOLSINII,  the  inhabitants  of  an  Etrurian  city,
who,  after  a  sharp  contest,  were  completely  over-
come  by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius,

280  B.C.

VOLTAIC  PILE  or  Battery,  was  con-
structed by  Galvani ;  see  Galvanism  in  article
Electricity.  The  principle  was  discovered  by  Ales-
sandro  Volta,  of  Como  (bom  1745),  for  thirty  years
professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Pavia,  and  an-
nounced by  him  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in
1793.  The  battery  was  first  set  up  in  1800.  Volta
was  made  an  Italian  count  and  senator  by  Napoleon
Bonaparte,  and  was  otherwise  greatly  honoured.
"While  young  he  invented  the  electrophorus,  electric
pistol,  and  hydrogen  lamp.  He  died  in  1826,  aged
81.  The  form  of  the  Voltaic  battery  has  been  greatly
improved  by  the  researches  of  modern  philosophers.
The  nitric  acid  battery  of  sir  W.  R.  Grove  was
constructed  in  1839  ;  Alfred  Smee's  battery  in  1840;
the  carbon  battery  of  professor  Robert  Bunsen  in
1842.  The  first  is  very  much  used  in  this  country  ;
that  of  Bunsen  dn  the  continent,  see  Copper-Zinc
Couple.

VOLTURNO,  a  river  in  S.  Italy,  near  Capua,
near  to  which  Garibaldi  and  his  followers  held  a
strong  position.  This  was  furiously  assailed  by  the
royal  troops  on  1  Oct.  i860,  who  were  finally  re-
pulsed after  a  desperate  struggle,  the  fiercest  in
which  Garibaldi  had  yet  been  engaged.  He  was
aided  greatly  by  a  band  of  Piedmontese  from
Naples.  On  2  Oct.  general  Bixio  completed  the
victory  by  capturing  2500  fresh  Neapolitan  troops
and  dispersing  others.

VOLUNTARY  CONTRIBUTIONS.  Pub-
lie  contributions  for  the  support  of  the  British
government  against  the  policy  and  designs  of
France  amounted  to  two  millions  and  a  half  ster-
ling in  1798.  About  200,000(?.  were  transmitted  to
England  from  India  in  1799.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  of
Bury,  among  other  contributions  of  equal  amount,
subscribed  10,000/.  Annual  Register;  see  Pa-
triotic Fund.  In  1862  nearly  a  million  pounds  were
subscribed  in  the  British  empire  for  the  relief  of  the
Lancashire  cotton  spinners  ;  see  Cotton  and  Mansion
House,  where  voluntary  contributions  for  beneficent
purposes  are  continually  received.

VOLUNTEERS  were  enrolled  in  England  for
the  American  war,  1778,  and  especially  in  conse-
quence of  the  threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary
France,  1793-4.  Besides  our  large  army,  and
85,000  men  voted  for  the  sea,  we  subsidised  40,000
Germans,  raised  our  militia  to  100,000  men,  and
armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers;  the  yeomanry
formed  cavalry  regiments.  Between  1798  and  1804,
when  this  force  was  of  greatest  amount,  it  num-
bered 410,000,  of  which  70,000  were  Irish  ;  +  Yeo-
manry in 1884, 11,400. On 26 Oct. 1803,  king


*  The  first  regiment  of  Irish  volunteers  was  formed
at  Dublin,  under  command  of  the  duke  of  Leinster,  12
Oct.  1779.  They  armed  generally  to  the  amount  of
20,000  men,  and  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  the
houses  of  lords  and  commons  in  Ireland,  for  their
patriotism  and  spirit,  for  coming  forward  and  defending
their  country.  At  the  period  when  the  force  appeared,
Irish  affairs  bore  a  serious  aspect  ;  manufactures  had
decreased,  and  foreign  trade  had  been  hurt  by  a  pro-
hibition of  the  expoi-t  of  salted  provisions  and  butter.
No  notice  of  the  complaints  of  the  people  had  been  taken
in  the  English  parliament,  when,  owing  to  the  alarm  of
an  invasion,  ministers  allowed  the  nation  to  arm,  and  an
immense  force  was  soon  raised.  The  Irish  took  this
occasion  to  demand  a  free  trade,  and  government  saw
there  was  no  trifling  with  a  country  with  anus  in  its
hands.  The  Irish  parliament  unanimously  addressed  the
king  for  a  free  trade,  and  it  was  granted  1779.


George  III.  reviewed  in  Hyde  Park  12,401  London
volunteers,  and  on  28  Oct.  14,676  more.  The  Eng-
lish volunteers  were,  according  to  official  accounts,
341,600  on  1  Jan.  1804;  see  Naval  Volunteers.  In
May,  1859,  in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  the
fear  of  a  French  invasion,  the  formation  of  volun-
teer corps  of  riflemen  commenced  under  the  auspices
of  the  government,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year
many  thousands  were  enrolled  in  all  parts  of  the
kingdom.  The  volunteers  were  said  to  be  "  a  force
potentially  the  strongest  defence  of  England,"  19
April,  1870 ;  see  Artillery  Association,  and  Naval
Artillery  Volunteer  Force.

Yeomanry  were  enrolled  by  lord  Chatham  in  1761.
The  present  49  regiments  of  cavalry  (about  300

each),  cost  80,000?. 1870

The  number  of  yeomanry  -  1876,  12,093 ;  1880,
11,598;  1885,  it, 590;  1890,  10,697.

[The  first  Middlesex  volunteers  were  formed  in
1803  as  the  duke  of  Cumberland's  sharpshooters.
They  retained  their  organisation  as  a  rifle  club,
when  other  volunteers  were  disbanded.  In  1835
they  were  permitted  by  the  duchess  of  Kent  to
take  the  name  of  the  Royal  Victoria  Rifle  Club.]

Circular  letter  from  col.  Jonathan  Peel,  proposing
organization  of  National  Volunteer  Association  for
promoting  the  practice  of  Rifle-shooting,  12  May,
1859.  It  was  established  in  London,  under  the
patronage  of  the  queen  and  prince  consort,  Mr.
Sidney  (afterwards  lord)  Herbert,  secretary  at
war,  president,  and  the  earl  of  Derby,  earl  Spencer,
lord  Elcho,  and  other  noblemen  vice-presidents.
(Annual  subscription  one  guinea,  or  a  composition
for  life  of  ten  guineas)  . . .  16  Nov. 1859

2500  volunteer  officers  presented  to  the  queen;  a
dinner  followed,  with  the  duke  of  Cambridge  in
the  chair;  and  a  ball ....  7  March,  i860

The  queen  reviews  about  18,450  volunteers  in
Hyde-park 23  June, ,,

[Mr.  Tower,  of  "Weaklhall,  Essex,  aged  80,  was  pre-
sent as  a  private ;  he  had  been  present  as  an
officer  in  a  volunteer  review  in  1803.]

First  meeting  of  the  National  Association  for  rifle-
shooting  held  at  Wimbledon.  The  queen  fired  the
first  shot,  a  "centre"  ;  captain Edw.  Ros?  (North
York)  obtained  the  queen's  prize  of  250I.  and  the
gold  medal  and  badge  of  the  association  2-7  July,  i860
[M.  Thorel,  a  Swiss,  obtained  a  prize. J

Successful  sham-fight  at  Bromley,  Kent 14  July, ,,

Above  20,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  at
Edinburgh 7  Aug. ,,

Above  10,000  Lancashire  volunteers  reviewed  by
the  earl  of  Derby  at  Knowsley . . 1  Sept. „

Lord  Herbert  stated  that  the  association  had  a
capital  of  3000Z.  and  an  annual  income  of  1500Z.,

16  Feb.  1861

Volunteers  in  Britain  estimated  at  about  160,000,

May, „

Second  meeting  at  Wimbledon ;  Mr.  Jopling  (S.
Middlesex)  gains  the  queen's  prize  and  the  asso-
ciation medal 4-10  July, „

Review  of  11,504  volunteers  at  Wimbledon,  13  July:
of  9000  at  Warwick .... 24  July, ,,

Registered  number  of  volunteers,  162,681 1  April,  1862

20,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  lord  Clyde  at
Brighton 21  April,  1862

Third  meeting  at  Wimbledon  ;  Mr.  Pixley  (S.  Vic-
toria) gains  the  queen's  prize,  <fec.  1-14  July, '

A  commission  recommends  that  an  annual  grant  of
either  20s. ,  30s. ,  or  34s. ,  be  given  to  each  volun-
teer according  to  circumstances . . Oct. ,

Fourth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  7  July,  &c. :  queen's
prize,  <fcc.,  won  by  sergeant  Roberts  (12th  Shrop-
shire) 14  July,  1863

An  act  to  amend  and  consolidate  the  acts  relating
to  the  volunteer  force  of  Great  Britain  was  passed,

21  July, .,
[Annual  grant  of  30s.  to  each  volunteer  autho-
rised.)

22,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  prince  of  Wales
in  Hyde-nark  (great  improvement  noticed).

28  May, i£64

Fifth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  n  July.  &c;  the
queen's  prize,  &c,  won  by  private  .John  Wyatt
(London  rifle  brigade) ... 23  July, „


VOLUNTEERS.


1046


VOLUNTEERS.


Volunteers  estimated  at  165,000  in  1864.

Sixth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  began  11  July;  the
queen's  prize  was  won  by  private  Sharman  (4th
West  York),  18  July;  the  meeting  ended  with  a
review  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge . 22  July,  1865

Seoenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  began  9  July;
queen's  prize  won  by  Angus  Cameron  (6th  Inver-
ness), 17  July;  the  value  of  about  7000?.  distri-
buted in  prizes;  and  review  by  duke  of  Cam-
bridge 21  July,  1866

The  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  prince  of  Wales  at
Brighton,  2  April;  at  York,  n  Aug.;  by  duke  of
Cambridge  at  Hyde-park  ... 23  June, ,,

Estimate  of  volunteers :  135,000  infantry,  27,000
artillery,  and  4000  engineers. — Times . 9  Oct. „

About  1 100  volunteers  visit  Brussels,  headed  by  col.
Loyd  Lindsay  :  warmly  received ;  first  prize
gained  by  Curtis,  of  the  nth  Sussex  rifles,

11-22  Oct. ,,

Parliamentary  vote  for  volunteers,  361,009?.

6  June,  1867

Metropolitan  and  Berkshire  volunteers  reviewed  in
Windsor  Great  Park . . . .10  June, ,,

Eighth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  began  8  July ;  Bel-
gian Garde  civique  and  volunteers  (above  2000)
received  by  prince  of  Wales,  13  July;  resignation
of  lord  Elcho,  chairman  of  the  council ;  succeeded
by  earl  Spencer,  18  July ;  grand  review  by  prince
of  Wales,  the  sultan,  cfcc. ;  the  queen's  prize  given
to  sergeant  Lane  (Bristol)  by  the  princess  of  Teck,

20  July, ,,

Grand  review  in  New  Sefton  park,  Liverpool,  5  Oct. „

About  28,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  at
Windsor 20  June,  1868

Eeview  of  regulars  and  volunteers  at  Edinburgh,

4  July, „

Ninth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  13  July;  the  queen's
prize  gained  by  lieut.  Carslake  (5th  Somerset),

25  July, ,,

Lord  Elcho  re-elected  chairman  of  the  council  (earl
Spencer  resigned) ..... Feb. 1869

Memorial  to  government  respecting  the  capitation
grant ;  signed  by  noblemen  and  gentlemen,

19  Feb. ,,

Volunteers  reported  to  number  170,000 . . . ,,

Beview  of  volunteers  of  southern  and  western
counties  at  Portsmouth  . .  26  April, ,,

Tenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon  3  July ;  queen's  prize
gained  by  corporal  Angus  Cameron  (6th  Inver-
ness), 2nd  time,  13  July;  grand  review 24  July,  1869

Volunteers'  act,  1863,  amended . . 9  Aug. ,,

'"Army  Service.  Corps"  to  be  composed  of  volun-
teers; established^  by  royal  warrant  12  Nov. ,,

Eleventh  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  n  July;  queen's
prize  won  by  corporal  Humphries  (6th  Surrey),

ig  July,  1870

Letter  from  the  lord  mayor  recommending  the  en-
largement of  the  volunteer  system,  and  its  greater
efficiency . . . . - . .22  Sept. „

Establishment  of  an  extensive  rifle  range,  drill
ground,  armoury,  &c,  for  the  London  volunteers
resolved  on 3  Oct. ,,

Distribution  of  breech-loaders  commenced Nov. ,,

The  volunteers  recognised  as  part  of  the  national
army 1871

Lord  Elcho  (chairman)  resigned ;  succeeded  by  the
earl  of  Ducie June, ,,

Twelfth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  8  July;  queen's
prize  won  by  ensign  A.  P.  Humphry,  undergra-
duate (Cambridge  university),  aged  19 18  July,  1871

Vote  for  volunteer  force,  1872-3,  473,200?. 24  June,  1872

Thirteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  8  July;  queen's
prize  won  by  colour-sergeant  Michie  (London
Scottish) 16  July, „

The  Elcho  shield,  the  International  trophy,  and  the
Irish  International  trophy  (all  won  by  the  Eng-
lish) placed  in  the  custody  of  the  lord  mayor,

27  July, ,,

Some  volunteers  visit  Ghent . . 14-21  Sept.

Fourteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  7  July ;  queen's
prize  won  by  sergeant  Robert  Mcnzies  (1st  Edin-
burgh) I5  July,  1S73

Volunteers  visit  Havre  ;  shoot  for  prizes  ;  50  obtain
prizes,  end  of  May  ;  given  . . 29  June,  1874

Fifteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  6  July  ;  queen's
prize  won  by  private  W.  C.  Atkinson  (1st  Durham)

14  July, ,,

An "efficient volunteer" defined by order in


council  (substitute  for  schemes  of  27  July,  1863,
and  15  Oct.  1872) Aug.  1874

Resignation  of  earl  of  Ducie  as  chairman  . April,  1875

Sixteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  12  July  ;  queen's
prize  won  by  capt.  George  Pearse  (15th  Devon)

20  July, ,,

175,387  enrolled  volunteers  1874  ;  181,080, . . ,,

30,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  prince  of  Wales
in  Hyde  Park  ("  complete  success." — Times.)

1  July,  1876

Seventeenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  10-22  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Pullman,  2nd
(South)  Middlesex .... 18  July, „

185,501  enrolled  volunteers ,,

Eighteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  9-21  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  private  George  Jamieson
(a  Scot),  of  15th  Lancashire  corps  (Liverpool)

17  July,  1877

Nineteenth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  8-20  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  private  Peter  Ray  (a  Scot),
nth  Stirling 16  July,  1878

203,213  enrolled  volunteers . . . Nov. ,,

Twentieth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  14-26  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  corporal  George  Taylor,
47th  Lancashire 22  July,  1879

International  trophy  won  by  England . 19  July, ,,

Standard  of  efficiency  :  69  per  cent.  1863  ;  85  per
cent.  1868 ;  96  per  cent.  . . . . .  1880

Earl  Stanhope  elected  chairman  in  room  of  earl
Wharncliffe May, ,,

Twenty-first  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  12 — 24  July;
Queen's  prize  won  by  Alexander  Ferguson,  private
1st  Argyll 21  July, ,,

East  York  volunteer  artillery  corps  resign  on  ac-
count of  dismissal  of  col.  Humphrey  (through
continued  personal  disagreements),  16  June ;
resignations  said  to  be  illegal  . .  29  June, „

Sergeant  Wm.  Marshman,  tried  by  court-martial  for
alleged  fraudulent  marking  at  the  rifle  meetings,
1878,  1879,  1880,  acquitted . 13  Aug. — 16  Sept. „

Earl  Stanhope,  chairman,  succeeded  by  earl  Brown-
low 4  May,  1881

Above  52,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  at
Windsor,  9  July.  ["A  magnificent  success  ;  the
crowning  achievement  of  the  volunteer  move-
ment."— Times,  n  July] „

About  40,000  Scotch  volunteers  reviewed  by  the
queen,  in  Queen's-park,  Edinburgh  . .25  Aug. „

Twenty-second  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  11-23  July:
queen's  prize  won  by  private  Thomas  Beck,  3rd
Devon 19  July, „

Twenty-third  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  10 — 22  July  ;
queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Lawrence,  1st
Dumbarton 18  July,  1882

Enrolled  volunteers,  207,336  . . .1  Nov. ,,

Twenty-Jonrth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  9 — 21  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Mackay,  1st
Sutherland .....  17  July,  1883

International  rifle  match  between  British  and
Americans  :  won  by  British . . 21  July, ,,

Twenty-fifth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  14 — 26  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  private  Gallant,  8th  Mid-
dlesex 22  July,  1884

Volunteers  exercised  in  camping  out ;  sham  conflicts
in  Berkshire  and  other  counties . . Aug. ,,

Volunteers  Forces'  Benevolent  Association,  inau-
gurated 6  July,  1885

Twenty-sixth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  13 — 25  July;
queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Bulmer,  2nd  Lin-
coln  21  July, ,,

Twenty-seventh  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  12-24  July  ;
queen's  prize  won  by  private  Jackson,  of  1st
V.  B.  Lincoln  (one  of  three  ties) . 21  July,  1886

Enrolled  volunteers, 224,012,  Nov.  1885  ; 226,752

Nov. ,,

28,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the  queen  at  Bucking-
ham palace  ;  inarch  past  in  i\  hours  . 2  July,  1887

Twenty-eighth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  11-23  July!
queen's  prize  won  by  lieut.  R.  0.  Warren,  1st
Middlesex,  (Victoria)  rifles,  Middlesex 19  July, ,,

Lord  Wantage  elected  chairman,  1887 ;  active  in
search  of  a  site  in  place  of  Wimbledon . . . 188S

Order  issued  for  the  formation  of  95,000  volunteers
into  19  brigades  for  immediate  mobilisation  for
home  defence 3  July, „

Twenty-ninth  meeting  at  Wimbledon,  9-21  July ;
queen's  prize  won  by  private  Fulton,  13th
Middlesex  (queen's  Westminsters)  rifles,  17  July, „


VOLUNTEERS.


1047


YULGATE.


Brookwood  to  be  called  Bisley  common,  chosen  for
1890 28  Feb.

Estimated  grant  for  220,000  men,  742,700?. April,

Thirtieth  meeting  at  Wimbledon  . . 8-20  July,

Queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Eeid  (1st  Lanark
Engineers) 16  July,

Patriotic  volunteer  fund  started  by  lord  mayor
Whitehead  in  the  spring ;  he  appeals  for  sub-
scriptions for  the  full  equipment  of  a  citizen
.army,  equal  to  that  of  the  regulars.  The  prince  of
Wales  105L,  1  June  ;  the  queen  200L  2  July  ;  many
others  ;  about  42,000?.  subscribed . 20  Nov.

Enrolled  volunteers,  224,021 . . . 1  Nov.

Oapt.  St.  John  Mildmay,  secretary  since  i860,  re-
signs, 6  Sept.  ;  succeeded  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Humphry,

Nov.

"The  council  determines  to  appeal  to  the  public  for
funds,  and  to  obtain  a  charter  of  incorporation,
11  Feb.  ;  this  was  granted  and  signed  by  the
queen .  .... 25  Nov.

Parliament  votes  100,000?.  for  volunteer  equipment,

17  April,

Thirty-first  meeting  (the  first  at  Bisley  common),
12-26  July  ;  the  camp  opened,  the  prince  and
princess  of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge
present ;  the  princess  fired  the  first  shot,  a
"bull's  eye" 12  July,

•Queen's  prize  won  by  sergeant  Bates  (1st  Warwick),

22  July,

Meeting  very  successful

[The  Rifle  Association  includes  76  county  asso-
ciations in  Great  Britain,  4  in  Ireland,  and  64
in  India  and  the  colonies.]

Enrolled  volunteers,  221,048  ... 31  Oct.

Keview  of  about  25,000  volunteers  at  Wimbledon
by  the  German  emperor . . . n  July,  :

Thirty-second  meeting  (the  second  at  Bisley  com-
mon) 13-24  July,

Queen's  prize  wxon  by  private  D.  Dear  (Queen's
Edinburgh) 21  July,

Thirty-third  meeting  (the  third  at  Bisley  common),
n-23  July  ;  Queen's  prize  won  by  major  Pollock
(3rd  Renfrew) 23  July,

""The  Volunteer  Officers'  Decoration"  (an  oak
wreath  in  silver  tied  with  gold,  having  in  the
centre  the  royal  cipher  and  crown  in  gold)  for
commissioned  officers  who  have  served  20  years,
instituted  by  the  queen ... 25  July,

About  13,000  volunteers  engaged  in  the  army
manoeuvres Aug.


EASTER  MONDAY  REVIEWS  AND  SHAM  FIGHTS.

Brighton  . . 21  April,  1862,  and  5  April,  1863

Guildford 28  March,  1864

Brighton . . 17  April,  1865 ;  and  2  April,  1866

Dover 22  April,  1867

Portsmouth  (the  most  successful  hitherto,  29,490

volunteers  present) .  . . 13  April,  1868

Dover  (bad  weather)  ....  29  March,  1869

Brighton,  18  April,  1870;  (considered  a  failure)

10  April,  1871

Mock  battle  between  sir  Arthur  Hors-

ford  (12,180  men,  22  guns)  and  gen.  Lysons  (11,082

men,  20  guns) 1  April,  1872

Small  reviews  at  Wimbledon  and  other  places,
14  April,  1873  ;  6  April,  1874  ;  29  March,  1S75  ;
atTring,  &c,  17  April,  1876  ;  at  Dunstable,  &c. ,  2
April,  1877;  at  Staines,  &c. ,  22  April,  1878;  at
Dover,  Reigate,  Wimbledon,  &c,  14  April,  1879  ;
Brighton,  battle,  successful  ;  29  March,  1S80  ;
18  April,  1881  ;  Portsmouth,  20,000  ("Genuine
success,"  Times),  10  April,  1882  ;  Brighton  (evolu-
tions very  successful),  26  March,  1883  ;  Dover,
Portsmouth,  &C,  (i2-)i4  April,  1884;  Brighton
and  Dover,  6  April,  1885  ;  at  Dover,  Portsmouth,
Colchester  &c,  26  April,  1886;  successful  mili-
tary operations  at  Dover,  Eastbourne,  and
Aldershot,  11  April,  1887  ;  campaign  operations
and  battles,  invasions,  &c.  at  Portsmouth,
Dover,  Eastbourne  &c,  30,  31  March;  battles:
invaders  successful  at  Portsmouth  .  2  April,  1888
Meetings  fur  brigade  drill,  &c,  Eastbourne,  Ports-
mouth, Dover,  Brighton,  and  other  places,
22  April,  1889;  Folkestone,  Eastbourne,  Ports-
mouth, &c,  7  April,  1890.  Portsmouth,  hover,
Brighton,  <fcc,  30  March,  1891. At  Dover,  battle


of  St.  Margaret's ;  invaders  under  col.  J.  C.
Russel,  defenders  under  col.  J.  B.  Sterling.  At
Chatham,  battle  of  the  Bells  ;  invaders  under
lieut.  gen.  Goodenough,  defenders  under  major-
gen.  Dawson  Scott .... 18  April,  1892-

Elcho  Challenge  Shield,  shot  for  by  teams,
and  kept  by  the  winning  nation  :

Won  by  England:  1862,  1863,  1865,  1867,  1868,  1870,
1871.  1872,  1876,  1881  (July  22),  1882  (July  20),
1885  (July  23),  1887  (July  21),  1891  (July  23).

Scotland:  1864,  1866,  1869,  1874, 1879  (July  24).

Ireland :  1873,  1875,  1877,  1878,  1880  (July  22),
1883  (July  19),  1884  (July  24),  1886  (July  22),  1888
(July  19),  1889  (July  18),  1890  (24  July),  1892,  (23
July).

Volunteer  Medical  Staff  Corps  established,  announced

23  March,  1885

VOSSEM,  PEACE  OF,  between  the  elector  of
Brandenburg  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France  ;  the  latter
engaged  not  to  assist  the  Dutch  against  the  elector ;
signed  6  June,  1673.

VOTING  PAPEES. See  Dodson's  Act.  The

proposal  to  use  them  was  negatived  in  the  debates
on  reform  in  1867;  adopted  by  the  ballot  act  in  1873.
See  Ballot.

VOUGLE  or  VOTJILLE,  S.W.  France  (near
Poitiers),  where  Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths,
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis,  king  of  France,
507,  who  subdued  the  whole  country  from  the  Loire
to  the  Pyrenees.  A  peace  followed  between  the
Franks  and  Visigoths,  who  had  been  settled  above
one  hundred  years  in  that  part  of  Gaul  called
Septimania.  Clovis  soon  afterwards  made  Paris
his  capital.

VOYAGES.  It  is  mythically  stated  that  by
order  of  Pharaoh-Necho,  of  Egypt,  some  Phoenician
pilots  sailed  from  Egypt  down  the  Arabian  Gulf,
round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,
entered  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gib-
raltar, coasted  along  the  north  of  Africa,  and  at
length  arrived  in  Egypt,  after  a  navigation  of
about  three  years,  604  B.C.  Herodotus.  The  first
voyage  round  the  world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part
of  a  Spanish  squadron  which  had  been  under  the
command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the
Philippine  Islands  in  a  skirmish)  in  1519-20 ;
see  Circumnavigators,  North-West  Passage,  and
Periplus.

VOYSEY  ESTABLISHMENT FUND.

The  Rev.  Charles  Voysey  having  been  deprived  for
heresy  (see  Church  of  England,  187 1),  began  a  series
of  services  at  St.  George's  hall,  Langham-place,  1  Oct.
1871.  The  fund  for  their  maintenance  was  supported
by  Bp.  Hinds  of  Norwich  (retired),  Sir  John  Bow-
ring,  and  other  eminent  liberals.  He  termed  his
congregation  a  "Theistic  Church."

VULCAN,  see  Planets.  The  Greek  god  He-
phaistos  answered  to  the  Roman  Vulcan.

VULCANITE  (vulcanised  india-rubber),  also
termed  Ebonite.

VULGATE  (from  vulgatus,  published),  a  remi
applied  to  the  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures
which  is  authorised  by  the  council  of  Trent  (1546),
and  which  is  attributed  to  St.  Jerome,  about  384.
The  older  version,  called  the  Italic,  is  said  to  have
been  made  in  the  beginning  of  the  2nd  century.  A
critical  edition  was  printed  by  order  of  pope  SixtusV.
in  1590,  which,  being  considered  inaccurate,  was
superseded  by  the  edition  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in
1592.  The  earliest  printed  vulgate  is  without  date,
by  Grutenburg  and  Fust,  probably  about  1455,  tho,
first  dated  (Fust  and  Schooner)  is  1462.


w.


WACHT.


WAHABEES.


WACHT  DES  DEUTSCHEN  VATEE-
LAND  ("Watch  of  the  German  Fatherland").
German  national  hymn,  by  Eeichardt,  first  per-
formed 2  Aug.  1825.  Very  popular  during  the  war
1870-71.

WADHAM  COLLEGE  (Oxford).  Founded
by  Nicholas  Wadham,  and  Dorothy,  his  wife,  in
1613.  In  this  college,  in  the  chambers  of  Dr.  Wil-
kins  (over  the  gateway),  the  founders  of  the  Eoyal
Society  frequently  met  prior  to  1658.

WAGEB  OF  BATTLE,  see  Appeal.

WAGES  m  ENGLAND.  The  wages  of
sundry  workmen  were  first  fixed  by  act  of  parlia-
ment 25  Edw.  III.  1350.  Haymakers  had  but  one
penny  a  day.  Master  carpenters,  masons,  tilers,
and  other  coyerers  of  houses,  had  not  more  than  3^.
per  day  (about  gd.  of  our  money) ;  and  their  ser-
vants, i\d. Viner's  Statutes.*

By  the  23  Henry  VI.  the  wages  of  a  bailiff  of  hus-
bandry was  23s.  4&  per  annum,  and  clothing  of
the  price  of  5s.  with  meat  and  drink ;  chief  hind,
carter,  or  shepherd,  20s. ,  clothing,  4s. ;  common
servant  of  husbandry,  15s. ,  clothing,  40^. ;  woman-
servant,  ios.,  clothing,  4s 1444

By  the  u  Henry  VII.,  a  like  rate  of  wages  with  a
little  advance:  as,  for  instance,  a  free  mason,
master  carpenter,  rough  mason,  bricklayer,  mas-
ter tiler,  plumber,  glazier,  carver  or  joiner,  was
allowed  from  Easter  to  Michaelmas  to  take  6d.  a
day  without  meat  and  drink;  or,  with  meat  and
drink,  ^d. ;  from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate


id. A  master  having  under  him  six  men  was
allowed  a  id.  a  day  extra  . . ■ ■ ■ ■  I495
Agricultural  labourers  per  week  :  "Warwickshire,
3s.  6d.  and  4s. ;  Devonshire,  5s. ;  Suflolk,  5s.  ana
6s. ; wool-weavers,  about  3s.  and  4s.  (Macanlay)

about  1085,

In  1866  the  annual  amount  of  wages  paid  in  the
United  Kingdom  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Gladstone
at  250,000,000?. ;  by  Mr.  Bass  at  350,000,000?. ;  and
by  professor  Leone  Levi  at  418,300,000!.,  earned
by  10,697,000  workers,  ages  20  to  60.

In  1872-8  many  trades  struck  for  increase  of  wages,,
and  frequently  were  successful;  in  1877-9,  unsuc-
cessful .

In  1878  professor  Levi  estimated  that  503,000,000?.
were  earned  (by  men,  390,000,000?. ;  by  women..
113,000,000?.);  after  deducting  for  holidays,  &c,
422,700,000?.

He  says,  that  "In  no  other  country  are  wages  more-
liberal,  but  in  no  other  country  are  they  more
wastefully  used." See  Strikes.

Payment  of  wages  in  public-houses  prohibited  by
act  passed  in  . . .,;„:.. . . .  1883

Classified  census  of  wages  paid  in  the  United  King-
dom in  1885,  published  by  the  Board  of  Trade  at
various  times  ;  part  iv.  in  1892.


1824
1837


1872


LABOURERS  WAGES

PER  WEEK.

S. d.

•  7  7  •
.80.
.06.


WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN  ENGLAND  AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.


Year.

s.  d.

Year.

s.  d.

Year.

In  1350

. per  diem  0 1

In  1 716

per  diem  0 9

In  1800

1460  .

,, 02

1740  .

,, 0  10

1811  .

1568 .

04

1760

,, 10

1850 .

1632  .

0 6

1788  .

» 14

1857  ■

1688

08

1794

1 6

Since  then  incr

PER QUARTER.

s.  d.

62  o

•  55  10

•  53  3
. 48  2

•  57  1

s.  d..

.  per  diem  2 o

„ 2 ih

3°

50


WAGGONS  were  rare  in  the  last  century.
They,  with  carts,  &c,  not  excepting  those  used  in
agriculture,  were  taxed  in  1783.  The  carriers'
waggons  are  now  nearly  superseded  by  the  rail-
ways.

WAGHOENS NEW OVEELAND

EOUTE  TO  INDIA.  Lieut.  Waghorn  devoted
a  large  portion  of  his  life  to  connect  India  with
England.  On  31  Oct.  1845,  he  arrived  in  London,
by  a  new  route,  with  the  Bombay  mail  of  the  1st  of
that  month.  His  despatches  reached  Suez  on  the
19th,  and  Alexandria  on  the  20th,  whence  he  pro-
ceeded by  steamboat  to  a  place  twelve  miles  nearer
London  than  Trieste.  He  hurried  through  Austria,
Baden,  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  Belgium,  and  reached
London  at  half-past  four  on  the  morning  of  the
first-mentioned  day.  The  authorities  of  the  differ-
ent countries  through  which  he  passed  eagerly
facilitated  his  movements.  The  ordinary  express,
viu  Marseilles,  reached  London  2  Nov.  following.
Mr.  Waghorn  subsequently  addressed  a  letter  to
the  Times  newspaper,  in  which  he  stated  that  in  a
couple  of  years  he  would  bring  the  Bombay  mail  to
London  in  21  days.  He  died  8  Jan.  1850.  On
3  Feb.  1884,  at  a  meeting  at  the  Mansion -house,

*  Mr.  J.  E.  Thorold  Rogers,  "Six  Centuries  of  Work
and  Wages,"  published  in  1884.


London, it  was determined to  erect a  national

monument  to  his  mem  or  .

The  Overland  Mail,  which  had  left  Bombay  on  1  Dec.
1845,  arrived  early  on  the  30th  in  London,  by  way  of
Marseilles  and  Paris.  The  speedy  arrival  was  owing
to  the  great  exertions  made  by  the  French  government
to  show  that  the  route  through  Fiance  was  shorter
and  better.

WAGNEEISM,  see  under  Music.

WAGE  AM,  a  village  near  Vienna,  where
Napoleon  I.  totally  defeated  the  archduke  Charles,
5,  6  July,  1809.  The  slaughter  on  both  sides  was
dreadful ;  20,000  Austrians  were  taken  by  the
French,  and  the  defeated  army  retired  to  Moravia.
An  armistice  was  signed  on  the  12th;  and  on  24
Oct.,  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  Austria  ceded  all  her
sea-coast  to  France;  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and
Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her  expense ;  part  of
Poland  in  Galicia  was  ceded  to  Russia  ;  and  Joseph
Bonaparte  was  recognised  as  king  of  Spain.

WAHABEES  or  WAHABITES,  a  warlike
Mahometan  reforming  sect,  considering  themselves
the  only  true  followers  of  the  prophet,  established
themselves  in  Arabia  about  1750,  under  the  rule  of
Abd-el-Wahab,  who  died  1787.  His  grandson,
Saoud,  in  1801,  defeated  an  expedition  headed  by
the  caliph  of  Bagdad. In 1803 this  sect seized


WAHLSTATT.


1049


WALES.


Mecca  and  Medina,  and  continued  their  conquests,
although  their  chief  was  assassinated  in  the  midst
of  his  victories.  His  son,  Abdallah,  long  resisted
Mahommed  Ali,  pacha  of  Egypt,  but  in  1818  was
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who
sent  him  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  put  to
death.  The  sect,  now  nourishing,  is  well  described
by  Mr.  W.  Giftbrd  Palgrave,  in  his  "Journey  and
.Residence  in  Arabia  in  1862-3,"  published  in
1865.  It  is  influential  in  India,  and  is  suspected
of  a  tendency  to  insurrection.

WAHLSTATT,  see  Katzbach.

WAIFS  and  STEAYS  (children).  Church
of  England  Central  Society  for  providing  Homes
for  Waifs  and  Strays,  founded  1882.  The  society
was  very  active  itr  1892,  being  supported  by  the
bishops  and  clergy.

WAITS,  the  night  minstrels  who  perform  shortly
before  Christmas.  The  name  was  given  to  the
musicians  attached  to  the  king's  court.  We  find
that  a  company  of  waits  was  established  at  Exeter
in  1400  to  "  pipe  the  watch."  The  waits  in  London
and  Westminster  were  long  officially  recognised  by
the  corporation.

WAKEFIELD  (W.  Yorkshire),  an  ancient
town.  Near  it  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  ad-
herents of  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.,  and
the  duke  of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slam,  and
3000  Yorkists  fell  upon  the  field,  31  Dec.  1460.  The
earl  of  W  ar wick  supported  the  cause  of  the  duke's
son,  the  earl  of  March,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,
and  the  civil  war  was  continued.  An  art  and  indus-
trial exhibition  was  opened  at  Wakefield,  30  Aug.
1865.  The  Bishoprics  act,  authorising  the  establish-
ment of  a  see  at  Wakefield,  was  passed  16  Aug.  1878.
The  required  funds  subscribed  Jan.  1888.  Popula-
tion, 188 1,  30,854  ;  1891,33,146.
Bishopric  founded  by  the  queen,  17  May,  1888;  the
Rev.  W.  W.  How  (suffragan  bishop  of  Bedford)
appointed  first  bishop .... Feb.  1888

WAKES,  the  ancient  parish  festivals  on  the  saint' s
day  to  commemorate  the  dedication  of  the  church  ;
regulated  in  1536,  but  gradually  became  obsolete.

WALBEOOK  CHUECH  (London),  a  master-
piece of  sir  Christopher  Wren,  completed  in  1679.
There  was  a  church  here  in  1 135,  and  a  new  church
was  erected  in  1429.

WALCHEEEN  (an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the
Scheldt,  Holland).  The  unfortunate  expedition  of
the  British  to  this  isle  in  1809  consisted  of  35  ships
of  the  line,  and  200  smaller  vessels,  principally
transports,  and  40,000  land  forces,  the  latter  under
the  command  of  the  earl  of  Chatham,  and  the  fleet
under  sir  Richard  Strachan.  For  a  long  time  the
destination  of  the  expedition  remained  secret ;  but
before  28  July,  1809,  when  it  set  sail,  the  French
journals  had  announced  that  Walcheren  was  the
point  of  attack.  Flushing  was  invested  in  August;
a  dreadful  bombardment  followed,  and  the  place  was
taken  15  Aug. ;  but  no  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the
naval  commander,  nor  urging  on  the  part  of  the
officers,  could  induce  the  carl  to  A'igorous  action,
until  the  period  of  probable  success  was  gone,  and
necessity  obliged  him  to  return  with  as  many  of  the
troops  as  disease  and  an  unhealthy  climate  had
spared.  The  place  was  evacuated,  23  Dec.  1809.  The
house  of  commons  instituted  an  inquiry,  and  lord
Chatham  resigned  his  post  of  master-general  of  the
ordnance,  to  prevent  greater  disgrace ;  but  the
policy  of  ministers  in  planning  the  expedition  was,
nevertheless,  approved. The  following  epigram,  of


which various readings exist, appeared at the
time  : —

"Lord  Chatham  [or  the  warrior  earl]  with  [his]  sabre
drawn,

Stood  waiting  for  sir  Richard  Strachan  ;

Sir  Richard,  longing  [or  eager]  to  be  at  'em,

Stood  waiting  for  the  earl  of  Chatham."

WALDECK  ANT,  PYEMONT,  united  Ger-
man principalities,  established  in  1682.  The  late-
reigning  family  claim  descent  from  the  Saxon  hero,
Witikind,  who  flourished  about  772.  Prince  George
Victor,  bom  14  Jan.  1831,  succeeded  Ms  father,
George,  15  May,  1845.  Heir:  Frederic,  son,  born
20  Jan.  1865.  On  22  Oct.  1867,  the  states  ap-
proved a  treaty  of  annexation,  and  the  adminis-
tration was  transferred  to  Prussia,  1  Jan.  1868.

WALDENSES  (also  called  Valdenses,  Vallen-
ses,  and  Vaudois),  a  sect  inhabiting  the  Cottian
Alps,  derives  its  name,  according  to  some  authors,,
from  Peter  de  Waldo,  of  Lyons  (1 1 70) .  They  had  a.
translation  of  the  Bible.  The  Waldenses  settled  in
the  valleys  of  Piedmont  about  1375,  but  were  fre-
quently dreadfully  persecuted,  especially  in  the  17th
century,  when  Charles  I.  of  England  interceded  for
them  (1627-9)  and  Oliver  Cromwell  by  threats.
(1655-6)  obtained  them  some  degree  of  toleration.
All  the  Waldensian  Barbes  or  pastors,  save  two,
died  in  the  great  plague  of  1630.  Gilles  and  Gros
went  to  Geneva  and  Lausanne  for  Swiss  Calvinist
ministers  to  fill  the  vacancies.  The  new  ministers-
were  no  sooner  inducted  than  thty  deposed  the
surviving  Barbes  and  abolished  all  the  distinctive
teaching  and  usages  of  the  community,  substituting-
the  Genevese  model.  They  were  permitted  to  have
a  church  at  Turin,  Dec.  1853.  In  March,  1868,  it
was  stated  that  there  were  in  Italy  28  ordained.
Waldensian  ministers,  and  30  other  teachers.

WALES,'  Cambria,  Cymru,  the  land  of  the
Cymry,  called  by  the  Romans  Britannia  Secunda.
Welsh  and  Wales  are  corruptions  of  Teutonic
epithets  applied  to  foreigners,  especially  Gauls,
After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius  gave  up  Britain,
Vortigem  was  elected  king  of  South  Britain.  He
invited  over  the  Saxons  to  defend  his  country
against  the  Picts  and  Scots ;  but  the  Saxons  per-
fidiously sent  for  reinforcements,  consisting  of
Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they  made
themselves  masters  of  South  Britain.  Many  of  the
Britons  retired  to  Wales,  and  defended  themselves
against  the  Saxons,  in  their  inaccessible  mountains,
about  447.  In  this  state  Wales  remained  uncon-
quered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157  ;
and  in  1282  Edward  I.  entirely  reduced  the  whole
country,  an  end  being  put  to  its  independence  by  the
death  "of  Llewelyn,  the  last  prince*  In  1284  the
queen  gave  birth  to  a  son  at  Caernarvon,  whom  Ed-
ward styled  prince  of  Wales,  now  title  of  the  heir  to-
the  crown  of  Great  Britain.  Wales  was  united  and
incorporated  with  England  by  act  of  parliament,
1536 ;  see  Britain,  Bards  and  Population:  1891,
1,518,914.
Ostorius  Scapula,  proprietor  of  Britain,  defeats  the

Cymry a.d. 50

The  supreme  authority  in  Britannia  Secunda  in-
trusted to  Suetonius  Paulinas,  who  caused  deso-
lating wars 58-61

*  The  statute  of  Wales,  enacted  at  Rhuddlan,  10  March,
1284  (or  March,  1283),  alleges  that— " Divine  Providence
hasnow  removed  Till  obstacles,  and  transferred  wholly
and  entirely  to  the  king's  dominion  the  land  of  Wales  and
its  inhabitants,  heretofore  subject  unto  him  in  feudal
right,"  The  ancient  laws  were  to  be  preserved  in  civil
causes;  lint  the  law  of  inheritance  was  1,1  l.e  changed,
and  the  English  criminal  law  to  be  put  in  force.  Annals
of  England.


WALES.


1050


WALES.


"Conquests  by  Julius  Frontinus 70

The  Silures  totally  defeated .  ,,
The  Roman,  Julius  Agricola,  commands  in  Britain . 78
Bran  ab  Llyr,  the  Blessed,  dies  about  . . . . 80
The  Druidieal  class  gradually  dissolved  by  the  influ-
ence of  Christianity  in 300-400

The  Britons  defeat  the  Saxons ....  447-448

Vortigern  kiag 448

The  renowned  Arthur  elected  king . . about 500

Defeats  Saxons about 527

•Cadwallawn,  king  of  Gwynedd,  defeated  and  slain

by  the  Saxons  at  Denisburn  . . . about 634
Dyvnwal  Moelmud,  said  to  have  come  from  Armo-
rica,  and  to  have  established  his  authority  west
of  the  Tamar  and  Severn  as  king  of  the  Cymry

about 640

Keign  of  Roderic  the  Great 844

33e  unites  the  petty  states  into  one  principality;

his  death 877

Division  of  Wales — into  north,  south,  and  central

(or  Powys-land)  . . , ,,

The  Welsh  princes  submit  to  Alfred  . . . 885

The  Danes  land  in  Anglesey 900

laws  enacted  by  Howel  Da,  prince  of  all  Wales,

about 920

Athelstan  subdues  the  Welsh 933

■Civil  wars  at  his  death about 948

■Great  battle  between  the  sons  of  Howel  Da  and
the  sons  of  Idwal  Voel ;  the  latter  victorious . 954

Edgar  invades  Wales about  973

Devastations committed by Edwin, the  son of

Eineon 980

Danes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey  waste, &c.

980-1000
The country  reduced  by  Aedan,  prince  of  North

Wales 1000

Aedan,  the  usurper,  slain  in  battle  by  Llewelyn  .  1015
Part  of  Wales  laid  waste  by  the  forces  of  Harold  .  1063
William  I.  claims  feudal  authority  over  Wales  .  .  1070
Rbys  ab  Owain  kills  king  Bleddyn,  1073 ;  defeated

and  slain 1077

■Ravaging  invasion  of  Hugh,  earl  of  Chester  .  1079-80
Invasion  of  the  Irish  and  Scots  ....  1080

William  I.  invades  Wales 1081

Battle  of  Lleehryd 1087

i[In  this  conflict  the  sons  of  Bleddyn  ab  Cynvyn
were  slain  by  Rhys  ab Tewdwr, the reigning
prince.]
Rhys  ab  Tewdwr  slain  ;  S.  Wales  conquered  by  the

English 1090

invasion  of  the  English  under  William  II.  .  1005-7
The  settlement  in  Wales  of  a  colony  of  Flemings  .  1106
Violent  seizure  of  Nest,  wife  of  Gerald  de  Windsor,

by  Owain,  son  of  Cadwgan  ab  Bleddyn  .  .  .  1108
Cardigan  conquered  by  Strongbow .... 1109

Cadwgan  assassinated 1112

druffydd  ab  Rhys  lays  claim  to  the  sovereignty .  1113
Another  body  of  Flemings  settle  in  Pembrokeshire ,,
|The  posterity  of  these  settlers  are  still  distinguished
from  the  ancient  British  population  by  their  lan-
guage, manners,  and  customs.]
Civil  war  in  South  Wales  and  Powysland  leads  to
the  subjugation  of  the  country  by  the  English  ;
Henry  I.  erects  castles  in  Wales. . .  1114  et  seq.
■Owain  killed  in  battle  with  Gerald  de  Windsor .  1116
Revolt  of  Owen  Gwynedd  on  the  death  of  Hen.  I.  ;

part  of  South  Wales  laid  waste  .  .  .  -1135
The  English  defeated  in  several  battles  .  .  .  1136
Strongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  invested  with  the

powers  of  a  count  palatine  in  Pembroke  .  .1138
Henry  II.  invades  Wales,  receives  a  stout  resistance

from  Owen  Gwynedd,  but  subdues  S.  Wales  .  .  1157
Confederacy  of  the  princes  of  Wales  for  the  recovery

of  their  independence H64

iPrince  Madoc  said  to  have  emigrated  to  America 1169
(Southey's  epic  "Madoc "is  based  on  the  tradi-
tion.)

Anglesey  devastated II?3

The  crusades  preached  in  Wales  by  Baldwin,  arch-
bishop of  Canterbury . . ... . _  jjgg

The  earl  of  Chester's  inroad  into  North  Wales . . 1210
King  John  invades  Wales,  laying  waste  a  great  part
of  the  principalities ; exacts  tribute and alle-
giance I2II

The  pope  incites  the  Welsh  to  resist  John . . 1212

Revolt  of  the  Flemings I22o

Xjlewelyn,  prince  of  North Wales,  commits  great
ravages  ;  overcomes  Henry  III 1228


The  earl  of  Pembroke  and  othernobles  join  Llewelyn

against  Henry  III.,  1233  ;  a  truce  .  .  .  .  1234
Prince  David  ravages  the  marches,  &c. . . .  1244

Invasion  of  Henry  III 1245

Anglesey  cruelly  devastated  by  the  English Sept. „
Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  the  last  prince . . .  1246
Welsh  princes  combine  against  the  English . .  1256
Great  invasion  of  the  English ; threatened  extermi-
nation of  the  Welsh,  compelled  to  retreat  with
loss  .....  ...  1257

Welsh  offers  of  peace  refused ....  1257-62

Llewelyn's  incursions  into  English  territory. .  1263
Reported  conference between  him  and  Simon  de

Montfort  against  the  Plantagenets  .  .  .  1265
Llewelyn  does  homage  to  Henry  III.  for  a  treaty

Sept.  1267
Edward I. summons Llewelyn to  Westminster ;
on  his  refusal  to  come,  deposes  him,  1276 ;  and

invades  Wales June,  1277

Llewelyn  submits  and  obtains  good  terms 10  Nov. ,,
He  marries  Eleanor  de  Montfort . . 13  Oct. „
The  sons  of  Gruffydd  treacherously  drowned  in  the
river Dee, by  the earl Warrenne and Roger
Mortimer  ;  great  insurrection ....  1281
Hawarden  castle  taken  by  surprise  by  Llewelyn  and
his  brother  David,  21  March ;  they  destroy  Flint
and  Rhuddlan castles. Fruitless negotiations

Nov.  1282
Battle  between  Llewelyn  and  the  English  near  Aber
Edw  :  Llewelyn  slain,  after  the  battle,  by  Adam

Frankton 11  Dec. ,,

Prince  David  surrenders,  and  is  executed . .  1283

Wales  finally  subdued  by  Edward  I ,,

The  first  English  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Edward,
born  at  Caernarvon  castle  (see  Princes  of  Wales,

p.  1051) 25  April,  1284

Statute  of  Wales  (see  p.  1049)  enacted  . 19  March, ,,
Many  insurrections suppressed  and the leaders

executed . 1287-1320

Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen
Glendower (descendant of the last prince,

Llewelyn),  commences 1400

Radnor  and  other  places  taken  by  Owain  Glyndwr  1401
Allies  with  the  Scots  and  the  Percies  : besieges

Caernarvon 1402

And  seizes  Harlech  castle 1404

Makes  a  treaty  with  France  . .  to  May, „

Harlech  castle  retaken  by  the  English  forces . .  1407
Loses  his  allies  by  their  defeat  at  Bramham  moor

19  Feb.  1408
Ravages  the  English  territories  ....  1409
Refuses  to  ask  for  terms  or  submit ;  dies 21  Sept.  1415

His  son  submits 24  Feb.  -1416

Margaret  of  Anjou, queen  of Henry VI., takes

refuge  in  Harlech  castle 1459

Town  of  Denbigh  burnt 1460

The  earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII.,  lands

in  Pembroke,  and  is  aided  by  the  Welsh  Aug.  1485
Palatine  jurisdictions  in  Wales  abolished  by  Henry

VIII 1535

Monmouth  made  an  English  county; counties  of

Brecknock,  Denbigh,  and  Radnor  formed . . ,,
Act  for  "  laws  and  justice  to  be  administered  in
Wales  in  same  form  as  in  England,"  27  Henry

VIII „

Wales  incorporated  into  England  by  parliament .  1536

Divided  into  twelve  counties 1543

Dr.  Ferrar,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  burnt  at  the  stake

for  heresy 30  March,  1555

Lewis  Owain,  a  baron  of  the  exchequer,  attacked

and  murdered  while  on  his  assize  tour . . . „
The  bible  and  prayer-book  ordered  to  be  translated
into  Welsh,  and  divine  service  to  be  performed  in

that  language 1562

Welsh  bible  printed 1588

First  congregation  of  dissenters  assembled  in  Wales  ;

Vavasour  Powel  apprehended  while  preaching  .  1620
Beaumaris  castle  garrisoned  for  king  Charles  I.  .  1642
Powys  castle  taken  by  sir  Thos.  Myddelton  Oct.  1644
Dr.  Laud,  formerly  bishop  of  St.  David's,  beheaded

on  Tower  hill 10  Jan.  1645

Surrender  of Hawarden  castle  to  the  parliament

general  Mytton  ,,

Charles  I.  takes  refuge  in  Denbigh  „

Rhuddlan  castle  surrenders ,,

Harlech  castle  surrenders  to  Cromwell's  army  under
Mytton 1647


"WALES.


1051


WALES.


Battle  of  St.  Fagan's ;  the  "Welsh  defeated  by  col.
Horton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant  . .  8  May,  1648

Beaumaris  castle  surrenders  to  Cromwell .  „

Pembroke  castle  taken  ;  Colonel  Poyer  shot,  25  Apr.*  1649

The  lords  marchers  court  suppressed . . . 1688

"  Charitable  society  of  Ancient  Britons  "  and  Welsh
charity  schools,  established  (now  at  Ashford) . 171 5

Cymmrodorioil  Society  (for  charitable  purposes),
established 1751-81

The  French  land  in  Pembrokeshire,  and  are  made
prisoners Feb.  1797

Rebecca  or  "Becea"  riots  broke  out  against  toll-
gates,  Feb.  ;  an  old  woman,  a  toll-keeper,  was
murdered,  10  Sept.  ;  many  persons  were  tried  and
punished Oct.  1843

Cambrian  Archajological  Association  founded .  1846

Subscriptions  begun  for  a  university  in  Wales Dec. 1863

A  national  unsectarian  University  college  at
Aberystwyth  opened  . . . . 9  Oct. 1872

Great  strike  of  colliers  in  S.  Wales,  1  Jan.  ;  ends
about 27  March,  1873

Cymmrodorion  society,  to  promote  literature  and
art,  re-established 1877

Great  distress  in  South  Wales  through  decay  of
coal  trade  by  strikes  and  commercial  depression  1877-8

"  Rebecca  "  riots  ;  people  of  Rhayader  on  the  Wye
capture  fish  out  of  season  illegally ;  and  resist  the
water  bailiffs .... Dec.  1878-Jan.  1879

Welsh  Sunday  closing  act 1881

A  Cambrian  academy  of  arts  settled  to  be  esta-
blished at  Llandudno .... Jan.  1882

A  university  college  of  South  Wales  and  Monmouth-
shire established  at  Cardiff ;  professors  appointed
6  Sept.  ;  opened 4  Oct.  1883

North  Wales  university  college,  Bangor,  opened,

18  Aug.  1884

The  college  at  Aberystwith  burnt ;  prof.  Mac-
pherson  and  three  others  perish  ;  damage  about
50,000^ night,  8,  9  July,  1885

Proposed  disestablishment  of  the  church  negatived
in  the  commons  (241-229)  . . 9  March,  1886

Anti-tithe  league  formed ;  intimidation  of  payers,

Aug. -Sept. ,,

Tithe  riots  at  Mochdre,  Clwyd  ;  many  injured  ;
suppressed  by  military  and  police . 16  June,  1887

Three  weeks  Are  on  Ruabon  and  Berwyn  mountains ;
extinguished  after  much  destruction  of  life  and
game 25  July, ,,

Inauguration  of  the  national  council  of  Wales  at
Aberystwith ;  disestablishment  and  disendow-
ment  of  the  church,  home  rule  &c.  advocated,
Stuart  Rendel,  M.P.  president,  7  Oct.  1887 ;
annual  meeting  at  Newtown . . 8  Oct. ,,

Formation  of  a  Welsh  land  league  advocated  in
America  ;  this  league  issues  a  manifesto 24  Dec. „

A  Welsh  clergy  defence  association  formed about

Nov. „

Marquis  of  Abergavenny  v.  bishop  of  Llandaff;
after  much  litigation,  verdict  for  the  bishop  who
had  refused  to  induct  the  rev.  Robert  W.  Gosse
into  a  living,  being  ignorant  of  the  Welsh
language 22  Feb.  1888

Death  of  Henry  Richard  "  M.P.  for  Wales,"  ardent
nonconformist  and  peace  advocate . 20  Aug. „

1,000  miles  of  road  freed  from  toll  in  S.  Wales  by
local  government  act .... 2  April,  1889

Mr.  Dillwyn's  motion  for  disestablishment  of  the
church  in  Wales,  rejected  by  the  commons
(284-231) 14  May, ,,


*  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war,  Pembroke
■castle  was  the  only  Welsh  fortress  in  the  possession  of
the  parliament,  and  it  was  entrusted  to  the  command  of
col.  Laugharne.  In  1648,  he,  and  colonels  Powel  and
Poyer,  embraced  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  made
Pembroke  their  head-quarters ;  after  the  defeat  at
St.  Fagan's,  they  retired  to  the  castle,  followed  by  an
army  led  by  Cromwell.  They  capitulated,  after  having
endured  great  sufferings  from  want  of  water.  Laugharne,
Powel,  and  Poyer  were  tried  by  a  court-martial,  ami
condemned  to  death  ;  but  Cromwell  having  been  induced
to  spare  the  lives  of  two  of  them,  it  was  ordered  that
they  should  draw  lots  for  the  favour,  and  three  papers
were  folded  up,  on  two  of  which  were  written  tlie  words,
"Life  given  by  God;"  the  third  was  left  blank.  The
latter  was  drawn  by  Colonel  Poyer,  Who  was  shot  in
London  accordingly  on  the  above-mentioned  day,  after
long  imprisonment. Penna/iit.


The  Welsh  Intermediate  Education  act  passed,

12  Aug.

Visit  of  the  queen ;  arrives  at  Llanderfell,  Merio-
nethshire (resides  at  Pale,  seat  of  Mr.  Henry
Robertson),  23  Aug.  ;  went  to  Bala,  23  Aug.  ;  to
Wrexham,  24  Aug.  ;  leaves  Llangollen .  27  Aug.

•Welsh  Dialect  society,  prince  Louis  Lucien  Bona-
parte, president,  established,  reported . April,

Great  strike  of  railway  servants  at  Cardiff  (see
Strikes) 7-15  Aug.

Tithes  collected  by  the  help  of  the  military . Aug.

The  duke  of  Clarence  visits  South  Wales,

15-18  Sept.

Dr.  Edward  Thomas,  of  Manchester,  bequeaths
39,500^  to  University  College  of  North  Wales,
announced Oct.

Mr.  David  Evans,  the  first  Welsh  lord  mayor  of
London  in  the  century  ... 9  Nov.

Proposed  dis-establishment  of  the  church  in  Wales
negatived  by  the  commons  (235 — 203),  20  Feb.
1891  ;  again  negatived  (267 — 220)  . . 23  Feb.


877.
943


985
992.
998
1015
1023
1039.
1067

i°73
1079,
H37


1194.
1240.
1246.


1301.

1343
1376.
'399-
H54'

1471,

1483,


SOVEREIGNS OF WALES.

Cadwallawn,  king  of  Gwynedd.

Cadwaladr,  his  son.

Idwal,  son.

Rhodri,  or  Roderic  ;  heroic  defender.

Cynan  and  Howel,  sons  ;  incessant  war.

Mervyn  ;  son-in-law,  and  Essyllt  (wife).

Roderic  the  Great,  son.

CES  OF  GWYNEDD  OR  NORTH  WALES  AND  FREQUENTLY
OF  ALL  WALES.

Anarawd,  son  of  Roderic.

Idwal  Voel.

Howel  Da  the  Good,  prince  of  all  Wales.

Iefan  and  Iago  ;  sons  of  Idwal.

Howel  ap  Iefan,  the  Bad.

Cadwallon,  brother.

Meredith  ap  Owen  ap  Howel  Da.

Idwal  ap  Meyric  ap  Idwal  Voel :  able,  brave.

Aedan,  a  usurper.

Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt,  good  sovereign.

Iago  ap  Idwal  ap  Meyric.

Griffith  ap  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyllt ;  killed.

Bleddyn.

Trahaern  ap  Caradoc.

Griffith  ap  Cynan  ;  able  ;  warlike  ;  generous.

Owain  Gwynedd  ;  energetic,  successful  warrior.

Howel,  son.

David  ap  Owain  Gwynedd,  brother  ;  married  sister

of  Henry  II.
Llewelyn,  the  Great.
David  ap  Llewelyn.
Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  last  prince  of  the  blood ;  slain

after  battle,  n  Dec,  1282.

ENGLISH  PRINCES  OF  WALES.*

Edward  Plantagenet  (afterwards  king  Edward  II. )
son  of  Edward  I.,  born  in  Caernarvon  Castle  on
the  25th  April,  1284.  It  is  asserted  that  imme-
diately after  his  birth  he  was  presented  by  his
father  to  the  Welsh  chieftains  as  their  future
sovereign,  the  king  holding  up  the  royal  infant
in  his  arms,  and  saying,  in  the  Welsh  language,
"  Eich  Dyil,"  literally  in  English,  "This  is  your
man," but  signifying,  "This  is  your  countryman
and  king." See,  however,  " Ich  Diem."

Edward  of  Carnarvon  made  prince  of  Wales  and
earl  of  Chester.

Edward  the  Black  Prince.

Richard,  his  son  (afterwards  Richard  II.).

Henry  (afterwards  Henry  V.).  sou  of  Henry  IV.

Edward,  son  of  Henry  VI.  ;  slain  at  Tewkesbury,
4  May,  1471.

Edward  (aft.  Edward  V.),  son  of  Edward  IV.

Edward,  son  of  Richard  III.  ;  died  in  1484.

Arthur,  son  of  Henry  VII.  ;  died  in  1502.


*  Wales,  Princess  of.  This  title  was  held,  some
authors  say,  (lining  the.  early  period  i'l'  her  life,  bj  the
princess  Mary  of  England,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  \  Ml..

:iie I  afterwards  queen  Mary  1.  She  was  created,  they  state,

by  her  father  princess  of  Wall's,  in  order  to  conciliate  the
Welsh  people  and  keep  alive  the  name,  and  was  the  only
princess  of  Wales  ill  her  own  right.  ;  a  rank  she  enjoyed
until  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Henry,  who  was  afterwards
Edward  VI..  born  in  1537. This  is  denied  by  Banks.


WALES.


1052


WALES.


1503.  Henry,  his  brother  (afterwards  Henry  VIII.).

Edward,  his  son  (afterwards  Edward  VI.)  was  duke
of  Cornwall,  and  not  prince  of  Wales.
1610.  Henry  Frederic,  son  of  James  I.  ;  died  6  Nov.  1612.
1616.  Charles,  his  brother  (afterwards  Charles  I.).

Charles, his  son  (afterwards  Charles  II.), never
created  prince  of  Wales.
1714.  George  Augustus  (afterwards  George  II.).
1729.  Frederic  Lewis,  his  son  ;  died  20  March,  1751.
1751.  George,  his  son  (afterwards  George  III.).
1 762.  George,  his  son  (afterwards  George  IV.):  bom  12  Aug.
1841.  Albert-Edward,  son  of  queen  Victoria  :  born  9  Nov.

Baptized,  king  of  Prussia  a  sponsor,  15  Jan.  1842.

Travelled  on  the  continent,  and  studied  at  Oxford
and  Edinburgh,  in  1859.

Visited  Canada,  with  the  dignity  of  a  viceroy,  and
the  United  States,  i860.

Entered  the  university  of  Cambridge  in  Jan. :
attended  the  camp  at  the  Curragh,  Kildare,  July
to  Sept.  ;  opened  New  Middle  Temple  Library,
31  Oct.  1861.

Ordered  to  be  prayed  for  as  Albert-Edward,
8  Jan.  ;  visited  the  continent,  Syria,  and  Egypt,
March-June;  Germany  and  Italy,  Aug-Dec.  1862.

Admitted  to  the  house  of  peers,  5  Feb.  ;  a  privy
councillor,  8  Dec.  1863.

Married  to  princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark,  10
March,  1863.

Visited  Denmark  and  Sweden,  Sept. -Oct.  1864  ;
Russia,  Nov. -Dec.  1866.

Visited  International  Exhibition,  Paris,  May,  1867.

Visited  Ireland  ;  arrived  at  Dublin,  15  April,  1868.

Installed  knight  of  St.  Fatrick,  18  April,  1868.

Opened  Leeds  Fine  Arts  Exhibition,  19  May,  1868.

With  the  Princess  at  Glasgow,  laid  foundation  of
new  university,  8  Oct.  1868.

Sailed  for  the  continent,  17  Nov.  ;  called  at  Paris  ;
arrived  at  Copenhagen,  29  Nov.  ;  visited  Berlin,
Vienna,  and  arrived  at  Cairo,  3  Feb.  1869.

Examined  the  Suez  canal,  Feb.  ;  arrived  at  Constan-
tinople, 1  April;  at  Sebastopol,  13-17  April;  at
Athens,  19-24  April;  landed  at  Dover,  13  May,
1869.

Inaugurated  Victoria  Embankment  (Thames)  13
July,  1870.

Opened  Workmen's  International  Exhibition,
Islington,  16  July,  1870.

Attacked  with  typhoid  fever,  about  19  Nov. ;  greatest
danger,  6-13  Dec. ;  amendment  began  i4Dec.,i87i.

Went  to  St.  Paul's  with  the  queen  for  thanksgiving,
27  Feb.;  sailed  for  the  continent,  11  March;
visited  the  Pope,  27  March ;  opened  new  grammar
school  at  Yarmouth,  6  June  ;  the  Bethnal  Green
Museum,  24  June,  1872.

At  the  opening  of  the  great  exhibition  at  Vienna,
1  May,  1873.

At  the  duke  of  Edinburgh's  wedding  at  St.  Peters-
burg, 23  Jan.  ;  visit  to  France :  entertained  by
the  due  de  Rochefoucauld  Bisaccia,  due  d'Au-
male,  and  others,about  17  Oct. ;  at  Birmingham,
3  Nov.  1874.

Installed  grand  master  of  the  freemasons  of  Eng-
land, 28  April,  1875.

ii2,oooZ.  voted  for  his  visit  to  India  [more  than
sufficient]  July,  1875.

Sailed  from  Dover,  11  Oct.  ;  warmly  received  at
Athens,  18  Oct.  ;  at  Cairo,  invested  Mohammed
Tewfik,  the  son  of  the  Khedive,  with  the  Star  of
India,  25  Oct.  1875.

Arrived  at  Bombay,  8  Nov.  ;  Poonah  13  Nov.  ;
Goa,  27  Nov.  ;  Colombo,  Ceylon,  1  Dec.  ;  Madras,
13  Dec.  ;  Calcutta,  23  Dec.  1875.

At  Benares,  5  Jan.  ;  Lueknow,  6  Jan.  ;  Delhi,  M
Jan.  ;  Lahore,  18  Jan.  ;  Jummoo,  Cashmere'  2c
Jan.  ;  Agra,  25  Jan.  ;  Gwalior,  31  Jan.  ;  in  Ne-
paul,  12  Feb.  ;  at  Allahabad,  7  March  ;  sailed
from  Bombay,  1 3  March ;  arrived  in  Malta,  6  April;
Gibraltar,  15  April;  Seville,  21  April;  Madrid,  25
April ;  Lisbon,  1  May  ;  London,  with  about  500
animals  for  the  Zoological  gardens,  11  May;
banquet  at  Mansion  house,  19  May ;  reviewed
30,000  volunteers  in  Hyde  Park,  1  July.  1876.

President  of  the  British  commissioners  at  the
Paris  exhibition,  1878.

Presided  at  National  Water  Supply  conference,
21  May;  laid  foundation  of  St.  Mary's,  Wilberforce
memorial  church,  Southampton,  12  Aug.  1878.

Laid  foundation  of  new  hospital,  Norwich,  27  June;


opened  new  dock  at  Great  Grimsby,  22  July,
1879.
Laid  foundation of  new  cathedral  at  Truro, 20
April ;  opened  new  dock  at  Holyhead,  17  June,
1880.
Laid  foundation  of  central  Institution  of  City  and
Guilds  of  London  Institute,  South  Kensington,
18  July,  1881.
Opens  the  Royal  College  of  Music,  7  May,  1883.
Opens  the  International  Fishery  Exhibition, 12

May  ;  closes  it  31  Oct.  1883.
Inaugurated  the  juries  at  the  Health  Exhibition,

17  June,  1884.
Visits  Newcastle  and  opens  Armstrong  park,  mu-
seum, &c,  20,  21  Aug.  1884.
Visit  to  Dublin  (enthusiastically  received),  8  April ;
Cork,  15  April ;  Killarney, 16  April  ;  Limerick
(warmly  received),  20  April ;  from  Dublin  to  Bel-
fast (warm  reception),  23  April ; Londonderry,
25  April  ;  sailed  from  Larne,  27  April,  1885.
Opens  art  gallery,  &c,  at  Birmingham,  27,  28  Nov.

1885.
Formally  opens  the  Mersey  tunnel,  20  Jan.  1886.
Kept  his  silver  wedding,  10  March,  1888.
Opens  the  international  exhibition  at  Glasgow,

8  May,  1888.
Founds  a  technical  school  at  Blackburn,  9  May,

1888.
Visits  Austria  and  Hungary,  Sept.  ;  Roumania,  &c.

4  Oct.  ;  returns  to  London,  22  Oct.  1888.
•'  Speeches  and  Addresses," 1863-1888 ;  published

12  Jan.  1889.
Uncovers  several  Jubilee  statues  of  the  queen,  &c.

(See  Jubilee),  1887-9.
Visits  the  universal  exhibition  at  Paris,  June,

1889.
Acts  for  the  queen  at  the  royal  agricultural  show

(see  Windsor),  24-29  June,  1889.
Receives  and  attends  the  Shah  of  Persia,  1  July,

et  seq.
Annual  payment  of  36,000^  to  the  prince  as  a
provision  to  his  family,  voted  by  the  commons
' 29  July,  1889. Act  passed  (see  Royal  Grants),

12  Aug.  1889.
The  prince  and  princess  at  the  marriage  of  the

duke  of  Sparta,  27  Oct.  1889.
Visits  the  Khedive  at  Cairo, 1  Nov.  et  seq.  1889.
Lays foundation stone of the  new municipal
buildings,  &c,  of  St.  Martin's,  Westminster,  18.
March,  1890.
Visit  to  Berlin  with  prince  George,  21-28  March,

1890.
Unveils  statue  of  the  duke  of  Albany  at  Cannes,

6  April,  1890.
Visits  Southwark  (which  see),  24  July,  1890.
Opens  new  town  hall  at  Portsmouth,  9  Aug.  1890.
Opens  the  City  and  S.  London  Electric  Railway,

4  Nov.  1890.
Many  similar  acts  noticed  under  their  respective
headings,  1891.
Issue :  Albert-Victor,  born  8  Jan.  1864  ; went  to  sea
with prince George in H.M.S. Bacchante,
visited  West  Indies,  &c,  1879-82  ;  their  diaries-
published,  1885  ;  he  receives  the  freedom  of
London,  29  June,  1885  ;  opens  the  new  Alexan-
dra docks  at  Belfast,  20  May,  1SS9  ;  successful
tour  in India  (which  see), 9  Nov. 1889 — 28
March, 1890 ;  visits Egypt, 7-12 April ;  ill
London, 2 May ; created  duke  of  Clarence
and  Avondale,  &c,  23  May,  1890;  engaged  to
princess  Victoria  Mary  of  Teck,  announced,
5  Dec.  1891  ;  died  at  Sandringham, 14  Jan.
1892  ; military  funeral  at  Windsor,  20  Jan.
The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,  in  a  tele-
gram,  express  their  deep  gratitude  for  the
universal  sympathy  throughout  the  empire,
20  Jan.  1892. (See  England,  26  Jan.  1892.)
George-Frederick, born 3  June,  1865 ; created
duke  of  York,  earl  of  Inverness,  and  baron
Killarney,  24  May,  1892.
Louise  Victoria,  born  20  Feb.  1867. (Married  to
Alexander  William  George,  duke  of  Fife,  27
July,  1889.) Issue  :  Alexandra  born  17  May,
1891.
Alexandra,  born  6  July,  1868.
Maud,  born  26  Nov.  1869.
Alexander  John,  born  7  April,  died  8  April,  1871,


WALHALLA.


1053


WAK.


WALHALLA  or  Valhalla  (the  Hall  of

Glory),  a  temple  near  Eatisbon,  erected  by  Louis,
king  of  Bavaria,  to  receive  the  statues  and
memorials  of  the  great  men  of  Germany,  com-
menced 18  Oct.  1830,  and  inaugurated  18  Oct.  1842.
The  name  is  derived  from  the  fabled  meeting-place
of  Scandinavian  heroes  after  death.

WALKERITES,  see  Separatists.

.WALKING,  see  Pedestrianism.

WALKING-STICKS,  a  term  satirically  ap-
plied to  candidates  for  the  house  of  commons  nomi-
nated by  political  associations,  and  subject  to  them
in  their  parliamentary  votes,  1878.

WALLACE  MONUMENT,  at  Abbey  Craig,
near  Stirling,  was  inaugurated  27  Aug.  1869,  and
soon  after  given  into  the  charge  of  the  magistrates
of  Stirling.  It  cost  about  13,000^.  The  telescope
there  was  presented  by  the  Scotch  inhabitants  of
Ipswich,  24  June,  1865.

WALLACHIA,  see  Danubian  Principalities.
On  23  Dec.  1861,  the  union  of  Wallachia  and
Moldavia,  under  the  name  of  Koumania,  was  pro-
claimed at  Jassy  and  Bucharest.

WALLER'S  PLOT.  Edmund  Waller,  the
poet,  and  others,  conspired  to  disarm  the  London
militia  and  let  in  the  royalists,  May,  1643.  The
plan  was  detected  and  punished,  June-July,  1643.
Waller  betrayed  his  confederates,  and  was  suffered
to  emigrate.

WALLIS'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Wallis
sailed  from  England  on  his  voyage  round  the  world,
26July,  1766;  andretumed  to  England,  i9May,i768.

WALLOON-  This  name  was  given  to  those
inhabitants  of  the  low  countries  who  retained  the
ancient  German  language,  and  to  those  who  adopted
the  Walloon  language  (based  on  the  Gaulish),
which  though  surviving  as  a  patois,  has  been  sup-
planted in  France  by  the  modern  French.  The
language  of  the  Walloon  protestant  refugees  in  1556
■was  French.

A  church  was  given  to  Walloon  refugees  by  queen  Elizabeth
at  Sandwich,  and  they  still  have  one  at  Canterbury.

The  frontier  line  of  Flemish  and  German  towns  may  be
traced  from  the  north  through  Gravelines  to  Luxem-
burg ;  that  of  the  Walloon  towns  from  Calais  to  Metz.

WALLS,  see  Roman  Walls,  China.

WALNUT-TREE  has  long  existed  in  Eng-
land.* The  black  walnut-tree  (juglans  nigra}  was
brought  to  this  country  from  North  America  before
1629.

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS.

*  Near  Welwyn,  in  Hertfordshire,  there  was  the  largest
walnut-tree  on  record  ;  it  was  felled  in  1627,  and  from  it
were  cut  nineteen  loads  of  planks  ;  and  as  much  was
sold  to  a  gunsmith  in  London  as  cost  10?.  carriage  ;
besides  which  there  were  thirty  loads  of  roots  and
branches.  When  standing  it  covered  76  poles  of  ground  ;
a  space  equal  to  2299  square  yards,  statute  measure.


Mr.  "VValpole  (afterwards  sir  Robert,  and  earl  of
Oxford)  was  born  in  1676  ;  became  secretary-at-war
in  1 708  ;  was  expelled  the  house  of  commons  on  a
charge  of  misappropriating  the  public  money,  1711 ;
committed  to  the  Tower,  17  Jan.  1712;  became
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the
exchequer  in  Oct.  1715.  He  resigned,  on  a  disunion
of  the  cabinet,  in  1717,  bringing  in  the  sinking
fund  bill  on  the  day  of  Ms  resignation.  On  the
earl  of  Sunderland  retiring  in  1721,  he  resumed  his
office,  and  held  it  till  Feb.  1742.  He  died  18
March,  1745.

SECOND WALPOLE  ADMINISTRATION  (APRIL, 1721).

Sir  Kobert  Walpole,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Thomas,  lord  Parker,  created  earl  of  Macclesfield,  lord
chancellor.

Henry,  lord  Carleton  (succeeded  by  William,  duke  of
Devonshire),  lord  president.

Evelyn,  duke  of  Kingston  (succeeded  by  lord  Trevor),
■privy  seal.

James,  earl  of  Berkeley,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.

Charles  (viscount  Townshend),  and  John,  lord  Carteret
(the  latter  succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle),  secre-
taries of  state.

Duke  of  Marlborough  (succeeded  by  the  earl  of  Cadogan),
ordnance.

George  Treby  (succeeded  by  Henry  Pelham),  secretary-at-
war.

Viscount  Torrington,  <fec.

WALRUS-  One  placed  in  the  Zoological  Gar-
dens in  1853  lived  a  few  days  only;  another  was
placed  there  in  the  autumn  of  1867,  and  died  25
Dec.

WALTZ,  the  popular  German  national  dance,
was  introduced  into  England  by  baron  Neuman  and
others  in  1813. Raikes.

WANDEWASH  (S.  India).  Here  the  French,
under  Lally,  were  severely  defeated  by  colonel  Eyre
Coote,  22  Jan.  1760.

WANDSWORTH,  Surrey.  Here  was  organised
a  "presbytery,"  20  Nov.  1572.  In  Garratt-lane,
near  this  place,  a  mock  election  of  a  mayor  of
Garratt  was  formerly  held,  after  every  general  elec-
tion of  parliament,  to  which  Foote's  dramatic  piece,
The  Mayor  of  Garratt  (1763),  gave  no  small  cele-
brity. The  iron  bridge  here  was  opened  26  Sept.
1873. Population,  1 88 1,  210,434;  1891,  307,389.

Wandsworth  returns  one  M.P.  by  act  passed  25  June,

1885.

WAR,  called  by  Erasmus  "the  malady  of
princes."  Osymandyas  of  Egypt,  the  first  warlike
king,  passed  into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria,
2100  b.c.  Usher.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be
the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  It  is  computed  that,  up  to
the  present  time,  no  less  than  6,860,000,000  of  men
have  perished  on  the  field  of  battle ;  see  Battles  ;
Secretaries;  Neutral  Powers.  An  international
conference  on  "  usages  of  war"  began  at  Brussels,
27  July,  1874,  aml  closed  without  important  results.
See  Brussels  Conference.  In  1880,  about  4,000,000
men  in  arms,  annual  cost,  500,000,0001?.


FOREIGN WARS OF ENOLaXI) SINCE THE CONQUEST.


War

with

Peace.

War  with

l'l'inr.

War  with

Pi  ace

Scotland

.  1068  .

.  1092

France

.  1422  .

■ H7I

Spain  .

. I588  .

.  1604

France

. 1116

.  1118

Scotland  .

.  1480

. . i486

Spain

. 1624

.  1629

Scotland  .

.  1138  .

•  "39

Prance

.  1492  .

• 1492

France

. 1627  .

.  1629

France

.  1161

. .  1186

France

•  1512

• I5M

Holland .

■ 1651

• l(>54

France .

. 1194  .

•  "95

France

•  1522  .

• 1527

Spain .

■ 1655  .

. 1660

France

. 1201

. 1216

Scotland  .

•  1522

■ 1542

France

. 1666 .

. 1668

France .

. 1224  .

■ i234

Scotlaud

•  1542  •

• 1546

Denmark

. 1666  .

. 1668

France

■ 1294

■ 1299

Seo1  land  .

■  '547

• I550

Holland .

.  1666

. 1668

Scotland  .

. 1296  .

• 1323

Prance

• 1549  •

• I550

Algiers

. Il'.ni) .

. 1671

Scotland

-  1327

. . 1328

France

• 1557

• 1559

Holland  .

. 1672

■ 1674

Franco

■ 1339  •

.  1360

Scotland

■ 1557  ■

• 1560

Prance

. 1689 .

• x^97

Franco

. 1368

. . 1420

France

1562

• 1564

Peace  of  Ity

swick,  20  Se;

>t. 1697

WAE AFFAIRS.


1054


WARTBURG.


War  of  the  Succession,  commenced  4  May,  1702. Peace

of  Utrecht,  13  March,  1713.
War  with  Spain,  16  Dec.  1718. Peace  concluded,  1721.
War  ;  Spanish  War,  23  Oct.  1739. Peace  of  Aix-la-Cha-

pelle,  30  April,  1748.
War  with  France,  31  March,  1744. Closed  aiso  on  30

April,  1748.
War;  the  Seven  Years' War,  9  June,  1756.  Peace  of  Paris,

10  Feb.  1763.
War  with  Spain,  4  Jan.  1762.  General  peace,  10  Feb.  1763.
War  with  the  United  States  of  North  America,  14  July,

1774. Peace  of  Paris,  30  Nov.  1782.
War  with  France,  6  Feb.  1778. Peace  of  Paris,  20  Jan.

1783-
War  with  Spain,  17  April,  1780. Closed  same  time, 20

Jan.  1783.
War  with  Holland,  21  Dec.  1780. Peace  signed,  2  Sept.

1783-
War  of  the  Revolution,  1  Feb.  1793. Peace  of  Amiens,  27

March,  1802.
War  against  Bonaparte,  29  April,  1803. Finally  closed,

18  June,  1815.
War  with  America,  18  June,  1812. Peace  of  Ghent,  24

Dec.  1814.
War  with  Russia,  27  March,  1854. Peace  of  Paris,  31

March,  1856.
For the wars with India, China, Persia. Abyssinia,

Ashantee. Afghanistan, Zululand,  and  Burmah,  see

those  countries  respectively.

"WAE  AFFAIRS-  On  account  of  the  war  with
Kussia,  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  previously  colonial
secretary,  was  appointed  a  secretary  for  war  affairs,
and  a  cabinet  minister,  9  June,  1854;  see  Secre-
taries. "War  Office  act,  passed  20  June,  1870,  ap-
points a  financial  secretary  (who  may  sit  in  parlia-
ment) and  other  officers.  An  act  for  the  protection
of  war  department  stores  was  passed  in  1867.  By
the  warrant  abolishing  purchase  in  the  army,  in

1871,  Mr.  Cardwell  became  virtually  uncontrolled
minister  of  war.  For  War  Office  Charge,  see
under  Army  and  Admiralty .

New  war  offices  erected  by  virtue  of  the  Public
Offices  site  act,  passed  . . . .24  July,  1882

War  Exhibition  of  trophies,  &c,  from  Egypt,
opened  at  Knightsbridge  ...  14  Feb.  1883

Important  changes  in  the  war  office  announced  ;
increased  responsibilities  of  heads  of  depart-
ments, &c. ...... Feb.  1888

"WAR,  GAME  OF  (German,  Kriegsjnel),  based
on  the  game  of  chess,  was  described  in  a  pamphlet
in  1780,  and  rules  for  it  laid  down  by  Domanen-
rathe  von  Keisswitz  about  1820,  and  published  by
his  son  in  1824-8.  Capt.  (now  sir)  Evelyn  Baring
published  a  translation  of  works  on  the  subject  in

1872.  A  society  (including  von  Moltke)  was  formed
at  Magdeburg  to  study  it.  Prince  Arthur  (now  duke
of  Connaught)  lectured  on  this  game  at  Dover,  13
March,  1872.

"WARBECK'S  INSURRECTION.  Perkin
Warbeck,  the  son  of  a  Florentine  Jew,  to  whom
Edward  IV.  had  stood  godfather,  was  persuaded  by
Margaret,  duchess  of  Burgundy,  sister  to  Richard  III . ,
to  personate  her  nephew  Bichard,  Edward  Ws
brother,  which  he  did  first  in  Ireland,  where  he
landed,  1492.  The  imposture  was  discovered  by
Henry  VII.  1493.  Some  writers  consider  that  "War-
beck  was  not  an  impostor.
Warbeck  attempted  to  land  in  Kent,  with  600  men,  169

were  taken  prisoners,  and  executed,  July,  1495.
Recommended  by  the  king  of  France  to  James.  IV.  of

Scotland,  who  gave  him  his  kinswoman,  lord  Huntley's

daughter,  in  marriage,  when  he  assumed  the  title  of

Richard  IV. James  IV.  invaded  England  in  his  favour,

1496.
Left  Scotland,  and  went  to  Bodmin,  in  Cornwall,  where

3000  joined  him,  Sept.  1497.
On  the  approach  of  Henry  took  sanctuary  at  Beaulieu  ;

surrendered  ;  taken  to  London,  Oct.  1497.
Said  to  have  been  set  in  the  stocks  at  Westminster  and

Cheapside,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  June,  1499.


Accused  of  plotting  with  the  earl  of  Warwick  to  escape
out  of  the  Tower,  by  murdering  the  lieutenant,  Aug.  ;
the  plot  failed,  and  he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn,  23  Nov. ;
the  earl  beheaded,  28  Nov.  1499.

WARBURG  (N.  Germany).  Here  the  French
were  defeated  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick  and  the
allies,  31  July,  1760.

WARDIAN  CASES-  In  1829,  Mr.  N.  B.
Ward,  from  observing  a  small  fern  and  grass  grow-
ing in  a  closed  glass  bottle,  in  which  he  bad  placed
a  chrysalis  covered  with  moist  earth,  was  led  to  con-
struct his  well-known  closely  glazed  cases,  which
afford  to  plants  light,  heat,  and  moisture,  and  ex-
clude deleterious  gases,  smoke,  &c.  They  are  par-
ticularly adapted  for  ferns.  In  1833  they  were  first
employed  for  the  transmission  of  plants  to  Sydney,
&c,  with  great  success,  and  professor  Faraday
lectured  on  the  subject  in  1838.

"WARDMOTES,  meetings  of  the  citizens  of
London  in  their  wards,  where  they  elect  annually
their  common  councilmen.  The  practice  is  said  to
have  begun  in  1386.  They  had  previously  assembled
in  Guildhall ;  see  Plough  Monday.

WARRANTS,  GENERAL,  do  not  specify
the  name  of  the  accused.  They  were  declared  to  be
illegal  by  lord  chief  justice  Pratt,  6  Dec.  1763,  in
relation  to  the  seizure  and  committal  of  Mr.  Wilkes
for  a  libel  on  the  king ;  see  North  Briton.

"WARRIOR,  see  under  Navy  of  England,  i860.

WARSAW,  the  metropolis  of  Poland. The  diet

was  transferred  to  this  city  from  Cracow  in  1566,  and

it  became  the  seat  of  government  in  1689. Popula-
tion in  1890,  443,426.

The  Poles  defeated  in  three  days'  battle  by  the'
Swedes 28-30  July,  1656

Alliance  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria  and  Po-
land, against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which,  John
Sobieski  assisted  in  raising  the  siege  of  Vienna
(September  following),  signed . . 31  March,  1683

Warsaw  surrenders  to  Charles  XII 1703

Treaty  of  Warsaw,  between  Russia and Poland,

24  Feb.  1768

The  Russian  garrison  here  expelled  with  the  loss  of
2000  killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36  pieces  of
cannon 17  April,  1794

The  Poles  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Maciejovice,

4  Oct. „

The  king  of  Prussia  besieges  Warsaw,  July  ;  com-
pelled to  raise  the  siege,  Sept. ;  it  is  taken  by  the
Russians  with  great  slaughter,  especially  of  the
armed  citizens 9  Nov. ,,

Warsaw  constituted  a  duchy,  and  annexed  to  the
house  of  Saxony Aug.  1807

The  duchy  overrun  by  the  Russians  ;  Warsaw  made
the  residence  of  a  Russian  viceroy . . .  1813

The  last  Polish  revolution  commences  at  Warsaw,

29  Nov.  1830

Battle  of  Grochow,  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the  Rus-
sians were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  the
loss  of  7000  men 25  Feb. 1833

Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after  two  days'  hard
righting,  the  city  capitulated,  and  was  taken  pos-
session of  by  the  Russians  ;  and  great  part  of  the
Polish  army  retired  towards  Ploek  and  Modlin,

6-8  Sept. „

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the
regent  of  Prussia ;  no  result . . 20-25  Oct.  1860-

Panic  in  a  church  ;  great  loss  of  life . 25  Dec.  1881

Alexander  III.  visits  Warsaw ;  great  precautions,

8  Sept.  18S4

Suspected  conspiracy,  arrest  of  30  students  and  a
novelist  named  Smolnicky . about  30  Dec.  1891
(See  Poland,  1861-5.)

WARTBURG,  a  castle  in  Saxony  (N.  Ger-
many) ,  where  Luther  was  conveyed  for  safety  after
the  diet  of  Worms,  April,  1521,  and  where  he  trans-
lated the  Bible  into  German.


WARWICK CASTLE.


1055


WATER.


WARWICK  CASTLE  (Warwickshire),  the
seat  of  the  Beauchamps,  Nevilles,  Plantagenets,
Dudleys,  Eiches,  and  Grevilles,  successively,  and
frequently  besieged ;  suffered  much  by  fire,  3  Dec.
187 1 ;  some  of  the  more  ancient  part  was  destroyed.
The  town,  incorporated  in  1553,  was  nearly  destroyed
by  fire  in  1694.  The  show  of  the  Agricultural
society  here,  was  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales  and
the  duke  of  York,  20  June,  1892.  Population,  1881,
11,800;  1891,  11,905.

WASH-HOUSES,  see  Baths.

.  WASHING  MACHINES.  Several  have  been
invented  by  Americans.  At  an  hotel  in  New  York
hundreds  of  garments  are  washed  in  a  few  minutes
by  steam,  and  dried  by  a  centrifugal  machine
(1862).  The  ingenious  machines  of  Messrs.  Horns-
by,  of  Norwich,  appeared  in  the  great  exhibition
of  London,  1862.

WASHINGTON. A  northern  state of  the
American  Union,  first  settled  in  1845,  organized  as
a  Territory  in  1853,  as  a  State  1889  i  population  in
1880,  75,1 16  j 1890,  349,390. Capital  Olympia.
The  flourishing  town  of Seattle  was  nearly  de-
stroyed by  fire  about  6  June, 1889 ; estimated
loss  about  $15,000,000 ;  few  lives  lost.
Ellensburg,  a  small  town  also  nearly  destroyed  by
fire,  4  July,  1889  ;  estimated  loss,  .$2,000,000  ;  also
Spokane  Falls,  loss  about  $10,000,000,  about  4  Aug.  1889
Coal  mine  explosion  near  Koslyn,  43  deaths,

10  May,  1892

WASHINGTON  (in  Columbia  district,  partly
in  Virginia  and  partly  in  Maryland,  on  the  bank  of
the  Potomac,  N.E.  Virginia),  the  capital  of  the
United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  made  the  seat
of  government  in  1800.  The  capital  was  founded  in
1793.  Population,  1880,  147,293  ;  1890,  230,392.
The  house  of  representatives  opened  .  .  30  May,  1808
"Washington  was  taken  by  the  British  forces  under

general  Ross,  after  his  victory  at  Bladensburg;

its  superb  structures  and  national  library  burnt,

24  Aug.  1814
General  Ross  killed  by  some  American  riflemen,  in

a  desperate  engagement  at  Baltimore 12  Sept. ,,

Naval  observatory  founded 1842

Smithsonian  institute  (which  see)  founded  .  .  .  1846
Part  of  the  capitol  and  the  whole  of  the  library  of

the  United States  congress  destroyed  by  fire,

24  Dec.  1851
The  prince  of  Wales  entertained  by  the  president

here Oct.  i860

Washington  fortified  in . . . .  April,  1861

President  Lincoln  shot  by  Booth  in  Ford's  theatre,

14  April ;  died 15  April,  1865

Memorial  obelisk  to  George  Washington,  555  feet

high,  inaugurated 21  Feb.  1885

National  theatre  burnt  down . . .27  Feb ,,
Fire  at  the  house  of  the  lion.  Benjamin  Tracy,  sec-
retary of  the  navy ;  he  escapes,  but  his  wife,

daughter,  and  a  servant  perish . . 3  Feb.  1890
See  United  States.

IMPORTANT  TREATIES OF WASHINGTON.

Fixing  N.W.  boundary  of  British  America  and
United  States,  &c 12  June,  1846

' '  Reciprocity  "  treaty  regulating  trade  with  Canada,

7  June,  1854

Referring  the  Alabama  claims  and  the  San  Juan
boundary  question  to  arbitration  ;  settling  dis-
putes respecting  fisheries  (see  Alabama  and  Juaii);
and  laying  down  three  rules  ;  asserting  that  it  is
the  duty  of  a  neutral  state,  which  desires  to  re-
main at  peace  with  belligerents,  and  to  enjoy  the
rights  of  neutrality,  to  abstain  from  taking  any
part  in  the  war  by  affording  military  aid  to  one
or  both  of  the  belligerents  ;  and  to  take  care  1  hat
no  acts  which  would  constitute  such  co-operatioi  1
in  the  war  be  committed  by  any  one  within  its
territory 8  May,  1871

WASIUM  (named from the  royal  house  of

"Wasa  or  Vasa),a  supposed  new  metal,  discovered  by


F.  Bahr,  of  Stockholm,  in  1862.  In  Nov.  1863  Nickles-
declared  it  to  be  a  compound  of  didymium,  yttrium,
and  terbium.

WASTE  LANDS-  The  inclosure  of  waste
lands  and  commons,  in  order  to  promote  agriculture,,
first  began  in  England  about  the  year  1547,  and  gave-
rise  to  Kef  s rebellion,  1549.  Inclosures  were  again;
promoted  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  1785.  The-
waste  lands  in  England  were  estimated  in  1 794  to*
amount  to  14  millions  of  acres,  of  which  there  were-
taken  into  cultivation,  2,837,476  acres  before  Juner
1801.  lu  1841,  there  were  about  6,700,000  acres  of
waste  land,  of  which  more  than  half  was  thought  to-
be  capable  of  improvement ;  see  Agriculture.

WATCH  OF  LONDON,  at  night,  appointed!
1253,  proclaimed  the  hour  with  a  bell  before  the  in-
troduction of  public  clocks.  Hardic.  The  old  watch
was  discontinued,  and  a  new  police  (on  duty  day
and  night)  commenced,  29  Sept.  1829  ;  see  Police.

WATCHES  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented
at  Nuremberg,  1477,  although  it  is  affirmed  that.
Eobert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch  about  1310.

Watches  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  by
Purbaeh 1500

Authors  assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was
the  first  who  had  anything  that  might  be  called  a
watch,  though  some  call  it  a  small  table-clock .  1530

Watches  first  brought  to  England  from  Germany  in  1577

A  watch  which  belonged  to  queen  Elizabeth  is  pre-
served in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Institution.
London.

Spring  pocket-watches  (watches  properly  so-called)
have  had  their  invention  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke
by  the  English,  and  to  M.  Huyghens  by  the  Dutch.
Dr.  Derham,  in  hia  Artificial  Clockmaker,  says  that
Dr.  Hooke  was  the  inventor  ;  and  he  appears  cer-
tainly to  have  produced  what  is  called  the  pendulum
watch  about  1658 ;  manifest,  among  other  evi-
dences, from  an  inscription  on  one  of  the  double-
balance  watches  presented  to  Charles  II.,  "Rob.
Hooke,  inven.  1658  ;  T.  Tompion,  fecit,  1675."

Repeating  watches  invented  by  Barlowe  . . . 1675

Harrison's  first  time-piece  produced  (see  Harrison),  1733-.

Watches  and  clocks  were  taxed  in . . . .  1797

The  tax  was  repealed  in  1798. See  Clocks.

Arrangements  made  at  Kew  observatory  for  testing
high  class  watches,  and  granting  graduated  cer-
tificates ; fees,  il.  is.,  ios.  6cl.,  &c. ;  announced

April,  1S84.

WATER. Thales  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the

Ionic sect, considered water  to  be  the  original

principle  of  everything,  about  594  B.C. Stanley*

Cavendish  and  Watt  demonstrated  that  water  is
composed  of  8  parts  of  oxygen  and  1  part  of  hy-
drogen 1781-4.

Water  was  decomposed  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen
gases  by  Lavoisier,  1783  ;  by  the  voltaic  battery
by  Nicholson  and  Carlisle,  1S00  ;  by  the  heat  of
the  oxy-liydrogen  flame  by  W.  R.  Grove . .  1846

In  freezing,  water  contracts  till  it  is  reduced  to  42°
or  40°  Fahr.  ;  it  then  begins  to  expand  till  it  be-
comes ice  at  32°.

Water  was  first  conveyed  to  London  by  leaden  pipes,
21  Henry  HI.  1237.  Stow.  It  took  nearly  fifty
years  to  complete  it  ;  the  whole  being  finished,
and  Cheapside  conduit  erected,  only  in . . . 1285

The  New  River  water  brought  to  London  from
Chadwell  and  Amwell  in  Hertfordshire,  at  an  im-
mense expense,  by  sir  Hugh  Myddelton,  in  . 1609-13.

The  city  was  supplied  with  its  water  by  convey-
ances of  wooden  pipes  iii  the  streets  ,-iud  suull
leaden  ones  to  the  houses,  and  the  New  River

Company  was  incorporated,  1620.  So  late  as  qi n

Anne's  time  there  were  water-earners  at  Aldgate-
pump.

The  water-works  at  Chelsea  completed,  and  the
company  incorporated 172:1

London-bridge  ancient  water-works  destroyed  bj
lire  ........ 29  Oct, 1779

An  net  to  supply  the  inetrc>|n>Iis  with  water,  15  &  16
Vict.  e.  S4,  was  passed,  1  July,  1852.  This  act  was


WATER-BED, CLOCKS.


1056


WATERLOO.


amended  by  an  act  passed  21  Aug.  1871. The

•  •companies  were  bound  to  provide  a  constant
supply  when  required  ;  the  owner  or  occupier  of
the  house  to  provide  the  prescribed  fittings.

([The  supply  is  now  considered  to  be  much  improved
in  quality  and  quantity.]

A  company  was  formed  to  carry  out  Dr.  Normandy's
patent  for  converting  salt  water  into  fresh,  in

Jan.  1857

Messrs.  Pamphlett  &  Ferguson's  process  for  pro-
ducing fresh  from  salt  water  was  exhibited  at
Messrs.  George  Wailes  &  Co.,  Euston  road,  Lon-
don, and  considered  successful  . . 15  Oct.  1889

•Commissioners  for  metropolitan  water  supply  ap-
pointed, 27  April,  1867  ;  report  signed 9  June,  1869

London  supplied  by  nine  companies  :  the  New  River
(the  best),  East  London,  Chelsea,  Grand  Junction,
1  Southwark  and  Vauxhall,  Kent,  West  Middlesex,
Lambeth,  and  South  Essex ;  who  deliver  about
108,000,000  gallons  daily,  1867  ;  about  116,250,000
gallons 1877

New  schemes  for  supplying  London  with  water,
1867  :—

1.  Mt.  Bateman  ;  from  the  sources  of  the  Severn.
■2.  Messrs.  Hemans  and  Hassard ;  from  the  Cum-
berland lakes.
3 Mr. Telford  Macneill ;  Thames  water  filtered
through  Bagshot  sand.

4.  Mr.  Bailey  Denton  ;  storage  reservoirs  near  the

sources  of  the  Thames.

5.  Mr. Remington; from the Derbyshire and

Staffordshire  hills.

The  water  from  the  first  two  sources  analysed  and
highly  approved  by  professors  Frankland  and
Odling April,  1868

Water  from  the  chalk  districts  softened  by  Homer-
sham's  process  strongly  recommended,  Jan.  1871

Aug.  1878

•Conference  on  the  national  water  supply  a.t  So-
ciety of  Arts  (suggested  by  the  prince  of  Wales,
president) 21,  22  May, „

Letter  from  the  prince  of  Wales  to  the  earl  of
Beaconsfield  suggesting  the  appointment  of  a
commission  on  water  supply,  dated . 24  March,  1879

National  Water  Supply  Exhibition,  Alexandra  Pa-
lace ;  opened 14  Aug. „

Government  proposal  to  buy  companies'  works  for
34,398, yool.  (New  River  company,  9,146,000?. ),
dropped April,  1880

Annual  revenue,  according  to  Mr.  E.  J.  Smith's  cal-
culations, above  1,500,000? 1881

Atkins'  process  for  softening  hard  water  an  improve-
ment upon  Clarks'  process,  announced  July,  1882

Water  companies  (regulation  of  powers)  act,  passed  1887

The  purchase  of  the  companies'  works  recom-
mended by  the  London  County  Council,  1890,
and  by  a  committee  of  the  London  corporation  ;
report  published 17  Oct.  1890

At  a  conference  of  representatives  of  the  district
boards  of  London,  it  was  resolved  to  support  sir
Algernon  Borthwick's  bill,  which  proposes  to
confer  upon  an  elected  Water  Trust  the  exclusive
powers  of  supplying  water  within  the  metropoli-
tan area,  with  an  equalization  of  charges,  &c. ,

27  Feb.  1891

Hybrid  committee  in  the  commons  on  the  London
Water  Commission  appointed :  sir  M.  White
Ridley,  sir  H.  E.  Roscoe,  sir  A.  Borthwick,  and
six  others 20  March, ,,

Report  disapproving  of  the  two  bills  before  parlia-
ment, and  requiring  further  information  14  July, ,,

Royal  commission  on  the  metropolitan  water
supply  appointed :  lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh,  sir
G.  Barclay  Bruce,  prof.  James  Dewar,  sir  A.
Geikie,  Dr.  Wm.  Ogle,  and  others  (frequent  meet-
ings up  to  July),  reported . . 14  March,  1892

Mr.  Francis  Gaskell,  secretary,  appointed,

22  March, ,,

London  Water  act  x>assed ... 27  June, ,,

See  Artesian  Wells  and  London  Water.

"WATER-BED,  CLOCKS,  see  Beds,  Clocks.

WATER-COLOUR  PAINTING  was  gra-
dually raised  from  the  hard  dry  style  of  the  last
century  to  its  present  brilliancy,  by  the  efforts  of
Nicholson,  Copley  Fielding, Sandby, Varley,  the


great  Turner,  Pyne,  Cattermole,  Prout,  &c,  within
the  present  century. The  Water-Colour  Society's
exhibition  which  began  in  1805,  was  made  Koyal  in
1881,  the  diplomas  were  to  be  signed  by  the  queen
after  Nov.  1882.  The  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water
Colours,established  about  1 83 1  (made  Eoyal  in  1883),
open  new  galleries  in  Piccadilly,  and  propose  to  give
free  instruction,  27  April,  1883.
Dr.  John  Percy's  unique  historical  collection  of
water-colour  drawings  was  sold  for  8,230?.,  re-
ported 26  April,  1890

WATERFORD  (S.  Ireland),  built  about  879,
was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  981 .  Eebuilt  and  con-
siderably enlarged  by  Strongbow  in  1171,  and  still
further  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  who  granted
considerable  privileges  to  the  citizens.  Kichard  II.
landed  and  was  crowned  here  in  1399 ;  in  1690,
James  II.  embarked  from  hence  for  France,  after
the  battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  and  William  III.  resided
here  twice,  and  confirmed  its  privileges.  Memorable
storm  here,  18  April,  1792.  The  cathedral  of  Water-
ford,  dedicated  to  the  blessed  Trinity,  was  first
built  by  the  Ostmen,  and  by  Malchus,  the  first
bishop  of  Waterford,  after  his  return  from  England
from  his  consecration,  1096.  This  see  was  united
with  that  of  Lismore  in  1363.  It  was  valued  in
the  king's  books,  by  an  extent  returned  29  Henry
VIII.,  at  72^.  8s.  id.  Irish  per  annum.  By  stat.
3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  37  (the  Irish  Church  Tempo-
ralities act),  the  see  of  Waterford  and  Lismore  was
united  with  the  see  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  14  Aug.
1833.  The  interior  of  the  cathedral,  organ,  &c.,
were  destroyed  by  fire,  25  Oct.  1815.  Population,
1891,  21,693.
Waterford returns three M.P's. by  act passed

25  June,  1885

WATER GAS,  see  Gas-lights.

WATER-GLASS,  a  name  given  to  a  liquid
mixture  of  sand  (silex)  and  one  of  the  alkalies
(potash  or  soda) .  Glauber  {Be  Lithiase)  mentions
a  similar  mixture  in  1644.  Dr.  Von  Fuchs,  the
modern  inventor,  gave  an  account  of  his  process  in
1825 ;  and  Mr.  Frederick  Kansome,  of  Ipswich,
ignorant  of  Von  Fuchs' s  discovery,  patented  a  mode
of  preparing  water-glass  in  1845,  which  he  has  since
greatly  improved  upon.  In  1857,  M.  Kuhlmann,  of
Lille,  published  a  pamphlet  setting  forth  the
advantageous  employment  of  water-glass  in  harden-
ing porous  stone  and  in  stereochromy  {which  see).
It  has  been  applied  to  the  exterior  of  many  buildings
in  France  and  England.  The  memoirs  of  Von
Fuchs  and  Kuhlmann  were  translated  and  printed
in  England,  in  1859,  by  direction  of  the  prince
consort.

WATERING  STREETS.  Mr.  Cooper's  plan
for  using  solutions  of  chloride  of  lime  or  of  sodium
(which  dry  slowly  and  attract  moisture  and  ammonia
and  other  gases,  and  combine  them  with  the  material
of  the  road)  was  partially  used  in  the  parish  of  St.
Mary-le-bone  in  1868,  and  also  in  Liverpool,  Boston,
and  other  towns.  The  plan  was  ordered  to  be  tried
in  Westminster  in  July,  1870.

WATERLOO,  in  Belgium,  the  site  of  the
great  battle,  on  Sunday,  18  June,  1815,  between  the
French  army,  of  71,947  men  and  246  guns,  under
Napoleon,  and  the  allies,  commanded  by  the  duke
of  Wellington ;  the  latter,  with  67,661  men  and
156  guns,  resisted  the  various  attacks  of  the  enemy
from  about  ten  in  the  morning  until  five  in  the
afternoon.  About  that  time,  16,000  Prussians
reached  the  field  of  battle ;  and  by  seven,  the  force
under  Blucher  amounted  to  above  50,000  men,  with
104 guns. AVellington  then  moved  forward  his


WATERLOO BRIDGE.


1057


WAX.


whole  army.  A  total  rout  ensued,  and  the  carnage
was  immense.  Of  the  British  (23,991),  93  officers
and  1916  men  were  killed  and  missing,  and  363
officers  and  4560  men  wounded — total,  6932 ;  and
"the  total  loss  of  the  allied  army  amounted  to  4206
ikilled,  14,539  wounded,  and  4231  missing,  making
.22,976  hors  de  combat.  Napoleon,  quitting  the  wreck
of  his  army,  returned  to  Paris ;  and,  finding  it
impossible  to  raise  another,  abdicated.  P.  Nicolas.
-Napoleon  attributed  his  defeat  to  the  failures  of  marshal

Grouchy,  Wellington  said  unjustly.
Proposed  monument  over  the  British  officers  and  men

who  died  of  their  wounds,  7  Jan.  1888.
.By  the side  of  the  chapel  of  Waterloo,  which  was  un-
injured by  shot  or  shell  on  18  June,  1815,  Marlborough
cut  off  a  large  division  of  the  French  forces,  17  Aug.
1705. The  conquerors  on  the  same  field  are  the  only
British commanders  whose  career  brought  them  to
dukedoms.
'The  Waterloo  monument  over  the  remains  of  the
officers  and  men  who  fell  in  the campaign  of
1815,  in  a  cemetery  at  Brussels,  erected  by  queen
Victoria,  was  unveiled  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge,

26  Aug.  1890
«Gen.  George  Whichcote,  born  21  Dec,  1794,  who
fought  in  the  Spanish  campaigns  and  at  Water-
loo, died 26  Aug.  1891

WATERLOO  BRIDGE, London.  Abridge
over  this  part  of  the  Thames  was  repeatedly  sug-
gested during  the  last  century,  but  no  actual  pre-
parations to  carry  it  into  effect  were  made  till  1806,
when  Mr.  G.  Dodd  procured  an  act  of  parliament,
and  gave  the  present  site,  plan,  and  dimensions  of
:the  bridge  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  some  disagree-
ment with  the  committee,  he  was  superseded  by
Mr.  John  Eennie,  who  completed  this  noble  struc-
ture. It  was  commenced  11  Oct.  181 1,  and  opened
18  June,  1817,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of
"Waterloo,  when  the  prince  regent,  the  duke  of
Wellington,  and  other  distinguished  personages,
were  present.  Its  length  within  the  abutments  is
1242  feet;  its  width  within  the  balustrades  is  42
feet ;  and  the  span  of  each  arch,  of  which  there  are
nine,  is  120  feet.  Bought  for  475,000/.  by  metro-
politan board  of  works ;  opened  toll  free,  5  Oct.  1878 ;
lit  by  electric  light  from  10  Oct.  1879.

On  Oct.  9,  1857,  two  youths,  named  Kilsby,  found  on
one  of  the  abutments  of  the  bridge  a  carpet  bag,  con-
taining human  bones  and  flesh,  which  had  been  cut  up,
salted,  and  boiled,  and  some  foreign  clothes.  No  clue
could  be  found  respecting  these  remains,  which  were
interred  in  Woking  cemetery.

WATERLOO CUP,  see  Dogs,  187 1.

WATERLOW  PARK,  S.  Hampstead  or
Highgate,  was  presented  to  the  metropolis  with
6,000/.  to  the  London  county  council,  by  sir  S}'dney
H.  Waterlow,  12  Nov.  1889.  The  park  was  opened
to  the  public  by  sir  John  Lubbock,  chairman  of  the
■council,  17  Oct.  1891.

WATER-MILLS,  used  for  grinding  corn,  are
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Belisarius,  the  general
of  Justinian,  while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths,
555.  The  ancients  parched  their  corn,  and  pourjded
it  in  mortal's.  Afterwards  mills  were  invented,
which  were  turned  by  men  and  beasts  with  great
labour  ;  yet  Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water.
See  Tclo-dynamic  transmitter.

WATERSPOUT.  Two  waterspouts  fell  on  the
Glatz  mountains  in  Germany,  and  caused  dreadful
devastation  to  Hautenbach  and  many  other  villages;
many  persons  perished,  13  July,  1827.  A  water-
spout at  Glantiesk,  near  Killarney,  in  Ireland,
passed  over  a  farm  of  Mr.  John  Macarthy,  destroy-
ing farm-houses  and  other  buildings ;  seventeen
persons  perished,  4  Aug.  183 1.  The  estimated
length  of  one  seen  near  Calcutta,  27  Sept.  1855,  was


IOOO  feet.  It  lasted  ten  minutes,  and  was  absorbed
upwards.  One  seen  on  24  Sept.  1856,  burst  into
heavy  rain.  The  town  of  Miskolcz,  Hungary,
destroyed  by  a  waterspout ;  great  loss  of  life  and
property,  30  Aug.  1878.  61  persons  said  to  have
been  killed  by  a  waterspout  in  Algeria,  Oct.  1881.
A  waterspout  at  Arequipa,  Peru,  caused  immense
damage,  several  persons  drowned,  14  Feb. ;  one  at
Pachuca,  Mexico,  30  deaths,  27  Sept.  1884 ;  another
near  Lagos,  very  destructive,  6  or  7  June,  1885.
Destructive  waterspout  at  Swansea  4  Sept.  1886 ;
another  on  Batcombe  hills,  Dorsetshire,  greatly
damaged  the  villages  of  Chatnole,  Ceme,  and
Mintem,  7  June,  1889.

WATER  TOFANA,  see  Poisoning.

WATLLNG-STREET,  see  Roman  Roads.

WATTIGNIES  (N.  Prance).  Here  Jourdan
and  the  French  republicans  defeated  the  Austrians
under  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  raised  the  seige  of
Maubeuge,  14-16  Oct.  1793.

WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION,  see

Tyler.

WAVE  PRINCIPLE  (in  accordance  with
which  the  curves  of  the  hull  of  a  ship  should  be
adapted  to  the  curves  of  a  wave  of  the  sea)  formed
the  subject  of  experiments  begun  by  Mr.  John  Scott
Russell  in  1832,  with  the  view  of  increasing  the
speed  of  ships.  Colonel  Beaufoy  is  said  to  have
spent  30,000/.  in  researches  upon  this  matter.  It
was  also  taken  up  by  the  British  Association,  who
have  published  reports  of  the  investigations.  The
principle  has  been  adopted  by  naval  architects ;  see
Undulatory  Theory,  and  Yacht.

WAVERLEY  NOVELS-  The  publication
of  the  series  began  with  "  Waverley ;  or,  'Tis  Sixty
Years  since,"  in  1814,  and  closed  with  "  Tales  of
my  Landlord,"  fourth  series,  in  1831.  The  author-
ship was  acknowledged  by  sir  Walter  Scott,  at  a
dinner,  23  Feb.  1827.  The  original  MSS.  of  several
of  Scott's  poems  and  novels  were  sold  by  auction  by
Christie  and  Manson  for  1255  guineas,  6  July,  1867.

WAWZ  or  WAVER  (Poland).  The  Poles
under  Skrzynecki  attacked  the  Russians  at  Wawz,
and  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  all  the  Russian
positions  were  carried  by  storm,  and  they  retreated
with  the  loss  of  12,000  men  and  2000  prisoners,
31  March,  1831.  The  loss  of  the  Poles  was  small,
but  their  triumph  was  soon  followed  by  defeat  and
ruin.

WAX came  into  use  for  candles  in  the 12th
century;  and  wax  candles  were  esteemed  a  luxury
in  1300,  being  but  little  used. In  China,  candles  of
vegetable  wax  have  been  in  use  for  centuries ;  see
Candleberry. The  wax  tree,  Ligustrum  lucidum,
was  brought  from  China  before  1794.  —  Sealing-
Wax  was  not  brought  into  use  in  England  until
about  1556. Its  use  has  been  much  superseded  by
the  introduction  of  adhesive  envelopes,  about  1844.
Waxwork. — Exhibition  of  models  in  wax  were  popular
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries. The  collection  of  wax
figures  exhibited  by  Mrs.  Salmon  at  Aldgate,  early  in
the  last  century,  were  removed to Fleet-street,  and
shown  there  till  1812,  when  they  were  sold,  it  is  said,
for  50?. Madame  Tussaud,  a  skilful  modeller, exhi-
bited her  remarkable  collection  of  models  and  casts  of
eminent  persons  with  costumes  and  other  interesting
relics  in  the  boulevard  du  Temple,  Paris,  1785. In  1802
she  exhibited  her  collection  at  the  Lyceum,  Strand,
London,  and  afterwards  at  other  places. The  interest
of  tlir  exhibition  has  been  energetically  sustained  for
many  years  at  Baker-street,  London,  \V.,and  latterly  at
Marylebone-road,  by  madame  Tussaud  and  her  family  ;
she  died 15  April,  1850,  aged  90. Early  in  1889  the

3  T


WE.


1058


WEIGHTS  and  MEASURES.


collection  was  purchased  by  a  company,  Mr.  John
Tussaud  being  engaged  as  manager.
Mr.  Louis  Tussaud  opened  a  new  exhibition  of  wax-
works at  207,  Regent-street,  24  Dec.  1890 ;  it  was
destroyed  by  Are,  20  Jnne,  1891,  estimated  loss,
io,ooo£.

WE-  Sovereigns  generally  use  we  for  I,  which
style  began  with  king  John,  1199.  Coke.  The
German  emperors  and  French  kings  used  the  plural
about  1200.

WEALD  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  the  site  of
Tery  large,  ancient  forests ;  St.  Leonard's  still
remaining  ;  near  which,  in  the  Wealden  formation,
Dr.  G.  A.  Mantell  discovered  the  remains  of  huge
extinct  animals,  1825  et  seq.  Mr.  E.  Furley
published  an  exhaustive  "History  of  the  Weald  of
Kent,"  1871-4.

WEATHEE,  see  Meteorology.

WEAVING  appears  to  have  been  practised  in
China  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  it  was
known  in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  Egyptians  ascribed
the  art  to  Isis ;  the  Greeks  to  Minerva ;  and  the
Peruvians  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Capac.  Our
Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had  not  any  seam,  being
woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.
The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may
be  seen  in  Calmet's  Dictionary,  under  the  word
Vestments.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at
York,  where  they  manufactured  woollens,  which,
says  king  Edward,  "  may  prove  of  great  benefit  to
us  and  our  subjects"  (1331).  Flemish  dyers,  cloth
drapers,  linen-makers,  silk-throwsters,  &c,  settled
at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colchester,  Southampton,
and  other  places,  on  account  of  the  duke  of  Alva's
persecution,  1567  ;  see  Loom,  and  Electric  Loom.

WEDDINGS.  Silver  weddings  are  celebrated
after  a  union  of  25  years ;  golden  weddings  after  a
union  of  50  years  ;  and  diamond  weddings  after  a
union  of  60  years,  some  apply  it  to  75  years.  John,
king  of  Saxony,  celebrated  his  golden  wedding,  10
Nov.  1872.

WEDDING-EINGS  were  used  by  the
ancients,  and  put  upon  the  wedding  finger,  from  a
supposed  connection  with  a  vein  there  with  the
heart.  According  to  Pliny  they  were  made  of  iron ;
in  the  time  of  Tertullian  of  gold.  Wedding-rings
are  to  be  of  standard  gold,  by  statute,  1855;  see
Adriatic.

WEDGE-LIKE  Characters,  see  Cunei-
form.

WEDGWOOD  WAEE,  pottery  and  porce-
lain produced  by  Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood,  of  Stafford-
shire, in  1762.  His  potteries,  termed  Etruria,  were
founded  in  1 77 1 .  Previously  to  1 763,  much  earthen-
ware was  imported  from  France  and  Holland.

WEDNESDAY,  the  fourth  day  of  the  week,
so  called  from  the  Saxon  idol  Woden  or  Odin,
worshipped  on  this  day.  Woden  was  the  reputed
author  of  magic  and  the  inventor  of  all  the  arts,
and  was  thought  to  answer  to  the  Mercury  of  the
Greeks  and  Romans.

WEEDON  INQUIEY  (Northamptonshire).
Commissioners  were  appointed  to  inquire  into  the
accounts  of  Mr.  Elliot,  superintendent  of  the  great
military  clothing  establishment  at  this  place,  in
July,  1858,  and  commenced  sitting  in  September.
Many  of  the  statements  were  afterwards  disputed,
and  caused  much  dissatisfaction.

WEEK,  the  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be
first  used  among  the  Jews,  who  observed  the
sabbath  every  seventh  day. They  had  three  sorts  of


weeks — the  common  one  of  seven  days  ;  the  second
of  years,  seven  years ;  the  third  of  seven  times
seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which  was  the  jubilee.
All  the  present  English  names  are  derived  from;
the  Saxon  : —

Latin.  French.

Dies  Solis,  Day  of  the  Sun, Dimanche.

Dies  Lunse,  Day  of  the  Moon, Lundi.

Dies  Martis,  Day  of  Mars,  Mardi.

Dies  Mereurii,  Day  of  Mercury, MercredL

Dies  Jovis,  Day  of  Jupiter, Jeudi.

Dies  Veneris,.  Day  of  Venus,  Vendredi.

Dies  Saturni, ' Day  of  Saturn, Samedi.

English.  Saxon.  German*.

Sunday,  Sun's  day,  Sonntag.

Monday,  Moon's  day,  Montag.

Tuesday,  Tiw's  day,  Dienstag.

"Wednesday,  Woden's  day,  Mittwoche.

Thursday,  Thor's  day,  Donnerstag.

Friday,  Friga's  day,  Freitag.

Saturday,  Saterne's  day,  Samstag,  or  Sonrs-

abend.

WEEKLY DISPATCH,  liberal  weekly
Sunday  paper,  established  1801.

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUEES. These  and

the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver  money,  are  attributed

to  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  895  B.C. ;  see  A.run—

delian  Marbles. Weights  were originally  taken

from  grains  of  wheat,  the  lowest  being  still  called  a

grain. Chalmers. See  Crith.

Much  information  is  given  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Chisholia
in  his  work  "On  the  Seience  of  Weighing  and'
Measuring."  1877.

The  Jews  ascribed  weights  and  measures  to  Cain  ;
the  Egyptians  to  Theuth,  or  Thoth  ;  the  Greeks,
to  Hermes  (the  Roman  Mercury).

The  basis  of  ancient  measures  was  the  natural  pro-
portions of  the  human  body  ;  the  digit,  or  breadth,
of  the  middle  part  of  the  first  joint  of  the  fore-
finger, being  the  lowest  unit  of  the  scale.

The  Egyptian  cubit  (six  palms),  under  the  Pha-
raohs, was  about  18.24  English  inches  ;  the  cubit
of  Ptolemy  about  21.87  inches;  he  determined
the  length  of  a  stadium,  and  of  a  degree.

The  sacred  cubit  of  the  Jews  (Newton),  24.7  inches.

Assyrian  weights  are  described  by  Mr.  Layard  in
his  "Nineveh."

The  standard  measure  was  originally  kept  at  Win-
chester by  the  law  of  king  Edgar  .... 972-

Standards  of  weights  and  measures  were  provided
for  the  whole  kingdom  of  England  by  the  sheriffs
of  London,  9  Rich.  I. 1197

A  public  weighing-machine  was  set  up  in  London,
and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be  weighed  by  the
city-officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to
do  justice  between  buyer  and  seller,  stat.  3  Edw.
II.  (Stotv) 1309;

Edward  HI.  ordered  that  there  should  be  "one
weight,  measure,  and  yard,"  throughout  the  king-
dom 1353

First  statute,  directing  the  use  of  avoirdupois
weight,  of  24  Hen.  VIII. 1532

Weights  and  measures  ordered  to  be  examined  by
the  justices  at  quarter-sessions,  35  Geo.  III. . .  1795

Again  regulated 1800

Statute  for  establishing  a  uniformity  of  weights  and
measures,  1824,  took  effect  throughout  the  United
Kingdom 1  Jan.  1826

New  acts  relating  thereto  passed  in  1834,  1835, 1855,
and  in 1859

16  <fc  17  Vict.  e.  29,  regulates  the  weights  to  be  used
in  the  sale  of  bullion,  and  adopts  the  use  of  the
Troy  ounce 1S53

A  commission  (consisting  of  Mr.  G.  B.  Airy,  gen.
E.  Sabine,  lord  Rosse,  Mr.  T.  Graham  and  others),
appointed  to  examine  the  standards . 9  May,  1867/

3rd  report  of  the  Standards  commission  states  that
errors  exist  in  official  standards,  dated 24  July,  186S

A  new  Weights  and  Measures  act  passed  to  enforce
uniformity  in  all  markets  in  the  United  Kingdom,
and  abolish  local  measures,  8  Aug.  1878  ;  this
act  was  combined  with  another  passed 26  July,  1889

Specific  gravities  (unit,  pure  water) :  iridium,  22.38 ;
platinum,  21.45  ;  osmium,  21.4  ;  gold,  19.32  ;  lead,


WEIMAE.


1059 WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES-


ii. 35;  silver,  10.51;  copper,  8.94;  iron,  7.87;
tin,  7.29;  zinc,  7.19  ;  iodine,  4.95  ;  carbon,  3.52  ;
aluminium,  2.56;  sulphur,  2;  sodium,  0.97;
lithium,  0.59  ;  oxygen,  0.001431  ;  nitrogen,
0.001257;  hydrogen,  0.0000896,  Dr.  0.  J.  Broch  .  1878
(See  Standard;  and  Metrical  System.)

"WEIMAR,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Saxe
Weimar  (which  see) .

WEINSBERG,  see  Guelphs.

WEISSENBURG,  see  Wissembourg.

WELLINGTON,  a  town  in  New  Zealand,
North  Island,  settled  in  1840,  made  a  bishopric  in

1858,  became  a  seat  of  government,  24  Dec.  1864.
Population  in  1891,  33,224.

WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION,

succeeded  that  of  viscount  Goderich,  Jan.  1828. The

duke  resigned  16  Nov.  1830.

Duke  of  Wellington,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor.

Henry  Goulburn,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Earl  Bathurst,  president  of  the  council.

Lord  Ellenborough,  privy  seal.

Mr.  (afterwards  sir)  Robert  Peel,  earl  Dudley,  and  Mr.

Wm.  Huskisson,  home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries.
Viscount  Melville,  board  of  control.
Mr.  Charles  Grant,  board  of  trade.
Lord  Palmerston,  secretary-at-war.
J.  C.  Hemes,  master  of  the  mint.
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  duchy  of  Lancaster.
Mr.  Huskisson,  earl  Dudley,  viscount  Palmerston,  and

Mr.  Grant  quitted  the  ministry,  and  various  changes

followed  in  May  and  June  same  year.
The  earl  of  Aberdeen  and  sir  George  Murray  became,

respectively,  foreign  and  colonial  secretaries.
Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  secretary-at-war.
Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald  (afterwards  lord  Fitzgerald),  India

board.
Lord  Lowther,  first  commissioner  of  land  revenues,  &,c,

May  and  June,  1828.
Mr.  Arbuthnot,  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  <fcc.

WELLINGTON  COLLEGE  (Sandhurst),
was  erected  by  subscription  in  memory  of  the  great
duke  of  Wellington,  for  the  support  and  education
of  orphan  sons  of  commissioned  officers.  The  first
stone  was  laid  by  the  queen  on  2  June,  1856  ;  and
the  building  was  opened  by  her  majesty  on  29  Jan.

1859.  Out  of  the  159,000^.  subscribed,  55,000^.  were
expended  on  the  building,  and  the  rest  invested  for
the  maintenance  of  the  institution.

A  controversy  respecting  its  management ;  certain
charges  explained  or  rebutted . . Aug. -Oct. 1878

Proposal  for  royal  commission  of  inquiry  nega-
tived in  the  commons . . . . 1  April,  1879

Commission  appointed  ;  lord  Penzance,  bishop  of
Exeter,  Mr.  R.  Lowe  (since  lord  Sherbrooke),  col.
Chesney,  &c,  June,  1879  ;  report  recommending
greater  economy  and  improvement  of  income,

Aug.  1880

Much  illness  among  the  boys,  3  deaths  ;  investiga-
tion of  the  premises  made  dnring  1891 ;  the
scholars  were  temporarily  transferred  to  Malvern,

early  in  1892

WELLINGTONIA  GIGANTE  A  (sequoia),
the  largest  tree  in  the  world,  a  native  of  California,
was  discovered  by  W.  Whitehead,  June,  1850 ;  a
specimen  first  gathered  by  Mr.  W.  Lobb  in  1853,
and  described  by  Dr.  John  Lindley.  When  full
grown  it  is  about  450  feet  high,  and  1 16  feet  in
circumference.  The  prince  consort  (5  June,  1861)
and  the  queen  (24  July,  1861)  planted  Welling-
tonias  at  the  new  gardens  of  the  Itoyal  Horti-
cultural Society.  The  trees  did  not  live ;  the
gardens  were  given  up  in  1887.

WELLINGTON'S  VICTORIES,  &c. For

details  see  separate  articles.
Arthur  Wellesley  was  born,  according to some
authorities,  in  March  or  April  (baptised  30  April);

incorrectly  said  by  others  , , 1  May,  1769


Appointed  to  command  in  the  Mahratta  war  in
India,  takes  Poonah  and  Ahmednuggur,  12  Aug.  ;
gains  his  first  victory  at  Assaye,  23  Sept.  ;  defeats
Scindiah  at  Argaum, Nov.  ; and  at  Gawalghur

13  Dec.  1803

Becomes  secretary  for  Ireland 1807

Takes  the  command  in  Portugal,  defeats  Junot  at
Vimeira 21  Aug.  1808

Defeats  Victor  at  Talavera,  28  July;  created
viscount  Wellington .... 4  Sept. 1809

Repulses  Massena  at  Busaco,  27  Sept.  ;  and  occupies
the  lines  at  Torres  Vedras . . .10  Oct.  1810

Defeats  Massena  at  Fuentes  de  Onoro,  5  May  ;  takes
Almeida '10  May,  i8ji

Passes  the  Douro  and  defeats  Soult .  12  May,  1812

Storms  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  19  Jan.  ;  and  Badajos,
6  April ;  defeats  Marmont  at  Salamanca,  22
July ;  enters  Madrid . . . .12  Aug.

Defeats  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Jourdan  at  Vittoria,
21  June  ;  storms  St.  Sebastian,  31  Aug.  ;  enters
France 8  Oct. 1813

Defeats  Soult  at  Orthez,  27  Feb.  ;  and  at  Toulouse

10  April,  1814

Created  duke  of  Wellington,  with  an  annuity  of
13,000?.  and  a  grant  of  300,000^. . .  May, ,,

First  appeared  in  the  house  of  lords  ;  his  patents
of  creation  as  baron,  earl,  marquis,  and  duke  being
read  at  the  same  time ... 28  June, „

Commands  the  army  in  the  Netherlands  ;  repulses
an  attack  of  Ney  at  Quatre  Bras,  16  June  :  defeats
Napoleon  at  Waterloo, 18  June ;  invests  Paris

3  July,  1815

Commands the army  of occupation in France

July,  1815,  till  Nov. 1818

His  assassination  attempted  by  Cantillon,  who
escapes -  10  Feb.  1818

Appointed  master-general  of  the  ordnance . .  1819

The  Wellington  shield  and  supporting  columns
designed  by  Stothard,  commemorating  all  the
above-mentioned  victories,  presented  to  the  duke
by  the  merchants  and  bankers  of  London.  (It
was  manufactured  by  Green  and  Ward,  and  cost
n,oooZ.)  16  Feb.  1822-

The  duke  appointed  commander-in-chief,  22  Jan.  ;
resigns 30  April,  1827

Becomes  first  minister .... 8  Jan. 1828

Aids  in  carrying  the  Catholic Emancipation bill

April,  1829

Asserts  that  no  reform  in  parliament  is  needed,  2
Nov. ;  resigns 16  Nov.  1830

Transacts  all  the  business  of  the  country,  after  the
resignation  of  lord  Melbourne,  till  the  arrival  of
sir  R.  Peel  from  Italy,  Nov.  ;  and  becomes  foreign
secretary  under  sir  R.  Peel,  Dec.  1834 ;  resigns

April,  1835

Again  commander-in-chief ... 15  Aug. 1842

Dies  at  Walmer  castle* .... 14  Sept.  1852

Removed  to  Chelsea  hospital,  where  he  lay  in  state

10  Nov.

Removed  to  the  Horse  Guards  . . 17  Nov. ,,

Public  funeral  at  St.  Paul's  cathedral . iS  Nov. ,,

A  multitude  of  all  ranks,  estimated  at  a  million  and  a
half  of  persons,  were  congregated  in  the  line  of  route,
a  distance  of  three  miles,  to  witness  and  share  in  the
imposing  spectacle.

The  military  consisted  of  the  household  regiments  of
horse  and  foot  guards,  the  2nd  battalion  of  the  rifles,  a
battalion  of  the  Royal  Marines,  the  53rd  regiment,  the
17th  Lancers,  and  the  1  Sth  Light  Dragoons,  the  regi-
ment of  Scots  Greys;  a  body  of  Chelsea  pensioners,  and
men  of  different  arms  of  the  Indian  army.

The  body  was  placed  upon  a  sumptuous  funeral  car,
drawn  by  twelve  horses  richly  caparisoned,  and  the
coffin  was  thus  seen  by  the  whole  of  the  crowd.

The  procession  moved  about  seven  o'clock, and  it  was
three  o'clock  before  the  body  was  lowered into  the
vault  beside  the  remains  of  Nelson,  under  the  do)
St.  Paul's  cathedral.

Memorial  by  Marochetti  creeled  by  the  present  duke,  his
son,  and  tenants  at  Strathfleldsaj  e,  July,  1866.
See  Statues.

WELLINGTON  Monument,  in  St.  Paul's.
A  number  of  models  exhibited  in  Westminster  hall  ;  none
chosen,  1857.

*  His  favourite  old  horse,  Copenhagen,  (born  1808,  at
Waterloo),  died  1836.

3  y  2


WELLS.


1060 WEST  AFRICAN  SETTLEMENTS.


The  execution  of  the  monument  entrusted  to  Mr.  Alfred
Stevens,  sculptor,  and  Mr. Penrose,  architect. The
stone  sarcophagus  was  completed  in  1858.
In  Aug.  1870,  above  17,000?.  had  been  expended,  and  it
was  stated  that  15,000?.  more  were  required. Parlia-
ment had  granted  20,000?. Fresh  arrangements  were
made  with  Mr. Stevens. He  died  1  May,  1875. Mo-
nument reported complete,  1  Feb.  ; uncovered,  20
April,  1878.
The  removal  of  the  monument  to  a  different  part  of  the
cathedral,  and  the  addition  of  the  equestrian  statue
modelled by  Mr. Stevens,  proposed  in  April ;  work
proceeding,  Sept.  1892.

WELLS  were  dug  by  Abraham,  1892  B.C.,  and
Isaac,  1804  {Gen.  xxi.  30,  and  xxvi.  19).  Danaus
is  said  to  hare  introduced  well-digging  into  Greece
from  Egypt.  Norton's  "  tube-well,"  patented  Oct.
1867,  is  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Hiram  J.
Messenger,  Stephen  Brewer,  and  Byron  Mudge,
Americans  of  the  state  of  New  York.  The  appa-
ratus consists  of  an  iron  tube  perforated  with  holes
at  the  lower  end,  and  shod  with  a  steel  point,  which
readily  enters  the  hardest  soil  when  forcibly  driven.
It  was  used  with  great  advantage  during  the  civil
war  1 86 1 -4;  by  the  British  in  their  campaign  in
Abyssinia  in  1867-8 ;  and  by  the  Eussians  in  Khiva,

1873-

Messrs. Meux,  brewers,  New Oxford-street, London,

boring, found  water  beneath the  greensand, about

1000  feet  deep,  April,  1877.

WELLS  (Somerset).  The  cathedral  church
was  built  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  704,  and
by  him  dedicated  to  St.  Andrew.  Other  West
Saxon  kings  endowed  it,  and  it  was  erected  into  a
bishopric  in  909,  during  the  reign  of  Edward  the
Elder.  The  present  church  was  begun  by  Robert,
1 8th  bishop  of  this  see,  and  completed  by  his  imme-
diate successor.  The  first  bishop  was  jEthelm  or
Adelmus  (afterwards  bishop  of  Canterbury).  The
see  was  united  with  Bath  {which  see)  in  1088.
Population,  1881,  4,634  ;  1891,  4,822.

WELSH  CHARITY  SCHOOLS;  esta-
blished in  Gray's-inn-road,  London,  1715  ;  removed
to  Ashford,  near  Staines,  Middlesex,  1852.  Welsh
National  Council,  see  Wales,  Oct.  1887.

WENDS,  a  branch  of  the  Slavonic  family  which
spread  over  Germany  in  the  6th  century,  and  settled
especially  in  the  north-eastern  parts.

WESLEYAN METHODISTS,  a  sect

founded  by  John  Wesley  (born  1703,  died  1791)
and  his  brother  Charles,  who  in  1727  with  a  few
other  students  formed  themselves  into  a  small  society
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  edification  by  religious
exercises.  From  their  strictness  of  life  they  were  called
Methodists,  in  1729.  John  Wesley  went  to  Georgia
in  America,  in  1735,  with  a  view  of  converting  the
Indians.  On  his  return  to  England,  in  1738,  he
commenced  itinerant  preaching,  and  gathered  many
followers.  On  finding  many  churches  shut  against
him,  he  built  spacious  meeting-houses  in  London,
Bristol,  and  other  places.  The  W  esleyan  Methodist
society,  as  such,  began  in  1 739.  For  some  time  he  was
united  with  George  Whiteti eld;  but  differing  with
him  respecting  the  doctrine  of  election,  they  sepa-
rated in  1 741;  see  Whitefield.  Wesley  was  almost
continually  engaged  in  travelling  through  the
United  Kingdom.  His  two  leading  doctrines  were
the  instantancousness  of  conversion,  and  Christian
perfection,  or  deliverance  from  all  sin.  His  society
was  well  organised,  and  he  preserved  his  influence
over  it  to  the  last.  "  His  genius  for  government
was  not  inferior  to  that  of  Bichelieu."  Macaulay,
The  deed  of  declaration,  establishing  the  conference,
is  dated  28  Feb.  1784.  In  185 1  there  were  428
circuits  in  Great  Britain,  with  between  13,000  and


14,000  local  or  lay  preachers,  and  about  920  itine-
rant preachers,  and  6579  chapels.

The  Conference,  the  highest  Wesleyan  court,  till
lately,  composed  of  100  ministers,  who  meet
annually. It  was  instituted  by  John  Wesley  in  .  1784

At  the  centenary  of  the  existence  of  Methodism
216,000?.  were  collected,  to  be  expended  on  the
objects  of  the  society 1839

An  oecumenical  conference  to  be  held  in  the  autumn
of  1881,  settled 31  July,  1880

138th  annual  conference  opened . . 19  July,  1881

Out  of  the  original  connection  have  seceded  :—

Chapels  in  1851

New  Connection  (in  1796) 301

Primitive  Methodists  (1810) 2871

Bible  Christians,  or  Bryanites  (from  Win.  O'Bryan)
(1815) 403

Wesleyan  Methodist  Association  (1834) . . . 329

Wesleyan  Methodist  Reformers  (1849) • ■ •  2O0°

The  last  arose  out  of  the  publication  of  "  Fly
Sheets,"  advocating  reform  in  the  body  (1844-8).
The  suspected  authors  and  their  friends  were  ex-
pelled. By  these  disruptions  the  main  body  is
thought  to  have  lost  100,000  members. — This
sect  in  America  numbered  about  a  million  in
1844,  when  a  division  took  place  on  the  slavery
question.

The  United  Methodist  Free  Churches,  an  amalgamation
of  the  Protestant  Methodist  (1828),  Wesleyan
Methodist  Association  (1834)  and  the  Wesleyan
Reform  Association  (1849)  effected  in  .  . .  1857

Wesleyan  Methodist  church  members  in  Great  Bri-
tain in  1868,  342,380;  in  1872,  346,580;  in  1876,
372>S38 !  1878,  380,867  (1412  ministers) ;  1885,
413,163  ;  March,  1889,  421,784;  1892,  424,959.

Letter  from  Dr.  Pusey  requesting  aid  in  opposing
Coleridge's  bill  for  admitting  dissenters  to  the
universities,  read  at  the  conference,  but  not
received  .  . 13  Aug.  1868

The  establishment  of  a  high  school  for  Wesleyans
at  Cambridge  (to  prepare  for  the  university)  pro-
posed -. May  1872

The  chapel  in  the  City-road,  London,  founded  by
John  Wesley,  1  April,  1777,  was  nearly  destroyed
by  fire 7  Dec.  1879

Oecumenical  Methodist  conference  (at  City-road
Chapel,  London),  of  400  delegates,  ministers  and
laymen  from  all  parts  of  the  world  (representing
nearly  4,000,000) . . . .6  Sept.  et  seq.  1881

Centenary  of  the  death  of  the  celebrated  John
Wesley ;  his  statue  by  Mr.  Adams  Acton,  in
front  of  the  City-road  chapel,  unveiled  by  the
Rev.  D.  Moulton .... 2  March,  1891

Conference  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  . . 21  July  1885

,,  ,,  Camborne,  Cornwall . 24  July  1888

„  Sheffield  (146th) . . 23  July  1889

,,  ,,  Bristol July,  1890

„  ,,  Nottingham  (148th) . 21  July,  1891

,,  ,,  Bradford  (149th) '. . ' 1  Aug.  1892

Oecumenical  conference  at  Washington,  U.  S.  N.  A.,

7  Oct.  1 89 1

The  chapel  in  the  City-road,  London,  re-opened
after  repairs  and  changes . . . 5  Nov. ,,

WESSEX,  see  Britain.

WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS-

Sierra Leone,  Gambia,  &c. Governor,  sir  Arthur
E.Kennedy,  1867;  sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  Aug.  1873;
Cornelius H.  Kortright,  1875  ; Dr.  Samuel  Bowe,
1876; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881  ; sir
Samuel  Rowe,  1884,  died  1888. See  Ashantees.
Turbulent  chiefs  subdued ....  June,  1883
International conference at Berlin, on West
African  affairs.  * Freedom  of  trade  on  the  Congo  ;
Rights  of  States  occupying  open  territory  ;  pro-
posed by  Germany,  accepted  by  France,  England,
Portugal, Spain, Holland,  Belgium,  the  United

States,  and  Turkey 8  Oct.  1884

Conference opened, prince Bismarck president.

15  Nov. „
The  conference  declares  free trade  in  the  Congo
valley  and  affirms  British  protectorate  over  the
Niger,  and  recognises  the  International  African
Association Dec. ,,

*  Mr.  H.  Stanley,  at  Berlin.


WESTEEN AUSTEALIA.


1061


WESTEEN ISLES.


Prohibits  slave  trade 7  Jan.  1885

Approves  rules  for  future  annexations  on  the  coast

1  Feb. „
Result  of  the  conference  embodied  in  a  general  act

signed 26  Feb. „

International  limitations  on  the  lower  Congo,  settled

is  Feb. „

WESTEEN  AUSTEALIA,  formerly  Swan

ELVER  SETTLEMENT,  which  was  projected  by
colonel  Peel  in  1828.  Regulations  issued  from  the
colonial  office,  and  Captain  Stirling,  appointed
lieutenant-governor,  Jan.  17,  1829,  arrived  at  the
appointed  site  in  August  following.  The  three
towns  of  Perth,  Freemantle,  and  Guildford  were
founded  same  year.  In  March,  1830,  fifty  ships,
with  2000  emigrants,  with  property  amounting  to
1,000,000/.,  had  arrived  before  hardly  any  dwellings
had  been  erected  or  land  surveyed.  The  more
energetic  settlers  left  for  home,  or  the  neighbouring
colonies,  and  the  colony  languished  for  twenty  years
for  want  of  suitable  inhabitants — the  first  settlers,
from  their  previous  habits  and  rank  in  life,  proving
unfit  for  the  rough  work  of  colonisation.  In  1848,
the  colonists  requested  that  convicts  might  be  sent
out  to  them,  and  in  1849  a  band  arrived,  who  were
kindly  received  and  well  treated.  The  best  results
ensued.  By  1853,  2000  had  arrived,  and  the  in-
habitants of  Perth  had  requested  that  1000  should
be  sent  out  annually.  The  reception  of  convicts  is
to  cease  in  after-years,  in  consequence  of  the  ener-
getic opposition  of  the  other  Australian  colonies
(1865). — The  settlement  of  King  George's  Sound
was  founded  in  1826  by  the  government  of  New
South  Wales.  It  was  used  as  a  military  station  for
four  years.  In  1 830,  the  home  government  ordered
the  settlement  to  be  transferred  to  Swan  River.
Since  the  establishment  of  steam  communication,
the  little  town  of  Albany  here,  employed  as  a  coal-
ing station,  has  become  a  thriving  sea-port.  It
possesses  an  excellent  harbour,  used  by  whalers.  A
journal  called  the  Freemantle  Gazette  was  published
here  in  March,  1831.  Bishopric  of  Perth  founded
1857.  Population  of  Western  Australia  in  1859,
14,837;  Jan.  1862,  15,555;  Dec-  1883,31,233;  April,
1891,49,782  ;  1887,  revenue,  377,903/.;  expenditure,
456,897/.;  imports,  832,213/.  ;  exports,  604,656/. ;
1890,  revenue,  414,314/.;  expenditure,  401,737/.;
imports,  874,447/.;  exports,  671,813/.  Governor
John  Stephen  Hampton,  appointed  1861 ;  sir  Ben-
jamin C.  C.  Pine,  May,  1868;  Frederick  A.  Weld,
1869;  Wm.  C.  F.  Robinson,  1874;  major-gen.  sir
Harry  St.  George  Ord,  1877;  sir  W.  F.  Robinson,
1880 ;  sir  Frederick  Napier  Broome,  1882 ;  sir
William C.  F.  Robinson,  Aug.  1889.

New  gold  field  at  Perth  discovered,  May  ;  gold  dis-
covered in  n.w.  Australia ...(?)  May,  1886

The  egislative  council  petition  for  responsible
self-government  instead  of  being  a  crown  colony,
autumn,  1887  ;  a  bill  granting  this  was  passed  by
the  house  of  lords,  16  July,  withdrawn  in  the
commons,  Aug.  1889;  re-introduced  and  received
the  royal  assent,  25  July  ;  proclaimed  at  Perth,
with  great  rejoicings .... 22  Oct.  1890

The  hon.  John  Forrest  forms  the  first  ministry,  28
Dec.  ;  the  first  parliament  meets . 20  Jan.  1891

WESTEEN  CHUECH  (called  also  the
Latin  or  Roman)  broke  off  communion  with  the
Greek  or  Eastern  Church,  653 ;  see  Greek  Church.
Its  history  is  mainly  comprised  in  that  of  the  popes
and  of  the  European  kingdoms;  see  Popes.  This
church  was  disturbed  by  the  Arian  heresy  about
345  and  500 ;  by  Pelagianism,  about  409 ;  by  the
introduction  of  image-worship  about  600;  by  the
injunction  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  the  rise
of  the  monastic  orders  about  649 ;  by  the  contests
between  the  emperors  and  the  popes respecting


ecclesiastical  investitures  between  1073  and  1 173;
by  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  the
15th  and  16th  centuries;  by  the  contests  between
the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists  in  the  17th  and  18th
centuries ;  and  by  the  progress  of  modern  philosophy
and  rationalism,  and  by  ultramontanism,  in  the
19th ;  see  Roman  Catholics.

WESTEEN  EMPIEE.  The  Roman  empire
was  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western  by  l)io-
cletian  in  296;  but  was  reunited  under  Constans
in  340.  It  was  again  divided  into  Eastern  and
Western  by  Valentinian  and  Valens,  the  former
having  the  Western  portion  or  Rome,  364;  see
Eastern  Empire,  Italy,  and  Home.

EMPERORS.

364.  Valentinian,  son  of  Gratian,  takes  the  Western,  and

his  brother  Valens  the  Eastern  empire.

367.  Gratian,  a  youth,  son  of  Valentinian,  made  a  col-
league in  the  government  by  his  father.

375.  Valentinian  II.,  another  son,  also  very  young,  is,  on
the  death  of  his  father,  associated  with  Gratian,
who  is  assassinated  by  his  general,  Andragathius,
in  383.  Valentinian  murdered  by  one  of  his  officers,
Arbogastes,  in  392.

392.  Eugenius,  a  usurper,  assumes  the  imperial  dignity ;
he  and  Arbogastes  are  defeated  by

394.  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  becomes  sole  emperor.
[Andragathius  threw  himself  into  the  sea,  and  Arbo-
gastes died  by  his  own  hand.]

395.  Hunorius,  son  of  Theodosius,  reigns,  on  his  father's

death,  in  the  West,  and  his  brother  Arcadius  in
the  East. Honorius  dies  in  423.

423.  Usurpation  of  John,  the  Notary,  defeated  and  slain
near  Ravenna.

425.  Valentinian  III. ,  son  of  the  empress  Flacidia,  daugh-
ter of  Theodosius  the  Great :  murdered  at  the  in-
stance of  his  successor

455.  Maximus :  he  marries  Eudoxia,  widow  of  Valen-
tinian, who,  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  first
husband  and  the  guilt  of  her  second,  invites  the
African  Vandals  into  Italy,  and  Rome  is  sacked.
Maximus  stoned  to  death.

455.  Marcus  Mascilius  Avitus ;  forced  to  resign,  and  dies
in  his  flight  towards  the  Alps.

457.  Julius  Valerius  Majorianus ;  murdered  at  the  instance
of  his  minister,  Ricimer,  who  raises

461.  Libius  Severus  to  the  throne,  but  holds  the  supreme
power;  Severus  poisoned  by  Ricimer.

465.  [Interregnum.  Ricimer  retains  the  authority,  with-
out assuming  the  title  of  emperor.]

467.  Anthemius,  chosen  by  the  joint  suffrages  of  the
senate  and  army ;  murdered  by  Ricimer,  who  dies
soon  after.

472.  Flavius-Anicius  Olybrius :  slain  by  the  Goths  soon

after  his  accession.

473.  Glycerius:  forced  to  abdicate  by  his  successor,

474.  Julius  Nepos :  deposed  by  his  general,  Orestes,  and.

retires  to  Salonaj.

475.  Romulus  (called  Augustulus,  or  Little  Augustus),

sou  of  Orestes.  Orestes  is  slain,  and  the  emperor
deposed  by

476.  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli :  takes  Rome,  assumes

the  style  of  king  of  Italy,  and  completes  the  fall  of
the  Western  empire.

See  Italy,  Rome,  and  Germany.

WEST  HAM,  S.W.  Essex,  (called  London
over  the  border)  parish  containing  Plaistow,  Strat-
ford, &c,  the  population  in  1841,  12,738;  owing  to
the  large  increase  of  factories  and  other  works  rose
to  99,142  in 1871, and  200,752 in 1881 ; 1891,

365.  '3°-

West  Hani  returns  two  M.P.'s  by  the  act  of  1885  ;  and
was  incorporated  by  royal  charter,  July,  1886.  West
Ham  is  outside  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  metropolitan
board  of  works.  The  dreadful  sanitary  condition  Of
1855  gradually  improved  by  the  action  of  a  new  local
board,  now  succeeded  by  a  municipal  corporation.
Rateable  value  79,000/.  in  1856;  nearly  700,000/.  in  1886.

WESTEEN  ISLES  of  Scotland..  Royal

commission  to  inquire  into  extreme  destitution  ap-
pointed 20  March,  1883  (lord  Napier  and  Ettrick,


WESTERN TERRITORIES.


1062


WESTMINSTER  BISHOPRIC.


Mr. Donald Cameron, M.P., and  others). See
Mansion  Mouse.

WESTERN  TERRITORIES,  British
America,  contain  four  districts,  Assiniboia,  Saskat-
chewan, Alberta,  and  Athabasca,  formed  by  the  Do-
minion government  in  1882.  They  were  part  of  the
HudsonBay  territories  till  1870,  when  they  were  an-
nexed to  Canada.  Population  in  1891,  about  67,554.
Capital,  Begina. Lieut. -gov.,  Joseph  Boyal  (1891).

WEST  INDIES,  islands  discovered  by  Colum-
bus, St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  he  made  in
the  New  World,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night
between  the  nth  and  12th  Oct.  1492.  The  largest
are  Cuba,  Hayti  (or  St.  Domingo),  Jamaica,  Porto
Bico,  Trinidad,  and  Guadaloupe;  see  the  Islands
respectively.

A  royal  commission  to  inquire  into  their  condition  ap-
pointed in  1882,  reported  on  their  great  need  of  im-
portant judicial  and  fiscal  reforms  April,  1884  :  De-
pressed condition  through  increased  use  of  beet  sugar  ;
inadmissible  remedies  proposed  by  deputation  to
lord  Derby,  28  Aug.  1884.

WEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS, see

Jamaica.

WESTMINSTER,  so  called  on  account  of  its
western  situation  with  regard  to  St.  Paul's  cathe-
dral, or  from  there  being  formerly  a  monastery
named  East  Minster,  on  the  hill  now  called  Great
Tower-hill.  This  city  joins  London  at  Temple-bar.
Formerly  Westminster  was  called  Thorney,  or
Thomey  Island:  and  in  ancient  times  Canute  had
a  palace  here,  burnt  in  1263.  Westminster  and
London  were  one  miie  asunder  in  1603,  when  the
houses  were  thatched,  and  there  were  mud  walls  in
the  Strand.  It  is  said  that  the  great  number  of
Scotsmen  who  came  over  after  the  accession  of
James  I.  occasioned  the  building  of  Westminster,  and
united  it  with  London.  Howel's  Londinopolis.
See  Parliament,  1834-52,  1884.  By  the  Seats  act
of  1885,  Westminster  returns  one  M.P.  Population,
Westminster  (borough),  1881,  46,549;  1891,  37,295.
Strand,  1881,  32,587;  1891,  25,107.  St.  Georges,
Hanover  sq.,  1881,  149,748;  1891,  134,122.  See
under  Roman  Catholics.
Earl  Grosvenor  created  marquis  of  Westminster,

1831  ;  the  marquis  created  duke  .  .  .  .  1874
Westminster  industrial  exhibition,  opened  24  May,

closed 9  Aug.  1879

Baroness  Burdett-Coutts  lays  foundation  of  New

Town  Hall,  near  Victoria  Street,  29  March,  1882  ;

opened 19  July,  1883

The  prince  of  Wales  lays  the  foundation  stone  of

St.  Martin's  municipal  buildings,  &c,  18  March,

1890 ;  which  are  opened  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,

16  July,  1891

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  Christopher
Wren,  in  his  survey  of  the  present  edifice,  found
nothing  to  countenance  the  belief  that  it  was  erected
on  the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  The  erection  of
the  first  abbey  in  the  7th  century  is  ascribed  to  St.
Sebert,  king  of  Essex.

The  church  becoming  ruinous,  splendidly  rebuilt  by
Edward  the  Confessor  (1055-65)  and  filled  with
monks  from  Exeter  (Pope  Nicholas  II.  constituted
it  the  place  for  the  inauguration  of  the  kings  of
England) ;  dedicated  ....  28  Deo.  1065

Re-built  in  a  magnificent  style  by  Henry  III.  1220-69

In  the  reigns  of Edward  II., Edward  III., and
Richard  II.  the  great  cloisters,  abbot's  house,  and.
principal  monastic  buildings,  erected . .  1300-1400
The  western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles  rebuilt

between 1340  and  1483

The  west  front  and  the  great  window  built  by
Richard  HI.  and  Henry  VII.  ;  the  latter  com-
menced the  chapel  which  bears  his  name ;  the  first
stone  laid 24  Jan.  1502-3


The  abbey  dissolved  and  made  a  bishopric  .  .  1540
Made  a  collegiate  church  by  Elizabeth  .  .  .  1560
Made  a  barrack  for  soldiers  (Mercurius  Busticus),

July,  1643
The  great  west  window  and  the  western  towers  re-
built in  the  reigns  of  George  I.  and  II.  . . 1714-60
The  choir  injured  by  fire . . . .9  July,  1803
Mr. Wyatt  commenced  restoring  the  dilapidated

parts  at  an  expense  of  42, 000Z.  in  ....  1809
A  fire,  without  any  serious  injury . 27  April,  1829
The  evening  services  for  the  working  classes,  when
a  sermon  was  preached  by  the  dean,  Dr.  Trench,

commenced  on 3  Jan.  1858

The  800th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  celebrated,

28  Dec.  1865
joool.  voted  by  parliament  to  restore  the  chapter-
house (G.  Gilbert  Scott  employed),  1  May,  1866  ;

re-opened 29  April,  1872

Lectures  in  the  Abbey  on  foreign  missions  :  pro-
fessor Max  Miiller,  a  layman,  3  Dec.  1873  ;  prin-
cipal Caird  of  Scotch  church,  30  Nov.  1874  ;  rev.
Robert  Moffat,  father-iu-law  of  Livingstone

30  Nov.  1875
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  sir  Wm.  Sterndale  Bennett,  and
bishop  Connop  Thirlwall,  buried  in  the  Abbey,
1875 ;  G.  E.  Street,  29  Dec.  1881 ;  C.  R.  Darwin,

26  April,  1882

Robert  Browning 30  Dec.  i88q

Repairs  connected  with  the  principal  entrance  after
designs  by  Gilbert  Scott,  completed  at  a  cost  of

about  2o,oooZ Nov.  1881

New  Abbey  gardens  opened  .  .  .12  April,  1882
New  organ  set  up  ..... May,  1884

Thanksgiving  jubilee  services  for  the  queen  (  see

Jubilee) 21,  22  June,  1887

Proposed  transfer  of  the  charge  of  restoring  and
maintaining  the  abbey  to  the  ecclesiastical  com-
missioners who  are  to  advance  io,oooJ.  March;
legalised  by  act  passed  ...  28  June,  1888
Royal  commission  appointed  to  inquire  in  regard
to  the  facilities  for  the  interment  of  illustrious
persons  :  the  dean  Bradley,  sir  F.  Leighton,  Mr.
Alfred  Waterhouse,  and  others,  29  April ;  report

indecisive June,  1891

Restoration  of  the  exterior  of  the  north  transept,  as

designed  by  sir  Gilbert  Scott,  completed June,  1890
Special  service  on  the  death  of  sir  John  Macdonald,
premier  of  Canada . . . .12  June,  1891

WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM,  see

Aquarium.

WESTMINSTER  BISHOPRICS  and

DEANERY.  At  the  dissolution  of  monasteries,
Westminster  abbey  was  valued  at  3977^  per  annum ;
king  Henry  VIII.  in  1539  erected  it  into  a  deanery;
and  in  1540  into  a  bishopric,  and  appointed  Thomas
Thirlby  prelate.  He  was  translated  to  Norwich  in
1550,  and  with  him  ended  the  bishopric  of  West-
minster; Middlesex,  his  diocese,  being  restored  to
London.  The  dean  presided  until  the  accession  of
Mary,  who  restored  the  abbot.  Elizabeth  displaced
the  abbot,  and  erected  the  abbey  into  a  collegiate
church  of  a  dean  and  twelve  prebendaries,  as  it
still  continues.  On  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the
Bath,  in  1725,  the  dean  of  Westminster  wras  ap-
pointed dean  of  that  order,  which  honour  has  been
continued.  Dr.  Nicholas  Wiseman  was  created  arch-
bishop of  Westminster  by  the  pope  Pius  IX.  30  Sept.
18 50;  see  Papal  Aggression.  Dr.  Wiseman  died  8
Feb.  1865;  Henry  Manning  was  consecrated  his
successor  8  June,  following  ;  he  died  14  Jan.  1892,
and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Herbert  Vaughan  about
30  March;  enthroned  8  May;  invested  with  the
pallium,  the  first  since  1556,  16  Aug.,  1892.  See
Roman  Catholics.

RECENT  DEANS.

1793.  Samuel  Horsley ;  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  1802.
1802.  William  Vincent ;  died  21  Dec.  1815.
1815.  John  Ireland  ;  died  21  Sept.  1842.
1842.  Thomas  Turton;  bishop  of  Ely,  1845.

1845.  Samuel  Wilberforce  ;  bishop  of  Oxford,  1846.

1846.  William  Buckland  ;  died  14  Aug.  1856.

1856.  Richard  C.  Trench;  abp.  of  Dublin,  1  Jan.  1864.


WESTMINSTER BRIDGES.


1063


WHALE-FISHERY.


C864.  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley  ;  died  18  July,  1881.
1881.  George  Granville  Bradley  ;  14  Sept.

WESTMINSTER  BRIDGES. The  hand-
some old  bridge  was  begun  (after  a  design  of  M.
Labelye),  13  Sept.  1738,  the  first  stone  laid  29  Jan.
1738-9;  opened  for  passengers  18  Nov.  1750;  cost
426,65^. It  was  built  of  Portland  stone,  and  crossed
the  river  where  the  breadth  is  1223  feet.
Owing  to  the  sinking  of  several  of  its  piers,  most
of  the  balustrades  on  both  sides  were  removed,  to
relieve  the  structure  of  its  weight.
By  16  <fe  17  Vict.  c.  46  the  estates  of  its  commis-
sioners were  transferred  to  her  majesty's  commis-
sioners of  works,  who  were  empowered  to  remove
the then existing bridge, and build a new
bridge  (near  the  old  one)  . . . .4  Aug.  1853
The  contract  required  the  completion  of  the  works

by 1  June,  1857

The  works  were  suspended  for  a  time,  in  conse-
quence of  the  failure  of  Messrs.  Mare  the  contrac-
tors. The  government  eventually  undertook  the
building,  which  they  entrusted  to  Mr.  Thomas
Page,  the  engineer.  One  half  of  the  new  bridge
was  opened  for  use  early  in  i860;  the  whole  on

24  May,  1862

WESTMINSTER  Confession  of  Faith

AND  CATECHISMS  were  drawn  up  by  the  "Assem-
bly of  Divines"  (partly  consisting  of  laymen),  who
sat  by  authority  of  parliament  in  Henry  VII. 's
•chapel,  Westminster,  from  1643  to  1647.  These
have  ever  since  been  the  doctrinal  standards  of
Scotch  Presbyterians.

WESTMINSTER  HALL  (London),  first
ibuilt  by  William  Rufus  in  1097,  for  a  banqueting-
hall;  and  here  in  1099,  on  his  return  from  Nor-
mandy, "he  kept  his  feast  of  Whitsuntide  very
royally."  The  hall  became  ruinous  before  the
a-eign  of  Richard  II.,  who  repaired  it  in  1397,  raised
the  walls,  altered  the  windows,  and  added  a  new
roof,  as  well  as  a  stately  porch  and  other  buildings.
In  1236  Henry  III.  on  New-year's  day  caused  6000
poor  persons  to  be  entertained  in  this  hall,  and  in
the  other  rooms  of  his  palace,  as  a  celebration  of
queen  Eleanor's  coronation;  and  here  Richard  II.
held  his  Christmas  festival  in  1397,  when  the  num-
ber of  the  guests  each  day  the  feast  lasted  was
JO,000.  Stow.  The  courts  of  law  were  established
here  by  king  John.  Idem.  Westminster  hail  was
stated  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe  unsupported
by  pillars  (except  a  hall  of  justice  at  Padua) ;  it  is
270  feet  in  length,  74  feet  broad.  The  hall  under-
went a  general  repair  in  1802.  Concurrently  with
the  erection  of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  many
improvements  and  alterations  have  lately  been
made  in  this  magnificent  hall.  The  Volunteer
Rifle  corps  were  drilled  in  the  hall  in  the  winter  of
1859,  and  since.  The  courts  of  law  removed  to  the
new  buildings  in  the  Strand  Jan.  1883.  Restora-
tions proposed  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Pearson,  R.A.,  July,
1884.  The  roof  and  windows  greatly  damaged  by
an  explosion  of  dynamite  (?)  about  2  p.m.  24  Jan.
1885.

WESTMINSTER  HOSPITAL,  founded,
1719;  chartered,  1836.

-WESTMINSTER PALACE, see under
Palace  of  Westminster,  and  Parliament.

WESTMINSTER  REVIEW,  liberal  in  reli-
gion and  politics,  first  appeared,  1824,  as  the  organ
of  the  philosophic  radicals,  termed  the  Westminster
school,  friends  of  Jeremy  Bentham.  Sec  Utili-
tarian is  in.

WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL  or  St.  Peter's
College,  was  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth  in  1560,
for  the  education  of  forty  boys,  denominated  the
Queen's  scholars,  who  are  prepared  for  the  univer-


sity. It  is situated  within  the abbej enclosure.

Besides  the  scholars  on  the  foundation,  many  of  the

nobility  and  gentry  send  their  sons  to  Westminster

for  instruction. A  proposal  in  i860  to  remove  the

school  was  disapproved  of  in  1861.

Westminster Schools, United, comprise Emanuel and

St.  Margaret's  hospitals,  and  rev.  James  Palmer's  and

Emery  Hill's  school charities,  which  were  abolished

by  the  endowed  school  commissioners  27  June,  1873.

New  schools  are  to  be  erected.

WESTMINSTER,  Statutes  of,  are  3  and

13  Edward  I.,  1275-90  ;  see  Acts  of  Parliament.

WESTMORELAND.  This  county  and  Cum-
berland were  granted  as  a  fief  to  Malcolm  of  Scot-
land by  Edward  the  Elder  in  945  ;  but  resumed  by
Henry  III.  in  1237.  Neville,  earl  of  Westmore-
land, revolted  against  Elizabeth  in  1569,  and  was
attainted  in  1570.

WESTPHALIA  (Germany).  This  duchy  be-
longed in  former  times  to  the  dukes  of  Saxony,  and
afterwards  became  subject  to  the  archbishop  of
Cologne.  On  the  secularisation  in  1802,  it  was
made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  and  in  1814  was
ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The  kingdom
of  Westphalia,  one  of  the  temporary  kingdoms  of
Bonaparte,  composed  of  conquests  from  Prussia,
Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to
the  west  of  the  Elbe,  was  created  by  decree  18  Aug.

1806,  and  Jerome  Bonaparte  appointed  king,  1  Dec.

1807.  _  Hanover  was  annexed  to  it,  1  March,  1810.
The  kingdom  was  abolished  in  1813,  and  the  coun-
tries were  restored  to  their  former  rulers.
Through  strike  of  the  coal  miners  for  increased  pay

and  shorter  hours  of  labour,  Herr  Krupp,  of  Essen,
had  to  stop  his  iron  and  steel  works  at  several  places
for  want  of  coal  about  4  May.  A  conflict  took  place
near  Gladbeck  between  the  troops  and  miners,  and
three  miners  were  killed,  7  May  ;  the  owners  stand  firm ;
about  39,000  men  on  strike,  8  May  ;  nearly  100,000
strikers  out,  13  May  ;  the  government  intervenes  to
effect  a  compromise,  about  13  May  ;  the  emperor
receives  three  delegates  from  miners,  14  May,  and
advises  both  parties  to  come  to  a  compromise,  about
15,  16  May  ;  strike  spreading  to  Silesia  &c,  15  May  ;
strikers  in  Westphalia  about  110,000,  in  Silesia  10,000,
16  May — 20  May  ;  40  members  of  the  striking  com-
mittee arrested  26  May ;  strike  ends  by  a  com-
promise, 31  May,  1889.  Fresh  demands  of  the  miners
(increase  of  50  per  cent,  of  wages,  shorter  hours,  &c),
rejected  by  the  masters,  23  Jan.  1890.

Explosion  at  the  Hibernia  pit,  near  Gilsenkirchen,
about  44  deaths,  reported ... 25  Jan.  1891

Great  strike  of  coal  miners  near  Essen,  about  15,000
men  out,  19  April;  close  of  strike,  reported,

3  May, „

WESTPHALIA  or  Munster,  Peace  of  ;

the  treaties  signed  at  Osnaburg  6  Aug.,  and  at
Minister  24  Oct.  1648,  between  France,  the  emperor,
and  Sweden ;  Spam  continuing  the  war  against
France.  By  this  peace  (ending  the  thirty  years'
war)  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe
was  first  recognised ;  Alsace  given  to  France,  and
part  of  Pomerania  and  some  other  districts  to
Sweden  ;  the  Lower  Palatinate  restored  to  the
elector  palatine  ;  the  religious  and  political  rights
of  the  German  states  established ;  and  the  inde-
pendence of  the  Swiss  Confederation  recognised  by
Germany.

WEST  SAXONS,  see  Wessex,  in  Britain.

WEYMOUTH,  Dorsetshire,  was  given  by
Henry  I.  to  St.  Swithin's,  Winchester.  Taken
from  Charles  I.,  by  the  parliamentarians,  1644;
visited  and  brought  inlo  note  by  George  III.,  1789.
First  Dorset  industrial  exhibition  was  opened  here,
25  July,  1878.

WHALE-FISHERY,  it  is  said,  was  first
carried  on  by  the  Norwegians  in  the  ninth  century.


WHARNCLIFFE  MEETINGS.


1064


WHISKY.


lenglet.  Whales  were  killed  at  Newfoundland  and
Iceland,  for  their  oil  only,  1578;  the  use  of  their
fins  and  bones  was  not  yet  known,  consequently  (a
writer  adds")  no  stays  were  worn  by  the  ladies.  The
English  whale-fishing  commenced  at  Spitzbergen  m
1598;  but  the  Dutch  had  been  previously  fishing
there.  The  fishery  was  much  promoted  by  an  act  of
parliament  passed  in  1749.  From  1800  to  2000
whales  have  been  killed  annually  on  the  coast  of
Greenland,  &c.  The  quantity  of  whale-oil  imported
in  1814  was  33,567  tuns ;  in  1826,  when  gas-light
became  general,  25,000  tuns;  in  1840,  about 22,000
tuns;  in  1850,  21.360  tuns;  in  1861,  19,176  tuns;
in  1864,  14,701  tuns;  in  1867,  15,945  tuns!  m  l87x»
24,679  tuns:  in  i872  18.719  tuns:  in  1878,  20,656
tuns;  in  1883,  17,156  tuns;  in  1887,  17,698  tuns;
in  1890,  20,307  tuns,  A  living  whale  from  Labrador,
9  feet  6  inches  long,  placed  in  the  Westminster
aquarium,  26  Sept.,  died  29  Sept.  1877.  White
whale  (Beluga),  arrived  28  May  ;  died  in  latter  part
of  June.  159  bottlenosed  whales  captured  at  Barns,
Tankerness,  near  Kirkwall,  20  Nov.  1889.

WHARNCLIFFE  MEETINGS  of  public

companies  (held  to  give  enlarged  powers  under
certain  prescribed  conditions)  are  so  called  because
the  standing  orders  of  the  house  of  lords,  under
which  they  are  held,  were  introduced  by  lord
Wharnclift'e,  about  1846.

WHEAT-  The  Chinese  ascribe  to  their  empe-
ror, Ching-Noung,  who  succeeded  Fohi,  the  art  of
husbandry,  and  method  of  making  bread  from
wheat,  about  2000  years  before  the  Christian  era.
Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  6th  cen-
tury, by  Coll  ap  Coll  Frewi.  Roberts.  The  first
wheat  imported  into  England  of  which  we  have  a
note  was  in  1347.  Various  statutes  have  regulated
the  sales  of  wheat,  and  restrained  its  importation,
in  order  to  encourage  its  being  raised  at  home.
In  1862  attention  was  drawn  to  the  probable
utility  of  considering  the  pedigree  of  wheat.  In
1871  it  was  estimated  that  3,571,894  acres  in  the
United  Kingdom  were  devoted  to  wheat;  in  1876,
3,124,342.  See  Bread,  and  Corn  Laivs.  Greatest
producers  (in  order),  United  States,  Bussia,  France,
Great  Britain,  &c.  The  wheat  crop  fur  Great
Britain  is  said  to  have  yielded  71,939,647  bushels  in


IMPORTED INTO

THE

UNITED KINGDOM.

Wheat.

Flour.

1854, 2,656,455  q

rs.

6,329,038  nuts.

1861,  29,955,532

,

6,152,938 „

1862,  41,033,503

,

7,207,113 ,,

1864,  23,196,714  civts.

4,512,391 „

1866,  23,156,329

4,972,280 „

1868,  32,639,768

3,093,022 ,,

1871,  39,389,803

3.977.933 »

1872,  42,127,726

,,

4,388,136 „

1874,  41,527,638

„

6,236,044 ,,

1877,  54,269,800

„

7.377.303 ,,

1878,  49,906,484

,,

7,828,079 ,,

1879,  59,59!. 795

,,

10,728,252 ,,

1880,  55,261,924

,,

10,558,312 ,,

1881,  57,H7,933

,,

11,357,381 ,,

1882,  64,240,749

,,

13.057,403 ,»

1883,  64,138,631

,,

16,329,312 ,,

1884,  47,306,156

,,

15,095. 3CI >,

1885,  61,498,864

„

15,832,843 „

1886,  47,435,806

„

14,689,560 ,,

1887,  55,802,518

„

18,063,234 ,,

1888,  57,261,363

,,

16,910,442 ,,

1889,  58,551,887

,,

14,672,082 ,,

1890,  60,474,180

»

I5,773,33° ,,

VALUE  OF  WHEAT  IMPORTED  INTO  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM.

1854

. . £11,693,

737

1858

• ■ 9.050,467

1855

9,679,578

1859

8,713,532

T856

12,716,

349

i860

• • 16,554.083

1857

9.563.

099

1861

19,051,464

J  863


1870


1873
1874
1875


1877


1881


. £23,203,800
12,015,006

10,674,654
9,775,616

12,983,090

24,985,096

22,069,353

• 19.515,758

16,264,027

. 23,318,883

26,169,185
28,538,746
25,236,932
,  .  27,510,469
23,178,011

Average  Annual  Price  per  Quarter  in  England  and  Wales.


£33,885,437
27,433.444-
31,468,171
30,621,711
3i,53i,535
34,259,126-
31,454,481
19,901,794-
24,085,913.
17,909,630
2i,337,9iS-
21,995,974
22,510,502.
23,583,844


1805
1810
1815
1820
1825


s. d.
119 6

89 9
106 5

7


1830 66 4
1835 39 4


1850
1855


1865


d.
40  3
74
53
41
49  IJ
64  5
63  9
48  2
46  10
56 "


1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879


d.

57  o

58  8

55  8

45  2

46  2

56  9
46  5

43  IO

44  4

45  4


d.

45  r
4i  7
35  ®
S2  10

31  c.

32  6

31  io>
29  9>

32  2


i»45 50  10

WHEEL,  Breaking  on  the.  A  barbarous
mode  of  death,  of  great  antiquity,  ordered  by
Francis  I.  for  robbers,  about  1535  ;  see  Ravaillac.

WHEEL-WORK,  see  Spinning,  Zooms,  Auto-
maton.

WHIGS.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  name
Whig  was  a  term  of  reproach  given  by  the  court
party  to  their  antagonists  for  holding  the  principles
of  the  "whigs,"  or  fanatical  covenanters  in  Scot-
land ;  and  in  return  the  name  Tory  was  given  to>
the  court  party,  comparing  them  to  the  Tories,  or
popish  robbers  in  Ireland.  Baker.  The  distinction
arose  out  of  the  discovery  of  the  Meal-tub  plot
(which  see)  in  1678.  Upon  bringing  up  the  meal
plot  before  parliament,  two  parties  were  formed  :
the  ones  who  doubted  the  plot  styled  those  who
believed  in  it  Whigs  ;  these  styled  their  adversaries
Tories.  In  time  these  names,  given  as  marks  of
opprobrium,  became  honoured  distinctions.  Hume.
The  Whigs  brought  about  the  revolution  of  1688-9,
and  established  the  protestant  succession.  They
were  chiefly  instrumental  in  obtaining  the  abolition
of  the  slave  trade  and  slavery,  the  repeal  of  the
Test  and  Corporation  act.  Catholic  emancipation,
parliamentary  and  municipal  reform,  the  repeal  of
the  corn  laws,  and  similar  measures.  The  Whig
Club  was  established  by  Charles  James  Fox  ;  one  of
its  original  members  was  the  great  Francis,  duke  of
Bedford,  who  died  in  1802.  See  Liberals.  For  the
principal  Whig  ministries,  see  Halifax,  Walpole,
Rockingham,  Grenville,  Grey,  Melbourne,  Russell,
Palmerston,  and  Gladstone.

WHIP,  the  popular  title  of  the  patronage  secre-
tary of  the  treasury,  whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  mem-
bers to  make  a  house  on  important  occasions,  &c.  Sir
Wm.  Hayter,  the  liberal  "whip,"  1850-8,  received
a  testimonial  for  his  energetic  services,  early  in  1861 .
The  right  hon.  Wm.  P.  Adam,  an  able  whip,  died
governor  of  Madras,  24  May,  1881.  It  is  the  duty
of  both  conservative  and  liberal  whips  to  promote
the  interest  of  their  party  in  every  conceivable
way.

The  management  of  the  house  of  commons  by  bribery  is
said  to  have  begun  with  Clifford  of  the  "Cabal "  minis-
try, and  continued  by  Whigs  and  Tories.  Mr.  Roberts
(under  Henry  Pelham),  is  said  to  have  paid  members
sums  of  i,oooL,  500L,  &c,  to  each  at  the  close  of  a
session  for  their  support. Wraxall.

WHISKY,  the  spirit  distilled  from  malt  and
other  com  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  of  which  about


WHIST.


1065


WHITEHALL.


eight  millions  of  gallons  have  been  distilled
annually  in  the  former,  and  upwards  of  nine  mil-
lions of  gallons  in  the  latter.  The  duty  upon  this
article  once  produced  annually  about  three  millions.
The  distillation  of  whisky  is  referred  to  the  16th
century ;  but  some  authors  state  it  to  have  been
earlier;  see  Distillation.  In  1855  the  duties  on
spirits  distilled  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  were
equalised  with  those  distilled  in  England.  Women's
Whisky  War,  see  United  States,  1874.

WHIST,  a  game  at  cards,  became  general  at  the
end  of  the  17th  century.
Edmund Hoyle, who published his "  Short

Treatise" about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97;

lord  Peterborough  introduced  short  whist  early

in  the  present  century  ; the  laws  were  revised  in  1864

"  Whist,"  a  poem 1791

Laws  by  "Cavendish,"  compiled  .  .  .  about  1861
James  Clay,  M.P.,  an  eminent  player,  died  26  Sept.  1871

WHITBY,  N.R.  Yorkshire.  The  monastery
here,  under  St.  Hilda,  founded  by  king  Oswy,  657,
destroyed  by  the  Danes  876,  was  restored  by  \V  llliun
de  Percy  about  1100.  The  Cholmleys  established
alum  works  here  in  1615.  Whitby  was  made  a
borough  in  1832,  and  absorbed  into  the  county  in
1885. Population,  1881,  14,086;  1891,  13,274.

WHITEBAIT  DINNER,  when  the  cabinet
ministers  met  at  the  end  of  each  session,  is
said  to  have  begun  at  the  end  of  the  last
century,  through  sir  Kobert  Preston  and  Mr.
George  Kose  inviting  Mr.  Pitt  and  his  colleagues
to  dine  at  Dagenham,  and  afterwards  at  Green-
wich. Another  account  dates  its  origin  in  1 72 1.  The
annual  whitebait  dinner,  stopped  by  the  Gladstone
ministry,  was  revived  by  the  Disraeli  ministry,
I  Aug.  1874,  and  continued  by  the  Gladstone,  I
Sept.  1880.  No  dinner,  1884.  The  whitebait
(clupea  alba)  is  a  subject  of  controversy.  Albert
Giinther,  of  the  British  Museum,  in  his  Catalogue
of  Fishes,  says  the  whitebait  is  "  a  purely  nominal
species,"  and  that  all  the  examples  which  he  has
examined  were  young  herrings  (1868).

At  the  inquiry  in  June,  1878,  James  Henry  Cannon,
fisherman,  claimed  the  discovery  of  the  fish  for  his
grandfather,  Richard,  who  named  it  1780.  It  was
mentioned  in  a  letter  in  the  life  of  lord  Malmesbury,
2  July,  1763.

WHITEBOYS,  a  body  of  ruffians  in  Ireland,
so  called  on  account  of  then-  wearing  linen  frocks
over  their  coats.  They  committed  dreadful  outrages
in  1 761,  but  were  suppressed  by  a  military  force,
and  their  ringleaders  executed  in  1762.  They  rose
and  were  again  suppressed  in  1786-7.  The  insurrec-
tion act  was  passed  on  their  account  in  1822.

WHITECHAPEL,  a  parish  in  East  London,
was  part  of  Stepney  till  1329.  The  church,  built
in  1673,  was  replaced  by  one  consecrated  2  Feb.
1877,  which  was  burnt  26  Aug.  1880.  Population,
1881,71,363;  1891,74,462.
New  Loan  Art  exhibition  opened . . 4  April,  1882

WHITECHAPEL  MURDERS,  &c.  Henry

"Wainwright,  abrushmaker,  murdered  Harriet  Lane,

his  mistress,  on  his  premises,  215,  Whitechapel-road,

and  buried  the  body,  Sept.  1874-

While  conveying  the  mutilated  remains  to  be  con-
cealed in  his  cellars  in  Southwark,  Wainwright
and  Alice  Day  were  apprehended,  through  the
courage  and  activity  of  Alfred  Philip  Stokes,  ii
Sept.  Day  was  discharged  ;  Henry  and  his
brother  Thomas  were  committed  for  trial  13  Oct. 1875

Nine  days'  trial  before  chief  .justice  Cockbum  ;
Henry  convicted  of  murder  ;  Thomas  as  accessory


after  the  fact  (seven  years'  penal  servitude),  22
Nov.-i  Dec.  ;  Henry  executed . . 21  Dec.  1875

1232/.  subscribed  for  Henry's  family.

30J.  awarded  to  Stokes.

Much  excitement  was  caused  by  the  murder  and
brutal  mutilation  of  unfortunate  women  at  differ-
ent times — Smith,  3  April ;  Martha  Turner,  7  Aug. ;
Nichols,  31  Aug.  ;  Chapman,  7,  8  Sept.  Coroners
return  open  verdict.  The  evidence  showed  the
murderer  possessed  surgical  knowledge,  his.
object  being  to  get  possession  of  certain  organs.
Two  more  women  murdered  in  a  similar  manner
near  Commercial  Road  and  Aldgate  ;  E.  Watts
or  Stride  and  C.  Conway  or  Eddowes  between  1
and  2  a.m.  30  Sept.  The  lord  mayor  offers  500Z.
reward  in  relation  to  the  murder  near  Aldgate ;
Mary  Jane  Kelly's  body  found  dreadfully  muti-
lated in  26,  Dorset  Street,  Spitalfields 9  Nov.  188S

Rose  Milett  or  Davis  (?)  strangled  at  Poplar  28  Dec. ,,

Alice  McKenzie  found  with  throat  cut,  &c,  in
Castle  Alley,  Whitechapel  . . 17  July,  1889

The  mutilated  trunk  of  a  woman  discovered  under
a  railway  arch  in  Ruehin-street . . 10  Sept.  „

Frances  Coles  found  murdered  in  an  archway,
Orman-street,  Whitechapel-road  . 13  Feb.  1891

James  Thomas  Sadler  arrested,  16  Feb.  ;  dis-
charged 3  March, ,,

WHITE  CROSS  ARMY,  the  shorter  title  of
the  Church  of  England  Purity  Society,  established
by  Miss  Ellice  Hopkins,  supported  by  the  bishops  of
Durham  and  Lichfield  and  other  prelates,  highly
successful  at  Oxford,  Edinburgh,  Liverpool,  and
other  places,  1884.

WHITE  DOVES,  a  South  Russian  religioua
sect,  said  to  be  wealthy  and  superstitious,  strongly
advocating  celibacy :  under  a  chief  named  Kou-
drine.  Members  were  tried  for  moral  offences  about
April,  1876.

WHITEFIELDITES.  George  Whitefield,
the  founder  of  the  "  Calvinistic  3Iet/iodists,"  bom
1 7 14,  was  the  son  of  an  innkeeper  at  Gloucester,
where  he  received  his  first  education.  He  was  ad-
mitted a  senator  at  Oxford  in  1732,  became  a  com-
panion of  the  Wesleys  there,  and  aided  them  in
establishing  Methodism.  He  parted  from  them  in
1741,  on  account  of  their  rejection  of  the  doctrine
of  election.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of
his  day.  His  first  sermon  was  preached  in  1736,  and
he  commenced  field  preaching  in  1739.  He  is  said
to  have  delivered  18,000  sermons  during  his  career
of  34  years.  He  visited  America  in  1737,  1739,  and
1744.  His  followers  are  termed  "the  countess  of
Huntingdon's  connexion,"  from  his  having  become
her  chaplain  in  1748,  and  from  her  energetic  support
of  the  sect,  by  establishing  a  college  at  Trevecca,
1767.  See  Spafields.  There  were  109  chapels  of  this
connexion  in  185 1  ;  but  many  of  his  followers  have
joined  the  Independents.  He  died  30  Sept.  1770*
and  the  countess  died  17  June  1 791 ;  see  Tabernacle.

WHITE FLAG,  sec  Flag.
WHITE  FRIARS,  see  Carmelites  and  Sanc-
tuaries.

WHITEHALL  (London),  built  by  Hubert  de
Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  before  the  middle  of  the  13th
century.  It  afterwards  devolved,  by  bequest,  to  the
Black  Friars  of  Holborn,  who  sold  it  to  the  arch-
bishop of  York,  whence  it  received  the  name  of
York-place,  and  continued  to  be  the  town  residence
of  the  archbishops  till  taken  by  Henry  MIL  from
cardinal  Wolsey,  in  1530.  At  this  period  it  became
the  residence  of  the  court.  Queen  Elizabeth,  who
died  at  Richmond  in  1603,  was  brought  from  thence
to  Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a  grand  procession.  It
was  on  this  occasion,  Camden  informs  us,  that  the
following  quaint  panegyric  on  her  majesty  was
written  :


WHITE  HATS.


1066


WICKLIFFITES.


""  The  queen  was  brought  by  water  to  Whitehall,
At  every  stroke  the  oars  did  tears  let  fall.
More  clung  about  the  barge  :  fish  under  water
"Wept  out  their  eyes  of  pearl,  and  swam  blind  after.
I  think  the  bargemen  might,  with  easier  thighs,
Have  rowed  her  thither  in  her  people's  eyes  ;
For  howsoe'er  thus  much  my  thoughts  have  scann'd,
She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  come  by  land."

Whitehall  was  partly  burnt  9-10  April,  1691  ;
totally  destroyed  by  fire,  4  Jan.  1697-8,  except  the
banqueting-house,  which  had  been  added  to  the
palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I.,  according  to  a
design  of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of
"Whitehall  Charles  I.  was  beheaded  30  Jan.  1649.
George  L  converted  the  hall  into  a  chapel  1723-4.
The  exterior  of  this  edifice  underwent  repair  be-
tween 1829  and  1833.  The  chapel  was  ordered  to
be  permanently  closed,  28  Oct.  1890;  lent  during
the  queen's  reign,  to  the  Royal  United  Service
Institution,  from  1  Jan.  1891 ;  first  meeting  held,
7  March,  1891.

WHITE  HATS,  a  party  in  the  Low  Countries
formed  about  1377,  against  Louis,  count  of  Flanders.
'The  struggle  lasted  till  1384,  when  it  was  settled  by
Philip,,  duke  of  Burgundy.

WHITE  HOODS,  see  Catechumens.
WHITE  HOESE,  see  Ashdoivn.

WHITE  HOUSE  (Washington),  built  of  free-
stone, the  residence  of  the  president,  gives  name  to
the  United  States  government,  as  St.  James's  palace
.does  to  that  of  Great  Britain.

WHITE  LEAD,  see  Lead.

WHITE  LEAGUE,  formed  in  Louisiana  and
•other  southern  states  of  North  America,  to  resist  the
.aggressions  of  the  emancipated  negroes  and  their
friends,  termed" carpet-baggers."  SeeiVew  Orleans,
1874.

WHITE  PASHA,  see  Soudan,  July,  1888.

WHITE  PLAINS  (N.  America),  where  a
'battle  was  fought  28  Oct.  1776,  between  the  revolted
Americans  and  the  British  forces  under  sir  William
Howe.  It  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  Americans,
who  suffered  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded,
and  prisoners.

WHITE  EOSE,  Ordeb  OF  THE,  includes'
anen  and  women  of  many  shades  of  opinion,  agree-
ing on  one  point,  that  all  authority  comes  from
above,  utterly  independent  of  the  will  of  the  people.
'They  regard  the  revolution  of  1688  as  a  national
•crime,  and  Jacobitism  as  true  loyalty.  The  order
•has  no  religious  test,  its  sole  object  being  to  main-
tain the  doctrine  cf  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and
revive  public  interest  in  the  sufferings  of  the  house
•of  Stuart. (Feb.  1888.)

WHITE  SHEEP,  a  name  given  to  the  Turco-
mans who  conquered  Persia  about  1468,  and  perse-
cuted the  Shiites,  but  were  expelled  by  Ismail,  who
founded  the  Soplii  dynasty  in  I "501.

WHITE  TOWEE,  the  keep  or  citadel  in  the
'Tower  of  London,  a  large,  square,  irregular  building,
erected  in  1070  by  abbot  Gundulph,  afterwards
bishop  of  Rochester.  It  measures  116  feet  by  96,
and  is  92  feet  in  height :  the  walls,  which  are  1 1
feet  thick,  having  a  winding  staircase  continued
along  two  of  the  sides,  like  that  in  Lover  Castle.  It
contains  an  extensive  armoury.  Within  this  tower
is  the  ancient  chapel  of  St.  John,  originally  used  by
the  English  monarchs.  The  turret  at  the  N.E.
angle,  the  highest  of  the  four  by  which  the  White
Tower  is  surmounted,  was  used  for  astronomical
purposes  by  Flamsteed  previously  to  the  erection  of
the  royal  observatory  at  Greenwich.


WHITSUNTIDE,  a  festival  appointed  to  com-
memorate the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the
apostles :  the  newly-baptized  persons,  or  catechu-
mens, are  said  to  have  worn  white  garments  on
Whitsunday.  This  feast  is  movable,  being  always
exactly  seven  weeks  after  Easter.  Rogation  week
(which  see)  is  the  week  before  Whitsunday.  Whit-
sunday 1892,  5  June;  1893,  21  May;  1894,  13  May  ;
1895,  2  June ; 1896,  24  May.

Whitsunday,  a  Scotch  quarter-day,  is  always  on.
15  May,  as  settled  by  an  act  of  1693,  but  local  usage
varies.

WHITTINGTON'S  CHAEITIES. Sir

Richard  Whittington,  a  citizen  and  mercer  of  Lon-
don, served  the  office  of  lord  mayor  three  times,  the
last  in  1419.  Many  false  stories  are  connected  with
his  name,  and  his  munificent  charities  are  little
known.  He  founded  his  college,  dedicated  to  the
Holy  Ghost  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  1424  ;  and  his
almshouses  in  1429 ;  the  latter,  originally  built  in
London, now  stand  on  Highgate-hill  (built  i8o8)near
the  supposed  site  of  the  supposed  famous  stone  which
commemorated  the  legend  of  his  return  to  London,
after  leaving  it  in  despair.

WHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr.

(aftd.  sir)  Joseph  Whitworth,  the  eminent  engi-
neer (born  21  Dec.  1803;  died  22  Jan.  1887)
in  a  letter  to  the  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  dated  18
March,  1868,  offered  to  found  30  scholarships  of  the
annual  value  of  100I.  each,  to  be  applied  for  the
further  instruction  of  young  men,  natives  of  the
United  Kingdom,  selected  by  open  competition  for
their  intelligence  and  proficiency  in  the  theory  and
practice  of  mechanics  and  its  cognate  sciences,  with
a  view  to  the  promotion  of  engineering  and  mechani-
cal industry  in  this  country  ;  and  he  expressed  hopes
that  means  might  be  found  for  bringing  science  and
industry  into  closer  relation  with  each  other  than
at  present  obtains  here.  This  offer  was  accepted  by
the  lords  of  the  committee  of  the  privy  council,  28
March,  1868.  In  1875,  sir  Joseph  assigned  an  estate
to  support  these  scholarships.  For  the  results  of  sir
Joseph  Whitworth's  will,  see  Manchester,  1888-90.

WHO  ? WHO  ? ADMINISTEATION,

Derby's,  earl  of,  Feb.  1852  (which  see).

"WHOLE  DUTY  OF  Man;"  (the  author-
ship doubtfully  attributed  to  abps.  Sancroft,
Frewen,  and  Sterne ;  to  bishops  Fell  and  Chapel ;
to  Dorothy,  lady  Packington,  and  others ;)  first
published,"  1659.  Loivndes.  It  is  attributed  by
some  to  John  Ischam.

WICKLIFFITES,  the  followers  of  John
Wicklitte  (born  1324),  a  professor  of  divinity  in  the
university  of  Oxford  and  rector  of  Lutterworth  in
Leicestershire.  He  was  a  forerunner  of  the  reforma-
tion of  the  English  Church  from  popery,  being
among  the  first  who  opposed  the  authority  of  the
pope,  transubstantiation,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,
&c.  Wicklifl'e,  protected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Ed-
ward's son  and  Richard's  uncle,  was  virulently
persecuted  by  the  church,  and  only  saved  from  mar-
tyrdom by  a  paralytic  attack,  which  caused  his
death,  31  Dec.  1384,  in  his  60th  year.  The  Council
of  Constance,  in  1414,  decreed  his  bones  to  be  disin-
terred and  burnt,  which  was  done  by  the  bishop  of
Lincoln,  and  his  dust  was  cast  into  the  river  Swift,
1415.  Wicklift'e's  English  version  of  the  Bible
was  commenced  in  1380 ;  a  noble  edition  of  it  was
printed  at  Oxford  in  1850.  Wy cliff 'Society ;  founded
in  1882  to  publish  his  works.  Quin-centenarv  of
his  death  celebrated  in  London,  &c.,  21  May,  1884.
See  Lollards.


WIDOWS.


1067


WILLS.


WIDOWS.  The  Jewish  law  required  a  man's
brother  to  marry  his  widow  if  without  children  (1490
B.C.).  For  the  burning  of  widows  in  India,  see  Sut-
tee. Among  the  numerous  associations  in  London
for  the  relief  of  widows  are,  one  for  the  widows  of
musicians,  instituted  in  1738;  for  widows  of  naval
men,  founded  in  1 739  :  for  widows  of  medical  men,
1788  :  a  law  society,  for  widows  of  professional  gen-
tlemen, 1817;  and  a  society  for  artists' widows,  1827.
■ — Widowers  were  taxed  in  England  as  follows :  a
duke,  12I.  10s.  ;  lower  peers,  smaller  sums;  a  com-
mon person,  is.  ;  7  Will.  III.  1695.

WIEN,  see  Vienna.

WIFE,  see  Wives.

WIG,  see  Peruke.

WIGrAN  (Lancashire) .  The  king's  troops,  com-
manded by  the  earl  of  Derby,  were  defeated  and
driven  out  of  the  town  in  1643  by  the  parliamentary
forces  under  sir  John  Smeaton.  The  earl  was  again
defeated  by  colonel  Ashton,  who  razed  the  fortifica-
tions of  Wigan  to  the  ground,  same  year ;  and  once
more  by  a  greatly  superior  force  commanded  by
colonel  Lilbume,  1 651.  In  this  last  engagement,
sir  Thomas  Tildesley,  an  ardent  royalist,  was  slain  ;
a  pillar  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  1679.  The
colliers  in  the  neighbourhood  struck,  and  acting
riotously  17,  18  April,  1868,  were  quelled  by  the
military.  Arrangements  were  soon  after  made  with
the  employers.  The  prince  and  princess  of  Wales
at  then-  visit,  4  June,  1873,  opened  a  new  hospital,
&c,  and  received  a  hearty  welcome.  See  Railway
Accidents,  2  Aug.  1873.  Population,  1881,  48,194  ;
1891,  55,013.

WIGHT,  ISLE  OF,  the  Eoman  Vecta  or  Victis,
was  conquered  by  Vespasian  in  the  reign  of  Clau-
dius. It  was  conquered  by  the  Saxons  under  Cerdic
about  530;  by  the  Danes,  787,  and  in  1001,  when
they  held  it  for  several  years.  It  was  invaded  by
the  French,  July,  1377,  and  has  several  times
suffered  from  invasion  by  them.  In  1442,
Henry  VI.  alienated  the  Isle  to  Henry  de
Beauchamp,  first  premier  earl  of  England  and
then  duke  of  Warwick,  and  afterwards  crowned  him
king  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  with  his  own  hands  ;  but
dying  without  heirs  male,  his  regal  title  died  with
him,  and  the  lordship  of  the  isle  returned  to  the
crown.  Charles  I.,  after  his  flight  from  Hampton-
court,  was  a  prisoner  in  Carisbrook  castle,  in  1647.
In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  timber  was  very  plentiful.
In  this  isle  is  the  queen's  marine  residence,
Osbome-house.
Prince  Henry  of  Battenberg  appointed  governor  Jan.

1889,  officially  received  29  July.

WILD BIRDS' PROTECTION ACTS,

passed  10  Aug.  1872,  24  July,  1876,  and  7  Sept.
1880.

WILDERNESS  BATTLES,  see  United
States,  May,  1864.

WILHELMSHAFEN,  at  Hippens,  bay  of
Jahde,  Oldenburg,  the  first  German  military  port,
was  inaugurated  by  William,  king  of  Prussia,
17  June,  1869.  Since  1871  it  has  become  the
Chatham  of  Germany.  By  explosion  of  a  gun  on
the  Mars,  8  men  killed  and  20  injured,  27  April,
1881.

WILKES'S  NUMBER,  45,  see  North  Briton,
and  also  Warrants,  General.

WILLIAMS' LIBRARY,  see  Libraries.

WILLIS'S  ROOMS,  see  AlmacVs.

WILLOW-LEAYES,  see  Sun.


WILLS  and  Testaments  are  of  very  high

antiquity,  see  Genesis  xlviii.  The  private  will  of
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  680  B.C.,  found  at
Nineveh,  is  translated  in  Records  of  the  Past,
Vol.  I.  Solon  introduced  them  at  Athens,  578
B.C.  There  are  regulations  respecting  wills  in
the  Koran.  Trebatius  Testa  the  civilian,  intro-
duced codicils  to  wills  at  Pome,  31  B.C.  The
power  of  bequeathing  lands  by  the  last  will  and
testament  of  the  owner  was  confirmed  to  English
subjects  I  Henry  I.  1100;  but  with  great  restric-
tions and  limitations  respecting  the  feudal  system,
which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of  32  Hen.  VIII.
1541.  Blackstone's  Commentaries.  The  first  will
of  a  sovereign  on  record  is  stated  (but  in  error)  to
be  that  of  Richard  II.  1399  ;  Edward  the  Confessor
made  a  will,  1066.  Various  laws  have  regulated
the  wills  and  testaments  of  British  subjects.  All
previous  statutes  were  repealed  by  the  "  Wills  Act,"
7  Will.  IV.  &  1  Vict.  c.  26,  1837,  and  the  laws
with  relation  to  wills  amended.*  The  present
Probate  Court  (which  see)  was  established  in
1857.  An  office  for  the  reception  of  the  wills  of
living  persons  was  opened  in  Jan.  1861.  See  Tltel-
lussoii's  Will.  In  1869  twenty  probates  of  wOls  or
letters  of  administration  were  stamped  for  personal
property,  each  exceeding  a  quarter  of  a  million ;
one  had  a  stamp  of  2l,OOo£.  The  Wills  Office,  re-
moved from  Doctors'  Commons  to  Somerset  House,
was  opened  24  Oct.  1874.

The  will  of  Peter  the  Great,  described  in  the  "  Memoires
de  la  Chevaliere  d'Eon,"  as  a  "  plan  for  compassing
European  supremacy,"  left  for  his  successors,  and  de-
posited in  the  archives  of  the  palace  of  Peterhoff  near
St.  Petersburg.  It  advocated  "approach  as  near  as
possible  to  Constantinople,  and  towards  the  Indies  :
wars  with  Turkey  and  Persia ;  possession  of  the  shores
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Baltic  ; "  &c.  The  existence
of  the  will  (denied  by  the  czars),  was  first  announced
by  M.  Lesur  in  his  " Progres  de  la  Puissance  Russe,"
published  at  Paris  in  1812.  In  1863,  Dr.  Berkholz  of
Biga  asserted  that  the  will  was  a  forgery,  probably
dictated  by  Napoleon  I.  Mr.  W.  J.  Thorns,  the  anti-
quary, and  others,  contend  for  the  genuineness  of  the
will,  June,  1878.

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  LAST  WILL  OF  NAPOLEON  I.,
EMPEROR  OF  FRANCE,  t

[He  died  5  May,  1821,  eleven  days  after  he  had  signed
these  documents.  The  original  in  French  occupies
about  twenty-six  pages  in  Peignot's  "  Testarnens  Ee-
marquables,"  1829.]

"This  day,  24  April,  1821,  at  Longwood,  in  the  island
of  St.  Helena. This  is  my  testament,  or  act  of  my  last

will:

"  I  leave  to  the  comte  de  Montholon  2,000.000  francs
as  a  proof  of  my  satisfaction  for  the  attentions  he  has'
paid  to  me  for  these  six  years,  and  to  indemnify  him  for
the  losses  which  my  residence  in  St.  Helena  has  occa-
sioned him.  I  leave  to  the  comte  Bertrand  500,000
francs.  I  leave  to  Marchand,  my  first  valet-de-ehambre,
400,000  francs  ;  the  services  he  has  performed  for  me  are
those  of  a  friend.  I  desire  that  he  may  marry  a  widow,
sister,  or  daughter  of  an  officer  or  soldier  of  my  old
guard.  To  St.  Denis,  100,000  francs.  To  Novarre,  100.000
francs.  To  Pijeron,  100,000  francs.  To  Arehambaud,
50,000  francs.  To  Cuvier,  50,000  francs.  To  Chaudelle,
idem.

*  By  this  act  the  testator  must  be  above  21,  not  a
lunatic  or  idiot,  not  deaf  and  dumb,  not  drunk  at  the

lii if  signing,  not  an  outlawed  or  unpardoned  felon.

All  kinds  "i'  properly  may  in'  devised.  The  will  must  be
written  legibly  and  intelligibly,  ami  signed  by  the
testator,  or  by  his  direction,  in  the  presence  of  two  or
more  witnesses,  who  also  must  sign.  A  married  woman
may  bequeath  only  her  pin  money  or  separate  mainten-
ance, without  the  consent  of  her  husband.

t  These  documents,  dated  from  15-24  April,  deposited
since  i;;.m  in  England,  have  been  given  1 1 1  •  to  the  autho-
rities at  Paris,  at  the  request  01  the  French  Govern-
ment.


WILLS.


1068


WILMOT'S ACT.


"To  the  Abbe  Vignali,  100,000  francs.  I  desire  that
he  may  build  his  house  near  Ponte  Novo  de  Rossino.  To
the  cointe  Las  Casas,  100,000  francs.  To  comte  Lava-
lette,  100,000  francs.  To  the  surgeon-in-chief,  Larrey,
100,000  francs.  He  is  the  most  virtuous  man  I  havij
known. To  general  Brayer,  100,000  francs.

"  To  general  Lefevre  Desnouettes,  100,000  francs.  To
general  Drouet,  100,000  francs.  To  general  Cambronne,
100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  general  Muton  Du-
vernais,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of  the  brave
Labedoyere,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children,  of  general
Girard,  killed  at  Ligny,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children
of  general  Chartrand,  100,000  francs.  To  the  children  of
the  virtuous  general  Travost,  100,000  francs.  To  general
Lallemand,  the  elder,  100,000  francs.  To  general  (Jlausel,
100,000  francs.  To  Costa  Bastilica,  also  100,000  francs.
To  the  baron  de  Menevalle,  100,000  francs.  To  Arnault,
author  of  Marius,  100,000  francs.

"To  colonel  Marbot,  100,000  francs  :  I  request  him  to
continue  to  write  for  the  defence  and  glory  of  the  French
armies,  and  to  confound  the  calumniators  and  the  apos-
tates. To  the  baron  Bignon,  100,000  francs  :  I  request
him  to  write  the  history  of  French  Diplomacy  from  1792
to  18 1 5.  To  Poggi  de  Talaro,  100,000  francs.  To  the
surgeon  Emmery,  100,000.

"  These  sums  shall  be  taken  from  the  six  millions
which  I  deposited  on  leaving  Paris  in  1815,  and  from  the
interest  at  the  rate  of  5  percent,  since  July,  1815;  the
account  of  which  shall  be  adjusted  with  the  bankers  by
the  counts  Montholon  and  Bertrand  and  by  Marchand.

"  These  legacies,  in  case  of  death,  shall  be  paid  to  the
widows  and  children,  and  in  their  default,  shall  revert  to
the  capital.  I  institute  the  counts  Montholon,  Ber-
trand, and  Marchand  my  testamentary  executors.  This
present  testament,  written  entirely  by  my  own  hand,  is
signed  and  sealed  with  my  arms.

"NAPOLEON.

"  24  April,  1821,  Longwood. "

The  following  are  part  of  the  eight  Codicils  to  the  pre-
ceding will  of  the  emperor : —

"On  the  liquidation  of  my  civil  list  of  Italy — such  as
money,  jewels,  plate,  linen,  coffers,  caskets  of  which  the
viceroy  is  the  depository,  and  which  belong  to  me,  I  dis-
pose of  two  millions,  which  I  leave  to  my  most  faithful
servants.  I  hope  that  without  their  showing  any  cause,
my  son  Eugene  Napoleon  will  discharge  them  faithfully.
He  cannot  forget  the  forty  millions  which  I  have  given
him  in  Italy,  or  by  the  right  (parage)  of  his  mother's
inheritance.

"From  the  funds  remitted  in  gold  to  the  empress
Maria  Louisa,  my  very  dear  and  well-beloved  spouse,  at
Orleans,  in  1814,  there  remain  due  to  me  two  millions,
which  I  dispose  of  by  the  present  codicil,  in  order  to
recompense  my  most  faithful  servants,  whom  I  beside
recommend  to  the  protection  of  my  dear  Maria  Louisa.
I  leave  200,000  francs  to  count  Montholon,  100,000  francs
of  which  he  shall  pay  into  the  chest  of  the  treasurer  (Las
Casas)  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  above,  to  be  employed
according  to  my  dispositions  in  legacies  of  conscience.

"  10,000  francs  to  the  sub-officer  Cantillon  (died  July,
1869),  who  has  undergone  a  prosecution,  being  accused
of  a  desire  to  assassinate  lord  Wellington,  of  which  he
has  been  declared  innocent.  Cantillon  had  as  much  right
to  assassinate  that  oligarch,  as  the  latter  had  to  send  me
to  perish  on  the  rock  of  St.  Helena,"  &c.  &c.  &c.

LETTER  TO  M.  LAFITTE.

"  Monsieur  Lafitte, — I  remitted  to  you  in  1815,  at
the  moment  of  my  departure  from  Paris,  a  sum  of  nearly
six  millions,  for  which  you  gave  me  a  double  receipt.  I
have  cancelled  one  of  these  receipts,  and  I  have  charged
comte.  de  Montholon  to  present  to  you  the  other  receipt,
in  order  that  you  may,  after  my  death,  deliver  to  him  the
said  sum  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent.,  from
the  1st  of  July,  1815,  deducting  the  payments  with  which
you  have  been  charged  in  virtue  of  my  order.  I  have
also  remitted  to  you  a  box  containing  my  medallion.  I
beg  you  will  deliver  it  to  comte  Montholon.

"  This  letter  having  no  other  object,  I  pray  God,  Mon-
sieur Lafitte,  that  He  may  have  you  in  His  holy  and
worthy  keeping.

"NAPOLEON.

"Longwood,  in  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  25  April,
1821."

The  following  Will  of  Napoleon  III.  was  published
in  the  Times,  30  April,  1873:  —


"April  24,  1865.
"This  is  my  will.  I  commend  my  son  and  my  wife  to
the  high  constituted  authorities  of  the  state  (aux  grands
corps  de  l'Etat),  to  the  people,  and  the  army.  The  em-
press Eugenie  possesses  all  the  qualities  requisite  for
conducting  the  regency  well,  and  my  son  displays  a  dis-
position and  judgment  which  will  render  him  worthy  of
his  high  destinies.  Let  him  never  forget  the  motto  of  the
head  of  our  family,  '  Everything  for  the  French  people.'
Let  him  fix  in  his  mind  the  writings  of  the  prisoner
of  St.  Helena;  let  him  study  the  emperor's  deeds  and
correspondence ;  finally,  let  him  remember,  when  circum-
stances so  permit,  that  the  cause  of  the  peoples  is  the
cause  of  France.  Power  is  a  heavy  burden,  because  one
cannot  always  do  all  the  good  one  could  wish,  and  be-
cause your  contemporaries  seldom  render  you  justice,  so
that,  in  order  to  fulfil  one's  mission,  one  must  have  faith
in,  and  consciousness  of,  one's  duty.  It  is  necessary  to
consider  that  from  heaven  on  high  those  whom  you  have
loved  regard  and  protect  you ;  it  is  the  soul  of  my  illus-
trious uncle  that  has  always  inspired  and  sustained  me.
The  like  will  apply  to  my  son,  for  he  will  always  be
worthy  of  his  name.  I  leave  to  the  empress  Eugenie  all
my  private  property.  It  is  my  desire  that  on  the  ma-
jority of  my  son  she  shall  inhabit  the  Elysee  and  Biar-
ritz. I  trust  that  my  memory  will  be  dear  to  her,  and
that  after  my  death  she  will  forget  the  griefs  I  may  have
caused  her.  With  regard  to  my  son,  let  him  keep  as  a
talisman  the  seal  I  used  to  wear  attached  to  my  watch,
and  which  comes  from  my  mother;  let  him  carefully
preserve  everything  that  comes  to  me  from  the  em-
peror, my  uncle,  and  let  him  be  convinced  that  my  heart
and  my  soul  remain  with  him.  I  make  no  mention  of  my
faithful  servants.  I  am  convinced  that  the  empress  and
my  son  will  never  abandon  them.  I  shall  die  in  the
Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman  religion,  which  my  son
will  always  honour  by  his  piety.  Done,  written,  and  signed
with  my  hand  at  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  the  24th  of
April,  1865.  (Signed)- "NAPOLEON."

The  Will  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  was  written
with  his  own  hand,  and  signed  26  Feb.  1879,  the  night
before  Jie  sailed  for  South  Africa  (where  he  was  killed
while  on  a  reconnoitring  party,  1  June,  1879).  He  states
that  he  dies  in  the  Catholic  religion  ;  expresses  his  love
for  his  country,  his  mother  the  empress,  and  his  friends  ;
and  his  gratitude  to  the  queen  and  royal  family  of  Eng-
land, and  to  the  English  people  for  their  cordial  hospi-
tality. He  constitutes  his  mother  sole  legatee  ;  bequeaths
legacies  and  memorials  to  prince  J.  N.  Murat,  M.  F.
Pietri,  baron  Corvisart,  M.  Rouher,  and  others  ;  and
assigns  to  Victor,  the  eldest  son  of  prince  Napoleon.
Jerome,  the  task  of  continuing  the  work  of  Napoleon  I.
and  Napoleon  III. Executors,  MM.  Rouher  and  Pietri.

WILLUGHBY  SOCIETY,  devoted  to  the
study  of  birds  ;  founded  in  1879  ;  was  named  after
Francis  Willughby  (1635-72),  who  wrote  Omi-
t/wloffia,  published  1676.

WILMINGTON  (N.  Carolina,  U.S.)  was  held
by  the  confederates  ;  resisted  severe  attacks  of  the
federals  in  Dec.  1864.  Fort  Fisher  was  taken  by
assault  on  15  Jan.,  and  Wilmington  was  evacuated
by  the  confederates,  22  Feb.  1865.

WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION,

succeeded  that  of  sir  ltobert  Walpole,  Feb.  1742.

Earl  of  Wilmington,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.

Lord  Hardwicke,  lord  chancellor.

Earl  of  Harrington,  president  of  the  council.

Earl  Gower,  lord  privy  seal.

Mr.  Sandys,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.

Lord  Carteret  and  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  secretaries  of
state.

Earl  of  Winchilsea,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.

Duke  of  Argyll,  commander  of  the  forces  and  master-general
of  the  ordnance.

Mr.  Henry  Pelham,  paymaster  of  the  forces.

With  several  of  the  household  lords.

[On  lord  Wilmington's  death,  26  July,  1743,  Mr.  Pel-
ham  became  prime  minister;  and  in  Nov.  1744,  he
formed  the  "  Broad  -  bottom  "  administration;  see
Pelham.  ]

WILMOT'S  ACT  (Sir  E.),  3  &  4  Vict.  c.  77
(1840)  relates  to  schools.


WIMBLEDON.


1069


WINDSOR.


WIMBLEDON,  ancient  village  8  miles  S.W.

of  London. See  Volunteers,  1860-89. Population,

1881,15,950;  1891,  25,758.

Percy  Malcolm  John,  Student  at  Blenheim  house,
died  suddenly  at  his  school  at  Wimbledon,  3  Dee.
1881  ;  his  brother-in-law  Dr.  George  Henry  Lam-
son  suspected  of  poisoning  him,  with  aconitine,
2  Dec.  ;  was  convicted  of  the  murder,  14  March,
confessed  his  guilt  27  April, and  was  executed

28  April,  1882

WINCHESTER  (Hampshire),  a  most  ancient
city,  whose  erection  may  reasonably  be  ascribed  to
the  Celtic  Britons,  with  the  fabulous  date  392  B.C.
It  was  made  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxon  king-
dom under  Cerdic,  about  520  ;  and  of  England  by
Egbert,  827;  it  became  the  residence  of  Alfred,
879-991.  In  the  reign  of  William  I.  London  be-
gan to  rival  it ;  and  the  destruction  of  religious
houses  by  Henry  VIII.  almost  ruined  it.  Several
kings  resided  at  Winchester,  and  many  parliaments
were  held  there.  Memorials  of  its  ancient  superi-
ority exist  in  the  national  denomination  of  measures
of  quantity,  as  Winchester  ell,  Winchester  bushel,
&c,  the  use  of  which  has  but  recently  been  replaced
by  imperial  measures.  The  cathedral  church  was
first  founded  and  endowed  by  Cynegils,  or  Kene-
gilsus,  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  West  Saxons.
Becoming  ruinous,  the  present  fabric  was  began
by  bishop  Walkelyn,  the  34th  bishop,  1073.  The
church  was  first  dedicated  to  St.  Amphibalus,  then
to  St.  Peter,  and  afterwards  to  St.  Swithin,  once
bishop  here.  Dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity  by  Henry
VIII.  St.  Birinus  was  the  first  bishop  of  the  West
Saxons,  his  seat  Dorchester,  636 ;  Wina,  in  660,
was  the  first  bishop  of  Winchester.  The  see  is
valued  in  the  king's  books  at  2793^.  4s.  2d.  annually.
Present  income,  6,500/.  Population,  1881,  17,780;
1891,  19,073.
Taken  by  the  Danes,  871-3;  ravaged  by  Sweyn .  1013

William  Rufus  buried  here 1100

Hospital  of  Holy  Cross,  founded  by  bishop  Henry

de  Blois 1132

"Almshouse  of  Noble  Poverty,"  engrafted  on  the

Holy  Cross  by  cardinal  Beaufort,  revived  in  1883.
Winchester  school,  founded  by  bishop  William  of

Wykeham  1382-7  ;  the  500th  anniversary  of  the

laying  of  the  first  stone  of  New  College,  26  March,

1387,  celebrated  26  March,  1887.
Winchester  several  times  taken  and  re-taken,  1641-3  ;

taken  by  Cromwell  and  the  castle  dismantled  .  1645
Charles  II.  began  a  palace  here  by  Wren  .  .  .  1683
Charitable  Society  of  Natives  founded . . .  1609

Winchester  Cross  restored 1866

New  Guildhall  opened  by  lord-chancellor  Selborne,

11  May,  1873
700th  anniversary  of  the  incorporation  of  the  city,

celebrated 3,  4  July,  1884

recent  bishops. (Prelates  of  the  Order  of
the  Garter.)

1781.  Brownlow  North,  died  12  July,  1820.

1820.  George  Pretyman  Tomline,  died  1827.

1827.  Charles  Richard  Sumner,  resigned  1869  ; died,  15
Aug.  1874.

T869.  Samuel  Wilberforce,  elected  Nov. ;  killed,  through
the  fall  of  his  horse,  19  July,  1873.

1873.  Edward  Harold  Browne,  translated  from  Ely,  Aug.
1873  ;  resigned,  1890  ;  died,  17  Dec.  1891.

1891.  Anthony Wilson Thorold, translated from Ro-
chester, Jan.

WINCHESTER  SCHOOL,  the  oldest  of  our
great  schools,  "  Seinte  Marie  College  of  Wyn-
chestre,"  the  charter  of  which  is  dated  Oct.  1382,
was  founded  in  1387  by  William  (Long)  of  Wyke-
ham, bishop  of  Winchester,  who  had  established  a
school  here  in  1373.  The  ancient  statutes  were
revised  in  1855 ;  and  still  further  altered  by  the
Public  Schools  act  of  1868.  In  Nov.-Dec.  i872there
was  much  published  correspondence  respecting  the
tunding — the  excessive  punishment  of  the  boys  by


boy  prefects.  In  May,  1892,  it  was  arranged  that
the  quincentenary  of  the  school  should  be  celebrated
in  July,  1893.

WINDING-UP  ACTS  (to  facilitate  the
winding  up  the  affairs  of  joint -stock  companies
which  are  unable  to  meet  their  engagements)  were
passed  in  1848,  1849,  1857,  and  1862.

WINDMILLS  are  of  great  antiquity,  and
stated  to  be  of  Roman  or  Saracen  invention.  They
are  said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into
Europe  by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  took  the
hint  from  what  they  had  seen  in  the  crusades.
Baker.  Windmills  were  first  known  in  Spain,
France,  and  Germany,  in  1299.  Anderson.  Wind
saw-mills  were  invented  by  a  Dutchman,  in  1633,
when  one  was  erected  near  the  Strand,  in  London.

WINDOWS.  There  were  glass  windows  in
Pompeii,  a.d.  79,  as  is  evident  from  its  ruins.  It
is  certain  that  windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed
so  early  as  the  3rd  century,  if  not  before,  though
the  fashion  was  not  introduced  until  it  was  done  by
Benedict  Biscop,  about  674.  Windows  of  glass
were  used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  was  im-
ported 1177.  Anderson.  In  England,  in  1851,
about  6000  houses  had  fifty  windows  and  upwards  in
each ;  about  275,000  had  ten  windows  and  up-
wards ;  and  725,000  had  seven  windows,  or  less
than  seven.
Window-tax  first  enacted  in  order  to  defray  the

expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  ol  silver  1695
The  tax  increased,  5  Feb. 1746-7; again  in  1778;

and  again  on  the  commutation-tax  for  tea  1  Oct.  1784
The  tax  again  increased  in .  1797,  1802,  and  1808

Reduced 1823

The  revenue derived from  windows  was  in 1840

about  a  million  and  a  quarter  sterling; and  in

1850  (to  April  5),  1,832,6842.
The  tax  repealed  by  act  14  &;  15  Vict.  c.  36  (which

act  imposed  a  duty  upon  inhabited  houses  in  lieu

thereof) 24  July,  1851

WINDSOR  (Berkshire).  The  Castle,  a  resi-
dence of  the  British  sovereigns,  begun  by  William
the  Conqueror,  and  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  about
1 1 10.  Edward  III.,  who  was  born  here,  13  Nov.
1312,  caused  the  old  building,  with  the  exception  of
three  towers  at  the  west  end,  to  be  taken  down,  and
re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  direction  of
William  of  Wykeham,  1356,  and  built  St.  George's
chapel.  He  assessed  every  county  in  England  to
send  him  workmen.  James  I.  of  Scotland  was  im-
prisoned here,  1406-23.  Several  additions  were
made  by  Henry  VIII.  Elizabeth  made  the  grand
north  terrace ;  and  Charles  II.  repaired  and  beauti-
fied it,  1676-80.  Population,  New  Windsor,  1881,
12,273;  1891,  12,327.

The  chapel  repaired  and  opened  .  .  .  Oct.  1790
The  castle  repaired  and  enlarged,  1824-8 ; George

IV  took  possession 8  Dec. 1828

Royal  stables  built 1839

A  serious  fire  in  the  prince  of  Wales's  tower,  owing

to  some  defect  in  the  heating  apparatus,

19  March, 1S53
Our  sovereigns  have  here  entertained  many  royal

personages,  as  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the

French,  in April,  1855

Here  died  the  prince  consort .  -14  Dec. 1861

The  Albert  memorial  chapel,  on  the  site  of  Wolsey

chapel,  was  opened  .  .  .  .30  Nov.  1875
Windsor  Forest,  situated  to  the  south  and  west  of

the  town  of  Windsor,  was  formerly  120  miles  in

circumference;  in  1607,  it  was  77^  miles  round,

but  it  has  since  been  reduced  in  its  bounds  to

about  56  miles. It  was  surveyed  in  1789,  and  found

to  contain  59,600  acres.
Virginia  Water  and  the  plantations  about  it  were

taken  out  of  the  forest.
The  marshes  were  drained  and  the  trees  planted  for

William,  duke  of  Cumberland,  about  1746;  and


WINDSOR  KNIGHTS.


1070


WISSEMBOURG.


much  was  done  by  George  IV. ,  who  often  resided
at  the  lodge.

On  the  south  side  is  Windsor  Great  Park ;  it  con-
tains about  3800  acres.

The  Little  Park,  on  the  north  and  east  sides  of  the
castle,  contains  about  500  acres.  The  gardens  are
elegant,  and  have  been  considerably  improved  by
the  addition  of  the  house  and  gardens  of  the  duke
of  St.  Albans,  purchased  by  the  crown.

Cumberland  Lodge  partially  destroyed  by  fire  ;  pic-
tures burnt 14  Nov.

Albert  Institute,  Windsor,  opened  by  the  prince  of
Wales 10  Jan.

About  52,000  volunteers  reviewed  by  the queen,

9  July,

Jubilee  fetes  and  illuminations  ;  the  queen  uncovers
a  statue  of  herself  near  the  castle  ;  torchlight
procession  of  the  Eton  boys  . . 22  June,

The  queen  being  here  her  70th  birthday  is  kept  with
great  enthusiasm .... 24  May,

Boyal  Agricultural  Society  to  meet  here  ;  the  queen
president

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  held  its  jubilee
show,  the  greatest  one  of  the  kind  in  the  century
in  Windsor  Great  Park . .  24-29  June,

The  prince  of  Wales  acted  on  behalf  of  the  queen,
who  was  president  for  the  year  ;  her  majesty
visited  the  show . . . . 27,  28  June,

The  weather  was  very  fine  during  the  week,  and  the
show  was  reported  to  be  a  great  success.

Mr.  Jacob  Wilson,  the  hon.  director  of  the  show,

knighted 30  June,

[A  fund  was  started  at  the  Mansion  House,
London,  in  aid  of  the  expenses  24  June;  5,516?.
had  been  received  up  to  1  Aug.,  1889.]

The  royal  pavilion  with  its  decorations  was  pre-
sented to  the  queen  by  Mr.  Charlton  Humphreys
and  Messrs.  Shoolbred  and  accepted  about  29  June,

The  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  prince  Consort
(see  under  Jubilee)  in  the  great  park  uncovered
by  the  queen 12  May,

Sir  A.  Sullivan's  opera,  "The  Gondoliers,"  per-
formed before  the  queen  and  court,  by  Mr.  R.
D'Oyly  Carte's  Savoy  company . 6  March,

Visit  of  the  German  emperor  and  empress 4  July,

Silver  wedding  of  the  prince  and  princess  Christian,
5  July  ;  marriage  of  their  daughter,  princess
Louise,  to  prince  Aribert  of  Anhalt,  6  July ;
state  banquet  in  St.  George's  hall . 7  July,

Military  funeral  of  the  duke  of  Clarence  and  Avon-
dale 20  Jan.

The  marquis  of  Lome  appointed  constable  of
Windsor  castle 22  Jan. ,,

WINDSOR  KNIGHTS, see  Poor  Knights.

WINDWARD  ISLES  (West  Indies)-Bar-
■  badoes,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Trinidad,  Tobago,  and
St.  Lucia,  {which  see).  Governor,  Eawson  W.
Rawson,  1868 ;  J.  Pope  Hennessy,  Feb.  1875  ;  capt.
Strahan,  Nov.  1876  ;  sir  Henrv  Bulwer,  April,  1880 ;
William  Robinson,  1881  ;  Walter  J.  Sendall,  May,
1885  ;  hon.  sir  Walter  Hely  Hutchinson,  Sept.  1889.

WINE.  "  Noah  planted  a  vineyard,  and  drank
of  the  -wine,"  2347  b.c.  {Gen.,  ix.  20);  see  Vine.
Ching-Noung,  emperor  of  China,  is  said  to  have
made  rice  wine,  1998  B.C.  Christ  changed  water
into  wine  at  the  marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  a.d.
30. John  ii.  3-10.

Wine  sold  in  England  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial
in  1300,  and  so  continued  for  some  time  after,
although  there  is  mention  of  "  wine  for  the  king"
so  early  as  John.
The  price  regulated  by  statute,  5  Richard  II. . . 1381
The  price  was  twelve  shillings  the  pipe  in .  1400

A  hundred  and  fifty  butts  and  pipes  condemned,
for  being  adulterated,  to  be  staved  and  emptied
into  the  channels  of  the  streets,  by  Rainwell
mayor  of  London. Stoic's  Chron.  '  I427

An  act  for  licensing sellers of  wine  in  England

_  passed 25  April,  1661

By  the  Methuen  treaty,  Portuguese  wines  were
highly  favoured,  and  French  wines  discouraged  by

heavy  duties " I?03

Wine  duties  to  be  2s.  gd.  per  gallon  on  Cape  wine,
and  5s.  6<?.  on  all  other  wines 18  31


1892


Gallons.

1800  .

■ 3.3°7>46o

1815

.  .  4,306,528

1830  .

•  6,879,558

1839

.  .  9,909,056

184s  .

•  8,469,776

1850

•  •  9.3°4>3i2

1854  .

.  10,875,855

1857 ■

■  •  10,336,485

1859  .

•  8,195,513

1861

•  •  11,052,436

1864  .

•  15,451.593

1868

.  .  16,953,429

1869  .

•  17,184,330

1870

•  ■  17,774,782

1871  .

.  18,224,900

In  year  ending  31  March,  1856,  the  customs  duties
on  wines  produced  1,856, 120?.;  in  1858,  1,733,729?.;
1867,1,391,192?.;  1876,1,755,710?.;  1884,1,268,842?.;
1888,  1,085,046?.;  1890,  1,302,160?.;  1891,1, 318, 006Z.

By  the  French  treaty  of  commerce,  i860,  the  duty
on  wines  was  reduced  from  5s.  gd.  to  2s.  6d.  and
is.  according  to  the  alcoholic  strength . Jan.  i860

Licences  granted  to  refreshment  houses  by  an  aet
passed  in „

The  Oporto  Wine  Company  (a  monopoly),  estab-
lished in  1756,  and  abolished 1865

Commission  on  the  wine  duties  appointed  by  the
commons April,  1879

The  ancient  duties  on  wine  paid  to  the  corporation
on  its  entering  the  port  of  London  4s.  g|d.  per

. tun  of  252  gallons  amounted  to  8,488?.  net,  in  1885

The  abolition  of  these  dues  was  discussed  in  1889  ;
the  city  dues  on  coal  were  abolished  by  parliament

8  July,  1889

Additional  import  duties  on  wine  imposed  by
customs 1888

The  ad  valorem  duty  of  2s.  6d.  and  is.  per  gallon  on
sparkling  wines,  altered  to  2s.  all  round  14  April,  1892:

WINE  IMPOETED  INTO  UNITED  KINGDOM.

Gallons.

1875  . . . 18,429,305

1876  . . .  19,950,723

1879  . . .  15,162,857

1880  . . .  17,385,496-

1881  . .  .  16,297,033

1882  . . .  15,715,813

1883  .  . .  .  15,559,795

1884  . . .  15,106,271

1885  . .  .  14,629,739

1886  . . .  14,552,864

1887  . .  .  15,383,641

1888  . . .  14,745,161

1889  . .  .  15,900,749

1890  . . .  16,194,107

WINNIPEG,  capital  of  the  province  of  Mani-
toba, Canada,  has  recently  risen  to  great  impor-
tance. The  population,  which  was  215  in  1870,
had  risen  to  20,238  in  1891,  25,642.  A  period
of  depression  from  1882  to  1884  has  been  followed
by  great  prosperity,  especially  since  the  suppression
of  Riel's  rebellion  in  1885. See  Canada.

WINTER.  Recent  mild  winters,  1862,  1868,
1873,  1876,  1881. See  Frosts.

WINTER  ASSIZES  ACT,  39-4°  Vict.  c.  57,
(11  Aug.  1876),  gives  power,  by  order  in  council,
to  unite  counties  for  the  purpose  of.  winter  assizes,
for  more  speedy  trials  of  prisoners.

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is
ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg,  about  1410.
Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nurem-
berg in  1563.  The  first  wire-mill  in  England  was
erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663. Mortimer.

WIRTEMBERG,  see  Wiirtemberg.

WISCONSIN,  a  N.W.  state  of  N.  America,
was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1836;  and  received
into  the  union,  29  May,  1848.  Population  in  1880,
1,315,497  ; 1890,  1,686,880. Capital,  Madison.

WISSEMBOURG,  or  Weissenbitrg,  N.E.
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Rhine,
situate  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Lauter,  the
boundaiy  of  France  and  the  Palatinate.  It  was-
formerly  an  imperial  city  of  Alsace,  and  was  seized
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1673,  and  annexed  to  France  by
the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  1697.  The  "lines"  of  Wis-
sembourg,  erected  by  Villars  1705,  were  taken  by
the  Austrians  and  retaken  by  the  French,  1793,
after  Hoche's  victory  at  Geisberg.  On  4  Aug.
1870,  the  crown  -  prince  of  Prussia  crossed  the
Lauter  and  gained  a  brilliant  but  bloody  victory
over  the  French  (a  part  of  MacMahon's  division),
storming  the  lines,  and  the  Geisberg. General  Abel


WITCHCRAFT.


1071


WIVES.


Douay  was  mortally  wounded,  and  about  800  pri-
soners were  made.  The  killed  and  wounded  on
both  sides  appear  to  have  been  nearly  equal.  The
German  army,  composed  of  Prussians,  Bavarians,
and  Wiirtembergers,  were,  it  is  said,  about  40,000,
against  about  10, OOO  French,  who  fought  with  des-
perate bravery.

WITCHCRAFT.  The  Jewish  law  {Exodus
xxii.  18),  1491  B.C.,  decreed,  "  Thou  shalt  not
sutler  a  witch  to  live."  Saul,  after  banishing  or
condemning  witchcraft,  consulted  the  witch  of
Endor,  1 056  B.C.  (1  Sam.  xxviii.)  Reginald  Scots'
"  Discoverie  of  Witchcraft"  (against  its  existence)
published  1584.  Reprinted,  1886.  Bishop  Hutch-
inson's historical  "Essay  on  Witchcraft"  was  pub-
lished in  1 718.  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  issued  a  bull
against  witchcraft  in  1484.  Thousands  of  innocent
persons  were  burnt,  and  others  killed  by  the  tests
applied.

Many  Templars  burnt  at  Paris  for  witchcraft,  <fcc.,  1309.
Joan  of  Arc  burnt  at  Rouen  as  a  witch,  30  May,  1431.
About  five  hundred  witches  burnt  in  Geneva,  in  three

months,  15 15.
Many  burnt  in  the  diocese  of  Como  in  a  year,  about

1524-

A  great  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when  one  sorcerer

confessed  to  having  1200  associates.
Nine  hundred  burnt  in  Lorraine,  1580-1595.
One  hundred  and  fifty-seven  burnt  at  Wurtzburg,  old

and  young,  learned  and  ignorant,  between  1627  and  1629.
Grandier,  the  parish  priest  at  Loudon,  burnt  on  a  charge

of  having  bewitched  a  whole  convent  of  nuns,  1634.
In  Bretague,  twenty  poor  women  put  to  death  as  witches,

1654.
Disturbances  commenced on charges  of  witchcraft  in

America,  at  Massachusetts,  1648-9  ;  and  persecutions

raged  dreadfully  in  Pennsylvania  in  1683.
At  Salem,  in  New  England,  nineteen  persons  hanged  (by

the  Puritans)  for  witchcraft,  eight  more  condemned;

fifty  confessed  themselves  to  be  witches  and  were

pardoned,  1692.
Maria  Renata  burnt  at  Wurtzburg  in  1749.
At Kalisk, in  Poland,  nine  old  women  charged  with

having  bewitched  and  rendered  unfruitful  the  lands

belonging  to  that  palatinate,  were  burnt  17  Jan.  1775.
Five  women  condemned  to  death  by  the  Brahmins,  at

Patna,  for  sorcery,  and  executed,  15  Dec.  1802.

WITCHCRAFT  IN  ENGLAND.

A  statute  enacted  declaring  all  witchcraft  and  sor-
cery to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy.  33  Hen.
VIII.  1541. Again,  5  Eliz.  1562,  and  1  James  I.  1603.

The  73rd  canon  of  the  church  prohibits  the  clergy  from
casting  out  devils,  1603.

Barrington  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for  witchcraft
in  England  in  200  years  at  30,000.

Matthew  Hopkins,  the  "  witch-finder,"  causes  the  judicial
murder  of  about  100  persons  in  Essex,  Norfolk,  and
Suffolk,  1645-7.

Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft  in
1664.

Seventeen  or  eighteen  persons  burnt  at  St.  Osyths,  in
Essex,  about  1676.

Two  pretended  witches  were  executed  at  Northampton
in  1705,  and  five  others  seven  years  afterwards.

In  1716,  Mrs.  Hicks,  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine,  were
hanged  at  Huntingdon.

Northamptonshire  and  Huntingdon  preserved  the  super-
stition about  witchcraft  later  than  other  counties.

In  Scotland,  thousands  of  persons  were  burnt  in  the
period  of  about  a  hundred  years.  Among  the  victims
were  persons  of  the  highest  rank,  while  all  orders  in
the  state  concurred.  James  I.  even  caused  a  whole
assize  to  be  prosecuted  for  an  acquittal.  The  king
published  his  Dwmonologie  in  Edinburgh,  1597.  The
last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  at Dornoch  in  1722.

The  burs  against  witchcraft  had  lain  dormant  for  many
years,  when  an  ignorant  person  attempting  to  revive
them  (by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor  old  woman  in
Surrey  for  the  practice  of  'witchcraft),  they  were  repealed,
10  Geo.  II.  1736.

Credulity  in  witchcraft  still  abounds  in  the  conntn  dis-
tricts of  England.  On  4  Sept.  1863,  a  poor  old  para-
lysed Frenchman  died  in  consequence  of  having  been


ducked  as  a  wizard  at  Castle  Hedingham,  Essex,  and!
similar  cases  have  since  occurred.
Ann  Turner,  old  ;  killed  as  a  witch  by  a  half-insane  inani
at  Long  Compton,  Warwickshire,  17  Sept.  1875.

WITENA-MOT  or  Witena-gemot,  the-
assembling  of  the  wise  men,  the  great  council  of  the-
Anglo-Saxons.  A  witena-mot  was  called  in  "Win-
chester by  Egbert,  800,  and  in  London,  833,  to>
consult  on  the  proper  means  to  repel  the  Danes  -
see  Parliament.

WITEPSK  (in  Russia),  where  a  battle  was.
fought  between  the  French  under  marshal  Victor,
duke  of  Belluno,  and  the  Russians  commanded  by
general  Wittgenstein.  The  French  were  defeated
after  a  desperate  engagement,  with  the  loss  of  about
3000  men  on  both  sides,  14  Nov.  1812.

WITNESSES.  Two  or  more  witnesses  were-
required  by  the  law  of  Moses,  145 1  B.C.  (Deut..
xvii.  6),  and  by  the  early  Christian  Church  in  cases-
of  discipline  (2  Cor.  xiii.  1),  a.d.  60.  The  evidence
of  two  witnesses  required  to  attaint  for  high  treason,
25  Edw.  III.  1352.  In  civil  actions  between  party
and  party,  if  a  man  be  subpoenaed  as  a  witness  on  a
trial,  he  must  appear  in  court  on  pain  of  100^.  to  be
forfeited  to  the  long,  and  10/.,  together  with  the
damages  equivalent  to  the  loss  sustained  by  the
want  of  his  evidence  to  the  party  aggrieved.  Lord
Ellenborough  ruled  that  no  witness  is  obliged  to-
answer  questions  which  may  tend  to  degrade  him-
self, 10  Dec.  1802.  New  act  relating  to  the  exam-
ination of  witnesses  passed  13  Geo.  III.  1773,
Act  to  enable  coui-ts  of  law  to  order  the  examination
of  witnesses  upon  interrogations  and  otherwise,
I  Will.  IV.  30  March,  1831.  The  Witnesses  Protec-
tion act  (see  under  Parliament,  April,  1892),  passed
28  June,  1892.

WITU,  or  Titu. See  Zanzibar,  1890.

WIVES,  see  Marriage. By  the  Divorce ancif
Matrimonial  Causes  Act,  passed  in  1857,  the  con-
dition of  married  women  has  been  much  benefited ..
When  ill-used  they  can  obtain  a  divorce  or  judicial
separation ; and while in  the latter  state any
property  they  may  acquire  is  secured  to  them  per-
sonally, as  if  unmarried. By  another  act  passed  in
1857,  they  are  enabled  to  dispose  of  reversionary
interests  in  personal  property  or  estates. An  act
to  amend  the  law  relating  to  the  property  of  married
women  was  passed  9  Aug.  1870. By  it  the  separate-
earnings  of  a  wife  were  secured  to  her  own  use,  as-
well  as  personal  and  freehold  property  bequeathed
to  her. She  may  maintain  an  action  at  law,  and
acquires  other  rights. The  husband  is  declared  not
liable for  debts  contracted by  his wife prior  to>
marriage,  and  she  may  be  sued  for  them. This  act
was  amended  in  1874. Husband  and  wife  may  be
jointly  sued  for  her  debts  before  marriage. By  the
Matrimonial  Causes  Act, 1878, a  magistrate can
grant  judicial  separation,  with  maintenance,  to  a
wife  suffering  from  her  husband's  ill-usage.
House  of  lords  decide  that  the  husband  is  not  re-
sponsible tor  his  wile's  debts  if  lie  allofl  sufficient
for  dress,  &c. Debenham  v.  Mellon . 27  Nov.  1880
Married Women's Property Act,  45  &  46  Vict,
c.  75,  passed  18  Aug.  1882, making  thcii powers
almost  equal  to  those  of  single  women,  and  in-
creasing their  responsibilities  in  regard  to  debt,

<fec,  came  into  effect 1  Jan.  1885

Provision  made  for  deserted  wives  made  by  Act

passed  in 1886

Olitheroe  ease.— Miss  Emily  Hall  (born  i860)  was
married  to  Mr.  E.  Haughton  Jackson  at  Black-
burn, 5  Nov.  1887.  They  never  lived  together;
she  returned  to  her  friends,  and  he  soon  after
went  to  New  Zealand,  l le  rei  timed  to  England,
17  July,  18S8. After  some  correspondence  ami


WIVES' POISON.


1072


WOMEN.


one  interview  (16  Jan.  1889)  she  steadily  refused
to  live  with  him.  Some  litigation  ensued,  and  a
decree  against  her  was  obtained,  30  July,  1889.
On  8  March,  1891,  Mr.  Jackson  and  others  seized
her  when  coming  from  church  at  Clitheroe,  and
■carried  her  off  to  his  house  at  Blackburn,  where
she  was  closely  confined  in  charge  of  a  nurse.
By  means  of  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  she  was
brought  before  the  court  of  appeal,  who  decided
that  a  husband  has  no  legal  power  to  detain  his
-wife  against  her  will,  19  March.  Mrs.  Jackson
then  returned  to  her  friends.

WIVES'  POISON  or  Water  Tofana,  see


WIZAKD: Wizard  of  the  North,  a

name  given  to  sir  "Walter  Scott,  ou  account  of  his
romances ; also to  Mr. Anderson, the conjurer,
who  died  3  Feb.  1874,  see  Covent  Garden.
Robert  -  Houdin's Confidences cl'un Prestidigitateur

published  in  1859.
Herr  Hermann,  an eminent  rich  beneficent  conjurer

or  prestidigitateur,  died  at  Carlsbad  aged  71,  June,

1887. See  Automaton  Figures.
The  feats  of  Maskelyne  and  Cooke  in  recent  years  are

well  known.

WOERTH  STJR  Satjer,  a  town  in  the  depai  t-
snent  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  N.E.  France.  After
storming  Wissenibourg  (which  see)  on  4  Aug.  1870,
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia,  with  the  3rd  army
(about  150,000)  marched  rapidly  forward  and
surprised  part  of  the  French  army  under  Marshal
MacMahon,  including  the  corps  of  Canrobert  and
part  of  that  of  Failly  (about  47,000),  and  defeated  it
in  a  long,  desperate,  and  sanguinary  engagement
near  this  place  6  Aug.  The  battle  lasted  from  9  a.m.
till  4  p.m.  The  chief  struggles  occurred  in  the
country  round  Keichshoffen  and  in  the  village  of
Froesehweiller ;  the  French  are  said  to  have  charged
the  German  line  eleven  times,  each  time  breaking
it,  but  always  finding  a  fresh  mass  behind.  The
ridge  on  which  Woerth  stands  was  not  captured
until  the  French  were  taken  in  flank  by  the
Bavarians  and  Wihtembergers.  Nearly  all  Mac-
Mahon's  staff  were  killed,  and  the  marshal  himself,
unhorsed,  fell  fainting  into  a  ditch,  from  which  he
was  rescued  by  a  soldier.  He  then,  on  foot,  directed
the  retreat  towards  Saverne,  to  cover  the  passes  of
the  Vosges.  The  victory  is  attributed  to  the  very
great  numerical  superiority  of  the  Germans  as  well
as  to  their  excellent  strategy.  The  French  loss  has
been  estimated  at  5000  killed  and  wounded,  and
5000  prisoners,  2  eagles,  6  mitrailleuses,  35  can-
non, and  much  baggage.  The  Germans  are  stated
to  have  had  above  8000  men  put  hors  de  combat.
It  was  admitted  that  MacMahon  had  acted  as  an
able  and  brave  commander,

WOLVERHAMPTON  (Staffordshire),  an  old
town  formerly  named  Hamton ;  owes  its  present
name  to  the  foundation  of  a  college  here  by
Wulfrana,  sister  of  king  Edgar,  and  widow  of
Aldhelm,  duke  of  Northampton,  996.  The  queen
was  present  at  the  inauguration  of  the  prince  con-
sort's statue  here,  30  Nov.  1866,  and  the  church
congress  was  opened  here  1  Oct.  1867.  Wolver-
hampton is  eminent  for  its  manufactures  in  metal.
Statue  of  hon.  C.  P.  Villiers  (its  M.P.,  1835-92)
was  uncovered,  6  June,  1879;  he  voted  personally,
when  aged  90,  for  confidence  in  the  Salisbury
ministry,  n  Aug.  1892.  Population,  1881,  IK, 766:
1891,82,680.
Wolverhampton  returns  three  M.P.'s  by  act  passed  25

June,  1885.

WOLVES  were  once  very  numerous  in  England.
Their  heads  were  demanded  as  a  tribute,  particu-
larly 300  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar,  961,
by  which  step  they  were  falsely  said  to  be  totally


destroyed.  Carte.  Edward  I.  issued  his  mandate
for  the  destruction  of  wolves  in  several  counties  of
England,  1289.  Ireland  was  infested  by  wolves  for
many  centuries  after  their  extirpation  in  England;
for  there  are  accounts  of  some  being  found  there  so
late  as  1710,  when  the  last  presentment  for  killing
wolves  was  made  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Wolves
still  infest  France,  in  which  kingdom  8384  wolves
and  cubs  were  killed  in  1828-9.  They  were  trouble-
some in  the  Vosges,  Oct.  1875.  701  wolves  killed
in  France  in  1887  ;  404  killed  in  1891.

WOMEN. The  employment  of  women  is  regu-
lated by  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Regulation  Acts

(which  see) .

(See  Degrees,  Female  Medical  School,  Jubilee,  Marriage,
and  Wives.)

Mary  Wollstonecraft's  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of
Women,  published 1791

Great  advances  in  the  legal  rights,  position,  and
employment  of  women 1837-89

Women's  hospitals  founded  :  Soho ....  1842

J.  S.  Mill's  Subjection  of  Women,  published  . .  1869

Female  medical  society  and  obstetrical  college
founded about  1864

Female  suffrage  for  members  of  parliament  was  pro-
posed by  J.  S.  Mill,  and  negatived  by  196  against
73 20  May,  1867

Lily  Maxwell,  a  shopkeeper  at  Manchester,  voted
for  Jacob  Bright 26  Nov. ,,

First  annual  meeting  of  the  Manchester  national
society  for  women's  suffrage  . . 30  Oct.  1868

Female  suffrage  decided  to  be  illegal,  by  the  court
of  common  pleas .... 7,  g  Nov. ,,

Women's  Club  and  Institute,  Newman-street,
London,  W.  opened ....  Jan.  1869

Women's  Disabilities  removal  bill  rejected  by  the
commons  (220  to  94)  12  May,  1870 ;  (222-143)  *
May,  1872  ;  (223-155)  30  April,  1873  ;  withdrawn,
1874-;  (187-152)  7  April,  1875  ;  (239-152)  26  April,
1876;  hustled  out,  6  June,  1877;  (219-140)
19  June,  1878  ;  (217-103)  7  March,  1879  ;  (130-114)

6  July,  1883

Miss  Garrett  and  Miss  Davies  elected  members  of
the  metropolitan  school-board . . 29  Nov.  1873

Medical  school  for  women  opened  (see  Physic)  Oct.  1874

Working  womens'  college  (see  under  Working-men),

12  Oct. ,,

Women's  Protective  and  Provident  League  founded
by  Mrs.  Paterson  and  others,  Great  Queen  Street,
(out  of  this  has  arisen  several  independent  trades
unions,  book-binders,  upholsterers,  &c.) . . ,,

Miss  Merington  elected  guardian  of  the  poor  for
Kensington  (the  first  case  in  London) . April,  1876

Women's  Whisky  War,  see  United  States,  1874.

Women  permitted  to  be  registered  under  "  Medical
Act,"  by  39  &  40  Vict.  c.  41 . . .11  Aug. ,,

Women's  Education  Union,  president,  the  princess
Louise,  founded  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1871,
to  promote  the  better  education  of  women  ;  said
to  be  languishing  in  .... Oct.  1877

University  of  London :  senate  vote  for  granting
degrees  to  women,  28  Feb.  :  convocation  vote
against  it,  8  May,  and  July  1877  ;  vote  for  a  sup-
plemental charter  granting  it  (242-132),  15  Jan.  ;
charter  granted 28  March,  1878

Great  meeting  for  female  suffrage  ;  St.  James's  Hall,

6  May,  1880

Women  excluded  from  government  employment
in  the  United  Staces,  by  order .  about  27  Dec.  1881

Women  to  be  admitted  to  examinations  for  honours
at  Oxford ;  by  statute . . . .29  April,  1884

Female  householders'  suffrage  (widows  and  spins-
ters), proposed  by  Mr.  Woodall  in  the  commons,
10  June  ;  negatived  (271-135)  12-13  June;  in  con-
sequence Miss  H.  M tiller  refuses  to  pay  queen's
taxes,  and  her  goods  are  distrained  .  2  July, „

Women's  suffrage  bill ;  lords  read  1st  time,  3  July  ;
negatived  10  July,  1884 ;  again  28  July,  1885  ;
read  second  time  commons  18-19  Feb.  ;  blocked
March  ;  negatived  by  the  lords  16  March,  1886  ;
again  13  Sept.  1887;  13  April,  1888  ;  and  18  March,
1889  ;  again 1891  and  1892

Female  suffrage  granted  in  Madras  presidency

announced  28  Sept.  1885


WONDEES.


1073


WOOL-COMBERS.


Enactments  for  the  protection  of  women  and  girls
formed  part  of  the  Criminal  Law  Amendment
Act  passed I4  Aug.  1885

Women's  Suffrage  Society  annual  meeting July,  1886

Many  women's  liberal  associations  (Unionist  and
Gladstonian)  formed 1886-89

Miss  A.  P  Ramsay  and  Miss  B.  M.  Hervey,  obtain
high  university  honours  (see  Cambridge),  18  June,
1887 ;  and  Miss  G.  P.  Fawcett . . 7  June,  1890

International  "council  of  women,"  advocating
women's  rights  met  at  Washington,  U.S.  25
March, 1888  ; a  similar  congress met  at  Paris

25  June,  1889

Women  s  hospital  with  female  practitioners  begun
n  Marylebone  1871  ;  the  new  building  in  Euston
Road  founded  by  the  princess  of  Wales 7  May, ,,

Mrs.  Scharlieb  made  M.D. . . . 16  May, ,,

Two  ladies  elected  for  the  London  County  Council ;
this  declared  illegal,  a  bill  to  legalise  it  rejected
by  the  lords,  20  May,  1889,  and  9  June,  1890  ;  by
the  commons 26  May,  1891

Women's  trades  association,  proposed  by  the  bishop
of  Bedford  and  others  at  a  meeting  held  in  the
Assembly-hall  in  the  Mile-End-road  .  8  Oct.  1889

Another  meeting  at  Piccadilly  ... 10  Feb. 1890

Women  in  New  Zealand  authorized  to  serve  in
parliament  and  vote  at  elections  ;  bill  passed,  4
Sept.  ;  rejected  by  the  legislative  council,

10  Sept.  1891

Slander  of  Women  Act  passed . . 5  Aug. ,,

Discrimination  of  sex  in  elections  abolished  by  act
passed  in  New  York  .... 15  April,  1892

Sir  Albert  Rollit's  bill  for  the  extension  of  the  par-
liamentary franchise  to  women,  rejected  by  the
commons  (175 — 152)  .... 27  April, „

WONDEES  of  the  World,  i.  The  pyra-
mids of  Egypt.  2.  The  mausoleum  or  tomb  built  for
Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  by  Artemisia,  his  queen.
3.  The  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus.  4.  The  walls
and  hanging  gardens  of  the  city  of  Babylon.  5.
The  vast  brazen  image  of  the  suri  at  Rhodes,  called
the  Colossus.  6.  The  ivory  and  gold  statue  of
Jupiter  Olympus.  7.  The  pharos  or  watch-tower,
built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt;
see  separate  articles.

WOOD-CUTS,  see  Engraving  on  Wood.

WOODITE,  a  combination  of  india-rubber,
cork,  and  other  substances  for  the  coating  of  life-
boats and  other  vessels  to  defend  hem  against
collision  and  attacks  of  guns,  &c;  invented  by
Mrs.  A.  M.  "Wood,  recommended  by  sir  E.  J.  Reed,
July,  1886.

WOODS,  FORESTS,  &c,  see  Forests.  The
board  of  woods,  forests,  and  land  revenues  was  con-
stituted in  1810.  The  oversight  of  works  and
public  buildings  was  added  to  its  duties  in  1832,  but
transferred  to  a  separate  board  of  commissioners  in
185 1.  In  1874  the  annual  revenue  of  the  crown
woods  and  forests  was  487,695/. ;  1882-3,  380,000/. ,
1886,  492,624/.

WOOD'S  HALF-PENCE,  for  circulation  in
Ireland  and  America,  were  coined  by  virtue  of  a
patent,  passed  1722.  Against  them,  Dr.  Jonathan
Swift,  by  his  letters  signed  M.  B.  Drapier  pub-
ished  about  1723,  raised  such  a  spirit  of  opposition
that  the  patent  was  withdrawn.  Wood  received  a
compensation,  but  was  virtually  banished  the  king-
dom. The  half-pence  were  assayed  in  England  by
sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  proved  to  be  genuine,  in  1724

WOODHALL  SPA,  Lincolnshire,  celebrated
for  mineral  waters,  especially  containing  iodine.
On  22  May,  1888,  Mr.  E.  Stanhope,  M.P.,  sir
Richard  Webster,  M.P.,  and  others,  inspected  the
pump-room,  baths,  hotel,  and  other  buddings  re-
cently erected  to  promote  the  use  of  the  waters  by
all  classes  of  invalids.  A  hospital  was  opened  29
May,  1890.


WOOD  PAVEMENT  was  laid  down  a
Whitehall  in  1839;  and  in  Oxford-street,  the
Strand,  and  other  streets.  The  principal  part  was
soon  taken  up.  In  Nov.  1872,  the  improved  wood
pavement  company  put  forth  a  prospectus  ;  and
in  May,  1876,  wood  had  been  largely  laid  down,
and  was  said  to  be  the  best  pavement  in  London.

Oxford-street  was  paved  by  Henson's  street  paving
company,  with  a  compound  of  wood,  asphalt,  felt,  and
Portland  cement  in  1876  ;  with  wood,  1878.  Bond-street
and  many  other  streets  paved  with  wood,  1879-81.

WOODSTOCK  (Oxfordshire).  In  Wocd-
stock,  now  Blenheim-park,  originally  stood  a
royal  palace,  in  which  king  Ethelred  held  a  par-
liament, and  Alfred  the  Great  translated  Boetkius
de  Consolatione  Philosophies,  888.  Henry  I.  beau-
tified the  palace;  and  here  resided  Ilosamond,
mistress  of  Henry  II.  1 154.  In  it  were  born
Edmund,  second  son  of  Edward  I.,  1301,  and
Edward,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III.,  1330  ;  and  here
the  princess  Elizabeth  was  confined  by  her  sister
Mary,  1554.  A  splendid  mansion,  built  at  the
expense  of  the  nation,  for  the  duke  of  Marlborough,
was  erected  here  to  commemorate  his  victory  at
Blenheim  in  1704.  At  that  time  every  trace  of  the
ancient  edifice  was  removed,  and  two  elms  were
planted  on  its  site ;  see  Blenheim.  Scott's  romance,
"  Woodstock,"  was  published,  June,  1826.  Mar-
shall's "  History  of  Woodstock,"  1873.

WOOL.  From  the  earliest  times  to  the  reign
of  queen  Elizabeth  the  wool  of  Great  Britain  was
not  only  superior  to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted
the  finest  in  the  universe ;  and  even  iu  the  times
of  the  Bomans  a  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  was
established  at  Winchester  for  the  use  of  the  em-
perors. Anderson.  In  later  times  wool  was  manu-
factured in  England,  and  is  mentioned  1 185,  but
not  in  any  quantity  until  1331,  when  the  weaving
of  it  was  introduced  by  John  Kempe  and  other  arti-
zans  from  Flanders.  This  was  the  real  origin  of
our  now  unrivalled  manufacture,  6  Edw.  III.  133 1.
Rgmer'  s  Feeder  a.
Duties  on  exported  wool  were  levied  by  Edw.  I. .  1275

The  exportation  prohibited 1337

Staples  of  wool  established  in  Ireland,  at  Dublin.

Waterford,  Cork,  and  Drogheda,  18  Edw.  III. .  .  1343
Sheep  were  first  permitted  to  be  sent  to Spain,

which  has  since  injured  our  manufacture.  Stow.  1467
First  legislative  prohibition  of  the  export  of  wool

from  Ireland 1521

The  exportation  of  English  wool,  and  the  importa-
tion of  Irish  wool  into  England,  prohibited  . 169
The  export  forbidden  by  act  passed . . . . 1718-
Bill  to  prevent  the  running  of  wool  from  Ireland  to

France  1738

The  duty  on  wool  imported  from  Ireland  taken  off  1739

Woolcombers' act,  35  Geo.  Ill 1794

The  non-exportation  law  was  repealed,  5  Geo.  IV.  .  1824
In  1851  we  imported  83,311,975  tb.  of  wool  and
alpaca ;  in  1856,  116,211,392  tb.  ;  in  1859,
133,284,634  th.  ;  in  1861,  147,172,841  tb.  ;  in  1864,
206,473,645  tb.  ;  in  1866,  239,358,689  lb.;  in  1871,
323,036,299  lb.  ;  in  1875,  365,065.578  lb.  ;  in  1877,
409,949,198  ft).;  in  1879,  417,110,099  th.;  in  1881,
450,141,735  lb.;  in  1883,  495,946,779ft;  in  1887,
577,924,661  tb. ;  in  1S88,  639,267,975  th.;  in  18S9,
700,903,057  tb.  ;  in  1890,  633,028, 131  tb.
We  imported  from  Australasia,  in  184:-.  12,97^,856  tb. ;
in  1856,  56,052,139  tb.  ;  in  1861,  68,506,222  lb.  ;  in
1866,  113,773,694  11).  ;  in  1871,  182,710,5671b.  ;  in
1875,  238,631,824  lb.  ;  in  1877,  281,247,190  tb.  ;  in
1879,  287,831,804  lb.;  in  1881,329,665,855  tb.;  in
1883,  351,685,606  tb.  ;  in  1887,  383,506,395  lb.  ;  in
1888,  427,974,038  tb.  ;  in  1889,  431,303,391  lb.  in
1890,  418,771,604  lb.

WOOL-COMBEES  in  several  parts  of  Eng-
land have  a  procession  on  3  Feb.,  in  commemoration
of  bishop  Blaise,  who  is  reported  to  bave  discovered

3  z


WOOLLEN CLOTH.


1074


WORKING  MEN.


their  art.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  England,  and
to  have  landed  at  St.  Blazy,  in  Corn-wall.  He  was
bishop  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  and  is  said  to  have
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Diocletian  persecution,
289.

WOOLLEN  CLOTH.  Woollen  cloths  were
made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of  Julius
Caesar,  and  are  familiarly  alluded  to  by  him ;  see
Weaving.

The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  wear  garments  of
woollen  and  linen  together  .... B.C.  1451

70  families  of  cloth-workers  (from  the  Netherlands)
settled  in  England  by  Edward  III.  Ryrner. a.d.  1331

Worsted  manufacture  in  Norfolk  . . . .  1340

A  kind  of  blankets  were  first  made  in  England.
(Camden) about ,,

Woollens  made  at  Kendal 1390

No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland  to  be  imported
into  England 1463

Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made  . . . 1614

Manufacture  of  fine  cloth  began  at  Sedan,  in  France,
under  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Mazarine . .  1646

Broadcloth  first  dressed  and  dyed  in  England,  by
Brewer,  from  the  Low  Countries . . . . 1667

British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France . 1677

All  persons  obliged  to  be  buried  in  woollens,  and
the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to  for-
feit 5!. ,  29  Charles  II 1678

The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved  in  Eng-
land by  Flemish  settlers 1688

Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland,  n  Will.  III. .  1698

The  exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited,
except  to  certain  ports  of  England . .  1701

English  manufacture  encouraged  by  10  Anne,  1712,
and  2  Geo.  1 1715

Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785  than  in  all  England  at
the  revolution. Chalmers.

Value  of  woollen  manufactures  of  all  kinds  exported
in  1847,  6,896,038?.  ;  in  1854,  9,120,759!.  ;  in  1861,
11,118,692!.  ;  in  1864,  18,569,089!.  ;  in  1871,
27,182,385?.  ;  in  1875,  21,659,325!.  ;  in  1877,
i7.343.203'm  in  1879,  15,861,166!.;  in  1881,
18,128,756!.;  in  1883,  18,315,575!.;  in  1887,
20,594,962!.  ;  in  1888,  19,992,672!.  :  in  1889,
21,324,892?. ;  in  1890,  20,418,482!.
International  Woollen  Exhibition  at  the  Crystal
Palace,  Sydenham,  opened  by  the  duke  of  Con-
naught 2  June,  1881

Association  for  the  encouragement  of  British
woollen  manufactures  founded  by  the  countess
of  Bective  and  about  200  other  ladies

Dr.  Jager's  "Sanitary  Woollen  System  of  Cloth-
ing"  was  published  in 1887

WOOLSACK,  the  seat  of  the  lord  high  chan-
cellor of  England  in  the  house  of  lords,  so  called
from  its  being  a  large  square  bag  of  wool,  without
back  or  arms,  covered  with  red  cloth.  Wool  was
the  staple  commodity  of  England  in  the  reign  of
Edward  III.,  when  the  woolsack  first  came  into  use.

WOOLWICH  (Kent),  the  most  ancient  mili-
tary and  naval  arsenal  in  England.  Its  royal
dockyard,  where  men-of-war  were  built  in  tbe
reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  closed,  1  Oct.  1869.  Here
Harry  Grace  de  Dieu  was  built,  1512  ;  and  here
she  was  burnt  in  1552.  The  royal  arsenal  was
formed  about  1720,  on  the  site  of  a  rabbit-warren  ;
it  contains  vast  magazines  of  great  guns,  mortars,
bombs,  powder,  and  other  warlike  stores;  a  foundry,
with  many  furnaces,  for  casting  ordnance;  and  a
great  laboratory,  where  fireworks,  cartridges,  gren-
ades, &c,  are  made  for  the  public  service.  The
Royal  Military  Academy  was  erected  in  the  royal
arsenal,  but  the  institution  was  not  completely
formed  until  19  Geo.  II.  1745.  Woolwich  returns
one  M.P.,  by  act  of  1885.  Population,  1881,  80,845  ;
1891,  107,324.
The  arsenal,  storehouses,  &c,  burnt  (loss  of  200,000!.)

20  May,  1802
Another  great  fire ....  30  June,  1805

Fatal  explosion  of  gunpowder . . 20  Jan.  1813


The  hemp-store  burnt  down  .  .  .8  July,  1813
Another  explosion  by  gunpowder  .  .  16  June,  1814
The  Royal  Military  Academy  nearly  destroyed  by

fire ;  loss  about  100,000!.  1  Feb.  1873

Visited  by  the  shah  of  Persia . . 21  June, ,,
Subway  beneath  the  Thames between  North  and

South  Woolwich,  begun ...  23  Aug.  1876

Explosion  in  the  rocket  factory  ;  the  town  bom-
barded, with  little  damage  ;  the  armoury  burnt,
only  two  men  killed  in  the  factory,  10  a.m.24  Sept.  1883
Construction  of  great  free  steam  ferry  authorized

by  the  commons 1  May,  1885

Free  steam-ferry  (between  North  and  South  Wool-
wich) inaugurated  in  great  state  by  lord  Rosebery

23  March,  1889
(Woolwich  Infant,  see  Cannon,  1872.)

WORCESTER,  successively  an  important
British,  Roman,  and  Saxon  town,  was  burnt  by
the  Danes  (1041)  for  resisting  the  tribute  called
Danegelt.  William  I.  built  a  castle,  1090.  The
city  was  frequently  taken  and  retaken  during  the
civil  wars  of  the  middle  ages,  and  by  Cromwell  in
1651. — The  Bishopric  was  founded  by  Ethelred,
king  of  the  Mercians,  680,  and  taken  from  the  see
of  Lichfield,  of  which  it  composed  a  part.  The
married  priests  of  the  cathedral  were  displaced,  and
monks  settled  in  their  stead,  964.  The  church  was
rebuilt  by  St.  Wulstan,  25th  bishop,  1030 ;  the
remains  of  his  hospital  are  described  by  the  rev.  T.
H.  Marsh,  in  its  "  Annals,"  published  in  1890.  The
see  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome  four  saints,
and  to  the  English  nation  five  lord  chancellors  and
three  lord  treasurers.  It  is  valued  in  the  king's
books  at  1049^.  16s.  3j<£.  per  annum.  Present
income,  5000/.  Population,  1881,  38,270;  1891,
42,905.

The  renovated  cathedral  opened . . 8  April,  1874
Much  excitement  through  the  refusal  of  the  dean
and  chapter  to  permit  the  cathedral  to  be  used  as
a  concert  room  for  the  three  choirs  festival

Oct. -Nov. ,,
The  festival  held  as  strictly  religious  services

22,  23  Sept.  1875

RECENT BISHOPS.

1781.  Richard  Hurd,  died  28  May,  1808.

1808.  Folliott  H.  Cornwall,  died  5  Sept.  1831.

1831.  Robert  James  Carr,  died  24  April,  1841.

1841.  Henry  Pepys,  died  13  Nov.  i860.

1861.  Henry  Philpott,  resigned  Aug.  1890,  died  10  Jan.,

1892.
1890.  John  James  Stewart  Perowne,  D.D.,  Oct.

WORCESTER,  Battle  of,  3  Sept.  1651,

when  the  Scots  army  which  came  to  England  to
reinstate  Charles  II.  was  defeated  by  Cromwell,
who  called  it  his  croicning  mercy.  Charles  with
difficulty  escaped  to  France.  More  than  2000  of  the
royalists  were  slain,-  and  of  8000  prisoners  most
were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  colonists ;  see
Boscobel.

WORDSWORTH  SOCIETY,  formed  "as
a  bond  of  union  among  those  who  are  in  sympathy
with  the  general  teaching  and  spirit  of  Wordsworth ' '
and  "  to  promote  and  extend  the  study  of  the  poet's
works,"  &c,  was  inaugurated  at  Grasmere,  West-
moreland, 30  Sept.  1880.  First  President,  Dr.
Charles  Wordsworth,  bishop  of  St.  Andrews.  The
society  dissolved  7  July,  1886.

WORKHOUSES,  see  under  Poor.

WORKING  MEN. Since  the  great  Exhibi-
tion of  1 85 1,  much  has  been  done  to  benefit  the
labouring  classes  by  organisation. See  Artisan.
Working  Men's  Clubs  considered  to  have  begun  with
the Working  Men's  Mutual  Improvement  and
Recreation  Society,  established  in  Lancaster  by
the  instrumentality  of  the  rev.  H.  Solly  in . . i860
The  Westminster  Working  Men's  Club,  in  Duck-lane,
originated  with  Miss  Adeline  Cooper ;  opened  in

Dee. „


WORKING MEN.


1075


WORKING  MEN.


The  Working  Men's  Club  and  Institute  Union  for
the  promotion  of  clubs,  institutes,  and  similar
■societies  for  the  instruction  and  recreation  of  the
working  classes,  was  mainly  established  by  the
strenuous  exertions  of  the  rev.  Henry  Solly,
aided  by  lord  Lyttleton,  sir  Harcourt  Johnstone,
sir  Hugh  Owen,  lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  and
others  ;  the  Union  was  constituted  at  a  meeting,
lord  Brougham  in  the  chair,  14  June,  1862.  It
has  been  eminently  successful.

The  Working  Men's  Club  and  Lodging-house,  Old
Pye-street,  Westminster,  was  opened 20  April,  1866

Working  Men's  Colleges,  &c.  The  first,  established
in  Sheffield,  by  working-men.  The  second,  in
London,  by  the  rev.  professor  Frederick  D.
Maurice,  as  principal,  in  Oct.  1854  (died  1  April,
3872) ;  a  third  in  Cambridge  ;  and,  in  1855,  a
fourth  at  Oxford  ;  all  wholly  for  the  working
•classes,  and  undertaking  to  impart  such  know-
ledge as  each  man  feels  he  is  most  in  want  of.
The  colleges  engage  to  find  a  teacher  wherever  10
•or  12  members  agree  to  form  a  class,  and  also  to
.have  lectures  given.  There  were  eleven  classes
■at  the  one  in  Bloomsbury,  London,  in  1856  ;  Mr.
Ruskin  gave  lessons  in  drawing.  Some  of  these
colleges  have  been  found  to  be  self-supporting.

A  Working  Women' sCollege,  begun  at  Queen's-square,
Bloomsbury 1864

'The  two  colleges  amalgamated  as  the  "  New  College
for  men  and  women,"  inaugural  meeting 12  Oct.  1874

Working  Women's  College,  Fitzroy-street,  inaugu-
rated 16  Oct. „

Act  to  establish  councils  of  conciliation,  to  adjust
differences  between  masters  and  workmen,  passed

20  Aug.  1867

The  Arbitration  (Masters  and  "Workmen)  Act  passed

6  Aug.  1872

Working  Men's  College,  for  South  London,  opened
with  a  lecture  by  professor  Huxley . 4  Jan. 1868

Workmen's  International  Exhibition  proposed  by
the  duke  of  Argyll,  lord  Elcho,  and  others,
March,  1868 ;  meeting  for  arrangements,  10  Jan.
11870,  held  in  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington  (16
•classes  and  a  fine  arts  department) ;  opened  by
the  prince  of  Wales,  16  July  ;  closed  by  Mr.  Glad-
stone 31  Oct.  l87°

National  trades  societies  congress  meet  at  Man-
chester, 1868  ;  at  Birmingham . . . Aug. 1869

{Demonstration of working men in Hyde  park

■  against  certain  clauses  relating  to  masters  and
servants  in  the  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act,

2  June,  1873

International  Working  Men's  Association  (termed
the  International)  owes  its  origin  to  some  German
■socialists  in  London,  1847,  and  was  much  pro-
moted by  the  foreign  visitors  to  the  great  exhibi-
tion in  1862.  It  was  definitely  organised,  28  Sept.
1864,  George  Odger  first  president.  Its  professed
•object  is  the  complete  emancipation  of  labour
from  the  tyranny  of  capitalists.  It  has  held
•congresses  at  Geneva,  Sept.  1866 ;  Lausanne,
-Sept.  1867;  Brussels,  6-13  Sept.  1868  ;  Basel.  6-11
Sept.  1869:  Barcelona,  June,  1870  ;  at  the  Hague,
•when  great  dissensions  arose  between  the  "autho-
ritarians," who  consider  a  government  needful,
and  the  "anarchists,"  who  deny  it.  One  party
including  the  council  seceded  from  the  trade
portion,  and  adjourned  to  New  York,  3-10  Sept. 1872

Four  of  its  members  were  elected  into  the  French
national  assembly Feb. 1871

The  association  took  part  in  the  communist  insur-
rection at  Paris Bee. ,,

[It  made  a  demonstration  at  New  York . 18  Mar.  1872
It  is  said  to  have  about  2,500,000  members  in  all
countries,  and  to  be  allied  with  several  secret
societies,  such  as  Fenians,  the  Mary  Anne,  <&c.

A  proposal  from  Spain  that  European  governments
should  combine  for  its  suppression,  9  Feb.,  was
declined  by  Great  Britain,  8  March.  It  was  pro-
scribed in France by  the national assembly,

14  March, „

The  British  section  met  at  McQueen's  club-house,
Parliament-street .... 21  July, ,,

One  party  took  the  name  of  International  Associa-
tion, and  held  annual  congresses  :  Geneva,  Sept.
1873;  Brussels,  7  Sept.  1874;  Berne,  1876;  Ver-
viers,  7  Sept.  1877.  A  congress  of  socialists  met
at  Ghent  (partly  united  the  two  divisions),  Sept.  1878


International  congress  Paris  assembled 2-12  Sept.

Report  of  an  alliance  between  conservative  peers
and  the  working  men  for  the  improvement  of  the
condition  of  the  latter,  about  15  Oct.  ;  explained
by  Mr.  Scott  Russell  (Times,  14  Nov.  1871),  who
issued  a  programme ....  Jan.

Workmen's  Peace  Association  held  its  first  annual
meeting  in  London . . . .20  Sept.

A  "  Workman's  city,"  Shaftesbury  Park,  Clapham,
was  inaugurated  by  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury

3  Nov.
Annual  trade  congress  at  Sheffield  .  12-17  Jan-
Alex. Macdonald and  Thos. Burt, working-men,

elected  M.  P.  's  for  Stafford  and  Morpeth . Feb.

Royal  commission  on  labour  laws  appointed  (chief
justice  Cockburn,  lord  Winmarleigh,  Messrs.
Roebuck,  T.  Hughes,  Alex.  Macdonald  and
others) . March,

Dwellings  of  working  classes  protected  from  rail-
way bills  by  new  standing  orders . 30  July,

Employers  and  Workmen  Act  passed . 13  Aug.

Annual  trade  congress  at  Glasgow . n-i6  0ct.

Church  of  England  JVorking  Men's  Society  founded
at  St.  Alban's,  Holborn ... 5  Aug.

Working-Lads'  Institutes,  London;  meeting  at  the
Mansion  House  to  found  them,  27  Oct.  ;  first  in-
stitute opened  at  Whitechapel . .  14  Nov

Workmen's  Social  Education  League,  founded
June,  1879  ;  professor  J.  R.  Seeley,  president,
announced 10  June,

Employers'  Liability  Act  (to  compensate  workmen
for  injuries)  passed  . . . . .7  Sept.

International  conference  of  workmen  at  Paris
closes 29  Oct.

International  trades  union  congress  at  Paris  ;  main
objects,  shorter  hours,  safety  and  comfort  ;
British,  most  moderate  29  Oct.  et  seq.  1883  ;  again
23  Aug.  1886  ;  London,  (79  English  and  44  foreign
delegates) 6  Nov.

Workmen,  &c,  of  the  United  Kingdom,  about
9,000,000 ;  average  wages  each  19^.  per  annum
(1835);  about  13,000,000,  average  wages  each  nearly
42I.  per  annum  (1885). B.  Giffen . iq  Jan.

Working  Men's  Jubilee  Festival  held  at  the  Crystal
Palace 25  June,

Accounts  of  a  new  International  formed  to  replace
the  old  one,  which  had  gradually  disappeared,
were  published  in  the  autumn  of  1888.  It  was
stated  to  have  branches  in  the  United  States,  and
in  various  cities  in  Europe.

The  German  parliament,  influenced  by  prince
Bismarck,  passed  bills  to  compel  the  working
classes,  with  the  assistance  of  their  employers
and  the  state,  to  provide  for  sickness  (1883),  for
accidents  (1884),  for  old  age  and  infirmity  24  May,

International  congress  of  workers,  respecting  acci-
dents, etc.,  at  Paris  ....  14  July,
[Second  congress  at  Berne,  21  Sept.  1891.]

The  grand  council  of  the  National  Federation  of
all  Trades  and  Indxistries,  recommends  that  a
demonstration  be  made  to  promote  improvement
in  the  condition  of  working  men  on  1  May,  to  be
termed  "Labour  day,"  15  April.  A  moderate
demonstration  was  made  at  the  Victoria-embank-
ment and  Hyde-park  ;  a  very  large  and  orderly
meeting  was  held  at  Hyde-park,  Sunday
(speakers,  Messrs.  M.  Davitt,  John  Burns,  Cun-
inghame  Graham,  Mrs.  Aveling,  and  others),

4  May,
The  great  May-day  demonstration  of  the  working

classes  throughout  Europe  in  favour  of  an  eight
hours'  labour  day  and  other  improvements  in
their  condition,  passed  off  with  general  tran-
quHlity,  adequate  precautions  having  been  taken
at  Paris,  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  other  towns,

, May,

International  congress  of  miners  at  Jolimont,  Bel-
gium (see  Mineralogy) . ■ 20  May  et  beq.

Formation  of  the  "  Factory,  Operative,  and  General
Labour  union  "  projected  by  Messrs.  John  Burns
and  Tom  Mann Aug.

First  congress  of  Bock,  Wharf,  and  Riverside
Labourers'  union  ... 30  Sept. — 4  Oct.

"Labour  day"  generally  peaceably  observed
throughout  Europe,  except  in  France  and  Home
(which sec), 1 Mav ; meetings in Hyde-park

{Which  see) c-3  May

3  z  2


1872
1871

1873

1874


1875
1876

1879


WOEKS.


1076


WEECKS.


International  Labour  Congress  at  Brussels,

16-22  Aug.  1891
"Labour  day"  on  the  continent  peaceably  kept
through  precautionary  measures  (see  Hyde-park),

Sunday,  1  May,  1892

See  Co-operative  Societies,  Employers, and  Trades-
Unions. Berlin  conference,  1890.

"WOEKS and  Public Buildings, see
Woods.
WOEKSHOPS,  see  Ateliers  and  Factories.

WOEKSHOP  EEGULATION  ACT,  sup-
plement to  Factory  Acts,  passed  21  Aug.  1867  ;
amended,  1871.

WOELD,  see  Creation,  and  Globe.  World
weekly  newspaper  began  8  July,  1874.  The  World's
Columbian  Exposition,  see  Chicago,  1890  et  seq.

WOEMS,  a  city  on  the  Rhine,  in  Hesse-Darm-
stadt. The  Roman  city,  Borbetomagus,  was
plundered  by  the  Alemanni,  354,  and  by  Attila,
451 ;  rebuilt  by  Clovis  I.  about  475.  Here  Charle-
magne resided  in  806.  Here  was  held  the
imperial  diet  before  which  Martin  Luther  was
summoned,  4  April,  1521,  and  by  which  he  was
proscribed.  Luther  was  met  by  2000  persons  on
foot  and  on  horseback,  at  the  distance  of  a  league
from  Worms.  When  Spalatin  sent  to  warn  him  of
bis  danger,  he  answered,  "If  there  were  as  many
devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs
of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on."  He  appeared  before
the  emperor,  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  six  electors,
twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves,  thirty  bishops
and  prelates,  and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and
ambassadors,  17  April,  acknowledged  his  writings
and  opinions,  and  left  Worms,  in  fact,  a  conqueror.
Tet,  to  save  his  life,  he  had  to  remain  in  seclusion
under  the  protection  of  the  elector  of  Saxony  for
about  a  year.  The  edict  putting  him  under  the
ban  of  the  empire  was  issued  26  May,  1521.
Worms  was  burnt,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  1689,  the
cathedral  excepted  ;  and  was  taken  by  the  French,
under  Custine,  4  Oct.  1792.  A  memorial  statue  of
Luther  at  Worms  was  uncovered,  25  June,  1868,
in  the  presence  of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  other
sovereigns. Population,  1890,  25,504.

WOESHIP.  The  first  worship  mentioned  is
that  of  Abel,  3872  B.C.  (6r0w.1v.)  "Men  began
to  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord,"  3769  B.C.  (Gen.
iv.)  The  Jewish  order  of  worship  was  set  up  by
Moses,  1490  B.C.  Solomon  consecrated  the  temple,
1004  B.C.  To  the  corruptions  of  the  simple  worship
of  the  patriarchs  all  the  Egyptian  and  Greek  idola-
tries owed  their  origin.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,
king  of  Upper  Egypt,  is  supposed  to  be  the  Copt
of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Toth,  or  Hermes,  of  the
Greeks,  the  Mercury  of  the  Latins,  and  the  Teutates
of  the  Celts  or  Gauls,  21 12  B.C. Usher.

WOESHIP  IN  ENGLAND.  The  Druids  were
the  priests  here,  at  the  invasion  of  the  Romans
(55  B.C.),  who  eventually  introduced  Christianity,
which  was  almost  extirpated  by  the  victorious
Saxons  (455),  who  were  pagans.  The  Roman
catholic  form  of  Christianity  was  introduced  by
Augustine,  596,  and  continued  till  the  Reformation
(which  see).  See  Hymns,  Liturgies,  Prayers,
Public  Worship,  Ritualists.

PLACES OF  WORSHIP IN  ENGLAND AND  WALES
IN 1851.

Places  of  Worship.  Sittings.

Church  of  England  .... 14,077  3.317,915

Wesleyan  Methodists  . . . . 6,579  2,194*298

Independents 3,244  i,o67,'76o

Baptists 2,789  752,343

Roman  Catholics .... 570  186,111


Places  of  Worship.  Sittings^

Society  of  Friends . . . .  371  91, 559

Unitarians 229  68,554

Scottish  Presbyterians . . .  160  86,692

Latter  day  Saints  (Mormonites) .  222  30,783

Brethren  (Plymouth)  . . . .  132  (?)  18,529.

Jews 53  8,438:

New  Church  (Swedenborgians)  . .  50  12,107

Moravians 32  9,3°5

Catholic  and Apostolic Church  )

(Irvingites) . j  32  7'437

Greek  Church 3  291

Countess of  Huntingdon's  Con- )

°  >•  100  35,210

nexion J  ^  53»""-

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists. .  828  198,242

Various  small  bodies,  some  with- )  ,

out  names  . . . . |  54$  IOS'5S7

June,  1884,  total  sittings  in  the  metropolis  (populations

4,019,361),  1,388,792  ;  Church  of  England,  677,645.
See  Wesleyan  Methodists,  note.
116  sects  having  20,330  places  of  worship,  Oct.  1871.
Certified  Places  of  Worship,  registered,  4  Nov.  1884,  23,341  J

1  Nov.  1891,  27,253.

WOESTED,  spun  wool,  obtained  its  name  from
having  been  first  spun  at  a  town  called  Worsted,  in
Norfolk,  in  which  the  inventor  lived,  and  where
manufactures  of  worsted  are  still  extensively  carried
on,  14  Edw.  III.  1340.  Anderson.  "  A  worsted-
stocking  knave"  is  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt
used  by  Shakspeare.

WOETH,  see  Woerth.

WOETHIES,  NINE,  a  term  long  ago  given,
to  the  following  eminent  men: —

Jews.  Died.

Joshua B.C.  1426

David 1015

Judas  Maccabseus 161

Heathens.

Hector  of  Troy 1184

Alexander  the  Great 323

Julius  Csesar ■ . 44

Christians.
King  Arthur  of  Britain  . . . . a.d. 532

Charlemagne  of  France 8oo>

Godfrey  of  Bouillon 1100

In  some  lists,  Gideon  and  Samson  are  given,  instead
of  Hector  and  Arthur.  In  Shakspeare's  Love's  Labour's-
Tjost,  act  v.  sc.  2,  Hercule^  and  Pompey  appear  as
worthies.

WOTHLYTYPE,  see  under  Photography.

WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva

Convention,  and  Aid  to  Sick  and  Wounded.

WOUNDING.  Malicious  wounding  of  another
was  adjudged  death  by  the  English  statutes.  The
Coventry  Act  was  passed  in  1671 ;  see  Coventry  Act.
By  lord  Ellenborough's  Act,  persons  who  stab  or
cut  with  intent  to  murder,  maim,  or  disfigure
another  were  declared  guilty  of  felony  without
benefit  of  clergy.  Those  guilty  of  maliciously
shooting  at  another  in  any  dwelling-house  or  other
place,  are  also  punishable  under  the  same  statute
in  the  same  degree,  43  Geo.  III.  1802.  This  offence
is  met  by  some  later  statutes,  particularly  the  act
for  consolidating  and  amending  the  acts  relating  to
offences  against  the  person,  9  Geo.  IV.,  June,  1828.
This  last  act  is  extended  to  Ireland  by  10  Geo.  IV.,
1829.  An  act  for  the  prevention  of  maliciously-
shooting,  stabbing,  &c,  in  Scotland,  6  Geo.  IV.,
1825;  amended  by  10  Geo.  IV.,  4  June,  1829,
for  the  prevention  and  punishment  of  assaults  on
women  and  children.

WRECKS.  The  loss  of  merchant  and  other
ships  by  wreck  upon  lee-shores,  coasts,  and  disasters
in  the  open  sea,  was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,
to  be  about  an  average  of  365  ships  a  year. In


WEECKS.


1077


WRECKS.


1830,  it  appeared  by  Lloyd's  Lists  that  677  British
vessels  were  totally  lost,  under  various  circum-
stances, in  that  year.  The  lawa  respecting  wrecks
were  consolidated  in  1846  and  1854.  See  Seamen
{commission  of  inquiry) .

Abstracts  of  the  returns  made  to  the  Board  of  Trade  of
shipping  casualties  on  or  near  the  coast,  &c,  of  the
United  Kingdom,  and  also  of  the  casualties  to  British
vessels  elsewhere,  and  also  to  foreign  vessels,  pub-
lished annually  since  1855.

"Wrecks  on  British  coasts  :  July,  1887 — July  1888,  4,004 ;
1888-9,  4>272  i  1889-90,  4,344.

Between  1861  and  the  30th  June,  1890,  4,742  British,
colonial,  and  foreign  vessels  were  wrecked  on  our
coast,  21,426  lives  lost.

British  vessels  wrecked  in  1848,  were,  sailing  vessels,
501  ;  steamers,  13;  tonnage,  96,920.

In  1851,  there  were  wrecked  611  vessels,  of  which  number
11  were  steamers  :  the  tonnage  of  the  whole  being
111,976.

The  year  1852-3,  particularly  the  winter  months  (Dec.
and  Jan.),  was  very  remarkable  for  the  number  of
dreadful  shipwrecks  and  fires  at  sea  :  but  a  few  of  them
are  recorded.  Wrecks  in  25  years  (1854-79),  49>322  ;
lives  lost,  18,319.

Many  vessels  were  lost  in  the  great  storms,  25,  26  Oct.
1859  ;  28  May,  1861  ;  19,  20  Oct.  1861  ;  and  13, 14  Nov.
1862  :  by  a  cyclone,  India,  5  Oct.  1864 ;  in  the  West
Indies,  Oct.  1867.

See  under  Life  Boat.

British  vessels  (exclusive  of  the  Royal  Navy)
totally  lost  at  sea  :


Vessels.

Lives

Vessels.

Lives

lost.

lost.

1875.

■  657  .

■  1,694

1883.

•  793  •

.  2,698

1876 .

.  661 .

•  i>97°

1884

. .  616 .

•  1.644

3877.

•  677  •

• i>732

1885.

• 557  •

• I.43i

1878 .

•  637 .

•  i,3°2

1886

. 644 .

. 1,340

T879 .

.  621  .

• I,6s2

1887.

• 5°°  •

. 1,888

1880 .

•  835 ■

• 2,075

1888

• 543 •

• i,9r7

IS8I .

• 973  •

•  3,165

1889  .

•  447  •

• 1,045

1882 .

• 733 •

•  J^^

REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED
OR  BURNT.

Mary  Rose,  60  guns,  going  from  Portsmouth  to  Spit-
head,  upset  in  a  squall ;  all  on  board  perished,

20  July,  1545

Coronation,  90  guns,  foundered  off  the  Ramhead  ;
crew  saved :  Harwich,  70  guns,  wrecked  on
Mount  Edgcumbe ;  crew  perished . 1  Sept. 1691

Royal  Sovereign,  100  guns  ;  burnt  in  the  Medway,

29  Jan.  1696

Stirling  Castle,  70  guns  ;  Mary,  70  guns  ;  Northum-
berland, 70  guns,  lost  on  the  Goodwin ;  Vanguard.
70  guns,  sunk  at  Chatham  ;  York,  70  guns,  lost
near  Harwich  ;  all  lost  but  four  men  ;  Resolution.
60  guns,  coast  of  Sussex  ;  Newcastle,  60  guns,  at
Spithead,  193  drowned  ;  Reserve,  60  guns,  at  Yar-
mouth, 173  perished  ;  in  the  night  of 26  Nov.  1703

Association,  70  guns,  and  other  vessels,  lost  with
admiral  sir  C.  Shovel,  off  the  Scilly  isles  {which  see)

22  Oct. 1707

Solebay,  32  guns,  lost  near  Boston  neck  ;  crew
perished 25  Dec.  1709

Edgar,  70  guns,  blew  up  at  Spithead  ;  all  on  board
perished 15  Oct. 1711

Wager  :  part  of  commodore  Anson's  South  Sea
expedition  ;  wrecked  on  desolate  island,  lat.  47°  S.

14  May  1 74 1

Victory,  100  guns,  near  the  isle  of  Alderney ;  all
perished 5  Oct.  1744

Colchester,  50  guns,  lost  on  Kentish  Knock  ;  50  men
perished 21  Sept. ,,

Namur,  74  guns,  foundered  near  Fort  St.  David,
East  Indies;  all  perished  except  26  persons;
Pembroke,  60  guns,  near  Porto  Novo  ;  330  of  her
crew  perished 13  April,  1749

Prince  George,  80  guns,  burnt  in  lat.  48  N.,  011  way
to  Gibraltar  ;  about  400  perished . 13  April,  1758

Lichfield,  50  guns,  lost  on  the  coast  of  Barbary  ;  130
of  the  crew  perished .... 29  Nov. „

Tilbury,  60  guns,  lost  off  Louisbourg  ;  most  of  the
crew  perished 25  Sept.  1759

Ramilics,  90  guns,  lost  on  the  Bolt-head;  only  26


persons  saved  ;  Conqueror,  lost  on  St.  Nicholas's
Island,  Plymouth . . . . 15  Feb. 1760

Ducd'Aquitaine,  64  guns,  and  Sunderland,  60  guns,
lost  off  Pondicherry  ;  all  perished . 1  Jan.  1761

Raisonnable,  64  guns,  lost  at  the  attack  of  Marti-
nique 3  Feb. 1762

Repulse,  32  guns,  foundered  off  Bermuda ;  crew
perished 1775

Thunderer,  74  guns  ;  Stirling  Castle,  64  ;  Defiance,
64  ;  Phoenix,  44;  La  Blanche,  32;  Laurel,  28;
Shark,  28 ;  Andromeda,  28  ;  Deal  Castle,  24  ;  Pene-
lope, 24  ;  Scarborough,  20  ;  Barbadoes,  14  ;  Came-
leon,  14  ;  Endeavour,  14  ;  and  Victor,  10  guns  :  all
lost  in  the  same  storm,  in  the  West  Indies,  in

Oct.  1780

Gen.  Barker,  Indiaman,  off  Scheveling . 17  Feb.  1781

Grosvenor,  Indiaman,  coast  of  Caffraria .  4  Aug. 1782

Swan,  sloop  of  war,  off  Waterford  ; 130  drowned,

4  Aug.  ,,
R oyal  George  ;  above  600  perished  .  29  Aug.  ,,
Centaur,  74  guns,  foundered  on  her  passage  from

Jamaica  ;  capt.  Inglefield  and  11  of  the  crew  saved

21  Sept.  ,,
Villa  de  Paris,  of  104  guns,  one  of  admiral  Rodney's

prizes  ;  the  Glorieux,  of  74  guns,  lost  in  the  West

Indies 5  Oct. „

Superb,  74  guns,  wrecked  in  Tellicherry  roads,  East

Indies 5  Nov. 1783

Cato,  50  guns, admiral  sir  Hyde  Parker, on  the

Malabar  coast ;  crew  perished  ....,,
Count  Belgioioso,  Indiaman, off  Dublin  Bay  ;  147

souls  perished 13  March, ,,

Menai,  ferry-boat,  in  the  Menai  Strait 60  drowned,

5  Dec.  1785
Halsewell, E. Indiaman ; 386 persons perished,

6  Jan. 1786
Hartwell,  Indiaman,  with  immense  wealth  onboard

24  May,  1787
Charlemont  Packet,  from  Holyhead  to  Dublin  ;  104

drowned 22  Dec.  1790

Pandora,  frigate  on  a  reef ;  100  perished .  28  Aug.  1791
Union,  packet  of  Dover,  lost  off  the  port  of  Calais  ;
a  similar  occurrence  had  not  happened  for  105

years  before 28  Jan.  1792

Wi>iterton,  E.  Indiaman  :  many  perished 20  Aug. ,,
Pmpetucux,  74  guns,  burnt  at  Portsmouth 24  Aug. „
Scorpion,  74  guns,  burnt  at  Leghorn . 20  Nov.  1793
Ardent,  64  guns,  burnt  off  Corsica . . April,  1794
Boyne,  by  fire,  at  Spithead  (see  Boyne)  . 4  May,  1795
Courageux,  -ja,  guns,  capt.  B.  Hallowell,  near  Gib-
raltar ;  crew,  except  124,  perished . 18  Dec.  1796
La  Tribune,  36  guns,  off  Halifax  ;  300  souls  perished

16  Nov.  1797
Proserpine  frigate  ;  in  the  Elbe  ;  15  lost  .  1  Feb.  1798
Resistance,  blown up in the straits of Banea,

24  July, ,,
Royal  Charlotte,  East  Indiaman,  blown  upatCulpee,

1  Aug. ,,
H.M.S.  Lutine,  32  guns,  was  wrecked  off  Vlieland,
coast  of  Holland  ;  only  one  saved,  who  died  be-
fore reaching  England  * . . . 9-10  Oct. 1799
Impregnable,  98  guns,  wrecked  between  Langstone

and  Chichester 19  Oct. „

Nassau,  64  guns,  on  the  Haak  Bank ;  100  perished,

25  Oct. „
Sceptre,  64  guns,  wrecked  in  Table  Bay,  cape  of  Good

Hope  ;  291  of  the  crew  perished  .  .  5  Nov.  ,,
Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks,

24  Dec. „
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls

perished 14  Jan. 1800

Mastiff,  gunbrig,  on  the  Cockle  Sands . 19  Jan. „
Repulse,  64  guns,  off  Ushant . . .10  March, ,,

*  La  Lutine  was  a  French  ship  captured  by  admiral
Duncan.  She  contained  much  bullion  and  money,  be-
longing to  merchants  ;  a  great  loss  to  the  underwriters
at  Lloyd's.  The  Dutch  government  claimed  the  wreck,
;ind  granted  one  third  of  the  salvage  in  1801  to  the

bullion  lishcrs. Alter  much discussion,  and  occasional

recoveries,  the  king  of  tin'  Netherlands  ceded  to  Great

Britain  (for  Lloyd's)  half  the  remainder  of  the  wreck.  A
Dutch  salvage  company  began  operations  in  Aug.  1857.
At  the  end  of  1859,  Lloyd's  had  received  22,162/.  6s.  yd.
Aboul  99, 893 J.  recovered;  about  1,175,000/.  remaining.
A  chair  and  table  at  Lloyd's  were  made  of  the  rudder
recovered  in  1859. Martin's  History  of  Lloyd's


WRECKS.


1078


WRECKS


Queen  Charlotte {which see), burnt ; 673 perish

17  March
Queen,  W.  Indiaman,  by  fire,  off  Brazil  .  9  July,
Brazen,  sloop  of  war,  off  Newhaven  ;  all  lost  except

one  man

Invincible,  74  guns,  near  Yarmouth  ; capt. John

Eennie,  and  the  crew,  except  126  souls,  perished,

16  March,
Margate,  Margate-hoy",  near  Reeulver ;  23  persons

perished 10  Feb.

Bangalore,  E.  Indiaman,  Indian  Sea  .  12  April,
Active,  West  Indiaman,  in  Margate  Roads  10  Jan.
Hindostan,  East  Indiaman,  went  to  pieces  on  the

Culvers n  Jan.

La  Determinie,  24  guns,  in  Jersey  Roads,  many

drowned ....  .26  March,

Resistance,  36  guns,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  .  31  May,
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice

28  June,
Seine,  frigate,  44  guns,  off  Schelling  .  31  July,
Antelope,  capt.  Wilson,  off  Pelew  Islands  9  Aug.
Victory,  Liverpool  ship,  at  Liverpool ;  27  drowned,

30  Sept.

Circe,  frigate,  32  guns,  off  Yarmouth . 16  Nov.

Nautilus,  E.  Indiaman,  on  Ladrones . 18  Nov.

Fanny,  in  Chinese  Sea :  46  souls  perish 29  Nov.

Suffisante,  sloop,  16  guns,  off  Cork . . 25  Dec.

Apollo,  frigate,  on  coast  of  Portugal . 1  April,

Cumberland  Packet,  on  Antigua  coast . 4  Sept.

Jtomney,  50  guns  on  Haak  Bank,  Texel  18  Nov.

Venerable,  74  guns,  at  Torbay ;  lost  8  men 24  Nov.

Severn,  on  a  rock,  near  Grouville  . .  21  Deo.

Boris,  frigate,  on  the  Diamond  Rock,  Quiberon  Bay,

12  Jan.

Abergavenny,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Bill  of  Port-
land ;  more  than  300  persons  perished  6  Feb.

Naias,  transport,  on  Newfoundland  coast 23  Oct.

JEneas,  transport,  off  Newfoundland ;  340  perished,

23  Oct.

Aurora,  transport,  on  the  Goodwin  Sands;  300
perished  ...  ... 21  Dec.

King  George,  packet,  from  Park-gate  to  Dublin,  lost
on  the  Hoyle  bank;  125  persons,  passengers  and
crew  drowned 21  Sept.

Athenien,  64  guns,  near  Tunis  ;  347  souls  perished,

27  Oct.

Glasgow,  packet,  off  Farm  Island ;  several  drowned,

17  Nov.

Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost

22  Jan.

Blenheim,  74  guns,  admiral  sir  T.  Troubridge,  and
Java,  23  guns,  foundered  near  island  of  Rodriguez,
East  Indies 1  Feb.

Ajax,  74  guns,  by  fire,  off  the  island  of  Tenedos ;
250  perished 14  Feb.

Blanche,  frigate,  on  the  French  coast;  45  men
perished 4  March,

Ganges,  East  Indiaman,  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,

29  May,
Prince  of  Wales,  Park-gate  packet,  and  Rochdale,

transport,  on  Dunleary  point,  near  Dublin ;  nearly

300  souls  perished  ....  19  Nov.
Boreas,  man-of-war,  upon  the  Hannois  rock  in  the

Channel 28  Nov.

Anson,  44  guns,  wrecked  in  Mount's  Bay;  60  lives

lost 29  Dec.

Agatha, near Memel; lord Royston  and  others

drowned 7  April,

Astrea,  frigate,  on  Anagada  coast .  .  23  May,
Frith, passage-boat,  in  the  Frith  of  Dornoch;  40

persons  drowned  .  .  .  .  13  Aug.
Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered  on  passage from

Halifax ;  crew  perished  ....  31  Aug.
Siruis,  36  guns,  and  Magicienne,  36  guns,  wrecked

when  advancing  to  attack  the  French,  off  Isle  of

France 23  Au°\

Satellite,  sloop  of  war,  16  guns,  upset,  and  all  on

board  perished I4  Dec

Minotaur,  of  74  guns,  wrecked  on  the  Haak  Bank  •

360  persons  perished  ....  22  Dec'

Pandora, sloop  of  war, off  Jutland; 30  persons

perished I3  Feb.

Saldanha,  frigate,  on  the  Irish  coast ;  300  persons

perished 4  Dec.

St.  George,  of  98,  and  Defence,  of  74  guns,  and  the

Hero, stranded  on  the  coast  of  Jutland, adm.

Reynolds  and  all  the  crews  (about  2000  persons)

perished,  except  18  seamen . . .24  Dec.


1801
1802
1803


1805


1807


Manilla,  frigate,  on  the  Haak  Sand;  12  persons
perished 28  Jan.

Atalante  ;  H.M.  frigate  off  Nova  Scotia . 10  Nov.

British  Queen,  packet,  from  Ostend  to  Margate,
wrecked  on  the  Goodwin  SansJs,  aad  all  ©n  board
perished 17 Eec-

Duchess  of  Wellington,  at  Calcutta,  by  fire 21  Jan.

Seahorse,  transport,  near  Tramore  Bay ;  365  persons,
chiefly  soldiers  of  the  59th  regiment,  and  most  of
the  crew,  drowned ....  30  Jan.

Lord  Melville  and  Boadicea,  transports,  with  up-
wards of  200  of  the  82nd  regiment,  with  wives  and
children,  lost  near  Kinsale ;  almost  all  perished,

31  Jan.

Harpooner,  transport,  near  Newfoundland ;  200  per-
sons drowned 10  Nov.

William  and  Mary,  packet,  struck  on  the  Willeys
rocks,  near  the  Holmes  lighthouse,  Bristol  Chan-
nel; nearly  60  persons  perished . .  23  Oct.

Queen  Charlotte,  East  Indiaman,  at  Madras ;  all  on
board  perished 24  Oct.

Ariel, in  the  Persian Gulf; 79  souls perished,

18  March,

BlendonHall,  on  Inaccessible  Island,  many  perished,

23  July,

Earl  of  Moira,  on  the  Burbo  Bank,  near  Liverpool
40  drowned 8  Aug.

Juliana,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Kentish  Knock ;  40
drowned 26  Dec.

Thames,  Indiaman,  off  Beachey  Head;  several
drowned 3  Feb.

Drake, 10  guns, near  Halifax;  several drowned,

20  June,

Ellesmere,  steamer;  11  persons  lost .  14  Dec.

Alert,  Dublin  and  Liverpool  packet;  70  souls
perished 26  March,

Robert,  from  Dublin  to  Liverpool ;  60  souls  perished,

16  May,

Kent  (which  see) ;  East  Indiaman  ;  burnt . March

Fanny,  in  Jersey  Roads ;  lord  Harley  and  many
drowned 1  Jan.

Venus',  packet,  from  Waterford  to  Dublin,  near
Gorey ;  9  persons  drowned . . 19  March,

Newry,  from  Newry  to  Quebec,  with  360  passengers ;
cast  away  near  Bardsy,  about  40  persons  were
drowned 16  April,

Lady  Sherbrooke,  from  Londonderry  to  Quebec ;  lost
near  Cape  Ray ;  273  souls  perished ;  32  only  were
saved 19  Aug.

Experiment,  from  Hull  to  Quebec;  wrecked  near
Calais 15  April,

Hibernia,  burnt  in  W.  long.  22°,  S.  lat.  4°;  150  per-
sons (out  of  232)  perished . . . 15  Feb.

Earl  of  Wemyss,  near  Wells,  Norfolk :  the  cabin  filled,
and  11  ladies  and  children  were  drowned;  all  on
deck  escaped 13  July,

Amphitrite,  ship  with  female  convicts  to  New  South
Wales;  lost  on  Boulogne  Sands;  out  of  131  per-
sons, 3  only  were  saved.  . . . . 30  Aug.

United  Kingdom,  W.  Indiaman,  with  rich  cargo ;  run
down  by  the  Queen  of  Scotland  steamer  off  North-
fleet,  near  Gravesend  ....  15  Oct.

Waterwitch,  steamer,  on  the  coast  of  Wexford;  4
drowned 18  Dec.

Lady  Munro,  from  Calcutta  to  Sydney;  of  90
persons  on  board,  not  more  than  20  were  saved,

9  Jan.

Cameleon,  cutter,  run  down  off  Dover  by  the  Castor
frigate;  13  persons  drowned . . 27  Aug.

Earl  of  Eldon  ;  East  Indiaman  ;  burnt . 27  Sept.

Killarney,  steamer,  off  Cork ;  29  persons  perished,

26  Jan.

Forfarshire,  steamer,  from  Hull  to  Dundee ;  38  per-
sons drowned.  Owing  to  the  courage  of  Grace
Darling  and  her  father,  15  persons  were  saved  (see
Forfarshire) 6  Sept.

Protector,  E.  Indiaman,  at  Bengal;  of  178  persons  on
board,  170  perished .... 21  Nov.

Diligence,  naval  cutter,  capt.  sir  J.  Reid,  hart.,  and
56  souls  perish  in  the  Irish  channel . 7  Jan.

William  Huskisson,  steamer,  between  Dublin  and
Liverpool;  93  passengers  saved  by  capt.  Clegg,  of
the  Huddersfield n  Jan.

Lord  William  Bentinck,  off  Bombay;  58  recruits,
20  officers,  and  7  passengers  perished  ;  the  Lord
Castlereagh  also  wrecked,  most  of  her  crew  and
passengers  lost 17  June,

H.M.S.  Fairy,  captain  Hewitt ;  sailed  from  Harwich


1B14
1816


1017
181S
1820
1823


1823:

1825-,
182a

1830
1833s


WEECKS.


1079


WEECKS.


on  a  surveying  cruise,  and  was  lost  next  day  in  a
violent  gale,  off  the  coast  of  Norfolk . 13  Nov.  1840

City  of  Bristol, steam  packet, 35 perished

18  Nov. „

Thames,  steamer,  captain  Gray,  from  Dublin  to
Liverpool,  wrecked  off  St.  Ives ;  the  captain  and
55  persons  perished .... 4  Jan.  1841

Governor  Fenner,  from  Liverpool  for  America ;  run
down  off  Holyhead  by  the  Nottingham  steamer  out
of  Dublin;  122  persons  perished . " 19  Feb. ,,

Amelia,  from  London  to  Liverpool ;  lost  on  the
Heme  Sand 26  Feb. „

President,  steamer,  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,
with  many  passengers  on  board  ;  sailed  on  1 1
March,  encountered  a  terrific  storm  two  days
afterwards,  and  has  never  since  been  heard  of,

13  March, ,,

[In  this  vessel  were,  Mr.  Tyrone  Power,  the  come-
dian ;  a  son  of  the  duke  of  Richmond,  &c]

William  Browne,  by  striking  on  the  ice  ;  16  passen-
gers who  had  been  received  into  the  long  boat
were  thrown  overboard  by  the  crew  to  lighten  her

19  April, ,,

Isabella,  from  London  to  Quebec  ;  struck  by  an
iceberg 9  May, ,,

Solway,  steamer,  on  her  passage  between  Belfast
and  Port  Carlisle  ;  crew  saved . . 25  Aug. ,,

Amanda,  off  Metis ;  29  passengers  and  12  of  the
crew  lost 26  Sept. ,,

James  Cooke, of  Limerick, coming  from  Sligo  to
> Glasgow 21  Nov. ,,

Abercrombie  Robinson  and  Waterloo  transports,  in
Table  Bay,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  :  of  330  persons
on  board  the  latter  vessel,  189,  principally  con-
victs, perished 28  Aug.  1842

Spitfire,  war-steamer,  off  Jamaica . . 10  Sept. „

Reliance,  East  Indiaman,  from  China  to  London,  off
Merlemont,  near  Boulogne  :  of  116  persons  on
board,  seven  only  were  saved . . 13  Nov. .„

Hamilton,  on  the  Gunfleet  sands,  near  Harwich;  11
of  the  crew  perished  ....  15  Nov. „

Conqueror,  East  Indiaman,  homeward  bound,  near
Boulogne  ;  crew  and  passengers  lost . 13  Jan. 1843

Jessie  Logan,  East  Indiaman,  on  the  Cornish  coast ;
many  lives  lost 16  Jan. ,,

Solway,  royal  mail-steamer,  near  Corunna;  28  lives
lost,  and  the  mail .... 7  April, „

Catherine,  trader,  blown  up  off  the  Isle  of  Pines ;
most  of  the  crew  were  massacred  by  the  natives,
or  afterwards  drowned . . .  12  April, ,,

Amelia  Thompson,  near  Madras,  part  of  crew  saved

23  May, ,,

Albert,  troop-ship,  from  Halifax,  with  the  64th
regiment  on  board,  which  was  miraculously  saved

13  July, „

Pegasus,  steam-packet,  from  Leith  ;  off  the  Fern
Islands  ;  of  59  persons  (including  Mr.  Elton,  the
actor),  7  only  were  saved ... 19  July, ,,

Phcenix,  in  a  terrific  snow-storm,  off  the  coast  of
Newfoundland  ;  many  lives  were  lost 26  Nov. ,,

Elberfeldt,  iron  steam-ship,  from  Brielle 22  Feb. 1844

Manchester,  steamer,  from  Hull  to  Hamburg,  off  the
Vogel  Sands,  near  Cuxhaven about  30  lives  lost,

16  June. „

John  Lloyd,  by  collision,  in  the  Irish  sea ;  several
lives  lost 25  Sept.  1845

Margaret,  Hull  and  Hamburg  steamer  ;  many  lives
lost .  ...... 22  Oct. ,,

Tweed,  steamer ;  off  Yucatan  . . 12  Feb. 1846

Great  Britain,  iron  steam-ship,  grounded  in  Dun-
drum  bay  (see  Great  Britain)  . . .22  Sept. ,,
[Recovered  by  Brunei,  &c,  27  Aug.  1847.]

Tweed, W. India  mail-packet ;  72  souls  perished,

19  Feb. 1847
Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to

Quebec  ;  of  240  persons  on  board,  nearly  all  were

drowned 28  April, ,,

Carrick, brig  ; a  gale in  the  St.  Lawrence  ; 170

emigrants  perished  ....  19  .May,  ,,
Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of

Africa; officers  and  crew  (nearly  200)  lost

20  Dee. ,,
Ocean  Monarch  (»>7i  ich  see)  . . . . 24  Aug. 1848
Forth,  steamer ;  off  Campeachy . . 13  Jan.  1849
Caleb  Grimshaw,  emigrant-ship,  fire;  400  persons

miraculously  escaped  ....  12  Nov.  ,,
Royal  Adelaide,  steamer,  wrecked  on  the  Tongue


Sands, off  Margate, above  400  lives  lost,

30  March,  1850
Orion, steam-ship, off Portparrick  (see Orion),

18  June, ,,
Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number  of  the  crew

drowned 9  Sept. „

Edmund,  emigrant-ship,  with  nearly  200  passengers
from  Limerick  to  New  York  (of  whom  more  than
one-half  perished),  wrecked  off  the  Western  coast
of  Ireland 12  Nov. ,,

Amazon, W. India mail-steamer (see Amazon),

4  Jan. 1852

Birkenliead,  troop-ship,  iron  paddle-wheeled,  and
of  556  horse-power,  sailed  from  Queenstown,  7
Jan.  1852,  for  the  Cape,  having  on  board  detach-
ments of  the  12th  Lancers,  2nd,  6th,  12th,  43rd,
45th,  and  60th  Rifles,  73rd,  74th,  and  91st  regi-
ments. It  struck  upon  a  pointed  pinnacle  rock
off  Simon's  bay,  South  Africa,  and  of  638  persons
only  184  were  saved  by  the  boats  ;  454  of  the  crew
and  soldiers  perished . . . .26  Feb. ,,

Victoria,  steam-packet,  wrecked  near  Wings  beacon
off  Gottenburg  ;  many  lives  lost .  8,  9  Nov. „

Lily,  stranded  and  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  on  the
Calf-of-Man ;  by  which  more  than  30  persons
lost  their  lives 24  Dee. ,,

St.  George,  steam-ship,  bound  from  Liverpool  to
New  York,  with  121  emigrant  passengers  (chiefly
Irish),  and  a  crew  consisting  of  twenty-nine  sea-
men (the  captain  inclusive),  was  destroyed  by  fire
at  sea.  The  crew  and  seventy  of  the  passengers
were  saved  by  the  American  ship  Orlando,  and
conveyed  to  Havre,  in  France;  51  supposed  to
have  perished 24  Dec. ,,

Queen  Victoria,  steam-ship,  bound  from  Liverpool,
was  wrecked  off  the  Bailey  lighthouse,  near  Dub-
lin ;  mistook  her  course  in  a  snow-storm  :  67  lost
out  of  120 15  Fen. 1853

Independence,  on  the  coast  of  Lower  California,  and
which  afterwards  took  fire  :  140  persons  were
drowned  or  burnt  to  death,  a  few  escaping,  who
underwent  the  most  dreadful  additional  sufferings
on  a  barren  shore .... 16  Feb. ,,

Duke  of  Sutherland,  steamer,  from  London  to  Aber-
deen ;  struck  on  the  pier  at  Aberdeen,  and  the
captain  (Edward  Howling)  and  16  (of  the  crew
and  passengers)  perished . . .1  April, ,,

Rebecca,  on  west  coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  capt.
Shephard  and  many  lives  lost . . 29  April, ,,

William  and  Mary,  an  American  emigrant  ship,
near  the  Bahamas.  She  struck  on  a  sunken  rock ;
about  170  persons  perished . . . 3  May, „

Aurora,  of  Hull ;  sailed  from  New  York,  26  April,
and  foundered  ;  about  25  lives  lost . 20  May, ,,

Boumeuf,  Australian  emigrant  vessel ;  struck  on  a
reef  near  Torres  Straits  ;  the  captain  (Bibby)  and
six  lives  lost 3  Aug. ,,

Annie  Jane,  of  Liverpool,  an  emigrant  vessel,
driven  on  shore  on  the  Barra  Islands,  on  west
coast  of  Scotland ;  about  348  lives  lost 29  Sept. „

Harwood,  brig,  by  collision  with  the  Trident
steamer,  near  the  Mouse  light  near  the  Nore  ;
foundered;  six  of  the  crew  perished . 5  Oct. „

Dalhousie,  foundered  off  Beachey  Head  :  the  cap-
tain (Butterworth),  the  passengers,  and  all  the
crew  (excepting  one),  about  60  persons  in  all,
perished  ;  the  cargo  was  valued  at  above  100,000?.

19  Oct. „

Marshall,  screw-steamer,  in  the  North  Sea',  ran
into  the  barque  IVoodhonse ;  about  48  persons
supposed  to  have  perished . .  28  Nov. ,,

Tayleur,  emigrant  ship,  driven  on  the  rocks  off
Lambay  Island,  north  of  Howth  ;  about  380  lives
lost 20  Jan. 1854*

Fa  von  rile,  in  the  Channel,  on  her  way  from  Bremen
to  Baltimore,  came  into  violent  contact  with  the
American  barque  Hesper,  off  the  Start,  and  imme-
diately went  down; 201  persons  were  drowned

20  April, ,,

Lady  Nugent,  troop-ship,  sailed from Madras, 10

May.  1S54;  foundered in a  hurricane;  350  rank

anil  file  of  the  Madras  light  infantry,  officers,  and

crew,  in  all  400  souls,  perished . .  May, ,,

Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a

*  Arctic,  U.S.  mail  strainer,  by  collision  in  a  fog  with
the  l'i  :tn,  French  steamer,  oil' Newfoundland;  above  300
lives  lost,  27  Sept.  1854.


WEECKS.


1080


WRECKS.


sunken  rock  off  St.  Lorenzo,  Madeira,  and  went
down  directly  afterwards,  with  the  total  loss  of
ship  and  mails,  and  14  lives . .  25  Oct. 1854

Nile,  iron  screw-steamer,  struck  on  the  Godevry
rock,  St.  Ives'  Bay,  and  all  perished . 30  Nov. ,,

City  of  Glasgow,  a  Glasgow  steamer,  with  480  persons
on  board,  disappeared  in ,,

In  the  storm  which  raged  in  the  Black  Sea,  13-16
Nov.  1854,  eleven  transports  were  wrecked  and
six  disabled.  The  new  steamship  Prince  was  lost
with  144  lives,  and  a  cargo  worth  500,000?.  indis-
pensable to  the  army  in  the  Crimea.  The  loss
of  life  in  the  other  vessels  is  estimated  at  340 . „

George  Canning,  Hamburg  and  New  York  packet,
near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  :  96  lives  lost,  and
Stately,  English  schooner,  nearNeuwiek,  in  a  great
storm 1  Jan.  1855

Mercury,  screw-steamer,  by  collision  with  a  French
ship :  passengers  saved . . .  11  Jan.

Janet  Boyd,  bark,  in  a  storm  off  Margate  Sands  ;  28
lives  lost 20  Jan.

Will  0'  the  Wisp,  screw-steamer,  on  the  Burn  Rock,
off  Lambay ;  18  lives  lost  ... 9  Feb.

Morna,  steamer  on  rocks  near  the  Isle  of  Man ;  21
lives  lost 25  Feb.

John,  emigrant  vessel,  on  the  Muncles  rocks  off
Falmouth  ;  200  lives  lost . . . .1  May,

Pacific,  Collins  steamer,  left  Liverpool  for  New
York,  with  186  persons  on  board ;  never  since
heard  of  (supposed  to  have  struck  on  an  iceberg)

23  Jan.  1851
.Josephine  Willis,  packet-ship,  lost  by  collision  with
the  screw-steamer  Mangerton,  in  the Channel ;

about  70  lives  lost 3  Feb. „

.John  Rutledge,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  ran  on
an  iceberg  and  was  wrecked ; many  lives  lost

20  Feb. ,,
'.  Many  vessels  and  their  crews  totally  lost 1-8  Jan. 1857'

Violet,  royal  mail-steamer,  lost  on  the  Goodwin ;
many  persons  perished  ... 5  Jan. „

Tyne,  royal-steamer,  stranded  on  her  way  to  South-
ampton from  the  Brazils . . .  13  Jan. „

St.  Andrew,  screw-steamer,  totally  wrecked  near

Latakia  ;  loss  about  145,000?. . , 29  Jan.

■  Charlemagne,  iron  clipper,  wrecked  by  the  coast  of

Canton:  passengers  saved;  loss,  about  110,000?.

20  March, ,,

H.M.S.  Raleigh,  50  guns,  wrecked  on  south-east
coast  of  Macao 14  April,

Catherine  Adamson,  Australian  vessel,  wrecked
25  miles  from  Sydney,  20  lives  lost

about  3  June, ,,

Erin,  P.  &  O.  Co's  steamer,  wrecked  on  coast  of
Ceylon junej it

H.M.S.  Transit,  wrecked  on  a  reef  in  the  Straits  of
Banca 10  July, „

Dunbar,  clipper  wrecked  on  the  rocks  near  Sydney  :
121  persons,  and  cargo  valued  at  22,000?.,  lost ;
one  person  only  saved,  who  was  on  the  rocks  30
hours 20  Aug. „

Sarah  Sands,  an  iron  screw-steamer,  sailed  from
Portsmouth  to  Calcutta,  in  Aug.  1857  '•  3°°  soldiers
on  board.  On  n  Nov.  the  cargo  (government
stores)  took  fire.  By  the  exertions  of  major  Brett
and  captain  Castle,  the  master  of  the  vessel,  who
directed  the  soldiers  and  the  crew,  the  flames
were  subdued,  although  a  barrel  of  gunpowder
.exploded  during  the  conflagration.  A  new  danger
then  arose— the  prevalence  of  a  strong  gale  •  water
was  shipped  heavily  where  the  port  quarter  had
been  blown  out.  Nevertheless,  after  a  fearful
struggle,  the  vessel  arrived  at  the  Mauritius  21
Nov.,  without  losing  a  single  life  n-2i  Nov

Windsor,  emigrant-ship,  struck  on  a  reef  near  the "

Cape  de  Verde  Islands ...  j  j)ec

Ava,  Indian  mail-steamer,  with  ladies  and  others "
from  Lucknow  on  board,  wrecked  near  Ceylon

Eastern  City,  burnt  about  the  equator  on  herNvayto  *  '
Melbourne  ;  by  great  exertions  all  on  board  were


saved


23,  24  Aug


Austria,  steam-emigrant  ship,  burnt  in  the  middle


A  large  American  vessel,  Northern  Belle  was
wrecked  near  Broadstairs,  The  American  government
sent  21  silver  medals  and  27ol.  to  be  distributed  among
the  heroic  boatmen  of  the  place,  who  saved  the  cre\v°
5  6  Jan.  1857.


of  the  Atlantic. Of  538  persons  on  board,  only
67  were  saved. The  disaster  due  to  carelessness

13  Sept.  1858

St.  Paul,  captain  Pennard,  from  Hong  Kong  to
Sydney,  with  327  Chinese  emigrants,  wrecked  on
the  island  of  Rossel,  30  Sept.  1858.  The  captain
and  eight  of  the  crew  left  the  island  in  search  of
assistance,  and  were  picked  up  by  the  Prince  of
Denmark  schooner.  The  French  steamer  Styx  was
despatched  to  the  island,  and  brought  away  one
Chinese,  25  Jan.  1859.  All  the  rest  had  been
massacred  and  devoured  by  the  natives . . ,,

Czar,  steamer,  wrecked  off  the  Lizard ;  14  lives  lost

23  Jan.  1859*

Eastern  Monarch,  burnt  at  Spithead ;  out  of  500,
eight  lives  lost.  The  vessel  contained  invalid
soldiers  from  India,  who,  with  the  crew,  behaved
admirably 2  June, ,,

Alma,  steamer,  grounded  on  a  reef  near  Aden,  Bed
Sea,  about  35  miles  from  Mocha ;  all  persons
saved ;  after  35  days'  exposure  to  the  sun,  with-
out water,  they  were  rescued  by  H.M.S.  Cyclops:
sir  John  Bowring,  who  was  on  board,  lost  valua-
ble papers 12  June, ,,

Admelia,  steamer,  running  between  Melbourne  and
Adelaide,  struck  on  a  reef ;  of  about  72  persons,
only  23  were  saved;  many  perished  through  ex-
posure to  cold 6  Aug. „

Royal  Charter,  screw-steamer,  captain  Taylor,  totally
wrecked  off  Moelfra,  on  the  Anglesea  coast ;  446
lives  lost.  The  vessel  contained  gold  amounting
in  value  to  between  700,000?.  and  800,000?.  ;  much
of  this  has  been  recovered night  of  25-26  Oct. ,,

Indian,  mail-steamer,  wrecked  off  the  coast  of
Newfoundland ;  out  of  116,  27  lives  lost 21  Nov. ,,

Blervie  Castle,  sailed  from  London  docks  for
Adelaide ;  lost  in  the  Channel  and  all  on  board,
57  persons ;  last  seen  on . . . 25  Dec. ,,

Northerner,  steamer,  wrecked  on  a  rock  near  Cape
Mendorino,  between  San  Francisco  and  Oregon  ;
38  lives  lost 6  Jan.  i860

Endymion,  sailing-vessel,  burnt  in  the  Mersey ;  loss
above  20,000?.  ..... 31  Jan. ,,

Dreadful  gales; and  many  wrecks  on  the  coast, t

15-19  Feb. ,,

Ondine,  steamer;  lost  through  collision  with  the
Heroine,  of  Bideford,  abreast  of  Beachey  Head ;
the  captain  and  about  50  persons  perished  19  Feb. „

Luna,  American  emigrant  vessel,  wrecked  on  rocks
off  Barfleur ;  about  100  lives  lost .  19  Feb. ,,

Hungarian,  new  mail-steamer,  wrecked  off  coast  of
Nova  Scotia ;  all  on  board  (205)  lost  on  the  night  of

19-20  Feb. „

Nimrod,  steamer,  wrecked  on  rocks  near  St.  David's
Head ;  40  lives  lost 28  Feb. „

Malabar,  iron  ship,  on  her  way  to  China,  with  lord
Elgin  and  baron  Gros :  wrecked  off  Point  de  Galle,
Ceylon.  The  ambassadors  displayed  much  heroism ;
no  lives  lost.  Of  much  specie  sunk,  a  good  deai
was  recovered  .....  72  May,  ,,
Lady  Elgin,  an  American  steamer,  sunk  through
collision  with  schooner  Augusta  on  lake  Michigan ;
of  385  persons  on  board,  287  were  lost,  including
Mr.  Herbert  Ingram,  M.P.,  founder  of  the  "Illus-
trated London  News,"  and  his  son;  morning  of

8  Sept. „

Arctic,  Hull  steamer,  wrecked  off  Jutland;  many

persons  saved  by  Mr.  Earle,  who  lost  his  own  life

while  endeavouring  to  save  others . . 5  Oct. , ,

Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew  saved through

the  gallantry  of  the  crew  of  an  American  brig,

7  Oct. ,,
Juanita,  wrecked  through  collision  with  an  Ameri-
can vessel,  Joseph  Fish,  13  lives  lost . 15  March,  1861
Canadian,  steamer,  struck  on  a  field  of  ice  in  the
straits  of  Belle-isle,  and  foundered  in  half  an  hour ;
35  lives  lost 4  June, ,,


*  Pomona,  an  American  ship,  captain  Merrihew ;  419
persons  on  board,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York ;  was
wrecked  on  Blackwater  Bank,  through  the  master
mistaking  the  Blackwater  for  the  Tuskar  light,  only  24
persons  saved,  night  of  27-28  April,  1859.

t  American  barque  Lima,  with  emigrants,  wrecked  off
Barfleur ;  above  100  lives  lost,  17  Feb.  i860.  Ou  the
same  rock,  on  25  Nov.  1120,  was  wrecked  the  Blanche
Nef,  containing  the  children  of  Henry  I.  and  a  large
number  of  attendants  ;  in  all  363  persons  perished.


WEECKS.


1081


WRECKS.


H.M.8.  Conqueror,  stranded  on  Rum  Cay,  near
Bahamas,  and  lost  [the  captain  and  master  were
censured  for  neglect  of  duty] . .  29  Dec. 1861

Harmony,  lost  with  all  hands  off  Plymouth 27  Feb.  1862

Ocean  Monarch,  2195  tons,  sailed  from  New  York,
5  March,  laden  with  provisions ;  foundered  in  a
gale 9  March, „

Upwards  of  60  merchantmen  lost  during  gales  in

March, ,,

Mars,  Waterford  steamer,  struck  on  a  rock  near
Milford  haven ;  about  50  lives  lost . . April, ,,

Bencoolen,  East  Indiaman,  1400  tons ;  struck  on
sands  near  Bude  haven,  Cornwall ;  about  26  lives
lost 19  Oct. ,,

Lotus,  merchantman,  off  Chale  Bay,  in  the  great
storm;  crew  all  lost  except  two . . 19  Oct. ,,

Many  vessels  lost  during  storm . . .19  Oct. „

Colombo,  Bast  India  mail  steamer,  in  thick  weather,
wrecked  on  Minicoy  Island;  440  miles  from  Point
de  Galle,  Ceylon;  no  lives  lost  (the  crew  and  pas-
sengers taken  off  by  the  Ottawa  from  Bombay,
30  Nov.) 19  Nov. ,,

Lifeguard,  steamer,  left  Newcastle,  with  about  41
passengers;  never  since  heard  of;  supposed  to
nave  foundered  off  Flamborough  head 20  Dec. ,,

Orpheus,  H. M.S.  steamer,  new  vessel,  1700  tons;
commander  Burnett ;  wrecked  on  Manakau  bar,
W.  coast  New  Zealand ;  70  persons  saved ;  about
190  perished 7  Feb.  1S63

Anglo-Saxon,  mail  steamer,  captain  Burgess,  in
dense  fog,  wrecked  on  reef  off  Cape  Race,  New-
foundland ; about 237,  out  of  446,  lives  lost,

27  April, „

All  Serene,  Australian  ship;  gale  in  the  Pacific;
above  30  lives  lost  (the  survivors  suffered  much
till  they  reached  the  Fiji  isles  in  a  punt) 21  Feb. 1864

Many  shipwrecks  in  consequence  of  the  cyclone  at
Calcutta 5  Oct. ,,

H.M.S.  Racehorse,  off  Chefoo  Cape,  Chinese  coast;

99  lives  lost 4  Nov. „

The  Stanley,  Friendship,  &o. ,  in  the  gale  off  Tyne-

mouth  ;  and  the  Dalhousie,  screw  steamer,  mouth
of  the  Tay ;  same  gale  ;  34  lives  lost  24  Nov. ,,

H.M.S.  Bombay,  burnt  off  Flores  Island,  near
Monte  Fideo;  91  lives  lost . . .  14  Dec. ,,

Lelia,  cutter,  off  Great  Orme's  Head,  during  a  gale  ;
several  lives  lost ;  7  persons  drowned  by  upsetting
of  the  life-boat 14  Jan. 1865

Eagle  Speed,  emigrant  vessel,  foundered  near  Cal-
cutta; 265  coolies  drowned;  great  cruelty  and
neglect  imputed . ^ . . . 24  Aug. „

Duncan  Dunbar,  wrecked  on  a  reef  at  Las  Rooas,
S.  America ;  no  lives  lost . . . 7  Oct. „

Samphire,  mail-steamer;  collision  with  an  American
barque;  several  lives  lost . . . 13  Dec. „

Ibis,  steamer,  machinery  damaged,  off  Ballycroneen
bay  ;  15  lives  lost;  sailed  from  Cork  . .  18 Dec. „

London,  steamer,  on  her  way  to  Melbourne;  foun-
dered in  Bay  of  Biscay;  about  220  persons
perished  (including  captain  Martin,  Dr.  Woolley,
principal  of  the  university  of  Sydney,  G.  V.
Brooke,  the  tragedian);  about  the  same  time  the

Amalia  steamer  went  down  with  a  cargo  worth
200,000?.  ;  no  lives  lost . . . .11  Jan.  1866

Many  wrecks  and  much  loss  of  life  during  gales,
especially  off  Torbay . . . .  6-11  Jan. ,,

Spirit  of  the  Ocean,  steamer;  wrecked  on  a  rock
near  Dartmouth ;  all  lost  except  4 . 23  March, „

General  Grant,  on  voyage  from  Melbourne  to  London,
wrecked  off  Auckland  isles;  only  13  out  of  about

100  saved May, ,,

Amazon, H.M. screw  sloop, and screw  steamer

Osprey,  sunk  by  collision  near  Plymouth  ;  several

passengers  and  sailors  drowned . 10  July, ,,
Bruiser,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  the  Has-

well,  off  Aldborough;  about  15  lives  lost 19  Aug. ,,
Bhima,  Indian  steamer;  foundered  through  collision

with  Nana,  steamer,  between  Bombay  and  Suez;

19  lives  lost n  Sept. ,,

H.M.S. Berenice, burnt  in Persian Gulf; none

perished 13  Oct. ,,

Ceres, near  Canisoe, Ireland; about  36  lives  lost

[captain  Pascoe  censured  for  neglecting  to  sound]

10  Nov.
Many  wrecks  in  the  Channel . . .5,6  Jan. 1867
James  Crosjield,  iron  ship ;  wrecked  off  Langness,  [sle

of  Man ;  all  on  board  lost ....  5  Jan. ,,
Singapore,  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamer,  struck


on  a  sunken  rock,  and  went  down  ;  no  lives  lost,

20  Aug. 1867
Rhone  and  Wye,  Royal  Mail  steamers,  totally  lost,
and  about  50  other  vessels  driven  ashore ;  great
loss  of  life  by  a  hurricane,  off  St.  Thomas  (see
Virgin  Islands) 29  Oct. ,,

Hibernia,  screw  steamer ;  the  shaft  of  screw  pro-
peller broke,  600  miles  off  coast  of  Ireland ;  many
lives  lost . . . . 24  or  25  Oct.  or  Nov. 1868

Many  wrecks  on  the  Cornish  coast  during  a  gale,

19-20  March,  1869

Italian,  merchant  steamer,  struck  on  a  rock  near
Finisterre ;  about  26  lives  lost about  21  March. ,,

Camatic,  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamer,  wrecked
off  Shadwan  in  the  gulf  of  Suez  ;  about  25  lives  lost,

13  Sept. ,,

Oneida,  American  vessel,  run  down  by  collision  with
P.  &  O.  steamer  Bombay  off  Yokohama ;  about  115
lives  lost  (captain  of  Bombay  suspended  for  6
months) 24  Jan. 1870

City  of  Boston,  sailed  from  New  York,  long  miss-
ing; a  board  stating  that  she  was  sinking
found  in  Cornwall ....  n  Feb. ,,

Normandy,  S.  W.  company's  steamer,  by  collision
with  the  steamer  Mar  y,  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  sunk ;
the  captain,  C.  B.  Harvey,  and  33  others  perish,

17  March, „

H.M.S.  Slaney,  wrecked  by  a  typhoon  near  Hong
Kong ;  about  42  lives  lost . . . .  9  May, ,,

H.M.S.  Captain,  iron-clad,  sank  in  a  squall  off
Finisterre  (see  Navy  of  England) . . 7  Sept.

Cambria,  iron  screw-steamer,  lost  in  a  storm  off
Inishtrahul  island,  N.W.  Ireland;  about  170  lives
lost 19  Oct. „

Queen  of  the  Thames,  magnificent  vessel,  Sailed  from
London  to  Sydney  by  the  Cape  in  58  days ;  re-
turning, was  lost  by  striking  on  sands  off  Cape
Agulhas,  Africa;  4  lives  and  valuable  cargo  lost;
the  captain  was  censured  ... 18  March.  1871

Cornwall,  wrecked  by  collision  with  the  Himalaya
steamer  off  Hartlepool . . . 19  March. ,,

Megrera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed
with  about  400  on  board  for  Australia,  Feb.  1871;
sprang  a  leak,  8  June;  when  it  was  discovered
that  her  bottom  was  nearly  worn  away  by  corro-
sion ;  she  was  beached  on  St.  Taul's  Isle,  in  the
Indian  ocean,  16  June ;  huts  were  erected,  and  the
crew  settled,  and  stores  landed ;  lieut.  Jones  was
taken  on  board  a  Dutch vessel, 16  July; the
Oberon  brought  provisions,  26  Aug. ;  the  crew  was
carried  off  during  a  storm,  the  stores  being  left
behind,  by  the  Malacca ... 3  Sept. „
[The  vessel  was  reported  unfit  for  service  in
1867;  capt.  Thrupp  was  tried  and  acquitted
of  blame,  17  Nov.;  sir  Spencer  Robinson  and
various  admiralty  officials  were  censured  by  a
government  commission,  6  March,  1872.]

Rangoon,  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamer,  valued
at  78,000^.,  wrecked  on  Kadir  rock,  off  Point  de
Galle;  cargo  lost;  no  lives  lost . . 1  Nov. „

Norfolk  Hero,  fishing  lugger,  lost  off  Norfolk  coast,

2  Dec. ,,

Delaware,  large  steamer;  wrecked  off  Scilly  rocks;
only  2  out  of  47  saved .... 20  Dec. ,,

Severe  gales;  many  wrecks,  and  lives  lost.

Kinsale,  steamer,  off  Waterford  ;  Albion,  schooner,
otTLooe;  Dee,  schooner,  <fec. . . 22-23  Nov. 1872

Royal  Adelaide,  emigrant  vessel;  went  ashore  on
Chesil  beach,  between  Weymouth  and  Portland  ;
5  lost 25  Nov. ,,

Germania,  mail  packet;  wrecked  off  La  Roehelle;
about  24  perished .... 21  Dec. ,,

Northfleet,  vessel  laden  with  railway  iron  for  Van
Diemen's  Land,  and  railway  navvies,  run  into  by
a  foreign  steamer  (probably  the  Murillo,*  a
Spanish  vessel)  off  Dungeness,  about  10.30  p.m.;
about  300  lost 22  Jan.  1873

Clinriihiirtt,  iron  ship;  sunk  in  the  Channel,  15  miles
from  Orme's  head,  by  collision  with  the  Torch
steamer;  24  lost . . . . 1  March, ,,

Boync,  barque;  wrecked  off  Moliilo  bay,  Cornwall;
about  20  lost 1  March, ,,

Atlantic,  steamer,  of  White  Star  company,  struck
on  Meagher  rock,  west  of  Sambro;  said  to  have


*  This  vessel  was  captured  near  Dover,  22  Kept,  and
condemned  by  the  couH  of  admiralty  to  be  sold;  (the

officers  severely  censured)  ;  4  Nov.  1873.


WEECKS.


1082


WEECKS.


fallen  short  of  coals  steaming  for  Halifax;  442
(including  capt.  Williams)  saved  ;  about  560  lost,
1  April,  1873 ;  many  on  the  rigging  perished
through  cold  and  want.  The  case  was  investi-
gated, and  the  captain  was  suspended  for  two
years 18  April,  1873

Eden,  ship,  with  150  tons  of  gunpowder,  sailing  for
Valparaiso  ;  set  on  fire  by  her  mad  captain,  and
blew  up  :  (the  crew  in  a  boat  were  rescued  by  the
Juanita) 7,  8  Nov. „

Nagpore,  from  Calcutta,  took  fire  and  ran  into  Kings-
town harbour,  doing  much  damage  till  it  went  to
pieces  ;  the  captain  of  the  Echo  and  some  sailors
were  drowned 9  Nov. ,,

Lochearn  lost,  through  collision  with  the  Ville  de
Havre  (which  see),  22  Nov.  ;  quitted  by  her  crew

28  Nov. „

Ella,  London  and  Hamburg  steamer  ;  crew,  32  ;  left
Thames  14  Dec,  supposed  to  have  foundered  in  a
gale 16  Dec. „

Queen  Elizabeth,  Glasgow  steamer  from  India ;  went
ashore  near  Tarifa ;  about  20  perished  ;  middle  of

March,  1874

Tacna,  steamer,  from  Valparaiso  ;  foundered  ;  about
19  lost  (see  Chili) March, „

Liberia,  British  and  African  Steam-ship  Co.  ;
wrecked  by  collision  with  Barton  steamer,  off
Scilly  isles ;  probably  all  lost  on  boaxd  both  vessels

about  13  April, ,,

British  Admiral,  emigrant  ship  ;  wrecked  on  King's
island,  Bass's  strait ;  about  80  out  of  89  lost

23  May, „

Milbanke,  iron  steamer  ;  laden  with  zinc  from  Car-
thagena  ;  sunk  through  collision  with  Hankow
steamer  off  Dungeness  ;  14  perish ;  1.30  a.m.

28  July, „

Calcutta,  ship,  from  Shields  to  Aden ;  took  fire  ;
nearly  all  lost . . . .  about  n  Sept. „

Malvern,  barque,  from  Sunderland  ;  foundered  off
Singapore  ;  all  hands  lost  ... 23  Sept. ,,

Kingsbridge,  iron  ship,  sunk  off  the  Lizards,  by  col-
lision with  the  Candahar,  iron  ship  ;  the  master,
his  wife  and  daughter,  and  8  of  the  crew  perish

14  Oct. ,,

Maju,  iron  ship,  of  London  ;  new  clipper ;  wrecked
off  the  Hebrides  in  a  gale ;  crew,  about  24,  lost

20  Oct. „

Chusan,  from  Glasgow  for  Shanghai ;  sunk  in  a  gale
off  Ardrossan  ;  about  7  lost . . .20  Oct.

Cutter  of  H.M.S.  Aurora  swamped  in  the  Clyde;
is  lost ig  Nov. „

La  Plata,  steamer  (capt.  Dudden),  1600  tons  ;  sailed
from  Gravesend  with  telegraph  cable  for  Brazil,
26  Nov. ;  foundered  in  a  gale  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ;
17  escape  out  of  85 . . . .29  Nov.

Cospatrick,  emigrant  vessel  (capt.  Emslie),  on  her
way  to  Auckland,  New  Zealand  ;  took  fire,  mid-
night, 17-18  Nov.  ;  only  5  or  6  (out  of  476)  escaped  ;
picked  up,  27  Nov.  ; arrived  at  St.  Helena

6  Dec. „

Japan,  Pacific  Mail  steamer,  from  Yokohama  ;  took
fire  off  Hong  Kong  ;  many  lost about  17  Dec. „

Delfine,  steamer ;  struck  on  sunken  rock,  west  coast
of  Africa  ;  nearly  all  lost

Scorpio,  steamer,  from  Cardiff  to  Charente ;  not
heard  of,  30  Dec 4  Dec.

Cortes,  of  London,  foundered  in  Bay  of  Biscay';
laden  with  coal  for  Aden  ;  capt.  E.  King  ;  about

Ir25  lost 16  Dec. „

Hong  Kong,  steamer  ;  wrecked  on  sunken  rock  near
Aden  ;  about  12  lost  .... 22  Feb.  1875*

Stuart  Hahnemann,  sailed  from  Bombay,  4  April ;
capsized ;  about  40  drowned ;  (some  rescued  by
Blandina,  Austrian  barque,  27  April) .  14  April

Cadiz,  London  steamer  ;  wrecked  on  Wizard  Rock '
Brest ;  about  62  lost 8  May'

Vicksburg,  steamer,  left  Quebec,  27  May ;  struck  on '
ice,  30  May  ;  sank, 1  June  ;  between  40  and  50
l0^ 1  June, ,,

btrathmore,  emigrant  vessel,  wrecked  in  a  fog  near
the  Crozet  isles,  South  Indian  ocean,  on  way  to
New  Zealand  ;  45  out  of  89  lost . . 1  July,

Boyne,  mail  steamer,  from  Brazil ;  ran  on  a  rock '


*  Schiller,  Hamburg  mail  steamer ;  wrecked  in  a  fog,
on  rocks  off  the  Scilly  isles  ;  about  331  drowned,  7  May
1875-


during  a  fog,  15  miles  off  Ushant ;  2  lives  lost

13  Aug.  1875

Mistletoe,  Mr.  Heywood's  pleasure  yacht ;  sunk  by
collision  with  H.M.'s  steamer,  Alberta  (the  queen
on  board) ;  in  the  Solent ;  near  Isle  of  Wight ;
Miss  Annie  Peel  and  two  others  drowned

18  Aug.  „
[Coroner's  inquest  on  Nathaniel  Turner  ;  ver-
dict, accidental  death,  with  a  note  alleging
error  of  navigating  officers,  10  Sept ;  another
inquest,  closed  without  verdict,  7  Dec.  1875  ;
captain  Welch,  of  the  Alberta,  was  repri-
manded ;  3000Z.  paid  to  Mr.  Heywood,  and
others  compensated  ;  announced,  April,i876.]
See  under  Navy  of  England.

H.M.S.  Vanguard,  double-screw  iron-clad,  3774
tons ;  cost  about  350,000?.  (captain  Dawkins)
struck  by  ram  of  the  Iron  Duke  during  a  fog  off
the  coast  of  Wieklow ;  crew  (about  400)  saved  ;
50  in.  past  noon 1  Sept. „

Pacific,  steamer,  from  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  to
California  ;  foundered  off  Cape  Flattery  ;  above
150  lost about  4  Nov. „

Goliath,  old  man-of-war,  fitted  up  as  a  training-ship
for  poor  boys  ;  burnt  through  a  lamp  falling  on
the  dirty  floor  of  the  lamp-room  ;  about  a  dozen
lives  lost  out  of  about  500  ;  the  boys  were  highly
commended  for  their  courage  and  discipline  under
the  command  of  captain  Bourchier . 22  Dec. ,,

Many  wrecks  autumn  and  winter,  1875.  *

Warspite,  old  training-ship  of  the  Marine  Society's
boys,  on  the  Thames  between  Woolwich  and
Charlton,  burnt ;  no  loss  of  life  ;  good  discipline
shown 3  Jan.  1876

Strathclyde,  Glasgow  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with
Hamburg  ship  Franconia,  in  Dover  bay,  in  day-
light; about  17  lost;  (verdict  of  manslaughter
against  Kuhn,  captain  of  Franconia  t)  . 17  Feb. „

Edith,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  the  Duchess
of  Sutherland  (both  owned  by  the  London  and
North  Western  Railway  Company)  off  St.  John's
Point,  Ireland  ;  2  lives  lost. . .  8  Sept. „

Shannon,  mail  steamer  ;  struck  on  a  shoal,  80  miles
S.S.W.  of  Port  Royal, Jamaica ;  no  lives  lost,

8  Sept. „

Western  Empire,  in  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  a  leak  sprung,
13  Sept.  ; vessel  left  (10  lost) . .  18  Sept. ,,

Great  Queensland,  with  impure  patent  gunpowder,
and  ordinary  gunpowder  ;  569  persons  on  board  ;
sailed  for  Melbourne,  5  Aug.  ;  supposed  to  have
exploded  (pieces  of  wreck  found),  near  Finisterre

after  12  Aug. ,,
[Verdict  of  wreck  commission  against  owners,
21  July,  1877.]

St.  Lawrence,  troop-ship,  capt.  Hyde  ;  ran  aground
in  St.  Helena's  bay,  Africa  ;  no  loss  of  life  8  Nov. ,,

Ambassador,  steamer ;  sunk  by  collision  with  an
American  ship,  George  Manson,  returning  from
Calcutta;  lat.  58°  6'  N.,  Ion.  730  27'  E. ;  23  lost
(crew,  43) 25  Dec. ,,

Cairo,  iron  ship ;  bound  for  Australia ;  carried
much  gunpowder ;  (said  to  have  been  wrecked
off  Tristan  or  Gough  island)  ;  disappeared  about
middle  of Jan.  1877

Cashmere,  steamer  (British  India  Steam  Navigation
company) ;  wrecked  off  Guardaf ui ;  7  drowned

12  July, „

Eten,  steam  ship  (Euglish  Pacific  Steam  Navigation
company) ;  wrecked  about  70  miles  N.  of  Valpa-
raiso ;  about  100  (of  160)  lost ;  many  rescued  by
H.M.S.  Amethyst .... 15  July, ,,

Avalanche,  emigrant  iron  vessel ;  from  London  to
New  Zealand  ;  above  100  on  board  ;  struck  by
Forest  (of  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia),  21  crew  ;  both
sank  ;  about  12  lives  saved;  in  channel,  15  miles
S.  by  W.  of  Portland,  9.15  p.m.  . 11  Sept. „

Many  losses  by  severe  gale . . 14,  15  Oct. „


*  Deutschland,  fine  Atlantic  steamer,  from  Bremen  to
New  York,  during  a  gale,  went  on  sandbank,  the  Kentish
Knock,  at  mouth  of  the  Thames  ;  about  70  lost  (many
emigrants),  6  Dec.  1875.  The  Liverpool,  tug  steamer,
saved  a  great  many  lives  ;  on  investigation,  it  was  shown
that  there  had  been  no  delay  in  helping,  and  no  robbery,
31  Dec.  The  captain  censured  for  error  in  navigation,
and  want  of  judgment.

t  Verdict  quashed  on  appeal  ;  7  judges  (against  6),
decide  against  British  jurisdiction,  13  Nov.  1876.


WKECKS.


1083


WRECKS.


Knapton  Hall,  steamer  ;  sank  through  collision  with
Lochfyne,  to  whose  assistance  she  was  coming  ;  9

perish 15  Oct.  1877

Atacama,  steamer  ;  wrecked  22  miles  S.  of  Caldera,

near  Copiapo  ;  about  104  lost . end  of  Nov. „
European,  Clyde  steamer,  from  Algoa  Bay  ;  wrecked

off  Ushant ;  diamonds,  &c,  lost ;  no  lives  5  Dec. „
Mizpah,  steamer  ;  sunk  by  collision  with  unknown
vessel,  15  miles  S.  W.  of  Beachy  Head  ;  above  6

lost ;  early 6  Dec. „

C.  M.  Palmer,  steamer,  of  Newcastle ;  lost  by  colli-
sion with  Ludworth  steamer,  near  Harwich  ;  about
14  lives  lost ;  fog,  10  a.m..  . . 17  Feb.  1878

Eurydice,  H.M.S.,  frigate  ;  training  ship  ;  returning
from  Bermudas  ;  founders  off  Dunnose  headland,
near  Ventnor,  Isle  of  Wight ;  through  a  squall ;
capt.  A.  S.  Hare,  lieut.  Tabor,  and  about  300  men

perish 24  March, „

[Raised  with  much  skill  and  labour,  and  taken
into  Portsmouth,  Aug.]
Childivall  Hall,  Hull  steamer  ;  wrecked  near  Cape

St.  Vincent,  Portugal  ;  about  14  lost 11  April,*  ,,
Princess  Alice  (which  see),  run  into  by  the  screw
steamer,  Bywell  Castle,  in  the  Thames,  near  Wool-
wich, and sunk; between 600  and 700 lost;

about  7.40  p.m 3  Sept. ,,

Fanny,  coastguard  cruiser ;  run  down  by  National
steamer  Helvetia,  off  Tuskar,  Irish  channel  ;  17

lost 31  Oct. ,,

Much  damage  and  loss  of  life  by  gales "8-io  Nov.t ,,
Mesopotamia,  steamer,  run  ashore  at  Peniche,  coast

of  Portugal;  8  perished . . . 18  Dec.  J ,,
Ava, British India Navigation Steam Company
steamer,  sank  by  collision  with  sailing  ship  Brun-
hilda,  in  the Bay  of  Bengal  ;  capt.  Dickenson
and  about  70  perish ... 24  April, §  1879
City  of  London,  Aberdeen  steamer  ;  run  down  and
sunk  by  the  Vesta,,  in  the  Thames,  near  Barking
Reach  ;  no  lives  lost  .... 13  Aug. ,,
Borussia,  a  Dominion steamer,  left  Liverpool  20
Nov.  ;  sprang  a  leak  in  the  Atlantic  after  leaving
Corunna,  1  Dec.  ;  went  down  ;  about  160  lost ;
10  out  of  184  saved  by  boats ... 2  Dec. „
Valentine foundered in a  gale near Falmouth  ;

about  16  lost 8  Feb.  1880

Many  wrecks  in  the  North  Atlantic  during  terrific

gale  (see  Atalanta) .... 12-16  Feb. „
Strathnairn, of Dundee  : collision with Edith

Hough,  steamer,  off  Ushant ;  all  lost  13  Feb.  ,,
Hindoo,  steamer,  from  New  York ;  loaded  with
grain,  which  shifted  ;  abandoned  ;  three  officers
lost  and  much  cattle  .  .  .  .22  Feb.  „
Vingorla,  steamer  ;  sprang  a  leak  70  miles  N.  of
Bombay ;  captain  and  65  persons  perish  :  an-
nounced 1  March, ,,

Barita,  British  steamer,  sunk  in  a  fog  by  collision
with  an  Australian  mail  steamer  near  Galatz  ;  16

perish .9  April, „

American,  steamer  (Union  Steamship  Company),
capt.  Maclean  Wait,  foundered  off  Cape  Palmas  ;
all  passengers  and  crew  escaped  in  boats  :  (picked
up  by  vessels,  and  carried  to  Madeira,  St.  Paul
de  Loanda,  the  Canaries,  &c.)  .  .  23  April,  „
Hydaspes,  sailing  ship  ;  sank  by  collision  with  Cen-
turion, screw  steamer,  off  Dungeness,  in  a  fog;
both  blamed  ;  no  lives  lost  .  .  17  July,||  ,,
James  Harris,  steamer,  loaded  with  iron  ;  sunk  by
collision  with  the  Andalusia,  steamer,  off  the
Feme  isles 14  April,!  1881

*  The  German  ironclad,  Grosser  Kurfilrst,  sunk  by
collision  with  Kbnig  Wilhclm ;  about  300  lost,  31  May,
1878.

t  Pnmcrania,  Hamburg-American  mail  steamer,  sunk
off  Folkestone,  by  Mod  Eilian,  iron  bark,  of  Carnarvon  ;
162  saved  by  boats  ;  about  48  missing  ;  a  little  after
midnight,  25  Nov.,  1878.

J  French  steamer,  Byzantin,  sunk  (losing  above  200
lives)  by  collision  with  English  steamer,  Rinaldo,  in  Dar-
danelles, during  a  fearful  gale,  18  Dec.  1878.

§  Arrogante,  French  ironclad  battery,  sank  off  Ilireres
isles  :  47  drowned  ;  19  March,  1879.

||  Vera  Cruz,  U.S.  steamer  ;  foundered  through  hurri-
cane in  N.  Atlantic,  30  miles  from  shore  ;  11  out  of  82
saved  ;  4  Sept.  1880.

IT  Oncle  Joseph,  French  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with
Ortigia,  Italian  steamer,  oil'  tpczzia  ;  about  50  out  of  300
saved;  24  Nov.  1880.


H.M.S. Doterel destroyed by explosion in the

Straits  of  Magellan  (see  Navy) . . 26  April,  1881
Victoria,  steamer,  on  the  Thames,  Canada  ;  over-
loaded :  upset;  several  hundreds  drowned  ;  be-
tween 600  and  700  on  board . .  24  May, ,,
Ten  fishing  boats  sunk  off  the  Shetland  isles  in  a

storm  ;  about  58  lives  lost  .  .  .  20  July,  ,r
Teuton,  Union  Company's  mail  screw  steamer,  struck
onarock  near  Cape  Agulhas,  Cape  of  Good  Hope;
and  foundered  a  few  hours  after  ;  of  above  200
persons,  not  many  saved;  capt.  E.  Manning
and  most  of  the  officers  lost . .  30  Aug. ,T

[Inquiry : attributed  to  the  captain's  Imprudent

navigation I9  Sept.] „.

Govino,  British  steamer  ;  about  13  perished,  7  Oct. ,r
130  wrecks  (105  British)  with  great  loss  of  life  and

property  by  the  gales . . . 10-15  Oct. „
Corsica, steamer ; stranded near mouth of the

Tagus  ;  21  deaths 11  Oct. ,„

[The  captain  exonerated,  8  Nov.]
Cyprian,  iron  steamer,  lost  in  Carnarvon  bay;  capt.
Strachan  and  another  drowned . . 14  Oct. ,,

,  Glasgow  steamer,  wrecked  in  the  Irish  sea  ;

many  lost .... about  20-22  Oct. ,„
Clan  Macduff,  steamer,  capt.  Webster  ;  foundered
off  the  Irish  coast  (over-loaded)  32  lives  lost
[captain  censured]  .... 21  Oct. ,,

Albion,  steamer,  wrecked  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of

Columbia  ;  32  lost 5  Nor. ,„

Crown,  British  steamer,  stranded  near  Jutland ;

7  drowned 15  Nov. ,,

Solway,  channel  steamer,  capt.  W.  Fry ;  during  ,-f
storm  off  the  Skerries ;  greatly  burned  through
ignition  of  naphtha  oil  flooding  the  decks
through  bursting  of  casks,  abotit  14  burned,  and
5  drowned  (the  steamer  got  back  to  Kingston
harbour)  ;  officers  exonerated  from  blame

16  Nov. ,,
Culzean,  iron  steamer ;  capt.  Pirnie,  while  being
towed  to  be  repaired  during  a  gale,  stranded  on
rocks  in  the sound  of  Java; crew  of  17  lost

22  Nov. (>
Many  wrecks  with  loss  of  life  and  property  during

a  gale 26-27  Nov. „

Kildare,  barque, stranded  off  Aberdeen  coast  in

gale Dec. ,,

Helcnslea,  barque,  collision  with  Catalonia,  Cunard

steamer ;  9  of  the  crew  lost  . . 25  Dec. ,,

Lanarkshire,  screw  steamer,  stranded  off  Codling

Bank,  Wicklow  ;  some  of  the  crew  lost 15  Jan.  1882
Bahama,  steamer,  foundered  between Porto  Rico

and  New  York ;  20  lives  lost  .  .  .4  Feb.  ,,
Kosmos,  steamer,  sank  oil  Kilia  ;  captain  and  20  of

crew  drowned Feb. ,,

Livadia,  steamer,  from  Shields,  sunk  off  Yarmouth  ;

23  lives  lost 28  Feb. ,„

Douro,  royal  mail  steamer  ;  collision  with  Spanish
steamer, Yurrac  Bal,  both  sunk  ;  about  23  Eng-
lish and  36  Spanish  lost,  about  n  p.m.  (captain
of  Douro  blamed) . . . . 1  April, ,t
Novara,  ship;  on  voyage  from  Newcastle  to  San

Francisco,  burned  ;  19  missing . .  13  April, ,,
Alexandroonoe,  Liverpool  ship,  wrecked  orl  Swan-
age;  crew  all  lost . . . early  in  May, ,r
Pera,  iron  steamer  ;  foundered  30  miles  S.W.  Cape

Race  ;  about  10  men  lost . . . 10  June, ,,.
Escambia,  British  screw  steamer,  wrecked  nt  Es-
cambia, near  San Francisco ; crew (about  20)
lost,  announced ....  20  June, rr

Alice,  steam-tug,  wrecked  on  Bondecao  rocks,  Nor-
thumberland ;  16  lives  lost . . 29  June, ,,
Flcurcs  Castle, steamer,  run aground, near  Cape

Guardafui,  N.E.  Africa;  several  perished,  9  July,  ,,
Ethiopia,  African  mail  steamer,  run  mi  a  reef  28  July,  ,,.
Armenian,  Liverpool  steamer,  lust  in  the  Baltic  ;

crew  about  23  perish,  announced  . .  23 Aug. ,,.
Panama, Glasgow  iron  ship, foundered  off Yar-
mouth;  about  20  perish,  announced 9  Sept. ,,.
Constantia  and  City  of  Antwerp,  steamers,  sunk  by
collision  off  the  Eddvstone ;  about  14  lives  lost

16  Oct,  ,,
Winton,  lost  off  Ushant :  24  perish  .  16  Nov.  ,,
Wearmouth, steamer, lost off Magdalen Island

21  Nov. ,,


*  Asia,  N.W.  transit  service  steamer,  foundered  be-
tween Ontario  and  Saule  Sainte  Marie;  about  9S  lost>
14  Sept.  1882.


WEECKS.


1084


WEECKS.


Cambronne,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  Marion,

near  Lundy 26  Nov.

St.  George, steamer  ; lost  off  Portreath, Cornish

coast ;  11  perish 29  Nov.

■Cedar  Grove,  steamer,  lost  off  Cape  Canto,  Nova

Scotia  ;  17  persons  missing  .  about  30  Nov.
Many  wrecks,  with  loss  ol  life  .  .  .  Dec.
Langrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexford ;

24  deaths 15  Dec.

35  wrecks  during  a  storm  off  Newfoundland

about  19  Dec.
British  Empire,  ship,  burnt  off  Alleppo ; several

persons  perish 5  Jan.

City  of  Brussels,  sunk  by  collision  with  the  Kirby

Hall,  in  the  Mersey  ;  10  drowned  .  .  7  Jan.*
Kenmure  Castle,  steamer,  wrecked  in  Bay  of  Biscay ;

30  drowned about  1  Feb.

King  Arthur,  Hull  steamer,  sunk  near  the  mouth

of  the  Bosphorus  ;  14  lost  ...  22  Feb.
Wrecks  through  gales  in  North  sea,  382  lives  lost,

6  March,
Navarre,  Scotch  steamer ;  sunk  near  Christian  sand  ;

about  45  lost 7  March,

Dunstaffnage,  Liverpool  ship,  wrecked  off Aber-
deen ;  23  perished .... 17  March,
Wykeham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near

Lisbon  ;  22  drowned  ;  sailed  from  Cardiff  March,
British  Commerce,  sunk  by  collision  with  County  of

Aberdeen,  off  Selsey  Bill  ;  25  perish  .  24  April,
Grappler  burnt  near  Bute  Inlet  (Vancouver  Island)

about  70  perish  ....  about  3  May,
H.M.S. Lively  stranded  on  rocks off  Stornoway

7  June,
[Commander  Parr  dismissed,  28  June.]
Waitara, sunk  by  collision  with  Hurunui  (New

Zealand  Steamship  Co.,)  off  Beachy  Head  ; 25

perish 22  June,

Daphne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during

launch  in  the  Clyde  ;  about  124  drowned  3  July,
79 wrecks on British coasts reported through

violent  gale .  .... 1-2  Sept.

Holyhead,  L.  &  N.  W.  railway's  cattle  steamer  and

German  barque,  Alhambra,  sailing  vessel,  sunk

by collision between Dublin and Holyhead ;

15  deaths  ;  midnight . . . .31  Oct.
Iris,  sunk  off  Cape  Villano  ;  about  35  perish ;  an-
nounced .8  Nov.

Auk,  Liverpool  steamer,  at  South  Henden  ;  22  lives
lost u  Dec.

Simla,  wrecked  by  collision  with  the  City  of  Luck-
now,  both  Glasgow  Australian  sailers,  near  the
Needles,  English  channel;  about  20  perish  ;  3  p.m.

25  Jan. 1!

Very  many  wrecks .... 23-27  Jan.

Nokomis,  barque,  struck  on  Black  Rock,  Antrim  ;

16  perish 26  Jan.

Juno,  iron  ship,  stranded  in  the  Mersey  by  a  gale  ;

the  crew  (30)  perish . . . . 26,  27  Jan.

State  of  Florida,  Glasgow  steamer,  and  Ponema,
barque,  sunk  by  collision  in  mid-ocean  off  Canada
coast ;  about  123  perish  . . . 18  April,!

Zaa*am(capt. Lothian),  English  steamer,  and  Gijon,
Cuban  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  in  a  fog  off
Cape  Finisterre  ;  about  130  perish  ;  many  picked
up  by  Santo  Domingo . . night,  21  July,

Dione,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  Camden,
steamer,  near  Gravesend ;  about  17  drowned ;
soon  after  midnight  .  .  .  -2-3  Aug.
{capt.  of  the  Dione  punished  for  reckless  navi-
gation, Aug.]

Wasp,  H.M.  gun-boat  (see  under  Navy).

Little  Beck,  stranded  near  the  mouth  of  the  Maas  ;
14  drowned ,_ 26  Oct

Indus,  P  &  O.  company's  steamer  wrecked  on  coast
of  Ceylon 8  Nov.


*  Civibria,  Hamburg  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with
English  steamer,  Sultan,  off  coast  of  Holland  ;  about
454  perish,  19  Jan.  1883.

t  City  of  Columbus,  U.S.  passenger  ship  ;  ran  on  reef
coast  of  Massachusetts  ;  29  lives  saved  ;  about  97  perish:
alleged  negligence;  18  Jan.  1884.

t  Daniel  Steinmann,  White  Cross  steamer,  struck  on
rock  off  Sanibro'  Isle,  Nova  Scotia  ;  about  120  perish
about  3  April,  1884.

Senorine,  French  brig,  wrecked  off  Great  Bank,
Newfoundland  ;  about  62  perish,  6  May,  1884.


Durango,  screw  steamer,  run  down  by  Luke  Bruce,
iron  barque,  in  the  English  channel ;  20  lives  lost

27  Nov.  1

Pochard,  steamer,  foundered  off  Holyhead  ;  crew
lost 7  Dec.

Mignonette,  yacht ;  sailed  from  Southampton  to
Australia,  19  May ;  foundered  in  a  storm  about
1600  miles  from  the  Cape  ;  3  men  and  a  boy
escaped  in  a  boat,  without  provisions,  5  July ;
proposed  killing  of  one  by  lot  rejected  by-
Brooks,  boy  (Richard  Parker)  killed  by  captain,
and  eaten,  20th  day,  at  seq.  ;  men  picked  up  by
German  barque,  Montezuma,  24th  day,  and
carried  to  Falmouth  ;  capt.  Thos.  Dudley,  and
Edwin  Stephens,  mate,  tried  for  murder  at
Exeter  ;  facts  affirmed,  6  Nov.  ;  affirmed  by  lord
chief  justice  and  other  judges  in  Queen's  bench,
4  Dec.  ;  sentence  of  death  passed,  9  Dec.  ;
reprieved,  6  months'  imprisonment  without
labour 13  Dec. ,

Admiral  Moorsom,  L.  and  N.  W.  R's  steamer,  sunk
near  Holyhead  by  collision  with  Santa  Clara
(American) ; capt.  Weeks, and about  4  perish

15  Jan.  1!

Cheerful,  Liverpool  steamer,  collision  with  H.M.S.
Hecla  in  the  Bristol  channel,  13  lives  lost  in  a
fog,  4  a. m 21  July,

Yarra  Yarra,  Liverpool  barque,  27  lives  lost,
announced 11  Sept.

Dolphin,  steamer  (Gen.  Nav.  St.  Co.),  sunk  by
collision  with  the  Brenda,  eight  perish, 18  Sept.

Merchantman,  on  Sand  Heads  ;  about  70  lives  lost,

Sept.

Albula,  British  ship,  wrecked  during  typhoon  off
Loochoo  islands,  10  perish  ... 14  Oct.

Algoma,  Canadian  steamer,  foundered  in  lake
Superior  ;  45  lives  lost .... 7  Kov.

Corinth,  Union  line  steamer,  sunk  by  collision
with  H.M.S.  Firebrand . . . March,  1

Oregon,  Cunard  steamer,  foundered  (without  loss  of
life),  by  collision  with  an  unknown  schooner
near  Long  Island  in  America  ;  schooner  sunk  with
all  on  board 14  March,

Ly-ee-Moon,  an  iron  steamer,  Australasian  steam
navigation  company,  wrecked  off  Green  Cape,
between  Melbourne  and  Sydney ;  76  persons
drowned 30  March,

Ferntower,  British  steamer,  foundered  near  Saigon  ;
about  50  lives  lost .... 26  Aug.

Malleny,  Liverpool  iron  steamer,  foundered  on  the
Tuskar  reef,  Bristol  channel ;  all  hands  lost  in
the  gale  (about  20) . . . . 15  Oct.

Many  vessels  lost,  many  injured,  and  great  loss  of
life  during  a  severe  gale . . 14-16  Oct.

Teviotdale,  steamer  of  Glasgow,  lost  on  the  Carmar-
then coast;  18  lives  lost . . . 15  Oct.

Keilawarra  and  Helen  Nicholl  collision  (42  lives
lost)  off  the  coast  of  Queensland  ; announced

9  Dec.

Sultan,  British  ironclad,  and  Ville  de  Victoria,
French  steamer,  collision  in  Lisbon  harbour ;
the  latter  vessel  sunk  ;  35  lives  lost  . 23  Dec.

Kapunda,  emigrant  ship  for  Australia,  said  to  have
foundered  by  collision  with  Ada  Melmore  off
Brazil ;  about  298  perish,  3  a.m.  20  Jan.  ;  officers
of  the  A  da  Melmore  censured  . . 29  March,  ii

Victoria,  London  &  Brighton  company's  steamer,
during  fog  struck  on  rock  at  Point  D'  Ailly  ;  no
fog  horn  sounded,  about  16  lives  lost  out  of
90  passengers  through  panic  and  recklessness ;
the  rest  saved  by  skill  and  courage  of  the  captain
and  officers 13  April,

Tasmania,  P.  &  O.  steamer  wrecked  on  Monachi
rocks,  Corsica  ;  23  lives  lost  including  captain
Perrin 17  April,

Volta,  Eastern  Telegraph  company's  steamer,
wrecked  off' Myconos,  Greece ; 12 lives lost,

18  April,

Benton,  steamer,  of  Singapore,  foundered,  with
collision ; about 150 lives lost, announced

28  April,

Destruction  of  a  Pearl  fishing  fleet,  N.  E.  coast  of
Australia,  with  a  loss  of  550  lives,  in  a  hurricane
on  22  April ;  reported ... 28  April,

John  Knox,  British  steamer,  wrecked  at  St.  John's  ;
27  lost 4  May,

City  of  ^Montreal  (cotton ship), Inman steamer,


WEECKS.


1085


WEECKS.


burnt  400  miles  off  Newfoundland  on  her  way
from  New  York  to  Liverpool . . 10  Aug.  1887
Monarch,  pleasure  yacht,  founders  near  Ilfracombe  ;

11  lives  lost 26  Aug. ,,

Falls  of  Bruar,  of  Glasgow,  sunk  off  Yarmouth  ;

24  lives  lost 2  Sept. ,,

Lydia, British  schooner,  lost  in  a  hurricane  in

the  North  Atlantic ;  15  lives  lost  .  Sept*  ,,
Lanoma,  iron barque,  wrecked near  Weymouth  ;

12  lives  lost 8  March,  1888

City  of  Corinth  sunk  by  collision  with  Tasmania

near  Dungeness  .... 9  March, ,,

Smyrna,  sailing  vessel,  loses  12  men by  collision

with the Moto, steamer, off Dorset coast,

28  April, ,,
Trevelyan,  emigrant  ship,  sunk  off  Cape  Agulhas,

all  on  board  lost  ...  .3  June, „

Star of  Greece wrecked in Aldinga Bay, near

Adelaide;  17  lives  lost  .  .  .  i3July,t  „
Earl  of  Wemyss  and  Ardencaple,  Glasgow  barques,

collision,  16  lives  lost  ....  8  Sept.  ,,
Collision between La  France  (French) and Sud

America  (Italian)  off  the  Canary  Islands  ;  about

87  lives  lost 13  Sept. „

Collision  between Glasgow  steamer  Neptune  and

Russian  steamer  Archangel  at Christiania  ; 18

lives  lost 19  Oct. ,,

Nor,  Norwegian  barque,  and  Saxmundham,  steamer

from  the  Tyne  ;  collision  ;  12  lives  lost,  4  Nov.  ,,
Steamer  Hartlepool  wrecked  on  a  rock  at  Naalevig  ;

17  lives  lost 6  Dec.t ,,

British  steamer,  The  Priam,  wrecked  near  Cape

Finisterre  ;  about  five  lives  lost  . 12  Jan.  1889

Nereid,  steamer,  of  Newcastle,  collision  with  the

Scotch  ship  Killochan  off  Dungeness  ; 23  lives

lost 3  Feb. „

Collision  of  the  Largo  Bay  with  steamer  Glencoe

which  founders  off  Beachy  Head  ;  all  hands  lost,

4  Feb. „
Wreck  of  the  Grimsby  fishing  fleet ;  73  lives  lost,

9  Feb.§ „
German  and  American  war  vessels  wrecked off

Samoa  (see  Storms)  .  .  .  16  March, ||  ,,
Cotopaxi,  Pacific  steamer,  struck  on  unknown  reef,

Smyth's channel, straits of Magellan, and

foundered  ;  no  lives  lost  .  .  .  15  April,  ,,
Altimore, British steamer, struck on rocks off

Fiji  islands ;  about  12  persons  drowned

22  April, ,,
The  German  Emperor,  screw  steamer,  ran  into  the

Beresford,  anchored  off  Dover,  in  a  fog,  and  sank  ;

nine  missing 21  May, ,,

Gettysburg,  barque,  of  Aberdeen,  wrecked  on  a  coral

reef  off'  Morant  Cayes,  33  miles  from  Jamaica,

with  a  crew  of  16  hands,  30  March-i April ;

by  very  great  exertions,  the  captain  and  part  of

the  crew  succeeded  in  getting  on  the  desolate

isle,  where  they  stayed,  living  on  shell-fish,  &c.

On 22  April two men  on  a  raft  started for

*  W.  A.  Scholten,  Dutch  steamer,  sunk  by  collision
with  Rosa  Mary  of  Hartlepool,  at  anchor  off  Dover  ;
about  130  persons  perish,  many  saved  by  the  crew  of
the  Ebro  of  Sunderland.  19  Nov.  1887.

Alfred  D.  Snow,  American  vessel,  wrecked  off  Water-
ford  ;  28  perish,  4  Jan.  1888.

t  Collision  between  Thingvalla  and  Geiser,  German
teamers,  off  Sable  Island,  N.  Atlantic  ;  105  lives  in  the
Geiser,  lost  14  Aug.  1888.

I  John  Hanna,  steamer,  laden  with  cotton,  burnt  on
the  Mississippi ;  about  20  persons  perish,  24  Dec.  1888.

§  The  Comtcsse  de  Flandre  cut  in  half  by  collision  with
the  Princess  Henrictte,  both  Belgian  mail  boats ;  the
captain  and  14  others  killed,  prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte
escapes;  about  1-45  p.m.  20  March,  1889.

||  Danmark,  Danish  emigrant  vessel  sank  in  the  Atlantic
about  800  miles  from  Newfoundland;  captain  Murrell
of  the  Missouri,  Atlantic  transport  line,  and  his  crew,
with  great  energy  rescued  all  on  board  (735),  6  April,
1889.

[He  landed  part  on  the  Azores  and  part  ill  Phila-
delphia.]

At  the  Mansion  House,  on  24  May,  1889,  captain
Murrell,  in  the  presence  of  distinguished  company,
received  from  the  lord  mayor  a  silver  salver  with
an  inscription,  and  a  purse  of  money  (about  ynl.)  from
the  citizens  of  London  ;  the  officers  and  crew  also
received  testimonials.


Jamaica  and  landed  seven  miles  from  Morant
Bay,  24  April.  On  their  reaching  Kingston,
H.M.S.  Forward  was  sent  off,  and  brought  the
captain  and  the  rest  of  the  crew  to  Kingston,
27  April,  whence  they  were  conveyed  to  England'
having  lost  seven  of  their  number,  where  they

T  arrived l8  May,  1880

Isaac  Hoiiston,  British  schooner,  foundered  in  a
storm  off  Milwaukee  ; 16  lives  lost ; reported

14  June

The  Papel  steamer  wrecked  on  Huamblin  island,
S.  American  coast ;  n  men  drowned,  reported,

,-,  2  Aug. ,  „

Earnmore,  Newcastle  steamer,  foundered  in  a
cyclone  off  the  Bahamas  ;  the  crew  entered  two
boats,  the  captain,  with  18  men,  not  heard  of
since— the  first  mate  and  6  men  nearly  starvin",
were  picked  up  and  landed  at  Nassau,  near
Providence,  30  Sept 5  Sept.

H.M.S.  Lilly  wrecked  off  Labrador  coast  (see  Navy), '

16  Sept. ,,

The  Florence,  screw  steamer,  foundered  off  Calf  of
Man,  10  lives  lost. . . .  about  17  Sept.

Minnie  Swift,  a  Nova  Scotian  sailing  ship,  sunk
by  collision  with  the  Geographique,  off  St.  Pierre,
France,  15  persons  drowned . . 20  Oct.

Santiago,  British  screw  steamer,  on  her  way  from
New  York  to  Hull,  burnt;  all  hands  saved  by
A.  J.  Fuller 2g  Nov.

Cleddy,  steamer,  sank  after  collision  with  Isle  of
Cyprus,  steamer,  off  St.  Catherine's,  about  13
lives  lost 20  Dec.

Ovington,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  Queen
Victoria,  near  Greenock,  six  lives  lost . 29  Dec. ,,

Loch  Moidart,  British  iron  ship,  run  ashore  at
Callandzoog,  near  Dieppe  ;  30  lives  lost,  reported,

27  Jan.  1890
[See  Storms  in  Jan.  1890.]

Highgate,  steamer,  and  Sovereign,  ship,  both  sunk
by  collision  off  Lundy  Island,  12  lives  lost

19  Feb. ,,.

Quetta,  Queensland  liner,  struck  on  unknown  rock,
off  cape  York,  Torres  strait,  and  sank  ;  about
133  lives  lost  out  of  282  ;  captain  exonerated,

28  Feb. ,,
Virent,  steamer,  wrecked  off  Ferrol,  15  lives  lost,

about  22  March, ,,

Ethel  Gwendoline,  steamer,  foundered  off  Battray-
head,  Aberdeenshire  ;  7  men  drowned 21  March, ,,

City  of  Paris,  Inman  Atlantic  steamer,  with  above
680  passengers  and  370  crew,  left  New  York,  19
March,  and  was  due  at  Queenstown,  26  March  ;
on  25  March,  about  5.45  p.m.,  the  starboard  en-
gine broke  down  ;  the  inflow  of  water  stopped
the  other  engine,  and  eventually  the  vessel  was
without  machinery  or  sailing  apparatus,  a  help-
less log;  a  lifeboat  was  launched  on  27  March,
help  arrived  on  28  March,  and  without  losing  a
single  life,  the  vessel  was  towed  into  Queenstown

29  Marcl , ,T

Dacca,  British  India  company's  steamer,  foundered
on  a  reef  of  rocks  400  miles  from  Suez  ;  passen-
gers, mostly  emigrants  to  Queensland,  got  on  to
the  reef,  the  officers  and  crew  remained  on  board,
were  saved  by  the  Bosario  steamer  ;  the  Palam-
cotta  took  those  on  the  reef  to  Suez

16  May  et  scq. ,,
[The  disaster  attributed  to  the  unskilful  "naviga-
tion of  the  chief  officer,  30  June.]

Gulf  of  Aden,  steamer,  foundered  on  the  way  from
Liverpool  to  Valparaiso  ;  73  lives  lost  . 12  May, ,,

*Ethel,  barque,  bound  for  Brisbane,  sunk  in  the
Channel  near  Portland,  by  collision  with  the
Umbilo,  screw  steamer  ;  4  lives  lost . 25  June, ,,

The  fishing  fleets  on  the  north  and  west  coasts  of
Scotland  suffered  much  by  disasters;  about  6n
persons  perished,  reported . . . 28  June, ,,

Egypt,  Atlantic  liner,  of  Liverpool,  left  New  York
10  July  ;  burnt  at  sea,  17, 18  July  ;  all  hands  (95)

*  Prima  Frederik,  Dutch  mail  steamer,  outward  bound
for  Java  with  troops  and  specie,  sunk  by  collision  with

the Marpessa, British steamer, in a dense  fog in llie

Channel.  Great  order  maintained  on  the  Prims  Frederik',
only  7  Dutch  soldiers  perished,  out  of  the  170  persons
on  board,  25  June ;  the  Marpessa,  much  injured,  got  to
Falmouth,  27  June,  1890.


WRECKS.


1086


WREXHAM.


saved  by  the  Gustav  Oscar ;  carried  to  Dover  by

the  Manhattan 24  July,

Halcyon,  British  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with
Rheubina,  off  coast  of  Spain  ;  13  lives  lost,  re-
ported * 11  Aug.

The  Portacnse,  Liverpool  steamer,  founders  during  a

cyclone,  250  miles  from  Barbadoes,  the  captain

and  most  of  the  crew  drowned  . . 28  Aug.

The  Melmerby,  Liverpool  barque,  wrecked  off  Roys

Island  ;  15  men  in  the  long  boat  drowned  5  Oct.t

H.M.S.  Serpent,  cruiser,  wrecked  off  the  coast  of

Corunna  ;  about  173  lives  lost  (see  Navy)  11  Nov.

Calypso,  Bristol  screw  steamer,  sunk  by  collision

with  the  Pinzon,  Spanish  steamer,  off  Folkestone,

24  Nov.
Uppingham, Cardiff steamer, bound for China
struck  on  a  rock  below  Hartland  Quay, Corn-
wall ;  about  7  men  drowned . . 23  Nov.
Westbourne,  Hull  steamer,  wrecked  off  Theodosia,
Black  Sea  ;  18  lives  lost ... 24  Nov.
Talookdar,  British  steel  ship, sunk  by  collision
with  the  Libussa,  German  ship,  between  the  Cape
de  Verde  and  Cape  Rocque  ;  22  lives  lost  13  Dec.
■Shanghai,  China  Navigation  Co.'s  steamship  (capt.
Martin)  near  Ching  Kiang, burnt ; nearly  300
lives  said  to  be  lost .... 25  Dec.
Sear,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  off  St.  Abb's  Head,

Firth  of  Forth  ;  13  men  drowned . 11  Jan.  ]
Chiswick, London  steamer, struck on  a  reef  off
Scilly  ;  n  out  of  19  men  drowned . . 5  Feb.
The  Queen,  British  barque,  sunk  by  collision  with
the  Ipsvjich,  between  Antwerp  and  Cardiff;  the
captain  and  6  men  drowned . 5  a.m.  21  Feb.
Bay  of  Panama,  steel  ship,  from  Calcutta,  for  Dun-
dee (about  27  lives  lost) ;  Marana,  iron  steamer
(about  22  lives  lost),  and  about  13  other  vessels
(about  40  persons  drowned)  all  wrecked  off  the
Falmouth  coast,  during  the  great  snowstorm,

g,  10  March,
The  Utopia,  British  steamer,  capt.  M'Keague,  con-
veying 830  Italian  emigrants,  with  50  crew,  from
Naples  to  New  York,  sunk  during  a  gale  by  col-
lision with  H.M.S.  ironclad  Anson,  at  anchor  in
the  Bay  of  Gibraltar  ;  about  538  passengers  and
■26  of  the  crew  drowned. Heroic  exertions  were
promptly  made  by  the  crews  of  all  the  ships  in
the  harbour,  to  save  life  ; of  these,  two  brave
men  of  the  Immortalite,  James  Croton  and  George
Hales,  were  drowned,  7  p.m. 17  March ;  above
i,i5oZ.  (Italian  government,  200L)  subscribed  for
the  relief  of  the  survivors . . . March,
The  marine  court censures capt. M'Keague  for
grave  error  of  judgment, . . 25  March,
[The  Utopia  was  raised  under  the  direction  of  Mr.
Armit,  8  July,  1891.]
Strathairly,  British  steamer,  wrecked  off  the  coast
of  North  Carolina  ;  19  lives  lost,  reported,

26  March,
Chapman, missionary  schooner, wrecked  off  the
coast  of  Tahiti ;  16  persons  drowned,  reported,

30  March,
Glamorgan, steamer, sunk by  collision with  P.
Calami, Dutch American steamer, in mid-
channel,  between  Dover  and  Folkestone,

15  April,
.St. Catharis, steamer, wrecked  off  the Caroline
Islands,  reported  ;  90  persons  drowned  . April,
Lcstris  and  Mersey,  two  steamers,  sunk  by  collision
in  the  Mersey  ;  several  lives  lost . 23  May,
Dunholme, steamer, of  W. Hartlepool, sunk  by
collision  with  the  Glasgow  steamer  Kinloch,  near
Dover ;  17  lives  lost . . 2.30  a.m.  7  July,
Gambler, screw-steamer, sunk by  collision  with
the Easby in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne ;
about  21  lives  lost .... 28  Aug.
Dunmurry,  British  steamer,  sunk  during  a  hurri-
cane, 250  miles  from  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia ;  8
lives  lost about  1  Sept.  J


*  Ertogrul,  Turkish  government  cruiser,  and  the
Musasha  Marv,  Japanese  mail  steamer  (crews  lost),
founder  in  Japanese  waters  during  a  heavy  gale  (see
Turkey  and  Japan),  18  Sept.  1890.

t  Collision  of  the  Spanish  steamer  Vlzcaya  with  the
Cornelius  Margraves,  schooner,  off  New  Jersey ;  both
vessels  sunk  ;  the  captain  and  about  60  persons  of  the
Vlzcaya  drowned,  30  Oct.  1890.

t  The  Taormina,  Italian  mail  steamer,  sunk  by  colli-  I


Wol.vUtone,  steamer,  left  Bristol  for  New  York,  11
Sept.  ;  disabled  by  a  gale,  crew  takes  to  life
boats,  22  Sept.  ;  9  men  rescued,  the  captain  and

11  men  missing 15  Oct.

30  vessels  wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and
about  50  lives  lost  during  a  gale,  reported,

23  Oct.

Charlunod, barque, sunk by  collision  with the

Boston,  near  the  Eddystone  lighthouse  ;  15  lives

lost 4  a.m.  26  Oct.

Moselle,  royal  mail  steamer,  struck  on  a  reef,  10
miles  from  Colon ; totally  wrecked, only  the

captain  drowned 28  Oct.

Parsie,  schooner,  coming  from  Funck  island,
wrecked  on  a  reef ;  7  lives  lost,  reported  6  Nov.
Enterprise,  Indian  marine  steamer,  founders  off
Port  Blair,  Andaman  islands,  during  a  cyclone  ;
about  70  lives  lost,  6  saved  ...  2  Nov.
Benvenue,  full-rigged  ship,  bound  for  Sydney,
wrecked  off  Sandgate ;  27  persons  suspended  in
the  rigging  for  16  hours,  were  saved  with  great
difficulty  by  the  Sandgate  lifeboat,  and  taken  to
Folkestone  ; capt.  James  Moddrel  and  4  men

drowned n  Nov. „

Many  wrecks  during  gales  . . 10  Nov.  et  seq. ,,
Enterkin, steel  sailing  ship  sunk  off Ramsgate,
near  Galloper  sands, during  a  gale  ; about  27

lives  lost 11  Dec. „

Abyssinia,  Guion  screw-steamer,  burnt,  5  days  out
from  New  York ;  the  passengers  and  crew  rescued
by  the  Spree . . . . . 18  Dec. ,,
Childwall,  barque,  sunk  by  collision  with  Noord-
lani,  steamer,  off  Flushing  :  15  men  drowned,

2  Jan.  1892
Namchoia,  a  British  steamer,  foundered  off  Cupchi

Point,  China  ;  about  509  lives  lost  about  14  Jan.* „
Forest  Queen,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  the
Loughborough,  steamer,  near  Flamborough  Head;
about  14  lives  lost .... 24  Feb. „
County  of  Salop,  steamer,  stranded  in  Wideniouth
Bay,  Cornwall ;  the  30  persons  on  board  saved
by  the  Bude  Rocket  Brigade  . . 10  March, ,,
Walmer  Castle, Deal  lugger, foundered  near  the
Isle  of  Wight  during  a  gale  ;  7  men  drowned,

15  March, ,,
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  barque,  wrecked  on  tire  Pem-
brokeshire coast ;  16  lives  lost  . . 15  May, ,,
Petroled,  British  petroleum  steamer,  blown  up  in

Blaye  harbour,  near  Bordeaux ;  18  deaths,  14  June,  „
City  of  Chicago,  Inman  Atlantic  liner,  run  ashore
near  Old  Head  of  Kinsale,  during  a  fog  ;  pas-
sengers, &c,  landed,  1  July;  totally  wrecked,  7
July ;  Mr.  Arthur  Redford,  the  master's  certifi-
cate suspended  for  9  mouths  .  .  21  July,  ,,
Peter  Stuart,  British  ship,  struck  on  a  rock  near

Yarmouth,  Nova  Scotia  ;  14  deaths . 4  July, „
Ajax,  steamer,  sunk  by  collision  with  Rundeberg,

steamer  ;  35  deaths .... 9  Aug. „
Thracia,  barque,  capsized  near  Port  Erin,  Isle  of

Man;  17  lives  lost 14  Aug. ,,

Anglia,  Anchor  Line  steamer,  capsized  near  the
mouth  of  the  Hoogly  ;  12  lives  lost . 24  Aug. ,,
.WRECK  COMMISSION,  a  new  court  esta-
blished to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  shipwrecks ;
first  sat,  30  Oct. 1876,  Mr.  H.  C.  Rothery,  presi-
dent.

WREXHAM,  S.  E.  Denbighshire,  the  Saxon
Wrightesham,  given  to  earl  Warren  by  Edward  T. ;
made  a  borough  by  the  reform  act,  1832.  An  ex-
hibition of  art  treasures  of  North  Wales,  and  the
border  counties,  was  opened  here  by  the  duke  of
Westminster,  22  July,  1876. Musical  festival  here

sion  with  the  Greek  steamer  Thessalia,  off  Cape  Sunium ;
about  60  lives  lost,  2  a.m.  12  Sept.  1891.

*  Eider,  German  iron-screw  steamer,  six-masted  (North
German  Lloyd's),  from  New  York  to  Bremen,  struck  on
rocks  near  the  Isle  of  Wight  during  a  fog,  31  Jan  ;  capt.
Heineke,  crew  166,  and  227  passengers,  together  with  the
mails,  bars  of  silver,  and  other  parts  of  the  cargo  saved
by  the  great  exertions  of  the  lifeboats,  1-3  Feb.  ;  the
Eider  lifted  off  the  rocks  about  7  March,  and  floated  to
Southampton,  .29  March,  1892.

The  German  emperor  presented  200L  to  the  Lifeboat
Institution,  and  gold  watches  to  some  of  the  masters  of
lifeboats,  April,  1852.


WRITING.


1087


WYOMING.


1883,  et  seq. Population, 1881, 10,978 ; 1891,
12,552.

WRITING-  Pictures  are  considered  to  be  the
first  essay  towards  writing.  The  most  ancient  re-
mains of  writing  are  upon  hard  substances,  such  as
stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts,
and  matters  of  public  notoriety.  Athotes,  or
Hermes,  is  said  to  have  written  a  history  of  the
Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  the
hieroglyphics,  21 12  B.C.  Usher.  Writing  is  said  to
have  been  taught  to  the  Latins  by  Europa,  daughter
of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia,  1494  B.C.  Thucydides.
Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  B.C.,  brought
the  Phoenician  letters  into  Greece.  Vossius.  The
commandments  were  written  on  two  tables  of  stone,
1491  B.C.  Usher.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used
wax  table-books,  and  continued  the  use  of  them
long  after  papyrus  was  known ;  see  Papyrus,
Parchment,  Paper.  Thos.  Astle's  "  History  of
Writing"  was  first  published  in  1784;  Natalis  de
Wailly's  "  Elemens  de  Paleographie,"  1838;  see
Diplomatics  and  Type-  Writers.*
The  Palseographical  Society  was  founded  in  1873  ;  Mr.

Bireh,  of  the  British  Museum,  president.

WROXETER  (in  Shropshire),  the  Roman  city
Uriconium.  Roman  inscriptions,  ruins,  seals,  and
coins  were  found  here  in  1752.  New  discoveries
having  been  made,  a  committee  for  further  investi-
gation met  at  Shrewsbury  on  11  Nov.  1858.  Exca-
vations were  commenced  in  Feb.  1859,  which  were
continued  till  May.  Large  portions  of  the  old  town
were  discovered;  also  specimens  of  glass  and  pottery,
personal  ornaments  and  toys,  household  utensils  and
implements  of  trade,  cinerary  urns,  and  bones  of
man  and  of  the  smaller  animals.  A  committee  was
formed  in  London  in  Aug.  1859,  with  the  view  of
•continuing  these  investigations,  which  were  re-
sumed in  1861,  through  the  liberality  of  the  late
Beriah  Botfield,  M.P.  The  investigations,  stopped
through  want  of  funds,  were  resumed  for  a  short
time  in  1867.  Mr.  Thomas  Wi'ight  published
*'  Uriconium  "  in  1872.

WURSCHEN,  see  Bautzen.

WUNTHO,  see  Burmah,  1891.

WtJRTEMBERG,  originally  part  of  Swabia,
was  made  a  county  for  Ulric  I.,  about  1265,  and  a
duchy  for  Eberhard  in  1494.  The  dukes  were  pro-
testants  until  1722,  when  the  reigning  prince  became
a  Roman  catholic.  Wiirtemberg  has  been  repeatedly
traversed  by  arrnies,  particularly  since  the  great
French  revolution  of  1793.  Moreau  made  his  cele-
brated retreat,  23  Oct.  1796.  The  political  consti-
tution is  dated  25  Sept.  1819.  Wiirtemberg  opposed
Prussia  in  the  war,  June,  1866,  but  made  peace,
13  Aug.  following ;  in  Oct.  1867,  joined  the  Zoll-
verein  {which  see),  but  sent  a  contingent  to  Prussia
in  the  war,  1870.  Population  of  Wiirtemberg  in
1871,  1,818,539;  1880,  1,971,118;  1885,  1,995,185;
1890,  2,035,443. '

*  "  I  would  check  the  petty  vanity  of  those  who  slight
good  penmanship,  as  below  the  notice  of  a  scholar,  by
reminding  them  that  Mr.  Fox  was  distinguished  by  the
clearness  and  firmness,  Mr.  Professor  Porson  by  the  cor-
rectness and  elegance,  and  sir  William  Jones  by  the  ease
find  beauty  of  the  characters  they  respectively  employed."
Dr.  Parr.


DUKES.

1494. Eberhard  I.

1496. Eberhard  II.

1498. Ulric ;  deprived  of  his  states  by  the  emperor

Charles  V.  ;  recovers  them  in  1534.
1550.  Christopher  the  Pacific.
1568.  Louis  the  Pious.
1593.  Frederic  I.
1608.  John  Frederic ;  joined  the  protestants  in  the  Thirty

years'  war.
1628.  Eberhard  III.
1674.  William  Louis.
1677.  Eberhard  Louis  ; served  under William  III.

Ireland;  and  with  the  English  armies  on  the

continent.
1733.  Charles  Alexander.
1737.  Charles  Eugene.

1793.  Louis  Eugene  (joins  in  the  war  against  France).
1795.  Frederic  I.,  makes  peace  with  France,  1796.
1797.  Frederic  II.  marries  Charlotte,  princess  royal  of

England, 18 May; made  elector of Germany,

1803; acquired  additional  territories,  and  the

title  of  king  in  1805.


1806.  Frederic  I.  supplies  a  contingent  to  Napoleon's
Bussian  army  ;  yet  joined  the  allies  at  Leipsic  in
1813. Died  in  1816.

1816.  William  I.,  30  Oct.  ;  son  ;  born  27  Sept.  1781.  He
abolished  serfdom  in  1818  ;  instituted  represen-
tative government  in  1819;  entered  into  a  con-
cordat with  Rome  in  1857  ;  was  the  oldest  living
sovereign,  1862  ;  died  25  June,  1864.

1864.  Charles  I.,  son;  born  6  March,  1823;  married
princess  Olga  of  Russia,  13  July,  1846.  No
issue  ;  died  6  Oct.  1891.

1891.  William  II.,  cousin  ;  born,  25  Feb.  1848;  married,
1.  Marie,  princess  of  Waldeck  and  Pyrmont,  15
Feb.  1877;  2.  Charlotte,  princess  of  Schaumburg
Lippe,  8  April,  1886;  attempt  on  his  life  by
Martin  Miiller,  lunatic  anarchist,  20  Oct.  1889.

WURZBURG  (in  Bavaria),  was  formerly  a
bishopric,  and  its  sovereign  one  of  the  greatest
ecclesiastic  princes  of  the  empire.  It  was  given  as
a  principality  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria  in  1803 ;  and
by  the  treaty  of  Prosburg,  in  1805,  was  ceded  to  the
archduke  Ferdinand  of  Tuscany,  whose  electoral
title  was  transferred  from  Salzburg  to  this  place.  In
1814  this  duchy  was  again  transferred  to  Bavaria,
in  exchange  for  the  Tyrol,  and  the  archduke  Ferdi-
nand was  reinstated  in  his  Tuscan  dominions.
Ministers  from  the  second-rate  German  states  met
at  Wiirzburg  to  promote  union  amongst  them,  21-27
Nov.  1859.  Near  here  the  archduke  Charles  de-
feated the  French  under  Jourdan,  3  Sept.  1796;  and
the  Prussians  defeated  the  Bavarians,  28  July,  1866.

WYATT'S  INSURRECTION,  see  Rebel-
lions,  1554.

WYCLIFFITES,  see  Wickliffites.

WYOMING,  a  western  territory  of  the  United
States  of  America,  constituted  in  1868,  admitted
a  state  1890.  Capital,  Cheyenne.  Lynch  Law  has
not  long  been  superseded.  Women  have  been
enfranchised.  It  includes  Yellowstone  park  (which
see):  The  desolation  of  Wyoming,  in  Pennsylvania,
by  an  incursion  of  Indians  allied  with  the  British,
3  July,  1778,  forms  the  subject  of  Campbell's  poem,
"Gertrude  of  Wyoming  "  published  1809.  Wyo-
ming abounds  in  iron,  coal,  natural  soda,  mineral
oil,  &c. Population  1880,  20,789;  1890,  60,705.


X.


XANTHIAN  MAEBLES.


XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA.


XANTHIAN MAEBLES, see British


XANTHICA,  a  military  festival  observed  by
the  Macedonians  in  the  month  called  Xanthicus
(our  April),  instituted  about  392  B.C.

XANTHTTS,  Lycia,  Asia  Minor,  was  taken  by
Harpagus  for  Cyrus,  about  546  B.C.,  when  the  in-
habitants buried  themselves  in  the  ruins.  It  was
besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Brutus  42  B.C.  After
a  great  struggle  the  inhabitants  set  fire  to  their  city,
destroyed  their  wives  and  children,  and  perished.
The  conqueror  wished  to  spare  them,  and  offered
rewards  to  his  soldiers  if  they  brought  any  of  the
Xanthians  into  his  presence,  but  only  150  were
saved. Plutarch.

XENOPHON,  see  Retreat  of  the  Greeks.

XEEES  DE  LA  ERONTERA  (S.W.  Spain),
the  Asta  Regia  of  the  Romans,  and  the  seat  of  the
wine-trade  in  Spain,  of  which  the  principal  wine  is
that  so  well  known  in  England  as  Sherry,  an
English  corruption  of  Xeres.  The  British  impor-
tations of  this  wine  in  1850  reached  to  3,826,785
gallons ;  and  in  the  year  ending  5  Jan.  1852,  to
3,904,978  gallons.  Xeres  is  a  handsome  and  large
town,  of  great  antiquity.  At  the  battle  of  Xeres,
26  July,  711,  Roderic,  the  last  Gothic  sovereign
of  Spain,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Saracens,
commanded  by  Tarik  and  Muza.


XEEXES'  CAMPAIGN.  Xerxes  crossed  the
Hellespont  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  entered  Greece
in  the  spring  of  480  B.C.,  with  an  army  which,
together  with  the  numerous  retinue  of  servants,
eunuchs,  and  women  that  attended  it,  amounted
(according  to  some  historians)  to  5,283,220  souls.
Herodotus  states  the  armament  to  have  consisted  of
3000  sail,  conveying  1,700,000  foot,  besides  cavalry
and  the  marines  and  attendants  of  the  camp.  This
multitude  was  stopped  at  Thermopylae  {which  see)
by  the  valour  of  300  Spartans  under  Leonidas,  7-9
Aug.  480  B.C.  The  fleet  of  Xerxes  was  defeated  at
Ai-temisium  and  Salamis,  20  Oct.  480  B.C. ;  and  he
hastened  back  to  Persia,  leaving  behind  Mardonius,
the  best  of  his  generals,  who,  with  an  army  of
300,000  men,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Plataea,  22
Sept.  479  B.C.  Xerxes  was  assassinated  by  Arta-
banus,  465  B.C.

XIMENA  (S.  Spain),  the  site  of  a  battle  be-
tween the  Spanish  army  under  the  command  of
general  Ballasteros,  and  the  French  corps  com-
manded by  general  Regnier,  10  Sept.  181 1.  The
Spaniards  defeated  their  adversaries ;  the  loss  wa3
great  on  both  sides.

XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA,  a  process  for
staining  wood  various  colours,  invented  and  patented
by  Mr.  A.  F.  Brophy ;  announced  early  in  1875.


Y.


YACHT.

YACHT  (from  the  Dutch  jaght) ;  a  light  vessel
for  pleasure  or  races.

Yacht  Races. — The  America,  an  American  yacht
schooner,  built  on  the  wave  principle,  171  tons  ;
at  Cowes  regatta,  in  a  match  round  the  Isle  of
Wight,  open  to  all  comers,  came  in  first  by  8
miles,  gaining  the  Royal  Yacht's  Squadron's  In- "
ternational  queen's  cup  worth  100I. .  22  Aug.  1851

Three  American  yachts,  the  Henrietta,  Vesta,  and
Fleetwing,  sailed  from  New  York,  11  Dec.  1866,  at
1  p.m.  The  Henrietta  arrived  at  Cowes  at  5.40011
25  Dec. ,  the  quickest  voyage  ever  made  in  a  sail-
ing vessel.  Her  rivals  were  only  a  few  hours  after
her.

In  a  contest  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  between  the
American  vessel  Sappho  and  the  English  cutters
Aline,  Cambria,  Oimara,  and  Condor,  the  Oiinara
won 25  Aug.  1868

In  a  triangular  race  between  Sappho  and  Cambria,
Sappho  won, 10  May ;  no  race, 14  May ; won

17  May,  1870

In  a  yacht  race  off  Staten  island,  New  York,  for  the
squadron  or  queen's  cup,  the  Magic  won,  Cambria
being  the  8th  in  16 Aug. ,,

In  a  series  of  matches  off  Staten  island  between
Mr.  Ashbury's  Livonia,  and  the  vessels  of  the
New  York  Club,  she  was  beaten  by  the  Columbia,
16,  18  Oct ;  by  the  Dauntless,  21  Oct.  The  two
vessels  were  disabled  by  a  gale  in  attempting  the
race 25  Oct.  1871

In  consequence  of  the  collision  of  Mr.  Heywood's
yacht,  Mistletoe,  with  her  majesty's  steam
yacht,  Alberta,  18  Aug.  1875  (see  under  Wrecks),
a  letter  was  written  on  behalf  of  the  queen  to  the
marquis  of  Exeter,  commodore  of  the  Royal
Victoria  Yacht  Club,  desiring  yachts  not  to  be*
brought  too  near  to  her  majesty's,  whether  from
loyalty  or  curiosity Sept.  1875

Yacht  Racing  Association  formed  as  a  court  of
appeal . 17  Nov. ,,

Death  of  George  Inman,  of  Lymington,  head  of
the  firm  which  built  the  Alarm,  and  many  other
swift  sailing  yachts .... 20  Oct.  1883

Match  between  the  British  Genesta  and  the
American  Puritan ;  the  Puritan  won  by  ij
minutes 16  Sept  1885

Genesta  beat  the  Dauntless  in  a  race,  26-28  Sept.
1885  ;  the  Mayflower  beat  the  Galatea,  11  Sept.
1S86.

Ocean  yacht  race  from  New  York  to  Roche's  Point,
Queenstown,  Ireland,  between  Coronet  and  Daunt-
less (American),  12  March ;  Coronet  arrives  at
Roche's  Point,  0^50  a.m.  28  March  ;  Dauntless
arrives  6-45  p.m 28  March,  1887

Jubilee  yacht  race ;  twelve  yachts  start  from
Southend,  14  June ;  the  Genesta  (sir  Richard
Sutton)  arrives  at  Dover  at  5  a.m.  ;  the  Sleuth-
hound  1 1  "45  p.m.  27  June  ;  first  prize  i,ooogs.

Race  between  the  Scotch  yacht  Thistle  and
American  yacht  Volunteer  for  American  cup
over  the  New  York  yacht  club  course  ;  Volunteer
wins  first  race  27  Sept. ;  second  race 30  Sept. ,,

Yacht  chtbs:  —  Royal  Yacht  Squadron,  Cowes,
1812  ;  Royal  Albert,  1864  ;  Alfred,  1864  ;  Barrow,
1871  ;  Channel  Islands,  1863  ;  Cinque  Ports,  1872  ;
Clyde,  1856;  Cork,  1720;  Cornwall,  1871  ;
Dartmouth,  1866 ;  Dorset,  1875 ;  R.  Eastern,
1835;  R.  Forth,  1868;  R.  Harwich,  1843;
R.  Highland,  1881  ;  R.  Irish,  1846;  R.  London
(Arundel,  1838),  1849;  R.  Mersey,  1844;  R.
Northern,  1824 ;  R.  Portsmouth,  1880 ;  R.
St.  George,  1838 ;  R.  Southampton,  1875 ;  R.
Southern,  1843  ;  R.  Thames,  1823  ;  R.  Tor  bay,
1875  ;  R.  Ulster,  1867 ;  R.  Victoria,  1844 ;  R.
Welsh,  1847 ;  R.  Western  of  England,  1827 ;
R.  Yorkshire,  1847  ;  and  a  few  others.

YANKEE,  from  "Yengees,"  a  corruption  of


YEAB.

"  English,"  the  name  originally  given  by  the  Mas-
sachusetts Indians  to  the  colonists  :  applied  solely
to  the  New  Englanders  by  the  British  soldiers  in  the
American  war  (1775-81) ;  afterwards  by  foreigners
to  all  natives  of  the  United  States ;  and  latterly  by
the  confederates  of  the  south  to  the  federals  of  the
north  during  the  war  1861-64.

YARD.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon
geard,  or  gyrd,  a  rod  or  shoot,  or  from  gyrdan  to
enclose,  being  anciently  the  circumference  of  the
body,  until  Henry  I.  decreed  that  it  should  be  the
length  of  his  arm ;  see  Standard  Measures.

YARMOUTH,  Great  (Norfolk),  was  a  royal
demesne  in  the  reign  of  William  I.,  as  appears  from
Domesday  Book,  1086.  It  obtained  a  charter  from
John,  and  one  from  Henry  III.  In  1348,  a  plague
here  carried  off  7000  persons  ;  and  did  much  havoc
again  in  1579  and  1664.  Population,  1881,  46,767;
1891,49,318.  .  .

Theatre  built 1778

Nelson's  pillar,  a  fluted  column  140  feet  in  height,

erected 1817

Suspension  chain  bridge  over  the  Bure,  built  by  Mr.
R.  Cory,  at  an  expense  of  about  4000'.  ;  owing  to
the  weight  of  a  vast  number  of  persons  who
assembled  on  it  to  witness  an  exhibition  on  the
water,  it  suddenly  gave  way,  and  seventy-nine
lives  (mostly  children)  were  lost  .  .  2  May,  1845
Yarmouth  disfranchised  for  bribery  and  corruption

by  the  Reform  Act Aug.  1867

The  prince  of  Wales  opened  a  new  grammar  school,

6  June,  1873
Aquarium  and  winter  garden  opened  .  5  Sept.  1876
New  municipal  buildings  opened  by  the  prince  of

Wales 31  May,  1882

Returns  one  M.P.  by  Act  of  1885.

YASHGAR,  a  country,  Central  Asia;  Yakoob,
its  able  despotic  chief,  was  contending  with  China
and  Eussia,  1875.

YEAR. The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the

first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the  year.

The  Roman  year  introduced  by  Romulus,  738  B.C.  ;  cor-
rected by  Numa,  713  b.c  ;  and  again  by  Julius  Caesar,
45  B.C.  (see  Calendar).

The  solar  or  astronomical  year  was  found  to  comprise  36
days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds,  and  6  decimals,
265  b.  o.

The  lunar  year  (twelve  lunar  months,  or  354  days,  8
hours,  48  minutes)  was  in  use  amongst  the  Chaldeans,
Persians,  and  Jews.  Once  in  every  three  years  was
added  another  lunar  month,  so  as  to  make  the  solar
and  the  lunar  year  nearly  agree.  But  though  the
months  were  lunar,  the  year  was  solar ;  that  is,  the
first  month  was  of  thirty  days,  and  the  second  of
twenty-nine,  and  so  alternately  :  and  the  month  added
triennially  was  called  Ve-Adar  or  the  second  Adar.
The  Jews  afterwards  followed  the  Roman  manner  of
computation.

The  sidereal  year,  or  return  to  the  same  star,  is  365  days,
6  hours,  9  minutes,  n  seconds.

The  Jews  dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in
March,  and  civil  year  in  September ;  the  Athenians
began  the  year  in  June ;  the  Macedonians  on  24  Sept. ;
the  Christians  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  on  29  or  30  Aug. ;
and  the  Persians  and  Armenians  on  1 1  Aug.  Nearly
all  Christian  nations  now  commence  the  year  on  1
January.

In  Prance,  the  Merovingian  kings  began  the  year  with
March  ;  the  Carlovingians  sometimes  began  the  year
with  Christmas,  25  Dec.  ;  and  sometimes  with  Easter,
which,  being  a  movable  feast,  led  to  much  confusion.

Charles  IX.  of  Prance,  in  1564,  published  an  arret,  the
last  article  of  which  ordered  the  year  for  the  time  to

4  A


YEAR-BOOKS.


1090


YEW-TREE.


some  to  be  constantly  and  universally  begun,  and
written  on  and  from  i  January.

The  beginning  of  the  year  has  been  reckoned  from  the
day  celebrating  the  birth  of  Christ,  25  Dec.  ;  his  cir-
cumcision, 1  Jan.  ;  his  conception,  25  March ;  and  his
resurrection,  Easter.

The  English  began  their  year  on  the  25th  of  December,
until  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  This  prince
having  been  crowned  on  1  Jan.  gave  occasion  to  the
English  to  begin  their  year  at  that  time,  to  make  it
agree  with  the  then  most  remarkable  period  of  their
history.  Stoxv.  Until  the  act  for  altering  the  style,
in  1752  (see  Style),  when  the  year  was  ordered  to
begin  on  Jan.  1,  it  did  not  legally  and  generally
commence  in  England  until  25th  March.  In  Scotland,
at  that  period,  the  year  began  on  the  1st  of  January.
This  difference  caused  great  practical  inconveniences  ;
and  January,  February,  and  part  of  March  sometimes
bore  two  dates,  as  we  often  find  in  old  records,  1745-
1746,  or  1745-6,  or  1745.  Such  a  reckoning  often  led
to  chronological  mistakes  ;  for  instance,  we  popularly
say  the  "  revolution  of  1688,"  as  that  event  was  com-
pleted in  February,  1688,  according  to  the  then  mode
of  computation  :  but  if  the  year  were  held  to  begin,  as
it  does  now,  on  the  first  of  January,  it  would  be  the
revolution  of  1689.

The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia  and  Lapland
is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  given  by  a
traveller  : — "23  June,  snow  melts. 1  July,  snow  gone.

9  July,  fields  quite  green.  17  July,  plants  at  full
growth. 25  July,  plants  in  flower. 2  Aug.,  fruits  ripe.

10  Aug.,  plants  shed  their  seed.  18  Aug..  snow."
The  snow  continues  upon  the  ground  from  18th  Aug.
of  one  year  to  23rd  June  of  the  year  following,  being
309  days  out  of  365  ;  so  that  while  the  three  seasons  of
spring,  summer,  and  autumn  are  together  only  fifty-six
days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty -four  weeks'
duration  in  these  countries.

See  New  Style,  Platonic  Year,  Sabbatical  Year,  Mahomet-
anism,  French  Revolutionary  Calendar.

Year  of  our  Lord  ;  see  Anno  Domini.

Year  of  the  Reign.  From  the  time  of  William  the
Conqueror,  1066,  the  year  of  the  sovereign's  reign  has
been  given  to  all  public  instruments.  The  king's
patents,  charters,  proclamations,  and  all  acts  of  parlia-
ment have  since  then  been  generally  so  dated.  The
same  manner  of  dating  is  used  in  most  of  the  European
states  for  all  similar  documents  and  records  ;  see  List
of  Kings  under  England.

Year  and  a  Day.  A  space  of  time  in  law,  and  in  many
cases  establishes  and  fixes  a  right ;  as  in  an  estray,  on
proclamation  being  made,  if  the  owner  does  not  claim

1  it  within  the  time,  it  is  forfeited.  The  term  arose  in
the  Norman  law,  which  enacted  that  a  beast  found  on
another's  land,  if  unclaimed  for  a  year  and  a  day,  be-
longed to  the  lord  of  the  soil.  It  is  otherwise  a  legal
space  of  time.

YEAR-BOOKS  contain  reports  in  Norman-
French  of  cases  argued  and  decided  in  the  courts
of  common  law.  The  printed  volumes  extend  from
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  to  nearly
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  a  period  of
about  220  years ;  but  in  this  series  there  are  many
omissions.  These  books  are  the  first  in  the  long
line  of  legal  reports  in  which  England  is  so  rich,
and  may  be  considered  as,  to  a  great  extent,  the
foundation  of  our  unwritten  law,  uLex  non  scripta."
In  1863  et  seq.  various  year-books  of  Edward  I.
(1292-1304)  edited  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Horwood,  for  the
series  of  the  Chronicles  and  Memorials,  were  pub-
lished at  the  expense  of  the  British  government.

YEAST,  a  substance  causing  fermentation,  was
discovered  by  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  and  Schwann,
independently,  in  1836,  to  be  a  vegetable  cell  or
fungus.

YELLOW  FEVER,  an  American  pestilence,
made  its  appearance  at  Philadelphia,  where  it
committed  great  ravages,  1699.  It  appeared  in
several  islands  of  the  West  Indies  in  1732,  1739,
and  1745.  It  raged  with  unparalleled  violence  at
Philadelphia  in  Oct.  1762  ;  and  most  awfully  at
.  New  York  in  the  beginning  of  Aug.  1791.  This
fever  again  spread  great  devastation  at  Philadelphia


in  July  1 793 ;  carrying  off  several  thousand  persons.
Hardie.  It  again  appeared  in  Oct.  1797;  and  spread
its  ravages  over  the  northern  coast  of  America,
Sept.  1798.  It  reappeared  at  Philadelphia  in  the
summer  of  1802  ;  and  broke  out  in  Spain,  in  Sept.
1803.  The  yellow  fever  was  very  violent  at
Gibraltar  in  1804  and  1814;  in  the  Mauritius,  July
1815  ;  at  Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816 ;  and  it  raged  with
dreadful  consequences  at  Cadiz,  and  the  isle  of  St.
Leon,  in  Sept.  1819.  A  malignant  fever  raged  at
Gibraltar  in  Sept.  1828,  and  did  not  terminate  until
the  following  year.  Yellow  fever  raging  in  the
southern  of  the  United  States,  Sept.  Oct.  1878 ;  at
Memphis,  autumn,  1879;  in  Florida  (specially  in
Jacksonville)  and  other  southern  states,  autumn
1888.  Mr.  R.  A.  Proctor,  the  astronomer,  died  of
it  at  New  York  on  his  way  from  Florida  to  Eng-
land, 12  Sept.  1888  ;  the  epidemic  abating  Oct.
1888  ;  4,583  cases,  and  396  deaths  in  Jacksonville  to
Nov.  17,  1888.

YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK,

about  3300  square  miles,  in  territory  of  Wyoming.

It  includes  Yellowstone  lake,  about  330  square  miles,
with  numerous  geysers,  volcanic  and  other  grand
natural  phenomena,  rugged  mountains,  forests,  mea-
dows, rivers,  and  much  beautiful  scenery.  Its  forma-
tion was  authorised  by  congress  in  March,  1872.  It
was  visited  by  president  Arthur  in  1883.

YELVERTON  CASE,  see  Trials,  1861.

YEMEN,  a  province  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the
Red  Sea,  the  Arabia  Felix  of  the  Romans;  ste
Arabia.

YENIKALE,  see  Azof.

YEOMANRY,  see  under  Volunteers.

YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD,  a  peculiar  body
of  foot  guards  to  the  king's  person,  instituted  at
the  coronation  of  Henry  VII.  30  Oct.  1485,  which
originally  consisted  of  fifty  men  under  a  captain.
They  were  called  beef-eaters,  a  corruption  of  buffv-
tiers,  being  attendants  on  the  king's  buffet  or
sideboard  ;  see  Battle-Axe.  They  were  of  a  larger
stature  than  other  guards,  being  required  to  be
over  six  feet  in  height,  and  were  armed  with
arquebuses  and  other  arms.  The  band  was  in-
creased by  Henry's  successors  to  one  hundred  men,
and  seventy  supernumeraries ;  and  when  one  of  the
hundred  died,  it  was  ordered  that  his  place  should
be  supplied  out  of  the  seventy.  They  were  clad
after  the  manner  of  king  Henry  VIII.  Ashmole's
Instit.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  perma-
nent military  band  instituted  in  England.  John
earl  of  Oxford,  was  the  first  captain  in  i486.  Beat-
son's  Pol.  Index.

YERMUK  (Syria).  Near  here  the  emperor
Heraclius  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Saracens,  after  a
fierce  engagement,  Nov.  636.  Damascus  was  taken,
and  his  army  expelled  from  Syria.

YEW-TREE  (Taxits).  The  origin  of  planting
yew-trees  in  churchyards  was  (these  latter  being
fenced)  to  secure  the  trees  from  cattle,  and  in  this
manner  preserve  them  for  the  encouragement  of
archery.  A  general  plantation  of  them  for  the  use
of  archers  was  ordered  by  Richard  III.  1483.  Stow's
Chron.  Near  Fountains  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  were
seven  yew-trees,  called  the  Seven  Sisters,  supposed
to  have  been  planted  before  1088 ;  the  circum-
ference of  the  largest  thirty-four  feet  seven  inches
round  the  trunk.  In  1851  a  yew-tree  was  said  to
be  growing  in  the  churchyard  of  Gresford,  North
Wales,  whose  circumference  was  nine  yards  nine
inches,  being  the  largest  and  oldest  yew-tree  in  the
British  dominions ;  but  tradition  states  that  there
are  some  yews  in  England  older  than  the  hitroduc-


YEZIDIS.


1091


YOKK.


tion  of  Christianity.  The  old  yew-tree  mentioned
in  the  survey  taken  of  Richmond  palace  in  1649,  is
said  to  be  still  existing.

YEZIDIS,  an  eastern  tribe,  living  near  the
Euphrates,  visited  by  Mr.  Layard  in  1841 :  see
Devil  Worship.

YEZDEGIRD,  or  Persian  Era,  was

formerly  universally  adopted  in  Persia,  and  is  still
used  by  the  Parsees  in  India,  and  by  the  Arabs,  in
certain  computations.  This  era  began  on  the  26th
June,  632,  when  Yezdegird  was  elected  king  of
Persia.  The  year  consisted  of  365  days  only,  and
therefore  its  commencement,  like  that  of  the  old
Egyptian  and  Armenian  year,  anticipated  the  Julian
year  by  one  day  in  every  four  years.  This  difference
amounted  to  nearly  112  days  in  the  year  1075,
when  it  was  reformed  by  Jelaledin,  who  ordered
that  in  future  the  Persian  year  should  receive  an
additional  day  whenever  it  should  appear  necessary
to  postpone  the  commencement  of  the  following
year,  that  it  might  occur  on  the  day  of  the  sun's
passing  the  same  degree  of  the  ecliptic.

YNGLINGS  (youths,  or  off-shoots),  descend-
ants of  the  Scandinavian  hero  Odin,  ruled  Sweden
till  830,  when  the  last  of  the  pontiff  kings,  Olaf
Traetelia,  being  expelled,  led  to  the  foundation  of
the  Norwegian  monarchy.

YOKE  is  spoken  of  as  a  type  of  servitude.  The
■ceremony  of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it  was
practised  by  the  Samnites  towards  the  Romans,
321  B.C.;  see  Caudine  Forks.  This  disgrace  was
afterwards  inflicted  by  the  Romans  upon  their  van-
■quished  enemies. Dufresnoy.

YOKOHAMA,  see  Japan.

YORK  (N.  England),  a  town  of  the  Brigantes,
named  Evrauc,  settled  by  the  Romans  during  the
•second  campaign  of  Agricola,  about  79,  and  named
Eboracum  or  Eburacum,  and  became  the  metropolis
of  the  north. See  Population.

The  emperor  Severus  died  here  .  .  4  Feb.  211
Here  Constantius  Chlorus  died,  and  his  son  Con-

stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor,

25  July,  306
Abbey  of  St.  Mary's,  founded  by  Seward  the  Dane  1050
York  burnt  by  the  Danes,  allies  of  Edgar  Atheling,

and  all  the  Normans  slain 1069

The  city  and  many  churches  destroyed  by  fire,

3  June,  1 137
Massacre  and  suicide  of  many  Jews  .  .  .  1190
York  received  its  charter  from  Richard  II.,  and  the

mayor  was  made  a  lord 1389

The  Guildhall  erected 1446

Richard  III.  crowned  again  here  .  .  8  Sept.  1483
At  a  parliament  held  here  Charles  I.  professed  his

intention  to  govern  legally  .  .  13  June,  1642
York  taken  for  the  parliament,  after  the  battle  of

Marston-moor 16  July,  1644

Injured  during  the  civil  war  by  Fairfax . April, ,,
The  corporation  built  a  mansion-house  for  the  lord

mayor 1728

The  castle  was  built  by  Richard  III.,  1484,  and  was

rebuilt  as  a  gaol 1741

The  York  petition  to  parliament,  to  reduce  the

expenditure  and  redress  grievances  .  .  Dee.  1779
Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society  established  .  .  1822
First  meeting  of  the  British  Association  held  here

27  Sept.  1831
British  Association  (2nd  time)  ....  1844

Population,  45,385 1861

Fall  of  the  iron  bridge  over  the  Ouse  ;  five  persons

killed 27  Sept. ,,

Social  Science  Association  met  here  .  22  Sept.  1864
Fine  Arts  and  Industrial  Exhibition  opened

24  July,  1866
Visit  of  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  . 9-1 1  Aug. ,,
Meeting  of  the  Church  Congress . . 9  Oct. ,,
The  provincial  mayors  gave  a  festival  to  the  lord

mayor  of  London,  &c,  at  York . 25  Sept.  1873


1879
1881


18S5


Permanent  Fine  Art Exhibition  opened by  the

archbishop 7  May,

British  Association  jubilee  meeting  31  Aug. -8  Sept.
Royal Agricultural Society's annual meeting,

16  July,
Yorkshire  Institute,  memorial  stone  laid  by  the

prince  of  Wales  18  July,  1883 ; opened  by  the

marquis  of  Lome .... 10  June,
Yorkshire  college  of  science  opened  26  Oct.  1874  5

new  building  opened  by  the  prince  of  Wales,

15  July, ,,
New  Courts  of  Justice,  memorial  stone  laid  by  the

duke  of  Clarence .... 16  July,  1890

DUKES.

1385.  Edmund  Plantagenet  (fifth  son  of  king  Edward
III.);  created  duke,  6  Aug.  ;  died  1402.

1406.  Edward  (his  son),  was  degraded  by  Henry  IV.  in
1399,  but  restored  in  1414  ;  killed  at  Agincourt,
1415  ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew,

1415.  Richard  (son  of  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  who
was  beheaded  for  treason  in  1415) ;  became
regent  of  France  in  1435  ;  quelled  the  rebellion
in  Ireland  in  1449  ;  claimed  the  throne,  and  was
appointed  protector  in  1454  :  his  office  was  an-
nulled, and  he  began  the  civil  war  in  1455,  and
was  slain  after  his  defeat  at  Wakefield  in  1460.

1460.  Edward  (his  son)  afterwards  king  Edward  IV.

1474.  Richard  (his  second  son),  said  to  have  been  mur-
dered in  the  Tower,  1483.

1494.  Henry  Tudor,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.

1605.  Charles  Stuart,  afterwards  Charles  I.

DUKES OF  YORK  AND ALBANY.

1643.  James  Stuart  (his  second  son),  afterwards
James  II.

1716.  Ernest  (brother  of  George  I.)  ;  died  1728.

1760.  Edward  (brother  of  George  III.)  ;  died  1767.

1784.  Frederic  (son  of  George  III.),  born  16  Aug.  1763
Marries  princess  Frederica  of  Prussia,

29  Sept.  1 79 1
Commands  the  British  forces  at  Antwerp,

S  April,  1793
Present  at  the  siege  of  Valenciennes  23  May, ,,
Defeated  at  Dunkirk ... 7  Sept. ,,
At  Bois-le-Due,  14  Sept. ; and  at  Boxtel,

17  Sept.  1794
Appointed  commander-in-chief  .  .  .  1798
Defeated  near  Alkmaar,  19  Sept.  and  6  Oct.  1799
Accused  by  colonel  Wardle  of  abuse  of  his

patronage ;  he  resigns . . 27  Jan.  1809

Becomes  again  commander-in-chief . .  1811

Strongly  opposes  the  catholic  claims . .  1825

Dies 5  Jan.  1827

Prince  George  of  Wales  created  duke  of  York,

34  May,  1892
See  Albany.

YORK,  Archbishopric  of.  The  most  an-
cient metropolitan  see  in  England,  being,  it  is
said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius  about  180,  when
Christianity  was  first  partly  established  in  England.
The  bishop  Eborius  was  present  at  the  council  of
Aries,  314.  The  see  was  overturned  by  the  Saxons,
and  was  revived  by  pope  Gregory  on  their  con-
version, and  Paulinus  is  said  to  have  been  conse-
crated archbishop,  21  July,  625.  York  and  Dur-
ham were  long  the  only  two  sees  in  the  north
of  England,  until  Henry  I.  erected  a  bishopric  at
Carlisle,  and  Henry  VIII.  another  at  Chester.
York  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the  Scottish
bishops ;  but  during  the  time  of  archbishop  Nevil,
1464,  they  withdrew  their  obedience,  and  had  arch-
bishops of  their  own.  Much  dispute  arose  between
the  two  English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as
by  pope  Gregory's  institutions  it  was  thought  he
meant,  that  whichever  of  them  was  first  confirmed,
should  be  superior :  appeal  was  made  to  the  court
of  Rome  by  both  parties,  and  it  was  determined  in
favour  of  Canterbury.  The  archbishop  of  York  was
allowed  to  style  himself  primate  of  England,  while
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  styles  himself  primate
of  all  England.  The  province  of  York  now  con-
tains the  dioceses  of  York,  Carlisle,  Chester,  Duiv

4  A  %


YOEK  MINSTER.


1092


YYEES.


ham,  Sodor  and  Man,  Manchester,  and  Ripor.
{which  see).  York  has  yielded  to  the  church  of
Rome  eight  saints  and  three  cardinals,  and  to
England  twelve  lord  chancellors,  two  lord  trea-
surers, and  two  lord  presidents  of  the  north:  It  is
rated  in  the  king's  books,  39  Henry  VIII.  1546,  at
1609/.  19s.  2d.  per  annum.  Beatson.  Present  in-
come 10,000/.

ARCHBISHOPS.

1501.  Thomas  Savage,  died,  3  Sept.  1507.

1508.  Christopher  Bainbrigg,  poisoned  at  Rome,  14  July,

1514.
1514.  Thomas  Wolsey,  died,  29  Nov.  1530.
1531.  Edward  Lee,  died,  13  Sept.  1544.
1545.  Robert  Holgate,  deprived,  23  March,  1554.
1555.  Nicholas  Heath,  deprived.
1561.  Thomas  Young,  died,  26  June,  1568.
1570.  Edmund  Grindal,  translated  to  Canterbury,  10  Jan.

1576-
1577.  Edwin  Sands  or  Sandys,  died,  10  July,  1588.
1589.  John  Piers,  died,  28  Sept.  1594.
1595.  Matthew  Hutton,  died,  16  Jan.  1606.
1606.  Tobias  Matthew,  died,  29  March,  1628.
1628.  George  Mountaigne,  died,  24  Oct.  1628.

,, Samuel  Harsnet,  died,  25  May,  1631.
1632.  Richard  Neyle,  died,  31  Oct.  1640.
1641.  John  Williams,  died,  25  March,  1650.

[See  vacant  ten  years.]
1660.  Accepted  Frewen,  died,  28  March,  1664.
1664.  Richard  Sterne,  died,  18  June,  1683.
1683.  John  Dolben,  died,  11  April,  1686.
[See  vacant  two  years.]
*688.  Thomas  Lamplugh,  died,  5  May,  1691.
1691.  John  Sharp,  died,  2  Feb.  1714.
1714.  Sir  William  Dawes,  died,  30  April,  1724.
1724.  Launcelot  Blackburn,  died,  23  March,  1743.
1743.  Thomas  Herring,  translated  to  Canterbury,  Oct.

J747-
1747.  Matthew  Hutton,  translated  to  Canterbury,  March,

1757-
1757.  John  Gilbert,  died,  1761.
1761.  Robert  Hay  Drummond,  died,  10  Dec.  1776.
1777.  William  Markham,  died,  3  Nov.  1807.
1808.  Edward  Venables  Vernon,  died,  5  Nov.  1847.
1847.  Thomas  Musgrave,  died,  4  May,  i860.
i860.  Charles  T.  Longley,  translated  to  Canterbury  (from

Durham),  1862.
1862.  William  Thomson, translated from Gloucester;

died  25  Dec.  1890.
1891.  Wm.  Connor  Magee,  translated  from  Peterborough,

elected  Feb.,  died  4  May,  1891.
1891.  William Dalrymple Maclagan, translated from

Lichfield,  May.

YOEK  MINSTER  (dedicated  to  St.  Peter).
The  first  Christian  church  erected  here,  which
appears  to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Roman  temple,
was  built  by  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  of  wood,
about  625,  and  of  stone  about  635.  It  was  damaged
by  fire  in  741,  and  was  rebuilt  by  archbishop
Albert,  about  780.  It  Avas  again  destroyed  by  fire
in  the  year  1069,  and  rebuilt  by  archbishop
Thomas,  of  Bayeux.  It  was  once  more  burnt  down
in  1 137,  with  St.  Mary's  abbey,  and  39  parish
churches  in  York.  Archbishop  Roger  built  the
choir,  1 154-81;  Walter  Gray  added  the  south
transept  in  1227;  John  de  Romayne,  the  treasurer
of  the  cathedral,  built  the  north  transept  in  1260.
His  son,  archbishop  Romanus,  laid  the  foundation
of  the  nave  in  1291.  In  1330,  William  de  Melton
built  the  two  western  towers,  which  were  finished
by  John  de  Birmingham  in  1342.  Archbishop
Thoresby,  in  1361,  began  to  rebuild  the  choir,  in
accordance  with  the  magnificence  of  the  nave,  and
he  also  rebuilt  the  lantern  tower.  The  minster  was
set  on  fire  by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic,  and  the
roof  of  the  choir  and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed,
2  Feb.  1829;  the  damage,  estimated  at  60,000/.,
was  repaired  in  1832  under  sir  Robert  Smirke.  An
accidental  fire  broke  out,  and  in  one  hour  reduced
tho  belfry  to  a  shell,  destroyed  the  roof  of  the
nave, and  much  damaged the  edifice, 20  May,


1840. This  was  restored  by  Sidney  Smirke,  at  a
cost  of  23,000/.,  1841.

YOEK  and  Lancaster,  Wars  of,  see
Hoses.

YOEK  (Upper  Canada),  founded  in  1794;  since
1834  named  Toronto.  In  the  war  between  America
and  Great  Britain,  the  United  States'  forces  made
several  attacks  upon  the  province  of  Upper  Canada,
and  succeeded  in  taking  York,  the  seat  of  the
government,  27  April,  1813;  but  it  was  soon  after-
wards again  retaken  by  the  British.

YOEKSHIEE  Exhibition  of  Arts  and  Manu-
factures, opened  at  Leeds,  by  the  duke  of  Edin-
burgh, 13  May,  1875.  The  Yorkshire  Registries
Act  passed  7  Aug.  1884.

YOEK  TOWN  (Virginia,  United  States).
Lord  Corn wal  lis  had  taken  possession  of  York  town
in  Aug.  1 781 ;  but  after  sustaining  a  disastrous
siege,  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  army,  con-
sisting of  about  7000  men,  to  the  allied  armies  of
France  and  America,  under  the  command  of  general
Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  19  Oct.  1781.
This  mischance  was  attributed  to  sir  Henry
Clinton,  who  had  not  given  the  garrison  the
necessary  succour  they  expected;  and  it  mainly
led  to  the  close  of  the  war.  The  centenary  was
celebrated  16  Oct.  1881  et  seq.  On  19  Oct.  the
British  flag  was  saluted  generally.  The  town  was
strongly  fortified  by  the  confederates  in  the  American
civil  war,  but  surrendered  to  M'Clellan,  May,  1862.

YOUNG  ENGLAND,  a  name  given  to  a
number  of  young  tory  gentlemen  earnestly  opposed
to  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  and  other  liberal
measures,  and  very  desirous  of  reviving  the  old
relations  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes
mixing  in  rural  sports,  &c,  yet  preserving  the  due
distinctions  (1842-6).  Lord  John  Manners  (Duke
of  Rutland,  1888),  and  the  hon.  G.  Smythe,  were
eminent  leaders,  and  their  ideas  were  favoured  by
Mr.  Disraeli  (lord  Beaconsfield)  in  his  novel  "Con-
ingsby,"  published  1844.

YOUNG  IEELAND,  see  Ireland,  Young.

YOUNG  ITALY,  see  Italy,  1831.

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHEISTIAN  ASSO-
CIATION, for  improvement  of  young  men  by
means  of  classes,  meetings,  &c,  founded  1844.
Exeter-hall,  Strand,  was  bought  for  the  associa-
tion about  July,  1880.  Itmet  there,  29  March,  1881.
The  Young  Men's  Christian  Institute  bought  the
Polytechnic  Institute,  about  Dec.  1881.  The
Young  Women's Christian As»ociation,  founded


YTTEIUM,  a  rare  metal.  The  earth  yttria
was  discovered  by  professor  Gadolin  in  a  mineral  at
Ytterby,  in  Sweden,  1794-  The  metal  was  first
obtained  by  Wohler  in  1828.  It  is  of  a  dark  grey
colour,  and  brittle,

YUCATAN,  Mexico,  discovered  by  Hernandez
Cordova,  1517 ;  conquered  by  Bernal  Diaz,  1522;
declared  for  independence,  1813.  Its  ancient  cities
are  described  in  works  by  the  American  traveller
Stephens,  1838  and  1842.

YVEES  (now  Ivry,  N.  W.  France),  where  a
battle  was  fought,  14  March,  1590,  between  Henry
IV.  of  France,  aided  by  his  chief  nobility,  and
the  generals  of  the  catholic  league,  over  whom  the
king  obtained  a  complete  victory.


z.


ZAGEAB.


ZAMBESI.


ZAGEAB  (Hungary).  Here  Andrew  III.  de-
feated the  invader  Charles  Martel,  to  whom  the
pope  had  assigned  his  crown,  1292.

ZAHEINGEN  (Baden),  the  seat  of  dukes,
ancestors  of  the  grand  duites  of  Baden,  descended
from  Herman  I.,  margrave,  1074 ;  see  Baden.

ZAMA  (near  Carthage,  N.  Africa),  the  scene  of
the  battle  between  the  two  greatest  commanders  in
the  world  at  the  time,  Hannibal  and  Scipio
Africanus.  The  victory  was  won  by  Scipio,  and
was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  Carthage,  202.  It  led
to  an  ignominious  peace,  which  closed  the  second
Punic  war,  201  B.C  The  Romans  lost  about  2000
killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Carthaginians  lost
in  killed  and  prisoners  more  than  40,000 ;  some
historians  make  the  loss  greater;  202  b.c.

ZAMBESI,  river  of  E.  Africa,  explored  by
Livingstone  1851-6,  1858-64.  His  book  published,
Nov.  1865.

British  Zambesi  a. — A  charter  was  granted  to
the  British  South  Africa  company  15  Oct.,
signed  29  Oct.,  1889,  to  settle  the  immense  area
lying  between  Lower  and  Central  Zambesi  on  the
north,  and  the  Transvaal  border  on  the  south.
The  company  includes  Mr.  Cecil  J.  Rhodes,  the
African  explorer,  the  dukes  of  Abercorn  and
Fife,  earl  Gifford,  and  other  eminent  persons.
The  Portuguese  exploring  expedition  under  lieut.
Cordon ;  he  receives  the  allegiance  of  several
tribes  ;  the  limits  of  the  districts  sanctioned  by
royal  decree,  and  the  province  named  Zumbo,

7  Nov.  1889

The  marquis  of  Salisbury  protests  against  the  as-
sumption of  Zumbo  by  the  Portuguese,  referring
to  the  agreement  of  Great  Britain  -with  Loben-
gula,  ruler  of  Mashona  and  Makalakaland,  of  11
Feb.  1888,  and  also  to  British  agreements  with
other  tribes  (referred  to  by  consul  Johnston,  26
Aug.,  and  by  consul  Buchanan,  30  Sept.  1889),
and  to  the  results  of  British  explorations,

21  Nov. ,,

Senhor  de  Barros  Gomes,  Portuguese  foreign  minis-
ter, in  his  reply  sustains  the  claims  of  Portugal,
leased  on  discoveries  and  consequent  effective
occupation  of  the  territories  in  question  for
centuries,  relics  of  which  still  remain .  29  Nov. ,,

Major  Serpa  Pinto,  with  about  4,000  men  with  can-
non, forms  a  camp in the  Makololo  country,
quarrels  with  the  natives,  conquers  them,  and
calls  on  the  British  settlers  to  submit  to  Portu-  '
gal,  reported  by  bishop  C.  A.  Smythies 5  Dec. ,,

Lord  Salisbury  telegraphs  to  the  Portuguese
government  in  relation  to  major  Serpa  Pinto's
action,  that  they  should  not  permit  any  such
attacks  on  British  settlements,  or  on  any  other
settlement  under  British  protection  or  influence,

17  Dec. ,,

Sen.  Barros  Gomes,  in  his  reply,  justifies  the
actions  of  major  Serpa  Pinto,  by  referring  to  the
disturbed  state  of  the  country . . 20  Dec. ,,

Lord  Salisbury,  in  a  despatch,  declines  to  recog-
nise the  claims  of  Portugal  as  antiquated,  and
unsupported  by  action  in  modern  times 26  Dec. ,,

A  peremptory  note  sent  by  lord  Salisbury,  re-
quiring immediate  withdrawal  of  major  Serpa
Pinto,  delivered 6  Jan.  1890

Sen.  Barros  Gomes'  reply  being  deemed  unsatisfac-
tory, lord  Salisbury  declares  that  his  government
will  order  that  no  acts  of  force  be  committed
against  any  British  settlements  or  others  speci-
lied  by  him,  and  requests  that  the  matters  in


dispute  be  referred  to  a  conference  of  the  powers,
in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  Berlin 8  Jan.

Lord  Salisbury,  by  telegram,  requires  to  know  that
explicit  instructions  have  been  sent  from  Mozam-
bique for  the  immediate  withdrawal  of  Portu-
guese forces  from  the  territories  in  question  ;
sen.  Barros  Gomes  informs  the  British  minister,
Mr.  Petre,  that  such  instructions  had  been  sent
9  Jan.  Lord  Salisbury,  having  learned  from
consul  Churchill  at  Mozambique,  that  majoi
Serpa  Pinto's  forces  still  occupied  his  positions,
and  treated  Nyassaland  as  a  conquered  country,
directs  Mr.  Petre  to  require  acceptance  of  the
British  demands  before  10  p.m.  h  Jan.  ;  if  not
accepted  he  is  to  order  H.M.S.  Enchantress,  at
Vigo,  to  enter  the  Tagus,  and  to  prepare  for  the
withdrawal  of  the  British  legation  from  Lisbon,

10  Jan.

The  council  of  state  decide  to  yield  under  protest,

reserving  all  Portuguese  rights  . . 12  Jan.

[All  the  correspondence,  from  16  Nov.  1889  to  13

Jan.  1890,  was  published  in  the  London  Gazette,

17  Jan.  1890.]

The  surveying  expedition  under  Mr.  Selous,  on
behalf  of  the  British  South  Africa  company,
starts Feb.

The  Portuguese  evacuate  the  disputed  territory  in
the  Shire  district,  reported . . 8  March,

Telegraph  lines  rapidly  constructed,  reported,

11  June,

Expedition  of  the  South  Africa  company  into
Mashonaland  under  lieut. -col.  E.  G.  Pennefather,
with  other  military  men,  July ;  favourable  pro-
gress, Aug. ;  arrives  at  its  goal  at  mount  Hamp-
den, well  received  by  the  natives,  reported,  12
Sept. ;  the  force  disbands  to  occupy  the  land
granted  them .... about  24  Oct.

Part  of  the  Manica  country  ceded  to  the  company
by  the  chief  Umtasa,  by  treaty . 14  Sept.

H.M.S.  gunboats,  the  Herald  and  Musquito,  enter
the  Zambesi,  accompanied  by  other  vessels  with
stores 8  Oct.

H.M.S.  Redbreast,  man-of-war,  leaves  Zanzibar,  3
Sept.,  amid  many  difficulties  and  some  Portu-
guese opposition,  with  other  vessels,  proceeds  up
the  Zambesi,  reaches  Zumbo,  and  returns  to
Zanzibar 17  Oct.

Mr.  Colquhoun,  the  administrator  of  the  company,
assumes  the  government  at  Fort  Salisbury,

10  Oct.

The  Anglo-Portuguese  agreement  of  20  Aug.  with-
drawn, and  a  modus  vivendi  agreed  on 14  Nov.

Col.  Paiva  d'Andrade  and  the  baron  de  Rezendi,
with  Gouveia,  a  half-breed  native  chief,  and  about
300  followers,  seize  Umtasa's  kraal  at  Massi
Kesse,  and  replace  the  British  by  the  Portuguese
flag,  8  Nov. ;  major  Forbes,  with  the  company's
police,  re-takes  the  kraal,  restores  the  British
flag,  and  temporarily  imprisons  the  Portuguese
officers  ;  Gouveia,  with  his  men,  flee . 15  Nov.

The  South  Africa  company  ordered  by  the  British
government  to  withdraw  from  Manica,

about  19  Dec.

Gungunhama,  nominal  king  of  Manica,  said  to  have
replaced  the  Portuguese  flag  by  the  English,
reported 31  Dec.

Gold  discovered  in  Mashonaland ;  many  claims
for  working  and  tracts  assigned . Dec.  et  seq.

Col.  Paiva  d'Andrade  arrives  in  Lisbon,  and  com-
plains of  the  conduct  of  major  Forbes  and  others
(in  Nov.),  and  denies  the  truth  of  the  company's
statements  respecting  it  . . 19  Jan.

Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  appointed  British  resident  of
the  district  N.  of  the  company's  territories,  to  be
called  "  British  Central  Africa " . . March,

The  Countess  of  Carnarvon,  steamer,  conveying
Messrs.  Jameson,  Doyle,  Stevens,  and  Moodie  to


ZAMOEA.


1094


ZANZIBAE.


Cape  Town,  to  meet  Mr.  C.  Rhodes,  captured  by
a  Portuguese  customs'  steamer  on  the  river
Limpopo,  which  was  declared  open  by  the  chief,
Gungunhama,  free  to  British  commerce,  about
8  March ;  Gungunhama  repudiates  vassalage  to
Portugal 14  March,  1891

Mr.  Jameson  and  others  at  Delagoa  Bay  set  free,
17  March  ;  go  to  Cape  Town . . March, „

The  British  steamer,  Norseman,  containing  sir  John
Willoughby  and  party,  with  the  imperial  British
mail  for  Mashonaland,  stopped  by  the  Portuguese
at  Port  Beira,  in  the  Pungwe  river,  although  the
prescribed  duty  of  3  per  cent,  on  the  stores  had
been  offered,  according  to  the  modus  vivendi  ;  the
British  flag  replaced  by  the  Portuguese.  Two
steam  launches  seized,  and  the  crews  imprisoned,
reported  by  sir  John  at  Delagoa  bay,  20  April ;
on  the  remonstrance  of  lord  Salisbury  the  Portu-
guese government  declares  the  Pungwe  river
open  to  British  subjects  ;  three  of  H.M.'s  ships
sent  to  the  Pungwe,  announced . 23  April, ,,

Massi  Kessi  evacuated  by  the  British  by  govern-
ment orders,  reported . . . .30  April, „

Gungunhama,  king  of  Gazaland,  sends  an  embassy
to  Queen  Victoria,  soliciting  perpetual  alliance,

April,  May, ,,

Two  envoys  honourably  received,  May,  June ;  by
the  Queen  at  Windsor  . . . .10  July, ,,

Portuguese  attack  on  the  company's  police  post,
W.  of  Massi  Kesse,  repulsed . . n  May, ,,

Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes,  commissioner,  arrives  at  Fort
Salisbury 16  Oct. ,,

First  annual  meeting  of  the  British  South  Africa
company,  the  duke  of  Abercorn  in  the  chair ;
report  and  balance-sheet  accepted . 22  Dec. ,,

The  British  parliament  votes  2o,oooZ.  for  a  survey
for  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  Mombasa
to  the  Victoria  Nyanza ... 10  March,  1892

Agreement  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal
respecting  the  navigation  of  the  Zambesi,

about  19  March, ,,
ZAMOEA  (Spain). Here  Alphonso  the  Great

defeated  the  Moors,  in  901.

Z  ANTE . One  of  the  Ionian  Islands  {which  see) .

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria,
under  Zanzalee,  535 ;  he  taught  that  water  baptism
was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be
baptized  by  fire,  with  the  application  of  a  red-hot
iron. The  sect  was  at  one  time  very  numerous.

ZANZIBAE  or  ZANGUEBAE,  an  island,
east  Africa,  metropolis  of  the  possessions  of  the
Imaum  of  Muscat,  and  chief  market  for  ivory,
gum,  coral,  and  cloves,  and  also  for  slaves.  At  the
death  of  the  Seyyid  (or  lord),  miscalled  "imaum"
and  "  sultan,"  of  Muscat,  1856,  his  dominions
were  divided  between  his  sons ;  see  Muscat.  Majid
obtained  Zanzibar,  after  a  contest  with  his  brother,
Barghash  Seyyid,  who,  however,  succeeded  at  his
death,  7  Oct.  1870.  An  expedition  for  the  pur-
pise  of  suppressing  the  slave  trade  was  sent  to
Zanzibar,  under  the  command  of  sir  Bartle  Prere,
20  Nov.  1872,  arrived  about  12  Jan.  1873.  After
some  delay  and  negotiation  by  Dr.  Kirke,  a  treaty
was  signed,  abolishing  the  trade,  5  June,  1873.  The
contract  for  the  mail  to  Zanzibar  was  censured  as
too  expensive  in  July,  1873,  and  altered.  The
Seyyid  Barghash  visited  England  in  1875,  arrived
9  June;  received  by  the  queen,  21  June;  received
freedom  of  London,  12  July ;  sailed  for  France,
15  July.  He  decreed  confiscation  of  slaves  brought
to  Zanzibar,  18  April,  1876.  The  sultan's  offer  to
eoncede  large  territories  on  the  mainland  to  sir  "Win.
Mackinnon,  founder  of  the  British  East  Africa  Com-
pany, not  accepted  by  the  British  government,  1878.
The*  sultan  made  knight  of  St.  Michael  and  St.
George,  14  Sept.  1883.

Treaty  with  Germany  comes  into  force,  19  Aug.
1886.  The  sultan's  rights  recognised  by  Anglo-
German  treaty ... 29  Oct.  &  1  Nov.  1886


Rupture  with  Portugal  respecting  non-cession  of
territories  (see  Mozambique) . Feb.-Mareh,

Seyyid  Barghash  died  ;  succeeded  by  his  brother
Seyyid  Khalifah .... 26  March,

Dispute  with  Italy  respecting  cession  of  territories
by  the  late  sultan .... 6  June,

Territories  ceded  to  the  British  Bast  Africa  com-
pany ;  treaty  signed .... 9  Oct.

Lieut.  Cooper  captures  a  dhow  but  is  killed :
much  regretted 17  Oct.

The  universities'  mission  warned  to  retire  from  the
mainland  of  Africa  by  government  on  account  of
operations  against  slave  traders  by  England  and
Germany . , Oct.

The  coast  blockaded  by  Germany  and  England,
2  Dec. ;  the  Germans  make  war  on  the  chiefs
who  burn  Bagamoyo  and  retire  . . 7  Dec.

The  Arab  slave  dealers  attack  some  German
stations  and  carry  off  the  freed  slaves ;  eight
missionaries  killed . . . . n-i^Jan.

Mr.  Brooks  and  26  others,  missionaries,  murdered
near  Saadani 21  Jan.

Meeting  of  the  sultan's  bodyguard  stopped  by  the
intervention  of  Mr.  Portal  and  gen.  Mathews,

19,  20  July,

The  sultan  signs  a  concession  of  territory  to  the
British  East  Africa  company  (headquarters
Mombasa) 1  Sept.

The  blockade  on  the  coast  abandoned after  1  Oct.

Ordered  that  all  native  children  born  in  Zanzibar
aften  Jan.  1890,  to  be  free  subjects  of  the  sultan  Oct.

The  marquis  of  Salisbury  receives  the  two  envoys
from  Zanzibar,  25  Oct. ;  they  are  taken  by  Mr.
Berkeley  and  capt.  Gissing  to  AVindsor  and  other
places,  26  Oct.  ;  received  by  the  queen  at  Bal-
moral 29  Oct.

Mr.  Gerald  Portal,  much  respected  by  the  sultan
and  Europeans,  leaves  Africa . . 14  Nov.

Mr.  Stanley  and  party  arrive  at  Zanzibar .  6  Dec.

The  sultan  receives  grand  cross  of  St.  Michael  and
St.  George,  and  grand  cross  Red  Eagle. 16  Dec.

The  sultan  surrenders  all  control  over  the  British
East  Africa  company's  territory  for  an  annual
payment,  reported .... 26  Dec.

Twelve  H.M.'s  ships  at  Zanzibar . . 8  Jan.

Expedition  from  Aden  to  Harrar  under  gen.  Hogg,
to  chastise  the  Eesa  tribe  for  a  murderous  raid
on  Bulhar,  Somaliland,  a  place  under  British
protection  (17  Aug.  1889)  on  11  Jan.,  reported
successful,  with  some  loss  ... 16  Feb.

Adm.  Fremantle,  with  11  men-of-war,  at  Mom-
basa 31  Jan.

Death  of  the  sultan,  Seyyid  Khalifah,  by  apoplexy,
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Seyyid  Ali,  13  Feb. ;
duly  recognised 17  Feb.

The  protectorate  of  Zanzibar,  Witu,  &c,  assumed
by  Great  Britain  with  the  consent  of  the  sultan,
in  conformity  with  the  Anglo-German  conven-
tion, announced .... 18  June,

Adm.  Fremantle  with  fleet'at  Zanzibar ;  the  sultan
received  by  the  admiral  on  the  Boadicea 25  July

Decree  of  the  sultan  against  slavery ;  the  sale,
purchase,  or  exchange  of  slaves  strictly  pro-
hibited ;  slaves  of  persons  dying  without  lawful
heirs,  declared  free  ;  slaves  not  to  be  disposable
by  will,  &c 1  Aug.

Six  houses  of  slave-brokers  permanently  closed,

2  Aug.

Herr  Kiintzel  and  a  party  of  Germans  in  Witu,  or
Vitu,  disarmed  by  the  sultan . . 14  Sept.

Kuntzel's  violent  conduct  leads  to  the  massacre  by
the  natives  of  all  the  party  except  Menschel,

15  Sept.

Redress  demanded  by  the  British  and  Germans ;
the  sultan  of  Witu  refuses  to  surrender  the
criminals .*.... 23  Oct.

An  expedition  under  captain  Curzen-Howe  and
commander  M'Quhae;  certain  evacuated  villages
on  the  coast  burnt ;  adm.  Fremantle  at  Kipini ;
the  admiral,  with  nearly  1,000  men,  advances  on
Witu 25,  26  Oct.

Witu  captured  and  destroyed,  the  enemy  disperse  ;
there  were  13  British  wounded;  the  success  of
the  expedition  was  mainly  attributed  to  capt.
Curzon-Howe,  the  chief  of  the  staff;  between  80
and  90  natives  were  killed  ... 27  Oct.

Col.  C.  B.  Euan-Smith,  consul-general,  made
K.C.B.,  announced .... 10  Nov.


1889


ZAEA.


1095


ZOOLOGY.


The  grand  cross  of  the  Star  of  India  conferred  on

the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  invested . 14  Nov.  1890
Death  of  the  deposed  sultan  of  Witu,  reported,

14  Jan.  1 891
Sir  C.  B.  Euan-Smith  makes  terms  with  the  Witu
chiefs  ;  a  younger  brother  of  the  late  sultan
elected  successor,  announced,  26  Jan.  ;  peace  and
amnesty  proclaimed  .  .  .  about  29  Jan.  „
Sir  C.  B.  Euan-Smith  leaves  for  Europe  (succeeded
by  Mr.  Gerald  Portal,  (K.C.M.G.,  1892)  consul-

. general 6  March, „

The  sultan  opens  the  Cooper  Royal  Naval  Institute,

8  July, „
Tipoo  Tib  at  Zanzibar,  received  by  the  sultan,

20  July, „
Great  increase  of  commerce  under  British  pro-
tectorate March— Sept. „

New  government  formed,  gen.  Mathews,  president,

20  Oct. „
Import  duties,  except  on  alcohol  and  dangerous

objects,  abolished .... 20  Dec. „
Zanzibar  declared  a  free  port . . . 1  Feb.  1892

ZAEA,  capital  of  Dalmatia,  a  Eoman  colony
tinder  Augustus.  It  revolted  from  Venice  and  was
recaptured,  18  Nov.  1202 ;  unsuccessfully  besieged
by  the  Turks  1572, 1577 ;  given  up  to  Austria,  1791.

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIEEES,  .for  ye,  you,  and  yours.
The  letter  a  was  retained  in  Scotland,  and  was
commonly  written  for  the  letter  y  so  late  as  the
reigu  of  queen  Mary,  up  to  which  period  many
books  in  the  Scottish  language  were  printed  in
Edinburgh  with  these  words,  1543.

ZEALAND,  one  of  the  13  provinces  which
formed  the  League  of  Utrecht,  1579;  see  Holland,
and  New  Zealand.

ZELA,  N.E.  Asia  Minor,  where  Julius  Csesar
defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  son  of
Mithridates.  Csesar,  in  announcing  his  victory,
sent  his  famous  despatch  to  the  senate  of  Eome,  in
these  words  :  "  Veni,  vidi,  vici," — "  I  came,  I  saw,
I  conquered"  (perhaps  the  shortest  despatch  on
record).  This  battle  ended  the  war;  Pharnaces
escaped  into  Bosporus,  where  he  was  slain  by  his
lieutenant,  Asander ;  Pontus  was  made  a  Itoman
province,  and  Bosporus  given  to  Mithridates  of
Pergamus,  47  B.C.

ZELL  (Hanover),  see  Denmark,  1772.

ZEND-AVESTA,  ancient  sacred  books  of  the
Parsees;  of  which  3  out  of  21  are  extant.  The
age  of  these  books  is  much  disputed.  Professor
Max  Miiller  says  that  the  MSS.  had  been  preserved
by  the  Parsee  priests  at  Bombay,  where  a  colony
of  fire-worshippers  had  fled  in  the  10th  century.
Anquetil  Duperron's  French  translation,  from  a
modern  Persian  version,  was  published  in  1771  ;
edition  by  Eugene  Burnouf,  1829-43.

ZENO  or  ZENON,  see  Stoics.

ZENOBIA,  Queen  of  the  East,  see  Palmyra.

ZENTA,  in  Hungary,  the  scene  of  a  battle
where  the  Germans,  under  prince  Eugene,  defeated
the  Turks,  11  Sept.  1697.  This  victory  led  to  the
peace  of  Carlowitz,  ratified  January,  1699.

ZETETICAL  SOCIETY,  established  in
1S78,  to  afford  opportunities  for  the  unrestricted
discussion  of  a  variety  of  questions.

ZETUNIUM.  After  defeating  Samuel  king  of
Bulgaria  here,  29  July,  1014,  the  emperor  Basil  II.
blinded  his  15,000  prisoners,  except  one  in  a  hun-
dred, to  whom  he  left  one  eye.  The  king  died  of
grief.

ZIDON,  see  Sidon.


ZINC.  The  ore  of  zinc,  calamine  or  spelter,
known  to  the  Greeks,  who  used  it  in  the  manufac-
ture of  brass.  It  is  said  to  have  been  known  in
China  also,  and  is  noticed  by  European  writers  as
early  as  123 1 ;  though  the  method  of  extracting  it
from  the  ore  was  unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred
years  after.  The  metal  zinc  is  mentioned  by
Paracelsus  (died  1541).  A  mine  of  zinc  was  dis-
covered on  lord  Eibblesdale's  estate,  Craven,  York-
shire, in  1809.  Zincography  was  introduced  in
London  shortly  after  lithography  became  known  in
England,  in  1 81 7;  see  Lithography.  Zinc  is  much
used  in  voltaic  batteries;  and  its  application  in,
manufactures  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years  ;
see  Photozincography.

ZINC  OBTAINED  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM.

tons.  value.

l875-  ■  ■  •  6,713  .  .  .  162,790/.

l88°-  •  •  •  7.162  •  •  .  123,544/.

l88z-  •  •  •  16,130  .  .  .  286,710/.

l885-  •  •  •  9.778  .  .  .  146,100/.

1888.  .  .  .  10,002  .  .  .  191,455/.

l89°-  •  ■  •  8,582  .  .  .  203,358/.

ZIECONIUM,  the  metallic  base  of  the  earth
Zirconia,  which  was  discovered  by  Klaproth  in
1789;  from  this  Berzelius  obtained  the  metal  in
1824.  Zirconia  is  found  in  the  sand  of  the  rivers  of
Ceylon.  The  metal  exists  in  the  form  of  a  black
powder.

ZIZYPHUS  VTJLGAEIS.  A  shrub  brought
from  the  south  of  Europe  about  1640.  The
Zizyphas  Paliurus  shrub  (Christ's  Thorn)  was
brought  from  Africa  before  1596;  see  Flowers.

ZODIAC.  Its  obliquity  was  discovered,  its
twelve  signs  named,  and  their  situations  assigned
them  by  Anaximander,  about  560  b.c.  The  Greeks
and  Arabians  borrowed  the  zodiac  from  the  Hindoos.
Sir  W.  Jones.  The  zodiacal  light  was  observed
by  Tycho  Brahe,  Descartes,  and  others,  and  named
by  Cassini,  1683.

ZOLLVEEEIN  {Customs'  Union),  the  name
given  to  the  German  commercial  union,  pro-
jected by  Prussia  1818,  and  gradually  joined  by
nearly  all  the  German  states  except  Austria.  On,
19  Feb.  1853,  an  important  treaty  of  commerce  and
navigation,  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  last
from  Jan.  1854  to  Dec.  1865,  was  signed,  to  which
the  other  states  of  the  Zollverein  gave  in  their  ad-
hesion on  5  April,  1853.  In  Nov.  1861,  Prussia
threatened  to  withdraw  unless  certain  changes
were  made.  By  the  treaty  of  8  July,  1867,  be-
tween the  North  German  confederation,  and  the
southern  states  (Bavaria,  "Wurtemberg,  Baden,  and
Hesse),  various  changes  were  made,  and  by  other
treaties  signed  in  Oct.  these  states  agreed  to  send
delegates  to  a  customs  parliament  to  be  held  at
Berlin.  A  session  of  this  parliament  was  opened
by  the  king  of  Prussia,  27  April,  and  closed  23  May,
1868.  Federal  chancellor,  the  count  von  Bismarck.
Imports,  1882,  valued  at  158,235,000/.;  exports,
1882,  162,235,000/.

ZOOLOGY  (from  zoon,  Greek  for  animal)  is

the  division  of  biology  which  treats  of  animals ;

Aristotle  (322-284  B.C.)  the  founder  of  the  science.

Systems  of  classification  have  been  made  by  John

Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G.

Buffon  (1707-88),  and  George  Cuvier  (1769-1832).

Linnaeus  divided  the  animal  kingdom  into  six  classes,
—Mammalia,  which  includes  all  animals  that  suckle
their  young  ;  Aves,  birds ;  Amphibia,  or  amphibious
animals ;  Pisces,  fishes ;  Insecta,  insects ;  Vermes,
worms  ;  1741.

Cuvier  (died  in  Paris,  13  May,  1832),  in  his  great  work,
Eegne Animal, published in 1816, distributed  the


ZOOPEAXISCOPE.


1096


ZULULAND.


animals  into  four  great  divisions,  the  Vertebrata  (back-
boned); the  Mollusca  (soft-bodied);  the  Articulata
(jointed)  ;  and  the  Radiate,  (the  organs  disposed  round
a  centre).

In  1859,  professor  Owen  made  known  a  system  of
arranging  the  class  Mammalia  according  to  the  nature
of  their  brains.

The  Zoological  Society  of  London  (originally  the
Zoological  Club)  was  founded  in  1826  ;  the  society  was
mainly  founded  by  sir  Stamford  Raffles,  sir  H.  Davy,
and  its  gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park  were  opened  in
April,  1827 ;  the  society  was  chartered  27  March,
1829.  2072  animals  in  the  gardens,  31  Dec.  1871  ;
about  500  animals  from  India  given  by  the  prince  of
Wales,  May,  1876.

Dr.  James  Murie  was  appointed  by  the  society  to  be
their  first  "anatomical  prosector,"  3  May,  1865.

New  reptile  house  opened,  6  Aug.  1883. 1  Jan.  1892  :

2,985  members  ;  total  receipts,  24,054?.

On  the  demolition  of  Exeter  'Change,  in  1829,  the
menagerie  of  Mr.  Cross  was  temporarily  lodged  in  the
King's  Mews,  whence  it  was  removed  to  the  Surrey
Zoological  Gardens,  1832.

The  Zoological  Gardens  of  Dublin  were  opened,  1832.

Zoological  Station  for  study,  open  to  the  public,  esta-
blished at  Naples  by  professor  Anton  Dohrn,  opened
1  Oct.  1873.

Wombwell's  (latterly  Edmonds')  great  collection  of
trained  animals  sold,  29,  30  July,  1884.  Bought  by  Mr.
R.  T.  Barnum,  Jan.  1S88.

Mr.  Charles  Jamrach,  who  succeeded  his  father,  an
eminent  importer  of  wild  animals,  which  he  supplied
to  the  Zoological  Society,  and  menageries,  &c,  died,
6  Sept.  1891.

See  Aquarium,  Hippopotamus,  Giraffe,  and  Acclimatisa-
tion, &c.

ZOOPEAXISCOPE, optical apparatus  in-
vented by  Mr.  Eadweai-d  J.  Muybridge  to  exhibit
photographs  of  moving  animals,  about  1881.
The  apparatus  was  successfuly  employed  at  the  Royal
Institution  (in  the  presence  of  the  prince  of  Wales)  13
March,  1882,  and  again  in  March  and  May,  1889;  also
at  the  Royal  Society  and  other  places  in  the  same  year.
His  great  work  on  the  subject  was  published  in  1887-9.

ZOENDOEFF,  Prussia,  where  a  battle  was
fought  between  the  Prussian  and  Russian  armies ;
the  former,  commanded  by  the  king  of  Prussia,
obtained  a  victory  over  the  forces  of  the  czarina,
whose  loss  amounted  to  21,529  men,  while  that
of  the  Prussians  was  about  11,000  :  25,  26  Aug.
1758.

ZOUAVES  and  Foot  Chasseurs.  When

the  French  established  a  regency  at  Algiers,  in
1830,  they  hoped  to  find  the  employment  of  native
troops  advantageous,  and  selected  the  Zooaouas,  a
congregation  of  daring  Arab  tribes.  In  time,
numbers  of  red  republicans,  and  other  enthusiastic
Frenchmen,  joined  the  regiments,  adopting  the
costume,  &c.  :  eventually  the  Africans  disappeared
from  the  ranks,  and  no  more  were  added.  Among
their  colonels  were  Lamoriciere  and  Cavaignac.
The  French  Zouaves  formed  an  important  part  of
the  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-5.*

ZUG,  the  smallest  canton  of  Switzerland,  joined
the  confederation,  1352,  and  the  Sonderbund,  1846.
Population,  1888,  23,029.
Many  persons  killed  by  fall  of  about  27  houses  into

the  lake  of  Geneva .... 5-7  July,  1887

ZUIDEE  ZEE,  or  South  Sea,  a  gulf  in

the  Netherlands,  formerly  a  lake,  united  with  the
North  Sea  by  inundations  in  the  twelfth  and
thirteenth  centuries.  In  1875,  the  Dutch  chamber
voted  9,500,000/.  to  reclaim  the  submerged  land  by

*  The  Zouave  organization  and  drill  wore  introduced
into  the  federal  army  in  the  great  civil  war  in  America,
by  Epliraiin  E.  Ellesworth,  early  in  1861.  He  was
assassinated  on  24  May  same  year,  at  Alexandria,  just
after  taking  down  a  secession  Hag.


drainage,  and  to  erect  a  dyke,  26  feet  high  above
the  water,  and  25  miles  long;  thus  adding  759
square  miles  to  the  country.  The  Dutch  Texel
fleet  here  surrendered  to  admiral  Mitchell,  30  Aug.
1799.

ZUINGLIANS,  or  Zwinglians,  the  followers
of  the  reformer,  Uiric  Zuingli,  who  at  Zurich
declaimed  against  the  church  of  Rome,  and  effected
the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the  papal
dominion  which  Luther  did  for  Saxony.  He  pro-
cured two  assemblies  to  be  called ;  by  the  first  he
was  authorised  to  proceed,  by  the  second,  the
ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  were  abolished
1519.  Zuingli  died  in  arms,  being  slain  in  a
skirmish  against  Ms  popish  opponents,  11  Oct.  1531.
The  Zuinglians  were  also  called  Sacramentarians.

ZULLICHAU  (Prussia).  Here  the  Russians,
under  Soltikow,  severely  defeated  the  Prussians
under  "Wedel,  23  July,  1759.

ZULPICH,  see  Tolbiac.

ZULU  CELIBATE  MILITAEY  SYS-
TEM, founded  by  Godongwana,  confirmed  by
Chaka  and  Dingaan ;  completed  by  Cety  wayo.

ZULULAND,  South-east  Africa;  near  the
British  colony,  Natal,  to  which  it  has  been  annexed.
In  the  last  century,  the  Zulus  were  a  peaceful
pastoral  people.

Godongwana,  a  chief,  (termed  Dingiswayo,  "the}
Wanderer,"  from  his  early  life,)  began  a  military
organisation  by  forming  a  celibate  army  ;  killed
in  battle  and  succeeded  by  his  vigorous  and  merci-
less ally,  Chaka,  styled  king,  by  whom  Zulu
supremacy  was  mainly  established  over  the  Fin-
goes  and  other  tribes  about  1 812

Chaka  assassinated  ;  succeeded  by  his  brother  Din-
gaan, crafty,  treacherous,  and  cruel ;  at  first
friendly  with  the  British  at  Natal  (which  see)  ;
made  treaty  with  capt.  Allen  Gardiner. 6  May,  1S35

Massacres  Retief,  70  Boers,  and  their  servants
(who  had  recovered  his  stolen  cattle),  2  Feb.,  and
about  600  afterwards  ;  defeats  the  British  and
Dutch  in  several  encounters ;  but  is  severely
beaten  by  Andries  Preterms . . . Dec.  1838

Dingaan  again  defeated  ;  killed  by  one  of  his  chiefs  ;
succeeded  by  his  brother  Umpanda,  peaceful  and
crafty;  who  keeps  peace  with  the  Engl  ish  and
Dutch 1840,  ct  seq.

Cetywayo  (pronounced  Ketchwayo)  his  eldest  son,
kills  his  brothers  ;  succeeds  at  his  father's  death  ;
organizes  still  further  his  army,  named  by  Frere
"the  celibate  man-slaying  war-machine"  . Oct.  1872

Recognized  on  behalf  of  the  British  by  Mr.  Shep-
stone  ;  crowned 1  Sept.  1873

Opposes  missionaries  ;  organizes  armed  resistance
to  the  British  ;  when  remonstrated  with  for  out-
rages, defies  them 1876

Sir  Bartle  Frere,  governor  of  the  Cape,  requests
help  from  England  ;  90th  regiment  and  a  buttery
sent Jan.  1878

Cetywayo  refuses  to  give  up  leaders  of  a  raid  on
British  territory  (in  July) ;  and  tenders  a  line ;  sir
Bartle  Frere,  demands,  as  an  ultimatum  their
surrender  within  30  days  . . . . Dec. ,,

The  time  (extended)  having  elapsed,  n  Jan.,  the
British,  under  lord  Chelmsford,  cross  the  Tugela
and  enter  Zululand .... 12  Jan.  1879

Col.  Pearson  defeats  the  Zulus  and  advances  to
Echowe  (which  he  fortifies) . . .21  Jan. ,,

British  camp  at  Isandula  or  Isandlwana,  about  10
miles  from  Rorke's  Drift  (on  the  Tugela),  sur-
prised and  attacked  by  about  15,000  Zulus ;  5  com-
panies of  the  24th  regiment,  and  many  natives
killed ;  with  cols.  Duniford  and  Pulleine,  and
other  officers  ;  total  loss  about  837  ;  2000  Zulus
said  to  have  been  killed  ;  (lieuts.  Melville  and
Coghill  perished  while  preserving  the  colours)

22  Jan. .,

Rorke's  Drift  severely  attacked  ;  successfully  de-
fended by  lieuts.  Chard  ami  Broinhead 22  Jan. ,,


ZULULAND.


1097


ZURICH.


Zulus  attack  Inkanyana  ;  defeated  by  col.  Evelyn
Wood 24  Jan.  1879

Reinforcements  requested ;  troops  rapidly  sent  oft'
from  England .... 19  Feb.  et  saq. ,,

Prince  Louis  Napoleon  requesting  to  join  the
British,  permitted  to  go  as  a  guest ;  sails  27  Feb. ,,

Arrival  of  the  Tamar  with  800  men,  &c,  at  Pieter-
Maritzburg n  March, ,,

British  convoy  near  Itombi  river  cut  to  pieces  by
Zulus ;  waggons  and  stores  captured ;  capt.
David  Moriarty  killed  . . . .12  March ,,

Cetywayo's  brother  Oham,  with  600  men,  joins  the
British  ;  announced  . . . .18  March, „

Col.  Evelyn  Wood  attacks  the  Zulus  on  the  Zlobani
mountains  ;  suffers  much  loss,  28  March  ;  gains
victory  at  Kambula . . . .29  March, ,,

British  advance  to  relieve  Echowe . 29  March, ,,

Zulus  defeated  at  Ginghilovo . . .2  April, ,,

Col.  Pearson  marches  out  of  Echowe . 2,  3  April, „

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  appointed  commander-in-chief,
governor  of  Natal,  &c,  sails  for  the  Cape May, ,,

British  total  loss  ;  1186  killed  ;  86  died  of  disease  ;
announced 27  May, ,,

Cetywayo  said  to  have  suppressed  an  insurrection,
and  retired  to  his  kraal  (or  village)  at  Ulundi,

May,

Reconnoitring  party,  under  capt.  J.  Brenton
Carey,  on  Imbabani,  near  the  Mozani  river,  sur-
prised ;  prince  Louis  Napoleon  (acting  as  com-
mander) killed 1  June, „

Ultimatum  sent  to  Cetywayo,  requiring  restitution
of  cannon,  and  total  submission  ;  time  expired,

12  June, ,,

Sir  G.  Wolseley  arrives  at  the  Cape . 23  June, ,,

Stafford  House  South  African  aid  committee  formed,

June, ,,

Zulu  raid  on  cattle  ;  which  are  recovered  25  June, ,,

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  sworn  in  as  high  commissioner
at  Pietermaritzburg . . . 28  or  29  June, ,,

Cetywayo  totally  defeated  at  Ulundi  (ivMch  see)  ;

4  Jul}', ,,

Sir  G.  Wolseley  receives  chiefs . 12  July,  et  seq. „

Lord  Chelmsford  resigns  . . . .15  July, ,,

Sentence  upon  capt.  Carey,  respecting  death  of
prince  Napoleon,  quashed . . .22  Aug. „

Pursuit  of  Cetywayo  :  captured  by  major  Richard
Marter . 28  Aug. „

Meeting  of  Sir  G.  Wolseley  with  Zulu  chiefs  ;  settle-
ment by  treaty ;  Zululand  to  be  divided  into  13
independent  districts  ;  John  Dunn  to  be  a  chief  ;
lands  reserved  for  the  British  ;  British  residents
in  each  district  (to  be  eyes  and  ears) ;  celibate
military  system  abolished  ;  no  arms  to  be  im-
ported ;  ancient  laws  and  liberties  retained ;
[John  Dunn,  20  years  in  Zululand ;  conformed  to
Zulu  ways] 1  Sept. „

Sir  G.  Wolseley's  despatch,  announcing  end  of  the
war,  dated 3  Sept. „

Cetywayo  arrives  at  Cape  Town . .  15  Sept. ,,

His  petition  to  the  Queen  for  restitution  declined,

about  11  July,  1881

John  Dunn  energetically  subdues  a  revolting  chief

about  30  July, ,,

Cost  of  Zulu  war,  4,922, 141Z.  . . . . „

Sir  Evelyn  Wood  visits  Zululand  and  makes  im-
portant changes * Sept. ,,

Reported  fighting  among  the  chiefs . .  Nov. ,,

The  country  reported  quiet  by  John  Dunn . Dec. ,,

Cetywayo  lands  at  Plymouth  and  proceeds  to
London 3  Aug.  188:

Visited  Mr.  Gladstone  9  Aug.  ;  received  by  the
Queen,  14  Aug.  ;  by  the  prince  of  Wales 16  Aug. ,,

His  restoration  to  part  of  his  kingdom  with  restric-
tions, proposed  by  the  British  government  Aug.  ;
sails  from  Southampton ....  1  Sept. ,,

Changes  made  in  the  territories  previous  to  Cety-
wayo's return,  announced -. . .29  Dec. ,,

Cetywayo's  restoration  accepted;  proclaimed  at
Ulundi 29  Jan.  188;

Struggle  between  Cetywayo  and  chiefs,  announced

25  April, ,,

Cetywayo  defeated  by  Oham  and  others  with  heavy

loss,  announced 16  May, ,,

Mr. Fynn, British  resident,  resigns, announced

June, ,,

Cetywayo  is  attacked  at  Ulundi,  by  Usibepu,  20
July  ;  and  said  to  be  killed  . .  21  July, ,,


Usibepu  said  to  be  all-powerful,  Cetywayo  a  living

fugitive,  announced  . . . .8  Aug.  1883

Great battle  ; Usibepu defeated  by Cetywayo's

supporters,  announced  . . .16  Aug. „

Cetywayo demands a British  enquiry  into his

treatment,  announced . . . .20  Aug. , ,
Cetywayo  surrenders  to  Mr.  Osborn,  and  is  taken

to  Durban,  about  15  Oct. ;  at  Ekowe .  5  Nov. „
Defeats  of  Usibepu  by  other  chiefs  . .  Nov. ,,

Flight,  and  recapjture  of  Cetywayo . 27,  28  Jan.  1884
Zibedu  defeats  Usutus . . about  31  Jan. ,,
Cetywayo  dies  of  heart  disease . . 8  Feb. ,,

Much  warfare March-May, .,

Dinizulu,  son  of  Cetywayo,  crowned  king  by  the
Boers,  in  presence  of  10,000  people ;  grants  an
amnesty,  and  promises  fidelity  to  the  British

21  May, ,,
Usibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and

Usutus,  flies,  announced . . .14  June, ,,
A  Boer  republic  established ;  Joubert,  president

Aug. „
British  flag  hoisted  at  St.  Lucia's  bay . . Dee. .,
Quietness  in  Zululand  reported  . . . Jan.  1886
Proposed  annexation  of  Zululand  to  Natal  declined,
Oct. ;  British  protectorate  over  the  Zulu  terri-
tories planned  by  government . . Nov. ,,
Agreement  with  the Boer republic announced,

4  Nov. .,
Annexation  of  Zululand  as  a  British  possession  ;
the governor  to  rule by  proclamation,  May ;
proclaimed  at  Durban ... 21  June,  1887
Troubles  with  Dinizulu  announced 5 Nov.  ; his
uncle  Undabuko  and  others  submit  to  sir  Arthur
Havelock,  announced  7  Nov.  ;  military  prepara-
tions ; Dinizulu submits, 13 Nov.; Usibepu
reinstated  in  his  lands . . . 15  Nov. ,,
The  chiefs  attacked  by  the  police  and  military

for  stealing  cattle .... 2  June,  1888
Zulu  rebels  under  Ishingana  defeated  after  a  severe

conflict 2  July, „

Rebellion  of  Dinizulu  announced . .  11  July, ,,
Somkeli,  the  rebel  chief,  surrenders  ;  announced

1  Aug. ,,
Dinizulu  and  about  1,000  rebels  with  cattle  enters
into  the  Transvaal  territory, 10  Aug.  ; revolt
ended ;  reported .... 29  Aug. ,,
Dinizulu  surrenders  conditionally  to  the  Transvaal

government Sept. ,,

Surrender  of  Undabuko,  19  Sept ;  his  trial  began

27  Sept.  ,,
Ishingana,  rebel  chief,  surrenders  .  12  Nov.  ,,
Trial  of  Undabuko  and  Somkeli  for  treason,  began

15  Nov.  .,
Dinizulu  surrenders  to  the  British  .  .  Nov.  ..
Somhlolo  sentenced  to  five  years'  hard  labourer

high  treason 22  Nov. ,,

Several chiefs convicted of high treason and

sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  five  years,  1  Dec. ,,
Dinizulu  sentenced  to  ten  years',  Undabuko  to  15
years',  and  Ishingana  to  12  years'  imprisonment,
J  27  April,  18S9

Douglas  M'Kenzie,  appointed  bishop  of  Zululand

in  1880,  dies,  announced ... 15  Jan.  1890
Dinizutu,  Undabuko,  and  others,  transported  to
St.  Helena ...... 7  Feb. „

General  tranquility  of  the  country,  reported,

2  April, ,,

ZURICH  was  admitted  a  member  and  made
head  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  1351,  and  was  the
first  town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the
church  of  Rome ;  see  Zuinglians.  A  grave-digger
at  Zurich  poisoned  the  sacramental  wine,  by  which
8  persons  lost  their  lives  and  many  others  were
grievously  injured,  4  Sept.  1776.  The  French,
under  Massena,  after  repelling  an  attack  of  the
Austrians,  retired  from  Zurich,  5  June,  1799.  The
Imperialists  were  defeated  by  Massena,  the  former
losing  20,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  25,
26  Sept.  1799;  see  Switzerland.  A  new  democratic
constitution  was  adopted,  18  April,  1869.  Popula-
tion, 1888 ;  canton,  337,183  ;  city,  90,088.

On  24  June,  1859,  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  the
allied  French  and  Sardinian  army  at  Solferino.


ZURICH.


1093


ZWITTATT.


rreliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Villa  Franca  by
the  emperors  of  Austria  and  France  on  12  July
following.

A  conference  between  the  representatives  of  the  powers
concerned  having  been  appointed,  the  first  meeting
took  place  at  Zurich,  on  8  Aug.

After  many  delays  a  treaty  was  signed  10  Nov.  Lom-
bardy  was  ceded  to  Sardinia ;  the  formation  of  an
Italian  Confederation,  under  the  presidency  of  the
pope,  was  determined  on,  and  the  rights  of  the  ex-
sovereigns  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  Parma  were  re-
served.

The  formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1861  annulled
the  treaty  of  Zurich.

Swiss  National  exhibition,  1  May — 27  Dec.  1883.

The  theatre  destroyed  by  fire,  no  fatality ;  attributed  to
an  incendiary,  1  Jan.  1890.


ZITTPHEN,  in  Holland.  At  a  battle  here
22  Sept.  1586,  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Dutch,
the  amiable  sir  Philip  Sidney,  author  of  "Arcadia,"
•was  mortally  wounded.  He  died  7  Oct.  He  was
serving  with  the  English  auxiliaries,  commanded
by  the  earl  of  Leicester.

ZTJYDEK  ZEE,  see  Zuider  Zee.

ZTTYPER  SLUYS  (Holland).  Here  sir
Ralph  Abereromby  defeated  an  attack  of  the  French
under  Brune ;  the  latter  suffered  great  loss,  9  Sept.
1799.

ZWITTATT,  Moravia.  Here  the  Prussians  de-
feated the  Austrians  and  captured  provisions,
10  July,  1866.


INDEX.


The  references  are  to  articles  in  the  body  of  the  work  ;  the  italics  refer  to  articles  in  this  Index.  The  year  given  is
a.d.  when  B.C.  is  not  mentioned  ;  two  dates  after  the  name,  thus,  1508-82,  signify  the  year  of  the  person's  birth
and  death  ;  6.,  born  ;  d.,  died  ;  ft.,  flourished  ;  m.,  murdered  ;  k.,  killed.  The  year  of  the  birth  and  death  is
given  of  many  eminent  persons  who  are  not  mentioned  in  the  body  of  the  work.]

(Vincent's  Dictionary  of  Biography  was  expressly  compiled  to  give  further  details  than  tlwsc  found  in  this  Index.)


Abbadies  expl.  Ethiopia,  1837-45
Abbas,  Persia

Abbot,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1611
Abbot,  Charles;  speaker,  1802
Abbot  &  Moulin  ;  Thessalonica,  1876
Abbott,  E. ; concordance to  Pope,

1875
Abd-el-Kader ;  Algiers,  1835
Abderahman I. — V., caliphs, 755-

1023
Abdul-Medjid,  Turkey,  1839-61
Abdul-Aziz,  Turkey,  1839
Abdul-Rahman  (or  Abdur-rahman) ;

Afghanistan,  1863-81
Abdul-Hamid  ;  Turkey,  1774,  1876
Abdul-Kerim,Russo-TurkishWar,II.

1877
Abel,  sir  P.  A.,  glyoxiline,  1866,  gun

cotton,  explosives,  Imperial  Inst.
Abel  Oghlan,  Dzoungeria,  1864
Abelard,  d.  1142;  Abelard,  theology
Abercorn, Jas. marquis of, 1811-

1885;  Ireland, Id. lieut.,  i866;(duke)

1874
Abercromby,  Jas.,  speaker,  1835
Abercromby, sir R., 1738  -  1801  ;

Trinidad,  Alexandria
Aberdeen,  earl  of,  1 784-1860;  Aber-
deen adm.,  note  ;  Gladstone  Adm.

1886
Abernethy,  J.,  surgeon,  1764-1831
Abingdon,  earl  of;  trials,  1794
Abinger,  Id., att.-geu., 1827; ex-
chequer
Abney,  capt. ;  photography,  1882
Abou  Saoud  ;  Egypt,  1872
About,  Edm.  F.  C,  Nov. 1828-85  !

France,  1872
Abrantes,  duke  of;  see  Junot
Absalom,  killed  1023  B.C.
Abubeker;  Ali,  632
Acacius,  Acacians,  henoticon,  482
Accum,  F. ;  adulterations,  1822
Achilli  n.  Newman ;  trials,  1852-3
Achmet ;  see  Ahmed
Acilius;  statues,  temples
Ackermann,  R. ;  lithography,  1817
Acland, Arthur, Gladstone adm.

1892
Acron;  aeromatics,  473  B.C.
Acton,  Mrs.,  Royal  Inst.,  1838
Actuarius ;  purgatives,  1245
Adair,  serj.;  Junius,  1769
Adalbert,  St.;  Prussia,  997
Adam;  duels,  1779
Adam, R. and bros., architects

1728-92
Adam,  W.  M.  ;  mensuration
Adam,  W.  P.  ;  Madras,  1880, whip

Gladstone  adm.,  1880


Adams  r.  Coleridge,  trials,  1886

Adams,  J.  C,  mathemat.  1819-92;
Neptune,  1845.

Adams ;  J.  (1797)  and  J.  Q.  (1825),
United  States  (presidents)

Adams  v.  Dundas;  trials,  1831

Adderley,  Mr.;  Birmingham,  1856

Adderley,  sir  C.  ;  Disraeli  adminis-
tration. 1874

Addington, H.,1757-1844;  Addington.

Addison,  Joseph,  1672-1719,  Spec-
tator, 1711;  Stanhope  administra-
tion, 1717;  allegory,  Clio,  clubs

Adelais  ;  Adelaide ;  England,  queens
(Henry  I.,  William  IV.)

Adeodatus;  pope,  672

Adolphus,  Frederic ;  Sweden,  1751

Adrian,  Rome;  emperor,  117;  edicts,
persecutions;  popes

Aetius,  Aetians

iEgeus;  Athens,  1283  B.C.

iEgineta,  Paulus ;  surgery,  640

iEgisthus;  Mycense,  1201  b.c.

jEmilianus;  Rome,  146  B.C.

iEneas;  Italy,  Alba,  1182  B.C.

iEschines,  Gk.  orator,  389-314  B.C.

jEschylus,  Greek  tragedy,  525-456
B.C.;  drama

jEsop;  fables  (about  600  B.C.)

Afranio,  bassoon

Africanus ;  see  Scipio

Agamemnon;  Mycenae,  1201  B.C.

Agatliocles,  d.  289  B.C.;  Carthage,
Sicily,  Syracuse

Age,  proprietor  of;  trials,  1844

Agesander ;  Laocoon

Agesilaus;  Sparta,  398  B.C.

Agis;  Sparta,  427  B.C.

Agnew,  Mr.  Vans ;  India,  1848

Agnodice ;  midwifery

Agricola;  Britain,  d.  93;  Lancaster,
Caledonia,  Roman  wall

Agricola,  John,  d.  1566;  Antino-
mians

Agrippa,  d.  12  B.C.;  Pantheon,  27B.C.

Ahmed  I.— III.;  Turkey,  1603,  et  se^.

Ahmed  Vefik,  Turkey,  1878

Aholiab;  sculpture

Ainsworth,  W.  H.,  Nov.  1805-82

Airy,  Sir  G.  B.,  1801-92;  Greenwich,
'835 :  pendulum,  standard,  Royal
Society,  1871  ;  Albert  medal,  1876  ;
sun

Aislabie,  Mr.;  Sunderland  adminis-
tration, 1718;  South  Sea

Akbar,  India;  1556

Akenside,  Mark,  poet,  1721-70

Alacocque,  M.  M. ;  sacred  heart

Alamayou,  Abyssinia,  1868

Alarie.  d.  410;  Rome,  France


Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of,

1608-70;  administration,  1660
Alberoni, card.,  1664-1752; Spain,

I7IS
Albert ;  Austria,  Bohemia,  Germany,

Hungary
Albert  I.,  assassination,  1308
Albert (prince consort), 1819  -  61 ;
England,  1840;  regency  bill,  duel-
ling
Albert Edward; England (royal

family),  Wales
Albert  Victor,  prince,  duke  of  Clar-
ence and  Avondale,  1864-92;  Wales
Albertus,  Magnus ;  automatons
Alboin  the  Longobard,  killed  573
Albrecht;  Austria,  1866;  Custozza
Albuquerque  (viceroy),  d.  1515;  In-
dia, 1503
Alcantara,  gen.;  Venezuela,  1876
Alcibiades,  killed  404  b.c;  Athens
Alcippe;  Areopagitai
Alcock,  Mr. ;  duelling,  1807  :  sir  R.,

Japan
Alcuin  (theologian),  about  725-804
Aldebert;  impostors,  743
Aldhelme;  Salisbury,  705;  ballads
Alectus;  Britain,  294
Aleko  pasha,  Roumelia
Alenqon,  due  d';  Agincourt,  1415
Alexander  of  Paris ;  Alexandrine
Alexander  the  Great, 356-323  b.c. ;
Macedon, Egypt, Gordon, Tyre,
Memphis
Alexander  Severus ;  Rome,  em.,  222
Alexander  I.,  d.  1825;  Russia,  1801;

Austerlitz,  1805 ;  Leipsic,  1813
Alexander  II.,  Russia,  1855,  assassi-
nations
Alexander  III. ;  Russia,  1881
Alexander ;  Scotland  (kings) ;  Pope
Alexander, sir W.  ; Nova Scotia,

1722
Alexius,  East  (emperors),  1081-1203
Allien,  Victor,  Ital.  poet,  1 749-1803
Alfred  the  Great,  849-901  ;  Ashdown,
England,  councils,  clocks,  crown,
militia
Alfred,  prince  ;  Godwin,  1053
Alfred,  duke  of  Edinburgh,  b.  1844  ;
aquarium,  England  (royal  family),
music,  Plymouth.
Alibaud ;  France,  1836
Alice,  princess, 1843-78  ;  England ;

royal  family  ;  Hesse  ;  diphtheria
Ali  Pacha ;  Rosetta ;  Turkey,  1820  ;

Albania
Alison,  Arch., hist., 1792-1867 ; —
sir  A. (soldier),  Ashautees,  1874
Egypt,  1882


1100


INDEX.


Allcard  v.  Skinner,  trials,  1887
Allen,  R.,  post-office,  1720
Allen  and  others  ;  Fenians,  1867
Alleyne,  Edwd.,  d.  1617  ;  Dulwich
Allibone,  Dr.,  bibliography,  1859
Almagro  ;  Abancay,  1537
Almansour ;  Bagdad,  762
Almeida,  L.  ;  Madagascar,  1506
Alphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal

(kings)
Alsop,  Joseph  ;  trials,  1839
Althorp,  vise.  ;  Grey  administration,

1830 ;  Melbourne,  1835
Alumayu,  Abyssinia,  1868-79
Alva, duke  of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp,

Holland
Alvanley,  lord ;  duel,  1835
Alvinzi,  marshal ;  Areola,  1796
Alyattes  ;  Lydia,  761  B.C.
Alypius  of  Alexandria  ;  dwarfs
Amadeus,  Savoy ;  annunciation
Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta, h. 1845  ;

king  of  Spain,  1870-3
Amalric,  pantheism
Ambrose,  St.,  d. 397;  anthems,  Te

Deum,  liturgies
Ambrosius ;  Stonehenge
Amenophis  ;  Egypt,  1821  B.C.
Americus Vespucius, 1451-1516;

America,  note
Amherst,  lord;  China,  1816  ;  India,

1823
Ammianus  Marcellinus, Lat.  hist.,

d.  390
Amontons,  W.  ;  1663-1705,  telegraphs
Amos,  prophesies  about  787  B.C.
Ampere,  O.  M.,  1775-1836;  electricity

(galvanism  and  telegraph)
Amulius  ;  Alba,  974  B.C.
Amurath ;  Turkey,  Beyrout
Amyntas  :  Macedon,  540  b.  c.
Anacharsis, 592 B.C.  ; anchors,

bellows
Anacletus  ;  pope,  78
Anaereon,  Gr.  poet,  ft.  abt.  557  B.C.
Anastasius  ;  pope  ;  East ;  emperors
Anaxagoras,  480  B.C.
Anaximander,  547  B.C.  ;  maps
Anaximenes,  548  B.C.  ;  air
Andersen, Hans C,  Dan. novelist,

1805-75
Anderson, J.  ; slavery (in United

States),  1853  ;  Wizard  of  the  North,

masquerade,  1856
Anderson,  Mrs.  physic,  1865
Anderssen,  chess,  1851-70
Anderwert,  M.  ;  Switzerland,  1880
Andrassy, count Julius, 1823-90 ;

Hungary,  1867
Andre,  maj.  ;  United  States,  1780
Andrew ;  Hungary,  kings
Andrews,  H.,  d.  1820;  almanacs
Andrews  v.  Salt ;  trials,  1873
Andronicus,  240  B.C.  ;  drama
Andronicus; Eastern  empire,  n  13,

1328
Angela,  St. ;  Ursuline  nuns,  1537
Angerstein, J., d. 1823 ;  National

Gallery
Anglesey,  Henry,  marquis  of,  1768-

1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieutenant),

1828,  1830
Angus,  earl  of ;  Linlithgow
Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 ;

Naples,  1266
Ankerstrdm (kills Gustavus III.),

Sweden,  1792
Anna,  Santa  ;  Mexico,  1853-76
Anne  of  Brittany,  d.  1514  ;  maids  of

honour
Anne  of  Austria,  d.  1666  ;  iron  mask
Anne,  queen,  b.  1664  ;  England,  1702-

14  ;  semper  eadem
Ansell,  G.  ;  fire-damp,  1865
Anselm,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1093
Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744;

naval  battles,  1747
Anson,  general ;  India,  1857


Anthony  ;  monachism,  4th  century ;

—arson,  1871
Antigonus ;  Ipsus,  301  B.C.  ;  profiles
Antiochus  I. — X.,  280-65  B.C. ;  Syria,

Jews,  170  or  168  b.c.
Antipater  ;  Cranon,  322  B.C.
Antisthenes  ;  cynics,  396  B.C.
Antonelli,  card.  1806-76;  Rome,  1848
Antonelli  case,  Italy,  1877-8
Antoninus  Pius, Rome, emperors,

138  ;  Roman  wall
Antony,  Mark,  d.  30  ;  Rome,  43 B.C.;

Armenia,  Philippi,  42 b.c.  ;  Aetium,

31  B.C.
Anviti,  col.,  killed  ;  Parma,  1859
Apelles,  painter,  352-308  B.C.
Apollodorus  ;  Trajan's  pillar,  114
Apollonius  ;  Syria,  168  B.C.
Appian,  hist.,  ft.  about  147
Appius  Claudius  ;  Rome, 449  B.C.  ;

aqueducts,  decemviri,  Virginia
Applegath  ;  printing  machines
Apries  ;  Egypt,  571  B.C.
Apsley,  Id.  ;  North  adminis.,  1770
Apuleius,  Latin  novelist,  d.  174
Aquinas,  Thos.,  theol.,  d.  1274
Arabi  Bey  ;  Egypt,  1881-2
Arago,  I).  F.,  nat.  phil.,  1786-1853
Aram,  Eugene;  trials,  1759
Aratus  ;  Achaia,  245  b.c.
Arbogastes ;  Aquileia,  394
Arcadius  and  Honorius  ;  eastern  and

western  empire,  395
Arch,  J.  ;  agriculture,  1872
Archdale,  J.,  quaker,  1699
Archelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C.  ;

Macedon,  413  b.c.
Archemorus  ;  NemEean  games
Archer,  F.  S.  ;  collodion,  1851
Archidamus  ;  Sparta,  648  b.c.
Archilochus,  708  b.c.  ;  Iambic  verse
Archimedes, 287-212 B.e.  ; circle,

cranes, mechanics, mensuration,

organs,  reflectors,  screw,  spheres
Arch y tas  ;  math., about 400  B.C.;

automaton,  pulley
Ardesoif,  Mr.  ;  cockfighting,  1788
Ardgillan,  lord  ;  Disraeli  adni.,  1874
Aretin,  Gui ;  musical  notes,  1025
Arfastus,  chancellor,  1067
Arfwedson,  Mr.  ;  lithium,  18 17
Argyll,  duke  of ;  Dunblane,  1715  ; —

Gladstone  adm.,  1868,  1880
Ariarathes  ;  Cappadocia  (kings)
Axiobarzanes,  322  b.c.  ;  Cappadocia,

93  B.C.

Ariosto,  L.  Ital.  poet,  1474-1533
Aris,  gov.  ;  prisons,  1800
Aristarehus,  156  B.C.  ;  sun,  globe
Aristce.us  ;  conic  sections,  330  B.C.
Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C.  ;

Athens
Aristippus;  Cyrenaic  sect,  392  B.C.
Aristocrates  ;  Arcadia,  715  b.c
Aristodenras  ;  biarehy,  1102  B.C.
Aristophanes,  d.  380  B.C.  ;  comedy
Aristotle,  384-322  B.C.  ;  Aristotelian
philosophy, acoustics, botany,
Macedon,  mechanics,  metaphysics,
philosophy
Arius,  </.  336  ;  Allans
Arkwright,  R.,  1732-92  ;  cotton,  Man-
chester, spinning
Arles-Dufour  ;  see  Ditfour
Arlington,  lord ;  cabal,  1670
Armati  ;  Rome,  1875
Arminius,  or  Hermann  ;  Teutoburg,  9
Arminius,  J., d.  1609; Arminians,

Dort
Armitage,  sir  E.  ;  Manchester,  1876
Armstrong, sir  W. G.  ;  electricity,

1840 ;  cannon,  1859
Al'ne,  T.,  music  composer,  1710-78;

Rule  Britannia
Avnim,  II.;  Germany,Prussia,iS74-8i
Arnold,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1780
Arnold, Matthew, poet, 1S22-88 ;
culture


Arnold,  Dr.  Thos.,  hist.,  1795-1842
Arnott,  Neil,  1788-1874 ;  stove,  1821

bed,  1830 ;  ventilators
Arrian,  hist.,/?.  148
Arsaces;  Arsacidse,  Parthia,  250  B.C.
Arsenius,  Arsenians,  1261
Artabazus  ;  Pontus,  487  B.C.
Artaxerxes  ;  Persia  kings)
Artemisia;  mausoleum,  350  B.C.
Artemon;  battering-ram,  441  b.c
Arthur,  king ;  Britain,  506
Arthur,  prince  ;  Connaught,  1874
Artois,  count  d' ;  duelling,  1778
Arundel,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1397-9
Arundel,  Henry, earl  of;  adminis-
trations, 1547;  Thos.,  Arundelian
marbles
Ascanius  ;  Alba,  1152  B.C.
Ascham,  Roger,  1515-1568;  archery
Asdrubal ;  see  Hasdrubal
Aselli,  G.  ;  lacteals  (1622),  lymphatics
Ash,  Dr.  ;  Birmingham,  1766
Asgill,  Mr.  ;  translation,  1703
Ashbourne,  Id.  chancellor,  (Ireland),

1885-1886
Ashburton,  lord  ;  Ashb.  treaty,  1842
Ashe,  gen.  ;  Briar's  creek,  1779
Ashford,  Mary ;  appeal,  1818
Ashley,  lord  ;  cabal,  1670
Ashley,  sir  Arthur  ;  cabbages
Ashton,  colonel ;  Wigan,  1643
Aske;  pilgrimage  of  grace,  1536
Aslett,  Rob.  ;  exchequer  bills,  1803
Aspden,  J.  ;  Portland  cement
Aspinall ;  trials,  1876
Asquith,  IL;  Gladstone  adm.,  1892.
Assheton,  Wm.  ;  clergy  charities
Astley,  lord ;  Naseby,  1645
Aston,  sir  A.  ;  Drogheda,  1649
Astyages  ;  Media,  594  b.  c.
Athanasius,  d.  373  ;  Athan.  creed
Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ;

mint,  928
Athemcus,  Greek,  ft.  228,  quotations
Atherton.  sir  Wm.,  att.  gen.,  1861
Athol,  duke  of;  Man,  sold  by,  1765
Athothes  ;  hieroglyphics,  writing
Atlay,  bp.,  Hereford,  1868
Atossa ;  marriage  by  sale
Attalus,  d.  197  b.c.  ;  seven  churches

(Pergamus),  parchment
Atterbury,  bp.  F.  ;  banished,  1723
Attila  ;  Hungary,  Chalons,  451
Attwood,  B.  ;  hospitals
Attwood,  T.  ;  chartists,  1838
Atwood,  G.,  d.  1807  ;  Atwood's  ma-
chine
Atwcll,  W.  ;  trials,  1857
Auber,  D.,  music  composer,  1784-1871
Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia,

1811 ;  Monte  Video,  1807
Auckland,  Id.  bp.  ;  Bath  and  Wells,

1854
Auckland,  lord ;  Grey  administration,

1830  ;  India,  1835
Audiffret,  see  D'Audiffret
Audubon,  J.  J.,  1780-1851  ;  birds
Auerbach,  B.,  Ger.  Nov.,  1805-82
Augereau,  gen.  ;  Castiglione,  1796
Augustenburg, duke  of;  Denmark,

1863
Augustin,  St.  (of  Hippo),  354-430
Augustin  the  monk,  abp.  Canterbury,

602 ;  Rochester
Augustus  (emperor);  Rome,  27  B.C.  ;

praitorian  guards ;  calendar
Aulus  Gellius,  Latin  misc.,/.  169
Aumale, due d' ; France, 1871-2 ;

Orleans  ;  assassinations
Aurelian  ; Rome,  emp. 270 : Ale-

manni
Aurelius  ;  Rome,  emp.  t6i
Aurelle  de  Paladines,  Franco-German

war ;  d.  1877
Aurungzebe  ;  India,  1658
Ausonius,  Lat.  poet,  d.  394  (?)
Austin  ;  see  Augustin
Austin,  capt.  ;  Franklin


Austin,  W.  ;  trials,  1855

Austria,  John  of;  Lepanto,  1571

Averroes,  med.  writer,;?.  1149-1198

Avicenna,  med.  and  phil.,  980-1037

Avisa  ;  queens  (John)

Ayeslia,  Mahomet's  widow ;  camel,

day  of,  656
Ayoob  or.  Ayoub  Khan ;  Afghanistan,

Herat,  and  Candahar
Ayrton,  A.  A.  ;  Gladstone  adm.,  1868

— W.  harmonica
Azeglio,  marchese  d' ;  Italian  patriot,

1800-66
Azim ;  Affghanistan,  1863


B.


Babbage,  C,  1792-1871 ;  calculating

machine
Babcock,  general,  United  States,  1876
Baber;  India,  1525
Babeuf,  d.  1791 ;  agrarian  law
Babrius ;  fable
Babyngton  (which  see),  1586
Bach,  A.  ;  resonator
Bach,  J.  Sebastian  ;  passion  music  ;

music,  1685-1750
Bachelier,  M. ;  encaustic,  1749
Bacciocchi,  princes  Piombino
Baclinieier,  A.;  pasigraphy,  1871
Back,  G. ;  north-w.  passage,  1833
Bacon,  P.,  lord,  1561-1626;  lawyers,

aeronautics
Bacon, sir Nicholas; keeper, Id.,

1558 ;  baronet
Bacon,  John,  sculptor,  1740-99
Bacon, Roger,  1214-1292 ;  astrology,
camera  lucida,  loadstone, magic-
lantern,  magnet,  optics,  spectacles
Bacon,  T.  P. ;  trials,  1857
Badcock,  Mr, ;  vaccination
Baedeker,  M. ;  guide  books
Baez,  B.  ;  Hayti,  1859-68
Baffin,  W.  M.;  Baffin's  Bay,  1616
Bagehot,  Walter,  essayist,  1826-77
Baggallay,  sir  R.  ;  solicitor-general,
1873  ;  attorney-general,  1874  ;  jus-
tices, lords,  1875
Bagnal,  lieut. ;  duel,  1812
Bagot,  bishop;  Oxford,  1829
Bagot  will  case,  trials,  1878
Bagration,  pr.;  Mohilows,  1812
Bagster,  Miss  M. ;  trials,  1828 ;  E.  lon-
gevity, 1877
Bailey,  rev.  W. ;  trials,  1843
Baillie,  col.;  Arcot,  1780
Baillie,  general;  Alford,  1645
Baillie,  Joanna,  poet,  1762-1851
Bailly,  M.,  philos.,  executed,  1793
Bainbrigg,  abp.;  York,  1508
Bain,  A.  :  education  society
Bainbridge,  W.  ;  flageolet
Baines,  sir  Edward  ;  Leeds,  1890
Baines,  M.  T.;  Palmerston  adm.  1855
Baird,  sir  David ;  Cape,  1806 ;  Scringa-

patam,  1799
Bajazet;  Turkey,  1389
Baker,  B.  ;  Forth  bridge
Baker,  colonel;  Bull's  Bluff,  1861
Baker,  H. ;  Bakerian  lecture,  1765
Baker,  sir  S.  W.;  Africa,  1864;  Egypt,
slave trade, 1869-74  ; col. V.,
trials, 1875 ; Russo-Turkish  war
II.,  1878 ;  Egypt,  1882 ; Soudan,
1883-4
Baker  v.  Loder ;  trials,  1872
Baker,  gen.  ;  Char-asiab
Baker  pasha  ;  Turkey,  1879  ;  Egypt,

Soudan,  1883-4
Balard,  M. ;  amylene,  1844
Balchan,  admiral;  Aldemey,  1744
Baldwin  I. — V.;  Jerusalem,  1100-85;

East  Flanders
Baldwin,  prof.  ;  balloons,  1887-8
Bales,  P. ;  caligraphy
Balfe,  M.  W.,  mus.  comp.,  1808-70


INDEX.

Balfour,  A. J.,  6.  1848; Salisbury

adm.,  1885,  1886,  Glasgow
Balfour,  John;  Scotland,  1679
Ball,  John  ;  Alps

Ball,  J.  T.  ;  chancellor  (Ireland),  1874
Ballarat,  Melbourne,  1854
Ballard, John; Babyngton's con-
spiracy, 1586
Ballasteros,  gen.  ;  Ximena,  181 1
Balliol,  Edw. ;  Scotland,  kings,  1329
Balliol, John;  Scotland,  1293;  Ox-
ford, Dunbar
Balmaceda,  Jose  M. ;  Chili,  1886-91
Balmain,  W.  H.  ;  luminous  paint
Balmerino,  lord ;  rebellion,  Scotland,

1745;  trials,  1746
Baltimore, lord; America, 1632;

trials,  1768
Bancroft,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1604
Bancroft,  G.,  Am.  hist.,  6.  1800
Bancroft,  Mr.  and Mrs., theatres

(Haymarket)
Bandmann,  M. ;  trials,  1878
Banks,  sir  J.,  1743-1820;  hort.  soc,

Royal  Institution,  1799
Bannerman,  H.  C;  Gladstone  adm.,

1880,  1886,  1892
Bannister,  Mr.,  actor;  retired,  1815
Bar,  due  de ;  Agincourt,  1415
Baradseus ;  Eutychians,  Jacobites
Baranelli,  L. ;  trials,  1855
Barante,  A.  G.  de,Fr.  hist.,  1787-1866
Barantz,  north- west  passage,  1594
Barbarossa,  Fred.  I.;  emp.  Germany,

1152-90
Barbarossa,  d.  1546;  Tunis,  Algiers
Barbauld,  Mrs.  A.  L.,  1743-1825
Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and

Dorey:  trials,  1844,  and  note
Barberini ;  Portland  vase
Barbey,  M.;  France,  1883
Barbou;  printers,  1539-1813
Barbour,  J.;  trials,  1853
Barbour,  John,  Scot,  poet,  1316-95
Barclay,  capt. ;  pedestrianism,  1809
Barclay,  Perkins,  <fe  Co. ;  porter
Barclay,  Rob.,  1648-90;  quakers
Barhain,  lord;  admiralty,  1805
Baring,  Alex.;  Peel  administ.  1834;

sir  F. ;  London  Inst.  1805 ;  Russell

adm.  1846
Baring,  Mr.  ;  Egypt,  1879
Barings  (firm) ;  London,  1890
Baring, sir Evelyn  ; India, 1880 ;

Egypt,  1883
Barker,  J.  T.  ;  Beaumont  trust
Barker,  Robert;  panorama,  1788
Barkly,  sir  H. ;  cape,  1870
Barlaam;  Barlaamites,  1337
Barlow;  clocks,  1676
Barlow,  rev.  J.;  Royal  Institnt.,  1842
Barlow,  sir  G.; India (governors),

1805
Barlowe,  William;  compass,  1608
Barnard,  general;  India,  1857;  judge,

United  States,  1872
Barnardo, Dr., Barnardo's homes,

coffee-palaces
Barnes,  T.,  1785-1841;  Times
Barnett,  Geo. ;  trials,  1816
Barnum,  P.  T., 6.  1810 ;  American

showman,  elephants,  menagerie
Baroux,  M.  ;  scratin
Barraud  and  Lund  :  clocks,  1878
Barre,  Isaac ;  Rockingham  adminis-
tration, 1782
Barrett ;  Cumberland,  naval  battles,

181 1 ;  Fenians,  1868
Barrie,  capt. ;  naval  battles,  1811
Barrington,  bp. ;  Durham,  1791
Barrington,  Mr.;  duel,  1788
Barrington ;  trials,  1790
Barrios,  gen.  R.;  Guatemala,  1873;

America,  Central,  1885
Barrot, Odilon, 1791-1873 ;  France,

1848
BaiTow,  Isaac,  theol. and  philos.,

1630-77


1101

Barry, sir  Charles,  architect,  1795-
1860; parliament,  note;  Reform  Club
Barth,  Dr.;  Africa,  1849
Barthelemy,  E. ;  trials,  1855
Bartholdi, M., sculptor; United

States,  1884
Bartlet,  W.  M.;  trials,  1882
Barton,  Bernard,  poet,  1784-1849
Barton,  Dr. ;  insurance,  1667
Barton,  Elizabeth;  impostor,  1534.
Baschi,  Matt.;  Capuchins,  1525
Basil,  St.,  d.  380;  Basilians
Basil ;  East.  emp.  867 ;  Russia
Basilowitz ;  Russia,  czars,  1462
Bass,  M.  T.,  Derby
Bastendorff ;  trials,  1879
Bastian,  Dr.,  spontaneous  generation
Bateman,  J.  F. ;  Glasgow,  1859 ;  tun-
nels, 1869;  water,  1867
Bates,  M.  van  Buren  ;  giants.  1871
Bates,  W. ;  United  States,  1872
Bath,  earl  of;  Bath  admin.,  1746
Bathou;  Transylvania,  1851,  efce.
Bathurst,  bp. ;  Norwich,  1805
Bathurst,  earl ;  Liverpool  administra-
tion, 1812
Bathyllus ;  pantomimes
Batman,  J.;  Victoria,  7835
Batthyany;  Hungary,  1848
Battus;  Cyrene,  631  b.c.
Baudin,  M.  Chas.  ;  France,  1851
Baumbos,  C.  E.  ;  mutinies,  1876
Baume,  areometer,  1768
Baumgarten;  aesthetics,  1750
Bavaria,  elector  of;  Ramilies,  1706
Baxter.sirD.  1793-1872;  Dundee, 1863
Baxter,  miss  M.  A.;  Dundee,  1882
Baxter,  G. ;  printing  in  colours,  1836
Baxter,  Rd.,  theologian,  1615-91
Baxter  v.  Langley ;  trials,  1868
Bayard,  chevalier,  killed,  1524
Bayle,  P.,  d.  1706;  dictionary,  1697
Bayley,  lieut.;  duel,  1818
Baynard,  Geoffrey;  combat
Bazaine,  marshal,  1811-1888;  Mexico,
1863-6  ; Franco  -  Prussian war,
1870-1  ; Metz  ; France, 1873-4  »
1883
Bazalgette.  J.  W.,  1819-91;  sewers,

Thames
Beach,  sir  M.  H.,  Disraeli  adm.  1878  ;

Salisbury  adm.,  1885,  1886  J
Beaconsflekl ;  see  Disraeli
Beadon,  bishop ;  Bath,  1802
Beamish,  capt. ,  trials,  navy,  1871
Bean  aims  at  the  queen  :  trials,  1842
Beaton,  card. ;  assassinations,  1546
Beattie,  Jas. ;  poet,  1735- 1803
Beauclere, lord Charles, drowned

while  assisting  at  a  wreck,  1861
Beauehamp,  Henry  de ;  Wight
Beauchamp,  John  de ;  barons
Beaufort,  cardinal,  d.  1447
Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824  ;
Italy, 1805  ; Mockern — Hortense,
"  Partant  pour  la  Syrie"
Beaulieu,  general;  Lodi,  1796
Beaumont,  col.;  air,  1880
Beaumont,  sir  G.,  painter,  1753-1827;

National  Gallery
Beaumont,  Mr. ;  duel,  1821-1826
Beaumont ;  viscount,  1440
Beau  Nash ;  Bath,  ceremonies
Beauregard. P.  G.,  b. 1818;  United

States,  1861
Beaurepaire,  gen.;  Verdun,  1794
Beauvoir,  sir  J.  de;  trials,  1835
Beers,  Dr. ;  la  Crosse
Beck,  T. ;  volunteers,  1881
Beckett,  T.,  m.  1170;  Becket
Beeket  (Denison),  sir  E.  (aft.)  lord
Grimthorpe  ; bells,  locks, trials,
1881,  Albans,  St.
Beekford,  W. ;  Fonthill  abbey
Beckwith,  Agnes  ;  swimming,  1876
Bedborough,  A.  ;  aquarium,  1876
Bede,  Venerable,  d.  735
Bedford,  duke  of;  duel,  1822 ;  Ireland.


1102

lord-lieutenants,  1490-1757 ;  France,
1422;  admiralty,  1744;  nobility,  1470

Bedinglield,  Ann;  trials,  1763

Beeby,  William ;  longevity

Beecher,  rev. H.  ; United States,

J874-5
Beeching,  J.;  lifeboat,  1851
Beethoven,  L.,  mus.  comp.,1770-1827;

sonata
Begum  charge ;  Chunar,  1781
Behem,  Martin;  Azores
Behmeu ;  see  Bohme
Behnes,  Wm.,  sculpt.,  1800-64
Behring,  d.  1741 ;  Behring's  straits
Bela;  Hungary,  kings
Belasyse,  lord  L. ;  adm.,  1687
Belcher,  sir  E., 1799-1877  ; circum-
navigation, 1836;  Franklin
Beleredi,  count  Rd.,  6.  1823;  Austria,

1865
Belisarius,  d.  565 ;  Africa,  east  emp.
Belknap,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1876
Bell,  And., 1752-1832;  Lancasterian

schools
Bell,  sir  C,  1774-1842;  nerves
Bell,  Henry;  steam,  1812
Bell, John Any Bird, the boy ;

trials,  1831.
Bell,  Mr.  ;  cattle,  1873
Bell,  A.  Melville  ;  visible  speech
Bell,  A. Graham  ;  telephone, 1877  ;
photophone,  graphophone,  phono-
graph
Bell,  rev.  Patrick;  reaping  machine,

1826
Bellamont,  lord;  duel,  1773
Bellamy ;  trial,  1844
Bellarmine,  card.,  1.1542-1621
Bellingham,  Perceval  adm.,  1812
Bellingham, sir Daniel,  (mayor  of

Dublin),  1665
Bellini;  Ital.  music,  1802-35
Bellot,  lieut.,  d.  1853;  Franklin
Belochus;  Assyria,  1446  B.C.
Belt  v.  Lawes ;  trials,  1881  et  seq.,

1886
Beltcheff,  M. ;  Bulgaria,  1891
Belus;  Assyria,  2245  B.C.
Belzoni,  J.  B.,  traveller,  d.  1823
Bern,  gen.  Joseph,  d.  1850;  Hungary
Benbow,  adm.;  naval  battles,  1702
Benedek,  L.,  1804-81 ;  Kbniggratz
Benedict,  Benedictines;  popes,  574-

1758
Benedict,  sir  Julius,  mus.  1804-85
Bennett,  James ;  Africa,  1872
Bennett,  sir  John  ;  alderman,  1877  ;

London,  1877
Bennett,  sir  Wm.  Sterndale  ;  mus.,

1816-75
Benson  and  others  ;  trials,  1877
Benson,  bp.  ;  Truro, 1877 ;  Canter-
bury, 1883
Bent,  Theodore ;  Mashona
Bentham  Jer.  (1748-1832); savings'
banks; deontology; panopticon  ;
utilitarianism
Bentinck,  lord  Gr.,  1802-1848;  protec-
tionists.
Bentinck,  G.  A.  F.  C.  ;  judge  advo-
cate, 1875
Bentinck,  Id.  W. ;  Assam,  India,  1827 ;

Suttee
Bentley,  Rd.,  scholar,  1662-1742
Beranger,  J.  P.  de,  poet,  1 780-1 857
Berengaria,  queen  (of  Richard  I.),  (7.

1230
Berengarius ;  fete  de  Dieu
Berenger,  Butt,  lord  Cochrane,  and

others ;  trials,  1814
Beresford,  lord;  Albuera,  1811
Beresford,  lord  J.;  suicide,  1841
Beresford,  Wm.;  Derby  adm.,  1852
Beresford,  lord  C. ;  Soudan,  1885
Berg,  gen.;  Poland,  1863
Bergeret,  gen.;  France,  1871
Beriot,  Ch.  A.  de  ;  was.,  1802-70
Berkeley;  trials,  181 1,  1858


INDEX.

Berkeley,  hon.  C.  ;  duel,  1842

Berkeley,  G. ;  Antigua,  Leeward  Isles,
1874

Berkeley,  lord;  admiralty,  1717

Berkeley,  lord;  America,  N.,  1644;
Brest,  1694  ;  Carolina

Berlioz,  L.  H.,  Fr.  mus.,  1803-69

Bernadotte,  1764-1844;  Dcnnewitz,
Sweden  (king)

Bernard,  Claude,  Fr.  physiologist,
1813-78

Bernard,  St.,  1091-1153

Bernard,  S.  ;  trial,  1858

Bernard,  sir  Thomas  ;  British  Inst,,
1805  ;  Royal  Institution,  1799.

Bernini,  G.  L.,  Ital.  artist,  1598-1680

Berri,  duke  and  duchess  of;  France,
1820  &  1833,  assassinations

Berrington,  rev.  J.  ;  trials,  1873

Berry,  lieut  ;  trials,  1807

Berry,  G.  ;  Victoria,  1875

Berryer,  P.  A.,  Fr.  advt.,  1790-1868

Berthelot,  P.  M.,  b.  1827;  acetylene,
defiant  gas,  1862

Berthier,  gen.  ;  marshal,  1753-1815

Berthollet,  C.  L.,  Fr.  chemist,  1748-
1822 ;  chlorine

Berthon,  rev.  E.  L.;  life-boat,  1882

Bertie,  lady  G.  C. ;  lord  great  cham-
berlain

Berwick,  duke  of,  d.  1734 ;  Landen,
Almanza,  Newry

Berzelius,  Jas.,  1779-1848 ;  chemistry,
silicium

Besant,  Mrs.  A.  ;  trials,  1877

Bessel,  F. ;  stars

Bessemer,  H.  ;  iron,  steel,  steam,
steam-gun

Bessus  ;  Persia,  331  B.C.

Best,  capt.  ;  duel,  1804  ;  Surat,  161 1

Beswick,  F.;  trials,  1869

Bethell,  bp.  ;  Gloucester,  1824

Bethell,  commander,  marriage,  1888

Bethell,  sir  R. ,  solicitor-gen.,  1852,
attorney-gen. ,  1859  (see  Wesibury)

Bethencourt ;  Canaries,  1400

Betty,  master ;  theatres,  1804 ;
Roscius

Beul^  ;  France,  1874

Beust,  F.  F.  v.,  1809-1886;  Austria,
1866

Bevern,  prince  ;  Breslau,  1757

Bewick,  T.,  1753-1828 ;  wood  en-
graving

Bexley,  Vansittart,  lord ;  Liverpool
administration,  1812

Beza,  Theodore,  theologian,  1519-
1605

Bialobrzeski,  abp.  ;  Poland,  1861

Bianconi,  C,  d.  1875  ;  carriages

Biekersteth,  R.,  bp.  ;  Ripon,  1856

Bickersteth,  E.  H.,  bp.;  Exeter,  1885

Biddulph,  sir  R.;  Cyprus,  1881

Bid  wells  and  others  ;  trials,  1863

Bidwell,  S.  ;  telephotography

Biela,  W.  von,  comet,  1826

Big  Sam  ;  giants,  1809

Bingley,  lord  ;  Oxford  adm.  1711

Binney,  rev.  Thos.,  1798-1874

Birch,  J.  W.  ;  Straits.  1875

Birch,  S.,  1813-85  ;  biblical

Birchall,  J.  R. ;  Canada,  1890

Bird,  I.  ;  Japan

Birde,  W.  ;  canon

Birkbeck,  Dr.  G.,  1776-1841;  mecha-
nics' institutes

Biscoe,  capt.  ;  southern  continent,
1832

Bishop  ;  burking,  1831

Bishop,  A.  ;  derrick,  1857

Bishop,  sir  H.  1786-1855 ;  music,
ancient  concerts  ;  home

Bishop,  Irving  ;  thought  reading

Bishop,  J.  F.  ;  Italy,  1862

Bismarck,  O.  von,  "b,  1813;  Prussia,
1862-76;  France,  1870-3;  Franco-
Prussian  War,  Germany.

Black,  Dr.  ;  duel,  1835


Black,  Jos.  ;  chemist,  1728-99  ;  mag-
nesia, air,  balloon
Blackburn,  abp.  ;  York,  1724
Blackall,  Mr. ;  Queensland,  1868
Blackstone,  sir  W,  1723-80  ;  law
Blackwood,  S.  A.  ;  post-office  secre-
tary
Blades,  Wm. ;  printing
Blaine, James ; Panama, United

States,  1884-1892
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric,
verse  ; — John,  chronologist,  d.  1797
Blake,  adm.  R.,  1599-1657;  Algiers,
Dover  straits,  Portland  isle,  Santa
Cruz
Blakesley,  Robt. ;  trials,  1841
Blanc,  Louis,  1811-82;  France,  1848
Blanchard;  balloon,  1784-1819
Blan chard,  Laman  ;  suicide,  1845
Blanchard,  T.  ;  timber  bending,  1855
Bland's  Silver  Bill,  U.  States,  1878
Blandy,  Miss  ;  trials,  1752
Blanqui,  France,  1872-79
Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ;

Adventure  bay,  Bounty  mutiny
Bligh,  captain,  v.  Mr.  Wellesley  Pole ;

trials,  1825
Bligh,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1806
Blizard,  sir  W.;  Hunterian  soc.
Blomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ;

London,  1828
Blondin  ;  crystal  palace,  1861
Blood,  col.,  d.  1680;  Blood,  crown
Blood,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1832
Bloomer,  Mrs.  ;  dress,  1849
Bloomfield,  R.,  poet,  1 766-1823
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan-

villiers,  Ligny,  Waterloo
Blum,  R.,  shot  in  1848
Blumenbach,  J.  F. ; physiol.,  1752-

1840
Blundell,  lieut.  ;  duel,  18 13
Blunt,  Wilfred  ;  Egypt,  1882-3
Boabdil,  Abencerrages
Boadicea,  d.  61  ;  Britain,  Iceni
Boardman,  captain;  duel,  18 11
Boccaccio,  1313-75;  Decameron
Boccold,  John,  anabaptists,  1534
Boddington ;  trials,  1797
Boden,  col;  Sanscrit,  1832
Bodley,  T.  ;  Bodleian  lib.,  1602
Boehm,  J.  E.,  Tyndale  mem.
Boerhaave,  H.,  med.  writ.,  1668-1738
Boethius,  killed,  524
Bcettcher  (Bottcher) ;  Dresden  chin;*

1700
Bogle  v.  Lawson  ;  trials,  1841
Bohme,  or  Behmen,  J.,  mystic,  i6is>
Bohemia, king of, "Ieh Dien;"

Crecy,  1346
Boileau,  Nic,  Fr.  poet,  1636-1711
Bois  de  Chene,  Mdlle.  ;  beards,  1834
Bolam,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1839
Bolckow,  H.  W.  ;  Middlesborough
Boldero,  capt.  ;  duel,  1842
Boleslas  ;  Poland  (kings),  992
Boleyn,  Anne  ;  England  (queen  Hen.

VIII.)
Boleyn,  earl  of  Wiltshire;  adminis-
trations, 1532
Bolingbroke,  lord  ;  Oxford  adminis-
tration, 1 711;  deism;  schism  act,

1713
Bolivar,  gen.,  1 783-1830;  Columbia
Bolland,  Acta  Sanctorum,  1643
Bonaparte  family  ;  France
Bonaparte,  P.;  France,  1870;— Napo-
leon, Jerome  ;  France,  1859-72
Bonar,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1813
Bouaventura,  1221-74  ;  conclave
Bonavisa,  Anthony  ;  distaff,  1505
Bond  ;  magnetism,  1668
Bond,  E.  A.  ;  Brit.  Museum,  1S78
Bond,  prof.  ;  photography,  1851
Bonelli;  electric  loom,  1854
Bonheur,  Rosa,  Fr.  painter,  b.  1822
Bonneehose, Emile de, Fr. hist.
1801-74


INDEX.


1103


Bonner,  bishop  of  London  ;  adminis-
trations, 1554
Bonnet,  C,  Fr.  naturalist,  1720-93.
Bonnet-Duverdier ;  France,  1877
Bonny  castle,  J.,  mathematician,  d.

1821
Bonpland,  A.,  naturalist,  1773-1858
Bontou  and  others  ;  France,  1882
Bonwell,  rev.  J.  ;  trials,  i860
Boole,  G.  ;  logic
Boon,  colonel;  America,  1754
Boosey:  copyright,  1854;  Dunniow,

1876
Booth,  B.  ;  book-keeping,  1789
Booth,  Wilkes,  assassin ;  U.  States,

1865
Booth,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1817
Booth,  W.  ;  salvation  army
Bopp,  F.,  Ger.  linguist,  1781-1867
Borde,  Andrew  ;  Merry-andrew
Borden,  Gail ;  milk,  meat
Borelli ;  mechanics,  1679
Borghese,  H. ;  diamond
Borgia,  Caesar,  killed,  1507
Boroimhe,  Brian  ;  Ireland,  1014
Borowlaski,  ct.  ;  dwarf,  1739-1837
Borrington,  lady ;  trials,  1808
Borromeo,  abp.  Carlo,  1538-84 ;  Milan,

1576
Borrowes,  major;  trials,  1888.
Borton,  sir  A.;  Malta,  1878
Boscan,  Span,  poet,  abt.  1496-1544
Boscawen,  adm.,  1711-60  ;  Lagos
Bosquet,  marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker-

mann,  1854
Bossuet,  J.,  Fr.  theol.,  1627-1704
Boswell,  sir  A.  ;  duel,  1822
Boswell,  James,  1740-95,  "biography
Bosworth, rev. Jos., Ang.-Sax.

scholar,  1790-1876
Bothwell,  earl  of ;  Scotland,  1567
Bottle  conspirators  ;  trials,  1839
Bouch,  sir  T.  ;  Forth  ;  Tay  bridge
Bouchet,  Anthony ;  illuminati
Bouchier ;  Canterbury,  abp.  1454
Bouffiers,  Fr.  marshal;  1644-1711
Bougainville,  d. 181 1 ; circumnavi-
gation, New  Hebrides
Bouill6, marquis de  ; Eustatia,

1781
Boulanger,  gen.  G.,  1837-91 ;  France,

1886-91
Boulby,  Mr.  ;  China,  i860
Boulton,  Mat.,  d.  1809  ;  Birmingham
Boulton  and  others,  trials,  1871
Boulton  and  Watt ;  coinage,  1788
Bourbaki,  gen.  ;  Franco-Pruss.  war,

1870-1
Bourbon  family  ;  Bourbon,  duke  of  ;

duels,  1778
Bourgeois,  sir  F.  ;  Dulwich,  1813
Bourke,  sir  R.  ;  Victoria,  Australia,

1831
Bourmont,  marshal ;  Algiers,  1830
Bourne,  Sturges ;  Canning  adminis-
tration, 1827
Bousfield,  W.  ;  executions,  1856
Bovill,  sir  W.,  1814-73; com.  pleas,

1866 ;  trials,  1871-72
Bowdler,  C.  A.  ;  balloons,  1874
Bowen,  sir  G.  F. ;  Queensland,  1859  >

Victoria,  1873
Bower,  Mr.  Elliott ;  trials,  1852
Bower,  G.;  gas  light,  1884
Bowes,  Miss  ;  Strathmore,  1766
Bowley,  R.  ;  crystal  palace,  1870
Bowman,  sir  William  ;  Royal  Insti-
tution
Bowring, sir John, scholar, &c,

1792-1872  ;  Canton,  China,  Siam
Bowstead,  bishop  ;  Lichfield,  1843
Bowyer,  bp.  ;  Ely,  Chester,  1812
Boxall,  sir  W.  ;  national  gallery
Boyd,  captain ;  duel,  1808
Boyd,  Hugh ;  Junius
Boydell,  aid.,  d,  1804;  British  In-
stitution
Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery ;  orrery


Boyle,  Rob., 1626-91  ; phosphorus,

Royal  Society
Boyle,  Henry ; Godolphiu  adminis-
tration, 1702
Boyton,  capt.,  life-boat,  &c,  1875
Brabant,  duke  of;  merchants,  1296
Braddock,  gen.  ;  Fort  Duquesne
Brabazon, lord, hospital  Saturday,

1874  ;  playgrounds
Bradbury, H.  ; nature-printing,

1855-6
Bradlaugh,  C.  ;  Northampton,  1874  ;

trials, 1877,  et  seq.  ; parliament,

1880-4;  oaths,  1880-9
Bradley,  admiral ;  trials,  1814
Bradley,  G.  G. ;  Westminster  (dean),

1884
Bradley,  Jas.,  1693-1762  ;  aberration,

astronomy,  Greenwich
Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury,

1349
Brady,  capt.  ;  China,  1874
Braganza,  John  of :  Portugal,  1640
Bragg,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1862-3-76
Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 ;

theatres
Brahe,  Tyeho,  1546-1601 ;  astronomy,

globe
Braid  wood.  Jas.  ;  fires,  fc.  1861
Bramah,  J.,  1749-1814;  hydrostatics,

plauing-machine,  lock  (addenda)
Brain  well,  sir  Frederick  J.; Royal

Institution
Bramwell, baron George, judge,

1808-92
Brand, H. B., speaker, 1872-84 ;

visct.  Hampden,  1884
Brande,  W.  T., chemist,  1788-1866  ;

Royal  and  London  Institutions
Braniireth, the Luddite ; Derby

trials,  1817
Brandt,  count ;  Zell,  1772
Brandt ;  cobalt,  phosphorus,  1667
Brantome,  P.,  historian,  1527-1614
Brassey,  lady,  book  (cheap);  d.  1887
Brassey,  Thos.  ;  rail,  eng.,  1805-70
Brasidas;  killed,  Amphipolis,  422 B.C.
Braun,  K.  nephoscope,  1868
Bravo  case,  Bravo,  1876
Bray,  Dr.  ;  Bray's  associates
Breadalbane  peerage ;  trials,  1866-7
Breakspeare,  Nicholas;  pope,  1154
Brederode,  H.  de  ;  gueux,  1566
Bremer,  sir  Gordon  ;  China,  1840
Bremer,  Fred.,  novelist,  1802-65
Brendon,  St.  ;  Clonfert,  558
Brenn,  captain  ;  Hibernia,  1833
Brennus  ;  Rome,  390  b.o.
Brereton,  col.  ;  Bristol,  1832
Brereton  cases  ;  railways,  1881-4
Bressa,  C.  A. ;  Bressa  prize
Bresson,  count ;  suicide,  1847
Brett,  J.  W.  ;  submarine  telegraph,

1845

Brett,  sir  W.  B.,  solic.  gen.  1868  ;
master  of  rolls,  1883

Brewster,  sir  David,  nat.  phil.,  1781-
1868  ;  kaleidoscope,  British  asso-
ciation ;  lithoscope

Bridges,  Mr.;  pceul.  people

Brie,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1826

Bridgeman,  Laura,  blind

Bridgewater,  earl ;  admiralty,  1699

Bridgewater,  duke  of,  1736-1803;
Bridgewater  Canal

Bridport,  lord  ;  L'Orient,  1795

Brienne,  M.  de ;  notables,  1788

Bright,  corpulency,  1809

Blight,  John,  1811-89  :  England;
Auti-corn-law  league,  Adullam,
agitators,  peace  congress ;  Glad-
stone adm.,  1868, 1880

Bright,  sir  Charles  T. ;  electrician,
1832-88

Bright,  T.  ;  shorthand

Brindley,  Jas.,  1716-72;  tunnels,
Bridgewater  canal,  Barton

Brinklett;  trials,  1828


Brinvilliers,  madame  de,  executed,

1676 ;  poisoning
Bristol,  mayor  of ;  trials,  1832
Bristol,  John,  earl  of ;  administ.  1621
Brock,  C.  F.,  fireworks
Brodie,  sir  B.  C,  surgeon,  1783-1862 ;

— (son)  chemist,  b.  1817;  graphite,

1862 ;  ozone
Broglie,  due  de ;  France,  1873,  1879
Broke,  captain;  Chesapeake,  1813
Brome,  Adam  de  ;  Oriel,  1337
Bromley,  sir Thomas-; administra-
tions, 1579
Brongniart,  A.,  geol.,  1770-1847
Brooke,  sir  James,  1803-68  ;  Borneo
Brooks,  prof.;  oysters
Brothers,  R.,  d.  1824
Brough,  M.  A. ;  trials,  1854.
Brougham,  H.,  1779-1868  ;  chancellor,

charities, impeachment, social

science
Broughton  v.  Knight,  trials,  1873
Broughton,  lord,  1786-1869  ;  Russell

adm.,  1846,  1851
Brown,  gen.  ;  Prague,  1751
Brown,  H.,  trials,  1858
Brown,  sir  J.  ;  iron,  1867
Brown,  captain  John  ;  United  States,

1859
Brown,  Mrs.  ;  fountain,  1875
Brown, R., d. 1630; Brownists,

independents
Brown, Rob, botanist, 1773-1858

Browniau
Brown,  W.,  1783-1864 ;  Liverpool,  1857
Browne,  American  gen. ;  Chippawa,

1814  ;  Fort  Erie
Browne,  col.  H.,  China,  1874
Browne,  George  ;  Dublin,  1554
Browne,  Hannah  ;  trials,  1837
Browning,  R.,  poet,  1812-89
Browning  ;  Mrs.  E.,  1809-1861
Brownrigg,  Eliz.  ;  trials,  1767
Brownrigg,  gen.  ;  Candy,  1815
Bruck,  baron  ;  Lloyd's,  note
Bruce,  David  ;  Scotland,  king,  1328;

Nevill's  cross,  1346
Bruce,  Edward  ;  Dundalk,  131 8
Bruce,  H.  A.  ;  Gladstone  adm.  1868
Bruce,  Michael;  Lavalette,  1816
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotland,

king,  1306  ;  Bannoekburn,  1314
Bruce,  com.  ;  Lagos,  China,  185 1
Bruce,  V. ,  traveller,  1730-94;  Africa,

Bruce,  Nile,  Palmyra
Brucher,  Antonio  ;  coinage,  1553
Brudenell ;  trials,  1834
Brueys,  admiral;  Nile,  1798
Brunck,  anthology,  1772-6
Brunei, I. K., 1769-18/19; blocks,

steam,  Thames  tunnel
Brunei,  I.  K.,  jun.,  1806-59;  steam
Brunetti,  prof.  ;  burning  dead,  1874
Bruno,  d.  hoi  ; Benedictines,  Char-
treuse, Cologne,  turnery
Brunswick,  duke  of; Valmy,  1792;

Quatre  Bras,  1815
Brunt,  Davidson,  Thistlewood,  Ings,

and  Tidd  ;  Cato-street,  1820
Brush,  C.  F.  ;  electric  light,  1878-9
Brutus, Lucius Junius; consuls,

Rome,  508
Brutus  and  Cassius  ;  Philippi,  42  B.C.
Bryan  (or  Brian)  Boroimhe ; harp,

Clontarf,  Ireland,  1014
Bryant,  Win.  C,  Am.  poet,  1784-1878
Bryce, James ; Ararat, United

States,  1888
Bubb ;  opera-house,  1821
Buceleuch,  duke  of ;  Granton
Buchan, captain ; N.-W. passage,

1819-22
Buchan,  M. ;  Buchanites,  1779
Buchanan, J., 1791-1868 ;  pres. U.

States,  1856,
Buchanan  v.  Taylor ;  trials,  1876
Buckhurst,  Thomas,  lord;  adminis-
trations, 1599


1104

Bueklrarst  peerage  ;  trials,  1876
Buckingham, Stafford, duke of;

constable,  1521
Buckingham,  G.  Villiers,  duke  of;
administrations,  161 5,  1621;  dress  :
killed,  1628
Buckingham,  duke  of;  cabal  ministry,
1670 ; Peel  administrations,  1841  ;
duel, 1822  ; — (&. 1823) ; Disraeli
adm. ,  1868  ;  Madras,  1875
Buckingham, marquis  of; Ireland,

lord  lieutenant,  1787
Buckinghamshire,  earl  of;  Liverpool

administration,  18 12
Buckland,  F.  ;  fisheries,  1863
Buckland,  rev.  W.  ;  geologist,  1784-

1856
Buckle,  H.  T. ;  historian,  1822-62
Buckle,  capt.,  Amoaful,  1874
Bufalmaco  ;  caricatures,  1330
Buffet ;  France,  1873-6
Buffon,  G.,  1707-88 ;  geology,  zoology,

!749
Bugeaud,  marshal, 1784-1849 ; Mo-
rocco, 1844
Bulkeley,  bishop  ;  Bangor,  1553
Bull,  J.,  "  God  save  the  King,"  1606
Bull,  G.,  bishop,  1634-1710
Bulwer,  see  Lytton,  Id.
Bulwer,  sir  H.  E. ;  Natal,  1875
Bunbury,  E.  H.  ;  geography
Bunning,  J.  B. ;  coal-exchange,  1849
Bunsen, baron  C. J. ; Germ. hist.

and  phil.,  1791-1860
Bunsen,  R. ;  voltaic  pile,  1842 ;  spec-
trum, i860
Bunyan, J.,  1628-88;  Bedford, alle-
gory, pilgrim's  progress
Buonarotti, Michael  Angelo, 1474-

1564
Burbage,  James  ;  plays,  drama
Burdett, sir F., 1770-1844; duel,
1807  ;  riots,  trial,  1820. See  Coutts
Burdock,  Mary  Anne ;  trials,  1835
Burdon,  Mr.  :  trials,  1841
Burdwan,  rajah  of;  Calcutta,  1878
Burger,  G.  ;  Germ,  poet,  1748-94
Burgers,  T.  F.  ;  Transvaal,  1872
Burgess,  bishop ;  David's,  St.  1825  ;

Salisbury
Burgh,  Hubert  de ;  Whitehall
Burgoyne,  gen.  ;  Saratoga,  1777;  sir
J.  F.  1782-1871 ;  capt.  H.,  Captain,
1870
Burke,  Edmund,  1729-97  ;  Rocking-
ham administrations,  1782;  Canada,
Junius
Burke,  sir  J.  B., b.  1815;  armorial

bearings,  heraldry
Burke,  R.  ;  Fenians,  1867-8
Burke  and  Wills  ;  Australia,  1860-3
Burleigh,  lord  ;  administrations,  1558
Burlington,  Rd.  earl  of,  1695-1753
Burmanu,  P.,  thesaurus
ISuru,  H.  &  others,  trials,  1886
Burnaby,  col.  F.  A. ;  balloons,  1874  ;

Kliiva ;  Soudan,  1885
Burnes, sir A.,  murdered ; India,

1841
Burnet,  Dr.  ;  antediluvians
Burnet,  bp.  Gilbert,  1643-1715
Burnett,  Mr.,  d.  1784;  Burnett  prizes
Burns,  R.,  Scot,  poet,  1759-96
Burnslde,  gen.  A.  ;  U.  States,  1862
Burr,  colonel ;  duel,  1804
Burrows,  gen.  J.  ;  Afghanistan,  1880;

Maiwand
Burton,  P.  W. ;  national  gallery,  1874
Burton,  Robt.  (Anat.  of  Melancholy),

1576-1640 ;  quotations
Burton, Richd. F., sir, 1821-90;

Arabian  Nights ;  Midian
Bury,  Richard  de;  libraries,  1341
Bute,  earl  of,  1713-92  ;  Bute  adm.
Butler,  bp.  S.  ;  Lichfield,  1840
Butler,  bp.  J.,  1692-1752
Butler,  captain;  Silistria,  1854
Butler,  Sam.  (Hudibraa),  abt.  1612-80


INDEX.

Butler,  gen.  B.  ;  New  Orleans,  1862

Butt,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1871

Butt,  I.,  1873-79;  Ireland,  home-rule,

1871-8
Buttevant ;  viscount,  1385
Button,  sir  Thomas  ;  N.-W.  passage,

1612
Buxton,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1829
Buxton,  sir  T.  F.,  1786-1845  ;  prisons,

1815
Buxton,  E.  N.,  metropolitan  school

board,  1881
Byng,  adm.  J.,  exec.  1757 ;  Gibraltar,

Byng,  1757
Byrne,  Miss  ;  riot,  1819
Byron,  comm.  ;  port  Egmont,  1765
Byron,  George,  lord,  poet,  1788-1824  ;

Greece, Missolonghi, swimming ;

Byron  national  memorial,  1875
Bysse,  Dr. ;  music  (festivals)


Cabot,  Sebastian  and  John;  Ame-
rica, 1497

Cabral,  Alvarez  de ;  Brazil,  1500

Cabrera,  general ;  Ramon,  1810-77 ;
Spain,  1840

Cade, Jack; Cade's insurrection,

1450
Cadell,  Captain;  Australia,  1867
Cadmus,  1453  B.C.;  alphabet,  Boeotia
Cadogan, earl;  Salisbury  adm.,  1886
Cadogan,  captain;  duels,  1809
Cadwallader;  Britain,  678
Csecilius  Isidorus ;  slavery  in  Rome,

12  B.C.

Csedmon ;  Anglo-Saxons,  680
Csesar, Julius, 100-44  b.c;  Rome,
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover,
Pharsalia,  Rubicon,  Zela
Csesar,  Octavius, 63 b.c. -14 a.d.  ;
Rome, Actium, massacres, tri-
umvirate, Philippi,  emperor
Csesalpinus;  blood,  circulation,  1569
Cagliostro,  d.  1795;  diamond  neck-
lace
Cailletet,  air,  gases,  1877  ;  hydrogen
Caird,  sir  James,  agriculturist,  1816-

92
Caird  v.  Syme  ;  trials,  1887
Cairns,  Hugh,  earl,  1819-85,  att.-gen.

1866,  lord  chan.  1868-1874
Cairns,  W.  W. ;  Queensland,  South

Australia
Cairoli  ministry,  Italy,  1878,  1879-81
Caithness,  earl  of; steam-carriage,

i860
Calaphilus;  wandering  Jew
Calas,  J.,  judicially  murdered,  1761
Calder,  sir  Robt. ;  naval  batt.,  1805
Calderon,  P.,  Span,  dramatist,  1601-87
Calderon,  Peru,  1881
Calepino;  dictionaries,  1500
Calhoun,  Mr.;  temperance  soc.,  1818
Caligula;  Rome,  emperor,  37
Calippus;  Calippic  period,  330  B.C.
Calixtus,  pope;  Calixtins,  1656
Callaghan,  T. ;  Falkland  isles,  1876
Callan  ;  trials,  1874,  1880
Callcott,  J. W. ; music. 1 766-1821,

glee-club
Callicrates ;  calligraphy
Callimachus;  abacus, architecture,

Corinthian,  540  B.C.
Callinicus;  Greek  fire,  wildfire
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon,

328  B.C.
Calonne;  notables,  1788
Calthorpe,  Id.;  Birmingham,  1857
Calverly ;  pressing  to  death,  1605
Calvert,  F.  Crace,  d.  1873  ;  carbolic

acid
Calvert  and  Co. ;  porter,  1760
Calvin,  John,  1509-64;  Calvinism
Cambacerfes;  directory,  1799
Cambridge,  dukes  of;  Cambridge


Cambridge,  George,  duke  of,  6.  1819;

com. -in-chief,  1856;  army,  1872
Cambyses;  Egypt,  Persia,  525  B.C.
Camden,  lord;  chancellor,  Perceval

adm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland

(lord-lieut.)
Camden,  W.,  antiquary,  1551-1623
Camelford,  lord;  duel,  1804
Cameron,  H.  I.;  trials,  1858
Cameron,  V.  L. ;  Africa,  1872
Cameron,  consul;  Abyssinia,  1863
Camillus,  Rome;  391  B.C.
Camoens,  Port,  poet,  1524-79
Campbell,  bishop ;  Bangor,  1859
Campbells;  disciples  of  Christ,  1812
Campbell,  sir  C. ;  see  Clyde
Campbell, John, lord i78i(?)-i86i ;

attorney  -  general, king's bench,

chancellor,  Palmerston
Campbell,  J.  F.,  sunshine  recorder
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 ;

Campbellites,  1831
Campbell,  major;  duel,  trials,  1808
Campbell,  capt.;  marriages,  forced.

1690
Campbell,  Thos.,  poet,  1777-1844
Camper,  Peter,  1722-89;  facial  angle
Campion ;  trials,  1857
Campos,  M.  Carthagena,  1873  !  Spain*

1874,  Cuba
Canaris ;  Greece,  1863-4-77
Canaletti,  Yen.  painter,  1697-1768
Canby,  gen.;  killed,  Modoc,  1873
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can-
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians,

king's  speech ;  anti-jacobin
Canning,  viscount, 1812-62; India,

1855
Canova,  A.,  sculptor,  1757-1822
Canovas del Castillo, A. ; Spain,

1874-6
Cantillon ;  wills  (Napoleon's),  1821
Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus,

phosphorescence,  magnetism
Cantor, Theod.  ; Cantor lectures,

1853

Canute;  England,  1017;  Alney

Cape  Town,  Gray,  bp.  of;  Africa,
1866;  Church  of  England

Capel,  H. ;  admiralty,  1679

Capet  family;  France,  987

Capo  d'Istria,  count ;  Greece,  1831

Caprivi,  G.  von,  count,  b.  1831 ;  Ger-
many, 1890

Car;  augury

Caraealla;  Rome,  emp.  211  ;  Ale-
manni

Caracci,  L.,  painter,  1555-1619;  An.,
1568-1609

Caraccioli,  adm.,  executed,  Naples,
1799

Caractacus;  Britain,  50

Caraffa,  bishop;  Theatines,  1524

Carapanos,  M.;  Dodona

Carausius;  Britain,  281

Cardan,  J.,  1501-76;  algebra

Carden,  Mr.;  trials,  1854

Cardigan,  lord;  duel,  1840;  trials,
1841  and  1863;  Balaklava,  1854

Cardross  case ;  trials,  1861

Cardwell,  Edward,  visct.,  b.  1813  ;
Palmerston  adm.,  1855-59;  Glad-
stone adm.  1868 ;  army,  1872

Carey,  bishop;  St.  Asaph,  1830

Carey,  James  ;  Ireland,  1883

Carleton,  sir  Guy ;  U.  States,  1782

Carlingford,  lord  ;  Gladstone  adm.,
1880

Carlier,  fire-annlhilator

Carlile,  R.;  atheist;  trials,  1819,
1831

Carlisle,  earl  of;  Ireland,  lord-lieu-
tenant, 1859

Carlos,  don  ;  Spain,  1S33-73

Carlyle,  Thos.,  phil.  and  hist.,
1795-1881;  Carlyle

Carmarthen,  marquis  of;  adminis-
trations, 1689


Carnarvon,  earl  of;  Salisbury  acini.,

1885;  Disraeli  admin.,  1874
Carnegie,  Andrew ;  Edinburgh,  1890
Carnot,  L.,  French  mathematician,

1753-1823
Carnot,  M.  Sadi ;  France,  1886
Caroline;  queen  (George  II.),  parks
Caroline;  queen  (George  IV.),  Bran-
denburg-house, delicate  investiga-
tion
Carpenter, W. B., physiologist,

1813-85 ;  deep  sea
Carpenter, W.  Boyd  ; bp. Bipon,

1884
Carpenter,  gen.;  Preston,  1715
Carr,  bishop;  Worcester,  1831
Carr,  Howell ;  national  gallery,  1824
Carrol,  balloons,  1878
Carre;  congelation,  i860
Carstares,  rev.  W. ;  thumbscrew
Carte,  D'Oyly ;  Savoy
Cartier;  America,  1534
Cartier,  Bichard;  alchemy,  1476
Carteret;  circumnavigator,  1766
Carteret,  lord;  "Walpole  adm.,  1721
Carthage,  St.;  Lismore,  636
Cartwright,  major;  trials,  1820
Carvilius, Spurius; divorces, 231

B.C.

Casati,  G. ;  Africa,  1891
Casella,  L. ;  thermometer,  1861
Cashin,  Miss;  quackery,  1830
Cashman;  Spafields,  riots,  1816
Casimir;  Poland

Cassagnac,  P.  de ;  duels,  France,  1877
Cassander;  Macedon,  316  b.o
Cassivelaunus ;  Britain,  54;  chariots
Cassini,  1625-1712; astronomy;  Bo-
logna, latitude,  Saturn,  1655
Cassius;  Philippi,  42  B.C.
Castanos ;  Spain,  1852
Castel,  M.;  Dartmouth,  1404
Castelar;  Spain,  1869-73.
Castillo,  Canovas  del  Spain,  1879
Castlereagh,  lord; union  with Ire-
land, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804;
Liverpool  admin.,  1812 ;  duel,  1809 ;
suicide,  1822
Castner,  H.  Y. ;  Solium,  Aluminium
Catesby,  Rob.;  gunpowder,  1605
Catch  v.  Shaen,  trials,  1870
Cathcart,  Id.;  Copenhagen,  1807
Cathcart,  general ;  Kaffraria ;  Inker-

mann,  1854
Cathcart,  Mrs. ;  trials,  1891
Catherine  ;  England  (queens, Hen.

V.,  VIII,  Charles  II.)
Catherine;  Russia, 1725; Odessa;

Sebastopol
Cato  (the  censor) ;  agriculture ;  149
B.C. ;— (the  tribune),  kills  himself,
46  b.  c.
Catullus,  poet,  d.  abt.  47  B.C.
Catulus ;  Cimbri,  101  B.C.
Caulaineourt ;  Chatillon,  1814.
Caus,  S.  de ;  steam-engine,  1615
Cautley, sir P., 1802-71  ; Ganges,

1854
Cavagnari,  L.  ;  Afghanistan,  1878-9
Cavaignac,  general ;  France,  1848
Cavalier,  camisards
Cavaliere,  Emilio  di;  opera,  recita-
tive, 1600
Cave,  S.,judge-advocate,i874;  Egypt,

1875-6.
Cavendish,  circumnavigator,  1586  ;

"  Whist "
Cavendish,  H,  1731-1810  ;  balloons,
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen,
hydrogen,  water
Cavendish,  John  de  ;  judges,  1382
Cavendish, lord Frederick ; Glad-
stone adm.,  1880;  murdered,  Ire-
land, 1882
Cavendish,  lord  John ;  Portland  ad-
ministration, 1783
Cavendish,  W. ;  Devonshire,  1618
Cavill,  Mr. ;  swimming


INDEX.

Cavour,  Camille  de, 1809-61 ; Sar-
dinia, Austria,  Italy
Caxton,  Wm.,  about  1412-91 ;  print-
ing
Cayley,  sir  G. ;  heat
Caylus, count;  encaustic  painting,

1765
Cecil,  Wm.  ;  administrations,  1572
Cecrops  ;  Athens,  1556  B.C.
Celeste,  madame  ;  theatres,  1844
Celestin ;  popes,  1143
Celman, Dr. : Argentine republic,

1890
Celsus  ;  midwifery,  &c,  37
Cerdic ;  Britain  (Wessex)
Cerinthus ;  apocalypse
Cernuschi,  H.  ;  bi-metallism
Cervantes, M. S., 1547-1616 ; don

Quixote
Cespedes,  C.  M.  de  ;  Cuba,  1868
Cetywayo,  (Zulu  chief) ;  Transvaal,

Zululand,  1872-81,  Ulundi
Chabannes,  ecorcheurs,  1438
Chacornac ;  planets,  1853
Chad,  St.  ;  baths,  667
Chadwick,  sir  E.,  1800-90;  sanitation
Chaffers,  Alexander,  statutory  decla-
ration
Challoner,  T.  ;  alum,  1608
Chalmers,  Dr.  T.,  1780-1847
Chamberlain,  Joseph,  Gladstone  adm.
1880,  1886  ;  bankrupts  ;  Merchant
shipping  Act ; fisheries, United
States,  1887,  radical  programme
Chamberlain,  sir N.  ;  Afghanistan

1878,  Khyber
Chambers,  W.  O.,  fish,  1884
Chambers,  bishop  ;Peterborough,i54i
Chambers ;  encyclopaedia,  1728, 1859 !
Chambers' journal;  — R.,  1802-71;
— W.,  1800-83  ;  Edinburgh,  1883
Chambers,  John Gray; Aberdeen,

1890
Chambers,  sir  T. ;  recorder,  1878
Chambers, sir  William ; Somerset-

house,  1775
Chambord,  comte  de,  1820-83 ;  France,

1870-6  ;  flag
Chancellor,  R.  ;  north-east  passage
Changarnier, general, 1793-1877  ;

France,  1851,  1873
Channing,  W.,  1780-1842
Chantrelle,  E.  M.  ;  trials,  1878
Chantrey, F, sculpt., 1782-1841 ;

Royal  Academy
Chanzy,  Fr.  gen.,  1823-83 ;  Franco-
Prussian  war,  1870-1  ;  Algiers,  1878
Chaplin,  H. ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885,

1889,  Agriculture
Chapman,  Mr.  ;  armada  sermon
Chappe,  M.  ;  telegraphs,  1793
Chappell,  Thos  ;  James's,  St. ,  Hall,

1859
Chard  and  Bromhead,  lieuts. ;  Zulu-
laud,  1879
Chares  ;  colossus,  288  B.C.
Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy,
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris-
tianity, France,  Germany,  Navarre
Charles  Albert ;  Sardinia,  1831 ;  No-

vara,  1849
Charles ; England, France, Spain,
Savoy,  Germany,  Sweden,  Sicily,
&c.
Charles  V.  ;  emperor,  1500-58;  Spain,

Austria,  Germany,  Spires
Charles  V.  ;  Bastile,  1369
Charles  VI.  ;  picquet,  1390
Charles XII., 1682-1718; Sweden,

Frederickshald
Charles  the  Bald,  Fontenaille
Charles  the  Bold ;  Burgundy,  1468,

Nancy,  Liege
Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As-

perne,  Eckmiihl,  Essling
Charles  of  Anjou  ;  Naples,  1266
Charles  of  Lorraine;  Lissa,  1757
Charles  of  Hohenzollern,  prince  of


1105

Roumania, b. 1839 ; Danubian
principalities  ; Russo  -  Turkish
war  II.  1877
Charles  Stuart,  prince ; pretender,

Culloden,  1746
Charlesworth,  J.  C.  ;  trials, 1861 ; —
Charlesworth,  Mr.  and  Mrs. ;  con-
valescent, 1866
Charlotte,  queen,  England  (Geo.  III.)
Charlotte,  princess  of  Wales,  1796-

1817 ;  Claremont
Charlton  v.  Hay  and  others  ;  trials,

1875
Charteris,  col.  ;  trials,  1730
Chasse,  gen.  ;  Antwerp,  1832
Chateaubriand, viscount, French

writer,  1768-1848
Chatham,  earl  of,  1708-78 ;  Newcas-
tle admin.,  1757  ;  Chatham  admin.,
1766  ;  Walcheren,  1809
Chatterton,  T.,  poet,  1752-70
Chaucer,  G.,  1328-1400;  Canterbury

tales
Chaves,  marq.  of;  Portugal,  1826
Chelmsford,  Id. ;  Derby  adm.,  1858  ;

Zululand,  1879,  Ulundi
Clieltenham  Chronicle  ;  trials,  1873
Cherubini,  music,  comp.,  1 760-1842
Chesham,  Sarah;  trials,  1851
Cheshire  rioters  ;  trials,  1842
Chesney, col. ;  Assyria, 1835  ;  Eu-
phrates, 1850
Chetwind,  eapt. ;  oil  on  waters
Chetwynd,  sir  G.  v.  Durham ;  trials,

1889
Chevallier,  M. ,  1806-79  '•  Albert  medal,

1875,  Liverpool,  1875
Chevreul,  E., chemist,  &c.,i 786-1 889 ;
candles,  glycerine,  Albert  medal,
1873
Chicheley,  archbishop ;  Canterbury,

1414-1443
Childe,  H.  L.  ;  dissolving  views
Childeric ;  France  (kings)
Childers,  H. C,  admiralty; Glad-
stone adins., 1868, 1880, 1886  ;
Greenwich  schools.  1870  ;  nat.  debt
Chillingworth,  W.,  theol.,  1602-44
Ching Noung ; China, wine, 1998

B.C.

Chisholm,  H.  W. ;  weights,  1877
Chladni,  E.,  1756-1827;  acoustics
Choiseul,  E.,  due  de,  1719-85
Cholmeley,  sir  R.,  Highgate
Cholniondeley, gen.  ; horseguards,

1693
Chopin,  F.,  Hung,  mus.,  1810-49
Chosroes  I.  ;  Persia,  531
Christian  ;  Denmark,  Sweden,  1448
Christian  IV.  ;  Christiania,  1624
Christian VII.  ; Denmark, 1775.

Oldenburg
Christie,  life-raft,  fee.,  1875
Christie,  W.  H.  ;  Greenwich  (astro-
nomer royal)
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain,

1833
Christine,  M.,  twins
Christophe  ;  Hayti,  1811
Christopher;  Denmark  (kings),  1252,

1320
Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby

adm.,  1852
Chrysostom  ;  fathers,  354-407
Chubb,  Mr.,  locks  (addenda)
Church,  dean,  Church  of  England,.

1881
Churchill,  C.  ;  satires,  1731-64
Churchill,  Id.  R. ;  fourth  party,  18S0;

Salisbury  adm.  1885
Cialdini,  gen.  ; Italy,  i860 ; Castel

Fidardo,  Gaeta
Cibber,  C,  1671-1757;  poet-laureate
Cicero,  106-43  B-c-  !  Athens,  Rome,

Catiline,  Philippics
Cid  (Spanish  hero),  d.  1099
Cimabue,  painter,  1240-1300
Cimarosa,  musician,  1754-1801

4 B


1106

Cimon  ;  Eurymedon,  466  B.C.
Cincinnatus,  dictator,  458  B.C.
Cinna,  consul,  killed,  84  B.C.
Claniiy,  Dr.  Reid  ;  safety  lamp,  1817
Clanricarde, marq. of;  postmaster,
1846 ; Russell administration,
1851  ; Palmerston  administration)
1855
Clapperton, Hugh, traveller,  1788-
1827

Clare,  John,  poet,  1793-1864

Clare,  earl  of ;  duel,  1820

Clarence,  duke  of;  Anjou,  Claren-
cieux ;  rebellion,  1478  ;  admiralty,

. 1827

Clarendon,  earl  of  (Hyde),  1608-74  •
administrations,  1660,  1685  ; — earl
of,  G.  F.  Villiers,  1800-70 ;— Ire-
land, lord-lieut.;  Aberdeen,  Pal-
merston

Clark,  sir  James,  phys.,  1788-1870

Clarke,  Adam,  theol.,  1760-1832  ; —
Sam.,  theol.,  1675-1729  ; — Edw.  D.,
traveller,  1768-1822

Clarke,  sir  Andrew  ;  Straits,  1874

Clarke,  sir  E.  ;  sol.  gen.,  1886

Clarke,  M.  A.  ;  trials,  1814

Clarke,  gen.  ;  Cape,  1795

Clarke,  J.  Algernon  ;  automaton

Clarke,  M.  C,  6.  1809;  Shakspeare,
concordance,  1847

Clarkson,  Thos.,  1760-1846 ;  slave-
trade,  slavery

Claude  Lorraine,  painter,  1600-82

Claudian,  Latin  poet,  d.  about  408 ;
archery

Claudius;  Rome,  emperor,  41  ;  II.,
Goths,  269  ;  Naissus

Claudius,  App.  ;  decemviri,  451  B.C.

Claughton,bp.;  Rochester,  Albans.St.

Clausel,  marshal ;  Algiers,  1836

Clausius,  R.  J.,  physicist,  1822-28

Claussen,  chev.  ;  flax,  1851

Claverhouse ;  Both  well,  1679

Clay,  F.,  mus.  comp.,  b.  1840

Clay,  Mr.;  slavery,  U.  S.,  1820;
Liberia  ;  whist

Clayton,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1830

Clayton,  Dr.  ;  gas,  1739

Cleaver,  bishop  ;  Bangor,  St.  Asaph,
1806-1815

Cleisthenes  ;  ostracism,  510  B.C.

Clemenceau,  M.,  Fr.  polit.;  France,
1882-4

Clemens  Romanus ;  popes,  662  ; —
Alexandrinus,  d.  abt.  213

Clement ;  popes,  91  ;  IV.  ;  conclave,
1268  ;  —  VII.  ;  pontiff,  benefices,
Clementines,  1378  ; — VIII.  ;  index  ;
— XIV.  (Ganganelli),  1769  ;  Jesuits

Clement,  Jacques;  France,  1589; —
Joseph  ;  planing  machine,  1825; —
Julian  ;  midwifery,  1663

Clementi,  M.,  music,  d.  1832  ;  sonata

Cleombrotus  ;  Sparta,  380  B.C.

Cleomenes  ;  Sparta,  520  b.c.

Cleon,  Athenian  demagogue,  killed
422  B.C.  ;  Amphipolis

Cleopatra  :  Egypt,  69-30  B.C.  ;  rose

Cleveland,  Grover,  fc.  1837;  president
United  States,  1884

Clifford,  C.  ;  life-boat,  1856

Clifford,  J.  ;  trials,  1870

Clifford,  lord ;  Roman  Catholics,
1829  ; — sir  Tho.,  cabal,  1670

Clifford,  W.  K.,mathemat.;  dynamics

Clinton,  H.  Fynes,  1 781-1852  ;  chro-
nology

Clinton,  sir  H.  ;  Yorktown,  1781

Clinton,  Geoffrey  de ;  Kenilworth,
1120

Clive,  Robt.,  lord,  1725-74;  Arcot,
India,  Plassey

Cloncurry,  lord,  v.  Piers ;  trials,  1807

Close,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1836

Clotaire  ;  France  (kings),  558

Clovis  (Chlodowig,  Ludwig,  Ludo-
vicus.  Louis) ;  France,  481 ;  Nor-


INDEX.

mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique,
fleur-de-lis,  Alemanni
Cloots,  Anacharsis,  exec.  1794
Clouet ;  gas
Clune,  &c.  ;  trials,  1830
Cluseret,  gen.  ;  Lyons,  1870 ;  France,

1871  ;  Fenians,  1872
Clutterbuck,  rev.  J.  ;  1891
Clyde,  lord,  1792-1863  ;  India,  1857
Clymer ;  printing-press,  1814
Cobbett,  William, 1762-1835;  trials,

1809,  1811,  1831
Cobden,  R., 1804-65  ; anti-eorn-law
league,  free  trade,  French  treaty,
peace  congress
Cobham,  Id.  ;  Lollards,  1418
Coburg,  prince  of;  Fleurus,  1794  (see

Saxe-Coburcj)
Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun-
donald), d. i860 ; Basque  roads,
stocks,  trials,  1814
Cockburn,  sir  A.,  1802-80;  solicitor-
general, 1858  ; attorney-general,
king's  bench,  ch.  j.,  Alabama
Cockerill,  J.  :  Seraing
Cocking,  Mr.  ;  balloons,  1837
Codrington, admiral  sir  E.  ;  Nava-
rino,  1827  ;  —  sir  W.  J.,  1804-84  ;
Crimea
Codrus  ;  Athens,  1092  B.C.
Coe  ;  trials,  1876
Coggia;  comets,  1874  ;  planets,  1868,

1878
Cohn,  Dr. ,  germ  theory
Cohorn,  B. van,  military  engineer,

1641-1704
Coke,  sir  Edw., 1550-1634 ;  parlia-
ments, 1592
Colbert,  J.  B.,  1619-83  ;  tapestry
Colborne,  sir  John  ;  Canada,  1838
Colclough,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1807
Colcutt,  T.  E.  ;  imperial  institute
Cole  andCox(police);  parliament,  1885
Coleman,  St.  ;  Cloyne,  6th  cent.
Coleman,  Mrs.  ;  actress,  1656
Colenso, bp'., 1814-83 ; church of
England,  1863  ;  trials,  1866 ;  Natal
Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, &c,

1772-1834;  method
Coleridge, sir  J.,  solic.-gen.  ; att.-
gen., 1871, com. pleas, 1873;
king's  bench,  1880
Coles,  capt.  Cowper,  1831-70 ;  navy

of  England,  1855-70  ;  Captain
Colet,  J.  ;  Paul's  school,  15 12
Coligni,  admiral,  killed,  1572
Collard,  dwarf,  1873
Collard,  rear-adml.  ;  suicide,  1846
Colley,  sir  G.  P.  ;  Transvaal,  Natal,

Majuba
Collie,  Alex.  ;  London,  1875
Collier,  J.  P.,  1789-1884;  Shakspeare,

1849
Collier,  Jeremy;  eccles.-hist.,  1650-

1726
Collier,  sir  R. P.  ; att.-gen., 1868;

baron  Monkswell,  1885
Collings,  Jesse  ;  restitution  bill
Collingwood,  lord,  1748-1810  ;  Trafal-
gar, 1805  ;  naval  battles,  1809
Collins,  govr.  ;  Hobart  Town,  1804
Collins,  Wm.  W.,  Nov.  1824-89
Collinson,  sirR.,  1811-83  ;  Franklin,

1850
Collucci,  V.  ;  trials,  1861
Colman,  G.,  d.  1794  ;— G.,jun.,  1762-

1836;  theatres,  1777
Colonib,  adm.,  fog
Colonna  family  flourish,  1288-1555
Colonna,  V.,  poetess,  1490-1547
Colpoys,  admiral;  mutinies,  1797
Colt,  colonel ;  pistols,  1853
Columba,  St.,  521-97,  isles
Coluiubanus,  d.  614  or  615
Columbiere  ;  armorial  bearings,  1639
Columbus,  Chr., 1436  or  1442-1506  ;
America, Bahama, Caraccas,
Christopher's,  Salvador,  Domingo


Columbus,  Bartholomew ;  maps,  1489
Columella,  medical  writer,  abt.  46
Colville,  sir  C.  ;  Cambray,  1815
Colvin, sir A.; India  and  Egypt,

1883
Colvin,  prof.  S.  ;  ancient  buildings  -

Slade  prof.
Combe,  G.,  1788-1858  ;  craniology
Combermere,  Id.  ;  Bhurtpore,  1826
Comines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445-

Commerell,  comm.  ;  Ashantees,  1873
Commodus  ;  Rome,  emperor,  180
Comneni ; eastern  emperors, 1057  ;

Pontus,  Trebizond,  1204
Comte,  A.,  1 795-1857  ;  calendar,  posi-
tive philosophy
Comyn,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1830
Concha,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1868,  1874,  Es-

tella
Concle,  Louis  ;  Jarnac,  1569
Conflans ;  Quiberon,  1759
Confucius, 551 — 477 B.C. Confuci-
anism ;  China
Congleton,  lord  ;  suicide,  1842
Congreve,  R. ;  positive  phil.
Congreve,  W. ,  dramatist,  1670-1729
Congreve,  sir  Wm.,  1772-1828  ;  fire-
works, 1814
Connaught,  duke  of  ;  Egypt,  1882
Conolly, J., 1795-1866; lunatics,

1839
Conon  ;  Sparta,  394  b.  c.  ;  Argmusse
Conrad  ;  Germany,  emperor,  911
Conrad  II.  ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur-
gundy
Conradin  ;  Naples,  Germany,  1268
Constans ;  Aquileia,  340
Constantine ; Rome, emp., 323 ;
Adrianople, aruspices, banner,
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome,
York,  Scotland
Constantine  II.  ;  Aquileia,  340
Constantine  IV.  ;  monasteries
Constantius  ;  Rome,  emps. ,  303
Contarini  (doges  at Venice), 104 1-

1694
Conway,  sir  Edw.  ;  administrations,
1621 : — general,  Chatham  adminis-
tration, 1766
Coode,  sir  John  ;  breakwater,  1890
Cook,  capt James,  1728-79  ;  Austra-
lia, Cook's voyages, Behring's-
Straits,  Botany  Bay,  Flattery  Cape,
New  Hebrides,  New  Zealand,  Nor-
folk  Island, Otaheite,  Owhyhee,
Port  Jackson,  Society  isles
Cook,  Mrs.,  murdered  ;  trials,  1841
Cook,  J.  P.,  murdered;  trials,  1856
Cooke,  sir  George  ;  Chatham 1766
Cooke,  E.  W.,  R.A.,  b.  1810
Cooke,  Eliz.  ;  trials,  1832
Cooke,  Geo.  Fred.,  actor,  1755-1812
Cooke,  W.  F,  electric  teleg.,  1837
Cooper,  Astley,  surgeon,  1 768-1841
Cooper,  J.  Fenimore,  Am.  novelist.

1789-1851
Cooper,  Mr. ;  slave  trade,  1787
Cooper,  P.,  philan.;  New  York,  1883
Cooper;  trials,  1805,  1842
Coote,  sir  Eyre ;  India,  Arcot,  1760:

Carnatic,  Cuddalore,  Porto  Novo
Cope,  sir  John;  Prestonpans,  1745
Copernicus,  Nic,  1473-1543; astro-
nomy, attraction,  solar  system
Copleston,  bishop;  Llandaff,  1827
Copley,  J.,  painter,  1738-1815
Coram,  capt.  Thos.,  d.  1751;  found-
ling hospital,  1739
Corday,  Charlotte;  France,  1793
Corder,  William;  trials,  1828
Cordova,  general  de ;  Granada,  1492
Corelli,  A.,  musician,  1653-1713
Corin ;  libertines,  1525
Coriolanus ;  Rome,  Volsci,  490  B.  c.
Cormac ;  Cashel,  901
Corneille,  P.,  tragedy,  1606-84
Cornelia,  Maximiliana;  vestals,  92


Cornelius ;  Spitzbergen,  1595
Cornelius,  P.  von;  Ger.  paint.,  1787-

1867
Cornell,  E. ;  Cornell  univ.,  1868
Cornhill,  Henry;  sheriff,  1189
Cornwall,  bp. ;  Worcester,  1808
Cornwallis,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1768;

Lichfield,  1781
Cornwallis,  marquis,  1738-1805;  ad-
miralty,  India, America, Banga-
lore, Ireland  (lord-lieut.),  Seringa-
patam
Cornwallis,  E.;  Halifax,  N.S.
Corcebus;  Olympiads,  776  B.C.
Correggio,  A.,  painter,  1494-1534
Corry;  duel,  1800
Corry,  H.  T.  L.,  1803-83;  admiralty,

1867
Cort,  H. ;  iron,  1781
Corte Real  ; America, north-west

passage,  1500
C'ortez,  P.,  1485-1554;  Mexico,  1521
Coryate,  Thomas ;  forks,  1608
Cosmo,  I. ;  Port  Ferrajo,  1548
Costa,  M.,  1810-84;  musician.
Coster,  L. ;  printing
Cottenham,  lord; chancellor, lord

high,  1836
Cottenot,  planets,  1878
Cottington, lord  ; administrations,

1635
Cotton,  R. ;  Cottonian  library,  1600
Cotton,  M.  A.;  poisoning,  1873
Cotton,  sir  Stapleton;  Villa  Franca,

1812
Cotton,  W.  J.  R.  ;  mayor,  lord,  1875
Coulomb,  C,  1736-1806;  electricity,

1785
Courbet ;  China,  1884  ;  Tonquin
Courier,  P.  L. ;  pamphlets
Courtanvaux;  ether,  1759
Courteuay,  abp.  Canterbury,  1381
Courtenay;  Thomites,  1838
Courtenay,  sir  Wm. ;  Exeter,  1469
Courtois,  M.  de;  iodine,  1812
Courvoisier;  trials,  1840
Cousin,  V.,  Fr.  philos.,  1792-1867
Coutts,  baroness  A.  Burdett,  b.  1814  ;
trials,  1847;  Columbia  market,  1869;
Chichester,  1874;  Edinburgh,  1873;
flower-girl  brigade,  1880;  children,
1884;  Baltimore
Coventry, sir  John; Coventry  act,

1670
Coventry;  administrations,  1628-1672
Coverdale, Miles, 6. 1487; Bible,

1535
Cowan,  Mr. ;  Kookas,  1872
Cowen,  J.,  Newcastle,  1871 ;  demo-
cratic federals
Cowles,  E.  ;  aluminium
Cowley,  Abraham,  poet,  1618-67
Cowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax,

1714
Cowper,  earl  ;  Gladstone  adm.,  1880
Cowper,  E.  ;  printing-machine,  1815

— E.  A.;  electric  telegraph,  1879
Cowper,  Wm.,  poet,  1731-1800
Cox,  Walter;  trials,  1811
Coxwell,  Mr.  ;  balloons,  1862-73
Coyle,  Mr.  Bernard;  duel,  1802
Crabbe,  Geo.,  poet,  1754-1832
Crabtree,  W.  ;  Venus
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin.,

1718
Crampton,  Mr.;  United  States,  1856
Crane,  sir  Francis ;  tapestry,  1619
Cranbrook, lord ; Salisbury adm.,

1885,  i386
Cranfield,  Lionel,  lord;  administra-
tions, 1621
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can-
terbury, administrations, 1529 ;
homilies,  martyrdom
Cranworth,  lord;  chancellor,  1852
Crassus,  Marcus,  slain;  ovation,  53

B.C.

Craterus;  Cranon,  322


INDEX.

Crawford,  earl  of ;  Dunecht,  trials,

1882
Crawford,  divorce  case  ;  trials,  1886
Crawford,  A.  T.  ;  India,  1889
Crawfurd,  earl  of;  Brechin,  1452
Crawley;  trials,  1802-1863;  steel
Crellin,  Miss ;  trials,  1842
Crespigny,  Mr.;  duel,  1828
Cresswell,  sir  C,  1794-1863;  probate,

1857
Cresswell  v.  Walrond  ;  trials,  1877
Creswick,  T.;  paint.,  1811-69
Crewe,  bp. ;  Bambrough,  1778
Crichton,  Jas. (the  admirable),  m.

about  1560-1583
Crillon,  due  de;  Gibraltar,  17S2
Crispi,  sig.  ;  Italy,  1887
Cristofalli,  pianoforte
Cristovitch ;  Roumelia,  1884
Crockatt  v.  Dick;  trials,  1818
Crockett,  Messrs.  ;  leather-cloth
Croesus;  Lj'dia,  560  B.C.
Croft;  impostors,  1553
Croft,  sir  Richard;  suicide,  1818
Crofts,  Mr.;  dwarfs,  1653
Croke,  abp.;  Ireland,  1881
Crollius ;  calomel,  1608
Croly,  Geo.;  poet,  1780-1860
Crompton,  Sam.,  1753-1827;  cotton;

mule,  1779
Cromwell,  Oliver,  1599-1658;  admin-
istrations, 1653  ;  Amboyna,  agita-
tors, commonwealth,  England,
Drogheda,  Dundalk,  mace,  Ire-
land, Marston  Moor,  Naseby,  Wor-
cester, Manchester,  1875
Cromwell,  Richard ;  administrations,

1658;  England
Cromwell,  T. ,  lord  Essex;  adminis-
tration, 1532;  registers
Cronin,  Dr. ;  murder ;  United  States,

1889
Crookes, Wm.;  thallium,  1861 ;  spirit-
ualism, radiometer, light,  otheo-
scope,  elements
Crosbie,  sir  Edward;  trials,  1798
Cross,  E. ;  Surrey  Gardens,  1831
Cross,  sir  R. A. ,  viscount ; Disraeli
administration, 1874 ; Salisbury
adm.  1885,  1886
Crossley,  F. ;  Halifax,  1857
Crouch;  trials,  1844
Crowse,  E. ;  needles
Crowther,  bishop ;  Niger
Crowther,  lieut. ;  duel,  1S29
Crozier,  capt. ;  N.-W.  passage,  1845
Cruden,  Alex.;  concordance,  1737
Cruikshank,  G.,  1792-1878;  wood-en-
graving
Ctesias;  hist.,  398  b.c.
Ctesibius,  140 B.C.  ; clock, organ,

pump
Cubitt, Mr.  ; treadmill, 1817  ; J.,

Blackfriars,  1867
Cullen,  Paul,  cardinal ;  1803-78
Cullen,  W.,  physician,  1712-90
Cumberland,  duke  of;  Closterseven,

Culloden,  Fontenoy,  1745
Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732-

1811
Cumberland,  S. ;  thought  reading
Cumming,  lord  de  Roos  v.; trials,

1837
Cumming,  Gordon ;  lion
Cumming,  rev.  Dr.  John,  1810-81
Cummins,  Dr.  ; reformed  eiriscopal

church
Cunard,  Sam.,  1787-1865;  steam
Curci,  Father  ;  Italy,  1877  ;  Jesuits
Curio;  amphitheatres,  abt.  50  B.C.
Curran,  John Philpot,  Irish  orator,

1750-1817;  duel,  1790
Currell,  T.  W.  ;  trials,  1887
Cursor,  Papirius;  dials,  293  B.C.
Curtius,  prof.  E. ;  Olympieium,  1875  ;

philology
Curtius,  Quintius;  earthquakes,  364

B.C.


1107

Cushing,  C,  United  States,  1878
Custer,  gen.  ;  Indians,  1876
Cuthbert,  St.,  d.  686;  Canterbury
Cuthbert  v.  Browne ;  trials,  1829
Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832;

zoology
Cuyp,  A.,  painter,  1606-67
Cyprian,  father,  m.  258
Cyriacus ;  Abrahamites
Cyril,  father,  d.  386
Cyrus  the Great, killed, 529 B.C.  ;

Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem,

Media,  Persia
Cyrus  the  younger;  Cunaxa,  401  B.C.
Czermak,  Dr. ;  laryngoscope,  1861


D.

Dacier,  mad.,  1 654-1 720;  Delphin

Dacre,  lady  Anne;  Emmanuel  hos-
pital, 1594

Dasdalus;  labyrinth,  axe,  1240  B.C.?

Dagobert;  Denis,  St.,  673

Daguerre,  M.,  1789-1851 ;  photo-
graphy

Dahl,  professor ;  dahlias

Dale,  Rev.  T.  P. ;  public  worship,
1877-1881

DAlembert,  Fr.  phil.,  1717-83;  acous-
tics

Dahlgren,  J.  A.;  engin.,  1809-70

Dalhousie,  marquis  of;  India  (gov.-
gen.),  1848;  Gladstone  adm.,  1886.

Dallinger,  W.  H. ;  animalcules,  spon-
taneous generation

Dalmas,  A.;  trials,  1844

Dalling,  H.  Bulwer,  Id.;  1805-72

Dalmatia;  see  Soidt

Dalrymple,  sir  Hew ;  Cintra,  1808

Dalton,  John,  chemist,  1766-1844 ;
atomic  theory,  1808

Damasus,  pope,  366;  pontiff,  crown,
pope,  tiara

Damian,  accordion

Damien,  father;  leprosy

Damiens,  Damiens'  attempt,  1757

Dampier;  circumnavigator,  1689

Dampier,  bishop;  Ely,  1808

Damremont,  marshal;  Algiers,  Con
stantia,  1837

Dana,  R.  H.  ;  United  States,  1876

Danaus;  Greece,  1485  B.C.?

Danby,  earl  of ;  administrations.
1673;  physic  garden

Dangerfield ;  meal-tub  plot,  1679

Danican,  chess,  concerts

Daniel  prophesies,  606  B.C.

Daniel,  Sam. ;  poet-laureate,  1619

Danneker,  J.,  sculptor,  1758-1841

Dannenberg,  gen.;  Oltenitza,  1854

Dante,  Alighieri,  Italian  poet,  1265-
1321

Danton,  G.,  exec.  1794;  clubs,  Fren.

Darboy,  abp.  of  Paris ;  killed,  France,
1871-

D'Arblay,  mad.  (Burney),  novelist,
1752-1840

Darbon  v.  Rosser;  trials,  1841

D'Arcon,  M. ;  Gibraltar

Dardanus,  Ilium,  1480  b.c.

Dargan,  W,  d.  1867;  Ireland,  Dublin
exhibition,  1853

Darius;  Persia,  521  B.C.;  Greece

Darling,  Grace ;  Forfarshire,  1838

Darling,  sir  C;  Jamaica,  1857;  Vic-
toria, 1863

Darmes;  France,  1840

Darnley,  lord;  Scotland,  1565

Dartmouth,  earl  of;  Oxford  adminis-
tration, 1711 ;  Rockingham  admin.,
1766

Darwin,  Charles  R.,  naturalist,  1809-
82  ;  origin,  species,  development

Darwin,  Erasmus,  naturalist,  1731-
1802  ;  lunar  society

Dashwood,  sir  Fr. ;  Bute  admin. ,
1762

4  b  2


1108

D'Aubigne,  Merle,  ecclesiastical  hist.,

i 794-1872
Daubeny,  C;  1795-1867;  atomic  the-
ory, 1850
D'Audiffret  Pasquier ;  France,  1875-6
Dauglish,  Dr.;  "bread,  1856
Daun,  count,  d.  1766,  Hochkirehen,

Torgau
Davenant,  William; drama,  opera,

1684
Davenport,  Miss;  theatres,  1844
Davey,  sir  H.,  sol.  gen.,  1886
David;  Jews,  1065  b.c.
David,  George;  impostors,  1556
David  I.;  Scotland,  1124;  Carlisle
David,  J.,  painter,  1748-1825
Davies,  C.  L.  ;  phonopore
Davies ;  trials,  1890
Davila,  E.  C. ,  Italian  historian,  1576-

1631
Davis,  Jefferson, 1808-89; confede-
rate states  ;  United  States,  1861-86
Davis,  J.  ;  trials,  1887
Davis, sir John F., diplomatist,

1795-1890 ;  China,  1844
Davis; N.-W.  passage,  1585; quad-
rant, China
Davis,  N.  ;  Carthage,  1861,  1876
Davitt,  M.,  and  Wilson ;  trials,  1870  ;
Fenian,  1870,  1881  ;  Ireland,  1882  ;
parliament,  1882
Davoust, marshal  ; Krasnoi, Mo-

hilow,  Jena,  Eckmiihl,  1809
Davy, sir  Humphry,  chemist, &c,
1778-1829 ;  Penzance,  Royal  Institu-
tion, barium,  electricity,  calcium,
magnesium, potassium, sodium,
safety  lamp,  strontium
Davys,  bp. ;  Peterborough,  1839
Dawes,  abp. ;  York,  1714
Dawkins,  capt. ;  navy  of  England,

1875
Dawkins,  W.  B.  ;  caves
Dawson,  lieut. ;  Africa,  1872
Dawson,  J.  W.  ;  Eozoon
Day  (Kossuth's  notes  case),  trials,

i860
Day,  Mr. ;  Fairlop  fair
Daza,  H.,  Bolivia,  1876
Deacle  v.  B.  Baring ;  trials,  1831
Deak,  F.  ;  Hungary,  1865-75
Deane,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1501
Deane,  adml. ;  naval  battles,  1653
Debain ;  harmonium
De  Balton;  duels,  181 1
De  Blignieres,  M. ;  Egypt,  1879
DeBrazza;  France,  1882  ;  Congo,  1883
De  Broglie,  France,  1879
De  Burgh,  Hubert ;  Whitehall
De  Candolle,  A.,  botanist,  1 778-1841
Decazes,  due  ;  France,  1873-6
Decius  Mus  sacrifices  himself,  295  B.C.
De  Courcy,  baron;  peers,  1181
Dee,  Dr.  J.,  d.  1608;  astrology
Deeming,  F.  B.  ;  Melbourne,  1892
Deerfoot,  pedestrianism,  1861
D'Etrees,  see  D'Estrees.
De  Fallieres,  M. ;  France,  1883
De  Foe,  Daniel,  1663-1731;  Robinson

Crusoe,  Juan,  plague
De  Foix,  Gaston;  Ravenna,  1512
De  Gasparis,  A.;  planets,  1849
De  Genlis,  mad.,  1746-1830
De  Giers,  chancellor,  Russia,  18S2
De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake.

naval  battles,  Tobago,  1781
De  Grey, earl; Ireland, lord  lieu-
tenant, 1427
De  Grey,  Gladstone  adm.,  1868
De  Groof,  V.  ;  balloons,  1874
De  Haven,  lieut.;  Franklin,  1850
De  Horsey,  adm.,  Peru,  1877
Delabeche,  H.,  1796-1S55;  geology
De  la  Clue,  admiral;  Lagos,  1759
Delafontaine,  M.,  decipium
Delambre,  J.,  Fr.  mathemat.,  1749-

1822
De  la  Rive  ;  Swiss  nat.  phil.,  c7.  1873


INDEX.

De  la  Roche,  Paul,  Fr.  paint.,  1797-

1856
De  la  RoneiereleNoury,adm.;  France,

1875
De  la  Rue ;  trials,  1845
De  la  Rue,  Warren,  physicist, 1815
-89  ; envelopes  ; electric bat-
tery ;  photography,  1857; eclipse,
i860
De  la  Vigne,  C.  ;  Parisienne
De  l'Epee,  abbe,  1712-89;  deaf
De  Lesseps,  M.;  Suez,  1857
Delille,  J.,  Fr.  poet,  1738-1813
Delisle  ;  Venus

De  Loundres,  Henry ;  Dublin,  1205
De  Meritens,  electric  light,  1879
Demetrius; Athens, Macedon,  im-
postors, Poland
Democritus,  about  400  B.C.  ;  atoms
De  Moivre;  annuities,  1724
De  Morgan,  A.,  mathemat., 1806-71;

almanacs,  1851 ;  paradoxes,  1872
Demosthenes, about 382-322 B.C. ;

philippics
Denayrouze,  M.  ;  aerophore,  1875
Denison, archdeacon; trials, 1856;
auricular  confession,  1873,  Church
of  England,  1873
Denison,  bishop;  Salisbury,  1801
Denison,  E.  B. ;  bells,  1856
Denison,  J.  E. ;  speaker,  1857
Denman, lord,  1779-1854; att.-gen. ,

king's  bench
Denmark,  prince  George,  admiralty,

1702,  queens  (Anne)
Denner,  J.,  clarionet,  about  1690
Dennis,  W.  ;  fire  engine
Denny,  J. ;  trials,  1851
Depretis,  A.  ;  Italy,  1876,  1884
De  Quincey, Thos.,  essayist, 1785-

1859

Derby,  countess  of;  Lathom-house,
1644

Derby,  earl  of,  races,  1779

Derby,  earl  of,  1799-1869 ;  Derby
admin.,  1852,  1858,  1866

Derby,  earl  of;  Man,  Wigan,  Derby

Derby,  earl  of,  0.  1826,  see  Disraeli
adm.  (Stanley),  1868,  1874  ;  Edin-
burgh, 1874  ;  Brussels  conference,
1874  ;  Turkey,  1876  ;  Berlin,  1876  ;
Russo-Turkish  war,  II.  1877 ;  Tur-
key, 1876-7;  Gladstone  adm.,  1880

De  Roos,  lord,  v.  Cumming;  trials,

1S37
De  Rossi,  catacombs
De  Ruyter,  adml.;  Sheerness,  1667;

Chatham,  Texel
Dervish  pasha,  Albania,  Dulcigno
Derwentwater, earl of,  executions,

1 71 6;  Greenwich
Des  Cartes,  Rene,  1596-1650;  carte-
sian, rainbow
Desmoulins, Camille, exec. 1794;

clubs,  1782
Desnoyers,  L. ;  charivari
Dessaix,  general ;  Marengo,  1800
Dessalines;  Hayti,  1803
De  Stael,  madame,  1766-1817
D'Estaign,  count;  Bencoolen,  1760;

Georgia
D'Esterre,  Mr.;  duels,  1815
D'Estrees,  adml.;  Texel,  1673
Deucalion;  deluge,  1503  b.c.
De  Veres, earls  of  Oxford;  Id. gt.

chamberlain,  marquis,  duke
Devigne,  Hen.;  billiards,  1571
Deville,  H.  St.  C. ;  aluminium,  1856;

platinum,  1859
Devon,  W.  R.,  earl  of,  6.  1807;  Dis-
raeli, 1 868
Devonshire,  duke  of;  Devonshire  ad-
ministration, 1756 ;  Cavendish  col-
lege
Dewar,  prof.  J. ;  gases  ;  Royal  Insti-
tution, 1877 ; elements, 1880-1 ;
oxygen;  cold  ;  alcohol
De  Wimpffen,  gen. ;  Sedan,  1870


De  Winter,  adm. ;  Camperdown,  179
De Winton, sir  F. ; Congo, 1884

Africa  (British  E.),  1890
De  Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen-
sionary) murdered,  1672 ;  Hague
De  Worms,  baron  ;  sugar  bounties
Dhuleep  Singh ;  India,  1849 ;  Punjab
Diaz,  R,  discovers Cape  of  Good

Hope,  1487
Diaz,  P.  ;  Mexico,  1867-84
Di  Bardi,  Donato ;  sculpture,  1383
Dibdin,  C,  1745-1814;  ballads
Dibutades ;  models
Dicey,  W.  T. ;  steam,  1875
Dick,  Mr.;  trials,  1818
Dickens,  Chas.,  novelist,  1812-70
Dickinson,  capt. ;  trials,  1829
Dickson,  col. ;  trials,  1859,  1863
Diderot,  D.,  philos.,  1713-S4
Didius  Julianus ;  Rome,  emp.  193
Dido;  Carthage,  869  b.c.
Didot,  M. ;  paper-making,  stereotype
Diebitsch,  gen.;  Balkan,  1829
Diefenbach,  L.  ,1806-83  ;  philology
Diesbach;  prussic  acid,  1709
Digby,  E. ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605
Digges,  L. ;  optics,  1671
Dilke,  C.  W.;  Athenseum
Dilke, sir C, b. 1843 ;  Gladstone

adm.  1880  ;  corporations
Dilke,  lady  ;  burning  dead,  1874
Dillon,  Mr.  Luke;  trials,  1831
Dillon,  Mr.,  Ireland,  1880-1
Dimsdale  and  others  ;  trials,  1878
Diocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal-

matia
Diodati,  J.,  theologian,  1576-1649
Diodorus  Siculus,  50B.C-13  a.d.  ;  Etna
Diogenes,  cynic,  d.  323  B.C.
Dionysius ;  Portugal, anno  doinini,

catapultee
Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  Gr.  poet,

fl.  30  B.C.
Dionysius;  Syracuse,  406  B.C.
Diophantus;  algebra,  370
Dipcenus ;  sculpture,  marble
Dircks,  H.;  ghosts,  1858
Disraeli, I., 1767-1848  ; — Benjamin

(earl  of  Beaconsfield,  1876),  1804-81 ;

Derby  admin. ,  1852,  1858;  Disraeli

admin., 1868, 1874  > cottage  ;

people's  tribute
Ditmar,  C. ;  dualin,  1870
Diver,  Jenny;  trials,  1740
Dixblancs,  M. ;  trials,  1872
Dixon,  capt.;  Apollo
Dixon,  Hepworth,  1821-79  ;  Ebelians,

mormonites ; — v.  Smith  {Pall  Mall

Gazette);  trials,  1872
Dixon, J.  ; obelisks, (Cleopatra's

needle),  1877-S
Dixon,  Mr.  ;  education,  1874,  1876
Dobell,  Sydney;  poet,  1824-74
Dobereiner,  J.  W,  nat.  phil.,  1780-

1849;  diffusion,  philos.  lamp
Dockwra,  Mr.;  penny  post,  1683
Dodd,  Mr.;  steamer,  1815
Dodd,  Dr.;  trials  (executed  for  for-
gery), 1777;  Magdalens,  forgery
Dodd,  H.  P.  ;  epigrams
Doddridge,  Philip,  theol.,  1702-51
Dodsley,  R. ;  annual  register,  1758
Dodson,  sir  John ;  admiralty  court,

1857;  — J.  G. ;  Gladstoiuvadm. ,  1880
Dodwell,  rev.  H.  J.  ;  trials,  1878
Doggett,  Thos.;  Doggett  prize,  1715
Dolbear,  prof.;  telephotography
Dolben,  abp.;  York,  1683
Dolce,  gen.;  Spain,  1868-9
Dolci,  C.,  painter,  1616-86
Dollinger, Dr. ; papal infallibility,

old  catholics,  1S71
Dollond,  John,  1706-61 ;  achromatic

telescopes,  1753 ;  optics
Domeniehmo,  Z.,  painter,  15S1-164X
Domingue,  M.  ;  Hayti,  1874
Dominguez,  L.  ; Carthagena,  Spain,

1873-4


Dominic,  St. ;  Dominicans,  1215
Domitian;  Rome,  emp.  81
Donald  of  the  Isles;  Harlaw,  141 1
Donaldson,  W.  J.  ;  balloons,  1875
Donatus,  grammarian,  fl.  355
Donders,  phenophthalmoscope,  1870
Donizetti,  G.;  music,  1798-1848
Donkin,  sir  R. ;  suicide,  1841
Donne,  W.  B.,  examiner  (of  plays),

1857
Donovan;  duels,  1779
Dore,  Gustave,  artist,  1832-83
Doria,  And.,  Genoese  adml.,1468-1560
Dormer, lord; Roman Catholics,

1829
Dorregaray,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1874-5
Dorset, duke of; administrations,
1689;  Pelham  administration,  1744
D'Orvilliers ;  Ushant,  1778
Dost  Mahomed ;  Afghanistan,  1829-42
Douay,  gen.  A. ;  Wissembourg,  1870
Douglas,  earl  of;  Homildon,  1402
Douglas,  James;  British  Columbia,

1858
Douglas,  Wm. ;  Otterburn,  1388
Douglass,  sir  John;  delicate  investi-
gation, 1806  ;  —  sir  James,  Eddy-
stone
Doulton,  strikes,  1876
Douw,  Gerard,  Dutch  paint.,  1613-74
Dove,  H.,  b.  1803;  dichroscope,  i860
Dove,  W.;  trials,  1856
Dowdeswell,  William; Rockingham

administration,  1765
Doyle,  sir  John;  Portugal,  182S
Doyle,  J.;  caricatures  ;  —  R.,  1826-

83  ;  Punch
Doyle  v.  Wright;  trials,  1851
Draco,  Athens,  621  B.C.;  laws,  Draco
Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada,
Cadiz,  California,  Chatham,  circum-
navigators, Drake's  circumnaviga-
tion, Deptford,  New  Albion
Drayton,  M.,  poet,  1563-1631
Drebbel ;  optics, 1621 ;  microscope,

thermometer
Dred  Scott  case;  slavery,  U.S.
Drentelen,  Russia,  1878
Dreyse,  J.  N.,  1788-1867  ;  needlegun
Drouet;  Varennes,  1791
Druitt,  G.;  trials,  1867
Drummond,  abp.;  York,  1761
Dnvmmond,  gen.;  Chippawa,  1814
Drummond,  lieut.;  lime-light,  about

1826
Drummond,  Mr.,  m.;  trials,  1840
Druscovitch,  N.  ;  and  others  (police) ;

trials,  1877
Dryden,  John,  poet,  1631-1701 ;  poet

laureate
Drysdale,  Dr. ;  animalcules
Dubois,  cardinal,  1656-1723
Duboscq,  M. ;  electric  lamp,  1855
Du  Breil  de  Rays  ;  Port  Breton
Dubritius,  St. ;  Caerleon,  Llandaff,  612
Duchesne,  Pere,  see  Hebert
Duchesne ;  Belgium,  1875
Duckworth,  sir  J. ;  Dardanelles,  1807
Duclerc,  M.;  France,  1882-3
Ducrot,  gen.,  France,  1878  ;  Franco-
German  war,  1871
Ducrow;  theatres,  Astley's,  1825
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester;  adminis-
trations, 1558
Dudley,  lord;  administrat.,  1551
Dudley,  Mrs.  L.  Y.;  Fenians,  1885
Dudley,  W.,  Birmingham,  1876
Duell,  William;  trials,  1740
Dufaure,  J.  A. S.,  France, 1876-9  ;

1798-1881
Dufay;  electricity,  1733
Duff,  captain ;  trials,  1841
Dufferin,  Id.;  Gladstone  adm.,  1868,
1880 ;  Canada,  1872  ;  Egypt,  1883  ;
Turkey,  1881-4  ;  India,  gov.  gen.,
1884  ;  Italy,  1890  ;  France,  1891
Dufferin  lady  ;  India,  1887'!
Duffy,  Ch.  G.  ;  Ireland  (Young)


INDEX.

Dufour- Aries,  J.  B.;  France,  1870-2
Dugdale,  W.,  antiquary,  1605-86
Duggan,  Wm.;  trials,  1832
Du  Guesclin,  B.;  Montiel,  1369
Duilius defeats Carthaginians,  260

B.C.

Dulong,  P.  L.,  1785-1838;  acids
Dumas,  A.  D.,  Fr.  nov.,  1803-70
Dumas,  J.  B.,  Fr.  chemist,  1800-84  ;
Faraday  medal,  1869;  Albert  medal,
1877
Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem-

mappes,  1792
Dun,  John ;  bailiff
Dunant,  H.,  Geneva  convention
Duncan,  H.  ;  savings-banks,  1810
Duncan,  Dr. ;  ichnology,  1828
Duncan;  Burmah,  187*5
Duncan  I. ;  Scotland,  1033
Duncan,  admiral  lord ;  Camperdown,

1797 ;  Texel
Duncannon,  viscount ;  Melbourne  ad-
ministration, 1834-5
Duneombe,  F. ;  sedan  chairs,  1634
Dundas,  sir  D. ;  com. -in-chief,  1809
Dundas,  sir  David  ;  solicitor-general,

1846
Dundas,  Henry ;  Pitt  administration,

1804
Dundas,  gen.;  Kilcullen,  1798
Dundas,  lieut. -col.;  Prescott,  1838
Dundas,  major;  trials,  1831
Dundas,  sir  R.;  Baltic,  1855
Dundee,  vise;  Killiecrankie,  1689
Dundonald,  earl,  1775-1S60  (see  Coch-
rane)
Dunn,  sir  David,  vice-adm.,  1786-1859
Dunn,  John,  Zululand,  1879
Dunn,  Richard ;  trials,  1847
Duns  Scotus,  d.  1308 ;  burying  alive,

Scotists
Dunstan,  abp.,  d.  988;  Canterbury,

959;  coronation
Dupanloup, F. A. P., bishop of

Orleans,  1802-78
Dupetit-Thouars ;  Otaheite,  1843
Dupont,  gen. ;  Baylen,  1808
Durandj'sir  II.;  India,  1871
Durand,  lieut. -col. ;  India,  1891
Durazzo,  Charles  of,  m.  1386 ;  Naples,

kings,  1381
Durer,  A.,  1471-1528;  engraving
Durham,  Joseph,  sculptor,  1813-77
Durham, earl  of, 1 792-1840; Grey

admin.,  1830;  Canada,  1838
Duroc,  marshal ;  Bautzen,  1813
Duruof ;  balloons,  1870-74
Dutrochet,  R.J.  H.,  1 776-1 847;  en-

dosmosis
Du  Val,  Claude ;  robbers,  1670
Duvernois,  C. ;  France,  1874
Dwyer;  trials,  1843
Dyce,  Wm. ;  painter,  1806-64
Dyke  sir,  W. H.  ; Salisbury  adm.

1885
Dymocke  family ;  championship
Dysart  peerage,  trials,  1881


E.


Eadbald ;  convents,  630
Eadmer,  d.  about  1124
Earle,  gen.;  Soudan,  1885
Eastlake, sir  C, 1793-1865; Royal

Academy ;  National  Gallery,  1850  ;

— C.  national  gallery,  1878
Eaton,  Daniel;  trials,  1796,  1812
Ebdy  v.  McGowan ;  trials,  1870
Eckart ;  mystic,  1251-1329
Eddy,  Mrs. ;  mind  cure
Eden,  bp. ;  Man,  1847
Edgar;  England,  kings,  958
Edgar,  rev.  Mr.;  temperance,  1829
Edgeley,  T. ;  trials,  1868
Edgeworth,  Maria  ;  novels,  1767-1849
Edinburgh, duke of, see Alfred,

Eddystone


1109

Edison,  T. E. ;  electric pen, &c,
microphone,  micro-tasimeter,-  pho-
nograph, telephone
Edmonds  ;  zoology
Edmund;  England,  940,  1016
Edmunds, Christiana ; poisoning,

trials,  1872
Edmunds,  Mr. ;  patents
Edward the Confessor; England,

kings,  1042 ;  Danegeld
Edward  I. ; England,  kings, 1272  ;

Lewes,  Scotland,  Wales
Edward  III.;  England,  kings,  1327,

Cressy,  Sluys,  garter
Edward  IV.;  England,  kings, 1461 ;

Barnet,  Tewkesbury,  Towton
Edward  VI.;  England,  kings,  1547;

Christ's  hospital
Edward,  Black  Prince,  1330-76;  duke,

Cressy,  Poitiers
Edwardes,  lieut.;  India,  1848
Edwards,  rev. T. , public  worship  ;
—Miss  A.  B.,  Nov.,  d.  1892;  Egypt
Exploration  Fund
Edwy ;  England,  955
Egan,  Mr. ;  trials,  1843
Egan,  Patrick  ;  Chili,  1891
Egbert;  England,  kings,  828
Egerton,  sir  Thomas ;  chancellor,  lord

high,  1596
Egerton,  Mr.  ;  burnt,  Dublin,  1880
Egg,  Aug.,  painter,  1816-63
Eglinton,  earl  of;  Ireland,  lord-lieu-
tenant, 1852;  tournament
Egmont,  lord;  administrations,  1763
Egremont,  earl  of;  Grenville  adminis-
tration, 1762
Ehrenberg,  C,  naturalist,  1795-1876
Eick,  H. ;  trials,  1859
Eirinus,  Dr.,  asphalt,  1712
Ekenhead,  lieut.,  swimming
Elcho.  Id.  (aft.  earl  of  Wemyss),  6.
1818;  Adullam,  1866;  cabs,  volun-
teers ;  liberty  and  reform,  1884
Elder,  John  ;  Glasgow,  1883
Eldon,  lord, 1751-1838;  chancellor

1801
Eleanor;  queens  (Edward  I.,  Hen.  II.

and  III.)
Elgin,  Lord ;  Elgin  marbles ;  d.  1841  ;
—James,  lord, 1811-63; Canada,
1846;  China,  1857;  Japan,  Palmer-
ston,  Lidia,  1861 ;  govr.-gen.,  1861
Elgin,  earl  of ;  Gladstone  adm.  1886
Elgin,  lord,  v.  Ferguson ;  trials,  1807
Elijah  prophesies  about  910  B.C.
Eliott,  gen.  ;  Gibraltar,  1781
Eliott,  sir  Gilbert;  North  adminis-
tration, 1770
Elisha  prophesies,  896  b.  c.
Elizabeth,  queen,  1533-1603;  England,
1558;  goose,  poor  laws,  Richmond,
Whitehall
Elizabeth ;  England,  queens  (Edward

IV.  and  Henry  VII.)
Elizabeth;  France,  trials,  1794
Elkington ;  gilding,  electrotype
Ellenborough,  lord;  att.-gen.,  1801 ;
king's  bench, delicate investiga-
tion; lord  (son), 1 790-1872;  Wel-
lington admin.,  1828;  India,  govr.-
gen.,  1842, 1858,  note  ;  Derby  adm.,
1858
Ellesmere, lord ; administrations,

1615;  chancellors,  Id.,  1603
Ellice,  E. ; Melbourne administra-
tion, 1834
Elliot,  captain  ;  China,  1840
Elliotson,  Dr.  J.,  1785-1868
Ellis,  Agar ;  trials,  1878
Ellis,  sir  H, lib.  Brit.  Mus.,  1777-1869
Ellis,  A.  J.,  1844-90;  pliilol.;  musical

pitch
Ellis,  Wellbore ;  Grenville  adminis-
tration, 1770
Elphinstone,  lord ;  electric  light,  1879
Elphinstone,  admiral ;  Cape  of  Good
Hope,  1795;  Saldanha


1110

Elsynge,  Win.  ;  Sion  college,  1340
Elyot,  sirT.,  "governour"
Elzevir  family,  printers,  1583-1680
Emerson,  R.W. ;  essayist,poe~t,  1803-82
Emin  Bey ;  Soudan,  1886
Emmet,  Robert;  rebellions,  conspi-
racies, trials,  1803 ;  press
Empedocles ;  suicide
Encke,  J.  F.,  1791-1865;  comets,  1818
Enderby,  Messrs.  ; southern  conti-
nent, 1838
Engels,  prof.  ;  lithofracteur,  1869
Enghien,  due  d',  executed,  1804
Ennius,  239-169  b.c.  ;  stenography
Enraght, rev. R.  ;  public  worship,

1880
-Eotvos,  Joseph;  Hung.  nov.  1813-71
Epaminondas, 371 B.C.  ; Leuetra,

Mantinea
Epictetus,  philosopher,  fl.  118
Epicurus,  342-270  B.c.  ;  atoms;  phi-
losophy
Epiphanius,  St. abstinence,  heresy
Erasistratus ;  anatomy,  ab.  30a  B.C.
Erasmus,  D.,  1467-1536;  Greek  lan-
guage, Rotterdam
Eratosthenes;  degree,  250  b.c.  ;  ar-

millary  sphere
Eratostratus  (or Herostratus)  fires

Diana's  temple,  356  b.c.
Erechtheus;  Athens,  1383  b.c.
Eric;  Denmark

Erich thonius ;  Troy,  1449  B.C.,  car
Ericsson,  capt.  ;  heat,  1853
Erie,  sir  W. ;  common  pleas,  1859
Ermeland,  bp.  of;  Prussia,  1871
Ernley,  sir  John;  administrations,

1685
Erroll,  earl of;  constable  of  Scot-
land, lord  high
Erskine, lord; chancellor, lord

Grenville  administration,  1806
Erskine,  gen.  ;  India,  1795
Esdaile,  E.  ;  trials,  1858
Esmonde  case ;  trials,  1868
Espartero,  Marshal,  Spain,  1841-75;

Bilbao,  1836 ;  d.  1879
Esquirol,  E.  ;  lunatics,  1810
Essex,  earl  of ;  administrations,  1532,

1579 ;  Newbury,  1643
Este,  sir  Augustus  d' ;  marriage  act,
.  royal,  1844

Ethelbert,  560,  Canterbury
Etheldreda  ;  Ely,  673
Ethelred,  979  ;  coronation,  Danegeld
Ethersey,  com.  ;  suicide,  1857
Etty,  W.  painter,  1787-1849
Euchidas  ;  pedestrianism
Euclid  ;  geometry,  300  b.  c.
Eugene,  prince,  1663-1736  ;  Belgrade,

Turin,  Zenta
Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853  ;

Marseilles,  1882
Eugenius  ;  popes,  Aquileia
Eulenburg,  count,  Prussia,  1873
Eulenstein,  Jew's  harp
Euler,  L.,  1707-83;  acoustics
Eumenes;  parchment,  190  B.C.
Eumolpus ;  Eleusinian  mysteries
Eupion  gas  co.  ;  trials,  1876
Euripides,  480-406  b.c  ;  tragedy
Eurysthenes  ;  biarchy,  1102  B.C.
Eurystheus;  Mycente,  1289  B.C.
Eusden,  L.  ;  poet  laureate,  d.  1730
Eusebius,  of  Ctesarea,  ab.  275-340
Eustachius  ;  thoracic  duct,  1563
Euston  divorce  case  ;  trials,  1884
Euthalius  ;  accents,  458
Eutyches,  fl.  447
Evandcr ;  Circensian  games
Evans,  general de Lacy ; British
legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835  ;  Iran.
Sebastian
Evans;  trials,  1858
Evans,  J.  ;  man,  1872
Evans, M. (G. Eliot), novelist,

1820-80
Evans,  W.  E.  ;  harmonium,  1841


INDEX.

Evelyn,  J.,  1620-1706;  horticulture,

lime-tree,  trees
Examiner,  the  ;  trials,  1812
Exmouth,  lord  ;  Algiers,  1816
Eyre,  E.  J.  ;  Jamaica,  1864-7
Eyre,  John  ;  transportation,  1771
Ezekiel  prophesies  about  595  b.  c.


F.

Faber,  F.  ;  oratorians,  1848

Fabius,  Quintus  ;  painting,  311  b.c.  ;

■ — Maximus;  AUobroges,  121  B.C.
Fabii, killed, Cremera, 477 b.c  ;

Fabii
Fabre,  M.;  France,  1883
Fahrenheit,  G.  D.,  1686-1736;  ther-
mometer, about  1726
Faidherbe,  gen.  ;  Franco-Pruss.  war,

1871 ;  St.  Quentin,  1871
Fairbairn,  Mr.  ;  tubular  bridge,  1849
Fairfax,  T.  ;  Naseby,  1645
Fairland,  Miss  ;  trials,  1874
Falck,  Dr.  ;  steam-engine,  1779
Falconbridge ;  London,  1453
Falconer,  H.  ;  geologist,  d.  1865
Falieri,  Marini ;  Venice,  1335
Falk ;  Prussia,  1873  ;  Germany,  1879
Falkland,  visct.  ;  Newbury,  1643
Falstaff,  sir  John  ;  taverns
Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating li-
braries, 1740
Faraday,  Michael,  1791-1867;  Royal
Institution,  chemistry,  electricity,
gas, magnetism, magneto-electri-
city, ice,  Albert  medal,  Faraday
Farewell,  lieut.,  Natal,  1823
Farmer  and  Wallace,  electric  light,

1879
Farquhar,  Mr.,  buys  Fonthill  abbey.

1822
Farr, Dr. W., 1807-83  ; annuities,

1864  ;  statistics
Farragut,  D.,  1861-79,  admiral,  1866  :

United  States,  1864
Farrar,  F.  A.  ;  trials,  1868
Farrell  v.  Gordons  ;  trials,  1873
Farren,  Miss,  actress,  retires,  1797
Farrer ;  trials,  1859
Fatima ;  Mahometanism,  note
Faulkner,  G. ;  newspapers,  1728
Fauntleroy,  H.  ;  forgery,  1824
Faure,  Jules,  electric  battery,  1881
Faust,  John  ;  printing,  1442
Faustin  I.  ;  Hayti,  1849
Faustulus  ;  Alba,  770  B.C.
Faux,  Guy  ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605
Favre,  Jules  ;  France,  1870-2,  d.  1880
Fawcett,  col.  ;  duel,  1843
Fawcett, H., 1833-84 ; Gladstone

adm.,  postmaster,  1880;  parcel  post
Fazy,  J.  J.  ;  Switzerland,  1878
Felix,  popes,  269  et  seq.
Fellows,  C.  ;  Lycia,  1840
Felton  assassinates  Buckingham  at

Portsmouth,  1628
Fenelon,  abp.,  1651-1715;  Cambray
Fenning,  Eliza ;  executions,  1815
Fenwick,  J.  ;  executions,  1697
Feramoz  ;  Afghanistan,  1871
Ferdinand  ;  Austria,  Naples,  Portu-
gal, Sicily,  Spain,  Tuscany,  Castile,

Cordova,  Bulgaria
Ferdinand  of Brunswick, Minden,

1759

Fergus  ;  Scotland,  coronation

Ferguson,  J.  ;  planets,  1854

Fergusson,  sir  J.  ;  Bombay,  1880 ;
Salisbury  2nd  adm.

Fergusson,  James,  1808-86 ;  archi-
tecture, 1874-76

Format ;  probability

Ferrand  ;  France,  1874

Ferre ;  France,  1871

Ferrers,  earl ;  trials,  1760

Ferrier,  Dr.  J.,  1811-82;  vivisection

Ferry,  J.  ;  France,  1879-84


Fessel ;  gyroscope,  1852
Festing,  col.  ;  Ashantees,  1873
Fichte, Germ,  philos.,  J. G.,  1762-

1814  ;  Im.  H.,  son,  1797-1879
Field,  Cyrus,  1819-1892  ;  electric  tele-
graph, 1868
Field,  Edward  ;  air,  1891
Field,  J.,  nocturne
Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54;

magistrates
Fieschi ;  France,  1836
Figueras  ;  Spain,  1873
Figueroa ;  Spain,  1868
Fillmore,  M.  ;  United  States,  presi-
dent, 1850 ;  d.  1874
Finch,  D.  ;  admiralty,  1680
Finch, sir  John  ;  chancellor,  lord  ;
administrations, 1640 ; Heneage,
chancellor,  1673
Finiguerra  ;  engraving,  1460
Finnerty,  Peter;  trials,  1808,  1811
Finnis,  T.  ;  lord  mayor,  1856
Finnis,  col.  ;  India,  1857,  ,l0*e
Firth,  M.,  Sheffield,  1879
Fish,  W.  ;  trials,  executions,  1876
Fisher, bp.  ;  administrations,  1509  ;

Salisbury  ;  executed,  1535
Fisher;  duels,  1806
Fisk,  James  ;  New  York,  1871
Fitzgerald,  H.  ;  life-boat,  1856
Fitzgerald,  lord  ;  attainder,  1798
Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ;

trials,  1814
Fitzgerald,  lord ;  Wellington  adminis-
tration, 1830
Fitz-Osborn  ;  justiciars,  1067
Fitzpatrick ; Grenville administra-
tion, 1806
Fitzpatrick,  Hugh  ;  trials,  1813
Fitz-Roy, R.,  1805-65;  circumnavi-
gation, 1826  ;  New  Zealand,  1843  ;
meteorology,  1857
Fitz waiter, Robert de ; Dunmow,


1806;  Ireland  (lord-lieut.);  strikes,
1875
Flad,  Mr.  ;  Abyssinia,  1866
Flaminius  ;  Thrasymene,  217  B.C.
Flamin,  A.  L.  ;  cryptography,  1875
Flammock ;  rebellions,  1497
Flamsteed,  J.  ;  Greenwich,  1745
Flanagan,  Cath.;  poisoning,  1884
Flavius ;  Rome,  emperors  Vespasian,

Titus,  Domitian,  69-96
Flaxman,  J.,  sculptor,  1 754-1826
Fleischer,  E. ;  hydrostatics
Fleuss,  diving,  safety  lamp
Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  fl.  1700  ;  ballads
Fletcher,  will  forger  ;  trials,  1844
Fletcher,  S.  W.,  trials,  1881
Flight and Robson ; apollonicon,

1817
Flinders,  captain,  explores  New  Hol-
land, 1801
Flood,  Mr.  ;  absentees,  1773
Floquet,  M.;  France,  1883
Florence,  Eliz.  ;  trials,  1822
Flores,  gen.  ;  Uruguay,  1863-8
Floras,  Rom.  historian,  fl.  106
Flotow, F. F.  A.  von  ;  Ger.  11ms.,

1812-83
Flourens, M.  J.  P., philos., 1794-

1867  ; — Gustave  ;  France,  1870-1
Fold  ;  China,  2240  b.  c.
Foix,  Gaston  de  ;  Ravenna,  15 12
Folengio,  Theo.  ;  macaroni
Foley,  J.  H.,  sculp.,  1818-1S86;  Al-
bert mem.,  Faraday  mem.
Folkestone,  lord  ;  arts,  soc.  of,  1754
Folkestone  v.  Ridsdale  ;  trials,  1876
Follett,  sir  Wm.  ; solicitor-gen.,  at-
torney-gen., 1844
Folliott,  bp.  ;  Hereford,  1803
Fonseca, Deodoro da Marshall

Brazil,  1889
Fontaine,  M.,  electric  light,  1877
Fontana,  Mars,  1636


Foote,  Sam.,  1721-77;  theatres
Foote  v.  Hayne  ;  trials,  1824
Forbes,  lord  ;  horse  guards,  1702
Forbes,  Edwd.,  naturalist,  1815-54
Forbes,  J.  D.,  nat.  philos.,  1809-68
Ford,  sir  H.  C.  ;  Spain,  1888
Forster,  abp.  ;  Prussia,  1875
Forster,  Mr.  ;  Preston,  1715
Forster,  John ; South Kensington

Museum,  1876
Forster,  M.  ;  planets,  i860
Forster,  W.  E.;  1818-86,  ^Gladstone
adm., 1868,  1880;  imperial  fed.;
Ireland  ;  Education
Forsyth,  sir  D.,  Burmah,  1875
Forsythe,  Rev.  Mr.  ;  fire-arms,  1807
Forteseue,  lord ;  Ireland,  lord-lieu-
tenant, 1839
Forteseue,  C.  S.  ;  Gladstone,  1868
Forwood,  S. (Southey)  ;  executions,

1866
Foscaro,  doge ;  Venice,  1457
Foster,  John,  essayist,  1770- 1843
Fottrell,  capt.  ;  duels,  181 7
Foucault,  J.  B.  L.,  1819-68;  pendu-
lum, siderostat
Fouehe,  J.,  due  d'Otranto,  1763-1820
Fould, Achille, 1800-67; France,

1S61
Foulis,  E.  &  A.,  printers,  1740-76
Fourdrinier,  M.  ;  paper,  1807
Fourier,  C,  d.  1837;  Fourierism
Fourtou,  M.  de  ;  France,  1877
Fowke,  capt.  ;  exhibition,  1862 ;  Al-
bert hall
Fowler,  H. ;  Gladstone  adm.,  1892
Fowler,  Mr. ;  canoe,  1878
Fox  &  Henderson ; crystal  palace,

1851
Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester ;  adminis-
trations, 1509;  privy  seal
Fox,  Samuel ;  umbrella
Fox,  Charles  James,  1749-1806  ;  duel,
1779  ;  Portland  admin.,  1783;  India
bill,  people
Fox,  S. ;  music  college,  1889
Fox,  George,  1624-90 ;  quakers
Fox,  Henry ;  Newcastle  administra-
tion, 1757
Fox,  sir  Stephen  ;  Chelsea,  1628
Fox,  St.  G.  Lane  ;  electricity  (lamp-
lighting  by),  gas  ■
Foxe,  John,  martyrologist,  1517-87
Francia,  Dr.,  1755-1840;  Paraguay
Francis,  St.,  1182-1226  ;  Cordeliers
Francis  I.,  emperor ;  Germany,  1745  ;

Austria,  1804
Francis  I.  ;  France,  1515  ;  duelling,
cloth  of  gold, Marignan, Pavia,
Sicily
Francis  Joseph  ;  Austria,  1848  ;  as-
sassinations, Himgary,  1848
Francis ;  trials,  1842
Francis,  John,  Athenseum  (journal)
Francis, sir  Philip,  1740-1818  ; Ju-
nius
Francis  de  Sales,  St.,  1567- 1622,  "De-
vout Life  "
Francisco  d' Assise  ;  Spain,  1846
Francke,  A.  ;  orphan  houses,  1698
Frankfort,  lord,  v.  Alice  Lowe ;  trials,

1842,  1852
Frankland, Edw. ; amyl, ethyl,

methyl,  1849
Franklin, Benjamin,  1706-90; elec-
tricity, 1752;  lightning
Franklin,  sir  John  ;  north-west  pas-
sage, 1825  ;  Franklin
Franks  ;  suicide,  trials,  1825
Eraser  v.  Bagley ;  trials,  1844
Frecinet,  M.  de  ;  France,  1885
Frederick,  trials,  1874
Frederick,  duke  of  York,  1762-1827;

York
Frederick  II.  ;  Corte  Nuova,  1237
Frederick  ;  Germany,  Prussia,  Hesse,
Nuremberg, Palatinate, Prague,
Hochkirchen,  Torgau


INDEX.

Frederick  III.  ;  Germany,  1888
Frederick-Augustus ;  Poland,  1697
Frederick-Charles,  prince  of  Prussia,

Franco-Pruss. war,  1870-1 ;  Metz,

1870
Frederick-Lewis,  prince  ;  Wales,  1729
Frederick  William,  I. — IV. ;  Prussia  ;

assassinations
Freeling,  S. ;  Grenada,  1871
Freeman,  E.  A. ,  historian,  1823-92;

conquest,  1870-6
Frelinghuysen,  Mr.;  United  States,

1881
Fremantle,  Rev.  W.  H. ;  dissenters,

1875
Fremont,  J.  C,  1813-90;  U.  States,

1856
Fremy,  M.  ;  steel,  1861
French,  col.  ;  trials,  1820
Freney ;  trials,  1749
Frere, sir Bartle, 1815-84 ; slave

trade,  Zanzibar,  1872  ;  cape,  1876  ;

Kaffraria,  1878,  celibacy,
Frere-Orban;  Belgium,  1868,  1878
Frewen,  abp.  ;  York,  1660
Freycinet,  M.  de,  France,  1879
Frichot,  ophicleide
Frith,  W.  P.,  painter,  t>.  1819
Frivell,  Wm. ,  post-office,  1631
Frobisher,  sir  Martin,  d.  1594;  north-
west passage,  1576
Froggatt,  E. ;  trials,  1877-1879
Froissart,  historian,  1337-1410
Frost,  John,  chartist ;  Newport,  1839
Frost,  W.  E.  R.  A.,  1810-77
Froude, J. A., historian, b. 1818 ;

South  African  confederation,  1875
Frumentius  ;  Abyssinia,  329
Fuad Pasha, 1814-69 ; Damascus,

Turkey,  1860-9
Fuller,  J.  ;  Royal  Institution,  1833
Fuller  case  ;  India,  1876
Fulton,  R.,  3765-1815  ;  steam-engine,

1803
Furley,  Mary ;  trials,  1844
Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay,

New  Holland  ;  returns,  1774
Furness,  Mrs.  H. ;  concordance,  1876
Fuseli,  H.,  painter,  1741-1825


G.


Gabelentz,  H.  C.  von  der ;  language,

1874
Gage,  gen.  ;  America,  1775
Gaine,  W.  ;  parchment  paper,  1857
Gainsborough,  Thomas,  painter,  1727-

88
Galba  ;  Rome,  emp. ,  68
Gale,  balloons,  gunpowder,  1865
Gale,  Sarah,  and  Greenacre  ; trials,

1857  , .

Galen,  130-200  ;  physic

Galgacus,  84  ;  Grampians

Galileo  di  Galilei,  1564-1642  ;  acous-
tics, astronomy,  falling  bodies,
harmonic  curve,  ice,  inquisition,
pendulum,  planets,  sun,  tele-
scopes

Gall,  J.,  1758-1828;  craniology

Gallagher,  J.;  trials,  1883

Galle,  Dr.  ;  Neptune,  1846

Gallien  ;  balloons,  1755

Gallienus  ;  Rome,  emp.  260

Galton,  F.;  composite  portraits,  1877  ;
heredity

Galvani,  Louis,  1737-98  ;  electricity,
1 791  ;  voltaic  pile

Galway,  earl  of  ;  Almanza,  1707

Gama,  Vasco  de,  d.  1525

Gambetta,  L.  1838-82;  France,  1870-81;
opportunists,  scrutin

Gambier,  lord  Basque  Roads,  1809;
Copenhagen

Gambier  and  Rumble,  trials,  1869

Gambrill,  trials,  1878

Gamgee,  A.;  Roy.  Inst.  1884


1111

Gamgee,  J.  ;  glaciarium,  1876
Gamond,  Thome  de  ;  tunnels,  1867
Ganganelli; Clement  XIV., popes,

1769
Gangeland ;  apothecary
Gardiner,  A.  ;  Natal,  1835
Gardiner,  bp.  ;  administrations,  1529
Gardiner,  lieut.  Alan ;  missions,  1850
Garfield,  gen.,  J.  A.,  United  States,

1 880
Garibaldi,  Joseph, 1807-82 ; Italy,
1859-76  ;  Soiferino,  Sicily,  Naples,
Volturno ; Franco-Prussian war,
1870
Garnerin,  M.  ;  balloons,  1802
Garnet ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605
Garnet,  Dr. Thos.  ; Royal  Institu-
tion, 1801
Garrett- Anderson,  Mrs. ;  physic,  1865
Garrick, David, 1716-79; theatres,

Drury-lane,  jubilees
Garrison,  W.  L.,  1804-79;  slavery  in

United  States,  1831
Garrod,  A.  H. ;  Royal  Institution,  1875
Garrow,  Wm.  ;  att.-gen.,  1813
Garth,  Dr.  ;  Kit-Cat  club,  1703
Gaskell,  Mrs.  E.  C.  novelist;  1811-65
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; atoms, sun,

sound
Gaston  de  Foix  :  Ravenna,  1512
Gates,  gen. ;  Saratoga,  1777;  Camden,

1780
Gauden,  bp.  ;  eikon  basilike,  1649
Gauden,  M.  ;  sapphire,  1857
Gaunt, John of, 6. 1340 ; Ghent,

roses,  wars
Gausius,  335  b.  c.  ;  caustic
Gavarni,  French  caric.  1801-66
Gavestons,  beheaded,  1312 ;  rebellions
Gay,  John,  1688-1732  ;  fables,  operas
Gay-Lussae,  J.,  1778-1850  ;  balloons
Gayer,  J.,  lion-sermon
Ged,  William;  stereotype,  1730
Geffcken,  Dr. ;  Prussia,  1888
Geffrard,  gen.  Fabre  ;  Hayti,  1858
Gelasius  I. ; popes  492 ; breviary,

pall ;  Candlemas
Gellert,  C.  F.,  Germ,  fabulist,  1715-69
Gellius,  Aulus,  Latin  miscellany,  /.

117-180
Gelon  :  Syracuse,  485  B.C.,  Himera
Genghis  khan  ;  Tartary,  1206  ;  Hun-
gary ;  India
Genseric  lands  in  Africa,  429
GeofFroy,  M.  H.;  asbestos
George,  David,  d.  1536 ;  family  of  love
George,  St.  ;  garter
George I. — IV., England  ; kings,

assassinations
George  I. — V.  ;  Hanover  (kings) ;  as-
sassinations
George  I.  ;  accession,  171 4
George  II.  ;  Dettingen,  1743
George, H.  ; land nationalization,

United  States,  1886-7
George,  king,  Bonny
Georgi ;  dahlia,  1815
Geramb,  baron  ;  aliens,  1812
Gerard,  J. ;  physic  garden,  1567
Gerbert,  d.  1003  ;  arithmetic
Germaine, lord George Sackville ;

Minden,  1759
Germanus ;  Sodor,  447
Gerstenzweig,  general ; Poland, m.

1861
Gervinus,  G.  G.,  Genu.  hist.  1805-71
Gesler ;  Switzerland,  1306
Geta  ;  Rome,  emp.  211
Gholam  Hussein,  Afghanistan,  1S78-

81 ;  India,  1881
Gibbins,  Mr.,  killed;  riots,  1831
Gibbon,  Edward,  historian,  1737-94
Gibbons,  Grinling,  sculptor,  1 648-1721
Gibbons,  Orlando  ;  music,  1583-1625
Gibbs,  J.,  architect,  1674-1754
Gibbs,  sir  V; attorney-gen.,  1807;

common  pleas,  1814
Gibbs,  W.  A. ;  corn,  1868 ;  hay,  1875


1112

Gibbs,  W.  ;  Keble  college,  Christ's

hospital,  1877
Gibson,  J.,  sculptor,  1 791-1866;  Royal

academy
Gibson,  T. ;  concordance,  1535
Gibson,  T.  M.,  1807-84;  Palmerston

administration,  1859
Giesmar,  general ;  Praga,  183 1
Giffard,  sir  Hardinge  S.  ; solicitor-
general, 1875 ; chancellor, Id.,

Halsbury,  1885
Giffard,  Paul ;  cannon,  1890
Gifford,  lieut.  ;  Kildare,  1798
Gifford,  R.  ;  attorney-gen.,  1819
Gifford;  steam-injector
Gifford,  Win.,  1757-1826;  Quarterly

Rev.,  1809
Gilbert v. Enoch  (Pall  Mall  Gaz.)

trials,  1873
Gilbert,  archbp.  ;  York,  1757
Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539-84;

Newfoundland
Gilbert,  Dr., 1540-1603;  electricity,

1600  ;  magnetism
Gilbert,  gen.  ;  Ferozeshah,  1845
Gilbert,  G.  ;  executions,  1862
Gilbert,  W.  G.  ;  operas
Gilchrist,  earl  (of  Angus),  1037
Gilchrist,  steel
Gildas,  historian,  516-570
Gill,  D. ;  star
Gillam,  Rd.  ;  trials,  1828
Gillespie,  col. ;  Vellore,  1806
Gillespie,  gen.  ;  Kalunga,  duel,  1788
Gillott,  J. ;  steel  pens
Gillray,  J.  1785-1815  ;  caricatures
Ginckel,  gen. ;  Aughrim,  1691
Gintl,  Dr. ;  electric  telegraph  (duplex)

1853
Gioberti,  Italian  writer,  1801-52
Gioja,  F.  ;  compass,  1302
Giotto,  painter,  1276-1336
Giudetti,  passion  music
Gladstone,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1852
Gladstone,  J.  H. ;  copper-zinc  couple,

1872  ;  physical  society,  1874  ;  edu-
cation society
Gladstone  v.  Gladstone  ;  trials,  1875
Gladstone,  W.  E. ;  &.  1809,  Gladstone

adm.  186S,  1880,  1886,  1892 ; sus-
pensory  act  ; England, 1877-8  ;

Dublin, 1878  ;  parliament, 1881  ;

Kilmainham
Glaisher, J.  ; meteorology, 1850 ;

balloons,  1862
Glanville,  R.  de,  eh.  justice,  1180
Glas,  capt.,  murdered;  trials,  1766
Glas,  John,  1698-1773  ;  Glasites,  1727
Gleichen,  count ;  England,  1877
Glendower,  Owen ;  Wales,  1400
Glenelg,  lord  (Charles  Grant),  d.  1866 ;

Wellington  adm.,  1828
Glerawley,  lord,  v.  Burn ;  trials,  1820
Gloucester,  duke  of;  marriage  act,

1772
Glover,  col. ;  Ashantees,  1874
Glover,  E.  A.  ;  trials,  1858
Glover,  sir  H. ;  Leeward  Isles
Gluck,  C.  ;  music,  1714-87
Gobelin,  G.  ;  tapestry,  Gobelins
Goderich,  lord,  d.  1859 ;  Goderieh
Godfrey,  M.  ;  bank  of  England,  1694
Godfrey of  Bouillon  ; Jerusalem,

1099
Godolphin,  earl; Godolphin adm.

1684
Godoy, M.,  prince  of the peace;

Spain,  1806  ;  d.  1851
Godwin,  sir  G. ;  Pegu,  1852
Godwin,  Wm.,  1756-1836; politics,

novels
Goethe,  or  Gothe ;  German  miscel.

1749-1832
Goffart,  M.;  ensilage
Gog  and  Magog  ;  Guildhall
Gold, F. I., 1881,  railways, 1881,

trials
Goldoni,  Ch.,  Ital.  dramatist,  1707-93


INDEX.

Goldschmidt  (Jenny  Lind),  b.  1821 ;

Nightingale  fund
Goldschmidt,  H.,  1802-66 ;  planets,

1852
Goldsmids ;  trials,  1873
Goldsmith,  Oliver ;  poet,  miscel.  1728-

74
Goncourt,  naturalism
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  gen.,  d.  1515  ;

Garigliano
Gonzales,  F.  0.,  Spain,  1879,  Mexico,

1880.
Gooeh,  lady,  trials,  1878
Good,  Daniel ;  trials,  1842
Goodenough,  lieut. ;  massacres,  1875
Goodrich, bp.  ; administrations,

Goodwin,  bp.,  H.,  Carlisle,  1870

Goodyear,  C.  ;  caoutchouc

Gordian ;  Rome,  emperors

Gordon,  col.;  duels,  1783

Gordon,  lord  G.,  d.  1793;  riots,  libel,
trials,  1781,  1788

Gordon,  gen.  Charles  George ;  China,
1863;  Egypt,  1874;  Abysinnia ;
Basuto,  Congo,  Khartoum,  Soudan,
1883-4  !  Gordon  memorial

Gordon,  sir  A.  H.,  1833-85;  Fiji,  1875;
N.  Zealand,  1880

Gordons,  L.  and  L.  ;  trials,  1804

Gorgey,  gen. ;  Hungary,  1849

Gorham  v.  bishop  of  Exeter ;  trials,
1849

Gorst,  E.  G.  ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885

Gortschakoff,  gen.;  Kalafat,  1854;
Silistria,  Tehemaya

Gortschakoff,  prince  A.,  statesman,
1798-1883  ;  Vienna  conference,
1853;  Poland,  1861 ;  Russo-Turkish
war,  II.  1877-8  ;  Russia,  1856-83

Goschen,  J.  G.,  b.  1831;  Gladstone
adm.,  t868  ;  Egypt,  1876;  Turkey,
1880-1  ;  parliament,  1883  ;  Salis-
bury adm.,  1887

Goss  v,  Whitlake,  trials,  1870

Gossett,  sir  W.  ;  trials,  1842

Gosset,  F.  ;  parliament,  1885

Gosset,  R.  A.  ;  parliament,  1885

Gough,  sir  Hugh,  1 772-1869  ;  China,
1841 ;  India,  1846  ;  Goojerat,  So-
braon,  Ferozeshah

Goulard  ;  France,  1874

Goulburn,  H. ;  Wellington  admin-
istration, 1828

Gould,  J.,  1804-81;  birds,  works  on,
1832-78 ;  humming-birds,  1862

Gould,  Jay,  New  York,  1872

Gould,  Miss  ;  trials,  1822

Gould,  murderer;  trials,  1840

Gourko,  gen.  ;  Russo-Turkish  war,
II.  1878 ;  Schipka

Gourlay,  captain ;  duels,  1824

Gowcr,  earl ;  Wilmington  adm.,  1742;
North  adm.,  1770

Gower,  F.  A.,  telephone,  balloons,
1883

Gower,  J.,  poet ;  d.  1402

Gracchus,  Tiberius,  slain,  133; —
Caius  slain,  121  b.c.

Grady,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1827

Grsebe  and  Liebermann,  alizarine

GrEevius,  J.  G.  and  G.  ;  thesaurus

Grafton,  duke  of;  Rockingham  adm.,
1765:  Grafton  adm.,  1767

Graham,  bp.  ;  Chester,  1848

Graham  of  Claverhouse,  1650-89;
Killiecrankie

Graham,  A.  ;  planets,  1848

Graham,  C.  C.  ;  Grenada

Graham,  gen. ;  Barossa,  i8ti ;  Se-
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom

Graham,  Mr. ;  pendulum,  1715 ;
magnetism,  1722

Graham,  H.  C,  and  others;  trials;
1886

Graham,  Mr. ;  duels,  1791

Graham,  gen.  sir  Gerald ;  Egypt,
1882  ;  Soudan,  1884


Graham,  sir  James,  1792-1861 ;  Grey,
Peel

Graham,  Thos.,  1805-69;  mint,  dif-
fusion, dialysis,  atmolysis

Grammont,  due  de,  Dettingen,  1743

Granard,  Arthur,  earl  of;  Kilmain-
ham, 1675

Granby,  marquis  of;  Chatham  ad-
minis.,  1766

Grant,  Alb.  ;  Leicester  square,  1874  ;
trials,  1875-6  ;  painting,  1877

Grant,  capt.  John ;  cookery,  1857 ;
cottager's  stove

Grant,  sir  Colquhoun ;  duel,  1835

Grant,  lieut.  C.  J.  W.  ;  Manipur

Grant,  sirF.,  i8oe-78;RoyalAcademy,
1866-78

Grant,  G.  B.  ;  calculating  machine,
1874

Grant,  lieut.  ;  trials,  1816,  1844 ;
Central  Africa,  1863

Grant,  see  Glenelg

Grant,  gen.  Ulysses,  1828-85  ;  United
States,  1863-73  :  Pittsburg,  1862

Grantham,  Id. ;  Shelburne  adm.  1872

Grantley,  F.  Norton,  Id. ;  attorney-
gen.,  1763

Granville,  earl,  1815-91  ;  Russell,
Palmerston  admin.,  1851  ;  Glad-
stone adm.  1868,  1880,  1886

Gratian;  canons,  1140

Gratian,  Rome,  emp.  367-83

Grattan,  Henry,  orator,  1750-1820;
duelling,  1800,  1820

Grattan,  T.  Colley,  novelist,  1796-
1864

Grattoni,  Alps  (tunnel)

Graves,  adm.  sir  T.,  Basseterre,  1782

Gray,  bp. ;  Bristol,  1827  ;  see  Cape-
town

Gray,  Id.  mayor,  E.  D.;  Ireland,  1882

Gray,  E.  ;  telephone,  1873

Gray,  Thomas,  poet,  1716-71

Greathead,  Mr. ;  life-boats,  1789

Greatrix,  Val.  ;  impostors,  1666

Greaves,  lord ;  suicide,  1830

Grechi,  prof.  ;  fire-detector

Greeley,  Horace,  1811-72;  United
States,  1872

Greeley,  lieut.;  N.  E.  &  W.  pass.,
1S81-4

Green,  Charles,  1786-1870;  balloons,
1828

Green,  rev.  S.,  public  worship,  1880

Green,  J.  R.;  hist.,  1837-83

Green,  J.;  seraphiue

Greenacre,  J.  ;  trials,  1837

Greene,  general ;  Camden,  1781

Greenwell,  canon  ;  Barrows,  1877

Greenwood,  T. ;  file,  i860

Gregg,  Dr. ;  reformed  episcopal
church

Gregoire,  M. ;  national  convention,
1792

Gregory  the  Great  ;  chanting,
Christianity

Gregory  I. — XVI. ;  popes,  590  et  seq.

Gregory  VII. ;  Italy,  237

Gregory  XI. ,  pope  ;  pallium

Gregory  XIII.  ;  calendar,  1582

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Greek  father,
326-390?

Grenfell,  gen.  sir  F.  ;  Soudan,  1888

Grenville,  George ;  Newcastle  ad-
ministration, 1754 ;  Grenville  ad-
ministration, 1763

Grenville,  F. ;  British  Museum,  1846

Grenville,  lord;  Grenville  admin.,
1806 ;  delicate  investigation

Gresham,  sir  T.,  d.  1579  ;  Gresham

Grevy,  Jules,  1807-91,  France,  1871-8

Grey,  bp. ;  Hereford,  1832

Grey,  earl,  1764-1845  ;  Grey,  reform

Grey,  Henry,  earl ;  Russell  adminis-
tration, 1835

Grey,  lady  Jane,  exec.  1554 ;  Eng-
land, queens

Grey,  lord ;  Pomfret  castle,  1483


Grey,  sir  George;  Eussell  admin.,

1846;  Palmerston  admin.,  1855
Grey,  sir  G. ;  Cape,  1856
Grey,  Stephen  ;  electricity,  1720
Griesbach,  J.,  critic,  1745-1812
Griffith,  sir  B.,  Griffith's  valuation
Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ;  retires,

1828
Grimm,  Jacob,  1785-1863  ;  Wilhelm,
1786-1859 ; dictionary (German) ;
Grimm's  law
Grimthorpe,  lord  ;  see  Beckett
Grimwood,  F.,  and  Mrs. ;  Manipur
Grindall,  abp.  ;  York,  1570;  Canter-
bury, liturgy
Grinfield,  general ;  Demerara,  1803  ;

Tobago
Grinnell,  Mr. ;  Franklin  expedition,

1850
Grinstead,  Capt.;  Princess  Alice
Grisi,  madame,  cl.  1869
Grissell,  C.  E.,  parliament,  1879-80
Grocyn,  Wm.  ;  Greek,  1490
Grogan,  col.,  captured ; U. States,

1841
Gronovius,  J.,  thesaurus,  1657-1702
Gros,  baron ;  China,  1858
Grote,  G.,  historian,  1794-1861
Grotius,  H.,  1583-1645;  philosophy
Grove,  sir  G.;  crystal  palace,  1874;

music  (diet.),  1878
Grove,  sir  W.  R.,  nat.  phil.  &  judge,
&.  181 1 ;  voltaic  battery,  1839;  cor"
relation,  1842  ; continuity, 1866  ;
antagonism
Groves,  W.,  electric  balance,  1879
Growse,  Elias ;  needles
Guelph ;  Bavaria,  Brunswick
Guericke,  Otto  von,  1602-1686  ; air,

electricity,  1647 ; Magdebui'g
Guerin-Meneville, silk (ailantine),

1858
Guernsey,  W.  H.  :  trials,  1858
Guesclin,  B.  du,  d.  1380
Guibert,  abp.;  France,  1876
Guibord,  J.  ;  Montreal,  1875
Guicciardini,  F,  hist.,  1482-1540
Guido,  Aretino,  fl.  1030
Guido,  Reni,  painter,  1575-1642
Guilford,  earl  of;  trials,  1853
Guillemin,  A.  ;  comets
Guillermo ;  Hayti,  1877
Guinness,  sir  B.,  1798-1S68;  Patrick,

St.,  1863
Guinness,  sir  E.  (baron  Iveagh);  arti-
sans' dwellings
Guiscard  ;  Naples, 1059 ;  conspira-
cies, 1710
Guise,  dukes  of ;  Guise
Guiteau, C. J., assassin, United

States,  1881-2
Guizot,  F.,  1787-1874;  France,  1840-

48-70
Gunter,  E.  ;  Gunter's  chain,  1606
Gurney,  G. ;  Bude  light,  1841
Gurney,  Messrs.  ;  trials,  1869
Gurney,  Russell ;  recorder,  1856-78
Gurwood,  colonel ;  suicide,  1845
Giissfeld,  Dr.  ;  Africa,  1873
Gustavus  Adolphus,  killed,  Lutzen,

1632 ;  Sweden,  Munich
Gustavus  Vasa  ;  Sweden,  1521
Gustavus  I.  —IV. ;  Sweden
Gutenberg,  J.,  cl.  1467;  printing
Guter,  of  Nuremberg ;  air,  1659
Gutierrez,  T.,  Peru,  1872
Guy  Faux  ;  gunpowder  plot,  1605
Guy,  Thos. ;  Guy's  hospital,  1721
Guyton-Morveau ;  balloons,  1784-04
Guzman,  Dominic  de  ;  beads,  1202
Gwynne,  Nell ;  bell-ringing,  1687
Gyges  ;  Lydia,  718  B.C.
Gylippus,  414  b.c.  ;  Syracuse


INDEX.


H.

Habakkuk,  prophet,  ab.  326  B.C.
Hachette,  Jeanne  de  la;  Beauvais,

1472
Hacker,  L.  ;  Sunday  schools,  1740
Hacker,  Matilda,  trials,  1879
Hackett",  Wm.  ;  impostors,  1591
Hackman,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1770
Haekworth,  T.  ;  steam,  1825
Haddington,  earl  of;  Ireland  (lord-

lieut.),  1834
Haden,  Seymour  ;  burials,  1875
Hadley  ;  quadrant,  1731
Hadrian;  Rome,  emperor,  117
Hasckel,  prof. ;  development
Hsecker ;  magnetism,  .1851
Hafiz,  Persian  poet,  fl.  14th  century
Haggai  prophesies  about  630  B.C.
Haggart,  David  ;  trials,  1821
Haggarty  and  Holloway  ;  trials,  1807
Hahnemann, Sam., 1755-1843;

homoeopathy
Hakluyt,  R.  ;  geog.,  1553-1616
Hakon  ;  Iceland

Hale,  sir  Matthew,  judge,  1609-76
Hales,  Stephen,  philosopher, 1677-

1761
Halevy,  J.  E.  F.,  mus.  comp.  1799-

1862
Halifax,  earl  of ;  Halifax  administra-
tion, 1714;  trimmer;  see  Wood
Hall,  A.  ;  astronomy  ;  Mars,  1877
Hall ;  steam,  1840

Hall,  sir  B.  ;  health,  Palmerston  ad-
ministration, 1855
Hall,  John.  ;  lead
Hall,  sir  C,  vice-chancellor,  1873
Hall,  Marshall,  physiol.,  1790-1857
Hall,  Rev.  Robert,  1764-1831
Hall,  Sam.,  d.  1862  ;  lace
Hall  v.  Semple  ;  trials,  1862
Hallam,  Henry,  hist.,  1778-1859
Haller,  A.  von;  physiol,  1708-77
Halley,  Edmund,  astronomer ;  Green-
wich, 1719  ;  Venus
Halloran,  Dr. ,  transported  for  forging
a  frank,  1818  [1886

Halsbury,  Id. ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885,
Hamdi  Pasha  ;  Turkey,  1878
Hamel,  J.  ;  Mont  Blanc,  1820
Hamilcar;  Carthage,  237  b.c.
Hamilton ;  duels,  1748,  1804
Hamilton  and  Douglas  cause  ;  trials,

1769
Hamilton,  bp.  ;  Salisbury,  1854
Hamiltou,  duke  of;  duelling,  1712  ;

trials,  1813
Hamilton,  F.  W.,  guards
Hamilton, Id. George ; Salisbury

adm.,  1885,  1886
Hamilton,  James,  marquis  of; ad-

ministrations,  1640
Hamilton,  J.  ;  court  of  honour
Hamilton,  J.  B. ;  vocation
Hamilton,  Mary  ;  trials,  1736
Hamilton,  sir  W. ;  Herculaneum
Hamilton,  W.  R.  ;  Elgin  marbles
Hamilton,  sir  W. ;  quaternions
Hammond,  Mr.  ;  ambassadors,  1791
Hampden,  Richard ;  administrations,

1690
Hampden,  John,  killed,  1643  ;  ship-
money,  Chalgrove
Hanlan,  E.;  boat  race,  1882
Hancock,  T.  ;  caoutchouc,  1843
Handcock  ;  trials,  1855
Handel,  G.  F,  1684-1759; Handel,
opera,  oratorios,  Judas, Joshua,
Messiah,  Rule  Britannia.
Hannen,  sir  James  (aft.  lord);  divorce
ct.,  1872  ;  Parnellites,  1888  ;  appeal
Hannibal,  Carthaginian,  247-183  B.C. ;
Rome,  Bernard,  Saguntum,  Spain,
Cannse,  Carthage,  Zama


1113

Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne-
singers
Hansom,  Joseph ;  cabs
Hanson,  capt.  ;  duels,  1776
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1786 ; marine

society ;  umbrella
Harcourt,  lady  ;  fete  de  vertu
Harcourt,  lord ;  Oxford  administra-
tion, 1 71 1
Harcourt,  sirW.  V.,  solicitor-general,
1873 ; Gladstone admin. , 1880,
1892  ;  London  Municipal  Bill
Hardicanute ;  England,  1039
Harding,  prof.  ;  planets,  1804
Hardinge,  sir  Henry  (aft.  lord),  1846 ;

India
Hardinge,  Mr.  ;  journals,  1752
Hardwicke,  earl  of;  Pelham  admin.,
1744;  Derby  admin.,  1852  ;  Ireland
(lord-lieut.),  1801
Hardy,  Gathorne,  vise.  Cranbrook  b.
1S14  ;  Disraeli  administration,  186S
and  1874  ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885
Hare,  R.  ;  blowpipe,  1802
Hargan,  W.  A.  ;  trials,  1890
Hargreaves,  E.  ;  Australia,  1851
Hargreaves,  J.  ;  cotton,  1767
Harley,  Robert ;  Godolphin  adminis-
tration, 1702  ;  Harleian  library,  see
Oxford
Harley,  R.  W.  ;  Tobago,  1875
Harmodius kills Hipparchus,  514 B.C.
Harney,  gen. ;  United  States,  1855
Harold  II.  ;  Hastings,  1066
Haroun-al-Raschid,  caliph,  765-809
Harpur,  W.  ;  Bedford,  1561
Harrington,  J. ;  oceana,  1656;  trials

1878
Harrington,  earl  of ;  Pelliam  admin-
istration, 1744
Harriot,  T.,  algebra,  1631
Harris,  lord  ;  Bombay,  1889
Harris, Mr. ; organs, 16S2 ;  clocks,

apples,  fluxions,  pendulum
Harris,  sir  W.  S.,  1792-1S67;  light-
ning conductors,  1820-54
Harrison,  B.  ;  United  States,  1888-92
Harrison,  F. ;  positive  phil.
Harrison,  gen.  ;  United  States,  presi-
dent, 1841
Harrison,  J. ;  pneumatic  loom,  1864;

Harrison,  1714
Harrison, Mr.; congelation, 1857,

2873
Harrowby,  earl  of ;  Pitt  administra-
tion, 1804  et  seq.
Harrowby, Dudley F., earl of;

Salisbury  adm.,  1885 '
Harsnet,  archbp. ;  York,  1628
Hai-tinger,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1S20
Hartington,  marquis  of; Gladstone
administration,  1868,  1S80,  &  1882
Hartland,  sir  R.  ;  Madras,  1771
Hartmann,  Russia,  1880
Harvey,  B.  Bagenal ;  trials,  1798
Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ;
blood,  anatomy,  midwifery,  gene-
ration
Harwood ;  porter,  1730
Hasokka,  emperor's  hymn,  1797
Hasdrubal ; Carthage,  Spain  ; Me-

taurus,  207  b.c.
Hassall,  A.  H.  ;  food
Hassan  and  Hussan,  drama
Hastings,  marquis  of;  India,  gov.-

gen.  1813
Hastings,  Warren,  1733-1S18;  India,

1772  ;  Chunar,  Hastings
Hatchell,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1814
Hatfield  fires  at  George  III.  ;  trials,

1800
Hatfield ;  executions,  1803
Hatherley,  Id.  chancellor,  1868
Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591  •
chancellor  (lord  high),  master  hi
chancery
Hausmann,  1809-91 ;  Paris,  France,
1870


1114

Haliy,  R.,  1 743-1822;  crystallography
Hatty,  V.  ;  "blind  school,  1804
Havelock,  gen.  ;  India,  1857  ;  Cawn-

pore
Hawke,  adm.  ;  naval  battles,  1747
Hawkesbury,  lord  ;  administrations,

1807 ;  Amiens
Hawkey,  lieut.  ;  duels,  trials,  1846
Hawkins,  I.  ;  piano
Hawkins,  sir  John,  d.  1=595  ;  Guinea,
slave trade, 1562; potatoes,
tobacco,  Chatham
Hawthorne,  Nat.,  Amer.  nov.  1804-64
Hay, lord John ; British legion,

1835  ;  St.  Sebastian's
Haydn,  Joseph  [first  compiler  of  this

book],  d.  1856
Haydn,  Joseph,  mus.  comp.  ;  1732-

1809  ;  Creation,  Emperor's  hymn
Haydon,  Benj.,  painter,  1786-1846
Hayes, Mr. ;  duels,  1728,  1806;  trials,

1802
Hayes,  sir  H.  B.  ;  trials,  1800
Hayes,  B.  B.,  ;  United  States,  1876
Hayman, Dr. H. ; Rugby ; trial

1874
Haynau,  gen  ;  Hungary,  1849
Hayter,  sir  G.  ;  painter,  1792-1871
Hayter,  sir  Wm. ,  whip
Hay  ward  ;  trials,  1821
Haywood,  W.  ;  Holborn,  1869
H.  B.  ;  caricatures
Head,  sir  Francis  ;  Canada,  1836
Headfort,  marquis  of ;  trials,  1805
Hearn,  north-west  passage,  1769
Heath,  archbp.  ;  York,  1555
Heberden, Br.  ; Humane Society,

1774
Hebert,  J.  E.  (pere  Duchesne),  exe-
cuted, 1794
Hector  of  Troy,  slain,  1183  b.c.
Heenan,  J.  ;  boxing,  i860
Hegel,  G. ,  philosopher,  1770-1831
Hehl ;  animal  magnetism,  1774
Heine,  H,  German  poet,  1799-1856
Helena,  St.  ;  cross,  328  ;  Bethlehem
Heliodorus,  fl.  398 ;  romances
Heliogabalus ; Rome, emp. 218 ;

silk
Helmholtz,  H.,  b.  1821  ;  ophthalmo-
scope, 1851;  acoustics
Heloise,  d.  1164;  Abelard
Helps,  sir  Arthur,  hist,  and  miscel.,

1811-75
Helsham,  capt ;  duels,  1829
Hemans,  Felicia,  poet,  1794-1835
Hencke  ;  planets,  1845
Henderson,sirE.,  police, — .  A.;  pro-
verbs
Henderson,  T. ;  stars
Heneage,  B.  ; Gladstone  adm.,  188
Hengist ;  octarch,  Salisbury
Henley,  lord;  Grenville  admin.,  1763
Henley,  Jos.  ;  Derby  adm.,  1852
Henley,  orator,  d.  1756
Hennessy,  sir  J.  P.,  1832-91 ;  Bahama,
1874  ; Barbadoes, 1875-6, etc.  ;
Mauritius,  1882
Hennis,  Dr.  ;  duels,  1833
Henrietta ;  queens  (Charles  I.)
Henry ; kings  ; England, France,

Germany,  Spain
Henry  I.  ;  Tinchebray,  1106
Henry  V.  ;  Agincourt, 1415  ; Cher-
bourg
Henry  VII.  ;  Bosworth,  1485
Henry  VIII.; England, 1509; age,
defender,  field,  monasteries,  spurs
Henry  II. ,  France ;  tournaments,  1559
Henry  III.,  France  ;  assassinations
Henry  IV.  ; France,  1589  ; Nantes,

Ravaillae,  Yvres,  assassination
Henry,  Joseph,  Am.  nat.  phil.  1797-

187.8
Henry,  Paul  and  Prosper;  planets,

1872-8
Henry  the  Lion  ;  Brunswick,  1139
Henshaw,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1820


INDEX.

Henty,  Mr: ;  Victoria,  1834
Hepburn,  ensign;  trials,  181 1
Heraclitus,  philosopher,  fl.  500  B.C.
Heraclius  ;  cross,  615
Herbert,  adm.  ;  Bantry  Bay,  1689
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593-

1633
Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581-

1648 ;  deism
Herbert,  Sidney  (aft.  lord),  1810-61  ;

Peel,  Palmerston  admins.
Herbert,  W.,  trials,  1880
Hercules  Tyrius  ;  purple
Herder,  J.  G.  von,  philosopher,  1744-

1803
Herkomer,  M.;  art  schosl,  1883
Hermann  (Arminius),  Germany,  9
Hero  of  Alexandria,  _#.  284-221  b-c.
Herod  ;  Jews,  42  b.c.
Herodian,  hist.,/?.  173
Herodotus,  b.  484  B.C.  ;  history
Herophilus  ;  anatomy,  302  b.c.
Herostratus fires the temple at

Ephesus,  356  b.c.
Hemes,  J.  C.  ;  Peel  adm.  1834
Herring,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1747
Herring,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1773
Herrmann,  R.  ;  ilmenium
Herschell, Id.; sol. gen., 1880;

chancellor,  Id.,  1886,  1892
Herschel, J. F.,  1792-1871 ; actino-

meter,  photography
Herschel, W., 1738-1822; Saturn,

astronomy,  telescope,  sun,  Uranus,

nebular  hypothesis
Hertford, earl  of; administrations,

1547;  Pinkey
Hertford,  marquis  of ;  his  executors

v.  Suisse,  trials,  1842
Hertz,  James  ;  cheque  bank,  1873
Hervie, H.  ; doctors' commons,

1560
Hesiod,  Greek  poet,  fl.  850  b.c.
Hess,  gen.  ;  Solferino,  1859
Hewett,  adm.,  Sir  Wm.;  Congo,  1875  ;

Egypt,  1882;  Soudan,  1884
Heytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord

lieut.),  1844
Heywood,  Mrs.  ;  Manchester,  1875
Hey  wood ;  pub.  worship  reg. act,

1883
Hibbert,  R, ;  Hibbert  fund
Hicks  ;  life-boat,  &c,  1874
Hicks,  col.;  Soudan,  1883
Hiero,  Syracuse,  478-275  B.C.
Hieronymus,  see  Jerome
Hilary  ;  hymns,  431
Hill,  lord  ;  commander-in-chief,  1828
Hill,  rev.  R.,  Surrey  chapel
Hill, Rowland, b.  1795-1879 ; post-
office
Hill,  bp.  R.  ;  Man
Hillsborough,  lord  ;  North  adminis-
tration, 1770
Hilton,  James  ;  chronogram
Hind,  J.  R.,  b.  1823;  planets,  1847  :

comets
Hindes,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1817
Hinds,  bp.  ;  Norwich,  1849
Hinrichs,  professor ;  atomic  theory,

1855
Hipparchus,  fl,  162  B.C.  ;  astronomy,

Canary, constellation, degrees,

latitude,  longitude
Hippias  ;  ostracism,  510  B.C.
Hippocrates, d.  357  B.C.  ;  anatomy,

surgery,  loadstone
Hirsch,  baron  ;  Russia,  1887  ;  Jews
Hoadley, B., bp., d. 1761  ; Ban-

gorian
Hobart, lord ; Addington adm.,

1801
Hobart,  Pasha  ;  admiral,  1823-86
Hobbema,  painter,  fl.  1681
Hobbes,  T.,  1588-1679  ;  academies
Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord
Broughton), 1869 ; Melbourne
adm.,  1834


Hoche,  gen.  ;  Dunkirk,  1793
Hochstade,  C.  von,  Cologne,  1248
Hocker,  murderer ;  trials,  1845
Hodel ;  Germany,  Prussia,  1878
Hodgson,  gen.  ;  Belleisle,  1761
Hodgson  v.  Greene ;  trials,  1832
Hofer,  Andrew  ;  Tyrol,  1809-10
Hoffmann,  A.,  Kladderadatseh
Hofmann,  Dr.  A.  W.,1818-92;  chemis-
try, ammonia,  aniline,  crith,  Fara-
day
Hogarth,  W.,  painter,  1697-1764
Hogg,  James,  Sc.  poet,  1772-1835
Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498-

1543
Holcombe,  lieut. ;  India,  1875
Holcroft,  T.,  1745-1809;  melodrama,

*793

Holdernesse,  earl  of;  Devonshire  ad-
ministration, 1756

Holgate,  abp.  ;  York,  1545

Holinshed,  Ralph  ;  d.  about  1580

Holkar ;  India,  1804

Holker,  sir  J. ;  solicitor-gen.,  1874  ;
att.-gen.,  1875

Holland,  lord;  Melbourne  adm.,  1835
et  seq.  ;  trials,  1797

Holland,  sir  H.,  1788-1873 ;  pres.
Roy.  Inst.,  1865-73

Holiest  murderers  ;  trials,  1851

Holloway,  T.  ; Holloway  hospitals,

1873
Holmes,  adm.  ;  Cape  Coast,  1663
Holt,  sir  John  ;  king's  bench,  1689
Holt ;  trials,  1844
Holtz ;  electricity,  1865
Holwell,  Mr.  ;  suttees,  1743
Holyoake ;  secularism
Home  or  Hume,  D.  ; spiritualism;

trials,  1868
Home,  lieut.  ;  Delhi,  1857
Homer,  fl.  962  b.  c  (Clinton) ;  poetry
Hompesch,  baron ;  duels,  1806
Hone,  Wm.,  1779-1842 ;  trials,  1817;

almanacs
Honey  and  Francis  ;  riots,  1821
Honorius  ;  West,  empire,  395
Hood, admiral ; Madeira, 1S07 ;

Toulon
Hood,  Thomas,  comic  writer,  1798-

1845  ;  Tom,  son,  1835-74
Hook,  Theodore,  novelist,  1788-1841
Hook,  W.  F.  J.  D.,  dean,  hist.,  1798-

1875
Hooke,  Rob.,  1635-1702;  air, boiling,
camera,  clocks,  geology,  mechanics,
microscope,  telegraphs
Hooker,  Rich.,  theol.,  1553-1600
Hooker,  W.,  botanist,  1785-1865  ; — J.
D.  (son),  b.  1816 ;  Kew,  1865  ;— Gen.
R.,  United States,  1862-3  ; Fre-
dericksburg
Hopkins,  miss  Ellice ;  white  cross

army
Hopkins,  Matthew  ;  witches,  1645
Hopley,  T.  ;  trials,  i860
Horace,  65-8  b.c,  Latin  poet ;  Athens,

satires
Horler,  H.  ;  trials,  1853
Hormisdas  ;  Persia,  272
Horn,  count ;  Nordlingen,  1634
Home,  G.,  bp.  ;  Norwich,  1790
Home,  rev.  T.  H.,  bibl.  critic,  17S0-

1862
Home  Tooke,  John,  d.  1812  ; Home

Tooke,  &c.
Horner,  Fr.  ;  bullion,  18 10
Horniman,  F.;  Surrey  Museum
Hornor,  Mr.  ;  Colosseum,  1824
Hornsby, Dr.  ; Radclifle, observa-
tory, 1 771  ; — Messrs.,  washing-ma-
chine, 1862
Horrebow ;  astronomy,  1659
Horrocks  or  Horrox,  Jer.,  d. 1641

astronomy,  Venus
Horsfall,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1813
Horsfall,  Messrs.  ;  cannon,  1856
Horsley,  bp. ;  St.  Asaph,  1802


INDEX.


111,5


Horsman, Edwd., 1807-76  (sec.  for

Ireland,  1855-7)  :  Adullam,  1866
Hosea  prophesies  about  785  B.C.
Hoste,  capt.  Win. ;  Lissa,  181 1
Hotham,  adm. ;  naval  battles,  1795
Hotspur ;  Otterburn,  1388
Houblon,  sir  J.  ;  bank  of  England,

1695
Houdin,  R.  J.  E.,  conjuror,  1815-71
Houghton, John, executed, 1535  ;

Charterhouse
Houghton,  lord ;  ancient  buildings
Houghton,  lord ;  Gladstone  adm.  1892
Houston,  Mr.  ;  Parnellites,  1888
Howard,  C.  ;  trials,  1876
Howard,  adm.  sir Edward ; naval

battles,  1513
Howard,  John, 1726-go; prisons; —

potatoes
Howard,  Luke,  d.  1864  ;  clouds
Howard,  col.  J.  E.;  quinine
Howard  of  Effingham,  lord  ;  armada,

1588
Howard  v.  Gossett ;  trials,  1842
Howards,  ploughs
Howe,  sir William; Long Island,

1776
Howe,  lord,  1784;  Pitt,  1783  ;  Brest,

Ushant
Howel  Da ;  Wales,  920
Howitt,  Win.,  author,  1795- 18 79
Howley, Dr. , abp. ; Canterbury,

1828 ;  Lambeth
Hoyle,  W.,  drunkards
Huber,  P.,  1750-1831 ;  bees
Hudson,  sir  James,  1810-1885 ;  Italy,

1863
Hudson,  Jeffrey,  1626  ;  dwarf
Hudson,  H.  ;  Hudson's  Bay
Hugelmann,  G. ;  France,  1874
Huggins,  Win.  ;  spectrum ;  sun  (co-
rona), astronomy
Hughes,  D.  E.  ;  microphone
Hughes,  sir  E.  ;  Trincomalee,  1782
Hughes,  J.,  bp.,  Asaph,  1870
Hughes,  Mr.,  audiometer
Hughes, T.  ; socialism, Ashdown,

New  Rugby
Hugo,  Victor,  Fr.  poet  and  novel.,

1802-85 ; France, 1876 ; literary

congress
Hugues,  mad.;  France,  1884
Hullah,  J.,  1812-84;  music,  1840
Humbert  I.; Italy, 1878; Naples,

1884
Humbert,  gen. ;  Killala,  1798
Humboldt,  A.  de.,  Ger.  phil.,  1769-

1859 ;  Andes
Humboldt, W. de,  Ger.  lit.,  1767-

1835
Hume,  David,  hist.,  1711-76; — Jos.,

politician,  1777-1855  ;  see  Home
Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester, d.

at  Bury,  1447
Hungerford,  sir  T. ;  speaker,  1377
Hunniades, J.  ; Hungary, 1442  ;

Turkey,  Varna
Hunt,  Geo  Ward,  1825-77  ;  Disraeli

administrations, excheq., 1868;

admiralty,  1874-7
Hunt,  Henry,  reformer  ;  trials,  1820 ;

Clerkenwell,  Manchester
Hunt,  John  and  Leigh  ;  trials,  181 1-

1812 ; James, d. 1869, anthro-
pology.
Hunt,  Wm.  Holman,  painter,  0.  1827;

pre-Raphaelite
Hunt,  W.  T.  ;  trials,  1875
Hunter, John,  surgeon, 1728-93; —

W.,  1718-83
Huntingdon, countess  of, 1707-91  ;

Cheshunt,  Whitefieldites
Huntingford,  bp.  ;  Hereford,  1802
Huntly,  earl  of  ;  Brechin,  1452
Hunton,  Jos.,  forgery; executions,

1828
Hurd,  bishop  ;  Worcester,  1781
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel-


lington admin.,  1828; Liverpool,

1830
Huss,  John,  burnt,  1415  ;  Hussites
Hutchinson,  Amy ;  trials,  1750
Hutchinson,  John,  d.  1737 ;  Hutch-

insonians
Hutchinson,  major;  Alexandria,  i8or
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's

escape,  1815
Hutton,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1757
Hutton,  W.,  d.  1815  ;  geology
Huxley,  T.  H.,  0.  1825  ;  abiogenesis,

bathybius, Birmingham, 1874 ;

germ, minimisers, oysters,  Roy.

Soc.  pres.  1883
Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy,

optics,  pendulum
Hyaeinthe  (Loyson)  father,  France,

1869
Hyde,  capt.  ;  Chili,  1874
Hyde,  sir  Edward  ; chancellor,  lord

high,  1660
Hyde, Laurence ; administrations,

1689  et  seq.
Hyder  Ali,  d. 1782  ; India,  Arcot,

Carnatie,  Mysore
Hyginus,  pope,  139;  martyr
Hypatia, philosopher, m.  415  B.C.  ;

hydrometer
Hyperides  ;  Cranon,  322  B.C.
Hyrcanus, John, d. 106  B.C.  ; Sa-
maritans
Hyslop  and  Denham  ;  trials,  1877


Ibrahim  Pacha,  1 789-1848;  Antioch,
Beyrout,  Egypt,  Greece,  Syria,
Turkey,  Damascus,  Wahabees

Iglesias ;  Mexico,  1876-7;  Peru,
1883-4

Ignatief,  M. ;  Russia  ;  resigned,  1882

Ignatius,  St.,  mart.,  115 ;  liturgies,
250

Ilbert  bill,  1883-4

Ilchester,  Id. ;  Oxford  univ.  ;  Sla-
vonia,  1876

Impey,  major;  duels,  1801

Inaehus  ;  Argos,  1856  B.C.

Incledon,  C,  d.  1826

Inez  de  Castro  ;  Coimbra,  1355

Ingham,  sir  J.  T.  ;  magistrate,  1876

Ingle,  L.,  trials,  1880

Inglefield,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1852

Inglis,  col.  ;  Albuera,  1811

Ingram,  Herbert,  d.  i860 ;  Illust.
London  News,  1842 — W.  J.,  print-
ing machine,  1877

Inman,  W.  ;  steam,  1850

Innocent  I. — XII.  ;  popes,  402  et  seq.

Innocent  III.,  pope,  1198;  transub-
stantiation

Irenseus,  martyr,  202

Irving,  E.,  1792-1834 ;  Irvingites,
trial,  1832  ;  unknown  tongues

Irving,  H.;  theatres  (Lyceum),  1874
ct  seq.

Irving,  H.  T. ;  Antigua,  1873 ;  Lee-
ward Isles,  1873

Irving,  Washington,  1783-1859

Isaac,  major  ;  tunnel  (Mersey)

Isabella;  salique  law,  Spain,  1833

Isaiah  prophesies  about  760  B.C.

Islip,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1349

Isocrates,  Gr.  orator,  436-338  B.C.

Iturbide  ;  Mexico,  1821-1865

Ivan ;  Russia,  1462 ;  czars


Jabloehkoff ; electricity (electric.

candles)
Jablonsky  ;  assassin  ;  Russia,  1883
Jack,  capt.  ;  Modoc,  1873
Jackson,  bp.  ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin-


coln, 1852; London, 1869-1885  ;

auricular  confession,  1873
Jackson,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1829
Jackson,  C.  T.  ;  ether,  1846
Jackson,  J.  B.  ;  printing  in  colours,

1720
Jackson, Thos.,  "Stonewall,"  1826-

63 ;  Manassas,  United  States,  1862

Chancellorsville,  Richmond,  1875
Jackson,  T.  ;  executions,  1861
Jackson, Wm. L.  ; Ireland, 1S92 ;

Salisbury  2nd  adm.
Jacob,  Mr.  A.  j  trials,  1891
Jacob,  Dr.  ;  Christ's  hospital,  1854
Jacobi ;  Baltic,  note,  electrotype
Jacobs,  S.  ;  abstinence
Jacquard  loom,  1806
James ; England, Scotland, Spain

(kings) ;  assassinations
James  IV.  ;  Flodden,  1513
James, sir H. , 1803-77; photozin-
cography, i860 ;  ordnance  survey
James,  sir  H. ;  sol.-general,  att.-gen.,

1873,  1880
James,  W.  H.,  companies,  1876
Jamieson, G. ; volunteers  (18th

meeting),  1877
Jane,  England,  queens,  1554  ;  Sicily
Janisch,  H.  R. ;  Helena,  1873
Jansen,  C,  1585-1638;  Jansenism
Janssen,  M.  ;  eclipse,  1868
Janvier  de  la  Motte  ;  France,  1872
Jardine,  sir  Wm.,  naturalist,  1800-74
Jarnac  ;  Jarnac  ;  France,  1874-5
Jason,  argonautic  exp.,  1263  B.C.
Jeans,  J.  S.,  steel
Jebb,  Joshua,  prison  reformer,  1793-

1863
Jeffcott,  sir  John  W.  ;  duels,  1833
Jefferson,  Thos., 1743-1826 ;  United

States,  president,  1801-8
Jeffery,  Robert ;  Sombrero,  1807
Jeffrey,  Francis,  critic,  1773-1850
Jeffreys,  George  (afterwards  lord) ;

administrations,  1 685 ;  king's  bench ,

chancellor,  lord  high,  bloody  as-
size ;  d.  1689
Jeffries,  Dr.  J.,  colour  blindness
Jejeebhoy  ;  Bombay,  1859  ;  Parsees
Jellachich  ;  Hungary,  Vienna,  1848
Jenkin,  F.,  telpherage
Jenkins  v.  Cook  ;  trials,  1875-6
Jenkins,  Henry  ;  longevity,  d.  1670
Jenkinson,  bp.  ;  David's,  St.,  1825
Jenks,  games,  1884
Jenner,  E.,  1749-1823  ;  vaccination
Jennings,  Mr.  ;  tontines,  1798
Jeremiah  prophesies  about  629  b.  c
Jerningham, Mrs.  ; blue-stockings

1760
Jerome, St. ,  Latin  father,  345-420  ;

ascension,  liturgies
Jerome  of  Prague ;  burnt,  1416
Jerrold,  Douglas,  Nov.  Dram.,  180--

1857  ;  W.  B.,  1826-84
Jersey,  countess  of ;  delicate  investi-
gation, 1806
Jervis,  sir  John,  1734-1823  ;  Cape  St.

Vincent; — solicitor-gen.,  at. -gen  ,

common  pleas,  d.  1856
Jervois,  sir  W.  F.  D.  ;  straits,  and

South  Australia
Jessel,  sir  Geo.  1824-83 ;  master  of

rolls,  1873
Jevons,  W.  Stanley  ;  polit.  econ.  &c.

1835-82;  abecedarium,  1874;  method
Joan  of  Arc,  burnt,  1431  ;  Joan.
Joan  ;  queens  (Henry  IV.),  Naples
Joel  prophesies  about  800  B.C.
Johanni ;  Abyssinia,  1872
John,  St.,  d.  100  ;  baptism,  accusers,

evangelists,  gospels
John  I.— XXIII.  ;  popes,  523  et  seq.
John  of  Austria  ;  Lepanto,  1571
John, king; Bohemia, Portugal,

Spain,  France,  Poitiers
John,  king  ;  England  (1199),  charter

of  forests,  magna  charta,  "  We  "


1116


INDEX.


John  of  Leyden  ;  anabaptists,  1534
John  the  Fearless  ;  Burgundy,  1404
Johnson,  A.  ;  boats
Johnson,  Andrew,  1809-75 ; United

States,  1865-8
Johnson,  Sam.,  1709-84  ;  dictionary,

literary  club,  1764
Johnson,  capt.  ;  trials,  1846
Johnson,  judge ;  trials,  1805
Johnson,  Mr.  ;  swimming
Johnston,  capt.  ;  steam,  1825
Johnston,  gen.  ;  Boss,  N,  1798
Johnston,  Albt,  7c.  Pittsburg,  1862;

—Jos.,  U.  S.,  1863
Johnston,  Alex.  K. ,  geographer,  1804-

71,  Africa,  1878
Jghnston,  H.  H. ;  Africa  (Central)
Johnston,  Robert;  trials.  1818
Johnston,  sir  John ;  marriages,  forced,

1690
Johnston,  W. ;  orangemen,  1868
Joinville,  Jean  de,  French  historian,

1224-1318
Joinville,  prince  de,  6.  1818 ;  Ocean

Monarch,  1848
Jomini,  baron  H.,  strategist; 1779-

1869  ;  Brussels  conf.,  1874
Jonah  prophesies  about  862  B.C.
Jones,  colonel ;  Dungan,  1647  >  Bath-
mines
Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73; Royal

Institution, i860 ; fluorescence,

spectrum
Jones,  Gale;  trials,  1811
Jones,  sir  Horace,  1819-1887 ;  Billings-
gate, foreign  cattle  market,  guild-
hall
Jones,  Inigo,  architect,  1572-1652
Jones,  Jane ;  trials,  1842
Jones,  J.  S.,  Kensington  Mus.
Jones,  J. ;  trials,  1870
Jones,  J.  W.  ;  Brit.  Museum,  1866-78
Jones,  Mr.  ;  riots,  1819
Jones, Owen, 1809-74, Alhambra,

1842 ;  James's-hall,  St.
Jones,  T.  ;  book-keeping,  1821
Jones,  Mr.  Todd  ;  duel,  1802
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic,

chess,  Menu,  Sanskrit
Jones  v.  Stannard,  trials,  1881
Jones,  W.  B.  T.,  Davids,  St.,  1874
Jonson,  Ben,  1574-1637  ;  poet-laur.
Joquemin,  M.  ;  picquet,  1390
Jordan,  J.  B.,  barometer;  sunshine
Jordan,  Mrs. ,  actress,  d.  1816
Jordan,  B.,  gold

Joseph  ;  Germany,  Namur,  Portugal
Josephine, empress, 1763-1814 ;

Prance,  1809
Josephus,  Jewish  hist.,  38-100
Jotham  ;  fables,  1209  B.C.
Joubert,  gen. ;  Novi,  1 799 ;  Transvaal,

1880
Joule,  J.  P.,  1818-89,  heat
Jourdan,  marshal ;  Cologne,  Fleurus,

Vittoria,  1813
Jovellar  ;  Spain,  1874-5
Jovian,  Rome,  emps.,  363
Joyce,  family  murdered,  1882
Juarez, B.  ; Mexico, 1858-72  ; d.

1872
Judas  Maccabseus  rides,  168-1 60  B.C.
Judith ;  Abyssinia,  960
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C.  ; Numidia,

Jugurthine  war
Julian ; Rome, emp. ,  360 ; edicts,

Paris
Julianus  Salvius  ;  edicts,  132
Julius  v.  bishop  of  Oxford,  trials,

1879
Julius  Coesar  ;  see  Cwsar,  Julius
Julius,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1791
Julius II.  ; popes, 1503 ; Rome,

Bologna,  Laoeobn,  Cambray
Jullien,  M.,  concerts
Jung  Bahadoor ;  Nepaul,  1857-60
Juuot,  marshal, 1771-1813;  Cintra,

Vimiera,  1808


Jussieu,  A.  L.  de  ;  Fr.  botanist,  1748-

1836
Justin,  emp.  ;  Rome,  518  and  565
Justin  Martyr,  164  ;  millennium
Justin,  St.  ;  Rochester,  604
Justinian ;  eastern  empire,  527
Juvenal,  59-128 ;  satires
Juvigny,  flageolet
Juxon,  apb. ;  administrations,  1640 ;

Canterbury,  1660


Kabba  Rega  ;  Egypt,  1872
Kalakaua,  Sandwich  Islands,  1874
Kalkoff, N., journalist; Russia,

1887
Kalnoky,  count  G.  ;  Austria,  1881
Kane,  capt. ;  Samoan  isles
Kane,  Dr.  ;  Franklin,  1843
Kant,  Imman.,  1724-1804;  metaphy-
sics
Karaman,  Joseph;  Syria,  1866-7
Karslake,  sir  J.,  1821-81 ;  att.-gen.,

1867-74
Kaspary;  humanitarians
Kassa;  Abyssinia,  1871
Kastenbein ;  printing,  1872
Kastner,  F.  ;  pyrophone
Kauffman,  harmonica
Kaufmann,  gen.  ;  Samarcand,  1868  ;
Khiva,  1873  ; Kliokand,  1875  ;  d.
1882
Kaunitz,  prince  W.  A.,  Aust.  states-
man, 171 1-94
Kaye,  bishop ;  Bristol,  1820  ;  Lincoln
Kean,  Charles,  1811-68  ;  theatres
Kean,  Edmund,  actor,  1787-1833
Keane,  lord  ;  Ghiznee,  1839
Kearney,  D. ;  California,  1878
Keats,  John  ;  poet,  1 796-1821
Keble,  rev.  John ;  poet,  1792-1866 ;

Keble
Keenan;  trials,  1803
Keet  v.  Smith  ;  reverend,  trials,  1876
Keith, George ; earl-marisehal of

Scotland,  Aberdeen,  1593
Keith,  George  ;  quakers,  1646
Keith  Johnston  v.  Athemeum;  trials,

1875  ;  see  Johnston
Keller,  Dr.  ;  lake  dwellings,  1865
Kellerman,  gen.  ;  Valmy,  1792
Kellet,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1848
Kellogg  ;  United  States,  1874
Kelly ;  trials,  1869,  1871
Kelly,  Miss  ;  theatres,  trials,  1816
Kelly,  Ned,  Victoria,  1880
Kelly, sir  Fitzroy,  1 796-1 880 ;  sol.-
general,  att.-gen.,  ch.  baron,  1866-80
Kemble,  Charles,  actor,  1775-1854
Kemble,  Fanny,  actress,  b.  1811
Kemble,  John,  actor,  1757-1823
Kembles ;  examiners  (of  plays)
Kemp,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1452
Kempe,  John  ;  wool,  1331
Kempenfeldt,  adm. ;  Boyal  George,

1782
Kempis,  T.  h,  1380-1471 ;  imitation,

theology
Kenealy, Dr. ;  Englishman  ; trials,

1874
Kennedy,  alderman  ;  trials,  1858
Kennedy,  Mr.  ;  Franklin,  1851-53
Kennedy,  C.  R.  ;  trials,  1858  note
Kennedy,  sir  A.  E. ; Hong  Kong,

1872
Kent,  Constance,  Boad  murder
Kent,  Edw.  duke  of,  1 767-1820
Kent,  Odo,  earl  of;  treasurer,  1066
Kent,  G.  ;  knives  (cleaner),  1844
Kentigern,  St.  ;  abstinence,  Glasgow,

Asaph,  560-83
Kenyon,  lord ;  attorney-general,  1782 ;

king's  bench
Kepler,  J.,  1571-1630;  optics,  plane-
tary motions,  1609  ;  rainbow,  tides,
Venus


Keppel,  adm.  ; Belleisle, Ushant,
trials,  1799 ;  coalition,  naval  battles
Keppel,  commodore  ;  China,  1857
Keratry,  gen.  ; Franco-Pruss.  war,

1870
Kerford,  Mr.,  Victoria,  1875
Kern ;  davyum
Keshub  Sen,  deism.
Kettel,  E.  ;  trials,  1872
Kettle  well,  C.  ;  Bartholomew's,  St.,

1881
Keying ;  China,  1842-58
Killigrew,  Thos.  ;  drama,  1662
Kilmarnock,  lord ;  rebellions,  trials,

executions,  1746
Kilwarby,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1272
Kilwarden,  lord ;  king's  bench ;  trials,

1803
Kimberley,  earl  of,  see  Wodelwnse ;

Gladstone  adm.,  1868,  1880,  1886,

1892
King,  Thos.  ;  ventriloquism,  1716
King,  Mr.  Locke;  administrations,

1851
King,  Dr.  ;  Cesarean  operation
King,  E.,  bp.  ;  Lincoln,  1885
King,  col.  ;  suicide,  1850
King,  C.  ;  trials,  1855  >"  oems»  !86o
Kinglake,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1870
Kinglake,  A.  W.  ;  hist.,  1812-91
Kingsford,  A.  ;  hermetic  soc.
Kingsley,  Rev.  C.  ;  novels,  &c,  1819-

75 ;  socialism ;  —  Henry,  nov.  1830-

76
Kingston,  duchess  of ;  trials,  1776
Kingston,  Evelyn,  duke  of ;  Walpole,

1 721
Kingzett,  C.  T. ;  sanitas
Kinnaird,  A.  ;  cabmen's  rest,  1875
Kintore,  earl  of;  Australia,  1891
Kirby  and  Wade,  capts. shot,  1702  ;

naval  battles,  note
Kircher ;  iEolianharp,  1653  ;  philoso-
pher's stone,  trumpet
Kirchkoff,  G.  B.  (1824-1887); spec-
trum
Kirkman;  pianoforte
Kirwan,  Richard  B.  ;  trials,  1852
Kiss,  Karl,  Ger.  sculptor,  1802-65
Kitchener  ;  Soudan,  1885  et  seq.
Klapka,  general  G.,  b.  1820
Kleber,  J.  B.,  Fr.  gen., 1754-1800;

El  Arisch
Klein,  E.  ;  histology,  germ  theory
Kleist ;  electricity,  1745 ;  Leyden
Klopstock,  F.  T.,  Germ,  poet,  1724-

1803
Kluber ;  cryptography
Kmety,  gen.  (Ismail  Pacha),  d.  1865  ;

Hungary,  Kars
Knatchbull,  sir  E.  ;  Peel  administra-
tions, 1S34-5
Kneller,  sir  Godfrey,  painter, 1648-

1723
Knight,  Chas.,  1791-1873  ;  hist.,  (fee-
diffusion  soc,  1827  ;  England
Knight,  G. ;  magnetism,  1756
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage,

1602;  South  Sea  bubble,  bribery ;

free  church
Knight  v.  Wolcot ;  trials,  1807
Knowles,  James ;  Nineteenth  Century
Knowles,  J.  S.,  dramat.,  1784-1862  -
Knox,  John,  1505-72  ;  Presbyterians,

congregation,  queen,  Scotland
Knutsford, Id. (H. T. Holland);

Salisbury  adm.,  1886
Knutzen,  Matthias  ;  atheism,  1674
Koch,  Dr. ;  germ  theory ;  vivisection,

tuberculosis
Kock,  Charles  Paul  de,  Fr.  novelist,

1794-1S71
Koffee  Kalcalli ;  Ashantees,  1874
Kohl,  F.  ;  execution,  1865
Komaroff,  gen.  :  Russia,  18S5
Konig,  F.  ;  printing  machine,  1814
Konig,  M. ;  phonoscope,  tonometer,


Koroer,  Tli.,  Germ,  poet,  1791-1813
Kortright,  C.  ;  Demerara
Kosciusko;  Poland,  1794  :  Cracow
Kossuth,  L.,  b.  1 802  ;  Hungary,  1849-

68  ;  United  States,  1851
Roster,  Laurence  ;  printing,  1438
Kotzebue;  north-west  passage,  1815  ;

Aug. ,  dramatist ;  assassinations
Kouli  Khan ;  Moguls,  India,  Persia,

1730
Krapotkine, prince,  Kussia, 1878  ;

France,  1883
Kreli ;  Kaffraria,  1877
Kruger,  P.,  Transvaal,  1879-81
Krupp,  Alfred,  .1810-1887;  cannon,

steel
Kuenen,  prof.  ;  Hibbert  fund
Kullmann  ;  attempt  to  kill  Bismarck,

Prussia,  1874
Kunckel,  J.,  1630-1703  ;  phosphorus,

1670
Kutusoff,  gen.  M.,  1745-1813;  Russia,

Borodino,  Smolensko,  1812
Kyhl,  P.  ;  nature-printing,  1833


Laborde,  A.  de,  "Partant  pour  la

Syrie"
Labouchere,  Henry,  lord  Taunton ;
Bussell  administration,  1846  ;  Pal-
tnerston  administration,  1855
Labourdonnaye ;  Tournay,  1792
JLa  Bruyere,  French  essays,  1639-96
Laehaise,  Pere,  1624-1709  ;  cemetery
Lacon,  W.  S.  ;  seas
Lacordaire,  Pere  H.  D.,  1802-61
Lactantius,  d.  abt.  325  ;  fathers
Ladislas ;  Bohemia,  Hungary
Ladinirault ;  France,  1873
Laennec,  R.,  physician,  1781-1826
Lafarge,  Madame  ;  trials,  1840
Lafayette,  marq. ;  1757-1834
Lafitte,  d.  1844  ;  wills  (Napoleon's)
Lafurge ;  Tontine

La  Fontaine,  J.,  Fr.  fabulist,  1621-95
Lagava,  <fec.  ;  execution,  1856
Lagny,  circle,  1719
La  Grange,  J.  L.,  1736-1813;  acous-
tics, astronomy,  1780
Laing,  Sam.,  cryst.  pal.  1852  ;  India,

1861-2
Laird, Mr.  ;  Birkenhead,  Alabama,

navy,  1870
Lake,  gen. ;  Bhurtpore,  1805 ;  Delhi,

Lincelles
Lake,  capt.  ;  Sombrero,  1807
Lalande,  J.,  astron.,  1732-1807
Lalanne  ;  abacus

Lally,  gen.  Thos.  de ;  beheaded,  1766
Lamarck,  1744-1829  ;  species
La  Marmora,  gen.  A.,  1804-78  ;  Tcher-

naya,  1855  ;  Italy,  1862
Lamartine,  A.  de,  1792-1869,  miscel.

writer ;  France,  1848
Lamb,  C,  1775-1834  ;  essays
Lamb,  Dr.,  killed,  1628  ;  riots
Lamballe, princesse de ; France,

1792.
Lamberg,  ct.  ;  Austria,  1848
Lambert,  Mr.,  d.  1809';  corpulency
Lambert  (Latham),  J.  ;  trials,  1855
Lambrecht,  Mr.  ;  duels,  trials,  1830
Lambton,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1826
Lamennais,  Pere,  F.  R.  de,  1782-1854
Lamirande,  M.  ;  extradition,  1866
Lamm,  earl ;  bellite
Lamorieiere,  gen.,  1806-65  ;  France,

1 85 1 ;  Rome,  i860'
Lamplugh,  archbp.  ;  York,  1688
Lamson,  Dr.  G.  H.  ;  trials,  1882
Lancaster,  capt.  ;  Bantam,  1603
Lancaster,  duke  of;  Lancaster
Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838;  Lan-

casterian  schools,  education
Lander,  Richard,  1804-34;  Africa


INDEX.

Lane,  E.  W.,  orientalist,  1801-76
Landseer,  sirE.,  painter,  1803-73
Lanfranc,  archbp.  Canterbury,  1070
Lanfrey,  Pierre,  Fr.  hist.  1828-77
Langalibalele  ;  Cape;  Natal,  1873
Langara,  adm. ;  naval  battles,  1780
Langdale,  Id.;  master  of  rolls,  1836
Langdale,  sir  M. ;  Naseby,  1645
Lange,  sir  D. ;  Suez,  1858
Langewin,  sir  H.  S.  ;  Canada,  1891
Langham,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1366
Langiewicz,  M. ;  Poland,  1863-5
Langley,  Dr.  Baxter ;  recreative  reli-
gionists ;  artisans,  trials,  1877
Langley,  prof.  S.  P. ;  bolometer
Langton,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1206
Langworthy,  E.  R. ;  Owens  College,

1874
Lankester, E. Ray; spontaneous

generation,  1876-7  ;  spiritualism
Lannes ;  marshals,  Asperne,  1809
Lansdowne,  marquis  of,  1780-1863 ;
see Petty, Shelburne; Goderich
adm.  1827;  Russelladm.  1846,  1851;
Aberdeen  adm.  1852;  Palmerston
adm.  1855,  et  seq.;  Canada,  1883
Lanyon,  sir  W.  O.,  Transvaal,  1879
Laomedon;  Troy,  1260  B.C.
Laplace,  P.  de;  Fr.  matheniat.,  1749-

1827
Lartigue,  M.  ;  railway  (balance)
Lasker ;  Germany,  1884
Lateau,  L.  ;  abstinence
Latham,  R.  G.  ;  philologist  1812-88
Latham,  J. ;  birds
Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; pro-

testants
Latimer,  viscount;  administrations,

1672-3
Latorre,  col. ;  Uruguay,  1876
Laud,  William,  abp.,  1573-1645;  Can-
terbury, administrations
Lauderdale,  duke  of;  cabal,  1670
Laura;  Petrarch,  1327
Laurent ;  carbolic  acid,  1846
Lautrec,  Fr.  gen.,  d.  1528
Lavalette's  escape,  1815
Lavater,  J.,  1741-1801;  physiognomy
Lavigerie,  cardinal,  France,  1890-2
Lavoisier,  A. ,  1743-94;  carbon,  hydro-
gen, nitric  acid,  phlogiston,  water
Law,  bishop ;  Chester,  Bath,  1824
Law's  bubble,  1720
Lawes,  H.,  mus.  comp.,  1600-62
Lawless,  Mr.;  riots,  1828
Lawrence,  gen.  H., 1800-57;  India,  1-857
Lawrence, sir  J.,  aft.  Id.,  1811-79;

India,  1863
Lawrence,  sir  T. ,  painter,  1769-1830
Lawson,  sir  Wilfrid  ;  permissive  bill
Layard,  sir  A.  Henry,  b.  1817  ;  Nine-
veh, Gladstone,  1868  ;  Turkey,  1877
Layer's  conspiracy,  1722;  Layer
Lazareff,  Russia,  1879
Lazzaretti,  David  ;  Italy,  1878
Leake,  adm.,  d.  1720;  admiralty,  Gib-
raltar, Mediterranean,  Minorca
Leatham,  W.  H. ;  trials,  1861
Le Blanc, Nicholas, 1753-1806 ;

alkalies
Le  Clere;  critics,  1696
Lecky,  R.  J.,  sunshine  recorder
Lecomte,  gen.  ;  France,  1871,  1876
Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran  ;  gallium,  1875
Ledochowski,  abp.  Prussia,  1873-6
LedruRollin,  A.  A.,  1808-74;  France,

1848,  1874
Lee,  Alexander;  theatres,  1830
Lee,  Ann,  shakers
Lee,  bp.,  J.  D.  ;  massacres,  1858 ;

Mormonites
Lee  Boo,  prince;  Pelew  Islands,  1783
Lee,  C.  C.;  Leeward  isles
Lee,  John  ;  trials,  1885
Lee,  abp.;  York,  1544
Lee,  W. ;  stocking-frame,  1589
Lee, gen. Robt., 1808-70; United
States,  1S62


1117

Leech,  John, 1817-64;  caricatures  ;

Punch
Leeds,  duke  of;  administrations,  1689
Leeke,  H. ;  Bushire,  1856
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal-
cules, polypus
Lefevre, C. Shaw (Id. Eversley) ;

speaker,  1839-57
Lefevre,  G.  S.;  Gladstone  adm.,  1880
Lefroy,  al.  Mapleton,  railways,  188 1
Leggatt,  B. ;  burning,  1612
Legge,  bishop;  Oxford,  1827
Legge,  H.  B.,  Newcastle  adm.,  1754
Le  Gros,  Raymond;  Dublin,  1171
Leibnitz,  Gottfried,  1646-1716;  mathe-
matics, fluxions
Leicester,  earl  of ; administrations,

1558 ;  national  associations
Leicester,  earl  of,  v.  Morning  Herald  ;

trials,  1809
Leighton, Fred.  ; artist,  b. 1830  ;

Royal  Academy
Leighton,  J.  &  A. ;  Christmas  cards  ;

printing  surface,  ballot
Leighton,  abp.  Robt.,  1613-84
Leighton,  G.  C. ;  printing  in  colours,

1849
Leitrim,  earl  of;  murd.,  Ireland,  1878
Le  Jay;  polyglot,  1628-45
Lelewel;  Poland,  1863
Lely,  sir  P.,  painter,  1617-80
Le  Maire ;  circumnavigator,  1615
Lemoinne,  J.  ;  France,  1873-6
Lemon, Mark, humorist, 1809-70 ;

Punch
Lennox,  col.;  duels,  1789
Lennox,  lord H. ; Disraeli adm.,

1874-6
Lenoir;  gas,  1861
Le  Notre;  James's-park,  St.,  1668
Leo ;  popes,  440  ;  Eastern  empire,


Leo  IV. ;  Leonine  city
Leo  X.;  popes,  1513;  indulgences
Leo  XIII.,  6.  1810  ;  pope,  1878
Leon,  Diego  de;  Spain,  1841
Leon,  Ponce  de;  America,  1512
Leonarda  of  Pisa;  algebra,  1202
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  painter,  1452-1519
Leonidas ;  Thermopylae,  480  b.  c.
Leopardi,  Italian  orat.  1 798-1837
Leopold,  Germany;  Morgarten,  1315;

Sempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830;

Spain,  France,  1870-84
Leopold,  prince,  1853-84  ;  England,

end. ;  Albany,  1881
L'Epee,  abbe  de,  1712-89,  deaf
Lepidus;  triumvir,  43  B.C.
Le  Pique,  M. :  duels,  1808
Lepsius,  K.  R.,  1810-84  ;  Egypt
Lerdo  de  Tejado ;  Mexico,  1872
Lerothodi,  Basuto
Le  Sage,  French  novelist,  1668-1747
Leslie,  C.  R.,  painter,  1 794-1859
Leslie,  H.,  music
Lesseps,  M. ; Suez, 1852  ;  Corinth,

1 88 1 ;  Panama
Lessing,  G.  E.,  German  philosopher,

1729-81
Lestock,  admiral ;  Toulon,  1744
L'Estrange,  sir  R.  ;  newspapers,  1663
Letheby, Henry, M.B., chemist,

1816-76
Lettsom,  Dr.  ;  Humane  soc,  1774
Lever,  sir  Ashton ;  museum
Lever,  C.  J.,  Irish  novelist,  1809-72
Leverson,  S.  R.  ;  trials,  1868,  1878
Leverrier, U., 1811-77  ; Neptune,

1846
Levy,  Leoni ;  statistical!, 1821-88  ;


Levy,  Mr.  Lyon  ;  monument,  1810
Lewes,  Geo.  Hen.,  philosopher,  &c,

1817-78
Lewis,  John  Fred.,  R.A.,  1805-76
Lewis,  Mr. ;  theatres  (Covent-garden),

1773


1118


INDEX.


Levis, sir  G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ;

Palmerston  adm.,  1855
Lewis  v.  Higgins,  trials,  1876
Lewisham,  vise.  ; Addington  adm.,

1801
Leybourne,  William  de ;  admiral,  1297
Lhoste,  M.,  1886-7
liiakut,  Ali ;  India,  1871-2
Libanius,  Gr.  orator,  314-390
Lick,  Jas.  ;  observatories
Lidderdale,  Wm.  ;  London,  1890
Liddon,  H.  P.,  canon,  1829-90
Liddon,  lieut.  ;  north-west  passage,

1819
Lieber,  T.  ;  Erastianism,  1523-84
Liebig, J., 1803-73; acids,  agricul-
ture, chemistry, chloroform,
chloral
I.iebreich,  O.  ;  chloral,  1869
Light,  F.  ;  Penang,  1786
Lightfoot,  Joseph  B.,  1828-89,  Dur-
ham, 1879
Ligonier,  lord;  Bute,  1762
Lilburne,  col.  ;  \evellers,  Wigan,  1651
Lilly,  Wm.,  1602-81  ;  astrology,  1647
Lily,  George,  d.  1559;  charts
Lily,  Wm.,  grammarian,  d.  1523
Lin  ;  China,  1840
L:naere, Dr., d. 1524; gardening,

lectures,  physicians
Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65; United

States,  1860-5
Lincoln,  bp.  of;  Canterbury,  1890-2
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations,

*759
Lincoln,  B.  T.  ;  United  States,  1889
Lind,  Dr.  ;  anemometer,  wind
Lind,  Jenny  (Goldschmidt),  6.  1820-

87  ;  theatres
Linfield,  H.  C.  ;  flying
Lindley, John; bot., 1799-1865;

horticulture
Lindsay,  earl  of;  Edgehill,  1642
Lindsay,  sir  C.  ;  Grosvenor  gallery
Lindsay,  sir  John ;  Madras,  1770
Lingard,  J.,  1771-1851  ;  historian
Linlithgow,  lord  ;  guards,  1660
Linne,  Linn,  C.  von,  1707-78;  botany,

Lhmsean,  zoology
Linnell,  John  ;  jiainter,  1792-1882
Linus,  poet,  fl.  1281  B.C.
Liprandi ;  Balaklava,  Eupatoria,  1855
Lisle,  lord;  administrations,  1544
Lisle,  sir  G.  ;  Colchester,  1648
Lisle,  visct.  ;  Portsmouth,  1545
Lister,  J. ;  germ  theory
Liston,  J.,  actor,  retires,  1838
Liszt,  F.  ;  music,  181 1-86
Little  John  ;  Bobin  Hood
Littleton,  Mr.  ;  Melbourne  adminis-
tration, 1834
Littre,M.  O.  E.,  1801-81 ;  dictionaries,

positive  philosophy
Liverpool,  earl  of,  1770-1828  ; — Liver-
pool adm.,  1812
Livingstone, D., 1813-77  ; Africa

1856  ;  Edinburgh,  1876
Livius,  Titus,  Boman  hist.,  d.  18
Lizarraga,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1875-6
Llewelyn  ;  Wales,  1194
Lloyd,  bishop  ;  Oxford,  1827
Lloyd,  Catherine  ;  quackery,  1831
Lloyd,  Charles  ;  Junius,  1769
Lloyd,  W.  ;  Portland  vase,  1845
Lloyd,  Clifford  ;  Egypt,  1884
Loch, sir  H. B.  ; Victoria, 1884 ;

Cape,  1889
Locke,  J., 1632-1704; physics,  car-
tesian, coin
Locke,  W.  ;  ragged  schools,  1844
Lockwood,  P.  E.  ;  beer
Lockyer,  major ;  duel,  1817
Lockyer,  J. N.  ; eclipse, 1866  ;  Na-
ture, 1869;  elements,  1878;  meteors,
astronomy
Lofting,  John  ;  thimble,  1695
Loftus,  Id.  A.,  New  S.  Wales,  1879
Logeman ;  magnetism,  1851


Logier,  J.  B.  ;  chiroplast

Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ;

burned,  1322
Lomakine,  gen. ,  Bussia,  1879
Lombe,  sir  Thomas  ;  silk,  1714
Lond,  T.  ;  piano,  1802
London  dock  company ;  trials,  1851
Londonderry,  lord  ;  see  Castlereagh  ;

suicide,  1822
Londonderry,  marquis  of; Ireland,

Id.  lieut,,  1886
Long,  sir  B.  ;  administrations,  1660
Long,  Misses  Tilney  ;  trials,  1825
Long,  St.  John  ;  quack,  trials,  1830-1
Longden,  J.  B.  ;  Denierara,  1874
Longfellow,  H.W. ;  Am.  poet,  1807-82
Longford  v.  Purdon  ;  trials,  1877
Longinus,  Gr.  philos.,  killed,  273
Longley,  abp.  York,  i860 ;  Bipon
Longman,  W. ;  Paul's,  St.,  1873 ;  Pub-
lishers' Circular
Longstreet,  gen. ;  Chicamauga,  1863  ;

U.  States
Lonnten,  M.  E.  ;  Finland
Lonsdale,  bishop  ;  Lichfield,  1843
Lonsdale,  earl  of;  duels,  1792;  Derby

administration,  1852
Lopez ;  Cuba,  1850 ;  United  States
Lopez,  gen.  ;  Paraguay ;  Aquidaban,

1870
Lopez, sir  Manasseh ; Grampound,

trials,  1819
Lorenz,  J.  F.  ;  cryptography,  1806
L'Orme,  Philibert  de ;  Tuileries,  1564
Lome, marquis of, England, end.

1870-1;  psalms,  1877 ;  Canada,i878 ;

United  States,  1882
Lorraine,cardinal ;  assassination, 1588
Lorraine,  Chas. of; Lissa,  Mohatz,

1687
Lorraine,  duke  of;  Crecy,  1346
Lorraine,  Claude,  painter,  1600-82
Losinga,  H.  ;  Norwich,  1091
Lothian,  marquis  of ;  Salisbury  adm.

1887
Loudon,  C.  J.,  1783-1843;  botany
Lough,  John  G.,  sculptor,  i8o4?-76
Loughborough;  att.-gen.,  coalition,

1783
Louis  ;  France,  kings  ;  Spain,  1724
Louis  I. — IV.  ;  landgrave,  Hesse
Louis XI.  ; "  Christian  ;  " blood,

posts,  1470 ;  Provence
Louis  XII.  ;  tester,  1513
Louis  XIII.  ;  Louis  d'or,  1640
Louis  XIV.  ; Dieu-donne, Nantes,

1685
Louis  XV.  :  France,  1757  ;  Damiens
Louis  XVIII.  ; Hartwell, 1807-14  ;

France
Louis,  king ;  Hungary,  Buda,  1526
Louis,  prince  of  Conde ;  Jarnac,  1569
Louis  Bonaparte  ;  Holland,  1806
Louis  Napoleon ;  Bonaparte ;  France,

1848-70 ;  see  Napoleon  III.
Louis  Napoleon,  France,  end ;  Zulu-
land,  1879
Louis  Philippe;  France,  1830;  assas-
sinations
Louisa  Maria,  infanta  ;  Spain,  1846
Louise,  queen  ; Belgium, 1832  ; d.

1850
Louth,  lord;  trials,  181 1
Loutherbourg,  Mr.  ;  panorama
Lovat,  lord  ;  conspiracy,  trials,  1747
Lovell ;  trials,  1812
Lover,  Sam.,  Irish  nov.,  1797-1868
Lovett,  W. ;  chartists
Lowe,  Alice  ;  trials,  1842
Lowe,  B. ,  aft.  viscount  Sherbrooke,

1811-92  ;  Gladstone,  1868  ;  London

univ.
Lowe,  gen.  Drury,  1882
Lowell,  J.  Bussell,  Amer.  sat.  poet,

1819-91
Lbwenthal,  J.  J.  ;  chess,  1876
Lower, M. A.,  antiquary, 1813-76;

names


Lowther, vise. ; Wellington  adm. .

1828
Loyd ;  see  Overstone.
Loyola,  Ignatius,  1491-1556;  Jesuits,

I534

Lubbock,  sir  J.  W. ,  mathemat. ,  1803-
6;  —  sir  John,  b.  1834;  ancient
monuments,  bank  holidays,  bees,
proportional  representation,  bio-
logy, pre-historic  ;  early  closing

Luby,  Thos.  ;  Fenian,  trials,  1865

Lucan,  earl  of;  trials,  1856

Lucan,  killed,  65  ;  Borne,  Cordova

Lucas,  Mr.  ;  steel,  1804

Lueian,  Gr.  satirist,  about  120-200

Luciani ;  Bome,  1875

Lucilius  ;  satire,  116  B.C.

Lucretia,  d.  47  b.c.  ;  Bome,  spinning

Lucretius,  Lat.  pb.il.  poet,  d.  52  B.C.  ;
atoms

Lugard,  capt.  F.  D.,  Uganda,  1891

Luie ;  trials,  1874

Lully;  nitric  acid,  1287;  (music),
1633-72

Lumby  ;  Athanasian  creed,  confes-
sions, 1874

Lumley  v.  Gye  ;  trials,  1854

Lumsden,  sir  P.  ;  Afghanistan,  1884  7
Bussia,  1885

Lunardi,  M.  ;  balloons,  1784

Lushington,.S. ;  admiralty  court,  1838.

Lusk,  A.  ;  mayor,  Id.  1873

Lutatius  ;  naval  battles,  241  B.C.

Luther,  Martin,  1483-1546 ;  Aiisu'-
tins,  Lutheranism,  Dort,  Protes-
tantism, Augsburg,  Calvinisls,
Worms

Luther,  B.  ;  planets,  1852

Luvini,  G.  dietheroscope,  1876

Luxemburg,  marshal;  Enghien,  169c?

Luxmoore,  bishop  ;  Bristol,  1807

Lycurgus  ;  Sparta,  881  B.C.

Lyell,  sir  Charles,  1797-1875  ;  geo-
logy, man

Lyell  v.  Kennedy  ;  trials,  1886

Lyly,  W.  ;  euphuism,  1581

Lynall,  Thomas  ;  trials,  1877

Lynch,  murder;  trials,  1817

Lyndhurst,  lord,  1772-1863;  chancel-
lor ;  Canning  adm.  1827  ;  Welling-
ton adm.  1828 ;  Peel  adm.,  1834,
1841

Lynedoch,  lord  ;  Barrosa,  1811 ;  Ber-
gen-op-Zoom,  St.  Sebastian

Lyon,  capt.  ;  north-west  passage r
1 82 1  ; — general  Nathaniel,  Spring-
field, 1861

Lyon,  col.  F.,  killed  ;  Shoeburyness,
1885

Lyon,  John  ;  Harrow  school,  1571

Lyons,  lord  ;  Baris,  1887

Lyons  v.  Thomas ;  trials,  1869

Lysander;  Sparta,  405  B.C.

Lysimachus ;  Ipsus,  301  B.C.  ;  Corns

Lysippus  ;  Lysistratus,  sculpture,
busts,  328  B.C.

Lyttelton,  lord;  chancellor,  Id.,  1641

Lyttelton,  Geo.,  lord;  dreams,  1779

Lytton,  E.  Bulwer,  Id.,  novelist  ami
poet,  1805-73  :  guilds

Lytton,  B.  B.,  lord,  1831-91 ;  India
1876


M.

Macadam,  J.  ;  macadamising,  1819

Macarthy,  sir  Charles  ;  Sierra  Leone.
Ashantees,  1824

Macartney,  earl;  duel,  1786;  China.
1793  ;  India

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  Id.,  1S00-1859  :  Mel-
bourne adm.,  1837

Macbeth  ;  Scotland,  1057

McCabe,  abp.,  Ireland,  1879-80  ;  car-
dinal, 1882  ;  d.  1885

MacCabe  ;  robbers,  1691

McCarthy,  Justin,  home  rule


MeHale,  abp.,  1791-1881
MacClellan,  gen.  George,  B.  1826-85 ;

United  States,  1 861-4
Macclesfield,  earl  of;  chancellor,  lord

high,  1718
MacCormack ;  reaping  machine,  1831
Macdonald,  marshal ;  Parma,  Trebia,

1799
Macdonald,  Mr.  ;  Times,  printing
Macdonald,  capt.  ;  Prussia,  1861
Macdonald,  sir  J.,  1815-91 ;  Canada,

1873
Macdonalds massacred ;  Glencoe,i6g2
Macdonnel,  quotations
MacDowell,  gen.  J.  ;  Manassas,  1861
Macduff,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1790
Maceo,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1882
Macfarlane,  S.  ;  trials,  1844
Macfarren,  sir  George,  1813-87;  royal

academy  of  music,  oratorio,  opera
MacGrath  ;  dogs
Macgregor,  J.  ;  bank,  British,  1849  >

canoe,  1865
Machiavelli,  N.,  1469-1527
Machiewicz,  abbe  ;  Poland,  1863
Mack,  gen.  ;  Ulm,  1805
Mackay,  gen.  ;  Killiecrankie,  1689
Mackay  and  Vaughan  ;  trials,  1816
Mackenzie,  Alex.  ;  Canada,  1892
Mackenzie,  G.  S. ;  Africa  (British  E.)

1890
Mackenzie, Henry,  novelist, 1745-

1831
Mackenzie,  bp.  C.  F. ;  Africa,  i860
Mackenzie, sir Morell ; Germany,

1887-0.
Mackenzie,  Win. ;  Africa  (British  E.),

1888
Mackie,  A. ;  printing,  1871
Mackinnon, sir Wm.  ; Zanzibar,

Africa  (British  E.)
Mackintosh,  sir  James,  1765-1872
Macklin,  C,  actor,  d.  1797
Macklin ;  Bible,  books
Mackonochie,  rev. Mr. ; Church  of

England, 1867-76; trials, 1867;

ritualists, public worship, holy

cross
MacLachlan,  Jessie  ;  trials,  1862
Maclagan,  bp.  ;  Lichfield,  1878
Maclagan,  Dr.  ;  germ  theory
Maclean,  B. ;  trials  1882
Macleod,  H.  D.  ;  trials,  1858
Macleod,  Mr.  ;  United  States,  1841
Macleod,  Norman,  D.D.,  1812-72
Macleod,  Dr.  ;  glaciarium
Maclise,  D.,  painter,  1811-70
M'Clure, capt.  ; Franklin, 1850  ;

north-west  passage
MacMahon,  marshal,  b.  1808  ;  Magen-
ta, 1859 !  Franco-Prussian,  Sedan,

France,  1873-8
McMillan,  J.  ;  trials,  1861
MacNamara,  capt. ;  duels,  1803
M'Culloch,  J.  R.,  polit.  econ.,  1789-

1864
McCulloch,  sir  Jas.,  Victoria,  1875-6
M'Neill,  sir  J.  ;  Sebastopol,  1855
McCarty,  gen.  ;  Enniskillen,  1689
McClintock,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1859
McGill,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1842
McKendrick, J. G.  ; Boy. Inst.,

1881-4
McKenzie,  Mr.  ;  duel,  1788
McNaghten,  sirW.,  killed,  1841
McNaughten,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1761,  1843
McSwiney,  Mr.,  Ireland,  1875
Macready,  W.  ;  actor,  1793-1873
Macreath,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1841
Macrobius  ;  Lat.  writer,  d.  415
Madan,  bp.  ;  Peterborough,  1794
Madiai,  the  ;  Tuscany,  1852
Madison, James ; United States,

president,  1809
Maecenas,  d.  8  ;  dedications,  baths
Ma;lzel,  J. ;  metronome,  1815
Magee,  J. ;  trials,  1813 ;  Guatemala,

1874


INDEX.

Magee, W. C,  bp. Peterborough,

1868
Magellan ;  killed,  1521 ;  circumnavi-
gation, Philippine
Magi ;  fire  worshippers,  Epiphany
Magnin,  C.  ;  puppets,  1872
Magnus ;  king,  Norway,  Sweden
Maguire,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1848
Magus,  Simon  ;  Simonians,  heretics
Mahdi ;  Soudan

Mahomet, 570-632  ; Hegira, 622  ;
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina,
Beder,  Turkey,  Koran
Mahomet  II.,  d.  148 1 ;  eastern  empire,
Turkey,  Adrianople,  Constantino-
ple, Albania
Mahony,  F.  (Prout),  d.  1866
MaYmonides (Maimoun), Moses,

Jewish  writer,  d.  1208
Maine,  sir  H.  J.  S.  ;  jurist,  1822-8S
Maitland,  capt.  ;  France,  1815
Maitland,  sir  Fred.  ;  China,  1838
Majendie,  bishop  ;  Chester,  1800
Major ;  conchology,  1675
Majorian,  coronation
Makart, J.  ; painter, 1840-1884  ;

Austria
Makomo,  Kaffraria,  1873
Malachi  prophesies  about  397  b.  c.
Malcolm  ;  Scotland,  kings,  clanships,

Alnwick,  Dunsinane
Malcolm,  Jas.  ;  trials,  1885.
Malebranche,  N.  ;  philos.,  1638-1715
Malet, sir  E.  ; Egypt, 1881 ; Ger-
many, 1884
Malherbe ;  Fr.  poet,  1556-1628
Malibran,  madame  ;  music,  1808-36
Mallet, B.  ; earthquakes, seismo-
meter, 1858
Mallory, W. H. ; screw-propeller,

1878
Malmesbury, lord, b. 1807 ; Derby
and  Disraeli  adms.  1852,  1858,  1874
Malou  ;  Belgium,  1871  ;  1884
Malpighi,  M.  ;  anatomist,  1628-94
Maltby,  bishop  ;  Durham,  1836
Malthus,  T.,  1 766-1834,  polit.  econ.
Manasseh,  Ben  Israel ;  Jews,  1657
Manby,  capt.  ;  life-preserver,  1809
Mance,  H. ,  heliography
Manchester,  bp. of, pub. worship

reg.  act,  1883
Manchester,  earl  of;  administrations,

1620
Manchester  will ;  trials,  1854
MandeviHe,  visct.  ;  administrations,

1620
Manes,  killed,  274 ;  Manicheans
Manfred,  killed,  1266  ;  Naples
Manlius  ;  Cimbri,  102  B.C.,  Rome
Mann,  Wm.,  air  (compressing),  1829
Manners,  lord  John, b. 1818;  Derby
adm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disraeli
administrations,  1868,  1874  ; Re-
form, 1884  ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885,
i836,  (duke  of  Rutland,  1888)
Manning, H., cardinal, 1809-92  ;

archbishop,  1865  ;  Westminster
Mannings  ;  murderers,  trials,  1849
Manny,  sir  W.  ;  charter-house,  1371
Mansel,  bisliop  ;  Bristol,  1808
Mansell,  T.  ;  executions,  1857
Mansfield, lord  ; att.-gen. 1754 ;

fictions  in  law,  king's  bench
Mansfield,  C.B.  ;  benzole,  1849
Mantegazza,  marchese,  Italy,  1876
Mantell,  G.  A.,  weald
Manteuftel,  gen.,  Franco-Pruss.  war,

1870-1
Manuel ;  Eastern  empire,  Trebizond
Manutius,  see  Aldus
Manzoni,  A.,  Ital.  nov.,  1784-1873
Mapleson,  Mr.,  national  opera  house,

1875
Mar,  earl  of; Harlaw,  141 1;  Dum-

blain, 1715
Mar,  earl  of ;  trials,  1831
Marat,  stabbed;  France,  1793


1110

Marbeck, J., concordance, 1550  ::

chanting
Marceau,  gen.,  killed,  Altenkirchen,.

Marcel,  S. ;  communes,  1356
Marcellus;  Borne,  212  B.C.
March,  H.  ;  executions,  1877
March, Roger, earl  of; rebellions:

1398
March,  R.  ;  rope-making,  1784
Marehmont;  trials,  1858
Marcion  ;  Marcionites,  140
Marcus  Aurelius  ;  Rome,  emp.  161
Marcus  Curtius  ;  Rome,  362  B.C.
Mardonius  ;  Myeale,  Plata;a,  497  b.c.
Margaret ; England, queen  of Ed-
ward I.
Margaret  of  Anjou,  England  (queen,
of  Henry  VI.),  d. 148 1 ; Tewkes-
bury, Towton,  Wakefield
Margaret  of  Norway  ;  Calmar,  1393
Margaret  (governess  of  the  Nether-
lands, 1559) ;  beards
Margary,  Mr.,  killed  ;  China,  1875-7
Margraff;  beet-root,  1747
Maria  da  Gloria  ;  Portugal,  1826
Maria  Louisa,  d.  1847  ;  France,  i8io„

first  empire ;  wills  (Napoleon's)
Maria  Theresa  ;  Germany,  1711
Marie Antoinette  ; France, 1793  -

diamond  necklace
Mariiio,  Hayti,  1880
Marius,  d.  86  b.c.  ;  Ambrones,  Cimbrf.
Mario,  G.  ;  Italian  singer,  1808  (?)  -8--\
Marius  ;  pianoforte
Markham,  abp.  ;  York,  1776
Marks,  I. ;  execution,  1877
Marlborough, earl of; administra-
tions, 1628
Marlborough, duchess of,  Ireland.

1880
Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1722  r
com. -in-chief,  marshals,  Blenheim  'r
Douay, Liege, Lisle,  Malplaquetr
Oudenarde,  Ramilies
Marlborough,  John,  duke  of,  6.  1822  ;
Derby  adm.,  1867;  Disraeli  adm.r
1868,  1878,  gems
Marlowe,  Chr.  ;  dramatist,  d.  1593
Marmont,  marshal ;  Salamanca,  1812
Marmontel,  J.  F.,  Fr.  novel.  1723-99
Marot, Clement; Fr. poet, 1495-

1544
Maroto,  gen.,  Spain,  Vergara,  1839
Marsden,  Wm.  ;  cancer  hospital.
Marsh,  bp.  ;  Llandaflj  18 16
Marsh,  Catherine,  convalescent  insti-
tution, 1866
Marsh,  professor ;  Indians
Marshal,  T.  R.  ;  trials,  1859
Marshall,  Mr.  ;  California,  1847
Marshall,  capt.,  naval  battles,  1778
Marshall, John, physiol., 1818-91  ;

Royal  Institution
Martel,  Charles  ;  France,  714
Martel,  France,  1879
Marten,  Maria  ;  trials,  1828
Marth  ;  planets,  1854
Martial ;  epigrams,  fl.  100
Martin,  John,  painter,  1 790-1854
Martin,  Jon.  ;  York  minster,  1829
Martin,  L.  H.  ;  Fr.  hist.,  1810-1883
Martin  ;  popes,  640  et  seq.
Martin,  Rd.  ;  animals,  1822
Martin,  rev.  G.  ;  suicide,  i860
Martin  v. Mackonochie,  Church  of

England,  1867-76
Martin,  sir  Theodore,  b.  1816  ;  Albert
Martineau,  Harriet, hist, novelist,

<fcc. ,  1802-76
Martyr,  Peter,  reformer,  1500-62
Marvell,  And. ,  d.  1678  ;  ballot
Marvin,  C.  ;  trials,  1878
Marx,  C.,  socialists
Mary  I.,  1516-58;  England  (queen),

1553 ;  Calais
Mary  II.,  1662-94;  England  (queen'),


1120

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  1542-87;
Scotland,  Carlisle,  Edinburgh,
sycamore,  Langside,  Lochleven-
castle,  Fotheringay

Maryborough,  lord  ;  postmaster,  1835

Masaniello ;  Naples,  1647

Maskelyne,  J.  N.,  automaton,  1875

Maskelyne,  N,  astronomer,i732-i8n;
Greenwich,  1765  ;  almanacs,  Schie-
hallien,  Venus

Mason,  Mr.  ;  U.  States,  1861

Mason  and  Hamlin ;  American  organ

Mason,  Josiah,  orphan  houses,  Bir-
mingham, 1869-75

Massena;  Zurich,  1799;  Almeida,
Busaco

Massey  v.  Headfort ;  trials,  1804

Massey,  W.  ;  India,  1865

Massillon,  J.  B.  ;  Fr.  preacher,  1663-

J742 „
Masupha,  Basuto

Mathew, Theobald,  d. 1856; tem-
perance
Mathews,  Chas.  ; actor, 1776-1835  ;

(son)  C.  J.,  1803-78
Mathias ;  anabaptists,  1534
Matilda; England  (queen  of, Wil-
liam I.) ;  Bayeux  tapestry,  1066
Matilda  ;  England  (queen  of  Stephen)
Matilda  (empress) ;  England,  1135
Matilda;  Denmark,  1772  ;  Zell
Matilda,  countess  ; Canossa, 1077  ;

Italy
Matthew,  T.,  abp.  ;  York,  1606
Matthews,  adm.  ;  Toulon,  1744
Matthews, H.  ; Salisbury adm.,

1886
Maud ;  see  Matilda
Maule,  Fox  (lord  Pan  mure); Kussell

administration,  1846
Maule,  J.  B.,  prosecutor
Maunsell,  bookseller  ;  meal-tub  plot,

1679
Maunsell,  Capt.  C.  S.  ;  trials,  1874
Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ;

latitude
Manrer,  J.  and  G.  (German  enthu-
siasts), killed  ;  Brazil,  1874
Maurice,  rev.  F.  D.,  1805-72  ;  broad
church, working-men's  college,  1854
Maury,  lieut.  M.,  1806-73  ;  sea
Mausolus, 377 b.c.  ; mausoleum,

wonders
Maximilian  ; emperors, Germany,

1493  ;  Mexico,  1864-67
Maximin ;  Rome,  emp.  235 ;  giants,

persecutions
May,  G.  A.  C.  ;  king's  (or  queen's)

bench,  1877
May,  S.  E.  ;  parliament,  1886
Maybrick,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1889
Mayhew, H. (1812-1887); poor,

i5S1-2
Mayne,  sir  Richd.,  1796- 1868  ;  police,

1829
Mayo,  earl  of,  6.  1822  ;  Disraeli  adm.

1868 ; assassinated, 1872 ; India,

Andaman
Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643  ;

tontines  ;  jirinting,  1450
Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72;

Rome,  1831 ;  triumvirate,  1849
Mazzuoli,  F.  ;  engraving,  1532
Mead,Dr.  Rich. ,  1673-1 754;  inoculation
Mead,  Geo.,  gen., 1816-72  ; United

States,  1863
Meagher ;  Ireland,  1848
Mecklenburg,  grand  duke, Franco-

Pruss.  war,  1870-1
Medail,  M.  ;  Alps  (tunnel),  1848
Medici ;  Medici  family
Medicis,  Catherine  de,  d.  1589 ;  Bar-
tholomew, St.
Medina-Sidonia,  duke  of ;  armada
Medon  ;  Athens,  1044  B.C.
Mehemet  Ali  ;  Egypt,  Syria
Mehemet  Ali ; Russo-Turkish war,

II.,  1877


INDEX.

Mehemet  Ruchdi,  Turkey,  1371-2
Meikle,  A.,  threshing  machine,  1776
Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ;
adiaphorists,  Augsburg  confession
Melas,  general ;  Marengo,  1800
Melbourne,  viscount,  1779-1849  ;  Mel-
bourne ;  trials,  1836
Melikoff, L.  Alad.ja  Dagh; Russo-
Turkish  war, II., 1877 ; Russia,
1880-1
Mellon,  Miss  (afterwards  duchess  of
St.  Alban's),  first  appearance,  1795
Melloni,  M.,  1798-1854;  electricity
Melville,  lord  ;  impeachment,  1806
Memnon said  to invent  alphabet,

1822  B.C.
Menabrea,  count  L.  F.  ;  Italy,  1867
Menander,  d.  291  B.C.  ;  drama
Mendelssohn,  F.  Bartholdy,  1809-47
Mendiri  ;  Spain,  1874-5
Mendizabal ;  Spain,  1835
Mendoza,  Pedro  de;  Buenos  Ayres,

Menier ;  balloons,  1874
Menou,  general ;  Alexandria,  1800
Menschikoff, prince ; holy places,
1853 ;  Russia,  Alma,  Russo-Turk-
ish war
Mercadier,  M.,  teleradiophone
Mercator,  Ger.,  1512-94  ;  charts
Mercedes  (queen)  ;  Spain,  1878
Mercier,  C.  H.  ;  hospital  Saturday,

1874
Mercier,  Honore;  Quebec,  1891
Merimee,  Prosper,  Fr.  hist.,  1803-70
Meroveeus ;  Merovingians,'  France,  448
Mesentzoff, gen.  ; assassinated,

Russia,  1878
Mesmer,  Frederic  Ant.;  mesmerism,

1766
Metastasio,  Pet,  It.  poet,  1698-1782
Metellus;  Achaia,  147  B.C.
Metius;  telescopes,  1590-1609
Meton ;  golden  number,  432  B.C.
Metternich,  prince,  Aust.  statesman,

1773-1859  •
Metz,  M.  de;  reformatory,  1839
Meux  and  Co. ;  porter
Meyer,  H.  dr. ;  Kilima  Njaro,  1889
Meyer,  H.  von,  archaeopteryx,  1861
Meyer,  Simon;  Saturn,  1608-9-10
Meyerbeer,  J.  M.,  Germ,  mus.,  1794-

1864
Meyerstein,  E. ;  printing  (in  colours),

1876
Mezentius  ;  indiction,  312
Miall,  E.,  1809-81  ;  nonconformists
Micah,  prophesies  about  750  B.C.
Michael  Angelo  Buonaroti,  Ital.  ar-
tist, 1474-1564
Michael;  eastern  empire,  assassina-
tions, Servia,  1860-8
Michael,  grand  duke  ;  Russo-Turkish

war,  1877
Michaelis,  J.  W.,  bib.  critic,  1717-91
Miehaud,  abbe  ;  old  catholics,  1872
Michel,  Louise  ;  France,  1883
Michelet,  J.,  Fr.  hist.,  b.  1798
Middlesex,  earl  of;  administrations,

1621
Middleton,  Con.;  (Cicero),  1683-1750
Middleton,  gen.,  Canada,  1885
Middleton;  N.W.  passage,  1742
Middleton  (or  Myddelton),  sir  Hugh,

1565-1631 ;  New  River
Middleton,  John;  giants,  1578
Middleton,  rev.  T.  ;  Manchester,  1876
Midhat  Pasha,  Turkey,  1878-81,  Syria
Miecislas;  Poland,  962
Mieroslawski,  L.;  Poland,  1863
Mignet, Francois, Fr. hist., 1796-

1884
Miguel,  dom,  1802-66;  Portugal,  1824
Milan ;  Servia

Mildmay,  sir  J.  H. ;  trials,  1814
Mildmay, sir Walter; administra-
tions, 1579
Mill,  Jas.,  hist,  of  Ind.,  1773-1836


Mill,  John  Stuart,  1806-1873,  logic
Millais,  J.  E.,  painter,  &.  1829;  pre-

Raphaelites
Miller,  Hugh ;  geology,  suicide,  1856
Miller  v.  Salomons ;  trials,  1852
Miller,  W.;  trials,  1870
Millie,  Mr.;  trials,  1839
Milman,  H.  H,  1791-1868;  poet  and

hist.
Milosch;  Servia,  1815
Miltiades;  Marathon,  490  B.C.
Milton,  John,  1608-74;  Paradise  Lost,

Cripplegate  ;  press,  liberty  of
Mina,  gen.,  d.  1836;  Spain,  1835
Minghetti  ministry  ;  Italy,  1873-6
Minos;  Crete,  1015  B.C.
Minto,  earl  of;  India,  gov. -gen.,  1807
Miramon,  gen.; Mexico,  1859 exe-
cuted, 1867
Mires,  M;  Mexico,  1861
Mirsky,  L.,  Russia,  1879
Mister,  Josiah ;  trials,  1841
Mitchell,  sir  F. ;  monopolies,  victual-
lers, 1 62 1
Mitchell,  D.;  aquarium,  1853
Mitchell,  adm.;  Bantry  bay,  1801-2
Mitchell,  J. ;  Ireland,  1848,  1874
Mitchell,  S.  ;  Glasgow,  1874
Mitford,  sir  John ;  att. -general,  1800 ;
speaker,  1801 ; — W.,  hist,  of  Greece,
1744-1827
Mithridates  the  Great,  131-63  B.C. ;
Pontus,  comets,  electuary,  massa-
cres, omens
Mitre,  gen.  B.;  Buenos  Ayres,  1859-75
Morfat,  colonel;  wrecks,  1857
Moffat,  Dr.  C.  ;  ammoniaphone
Moffat,  Rev.  R.,  1790-1882  ;  mission-
ary; Africa
Mohun,  lord;  duels,  1712
Moir,  capt.;  trials,  1830
Mbira,  earl  of;  India,  gov.-gen.,  1813
Moiroso,  Basuto
Mole,  count,  d.  1855
Molesworth,  sir  William;  Aberdeen

adm.,  1852
Moliere,  Fr. comic  dram., 1622-73

eomedie  Frang.
Molinos,  1627-96  ;  quietists
Molteno,  Mr.  ;  Cape,  1875
Moltke,  Hellmuth,  strategist,  1800-
91 ; Franco-Prussian war  ; Ger-
many, 1890
Molyneux,  Mr.;  absentee,  1738
Mompesson,  Giles ;  monopolies,  vic-
tuallers, 1621
Monasterio,  mad.  ;  France,  1883
Moncasi,  J.  O.,  Spain,  1878
Monck,  viset.  C.  S.,  6.  1819;  Canada,

1861
Moncrieff,  capt.;  cannon,  1868,  1872
Monge,  gas
Monk, general  ; administrations,

1660;  guards;  d.  1670
Monk,  bishop ;  Gloucester,  1830
Monmouth, duke  of, 1649-S5 ;  Mon-
mouth, Bothwell,  Sedgemoor,  iron
mask
Monro,  James,  ;  police,  1888
Monroe,  Mr.;  United  States,  presi-
dent, 1817-21
Monstrelet,  E.  de,  French  historian,

d-  1453
Montacute,  marquis  of;  Man,  1314-43
Montagu, lord  ; administrations,

1660-89
Montagu,  lady  M.  W. ; inoculation,

1718
Montague,  Mrs.,  d.  1800;  May-day
Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist,

I533-92
Montalembert,  comte  de; 1810-70;

France,  1858
Montanus ;  Montanists,  polyglot,  1559
Monteliore, sir Moses, 1784-1885  ;

Jews,  1837 ;  1883-4
Montemolin,  comte  de ;  Spain,  1860-1
Montero,  pres.  Peru,  1882


INDEX.


1121


Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. pliil.,

1689-1755
Monteverde;  opera,  1607
Montfort,  Amauri  de  ; Albigenses,

1268
Montfort, Simon  de; barons'  war,
commons, Kenilworth, steward,
lord  high, speaker,  Lewes;  killed
at  Evesham,  1265
Montgolfier,  M. ;  balloons,  1782
Montgomerie, comte de  ; tourna-
ments, 1559
Montgomery, Mr.  ; suicide, duels,

1803  ;  trials,  1873
Montholon, comte de; will  (Napo-
leon's), 1821
Monti,  Ital.  poet,  1754-1828
Montpensier; France,  Spanish  mar-
riage, 1846;  Spain,  1868-72
Montrose,  duke  of;  Pitt  adm.  1804,

Derby  adm. ,  1866
Montrose,  marquis  of,  executed,  1650 ;
Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford,
Philiphaugh
Montt,  J.  ;  Chili,  1891
Moody  and  Sankey  ;  revivals,  1875
Moore,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1783
Moore;  almanac,  1698-1713
Moore,  murdered ;  trials,  18S3
Moore,  capt. ;  Franklin,  1848
Moore,  Serjeant;  leases,  1535
Moore,  Anne;  abstinence,  1808
Moore, Geo. ; mansion  house  fund,

1871
Moore,  sir  John,  7;.  at  Corunna,  1S09
Moore,  sir  Jonas ;  Greenwich
Moore,  Thos.,  poet,  1780-1852
Morales,  H.  A.,  Bolivia,  1872
Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad-
ministrations, 1689
Mordaunt  divorce ;  trials,  1S70, 1874-5
More, sir  Thomas, 1478 -1535; ad-
ministrations, 1529  ; chancellor,
supremacy  ;  Utopia
More,  Hannah,  1745-1833
More,  Roger;  rebellion,  1651
Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales-
sandria, Augsburg, Wurtemberg,
Dresden
Morelli;  tourniquet,  1674
Moreton,  John,  earl  of;  Ireland,  1177
Morgan ;  buccaneer,  1668
Morgan,  colonel;  Lincoln
Morgan, confederate general  ; U.

States,  1862
-  Morgan,  Pritchard  ;  gold,  1887
Moriarty,  bp.  Ireland,  1877
Morier,  sir  R.  ;  Prussia,  1888
Moriones,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1S73-5
Morland, Sam., d. 1695  ; capstan,

speaking-trumpet
Morland,  Geo.,  animal  painter,  1763-

1804
Morley,  Arnold; Gladstone adm.,

1892
Morley,  J.,  b.  1838  ;  anti-aggressive  ;
Pall  Mall; Gladstone  adm.,  1886,
1892
Morley,  T.;  music;  d.  1604
Morley,  Id.  ;  Gladstone  adm.,  1886
Morning  Chronicle ;  trials,  1810, 1830 ;

France,  1862
Morning  Herald ;  trials,  i8oq
Morning  Post;  libel,  1792
Mornington,  lord;  India,  1798
Morpeth,  viscount  (aft.  earl  of  Car-
lisle); Melbourne  adm.,  1835;  Ire-
land, lord-lieut.
Morris,  George;  flowers,  1792
Morris,  Mr.;  theatres,  1805
Morrison,  E.  ;  Australia,  1882-3
Morse, S. F. B.,  Am.  electrician,

1791-1872
Mortara,  E. ;  Jews,  1858
Mortier,  mar.;  Romainville,  1814
Mortimer,  E.  A.;  trials,  1859
Mortimer,  earl  of  March;  Berkeley,
1327


Morton,  arch. ;  Canterbury,  i486
Morton,  earl  of,  regent  of  Scotland,

1572  ;  Tulchan  bishops
Morton,  sir  Albert ;  administrations,

1628
Morton,  Thomas;  ether,  1846
Morton;  trials,  1852
Moryson,  Fynes;  forks
Moscrop,  E.  H.,  salmon  ova
Moseley,  Wolf,  &c. ;  trials,  1819
Moses,  1572-1451  B.C.
Moshesh,  cape  of  G.  H.,  1870
Mosquera,  gen. ;  New  Granada,  i36i
Moss,  bishop ;  Oxford,  1807
Mosse,  Dr.;  lying-in  hospital,  1745
Mossol,  M.,  plethysmography
Most,  J.,  trials,  1881
Mothe-Guyon,  madame  de  la ; quiet-

ists,  1697
Motley,  J.  L.,  Am.  historian,  1814-77
Mouchot,  M.,  sun,  1880
Moule,  Rev.  H.  ;  Kimmeridge
Mountaigne,  abp.;  York,  1628
Mount-Sandford,  lord,  killed ;  trials,

1828
Mouravieff;  Kars,  1855
Mourzoufle;  Constantinople,  eastern

empire,  1204
Mozart,  W.  A.;  music,  1756-91
Mudie, C,  1818-90; circulating  li-
brary, 1842
Muirhead,  J.  G.;  trials,  1825
Mukhtar  Pasha,  Turkey,  1876 ;  Russo-

Turkish  war,  II.  1877-S
Mulgrave,  earl ;  Liverpool  adm.,  1812  ;

Ireland,  lord-lieut.
Mullens,  J.;  trials,  i860
Midler,  F.;  execution,  1864
Miiller,  F.  Max,  &.  1823;  Vedas,  San-
skrit, language,  Hibbert  fund
Miiller,  Geo. ;  b.  1805 ;  orphan  houses ;

scripture  knowledge
Mulot,  M. ;  Artesian  well,  1841
Mulready,  Win.;  painter,  1786-1863
Mummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 B.C. ;

painting
Mundella,  A.  J. ; Gladstone  adm.,

1886,  1892
Mundy,  R.  M.,  Honduras,  1874
Munich,  marshal;  Perekop,  1736
Muiioz,  duke ;  Spain,  1833,  1873
Munro,  H. ;  Buxar,  1764
Munster,  earl  of;  suicide,  1842
Munzer,  T. ;  anabaptists,  1524-5,  level-
lers ;  Frankenhausen
Murat,  Joachim,  1771-1815; Erfurt,

Naples
Muratori,  L.;  hist.,  1672-1750
Murchison, sir  Roderick I., 1792-

1871 ;  geology,  Brit.  Assoc.
Murdoch,  Mr.;  gas,  1792
Murillo,  Bravo,  Spain,  1S65,  1868
Murillo,  B.  S.,  Sp.  painter,  1618-82
Murray,  R.  ;  post-office,  1681
Murray,  earl  of;  Scotland,  1567
Murray,  lady  Aug.  ;  marriage  act,  1793
Murray,  B. ;  trials,  1841
Murray,  bishop;  David's,  St.,  1800
Murray,  James, earl of, Scotland,

1567  ;  assassinations
Murray,  John  ;  lighthouse
Murray,  sir  Geo. ;  Peel  adm.,  1S34
Murray,  sir  James ;  Tarragona,  1813
Murray,  Dr.  J.  H.  ; dictionaries.
Murrell,  capt. ;  wrecks,  1889
Musa;  Spain,  712
Musreus,  fl.  1413  B.C.
Musgrave,  abp.;  Hereford,  1837
Musgrave,  sir  Richard ;  duel,  1802  ; —
sir  A.,  Jamaica,  1876  ;  Queensland,
1883
Mushat,  Mr. ;  steel,  1800
Muswell  Hill,  burglary ;  trials,  1889
Muybridge, E. J. ; photography,

1881  ;  zoopraxiscope
Myall,  rhubarb

Myddelton,  sir  Hugh, is65?-i63i;
New  River


Mylne,R.;  architeet,i734-i8n; Black-
friars
Myron,  sculptor,  fl.  480  B.C.
Mytton,  general;  Wales,  1645


N.


Nabis;  Sparta,  206  b.c.

Nabonasser,  fl.  747  b.  c.  ;  astronomy

Nachimoff,  admiral ;  Sinope,  1853

Nadar;  balloon,  1863

Nadir  Shah ;  Persia,  1732  ;  Delhi,
Afghanistan,  Cabul

Nagel,  H.,  trials,  1872

Nahum  prophesies  about  713  B.C.

Nana  Sahib ;  Cawnpore,  India,  1857

Nansen,  Dr.  ;  Greenland

Napier  of  Merchiston  ;  logarithms  ;
Napier's  bones,  1614

Napier,  admiral  sir  C.  ;  Portugal,
Sidon,  cape  St.  Vincent,  Baltic,
1854

Napier,  gen.  sir  C. ;  Meeanee,  1843

Napier,  lord  ;  China ;  Edinburgh  ;
United  States,  1856

Napier,  Mr.  ;  coin,  1844

Napier,  sir  R.,  aft.  lord  (of  Magdala),
1810-90;  Abyssinia,  1867  ;  Arogee,
Magdala,  Gibraltar,  1876

Napoleon,  Jerome,  1784- 1860 ;  son,
1822-91,  France,  1861-76 ;  Bonaparte

Napoleon  I.,  1 769-1 821,  France,  abat-
toirs, Bonaparte,  confederation,
legion  of  honour,  models,  notables,
Cairo,  Egypt,  Elba,  Fontainebleau,
Malta,  Mamelukes,  St.  Helena,
Simplon,  vaccination  ;  his  battles  :
Acre,  Areola,  Asperne,  Auerstadt,
Austerlitz,  Bautzen,  Borodino,
Castiglione,  Charleroi,  Dresden,
Eekmiihl,  Essling,  Eylau,  Fried-
land,  Hanau,  Italy,  Jena,  La
Rothiere,  Leipsic,  Ligny,  Lodi,
Lutzen,  Marengo,  Montereau,
National  guard,  Pultusk,  St.
Dizier,  Simplon,  Tilsit,  Troyes,
Vienna,  Waterloo,  Wurtzburg

Napoleon  II. ,  king  of  Rome ;  France,
p.  380

Napoleon  III.,  1808-73:  France,
(sovereigns) ;  Boulogne,  Strasbnrg,
Cherbourg,  Italy,  Magenta,  Sol-
ferino,  Sedan,  wills,  assassinations

Napoleon,  imperial  prince,  1856-79  ;
Bonaparte  ;  France,  1873-6,  Saar-
brtick

Nares,  capt.,  deep  sea,  1872 ;  north-
west passage,  1874-8  ;  soundings

Narses ;  East,  empire,  552  ;  Goths,
Italy,  Rome

Narvaez,  gen.  Ramon,  1800-1S68 ;
Spain,  1846

Nash,  Beau,  1674-1761 ;  Bath,  cere-
monies

Nash,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  parks,  1818

Nash.,  Jos.,  architect,  1812-78

Nasmyth,  J.  ;  steam-hammer,  1838  ;
moon

Nasmyth,  lieut.  ;  Silistria,  1854

Nasr-ed-Din ;  Persia,  1848-73

Naville,  M.  Egypt,  expl.  fund

Nearchus  ;  sugar,  325  B.C.

Neave  and  others,  trials,  1875

Nebuchadnezzar;  Jews,  605  B.C.,
Tyre,  Babylon

Necho  ;  Egypt,  634  b.c.

Neil,  col.  ;  India,  1857 ;  Allahabad,
Benares

Neild  ;  legacy  to  the  queen,  1852

Neilson,  J.,  1792-1865;  blowing-
machine,  1828

Neison,  Edm.  ;  moon,  1876

Nelson,  Horatio,  admiral  lord,  175S-
1805  ;  Nelson

Nero  ;  Rome,  emperor,  54

Nessekode,  comte  de,  Russian  states-
man, 1 780-1 862

4  c


1122

Nettlefold,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1892
Newall,  B. S.  ; electric  telegraph,

1840
Newcastle, marquis of; Marston-

moor,  1644
Newcastle,  duke  of:  Pelham  adm  ,
1749  ;  Newcastle  adm.,  1754 ;  Aber-
deen adm.,  1852
Newcomb, prof. S.  ; photo-tacho-
meter
Newcomen,  T.,  steam,  1712
Newenham,  W.  B.  ;  trials,  1844
Newington,  H.  (Flora  Davey),  trials,

1871
Newman, cardinal John Henry,
1801-90;  trials,  1852;  Tractarians
Newport,  sir  John ;  exchequer,  1834
Newsham,  B. ;  Preston,  1883
Newton,  sir  C.  T.,  mausoleum
Newton, sir  Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air,
binomial, coin, diamond, astro-
nomy, royal  society,  hydrostatics,
gravitation,  mechanics
Ney,  marshal,  1769-1815  ;  Dennewitz,

France,  Quatre-Bras,  Ulm,  Ney
Neyle,  archbp.  ;  York,  1632
Nez  Perces,  Indians
Niccoli,  Nicholas  ;  libraries,  1436^
Nicephori,  emperors ; east,  empire,

802-963
Nicephorus ;  comets
Nicholas  I.,  Bussia,  1825-55
Nicholas V.  ; popes, 1447-55  ; St.

Peter's,  Borne
Nicholas,  grand  duke,  Busso-Turkish

war  II.,  1877
Nicholls,  comm.  navy,  1884
Nichols,  col.  ;  New  York,  1664
Nichols,  H.,  Manchester,  1875
Nicholson ;  trials,  1813
Niebuhr,  B.  H.  ;  hist.,  1776-1831
Niepce ; photography,  1814,  veloci-
pedes, 1818
Niger, P.  ; Borne, emp. ; killed,

127
Nightingale, F.,  6. 1820 ; Scutari,

Nightingale
Nikita,  Montenegro,  i860
Nillson,  Mr. ,  prehistoric  archeology
Ninus  ;  Assyria,  2059  B.C.
Nisbet,  sir  John  ;  advocates,  1685
Nixon,  Alf.  ;  velocipede,  1882
Noad,  H.  M.  ;  electricity,  1855
Noah,  2347  B.C.  ;  ark,  Armenia
Noailles,  marshal  ;  Dettingen,  1743
Nobel, Alf.  ; nitro-glycerine, 1864,
dynamite,  1868;  blasting  gelatine
Nobel,  L.  &  B.  ;  petroleum,  1875
Nobert,  F.  A.  ;  ruling  machine
Nobiling,  Dr.  ;  Germany,  1878
Noble,  Matt.,  sculptor,  1820-76
Nordenskibld,  professor,  north-east,

&c,  1872-3
Norfolk, duke  of; administrations,
1540 ; people ; catholic union,
1871
Norman,  sir  H.  ;  Jamaica,  1883
Norman,  sir  J.  ;  mayor,  1453
Norman,  Bobert ;  magnet,  1576
Norman,  justice, murdered, India,

1871
Normanby and Buckingham, duke

of;  Godolphin  adm.,  1702
Normanby,  marquis  of,  b.  15 May,
1797 ;  (J.28  July,  1863  ;  Ireland  (lord-
lieut.),  1835  ;  Queensland,  1871 ;  N.
Zealand,  1874-8 ;  Victoria,  1879
Normandy,  Dr.;  filterers,  water
North,  bishop  ;  Winchester,  1781
North,  lord  ;  North  adm.,  1770
North,  sir  F.  ;  king's  counsel,  1663
North,  miss  M.  ;  Kew,  1882
Northampton, Henry,  earl  of; ad-
ministrations, 1609
Northbrook,  Id.,  India,  1872;  earl  of,

admiralty,  1880,  1885
Northcotc, sir Stafford, 1818-87  :
Derby  adm.,  ig66 ;  Disraeli  adm.,


INDEX.

1868, 1874  ;  parliament,  1881 ;  Suez,
1883  ;  earl  of  Iddesleigh,  Salisbury
adm.  1885,  1886

Northcott  and  others,  trials,  1876

Northinore,  gas

Northumberland,  Algernon,  duke  of ;
Derby  administration,  1852  ;  —
Algernon  George,  Disraeli  adminis-
tration, 1878  ;  Boyal  Institution

Northumberland,  Dudley,  duke  of;
administrations,  1551

Northumberland,  Hugh,  duke  of;
Ireland  (lord-lieut.),  1763

Northumberland,  earl  of;  coaches,
Man

Norton,  sir  Fletcher ;  att.-gen.,  1763

Norton,  Jeffrey  de ;  recorder,  1298

Norton  v.  lord  Melbourne ;  trials,  1836

Nostradamus ;  almanacs,  1566

Nott,  gen.  ;  Ghiznee,  1842

Nottingham,  earl  of;  administra-
tions, 1684

Novaliches,  marquis  de,  Spain,  1868,
Alcolea,  1868

Nubar  Pacha,  Cairo,  Egypt,  1876-9

Numa  Pompilius  ;  Borne,  kings,  715
B.C.  ;  calendar

Numitor,  Alba,  795  B.C.

Nunez,  A.  ;  Paraguay,  1535


O.


Oakley,  sir  Charles  ;  Madras,  1792

Oakley,  B.  B.,  trials,  1876

Oates,  T.  ;  Oates'  plot,  1678

Obadiah  prophesies  about  587  B.C.

Obeid-ullah,  Kurdistan

O'Brien,  king;  Limerick,  1200

O'Brien,  W.  ;  Ireland,  1886  et  seq. ;
trials,  1889

O'Brien,  W.  S.  ;  Ireland,  1846,  1848

O'Brien,  giants,  1785

O'Connell,  Mr.  Daniel,  1775-1847 ;
duels,  1815  ;  agitators,  emancipa-
tion, repeal,  trials  (1831,  1844),
Ireland  ;  Dublin,  1883

O'Connell,  Mr.  Morgan ;  duels,  1835

O'Connor,  Arthur;  press,  riots,
trials,  1798

O'Connor,  Fergus,  d.  1855  ;  chartists

O'Connor,  Boger;  trials,  1817

Ochus  ;  Persia,  359  B.C.

Octavius;  Borne,  37  B.C.

Odin;  Sweden,  70B.C.

Odo,  earl  of  Kent ;  treasurer

Odo,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  941-58

Odoacer  ;  Italy,  476,  Heruli

O'Donnell,  marshal  Leopold,  1808-67  ;
Spain  1841

O'Donnell,  Mr.  ;  parliament,  1882

O'Donnell  v.  Walter ;  Parnellites,
1888

CEdipus  ;  Bosotia,  1266  B.C.

Gmotrus  ; Arcadia,  Greece,  1710  B.C.

Oersted,  H.  C,  1777-1851 ;  elec-
tricity, 1819

Ofenheim  (financier),  Austria,  1875

Ogle,  George ;  duel,  1802

Oglethorpe,  gen.  ;  Georgia,  1732

O'Grady,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1803

Ogyges  ;  deluge,  1764  B.C.

O'Hagan,  lord  chancellor  (Ireland)
1868  ;  Boman  catholics  ;  d.  1883

O'Halloran,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1818

O'Keefe  ;  trials,  1825

O'Keeffe  v.  Cullen,  trials,  1873

O'Kelly,  Mr.  ;  parliament,  1883

Oken,  German  union,  1822

Okubo,  Japan,  1878

Olbers,  M.  ;  planet,  1802

Oldcastle,  sir  J. ,  burnt,  1418 ;  Lollards

O'Leary,  pedestrianism,  1877

Oliphant,  sir  Win. ,  advocate

Olivarez  governs  Spain,  1621-43

Oliver  ;  trials,  1858,  1869

Ollendorff,  H.  G.  (linguist);  1803-6  5


Ollivant,  bp.  ;  Llandaff,  1849
Ollivier,  E.  ;  France,  1870
O'Loghlen,  sir  M. ;  Boman  catholics,

1836
Olozaga,  Spain,  1871
O'Mahony,  Fenians,  1877
Omar,  caliph,  634  :  Alexandria,  Ali
Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro,
Oltenitza, Ingour,  Busso-Turkish
war,  1855
Ommaney,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1850
O'Moore,  Bory  ;  Carlow,  1577
O'Neil,  rebellion ; massacre,  Black-
water,  1598
O'Neil,  Miss  (lady  Becher),  appears

at  Covent  Garden,  1814  ;  d.  1872
Onslow,  G.  and  Whalley,  G.  H. ;  trials

1872
Onslow,  sir  B.  ;  Halifax  adm.,  1714
Opie,  John;  painter,  1761-1807
Oppian,  poet,/?.  171
Orange,  William,  prince  of;  Holland,
Maestri cht,  revolution,  1572  ;  Eng-
land, 1689  ;  assassinations
Orange,  prince  of;  Quatre  Bras,  1815
Orbelliana ;  Circassia,  1857
Ord,  sir  H.  St.  G.,  West  Australia,

1877
Orellana;  Amazonia,  1540
Orestes  ;  Mycenae,  Sparta,  n 75  B.C.
Orfila,  M.  J.  ;  physician,  1787-1853
Orford,  earl  of;  admiralty,  1709
Orloff,  count;  diamonds,  1772
Ormerod,  Miss,  entomology
Ormond, James, duke  of;  Ireland,

lord-lieuts. ,  1643  et  seq.
Ormond,  earl  of;  combat,  1446
Ormond, marquis of ; Bathmines,

164Q
Orr,  Win.  ;  trials,  1797
Orrery,  earl  of ;  orrery
Orrock  ;  trial,  1884
Orsini,  Felix,  1819-58 ;  France,  1858
Ortega,  gen.  ;  Spain,  i860
Osborn,  Sherard  ;  Franklin,  1854
Osborne, Mrs.  (Miss  E.  F. Elliot),

trials,  1891
Osborne, sir Thomas ; administra-
tions, 1672
Osborne,  T.,  Ireland,  young
Oscar ;  Sweden,  1844
Osgodeby,  Adam  de  ;  master  of  the

rolls,  1295
Osman  Digna ;  Soudan
Osman  Pacha,  Plevna,  Busso-Turkish

war  II.,  1877
Ospina ;  New  Grenada,  1857
Ossory,  lord  ;  tea,  1666
Osymandyas ;  Egypt,  2100  B.C.  ;  ob-
servatories, painting
Othman ;  Turkey,  1298
Otho; Bome,  emp.,  69; Germany,

936 ;  Greece,  1832-62
Otto,  gas  (engine)
Otto,  M.  ;  Amiens,  1802
Ottocar  ;  Bohemia,  1197
Oudinot,  marshal ;  Bome,  1849
Oudry,  cafeine
Outram, sir  James; 1803-63; Mo-

hammerah,  India,  1857
Ouvry,  F.  ;  antiquaries,  1876
Overbury,  sir  T.,  poisoned,  1613
Overdank  ;  assassin.,  Austria,  1881
Overend,  Gurney,  &  Co.  ;  trials,  1867
Overstone, S., Jones Loyd, lord,
financier, 1796-1883  ;  metric sys-
tem, 1855
Ovid ;  poet,  d.  18
Owden,  J.  S.,  mayor,  1877-8
Owen,  W.  D.  ;  trials,  1858
Owen,  Bobert ;  socialists,  1834
Owen, Bichard, 6. 1804 ; odonto-
logy, palseontology,  zoology
Owen,  sir  P.  C. ;  colonial  exhibition

1886
Owens,  J.,  Owens  college
Oxenden,  sir  George  ;  Surat,  1664
Oxford,  Edward ;  trials,  1840


Oxford, earl of;  Godolphin  adm.,

1702  ;  Oxford  adm.
Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen,

i486
Oxley  ;  Brisbane,  Queensland,  1823


Paciolo ;  algebra,  1494

Paddon,  lieut.,  takes  Cerbere,  1800

Paderborn,  bp.  of ;  Prussia,  1874

Page,  Flood,  crystal  palace,  1874

Page,  telephone,  1837

Paget,  lord  ;  duels,  trials,  1809

Paget,  lord  Win,  v.  Cardigan ;  trials,

1844
Paget,  sir  A.  ;  trials,  1808
Paget,  J.  ;  paradoxes
Paget, sir William; administns.,

JS47
Pain,  O.  ;  Soudan,  1885.
Paine,  Thomas  ;  trials,  1792
Pakington,  sir  John,  b.  1799;  Derby

and  Disraeli  adm.
Palafox,  gen.  ;  Saragossa,  1809
Palamedes  ;  alphabet,  backgammon,

battle,  dice,  chess,  680  b.c.
Palestrina,  1529-94  ;  music  ;  recpiiem
Palisa,  J.  ;  planets
Palladio,  A.  ;  architect,  1518-80
Pallavicino,  G.,  Italy,  1878
Palles,  Christ. ;  exchequer  (Ireland),

1874
Palliser,  eapt.,  cannon,  1866
Palliser,  sir  Hugh  ;  Ushant,  1778
Palm,  the  bookseller ;  trials,  1806
Palm,  cardinal,  shot ;  Rome,  1848
Palmer,  Edwin  ;  Egypt,  1889
Palmer,  J.  ;  mail  coaches,  1784
Palmer  ;  duels,  1815  ;  trials,  1856
Palmer,  prof.,  and  others  murdered

Egypt,  1882  ;  Paul's,  St.
Palmer,  Roundell ;  see  Selbome
Palmer,  S.,  Times  (index)
Palmerston,  Henry,  vise.  ;  1784-1865  ;

Palmerston,  lady,  d.  1869
Panckoucke,  C.  J.  ;  Moniteur,  1789
Panitza,  major  ;  Bulgaria,  1890
Panizzi, sir  Antonio ; British  Mu-
seum, 1859
Panmure,  lord  ;  Russell  adm.,  1851
Paoli,  Pascal;  Corsica,  1753
Papachin,  adm.  ;  flag,  168S
Papin ;  steam-engine,  1681
Papineau ;  Canada,  1837
Papirius  Cursor  ;  sun-dial,  293  b.c.
Pappa,  D.  ;  trials,  1870
Paracelsus,  1493-1541 ;  alchemy,  phy-
sic, theosophists
Pardo,  president,  Peru,  1879
Pareja,  adm.  ;  Chili,  1865
Parini,  Guis.,  Ital.  poet,  1729-99
Paris,  count  of,  b.  1838  ;  Orleans
Parke,  Mungo,  d.  1805  ;  Africa
Parke  v.  Lewis  and  others ;  trials,

1873
Parker,  Emily  ;  swimming,  1875
Parker,  adm.  ;  Copenhagen,  1801
Parker,  Dr.  ;  temple
Parker,  abp.  Matthew  ;  Canterbury,

1558  ;  liturgy,  Nag's  Head
Parker  (mutineer) ;  trials,  1797
Parker,  capt.  ;  Boulogne
Parker,  J.  H,  Rome
Parker,  sir  Peter  ;  Bellair,  1814
Parker, Thomas,  lord; chancellor,

lord,  1 718
Parkes, sir Henry ; New South

Wales,  Australasia
Parkes, sir H., 1828-85; consul;

China,  1860-1883
Parma,  duke  of ;  Parma
Parma,  prince  of;  Antwerp,  1585
Parmenio  ;  Macedonia,  329  B.C.
Parnell,  sir  Henry  ;  Melbourne  adm.

X835


INDEX.

Parnell,  C.  S.,  1846-91;  Biggar,  and
others  ;  parliament  (obstructives),
1877-81 ;  home  rule,  1880 ; trials,
1880-1  ;  Ireland,  1883,  et  seq.  ;  Kil-
mainham ;  Home  Rule ;  Parnellites
Parr,  Thomas;  1483-1635?  longevity
Parrhasius;  painting  :jL  397  B.C.
Parrot,  Dr.,  Ararat
Parry,  bp. ,  church  of  England
Parry,  E.  ;  north- west  passage,  1818
Parsons,  bp.  ;  Peterborough,  1813
Parsons, P.M., brass,  manganese,

bronze
Parsons  family ;  cock-lane  ghost,  im-
postors, 1762
Pascal,  B.  ;  1623-62 ;  air,  calculating
machine,  barometers,  probability,
hydrostatics
Passaglia, father, 1814-87 ; Italy,

1862.
Passanante,  G.,  Italy,  1878
Paskiewitch  ;  Silistria,  1854
Pasta,  mad.,  vocalist,  1798-1865
Pasteur,  Dr.  L.  ;  fermentation,  1861  ;
germ  theory  ;  hydrophobia  ;  vacci-
nation
Patch,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1806
Pate,  lieut.  ;  trials,  1850
Paterculus,  Rom.  hist.,  d.  31
Paterson,  W.  ;  bank,  1694 ;  Darien
Paton,  Miss,  at  Haymarket,  1822
Paton,  Dr.  ;  pyroleter
Patrick, St. , 373-433  ? ; Ardagh,

Armagh,  Dublin,  isles,  shamrock
Patrocinio,  nun  ; Spain,  1861,  1866,

1891
Patten,  col.  John  W.,  6. 1802;  Dis-
raeli adm.
Patteson,  J.  C,  Melanesia,  murdered,

1871
Paul,  St.,  martyred,  65
Paul,  see  Sarpi
Paul  I.  ;  Russia,  1796
Paul  II.  ;  popes,  1464  ;  purple
Paul, sir J., <fcc.  ; trials, 1855 ;

fraudulent  trustees
Paulinus  ;  bells,  400
Paull,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1807
Paululio,  Anafesto  ;  doge,  697
Paulus  jEmilius  ;  Canna;,  216  B.C.
Paulus,  Marcus  ;  compass,  1260
Paulus  ;  Abrahamites
Pauncefote  ;  United  States,  1889
Pausanias  ;  Sparta,  480  B.C.  ;  Plateea,

Macedon,  336  B.C.
Pausias of Sicyon, 360-330 b.c.  ;

painting
Pavey,  G.,  trials,  1880
Pavia,  gen.  ;  Spain,  1873-4
Paxton,  sir  Joseph,  1803-65  ;  exhibi-
tion of  1851 ;  crystal  palace
Payne,  L.,  trials,  1879
Payne,  Mr.  G.  ;  duels,  1810
Payne,  J.  H.  ;  home  !
Peabody,  G.,  1795-1869;  Peabody
Peace,  C.,  trials,  1878
Peace,  the  prince  of  the  ;  Spain,  1806
Pearce,  &c.  ;  gold  robbery,  1857
Pearson,  col.,  Zululand,  1879
Pease,  W.,  Ben  well
Peaucillier  ;  motion
Peckham,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1279
Pedro  ;  Portugal,  Brazil,  1822
Peek  v.  Gurney  ;  trials,  1871
Pee),  A.  W. ;  speakerH.  O,  1884
Peel,  capt.  sir  P.  ;  India,  1858
Peel,  col.  ;  West  Australia,  1828
Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. ,
1750-1830; — (son)  statesman,  1788-
1850 ; Peel  adm. (see  note), 1834-
1841 ;  acts  of  parliament,  conserva-
tive,  com  bill, duels, 1815 ; in-
come-tax, tariff;  —  (grandson), b.
1822
Peele,  James  ;  book-keeping,  1509
Peixoto,  Floriano  ;  Brazil,  1891
Pelegrini,  Dr.  ;  Argentine  republic,


1123

Pelham,  H. ;  Wilmington  adm.,  1742  ;

Pelham  adm. ,  1744
Pelham,  bp.  ;  Bristol,  1807;  Norwich,

1857
Pelham,  sir  W.  ;  engineers,  1622
Pelissier, due de  Malakhoff; 1794-

1864  ;  Algiers,  Dahra
Pell,  Mr.  ;  education,  1876
Pelletier  ;  quinine,  1820
Pellew,  sir  Ed.  ;  naval  battles,  1795
Pelouze,  P.  J.,  1807-1S67  ;  formic  acid
Peltier,  M.  ;  libel,  trials,  1803
Peltzen, A. & L.,  murderers ; Bel-
gium, 1882
Pemberton,  sir  Francis ;  king's  bench,

1681
Pembroke,  earl  of;  Godolphin  adm.
1702  ; lord  -  lieutenant, Lincoln,
protectorates, Salisbury, admir-
alty
Pengelly,  AV.  ;  man  ;  Torquay
Penn,  admiral ;  Jamaica,  1655
Penn,  Wm., 1644-1718 ; Pennsylva-
nia, Quaker
Penny,  captain  ;  Franklin,  1850
Penzance,  lord  (Wilde);  arches,  1876 ;

public  worship
Pepe,  gen.  F.  ;  Naples,  1820
Pepin  ;  France,  752  ;  Ferara
Pepper,  prof.,  Polytechnic, telephone
Pepys,  bp.  ;  Worcester,  1841  ;  Pepys
Perceval,  Spencer;  Perceval
Percy  (Hotspur) ;  Otterburn,  1388
Percy, lord;  Durham,  1346;  Homildon
Percy,  John;  metallurgist,  1817-89
Perdiccas  ;  Macedon,  454  b.c.
Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres,

last  app. ,  1779
Pereire,  M.  ;  credit  mobilier
Pereyra ;  Uruguay,  1856
Pericles  ;  Athens,  469  b.c.
Perier,  C.  ;  France,  1874-6
Perillus  ;  brazen  bull,  570  B.C.
Perkin  Warbeck ;  Warbeck,  1492
Perkin,  W.  H.  ;  aniline,  1857
Perkins  ; engraving, copper-plate

printing,  18 19
Perreaus  ;  forgery,  trials,  1776
Perring,  John  ;  mayor,  1803
Perrotin ;  planets
Perry,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1810
Perry,  lieut.  ;  trials,  1854
Persano,  adm.  ;  Lissa,  Italy,  1S66-7
Perseus:  Pydna,  168  b.c
Persigny, J. G., 1808-72; France,

i860
Persius,  34-62  ;  satires
Perugino,  Paolo,  1446-1524
Peter  the  Cruel ;  Montiel,  1369
Peter  the  Great ;  1672-1725  ;  Russia,
Deptford,  Petersburg,  Narva,  Pul-
towa,  wills
Peter  the  Hermit ;  crusades,  1094
Peters,  C. H.  F., 1813-90; planets,

1862  et  seq.  ;  astronomy
Peters, Dr. C.  ; Zanzibar, 1889  ;

Africa  (German  E.),  1884
Petion  ;  Port-au-Prince,  1806
Peto,  sirS.  M.,  1809-89;  diorama,  1855
Petrarch,  1304-74  ;  Petrarch,  sonnets,

humanism
Petre,  sir  Wm. ;  administrations,  1547
Petronius  ;  Ethiopia,  22  B.C.
Petronius  Arbiter,  Lat.  satirist,  d.  66
Pettigrew,  T.  ;  epitaphs,  1857
Petty,  lord  H.  ;  Grenville  adm.,  1807
Petty,  Wm.  ;  Royal  Society,  1660
Pezet,  J.  A.  ;  Peru,  1863-5
Pluudrus  writes  fables,  8
Phalaris,  brazen  bull,  599  B.C.
Pharamond  ;  France,  418?
Pharaohs  ;  Egypt,  1899  B.C.
Pharnacus ;  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  744

B.C.

Phayre,  col.  ;  India,  1874
Pliayre,  sir  A.  P.  ;  Mauritius,  1874
Pheidon,^.  869  b.c.  ;  coinage,  silver,
scales,  weights

4  c  2


1124

Phelps, Mr. S., 1S04-78 ; theatres

(Sadler'sWells),  1844,  1878
Phepoe,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1797
Phidias,  fl.  43  B.C. ;  statues
Philidor,  concerts,  chess
Philip  ; France,  Macedon, Spain,

Hesse,  Orleans,  1640
Philip  Neri,  St.  ;  oratorios,  1550
Philip  the  Good;  Burgundy, Hol-
land, 1419-67
Philip the Great, killed 336  B.C.  ;
Macedon,  JEtolia, Chseronfea,  Lo-
cri,  Thessaly
Philip  II.  ;  Spain,  1556
Philippa, England, queen (Ed-
ward III.);  Durham,  1346
Philipps,  T.  ;  Newport,  1839
Phillimore,  sir  R.  J.,  1810-85  ;  admi-
ralty
Phillip,  gov.  ;  Australia,  1788
Phillips,  J.  ; Brit. Assoc, 1831  ;—

fire-annihilator,  1849
Phillips,  John,  geologist ;  Vesuvius,

1869
Phillips  v.  Eyre  ;  trials,  1869-70
Phillips, Wendell ; United  States,

1884
Philopcemen  ;  Achaia,  194  B.C.
Philpott ;  bp.  ;  Worcester,  1861
Philpotts,  H.,  bp. ;  Exeter,  1830
Philpotts  v.  Boyd  ;  reredos,  1875
Phipps,  capt.  ; north-west  passage,

1773
Phocas  ;  east.  emp. ,  602
Phocion,  killed  317  B.C.
Phoroneus  ;  Argos  (1807  B.C.),  sacri-
fice, laws
Photiades,  C.  J. ;  Samos
Photius,  Gallus  ;  rhetoric,  87  B.C.
Piastus  ;  Poland,  842
Piazzi,  M.  ;  planet,  1801
Picard,  sir  H.  ;  lord  mayor,  1357
Pichegru;  Manheim  ;  suicide,  1804
Pictet,  B.,  air,  gases,  1877,  oxygen,
hydrogen,  distillation  ;  nav.  archi-
tecture
Picton, gen.  ; trials,  1806  ; Quatre-

Bras,  Waterloo,  1815
Pierce ; United States, president,

1853
Pierola,  N.  de,  Peru,  1876-82
Pierre,  adm.  ;  Madagascar,  1883
Pierrepoint,  Mr.  ;  United  States,  1876
Piers,  abp.  ;  York,  1589
Pigot, David  Richard; exchequer,

1846
Pigot,  Id. ; India, Pigot  diamond,

1802
Pigot,  major-gen.  ;  Malta,  1800
Pigott,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1871
Pigott,  R.  ;  Parnellites,  1889
Pike,  Miss ;  Cork,  trials,  1800
Pilkington,  bishop ;  liturgy
Pilpay ;  Anvar,  fables
Pinchbeck,  C. ;  pinchbeck
Pindar, abt., 522-439  B.C.,  Odes  —
Peter(Dr.Wolcot),i738-i8i9;  trials,
1807
Pine,  sir  B.  C.  ;  Natal,  1873
Pinel,  M.  ;  lunatics,  1792
Pinto,  Serpa;  Zambesi,  1889
Pinzon; America,  S., 1500; Peru,

1863
Pisander naval  battles,  394  b.c.
Pisistrat Athens,  527  b.c
Pitman,  I.  ;  phonography,  1837  ;  ste-
nography
Pitt ;  diamond,  1720
Pitt,  Wm.  ;  see  Chatham,  earl  of
Pitt, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt  adm.,
1783;  India  company,  E.,  reform,
duels,  1798;  income-tax
Pius  ;  popes,  142  et  seq.
Pius  IV.  ;  confession,  1504
Pius  VII.  ;  concordat,  1801
Pius  IX.  1792-1878  ;  popes  ;  1846-78  ;

papal  aggression,  conception
Pizarro;  America,  1524


INDEX.

Blanche,  J.  R.,  1796-1880;  dress
Plato,  Gr.  phil.,  429-347  b.c  ;  acade-
mics, anatomy,  antipodes,  names,
Sicily
Platts,  John  ;  executions,  1847
Plante,  G.,  electric  battery,  i860
Plautus,  Lat.,  h.  184  b.c  ;  drama
Playfair, Lyon  ; Gladstone  adm.,

1880  (baron,  1892)
Plimpton ;  rink,  1875
Plimsoll, S.; parliament, seamen,

1873
Pliny  the  elder,  23-79  >  pearls,  Vesu-
vius ;  —the  younger,  d.  100
Plowden,  Mr.  ;  Abyssinia,  1849
Plumer,  sir  Th.  ;  att.-gen.,  1812
Plummer,  Eugenia ;  trials,  i860
Plunket,  lord  ;  chancellor,  lord  (Ire-
land), 1830
Plunket, D. R. ; Salisbury adm.,

1886
Plutarch,  fl.  80 ;  biography
Pocock,  admiral ; Cuba,  1762
Poerio,  C.  ;  Naples,  1850-59-60
Pogson,  N. ;  planets,  1856
Poitevin,  M.  ;  balloons,  1852-58
Poitiers,  Roger  de  ;  Liverpool,  1089
Pole,  Wellesley;  mint,  trials,  1825
Pole,  abxx  ;  Canterbury,  1556
Polignac,  prince  de  ;  France,  1830
Polk,  Jas. ;  United  States,  president,

1845
Pollen,  J.  G.  ;  furniture,  1874
Pollio,  C.  ;  slavery,  42  b.c.
Pollock,  gen.  G. ;  Afghanistan,  India,

1842 ;  tower
Pollock,  sir  Frederick,  1783-1863  ;  at-
torney-general, exchequer, 1834-

1844
Polo,  Marco,  writes  about  1298
Polybius, 207-122  (?)  b.c  ;  signals,

telegraphs,  Achaia,  physic
Polycarp  martyred,  166
Polydorus ;  Laocoon
Pomare ;  Otaheite,  1799
Pompey,  killed  48  b.c;  Rome, Spain,

Pharsalia
Pond,  J.  ;  Greenwich,  1811
Ponti,  G.  ;  academies
Pontius,  C. ;  Caudine forks,  321  B.C.
Pook,  E.  ;  trials,  1871
Poole,  bp.  ;  Japan,  1883
Poole,  A.  ;  auricular  confession,  1858
Poole,  R.  S.  ;  Egypt,  expl.  fund
Pope,  Alex.,  1688-1744;  Alexandrine

verse,  satire  ;  Homer,  1714
Pope, gen. J.  ; Manassas, United

States,  1862
Popham,  sir  Home  ;  Buenos  Ayres,

Cape,  trials,  1807
Popoff,  adm.  ;  circular  ironclads,  1875
Popp,  V.,  clocks,  1881
Poppasa  (wife  of  Nero) ;  masks
Porsenna  ;  labyrinth,  520  B.c
Porson,  prof,  1759-1808  ;  writing
Portal,  Gerald  ;  Zanzibar
Porter,  sir  Charles  ;  Limerick
Porteus,  bp.  ;  London,  1787
Portland, duke  of, Portland  adm.,

1783  ; Ireland (lord  -  lieutenant),

Junius
Portman, sir  Wm.  ; king's  bench,

1554
Portsmouth,  earl  of ;  trials,  1823
Porus,  Hydaspes,  327  b.c.
Posidonius,  fl.  86  b.c  ;  atmosphere,

moon,  tides,  air
Potamon  ;  eclectics,  about  1
Potter,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1737
Potter,  Edm.  ;  Manchester,  1883
Pottinger,  sir  H.  ;  China,  1841
Pouchet,  M.  ;  spout,  generation,  1859
Pouillet, C.  S.  M.,  Fr.  nat. phil.,

1791-1868
Poussin,  N.  ;  painters,  1594-1665
Pouyer-Quertier  ;  France,  1871
Powell,  Langharne,  and  Poyer,  colo-
nels ;  Wales,  1647


Powell ;  balloons,  1881-3
Power,  Mr.  ;  wrecks,  1841
Power,  Frank  ;  Soudan,  1884
Powys,  bishop  ;  Man,  1854
Poyer,  colonel ;  Wales,  1647
Poynter,  E.  J.,  R.A.,  b.  1836
Prado,  M.  ;  Peru,  1824-67
Prado,  murderer  ;  France,  1888
Praslin  murder,  1847
Praxiteles,  fl.  363  b.c  ;  mirrors
Premislaus ;  Poland,  1295
Prendergast,  gen.  H.  N.  ;  Burmah,

1885
Prescott,  Wm.,  1796-1859
Preston,  lord  ;  conspiracy,  1691
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young,
1720-88  ;  Pretender,  Falkirk,  Pres-
tonpans,  Culloden
Preforms,  Natal, 1838 ; Transvaal,

1880
Pretsch,  P.  ; photo-galvanography,

'1854
Prevost,  sir  George;  Plattsburg,  1814
Priam;  Ilium,  Troy,  1224  B.C.
Price,  Mr.  ; duels, 1816 ;  alchemy  ;

annuities
Price,  bp. ;  B.  Free  church
Price,  adm.  ;  Petropaulovski,  1854
Prichard,  Dr.,  1785-1848  ;  ethnology
Pride,  col.  ;  Pride's  purge,  1648
Priessnitz,  V.  ;  hydropathy,  1828
Priestley,  Joseph,  1733-1804  ;  earth-
quakes, eudiometer,  lunar  society,
nitrous  gas,  oxygen,  fluorine,  colour
blindness
Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70 ; Castel-
le.ios, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain,
1S66-70  ;  assassinations,  1870
Prince,  H.  J.  ;  agapemone,  1845
Prior,  M.,  poet,  1 664-1 721
Priscillian ;  gnostics,  384
Pritchard,  Dr. E.  W.  ;  trials, exe-
cution, 1865
Probert ;  trials,  1824
Pro  bus  ;  Rome,  emp.  276  ;  massacre
Procles  ;  biarch,  1102  B.C.
Procopius ;  Nacolea,  366
Procopius,  Lat.  hist.  500-565 ;  Hus-
sites, 1431
Procter, poets ; Bryan W. (Barry
Cornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide,
daughter,  1835-64
Propertius,  Lat.  poet,  26  b.c
Proudhon, P., socialist, 1809-65  ;

anarchy
Prynne,  W.,  legal  antiquary,  1600-69
Psalmanazar,  G.  ;  Formosa,  1704
Psammetichus, 650 B.C.  ; Egypt,

labyrinth,  languages,  sieges
Pseusennes,  971  b.c  ;  Egypt
Psycho  ;  automaton,  1875
Ptolemy  (astronomer),  d.  161
Ptolemy ;  Egypt,  Bible,  Septuagint,
Ipsus,  pharos,  arithmetic,  acade-
mies
Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  205 b.c;  Egypt,

Rosetta
Puckering,  sir  John  ;  chancellor,  lord

high,  1592
Pugin,  A.  W.,  1811-52,  decorat.  art;

E.  W.  ;  trials,  1874
Pullan,  R.  P.,  dilettanti, 1861-70;

Priene
Pullen,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1852
Pullinger,  G.  ;  banks,  joint  stock,

i860
Pulteney,  Mr.  ;  Halifax  adm.,  1714
Pulteney,  sir  James  ;  Ferrol,  1800
Punshon,  R.  ;  gunpowder,  1872
Purcell,  Henry;  music,  1658-95
Purehas,  Sam.  ;  1577-1628
Purdon,  col.  ;  Ashantees,  1826
Purefoy;  duels,  1788;  trials,  1794
Pusey,  Dr.  E.,  1800-82;  Puseyism ;

Oxford  univ.
Pyat,  F.,  France,  1880
Pye,  Henry  J.  ;  poet-laureate,  1790
Pye,  J. ;  engraver,  d.  1874


Pym,  J. ;  politician,  d.  1643
Pyrrho  ;  sceptics,  334  B.C.
Pyrrhus  ;  Macedon,~287  B.C. ;  Epirus,
295-272  B.C. ;  Tarentum,  Asculuni,

2  79
Pythagoras,  fl.  555  b.c.  ;  acoustics,
astronomy,  Copernicus,  Egypt,  the
globe, harmonic strings, shoes,
solar  system,  spheres


Quaritck,  B. ;  books,  1S82

Queen  v.  Lords  of  Treasury;  trials,

1872
<Juekett,  prof. ;  histology,  1857
Quentin, col. ; duels, 1815 ; trials,

1814
Quesnay,  6conomistes-
Quevedo,  Span,  writer,  1580-1645
Quinet,  Edgar,  Fr.  philos.,  1803-75
Quintitia;  Quintilians
Quintiu;  libertines,  525
•Quinton,  J.  W. ;  Manipur
<Juintus  Pabius,  291  B.C.;  painting
Quiros;  New  Hebrides,  1606


B.

Rabelais,  F.,  satirist,  1483-1553
Bachel,  mademoiselle,  d.  1858; — ma-
dame;  enamelling;  trials,  1868, 1878
Racine;  J.;  Fr.  dramat.,  1639-99
Radeliffe,  Dr.  John ;  Radclitfe  library,

1737

Badetsky,  marshal,  1766-1858;  Aus-
tria, Custozza,  Novara,  Italy

Badetsky,  gen.,  Busso-Turkish  war
II.,  1878

Badnor,  earl  of ;  administrations,  1684

Bae,  Dr. ;  Franklin,  1848

Baffles,  sir  T.  S.  ;  Java

Baglan,  lord; Busso-Turkish war,

1857
Ragotski ;  Transylvania
Raikes,  Mr.,  1781;  Sunday-schools,

education,  infanticide
Raikes,  H.  C.  ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1886
Raleigh,  sir  "Walter,  1552-1618;  dress,
Pennsylvania, Trinidad,  Virginia,
England
Ralston,  W.  C.  ;  California,  1875
Rameses;  Egypt,  1618
Ramirez  II.;  Seinincas,  938  B.C.
Ramsay,  David;  combat,  1631
Ramsay,  sir  George;  duels,  1790
Ramsden,  Jesse,  1735-1800;  theodo-
lite, 1787
Ranee;  trappist,  1662
Randolph,  T. ;  post-office,  1581
Randolph,  bishop  ;  Bangor,  London,

1809
Ranger,  M.  ;  cotton  (a  speculator)  ;

1883
Rankin,  J.,  velocipedes,  1878
Ransome  ; Ransome, filterers,

ploughs
Raphael,  1483-1520;  cartoons
Raphael,  Alex.; Roman  catholics,  1834
Rapieff,  electric  light,  1S78
Rarey,  J.  S. ;  horse,  1858
Rassam, H.  ; Abyssinia, 1864  ;

Nineveh ;  Brit.  Mus.
Rathbone,  Win.  ;  Liverpool,  1S77
Rattazzi,  U.,  1808-73;  Italy,  1862
Rauch,  C. ;  sculptor,  1777-1857
Rauscher,  card.  ;  Austria,  d.  1875
Ravaillae  kills  Henry  IV.,  1610
Rawdon,  lord;  Camden,  1781
Rawlinson,  col.  sir  H,  b.  1810;  As-
syria, Babylon,  Behistiin,  1844
Ray,  John,  naturalist,  1628-1705
Ray,  Peter ;  volunteers  (19th  meet-
ing), 1878
Rayhere;  Bartholomew's,  1100


INDEX.

Eayleigh,  lords,  1879

Raymond,  lord; attorney  -  general,

1725;  king's  bench
Bayneckers,  L.  ;  fuel
Reade,  Chas.  ;  Nov.  1814-84
Reaumur,  d.  1757;  light,  steel
Reay,  Miss,  killed;  trials,  1779
Reay,  lord;  combat,  1631
Reay,  lord  ;  Bombay,  1884  ;  London

University
Rebeccaites ;  trials,  1843
Redanies,  D. ;  execution,  1857
Rede,  sir  E.  ;  Bede  lecture
Bedesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800;

parliament,  1886
Bedpath,  L. ;  trials,  1857
Bed  wood,  T. ;  analysts,  1874
Beece,  B. ;  bogs,  1849  !  congelation,

1868
Beed,  Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan,

idiots,  incurables
Beed, sir  C.  ; metropolitan  school

board,  1873-81
Beed,  sir  E.  J.,  navy,  1862-71 ;  Chan-
nel tunnel,  1890
Beeves,  Mr.  John;  levellers,  1792
Begnier, gen.  ; Kalitsch, Maida,

Ximera,  181 1
Regulus,  250  B.C.;  Carthage
Beich,  F. ,  and  Richter,  T. ;  indium,

1863
Beichardt,  "Wacht
Beiehenbach, C, 1788-1869; para-

ffine,  1831;  odyl
Beichenstein;  tellurium,  1782
Reichstadt,  duke  de,  1811-32 ,  France

(empire)
Reid,  gen.;  India,  1857
Reid,  R.  T. ;  vivisection
Reinbauer;  trials,  1829
Reinkens, Old Catholic bishop ;

Prussia,  1873
Reis,  P.  ;  telephone,  1861
Relly,  Jas.;  universalists,  1760
Rembrandt,  Paul;  painter,  1608-69
Bemigius  de  Feseamp ;  Lincoln,  1086
Remington,  type-writers
Bemusat,  C.  de;  France,  1871-3
Remy,  St.;  Rheims
Renard,  eapt. ;  balloons,  1884
Renata,  Maria;  witchcraft,  1749
Renaudot,  M. ;  newspapers,  1631
Rendel,  J.;  Holyhead,  Portland
Rennie, J. (1761-1S21), and  sir  J.;

breakwater,  1812;  Waterloo-bridge,

London-bridge
Bepton, Humphry, landscape gar-
dener, 1752-1S18
Beschid  Pacha ;  Turkey,  1853
Reuchlin,  J.,  reformer,  d.  1522;  Talmud
Beuss;  engraving
Beuter,  J.  de;  Persia,  1872
Beville,  Mrs.,  Slough
Beynei'e,  Richard;  sheriff,  1189
Beynolds,  sir  Joshua,  1723-92;  royal

academy,  1768
Beynolds,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1313
Beynolds,  capt. ;  trials,  1840
Beynolds,  George;  duels,  1788
Beynolds,  O.  ;  explosives
Rhodes,  Cecil ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope,

1890 ;  Zambesi
Bhodes,  R.  G.,  audiphone
Rhodes,  W.  B.,  free  hospital,  life-boat
Biall,  gen. ;  Chippawa,  1814
Bicard  ;  France,  1876
Bicasoli,  B., b.  about 1803; Italy,

1861-7
Bice,  Spring  (lord  Monteagle); ad-
ministrations, 1834
Bich,  Richard,  lord ;  chancellor,  lord,

1547

Richard  I.,  England,  1189;  Acre,
Ascalon,  Cceur  de  Lion,  Dieu  et
111011  droit,  laws,  Oleron,  naviga-
tion laws

Richard  III.,  k.  1485;  Bosworth

Richard,  H.  ;  AVales,  1888


1125

Bichards,  Miss  ;  pedestrianism,  1874
Richardson,  B.  W. ;  hygeiopolis,  1876
Richardson, sir John ; naturalist,

1783-1865;  Franklin
Richardson,  H.  ;  life-boat,  1852
Richardson,  Sam.;  novels,  1689-1761
Biehelieu,  card.,  1585-1642; France,

1624
Biehelieu,  duke  of ;  Closterseven,  1757
Richmond,  duke  of;  Bockingham  ad-
ministration, 1782, &c. ; Ireland,
duels  : Derby  and  Disraeli  admin-
istrations ;  Salisbury  adm.  1885
Richter,  J.  Paul,  Ger.  novel., 1763-1825
Bidding,  Geo.,  bp.  ;  Southwell
Bidel, Stephen, 1189  ; chancellor,

lord,  Ireland
Eider,  William ;  silk  hose
Bidgeway,  C.  de,  abstinence
Ridley,  bp.,  burnt,  1555
Ridsdale,  Bev.  C.  J. ;  public  worship

act,  1876
Riego  put  to  death ;  Spain,  1823
Biel,  L. ;  Hudson's  bay  ;  Canada,  Ad-
denda
Bienzi,  N,  m.  1354;  tribune,  Borne
Bigg,  rev.  A.,  technical  education
Bigoni,  M.  ;  canal  boats
Biguet,  M.;  tunnels
Binuccuii,  Oetavio,  b.  1621 ;  opera
Ripon,  earl  of,  1782-1859;  Goderich
administration, 1827  ;  —  marquis
of ;  freemasonry ;  Gladstone  adm.
1873,  1886,  1892  ;  India,  1880
Risakoif,  Russia,  1881
Risk  Allah;  trials,  1868
Ristieh,  Servia,  1880
Ritchie, D. T.  ; Salisbury adm.,

1886 ;  local  government
Ritson,  Joseph,  critic,  1752-1803
Bitter,  Karl,  geographer,  1779-1859
Bitter,  J.  W.,  electricity,  1812
Rivers,  earl,  m.  1483 ;  Pomfret
Rivers,  Mr.,  Egypt,  1879
Riviere,  R.  T.  ;  Tonquin,  1S83
Rizzio, David,  m. 1566  ; Scotland,

France,  Naples
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy ;  Tiuche-

bray,  1106;  Scotland,  1306
Robert  II. ;  pilgrimages,  1060
Roberts,  D.,  R.A.,  1796-1864
Roberts,  J.  J.,  Liberia
Roberts,  sir  F.,  Afghanistan,  1878-80;

Burmah  1886 ;  Mazra
Bobertson,  capt.;  trials,  1862
Robertson,  J.  P.  B.  ;  Scotland,  1889
Robertson,  T.  W.,  dramatist,  1829-71
Robertson,  Dr.  Win.,  hist.,  1721-93
Bobertson,  W.,  trials,  1878
Robespierre,  F.  M. ;  reign  of  terror,

France,  1793-4
Robin  Hood;  robbers,  archery,  1189
Robinson;  see  Perdita
Robinson,  F. ;  Goderich,  note
Bobinson,  H.  G.  E.,  New  Zealand,

1878  ;  Cape,  1880
Robinson,  James ;  ether,  1848
Bobinson,  B.,  1735-90;  independents
Bobinson, sir  Thomas  ; Newcastle

administration,  1754
Bobinson  of  York,  murdered ;  trials,

1S53
Bobinson,  sir  W.  C.  F.;  Straits,  1877
Eobiquet  and  Colin  ;  alizarine,  1831
Robson,  W.;  trials,  1856
Rochambeau;  Yorktown,  1781
Rochebouet,  gen.  ;  Fiance,  1877
Boehefort, H.  ; France, 1870-81  ;

Tunis,  1881
Rochefoucauld,  F.  Do  la,  phil.  1630-80
Rochester,  earl  of;  administrations,

1679
Rochfort,  A.  H. ;  cryptograph y,  1836
Bock,  Dan.,  1779-1871;  mass
Bockingham,  niarq.  of;  Bockingham

administrations,  1765
Roderick ;  Spain,  709 ;  Wales,  843
Rodney,  G.;  Eustatia,  781


1126

Rodolph  of  Hapsbnrg  ;  Austria,  1278
Rodolph  of  Nuremberg;  wire,  1410;

of  Suabia,  k.  Fladenlieim,  1080
Roe,  Henry  ;  Dublin,  1878

Boebling, Mr. & Mrs.  ;  New  York,

1883
Roebuck,  J.;  duel,  1835;  Sebastopol

Rcemer,  light,  1676

Roger;  Sicily,  Naples,  1130

Rogers  and  others  ;  trials,  1882

Rogers,  John,  burnt,  1555

Rogers,  Sam.,  poet,  1763-1855

Rogers,  Messrs.  ;  gas  lights

Rogers,  J.  E.  T.  ;  wages

Roget,  P.  M.,  M.D.,  philologist,  1799-
1869

Roggewein,  circumnavigator;  Easter
Island,  1722

Rogier,  Charles,  d.  1885  ;  Belgium,
1857

Rohan,  card. ;  diamond  necklace,
1786

Roliin,  Chas.,  Fr.  hist.,  1661-1741

Rolt,  sir  J.;  att.-gen.,  1866;  justice
of  appeal,  1867

Romain,  M. ;  balloons,  h.  1785

Romilly,  sir  Samuel;  criminal  law,
suicide,  18 18

Romilly,  sir  J.,  aft.  Id.;  1802-74;
solicitor-gen.,  master  of  the  rolls,
1851

Romney,  Geo.;  painter,  1734-1S02

Romulus;  Rome,  753  B.C.;  calendar,
Alba,  arusjjices

Romulus  Augustulns;  western  em-
pire, 475

Ronalds,  F,  1788-1873;  electric  tele-
graph, 1823

Ronge,  J.;  kinder-garten,  1851

Rooke,  sir  George;  Gibraltar,  1704;
snuff,  Alderney,  Cadiz,  Cape  la
Hogue,  Cape  St.  Vincent,  Vigo

Roper,  colonel;  duels,  1788

Rosa,  Carl;  opera,  1889

Rosas;  Buenos  Ayres,  1852

Roscoe,  sir  H.  E.,  indigo  ;  technical
education

Roscoe,  W.,  hist.,  1753-1831

Kose,  German  chem.,  Gustav,  1798-
1873  ;  Heinrich,  1795-1864

Rose,  sir  Hugh;  India,  Calpee,i858

Rosebery,  earl  of;  Gladstone  adm.,
1880,  1886,  1892

Roseberry,  countess  of;  trials,  1814

Rosencrans,  gen.;  United  S.,  1862

Ross,  sir  J.;  Franklin,  north-west
passage,  1848

Ross,  colonel;  duelling,  1817  ; British
museum,  1876

Ross,  gen.;  Baltimore,  Washington,
1814

Rossa,  O'Donovan ;  Fenians,  1868-83

Rosse,  earl  of,  1800-67;  telescopes,
1828 ;  Royal  Society,  1848

Rossel,  France,  1871

Rosser,  Mr.  and  Miss  Darbon ;  trials,
1841

Rossi,  count,  Rome,  1848;  assassina-
tions

Rossini,  G.,  mus.  comp.,  1792-1868

Rostopchin;  Moscow,  1812

Rothery,  H.  C,  Tay-bridge

Rothsay;  duke,  Scotland,  1401

Rothschild,  Anselm  (the  first),  d,
1812 ;  Rothschild,  Evelina  hosp.

Rothschild;  Jews,  1849;  deaf  and
dumb,  1872

Roubiliac;  sculptor,  1695-1762

Rouher,  E.,  1814-84  ;  France,  1863-81

Roupell,  W.,  M.P.;  trials,  1862

Rous,  F.  ;  psalms

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  Fr.  phil.,  1712-1778

Roustan,  M.,  Tunis,  1881

Routledge  v.  Lowe;  copyright,  1868

Rouvier,  M.  ;  France,  1887

Rowan,  A.  H. ;  trials,  1794,  1805

Rowe,  Nicholas,  1673-1718 ;  poet-
laureate,  d.  1715


INDEX.

Rowlandson,  Thos.,  caricaturist,  1756-

1827
Rowley,  admiral  J.;  Bourbon,  1810
Rowsell,  C.  J.  ;-  graphoscope
Roxana;  Macedon,  311  B.C.
Roxburgh,  duke  of,  1812 ;  Boccaccio
Rozier,  M. ;  balloons,  1783
Rubens,  P.  P.;  painter,  1577-1640
Rubery  v.  Grant ;  trial,  1875
Ruchdi  Pasha  ; Turkey,  1866-71  et

seq.
Rudbeck,  01. ;  thoracic  duct
Rudini,  marquis,  di ;  Italy,  1891
Rudolph;  Austria,  Germany
Ruhmkorff,  induction  coil,  1851
Rumford, Benjamin Thompson,

count, 1752-1814 ; Royal  Institu-
tion
Runge,  cafeine  (eng.  caffeine)
Runjeet  Singh; Afghanistan,  1818;

diamonds
Rupert,  prince,  1619-82;  engraving,

Birmingham, Edgehill, Marston-

moor,  Naseby,  Newark
Ruric  ;  Russia,  862  ;  Varangians
Rush,  Bloomfield,  murderer;  trials,

1849
Rushworth,  E.  E.  ;  Jamaica,  1877
Ruskin, John,  art  critic, b. 1819  ;

Sheffield
Russell,  C.  :  suicide,  1856
Russell,  colonel ;  guards,  1660
Russell,  adm. Edw. ; La Hogue,

1692
Russell,  J.  Scott,  engineer,  1808-82;

fires,  steam-nav.,  Vienna,  wave
Russell,  earl,  case  ;  trials,  1891
Russell,  lord  John,  aft. earl, 1792-

1878  ;  Russell  administration,  note,

Aberdeen  ;  Germany,  1874  ;  papal

aggression  ;  reform
Russell, Odo, Id.  Ampthill ; Ger-
many, 1871-84
Russell, sir C., att.-gen., 1886;

Parnellites,  1888.
Russell,  lord  W.,  trials,  1840
Russell,  bp.  W.  A.  ;  China,  1872
Russell,  W.  H.  ;  Times,  1854, 1857,

1861
Rutherford,  J. ;  lectures
Ruth ven,  Mr.  ;  duels,  1836
Rutland, duke of; Ireland (lord

lieutenant),  1784  ;  see  Manners
Ruyter,  see  De  kuyier
Ryder,  bp.  ;  Gloucester,  1815
Ryder, sir Dudley, king's bench,

1754
Rye,  Miss  ;  emigration
Rymer- Jones,  A.  M.,  temnograpli
Ryves,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1866


S.


Sabatta,  Levi,  1666

Sabine,  gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883 ;

Royal  Society,  1861 ;  magnetism
Sacheverel,  Br.  ;  high  church,  1709
Sackville,  lord  George  ;  Minden,  1759
Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856; — Dr.,

1858
Sadler,  Mr.  ;  balloons,  1812
Sadler,  Mr.  ;  Sadler's  Wells,  1863
Sadler,  sir  Ralph; administrations,

iS4°
Sadyk  ;  Turkey,  1S78
Safford,  Mr.  ;  planets,  1862
Safvet  Pasha  ;  Turkey,  1877-8
Sagarelli ;  Apostolici,  300
Sagasta,  Spain,  1871-89
Saget,  gen. ;  Hay ti,  1870
St.  Amaud,  marshal ;  Russo-Turkish

war,  Alma,  1854
St.  Charo ;  concordance,  1247
St.  Clair,  Bella  ;  pedestrianism,  1S76
St.  Cyr,  marshal ;  Dresden,  1813
St.  George,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1798


St.  John,  John  de  ;  treasurer,  121 7

St.  John  Long ;  quack,  1830

St. John,  Henry,  aft.  lord  Boling-

broke  ;  Oxford  adm.,  171 1
St.  John,  O.  ;  benevolences,  1615
St.  John,  William;  chancellor,  lord

high,  1547
St.  Leonards,  lord,  1781-1875 ;  chan-
cellor, lord  high,  1852
St.  Mars,  M.  de ;  iron  mask
St.  Ruth,  general ;  Aughrim,  1691
St.  Vincent,  earl ; admiralty,  1801 ;

Cape  St.  Vincent
Sakya  Muni,  Buddhism
Saladin,  sultan,  1136-1193;  Ascalon,

Damascus,  Egypt,  Syria,  Aleppo
Salar  Jung,  Hyderabad
Sale,  lady  ;  Cabul,  India,  1842
Sale,  sir  Robert ;  Moodkee,  1845
Salgar,  E.,  Colombia,  1871
Salisbury,  bishop  of;  assay
Salisbury,  countess  of;  garter
Salisbury,  Robert,  earl  of;  adminis-
trations, 1603
Salisbury, earl  of, 1604; coronets,

Orleans
Salisbury, Robert  A.  T. G. Cecil,
marquis  of; b. 1830; Derby  ad-
ministrations, 1852,  1858  ;  Disraeli
administration, 1874  ; Turkey,
1877;  Berlin  conference ;  conserva-
tives, 1881 ;  Salisbury  adm.,  1885,
1886;  Zambesi,  1889
Salkeld  ;  Delhi,  1857
Sallo, Denis  de ; critics, reviews,

1655
Sallust,  Lat.  hist.,  d.  34  B.C.  ;  Mauri-
tania, Catiline
Salmasius  ;  anthology,  1606
Salmeron  ;  Spain,  1873
Salnave,  gen. ;  Hayti,  1865-70
Salomons,  D.  ;  Jews,  1835  ;  mayor
Salt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852,

Bradford
Salvator  Rosa ;  painter,  1615-1673
Salviati,  Dr.  ;  mosaic,  1861
Salvino  degli  Armato  ;  spectacles
Salvius  Julianus ;  edicts,  132
Sampson,  II.  ;  advertisements,  1874
Samuel  rules  Israel,  1140  b.c.
Samuelson,  sir  B. ;  technical  educa-
tion
Sanballat ;  Samaritan,  332  B.C.
Sancho,  king  ;  Portugal,  Spain,  970
Sancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678;

bishops,  England
Sandeman,  col. sir  R. G. ; Beloo-

chistan
Sandeman,  R.  ;  Glasites
Sanderson,  Dr.  J.  B. ;  Brown  Institute
Sanders,  will-forger ;  trials,  1844
Sandilli ;  Kaffraria,  1877-8
Sandon,  lord  ;  Disraeli  admin.,  1874,
1878  ;  elemen.  education,  1876  ;  see
Harrowby
Sandwich,  earl  of; administrations,
1660  ;  naval  battles,  Soiebay,  Aix-
la-Chapelle
Sandys ;  administrations,  1742,  1767
Sandys,  Edwin,  abp.  ;  York,  1577
Santa  Anna  ;  Mexico,  1853-76
Sapor ;  Persia,  240
Sappho  writes  611  B.C. ;  Sapphic
Sardanapalus  ;  Assyria,  876  B.C.
Sarmiento,  col.  D.,  Argentine  confed.,

1868
Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623; thermome-
ter, blood
Sassoon,  sir  A.,  Bombay,  1879
Sassulitch,  V.  ;  Russia,  1878
Saul,  Jews,  1096  b.c.  ;  Ammonites
Saumarez,  sir  James  ;  Algesiras,  1801
Saunders ;  trials,  1853
Saunders,  coin.  ;  Franklin,  1849
Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham

administration,  1766
Saussure,  1740-1799 ;  hygrometer
Saurip.  v.  Star;  trials,  1S69


Savage, John ; Babyngton's con-
spiracy, 1586
Savage,  abp.  ;  York,  1501
Savage,  Kieh.,  poet,  1698?- 1743
Savage,  W. ; i>rinting in colours,

1819-22
Savary,  trials,  1825
Savary,  capt.  ;  steam-engine,  1698
Savas  Pasha,  Turkey,  1880-1
Savonarola,  Jerome";  burnt,  1498
Saward,  J.  ;  trials,  1857
Sawtre,  sir  William;  burning  alive,

1401 ;  Lollards
Sawyer ;  arithmetic,  1878
Saxe,  count ; Fontenoy,  1745  ;  Laf-

feldt,  1747
Say,  Leon  ;  France,  1873-7
Say,  T.  ;  Colorado  beetle
Sayce, A.  H.  ;  Accadians Assyria,

1875  ;  Babylonia
Saye  and  Sele,  lord ;  administrations,

1660
Saye,  lord,  beheaded,  1450 ;  Cade
Sayers,  T.  ;  boxing,  i860
Scanderbeg ;  Albania,  1443
Scanlan,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1820
Scarlatti,  D.  ;  spinet
Schamyl;  Circassia,  1859
Scheele,  1742-86;  nitrogen,  oxygen,

prussic  acid, tartaric  acid,  pho-
tography, glycerine,  chlorine
Scheffer,  Ary  ;  painter,  1795-1858
Scheibler  M.  ;  tonometer,  1834
Scheiner,  Chr.  ;  heliometer,  1625
Schenck,  gen. ;  United  States,  1870,

1876
Scheutz  ;  calculating  machine,  1857
Schiaparelli ;  planets,  1861 ;  comets,

1866
Schiff,  Dr. ;  vivisection
Schilders,  general ;  Silistria,  1854
Schiller,  F.,  Ger.  poet,  1 759-1  Sos
Schimmelpenninck  ;  Holland,  1805
Schlegel,  W.,  German  writer,  1767-

1845  ; — F.,  1772-1829
Schleyer ;  volapuk
Schlickmann,  gen. ;  Transvaal,  1876
Schliemann,  Dr., 1822-90; Myceuse,

Troy,  1872
Schmidt ;  organs,  1682  ;  moon,  1874  ;

— shot,  Spain,  1874
Sehceffer,  Peter ;  printing,  1452
Schonbein,  M. ;  1797-1868  ;gun  cotton,

1840  ;  ozone,  1846
Schomberg, capt.  ; naval battles,

1811
Schomberg,  duke  of ;  Boyne,  Ireland,

Londonderry,  Carrickfergus,  1689
Schomburgk,  sir  R.  ;  Victoria  regia,

1838
Schopenhauer,  A.,  pessimism
Schreiber,  Lady ;  fans
Schroter ;  pianoforte,  1717
Sehrotter ;  phosphorus,  1845
Schouten  ;  Cape  Horn,  1616
Schouvaloff,  count,  Russia,  1879
Schubert, F. P.  ;  Ger.  mus., 1797-

1828
Schumann,  Robert ;  Ger.  mus.,  1810-

56
Schwabe,  sun

Schwann ;  cell  theory,  1839
Schwartz,  C,  missionary,  a.  1798
Schwartz,  M.  ;  gunpowder,  1320
Schwartzenberg,  prince  of ;  Dresden,

1813
Schwatka, lieut.,  Franklin search,

1879-81
Schwerin,  marshal ;  Prague,  1757
Scialoia,  A.  ;  Naples.  1877
Seipio  Africanus :  honour,  Numantia,

Rome,  Zama,  202  B.C.
Scindiah,  Gwalior
Scobelefif, gen.  ; Russo  -  Turkish

war,  1878  ;  Russia,  1882
Scott,  sir  G.  Gilbert ;  architect,  1811-

1878  ;  Alban's;  Asaph's  ;  midland
Scott,  R.  H.  ;  meteorology,  1865


INDEX.

Scott, gen. Winfleld, 1786-1866 ;
Mexico, 1847 ; United States,
1861-2
Scott ;  duelling,  1821,  1836
Scott,  Walter,  1771-1832  ;  Waverley
Scott,  Dred  ;  United  States,  1857
Scott,  Miss  C.  A.,  Girton  college
Scribe,  E.,  dramatist,  d.  1861  (at.  80)
Scudamore,  lord ;  apples
Seabury,  Samuel ;  bishoprics,  1784
Seaforth,  earl  of ;  thistle,  1687
Seal,  J. ;  trials  1858
Searle  ;  planets,  1858
Sebacon;  Egypt,  737  b.c.
Sebastiani,  marshal;  Talavera,  1809
Sebert ;  Westminster  Abbey
Sebright  marriage  ;  trials,  1886
Secchi,  Padre,  A.,  nat.  phil.,  1818-78
Seeker,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1758
Secocoeni ;  Transvaal,  1876-82
Sedgwick,  Adam,  d.  1873,  geology
Sefton  v.  Hopwood ;  trials,  1855
Sejanus,  d.  31

Selborne,  chancellor,  Id. (aft.  earl),
1872-4,  appeal ; Gladstone  adm.,
1880
Selden, J., 1584-1654 ; seas, poet-
laureate
Seleucus  Nicator;  Seleucides,  Syria,

omens,  Ipsus,  311  B.C.
Selim  ;  Turkey,  Syria,  1512
Selkirk,  Alexander ;  Juan  Fernandez,

1705
Sellis,  the  valet ;  suicide,  1810
Selmer,  M.  ;  Norway,  1 881-4
Selwyn,  sir  C.  J.,  justice,  Id.,  1868
Semiramis ;  Assyria,  eunuchs, 2007

B.C.

Semmes,  capt.,  Alabama,  1862

Semple  ;  trials,  1795,  1862

Sen,  Baboo,  deism,  1869

Senaputti ;  Manipur

Seneca,  put  to  death,  65  ;  Cordova

Sennacherib;  Assyria,  710  B.C.

Sennef elder  ;  lithography,  1796

Sergius ;  popes,  nativity,  690  ;  puri-
fication, Koran

Serrano,  marquis  de,  and  duke  de  la
Torre.  Spain,  1868-75,1882;  Alcolea,
1868  '

Serrin ;  electric  lamp

Serturner,  morphia,  1803

Servetus,  Michael,  burnt,  1553 ;
Unitarians,  Arians,  blood

Servius  Tullius ;  coins,  census, 566

B.C.

Sesostris  ;  Egypt,  1618  B.C.

Setalla ;  burning  glasses

Severus  ;  Rome ;  emp.  193  ;  Britain,

Roman  walls,  Memphis,  202
Sextus  Pompeius  ;  Mylse,  36  b.  c.
Seymour,  sir  Edw.  ;  speaker,  1678
Seymour,  sir  M.  ;  China,  1856
Seymour v. Butterworth ; trials,

1862
Seymour,  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset ;

administrations,  1547  ;  protectors,

admiralty
Seymour,  lord  ;  duels,  1835
Seymour,  lady ;  tournament,  1839
Seymour,  adm.  sir  H.  (aft.  lord  Al-

cester),  Egypt,  1882
Sforza,  cardinal ;  Naples,  1877
Shadwell,  Thomas ;  poet-laureate,  d.

1692
Shaftesbury,  earl  of;  administrations,

1672;  (1801-1885)  Chichester;  cos-

termongers,  Shaftesbury  estate
Shakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak-

speare,  drama,  mulberry-tree
Shalinaneser;  Assyria,  730  b.c.
Shapira,  M.  ;  bible,  note
Sharp,  A.;  circle  (squared),  1717
Sharp,  archbp. ;  Scotland,  1679
Sharp,  Granville;  slavery,  1772
Shaw,  rev.  Mr.  ;  Madagascar,  1883
Shaw,  sir  James ;  mayor,  1805
Shaw,  sir  John ;  Greenock


1127

Shaw,  capt.  ;  fire  brigade

Shaw,  W.,  home-rule,  1879

Sheares,  the  Messrs.;  trials,  1798

Shedden  v.  Patrick;  trials,  i860

Sheepshanks,  R.;  astronomy,  stand-
ard, 1855;  Sheepshanks'  donations,
1857-8

Sheil,  R.  L. ;  mint,  1846

Shelburne,  earl  of ;  Shelburne  ad-
ministration, 1782;  duel,  1780

Sheldon,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1663

Sheldon,  William ;  tapestry

Shelley,  Percy  B.,  poet,  1792-1822

Shepherd  v.  Bennett ;  trials,  1870

Sheppard,  Jack;  execution,  1724

Shepstone,  sir  T.  ;  Transvaal, 1876-7

Shere  Ali,  Afghanistan,  1863,  1879;
Candahar

Shere  Ali,  kills  Id.  Mayo,  1872 ;  An-
daman, India

Sheridan,  gen.  ;  United  States,  1833,
1885,  d.  1888

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  1751-
1816  ;  Grenville  administration,
comedy,  theatres

Sheridan,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1811

Sherman,  gen.  Wm.  T. ;  d.  1891 ;
United  States,  1861

Sherward,  Wm.  ;  Norwich,  1869

Shield,  Mr.  ;  oil  oil  waters

Shillibeer,  G.,  1807-66;  omnibuses,
1829

Shipley  ;  arts,  soc.  of,  1754

Shirley,  bishop  ;  Man,  1846

Short,  bishop ;  Man,  St.  Asaph,
1841

Shovel,  sir  Cloudesley;  Stilly,  1707

Shrapnel,  bombs

Shrewsbury  peerage  cases ;  trials,
1858,  1859

Shrewsbury,  duke  of;  administra-
tions, 1714

Shrewsbury,  earl  of ;  Patay,  1429  ;
Castillon,  1453

Shuttleworth,  sir  U.  K.  ;  Gladstone
adm.,  1886

Sibour,  abp.  ;  France,  1857

Sicard,  abbe  ;  deaf  and  dumb,  1742

Siddons,  Sarah,  actress;  retired,
1819

Sidmouth,  Henry  Addington,  vis-
count, d.  1844  ;  Addington  adm.,
1800  ;  green  bag,  speaker

Sidney,  sir  P.,  1554-86;  Algernon,
1617-83  ;  Rye  house  plot

Siemens,  sir  C.  Wm.,  1822-83  >  heat,
pyrometer,  1871;  Albert  medal,
1874;  attraction,  bathometer,  elec-
tric telegraph,  heat,  light,  light-
houses, 1878

Siemens,  F.  ;  glass,  1885

Siemens,  Werner,  electricity,  electric
railway,  1881

Sieyes,  abbe  ;  directory,  France,  1799

Sigismond  ; German}', Bohemia,

■  Hungary.Nicopolis,  Poland,  Prussia

Silius,  Italicus,  poet,  about  25-99

Sillim,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1863

Simeon  the  Stylite  ;  abstinence

Simmonds  ;  flying,  1875  ;  balloons,
1883

Simmons  ;  trials,  1808

Simmons,  sir  J.  L.  ;  Malta,  1884

Simnel,  Lambert;  conspiracies,  re-
bellion, i486  ;  Stoke

Simon  Magus  ;  Simonians,  41

Simon,  J.  ;  France,  1876-7

Simonides ;  letters,  mnemonics,  477

B.C.

Simplicius,  St.  ;  collar  of  SS. ,  1407
Simpson,  Dr.  ;  chloroform,  1848
Simpson,  traveller  ;  suicide,  1840
Sims,  G.  R.  ;  London,  1883
Sindercomb ;  conspiracy,  1756
Singh,  Runjoor  ;  Aliwai,  1846
Sismondi,  C,  hist.,  1773,  1842
Sisyphus;  Corinth,  1326  B.C.
Sixtus  :  popes.


1128


INDEX.


Sixtus  V.,  pope  ;  interdict,  1588
Skene,  J.  H. ;  Hittites
Skipwith,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1872
Skobeleff,  gen.,  Russia,  1880,  Senova
Skrzyneeki,  gen.  ;  Praga,  Wawz,  1S31
Slade,  Dr.  ;  spiritualism,  1876-7
Slade,  P.,  Slade

Slater  ;  forgery  case ;  trials,  1888
Slidell,  Mr.  ;  United  States,  1861
Sligo,  marquis  of;  trials,  181 2
Sloane,  sir  Hans,  1660-1752  ;  apothe-
cary, Jesuits' bark,  British  Mu-
seum, Chelsea
Sloanes  ;  trials,  1851
Smart,  A.  ;  suicide,  1856
Smart,  sir  G.  T.,  mus.,  1776-1867
Smart ;  chimneys,  1805
Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone,  canal,

1 759
Smeaton,  sir  John  ;  Wigan,  1643
Smethurst,  T.  ;  trials,  1859
Smee,  trials,  1879
Smirke,  B.  ; 1780-1867; post-office,

1825
Smirke,  S.  ;  Bethlehem,  British  Mu-
seum, d.  1877
Smith, Adam, 1723-90 ; political

economy,  1776
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer,

trials,  1841
Smith,  Benjamin  Leigh  ;  north- west

passage,  1871-82
Smith,  capt.  ;  duel,  trials,  1830
Smith,  sir  C.  Euan ;  Zanzibar,  Mo-
rocco
Smith, P. P.  ; screw propeller,

1836
Smith,  Geo.  ;  Assyria,  1866-75  ;  Brit.
Museum,  1873  ; forks  ; Nineveh  ;
Hittites;  d.  1876
Smith,  col.  Holled  ;  Soudan,  1891
Smith,  sir  J.  E. ;  botanist,  1759-1828  ;
his  widow, Pleasance,  longevity,
1877
Smith, prof. W. Robertson, free

church  of  Scotland
Smith,  J.  ;  bribery,  trials.  1854
Smith,  Joseph  ;  savings  bank
Smith,  Joseph  ;  Mormonites,  1823
Smith,  Madeleine  ;  trials,  1857
Smith,  Miss  v.  earl  Ferrers ;  trials,

1846
Smith,  Dr.  R.  Angus;  chemist,  1817-

84 ;  air,  1858
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ;

sanitary  legislation,  1832
Smith,  sir  Sidney ;  Acre,  1799
Smith,  rev.  Sydney,  1769-1845
Smith,  rev.  S.  ;  trials,  1858
Smith,  Sam.  Sidney ;  trials,  1843
Smith, sir  C. Eardley;  evangelical

alliance,  1845
Smith, sir Harry; India, Aliwal,

KafTraria,  1850
Smith,  Mr.  Thomas  ;  customs
Smith,  Thomas  ;  lord  mayor,  1809
Smith,  Win.  ;  geology,  d.  1840
Smith, W. H., 1825-91  ;  admiralty,

1877  !  Salisbury  adm.  1885,  1886
Smith  v.  earl  Brownlow  ;  trials,  1869
Smith,  and  Markham,  captains;  duels,

trials,  1830
Smithson,  J.  ; Smithsonian  Institu-
tion, 1846
Smollett,  Tobias,  novelist,  1721-71
Smyth  (will  case) ;  trials,  1855
Smyth,  W.  H,  astron.,  1788-1865
Snellius  ;  optics,  1624
Snider,  Jacob,  d.  1866  ;  fire-arms
Snorri, Sturleson ; Iceland, killed,

1241
Snow,  Dr.  ;  amylene,  1856
Soames  ;  cocoa-nut  tree  oil,  1829
Soane,  sir  J.,  architect,  1753-1S37
Sobieski,  John ; Poland, Cossacks,

Hungary,  Vienna
Snbolelf,  gen.,  Bulgaria,  1883
Sobrero,  nitro-glycerinc,  1847


Socinus,  Lselius  (d.  1562),  and  Faus-
tus  (d.  1604) ;  anti-trinitarians,
arians,  unitarians

Socrates,  468-399  B.C.  ;  Athens,  philo-
sophy

Soleil,  saccharimeter

Solomon ;  Jerusalem,  1004  b.  c.

Solon  ;  Athens,  594  B.C.  ;  laws,  tax

Solovieff,  A.,  Russia,  1879

Solyman  ;  Turkey,  Belgrade,  Vienna,

1529
Solyman  II.  ;_  Hungary, Buda, Mo-

hatz,  1526
Somers,  lord ;  administrations,  1690  ;

corn
Somers,  sir  George  ;  Bermudas,  1609
Somerset the black  declared  free,

1772  ;  slavery  in  England
Somerset,  see  Seymour; admiralty,

1859
Somerville, Mary, mathemat., <fcc.

1780-1872
Sonzogno,  R.  ;  murdered,  Rome,  1875
Sophia,  princess ;  Hanover,  1659
Sophia  Dorothea,  d. 1796 ;  England

(queens,  Geo.  I.)
Sophocles, 495-405 b.c.  ; tragedy,

drama
Sorel,  Agnes  ;  jewellery,  1434
Soro,  Zuan  ;  cipher,  1516
Sostratus  ;  pharos,  280  B.C.
Soto,  Ferdinand  de  ;  Louisiana,  1541
Soult,  marshal, 1769-1851  ;  Albuera,

Oporto,  Orthes,  Pyrenees,  Tarbes,

Toulouse,  Villa  Franca,  Douro
Southey,  Rob.,  1774-1843  ;  poet-lau-
reate
Southwell,  W.  ;  piano,  1S07
Soyer,  A.  (cook),  d.  1858
Spalding,  Mr.  ;  diving-bell,  1783
Sparks,  George ;  trials,  1853
Speilman, sir  John ;  paper-making,

Dartford,  1590
Speke,  capt.,  1827-64  ;  Africa,  1863-4;

— B. ;  London,  1868
Spencer,  D.;  Coventry,  1883
Spencer,  earl;  Grenville  adm.,  1806;

Roxburghe  club  ;  Gladstone  adm.,

1868, 1880, 1886, 1892; Ireland,

1868-73,  1882
Spencer,  Mr.  ;  electrotype,  1837
Spener,  Phil.  J.  ;  theol'og.  1635-1705;

pietists
Spenser, E., 1553-98; allegory,

faery  queen,  poet-laureate,  verse
Spert,  sir  Thos.  ;  Trinity-house,  1512
Spina, Alexander de  ; spectacles,

1285
Spinass,  J.  ;  trials,  1870
Spinoza,  B.  de,  1632-77  ;  atheism
Spohr,  L.,  mus.  comp.,  1 783-1859
Spollen,  Jas.  ;  trials,  1857
Spottiswoode,  Win. 1825-83  ;  optics,

1871, British association, 1878,

Royal institution, 1865, 1873  ;

Royal  society,  1878
Sprengel,  Dr.  ;  air-pump,  note
Sprigg,  J.  G. ;  Cape,  1878
Spurgeon,  C. H.,  1834-92; baptists,

Surrey gardens, crystal palace,

tabernacle
Spurzheim,  J.  G.  ;  craniology,  1800
Stackpole,  capt.  ;  duel,  1814
Staekpoles,  trials ;  1853
Stael,  mad.  de,  novelist,  d.  1817
Stafford,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1443
Stafford,  lord  ;  popish  plot,  16S0
Stafford,  marquis  of,  d.  1803  ;  Blooms-
bury
Stahl, G. E.  ; chemist, 1660-1723  ;

phlogiston
Staines,  sir  William ;  lord  mayor,  1800
Stair,  earl  of;  Glencoe,  1692  ;  Det-

tingeu,  1743
Staite  ;  electric  light,  1848
Stalker,  gen.  ;  Bushire,  suicide,  1857
Stambouloff ;  Bulgaria,  18S6
Stanberry,  John  ;  Eton,  1448


Standen,  T.  ;  pedestrianism,  181 1
Stanhope,  earl;  Halifax  adm.,  1714
Stanhope, Charles, earl,  1753-1S16  ;
printing-press ;  Philip  Henry,  earl
(formerly  lord  Mahon,  historian),
1805-75  ;  antiquaries
Stanhope,  col.  ;  trials,  1816
Stanhope,  hon.  col.  ;  suicide,  1825
Stanhope,  lieut.-gen.  ;  Minorca,  1708
Stanhope,  Edward ; Salisbury  adm.

1885-6
Stanislaus  ;  Poland,  1704
Stanley,  dean  A.  P.,  1815-81 ;  Sun-
day, 1877
Stanley,  colonel  F.  A.  ;  Disraeli,  2nd
adm.,  1878  ; Salisbury  adm.,  1885,
1886, (Id. Stanley of Preston)
Canada,  gov. -gen.,  1888
Stanley,  bishop,  Norwich,  1837
Stanley, H. M.  ; b. 1841  ; Africa,
1872-82  ; Congo  ; Soudan, 18&7  ;
Nile
Stanley,  sir  John  ;  Man,  1406
Stanley,  sir  W.  ;  chamberlain;  Bos-
worth,  1485
Stanley,  lord  ;  see  Derby
Stanley,  lord,  of  Alderley,  b.  1802  ;

Aberdeen,  Palmerston  adm.
Stanley,  Edw.,  lord,  b.  1826  ;  Derby,
1866 ; Disraeli adm. 1868, see
Derby
Stansfield,  James  ; Gladstone  adm. ,

1886
Stanton,  Mr.  ;  velocipede,  1874
Stapleton,  J.  ;  trials,  1858
Stapleton,  Walter,  bp.  ;  Exeter,  1319
Stark  ;  electric  telegraph,  1858
Statius,  Lat.  poet,  fl.  79
Staunton,  L.  &  P.,  etc.  ;  trials,  1S77
Staunton,  Mr.  ;  China,  1840
Stead,  W.  T.  ;  trials,  1885
Stearns  ;  electric  telegraph
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler,

Spectator,  clubs,  Kit-Cat  club
Steele,  Mr.  ;  murdered,  trials,  1807
Steell,  sir  J.  ;  Scotland,  1S76
Steenchel,  Magnus  ;  Sweden,  1314
Stein,  Germany,  1819
Steinmetz  ;  chess,  1873,  1883
Stenhouse,  J.  ;  dyes,  charcoal,  1853
Stephen ;  popes,  England,  Hungary,

997  ;  Poland
Stephen,  Leslie  ;  biography
Stephens,  G. ;  Runes
Stephens, Miss  ; theatres, Covent-

garden,  1813-1882
Stephens,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1839
Stephens,  Robert ;  Bible,  1551
Stephenson,  George,  1781-1848  ;  rail-
ways, Chatmoss ;  steam,  1814 ;  New-
castle, 1881
Stephenson,  Robert,  1803-59  ;  tubular

bridges
Stepniak ;  Russia,  1884
Sterne,  Laurence,  humorist,  1713-68
Sternhold,  T. ,  d.  1549;  Psalms
Stesichorus  ;  choruses,  556  B.C.
Stevens,  A. ;  Wellington  (monument),

1858
Stevenson,  Messrs.;  Grautou
Stewart,  col.  ;  Trincomalee,  1795
Stewart,  gen.  ;  Madras,  1783
Stewart,  sir  D.,  Afghanistan,  1880
Stewart,  capt.  ;  Franklin,  1850
Stewart,  col.;  Soudan,  1882
Stewart,  gen.  II.;  Soudan,  1S84-5
Stewart,  Dugald,  phi!.,  1753-1828
Stewart,  Duncan  ;  Ca;sarean
Stewarts ;  trials,  1829
Stifelius ;  algebra,  1544
Stigand,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1052
Stillingfleet,  B. ;  blue-stocking
Stirling,  W.  ;  Glasgow,  1791
Stirling,  capt.  "Atalanta"
Stock,  Thos.  ;  Sunday-schools
Stockdale;  trials,  1826
Stoddart,  Dr.;  Times,  1812
Stoecklin ;  Boulogne,  1878


INDEX.


1129


Stokes,  E.  S. ;  New  York,  1872

Stokes,  sir,  G.  G.,  sunshine  recorder  ;
Royal  society,  1885

Stone,  D.  H.  ;  mayor,  lord,  1874

Stopford,  adm.  ;  Acre,  Sidon,  1840

Storace,  madame,  d.  1814

Storck;  anabaptists,  1524;  levellers

Storks,  sir  H.;  Ionian  Isles,  1859  ;
army,  1868

Stormont,  vise;  Portland  adm.,  1783

Strabo,  geog.,  writes,  14

Straelian,  admiral  sir  Richard;  Havre,
Walcheren,  1809

Straduarius;  viol.,  1700-22

Strafford,  lord,  administrations,  1640;
beheaded,  1641

Strafford,  earl;  admiralty,  1712

Strahan,  sir  G.  C. ;  Gold  Coast,  1874  ;
Windward  isles,  1876 ;  Grenada,
1877  ;  Van  Diemen's  land,  1881

Strangford,  lord;  bribery,  1784

Stratford,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1333

Stratford  de  Redeliffe,  lord,  diplo-
matist, 1788-1880

Strauch,  capt. ;  Congo

Street,  Geo.  E.,  1824-81;  architect,  law
courts

Strelnikoff,  gen.,  assassinated  ;  Rus-
sia, 1882

Strickland, Hugh;  uat. hist.,  1811-

53
Stroh,  A. ;  acoustics
Stromeyer;  club-foot,  1831
Strongbow;  Ireland,  n  76
Strousberg,  Dr.  H.  B.  ;  Russia,  1875-

6 ;  d.  1884
Struensee,  count;  Zell,  1772
Strutt,  Edw. ;  Aberdeen  adm.,  1852
Struve,  F.,  astron.,  1793-1864
Strzelecki, count ; Australia,  1838  ;

d.  1873
Stuart,  Alexander;  marquis
Stuart, conf. gen. ; United  States,

1862
Stuart,  gen. ;  Cuddalore,  1783
Stuart,  sir  John;  Maida,  1806
Stukeley,  Dr. ;  earthquakes
Stum,  P.;  trials,  1882
Sturmius ;  magnet
Sturt,  capt. ;  South  Australia,  1830
Succoth  (St.  Patrick)  preaches,  433
Suchet,  marshal;  Valencia,  1812
Sudbury,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1375
Sudeikin,  lieut.,  murdered  ;  Russia,

1883
Sue,  Eug.,  Fr.  novelist,  1804-57
Suetonius,  C.  T.,  Lat.  hist.,  118
Suetonius  Paulinus ;  Menai,  61
Suffolk,  Thomas,  earl  of; adminis-
trations, 1540
Suffrein,  Thos.;  Trincomalee,  1782
Sugden, sir  Edward  (aft. lord St.

Leonards);  chancellor,  lord,  1852
Sugden ;  trials,  1875
Suisse,  Nicholas;  trials,  1842
Suleiman  Pasha,  Russo-Turkish  war

II.,  1877-8  ;  Turkey,  1877
Suleiman,  Senova,  Turkey,  1878
Sullivan,  sir  A.;  mus.  com.,  b.  1842  ;

operas,  Savoy
Sullivan,  sir  E. ;  chancellor  (Ireland)

1883
Sullivan,  Mr.;  Lima,  1857
Sully,  J. ,  pessimism
Sulpicius,  Servius ; civil  law,  codes,

53  B.C.
Sumner,  archbp.,  J.  B.,  1780-1862  ;

Chester,  1828;  Canterbury,  1848
Sumner,  bishop, C. R., 1790-1874 ;

Llandaff,  1826  ;  Winchester,  1827
Sumner,  C. ;  United  States,  1856
Sunderland,  earl  of ;  administrations,

1684 ;  libraries
Surajah  Dowlah;  Black-hole,  India,

Plassey,  1757
Suit,  Mrs. ;  Paul's  school
Surrey,  earl  of;  Flodden,  1513;  Ro-
man catholics,  1829


Susarion  and  Dolon; comedy,  562

B.C.

Suso,  H. ;  mystic,  1300-65
Sussex,  Aug.  Fred.,  duke  of, 1773-
1843; marriage,  1793; Royal  So-
ciety
Suter,  Mr.,  Turkey,  18S1
Sutter,  capt.;  California,  1847
Sutton;  air-pipe,  1756
Sutton,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1805
Sutton,  C.  M. ;  speaker,  1817
Sutton,  Thos.;  charter-house,  1611
Suwarrow,  marshal,  1730-1800;  Ales-
sandria, Ismael,  Novi,  Parma,  Po-
land, Praga,  Warsaw,  Trebia,  1799
Swan,  Mr.,  M.P. ;  bribery,  1819
Swan,  J.  W,  electric  light, 1880  ;

Savoy
Swete,  H.  ;  cottage  hospitals
Sweyn ;  Denmark,  985 ;  England
Swift,  Dean  J.,  1667-1745;  Drapier,

Seriblerus,  Mars
Swindlehurst,  C.  ;  trials,  1877
Swynfen ;  trials,  1858
Sydenham,  Floyer,  d.  1788;  literary

fund
Sydenham,  lord ;  Melbourne  adminis-
tration, 1834
Sydenham,  Thos.,  physic,  1624-89
Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland,

lord-lieutenant,  1690
Sydney,  see  Sidney
Sykes  and  Rumbold,  Messrs.  ;  bri-
bery, 1776
Sylla;  Rome,  Athens,  86  B.C.
Sylvester,  prof.  J.  J.  ;  motion
Symington;  steam-engine,  1789
Symonds,  rev.  Symon ;  Bray,  1533-58
Symons,  G.  J.;  rainfall
Synge,  Mr.  and  Mrs.,  Turkey,  1880


Tabak  ;  diamond  robbery,  1886

Tainter,  S.,  photophone

Tacitus,  M.  C,  Latin  hist.,  about
62-117;  Rome,  emp.,  275

Tait,  bp. ;  London,  1856;  abp.  Can-
terbury, 1S68

Talbot,  Miss  Augusta;  trials,  1851

Talbot,  H.  F.;  photography,  calo-
type,  &c,  1840

Talfourd,  sirT.  N,  poet,  judge;  1795-

1854
Tallard,  marshal;  Blenheim,  1704
Talley,  Wm.  ;  trials,  1875
Talleyrand,  1754-1838;  Benevento
Tallis,  Thos.,  musician,  d.  1585-
Talma,  Fr.  actor,  d.  1826
Tamerlane,  d.  1405 ;  India,  Damascus,

Tamerlane
Tancred,  sir  T. ;  Forth  bridge  ;  Asia

Minor
Tandemus ;  Adamite
Tankerville,  Ford,  earl  of;  adminis-
trations, 1699
Tanner,  Dr.,  abstinence
Tantia  Topee  ;  India,  1857
Tarquin; Rome, kings; Sibylline

books
Tarquinius Priscus ; Rome, kings,

cloaca,  588  b.c.
Tasman, Abel  ; circumnavigator,

Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand,

Van  Diemen's  Land
Tasso,  Torquato  ; It.  poet,  1544-95 ;

Jerusalem  Delivered
Tate,  Henry  ;  National  Gallery
Tate,  Nahum,  d.  171 5  ;  poet-laureate
Tatian,  about  170  ;  aquarians,  encra-

tites
Tattersall,  R.  ;  races,  1766
Tauler,  J.  ;  mystic,  1290-1361
Tavernier ;  pearls,  1633
Tawell,  John  ;  trials,  1845
Taylor,  H.;  trials,  1882


Taylor,  I.;  alphabet

Taylor,  Mrs.;  bells,  1882

Taylor,  bp.  Jeremy,  1613-67

Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents,

United  States,  1849
Taylor,  Messrs.  ;  oil-gas
Taylor,  Dr.  Brook ;  acoustics,  1714
Taylor,  rev.  Robert ;  atheism,  trials,

1S27,  1831
Taylor,  col.  T.  E.  (after.  Id.  Ardgillau)

Disraeli  adm.  1874
Taylor,  rev.  W.  ;  blind,  bells,  1855-6
Taylor, sir  W. T. ; Andrew's, St.,

1883
Tchemayeff ;  Turkey,  1876  ;  Russia,

1882
Teba,  countess  ; (empress)  France,

1853

Teleki;  Austria,  i860;  Hungary,
1861

Telesphorus  ;  pope,  127 .

Telford,  T.  1757-1834;  chain-bridges,
1819

Tell,  William  ;  Switzerland,  1307

Tempel ;  planets,  1861

Temple,  earl ;  Newcastle  adm.,  1757

Temple,  sir  R.  ;  India,  1869-72  ;
Bengal,  1874

Tempter,  major  ;  trials,  1S8S

Tenters,  D.  (two),  1582-1694

Tenison,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1694

Tennant,  Mr.  ;  bleaching,  1798

Tennent,  sir  J.  E.  ;  1864-69  ;  Ceylon

Tenniel,  John,  b.  1S20  ;  Punch

Tennyson,  Alfred,  lord  1809-92 ;  poet-
laureate

Tenterden,  lord;  king's  bench,  1818

Terence,  105-159  B.C.  ;  drama

Terentius  Varro  ;  Cannae,  216  B.C.

Terry  v.  Brighton  aquarium  comp.,
trials,  1875

Terry,  Mr. ;  boat  (tricycle)

Tertiillian  writes  197 ;  cross,  Monta-
nists

Teucer;  Trov,  1502  B.C.

Tewfik,  Egypt,  1879-92

Texier,  F.  ;  drowning

Teynham,  lord  ;  trials,  1833

Thackeray,  W.  M.,  novelist,  1S11-63

Tluikombau,  Fiji,  1859-74

Thales,  Miletus;  globe,  640  b.c
Ionic  sect,  moon,  water,  world

Thalestris ;  queens

Thanet,  earl  of ;  riots,  1799

Thebau  ;  Burmah,  1817-85

Thecla ;  Alexandrine  codex

Themistocles ;  Marathon,  Salamis,
480  b.  c.

Theobald;  civil  law,  1138

Theocritus  ;  verse,  265  b.  c.

Theodore ;  Corsica,  1736  Samos,
keys,  lathe

Theodore,  emperor,  1818-68;  Abys-
sinia, 1S55-68 ;  Magdala

Theodoric  ;  Spain,  Goths,  553

Theodosius  ;  Eastern  emp. ,  379  ;
Aquileia,  Ostrogoths,  massacre,
paganism

Theodosius,  the  younger ;  academies,
Bologna

Theophilus  ;  Antioch,  chronology

Theophrastus,  nat.  ph.,  370-287  b.c

Theopompus ;  Ephori,  funeral  ora-
tions, Sparta,  353  B.C.

Theseus;  Athens,  1235  B.C.

Thesiger,  sir  F.  ;  solicitor-general,
1844;  attorney-general,  chanc,
lord  high,  1858 ;  trials,  1850 ;  d.
1878

Thesiger,  gen.  ;  Kaffraria,  1878

Thespis  ;  drama,  536  B.C.

Thevenot,  M.  ;  coffee,  1662

Thierry  ;  Holland,  936

Thiers,  A.,  1798-1877;  France,  1836,
1871-8  ;  Bordeaux

Thirleby;  Westminster,  1541

Thirlwall,  bp.,  Connop,  1797-1S65 ;
St.  David's,  1840-74


1130


INDEX.


Tliistlewood,  A.,  Cato  street  consp.
Thorn,  James,  sculptor,  1799-1850
Thomas,  01.  ;  France,  1S71,  1876
Thomas,  col.  ;  duel,  1783
Thomas  &  Gilchrist,  steel
Thomas,  Mrs.,  Richmond
Thome  de  Gammond,  tunnels,  1867
Thompson,  E.  ;  life-raft,  1874
Thompson,  Eliz.;  scientific  assoc.
Thompson, sir  H.  ; burning  dead,

1873
Thompson,  Miss  ;  trials,  1821
Thompson,  major ;  suicide,  1832
Thompson, William ; lord mayor,

1828
Thorns,  W.  J.;  folk  lore,  longevity,

notes  and  queries,  wills
Thomson  or  Thomas  ;  dynamite,  1873
Thomson, sir C.  Wyville,  1830-82  ;

deep  sea,  1868-76
Thomson, Mr.  Poulett ; Melbourne

administration,  1835  ;  calico
Thomson,  R.,  road  steamers,  1868
Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"),

1700-48  ;  Richmond,  Rule  Britannia
Thomson,  J.  B.;  bleaching
Thomson, sir William (aft. baron

Kelvin),  6.  1824  ;  electricity,  tides  ;

atoms
Thomson,  Joseph,  Africa,  1880-2, 1891
Thornton,  Abraham  ;  appeal,  1817
Thornton,  sirE.;  Turkey,  1884
Thorpe,  William  de ;  bribery,  1351
Thorpe,  John  T.  ;  lord  mayor,  1820
Thorwaldsen,  Alb.,  sculp., 1777-1844
Thoth  ;  mythology,  152  B.C.
Thouvenel, E. A,  Fr. statesman,

1818-66
Thrasybulus  ;  Athens,  403  B.C.
Thrupp,  G.  ;  carriages,  1877
Thucydides,  Gr.  hist.,  470-404  B.C.
Thuriow,  lord ;  chancellor,  lord  high,

1778 :  great  seal
Thurtell,  J.  ;  executions,  1824
Thwaites,  sir  John,  1815-70 ;  metrop.

board  of  works
Thyra,  Dannawerke
Tiberius, 903  B.C.  ; Capri, Rome,

emp.  14
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law,

132  B.C.
Tibullus,  Lat.  poet,  50-18  B.C.
Tiehborne,  trials,  1871-3
Ticknor,  G.,  amer.  hist.  1791-1861
Tieck,  L.,  Ger.  poet,  1773-1853
Tierney,  George ;  duel, 1798 ;  Gode-

rich
Tighe,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1800
Tigranes  ; Armenia,  93  B.C.  ;  Pontus
Tilden,  S.  J.  ;  United  States,  1876
Tildesley,  sir  Thomas  ;  Wigan,  1651
Tilghman,  B.  C. ;  sand-blast,  1871
Tilloch,  Mr.  ;  stereotype
Tillotson, abp.  ; Canterbury, 1691  ;

universalists
Tilly  ; Magdeburg,  1631 ;  Palatinate,

Lech
Times  newspax>er;  Times,  trials,  1790
Timoleon  ;  Syracuse,  343  B.C.
Timour ;  see  Tamerlane
Tindal  and  C'overdale  ;  Bible,  1526
Tippoo Sahib ; Arikera, Madras,

Seringapatam,  Mysore,  1792
Tirard  ;  France,  1888
Tissamiier  and  others  ;  balloons, 187=;;
1883  /b'

Tisza  ;  Hungary,  1875-8
Titian,  painter,  1477-1576
Titus,  Rome,  emp.  79 ; Jerusalem,

Tyre,  arches
Todd  v.  Lyne  ;  trials,  1873
Todhunter,  I.  ;  math. 1820-84  ;  pro-
bability
Todleben,  gen.,  1818-84;  Sebastopol ;

Plevna,  1877  ! Russo-Turkish  war
II,  etc.,  1877-8
Tofts,  Mary;  impostor,  1726
Toler,  Mr.  ;  m.,  trials,  1853


Tolly,  Barclay  de  ;  Smolensko,  1812

Tolmidas  ;  Coronea,  447  B.C.

Tomline,  bp.  ;  Lincoln, Winchester,
1820

Tolstoi,  count ;  Russia,  1882  ;  (mini-
ster) Russia,  188S-9

Tom  Thumb ;  dwarfs,  1846

Tompion,  Thos.  ;  clocks,  1695

Tone,  Theobald  W.  ;*  trials,  1798

Tonson,  Jacob,  bookseller,  d.  1736

Tonti,  Laurence ;  Tontines

Tooke,  J.  Home,  1736-1812  ;  "diver-
sions of  Purley,"  1786

Tooke,  W.  ;  prices

Tooth,  rev.  A.  ;  public  worship,  1876

Topete,  adm.,  Spain,  1868-73

Toro,  M.  M.,  Colombia,  1872

Torpey,  trials,  1870

Torrence,  Mrs.  ;  trials,  1821

Torrens,  lieut.  ;  duel,  1806

Torres ;  Australasia,  1606

Torricelli; d. 1647; air, micro-
scopes

Torrington,  Herbert,  lord ; Walpole
admin.,  1727

Toselli,  diving,  1871

Totila ;  Italy,  541

Tourgeniff,  T.  S.,  1818-83  ;  Rus-  nov->
nihilists

Toussaint, 1794  ; Hayti, St. Do-
mingo
Tower,  Mr. ;  volunteer,  1803,  i860
Townley,  G.  V.  ;  trials,  1863
Townshend, lord  ; duel, 1773 ; Ire-
land
Townshends  ; Rockingham, Chat-
ham, and  Grafton  admins.,  1765-7
Train,  G.  F.  ;  street  railways,  i860 ;

Ireland,  1868
Trajan; Rome, emp.,  98; Trajan's

pillar,  Dacia
Traugott,  R.  ;  Poland,  1864
Travers, Samuel ; poor  knights of

Windsor
Treby,  George  ;  Walpole,  1721
Tresylian ;  king's  bench
Trevelyan,  sir  C.  ;  Madras,  1859-60
Trevelyan,  sir,  G.  O.  ;  household  suf-
frage ;  Gladstone  adm.,  1880, 1886  ;
1892  ;  Ireland,  1882
Trevelyan,  W.  C.  ;  phonography
Trevethick ;  steam  engine,  1802
Trevor,  sir  John  ;  speaker,  1694
Tribe,  A.  ;  copper-zinc  couple,  1872
Tricoupis,  M.  ;  Greece,  1878
Troas  ;  Troy,  1374  B.C.
Trochu,  gen.,  France,  1870-1,  defence
Trollope,  A.;  nov.,  &c,  1815-82
Trollope,  Messrs.;  tapestry
Tropman,  France,  1869
Troubridge,  sir  T.  ;  wrecks,  1807
"  True  Sun,"  prop,  of;  trials,  1834
Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co. :  porter,  1815
Trumbull,  Jonathan
Truro,  lord  ;  chancellor,  lord,  1850
Tseng,  marquis,  China,  1879-80
Tucker,  E.  ;  vine  disease,  1845
Tuckett,  capt.  Harvey ;  duel,  1840
Tufnell,  E.  C,  training  schools
Tuite,  murderer  ;  trials,  1813
Tuke,  W.  ;  lunatics,  1792
Tull,  William ;  posting
Tulloch,  col.  ;  Sebastopol,  1855
Tullus  Hostilius  ;  Alba,  saturnalia
Tunstall,  bp.  ;  administrations,  1529  ;

arithmetic,  privy  seal
Tupper,  M.  F.,  1810-89;  proverbs
Turenne,  marshal,  161 1-75
Turner, Joseph Mallord William,

1775-1851
Turnerelli,  T.,  people's  tribute
Turnbull,  Dahomey,  1876
Turn  bull,  W.  B.  ;  trials,  186 1
Turner,  J.  W.  :  painter,  1775-1851
Turner,  Miss  ;  trials,  1827
Turner,  Richard  ;  teetotaller,  1831
Turner,  rev.  Sydney;  1814--Q;  refor-
matory schools,  184Q


Turner;  trials,  1817

Tnrpin,  or  Tilpin,  bp.  ;  writes,  818

Turton,  bishop  ;  Ely,  1S45

Tussaud,  Mad.  ;  waxwork

Tusser ;  agriculture,  1562

Twycross  v.  Grant ;  trials,  1876

Tyce,  John  ;  taffety,  1598

Tycho  Brahe,  1 546-1 601  ;  astronomy,
platonic  year,  globe

Tyler,  John  ;  United  States  presi-
dent, 1841

Tyler,  Wat ;  killed,  1381

Tyndale,  Wm.  ;  martyred,  1536

Tyndall,  J.  ;  Roy.  Inst.,  1853;  mag-
netism, Mont  Blanc,  1857  ;  calor-
escence,  sound,  dust,  Niagara,
United  States,  1872,  spontaneous
generation,  germ  theory

Tyndarus  ;  Sparta,  1490  B.C.

Tyrconnel,  earl  of;  Ireland,  1687

Tyrone  ;  rebellion,  1599

Tysias,  or  Stesichorus  ;  choruses,
epithalamium,  536  b.c.


U.


Uchatius,  gen.  von  ;  cannon,  1875
Udine  ;  stucco-work,  1530
Ufzul ;  Afghanistan,  1863
Ugolinus,  B.  ;  thesaurus
Ulfilas,  bp.  ;  Bible,  about  373
Ulloa,  Antonio  ;  platinum,  1741
Ulpian  (lawyer) ;  slain,  228
Ulysses ;  Trojan  war
Union  Bank  ;  trials,  1875
Upton,  colonel ;  Sebastopol,  1830
Urban ;  popes,  223
Urban II. ; communion, crusades,

1094
Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence,

1630
Urich,  gen. ;  Strasburg,  1870
Ursula, St.  ; Cologne, Ursulines,

1537
Uriarte,  H.  ;  Paraguay,  1877
Usher,  abp.  ; articles,  1614
Usher,  H.  T. ;  Labuan,  1875


V.


Valens  ; eastern empire, western

empire,  364
Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials,

1796  _

Valentia  cause  ;  trials,  1772
Valentine,  B.  ;  antimony,  1410
Valentinian  ;  western  empire,  364
Valerian ;  persecutions,  257
Vallaret,  Foulques  de  ;  Malta,  1310
Valliere,  madame  de  la  ;  midwifery,

1663
Valverde,  gen.  ;  Hayti,  185S
Van  Artevelde  ;  Ghent,  1379-83
Vanbrugh,  sir  J.  ;  1670-1726,  Claren-
don printing  office,  opera
Van Buren  M.  (president); United

States,  1837
Vance  &  Snee  ;  trials,  1876
Vancouver  ; north-west passage,

Vancouver,  1790
Van  de  Weyer,  M.  ;  Belgium,  1874
Van  der  Hey  den  ;  fire  engines,  1663
Van  der  Heydt ;  Prussia,  1862,  1874
Van  der  Weyde  ;  photography,  1876
Vanderbilt,  Mr. ;  United  States,  1885
Vandersmissen,  M.  ;  Belgium,  1886
Vandyck,  painter,  1599-1641
Vane,  sir  Henry  ; administrations,

1640
Vanes  ;  trials,  1876
Van  Eyck  ;  painting,  1366
Van  Horn  ;  buccaneer,  1603


INDEX.


1131


Van  Leyclen ;  engraving  on  wood,  1497
Van  Marum ;  electricity,  1785
Van  Mildert,  bishop ;  Llandaff,  Dur-
ham, 1826
Van  Praagh,  W.  ; deaf  and  dumb,

1871
Vansittart, Nicholas  ; Liverpool

aclm.,  1812
Van  Tromp  ;  Holland,  naval  battles,

Portland  Isle,  1653
Varley, C. F., 1828-83  ;  electricity,

telephone,  1870-7
Varley,  John  ;  water  colour  painter,

1778-1842
Varley,  Cornelius  ;  nat.  phil.,  1781-

1873
Varole,  M.  ;  optic  nerves,  1538
Varro;  writes  "de  Re  Rustica,"  37

b.c.  ; grammarians, illuminated

books
Varus,  Alfrenus ;  civil  law,  66  B.  c.  ;

code,  digest
Vasali,  or  Basil ;  Russia,  1270
Vasco  da  Gama ;  Cape,  1497  ;  India
Vattel,  E.  de,  xmblicist,  1714-67
Vauban,  S.,  1633-1707;  fortifications,

Cherbourg
Vaughan,  sir  Thos.  ;  Pomfret,  1483
Vaughan,  Mackay,  &c.  ;  trial,  1816
Vauquelin  ; chromium, glucinum,

1798
Vaux,  Jane,  Mrs.  ;  Vauxhall,  1615
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ; — Lope de,

1 562- 1 635,  poets
Velasquez,  painter,  1599-1660;  Cuba,

1511
Venables,  Wm.  ;  lord  mayor,  1825
Venner,  T.  ;  anabaptists,  1661
Venn,  J.,  logic
Vergara,  gen. ;  New  Grenada
Vergennes,  M.  de;  notables,  1788
Vermandois,  count  de ;  iron  mask
Vermuj'den,  Cornelius;  levels,  1621
Vernet,  C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H.,

1758-1836;  J.  E.  Horace,  1789-1863;

painters
Vernon,  adm. ;  grog,  Portobello,  1739
Vernon,  abp. ;  York,  1808
Verres ;  Sicily,  70  b.  c.
Verrocchio,  Andrea;  plaster,  1466
Vesalius,  1514-64  ;  anatomy,  surgery,

physic
Vespasian;  Rome,  emp. 69;  amphi-
theatres, Coliseum,  Rhodes
Vespucius,  Americus,  1498  ;  America
Veuillot ;  France,  1883
Victor  Amadeus ;  Sardinia,  1630
Victor  Emmanuel,  1820-78;  Sardinia,

1849 ;  Italy,  i860
Victor,  marshal ;  Talavera,  1809 ;  Bar-

rosa,  "Witepsk
Victor;  pope,  193
Victoria, queen,  0. 1819; England,

Scotland,  Ireland,  India
Victory,  Espartero,  duke  of;  Spain,

1840-72
Vidil,  baron  de;  trials,  1861
Vieta,  Francis;  algebra,  1590
Vigilius;  pope,  537
Villars,  marshal;  Malplaquet,  1709
Villeneuve,  adm.  ;  Trafalgar,  1805
Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695;

Ramilies,  1706
Villiers,  sir  George;  administrations,

1615
Villiers,  bp. ;  Durham,  i860
Vincent  de  Paul,  1576-1660;  sisters  of

charity
Vincent,  B.,  Royal  Inst,  library  cata-
logue, 1857 :  bible  index,  1848
Vincent,  C.  W.,  electric  light,  1879
Vincent, sir  Edgar  ; Egypt, 1888  ;

Turkey
Vincent,  H.;  chartists
Vincent,  Howard ;  police,  1884
Vincent,  Z.  W.  ;  Csecilian  society
Vinoy, gen.  ; France  and Franeo-

Pruss.  war,  1870-71 ;  d.  1883


Virchow,  prof.  ;  development,  man  ;

Germany,  1891
Virgil,  Lat.  poet,  70-19  B.C.
Virginia;  killed,  449  b.c.
Vitalianus ;  pope,  537
Vitellius,  Rome,  emp.,  69
Vitruvius,  abt.  27  a, a;  ink
Vivier;  trials,  1842
Volta,  Alex.;  1745-1826; electricity,

Volta
Voltaire,  F.  M.  A.  de;  1694-1778
Von  Fuchs,  Dr.,  d.  1856;  water-glass,

stereochromy
Von  der  Tann,  gen. ;  Franco-Prussian

war,  1870-1;  Coulmiers,  Orleans
Von  Gceben,  gen. ;  Saarbriick,  Franco-
Prussian  war,  1870-1
Von  Groof ;  flying,  1874
Von  Mohl  ;  protoplasm
Von  Moltke,  gen.;  Franco-Prussian

war,  Sedan,  1870
Von  Miihler,  Prussia,  1872
Von  Stein,  Prussia,  1807
Von  Swab ;  blowpipe
Von  Vincke  ;  Prussia,  1874
Vortigern;  Wales,  447
Voss,  poet,  1751-1826
Voysey, C.  ; trials, 1870 ; Voysey

establishment  fund
Vyse,  Mrs.  A.;  trials,  1862


W.

Waddington  ; trials, 1820  :  France,

1877-8-9
Wade,  Sir  T.,  China,  1875
Wager,  C. ;  admiralty,  1733
Waghorn,  lieut.,  1800-50;  Waghorn
Wagner,  R.,  1813-83  ;  music  (of  the

future)
Wainwright, Whitechapel ; trials,

1875
Waithman,  Robert ;  lord  mayor,  1823  ;

obelisk,  bank
Wake,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1715
Wakefield,  Eliz. ;  savings  banks,  1804
Wakefield,  Ed. Gibbon; marriages,

South  Australia,  trials,  1827
Wakley,  T.,  Lancet,  1823
Waldegrave,  earl  of;  trials,  1841
Waldegrave,  bp. ;  Carlisle,  i860
Waldemar;  Denmark,  1157
Walden,  abp.;  Canterbury,  1398
Wales,  George,  prince  of,  v.  Times;

trials,  1790;  regency
Wales, Albert  Edward, prince  of;

England  ;  Wales
Walker,  A.  ;  Liverpool,  1877
Walker,  Mr.;  Vauxhall,  congelation,

ice,  1782
Walker,  George,  Londonderry,  Boyne,

1689
Walker,  gen.  ;  filibusters,  Nicaragua,

1855,  executed,  i860
Wall  governor ;  trials,  1802 ;  Goree
Wall,  Mr.  Baring  ;  trials,  1833
Wall,  Jas.  ;  copying-machine
Wallace,  A.  R.  ;  development,  1S70
Wallace,  sir  W.  ; exec. 1305 ; Fal-
kirk, Cambuskenneth,  1297
Wallace,  D.  M.  ;  Molokani
Wallace,  sir  Richard,  philan., 1818-

90  ;  Bethnal  Green
Wallaces  ;  trials,  1841
Wallenstein,  Albert, general, 1583-

1634 ;  Mecklenburg
Waller,  G.,  velocipede
Waller,  sir  W.  ;  Abingdon,  1644
Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite,

Wallis,  1766
Wallis,  sir  Provo  W.  P.,  1791-1892,

Chesaiieake
Wallon  ;  France,  1875
Walpole,  Horace,  1717-97  ;  letters
Walpole,  sir  Robert,  1676-1745  ;  Wal-
pole, adm.  ;  sinking  fund


Walpole,  Spencer-Horatio, 6. 1806;

Derby  adm.,  1852-66
Walsh, "abp.  ;  Parnellites,  1889
Walsh,  Mrs.  ;  murdered,  trials,  1832
Walsh,  Nicholas  ;  printing,  1571
Walsingham,  lord ; att.-gen., 1766;

farmers'  union,  1874
Walsingham, sir F.  ; administra-
tions, 1587
Walter,  E.  ;  commissionaires,  1859
Walter,  J., 1739-1812  ;  Times,  1785  ;

printing,  1872
Waltheof ;  beheading,  1076
Walton,  Brian,  1600-61 ;  polyglot
Walton,  Izaac,  1593-1683  ;  angling
Walworth  ;  Blackheath,  mace,  1381
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon,

1852
Ward,  Mr.  ;  forgery,  1726
Ward,  E.  M.,  R.  A.,  d.  1879
Ward, N. B.  ; aquarium, Ward's

cases,  1829
Wardle,  col.  ;  impeachment,  Wardle

v.  duke  of  York  ;  trials,  1809
Wardley,  James  ;  shakers
Warenne,  earl  of;  Dunbar,  1296
Warham, abp.  ; Canterbury, 1503  ;

administrations,  1509
Warington,  R.  ;  aquarium,  1850
Warner,  Mrs.,  d.  1854;  theatre
Warner,  Messrs.  ;  bells,  1856
Warren, admiral  sir  John  Borlase ;

naval  battles,  179S
Warren, sir  Chas.  ; Soudan, 1886  ;

Bechuanaland  ;  police
Warren,  Sam.,  novelist,  1807-77
Warrington  gang ;  trials,  1806
Warsop, Geo.  ; aero-steam engine,

1869
Warton,  Thomas  ;  poet-laureate,  1785
Warwick,  earl  of ;  Barnet,  St.  Albans,

Wakefield,  1460
Warwick,  John  Dudley,  earl  of ;  ad-
ministrations, 1551
Washington,  George,  1732-99  ;  United

States,  York  Town,  Virginia
Wason,  Rigby  ;  trial,  1867
Waterhouse,  Mr. ;  Paul's  school,  St.
Waterland,  Dr.  ;  Athanasian  Creed,

J723

Waters,  M.  ;  infanticide,  trials,  1870
Waterton, Chas.  ; naturalist, 1782-

1865
Wathen,  capt.  ;  trials,  1834
Watson,  admiral;  India,  1756
Watson,  J.  C.  ;  planets,  1862
Watson,  rev.  J.  S.  ;  trials,  1871  ;  d.

1884
Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 ;

phlogiston
Watson,  Thos.,  M.D.,  1792-1882
Watson,  sir  Wm.  ;  electricity, 1740  ;

lightning  conductor  ;  trials,  181 7
Watt  and  Downie  ;  trials,  1794
Watt,  Jas.,  1736-1819;  lunar  society,

steam  engine
Watteau,  Ant.,  French  painter,  1684-

1721
Watts,  H.,  1815-84 ;  chemistry
Watts,  Isaac,  1674-1748  ;  hymns
Watts  ;  theatres,  trials,  1S50;  suicide
Watts,  T.  ;  newspapers,  1766
Weare,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1824
Weathershed, abp.  ; Canterbury,

1229
Webb,  capt.  ;  swimming,  1875
Webbe,  Sam.,  music,  1740-1817
Weber,  Carl  von,  1 786-1826  ;  music
Weber,  W.  &  E.,  physicists,  undu-

latory  theory
Webster,  C,  Richmond  murder
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United

States
Webster,  Dr.  ;  trials,  1842
Webster,  sir  Godfrey ;  trials,  1797
Webster,  Mr.;  aluminium
Webster,  sir  R.  E.,  att.-gen, 1885,

1886  ;  Parnellites,  1888


1132


INDEX.


Webster,  T.  ;  painter,  1800-86
Wedgwood,  Josiah,  1730-95  ;  earthen-
ware, Wedgwood  (porcelain)
Wedgwood,  T.  ;  photography,  1802
Weed,  Thurlow;  United  States, d.

1882
Weekes,  H.,  R.A.,  1807-77
Weld,  Mr. ;  trappists
Weldon,  Mrs.;  trials,  1884-8
Weldon,  Walter ;  alkalies,  1877
Wellesley,  sir  A.  ;  see  Wellington
Wellesley,  marquis;  India,  1798
Wellesley,  Mr.  Long ;  duel,  1828
Wellesley,  Pole, v. Misses Long ;

trials,  1825
Wellesley  v.  Paget ;  trials, 1809 ; v.

Mornington,  trials,  1868
Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 ;
Wellington ; commander-in-chief,
duelling,  1824 ;  duels,  1829  ;  trials,
1830
Wells,  W.  ;  dew,  1814
Wells,  lord  Lyon  ;]Ireland  (lord  lieut. ),

1438
Weltmann,  poisoning,  1859
Wemyss,  see  Elcho
Wenham  ;  heat

Wensleydale,  lord ;  lords,  note
Werdermann,  electric  light,  1878
Werner,  A. G.,  1750-1817; geology,

1775

Werner,  eapt.  ;  Spain,  1873
Weskett,  John;  commerce,  chambers

of,  1782
Wesley,  J.,  1703-91  ;  Wesleyans
West,  Benj.,  1738-1820;  Royal  Acade-
my, 1792
Westbury,  lord  chancellor  ;  Palmers-
ton  adm.,  1861  ;  1873-80
Westerton  v.  Liddell ;  trials,  1855
Westmacott, sir  R.,  sculpt., 1775-

1856;  R.  1799-1872
Wcstmeath,  lord  ;  trials,  1 796
Westmoreland,  earl  of ;  Ireland  (lord-

lieut.),  1790
Weston,  E.  P.;  pedestrianism,  1874-7
Weston,  Richard  lord ; administra-
tions, 1628
Wetherell,  sir  Chas. ;  attorney-gen.,

1826;  Bristol
Wetherell,  rev.  Mr.  ;  trials,  1845
Weyland,  Thomas  de  ;  bribery,  1288
Weymouth ; North- West passage,

1602
Weymouth,  visct. ;  Grafton  adm.  1767
Whalleywillcase;  trials,  1883-4
Wharncliffe,  Id.  ;  Peel  adm.,  1834
Wharton, Thomas, marquis of ;

Halifax  adm.,  1714
Wharton,  Miss;  marriages,  i6yo
Whately,  abp.  R., 1787-1863  ;  logic,

political  economy,  <fec.
Wheatstone,  sir C., 1802-75; cryp-
tography ;  stereoscope,  electricity,
1834  ;  electric  telegraph,  and  clock,
microphone,  telephone
Wheeler,  sir  Hugh  ;  Cawnpore,  1857
Wheeler,  al.  Pearcey,  Mrs.  ;  trials,

1890
Whewell,  Rev.  W.,  philosopher,  1794-

1866  ;  international  law
Whistler  v.  Ruskiii,  trials,  1S78  ;  im-
pressionists
Winston,  W.,  theol.,  d.  1752
Whitaker ;  almanack,  1874
Whiibread,  Samuel;  suicide,  1S15
White,  H.  K.,  poet,  1785-1806
White,  Thos. ,  Sion College, 1623 ;

mayor,  1876
White,  sir  W. ;  Turkey,  1886
Whiteneld,  G,  1714-70;  Whitefleld-

ites,  Wesleyans,  1741
Whitehead,  Jas.  ;  Id. mayor,  1888 ;

volunteers,  1889
Whitehead,  W.  d.  1785  ;  poet  laureate
Whitelock,  gen.  ;  Buenos  Ayres,  1807
Whitgift,  abp.  ;  Canterbury,  1583
Whitman,  Walt,  Am.  poet';  1819-92


Whitney,  Eli ;  cotton,  1793

Whittall ;  coins,  1884

Whittington ; lord mayor, 1465  ;

Leadenhall
Whittlesey, archbp.  ; Canterbury,

1268
Whitworth, sir Joseph, 1803-87  ;
cannon,  plane,  Shoeburyness,  1861;
Whitworth
Whitworth,  earl;  Ireland,  1813
Whymper,  E.,  Andes  ;  Matterhorn
Whyte, mag.  -  gen.  ; Demerara,

1796
Wickens, sir J.  ; vice-chancellor,

1871
Wickham, William of, 1 324-1405 ;

education,  Oxford,  Winchester
Wickliffe  (Wycliffe), John,  1324-87;

Wickliffltes,  Bible
Wicklow  peerage,  trials,  1870
Wieland, C.  ; Germ, niiseel., 1733-

1813
Wigram,  bp.  ;  Rochester,  i860
Wilberforce,  bp.  ;  Oxford,  1846
Wilberforce,  W., 1759-1833 ; slave-
trade  ;  —  S. ,  Winchester,  bp.
Wilberforce,  bp. E.  R.,  Newcastle-

on-Tyne,  1882
Wild,  Jonathan;  executed,  1725
Wilde,  sir  James,  6.  1816; probate

court,  1863  ;  see  Penzance
Wilfride,  bp. ;  Chichester,  673
Wilkes, capt.  ; circumnavigation,

1838;  United  States,  1861
Wilkes, John; North  Briton, obe-
lisk, warrants; duel,  1763;  trials,
1764
Wilkie,  sir  D.,  painter,  1785-1841
Wilkins,  Dr.;  Wadhani,  1613
Wilkinson,  Catherine ;  baths,  1832
Wilkinson,  sir  John  Gardner,  Egyp-
tologist, 1797-1875
Wilkinson,  bp.  G.  H.;  Truro,  1883
Wilkinson, Is.  ; air (compressing),

1757

William  I.,  England,  1066;  Battle-
abbey,  conquest,  Domesday,  castles

William  II. ;  England,  1087

William  III.;  England,  1689,  revolu-
tion. Boyne,  Enghien,  Je  main-
tiendrai,  New  Forest

William  IV.;  England,  kings,  1830;
admiral

William  I.;  emperor;  Prussia,  1861 ;
Germany,  1870-88 ;  assassinations

William  II.  ;  Germany,  1888.

William;  Holland,  Scotland

Williams,  prof.;  Indian  hist.

Williams,  Ann;  trials,  1753

Williams,  David,  d.  1816 ;  literary
fund

Williams,  Mr. ;  Manchester,  1882

Williams,  John,  dean ;  adminis.,  162 1

Williams;  see  Burking

Williams,  Roger;  America,  1635

Williams,  gen.  W.  F. ;  Kars,  1855

Williamson,  sir  Joseph;  administra-
tions, 1629

Willoughby,  sir  Hugh ;  north-east
passage,  1553

Willoughby  de  Eresby,  lord;  cham-
berlain, lord  great,  1626

Willoughby,  lieut. ;  Delhi,  1857

Wills,  gen.;  Preston,  1715

Wilmot,  lieut.  E.  ;  Ashantees,  1S73

Wilmot,  M.  A.,  trials,  1881

Wilmington,  earl  of ;  Wilmington
adm.,  1742

Wilson,  capt.;  Pelew  Islands,  1783

Wilson,  sir  A.;  Delhi,  1857

Wilson,  sir  James  Erasmus,  1809-84  ;
Aberdeen  ;  obelisks  (Cleopatra's
needle),  1877-8  ; Egypt  expl.  fund

Wilson,  rev.  Carlyle  ;  church  army

Wilson,  G.,  colour  blindness

Wilson,  H.  H. ;  Sanskrit  professor,
1832

Wilson,  sir  C;  Soudan,  1883


Wilson,  sir  Daniel,  antiquary,  1816-92
Wilson,  sir  Robert;  Lavalette,  1815
Wilson,  prof.  John,  1785-1854
Wilson,  sir  John  M.,  Hampstead
Wilson, Mrs. C.  ;  poisoning, trials,

1862
Wilson, capt.  W.  ; United  States,

1862,  note
Wilson,  M. ;  France,  1387-8.
Wilson,  Dr. ;  sun
Wilton,  earl  of;  trials,  1859
Wimshurst,  James  ;  electricity,  1882
Winchelsea,  abp. ;  Canterbury,  1293
Winchester,  gen.;  Frenchtowii,  1813
Winchester, Henry  ; mayor,  lord,

l834  , . .

Winchester,  W.,  marquis  of;  adminis-
trations, 1554

Winchilsea,  earl  of;  duel,  1829

Winchilsea,  earl  of ;  Wilmington
adm.,  1742;  Bath  adm.,  1746

Windebank,  sir  Francis ;  administra-
tions, 1635

Windham,  general;  India,  1857

Windham,  W.  F.;  trials,  1861-2

Windham,  Wm.;  Grenvilleadm.,  1806

Windisehgratz,  prince;  Vienna,  1848

Winsor,  Charlotte;  trials,  1865

Winstanley ;  Eddystone,  1696

Winslow,  E.  D.  ;  extradition,  1876

Winslow,  Dr F.;  trials,  1884

Winter,  T.  ;  boxing

Winwood,  sir  Ralph ;  administra-
tions, 1612

Winzengerode,  gen.  ;  Kalisch,  1813

Wise,  prof.  ;  balloons,  1873

Wiseman,  cardinal  Nicholas,  1802-65;
ecclesiastical  titles,  papal  aggres-
sion, Rome,  Ireland,  1S58

Wissman,  capt.  ;  Zanzibar,  1889  ;
Africa  (German  E.),  1889

Withers,  Dr.  ;  libel,  1789

Witherings, Thomas;  post-office,  1631

Withering-ton,  W.,  painter,  1786-1865

Withing,  Richard ;  Glastonbury,  1539

Witikind  (Saxon  chief),  d.  after  793

Wittgenstein,  gen. ;  Polotsk,  Witepsk,
1812

Witts,  De  ;  massacred,  1672

Wodehouse,  lord ;  Ireland  (lord-
lieut.),  1864

Wodehouse,  sir  P.  ;  Bombay,  1872

Wodehouse,  col.  ;  Soudan,  1889

Woden  ;  Wednesday

Wohler,  F.,  1800-82  ;  aluminium,  1827

Wolcot,  Dr.,  alias  Peter  Pindar;
trials,  1807

Wolf,  F.  A.  ;  Homer

Wolfe,  gen.  ;  Quebec,  1759

Wolff,  Dr.  J.  ;  Bookhara,  1884 ;  sir
H.  D.,  fourth  party;  Turkey,
1885  ;  Persia.

Wolfius  ;  anemometer,  1709

Wollaston,  Wm.  ;  1766-1828  ;  cryo-
phorus,  camera,  blow  pipe,  pal-
ladium, rhodium,  hypsometer

Wolseley,  sir  Charles  ;  trials,  1820

Wolseley,  sir  Garnet  (aft.  Id.)  b.  1833;
Hudson's  Bay,  1870 ;  Ashantee,
1873 ;  Amoafui,  1874  ;  West  Africa,
1873  ;  Cyprus,  1878;  Natal;  Zulu-
land,  1879  ;  Egypt,  1882  ;  Tel-el-
Kebir,  1882  ;  Soudan,  1884

Wolsey,  cardinal,  1471-1530  ;  adms.,
1514  ;  Hampton,  Whitehall,  York

Wolverton,  Id. ;  Gladstone  adm.,
1886.

Wombwell ;  zoology

Wood,  sir  Charles  (aft.  lord  Halifax) ;
Russell  adm.,  1846 ;  Palmerston
adm.,  1855

Wood,col.  sirEvelvn,  Zululand,  1S79;
Egypt,  1882

Wood  v.  Cox  ;  races,  1888.

Wood,  Matthew  :  mayors  of  London,
1815

Wood,  sir  W.  P.,  justice,  chancellor,


INDEX.


1133


Wood  ;  Palmyra,  1751-53
Woodford,  bp.  J.  R.  ;  Ely,  1873
Woodfall,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1786
Woodmason  ;  ruling  machines
Wooler,  Mr:  ;  trials,  1817,  1855
Woolley,  Mr.  ;  trials,  1863
Worburton  ;  trials,  1885.
Worcester,  marquis  of;  steam,  tele-
graph, 1663
Worcester,  Edward,  earl  of;  adms.,

1621
Wordsworth,  Wm.  ;  1770-1850 ;  poet-
laureate
Wortley, col. H. Stuart;  mansion-
house  fund,  1871
Wotton,  sir  Edward  ;  sugar,  1546
Wouvermanns,  painters,  1620-83
Wray,  sir  C.  ;  King's  Bench,  1573
Wrede,  gen.  ;  Hanau,  1813
Wren, sir Christopher, architect,
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving,
Greenwich,  monument,  St.  Paul's,
Walbrook
Wren,  Matthew  ;  Royal  Society
Wrench,  Mr.  ;  theatres,  1809
Wright ;  Mereator's  charts,  1556
Wright,  sir  Rob. ;  King's  Bench,  1687
Wright  and  Doyle  ;  trials,  1851
Wriothesley,  lord ; administrations,

1547

Wurmser,  gen.  ;  Castiglione,  1796
Wurtz,prof.  K.  A.,  1817-84;  chemistry;

Faraday  medal,  1878
Wyatt,  sir  Thos.  ;  rebellions,  1554
Wybrow ;  aquarium,  1876
Wyld,  J.  ;  globe,  1851
Wynkyn  de  Worde ;  angling, 1496  ;

printing
Wynn,  W.  ;  Canning  adm.,  1827
Wyon,  W.,  medallist,  1795-1851
Wyse,  L.  A.  B.  ;  Panama


Xavier,  Francis ;  1506-52  ;  Jesuits

Xenophanes,  d.  465  b.c.  ;  Eleaticsect,
Pantheism

Xenophon  ;  anatomy,  couriers,  cym-
bals, retreat  of  the  Greeks,  401  B.C.

Xerxes  ;  Persia,  485  B.C. ;  Mycale,
Salamis

Ximenes,  card.,  1437-1517;  polyglot


Yakoob,  Afghanistan,  1867-79,  Kash-

gar
Yale,  Elisha  ;  auctions,  1700
Yarrow,  Mr.  ;  spirit  motor
Yates,  E.,  nov. ;  trials,  1884-5
Yeh,  commissioner  ;  China,  1857
Yelverton,  major  ;  trials,  i860
Yonge,  sir  Geo. ;  Shelburne  adm.,  1783
Yonge,  miss  C. ;  names
York,  bishop  ;  Ely,  1781
York,  cardinal ;  Scotland,  1807
York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827

York
York,  James,  duke  of;  Solebay,  1672
Yorke,  Charles,  chancellor,  lord  high,

1770
Yorke,  sir  Philip;  att.-gen. ; king's

bench,  1733
Yorke,  Mr.  Redhead  ;  trial,  1795
Youl,  J.  A.,  salmon  ova
Young  ;  impostors,  1692
Young,  Brigham,  1801-77 ;  Mormon-

ites
Young,  major  ;  Prescott,  1838
Young,  Charles  ;  theatre,  1807


Young,  Edw.,  poet,  1684-1765
Young,  Thos.,  1773-1829  ;  Royal  In-
stitution, colour,  spectrum
Youngman,  W.  ;  executions,  i860
Yule,  sir  H.,  1820-89  ;  orientalist


Zabala  ;  Spain,  1874

Zacharias  ;  pope,  741

Zaleucus;  sumptuary  laws,  450  B.C.

Zamoyski,  count ;  Poland,  1862

Zankoff;  Bulgaria

Zasulitch,  V. ;  Russia,  1S78

Zazel ;  Aquarium

Zechariah  prophesies  about  520  b.c.

Zeno  (stoic),  fl.  299  b.c.  ;  eastern
empire,  474

Zenobia ;  Palmyra,  263

Zenon ;  Armenia,  18

Zephaniah  prophesies  abt.  630  B.C.

Zephyrinus ;  pope,  202

Zetland,  earl  of;  Salisbury  adm.,
1886  ;  Ireland,  Id.  lieut.,  1889.

Zeuxis,  fl.  455-400  b.c.  ;  painting

Zimmerman ;  physiognomy,  1776

Zinzendorf,  1700-60  ;  Moravians

Ziska;  Bohemia,  1417

Zoh ;  eastern  empire,  1034

Zola,  E. ,  naturalism

Zollicoffer,  gen.  ;  0".  States,  1861

Zorilla,  R.;  Spain,  1872-3

Zoroaster  (supposed  author  of  "  Zen-
davesta");  about  555  B.C.,  fire-
worshippers

Zosimus  ;  alchemy,  410

Zukkertort,  J.  S.,  chess

Zumalacarregui  (Carlist) ;  killed  near
Bilbao,  1835

Zumpie,  M.  ;  pianoforte,  1766

Zurbano,  gen. ;  Spain,  1844


ADDENDA.


PAGE

8.  AFGHANISTAN.  —  The  ameer's  encroach-
ments on  the  Hazaras  (checked  by  the  In-
dian government)  lead  to  frequent  con-
flicts, and  insurrection  of  other  tribes,  May,
June;  the  ameer  unsuccessful.  Rebels  join
the  Hazara  tribes .... July,

The  Indian  government  proposes  to  send  to
the  ameer  a  deputation  headed  by  lord
Roberts  :  he  approves,  but  defers  receiving
it,  about  7  Aug.  ;  the  ameer's  army  about
40,000,  reported .... Aug.

The  governor  of  Candahar  and  his  troops  re-
pulsed by  the  Hazaras,  reported . 22  Aug.

The  ameer's  troops  capture  Kamsin  from  the
rebels,  reported  30  Aug. ;  the  war  continues
with  varying  results . . . Sept.

19.  AFRICA.— Capt.  W.  Grant  Stairs,  able  com-

panion of  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley,  commander  of
an  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Katanga  com-
pany with  380  natives,  May,  dies  when  re-
turning to  Zanzibar ;  capt.  Bodson,  his
colleague,  dies  in  May ;  conflicts  with
natives  reported  ;  the  marquis  de  Bonchamp
and  others  return  to  France  reporting  great
sufferings  .... about  24  July,

20.  AFRICA, GERMAN EAST.— Emin pasha's

geographical  expedition  starts  from  Kahura,
22  March,  with  Dr.  Stuhlmann;  suffers  by
want  of  provisions,  &c,  Dec.  1891 ;  expedition
divides,  Emin  ill,  left  behind  by  Dr.  Stuhl-
mann, who  goes  to  the  German  station  on
lake  Victoria,  15  Feb.,  reported  .  May,
An  expedition  defeated  by  the  natives  in  Moshi
territory,  near Kilima Njaro,  baron  von


Billow,  lieut.  Wolfram  and  30  men  killed,
•  10  June  et  seq. ,  the  station  at  Kilima  Njaro

abandoned,  reported,  30  June  ;  re-occupied
without  fighting  ... 29  July,

Dr.  Stuhlmann  at  Bagamoyo . . 1  Aug.
20.  AFRICA, BRITISH EAST.  —  Witu tran-
quilized  by  Mr. Berkeley ; the  ex-sultan
submits,  reported . . .10  June,
The  company's  new  courts  of  justice  at  Mom-
basa opened  by  judge  Cracknall . 10  June,
Treaty  of  the  company  with the king of
Uganda  (which  see)  i£

49.  ARABIA.— -Iman  Ahmed Eddin,  or  Hamid-
Eddin,  killed  ; the  rebellion  quelled,  and
the  province  Yemen  pacified  by  the  Turkish
governor,  reported  .... 7  Sept.
59.  ARMY. — Manoeuvres  (regulars  and  volunteers)
-  in  Surrey,  Hants,  and  Berks  ;  battles,  &c,
commanders,  sir  Evelyn  Wood  and  others,
18  July — 20  Aug.
Mr. Henry  Campbell-Bannerman  appointed
secretary  for  war . . . 18  Aug.
87.  BALLOONS.— Capt. Wm.  Duncan  Dale  and
3  others  ascend  in  a  balloon  at  the  Crystal
palace ;  the  balloon  bursts  ;  capt.  Dale  killed
by  the  fall,  29  June  ;  Mr.  Cecil  V.  Shadbolt
dies, 8  July  ;  William  Dale  (son)  and  Mr.
John  Macintosh  much  injured,  recover,  July,
[Capt.  Dale  had  made  nearly  200  ascents.]
113.  BEHRING  STRAITS.— Seven  arbitrators  ap-
pointed to  settle  the  dispute  :  British,  lord
Hannen  and  sir  John  Thompson  ;  American,
Mr.  justice  Harlan  and  senator Morgan ;


1892


1134


ADDENDA.


French,  baron  Alphonse  de  Courcel ;  Italian,
marquis  Yisconti  Venosta  ;  one  Swedish,

July,  Aug.

The  British  steamer  Coquittam,  and  25  sealers
belonging  to  Victoria,  British  Columbia,
seized  by  the  U.  S.  cutter,  Comvin,  22  June  ;
the  Canadian  government  protests . July

The  British  schooner  Winifred  seized  by  the
U.  S.  Rush 20  July,

Several  Victoria  sealers  seized  by  a  Russian
gunboat,  as  being  in  Russian  waters  ;  the
crews  made  to  sign  papers  and  dismissed,
July  ;  Canadian  government  protests,

Sept. -Oct.

133.  BOHEMIA. — Fire  in  the  great  silver  mine,

Birkenberg, near Przibram, about 319

deaths 31  May,

158.  BULGARIA.— Trial  of  18  persons  connected
with  the  conspiracy  against  prince  Fer-
dinand and  the  assassination  of  M.  Beltcheff
(27  March,  1891),  30  June — 18  July ;  sen-
tences, imprisonment :  M.  Petko  Karaveloff,
ex-premier  and  regent,  five  years  ;  Ghorghi
Velikoff,  15  years  ;  three  persons,  9  years  ;
one,  s  years  ;  one,  three  years  ;  one,  sixteen
months  ;  six  acquitted  ;  Sweetoslaw  Milaroff,
Constantin  Popoff,  Toma  Gheorghieff,  and
Alexander  Karaguloff  sentenced  to  death,

18  July ;  executed . . , 27  July,
M.  Stambouloff,  invited  by  the  sultan,  warmly

received  at  Constantinople . 12,  14  Aug.

First  Bulgarian  exhibition  opened  at  Philip-

popolis  by  prince  Ferdinand . 27  Aug.

162.  BURMAH.— Amnesty to the Tsawbwa of

Wuntho  and  his  followers  ;  he  enters  China

about  15  May,

Lieut.  Nightingale  repulses  an  attack  on
Lwekaw,  in  the  S.  Shan  States  .  25  June,
184.  CARDINALS.— Edward  Henry  Howard,  an
English  cardinal,  died,  16  Sept.  1892,  aged  63.
209.  CHINA. — Bill  for  the  stringent  exclusion  of
Chinese  immigrants  from  the  United  States,
N.  A.,  passed  by  the  congress  . early  May,

Renewed  outrages  on  European  missionaries,
27  April,  reported  ...  14  June,
211.  CHOLERA,  1892. — The  disease  appeared  in
India  in  March  ;  about  6,000  deaths  in  Cabul
and  2,000  deaths  in  Herat  were  reported  ;
and  about  3,000  deaths  in  Cashmere  up  to
3  June,

Persia :  Total  deaths  reported,  30,000,  May-
Sept,  (deaths  in  Teheran  rose  from  20  to  800
daily,  7-21  Aug.,  and  gradually  decreased).

Russia:  The  disease  appeared  in  the  south
and.  thence  traversed  the  empire,  June.  It
was  severe  in  Baku  and  neighbouring  dis-
tricts ;  St.  Petersburg,  total  deaths  up  to
31  Aug.,  550 ;  decrease ;  n  deaths,  19  Sept. ;
5  deaths  ...... 8  Oct.

All  Russia  :  1,302  deaths  up  to  25  July;  107,647
deaths  up  to  22  Aug.  (1,326  deaths  10  Sept.)

France :  Paris,  choleraic  disease,  305  deaths,
June-s  Sept.  ;  6  deaths,  19  Sept. ;  6  deaths,

8  Oct.

Havre :  333  deaths,  30  July-6  Sept. ;  6  deaths,

19  Sept.  ;  1  death . . . .2  Oct.
Hamburg  State:  7,536  deaths,  21  Aug.-i  Oct. ;

83  deaths,  21  Aug.  ;  200  deaths,  22  Aug.  ;  67
deaths,  19  Sept.  ;  23  deaths,  26  Sept.  ;  2
deaths 8  Oct.

Antwerp:  14  deaths  up  to  25  Aug. ;  47  deaths
up  to 19  Sept.

Great  Britain :  a  few  isolated  cases,  chiefly
foreigners,  some  fatal  .  .  Aug. -Sept.
228.  COAL.  —  Accidents,  1892.  Explosions,  &c.
Yniscelyn  colliery  in  Ystradgynlais,  Brecon,
derangement  of  machinery,  7  deaths,  24
Aug.  Park  Slip  colliery,  Aberkenfig-cefn,
near  Bridgend,  S.  Wales  ;  out  of  151  persons,
there  were  112  deaths,  26  Aug.  Mr.  Asquith,
the  home  secretary,  visited  the  place,

28  Aug.

Agrappe  colliery,  Frameries,  Belgium ;  25
deaths 1  Sept.

134.  COLOUR. (Foot  note.)— The Royal  Society

commission  appointed  in  March  to  consider


1892


xEo-j


PAGE

colour  blindness,  reported  in  May,  1892  ;
Holmgren's  method  of  testing  by  the  use  of
skeins  of  coloured  wool  was  recommended.
236  COMMERCE.— The  proposal  to  establish  "  a
chamber  of  arbitration,"  or  "tribunal  of
commerce"  at  Guildhall,  London,  for  the
city,  to  decide  on  cases  of  arbitration,  &c,
was  adopted,  July ;  its  functions  to  com-
mence Nov.

242.  CONGO.— The  killing  of  M.  de  Poumayrac  in
debatable  land  causes  a  territory  dispute
between  France  and  Belgium  ;  the  Congo
state  declines  responsibility ;  arbitration  pro-
posed and  deferred,  July,  Aug.  ;  the  French
demand  indemnity  and  evacuatior.  of  the  land,
7  Aug. ;  the  death  of  M.  Poumayrac  and  some
of  his  party,  attributed  to  indiscreet  dealings
with  the  natives .... Sept.

Reported  rising  of  the  Arabs  in  the  Upper
Congo,  and  massacre  of  Europeans,  anti-
slavery  agents,  &c,  including  M.  Hodister,
an  able  officer  of  the  Katanga  company,  12
Aug. ;  fighting  with  slave-traders,  conflicting
reports,  Aug. ;  report  of  the  massacre  of  M.
Hodister  confirmed . . .14  Sept.

Major de Wagis, vice-governor, appointed
governor .... about  26  Aug.

254.  COSTA  RICA. — President  Rodriguez  declares
himself  dictator  and  arrests  opponents

13  Sept.
270.  DAHOMEY. —Col.  Dodds,  commander  of  the
French  expedition,  arrives  at  Kotonou,  28
May  ; Whydah  occupied  by  4,000  French
troops, 11 June ;  the  coast  blockaded, 16
June  ;  several  villages  bombarded,  about  5
July  ;  the  coast  bombarded,  9  Aug.  et  seq.
Taku  captured,  20  Aug.  ;  Katngu  taken,  24
Aug.  ;  reinforcements  from  France arrive,
24  Aug.  ;  about  4,000  Dahomeyans  defeated
with  heavy  loss  in  an  attack  on  col.  Dodds'
column  at  Dogba  ;  French  loss  slight ;  com-
mandant Faurax  killed, 17 or  19.  Sept.  ;
Dahomeyans  again  defeated .  4  Oct.

298.  DUBLIN. — New  city  market,  shops,  &c,  de-
stroyed by  fire,  very  great  loss, 27  Aug.  ;
public  meeting  to  raise  a  fund  for  restora-
tion ...... 29  Aug.

307.  EARTHQUAKES. —San Cristobal, Mexico,
every  building  destroyed,  thousands  homeless,
30  July,

Shocks  in  W.  and  S.  W.  England,  from  Swan-
sea to  Cornwall  and  Ireland  ;  little  damage  ;
boats  injured  by  tidal  wave  .  17,  18  Aug.
341.  ENGLAND. — Dissolution  of  parliament,  28
June  ;  general  election  :  conservatives,  268  ;
liberal  unionists,  47  (315) ;  liberals  (Glad-
stonians),  270  ;  Parnellites,  9  ;  anti-Parnell-
ites,  72  ;  labour  members,  4  (355) ;  total,  670
23  July,

Death  of  Robert  Lowe,  viscount  Sherbrooke,
statesman,  aged  80 . . . 27  July,

Visit  of  the  German  emperor  . . 1-8  Aug.

Meeting  of  parliament,  4  Aug.  ;  want  of  con-
fidence in  the  Salisbury  ministry  voted
(350 — 310),  11  Aug. ;  the  ministry  resigns,

13  Aug.

Mr.  Gladstone's  ministry  conatituted,

18  Aug.  et  seq.

Parliament  prorogued  till  4  Nov . 18  Aug.

Death  of  Alfred,  lord  Tennyson,  poet-laureate,
6  Oct.  ;  aged  83.
357.  EXECUTIONS.— Henry  Pickering,  murder  of
wife ;  Leeds .... 14  June,

John  Gurd,  alias  Louis  Hamilton,  murder  of
Henry  Richards  :  Devizes . . 26  July,

John  G.  Wenzel,  murder  of  Joseph  Joyce,  a
police  officer  ;  and  James  Taylor,  murder  of
wife  ;  Newgate .... 16  Aug.

Patrick  Gibbons,  murder  of  mother;  Liver-
pool . .  ... 17  Aug.

EXPORTS.— 1891,  247,23^150^.


1S92


60.
374-


FIRES  IN  LONDON.— Mr.  S.  Burrows'  danc-
ing academy,  Hargrave-park-road,  Upper
Holloway  ;  Win.  Smart  and  Wm.  Abernetliy,
firemen,  killed .... 10  June,

Jewin-street  and  crescent,  Aldersgate-street,


ADDENDA.


113.5


premises  belonging  to  the  Goldsmiths'  com-
pany, tenanted  by  the  London  Printing  and
Publishing  Alliance,  and  others . 29  Aug.  1
407.  FRANCE. — Tour  of  president  Carnot ;  present
at  the  Nancy  fetes  . . . 5,  6  June,  1
The  due  de  la  Rochefoucauld's  declaration  of
submission  to  the  pope  in  matters  of  the
faith,  but  not  in  state  affairs,  signed  by  40
of  the  70  royalist  deputies . . 9  June,
Ravachol,  on  his  confession  of  robbing  and
murdering  Jean  Rivollier,  an  aged  hermit
at  Varizelle,  sentenced  to  death  at  Mont-
brison,  23  June  ;  executed . 11  July,
31. Godefroy  Cavaignac,  minister  of  marine,
resigns  (censured  in  relation  to  Dahomey) ;
succeeded  by  M.  Burdeau  . . n  July,
M. Ressmann, new Italian  ambassador, re-
ceived by  the  president . . 11  July,
Government  protest  against  the  presence  of
Protestant  missionaries  in  Algeria,

about  5  July,
Decree  signed  for  the  Universal  exhibition,
5  May— 31  Oct.  1900  . . .  13  July,

Naval  manoeuvres  near  Brest,  &c,

24  July  et  seq.
Faugoux and three other  anarchists, sen-
tenced to  penal  servitude  (for  20,  10,  6,  5
years)  for  stealing  dynamite . 28  July,
Disputes  between  the  mining  company  at  Car-
maux,  in  the  department  of  Tarn,  and  their
workmen respecting  the  dismissal  of M.
Calvignac,  a  socialist  workman  and  secre-
tary of  the  miners'  union, who  had  been
elected  mayor,  and  consequently  neglected
his  work  ;  a  general  strike  with  much  riot-
ing ensues,  Aug.-Sept. ; great  meeting  at
Paris  to  support  the  strike  7  Sept.  ;  order
maintained  by  the  military  .  about  27  Sept.
Centenary  of  the  proclamation  of  the  first  re-
public celebrated  by  the  people  at  Paris,
Lyons,  and  other  cities . . 22  Sept.
Death  of  Ernest  Renan,  scholar . 2  Oct.
438.  GERMANY. — The  government  warns  its  re-
presentatives abroad against prince Bis-
marck's strictures  on  its  policy,  May — July,  ii
Prince  Bismarck  visits  Jena,  makes  defensive
speeches . . . . 30,  31  July,
The  emperor  visits  England . 1-8  Aug.
The  armour-clad  Hildebrand,  and  the  iron-clad
Worth,  launched  at  Kiel . . 7  Aug.
444.  GLASS. — The  manufacture  of  Venetian  glass
probably introduced from  Constantinople
and  perfected  in  the  15th  and  following  cen-
turies. Venetian  glass  is  now  manufactured
at  Venice  and  in  England  (1892)  by  Dr.  Sal-
viati ;  he  presented  a  splendid  glass  vase  to
the  queen  on  the  anniversary  of  her  corona-
tion day,  28  June,  1892. See  Mosaics.
472.  HEAT,  see  United  States,  July,  1892. A  wave
of  intense  heat  passed  over  Europe,  causing
many  deaths,  19-22  Aug. 1892. Tempera-
ture in  the  shade, Paris, gC'^ 19  Aug.  ;
Trieste,  no°,  21  Aug.  ;  Vienna,  icv"1,  18  Aug. ;
102°,  21  Aug. ;  Berlin,  95°,  20  Aug.  ;  Madrid,
106°,  17  Aug. ;  Seville,  120°,  15  Aug.
480.  HOLLAND. — A  section  of  the  Merwede  canal
from  Amsterdam  to  the  north  of  the  Leek,
opened  in  presence  of  the  queen  and  queen-
regent 4  Aug.  1

494.  IDAHO. —  Conflicts  among  the  miners  at
Coeur  d'Alene ;  4  non-union  men  killed,
11  July;  union  men  victors,  state  of  re-
bellion declared  ;  several  soldiers  and
unionists  killed  ;  martial  law ;  railway
bridges  blown  up  to  stop  troops  coming,
14,  15  July ;  insurrection  suppressed  by
president  Harrison's  proclamation,

15-18  July,  1
508.  INDIA.— Petition  of  the  Currency  Association
to  parliament  respecting  the  depreciation  of
the  rupee  largely  signed  at  Calcutta,  Bom-
bay, Madras,  <fcc.  ....  Aug.  1
Earl  of Kimberley  appointed  secretary for

India 18  Aug.

Expedition  (5000  men)  against  the  Black  Moun-
tain tribes  organized  under  col.  sir  W.  Lock-
hart ...  ... Sept.


526.  IRELAND.— Elections  :  Parnellites,  9;  anti-

Parnellites,  72 . . . . ju]yi  l8g2
Lord Houghton appointed  .  lord  lieutenant,
Mr.  John  Morley  chief  secretary . 18  Aug.
Operation  of  the  Crimes  act  in  county  Mayo '
and  other  formerly  disturbed  counties  sus-
pended,  12  Aug.; in  all  Ireland,  and  the
National  League  declared  legal . 13  Sept.
Outrages  by  "moonlighters"  near  Macroom' '

Cork xg  sept'

Mr.  John  Morley,  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Justin  M'Carthv', "

announces the coming  appointment  of  "a

commission  to  inquire  into  the  position  of

evicted  tenants .... 26  Sept.

537.  ITALY.— Ministerial  victory  in  the  chambers'

(majority,  194)  . . . . It  June!  l8
I  he  king  and  queen  received  at  Potsdam  by
the  German  emperor . . 20-24  June
Death  of  general  Cialdini,  duke  of  Gaeta,  emi- '
nent  patriot  and  soldier,  aged  81 . 8  Sept

578.  LIBERIA.— Martha Anna Ricks, a freed '

negress,  aged  76,  from  Liberia,  received  by
the  queen  at  Windsor,  16  July ;  the  queen
and  Mrs.  Ricks  exchange  portraits  . Sept.  1802

579.  LIBRARIES.  —  The magnificent Althorp

library,  collected  by  George  John,  earl
Spencer,  was  described  and  "illustrated  by
Dr.  T.  F.  Dibdin  in  his  "  Bibliotheca  Spen-
cenana,"  7  vols.,  published  1814-23.  It
was  privately  sold  by  the  present  earl  to
Mrs.  Rylands,  widow  of  John  Rvlands,  a
cotton  manufacturer,  and  added  to  a  public
library,  founded  by  her  in  Manchester  as  a
memorial  of  her  husband  ;  announced,  Auk.  1802

587.  LIVERPOOL.-Mr.  W.  B.  Levy  and  Mr.  G.
J.  Cohen,  residuary  legatees  of  Mr.  David
Lewis,  merchant,  in  accordance  with  his
wishes,  present  about  350,000?.  to  the  work-
ing-classes of  Liverpool  and  Manchester ;

announced,  June,  1892

596.  LONDON  UNIVERSITY— The  establishment
of  a  "Professoral  university"  for  London
was  proposed  in  June,  1892,  by  sir  H.  E.
Roscoe,  professors  Rucker,  E.  Ray  Lan-
caster, and  others.

617.  MANSION-HOUSE  FUNDS.—  St.  John's,  New-
foundland, fire,  relief  fund  for  the  sufferers
started  12  July;  received  up  to  15  July,
6,oooL  (the  queen  50?.  the  prince  of  Wales
16I.  5s.,  city  of  London  corporation  210Z.,
Goldsmith's  company  500?.,  and  other  com-
panies ;  sir  Donald  A.  Smith  i,oool.);
2i,oooZ.,  20  Aug.  ;  22,359;. .  27  Sept.  1892

Park  Slip  colliery  relief  fund  opened,  29  Aug.  ;
the  queen,  100Z. ;  the  marquis  of  Bute,  500?. ;
the  lord  mayor,  D.  Evans,  500?. ;  received
up  to  14  Sept.  3,300?. . . . Sept. ,,

65L  MOROCCO.— Sir  C.  Euan  Smith's  negocia-
tions  for  a  commercial  treaty  fail;  the
mission  withdraws  to  Tangier,  12  July  et  seq.  1892
Rebellion  of  1,200  Angherites,  or  Anjerites,
headed  by  Hmam,  a  desperate  fanatic
(chiefly  against  the  governor),  near  Tangier,
about  27  July  ;  indecisive  conflicts,  July,
Aug.  ;  negociations,  16,  17  Aug. ;  the  An-
gherites defeated  after  severe  fighting;
they  sue  for  peace,  4  Sept.  ;  a  new  governor
appointed,  reported  13  Sept. ;  peace  pro-
claimed Tg  Sept. ,,

672.  NAVY  OF  ENGLAND.—  St.  George,  first-class

battleship,  launched  at  Hull  .  23  June,  1892
Naval  manoeuvres,  5-13  Aug.  19  battleships
and  17  other  vessels  engaged.  Red  squadron  :
2  divisions  under  adm.  H.  Fairfax  and  rear-
adm.  R.  O'B.  Fitzroy  ;  Blue  squadron  under
H.  C.  St.  John.  Manoeuvres  in  theSt.  George's
Channel  and  Irish  Sea.  The  two  Red  divi-
sions eventually  unite  and  capture  the  Blue
squadron,  the  proposed  object  .  11  Aug.  ,,
Barfleur,  ironclad,  launched  at  Chatham,

10  Aug.  ,,
Royal  Naixd  Fund  for  the  relief  of  widows  and
orphans  was  founded  by  means  of  the  sur-
plus from  the  Naval  exhibition  of  1891
{which  sec)  .  .  .  .  .  29  June,  „
The  Leda  and  Alarm,  gunboats,  launched  at
Sheerness . .  . I3  Sept. ,


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.
July,  1867,  to  July,  1877.

BEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT  PACTS AND OCCURRENCES DURING THOSE
YEARS  ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS.


ABATTOIR.  December  28,  1871,  was  opened  at  Deptford,  a  market  and
slaughter- house,  where  all  foreign  cattle  for  London  consumption  must
be  landed  and  slaughtered. Cost,  more  than  £194,000.

ABYSSINIA.  Theodore,  the  native  King  of  Abyssinia,  having  imprisoned
several  English  subjects,  an  expedition  under  Sir  Robert  Napier  invaded
the  country,  and  on  April  13,  1868,  stormed  Magdala,  the  king's  strong-
hold, on  which  he  killed  himself.  Cost  of  the  war  to  England,  £8 ,300,000.
Napier  was  created  Baron  Napier  of  Magdala,  with  a  pension  of  £2,000
a  year.  King  John,  or  Johanni,  a  successor  of  Theodore,  has.  since  his
death,  maintained  a  defensive  war  against  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  whose
troops  entered  Abyssinia,  but  were  surprised  and  defeated  with  much
slaughter,  in  1874  or  1875.  In  1870,  however,  John  was  totally  defeated,
and  treated  for  peace  ;  was  again  defeated  after  breaking  truce  ;  but  the
later  results  of  the  war  have  been  indecisive.

ACCAD.  Accad  or  Akkad,  and  Sumer  or  Sumir,  are  the  names  given  to
two  pre-historic  countries,  whose  people,  called  Accadians  and  Sumerians,
are  supposed  to  have  used  two  differing  dialects  found  in  the  cuneiform
inscriptions  of  Assyria.  No  dates  are  ascertained  about  them,  but  the
former  were  in  the  southeast  of  Babylonia,  while  the  Sumer  were  in  the
northeast.

ACCIDENTS.  (See  also  Collisions,  Earthquakes,  Exphsions,  Fires,  Floods,
Railroad  Accidents,  S/iipwrecIcs,  Storms  )  From  1864  to  1874  inclusive,
about  11,000  deaths  by  accident  took  place  in  England  and  Wales,  a  large
proportion  of  them  from  coal-mine  casualties.  January  15,  1867,  the  ice
broke  uuder  the  skaters  on  the  lake  in  the  Regent's  Park,  London,  letting
several  hundred  persons  into  the  water.  Forty  were  drowned.  July  31 ,  1868,
a  false  alarm  of  fire  was  raised  in  Lang's  Victoria  Music  Hall,  at  Manches-
ter. England,  and  in  the  panic  rush  to  escape,  between  twenty  and  thirty
were  killed.  July  27,  1869.  Rev.  J.  M.  Elliott,  an  Englishman,  lost  his
foothold,  and  fell  from  near  the  summit  of  the  Schreckhorn,  in  Switzer-
land, a  distance  of  1,000  feet  or  more,  and  was  killed.  October  1,  1869,  a
firework  dealer's  shop,  in  Bayswater,  London,  blew  up,  killing  seven  out
of  thirteeu  persons  then  asleep  in  the  house  August  2,  1870,  on  Mont
Blanc,  an  English  lady,  Mrs.  Marke,  and  her  guide  fell  into  a  crevasse,
and  were  killed.  August  11, 1871,  at  Stowmarket,  England,  an  explosion  of
gun-cotton  stored  there  killed  24  and  wounded  72  persons. December  30,


THE WORLDS PROGRESS.


1871,  at  Glasgow,  a  road  locomotive,  known  as  Yuille's  Traction  Engine,
used  to  drag  heavy  machinery  for  shipping,  exploded  its  boiler,  killing  five
persons  and  wounding  some  40  more,  mostly  children,  who  had  gathered
round  it  out  of  curiosity.

ADMINISTRATIONS.  England.  (See  pp.  71,  208-210.)  Disraeli  resigns,
and  Gladstone  becomes  premier,  December  2,  1868 ;  Robert  Lowe,  John
Bright,  G.  J.  Goschen,  W.  E.  Forster,  and  others  becoming  members  of
the  Government.  This  ministry  carried  the  disestablishment  of  the
Irish  Church,  in  1869,  and  the  ballot  in  1872.  Mr.  Gladstone,  having
lost  his  majority  at  the  election  of  February,  1874,  resigned,  February  14,
and  Mr.  Disraeli  resumed  the  premiership,  his  cabinet  consisting  of  the  Ear]
oi  Derby,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  etc.

ADMINISTRATIONS. United  States. ^See  pp.  70,  205.)


Ulysses  S.  Grant,
Schuyler  Colfax,
Hamilton  Fish,
Geo.  S.  Boutwell,

A.  E.  Borie,
Goo.  M.  Robeson,
Gen.  Schofleld,
Gen.  J.  A.  Rawlins,
Gen.  W.  W.  Belknap,
James  Harlan,
Gen.  J.  D.  Cox,
Columbus  Delano,
J.  A.  J.  Creswell,
E.  R.  Hoar,
A.  T.  Akerman,
Gk  H.  Williams,


Grant's  First  Administration.
Illinois,  March  4,

Indiana,  March  4,

New  York,  March,

Massachusetts,  March,


Pennsylvania,
New  Jersey,

Illinois,

Iowa,

Iowa,

Ohio,

Ohio,

Maryland,

Massachusetts,

Georgia,

Oregon,


March.

June  25,

March,

March,

Sept.,

March,

June,
March,


1869

1869
1869
1869

1869  1

1869  f
1869
1809
1869
1869)

1870  >
1870  \
1869
1869
1871
1871


President.
Vice-President.
Secretary  of  State.
Secretary of the
'Treasury.

Secretaries  of  Navy.


Secretaries  of  War.

Secretaries  of Inte-
rior.
Postmaster  General.

Attorneys-General.


Ulysses  S.  Grant,
Henry  Wilson,
Thos.  W.  Ferry,

Hamilton  Fish,
Wm.  A.  Richardson,
Benj.  J.  Bristow,
Lot  M.  Morrill,
Wm.  W.  Belknap,
J.  D.  Cameron,
Geo.  M.  Robeson,
Columbus  Delano,
Zach.  Chandler.
Geo.  H.  Williams,
Edwards  Pierrepoint,
Alphonso  Taf  t,
John  A.  J.  Creswell,
Marshall  Jewell,
James  N.  Tyner,


Rutherford  B .  Hayes,
Wm.  A.  Wheeler,
Wm.  M.  Evarts,
John  Sherman,

Geo.  W.  McCrary,
Richard  W.  Thompson,
Carl  Sctmrz,
Charles  Devens,
David  M.  Key,


Grant's  Second  Administration.

Illinois,  March  4,  1S73

Massachusetts,  March  4,  1873

Michigan,


New  York,

Massachusetts,

Kentucky,

Vermont,

Iowa,

Pennsylvania,

New  Jersey,

Ohio,

Michigan,

Oregon,

New  York,

Ohio,

Maryland,

Connecticut,

Indiana,

Hates'  Administration.


March  4,  1869


President.
Vice-President.
President  of  Senate

pro  tern.
Secretary  of  State.

Secretaries  of  Tread
ury.

!•  Secretaries  of  War.

Secretary  of  Navy.
(Secretaries  of Inte
( rior.

>  Attorneys-  General.

>  Postmasters-General.


Ohio,

New  York,
New  York,
Ohio,

Iowa,

Indiana,

Missouri,

Massachusetts,

Tennegsaa,


March  4,  1877
March  4.  1877


President.
Vice-President.
Secretary  of  State.
Secretary  of Treas-
ury.
Secretary  of  War.
Secretary  of  Navy.
Secretary  of  Interior
Attorney-Gene  cat
Postmaster-Qe:  tral


1867-77.  5

AFGHANISTAN.  (See  p.  213. )  Runjeet  Singh,  a  Sikh  by  race,  and  King
of  Lahore,  conquered  most  of  Afghanistan  about  1818;  Dost  Mohammed
became  ruler  of  it,  1829 ;  took  Herat  May  26,  1863 ;  succeeded  by  his  son,
Shere  Ali,  June  9,  1863 ;  who  has  had  much  trouble  and  warfare  with
divers  of  his  fifteen  brothers  and  his  other  relatives,  and  has  only  been
maintained  by  English  aid.

AFRICA.  (See  pp.  72,  213.)  Zambesi  River  explored  by  Livingstone,  1851-6
and  1858-64 ;  his  book  published  November,  1865.  Stanley,  sent  by
Bennett  of  the  New  York  Herald,  reported  having  met  Livingstone  at
Ujiji.  November  10,  1871,  and  having  remained  with  him  until  March  14,
1872.  Livingstone  died  at  Itala,  in  Central  Africa,  May  1,  1873  ;  his
remains  were  brought  to  England  and  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,
April  18,  1874;  his  last  journals  published  December,  1874.  Lieut.
Cameron  crossed  Africa  from  Zanzibar  westward  to  the  Portuguese  settle-
ments on  the  west  coast,  arriving  November  21,  1875.  Stanley's  second
expedition  for  the  New  York  Herald  and  London  Telegraph,  1875-6.

AGRICULTURE.  (See  pp.  73,  214.)  Farm  products  of  the  United  States,
exclusive  of  live  stock,  year  ending  June  1,  1870,  $2,445,000,000.  A
"Union"  of  English  agricultural  laborers  to  secure  better  wages  and
social  amelioration  generally,  was  established  mainly  by  the  efforts  of
Joseph  Arch,  himself  formerly  a  laborer,  at  Leamington,  Warwickshire,
March  29,  1872,  and  has  attained  some  influence.

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  The  Alabama  rebel  armed  steamer,  Raphael  Semmea
commander,  was  built  by  Messrs.  Laird,  of  Birkenhead,  England,  for  the
Rebel  States  of  America,  and  launched  May  15,  1862,  and  sailed  July  28,
1862,  one  day  before  the  English  government  telegraphed  to  detain  her.
She  was  destroyed  and  sunk  in  a  sea-fight  off  Cherbourg  by  the  U.  S
steamer-of-war  Kearsarge,  Capt.  Winslow,  June  19,  1864,  after  having
done  immense  damage  to  American  commerce.  During  1865  the  United
States  and  English  governments  discussed  the  question  of  English  respon-
sibility for  this  damage  ;  a  convention  was  agreed  upon  on  the  subject
November  10,  1868,  which  came  to  nothing  ;  another,  signed  by  Lord
Clarendon  and  Mr.  Reverdy  Johnson,  January  14,  1869,  was  rejected  by
the  United  States  Senate  April  13,  1869  ;  a  joint  convention  on  this  and
other  matters  signed  a  treaty  at  Washington,  May  8,  1871,  providing
a  mode  of  settlement  by  arbitration ;  Arbitration  Commission  met
formally  at  Geneva,  December  18,  1871,  and  the  American  and  British
cases  were  presented  December  20.  Indirect  claims  and  the  whole
attitude  of  the  English  Government  caused  much  excitement  in  England  ;
indirect  claims  mutually  resigned  by  supplementary  treaty,  appr  ved  by
Senate  May  -5,  1872.  The  arbitration  tribunal,  composed  of  Count
Frederic  Sclopis,  for  Italy,  President ;  Baron  Staempfli,  for  Switzer-
land ;  Viscount  d'ltajuba,  for  Brazil ;  Sir  Alexander  E.  Cockburn,  for
England ;  Mr.  C.  F.  Adams,  for  the  United  States,  met  at  Geneva  and
opened  business  June  15,  1872.  After  presentation  of  cases  and  argu-
ment, the  final  meeting  was  held  September  14,  1872,  and  damages
awarded  to  the  United  States,  unanimously  for  injuries  by  the  Alabama,
by  four  arbitrators  for  those  by  the  Florida,  and  by  three  for  those  by
the  Shenandoah.  Total  of  award,  $15,000,000.  The  total  of  the  United
States  claims,  after  dropping  the  indirect  claims,  was  about  three  times
as  much.  The  English  arbitrator,  Sir  A.  E.  Cockburn,  refused  to  sign
the  j  ldgment,  mainly  on  the  ground  that  the  Florida  and  Shenandoah


6  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

claims  were  improperly  allowed.  A  large  proportion  of  this  sum  remained
after  all  the  awards  of  the  Court  of  Claims  established  by  the  Unitec
States  to  decide  who  should  receive  the  money,  which  as  yet  (August,
1877),  remains  in  the  U.  S.  Treasury.

ALASKA.  Bought  from  Russia  by  the  United  States  by  treaty  of  March
13,  1867,  for  $7,200,000,  which  was  paid  August  1,  1868.  Principal
settlement,  Sitka.  The  United  States  military  occupation  discontinued
in  1877.

ALSACE.  Alsace  (German,  Blsass),  was  anciently  part  of  Austrasia ;  joined
to  the  German  empire  in  tenth  century  ;  part  recovered  by  France,  1648 ;
the  rest,  1697;  conquered  and  occupied  by  the  Germans,  1870-1  ;  ceded
by  France  to  Germany  by  treaty  of  May  10,  1871 ;  the  law  completing
the  annexation  passed  June  9,  1871.  The  people  allowed  to  choose  their
nationality,  and  those  preferring  France  to  emigrate  with  their  property
before  September  30,  1872.  Many  did  so.  Part  of  Lorraine  (which  see)
including  Metz  and  Thionville,  was  ceded  and  annexed  with  Alsace.

ANILINE.  Discovered  by  Unverdorben  in  1826,  in  distilling  indigo ;  ob-
tained from  benzole  by  Bechamp,  1856;  "mauve"  applied  in  dyeing  by
W.  A.  Perkin,  1856 ;  since  used  to  produce  red,  blue,  violet,  and  green
colors.

ANIMALS,  CRUELTY  TO.  (See  p.  76.)  The  establishment  of  societies  for
preventing  cruelty  to  animals  in  England  and  Europe  was  followed  by  the
organization  of  a  similar  one,  chiefly  by  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Henry  Bergh,  in
New  York  City,  incorporated  April  10,  1866,  and  of  one  in  Boston,  incor-
porated March  23,  1868,  which  have  been  efficient.

ARCH.  The  arch  was  long  supposed  a  Roman  invention  ;  but  very  ancient
arches  have  been  found  in  bridges  in  China,  and  in  temples  and  other
structures  in  Egypt  and  Assyria.  Tbe  arching  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima  at
Rome  is  thought  the  oldest  in  Europe,  and  dates  to  about  588  B  c. ;  and
those  found  in  the  ruins  of  Assyrian  cities  are  considered  the  oldest  in  the
world.

ARCHAEOLOGY.  (See  Curium;  Mycenae;  Olympia ;  Pre-historia  Man;
Troy.)

ARCH.330PTERYX.  ("  Primeval  bird.")  Fossil  remains  found  at  Sol-
enhofen  in  Bavaria,  in  1861,  by  H.  Von  Meyer  and  Dr.  Haberlein.  It  had
some  reptilian  traits  in  its  structure- -teeth  in  its  jaws,  and  a  tail  with
feathers  radiating  from  it. It  was  described  by  Owen  in  1863.

ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS.  (See  pp.  78,  229.)  Captain  C.  F.  Hall's  first
voyage  of  discovery  was  1860-62 ;  he  ascertained  that  Frobisher's  so-
called  strait  is  a  bay,  and  gained  experience  of  Eskimo  life.  His  second
voyage,  in  the  Monticello,  began  June  30,  1864;  results  nob  remarkable.
His  third,  in  the  Polaris,  began  July  3,  1871,  and  he  took  his  ship  to  82°
16'  north  latitude,  the  northernmost  point  so  far.  He  died  in  the  Arctic
regions,  November  8,  1871.  Polaris  wintered  at  northernmost  point  so
far,  81°  38'  ;  set  out  to  return  under  Budington,  August  12,  1872;  in  a
panic  in  the  ice,  October  15,  Tyson  and  nineteen  more  were  left  on  a  floe,
and  were  rescued  April  30,  1873,  after  a  remarkable  drift.  Tbe  ship  re-
mained with  the  other  fourteen  persons  a  second  winter ;  they  left  in
boats  built  from  her  materials,  June  3,  1873,  and  were  picked  up  by  a
whaler.  The  "  first  German  expedition,"  under  Capt.  Karl  Koldewey,  of
eleven  men  only,  in  the  Germania,  to  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  and


18(37-77.  7

Spitzbergen,  set  out  September  80,  1868.  The  ' '  second  German  expedi-
won,"  in  the  Germania^oA.  Hansa,  under  Koldewey,  sailed  from  Bremer-
haven,  June  15,  1869.  Hansa  was  lost  in  the  ice,  crew  escaping ;  coal
discovered  in  east  Greenland ;  Oermania  wintered  at  Sabine  Island ;
sledge  parties  reached  77°  1'  N.  L.  Expedition  reached  home  September
11,  1870.  The  "Austrian  expedition"  in  the  Teyetthoff,  under  Wey-
precht  and  Payer,  by  way  of  the  seas  between  Spitzbergen  and  No-
vaia  Zemlia  (Nova  Zembla),  left  Tromsoe  in  Norway,  July  14,  1872  ;  dis-
covered Franz  Josef  Land,  in  79  43'  N.,  August  30,  1873  ;  reached  79°
58'  N.  ;  left  the  Tegetthoff  in  the  ice,  May.  20,  1874,  and  escaped  in  boats,
reaching  Europe  early  in  September,  1874.  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  George)
Nares's  expedition,  in  the  Alert  and  Discovery,  left  Portsmouth,  May  29,

1875.  September  1st,  she  reached  82°  24',  and  wintered  in  82°  27'  north,
the  furthest  point  reached  by  any  ship.  That  winter  was  noted  the
severest  cold  ever  known  in  Arctic  regions,  reaching  to  73 -7  below
zero  ;  a  mean  for  seven  days  of  58  17  ;  for  thirteen  days  of  58"9  ;  and
for  five  days  of  66  29  degrees  below  zero.  Ascertained  tbat  there  is  no
"  open  Polar  sea."  but  instead,  a  "  palseocrystic  sea,"  or  "  sea  of  ancient
ice,"  which  is,  it  was  found,  almost  impossible  to  traverse.  Sledge  parties
explored  the  coast  eastward  and  westward,  and  another  reached  the
northernmost  point  yet  attained  by  man,  being  83°  20'  26",  within  400
miles  of  the  North  Pole. The  expedition  returned  to  England  in  October,

1876.  A  sharp  controversy  followed  as  to  the  proper  victualling  of  the
expedition,  and  the  responsibility  for  the  severe  attacks  of  scurvy  which
had  been  suffered  by  most  of  the  party.

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.  (See  p.  79.)  Don  Domingo  F.  Sarmiento  was
elected  President  for  six  years,  October  12,  1868 ;  Dr.  Avellaneda  was  in-
augurated for  six  years,  October  12,  1874  ;  an  insurrection  under  Mitre  at
Buenos  Ayres  was  ended  by  his  submission,  December  2,  1874 ;  the  Na-
tional Bank  stopped  and  the  government  suspended  specie  payments,
May  16,  1876.

ARMY,  English.  (Seep.  232.)  In  1869,  it  was  stated  in  the  English
Parliament  that  each  regular  soldier  cost  per  year  in  Prussia,  £33  ;  in
France,  £37;  in  England,  £100;  being  nearly  $165,  $185,  and  $500.  By
Order  in  Council,  1870,  Queen  Victoria  surrendered  the  royal  prerogative
of  governing  the  army,  and  the  General-in-Chief,  instead  of  continuing  an
agent  of  the  crown,  was  formally  declared  subordinate  to  the  Minister  of
War.  November  1,  1871,  the  practice  of  buying  and  selling  commissions
in  the  British  army  was  stopped  by  royal  warrant,  dated  July  20,  1871.
Appointment  and  promotion  by  examination,  merit,  and  seniority  were
substituted.
The  English  military  force  in  1876  was  thus  constituted  :

Arm}7  in  United  Kingdom 36,275

" inlndia :... 62,850

Militia 274,175

Yeoman  cavalry 15,078

Volunteers 168,750

Enrolled  pensioners  and  army  reserve 31,000

Total  men 648,128

The  sum  voted  for  military  purposes  for  the  year  1876-7,  was  £15,282,-
000  ;  that  for  1855-6  (Russian  war),  £32,006,603  ;  and  that  for  1815  (la»t
year  of  wa-  with  Napoleon),  £39,150,000.


THE WORLDS PROGRESS.


AEMY,  European.  Estimated  total  of  European  armies  in  1863.
lion  men,  one  million  horses,  11,000  cannon.  European  armies
were  nearly  as  follows  :

Wab

FOOTING.

838,700

100,000

48.936

1,750,000

2,800.000

748,128


Peace
footing.

Austro-Hungary 278,470

Belgium 40,000

Denmark  ... 35,(557

Prance 430,703

Germany 419,738

Great  Britain 288,781

Gieece  (nominal). . . 14,061

Italy 199,557

Netherlands 97, 359

Portugal 18,195


750,000
208,359
68,450


Peace

FOOTING

Russia 765,872

Spain 151,668

Sweden 132,775

(Norway) 12,750

Switzerland

Turkey. 170,376

Bonmanm 34,647

Servia 4.000


six  mil'

in  1876,

Wab

FOOTING.

3,300,000


Totals 3,094,609


Peace  footings  not  carried  forward 345,891


Total  war  armies  of  Europe  more  than 11,723,081

AEMY,  U.  S. (See  p.  79.) Expenses  of  the  War  Department  for


1872 $35,372,157.20

1873 46,323,138.31

1874  42,313,927.22

1875 41,120,645.98

1876.. 38,070,888.64


1867 $95,224,415.63

1868 123,246,648.62

1869 78,501,990.61

1870 57,655,675.40

1871 35,799,991.82

Regular  army  in  1877  about  25,000  men,  and  this  total  in  process  of  re-
duction.

ARTILLERY. (See  Ordnance.)

ASHANTEE.  The  Ashantees  defeated  Sir  Charles  M'Carthy  at  Accra,
January  21,  1824,  and  carried  off  his  skull  as  a  trophy.  Col.  Purdon
totally  defeated  them  August  7,  1826.  War  was  begun  against  them
again  by  the  English  in  1863,  but  suspended  from  sickness  of  troops.
Expedition  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  sailed  from  England  September
12,  1873 ;  English  force,  after  a  severe  campaign,  entered  Coomassie,
the  Ashantee  capital,  February  4,  1874 ;  the  king,  Koffee  Kalcalli,  re-
fusing proposals,  his  palace  and  city  burned  February  6th ;  a  treaty,
prohibiting  human  sacrifices,  and  providing  for  50,000  ounces  of  gold
indemnity  to  the  English,  signed  February  13th.  The  expedition  cost
about  £900,000.

ASSASSINATIONS.  June  6,  1867,  one  Berezowski,  a  Pole,  fired  two
shots  at  the  Czar  of  Russia,  then  in  Paris,  but  missed.  He  was  trans-
ported for  life.  Michael  Obrenovitch,  Prince  of  Servia,  was  assassinated
at  Belgrade.  June  10,  1868,  as  was  believed  in  consequence  of  a  con-
spiracy to  place  Prince  Karageorgewictz  on  the  throne.  March  12,  1868.
in  New  South  Wales,  at  a  public  picnic,  one  O'Farrell  shot  the  Duke  of
Edinburgh  in  the  back,  intending  to  kill  him.  O'Farrell,  who  avowed
himself  a  Fenian,  was  hanged.  April  7, 1868,  Hon.  Thomas  D'Arcy  M'Gee
was  shot  dead  from  behind  at  his  own  door,  by  one  Whelan,  a  Fenian,  in
consequence  of  his  opposition  to  the  Fenians.  December  28,  1870,
Marshal  Prim  was  shot  by  night  in  the  streets  of  Madrid,  the  assassin
escaping,  and  died  in  two  days.  September  20,  1871,  at  Calcutta,  Mr.
Justice  Norman,  acting  Chief  Justice,  was  murdered,  being  stabbed  by
a  native.  February  8,  1872,  Lord  Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India,
assassinated  at  Port  Blair,  on  the  Andaman  Islands,  by  a  Mol  lammedan
convict  named  Shere  Ali.

ASSYRIA. (See  pp.  234-235.) The  results  of  Mr.  Layard's  investigations


1867-77.  9

at  Nineveh  were  published  in  his  "  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  1848,  and
in  his  "Discoveries,"  1853.  Botta's  explorations  at  Khorsabad  began
1843;  his  "  Monuments  de  Ninive  "  appeared  1849-50.  Mr.  George
Smith's  "Assyrian  Discoveries"  appeared'  1875,  and  his  ''Ohaldean
Account  of  Genesis"  in  1876.  Mr.  Smith  died  at  Aleppo,  August  19,
1876,  while  pushing  further  investigations.  An  Assyrian  grammar  (of
the  language  of  the  cuneiform  or  arrow-headed  inscriptions)  was  pub-
lished by  Mr.  A.  H.  Sayce  in  1875;  an  Assyrian  dictionary  by  Norris,  in
1868 ;  and  eight  volumes  of  (translated)  Assyrian  Teste,  bv  Birch,  in
1874-77.

ASTRONOMY.  (See  pp.  81,  235.)  The  planet  Neptune  wa3  discovered
September  23,  1846  ;  the  moon  was  photographed  by  Bond,  1851 ;  spec-
trum analysis  first  used  in  astronomy  in  1861 ;  Warren  De  la  Rue's  first
large  photograph  of  the  moon  was  made  in  1863.  The  transit  of  Venus
of  December  9  (astronomical  day,  December  8),  1874,  was  extensively
observed  at  the  expense  of  several  governments,  with  good  results.  From
April,  1868,  to  August  29,  1876,  were  discovered  Nos.  98  to  167  of  the
asteroids.

ATCHINESE  WAR.  Atchin  or  Acheen,  a  native  state  of  Sumatra.  The
Dutch  hostilities  against  it  took  place  from  April,  1873  to  1876,  ending  in
victory  by  the  Dutch.

ATHANASIAN  CREED.  (Seep  236.)  It  is  asserted  in  Lumby's  "His-
tory of  the  Creeds  "  (1874),  that  this  creed  was  not  composed  by  Athana-
sius,  but  consists  of  two  distinct  parts  ;  was  put  into  its  present  form
between  ad.  813  and  850,  first  imputed  to  Athanasiua  by  any  respect-
able authority  809,  and  accepted  by  the  Greek  Church  about  1200.  Much
opposition  to  the  use  of  this  creed  in  England,  and  efforts  to  stop  com-
pulsory reading  of  it  in  public,  1870  to  1873.

ATOMIC  THEORY,,  Dalton's  system  of  atomic  weights  assumes  hydrogen
as  1  ;  that  of  Berzelius  assumes  oxygen  as  100,  and  is  that  used  on  the
continent  of  Europe.

ATOMS.  The  number  of  ultimate  atoms  in  one  drop  of  water  has  been
recently  computed  by  Sir  William  Thomson,  at  100,000,000,000,000,000,-
000.000,000,  or  one  hundred  trillions  of  quadrillions.

AUSTRIA.  (See  pp.  82.  239.)  Francis  Joseph,  October  20,  1860,  issued  a
"•diploma,"  which  gave  legislative  power  to  the  assemblies  of  the  provin-
cial states,  constituting  Austria,  and  also  to  the  Reichsrath  or  Council  of
the  Empire.  Hungary  was  granted  self-government  February  17,  1867.
By  decree  of  November  14,  1868,  Austria  assumed  the  official  name  o£
"The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy."  The  population  of  Austria,  Decem-
ber 31,  1869,  was:

Cis-Leithan  provinces 20,394,980

Trans-Leithan  provinces 15,509,455

35,904,435
The  Cis-Leithan  provinces  (viz.,  those  reckoned  on  the  hither  side  of
the  river  Leithe),  are :  Galicia,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  Moravia,  the  two
Austrias  (Upper  and  Lower),  Styria,  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  Salzburg-,
Carinthia,  Carniola,  Trieste  and  Istria,  Dalmatia,  the  Bukovina.  The
Trans-Leithan  are :  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  the
city  of  Fiuice.  The  Reichsrath  became  a  national  representative  assem-
bly by  reform  bill  of  March  10,  1873.


THE WORLD  S PROGRESS.


B.


BABISM.  A  Persian  religious  doctrine,  first  promulgated,  1843,  at  Shiraz,
by  Mirza  Ali  Mahornmed,  who  called  himself  the  Bab  (gate)  of  knowl-
edge, gave  a  new  exposition  of  the  Koran,  and  claimed  to  be  an  incarna-
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  "  Babis"  were  tolerated  by  Shah  Mahorn-
med, but  were  nearly  all  killed  by  his  successor,  the  present  Shah,  in
1848-9,  the  Bab  bimself  being  exeouted,  July  15,  1849.  The  sect  is  said
to  be  now  (1877)  quite  numerous  again.

BABY  FARMING.  September  23,  1870,  in  England,  Margaret  Waters  was
convicted  of  the  wilful  murder  of  a  child  entrusted  to  her.  She  had  been
in  the  baby  farming  busines3  four  years,  and  confessed  to  having  received
some  forty  children.  She  was  condemned  to  death,  and  hanged  October
11,  after  having  confessed  that  five  others  of  the  children  in  her  care  had
died.

BALLOONS.  (See  pp.  83,  243. )  Used  with  a  good  deal  of  success  during  the
siege  of  Paris  by  the  Germans,  September  and  October,  1870,  for  carrying
mail  matter  out  of  the  city,  and  for  escapes  by  individuals.  Up  to  April,
1867,  Mr.  Coxwell  is  said  to  have  made  550  successful  ascents  ;  and  Charles
Green,  who  died  March  27,  1870,  aged  84,  had  made  600.  In  an  ascent
from  near  Paris,  April  15,  1875',  by  Messrs.  Tissandier,  Croce,  Spinelli,
and  Sivel,  after  having  reached  a  height  of  26,160  feet  (nearly  five  miles),
Croce  threw  out  ballast  and  they  ascended  rapidly  to  an  unknown  height.
But  the  latter  two  men  died  there  of  suffocation,  and  Tissandier  only  got
down  alive.  Glaisher  and  Coxwell,  at  Wolverhampton,  July  17,  1862,
had  ascended  about  7  miles,  but  at  5f  miles  Glaisher  became  insensible,
and  Coxwell  lost  the  use  of  his  hands,  and  only  escaped  death  by  opening
the  valve  with  his  teeth  and  thus  bringing  down  the  balloon.

BALLOT.  (Seep.  83.)  Secret  ballot  was  adopted  in  Victoria  (Australia),
1856;  employed  in  electing  school-board  in  nine  districts  in  London,  No-
vember 29,  1870 ;  recommended  for  general  use  in  the  Queen's  speech,
February  9, 1871,  and  bill  for  it  passed  the  Commons  and  rejected  in  the
Lords,  97  to  48,  August  10,  1871.  Bill  providing  for  its  use  until  Decem-
ber 31,  1880,  became  a  law  July  13,  1872 ;  Mr.  H.  B.  Childers  was  chosen
member  of  Parliament  for  Pontefract  by  ballot  August  15,  1872,  with  no
difficulty ;  the  method  has  worked  well  enough  since.

BAMPTON  LECTURES.  Delivered  annually  at  Oxford,  on  theological
subjects,  and  paid  for  by  funds  left  for  the  purpose  by  Rev.  John  Bamp-
ton,  who  died  1751. The  first  lecture  was  by  Rev.  Dr.  Bandinel,  in  1780.

BANKRUPTCY.  (See  pp.  84,  245.)  Bankrupt  peers  decided  incompetent
to  sit  in  English  House  of  Lords,  February  10,  1871,  and  a  law  expressly
so  providing  was  passed  July  13,  1871.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada
there  were  failures  and  liabilities  as  follows  :

FAILUKES.  LIABILITIES.

Year  ending  June  30.  1876.  8,776  $233,632,516

Year  ending  June  30,  1877.  9,241  182,308,435

BATHOMETER,  for  deep-sea  sounding  without  lead  and  line,  invented  and
improved  1861-76,  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens.  It  operates  by  registering  thf
lessening  of  the  earth's  attraction  of  gravitation  on  the  surface  of  the
ocean  from  what  it  would  be  on  solid  ground,  in  consequence  of  the  less
density  of  water.


1867-77.


BATHYBIUS  HAEGKELII,  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  recent  deep-
sea  soundings,  and  so  named  by  Huxley  ;  a  gelatinous  substance,  supposed
the  lowest  form  of  animal  life.  Since  believed  to  have  been  proved  a
mineral.

BATTLES. (See  pp.  84,  248.)


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.


Saarbruck,  French  victorious, Aug.  2,  1870
Wissembourg,  Germans  "  Aug.  4,  1870
Woerth,  "  " Aug. 6,  1870

Saarbruck  or  Forbach,  Germans,  Aug.  6,  1870
Courcelles  or  Pange,  " Aug.  14,  1870

Strasburg,  Germans  victorious,  Aug.  16,  1870
Vionville  or  Mars-la-Tour,  Ger's,  Aug.  16,  1870
Gravelotte,  Germans  victorious,  Aug.  18,  1870
Beaumont,  "  "  Aug.  30,  1870

Carignan,  "  "  Aug.  31,  1870


Metz,  Germans  victorious,  Aug.  31,  187$

SEDAN,  "  Aug.  31-Sep.  1,  1870

Before  Paris,  "  victorious,  Sept.  30,  1870
Thoury,  French  "  Oct. 6,  1870

St.  Remy, Germans "  Oct. 5,  1870

Chateaudun, "  "  Oct  18,  1870

Coulmiers,ne.ar  Orleans,  Frenclj.Nov.  9-10, 1870
Before  Orleans,  Ger's  victorious,  Dec.  4,  187C
St.  Quentin,  "  "  Jan.  19,  1871

Paris  (Trochu's  sortie),  Germans,  Jan.  19.  1871


OTHER

Oroquieta,  Spain,  Carlists  defeated,  May  4, 1872
Elmina, British defeat  Ashantees,

June  13,  1873
Elqueta,  Spain,  Carlists  claim  victory,

Aug.  5-6,  1873
Mafieru,  Spain,  indecisive,  Oct.  6,  1873

Abrakampra,  Ashantees  defeated  Nov.5-6,1873


BATTLES.

Abyssinians  defeat  Egyptians  in Nov.,
Irun,  Spain,  Laserna  defeats  Carlists,

Nov.  10,
Sorota,  Peru,  Pierota  and  insurgents

defeated Dec.  3,

Tolosa,  Spain,  Carlists  repulse  Loma,

Dec.  7-8,
Khokand, Russians  defeat  Khan of

Khiva Sep.  4-21,

Assake, Russians defeat Khokand

force Jan.  30,

Servian-Turkish  war  begins July  1,

Saitschar,  Servians  retreat  . . . July  2-3,
Urbitza,  Montenegrins defeat  Turks,

July  28,


1874

1874

1874

1874

1875

1876
1876
1876

1876


Borborassie,  "  " Jan.  29,  1874

Amoaful,  "  " Jan.  31,  1874

Bocquah,  "  "  Feb.  1,  1874

Fommanah,  "  "  Feb.  2,  1874

Ordahsa,  "  "  Feb.  4,  1874

Bilbao,  Spain,  several  days;  Concha
enters May  2,  1874

Estella,  Spain,  Carlists  retreat,  but  Con-
cha killed June  25-27,  1874

BAYREUTH.  The  Wagner  Festival,  or  Blihnenfestspiel.  The  perform-
ance of  Wagner's  "  Ring  des  Mbelungen,"  took  place  here  on  August  13,
14,  16.  and  17,  1876.  The  four  successive  portions  of  the  work  are:  1.
Das  Rheingold ;  2.  Die  Walkiire;  3.  Siegfried;  4.  Gotterdammerung.
Great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  music  by  itself ;  but  the  whole  rep-
resentation very  magnificent.  All  deficiencies  in  receipts  made  up  by  the
King  of  Bavaria.

BBHISTUN.  The  trilingual  inscriptions  here  were  deciphered  and  trans-
lated by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  1844-6,  the  first  great  step  being  thus  made
towards  interpreting  the  so-called  cuneiform  inscriptions.

BELFORT.  A  strong  fortified  town  in  Alsace,  invested  by  the  Germans
November  3,  1870  ;  capitulated  February  16,  1871  ;  reserved  to  France  at
the  cession  of  Alsace  to  Germany ;  and  the  Germans  left  it  in  August,  1873.

BESSEMER  STEEL. (See  Steel.)

BIBLE.  (See  pp.  86,  257.)  First  meeting  of  the  Convocation  for  Revising
the  English  Bible,  at  Westminster,  England,  June  22,  1870.  Among  Bible
Dictionaries  should  be  mentioned  McClintock and  Strong's  "Biblical and
Theological  Encyclopaedia."  "  The  Codex  Sinaiticus,"  a  Greek  MS.  of  the
Bible,  probably  written  in  the  fourth  century,  was  found  by  Prof.  Tis-
chendorf  at  St.  Catherine's  monastery  on  Mt.  Sinai  in  1844  and  1859,  and
procured  by  him  for  the  Czar  of  Russia,  who  caused  it  to  be  printed  in
1862.  The  first  version  of  the  Bible  (the  Syriac),  is  supposed  to  have
been  made  in  the  first  or  second  century ;  the  Old  Latin,  early  in  the
second,  and  revised  by  Jerome  in  384  ;  Jerome's  own  version,  the  Vulgate,
1*


12  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

completed  405.  First  printed  edition  (Mazarin  or  Mentz  Bible),  about
1455  or  1456,  without  date ;  and  a  copy  of  this,  at  the  Perkins  sale  in  Eng-
land, June,  1873,  brought  about  $16,000,  the  largest  price  ever  paid  for  one
printed  book.

BOKHARA.  Ancient  Sogdiana.  Murder  of  the  English  envoys,  Stoddart
and  Conolly,  by  the  Khan,  1843.  A  war  with  Russia  began  1866,  the
Khan  repeatedly  beaten,  and  peace  made  July  11,  1867.  There  was  more
fighting  in  1868  ;  the  Russians  entered  Samarcand  May  26th  ;  and  in
November,  1868,  annexed  it  by  treaty.  A  new  treaty  between  Bokhara
and  Russia  was  published  December,  1873.

BLUE  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT.  First  mentioned  by  Samuel  Andrews
Peters,  a  tory  Episcopalian  clergyman,  of  Hebron,  Conn.,  in  a  "  Histoiy  of
Connecticut,"  published  at  London,  1781.  Peters  built  his  story  on  the
basis  of  the  actual  laws,  but  with  great  additions  invented  by  him.  The
text-book  on  the  subject,  by  J.  H.  Trumbull,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1876.

BOOKS,  Book  Trade.  (See  pp.  20,  208.)  In  Great  Britain  were  pub-
lished as  follows  :

NEW  BOOKS.  NEW  EDITIONS.

1871 ....'. 3,547 1,288

1872 3,419 1,100

1874 3,351 961

1875  3,573 1,331

The  number  of  publishers  and  booksellers  in  Germany  is  (in  1876),  3,473,  in
786  towns.  In  Leipzig,  the  emporium  of  the  German  book  trade,  there
are  105  commission  agents,  who  act  for  4,202  booksellers,  of  whom  1,143
are  in  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Holland,  England,  and  America.  Number
of  books  published  in  the  United  States,  about  2,500  a  year.

BOSTON.  (See  pp.  88,  268.)  Annexations  to  the  city  of  Boston  were  :
Roxbury,  September  9,  1867 ;  Dorchester,  June  22,  1869  ;  Charlestown,
Brighton,  and  West  Roxbury,  October  7,  1873.  Great  peace  jubilee,  with
over  10,000  voices,  and  1,094  instruments,  June  15,  1869.  International
peace  jubilee,  with  chorus  of  about  20,000  voices,  and  orchestra  of  1,000
instruments,  June  17  to  July  4,  1872.  Great  fire,  burning  about  eighty
acres  of  buildings  in  the  thickest  business  part  of  the  city,  November  9,
10,  11,  1872;  959  houses,  of  which  125  dwellings,  were  destroyed,  and  35
persons  killed.  Boston  Public  Library  has,  in  1877,  about  320,000  vol-
umes ;  has  six  branches,  and  two  "delivery  agencies,"  besides  the  central
collection,  and  circulates  free  of  all  expense  about  1,300,000  volumes  a
year  ;  staff,  about  130  persons  ;  salaries,  about  $60,000  a  year  ;  annual
cost,  about  $130,000,  of  which  all  but  about  $6,000  is  paid  by  the  city
of  Boston  by  an  annual  appropriation,  the  rest  coming  from  trust  funds
of  about  ,1105,000.

BOSNIA,  incorporated  with  Turkey,  1463.  A  rebellion  broke  out  in  1849,
was  put  down  by  Omar  Pasha  in  1851.  In  September,  1875,  the  Bosni-
ans joined  the  Herzegovinian  insurgents.  Its  area  is  23,100  square  miles ;
population,  1,357,984,  of  which  about  one-third  only  is  Mohammedan.

BRAZIL.  (See  pp.  89.  272.)  The  war  with  Paraguay  was  ended  by  the
defeat  and  killing  of  Lopez,  the  Paraguayan  dictator,  at  Aquidaban,
March  1,  1870  ;  treaty  of  peace  with  Paraguay,  June  20,  1870.  Dom
Pedro,  the  emperor,  and  his  empress  visit  Europe  June,  1871,  and  March,
1872.  Gradual  slave  emancipation  bill  passed  by  the  Brazilian  senate,
September  27-28,  1872. Dom  Pedro  and  the  empress  were  present  at  the


1867-77.  i3

opening  of  the  Philadelphia  Exhibition  May  10,  1876,  and  afterwards
travelled  extensively  in  America  and  Europe.  Population  of  Brazil,  1872
(partly  estimated),  9,448,233,  besides  about  another  million  of  savage
natives. Number  of  slaves  in  May,  1874,  1,016,262.

BRIGANDS.  (See  also  Molly  Maguires.)  April  21,  1870,  some  English
ladies  and  gentlemen,  and  an  Italian,  were  taken  near  Athens  by  brigands,
who  demanded  $125,000  ransom,  which  was  ready  ;  but  the  Greek  Gov-
ernment, contrary  to  promise,  sending  troops  against  the  robbers,  the
tourists  were  all  murdered.  In  June,  1870,  two  Englishmen,  of  Gibral-
tar, were  seized  by  brigands,  and  made  to  pay  £5,200  ransom,  part  of
which  was  afterwards  recovered,  and  some  of  the  robbers  killed,  by  the
Spanish  civic  guard.  The  Mafia,  an  organized  system  of  spying,  murder,
and  brigandage  g-ot  into  possession  of  almost  unlimited  power  in  Sicily
about  1860,  and  has  since  remained  so.

BRIDGES.  (See  pp.  89,  274.)  The  proposed  New  York  and  Brooklyn
suspension  bridge  is  to  be  5,862  feet  long,  with  a  central  span  of  1,600
feet,  at  185  feet  above  high-water  mark.  The  Victoria  railway  bridge
over  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Montreal,  about  two  miles  long,  an  iron  tubular
bridge,  begun  May  24,  1854,  formally  opened  August  25,  1860,  and  cost
£1,700,000.

BURIAL.  (See  Cremation.)  The  "  earth  to  earth"  system  of  burial,  ad-
vocated by  Mr.  Seymour  Haden,  and  wicker  coffins,  exhibited  in  1875  at
London.

C.

CANADA.  (See  pp.  91,  288.)  The  act  creating  "the  Dominion  of  Can-
ada "  was  passed  March  29,  1867.  The  Dominion  contains  Ontario,  or
Upper  Canada,  Quebec,  or  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,
Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  provision  is
made  for  admitting  Newfoundland.  Lord  Monck,  first  Governor-General,
opened  the  first  session  of  the  Dominion  Parliament,  at  the  capital,
Ottawa,  Nov.  7,  1867.  Population  by  census  of  1871  :  Ontario,  1,620,-
851;  Quebec,  1,191,516;  Nova  Scotia,  387,800;  New  Brunswick,  285,-
594  ;  Manitoba,  11,953  ;  British  Columbia.  10,586  ;  Prince  Edward  Island,
94,021  ;  total,  3,602,321.

CANALS.  (See  Suez  Canal.)  Recent  surveys  have  shown  that  the  ques-
tion of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  or  that  of  Tehuantepec,  is
only  one  of  cost,  not  of  practicability.  In  April,  1870,  a  French  company
was  empowered  to  cut  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  be  done
in  six  years.

C  ANDI  A,  the  Ancient  Cbete.  (See  pp.  289,  338.)  Insurrections  against
Turkish  oppression,  1841«;  again,  and  quieted  by  conciliation,  1858.
Christians  persecuted,  1859 ;  a  general  assembly  rejects  Turkish  authori-
ty and  declares  union  with  Greece,  September  2,  1866;  after  obstinate
contests  the  insurgents  yield  from  exhaustion,  and  Turkish  authority  re
established  March  8,  1869.

CANOPUS.  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  sea-coast,  east  of  Alexan-
dria. The  "  Decree  of  Canopus"  was  put  forth  B.  c.  238,  by  Ptolemy
Euergetes,  to  constitute  his  deceased  daughter,  Berenice,  a  goddess,  and
to  establish  an  annual  festival  and  a  service  of  priests  in  her  honor.  A
•copy  of  this,  in  hieroglyphics  and  Greek,  was  discovered  at  Tanis,  1866.


14


THE WORLD  S PROGRESS.


CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.  (See  Death,  Punishment  of,  pp.  108,  344.)  Abol
ished  in  Saxony,  April  1.  1868;  abolition  of  it  refused  in  Belgium,  Janu-
ary 18,  1867  ;  in  English  House  of  Commons,  by  127  to  23,  April  21,
1868  ;  by  118  to  58,  July  29,  1869  ;  by  167  to  54,  July  24,  1872  ;  refused
by  French  Senate,  June  21.  1876.  It  was  prohibited  in  Michigan,  1846  ;
Rhode  Island,  1852  ;  Wisconsin,  1853 ;  Iowa,  1872 ;  Maine,  February  18.
1876,  and  is  practically  disused  in  some  other  States.  The  effect  of  such
disuse  on  crime  is  undetermined.  In  thirteen  years  next  after  the  repeal
of  the  law  inflicting  it  in  Michigan,  there  were  30  convictions  for  mur-
der, and  in  the  next  fourteen  years,  with  a  population  50  per  cent,  greater,
only  26.  But  in  New  York  City,  during  1871-6,  only  seven  murderers  were
hanged,  while  there  were  281  murders.  And  in  1871  there  were  no  hang-
ings, but  in  the  next  year  the  murders  increased  from  41  to  55,  and  when
in  1873.  two  murderers  were  hanged,  the  murders  decreased  in  like  man-
ner from  53  to  39.

CATHOLICS.  (See  Concordat;  Infallibility ;  Old  Catholics;  Romanism;
Vatican  Council.)

CENSUS.  (See  pp.  94,  299.)  The  English  census,  taken  April  2,  1871,
showed  a  population  in  the  United  Kingdom  (England,  Wales,  Scotland,
and  Ireland),  of  31,465,480.  For  Census  of  United  States,  1870,  see
United  States.

CENTENNIAL.  An  immense  number  of  Centennial  celebrations  took  place
in  the  United  States  during  1875  and  1876,  beginning  with  that  of  June
19,  1875,  for  the  battle  of  Lexington.  The  Centennial  International  Ex-
hibition at  Philadelphia  was  opened  by  President  Grant,  May  10,  1876,
and  closed  November  10.

Of  the  growth  of  the  United  States  in  the  first  century, the  following
figures  show  a  few  illustrations  :

1776.  1876.

Population 2,750,000  44,675,000

Area  square  miles 800.000  3,603,844

Annual  manufactures $20,000,000  $4,200,000,000

Banks 0  6,066

Colleges 9  374


PARITIES.

as  follows  :


(See  pp.  95,  302.) George  Peabody's  public  charities  were


$2,500,000  for  the  poor  of  London.

$2,000,000  for  education  in  the  South-
ern States.

$.300,000  for  museums  at  Yale  and  Har-
vard Colleges.

$50,000  for  a  free  museum  at  Salem,
Mass.


$20,000  to  Kenyon  College.

|250,000  to  the  State  of  Maryland.

{500,000  for  a  free  library  and  educa-
tional institute  at  Danvers  (afterwards
named  Peabody),  Mass.

£1.000.000  for  the  Peabody  Institute,
at  Baltimore,  Md.


December  2,  1871,  was  opened  at  Dublin  the  Brown  Institution,  endowed
by  a  bequest  left  for  the  purpose  by  a  Mr.  Brown,  of  Dublin,  as  a  hospital
for  the  study  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  quadrupeds  and  birds  useful
to  men.  Mr.  Vanderbilt  had,  during  his  life,  endowed  a  college  in  Ten-
nessee, with  about  $1,000,000,  and  supported  the  "  Church  of  the  Stran-
gers," in  New  York.  Daniel  Drew,  a  leading  New  York  stock  operator,
endowed  (nominally)  Drew  Theological  Seminary  in  New  Jersey,  but
afterwards  losing  his  money,  the  funds  were  never  paid  over.  A.  T.
Stewart  left  at  his  death,  unfinished,  a  great  hotel  for  working- women  i»
New  York,  which  was  completed  by  his  widow.


1867-77.  i5

CHICAGO.  (See  p.  95.)  Great  Fire,  October  8-11,  1871.  About  250
persons  perished,  about  98,500  were  rendered  destitute,  and"  the  loss  wu
estimated  at  $290,000,000.  Some  25,000  buildings  were  destroyed.
Large  contributions  were  made  in  American  and  English  cities  towards
relieving  the  sufferers,  and  great  energy  was  shown  in  rebuilding.

CHILDREN.  Under  eight  years  old,  forbidden  to  be  employed  in  agricul-
ture in  England,  by  act  of August  5,  1873.

CHINA.  (See  pp.  95,  305.)  Chinese  embassy,  with  Anson  Burlingame  (of
Massachusetts)  at  its  head,  received  at  Washington,  June  5,  1868  ;  at
Paris,  January  24,  1869 ;  Mr.  Burlingame  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  Feb-
ruary 22,  1870.  Massacre  of  French  priests  and  about  fifty  others  by  a
mob  at  Tientsin,  June  21,  1870;  the  leaders  were  executed  October  26,
1870.  Emperor  Tsai  tien  (altered  to  Kwang-Sii),  son  of  Chun  and  nephew
of  Prince  Kung,  succeeds  Toung-Chi,  February  4,  1875.  First  railway  in,
eleven  miles  long,  from  Shanghae  to  Oussoon,  publicly  opened  June  30,
1876.  Chinese  emigration  to  America  began  in  1850  ;  and  there  are  now
(1877)  supposed  to  be  nearly  50,000  Chinese  in  San  Francisco,  and  from
125,000  to  150,000  in  California,  mostly  males.  In  California  this  emi-
gration, and  the  Chinese,  after  coming,  are  chiefly  controlled  by  the  "  Six
Companies,"  which  are  a  kind  of  corporations,  and  whose  names  are  Sam
Yup,  Yung  Wo,  Kong  Chow,  Ning  Yeung,  Yan  Wo,  and  Hop  Wo.

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND.  (See  p.  310.)  Royal  assent  to  Mr.  Gladstone's
bill  disestablishing  it,  July  26,  1869,  took  effect  January  1,  1871.

CH  CRCH-RATES.  ( See  p.  97. )  Compulsory  church-rates  in  England  were
abolished  by  act  of  Parliament,  introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  passed
July  31,  1868.

CIVIL  SERVICE,  English.  August  31,  1870,  went  into  operation  an
English  Order  in  Council  that  all  entrance  appointments  to  civil  service
except  the  Foreign  Office  and  posts  requiring  professional  knowledge,
should  be  filled  by  open  competition.  Persons  in  the  English  Civil  Service
(treasury,  home,  foreign,  colonial,  post,  revenue,  etc.,  officers),  about
17,000;  cost  of  same  yearly,  estimated  for  1877  at  £13,309,100.

CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM,  United  States.  Measure  to  secure,  in-
troduced into  Congress  by  T.  A.  Jenckes,  of  Rhode  Island,  January  20,
1867.  Act  for  rules  to  be  prescribed  by  the  President  for  civil  service
examinations,  passed  March  3,  1871.  Commissioners  to  prepare  rules
appointed  by  President,  June  4th,  met  and  G.  W.  Curtis  chosen  chairman,
June  28,  1871.  Rules  prepared,  but  less  was  accomplished  by  them  than
was  expected.  In  the  summer  of  1877,  President  Hayes  ordered  that  all
national  office-holders  should  resign  any  situations  thej^  might  hold  as  party
political  managers,  or  else  resign  their  offices,  his  purpose  being  l '  to  take
the  office-holder  out  of  politics." This  order  was  promptly  obeyed.

CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES.  (See  pp.  97,  314,  646.)  Imported  into  Great
Britain  in  1870,  258,628  clocks,  372,420  watches.  The  Boston  Watch  Com-
pany, the  first  factory  for  making  watches  by  machinery,  was  founded  by
Mr.  Dennison  in  1854 ;  it  failed  1856,  and  was  bought  by  Mr.  Bobbins,  who
changed  the  name  to  American  Watch  Company,  often  called  the  Waltham
Watch  Co.  In  1876  there  were  eleven  such  watch  factories.  That  at
Waltham,  with  900  workmen,  turns  out  about  425  movements  a  day ;  the
next  largest,  at  Elgin,  111.,  about  300  movements.  The  effect  of  the
American  watch  business  on  the  importation  of  Swiss  watches  i3  shown


1 6  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

as  follows  :  Swiss  watches  imported  into  the  United  States  in  187$,
366,000;  1873,  204,000;  1874,  187,000;  1875,  134,000;  1876,  75,000.

CLUBS.  (See  p.  97.)  Recent  London  clubs  were  formed  at  following
dates  :  Cobden  Club  (free  trade),  1866 ;  Scientific,  Wanderers  (travellers,
Devonshire  (Liberal  political),  Verulam  (literary  and  scientific),  1874  •
Byron,  1875  ;  Hanover  Square  (new  Liberal),  1876.

COAL.  (See  pp.  98,  315.)  Consumption  of  anthracite  from  the  Pennsyl-
vania coal  fields  began  with  365  tons,  in  1820,  and  was  in  1875,  18,083,294
tons. By  periods  of  ten  years  the  production  was  as  follows,  inclusively  :

1820-29 tons 359,190  11850-59 tons 68,333,469

1830-39 " 5,210,685 1860-69 " 106,883,488

1840-49. " 18,954,678  |  1870-75 " 105,627,240

The  anthracite  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  all  in  seven  counties  in  Pennsyl-
vania, viz :  Schuylkill,  Carbon,  Luzerne,  Columbia,  Northumberland,
Dauphin,  and  Lebanon,  and  mostly  in  the  first  thsee  of  these.  Estimates
of  the  time  when  these  anthracite  deposits  will  be  exhausted  vary  from
77  years  to  650  years.  Tons  of  coal  raised  in  Great  Britain  and  the
United  States  in  1870  and  1874  :

GEEAT  BRITAIN. UNITED  STATES.

1870 113,000,000 32,000,000

1874 125,000,000 50,000,000

Area  of  all  coal  fields  in  the  United  States  estimated  at  196,000  square
miles.  Proportions  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  mined  in  the
United  States  in  1870  and  1875  :

1870.  1875.

Anthracite,  tons. 13,985,960  20,654,509

Bituminous,  " 15,231,668  26.031.726

COINAGE.  (See  pp.  99,  317.)  Total  coinage  of  United  States  \io  and
including  1876:

In  1876.

Gold $945,477,022.30  $38,178,962.50

Silver 180,322,356.40  19,126,502.50

Cents,  etc 12.822,538.55  260.350.00


Total $1,138,621,917.25  $57,565,815.00

COLLEGES  in  United  States  in  1875,  355;  schools  of  science  (and
collegiate  departments),  75;  theological  schools  (and  departments),  123;
law  schools  (and  departments),  43  ;  medical,  dental,  etc.,  schools  (and
departments),  106.

COLOMBIA.  (See  p.  319.)  General  Salgar,  President,  1871 ;  M.  M.  Toro,
April  1,  1872;  S.  Perez,  April  1,  1874.  Population  in  1864,  2,794,473;
in  1870,  2,910,329.

COLONIES.  (See  pp.  99,  320.)  Great  Britain  has  sixty-nine  colonies  and
foreign  possessions,  whose  population  was  estimated  in  1861  at  142,952,-
243,  all  but  about  7,500,000  being  in  the  East  Indies.  Their  revenue  in
1865  was  about  £51.497,000.  and  expenditures,  £59.353,000.  All  slaves
in  all  British  colonies  emancipated  August  1,  1834.  In  recent  times  the
English  home  policy  towards  the  colonies  has  steadily  become  more  com-
plying and  indulgent.  The  earliest  acquired  of  the  present  colonies  waa
Newfoundland,  about  a.d.  1500  ;  the  latest,  the  Fiji  Islands,  October  25,
1874.

COLORADO  proclaimed  a  State  August  1,  1876.


1867-77.  i7

COMETS.  (See  pp.  100,321.)  17,500,000  comets  estimated  to  be  in  the
solar  system.  More  than  600  recorded  as  having  been  seen.  Sohiaparelli
of  Milan  has  discovered  that  the  August  meteors  move  round  the  sun  in
an  orbit  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  second  comet  of  1862-6.  The
great  comet  of  1861  had  a  nucleus  of  about  400  miles  diameter,  a  long,
bushy  tail,  and  moved  about  ten  million  miles  a  day.  On  June  30,  1861,
it  was  suggested  that  the  earth  was  in  this  tail,  as  there  was  seen  a
"phosphorescent  auroral  glare."

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General  Sherman  appointed,  1869.

COMMERCE  OF  UNITED  STATES. (See  also  Cotton,  Failures,  etc.)

Exports.  Imports.

1869 $394,fi44,335 $414,256,243

1870 392.771,178 452,875,665

1871 460,331,614 572,509,314

1872 444,177,568 626,595,077

1873 522,479,317 692,136,210

1874  633,339,368 567,406,342

1875 658,691,291 553,906,153

Of  the  years  1874  and  1875,  nearly  half  this  commerce  was  with  Great

Britain,  viz. :

Exports  to  O.  B.  Imports  from  (J.  B.

1874 $341.034,049 $180,042,8  3

1875 366;799,869 157,047,827

Chambers  of  Commerce  now  exist  in  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  Chris-
tendom. Twenty-seven  of  the  English  ones  met  for  consultation,  Febru-
ary 21,  1865  ;  the  meeting  became  annual ;  in  1873  (February  18th),  46
met.

COMMUNE  OF  PARIS.  Proclaimed  March  28,  1871 ;  ended  at  the  cap-
ture of  the  city  by  the  government  forces,  May  28th,  following.

CONCORDANCE.  (See  pp.  100,  324.)  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible
on  which  was  based  that  of  St.  Caro,  seems  to  have  been  made  by  An-
thony of  Padua.  Cruden's  (the  best),  first  published  in  London,  1737.
Mrs.  Furness's  Concordance  to  Shakespeare's  poems,  1874.  Todd's  Verbal
Index  to  Milton,  1809,  and  Cleaveland's  Concordance  to  Milton.  1867.
Brightwell's  Concordance  to  Tennyson,  1869  ;  Abbott's  to  Pope,  1875.

CONCORDAT.  (See  p.  324.)  The  Concordat  between  Rome  and  Austria,
August  18,  1855,  gave  the  former  much  authority  over  the  Austrian
Church,  and  thus  excited  great  dissatisfaction  in  Austria.  In  1868  the
Austrian  and  Hungarian  legislatures  practically  abolished  it,  and  it  was
formally  declared  suspended,  July  30,  1870,  in  consequence  of  the  procla-
mation of  papal  infallibility.

CONFESSION,  Auricular.  (See  p.  325.)  Introduced  in  England  by  the
Puseyites,  Tracfcarians,  or  Ritualists.  Rev.  A.  Poole  suspended  for  prac-
ticing it,  June,  1858  ;  Rev.  T.  West  tried  to  introduce  it,  causing  much
excitement,  September,  1858;  483  Anglican  clergymen  petitioned  convo-
cation for  its  establishment,  May,  1873,  but  the  bishops  were  strongly
opposed  to  it  ;  Archdeacon  Denison's  letter  against  all  who  oppose  it,
August  22,  1873.  A  secret  book  used  by  the  English  ritualists,  with
shameful  questions  to  be  put  to  married  women  and  young  persons,  dis-
covered June,  1877,  and  great  indignation  aroused.

CONSTELLATIONS.  (See  p.  327.)  Now  reckoned  as  29  northern,  45
southern,  12  zodiacal.


I<5  .THE WORLDS I-ROGKJES>.

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  (See  pp.  102,328.)  The
dates  and  subjects  of  the  fifteen  amendments  were  as  follows :  1.  Pro-
posed 1789,  Freedom  of  religion,  press,  assembling,  and  petition.  2.  1789,
Right  to  bear  arms.  3.  1789,  Quartering  soldiers  on  people.  4.  1789,
Searches  and  seizures  of  persons,  houses,  etc.  5.  1789,  Indictment,  mar-
tial law,  legal  process,  eminent  domain.  6.  1789.  Criminal  prosecutions
to  be  speedy;  privileges  of  accused.  7.  1789,  Jury  trial  for  anything  over
$20,  in  common-law  suits.  8.  1789,  Bail,  fines,  cruel  and  unusual  punish-
ments. 9.  1789,  Enumeration  of  rights  in  Constitution  does  not  impair
others.  10.  1789,  State  rights.  11.  1794,  Judicial  power  of  United
States  as  against  States.  12.  1803-5,  Election  of  President.  13.  Ratified
December  18,  1865,  abolishes  slavery.  14.  Ratified  July  28,  1868,  civil
rights,  representative  basis,  rebel  disfranchisement,  public  and  rebel  debt.
15. Ratified  March  30,  1870,  negro  suffrage.

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  ACT.  Providing  for  periodical  medical  examina-
tions of  women's  persons  at  military  and  naval  stations,  passed  in  English
Parliament  June,  1866.  Great  opposition  has  been  made  to  it;  a  royal
commission  to  inquire  into  it  reported  July,  1871.  Alterations  have  been
proposed,  and  repeal  has  been  attempted,  but  failed  by  126  to  308  June,
1875,  and  102  to  224,  July,  1876.

CONVENTS  (for  nuns  ;  "  monasteries  "  are  for  monks).  (Seep.  328.)  In
18S2  there  were  16  convents  in  England  ;  in  1870,  233,  besides  70  monas
teries.  A  large  Church  of  England  convent  opened  at  Bournemouth,
October  3,  1875.

CONVOCATION.  The  English  Convocation  consists  of  the  upper  house  (of
bishops),  and  the  lower  (of  the  inferior  clergy).  It  formerly  possessed
power  over  various  church  matters,  but  was  deprived  of  these  by  a  statute
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  again  in  1716,  when  it  ceased  meeting.  Formal
meetings  of  the  Anglican  clergy  have  been  held  since  1854,  and  attempts
made  in  vain  to  regain  power  over  church  interests.  In  February,  1872,
convocations  were  authorized  to  deliberate  upon  changes  in  the  liturgy,
and  this  was  done  in  March  following.

CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES  (for  economical  supply  of  goods  to  members)
Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers'  Society  began  1844.  In  1862  there  were
332  in  England;  on  December  31,  1866,  749.  Annual  congresses  have
been  held,  the  seventh  at  London,  March  29,  1875.  Similar  organizations
in  the  United  States  have  not  been  very  successful.  There  were  in
Massachusetts  in  1875,  however,  fifteen  such,  of  which  eight  had  a  member-
ship of  1,650,  share  capital  $50,000,  assets  $100,000.  and  selling  $500,000
of  goods  yearly.  These  were  at  Fall  River  (organized  1866).  Worcester
(1867),  New  Bedford  (1867),  Lynn  (1870),  Wakefield  (1866;,  Holyoke
(1873),  Gardner  (1874),  Natick  (1869  ?).  On  the  continent  of  Europe  such
organizations  are  numerous  and  efficient.

COPYRIGHT.  (See  pp.  102,  103,  330.)  An  international  copyright  bill
brought  into  Congress,  February  21,,  1868,  but  could  not  pass.  English
House  of  Lords  decided  in  Routledge  vs.  Low,  in  favor  of  the  copyright
of  a  foreign  author.  The  Copyright  Association  of  England  was  founded
by  leading  London  booksellers,  March  19,  1872.

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. Founded  by  Ezra  Cornell  in  186b.

CORONERS.  (See  p.  332.)  In  consequence  of  abuses  and  annoyances  from
the  ignorance  and  incompetence  of  coroners, they  >vere  suppressed  iD


1867-77.  i9

Massachusetts  by  act  of  legislature,  May  9,  1877,  and  "medical  exami-
ners" substituted,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  Council,  and  to
be  "able  and  discreet  men,  learned  in  the  science  of  medicine."

OOTTON  MANUFACTURE  IN  UNITED  STATES  :


Zooms.

In  So2ith.

Spindles.

In  South.

Mills

1870

153,534 .

5,852 . .

. 7,114,000 .

. . . 262,221 .

Wi

1874

186,975 .

... 10,945 ..

. . 9,415,383 .

. . . 487,629 . .

.. 847

Cotton  mill  first  in  India,  built  1863  ;  and  the  number  had  increased  in
1876  to  reach  a  consumption  of  3,000  bales  cotton  per  week.  Estimated
consumption  of  cotton  for  manufacturing  purposes  in  the  world,  for  I860
and  1876,  in  bales  of  400  pounds  :

1860.  1876. Increase.

Great  Britain 2,817,080 3,187,000  370,000

Continent  of  Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000  568,000

United-States 1,088,000 1,441,000  353,000

Bombay  and  rest  of  India 164,000  164,000

This  increase  is  about  13  per  cent,  for  Great  Britain,  and  37£  per  cent.
for  the  other  manufacturing  countries.

COUNCILS,  CHURCH. (See  p.  335:  also  Vatican  Council.)

CREDIT  FONCIER.  Name  given  to  organizations  for  advancing  money  to
real  estate  owners  on  the  security  of  their  estates.  Such  a  plan  was  set
in  operation  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  Prussia  in  1763.  Companies  for
the  purpose  have  existed  in  Hamburg  (1782).  Prussia  (1787),  Belgium,
(1841),  France  (1852),  England  (1863),  and  elsewhere.

CREDIT  MOBILIER.  (Seep.  104.)  The  original  Credit  Mobilier  at  Paris
failed,  and  the  capital  was  said  to  have  "disappeared,"  October,  1867.
The  Pereires,  and  other  directors  held  liable  August  1,  1868.  -i  Credit
Mobilier  of  America,"  incorporated  in  Pennsylvania  March  15,  1865  ;  as-
sumed a  contract  to  build  100  miles  of  the  Union  Pacific  R.  R.  westward
from  the  Missouri  River,  in  which  Hoxie  had  failed.  Improper  distribution
of  its  stock  to  members  of  Congress  in  December,  1867  and  afterwards,  was
charged,  and  an  investigation  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Representa-
tives took  place  in  1872-73.

CREMATION  advocated,  instead  of  burial,  by  Sir  Henry  Thompson  and
others  in  England,  1873.  Societies  for  it  established  in  London,  Vienna,
and  Berlin  in  1874.  The  body  of  Sir  C.  Dilke's  wife,  burned  at  Dresden
October  10,  1874 ;  the  ashes  of  the  body  and  coffin  together  being  about
six  pounds.  Baron  de  Palm's  remains  burnt  in  like  manner  in  America
in  1876,  and  Dr.  Winslow's  in  1877.

CRETE. Now  Candia,  which  see.

CRIME.  (See  pp.  105,  338;  also  Ticket  of  Leave.)  International  Congress
for  Prevention  and  Repression  of  Crime,  met  at  London,  July  3,  1872.  In
England  a  great  decrease  in  crimes  of  violence  in  proportion  to  the  p»pu-
lation  has  been  observed  from  1861  to  1871.

CRISPINS. (Bee  Si.  Crispin.)

CROWN.  (See  p.  340.)  The  crown  of  England  contains  1  large  ruby,  1
large  sapphire,  16  sapphires,  11  emeralds,  4  rubies,  1,363  brilliants  ^dia-
monds), 1,273  rose-diamonds,  147  table  diamonds,  4  drop-shaped  pearls,
273  pearls.

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS. (See  Animals.)


20  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

CRYOLITE.  A  fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium,  found  in  quantities  in
Greenland,  and  used  to  manufacture  metallic  aluminium.

CUBA.  (See  pp.106,  340.)  Insurrection  began  soon  after  the  Spanish  revo-
lution, September,  1868  ;  checked,  June,  1870  ;  not  suppressed,  January,
1872  ;  still  in  full  activity,  August,  1877.

CUMULATIVE  VOTE.  Under  the  English  Reform  Aft  of  1867,  cumulative
voting,  to  allow  "  minority  representation,"  was  allowed  in  London,  Glas-
gow, Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  Leeds,  and  in  such  counties  as  returned
three  members  each.  In  the  counties,  and  in  some  of  these  cities,  the  ■
result  was  to  admit  minority  candidates.  Used  in  electing  members  of  the
government  of  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges.

CUNEIFORM  LANGUAGES. (See  Assyria.)

CURIUM.  General  L.  P.  di  Cesnola  discovered  in  1875,  in  the  ruins  of  this
very  ancient  city,  in  Cyprus,  a  treasure  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  a
temple,  deposited  in  four  subterranean  rooms,  and  consisting  of  over  7,200
ornaments,  statues,  and  other  articles  of  gold,  silver,  bronze,  terra  cotta,
ivory,  glass,  etc.,  etc.,  which  have  been  secured  for  the  Metropolitan  Art
Museum  in  New  York.

CURRENCY,  United  States.  National  bank  notes  outstanding,  De-
cember 31,  1876,  $319,860,304  ;  greenbacks  outstanding,  same  date,  $366,-
911,000.

CYCLONE.  A  circular  hurricane,  common  in  the  tropics.  In  a  cyclone  at
Calcutta,  October  5,  1864,  about  100  ships  lost,  and  60,000  persons  per-
ished. One  at  Nassau,  in  the  Bahamas,  October  1  and  2,  1866,  destroyed
over  600  houses  and  other  buildings,  dismasted  many  ships,  and  killed
from  60  to  70  persons.  August  21,  1871,  a  oyclone  devastated  Antigua,
St.  Kitte,  and  other  islands,  inflicting  enormous  damages.  In  a  flood  and
cyclone  in  the  Backergunge  district,  in  India,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gan-
ges, 5,000  persons  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  October  31,  1876.

CYPRUS. (See  Curium.)

CZECHS.  Name  of  the  natives  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  In  Bohemia  there
is  a  violent  opposition  between  the  Czechs  and  Germans.


D.

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES. (See  Roumania.)

DARIEN  CANAL. (See  Canals.)

DARWINISM.  A  "  development "  theory  was  put  forth  by  Wolff,  1759;
and  one  by  Lamarck,  1809,  and  one  in  the  "  Vestiges  of  Creation,"  1844.
Origin  of  mammals  from  an  egg,  not  a  hundredth  part  of  an  inch  diameter,
proved  by  von  Baer.  1827.  Mr.  Darwin's  doctrines  are  contained  in  his
'■  Origin  of  Species,"  1859,  and  "  Descent  of  Man,".  1871.  His  follower.
Haeckel,  published  a  "  History  of  Creation,'1  1873,  appeared  in  English,
1875. Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace's  "  Natural  Selection"  appeared  1870.

DEACONESSES.  Discontinued  in  the  Western  Church  in  the  fifth  and
sixth  centuries,  and  in  the  Eastern  in  the  twelfth  ;  recently  revived  in
Germany.  Pastor  Fliedner's  Institution  for  training  deaconesses  at  Kais-
erswerth  founded  1835. Advocated  in  England by  the  Bishop  of Ely,


1867-77.


1853,  and  some  appointed. Di;cesan  Deaconess  Institution  at  London,
established  1861. In  1866  the  Kaiserswerth  Institution  had  connected
with  it  139  stations  and  491  sisters  or  deaconesses.
DEATHS,  noticeable,  1867-1877,  in  alphabetical  order  of  names:


Agassiz.  L.,  naturalist,  Dec.  15.  1873.
Afford,  Rev.  H.,  critic,  poet,  and  divine,  Jan.

12,  1871.
Alison,  Sir  A..,  historian,  May  23,  1867.
imberley,  Viscount,  Jan.  10,  1876.
Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman,

Nov.  6,  1876.
Applegath  A.,  inventor  of  printing  machinery,

counterfeit-proof  bank  notes,  etc.,  Feb.  14,

1871.
Aspinwall,  Col.  Thomas,  Aug.  11,  1878.
Auber,  D.  P.  E.,  composer,  May  13,  1871.
Aubigne,  Merle  d',  clergyman  and  historian,

Oct.  19,  1872.
Austin,  Mrs.  Sarah,  authoress,  Aug.  8,  1867.
Babbage,  C,  mathematician,  Oct.  18,  1871.
Baird.  James, Scotch  iron  master,  June  21,

1876.
Bailev,  Theodorus,  admiral,  U.  S.  N.,  Feb.  10,

1877.
Bedfo/d,  Paul,  actor,  Jan.  11,  1871.
Bentlb/,  E.,  publisher.  Sept.  10,  1871.
Berrye/,  P.  A.,  French advocate and  orator,

Nov.  29,  186S.
Blair.  F P.,  senior,  editor  and  politician.  Oct.

18,  187ft.
Blitz,  Aircouio,  "magician,"  Jan.  28,  1877.
Brag^,  B.  L.,  rebel  general,  Sept.  27,  1876.
Brewster,  SirD.,  physicist,  Feb.  10,  1868.
Brongniart,  A.  T.,  scientist  and  author,  Feb.

20,'  1876.
Brooke,  Sir  J.,  Bajah  of  Sarawak, June  11,

1868.
Brougham,  Lord,  advocate,  orator,  writer,  phil-
anthropist, May  7.  1S6S.
Broughton,  Lord  (Sir  J.  C.  Hobhouse),  author

and  official,  June  3,  1869.
Brownlow,  W.  G.,  editor  and  politician,  April

29,  1877.
Brownson,  0.  A.,  writer  and  jeurnalist,  April

17,  1876.
Buchanan,  J.,  ex-President,  June  1.  186S.
Burgoyne,  Sir  John,  soldier,  Oct.  7,  1871.
Burns,  Jaboz, Methodist  clergyman,  Jan.  31,

1876.
Bushnell,  Horace,  clergyman  and  writer,  Feb.

17,  1876


Derby,  Earl  of,  statesman,  Oct.  23,  1869.

Dickens,  Charles,  novelist,  June  9,  1870.

Didot.  A.,  publisher,  Feb.  20,  1876.

Dumas. Alexandre,  novelist and dramatist,
Dec.  5,  1870.

Durbin,  J.  P.,  Methodist  clergyman,  Oct. 19,
1876.

Ellenborough,  Earl  of,  statesman  and  admin-
istrator,. Dec,  1871.

Ellet,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  F.,  authoress,  1S77.

Emerson-Tennent,  Sir  J.,  author  and  official,
March  6,  1869.

Evans,  Sir  De  Lacy,  soldier,  Jan.  9,  1870.

Exeter,  Bishop  of  (Henry  Phillpotts), Sept.  8,
1S69.

Faraday,  M.,  physicist,  Aug.  25,  1867.

Forrest,  Edwin,  actor,  Dec.  12.  1872.

Forster,  John,  author,  Jan.  31, 1876.

Freiligrath,  F.,  poet,  March  19,  1876.

Galliera,  Duke  of,  wealthy  Italian  nobleman,
Nov.  24,  1876.

G-ough,  Lord,  soldier,  March  2,  1S69.

Greenfield, Elizabeth  T.,  the "  black  swan,"
colored  singer,  March  31,  1876.

G-risi,  Giulia,  singer,  Nov.  25,  1869.

Grote  G.,  historian  of  Greece,  June  18,  1871.

Guizot,  F.,  statesman  and  historian,  Sept.  12,
1873.

Hall,  W.  W.,  medical  writer  and  editor,  May
10,  1876.

Harper,  Fletcher, last  of  four  brothers, pub-
Ushers,  May  29,  1877.

Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist,
June  16,  1876.

Herschel,  Sir  J.  F.  W.,  astronomer,  May  11,
1871.

Howe,  Dr.  S. G., physician  and  philanthro-
pist, Jan.  9,  1876.

Hudson.  George, the  "  Railway  King,"  Dec.
14,  1871.

Johnson,  Andrew, ex-President, January  10.
1876.

Johnson,  Reverdv,  lawyer  and  statesman,  Feb.

10,  1876.
Johnston,  Keith,  geographer,  July  9.  1871.

Jones,  Ernest,  chartist,  Jan.  26,  1869.

Juarez, B., ex-president  of  Mexico,  July  18,
1872.


Capponi,  Marquis,  author,  Feb.  4,  1876.

Cardigan,  Lord,  of  Balaklava  notoriety.  March  '  Kean,  Charles,  Jr..  actor,  Jan.  22,  1868.

28,  1868.  '  Kerr,  Michael  C,  politician,  Aug.  19,  K376,

Chambers,  Robert  and  William,  publishers  and Kock,  Paul  de,  French  novelist,  Aug.,  1871.


authors,  March  17  and  20,  1871.
Clarendon,  Earl  of,  diplomatist  and  statesman,

June  27,  1870.
Cousin,  Victor,  historian  and  philosopher,  Jan.

14.  1867.
Cushman,  Charlotte,  actress,  Feb.  18,  1876.
Custer,  Gen.,  July  2,  1876.
Davies,  C.  mathematician,  Sept.  17,  1876.


Lahrbush,  Frederick  A.,  soldier,  claiming  ta
be  111  years  and  25  days  old,  April  3,  1877.

Lamartine,  A.  de,  poet,  historian,  and  states-
man, Feb.  28,  1S69.

Landseer,  Sir  E.,  painter,  Oct.  1,  T873.

Lane,  E.  W.,  Arabic  scholar,  Aug.  10,  1876.

Lee,  R.  E.,  rebel  general,  Oct.  13,  1870.

Lick,  James,  capitalist,  Oct.  1,  1876.


Davis,  C.  H.,  admiral  U.S.  Navy,  Feb.  18, 1877.  ]  Lowenthal,  J.  J.,  chess-player,  July  21,  1876
Deak,  Francis,  Hungarian  statesman,  Jan.  29, Lytton,  Lord,  novelist,  Jan.  18,  1873.

1876.  Lemaitre,  F.,  actor,  Jan.  27,  If  76.

De  Morgan, A., mathematician,  March 18,  |  Lemon,  Mark,  editor,  May  23,  1870.

1871.  '  Maclise,  Daniel,  painter,  Apr: 25,  1870


THE WORLDS PROGRESS.


Mansel,  H.  L.,  divine  and  metaphysician,  July
31,1871.

Marochetti,  Baron,  sculptor,  Dec.  29,  1867.

Martiueau,  Harriet,  writer,  June  27,  1876.

Mayo,  Lord.  gov.  gen.  of  India,  assassinated,
Feb.  8,  1872.

Mayo,  Dr.  Thomas,  physician  and  medical
writer,  Jan.  13, 1871.

Maximilian  I.,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  June  19,
1867.

Maxwell,  Lady  (Mrs.  Caroline  Norton),  June
14,  1877.

Mazzini,  G.,  Italian,  republican  agitator  and
conspirator,  March  10.  1872.

Melvill,  Rev.  Henry,  divine,  Feb.  9,  1871.

Michael  III.,  Prince  of  Servia,  assassinated
June  10,  1868.

Mil  man,  Dr.  H.  H.,  author  and  divine,  Sept.
27,  1868.

Montalembert,  Count  de,  author  and  states-
man, March  13,  1870.

Murchiscn,  Sir  R.  I.,  geologist,  Oct.  22,  1871.

Napoleon  III.,  ex-Emperor,  Jan.  9. 1S73.

Narvaez,  Spanish  soldier  and  ruler,  April  23,
1868.

Neal,  John,  writer,  June  20.  1876.

Omar  Pasha,  soldier,  April  18,  1871.

Patteson,  J.  C.  missionary,  Bishop  of  Melan-
esia, Sept.  20, 1871.

Peabody.  George,  banker  and  public  benefac-
tor, Nov.  4,  1869.

Perier,  Casimir,  French  statesman,  July  6,
1876.

Poggendorff,  J.  C,  physicist,  1877.

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  judge,  Aug.  23,  1870.

Prevost-Paradol,  M.,  author,  July  19,  1870.

Prim,  J.,  Spanish  soldier  and  statesman,  as-
sassinated Dec.  28,  1870.

Pug'h,  George  E.,  lawyer  and  politician,  July
19,  1S76.

Putnam,  George  P.,  publisher,  Dec.  19,  1S72.

Randall,  H.  S.,  agricultural  and  educational
writer,  Aug.  19,  1876.

Rhett.  R.  B.,  politician.  Sept.  14,  1876.

DEVELOPMENT. (See  Darwinism.)

DIAMONDS.  The  Kohinoor,  reduced  by  its  first  unskilful  cutting  from
nearly  800  carats  to  279  carats,  was  recut  in  1852  down  to  102£  carats.
The  "  Star  of  the  South,"  brought  from  Brazil  1855,  weighed  2044-  carats,
of  which  half  was  lost  in  cutting.  Diamonds  were  found  in  Cape  Colony,
South  Africa,  in  March,  1867,  and  one,  the  "  Star  of  South  Africa,"
found  in  1869,  weighed  46^  carats,  and  was  valued  in  June,  1870,  at '
£25,000.  Other  diamond  fields  discovered  near  Vaal  and  Orange  Rivers,
September,  1870  ;  a  great  rush  of  diggers.  November,  1870.  The  value  of
141  diamonds  found  in  Africa,  1869,  was  £7,405;  of  5,661  in  1870,
£124,910.  Diamond  drill  for  piercing  stone,  patented  by  Hermann  in
France,  1854  ;  a  subsequent  improvement  by  setting  the  diamond  in  the
rim  of  a  tube  to  turn,  and  thus  cut  out  a  core,  used  in  Mt.  Cenis  tunnel
and  at  Hellgate  mine.

DISESTABLISHMENT.  (See  also  Ghurch  of  Ireland.)  A  conference  was
held  at  Birmingham,  October  1,  1872.  to  promote  immediate  action  for
the  disestablishment  of  the  English  and  Scotch  national  churches.

DRAMA. January  28,  1869,  the  Lord  Chamberlain  of  England  sent  an  offi


Robertson,  T.  W..  dramatist,  Feb.,  1871.

Robinson,  W.  S.,  journalist,  March  11,  1876.

Rosas,  Manuel,  ex-dictator  of  Buenos  Ayrea,
March  14,  1877.

Rosse,  Earl  of,  astronomer,  Oct.  31,  1867.

Rossini,  G.  A.,  composer,  Nov.  13.  1868.

Rothschild,  Sir  Anthonv,  capitalist,  Jan.  4,
1876.

Ryves,  Mrs.,  daughter  of  the  self-styled  "  Prin-
cess Olive,  of  Cumberland,"  Dec.  7,  1871.

Sainte-Beuve,  C.  A.  literary  critic,  Oct.,  1869.

Saldanha,  field  marshal,  Poituguese,  soldiel
and  statesman,  Nov.  21,  1876.

Salt Sir  Titus,  manufacturer,  Dec.  29,  1876.

Sand,  George  (Mme.  Dudevant),  June  8,  1876.

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  L.,  Mexican  general  and
ruler,  June  20,  1876.

Schamyl, Circassian  chief,  April,  1871.

Smart,  Sir  George,  musician,  Feb.  23,  1867.

Smith,  Alexander,  poet,  Jan.  5,  1867.

Smith,  F.  0.  J.,  telegraph  capitalist,  Oct.  14,
1876.

Smith,  Geo.,  Assyrian  scholar,  Sept.  5,  1876.

Smith,  Henry  B.,  presbyterian  clergyman,  pro-
fessor, editor,  and  author,  Feb.  7,  1877.

Smith,  William,  connoisseur  and  antiquary  in
engravings,  Sept.  13.  1876.

Smirke,  SirR.,  architect,  April  18,  1867.

Stanfield,  Clarkson,  marine  painter.  May  18,
1867.

Stewart,  A.  T.,  merchant,  April  10.  1876.

Strangford, Viscount,  diplomatist,  Jan.  9, 1869.

Strauss.  F.,  theologian,  Feb.  8.  1873.

Sumner,  C,  statesman,  March  11,  1S73.

Thompson,  Jeff.,  rebel  general,  Sept.  5,  1876.

Tischendorf.  C,  biblical  scholar,  Dec.  7.  1873.4

Vanderbilt,  C  railroad  owner  and  capitalist,
Jan.  4,  1877.'

Whittingham,  C,  printer,  April  21,  1876.

Wilkes,  Charles,  admiral,  U.  S.  N.,  Feb.  8,
1S77.

Wilson,  Henry,  vice-president.  Jan.  20.  1S76.

Winship,  G.  B.,  strong  man,  Sept.  12.  1S76.

Wise,  H.  A.,  politician,  Sept.  11,  1876.


1867-77.  23

cial  warning  to  all  the  London  managers  against  '  the  impropriety  of  cob-
turne  of  the  ladies  in  the  pantomimes,  burlesques,  etc.,"  usual  on  the  stage.
Dramatic  College,  for  distressed  actors  and  their  children,  founded  at  May-
bury,  near  Woking,  in  England,  June  1,  1860,  and  seven  persons  installed
as  beneficiaries,  September  29.  1862.  A  somewhat  similar  institution  was
directed  to  be  established  by  Edwin  Forrest,  the  American  actor,  in  his
house  at  Philadelphia,  but  there  appeared  to  be  none  to  apply  for  the
benefit  of  the  asylum.

DUALIN. (See  Explosives. )

DUELS.  March  12,  1870.  the  Duke  de  Montpensier  challenged  Don  Enri-
que de  Bourbon,  for  personalities  having  reference  to  the  throne  of  Spain,
and  at  the  third  shot  killed  him.  The  Duke  was  tried  by  court-martial,
and  sentenced  to  one  month's  banishment  from  Madrid  and  $6,000  fine,
to  be  paid  to  Don  Enrique's  family.  Duels  are  still  (1877)  frequent  in
France,  but  have  become  rare  in  England  and  America.  A  clumsy  and
unsuccessful  one  took  place  in  1877,  between  J.  G-.  Bennett,  the  owner  of
the  New  York  Herald,  and  one  May,  of  New  York  ;  neither  was  damaged,
and  Bennett  went  off  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  a  number  of  months.

DZOUNGARIA,  or  SOONGARIA.  A  country  north  of  China,  inhabited
by  about  two  million  warlike  and  fanatical  Mohammedans.  They  were
tributary  to  China,  rebelled  1864.  making  Abel  Oghlan  sultan.  In  conse-
quence of  their  depredations  Russia  attacked  them,  April,  1871,  the  Sultan
surrendered  himself  July  4,  and  the  country  was  annexed  to  Russia.


EARTH.  The  estimated  average  density,  5-ftj-  that  of  water  ;  weight,
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  tons.

EARTHQUAKES.  (See  pp.  112,  358.)  August  13-15,  1868,  terrible  earth-
quakes totally  destroyed  Arica,  Arequipa,  Islay,  Iquique,  Pisco,  and
many  other  towns  of  Peru  and  Ecuador.  Estimated  lives  lost,  20,000  ;
estimated  loss  of  property,  £60,000,000,  including  many  ships  along  the
coast  and  at  the  Chincha  Islands.  It  was  believed  that  more  than  300,000
persons  were  deprived  of  shelter  and  food.  An  earthquake  on  the  Sind
frontier  of  India.  December  14  and  15,  1872,  killed  about  500  persons.  May
16-18,  1875,  one  on  the  Colombia  frontier,  near  Santander,  is  said  to  have
killed  14,000.  From  1783  to  1857,  the  kingdom  of  Naples  lost,  out  of  a
population  of  about  six  million,  over  1,000  persons  a  year,  in  all  110,000.
About  255  earthquakes,  all  slight,  are  known  to  have  occurred  in  the  Brit-
ish Islands.

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.  Its  government  of  India  ceased  October  1,
1858. Finally  abolished  June  1,  1874.

ECLIPSES.  August  17  and  18,  1868,  there  was  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  visi-
ble in  many  parts  of  the  East,  and  very  important  for  study,  because  its
obsciiration  was  for  the  longest  period  ever  observed,  reaching  on  the  east
coast  of  Bengal  5  minutes  49  seconds,  and  owing  to  the  sun's  great  dis-
tance and  the  moon's  small  distance  from  the  earth,  the  obscuration  was
also  very  complete.  Very  important  observations  were  made,  especially
spectroscopic  ones,  as  to  the  material  structure  of  the  sun . August  7,


24  THE WORLD  S PROGRESS.

1869,  solar  eclipse  generally  observed  in  North  America.  There  is  a  sort
of  series  of  about  70  eclipses  that  comes  round  once  every  18  years  10^
days.  Except  on  August  12,  1889,  no  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  will  be  visi-
ble in  England  for  250  years  from  July,  1871.

ECUADOR.  Presidents:  G-en.  Franco,  August  21,  1859;  Dr.  G.  G.
Moreno,  January,  1861 ;  G.  Carrion,  August  4,  1865  ;  resigns  December,
1867  ;  Dr.  X.  Espinosa,  September  13,  1867  ;  Dr.  G.  G.  Moreno,  end  of
1872  ;  assassinated  August  6,  1872  ;  X.  Leon,  Vice-President,  September,
1875. Population  estimated  at  about  1,500,000.

EDUCATION  in  U.  S.  (See  pp.  113,  362. )  A  Department  of  Education
created  by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  March  2,  1 867  ;  afterwards  made
a  Bureau  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  Commissioner,  Henry
Barnard;  succeeded  in  1870  by  Gen.  John  Eaton.  In  1870,  in  the
United  States,  were  persons  over  10  years  old  unable  to  read,  4,528,084  ;
unable  to  write,  5,658,144;  school  children,  7,209,038  ;  schools,  141,629;
teachers  (127,713  female),  221,042;  income  of  schools,  $95,402,726,  of
which  public  money,  $61,746,039.  The  census  of  1870  showed  that  the
wealth  of  the  country  was  owned  where  the  education  was  highest,  and
that  poverty  and  illiteracy  go  together.  Compulsory  free  schools,  and
disfranchisement  of  all  who  cannot  read  and  write  English,  by  Federal
authority,  recommended  by  President  Grant  in  his  message,  December  5,
1876.

EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND.  (See  p.  362  )  National  Education  Leagues
(for  compulsory  education)  first  met  October  12  and  13,  1869  ;  Metropolitan
School  Board  (for  London),  elected  November  29,  1870,  Miss  Garrett,  M.D.,
being  chosen  member  by  a  large  majority.  Elementary  Education  Bill  of
Mr.  W  B.  Forster  became  law  August  9,  1870  ;  amended  1872,  1873,  1876  ;
Compulsory  Attendance  Bill  of  Mr.  Dixon  rejected,  320  to  16.  July  1,
1874,  and  again,  281  to  260,  April,  1876.  Primary  schools  in  Gre'.t
Britain  in  1855,  4,8<0  ;  in  1860,  7,272 ;  in  1870,  10,949  ;  annual  parlia-
mentary grant  for  same,  in  1870,  about  $4,500,000.

EGYPT.  (Seo  pp  113,362.)  See  also  Sues  Canal.  June  6.  1867.  the
Khedive  (viceroy)  of  Egypt  arrived  in  London :  his  visit  lasted  until  the
18th  He  made  a  second  visit  in  1869.  landing  June  22,  and  remaining
eight  days  A  controversy  with  the  Sultan  was  adjusted  December  18,
1869  :  a  firman  makes  the  Khedive  practically  independent  June  8,  1873  ;
but  he  must  not  coin  money,  make  treaties,  or  build  iron-clad  ships.  The
succession  of  the  Khedives  is  :  Mehemet  Ali  Pacha,  abdicated  September,
1843 ;  dies  August  2,  1849  ;  Ibrahim,  .his  adopted  son,  September,  1848  ;
dies  November  9  or  10,  1848 ;  Abbas,  his  son.  succeeds  ;  dies  July  14,
1854  :  Said,  Abbas's  brother,  dies  January  18,  1863 ;  Ismail,  Said's
nephew,  succeeds.  Mr.  Cave's  reporc  to  English  Government  (April,
1876),  calls  Ismail  "intelligent,  industrious,  hospitable,  and  frugal."
The  principal  points  as  to  ancient  Egyptian  history  settled  thus  far  are  :
1.  Hieroglyphics  are  partly  pictorial  (and  of  these  some  are  special  and
some  general  or  determinative)  and  partly  alphabetic.  2.  Menes  was
believed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  be  historical,  the  first  known  king  of
Egypt ;  and  there  is  more  evidence  for  his  existence  than  for  that  of
King  Arthur.  3.  The  great  pyramid  dates  from  the  4th  dynasty,  say  300
or  400  years  after  Menes.  4.  Manetho's  dynasties  were  mostly  consecu-
tive, not  contemporary.  5.  Roving  tribes  from  the  East  (the  Hyksos)  con-
quered Lower  Egypt  and  ruled  in  the  Delta  for  centuries ; they  were


1867-77.


25


expelled  by  Aahmes,  or  Amasis  I.  Under  the  18th  dynasty,  which  began
with  this  king,  Egypt  was  greatest.  Thotmes  III.  was  the  greatest  of  its
kings.  Ramses  II.,  or  Sesostris,  of  the  19th  dynasty,  was,  however,  as
great.  6.  Important  synchronisms  have  been  determined  of  the  later
period  of  Egyptian  empire,  with  Syrian  and  Persian  history. — (Bev.  J.  P.
TJiompson. )
ELECTORAL  COMMISSION.  The  votes  of  Florida,  Louisana,  and  Ecuth
Carolina  in  the  Presidential  election. of  November,  1876,  were  disputed,
and  were  finally  referred  for  adjudication  to  an  Electoral  Commission  by
Act  approved  January  29,  1877.  The  commission  consisted  of  Justices
Clifford.  Strong,  Miller,  Field,  and  Bradley,  of  the  United  States  Supreme
Court;  United  States  Senators  Edmunds,  Morton,  Frelinghuysen,  Thur-
man,  Bayard  ;  United  States  Representatives  Payne.  Hunton,  Abbott,
Garfield,  Hoar.  The  Commission  began  operations  February  7,  1877;
acted  on  the  three  votes  above  named,  the  critical  questions  being  mostly
determined  by  a  vote  of  eight  to  seven,  corresponding  nearly  with  the
known  political  opinions  of  the  members  of  the  commission,  and  the
deciding  vote  being  usually  that  of  Justice  Bradley.  The  result  of  the
Commission  was  the  crediting  of  the  votes  in  question  to  Hayes  and
Wheeler,  who  were  in  consequence  elected  President  and  Vice-President
of  the  United  States  by  one  electoral  vote  majority,  viz. ,  by  185  votes  to
184.


LEMENTARY

SUBSTANCES

i. The

elementary  substances  now  known

are sixty-five

in  number,  as

follows

;  those  after

sulphur  being  in  th*

order  of  their

discovery  from

antimony,  1490  down  to  1877.

Gold,'

Platinum,

Tungsten,

Lithium,

Silver,

Nickel,

Tellurium,

Selenium,

Mercury,

Sodium,

Uranium,

Cadmium,

Copper,

Potassium,

Zirconium,

Bromine,

Iron,

Lime  (calcium),

Titanium,

Thormum,

Tin,

Silex,

Strontium,

Vanadium,

Lead,

Alumina,

Yttrium,

Lanthanum,

Carbon,

Magnesia,

Chromium,

Bidymium,

Sulphur,

Hydrogen,

Glucinum,

Erbium,

Antimony,

Fluorine,

Tantalum,

Ruthenium,

Bismuth,

Nitrogen,

Cerium,

Niobium,

Zinc,

Chlorine,

Palladium,

Caesium,

Phosphorus,

Oxygen,

Rhodium,

Rubidium,

Borax,

Manganese,

Iridium,

Thallium,

Arsenic,

Barium,

Osmium,

Iufdium,

Cobalt,

Molybdenum,

Iodine,

Jargon  mm,

Gallium.

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  The  electric  telegraphs  of  the  world  are  (in
1877)  391,360  miles  long.  Of  these,  the  United  States  contain  79,000
miles;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  75,000;  Russia,  31,459;  France,
28,784;  Austro-Hungary,  28,148;  Germany,  only  19,152.
•EMIGRATION  and  IMMIGRATION.  Immigration  into  United  States
since  1861  (by  Government  fiscal  years)  :

1867 293,601

1868 889,145

1869 3S5.287

1870 356,303

1S71 346.938


1861 89,720

1862 89,005

1863 174.523

1864 193,191

1865  248,394

1866 314,840


1872 437,750

18?3 422.546

1S74 260,814

1875 191,231

1876 237,991


Total  in  sixfceen  years,  4.331,278.  Whole  emigration  into  United  States
to  end  of  1875,  including  the  estimated  total  of  250,000  before  1320,
9,526,966. For  Chinese  immigration  to  California,  see  China.


20


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


Emigration  from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  Ten  Tears.

To  North  Ameri-
can Colonies.

To  United  States.

To  Australia.

Total.

1866

13,255

161,000

24,097

204,882

1867

15,503

159,275

14,466

195,953

1868

21,062

155,532

12,809

196,325

1869

33,891

203,001

14,901

258.027

1870

35,295

196,075

17,065

256.940

1871

32,671

198,843

12  227

252  435

1872

32,205

233,747

15,876

295,213

1873

37,208

233,073

26,428

310,612

1874

25.450

148,161

53,958

241,014

1875

17,378 105,046 35,525

173,809

ENCUMBERED  ESTATES  ACT,  to  provide  for  disposal  of  encumbered
real  estate  in  Ireland,  passed  July,  1849 ;  proceedings  under  it  October,
1849,  to  July,  1858:  2,380  estates  sold,  and  brought  £22,000,000.  The
Irish  Land  Bill,  passed  1870,  further  recognized  the  Irish  customs  as  to
tenure  of  land,  and  gave  the  tenant  a  right  in  his  improvements,  and
damages  for  being  "wrongfully  evicted.

EOZOON  CANADENSE.  A  foraminifer  found  by  J.  W.  Dawson,  of  Mont-
real, in  the  Laurentian  limestone  in  1858;  asserted  to  be  the  earliest
known  form  of  animal  life.

EPHESUS.  Mr.  Wood's  search  for  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Diana  began
1863 ;  he  ascertained  the  site  1870,  and  shipped  60  tons  of  marble  to  the
British  Museum  in  1872.

EUROPE.  Population  (census  years  1860  to  1875  in  different  countries),
265.374,470;  an  estimate  for  1872,  for  all  these  countries,  gives  301,700,-
000.

EVOLUTION  theory ;  includes  the  nebular  theory,  and  the  Darwinian  theory
of  the  descent  of  man  and  natural  selection.

EXECUTION.  (See  also  Capital  Punishment.)  The  execution  of  Michael
Barrett,  for  being  concerned  in  the  plot  to  blow  up  Clerkenwell  Prison,
December  13,  1867,  at  Newgate,  London,  May  26,  1868,  was  the  last
public  execution  in  England.  On  September  8th  following,  the  first
private  execution  took  place,  inside  of  Newgate,  being  that  of  ono
Mackay,  for  murder.

EXHIBITIONS,  INTERNATIONAL.  London  (South  Kensington),  opened
May  1,  closed  November  1,  1867;  visitors,  6,117,450.  Paris,  opened  April
1,  closed  November  3,  1867.  Vienna,  opened  May  1,  closed  November  2,
1873.  Philadelphia,  opened  May  10,  closed  November  10,  1876.  The
Philadelphia  Exhibition  (most  single  admissions,  274,919,  on  September
28,  1876)  compares  with  the  other  chief  similar  ones  as  follows  :


Place.

Year.

Days  open.

Admissions.

Receipts.

1851
1862

1855
1867
1873
1876

141
172
200
217
186
159

6,039,191
6,211,103

5,162,330
8,805,969
6,740,500
9,789,392

$2,530,500

2,042;  650

640,495

Vienna

2,103,675
1,032,385
3,813,749.75

Exhibitors  at  Philadelphia,  30,864,  from  50  countries  ;  whole  outlay  about
$8,830,000.


1867-77.  27

EXPLOSIONS.  (See  Hellgate.)  Explosion  of  steam  on  the  ironclad  Thun-
derer, at  Portsmouth,  England,  kills  77  persons.  One  Thomas,  Thomas-
sen,  or  Thomson,  said  also  to  be  in  fact  named  Alexander  Keith,  Jr.,  and
a  native  of  Halifax,  N.  S.,  sent  a  cask  of  dynamite  to  be  shipped  by  the
steamer  Mosel,  at  Bremerhaven,  and  with  it  a  clock-train  set  to  run  eight
days  and  the"h  explode  the  dynamite  and  destroy  the  ship,  which  would
then  be  well  out  at  sea.  The  machine,  however,  exploded  on  the  dock
December  11,  1875,  killing  over  80  persons  and  wounding  about  200.
Thomassen  killed  himself,  after  confessing  that  his  object  had  been
merely  to  obtain  a  small  insurance.

EXPLOSIVE  BULLET  TREATY,  adopted  in  November  1868,  at  St.  Peters-
burg, by  Bavaria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  England,  France,  Greece,  Holland,
Italy,  Persia,  Portugal,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sweden,  Switzerland,
Turkey,  and  Wiirtemberg,  agreed  not  to  use  in  any  war  amongst  them-
selves, by  land  or  sea,  any  explosive  missiles  of  any  kind  of  less  than  400
grammes  weight,  viz. ,  about  13  oz.  avoirdupois.

EXPLOSIVES.  Dynamite  (or  giant  powder),  looks  like  rather  fine  brown
sugar,  and  is  made  of  powdered  silex,  silicious  ashes  or  infusorial  earth,
mixed  with  three  times  its  weight  of  nitro-glycerine.  Dualin,  made
known  by  Carl  Ditniar,  a  Prussian,  in  1870,  consists  of  cellulose,  nitro-
Btarch,  nitro-mannite,  and  nitro- cellulose  ;  and  the  dualin  invented  by
Nobel  is  composed  of  ammonia  and  sawdust,  treated  with  nitro-sulphuric
acid.  Nitro-glycerine,  an  amber-colored  fluid,  discovered  by  Sobrero,
1847 ;  made  by  gradually  adding  glycerine  to  a  mixture  of  one  part  nitric
and  two  parts  sulphuric  acid.  It  explodes  with  thirteen  times  the  force
of  gunpowder,  besides  a  great  gain  in  its  speed  of  action.  Gun-cotton,
invented  by  Schonbein,  and  made  known  1846  ;  it  is  made  by  steeping
cotton  in  mixed  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  (equal  parts).  Lithofracteur  is
a  modification  of  dynamite,  invented  by  Engels,  of  Cologne,  1869.  Gly-
oxyline,  invented  by  F.  A.  Abel,  in  England,  in  1867,  is  a  mixture  of  gun-
cotton,  saltpetre,  nitro-glycerine,  and  pulp.  It  was  superseded  by  com-
pressed gun-cotton.

EXTRADITION  TREATY  between  England  and  the  United  States,  negoti-
ated 1842 ;  abrogated  May  2,  1876,  in  consequence  of  England's  refusing,
April  18,  1876,  to  surrender  the  forger  Winslow,  and  of  a  disagreement
about  trying  one  Lawrence,  delivered  by  England  under  the  treaty,  the  Eng-
lish position  being  that  there  were  improper  efforts  to  try  him  for  offences
other  than  that  for  which  he  was  delivered ;  while  the  United  States
claimed  that  England  had  wrongly  applied  a  home  English  statute  of  1870,
defining  extradition  offences,  to  this  treaty,  which  was  international.  An
extradition  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Spain  was  proclaimed
Feb.  21,  1877.

EXPORTS  and  IMPORTS. (See  pp.118,  373.) See  Commerce.


F.

FAILURES (See  Commercial  Failures,  W.  P. ,  p.  100,)  in  the  United  State*
for  the  ten  years  1867-76,  were  as  follows  :

9


Average

Whole  Amount.

Indebtedness.

$86,218,000

$36,134

6y,  774,000

24,452

75,054,000

26,814

S8,242.000

24,849

S5,252,000

...". 29,245

121,056,000

29,750

228,499,000

44,085

135,239,000

26,627

201,060.353

25,978

191,117,786

21,020

28  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.


Number.

1867 2,386

1868 2,608

1869 2,799

1870 3,551

1871 2,915

1872 4,069

1873 5,183

1874. 5,830

1875 7,740

1876 9,092

FAMINE.  (See  p.  375.)  In  Orissa,  750,000  persons  perished  of  famine,
1865-6;  wry  severe  in  Persia,  1871-2;  in  Bengal,  from  drought,  1874;
in  Asia  Minor,  1874-5  ;  in  several  parts  of  India,  1876-7.

FENIANS.  October  10,  1869,  Edward  Martin,  a  Fenian  official,  was  buried
in  London,  with  a  Fenian  demonstration  consisting  of  a  funeral  procession
of  various  organized  bodies,  in  all  about  6,000  men.  In  1870,  Parliament
amnestied  the  Fenian  prisoners  at  Portland,  but  on  condition  of  banish-
ment for  life  from  the  United  Kingdom.  A  Fenian  force  of  some  2,000
strong,  under  O'Neill,  entered  Canada  from  Vermont,  May  25,  1870,  but
remained  beyond  the  lines  only  ninety  minutes,  being  repulsed  and  driven
back  by  a  few  English  and  Canadian  troops.  Another  company  crossed
the  line  at  Malone,  N.  Y. ,  on  the  27th,  and  were  driven  back  in  a  similar
manner.  One  Fenian  killed  at  each  place  was  the  whole  loss  on  both
sides.  July  13,  1871,  Head  Constable  Talbot,  of  Dublin,  who  had  been
vigorous  and  successful  in  breaking  up  the  plans  of  the  Fenians,  was
assassinated  by  a  pistol-shot,  dying  on  the  16th.  One  Kelly,  who  was  sup-
posed to  have  shot  him,  was  acquitted,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  FeDians.

FIJI  ISLANDS.  Ceded  to  England,  September  30,  1873  ;  Sir  A.  H.  Cordon
first  Governor,  1875.

FILIOQUE.  A  word  adopted  into  the  Western  creeds,  in  the  Council  of
Toledo,  589 ;  rejected  by  the  Eastern  churches  since  662.  It  implies  that
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  both  from  the  Father  "  and  from  the  Son."  The
old  Catholic  Conference,  Bonn,  August,  1875,  debated  its  omission,  but  did
not  omit  it.

FIRES.  (See  pp.  120,  378.)  December  6,  1867,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  Lon-
don, was  burned  down.  It  was  reckoned  the  best  existing  building  of  its
class  for  hearing  music  in.  June  5,  1870.  a  great  fire  in  Pera,  one  of  the
suburbs  of  Constantinople,  destroyed  many  houses,  immense  quantities  of
property  of  Armenian  merchants,  the  English  Embassy  buildings,  and  (by
estimate)  2,000  lives.  January  12,  1870,  the  Star  and  Garter  Hotel  at
Richmond,  near  London,  for  many  years  a  favorite  resort  of  pleasure-
parties,  was  totally  burnt ;  the  manager,  Mr.  Lever,  being  burnt  also.
May  24,  1870,  at  Quebec,  a  fire  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Roch  destroyed  400
houses,  left  8,000  persons  homeless,  and  consumed  $1,000,000  worth  of
property.  March  10,  1871,  a  fire  at  Holker  Hall,  Devonshire,  a  seat  of
the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  destroyed,  among  many  other  valuable  and
curious  articles,  seventy-two  very  fine  paintings,  by  some  of  the  best
masters,  ancient  and  modem.  June  17,  1871,  the  steam  in  an  immense
boiler,  some  thirty  feet  long,  in  the  Trinity  Works  in  Sheffield,  was  found
to  continue  to  fill  the  boiler  at  night  after  the  fires  were  withdrawn.  On
examination  it  was  found  that  the  boiler,  which  had  been  noticed  to  be
sinking  for  some  time,  was  kept  hot  by  the  slow  burning  of  a  seam  of


1867-77.  29

shale  and  coal  extending  immediately  under  the  building.  The  fire  must
have  been  long  burning,  perhaps  for  years,  and  was  quietly  at  work  under
the  street  and  under  the  houses  opposite.  It  took  a  considerable  time
and  a  large  force  of  men  to  put  it  out.  December  3,  1871 ,  a  fire  at  War-
wick Castle  consumed  the  whole  of  the  east  wing  and  the  centre,  the
west  wing  being  saved  with  great  difficulty.  Many  valuable  works  and
historic  pictures  and  relics  were  destroyed.  December  14,  1871,  a  fire
at  Rotherhithe,  near  London,  in  Bennett  &  Co. 's  granaries,  among  the
largest  in  England,  destroyed  to  the  value  of  £150,000.  November  24,
1876,  fire  at  Tokio,  Japan,  destroys  some  5,000  homes;  about  fifty  per-
sons killed;  loss  of  property  about  $10,000,000.  December  5,  1876,
Brooklyn  Theatre  burned ;  315  lives  lost.  For  Boston  and  Chicago  fires,
see  Boston,  Chicago.

FLOGGING.  Abolished  in  the  English  army  (in  time  of  peace)  in  the
annual  mutiny  bills  of  1868.  The  Act  provides  that  ''no  court-martial
shall  have  power  to  sente  ce  any  soldier  or  marine  on  shore  to  corporal
punishment  in  time  of  peace."

FLOODS.  (See  Inundations,  pp.  132,  426.)  Great  floods  in  France  in  Sep-
tember, 1866  ;  in  North  of  England,  November  16  and  17,  1866  ;  at  Rome,
December  28  and  29, 1870  ;  in  Northern  Italy,  October,  1872  ;  at  Toulouse,
in  France  (1,000  lives  lost),  June  23,  1875  ;  in  midland  and  western  coun-
ties of  England,  July,  October  and  November,  1875;  in  India,  September
22-24,  1875  ;  in  Holland  and  France,  March,  1876.  Reservoir  at  Mill
River.  Mass.,  burst,  destroying  several  villages  and  about  150  lives,  May
16,  1874.  A  flood  in  the  rivers  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  July,  1874,
drowns  about  220  persons.  The  Worcester,  Mass..  reservoir  burst  March
30,  1876,  but  having  been  expected,  no  lives  were  lost,  though  great
damage  was  done.

FLORENCE,  or  FIRENZE.  (See  p.  378.)  People  vote  for  annexation  to
Sardinia,  March  11  and  12,  1860,  and  on  April  7,  the  King  enters  Flor-
ence :  it  is  made  the  capital  of  Italy  until  Rome  shall  be  acquired,  De-
cember 11,  1864,  and  the  King  and  Court  established  there  May  13.  1865.
600th  anniversary  of  Dante's  birth  celebrated  May  14,  1865  ;  first  Italian
parliament  November  18,  1865  ;  government  removes  to  Rome,  July,  1871.
400th  anniversary  of  Michael  Angelo,  September  12,  1875.

FLUORESCENCE.  The  luminousness  which  takes  place  in  uranium-glass,
and  in  solutions  of  quinine,  horse-chestnut  bark,  or  stramonium  datura,
when  the  invisible  chemical  rays  of  the  blue  end  of  the  solar  spectrum  are
sent  through  them. Discovered  and  named  by  Stokes,  1852.

FRANCE.  (See,  for  events,  etc.,  in  the  Chronological  Tables,  following  the
"  Dictionary  of  Dates.")

G.

GAMING.  Gaming-houses  licensed  in  Paris  until  1838.  Betting-houses
suppressed  in  London,  1830.  Public  gaming-tables  suppressed  at  Wies-
baden, Hamburg,  and  other  European  watering-places,  leaving  Monaco
the  only  such  place  of  resort,  December  31,  1872.  Pool-selling  forbidden
by  law  in  New  York,  1876.

.GATLLNG  GUN.  Invented  in  America ;  patents  1861-1865  ;  exhibited  at
Paris  1867  ;  rejected  in  England  as  inferior  to  a  field-gun  firing  shrapnel ;


30  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

a  similar  machine,  the  mitrailleuse,  tried  at  Vincennes,  1869,  and  used  by
the  French  in  the  war  of  1870-1871.

GENEVA.  (See  p.  388.)  The  ex-Duke  of  Brunswick  dies  here  August
18,  1873,  and  leaves  all  his  property  (over  £764,000)  to  the  city.

GENEVA  CONVENTION,  on  care  of  wounded,  etc. ,  in  war,  of  delegates
from  fourteen  governments,  met  October  26,  1863  ;  their  code  adopted  by
all  civilized  powers  except  the  United  States,  August,  1864.  The  Inter-
national or  "'Red  Cross"  Society,  established  inconsequence,  did  much
in  relieving  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  Franco-Prussia  war,  1870-1871,
some  13,000  volunteers  attending  them  at  a  time.

GERMANY.  (See  pp.  124,  390.)  The  Germanic  Confederation,  succeeding
Napoleon's  "  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,''  was  formed  June  8,  1815  ;  its
first  diet  was  at  Frankfort,  November  16,  1816  ;  announced  dissolved  by
Prussia,  June  14,  1866,  but  continued  ;  was,  however,  given  up  by  Austria
at  the  peace  of  Nikolsburg,  after  Sadowa,  July  26,  and  the  last  meeting
of  the  diet,  August  24,  1866.  Instead  was  established  the  North  German
Confederation,  without  Austria  and  the  other  South  German  States,  Au-
gust 18,  1866.  North  German  Parliament  met  at  Berlin,  February  24,
1867 ;  the  confederation  ceased  on  the  re -establishment  of  the  German
Empire,  January  1,  1871.  Population  of  the  Empire,  December  1,  1875,
42,726,844.

GOLD.  (See  pp.  125.395.)  Of  98,000,000  sovereigns  coined  in  England
from  1850  to  1869,  44,000,000  had  in  the  latter  year  disappeared  from
circulation;  and  it  was  computed  that  in  1869  31|  Per  cent,  of  the  sov-
ereigns and  40  per  cent,  of  the  half-sovereigns  circulating  were  of  light
weight.  Estimated  value  of  gold  extant  in  the  world,  in  1848,  about
$2,800,000,000  ;  in  1875,  about  $5,000,000,000.

GOOD  TEMPLARS.  A  secret  society  of  total  abstinents.  The  first  Eng-
lish lodge  formed  at  Birmingham,  May,  1868  ;  in  1874  said  to  be  3,745
lodges  and  210,255  members  in  the  United  Kingdom.

GOTHENBURG  SYSTEM.  Introduced  with  excellent  results  at  Gothen-
burg, Sweden,  for  controlling  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors.  It  consists
of  a  monopoly  of  the  sale  by  a  company  of  reputable  citizens,  under  care-
ful restrictions,  and  without  any  gain  beyond  usual  wages,  to  the  sellers,
who  must  live  by  their  other  business  as  victuallers,  etc.

GRANGERS. (See  Patrons  of  Husbandry.)

GREAT  BRITAIN.  (For  principal  occurrences,  see  in  Chronological
Tables,  following  the  Dictionary  of  Dates. )

GREEK  CHURCH.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  declines  the  Pope's  invita-
tion to  an  oecumenical  council,  October,  1868.  A  Greek  church  at  Liver-
pool consecrated  by  an  archbishop,  January  16,  1870.

GRETNA  GREEN.  Here  Scotch  marriages  (an  acknowledgment  before
witnesses  was  a  valid  marriage  in  Scotland)  used  to  be  celebrated  for  run-
aways. An  Act  of  Parliament  in  1856,  however,  destroyed  the  business,
by  providing  that  one  party  to  such  marriage  must  have  lived  in  Scotland
twenty-one  days.

GUATEMALA.  (See  p.  126. )  Recent  Presidents  :  Vincent  Cerna,  succeeded
Carrera,  May  3,  1865,  to  1869;  M.  G.  Granedos,  December,  1872;  R.  Bar-
nes, May  7,  1873. Population,  about  1,180  000.


1867-77.  3i

GYPSIES. Esther  Faa  crowned  Queen  of  the  Gypsies  at  Blyth,  in  York-
shire, November  18,  I860.


H.

HAYTI,  OR  St.  Domengo.  (See  pp.  127,  406.)  Hayti  and  St.  Domingo  are
used  as  names  for  the  whole  island.  Hayti  is  the  western  or  French
part,  and  San  Domingo  (which  see)  the  eastern  or  Spanish  part.  Gef-
frard  became  President  of  Hayti,  January  23,  1859  ;  a  military  insurrection
against  him,  under  Salnave,  broke  out  May,  1865  ;  Geffrard  beaten  and
banished.  Salnave  President,  March  27,  1867 ;  after  one  or  two  risings
are  put  down,  Salnave  proclaims  himself  Emperor,  August,  1868,  but  is
defeated  by  insurgents,  taken,  tried,  and  shot,  January  15,  1870.  General
Nissage  Saget  elected  President,  March  19,  1870  ;  lives  out  his  term.  M.
Domingue  elected  June  14,  1874;  an  insurrection  expels  him,  April,  1876,
and  Boisrond  Canal  elected  July,  1876. Population  (estimated)  572,000.

HEAT.  Count  Rumf  ord,  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  asserted  that
heat  consists  in  motion  among  the  particles  of  matter.  Tyndall's  book
on  the  same  theme  appeared  February,  1863,  and  this  is  at  present  the
received  doctrine.

HELLGATE.  The  reef  at  Hallett's  Point,  which  was  the  principal  obstruc-
tion at  Hellgate,  in  East  River,  near  New  York,  was  mined  during  seven
years  under  the  management  of  General  Newton,  of  United  States
Engineers,  by  a  system  of  galleries  and  pillars  between,  to  an  extent  of
4,857  feet  of  tunnelling  and  2,568  feet  of  galleries,  covering  two  and
three-quarter  acres  of  ground,  leaving  ten  feet  of  rock  above,  supported
by  173  piers  of  about  ten  feet  diameter  each,  and  the  whole  system
radiating  fanwise  outward  from  the  "entrance-shaft  at  the  shore.  All
these  pillars  were  then  drilled  and  charged  with  a  total  number  of  3,680
charges  of  dynamite,  vulcanite,  or  rend-rock  powder,  and  the  whole  were
connected  with  a  battery  on  shore  by  wires,  so  as  to  insure  simultaneous
discharge.  This  took  place  on  September  24,  1876.  with  complete  suc-
cess, the  final  connection  which  exploded  the  whole  mass  being  made  by
the  finger  of  General  Newton's  baby  daughter  pressing  a  battery-key.  A
smaller  explosion  was  the  blowing  up  of  Blossom  Rock,  in  the  Golden
Gate  (San  Francisco  harbor),  April  23,  1870,  in  which  43,000  pounds  of
gunpowder  were  used,  packed  in  one  large  chamber  in  the  rock.

HEPTARCHY.  Seven  Saxon  kingdoms  in  England,  about  a.d.  450-850,
viz.:  Kent;  South  Saxons  (Sussex  and  Surrey);  West  Saxons  (Berks,
Hampshire,  Wilts,  Somerset,  Dorset,  Devon,  part  of  Cornwall)  ;  East
Saxons  (Essex,  Middlesex,  part  of  Herts)  ;  Northumbria  (Lancaster,  York,
Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Durham,  Northumberland) ;  East  Angles
(Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Ely) ;  and  Mercia  (Gloucester,  Hereford,
Chester,  Stafford,  Worcester,  Oxford,  Salop,  Warwick,  Derby,  Leicester,
Bucks,  Northampton,  Notts,  Lincoln,  Bedford,  Rutland,  Huntingdon,
part  of  Herts).

HERAT.  A  strong  city,  called  the  key  of  Afghanistan,  near  the  Persian
frontier.  The  Persians  failed  to  take  it,  1838  ;  took  it,  October  25,  1856  j
contrary  to  the  treaty  of  1853  ;  were  forced  to  restore  it  by  the  English
July  27,  1857.


32  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

HERZEGOVINA.  An  insurrection  against  the  Turks  broke  out  December,
1861 ;  subdued  September,  1862.  Another  broke  out  July  1,  1875,  and
the  country  has  been  in  an  unsettled  state  ever  since  (1377),  sympathizing
with  its  neighbors  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Servia.

HIEROGLYPHICS.  (See  p.  409;  see  also  Egypt.)  The  researches  of
Champollion  and  others,  greatly  assisted  by  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta
Stone  (see  p.  103),  have  now  made  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  language  a
reasonably  well  understood  one,  with  dictionaries  and  grammars.

HOLLAND.  (See  p.  410.)  William  III.  succeeded  his  father,  William  II.,
March  17,  1849.  A  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  re-introduced,  1853.
Slavery  abolished  in  Dutch  West  Indies  (to  take  place  July  1,  1863),
August  6,  1862.  Canals  begun  to  connect  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam
with  the  North  Sea,  1865.  Population  (December  31,  1875),  3,809,527,  of
which  over  1,200,000  is  in  cities  having  more  than  20,000  inhabitants.
The  town  population  of  Holland  is  proportionately  larger  than  in  anj
other  European  country.

HOME  RULE  (for  Ireland).  The  Home  Government  Association,  estab-
lished at  Dublin,  1870,  with  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  members  ;  Mr.
Isaac  Butt,  a  leader,  elected  to  Parliament  from  Limerick.  September  20,
1871 ;  agitation  in  and  out  of  parliament  from  that  time,  without  much
result ;  parliamentary  "  filibustering,"  with  much  inconvenience  to  busi-
ness, carried  on  by  Home  Rule  members,  July,  1877.

HORSE.  (See  p.  413.)  Rarey's  mode  of  training  horses  shown  by  him
in  England  with  great  success,  1858-9-60.  Horseflesh  used  as  food  in
Paris,  1866,  and  since.  Goodenough's  American  machine-made  horse-
shoes (patented  I860),  to  put  on  cold,  adopted  by  the  London  General
Omnibus  Co.,  1870.  A  horse  epidemic,  called  the  epizootic,  coming  from
Canada,  caused  much  inconvenience  in  Northern  States,  October,  1872.

HUNGARY.  (See  pp.  129,  414.)  The  Emperor  and  Empress  of  Austria  were
crowned  king  and  queen  of  Hungary,  at  Pesth,  June  8,  1867.  The
1 '  Act  of  Grace  "  issued  on  the  occasion  annulled  all  sentences  and  stopped
all  proceedings  for  political  offences,  restored  forfeited  estates,  and  al-
lowed the  banished  to  return. Croatia  united  with  Hungary, May  27,


HURRICANE.  (See  also  Cyclone.)  Oct.  29,  1867,  a  violent  hurricane
struck  St.  Thomas  (W.  I. )  and  vicinity.  At  St.  Thomas  alone,  some  80
vessels  were  sunk  or  driven  ashore,  100  lives  lost  on  the  island  by  fall  of
houses,  etc.,  and  several  times  as  many  on  the  shipping.  March  11,
1868,  a  hurricane  at  Mauritius  drove  ashore  20  ships,  destroyed  or  un-
roofed many  buildings,  destroyed  immense  quantities  of  growing  sugar,
cane  and  stored  sugar,  blew  down  a  railroad  bridge,  etc.

I.

[CE-MACHINE.  Machines  for  making  ice  act  either  :  1,  by  rapid  evapora-
tion, as  in  Carre's,  Harrison's,  Twining's,  etc. ,  patents  ;  or  2,  by  lique-
faction of  a  freezing  mixture,  as  in  the  common  way  of  making  ice-cream
with  ice  and  salt ;  or  3,  by  use  of  vacuum  and  absorption  of  heat  in  conse-
quence from  the  article  to  be  frozen.  Several  of  these  machines  have
been  commercially  successful.


1867-77.  33

ICELAND.  (See  p.  417.)  A  new  constitution,  granted  and  put  in  opera-
tion at  King  Christian's  visit,  Aug.  1,  1874,  when  the  1000th  anniversary
of  the  settlement  was  celebrated  at  Reykjavik.  Cleasby's  Icelandic-Eng-
lish dictionary,  published  1869-74.  A  volcanic  eruption  March  29,  1875,
devastated  much  pasture-land.

IMPEACHMENT.  The  House  of  Representatives  voted  (126  to  41)  to  im-
peach President  Johnson,  Feb.  24,  1868,  of  high  crimes  and  misdemean-
ors, in  having  violated  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  and  in  other  doings.
After  trial  before  the  Senate,  he  was  on  May  16th  acquitted  oh  one  ar-
ticle (the  11th),  only  35  Senators  voting  for  conviction  (one  less  than  the
two-thirds  requisite),  to  19  for  acquittal.  On  the  26th  he  was  acquitted
on  the  remaining  articles.

INCOME  TAX,  United  States.  Expired  by  limitation,  end  of  1871.
Receipts  from  it,  1867.  $27,418,000  ;  1868,  $23,390,000  ;  1869,  $27,353,000;
1870,  $26,150,000

INDIA.  (See  pp.  131,  421.)  Order  of  the  Star  of  India  established  June  25,
1861.  Growth  of  cotton  greatly  increased  in  consequence  of  American
civil  war  stopping  the  supply,  1862.  Government  support  of  heathen
religion  stopped  December,  1863.  Indo-European  telegraph  opened,
March  1,  1865.  About  1.500,000  persons  die  of  famine  in  Orissa,  August
to  November,  1866.  The  Brahmo  Somaj,  a  sect  holding  tenets  much
like  the  Unitarian,  appear  in  1869,  and  open  a  house  of  worship  August
24.  Their  leader,  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  afterwards  (1870)  visits  London,
and  preaches  in  a  Unitarian  chapel.  Mr.  Dall,  a  Unitarian  missionary  to
India,  joins  the  Brahmo  Somaj.  Much  distress  from  famine  in  Bengal,
spring  of  1874,  but  only  a  few  lives  lost.  Estimated  expense  of  relief
operations  £6,500,000.  Prince  of  Wales's  visit ;  he  sails  from  England
October  11,  1875,  reaches  Bombay,  November  8 ;  grand  reception  of  Indian
rulers,  December  24  ;  sails  from  Bombay  to  return,  March  13, 1876.  Queen
Victoria  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  in  London,  May  1,  1876  ;  at  Delhi,
January  1.  1877.  British  India  (immediate  and  feudatory  states  inclusive)
contains  about  1,500,000  square  miles,  and  population  (census  1871-2)
about  240,000,000.

INDIANS.  (See  pp.  131,422;  also  Modocs.)  Gen.  Custer  ambushed,  de-
feated and  killed,  and  his  command  of  17  officers  and  315  rank  and  file
utterly  exterminated  by  the  Indians  under  Sitting  Bull,  at  Little  Horn
River,  July  2,  1876.  Hostilities  continue  against  the  Indians,  who,  under
Sitting  Bull,  flee  into  British  territory  at  end  of  campaign  of  1876.  In
the  summer  of  1877  Joseph,  an  Idaho  chief,  and  a  small  band  commence
hostilities  in  that  State.

INFALLIBILITY  of  the  Pope  alone,  voted  by  the  Vatican  Council,  July  18,
1870.  Dr.  von  Dollinger  excommunicated  for  opposing  it,  April  18,  1871  ;
and  chosen  rector  of  the  University  of  Munich,  July  29,  1871.  The  Bava-
rian government  protests  against  the  doctrine,  September  27,  1871 ;  an
'"Old  Catholic"  church  opened  at  Munich,  in  September,  1871.

INSOLVENCY. (See  Bankruptcy. )

INSURANCE.  First  fire  insurance  company  in  United  States,  the  Phila-
delphia Contributionship,  1752.  First  state  insurance  department  in
Massachusetts,  1854  ;  next  in  New  York,  1860. Capital  in  fire  insurance


34  the  world's  progress.

business  in  United  States  in  1860,  $32,358,000;  in  1806,  $44,410,000  ;  in
1876,  $55,883,000.  Lost  by  the  great  fires  of  1871  and  1872,  over  $15,-
000,000. Comparison  of  the  business  in  years  1865  and  1875  :

1S65.  1875.

Property  insured $3,428,000,000  $6,273,000,000

Premium  receipts 29,529,000  64, 900, 000

Losses  paid  over. 17, 2(i5.0UU  91,960,000

Whole  losses  by  fire  in  United  States  in  1875,  $78,000,000,  of  which  in
sured,  $39,000,000.

INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT. (See  Copyright.)

INTERNATIONALISTS.  An  organization  of  a  communist  or  socialist
nature,  first  established  by  some  German  socialists  in  London,  1847  ;
definitely  organized  at  London,  September  28,  1864,  George  Odger  first
president.  Professes  to  operate  for  the  emancipation  of  labor  from  the
tyranny  of  capitalists.  It  has  had  congresses,  sometimes  ludicrously  dis-
orderly, at  Geneva,  September,  1866  ;  Lausanne,  September,  1867  ;  Brus-
sels, September,  1868;  Basle,  September,  1869;  Barcelona,  June,  1870;
Hague,  September,  1872.  This  last  was  particularly  quarrelsome,  and
the  political  part  seceded  from  the  trade  part,  and  adjourned  to  New
York.  At  this  time  the  society  reported  failing  in  England.  Geneva
meeting  September,  1873,  and  at  Brussels  again,  September,  1874.  Has
claimed  the  absurd  number  of  2,500,000  members,  and  to  be  affiliated
with  the  Fenians  and  other  secret  societies.

INTEREST.  (See  pp.  132,  426.)  In  England  was  8  per  cent,  by  law  of
1623  ;.  6  per  cent.,  1651  ;  5  per  cent.,  1713  ;  and  law  totally  repealed  1854,
leaving  interest  a  matter  of  agreement.

INUNDATIONS. (See  Floods.)

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  (See  pp.  133,  427.)  Declare  for  annexation  to  Greece,
in  March,  J  861,  and  April,  1862.  England  acquiescing,  annexation  takes
place  accordingly,  May  28,  1864,  and  the  British  troops  leave  June  2.
Population  about  200,000.

IRELAND.  (Seep.  428;  see  also  Church  of  Ireland;  Encumbered  Es-
tates Act ;  Fenians;  Home  Rule.)  Queen  Victoria  visits  Ireland,  Au-
gust, 1849 ;  again,  August,  1853.  Agitation  against  national  school
system,  1859.  Agricultural  distress  and  agrarian  murders,  1862  and  1863 ;
emigration  very  extensive,  1860-1864.  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales
visit  Ireland,  April,  1868. Agrarian  murders,  1869  and  1870.

IRON.  (See  pp.  133,  428. )  The  iron  and  steel  production  of  the  United
States  for  three  years,  1874-5-6,  was  as  follows  :

1874.  1875. 1876.

Pig  iron,  tons  (of  2,000  lbs.) 2.689,413  2,266,581  2,093,236

All  rolled  iron,  tons 1,839,560  1,890,379  1,921,730

Rails,  all  kinds,  tons 729,413  792,512 S79.629

Rails,  Bessemer  steel,  tons 144,944  290,863 412,461

Gut  nails  and  spikes  (included  in  "  rolled  iron  ")  kegs  4,912,180  4,726,881  4, 157.81 4

Iron  produced  in  Great  Britain  in  1875,  tons,  6,566,451.

IKON  SHIPBUILDING.  (See  also  Navies.)  This  industry  began  in  the
United  States  in  1868,  and  up  to  1877  have  been  built  251  iron  vessels  of
a  total  capacity  of  197,500  tons.  Present  annual  value  (1877)  of  iron
vessels  built  in  United  States,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  million  dollars.  Is
/876  were  built  25  vessels  as  follows  :


1867-77.  35

Place. Number.  Total  Tonnage

about.

Buffalo 3 140

Burlington,  N.  J 1 13

Delaware  (State) 9 8,298

New  Orleans 2 915

Philadelphia 11 11,981

Besides  9  other  large  vessels  and  a  considerable  number  of  smaller  ones
building.
ITALY.  (See  pp.  133, 429.)  September  23,  1867,  G-aribaldi,  persisting  in  hig
march  upon  Rome,  was  arrested  by  the  Italian  authorities  at  Sinalunga,
near  Sienna,  as  he  was  about  entering  the  Papal  territory.  He  was  im-
prisoned in  Alessandria,  but  afterwards  sent  to  his  island  of  Caprera  and
watched  by  ships  of  war.  He  escaped,  however,  resumed  his  enterprise,
and  was  at  Monte  Rotondo,  near  Rome,  in  the  end  of  October,  and  on  the
point  of  advancing,  when  (October  28)  a  French  fleet  reached  Civita  Vec-
chia,  and  October  30,  a  French  force  occupied  Rome.,  to  prevent  the  pro-
posed revolution.  November  3,  Garibaldi  was  decisively  beaten  at  Mentana
by  the  French,  and  he  was  again  arrested  and  imprisoned.  In  September,
1870,  the  Italian  troops  marched  upon  Rome,  under  Gen.  Cadorna,  and
on  the  20th,  after  four  hours'  cannonade,  entered  and  occupied  the  city.
October  2,  a  popular  vote  was  held  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  on  the
question  of  uniting  them  and  Rome  with  Italy,  and  making  Rome  the
capital.  The  vote  was  133,681  affirmative,  and,l,507  negative.  Decem-
ber 5,  the  Italian  Parliament  at  Florence  voted  192  to  18  to  remove  the
capital  to  Rome.  Victor  Emanuel  made  a  formal  public  entrance  into
Rome,  December  31,  1870.


JAMAICA.  (See  p.  431.)  Negro  rising,  October  11,  1865,  put  down  with
much  bloodshed  and  many  punishments,  by  Gov.  Eyre,  October  and  No-
vember, 1865.  Gov.  Eyre  suspended ;  a  government  commission  reported,
April  9,  that  great,  wanton  and  unnecessary  cruelty  and  violence  had  been
used.  Eyre  was  afterwards  indicted  in  England,  and  sued  for  damages  ;
but  the  grand  jury  threw  out  the  bills,  and  an  act  of  indemnity  gave  him
the  suit.  In  1873  the  island  was  reported  more  prosperous.  Population,
1871,  506,154.

JAPAN.  (See  pp.  134, 432.)  Jeddo  (now  called  Tokio)  and  other  places
opened  to  trade  according  to  treaty,  April  25,  1867  ;  Osaka  and  Hiogo  the
same,  January  1,  1868.  Insurrection  of  the  daimios,  or  provincial  princes.
1868,  ending  in  their  overthrow  in  1869.  This  left  the  government  sub-
stantially an  absolute  monarchy  under  the  Mikado,  who,  however,  had
first  to  overcome  also  the  Tycoon,  or  spiritual  sovereign.  This  was  accom-
plished December,  1869.  An  embassy  of  distinguished  Japanese  reached
Washington  March  4,  and  London,  August  17,  1872.  First  railway  in
Japan  opened  October,  1872.  New  constitution,  arranging  a  form  of
government  somewhat  like  the  imperial  French  Government,  April  14,
1875.  The  present  Mikado,  or  Emperor,  Moutsu  or  Mutsu  Hito,  born
1852,  succeeded  his  father,  Komei  Tenno,  in  1867.  Population  in  1875
(estimated),  32,794,897.

JERUSALEM.  (Seep.  433.)  Population  estimated  (in  1877)  as  follows:
Jews,  10,600;  Christians,  5,300  ;  Mohammedans,  5,000 ;  total,  20,900.  A
Protestant  bishopric  was  established  here  under  protection  of  England  and
2*


36  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

Prussia,  1846  ;  Wilson  and  Warren's  excavations,  ascertaining  many  points
of  interest  about  the  ancient  city,  1867-71.

JESUITS.  (See  pp.  134, 433.)  Expelled  from  Belgium,  1818;  Russia,
1820:  Spain,  1820  and  1835;  France,  1831  and  1845;  Portugal,  1834;
Sardinia  and  Austria,  and  some  other  States,  1848  ;  Italy  and  Sicily,  1860 ;
Empire  of  Germany,  1872 ;  Italy  again,  1873.  In  1866  whole  number
of  Jesuits  reported  to  be  8,167,  of  which  in  France  2,422.

JEWS.  (See  pp.  134,  434.)  Oppressive  Austrian  laws  against  them  annulled
January,  1860;  Hungary  emancipates,  1867;  Disraeli,  a  Jew,  English
premier,  1868;  Jews  admitted  into  Spain,  1868;  Sir  G.  Jessel,  a  Jew,
English  solicitor -general,  1871 ;  master  of  the  rolls,  1873.  Jews  in
Great  Britain  (estimated)  in  1876,  51,520,  and  in  London,  39,833.  Jews
in  the  world,  1869,  estimated  at  7,000,000.

JUTE.  Fibre  from  two  plants  cultivated  in  Bengal  (viz. ,  chonch,  or  cor-
chorus  olitorius,  and  isbund,  or  C.  capsularis).  Used  for  mats,  gunny-
cloth,  and  other  coarse  textile  fabrics.  Imported  into  the  United  King-
dom in  1871,  3,454,120  cwt.  ;  1874,  4,270,164  cwt.  ;  in  1875,  3,416,617
cwt.

K.

KARAITE  JEWS.  A  kind  of  Protestant  sect,  who  adhere  to  the  Hebrew
Scriptures  alone,  rejecting  the  Talmud  and  Rabbinical  tradition.  They
are  found  mostly  in  Turkey,  Poland,  and  the  Crimea.

KEET,  Rev.  Mr. (See  Reverend.)

KHEDIVE.  (See  Egypt.)  The  title  is  supposed  to  mean  something  more
than  vali  or  viceroy. It  was  given  to  the  ruler  of  Egypt,  May  14,  1867.

KHIVA.  The  Czar  Nicholas  sent  an  expedition  against  it,  which  perished
in  the  cold  of  the  winter  of  1840.  Another,  1873,  took  Khiva  after  de-
feating the  Khan,  who  became  subordinate  to  the  Czar.  The  country  has
since  been  pretty  much  made  a  Russian  province.

KHOKAND  entered  by  Russian  troops,  February,  1876,  and  the  khanate
annexed  to  Russia  by  the  name  of  Ferghana.

KINEMATICS.  A  recent  subdivision  of  physical  science,  being  the  science
of  motion.  Professor  Reuleaux's  Kinematics  of-  machinery,  an  important
work  on  the  application  of  this  science,  published  in  Germany  ;  a  transla-
tion appeared  in  London,  1876.

KU-KLUX  KLAN.  A  secret  organization  in  the  Southern  States  to  oppose
the  ruling  party,  or  Republicans,  by  threats  and  violence,  particularly
against  such  colored  persons  as  should  vote  the  Republican  ticket.  Their
operations  were  very  efficacious,  1868-1871,  when,  under  the  pressure  of.
legal  and  military  measures,  they  disappeared,  other  forms  of  the  same
kind  of  activity  being  adopted.

L.

LABOR. (See  Internationalists ;  Strikes;  Working  mil.)
LAMBESSA. An  island  on  the  coast  of  Algeria,  used  as  a  prison  for  some
of  the  victims  of  Napoleon  III.,  of  December  2,  1851,  and  for other  po-
litical exiles.


1867-77.  37

LATIN  UNION,  to  maintain  a  uniform  coinage,  1865  to  1880,  consists  of

France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland.
LEONINE  CITY. That  part  of  Rome  assigned  to  the  Pope  at  tie  entrance

of  the  Italian  troops,  in  Sept.,  1870. It  includes  the  castle  of  San  Angelo,

the hospital  of San  Spirito,  the  Vatican palace  and  gardens, and St.

Peter's.

LIBERIA.  (See  pp.  136,451.)  Presidents:  D.  B.  Warner,  1864;  J.  S.
Payne,  1868;  E.  J.  Roy,  1870  (deposed  Oct.,  1871);  J.  J.  Roberts  (the
first  President),  1872  and  1874;  he  died  187(5.  Population  about  720,000,
of  which  about  19,000  are  of  American  birth  or  descent.  In  July,  1877,
it  was  reported  that  30,000  negroes  in  South  Carolina  were  enrolled  to  go
to  Liberia,  in  consequence  of  apprehensions  from  the  white  supremacy  in
that  State.

LIBRARIES.  (See  pp.  136,  451.)  The  great  Report  of  the  Education
Bureau  on  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  for  1876,  gives  a  list  of
3,469  public  libraries  in  the  United  States  having  over  300  volumes  (not
including  common  or  district  school,  parish,  and  Sunday-school  libraries).
In  these  were  reported  in  all  :

Volumes 12,276,964

In  common  school,  etc.,  libraries,  additional,  more  than 1.365.407

Total  volumes 13,642,371

Add  pamphlets,  only  part  reported,  up  to  about 1,500,000

Of  these,  1,510  libraries  report  434,339  volumes  annually  added  ;  742  re-
port 8,879,869  volumes,  annual  use  ;  1,722  report  $6,105,501  permanent
funds  ;  830  report  $1,398,756  total  yearly  income  ;  769  report  $562,407,
annually  spent  for  books,  and  643  report  $682,166  annually  spent  for
salaries  and  incidentals.  The  Boston  Free  Public  Library,  the  largest  on
the  American  continent,  contained,  July  1,  1877,  about  .333,000  volumes,
besides  about  150,000  pamphlets.

LIFE-SAVING  APPARATUS.  Patent  for  life-boat  to  Wm.  Lukin.  1785  ;
H.  Greathead,  1788,  obtained  reward  of  a  South  Shields  committee  for
best  life-boat ;  also  £1,200  from  parliament.  It  first  put  to  sea  January
30,  1790.  Up  to  1804,  31  life-boats  built  and  300  lives  saved.  Richard-
son's tubular  life-boat,  Challenger,  patented  1852,  in  England.  English
National  Life-boat  Institution,  founded  1824  ;  in  1876  had  2,541  life-
boats in  operation,  and  lives  saved,  1824-1875,  inclusive,  23,789.  An
American  ' '  life-raft "  of  cylinders,  filled  with  air  and  lashed  together,
navigated  from  New  York  to  Southampton,  June  4  to  July  25,  1867.
Manby's  apparatus  for  throwing  a  shot  from  a  mortar  over  vessels  in  dis-
tress, and  thus  getting  a  line  to  them,  put  in  use  February,  1808  ;  in  20
years  it  saved  58  vessels  and  410  persons.  Boyton's  life-preserving
dress  and  signalling  apparatus  exhibited  in  America  and  Europe.  1874-
1877  ;  he  crossed  the  English  Channel  in  it  in  23£  hours,  May  28  and  29,
1875.  The  United  States  Life-saving  Service,  as  organized  1871,  is  in  11
districts  on  the  ocean  and  great  lakes.  It  has  108  stations,  with  mortar,
shot-line,  life-car,  and  ample  equipments,  and  24  of  them  with  a  life-
boat besides.  There  is  a  superintendent  for  each  district,  and  a  keepei
and  six  surfmen  for  each  station.  In  five  years,  ending  June  30,  1876,
there  were  on  these  coasts  273  wrecks  ;  property  saved  by  the  Life-sav-
ing Service,  $5,254,300;  lives  saved,  3,189;  lost,  41.  Ottinger's  shot-
line  gun  will  carry  631  yards.


38  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

LIGHT.  Velocity  nearly  200,000  miles  per  second.  Comes  from  the  sun
to  the  earth,  therefore,  in  a  little  over  eight  minutes.  The  greatest  prog-
ress in  the  science  of  optics  since  Newton  has  been  in  this  century,  in-
cluding the  development  of  the  undulatory  theory,  polarization,  actinism
or  chemical  action  of  light,  spectroscopic  investigations,  etc.

LOANS.  (See  pp.  137-,  456.)  French  loan  for  Crimean  war,  for  $150,000,-
000,  authorized  by  law,  July  9,  1855  ;  on  the  30th,  nearly  five  times  the
required  amount  had  been  taken  in  France,  besides  nearly  the  whole
amount  in  foreign  subscriptions.  French  loan  of  $100,000,000,  for  the
Italian  campaign  of  1859,  raised  without  difficulty  ;  for  that  of  $400,000,-
000,  in  1871,  for  German  indemnity,  and  for  subsequent  one  of  $600,000,-
000,  to  close  out  the  same  and  end  the  German  occupation,  twice  the
required  amount  was  promptly  subscribed  within  France.  The  success
of  these  French  loans  arises  from  the  small  sums  receivable,  and  the  con-
firmed habit  of  the  people  to  hoard  specie.

LONDON.  (See  pp.  137,  458.)  Estimated  area  in  1860,  121  square  miles,  or
eleven  miles  square.  Total  population,  1871,  3,885,641 ;  in  1877,  probably
considerably  over  4,000,000.  The  first  charter  of  London,  given  by  William
the  Conqueror,  is  still  preserved  in  the  city  archives.  It  is  on  a  slip  of  parch-
ment six  inches  long  and  one  broad,  beautifully  written  in  Saxon,  and  is  in
English  as  follows:  "William  the  King  greeteth  William  the  bishop  and
Godfrey  the  portreve  and  all  the  burgesses  within  London  friendly.  And  I
acquaint  you  that  I  will  that  ye  be  all  there  law-worthy  as  ye  were  in
King  Edward's  days.  And  I  will  that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir
after  his  father's  days.  And  I  will  not  suffer  that  any  man  do  you  any
wrong. God  preserve  you."

LONGEVITY. (See  Old  Age.)

LORRAINE.  Anciently,  Lotharingia  ;  German,  Lothringen.  United  to
France,  1766 ;  about  one-fifth  of  it,  including  Metz  and  Thionville,  an-
nexed to  Germany,  along  with  Alsace,  at  end  of  Franco-Prussian  war,
February  26,  1871.

LUXEMBURG.  According  to  treaty  at  London,  by  the  great  powers,  May
1867,  the  Prussian  garrison  left  the  fortress.  November,  1867  ;  fortifica-
tions dismantled.  August,  1870,  and  transformed  for  civil  purposes,  1874.
The  grand  duchy  was  declared  neutral  by  the  treaty  of  1867  ;  its  popula-
tion, December  1,  1871,  was  197,528;  area,  1,592  square  miles.

M.

MAFIA  or  MAFFIA. (See  Brigands.)

MAGDALA.  A  very  strong  Abyssinian  mountain  fastness,  stormed  by  the
British  under  Sir  R.  Napier  (afterwards  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala),  April
13,  1868,  when  Theodore,  the  Abyssinian  king,  killed  himself.  The
place  was  burned,  April  17th.

MAGNESIUM.  The  metal  first  obtained  from  magnesia,  by  Davy,  1808;
produced  in  large  quantities  by  Sonstadt,  1862-4.  It  burns  easily,  with
a  singularly  brilliant  flame,  by  which  photographs  can  be  taken,  as  was
done  in  the  interior  of  the  Pyramids,  1875.

MAN,  Antiquity  of. (See  Pre-Mstoric  Man.)


18(37-77.  39

MANITOBA.  Rupert's  Land  made  a  province,  and  named  Manitoba,  1870.
One  Kiel  and  others  (Catholics)  resisted  annexation  to  the  Dominion  of
Canada,  in  January,  1870;  proclaimed  the  "Red  River  Republic,"  and
murdered  one  Scott,  who  opposed  them.  On  the  appearance  of  a  mili-
tary force  from  Canada,  however,  in  July,  Riel  yielded  without  resistance,
and  ran  away.  The  annexation  was  accomplished,  and  A.  G.  Archibald,
the  first  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Manitoba,  arrived  in  September.  An  in-
tended Fenian  raid  on  this  colony  suppressed  by  United  States  troops,
October,  1871.  The  Red  River  settlement  is  in  the  geographical  centre  of
North  America.

MELANESIA.  The  South-west  Pacific  Islands.  Their  missionary  bishop,
Patteson,  and  his  chaplain,  Atkin,  murdered  by  the  natives  at  Santa
Cruz,  one  of  the  Queen  Charlotte  group,  September,  1871,  as  supposed  in
revenge  for  kidnapping,  which  the  bishop  had  strenuously  opposed.

MENTANA. Garibaldi  defeated,  November  3,  1867.  ♦

MERCURY.  (See  p.  477.)  The  new  Almaden  mine,  in  California,  produced
from  July,  1850,  to  end  of  1873,  351,897,055  pounds  of  quicksilver.  From
one  to  two  pounds  are  lost  for  every  ton  of  the  ore  that  is  worked  with  it.

MERV.  A  miserable  town  in  Turkistan,  just  north  of  the  Persian  frontier,
of  no  importance  except  as  a  possible  military  station,  on  the  line  to  India
which  might  be  followed  by  the  Russians.

METEOROLOGY.  Meteorological  Society  established  in  England,  1850,
chartered  1866.  A  department  for  this  science,  of  the  English  Board  of
Trade,  under  Admiral  Fitzroy,  organized  1855  ;  it  has  done  much  to-
wards foretelling  the  weather  for  commercial  and  scientific  purposes.
The  United  States  Signal  Service  department  sent  and  received  in  the
year  1873-4,  529,958  letters  and  documents  ;  issued  of  all  its  publica-
tions 4,494,320  copies,  of  which  3,491,046  were  "  farmers' bulletins."  It
had  in  that  year  108  stations  and  247  observers.  It  has  been  from  the
beginning  under  the  able  management  of  General  Albert  J.  Myer,  who  or-
ganized it.

METEORS.  The  dates  of  the  usual  annual  meteoric  displays  are  :  January
2d,  July  29th,  August  3d  and  9th  to  12th,  November  8th  to  14th,  Decem-
ber 11th.  Meteors  are  now  supposed  to  be  small  bodies  revolving  around
the  sun  in  space,  and  the  displays  of  them  to  be  in  consequence  of  the
earth's  passing  through  a  belt  or  group  of  them,  when  the  swiftness  of
their  motion  through  the  earth's  atmosphere  inflames  them.

METRIC  SYSTEM.  Based  on  the  metre,  one  ten-millionth  of  a  quarter
of  the  earth's  circumference  in  latitude  (3.2808  English  feet).  Unit  of
surface  is  the  centiare  or  square  metre.  The  are  is  100  square  metres.
Unit  of  solidity  is  the  stere,  a  cubic  metre.  Unit  of  capacity,  the  litre,  a
cubic  decimetre.  Unit  of  weight,  the  gramme,  a  cubic  centimetre  of  dis-
tilled water.  Unit  of  money,  the  franc,  weighing  5  grammes.  Prefix  to
either  of  these  (except  franc)  deoa-  for  ten  times;  hekato-,  100  times  ;
Mlo-,  1,000  times;  myria-,  10,000  times.  Also,  deci-  for  one  -tenth  ;  centi-,
one-lOOth;  milli-  for  one -1,000th.  Adopted  to  more  or  less  extent  (be-
sides being  the  only  legal  system  in  France)  by  convention,  May  20,  1875,
in  the  following  countries :  Austria,  Germany,  Russia,  Italy,  Spain,
Portugal,  Turkey,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Denmark,  United
States  of  America,  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  Peru.


40  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  of  ART,  New  York,  chartered  April,  1870,
a  site  in  the  Central  Park  and  $500,000  for  a  building  granted  by  tha
State,  April,  1871.  First  collection  (of  paintings)  opened  in  temporary
gallery,  February  20,  1872.  Greatly  enlarged  by  the  antiquities  collected
by  General  di  Cesnola  at  Curium  and  elsewhere  in  Cyprus.  1873-5.

MBTZ.  Surrendered,  October  27,  1870,  by  iazaine  with  3  marshals,  66
generals,  6,000  officers,  173,000  men,  400  guns,  100  mitrailleuses,  53
eagles.

MEXICO.  (See  pp.  142, 479.)  French  evacuated  Mexico.  March,  1867.
Juarez  (a  full-blooded  Indian),  president  until  his  death,  July  18,  1872  ;
Lerdo  de  Tejada,  president ;  his  government  overthrown  by  Porfirio  Diaz,
November  16,  1876.

MILK.  Condensed  milk  process  invented  by  Gail  Borden,  1849,  since  which
time  a  great  business  has  grown  up  in  it,  both  as  supplied  in  bulk  in  cities
and  put  up  in  sealed  cans  for  voyages  and  store  purposes.

MINES,  MINING.  (See  pp,  143,  481.)  Value  of  minerals  and  metals  mined
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1874,  £67,834,313;  in  1875,  £67,487,688.
Coal,  iron  and  lead  were  the  three  greatest  mining  products,  coal  being
over  two-thirds  of  the  whole  in  value,  and  iron  almost  three-fourths  of
the  other  third.  Mining  products  of  the  United  States  in  1870,  $152,-
598,994,  of  which  just  about  half  were  from  Pennsylvania  alone.

MINORITY  REPRESENTATION. (See  Cumulative  Vote.)

MISSISSIPPI  RIVER.  (See  pp.144, 482.)  Improvements  to  make  the
South  Pass  of  the  river  navigable  and  to  keep  it  so,  by  Capt.  Eads's  plan
of  jetties  carried  out  from  the  natural  mouth  of  the  pass  so  as  to  keep  the
mam  river  stream  together  and  thus  scour  a  passage  out  to  deep  water,
were  bpgun  in  1875.  In  1877  a  twenty-foot  channel  is  secured  and  main-
tained by  the  river  itself,  where  there  was  before  only  eight  feet  of  water,
and  the  jetty  plan  is  considered  successful.  Humphreys'  aod  Abbott's
elaborate  and  valuable  hydrographic  and  hydraulic  survey  of  the  river,
published  1861.

MITRAILLEUSE. (See  Qathng  Gun.)

MOABITF  STONE.  Discovery  announced  January,  1870,  having  a  Phoe-
nician or  ancient  Hebrew  inscription,  said  to  be  by  order  of  Mesha,  King
of  Moab,  referred  to  in  2  Kings,  iii. ,  and  to  narrate  his  victories  over  Israel.
Dr.  Ginsburg  has  published  an  excellent  monograph  of  it,  second  edition,
1871.

MODOCS  defeated  the  United  States  troopK,  January,  1873  ;  murdered  Gen.
Canby  and  about  forty  more  by  treachery,  April  11 ;  after  long  and  des-
perate fighting  in  almost  impregnable  volcanic  ''lava-beds,"  the  remaining
Modocs  were  captured,'  and  their  chief,  Captain  Jack,  was  tried,  and  ex-
ecuted October  3,  1873.

MOLLY  MAGUIRES.  Said  to  be  a  branch  of  a  secret  society  called  the
Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  but  practically  a  murdering  secret  society
among  the  miners  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  The  name  and  the  organiza-
tion first  came  into  notice  about  1862,  and  for  fourteen  years  they  pur-
sued a  career  of  violence  and  murder  in  Carbon.  Schuylkill,  and  the  other
neighboring  mining  counties.  In  December,  1862.  they  attacked  Mr.
G-oyne's  mine  in  Cass  township,  stopped  the  works  and  beat  those  who
opposed them ;  June  14,  1862, they  murdered  F.  W.  S.  Langdon,  neai


-LOOI-, I.  4I

Audenreid,  and  in  November,  1863,  George  K.  Smith,  in  the  Stone  vicinity  ;
attacked  Mr.  Northall's  house,  February  11,  1867,  in  order  to  kill  him,  he,
however,  being  away  ;  July  5,  1875,  shot  and  killed  policeman  Yost,  of
Tamaqua  ;  September  1,  1875,  murdered  Sanger  and  Uren,  two  miners,
at  Raven  Run  ;  Sep' ember  3,  murdered  John  P.  Jones  at  Lansford  ;  and
there  were  many  other  cases  of  murder  and  violence,  usually  in  the  nature
of  revenge  for  some  action  about  wages  or  employment  of  which  the  order
chose  to  disapprove.  By  means  of  detectives,  a  number  of  them  were,
however,  seized  and  tried,  and  June  21,  1877,  ten  of  them  were  hanged.

MONEY. (See  p.  484. See  also  Coinage ;  Currency ;  Gold;  Silver.)

MONT  CENIS  TUNNEL. (See  runnels.)

MONTENEG-RO  rebelled  against  the  Turks  early  in  17th  century  ;  inde-
pendent ever  since,  though  without  the  consent  of  Turkey,  and  in  spite
of  repeated  furious  Turkish  attacks.  Several  of  these,  however,  would
have  overwhelmed  the  brave  little  principality,  without  the  intervention
of  the  great  powers.  Area,  1,770  square  miles ;  population  in  1871,  about
195,600.

MOODY  AND  SANKEY. (See  Revivals.)

MOORSOM'  S  METHOD  of  measuring  the  tonnage  of  merchant  shipping
was  adopted  in  the  English  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1854,  and  is  the
method  used  for  ascertaining  the  tonnage  on  which  dues  are  payable  at
the  Suez  Canal.

MORMONS.  (See  pp.  145,  485.)  One  Lee,  a  Mormon  bishop,  tried  and
condemned  to  death  in  1877,  for  having  participated  in  the  Mountain
Meadows  massacre,  Sept.  18,  1858,  of  136  emigrants,  by  order  of  the
Mormon  leaders.

MOUNTAIN.  Mount  Everest,  in  the  Himalayas,  29,002  feet  high,  is  the
highest  mountain  known  in  the  world.

MURDERS  in  England  and  Wales  for  ten  years  :

1869 265  I  1872 257

1870 222  I  1873 223

1871 226  I  1874 223

MUSIC.  (See  pp.  146,  487.)  Musical  pitch  fixed  in  France,  1860,  the  mid-
dle C  to  be  522  vibrations  in  a  second.  Various  different  pitches  have
since  been  adopted,  and  "concert  pitch"  is  now  (1877)  not  a  settled
thing.  Tonic  sol-fa  system  invented  by  Miss  Glover  ;  improved  about
1847  by  Curwen. For  Wagner's  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  see  Bayreuth.

MYCEN^l.  1874  to  1876,  Dr.  Schliemann  explored  the  site  of  the  Acro-
polis of  ancient  Mycente,  discovering  five  tombs,  which  he  believes  those
of  Agamemnon,  Eurymedon,  Cassandra,  and  their  followers.  In  these  was
a  great  collection  of  golden  and  other  precious  articles  of  ornament  and
use,  extremely  ancient,  interesting,  valuable,  and  archasologically  impor-
tant. They  are  deposited  with  the  Greek  authorities  at  Athens.


N.

NATIONAL  DEBT  op  United  States.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  Deducting
cash  in  the  Treasury,  Dec.  1,  1876,  was  $2,089,336,099.42.  Increase  of
the  debt  in  the  month  preceding,  $457,662.64. Decrease  since  June  30,


1865

1S66

226

272

1867

255

1868

261

42


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


1876,  $10,103,245.57. Decrease  since  1866,  $683,900,074.27. State  and
territorial  debts,  June,  1876,  estimated  at  $350,000,000.

NATIONAL  DEBTS.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  An  estimate  in  the  Westminster
Review,  of  the  national  debts  of  the  world  in  1875,  was  as  follows  (at
$5.00  to  the  pound  sterling) :


Great  Britain $3,875,000,000

Europe 13,865,000,000

America 3,870,000,000

Asia 655,000,000


Australasia .
Africa


200,000,000
375,000,000


Total $22,840,000,000


European  national  debts  are  about  as  follows (at $5.00  to  the  pound
sterling) :


Austro-Hungary  (1876)

Belgium  (January  1,  1876). . . .

Denmark  (March  31,  1875)

Prance  ( Januai-y  1,  1875)

German  Empire,  none,  or  a  tri-
fling one.

But  Prussia  (January  1,  1876).
Bavaria  (January  1,  1874).
Wiirtemberg  (May  10,  1874)

Saxony  (end  of  1876)

etc.,  etc.

Great  Britain  (March  31.  1876)


$1,709,634,530

33,656,000

51,620,005

4,687,921,400


829,852, 375

156,688,045

73,496,1120

85,222,010

3.884,852,720


Greece  (partly  estimated,  Jan.,

1,  1876) 106,800,515

Italy  (end  of  1875,  estimate) . .  .  2,000,000,000

Netherlands  (beginning  of  1875)  386.383,365

Portugal  (June  30,  1876) 395,308, 900

Russia  (estimate,  Jan.  1, 1876)..  1,254,810,000

Spain  (estimate,  end  June,  1875)  2,650,000,000

Sweden  (January  1,  1876). . . .  38,929,680

And  Norway  (end  of  1875) 13,418.775

Switzerland  (beginning  of  1876)  5,520.000
Turkey  ( June,1876  ;  much  more

since) 927,000.000


NATURAL  SELECTION. (See  Darwinism.)

NATURALIZATION.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  In  1870  there  were  about  9,500
Americans  in  England,  and  about  2,500,000  British  subjects  in  the  United
States.  Under  English  laws  passed  May  12,  1870,  and  July  25,  1872,  the
latter  were  empowered  to  renounce  their  allegiance ;  and  by  the  conven-
tion of  February  3,  1871,  the  nationality  of  British  subjects  was  made
dependent  on  choice,  and  not  on  birth.

NAVIES.  (See  pp.  148,  495.)  The  English  navy  contains  in  all  about  240
vessels.  Of  iron-clad  war-ships,  there  are,  including  those  now  (1877)
building,  about  as  follows  in  the  world  :


Nation.
England . .
France  . . .
Russia. .  . .

Italy

Turkey...
Germany  ,
Holland  . .


Ships.
59
53
29
16
24
13
17


Total  tonnage.
317,000
184.000

89,000

89,000

65,000

61,000

23,000


Also,  Austria,  14 ;  Spain,  7  ;  Denmark,  6 ;  United  States,  27  ;  Sweden
and  Norway,  8;  Portugal,  1;  Greece,  2;  Brazil,  17;  Peru,  6;  Chili,  2;
Argentine  Confederation,  2  ;  Japan,  2.  Whole  number  of  iron-clad  ships  of
war,  305  ;  of  these,  England  has  21  first-rates,  thickest  armor  on  any  of
them,  24  inches  ;  and  France,  23  first-rates.  The  thickest  armor  used  by
any  German  ship  is  10  inches;  Russia  and  Turkey,  12  inches;  Italy,  22
inches  (on  the  Duilio,  launched  May  8,  1876,  and  considered  the  most
powerful  war-ship  ever  built).  The  United  States  navy,  besides  27  iron-
clad ships,  has  70  other  steamers  and  25  sail-vessels.

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS.  Published  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  1811  la
October,  1860,  the  "  dumb-bell  nebula"  was  reported  by  Lassell  to  show
no  signs  of  consisting  of  stars.  In  1865,  Huggins  reported  certain  rebulas
shown  by  the  spectroscope  to  be  entirely  gaseous.


1867-77.  43

NEPTUNE  (Pi,anet).  First  observed  by  Dr.  Galle,  at  Berlin,  September  33,
1846,  where  Le  Verrier  told  him  to  look  for  it,  having  calculated  that  the
irregular  motions  of  Uranus  called  for  such  a  planet.  Mr.  J.  C.  Adams,
of  Cambridge,  had  made  similar  calculations  about  the  same  time.

NETHERLANDS.  (See  Holland.)

NEW  CALEDONIA.  Occupied  by  the  French,  September  20,  1853,,  and
since  used  by  them  as  a  penal  colony.

NEWSPAPERS.  (See  pp.  149,  500.)  Newspapers  in  Great  Britain,  1876,
1,642.  In  the  United  States,  1875,  7.870  periodicals,  of  which  5,951
weeklies.  In  British  America,  1,478,  being  in  America,  north  of  Mexico,
8,348  periodicals.  Among  the  remarkable  enterprises  of  newspaper  con-
cerns within  the  last  few  years,  are:  Stanley's  expedition  into  Central
Africa,  for  the  New  York  Herald  ;  Mr.  George  Smith's  explorations  in
Assyria,  partly  for  the  London  Telegraph ;  the  destruction  of  the  very
powerful  and  wealthy  criminal  combination  called  the  New  York  "Ring,"
in  consequence  of  revelations  in  the  New  York  Times  by  Sheriff  O'Brien.
Works  od  the  English  periodical  press  :  Andrews'  British  Journalism,  1855,
and  Hunt's  Fourth  Estate,  1850  ;  on  that  of  America,  Hudson's  Journalism
in  the  United  States,  1873,  which  supersedes  in  most  respects  the  infor-
mation in  Buckingham's  and  Thomas's  works.

NEW  YORK  CITY  (See  pp.  150,499.)  Barnum's  old  museum  burnt,  July
13,  1865  ;  money  panic  in  Wall  Street,  from  the  gold-buying  operations  of
Fisk  and  Gould,  September  22-26,  1869;  revelations  of  the  "Tweed
Ring  "  corruptions  in  the  city  government.  August  and  September,  1871  ;
Fisk  murdered  by  Stokes,  January  7,  1872  ;  the  Ei\e  railway  administra-
tion, controlled  by  Fisk  and  Gould,  breaks  down,  March,  1872  ;  trouble
from  epizootic,  or  horse  disease,  October,  1872  ;  great  panic  in  business
throughout  the  country,  begins  with  stoppage  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.,  Sep-
tember, 1873  ;  Tweed  convicted  of  embezzlement,  and  sentenced  to
twelve  years'  imprisonment,  November  19,  1873 ;  escapes,  December,
1873  ;  damages  of  $6,537,000  awarded  against  him  in  civil  suit,  March  8,
1876  ;  arrested  at  Vigo,  in  Spain,  September  8,  1876,  and  returned  to
jail.

NEW  ZEALAND.  Discovered  by  Tasman,  1642 ;  recognized  as  belonging
to  Great  Britain,  1814 ;  first  English  governor  lands,  January  29,  1829 ;
colony  and  bishopric  established  1841  ;  towns  founded  :  Auckland,  1840,
Nelson  and  Turanaki,  1841,  Otago,  1848,  Canterbury,  1S50;  native  insur-
rection from  land  troubles,  March,  1860  ;  suppressed,  after  much  fighting
and  trouble,  March,  1861  ;  another  native  war,  May,  1863,  continued
more  or  less  until  July.  1866.  The  New  Zealand  group  is  about  1,000
miles  long  and  200  wide ;  area  of  land,  about  102,000  square  miles  ;  white
population,  1851,  26,707 ;  December  31,  1876,  about  375,856,  besides
about  45,470  natives  or  Maoris.

NICSICS.  A  strong  Turkish  fortress  standing  at  that  narrow  neck  of  land
which  joins  the  two  main  portions  of  Montenegro,  and  therefore  an  im-
portant military  position.

NILE.  (See  p.  502.)  From  the  time  of  Bruce's  explorations  in  1768  -70,  no
discovery  of  importance  about  the  source  of  the  Nile  was  made  until
Speke  and  Grant  discovered  the  great  lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  1863.  Bakei
discovers  the  Albert  Nyarza,  March  14,  1864. Livingston's  letter  from


44  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

Ujiji,  dated  November,  1871,  to  Mr.  Bennett,  says  the  Nile  springs  are
about  600  miles  south  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.

NITRO-GLYCERINE.  Explosion  of,  June  30,  1869.  Two  cart-loads  of
nitro-glycerine  exploded  in  the  vale  of  Llanberris,  on  the  road  to  a  quarry
there.  Five  persons  were  killed,  they  and  the  horses  being  so  blown  to
pieces  that  only  fragments  were  found,  as  a  heart,  a  foot,  a  chin  with  the
beard  on  it.  Roofs,  doors,  and  windows  were  destroyed  everywhere  for
two  miles  around,  and  where  each  cart  blew  up  was  left  a  circular  pit  in
the  road,  seven  and  a  half  feet  across  and  seven  feet  deep.

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  (See  p.  503.)  After  the  English  penal  colony  was
removed,  the  descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty  (198  souls)
were  in  June,  1856,  carried  from  Pitcairn's  Island  and  established  here.
In  December,  1875,  the  new  colony  was  prosperiug.

NORWAY. (See  Sweden.)

O.

OCEAN  EXPLORATION.  Deep-sea  soundings  and  dredgings  have  been
made  by  Sars,  off  the  coast  of  Norway ;  by  Carpenter  and  Thompson,  near
the  Faroe  Islands,  1868-9  ;  by  Carpenter,  in  the  Mediterranean,  1870.
The  voyage  of  the  Challenger,  for  ocean  exploration,  was  December  21,
1872,  to  May  25,  1876;  she  sailed  about  80,000  miles.  These  investiga-
tions have  greatly  added  to  knowledge.  Deepest  soundings  thus  far,
3,875  fathoms  (4  miles,  710  yards),  in  the  Atlantic  north  of  St.  Thomas,
March  24,  187B.  Living  creatures  have  been  found  at  the  depth  of  three
miles.

OLD  AGE.  (See  Longevity,  pp.  137,458.)  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis.  Prof.  Owen,
and  W.  J.  Thorns  (his  "Human  Longevity"  published  1873,)  have  dis-
proved many  alleged  cases  of  old  age,  and  few  of  over  100  years  can  be
believed  in.  A  few  recent  ones  are  as  follows  :  Anthony  Beresford  died
in  England,  aged  101,  March  3,  1874 — considered  authentic;  Count  Wal-
deck,  traveller  and  artist,  died  aged  109,  at  Paris,  April  29,  1875 ;  Captain
Frederic  Lahrbush,  soldier,  died  aged  111  years,  (age  disputed),  April  3,
1877,  at  New  York.

OLD  CATHOLICS  organized  September,  1871,  at  Munich.  Third  annual
synod  at  Bonn,  in  summer  of  1876,  50,000  members  and  adherents  were
reported,  but  action  on  the  question  of  clerical  celibacy  was  declined.
The  movement  grew  out  of  opposition  to  the  new  dogma  of  papal  infalli-
bility ;  but  it  does  not  now  (1877)  show  signs  of  great  success.

OLYMPIA.  Explorations  at  Elis,  on  the  site  of  the  Olympian  games,  planned
by  Curtius,  begun  by  Hirschfeld  and  Bcittiger,  October,  1875.  The  Ger-
man Government  pays  expenses,  and  has  casts  of  objects  found,  the  orig-
inals to  be  the  property  of  the  Greek  Government.  Many  interesting
discoveries  of  statues,  parts  of  the  pediments  of  the  great  temple  of
Jupiter  Olympus,  etc.,  have  been  made.

ORDNANCE.  (See  Cannon,  pp.  92,  290.)  The  Rodman  gun,  a  smooth-
bore, 20-inch  calibre,  weighing  58  tons,  and  throwing  a  1,000-pound  round
shot,  cast  at  Pittsburg^  1864  ;  a  stream  of  cold  water  was  kept  running
through  the  core  during  casting  and  cooling,  so  as  to  chill  and  harden  the
inside  of  the  gun.  Trials  of  Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  Horsfall  guns
at  Shoeburyness,  England,  in  1862-3,  against  various  targets  representing


1867-77.  45

ironclad  ships,  up  to  an  aggregate  thickness  of  15  inches  (in  three  plates)
of  wrought  iron.  The  Hercules  target,  4  feet  2  inches  thick,  with  11^
inches  of  iron.  Palliser's  patent  for  chilled  metal  shot  (cast  in  cold  iron
moulds),  dated  May  27,  1827.  More  experiments  at  Shoeburyness,  1867-8,
where  a  10-inch  English  gun  is  found  better  than  Prussian  and  American
guns,  and  a  23-ton  gun,  12-inch  bore,  throwing  Palliser  shot,  is  resisted
by  a  model  fort  defended  by  15-inch  iron  plates.  The  "Woolwich  In-
fant," 35  tons,  cast  in  1870,  16  feet  3  inches  long,  to  carry  a  700-pound
shot,  with  120-pouud  charge.  In  1875-6  an  81-ton  gun  tried,  with  a  1,250-
pound  shot  and  190-pound  charge.  The  shot  penetrated  50  feet  of  sand.
A  charge  of  370  pounds  afterwards  used.  The  Uchatius  guns  of  ' '  steel
bronze,"  used  in  the  Austrian  army,  first  made  at  Vienna,  1875.  Suc-
cessful trials  of  100-ton  Armstrong  gun,  throwing  a  2,000-pound  shot,  at
Spezzia,  in  Italy.  The  gun  is  for  the  Italian  iron-clad  Duilio.  Rifled
guns  first  used  for  siege  purposes,  Sebastopol.  1854-5.  The  Armstrong
breech-loading  rifled  gun  first  used  in  China  campaign,  1860.  The  Ger-
man army  is  now  supplied  with  breech-loading  artillery.

ORIGIN  op  SPECIES.  (See  Darwinism.)  Book  by  Darwin  published
November,  1869.

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.  Total  income  of  the  University,  21  colleges  and
5  halls,  in  1871,  £483,842,  16s.  6d.

OXYGEN.  The  most  abundant  substance,  being  one-third  of  the  earth,
nine-tenths  of  the  water,  and  one-fifth  of  the  air.

OZONE.  (See  p.  153.)  In  1872  Brodie  showed  that  Odling's  suggestion
was  correct,  viz.  :  that  ozone  is  oxygen  condensed  into  two-thirds  the
space  it  would  naturally  occupy.


PACIFIC  RAILWAY,  1,700  miles  long,  from  Omaha  to  San  Francisco,
opened  for  traffic  May  12,  1868.

PALESTINE  EXPLORATION.  Fund  established  1865  ;  explorations  under
it  began  in  1866  ;  a  systematic  trigonometrical  survey  begun  December,
1871  ;  a  similar  fund  established  at  New  York,  same  year.

PAMIR.  A  region  sometimes  called  the  roof  of  the  world,  being  a  very  lofty
water-shed  in  Central  Asia,  north  of  the  Himalayas,  at  the  west  end  of  Lit-
tle Thibet,  and  constituting  a  kind  of  focus  from  which  diverge  the  chief
Asiatic  mountain  ranges. It  is  the  source  of  the  Oxus  and  other  rivers.

PAN-ANGLICAN  Conference  of  seventy-five  bishops,  English,  Colonial,
and  American,  met  at  Lambeth,  September  24,  1S67,  and  issued  an  addresa
and  resolutions  of  a  pretty  general  and  safe  character.  Another  is  pro-
posed for  July,  1878.

PANTECHNICON.  A  building  in  London  used  for  storage.  Burned  Feb-
ruary  13  and  14,  1874,  when  many  valuable  paintings  and  other  costly
articles  were  destroyed.

PAPAL  INFALLIBILITY. (See  Infallibility.)

PARAGUAY.  (Seep.  155.)  Francis  S.  Lopez  succeeded  his  father  as  dic-
tator, September,  1862.  Brazil  attacked  Paraguay,  December,  1864,  it
consequence  of  seizure  of  a  Brazilian  steamer,  on  November  11,  1864 ;  de-
feated Lopez  in  several  battles,  and  he  was  killed  at  Aquidaban.  March  1


4C  THE WORLD  S PROGRESS.

1870.  Peace  signed  June  20,  1870.  S.  Jovellanos  chosen  president  fol
three  years,  December  12,  1871,  and  J.  B.  Gil  for  three  years,  November
25,  1874.  Population  in  1857  returned  at  1,337,439,  and  another  return
in  1873  indicated  the  devastation  of  the  war  by  showing  only  221,079  souls,
of  which  men  over  15  only  28,746,  and  women  106,254,  the  other  86,079
being  children.

PASSION  PLAY.  A  drama  representing  the  passion  of  Christ,  represented
from  time  time  at  Oberammergau,  in  Bavaria ;  said  to  have  been  so  rep-
resented there  ever  since  1633.

PASSPORT  SYSTEM.  Introduced  in  the  United  States  August  19,  1861,
on  account  of  the  civil  war.  Abolished  in  Norway,  1809  ;  Sweden,  1860;
Italy,  1862;  Portugal,  1863;  in  France,  abolished  as  to  British  subjects.
December  16,  1860 ;  revived  in  the  war,  August  1,  1870  ;  abolished  again
April  10,  1872.

PATRONS  OF  HUSBANDRY.  Popularly  known  as  Grangers.  A  secret
society  in  the  United  States  professing  to  be  for  the  promotion  of  agri-
cultural interests.  Said  to  have  been-  first  organized  by  one  Saunders,
who  established  the  national  "grange"  (or  lodge)  in  December,  1867.
Subordinate  granges  were  established,  10  or  11,  in  1868;  39  in  1869  ;  38
in  1870  ;  125  in  1871 ;  1,105  in  1872  ;  8,400  in  1873  ;  and  for  a  year  or
two  after  this  time  the  order  had  much  political  influence,  and  did  some-
thing to  establish  co-operative  organizations  for  the  supply  of  goods.  Legis-
lation in  Iowa  (1874)  and  elsewhere,  at  the  requirement  of  the  "  Grangers,"
to  fix  transportation  prices  by  railroad,  has  proved  a  mistake  and  a  bad
failure.

PAUPERS. (See  Poor  Laws,  p.  535.) Paupers  and  their  cost  in  England

and  Wales  for  ten  years  (poor-rate  only,  and  not  including  charity)  :

Paupers.  Poor-rate.

1866 916,152 £6,439,517

1867 931,546 6.959,840

1868 1,034,723 7,498,059

1869 1,039,549 7,673.100

1870 1,079.:-;91 7,644,307

1871 1,071.926 7,886,724

1872 977,664 8  007,403

1873 890,372 7,692,169

1874 829,281 7,664,957

1875 815,587

PAUPERS  in  United  States,  1870,  116,102.

PEABODY  FUND. (See  Charities.)

PEABODY  MEMORIAL.  A  statue  of  Mr.  George  Peabody  was  publicly
inaugurated  in  London,  July  23,  1869.

PEACE  JUBILEE (See  Boston.)

PEERAGE.  In  37  years,  1832-69,  an  average  of  2\  commoners  a  year  were
created  peers  in  England.

PERU.  (See  pp.  157,  523.)  Presidents:  CanBeco  succeeds  Pezet,  Novem-
ber, 1865.  Prado  subsequently  appointed  dictator,  and  February  15,
1867,  made  president;  resigns  in  consequence  of  an  insurrection,  and
Gen.  La  Puerta  succeeds  him,  January  18,  1868 ;  Col.  Balta  next  August
1,  1868;  Gutierrez  dictator,  July  22,  1872,  but  killed  26th;  Pardo
elected,  August  2.  and  Prado  succeeds  him,  August,  1876.  The  Peru-
vian railways,  in  establishing  which  the  American.  Henry  Meiggs,  has  been


1867-77.  47

prominent,  at  end  of  1876  open  for  trade,  or  in  course  of  completion,  were
22  lines,  2,030  miles  in  length.

PESSIMISM.  A  gloomy  system  of  philosophy  and  belief  put  forth  by
Arthur  Schopenhauer  in  Germany,  1819  to  1851,  and  which  has  found  some
acceptance. Its  most  eminent  expositor  is  Hartmann.

PITCAIEN'S  ISLAND. (See  p.  528  ;  also  Norfolk  Island.)

PLANCHETTE. (See  Spiritualism.)

PLANETS. (See  Astronomy.)

POLAND.  (Seep.  532.)  The  separate  government  of  Poland  abolished,
and  administrative  union  with  Eussia  perfected  February  29,  1868.
Polish  language  prohibited  in  public  places,  July,  1868 ;  in  courts  of  law
and  public  offices,  June,  1876.  These  measures  followed  a  severe  mili-
tary repression  of  hopeless  but  determined  military  efforts  against  Russia,
which  had  continued  most  of  the  time  since  1830.

POOR. (See  Paupers.)

POPULATION.  (See  pp.  161,537.)  Total  population  of  the  world  esti-
mated at  1.377,000,000.  Another  estimate,  by  statistical  authorities  at
Washington,  1874,  made  it  1,391,032,000.

POSITIVISM.  A  philosophy  put  forth  by  Auguste  Comte  (born  about
1795,  died  1852),  which  rejects  metaphysics  and  claims  to  deal  wholly
with  facts.  Its  chief  historical  principle  is  that  there  are  three  stages  of
human  belief,  the  theological,  the  metaphysical,  and  the  positive,  the
former  two  being  erroneous,  and  the  last  the  only  valid  one,  at  which
Europe  is  just  now  arriving.

POST-OFFICE;  Postal  Affairs.  Book-post  established  in  England,
1855.  Money-order  office  established  1792  ;  little  used  until  1840,  but
very  largely  since.  English  electric  telegraphs  purchased  by  government
and  run  as  part  of  post-office  system,  1869.  Postal  cards  first  issued
October  1,  1870.  Post-office  savings-banks  (Government  responsible  to
depositors)  established  1861  ;  deposits  in  them,  December  31,  1874,
£23,157,469  18s.  lOd.  An  International  Postal  Congress  met  at  Bern,
Switzerland,  January  27,  1874.  and  signed  a  convention,  October  9,  for  a
universal  international  postage  rate  of  25  centimes,  or  2-J  pence,  or  5  cents
for  each  half-ounce  letter  rate ;  1  penny,  or  2  cents,  or  10  centimes  for
each  newspaper  rate,  etc.  In  the  United  States  Post-office  Department :
Postage  stamps  issued,  year  ending  June  30,  1876,  700,089,437,  worth
$19,718,708.75;  stamped  envelopes  (not  official)  issued,  147,021,500,
worth  $4,359,907.04;  newspaper  wrappers,  18,498,750,  worth  $273,723.-
50;  postal  cards,  150,815,000,  worth  $1,580,150  ;  official  postage  stamps,
17,082.665,  worth  $663,831.50,  and  official  stamped  envelopes  and  wrap-
pers, 15,690,155,  worth  $129,110.93.  Total  number'of  these  issues,  1,049,-
797,507,  worth  $26,953,421.72.

PRAYER-GAUGE  DEBATE  originated  in  a  proposition  by  Sir  Henry
Thompson,  July,  1872,  that  some  certain  hospital  ward  or  wards  should
be  chosen,  special  prayers  offered  for  the  patients  in  them,  and  the  result,
as  compared  with  other  wards,  to  show  whether  prayer  is  efficacious  to
heal  the  sick.  There  was  a  long  and  energetic  debate  in  print  on  thia
suggestion,  1872-3,  but  the  experiment  was  not  tried.

PREHISTORIC  MAN.  Burnt  bricks  found  in  Egypt  have  been  reckoned
20,000  years  old human  bones  found  in  Florida  30,000  years  old. Recent


4o  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

discoveries  of  worked  flints  by  Boucher  de  Perthes,  near  Abbeville,  1836,
and  similar  ones  and  of  various  other  articles  in  various  parts  of  Europe,
have  led  to  the  belief  by  many  scientific  men  that  human  life  has  exetisd
on  the  earth  for  many  ages.  The  prehistoric  period  has  been  divided
into  the  stone,  iron,  and  bronze  ages.  See  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric
Times"  (1865),  Dawkins's  '' Cave- Hunting."  Evans's  "Ancient  Stone  Im-
plements "  (1872),  etc.  An  International  Congress  of  Prehistoric  Archae-
ology meets  annually  and  publishes  transactions.

PRE-RAPHAELITES.  A  school  of  painters  that  arose  in  England  about
1850,  including  Millais,  Hunt,  Rossetti,  etc.  Their  peculiarity  was  a
purpose  to  pursue  real  art  by  representing;'  nature  as  they  saw  it,  instead
of  following  the  antique.  With  some  extravagance,  their  influence  on  art
has  on  the  whole  been  good.

PRINTING-PRESS.  (See  p.  164.)  The  Walter  press,  an  English  inven-
tion, is  said  to  print  both  sides  of  from  15,000  to  17,000  copies  per  hour
of  a  newspaper.  The  Campbell  press  is  said,  however,  to  print  50,000
such  copies  per  hour.  Copper-faced  type  introduced  about  1850.  Several
machines  for  composing  and  distributing  type  invented,  1858-1875  ;  some
of  them  are  in  fact  used  for  the  more  uniform  kinds  of  work.  A  Caxton
celebration,  with  exhibition  of  many  rare  and  curious  books,  on  fourth
centennial  of  establishment  of  his  press  in  England,  at  London.  July,
1877.

PRUSSIA.  (See  pp.  165, 549.)  North  German  Confederation  (see  Ger-
many), formed  August  1,  1866.  King  refuses  to  receive  the  French
minister  Benedetti  in  consequence  of  improper  demands,  July  13,  1870;
French  declaration  of  war  delivered  at  Berlin,  July  19 ;  first  hostilities
at  Niederbronn,  July  26 ;  first  battle  at  Saarbriick,  July  80  (for  events  of
the  war  see  Chronological  Tables) ;  capitulation  of  Napoleon  and  of  McMa-
hon's  army  at  Sedan,  September  2,  1870  ;  surrender  of  Metz  by  Bazaine,
October  27  ;  Paris  capitulates,  January  28,  1871 ;  treaty  of  peace  signed,
February  26 ;  King  of  Prussia  proclaimed  Emperor,  of  Germany  at  Ver-
sailles, January  18 ;  imperial  diet  opened,  Berlin,  March  21,  1871.
Prussian  nationality  and  administration  remain  substantially  intact,  while
it  is  a  member  of  the  new  empire  of  Germany.

PURCHAS  CASE.  February  23,  1871,  the  judgment  of  the  English  Privy
Council  was  given  on  the  charges  of  heresy  against  Mr.  Purchas,  the
ritualist.  He  was  found  guilty  of  violating  the  ecclesiastical  law  "  by
wearing  the  chasuble,  alb,  and  tunicle  during  the  communion  service  ;
by  using  wine  mixed  with  water,  and  wafer-bread  in  the  administration
of  the  communion  ;  and  by  standing  with  his  back  to  the  people,  between
the  communion-table  and  the  congregation,  during  the  consecration  prayer. "
He  was  held  to  pay  costs.

PUSEYISM. (See  Ritualism  ;  also  Tractarianism,  p.  191.)

Q.

QUEENSLAND.  Made  a  separate  colony,  1859.  Governor,  1876,  Sir  A.
E.  Kennedy.  Includes  the  northeast  part  of  Australia  and  adjacent
islands.  Capital,  Brisbane.  First  settlement  (by  convicts  sent  out),  1825.
Population  of  European  descent,  May  31,  1876,  173,180,  besides  natives,
Chinese,  and  South  Sea  Islanders.  Area  about  678, 600  square  miles,  oi
one-fifth  as  much  as  all  Europe.


1867-77.  49


RADIOMETER.  A  delicate  vane  with  four  fans,  each  black  on  one  side,
hung  in  a  vacuum,  usually  in  an  hermetically  sealed  glass  globe.  In-
vented by  Wm.  Crookes,  1873-6.  When  light  falls  on  it  the  vane  turns,
and  this  movement  was  at  first  supposed  to  demonstrate  the  mechanical
action  of  light.  Further  investigation  indicated,  however,  that  the
motion  was  caused  by  heat  acting  on  the  small  portion  of  air  left  in  the
approximate  vacuum.

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.  (See  p.  167.)  Average  attendance  at  226  Ragged
Schools  in  London,  in  1867,  26,000.  The  buildings  exempted  from  rates,
1869.  At  present  the  London  School  Board  Schools  are  gradually  repla-
cing these.

RAILWAYS.  August  21,  1867,  a  locomotive  and  two  carriages  passed  over
the  whole  length  of  the  Mount  Cenis  Railway,  48  miles.  This  road
crosses  the  mountain  nearly  in  the  track  of  the  road  built  by  Napoleon  I.

Railways  in  the  world,  end  o/1876  :

Africa miles,  1,451  I  Europe miles,  88,745

Asia , " 7,643  I  North  America " 79,519

Australia " 1,752  I  South  America " 3,701

Central  Am.  and  W.  Indies. -1 559  |

Total 183,370

Another  authority  makes  this  total  194.836.

Of  the  North  American  total,  the  United  States  contains  74,658  (another
authority  says  77,470)  miles,  Canada  4,484,  Mexico  377.  About  one-
fourth  the  railroads  built  in  the  United  States  in  1876  were  narrow-gauge.
Steam  on  street  railroads  was  successfully  introduced  in  Philadelphia  in
the  spring  of  1877.  Railways  of  upper  Italy  to  be  bought  by  the  govern-
ment ;  bill  passed,  344  to  35,  June  27,  1876.  First  narrow-gauge  railway
built  as  a  tram-way  for  horse-power,  at  Festiniog.  in  Wales,  1832  ;  loco-
motives used  on  it,  1863.

RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS.  August  20,  1868,  the  Irish  day  mail  express
train  ran  into  a  freight  train  with  petroleum  near  Abergele,  in  Wales,  and
the  oil  taking  fire  from  the  engines,  thirty-three  persons  were  burned
alive  in  the  cars,  having  (apparently!  been  smothered  in  the  smoke,  as  not
a  scream  nor  a  word  was  heard  from  one  of  them.  June  21.  1870,  by  the
collision  of  two  trains  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  near  Newark,  Eng-
land, in  consequence  of  a  defective  axle,  18  persons  were  killed  and  40  or
50  more  or  less  injured.  December  29.  1876,  disaster  at  Ashtabula,  on
the  Lake  Shore  Railroad,  Ohio,  by  breaking  of  a  bridge;  60  persona
burned  or  frozen,  60  or  70  others  injured.  In  1866-8,  one  traveller  on
railroads  out  of  each  12,941,170  killed  by  accident  not  his  own  fault.

RATTENING.  Stealing  and  hiding  a  man's  tools  because  he  opposes
trades-unions  or  does  not  pay  dues  to  them.  An  English  practice  ;  much
of  it  proved  before  the  Commission  of  Inquiry,  Sheffield  and  Manchester,
June  and  September,  1867. (See  Sheffield.)

RECONSTRUCTION.  Immediately  after  the  rebel  surrender,  1865,  the
Southern  States  began  to  pass  laws  discriminating  in  social  and  political
affairs  against  the  negroes.  In  1868  Arkansas  was  readmitted  into  the
Uttion  over  President  Johnson's  veto,  on  condition  that  the  State  should


50  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

never  deprive  negroes  of  their  right  to  vote.  Another  bill,  passed  in  likt
manner  over  the  veto,  readmitted  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alabama,  the  provision  being  requisite
in  consequence  of  the  discriminations  aforesaid.  July,  1868,  President
Johnson  by  proclamation  pardoned  all  who  had  been  in  rebellion,  except
those  actually  under  indictment  for  treason-felony.  During  President
Grant's  administration,  the  Republican  State  governments,  in  Louisiana
and  South  Carolina  especially,  were  supported  by  national  troops.  Presi-
dent Hayes  withdrew  these,  with  the  result  that  these  States  *t  once
passed  under  democratic  administrations

RED  RIVER. (See  Manitoba. )

RELIGIONS  IN  THE  "WORLD.  Estimating  the  population  of  the  world
at  1,377,000,000,  the  believers  in  its  religions  rank  as  follows  in  point  of
numbers  :  1.  Pagans  ;  2.  Christians ;  3.  Mohammedans  ;  4.  Jews.  Atheists
not  counted ;  there  are  very  few.  The  numbers  of  the  above  four  classes
are  estimated  as  follows  :

:,  viz.  :

Buddhists 455,000,000

Others 425,600,000  880,600.000


Christians,  viz. :

Roman  Catholics 201,200,000

Protestants 106,300,000

Eastern  Churches 81,900,000  389,4CO,000


Mohammedans  (some  sav  165  millions) 100,0(>  J,00(3

Jews 7,000,000

l,377,O0.),U00

REPUBLICAN  PAWfEft.  The  following  table  of  the  popular  and  electoral
votes  for  Presiden£*¥/ill  show  the  numerical  history  of  the  Republ:  an
party,  1856-1876 :

Popular

1856.  Buchanan 1,838,169

Fremont 1,341,264

Fillmore 874,534

I860.  Lincoln 1,866,352

Douglas 1.375,157

Breckenridge 845,763

Bell 589,5S1

1864.  Lincoln 2,216.067

McClelJan 1, 80S,  725

1868.  Grant 3,015,071

Seymour 2,709,613


ectoral

Vote.

174

Popular
Vote.

Electoral
Vote.
136

114

8

180

12

Greeley
fore  th

Hendric

Brown

Jenkins

(died be-
e  electoral

ks  ..  .

3

42

72

18

39

2

212

1

21
214

71

1376.  Hayes
Tilden
Cooper

4,033,295
4,284,265

. . . . 81,737

185
184

0

9,522

0

By  this  table  the  successive  proportions  between  the  Republican  party
and  its  chief  adversary,  neglecting  third  parties  and  odd  numbers,  are  as
follows :  1856,  13  to  18  ;  1860,  18  to  13 ;  1864,  22  to  18  ;  1868,  30  to  27  ;
1872,  35  to  28  ;  1876,  40  to  42  (Hayes  having  come  in  by  a  minority  pop-
ular vote).

BEPUDIATION.  President  Johnson,  in  his  message  of  December  7,  1868,
recommended  a  form  of  repudiation  of  the  national  debt,  saying  that
"  it  would  seem  but  just  and  equitable  that  the  six  per  cent,  interest  now
paid  by  the  Government  should  be  applied  to  the  reduction  of  the  princi-
pal in  semi-annual  instalments."  In  reply,  the  House  of  Representative-
voted  by  154  to  6  that  all  forms  of  repudiation  of  the  national  debt  were


1867-77.  5i

odious  to  the  American  people,  and  that  nothing  less  than  was  agreed
would  be  offered  to  the  national  creditor.  The  States  of  Virginia ,  North
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi-
ana, Texas,  Arkansas  and  Tennessee,  do  not  pay  the  interest  on  their
debts.  Some  of  bhem,  and  Minnesota  also,  have  repudiated  more  or  less
of  the  principal  of  the  same.  Counties  and  towns  in  Missouri  and  Illi-
nois have  also  repudiated.  The  debt  of  North  Carolina  is  (1877)  about
$39,000,000,  and  in  a  conference  in  that  year  between  the  creditors  and
the  authorities  of  the  State,  the  latter  offered  to  fund  $6,000,000  of  the
debt,  at  three  and  six  per  cent  interest,  to  be  in  full.  The  creditors  de-
clined, but  offered  to  accept  half  ;  but  nothing  was  done.  The  whole  debt
of  South  Carolina  was,  in  1873,  stated  at  $25,770,611.44,  and  in  this
year  a  law  was  passed  rejecting  a  part  of  this  as  illegal,  and  repudiating
half  of  the  rest  by  settling  with  the  holders  at  50  per  cent.  The  payment,
even  at  this  rate,  has  not  been  made.  Turkey  repudiates  all  payments  on
account  of  public  debt  until  times  shall  be  better,  July  9,  1876.  Penn-
sylvania, which  used  to  be  abused  for  repudiating,  never  did  so,  the  only
pretext  being  a  delay  upon  certain  payments,  which  were  afterwards
made  in  full.  The  United  States  has  practically  repudiated  the  French
spoliation  claims,  having  received,  in  1803,  the  consideration  paid  by
France  for  those  claims,  but  having  never  paid  the  persons  owning  the
claims.

RESUMPTION.  By  Act  of  Congress,  approved  January  14,  1875,  the
Government  of  the  United  States  is  to  resume  specie  payment  January
1,  1879.  This  purpose  has  been  firmly  adhered  to  notwithstanding  vio-
lent efforts  in  different  parts  of  the  country  to  rescind  this  action,  which
efforts  are  in  more  or  less  close  connection  with  the  attempt  to  keep  up  ox
enlarge  the  quantity  of  paper  money,  and  even  to  keep  the  same  irre-
deemable.

REVENUE.  Revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  United  States  for  ten  years
1867-76  (items  of  total  revenue  other  than  customs  and  internal  revenue
are  not  specified,  though  included  in  ''total.")

Customs.  Intern.  Rev.  Total.  Expenditures.

1867 |176,41T,810.S8 $266,007,537.43 f  462,846,679.92 $340. 729, 324.76

1868 164.464.599.56 191,087.589.41..

1869 180,048,426.63 158,356. 460.86. .

1870 194,538,374.44 184.899,756.49..

1871 206.270.408.05 143,098,153.63..

1872 216.370,286.77 130.642,177.72..

1873 188,089,522.70 113,729,314.14. .

1874 163,103,833.69 102,409.784.90..

1875 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58.


376.434,453.82 370,339,133.8?

357,188,255.64 321,190,597.75

395,959.833.87  293,657,C05.7G

374,431.104.94 283.160,393.51

364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91

322,177,673.78 285,239,325.34

299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21

284,020,771.41 272.693.573.84


1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 283,758,493.36 258,459,797.10

REVENUE AND  EXPENDITURE of Great  Britain (United Kingdom),
years  1868  to  1876,  ending  March  31 :

Revenue.  Expenditure.  Revenue.  Expenditure

1*68 £69,600,218 £71,236,242  I  1873 £76,608,770 £70,714,448

1869 72,591,991 74,971,816  1874 77.335,657 76,466,510

1870 75,434.252 68,864,752  |  1875 74,921,873 74,328.040-

1871 69,945,220 69,548,539  |  1876 77.131,693 76,621.778

1872 74,70S,314 71,490,020

REVEREND. The  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  1874,  refused  to  Rev. Mr.  Keet,  a
Wesleyan clergyman,  permission  to  put  the  title  "Reverend  "  on  the  grave-
stone of  a  dissenter. The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  allowed  it. On  trial
in  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  the  Chancellor  of  Lincoln  decided  against  Mr.
3


52  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

Keet ;  on  appeal,  Sir  R.  Phillimore,  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  July  ill,  1875
sustained  the  refusal ;  but  on  appeal  again,  the  Privy  Council.  January  2 1 ,
1 876,  reversed  both  decisions,  and  gave  judgment  that  the  title  is  lauda-
tory only,  and  that  no  law  restricts  it  to  ministers  of  the  Church  ol
England.

REVIVALS.  Moody  and  Sankey's  revival  meetings  in  England,  1874-0
In  March,  1875,  in  London,  present  about  15,000  persons  ;  farewell  meet
ing,  July  12,  1875.  In  New  York  city,  February  7  to  April  19,  1876  ;  in
Boston,  March  to  June,  1877.  Great  results  were  asserted  to  have  been
obtained.

RIOTS.  (See  pp.  170,565.)  Riots  in  various  English  towns,  by  Roman-
ists, against  the  lectures  of  one  Murphy,  1867-1871  ;  at  White  Haven,
April  20,  1871,  he  was  cruelly  beaten.  Riots  by  artisans  out  of  work  at
Greenwich  and  Deptford,  England,  Jan.  24  and  25,  1867 ;  in  November
following,  in  the  west  of  England,  from  dearness  of  provisions  ;  Oct.  30,
1868,  at  Blackburn,  between  Liberals  and  Tories  ;  June  2,  1869,  a  furious
riotous  attack  by  2,000  Welsh  on  military  and  police  in  charge  of  some
colliers  convicted  of  assault ;  mob  only  dispersed  by  being  fired  on,  from
which  4  were  killed  and  26  badly  wounded.  August  7,  and  September  8,
187. ,  much  rioting  at  Dublin,  in  connection  with  a  meeting  in  Phoenix
Park  to  ask  for  relief  of  Fenian  prisoners.  April  20,  1876,  agrarian  riots
break  out,  lasting  some  weeks,  among  the  negroes  in  Barbadoes  Furious
rioting  by  Romanists  at  Montreal,  Sept.  1875,  to  prevent  burial  of  one  Gui-
bord  in  a  Romanist  cemetery.  The  right  to  it  being,  however,  proved  at
law,  he  was  so  buried  under  military  protection,  Nov.  16,  1873.

RITUALISM.  The  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act,  for  repressing  ritualism
in  the  Church  of  England,  became  a  law  August  7,  1874.  to  go  into  opera-
tion July  1,  1875.  The  Ridsdale  case  was  the  first  under  the  act,  in
which  judgment  was  given  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  against  Rev.  C.  J.
Ridsdale  for  ritualistic  proceedings.  In  the  cases  of  Rev.  A.  Tooth,  and
Rev.  T.  P.  Dale,  monitions  issued  to  discontinue  such  practices.  Rev.
Arthur  Tooth,  vicar  of  St.  James's  at  Hatcham,  in  England,  was  lawfully
commanded  to  desist  from  processions,  tolling  the  bell,  singing  certain
music,  and  other  ritualistic  and  unlawful  practices.  Disobeying,  he  was
on  Dec.  17,  1876,  inhibited  from  performing  divine  service  or  otherwise
officiating  in  the  parish.  Disobeying  again,  he  was  imprisoned.  For  a
similar  case  before  the  act,  see  Purchas  Case.

ROMANISM.  (See  pp.  171,  566;  see  also  Infallibility ;  Old  Catholics;
Vatican  Council.)  The  "emancipation"  of  the  Romanists  has  steadily
advanced  in  England  during  this  century.  Their  priests  might  be  chap-
lains to  gaols,  by  act  July,  1863;  Justice  Shee,  of  the  Queen's  Bench,
(Dec.  15,  1863)  was  the  first  Romanist  judge  in  England  since  the  Refor-
mation. O'Hagan,  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  (Dec,  1868),  was  the  first
Komanist  in  that  office  since  1688  ;  the  first  Romanist  master  of  arts
since  the  test  acts  were  abolished,  was  made  at  Oxford,  June  22,  187 1  ;
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act  repealed  July  24,  1871.  Meanwhile  Romanist
bishops  (at  Dublin,  Oct.  17,  1867)  adhere  to  the  policy  of  separate  educa-
tion under  priests  ;  refuse  a  Romanist  university  to  be  endowed  by  the
State,  because  they  cannot  have  entire  control,  March,  1868,  and  October,
1871.  In  Germany,  the  "  Falk  laws,''  to  subject  ecclesiastical  affairs  to
a  royal  tribunal,  passed  May  11.  1873.  and  an  obstinate  though  not  noisy
struggle  between  the  German  Empire  and  the  Romanist  hierarchy  sets  in.


1867-77.  53

which  is  still  (1877)  in  full  activity,  the  State  having  fined,  imprisoned,
and  banished  various  prelates,  and  the  Pope  having  cursed  various  offi-
cials. In  the  United  States  there  is  a  regular  policy  by  the  Romanists  to
obtain  a  share  of  public  money  for  their  sectarian  schools,  which  has  not
thus  far  succeeded. For  Romanist  riots,  see  Riots.

ROME.  French  enter,  Oct.  30,  1867.  They  march  out,  August  21,  1870.
Italian  troops  occupy,  Sept.  20,  1870  ;  united  to  kingdom  of  Italy  along
with  Papal  States,  Oct.  9,  1870.  and  the  Pope's  authority  restricted  to
the  Leonine  City  (which  see).  The  vote  on  union  with  Italy  was  as  fol-
lows :  Out  of  167,548  votes  :  for  union,  133,681 ;  against,  1,507  ;  the  rest
did  not  vote.  The  Pope  has  hitherto  (1877)  wholly  refused  the  restricted
sovereignty  and  guaranties  offered  him.

ROSICRUCIANS.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  genuine  society  of  this
name  in  the  thirteenth  century,  a  religious  organization  of  some  kind.
The  Rosicrucians  of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  were  a  hoax,  im-
agined by  one  Andrese  or  Andreas,  who  published  a  solemn  pretended
account  of  them,  1615.

ROUMANIA.  Union  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  under  this  name  acknowl-
edged by  Turkey,  December,  1861  ;  Alexander  Couza,  hospodar;  he
abdicates  (by  force)  February  22,  1866;  crown  of  Roumania  declined  by
Prince  of  Flanders,  February  8,  and  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen  elected  hospodar,  April  20,  and  recognized  hereditary  hospodar
by  the  Sultan.  October  24,  1866.  Declared  independent  of  Turkey,  and
title  <A  king  assumed  by  the  hospodar  during  Russian  invasion,  summer
of  1877.

RUSSIA.  (See  pp.  173,  569.)  Imperial  serfs  emancipated  in  part,  July
2,  1858.  Decree  for  emancipation  of  all  Russian  serfs  (twenty-three
million)  in  two  years,  March  3,  1861.  1000th  anniversary  of  foundation
of  Russian  empire  by  Rurik,  at  Novgorod,  celebrated  September  20,  1862.
Circassian  war  declared  ended,  June  2,  1864.  War  with  Bokhara  begun,
1866.  Samarcand  taken,  May  26,  1868.  Circular  of  Prince  Gortscha-
koff,  repudiating  treaty  clauses  of  1856  as  to  the  Black  Sea,  October  31,
1870;  clauses  abrogated  by  London  Conference,  March  13,  1871.  Com-
mercial panic  from  failure  of  Strousberg,  November,  1875.  Prosecution
of  the  sect  of  Skoptzi,  April,  1876.  Khokand  annexed  as  Ferghana,  Feb-
ruary 29,  1876.  Southern  Russian  army  mobilized  by  decree  of  Novem-
ber 15,  1876  ;  war  with  Turkey,  having  been  declared,  the  Russians  enter
Roumania ;  cross  the  Danube,  June  27,  1877 ;  Gen.  Gourkha,  with  a
strong  advanced  guard,  passes  the  Balkans,  July  4.  Result  of  the  paral-
lel Russian  campaign  in  Armenia,  however,  up  to  August  1,  1877,  only
an  advance  to  within  a  few  marches  of  Erzeroum,  a  defeat  by  Mukhtar
Pasha,  and  a  retreat  to  Russian  territory.


BADOWA,  or  Koniggratz,  in  Bohemia.  Decisive  battle  of  the  "  Seven
Weeks'  War,"  or  war  of  1866,  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  fought  July
3,  1866.  About  400,000  men  engaged;  the  Austrians  lost  174  guns,
40,000  killed  and  wounded,  and  20,000  prisoners.  The  battle  decided
the  war,  gave  Prussia  the  leadership  in  Germany,  secured  unity  to  the
North  German  nations,  gave  Venetia  to  Italy,  and  led  to  the  legislative
independence  of  Hungary.


54  THE WORLDS PROGRESS.

ST.  CRISPIN,  Knights  of.  This  trade  union  of  boot  and  shoe  making
operatives  was  first  formed  in  Milwaukee,  about  1870,  and  quickly  spread
into  other  States,  having  in  1873,  in  Massachusetts  alone,  40,000  mem-
bers. They  have  operated  by  strikes  and  the  like  means,  with  the  general
object  of  keeping  up  wages  of  operatives  as  against  employers.

SAN  DOMINGO.  (See  p.  175.)  Present  name  of  the  Spanish  part  of  the
island  of  San  Domingo,  or  Hayti.  For  the  French  part,  see  Hayti.
Dominican  Republic  proclaimed,  February,  1844,  after  the  deposition  of
President  Boyer.  Baez  was  President,  1849-1853  ;  Santana,  1853-6  ;
Baez  again,  1856-8  ;  Valverde,  March,  1858-May,  1861 ;  reunion  with
Spain  decreed  by  the  Queen,  May  20,  1861  ;  insurrection  against  Spain,
August,  1861 ;  insurgents  generally  defeated,  but  Spain  renounces  the
colony,  May  5,  1865;  Oabral  President,  September,  1865;  Baez,  Novem-
ber, 1865  ;  Cabral  again,  June,  1867  ;  San  Domingo  City  nearly  destroyed
by  a  hurricane,  October  30,  1867  ;  Baez  President  again,  March,  1868  ;
G-anier  d'Aton,  October,  1873 ;  Gonzalez ;  Baez,  December  10,  1876.
Population  estimated  at  about  250,000.

SAN  JUAN  Arbitration  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,
for  ownership  of  the  island,  which  commands  the  strait  between  British
Columbia  and  the  United  States  territory.  Decided  by  the  Emperor  of
Germany,  October,  1872,  in  favor  of  the  United  States,  and  the  British
troops  left  accordingly,  November  22  following.

SAN  SALVADOR.  One  of  the  Central  American  republics,  independent
since  its  federal  union  with  Honduras  and  Nicaragua  was  dissolved,  1853.
Government,  nominally  republican;  but  there  is  most  frequently  some
revolution.  Population,  variously  estimated  at  from  about  430,000  to
600.000,  all  Indian,  or  mixed,  except  about  10,000  whites.

SARAWAK.  A  territory  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Borneo,  about  300
miles  along  the  sea  and  reaching  100  miles  inland,  with  about  300,000
population. Was  under  government  of  Rajah  Brooke,  an  Englishman,

1841-1868.

SAYINGS-BANKS.  (See  pp.  176,  575.)  Deposits  in  savings-banks  of  Great
Britain  and  Ireland,  1872,  £40,088,348.  For  English  postal  savings,  see
Post- Office.  In  the  savings-banks  of  New  England,  New  York,  New
Jersey,  and  California  together  there  were,  in  the  year  1874-5.  deposits
amounting  to  $810,096, 745,  of  which  the  bankers  of  New  York  held  over
$303,000,000,  and  those  of  Massachusetts  over  $217,000,000.

SCHELDT  DUES  abolished  for  a  compensation,  1867,  and  the  navigation
of  the  river  made  free.

SEAMEN.  On  Mr.  S.  Plimsoll's  motion,  a  commission  of  inquiry  to  investi-
gate the  practice  of  employing  unseaworthy  ships,  appointed  March  4,
1873;  reported  July  2,  1874;  a  merchant  shipping  survey  bill  rejected.
June  24,  1874  ;  great  excitement  in  and  out  of  Parliament  on  the  subject ;
an  act  finally  passed  empowering  the  Board  of  Trade  to  stop  unseaworthy
ships,  August  13,  1875,  and  a  merchant  shipping  act,  August  15.  187'i.

SECULARISM.  A  non- Christian,  free-thinking  system,  "  seeking  morality
in  naUare,  and  happiness  in  duty,"  and  claiming  to  be  "  not  against  Chris-
tianity, but  independent  of  it.1'  Advocated  in  England  by  Messrs.  Hol-
yoake  about  1846  ;  subsequently  by  Mr.  Bradlaugh.  A  small  number  of
secularists  are  to  Ve  found  in  the  United  States.


186,7-77.  55

SEDAN.  An  ancient  city,  reckoned  a  very  strong  fortress  in  old  times,  on
the  Meuse,  in  the  north-east  of  France,  and  the  seat  of  a  little  principal-
ity held  by  the  Dukes  of  Bouillon  who  were  Princes  of  Sedan  Ceded  to
the  French  crown,  1642.  A  Protestant  university  here  abolished  after  re-
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in  1685.  Here  was  taken,  destroyed,  or
surrendered,  August  29th  to  September  2d,  the  whole  of  the  French
Army  of  the  North,  150.000  strong,  with  Napoleon  III.  himself  in  com-
mand. Men  actually  surrendered,  83,000,  with  70  mitrailleuses,  400  field-
pieces,  and  150  fortress  guns.

SERVIA.  (See  p.  178.)  Alexander  Karageorgevitch  (i.  e.,  son  of  Black
G-eorge),  the  hospodar,  forced  to  abdicate,  and  Milosch  Obrenovitch  (re-
elected) prince  in  his  stead,  December  23,  1858 ;  succeeded  by  his  son,
Michael  Obrenovitch,  September  26,  1860;  movement  begins  about  this
time  for  independence  of  Turkey  ;  disputes  at  Belgrade  ;  Turkish  Pasha
bombards  the  city,  and  is  dismissed,  1862 ;  on  a  conference  of  the  powers,
at  Constantinople,  the  Porte  makes  concessions  to  Servia,  October,  1862.
On  further  demands  by  Servia,  Turkish  garrisons  withdrawn ;  Prince  Mi-
chael assassinated,  June  20,  1868,  and  his  nephew  Milan  Obrenovitch  suc-
ceeds; war  against  Turkey  breaks  out,  July,  1876  ;  complete  subjection
of  Servia  by  Turks  only  averted  by  interference  of  the  powers,  November
1,  1876.  Area  of  Servia,  about  16,000  square  miles,  and  population,  by
census  December  31,  1874,  1,352,523.

SHEFFIELD,  England.  An  abominable  practice  of  persecution  by  "  rat-
tening." or  stealing  tools,  and  other  outrages,  and  even,  in  several  in-
stances, by  murder  and  attempts  to  murder,  at  (Sheffield  and  Manchester,
all  reduced  to  a  system  and  paid  for  regularly,  in  order  to  punish  oppo-
nents of  trade-unions,  revealed  before  a  parliamentary  commission,  June
and  July,  1867.  The  worst  criminal  was  one  William  Broadhead,  Secre-
tary to  the  Saw-Grinders'  Union,  who  planned  these  proceedings  and  paid
for  them.

SHIPPING.  (See  also  Navies.)  Sail  and  steam  vessels  of  Great  Britain
and  Ireland,  not  including  river  steamers,  in  1875  :

Men
Vessels.  Tonnage.  employed.

Sail 17,221 4,044,504 126,240

Steam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427

20,191 5,891,692 199,667

On  June  30,  1875,  the  shipping  of  the  United  States  were  as  follows  :

Vessels.  Tonnage.

Sail 17,226 2,257,154,23

Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42

Unrigged  (barges,  etc) 7,803 890,858,07

Canal -boats,  etc 2,936 331,445,74


31,9213 4,595,883,46

June,  1876,  the  total  tonnage  was  4,853,752.

SHIPWRECKS. (See  Wreaks.)

SIAMESE  TWINS.  (See  p.  181.)  They  were  exhibited  a  second  time  in
London,  February,  1869.  They  died  in  January,  1874,  one  about  two
hours  before  the  other.  A  post-mortem  examination  showed  that  there
was  an  actual  communication  of  their  nervous  and  circulating  systems
through  the  band  that  connected  them.


56  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

SILKWORM.  (See  p.  585.)  In  1856  the  French  silk  crop,  which  should
have  been  worth  about  $25,000,000,  was  reduced  to  one-third  that  value
by  the  destruction  of  the  silk-worms,  which  were  killed  off  by  a  sort  of
epizootic  called  pebrine,  which  turned  out  to  be  parasitic.  Scientific  in-
vestigations by  order  of  the  government  resulted  in  a  method,  devised  by
Pasteur,  which  has  nearly  destroyed  the  disease.

SILVER.  (See  pp.  181,585.  See  Coinage ;  Money.)  Silver  produced  in
the  United  States,  1848-1873,  $156,050,000.  In  1875,  Nevada  alone  pro-
duced $40,478,369  of  the  precious  metals,  of  which  nearly  all  was  silver.
In  1876  an  important  fall  took  place  in  the  value  of  silver,  since  which
time  the  question  of  the  standard  of  money  has  been  vigorously  debated,
with  a  tendency  to  make  gold  the  only  standard,  thus  leaving  silver  more
a  merchandise  than  a  currency,  except  for  small  change.

SINAI,  MT. Ordnance  survey  by  Wilson  and  Palmer,  published  1872.
SINAITIC  MS.  of  the  Bible,  or  Codex  Sinaiticus. (See  Bible.)

SKOPTZI,  or  White  Doves.  A  South  Russian  fanatical  sect,  who  prac-
tice emasculation  as  the  Shakers  do  celibacy.

SLAVERY.  Abolished  by  the  Dutch  in  their  West  India  colonies,  from
July,  1863;  slave  trade,  by  the  Seyyid  (or  ruler)  of  Zanzibar,  by  treaty
with  England,  June  5,  1873  ;  on  the  Gold  Coast,  by  agreement  with  several
chiefs,  November  3,  and  proclamation  made  by  Gov.  Stiahan,  December
17,  1874;  slavery,  by  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  November  23,  1876.

SLAVONIA,  a  province  of  Austria.  The  Slavonian  family  of  languages  in-
cludes Bohemian,  Bulgarian,  Polabic,  Polish,  Russian,  Servian,  Slovak,
and  Wend.  The  Slavic  races  in  Europe  are  estimated  to  number,  in  1875,
as  follows:  Russians  and  Ruthenians,  66,129,590;  Serbo-Croats,  5,940.-
539;  Bulgarians,  5,123,952;  Slovenes,  1,260,000;  Slovaks,  2,223,830;
Czechs  (i.  e.,  Bohemians),  4,815,154  ;  Poles,  9,492,162  ;  total,  90,365,633.
A  so-called  "Pan-Slavist  "  movement  has  of  late  years  been  set  on  foot,
with  rather  vague  designs,  and  a  congress  of  Slavonic  deputies  met  at
Moscow,  1867,  but  with  no  distinct  results.

SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  or  Sociology,  has  become  a  distinct  department  of  study
within  fifty  years,  and  especially  since  1857.  Annual  meetings  of  the
English  Social  Science  Association  have  been  held,  beginning  with  that  at
Birmingham.  October,  1857,  and  an  annual  volume  of  its  transactions
has  been  published.  The  American  Social  Science  Association,  whose
headquarters  are  at  Boston,  Mass. ,  has  issued,  besides  a  tract  on  emigra-
tion and  one  on  free  libraries,  annual  numbers  of  its  Journal,  beginning
with  June,  18G9.  It  holds  annual  meetings,  where  papers  are  read  and
debate  is  had.

SOONGARIA. (,See  Dzoungaria.)

SOUND  DUTIES,  levied  by  Denmark  at  Elsinore  on  all  ships  passing  the
Sound  there,  until  1855,  when  the  United  States  decided  to  pay  them  no
longer,  and  the  Danish  Government  gave  them  up  for  a  compensation.

SPAIN.  (See  pp.  184,  591.)  The  Government,  since  1867,  has  changed  as
follows :  Queen  Isabella  leaves  Spain,  September  30,  1868 ;  Provisional
Republican  government  established;  Marshal  Serrano  regent,  1869;
Queen  Isabella  abdicates  January  25,  1870  ;  crown  declined  by  Leopold
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  July  4;  Prince  Amadeo  of  Italy  chosen
king  November  16,  1870;  abdicating,  a  republican  government  restored.


1867-77.  57

1873  ;  Marshal  Serrano  President,  1874 ;  Alfonso  XII.,  son  of  Queen  Isa
bella,  king,  1875 ;  the  present  constitution  proclaimed  June  30,  1876.
An  attempt  by  Don  Carlos,  calling-  himself  Carlos  VII.,  to  obtain  the
throne ;  he  enters  Spain,  May.  1 872,  and  maintains  hostilities  with  more
or  less  success  against  whomsoever  it  may  concern  until  February,  1870,
when,  after  many  reverses,  he  leaves  Spain  and  surrenders  to  the
Governor  of  Bayonne,  February  27,  1876.  Don  Carlos  (born  1848),  is  son
of  Don  Juan,  who  was  brother  of  the  Count  of  Montemolin,  or  Carlos  VI. ,
who  was  son  of  Carlos  V.,  the  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Carlos  VI.
renounced  his  rights  in  favor  of  Don  Juan,  and  the  present  Don  Carlos
therefore  claims  under  Carlos  V.

SPECIE  PAYMENT. (See  Resumption.)

SPECTROSCOPE.  First  constructed  and  used  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen,
1861 ;  since  variously  improved.  Spectrum  analysis,  or  the  examination
of  light  through  the  spectroscope,  has  resulted  in  many  remarkable  dis-
coveries, particularly  in  astronomy,  such  as  the  determination  of  the'  sub-
stances composing  the  sun,  some  nebulas,  fixed  stars,  comets,  etc.  ;  and
also  in  analytical  chemistry,  including  the  discovery  of  two  new  metals,
caesium  and  rubidium.

SPELLING  REFORM.  The  Spelling  Reform  Association  was  organized  in
Philadelphia,  August  17,  1876,  for  "  the  simplification  of  English  ortho-
graphy." President,  F.  A.  March,  Lafayette  College,  Easton.  Pa  ;  Cor-
responding Secretary,  D.  P.  Lindsley,  Fernwood,  Pa.  Efforts  in  the  same
direction  have  for  some  years  been  made  in  England.

SPIRITUALISM,  or  SPIRITISM.  The  so-called  "spiritual  manifesta-
tions" began  at  Rochester,  New  York,  about  1848;  about  1851  much
attention  was  given  in  England  to  the  raps,  "table-turning,"  etc.  Some
time  afterwards  a  little  machine  called  "  Planchette"  was  a  leading
topic  of  interest.  Various  sorts  of  u  test-mediums "  and  "manifesta-
tions" have  appeared,  and  it  is  confessed,  even  by  the  most  ardent
spiritists,  that  a  great  share  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  are  fraudulent.
The  "Spiritual  Magazine,"  London,  began  January,  1860;  the  "  Spirit-
ualist,"  November,  1869.  Many  very  intelligent  people  believe  in  some
of  the  "manifestations,"  but  Spiritism  has  not  thus  far  (1877)  been
demonstrated  either  good  morally,  or  true  scientifically.

STADE  DUES.  Levied  on  the  Elbe  by  Hanover,  on  all  vessels  passing
Stade.  Resisted  by  the  United  States,  1855  ;  abolished.  1861,  for  a  sum
of  £3,000,000.

STANDARD  GOLD  AND  SILVER.  English  standard  gold  is  22  parts  (by
weight)  gold,  and  2  parts  either  silver  or  copper ;  standard  silver,  37  of
silver  to  3  of  copper.  The  old-established  proportion  of  silver  to  gold
was  15^-  of  silver  equal  to  one  of  gold  by  weight.

STE.  L.  Bessemer's  process  patented  1856.  Tungsten  steel  made  in
Germany,  1859.  Steel  is  very  rapidly  coming  into  use  (1877)  for  railroad
rails,  cannon,  and  other  purposes  for  which  iron  has  heretofore  served.

STORM  SIGNALS. {See  Meteorology.)
STORMS. (See  Cyclones;  Hurricanes.)

STRASBURG.  Invested  by  the  Germans,  August  10,  1870;  surrendered
by  Gen.  Uhrich  with  17,500  men  and  400  officers, September  27. The


58  THE WORLT ''", PROGRESS.

ancient  and  very  valuable  library  was  destroyed  during  the  siege,  and
the  cathedral  much  injured.

STREET  RAILWAYS,  Steam  on. (See  Eaihoays.)

STRIKES.  (See  page  186  ;  see  also  St.  Crispins.)  In  1824,  combinations  by
workmen  against  masters  ceased  to  be  criminal  by  English  law,  and  the
history  of  workingmen  since  that  time  has  been  increasingly  a  history
of  strikes,  which  have  occurred  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  Great
Britain  and  the  United  States.  In  March,  1867,  the  farm-laborers  of
Buckinghamshire  struck  for  higher  wages,  and  with  some  measure  of
success.  Same  month,  the  engine-drivers  on  the  London  and  Brighton
Railway  struck  for  higher  wages  and  some  other  concessions.  Result,  a
compromise.  April  10,  the  engine-drivers  and  others  on  the  (English)
Northeastern  Railway  struck  in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  indoor-
work  to  some  of  tbem — in  all,  1,100.  The  strike  was  defeated.  April
28j  the  London  journeymen  tailors  struck  for  higher  wages,  but  returned
to  work  on  the  employers'  terms  after  a  number  of  months.  In  a  crial
arising  from  this  strike  the  practice  of  ' '  picketing  "  or  watching  for,  fol-
lowing, and  abusing  non-union  men  was  exposed.  September,  1868,  the
London  cab-drivers  and  owners  struck  work,  because  certain  so-called
"privileged"  cabs  only  were  allowed  upon  the  premises  of  the  railways.
The  strike  failed.  January,  and  again  March,  1870,  the  workmen  of  Schnei-
der's great  iron  and  steel  works,  at  Creuzot,  in  France,  struck  in  conse-
quence of  a  quarrel  about  a  benefit  fund  and  the  dismissal  of  a  troublesome
workman.  A  military  force  put  down  the  movement.  In  the  same  year,
16,000  work-people  struck  at  Mulhouse,  and  before  the  troops  sent  could
restore  quiet,  a  large  factory  was  burnt.  Other  strikes  had  already
taken  place  at  Marseilles,  Perpignan,  and  other  places  in  the  south  ol
France.  December  8,  570  telegraph  clerks  of  the  Manchester,  Dublin,
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Belfast,  and  some  otber  post-offices  struck  by
arrangement,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  by  government  of  certain
clerks  for  joining  a  'L  protective  association."  The  strikers  were  mostly
reinstated  after  making  written  apologies  and  leaving  the  association.
October  9,  1871,  the  monster  strike  of  some  8,000  engineers  and  other
workmen  at  Newcastle,  England,  having  lasted  since  the  end  of  May,
ended  by  the  reduction  of  working  hours  from  ten  to  nine,  the  wages  re-
maining the  same.  The  Newcastle  strike  of  1871  was  of  9,050  engineers
for  nine  hours  instead  of  ten,  at  same  wages.  The  trade-unions  main-
tained these  9,050  men  for  sixteen  weeks,  and  did  much  to  prevent
others  from  taking  their  places.  At  one  time  during  this  year  were  on
strike  these  engineers,  the  Newcastle  police,  the  collies  of  Northumber
land,  Dean  Forest,  and  Gloucestershire,  the  iron-work«rs  of  North  Staf-
fordshire, the  dyers  of  Bradford,  the  quarrymen  of  Leeds,  and  the  crate-
makers  of  the  potteries.  The  New  York  strike,  m  1872,  for  the
eight-hour  working  day,  included  90,000  workmen.  March  25,  1873,
60,000  Welsh  colliers  struck  against  a  10  per  cent,  reduction  in  wages.
Many  strikes  occurred  in  the  United  States  about  1874,  ap  wages  began
to  be  lowered  from  the  high  standard  maintained  since  the  war.  Apri,
12,  1876,  20,000  miners  struck  in  Yorkshire.  At  Fall  River,  Mass.,  the
mill-hands  were  on  strike  for  several  months  in  the  summer  of  1876,  but
ultimately  in  part  resumed  work  without  obtaining  their  demands.
February  12,  1877,  the  engineers  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railro<\d,  be-
longing to  a  general  "  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers,"  presided
over  by  one  Arthur,  an  Englishman,  struck  without  notice. They  were


1867-77.  59

not  taken  back,  and  the  road  in  a  few  days  obtained  other  men.  Report
of  the  Massachusetts  Railroad  Commissioners  on  this  strike,  recommend-
ing penal  statutes  against  such  action  in  future,  was  published  February
21,  1877.  The  success  of  the  railroad,  and  some  subsequent  similar
cases,  pretty  much  broke  the  power  of  the  "Brotherhood."  Extensive
series  of  riots  and  railroad  and  other  strikes  in  the  United  States,  begin-
ning at  Martinsburg.  in  West  Virginia,  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail-
road, July  16,  1877.  The  strikers  were  in  many  places  joined  by  outlaws
and  criminals,  who  set  fires,  robbed,  and  committed  violence  of  various
kinds.  State  and  National  troops  were  called  out  in  large  numbers,  and
the  trouble  gradually  ceased,  but  not  without  the  destruction  of  vast
amounts  of  property  and  great  interruption  of  travel,  transportation,  and
communication.  It  was  reckoned  that  about  9,000  miles  of  railroad  were
blocked  on  this  occasion,  and  no  through  line  to  the  sea-coast  within  the
United  States  was  left  open.  Board  of  Arbitration  for  amicable  settle-
ment of  questions  between  workingmen  and  employers,  formed  by  Act
of  Parliament  in  Great  Britain  in  1866,  after  a  great  strike  in  that  year,
but  its  usefulness  was  only  temporary.

SUEZ  CANAL.  (See  p.  186.)  "Work  commenced  1858.  First  ship  goes
through,  February  17,  1867.  Canal  formally  opened,  November  17,  1868.
£4,080,000  voted  by  the  House  of  Commons,  for  the  purchase  by  England
of  the  canal  shares  belonging  to  the  Khedive  of  Egypt;  purchase  an-
nounced, November  26,  1875.

SUICIDES.  (See  p.  602.)  Inquests  on  suicides  in  England  and  Wales  in
ten  years :

1870 1,517


1865 1,397

1866 1,360

1867 1,356

1868 1,546

1869 1,562


1871 1,464

1872 1,455

1873 1,481

1874 1,549


SUN.  (See  p.  603.)  Cycle  of  changes  in  number  of  sun's  spots  fixed  at
11  years  by  Schwabe  and  others,  1826-51.  Red  flames  at  edge  of  sun
during  an  eclipse,  shown  to  be  burning  hydrogen  by  Janssen,  August  18,
1868.  Unknown  substance  believed  to  exist  in  the  sun,  corresponding  to
line  1474  of  the  spectrum,  1870-71.  Substances  already  shown  by  the
spectroscope  to  exist  in  the  sun:  Aluminium,  barium,  cadmium,  calcium,
cerium,  chromium,  cobalt,  copper,  hydrogen,  iron,  lead,  magnesium,
manganese,  nickel,  sodium,  strontium,  titanium,  uranium,  zinc — all  fused
into  a  liquid  or  even  vaporous  state.

SUNDAY ;  Sunday  Laws.  Scientific  lectures  with  a  bearing  on  natural
religion  were  given  in  London  in  January,  1867,  by  Huxley,  Carpenter,
and  others,  with  sacred  music  in  the  intermissions.  On  legal  inquiry
(case  of  Baxter  v.  Baxter  Langley,  Nov.  19, 1868),  held  that  this  was  not  an
infraction  of  the  Sunday  Act  of  21,  George  III.  The  Boston  Publi*
Library  Reading-Room  opened  to  the  public  on  Sunday,  after  much  op-
position, February,  1873.

SWEDEN  and  NORWAY.  (See  pp.  189,  604.)  Religious  toleration  to
some  extent  (previously  a  rigid  and  exclusive  state  Lutheranism  pre-
vailed), 1860.  New  constitution,  December,  1864.  Charles  XV.  dies
Sept.  18,  1872.  Oscar  II.,  his  brother,  succeeds.  Population  of  Sweden,
Dec.  31,  1875,  4,383,291,  and  Norway  1,817,237.

SWIMMING  DRESS,  Boyton's. (See  Life-Saving.)
3*


6o  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

SWITZERLAND.  (See  pp.  189,  606.)  Mermillod,  papal  nuncio,  expelled,
January  16,  1873  Revised  federal  constitution  adopted,  April  19,  1874
Swiss  National  Catholic  Church  ("Old  Catholic")  established  June,  1874
Civil  marriage  law  adopted,  May  23,  1875. Population,  1870,  2,669,147.

SYLLABUS  of  errors  in  modern  times,  issued  along  with  an  encyclical  let-
ter by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  December  8,  1864,  condemned  heresy,  modern
philosophy,  political  liberalism,  etc.  Adopted  by  the  Vatican  Council,
1870.

TALMUD.  (See  p.  609.)  The  Talmud  has  been  translated  into  Arabic,
and  parts  of  it  into  Latin  and  into  modern  languages.  Raphall  and  de
Sola  translated  eighteen  treatises  of  the  Mishna  or  text  into  English,  Lon-
don, 1847.

TAXES.  (See  pp.  189,610;  also  Revenue  :  National  Debt  ;  etc.)  National,
State,  and  municipal  taxes  in  United  States,  estimated  in  1876  at  $730,-
000,000  a  year,  or  about  $19.00  for  each  soul.

TEA.  (See  pp.  189,  610.)  Importation  into  the  United  States,  and  value,
1869-1876  :

Lbs.  Value.

1869 39,141,755 $13,687,750

1870 40,812,188 13,871,546

1871  46,972,787 17,254,617

1872 56,974,100 22,943,575

1873 57,870,700 24,466,170

1874 49,831,800 21,112,234

1875 64,856,899 22,673,703

1876 62,887,153 19,524,166

Imported  into  England  in  1875,  197,505,316  lbs.  ;  worth  £13,766,961.

TELEGRAPH.  The  English  Government  in  1869  bought  out  the  English
telegraph  companies  on  the  basis  of  paying  twenty  years'  profits  for  the
property.  The  companies  claimed  £7,035,977 ;  on  a  valuation  this  sum
was  reduced  to  £5,715,047,  of  which  the  profit  item  was  £5,220,109.
£700,000  were  also  paid  to  railroad  companies  for  telegraph  rights,  and
some  other  items  carried  the  whole  government  expenditure  to  about
£6,750,000,  or  $33,750,000.  The  government  estimate  of  returns  was,
annual  revenue  expected,  £673,838;  expenses,  £359,484;  net  profit.
£314,354 ;  and  deducting  three  and  one-half  or  four  per  cent,  interest  on
the  government  securities  issued  to  buy  with,  there  would  remain  a  sur-
plus of  £77,000  or  £44,000,  as  the  case  might  be.  The  result,  however,
has  been  thus  far  (1877)  a  loss  instead  of  a  profit.  February  16,  1871,  at
9.8  P.M.,  a  telegram  was  received  at  London  which  was  sent  from  Kur-
rachee,  in  India,  at  12.43  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day.

TELEPHONE.  Bell's,  Gray's,  and  Edison's  telephones  were  brought  before
the  public  in  1876  and  1877.  One  was  invented  by  Philip  Reiss,  a  Ger-
man, about  1862.  Bell's  operates  by  means  of  talking  and  listening  into
a  "funnel"  or  small  drum-head  (or  an  equivalent  mechanism),  which
vibrates  over  an  electro -magnet  in  an  electric  circuit.  Gray's  acts  by  the
vibrations  of  tuning-forks.  They  are  all  contrivances  to  convey  sound
along  an  electric  circuit.

TELESCOPE.  (See  p.  611.)  Lord  Rosse's  great  telescope,  Efty-two  feet
long,  seven  feet  diameter,  erected  1828-45,  cost  over  £20,000.  Newall'g
telescope,  with  jbject-glass  25  inches  aperture,  set  up  at  Gateshead,  Eng-
land, 1870.


-180T— 7  7 .  6r

TENURE  of  OFFICE  ACT.  Passed  March  2,  1867,  in  order  to  limit  tha
power  of  President  Johnson.  It  required  the  consent  of  the  Senate  to  re-
move as  well  as  to  appoint  officials.

THOMASSEN. (See  Explosions  )

TICHBORNE  CASE.  May  11,  1871,  this  case,  in  which  the  claimant  of
the  Tichborne  estate,  calling  himself  Sir  Roger  Tichborne,  was  asserted
by  the  defendants  to  be  a  butcher  named  Arthur  Orton,  came  on  for  trial.
After  occupying  103  days  (the  Attorney-General,  Sir  J.  D.  Coleridge,
spoke  twenty-six  days),  claimant  nonsuited,  and  held  for  perjury  and
forgery;  trial  began  April  23,  1872;  verdict  of  perjury,  February  28,
1874.  Longest  trial  known  in  England ;  sentence  fourteen  years  at  bard
labor.

TICKET  op  LEAVE.  A  permit  granted  to  convicts  supposed  likely  to
behave  well.  2,666  persons  thus  liberated  in  England  in  1856.  In  1861-3
the  system  appeared  a  failure,  these  liberated  convicts  committing  many
crimes,  and  the  device  was  practically  discontinued  by  the  Penal  Servitude
Act,  1864.

TORPEDO.  For  submarine  warfare,  invented  by  David  Bushnell,  of  Say-
brook,  Conn.,  and  tried  on  British  vessels  unsuccessfully,  except  that  it
greatly  frightened  thom,  1777  ;  much  used  in  rebellion,  1861-5.  Torpedc
departments  have,  since  the  introduction  of  iron- clad  war-ships,  been  in-
troduced into  all  navy  organizations.

TRADES-UNIONS.  (See  Battening ;  Strikes.)  National  Federation  of
Employers  formed  in  England,  to  counteract  Trades-Unions.  Parliamen-
tary report  on  persecutions  by  the  Saw-Grinders'  Union  of  Sheffield,  and
similar  practices,  dated  August  21,  1867.  Forty-five  trades-unions  in
New  York  City  in  1869  had  24.425  members  ;  in  1876  many  of  them  had
been  discontinued,  and  the  membership  was  less  than  15,000.  The  whole
number  in  the  United  States  in  1872-3  was  estimated  at  1,500,  of  which
eleven  had  a  national  organization,  and  ten  an  international  one.  The
fifth  annual  Trades-Union  Congress  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  at
Leeds,  January  13,  1873,  included  representatives  from  ninety-nine  socie-
ties, one  of  which  contained  140.000  members.

TREASON-FELONY.  Term  applied  in  an  English  Act  of  1848,  to  certain
treasons  mitigated  to  felonies,  and  made  punishable  by  imprisonment  or
transportation. The  Fenians  were  tried  under  this  act  in  1865.

TRIALS.  (See  pp.  191,  623;  also  Ticliborne  Case, ;  Ritualism,  and  Fn-chas
Case.)  Saurin  v.  Starr,  '  the  convent  case,'1  by  an  ex-inmate  of  a  U  >man
Catholic  convent  at  Hull.  England,  against  the  Superior  and  others,  for
conspiracy,  etc.,  occupied  three  weeks  in  trying,  in  the  year  1889.  The
plaintiff  recovered  £500.  July  15,  was  tried  at  Carmarthen.  Wales,  the
"  Welsh  Fasting  Girl  Case."  The  girl's  parmts,  Evan  and  Hannah
Jacobs,  had  made  a  show  of  their  daughter,  pretending  that  she  had  lived
for  months  without  food;  and  when  some  competent  persons  were  sent
from  Gray's  Hospital  to  watch  the  child,  the  parents  let  her  die.  They
were  convicted,  and  imprisoned  at  hard  labor,  the  father  for  twelve,  and
the  mother  for  six  months.  November  26,  1870,  Rev.  Mr.  Mackonochie,
a  "  ritualist,"  incumbent  of  St.  Albans,  Holborn,  London,  was  suspended
for  three  months  from  clerical  duty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  costs,  for  dis-
obeying the  monitions  of  the  Privy  Council  about  elevating  the  paten  and
prostrating  himself before  the  consecrated  elements. February,  1870,


62  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

the  case  of  Lady  Mordaunt,  whose  husband  had  sued  for  a  divorce,  r©>
suited  in  a  stay  of  proceedings  on  the  ground  of  Lady  Mordaunt's  insanity.
The  Prince  of  Wales  had  been  reported  concerned  in  the  scandal,  but
denied  it  on  the  witness-stand.  November  10,  1871,  there  was  a  curioua
libel  suit  at  London.  One  John  Hampden,  who  maintains  that  the  earth
is  flat  and  not  round,  had  bet  £500  with  a  Mr.  Wallace  on  this  question,
and  the  money  had  been  paid  to  Mr.  Wallace  by  the  referee  on  deciding
the  bet,  as  agreed.  Upon  this  Hampden  began  a  system  of  sending
about  libellous  postal  cards,  accusing  the  referee  of  fraud.  On  trial
he  made  an  ample  apology,  and  was  let  off.  February  11,  1871,  judgment
was  given  by  the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  in  the  Voysey
case,  in  which  Rev.  C.  Voysey  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  in  maintaining
and  teaching  various  alleged  infidel  doctrines.  The  tribunal  found  that
he  contradicted  and  impugned  the  thirty -nine  articles  in  respect  to  original
sin,  the  incarnation,  the  atonement,  the  trinity,  the  authority  of  scripture,
and  other  points,  and  sentenced  him  to  deprivation  and  payment  of  costs.
By  final  decisions  in  1877,  Mrs.  Gaines,  after  forty  years'  litigation,
obtains  title  to  a  great  mass  of  real  estate  in  New  Orleans.

TRICHINA.  A  minute  worm  living  in  the  muscles  of  hogs  and  other
animals ;  transferred  into  those  who  eat  the  infected  meat,  and  causes  a
disease,  sometimes  fatal,  called  trichiniasis.  First  found  in  human  mus-
cle by  Owen,  1832.  Thorough  boiling  kills  them.  Much  attention  to  the
subject,  18(55-6.

TROY.  Dr.  Schliemann,  1872-3,  discovered  on  the  hill  of  Hissarlik  re-
mains of  three  different  ancient  cities,  one  over  the  other,  and  much  an-
cient treasure,  part  of  which  he  called  the  "  treasure  of  Priam."  He  be-
lieved the  site  to  be  that  of  ancient  Troy  ;  his  book  translated  and  pub-
lished in  English,  1875.

TUNNEL.  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  seven  and  one-half  miles  long ;  began
August  31,  1857;  boring  completed,  December  25,  1870;  cost  about
$13,000,000.  A  tunnel  under  the  English  Channel,  from  Dover  to  Ca-
lais, proposed,  August,  18(59,  by  Bateman  and  Revy  ;  plans  by  Thome  de
Gamond  shown  in  Paris,  1867  :  a  convention  in  favor  of  it  signed  for
France  by  M.  Chevalier,  January.  1875,  and  a  thirty  years'  monopoly
granted  ;  French  and  English  companies  formed ;  experimental  borings
in  the  chalk  at  the  sides  of  the  channel  indicate  that  the  rock  is  such  as
to  make  the  scheme  practicable.  Hoosac  Tunnel,  under  Hoosac  Moun-
tain, in  Western  Massachusetts,  begun  1856 ;  completed,  1873  ;  four  and
three-fourths  miles  long.  Sutro  Tunnel,  to  drain  the  Comstock  Lode
and  other  silver  mines  in  Nevada,  estimated  cost,  $8,000,000  ;  to  be  21,-
178  feet,  and  with  all  branches  and  shafts,  43,088  feet.

TURKEY.  (See  pp.  192,  626.)  Insurrection  in  Herzegovina,  June,  1875,
extending  more  or  less  into  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Servia  The  "  An-
drassy  note,"  suggesting  reforms  in  Turkey,  presented  to  the  Sultan's
Government  by  the  Austro-Hungarian.  German,  Italian,  and  Russian  am-
bassadors, January  31,  1876.  On  the  6th  February,  an  answer  promises
religious  liberty  and  other  reforms.  February  14,  decree  issued  order-
ing them.  Risings  in  Bosnia,  early  in  March,  1876.  Insurgents  in  Herze-
govina blockading  Nicsics  ;  defeat  Turks  under  Mukhtar  Pasha,  April  15,
1876.  Turks  defeat  insurgents  at  Prejeska,  April  23.  In  May,  1876,
risings  in  Bulgaria  put  down  by  the  Turks  with  frightful  cruelty  and  out-
rages. Consuls  of  France  and  Germany  assassinated  at.Salonica,  by  Mo-


1867-77.


63


hammedan  fanatics,  May  6,  1876.  May  11,  1876,  the  "  Berlin  memo-
randum," agreed  on  by  Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria,  at  Berlin,  requir-
ing prompt  fulfilment  of  the  Turkish  promises  made  in  reply  to  the
Andrassy  note.  England  refused  to  join  in  this  demand,  and  it  was
dropped.  May  12,  1876,  riots  at  Constantinople,  headed  by  the  softas
(students  of  law  and  religion),  against  the  government.  Abdul  Aziz  de-
throned by  his  ministers,  May  27th,  and  was  found  dead  (said  to  have
committed  suicide),  June,  1876.  Murad,  nephew  of  Abdul  Aziz,  made
Sultan,  May  30th  ;  deposed,  August  31,  1876,  and  succeeded  by  his
younger  brother,  Abdul-Hamid  II.  June  12. 1876,  Prince  Milan  of  Servia
proclaims  that  the  insurrections  around  him  force  him  to  put  Servia  under
arms.  June  15,  1876,  Hassan  Bey,  a  Circassian  captain  in  the  Turkish
army,  enters  the  ministerial  council-room,  shoots  dead  the  Ministers  of
War  and  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  killed  or  wounded  six  other  officials  be-
fore he  was  secured.  He  was  hanged  two  days  afterwards.  Prince  of
Servia  and  Hospodar  of  Montenegro  jointly  declare  war  against  Turkey,
July  2,  1876.  Turkey  announces  that  no  payments  can  be  made  on  the
public  debt  "  until  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire  have  become  more
settled,"  July  9,  1876.  Decisive  defeat  of  the  Servians  by  the  Turks  at
Alexinatz,  October  28,  1876,  and  Alexinatz  occupied  the  31st  by  the  vic-
tors. Mr.  Gladstone's  powerful  pamphlet  on  the  Bulgarian  atrocities,
published  September  6,  1876.  Armistice  for  six  weeks  with  Servia
granted  by  Turkey,  under  pressure  from  the  powers,  November  1,  1876.
Conferences  of  the  powers  at  Constantinople  to  try  to  avert  war  begun
December  11, 1876.  Represented  :  Great  Britain,  Austro-Hungary,  France,
Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  Turkey.  A  constitution,  providing  for  represen-
tatives, a  legislative  assembly,  etc.,  proclaimed,  December  2.4,  1876,  in
order  to  avert  European  intervention. For  the  war,  see  Russia.


U.


UNITED  STATES.  (See  pp.  193,  631 ;  also  Centennial,  etc.;  Chronological
Tables,  p.  205,  etc.)  In  1870  there  were  in  the  TJnitod  States,  3,603,844
square  miles  or  1,942,000,000  acres,  half  of  it  public  lands,  and  less  than
one-tenth  of  it  cultivated.  Population,  1870,  without  Indians,  38,558,371 ;
estimated,  June  1,  1876,  45,627,000  ;  expected  at  census  of  1880  to  be
fifty  millions.  Value  of  all  real  and  personal  property  (1870),  $30,068-
518,507;  paupers,  116,102;  convicted  of  crime,  36,562;  in  prison,  June
1,  1870,  32,901 ;  religious  congregations  of  all  kinds,  72,459;  church  edi-
fices 63,082;  sittings,  21,665,062,  or  4  to  every  7  souls.

UNIVERSITIES.  Students  and  professors,  etc. ,  in  German  ones,  June,  1876  :


Professors

and  Teachers.

Students.

197

2,143

100

707

107

. ... 1,116

54

429

„69 ...

S74

54

315

(Jottingen  .

Greif  swald .

M

444

Halle

98

870

Heidelberg.

104

488

73

440

61

202

Professors
and  Teachers.

Konigsberg 83

Leipzig 156

Marburg 65

Munich 116

Munster 29

Kostock 39

Strassburg 90

Tubingen 84

Wurzburg 67


21


1,800


Students.
611

2,925
401

1,203
431
153
677
823
984

. 16,625


64  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

Add  to  these  2,377  unmatriculated,  "permitted  to  attend  lectures"  (oi
which  1,963  at  Berlin  alone),  and  there  are  18,999  students;  14  universi-
ties are  Protestant ;  the  theological  faculty  being  Roman  Catholic  at  Frei-
burg, Munich,  Minister,  and  Wurzburg,  and  mixed  at  Bonn,  Breslau,  and
Tubingen.


VATICAN  COUNCIL,  called  the  Twenty-first  (Ecumenical  or  General
Council,  summoned  by  encyclical  letter  of  September  8,  1868 ;  met  at
Rome,  December  8,  1869;  present,  803  members;  there  were  four  public
sessions,  and  from  90  to  100  "  congregations."  New  canons  issued  April
24,  1870;  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  affirmed  by  547  to  2,  and  the
doctrine  promulgated  July  18,  1870.

VEDAS.  Hindoo  sacred  books,  consisting  of  hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgies.
There  are  three  portions  of  them — the  Rig- Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva-
Veda — the  first  being  much  the  oldest  and  dating  to  1,000  or  more  years
B.C.  Max  Midler's  edition  (in  Sanscrit)  began  to  appear  1849;  Wilson's
translation,  1850.

VELOCIPEDE.  One  invented  by  Blanchard,  the"  aeronaut,  about  1779  ;
one  by  Niepce,  1818  ;  came  into  use  again  about  1861,  and  are  still  (1877)
more  or  less  employed.

VENDOMB  COLUMN.  Pulled  down  by  the  communists,  May  16,  1871 ;
restored  August  31,  1874;  statue  of  Napoleon  replaced  at  top,  December,

1875.  Courbet  the  painter  was  condemned  to  a  fine  of  30,000  francs  for
his  participation  in  overturning  it.

VENEZUELA.  (See  p.  634.)  Presidents:  Falcon,  March  18,1865;  Mo-
nagas,  June  to  November,  1865  ;  Pulgar,  December,  1865  ;  Blanco,  July,
1870.  and  re-elected  1873,  1875.  Conflict  with  Roman  Catholic  Church  on
civil  marriage  ;  papal  authority  renounced  by  the  government,  September,

1876.  Area  about  403,261  square  miles  ;  population  (1873),  1,784,194.
VENUS,  Transit  op. (See  Astronomy.)

VESUVIUS.  (See  pp.  194,  636.)  Recent  eruptions:  spring  and  sum-
mer, 1860 ;  December,  1861 ;  February,  1865  ;  November  12,  1867  to
April,  1868  ;  October  8  to  November  20,  1869;  April  23  to  May  3,  1872.

VICTORIA,  in  Australia.  (See  p.  194.)  Capital,  Melbourne.  Popula-
tion, estimated  March  31,  1876,  at  829,824.

VISIBLE  SPEECH.  A  universal  system  of  delineating  sounds  in  which
each  letter  is  a  diagram  of  the  position  of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering  it.
Invented  by  A.  M.  Bell ;  explained  by  him,  and  a  book  on  it  published,
London,  1866 ;  introduced  in  America  by  him  and  his  son,  J.  G.  Bell,
the  inventor  of  a  telephone,  about  1872.

VIVISECTION.  Efforts  to  prevent  it  have  been  made  since  1859  ;  gener-
ally opposed  by  scientific  physiologists  and  medical  men.  Bill  to  regulate
it  in  Great  Britain,  August  15.  1876,  by  restricting  it  to  licensed  persons.

W.

WAGES.  (See  pp,  196,  640;  also  Strikes,  Trades- Unions.)  In  New  York,
from  1870  to  1876,  wages  in  fifty  eight  trades  fell  from  10  to  20  per  cent.


1867-7?.  65

In  England,  wages  were  often  raised  by  the  strikes,  1874-75.  Yearly
total  of  wages  paid  in  United  Kingdom,  1866,  estimated  at  from  £250,-
000,000  to  £418,300,000,  earned  by  10,697,000  working  people,  between
20  and  60  years  of  age.

WAHABEES.  Fanatical  reforming  Mohammedans,  a  kind  of  Puritans  ;
arose  in  Arabia  about  1750  ;  in  1803  seized  Mecca  and  Medina ;  were
defeated  by  Egyptian  forces  1818 ;  are  at  present  prosperous  in  Arabia,
and  there  are  some  of  them  in  India.  Palgrave's  Journey  in  Arabia,  1865,
is  a  good  account  of  them.

WAR.  (See  pp.  196,  643  ;  a\&oArmy  ;  Battles  ;  Navy  ;  National  Debt ;  etc.)
An  estimate  from  1853  to  1877  shows  the  following  deaths  and  expenses
in  one  quarter-century  of  Christian  war.


Crimean  war $1,700,000,000

Italian  war  (1859) 300.000,000

U.  S.  rebellion  (North) 4,700,000,000

U.  S.  rebellion  (South) 2.300,000,000

Schleswig-Holstein  war .... 35,000,000


Austro-Prussian  war  (1866) 330,000,000

Franco-Prussian 2,500.000,000

Other  wars,  etc 200,000,000


Total  cost |12,065,000,000


And  deaths  (not  complete).

Crimean  war 475,000  |  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866 . . 45,000

Italian  war  1859 45,000 Franco-Prussian  war 215,000

Schleswig-Holstein  war 3,000 -

U.  S.  rebellion 800,000  | Total  deaths 1,183,000

These  deaths  are  nearly  all  of  the .  strongest  young  men,  from  25  to  35
years  old.

WATCHES. (See  p.  646  ;  also  Clocks  and  Watches.)

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.  Includes  all  New  Holland  west  of  190°  E.
longitude,  being  estimated  at  978,000  square  miles.  The  settled  part  is
not  more  than  one-eighth  of  this  area.  Population,  March  31,  1870,  in-
cluding 1,470  convicts,  24,785.  First  settled  1829,  and  was  then  called
the  Swan  River  Settlement.

WOERTH.  Defeat  of  the  French  under  McMahon  by  the  Germans  under
the  Crown-Prince  of  Prussia,  after  most  obstinate  and  bloody  fighting,
August  6,  1870.  The  French  said  to  have  charged  the  German  line  and
broken  it  eleven  times,  always,  however,  finding  fresh  troops  behind.

WRECKS.  (See  pp.  198,  658;  also  Life-Saving  Seamen.)  Of  1803  casual-
ties to  vessels  on  the  British  coast  in  the  year  1873-74,  346  were  total
wrecks,  and  506  lives  were  lost.  Lives  (saved  chiefly  by  life-boats),  in
1871,  on  British  coast,  4,336.


YACHT.  (See  p.  199.)  July  4,  1870,  an  "  international  "  yacht  race  was
begun,  from  Cork  to  New  York,  between  the  English  yacht  Cambria  and
the  American  one  Dauntless.  The  Cambria  won,  arriving  at  4  P.M.  of
July  27,  the  Dauntless,  taking  a  more  northerly  route,  came  in  two  hours
later.  October  16,  1871,  and  six  subsequent  days,  took  place  an  inter-
national yacht  race  between  the  English  yacht  the  Livonia  and  the  yachts
of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club.  The  Columbia  and  Sappho,  of  New  York,
won  four  out  of  the  first  five  races,  deciding  the  match.


66  the  world's  progress.


z.

ZANZIBAR.  Set  off  from  Muscat,  1806,  for  Majid,  a  son  of  the  Seyyid
(lord)  of  Muscat.  At  Majid's  death,  October  7,  1870,  Barghash,  his
brother,  succeeded.  Treaty  with  England  abolishing  slave  trade,  June  5,
1873.

ZEND  AVESTA.  The  present  Zend  Avesta  is  said  by  the  Parsees  to  be
only  three  out  of  the  original  twenty-one  nosks  or  books.  It  consists  of
hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgies,  much  as  the  Vedas  do,  and  is  in  three
parts,  the  Vispered,  Vendidad,  and  Yacnas.  The  five  G-athas  or  hymns
in  the  Vendidad  are  considered  the  oldest  part.  Their  age  is  very  doubt-
ful, though  in  part  unquestionably  great.  Anquetil  Duperron's  French
version,  1771  ;  Burnouf's,  1829-43  ;  Spiegel's,  in  German,  a  later  one.  is
the  best ;  and  an  English  version  of  this  by  Bleeck  was  published  at
Hertford,  England,  1864.


BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  U.  S.  TREASURY  DEPARTMENT.


[Forf  the  following  ptatietics  w  3  are  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Hon.  Alex  ANt  er  Del*  ae
Director  of  the  Bureau.]

CUSTOMS  Duties  Received  in  1866.

*  During  the  Quarter  ending  March  31,  1866 $46,645,597.83

*  "  "  June  30, " 46,175,132.33

*  "  "  Sept.  30, " 50,843,774.24

t '4  "  Dec.  81, " 37,803,027.54

$181,467,531.94
*  Official. t  Commercial  and  Financial  Chronicle,  March  30,  1867.


Year.

1860,

1861,

1862,

1863,

1364,

1865,  S
1865, I

1866,  \
1866,  }


[G  Statistics:

Tonnage  of

the  United  States.

Registered.

Enrolled  and  Licensed.

Sail.

Steam.

Sail

Steam.

2,448,941

97,296

2,036,990

770,641

2,540,020

102,608

2,122,589

774,596

2,177,253

113,998

2,224,449

596,465

1,892,899

133,215

2,660,212

439,755

1,475,376

106,519

2,550,690

853,816

old, 1,031,465

60,539

1,794,372

630,411

new, 482,110

28,469

730,695

338,720

old, 341,619

42,776

443,635

114,269

new, 953,018

155,513

1,489,194

770,754

Total.
Tonnage.
5,353,868
5,539,813
5,112,165
5,126,081
4,986.401
3,516,787
1,579,994

942,299
3,368,479


EXPORTS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  from  New  York during  the  vear  ending
June  30,  1 867

Domestic.  Foreign.  Total.

In  Am.  Vessels. In  For.  Vessels. In  Am.  Vessels.  In  For.  Vessels.
Gold  Bullion,...  298,854  8,425,227

Gold  Coin, 1,500,041  1 5,800,152

Silver  Bullion,.  706,081  8,186,837

Silver  Coin 248,978  1,581,753


Total,


2,753,954


33,993,969


1,490,761


none.
1,418,853
18,939
1,521,062


2,958,854 41,197,538


8,724,081

19,902,62e

8,911,857

3,658,974


COFFEE  Statistics. Statement  exhibiting  the  consumption  of  coffee in  the

United  States  during  the  years  ending  December  31,  .861,  1862,  1863,  1861,
1865,  and  1866 :

Tear.  Pounds.  Tear.  Pounds.

1861,  187,046,00&  1864,  1081,087,004.

1862,  88,990,000  1H65,  128,146,000


863,


79,720,000


H65,
1866,


169.915.840


68


UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS


See  page  68,  Reports  of  Revenue  Commission,  1865-66.  The  quantities  given
for  the  first  five  years  are  substantially  those  named  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the
Ne~j>  York  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  1866-66.

The  quantity  for  1866  is  taken  from  tfc»  Supplement  to  H  E.  Mbring's  Monthly
Coffee  Circular,  1867.


'OX  Statistics.

Production.

Exported.

Aoerage  Prict

Tear.

Bales.

Pounds

Bales.

per  pound.

1860-61,

3,656,086

3,126,622

17A2 cents.

1861-62,

est.

4,800,000

5,064,564  = say

12,000

42.15 "

1862-63,

est.

1.500,000

11,384,986 - say

26,000

71  08 "

1863-64,

est.

'500,000

10,830,534 = say

25,000

$111.14 "

1864-65,

est.

300,000

6,607.186 = say

15,000

75.75

1865-66,

2,214,476

1,554,744

44. "

1866-67,

est.

1,900,000

est.

1,500,000

32.5 "

The  figures  relative  to  production,  except  for  ]  866-6*7,  were  derived  from
Neil  Bros.  &  Co.'s  Cotton  Circular  for  October  16,  1866.  The  receipts  at  all
ports  from  September  1,  1866,  to  July  6,  1867,  are  given  as  1,863,000  bales,  and
the  total  exports  for  the  same  period  as  1,463,000  bales.  Messrs.  Cornwall  &
Zerega  in  their  Circular  give  the  receipts  from  September  1,  1866,  to  July  12,
1867,  as  1,809,500  bales.

The  number  of  pounds  exported  are  taken  from  Table  19,  page  349,  Finance
Report,  1866.  The  same  table  gives  the  exports  for  1860-61,  as  only  307,528,-
489  pounds,  or  say  720,000  bales.  The  Rev.  Com.  (see  Report,  p.  74),  gives  the
<xports  for  1860-61,  including  stock  on  hand,  as  2,812,346  bales.


EA  Statistics.  Statement  exhibiting  the  consumption  of  tea  in  the  United
States  during  the  years  ending  December  31,  1861,  1862,  1S63,  1864,  1865,
and  1866 :

Tear.  Oreen,  Japan.  Black.  Total.

Pounds.  Pounds.  Pounds.

1861,  7,485,000  18,035,000  25,520,00  i

13,871,600  13,597,000  27,468,600

14,490,680  12,415,685  26,906,865

13,564,295  9,573,251  23,137,546

18,874,199  10,979,234  29,853,433

29,643,187

See  Reports  of  Revenue  Commission,  1865-66,  pp.  53,  55.  The  above  are
estimates  made  from  data  furnished  the  Commission  by  parties  in  the  trade  in
New  York,  except  for  1866,  which  is  taken  from  Messrs.  Montgomery's  Tea  Cir-
cular. The  Commission  estimated  the  consumption  for  1866  at  30,000,000
pounds.

The  Pacific  States  are  not  included  in  the  above,  except  for  1866,  nor  is  any
allowance  made  for  smuggling.  The  estimated  consumption  in  1860,  was  one
pound  per  capita.


1H62,
1863,
1864,
1865,
1866,


OBAC(

X)  Statistics.

Year

Production

Exported.

Average  prict

Pounds.

Leaf,  pounds.

Manuf'd,  lbs.

Total.

per  lb.,  LeaJ

1861,

1862,
1863
1864
1865,

est  200,000,000
136,736,596
276,850,870
197,460,229
185,316  953

««t 330. 501  ,'500

est. 160,000,000
est. 107,000,000
est. 112,000,000
est, 110,000,0«
ear,. 149,COS,0«*

ian,'s?a  m

14,783,363
4,071,963

7,025,248
8,586,494
7,294. '65
6,515.709

174,783,363
111,071,963
119,025,248
118,586,49-1
156.294,105
197.3-H.957

9. centH.
11  9 "
14  9 "
14.85 "
12.6 "
13 "

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.  69

The  production  for  1862,  1863,  1864  and  1865  is  given  as  found  in  the  Re
ports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  estimated  production  for  1866  is
taken  from  the  Tobacco  Circular  of  M.  Rader  &  Son.

The  quantities  of  leaf  tobacco  exported  are  estimated  from  the  returns  oi
commerce  a.nd  navigation  for  the  years  1861,  1862,  1863,  1864,  and  1865.  The
quantities  of  leaf  for  1866,  and  of  manufactured  tobacco  for  each  year  specified,
are  taken  from  the  returns  of  commerce  and  navigation  for  those  years.

In  1862,  the  production  of  only  twenty-one  States  is  given,  Kentucky  and
the  disloyal  States  being  omitted.  In  1863, 1864,  and  1865  Kentucky  is  included,
and  in  1866  all  the  States.


:at

Statistics.

Tear

s. Production.

Exported.

Av.  Frice  per  bu

Bushels.

Wheat,  bushels.

Flour,  bbls.

at  1'ew  York.

1861,
1862,
1863,
1864,
1865,
1866,

189,993,500
191,068,239
171,695,823
159,522,827
151,999,906

31,238,057
37,289,572
36,160,414
23,681,712
9,937,152
5,579,103

4,323,756
4,882,038
4,390,055
3,557,347
2,604,542
2,183,050

$1,18  to  $1.46
1.30  to 1.50
1.83  to 1.58
1.48  to 1.83
2.22  to 2.70
1.85  to 2.75

No  returns  of  the  pVoduction  of  1861  are  to  be  had,  although  inquiry  was
aaade  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture.

The  figures  relative  to  production  in  1862,  1863,  1864,  1865,  and  1866  are
taken  from  the  Monthly  and  Annual  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,
and  embrace  22  States  and  Nebraska  Territory,  except  1866,  which  embraces  29
States  and  Nebraska  Territory.  There  being  no  returns  from  California  in  1864
and  1865,  the  crop  for  each  year  is  estimated  at  11,000,000  bushels,  which  is
believed  to  be  a  low  estimate,  the  crop  for  1863  being  11,664,203  bushels.  A
barrel  of  flour  is  considered  as  equal  to  5  bushels  of  wheat.


STATISTICS,  TEARS  1867-77.


(From  public  documents  and  other  standard  sources.)

REVENUE  of  the  United  States  from  customs  for  ten  years  (to  June  30),
1867-1876.

1867 $176,417,810.88

1868 164,464,599.56

1869 180,048.426.63

1870 194,538,374.44

1871 206,270,408.05

For  the  first  five  months  of  the  years  ending  June  30,  1877  and  1876,  the
revenue  from  customs  was  as  follows :

1877.  1876.  Decrease.

$57,801,772.50  $68,170,576.48  $10,368,803.98


1872 $216,370,286.77

1873 188,089,522.70

1874 163,103,833.69

1875 157,167,722.35

1876 148,071,984.61


COIN  and  BULLION  exported  from  the  United  States  for  seven  years,
1868-9  to  1874-5,  ending  June  30.

1868-9 $42,915,966  I  1872-3 ...$73,905,546

1869  70 43,881,861  1873-4 59,699,686

1870-1 84.403,359  I  1874-6 83,857,139

1871-2 72,798,240  |


7°


UNITED FTA.TES TREASURY STATISTICS.


COTTON. Production  and  exports  of  United  States  for  nine  years  (ending
June  30),  1868  to  1876.

Production,  bales — . ,

O/440  lbs.  Exported,  pounds.

1868 2,593,993  784,763,633

1869 2,439,039  644,327,921

1870 3,154,946  958,558,523

1871 4,352,317  1,462,928,024

1872 2,974,351  933,537,413

1873 3,930,508  1,200,063,530

1874 4,170,388  1,358,602,303

1875 3,832,991  1,260,418,903

1876 4,600,000  1,491,405,336


SHIPPING  of  the  United  States,

nine  years,  1867-18'

rs.

rchant  Marh

Registered  (tons).

Total  Me

le  (tons).

Enrolled

Licensed

Sail.

Steam.

Licensed.

20  tons.

Sail.

Steam.

All.

1867

1,187,714

165,522

2,563,232

41,047

2,834,565

1,122,980

3,957,515

1868 1,310,844

221,939

2,733,167

52,860

8,118,895

1,199,415

4,318,310

1869, 1,353,170  -

213,252

2,526,093

62,126

3,041,073

1,103,568

4,144,641

18701 1,324.256

192,544

2,677,940

51,767

4,171,412

1,075,095

4,246,507

1871 1,244,228

180,914

2,805,374

62,191

3,194,970

1,087,637

4,282,607

1872 1,232,982

177,666

2,971,309

55,790

3,326,194

1,111,553

4,437,747

18731 1,229,865

193,423

3,215,915

56,824

6,539,584

1,156,443

4,696,027

18741 1,233,678

195,245

3,312,146

59,583

3,615,042

1,185,610

4,800,652

1875! 1.362,138

191,689

3,238,390

61,615

3,685,064

1,168,668

4,853,732

TOBACCO.

1876.


Product  and  exportation  of  United  States,  ten  years,  1867-


1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.

1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.


Production,  lbs.
313,724,000
320,982,000
273,775,000
250,628,600
263,196,100
342.304,000
372,810,000
178,355,000
379,347,000


Exported.  Leaf,  lbs.


181,537,630
1S5,747,181
215,667,604
234,936,892
213,995,176
318,097,804
223,901,713
218,310,265


WHEAT. Product  and  exportation  of  the  United  States,  nine  years,  end
ing  June  30,  viz.,  1867-1875  (in  bushels).


Production.

1867 212,441,400

1868 224,036,600

1869 ." 260,146,900

1870 235,884,700

1871 230,722,400

1872 240,997,100

1873 280,372,700

1874 306,102,70')

187»-


As  Wheat.
6,146,411
15,940,899
17,557,836
36,584,115
34,304,906
26,423,080
39,204.285
71,039.928
63,047,175


Exports.


As  Flour.
6,500,530
10,382,116
12,129,365
57,273,926
18,269,205
12,572,675
12,810,430
20,470,470
19,765,430


BIOGRAPHICAL  D'DEX

TO

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.


ff.  B.  Tliis  list  of  remarkable  persons,  from  the  earliest  period,  is  not,  of  course,  intended
to  include  every  name  mentioned  in  history,  but  merely  the  most  important  in  theii
several  departments.  The  names  of  Sovereigns  are  referred  to  occasionally  only,  as  full
lists  are  given  in  their  proper  place.

This  list  may  be  useful  in  two  ways,  viz.  .

First,  as  an  Index  to  the  names  mentioned  in  the  Chronological  Tables  in  the  "  World'i
Pr  -gross  ;  "  and

Secondly,  to  indicate,  by  reference  to  those  tables,  the  chief  political  events  and  con-
tei  aporary  public  characters  during  the  life  of  each  person  in  the  list.

Thus  :  Socrates,  the  Greek  philosopher,  was  born  470,  and  died  400  b.  o.  The  tablei
an  page  20  to  24  show  who  lived,  and  what  happened,  during  the  seventy  years  of  Socrates'
Ufe.

Milton  was  born  a.  d.  1608,  one  year  after  the  first  settlement  at  Jamestown,  "Virginia  ;
six  years  after  the  East  India  Company  was  founded  ;  five  years  after  James  I.  ascended
the  throi.e  ;  the  same  year  that  the  Protestant  Union  was  formed  in  Germany  ;  one  year
before  Gustavus  Adolphus  became  king  of  Sweden ;  two  years  before  Louis  XIII,  became
king  of  France.  He  was  12  years  old  when  the  Puritans  first  landed  at  Plymouth  ;  he
was  17  when  Charles  L  succeeded  James,  and  he  was  41  years  old  when  Charles  was  be-
headed. Among  his  contemporaries  were  Lord  Bacon,  Inigo  Jones,  Jeremy  Taylor,
Algernon  Sydney,  Sir  C.  Wren,  Butler,  Waller,  Dryden,  Henry  More,  Baxter,  and  Boyle,  in
England  ;  Peier  Stuyvesant,  Winthrop,  Cotton,and  Eliot,  in  America;  Richelieu,  Mazarine,
Colbert,  Rubens,  Kepler,  Descartes,  Moliere,  Corneille,  Racine,  Pascal,  on  the  Continent.
He  died  a.  d.  1674,  nine  years  after  tlie  great  plague  in  London,  14  years  after  Charles  II.
whs  restored,  and  7  years  after  New  York  was  ceded  to  the  English.

And  thus,  of  any  person  mentioned  in  the  Index,  a  great  variety  of  particulars  may  be
found  at  a  glance,  on  referring  to  the  tables.

Abbreviations. — See  list  in  the  Introduction.  Bar.  (Barbarian)  includes  several  different
natiotis,  some  not  entirely  civilized,  f.  is  used  for  flourished.  The  dates  before  Christ
are  indicated  by  b.  o. ;  all  others  are  A.  d. In  some  cases  the  dates  are  necessarily  left

blank.

NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Dan. Aagesend,  Svind,  historian ....
Jew. Aaron,  the  first  high-priest  .  .  .

Gr. Aaron,  of  Alexandria,  physician  .  .

Egypt Abbas,  pasha,  viceroy  of  Egypt  (grandson  of  Mehemet-All)
Eng. Abbot,  George,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  author .
Amer.  Abbott.  Benjamin,  distinguished  educationist
Amer.  Abbott  Jacob,  author  of  biographical  and  religions  works  .
Amer.  Abbott,  Jno.  S.  C,  historian  and  biographer .  .

Arab. Abd'el  Kader,  distinguished  warrior  .  .  ,,

Turk. Abdul  Medjid,  sultan  of  Turkey  .  .  ,

Eng. A'Becket,  Gilbert  A.,  comic  writer  .  .  ,

Amer.  Abeel,  David,  missionary  and  author  of  travels  ,

Nor. Abel,  Nicholas  H„  mathematician  .  ,  ,


BORN.

DIED.

. f.  1188

b.  c.  1570

1453

.  r.  022

1813

1854

. 1562

1623

1763

1849

1808

1805

1806

1866

1822

1810

1856

1804

1844

1802

71

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


8p.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Eng

Fr.

Fr.

Jew.

Fr.

Dan.

Aia.

Syr.

Rom.

ItaL

Ger.

Pruss.

Gr.

Gr.

Ital.

Gr.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Ger.

Eng.

Ire.

Rom.

Eng.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr

Gr.

Gr.

Rom.

Rom.


NAME AND PBOFESSIO.N.

Abenezra,  an  astrono-aer,  philosopher,  poet,  philologist,  &o.

Aberdeen,  Earl  of,  statesman  and  antiquary

Aberc:-ombie,  John,  author  of  '  Intellect  ualPowers'

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph,  military  commander

Abernethy,  John,  eminent  physician  and  medical  writer

Ablai-court,  N.  P.  D.,  translator  of  the  Classics

About,  Edmond,  novelist,  traveller,  &c.

Abra.'.;i.m,  the  great  progenitor  of  the  Jewish  nation

Abrantes,  duchess  d1,  biographer

Absalom  (real  name  Axcel)  archbishop  of  Den.,  Sw.,  and  Nor.

Abubeker,  father-in-law  and  successor  of  Mahomet

Abulfoda,  the  geographer  ....

Accius,  or  Attius,  a  tragic  poet  (works  not  extant)

Accursius,  or  Accorso,  an  eminent  critic

Accum,  Fred.,  operative  chemist  (in  England)  .

Ackerman,  Rudolph,  introduced  gas-lighting  and  lithog.  in  London 1764

Achilles,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Trojan  war  .  f.  b.

Achilles  Tatius  (of  Alexandria),  Christian  bishop  and  author

Achilli,  Gicvanni  G.,  protestant  preacher

Acropolita,  of  Constantinople,  statesman  and  historian

Adum.  Alexander,  schoolmaster  and  author  .  ,

Adam.  Robert,  an  architectural  author

Adapts,  John,  patriot  and  statesman,  2d  Pres.  U.  S.

,  John  Quincy,  diplomatist,  poet,  Pres.  U.  S.

,  Samuel,  one  of  the  patriotic  founders  of  the  republic

Addison  Joseph,  one  of  the  ornaments  of  English  literature

Adeiung,  John  C,  philologist  and  lexicographer

Adolphus,  John,  author  of  history  of  England,  &o. .

Adrr.in,  Robert,  mathematician  (at  New  York,  &c.)

Adrian,  the  15th  emp.  (born  in  Spain)

JSlfrie,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  author  rf  Anglo-Saxon  works

iEluui,  the  historian  and  rhetorician

^Encas,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy .  .  .  f.  b.

^Esohines,  of  Athens,  philosopher,  disciple  of  Socrates

,  orator  .  .  .  b.


jEsop,  of  Phrygia,  the  prince  of  fabulists .  .  .  f.  B.

^Etius,  military  commander  (defeated  Attila)

Africanus,  Julius,  historian  ....

Sp.Moor ,  Leo,  author  of  travels  in  Africa

Gr. Agamemnon,  "  the  king  of  kings"

Gr. Agathius,  historian  and  poet  .  ,  .  . f

Swiss. Agassiz,  Louis,  naturalist  ....

Gr. Agesilaus  II.,  king  of  Sparta  (defeats  the  Per., Egypt.,  and  Greeks)

Scot. Aginhard  or  Eginhard,  Hist,  of  Charlemagne

Gr. Agis  rV.,  the  greatest  of  the  Spartan  kings .  .  .

Eng. Aglionby,  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible

Rom. Agricola,  Cneius  Julius,  military  commander .

Ger. Agricola,  John,  a  divine,  founder  of  the  Antinomiane . ,

Rom. Agrippa,  military  commander,  governor  of  Judea  .  ,

Fr.  ,  Cornelius,  philosopher,  &c.

B.  Jew  Aguilar,  Grace,  novelist  .....

Pers. Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia  (Artaxerxes  Long.)


BOSN.

DIED

1119

1174

1784

I860

1781

1844

1738

1801

1764

1831

1606

1664

:.  1995  b.

D.  1821

17S1

1838

1128

1203

561

02-1

1273

1S45

J.  171

1228

1769

183  i

i  1764

1S34

3.  1100

3d  cent

1803

1220

1282

1741

1809

1728

17J4

1735

1826

1767

1818

1726

1800

1672

1719

1732

1806

1766

1845

1775

843

76

138


10f5

160

o.  11. -3

0.  393  B.

o.  323

0.  600

454

232

1487

i52e

1807


B.

.  0

.  361

771

839

B.

0.

251

1610

40

98

1490

15C6

40

91

1486

1535

1816

1847

B.

0

45e

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


73


NATION

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Tartar.

Eng.

Swe.

Bar.

Span.

Eng.

Ger.

Ital.

Ger.

Bar.

itaL

Port.

Gr.

rt&i.

Gr.
Gr.

Amer.

Amer.

iing.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Rom.

Bar.

Rus.

nus.

Xus.

itaL

Eng.

ItaL

Bar.

Bar.

Scot.

gcot.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Bar.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Aikiii,  John,  M.  D.f  an  elegant  writer,  editor  of  poets,  dec

,  Lucy,  biographer  and  historian  .  ,

Aime-Marlin,  Louis,  writer  on  education

Ainsworth,  Robert,  grammarian  and  lexicographer  ,

,  Wm.  Francis,  traveller,  geologist,  &o. .

,  Wm.  Harrison,  novelist

Airy,  Geo.  B.,  astronomer-royal

Akbar,  Mohammed,  a  great  Mogul  sovereign „  .

Akenside,  Mark,  a  popular  poet  .  ,

Akenblad,  philologist  ....

Alaric  I.,  king  of  the  Vieigoths .  .  ,

Alberoni,  Julius,  cardinal  statesman

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  heir  to  the  British  throne

Albert,  Prince,  husband  of  the  Queen  of  England  .

Alberti,  an  eminent  writer,  painter,  sculptor,  &c.

Albertus-Magnus,  philosophic  writer,  tutor  of  Aquinas

Alboiu,  the  Lombard  conqueror .

Alboni,  Mar.etta,  eminent  contralto  singer

Albuquerque  (the  great)  military  commander  .

Alcaeus,  of  Lesbos,  a  lyric  poet  .  .  .

Alciati,  of  Milan,  an  eminent  civilian  and  author .

Alcibiades,  a  famous  Athenian  general  and  statesman  .

Alciphron,  author  of  Letters,  &c.

Alcott,  A.  Bronson,  philosopher  and  educationist  .

-■ ,  Wm.  A.,  writer  on  education  and  philosopher

Alcuinus,  founder  of  schools  at  Paris,  &c.  .

Alden,  John,  one  of  the  first  Plymouth  Colony
Aldhelm,  St.,  an  eminent  scholar  and  poet .  ,

Aldus,  see  Manulius ....
Alembert,  John  Le  Rond  d',  math.,  hist.,  and  philosopher
Alexander,  A.  H.,  claiming  to  be  Earl  of  Stirling

,  Archibald,  theologian  and  author  .

,  J.  Addison,  theologian  and  commentator

— ,  James  W.,  theologian .  .  .

,  Severu6,  emperor

the  Great,  founder  of  the  Macedonian  Empire

,  Nevskoi,  a  saint  and  hero  ;  def.  of  the  Tartars,

,  I.,  emperor  (coalition  against  Napoleon)

,  II.,  (became  emperor  1855)  ,  ,


Alexius  Commenus,  emperor  of  the  East .

Alfieri,  an  eminent  tragic  poet  .  ,  .

Alfred,  justly  called  the  Great,  king  ,

Algarotti,  a  general,  scholar,  and  critic  .  «

J  i  Bey,  gov.  of  Egypt,  revolted  against  the  Turks

Ali  Tepe'hii,  pasha  of  Jannina  .  .  .

Alison,  Archibald,  rev.,  '  Essays  on  Taste'

,  Archibald,  sir,  '  History  of  Europe,'  '  Essays  •

Allen,  Ethan,  an  intrepid  officer  in  the  Revolution  .

,  Wm.,  author  of  Amer.  Biog.  Dictionary  .

Alleyn,  Edward,  actor  and  manager  (temp.  Shakspeare)
Allston,  Washington,  painter  and  poet
Almamon,  caliph,  patron  of  learning


BORN.

DIED.

747

la'iS

1846

1660

1743

1807

1805

1801

1655

1606

1721

1770

,

1819

411

1664

175'

ldil

1819

1861

1398

1490

1205

1280

574

1826

1452

1515

f.  B.  o.  606

1492

1560

B.  0.  450  b.

0.  404

. f.  170

1799

1798

732

804

1598

1687

•

709

1717

1783

. 1783

1772

1851

1809

1860

1804

1859

209

235

B.  0.  356  b

0.  323

&0.  . 1218

1262

1777

1826

1818

1048

1118

1749

1803

849

900

.  . 1712

1769

. 1728

1773

1744

1822

1757

1839

•

1867

1737

1789

1784

1566

1624

. 1779

1843

74


THE WORLD'S PROGRES3.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Bai.  Almansor,  caliph,  patron  of  learning  ,  ,

Eng.  Almon,  Jolin,  political  writer  .  .  •  •

Mex.  Almonte,  J  uanet,  general  and  statesman .  .

Span.  Alphonso  X.,  king  of  Castile,  Leon,  and  author .  .

Port.  Alphonso  L,  Henriques,  founder  of  the  Portuguese  monai  ehy

Amer.  Alsop,  Richard,  poet  and  linguist  .  .  .

Eng.  Althcrp,  Viscount,  statesman  and  book  collector  .

8pan.  Alva,  duke  of,  celebrated  and  barbarous  military  commander

Mex.  Alvarez,  Juan,  leader  of  Mexican  Revolution .  .

Ger.  Amalie,  duchess  of  Saxony,  dramatic  poet  .  .

Jew.  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah  ...»

I+al.  Ambrose,  St.,  bishop  of  Milan,  author •  .

Ital.  Americus  Vespucius  (of  Florence),  explored  the  S.  American

coast ......

Amer.  Ames,  Fisher,  a  statesman  and  orator .  .

Amer.  ,  Nathan  P.,  maohinist  and  bronze  founder  .

Eng.  Amherst,  Jeffrey,  lord,  mil.  com.  in  America,  &c. «

Rom.  Ammianus,  Marcellinus,  historian .  .  .

Ger.  Aramon,  Christ.  P.  von,  Protestant  theologian .

Gr.  Ammonius,  a  peripatetic  philosopher  .  .

Eng.  Amory,  Thomas,  humorous  writer,  '  Jno.  Bunole'

Fr.  Ampere,  Jean  J.,  traveller  and  essayist  .  .

Fr.  ,  Jean  Marie,  mathematician  and  nat.  philosopher

Fr.  Amyot,  James,  bishop  of  Auxerre,  translator  of  Plutarch

Bar.  ^.nacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher  and  disciple  of  Solon

Gr.  Anacreon,  a  celebrated  poet  .  .  •

Gr.  Anastasius  I.,  emperor  of  the  East

Gr.  Anaxagoras,  a  philosopher ....

Gr.  Anaxarchus,  a  philosopher,  companion  of  Alexander  the  Great  b.  c

Gr.  Anaximander,  of  Miletus,  an  Ionic  philosopher .

Gr.  Anaximenes,  of  Miletus,  an  Ionic  philosopher  •

Fr.  Ancelot,  J.  A.  P.  F.,  poet  and  novelist .  .

Pruss.  Ancillon,  J.  P.  F.,  historian  and  statesman .  .

Dan.  Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  poet  and  novelist  .

Scot.  h.  Anderson,  Adam,  commercial  writer .  .

Eng.  ,  Sir  Edmund,  a  judge  and  author  .

Swe.  Andersson,  Chas.  John,  explorer  in  Africa .  »

Fr.  Andral,  G.  A.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  medicine .

Eng.  Andre,  John,  British  officer  in  American  war .  .

Eng.  Andrews,  Lancelot,  bishop  of  "Winchester  .

Gr.  Andronicus,  of  Rhodes,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  .

A^ier.  Angell,  Jos.  K.,  author  of  legal  works

Esg.  Anglesey,  Henry  W.,  marquis  of,  general  at  Waterloo .

Fr.  Angouleme,  duchess  d',  daughter  of  Louis  XVT.

Ital.  Anielo,  Thomas  (commonly  called  Masanielo),  a  fisherman  of

Naples,  who  rose  to  great  power .

Gr.  Anna  Commena,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Alexis  L,  historian

Atist.  Anne  of  Austria,  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France  .

.Tng  Anne  Boleyn,  second  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  .  .

iCng  Annet,  Peter,  a  deistical  writer  .  .  .

Car  Annibal,  or  Hannibal,  a  celebrated  Carthaginian  general .

Fr.  Anquetil  du  Perron,  a  classical  scholar  and  author


BOBN.

DISS

712

77J

1728

1805

**t,  180)

1203

1284

1094

1185

1761

1815

1758

1834

1508

1582

1790

1794

B.

O.  8b9

340

387

n

1451

1517

1750

1808

1803

1847

1717

1797

30

1766

185

. B.

C.  24

1719

1789

, 1800

18<y

1775

IR5S

1513

1593

B.  O.  692

• B

0.  474

518

B.  0.  500  B.

o.  428

B.  c.  840

B.  O.  611  B

o.  547

. B.

o.  504

1794

1767

1837

1895

1692

1765

1605

1856

1797

1751

1780

1555

1626

r.  B,  O.  63

1794

1857

1768

1854

1778

1801

1623

1646

1083

1148

1604

1666

1500

153fl

1703

1778

B.  O  247  a.

o.  183

17&:

isu:

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


75


JAT10N.  NAME AND PBOFESSION

Eng.  Anselrn,  archbishop  cf  Canterbury,  a  learned  divine

Eng.  Alison,  George,  lord,  celebrated  naval  commander

Bng.  Anspach,  Eliz.,  margravine  of,  author  of  memoirs .

Irish.  Ai.ster,  Jno.,  translator  of '  Faust '

Amer.  Anthon,  Charles,  classical  scholar  and  author

Egypt,  Anthony,  St.,  the  founder  of  monastic  institutions


Ital.
Mace.


Gr.

rial

Rom.

Rom.

Rom.

Pers.

Fr.

Rom.


,  of  Padua,  a  divine  .  .  .

Antigonus,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great
Antipater,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great .
Antisthenes,  a  philos.,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Cynics
Aoitonelli,  Giacomo,  cardinal,  premier  of  Pius  IX.
Antoninus  Pius,  emperor
: — ,  Marcus  Aurelius,  emperor,  surnau-.ec  the  philosopher


Antony,  Mark,  military  commander  and  statesman
Anveri,  a  celebrated  poet .  .  .

Anville,  Jean  B.  d',  geographer
Apicius,  the  name  of  three  Roman  epicures
Egypt.  Apion,  a  grammarian  and  bitter  enemy  of  the  Jews


Gr.
Gr.

Gr.
Gr.
Gr.


Apollodorus,  the  name  of  several  writers  and  statesmen
Apollonius,  surnanied  Rhodius,  a  poet  .

,  Pergamensis,  a  geometrician .  .

,  Tyaneus,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher


Appian,  an  historian .....  f.  143

Amer.  Appleton,  Jesse,  president  of  Bowdoin  College  and  theologian . 1772

Rom.  Apulcius,  a  Platonic  philosopher  and  writer . . a.  d.

Ital.  Aquinas,  St.  Thomas,  a  celebrated  theologian . . 1224

Fr.  Arago,  Dom.  Fr.  Jean,  astronomer  and  statesman  . . 1786

Eng.  Aram,  Eugene,  a  learned  schoolmaster,  executed  for  murder . 1705

Gr.  Aratus,  of  Sicyon,  mil.  com.  and  statesman . . b.  o.  273

Scotch.  Arbuthnot,  John,  Dr.,  a  poet .  ....

Gr.  Archelaus,  Ionic  philosopher . . . . f.  b.  o.  450

Gr.  Archius,  a  poet . . . . . f.  b.  c.  719

Gr.  Archilochus,  a  poet . . . , . f.  b.  o.  685

Gr.  Archidemes,  a  celebrated  mathematician . . b.  c.  287

Gr.  Archytas,  a  mathematician . . . . b.  c.  408

Iti.  Aretino,  Guid:,  inventor  of  the  gamut  of  music . . 995

Ital. ,  Leonard,  an  historian ....  1369

Ital. ,  Peter,  a  satirist ..... 1492

Eng.  Argall,  Samuel,  early  colonist  and  deputy -governor  of  Virginia 1572

Pruss.  Argelander,  F.  W.  A.,  astronomer . . . 1779

Span.  Argensola,  Lupercio,  historian  and  poet , . . 1565

Span. ,  Bartholomew,  historian  ... 1566

Scotch.  Argyle,  duke  of,  chief  of  clan  Campbell,  statesman .  . 1678

Ital.  Ariosto,  Lewis,  a  celebrated  poet . . . 1474

Mex.  Arista,  Mariano,  general  under  Santa  Anna . . . 1802

Gr.  Aristarchus,  of  Samos,  mathematician  and  philosopher .  f.  b.  0.  280

Gr. 1  grammarian  and  critic .  .  .  B.  0.  160

Gr.  Aristides,  an  Athenian  statesman  . . .

Gr. ,  -<EliuB,  an  orator  and  sophist  .  .  . 129

Gr. ,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  f .  127

Gr.  Aristippus,  of  Oyrene,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Cyreniace  f.  &  0.  392

Gr.  Arifctomenes,  a  warrior  and  patriot . . f.  b.  0.  662


BORN.

1083
1697
1750
1793

1797
251
US5


1.  423

1806

86

121


B.  c.


dibb.

1109
1762
1828

1867
359

1231
B.  a.  301
b.  0.  319


161

180

B.  0.  30

1201

1782
1st  cent.


16S7

A.  D.

£  80
B.  0.  oth  to  2d  cent.

B.  c.  194
f.  b.  0.  242


97

1819
2d  cent
1274
1853
1759
B.  c.  211
1735


B.  0.  212

b.  0.  H60


1414
1556


1613
1631
1743
1533
1855


0.  467

185


y6


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATIOB

Gr.

Gr.
&r.

Span.

Eng.

Fr.

Ger.

Dutch.

Eng.

Amer.

Ital.

St.

Eng.

Gr.

Pruss.

Amei.

Ital.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Scot.

Gr.

Eng.

Bar.

Bar.

Bar.

Flem

Eng.

A.mer

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Bar.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Gr.

Eng.

Ger.

Ger.

Amer,

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Bar.

ar.

2ng.
Jlom.
F..


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Aristophanes,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  .  .  •

Aristotle,  philosopher,  founder  of  tbe  Peripatetics  .

Arius,  of  Alexandria,  the  founder  of  the  Arian  sect  .

_  Montanus,  Benedict,  orientalist  .  .

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  inventor  of  spinning  jennies  .

Arlinoourt,  Victor,  vicomte  d',  novelist

Arminius,  the  deliverer  of  Germany  .  .  •

,  James,  a  celebrated  divine,  founder  of  a  sect

Armstmg,  John,  M  D.,  poet  .  .  .

,  John,  general,  statesman,  and  historian  .

Arnaud,  Daniel,  troubadour  ....

,  Francis  Baculard,  dramatist  and  poet .  .

Arne,  Thomas  Augustus,  musical  composer

Arnobius,  a  defender  of  Christianity

Arnim,  L.  A.,  poet  and  novelist

Arnold,  Benedict,  major-general,  the  traitor  to  his  country  .

,  of  Brescia,  a  learned  monk,  disciple  of  Abelaid

,  Matthew,  poet,  professor  of  poetry,  Oxon.

,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  theologian,  historian,  and  philologist

,  Thomas  K.,  author  of  classical  text-books  .

Arnott,  J.Tiel,  popular  scientific  writer  .  .  .

Arrian,  historian,  disciple  of  Epictetus .  .  .

Arrowsmith,  Aaron,  constructor  of  maps  and  charts ,
Arsaces  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy  .  .

Artaxerxes  I.,  king  of  Persia  .  .  .

,  founder  of  the  new  Persian  kingdom .  .

Artevelie,  Philip  van,  revolutionary  popular  leader .
Arthur,  a  prince  celebrated  in  fable  .  .  .

Arthur.  Timothy  S.,  author  of  tales  and  essays
Arundel,  Thos.  H„  earl  of,  importer  of  the  Arundelian  marbles
Asbury,  Francis,  first  Methodist  bishop  in  the  United  States
Ascbain,  Jtoger,  a  learned  writer  ....
Asdrubal,  a  Carthaginian  general .  .  .

Ashburton,  Alex.  Baring,  lord,  statesman .  .  •

Ash/nun,  John  K.,  jurist,  professor  of  law .  .

Askew,  Anne,  protestant,  burned  at  Smithfield .  .

Aspasia,  tbe  accomplished  wife  (?)  of  Pericles  .  .

Asse:-,  John,  historian .....
Ast,  George  A.  F.,  philologist,  '  Lexicon  Platonicum'  .
Astor,  John  Jacob,  wealthy  merchant  at  New  York  .

A' chison,  David  I.,  senator,  United  States,  from  Missouri
Athanasius,  St.,  ote  of  the  fathers  of  the  church
Athenagoras,  philosopher ....
Athenais,  Empress  o*  the  West  and  authoress,  called  also  Eu

doxia  .....

Athenaeus,  a  celebrates  grammarian,  the  Greek  Varro  .
Attalus,  founder  of  thi monarchy  of  Pergamus,  inventor of

parchment  .....


BOBN.

9IBB

B.  o.  889

B.  o.  384

431

1527

^598

1732

1792

1789

1858

20

1560

1610

1709

1779

1758

1843

1220

1718

1805

1710

1778

f.  303

1781

1831

1740

1801

1555

1822

1795

1842

1800

1853

1788

f.  140

1823

.  B.  c.  250

. B.

0.  425

1832

472

542

1809

1

1646

1745

1816

1515

1568

• B.

c.  220

1774

1848

1800

1833

154"

909

. 1778

1"41

1763

1848

1807

296

371

.  f.  177

Rhodius,  mathematician


Atterbury,  Francis,  bishop  of  Rochester,  exiled  for  conspiracy
Atticus,  a  knight  and  author  (works  lost)
Auber,  D.  F.  B.,  famous  musical  composer


f. 190


.  o.  173

1662

O.  109

1784


B.  C.  lU*


1731

b.  o.  as


BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX.


77


HAriOX  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Swiss. Aobigne  J.  H.  Merle  d',  historian  of  Reformation  .
Eng. Auckland,  William,  lord,  statesman  .  ,

Fr.  Audoin,  J.  F.  zoologist  .  . .  •

Fr. Augereau,  Castiglione,  duke  of,  mil.  com
G.  Jew.  Auerbach,  Berthold,  novelist  . .  ,

Augustine,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  church.

,  the  Apostle  of  the  English — 1st  archbishop  of  Oante

Rom. Augustulus  Romulus,  the  last  emperor  of  the  West
Rom. Augustus,  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavius— 1st  emperor

Aurungztbe,  last  Mogul  emperor  in  India  .  ,

Rom. Ausonius,  Decimus  Magnus,  poet  . .  .

Eng.. Austen,  Jane,  novelist,  . .  .

Eng. ,  Sarah,  essayist  and  trans  ntor  .

Amer. Austin,  Stephen  F.,  founder  of  first  American  colony  in  Texas  .

Fr.  Auvergne,  Theophilus— republican— military  commander

Ara. Averroes,  philosopher,  physician,  and  author .

Ital. Avezzana,  Joseph,  patriot  soldier,  refugee  in  New  York

Ara. Avicenna,  philosopher,  physic  an  ai:d  author .

Eng. Ayscough,  Samuel,  compiler  of  Index  to  Shakespeare,  &o.

Scot. Aytoun,  Wm.  E.,  professor,  poet,  and  essayist

Fr.  Azais,  Pierre  H.  philosophic  writer

Ital. Azeglio,  Massimo  T.  marquis  d',  statesman  and  author


l  »RN.

L>lBi

1794

.

LeH

1797

l0i]

.757

i8ie

rU2

3-J4

430

te.'  iry

604

476

J.  o.  63

14

1318

1707

394

1775

I8i:

(abt)  1800

B  .

1836

17*3

1800

.

1197

1797

980

1037

1804

1813

1865

1736

1845

17C°

1866

Eng.  Babbage,  Charles,  mathematician  and  machinist

Fr.  Babeuf,  Franc.  N.  agrarian  and  socialist  author

Port.  Baccellar,  a  civilian,  historian,  and  lyric  poet .

Or.  Bacchylides,  lyric  poet .  .  .  .  £3

Amer.  Bache,  Alex.  D.  scientific  engineer  and  writer

Amer.  Bachman,  John,  naturalist  and  theologian

Eng.  Back,  Geo.  Capt.  R.  N.,  Polar  navigator  and  author

^.mer.  Backus,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  historian

Amer.  Bacon,  Delia,  writer  on  Shakespeare .  .

Amer.  Bacon,  Leonard,  theological  writer  and  preacher

Eng.  ,  Roger,  a  monk  celebrated  for  his  scientific  knowledge

Eng.  ,  Francis,  Lord  Verulam,  the  celebrated  philosopher  and t'

man  ......

Dan.  Baden,  .Tames,  one  of  the  founders  of  Danish  literature

Eng.  Baffin,  Wm.,  navigator,  discoverer  of  Baffin's  Bay

Ger.  Bahr,  John  C.  F.,  classical  philologist

Amer.  Bailey,  Jacob  W.,  professor  of  chemistry,  botany,  &c. .

Eng.  ,  Nathan,  a  grammarian  and  lexicographer .

Eng.  ,  Philip  James,  poet,  author  of  Festus .

Er.g.  ,  Samuel,  metaphysician  and  political  essayist  ,.  .

Fr.  Baillet,  a  learned  theologian,  historian,  and  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Baillie,  Joanna,  poet  and  novelist

80  t  ,  Matthew,  physician  and  anatomist  .

Ft.  Bailly,  John  Silvain,  a  learned  author,  and  a  leader  in  the  revo-
lution .....

En*.  Baily,  Francis,  astronomer  and  mathematician

Amer.  Bainbridge  William  naval  commander  (Princeton)


17  *)

1731

1724

450

1806
17S0
1796
1724

1802
1214

1561
1735
1584
179?
l£U


178'/
1649
1762
1761

1736
1774
1774


1797

1806


1867


1292

1626
1804
1622

1857
1742


x70«
1351
iS23

1793
1344
i33l


78


THE WORLD'S PBOORKSS


FA1IOH.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer.  Baird,  Robert,  D.  D.,  author  of  travels  .  .

B^ot.  ,  Sir  David,  military  commander

Tark,  Baja".et,  sultan— conquered  by  Tamerlane .

Amsr.  Bakt  r,  Edward  D.,  U  S.  senator  and  general .  (Ball's  Bl

Iial.  Balbi,  Adrian,  geographer  and  ethnographer

Span.  Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  early  navigator  to  South  America

Fr.  Baldwin,  who  became  emperor  of  the  East  .  .

Irish.  Balfe,  "./m.  Michael,  musical  composer  .  .

Scot.  Baliol,  intriguing  rival  of  Robert  Bruce .  .  •

Scot.  Ballantyne,  Jas.,  printer,  publisher  for  Sir  Walter  Scott

Amer.  Ballou,  Hosea,  universalist  minister  and  author .  .

Eng.  Baltimore,  Geo.  Calvert,  1st  lord,  founder  of  Maryland

Fr.  Baluc,  Jean  de  la,  cardinal,  premier  of  Louis  XI. .  •

Fr.  Balzac, Honore  de, novelist

Amer.  Bancroft,  George,  historian  of  the  U.  S.,  secretary  of  navy,  &o.

Swe.  Banier  or  Banner,  a  celebrated  military  commander  .

Irish.  Banim,  John,  novelist  ....

Amer.  Bangs,  Nathan,  D.  D.,  minister  of  Methodist  church  and  author

Amer.  Banks,  Nath.  P.,  speaker  of  House  of  Rep.,  U.  S.,  gov.  of  Mass.

Eng  Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  navigator,  president  Royal  Society .

Fr.  Baraguay  d'  Hilliers,  Achille,  marshal  of  France

Fr.  Baraute,  A.  G.  P.  B.,  baron,  historian .  .  •

Pruss.  Baratier,  a  Hebrew  lexicographer  before  ten  years  of  age

Eng.  Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia,  a  popular  miscellaneous  writer .

Turk.  Barbarossa,  the  celebrated  corsair,  usurper  of  Algiers

Amer.  Barber,  Francis,  officer  in  revolutionary  army .  •

Fr.  Barbeyrac,  John,  miscellaneous  writer  .  •

Amer.  Barbour,  James,  statesman  and  diplomatist  .  •

Amer.  Barbour,  P.  P.,  statesman  and  judge  of  Supreme  Court  .

Eng.  Barclay,  Robert,  the  celebrated  vindicator  of  the  Quakers .

Ital.  Baretti,  Joseph,  lexicographer— author  of  Travels,  &c.

Eng.  Baiham,  Richard  Henry,  humorist — '  Ingoldsby  Legends'

Amer.  Barker,  Joseph,  noted  financier  ...

Amer.  Barlow,  Joel,  a  statesman  and  poet  .  .  •

Amer.  Barnard,  Henry,  distinguished  educator  .  •

^mer.  Barnes,  Albert,  theologian  and  commentator  ,.  •

Kng. ,  Joshua,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar

Amer. ,  Daniel  H.  a  distinguished  conchologiut .  .

Dutch.  Barneveldt,  John,  statesman,  (beheaded)

Amer.  Barney,  Joshua,  a  distinguished  naval  commander  .

Fr.  Barras,  Paul,  count  de,  mem.  of  the  direct,  in  the  Revolution

Eng.  Barre,  Isaac,  colonel,  M.  P.,  friend  of  America  .  .

Irish.  Barrington,  Sir  Jonah,  lawyer  and  author

Amer.  Barron,  James,  commodore  (in  the  affair  of  the  Chesapeake)

Eng. ,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  mathematician  .  .

Eng.  ,  Sir  John,  traveller,  author,  secretary  to  Admiralty  .

Ivish.  Barry,  John,  the  first  American  commodore

Eng.  ,  Sir  Charles,  architect  of  houses  of  parliament

Amer.  ,  W.  T.,  statesman  and  diplomatist,  .  .

Ger.  Barth,  flenry,  traveller  in  Africa  .  .  ,

Fr  Barthelemy,  John  James,  author  of '  Anacharsie,'  &o. .

Amer  Bartlett,  John  R.,  author  o1  explorations,  Ac  .  ,


BOBS.

B1KJ1.

1798

1864

1757

1829

1413

aS) 1811

1861

1782

1517

1205

1808

1259

1314

1833

1771

1852

1582

1632

1799

1850

1800

1596

1641

1800

1842

r 1778

1862

5. 1816

1743

1820

1795

1782

1721

1740

1743

1825

1518

1751

1783

1674

1728

Va.  1775

1842

Va.  1783

1841

1648

1690

1716

1789

1788

1845

1779

1756

1812

1811

1798

1654

1712

1818

1547

1619

1759

1818

1755

1829

1726

1802

1767

1834

1768

1851

1630

1667

1764

1848

1746

1803

1795

1860

Va,  1785

1838

1821

1716

1791

1805

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


79


RATION,  NAME AMD PROFESSION.

Amer.  Barilett,  Josiah,  statesman,  gov.  N.  n.,  &c. .  .

Eng. ,  Wm.  H.,  artist  and  author

Amer. Barton,  Benj.  Smith,  M.  D.,  a  learned  physician  and  botanist

Eng.  ,  Bernard,  the  Quaker  poet

Amer.  Bartram,  John,  an  eminent  botanist .  .  .

Gr.  Basil,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  Greek  church .

Eng.  Baskerville.  John,  eminent  printer  and  publisher  .

Fr.  Basnage,  de  Beauval,  James,  historian

Fr.  Bassano,  H.  B.  M.,  duke  of,  political  writer  and  statesman

Fr.  Bastiat,  Frederick,  political  economist

Amer.  Bates,  Edward,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .  .

Amer.  Bates,  Joshua,  banker,  (Baring  Bros.)  in  England,

Eng.  Bath,  "William  Pulteney,  earl  of,  statesman .  .

Eng.  Bathurst,  earl  of,  statesman,  friend  of  Pope,  &c.

Fr.  Batteux,  Charles,  rhetorician  and  miscellaneous  writer

Hung.  Batthyani,  Kasimir,  count,  statesman

Hung. ,  Lajos,  statesman,  (shot  by  Haynau)  .

Ger.  Bauer,  Bruno,  an  audacious  opposer  of  Christianity

Ger.  Baur,  Ferd.  Christ.,  professor  of  theology  and  author .

Eng.  Baxter,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine  and  author

Fr.  Bayard,  Peter,  military  commander .  .  .

Amer. ,  James  A.,  a  distinguished  statesman  and  lawyer

Ger.  Bayer,  John,  astronomer ....

Ger.  ,  Theophilus,  chronologist  and  historian

Fr  Bayle,  Peter,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  critic,  ('  Bayle'e D

tionary')  .....

Eng.  Bayly,  Thos.  Haines,  poet  .  •  •

Eng.  Beattie,  James,  L.L.D.,  poet  .  „  .

Fi.  Beauharnais,  Hortense,  ex-queen  of  Holland  .

Fr. ,  Eugene,  son  of  the  Empress  Josephine,  mil  com.

viceroy  of  Italy,  &c.  ....

Fr.  Beaumarchais,  P.  A.  C.  de,  an  eminent  dramatist .

Fr.  Beaumont,  Elie  de,  mineralogist  and  geologist  .  •

Eng.  — ,  Francis,  dramatic  writer  .  .

Fr.  Beauzee,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  grammarian .  .

Ital.  Beccaria,  John  Baptist,  an  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher

Ital. ,  Marquis,  professor  of  political  economy  and  author

Amer.  Beck,  Lewis  0.,  chemist  and  mineralogist

Amer. ,  Theo.  Romeyn,  author  of  medical  jurisprudence  .

Eng.  Becket,  Thomas  a,  celebrated  prelate  and  statesman

Eng.  Beckford,  Wm.,  traveller  and  novelist  ('  Vathek')  *

Ger.  Beckmann,  Johann,  '  History  of  Inventions,'  &o. .

Fr.  Becquerel,  An toine  Cassar,  natural  philosopher

Brit.  Bede,  styled  the  Venerable,  a  learned  Saxon  monk  and  historian

Amer.  Bedell,  Gregory  T.,  D.  D.,  eloquent  pulpit  orator  .

Eng.  Bedford,  John,  duke  of,  military  commander  •

Amer.  Beecher,  Edward,  theologian,  (son  of  Lyman)  .  .

Amer.  ,  Henry  "Ward,  theologian  and  politician .

Amer. ,  Lyman,  theologian  and  preacher  .  .

Eng.  Beechey,  Frederick  "W.,  admiral,  Arctio  voyager  .

PrnM  Beer,  Michael,  dramatic  poet,  (brother  of  Meyerbeer)

Oer.  Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  celebrated  musical  composer


BORN.

1729
1809
1766
17*4
IV  1
S26
1706
1653
1758
lfl
1790
17*8
1682
1684
1713
1S07
18<P
18UV
1792
1615
1476
1767

1694

1647
1797
1735


il  0
1733
17  »8
1-55
1,-4
1716
1735
1800
1791
1119
1760
1739
1788
672
1798


1766
1800

1770


DIED.

179i
1854

1813

1849
1777
379
177J
172*
183S
185f

1864
1764
1775
1780
1854
1849


1691
1524
1815
1627
1738

1706
1839
1803
1837

1824
1799

1616
1789
1781
1793
1853
1855
1170
1844
1811

735
1834
143$


1868
1856

1838

1821


8o


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATIOH.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Ger. Behaim,  or  Beliem,  navigator  and  geographer  .  •

Erg. Behn,  Aphra,  dramatic  writer .  .  •

Russ. Behring,  Vitus,  Arctic  navigator  .  .  •

Ger. Bekker,  Emmanuel,  philologist  .  .  •

Eng. Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  admiral,  Arctic  navigator .  •

Rem. Belisarius,  a  celebrated  general  and  conqueror
Ital. Belgiojoso,  Christina,  princess  of,  accomplished  &  philanthropio
Amer. Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.  D.,  historian  of  New  Hampshire  .
Scot. Bell,  Henry,  first  successful  steam  navigator  in  Europe
Amer. — ,  John,  statesman  ....

feco,. ,  John,  surgeon,  anatomist,  and  physiologist •  •

fcJcot. ,  Sir  Charles,  anatomist  and  physiologist .  .

Arcer. Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  a  learned  divine  and  author  .

Ita.. Bellarmin,  cardinal,  the  champion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church
Fr. Bellau,  Remi,  poet .....
Fr. Beileisle,  count  de,  military  commander .  .  .

EDg. Bel ling-ham,  Richard,  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts  .
Ital. Be'lini.  Vincenzo,  musical  composer  .  .  *

Amer. Bellows,  Henry  W.,  Unitarian  clergyman  and  author .
Eng. Beloe,  Wm.,  a  divine  and  critic,  translator  of  Herodotus,  &c,

Bel&ii,  "William,  naturalist  and  traveller .

Belst  im,  "William,  historical,  political  and  miscellaneous  writer

Belzoni,  the  celebrated  traveller  in  Egypt

Bern,  Josef,  general  in  Hungarian  war  against  Austria .

Beml  o,  cardinal,  one  of  the  restorers  of  literature  ,

Bemb ?,  John,  a  gallant  admiral  ....

Benectct,  St.,  one  of  the  originators  of  monasteries .

,  XIII.,  pope,  theological  writer  .  .  .

,  XIV., "  •'  "


Fr.
Eng.

Ital.

Pol.

Ital.

Eng.

Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Fr.

Ger.

Eng.

Amer.

Sp.  Jew

Bar.


Benezet,  Antony,  philanthropist  and  historian,  (diedin  America)

Bengsl,  Johann  A.,  Lutheran  theologian  and  philologist

Bengar,  Elizabeth  Ogilvy,  author  of  historical  memoirs

Benjp.min,  Park,  poet,  lecturer  and  journalist  .  .

,  of  Tudela,  rabbi,  traveller  in  the  East .  <

Btntadad,  king  of  Syria ....
Scot  ;h.  Bennett,  James  Gordon,  journalist  ...

Fr.  Benserade,  Isaac,  a  wit  and  poet  .  .  .

Eng. Bentham,  Jeremy,  a  political  and  philosophical  writer  ,

Bentley,  Richard,  an  eminent  critic  and  scholar  .

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  statesman  and  historian .  .

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  lyrical  poet  .  •

Berenger,  A.  M.  M.  F.,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .

Egypt.  Berenice,  the  name  of  seven  different  queens  of  Egypt  and  Syria
Gor. Berghaus,  Henry,  mathematician  and  geographer  .

Bergman,  professor  of  chemistry  at  UpBal

Beriot,  Charles  A.  de,  violinist  and  composer  .  .

Berkley,  George,  bishop,  an  eminent  prelate  and  philosopher

,  William,  governor  of  Virginia

Berlioz,  Hector,  musical  composer  .  .  .

Bernadotte,  J.  B.  J.,  elected  king  of  Sweden,  as  Charles  XIV.

Bernard,  Edward,  divine,  astronomer  and  author .  .

,  Francis,  governor  of  Massachusetts .  .


Eng.
Amer.

Fr.
Fr.


Swe

3eL

Ivfc'&.

A  mar

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

a.mer


bosh

1459
1640
1680
1T85
1799

1808
1744
1767
1797
1763
1781
1719
1542
1528
1684
1634
1808
1814
1756
1518
1752
1778
1795
1470
1650
480
1649
1675
1713
1687
1778
1809


DIMS

160«
168?
1741


565

1798
1830

1825
1842
1790
1626
1577
17'1
1"72
1  35

1817
1564
1827
1823
l>5r
1542
1702
547
1728
1758
17«4
1752
1827
18u4
1173


B.  0.


1691
1832
1742
1858
1S57


1800
1612
1742
1662
1782
178i
1.85
B.  o.  1st  to  3d  cent
1797

1735 1714
1802

1684 1753
1667
.•03

84 1844

1638 1697

1771


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


81


tjLtion.

Dutch.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Swe.

Ger.

Fr.

Amer.

Eng.

ItaL

En'.

Eng.

Ft.

ItaL

Gr.

Fr.

Irish.

En&.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Bernard,  John  Frederick,  bookseller,  editor  and  author
— — — ,  St.,  preacher  of  Crusades  and  author  .


1J91
1779
1781


,  Simon,  engineer  and  military  commander  .

Berrien,  John  McPherson,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia
Berruyer,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  a  '  History  of  the  People  of  God,'

in  11  vols.  4to  .  .  .  .  .  1681

Berry,  Charles  F.,  duke  of,  2d  son  of  Charles  XL,  (assassinated) 1778

,  Duchess  of  (wife  of  the  above),  intriguing  politician  1798

, Hiram  George,  general,  war  against  secession  (from  Maine) 1814


Berryer,  Pierre  A.,  statesman ....
Berthier,  Alexander,  a  distinguished  military  commander
Bertholett,  Claude  Louis,  an  eminent  chemist  .  .

Bertrand,  Henri  G.,  general  in  Napoleon's  army
Berwick,  duke  of,  military  commander  (killed  at  Phillipsburg)
Berzelius,  John  James,  chemist ....
Bessel,  Frederick  William,  astronomer
Bessieres,  duke  of  Istria,  military  commander,  (killed  at  Lutzen)
Bethune,  George  W.,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  poet
Betterton,  Thomas,  famous  actor ....
Bettinelli,  Xavier,  an  elegant  miscellaneous  writer  .

Betty,  William  Henry  W.,  actor,  the  'Young  Roscius' .
Bewick,  Thomas,  naturalist  and  wood  engraver  .

Beza,  Theodore,  an  eminent  reformer  .  ,  .

Bezout,  mathematician  ....

Biauchini,  Francis,  mathematician  and  author .  .

Bias,  one  of  the  seven  sages ....
Bichat,  an  eminent  anatomist  and  physiologist .  .

BickerstarT,  Isaac,  dramatist  ....
Bickersteth,  Edward,  theological  writer .  .  .


Amer. Biddle,  James,  a  commodore  in  the  United  States  Navy


Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Arr .

Fr.

*ir.

Gr.

Fr.

Eng.

Amer.


-,  John,  an  eminent  Socinian  writer  .

-,  Nicholas,  a  captain  in  the  United  States  Navy

-, " ,  financier  and  litterateur  .


Biela,  Willhim,  baron  von,  astronomer  .  .

Bigelow,  John,  medical  writer .  .  .

Bignon,  Louis  E.,  historian ....
Bion,  pastoral  poet  ....

,  of  Borysthenes,  philosopher,  (Cyreniao) •  •

Biot,  Jean  B.,  mathematician .  .  .

Birheck,  George,  M.  D.,  founder  of  mechanics'  institutions
Bird,  Robert  M.,  M.  D.,  novelist .  .  .


Amer. Birr  3V,  James  G.,  anti-slavery  politician  .  .

Fr.  Biro:  , ike  of,  military  commander,  (beheaded  for  conspiracy)

Eng. Bish  -\ ,  Sir  Henry  R.,  musical  composer  .  .

Amer. Bissell,  "William  H.,  governor  of  Illinois,  volunteer  in  Mexico

Scot. Bisset,  Robert,  historian  and  biographer  .  .

Fr.  Bissot,  John,  a  revolutionist  and  author ...

8^  an. Bivar,  Don  Rodrigo,  known  in  history  and  romance  under  the

name  of  tho  Cid  .....

Bcot.  Black,  Adam,  publisher  M.  P. provost  of  Edinburgh .
In.Am.  Blac".  Hawk,  Indian  Chief  ....

B"tjj. Blaokstone,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  author


1790
1753
1748
1778
1670
1776
1784
176.?
1805
17%
1''18
1791
1758

*ae

173C

1662

: 606

1771

1733

".786

1783

1815

1750

1786

782

"87


1774
1776
1803
1792
1561
1775
181"
175P
1767

1040
1784
1768  »
1723


U.'KD

1751

irs
"-fil

1S20

186?

'8)6
1823
1*44


187  0
18<5-1
1810
1801

1828
1605
1783
17W

180".

1787
1860
1»48
1662
1778
'.844
!856

841
C.  300
3  240
1862
1841
'854
1857
1502
f.S6*

180t
*79?

ifXi

183S
1784


82


THE WOBLD'S PBOGRESS,


IATION

Eng.

Scot.

Amer.

Amer.

Soot.

Amer.

Eng.

Bcot.

Amer.

Irish.

Eng.

Prus.

Ger.

Swe.

Brit

ItaL

Ital.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Ger.

Ger.

Dutch..

Rom.

Ger.

Fr.

Eng.

Ital.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Colom.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Eng.

Swiss.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Kng.

Amer.


SAME AND PROFESSION.

Blackwell,  Eliz.,  first  female  M.  D.  in  the  United  States .
Blair,  Dr.  Hugh,  a  divine  and  rhetorician

,  Francis  P.,  journalist  and  politician  .

,  Francis  P.,  jr.,  leader  of  Missouri  free-soilers

,  Robert,  a  divine  and  poet ....

Blake,  John  L.  Rev.  author  of  Dictionary,  &c.

Blake,  Robert,  a  celebrated  admiral

Blanchard,  Laman,  essayist  and  journalist

Bleecker,  Ann  Eliza,  poet  and  essayist

Blessington,  Marguerite,  countess, novelist  and  litterateur

Bloomtield,  E.  V.,  classical  scholar  .  .  •

,  Robert,  a  poet .  .  •  •

Blucher,  a  celebrated  military  commander  .  .

Blum,  Robert  H  ,  publicist  and  politician  .  .

Blumenback,  John  Fred.,  naturalist  .  .  .

Boadicea,  the  warlike  queen  of  the  Iceni  .  .

Boccacio,  one  of  the  great  classic  writers  of  modern  Italy .
Boccalina,  a  satirist  ....

Bochart,  Samuel,  an  eminent  divine  and  orientalist  .

Bodin,  John,  a  lawyer  and  author .  .  .

Bodley,  Sir  Thos.,  founder  of  library  .  ,

Boehmen,  Jacob,  a  fanatic  and  author  .  ,

Boekh,  Augustus,  classical  philologist

Boerhaave,  oneof  the  most  eminentof  modern  physicians .
Boethius,  a  statesman  and  philosopher  - .

Bogatzky,  Chas.  Henry  theologian,  ('  Golden  Treasury') .
Bohemond,  a  Norman  adventurer

Bonn,  Henry  G.,  publisher  and  editor .  .  .

Bojardo,  Mathew  M.,  poet,  ('  Orlando  Innamorato') .
Boileau,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  poet  .  .  .

Boissard,  Jean  J.,  fabulist ....
Boissy,  Louis  de,  author  of  comedies  .  .  .

,  d'Anglas,  F.  A.,  count  of,  statesman  and  revolutionist

Boleyn,  Anne,  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  poet  and  deistical  writer  •

Bolivar,  the  heroic  deliverer  of  his  country .  .

Bonaparte,  Jerome,  ex-king  of  Westphalia  .  ,

,  Joseph,  ex-king  of  Naples  and  Spain  .

,  Louis,  ex-king  of  Holland

■ ,  Louis  Napoleon,  1st  president  republic  of  France  and

emperor  ....

.  ,  Lucien,  Prince  of  Canino  .  .

,  Maria  Letitia,  mother  of  Napoleon .


— ■ ,  Napoleon,  emperor  of  France

Bond,  William  C,  astronomer
Bonner,  bishop,  the  persecutor  of  Protestants
Bonnet,  Charles,  a  celebrated  naturalist
Bonnycastle,  Charles,  mathematician  ,

,  John,  "

Bonpland,  Aime,  traveller  and  botanist  •

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  tragedian  .

Boone,  Daniel,  the fi-st  settler  in  Kentucky ,


BOB.B.

tin.

1821

1718

I860

1791

. 1821

1699

1777

1788

1857

1599

1651

1803

184*

1757

1783

1789

184P

1788

1846

1766

1828

1742

1819

1807

1848

1752

1840

6!

1313

1373

1556

161?

1509

1567

1530

1596

1544

1612

1575

1624

1668

1738

455

526

1690

1744

1111

1434

1494

1636

1711

1743

18S1

1694

1758

1756

1826

1507

1536

.1678

1751

1785

1831

1784

1859

1768

1844

1778

184«

1808

1776

1840

1760

1836

1769

1821

1T89

1859

1569

1720

1793

1840

1821

1840

1796

185:1

1730

182.'

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


■  ATIOH.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Ger.  Bopp,  Francis,  Sanscrit  scholar .  .  .

ItaL  Bregli,  philosopher  and  mathematician  .  a

Ital.  Borghesi,  Bartolomeo,  count,  antiquarian

ItaL  Borgi,  Giovanni,  originator  of  ragged  schools

Ital.  Borgia,  Caesar,  son  of  the  infamous  Pope  Alexander  VL

ItaL  ,  Lucrezda,  infamous  daughter  of  Pope  Alexander  VL

ItaL  Borromeo,  Cardinal,  theological  writer

Eng.  Borrow,  George,  author  of  '  Gipsies  of  Spain '  .

Fr.  Bosc,  Louis  A  W.,  naturalist

Eng.  Boscawen,  Edward,  brave  and  skilful  admiral .

ItaL  Boecovitch,  mathematical  and  philosophical  writer

Fr.  Bossuet,  Marie  Jos.,  marshal  of  France

Ft.  Bossuet,  James  B.,  a  divine  and  historian .

Fr.  Bossut,  Charles,  mathematician  .  .

Scot.  Boston,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  author

Eng.  Boswell,  James,  the  biographer  of  Dr.  Johnson

Eng.  Bosworth,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  Anglo-Saxon  lexicographer

Ital.  Botta,  Carlo  G.  G.,  historian  .  .

Ital.  Bottiger,  archaeologist  and  antiquarian  .

Amer.  Botts,  John  Minor,  politician ,

Gr.  Bozzaris,  Marco,  a  gallant  leader  in  the  new  revolution

Amer.  Boudinot,  Elias,  a  statesman  and  philanthropist

Fr.  Bougainville,  Louis  A.,  military  commander  and  author

Fr.  Boufflers,  Duke  of,  military  commander  •

Fr.  Boulainvilliers,  Henry,  count  of,  historian ,

Eng.  Boulton,  Matthew,  an  eminent  engineer .  .

Fr.  Bourcet,  Peter  J.  de,  an  officer  and  topographer

Irish.  Boucicault,  Dion,  dramatist  .  .  .

Fr.  Bcurdaloue,  a  noted  preacher  .  .

Fr.  Bourdon,  Pierre  L.  M.  mathematician .  .

Fr.  Bourignon,  Antoinette,  a  fanatical  author  .

]?r.  Bourmont,  L.  A.  V.,  count  of,  marshal  of  Franoe

Fr.  Bourne,  Vincent,  an  elegant  Latin  poet  ,

Fr.  Bourrienne,  biographer  of  Napoleon  .  .

Fr.  Bousmard,  M.  de,  a  military  engineer  •

Fr.  Boursingault,  Jean  B.  V.  D.,  chemist

Ger.  Bouterwek,  Fred.,  '  Hist.  Spanish  Literature'

Amer.  Bouvier,  John,  jurist  and  legal  author .  .

Amer.  Bowditch,  Nafh.,  astronomer,  mathematician,  &o.

Eng.  Bowv'ler,  Thomas,  editor  Shakespeare,  &c.

Amer.  Bowdoin,  James.  LL.  D.,  philosopher  and  statesman

Amer. ,  John,  (son  of  the  last),  ambassador  to  Spain

Amer.  Bowen,  Francis,  biographical  and  metaphysical  author

Eng.  Bowles,  "William  Lisle,  poet

Eng.  Bo<vring,  James,  statesman,  poet  and  linguist

Scot.  Boyd,  Mark  Alexander,  a  poet .  .  .

Eng.  Boydell,  John,  alderman,  art  publisher  .

Fr.  Boyer,  Abel,  lexicographer

Fr.  ,  Jean  Pierre,  president  of  Hayti  (died  at  Paris)

Irish.  Boyle,  Robert,  an  eminent  philosopher

Amer.  Boylston,  Zabdiel,  an  eminent  physician

Amer.  Bozman,  John  Leeds,  historian  and  jurist .  .


SORB.

DIJSD

1731

1507

1781

1736

1S0J

1608

167C

15th  Cent.

1538

1584

1803

1759

1821

1711

1761

1711

1787

1810

186-

1627

1704

1730

.814

1676

1732

1710

1795

1788

1766

1837

1835

1802

178C

1823

1740

1821

'.729

.811

1544

1711

1658

1732

1728

1809

1700

17£0

1822

1632

1704

1799

1854

1616

16S0

1773

1846

1747

1834

1807

1802

1766

1S28

1787

:S51

177S

1838

1754

1825

1727

1790

1752

1811

1811

1762

1850

1792

1562

1601

1719

1804

1667

1729

1776

1850

1626

1691

1680

1776

1767

182*

84


THE WOELD's PROGRESS.


UiriON

Amer.

Ainer.

ring.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

An'er.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Bug.

Eng.

Dan.

Amer.

Amer.

N.A.In

Fr.

Mer.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Ger.

fevve.

Bar.

Scot.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Ger.  .

A  mer.

Eng.

Fr.

Eug.

Eng.

Eng.

Irish.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amei.

Amer.

Amer.

Fr.

Eng.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Brace,  Charles  Loring,  philanthropist  and  traveller
Brt,ckenridge,  Henry  M.,  jurist  and  diplomatist
Brad  dock,  Edward,  general,  defeated  and  killed  in  Virginia
Bradford,  Alden,  author  of 'History  of  Massachusetts '

— — ,  Andrew,  printer  and  publisher  of  first  newspaper  in  Phil

,  William,  attorney-general  of  the  U.  S.

,  William,  first  printer  in  Pennsylvania

,  William,  second  governor  of.Plymouth  eolony

Bradley,  Dr.  James,  astronomer  and  mathematician
Bradstreet,  Anne,  poetess,  daughter  of  Governor  Dudley
Bradwardine,  mathematician  and  theologian .  .

Brady,  Robert,  physician  and  historian
Brahe,  Tycho,  a  celebrated  astronomer  .  .

Brainard,  David,  misionary  to  the  Indians

,  J.  G.  C,  a  poet ....

Brant,  Joseph  (Thayendauega),  a  Mohawk  chief

Bran  tome,  Pierre  de  B.,  biographer  and  chronicler  .

Bravo,  Leonardo,  a  revolutionary  patriot .

Bray,  Ann  Eliza,  novelist  .  .  .

Breckinridge,  John,  D.  D.,  theologian  .,  .

,  John  C,  Vice-President  U,  S. .  .

,  Robert  J.,  D.  D.,  Presbyterian  theologian

Breitk.  cpf,  John  G.  E„,  an  eminent  printer  and  type-founder
Bremer,  Fredrica,  novelist  .

Brennus,  the  leader  of  the  Gauls .  ...

Brewster,  Sir  David,  natural  philosopher .

,  W*Uiam,  elder  of  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims .

Bridgewater, ''.  uke  of,  introducer  of  canals  in  England

,  .'-ancis  H.  E.,  duke  of,  founder  of  'Treatiser'

Briggs,  Cjarlas  F.,  novelist  and  journalist

,  E'en  y,  mathematician

Brigham,  A.±  lariah,  writer  on  insanity  and  philanthropist
Bright,  John,  reform  politician  and  M.  P.
Brinvi'liers,  Marie,  marchioness  of,  poisoner
Bris"  >n,  Mathurin  James,  naturalist .  .  .

Brittan,  John,  architectural  and  antiquarian  writer
Brockhaus,  Fried.  A.,  founder  of  the  publishing  house .
Brodhead,  John  R.,  author  of '  History  of  New  York'
Brodie,  Sir  Benj.  C,  F.  R.  8.,  surgeon  and  surgical  author
Broglio,  due  de,  statesman ....
Bronte,  Anne,  'Acton  Bell.'  novelist  .  .

,  Charlotte,  novelist ....

— ,  Emily  Jane,  '  Ellis  Bell,'  novelist  .

Brooke,  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer  .

,  Sir  James,  rajah  of  Sarawak,  and  author .

Brooks,  Charles  T.,  author  of '  Translations  from  German '

,  Erastus,  journalist  and  politician.  .

,  James,  journalist  and  politician  .  .

,  John,  LL.D.,  governor  of  Massachusetts .


,  Maria,  poet,  ('  Maria  del  Occidente  ')

Brotier,  G.,  a  Jesuit,  editor  of  '  Tacitus '
Brougham,  Henry,  lord,  statesman  axid  jurist


BOBN.

DW>

1826

1786

i . 1716

1768

1715

1753

in  Phila.  1686

1742

1755

1795

1659

1753

1588

1657

1692

1762

1612

1672

.

1349

1709

1546

*1661

1718

1747

1697

1826

-  1742

1807

1540

1614

1692

1854

.  (abt.)  1800

1797

1841

1821

1800

ler  . 1710

1734

1802

1865

.  f.  B.  0.  390

1785

1560

16.4

1736

iuC3

1753

1829

1536

1630

173o

1849

loll

1676

1723

18)8

1771

'857

1772

la23

1814

1783

1862

1785

1820

lo49

1816

1855

1818

184o

. 1706

17*'

1803

1813

1815

1810

1752

182S

1795

1846

1723

1788

177S

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


§5


Irish.

Pr.

Fr

Fr.

Ir.Am.

Amer.

Arner.

Amer.

Amer.

Scot.

\rner.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Scot.

Irish.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Scot.

Soot.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Rubs.

Ger.

Ger.

Eng.

Rom.

Rom.

Fr.

Dutch

Eng.
Amer.

Eng.


MJLMK AND PROFESSION.

Brougham,  John,  actor  and  author  .  .  •

Brougniart,  Alexander,  mineralogist  and  geologist  •

,  Adolphe  T.,  botanist,  .

Broussais,  P.  J.  V.,  medical  and  physiological  writer  .

Brown,  Alex.,  father  of  the  eminent  merchants  'Brown  Brothers

,  Arthur,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  barrister

,  (BJackwell),  Antoinette  L.,  preacher  and  philanthropist

,  Charles  Brockden,  a  novelist

,  Captain  John,  abolitionist  and  martyr .

-,  Dr.  Thomas,  metaphysician  and  poet

,  Goold,  grammarian,  .  .

,  Henry  Kirk,  sculptor

,  James,  senator,  minister  to  France •

,  James,  eminent  publisher  (Boston)  .

,  John,  D.  D.,  a  miscellaneous  writer


-,  John,  a  divine  and  author .

-,  Major-General  Jacob,  general  in  war  of  1812

-,  Nicholas,  principal  patron  Brown  University

-,  Robert,  eminent  botanist

— ,  Samuel,  chemist  and  poet

-,  Thomas,  satirist, .  .  •  .


9  Thomas,  metaphysician  .  .

Browne,  George,  count  de,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  service

,  Sir  Thomas,  a  physician,  and  philosophic  writer

,  "William  George,  a  traveller  in  Africa,  &c.

Brownell,  Thomas  C,  Prot.  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Connecticut
Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  poet,  .  •  •

,  Robert,  poet,  „  .

Brownson,  Orestes  A.,  metaphysical  writer  •  •

Bruce,  James,  a  celebrated  traveller .  ,  9

,  Robert,  the  deliverer  of  his  country  •  •

Brueys,  Francis  Paul,  admiral  .  .  .

Biummell,  George  Bryan,  «  Beau  Brummell'  .  •

Brumoy,  Peter,  a  Jesuit  and  author  .  .  .

Brune,  William  Mary  Ann,  marshal  and  revolutionist
Brunei,  Isambaid  K.,  engineer  of  Great  Eastern,  &c.  <

Brunei,  Sir  M.  I.,  engineer  of  Thames  tunnel,  &c.
Brunet,  Jacques  Charles,  'Bibliographer's  Manual'  .

Bruno,  St.,  founder  of  the  Chartusian  order
Brunnow,  Baron,  diplomatist .  .  . ' .

Brunswick,  Ferdinand,  duke  of,  military  commander .

,  Luneburg,  Charles  Win.  Fer.,  duke  of,  military  com'

mander ...  ...

Brunton,  Mary  B.,  novelist,  '  Discipline, '  &c.

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  founder  of  the  republican  government

,  Marcus  Junius,  conspirator  against  Caesar .  .

Bruyere,  John  de  la,  a  celebrated  writer  .  *

Bruyn,  Cornelius  de,  traveller .  .  •  .

Bryan,  Michael,  '  Dictionary  of  Painters' .  .

Bryant,  Jacob,  a  philologist  and  antiquary  .  .

,  William  Culler.,  poet,  traveller  .  .

Brydges,  Sir  Egerton,  eccentric  litterateur  ,  •


BOfiN

1810
1770
1801
1772
1764

1825
1771
1800
1777
1791
1814
1766
1800
1715
1722

1769
1781
1817
1663
1778
1698
1605

1779
1809
1812
H0S
1730

..750

1778

168  ^

176S

180

176£


183*

1801

1810
1859
1820
1857

1835
1855
1766
1787
1828
1"41
1858
1856
1704
1820
1792
1682
1814
1865
1860


179'
1329
1798
1840
1742
1815
1853
184f

1444


1377
1797

1721  1792

1735  laOS

1778  1818
b  0.  505
»  0. 4J

1644  1697

1652

1757  "859

1715  1804

1794

1762  187


86


THE WOBIiD's PROGRESS,


5  HOIT  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Fr.  Buat  N"an$,ay,  Louis  G.,  count  de,  a  learned  writer

Fr. Bueer,  Martin,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Reformation
Ger. Buch,  Leopold  von,  geologist  .  .  •

Scot. Buchan,  William,  a  physician  and  author  .
Sect. Buchf.nan,  Claudius,  a  divine  .  .  •

Sect. ,  George,  an  eminent  writer .  .

Amer. 1  James,  15th  president  of  the  United  States  .

Eng. Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  duke  of,  statesman .

Eng. , George  Villiers,  son  of  the  former

Jing, -,  James  Silk,  traveller  and  author

Amer. ,  Joseph  T.,  journalist  and  author  .  .

Eng. Buckland,  Wm,,  D.  D.,  geologist.  .  .

Amer. Buckminster,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  theologian  .  .

Amer. ,  Joseph  S.,  author  of '  Sermons,'  &c

Eng. Buckstone,  John  B.,  actor  and  playwright .  .

Amer. Buel,  Jesse,  agricultural  writer .  .  .

Polish.  Burner,  Claude,  a  Jesuit  and  miscellaneous  writer

.rr. ButTon,  George  Leclero,  count  of,  celebrated  naturalist

Fr. Bugeaud,T.  R.,  marshal  of  France .

Ger. Buhle,  J.  G.,  '  History  of  Philosophy,*  &c.

Eng. Bull,  Geo.,  Greek  scholar  and  dramatist  .  ■

Er.g. ,  Geo.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  theological  writer

^or ,  Ole,  famous  violinist ....

SwLs.  Bullinger,  reformer  and  author

Amer.  Bullions,  Peter,  D.  D.,  authw  of  educational  works .

Fng. Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  L.  diplomatist  and  political  writer

■,  (now  Sir  Edward  Lytton),  novelist  and  dramatist

,  Lady  Bulwer  Lytton,  novelist


Erg.

Eng.

Aust.

Russ.

Eng.

Ger.

Swiss


Buol-Sehauenstein,  K.  F.,  count  of,  statesman  .

Bu:  on,  C.  C.  J.,  chevalier  de,  diplomatist  and  historian
Bunyan,  John,  author  of  '  Pilgrim's  Progress'
Burekhardt,  John  Charles,  mathematician  .  .

-,  John  Louis,  oriental  traveller  .


Scot.  Am.  Burden,  Henry,  inventor  and  mechanio

Eng. Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  politician

Ger. B:  l  ger,  G.  A.,  poet

En". i  urges,  Geo.,  Greek  scholar  and  dramatist

Amer. Burges,  Tristram,  statesman  and  orator

Eng. Burgess,  Thomas,  Bp.  of  Salisbury,  classical  and  theological

Eng. Burgh,  James,  author  '  Dignity  Human  Nature '

Eng. Burgoyne,  John,  military  commander  and  author

Irish. Burke,  Edmund,  a  great  statesman  and  writer .

Swiss. Burlamaqui,  John  James,  writer  on  civil  law  .

Eng. Burleigh,  William  Cecil,  lord,  eminent  statesman  .

I)u'  ih.  Burman,  Peter,  critic  and  editor

v>e  . Burmeister,  He;  man,  naturalist .  .  .

j±m*r.  Burnap,  George  W.,  clergyman  and  author

£i,ot. Burnes,  Sir  Alex.,  'Travels  in  Bokhara,  Cabool,'  &o.

Burnet,  Gilbert,  a  divine  and  historian,  Bishop  cf  Salisbury

,  Jacob,  pioneer  of  Cincinnati  and  authoi

,  John,  engraver,  painter,  andoritio ,


Soot.
Amer.
Eng.
Kng.


Burney,  Charles,  a  doctor  of  music


1191

1551

1774

1853

1729

1791

1766

1805

1506

1582

1791

1592

1628

1627

1688

1784

1855

1779

1784

1856

1751

1812

1784

1812

1800

1778

1839

1661

1737

1707

1788

1784

1849

, 1763

1786

1864

1634

1710

. f1810

1504

1575

1791

1864

1803

1807

1797

1791

I860

1628

1688

1773

1815

1784

1815

1791

1770

1844

1748

1794

1786

1864

1770

1853

al  author  1756

183'

1714

1775

.

1792

1730

1797

1694

1748

1520

1598

1668

1741

1807

1802

'359

1805

1841

y . 1643

1726

1776

1858

1784

172«

1814

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


87


STATIC*.  BAME AND  FBOFESSSON.

Eng.  Burney,  Frances,  (see  Mme.  dArblay),  noveliit  .

Eng. ,  James,  admiral  and  author  .  ,  ,

Scot.  Burns,  a  popular  and  national  poet

Amer.  Burr,  Cul.  Aaron,  vice-president  U.  S.  .  .

Amer.  Burritt,  Elihu,  'the  learned  blacksmith'  and  philanthropist

Amer.  Burroughs,  Stephen,  notorious  adventurer  .  .

Eng.  Burton,  Robert,  author  of  the  '  Anatomy  of  Melancholy'

Eng.  ,  Wm.  E.,  actor  and  author

Ger.  Busching,  Anthon  Frederick,  philosopher  and  geological  writer

Amer.  Bush,  George,  D.D.,  theological  and  philosophical  writer .

Amer.  Bushnell,  Horace,  CD.,  theological  and  metaphysical  author

Mex.  Bustamente,  Anastasio,  president  of  Mexico

Eng.  Bute,  John  Stuart,  earl  of,  statesman,  premier

Irish.  Butler,  Alban,  '  Lives  of  Saints'

Amer.  ,  Andrew  P.,  United  States  senator  from  South  Carolina

Amer.  ,  Benj.  F.,  statesman  and  jurist,  attorney-general  U.  S.

Amer.  ,  Benj.  F.,  major-general  U.  S.  army  in  war  for  Union

Eng.  ,  Charles,  Catholic  historian  and  jurist

Eng.  ,  Joseph,  bishop,  an  eminent  prelate  and  author

Eng.  ,  Samuel,  bishop  of  Litchfield,  editor  of  "uBschylus,"  &c,

Eng.  ,  Samuel,  a  humorous  poet

Amer.  ,  Richard,  colonel,  an  officer  in  the  Revolution

Amer.  ,  Wm.  Allen,  poet

Amer.  ,  Wm.  O.,  statesman  and  general .  .

Ger.  Buttman,  Philip  C,  philologist  .  .

Eng  Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Powell,  legisl.  and  philanth.

Ger.  Buxtorf,  John,  a  Hebrew  and  Ohaldaic  lexicographer

Ger. ,  John,  (son  of  the  preceding,)  lexicographer

Amer.  Byles,  Mather,  clergyman  and  author

Eng.  Byng,  Honorable  John,  admiral

Eng.  Byron,  George  Gordon,  lord,  a  popular  poet

Eng.  ,  Honorable  John,  admiral .  .

Eng.  ,  Lady  Noel,  wife  of  the  poet


JOBS.

1752
1739
1759
1756
1811
1765
1576
.804
1721
1796
1802
^782
:."38
1710
1796


1750
1692
1774
1612

1825
1793
1764
1786
1564
1599
1706
1704
1788
1723
1793


DIFX

184C
1820
1796
1836

1840
1639
1860
1893
1859

1851
1792
1773
1857
185?

1831
175S

184-
168.
1791


1829
184ft
1629
1644
1788
1757
1828
1786
1860


ft


Ft.  Cabet,  Etienne,  communist .  .  •  .

Eng.  Cabot,  John,  navigator  and  discoverer  0/  North  America

Eng.  ,  Sebastian  (son  of  John),  navigator

Port.  Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  navigator

Span.  Cabrera,  Don  Ramon,  military  commander  for  Don  Carlos

Ital.  Cadamosta,  Louis  da,  navigator

Eng.  Cade,  the  noted  rebel, '  Jack  Cade  '  .  .

Scot.  Cadell,  Thomas,  publisher  of  Scott's  works,  Ac.

Fr.  Cadet  de  Grassicourt,  Charles  L.,  chemist  and  philosopher

Cadmon,  Anglo-Saxon  poet

Amei  Cadwallader,  John,  officer  in  the  Revolution .  .

Rom.  Cassar,  Caius  Julius,  warrior,  statesman,  and  author

Ital.  Cagliostro,  Alex.,  count,  swindling  adventurer  .

Fr.  Cailliaud,  Frederic,  traveller  .  .  .

Pr.  Oail!S,  Ren6,  '  Voyage  a  Timboucto,'  &a.  .  ,


. 1788

1866

1477

1557

1500

1810

f.  1456

1450

1742

1803

1769

1821

680

1743

1786

B  O.  100  B.

0.  44

1743

179S

1787

1881

88


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NA7IOB

Ital.

Gr.

Ei.g.

Span.

Amer.

Amer.

Ital.

Amer.

Rom.

Gr.

G?r.

Gr.

Gr.

Fr.

Ital.

Fz.

Fr

timer.

Waxier.

5'r.

Eng.

Pers.

Jug.

Scot.

Scot.

Fort.

Fr.

Amer.

Scot.

Scot.

Scot,

Scot.

Scot.

Scot.

Ger.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Ital.

Dan.

Fr.

Eng.

Span.

Gr.

Rom.

Ital.

Brit

Brit.

Ital.

Bug.

Fr.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Cajetan,  Cardinal,  diplomatist  and  author
Oalaber,  iT;  lintus .....
Calamy,  Elrrund,  Presbyterian  divine  and  author .
Calderon  ce  la  Barca,  Don  Pedro,  dramatist .  .

Caldwell,  Charles,  eminent  physician  and  author

,  Rev.  James,  revolutionary  patriot

Calepino,  Ambrose,  author  of  a  lexicon  in  11  languages

Calhi  un,  John  C,  senator  of  the  United  States

Caligula,  Roman  Emperor

Calipptn,  astronomer  and  mathematician  .  .  f .  b

Calixius,  Geo.,  Lutheran  theologian

Calli:  lachus,  a  poet  .  .  •  .  f.  b.

Callnihenes,  philosopher  and  historian .  ,

Ca'ir.at,  Augustine,  an  erudite  divine  and  author  .

Cf/ogera,  Angelo,  a  learned  monk  and  author

(Monne,  Charles  Alexander  de,  minister  of  state

Calvin,  John,  of  the  Apostles  of  the  Reformation .

Calvert,  George  Henry,  belle-lettres  author

,  Leonard,  first  governor  of  Maryland  (see  Baltimore)

Cambaceres,  John  J.  A.,  distinguished  revolutionist

Cambridge,  Duke  of,  sixth  son  of  George  III.

Cambyses,  second  king  of  Persia

Camden,  William,  an  eminent  antiquary  and  historian

Cameron,  Richard,  'Covenanter,1  founder  of  Cameronians

,  Sir  Evan,  lord  of  Lochiel

Camoens,  Louis,  the  most  eminent  poet  of  his  country
Campan,  Jeanne  L.  H.  J.,  educationist  and  author
Campbell,  Ales.,  founder  of  a  religious  sect

'■ — ,  George,  a  divine  and  author

,  John,  a  multifarious  writer, 'Admiral,'  &c.

,  John,  2d  duke  of  Argyle  and  Greenwich

,  John,  lord  chancellor,  jurist, '  Lives  of  Chancellors

,  Sir  Colin,  British  com.  in  India,  &c,  Lord  Clyde
,  Thomas,  poet,  '  Life  of  Petrarch,1  &c.


Camper,  Peter,  an  eminent  naturalist  .  .  .

Cam  piston,  John  G.  de,  dramatist  .  .

Cange,  Charles  Dufresne,  sieur  du,  historian

Canning,  George,  statesman,  orator,  and  poet

Canrobert,  Franc.  C,  general  in  Crimea

Cantu,  Cesare,  historian,  poet,  and  philosopher

Canute,  King  of  Denmark  and  of  England, '  the  Great '

Carefigue,  A.  H.  A.,  historian

Capell,  Edward,  editor  of  Shakespeare  .  •

Capmany,  Don  Antonio,  historian

Capo  d1  Istria,  president  of  Greece,  1827-31 .  •

Caracalla,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  emperor .

Caraccioli,  Neopolitan  admiral,  hanged  by  Kelson

CaractacuB,  prince  of  the  Silures,  a  brave  warrior.

Carausius,  usurper  of  Empire  in  Britain

Cardan,  Jerome,  philosopher,  mathematician  and  physician

Cardigan,  J.  P.  B.,  earl  of,  general  of  cavalry  at  Balaklava

Cardonne,  Dennis  D.,  an  eminent  orientalist


(at


BOBN.
1510

1600
1600
1772
1731
U35
1782
12

C,  830
1586

c.  150

1672
1699
1734
1509
1803

1763

1774


1617
1752
1792
1709
1708
1678
1778
1791
1777
1722
1656
1610
1770
1809
1805

995
1799
1713
1754
1776

188

1770

t.)  100

260
1601
1797
1720


D3Ei

1593
26C
1666
1687
1853
1781
1511
1850
11

1656

o.  328
1757
1768
1802
1623

1676
1824
1850
0.  521
1623
16B0
1719
1579
1822

1796
1775
1713
1861
1863
1844
1789
1723
1688
1827


1036

1781
1810
1831
217
1799

293
1571

178S


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


RATIOS.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

En<?.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Ital.

Irish.

Irish.

Ital.

Eng.

Eng.

Span.

Span.

G-er.

Soot.

Scot.

Gr.

Pr.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Gua.

-Auier.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Ger.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Span.

Amer.

Amer.

Fr.

Ital.

Horn.

Eng.

Ital.

Port.

Ital.

Eng.

Rus.

Ru8.

Span.E

Span.

Eng.

It.  Fr.

Eng.

Rom.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Careme,  Murk  Antony,  famous  cook  .  .

Carew,  Bamfylde  Moore,  'king  of  the  beggars'
Carew,  Thomas,  poet  ....

Carey,  Alice,  author  of  poems  and  tales .  .

,  Henry,  earl  of  Monmouth,  translator .  .

,  Henry  C,  political  economist  .  ,

,  Matthew,  philanthropist,  publisher,  &c  ,

,  William,  missionary  to  India

Carissimi,  James,  musical  composer .  „  ,

Carleton,  Wm.,  novelist  .  .  ,

,  Sir  Guy,  military  commander,  and  governor  of  Canada

Carli,  John  Rinaldo,  count  de,  author

Carlisle,  G.  W.  F.,  7th  earl  of,  statesman  and  author .

,  Sir  Anthony,  physician  and  medical  writer

Carlos,  Don,  son  of  Philip  II.,  (hero  of  Schiller's  tragedy,)

,  Don  Maria  Isidor,  pretender  to  the  throne .

Carlotta,  wife  of  Maximilian,  emperor  of  Mexico  .

Carlyle,  Rev.  Alex,  D.  D.,  '  Memoirs  of  his  Times' .

.  Thomas,  historian  and  metaphysician  .

Carneades,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  3d  Academy
Carnot,  Lazarus  Nicholas,  revolutionist  .  .

Carpenter,  Laut,  Unitarian  minister  and  author .

,  Wm.  B.,  physiologist  .  .  .

Carrel,  Armand,  historian  and  metaphysician  .

Carrera,  Rafael,  ruler  of  Guatemala .  .  .

Carroll,  Chas.,  last  surviving  signer  of  the  Deo.  of  Indep.
Carter,  Elizabeth,  a  learned  translator  .  ,

,  Nathaniel  H.,  a  scholar  and  traveller  .

Cart-wright,  Thomas,  puritan  divine .

Carus,  C.  G.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  physiology

Carver,  John,  1st  gov.  Plymouth  colony  .  .

,  Jonathan,  traveller  and  author

Cary,  Henry  F.,  poet,  translator  of  '  Dante' .  .

Casas,  Bartholomew  de  las,  philanthropist  and  historian
Cass,  Lewis,  statesman  and  diplomatist  .  .  ,

Cassin,  John,  ornithologist  .  .  .

Cassini,  John  Dominic,  astronomer .  .  .

Cassiodorus,  Marcus  Aur.  statesman  and  historian
Cassius,  Longinus  Caius,  conspirator  against  Cassar ,
Castell,  Edmund,  divine  and  lexicographer  .

Castiglione,  Balthasar,  statesman  and  author .  .

Castro,  Inez  de,  wife  of  Pedro,  king  of  Portugal ,
Catalini,  Madame,  eminent  vocalist .  .  .

Catesby,  Mark,  naturalist  .  ,  ,

Catherine  I.,  wife  of  Peter  the  Great  .  .

II.,  empress  the  "  Great  "  and  the  vicious

,  of  Arragon,  wife  of  Henry  VIII. .  ,


,  of  Braganza,  queen  of  Charles  II.  of  England

— ^— ^— Howard,  queen  of  Henry  VIII. .  .

de  Medici,  wife  of  Henry  II.  of  France  .

, Parr,  6th  and  last  wife  of  Henry  VIIL  .

Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius,  patrician  conspirator  .


BORN.

->rKD,

178'

13f

165.3

1773

1589  ?

16*9

1822

1596

7661

1792

1760

iSd9

1761

1622

1600

16,5

1798

1724

1803

1720

173S

1802

1884

1768

1840

1545

1568

1788

1856

18—

1721

1805

1795

.  218  b.

O.  128

1753

1823

1780

1840

18—

1800

1836

1814

1737

1832

1717

1806

1830

1535

1608

1789

1732

1780

1621

1772

1840

1474

1564

1782

1866

1813

1625

1712

470

616

B.

0. 42

1606

1685

1468

1525

1355

1782

1849

1680

1749

1682

1727

1729

1796

1483

1536

1638

1703

1521

1542

1619

1689

1548

B.O. 6S

9°


THE WORLL  S PROGRESS.


BA1IOH  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Ft.  Cat:  uat,  Nicholas,  military  commander  .  .

Amer.  Catlin,  George,  artist  and  traveller  among  Indians  .

Rom.  Cato,  Mar  jus  Portius,  the  censor,  statesman  and  author

Rom. ,  Marcus  Pore:  us,  of  Ulica,  statesman  .

Rom.  Catullus,  Caius  Valerius,  poet . .

Fr.  Cauchy,  Aug.  Louis,  mathematician  .  .

Fr.  Caulaincourt,  A.  A.,  Duke  of  Vicenza,  diplomatist  .

Fr.  Caussin,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  the  '  Holy  Court '

Fr.  Cavaignac,  Louis  E.,  general-in-chief  of  the  republic,  1848

Ital.  E.  Carallo,  Tiberius,  electrician,  author  Natural  Philos.

Eng.  Cave,  Edward,  printer,  bookseller  and  author .  ,

Eng.  Cavendish,  Sir  William,  courtier  aud  writer  .

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  navigator

Ital.  Cavour,  Camille  di,  count,  Sardinian  statesman

Eng.  Caxton,  William,  the  introducer  of  printing  into  England

Fr.  Caylus,  A.  C.  P.,  count  de,  miscellaneous  writer '.

Fr.  Cazales,  James  A.  M.  de,  an  eloquent  orator .  .

Eng.  Cecil,  Rev.  R.,  religious  writer .  .  .

Eng.  ,  Robt.,  earl  of  Salisbury,  statesman  .  .

Eng.  ,  Win.,  Lord  Burleigh,  statesman

Rom.  Cecilia,  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  patron  of  music

Gr.  Cecrops,  1st  king  of  Athens  ....

Ital.  Cellini,  Benvenuto,  artist,  jeweller,  patron  of  music .

Rom.  Ceisus,  Auielius  Cornelius,  a  celebrated  physician  .

Gr.  ,  an  Epicurean  philospher  ...  •

Ital.  Cenci,  Beatrice,  Roman  maiden,  tragically  famed .  ,

Rom.  Censbrius,  a  critic  and  grammarian .  .  .

Irish.  Centlivre,  Susanna,  a  dramatic  writer .  .  ,

Span.  Cervantes-Saavedra,  Michael,  author  of '  Don  Quixote'

Ital.  Cesare,  Giuseppe,  cavaliere  de,  historian  .  .

ItaL  Cesarotte,  Melchior,  a  voluminous  author .

Eng.  Chalmers,  Alex.,  '  General  Biographical  Dictionary,'  &o.

Scot.  ,  George,  miscellaneous  writer .

Scot.  ,  Thomati,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  political  economist

Scot.  Chambers,  Robert,  publisher  and  author

Eng.  ,  Sir  "William,  an  architeot  .  .

Scot. — ,  William,  publisher  and  author

Fr.  Chambord,  H.,  count  of,  last  scion  of  the  house  of  Bourbon

Ger.  Chamisso,  A.  von,  author  of  'Peter  Schlemihl,' &c.

Fr.  Champollion,  the  younger,  'Monuments  de  l'Egypte,' &c,

Fr. ,  Figeac,  historian  and  antiquary .

'  Amer.  Channing,  Edward  T.,  essayist  and  reviewer

Ajuer.  f  William  Ellery,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  philanthropist

Amei. ,  William  Henry,  Unitarian  minister  and  author

Eng.  Chantry,  Sir  Francis,  sculptor
Amer. Chapin,  Edwin  H.,  eloquent  clergyman  and  orator

Eng.  Chapman,  George,  poetical  translator  .  •

Eng.  Chapone,  Hester,  miscellaneous  writer .  .

Fr.  Chaptal,  J.  A.  C,  chemist ....

Fr  Charlemagne,  emperor  of  the  West  and  King  of  Franoe

Ger,  Charles  V.  the  Great,  see  Prescott's  History,  &o.  .

Bwe.  Charles  XII.,  king,  a  celebrated  warrior .


BORN.

D1H>

1637

1713

B  o.  232  b.

0.  147

B.  0. 95  B.

O. 40

B. o. S6

178f)

1857

1773

1807

1583

1661

1802

1857

1749

1809

1691

1751

1505

1557

1564

1591

1809

186!.

1410

1492

1720

1765

1752

1805

1748

1810

(abt.)  1550

1612

1520

1598

ic 2d  cen

(abt.) b.

o.  1500

1500

1570

f.  30

.  f.  50

1599

.  f.  240

1667

1723

1547

1616

1783

1856

1730

1808

1759

1854

1744

1825

1770

1846

1802

1726

1796

1800

1820

1781

1790

1832

1779

1790

1856

)ist 1780

1842

1810

1781

1841

1814

1557

1634

1727

1801

1756

1832

742

814

1600

158K

168?

176j

BIOGRAPHICAL INDUE.


91


S  ATI B  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Enfr.  Charles  Edward,  grandson  of  James  II.  and  Pretender  ,

Fr ,  J.  A.  0.|  natural  philosopher  .  .  .

Fr.  Charlevoix,  Peter  F.  X.,  a  Jesuit  historian

Amer.  Chase,  Philander,  bisl. op  of  Prot.  Kpis.  Church,  Ohio .

..uner.  ,  Salmon  P.,  senator  of  United  States  and  governor  of  Ohio

Fr.  Cliasles,  V.  E.  Philarete,  miscellaneous  writer  .  .  .

Dutch.  Chass6,  David  H.,  baron,  military  commander .  .

Fr.  Chastelet,  Gabrielle,  marchioness,  scientific  author .  ,

Fr.  Chasteilux,  F.  J.,  marquis  de,  general  and  author

Fr.  Chateaubriand,  F.  P.,  vicomte  de,  poet,  statesman  and  traveller

Fr.  Chatel.  Abbe,  Fer.  F.,  theological  reformer

Fr.  Chatelej,  2  aul  du  Hay,  lord  of,  (Bertrand  Duguesclin)  .

Eng.  Chatharr,  Wm.  Pitt,  earl  of,  statesman

Eng.  Chattertoii,  Thomas,  famed  for  precocious  learning .

Eng.  Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  English  poetry .  .

Amer.  Chauncay,  Charles  D.  D.,  president  of  Harvard  College

Amer. ,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander .  ,

Amer.  Chesebro,  Caroline,  novelist  and  essayist

Amer  Cheever,  Geo.  B.,  congregational  clergyman  and  author .

Eng.  Cheselden,  William,  an  eminent  anatomist

Eng.  Chesterfield,  Philip  D.  Stanhope, earl  of,  statesman  and  writer

ItaL  Cherubini,  M.  L.  C,  musical  composer

Fr.  Chevalier,  Michael,  engineer,  traveller  and  statesman  .

Fr.  Chevreul,  M.  E.,  chemist ....

Ar  er.  Child,  Lydia  Maria,  author  of  various  works  .  .

En£.  Chillingworth,  Wm.,  theologian  and  author

•'  r.  Chilo,  Euphorus  of  Sparta,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  .  f.

^cner.  Chipman,  Nathaniel,  jurist  and  statesman

Erg.  Chitty,  Joseph,  author  of  numerous  works  on  law .

Pol.  Ohlopicki,  J.,  military  commander,  dictator  of  Poland  .

.-.mer.  Choate,  Rufus,  advocate,  jurist  and  senator

Fr.  Choiseul-Stainville  C.  A.  G.,  duke  of,  statesman  and  author

Eng,  Choules,  John  Overton,  D.  D.,  Baptist  minister  and  author

fewe.  Christina,  queen,  (daughter  of  G.  Adolphus) .

Afr;c.  Christophe,  a  slave,  afterwards  King  of  Hayti .

Gr.  Chrysiphus,  a  stoic  philosopher  .  .  . B.  0

Or.  Chiysostom,  John,  Christian  father  and  orator

Amer.  Church,  Benj.,  military  commander  and  author  .

Eng.  Churchill,  Charles,  a  satirical  poet  .  .  .

Eng.  Cibber,  Colley,  tragic  and  comic  actor  and  poet

Rom.  Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators  .  B,

Ital  Cimarosa,  Dominic,  dramatic  and  music  composer .

Gr.  Cimon,  an  Athenian  general  ....

Rom.  Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quintius,  the  patriot .  . f.  B,

Rom.  Cinna,  Lucius,  Cornelius,  partisan  of  Marius  .  £  b

ItaL  Clrillo,  Dominic,  a  botanist  and  physician

Amer.  Clair,  Arthur  St.,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  revolution ,

Fr.  Clairaut,  Alexis  Claude,  geometrician

Amer.  Clap,  Thomas,  president  of  Yale  College  .  ,

Scot.  Clapperton,  Hugh,  traveller  in  Africa  .  .

Eng.  Clare,  John,  poet ....  .

Bug.  Clarendon,  G.  W.  F.,  Villiers,  earl  of,  statesman  .


BOBN.

1720
1746
1682
1775
1808
1799
1765
1706
1734
1769
1795
1693
1708
1752
1328


1807
1688
1694
1760
1806
1786
1802
1602
.  598
1752
1776
1772
1799
1762
1801
l&W
176'.
230
34-1
163S
1731
1671
105
1754
I

456

8'*

1734

1713
1703
1788
1703
1800


DIBB

178?

1826
1761

1852


1849
1749
1788
1848
185;
'638
1778
1770
1400
1671
1940


1752
1773
1840


1644

1843
1841

1854
1859

1856

1689

1820

207

407

1718

1764

1757

C.  43

1S01

o.  MO


1799
1818
1783
1767
1827


92


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


BAT101,  NAME  AND PROFESSION.

Amcr. Clark,  Louis  Gaylord,  editor  of  '  Knickerbocker* .  •

Ai:.t". ,  Willis  Gay  lord,  poet  and  essayist  .

Arr  .r. ,  Wm,,  general,  explorer  of  Rocky  Mountains  .

Ei_g. Clarke,  Dr.  Adam,  a  celebrated  theologian  and  commentator

Eng. ,  Dr.  Edward  Daniel,  traveller  and  mineralogist

Amer. Clarke,  James  Freeman,  clergyman  and  author

Eng. ,  Mary  Cowden,  author  of  '  Concordance  to  Shakespeare,

Airier. ,  McDonald  '  the  crazy  poet,'  .  .

Eng. ,  Rev.  Samuel,  'Annotations  on  the  Bible'  .

Eng. ,  Samuel  D.,  theologian  and  philosopher .

Eue.-. ,  Sir  James,  medical  author .  .  ,

Eng. Clarkson,  Thomas,  philanthropist  .  *

Rot Claudius,  Appius,  decemvir ...
Eng. Claverhouse,  John  Graham  of,  Viscount  Dundee
Span. Clavigero,  Francis  X.,  historian of  Mexico .  .

Amer. Clay,  Casaius  M.,  anti-slavery  politician

Amer. ,  Clement  C,  ex-senator  of  U.  S.  from  Alabama .

Amer. ,  Henry,  statesman  and  diplomatist .  .

Amer. Clayton,  John,  an  eminent  physician  and  botanist  •

Amer. Clayton,  John  M.,  senator  and  secretary  of  state .
Gr. Cleanthes,  a  stoic  philosopher  .  .  .

Amer.  Cleaveland,  Parker,  mineralogist  and  chemist
Amer. Clemens,  Jeremiah, U.  S.  senator  from  Alabama  •

Clement,  the  name  of  14  popes  and  3  antipopes

Gr. ,  of  Alexandria,  a  '  father  of  the  church'  .

Gr. dementi,  Muzio,  musical  composer  .

Gr. Cleobolus,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  .  .

Ital. Cleon,  an  Athenian  politician  and  demagogue  .

Egypt.  Cleopatra,  a  voluptuous  queen  .  .  .

Swiss. Clerc,  Jean  le,  theological  writer

Fr.  Arr . ,  Laurent,  the  oldest  living  teacher  of  deaf  mates .

Amer.  Clinton,  Dewitt,  governor  and  benefactor  of  New  York

Amer. ,  James,  general  Amer.  Rev.

Amer. ,  George,  governor  of  New  York  and  vice-president  of  U

Eng. '.live,  Robert,  lord,  military  commander
Fr. Cloquet,  Hyppolite,  (brother  of  Jules),  anatomist .
Fr.  Clot,  or  Clot-Bey,  surgeon  and  medical  writer  in  Egypt

Amer.  Gobb,  Lyman,  lexicographer  and  author .  .  ,

Eng. Cobbett,  William,  political  writer .  •  ,

Eng. Cobden,  Richard,  statesman  and  reformer  .  •

Eng Cobham,  Sir  Jno.  Oldcastle,  lord,  martyr  .  •

Eng Cochrane,  Earl  Dundonald,  naval  commander  .  •

Eng. Oodrington,  Sir  Edward,  vice-admiral  .  .

Eng. Coffin,  Sir  Isaac,  admiral,  (b.  in  Nantucket)  .  .

Eng. Cogan,  Thomas,  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer .
Eng. Ccke,  Sir  Edward,  a  learned  judge  .  .  .

Fr. Colbert,  John  Baptist,  an  eminent  statesman .  •

A.mer.  Colburn,  Warren,  mathematician,  arithmetician,  &o.  .

Amer. ,  Zerah,  precooious  arithmetician

Imer.  Colden,  Cadwallader,  an  eminent  botanist,  astronomer,  &o.

Amer. ,  Cadwallador  D.,  statesman,  biographer  of  Pulton,  &o.

#ng. Coleridge,  ffartley,  author  and  poet


BOSH.

MBA

1800

1810

1541

1770

183?

1760

1833

1767

1821

1810

,'  &c.  1809

1798

1842

1627

1701

1675

172.;

1761

1846

B.  0.  450

1627

1701

1720

1793

1810

1789

177T

1852

171.5

1773

1796

1R5C

.  f.  260

1780

15S

1814

220

1832

.  f.  559

b.  o  442

B.  c.  30

1656

1756

1785

1769

18"

1736

1812,

r.  S.  1739

'81 '4

1725

!T7i

1787

1795

186&

1762

1835

1804

1865

. 1360

1417

1775

1860

1770

1851

1759

1839

1736

1818

1549

1634

1619

1683

, 1793

1823

1804

1840

1688

1776

1769

1834

1797

Hilt

BIOGKAPUICAL INDEX.


93


vinoi.
Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr-

Eng.

Bug.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Amor.

Eng

Amer.

Amer.

Ita).

Scot.

Scot.

Fr.

ilex.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer.

Span.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Chin.

Eng.

Gr.

Amer.

Fr.

Scot.

Fr.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Ir.  Am

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.


SAMS AND PROFESSION.

Coleridge,  Henry  Nelson,  litterateur

,  Sarah,  daughter  of  Samuel  T.,  author

,  Samuel  T.,  pool  and  metapb.ys.cian

Coligui,  Gaspard  de,  admiral

Oollingwood,  Cuthbert,  lord,  admiral

Collins,  William,  a  popular  poet

Coleman,  Benjamin,  a  learned  divine,  (in  Boston)

,  George,  dramatic  writer .  .

,  George,  (the  younger),  dramatist


BORN.

(8ht.)  1800
1303
177"
1F17
1743
1720
1673
1733
1762

(abt.)  1800
1788
1773
1818
1797
1441
1797
1778
1446
1812
1789
1798
1802
1800
1621
1715
1743
1785
B.  c.  550
1772


Colombat,  de  l'lsere,  medical  writer

Colton,  Calvin,  clergyman  and  political  writer

,  C.  C,  author  of  'Lacon'

,  George  H.,  author  of  '  Tecumseh,'  dec.

,  Waiter,  Rev.  author  of  voyages  and  travels .

Columbus,  Christopher,  the  discoverer  of  America  ,

Combe,  Andrew,  medical  and  physiological  writer ,

,  George,  phrenologist  and  philosopher  .  .

Comines,  Philip  de,  statesman  and  historian .  .

Comonfort,  Ygnacio,  President  of  Mexico  .  .

Comstock,  John  L.,  author  of  popular  school-books

Compte,  Auguste,  metaphysician,  founder  of  "  Positivelsm  "

Conant,  Thomas  J.,  D.  D.,  biblical  scholar  and  critic

Concha,  Jose  de  la,  captain-general  of  Cuba  .  ,

Conde,  Louis  II.  of  Bourbon

Condillac,  Stephen  Bonnet  de,  metaphysical  writer  ,

Condorcet,  M.  J.  A.  N.,  Marquis  of,  metaphysician .

Cone,  Spencer  Houghton,  baptist  clergyman

Confucius,  a  celebrated  philosopher

Congreve,  Sir  William,  inventor  of  the  •  Congreve  rocket '

Conon,  an  Athenian  general  ....  ;>.

Conrad,  Robert  T.,  judge,  politician  and  poet „  .  . I81i

Considerant,  Victor,  socialist  philosopl  er  .  .  180.r

Constable,  Archibald,  publisher  of  Scott's  poems,  miscellany,  &o. 1776

Constant,  Benjamin,  statesman  and  metaphysician  .  . 1767

Constantiue,  (the  Great),  the  first  Christian  emperor  .  274

,  VII.,  (Porphyrogenitus)  emperor  and  author .  905

,  XII.  (Paleologus),  the  last  of  the  Greek  emperors  1403

Conway,  Thomas,  maj.  gen.  in  Revolution  a  '  cabaler,'  &c.  .  (abt.

Conybeare,  Wiliiam  D.,  clergyman  and  geologist  ,  1787

— — ,  William  G.  (son  of  the  above),  author  of  '  Life  of  St.  Paul'

Cook,  Eliza,  poetess  ..... 1818

,  James,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator  .  .  1728

Cooke,  George  F.,  an  eminent  actor  .  .  . 1756

,  George  Mnsgrove,  '  History  of  Party'  .  .  1814

,  John  Esten,  novelist  and  poet  .  .  . 1830

,  Philip  P.,  poet .....  1816

,  T.  P.,  actor ....  . 1786

Cooper,  Bramsley,  surgeon  and  author .  .  1792

,  James  Fenimore,  novelist,  traveller  and  historian ,  1789

,  Peter,  merchant  and  philanthropist  founder  of  Institute 1791

,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  a  divine  and  political  writer .  . 1726

Sir  Astley  Paxkm,  physician  and  medic?"  trrtwr  , 1768


1844
1853
P>34
1573
1810
1758
1747
1784
1836

■".857
1832
1847
1861
1508
1847
1858


_d58

"Ml


1683

1780

•794

1S55

r.828
;.  390
1856

1827
:<.830
337
959
1453
1778
1857
1857

1776
1812
186r

I860
1364
1453
1851

1783
184'


94  THE WORLD'S PROttRfiSA.

KAI10S,  NAME AND PBOFESSION.

Eng.  Cooper,  Thomas,  chemist,  jurist,  and  politician  (in  Anier.) .

Eng. ,  Thomas  A.,  acloi .....

Irish.  Ooote,  Sir  Eyre,  commander  in  India  .  .  .

Pruss.  Oope-nicus,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  the  reviver  of  the

Pythagorean  system  of  the  universe

Eng.  Copley,  John  Singleton,  Lord  Lymihurst  (born  in  Boston,  U.S.)

Fr.  Corday  d'Armans,  M.  Charlotte  de,  guillotined  in  Revolution .

Ger.  Corinna,  a  poetess,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century  before  Christ

Rom.  Coriolanus,  Caius  Marcius,  a  warrior ....

Fr.  Cormenin,  L.  M.  de  la  Haye,  vicompte  de,  political  writer

Ital.  Cornaro,  Louis,  a  noble  author  of  a  book  on  temperance  ,

Eng.  Cornbury,  Ed.  Hyde,  lord,  governor  of  New  York  .  .

Fr.  Corneille,  Peter,  an  eminent  dramatic  writer .  .  .

Fr.  — ,  Thomas  (brother  of  Peter),  poet  and  dramatist  .

Fr.  Cornelli,  Mark  Vincent,  a  Venetian  geographer  and  historian

Eng.  Cornwallis,  Charles,  marquis,  military  com.  in  Amer.  and  India

Span  Cortez,  Fernando,  the  brutal  conqueror  of  Mexico  .  „

Amer.  Corwin,  Thomas,  statesman,  sec.  of  treasury,  gov.  of  Ohio  .

Ital.  Cosmo  I.  de  Medici,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany .
Ital.  " II.  "  »  "  .

Ital,  " III.  "  «  "...

Ital  Costa,  Paolo,  litterateur  .....
Eng Costello,  Dudley,  author  and  journalist  .

Irish. ,  Louisa  Stuart,  author  of  memoirs

Dutch.  Coster,  John  Lawrence,  one  of  the  supposed  inventors  of  printing

Ger  Cotta,  Baron  F.,  publisher  and  statesman  .

Eng.  Cottenham,  C.  J.  Pepys,  lord  chancellor  .  .

Fr.  Cottin,  Sophie,  Madame,  a  novelist ....

Eng.  Cottle,  Amos,  versifier .....

Eng. ,  Jos.,  publisher  '  Recollections  of  Coleridge  '

Eng.  Ccton,  Charles,  humorist  and  poet  .  .  ,

Amer. ,  John  (of  Boston),  a  learned  divine .  .

Eng. ,  Sir  Stapleton,  Viscount  Combermere,  general  .

Fr.  Coulomb.  Charles  Augustine  de,  philosopher .  .  .

Fr.  Eng.  Courayer,  P.  Francis  le,  Koman  Catholic  theologian  .

Fr.  Courier,  Paul  Louis,  poet  and  satirist  ....

Fr.  ,  Paul  Louis,  political  writer  .  .  .

Fr.  Court  de  Gebelin,  Anthony,  an  antiquarian  and  author  •  .

Fr.  Cousin,  Louis,  historian  .....

Er. ,  Victor,  statesman  and  metaphysician .  .  ,

Eng.  Coverdale,  Miles,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  trans.  Bible .  .

Eng.  Cowley,  Abraham,  poet  .....

Sag.  Cowper,  William,  lord  chancellor  ....

Eng. ,  William,  poet  .....

Amer.  Coxe,  Arthur  Cleveland,  episcopal  bishop  and  poet .  .

Amer. ,  Samuel  H.,  presbyterian  author  and  clergyman .

Amer. Coxe,  Tench,  writer  on  political  economy .  .  .

Eng. ,  William,  traveller  and  historian  .  .  ,

Amer. Cozzens,  Fred  S.,  author  of  essays  and  poems  .  ,

Eng.  Crabb,  George,  philologist,  author  of  synonyms  .  .

Eng. Crabbe,  Rev.  George,  poet  •  .  ,

Ber. Cramer,  John  Andrew,  miscellaneous  writer  . ■  ,  .  .


0BH.

BIBB

1759

1844

1776

184*

1726

1783

1473

1544

1772

1863

1768

1793

B.

O.  488

1788

1467

1561

1723

1606

1684

1625

1708

1718

1738

1805

1485

1554

1794

1519

1594

1590

16-21

1642

1723

1771

1836

1803

1865

1815

1370

1440

1764

1832

1781

1851

1773

1807

1800

1770

1853

1630

1687

1585

1652

1773

1865

1736

1806

1681

1776

1772

1S25

1774

1825

1725

1784

1627

1707

1792

1867

1485

1565

1618

1667

1664

1723

1731

1800

1818

1793

1756

1824

1747

1828

1818

1778

1854

1754

1832

1728

n«

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


95


RATIOS.  IAMB AND FBOFESSIOR".

Eng. Cramer,  J.  Baptist,  musical  composer .  .  ,

Eng. ,  Francis,  "  «•  .  ,

Amer. Cranch,  "Wm.  jurist,  judge  U.  S.  District  Court  D.  0.  .

Eng. Cranmer,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  reformer  .  ,

Eng. Crashaw,  Richard,  poet  and  divine  .  .  .

Rom. Crassus,  Marcus  Lucinius,  (the  rich)  military  commander
Amer. Crawford,  William  B..,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .

Fr  Crebillon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  tragic  poet  .  ,

Ger. Oeuzer,  Geo.  Fred.,  philologist  and  antiquary  .  .

Fr. Crevier,  John  Baptist  Lewis,  historian  .  .

Crcesus,  King  of  Lydia,  famed  for  riches .  .  .

Eng. Croft,  Wm.,  musical  doctor  and  composer .  .

Irish. Croker,  John  Wilson,  statesman  and  author  .  .

Irish. ,  Thos.  Crofton,  author  of  '  Fairy  Legends,'  &o.

Eng. Croly,  Rev.  George,  poet  and  novelist .  .  ,

Eng. Cromweli,  Oliver,  military  commander  and  statesman .

Eng. ,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex,  successor  to  Wolsey ,

Eng. Crowe,  Catherine,  author  of 'Nightside  of  Nature' .
Eng. Cruikshank,  George,  artist,  chiefly  caricature  .  .

Eng. -  ,  Robert,  humorous  artist

Scot Cruden,  Alexander,  author  of  a  '  Concordance  to  the  Bible  •
Eng. Cudworth,  Ralph,  philosopher

Amer. Cuffee,  Paul,  philanthropic  sea-captain .  .  .

Scot. Cullen,  William,  an  eminent  physician  .  ,

Eng. Cumberland,  Richard,  a  multifarious  writer  .  .

Eng. ,  William  Augustus,  duke  of,  military  commander

Scot. Cumming,  John,  popular  preacher  and  theological  author .

Scot. ,  Rouallyn  W.  G.,  sportsman,  traveller,  and  author

Scot. Cunningham,  Allan,  poet,  biographer, &c.  .  .

Irish. Curran,  John  Philpot,  a  celebrated  barrister  and  orator
Amer. Curtis,  Benj.  R.,  jurist  and  judge  of  Supreme  Court  U.  8.

Amer. ,  Geo.  Ticknor,  political  writer  and  jurist .  .

Amer. ,  Geo.  Wm.,  essayist,  traveller,  and  critio

Rom. Curtius,  Rufus  Quintus,  historian.  .  .  ,

Amer. Cushing,  Caleb,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .

Amer. Cushman,  Charlotte  S.,  actress ....

E.  Am.  ,  Robert,  one  of  the  founders  of  Plymouth .

Amer. Custis,  Geo.  W.  Parke,  adopted  son  of  Washington  .

Fr. Cuvier,  George,  baron,  one  of  the  greatest  of  naturalists
Fr. ,  Fred.,  (brother  of  the  baron)  naturalist

Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  an  eminent  father  of  the  church

Cyril,  of  Alexandria,  saint  and  patriarch,  and  theol.  writer  .

,  of  Jerusalem,  saint  and  archbishop,  and  author  .

,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Sclavi  .  .  .

Pers. Cyrus,  the  Elder,  founder  of  the  Persian  empire

Pers. ,  the  Younger,  (son  of  Darius  Nothus)  king  of  Persia  .

Pol. CzartorysM,  Adam,  prince,  head  of  the  Polish  nation.


Fr. Dacler,  Anne,  a  celebrated  classical  scholar  .

Fr. Daguerre,  Louis  J.  M.,  Inventor  of  daguerreotyplng
Amer. Dahlgren,  John  A.,  naval  officer  and  author  .


BORN.

IIBT.

1771

185!;

1772

184?

1779

1855

1489

1556

1650

• B

0. 53

1772

1824

1674

1762

1771

1858

1693

1"63

b.  o.  6th  Cent.

1657

1727

1780

1357

1798

1854

1780

1360

1599

1658

1490

*540

1780

1794

1856

1701

1770

1617

1S88

1759

1818

1712

1730

1732

1811

1721

1765

1810

1820

1768

1842

1750

is1:

1809

1812

1824

1800

1816

1580

1615

1781

1857

1769

1832

1773

1838

258

376

444

315

380

822

. B.

0.  559

S.

0.  400

. 1770

186*

1661

172*

. 1789

186.

96


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


HA.HOH.  KAME AND PROFESSION

Amer.  Dahlgien,  CoL  Ulr  c,  milit.  officer

Swe.  Dahlman,  Fred  C,  historian

Ainer.  Dale,  Richard,  commodore  in  Revol.  war

Bvve.  Dalin,  Claus  von,  the  father  of  Swedish  poetry

Amer.  Dallas,  Commodore  A.  J.,  naval  commander .

Amer.  ,  Geo.,  M.,  vice-pres.  U.  S.  and  diplomatist

Amer.  ,  John  Alexander,  secretary  treasury  U.  3.

Eng.  Dalton,  John,  chemist  and  mathematician .

Ger.  Damm,  Christian  Tobias,  Greek  lexicographer

Eng.  Dampier,  William,  an  eminent  navigator

Amer.  Dana,  James  D.,  mineralogist,  geologist,  Ac. «

Amer.  ,  Richard  H.,  poet  and  essayist

Amer.  ,  Richard  H.  Jr.,  advocate  and  traveller

Amer.  ,  Samuel  L.,  agricultural  chemist

Venet.  Dandolo,  Enrico,  doge  of  Venice  .  .

Amer.  Dane,  Nathan,  jurist  and  legal  author

Eng.  Daniell,  John  F.,  chemist ....

Eng.  ,  W.,  R.  A.,  author  of  pictorial  works  on  India  .

Ger.  Dannecker,  sculptor  ('  Ariadne,'  &c.)  .  .

ItaL  Dante  Alighieri,  the  sublimest  of  the  Italian  poets  .

Fr.  Danton,  Geo.  Jacques,  leading  revolutionist .

Ital.  Da  Ponte,  Lorenzo,  poet  and  dramatist  (d.  at  N.  Y.)  .

Eng.  D'Arblay,  Madame,  (Fanny  Burney)  novelist .

Eng.  Darling,  Grace,  famed  for  rescue  of  nine  persons  wrecked .

Amer.  Darlington,  Wm.,  botanist  and  politician .

Eng.  Daubeny,  Chas.  J.  B.,  natural  philos.  and  geologist

Aust.  Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Mary  count  de,  military  commander  .

Fr.  Duunou,  P.  C.  F.,  statesman  and  litterateur

Eng.  Davenant,  Sir  Wm.,  dramatist .

Amer.  Davidson,  Lucretia  M.,  a  youthful  poetess  of  uncommon  genius

Amer.  Davidson,  Margaret  Miller  (sister  of  above),  poet

Amer.  Davies,  Charles,  mathematician ....

, Samuel,  president  of  Princeton  College,  theol.  writer

Ital.  Davila,  Henry  Catharine,  an  historian

Amer.  Davis,  Andrew  J.,  clairvoyant  and  writer  on  spiritualism

Amer.  1  Charles  H.,  mathematician  and  naval  officer

Amer.  >  Jefferson,  general  and  U.  8.  senator  from  Mississippi

Eng.  f  John,  a  navigator,  discoverer  of  Davis  Straits  .

Amer.  ,  Matthew  L.,  biographer  of  Burr,  &c.

Fr.  Davoust,  Louis  N.,  one  of  Bonaparte's  generals  .  .

Eng.  Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  eminent  chemist

A  mer. Day,  Stephen,  the  first  printer  in  New  England .  .

Amer. Dayton,  Wm.  Lewis,  jurist  and  statesman

Amer.  Deane,  Silas,  minister  of  the  U.  S.  to  France  .  .

Amer  Dearborn,  Henry,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  two  American  wars 1751

Ame-  De  Bow,  J.  D.  B.,  journalist  and  statistician

Fr.  Debruce,  "William  Francis,  a  bookseller  and  bibliographer

Swiss. Decandolle,  A.  P.,  botanist

Amer. Decatur,  Stephen,  a  gallant  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  navy

Eng.  Decker.  Thomas,  dramatic  poet

Eng.  Dee,  John,  mathematician  and  astrologer

Eng. Defoe,  Daniel,  miscellaneous  writer  .  .


•0AM.

DIM*

1842

1864

1785

1756

182-

1708

1753

1791

1844

1792

1759

1817

1766

1844

1699

1778

1652

1711

1813

1787

1815

1795

1110

1205

1752

1835

1790

1845

1837

1758

1841

1265

1321

1759

1794

1749

1838

1752

1840

1815

1842

1782

1705

1766

1761

1840

1605

1688

1808

1840

1823

1838

1798

1724

1761

1576

1631

1826

1807

1808

1605

1766

1850

1770

1823

1778

1829

1611

1663

1807

1758

1789

rars  1751

1829

1820

1731

1782

1778

1841

1779

1820

1638

1527

1618

1661

1781

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


97


■ATIOH.  SAME AND PBOFESSION.

G.  Am.  DeKalb,  John,  baron,  raaj.-gon.  in  Am.  revoL  army

Eng. De  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry  T.,  geologist

Fr. Delambre,  John  Baptist  Joseph,  astronomer  ,

Amer. Delancey,  William  H.,  Epis.  Bishop  West  New  York

Fr. Delavigne,  Casimir,  dramatist ....

Fr. Delille,  James,  a  celebrated  poet  .  .

Fr. Delisle,  Joseph  Nicholas,  an  eminent  astronomer  .  .

Swiss. Delolme,  Jean  L.,  author  of  a  work  on  the  English  Constitution

Swisz. Deluc,  Jean  Andre,  natural  philosopher

Pol. Dembinski,  Henry  K.,  general  in  Hungarian  revolt

Demetrius  Phalereus,  Athenian  orator  and  statesman  .


-,  Poliorcetes,  one  of  the  successors  of  Alex,  the  Great


Democritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher
De  Morgan,  Augustus,  mathematician .  .

Demosthenes,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators
Denham,  Lieut.-Col.  Dixon,  an  enterprising  traveller
Denina,  Charles  John  Maria,  an  historian
Denman,  Thomas,  lord  chief  justice  of  England .
Dennie,  author  and  editor  of  '  Portfolio,'  &c.


Gr.

Maced.
Gr.

Eng.
Gr.

Eng.

Ital.

Eng.

Am  el

Amer. Dennis,  John,  critic,  embalmed  in  '  Dunciad '

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Ruse.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Afric,


D'Eon,  Chevalier,  equerry  to  Louis  XV.  .

DeQuincy,  Thomas,  essayist  and  critic .  .

Derby,  Edw.  G.  S.  Stanley,  fourteenth  earl  of,  statesmar,

Derzhavine,  Gabriel  R.,  a  poet  and  statesman

De6aix,  Louis  Charles  Anthony,  military  commander  .

Descartes,  Rene,  an  eminent  philosopher  .

Desmoulins,  Camille,  revolutionist  and  author  .

Dessalines,  John  James,  Emperor  of  Hayti  .

De  Soto,  Fernando,  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi

Destouches,  Philip  Nericault,  dramatic  writer
Dutch.  Deurhoff,  William,  founder  of  a  sect,  and  an  author
Dan.  Am. De  Vere,  Maximilian  Scheie,  philologist  and  essayist
Eng. Devereux,  Robert,  third  Earl  of  Essex,  parliamentary  genei

De  Vigny,  Alfred,  count,  poet  and  novelist

Dewees,  W.  P.,  medical  writer

De  Wette,  William  M.  L.,  theologian  and  biblical  critic

Dewey,  Orville,  Unitarian  divine  and  essayist
Dutch.  De  Witt,  John,  an  eminent  statesman
Port. Diaz,  Bartholomew,  discoverer  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope

,  del  Castillo,  Bernal,  adventurer  and  chronicler

Dibdin,  Charles,  a  dramatic  and  musical  composer .

,  Thomas  (son  of  Charles),  dramatist  and  song  writer

,  Thomas  Frognall,  bibliographer


Fr.


Fr.

Amer.
Ger.
Amer.


Span.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Boot.
Eng.


Dick,  Thomas,  author  of  '  Christian  Philosopher'
Dickens,  Charles,  novelist


Amer. Dickinson,  Daniel  S.,  statesman


Amer.

Ft.

Fr.

Fr.
Ft.


—  John,  author  of  '  Farmer's  Letters  *


Diderot,  Denis,  first  editor  of  Encyclopedie  Methodique'
Didot,  Francis  A.,  a  celebrated  printer  and  type-founder

t  Firmin,  publisher  and  men  ber  of  Deputies

,  Amb.  Firmin,  publisher  and  traveller


Egypt. Didymus,  who  wrote  from  3,000  to  6,000  works


»oas.
1132
1796
1749
1797
1794
1738
1688
1740
1727
1791
b.  c.  345

B.  c.  460

1806
B.  c.  381

1786
'.73

ID?
1767
1728
1786
1799
1743
1768
1596
1762
1760
1500
1680
1650
1820
1592
1799
1768
17*)
1794
1625

>bt  )  1560
1748
1771
1770
1772
1812
1S00
1732
1713
1730
1764
179U
t  a.  c.  SO


OIBD

1780
1855
1822
186-
1843
1813
1768
1806
1817
1864
B.  o.  283
B.  0.  283


j.  0.  322
1828
1813
1854
1812
1783
1810
1859

1816
1800
1H50
1794
1806
1542
1754
1717

1646
1863
1841
1849

1672
1500

1814
1841
1847
1859

1865
1808
1784
1804
1«M


THE WOBLD'S PROGRESS.


RATIOS.

Pruss.
Ger.

Bpan.

Eng.

Ger.

Maced.

Rom.

Gr.

Swiss.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr

G~.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Gr.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Span.

Rom.

Scot.

Ital.

Ital.

Eng-

Eng.

Ital.

Amer.

Fr.  En

Hind.

Eng.

Scot.

Amer.

Scot.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Gr.

Bug.


NAJfa AHD PROFESSION.

Diebitsch-ZabaJkansky,  count,  military  commander

Diffenbach,  John  Fred.,  surgeon  and  surgical  author

Diez,  John  Martin,  a  patriotic  military  commander

Dilke,  Charles  W.,  journalist,  editor  of  Aihenaeum'

Dindorf,  William,  philologist

Dinocrates,  an  architect;  built  Alexandria,  <fcc.

Diocletian,  Valerius,  emperor

Dio-Ohrysostom,  a  rhetorician  and  philosopher

Diodati,  Giovanni,  theologian,  translator  of  Bible  .

Diodorus  Siculus,  a  historian

Diogenes,  the  cynic,  philosopher.

,  Laertius,  biographer  .  ,  .

Dion-Cassius,  author  of  «  Roman  History  ' .

Dionysius,  a  geographer .

,  of  Alexandria,  saint  and  bishop  of  the  Church

,  the  Areopagite,  learned  Athenian  Christian

— ,  the  elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse

,  of  Halicarnassus,  critic  and  historian  .

,  the  younger,  tyrant  of  Syracuse  .

Disraeli,  Isaac, 'Curiosities  of  Literature'

Dix,  D'r  thea  L.,  philanthropist,  founder  of  asylums  .

,  John  Adams,  U.  S.  senator  from  New  York,  &c.

Dixon,  Y  'lliam  Fepworth,  author  and  critic  .  .  1821

Doane,  jreo.  W.,  Prot.  Epis.  Bishop  of  New  Jersey,  poet,  &o. . 1799

Dobell,  r>  dviey,  poet  .....  1824

Dodd,  Dr.  ^  illiam,  miscellaneous  writer  (executed  for  forgery) 1729

Doddridge,  ihL'ip,  a  gifted  and  pious  divine  and  writer .  1702

1703
1780
1170
62
1800
1383
1797
1573
1798
1468


BORN

Dl8,"j

1785

1831

1792

1841

1775

1823

1810

1864

1802

f,  b  C.  350

245

313

f.  b.  c.  30

1576

1649

f.  B.  o.  10

b.  o.  413

B.

0.323
155

f.140

265

. A.  D.  1st

cent.

B.  o.  430

B.

0.367
53

B.  O.  367

B.

0.343

1767

1848

Dodslej,  Bibert,  publisher  and  author

Doeberefinc,  J W.,  chemist ....

Dominic  De  juzman,  founder  of  preaching  friars  .

Domitian,  e'nperor  .....

Don,  David,  ootanist  ....

Donatsllo  (/  cneto  di  Bel-lodi  Bardi)  sculptor  ,  •

Donizetti,  Gaetano,  musical  composer  .  .

Donne,  John,  poet  and  theologian  .  ,  .

Donovan,  Edward,  writer  on  natural  history .  ,

Doria,  Andrew,  the  deliverer  of  his  country,  (Genoa)  .

Dorr,  Tr  cmas  "W.,  politician,  elected  (?)  governor  of  Rhode  Island 1805

D'Orsay,  Couiit  Alfred,  author,  artist,  and  '  beau'  .  1798

Dost-Mo'm  mmed,  emir  of  Caboo  . 1785

Douce,  Fir ncis,  antiquarian  and  author .  .  .  1762

Douglas,  Gawin,  a  poet  and  translator  .  .  . 1474

,  Frederick,  abolitionist,  politician  and  editor  .  1817

Sir  Howard,  general,  military  and  naval  author  - 1776

,  Stephen  Arnold,  United  States  senator  from  Illinois  1813

Dow,  Lorenzo,  an  eccentric  preacher  .... 1777
Downes,  John,  commodore  in  the  United  States  navy  .  1786

Downing,  Andrew  J.,  author  of  works  on  landscape  gardening

and  horticulture .  .  .  .  .  1815

Dowse,  Thomas,  a  leather  dresser,  collector  of  a  rare  library  1772

Draco,  an  Athenian  legislator  ...  f. 623

Drake  Dr.  Nathan,  physician  and  essayist  .  .  1766


1859

1777
1756
1764

1221
93
1840
1466
1848
1631
1837
1560
1854
18.r:2
1863
1834
1521

1861
1861
1834
1855

1851
185«


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX,


99


RATIO*

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

E.  Am.

Eng.

Dutch.

Eng.

Fr

Fr.

Scot.

Eng.

Scot

Rom.

Eng.

Amer.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Swiss.

Fr.

Scot.

Scot.

Scot

Scot

Scot.

Scot

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Amer.

Oer.


NAME AND .PROFESSION.

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  poet

.  Samuel  G.,  historian  of  the  Indians,  Boston,  Ao

,  Sir  Francis,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator .

Draper,  John  W.,  chemist  and  physiologist

Drayton,  Michael,  poet, 'Poly-olbion'

Drebbel,  Cornelius  van,  inventor  of  the  thermometer

Drew,  Samuel,  methodist  divine  and  theological  author

Drouyn  de  l'Huys,  Edward,  statesman

Droz,  Joseph,  historical  and  political  writer

Drummond,  Captain  Thomas,  inventor  of  Drummond  lights

,  Sir  William,  scholar,  author  and  diplomatist


-,  William,  poet


Drusus,  Claudius  Nero,  general  in  Gaul  and  Germany

Dryden,  John,  an  eminent  poet .

Duane,  William,  politician  and  author  of  '  Aurora  '

Ducange,  Charles  Dufresne,  historian  and  philologist

Ducas,  Michael,  Byzantine  historian  .  .  .

Duehatel,  C.  M.  T.,  count,  statesman  and  author .

Duchesne,  Andrew,  a  historian

Duclos,  Charles  Pineau,  an  historian

Duganne,  Augustine  J.  H.,  poet,  novelist  and  politician

Dugdale,  Sir  William,  antiquarian  author  .  .

Duguesclin,  Bertrand,  military  commander .  .

Duhalde,  Jean  B.,  geographer

Dumas,  Alexandre,  novelist,  traveller,  &c

,  Alexandre,  (the  younger),  novelist  and  dramatist

,  J.  B.,  chemist  ....

Dumont  d'Urville,  J.  8.  C,  circumnavigator  .

Dumont,  John,  traveller  and  political  writer .

,  P.  S.  L.,  writer  on  legislation

Domouriez,  Charles  Francis  Duperier,  military  commander
Dunbar,  George,  professor  at  Edinburgh,  'Greek  Lexicon'

,  William,  poet ....

Duncan,  Adam,  viscount,  successful  admiral .

,  William,  logician  and  translator •

Dundas,  Henry,  Viscount  Melville,  statesman
Dundonald,  Earl  of,  ('  Lord  Cochrane ')  admiral
Dunglisson,  Robiey,  M.  D.,  medical  author .  .

Dunlap,  William,  painter  and  historian
Dunning,  John,  Lord  Ashburton,  lawyer
Duns  Scotus,  John,  scholastic  theologian .
Dunstan,  Saint,  ahhot  of  Glastonbury  and  politician
Dupin,  A.  M.  J.  J.,  jurist  and  statesman .

,  Charles,  baron,  jurist  and  statesman .  .

,  Louis  Elie,  an  ecclesiastical  historian

Duponceau,  P.  S.,  philologist,  jurist,  &c.,  (at  Philadelphia)

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,  admiral .

Dupuytren,  surgeon  and  anatomist

Duquesne,  Abraham,  a  gallant  admiral .  .

Durand,  Asher  Brown,  painter  and  engrave;  .

Durbin,  John  P.,  methodist  divme  and  author .

Durer,  Albert,  painter  and  engtaver  .  .


BORN.

">rg->

1795

1S2J

1798

1545

15W

1811

1563

16?i

1572

1604

1765

183;

1806

1773

iS5C

s

1797

1840

1760

1835

1585

1.649

B  c.  38

£

1631

1700

1760

1835

1610

1688

. 15th  cent

.803

1584

1640

1704

1722

1823

1605

1686

1314

1380

1674

1743

1803

1824

1800

1790

1842

1726

1759

1829

r

1730

1823

1774

1851

1465

1535

1731

1804

1714

1760

1741

1811

1775

1860

1798

1766

1839

1731

1783

1.274

1308

925

988

1783

1865

1784

1637

1719

1760

1844

1803

1865

1778

1835

1610

1638

1796

•

1800

1471

iOiS

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


KiTIOK.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer.  Durfee,  Job,  priest  and  author ....

Eng.  Durfey,  Thomas,  dramatic  author

Eug.  Durham,  J.  G.,  Lambton,  earl  of,  governor-general  of  Canada

Fr.  Duroc,  Michael,  Duke  of  Friuli,  military  commander

Amer.  Dwight,  Dr.  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine  and  writer

Amer. ,  Theo.,  author  and  journalist

amer.  ,  The©.,  (son  of  the  above),  ethnologist  and  historian

Amer.  Duyckinck,  Evert  Aug.,  author  and  critic

Amer. ,  Geo.  Long,  author  and  critic  .  .

Scot.  Dye  3,  Alex.,  author  and  critic  .  .

Eng.  Dyer,  John,  poet,  'The  Fleece'

Eng.  Dvmond,  Jona,  writer  on  ethics  and  philanthropist  •


BOKB.

DIED

1790

1841

1628

172E

1792

184C

1772

1813

1752

1817

1765

184b

1866

1816

1823

1863

1797

1700

1758

1796

1720

Amer.  ^astburn,  Manton,  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Mass.  .  .

Eng.  Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  L.,  painter  and  art-critic  .

Amer.  Eaton,  Amos,  botanist .....

Amer.  ,  Wm.,  military  officer  and  consul  in  Africa .

Ger.  Fckenoan,  John  Peter,  litterateur

Amer.  Eckfurd,  7Ienry,  eminent  shipbuilder  .  .  .  .

Ger.  Eckhard,  John  George,  an  antiquary  and  historian  .

Irish.  Edgeworth,  Maria,  novelist .  .  .  .

Eng.  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  a  warrior  .  .  .

Amer.  ,  i  ula  B.,  theologian  and  miscellaneous  author  .  .

Eng.  Edwards,  73-yan,  an  historian ....

Amer. '  ohn  W.,  jurist  and  writer  on  spiritualism .  .

iimer. ,  jcnathau,  an  able  divine  and  metaphysician

,  Milne,  (son  of  W.  F.,)  naturalist

,  W.  IP.,  anatomist  and  physiologist  (born  at  Jamaica)

Ger.  Eginhard,  &c  historian,  biographer  of  Charlemagne

Flem.  Egmont,  7  amoral,  count,  patriot  and  martyr  .  .

Ger.  Ehrenberg,  C.  J.,  naturalist .....

Ger.  Eiehbom,  F 0.,  theologian  and  jurist  .  .  .

Eng.  Eldon,  L.  :J,  lord  chancellor  of  England

Scot.  Elgin,  T.,  3ruce,  earl  of,  diplomatist — remover  of  '  Elgin'  marbles

Eng.  Elizabeth,  queen ......

Amer.  Eliot,  Sarjjel,  author  of '  History  of  Liberty'

Eng.  Ellenboro':gh,  Edw.  Law,  lord  chief-justice .  .

Eng. ,  Edw.  L.,  earl  of,  governor-general  of  India

Amer.  EMery,  Wm.,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence

Eng.  Ellesmere.  Fr.,  Egerton,  earl  of,  statesman  and  author

Amer.  Ellet,  Eliza  F.,  biographer  and critic

Amer.  Elliot,  John,  'the  apostle  to  the  Indians' .

Eng.  Elliotson,  John,  physician  and  physiologist .  . (abt.)

Amer.  Elliott,  Charles  Loring,  portrait  painter

Amer.  Charles  Wyllys,  author  of  '  History  of  New  England'

Eng.  ,  Ebenezer,  poet '  Corn  Law  Rhymes'

Amer.  ,  J.  D.,  commodore  ir American  navy

Amer.  ,  Stephen,  naturalist  ...»

Amer  Ellis,  Geo.  E.,  Unitarian  clergyman  ana  autr.or

Kd.8-  — — ;  Sir  Henrv-  antionary  and  author


1801

1793

1776

1842

1764

1811

1792

1852

1775

1832

1674

1730

1767

1849

1330

1376

1802

1743

1800

1799

1703

1757

1777

771

840

1552

1568

1795

1781

1854

1750

1838

1771

1841

1533

1603

1821

1750

1818

1790

1727

1820

1800

1857

1604

169u

1795

1812

1817

1781

1785

im

1771

1&30

1815

1777

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


RATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng  Ellis,  Wm.  Rev.,  missionary  and  author  .  . (abt,

Eng.  Elliston,  Robert  "W.,  actor  ....

Amer.  Ellsworth,  Elmer  E.,  military  offloer  in  Union  army .

Amer. ,  Oliver,  a  distinguished  chief-justice  of  the  U.  S.

Eng.  Elmes,  James,  architect  and  author .  .  ,

Scot.  Elphinstone,  Mount  Stuart,  history  of  India  .  ,

Fr.  Elesler,  Fanny,  danseuse ....

Dutch.  Elzevir,  Louis  M.  G.  B.,  and  A.,  printers  16th  and  17th  centuries

Amer.  Embury,  Emma  E.,  poet ....

Amer.  Emerson,  Geo.  B.,  educator  and  author .  .  ,

Amer. ,  Ralph  "Waldo,  poet  and  essayist .  .

Eng.  "William,  a  distinguished  mathematician .  ,

Irish.  Emmet,  Robert,  '  United  Irishman' (executed)

Irish. ,  Thomas  Addis,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  orator .

Amer.  Emmons,  Eben,  geologist  and  author

Amer. -,  Nathaniel,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  author  .  •

Gr.  Empedocles,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  .  .

Encke,  John  Francis,  astronomer  .  .  .

Amer.  Eudicott,  John,  governor  of  Massachusetts .  •

Ger.  Endlicher,  Stephen  L.,  botanist  and  linguist  .  .

Eng.  Enfield,  "William,  miscellaneous  writer  .  .

Fr.  Enghien,  Louis  EL  de  Bourbon,  duke  of,  (executed)

Fr.  Eondu  Beaumont,  chevalier,  an  eccentric  writer  and  ^cidier

Gr.  Epaminondas,  an  illustrious  Theban  general  .  .

Gr.  Epictetus,  a  stoic  philosopher

Gr.  Epicurus,  founder  of  the  Epicurean  sect  of  pi  Loi'pk^te . B
Dutch.  Erasmus,  Desiderius,  a  celebrated  scholar  and rtl.  r .

Ger.  Erastus,  Thomas,  founder  of  '  Erastianism' theOiO^y  .

Gr.  Eratosthenes,  astronomer,  geologist,  poet  and  philosopher I

Span.  Ercilla,  Don  Alonzo,  a  poet  .  .  .

Span.  Ericcira,  Ferdinand,  a  statesman  and  historian  .

S.  Am.  Ericsson,  John,  inventor  and  engineer  in  America .  .

Eng.  Erigenus,  John,  a  learned  writer  of  the  ninth  century .

Pruss.  Erman,  A.  G., 'Travels  in  Siberia,' &c. .  .  .

Ger.  Ernesti,  John  Augustus,  an  eminent  critio .  .

Scot.  Erskine,  Ebenezer,  theologian .  .  .  .

Scot.  ,  Ralph,  divine,  '  Gospel  Sonnets'  .

Scot. ,  Thomas,  lord,  a  celebrated  forensic  orator

Assyr.  Esarhaddon,  son  and  successor  to  Sennacherib,  kin ot  Assyria

Span.  Escobar  y  Mendoza,  Anthony,  a  celebrated  casuist

Span.  Espartero,  J.  B.,  Duke  of  "Vittoria,  statesman  and  soldier

Amer.  Espy,  James  P.,  meteorologist  and  author  .  ,  .

Fr.  Esquirol,  J.  E.  D.,  writer  on  insanity  .  .  ,

Ger.  Ess,  L.  Van,  theological  writer ....

Eng,  Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of,  a  warrior .  .

Fr.  Estaing,  Charles  H.,  count  d',  naval  commander .  ,

Auet.  Esterhazy,  Prince  Paul,  wealthy  statesman .  .

Eng.  Etheredge,  Sir  George,  comic  author  and  dramatist  .

Afric.  Euclid,  an  eminent  geometrician  .  ,  f.

Ft.  Eugene-Francis,  prince,  a  great  warrior  in  the  German  service

Bpan.  Eugenie,  Marie  de  Gusman,  Empress  of  France  ,

Swiss  Enler,  Leonard,  an  eminent  mathematician  .  .


t.) 1795

i77l

1881

1837

1861

174S

180?

1782

1778

1855

1811

)B

1806

1863

1797

1803

nor

1782

1780

1803

1764

1827

179?.

1863

174S

1840

1791

1865

1589

1665

1804

1849

1741

1797

1772

1804

1728

1810

B.

o.  363

.  f. 40

l.  0.  342  b.

o.  371

1467

1536

1524

1583

J.  o.  276  B.

o.  196

1525

1595

1614

1699

1803

isoe

1707

1781

1680

1756

1685

1752

1750

1823

b.  c.  7th  cent.

1589

1669

1792

1785

1860

.  . 1772

1840

1770

1847

1567

1601

1729

1794

1636

'-694

B.  0.  300

166S

173C

1826

1707

179*

THE WORLD  S PROGRESS.


MATIGN.  NAME AND PROFESSION

(St. Lu'ipides,  a  celebrated  tragic  poet .  .  .  1

Or. Euferr'us,  bishop  of  Caesarea,  a  learned  father  of  the  church,  and

ecclesiastical  historian.
Rom. Euti  opias,  an  historian  ....

Rom. Eutyches,  an  ecclesiastic,  founder  of  a  sect  .

Amer. Evanc,  Oliver,  inventor  and  engineer .  .  .

Amer. Evar+s,  Jeremiah,  (see  Amer.  B.  C.  for  Missions)
'. ig. EvelyD,  John,  miscellaneous  writer .
Amer. Everett,  Alex.  H.,  essayist  and  diplomatist

Amer. ,  Edward,  statesman,  diplomatist,  and  author .

fr'er. Ewald,  Geo.  H.  A.  von,  orien'alist  and  theologian .
.'■'li.Am.  Ewbank,  Thos.,  writer  on  practical  mechanics  .

Amer. Ewing,  Th  "'3.,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .

Eng. Exmouth, iw.  Pellew,  viscount,  admiral . "  .


Eng.  Faber,  Geo«£e  Stanley,  theological  writer  .  .

gng  t  Frederick  Wm.,  Roman  Catholic  priest  and  theological

author  .....

Rom.  Fabius,  Quintus  M.  V.,  a  skilful  warrior .

Ger.  Fabricius.  John  Albert,  a  critic  and  bibliographer  .

jtal. 1  JoLn  Christian,  a  celebrated  entomologist

ltal.  Fabroni,  Angelo,  a  learned  biographer

Eng.  Fabyan,  Rob>».t,  chror5".ler

ltal.  Faociolato,  01  ',acciol..ti.  Jat.,  philologist

Pruss.  Fahrenheit,  G<voriel  Daniel,  an  experimental  philosopher

Eng.  Fairfax,  Edw:-'  -d,  poet,  translator  of  Tasso

Eng. ,  Thomas,  lo'-3,  a  general  in  the  civil  war .

Bng.  Falconer,  William,  a  poet ....

ltal.  Faliero,  Marino,  doge  of  Venice,  (beheaded)  •

Eng.  Falkland,  Luci'ir  '^v.  viscount,  polilician  and  author

Eng.  Fanshawe,  Sir  Kionara,  poet  and  diplomatist

Trisli.  Faraday,  Michael,  chemist ....

Port.  Faria  y  Souza,  Manuel,  an  historian  and  poet

Eng.  Farmer,  Hugh,  the  logian ....

Amer.  Farnham,  Mrs.  ElUa  W.,  traveller  and  philanthropist

Irish.  Farquhar,  George,  i  dramatist

Amer.  Farrar,  John,  irpt'ct .  atician  and  author .  .

Fr.  Faucher,  Leon  pm'tioal  economist

Fr.  Fauriel,  Claude,  historian  and  belles-lettres  author

Her.  Faust,  John,  me  of  the  inventors  of  printing .

It.  Favre,  J.  C.  Jules,  lawyer  and  politician .  ,

Eng.  Fawkes,  Francis,  a  poet  and  translator  .

Aracr.  Fay,  Theo.  S.,  author  and  diplomatist  .  .

Fr.  Fayette,  Mary  M.,  countess  of,  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  traveller  in  the  East

Amer.  Fel'on.  Cornelius  C,  scholar  and  critic,  president  of  Harvard

College  .....

Fr,  Fe^e'ion,  Francis  de  Salignac  de  la  Motto  de,  an  able  writer  and

cue  of  the  most  virtuous  of  men .  .  .

Bwe.  Ferber,  John  James,  an  eminent  mineralogist  .


BOBN.  MED

0.  480 3 0 404


f.  860

1755  1818

1781  1831

1620  1651

1790  1847

1794  1869

1803

1792

1789

1757  1833


1773


1815


1854


B

o.  204

1668

1736

1742

1807

1732

1803

1450

1515

1684

1760

1686

1736

1633

1611

1671

1730

1769

1355

1610

1643

1608

1666

1790

1867

1588

1647

1714

1787

1815

1864

1678

1707

1779

1853

1803

1854

1772

1844

1466

1809

1632

1693

1807

1632

1691

1799

1607


1351
1743


1713
1701


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


JUtTIOW,  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Scot.  Ferguson,  Adam,  an  historian  and  moral  philosopher

Scot. ,  James,  a  self-educated  astronomer,  philosophet,  &c.

Scot.  Fergusson,  James,  architect  and  writer  on  art

Span.  Fen-eras,  John  de,  a  celebrated  historian .

Bcot.  Ferrier,  Mary,  novelist  ....

Ft.  Fesch,  Joseph,  senior,  priest,  cardinal,  archbishop  of  Lyons

Amer.  Fessenden,  Thos.  Green,  author  and  journalist

Amer. ,  Wo.  Pitt,  U.  S.  senator  from  Maine,  ex  sec.  treas.

Ger.  Eeuerbach,  Ludwig,  philosopher  and  author

Ger.  Feurbach,  Paul  John  A.  von,  statesman  and  jurist  .

Span.  Feyjoo  y  Montenegro,  an  able  miscellaneous  writer

Ger.  Fichte,  John  G.,  philosopher  .  .  .

Ital.  Ficino,  Marsilius,  a  Platonic  philosopher .  .

Amer.  Field,  Cyrus  W.,  promoter  of  Atlantic  telegraph  .

Amer.  Field,  David  Dudley,  jurist  and  advocate

Amer. ,  Henry  Martyn,  clergyman,  journalist,  and  author

Eng.  Fielding,  Copley  Vandyke,  painter  in  water  colors .

Eng. ,  Henry,  a  humorous  novelist  and  dramatist

Ital.  Fiesco,  John  Louis,  the  conspirator  against  Doria  .

Amer.  Fillmore.  Millard,  13th  president  U.  8.  .

Amer.  Finney,  Charles  G.,  preacher  and  theological  writer .

Peru.  Firdusi  or  Ferdusi,  poet,  author  of  60,000  verses

Amer.  Fisk,  Wilbur,  president  Wesleyan  University,  '  Travels,'  &o.

Amer.  Fitch,  John,  inventor,  pioneer  of  steam  navigation  .

Rom.  Flaminius,  Titus  Quintus,  general  and  consul  .

Rom. ,  Caius,  genera],  consul,  and  censor  of  tribune

Eng.  Flamsteed,  John,  first  astronomer  royal  .  .

Eng.  Flatman,  Thomas,  poet ....

Eng.  Flavel,  John,  an  eminent  non-oenformist  divine  .

Fr.  Flechier,  Esprit,  a  celebrated  prelate  .  .

Ger.  Fleischer,  H.  L.,  orientalist ....

Scot.  Fleming,  John,  naturalist  .  .

Scot.  Fletcher,  Andrew,  of  Saltoun,  statesman  and  author .

Eng. ,  Giles,  poet ....

Eng. ,  John,  a  dramatist  .

Eng. ,  Phineas,  poet .  .

Fr.  Floury,  Andrew  Hercules  de,  a  cardinal  and  statesman

jT.  ,  Claude,  a  divine  and  historian

Amer.  Flint,  Rev.  Timothy,  novelist  and  historian

Fr.  Florian,  John  Peter  Claris  de,  miscellaneous  writer

Ger.  Flugel,  G.  L.,  philologist  and  historian  .  .

G-er. ,  John  G.,  lexicographer

Ger.  Follen,  C  T.  C,  theologian  and  philologist  (in  U.  S.) .

Fr.  Fonblanque,  J.  S.  M.,  jurisprudence

Fr.  Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bouvier  de,  miscellaneous  writer

Amer.  Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  admiral  and  author .  .

Eng. ,  Samuel,  a  comic  writer  and  actor  .  .

Eng.  Forbes,  Edward,  naturalist  and  author .  .

Eng. -,  John,  M.  D.,  medical  writer .  .  .

Amer.  Force,  Peter,  journalist  and  historian  .  .

Ital  Forcellini,  Giles,  a  Latin  lexicographer  ,  .

Eng  Ford,  Johr,  an  early  dramatic  author  .  .


BOBN.

1724
1710
1808
1652
1782
1763
1771
1806
1804
1775
1701
1762
1433
1819
1805
1822
1787
1707

1800
1792
940
1792
1743
.  0.  230  B.
B.
1646
1633
1627
1632
1801
1785
1658
1580
1676
1584
1653
1640
1780
1755
1802
1788
1796
1787
1657
1806
1721
1815
1787
1790
1688
1586


DTED

me
1.1*

MM

1854
1839
1837


1833
1764
1814
1498


1856
1754
1547


1020

1839

1798

0.  17

o.  .17

719

16r,8

16.1

1710

1857
1716
1627
1626
1650
1743
1722
1840
1794

1855
1846
1865
1757
1863
1771
1864


IMt


io4


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


FiTTON.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng. Ford,  Richard,  author  of  works  on  Spain
Ita' Foresti,  B.  Felice,  patriot  and  litterateur .
Amer. Forrest,  Edwin,  actor  .  .  .

i.'c„ Forster,  John,  journalist  and  author  .

Ger. ,  John  R.,  traveller  and  naturalist

Amer. Forsyth,  John,  diplomatist  and  statesman  .

Eng. Fosbrooke,  Rev.  T.  D.,  archaeologist  (Ency.  Autiq.)

Ttal. Foscari,  Francesco,  45th  doge  of  Venice

Ital. Foscolo,  Nicol  Ugo,  poet  and  musical  author .

Eng. Foster,  John,  essayist

Vr. Fouche,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto,  a  brutal  revolutionist

6er. Fouque,  Fried  H.  L.  de  la  Motte,  author  of  '  Undine,'  &o,

Ft. Fourier,  Charles,  founder  of  the  '  social '  system

Fr. ,  Francis  M.  C,  writer  on  social  science

Amer. Fowler,  Orson  S.,  phrenologist

Eng. Fox,  Charles  James,  one  of  the  greatest  of  statesmen  and  (irators

Eng. ,  George,  the  founder  of  the  society  of  Friends  or  Quakers

Eng. ,  John,  a  divine,  author  of  the  '  Book  of  Martyrs  '

Eng. ,  Sir  Charles,  engineer,  builder  of  Crystal  Palace .

Ital. Fra  Diavolo  (Michael  Pezza),  Neapolitan  bandit .  »

Francia,  Jos6  G.  R.,  dictator  of  Paraguay  .  .

Amei Francis,  John  W.,  physician  and  author  .  .

Ital. ,  Saint,  founder  of  '  Franciscans  '  .

Savvy. ,  de  Sales,  saint  and  bishop .  •  .

Irish. ,  Sir  Philip,  political  writer

Amer. Franklin,  Benjamin,  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  statesman

Ent. ,  Sir  John,  admiral  and  Arctic  explorer

Scot. Frazer,  Simon,  Lord  Lovat,  Jacobite  leader,  beheaded .
l:uss. Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  King,  an  able  general  and  author .
Amer. Freeman,  James,  D.D.,  first  Unitarian  minister  in  U.  8.
Amer. Frelir.ghuysen,  Theo.,  statesman  •

Amer. Fremont,  John  Charles,  explorer  and  statesman
Amer. Freneau,  Philip,  poet  and  journalist  .  .  .

Eng. Frere,  John  Hookman,  poet  and  diplomatist .  .

Ger. Freytag,  G.  W.  F.„ '  Arabic  Dictionary,'  &c.  .  .

Eng. Frobisher,  Sir  Martin,  a  celebrated  navigator  .  .

Fer. Froebel,  Julius,  traveller  and  author  .  .  »

Fr.  Froissart,  John,  a  chronicler  and  poet  .  .

Amer. Frothingham,  Eichard,  Jr.,  historian  and  journalist  .

Eng. Fry,  Elizabeth,  philanthropist

Amer. — ,  Wm.  Henry,  composer  and  journalist  .  .  .

Eng. Fuller,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister .  .

Amer. ,  Richard.  D.  D.,  Baptist  preacher  and  author

Amer. ,  Sarah  Margaret,  Marchioness  d'Ossoli,  litlirateur

Eng. ,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  historian

Eng. Fullerton,  Lady  Georgiana,  novelist  .  .  .

Fr. Furetiere,  Anthony,  a  philosopher

Amer. Furness,  William  Henry,  D.  D.,  Unitarian  preacher  and  author

B-er. Furst,  Julius,  orientalist  and  philologist  .

■wiflg. Fuseli,  Henry,  painter  and  writer  on  art .


BOXN

<M«*

1796

185t

1793

1851

1806

1812

1729

1798

J  780

1841

1770

1842

1372

1451

1777

1821

1770

18«

17G3

1820

1777

1843

1772

13S6

1772

183*i

1809

ors 1748

1806

1624

1690

1517

1581

1810

1769

1806

1757

1840

1789

1861

11S2

1228

1567

1622

1740

1808

1706

1790

1786

1841

1667

1741

1712

1786

1759

1S35

1787

1862

1813

1752

1832

1769

1846

1778

1594

1806

1333

1400

1812

1780

1845

1815

1864

1754

1815

1808

1810

1850

1608

1661

1812

1620

1681

>r 1802

1805

1741

1821

ORN.

DISI)

1724

180(

1788

1858

1787

1670

174C

175;.

1829

lnOA

1806

17/"

1849

1st  cent,

131

1786

1564

1642

1758

182S

1808

1761

1844

BIOGRAPHICAL LNDEX,  105


SATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer. Gadsden,  Christopher,  revolutionary  statesman

Amer. ,  James,  statesman  and  negotiator  .  ,

Eng. Gage,  Thomas,  last  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts •  .

Fr.  Gagnier,  John,  an  orientalist  and  author .  .  .

Fr.  Gail,  J.  B.,  philologist  .....

Fr.  Gaillard,  Gabriel  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer  and  historian

Amer. Gaines,  Major-General  B.  P.,  military  commander  .  .

Rom. Gaius,  or  Caius,  jurist  and  legal  writer .  .  .

Gr. Galen,  Claudius,  a  celebrated  physician  .  .  .

En. Am. Gales,  Joseph,  founder  of  '  National  Intelligencer  *  .

Ital. Galileo,  an  illustrious  philosopher  and  astronomer

Ger. Gall,  John  Joseph,  a  celebrated  physiologist,  and  founder  of  the
science  of  phrenology  ....

Amer. Gallagher,  William  D.,  journalist  and  poet

8.  Am.  Gallatin,  Albert,  statesman,  diplomatist,  philologist,  and  ethnoL

Amer. Gallaudet,  Thomas  H.,  founder  of  the  first  American  asylum  for

deaf  and  dumb  .  .  .  .  .  1787  1851

\Buss. Gallitzin,  the  name  of  several  distinguished  princes .  . 16th  to  17th  cent.

Russ. ,  Demetrius  Aug.,  a  noble  missionary  priest  .

Scot. Gait,  John,  novelist ......

ItaL Galvani,  Louis,  a  physician  and  experimental  philosopher,  dis-
coverer of  galvanic  electricity  ....

Port. Gama,  Vasco,  navigator,  first  who  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope

Jew. Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee,  doctor  of  the  law

Ger. Gans,  Edward,  jurist .....

Span. Garcia,  Manuel,  musical  composer ....

Span. Garcias-Lasso  de  la  Vega,  the  prince  of  Spanish  poetry .

Spau. Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Pern

Eng. Gardiner,  Stephen,  Roman  Catholic  prelate  .  .

Ital. Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  patriotic  general  and  leader  .  .

Pr.  Gamier,  Count  Germain,  jurist ....

Eng. Garrick,  David,  a  celebrated  actor  and  dramatist  .  .

Amer Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  abolitionist  politician

Eng. Garth,  Sir  Samuel,  physician  and  poet

Eng. Gascoigne,  Sir  William,  the  judge  who  imprisoned  Henry,  Prince
of  Wales,  for  a  misdemeanor ....

Eng. Gaskell,  Elizabeth  C,  novelist  .....

Fr.  Gassendi,  f'eter,  a  celebrated  philosopner

Gaston  de  Foix,  duke  of  Nemours,  general,

Amer. Gates,  Horatio,  a  distinguishes  officer  in  the  Revolution

Fr.  "  Gavarni,"  real  name  Sulpice  Paul  Chevalier,  caricaturist

Eng. Gay,  John,  a  popular  poet .....

Fr.  Gay-Lussac,  N.  F.  chemist  ....

Span. Gayangos,  Pascal  de,  Oriental  scholar  and  historian

Amer. Gayarre,  Charles  A.,  historian ....

Eng. Gell,  Sir  William,  scholar  and  antiquary  (Pompeii  and  Rome)

Ger. Gellert,  Chrisiian  Furchtegott,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer

Rom. Gellius,  Aulius;  gra.nmarian  ....

Pr  Genest,  o:  &enet,  Edwarrt  C  ,  diplomwif :


1770

1840

1779

1.8*9

1737

'798

i52-

88

1798

•.841

1779

i83?

1503

153*!

155«

1483

1565

1806

1754

1821

1716

17',9

1805

1718

1350

1413

IS'20

186ft

1592

1656

1489

1512

1728

1806

1801

J68S

17&2

1778

1850

1809

1805

1777

1834

1715

1764

A.  D.

2d  cent.

1765

1834

to6


THE WORLD'S PROOREHS.


KAIfOX.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Bai.  Genghie  Khan,  a  celebrated  conqueror

Fr.  Genlis,  Stephania  Felicite,  Countess  de,  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  an  historian  of  the  12th  century

Fr.  Geoffroy-Saint  Hilaire  Etienne,  zoologist .  .  ,

Fr.  Gerando,  Baron  de,  writer  on  education,  &c. .

Fr.  Gerard,  Etienne  Maurice,  count,  marshal  of  France  ,

Rom.  Gsrmanicus,  Tiberius  Drusus  Cajsar,  military  commander

Amer.  Gerry,  Elbridge,  a  distinguished  patriot,  vice-president  U.  S.

Fr.  Gerson,  John  Chattier  de,  an  ecclesiastic  and  author  ,

Amer.  Gerstacker,  Fried,  novelist  and  traveller

Ger.  -iervinus,  George  Gottfried,  historian  and  politician

Ger.  <3esenius,  Fred.  Hein.  William,  orientalist  and  biblical  critic

Swiss.  Gessner,  Conrad,  an  eminent  naturalist .  .  .

Ger.  ,  John  Matthias,  a  philologist

Ital.  Giannone,  Peter,  an  historian .  .  .  .

Ame-  Gibbes,  Robert  Wilson,  physician  and  author

Eng.  Gibbon,  Edward,  one  of  the  greatest  of  England's  historians

Amer.  Gibbs,  Josiah  "W.,  philologist ....

An.br.  Gibson,  Colonel  John  and  Col.  George,  both  officers  in  the  Revo

lution ......

Eng. ,  Thomas  Milner,  statesman  .  .

Amer.  Giddings,  Joshua  Reed,  statesman .  .  .

Eng.  Giflbrd,  William,  a  critic  and  poet

Eng ,  John,  an  historical  and  political  writer  .

Ger.  Gieseler,  John  K.  L.,  church  historian

Eng.  Gilbert,  James  W.,  writer  on  banking

Eng.  ,  Sir  Humphrey,  one  of  the  earliest  adventurers  in  Amer.

Hcot.  Gilfillan,  George,  clergyman  and  author

Eng.  Gill,  John,  a  divine,  oriental  scholar  and  author

Amer.  Gillespie,  Wm.  M.,  professor  and  author  on  engineering

Scot.  Gillies,  John,  '  History  of  Greece,'  &c.

Amev.  Gilman,  John  T.,  noted  governor  of  New  Hampshire •

Amer. ,  Samuel,  Unitarian  clergyman  and  author .

Eng.  Gilpin,  Bernard,  '  apostle  of  the  North  '  .  .

Eng. ,  Wm.,  writer  on  the  picturesque

Eng.  O-ilray,  James,  engraver  and  caricaturist

Ital.  Oloberti,  Vincenzo,  philosopher,  priest,  and  statesman

Ital.  Gioja,  Melchior,  writer  on  economical  sciences

Sw.  Am. Girard,  Charles,  naturalist

Fr.Am, ,  Stephen,  merchant,  banker,  millionaire  ,

Fr.  Girardin,  Emil  de,  journalist .  .  .

Eng.  Gladstone,  Wm.  Ewart,  statesman  and  author  .

Eng.  Glanvill,  Joseph,  divine,  philosopher,  and  author .

Eng.  Gleig,  Geo.  Robt.,  clergyman  and  author  .  .

Welsh  Glendower,  Owen,  chieftain  .  .  •

Eng.  Gliddon,  Geo.  Robins,  Egyptologist  and  author  .

Ger.  Gluck,  Christop  W.  von,  musical  oomposer

6we.  Gmelin,  John  Frederick,  chemist

Ft.  Godfrey,  of  Bouillon,  or  Boulogne,  a  celebrated  leader  In  the

Crusades  .....

Amer.  Godman,  John,  M.  D.,  a  distinguished  naturalist,  <fcc.

Eng.  Godolphin,  Sidney,  earl  of  statesman  .  ,


BOBN.

BUI

1164

1225

1746

1830

1772

1844

1770

1842

1773

1852

19

1814

1363

1429

1816

1805

1786

1842

1516

1565

1691

1761

1676

1758

1809  -

1737

1794

1790
>•

1807

. 179E

1860

1757

1826

1758

1818

1792

1854

1794

1868

r.

1583

1813

1697

1771

. 1816

1747

1836

1759

1828

1701

1858

16  7

1583

17^4

1804

1757

1815

1801

1852

1767

1829

1822

1750

1831

1802

1809

1636

16S4

1796

1349

1413

1809

1857

1714

1781

1748

ISOi

1106

1794

1836

1640

1713

BIOGRAPHICAL IND&S.


107


RATIO*

Span.

Amer.

Eng.

Ger.

Ital.

Irish.

Dutch.

Span.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Scot.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Hung.

Gr.

Russ.

lines.

Amer.

En.Am

Irish.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Eng.

Rom.

Rom.

Ger.

Scot,

Scot.

Scot.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Scot.

Scot

Scot.

Span.

Eng.

Eng.

Ital.

Irish.

Dutch.

Amer.

Amer,


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Godoy,  Manuel  de,  statesman, '  prince  of  the  peace'  ,

Godwin,  Parke,  journalist  and  historian  .  .

,  William,  novelist  and  metaphysician  .  ,

Goethe,  John  Wolfgang,  poet  and  novelist
Goldoni,  Charles,  the  Italian  Moliere  .  .  .

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  celebrated  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer
Golius,  James,  orientalist  and  lexicographer  .

Gonsalvo,  of  Cordova,  a  celebrated  warrior .  .

Good,  John  Mason,  physician  and  author .  .  ,

Goodrich,  Chauncey  A.,  scholar  and  divine .  .

,  Frank  B.,  (son  of  Samuel  G.,)  author

,  Samuel  Giiswold,  'Peter  Parley,'  voluminous  author

Goodyear,  Charles,  inventor  and  India-rubber  patentee
Gordon,  '  lord  George,'  political agitator

,  Wm.,  author  of  History  of  the  United  States  .

Gore,  Catharine  G.,  novelist

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando,  '  lord  proprietor  of  Maine'  .
G5rgey,  Arthur,  general  in  the  Revolution,  (supposed  traitor)
Gorgias,  an  orator  and  sophist ....
Gorton  nkoff,  Michael,  prince,  general  in  Crimea,  dtc .
,  Alexander,  prince,  diplomatist .  .


Gorton,  Samuel,  enthusiast  and  author  .  .

Gough,  John  B.,  lecturer  on  temperance .  .

, Hugh,  viscount,  general  in  India.  &o.  .  .

Gould,  Augustus  A.,  naturalist  and  physician

,  Hannah  F.,  poet  .  .  .  .

,  John,  naturalist  and  author

Gourgaud,  Gaspard,  haron,  one  of  Napoleon's  generals
Gower,  John,  one  of  the  earliest  English  poets
Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  a  celebrated  democrat

,  Caius  Sempronius

Graefe,  or  Graevius,  an  erudite  classic  writer .

Grahame,  John,  viscount  of  Dundee,  lord  Grahame  of  Claver

house,  general .....
,  James,  a  poet ....


-,  James,  author  of  '  History  of  the  United  States '


Grammont,  Count  Philibert,  licentious  author  of  Memoirs'
Grandville,  J.  S.  G.,  caricaturist  and  artist .  .

Granier,  Adolphe,  journalist  and  historian
Grant,  Anne,  (of  Laggan,)  novelist,  essayist,  &o.  .

,  James,  journalist  and  author  .  .  ,

,  James,  novelist  ....

Granvelle,  Ant.  Pierre,  cardinal  de,  statesman .  .

Granville,  Q.  G.  Leweson  Gower,  2d  earl  of,  statesman  .

,  John  Carteret,  earl,  statesman  .  .

Gratian,  a  monk,  compiler  of  the  canon  law  .  ,

Grattan,  Henry,  a  distinguished  orator  and  statesman .

,  Thomas  Colley,  novelist  .  .  ,

Gravesande,  "Wm.  Jacob,  a  geometrician  and  philosopher
Gray,  Asa,  botanist,  prof,  in  Harvard,  author  of  •  Flora,'  &o,

,  Henry  Peters,  painter.  .  .  .

,  John  Edward,  naturalist .  .  .  .


BOBH.

1767
1816
1755
1749
1707
1731
1596
1443
1764
1790
1826
1793
1800
1750
1730
1799


1818

f.  B.  O.

1792
1800
1600
1817
1779
1805
(abt.)  1800
1804
1783


1632


1643
1765
1770
1621
1803
1805
1755
1806
1822
1517
1816
1690
f.  12th
1750
1796
1688
1810
1819
(abt.)  1800


HMD.

1861

1834

1831
1793
1774
1667
1516
1827
1860

1860
1860
1793
1807

1647

6th  cent
1861

1077


1866

1853

1402

B.  0.  133

B.  0.  121

1708

1689
1811
1842
1707
1847

1838


1588
1793


cent.


1821
1864
1741


io8


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


KATIOA.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIES

Eng.  Gray,  Thomas,  poet .... .  1716  1771

Airier.  Graydon,  Alex.,  author  of '  Revolutionary  Memoirs ' •  1762  1818

Amer.  Greeley,  Horace,  journalist  and  politician . . .1811

Fr.  Gregory  L,  the  Great,  pope,  author . .  544  604

Ital. ,  VIL,  the  Great,  pope  Hildebrand,  celebrate^  despot .  1085

Scot. ,  David,  philosopher  and  mathematician .  .  1661  1710

Irish. ,  George,  D.  D.,  miscellaneous  writer .  . .  1754  1808

Soot. ,  James,  philosopher  and  mathematician . .  1648  1685

,  Nazianzen,  St.  Christian,  writer . . .  328  389

— — —  of  Nyssa,  St. Christian,  writer . . .  331  396

Eng. ,  Olinthus,  mathematician  and  religious  writer .  1774  1841

Fr. of  Tours,  historian  . . . .  544  593

Amer.  Green,  Ashbel  D.  D.,  clergyman  and  author . .  1762  1848

Amer. ,  Horace,  physician,  author  of  medical  works .  1802  1866

Amer.  Greene,  Chas.  G.,  journalist  and  politician . •  1804

Amer. ,  Geo.  Washington,  scholar  and  critic  . .  1811

Eng. ,  Matthew,  poet .....  1696  1737

Amer. ,  Nathaniel,  maj.  gen.,  distinguished  in  the  Revolution  1741  1786

Amer. ,  Nathaniel,  author  and  journalist  . . .  1797

Eng. ■ ,  Robt.,  dramatist ....  1560  1592

Amer.  Greenhow,  Robert,  historical  writer ....  1800  1854

Amer.  Greenleaf,  Simon,  jurist  and  author . . .  1783  1858

Amer.  Greenough,  Horatio,  sculptor  and  author . . .  1805  1852

Eng.  Greville,  Sir  Fulke,  (Lord  Brooke),  statesman  and  author .  1554  1628

Eng.  Grey,  Earl,  statesman,  whig  premier  for  William  IV. .  1764  1845

Eng. ,  Lady  Jane,  the  accomplished  victim  of  another's  ambition  1537  1554

Ger.  Griesbach,  John  James,  an  eminent  theologian  and  philologist .  1745  1812

Amer.  Griffin,  Edward  D.,  D.  D.,  theologian , . .  1770  1837

Irish, ,  Gerald,  novelist . . . . .  1803  1840

Amer.  Giimke,  Thomas  S.,  jurist . , .  1786  1834

Ger.  Grimm,  J.  M.  C,  miscellaneous  writer . . .  1785  1863

Amer.  Griscom,  John,  educator,  philanthropist . . .  1774  1852

Amer.  Griswold,  Alex,  V.,  bishop  Prot.  Epis.  Church,  New  England .  1766  1843

Aroer. _ — . ,  Uufus  Wilmot,  author  and  oritio . .  1815  1857

Dutch.  Gronovius,  James,  an  erudite  critic ....  1645  1716

Eng.  Grose,  Francis,  antiquary  and  author . . .  1731  1791

Amer.  Gross,  Samuel  D.,  physician,  surgeon,  and  author . .  1805

Eng.  Grote,  George,  author  of  History  of  Greece . .  1794

Ger.  Grotefend,  G  F.,  philologist ....  1775  1836

Dutch.  Grotius  or  DeGroot,  Hugh,  an  eminent  scholar .  .  15S3  1645

Fr.  Grouchy,  Emanuel,  count,  marshal  of  France . .  1776  1S47

Amer  Grundy,  Felix,  senator  of  the  U.  S. . . (Tenn.)  1777  1840

Ger.  Gryph,  Andrew,  a  dramatist ....  1616  1664

Ital.  Guarini,  John  Baptist,  a  poet ....  1537  1612

Ger.  Guericke,  Otto,  experimental  philos.,  inventor  of  the  air-pump .  1602  1686

Ital.  Guerrazi,  Francesco  D.,  author  and  politician . .  1805

Ital.  Guiccardini,  Francis,  an  historian ....  1482  1540

Fr.  Guillotin,  Joseph  T..  benevolent  physioian,  inventor  of  the  guillotine  1738  1814

Fr.  Guise,  Charles  of,  cardinal,  a  bigoted  and  ambitious  statesman  1525  1574

Fr. ,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  celebrated  warrior .  1519  1663

Fr.  .,  Henry  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  an  ambitious  warrior .  1550  1681

Wt.  Guiaot,  Francis,  statesman,  historian,  and  metaphysician .  1787


BIOG11APHICAL INDEX.


109


UATIOK,

Nor.

Eng.

Eng.

fol

Eng.

Swe.

Swe.

Swe.

Swe

Amer.

Scot.

Ger.

Pruss.

Fr.

Eng.


NAME AND PROFESSION.  B0RH.

Guiscard,  Robert,  a  Norman  warrior  ....  1015
Gunter,  Edmund,  a  mathematician,  inventor  of  the  Gunter  scale  1581
Gurney,  Jo3eph  John,  philanthropist  .  (Soc.  Friends)  1788

Gurowsky,  Adam  de,  count,  publicist  and  author .  .  1805

Gurwood,  John,  Col,  editor  of  Wellington's  Despatches  . 1791

Gustavus  L,  (Gustavus  Vasa)  king  of  Sweden

1L,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden  ;  able  warrior

III.,  king  of  Sweden .  .  ,  .

IV.,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden  .  .


Guthrie,  James,  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  Pierce

,  "William,  author  of  a  history  of  England,  Scotland,  &c.


Guttenberg,  John,  one  of  the  inventors  of  printing
Gutzlaff,  Charles,  traveller  and  historian  of  China
Guyon,  Jeanne  M.  £.,  de  la  Motte,  mystical  teacher  and  writer
,  Richard  D.,  general  in  the  service  cf  Hungary,  &c.

Sw.Ain.Guyot,  Arnold  H.,  writer  on  physical  geography

Eng. Gwynn,  Eleanor,  ('  Nell  Gwynn ')  mistress  of  Charles  II.

Hg.  Au.GyuIai,  Francis,  count,  commander  of  Austrian  army  in  Italy

Eng. Habington,  Wm.,  poet  ....

Amer. Hackett,  Horatio  B.,  biblical  critic  .  .  .

Amer. ,  James  H.,  actor .  .  .  .

Pers. Hafiz,  Mohammed,  the  Anacreon  of  Persia  »  •

Ger. Hagenbach,  Karl  L.,  ecclesiastical  historian .  .

Ger. Halm,  August,  theological  writer ....

Ger. ,  Simon  Frederick,  an  historian  .  .  .

Ger. Hahneman,  founder  of 'Homeopathy  '  in  medicine  .

Ger. Hahn-Hahn,  Ida,  countess  of,  traveller  and  novelist

Eng. Hakluyt,  Richard,  author  of  voyages,  &c,  of  the  English .

Scot. Haldane,  Robert,  philanthropist  and  theologian

Scot. Haldeman,  S.  S.,  naturalist  and  philologist

Amer. Hale,  Benj.,  D.D.,  educator  and  author

Amer.  ,  David,  journalist,  founder  of  N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce

Amer. ,  Nathan,  revolutionary  patriot,  executed  as  a  spy

Amer.  ,  Nathan,  journalist,  Boston  Daily  Advertiser .

Amer. ,  Sarah  J.,  poet  and  prose  writer  .  .  .

Eng. ,  Sir  Matthew,  eminent  and  incorruptible  judge

Fr.  Halevy,  J.  F.  C,  musical  composer  .  .  .

Eng. Halford,  Sir  Henry,  physician  and  medical  writer .

Eng. Haliburton,  Thos.  C,  humorous  writer,  •  Sam  Slick'  .

Eng. Hall,  Capt.  Basil,  author  of  Travels,  &c.

Amer. ,  Gordon,  first  American  missionary  in  Bombay  .

Amer.  ,  James,  jurist  and  author

Amer.  ,  James,  geologist  and  palaeontologist .  .  .

Eng. ,  Joseph,  bishop  of  Norwich,  theological  author

Eng. ,  Rev.  Robert,  theologian  and  pulpit  orator .  .

Eng. Hallam,  Henry,  historian ....

Amer. Halleck,  Fitz  Greene,  poet

Swiss Haller,  Albeit  von,  miscellaneous  wi iter

Eng. nalley,  Edmund,  an  eminent  astroi  Dmer  and  matbematiolan

Eng. Halliwell,  James  Orchard,  archteologist  and  author

Scot. Halyburton,  Thomas,  theological  writer .  •  .

Garth. Hamilcar  Barca,  a  Carthaginian  general


1496
1594
1746
1778
1793
1708
1400
1803
1648
1813
1807
1650
1798
1605
1808
1800

1801
1807
1692
1755
1805
1553
1764
1812
1797
1791
1758
1784
1795
1609
1799
1766
1803
1788
1784
1793
1811
1574
1764
177T
1795
1708
1656
1820
1674


Pil-.L.

1084
1619

1S47
1866
1845
1560
1633
1792
1837

1770

146S
1851
1717
1856

1687
1866
164£


1389

1857
1729
1843

1616
1842


1849
1776
1863

167C
18G2
1844
1865
1814
1821


1656
1831

1859

1777
1741

17M

i.  23«


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


MAT  ION

Araer.

Irish.

Amer.

Soot.

Scot.

Irish.

Scot.

£ng.

Ger.

Bng.

Amer.

Eng.

Araer.

Amer.

Ger.

Garth.

Carth.

Nor.

Amer.

Ger.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Bar.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer

Amer.

Eng.

Ger.

Ger.

Ger.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Eng.

Amer.

Er *.


SAME AND PROFESSION.

Hamilton,  Alexander,  statesman,  first  secretary  of  treasury,  U.  8,

,  Elizabeth,  a  talented  miscellaneous  writer

,  James,  statesman,  U.  S.  senator  from  South  Carolina

,  Sir  Wm.,  diplomatist  and  antiquary

,  Sir  Wm.,  metaphysician ....

,  Sir  Wra.  Rowan,  mathematician  and  philosopher

,  Thos.,  Capt.,  novelist, '  Men  and  Manners  in  America

,  William  Richard,  archsBologist  .


BOB8.

1757
1758
1786
1730
1788
1805
1789
1777
1774
1710
1807
1594
1755
1737
1684
B.  c.  247
b.  o.


Hammer,  Baron  von,  historian  and  orientalist .  .

Hammond,  James,  poet .....

,  James  H.,  U.  S.  senator  from  South  Carolina

Hampden,  John,  a  celebrated  patriotic  statesman  .

Hampton,  Wade,  general  in  revolution

Hancock,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot,  president  of  Congress

Handel,  Geo.  Frederick,  one  of  the  greatest  musical  composers

Hannibal,  or  Ann  ibal,  general  against  Rome  .

Hanno,  navigator ......

,  the  Great,  general  and  statesman .  .  .

Hanstein,  G..  mathematician  and  astronomer . . .  1784

Harbaugh,  Henry,  author  of  religious  works . ,  1817

Hardenbergh,  Karl  A.  von,  statesman . . .  1750

Harding,  Chester,  portrait  painter . . .  1792

,  James  D.,  artist  and  author  on  art . . .  1798

Hardinge,  Henry,  viscount,  general  and  governor-general  of  India  1785

Hardwicke,  Charles,  theological  writer . . .  1821

Hare,  Julius  Charles,  archdeacon,  theological  writer . .  1795

,  Robert,  chemist  and  physicist . , .  1781

Harlan,  Richard,  M.  D.,  naturalist ....  1796

Harley,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  celebrated  statesman .  1661
Haroun  Al  Raschid,  caliph,  a  patron  of  learning

Harper,  James,  John,  J.  Wesley,  and  Fletcher,  publishers,  born  1795,

Harrington,  James,  political  writer ....  1611

Harriott,  Thos.,  mathematician  and  voyager  to  Virginia .  1560

Harris,  James,  compiler  of  the  first  Cyclopedia,  dec. . .  1670

,  John,  theological  writer ....  1804

,  Thaddeus  Wm.,  naturalist ....  1795

Harrison,  Gen.  Wm.  H.,  military  commander  and  president  U.  S.  1773
Harvard,  John,  founder  of  Harvard  College

Harvey,  William,  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  1569

Hase,  Henry,  classical  antiquary . . .  1789

,  Karl  Aug.,  theological  author . . .  1800

Hassenclever,  John  Peter,  painter  (Dusseldorf  school)  . .  1810

Haslam,  John,  writer  on  insanity  ....  1764

Hastings,  marquis  Of,  military  commander . . .  1754

,  Warren,  governor-general  of  British  India .  1733

Hauser,  Casper,  a  mysterious  "  wild  boy "  .  .  .

Hauseez,  Baron,  minister  of  Charles  X.,  traveller . .  1778
Hatton,  Sir  Christopher,  lord  chancellor . ,

Hauy,  Rene  Just,  mineralogist ....  1742

Havelock,  Henry,  general  in  India . . ■  1795

Haven,  Alice  B.,  author  of  juvenile  books . . .  1828

Haviland,  Jobr,  architect ....  1792


1804
1816
1857
1803
1858

1842
1859
1856
1742

1643

1835

1793

1758

3.  o. 183

5th  cent.

b.  c. 202


7,  I


1822
1866
1863
1856
1859
1855
1858
1843
17-24
808
:01,'4
1677
1621
1719
1856
1856
1841
1688
1658
1842

1853
1844
1825
1818
1833

1591
1822
1857
1866
1651


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


» ATIOS.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer.  Hawes,  Joel,  Congregational  clergyman  and  author ,  ,

Eng.  Hawke,  Edward,  lord,  a  brave  and  successful  admiral  .

Eng.  Hawksworth,  Dr.  John,  miscellaneous  writer .  .  .

Eng.  Hawkins,  Sir  John,  a  navigator,  originator  of  the  slave  trade

Eng. ,  Sir  John,  author  of  '  History  of  Music,'  &c. .  .

Amer.  Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  Episcopal  divine  and  historian  ,

Amer.  Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  novelist  ....

Ger.  Haydn,  Joseph,  a  celebrated  musical  composer .  .

Eng.  Haydon,  Beuj.  A,,  historica painter ....

Amer.  Hayes,  Isaac,  Arctic  navigator  and  author

Eng.  Hayley,  "William,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer  .  .

Amer.  Hayne,  Bobert  T.,  governor  of  South  Carolina  and  senator  U.  S.

Amer.  Haynes,  Lemuel,  colored  preacher  and  patriot

Eng.  Haywood,  Abraham,  translator  of  '  Faust '  .  .

Eng.  Hazlitt,  Wilnam,  essayist  and  critic ....

Eng.  Head,  Sir  Francis  B.,  author  of  Travels,  &c  .  ,

Eng. ,  Sir  George,  author  of  *  Rome,'  &c. .  .  .

Amer.  Headley,  Joel  T.,  author  of  biographies  and  histories

Amer.  Heath,  Wm.,  major-general  in  the  revolution,  author  of  Memoirs

Eng.  Heber,  Reginald,  a  divine  and  poet  .  .  ,

Eng. ,  Richard,  bibliomaniac  and  book  collector  .  .

Ger.  Hecker,  Fred.  K.  P.,  politician ....

Amer. ,  Isaac  F.,  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  and  author  .

Eng.  Heckwehler,  John,  Moravian  missionary  and  author  .

Ger.  Hederick,  Benjamin,  a  lexicographer  ...

Amer.  Hedge,  Fred.  H.,  clergyman  and  author .  .  .

Ger.  Hedwig,  John,  a  physician  and  botanist  .  ,

Ger.  Heeren,  A.  H.  L.,  historian  ....

Ger.  Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  metaphysician  ....

Ger.  Heine,  Henry,  poet  and  litterateur  ...

Ger.  Heineccius,  Jno.  G..  juridical  author  .  ,

Rom.  Helena,  St.,  wife  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  emperor .  .

Gr.  Heliodorus  (of  Emessa)  the  first  romance  writer  .  fl.

Fr.  Heloise,  abbess  of  the  Paraclete,  famed  for  intrigue  with  Abelard

Eng.  Helps,  Arthur,  essayist  and  dramatist  ,  ,  ,

Fr.  Helvetius,  Claude  A.,  philosopher  .  .  .

Ger.  Helvicus,  Christopher,  a  chronologist  ,  .

Eng.  Hemans,  Felicia  D.,  poetess  ....

Eng.  Henfey,  Arthur,  botanist .....

Ger.  Hengstenberg,  E.  W.,  metaphysician,  antiquary  and  theologian

Eng.  Henley,  John,  clergyman  and  author,  '  orator  Henley'

Flem.  Hennepin,  Louis,  missionary  and  explorer  of  N.  A.  .

Eng.  Henningsen,  Chas.  Fred.,  author  and  soldier  ,

Fr.  Henry  IV.,  an  able  and  popular  monarch .  ,  .

Amer.  ,  Caleb  S.,  clergyman  and  author  .  .  .

Ames.  ,  Joseph,  physicist,  director  of  Smithsonian  Institute

Amer.  ,  Matthew,  author  of  '  Comment,  on  the  Bible ' .  .

Port.  ,  the  Navigator,  prince,  3d  son  of  John  I.

Scot. ,  Robert,  an  historian  •  •  .  .

Amer.  — — ,  Patrick,  an  orator  and  patriot  .  ,

Amer  Hentz,  Caroline  Lee,  novelist  •  •  •  .

Rom.  Heraclius  (born  in  Cappadooia),  emperor  of  the  East  .


BOBS.

Dnm

1789

188H

1713

178'

1715

177S

1520

1595

1719

1783

1798

186ft

1804

1862

1732

1809

1786

1840

1745

1820

1791

1835

1758

1834

1800

1778

1830

1793

1782

1855

1814

1737

1814

1783

1826

1773

1833

1811

1819

1743

1823

1675

1748

1805

1730

1799

1760

1842

1770

1831

1799

1856

1681

1741

247

327

4th  cent

1101

1164

1817

1715

1771

1581

1617

1794

1835

1800

1802

1692

1756

1640

1699

1815

1553

1610

1804

1797

1662

1T14

1394

1463

1718

1790

1736

1799

1851

576

641

THE WOKLD'b PROGRESS.


HAT30JT.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  CORN.

Gr. Heraclitus,  a  philosopher .  .  .  .  f.  B.  o.  504

Eng. Herbert,  Edward,  Lord  of  Cherhury,  diplomatist  and  philosopher 1581


Eng. Herbert,  George,  clergyman  and  poet

Eng.Am, ,  Henry  Wm.  novelist  and  miscellaneous  author


Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
G<*r.
Scot.
Ger.
Ger.
Gr.


,  Sidney,  statesman

,  Wm.,  (3rd  Earl  of  Pembroke)  poet

— — — ,  Wm.,  dean  of  Manchester,  poet  and  philosopher
Herder,  John  Godfrey,  a  philosophical  writer
Heriot,  George,  goldsmith,  founder  of  school
Hermann,  Ch.  F.,  philologist,  «  History  of  Philosophy'  &o.
,  J.  G.  J.,  philologist


Hermogenes,  a  rhetorician .  .  .

Amer. Herndon,  Wm.  L.,  naval  commander  and  explorer  .

Herod,  Agrippa  I,  King  of  Judea,  (grandson  of  Herod  the  Great)  b
,  the  Great,  King  of  the  Jews


Gr.

Gr.

Fr.

Span,

Mex.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Jew.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Russ,

Gr.

Ger.

Eng.

Eng.


1593

1807

1810

1580

1778

1744

1563

1804

1772

180

1813

c. 7

B.  0. 71

f. 230


Herodian,  an  historian  ....

Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  historians  whose  works  are

extant .  .  .  .  .  •  b.  o.  484

Herold,  L.  G.  F.,  musical  composer  .  .  ,  1792

Herrera,  Anthony,  an  historian  .  •  •  . 1659

,  Jose  J.  de,  president  of  Mexico •  .  .

Herrick,  Robert,  poet  ..... 1591

Herschel,  Caroline  L.,  astronomer  .  .  .  1750

,  Sir  William,  one  of  the  greatest  of  astronomers  . 1738

Herschell,  Dr.  Solomon,  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews  in  England  1760
,  Sir  J.  F.  "W.,  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher


Hervey,  James,  a  pious  and  amiable  divine  and  writer

,  Thomas  K. ,  poet  and  prose  writer

Herzen,  Alexander,  publicist,  editor  and  author .


Hesiod,  a  poet,  contemporary  of  Homer  .  ,

Heyne,  C.  G.,  a  learned  critic  and  writer .  ,

Heywood,  Thomas,  humorist  and  dramatist .  .

Hickes,  George,  a  theologian  and  philologist  .

Amer. Hickok,  Laurens  P.,  metaphysical  author  .  .

Amer. Hicks,  Elias,  preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends
Amer. Hildreth,  Richard,  author  of  History  of  the  United  States
Fr.  Hilaire,  Geoff.  St.,  naturalist  .  ,

Eng. Hill,  Rowland,  author  of  cheap  postage  in  England
Eng. Hill,  Rowland,  Rev.,  eccentric  clergyman .

Eng. ,  Rowland,  viscount,  general  in  Spain  and  at  Waterloo

Eng. ,  Sir  John,  a  botanist  and  multifarious  writer .

Amer. Hillard,  George  S.,  author  and  journalist  .  .

Jew. Hiilel,  the  elder,  compiler  of  the  Talmud .

Amer. Hillhouse,  James  A.,  poet ....

Eng. Hind,  John  Russell,  astronomer

Eng. Hinton,  John  Howard,  author  of  History  of  United  States

Gr.  Hipparclrus,  astronomer ....

Gr  Hippocrates,  the  father  of  medicine .  .  .

Hippolytus,  Saint,  ecclesiastical  writer
Amer. Hitchcock,  Edward,  D.  D,  theologian  and  geologist .

,  Roswell  D.,  theologian,  orator,  and  patriot

Kng. Hoadley,  William,  a  celebrate*!  prelate  a^  author  .


1713
1799
1812
.  907
1729
1650
1642
1798
1748
1807
1772
1795
1744
1772
1716
1808
B.  0.  112
1789
1823
1800
b.  o,
B.  c.  460

A.  D

1793
1670


DIB6

1646
1632

1858

1630
1847
1803
1624

1848

1859

J». 44

4


1833
1625
1851
1674
1848
1822
1842

1758
1859


1715

1830
1863
1844

1833
1842
1775


1841

2d  cent
3d  cent,


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


"3


JUTIOH  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer. Hobart,  John  Henry,  bishop  of  New  York  .  .

Eng. Hobbes,  Thomas,  a  philosopher  and  translator.  .

Eng. Hobhouee,  John  Cam.,  Lord  Broughton,  author  and  statesman
Fr.  Hoche,  Lazarus,  a  military  commander .  .  .

Amer. Hodge,  Charles,  Rev.,  theological  writer  .  .

Amer. Hoe,  Richard  M.,  an  inventor  of  printing  presses ,  ,

Swiss. Hofer,  Andrew,  a  Tyrolian  patriot .  .  .

Eng. Hofland,  Barbara,  novelist  ....

Eng. Hoffman,  David,  lawyer  and  author .  .  .

Amer. Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno,  poet  and  novelist  ,  .

Scot. Hogg,  James, '  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,'  poet .  .

Hung. Hohenlohe,  prince  of,  prelate,  and  alleged  miracle  worker .
Dan. Holberg,  Louis,  baron  de,  an  historian  .  .

Amer, Holbrook,  John  E.,  naturalist ....
Eng. Holcroft,  Thomas,  a  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  writer
Eng. Hole,  Matthew,  writer  on  the  Liturgy
Eng. Holingshed,  chronicler  ....

Amer. Holland,  JosiahG.,  journalist,  poet  and  essayist .  ,

Eng. ,  Lord,  statesman  and  litterateur  .  .

Eng.  ■,  Philemon,  a  translator ....

Amer, Hollis,  Thomas,  benefactor  of  Harvard  College  .

Amer. ,  Thomas,  philanthropist  (life,  2  vols.,  4to) .  .

Eng. Holman,  James,  a  blind  traveller  and  author .  .

Amer. Holmes,  Abiel,  D.  D.,  '  Annals  of  America'  .  .

Amer. ,  Oliver  Wendell,  physician,  poet  and  essayist ,

Eng. Holt,  Sir  John,  lord  chief  justice  .  .  .

Amer. Holyoke,  Edward  Aug.,  physician  and  naturalist  ,

Scot. Home,  Henry,  Lord  Kaimes, '  Criticism'  .  .

Scot. ,  John,  a  divine,  dramatist  and  historian  .

Gr. Homer,  the  greatest  of  poets,  supposed  to  have  flourished
Eng. Hone,  Wm.,  author  of  '  Every  Day  Book,'  and  political  works
Eng. Hood,  Samuel,  viscount,  a  naval  officer

Eng. ,  Thomas,  poet  and  humorist .  .  .

Dutch.  Hoogvliet,  Arnold,  a  poet  ....

Eng. Hook,  Robert,  a  mathematician  .  ,  .

,  Theo.  E.,  novelist  and  humorist .  .  .

Hooke,  Nathaniel,  author  of  a  Roman  history  .

Hooker,  Joseph  D.,  physician  and  botanist  .  .

,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine .  .  .

,  Sir  W.  J.,  botanist  ....


Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.


Hoole,  John,  a  poet  and  translator .  .

Hooper,  John,  one  of  the  first  Protestant  martyrs .

Hope,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous  writer,  "  Anastasvas  " .
Amer. Hopital,  Michel  de  ]',  chancellor  of  France
Amer. Hopkins,  Ezek.,  first  commodore  TJ.  S.  Navy

Amer. ,  John  H.,  protestant  episcopal  bishop  of  Vt.  and  author

Amer. ,  Mark,  clergyman  and  author

Amer. ,  Samuel,  an  eminent  divine  and  author

Amer. ,  Stephen,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence

Amer. Hopkinson,  Francis,  signer  of  the  Dec.  of  Independe  nee  and  author  1737

Amer.  ,  Joseph,  jurist  and  statesman

Rom. Horace,  Quintus  Flaccus,  eminent  poet


BORN.

DIBS.

1776

1830

1588

1797

1786

1768

1797

1797

1812

. 1765

1510

1770

1844

1784

1854

1806

1772

1835

1793

1849

1685

1754

1795

1744

1809

1640

1730

1582

1819

1773

1840

1551

1636

1659

1731

1720

1774

1787

1857

1763

1837

1809

1642

1709

1728

1829

1696

1782

1724

1808

B.  o.  907

1779

1842

1724

1816

1798

1845

1687

1763

1635

1702

1788

1841

1690

1763

1816

1553

1600

1785

1865

1717

1803

1495

1555

1770

1831

1505

1573

1718

1803

r 1792

1802

1721

1803

1707

1785

thor  1737

.791

1770

1843

b.  o.  64  •.

0. 1

H4


THE WOEID'S PROGRESS.


HATICN

Flem.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Rom.

Amer.

Heb.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.


NAME  AND PBOFESSIOH.

Horn,  Philip  de  Mont,  count  of,  6oldier  and  statesman
Home,  George,  a  learned  prelate,  bishop  of  Norwich

,  Richard  H.,  poet  and  essayist

,  Thomas  Hartwell,  biblical  critic  and  historian

Horner,  Francis,  statesman  and  essayist
-,  Leonard,  geological  writer


Horsley,  Samuel,  a  prelate  and  mathematician

Hortensius,  Quintus,  orator

Hosaek,  David,  M.  D.,  medical  and  scientific  writer

Hosea,  prophet  .

Houdin,  Robert,  conjurer .  •

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine,  sculptor .

Houssaye,  Arsene,  miscellaneous  writer  .

Amer. House,  Samuel  G.,  physician  and  philanthropist
Amer. Houston,  Sam.,  general,  governor,  and  ex-governor  of  Texas
Eng. Howard,  John,  a  celebrated  philanthropist

Amer.  ,  John  Eager,  i  evolutionary  soldier  and  statesman

Amer.  Howe,  Elias,  jr.,  inventor  of  sewing  machines


Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Swiss,

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Ger.

Fr.


■ ,  Geo.  Aug.,  general  in  colonial  war

,  Richard,  lord,  earl,  admiral .  .

,  Sir  Win.,  commander-in-chief  in  America

Howell,  James,  author  of 'Letters' .
Howitt,  Mary  (wife  of  "Wm.),  novelist  and  poet
,  "William,  traveller,  essayist,  &c.


Howley,  'William,  archbisl  op  of  Oa.  terbury  .

Hoyle,  Edmund,  writer  on  games .  .  .

Huber,  Francis,  naturalist  .  .  .

Hue,  Evariste  R.,  Catholic  missionary  and  author
Hudson,  Henry,  discoverer  of  Hudson  river
Huet,  Peter  Daniel,  ah  erudite  prelate  and  author
Hufeland,  Chris.  W.,  medical  author
Hugh  Capet,  founder  of  the  Capetian  line  of  French  kings
Irish-Am.  Hughes,  John,  Catholic  Archbishop  N.  T.


Fr.

Amer,

Amer.

Ger.

Pruss.

Scot.

Eng.

Amer.


Hugo,  Victor  M.,  novelist,  poet,  and  statesman

Hull,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander  (Const,  and  Guer,

, Wm.,  general  in  War  of  1812 .

Humboldt,  Karl  "Wilhelra,  baron,  statesman  and  author
,  F.  H.  A*,  baron,  traveller,  geographer,  and  nat,


Hume,  David,  an  historian  and  philosopher

,  Jos.,  statesman  and  reformer

Humphrey,  Heman,  theologian  and  author
Amer. Humphreys,  David,  poet  and  diplomatist .
Hung. Hunniades,  John,  a  celebrated  warrior
Amer.  Hunt,  Freeman,  author  aid  journalist

■Eng. ,  James  Henry  Leigh,  poet  and  essayist

Eng. — — ,  Leigh,  poet  anVl  essayist

,  Thomas  S.,  chemist  and  geologist

Hunter,  John,  surgeon  and  medical  author
,  Robert  M.  T.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Virginia


Amer.

Scot.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng

Aco«r.


Huntington,  Selina,  countess  of,  patron  of  Methodist*

,  Wm.,  Antinomian  preacher
— — (  Jeded.  V.,  poet  and  novelist .


BOHH.

mkj»

1522

156S

1730

1762

1803

1780

1862

1778

1817

•

1785

1864

1736

1806

B.  C.  114 B.

c.  50

1769

1835

8th  cent

B.  G.

1805

1741

1828

1815

1801

IS

1793

1862

1726

1790

1752

1827

1819

1724

1758

1726

1799
1814

1596

1666

1804

1795

1765

1848

1672

1769

1750

1S31

1813

I860
1611

1630

1721

1762

1836

946

996

1798

1864

1802

r.),&

c. 1775

1845

1T53

1825

1767

1835

phil.

1769

1859

1711

1776

1777

1855

1779

1859

1753

1818

1400

1456

1804

1S58

1784

1859

1785

1859

18-26

1728

1792

1809

1707

1791

1744

im

1815

'  A


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


■AXIOM

Amer

Eng.

Eng.

(Jer.

Irish.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Ger.

Eng.

Scot.

Dutch.

Fr.

Ind.

Gr.

Jew.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Huntington,  Fred.  D.,  clergyman  and  author .
Hurd,  Richard,  bishop  of  Worcester,  &c.  ,
Huskisson,  Rohon  "William,  able  statesman .
Huss,  John,  the  great  Bohemian  reformer
Hutcheson,  Francis,  a  philosophical  writer
Hutchinson,  Anne,  founder  of  N".  E.  Antinomiana
,  John,  Colonel  (Life  by  hie  widow)


-,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  gov.  of  Mass.  and  historian


Hutten,  Ulrich  von,  scholar  and  reformer
Hutton,  Charles,  an  eminent  mathematician

,  James,  a  geologist  and  philosopher
Huygens,  Christian,  a  scientific  author
Hyde  de  Neuville,  F.  G.,  baron  de,  politician
Hyder  A  V,  a  celebrated  warrior
Hypatia,  Neo,  Platonic  philosopher .
Hyrcanup  T.  and  IL,  high  priests  «


BORN.

DIKD

1819

1721

1808

1769

1830

1376

1416

1694

1747

1643

161T

1664

n 1711

178C

1488

1523

1737

1823

1726

1797

1629

1705

1776

1857

1717

1782

370

415

1st  and  2d  cent

Iamblichus,  Neo,  Platonic  philosopher  ,

Turk. Ibrahim  Pasha,  viceroy  of  Egypt  ,

Gr. Ibycus,  a  lyric  poet  .  .  .  . f.  b.  o.

Span. Ignatius  de  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Jesuits

,  Saint,  primitive  father  of  the  church

,  St.,  patriarch  of  Constantinople .

Eng. Inchbald,  Elizabeth,  dramatist  and  novelist ,

Port. Inez  de  Castro,  queen  of  Portugal

Amer. Ingersoll,  Charlea  J.,  statesman  and  historian

Amer. ,  Joseph  It.,  statesman  and  lawyer

Scot. Inglia,  Henry  D.,  traveller  and  author  .

Eng. Ingram,  Rev.  Dr.  James,  Saxon  scholar
Amei. Inman,  Henry,  portrait  and  landscape  painter
Amer. ,  John,  journalist  and  litterateur •

Innocent,  the  name  of  thirteen  popes  .  ,

Irenasus,  saint,  a  Gallic  bishop,  and  author
Eng. Ireland,  Samuel  '  Picturesque  Tour  ' .  .  .

Eng. ,  W.  H.,  author  of  the  '  Shakespeare  Forgeries'

Gr. Irene,  a  Byzantine  empress ....

Eng. Ireton,  Henry,  son-in-law  of  Cromwell,  and  one  of  his  generals

Amer. Irving,  John  Treat,  author  of  travels  and  novels  .

Amer.  ,  Peter,  author  (brother  of  Washington)  .  .

Soot. ,  Rev.  Edward,  theological  writer  .  •

Amer.  ,  Theodore,  author  of  Conquest  of  Florida'  .

Amer. ,  "Washington,  historian  and  essayist .  .

Amer. ,  William,  one  of  the  authors  of  Salmagundi .  .

Span. Isabella,  the  Catholic,  queen  of  Spain,  patron  of  Columbus

Span. IL,  queen  of  Spain  •  .  •  .

Gr. Isseus,  an  orator .  .  .  .  »

Heb. Isaiah,  the  greatest  of  the  Hebrew  prophet*  .  .

Fr. Isambert,  Franc  A.,  politician  and  jurist  .  ,

Gr. Isocrates,  an  orator  .  .  ,

Span. Iturbide,  emperor  of  Mexico  .  a


A.  D.

4th  cent.

1789

1848

550

1491

1556

107

779

877

1756

1821
1355

1782

1862

1786

1795

1835

1774

1850

1801

1846
1850

402

to

1687

2d  cent.

1750

1800

1777

1835

752

803

1610

1651

1810

1771

1838

1792

1834

1809

1783

185«

1766

1821

1451

1604

1830

C.  418

B.  0.  (ibt)  800

1792

1857

0.436

1784

1824

n6


THE  WORLD'S PROGRESS.


RATIOS.  NAME  AMD PROFESSION.  BORN,

Amer. Ives,  Levi  8.,  ex-protestant  episcopal  bishop  of  North  Carolina  1797

Airier. Izard,  Ralph  statesman  (of  South  Carolina) .  •  < 1742


1804


Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Heb.

Ger.

Ger.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Dutch.

Ger.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.


Eng.

Scot.

Pers.

Scot.

Fr.

Dutch.

Ital.

Amer.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Ger.

Irish.

Amer.

Scot.

Eng.

Hind.

Aust.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Scot.

Heb.


Jackson,  Charles  T.,  chemist,  mineralogist,  geologist.  .

,  James,  eminent  physician

,  Gen.  Andrew,  military  commander,  president  TJ.  S.

,  Patrick  T.,  eminent  merchant

,  Thomas  Jonathan  ('  Stonewall '),  rebel  general

,  William  ('  of  Exeter ')  musical  composer


Jacob,  the  Patriarch  .....

Jacobi,  Fred.  H.,  philosopher,  novelist,  &o. .  .

Jacobs,  Fred.,  classical  philologist  .  .  .

Jacotot,  Jean  J.,  educational  writer .  .  .

Jacquard,  Jos.  M.,  inventor  of  the  Jacquard  loom .
Jacquemont,  Victor,  traveller  and  naturalist .  .

Jacquin,  Nicholas  Joseph,  a  botanist
Jahn,  John,  an  eminent  oriental  scholar  .  .

James,  G.  P.  R.,  novelist  and  historian .  .  .

,  Henry,  philosophical  writer .  .  .

,  John  Angell,  congregational  clergyman  and  author

,  St.,  the  Elder,  apostle

,  St.,  the  Less, "

Jameson,  Anne,  essayist  and  writer  on  art

,  Robert,  naturalist  and  author .  .  .

Jami,  or  Djami,  poet  ....

Jamieson,  John,  D.  D.,  miscellaneous  author  .  .

Janin,  Jules,  litterateur  ....

Jansen,  Cornelius,  founder  of  a  sect  .  .  .

Januarius,  patron  saint  of  Naples .  .  .

Jarves,  James  J.,  traveller  and  author .  .  .

Jarvis,  Samuel  F.,  D.  D.,  historian  and  theologlst
Jasmin,  Jaques,  barber-poet  ....

Jasper,  "William,  heroic  soldier  of  the  Revolution

,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot  and  statesman  .

Jay,  William,  judge,  anti-slavery  philanthropist

,  Wiliam,  D.  D.,  religious  writer  .  .

Jeanne  d'Arc,  '  Maid  of  Orleans,'  heroine  .  .

Jean,  Paul,  see  Richter,  novelist  and  metaphysician

Jebb,  John,  Bishop  of  Limerick,  theological  writer

Jefferson,  Thomas,  a  patriotic  statesman,  3d  pres.  of  the  U.  S.

Jeffrey,  Francis,  lord,  essayist  and  critic

Jeffreys,  George,  infamous  judge

Jejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamsetjee,  Parsee  merchant  and  philanthropist

Jellachich,  de  Buzim,  baron,  ban  of  Croatia

Jenkinson,  B.  B.,  earl  of  Liverpool,  premier

Jenkyns,  William,  non-conformist  ('  on  Jude ')

Jenner,  Edward,  introducer  of  the  vaccine  innoculatico

Jenyns,  Soame,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer  .  •

Jerdan,  William,  journalist ....

Jeremiah,  prophet  .  .  .  ,  .  fl


1805

1777

1767

1845

1780

1847

1826

1863

1730

1803

B.  0.  1836  B.

o.  1689

1743

1819

1764

1847

1770

1840

1752

1834

1801

1832

1727

1817

175J

1817

1801

1860

1811

1785

1859

44?

66?

1797

1860

1774

1854

1414

1492

1759

1838

1804

1585

1638

272

305

1818

1786

1851

1798

1864

1750

1779

1745

1829

1779

1858

1769

1853

, 1412

1431

1763

1825

1736

1775

1743

1826

1773

1850

164S

1689

1783

1859

1S01

1859

1770

182*

1612

1685

1749

1823

1704

1787

1782

.  b.  o.  678

571

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


Ir7


SATJCH  HAME ASTO PEOFESSIOH.

Jerome,  St  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church

Ger. ,  ol  Prague,  reformer,  companion  of  Hubs .

Eng. Jerrold,  Douglas,  essayist

Eng. Jervis,  sir  John,  earl  St.  Vincent,  admiral  .

Eng. Jewell  John,  learned  prelate  and  author  .

Eng. Jewsbury,  Maria  J.,  essayist  .  .  .

Fr. Joan  of  Arc, 'the  greatest  of  heroines'

ItaL Joanna,  queen  of  Naples  .  .  .

Heb. Joel,  the  prophet ....

HoL Johannes  Secundus  (Johannes  Everardj,  poet

Fr. Johannot,  Tony,  artist  and  designer .

Heb. John,  the  Evangelist ....

Eng. ,  of  Gaunt  (or  Ghent),  duke  of  Lancaster

Ger. ,  king  of  Saxony  and  author  .  .

Pol. ,  III.,  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  and  general

Eng. ,  Edward,  historian  of  N.  England

Eng. Johnson,  Samuel,  a  divine  and  writer  i the  cause  of  liberty

Eng. ,  Samuel, '  the  Colossus  of  English  literature'

Amer.  ,  Alex.  B.,  philologist  and  miscellaneous  writer

Amer. ,  Andrew,  president  U.  S.  .  .  ,

Amer. ,  Reverdy,  jurist  and  statesman

Amer. ,  Richard  M.,  general  and  statesman,  vice-president  U.  8,

Amer. ,  Samuel,  first  president  Columbia  College  and  author

Amer. ,  Walter  R..  physicist ....

Tr.  Amer.  Johnson,  Sir  William,  geueral  and  governor  in  North  Amerioa
Amer. Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  rebel  general .  .  .

Scot ,  Alex.  K.,  geographer  .  •

Scot. ,  George,  writer  and  naturalist

ycot. ,  James  F.  W.,  chronicler  and  agricultural  author

Fr. Joinville,  Jean,  sire  de,  chronicler

Fr. ,  Francois,  prince  de,  third  son  of  Louis  Philippe

Fr.Am.  Jolliet,  Louis,  one  of  the  discoverers  of  the  Mississippi

Ital. Jomelli,  Nicholas,  dramatic  and  musical  composer

Swiss. Jomini,  Henry,  baron  de,  military  writer .

Heb. Jonah,  the  prophet  .

Amer. Jones,  Anson,  last  president  of  the  republics  of  Texas

Eng.  ,  Inigo,  an  eminent  architect .  .  ,

Amer. ,  Jacob,  commodore  in  the  0.  S.  navy

Scot. ,  John  Paul,  captain  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States

Eng. ,  Owen,  architect  and  decorator

fcng. ,  Thomas  Rynier,  writer  on  anatomy  and  physiology

Eng. ■ ,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  poet,  scholar,  and  lawyer

Eng. ,  Rev.  William,  *  of  Nayland,'  Hutehinsonian  divine

Eng. ,  William,  divine  and  author

Eng. Jonson,  Benjamin,  celebrated  poet  and  dramatist

Icel. Jonsson,  Finnur,  Icelandic  historian

Irish. Jordan,  Dorothy,  actress,  mistress  of  William  IV.  .

Dan. Jorgenson,  Jorgen,  adventurer  and  author

Eng. Jortin,  Dr.  John,  learned  theologian  and  author

Fr. Josephine,  empress  of  the  French  (born  in  Martinico)

Jew. Josephus,  celebrated  historian  and  warrior .  .

Heb. Joshua,  successor  of  Moses  as  leader  of  the  Israelites


WKN.  DIED

42C
1416
1782  1857
1774  1823
1522  1571
1833
1410 1431


O.  800
1511

1803


1539

1852
100

1340  1399
1801

1629  1696

1600  1672

1649  1703

1709  1784
1786
1808
1796

1780  1850

1696  1772

1794  1852

1715  1744

1803  1862
1804

1798  1856

1796  1855

1224  1319
1818

1730

1714  1744
1775

f.  B.  o.  862

1798  1858

1572  1652

1770  1850

1736  1792
1809
1810

1746  1794

1726  1800

1726  1800

1574  1637

1704  1789

1762  1814

1779  1830

1698  1770

1761  1814

87  94
B.O.  15M


u8


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


HAf.Ul

Heb.
Heb.
Fr.
Fr.

Ger.
Ilex.


Jew.
Heb.
Amer.

Amer.
Amer.
Amer.

Amer.
Dan.

Bom.

Fr.

Swiss.

Hind.

Ger.

Ger.

Dutch.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Gr.

Rom.

Gr.

Gr.

Rom.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Josiah,  17tb  kiug  of  Judah

Jotham,  king  of  Judah

Jouffroy,  Theo.  S.,  metaphysician  and  statesman

Jourdan  J.  B.,  marshal  of  France

Jovianus,  Flavius  C,  emperor

Juan,  or  John,  of  Austria,  don,  warrior .

Juarez,  Benito,  statesman  and  president  ,

Juba,  king  of  Numidia .

-,  king  of  Mauritania  and  historian .

Judah,  Hakkadosch,  famous  rabbi  and  Talmudist
Judas  Maccabeus,  patriot .  .  ,
Judd,  Sylvester,  author  of '  Margaret '
Judson,  Adoniram,  missionary  in  India
,  Ann  Hazeltine,  first  wife  of  the  above


— ,  Emily Chubbuck, third wife  of  above,  and  author


('  Fanny  Forester ')
,  Sarah  Boardman,  second  wife  of  above


Juel,  Nicholas,  celebrated  admiral

Jugurtha,  Numidian  king

Julian,  Flavius  Claudius,  Roman  emperor  and  author

tate' .....
Julien,  A.  J.,  orientalist  .  .  .

Jul liei i,  Louis  G.,  musical  composer,  &o.  .

Jung-Bahadoor,  prime  minister  of  Nepaul  .  .

Junge,  Joachim,  philosopher  .  .

Jung-Stilling,  John  H.,  mystic  author ' .  .

Junius,  Adrian,  voluminous  writer
Junot,  Andoche,  duke  d'Abrantes,  military  officer

,  Madame,  duchess  d'Abrantes,  biography,  &o.

Jusaieu,  A,  L.  de,  botanist

Justin  Flavius,  A.  J. '  the  Elder,'  Byzantine  emperor

,  Latin  historian .

,  Martyr,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church

Justinian,  Flavius  A.  J.,  '  the  Byzantine  '  emperor
JuvenaL,  Decius  Junius,  the  most  vehement  of  satiristB


ApOB


BOBN.

DIKD

B.  0.  643

B.  O.  60S

B.  c.  783

b.  o.  742

1796

1842

1762

1833

364

1546

1578

1807

b.  c.  46

B.  c.  18

129

194

B.  0.  160

1813

1853

1788

1850

1789

1826

1817

1854

1803

1845

1629

1697

b.  0.  104

331

363

1799

1812

1860

1816

1587

1657

1740

1817

1512

1575

1771

1813

1784

1839

1748

1836

450

527

B.  o.  200

91

16s

482

665

128

Ger.
Ger.

Fr.
Bwe.


Boot,

Amer.

Ger.

Russ.

Fr.


K

Kaempfer,  naturalist,  traveller  and  historian
Kaestner,  Abraham  Gothelf,  mathematician  and  astronomer
Kalb,  baron  de,  who  generously  aided  the  American  cause
Kalm,  Peter,  traveller  and  botanist ....
Kamehameha  (or  Famehameha)  L  first  king  of  the  Sandwich


Islands .  ...

,  II.  king,  introduced  Christianity

,  III.  introduced  Constitution .  ,

,  IV.  (Alex.  Liholiho)

Kames,  Henry  Home,  lord,  judge  and  author  .

Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  arctic  explorer  and  author .
Kant,  Emanuel,  metaphysician

Karasmin,  Nicholas  M.  historiographer  of  the  empire
Karr,  J.  B  Alphonse,  miscellaneous  author


(abt)


1651

1716

1719

1798

1717

1780

1715

1779

1800

1824

1817

1854

1834

1596

1827

1820

1857

1724

1804

1766

im

1808

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


119


Irish.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Irish

Scot.

Fr.
Ft.

Irish.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Eng.

Eng.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Kater,  Henry,  mathematician .  .  ,

Kavanagh,  Julia,  novelist ....
Kean,  Charles  John,  actor  .  .  .

,  Edmund,  tragedian ....

,  Ellen  Tree,  wife  of  C.  J.  Kean,  actress  .

Kearny,  Philip,  Union  general  in  war  against  rebellion
Keats,  John,  a  poet  ....

Keble,  John,  divine  and  poet  ....
Keighfley,  Thos.,  miscellaneous  author .  .

Keith,  Geo.  K.  Elphinston,  admiral

,  James,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  and  Prussian  service

,  Thos.,  mathematician,  ('  Use  of  Globes')  ,

Kellerman,  Frank  C,  duke  of  Valmy,  general

,  Franc  Etienne,  son  of  above,  general  .

Kelly,  Michael,  composer  and  singer  .  .

Kembie,  Charles,  actor  ....

,  Frances  Anne,  actress  and  author  ,

,  John  M.,  scholar  and  historian  .  ,

i ,  John  Philip,  celebrated  tragedian


Kemfelen,  Wolfgang,  baron,  author  of  the  automaton  chess-player
Kempis,  Thomas  a,  supposed  author  of  the  'Imitation  of  Christ'
Ken,  Thos.,  bishop  or  Bath  and  Wells,  theological writer
Amer. Kendall,  Amos,  statesman  and  author .  »

Amer. ,  George  W.,  journalist  and  author .  .

Amer. Kendrick  Asahel  C,  Greek  scholar  and  author
Scot. Kennedy,  Grace,  writer,  (Father  Clement) .  .

Amer. Kennedy,  John  Pendleton,  statesman  and  novelist  •
Eng. Kennet,  White,  learned  prelate  and  author .  .

Eng. Kennicott,  Benjamin,  a  divine  and  Biblical critio .
Ir.-Am.Kenrick,  Francis  P.,  Catholic  prelate  and  author  .

Kent,  Edward,  Aug.,  duke  of,  father  of  Queen  Victoria

Amer. ,  James,  jurist,  chancellor  of  New  Tork .  •

Amer. ,  William,  judge,  esteemed  jurist .  ,

Eng. Kenyon,  Lloyd,  lord,  jurist ....

Eng. ,  John,  poet  ....

Ger. Kepler,  John,  eminent  astronomer .  .  .

Eng. Keppel,  Aug.,  viscount,  admiral

Scot. Kerr,  Robert,  miscellaneous  writer .  .  .

Amer. Key,  Francis  S.,  author  of  •  Star  Spangled  Banner*
Eng. Kidd,  Wm.,  noted  pirate,  executed .  .  .

Eng. Killigrew,  Henry,  dramatist  .  .  ,

Scot. Kilmarnock,  Wm.  4th,  earl,  Jacobite,  beheaded  .

Amer. Kimball,  Richard  B.,  author  ,  .  .

Amer. King,  John  A.,  ex-governor  of  New  Tork  -  ,

Amer. ,  Rufus,  statesman  and  diplomatist

Amer. ,  Thomas  Starr,  author ....

Amer. ,  William  R.,  diplomatist,  senator,  and  vice-president

Eng. Kinglake,  Alex.  Wrn.,  M.  P.,  author  of 'Eothen'

Irish. Kingsborough,  Lord,  patron  of  great  work  on  Mexican  antiquities

Eng. Kingsley,  Charles,  clergyman,  novelist  and  poet  ,

Amer. Kip,  "Wm.  Ingraham,  Prot.  Epis.  bishop  and  author

Amer Kirkland,  Caroline  M. author  of  travels  and  essays


BOBH

1777
1824
1S11
1787
1805
1815
1796
1790
1800
1746
1696
1759
1735
1770
1762
1775
1811
1807
1757
1754
1380
1637
1789
1810
1809
1782
1795
1660
1718
1797
1767
1763

1732
1783
1571
1726

1779

1612
1702
1818
1789
1755
1824
1788
1802
1795
1819
1811


DIET.

1835


1838


1862
1820


1820
1768
1824
1820
1835
1826
1854

1857
1823
1806
1471
1711


1825

1728
1783
1863
1820
184T
1861
1802
1856
1630
1786
1814
1843
1701
1690
1746

1867
1827
1864

1S53

183T


1864


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


KATIOM.  NAME  AND PROFESSION

Eng.  Kitohine,Williflm,  writer  on  Cookery

Eng.  Kitto,  John,  biblical  scholar  and  author

Hung.  Klapka,  George,  patriot,  soldier  and  author

PrusB.  Klapioth,  Henry  J.,  philologist  atd  ethnologist

Fr.  Kleber,  John  Baptist,  military  officer

Ger.  Klopstock,  the  '  Milton  of  Germany  '

Ger.  Knapp,  Geo.,  Christ,  theologian  .  .

Amer. ,  Samuel  L.,  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Knight,  Charles,  publisher,  editor,  and  author

Eng. ,  Richard  Payne,  miscellaneous  writer .

Irish.  Knowles,  Jas.  Sheridan,  dramatic  author  and  actor

Eng.  Knox,  Dr.  Vicesimus,  divine  and  miscellaneous  author

Amer  ,  Henry,  military  officer  and  statesman

Ger.  Knyphausen,  baron,  general  in  British  servioe  .

Ger.  Koch,  Christopher  "William,  historian

Fr.  Kock,  Charles  Paul  de,  novelist  and  dramatist  .

Ger.  Kohl,  Johann  George,  traveller  and  author  .  .

Dan.  Koppen,  Adolph  Louis,  historical  writer  and  lecturer

Ger.  Korner,  or  Koerner,  Charles  T.,  poet

Pol.  Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  warrior  and  p  itriot,  served  in  the  Ameri

can  army  during  the  Revolution

Hung.  Kossuth,  Lajos  (Louis),  late  governor  of  Hungary

Ger.  Kotzebue,  Augustus  Frederick  Fer.  von,  historian,  &c. .

Hung.  Kraitsir,  Charles,  philologist

Pol.  Krasinski,  Valerian,  count,  author  .  .  .

Ger.  Krummacher,  Fred.  Adolph.,  poet  and  theologian  ,.

(jer.  . ,  Fred.  William,  religious  writer  .  .

Russ.  Krusenstern,  Adam  Jean,  navigator .

Ger.  Kugler,  Franz  Theodore,  writer  on  art,  &c.  .  .

Ger.  Kuhnoel,  Christ.  F.,  critic .  .  .  .

Ger.  Kunih,  Charles  S.,  botanist  ....

Russ.  Kutusofi,  Michael  L.  G.,  field-marshal  .  .

Ii.

Fr.  Labat,  Jean  B.,  missionary  and  historian  .  .

Ital.  Lablache,  Luigi,  renowned  vocalist  ,  .  .

Eng.  Labouchere,  Henry,  Baron  Taunton,  statesman

Fr.  Laborde,  A.  L.  G.,  comte  de,  traveller,  &c.

Fr.  Labruyere,  see  Bruytre  ....

Fr.  Lacepede,  Bernard  G.  S.  Delaville,  count  de,  naturalist

Fr.  Lacordaire,  Jean  B.  H.,  Catholic  theologian  and  author

Fr.  Lacretelle,  Charles,  traveller  and  litterateur

Fr.  Lacroix,  Sylvestre  F.,  mathematician

Lactantius,  a  father  of  the  Church  styled  the  Christian  Cicero

Rom.  Laelius,  Caius,  publicist,  tribune,  praetor  and  consul

Fr  Laennel,  an  eminent  physician ....

Fr.  Lafarge,  Marie  C,  notorious  as  a  poisoner

Fr.  La  Fayette,  G.  M.,  marquis,  &c,  military  commander  and  states-
man .....

Fr,  — — . -,  George  "W.,  statesman  .

Fr.  Lafltte,  Jacques,  wealthy  banker  and  statesman

Ft.  1  Jean,  corsair,  privateer,  or  pirate


5(  c  tl .

Dlia

183*

1804

1864

1820

1784

1830

1754

1800

1724

1803

1753

1825

1784

1838

1791

1750

1824

1784

1862

1752

1821

1750

1806

1730

1789

1737

1813

1794

1808

1804

1791

1813

1746

1817

1802

1761

1819

1804

1860

1780

1855

1768

1845

1770

1846

1808

1858

1768

1841

1788

1745

1813

1663

1738

1794

1858

1798

1774

1842

1756

1828

1802

1766

1817

1765

1833

325

t.  186  B.

3,  115

1782

1826

1816

1852

1757


1768
1780  f


1834


1844
1831


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Ger.  La  Fontaine.  Aug.  J.  H.,  author  of  200  volumes  miscellaneous

Fr.  Lafontaine,  Jean  de,  an  inimitable  fabulist

Ital.  Lagrange,  Joseph  Limis,  able  mathematician

Fr.  La  Gueronniere,  Louis  E.  A.,  viscount  de,  publicist .

Fr.  Laharpe,  John  Francis  de,  dramatist,  critic,  &c.

Scot.  Lai  tig,  Malcolm,  historian . . .

Fr.  Lalande,  Joseph  J.  le  Francis  de,  astronomer .

Amer.  Lamar,  Mirabeau  B.,  second  president  of  the  republio  of  Texas

Fr.  Lamarck,  J.  B.  A.  P.,  naturalist . .

Fr.  Lamarque,  Maxim.,  general  of  the  revolution  of  1789

Fr.  Lamartine,  Alphonse  de,  poet,  historian,  traveller,  and  states

man  .....

Eng.  Lamb,  Charles,  poet  and  essayist ....

Eng. ,  Lady  Caroline,  novelist  .  .  .

Ital.  Lamballe,  Marie,  princess  of,  victim  of  the  revolution .

Eng.  Lambert,  A.  B.,  botanist ....

Eng. ,  Daniel,  noted  for  corpulency,  789  pounds  .

Fr.  Lammenais,  F.  R.,  abbe  de,  theological  and  political  writer

Fr.  Lamoriciere,  Christ.  L.  J.  de,  general . . .

Fr.  Lamotte  Fouque,  Fred.,  baron  de,  novelist  '  Undine'

Eng.  Lancaster,  Joseph,  founder  of  system  of  education  . .

Amer.  Lander,  Fred.  W,  military  officer  (k.  at  Ball's  Bluff ) .

Eng. — : ,  Richard  and  John,  travellers  in  Africa .  ,

Fr.  Landon,  C.  P.,  author  of  works  on  the  fine  arts .

Eng. ,  (Maclean),  Letitia  E.,  poet  and  novelist .  .

Eng.  Landor,  Walter  Savage,  poet  and  essayist

Eng.  Landseer,  John,  engraver  and  author

Eng.  Lane,  Edw.  Wm.,  orientalist,  author  of  '  Modern  Egyptians,'  &c.

Amer. ,  James,  general,  U.  S.  senator  for  Oregon .  .

Ger.  Lange,  commentator  on  scripture . . .

Amer.  Langdon,  gov.  New  Hampshire,  U.  S.  senator . ,

Ital.  Langfranc,  learned  archbishop  of  Canterbury . .

Eng.  Langhorne,  John,  miscellaneous  author . . ,

Eng.  Langton,  Stephen,  cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury

Fr.  Lai, nes,  Jean,  duke  of  Montebello,  marshal  of  France .

Eng.  Lansdowne,  Henry  Petty,  marquis  of,  president  of  Council

Eng. >  William  Petty,  marquis  of,  premier

Ital.  Lanzi,  Luigi,  writer  on  art ....

Fr.  La  Perouse,  Jean  F.,  count,  navigator

Fr.  Laplace,  Peter  Simon,  marquis  of,  eminent  astronomer  and  geo
metrician .....
Lappenberg,  Johann  M.,  historian . - .

Irish.  Lardner,  Dionysius,  writer  on  physical  science .

Eng.  ,  Nathaniel,  a  learned  dissenting  divine . .

Fr.  Larrey,  Dominique  J.,  baron,  surgeon  and  author

Fr.  La  Salle,  Robt.  C,  sieur  de,  navigator  and  author . .

Span.  Las  Casas,  Barth  de,  missionary  and  historian  . .

Fr. ,  biographer  of  Napoleon,  &c. .  .  .

Nor.  Lassen,  Chris.,  oriental  philologist  and  historian .

Eng.  Latimer,  Hugh,  a  prelate,  martyred  for  being  a  reformer

Eng  Latham,  John,  ornithologist  ....

Edjj. ,  Eobert  G.,  philologist  and  ethnologist


BO&K.

DIKD.

1756

1831

1621

1695

1736

1813

1816

1739

1793

1762

1818

1732

1801

1798

185S

1732

1S07

1770

1832

1802

1776

1834

1785

1828

1748

1792

1761

1842

1770

1809

1782

1854

1806

1868

1777

1848

1771

1839

1822

1862

1834

1826

.1802

1839

1775

1864

1769

1852

1867


1739

1819

1605

1689

1735

17-

1228

1769

1809

1780

1863

1737

1805

1732

1810

1741

1789

1749

1827

1794

1793

1859

1684

1768

1760

1842

1635

'.6S7

1474

156£

".762

1843

1800

1470

1663

1740

186!

1812

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


RATIOS. NAME  AND PROFESSION.  BORN,

Eng.  Land,  "William,  prelate,  famed  for  his  tyranny  and  superstition  . 1573

Scot.  Lauder,  Sir  Thos.  Dick,  writer  on  Natural  History .  1784

Amer.  Laurens,  Jobn,  lieutenant  colonel  in  Revolutionary  war  . 1756

Amer.  ,  Henry,  patriot  and  statesman . . .  1724

Fr.  Lava.ette,  M.  C,  count  de,  military  commander .  . 1769

Fr.  La  Valliere,  F.  L.,  duchesse  de,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV .  1644

Swiss.  Lavater,  John  Caspar,  celebrated  physiognomist .  • 1741

Fr.  Lavoisier,  Anthony  L.,  celebrated  chemist . .  1743

Scot.  Law,  John,  financier  of  the  '  Mississippi  Bubble  * •  . 1671

Eng.  ,  "Win.,  religious  and  mystical  author . . .  1686

Amer  Lawrence,  Abbott,  merchant  and  diplomatist . .  . 1792

Amer. ,  Amos,  merchant  and  philanthropist • .  1786

Amer. ,  James,  captain  in  U.  S.  Navy . .  . 1781

Eng.  Layard,  Austen  H.,  traveller  and  explorer  of  Nineveh .  18 I 7

Amer.  Lea,  Isaac,  naturalist  and  publisher ....  1792

Eng.  Leake,  Wm.  M.,  traveller  and  philhellenist . .  1777

Amer.  Lear,  Tobias,  secretary  to  Washington,  diplomatist .  . 1760

Fr.  Lebrun,  Pontius  D.  E.,  poet ....  1729

Swiss.  Leclerc,  Jobn,  eminent  critic ... .  . 1657

Amer.  Le  Conte,  John,  naturalist ....  1784

Amer.  ,  John  L.  M.  D.,  naturalist,  (son  of  preceding)  . 1825

Amer. ,  John,  M.  D.,  naturalist,  (Georgia) . .  1818

Fr.  Ledru-Rollin,  Alex  A.,  jurist  and  politician ... 1808

Amer.  Ledyard,  John,  intrepid  and  enterprising  statesman .  1751

Amer.  Lee,  Arthur,  M.D.,  statesman  .... 1740

Amer.  ,  Charles,  officer  in  the  Revolution . . .  1730  (7)

Amer.  ,  Eliza  B.,  miscellaneous  writer .  .  .  (abt.)  1800

Amer.  ,  Francis  Lightfoot,  signer  Dec.  Independence  . .  1734

Eng.  ,  Harriet,  Miss,  (sister  of  Sophia),  novelist  . •  . 1750

Amer.  ,  Henry,  general  in  Revolutionary  War . .  1756

Amer.  ,  Robert  E.,  commander  in  chief  of  rebel  armies «  . 1808

Amer.  ,  Richard  Henry,  pres.  of  Congress . . .  1732

Eng.  — ,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  oriental  scholar .... 1783

Eng.  ,  Sophia,  Miss,  novelist * .  1750

Eng.  Leech,  John,  humorous  artist  in  Punch,  &c. . .  . 1817

Fr.  Lefebvre,  Francois  Joseph,  duke  of  Dantzick,  marshal  of  France 1755

Amer.  Legare,  Hugh  S.,  jurist,  statesman  and  litterateur .  . 1797

Fr.  Legendre,  Adrian  M.,  mathematician . . .  1753

Amer.  Leggett,  William,  political  and  miscellaneous  writer .  . 1802

Ger.  Leibnitz,  Godfrey  William,  able  and  learned  philosopher ,  1646

Eng.  Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of,  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth  . 1532

Eng.  Leicester,  T.  W.  Coke,  earl  of,  agriculturist . .  . 1752

Scotch.  Leighton,  Robert,  able  prelate ....  1613

Amer.  Leisler,  Jacob,  political  adventurer

Amer.  Leland,  Charles  G.,  essayist  and  humorist .

Eng.  ,  John,  eminent  divine  and  author .

Irish.  -,  Thomas,  eminent  divine  and  author

PoL  Lelewel,  Joachim,  historian

Fr.  Lemaitre,  Fred.,  actor  ,  .  .

Eng.  Lemon,  Mark,  humorist,  editor  of '  Punch  •

Eng.  Lempriere,  John,  biographer  and  lexicographer

Vr.  L'EdoIob,  Ninon  de,  noted  courtesan


1824
1691
1772
1786
1798
1809
1824
1615


ore  ii

164i
1848
1782
179:1
1830
1710
1801
1794.
1729
1761
1855
1852
1813


1860
1826
1807

1736


1788
1782
1782

1797
1824
1816

1791
1852
1824
1864
1820
1843
1833
1840
1716
1588
1842
1684
1691

1768

1786


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


I23


SATIOK

Dutch.
Dutch.
Eng.
Fr.

ItaL

Ger.

Gr.

Ger.

Ger.

Ger.

Ger.

Rom.

Ger.

Russ.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Scot,

Scot.

Fr.

Ger.

Amer.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Irish.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer.

Scot.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Boot

Pr.

Ger.

Amei

Ger.

Rubs.

Eng.

Dutch

ItaL

Kng.

Eng.

Bng.


NAME AMD PROFESSION.

Lennep  David  J.  van,  jurist  and  poet  .  ' ,

,  Jan  van,  poet  and  novelist  .  ,

Lennox,  Charlotte,  authoress,  (born  in  N.  T.) .  ,

Lenormand,  Marie  A.,  fortune-teller  and  biographer

Leo,  the  name  of  twelve  pupes  and  six  Byzantine  emperors

Leo  X,  pope  (John  de  Medici),  a  patron  of  injustice  and  the  arts

Leo,  Henry,  historian .  .

Leonidas  I.,  king  of  Sparta,  the  hero  of  Thermopylae . f,

Leopold  I,  king  of  the  Belgians  .  .

I,  emperor  of  Germany ....

VI, "  " .  .

II.  ""....

Lepidus,  noted  Roman  family

Lepsius,  Karl  Rich.,  traveller  and  Egyptologist

Lermontotf,  Michael,  poet ....

Leroux,  Pierre,  philosopher  and  socialist .  .

Leroy  de  St.  Arnaud,  J.  A,  marshal  of  France,  general  in  chief

Lesage,  Alain  Rene,  novelist  and  dramatist, '  Gil  Bias'

Leslie,  Charles  Robt.,  artist  and  author  .  .

,  John,  bishop,  theological  writer  .  .

,  John,  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher  .

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  diplomatist .  .  ,

Lessing,  Gotthold  E.,  critic  and  author .  .  ."

Lester,  Charles  E.,  miscellaneous  author  .  .

LEstrange,  Sir  Roger,  political  writer .  .  .

Leuret,  Francis,  anatomist ....
Le  Vaillant,  Fran.;,  traveller  and  ornithologist .  .

Lever  Chas.  Jas.,  novelist ....
Luverett,  Fred.  P.,  classical  scholar  and  author .
Leverrier,  Urbain  J.  J.,  astronomer

Le  Vert,  Octavia  W.,  authoress .  .  ...

Levizac,  Sir  John,  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher
Lewes,  George  Henry,  miscellaneous  author
Lewis,  Francis,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence

,  Major-Gen.  Morgan,  military  commander,  jurist,  &c.

,  Matthew  Gregory,  miscellaneous  writer.  Monk  Lewis

,  Meriwether,  soldier,  explorer,  and  author .

,  Samuel,  educationist

,  Sir  George  Cornwall,  author  and  statesman  ,

———,  Taylor,  classical  scholar  and  author


Leyden,  John,  author  .  .  ,

L'Hopital,  Michel  de,  chancellor  of  France

Lichtenberg,  George  C,  experimental  philosopher

Lieber,  Francis,  publicist,  political  philosopher  (born  In  Berlin)

Liebig,  Justus,  baron,  chemist  .  .  .

Li  even,  Dorothea,  princess  of,  diplomatist  .  .

Lightfoot,  John,  learned  divine  and  author .  ,

Ligne,  Charles  Joseph,  military  officer  and  anthor  ,

Liguori,  Alfons  M.  de,  saint  and  theological  writer

Lilly,  George,  dramatist  ...  ,

— — ,  John,  the  Euphuist  dramatic  writer .  ,

■,  William,  astrologer  ....


BOBS.

DIM

. 1774

1802

1710

1804

1772

1843

s. 1475

1521

1T99

B.  0.  491

1790

186-

1640

1705

1747

1192

1797

B.  0.  200

36

1811

1811

1841

1798

f 1801

1854

1668

1747

1794

1859

1570

1671

1766

1832

1805

1720

1781

1815

1616

1704

1797

1851

1753

1824

1806

1803

1836

1811

1820.

1813

1817

1713

1803

1754

1832

1773

1818

1774

1799

18M

1806

1802

1775

1811

1504

1573

1742

1790

1800

1803

1784

1857

1735

1814

1735

1814

1696

1787

1693

1739

1553

1600

1002

1681

124


THE WOULD'S PROGRESS.


RATION

Dutch.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Swe.

Eng.

Eng.

Scot,

Swe.

Eng.

Fr.


Eng.

Eng.

Hung.

Eng.

Ger.

Amer

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Scot.

Rom.

Span.

Eng.

Fr.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Ind.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Irish.

Russ.

Irish.

Amer.

Amer.

Gr.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer.

Amer.

Bpan.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Limborch,  Philip,  theologian  and  authoi

Lincoln,  Abraham,  statesman,  16th  president  of  the  U.  S,

,  Benjamin,  major-general  in  ihe  Revolutionary  War

,  Levi,  attorney -general  oi  the  U.  S.  (irom  Mass.)

-,  Levi,  governor  of  Massachusetts


Lind,  (Goldschmidt)  Jenny,  vocalist

Lindley,  John,  botanist

Lindsay,  Alexander  W.  Crawford,  lord,  author  of  Travels,  &a

,  Sir  David,  poet

Ling,  Peter  E.,  physiologist  and  poet
Lingard,  John,  author  of '  History  of  England '
Linguet  Simon  N.  H.,  political  writer  anil  historian
Linnseus,  Charles  von,  the  most  celebrated  of  naturalists
Lipsius,  Justus,  critic  ....

Lister,  Thomas  Henry,  novelist  and  biographer  of  Clarendon
Liston,  John,  comic  actor .  ...

Liszt,  Franci6,  performer  on  piano
Littleton,  Sir  Thomas,  jurist

Littrow,  John  J.,  writer  on  mathematics  and  astronomy
Livermore,  Abiel  A.,  clergyman,  journalist  and  author
Liverpool,  Robert  Banks  Jenkinson,  earl  of,  premier
Livingston,  Brockholst,  soldier  and  jurist

,  Edward,  jurist,  diplomatist,  and  statesman

,  Philip,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence

,  Robert  R.,  statesman  and  jurist

,  William,  governor  of  New  Jersey  and  poet

Livingstone,  David,  traveller  and  missionary  in  Africa
Livius,  or  Livy,  Titus,  celebrated  historian
Llorente,  Don  Juan,  antiquary,  historian,  &o.
Lloyd,  Henry,  soldier  and  author
Lobau,  count,  marshal  of  France  .  .

Locke,  John,  eminent  philosopher  and  metaphysician
Lockhart,  J.  G.,  critic  and  novelist,  editor  of '  Quarterly
'  Lodge,  Edmund,  herald  and  antiquary,  '  Portraits '
Logan,  English  name  of  a  famous  Indian  chief

,  James,  colonial  statesman  and  author

,  John  A,  major-general  in  Sherman's  campaign,  M.  O

Lofft,  Capel,  author  ....
Lola-Montez,  Maria,  countess  of  Lansfeldt,  adventurer
Lollard,  Walter,  Protestant  martyr  at  Cologne
Lomonozoff,  Michael  V.,  poet  and  historian
Londonderry,  Robert  Stewart,  marquis  of,  statesman
Long,  Stephen  H.,  engineer,  traveller,  and  author
Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  poet  and  novelist
Longinus,  Dionysius  Cassius,  critic  and  philosopher
Longman,  Thomas,  founder  of  the  publishing  house
Longstreet,  Aug.  B.,  jurist  and  author .  .

— ,  James,  rebel  general

Longueville,  Anne  G.,  duchess,  politician  .  .

Longworth,  Nicholas,  extensive  wine  manufacturer
Loumis,  Elias,  physicist,  astronomer
Lope  de  Vega,  Carpio  Felix,  poet  and  dramatist


BO  KB.

»i&2

1633

171*

1809

1665

1733

ISM

1749

U'Jt

1782

1821

1799

1812

ibt)  1490

155*

1776

183s

1771

185v

1736

174s.

1707

1778

1547

1606

1801

1842

1776

1846

1811

1481

1781

1840

1811

1770

1828

1757

1823

1764

1836

1716

1778

1747

1813

1723

1790

1815

i86e

B.  0.  59

.  0.  17

1756

1823

1729

1783

1770

1838

1632

1704

1794

1854

1756

1839

1780

1674

1751

1751

1824

1824

1861

1322

1711

1765

1769

1822

1784

1807

B.  c.  250

1699

1761

1790

1619

1679

1782

186S

1811

1562

1631

BIOGRAPHICAT, INDEX.


5TATIOJT.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Fr.  Lorraine,  Charles  de,  cardinal  and  politician

Amer. Lossing,  Benson  J.,  historian  and  artist
Soot. Loudon,  J.  C,  voluminous  writer  on  horticulture, agrioultn»
and  architecture

Enff. ,  Mrs.  Jane  W.,  horticultural  writer

French.  LOUTS,  the  name  of  eighteen  kings  of  Franc©
Louis  I.,  the  Debonnaire

" IX,  Saint

" XL,  6th  of  house  of  Valois

" XII.,  8th "  "

- XIII.,  2d  Bourbon

" XIV.,  3d "

" XV.,  4th '«

" xvr.

•« XVII.  ....

" XVIII. ....

Fr.  Louis,  baron,  eminent  surgeon .  .  ,

Fr.  Phiiippe,  king  of  the  French

Fr.  Napoleon. Sec  Bonaparte.

Scot.  Lovat,  Simon  Fraser,  lord,  executed  for  treason

Amer.  Lovejoy,  Owen,  statesman  and  abolitionist

Amer.  ,  Rev.  E.  P.,  abolitionist  journalist

Irish.  Lover,  Samuel,  novelist  and  song  writer

Irish.  Lowe,  Sir  Hudson,  general,  jailor  of  Napoleon

Amer.  Lowell,  Charles,  clergyman  and  author
Amer.  ,  James  Russell,  poet  and  critic .

Amer.  ,  John,  lawyer  and  philanthropist

Amer.  — — — ,  John,  jr.,  founder  of  Lowell  Institute

Amer.  — —- ,  Mary,  Mrs.  Putnam,  of  Boston,  learned  writer

Amer.  Lowndes,  Rawlins,  statesman,  opposed  the  Union

Amer. ,  William  J  ,  statesman

Eng. ,  William  Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' .

Eng.  Lowth,  Robert,  eminent  divine  and  author

Span  Loyola,  Saint  Ignatius  de,  founder  of  the  Jesuits

Eng.  Lucan,  G.  C.  Bingham,  earl  of,  general  in  Crimea .

Rom. ,  Marcus  AnnaBiis,  Latin  poet .  .

Or.  Lucian,  celebrated  writer  .  .  .

Rom.  Lucilius,  the  earliest  Roman  satirist .  .

Ger.  Lucke,  Gott  C.  F.,  theologian  .  ,

Rom.  Lucretius,  Caius  Titus,  eminent  poet

Rom.  Lucullus,  wealthy  warrior  .  .  .

Eng.  Ludlow,  Edmund,  republican  judge  of  Charles  L

Span.  Lully,  Raimond,  '  the  enlightened  doctor'

Amer.  Lundy,  Benjamin,  abolitionist  .  .

Amer.  Lunt,  George,  poet,  essayist,  and  journalist

Ger.  Luther,  Martin,  the  parent  of  the  Protestant  refora  »tion

Irish.  Luttrell,  Henry,  poet ....

Fr.  Luxemburg,  duke  of,  military  officer .

Gr.  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  legislator

Eng.  Lydgate,  John,  poet  (Benedictine  monk)  .

Scot  Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geologist  and  traveller

Amer.  Lynch,  Thomas  J.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence


BORN

DIED

1524

1574

1813

1783

1813

1800

1858

778

84C

1215

1270

1423

148?

1462

1515

1601

1643

1638

1715

1710

1774

1754

1793

1785

1795

1755

1824

1837

1773

1850

1667

1747

1811

1864

1802

1837

1797

1769

1844

1782

1861

1819

1769

1840

1799

1838

1810

1722

1800

1782

1861

1843

1710

1787

1491

1556

1800

37

120

210

B.  O.  148  B.

o.  191

1792

1855

b.  c.  95

B.  0.  11.') B.

0.  49

1620

1693

1235

1316

1789

1838

1484

1548

1851

1628

1696

B.  0.  898

1375

1461

1797

1749

1*11

1  26


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  BORN.

Amer.  Lynch,  William  P.,  captain  U.  S.  navy,  author  of '  Dead  Sea,  &o. 1806

Eng.  Lyiidhurst,  lord,  statesman  and  jurist  (born  in  Boston)

Amer.  Lyon,  Mary,  teacher  and  philanthropist

Amer.  ,  Matthew,  politician ....

Ainer.  ,  Nathaniel,  Union  general,  fell  at  Wilson's  Creek

Gr.  Lysander,  famous  Spartan  general .  .

Gr.  h\  sias,  orator  ...  .  .

Gr.  Lysimachus,  one  of  Alexander's  generals  .  •

Eng.  Lyttleton,  George,  lord,  poet  and  historian  .


1772

1797

1849

1746

1822

1819

1861

.

B.  o.  395

b.  o.  459

B.  c.  360

B.  o.  281

1709

1763

M.

Pr. Mabillon,  Jean,  ecclesiastical  author  .  .  1632  1707

Boot. Macadam,  John,  originator  of  Macadamized  roads .  .  1756  1836

Irish. Macartney,  Geo.,  earl  of,  diplomatist  .  .  .  1737  1806

Eng. Macaulay,  T.,  Babington,  essayist,  historian,  critic  and  statesman  1800  1859

Eng. Macaulay,  Zachary,  anti-slavery  statesman .  .  .  1768  1838

Eng. Macauley,  Catherine,  miscellaneous  writer  .  .  1733  1791

Scot. Macbeth,  chieftain  of  the  11th  century .  .  .

Irish. MacClintock,  Sir  F.  L.,  Arctic  navigator  .  .  .  1819

Irish. MacClure,  Sir  R.  J.,  discoverer  of  North-west  passage  .  1807

Amer. Macconnell,  John  L.,  novelist  ....  1826

Amer. Maccorst,  David  J.,  political  writer  .  .  ,  1797  1855

Scot. Maccosh,  James,  clergyman  and  author  .  .  .  1810

Scot. Macculloch,  J.  R.,  political  economist  and  statistician  .  1789  1864

Amer. McClellan,  Geo.  B.,  commander-in-chief  Union  armies  .  .  1826

Amer. McCook,  father  and  three  sons  from  Ohio,  generals  in  Union  Army

Eng. McCulIoch,  John,  M.  D.,  geologist,  &c. .  .  .  1773  1835

Scot. Macdiarmid,  John,  author .....  1779  1808

Scot. Macdonald,  Flora,  adventurous  heroine .  .  .  1720  1790

Fr. Macdnna'd,  S.  T.  A.,  marshal  of  France  .  .  .  1765  1840

Amer.  Macdonough,  Thos.,  commodore  in  U.  S.  Navy,  victor  on  Lake

Champlain  .....  1783  1825

Amer.  McDowell,  Irwin,  commander  Onion  Army .  .  .1818

Amer.  Macduffie,  Geo.,  U.  S.  senator  from  South  Carolina  .  .  1788  1851

Scot Macgillivray.Wm.,  naturalist  ....  1796  1852

Scot. Macgregor,  John,  statistical  and  political  author .  .  1797  1S57

Ital. Machiavel,  Nicholas,  celebrated  writer  on  politics  .  .  1469  1527

Scot. Mackay,  Charles,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer .  .  1812

Amer.  Mackean,  Thos.,  jurist,  statesman,  signer  of  Dec.  of  Ind.  1734  .1817

Amer.  Mackenzie,  A.  Slidell,  naval  commander,  author  of  travels  '  1803  1849

Scot. Mackenzie,  Henry,  the  Addison  of  the  North .  .  .  1745  1831

Irish. Mackenzie,  Robt.  S.,  journalist,  &c.  .  .  .  1S09

Amer. Mackintosh,  Maria  J.,  novelist  .  .  .  (abt )  1810

Scot. Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  celebrated  literary  character .  .  1766  1832

Irish. Macklin,  Charles,  actor  and  dramatist .  .  .  1690  1796

Scot Macknight,  James,  divine  and  author  ....  1721  1800

Aust. Mack  von  Liebenich,  Karl,  baron,  general  .  1752  182$

Amer.  MacLane,  Louis,  statesman  and  diplomatist .  .  •  1786  1857

Scot. Maclaurin,  Colin,  mathematician  ....  1698  174*

Amer Maclean,  John,  statesman,  judge  of  U.  S.  Supreme  Conrt  .  1785

Eng. MacLean,  L.  E.  L.,  (Misp  Landon),  poet  and  novelist  .  1804  1834


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.  1 27

SATTOW.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Irish.  Mac.ise,  Daniel,  historical  painter .  .  ,

Amer.  Macleod,  Alex.,  clergyman  and  author .  ,  .

Amer.  Macleod,  Xavier  Donald,  miscellaneous  writer .

Scot.  Maclure,  William,  geologist,  &c  .  .  ,

Pr.  MacMahon,  M.  E.  P.,  duke  of  Magenta,  marshal  .

Scot.  MacNab,  Sir  Allan,  Canadian  Statesman .

Irish.  MacNeven,  Wm.  J.,  patriot  and  physician,  (died  at  N.  Y.)

Amer.  Macomb,  Major-Gen  eral  Alex.,  military  commander  .

Amer.  Macon,  Nathaniel,  member  of  Congress  for  N.  Carolina  37  years

Scot.  Macpherson,  James,  miscellaneous  writer  .

Amer.  Macpherson,  Jas.  B.,  Union  general  in  rebellion  .

Eng.  Macready,  "Wm.  Chas.,  tragedian  .  .  .

Scot.  Macrie,  Thomas,  D.D.,  clergyman  and  author,  biographer  of  Knox

Eng.  Madden,  Sir  Fred.,  antiquarian  author

^Ger.  Maddler,  Johann  Henry,  astronomer  .  .  .  .

Amer.  Madison,  James,  4th  president  of  United  States .  .

Welsh.  Madoc,  prince,  said  to  have  discovered  America  .

Span.  Madoz,  Pascuale,  statesman  and  author .

Rom.  Maecenas,  Caius  C,  minister  of  Augustus  and  patron  of  literature

Ital.  Mafl'ei,  Franc  S.,  marquis,  author  of  21  vols.

Amer.  Maffitt,  John  Newland,  noted  Methodist  preacher . ~~ .

Irish.  Magee,  "Wm.,  arcnbishop  Dublin,  (on  Atonement)  ,  .

Port.  Magellan,  Ferdinand,  celebrated  navigator  .  .

Fr.  Magendie,  Francis,  physiologist  ....

Irish.  Maginn,  William,  classical  and  miscellaneous  writer  and  critic

Fr.  Magnan,  Bernard  Pierre,  marshal  of  France  .  .

Amer.  Magoon,  Elisha  L.,  clergyman  and  author

Sar.  Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  founder  of  the  religion  which  bears  his
name  ......

Turk.  Mahomet  II.,  7th  Turkish  Sultan,  conqueror  of  Constantinople

Fr.  Maimbourg,  Louis,  historian  ....

Jew.  Maimonides,  Moses,  celebrated  rabbi

Fr.  Maintenon,  Frances  d'Aubigne,  queen  .  .  .

Ital.  Maio,  Angelo.  discoverer  and  editor  of  Latin  classics

[tal.  Maistre,  Joseph  de,  statesman  and  author .  •  .

Eng.  Maittaire,  Michael,  bibliographer,  &c. .  .  .

Heb.  Malachi,  the  prophet  .....

Swiss.  Malan,  Caesar  H.  A.,  theologian  and  author  .  .

Amer.  Malcom,  Howard,  clergyman  and  author  .  .

Scot.  Malcolm,  Sir  John,  '  History  of  Persia  and  India' .

Fr.  Malebranche,  Nicholas,  metaphysician

Fr.  Malesherbes,  C.  G.  de,  statesman,  (executed)  .

Ital.  Malibran,  M.  F.,  Madame,  vocalist  ....

Fr.  Malherbe,  Franc  de,  poet  ....

Scot.  Mallet,  David,  miscellaneous  writer ....

Swiss.  Mallet,  Paul  Henri,  historian ....

Eng,  Malmesbury,  Jas.  Harris,  earl  of,  diplomatist  .  .

Eng. ,  Jas.  H.H.,  (eon  of  above),  statesman  .  •

Eng.  ,  William  of,  historian ....

Eng.  Malone,  Edward,  dramatic  commentator  .  .

ItaL  Malphighi,  Marcellus,  naturalist  and  anatomist  .  •

Eng.  Maltby,  Edw.,  bishop  of  Durham,  philologist  •  .


BORN.

DISS

1811

1774

183*

1821

1763

1840

1807

1798

1763

1841

1782

1841

1757

1837

1738

1798

1828

1864

1793

:  1772

1835

1801

1794

1751

1836

12th  1

;<at.

1806

B.  0.  0

1675

1755

1794

1850

1765

1831

1521

1783

1855

1793

1842

1791

1864

1810

569

632

1430

1480

1610

1686

1131

1204

1635

1719

1753

1821

'  1668

1747

B.  C

5th  cent.

1787

1864

1799

1769

1833

1638

1715

1721

1794

1808

1836

1555

1628

1702

1763

1730

1807

1746

1826

1807

1143

1741

1819

1628

1694

1770

186t

128


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


H  A1IOH,

Ger.

Ger.

Eng.

Ital.

Eng.

Pers.

Ital.

Ital.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Amer.

Scot.

Eng.

Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Pr.

Rom.

Ital.

A.rr<er.

Pt-B.

St.

JP>.

Ger.

Dan.

Fr.

Auat.

Bpan.

Ital.

Span.

Ger.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Ital.

Amer.

Rom.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Amer.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

&roer.


HAME AND PBOFESSIOK.

Malte  Bran,  Conrad,  poet  and  geographer .

— ,  M.,  geographer  .  .  ,

Malthus,  T.  R.,  political  economist .  .

Mamiani,  Terenze,  count,  statesman  and  author
Mandeville,  Sir  John,  traveller  and  author
Manes,  or  Manichseus,  founder  of  the  Maniohasan  sect
Manfred,  prince  of  Tarentum,  king  of  Two  Sicilies
Manin,  Daniele,  Venetian  statesman .  .

Mann,  Horace,  statesman  and  educationist .  .

Manning,  Henry  E.,  clergyman  and  author
Mansel,  Henry  L.,  metaphysician  and  theologian .
Mansfeld,  Ernest  of,  warrior  .
Mansfield,  Jos.  K.,  Union  general  .

,  ¥m.  Murray,  Earl  of,  jurist  and  statesman

Mantell,  G.  A.,  geologist

Manutius  Aldus,  celebrated  printer  and  author

,  the  Younger,  printer  and  author .


Paulus,  (son  of  Manutius),  printer


BOXH.

. 1775

1766
1799
1300
239
(abt.)  1231
1804
1796
1812
1816
1585
1803
1705
1790
1447
1547
1512
1784
1754
B.  o.  267
1256
1786


Manzoni,  author  of  T.  PromesBi  Sposi .  .

Marat,  John  Paul,  infamous  revolutionist  .

Marcellus,  Marcus  Claudius,  general  .

Marco  Polo,  Venetian  traveller  .  .

Marcy,  Wm.  Learned,  statesman .  .  •

Mardonius,  Persian  general  in  Greece • •  •

Margaret  of  Angouleme,  queen  of  Navarre . .  1492

Margaret  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Henry  VI.  of  England .  . Ii29
Margaret  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Maximil.  I.  and  Mary  of  Burgundy  1480

Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark:,  &c,  *  Semiramis  of  the  North  '  . 1353

Margaret  of  Valois,  queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  . .  1552
Maria  Louisa,  empress  of  France,  afterwards  Duchess  of  Parma 1787

Maria  Christina,  queen  dowager  of  Spain,  (born  at  Naples)  . 1806

Maria  de  Medici,  queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France . .  1574

Mariana,  John,  celebrated  historian . . .  . 1537

Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Germany . . .  1717

Marie- Amelie,  queen  of  the  French,  (Louis  Philippe) .  . 1782

Marie  Antoinette,  queen  of  France,  (Louis  XVI) . .  1755

Mariette,  Aug.  E.,  Egyptologist  and  explorer  . .  . 1821

Mario,  Giuseppe,  marquis  of  Candia,  vocalist . ,  1810
Marion,  Francis,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution

Marius,  Caius,  famous  general  and  demagogue .  B.  o.  153

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  duke  of,  able  warrior .  . 1650
Marmont,  A.  F.  V., duke  of  Ragusa,  marshal  of  France  and

traveller ......  1773

Marmontel,  John  Francis,  celebrated  writer . .  . 1723

Marlowe,  Christ,  or  Kit,  dramatio  poet . • .  1564
Mapes,  James  J.,  agriculturist ....

Marquette,  Jacques,  early  explorer  of  the  Mississippi .  1637

Marrast,  Armand,  journalist  and  politician . ,  . 1800

Mars,  Mademoiselle,  actress . . •  1778

Marsden,  oriental  traveller  and  historian . ,  . 1755

Marsh,  Anne,  novelist .....  (abt.)  1800

Marsh,  Geo.  Perkins,  philff'ogist  and  diplomatist .  . 1801


dud.

1828


186-


1372
21


1857
1859


1628
1862
1793
185-
1517
1597
1574

1793
B.  c.  208
1323
1857
B.  0.  479
1549
1481
1530
1412
1612
1847

1642
1624
1780

1793


1795

b.  o.  86

1722

1852
1799
1593
1865
1675
1852
1847
1884


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


129


BATI0M.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Rom.

Eng.

Fr.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Prus.

Span.

Ger.

Eng.

ItaL

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Ind.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Scot.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Irish.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Fr.

Irish.

Eng.

Fr.

Hoi.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Marsh,  Herbert,  bishop  of  Peterborough,  theological  writer

Marsh,  James,  metaphysician

Marshall,  John,  chief-justice  of  U.  S.,  biographer

Marshman,  Joshua,  missionary  in  India,  and  author

Marston,  John,  poet  and  dramatist .  .

Martial,  Marcus  Valerius,  epigrammatist  .

Martin,  Benj.,  optician  and  author  .  ,

Martin,  Bon  Louis  Henry,  historian .

Martin,  Francis  Xavier,  jurist  and  historian  .

Martineau,  Harriet,  miscellaneous  authoress .


,  James,  (brother  of  Harriet),  clergyman  and  author

Martos,  Ivan  P. ,  sculptor  .  .

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  don  Franc,  statesman  and  litterateur

Mai  tius,  C.  F.  P.  von,  botanist  and  traveller

Martyn,  Henry,  missionary  in  India  and  Persia  .

Martyr,  Justin,  Christian  apologist  .  .

,  Peter,  reformer  aDd  theologian  .  .

Marvell,  Andrew,  author  and  statesman .  .

Mary  I.,  first  queen  regnant  of  England  .  .

,  II.,  queen  regnant  with  Wm.  of  Orange  - .

Stuart,  queen  of  Scots ....

Marryatt,  Captain,  novelist  and  traveller .  ,

Maseres,  Francis,  'baron,'  mathematician  .  ,

Maskeleyne,  Nevii,  astronomer .  .  .

Mason,  George,  statesman ....

,  Jeremiah,  lawyer  and  statesman

,  John,  maj.  gen.  Connecticut  colonial  forces .

, John,  divine  and  author .

, John  M.,  eminent  divine  .  .  ,

, John,  M.,  senator  from  Viiginia,  rebel

,  John  Y.,  statesman  and  minister  to  France

, Lowell,  musical  teacher  and  composer  .

, William,  divine  and  poet  .  .  .

Massasoit,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags
Massena,  Andrew,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Napoleon's  marshals
Massey,  Gerald,  poet  ....

Massillon,  John  Baptist,  eloquent  divine .  .

Massinissa,  king  of  Numidia  ....
Masson,  David,  biographer  and  essayist .  .

Maunder,  Samuel '  Treasury  of  Knowledge  * .  ,

Mather,  Cotton,  divine  and  author

,  Increase,  clergyman  and  author  .  ,

Mathew,  Theobald,  '  Apostle  of  Temperance '
Mathias,  Thomas,  author  of  *  Pursuits  of  Literature' .
Matthew  of  Westminster,  historian
Matthews,  Charles,  actor  and  humorist  .  .

1  Matthias '  (Robert  Matthews),  religious  Impostor .
Matter,  Jacques,  philosopher  and  historian .  ,

Maturin,  Charles  Robert,  divine,  dramatist  and  poet
Maundrell,  Rev.  Henry,  traveller  in  the  East .  .

Maupertuis,  Peter  L.  M.,  geometrician  and  astronomer.
Maurioe,  Count  of  Nassau,  and  Prince  of  Orange,  stadtholder


BOBM.

1*1  ID,

;er 1768

1888

1794

1841

1755

183S

1767

1837

(abt.)  1670

1634

40

100

1704

1782

1704

1782

1810

1764

1846

ithor 1800

1753

1836

1786

1781

1812

103?

1679

1500

1561

1621

1678

1515

1558

1662

1694

1542

1587

1792

1848

1731

1824

1732

1811

1726

1792

1768

1848

1600

1672

1706

1763

1770

1829

1795

1859

1792

1725

1797

1661

als . 1758

1817

1828

1663

1742

(abt)  b.  0.  240  b.

0.  148

1823

1790

1849

1663

1728

1639

1723

1790

1856

1750

1835

. 13th  cent.

1776

1835

.  'abt)  1790

183-

1791

1782

182S

1650?

1710

1698

176S

1667


162?


i3°


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


■ATIGJI.  NAME  AND PROFESSION.

Eng. Maurice,  Jno.  Fred.  D.,  clergyman  and  author

Eng. ,  Thos.  Rev.,  history  of  Hindostan,  &c.

Mauricius,  Flavius  Tib.,  Byzantine  emperor
Amer. Maury,  Matthew  E.,  naval  officer,  astronomer,  rebel,  &c

Pr. ,  John  Siffrein,  cardinal  and  statesman

Eng. Mavor,  Rev.  Wm.,  writer  and  compiler,  voyages,  &c.
Ger. Mavrocordato,  statesman

Eng. Mawe,  Joseph,  mineralogist  and  conchologist .
Ger. Maximilian  I.,  emperor  of  Germany  .  ,

Ger. 1  prince,  emperor  of  Mexico

Rom. Maximinus,  Caius  J.  V.,  emperor  of  Rome  ,

Eng. Maxwell,  Wm.  R.,  'Life  of  Wellington.'  &c. .
Amer. Mayer,  Brantz,  lawyer  and  historical  writer
Ger. Mayer,  Johann  T.,  astronomer
Eng. Mayhew, Henry,  Edward, Thomas,  and  Horace,  brothers,
morous  and  miscellaneous  writers

Amer. ,  Jonathan,  clergyman  and  author

Fr. Mazarin,  Julius,  cardinal,  able  statesman  .  ,

Mazeppa,  John,  prince  of  the  Cossacks
Ital. Mazzini,  Giuseppe,  democratic  politician  (Genoa) .
Amer. Meade,  Geo.  G.,  commander  army  of  Potomac

Amer. ,  Wm.,  episcopal  bishop  of  Virginia  and  author

I.Amer.Meagher,  Tbos.  F.,  gen.  in  Union  armies,  gov.  Idaho
Eng. MedhurBt,  Walter  H.,  oriental  scholar  and  missionary

Medici,  Hippolytus,  cardinal .

,  Cosmo  de,  the  Great,  first  Gd  Duke  Tuscany

— — ,  '  pater  patriae,'  Florence  . ■


Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Ital.

Turk.

Ger.

Ger.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Scot.

Gr.

Ger.

Ger.

Port.

Span.

Ger.

Ger.

Russ.

Buss.

Ger.

Ger.


,  Lorenzo  de,  poet,  gov  of  Florence,  and  patron  of

,  Pietro,  successor  of  Cosmo,  patron  of  arts

Mehemet-Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt

Meiners,  Christopher, historian

Melanchthon,  Philip,  celebrated  reformer  .  ,

Melbourne,  \Vm.  Lamb,  Viscount  de,  statesman .

Mellen,  Grenville,  poet ....

Melmoth,  Wm.,  'Letters,'  translation  of  Cicero,  &c.

,' Religious  Life' .

Melville,  Andrew,  religions  reformer  .

,  Herman,  author  of  travels,  romances

,  Sir  Jas.,  soldier,  statesman,  and  author

Menander,  comic  poet ....
Mendelssohn,  Bartholdy  Felix,  musical  composer

,  Moses,  Jewish  scholar  and  philosopher

Mendez-Pinto,  Fernam,  adventurer,  unjustly  famed  for
Mendoza,  Diego  H.  de,  scholar,  author,  and  statesman
Mengs,  Anton  Rafael,  painter  and  writer  on  art
Meninski,  Francis  M.,  learned  orientalist .
Mentchikoff,  Alex.,  prince,  statesman
,  Alex.,  S.,  admiral


Menno-Simonis,  reformer,  founder  of  '  Mennonites'
Menzel,  Wolfgang,  critic  and  historian

Dutch.  Mercator,  Gerard,  geographer

Am»T. Mercer,  Hugh,  general  in  the  Revolutionary  war


(sho


hu-
(abt)


lying


BOKS.

DIES

1805

1755

1821

539

602

1806

1746

1811

1758

1837

1790

1755

1828

1459

1519

l  1834

1867

233

1795

1851

1723


1762


1812

1720

1766

1602

1661

1709

1809

1815

1789

1S67

1796

1857

1511

1535

1519

1574

1389

1464

1443

1492

14t9

1769

1S49

1747

1810

1497

1560

1779

•1848

1799

1841

1710

1799

1666

1743

1545

1622

1S19

1535

1607

342  B.

c.  290

1809

1S47

1729

17S6

1510

1580

1508

1575

1728

1779

1623

1698

1672

1769

1789

1561

1798

1512

1594

172f

177!

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


131


HATIOH.  NAME  AMD  PROFESSION

Amer.  Meigs,  Return  J.,  revoL  oflicer  .  .

Amer.  Meriam,  Eben,  statistician  and  meteorologist

Fr.  Merim<5e,  Prosper,  novelist .  .  .

Eng.  Merivale,  Charles,  historian  •  .  .

Eng. ,  Jolm  Herman,  poet  .  .

Swiss.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  J.  H.,  D.  D.,  historian .  ,

Fr.  Merovasus,  founder  Merovingian dynasty

Fr.  Mery,  JosepTi,  poet  and  novelist .  .  .

Ger.  Mesmer,  Fred.  A.,  founder  of  '  Mesmerism '

Ital.  Metastasio,  Peter  B.,  celebrated  poet

Eng.  Metcalfe,  Charles  T.,  baron,  gov.  in  India  and  Canada

Bom.  Metellus,  the  name  of  several  famous  plebeians

Anst.  Metternich,  Prince,  statesman,  and  diplomatist

Dutch.  Meursius,  John,  erudite  critic

Ger.  Meyerbeer,  musical  composer  .  .

Eng.  Meyrick,  Sir  Saml.  R.,  antiquarian  author

Fr.  Mezerai,  Francis  de,  historian  .  .

Ital.  Mezzofanti,  Cardinal,  celebrated  linguist .  .

Gr.  Miaulis,  naval  commander .  .  .

Heb.  Micah,  the  Prophet  ....

Ital.  Micari,  Guiseppe,  historian .  .

Ger. Michaelis,  John  David,  learned  orientalist  and  oritio

Fr.  Michaud,  Joseph,  historian  ■

Fr.  Michaux,  Andre,  botanist,  ('  Sylva  Americana ') .

Fr.  Michel,  Francisque,  archaeologist

Fr.  Michelet,  Jules,  historian  ....

Ger.  Michelet,  Karl  Ludwig,  philosophical  writer .  .

Pol.  Mickiewicz.  Adam,  poet  ....

Eng.  Mickle,  William  J.  poet,  translator  of '  Lusiad,'  to.

Eng.  Middleton,  Conyers,  divine  and  elegant  writer

Amer.  ,  Arthur,  patriot  and  statesman .  ,

Eng. ,  Thomas,  dramatist

Amer.  Mifflin,  Thomas,  general  in  Revolutionary  war

Fr.  Mignet,  F.  A.,  historian  .....

Port.  Miguel  Don,  rival  of  Don  Carlos  to  the  throne  of  Portugal

Amer.  Milburn,  William  Henry,  'blind  preacher'  and  author

Scot.  Mill,  James,  historian  of  British  India  and  political  economist

Eng.  ,  John  Stuart,  political  philosopher  .  .  .

Eng.  Millais,  John  Everett,  '  pre-Raphaelite '  painter  .

Amer.  Miller,  James,  general  at  Chippewa,  &c,  ('  I'll  try,  sir')

Eng.  ,  Joseph,  comic  actor,  putative  parent  of  jests

Scot.  ,  Hugh,  geologist  ......

Amer. ,  William,  founder  of  the  '  Millerites,'  or  second  adventists

Fr.  Milleroye,  Charles  Hubert,  poet  .  .  .  . '  .

Fr.  Millin,  Anbin  Louis,  naturalist,  &c  .....

Eng.  Millnian,  Henry  Hart,  Rev.,  poet  and  historian .

Fr.  Millot,  Claude  Francis  Xavier,  historian  .  ,  ,

Eng.  Mills,  Charles,  historian  ......

Fr.  Milne-Edward,  Henri,  naturalist  .  .  •  •

Eng.  Milnes,  Richard  Monckton,  poet  and  statesman .  .

Eng.  Milner,  Joseph,  author  of '  Church  History  '  .  ,

Amer  Milnor,  James,  D.  D.,  episcopal  clergyman  .  .


BOKN.

WKP

1740

1822

1794

1864

1800

1779

1844

1794

411

457

1798

1734

1815

1698

1782

1785

1846

.  250

69

1773

1859

15V9

1639

1791

1783

1848

1610

1682

1774

1849

1772

1835

f.  B

0.  750

1839

1717

1791

1767

1839

1746

1802

1809

1798

1801

17HS

1855

1734

1788

1683

1750

174S

1787

1627

1744

1800

1798

1802

1823

1775

1838

1806

1829

1776

1851

1684

1738

1802

1856

1781

1849

1782

1816

1759

1791

1726

1785

1788

1826

1800

1809

1744

1797

1773

1844

132


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS,


■  ATION

Gr.

Eng.

Fr.

Amer.

Rom.

Mex.

Spau.

Fr.

Fr.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Ger.

Turk.

8ar.

Ger.

Ger.

Scot

IF.-.

Hoi.

Eng.

Fr."

Fr.

Span.

Soot.

Eng.

Eng.

Bwiss

Swiss.

Amer.

Ger.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Ger.

Fr.

Fr.


HAMK AND PROFESSION

Mlltiades,  illustrious  Athenian  general  ,

Milton,  John,  the  Homer  of  Britain  .  .

Mini6,  Claude  E.,  inventor  of  the  Minie  rifle-bullet
Minot,  George  R.,  historian .  .  .  .

Minutius-Felix,  Marcus,  christian  writer
Miramo. i,  Miguel,  military  leader  .  .  .

Miranda,  Francis,  revolutionary  general


BORN.


B.


1608
1810
1758
3d  cent,
(abt.)  1830
1750


Mirabeau,  H.  G. Riquetti,  count de, celebrated  chameter  in  the

Revolution  and  author  .....
Mirbel,  Charles  F.  B.  de,  naturalist  .  .  .
Mitchel,  Ormsby  M.,  astronomer  and  patriotic  general  .
Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  essayist ....
,  Maria,  astronomer .....


,  Samuel  L.,  celebrated  physician  and  naturalist

,  Thomas,  classical  scholar  and  critic

Mitford,  Mary  Russell,  novelist  and  essayist  .

,  Rev.  John,  editor  of  poets, ....

,  William,  historian  and  philologist  .  .

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  warrior ....
Mitscherlich,  E.,  chemist  .....

Mittermaier,  Karl  J.  A.,  jurist  and  statesman
Mohammed-Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  (See  Mahomet  and  Mehemet)

Ben  Abd  Al  Wab,  sheik,  founder  sect  Wahabites

Mohler,  Johann  Adam  R.,  catholic  theologian  .  .

Mohs,  Frederick,  mineralogist  .  ,  .  .

Moir,  David  Macbeth,  miscellaneous  writer  .  .

Moll6,  M.  L.,  comte,  statesman  ....

Moleschott,  Jacob,  physiologist  and  naturalist  .  .

Molesworth,  Sir  William,  statesman  and  author  .

Moleville,  Anthony  F.  de  Bertrand,  count  de,  historian
Moliere,  John  Baptist,  celebrated  dramatist
Molina,  Luis,  Jesuit  theologian  and  author .  .  .

Monboddo,  lord,  judge  and  philologist  .  .  .

Montfort,  Simon  de,  earl  of  Leicester,  statesman  .  .

Monk,  George,  duke  of  Albemarle,  military  officer  .

Monod,  Adolphe, '  reformed  pastor '  and  author  ,  .

,  Dr.  Frederick,  '  reformed  pastor'  at  Paris .  .

Monroe,  James,  statesman,  5th  president  UT,i*°rl  States
Monse,  Gaspar,  eminent  geometrician  .

Monstrelet,  Enguerrand  de,  chronicler
Montagu,  Basil,  lawyer  and  author

,  Elizabeth,  author  of '  dialogues,' &o.

,  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  elegant  writer

Montague,  Charles,  earl  of  Halifax,  statesman  and  poet .
Montaigne,  Michel  de,  eminent  essayist
Montalembert,  Charles  F ,  count,  statesman  and  author
Montcalm,  Louis,  marquis  de,  general  in  Canada
Montebello,  John  Lannes,  duke  of,  marshal, .  .  .

Montecuculi,  Raimond,  warrior  ....

Montespan,  Franc,  marquise  de,  mistress  Louis  XIV.  •

Montesqieu,  Charles  baron  de,  able  writer
Montes,  Lola,  female  adventurer  .  .  ,


1749
1776
1810
1822
1818
1763
1783
1786
1781
1734

O  123
1794
1787
1769

f.  1650
1796
1774
1798
1781
1822
1810
1754
1622
1585
1714

1608
1802
1794
1759
1746
1390
1770
1720
1690
1661
1533
1810
1712
1769
1609
1641
1689
1824


DDL

O.  48S
1674

1803

1867

i8ia

1791
1854
186-


1831
1845
1855
1859
1827
1.  64
1863

1850


1839
1851
1855

1855
1817
1673
1600
1799
1265
1670
1856
1863
1831
1818
1453
1851
1802
1762
1715
1592

1759
1808
1681
170;
175S
1861


BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX.


!33


SAIION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Mex.  Montezuma  I,  the  greatest  of  Mexican  sovereigns  .

Mex. II,  last  Atzec  emperor .  .  .

Fr.  Montfaucon,  Bern,  de,  archaeologist  and  author

Lug.  Montgomery,  James,  poet ....

Amer. ,  Richard,  intrepid  military  officer

Eng.  . ,  Robert,  poet ....

Fr.  Montholon,  comte,  secretary  and  "biographer  of  Napoleon

Ft.  Montmorenci,  Anne  de,  constable  of  France .

Ital.  Monte,  Vincent,  poet ....

Fr.  Montmorency,  noble  family  of  France  .  .  .

Fr.  Montpensir,  Madame,  author  of  Memoirs  &o

Scot.  Montrose,  Jas.  Grahame,  marquis  of,  military  leader .

Amer, Moore,  Geo.  H.,  author ....

Amer.  ,  Frank  H  ,  author  ....

An  jr.  ,  Clement  C,  writer  of  verses,  Ac. .  .

Amer.  ,  Jacob  Bailey,  journalist  and  author

Scot.  ,  John,  miscellaneous  author

Scot.  ,  Sir  John  (son  of  above,)  general,  killed  at  Corunna

Ital.  Morata,  Olympia,  Prot.  writer

Eng.  More,  Hannah,  poet,  essayist  and  moralist, .  .

Eng. ,  Henry,  mystical  divine  and  philosopher

Fr.  Moreau,  John  Victor,  celebrated  general  .  .

Amer.  Morfit,  Campbell,  chemist  and  author

Amer.  Morgan,  Daniel,  brig,  gen.,  in  revolutionary  war  .

Amer. ,  Jno.  Henry,  rebel  fillibuster  general  .

Eng. ,  Lady  Charles,  author  of  novels,  travels  &o.

Eng. ,  Sir  Henry  J.,  buccaneer

Eng.  Morier,  James,  novelist,  '  Hajji  Baba '  &c.

Eng.  Moruington,  G.  Wellesley,  earl  of,  musical  composer

E'r.  Morny,  Chas.  A.  count  of,  minister  of  Napoleon  III. .

Amer.  Morphy,  Paul  Charles,  famous  chess-player

Eng.  Morrell,  Thos.,  lexicographer  and  classical  writer  .

Amer.  Morris,  Geo,  P.,  poet  and  journalist

Amer. ,  Gouverneur,  distinguished  .statesman  .

Amer. ,  Lewis,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence

Amer. ,  Robert,  signer  Declaration  Independence  and  financier

Eng.  Morrison,  Robert,  Chinese  traveller  and  philologist

Eng. ,  Robert  D.  D.,  missionary  and  philologist

Amer.  Morse,  Jedcdiah,  geographer  and statistical  writer

Amer.  ,  Samuel  F.  B.,  artist  and  inventor  of  telegraph

Amer.  ,  Sidney  E.,  journalist  and  geographer

Pp. "  Mortier,  marshal  of  France,  killed  by  Fieschi .

Scot.  Morton,  Jas.  Douglas,  earl  of,  regent

Amer. ,  John,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence

Amer.  ,  Samuel  Geo.,  anatomist  and  ethnologist

Amer.  ,  Wm.  T.  G.  dentist,  discoverer  of  the  use  of  ether  (?)

Heh.  Moses,  lawgiver  of  the  Jews

Ger.  Mosheim,  John  Lawrence,  ecclesiastical  historian  .

Scot.  Motherwell,  William,  poet

Amer.  Motley,  John  Lothrop,  historian

Amer.  Mott,  Lucretia,  minister  of  '  Friends'  and  philanthropist

Amer.  ■■>  Valentine,  surgeon  and  author


BOHN".

Died.

147:

.

1480

1520

1655

1741

.

1771

1854

1737

1775

.

1807

1855

1783

1853

.

1493

1567

1753

1828

10th  to  19th  century

1627

1692

•

1612

1651

•

1779

1863

.

1797

1853

1738

1802

1

1761

1809

1526

1555

.

1744

1833

1614

1687

•

1763
1820

1813

•

1736

1802

1780

1859

1637

1690

.

1780

1849

1720

1784

•

1811
1837

1865

.

1703

1784

1802

1864

.

1752

1816

1726

1798

icier

1703

1806

1782

1834

.

1782

1834

1761

1827

•

1791
1794

.

1768

1835

1530

1581

(Penn)

1724

1777

1799

1851

?) •

1819

.  B.  0.

1571  b

0.  1451

.

1695

1755

1797

1836

•

1814
1793

1786

18«f

*34


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Pr.  Motte,  Cadillac,  Ant  de  la,  founder  of  Detroit .  .

Ger.  Moschus,  bucolic  poet  .  .  .  . f.  b.  o.

Amer.  Moultrie,  Wm,,  general  and  statesman  .  •

Mouradgea,  D'Ohason,  Armenian  historian  .

Amer.  Mowatt  (Ritchie),  Anna  Cora,  actress  and  authoress  . (abt)

Ger.  Mozart,  C.  W.  T.,  eminent  composer

Eng.  Mudie,  Robert,  author  of  various  works  on  Natural  History,

Ger.  Muller,  C.  O.,  historian,  archaeologist  classical  scholar .

Swiss.  Muller,  John  von,  oelebrated  historian,  '  Universal  History'

Ger. ,  John,  physiologist ....

Ger.  Munchhausen,  J.  C.  E.,  proverbial  for  'stories' .

Eng.  Manden,  Jos.  S.,  comedian ....

Fr.  Murat,  Joachim,  intrepid  marshal  and  king  of  Naples

ItaL  Muratori,  Louis  Anthony,  historian .  .

Irish.  Murphy,  Arthur,  dramatist  and  translator

Scot.  Murray,  Alex.,  self-taught  linguist .  •

Scot.  — : ,  Hugh,  geographer  (Encyclo)

Scot. ,  or  Moray,  Jas.  Stuart,  earl  of,  regent .

Eng.  ,  John,  the  elder,  eminent  publisher

Amer. ,  Lindley,  grammarian  .  .

Amer. ,  Wm.,  Vans,  statesman .  .

Gr.  Musaeus,  Athenian  poet .  .  .

Fr.  Musset,  Louis  C.  A.  de,  poet  .  •


B0R1

DIM

1660

171!

160

1731

180S

1740

1801

1826

1756

1793

1777

1842

1797

1840

1752

1809

1801

1858

1720

1797

1758

1832

1771

1815

1672

1750

1727

1805

1775

1813

1779

1846

1531

1570

1778

1843

1745

1826

1761

1803

1243

1810

1857

N.

\ssyr.  Nabonassar,  first  king  of  the  Chaldeanu  .  .

Assyr.  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon .  .  .

Pers.  Nadir  Shah,  or  Thamas  Kouli  Kahn,  warrior  and  king  .

Heb.  Nahurn,  prophet  ....

Irish.  Napier,  Chas.  Jas.,  general  in  India,  &c.  .  •

Scot.  ,  John,  baron,  inventor  of  logarithms  •

Eng. ,  Sir  Charles,  admiral  ....

Fr.  Napoleon  I.,  (Bonaparte)  .  .  .

Fr.  — ,  II.,  king  of  Rome,  (see  Bonaparte) .  .

Fr.  , III.,  (Louis  Napoleon),  emperor  .

Eng.  Nares,  James,  musical  docto'-,  composer  .  .

Eng.  ,  Rev.  Edmund,  '  Thinks  I  to  myself

Pers.  Narses,  warrior  in  the  service  of  Justinian  I.,  the  emperor

Span.  Narvaez,  don  Ramon,  duke  of  Valentia,  statesman  .

Eng.  Nash,  Richard,  styled  '  Beau  Nash ' .  .  .

Dutch.  Nassau,  prince  Maurice  of,  able  general

Pers.  Nassir  Eddyn,  celebrated  astronomer  .

Span.  Navarrete,  Martin  F.  de,  '  Collect  of  Voyages'

Eng.  Neal,  Daniel,  author  of  the  '  History  of  the  Puritans,'  &«

Amer.  ,  John,  novelist  ....

Amer.  ,  Joseph  C,  litterateur ....

Ger.  Neander,  J.  W.  Augustus,  ecclesiastical  historian .

Gr.  Neaichus,  admiral  and  voyager  .  .  •

Chald.  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon  .  .  ,

Fr.  Necker,  James,  eminent  financier  and  statesman  .

Switw.  ,  Madame  J.  C,  wife  of  James,  essayist .


fl.  B.  c.  747

.  fl.  b.  o.  626

1688

1747

. f.  B.  C.

7th  cent.

1782

1853

1550

1617

17S6

1860

1769

1821

1811

1832

1808

1715

1783

1762

1841

567

1795

1674

1761

1567

1625

1201

1274

1765

1844

1678

1743

1794

1807

1848

. 1789

1850

. b.  a

4th  cent.

B.  0.  462

.' 1732

1804

1739

1794

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


135


NAME AND PBOFESSION.

Neele,  Henry,  po;t  and  miscellaneous  writer ,  ,

Neff,  Felix,  apostle  of  the  Alps .  .  ,

Nehemiah,  governor  of  Judea .  .  ,

Nelson,  Horatio,  viscount,  celebrated  admiral  ,

Nepos,  Cornelius,  historian ....
Nero,  infamous  emperor  .  .  ,

Nerva,  emperor  .....

Nesselrode,  Charles  R.,  count,  statesman  and  diplomatist
Nestorius,  patriarch  o-f  Constantinople,  founder  of  Nestorians
Neukomm,  Sigism.  chevalier,  composer

Neuwied,  Maximilian,  prince  of,  traveller  in  North  America,  &c
Newton,  John,  Calvinistic  divine  and  writer

,  Sir  Isaac,  the  greatest  of  philosophers  .

,  Thomas,  learned  prelate,  (on  Prophecies)  .

Ney,  Michael,  marshal, '  the  bravest  of  the  brave  *
Nicephorus,  Greg.,  Byzantine  historian .  .
Nicholas  I.,  emperor,  (1825-55) . .  .
Nichols,  John  Bowyer,  printer  and  archaeologist .
Nicholson,  Peter,  architect  and  political  mechanic  ,
,  William,  writer  on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry


Ger.
Eng
Ger.
Ger.
Pol.
Eng


Nicolai,  Chris.  Fred.,  bookseller  and  author
Nicolas,  Sir  Harris,  antiquary  .  .
Niebhur,  B.  G.,  statesman  and  historian
,  Carsten,  celebrated  traveller


Niemcewiez,  Julius  U.,  military  commander  and  author
Nightingale,  Florence,  practical  philanthropist .  ,

Amer. Niles,  Hezekiah,  journalist 'Register'  .  .

Swe. Nilston,  Sven,  zoologist .....

Amer. Noah,  Mordecai  M.,  journalist,  politician  and  author .

Ger. Noehden,  G.  H.,  grammarian  and  miscellaneous  writer .

Fr. Nodier,  Charles,  novelist  ....

Ger.  Am.  Nordheimer,  Hebrew  scholar  and  author

Eng. Normanby,  C.  G.  Phipps,  marquis  of,  novelist  and  statesman

Eng. North,  Francis,  1st  lord  Guilford, 'lord  keeper' .  .

Eng. ,  Frederick,  lord,  prime  minister  of  George  IIL  .

Eng. Northcote,  James,  artist  and  biographer .  .  .

Amer. Norton,  Andrews  theological,  Unitarian  author  .

Eng. ,  Hon.  Mrs.,  poetess  ....

Amer. Nott,  Abner  Kingman,  remarkable  Baptist  preacher .

Amer.  ,  Eliphalet,  D.  D.,  president  of  Union  College  and  author

Eng. — — ,  John,  poet  and  translator

Ger. Novalis,  or  Fred,  von  Hardenberg,  author  .  ,

Eng. Novello,  Vincent,  musician  (life  by  Mrs.  Clarke)  .

Amer. Noyes,  Wm.  Curtis,  jurist  and  patriot .  .  ,

Irish. Nugent,  lord,  author  of  '  Life  of  Hampden,'  &o.  .

Rom. Numa  Pompilius,  second  king  of  Rome  .  . f.

Span. Nunez,  Alva  C.  de  Vaca,  explorer .  .  .

©.


Vr,


Oates,  Titus,  infamous  pretender  of  the  '  Popish  plot
Oberlin,  John  Fred.,  philanthropist  .  .


BOEN.

l-ED

. 1798

1828

1798

1828

1.  B.  0.  444

1758

180a

B.  0.  30

37

68

32

98

1780

1862

l  .

439

1778

1857

&C. 1782

1725

1807

1642

1727

1704

1782

1769

1815

14bh  cent.

1796

1855

1807

1863

try 1753

1815

1786

1842

, 1733

1811

1799

1848

1776

1830

1733

1815

1756

1841

. 1777

1839

1787

1851

1770

1826

1783

1844

1797

186.'

1637

1684

1732

1791

1746

1837

1790

1835

1834

1859

1773

1866

1751

1826

1772

1801

1781

1861

1805

1864

1850

B.  0.  714

1564

1619

'  1701

1740

189«

136


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSIOH.

Ii-iBh. O'Brien,  Fitz-James,  poet ....

Iiish. ,  Wm.  Smith,  political  agitator .  .

Irish. O'Connell,  Daniel,  political  agitator .  ,  .

Irish. O'Connor,  Fergus,  chartist  orator  .  .  .

Eng, Ockley,  Simon,  orientalist  ,

Arab. Odenatus,  warrior,  husband  of  Zenobia .

Fr. Odilon-Barrot,  C.  H.,  statesman  .  ,  ,

Bar. Odoacer,  Gothic  king  of  Italy

Dan. Oersted,  Hans  Ch,,  discoverer  of  electro-magnetism

Eng. Oglethorpe,  J.  E.,  founder  of  Georgia  .  .

Irish. O'Keefe,  John,  dramatist

Ger. Oken,  Louis,  naturalist  .  ,  .  .

Ger. Olbers,  H.  W.  M.,  astronomer

Eng. Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham  .  .  .

Amer. Olin,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  Methodist  theologian  and  author

Span. Olivan,  don  Aless.,  publicist  ....

Amer. Olmsted,  Denison,  professor,  astronomer,  &c.

Ger. Olshausen,  Hermann,  protestant  theologian .  .,

Arab. Omar  I.,  caliph,  captor  of  Jerusalem  .  .

Irish. O'Meara,  Barry,  surgeon  to  Napoleon  and  author

Eng. Onslow,  Arthur,  speaker  House  Commons

Eng. Opie,  Mrs.  Amelia,  writer  on  morals  and  education

Gr. Oppian,  poet .....

Dutch.  Orange,  William  I.,  of  Nassau,  prince  of,  founder  of  Dutch  republic  1533

Dutch.  ,  William  IL,  prince  of,  stadtholder  .

Dutch. ,  William  III.,  prince  of,  stadtholder,  and  king  of  England

Span. Orfila,  M.  J.  B.,  chemist  and  toxicologist  .  .

Origen,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  .  .

Fr.  Orleans,  L.  J.  P.,  duke  of  '  Egalite,'  guillotined .  .

Fr. ,  Fer.  P.  L.,  duke  of,  heir  of  Louis  Philippe  •

Buss Orloff,  Gregory,  count,  favorite  Catherine  II. .
Eng. Orme,  Robert,  historian  of  India ....
Eng. Ormond,  James  Butler,  duke  of,  statesman . , .
Gr. Orpheus,  poet,  sometimes  siyled  the  'father  of  poetry ' •
Irish. Orrery,  Charles,  4th  earl  of,  natural  philosophy

Irish. , Roger  Boyle,  1st  earl  of,  statesman  and  author  .

Eng. Orton,  Job,  dissenting  divine  and  author

Amer. Osgood,  Frances,  poetess  ....

Amer. ,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  Unitarian  divine  and  author

Port.  Osorio,  Jerome,  philosopher,  historian,  and  theological  writer
Scot.  Ossian,  Gaelic  bard,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  3d  century
Egypt.  Osymandias,  king  of  Egypt  ....

Amer.  Otis,  James,  patriot  and  statesman .  .  .

Amer.  ,  Harrison  Gray,  statesman  and  jurist  .  .

Ger. Otho  I.,  king  of  Greece  (born  in  Bavaria) .  .

Eng. Ottley,  ¥tii,  Young,  writer  on  art  .  .

Eng. Otway,  celebrated  dramatist,  '  Venice  Preserved  '

Fr. Oudinot,  Charles  N.,  marshal  of  France .  .  .

Eng. Ouseley,  Sir  Gore,  diplomatist  .  .

Ger. Overbeck,  Fred.,  founder  of  modem  religioui  school  of  art

Eng. Overbury,  Sir  Thos.,  (poisoned  in  the  Tower) .

Bom. Ovid,  Publius  N  iso,  poet  ....


SOB-N.

DIED

1864

1806

186-

1775

1841

1795

185S

1678

1720

267

1791

493

1777

1851

1698

1785

1748

1833

1778

1851

1S40

1360

1417

1797

1851

1791

1859

1796

1839

581

644

1778

1836

1691

1768

1771

1853

f.  150

public  1533

15S4

1626

1650

land  1650

1702

1787

185

253

1747

1793

1810

1842

1734

1783

1728

1801

1610

16SS

1676

1731

1621

1679

1717

1783

1812

1850

1812

1502

1580

(abt.)  1500

1725

1772

1767

1848

1815

1867

1771

1836

1651

1685

1767

1847

1769

1844

1780

1581

161S

B.  0.  43

11

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


137


■ATIOlf.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  BORN.

6pa>\  Oviedo.  J.  G.,  bishop  of,  author  of  '  Voyages  in  the  West  Indies'

Amer.  Owen,  David  Dale,  geologist  ....  1807

Eng.  ,  John,  independent  theologian  .  .  , 1616

Eng.  ,  Richard,  surgeon  and  naturalist .  ,  ,

Welsh. ,  Robert,  political  theorist  .... 1771

Amer.  ,  Robert  Dale,  statesman  and  author  .  .

Eng.  Oxford,  Horace  Walpole,  earl  of,  author  .  .  . 1717


P.

Amer.  Paine,  Elijah,  jurist  .....

Amer. ,  Elijah  (son  of  above),  jurist  .  .  .

Amer.  ,  John  Howard,  dramatist,  '  Home,  Sweet  Home*

Amer.  — '^- — ,  Robert  Treat,  lawyer  and  patriot .  .  ,

Amer.  ,  Robert  Treat,  son,  poet,  .  .  .

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  political  and  deistical  writer  .  .

Fr.  Paixhan,  general,  inventor  of  guns  bearing  his  name .

Ven.  Paez,  military  commander  and  president  Venezuela  ,

Ital.  Paganini,  Nicolo,  famous  Violinist .  .  .

Eng.  Paley,  William,  eminent  divine  and  author  .  .

Eng.  Palgrave,  Sir  Francis,  antiquarian  author  .  ,

Fr.  Palisset  de  Montenoy,  Charles,  satirist .  .  ,

Fr.  Paliesy,  Bernard,  '  the  Potter'  .  .  .

Ital.  Palladio,  Andrew,  architect  ....

Pruss.  Pallas,  Peter  Simon,  traveller  and  naturalist .  ,

Eng.  Palmerston,  Henry  Temple,  viscount,  statesman .  .

Ger.  Panzer,  G.  W.  F.,  bibliographer  .  .  ,

Ital.  Paoli,  Pascal,  Corsican  patriot  and  general  .  ,

Can.  Papineau,  L.  J  ,  politician  and  patriot  ,  .

Rom.  Papinian,  ^Emilius,  civil  lawyer ....

Swiss.  Paracelsus,  A.  P.  T.  B.  de  II.,  alchemist  ,  .

Eng.  Pardoe,  Julia,  Miss,  novelist  ....

Fr.  Paris,  count  of,  Louis  Ph.  Al.,  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe

Eng.  ,  Matthew,  historian  ....

Scot.  Park,  Mungo,  celebrated  traveller

Amer.  Parker,  Theodore,  Unitarian  preacher  and  oriental  scholar .

Eng.  Parkes,  Samuel,  chemist  and  author .

Ital.  Parma,  Alexender  Farnese,  duke  of,  regent  of  the  Netherlands

Irish.  Parnell,  Thos.,  poet  and  divine

Eng.  Parr,  Samuel,  learned  divine  and  philologist  .  .

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  lived  152  years  .  ,

Eng.  Parry,  Capt.  Edward,  Arctic  navigator .  .  .

Amer.  Parsons,  Theophilus,  jurist ....

Amer. ,  Theophilus  (son),  jurist ....

Amer.  Parton,  James,  biographer,  historian,  and  essayist .

Amer. ,  Mrs.  Sarah,  '  Fanny  Fern,'  authoress  .  *

Fr.  Pascal,  Blaise,  eminent  geometrician  and  writer  .

Rubs.  Paskewitsch,  Ivan  F.,  prince  of  "Warsaw,  general .  ,

Eng.  Pasley,  Gen.  Sir  Chae.  "W.,  engineer .  .  .

Fr.  Pasquier,  Etienne  D.,  count,  chancellor  of  France  .  .

Ger.  Passow,  Francis  L.  C.  F.,  philologist  and  lexicographer  (Greek  lex.)

Rom.  Paterculus,  Cains  Velleiue,  historian  .  .  (abt.)  b.  0.


DIED.

1540
I860
1683

1860

1797


1757

1842

1796

1853

1791

1851

1731

1814

1773

1811

1736

1809

1782

1854

1787

1784

18S5

1745

1805

1788

1861

1730

1815

1510

1590

1518

1580

1741

1811

1784

1865

1729

1812

1726

1806

1789

145

212

1493

1541

1812

1862

1838

1259

1771

1804

1810

1860

1759

1829

1546

1592

1679

1717

1746

1825

1483

1635

1790

1856

1750

1818

1811

1623

1662

1782

1856

1781

1861

1767

1833

1786

1881

90

i38


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Bng.  Patinore,  Coventry,  poet •  •  •  .

Irish.  Patrick,  St.,  apostle  of  Ireland

Eng.  ,  Simon,  bishop  of  Chichester,  Bible  commentary

Paul,  Father,  (see  Sarpi)  .  .  ,

Heb.  ,  St.,  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles .  .  .

Fr.  ,  St.  Vincent  de,  Catholic  missionary  •

Amer.  Paulding,  James  Kirke,  novelist  and  essayist .  .

Rom.  Paulus-^Emilius,  Lucius,  fell  at  Cannae .  ,

Gr.  Pausanias,  spartan  commander  .  .

Gr. ,  topographical  writer  .  .  ,

Eng.  Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  horticulturist  and  architect .

Eng.  Payne,  Roger,  noted  book-binder  .  .  .

Amer.  Payson,  Edward,  D.  D.,  congregational  divine .

Amer.  Peabody,  Eliz  P.,  educational  writer  .  .

Amer. ,  O.  W.  B.,  reviewer  and  biographer  »

Eng.  Peacock,  George,  dean  of  Ely,  mathematician  .

Eng.  Pearson,  John,  bishop  of  Chester,  '  On  the  Creed '

Port.  Pedro,  V.,  king  of  Portugal,  (son  of  Donna  Maria  IL)

Port.  ,  don,  claimant  to  the  throne  of  Portugal

Eng.  Peel,  Sir  Robert,  1st  baronet,  cotton  manufacturer .

Eng.  ,  Sir  Robert,  3d  baronet,  statesman .  .

Eng.  Peele,  George,  poet,  (Life  by  Dyce) .

Brit.  Pelagous,  monk,  founder  of  a  sect  .

Span.  Pelayo,  first  king  of  Asturias

Fr.  Pelissier,  A.  J.  J.,  duke  of  Malakoff,  marshal

Ital.  Pellico,  Silvio,  poet  and  patriot

Gr.  Pelopidas,  illustrious  Theban  general

Fr.  Pelouze,  Theodore  Jules,  chemist

Eng.  Pembroke,  Mary  Sidney,  countess  of

Eng.  Penn,  Granville,  author

Eng. ,  William,  admiral,  father  of  founder  of  Pennsylvania

Eng. ,  William,  founder  and  legislator  of  Pennsylvania .

Eng.  Pennant,  Thomas,  naturalist  and  antiquary  .

Ctal.  Pepe,  William  Florestan,  general  .  .  .

Amer.  Pepperell,  Sir  William,  general  .  .  .

Ital.  Pepoli,  Charles,  litterateur  ,

Eng.  Pepys,  Samuel,  secretary  to  Admiralty,  author  of  '  Diary'

Eng.  Perceval,  Spencer,  prime  minister,  assassinated .  .

Amer.  Percival,  James  Gates,  poet,  geologist  and  critic

Eng.  Percy,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Dromore,  'Religious  Ant,  Poetry'

Fr.  Perefixe,  Hardouin  de  Beaumont  de,  historian  .

Eng.  Pereirea,  Jonathan,  M.  D., 'Materia  Medica'  ,  ,

Ital.  Pergolese,  John  B.,  musical  composer  .  .

Gr.  Pericles,  able  Athenian  orator  and  statesman  .  ,

Amer.  Perit,  Pelatiah,  merchant  and  philanthropist

Eng.  Perkins,  Hugh,  eccentric  preacher  and  roundhead  (executed)

Amer. ,  Jacob,  inventor  of  steam-gun,  &c.

Kug. ,  Thomas  H.,  eminent  merchant  and  philanthropist

Fr.  Perouse,  John  F.  Galaup,  circumnavigator  .  .

Fr.  Perrier,  M.  Casimir,  statesman  .  .  .

Amer.  Perry,  Matthew  G.,  commodore,  ('Japan')  ,  ,

Amer.  — — ,  Oliver  Hazard,  commodore  U.  S.  navy  •


BORN.

DISC

1823

372

493

1626

1707

1552

1623

65?

1576

1669

1779

1860

B

o.  216

B.

C. 470

f.  (abt.)  120

1802

1865

1739

1797

1783

1827

1802

1799

1848

1858

1613

168«

1837

1&6-

1831

1750

1S30

1850

1552

1598

354

757

1794

1864

1789

1854

B.

O.  361

1807

1621

1761

1844

1621

1670

1644

1718

1726

1798

1780

1855

1697

1759

180!

1632

1703

1762

1812

1795

1857

1728

1811

1605

1670

1804

1853

1710

1736

B.  c.  490  I

0.  429

1785

1864

1599

1660

1766

1S49

1764

1854

1741

1788

1777

1832

1795

1858

1T86

18M

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX  1 39

SATIOB NAME AND PROFESSION.  BOBN.  DIBtt

Fr.  Pel  signy,  Jean  G.  VM  politician  and  diplomatist .  1808

Rom.  Persius,  FJaccus  Aulus,  satirist .  . 34  GJ

Ger.  Perthes,  Christian  Frederick,  bookseller,  (life  by  son)  1772  1843

Rom.  Pertinax,  emperor . . .... 126  193

Swiss.  Pestalozzi,  Henry,  introducer  of  a  new  system  of  education  1745  1827

Rubs.  Peter  I.,  the  great,  statesman  and  warrior . .  . 1672  1725

Fr. the  Hermit,  first  mover  of  the  crusades . .  1050? 1115

Eng.  Peters,  Hugh,  '  fanatic '..... 1599  1660

Eng.  Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  earl  Of,  warrior . .  1668  1735

Ger.  Petermann,  August  H.,  geographer . . •  .

Amer.  Petigrew,  James  Louis,  of  S.  C,  Union  statesman . .  1789  1863

Petion,  Alexander,  mulatto,  president  Hayti . ,  . 1770  1818

Ctal.  Petrarch,  Francis,  one  of  the  four  greatest  of  Italian  poets .  1304  1374

Fr.  Peyronnet,  Pierre  D.,  count  de,  minister  of  Charles  X.  and  historian  1778  1854

Ger.  Pfeiffer,  Ida,  traveller  and  author . . .  1795  1858

Rom.  Phsedrus,  fabulist . . . , .  . f. 30

Fr.  Philidor,  Andrew,  writer  on  chess . . .  1726  1796

Philip  II.,  king  of  Macedon,  warrior . . .  b.  0. 383  a.  0.  336

St.,  of  Neri,  founder  of  the  Oratory . .  1515  1595

Eng.  Phillimore,  JohnG.,  author  on  law , .  . 1809  1865

Eng.  Phillips,  Ambrose,  poet  aud  dramatist . , ,  1749

Eng. ,  John,  poet 'Splendid  Shilling* . .  . 1676  1708

Eng. ,  Sir  Richard,  bookseller  and  compiler . .  1768  1840

Je\r  Philo-Judaeus,  learned  Jewish  writer  of  Alexandria .  . f. A.  D. 40

Gr.  Philopcemen,  celebrated  general . . .  .  b.  o.  253  B.  o.  183

Eng.  Phipps,  Sir  William,  colonial  governor  Massachusetts  ., 1651  1695

Gr.  Phocion,  eminent  Athenian  general . . .  b.  o.  400 a.  o.  318

Photius,  learned  patriarch  of  Constantinople .  . 815  891

Ajner.  Physic,  Philip  Syng,  M.  D. . . .  1768  1837

Ital.  Piazzi,  Joseph,  astronomer .... 1746  1826

Fr.  Picard,  Louis  Benedict,  dramatist  and  novelist . .  1769  1824

Fr.  Pichegru,  Charles,  eminent  general .... 1761  1804

Amer.  Pickering,  Timothy,  distinguished  statesman . .  1746  1829

Amer.  ,  John,  philologist .  1772  1846

Swiss.  Pictet,  Benedict,  theological  and  historical  writer .  16")5  1724

Eng.  Pictou,  Sir  Thomas,  general ....  1816

Amer.  Pierce,  Franklin,  general,  14th  president  U.  S. . .  1804

Rom.  Pilate,  Pontius,  Roman  governor  of  Judea . .  .  387

Amer.  Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth,  general  and  diplomatist .  1825

Amer.  ,  William,  distinguished  orator  and  diplomatist  . 1765  1822

Gr.  Pindar,  the  greatest  of  lyric  poets . .  b.  o.  522 a  o.  442

Scot.  Pinkerton,  John,  fertile  and  eccentric  author .  . 1758  1826

Span.  Pinzou,  Vincent  Tanez,  navigator,  discovered  Brazil .  1. 1500

Amer.  Piozzi,  Hester  L.,  miscellaneous  writer,  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  1789  1821

Fr.  Piron,  Alexis,  poet  dramatist,  and  wit . . .  1689  1773

Gr.  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Athens . . .  . b.  0.  527

Amer.  Pitkin,  Timothy,  historian  and  statistician . .  1765  1847

Eng.  Pitt,  Christopher,  poet  and  translator . .  . 1699  1748

Eng.  ,  William,  1st  earl  of  Chatham,  statesman . .  1708  1778

Eng.  ,  "Wiliam,  celebrated  statesman,  son  of  Lord  Chatham  . 1759  1806

Gr.  Pittacus,  of  Mitylene,  one  of  the  seven  sages . .  B.  O.  660 B.  C 671

Ital.  Pius  IX.,  pope,  (Giov.  Mastai  Ferretti) . .  . 1792


140


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Span.  Pizarro,  Francis,  conqueror  of  Peru  .  .  ,

Eng.  Platoche,  James  R.,  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  writer  .

Gr.  Plato,  illustrious  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Academic  sect b.

Rom.  Plautus,  comic  poet  b

Eng.  Playfair,  John,  eminent  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher

Eng. ,  Lyon,  chemist,  (born  in  Bengal)

Eom.  Pliny,  the  elder,  or  C.  P.  Secundus,  author  of  natural  history

Rom. ,  the  younger,  warrior  and  author  .  .  ■

Egypt.  Plotinus,  Platonic  philosopher  .  .  .

Irish.  Plunket,  W.  C,  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland .  •  .

Gr.  Plutarch,  celebrated  biographer  .  .  •

Ind.  Pocahontas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  of  Va. .  .  ,

Eng.  Pocock,  D.  E.,  learned  critic  and  commentator *  .

Eng.  — — — -,  D.  E.,  learned  prelate  and  traveller .  .  .

Amer.  Poe,  Edgar  A.,  poet,  critic  and  novelist .  .  .

Ger.  Poggendorf,  John  Chris.,  physicist  and  chemist

Amer.  Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  statesman,  diplomatist,  and  author  •

Fr.  Poisson,  D.  S.,  mathematician  ....

Eng.  Pole,  Reginald,  cardinal  archbishop  of  Canterbury  .

Fr.  Polignac,  J.  A.  M.,  prince,  minister  of  Charles  X.  .  .

Fr. ,  Melchior  de,  cardinal  and  statesman .  .

Amer.  Polk,  Jas.  Knox,  president  U.  S.

Amer.  .  Leonidas,  Bp.  of  La.,  and  rebel  general

Eng.  Pollok,  Robt.,  poet,  '  Course  of  Time  '

Ital.  Polo,  Marco,  celebrated  Venetian  traveller

Gr.  Polybius,  eminent  historian

Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  Christian  martyr  ;

Port.  Pombal,  Seb.,  marquis  of,  statesman  .

Eng.  Pomfret,  John,  poet

Fr.  Pompadour,  J.  A.  P.,  Marchioness  of  .

Rom.  Pompey,  Cneus,  statesman  and  warrior

Span.  Ponce  de  Leon,  discoverer  of  America

Pol.  Poniatowski,  Joseph,  prince,  general,  marshal  of  France .

Pol. ,  Stanislaus  Aug.,  last  king  of  Poland  .  ,

Ind.  Pontiac,  Indian  chief .....

Eng.  Poole,  John,  author  of  '  Paul  Pry,'  &o.  .  .

Eng.  ,  Matthew,  able  divine  and  author .  .  .

Eng.  Pope,  Alexander,  celebrated  poet ....

Amer.  ,  John,  Union  general,  com.  army  Potomac  aud  4th  mil.  dist.

Porphyry,  Platonic  philosopher  ....

Eng.  Porson,  Richard,  eminent  hellenist  and  critic  .  .

Ital.  Porta,  John  Baptist,  natural  philosopher  .  .  .

Eng.  Porter,  Anna  Maria,  novelist  ....

Amer.  ,  David,  commodore,  U.  S.  Navy  .  .

Amer.  ,  David  D.,  rear-admiral ....

Eng.  ,  Jane,  novelist,  .  .  .  . .

Eng.  ,  Sir  Robert  Ker,  author  of  '  Travels,'  &o. .  .

Eng.  Porteus,  Beilby,  eminent  prelate  ....

Amer.  Potter, Alonzo,  D.  D.,  epis.  bp.  of  Pennsylvania,  and  educa-
tional author  .....

Amer.  Horatio,  D.  D.,  episc.  bishop  of  New  York  .  .

Hng. ,  John,  archbishop  of  Canterbury. '  Gr.  Antiq.'  .


and  author


('  The  Great.') b.


BORN.

dik  a

1475

1541

1796

0.  430

D.  c.  347

0.  227

B.  O.  18*

1749

1818

1819

23

7»

61

115

203

270

1765

1854

50

120

1617

1604

1691

1704

1765

1811

1856

1796

1778

1851

1781

1840

1500

1558

1780

1S17

1611

1741

1795

1849

1806

1864

1799

1827

1250

1323

c.  205

b.  0.  123

169

1699

1782

1667

1703

1772

1764

0.  106

B.  C.  48

1460

1521

1763

1S13

1732

1798

1712

1769

1624

1779

1688

1744

1823

233

304

1759

1808

1540

1616

1781

1832

1780

1843

1776

135C

1780

1845

1731

1808

1800

1863

167*

1741

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


141


STATION.  HAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng.  Potter,  Robert,  divine,  poet,  aud  translator

Eng.  Pottenger,  Sir  Henry,  diplomatist

Irish.  Power,  Tyrone,  comic  actor .

Russ.  Pozzo  di  Borgo,  diplomatist  .  .  ,

Eng.  Praed,  Winthrop  Mackworth,  poet

Amet,  Pradt,  Abbe  Dominique  de,  political  writer

Amer.  Preble,  Edward,  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  Navy

Amcr.  Prentiss,  Sargent  8  ,  lawyer  and  politician,  famed  for  eloque

Amer.  Prescott,  Wm.  Hiekling,  historian

Amer.  Preston,  Wm.  C,  U.  S.  senator  for  South  Carolina .

Eng.  Price,  Dr.  R.,  writer  on  civil  liberty  ,

Eng.  ,  Sir  Uvedale,  writer  on  the  Picturesque  .

Eng.  Prideaux,  Humphrey,  learned  divine'.  .  .

Ger.  Priessnitz,  Vincent,  founder  of  Hydropathy  .

Eng.  Priestley,  Joseph,  eminent  philosopher  and  writer  •

Amer.  Prince,  Rev.  Thos.,  historian  of  N.  England

Eng.  Pringle,  Thos.,  poet  and  traveller  .  .  .

Eng.  Prinsep,  Chas.  R.,  political  economist .  .

Eug.  Prior,  Mathew,  poet  and  statesman .  .  ,

Eng.  Pritchard,  J.  C„  ethnologist,  '  Natural  History  of  Man'

Rom.  Probus,  Marcus  Aureiius,  emperor .  .

Ital.  Procida,  John  of,  patriot  .  .  .

Gr.  Probus,  a  Platonic  philosopher  .  ,  .

Procv  ~>ius,  historian  ....

Rom. ,  Ant'nemius,  emperor  .  .  ,

Eng.  Proctor,  Miss  Ade  aide  A.,  poetess

Eng.  ,  Bryan  W.  ('  Barry  Cornwall '),  poet  and  critic

Rom.  Propertius,  Sextus  Aureiius,  poet

Fr.  Proudhon,  Pierre  Jos.,  political  theorist  and  socialist .

Eng.  Prynne,  learned  lawyer,  political  writer,  and  antiquary

Fr.  Psalmanazwr,  George,  literary  impostor

Egypt.  Ptolemy,  Claudius,  eminent  astronomer  and  geographer

Ger.  Puckler-Muskau,  H.  L.  H.,  prince  of,  author  of  Travels,  &o.

Ger.  Puffendorf,  Samuel,  baron  de,  publicist  and  historian

Eng.  Pugin,  Augs.  Welby,  architectural  writer

Pole.  Pulaski,  Casimir,  count,  genl.  in  the  U.  S.  service .

Ital.  Pulci,  Louis,  poet .....

flung.  Pulszky,  Franz,  politician  and  author .  .

Eng.  PurcelL  Henry,  musical  composer .  .  .

Eng. ,  Thos.,  musical  composer  .

Eng.  Pnrchas,  divine,  editor  of  Voyages  and  Pilgrimage .

Amer.  Pursh,  Fred.,  botanist ....

Eng.  Pusey,  Edward  Bour,  D.D.,  founder  of  '  Puseyites '

Amer.  Putnam.  Israel,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution

Amer. ,  Rufus,  pioneer  settler  of  Ohio

Bng.  Puttenham,  George,  poet  and  critic,  '  Art  of  Eng.  Poesie'

Eng.  Pye,  Henry  James,  poet  laureate

Eng.  Pym,  John,  republican  politician .

Amer  Pynchon,  "Wm.,  f  junder  of  Springfield,  Ma--s.  ,

Gr.  Pyrrho,  philosopher,  founder  of  Sceptic  Sect  .

Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epiruj  .  .  .  .

Or  Pythagoras,  celebrated  philosopher


BOBN.

DIED

1721

1S04

1787

1859

1795

1841

1768

1841

:so2

1839

1759

1837

1761

1807

rueoce 1810

1850

1796

1859

1794

1860

1728

1791

1747

1829

1648

1724

1799

1851

1733

1804

1687

1758

1789

1834

1788

1864

1664

1721

1785

1848

232

282

1225

1303

410

487

410

487

472

1864

1787

B.  0.  52

B  0.  12

1809

1865

1609

1669

1679

1763

70

eo.  . 1785

1632

1794

1811

1852

1747

1779

.  . 1432

1487

1814

1658

1695

1682

1577

1628

1774

1820

1800

1718

1790

1738

1824

1600

1745

1813

1584

1643

159JI?
.  f.  B.  0.  300

1662

B.  0.  271

a.  0.  686

».  c.  491

142


THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS.


KAKOH,  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng.  Qaaln,  Jones,  M.  D.,  anatomist  .  ,  ,

Eng.  Quarles,  Francis,  poet,  author  of  'Emblems'  .

Fr.  Quatremere,  E.  M.,  orientalist  .  .  .

Quekett,  John,  microscopist  .  .  ,

Fr.  Quesne,  Abraham  du,  admiral  .  ,  .

Quesnel,  Peter,  ' History  of  Jesuits'  .  •

Belg.  Quetelet,  L.  A.,  mathematician  and  statistician  .

Span,  Quevedo  de  Villegas,  Francis,  poet  .  .

Eng.  Quin,  James,  actor .  .  ...  .

Fr.  Quinault,  Philip,  lyrical  dramatist

Amei.  Quincy,  Josiah  ex-pres.  Harvard  Univ.,  and  author

Amer.  ,  Josiah,  Jr.,  ex-mayor  of  Boston,  and  financier

Fr.  Quinet,  Edgar,  littirateur

Span.  Quintana,  Jose  Manuel  de,  poet  and  historian

Rom.  Quintilian,  Marcus  Fabius,  celebrated  orator

Rom.  Quintus-Curtius,  historian .  .  f.  time

Amer.  Quitman,  John  A.,  general  and  gov.  of  Mississsipi


Fr.  Rabelais,  Francis,  wil  and  satirist .  .  .

Fr.  Racine,  John, eminent  dramatist  .  .

Fr  Rachel,  Eliza  Rachel  Felix,  actress

Eng.  Radclifie,  Anne,  romance  writer,  '  Mysteries  of  Udolpho

Aust.  Radetzky,  Joseph,  count,  commander  in  Italy

Eng.  Raffles,  Rev.  Thos.,  independent  minister  and  collector

Eng. ,  Sir  Thos.  Stamford,  author  of  «  History  of  Java,'  &o

Amer.  Rafinesque,  S.  C.  J.,  botanist

Dan.  Rafn,  C.  C,  historian  and  antiquary .

Eng.  Raglan,  J.  H.  Fitzroy  Somerset,  lord,  general  in  Crimea

Amer.  Ragnet,  Condy,  political  economist .

Eng.  Raikes,  Robt,  printer,  founder  of  '  Sunday  schools  '

Eng.  Raleigh  or  Ralegh,  Sir  Walter,  *  a  man  illustrious  in  arms

literature'  •  .

Hind.  Rammohun,  Roy,  philanthropist  .

Scot.  Ramsay,  Allan,  poet  ....

Amer.  ,  David,  historian

Span.  Ramuiiio,  John  Bapt, '  Collect,  of  Voyages '

Amer.  Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke,  eccentric  statesman

Amer. ,  Peyton,  first  president  of  Congress

Ger.  Ranke,  Leopold,  historian

Fr.  Raoul,  Rochette,  archaeologist  and  traveller

Heb.  Raphall,  Morris  J.,  learned  rabbi  and  preacher

Fr.  Rapin  de  Thoyrae,  author  of  '  History  of  England'

Rapp,  Geo.,  founder  of  '  Sect  of  Harmonists .

Dan.  Rask,  E.  C,  philologist  and  lexicographer

B'r.  Raspail,  F.  V.,  chemist  and  radical  statesman

Pruss.  Rauch,  Fred. A., metaphysician

Ger.  Raumer,  Fred.  L.  G.  von,  historian .  .

Amer.  Rawle,  William,  jurist ....


BOEH.

DMCT.

1864

.. 1592

1644

1782

1857

1815

1861

1610

1688

1699

1774

. 1796

1580

1645

1693

1766

1635

1668

1772

1864

1802

1803

1772

1857

42

122

espasian

1st  Cent.

1799

1858

1483

1553

1589

1699

1820

1858

1764

1823

1766

1858

1788

1863

0. . 1781

1826

1784

1842

1795

1788

1855

1784

1842

1785

1811

3  and

1552

1618

1776

1833

1685

1758

17-19

1812

1485

1557

1773

1833

172E

177E

1795

1790

1798

1661

1726

1770

1847

1784

183S

1794

1806

1841

. 1781

1759

1834

&0.


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

KATIOH.  HAME AND PROFESSIOH.

Eng.  Rawllnson.  Sir  Henry  C,  geographer  and  orientalist

Eng.  Bay,  John,  naturalist  and  author

Fr.  Raynal,  William  Thomas  Francis,  historian  and  philosopher

Boot.  Reach,  Angus  B.,  journalist  and  author

Amer.  Read,  Geo.  Campbell,  admiral

Eng.  Reade,  Charles,  novelist .  .

Fr.  Recamier,  Mme  Jane  F.  A. .

Eng.  Redding,  Cyrus,  journalist  and  author

Amer.  Redfield,  William  C,  meteorologist

Red  Jacket,  Thayendanega,  Indian  Chief  .

Amer.  Reed,  Henry,  metaphysician  and  essayist

Eng. ,  Isaac,  critic  and  editor

Amer.  ,  Joseph,  general  in  revolution .

Amer.  — ; — ,  Win.  B.,  politician  and  author  .

Eng.  Rees,  Dr.  Abraham,  editor  of  an  encyclopffldi

Eng.  Beeve,  Clara,  novelist,  'Old  English  Baron'

Eng. ,  John,  comic  actor

Eng.  ,  Lovell  A.,  conchologist  and  publisher

Fr.  Begnard,  John  Francis,  comic  writer

Fr.  Regnault,  Henry  Vict.,  chemist .  .

Ger.  Reichenbach,  Charles,  baron  de,  naturalist

Irish.  Reid,  Capt. Mayne,  novelist

Scot. ,  Col.,  Sir  Wm.,  engineer  andmetereologist,  '  Use  of  Storms

Amer.  -,  Samuel  0.,  naval  commander

Scot. ,  Thomas,  celebrated  metaphysician  .

Ger.  Reinhard,  Francis  V.,  (founder  of  Christ.)

Fr.  Rem  usat,  J.  P.  A.,  historian  and  linguist .

Fr.  Rene,  duke  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily .

Eng.  Rennel,  Major  J.,  geographer  and  traveller

Scot.  Rennie,  John,  eminent  engineer  and  architea

Amer.  Reno,  Jesse  L.,  general  in  Union  army

Eng.  Eepton,  Humphrey,  landscape  gardener

Turk.  Reschid  Pasha,  statesman,  premier  of  Turkey

Fr.  Retz,  John  F.  P.,  de  Gondi,  cardinal  de,  minis'

Ger.  Retzsch,  Fred.,  A.  M.,  printer  and  designer

Amer.  Reynolds,  John  F.,  Union  general,  killed  at  Gettysburg

Eng.  Ricardo,  David,  writer  on  political  economy  and  finance

,  Joseph  Lewis,  (on  International  law)  •

Fr.  Ricaut,  Sir  Paul,  traveller  and  historian .  .

Eng.  Rich,  Obadiah,  bibliographer  .  ,  .

Eng.  Richard  I,  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of  England  •

Eng.  — — —  III,  king,  killed  at  Bosworth  •

Eng,  Richardson,  Charles,  philologist  (Eng.  Diet.)  .

Scot. ,  James,  traveller  in  Africa  .  •

Eng. ,  Samuel,  eminent  novelist .  .

Scot. ,  Sir  John,  naturalist  and  Arctic  explorer

Fr.  Richelieu,  A.  J.,  du  Plessis,  cardinal  and  duke,  statesman

Ger.  Richter,  John  Paul  Frederick,  novelist  dec.  .

Eng.  Ridley,  Nicholas,  bishop  and  prot.  martyr  .  .

Span  Riego  y  Nunez,  Raphael  de,  patriot  .  (

ItaL  Rienzi,  Nicholas  Gabrino  de,  political  reformer  .

Ital.  Ristori,  Adelaide,  actress  .  .  •


erof  Louis  XV.


143

BOB*

DIED,

1810

1628

1701

1713

1798

1821

186a

1777

1849

1785

1789

1857

1759?

1830

1808

1854

1742

1807

1748

1785

1743

1825

1723

1803

1799

1838

1814

1865

1647

1709

1810

1788

1818

1791

1858

1783

1861

1710

1796

1753

1812

1788

1832

1409

1480

1742

1830

1761

1821

1825

1862

1752

1818

1802

1858

1614

1679

1779

1859

1820

1863

1772

1823

1812

1862

1700

1850

1157

1199

1450

1485

1775

186S

1851

1689

1761

1787

1865

1585

1642

1763

1825

1500

1555

1783

1825

1313

13W

1821

144


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


flATTON.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Ger.

Ger.

Span.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Soot.

Soot

Fr.

Amer.

Scot.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr  .

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Eng.

Rom.

Ger.

Eng.

Span.

Span.

Rom.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Eng.

Eng.

Ital.

Amer

Ger.

Ger.

Ital.
Eng.
Kng.
Eng
UaL


■AME AND PROFESSION-

Ritchie,  Leitch,  journalist  and  author  .

Ritchie,  Thomas,  journalist,  '  Richmond  Enquirer"
Ritson,  Joseph,  lawyer,  antiquary  and  critic .  •

Rittenhouse,  David,  philosopher  and  astronomer .  •

Ritter,  Aug.  H.,  'History  of  Philosophy'

,  Charles,  geographer  •  •

Rivas,  Angel  de  Saavedra,  duke  of,  soldier,  statesman,  poet
Rives,  M.  C.  (of  Va.)  statesman  and  diplomatist
Rives,  John  C,  journalist,  '  Washington  Globe  '
Rivington,  Jas.,  royalist  printer  of  N.  T.  .  •

Roberts,  David,  landscape  painter  and  author
Robertson,  William, celebrated  historian  .  •

Robespierre,  F.  M.  J.  L.,  'the  terrorist'  of  the  revolution
Robinson,  Edward  D.  D.,  biblical  geographer  and  philologist


Rob  Roy  (Robert  Macgregor)  highland  freebooter  . (abt)

Rochambeau.  J.  B.  D.,  count  de,  marshal
Rochefoucauld-Li ancourt,  F.  A.  F.,  duke  de  la  .

Rochejacquelin,  H.  de  la,  royalist  leader .  .

Rodgers,  John,  commodore  U.  S.  navy  .  .

Rodney,  Geo.  Brydges,  lord,  able  admiral  .

Roebuck,  John  Arthur,  statesman
Rogers,  Henry,  theologian  and  critic

,  Henry  Darwin,  naturalist,  professor  in  Glasgow

,  Samuel,  poet  •

Roget,  Peter  Mark,  physiologist  and  philologist
Roland  de  la  Platriere,  J.  M.,  revolutionist  and  author

,  M.  J.  P.,  Madame,  martyr  of  the  revolution .

Rollin,  Charles,  celebrated  historian

Romaine,  "William,  divine  and  author  .  .  .

Romilly,  Sir  Samuel,  jurist  and  statesman  .

Romulus,  founder  and  first  king  of  Rome .  •

Ronge,  Johannes,  educational  and  religious  reformer

RooUe,  Sir  George,  admiral .

Rosa,  don  Francisco  Martinez  de  la,  statesman,  poet,  historian  <fcc

Rosas,  don  Juan,  Manuel  de,  ruler  of  Buenos  Ayres .
Roscius  Quintus,  actor  of  proverbial  talent
Roseoe,  Henry,  biographer ....
(  William,  biographer  and  miscellaneous  writer

Roscommon,  Dillon  Wentworth,  earl  of,  poet .

Rose,  Gustave,  chemist ....

-,  Hugh  James, '  B'ograph.  Diet.'

t  Wm.  Stuart,  translator  of  Ariosto .

Rosellini,  Hypolito,  author  of  '  Monuments  of  Egypt,'  &o.

Rosecrans,  W.  S.,  gen.  in  Union  army .

Rosenkranz,  Jonas  K.  F.,  metaphysician  and  professor  of  phil
osophy  .  •

Rosenmuller,  E.  F.  C,  orientalist

Rosetti,  Gabriele,  poet,  artist  and  critic

Ross,  Admiral  Sir  John,  Arctic  navigator

,  Sir  James  Clark,  Arctic  explorer

Rosse,  Wm.  Parsons,  earl  of,  astronomer

Rossini,  Joachim,  musical  composer


BOBS.

Draft

1800

1861

1778

1854 J

1752

1803

1731

1798

1791

1779

1859

1791

1796

1864 1

1724

1802 j  1

1796

1864

1721

1793

1759

1794

1794

1864

t)

1763 !

1725

1807 j

1747

1827 1

1773

1794 |

1771

1838

1717

'  1792 1

1802

1

1806

!

1763

1853 |

1779

l

1733

1793 !

1754

1793 |

1661

1741 I

1714

1795

1757

1818 I

• B

0.  716

1813

II  J

1650

170S |

fcc. 1789

1

1793

i

B

O.  61  !

1800

1836 j

1751

1831  i

1633

1684  |

1795

1795

1838

1775

1843

1800

1843

1819

|

11-

1805

1768

1835

1783

1854  1

1777

1856  1

1800

1861  i

1800

1792

j]

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


US


KATIOK.  MAME AND PKOFESSIOH.  Bl

Ger.J  w.Rothsehild,  Meyer  Arise hn,  founder  of  the  great  banking-house

,  Anselm  at  Frankfort,  Nathan  at  London  (d  1836)  and

Solomon,  sous  ot  Meyer  Anselm  Rothschild  .

Gei. Rotteck,  Chas.  W,  R.  von,  historian .  .  .  ,

Fr.  Rousseau,  John  Baptist,  poet ....

Fr. ,  John  James,  eloquent  and  paradoxical  writer  .

Eng. Rowe,  Nicholas,  poet  laureate  and  dramatist  .  .

ItaL Rubini,  Jno.  Baptist,  tenor  vocalist ....
Ger. Ruckert,  Frederick,  poet  ....

Amer.  Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  count,  officer  (in  foreign  service)and

philosopher  .....

Amer.  Rumsey,  James,  inventor .  •  .  .  .

Ger. Rupert,  prince,  warrior  .....
Amer. Ruschenberger,  W.  S.  W.,  author  of  voyages  and  scientific  works 1807
Avner.  Rush,  Richard,  diplomatist  ....

Eng. Rushworth  John,  '  Historical  Collections  ' .  .

Amer.  Rusk,  Thos,  J.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Texas ...
Eng. Ruskin,  John,  writer  on  art  ....
Eng. Russel,  Lady  Rachel  (wife  of  lord  Wm.),  author  of  '  Letters  *

Eng. ,  Lord  William,  one  of  the  martyrs  of  liberty

Scot. Russell,  John  Scott,  engineer,  builder  of  '  Great  Eastern  ' .

Eng. ,  Lord  John,  now  Earl  Russell,  statesman  and  author

Scot. ,  William,  historian  of  modern  Europe .  .

Irish. ,  William  H.,  Times  correspondent  and  author .

Amer. Rutledge,  Edward,  statesman ....

Amer. ,  John  (brother  of  above),  statesman  .  .

Dutch.  Ruyter,  M.  A.  de,  admiral  ....

Eng. Rymer,  Thomas,  antiquary, 'Federa'  .  .


una,
1780

vuw

182}

1775

1840

1670

1741

1712

1778

1673

1718

1795

1854

1789

1753

1814

1743

1792

1619

168°

1807

1780

1607

1690

1803

1857

1819

1636

1723

1641

1683

1808

1792

1746

1794

1821

1749

1800

1739

1800

1607

1679

1713

s.

Eng.  Sabine,  Major-General  Edward,  physicist  .

Eng.  Sacheverell,  Henry,  tory  divine,  impeached  for  sedition

Fr.  Sacy,  Louis  Isaac,  Jansenist,  translator  of  Bible  .

Fr.  ,  Sylvester,  baron  de,  orientalist  .  .

Pers.  Sadi,  or  Saadi,  poet  .....

Eng.  Sadler,  Sir  Ralph,  diplomatist  and  historian  .  ,

Turk  Said  Pasha  Mohammed,  viceroy  of  Egypt .  .

Fr.  Saint- Arnaud,  J.  A.  Leroy  de,  marshal .  .

Amer.  St.  Clair,  Arthur,  general  in  Revolution .  .

Fr.  St.  Hilaire.  Auguste  de,  botanist  .  .  ,  ,

Fr. ,  Geoff.  S.,  naturalist  and  anatomist

Fr.  St.  Pierre,  Bernardin  de,  author  of  '  Paul  and  Virginia,'  &c.

ItaL  St.  Real,  Cassar  Vichara  abbi  de,  historian

Fr.  St.  Simon,  Claudius,  count  de,  philosopher  .

Eng.  St.  Vincent,  John  Jervis,  earl  of,  admiral .

Fr.  Saintine,  Xavier  B.,  writer  of  tales  .  .

Bng.  Sala,  Geo.  Augustus,  journalist  and  author

8ar.  Saladin,  sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  celebrated  warrior

Eng.  Sales,  George,  historian  and  translator  of  the  Koran

Eng.  Salisbury,  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of,  statesman  .

Rom.  Sallust,  Caius  CrisDus,  historian  .


f.  B.  0.


1790

1672

1724

1613

1684

1758

1838

1175

1296

1567

1587

1822

1863

1798

1854

1735

1813

1799

1861

1772

1844

1736

1814

1639

1693

1760

1823

1734

1823

1790

1827

1137

1193

1680

1736

1650

161S

86  B.

O. Si

146


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


KA'IO*.  HAME AND PROFESSION.

Pr. Salmasius,  Claudius,  scholar  and  author ...

Fr. Balvandy,  N,  A.,  comte  de,  statesman  ....

F*. Salverte,  miscellaneous  writer ....

Heb. Samson,  judge  of  Israel .....

Heb. Samuel,  lasA  judge  of  Israel  ....

Phoe. Sanconiatho,  philosopher  and  historian

Fr. Sand,  George  (Madame  Dudevant),  novelist  .  ,

Amer. Sanderson,  John,  litterateur .  .  .  .  .

Amer. Sands,  Robt.  0.,  poet  and  littirateur

Eng. Sandwich,  Edward  Montague,  earl  of,  naval  officer

Fr.  Sanson,  Nicholas,  geographer  and  engineer  .  .

Mex. Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de,  general  and  ex-president  .

Gr. Sappho,  poetess  .  .  .  .  . f.  b.

Chald.  Saidanapalus,  king  of  Nineveh  ....

Ital. Sarpi,  Peter,  better  known  as  Father  Paul,  patriot  and  historian

Saul,  1st  king  of  Israel  .....

Sauley,  Louis  F.  J.,  count  de,  antiquarian  .  .

Saumarez,  James,  lord  de,  admiral ....

Saurin,  divine  and  sermon-writer  ....

Saussure,  H.  B.  de,  naturalist  and  traveller .  .  .

,  Nieh.  Theo.  de,  chemist,  geologist,  &o. .  .


Heb.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Ger.

Ital.


Savage,  Richard,  poet  .....

Savary,  Nicholas,  'Life  of  Mahomet,'  '  Letters  on  Egypt' .
Savigny,  Fred.  C.  von,  historian  of  Roman  law
Savonarola,  Jerome,  monk,  famed  for  zeal  and  eloquence .
Pole-Fr.  Saxe,  Maurice,  count  de,  celebrated  general  in  the  French  service
Ger. Saxe-Weimar,  Bernard,  duke  of,  warrior
Dan. Saxo-Grammaticua,  historian .  .

Fr. Say,  Horace  Emile,  political  economist,  son  of  J.  B.  Say
Fr. — ,  Jean  Baptiste,  writer  on  political  economy
Amer. — ,  Thomas,  naturalist  .  .  .  „  .

ItaL Scaliger,  Joseph  Justus,  critic  and  historian
Ital. ,  Julius  Caesar,  learned  critic  ....

Scandenberg  (real  name  Geo.  Castriot),  Albanian  prince  and  warrior  1404
Ger. Scapula,  John,  lexicographer

Eng. Scarlett,  James,  1st  lord  Abinger,  jurist .  .  .

Fr.  Scarron,  P  ,  comic  poet  and  satirist

Ger. Schadow,  Julien  Gottfried,  sculptor  .  ,  ,

Swe. Scheele,  Charles  Win.,  eminent  chemist  .  .

Ger. Schelling,  Fred.  Augs.,  novelist ....

Ger. ,  Fred.  W.  J.,  philosopher .

Amer.  Schenck,  Robert  C.  statesman  and  general,  (Ohio)  .
Pruss.  Schfll,  Ferdinand  von,  intrepid  and  patriotic  officer
Ger. Schiller,  John  Frederic  C,  eminent  historian  and  dramatist

Schimmelpenninck,  Mary  A.,  '  Mem.  Port  Royal '

Schlegel,  A.  W.  von,  critic  and  essayist

— — — ,  Fred.  C.  W.  von,  critic  and  historian  .


Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.


Schliermacher,  F.  D.  E.,  classical  philologist  and  theologian

Bchlosser,  M.  S.  F.,  historian

Schmidt,  Michael  Ignatius,  historian  .  .  .

Amer, Schofleld,  major-general  and  governor  Virginia  .

Ger. Sclioll,  historian  .....


BOKR.

Dilfii

1588

1653

1795

1856

1771

1839

b.  0.  12th  Cent.

B.  c.  11th

Cent.

f.  B.  C

.  760

1804

1785

.  1844

1790

1832

1623

1672

1600

1667

1798

3.  606

B.  0.

876  S

1522

1623

B.  C

.  1055

1807

1757

1836

1677

1730

1740

1799

1767

1845

1697

1743

1750

1788

1779

1861

1452

1498

.1696

1750

1600

1639

1134

1208

1794

1767

1832

1787

1824

1540

1609

1484

1558

r  1404

1467

1540

1600

1769

1844

1610

1660

1764

1742

1786

1766

1839

1775

1854

1773

1809

1769

1805

1778

1856

1767

1845

1172

1829

17ii8

183-1

1776

18G

1736

179,

1706


1831


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


147


HATiOB NAME AND PROFESSION.  B0BN.  DIED

Dutch,  bchoniberg,  Armand  Frederick,  warrior . . .  1619  169C

Ger.  Schomburgk,  Sir  Robert  H.,  naturalist  and  traveller .  1801  186i

Amer.  Schoolcraft,  Henry  R.,  traveller  and  historian  of  the  Indians  1793  1864

Ger.  Schopenhauer,  J.  F.,  novelist ....  1770  1833

Dutoh.  Schrevelius,  Cornelius,  lexicographer . . .  1615  1667

Ger.  Schullembourg,  John  Matthias,  warrior . . .  1661  1747

Dutch.  Schumacher,  H.  C,  astronomer ....  1780  185C

Ger.  Schu^z,  C.  G.,  critic  and  litterateur ....  1747

Amer.  Sohuyler,  Philip,  general  officer  in  Revolution . .  1731  1804

Ger.  Schwartzenberg,  Chas.  Ph.,  prince,  general . . .  1771  1820

Ger. ,  prince  F.,  premier  of  Austria . .  1800  1852

Ger.  Scioppius,  Gaspar,  philologist  and  grammarian . .  1576  1649

Rom.  Scipio,  jEmilianus  Publius,  able  warrior,  (minor)  .  b.  0.  128

Rom.  ,  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Africanus,  able  warrior,  (major)  B.C.  189

Scot.  Scott,  Michael,  philosopher,  supposed  magician . .  1291

Eng. ,  Thomas,  divine  and  bible  commentator  , . .  1747  1821

Scot.  ,  Sir  "Walter,  one  of  the  most  eminent,  voluminous  and  popular

writers  of  modern  times ....  1771  1832

Amer.  ,  "Winfield,  lieutenant  general  commander-in-chief  U.  8.  army 1786  1866

Fr.  Scribe,  Eugene,  dramatist ....  1791  1861

Ft.  Sebastian,  count  Horate,  marshal  of  France,  statesman .  1775  1851

Eng.  Seeker,  Thomas,  eminent  prelate . . .  1693  1768

Dutch.  Secundus,  John,  Latin  poet . ;  1511  1536

Amer.  Sedgewick,  Catharine  M.,  Miss,  novelist  and  philanthropist  1790  1867

Amer. ,  John,  (of  Conn.)  Union  general . .  1815  1864

Amer.  ,  Theodore,  statesman  and  political  economist .  1780  1839

Amer. ,  Theodore,  (son)  lawyer  and  writer . .  1811  1859

Eng.  Sedley,  Sir  Charles,  poet ....  1639  1701

Fr.  Segur,  count  Louis  de,  diplomatist  and  writer . .  1753  1830

Eng.  Selden,  John,  antiquary  and  historian . . .  %  1584  1654

Scot.  Selkirk,  Alexander,  seaman  and  adventurer t .  1723

Scot.  Selwyn,  George  Augustus,  (Life  by  Jesse)

Chald.  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria . . , f.  b.  0. 1250

Rom.  Seneca,  Lucius  Annasus,  philosopher,  statesman  and  moralist b.  c. 2  65

Eng.  Sen:or,  Nassau  W.,  political  economist . . .  1790  1S64

Ger.  Sennefelder,  Aloys,  of  Munich,  inventor  of  lithography .  1771  1884

Span.  Sepulveda,  John  Ginez  de,  historian . . .  1490  1572

Amer.  Sergeant,  John,  jurist  and  statesman . . .  1779  1852

Rom.  Sertorus,  Quintus,  warrior  and  naval  commander  .  .  b.  0. 73

Span.  Servetus,  Michael,  polemical  writer  against  Calvin .  1509  1553

Egypt,  Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt . . . . f.  b.  c.  1500

Fr.  S6vigne,  Mary  de,  marchioness  of,  epistolary  writer .  1627  1696

Eng.  Seward,  Anna,  poetess,  (Letters) . . .  1747  i$09

Amer.  ,  William  H.,  statesman,  U.  S.  senator  from  N.  Y.,  sec  of  state  1801

Eag.  Shadwell,  T.,  poet  laureate ....  1640  1692

Eng.  Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  earl  of,  statesman .  1621  1683

Eng.  ,  Anthony  A.  Cooper,  3d  earl,  'Characteristics'  1671  1713

Eng.  Shakespeare,  John,  orientalist ....  1774  1858

Eng.  ,  William,  the  greatest  of  dramatic  poets .  1564  1616

Eng.  Sharp,  Granrille,  philanthropist . . .  1734  1813

Scot.  ,  James,  archt.  St.  Andrews,  assassinated . .  1618  1671)

Kng.  Shaw,  George,  naturalist ... .  1741  181?


148


THE WORLDS PROGRESS.


BUTIOM.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer.  Shays,  Daniel,  leader  in  Shay's  rebellion  .  .

Amer.  Shedd,  "W.  G.,  D.  D.,  theologian,  historian,  and  critio

Eng.  Sheepshanks,  John,  founder  of  picture  gallery .  ,

Eng.  Shelley,  Mary  W.  widow  of  P.  B.,  the  poet,  novelist .

Eng.  ,  Percy  Bysshe,  eminent  poet  and  atheist .  .

Eng.  Shenstone,  William,  poet ....

Amer.  Sheridan,  Philip  H.  general,  and  governor  military  department

Eng. ,  Richard  Brinsley,  dramatist  and  orator

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  actor,  and  author  .  .

Eng.  Sherlock,  Thomas,  bishop  of  London  .  .

Amer.  Sherman,  Roger,  patriot  and  self-taught  statesman  .  •

Amer. ,  John,  U.  S  senator  from  Ohio ...

Amer. ,  William  T.,  general  .  .  .

Eng.  Sherwood Mrs.,  novelist  ....

Irish.  Shiel,  Richard  Lalor,  statesman  and  dramatist .  .

Eng.  Shirley,  James,  dramatist  .  .  .

Eng.  Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  able  naval  officer  .  .

Amer.  Shubrick,  John  Templar,  naval  officer  .  .

Amer. ,  William  B.,  rear  admiral  .  .  .

Eng.  Shuckford,  Rev.  Samuel,  '  Connect.  Old  and  New  Tesament'

Eng.  Sibbes,  Richard,  theologian,  '  Bruised  Reed  '

Eng.  Siddons,  Sarah,  the  most  eminent  of  tragic  actresses

Eng.  Sid  mouth,  viscount,  (H.  Addington)  statesman  .

Eng.  Sidney,  Algernon,  martyr  of  liberty  and  author .  ,

Eng. ,  Sir  Philip,  accomplished  officer  and  author .

Ger.  Siebold,  Ph.  F.  Von,  naturalist  and  botanist  .  .

Amer.  Sigel,  Franz,  general  in  Union  army,  war  1861-66  •

Amer.  Sigourney,  Lydia  H.,  poet  and  essayist .  .  .

Amer.  Silliman,  Benjamin,  chemist  and  geologist .  .

Amer.  ,  Benjamin  (son),  chemist  and  geologist  .

Eng.  Simeon,  Rev.  Charles,  theological  writer  and  editor  ■

,  Simon  Stylites,  Syrian  Ascetic

Amer.  Simms,  William  Gilmore,  novelist  and  poet  .  .

Gr.  Simonides,  of  Amorgus,  Iambic  poet  .  .

Gr. ,  of  Eos,  lyric  poet ....

Scot.  Simpson,  Robert,  mathematician  .  .  .

Eng. ,  Thomas,  "  ...

Eng.  Sinclair,  Catharine,  authoress  .  .  .

Hind.  Sing,  M,  rajah  Runjeet,  chief  of  Lahore  and  Cashmere ."

Swiss.  Sismondi,  J.  C.  L.,  historian

Eng.  Skelton,  Jolm,  poft  laureate  to  Henry  VIII

Ger.  Sleidan  John  Pbilipson,  historian .  .  .

Eng.  Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  eminent  naturalist

Scot.  Smith,  Adam,  celebrated  writer  on  morale  and  political  eoonomy

Scot.  ,  Alex,  poet  .....

Eng.  ,  Charlotte,  poet  ....

Amer.  ,  General  Samuel,  military  commander  and  etatesman

Eng.  ,  Horace,  poet,  *  Rejected  Addressee,'  dec.

Sng.  ,  James,  poet,  "  "  .  .

Eng.  ,  John,  *  History  Viginia'  .  .

Eng.  ,  John  Pye,  theological  writer  .  .  .

liner.  ,  Joseph,  Mormon  prophet  .  .  .


BORN.

BBS

1740

182J

1787

1869

1798

1851

1792

1822

1714

1763

1751

1816

1722

1788

1678

1761

1721

1793

1775

1862

1792

1851

1594

1666

1650

1705

1778

1815

1754

1577

1636

1755

1831

1757

1844

1620

1683

1554

1586

1796

1824

1791

1865

1779

1864

1759

1836

392?

461?

1806

B.  0.  660  p

550?

1687

1768

1710

1761

1800

1864

1779

1839

1773

1842

1450  p

1529

1506

1556

1660

1752

y 1723

1790

1830

1749

1808

1752

1839

1779

1849

1775

183»

1679

1031

1774

1851

1806

1844

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


149


NATION.  ,»AME AND PROFESSION.

Eng.  Smith,  Rev.  Sidney,  essayist,  critic  and  moralist .  .

Eng. ,  Sir  James  E.,  botanist  and  naturalist .  ,

Eng.  ,  Sir  William  Sidney,  military  commander .

Eng.  ,  T.  South-worth,  writer  on  sanitary  reform

Eng. ,  William,  classical  scholar  and  author

,Eng.  Smithson,  James,  founder  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  (U S.)

Scot.  Smollett,  Dr.  Tobias,  novelist  and  historian

Eng.  Smyth,  Wm.,  Pr.  of  History  at  Cambridge,  author,  lecturer

Eng.  ,  Wm.  Henry,  admiral,  scientific  writer  .  .

Eng.  Soane.  Sir  John,  architect  and  virtuoso

Pol.  Sobieski,  John  III.,  king  of  Poland,  warrior  .  .

Ital.  Socinus,  Paustus,  founder  of  the  Socinian  sect  .

Gr.  Socrates,  one  of  the  greatest  of  ancient  philosophers  •

Gr. ,  ecclesiastical  historian  .  .  .

Span.  Solis,  Antonio  de,  historian  of  Mexico  .  .  .

Heb.  Solomon,  king  of  Israel  and  author  of  Proverbs  .

Gr.  Solon,  the  illustrious  legislator  of  Athens .  .  .

Eng.  Somers,  Lord  John,  chancellor  and  political  writer

Eng.  Somerville,  Mrs.  Mary,  astronomer  .  .  .

Eng. ,  Wm.,  poet,  'The  Chase' .

Ger.  Sontag,  Henrietta,  countess  de  Rossi,  vocalist  .  .

Gr.  Sophocles,  eminent  tragic  poet

Ft.  Sorbonne,  R.  de,  theologian,  founder  of  the  8.  College  at  Paris.

Amer.  Soule,  Pierre,  TJ.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  and  diplomatist

Ft.  Souli6,  Frederick,  novelist  and  dramatist  .

Boulouqne,  Faustin,  ex-emperor  of  Hayti

Fr.  Soult,  Nicholas  J.  de  D.,  duke  of  Dalmatia,  marshal  of  France

and  statesman ....

Eng.  South,  Robert,  eminent  divine

Amer.  Southard,  Samuel  L.,  sec.  navy,  and  senator  U.  8.,  N.  Y.

Eng.  Southcott,  Joanna,  fanatic,  (her  sect  not  yet  extinct)

Eng.  Southerne,  J.,  dramatic  writer  and  poet

Eng.  Southey,  Mrs.  Robt.,  (Caroline  Bowles),  poet .  .

Eng. ,  Robert,  poet,  historian,  biographer  .

Fr.  Souvestre,  Emile,  essayist ....

Fr.  Soyer,  Alexis,  famous  cook  and  writer  on  Cookery  .

Gr.  Sozomen,  ecclesiastical  historian  .  .  .

Amer.  Sparks,  Jared,  historian  and  biographer

Eng.  Speke,  Capt.  John  H.,  explorer,  discov.  source  of  Nile  .

Eng.  Spelman,  Sir  Henry,  historian  and  antiquary  .

Eng.  Spence,  "Wm.,  entomologist ....

Amer.  Spencer,  Ambrose,  chief-justice  of  New  York

Eng. ,  earl  of,  statesman ....

Amer. ,  John  C,  jurist  and  seo.  navy .  ,

Eng.  ,  Wm.  R.,  translator ....

Eng.  Spenser,  Edmund,  eminent  poet .  .  «

Span.  Spinola,  Ambrose,  marquis  de,  warrior  .

Dutch.  Spinoza,  Bened.,  metaphysician,  (atheistt)  .  .

Ger.  Spohr,  Louis,  musical  composer  .  .  •

Amer.  Spooner,  Shearjashub,  (Diet  0/ Painters) .  .

Ger.  Sprengel,  Kent,  botanist ....

Eng.  Spurgeon,  Rev.  Charles,  popular  Baptist  clergyman


BORN.

DIED,

1768

1841

1759

1828

1764

1840

1790

1861

1814

1835

1721

1771

1764

1849

1788

1865

1753

183T

1629

1698

1539

1594

B.  c.  470  s

c.400

. 5th  cent

,  A.  D

1610

1686

• B.

0.  975

f.  B.

c.  598

1650

1716

1790

1692

1743

1804

1854

B.  0.  495 B.

O.404

1201

1274

1800

1847

1788

1769

1851

1638

1716

1787

1842

1750

1814

1662

1746

1787

1854

1775

1843

1806

1854

1800

1S58

450

abt.)  1794

1866

1827

1864

1561

1643

1783

1860

1765

1848

1758

1835

1788

1855

1770

1834

1553

1598

. 1571

1630

1633

1677

1788

1786

1888

1884

150  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  »

Ger.  Spnrzheim,  Dr.,  celebrated  phrenologist,  (died  at  Boston)

Amer.  Sprague,  Charles,  poet  •

Amer.  ,  Wm.  B.,  D.  D.,  Presbyterian  clergyman  and  historian  .

Amer.  Squier,  E.  Geo.,  traveller  and  antiquary

Eiig.  Stackhouse,  Thomas,  divine  and  author,  '  Hist  Bible  *  .

Fr.  Stael-Holstein,  Anne  L.  G.,  baroness  de,  authoress

Fr.  ,  Madame,  talented  writer  ....

Eng.  Standish,  Miles,  military  leader  Pilgrims  in  N.  E .  •

Eng  Stanfleld,  Clarkson,  marine  painter  •  .

Eng.  Stanhope,  Charles,  earl,  politician  and  inventor

Eng.  Stanhope,  Lady  Esther,  eccentric  traveller

Eng. ,  Phil.,  Hon.,  earl  of,  known  as  Lord  Mahon,  historian

Amer.  Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  secretary  of  war ....

Amer.  Stark,  John,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution

Rom.  Statins,  Publius  Pepinus,  poet  .  .  .  .

Eng.  Staunton,  Sir  Geo.  L.  '  Embassy  to  China ' .  .  .

Irish.  Steele,  Sir  Richard,  essayist  and  dramatist

Eng.  Steevens,  Geo., 'Comment,  on  Shakespeare'  ,.

Eng.  Stephen,  Henry,  Prof.  Hist.,  statesman  and  author

Fr.  Stephens,  Anthony,  Charles,  Robert  and  Henry,  printers

Amer. ,  John  L.,  traveller  and  author  .  .  .

Eng.  Stephenson,  George,  engineer ....

Eng.  .Robert, "

Scot.  Sterling,  Wm.,  M.  P.,  bibliographer  and  critic  .  .

Ger.  Sternberg,  Alex.,  baron  von,  miscellaneous  author  .  .

Irish.  Sterne,  Lawrence,  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Sternhold,  Thos.,  versifier  of  Psalms ....

Pruss.  Steuben,  Fred.  W.  A  ,  baron,  who  generously  aided  the  American

cause  ......

Amer.  Stevens,  Robt.  Livingston,  inventor .  .  ....-'.

Amer.  Stevenson,  Andrew,  of  Va.,  minister  to  England

Amer.  Stewart,  Charles  S.,  Rev.,  chaplain  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  and  author

Scot.  ,  Dugald,  eminent  philosopher  and  writer

Amer.  Stilus,  Ezra,  theologian  and  historian

Eng.  Stillingfleet,  Dr.  E.,  bishop  of  Worcester  and  author

Amer.  Stone,  Wm.  L.,  historian  of  '  Six  Nations,'  '  Brandt,'  and  '  Red

Jacket'  .....

Russ.  Storch,  Henry  F.,  political  economist  .

Amer.  Story,  Joseph,  jurist  and  writer  on  jurisprudence .

Eng.  Stow,  John,  antiquary  and  historian .

Amer.  Stowe,  Calvin  E.,  biblical  critic  .  .

Amer.  ,  Harriet  Beecher,  Mrs.,  novelist  .

Eng.  Stowell,  lord,  jurist  ....

Gr.  Strabo,  eminent  geographer .

Eng.  Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  earl  of,  statesman .

Eng.  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  viscount,  diplomatist

Ger.  Strauss,  Dav.  Fred.,  author  of  sceptical '  Life  of  Jesus'

Ger.  ,  Ger.  Fred.  Alb.,  prof,  of  theology  and  author

Eng.  Strickland,  Agnes,  historian  of '  Queens  of  England'

Eng.  Stryp",  John,  theologian,  biographer  and  historian

Buss.  Struve,  Fred.  Geo.  "Wm.,  astronomer  .  •

Scot.  Stuart,  Gilbert,  historian


BORN.

3113

1778

1881

1791

1795

1820

1680

175  J

1766

1817

1693

1750

1584  ?

1656

1798

1867

1753

1816

1776

1839

1805

1728

1822

61?

96?

1737

1801

1671

1729

1736

1800

1789

1859

16th

cent.

1805

1>52

1788

1848

1803

1859

1806

1S44

1806

1713

1768

1549

1794

1749

1838

1784

1857

1798

1753

1828

1727

1795

1633

1699

1793

1844

1766

1835

1779

1845

1525

1605

1814

1746

1839

19

1593

1641

1788

1808

1786

1806

1643

17ST

1793

1864

1742

178f

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


151


RATIO  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng. 8fc  art,  James,  architect  and  author  .  .

Amer. ,  James  E.  B., Confederate  general  ,

Amer. ,  Moses,  theologian  and  philologist .  .

Eng. Sturge,  Joseph,  philanthropist  .  .  .

Ger. Sturm,  Christopher  C,  theol.  writer,  '  Reflections,'  &c.
Dutch-Amer.  Stuyvesant,  Peter,  last  Dutch  gov.  N.  Netherlands


Fr.

Eng.

Fr.

Rom.  ■

Rom.

Dan.

Gr.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.

Vng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Russ.


Suchet,  Louis  Gabriel,  celebrated  marshal  .  ,

Suckling,  Sir  John,  poet  and  dramatist  .

Sue,  Eugene,  novelist ....
Suetonius,  Paulinus,  warrior  .  .  ,

,  Tranquillus  Caius,  historian a  ,

Suhm,  Peter  Fred.,  eminent  historian  .

Suidas,  Greek  lexicographer  .  .  ,

Sullivan,  Jas.,  gov.  Mass.,  political  writer  •

,  John,  revolutionary  general  .  ,

,  Wm.  LL.  D.,  political  writer

Sully,  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  duke  of  warrior  and  statesman

,  Thomas,  portrait  painter

Summerfield,  John,  eloquent  Methodist  preacher

Sumner,  Charles,  U.  S.  sen.  from  Mass.,  orator  and  philanthropist

Edwin  Vose,  Union  general .

John  Bird,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  author


BORN.

DIED.

1713

178S

1832  ?

1864

. 1780

1861

.

185S

1740

1786

1602

1682

1772

1826

1613

1641

. 1808

1857

37

t  100

1728

1798

t  abt  1000

1744

180&

1740

1795

1774

1839

in 1560

1641

1783

1798

1826

opist 1811

1796

1863

1780

1862

1734

1832

. 1641

1702

1515

1547

1779

1834

1773

1843

1755

1828

Sumter,  Thomas,  Revolutionary  gen.  of  S.  C.

Sunderland,  Robt.  Spencer,  2d  earl,  statesman  .,

Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  earl  of,  poet

Surtees,  Robt.,  antiquary  aud  poet  .  ,

Sussex,  Aug.  Fred.,  duke  of,  son  of  Geo.  IIL  .

Sutton,  Chas.  Manners,  arch,  of  Canterbury  .

Suvaroff,  or  Suwarow,  prince  Alexander,  celebrated  and  cruel  war-
rior .  .  .  .  .  .  . 1730

Eng. Swain,  Charles,  poet .  • .  .  .  .  1803

Dutch.  Swammerdam,  John,  naturalist  and  anatomist .  .

Swe. Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  founder  of  a  sect .
Irish. Swift,  Jonathan,  celebrated  satirist ,  ,  ,

Eng. Swinburne,  Algernon,  poet  .  .  .

Amer.  Swinton,  Wm.,  critic  and  historian,  '  Army  of  Potomac'
Eng.  Sydenham,  C.  W-  Poulett,  lord,  gov.  gen.  of  Canada,  &c
Rom.  Sylla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  warrior  and  b  rutal  usurper  .
Eng. Syms,  Michael  Col.,  '  Embassy  to  A  va' ,  .  •

Afric. Syphax,  Numidian  prince ....


Rom.  Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius,  eminent  historian  . •

Rom.  ,  Marcus  Claudius,  emperor .  .  •

Swe.  Taglioni,  Marie,  dansuese  .  .  .

Eng.  Talbot,  Jno.,  1st  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  gen.  in  France .

Amer.  ,  Silas,  mil.  and  naval  officer  in  Revolution .

Eng.  Talfourd,  Thomas  Noon,  jurist,  dramatist,  and  essayist

Ft.  Talleyrand,  prince,  statesman,  and  diplomatist

Eng.  Tallis,  Thos.,  musical  composer  .  .  .

Amer.  Tallmadge,  Benj.,  RevoL  officer .  .  .

Wr.  Talma,  Fr°icis  Joseph,  one  of  the  greatest  of  actors .


1800


1637

1681

1689

1772

1667

1745

1793

1841

.  137  b.

0.  78

1809

B.

0.  201

56

185

200  ?

276

1804

1373

1463

1750

1813

1795

1854

1754

183$

1529

1588

1754

1836

1768

182«

!52


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Tartar.  Tamerlane,  Timur  Beg  or  Timoor,  celebrated  Tartar  prince
and  conqueror  .  ...

Amer.  Taney,  Roger  B.,  chief-justice  U.  S. .

Scot.  Tannahill,  Robt.,  poet ....

Span.  Tapia,  Eugenio,  miscellaneous  writer

Eng.  Tarleton,  Bannastre,  royalist  officer  in  America .

Ital.  Tasso,  Bernardo,  poet,  author  of  Amadis  de  Gaul

ItaL  ,  Torquato,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian  poets

Ger.  Tauchnitz,  Bernard,  publisher  at  Leipsic

Ger. ,  Karl,  eminent  publisher  at  Leipsic  .

Amer.  Taylor,  Bayard,  traveller,  poet,  and  lecturer .

Eng.  ,  Isaac,  essayist .  .  .

Eng.  ,  Jeremy,  prelate  and  eloquent  writer

Eng. ,  John,  '  the  Water  Poet ' .  .  •

Eng.  ,  Sir  Robert,  sculptor  and  architeo't

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  editor  of  Plato  and  other  classics .

Eng.  ,  Tom,  dramatist  .  .

Eng.  ,  Wm.,  miscellaneous  writer.

Amer.  ,  Zachary,  major-general U.  8.  Army,  victor  in  Mexico

pres.  U.  S. .

Tecumseh,  Indian  chief  (k.  at  Tippecanoe)

Eng.  Telford,  Thomas,  civil  engineer .

Swiss.  Tell,  William,  one  of  the  champions  of  Swiss  liberty

Eng.  Temple,  Sir  "William,  statesman  and  writer

Amer.  Tennent,  Gilbert,  clergyman  and  writer

Amer. ,  Rev.  Wm.,  famous  for  '  France' '.  •

Eng.  ,  Sir  Jas.  Emerson,  statesman  and  writer

Ger.  Tennyman,  William  T.,  '  Hist,  of  Philosophy' .

Eng.  Tennysou,  Alfted,  poet  laureate

Eng.  Tenterden,  Chas.  Abbott,  lord,  jurist,  chief-justice  K.  B

Rom.  Terence,  or  Terrentius,  comic  writer .

Tertullian,  Q.  S.  P.,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Fathers  of
the  Church  .....

Amer..  Terry,  Alfred  H,  of  Ct.,  Union  general,  victor  at  Fort  Fisher .

Eng.  Thackeray,  Wm.  Makepeace,  writer  and  essayist .  .

Ger.  Thaer,  Albert,  writer  on  agriculture  ....

Ger.  Thalberg,  Sigismund,  pianist ....

Ger.  Thales,  one  of  the  seven  sages,  founder  of  the  Tonic  school  of
Philosophy .....  b.

Gr.  Themistocles,  eminent  Athenian .  .  .  . b.

Fr.  Thenard,  chemist  and  statesman  •  •

Gr.  Theocritus,  pastoral  poet  .  .  .  .  . f.  b.

Eng.  Theobald,  Lewis,  comment,  on  Shakspeare .  ■  .  .

Gr.  Theodoret,  ecclesiastical  historian  .  .  .

Rom.  Theodosius,  Flavi  us,  Roman  emperor  and  warrior .

Gr.  Theophrastus,  celebrated  philosopher  .  . B.

Span.  Theresa,  St.,  Carmelite  nun  and  mystical  writer  .

Eng.  Thesiger,  Sir  Fred.,  attorney-general  of  England .  .

Gr.  Thespis,  poet,  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  tragedy  .  b.

Fr.  Thibaudeau,  A.  C,  count,  historian ....

Ft.  Thierry,  Jas.  Nich.  Augustine,  historian ...

Fr. ,  Amedee  S.  D.,  historian ....


1777

1864

1774

1810

1754

1833

1493

1569

1544

159£

1836

1825

1787

1865

1613

1667

1580

1654

1714

1788

1758

1835

1817

1800

1S49

1784

1850

1813

1757

1S34

1354

1628

1698

1703

1764

1705

1777

1804

1761

1819

1810

1762

1S32

0.  192

1811

1S63

1752

1828

1812

0.  639  b.

0.  543

0.  535  b.

0.  470

0.  285

1744

386

457

346

39!

o.  371

1515

1583

1794

o.  576

1795

18M

1787

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


J53


tfATlOH.

Fr.
Ger.

Ger.
Ger.

Amer.

Scot.

Amer.

Scot.

Scot.

Amer.

Dan.

Gr.

Gr.

Eng.

Bom.

Eom.

Eng.

Amer.

Ger.

Eng.

Ger.
Gr.

Tart

Hind.

Swiss.

Rom.

Eng.

FY.

Eng.

Russ.

Eng.

Amer.

Irish.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Span.

Irish.

Amer.


NAME AND PROFESSION.

Thiers,  .Adolphe,  historian  and  statesman  .  ,

Thiersch,  F.  W.,  Greek  philologist,  &c.  .  .

Thirwall,  Dr.  Conop,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  historian
Tholuck,  Fred.  Aug.,  theologian
Thompson,  Benj. See  Rumford  .

,  Col.  Thos.  Peyronnet,  political  reformer  and  author

Thomson,  Anthony  T.,  medical  and  misc.  writer

,  Chas.,  president  of  Congress .  .

,  Dr.  Thomas,  chemist  ...


Amer.
Amer.

Eng.
Fr.

Eng.
Rom.


,  James,  popular  poet

Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  naturalist,  geologist  and  essayist .

Thorwaldsen,  Albert,  sculptor

Thrasybulus,  Athenian  general

Thucydides,  historian ....

Thurlow,  Edward,  lord,  lord  chancellor  .  .

Tiberius,  Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  warrior  and  emperor

Tibullus,  Aulus  Albius,  elegiac  poet .  .  .

Tiekell,  Thomas,  poet  *nd  essayist  in  Spectator .

Ticknor,  George,  historian  of  Spanish  literature

Tieck,  Ludwig,  poet  and  essayist  .

Tighe,  Mrs.  Mary,  poetess,  '  Psyche' .  .  .

Tillotson.  John,  eminent  prelate  and  archb.  Canterbury

Tilly,  John  F,  count  de,  military  commander.  .

Timoleon,  of  Corinth,  liberator  of  Syracuse

Timour  Beg. See  Tamerlane  .  .  .

Tippoo-Saib,  sultan  of  Mysore,  Indian  warrior  .

Tissot,  Simon  A.,  medical  writer

Titus,  Sabinus  Vespasianus  Flavius,  emperor,  father  of  his  people

Tobin,  John,  dramatist,  '  Honey  Moon  '

Tocqueville,  Alexis  de,  publicist  and  statesman  .

Todd,  Robt  B.,  *  Medical  Cyclopasdia '  &c.

Todleben,  Fr.  Edw.,  gen.  of  engineers  .  .

Tomline,  Geo.,  prelate  and  writer,  bishop  of  "Winchester

Tompkins,  Daniel  D.,  vice-pres.  U.  S.

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe,  gen.  in  Irish  rebellion

Tooke,  John  Home,  politician  and  philologist  .  .

,  Tho?.,  '  History  of  Prices'  .  .

,  Win.,  miscellaneous  writer .  .  .

Toplady,  Augustus  M,  eminent  divine .  .

Torquemada,  Thos.  de,  Inquisitor  general  .  .

Torrens,  colonel,  novelist  and  political  economist

Torrey,  John,  botanist  and  chemist .  .  .

Torricelli,  Evangelista,  mathematician,  inv.  of  barometer

Totila,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  captor  of  Rome  .

Totten,  Joseph  G,  military  engineer

Touro,  Judah,  Hebrew  philanthropist  .  .

Toussaint  l'Ouverture,  negro,  pres.  of  Hayti

Townsend,  Geo.,  prebendary,  '  Comment  on  Bible  *

Tracy,  A  L.  C.  Destutt,  comte  de,  writer  on  Education  and  Phi

losophy .....
Traill,  Thos.  J.,  editor  '  Encyclo.  Britannica ' .  ,

Trajan,  Marcus  U.  C,  able  emperor  and  warrior .


BORN

BiXD

1798

1784

1860

1797

1799

r 1783

1778

1848

1729

1824

. 1773

1852

1700

1748

1817

1862

1771

1844

B.

0.  389

B.  0.  469 B

o.  400

1732

1806

b.  c.  84

37

b.  c.  30

1686

1740

1791

1773

1853

1774

1810

1630

1694

1559

1632

B.

0.  337

1739

1799

1728

1797

pie 40

81

1770

1804

1805

1859

1810

1866

1818

1750

1787

1774

1825

1763

1798

1736

1812

1774

1858

1744

1820

1740

1778

1498

1783

184f

1608

1647

.

352

1788

1776

1854

1745

180*

[.

1857

1754

1836

. 1781

1862

62

117

!54


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


NATIUN.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng. Tredgold,  Thos.,  civil  engineer  and  author

Eng. Trench,  Rev.  Rich.  Chenevix,  poet,  philologist  and  theologian

Ger. Trenck,  Fred.,  baron  de,  celebrated  for  his  adventures  .

Eng. Trimmer,  Mrs.  Sarah,  misc.  writer  .  .

Fr  Tristan,  l'Hermite,  Francis,  poet  .  .  .

Eng. Trol  lope,  Mrs.  Frances,  novelist  and  traveller  .

Dutch.  Tromp,  Martin  H.  van,  celebrated  admiral .  ,

Amer. Trooet,  Gerard,  chemist  and  geologist

Amer. Trumbun.  Col.  John,  statesman  and  hist,  painter  .

Amer. ,  Benj.,  historian  of  Connecticut  .  .

Amer. ,  Jonathan,  statesman,  gov.  Connecticut  .

Amer. ,  John,  poet,  born  in  Ct.

Eng. Truro,  Thos.,  baron  (Sir  T.  Wilde),  ex-lord-chancellor .
Amer. Trustor),  Thos.,  naval  commander  .  .

Eng. Tucker,  Abraham,  metaphysical  writer

Amer. ,  Beverley,  lawyer  and  novelist .  .

Amer.  Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  critic  and  essayist  .  .

Amer. ,  Jos.,  writer  and  philanthropist

Amer.  Tudor,  Win.,  editor  N.  Amer.  Rev.  and  biographer  .

Eng. Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar,  poet  and  essayist
Fr. Turenne,  Viscount  de,  eminent  warrior  .  .

Fr. Turgot,  Anne  Eobt.  Jas.,  statesman  .  .

Eng. Turner,  Dawson,  botanist  and  antiquary  .  .

Eng. ,  Edward, 'Elements  of  Chemistry '  .

Amer.  ,  Samuel  H.,  Rev.,  theologian  and  critic  .

Eng. ,  Sharon,  'History  of  England'  .'  .

Amer. ,  Wm.  W.,  printer  and  philologist  .

Turretin,  Benedict,  theologian,  (Prof,  at  Geneva) ,

,  Francis,  (son)  " "  "

,  John  A.  (son)  " "  "

Eng. Tusser,  Thos.,  author  of  '  500  points  of  Good  Husbandry'
Amer. Twiggs,  David  E.,  rebel  general .

Eng. Twining,  Rev.  Thos.,  translator  of  Aristotle .  .

Amer. Tyler,  John,  ex-pres.  U.  S.,  and  rebel

Eng. Tyndaie,  Wm.,  reformer  and  first  translator  of  the  Biblft  /nto
English  .....

Amer.  Tyng,  Stephen  H.,  D.  D.,  epis.  divine  and  author .  .

Eng. Tyrrell,  James,  historian  ....

Gr. Tyrtasus,  poet  .  .  ...  . f.

Scot. Tytler,  Alex.  Fraser,  historical  and  misc.  writer

gcot. ,  Patrick  Fraser,  historian, '  Life  Mary  Queen  of  Scots'

BC0t, ,  Wm.,  historical  and  misc.  writer  .  .


Ger.  Uhland,  Ludwig,  poet

Span.  Ulloa,  Don  Anthony  de,  navigator  and  author  .

Uncas,  North  American  Indian  chief  (Mohegans)

Eng.  Upcott,  William,  autograph  collector  and  historian

Amer.  Upshur,  Abel  P.,  of  Va.,  judge  and  secretary  of  state

Scot.  Uie,  Andrew,  M.  D.,  chemist  and  author  .

Irish.  Usher,  James,  learned  divine  and  historian


BfrBN.

1788
1807
1726
1741
1601
1778
1597
1776
1756
1735
1740
1750
1782
1755
1705
1784

1778
1778
1810
1611

1727

1798
1791
1768
1810
1588
1623
1671
1500
1790
1784
1790

1500
1800
1642
.  D.  668
1747
1790
1711


Dixit

1829

1794
1810
1655
1863
1652
1850
1843
1820
1809
1831
1853
1822
1774
1851

1840
1830

1675
17S1
1858
1839
1861
1847
1859
1631
1687
1737
1536
1862
1804
1662

1536

1718

1813

1849
1792


1787

1716

17Bc

1680

1779

1846

1844

1778

185^

1680

165«

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


155


BATUMI.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Fr.  Vailliant,  Sebastia.!,  eminent  botanist .  .

Dutoh.  Valcknenaer,  Louis  Gaspar,  able  philologist  and  oritio  .

Ft.  Valdo,  Peter,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Waldenses  .

Valentia,  George  A.,  viscount,  '  Voyages  and  Travels  '

Rom.  Valerian,  emperor  ....

Rom.  Valerius  Flaccus,  poet  ....

Rom.  Maximus,  historian  .  .  .

Ital.  Valla,  Laurence,  eminent  philologist  .  .

Amer.  Van  Buren,  Martin,  president  of  the  United  States

Eng.  Vancouver,  George,  navigator  .  .  .

Eng.  Vandenhoff,  John,  actor  .  .  .

Amer.  Vanderlyn,  John,  historical  painter .  .  .

Dutch.  Van  Diemen,  Anthony,  governor  of  India  •

Amer.  Van  Dorn,  Earl,  confederate  general  .  ,

Eng.  Vane,  Sir  Henry,  advocate  of  republicanism  •

Amer.  Van  Ness,  Cornelius  P.,  jurist  and  diplomatist  .

Amer.  Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen,  '  the  Patroon '  .

Rom.  Varro,  Marcus  T.,  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans

Ital.  Vasari,  George,  architect  and  biog.,  •  Lives  of  the  Painters'

Ger.  Vater,  John  Severinus,  eminent  physiologist

Fr.  Vattel,  F.  de,  jurist,  author  of  Law  of  Nations  ,

Fr.  Vaughan,  S.  le  P.  de,  marshal,  military  engineer

Eng.  Vauban,  Rev.  Robert,  D.  D.,  '  dissenting'  divine  and  historian

Span.  Vega,  Garcilasso  de,  poet  ...

Span.  ,  Lopez  de,  dramatic  poet  ■  .  .

Fr.  Velpeau,  Alfred  A.  L.  M.,  eminent  surgeon  .

Fr  Vendome,  Louis  Joseph,  duke  of,  warrior .  .

Eng.  Venn,  Rev.  Henry, 'Whole  Duty  of  Man'  .

Ital.  Verdi,  Giuseppe,  musical  composer .  .  .

Eng.  Vere,  Sir  Aubrey  de,  dramatic  poet  .  .

Fr.  Vernet,  Horace,  historical  painter .  .  .

Eng.  Vernon,  Edward,  admiral  .  .  .

Eng.  ,  Robert,  founder  of  Vernon  Gallery .

Fr.  V6ron,  Louis  D6sire,  author  and  journalist  .

Amer.  Verplanck,  Gulian  C,  scholar  and  critic

Fr.  Vertot,  Rene  Hubert,  abbe  de,  historian  .  .

Eng.  Vertue,  George,  engraver  and  antiquary  .  .

Rom.  Vespasian,  Titus  Flavius,  warrior  and  emperor

Ital.  Vespucius,  Americus,  navigator,  whose  name  was  unjustly  given

to  the  new  world  ....

Eng.  Vestris,  Madame  (Mrs.  Mathews),  actress  .

Ital.  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  king  of  Italy .  .  .

Eng.  Victoria  Alexandrina,  queen  of  Great  Britain  .

Eng.  Vicars,  Hedley  H.,  capt.  -  .  .  .

Ital.  Vida,  Mark  Jerome,  Latin  poet .  .  .

Fr.  Vidocq,  Eugene,  French  chief  detective  police  .

Fr.  Vieuxtemps,  Henri,  violinist  .  ,  ,

Fr,  Vigny,  Alfred,  count  de,  poet  and  critie  .  ,

Fr.  Villars,  Louis  Hecttr,  duke  of,  able  general

St.  Villemain,  Abel,  Fr.  politician  and  author ,  ,


BORN.

DIES

1660

1722

1715

1785

f.  12th  cent.

1770

1844

260?

88!

f.  30

1406

1457

1782

1864

1750

1798

1790

1776

1852

1593

1645

1823

1863

1612

1662

1781

185*

1764

1839

e.  116

b.  c.  27

1512

1574

1771

1826

1714

1767

1633

1707

1503

1536

1562

1636

1795

1654

1712

1725

1797

1814

1846

1789

1864

1684

1759

1774

1849

1798

1655

1736

1684

1756

T»

1451

1516

1797

1858

1820

1819

1826

1856

1490

1566

1775

1850

1820

1799

1653

17M

1701

i56


THE WORLD'S PBOGEESS.


RATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Eng.  Vlncey  Samuel,  eminent  mathematician  and  astronomer

Fr.  Vinet,  Alex.  R.,  theologian

Rom.  Virgil,  or  Publius  Virgilius  Maro,  the  greatest  of  Roman  poets

Ital.  Visconti,  Phil.  Aur.,  antiquary

Ital.  Vitruvius  Pollio,  Marcus,  architect .  i

Ital.  Vittoria  Colonna,  scholttr  .  .

Ruse.  Vladimir  the  Great,  grand  duke  .  •

Dutch.  Voet,  John,  jurist  at  Leyden  .  .

Dutch.  ,  Paul,  jurist  at  Utrecht  ,

Ger.  Vogel,  Dr.  Edward,  botanist  .  ,

Fr.  Volney,  count,  celebrated  writer  .  ,

Ital.  Volta,  Alexander,  natural  philosopher  (Battery)

Fr.  Voltaire,  Francis  Marie  Arouet,  celebrated  poet,

and  historian  ,

Ger.  Voss,  J.  G.,  historical  painter  .  .


mer

BOB.N.

DIED

1821

1797

1847

oman  poets

B.  c.  70

B.  C.  1»
1831

£

B.  c.  27

•

1490

i547
1015

,

1647

1714

.

1619

1667

,

1829

1856

. ,

1757

1820

. .

1745

1826

philosopher,

.

1694

1778

. .

1677

1640

w

Ger.  Waagen,  Gustave  Fried.,  art  critic  .  .

A  mer.  Wadsworth,  James,  wealthy  philanthropist

A  mer.  ,  James  S.  (sou),  patriotic  general  ,

Ger.  Wagner,  Rudolph,  physiologist

Amer.  Wainwright,  Jon.  M.,  epis.  bishop  of  New  York ,

Eng.  Wakefield,  Edward  Gibbon,  political  economist

Eng. .  Gilbert,  scholar  and  critic  .  ,

Amer.  Waldo,  Daniel,  rev.,  centenarian  .  - .

Fr.  Walewski,  Florian,  count,  statesman  .  .

Eng.  Walker,  John,  lexicographe"

Amer. ,  Robert  J.,  politician,  ex-secretary  of  treasury

Amer.  ,  "William,  '  filibustering'  adventurer

Amer.  Wallace,  Horace  Binney,  scholar  and  essayist

Scot. ,  William,  patriot  and  hero .  .

Irish. ,  William  Vincent,  musical  composer  .

Ger.  Wallenstein,  A.  E.  V.,  celebrated  general  .

Eng.  Waller,  Edward,  elegant  poet .  .  •

Eng.  ,  Sir  William,  parliamentary  general .

Eng.  Walpole,  Horace,  earl  of  Oxford,  author  ,

Eng.  ,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  statesman .

Amer.  Walsh,  Robert,  author  and  journalist  .  .

Eng.  Walsingham,  Sir  Francis,  statesman .

Amer.  Walworth,  Reuben  H,  jurist,  ex-chancellor  of  New  Tork

Eng.  Walton,  Brian,  divine  and  orientalist

Eng.  — — ,  Izaak,  angler  and  biographer

Amer.  Walworth,  Reuben  H.,  jurist,  ex-chancellor  of  N.  T.

Eng.  Warburton,  William,  eminent  prelate  and  writer .

Amer.  Ward,  Artemas,  officer  in  the  Revolution

Bcot.  Wardlaw,  Rev.  Ralph,  theologian

Amer.  Ware,  Henry,  rev.,  Unitarian  theologian  and  author

Amer.  ,  Henry,  rev.,  jr.,  Unitarian  theologian  and  author

Amer.  ,  William,  novelist,  *  Zenobia,'  &c.

Amer.  Warren,  John  Collins,  eminent  surgeon

Amei. ,  Joseph,  patriotic  general,  fell  at  Bunker  Hill


1794

1768

1844

1807

1864

1805

1792

1854

1796

1862

1756

1801

1762

1864

1810

1732

1807

1801

1824

1860

1817

1852

1276

1305

1815

1865

1583

1634

1603

16S7

1597

16SS

1718

1797

1676

1745

1784

1858

1536

1590

1815

1865

1600

1661

1593

1683

1789

1698

1779

1748

1800

1780

1853

1764

1846

1794

1843

1797

1853

1778

1866

1741

1771

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.


157


SATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer, "W&ueu,  MrB.  Mercy,  historian,  '  Amer  can  Review'

Eng. ,  Samuel,  jurist  and  novelist,  '  10,000  a  Tear'

Eng. Sir  John  Borlase,  naval  officer
Eng. Warton,  Joseph,  poet  and  critic

Eng. ,  ThoniaB,  poet  and  critic

Eng. "Warwick,  R.  Neville,  earl  of,  general  and  statesman,  '  king-maker'

Amer. Washington,  Bushrod,  jusiice  of  supreme  court  of  U.  S.

Amer.

Amer.

Eng.

Amer.

Scot.

Eng.

Scot.

Scot.

Eng.

Eng.


,  George,  the  father  of  his  country

,  "Wm.  Aug.  officer  in  the  Revolution

Waterland,  Rev.  Dr.,  theological  and  polemical  writer
Watson,  Elkanali,  merchant,  agriculturist,  and  historian

Robert,  historian

,  Richard,  eminent  prelate  and  writer  .

Watt,  James,  celebrated  natural  philosopher  and  engineer

,  Robert,  bibliographer

Watts,  Alaric  Alex.,  poet  and  journalist

Dr.  Isaac,  divine,  poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer


Amer.  Wayland,  Francis,  D.  D.,  metaphysician,  theol.  and  polit.  aeon.

Amer.  Wayne,  Anthony,  distinguished  officer  in  Revolution

Eng.  Weale,  John,  publisher  and  editor,  engineering,  &c.  .

Amer.  Webber,  Charles  W.,  naturalist  and  author  .  .

Ger.  Weber,  Carl  Maria  von,  eminent  composer  .  ,

Eng.  Weber,  Henry  William,  antiquary  and  critio  .

Eng.  Webster,  John,  dramatic  poet  .  (  •  .

Amer.  ,  Daniel,  statesman  ....

Amer.  ,  Noah,  author  of  English  Dictionary  .  .

Scot.  Wedderburn,  Alex.,  earl  Rosslyn,  lord  chancellor .  .

Eng.  Wedgewood,  J.,  scientific  manufacturer  of  porcelain .

Amer.  Weems,  Rev.  Mason  L.,  author  of  school  biographies  .

Amer.  Welby,  Amelia  B.,  of  Kentucky,  poetess  .

Irish.  Wellesley,  marquis  of,  governor-general  of  India,  and  lord-lieut.
of  Ireland  ...  .

Eng.  Wellington,  Arthur  "Wellesley,  duke  of,  mil.  com.  and  statesman

Amer.  Wells,  David  A.,  editor,  statistician,  and  author

Eng. ,  Edward,  theologian  and  scholar .  ,

Amer. ,  Horace,  dentist,  discoverer  of  anaBsthesia

Scot.  "Welsh,  David,  D.  D.,  founder  of  North  British  Review

Eng- Am.  Wentworth,  Sir  John,  gov.  of  N.  Bamp.,  also  gov.  of  Nova  Scotia  1736

Eng. ,  Sir  Thomas,  Earl  of  Stafford

Ger.  Werner,  Abraham  Theophilus,  mineralogist  .  .

Oer. ,  Fred.  L.  Z.,  poet  and  dramatist

Eng.  Wesley,  Rev.  Charles,  '  Hymns '  ...

Eng.  ,  John,  founder  of  Methodist  society .  .  .

Eng.  "Westall,  Richard,  historical  painter  .  .  .  -

Eng.  Whateley,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  theological  and  edu-
cational writer

Amer.  Wheatley,  Phillis,  negro  poetess ....

fing. ,  Rev.  Charles,  on  '  Book  of  Commjn  Prayer'

Amer.  Wheaton,  Henry,  jurist,  diplomatist  and  law  commentator .

Eng.  Wheatstone,  Charles,  electrician ....

Amer.  "Wheelock,  Eleazar,  D.  D.  founder  of  Dartmouth  College

Eng.  Whewell,  Rev.  William,  theol.,  scientific  and  educational  writer


BORN.

DlKJj.

1728

18  M

1807

1754

1822

1720

1800

1728

1790

1471

1759

1829

1732

1799

1752

1810

1683

1740

1758

1842

1730

1780

1737

1816

1736

1819

1774

1818

1799

1864

1674

1748

1796

1866

1745

1796

1792

1862

18i9

1856

1786

1826

1783

1813

17th  cent.

1782

1852

1758

1843

1733

1805

1731

1795

1825

1821

1852

1760

1842

1769

1852

1663

1727

1815

1S48

1794

1845

a  1736

1820

1593

1641

1750

1817

1768

1823

1708

1788

1703

1791

1765

1837

1787

1863

1753

1794

16S6

1743

1785

1848

1802

1711

1779

1795

186*

158


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


RAIIOH.  NAME AND PROFESSION.

Amer. Whipple,  Edwin  P.,  critic  and  essayist  .  .

Amer. Whistler,  George  Wm.,  engineer  of  Russian  railways

£ng. Whiston,  Wm.,  divine,  mathematician  and  translator .

Eng. Whitby,  David,  learned  divine,  commentator  of  New  Testament

Eng. White,  He.ry  Kirke,  poet ....
,  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco,  priest  and  English  author

Eng. ,  William,  one  of  the  two  first  bishops  of  the  P.  E.  church

in  United  States

Eng. Whitefield,  George,  founder  of  the  Calvanistic  Methodists

Amer. Whitney,  Eli,  inventor  of  cotton  gin .

Amer. Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  poet  and  essayist

Amer. Whittingham,  Wm.  R.,  epis.  bp.of  Maryland  and  author
Whittington,  Sir  Richard,  lord  mayor  of  London
Wickliffe,  or  Wicklif,  John,  the  morning  star  of  the  Reformation
Wieland,  Christopher,  able  and  fertile  writer
Wiffen,  J.  H.,  poet  and  historian  .  .  *
Wilberforce,  Samuel,  bp.  of  Oxford  and  author
,  William,  statesman  and  philanthropist ,


Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Scot.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

En.  Am.

Amer.

Amer

Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Ger.
Aust.
Eng.
Ger.


Wilde,  Richard  Henry,  poet  and  litterateur

Wilkes,  John,  celebrated  political  character .  .

Wilkie,  Sir  David,  historical  painter

Wilkins,  John,  bp.  of  Chester,  mathematician  and  theologian

,  Sir  Charles,  oriental  philologist

Wilkinson,  James,  general  in  Revolution  and  author .

,  Sir  John  Gardner,  Egyptologist

Williams  of  Wykeham,  arch-ecclesiast  and  statesman
Williams,  Eleazar,  rev.,  alleged  to  be  Louis  XVIL

,  Helen  Maria,  miscellaneous  writer .  .

,  John,  missionary  and  author .  .

,  Major-gen.  Sir  Fenwick,  defender  of  Kars .

,  Otho  H.,  general

-,  Roger,  colonizer  of  Rhode  Island

Williamson,  Hugh,  physician  and  historian  of  N.  Carolina
Willis,  Nath.  Parker, poet,  novelist,  essayist,  critic  and  jour
nalist ......

Wilson,  Alex.,  celebrated  naturalist

,  Daniel,  bishop  of  Calcutta .  .  .

— ,  Horace  H.,  orientalist,  professor  of  Sanscrit

,  John  (Christopher  North),  poet,  critic  and  essayist


,  Mrs.  Cornwall  Barron,  author

Winckelman,  John  Joachim,  '  History  of  Art '
Windischgratz,  Charles  Alfred,  prince  de,  generalissimo
Windham,  William,  statesman  .  .  .

Winer,  George  Bened.,  prot.  theologian .  •

Swiss. Winkelried,  Arnold  von,  patriot  .  .  .

En.  Am.  Winslow,  Edward,  governor  of  Plymouth  colony .

Eng. — — ,  Forbes,  physician  and  writer  on  insanity ,

Amer. ,  Hubbard,  D.  D.,  editor  and  author

Amer. ,  Miron,  D.  D.,  missionary  and  orientalist .

Bug. Winterhalter,  Franz  Xavier,  '  court  painter  '  .

fen.  Am.  Winthrop,  John,  governor  of  colony  of  Mass. .  •

tLh.Aia •-,  John  (son),  governor  of  Connecticut .


BOEN.

1819

180C
1667
1638
1785
1775

1747
1714
1765
1808
1805

1324
1733
1792
1805
1759
1789
1717
1785
1614

1757

1797

1324

17871

1762

1796

1800

1748

1606

1735

1807
1766
1778
1808
1785

1717
17S7
1750
1789

1695
1810
1800
1789

1588
1606


DtSt

184S
1752

1726
1806

1841


1770
1820


1419
1384
1813
1836

1853
1847
1797
1841

1672
1836
1825

1404
1S58
1827
1839

1794
16S3
1819

1867

1813
1858
1860
1854
1S46
1768
1862
1810
1858
1388
1655

1864
1864
1803
1649
1673


BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX.


159


■  ATIOM.  NAME AMD PROFESSION.

Winthrop,  Major  Theodore,  novelist  and  patriot
Amer. Wirt,  William,  attorney -general  U.  S.  and  biographer
Eng. Wiseman,  Nicholas,  cardinal,  Roman  catholic  theol.  and  author
Amer. Wistar,  Caspar,  eminent  physician  and  anatomist
Eng. Withers,  George,  poet ....
Amer. Witherspoon,  John,  able  divine  and  patriot
Dutch.  Witzius,  Herman,  theologian  .  .  .

Scot. Wodrow,  Robert,  ecclesiastical  historian
Irish. Woflington,  Margaret  (Peg  W.),  actress .  .

Eng. Wolcott,  John,  known  as  Peter  Pindar,  poet .

Amer. ,  Oliver,  patriot,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence

Amer. ,  Roger,  colonial  governor  of  Conn.

Eng.  Jew.  Wolf,  Dr.  Joseph,  missionary  and  traveller  .

Ger. ,  Fred.  Aug.,  classical  author  and  critic .  .

Eng. Wolfe,  James,  distinguished  general  .  .

Eng. ,  Rev.  Charles,  poet,  '  Sir  John  Moore  ' .  .

Ger. Wolff,  John  Christian,  philosopher  aud  mathematician
Eng. Wollaston,  William  Hyde,  experimental  philos.  .

Eng. "Wolsey,  Thomas,  cardinal,  celebrated  statesman
Eng. Wollstoneeroft,  Mary  (Mrs.  Godwin),  author .  ,

Eng. Wood,  Anthony,  antiquary  and  biographer  .

Eng. ,  Robert,  archaeologist  and  secretary  of  state

Amer. Woodbury,  Levi,  statesman  and  jurist .  .

Eng. Woodfall,  William,  newspaper  publisher  (Junius)  ,

Eng. Woodhouse,  Robert,  mathematician  and  astronomer
Scot. Woodhouselee,  Alex.  Fraser  Tytler  (.seeTytler)  historian
Amer. Woods,  Leonard,  theologian  •  .  .

Eng. Woodville,  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Edward  IV. .  .

Amer. Woodwortb,  Samuel,  poet,  '  Oaken  Bucket '  .

Amer. Wool,  John  E.,  major-general  U.  S.  army  .  .

Amer. Woolrnan,  John  (Quaker),  philanthropist  ,

Amer Wooster,  David,  Revolutionary  general  .  .

Worcester,  Edward  J.,  marquis  of,  'Century  of  Inventions

,  Joseph  E.,  geographer  and  lexicographer •

Wordsworth,  Rev.  Christ.,  '  Ancient  Greece '  .


Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer,

Eng.

Aust.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Eng

Eng.

Eng.


- ,  William,  poet  laureate .  .

Worth,  William  J., major-general  TJ.  S.  army
Wortley,  Lady  Emeline  C.  E.,  traveller  and  author .
Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  statesman  and  poet .  .

Wraxall,  Sir  Nathaniel  W.,  traveller  and  historian
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  celebrated  architect • .
Wright,  Fanny  (Madame  Darusmont),  '  Social  Reformer '
— — — ,  Silas,  governor  of  New  York  and  senator  U.  8.

,  Thomas,  antiquarian  author  ,  .

Wunnser,  D.  S.,  field-marshal  in  Austrian  army .
Wyatt,  Matthew  Digby,  architect  and  author  ,

,  Sir  Thomas,  poet  and  statesman .  .

Wycherley,  William,  dramatic  poet .  .  ,

Wycliffe,  see  Wickliffe,  reformer  .  ,

Wykeham,  M.,  bishop  of  Winchester,  statesman  and  phllanth
Wyndham,  Sir  William,  statesman


BOBN.

DIED,

1828

1861

1772

183d

lthjr 1802

1865

1761

1818

1590

1667

1722

1794

1636

1708

1679

1734

1719

1760

1738

1818

noe 1727

1797

1679

1767

1795

1862

1759

1824

1726

1759

1791

1823

1679

1754

1766

1828

1471

1530

1759

1797

1632

1695

1716

1771

1789

1851

1745

1822

1773

1827

1747

1813

1770

1851

I486!

1785

1842

1789

1720

1773

1710

1777

1667

1784

1865

1770

1850

1770

1850

1794

1849

1806

1855

1568

1689

1751

1831

1632

1723

1796

1853

1795

1847

1810

1717

1797

. 1820

1503

1540

1640

1716

1324

1404

tb 1324

1404

1687

1741

l6o  THE WOBLD'S PB0GRES8.

RATIOS.  NAME  AND  FBI  FESSION.  BOBS. DIM!

Eng. Wyse,  Sir  Thomas,  M.  P.,  writer  on  education  .

Amer. Wytfce,  George,  eminent  lawyer,  statesman  and  patriot .  1801


Fr.  Xavier,  St.  Francis,  'Apostle  to  the  Indies' . ,

Gi'.  Xenocrates,  philosopher . . .

Gr.  Xenophanes,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Eleatics

Gr.  Xenophon,  celebrated  philosopher,  historian  and  general

Pers.  Xerxes  L,  king  of  Persia ....

Pers. II.,  king  of  Persia

Span.  Ximenes,  Francis,  cardinal,  eminent  statesman •


Amer.  Yale,  Elihn,  early  patron  of  Yale  College  .  ,

Eng.  Yarrell,  "William,  naturalist  and  author.  ,  ,

Eng.  Youatt,  William,  author  of  works  on  the  horse  ,

Amer.  Young,  Ales.,  D.  D.,  historian  of  Pilgrims  .  ..

Eng.  ,  Arthur,  agricultural  writei .  .  .

Amer.  ,  Brigham,  leader  of  the  Mormons .  ,  .

Eng.  — — ,  Charles,  actor  .

Eng.  ,  Edward,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer .  .

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  phy&ician  and  philosopher

Gr.  Ypsilanti,  prince  Alexander,  leader  in  the  Greek  modern  rev.

Span.  Y  riarte,  don  Thomas  de,  eminent  poet


Ital. Zaccaria,  Francis  A,  voluminous  writer  .  ,

Heb. Zechariah,  the  prophet ...»
Ital. Zeno,  Apostolo,  eminent  writer .  ,  »

Gr. Zeno  of  Elea,  philosopher ...»
Gr. ,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Stoics  .  .

Zenohia,  Septiinia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  conqueror,  and  patroness  of
the  arts  ......

Heb. Zephaniah,  the  prophet .  .  .  .  , £  B.  o.  520

Ger. Zimmerman,  E.  A.  W.  von,  naturalist  .  ,

,  John  George,  miscellaneous  writer .


.

1506

1552

B.

0.  406

B

0.  314

Lb.

O.  540

B.  0.  446

B

C.  360

B

0.  465

B.

0.  425

•

1457

1517

1648

1721

1784

1856

.

1777

1847

1800

1854

.

1741

1S20

1801

.

1777

1856

1681

1765

1774

1829

1792

1828

'

1750

1780

1714

179»

f.  B.

0.  520

1668

1750

B.

0.  463

B.

0.  362

B.

0.  264

Ger.  Zinzendori,  N.  L.,  count,  chief  of  the  Moravians  ,

Swiss.  Zolikofer,  G.  J.,  theologian  .  .  .

Zoroaster,  famous  Eastern  philosopher  .  .

Eng.  Zouch,  Thomas,  theologian  and  biographer

Gr.  Zozimus,  historian .....

Ger.  Zschokke,  John  Henry  D.,  miscellaneous  writer, «  Tales  •

Swiss.  Zuinglius,  Ulric,  enlightened  reformer  .  .

0er.  Zumpt,  Karl,  author  of  Latin  Grammar .  .


1743

1815

1728

1795

1700

1760

1730

1788

1737

1816

f.  400

1771

1848

1484

1531

1703

ISM

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS.


161


ARTISTS.


PAINTERS— ENGRAVERS— SCULPTORS— ARCHITECTS.


NATION.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  B

Or.  Agatharcus,  inventor  of  perspective  scenery  in  theatres.  Painter.

Or.  Ageldas  ..... Sculptor, f.

Or.  Agesander,  sculptor  of 'Laocoon  and  his  Children' Sculptor.

Ital.  Albano,  Francis,  '  the  painter  of  the  Graces '  . Painter.

Ital.  Alberti,  Leo  Baptist,  a  Florentine  . Pa.,  Sc,  and  Arohit.

ItaL  Albertinelli,  Mariotto .... Painter.

Gr.  Alcarmenes  (pupil  of  Phidias)  .  .  Sculptor.

Scot.  Allan,  Sir  "William  .... Painter.

Amer.  Allston,  Washington  .  .  Port,  and  Histor.  Painter.

Ital.  Andrea  del  Sarto  .... Painter.

Ital.  Angelo,  Michael  (Buonarotti),  a  pre-eminent  Pa.,  Sc,  and  Arch.

Ital.  Angelo,  Michael  (Caravaggio) .  .  . Painter.

Gr.  Apelles,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient  painters . Painter.

Gr.  Apollodorus,  an  Athenian .  .  .  Painter.

Ital.  Appiani,  of  Milan  .... Painter.

Gr.  Aristides,  of  Thebes ....  Painter.

Fr.  Audran,  Gerard,  celebrated  .  . Histor.  Engraver.

(Eight  painters  and  engravers  named  Audran  nearly  contemporary.)


IOB.N.

DIED,

B.

o. 48C

b.  o.  6th  Cent.

b.  o.  5th  Cent.

1578

1660

1400

149f

152C

f.  B.

O. 450

1781

1850

1779

1843

1488

1530

1474

1568

1569

1609

f.  B.

O. 330

f.  B.

0. 408

1754

1817

f.  B.

0. 240

1640

1703

Ital.

Baccio-Della  Porta,  known  as  San  Marco  (Fra  Bartolo-

meo) . . •

. . Painter.

1469

1517

Eng.

Bacon,  John

Sculptor.

1740

1799

Amer.

Baker,  Geo.  A.  (N.  Y.)

. Port.  Painter.

Flem.

Balen,  Henry  van . .

, . Painter.

1560

1(32

Ital.

Bandinelli,  Baccio . . •

. Sculptor.

1489

1559

Eng.

Banks,  Thomas .

, . Sculptor.

1745

1805

Dutch.

Barents,  Dietrich

Histor.  Painter.

1534

1582

Irish.

Baiter,  Ttobert,  inventor  of  panoramas

. . Painter.

1740

1806

Irish.

Barry,  James . . .

. Painter.

1741

1805

Eng.

Barry,  Sir  Chas. . . ,

, . Architect.

1795

1860

Ital.

Bartolini,  Lorenzo . •

Sculptor.

1777

1850

ItaL

Bartolozzi,  Francesco • •

Engraver.

1730

1813

Ital.

Bartolomco,  Fra  di  San  Marco .

Painter.

1469

1517

Ital.

Bassanio,  Jas.,  Fran.,  Jerome,  John,  and  Leander Painters.

16th  Century.

ItaL

Batoni,  Pompey  . . .

. . Painter.

1708

1787

Ger.

Bauer,  Ferdinand . . .

Botanical  Painter.

1826

Eng.

Beechy,  Sir  "William .

. Landscape  Painter.

1753

1838

Amei.

Beard,  Wm.  H.  (N.  Y.)

• Painter.

Eng.

Beaumont,  Sir  George  H. ,

Painter.

1753

1827

Ital.

Bella,  Stefano  Delia,  Florentine .

. Engraver,

1610

1684

oatH.

Diaa

1462

1513

1421

1501

1598

16SC

1624

16S9

162  THE WORLD'S PKOGBES8.

NATIOH.  SAME AND PROFESSION.

Ital  Belliiri.  Giav.,  founder  of  the  Venetian  school . Painter.

ItaL  Bellini  Gentine  .... Portrt  '♦.  Painter.

Ital.  Benini,  Giovanni  L. . . Painter,  Sculp'r,  and  Aren't.

Flem  Berchem,  Nicholas . . . Engraver.

Eng.  Bewick.  John,  publisher  of  various  works  with  wood-
outs .... Wood  Engraver. 1760 179f

Amer.  Bierstadt,  Albert  (N.  Y.) . . Landscape  Pa. nter.

Eng.  Bird,  Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819

Eng.  Blake,  William . . . Painter  and  Engraver. 1757 1826

Flem.  Bologna,  John  of  (in  Italy) . Sculptor  and  Architect. 1524 1608

Eng.  Bone,  Henry ... Enamel  Painter. 1755 1834

ItaL  Bordone,  Paris ..... Painter. 1503 15S8

Dutch.  Both,  John  and  Andrew . . . Painters. 1610 1650,  '56

Fr.  Bourdon,  Sebastian . . Painter  and  Engraver. 1616 1671

Swiss.  Bourgeoise,  Sir  Francis  (born  in  London). . Painter. 1756 1811

Eng.  Boydell,  Jno.  (printseller  and  lord  mayor  of  London)  Engraver. 1719 1804

Dutch.  Brentel,  Francis .... Painter, f.  1635

Ital.  Bramante D'Urbino,  Francis  L.,  (1st  of St,  Peter's

Church)  .... Architect. 1444  1514

Amer.  Brevoort,  J.  K.  (N.  Y.) . . Landscape  Painter.

Dutch.  Brill,  Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584

Dutch.  Brill,  Paul . . . Landscape  Painter. 1556 1626

Amer.  Brown,  Geo.  L. . , , . Painter.

Amer.  Brown,  Henry  Kirke , . . • Sculptor. 1814

Flem,  Bruges,  John  of,  or  John  Van  Eyck . . Painter. 1370 1441

Ital.  Brunelleschi,  Ph.,  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence . Architect. 1377 1444

ItaL  Buonarotti,  see  Angelo

Eng.  Burnett,  James . . , Landscape  Painter. 1788 1816

C

Ital.  Cagliari,  Paul,  known  as  Paul  Veronese,  celebrated Painter. 1532 15S8

Ital.  Cagliari,  Benedict,  Carlotto,  and  Gabriel,  brothers  and

sons  of  Paul

Eng.  Calcott,  Sir  A.  W. . . Landscape  Painter. 1779 1844

ItaL  Caldara,  or  Polydore  Caravaggio . . . Painter. 1495 1543

Gr.  Calimachus . . . Sculptor  and  Architect. f.  a  0. 540

Ital.  Cambiaso,  Lucus,  a  Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 15S7

ItaL  Canaletto,  or  Canale,  Anthony,  a  Venetian Lands.  Painter. 1697 1768

Ital.  Canova,  Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 1822

Ital.  Caracci,  Ludovico .... Painter. 1555 1619

ItaL  Caracci,  Agostino .... Painter. 1558 1601

Ital.  Caracci,  Annibale .... Painter. 1560 1609

ItaL  Caracci,  Anthony .... Painter. 1583 1618

ItaL  Caravaggio,  see  Angelo ....

Ital.  Carpi,  Ugo  da,  discoverer  of  the  art  of  printing  in  Chiaro-oseuro

with  three  plates  to  imitate  drawings .  .  1486  1530

Fi,  Casas,  Louis Francis . . Painter  and  Architect. 1756 1827

Amer.  Oasilear,  John  W.  (N.  Y.) . . Lands.  Painter.

Bpan.  Castillo  y Saavedra,  Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667

ItaL  Oaven  lone,  James . . . Fresco-Painter. 1677 1508

Ital.  Cellini,  Benvenuto,  Florentine  artist,  author  of  auto-
biography . ... Painter. 1600 167C


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS.


163


flATIOH

NAMB AMD PROFESSION.

BORN.

DIED.

Span.

Cespedes.  Paul  de

Painter,  Sculptor,  Architect.

1538

160»

Fleni.

Champagne,  Philip  de

, . . Painter.

1604

1674

. , . Painter.

1643

168$

Eng.

Chantry,  Sir  Francis .

, , . Sculptor.

1781

184^

Amei

Chapman,  John  G.

, , . Hist.  Painter.

Gr.

Chares . . •

, . . Painter.

f.  1.

0.  S0G

Fr.

Chaudet,  Anthony  Denis

. , Painter  and  Sculptor.

1763

1810

Amei.

Church,  Fred.  E.

, . Lands,  fainter.

ital.

Cignani,  Carlo

. , . Painter.

1628

1719

Ital.

Cimabue,  Giov.,  Florentine

, , Painter.

1240

130<?

Ital.

Claude  Gelee— called  Claude  Lorraine  . . Painter.

1600

1682

Gr.

Cleomenes,  an  Athenian,  (the

Medicean  Venus) . Sculptor.

f.B.

O.  180'

Amer.

Clevenger,  Shobal  Vail

Sculptor.

1812

1844

Amer.

Cole,  Thomas . .

Lands,  and  Hist.  Painter.

1802

1848

Eng.

Collins,  William

. Lands,  and  Fam.  life  Painter.

1788

184T

Amer.

Colman,  Saml.  (N.  T.) .

Lands.  Painter.

Eng.

Constable,  John

Painter.

m§

1837

Eng.

Cooper,  Samuel .

. Miniature  Painter.

16S9

1776

Amer.

Copley,  John  Singleton  (horn

in  Boston) . Painter.

1737

1815

Ger.

Cornelius,  Peter  von

Painter.

1787

Ital.

Correggio,  Ant.,  founder  of  the  Lombard  school Painter.

1493

1534

Dutch.

Cort,  Cornelius .

. Engraver.

1536

1578

Ital.

Cortona,  Pietro  da.  Tuscan

. Paintei.

1596

1669

Eng.

Cosway, Richard .

. . Painter.

1740

1828

Fr.

Courtois,  James,  known  as  11  Borgognone . Painter.

1621

1673-

Fr.

■ TVilliiim  (brother}

. Painter.

1628

167?

Fr.

Couture

Painter.

Fr.

Couston,  Nicholas  (also  his  brother  William) . Sculptor.

1658

1731

Fr.

,  William

Sculptor  and  Architect.

1716

177T

Fr.

Cousin,  John

Paint.,  Sculp.,  etc

1500

1590*

Eng.

Cox,  David

, . Lands.  Painter.

1723

1859>

Ger.

Cranach,  Lucas .

Engraver.

1470

1553-

Amer.

Cranch,  Christr.  P. •

, . . Painter.

Amer.

Crawford,  Thomas

, . . Sculptor.

1814

1857

Amer.

Cropsey,  Jasper  F.  (N.  Y.)

. . Lands.  Painter.

Dutch.  Cuyp,  Jacob  G. .

. Lands,  and  Cattle  Painter.

1568

1649'

Dutch.

,  Albert  (son  of  Jacob)

, Lands,  and  Cattle  Painter.

1606

1667

Dutch

,  Benjamin .

, . . Hist.  Painter.

1650

Eng.

Eng.

Eng.

Ger.

Amer,

Fr.

Fr.

i-r.
ft.


Danby,  Francis  .  1  •  Painter.

Daniel,  Thomas  .  .  Lands.  Painter.

Wm.  .  .  .  • Lands.  Painter.

Dannecker,  John  Henry, '  Adriadne,*  &c.  . Sculptor.

Darley,  F.  O.  C.  .  • Painter  and  Designer.

David,  James  Louis ....  Painter.

,  Peter  John,  of  Angers  (founder  of  recent  French

school)  .  .  .  •  • Sculptor.

Delacroix,  F.  V.  E. .  .  .  .  Painter.

Delaroche,  Paul  .  .  .  Hist.  Painter.


1793

1862

1749

1840

1769

1837

1758

1841

1822

1750

1826^

1789

1858

1798

1863

1797

195«

164  THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.

SATIO  NAME AND PEOFESSIOS.  BORN.  DIES

Ger.  Denner,  Balthasar .... Port.  Painter. 1685  1741

Dutch.  De  Witt,  James  ....  Painter. 1696  174?

Gr.  Dinocrates,  a  Macedonian  (builder  of  Alexandria,  &c.)  Architect.  f.  &  a  330

Ital.  Dolci,  Carlo .... Scripture  Painter. 1616  1689

Ital.  Domenichino,  Dominic  Zampieri  (excelled  in expression)  Painter. 1581  1641

Ital.  Donatello,  or  Donato .  .  . Florentine  Sculptor. 1383  1466

Fr.  Dore,  Gustave  .  .  . Painter  and  Designer.

Amer.  Doughty,  Thomas  .  -  .  Lands.  Painter. 1793  1856

Dutch.  Douw,  or  Dow,  Gerard  .  . Familiar  Life  Painter. 1618  1674

Ft.  Dubuffe,  ....  Hist.  Painter.

Fr.  Dufresnoy,  Charles  Alphonse  .  .  Painter. 1611  1666

Amer.  Dunlap,  William  .  .  Hist,  Painter. 1766  1838

Amer.  Dnrand,  Asher  B.  (N.  T.) .  . Painter  and  Engraver.

Ger.  Dnrer,  Albert  (and  author)  . Paint.,  Eng.,  8c,  and  Arch 1471  1528

£

Eng.  FAstlake,  Chas.  L.  .  .  .  . Painter. 1793  1865

Ger.  Eberhardt,  Conrad ....  Sculptor. 1768  1859

Eng.  Eginton, Franois,  restorer  of  the  art  of  painting  on

glass  .....  Painter. 1737  1806

Amer.  Ehninger,  John  W.  (N.  Y  "*  .  .  .  Painter.

Amer.  Elliott,  Chas.  L.  (N.  T.)  .  .  . Port.  Painter.

Eng.  Etty,  Wm. .  •  .  .  . Painter. 1787  1849

Gr.  Eupompus  (founder  of  school  at  Sioyon)  .  Painter.

Dutch.  Eyck,  John  van  (said  to  have  invented  painting  In  oil) Painter. 1370  1441


Ital.Am.Fagnani,  G.

Port.  Painter.

Eng.

Fielding  (Copley  Vandyke)  .

. Lands.  Painter.

Eng.

Flaxman,  John  .

.  Soulptor  and  Artist.

1T55

182*

Eng.

Finden,  Wm.

.

Engraver.

1787

1853

Amer.

Forbes,  Edwin  .

Painter.

Scot.

Forrest,  Robert

.

Sculptor.

1790

1852

Fr.

Frere,  Edouard

Genre  Painter.

Swiss.

Fuseli,  Henry  (resided  in  England

Painter.

1741

182-j

Swiss.

,  John  G.  .

. . Painter.

1706

1781

Eng.

Gainsborough,  Thomas

©

. Lands.  Painter.

1727

1788

Fr.

Gerard,  Fran.  P.  S.,  baroi*

Painter.

1770

1837

Fr.

,  John  I.  (Granville) .

Caricaturist.

1803

1847

Ital.

Ghiberti,  Lawrence

.  Florentine  Sculptor.

1378

1456

Eng.

Gibbons,  Grinling,  famed  for  carving  in  oak . Sculptor.

1648

1721

Eng.

Gibson,  John . . .

Sculptor.

1791

1867

Amer.

Gifford,  Sanford  R.  .

.

. Lands.  Painter.

Fr.An

.  Gignoux, Regis

Lands.  Painter.

Ital.

Giordani,  Luke  (the  Proteus  of  Pali- ting) . Painter.

1629

1704

Ital.

Giorgione,  Barbarelli . .

Painter.

1477

1511

Ital.

Giotto  (one  of  the  earliest  modern)

Paint.  Sculp,  and  Arch.

1276

1331

Fr.

Girardon,  Franois

Sculp,  and  Arch.

1630

171fi

Fr.

Girodet,  Trioson  Aime  Loai«

Painter.

1767

182;

BIOGRAPHIoAii INDEX. ARTISTS.


I65


BATION.  NAME AJTD  PB0PESS10H.

ltal.  Giulio  Romano  (Pippi) ....  Painter.

Fr.  Goujon,  John,  the  French  Phidias .  .  Sculptor.

Amer.  Gray,  Henry  Peters .  .  Port,  and  Hist.  Painter.

Amer.  Greenough,  Horatio  .  •  .  Sculptor.

Amer.  Greene,  E.  D.  E.  .  .  .  Port  Painter.

Fr.  Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste  .  .  .  Painter

ltal.  Guercino,  real  name  Francis  Barbieri .  .  Painter.

Ita  I.  Guido,  Reni  (excelled  in  beauty  of  expression  and  grace)  Painter.


SORB.

D1XD,

1492

1546

1515

1573

1806

1726
1590
1574


1854

1805
1606
1642


Eng, Harlow,  Geo.  Henry

Amer. Hart,  "Wm.,  b.  in  Scotland

Amer. Hart,  Jas.  M.  "

Amer. Haseltine,  W.  Stanley

£ng. Haviland,  John  .

Eng. Haydon,  R.  B.

Amer. Healy,  Gr>o.  P.

Eng. Heath,  Charles

Amer. Hennessy,  W.  L

Amer. Hicks,  Thos.

Eng. Hilton,  William .

Flem. Hobbema,  Mynderhout

Eng. Hogarth,  William

Swiss. Holbein,  Hans

Ger. Hollar,  Wenceslaus,  executed  2,400  plates

Amer Homer,  "Winslow ....  Painter.

Flem. Honthorst,  Gerard  (called  Gherarda  del  Notte)  . Painter.

Amer. Hosmer,  Harriet ....  Sculptor.

Dutch. Houbraken,  Jacob  (600  portraits) .  .  . Engraver.

Fr.  Houdon  (executed  statue  of  Franklin)  .  Sculptor.

Fr. Houel,  John,  Travels,  &c. Picturesque  Painter  and  Engraver.

Amer. Hubbard,  Rich.  W. ....  Painter.

Amer. Hughes,  Ball  (b.  in  England)  .  .  . Sculptor.

Amer. Huntington,  Dan.  .  .  .  Painter.

Eng. Hunt,  Wm.  H.  (Pre-Raphaelite) .  .  . Painter.

Dutch.  Huysum,  John  van  (flowers  and  fruit)  .  Painter.

Dutch.  ,  Justus  (The  Old)  .  ,  . Painter.

Dutch. (The  Young)  .  .  Painter.


Painter.

Painter.

.  . Painter.

Landscape  Painter.

.  .  . Architect.

Historical  Painter.

.  .  .  Painter.

.  .  Engraver.

.  .  . Painter.

Painter.

Historical  Painter.

Landscape  Painter.

Painter.

Portrait  and  Historical  Painter.

Engraver.


1787
1828
1828

1792
1786
1808


1823
1786
1611
1697
1498
1607

1592
1831
1698
1746
1736

1806
1816
1827
1682
1659
1684


1819


1859
1846


1849


1839
1699
1764
1554
1677,

1660

1780
1828
1813


1749
1716
1706


Amer.  Inman,  Henry


Portrait  and  Landscape  Painter. 1801


.846


Amer.  Jarvis,  J.  W.

Amer.  Johnson,  Eastman  (N.  Y.>

Amer. ,  David  (N.  Y.)

Fr. Johannot,  Chas.  H.  A.

Fr. -: ,  Tony  (brother)

Amer. Jones,  Alfred,  N.  Y.


Amer.


— ,  Inigo
— ,  Thos.  D.


Portrait  Painter.

Painter.

Painter.

Painter  and  Designer.

1800

1887

Painter  and  Designer.

1803

186)

Engraver.

. Architect.

1673

1661

Sculptor.

1 66  ithe  world's  progress.

KATIOB.  NAME AND PROFESSION.  BORN.  OIEi.

Flem. Jordaens,  Jaoob  .  .  .  .  Painter. 1696  167»

Ital. Julio,  Romano .  .  . Painter  and  Architect 1492  154*

K

Swiss. Kauffinau,  M.  A-  Angelica  O.  (to  England) Poetical  Painter.  1747  180

Amer. Kensett,  John  F.  .... Painter.  1818

Ger. Kiss,  August  ....  Sculptor.  1802  1864

Ger. Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey  (resided  in  England)  . Painter.  1648  172?

!•

Dutch.  Lairesse,  Gerard  (excelled  to  expedition) Painter  and  Engraver.  1640  1711

Fr.  Landon,  C.  P.  .  .  Writer  on  Art  and  Painter.  1826

Eng.  Landseer,  Chas. .  .  .  Painter  of  Genre.

Eng. ,  John  .... Engraver.  1769  186S

Eng.  ,  Sir  Edwin  ....  Painter.  1808

Amer.  Lang,  Louis  (b.  in  Germany)  .  .  . Painter.  1814

Eng.  Lawrence,  Sir  Thoe. ....  Painter.  1769  1830

Fr.  Lebrun,  Charles  (painter  to  Louis  XIV.) .  . Painter.  1619  169e

Eng.  Leech,  John  .  .  .  Humorist  Artist.  1816

Gr.  Lely,  Sir  Peter  (painter  to  Charles  II.  of  England)  Painter.  1618  1680

Fr.  Le  Sieur,  Eustace  (the  Frenoh  Raphael) .  . Painter.  1617  1656

Amer.  Leslie,  Chas.  R.  (resided  in  England) .  .  Painter.  1794  1869

Ger.  Lessing,  Carl  Fred.  .... Painter.  1808

Amer.  Leutze,  Emanuel  (b.  in  Germany) .  .  Painter.  1816

Fr.  Leyden,  Lucas  Damrnesz  .  .  Painter  and  Engraver  1494  1533

Eng.  Liverseege,  Henry  .  .  . - .  Painter.  1803  1832

Gr.  Lysippus  (made  600  statues)  .  .  Sculptor.  f.  b.  o.  324

hi;

Amer. Malbone,  Edward  G. .  .  . Miniature  Painter. 1777  1807

Scot. Marshall,  Wax.  O. .  .  .  .  Sculptor. 1813

Amer. ,  Wm,  C. .  .  .  .  Engraver.

Eng. Martin,  John ...  . Painter. 1789  1854

Ital. Masaccio  .....  Painter. 1402  1427

Flem. Matsys,  Quintin .  .  .  .  Painter. 1460  1529

Ger. Mayer  .....  Sculptor.

Ital. Mazzuolo,  Francis  .... Painter. 1603  1540

Amer. McEntee,  Jervis  ....  Painter.

Fr. Meissonier,  Justus  A .  Painter,  Sculptor,  and  Architect.

Fr. ,  Jean  L.  Painter.

Ger. Mengs,  Anthony  R  (the  Raphael  of  Germany)  . Painter.

Dutch.  Metzu,  Gabriel  .  .  . Familiar  Life  Painter.

Dutch.  Mieris,  Franols  .  .  Familiar  Life  Painter.

Fr. Mignard,  Peter  ....  Painter.

Amer.  Mignot,  Louis  R.  .... Painter,

amer. Mills,  Clark .....  Sculptor.

Swiss. Mind,  Gottfried ..... Painter.
Ital. Morghen,  Raphael  ....  Engraver.

Amer. Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.  .  .  . Painter.

Amer. Mount,  William  Sidney  .  .  .  Painter.

Eng. Moreland,  George  ...  Painter.

Span. Murillo.  Bartholomew  8.  .  .  .  Painter.


1695

1760

1815

1729

1779

1615

1669

1635

1681

1610

1686

1815

1768

1814

1758

1833

1807

1764

1804

1618

108!

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS.


167


kATIOH. HAMS  AND PROFESSION.  BORN.

Dutch.  Neefs,  Peter . . . Architectural  Painter.  1570

Eng. Newton,  Gilbert  (Stuart) . . Historical  Painter.  1785

Eng. Nolle  kins,  Joseph .... Sculptor.  1737


Bng Northcote,  James


Painter. 1746


DIED
1051

1833

1823
1831


Bng. Opie,  John  .  .

Dutch.  Ostade,  Adrian  van  (interiors)
Dutch. Ostade,  Isaac  (winter  scenes)
Eng. Owen,  William .  .


Painter.  1761  1807

Familiar  Life  Painter.  1610  1686

Painter.  1617  1671

.  Painter.  1769  1826


Amer.

Fr.

Ital.

Span.

Ital.

Or.

Amfei'.

Amer.

Fr.

Ital.

Swiss.

BeL

Bel.

Bel.

Gr.

Eng.

Fr.

Fr.

Ital.

Fr.

Ital.

ItaL

Gr.

Ital.

Dutch.

Fr.

Ital.

Ital.

Amer.

Fr.

Amer,

Gr.

Eng

Fr.

Fr.

Eng.


Page,  Wm.  .  .  .

Pajou,  Augustin .  .

Palladio,  Andrew  .  .

Palomino  de  Castro  y  Velasco  A.  A.

Pannini,  Giov.  Paolo
Parrhasius,  of  Ephesus  .


,  , Painter.

,  Sculptor.

,  . Architect.

,  . Painter.

Architectural  Painter.

Painter.


Peale,  Charles  W.  .  Historical  and  Portrait  Painter.

,  Rembrandt  .... Painter.

Perrault,  Claudius  (designed  the  front  of  the  Louvre;  Architect.


Perugino,  Pete.-  (the  master  of  Raphael)
Petitot,  John  (excelled  in  enamel)  .

Peters,  Bonaventura .  .  ,

,  Francis  Lucas .  .  •

, John  .  .  •

Phidias  (the  most  famous  of  ancient  sculptors)

Phillips,  Thomas,  R.  A, .  .

Picart,  Bernard

Pigalle,  John  Baptist  .  .

Pietro,  da  Pietre  .  .

Piles,  Roger  de  .  ,

Piranesi,  John  Baptist  (16  volumes  folio)

Polidors,  da  Caravaggio  .  .  .

Polycletus  (statue  of  Juno  at  Argos)  .

Pordenone,  Regillo  da

Potter,  Paul  (unequalled  in  animal  painting)

Poussin,  Nicholas  (excelled  in  landsoape  painting)

Poussin,  Gaspar  (Dughet)

Piombo,  Sebastiano  del


Painter.

Painter.

Marine  Painter.

Painter.

Marin*  Painter.

Sculptor,  b.

Port.  Painter.

Engraver.

Sculptor.

Hist.  Painter  of  Rome.

Author  and  Painter.

Engraver.

,  Painter.


Powers,  Hiram

Pradier,  Jacques

Pratt,  Mathew

Praxiteles

Prout,  Samuel  ,

Prudhon,  of  Cluny

Puget

Pugin,  Augustus  A.  W.


Sculptor,  b.

Painter.

Painter.

Painter.

.  Landscape  Painter.

.  .  Painter.

,  .  . Sculptor.

,  .  Sculptor.

,  .  . Painter.

.  .  Sculptor,  f.

.  ,  Water-oolorist.

.  ,  . Painter.

Sculptor,  Painter  and  architect.

.  Architect


1811

1730

1518

1653

1691
f.  B.

1741

1778

1613

1446

1607

1614

1606

1635
0.498  B.

1770

1663

1714

1671

1635

1707

1495
C.430

1484

1625

1594

1613

1485

1805

1798

1734
B.  0.  390

1783

1760

1622

1811


1809
1580
1726
1764

O,  420
1827
1860
1688
1524
1691
1652
1654
1677

0.431
1845
1733
1785
1716
1709
1778
1543

1540
1654
1665
1675
1547

1852

1805

1S52
182S
1694

18M


i68


TELE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


RATION.

ItaL

ItaL Raphael  da  Rhegio  (Raffaelino)

Ger. Rauch,  Christian  David

Dutch.  Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  Paul  Geritz

Ger. Retsch,  Moritz  .  .

Eng. Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua

Eng. Richardson,  Jonathan  ,

Ger. Riedinger,  John  Elias  .

Fr. Rober,  Fleury  ,  .

Boot. Roberts,  David .  .  .

Fr. Roland,  Philip  (Homer  in  the  Louvre)

Eng. Romney,  George  .  .

Flem. Roos,  Philip  Peters  .  .

ItaL Rosa,  Salvator  .

Amer. Rossiter,  Thomas  P. ,

Fr. Roubilliac,  L.  F.

Fr. Rousseau,  James

Eng. Rowlandsou,  Th.  (caricature— Dr.  Syntax,  &c.) Paint,  and  Eng.

Flem. Rubens,  Peter  Paul  .... Painter.

Scot. Runciman,  Alexander  .  .  .  Painter.

Dutch. Ruysdael,  Jacob  ,  .  Landscape  Painter.

Dutch.  Ruysdael,  Solomon  ....  Painter.

Dutch.  Ryckaert,  David  ....  Painter.

Dutch.  Ryckaert,  Martin  .  .  Landscape  Painter.

Dutch.  Rysbraeck,  Ieter  .  .  . Landscape  Painter.

Eng. Rysbrach,  John  M.  (works  In  Westminster  Abbey) Sculptor.


WAME AND PROFESSION.

Raphael,  d'  Orblno  (real  name  Sanzio) A  prominent  Painter.

Hist,  and  Port.  Painter.
.  .  Sculptor.

•  . Art  Designer.

Painter

Writer  on  Art  and  Painter.

Animal  Painter.

.  .  Painter.

.  • Painter.

•  Sculptor.

. Painter.

. Painter.

.  Paints.

• Painter.

•  Sculptor.

Painter.


BOEN.

14*
1552
1781
1606
1779
1723
1665
1695
1797
1796
1746
1734
1655
1614

1695
1630
1756
1577
1736
1636
1616
16!5
1591
1657
1694


0IBR

1524
158C
1859
1669
1859
1792
1745
1767

1864
1816
1802
1705
1673


1827
1646
1785
1684
1670
1677
1636
1716
1770


ItaL

ItaL

ItaL

ItaL

Eng.

ItaL

Pruss.

Ger.

Ger.

Dutch.

Ger.

ItaL

Gr.

Eng.

Amer.

Eng.

Eng.

Amer.

Amer.

Amer.


Salvi,  John  Baptist  (Sassoferrato)  .

Salvi,  Nicholas
Sanmicheli,  Michael
Sarto,  Andrea  del,  see  Vawwccki  .

Savage,  James  .  .

Seamozzi,  "Vincent  .  .

Schadow,  J.  G.  .  ,

Schadow,  Godenhaus  F.  W.  .

Schadow,  Rudolf  .  .

Schalken,  Godfrey  (Candlelight  Scenes)
Scheffer,  Ary
Schidone,  Bartolomeo  .  .


Painter. 1605  16S5

Architect. 1699  1752

Architect. 1484  1559


Sharp,  William  .  .  .

Shattuck,  Aaron  D.  .  .  ,

Shee,  Sir  M.  A.,  president  Royal  Academy
Sherwin,  John  Keyse  ...
Smillie,  James  ...

,  George  H.  ,  ,  ,

— — — ,  James  D.  .  ,


Architect.

1778

1S52

Architect.

1550

1616

Sculptor.

1764

1850

Painter.

1789

Sculptor.

1786

1822

Painter.

1643

1706

Painter

1795

1858

Painter.

1560

1616

Sculptor,  b.

0.460 B.

0.  353

Engraver.

1740

1824

Painter.

Painter.

1795

1850

Engraver.

1751

1791

Engraver.

Paintei.

Painter.

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS.

HATIOM.  NAME  AND  PROFESSION.

Amer. Smybert,  John  (b.  in  Scotland) .  .  . Painter.

Flem. Snyders.  Francis .  Landscape  and  Animal  Painter,

Fr. Soulflot,  J.  G.  (church  of  St.  Genevieve  at  Paris)  Architect.

Dutoh.  Spaendonck,  Gerradvan  .  .  Flower  Painter.

Span. Spagnoletto,  Giuseppe  Ribera  la .  ,  . Painter.

Dutch.  Steen,  Jan  .  ...  Painter.

Amer.  Stone,  William  O..  •  ,  .  Portrait  Painter.

Scot. Strange,  Robert  .  •  .  . Engraver.

Amer. Strickland,  William  ,  .  .  Architect.

Bng.  Strutt,  Joseph,  ....  Author  and  Painter.
Eng.  Stuart,  James,  author  of  the  Antiquities  of  Athens  Architect.
Amer. Stuart,  Gilbert,  pupil  of  Benjamin  West  . Port.  Painter.

Ger. Sunder,  Lucas  (see  Cranach) .  .  , Engraver.


169


1684

1751

1679

1667

1714

1781

1746

182*

1589

1066

1636

1689

1721

1792?

1864

1749

180S

1713

1788

1756

1828

ItaL

Tenerani,  Pietro „ . .

• Sculptor.

1789

Flem,

Teniers,  David,  the  elder  (pupil  of  Rubens)

„ . Painter.1

1582

1049

Flem.

Teniers,  David,  the  younger  (pupil  of  Rubens) . Painter.

1610

1694

Scot.

Thorn,  Jas.  (Tarn  O'Shanter,  &c.)

Sculptor.

1790

1850

Eng.

Thornhill,  Sir  Jas. .

Historical  Painter.

1676

1732

Dan.

Thorwaldsen,  Albert

Sculptor.

1772

1844

Ger.

Tieck,  Christ  Fried .

Sculptor.

1776

1851

Gr.

Timanthes  (contemporary  with  Parrhasius)

. Painter.

f.  B.

c. 240

ItaL

Tintoretto  (Venetian— pupil  of  Titian)

. Painter.

1480

1579

Ital.

. Painter.

1512

1594

ItaL

Titian,  the  greatest  of  the  Venetian  school

, Painter.

1480

1579

Fr.

Troyon,  Constantino . . .

Painter.

1813

1865

Amer.

Tmmbull,  John . , ,

Historical  Painter.

1756

1843

Eng.

Turner,  J.  W.  M. . . ,

.. . Painter.

1775

1851

Eng. Uwins,  Thomas,  R.  A.  .  .  .  Paint  a. 1783  1867


Amer. Van  Beest  (b.  in  Holland  p)  .  .  Marine  Painter.

Eng. Vanbrugh,  Sir  John  (Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard)

Amer. Vanderlyn,  John

Dutch.  Vander  Neer,  Arnold  .  .

Dutch.  Vander  velde,  Adrian .  .

Dutch. ,  the  younger .

Dutch.  — ,  Wm.,  marine  and  battle

Dutch.  Vanderwrrf,  Adrian

Flem. Vandyke,  Sir  Anthony,  the  greatest  of  portrait

Dutch.  Vaneyck,  Hubert

DuJoh.  Vaneyck,  John,  brothers  (John  of  Bruges)

Ital. Vannucohi,  or  Andrea  del  Sarto .

Ital. Van  Vitelli,  Louis,  a  Neapolitan

Ital. Vasari,  George,  biographer  of  artists

Bio. Vasi,  Joseph


tie  Howard) Aren't.

1672

1726

Historical  Painter.

1776

1862

Landscape  Painter.

1619

1683

. Landscape  Painter.

1639

1672

, . Painter.

1633

1707

. . Painter.

1610

1693

Historical  Painter.

1654

1718

ortrait Painter.

1598

1646

Painter.

1366

1426

es) . Painter.

1370

1441

. . Painter.

1488

1630

Architect.

1700

1773

Architect  and  Painter.

1512

1674

Designer  and  Engraver.

1710

1711

170


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.


RATIOS

Span.

Flem.

Amer.

Ft.

Fr.

Ital.

Ital.

Eng.

Ital.

Ital.

Or.

ItaL

Fr.


NAME AND PEOFE88IOS.

Velasquez,  Jas.  R.  de  Sylvia  y .  .  . Painter.

Verboeckhoven,  Eugene  .  .  Painter  of  animals.

Ver  Bryck,  C. .  .  .  Landscape  Painter.

Vernet,  Horace  .  .  .  Historical  Painter.

Vernet,  J  oseph ..... Painter.
Veronese,  Paul  (see  Cagliari)
Verrochio,  Andrew,  inventor  of  the  method  of  taking  •


166*


BORK

1699

1799

1813  1844

1789  1863

1714  178e


1422
1684
1607
1452


features  in  a  plaster  mould . .  Sculptor.

Vertne,  George  (600  plates)  . . .  Engraver.

Vignola,  Jas.,  Caprarola  palace  and  Bt.  Peter's  Arohitect.

Vinci,  Leonardo  da ...  Painter.

Vitruvius,  contemporary  of  Augustus  .  Architect.

Volpato,  John  .....  Engraver.

Vouet,  Simon,  founder  of  French  school,  contempora-
ry of  Charles  L . . .  Painter. 1682


1488
1756
1575
1519


f  B.  0. 30
1733  1802


Fr. Wailly,  Charles  de

Anier Ward,  J.  Quincy  A.

Eng. Warren,  Charles,  perfect©*  of  engraving  on  steel

Fr. Watteau,  Antoine

Amer. "Weir,  Robt.  W. .

Amer. ,  James  F.

Dan. Wertmuller,  (p)  (painted  in  America)
Amer.  West,  Benjamin
Eng. Westall,  Richard .

Eng. ,  William  R.  A.  br.

Amer. White,  Edwin

Amer. Whittredge,  Worthington .  .

Soot, Wilkie,  David

Eng. Wilson,  Richard

Eng. Woollett,  William

Dutch.  Wouverman,  Philip

Eng. Wren,  Sir  Christopher  (St.  Paul's,  &o.)

Eng. Wyatt,  James  (Pantheon,  Eew  Palaee,  &e.)

Eng. "Wyatt,  R.  J. .


Arohitect.

1729

1798

Sculptor.

an  steel Engraver.

1828

Painter.

1684

1721

. Painter.

1803

Painter.

Port.  Painter.

Painter.

1738

182C

Historical  Painter.

1781

1886

Designer.

1781

185«

Painter.

Landscape  Painter.

Familiar  Life  Painter.

1786

1841

Landscape  Painter.

1713

1782

Engraver.

1736

1785

Painter.

1620

1668

Architect.

1632

1723

.) . Architect.

1743

1813

. . Sculptor.

1796

1850

Span. Ximenes,  Fran.


Painter.


169S


1.666


Flem Yplen,  Charles  de


Painter.


1610


166A


Ital  Zablia,  Nicholas

Qt.  Zeixis,  celebrated  ancient

Ger.  Zinoke

ItaL  Zucoaro,  or  Zucohero,  Frederigo

ItaL  Zuocaro,  or  Zucohero,  Taddeo ,

Ital.  Zaecarelli .


Architect.

. Painter.

Enamel  Portrait  Painter.

. Painter.

Painter.

Painter.


1674  1660

o.  490  b.  c.  400
1684  1769

1539  1639

1529  166«

1710  1781


C 697